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M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY 
 
 GEOGKAPHICAL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTOKICAL. 
 
 VOLUME /. 
 

 
 LONDON 
 
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 London LonoTHun X^ ih. 
 
 Frtntimo Bert's 
 
 1 Rt-eiaas ot' 
 
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 i» • *■ '''T<i,T..\T ■■ • ^ ' 
 
 "»«1. Fii<rLd Zon 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTORICAL 
 
 OP THR VARIOCS 
 
 COUNTRIES, PLACES, AND TRINCirAL NATURAL 
 OBJECTS IN THE WORLD. 
 
 .V 1 
 
 BT 
 
 
 'i^ 
 
 J. R. M'CULLOCH. 
 
 NEW EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED, 
 
 WITH THE STATISTICAL INFORMATION DROUGHT UP TO THE LATEST RETURNS 
 
 BY 
 
 FREDERICK MARTIN 
 
 AUTHOR OF 'THE STATESMAN'S YEAIl-nOOK.* 
 
 IN FOUR VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 
 
 186G. 
 
2272;fl 
 
 '-) 
 
 M l'^ 
 
 V.I 
 
PllEFAC)]^] 
 
 TO 
 
 TIIK KIUST KDITION. 
 
 Trir, ITII.ITT of f^ooprapliioal works is ho generally atlmittotl, that, it 
 Ht'CinH nniu'coHsary to onileavour, by any l('tij,'tlu'ruHl Htatt'inciitH, to 
 (.•«)uciliat(» tlin f'avourahlo opinion of tlio rtwliT hy dwelling on tlicir 
 tncritH. 'riuM-c! are few ho iiuuiriouH as not to wiali to learn Honictliinjf 
 of tlio statu of forei^'n countries, especially of those with which their 
 own nation is connected, or which have been celebrated in history. Tho 
 desire to gratify this laudable curiosity has, in all ages, prompted itidi- 
 viduals to visit foreif^n countries; and has made the works of voyagers 
 and travellers be eagerly sought after. Mut vhe situation of most 
 pco[)le prccludes tho possibility of their leaving their native country ; 
 while fi!W of those who do travel can survey more than a small part of 
 the earth's surface. Neither is it ])ossible adequately to HUi)ply this 
 want of personal knowledge by resorting to the relations of travellers. 
 These are frecpusntly contradictory and inconclusive ; tho statements 
 in them are usually, also, limited in their afjplication, and are not 
 always to bo depended on ; and, though it wero otherwise, tho conmumd 
 of many humh'ed volumes, and tho free disposal of one's tinu', would 
 bo necessary to enable an individual to acquii-e, by tiu'lr means, even a 
 Buperficial acquaintance with the ditTerent regions of the earth. Henco 
 the utility of geographical works, comj)iled -with due care and know- 
 ledge : they embody tho information scattered in tho accounts of 
 travellers, in topographical works, and in official returns and other 
 public and private documents ; sift and distribute it under its proper 
 heads ; and lay it before tho reader in a condensed form, disencumbered 
 from superfluous or irrelevant matter. 
 
 Systematical works, or those in which the various details with respect 
 to the physical, moral, and political state of a country or district aro 
 arranged in their natural order, in a consecutive narrative, are probably 
 the best adapted for tho use of the student and scientific reader. But 
 Dictionaries are much more convenient, and better fitted for public 
 use. When arranged in alphabetical order they are easy of consulta- 
 
PREPACK TO THE FIR8T EDITION. 
 
 tion ; and, if properly compiled, the articles in them arc not <!onnpcto(l 
 or mixed up with others, but are separately complete, supplying llio 
 inquirer with independent, and, at the same time, precise and well- 
 authenticated information. Such works seem, from the extreme diver- 
 sity and interest of the subjects treated of, peculiarly fitted to * excite 
 curiosity by their variety, to encourage diligence by their facility, and 
 to reward application by their usefulness.' We need not, therefore, 
 wonder that they have generally, even when their execution has been 
 very indifferent, enjoyed a large share of popularity. 
 
 It is necessary to observe, that we have not attempted to supply the 
 reader with a complete Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Dic- 
 tionary. We have proceeded on a principle of selection ; and, instead 
 of noticing unimportant places and objects, have endeavoured to n-^ice 
 those only that might reasonably be expected to interest the reader. A 
 work of this class on any other plan would necessarily extend to many 
 volumes, and would embrace multitudinous details of no general im- 
 portance. In illustration of what has now been stated, we may men- 
 tion that the Grand Dictionnaire Gdograpliique, Histotique et Critique, 
 by Brazen de la Martiniere, which aims at considerable completeness, 
 occupies no fewer than six huge folio volumes ; and, gigantic as this 
 may seem, it is far surpassed by the German edition of the same work, 
 which extends to thirteen similar volumes. Though on a compressed 
 and far more judicious plan, the Dictionnaire Geographique Uuiverael, 
 Paris, 1823-1833, occupies ten thick octavo volumes. It is needless to 
 say that works of this size are quite unsuitable to the great majority of 
 readers ; and it has been our object, by excluding articles and state- 
 ments of little interest, to keep our work within reasonable limits, and 
 to allow, at the same time, sufficient space for treating the more im- 
 portant articles at adequate length. It is also necessary to bear in 
 mind, that this being a work intended for the especial use of English- 
 men, we have dwelt at greatest length on the articles and details we 
 presumed most likely to interest them. Hence we have appropriated 
 a much larger space to the description of our Eastern possessions, and 
 oi our colonies in different parts of the world, than they may appear, on 
 other grounds, properly entitled to. On the same principle, we have 
 lengthened the accounts of those countries and places with which our 
 countrymen have the greatest intercourse, or which have acquired 
 celebrity by the historical associations connected with them, and have 
 proportionally shortened the others. 
 
 Without neglecting the physical geography of the different countries 
 and places, we have directed our principal attention to what has been 
 called their political geography, — that is, their industry, institutions, 
 and the condition of their inhabitants. Neither have we attempted to 
 confine ourselves within what might, perhaps, be called the limits of a 
 strictly geographical and statistical work. Wherever the occasion 
 seemed to justify it, we have not scrupled te commend and censure, as 
 well as to describe ; and have endeavoured to appreciate the influence 
 of institutions and habits of national welfare. The historical notices 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 Yii 
 
 are necessarily brief, and, unless in the more important articles, are 
 mostly restricted to an enumeration of leading events. 
 
 Our object being to supply a work of easy reference to the public at 
 large, we have, in general, given our notices of countries and places 
 under the names by which they are commonly known in England. 
 This plan does not involve any want of scientific precision ; though if 
 it did, the defect would bo much more than compensated by its being 
 better adapted for public use. There are not very many readers who 
 would think of looking for Leghorn under Livoruo, or for Munich 
 under Miinchcu ; and among tho many thousands who might wish to 
 acquire some information respecting the present state of the Dead Sea, 
 there are not, perhaps, as many dozens who would seek for it under its 
 Arabic name of Ikihr-el-Li/at. 
 
 It did not enter into our plan systematically to notice (countries or 
 places as they existed in antiquity. But, wherever it was supposed 
 that such notices would bo likely to interest the general reader, wo 
 have not hesitated to introduce them. Our object, in fact, was not so 
 nmch to compile a dictionary on strictly scientific principles, and that 
 should be perfectly homogeneous in its parts, as to produce one that 
 might be relied on, that should omit few articles of importance, and 
 that ordinary readers should find generally instructive and interesting. 
 
 None can be more ftiUy satisfied than we are of the extreme difficulty 
 of accomplishing even this much. In a work embracing so great a 
 variety of statements, many of them relating to matters in regard to 
 which it is frequently all but impossible to acquire correct information, 
 perfect accuracy need not be looked for. But we can honestly say that 
 we have spared no pains to make our work worthy of the reader's con- 
 fidence ; and would fain hope that its errors are not such as sensibly to 
 detract from its utility. 
 
 J. R. M'CULLOCH. 
 
 LoNuoN : January 1841. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE REVISED EDITION. 
 
 In this new and revised edition of Mr. M'Culloch's Dictlonarij, the 
 changes have been marked which the world has undergone in the lapse 
 of a quarter of a centuiy. Short as is the time, these changes have 
 been neither few nor unimportant. Whole kingdoms have disappeared 
 from the political map of the globe ; empires have refixed their bound- 
 aries, and nations have reformed their existence. In the course of less 
 than a generation of men, an immense network of iron roads has come 
 to encircle the civilised world ; vast navies of commerce have been 
 launched upon the ocean ; and races the most distant have been 
 brought together by the new agents of pi ogress — steam and electricity. 
 To register all these marvellous innovations, without altering the 
 character of the Bidiunary, has been the duty of the present editor, 
 who must plead, in extenuation of sins of omission and commission, 
 the last paragraph of Mr. M'Culloch's preface. 
 
 FREDERICK :MARTIX. 
 
 Lojtdon: January I8G61 
 
 Vol.. I. 
 
1. 
 
 2, 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 6. 
 6. 
 
LIST OF MAPS. 
 
 1. THE WORLD . . . to face title-page 
 
 2. AFRICA „ page 11 
 
 3. AMERICA, NORTH ......... „ 91 
 
 4. AMERICA, SOUTH „ „ 97 
 
 5- ASIA „ ,,197 
 
 6. AUSTRALASIA „ ,,259 
 
II ' 
 
 iii 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 GEOGEAPmCAL, STATISTICAL, AND fflSTOEICAl. 
 
 AA 
 
 A A, the namo of a\xmt forty small rivers in 
 
 France, Switzcrlntid, the Nethcrlanils, and the 
 
 states of (Jermany, The wide diffusion of tl>o 
 
 name oeema to nruve tltat it i» derived from the 
 
 AARGAU 
 
 18()1. There are linen factories; also tanneries 
 and oil-mills. 
 
 A AH, a river of Switzerland, the most consider- 
 able in that country after tlie Rhone and Khino. 
 
 Erratv/m 
 
 Page 382, line 5, for Baylen derives its principal conity, and which 
 read Baylen derives its principal celebrity from the 
 
 M'Cullocb's Oeog. Diet. Vol. I. 
 
 manufactures of soap, flsh-oil, fire-arms, refined 
 sugar, leather, and silk, with a considerable 
 amount of shipping and trade: principal exports 
 com, flour, fish, butter, and spirits. Formerly it 
 was accessible to large vessels; but owing to the 
 gradual filling up of the channel of the Lymfiord, 
 It is now accessible only to the smaller class of 
 merchantmen, or those not drawing more than 9 
 or 10 feet water. Aalborg means Kcltown; a name 
 derived from the immense number of eels that are 
 found in the waters in its vicinity. 
 
 AALEN, a town of VVUrtemberg, circ. Jaxt, 
 cap. bailiwick, formerly a free im{)erial citv, on 
 the Kocher, 42 m. FL Stutgard, on the rallwav 
 from Stuttgard to Nuremberg. Pon. 4,272 in 1861. 
 The town is surrounded by walls flanked with 
 high towers; has manufactures of wool and cotton, 
 and breweries. There are extensive forests in the 
 environs, and iron mines. 
 
 AALSMER, a village of Holland, E. side of the 
 
 sea of Haarlem, 10 miles SW. Amsterdam. Pop. 
 
 2,680 in 1861. The callage is famous for its straw- 
 
 I berries, grown in immense quantities, for expor- 
 
 1 tation. 
 
 AALTEN, a village of the Netherlands, Gucl- 
 Iderland, 7A miles SSW. Groenlo. Pop. 6,038 in 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Is well built, has a gj-mnasium, a school of art, a 
 seminarium or normal school for the iustniction of 
 teachers, a public or cantonal library, a society of 
 national instruction, with manufactures of silk 
 and cotton, a cannon foundr}-, and bleach-fields. 
 A station on the Central Swiss railway, from the 
 Lake of Constance to the Lake of Geneva, opened in 
 1862, has done much towards increasing the manu- 
 facturing activity. The peace, wliich terminated 
 the civil war of i712, was concluded here. 
 
 AARGAU, or AKGOVIA, the 16th of the Swiss 
 cantons, separated by the Rhine from Baden, 
 having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of 
 Lucenie on the S., and Soleure and Basel on the 
 W. Area 502 sq. m. Pop. 194,600 in 1860, licing 
 397 persons to the square mile ; or, next to Basel 
 and Geneva, the densest populated canton of the re- 
 public. The mountains in this canton do not attain 
 to any very great height, and it possesses a con- 
 siderable extent of fertile land. It is traversed 
 by the Aar, whence it derives its name, and by 
 its important tributaries the Reuss and Limmat. 
 The country is well cultivated, and the produce 
 of wheat and other grain exceeds the consumption : 
 there are numerous vineyards .with abundance of 
 garden and orchard fi^il. The rearing of cattle 
 
 B 
 
I 
 
 III! 
 
A DIOTIONAHY 
 
 GEOGRAPmCiVL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTORICAL. 
 
 AA 
 
 A A, tlip nnmn of nlMnit forty omnll rivers in 
 Frunnp, Kwitxcrlniiil, the Nutlifrlands, iinil tliii 
 «tnti'8 <)f (k-rmany. Ttio wide tlifFiision of tlic 
 name seems to provo that it is dcrivetl from the 
 old Teutonic word HiKnifyin^ stream, or, simply, 
 water. Besides the forty rivc^rs called Aa, there 
 arc a dozen more ending in this name. Such arc 
 the IIoopstcr-Aa, and the J^adber^er-Aa, both in 
 Hanover; the IJredevorder-Aa, in Holland; the 
 Vcilc-Aa, in Denmark ; and the Arl-Aa ond 
 Scholm-Aa, in Schleswij^. 
 
 AALHOUG, an old town of Denmark, cap. 
 diocese anc. bailiwick, and the principal town in 
 Jutland, situated about 17 m. from the sea, on the 
 8. side of the channel of the Lymtiord, or (jreat 
 internal Ridf, enterinj; from the Cattefjat, near 
 where it begins to expan<l into an extensive lake. 
 Lat. 570 2' 82" N., long. «« 60' 41" E. Top. 10,070 
 in 18t;0. Aalborg is the terminal station of the 
 railway from Teensburg to the north of Jutland, 
 opened in 18(i5. The town is intersected by two 
 small rivers, and surrounded by ditches; it is the 
 
 , seat of a bishopric, has a gymnasium or college, an 
 episcopal library with 11,000 vols., a school of 
 
 I navigation, and an hospital and two workhouses. 
 Exclusive of distilleries and breweries, it has 
 manufactures of soap, tish-oil, lire-arms, refined 
 sugar, leather, and silk, with a considerable 
 amount of shipping and trade: principal exports 
 com, flour, fish, butter, and spirits. Formerly it 
 was accessible to large vessels; but owing to the 
 gradual filUng up of the channel of the Lymfiord, 
 it is now accessible only to the smaller class of 
 merchantmen, or those not drawing more than 9 
 or 10 feet water. Aalborg means Ecltown ; a name 
 derived from the immense number of eels that are 
 found in the waters in its vicinity, 
 
 AALEN, a town of VVllrtembcrg, circ. Jaxt, 
 cap. bailiwick, formerly a free imperial citv, on 
 the Kocher, 42 m. E. Stutgard, on the roilwoy 
 from Stuttgard to Nuremberg. Pop. 4,272 in 1801. 
 The town is surrounded by walls flanked with 
 high towers; has manufactures of wool and cotton, 
 and breweries. There are extensive forests in the 
 
 ^ environs, and iron mines. 
 
 AALSMER, a village of Holland, E. side of the 
 
 I sea of Haarlem, 10 miles SW. Amsterdam. Pop. 
 2,(i80 in 1861. The \'illuge is famous for its straw- 
 
 I berries, grown in immense quantities, for ex^rar- 
 
 Itation. 
 
 AALTEN, a village of the Netherlands, Guel- 
 
 Iderland, 74 miles SSW. Groenlo. Pop. 6,038 in 
 Vol.1. 
 
 AAHGAU 
 1801. There are linen factories; also tanneries 
 and oil-mills. 
 
 A AH, a river of Switzerland, the most consider- 
 able in that coinitry after the Rhone and liliine. 
 Its principal sources are in the glaciers of tho 
 Schreckhom and (irimscl mountains in Kerne, 
 near the source of the Hhonc. Having united its 
 different arms near Mcyringcn, it Hows thenco 
 through the lakes of lirienz and Thun. Escaping 
 from the latter, it takes a northerly direction till 
 it reaches Home; it then turns W. till having re- 
 ceived its tributary, the Saane; it Hows NE. by 
 Aarbcrg, Solcurc, and Aarau, till it unites with tho 
 Rhine, opposite to Waldshut. Its most important 
 tributaries arc, on the right, the Emmc, Reuss, 
 and Limmat; and on the left, tho Soano, already 
 noticed, and the Thielc. Its course is about 170 
 m. It becomes navigable on emerging from lake 
 Thun. In the upper part of its course it dashes 
 along with great fury, and is prccijiitated over 
 several waterfalls. — Aar also is tho name of two 
 small rivers in Waldeck. 
 
 AARAU, a town of Switzerland, cap. cant. 
 Aargau, on the Aar, 1,140 feet above the level of 
 the SCO, 23 m. SE. Basel, on the railway from 
 Basel to Luceme. Pop. 5,094 in 1800. The town 
 is well built, has a gvmna;ium, a school of art, a 
 seminarium or nomuil school for the instruction of 
 teachers, a public or cantonal library, a society of 
 national instmction, with manufactures of silk 
 and cotton, a cannon foundrj-, and bleach-fields. 
 A station on the Central Swiss railway, from tho 
 Lake of Constance to the Lake of Geneva, opened in 
 1802, has done much towards increasing the manu- 
 facturing activity. The peace, which terminated 
 the cix-ii war of 1712, was concluded here. 
 
 AARGAU, or ARGOVIA, the ICth of the Swiss 
 cantons, separated by the Rhine from Baden, 
 having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of 
 Lucerne on the S., and Soleure and Basel on the 
 W. Area 502 sq.m. Pop. 1 94,600 in 1800, being 
 397 persons to the square mile; or, next to Basel 
 and Geneva, the densest populated canton of the re- 
 public. The mountains in this canton do not attain 
 to any very great height, and it possesses a con- 
 siderable extent of fertile land. It is traversed 
 by the Aar, whence it derives its name, and by 
 its important tributaries the Reuss and Limmat. 
 The country is well cultivated, and the produce 
 of wheat and other grain exceeds the consumption : 
 there are numerous vineyards .with abundance of 
 garden and orchard fFuU. The rearing of cattle 
 
ill 
 
 P 
 
 
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 imvi- iniulf «•■<'"• I'rnnrc^H. 'I'lic nrinciiwil i* that 
 (ilrnttiin, iii'xt to it is Mk, and tlit'ii rnllow lini'ii, 
 Nl raw platting', iiiul tlic inaniil'ai'tnri' urniat'iiincry. 
 CiiltiinM art' kIIII in part woven in the cotta^cH of 
 till' pca^iintTt or Nniall laliourin^ rarnirrx, 'I'lu! 
 canton U iii->tinKni'<lii'il liy tin- attciilion it lias 
 paiil to t'dncation. I'.vt'ry clistriit of l-jut diililn'n 
 must lutvc at least one prinuiry anil one sniterior 
 Hcliool. In t'Vcrv <'iri'li' (Hrzirh), tlie popnlatioti 
 liiinK from l.'i.ooo to '.'ii.iido, tluTf are from live to 
 Hix seeoMitary ni'liools. There is also in the eapitiil 
 u ^rymnasium, ii sehool of arts, ami n nonnal 
 Mehool for the instruction of feaehers. The expense 
 of till! sehools is ilefrayi'il partly by the eoinmiineM 
 mill partly liy the state fiiinis. In the ^viiina- 
 Niiiiii anil sehool of arts the state iiroviiles lor the 
 ]iaymi'iit of I'ourleen professors anil their assistants. 
 Alioiit three-liniis of the population, namely, 
 ]0|,I()7, are Protestants, anil the rest li'omaii 
 Catholii's, The piililie revenue amoiinteil to 
 2,i;i(l,im(» Irs., or H.'), I HI/, in the year IhO 1. Aliout 
 one-half this sum is ileriveil from state property. 
 The eaiitolial eontin>,'ent to the diet is llxed at 
 V.lllinien, For an aeeonnt. of the piverninent, 
 nee art. Swn/.i;iti.ANi). I'rineipal towns Anrau, 
 Laiifenlier^, lladeii, and ZoUinp'ii. 
 
 AAlilIL'i'S, II sea-port town of Denmark, rnp. 
 dioeese and liailiwiek of the same name, on the 
 K. coast of Jutland, lat. 5(1° I)' ;(;■)" N., Iohk. UP 
 14' K. I'op. 11,IMI!» in IHtll. A railway, opened 
 in IMi, connects Aarhuii.s with Aallior^ in tlie 
 north, anil the chief towns of Sehleswi^j-llolstein 
 in the south. The town is well liuilt, has n lar^e 
 cathedral founded in 12iil, a lyeeuin, n nuiseum 
 of nntiiinitios, and a valualile diocesan library. 
 Its ooninu'rce and industry liavis iiicrenscd con- 
 aiderably of late years. The cxjiorts consist prin- 
 cipally of a;;rieultural produce; with spirits and 
 beer, the iiroduce of its distilleries and breweries; 
 and cloth and >;loves. ('onsidernble sums have 
 recently Ik'cu expended on the imjirovement of its 
 port, which has lieen rendered one of the best in 
 Jutland. Packets sail rcfjularly between it and 
 Callniidbert;, on the west coast of Zealand. 
 
 AAHOXSIUIHGII, a small town of the United 
 States Centre Co., I'ennsylvanin, 51 miles N\V. 
 Ilarrisburf,', on the railway from Harrisburg to 
 Pittsburfj. Pop. 1,27') in lw;o. 
 
 AASZY, the Orontes of Greek geographers, 
 •which see. 
 
 AATYL. A town or village of Syria, in the 
 Ilaouran or Great Plain, extending t^. from l)a- 
 masinis and l], from the mountains beyond Jordan, 
 lat. it2° 1;V N., long. 3tio m' K. The inhabitants 
 consist of Dnisos (see Lihanns and Si/ria), of the 
 number iirolmlily of '200 or 300. Though now in- 
 signilicant, the remains of ancient grnndeur in its 
 vicinity jirovc that Aatvl was imce a place of im- 
 portance. These rcmanis occupy a circuit of a 
 mile, and in many instances are inhabited by the 
 present po])ulatioii. W. of the town a jierfect arch 
 of very line workmanship, with broken pillars and 
 friezes, marks the site of a small but elegant 
 tem])lc. On the S. another temjjle, almost entire, 
 ■with n portico of four columns and an entrance 
 beautifully and elaborately carved, has been con- 
 verted into ft private residence. Aatyl is 51 m. 
 } direct distance) SSR. Damascus, and 48 m. E. 
 .ake of Tabaria, the Genesareth of the Bible. 
 
 AHADKII, a large village of Persia, jjrov. Far- 
 pistan, 11.5 m. N. Shiraz. Estimated pop. 2,000. 
 It is surrounded by walls in a state of decay ; and 
 is defended by a large square fort, now containing 
 the whole population. The ground in the ueigh- 
 
 AUUEVILLE 
 
 lionrhood I« very fertile, and interserted by nnnifl- 
 roiis watercourses and rivulets. (L'ssher, Journey 
 from l.ondon to Persepolis, iHi'iri.) 
 
 AUAK.XNSK, ft town of Siberia, gov. Jennis- 
 seisk, on the Aliakan near the Jeniswi. Pop. I,2;'i0 
 in iH'iH. On iniiunt Isik, and other places in its 
 environs, are fmind some of the most reiniirkabln 
 of those singular remains of fonner civilisation 
 that are met with in many places of Southern 
 Siberia. They consist principally of tumuli or 
 totnlis, which fnM|uently contain ear-rings, briii-e- 
 lets, and other ornaments and utensils of gold, 
 silver, and copper, with iron stirrups. Near Aba- 
 kansk are statues of men from 7 to !t feet high, 
 and covered with hieroglyphics, of which unfor- 
 tunately no explanation has yet been given. 
 
 AMAXO or ALHANO, a village of Northern 
 Italy, prov. Padua. 10 m. SW. Padua. Pop. II.OC.H 
 in IKCil. This village derives its celebrity from 
 its hot springs and mmln. It is situated near the 
 l''.uganean hills, in a place marked with some low 
 eminences, whence issue copious springs of water 
 capable at their source of boiling an egg ipiite 
 hard. The waters are partly employed to prepare 
 and soften mud, partly to supply the baths, and 
 partly go to waste, or turn a mill which revolves 
 amid volumes of smoke. Tliey are supposed to Ih) 
 efltcacioiis in cases of palsy, rheumatism, and ii 
 variety of complaints, 'i'he mud is applied hot tii 
 the alVecteil [lart, somewhat after the manner of 
 taking a stucco cast ; and the baths are regarded 
 Iirincipally us an auxiliary to the ' dirty ' appli- 
 cation. 
 
 These baths were well-known to, and much used 
 by, the Komans. They were called J'litiii'inie 
 Af/iitr, the principal source being distinguished 
 by the name of Avimiis fonii, whence their muderu 
 name has eyidently beeii ileriven. 
 
 Aponus torrls ubl famlfor exit. 
 
 Lucnn.vH. 1. 194, 
 
 A branch lino of railway places Abano in com- 
 munication with Venice aiid Mantua. 
 
 AliM, a town of Arabia, in the Usjebel, ornioun- 
 tftin land of Yemen, lat. 1 3° 5«' N., long. 44° l;V E., 
 ilf) m. S. Sanaa, 73 m. NK. Mocha, and 104 m. 
 NVV. Aden. Number of houses said to lie about 
 800, which at an average of (i individuals to each 
 gives a pop. of nearly 6,000. It is built on the 
 summit of ft mountain ; is surrounded by a strong 
 and well-built wall; and overlooks ft well-watered 
 (for Arabia) and extremely fertile country. Houses 
 (as usual in the mountain towns of Vemen) of 
 stone; streets well paved, which, in this country, 
 is very uncommon. An aqueduct conveys water 
 from a mountain at a little distance on the N. to 
 a large reservoir in front of the principal mosque. 
 
 AUI5EVILLE, ft thriving industrious town, in 
 the NVV. of France, dep. Somme, cap. arrond. on 
 the navigable river of that name, 25 m. NVV. 
 Amiens, on the railway from Paris to Uoulogne 
 and Calais. Pop. 20,058 in 18(51. The town is 
 neat and well-built; is regularly fortified on the 
 system of Vaiiban ; and has, exclusive of the old 
 Gothic church of St. Vulfran, several public build- 
 ings worthy of notice and a public library. A 
 tine cloth manufactory was established here in 
 KUiO, by ft Dutchman of the name of Van Ifobais, 
 under the auspices of Colbert ; and Abbeville has 
 ever since continued to be distinguished as one 
 of the most industrious towns in France. Besides 
 black cloths of the best quality, with serges and 
 barracans, there arc produced calicoes and stock- 
 ings, sackings, packthread, cordage, and jeweller}'. 
 It has also establishments for the spuming of 
 wool, print works and bleaching works, tanneries, 
 soap works, ft glass work, ami a paper manufac- 
 tory. The tide rises in the Somrac about 7 feet. 
 
 and 
 
 thrli 
 rnlllll 
 
 III. Ill 
 A I.I" 
 All 
 
 '"I 
 
docted liy niiiTiP- 
 I'xHlur, Joiirmy 
 I 
 
 T\a, ffitv. Jcnniw- 
 li.xw'i. I'op. l.'.TiO 
 ;luT |iImccm ill it« 
 iiiiHt ri'iiiiirkiililo 
 niicr (■ivili'<iitii)n 
 iiccs (if SiMillii'm 
 Iv of tmiuili iir 
 cur-riiiHH, liriii'i'- 
 iitcnsils of ^iilil, 
 ■iip.H. Near A I III- 
 7 to !t fci'l lii«h, 
 , of wliicli uiifiir- 
 
 I n jflvcii. 
 
 mH' of Nortlicm 
 
 itiitiii. I'op. :i,oi;h 
 
 ts (('Iclirity from 
 .sitiiiitcil near till! 
 •(I witli noiiif low 
 H|iriiiKi< of waliT 
 u;i nil ^'^,'^c ipiito 
 plovi'il to pri'piird 
 y t\\v lintliH, mill 
 ill wliicli ri'volvi'H 
 iD^ mipposcil to Ih) 
 I'liinatisin, ami n 
 I JM Mpplicil hot to 
 (T till' maiiiuT of 
 atlis aru n-pinlt'd 
 ho 'dirty' uppli- 
 
 to.nnd much uwd 
 
 callril I'nUmme 
 
 iii^ diMtiii^iiisiiiMl 
 
 lUiicc thuir inuUuru 
 
 1. 
 
 or pxlt. 
 
 iican, vll. 1. 104. 
 
 tcs Ahnno in coni- 
 titiin. 
 
 U.ijuhcl, or nioiin- 
 I.,lonK.4l° l.VK., 
 ijclia, and 101 m. 
 sail! to lie ahoiit 
 idividuals to each 
 t is hiiilt on the 
 iiiidcd liy a Htron^ 
 ks a well-watered 
 .country. Houses 
 ns of Vemen) of 
 , in thia country, 
 ict conveys water 
 fince on the X. to 
 irincipal mosque, 
 lustriuus town, in 
 c, cap. arrond. on 
 imc, 25 m. NW. 
 'aris to Uoulogne 
 U. The town is 
 fortified on the 
 lusivo of the old 
 ■eral public huild- 
 ulilic lilirary. A 
 tablishcd here in 
 ue of Van IJolmis, 
 nd Abbeville has 
 infjuished as (ino 
 France. Besides 
 with serRCs and 
 licoea and stock- 
 go, and jewellerj'. 
 the spmning of 
 ■works, tanneries, 
 , paper manufac- 
 ime about 7 feet, 
 
 AKIlIATKnilASSO 
 
 and voKwIs of from '.'ilO to '.'"iii ton* ronie up to 
 till' town. Il«iii>;>itimfrdln lliiMTiitn'orn Irmtl'iil 
 ritinilrx, ami niitiriiuiiiriitili^ bv riiilnnv \\\\\\ nil 
 IIk in<»l Important town-* ol Frame and IlcJKiiim, 
 
 Alilii'villc liM'< a i'iin>ic|crabl iiimrrrc. 
 
 AUIllA IKtillASSO, a town of Nortlicrn Italy, 
 pfiiv. ra\ia, on the ciinul of llrrr|;narclo, II in. 
 \VSW. Milan. I'op. K.'.'i'p.l in l«tll. The town U 
 fortilli'd; and its piKlijcpii has made if be always 
 D'^anli-d of (diisiileralile iinportaiice in a military 
 point of virw. 
 
 Alius IM'.AH (ST.), ft promontory on the K. 
 roa^t of Scotland, ln'iii;; the mont »iiiitlicrl\ iioiiit 
 of till' l-'ritli of Forth, \aI, Im'-' itV Mi' N., loiij;. 
 'JO K" W \V. 
 
 AIlK ri.AZIM, a village of IVrxIn, at the foot 
 of till' liills III till' nrlitlilioiirlioodon'fhi'raii. Near 
 it stands a lofty towrr built of brick, in a very 
 iii'cullar form, siipposnl in have been cri'i'tcd by 
 oriirr of till' lirst of the Sassaiiiiin kind's, in coin- 
 nii'iiioratiiiii of a ^rcat victory over the I'artliiaiH. 
 (I'lslicr, .JoiiriU'V I'roin I.omion to I'crscpolis, p. 
 •ilN.) 
 
 AllF.f.A, Aim,, or AMILA.a town of Syria, In 
 till' llaoiiriiii, on the Shvruil-il-Miinilhniir (anc. 
 Jliiroiiitij), one of flic larwi'sf allliiriits of the 
 ./nriliiii, laf, .'ir-' 17' N., loiij;. .'111° II. It is now in 
 n riiiiioiiM and dilapidated stale, liavin;; probably 
 not more than from lOil to toll inhabitants; but 
 formerly if was a place of considerable import- 
 ance, beiii^ the capital of and f^ivinu its name to 
 one of the six departnieiifs (.tliiliiif) info which 
 the lloinans divided the country K, of .Tordaii. 
 Home broken pillars and overthrown cohiniiis 
 evince its ancient ^Tiindeur; but none of its old 
 biiililiii);s remain entire, and if is preserved from 
 desertion only by its vicinity to flic wafer, which 
 fpmlers it a desirable resilience for the few Arab 
 filniilies bv whom if is still occupied. 
 AHi;ilHI{<)TII()CK, or AKllIfO.VriT, ft wft- 
 irt, inanufacturiiiK town, and pari. bor. of Scot- 
 mi, CO, Aiif^iis or Forfar, at the mouth of the 
 Drotliock water, on the railway from Dundee to 
 Aberdeen. I'op. WJMX in IHll,and 17,.0!);iin IHCil. 
 Arbroath iiiiifes with Ilrechin, llervie, and Mon- 
 trose, in returning am. to Il.of (.'.I'arl.constifiH'ncv 
 6(iH in \H(i\. It has a parish church and two chaiiels 
 of ease, with churches fur I'^pisciipalians, Seceders, 
 Methodists, and Independents. The other public 
 buildings are the town-house, the trades-hall, the 
 public schools, and the signal tower, which coni- 
 Biiinicates with the liell-Kock lighthouse distant 
 •bout 12 miles. The town lias a secure though 
 email harbour, frequented, in the year IHti.l, by ■l.'i.'l 
 vessels, of 31,(tl2 tons. The corporation revenue, 
 in l8(>U—t, amounted to \,!'>iK)l. The town owes 
 its iirosperity to the tlax manufacture ; nearly 
 half the population being pm|doycd in the spin- 
 ning, dressing, weaving, and bleaching of coarse 
 linen goods. Some of the mills are driven by the 
 little rivulet that intersects the town; but steam 
 mills are numerous, both in the town and the 
 .vicinity. Here are the ruins of an abbey, founded 
 Oin honour of Thomas h Heckcft, in 117K, by Wil- 
 liam the Lion, who, on his death in 1211, was 
 'linterred within its jirccincts. It was destroyed in 
 
 ' i5i;ii. 
 
 AHKRCONWAY, or CONWAY. Sec Conway. 
 AHKKDAHK, a par. and large village of Wales, 
 fco. (ilamorgan. The village, in a beautiful valley, 
 '^•atered by the Cvnon, an atlhient of the Taft",'is 
 .•iM.ut 'I, J m. S\V. Mcrthyr Tydvilon flic Tafl-Vale 
 taihv.iy. Pop, of parish" (),47l in is 1 1, and .'!2,2!I0 
 In IHCil. This extraordinary increase is wholly 
 to be ascribed to the increase in the production of 
 iron and coal, on which by far the larger portion 
 vof the pop. is dependent. Throughout the parish, 
 
 AWAWV.KS t 
 
 immen'M' qiianlities of cnaN arc raised, nnf merely 
 
 for the II f the iron »>irk'<, but, aUo, for ship- 
 
 ini'iif at Ciiriliir. In adilltion to the par. cliiinli 
 there are various pliices of worship, inc. chii|H'ls 
 for llaptists, liidepeiiileiils, Ac,, Hitli Natluiial, 
 Siindav, ami other ■■cliooN, 
 
 .Ml I'. It DM FN, a iiiaritiiiieco, Scot land, boiimleil 
 N. and F. by the ticrmaii Ocean, S. by the cos. of 
 I'erlli, Forfar, and Kincardine, and \V'. by ItaiilV, 
 Flglii, and Inverness. Kxireine leiiglh Hti m, from 
 N. to .S., iiiiil 12 from F. to \V, Area l,'.'iiii,Him 
 acres, iir I,li7n.-i|. in. In the soiith-weitern divi- 
 sion, called the district of Mar, are some of the 
 highest niouiitaiiiN of Scotland. Ken .Macdhii, till 
 lately considered the lii|;hesf of the Itritish iiioiin- 
 fains, rises to the height of •l,2!Hi feet above Ihu 
 level of the cea, and several of the other moun- 
 tains are but little inferior in altitude. About a 
 tilth part of the surface consists of high moun- 
 tainous tracts; and these, with hills, extensive 
 moors, mosses, and waste lands, occupy marly 
 two-thirds of the entire country. The arable land 
 lies principally in the eastern parts, Principal 
 rivers Dee and Don; and besides these are the 
 Deveron, Hogie, \tliaii, Trie, I'gie, Ac, l.ime- 
 stone abounds in various places; fliere are(|iiarries 
 of excellent slate; and inilNtones are found of 
 good (iiialify. Vast quantities of granite are 
 shipped at .Vberdeen, particularly for I.omion, 
 where it is used in paving the streets. The moun- 
 tains of llracmar contain numbers of coloured 
 crystals, or cairngonns; and some real fopa/.es 
 have been met with. The winters, owing to the 
 great extent of sea coast, are mild; but the siini- 
 mers arc usually short and cold. Agriculture is 
 ]irosecufeil with much more spirit and success than 
 might have been supposed, Oats is the principal 
 cro)), about 1(111,(111(1 acres being sown with that 
 grain; barley is also raised; and some, though 
 only a little, wheat. The culture of turnips and 
 potatoes is extensively carried on. Several thousand 
 iicri's of land in the vicinify of Aberdeen have been 
 trenched. The practice h not, however, contined 
 to that district, and large additions are being con- 
 stantly made to the arable land. Fann liiaiscs 
 and oiliccs are now, with few exceptions, comfort- 
 nble and commodious, A greater number of cafflo 
 are bred in this than in any other Scotch county: 
 the native breed is preferred. They have increased 
 much in size during the last forty years. They 
 are commonly black, but there arc many red or 
 brindled. Slieen eomjiaratively few, and of a 
 mixed breed. 'Iherc are some large estates; but 
 property is, notwifhsfamling, a good deal suli- 
 dividcd, (ireaf diversify in the si/e of farms. It 
 is usual for mechanics to occupy an acre or two. 
 The woods, which are very extensive, afford shelter 
 to the red deer. Average rent of land (i», '.Ul. an 
 acre. The woollen, cotton, and linen manufactures 
 are carried on to a considerable extent, jirincipally 
 at Aberdeen. There are considerable tisheries on 
 the coast and in the rivers, |mrfi(Milarly in the Dee, 
 I'rinciiml towns Aberdeen, Peterhead," Iliintlv and 
 Fraserburgh, Parishes S«, Pop, in IHII, l!t"2,.'(H7, 
 in lH()l,221,5r)!l; inhabited houses in IHCil, .■(2,7(i2. 
 Kef urns one memljer to the Himisc of Com- 
 mons, Pari, constituency in IHO.'J, 1,210. Valued 
 rental, '22!'>fiG^)l. Scotch.' Annual value of real 
 jiroperty in 181.'), 32"),21ft/, stg„ do. in 1HI.'{, 
 (iO.'{,9(i8/, stg,, do, in 18G4-5, exclusive of railways, 
 029,075/. 
 
 AKERDEEX the cnp. of the above co„ and 
 the seat of a university, an ancient, distinguished, 
 and flourishing royal and pari. bor. and seaport, 
 situated mostly on rising ground on the N. bank 
 of the Dee, near its mouth, Ui m. NNE. Edin- 
 burgh, on the Great North of ScotlancI railway. 
 
 u 2 
 
Aiii:iti>i;i:.v 
 
 
 1 ; 
 
 I'np. ill IH2I, il,7f)fli in IMI, :.«.f)l!l; ill IHII. 
 (ll.'.LMi Mini TIl.HO.i ill \Hi\\. AUnli'i'ii I'lui^i-l" «( 
 llii- |iiiri'lu'' of r'.ii>l, (iri'vl'riai>', Nurtli, Si. ric 
 incurs Siiiitli, iiihI NV'i-il ; nUn |iiirt ul' tin' |iiiri->li 
 <ir Ojij Mili'lllir, l.',.'i| t. 'Illi'lr WrlT, ill |Hi;i,ai' 
 
 ccinliii^ Id till' iiii-<ii'« rrtiirii-*, •'I.hiI'J iiilmliili'il 
 limi'M"', mill I I,'.'.' I M'|ianiti' tiiiiiilii'i, Alirnli'i'ii 
 iki'i|iiii'i'<l iiii|Hii'liiiin' III nil I'lirlv iiiriml, innl iiiinli' 
 It riiii'<|iiriiiiii-t ii|i|iriiriiiii'<' in miiiiy nt' llii> stuniiy 
 Hi'iii'i III Siiilli-li lii-liiry, It ri'ii'ivrd u limrliT 
 
 fi Williiiiii till' l.iiiii.'ilati'il I'rrtli, 1 17'.); ami 
 
 till' jiiiiriiaN III' llii' town niiiiu'il liavi' I ii jui' 
 
 mTvril iirariy I'litirn oiiu'ii I.'I'.IH. It i* iinli'lilfd Ik 
 |{iilM'rt llriiri' for a ciiiMiili'mlili' imrticiii ul' in prii- 
 jH'rly, llaviiiK miiIViti'iI a Knml ilral in llin I'ivil 
 wntK iltiriiiK lliii rri^ii nC CIimiIi'm I,, il I'oiitiniM'il 
 ill a iirarly Htatintiary Hlal^ till almiil IT.'iil, wlirii 
 il lii'i^'aii to iiii'ri'iiNi'. It lian hIiu'c Iici'm Ni^iially 
 iiii|ii'iivi'il, t"«|i('('lally rliirinK tlm prc-wiit I'ciiliiry, 
 liy lliit I'liriiialiiiii ol' new utri't'l.Hainl siiuart'?«, wliirli 
 liavr '.ii|i<>r^i'ilril iiiii-it part nf iH nlil narrow ami 
 winiliii^ tlioriiii^'lil'arct. Frmn llio .S. Alicnlfi'ii in 
 (ippriiai'lii'il liy tliri'i! Iiriiljji't acroNM llic |)i'i'; nmi 
 of 7 arrlicr* of Hloni', ori^'imilly crccti'd in I .'(".io-i'ti, 
 and rclaiilt I7l<.)-'.':i ; a HiiHiiriiNion liridKc of iron, 
 opi'iii'il in IH.'Ki ; and tlu; railwav liriil);iMif Harrht's 
 opi'ticd in iHriO. Tlio roailK i'roiii tho llrxt two 
 Itriilni'scondni't to rnioii Strrct, which with Union 
 I'lacit and CiiMtle Stri'i't, in llm muu! Mtrai^ht line, 
 form a nniKiiiHi't'iit filrwt of alMiut i\ niili- in length, 
 tht) lionsi'H all of (Iri'ssod liwlit-^'ray ^raniti'. '^lli^^ 
 Mtrcdt in iiarricd over a drcp and iiartly wooded 
 ravine hyu liridpMif a NinKleiireh ol \',Vi feet xpan, 
 opened ill IHII I. Ainonf;tlie piildie liiiildin^s may 
 liu Hpeeilied the ns.'«enilily riHiniH, tho town-hoiHe, 
 roiii't-hoiiMo, K»"li <'i«l ix'^v inarliet; the K. and \V. 
 churchuftdf SI. NicliohiM, the \. (diurch, and others 
 of liite erei'tioii; St. Andrew's eiiiseopal clinrch ; 
 the or|iliaii hospital; the harraeks, on tho castle 
 hill, fornierlv the site of a fort ; (iordon's hospital, 
 liridewell, tlio inlirinary, inedieul hall, anil Ma- 
 risi'lial Colle^^e, lately r'eliiiilt on an extensive unil 
 ide;;«nt plan. Hesides the latter seminary, there 
 nre various ])uldie and iirivatu ncadeniies and 
 xehools, anions whieh is tiie ^'rainniar school, es- 
 tahlished hefori) MIH. There are mnnorons chiiri- 
 talde establisiiinents and endowments, upwards of 
 70 liein;; under the inana'^'cinent of the majiistrates, 
 the net revcuuo of which amounted in IH|H t(> 
 JI.SOO/. Gorilon's hos]iital supimrts and educates 
 l.'SI) hoj's, and has un annual revenue of ahoiit 
 32«l/. llore is also an inlirmary, with a lunatic 
 asylum erected at an expense of upwards of 
 l(t',0(l(t/. ; nn institution for deaf and diiml) persons; 
 a hirpc hospital for f;irls, and one for tho education 
 and support of tho blind. Tlic value of real pro- 
 I>crty amounted to 17'J,()7"2/,, wliilo tho corporation 
 revenuowns ll,J{7fi/. in lWi.')-l. 
 
 Ahcrdeen oc^cupies a distini^uishcd place both in 
 the manufactures and commerce, and in the lite- 
 rature, of Scotland. During la-st century, the town 
 and adjoining country were celebrated for the ma- 
 nufacture of knit woollen stockings, of which an 
 interesting account is K'ven by Pennant. (Tour 
 in Scotland, i. 137, ed. 17!tO.) Hut the introduc- 
 tion of machinery has superseded that employment. 
 There are now, partly in the town and partly in 
 its immediate vicinity, numerous lar^e factories 
 for the .spinniufj and weaving of cotton, Hax, and 
 •wool, in most of which steam power is employed. 
 The woollen fabrics comprise carpets, blankets, 
 serges, stockings, and worsted yams. Extensive 
 iron-works have l)een established, where steam- 
 engines, anchors, chain-cables, and spinning ma- 
 chinery are produced. Paper of the test quality 
 is made on a large scale, considerable quantities 
 liaviiig been purchased of late years by govern- 
 
 nii'iil. Slii|i liiilldltig is rnrriid mi to a coiiniilcr- 
 alili' I'Nii'iil, mill llnre un' mpi' Murk'*, Imiiirrli''-, 
 •imp and riindle wnrki, comb liti'loriii, di'lillerie', 
 liri'weriri, \i'. The prinrlpiil iialiiral pi'mlin'M 
 I'Xporti'il lire I'lillli'; hiiIiiiuii, xi'tit In l.iiiidiin in 
 ice; gninile, «villl uhii'll llie ^Inrti nf the ini'lro- 
 polis are nio-<llv pavnl; I'l^g^, liiilicr, pork, mid 
 I'orii. The liiial value of lli>' cxporN miioiiiilrd In 
 •.'I.'.'.'H:/. in IM.V.I; •J;|,(m;'.'/. \v IHIIO; ,'.,i;1'.i/. in iNill ; 
 11,111/. ill iml'.', mill II,h:Ii,/. In im;;!, thus show- 
 ing iniiriiions iliii'iuiition'. The loial ainniinl of 
 cu'<lomidiilvriri'iviilwaM'.)7,'.'.il/.in |H.V,»; !i;i,K..;i/. 
 in iHtlO; tcl',7i:./. in iMill ; !I2.1m;;i/. in iHtl'.'; and 
 H-.',H,'l!i/. ill IxM. i'lie general shipping, in tlin 
 year |mi1:I, compriied I IM llritisli ve.isels, of ■i'l.Ciir) 
 tons, and I 17 foreitrn vrs-teN, of |M,(i,'»7 tons, whidi 
 arrived in the port. Only one steam ve»»el, "Jil!) 
 Ions, was registered in the arrivals. Tin re Ihi- 
 loiiged to llie port, on the 1st of .lamiarv, iHii I, 
 7 sailing vesxels under '20 Ions, of a total iiurtlieii 
 of 'JIM tons, and '211 sailing vesxels alsive I'lO tons, 
 of a total toiiniige of 77,lli2. There were also 5 
 steamers under oO Ions, of a total toiiniige of Htl ; 
 ami II steamers above M, of a total biirtlien of 
 •'I,'2h7 tons. There is a reunliir I'oniniunii'ation by 
 steamers with London, Luith, Peterhead, Inver- 
 ness, and the Orkneys. 
 
 The harbour in the irstiiary, at the month of 
 the Dee, labours under considefalde natural disad- 
 vantages, which, however, have been to a great 
 extent, though not wholly, obviated. Its im- 
 provement Is^gan under an act obtained in 177<'I; 
 ami it has been prosecnlid at intervals, with inoru 
 or less vigour, under that and other acts down to 
 the present time. The principal object was to fa- 
 eilitntc the access to the harbour, bv removing the 
 bar at the nioiith of the river, and deepening its 
 channel; and this has been elleeted partly by 
 dredging, ami partly by the erection of a pier 
 alsiut 2,U00 feet in lengtii, projecting into the sea 
 on the N. sidoof llie river, by a breakwater on the 
 opposite shore, and other subsidiary works. The 
 interior of the harbour has iK'en vastly improved. 
 In it, some years ago, were eoiistrneted a magnill- 
 ci^nt Wet dock, or tloatiiig harbour, the area ol 
 which comprises IM acres, with locks capable ot 
 admitting the largest steam-ships, Tho ipiay 
 walls and ijiiays are all of granite ; the work U-ing 
 executed in tlie best and most substantial manner. 
 Still, however, the harbour is not accessible at all 
 times of tho tide to vessels drawing above 10 feel 
 water. Hut, as the tide rises from l.'t to iii feet, 
 vessels drawing 17 feet water may enter tho har- 
 bour at high-water neaps, and those drawing '20 
 feet, at high-water springs. There are at an ave- 
 rage IS "feet water in the floating harbour. The 
 bay all'ords safe anchorage with off-shore winds, 
 but not with those from the K, or NK. A light- 
 house has been erected on (Jirdic Ness, t!;e S. point 
 of the bay, having two lixed lights in one tower, 
 the highest being IK;'), and the lowest 11.") feet 
 above high-water ; there is, also, a tidal light on 
 the N. pier-head, and two leading lights further 
 up tho harbour on its S. side. The affairs relative, 
 to the ImrlMinr are managed by a board of com- 
 missioners. There has in all been expended on 
 the harlKiur, since 1810, above half a niillion 
 sterling. 
 
 In consequence of this heavy expenditure, and 
 of the large outlay in opening new streets aiid 
 constructing bridges, the affairs of the borough 
 became so much involved as to lead to its disfran- 
 chisement, in 1817. Hut, in the end, the corpora- 
 tion, having been restored, was enabled to meet all 
 the demands upon it ; and for several years iu 
 affairs have been in good order, and it has enjoyed 
 a full share of creiUt. The burgh revenue, as be- 
 
II III II (■(i||«ii|rr- 
 
 niirk", liiiiii'rlt'''i 
 iirii -I ill-lilliiii'«i 
 iiiiliiriil |iiii<liii't'4 
 lit III l.iiiiiliiii III 
 I |H III' llii' iiiflrii 
 Millir, jxirU, mill 
 
 nrt'* llllliillllli'l ti> 
 ; .'i.HI'.i/. in iw'il J 
 |K(i;i, tliiiH hIiiiw-_ 
 ' liitiil ainmiiil •>!' 
 .Ill IM.V.t; !i;i,H..;i/. 
 hi/, in I «•!.!; aiut 
 i.|ii|i|iln((, in tlui 
 
 I vi'K'ifit, iil'i'i.lili'i 
 M,li.")7 tiin*, wliiiii 
 Ktriiiii vi'nw'l, 'ill!* 
 
 iviiN. Tlitrn Ih'- 
 ul' ■lanuiirv, iHtll, 
 it' » tiitiil liiirtlit'ii 
 
 ivU uImiVi' i"l" tllllS 
 
 riiiTf wi-ri' also 5 
 
 III liiiinii^'it of H(i; 
 
 II total liiirtliiii ol" 
 roiniiiiinli'iitioii liy 
 
 IVtirhfail, Invor- 
 
 , at till' mimtli of 
 iilil<> natural tll^ad- 
 n lifcn to a t;r«'i»t 
 liviatftl. Its iin- 
 (ililaiiii'il ill 17711; 
 iti'i'valf, with niorii 
 other aot.'< ilowii to 
 
 III iiliji'ct was to fa- 
 ir, liv ri'iiiovinn tlio 
 , ami (lir]uniii« its 
 I'll'iM'toil paitly by 
 tTfction of a jtiiT 
 
 ji'ctinti into Ihi- »*•''' 
 liivaliwatcr on Iho 
 iiliary works, Thii 
 n vastly i!ii|>iovcil. 
 . tnicti'il a uiannill- 
 jirlioiir, till! arva of 
 h looki* lapalilii ot 
 ships. Tho (|uay 
 ite; tho work iK'inj; 
 uitistantiul inaniur. 
 not aci'cssililc at all 
 iwing ahovc 10 ft't'l 
 from in to 15 fwt, 
 may entor th« har- 
 il thoso (IniwinK "io 
 riicre are at an uy<'- 
 tin^; harlKiiir. Thu 
 ith oir-.shoru winds, 
 •:. or NK. A li^ht- 
 llc Ncss,t!;o S. point 
 lights in one tower, 
 ..le lowest lir» feet 
 Iso, a tidal linht on 
 idinK lights further 
 
 The ntfairsrelativti 
 by a board of coni- 
 
 bcon cxponAed on 
 (vo Ijftlf a million 
 
 i-y expenditure, and 
 1^ new streets and 
 lirs of the boronuli 
 n lead to its di.*fraii- 
 he end, the corpora- 
 s enabled to meet nil 
 or several years it< 
 r, and it has enjoyed 
 urgh revenue, as be- 
 
 fnfP iitfltr.1, nmoiintiil to ll,:i7)i/. In Ihx lliinniial 
 \iiir ixii:! I. 
 
 I'reviMii'ly to till' pawliitf of tin' Idfonn Aet In 
 |H;f.», .MMrilieii Will ii»«iM iated wllh ArbiHiilh, 
 llreililii, ller\ii', and Mniiini-e in reliiriiiiiu a 
 tiiniilHr til till' ll.id ('. ; but that ml coiilirreil 
 llili jiii|iiirtalit privili'ue mi AlHrdieii singly. Old 
 Alierdeell illld II eiili«li|er,llile Iriiet of the slirrolin 
 dlll^ ('iillliirv it ilielllded within the purL JHir. 'I'lie 
 pari, eiilistftlleiuy einisiitid of ;i^'.'7 renlslend 
 ilielofi ill iNt'il. 'The tiiwii is govern ' by a pro- 
 viiol, I bailies, Illld I t eniini illors. The miiliKipal 
 ciiliililueiiey in iMlil collslited of .',8'.'j re«ist<-fKd 
 idi'ilnri. 
 
 Abeidieii U eiinneeted by a eanal, 1*^ m, in i 
 lein,'ili, with liivi'riirv, aiiil 'y railway w|Mt I 
 Mmitriise, I'lTlll, j;dililiul>,'li, iiiei /,:• .-riU'ss. Hw ', 
 t'liliiil is ehielly used fur the I'liiiM ya' "( heavv i 
 iirliiles, •.mil 'IS t;ranile, to the town, ,,ii'> "•' fual, 
 liiiiiiiii'e, i\e., to the eiiiinlry, 
 
 AlHrderii hii-i three lar^e blinking rompiinii". t^'' I 
 lildeit III' which, the AlsTileen Hank, e^labli^lieit in 
 I7('i7, had ri'i'eiilly I'i branehes, and about d.-iil 
 iiiirtners ; but ill in til it was ineorporatetl with the 
 I jiiiiii Hank of Seiitland. The other coiniianies, 
 viz, the AlM'rdeen 'I'liwii and t'onnty Hank, and 
 the North of Seotland Hanking; (Joinpany, have 
 re-<peetively l.'l and 'M brillielies. The latter has 
 iiliiiiit l.'iOii' piirtners. 'i'he Hank of .Sfotland and 
 Kiiiiieiif the other Sooteh bunks have also brunches 
 
 in .Mierdeell. 
 
 A rej,'iiliir jiost was established between Aber- 
 ileeii and l''.iliiiiiiir;{h, in Iiiii7, 'I'he tlrst printiii<,'- 
 iiress in the town was set lip in irr.M ; and the 
 iirit almaniicks puldished in Scotland appeared 
 here in Iti77, It siijipiirts several newspapers, tin- 
 oldest of which, the Aberdeen Journal, coinmenced 
 ill I7IH, 
 
 AHr.KDKI'.X (OLD), an nneient and ineon- 
 •ideriible city, about :|ths m, N, Aberdeen, In 
 former times it was the seat of a bislmprick, the 
 fee of Mortlach having' been removed to it, in 
 llol. It has no trade, and very little property, 
 Its importance de|)eiidiii^ entirely upon its eol- 
 le(,'e, I'op, about 2000, inc. in the pop. of Aber- 
 deen, The, chief edilices are Kiiif^'s Collef^e, the 
 Cathedriil, and the bridp's across the |)iiii, Tho 
 buildings of l\iii;;'s (^ollep! have an atitii|ne ap- 
 p«'i'r;ince, iind are of diirereiit periods, but in Kood 
 n'|iair, 'I'he lilirary and chapel are attached to n 
 liil'ty s(piare tower, surmounted b}' an imperial 
 crown of open stone work. The cathedral of St, 
 Klachar, or .Macariiis, after whom the iiarish is 
 named, is an ancient (iothie edilice, eiiii^tly of 
 granite, commenced in the lltli century : the clioir, 
 transept, and ^reut central tower were demolisheil 
 or fell down upwards of a century aj^o ; the nave 
 remains, and is used as the parish church ; nt the 
 west end are two linely projiortioned stone spires; 
 the roof of the interior is also a curious relic. Near 
 its mouth the I)nii forms a haven, which, however, 
 nihnits only vessels of a few tons' burden. An an- 
 cient bridf^e, consisting of a (jothic arch, 70 feet 
 in span, crosses a rocky and woody ravine in which 
 the river tlows. Lower down is a new bridge of 5 
 J arches, opened in 18;J0. 
 
 i f/ni'tjerdi'/y^Alierdeen has a university, with 
 
 A two colleges. There were formerly two universities, 
 
 |but they were incorporated into one by the Scottish 
 
 j| University Act of 18o8. Of the two colleges, the 
 
 'jinost ancient is that of Old Aberdeen, founded by 
 
 ,;4llishop Elidiinston in 1494, umler a bull of Pope 
 
 Alexander VI,, of which Hector IJoethiuswus lirst 
 
 principal. It early received the name of King's 
 
 C<dlege, instead ot that of tho Virgin Marj', to 
 
 whom it Avas originallv dedicated. 'Ihe other and 
 
 later seminary, established iu lO'J'd, is called Ma- 
 
 AllKUYsTWfTir 5 
 
 rixchal Collegn, I'runi Uk fnllllder (ieorgo Keltll, 
 I'.iirl MiiriM'hiil, 'I'he iiiil\er''ily lia'< imw '.'I pm 
 feasors and aboM' lioo Mtiideiits, Them are H 
 •cliiiliirihips of );,'i/. each, and iiboiil '.'mm liiir>ariei« 
 of rrmn />/. In MM/, nuh. Allhniiuh iheir Imriarlei 
 are iiiiiiierniis, lliiir ntlnT rexeiiues all' lull limited. 
 King's I'lillege UiiN I'liriiierly elitilli'd III eiipies of 
 
 all Works eiiii'red nt Statiuiiers' Hull; but in |H:Hi, 
 it reliiiiiiiiihed this iirivili'ue fur an iiiiiiiial pay- 
 ment ol '.*>'.'/. I In. .Nlarisehal l'ii||i'){e Iiiih a iiiu- 
 seiim, nn observatory, and an extensive appnratii'i 
 for teaching naliinil phllosuphy. The exielliiit 
 education given In iheNe seminariei has Ihtu 
 highly useful in dliseminatliig knowledge over tho 
 M. n{ .^'iitiand ; partieiilarly in improving the 
 ehiiraetir <>f the parochial schoolmasters, must 
 |it<irt <if whoiii, havini; U'eii at college, are Nii|M-rior 
 ill Hi«< generality of their lirethreii in the Hiiiithi'rii 
 parts of III, roimtry. The iiuiiibiT of bursaries, 
 which are mostly di'-Tostsi of by coiiipiirative trial, 
 is an indiieement to aihnd; Hut independelit of 
 llii-" cireumstaiice, Ihecost of cdui /llioii is moderato 
 in the lYlrenie. The llsiial fee entitling to atteiui 
 one of the llleriirv elasses U only from '-'/. to .1/,; 
 and the total annual des paid bv a stiidenl, not ii 
 bursar, going through the regular rurriniliim, or 
 eiiiirs(> of study prescribed by the faculty of arts, 
 do not exceeil Vi/, or 71. a vear, during each of the 
 I years to which it is limited, |{espectablu board 
 iiiiiv U' had for from •-'.V, to .'1.')/. during the session, 
 which coinmeiices on thi< last Monday of October, 
 and ends in the beginning of Anril. Manv emi- 
 nent men have been professors in these colh'ges ; 
 among whom may be mentioned ISeid, the author 
 of the Iiu|uiry into the Human Mind; Kordyce, 
 author of a Treatise on Moral I'hilosophv; (ierurd, 
 author of an Ivssay on Taste; Campbell, author o 
 the I'hilosophy of Khetoric; and lllackwell,uutliur 
 of the Lif(! of Homer. 
 
 AHKKFOYLK, in Scotland, n jmrish, and ft 
 celebrated |iass or narrow valley leailing into the 
 Highlands, ill the district of Moiiteith.in tlu* SW, 
 iiart of I'erthshire. Top. ,'^i(i,-) in IMC.l. The vil- 
 lag<! or cliu'han of Abirloyle in this pass is tlui 
 scene of some of the most interesting adventures 
 ill th(' novel of Itob Hoy. 
 
 AHi;i;(iAVI'.NNV, ft town of Knglnnd, ro. 
 Monmouth, nt the conflueneeof the (■aveimv with 
 the Usk, 14 III. SW. Monmouth, I'JO m. W.'by N. 
 London, on a bramOi line of the (ireat Western 
 rail. Top. 4,t'i'_'l in IHCI. The town is built in ft 
 straggling maiiiier; has a tliu! bridge of lo archen 
 over the l?sk, ami sonut branches of woollen manu- 
 facture. There are very extensive iron works in 
 the vicinity. On an eminence, n<'ar tho S. end of 
 the town, are the ruins of its ancient castle. 
 
 AHKI!(JKLI'',V, a sea-port and m, town of 
 Wales, CO. Denbigh, bund. Isdulas, on thorailwav 
 from Chester to Ihdyhead. I'op, .'{..'iOH in IHOf. 
 The town has been considerably resorted to of lato 
 years for bathing, 
 
 AHKUNIiTHV, n parish of Scotland, partly in 
 Fife and partly in I'erthshire. It was once' tho 
 scat of on archiepisco]ial sec, removed to St. 
 Andrew's in the ninth century. All that now re- 
 mains of its ancient structures is a round tower 7ii 
 feet high, and 16 in diameter. The modem vil- 
 lage of Al)eniethy is small, and tho houses mean, 
 I'op. of village t»H4, and of parish l,fl(!0, iu IHtil. 
 
 ABKKYSTWITH, a sea-port town of VVales, 
 CO. Cardigan, at the mouth of tho Ystwith, over 
 which is a neat bridge, 178 m. VVNW. London. 
 Pop. 5,(i41 in 18C1. It stands on an eminenco 
 overlooking the buy; and the streets, though well 
 paved and Macadamis(;d, are steep and uneven. 
 It is a place of considerable trade, exixirtiiig lead, 
 calamine, oak bark, flannels, &c., mostly tu Liver- 
 
6 
 
 ABERYSTWITH 
 
 '!ii|, 
 
 f)ool; Imtowin^ to the HhallownosH of the water, 
 It 18 nc(!«8sil)l<! only to small vcfwelH. Aa there in 
 no mnrkot town within IM m. it lin« the supply of 
 a i'()nNi(leral)l<! nfljacH-nt territory. Latterly it has 
 lK;en extensively resorted to in summer for sea- 
 bntliinff. Public r(M>mH were oiK-ned for the ac- 
 commodation of visitors in IH'20, and a new theatre 
 in I Hill). It Bcems to have been once stron^lv 
 fortified. Its castle, of which some vestiges still 
 exist, was rebuilt bv Kdward I. in 1277. A con- 
 Hiderablo extent of ^en land to the N. of the town 
 has recently iKien recovered from the sea. 
 
 AiiKKYSTWiTii, a parochial chapelrj', hund. 
 Al»erjfav»!nny, co. Monmouth, celebrated for its 
 collieries and iron works, which have (^'catly in- 
 creased during the last half a century. Pop. '6,561 
 in 1801. 
 
 ABIAD (HAIIR EL). See Nile. 
 
 AULN'dDON, an ancient town of England, co. 
 Herks, at the confluence of the Ock with the Isis, 
 and at the Junction of the Berkshire canal with 
 the latter, ft.'ij m. WNVV. London on the Great 
 Western rnilwav. Pop. 5,680 in 1861. The town 
 lias several well-paved streets terminating in a 
 spacious raarket-))lace, having a market-house in 
 the centre. It has two churches, with places of 
 ■worship for Dissenters, a well-endowed grammar 
 school, and sundry almshouse's and charitable en- 
 dowments. It has a considerable corn market: 
 some trade is carried on in malting and hemp- 
 dressing. It returns one m. to the H. of Commons. 
 The pari, constituency consisted of 317 registered 
 electors in 1864. Amount assessed to property- 
 tax 20,425/, This was formerly a scot-and-lot 
 borough; every inhabitant assessed to the poor 
 rates exercising the elective franchise. Of these 
 scot-and-lot voters only four remained in 1804. 
 
 ABO, the ancient capital of Finland, near the 
 extremity of the promontory formed b'^' the gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Finland, on the ri \ r Aiir^ocki, by 
 which it is intersected, lat. 60° 26' 58" N., long, 
 22° 17' 15" E. It was the seat of a university, 
 and has a considerable trade. But in 1827 it 
 Buffered severely from a fire, wliich destroyed the 
 university and above 700 private houses. The 
 university has been since removed to Helsingfors, 
 now the capital of the province. Previously to 
 the fire the town contained about 13,000 iiiluil)- 
 itants; the population thei. decreased, but had 
 risen again to 16,870 in 1858. The town has a 
 gymnasium, a bank, and some unimportant manu- 
 factures. A treaty was concluded here in 1743 
 between Russia and Sweden. 
 
 ABOMEY, cap, of the kingdom of Dahomey, in 
 Africa, nearly 100 m. N. from the sea, lat, 7° 30' 
 N., long. 2° 17 E. Pop. said to be 24,000. 
 
 ABOUKIR, a village of Egypt, with a citadel, 
 on a promontory, about 10 m. NE. of Alexandria, 
 being supposed by some to occupy the site of the 
 ancient Canopus, lat. 31° 19' 44" N., long. 30° 
 r 16" E. 
 
 ABOUKIR BAY, on the north coast of Egypt, 
 formed on the west side by the point of land on 
 which Alwukir is situated, and on the east by 
 that which lies at the mouth of the Rosetta branch 
 of the Nile, Here, on the 1st of August, 1798, 
 was fought the famous battle of the Nile, when 
 the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon to 
 Eg3rijt was totally defeated by the British fleet 
 under Lord Nelson ; ond here also, on the 7th of 
 March, 1801, the English army, under Sir Ralph 
 Abercromby, effected its disembarkation. 
 
 ABOUSAMBUL, See Ii-sambuu 
 
 ABRANTES, a fortified town of Portugal, prov, 
 Estremadura, Lit. 39° 26' N., long. 8° 15' \V., at 
 the S. extremity of a ridge that trends SVV. from 
 the great range dividing the valleys of the Douro 
 
 ABRUZZO 
 
 and Tagus. Pop. 6,020 in 1858. The position of 
 the town adapts it admirably for a military' sta- 
 tion ; ami Sir A. Wellcsley availed himself of its 
 local advantages by rcsiNting there the progress of 
 the French in 1809. (See Nanier, ii. 317, &c.) 
 It is alnnit ( m. from the right bank of the Tagus 
 and 72 m. alwve Lislx)n. 'riie hill-side on which 
 the town is built, aa well as the hills about, liear 
 vines, olive, peach, and other fruit trees, while the 
 ])lain eastward produces pumjikins, water-melons, 
 and other vegetables: all these proiliicts arc car- 
 ried down the river in barges to the capital, with 
 which this town has very considerable traffic. 
 The trade, now occupying above 100 l)arges, would 
 be much increased if the navigation were improvetl. 
 A few small craft go 24 m. higher, as far as Villa- 
 bella; but the stream is rapid, and the bed much 
 impeded with sand and rocks. The church of San 
 Yincente is the largest and finest in Portugal. 
 
 ABKUZZO, an extensive territory of Italy, 
 forming the NE. [Ktrtion of the former Neapolitan 
 dominions, between 41° 60' and 42° 65' N. lat. 
 While Naples existed as a separate kingdom the 
 territoiy was dividetl into the provs. of Abruzzo 
 Ultra I., Abruzzo Citra, and Abruzzo Ultra II., 
 but these names were abolished at the formation 
 of the kingdom of Italy, and its reconstruction 
 into 69 provinces. The new administrative divi- 
 sions of the Abnizzo, arc called, after the names 
 of the chief town;), Aquila, Chicti, and Tcramo. 
 Aquila has a population, according to the census 
 of 1862, of 339,555; Chieti of 337,364, and Teramo 
 of 240,035, so that the total pop. of the Abruzzo 
 numbers 917,954 inhabitants. An enumeration of 
 the year 1831, stated the pop. at 735,931, which, 
 considering the nature of the country, shows a 
 remarkable increase. 
 
 The country presents every variety of soil and 
 surface; but the greater part is mountainous, rug- 
 ged, and occupied by extensive forests. It is tra- 
 versed throughout its whole extent by the Apen- 
 nines, and has some of their highest summits. 
 Monte Como, sumamed // Gran Sasso, or the 
 Great Rock, rises to the height of 9,527 feet above 
 the level of the sea, Monte Majella to about 8,500, 
 and Monte Vellino to 8,397. It is watered J)y 
 many rivers, most of which fall into the Adria- 
 tic; and in Abruzzo Ultra II. is the celebrated 
 Lago Gelano, the Lacus Fucimts of the ancients 
 (see Celano, Lake ok). The climate differs with 
 the elevation of the soil; but though very cold on 
 the mountains, and comparatively hot in the low 
 grounds, it is, speaking generally, temperate and 
 healthy. Along the Adriatic, and in the valleys 
 and plains, the soil is very productive; and large 
 quantities of com, oil, wine, silk, liquorice, and 
 almonds are produced. Saffron used to be very 
 extensively cultivated in the valley of Aquila, 
 but the quantity raised is now very much restric- 
 ted. The inhabitants of the mountainous districts 
 are principally engaged in the rearing of sheep and 
 cattle. 'The upi^er regions and recesses of the 
 mountains are depastured in the summer season 
 by vast flocks of sheep, brought from the Capitan- 
 ata and other level provinces more to the S. 
 Their migrations are regulated by law, and are 
 similar to those that take place in Spain and in 
 the SE. depts. of France. The inhabitants are 
 stout, well-made, healthy, and industrious. The 
 occupiers and labourers, who form the vast major- 
 ity of the population, are mostly poor, living in 
 miserable dirty huts, feeding principally on Indian 
 com, and drinking a poor wine. Many thousands 
 of the peasants emigrate every autumn to seek for 
 emplojTnent in the Northern Maremme. Manu- 
 factures have made but little progress; but wool- 
 lens, silks, and earthenware, are produced. The 
 
 
 a Mil 
 Ten 
 A 
 Ara 
 16° 
 hmg 
 whi« 
 disti 
 ratec 
 by 
 the 
 
. The position of 
 for n militurj' Htn- 
 lilcd liimHclf of its 
 lore tin" profjrcsH of 
 pier, ii. HI 7, &e.) 
 Imnk of tho Tapis 
 hill-Hide on which 
 e hills about, hear 
 lit trees, while tho 
 iiiH, water-melons, 
 I products arc car- 
 3 tho capital, with 
 msiderablo traffic. 
 B 100 barf^es, would 
 ion were improved, 
 ler, as far as Villa- 
 ind the bed much 
 The church of San 
 St in I'ortugal. 
 «rritory of Italy, 
 former Neamlitnn 
 id 42° 65' N. lat. 
 irate kingdom the 
 provs, of Abruzzo 
 Vbruzzo Ultra II., 
 1 at the formation 
 
 its reconstruction 
 Iministrative divi- 
 1, after the names 
 icti, and Teramo. 
 ling to the cenHua 
 I7,3G4, and Teramo 
 in. of the Abruzzo 
 ki\ enumeration of 
 at 735,931, which, 
 
 country, shows a 
 
 variety of soil and 
 mountainous, rug- 
 forests. It is tra- 
 tent by the Apen- 
 highest summits. 
 ran Stxsso, or the 
 9,527 feet above 
 11a to about 8,500, 
 It is watered i>y 
 into the Adria- 
 is the celebrated 
 of the ancients 
 limate differs with 
 ough very cold on 
 ly hot in the low 
 temperate and 
 nd in the valleys 
 active; and large 
 Ik, liquorice, and 
 used to be very 
 alley of Aquila, 
 ery much restric- 
 intainous districts 
 iring of sheep and 
 recesses of the 
 summer season 
 rom the Capitan- 
 more to the S. 
 by law, and are 
 in Spain and in 
 inhabitants are 
 ndustrious. The 
 the vast major- 
 poor, living in 
 i))ally on Indian 
 Many thousands 
 tumn to seek for 
 rcmme. Manu- 
 grcss; but wool- 
 produced. Tho 
 
 If 
 
 ■M 
 
 ABU-ARISCH 
 
 foreign trade would !« much more cxtcnmve than 
 it is, were it not that the entire coast is without 
 a .-ingle good jHirt. rriiioipal towns Chicti, Aquila, 
 Teramo, Sulmonn, and Avczzano. 
 
 AHU-AKISCH, a petty state in the SW. of 
 Arabia, on the Ijorders of the Ked Sea, l)ctween 
 16° 60' and l'° 40' N. lat., ond 41° 30' and 48«> K. 
 long., consisting of the narrow slip of low land 
 which lies l)etwoen the coast and tho mountain 
 district of Ha$chid-u-Behel. On the N. it is sepa- 
 rated from El-IleJjaz by a small district inhabited 
 by wandering tribes of [Kfculiar manners; and on 
 tlie S. it borders upon the state of Lnheia. Its 
 extreme length is alwut 130 m., and its greatest 
 width from 70 to 8(» m. It forms part of the 
 Tehama or low lands of Yemen, being almost 
 •wholly a sandy plain (see Auabia), extremely 
 hot and drj', destitute of permanent water courses, 
 and preserved from utter sterility only by the 
 nbiindant rains in the neighlwuring mountains, 
 wliich periotlically inundate its otherwise water- 
 less soil. Its principal pnxliicts are dhourah or 
 barley, which forms the principal f<KMl of the 
 inhabitants, and a peculiar and highly esteemed 
 brei'<l of asses. 
 
 Aiiu-Akiscii, a town of Arabia, cap. of the 
 above state, and the residence of the sheriff, lat. 
 10° 40' N., long. 42° 20' E. It occupies the 
 centre of the principality, being midway l)etween 
 the Ked Sea and the mountains, and b<!tween its 
 N. and S. Ijoundaries. It is walled : population 
 estimated at from 4,000 to 5,000. It seems pro- 
 bable that Abu-Arisch, which at present is 24 m. 
 from the sea, was formerly much nearer to it, if, 
 infleed, it were not once what Gheran now is, the 
 port of this part of Arabia. This is rendered pro- 
 bal )le as well from the appearance of the surrounding 
 country as from the well-known fact mentioned 
 by Niebuhr, that the coast here is constantly and 
 iai)idly gaining on the water. (Niebuhr, Des. de 
 I'Ar. par. ii. p. 232; Voy. en Ar. ii. 69.) 
 
 ABUTIGE, a considerable town of Upper 
 Egvpt, on the site of the ancient Abotis, lat. 27° 
 2' N., long. 31° 23' E. It is tho seat of a Coptic 
 bishop, and is celebrated for its opium. 
 
 AIJYDOS, an ancient city, founded by the 
 Thrncians, and subsequently occupied by a colony 
 of Milesians, on the Asiatic "side of the Hellespont, 
 where it is narrowest, bearing nearly S. from 
 fiestos on the European side of the strait. It had 
 a commodious harbour, and was strongly forti- 
 fied. It was here that Xerxes constructed the 
 bridge of boats by which he conveyed his ill-fated 
 host across the Hellespont ; and it is distinguished 
 in ancient history for the desperate resistance 
 made by its inhabitants to Philip of Macedon, 
 who, however, partly by force and partly by 
 treachery, succeeded in taking it. But Abydos, 
 and also Sestos, are mainly indebted for their im- 
 perishable celebrity to the story of the loves of 
 Hero and Leander, and the melancholy fate of the 
 latter. Abydos magni quondam amons commercio 
 innignis eat, (Amm. Marcellinus, lib. i. 8. 19.) It 
 was destroyed by the Turks; and the fact that 
 the materials were carried 3 m. S. to assist in 
 building the Sultanie Kalessi, or old castle of Asia, 
 the strongest fort on the Dardanelles, and its con- 
 tiguous town, accounts for few ruins l)eing found 
 at Abydos. The modem fort of Nagara occupies 
 its site. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, or Hahesch, an extensive coun- 
 try of Eastern Africa, of which the boundaries are 
 not well defined, but which may be regarded as 
 occupying the space included Iwtween 9° and 15° 
 40' N. lat. and 3«° E. long, and the Red Sea; 
 having E. the latter, N. Senaar and Nubia, and 
 on the W. and S. Senaar, Kordofan, the Soudan, 
 
 ABYSSINIA 7 
 
 and other barbarous and nearly unknown coun- 
 tries. It is sujiposed to include in all alxivo 
 300,000 Eng. w|. in. 
 
 iX'uwc— Abyssinia was incluilcd in the ICthioijia 
 (from ai9ia<l/, a man burnt by the sun, or of a dark 
 colour) of the ancients. The name Abyssina, 
 or more properly Haljessina, from the Arabic 
 Ilahesch, signifving a mixture or confusion, has 
 iK-tn given to the country by the Arabic and Por- 
 tuguese geograi)hers, and indicates the supposed 
 Arabic origin of the people, and their subseijuent 
 intermixture with the Africans. The Abyssiniuns 
 do not use this name ; and either assume that of 
 the provinces in which they live, or coll them- 
 selves Itjotnans, and their country Manphtstn It- 
 jnpia, or kingdom of Ethiopia, a name given it by 
 the Greeks during their ascendancy at Axum. 
 
 Face of the Country. — Abyssinia presents great 
 inequalities of surface. It consists principally of a 
 series of plateaus, intersected and separated by 
 mountain ridges. Uitter classes the plateaus un- 
 der three great divisions. Setting out from tho 
 coast of tho Ked Sea, and traversing the low arid 
 ground by which it is bordered, and ascending tho 
 heights or mountains of Taranta, we arrive at tho 
 first plateau, or country of the Bahaniegash, lying 
 between the Taranta on the E. an<lthe river Mareb 
 on the W. Passing through the Baharnegash, 
 and making another ascent, we arrive at the; great 
 ])lateau of Tigrc', between the Mareb on the E. 
 and the Tacozzo on the \V. ; but .ncluding to the 
 south the mountain regions of Enderta, Wt)jjcrat, 
 Lasta, &c. The last-mentioned country contains 
 the sources of the Tacazze, one of the principal 
 afHuents of the Nile. The towns of Adowah and 
 the ancient Axum (see the names), are situated 
 in the middle of the plateau of Tigrd Antalow 
 lies more to the south, in the province of Enderta. 
 The mountains of Samen, on the W. side of the 
 plateau of Tigre', are the highest in Abyssinia, and 
 form, with those of Lamalmon and Lasta, a great 
 but not continuous chain, running NE. and SW., 
 and separating the high lands of Tigr^, from tho 
 still more elevated plateau or alpine country of 
 the Habesch or Amhara, including the provinces 
 or countries of Dembea, Gojam, Damot, &c. This 
 region, the highest in Abyssinia, and the nucleus 
 and centre, as it were, of the old empire, contains 
 the sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or eastern arm 
 of the Nile, and the great lake of Tzana or Demlxja. 
 It has a mean elevation of about 8,000 feet, and is 
 fenced and intersected by mountain ridges, of which 
 those of Gojam, from their containing the sources 
 of the E. Nile, are the most celebrated. Gondar, 
 the capital of Amhara, and formerly the residence 
 of the Negus or emperor of Abyssinia, lies a little 
 to tho N. of the lake. From this plateau the 
 country shelves down on the W. to the barbarous 
 and unknown regions already alluded to. 
 
 The provinces of Efat and Shoa, which now 
 form, with their dependent territories, the most 
 powerful of the Abyssinian states, lie to the SE. 
 and S. of Amhara. The first is very elevated, 
 part of its waters flowing westward to the Nile, 
 and part eastward to the Hawash. Its chief town 
 is Ankolier. The province of Shoa, lying along 
 the southern side of the Nile, is comparatively 
 low, and is reno^vned for its magnificent pastures 
 and fniitfiil valleys. It has several towns and 
 some celebroted monasteries. Salt is inclined to 
 think that the Ethiopic language and literature, 
 and the ancient manners of the Abyssinians, are 
 preserved in a purer state in these provinces than 
 in any of the others ; but they are very imper- 
 fectly known. 
 
 Exclusive of the above, there is a vast and but 
 little known country in the S£. part of Abyssinia, 
 
8 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 i ilni 
 
 i " 
 
 between Efat and Liuta, and tho Red Sea and the 
 HUH of littlt-ul-niundvb. It in uluiust entirely ucuu- 
 
 Ek'd by tribes of Galla.s, some of them tlie most 
 rutified of any to be found in Abyssinia. The 
 country of Nana, at tlie sources of the Male));, SW. 
 from the prov, of Damot, is one of tlio most ele- 
 vated of the African plateaus. Its inhabitants are 
 said to be nearly as white as tho Spaniards and 
 Neapolitans. 
 
 On the SE. of Tigrc^, between it and the low 
 country or jjrovince of the Dankali, lying along 
 tliu Kcd Sea, and between tho fourteenth and fif- 
 teenth degrees of latitude, is an extensive salt 
 plain, having, in most parts, the appearance of 
 lee covered with portially thawed snow. Tho salt 
 is perfectly pure and hard for about two feet deep ; 
 but that lying beneath is coarser and softer till 
 purified by exposure to tho air. It is cut into 
 pieces with a hatchet; and not only serves to 
 season and preserve food, but even circulates as 
 money. The salt is carried off by caravans, or 
 companies, consisting of from 3U0 to COO beasts of 
 burden, and its digging is not unaccompanied by 
 danger, from the attacks of the savage Galla. 
 
 Mountains. — Those of Abyssinia have not in 
 general been accurately measured. Thev were 
 represented by the early Portuguese travellers and 
 the Jesuits as being of such vast height that, com- 
 pared with them, the Alps and Pyrenees were 
 mere hillocks ! But these exaggerated represen- 
 tations have been since reduced to their proper 
 value. The highest summits of the Samen, how- 
 ever, approach closely to the line of perpetual 
 congelation, so that their elevation may be fairly 
 estimated at from 12,000 to 13,000 feet. The 
 Abba Jared is 15,000, and Kas Detschen 15,986 
 feet high. The mountains of Gojam are of very 
 inferior altitude, and are cultivated to the sum- 
 mits. Generally the Abyssinian mountains have 
 a peculiarly abrupt and precipitous appearance. 
 Sometimes they form what are called amhas or 
 hill forts, consisting of steep, rocky, and all but 
 inaccessible sides, having on tho summit a level 
 Rurface covered with trees and verdure. Tho most 
 celebrated of these hill forts is that of Ambu 
 Geshin, formerly used as a place of confinement 
 for the princes of Abvssinia. 
 
 Rivers. — Of these the Bahr-el-Azrek, Blue River, 
 or eastern branch of the Nile, is by far the most 
 famous. It rises ftom two mountains near Geesh 
 in Gojam, being, according to Bruce, in lat. 10*' 
 69' 25*^ N., long. 36° 65' 30" E., and at an eleva- 
 tion of 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Its 
 course is thence N. to the lake Dembea, a large 
 sheet of water, which receives many other streams ; 
 but the Nile is said to preserve its waters with 
 but little intermixture with those of the lake, 
 across which its current is always visible. Es- 
 caping from this lake, it sweeps in a southerly 
 direction round the E. frontier of tho provinces of 
 Gojam and Damot, till, between the ninth and 
 tenth degree lat. it takes a NW. direction, which 
 it preserves till, at Halfaia, near the sixteenth 
 degree lat., it unites with its other and more im- 
 portant branch, the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White 
 River, flowing from the SW. (see Nile). The 
 next most important stream is tho Tacazze, whose 
 source has been already noticed. It drains the 
 mountains of Samen and Tigrd; and pursuing a 
 pretty direct NNW. course through Sonaar, falls 
 into the Nile near the eighteenth degree lat. The 
 Mareb, which rises in the heights of Taranta, runs 
 nearly parallel to the Tacazzo. In the dry season 
 it loses itself in the sand ; but Bruce says that in 
 the rainy season it continues its course till it 
 unites with the Tacazze. The Hamazo and Ha- 
 wash run E. in the direction of the Red Sea; but 
 
 the latter is swallowed np in the sands Iteforo 
 meeting it. Exclusive of the great lake of DcmlM^a 
 or Tzano, already referred to, which is 60 inilus 
 long, 30 miles broad, and ,6120 feet above tho sea 
 level, tho lake of Ashangee, on tho E. sido of the 
 Samen, is also of very considerable size. 
 
 Mineralogy. — This is very imperfectly known, 
 though geologically presenting some remarkable 
 features. Granite and schistus or slate have been 
 extensively observed ; and it is probable that these 
 primitive rocks occupy a large portion of tho prin- 
 cipal chains. In Tigre, tho strata aro chiefly ver- 
 tical ; but in the mountains of Sumcn they incline 
 more to a horizontal position. Extinct volcanoes, 
 hot springs, de]K)sits of sulphur, rock salt, and 
 malachite have also been found; as also gneiss, 
 antimonv, iron, gold, and silver. Allusion bus 
 already been made to the extensive salt plain E. 
 ofTigrd. 
 
 Climate. — This necessarily differs with the ele- 
 vation of tho country, the direction of the moun- 
 tains, &c. In the deoi) valleys and low grounds 
 {hollas) the heats are frequently excessive ; and 
 this, combined with excess of moisture, renders 
 them unhealthy. But the climate of the plateaus 
 is extremely fine, particularly that of Ainhara, 
 which is said to enjoy a perpetual spring, ver eter- 
 num, Tho Portuguese found it quite as temperate 
 as that of their own country. According to Lu- 
 dolph, tho natives often attuui, in that happy cli- 
 mate, to tho ogo of 100 years and upwards ! Tho 
 climate of Tigre is not quite so mild ; but there, 
 also, the great extent of pasturage and of verdant 
 plains shows that the country is not visited by the 
 extreme of heat. The plateau of the Bahamcgosh 
 is the hottest. In March, Mr. Salt found its air 
 hot and dry, and the bods of the rivers w^ithout 
 water. The year is sometimes divided into four, 
 but more properly into three, seasons. Winter 
 (kramt) is the season of rain, which always falls 
 in great quantities, and often with much violence, 
 rendering rivers and even brooks quite impassable. 
 It begins on tho coast at the latter end of October, 
 and in the interior about the end of February, the 
 river Tacazze being swollen from April to Sep- 
 tember ; the rest of the year consisting of summer 
 (hagai) or the season of heat and drought ; and a 
 short period of harvest (tzadai.) 
 
 Races — Population. — Tho inhabitants of Abys- 
 sinia comprise a variety of tribes. They all, how- 
 ever, closely resemble each other in their physical 
 character and manners ; and, in respect of bodily 
 conformation, are entirely distinct both from tho 
 Negroes and the Arabians. They belong to what 
 has been called the Ethiopic variety of the human 
 race ; and their most prominent characteristics will 
 be found described in tho article Africa, to which 
 the reader is referred. Of the different tribes, the 
 principal are the Tigrani, or inhabitants of Tigre ; 
 the Amharans, or inhabitants of Amhara; the 
 Agows, inhabiting the province of Damot; the 
 Efats, occupying the southern banks of the Nile ; 
 the Gongas and Enareans, still further S. ; and the 
 Falashas, occupying the mountains of Samen, &e., 
 who profess Judaism, and protend, though it is be- 
 lieved on no very good grounds, to deduce their 
 origin from Palestine. These tribes are easily dis- 
 tinguished by their language; but it is not clear 
 whether their idioms be really distinct languages, 
 or, which is most probable, only dialectic varieties 
 of a much smaller number of mother-tongues, 
 (Prichard on Man, vol. il p. 136, 8rd ed.) 
 
 The Galla, or savage tribes by which large por- 
 tions of Abyssinia have been overrun, are said to 
 have made their first appearance on the southeni 
 frontier in 1637. No doubt they belonged ori- 
 ginally to the central parts of the African conti- 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 the snnds licforo 
 at lake of Dcmbtdi 
 vhich in M iiiilfs 
 fet't above the sea 
 thoE, side of the 
 .ble size, 
 iperfectly known, 
 
 8ome remarkable 
 or slate have been 
 )robable that these 
 (ortion of the prin- 
 tta are chiefly ver- 
 ^anien they incline 
 Extinct volcanoes, 
 ur, rock salt, and 
 1(1; as also Kiieiss, 
 'cr. Allusion has 
 nsive salt plain E. 
 
 iffers with the ele- 
 ction of the niouH- 
 s and low grounds 
 tly excessive ; and 
 f moisture, renders 
 late of the plateaus 
 f that of Amhara, 
 ual spring, ver etur- 
 t quite as temperate 
 According to Lu- 
 , in that happy cli- 
 and upwards I The 
 80 mild; but there, 
 rage and of verdant 
 is not visited by the 
 oftheBahamcgash 
 r. Salt found its air 
 f the rivers w^ithout 
 es divided into four, 
 >e, seasons. Winter 
 , which always falls 
 with much violence, 
 oks quite impassable, 
 ittcr end of October, 
 end of February, the 
 from April to Sep- 
 lonsisting of summer 
 and drought ; and a 
 
 nhabitants of Abys- 
 bes. They all, how- 
 her in their physical 
 in respect of bodily 
 itinct both from the 
 rhey belong to what 
 rariety of the human 
 it characteristics will 
 cle Africa, to which 
 . different tribes, the 
 nhabitants of Tigre ; 
 its of Amhara; the 
 nee of Damot; the 
 banks of the Nile; 
 . further S. ; and the 
 itains of Samen, &c., 
 tend, though it is be- 
 nds, to deduce their 
 tribes are easily dis- 
 _ ; but it is not clear 
 yr distinct languages, 
 ily dialectic varieties 
 of mother-tongues. 
 136, 8rd ed.) 
 by which large por- 
 overrun, are said to 
 mce on the southern 
 ^ they belonged ori- 
 of the African conti- 
 
 nent. They have a brown complexion, with long 
 black hair; and tlu-ir tribes are all independent 
 of, and often at war with, eacli other. Most of 
 them have adopted the Mahommedan faith, and 
 have partially conformed to the manners of the 
 AbysHinians. They are still, however, distin- 
 guished by their greater ferocity. 
 
 No means exist by which to form any probable 
 estimate of the nuniber gf people in Abyssinia. 
 Mr. Salt could obtain no accurate information on 
 the sulyect. If the country were tranquil, it could 
 hardlv fail, owing to the'fruitfulness of the soil 
 and the general healthiness of the climate, to be 
 exceedingly populous ; but the anarchy and civil 
 war in which it is constantly involved more than 
 neutralise these advantages,' and keep the popula- 
 tion far below its natural level. Its total amount 
 is estimated at 4,600,000. 
 I Lanffuage. — The Ghee/, or Ethiopic, a language 
 I akin to the Arabic and Hebrew, whs the language 
 I of Axuni, and of the subjects of the Axumite sove- 
 reign, at the era of their conversion toChristianity 
 in the 4th century. It is now extant only as a 
 dead language, consecrated to literature and reli- 
 gious uses. The Amharic, or modem Abyssinian, 
 is not a dialect of the Uheez, though it has adopted 
 from it a great number of words, but a totally dis- 
 tinct language. It is probably an ancient African 
 language, and the original idiom of the inhabi- 
 tants of tlie south-eastern provinces of Abyssinia. 
 I As regards literature and learning, the Abyssinians 
 I are at the lowest ebb. Their clergy are ignorant, 
 * and have no taste for learning. Mr. Gobat thinks 
 I that in the country where Amharic is spoken 
 ^ about l-5th part of the male population can read 
 a little, and in Tigrd about 1-1 2th part. 
 
 I'roductiong. — The country is very fertile, and 
 ' has a vast variety of products ; among which are 
 "•wheat, barley, millet, and other grain. On the 
 ; higli grounds wheat is raised in considerable quan- 
 tities ; but in the low grounds the heat is too strong 
 for it. Barley (dhourra) is raised in large quan- 
 tities ; but the principal dependence of the country 
 is on the teff' (Poa Abyssinica), which grows on 
 every soil, except the very lowest, and affords the 
 bread in general use. The plant is herbaceous. 
 ■ From a nuinlHjr of weak leaves rises a stalk about 
 •; 28 inches in length, and not much thicker than 
 "that of a carnation. Out of the top spring a 
 number of branches, which contain the seed or 
 fruit inclosed in a species of capsula. The grains 
 are not larger than the head of the small&st pin, 
 yet so numerous as to constitute on the whole a 
 bulky crop. But the lowest grounds (kolla) are 
 unfit even for the production of teff; and on these 
 is raised a species of com called tocousso, which 
 yields a black bread, the food of the lowest classes. 
 There are at least two harvests in the year ; and 
 in the same place may at once be seen in progress 
 tlie operotions of ploughing and reaping, with corrt 
 in every different stage of advancement. Among 
 the other vegetable products are cotton, of which 
 clothes are usually made ; coffee, which grows wild 
 on the western mountains; senna, myrrh, and 
 other medicinal plants. The stalk of the ensete, a 
 species of palm, the banana of Abyssinia, is said, 
 when stripped of its green covering, to be the very 
 best of all vegetable food. It is found in great 
 abundance. Various species of figs, some of them 
 of a very large size, as the Ficus sycamonts, are 
 1 also very plentiful. Citrons, oranges, and sugar- 
 i canes are met with in the low grounds, but not on 
 I the elevated plateaus. Dates and vines are met 
 with, but neither are supposed to be indigenous. 
 Both are believed to have been imported and cul- 
 tivated by the Portuguese. At present the vine 
 is grown only in the district of Emfros, on the E. 
 
 side of lake Dembca, whore it pro<lucoH magnifi- 
 cent grapes. The Ai)yssiiiians do not use wine 
 except for the communion table. Telle/, says ex- 
 pressly, that in his time the vine was unknown in 
 Abyssinia. The papyrus, so celebrated for its fur- 
 nishing the priiicipalspccics of paper used by the 
 ancients, is abundant in the lakes and rivers ; ond 
 Bruce contends that it was thence transplanted to 
 Egypt. 
 
 The domastic animals of Abyssinia do not differ 
 materially from those of Europe. The horses, 
 which are the principal wealth of the inhabitants 
 of the plateaus, are strong and active. They aro 
 used in war and the chase, mules and asses wing 
 used principally as lK>asts of draught and burden. 
 The number of mules brought from the interior 
 annually is about 1200. Oxen are verj- abundant. 
 The most remarkable species is a native of the low 
 grounds, and has homs of an enormous magnitude, 
 Mr. Salt having seen one 4 feet long, and 21 
 inches round at the base. It is called the Galla 
 ox, from its having been brought to Tigrd by the 
 Galla. Of the wild animals, the most numerous 
 and characteristic is the hyaena, called here tho 
 dubhah, exceedingly fierce and untameable. In 
 most parts of the country they arc found in vast 
 numbers, place travellers in continual danger, and 
 even enter houses. They are not naturally gre- 
 garious, yet sometimes assemble in vast troops, 
 attracted by some common object, particularly tho 
 scent of dead bodies, which, according to the bar- 
 barous custom of the country, are often lefl un- 
 buried. Bruce contradicts the common report of 
 their digging into sepulchres. The elephant and 
 rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds, and 
 in places full of moisture. They are hunted by 
 the Shangalla, who use their teeth as an article of 
 commerce, and feed upon their flesh. It is a mis- 
 take to suppose that any of them have C'^r been 
 tamed in this country, or, indeed, in any part of 
 Africa. There is a species of rhinoceros with two 
 horns, found only in a few districts. Its horns 
 have no connection with the bone ; its skin, which 
 has no folds, is used for shields; the homs for 
 handles for swords, and also as a lining to drink- 
 ing vessels. The antelope species, which is very 
 numerous, is seldom found in the cultivated dis- 
 tricts, but chiefly appears on broken ground near 
 the rivers. The buffalo, domesticated in Egypt 
 and elsewhere, is here one of the most ferocious of 
 animals; he lodges himself in deep and sultry 
 valleys, under tho shade of the tallest trees, and 
 near the largest and clearest rivers. The hippopo- 
 tamus, called qotnari by the natives, is abundant 
 in the lake o^ Dembea; but Ludolf affirms that 
 this lake contains no crocodiles. They are both, 
 however, found in the deep pools of the Nile, Ta- 
 cazze, and other rivers. The crocodiles in tho 
 latter are of an enormous size, of a greenish colour, 
 and arc more dreaded by the natives than the hip- 
 popotamus. The torpedo is found in the rivers 
 and lakes. The lion is found only occasionally. 
 There are several species of leopard. The zebra 
 is frequent in the southern provinces, where its 
 mane adorns tho collars of the war horses. To the 
 list of wild animals may be added the wolf, tho 
 lynx, the quagga, the monkey, the jackal, several 
 species of wild cat, many varieties of the antelope, 
 two kinds of hares, &c, A small animal, the jerboa, 
 about the size of a rat, burrows in the fieldis, both 
 here and in Barbary, 
 
 The feathered creation in Abyssinia bears more 
 than its usual proportion to the other species, 
 Mr, Parkyns, who lived several years in the coun- 
 try, states that he collected 300 varieties. The vast 
 profusion of insects, grains, and plants, even tho 
 waste and destrtvction attending continual wars, 
 
Id 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 ■■')*• 
 
 I, ' ' 
 
 afford them an abundant Aupply of food. Tho 
 nKscT, or ){()ldon euKle, i>crliai)!4 the larj^ust bird of 
 the old continent, and a U'luitifid Hpcrio.s culled 
 thu black uu>;le, are particularly noticed by lirucu. 
 To thcKc Salt adil.s a new siuicies called goodie- 
 goodie, the Hi/.e of the common falcon. According; 
 to Mr. I'arkynH, there are Hcveral varieticH of the 
 vulture, and alM)ut twenty-four sorts of hawks and 
 falcons. Storks, partrid^^es, snipes, pigeons, and 
 swallows, occur in f^reat numl)cr anil variety, as 
 well as plovers, (;rouse, f^inea-fowl, llorican, ^eese, 
 ducks, horn-bills, the cuckoo, parrota, woodjieckers, 
 thrushes, larks, crows, &c. The ostrich and tho 
 bustard are found to tlic north of Abyssinia and in 
 the wilder districts of the country. 
 
 Keptilea of all sorts abound in the hot districts 
 of tho Tigrc^, and of the smaller lizards there are 
 an innumerable quantity. 
 
 Among insects the most numerous and useful 
 are bees. Honey constitutes everywhere an im- 
 portant article of food. Several provinces used to 
 pay a large proportion of their tribute in this 
 article. The honey assumes different appearances, 
 sometimes black, sometimes blood-red, according 
 to the plant on which the insect feeds. Of u very 
 different character is the locust, which commits 
 here ravages quite as terrible as in the other coun- 
 tries of Northern Africa. 
 
 Government — Political Divisions. — The former 
 government of Abyssinia, or that which existed 
 in it when it became known to the Portuguese and 
 the Jesuits, was an absolute and despotic monarchy, 
 in which the emperors, restrained by no written 
 laws, popular assemblies, or privileged classes, had 
 full power to dispose at pleasure of the lives and 
 property of their subjects. But this ancient govern- 
 ment may now be said to be totally extinct. The 
 force of the central government was gradually 
 weakened, partly by the rebellion of the governors 
 of the different provinces, and partly by the ir- 
 ruption of the Gallas and other slave hordes, who 
 have subjugated some of its finest countries. Salt 
 has ingeniously compared the state of Abyssinia in 
 a political point of view to that of England during 
 the heptarchy; and since he visited it anarchy 
 seems to have made a still more rapid progress. 
 I'he whole country was, till lately, split into an 
 endless variety of states, the limits of which were 
 perpetually changing, and between which the most 
 deadly animosities and interminable contests con- 
 stantly prevailed. Within the last few years the 
 most of the territory has fallen under the sway of 
 an adventurer Theodoros, wlio is styled King of 
 Abyssinia. He was bom in Quara, a small pro- 
 vince on the western borders of Amhara, his father 
 being a poor nobleman, and his mother, after the 
 father's death, having been driven to seek a sub- 
 sistence for herself and her child by the sale of 
 kosso flowers, considered by the Abyssinians a 
 specific against tapeworm. Growing up to man- 
 hood, the young 1 heodoros attached himself to a 
 band of robbers in the malarious borders of the 
 western lowlands, and soon became famous 
 throughout Abyssinia and the Soudan, attracting 
 a gradually increasing following of discontental 
 chiefs. After a good deal of fighting, he made 
 himself master of the whole of Western Abyssinia. 
 In 1856 he conquered Tigre, then governed by a 
 chief named Oubi, which was followed shortly after 
 by tho conquest of the Wollo Galla and Shoa pro- 
 vinces, 80 that he is now really master of nearly the 
 whole country. For some years after his success he 
 manifested great partiality to Europeans, enter- 
 taining readily any project of theirs to enhance the 
 wealth of his empire and the stability of his throne; 
 find missionaries and consuls describetl him as far 
 iu advance of bis people in ideas oud aspirations. 
 
 Latterly some unfavourable changes have chorac- 
 terised his proceedings, the most prominent of 
 which has lieen the imprisonment f«r a lengtheneil 
 period of Messrs. Stem and Koscnthal, two mis- 
 sionaries, and Mr. Cameron, the British consul, at 
 his capital, for which cause is not very certainly 
 known. Ilis reign has licen signalised by great, 
 severity towards rel)cls. Mr. Stem states that, in 
 18«0, 8,000 of them, after their defeat on tho 
 western bank of the Tacazze, were with their 
 leader mercilessly butchered in cold blowl; but 
 such barbarity has not been unusual in Abyssinian 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — The almost perpctuol 
 state of civil war and confusion, and not any ])ecu- 
 liar cruelty of disposition, seems to be the main 
 cause of that barbarism and bnitality by which 
 the manners of the Abyssinians are characterised. 
 All the feelings by which man is restrained from 
 shedding the blood of his fellows seem entirely 
 blunted. Human life is scarcely more respected 
 than that of bmtes. Bruce seldom went out at 
 Gondar without seeing dead bodies lying in the 
 streets, left to be devoured by dogs and hyienas, 
 without being even allowed the rites of sepulture. 
 To show the indifference usually felt on such oc- 
 casions, he mentions that one day, passing along 
 the streets, he saw an ofllcer of rank alM)iit to exe- 
 cute three men who had offended the sovereign. 
 This person, calling to Bnice, begged him to stop 
 till he had despatched this business, as he wished 
 to have a short conversation with him. But tho 
 circumstance which seems to place the Abyssinians 
 below even the most savage tribes, is the extreme 
 coarseness of their festive indulgences. Their brinde 
 (raw beef) feast has excited the astonishment of all 
 travellers. Alvarez, who visited the country as am- 
 bassador from Portugal in 1620, and remained there 
 for six years, describes it as a thing ' of which he 
 dare not in a manner speak.' Being invited to a 
 feast, he was much surprised, insteatl of the usual 
 dishes, to see brought in ' pieces of raw flesh, with 
 warm blood.' The landlord, on seeing his guests 
 show no fovour to this savoury dish, ordered other 
 food better suited to their tastes ; but immediately 
 began eagerly to devour the flesh, ' as if it had been 
 marchpane or comfits.' The lady of the house did 
 not appear at dinner ; but, in drinking, she ' bravely 
 seconded ' the rest of the company. Bruce and Salt 
 have furnished still more particular descriptions. 
 The table, which is low, is first covered with suc- 
 cessive piles of teff cakes, serving to the guests at 
 once as food and as towels with which to wipe their 
 fingers. The company being then seated, the next 
 process is the slaughter of the cattle, which are 
 standing at the door, and the cutting warm steaks 
 from their flesh. Bruce says that these are ex- 
 tracted while the animal is yet alive, and bellow- 
 ing inider the pain of the wound. But this 
 disgusting circumstance is not mentioned by any 
 of the earlier writers, and Mr. Salt aftirms that 
 the head is separated from the body before tho 
 operation of slicing commences. Salt, however, 
 as well as Bruce, admits that the luxury of an 
 Abyssinian feast consists in having the pieces 
 brought in while the blood is yet warm and the 
 fibres palpitating. The female who sits next to 
 each chief then wraps up the slice in a teff cake, 
 and thnists into his mouth as large a quantit}'- as 
 it is capable of containing, which is greedily de- 
 voured. All parties drink copiously of hydromel, 
 and bouza, the beer of the country. Having satis- 
 fied themselves, they rise, and give place to another 
 company of inferior rank, and these to a third, till 
 all IS consumed. The gross indecencies which 
 Bruce represents as perpetrated on these occasions, 
 and which he has described with such revolting 
 
ABYSSINIA 
 
 II 
 
 iges have clinrac- 
 oHt prominent of 
 It for II lpn>;th»'nc(l 
 xcnthnl, two mis- 
 Uritish consul, ut 
 lot very certainly 
 (jnalised by great 
 >m states that, in 
 )ir defeat on the 
 were with their 
 I cold blood; but 
 iual in Abyssinian 
 
 almost perpetual 
 and not any jk'cu- 
 is to be the main 
 rutality by which 
 are characterised, 
 is restrained from 
 (W8 seem entirely 
 ly more respected 
 Idom went out at 
 •dies lyin^ in the 
 dofjs and hyivnas, 
 rites of sepulture, 
 y felt on such oc- 
 lay, passing along 
 rank about to exe- 
 led the sovereifpi. 
 Bgf^ed him to stop 
 iiiess, as he wished 
 ith him. liiit tlio 
 ce the Abyssinians 
 bes, is the extreme 
 ;ncea. Their hrinde 
 iLstonishmcnt of all 
 the country as am- 
 Bnd remained there 
 liiufj ' of which he 
 Ik'inf; invited to a 
 istcml of the usual 
 [ of raw flesh, with 
 I seeinf? his guests 
 dish, ordered otlier 
 ; but immediately 
 I, 'as if it had been 
 ly of the house did 
 ilcing, she 'bravely 
 y. Bruce and Salt 
 cular descriptions, 
 covered witli suc- 
 ig to the guests at 
 f hich to wipe their 
 m seated, the next 
 cattle, which are 
 ttiiigwarm steaks 
 hat these are ex- 
 alive, and bellow- 
 round. But this 
 mentioned by any 
 Salt affirms that 
 3 body before the 
 s. Salt, however, 
 the luxury of an 
 laving the pieces 
 yet warm and the 
 who sits next to 
 ice in a teff cake, 
 arge a quantitj' as 
 ch is greedily de- 
 usly of hydromel, 
 y. Having satis- 
 ve place to another 
 lese to a third, till 
 ndecencies which 
 m these occasions, 
 th such revolting 
 
 ininutoncflR, have been denied by Mr. Salt, and it 
 is hardly |M)Hsiblo to siipjsise that they can be otlier 
 than rare orcurreiues. Mr. (loliat, the missionary, 
 admits tliat a feast sucli as tliat described by 
 Bruce may have taken place among the most 
 jf shameless lilttrtinus ; Init hu adds, that 'excesses 
 
 iof tliat kind arc not customary either as to their 
 cruelty or iiideceiicy.' The practice reiHirted bv 
 Bruce, and which subjected him to no little ridl- 
 H'^'^ cule, of cutting steaks from a living animal on a 
 si jonmey, and then closing up the wound and driving 
 •'^I'l it (III, ap|)eai'ed at tbrst quite unfounded to Mr. Salt; 
 ■' but ill bis second iouniey he witnessed it, and found 
 that it was callca by a jxiculiar name — cutting the 
 Shulada ; which certainly goes a good way to prove 
 its frequency, though that also is disputed by Mr. 
 Goliat, who denies its occurrence, unless perhaps in 
 cases of extreme hunger. Mr. I'arkyns, a later 
 ' traveller, corroborates the testimony of Mr. Salt, 
 having heard of, though he had not himself wit- 
 nessed, an occurrence of the kind. He believes in 
 •,. the accuracy of Hnice's observations at the time, 
 although apparently a change for the better had 
 f'ft taken place. 
 
 J' Justice in Abyssinia is altogether barbarous, 
 v'l venal, and corrujit. When a person accused of a 
 % criminal offence is found guilty, he is detained in 
 ■'1 prison till hu has made satisfaction to the accuser; 
 " ,1»t)r, if he have committed murder, till he be dis- 
 ,,, jKtsed of by the relations of the deceased, who may 
 % citiier put him to death or accept a ransom. The 
 latter is generally fixed at 250 dollars for a man, 
 but the relations are under no obligation to accept 
 it. To csca|)c the avenger of blood, however, the 
 inurderer may retire to another province, as to a 
 city of refuge, and he cannot be followed. When 
 • murdered person has no relations, the priests take 
 ttpon themselves the office of avengers of blood. 
 Th,e king in person constitutes the final court of 
 K)[)eal, and is very assiduous in performing the 
 jduty of judge. Theft and murder and other aggra- 
 vated ofiences have been a good deal suppressed. 
 > It- Marriage in Abyssinia is a very slight connec- 
 on, formed and dissolved at pleasure. The most 
 irmal mode of concluding it is, when the lover, 
 ving made certain engagements to the parents, 
 <l obtained their consent (for that of the bride is 
 ildom asked), seizes her and carries her home on 
 shoulders. A magnificent feast is then given 
 brindc and bouza; and at a fixed period of 
 enty or thirty days aftcnvards, they go to 
 church and take the sacrament together. It is in 
 a few rare instances only that even this slight 
 .ceremony is used. In most cases, mutual consent, 
 ?»nd a plentiful adminis'^ration of raw meat and 
 ; bouza, form the only preliminaries. The will of 
 J ;eitlier party, or of both, is at any time sufficient to 
 dissolve the connection. If they have several 
 ^XJhildren, they divide them ; if they have but one, 
 j|Bnd he is under seven years of age, he belongs to 
 c mother ; if above seven, to the father. Gobat 
 ■'3S^y^ t''8t after a third divorce they cannot contract 
 nother regular marriage, nor partake of the com- 
 lunion unless they become monks; Bruce, ho,vever, 
 entions being in a company at Gondar, where 
 here was a lady present, with six persons, each of 
 rhoin had been successively her husband, although 
 one of them stood in this relation to her at the 
 ;ime: nor do either party consider themselves 
 und to obser\'e with rigid fidelity this slight cn- 
 ;agcment, even while it lasts. Manners may be 
 nsidered, in this respect, as in a state of almost 
 tal dissolution. Slaves are common in all parts 
 Abyssinia. They consist of Shangallas, a race 
 f savage negroes inhabiting the low countries on 
 "e NNW. and NE. frontiers. They are very 
 umerous in Gondar and other places of Amhara, 
 
 and also in Tigrt!; are well treatcil, and C8ca|io 
 many of the privations to which they are subject 
 in their wild state. 
 
 The only display of arrhitcctnral mngnifioonco 
 in Abyssinia is in the churches. They arc built on 
 eminences ; are of a circular form, with conical 
 summits and thatched roof's ; and are surrounded 
 with pillars of cedar, within which is an arcaik, 
 which produces an agreeable coolness. The houses 
 of the sovereigns and grandees are also largo and 
 commodious ; though, in this warlike country, the 
 camp is considered as their more (iroiier residence. 
 All the houses arc mere hovels of a conical form, 
 with a thatched roof, and containing little or no 
 fumitiu'e. The dress, both of men and women, 
 consbts chiefly of a piece of cotton cloth, 21 cubifji 
 long b^ 1^ in breadth, which they wTap niund 
 them like a mantle, with close drawers reaching to 
 the middle of the thigh, and a girdle of cloth. 
 Needlework and washing, according to Mr. Stern, 
 are performed not by the women but bv the men. 
 Their food consists of the different species of grain 
 already enumerated, fish, fruits, honey, and raw 
 meat at festivals. The most general drink is bou- 
 za, a species of sour beer, made from the fermen- 
 tation of their cakes, particularly those left at 
 entertainments. Tocousso, the coarsest grain, pro- 
 duces bouza c(iual or superior to any of the others. 
 Hydromel is also made in great quantities. Agri- 
 culture, the only art much cultivated, is very far 
 behind the perfection which it has attained even 
 in the most backward parts of Europe. The 
 ploughs, of the rudest construction, from the root 
 or branch of a tree, are drawn by oxen. The land 
 is twice ploughed, but with the utmost indifference 
 as to the straightness of the furrows ; after which 
 women are emjiloyed to break the clods. In the 
 course of ripening, the corn is carefully weeded. 
 As previously stated, there are two or three crops 
 in the year. The worst grain is commonly used 
 for seed. In general, every family cultivates for 
 itself, and little is brought to market. The poor 
 people live miserably on black teff and tocousso, 
 and even persons of consideration use little except 
 teff and bouza. 
 
 The Abyssinians profess Christianity, but it has 
 little influence over their conduct. At present 
 they are split into three parties, violently opposed 
 to each other. They retain a great number of 
 Judaical obser>'ances, abstaining from the meats 
 prohibited by the Mosaic law, practising circum- 
 cision, keeping both the Saturday and Sunday as 
 Sabbaths, and regarding fasts as essential. But their 
 fasts, though apparently long and rigorous, are 
 dispensed with on payment of a sum of money, 
 according to the rank and wealth of the party. 
 The Coptic patriarch of Cairo continues still to be 
 the nominal head of the church, from whom the 
 Abuna, the resident head, receives his investiture. 
 They have monasteries, both of monks and nuns, 
 who are far, however, from professing that rigid 
 austerity which is the boast of the Bomish church. 
 Their veneration for the Virgin is unbounded ; and 
 the Catholic missionaries found that they com- 
 pletely outdid, in this respect, their own ultra 
 zeal. Their saints are extremely numerous, and 
 surpass, in miraculous pow^er, even those of the 
 Romish calend^. They represent them by paint- 
 ings, with which their churches are lavishly 
 adorned; but they do not admit any figures in 
 relievo. The clergy do not attempt to prohibit 
 divorce, or even polygamy, the propensity to 
 which in the nation is probably too powerful to 
 render any prohibition effectual." 
 
 Mohammedans, as well as Jews, are also found 
 in Abyssinia. The fonner appear to have in- 
 creased since Brace's visit; at present they arc 
 
12 
 
 ABYSSINIA 
 
 in " 
 
 /'ilill 
 
 ," I 
 
 If 
 
 i'H 
 
 |ti 
 
 l^ 
 
 
 lii 
 
 most rmmorous in Atlownh ond its ^•ic^nity, Few 
 of thviii have uiiy kiiowlc«lgo of the Kuriin. They 
 61)^11^0 more in tralilc than the ChriMtiunN, and 
 have more money. They ore said to (^nRTOHH the 
 'wliole trndic in Hlavim; the ChristtianH, uccording 
 to Mr. Gobat, never taking nny part in it. The 
 Jews claim to bo deticcndcd from immigrants into 
 AbysHiuio, who rctnnicd witli the Queen of Shebn 
 after her viMt to Solomon. In moralft they are 
 much Kupcrior to their neiKlilMurs, both Christians 
 nnd Mohammedans, but arc unm>cial and ascetic. 
 Husbandry and a few nimplo trades arc their solo 
 occupations. 
 
 Thou^li low, as compared with Europe, the 
 manufactures of Abyssinia occupy a prominent 
 place amon^ most of the African nations. It sui>- 
 ]>lies itself with all the most indispensable articles. 
 Cotton cloths, the universal dress of the country, 
 nrc made in large quantities, the fine sort at 
 Gondar, and the coarse at Adowa. IJeinf? unable 
 to dye their favourite dark blue colour, they un- 
 ravel the blue Surat cloths, and weave them again 
 into their own webs. Coarse cloth circulates as 
 money. Manufactures of iron and brass are also 
 considerable, the material being procured from 
 Sennaar, Walcayt, and Uerbcra ; knives ore made 
 at Adowa and spears at Antalow. The business 
 of tanning is well understood in Tigrd; and at 
 Axum sheepskins are made into parchment. 
 Saddles, and all ports of horse furniture, are good. 
 The foreign commerce of Aln-ssinia is carried on 
 entirely by way of Massuan, whence the com- 
 munication with the interior is maintained by the 
 channel of Adowa. The imports are chiefly lead, 
 block tin, gold foil, Persian carpets, raw silk from 
 China, velvets, French broad cloths, coloured skins 
 from Egypt, glass beods and decanters from Venice. 
 The exports consist of gold, ivory, ond slaves. The 
 slaves are reckoned more beautiful than those 
 which come from the interior of Africa. 
 
 Progress of Discovert/. — The ancients never ac- 
 tiuired any accurate knowledge of Abyssinia. To 
 it, along with Sennaar, they, in a peculiar sense, 
 applied the comprehensive name of Ethiopia ; for 
 though that term was made to extend generally 
 to the interior of Africa, and even to a great part 
 of Asia, yet Ethiopia sub jEqypto was reganled 
 as the proper Ethiopia. Descriptions of Etiiiopian 
 nations are given by the ancients at considerable 
 length ; but they serve chiefly to show the im- 
 perfection of their knowledge, and are tinctured 
 with a lar^^e admixture of fable. Kennell sup- 
 poses, seemingly on good grounds, that the Ma- 
 crobian, or long-lived Ethiopians, said to live 
 farther to the south than the others, belong to 
 Abyssinia. The ancients had no distinct know- 
 ledge of more than two Ethiopian kingdoms : the 
 first and only one known to the earliest writers 
 is Meroe, or the Peninsula, which they erroneously 
 supposed to be an island formed by the successive 
 union of the Nile with the Astaboras and the 
 Astapus (Blue River and Tacazze). The chief 
 city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, in 
 lat. 16** 26' ; and Bruce, in passing through Sen- 
 naar, saw, near Chendi, immense ruins, which 
 probably belonged to this celebrated capital of 
 Ethiopia. The other kingdom became known 
 after the Greeks, under the successors of Alex- 
 ander, extended their na\ngation along the eastern 
 coast of Africa It was that of the Axumito;, 
 situated upon the Red Sea, and occupying part of 
 Tigrd. Ita capital, Axura, still remains, and 
 though in a state of decay, exhibits remains so 
 vast as amply to attest its former greatness. 
 The inscriptions discovered here by Salt show 
 that the Axumites had received amongst them 
 the religion and the arts of foreigners, and that 
 
 they made urn of the Grecian language in tho 
 inscriptions on their inuniiinuiits. The nort of 
 Axum, Adulis, was the channel by which the 
 tinest ivory then known was exported, and a 
 commercial intercourse maintained with the coasts 
 both of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Salt, 
 though unable to visit it, seems to havu ascer- 
 tained its situation near Massouah. 
 
 Prior to the niiildle of the fourth century, Abys- 
 sinia was converted to Christianity, which it has 
 over since nominally professed. 
 
 After the rise antl rapid spread of Islamism, 
 those of the Egyptians who Avcre reluctant to 
 change their faith being compt^lled to Hy south- 
 wanls before the sword of the Saracens, Nubiii 
 and Abyssinia became filled with Jewish aiul 
 Christian refugees. And as both these countries 
 were at that time ('hristian, the Arabian geo- 
 graphers, who have fully dcscrilwd other parts of 
 the continent, make a very slight mention of 
 them ; so that Abyssinia remained almost un- 
 known till near the asra of modem naval dis- 
 covery. In 1446, the emperor of Abyssinia sent 
 an ambassador to the senate of Florence, and 
 wrote a famous letter to the priests his subjects at 
 Jerusalem. This, and the favourable reports of 
 the Abyssinian priests now referred to, gave rise 
 to the most exaggerated reports. It was said that 
 a Christian prince, to whom the Portuguese gave 
 the fantastical name of Prvster or Presbyter John, 
 ruled over a vast, highly civilised, and rich em- 
 pire, ill the centre and I<I. of Africa. This state- 
 ment inilamed at once the spirit of discovery and 
 of religious zeal, the two ruling principles in that 
 age. The Portuguese monarchs, who took the 
 lead in exploring the eostem world, immediately 
 devised measures for acquiring a knowledge of so 
 remarkable a region. The passage to India by 
 the Cape of Good Hope had not yet been dis- 
 covered; Al)yssinia was therefore viewed as a 
 tract through which the commerce of India might 
 bo conducted. Two envoys, Covilham and Do 
 Paiva, were therefore sent, under the direction of 
 Prince Henry, upon a mission to explore it. They 
 went by way of Alexandria, and descended the 
 Red Sea. Do Paiva perished by some unknown 
 accident; but Covilham, after visiting diflerent 
 parts of India and Eastern Africa, entered Abys- 
 sinia, and arrived, in 1490, at the court of the 
 emperor, residing then in Shoa. Being brought 
 before the sovereign, he was received with that 
 favour which novelty, when there is nothing to 
 be feared from it, usually secures; and being a 
 man of address and ability, he contrived to main- 
 tain this friendly disposition. The reports which 
 he transmitted of the country were favourable; 
 and having prevailed on the empress-mother to 
 send an Armenian as an ambassador to Portugal, 
 whose arrival excited a great sensation in that 
 country, the Portuguese sent out several other 
 embassies. Of these the most remarkable is that 
 described by Alvarez, in 1520. He remained six 
 years in the country, ond traversed it from north 
 to south, visiting the provinces of Amharo, Shon, 
 ond Efat Paez, Almeyda, Lobo, and several 
 others successively undertook journeys into Abys- 
 sinia. Paez, who resided in the country from 
 1G03 till his death in 1622, visited, in 1618, the 
 sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek or eastern arm of the 
 Nile, and describes them nearly iu the same terms 
 08 Bruce, who absurdly f^lni n is . lie honour of beiiif,' 
 their discoverer. From i',' accounts of these oml 
 other missions, Tellez first (1660), and afterwards 
 Ludolph (1681), principally compiled their his- 
 tories and descriptions of Ethiopia. Ludolph, 
 who was well versed in the language, derived a 
 considerable port of his information from the com- 
 
 I 
 s 
 
1nnK*iiRC in tlio 
 tM. Tim iM>rt of 
 I'l by wliiili tlio 
 ('xpiirt(')l, and ii 
 Nlwitli the ctm!*tft 
 inn Ocean, Halt, 
 iR to have awJcr- 
 ih. 
 
 til century, Abyi*- 
 lity, which it has 
 
 'end of iHlamimn, 
 ^ero rehictant to 
 !lli'<l to rty Houth- 
 SaracciiH, Nubiii 
 with Jcwixh and 
 th these countricH 
 tlio Arabian K«<>- 
 ImiiI otlicr parts of 
 (liKht mention of 
 allied almost iin- 
 lodcm naval dis- 
 of Abyssinia sent 
 of Florence, and 
 ests his subjects at 
 ourablo reports of 
 erred to, gave rise 
 9. It was said that 
 Portuguese gave 
 or Presbyter John, 
 ised, and rich em- 
 >frica. This state- 
 it of discovery and 
 J principles in that 
 ;h», who took tho 
 world, immediately 
 a knowledge of so 
 issage to India by 
 not yet been dis- 
 'cfore viewed as a 
 crco of India might 
 Covilham and Do 
 tier tho direction of 
 to explore it. They 
 and descended the 
 by some unknown 
 T visiting different 
 frica, entered Abys- 
 it tho court of the 
 oa. Being brought 
 received with that 
 there is nothing to 
 cures; and being a 
 contrived to main- 
 Tho reports which 
 y were favourable; 
 empress-mother to 
 assador to Portugal, 
 t sensation in that 
 out several other 
 t remarkable is that 
 Ho remained six 
 ersed it from north 
 08 of Amhara, Shoa, 
 Lobe, and several 
 journeys into Aby.<- 
 i the country from 
 visited, in 1618, the 
 ttr eastern arm of the 
 ly iu the same terms 
 s . lie honour of beinj,' 
 ccounts of these and 
 560), and afterwards 
 compiled their his- 
 Ethiopio. Ludolph, 
 language, derived a 
 nation from the com- 
 
 ACAPULCO 
 
 miinlpations of Gregory, an Aliysiinian monk of 
 till' |>r<>vincu of Amiiara, then in Kiirope. 
 
 I'lililic ciirioxity, however, with rcHpect to Abys- 
 
 siiiiu gradually mili»ided, till towarils the close of 
 
 m last century (i7!»0), it was revived by tho publi- 
 
 ,| cation of Mr. IJnice's Travels. Many of the cir- 
 
 m c'lniHtaiicis he relates are so very extraordinary 
 
 III as to give to his descriptions a gooil deal of the 
 
 M a|.p(aranco of romance. The outhenticity of his 
 
 ■M work was in coiisi-cjuenco vcrj* gcneralKr doubted; 
 
 '.^ and it must bo admitted that some of his statc- 
 
 '■"'■' nu'iits have been shown to bo unfounded, and that 
 
 otliirs arc of very oiiostioiiablo authoritj^. Hut 
 
 the accuracy of the leading features of his work 
 
 has been fully established by Mr. Salt and other 
 
 late travellers. 
 
 Further information as to Abyssinia will bo 
 found ill the Modern Universal History, vol. xv.; 
 ;the Travels of IJruce, Salt, and Lord Valentia; Mr. 
 ^Goliat's Journal ; the account of Abyssinia in Hit- 
 ter's (.ieography ; Prichord's Researches on Man; 
 J'arkyn's Life in Abyssiiiio ; and Stern's Wander- 
 ings among the Falashas in Abyssinia. 
 !i ACAPULCO, a celebrated sea-port and town of 
 ^; Mexico, in the intendency of that name, on tho 
 f4?c(>nst of the Pacilic Ocean, 190 m. S8W. Mexico, 
 flat. 16° 60' '29" N., long. 990 46' W. Estimated 
 Ij-^jiop. 3,000. The harbour is one of the finest in 
 Vthc world. 'It is familiar,' savs Captain Hall, 
 • :** to the memory of most people, from its being tho 
 ' port whence tlio rich Spanish galleons of former 
 days took their departure to spread tho wealth of 
 the Western over the Eastern world. It is cele- 
 brated, also, in Anson's delightful Voyage, and 
 occupies a conspicuous place m the very interest- 
 ing accounts of the Buccaneers : to a sailor, there- 
 fore, it is classic ground in every sense. I cannot 
 express tho universal professional admiration ex- 
 citiMl by a sight of this celebrated {lort, which is, 
 moreover, the very beau-id'al of a harliour. It is 
 ,ea»y of access ; very capacious ; tho water not too 
 deep ; the holding ground good ; quite free from 
 liiditon dangers; and as secure as tho basin in tho 
 centre of Portsmouth dock-yard. From tho inte- 
 rior of the harbour the sea cannot bo discovered ; 
 lind a stranger, coming to the spot by land, would 
 jmiigine ho was looking over a sequestered moun- 
 tain-lake' (South America, ii. p. 172.) There are 
 two entrances to this splendid basin, ono on each 
 side of ^hc small island of Koqiicta or Urifo, tho 
 broadest being nearly 1^ m. across, and the other 
 from 700 to 800 feet. The town, commanded by tho 
 ♦ extensive and formidable ' (Hall) castle of San 
 Carlos, is poor and mean. Since it ceased to bo 
 .the resort of tho galleons, it has ceased to bo of 
 /.any considerable importance; and, when visited 
 .;,' by Captain Hall, had only thirty houses, with a 
 ; largo suburb of huts built of reeds, wattled in 
 .'•jopcn basket-work to give admission to tho air. 
 .'d The climate is exceedingly hot and pestilential. 
 '^.To give a freer circulation to the air, an artificial 
 'Js cut was made through the chain of rocks by which 
 "-■ the town is surrounded. But, though this has 
 been of considerable ser\'ice it still continues to 
 be very unhealthy. Its natural insalubrity is in- 
 creased b}' the poisonous vapours exhaled from a 
 marsh situated to tho E. of the town. Tho annual 
 desiccation of the stagnant water of this marsh 
 occasions tho death of innumerable small fishes ; 
 which, decaying in heaps under a tropical sun, 
 diffuse their noxious emanations through tho 
 p^eighbouring air, and are justly considered a prin- 
 >i.'ipal cause of the putrid bilious fevers that then 
 
 Erevail along tho coast. Some trade is carried on 
 etween Acapulco andGuayquil, Callao, &c. ; but, 
 owing to tho extreme tediousness and difficulty of 
 the voyage from Acapulco to Callao, the inter- 
 
 ACIIMUNEIN 
 
 13 
 
 course lietwccn Mexico and Peru is confined 
 within very narrow bounds. 
 
 ACI'lUEN'/A (an. Acherontia), a small and 
 very ancient arehiepisconal city of Southern Italy, 
 prov.Potcnza; 14 m. NE. Potenza. Pop. il.O.Oij iii 
 1862. It is situated, according to tho descriiilion 
 of Horace (Od. lib. iii. car. 4, 1. 14), on an almost 
 inaccessible hill, Aidiia ceUit Acberimtia;, tho foot 
 of which is washed by tho lirandano. It has a 
 castle, a cathedral, two convents, a grammar 
 scluKil, and an lios])ital. Tho archbishop resides 
 at Mutcra. This town was looked uimiii l>y tho 
 Komans as ono of tho bulwarks of Apuliu and 
 Lucania. 
 
 ACEKXO, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Sa- 
 lenio; 16 m. N. by E. Salerno. Pop. 3,715 in 
 1862. Tho town has a cathedral, a parish church, 
 a mont de piiitc, which makes advances of seed to 
 indigent cultivators, a fabric of paper, and a 
 forge. 
 
 ACEURA, a town of Southern Italv, prov. Ca- 
 scrta; 9 m. NE. Naples. Pop. 11,274 in 18(52. It 
 has a cathedral, a seminary, and a mont de pieti'f. 
 The country is fruitful, but unhealthy. This is a 
 very ancient town. In the second Punic war it 
 was destroyed by Hannibal, the inhabitants 
 having deserted it on his approach. (Liv. lib. xxiii. 
 8. 17.) Under Augustus it received a Komaii 
 colony. 
 
 ACJIIEEN, a princi|)ality occupying tho NW. 
 extremity of tho island of Sumatra (which see). 
 
 AcHKKN, the capital of the above principality, 
 situated near tho NW. extremity of Sumatra, on 
 a river about 3 m. from the sea, lat. 5^ 35" N., 
 long. 95° 45" E. It is very populous, being saiil 
 to contain 8,000 houses built of bamboo and rough 
 timber, and raised on posts, to secure them from 
 inundations. A good deal of trade is carried on 
 with Singajwre, Batavia, Bengal, &c. Owing to 
 a bar at the mouth of tlio river, none but small 
 vessels pass up to the city. The entrance for three 
 months of the year is dangerous, but the harbour 
 is secure. 
 
 ACHERN, a town of the G. D. Baden, on tho 
 Achem, 14 miles NE. Kehl, on the railway from 
 Kehl to Carlsnihc. Pop. 2,57f> in 1861. Within 
 a short distance of Achem is ' t > village of Sass- 
 bach, contiguous to which is a g. lito monument, 
 erected at the expense of the French government 
 in 1829, on tho spot where the Marshal de Tii- 
 renno, one of tho greatest generals of modem 
 times, was killed by a random sliot on tlie 27tli 
 July, 1675. Ho was interred in the chapel of St. 
 Nicholas at Achem. 
 
 ACHIL, or EAGLE ISLAND, an island on tho 
 W. coast of Ireland, co. Mayo, separated from tho 
 main land by a narrow channel. It is about 30 
 miles in circumference, and contains above 23,000 
 acres. Pop. 6,776 in 1861. It is mountainous; 
 and eagles — whence its name — breed in its inac- 
 cessible fastnesses. The inhabitants speak the 
 Irish language, and arc in an extremely depressed, 
 miserable condition. 
 
 ACHMIN, or ECHMIN, a town of Upper 
 Egypt, on tho right bank of the Nile, 230 m. 
 S. Cairo. Estimated pop. 3,000. Streets well 
 disposed, broad, and straifjht, which is very un- 
 usual in Egypt ; so that this would be a hamlsome 
 town, were the houses biult of better materials 
 than baked bricks cemented with clay. It was 
 anciently called Panopolis, or Chemnis ; the former 
 being the Greek, tho latter the Egyptian name. 
 It contains a church of some antiquity, and held 
 in much veneration ; but its chief ornament is the 
 granite pillars taken fnim the ruins of Panojiolis. 
 
 ACHMUNEIN, a larjje village of central Egj'pt, 
 prov. Minyeh, on the site of the an. UermopoHs 
 
14 
 
 ACIIONRY 
 
 f i 
 if|ili 
 
 V 
 
 'I 
 
 ; I 
 
 4 . I 
 
 !i!i 
 
 Miufna, Int. 270 W N., lon^. n(P fi.T F. In the on- 
 viroiiM In tin* |Mirtif() nC nn ancient tompio, rovrrod 
 with hion)Klv|)hii;i«, and roKanlcil nn una ol'tho tlnoiit 
 rcnwiinM of Kf^vptian architecture. 
 
 ACIION ItV, n imrinh of Irelnml, en. Sli^o, which 
 l^ivert nnmn to a iMNhupric, now united to Killahi. 
 IG m. VV. Sli^o. Pop. i)f pariMh, 14,6(t4 ii. I«(ll. 
 
 ACI-UKALE, a M>a-|)ort town of Sicily, prov. 
 Cntnnia, cap. cant, at the fmit of Mount Atnn, 
 » m. NK. Cntnnitt. I'op. 2»,8!11 in IHt)2. The 
 town Htundft nn a vnNt tnnM oflmwiltin lnvn,alH>ut 
 8(K) feet alM)vo itH port, tho Marina of Act, and is 
 i)up|>ortc<l on archeH conNtnicted with fpvnt lal)our 
 and expenHc through ten altcmntn xtrnta of lavn 
 and earth. Tho Rituation iit healthy; tho town i.s 
 K'K'iliu'ly built, clean, with many churches, con- 
 ventH, and public liuildinKH, tho whole ^ivin^ evi- 
 dence of a thriviuff and indiistriouH population. A 
 connidcroblo trade is carried on, particularly during 
 th(t fair ii! July, in wino, fniit, {^oVX tilif^ree work, 
 cotton, Hnx, aiid diaper, the last l)cinf; bleacheil 
 in >^reat quantities in the plain below the town on 
 the banks of the Aequo (irando. The port is small ; 
 the mole is forme(l out of a mass of lava, anil 
 tlicro aro some good warchnusos. The town is 
 celebrated for its cold, sulphurous mineral waters, 
 tho cave of Polyphemus, and protto of Galatea. 
 There are six other places bearinR the some naino. 
 During the 8cr^•ile war Aci-Ucnlc wos the heod- 
 quarters of tho consul Aquilius, who succeeded in 
 8uppn;ssin(7 that danji^erous revolt, anno 101 n. c. 
 
 ACONIJAGUA, a province of Chili (which see). 
 This also is tho namo of tho cap. of tho same 
 prov,, a town containinfi^ about fi,()00 inhab,, and 
 also of a mountain and river, the former one of tho 
 loftiest of the Andes, being 28,910 feet alwve the 
 sea. The river rises on the S. side of the mountain, 
 and tlows into the sen 12 miles from Valparaiso. 
 
 ACQUAPENDKNTE, a small town of Central 
 Italy, 15 m. W. Orviclo. Pop. 2,605 in 18G2. 
 It has a cathedral and 5 churches. 
 
 ACQUA-VI VA, a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Ban, 18 m. S. Ban. Pop. 7,843 in 1862. It is 
 Burroimded by walls, has a handsome parish 
 church, some convents, 2 hospitals, and a mont de 
 pieti. 
 
 ACQUI, or AQUI, a town of Northern Italy, 
 cap. prov. same namo on tho left bank of tho Bor- 
 mida; 47 m. ESE. Turin. Pop. 9,944 in 1862. It 
 has a citadel, a cathedral, 2 churches, and a semi- 
 nary ; and is celebrated for its warm sulphurous 
 baths. The inhabitants arc principally employed 
 in the silk manufacture. 
 
 ACKA, a small district on the Gold Coast of 
 Africa, belonging to tho Ashantees, nearly under 
 the meridian of Greenwich. The English, Dutch, 
 and Danes have forts at Acra. 
 
 ACRE, AKKA, or ST. J RAN D'ACRE,a town 
 of Syria, cap. pochalic of same name on the coast 
 of tfie Mediterranean, Int. 32° 64' 35" N., long. 
 36° ()' 6" E., 33 m. SSVV. Tsour (nn. Tyrm), nnd 
 85 m. W. Lake Tabaria or Genesnreth. It is 
 situated on a promontory, forming the NE. limit 
 of a fine semicircular bay (the Buy of Acre) open- 
 ing to the N., bounded N\V. by Cnpe Carmel, at 
 the extremity of the mountain of that name. The 
 hnrl)our of Acre, on the S. side of the tow^n, within 
 the bny is shallow, and accessible only to vessels 
 drawing little water; but opposite to Caipha, a 
 small town at the foot of Mount Carmel, on the 
 W. side of the bay, there is good anchorage ground 
 in deep water. Few towns aro more advan- 
 tageously situated ns a centre of commerce or seat 
 of political power; but these advantages, by 
 making its possession of importance, have ser^•cd 
 to expose it over and over again to hostile attacks. 
 The climate is unnenlthy; the winter rains, de- 
 
 ACTIE 
 
 sconding in torrents fmm tho mountains, fill the 
 adjacent plain with stagnant lakes, from which, 
 and tho dccom|Nmitlon of vegetable reinainN, con- 
 stant malaria is produced, fonning a striking con- 
 trast to the healthy atniosphcnMif tlio ncigjibouriiig 
 mountain lund. Cotton nn<l com are the chief 
 products of the plain of Acre, and thcM) fonn its 
 staple exports. 
 
 Previously to 1832 tho population of Acre wad 
 loosely estimated at from 15,000 to 20,000 : but 
 tho siege of that ycnr hnving ended in its nimost 
 totnl destniction,*it is impossil)la to stnte exactly 
 the numU'r of its prewnt inhabitants, tliough 9,000 
 is probnbly nlNMit thu mark. The snme cnuso 
 o|)erntes to mnko an account of tho plnce his- 
 torical, rather than descriptive of its existing 
 stnte. Even lieforo the |H>riod nlluded to, a few 
 broken columns of granite, nnd other dilapidated 
 and neglecte<l relics, were the only remains of 
 antiquity; but of the Gothio age tlien; were, nt 
 this epoch, tho cnthcdrnl churches of St. Andrew 
 and St. John. Tho mos«iue of Dje/.zar Pacha was 
 a fine qiiadrangtilar building, ])aved witii whito 
 marlde, and surmounted by a cupola supported <m 
 pillars brought from the ndns of Ciesarea. Thn 
 same governor also constnieted a large fountain, of 
 incalculable advantage to the town. The baxanrs 
 were numerous and good, l>eing arched over, and 
 well supplied with commodities. Houses built of 
 stone, nnd flnt-roofed, the terrnccs on their tops 
 forming agreeable promenndes; tho more useful, 
 ns tho streets were extremely nnrrow. At ])res«!nt, 
 however. Acre is, or at all events within a year or 
 two was, little better than a mass of niins; of nil 
 its buildings, public or privnto, tho fountain of 
 Djezzar was the only one that escaped uninjured 
 from tho effects of the siege by the Egj'ptians in 
 1832. 
 
 Although the modem town be of compnrntively 
 recent dnte, its site hns been occupie^l by buildings 
 from the remotest nntiquity. Here stood n Hebrew, 
 or perhaps a Phoenician city, called Accho. Being 
 improved and enlarged by "the Greek sovereigns of 
 Egypt, they gave it tho name of Ptolemais ; and 
 it was justly regarded by them and their Bomaii 
 successors as a port of great importance. Syria 
 was one of the first conquests of the Mohammedans 
 {see Arabia), into whose hands Ptolemais fell, 
 A. D. 638. It then received tho name of Akkn, 
 which continues to be its Saracenic appellation. 
 In 1104 it was captured by the first crusaders, and 
 formed for eighty years part of tho kingdom of 
 Jemsalom, when it was taken by the famous 
 sultan Salodin. About four years afterwards 
 Kichanl Cceur do Lion and Philip Augustus ap- 
 peared before its walls, and after a siege of twenty- 
 two months it surremiered to their arms in 1191. 
 It subsequently remained in tho possession of tho 
 Christians exactly a century ; and under the go- 
 vemment of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John 
 attainc<l considerable importance ond prosperity. 
 It derived from the magnificent cathedral erected 
 by these soldier monks to their patron saint its 
 common western name of St, Jean (TAcre. In 
 1291, however, the knights were driven from SjTin, 
 and Acre was the spot on which their last despe- 
 rate but useless struggle took plnce. From 1291 
 till 1517, it formed part of the Coliphate, when it 
 passed, with the Inst pnltry wrecks of that once 
 mighty power, into the hands of the Turks. Neg- 
 lected by the govemment, and exposed to the 
 depredations of every wandering tribe, it con- 
 tinued to decay, till, in the beginning of the 17th 
 century, it was seized by Fak'r-el-din, the cele- 
 brated emir of the Dnises, under whose wise and 
 energetic govemment it began to show symptoms 
 of rctiurning prosperity ; but in the latter pnrt of 
 
 |cr 
 
moiintnins fill the 
 InkcM, friim which, 
 tnl)l« n>rnaiiiN, ron- 
 liiiK n Htrikin^ <Min- 
 <)t'thi<Mi'i){hlHiiiriii(; 
 com iiro tht! vhU't 
 and tlii'Mi funn its 
 
 ilntion of Arre won 
 100 to 20,000: Imt 
 ^ndcd in itN nlmoxt 
 ilo to state exnctiv 
 itantx, thdiif^li !),00b 
 Till) tmmo cuiiNo 
 ; of the pliipn hin- 
 :o of its existing; 
 1 nlhidcd to, a fuw 
 il other diliipidntcd 
 e only reniidns of 
 nm\ tfioH! were, nt 
 •hes of Ht. Andn!W 
 Djozznr I'ncha wan 
 
 jiaved with white 
 U|)(da Niipported on 
 I of (,'wHan'n. The 
 a lar^e fountain, of 
 own. The ha/.anrn 
 g arched over, and 
 4. Houses built of 
 ■ncoa on their topn 
 I ; the more useful, 
 arrow. At present, 
 ts within a year or 
 )ss of ruins; of all 
 0, the fountain of 
 
 cscape<l uninjuretl 
 f the Egj'ptians in 
 
 10 of comparatively 
 
 ;upied bv buildinfja 
 
 ere atom! a Hebrew, 
 
 lied Accho. lieing 
 
 ireek sovereipis of 
 
 of Ptolemais; and 
 
 and their Koman 
 
 niportance. Syria 
 
 the Muhammedana 
 
 (Is Ptolemais fell, 
 
 le name of Akka, 
 
 icenic appellation. 
 
 first crusaders, and 
 
 the kingdom of 
 
 by the famous 
 
 years afterwanls 
 
 lip Augustus ap- 
 
 a siege of twcnty- 
 
 leir arms in 11 ill. 
 
 possession of the 
 
 nd under the go- 
 
 :aller8 of St. Jolin 
 
 !C and prosperity. 
 
 cathedral erected 
 
 patron saint its 
 
 Jean (TAcre. In 
 
 Iriven from SjTia, 
 
 their last despe- 
 
 lace. From 1291 
 
 aliphate, when it 
 
 •cks of that onco 
 
 the Turks. Neg- 
 
 exposed to the 
 
 ig tribe, it con- 
 
 ining of the 17th 
 
 -el-din, the cele- 
 
 whose wise and 
 
 show symptoms 
 
 he latter part of 
 
 ACUI 
 
 jhln life Fak'r-el-dln, anprchondinff a Turkish In- 
 iVOMiiin, destroyed the liarlxiur, ami thus left, the 
 
 Jtlace in a worse condition than that in which h« 
 liunil it. Another century of decay and misery 
 
 ^.ensued, till, in I74!t, the Mcdouin Arab Dahcr ex- 
 
 '■''p«'llrd the Turkish aga, and inndeAcri" the capital 
 «il a territory which for more than 20 years wna 
 
 aivirtually inllcpendent of the I'orte. Daher par- 
 ^aftially fdrtilied Acre, partly cleared Its ruins, and 
 
 ''^tetllVd colonies of (ireek and MuKsulnmn fanners, 
 liarasst'd and despoiled in the neighlNturing coun- 
 tries, in tlie surrounding plain. On Dahvr's fall 
 In I ''•'>, iVcrc reverted to the dominion of the 
 Turks, For once, however, the change of masters 
 was not productive of ruin. DJczxar, who was 
 Immediately appointed pacha, how inferior soever 
 to Daher in personal character, seems to have re- 
 sembled him in his political energy, nronifttness, 
 !j|nd decision. Ho strengthened the lortitlcations 
 gnd emiM'llished the town. The detenninetl and 
 |U(U'CMsful resistance which it made in 179!) to the 
 ^ins iif Napoleon have ren(h>red it famous in 
 Inndern history. There is, indeed, good reason to 
 ,tbink that the termination of the siege had a 
 powerful influence over the future fortune of that 
 extraordinary person, and conse(iuently of the 
 , 'World. (See Voyage du Marechal Marmoifl, iii. 
 i>. 7f).) Acre continued to prosper till 1832. 
 Though fettered by imposts and monopolies, it 
 Carried on a consiiierablc foreign trade, and had 
 resident consuls fnim most of the great states of 
 Kurope. During its siege by Ibrahim Pacha in 
 1WI12, which lasted f> months and IM days, its pri- 
 vate and ])ublic buildings were montly destroyed. 
 In into it was bombarded by the English and 
 Austrian ilcets, through whom it was restored to 
 the sultun. It has not recovered its former pros- 
 
 E;rity. (Volnev's and Kobinson's Travels, and 
 ussell's Palestnie.) 
 '( ACUI, a town of South Italy, prov. Coscnza, 
 fap. cant,, on the Mucone, in a healthy situation ; 
 12. m, N. K. Cosenza. Pop. 11,73(1 in lH»i2. It 
 has *! parish churches and a hospital. The sur- 
 l^unding country is very fruitful. 
 
 ACTllJM. Sec AiiTA, Gui.Pii OF. 
 
 ACTON, a village and parish of England, for- 
 inerly resorted to for its mineral waters ; «i m. 
 yj', St. Paul's, on the North London railway. Pop. 
 of parish 3,151 in 1801. Acton has in recent 
 times become a suburb of the metropolis. (See 
 
 ACUL, an inconsidcrablo sea-port town of 
 
 . Ilayti, on its N. coost. Lat. 19* 47' 40" N., 
 
 long. 72° 27' 13" W. It was caUcd St. Thomas 
 
 by Columbus. 
 
 ; ADALIA, or SATALIEH, a sea-port town of 
 
 ■ J. Turkey in Asia, Anatolia, cap. Sangiack Tdke-ili, 
 
 7- on the gulph of the same name, near the mouth 
 
 of the Douden-sou, lat. 360 62' 16" N., long. 30° 
 
 ,. 45' 3" E. Estimated pop. 8,000, two-thirds Turks 
 
 f' ' and one-third Greeks. It is finely situated, being 
 built amphitheatre-wise round a small harbour 
 '■ on the declivity of a hill, the summit of which is 
 d surmounted by a castle. It is enclosed by a ditch, 
 * a double wall, and a series of square towers about 
 50 yards apart. Streets narrow, and houses mostly 
 of wood. It is the residence of a pacha and of a 
 Greek archbishof); and has numerous mosques, 
 churches, baths, caravansaries, &c. The sur- 
 rounding country is beautiful, and the soil deep 
 ^: and foitile. 
 
 Adalia is supposed to occupy the site of the an- 
 cient Olbia; and the fragments of columns and 
 ^ other remains of antiquity found within its walls, 
 " attest its former flourishing state. 
 
 ADAM'S PEAK, the highest mountain in the 
 island of Ceylon, altitude 7,420 feet ; 46 m. ESE. 
 
 ADELAIDK 
 
 15 
 
 Colnmlm, It has a sugar-loaf shape ; and its 
 sumndt, supposed to Int the |Mdiit where Kuddhn 
 ascended to heaven, is esteemed sacred, and is 
 resorted to by pilgrims. 
 
 ADANA, a town of Asia Minor, the capital of n 
 district or government of the saim) name, on the 
 Sihon (Sams), alM)ut 25 m, alstve wh'-re il fallt 
 into the sea, bit. IW° 69' N., long. 850 HI' K. 
 Estlm, pop, 20,000. It is verv ancient, stands on 
 a declivity, surrounded on all sides by groves of 
 fmlt trees' and vineyards; is large, well-built ; ban 
 a castle; a bridge over the river, said to havelN'cn 
 built by .lustinian ; and a noble (sirtico in Ihu 
 middle of the ba/.aar. It carries on a considerable 
 trade in wine, fruits, and com. In summer it is 
 rather unhealthy, and the majority of the inha- 
 bitants retire to tho country. (Kinneir's Asia 
 Minor, &c. p. 131.) 
 
 ADAHIC, an ancient town of Ireland, co. Lim- 
 cri(!k, with some fine miiis, now much deci ved, 
 situated on the Maig, over which it has a bridgo 
 of 9 arches; 130 m. SVV. Dublin. Pop. SIC. Ditto 
 of parish 2,941 in IHOl. 
 
 ADDA, a celebrated river of Italy, fonned by 
 the junction of several rivulets nearIiormio,in tho 
 Valteline. Having traversed that province, it 
 passes Sondrio, enters the lake of ('omo near its 
 northem, and issues from its southern extremity, 
 and passing Lodi and Pizzighettone, falls into tho 
 Po (5 m. VV. Cremona. 
 
 ADKLAIDE, a city of. South Australia, cap. of 
 the Ilritish colony of that name, alwut 7 m. SK. 
 from its port, an inlet on the E. side of St. Vin- 
 cent's Gulph. Lat. .'(4° 67' S., long, 13S0 -w j,-. 
 Pop. 7,143 in 184(i, and 18,303 in 18()1. The mu- 
 nic. Iwundarj' oomprises rather more than 1,000 
 ocres. It isdivideil into N. and S. Adelaide by 
 the river Torrens, hero cro8se<l by several bridges. 
 Uoth portions of the town stanil on gentle eleva- 
 tions, and are regularly laid out : tho streets, which 
 vary from 7(t to 130 ft, in width, mostly cross or 
 meet each other at right angles, and there are se- 
 veral goo<l squares. The S. is a goo<l deal larger 
 than the N. division of the city ; it includes the 
 government house, hospital, &c., with some hand- 
 some terraces and villas, having from J to A aero 
 of shrubbery and ganlen ground attached. Along 
 King William Street, the central thoroughfare, aro 
 many largo buildings, including the government 
 offices ami commissariat stores, with many good 
 private houses and shops of all descriptions. Ilind- 
 loy Street is the principal place of business, and 
 here is to be observed all the bustle of a flourishing 
 town. It is lined on both sides with goml stone, 
 brick, or wooden houses, some of which are of su- 
 perior biuld, and do cnxlit to Australian street 
 architecture. Many of the stores or merchants' 
 warehouses are massive brick or stone buildings. 
 Tho government house, near the river, is a fine 
 house, surrounded by about 10 acres laid out in 
 ornamental gardens. A botanic garden was es- 
 tablished in 1856, and in 1868 a special grant of 
 1000/. was allowed for a conservatory, tilled with 
 palms and other tropical proiluce. Among the 
 other principal edifices are Trinity and St. John's 
 churches, the legislative council house, court house, 
 the office of tho S. Australian bank, an auction 
 mart, tho offices of the S. Australian Company, 
 and a large prison, built at a cost of 34,000/. In 
 the centre of Light Square is a handsome Gothic 
 cross, 45 feet high, erected to the memory of Colo- 
 nel Light, the founder of the city. Adelaide has 
 chapels for Presbyterians, Homan Catholics, Bap- 
 tists, Independents, Metho<lists, German Luthe- 
 rans, and others, a Friends' meeting house, a Jews* 
 synagogue, numerous schools, tho S. Australian 
 bank, and a branch of the Australasian do., S. 
 
10 
 
 ADKLSIIKUO 
 
 I ; 
 
 'ii htl. 
 
 
 ii 
 
 AiiNtriiliiiii ANHiiriinnn (lornpnnvt n |)liilaiitliri>|)io 
 iiiNtitiitiiin, mill II ini'i'lmtiicN' )riHtitiitu. Ni^vcriil 
 ii<iWM|ia|H'rH iirti puMiitliutl in tliu luty. It niiinii- 
 lii(-liin>H wiMilli'i) ^(mmU, Htaroh, mmii, miiilT, itiiil 
 iimcliiiii'rv, nnti it lins n variety of Htnnrn nnd 
 iitliiT mill'*, witli l)ruw<'ri(H, tunnnriuH, nml nmlt 
 lioiiM'M. ItH trmlu ill (ir<>n iiiul wool U nlrvailv vory 
 (<xti'ii)tivi\ mill it will necoimirily incrcnite with tlui 
 incri'nwi of the trailo of tliu colony, of whii'h it ii 
 the ^rund oin|)orium. AiIcIaIiIo cx|iortctl r),ltl)0,'J()() 
 llm. of wool in IHfiO; 6,(102,020 Ihn. in lH(il; nml 
 7,1112,01(2 1I)H. in 18(>2. Around tho city on the K. 
 nnd S, ill a Mcmicirclo of hillH, nemo riitinK to iip- 
 wnrilM of 2,000 ft. alM)ve tho nca; nnd within a few 
 inilc)! nro houio of tho principul copper nnd luiid 
 inincN, to which, CK|H<cinlly tliu fonnur, tho colony 
 ownit gtvat pnrt of um prosp*<rity. 
 
 Tho rivor Torrons on which Adnlnido iit built, 
 loMH itself in a ninrKli licforo roachiiiK tho Mon, 8o 
 thnt tho city in from d to 7 m. di.itnnt from itH 
 port, an inlot of St. Vincont'it (iulph. In tho 
 ruinv Hoaflon tho Torronit Id much (Io(kIo<I, though 
 it wAdom ovcHlowH iti Imnkit, which oro gtccp and 
 lofty; hut in tho dry wnson it hns no current, its 
 Ited' lM>ing thon fonnod into a wirioa of pools ur 
 tankx. 
 
 Port Adelaide, 7 m. NW. from tho city, in a 
 low nnd mnr.shy f*itiintion, consists of a numljcr of 
 dwellinp^-hougos nnd warehouses, many of which 
 nro of stone, with whnn-es, pnrtly Imlonf^in^ to 
 government, nnd pnrtly to tho Houth Austrnlinn 
 Company. Tho inlet of the sen forming; tho hnr- 
 iKHir, opposite tho entrance to which a lif^ht ves- 
 sel is moored, stretclies from tho gulph, from which 
 it is separated by n narrow nock of land, for alwut 
 H m. southward, surroundinK Torrens Island. There 
 entered at Port Adelaide, in the year 1802, a total 
 of 293 vessels, with a tonnngo of '92,120. Of those, 
 273 vessels, of 80,230 tons, woro with carp;ocs, anil 
 20 vessels, of 6,890 tons, in ballast. Tho clenrnnces, 
 in the snmo ycnr, amounted to 282 vessels, of a 
 total burthen of 92,502 tons. Port Adelaide has 
 A custom house ; but vessels nro exempted from all 
 port charges in this and in tho other parts of the 
 colony. A railway unites the city with tho port. 
 (For hirthor inforrnation in regard to the trade of 
 this city and of tho colony generally, see Austka- 
 LiA, South.) 
 
 Adelaide was foundcil in 1834. In 18-12 it was 
 incorporated by an act of tho colonial legislature 
 ns a city under a mayor, aldermen, and common 
 counciL (Wilkinson, Dutton, Dennett, S. Aus- 
 tralia ; Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial 
 Possessions, 18(i4.) 
 
 ADELSUKHG, a village and cavern in Illyria, 
 about half way l)ctween Laybach nnd Trieste. The 
 cavern is decidedly the most magniticent and ex- 
 tensive hitherto chscovered in Europe. It has been 
 explored to a distance of between 1 and 2 miles 
 (1310 fathoms) from the entrance, and is termi- 
 nated by a lake. It is believed, however, that 
 this is not the end of these vast hollows, and that, 
 •were it carefully examined, its extent would be 
 found to bo much greater. Tho cavern is placed 
 under tho core of an officer in the adjoining village, 
 who appoints guides to conduct strangers through 
 it. It is easily accessible, and may be visited with- 
 out any risk. The entrance is situated almut a 
 mile from the village, in the face of a cliff, below 
 a ruined castle. At this point the river Poik, after 
 winding throuf^h the plain, disappears beneath the 
 mountain, sinking into the rock below a natural 
 penthouse formed by the slope of the limestone 
 strata. The entrance for visitors is a umall h(de 
 al)ove this, closed by a door. At a distance of 180 
 yards from the month, a noise of nishinp; waters is 
 heard, and the Poik may bo seen, by tho light of 
 
 ADKN 
 
 tho ta|)«r, Ntnig^ling nlonK ut a ciinHiil<<rMl>le depth 
 Im'Iow ; and on a Niiddcn a vant hall loo t\f'X Mfth, 
 and iiioni than 300 loii^r, called thu Dome, is I'li- 
 tereil. Thn river, having cliveil unditr tho wail of 
 riM^k on tho outNide, hem ru-ap|)cars for a short 
 space, and is thun lost in tho ImweU of tho moun- 
 tain. It is Ijt'liuveil to be idi'iitical with the Un/, 
 which bunts forth at I'laiiina ; planks of wihmI, 
 thrown into thu stream of thu cavern, upi^ar then*, 
 it is said, after ten or twulvu hours. 
 
 Tho Domn was tho only ])art of tho cavern 
 known down to 1819, when a lalH)urer, working in 
 tho cave, accidentally broke through a screen of sta- 
 lactitc.and discovered that this was, to use thu words 
 of KusNul, 'but tho vestibule of thu most maKnillcent 
 of all thu temples which nnturu hits built for her- 
 self in thu region of thu niKht.' Kudu steps, cut 
 in tho rock, lead down the sloping sides of this 
 chamlKtr to the level of the river, which is crossed 
 by a wooden bridge ; nnd tho op])osito wall is 
 scaled by means of a similar (light of steps. Hero 
 tho visitor enters tho nowly-discovered part of tho 
 cavern, consisting of a rango of chamliers varying 
 in si/.c, but by far the must interesting, from tho 
 variety, beautiful J)urity, and quantity of their 
 stalactites. Sometimes uniting with the stalag- 
 mite Ixdow, they form a pillar worthy to siip|M)rt 
 a cathedral; at others a crop of minute spiculm 
 rises from tho tloor ; now a clust'^r of slcniler co- 
 lumns reminds one of tho trncery of a (iothio 
 chapel, or of tho twinings or intcrlacings of tho 
 ascending and descending branches of thu banyan 
 tree. The fantastic sha|>cs of some masses hnvo 
 given rise to various names, applied by the guides, 
 according to tho likeness, whii 'i th;;y imagine they 
 can trace in them, to real oi.iects; such as tho 
 throne, tho pulpit, tho butchi'i s shop, tho two 
 hearts, tho bell, which resound': aimo't like metal, 
 and tho curtain (Vorhang), a very singular muss 
 about an inch thick, sjircading out to nn extent of 
 several square ynnls, pcrtectly resembling a piece 
 of drapery, and lieautifuUy transparent. The sta- 
 lactical matter |)ervades almost every part of tho 
 cavern ; it paves tho tloor, hangs in pendants from 
 tho r(X)f, coats and plasters the wall, cements to- 
 gether fallen masses of rock, forms screens, parti- 
 tions, and i-Mlars, Tho only sound in tho remote 
 chambers is n )diice<l by tho fall of tho drops of 
 water chargc(' with lime, which arc found, on exa- 
 mination, to tip each pendant mass, forming an 
 nscendnnt spire, or stnlagmite, on tho spot where 
 it descends. One of the long suite of chambers, 
 larger and loftier than tho rest, and with a more 
 even floor, is converted once a year (in May) into a 
 ball-room. On that occasion tho peasant lads and 
 lasses assemble from miles around, and the gloomy 
 vaults re-echo with sounds of mirth nnd music. 
 
 ADEN, a small state of S. Arabia in Yemen, 
 Iving between 12" 32' and 18° 3' N. lat., nnd Isi- 
 tween 43° 30' nnd 45° 30' E. long. It extends 
 from E. to W. about 115 m., its greatest width 
 being about 30. Tho mountains in this part of 
 Arabia nro close upon tho sea, and, for an Arabic 
 district, it is well supplied with water ; and from 
 both these causes tiie heat of the climate is con- 
 siderably mitigated, and vegetation flourishes upon 
 a more extensive scale than in most other parts of 
 tho peninsula. It has a considerable forest. Tho 
 cultivated parts produce wheat, dhourah, and cot- 
 ton ; the woods consist of mangoes, sycamores, 
 and pomegranates, and tho suriace of the whole 
 country is interspersed with date trees. Wellsted 
 (Travels, ii. 409.) states that in purity of atmo- 
 sphere, richness of soil and venture, nature of vege- 
 tation, and proximity of production and desolation, 
 this country resembles Egypt. The barren parts 
 arc represented us/wcu/uir/^ so; but they o«cur in 
 
onnRlilrriil)1o ilopth 
 liiill lot) IWtt IiIkIi, 
 <l till) l)i)mt>, ix iMi- 
 { uiiiliT tlio wnll of 
 |)|K>arH fur a ulntrt 
 vfvU of thfl moiiii- 
 Icul witit tlin IJn/, 
 I ; ]ilnnkit of wihhI, 
 kvcni, apiwar thun<, 
 
 llfH, 
 
 art of tho cavcni 
 ilM>iiriT, working in 
 li^h a Mcrucn of Nta- 
 riiM, to urns tliu woniK 
 luniostninKiiillcent 
 u liiiN built for livr- 
 ' HikIo HtopN, cut 
 [>pinK tides of tiiiii 
 ir, wliich in cmwKMl 
 I op|i(mito wall in 
 (htofHtppn. I [pro 
 lovored part of tho 
 ' chaniltvrH varying 
 [crcRtint;, from tlui 
 quantity of tlioir 
 r with tho Htalaf;- 
 worthy to BupiMtrt 
 nf minute Rpiculio 
 iM'iT of Hlcndvr ro- 
 irory of n (lothio 
 intcrlacinfjH of tho 
 Rhes of the banynii 
 Homo mnsscfl havo 
 died by the f;iiidt>N, 
 th::y imagine thny 
 iiTts; Mich an tho 
 .^I's shop, tho two 
 aiino't like metal, 
 very Hiuf^ilar maxH 
 out to an extent of 
 rcsemblinc a picco 
 Uparent. The ttta- 
 t every part of tho 
 in pendantH from 
 wall, cements to- 
 >rms Hcrecns, parti- 
 >iind in the remote 
 ill of tho drops of 
 are found, on exa- 
 ma.^s, forming an 
 >n the spot whore 
 suite of chambers, 
 and with n more 
 or (in May) into a 
 c ])oasant lads and 
 I, and the gloomy 
 irth and music. 
 \rabia in Yemen, 
 !)' N. lat., and Ik<- 
 long. It extends 
 ts pvatest widtii 
 3 in this part of 
 and, for on Arobic 
 water; ami from 
 ho climate is con- 
 on Hoiirishes upon 
 [lost other parts of 
 ruble forest. Tho 
 Ihouroh, and cot- 
 1R0CS, sycamores, 
 face of the whole 
 trees. Wellsted 
 purity of otmo- 
 re, nature of vege- 
 on and desolation. 
 The barren parts 
 but they oacur in 
 
 Alfl'N 
 
 mnnriilivciv small piitrhw, ami In tho mid^t of 
 , rtility. Tlio liilmltitiintt an* moMly iiKrifidlii- 
 M-t-. ; but Hiiili ix till' nii»«riilp|o "tiitf of tlio ((iiiii- 
 Irv, that till' hiiibaiuliiiaii iii'viT ^im's to hU lalMiiir 
 %iilii>iit Im'Uii; Hfiinil, mid n""'rtt to tho to\vii« for 
 ii'iiirily diiriiiK tho niK'tit. Tho town iiihabilaiits 
 #r tlio'iiitorior larry on an oxtoimivo fnido with 
 ^ic lloijniiins, who' briiit; to inarkot thoir k'x'*' 
 limltorl, frankinooMM'. and milk, ri'ooiviiiK in ro- 
 iiini ^raiii and clolli. Maniifaotiiros lliiiitod to a 
 tiio Mripod oinfh or HJlk, iwd for tho dn-Msosof tho 
 IU|iorii>r olaxm-H, tlio woa\ hi>; of wliioh oc'cii|iios 
 ■Ixiiit ;ti» loonifi in llio town of l^thnUJoo. 
 
 AniiN, a m'a -port town of Arabia, oap. of tho 
 above ttato, now in tho poH-wnidon of (iroat Mrilain, 
 M llio liiiliaii Oi'oaii, I IX in. K. from tho Ntraits of 
 
 rbrliiiandob, lat. \-J° HI' I.V N., lonw. I '.o 10' •.'(»" 
 It slandM on tho \'„ nido of a pninionlory, pro- 
 jtcthin S. into the (M-oaii, ciilloil tlio I'oniiiHiila of 
 Ailoii. riiix poniii!<iila, which toriniiiatos in a lofty 
 ■loiiiitaiii, lioariii^ a Htrikin^ roMoinblaiioo to tho 
 Muk of (iibraltar, in ooniiot'tod with tho main land 
 
 Sa low isthmus alnait lOO yards in briNtdtli. <>n 
 N. and \V. tho town is oVorhunjj by stoop and 
 ira^,'j,'y rooks, on which an- tho roinains of old for- 
 
 {lioatioiiM. The K. or oiitwanl harlHair of Adoii, 
 riiiorly (and apparontly at a roooiit poriisl) larj^e 
 ind ooiiiniiMlioiis, is now partly lillod up with sand. 
 But tho harlHiur on the \V. hide of tho town, Ih-- 
 tiyooii the promontory ini wliioli it stands and 
 •nollior imranol thoro'to, is a iiiOKnittiont basin, 
 Mpablo of aocominiNlating the lar^ost ttoots. It 
 has a nontmctod oiitrance, which inij^ht easily lie 
 Jbrtitlod, so as to make it itmccessible to a host lie 
 igiiudron. From this harlHuir the approach to the 
 
 erii is over a low rid^e <>■' the mountain, the rood 
 lit; in parts cut through the m\M rock. 
 Tho site of this town, the la-st adapted for trade 
 M tho wholu coast of Arabia, and tho key of the 
 Be<l Soil, has alwavs made it o point of primary 
 toportaiioo in the diroot trade botweon Kiiropoand 
 tie l'',ast. It bii-aino at a very early jtorioil a cele- 
 atod emporium (the Aiahiw emjMtium of I'tole- 
 y). Aftor the Koinans obtained |iossession of 
 l^ypt, and llipjmhis (a. ». 50) hod discovereil the 
 ect route to India, they destroyed Aden lest it 
 Duld fall into hostile hands, and interfere with 
 eir monopoly of this lucrative traffic. (Vincent's 
 Coniiiiorco, &c., of tho Indian Ocean, ii. 'A'il, 52H.) 
 It is not known when or by whom it was reiniilt ; 
 Int from the tlth till the IGth century it was the 
 Jj^at, or rather the exclusive, entrejiot of Kasteni 
 aoniinercc. The dis«;overy of the passage by the 
 
 U 
 
 IT 
 
 pe of (ioo<l IIo|>e wos the fh'st great blow to its 
 ftnportance. Kimiiltoncously with the a|>poarance 
 4f the Portuguese in India, the Turks, under Soly- 
 IDan the MagniH(%nt, took possession of various 
 'rabic ports, Aden among the mimlier. They 
 ccted the fortiticotions, the ruins of whii;li excite 
 le admiration of every traveller, and which re- 
 plied the attacks of the famous rortngnese gene- 
 I .Albuquerque. From this date, however, Aden 
 pidly declined; nor did the expulsion of the 
 iirks', which took place olxiut the middle of Inst 
 iitiiry, retard its downfall. Its ruin was more 
 mplete than could have been anticipated ; for 
 :s convenient harbours and plentiful supply of 
 a tor moke it, opart from other considerations, a 
 ost desirable port. 
 
 When first occupied by the British, Aden had not 
 ore than 100 houses, with a parcel of wretched 
 iits, and from 3,000 to 1,000 iuliobs. It had 
 deed the ruins of several cisterns and reservoirs 
 t in the solid rock, and of aqueducts for convey- 
 g water from the mountains of the interior, which 
 illy testified its former greatness. Hut witliin the 
 Bst twenty years a vast change has taken place, 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 and the ancient prosiN^^y C Aden bids fair to Ut 
 again rostorod. XhAvX^f,,^- the aoconinnNlaiioii of 
 fiio passoiigors by the stoi, -irs lur Is'on or' i-tod; 
 and tho |Nipiilalioii of t\\ ioiuji , allra' I by 
 tbo sooiiritv alfiirdod by ii I'.ii^'lish fl/i liavo 
 tliiokod Id llio plaoo, nliirli :i.h now an o nalod 
 iMip, of I'io.otNi, |>i'fonsivo rtorks liavo i, onily 
 boon ooiisiriiciod, wliioli an< oinsidorod to fudor 
 it iinprogiiablo, and mako it tlio (iibraltar i>r thu 
 Kod Soa. Its groat dolloioiioy was formorly tho 
 supply of water, ibiaigli tbo supply was abundant 
 as ooiii|iarod with many ollior Asiatic towns. Tbo 
 sources of supply aro — llio adjacent plain, from 
 uhii'h brackish water is drawn, and a condoiiNiiig 
 apparatus used by tbo rosidonis. It rains only 
 oiico in tbroo years, wtioii tho rain dosccnds in 
 tnrronts for alsiiit a fortnight in SoptonilKT. To 
 liiisband the raiii-wator tbo llritisli bavo lately 
 consfnictiil a system of roson'oirs in a rocky ra- 
 vine, at a cost of 1,01)11,01)0/., ill onler to supply 
 tho inhabitants in dry woalhor. 
 
 VVIiile its commanding positimi, exorllont |Mirt, 
 and abiinihint supply of water, make Aden an 
 important station in the route from India to 
 I'',iiro|«! bv the Kod Sea, it is no less favourably 
 situated for la'coining an entrrjit't for the ciai- 
 tigiioiis countries of Arabia and Africa. It owed 
 its fonner coiiseqiM'nce mainly to its natural ad- 
 vantages, and these it still retains. It is lie- 
 coming more and more an im|Mirtant em|K(riuin, 
 Olid bids fair to lie of the greatest utility to tho 
 Biirroiindiiig continents. Thu vliniute though liot 
 is nut iiiihoalthy. 
 
 (Nicbuhr, Descr. del' Ar. par. ii. pp. 221, 222; 
 Forster's Historical Gcogropliy of Arabia, ii. 104 
 and iril'i; and recent and oDicial documents.) 
 
 AnJYGHIIH, a town of llindostaii, pniv. Alla- 
 habad, lot. 210 50' N., long. HOO »' K. It has a 
 fortress at the top of a stoir|i hill that was taken 
 bv the Itritish in IKO'.t, after a stout resistance. 
 I'stinmtod ]sip. •l'>,()()<). 
 
 ADIGK, a large river of Italy, tho Ate»iu$ or 
 Athesit of tho ondeiits. It is formeil by wiverol 
 rivulets which have their siairces in the Khetian 
 Aliis, and nnitc near Glunis; thence it flows K. 
 till near liolsano it is Joined by its im|)ortant tri- 
 butary, tho Kisaek. It then takes a southerly 
 course past Trent, where it becomes niuigoble, 
 Hovenxlo, and I'ontonc. It then changes its course 
 to the K., and passing Verona, I.egnano, and 
 Aqiiileio, falls into the Adriatic, 20 m. S, Venice. 
 It is deep, rapid ( Velox Athesin, Cloud.), and is 
 usually navigated with difHculty. In spring, on 
 the melting of the snow in the mountains, it is 
 liable to sudden floods, to prevent the injurious 
 influence of which in the Polcsino of Hovigo and 
 other low grounds, it is fenced liv strong bonks, 
 while a port of the sun>lus water is carried off by 
 canals. Exclusive of the Kisock, its principal 
 uflliients ore the Nocc, Aviso, and Agiio. 
 
 ADMIUALTY ISLAND, an island on the W. 
 coast of America, lictween George the Third's 
 Archi|ielago and the continent, about 90 m. long 
 and 25 brood. Lat. 670 2' to 68° 24' N., long. 
 134° W. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 20 or 30 
 islands in the South Pacific Ocean, of which the 
 largest, called Great Admiralty Islanil, is from 5.» 
 to 60 m. in length: in alwut 20 10' S. lat., and 
 from 12G0 to 12«o E. long. Iliey were discovered 
 by the Hollondv-rs in 16 1(!, and are inhabited. 
 
 ADOUH, a considerable river in the SVV. of 
 France. It has its source in the Pyrenees, 6 m. 
 E. Borfcges, whence it flows N. by Hagneres and 
 Tarl)cs to Oise ; here it takes on easterly course, 
 and passing St. Sever, Dax, and Bayonne, falls 
 into the sea a little below the latter. *It is nnvi- 
 
 C 
 
 m 
 
IK 
 
 A now A 
 
 l"^ ., 
 
 * . i, 
 
 III 
 
 '^ i !l' 
 
 Hi 
 
 K«lilr trt St, Si'vof. Tho Olomn «nil Hip Pnii nre 
 th« ini>«t cimniilornhlc nf It* nllliit'Mt^ 
 
 AlM)\V'A, tho cniiilrtl nf I'ijrn*, in Ahywilnln, 
 |mrtly on llii> mIiIi' hihI |Mtrlly nt llir fiHit ofik hill, 
 cnnininntling n nin«{nilli'i'nl \ icw nC ilii> nxiunliiiiM 
 «.r TIkti'. Ut. I|0 \-i' :i(l" N., l.mK. ;i!»o fi' K. 
 Till' hiiuMOK iiri> nil of it coniciil fonn, pn'lty ri'^ii- 
 Urlv <lii>|)oiM<il into MtriTlA or iilloyt, inttTxiHTxi'il 
 witfi tn'oitiinil xinall KoriUMM. I'ltp, iirolmltly m.ihio. 
 It linn nmnnriii'tiircit of rotton ('iollia, iiml nn rx- 
 ti'iixivr Iriiilc in i'iittli>, I'orii, Nitlt, nnil Hlitvri. 
 
 AhltA, A w>n-|Nirt town of .S|inin, nip. ili/4trict 
 nanw iiiiino, prov, (iriiiiiiilii on tht> Mi'ililrmiiinin, 
 4A m. SK. (trnniKln. It U Hiiiintvil near tin- montli 
 of till* Ailrii. In hi* virinity iiro Koni<> of tin- rii'li 
 rut lend iniiiP!« in tho world, tli«< priNliioo of wliirli 
 rii!iHlitiit«i* tlio principal artioUt of (<x|iort from 
 thft town. 
 
 ADItAMIT, a villn^n of Armrnin in ItiiMin, 
 Mitimtpil on tho ithorc of I.iikp Viin, It ii n plncc 
 of mitnn lM<niity m to Nitimtion, lH>in(( ni<i*tlc<l in 
 nmonK crn^w nnd riM'kN, nt thn fiMit of which, 
 whcritvcr Npiicc in nvniliihlc, fruit trcoM nnd Ninall 
 gnrdpnM nn> planted. The hiili«, of tho xnnic niiw- 
 ralilc di>»<'ription nt other Armenian villn^cM, arc 
 liiiilt of roii^h NtoncN, put together with mud, ami 
 rrcctrd chmc up to the Hide of a hill, into which 
 pnrt of the dwollitif; ix excavated. The tint sum- 
 mit of tlu^ rocky hill on the nlopo of which the 
 villa^^e Ntaiid'4 is xiirroiinded liy an aneient wall, 
 liiiilt of liii^e Htones laid one upon another, with- 
 out mortar or cement of any kind, and reNeml>liii(( 
 cyclonpan remaini«. (ruMher'n Travels, p. !V2\.) 
 
 AIjKAMYT, a town of Turkey in Aula, Ana- 
 tolia, alHHit •( ni. from the K. extremity of tho 
 giilpii of tho Hnmo imme, 7H m. Nt 8mvrna, hit. 
 SHO 2!>' N., lonfT. 'H\° fw' 15" K. I'on. A.IHM) (i*). 
 Street)* narrow, ill-paved, and (ilthv: lioiiso!*, with 
 few oxecptions, iiiunn, nnd niiwraUly liiiilt. Tho 
 nlivcH priMliiced in tho ndjoiiiiiiK territory, with 
 Inr^o qiiaiititieH of wind from tho interior, are prin- 
 cipally Hliip|M<d for OonxtAiitinopIo; little except 
 gallx WiiiK Nhip|)ed for other parts of Kiiroiie. 
 
 ADKIA (an. Atria or Hiitriu), a towiiol North- 
 ern I taly, delejf. (formerly tho I'olesino of) Hovi^o 
 on tho CaxtaKiiano, iM-tween tho I'o and tho Adi){e, 
 12 m. K. Kovi^o. Ut. 4.">o 2' ru" N., loni{. 12° .'»' 
 f>6" K. Pop, I2,H0;» in l«'iH, Adria in n very 
 ancient city, heinj; mipiMised to ho of (Jreek ori>;in, 
 nnd having aftorwurds lormed part of tho dominions 
 of tho Ktruscnns. It was ori^^innlly u wa-jMtrt of 
 fiuch magnitude nnd im]M)rtancc ns to l>o able to 
 jjivc its own name to tho great ami of the Meditor- 
 rnnoan on which it Ht<Nid; hut owing to the gra- 
 dual oxten.sion of tho land, in ronwnuoncc of tho 
 mud nnd other dopositM brought down oy tho rivers, 
 tho {tort of Adrin hns been long since tilled up, aiul 
 it w now an inland town IH or 10 m. from tho sea. 
 When Strain) wrote, it had Iwcoiriv, a comparatively 
 unimportant plnco, and it subst'qiiontlv .Mift'crcd 
 much from inundations nnd war, particularly from 
 the attacks of the harbnrinns. During the twelfth 
 century it l)ogan to revive. Its climate, which 
 had become very unhealthy, nnd its environs, have 
 lH)th l)cen mntorinlly improved by the drainage 
 effected by opening the cnnal of I'ortovico. It is 
 the scat of a bishopric, has n flnc collection of 
 Etruscan and Roman antiquities found in the 
 vicinage, with manufactures of silk and leather. 
 The surrounding country is pro<luctivo of corn, 
 wine, nnd cheese. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, i. 
 p. 116, Halbi Abr<«g«<, ed. 1837.) 
 
 AUKIANOFLK (called Edreneh by the Turks), 
 n celebrated city of Turkey in Kiiro|M!, prov. Koii- 
 iTiclia, on the Alnritzn (an. Hehrut), where it is 
 joined by the Tooiign nnd tho Arda, 131 m. NVV. 
 Constan'tinoifle, lat. \i° 48' N., long. 20° 29' 16" 
 
 ADRIANOPLF 
 
 v.. Ailrinnopic Im^, according to Mr. Vicp-ronwd 
 llliinl (Ki'iMirl, iMtll), 18,0(10 houHi* nnd n |H>p, of 
 !Mi,ooo miuN, of whom 2^,000 are Muhtiimni'daii', 
 Aii.ooo ChrlNliann, and ti.ooo .lews. It coniaiiiN tin 
 moitquex, 1 1 I'liiiri'hex, and \\\ KynngngiieN; | mill 
 Inry Keho>d, nnd <'17 oiher niIumiU, <a\\\\ '1,1 M\ 
 pupils; 2 hoNpiiitIn nnd I madhoiim'. It is InwihiI 
 fnllv situated in one of the richest and lliicni 
 tilains in the worlj, on the siclcs and Itnne of a low 
 liill, nnd when viewed from a distance has a nmg- 
 nillc4'nt appearance; but, as is the case in nioHt 
 Turkish towiiN, the ilhisimi vaiiiMhes on entering'. 
 The streets are narrow, <'riH)ked, and tllthy; nnd in 
 certain iM'riiMls of the year it is unhealthy, Siiinc 
 of the houses are three stories high, and their 
 shelving roofs project so much as to meet those on 
 the op|iosite side. In the centre of the town an 
 old wall, supiMirled by massive towers, the work 
 of the sovereigns of the Lower Kmpire, encloses n 
 simce occupied by the rayali iiopulalion. Origin- 
 ally it may have U'en the citailel; but it is now 
 useless ns li defence. Among tho public buildings 
 
 the most distinguished are the nncicnt |>nlni I' 
 
 the sultans, in a »late of decay; the I'ainoiis baxaar 
 of Ali I'aslia, approprinteil to the warehousing' 
 and sale of various descriptions of coinnuHlities; 
 and the iiumeroiis inoHiiues, Of itiu latter, the 
 one erected by Selim 11. is the most splendiii; 
 and ranks, indeed, among the lliiest Mohammediiti 
 temples. There are 8,000 shops and several large 
 stone bn/aars and bans. The largr'r<t ba/.ajir is that 
 of ' Ali I'aslia :' it is some H."i(t iiai'es long, with rows 
 of shops on each side oc<Mi|>ii-d by retail dealers in 
 foreign and native nianuliictiires. There are alsci 
 numerous baths ami fountains supplii'd by water 
 conveyed into the city by uii iii)ueduct. A nic- 
 drasseh, or sn)M>rior school, is attached to tlii^ 
 mosniio of Sultan Selim, and there are n niimlsT 
 of otiier schtsds. The \Iiirit/a is navigable up tn 
 tho city during winter and spring; but in summer 
 tho sea craft only ascend as high as Denioticn. 
 Knos, at the mouth of the Marit/.a, is pro|M'rly the 
 sea-)Mirt of Adrianonle. It formerly admitleil 
 large vessels; but owing to the candessncss of tli(( 
 Turks, who have allowed a suiid-bank to accumu- 
 late, it is now accessible only to vessels of com- 
 paratively small burden. >\itli tho exception of 
 tanning, which is rather exiensivelv carried on, 
 tnniiiifacliires are inconsiderable. It )ias, however, 
 a pretty extensive commerce. The exports con- 
 sist principally of the raw |>rodnct,s of the adjacent 
 country, comprising excellent wool, cotton, silk, 
 toba(!co, good wine, otto of roses, fruits, berries lor 
 dyeing, &c. The iin)M)rts consist principally of 
 manufactured giMids; nscottonsand hardware f'nini 
 Kngland, woollen stiitls from (iermnnv, &c. The 
 trade is principally carried on by llrecfe merchants. 
 The coqiorations of sadiilcrs nnd shoemakers ein- 
 phiy n great iiiimlM'T of workmen, nnd niiiinally 
 dis|K>so of large qiiaiitilies of Turkish saddles nnd 
 shoes at fairs hold in 'I'lirnco and Itiilgaria, The 
 town is the seat of a (ircck archbishop. 
 
 In early times Adri.'inoplc wos the capital of the 
 Ilossi, a [)coplc of Thrnco, and was then called 
 Uskadama. It derives its present name from the 
 emperor Adrian, bv whom it was improved ami 
 eml)ellished. Tho 'fiirks took it in I:i(i(); audit 
 continued to be tho seat of their goveniment from 
 13(i(S till the taking of Constantinople in 14.V!, 
 It was occupied by the Itiissians in 182',); but vn\* 
 evacuated on n treaty Iwing concluded iKstween 
 them and the Turks in Septomlter that year. 
 (Keppors.Toiirncv ncross the Italkhan, i, jip, 25(1 — 
 5(i3; Walsh's .tourney fnmi (%iiistanlinoplo to 
 ICnglaiid, |). Ml; Ueport by Mr. Vic«'-('oiisiil 
 liluiit, Commeri-iul Iiuiiort.s, July to Dcccmbi!r, 
 1804, pp. 160-7.) 
 
to >tr. ViiT riinxiil 
 
 lloilHro nilcl n |Mi|i, of 
 
 nrc MiiIiiiimidimIiim*, 
 rwM, tl I'linlaiiiH )ii) 
 i*\'iuipi)Xii<-K; I iiiili 
 x'IiihiIm, mIiIi '.',7:10 
 
 lliillni'. It ix iN'illlli 
 
 • rii'lii-Kt unci llnrni 
 icH mill Imiw "f II l"w 
 iliMtiiiict' linn II mil;; 
 
 U tlll< <'lti«<> III immi 
 
 iiiixlK'N on niicriiii;, 
 il, mill tlllliy; nml in 
 m illihoiiltliy, Soiiif 
 ii'K liiuli, iiikI llii'ir 
 I UN to nii'i'l llioM' on 
 iitri> of ilii> town nil 
 ,■(' hiwcru, III!' work 
 •r l''.iii|iirt', oiii'iom'N n 
 iio|iulalii>n. Ori^iii- 
 iIikIi'I; lull ll \n now 
 the |iiil>lic liiiililiii^'!* 
 \n\ ani'irnt |wiliii'<' of 
 v\ tlii'faiiioim hn/.aar 
 to llic wari'lioiiHiii^' 
 iiiiN of i-oiiiiiiiM|ili('H; 
 
 Of thu laltiT, till' 
 lliit iiiiiKt N|il)'niliil; 
 tliii'Nt Moliainiiit'iliiii 
 i|w mill Hi'vt'ral lar^'r 
 Inr^i'^t l)a/.aar \i\ iliiii 
 jiai'f.'* iidij,'. with roH'jt 
 I l>y ri'tail ilcalcrj* in 
 iin-H. 'riicrc arc nUn 
 im Hii|i|ili('<l l>y water 
 kii M<|iir(liicl. A ini'- 
 
 U atlnclictl to the 
 I llicrc nri^ n nimilMT 
 r.i\ \* nnvi^nlilo up In 
 iriii;;; liiit in Niiinint'r 
 
 lit^li iiM |)(<nioti<'n, 
 iriiza, in pro|M'rly the 
 
 fonncrly nilinillcd 
 If can'h'HunpHH of the 
 iinl-liaiik to nri'iiniii- 
 
 • to VCXHoIh of ("0111- 
 
 itli tlip cxcrpfioii of 
 
 |icii«ivclv carrifil on, 
 
 Ic, 1 1 lift.t, however. 
 
 , The exporlH con 
 
 iliu't.M of the ndjnceiit 
 
 t wool, cotton, Hilk, 
 
 jscM, friiilN, lierrieH fur 
 
 oiisiHt |)rinci|Milly of 
 
 iHfliid hardware froni 
 
 (lennanv, &c. The 
 
 hy (ireefcmerelmiils, 
 
 nd »hoeinaker» eiii- 
 
 nieii, and aiiiiiially 
 
 TiirkiHh HnddlcH and 
 
 and Hiilnarift, The 
 
 hluHhop, 
 
 as the capital of the 
 nd w'a.s then ealleil 
 sent name from the 
 was improved ami 
 it in 1:1(10; and it 
 ir government from 
 tantinnple in M.VI. 
 jiiH in 1829; hut wiw 
 concluded between 
 Iptemlicr that year. 
 |lalkhan, i. pp. 25(1— 
 (JoiiNtanlinople tn 
 Mr. Vice-Consnl 
 July to Decumhir, 
 
 AI>i;i ATIC HFA 
 
 % \I»UIVri(! SKA, ordllTII OK VKNHK 
 vH/./rr A-lrintiium or ,S'm/htmw), I" lh«f K"'"' «"!' 
 Kf the MiiliiirriHieiin "•Meinliiin f^l'".. mid NW. 
 
 elueen il oaslK i.l |l ilv oil the W. miil ll f 
 
 IvriiuiM.. AllHiiiia ni (he K., from «ImhiI |(»o to 
 
 ■'^ Xi \. Int. llH •" hern ixlniiiiiien are llie 
 
 xi ili l,eii.n, or Si, Miirv'x. in Niiple«, and llie 
 
 of Kiino III Ihe N. of I'l.rfii! mid il* noriherii 
 
 fxireniiiv Ihe iMildrtii of the ^iilph of 'l>ii'-.le. IIh 
 
 tiiile.i leiitflh from < i|H' l.eina lo Triexte i» \M 
 .; mean linndlh 'M' ». It derived iii. aneient 
 iMiine Iroin Ihe oiue l.nirinhiliK mil |Hirl town ol 
 Adriii iwhieh cei'l. now IM in. from Ihe i.hiire. and 
 llii nio.ltrn name lr<im Vi-niie. Iln \V. or lliiliiiii 
 ■bore 14 di'lli'ieiil III llnrllollr^<, In p'lierally low.iind 
 fiNfiii (lie etiiranee «■ Kimini Inw iln|> water; hiil 
 ftbiri (he laller iiori rtanl" it Iiiim heeii partially 
 ille.l np liv the d«'|i< -> hr<>ii){hl down liy Ihe I'o 
 n<l Ihe Ailip', iihiI ■■ dtfed liv liiifooni*, marMheit, 
 ■III ^hoalx. On the K. Nide ilMConNlitarep'iieriilly 
 M^h. nleep, and roikv, mill are liroken into deep 
 Sy^ and gnlplm foriiied liv Ihe iinmerouH iHlaiidn 
 mi whiih it in leneed, U'ilh Ihe exeeplion of 
 So«e already menlioiied, il receiveit no river of 
 
 Cy eiimiiderfilde mnKiiiliide; and the HalliieHN of 
 willerx \* fiiid lo exeeeil Ihat of Ihi eail. 
 
 Tile elili and flow are eon»i(|eralile al Veiiiei' and 
 «ther pliieeH. The liiim or N I',, wind i'* Ihe moxl 
 itrmidahle i>l<M(aele to iu nnfe navigation. ll 
 flpini .-I on ill xiidden mid impeiuoiiN Hipialls, which 
 gvneriilly CMiitinne for three ilayN, and in an 
 ■dviineed Henjton from It to l.'i or more. A veNHcl 
 «(»er(iiken li\ it nhoidil always make for a |Mirl or 
 MJchiiriiKe gToiind mi Ihe K. coiinI, those on the \V. 
 bting o|H'n .tnil unsafe. The SK. wind Ihrowx up 
 ft heavy sea; hill is not dnnueroiis, an vesseU may 
 Mtily gel lo an aiiehor.igi' on the K. shore, 
 ^iiiee, Triesle, Anconii, and Fiiimo arc the priii- 
 dpnl (railing jHirls mi the Adriatic. 
 
 AKKSCIlor, a town of llelgium, prov. S. Ilra- 
 bfeiit. mi the Denier, 11 miles N K. I.onvaiii. Top. 
 |yH'.)'> in iH.'i*;. It was I'ormerly fortillud ; and has 
 lOliie hreweries and distilU'rh'S, 
 
 AKHillANMSTAN, the name npplleil to a 
 fltuiitry of (Viitral Asir. hilmhited liy the .MFghau 
 
 Stion ; and, smnetinies, to a kingdom of wliieh 
 It eoiintry formed the |>riiiclpiil part. In the 
 latter sense," the iMmndaries of Allgliaiiistan have 
 bten snhjeet to the same political changes which 
 ksve all'e'ctcd other Asiatic states. In the former, 
 OpnHiilered as the country of thu Afl'ghiin people, it 
 ■ay he lU-scrilied as extending from the JKItli to 
 the -'l-'illi degree of N. latiluiU', and from the Ii2nd 
 to the 71st degree of K. longitude; having the 
 Inil'is on the K., the crest of the llimaleh or Ilin- 
 diK>-('oosh, Mild jiart of the I'liropamesan or (ioor 
 inoiinlaiiis on the N.; the districts of Seeweestan, 
 Cnteh (iiindavn, and Sareewan, with part of the 
 4e-i'i't of Iteloocliistiiii on theS. ; part of Sistan, 
 With (ihnrian of Khorasan on the west ; and Mer- 
 (hi'ih, and the Il:i/.areh <'ouiitry on the N\V. Ac- 
 fnrding to the most recent authority (HeUew, 
 "li-^siou to Atlgluinistan in Wti, pp. I, '2), All'glian- 
 iil:in is not so designated hy the Atlghans tliem- 
 Ivcs, although the name in not unknown to them, 
 ^v the Atlghans their country i!i usually called 
 ('rlayat' (lieiice the term 'Crlnyate' often ali- 
 bied to ilH (leoplc hy the nntiven of Hindustan), 
 ' unlive couniry; hut it is also distinguished by 
 k'o appellations, including diiTerent portions of 
 brrilory, viz. '('luihul,' or * Knbulistnn, wiiich in- 
 |uiles all that mountainous region north of Ulinzni 
 nd Siifaid Koh, as far as Ilindim-Cuosh, limited 
 bwards the west hy the Ilnznruh country (the 
 •ticient I'ai'iipamisus), and eastward by the Abba- 
 3iii, or I""a(her of liivers, the Indus; and *Klio- 
 Hhsan,' ur ' /nbulintun,' which includes all that 
 
 AlKnllANISTAS 
 
 If 
 
 r-tlenKlvp •met of couniry, Alpine In It* riwtiru 
 limits, mid table land or I'icwrt In lis woierii ex- 
 Unl, whieh siretehen soiiihward and weslward frmii 
 niHiiii Ihe Inlitmh' of <iha/.iii, and iHinhrs on tho 
 eonllnes of I'ersia. Irom whieh lowmU Ihe soiiih 
 ll is se|Mirated I'V the desert of ^isliin. I'o I ho 
 Allghmis Ihe rersimi province of Khorivsan U 
 known bv the name of Ivnn. The existing (sdi- 
 licnl sirtie of Allkhanislan mnv Ih« said to lin 
 
 JN.lw I hit. •.'•1'^ *■)••' mill ;U.'J ;io' N. ; long. lUi^ and 
 
 l-i9:W I',., having I'., the fiiiijnub; M. Hiili«l|Ms.r, 
 Minde, mid jlehsichisian ; \V. the I'ersimi <lm li- 
 nimi; and N. IndeiMiident Turkestan, ln>m which 
 it is seitarilled by llie IliliiliNi Coimli. 
 
 />irMi<.nii (im/".(»;»rr» o/'Mc < i>«»i/»-y.— -The former 
 de|«'iidiiigrniher iiisin nalnrnl features and foniia- 
 thm tlimi u|Mm iHiliiicnl or arlilleial arrangement, 
 will Im'sI be noliccd in describing the laller. This, 
 so far M is known, presents an n^tgifcgmhin of 
 moiiiilahious grou|iH mid ranges, .iiverging from 
 certain prinil|Mil isiinU, nml thu« iM-comes dlviih-il 
 into numerous valleyit of greater or leiwer si/.e, 
 which are watered liy Hlreams of corres|Mindiiig 
 ningnitiide, and wbicli sometimes streleh out iiitu 
 plains of considerable extent. The south face of 
 the MindiHi-CiMwh is furrowed by a variety of siib- 
 ordinalegleiis and ravines, whieh carry their walem 
 loihcCaubnl river. This stream, which rises near 
 (Ihiznee, but drains also Ihe bighhinds of Kohislan, 
 runs in a large and frequently very bniad valley 
 from Ihat city to the IihIiih, which it eiilers at 
 Allock. It separates Ihe mountains of llindoo- 
 Coosli from those to the southward, which, origi- 
 nating in the huge jM'ak of .Speeiigur or SuH'eed- 
 koh (While Monnlainl, spreiul east nml west, 
 conlining the Canbul valley on the south, and 
 stretch in ft variety of huge ranges in that 
 dirtetimi : one of these uniting with lhat of Ihu 
 Tucht-e-Soly-maun, extends lo l)er«'h (ilia/ee- 
 kliaii; ftiiollier enters Seeweestan; and another, 
 tending more to Ihe westwani, by Shawl ami 
 I'isheen, sinks into lh« deserts of lieliHichiHtan and 
 Sistan, 
 
 The rniibul valley is the most imimrtant of thn 
 natural divisions thus constitiiled. 11 contains thn 
 larj^cst river, the linest plains, and the principal 
 cities of Ihe couiitr}-, including Ihe ancient town 
 of (ihiznee; and extends from Ihe westward of 
 liaumiaii to the Indus, n distiince of more than 
 'JOO miles. It is subdivided into severnl sections, 
 of vliieh Ihe western is fomieil bv Kohislan or 
 'the Highlands,' com|irising Ihe vnUeys mid low- 
 lands of Nijrow, I'niijsheer, (ihorchund, Tugow, 
 mid Oo/.beeii, which are all blessed with a delight- 
 ful climale, embellished with the linest sci-nery, 
 produce Ihe linest fruits in ubundance, and are well 
 watered mid cullivnted. 
 
 Lugmnun, also on Ihe north side of the river, 
 comprehends Ihe vnllevs of Alingnrand Alisbeng, 
 with minienms subordmate glens, all ecpiallv rich 
 mid iM'auliful. The fertile plains of Jelallabad 
 all'ord Ihe iiroduce of Isitli torrid and lcm|M'rat(i 
 climates, I'lie Uell of (.'oonnur Conns but a lied 
 for the rapid river of Knshknr, which, traversing 
 Katl'erislan, here pierces Ihe Ilimnleh range t<i join 
 that of Cnubul. The small valleys of I'uiij rora 
 and Itajour pour their streams into the more ex- 
 tensive and vcrv' fertile district of Swaut, where 
 ftirest, pasture, and cultivated land are found ad- 
 mirably blended, and everj' valuable fruit and 
 grain is produced. The same description will apply 
 to lloonere, (.'hoomla, and all the glens that din- 
 elmrge their waters info the Caubul or Indus rivers 
 from the north. I'eshawur, the lower division of 
 the great Caidiul valley, is (livide<l from the plains 
 of •Telallabad b^ a range of small hills, which stretch 
 from the lliiidoo-Coosh across to the Sulleed-koh. 
 
 C 2 
 
20 
 
 AFFOHANISTAN 
 
 It in well watered nnd extremely rich, but nuifnn 
 from hont in Hummcr. 
 
 Dnmaiin, which Higniflcs the ' «kirt,' and is the 
 tract between the foot of the Solymnun mountains 
 and tlie river Indus, is poorly cultivated and thinly 
 inhabited ; being chiefly hard tenacious day, scan- 
 tily covered with tnmn'risk and tliorny shrulis. It 
 is hounded on the north by the Salt range of the 
 Khuttult country, and stretches southward to Dereh 
 Gha/.ce Khan. A wide extent of mountains in- 
 tervener between this district and the valleys which 
 furrow the western face of the Solymaun range ; 
 but even in this wild region we hear of fertile tracts. 
 The plain of Boree, for instance, is compared by 
 the nativem to that of Peshawur for extent and 
 richness ; the rivers Zhobe and Goomul water some 
 line valleys ; and Tull, Choote^alee, and Furrah 
 are mentioned as well peopled and cultivated. 
 
 Among the valleys opening westwanl, those of 
 Shawl, Burshore, I'isheen,, Yessoon, Saleh, Urgh- 
 essan, (luashtft, are doscrilied as interspersed with 
 well cultivated spots, but as more generally suited 
 to pasturage than agriculture; but the two first 
 are stated to he rich and prwluctive. Beyond 
 these, to the NW., the river Tumult, rising near 
 Ghiznee, but on the southern slope of the country, 
 runs through a poorly watered and ill cultivated 
 district, till, to the westward of Kandahar, it is 
 joined by the UrgundAb, and both fall into the 
 preat river Helmund. The district of Kantlahar 
 18 fertile and highlv cultivated, but is circumscribed 
 within narrow limits by the desert. In like manner 
 the fertile valley of Hcr&t, which may be 30 miles 
 long by 15 wide, constitutes the most important 
 portion of that district. 
 
 A vast and varied surface, such as has lieen de- 
 scribed, must naturally exhibit much diversity of 
 aspect and fertility. Of the mountainous tracts, 
 some are covered with deep forests of pine and 
 wild olive trees ; others afford excellent pasturage 
 for sheep and cattle, while others again arc bare, 
 rocky, and sterile. Of the valleys, as we have 
 seen, many are fertile, well watered, and wooded, 
 especially those which pierce the Hindoo-Coosh 
 range ; while others, particularly to the south, arc 
 bare, or covered only with tamarisk and thorny 
 shrubs. 
 
 Mountains. — These have been already men- 
 tioned. The chief ranges are those of tlindoo- 
 ('oosh, or Himaleh ; the Speengur or Suffeed-koh, 
 called Kajgul by Captnin Burnes, a branch from 
 which joins the Solymaun range; and perhajw 
 that of Khojeh Amran, which seems to be the pro- 
 longation oi a spur from the last-mentioned range. 
 The Hindoo-Goosh, or Himaleh, is described by 
 Mr. Elphinstonc as rising above the level of Pe- 
 shawur in four distinct ridges, the lowest of which, 
 clear of snow on the 24th of February, was clothed 
 with forests of oak, pine, and wild olive, and a 
 profuse variety of fruit trees, and graceful herbs 
 and flowers. The second was still more densely 
 wooded; the third was at that time white with 
 snow ; and beyond rose the glittering and stuj)en- 
 dous crest of the true Himaleh, spiring into shaq) 
 peaks and bold masses. 
 
 Captain Burnes states that the term Hindoo- 
 Coosh, though applied generally to this chain, 
 which is a continuation of the Him8.1eh, belongs 
 proj)erly to one single peak, forming the western 
 buttress of the range, which beyond that point de- 
 clines in he'rrht, and is lost in the Paropamcsan 
 or Ghor mountains. The peak of Koh-e-Baba, 
 estimated by him at 18,000 feet high, is the only 
 one covered with perpetual snow to the westward 
 of the passes. Little is known of the height of 
 the other ranges, but the Suffeed-koh obtains its 
 name from its snowy cap. The Tucht-e-Solyniaun 
 
 is estimated at 12,000 feet in height ; nnd there is 
 a very lofty iieak to the south-west, named Kund. 
 
 River*. — Thc! principal of these have also been 
 mentioned. They arc the (*aul)ul, the llehnund, 
 the Tumiik, and Urghundiib; the Goomul, the 
 Zhobe, the Lorah. Tlie courses of the three last 
 are little known, and their waters are lost in the 
 sand, excepting in the time of flomls. 
 
 There arc no lakes of any consequence known 
 to exist in AfTglianistnn. 
 
 Climate and Soil. — These vary in an extreme 
 degree, according to locality. In the eastern part 
 of the Caubul valley and in those to the south, 
 Iwrdering on Cutch (lundava, the heat is suflicicnt 
 to mature all the prmlucts of India, such as the 
 sugar-cane, indigo, and some of the tropical fruits ; 
 while the northern valleys almund in thc prodiu;- 
 tions of cold regions, and the mountains are co- 
 vered with forests of pines. Acconling to Ferricr 
 (History of the Affghans, p. 257), the soil of 
 AifghanistAn resembles that of the rest of the great 
 table-land of Central Asia. Within the princi- 
 pality of Caiibul, and the northern part of that of 
 Herat, are high mountains covered with forests, 
 having l>etween them vast argillaceous plains well 
 8U])plied with water, covered with fields, and sus- 
 ceptible of every species of cultivation. TTie portion 
 south of Herat and Kandahar also consists of im- 
 mense plains, but generally arid, running fnn.i 
 east to west, and Imrdered by a chain of sterile 
 mountains. The soil of these plains is sandy, and 
 alworbs so much water as to create a great scarcity 
 of that necessary of life within their limits, and 
 the inhabitants are obliged to obtain by long and 
 toilsome labour that which nature has denied them 
 at the surface. They dig a deep hole at the foot 
 of a mountain where they expect to find water, 
 and having succeeded, lead it to their villages by 
 a subterranean canal connecting a scries of wells. 
 If the country unhappily becomes the theatre of 
 war, the first operation of the invading army is to 
 destroy them, and deprive the people they come to 
 attack of their supply of water. It is to this un- 
 happy mania of destnietiveness, especially in this 
 particular form, that the depopulation of Affghan- 
 istan is principally to be ascribed : immense tracts 
 of country have in consequence lieen abandoned, 
 and become arid ; they belong to no one ; the lan(l 
 is valueless, and cannot be sold. 
 
 Mineral Products. — Tlie mineralogy, as well as 
 the ge(dogy, of Affghanistan, is but little known. 
 Burnes tells us of two sorts of sulphur, of wells of 
 petroleum or naphtha ; and, of what may prove 
 still more valuable, of coal, which exists in Jio 
 district of Cohat, below Peshawur. Vast quanti- 
 ties of iron, lead, and sulphur are found in the moun- 
 tains of Affghanistan, as well as mercury and as- 
 liestos — thc latter called singui-pemhe — and silver. 
 But this mineral wealth is entirely unexplored and 
 unused. (Ferricr, History of the Affghans.) 
 
 Agriculture is in the same rude state as in Per- 
 sia and most Asiatic countries. 'I'he soil is broken 
 by a crooked log of wood, sometimes shotl with 
 iron, whi' h is generally dragged by oxen ; and ir- 
 rigation is resorted to wherever rain does not fall 
 in suflicicnt abundance to bring fonvard the crops. 
 Only the richest and most promising tracts arc 
 thus employed ; so that, as the seasons are usually 
 regular, the harvest afforded, even by so rude a 
 process, is for the most part abundant. Wheat, 
 l)arley, rice, maize, form the produce of the more 
 temjierate regions ; while in the warmer, thc 
 smaller grains common to India, as moongy. chuii- 
 na, joar, dal, &c., with the s'.;gnr-cane, cotton, 
 tobacco, indigo, madder, &c., reward the farmer's 
 labours. Horticulture is carried to a consideriiWn 
 extent fai the neighlwurhood of the principal 
 
AFFOIIANISTAN 
 
 21 
 
 I heipht ; nnd thon> is 
 h-wi'st, nnmod Kiind. 
 those linvc nlw» h<>on 
 ^niilnil, the Ilt'hnuiul, 
 \h; the (looinul, t)io 
 iMOH of the tliree Inst 
 vntrrH nrc lost in the 
 
 of fi0(MlH, 
 
 y consequence known 
 
 I vary in nn extreme 
 , In the eastern part 
 (1 those to the south, 
 1, the heat is Rufli(;ioiit. 
 of India, such as the 
 ! of the tropical fruits ; 
 iliound in the produc- 
 lie mountains are oo- 
 Accordinjj to Ferrior 
 p. 257), the soil of 
 of the rest of the jn'ent 
 Within the princi- 
 )rthern part of that of 
 covered with forests, 
 rgilliiceous plains well 
 I with ilelds, and sua- 
 Itivation. The portion 
 IT also consists of im- 
 y arid, running froi.i 
 hy a chain of sterile 
 le plains is sandy, au'l 
 create a preat scarcity 
 thin their limits, and 
 to obtain by long and 
 ttture has denied them 
 deep hole at the foot 
 expect to find water, 
 it to their villages by 
 !ting a scries of wells, 
 icomes the theatre of 
 e invading army is to 
 e people they come to 
 ter. It is to this un- 
 less, especially in this 
 [)ulation of AfTghan- 
 )cd : immense tracts 
 nee been abandoned. 
 Of to no one ; the lanil 
 )ld. 
 
 lineralogy, as well as 
 
 is but little known. 
 
 )f sulphur, of wells of 
 
 of what may ]>rove 
 
 which exists in iho 
 
 lawnr. Vast quanti- 
 
 rc found in the moun- 
 
 as mercury and as- 
 
 rii-pembe — and silver. 
 
 tirely unexplored and 
 
 the AfTghans.) 
 
 rude state as in Per- 
 
 'i'he soil is broken 
 
 ometimes shotl witli 
 
 fed by oxen ; and ir- 
 
 ver rain docs not fall 
 
 ng fonvard the cro]is. 
 
 promising tracts are 
 
 e seasons are usually 
 
 even by so nide a 
 
 abundant. Wheat, 
 
 produce of tlie more 
 
 n the warmer, the 
 
 lia, as moonfft/. rhun- 
 
 sugar-cane, cotton, 
 
 reward the farmer's 
 
 ied to a consideraliln 
 
 d of the principal 
 
 towns ; and to the fruits of Europe, in high pcr- 
 Ifeiiiou, are added gra|H!S, |)omegranates, tigs, the 
 Iniungo, orange, lemon, giiavas, plantains, and 
 other fruits of India. Vegetables are also reared 
 in great abundance, and of excellent quality ; of 
 tlicMC, two, the rhubarb (niwash) and the ossafwtida 
 i|)laiit, deserve mention: the fonner is used when 
 oung and tender, blaiu;hed artiticially, and is eaten 
 •til raw and dressed in great iiuantities, as a very 
 Rhcilesonie delicacy; the latter is not (mly culti- 
 vated for its valuable gum, but is eaten roosted, 
 ;V-licn it springs yoiuig from the earth, like the 
 1flo^vcr of a caiilitlower in ap[)earancc. It is es- 
 teemed a great delicacy ; but it smells so strong, 
 that, to those unaccustomed to itt* odour, one head 
 0f it, while l)cing cooked, is enough to poison the 
 air of a whole cam]). 
 ' The prin(!i|)al animals of AfTghanistan arc the 
 wrse, camel, and sheep. The tirst two are largely 
 (ported into India, and are bred chictly in the 
 irestcrii parts of the country. The camel an<l 
 ftiecp constitute the main wealth of the nomad 
 Vilies, together with cows, buttuloes, and goats, 
 ill the sheep in Attglianistan are of the fat-tailed 
 Variety, and are remarkable for the peculiarly 
 brown colour of their wool. From the skins of 
 these sheep, properly prepared, are made the pos- 
 tiiis, or sheep-skin coats, the common dress of all 
 tliisses of the people. The wool of the white- 
 fleeced sheep forms an important item of the 
 ftaplc exports of the country, whilst their Hesh 
 fonstitutes the chief animal food of the lower 
 (tlusses. The principal wild animals of the plains 
 
 Sc the ga/.elle, the jackal, the fox, and the wolf, 
 juiineil to the western deserts is the wild ass, 
 Ikalled, from its colour, the 'gorftkhar,' or white 
 ips. Throughout the mountainous districts are 
 fcund the tiger, leopard, lynx, and hyojna; also 
 8>e bear and monkey, with more rare specimens of 
 we ibex, the wild goat, and the elk, or 'bara-sing.' 
 ;|Bellcw's Mission to Affghanistan in 1857, pp. 11 
 ii»14.) 
 
 ' Alanufacture* are confined to home-made stuffs 
 ,«f cotton and wool, and a little silk, which serve 
 |br the dress of the inhabitants : little or nothing 
 il manufactured for export. 
 -; Commerce. — The disturbed state of the country 
 br a succession of years has been unfavourable to 
 ' Bde ; and the large and valuable caravans which 
 brnierly carried the rich protluctions of India and 
 Dashmere to Caubul »nd Herat, for the consump- 
 |iun of the courts at these cities, or for transit, by 
 Ye/., into Persia, have dwindled down to the 
 'tmallest dimensions. There is still, however, a 
 ^less extensive traffic carried on, chiefly by a pas- 
 •toral tribe called the Lohfinees, occupying much 
 of the country between the Indus and Ghiznee, 
 who at certain periods of the year repair to India 
 to make their purchases, or receive goods from 
 those who have brought them from thence, at the 
 ferry of Kahcree. With these they return, carry- 
 ing them on their own camels, through their o^vn 
 couiitrj', by the Golairee pass, and the valley of 
 tlu^ Goomul, not only to Ghiznee and Caubul, but 
 ^northward, across the mountains, to Berkhara. 
 iCaptain Burnes states, that a thousand canicl- 
 lloads of luiglish and Indian chintzes, calicoes and 
 pnuslins, brocades, shawls, Punjab turbans, spices. 
 Tic, are yearly consumed in Caubul; in return for 
 vhieh are sent back horses in great numbers, mad- 
 Jcr, saffron, assafcetida, and fniit, both fresh and 
 Iried, in large quantities. An official report of Mr. 
 X'lvics, secretary to the government of the Pun- 
 Jab, states that among the exports from KurracLee, 
 rthe lollowing are brought down through the Biluch 
 rami Attghan mountains: — Madder, r2,22«/.; assa- 
 [ftjutida, 2,296/.; raw silk, 17,976/.; sheep's wool. 
 
 315,101/.; horses, 92,051/.; nnd fruit, 14,911/. 
 (Heport on the Trade of Central Asia, printed 
 among the House of Commons' l'a|)i'rs, Febnuiry, 
 IMO-l.) The commerce of Atrghanistan, on the 
 whole, is increasing, and will probably continue to 
 do so. The ojiening of the nver Indus f()r trade, 
 a channel which, with the Caubul river, enables 
 goo<ls to be conveyed into the lieart of Asia, can- 
 not fail to stimulate the commercial pn)pensitic8 
 of the people, and give rise to a vast increase of 
 traffic. 
 
 Population, — There are no very trustworthy 
 data on whicli to ground a tolerably accurate es- 
 timate of the (Kipulation of this country. It must 
 viu^' greatly in different districts. The rich tracta 
 bordering the Caubul river, and the fertile glens 
 that i^netratc the Hindoo-Coosh, are certainly 
 more densely peopled than the high and bleak 
 ]iastoral countries to the west. Mr. Elphinstone, 
 from the best infonnation he could obtain, bus 
 mentioned the supposed numbers of several of the 
 ])rincii)al clans ; but it is to lx>. feared that these 
 are not to be depended on. Thus the Fussuf/.e- 
 hees, who occupy a very small district at the 
 extreme NE. comer of the country, are set do»vu 
 as 70U,0()0 souls at least; and the whole of the 
 Benlooranees, a collection of tribes including the 
 Eussufzehees, who inhabit a country of about 
 15,000 squ. m., are estimated at nearly 1,400,000, 
 or 90 to the square mile. The Dooranees, on the 
 contrary, who occupy at least 52,000 squ. m., are 
 said to amount to only 800,000 or a million, being 
 from 17^ to 19^ per square mile. The Ghiljees, 
 in like manner, from 500,000 to 600,000 souls, are 
 spread over 1,500 squ. m., or alxjut 40 per square 
 mile. This is on a calculation of five indiviauala 
 to a family, which is too little in these countries. 
 
 Now the whole of Affghanistan as here defined 
 does not quite amount to 170,000 sq. m. of surface, 
 of which suppose the richer parts, such as, and 
 including the. 
 
 Benloordnee country, to be . 
 
 3U,000 
 
 at 90 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 Country of secondary fer- 
 
 
 
 
 tility 
 
 20,000 
 
 40 
 
 800,000 
 
 Poor high land, such as much 
 
 
 
 
 of the Dooraneo country . 
 
 00,000 
 
 18 
 
 1,080,000 
 
 The remainder, token at a 
 
 
 
 
 low average 
 
 60,000 
 
 20 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 
 17(),0((0 
 
 
 6,780,000 
 
 Add estimated amount of 
 
 Tanjiks 
 
 , &c. 
 
 
 scattered over the country and in cities 
 
 l,fiOO,000 
 
 Total .... 7,280,000 
 
 And this is independent of Hindoos, &c., who 
 are stated to be numerous. 
 
 This estimate, founded on the vague numbers 
 stated above, would give to Affghanistan a popu- 
 lation of more than seven millions, or nearly 43 
 to the squ. m., which taking into account 'he vast 
 tracts of high and unproductive lands on the west 
 of the Solymaun range, and north of Kandahar 
 and Zeemeendawur, is undoubtedly far beyond 
 the truth. 
 
 On the other hand, Mr. Ferrier gives the follow- 
 ing estimate and classification of the population : 
 
 ParaiTini 
 vid uthcri, 
 
 800,000 
 800,000 
 
 2,'J00,0OO 1,100,000 
 
 The province of Herdt is now under a distinct 
 Affghan government, but otherwise resembles the 
 aboye-namcd principalities. Mr. Ferrier's census 
 is as foUows : — 
 
 Afghani. Pmtvani, lie. 
 Herdt ..... SOU.OOO UOO.OOO 
 
 Province of Kandahar 
 Ditto Caubul 
 
 Total 
 
 Afghani 
 
 600,000 
 1,600,000 
 
22 
 
 AFFGHANISTAN 
 
 . ti. 
 
 iiii! 
 
 The general total is 4,200,000, which in considcralily 
 above the rHtiipat« of Lieut.-Col. Lumsden, in the 
 report of his mission to Aff|[;hniii»tan in 1857. On 
 the whole, and upon ((rounds of analogy and pro- 
 bability, therefore, rather than from any existing 
 data, the population of Affghanistan may, perhaps, 
 bo regarded as little exceeding four millions. 
 
 Tribes, — The Aflghan nation is comiioscd of a 
 great number of tribes, who claim a common 
 origin, and differ intrinsically very much from all 
 their neighbours. This origin m very obsciu'e. A 
 native history derives them from Saul, the king 
 of Israel, whose progeny was carried away in the 
 time of the captivity ; bnt no proof of this is ad- 
 duced, and Mr. Elphinstone classes this among 
 btbcr fabulous genealogies. The name Affyhan is 
 not known to the people, wlio call themselves 
 J'ooshtoon, in the plural Poo»htauneh, from whence 
 by corruption, Peihin or Patdn, the name they 
 have obtained in India ; and of their great anti- 
 quity there is no reasonable doubt. Bunies says, 
 the Affghans call themselves • Bin-i-Israeel,' or 
 children of Israeel ; but consider the term of ' Ya- 
 hoodee,' or Jew, to be one of reproach. The 
 tribes of Soor and Lodi, from both of which kings 
 have sprung, are mentioned as owing their origin 
 to the union of an Arab chief, K haled ibn Abdool- 
 la, with the daughter of an Atfghan chief, in A, d. 
 682; and Mahmood of Ghi/nee, though sprung 
 from another race, ruled over the Affghans m the 
 ninth centuiy. According to their own traditions, 
 the whole of the tribes descended from the sons 
 of one Kyse or Kais Abdor-reshced, who, whether 
 a real or imaginary character, is the person to 
 whom all their genealogies refer ; but as it would 
 be impossible to examine all these, the following 
 classification must sutKco to enumerate the prin- 
 cipal tribes, with their habitats, as they at present 
 exist: — 
 
 EAsrKRN Division.— 5?rrfooranw«. 
 EnssufTzchecs. Poshawur tribes. Bnngush. 
 Osman Khcil. Khyburees. Kbuttuk. 
 
 Turcolunees. 
 
 Neighbourhood of Sail Range, 
 Essawkheil. Bunnooses. Khoostecs. 
 
 Sheotucks. Dowers. 
 
 Dowlntkhell. 
 Meankheil, 
 
 Tribes of Damaun. 
 Baboors. 
 Stooreeonees. 
 
 Gundeporees. 
 
 Ckntral "DvnsKys.— Including Mountain Tribes, 
 Jaujecs. Vizeerees. Zmurrees. 
 
 Zoorees. Murheils. Sbeeranees. 
 
 Jadr&ns. Hoonakheil. Speeutereens 
 
 Western Division.- 
 
 -Dooranees. 
 
 Zeeruk. 
 
 
 PungepatB. 
 
 Popul-zehee. 
 
 
 Noor-zehGe. 
 
 Alleko-zehee. 
 
 
 Ali-zehee. 
 
 Baurik-zeheo. 
 
 
 Iskhak-zehee. 
 
 Atchik-zehee, 
 
 Gilgeet. 
 
 Kougonee. 
 Makoo. 
 
 Tooran, 
 
 
 Booran. 
 
 Hotukee. 
 
 
 Solymankheil 
 
 Tokhee. 
 
 
 Alikheil. 
 
 Under. 
 
 Turrukee. 
 
 Sheerpah. 
 
 
 Wurducks. 
 
 Kharotee. 
 
 
 Baraitches. 
 Tor Tereens. 
 
 National CTiarac.'er.— This aggregation of tribes, 
 though exhibiting considerable diversity in cus- 
 toms, dress, and appearance, among themselves, 
 form, taken together, a nation singularly homo- 
 geneous ; yet Mr. Elphinstone remarks, that 
 ' amidst the contrasts which are apparent in the 
 government, manners, dress, and habits of the 
 
 different trilws, I find it difHeult to select thono 
 great features which all possess in common, and 
 which give a marked national character to tlie 
 whole of the Affghans,' And this becomes the 
 morci perjilexing, because even the virtues and 
 attributes on which they most value themselves, 
 and which separate them most from their neigh- 
 lM)urs, are apt to l)c misundersto(Ml or overlooked 
 by strangers. Thus, an English stranger might 
 regard their wild freedom as but a savage mixture 
 of anarchy and arbitrary power. Alarmed at the 
 absence of any organised government, or regular 
 courts of justice, and witnessing the summary 
 inflictions of retributive and customary law, he 
 might fancy that violence and revenge entirely 
 usurped the jilaco of justice and equity ; while the 
 rude hospitality, the bold and simple manners, and 
 martial and lofty spirit of the people, would 
 scarcely in his mind com|iensate for their pronc- 
 ness to violence and rapine — to the deceit and 
 fraud which are the vices necessarily engendered 
 by the lawless freedom in which they exult. 
 
 The traveller from India, on the other hand, 
 sickened with the servile vices of its pliant, timid, 
 and indolent inhabitants, would probably be fa- 
 vourably impressed, not less with the bold and 
 independent bearing of his new acquaintance, than 
 with their sobriety, their superior energy, their 
 strong and active forms, their fair complexions, 
 and features marked and striking even to harsh- 
 ness ; and he might view, in the stormy indepen- 
 dence of their mode of life, a favourable contrast 
 to the apathy t»f that which he had left. The 
 result in both cases might be, that, mingled witli 
 many a vice and failing, he would find the germ 
 of many a virtue and noble quality; and that 
 however much he might lament their great fail- 
 ings, he would not be able to deny them a portion 
 of his esteem. 
 
 One of the strongest characteristics of this peo- 
 ple, according to all travellers, is their hospitality, 
 which is founded on national feeling, and there 
 are some usages connected with this principle 
 which deserve mention. The first is that of Nun- 
 nawautec (two Aff^han words, signifying, ' I have 
 come in '), by which a person having a favour to 
 entreat goes to the house of the individual on 
 whom it depends. La* refuses to sit on his carpet or 
 partake of his food until the boon be granted ; and 
 this, if in the power of the party besought, custom 
 makes it imperative on him to concede. A still 
 stronger appeal is the second, being made by a 
 woman, when she sends a person her veil, and im- 
 plores assistance for herself or for her family. 
 
 All persons, even a man's bitterest enemy, is 
 safe under the protection of his roof; but this 
 protection extends not beyond the lands of the 
 village, or at most of the tribe ; and it is not un- 
 common for the stranger who has benefited by it, 
 and experienced the kindest treatment, to" Ite 
 robbed and plundered when once beyond its in- 
 fluence. 'There is no point in the Affghan 
 character,' remarks Mr. Elphinstone, ' of which it 
 is more difficult to get a clear idea, than the mix- 
 ture of sjanpathjr and indifference, of generosity 
 and rapacity, which is observable in their conduct 
 to strangers. ... So much more do they attend to 
 granting favours than to respecting rights, that 
 the same Affghan who would plunder a traveller 
 of his cloak if he had one, would give him a cloak 
 if he had none.' In this, as well as in their regard 
 for hospitality, their customs much resemble those 
 of the Desert Arabs. 
 
 The pastoral tribes in the west are more addicted 
 to robbery and theft than the agricultural ones; but, 
 in general, a previous understanding with the chiefs, 
 confirmed by the presence of a single man, ensures 
 
AFFOHANISTAN 
 
 2d 
 
 !cuU to select thnm 
 Otis in common, anil 
 ml character to tlio 
 11(1 this bccomcN tliu 
 •on the virtues and 
 9t value themselves, 
 St from their nei^h- 
 rstood or overlooked 
 ;lish stranf^er mif^lit 
 )ut a savage mixture 
 'cr. Alarmed at the 
 sreniment, or re^ridar 
 Hsing the summary 
 
 customary law, he 
 nd revenj^e entirely 
 id equity ; while the 
 
 simple manners, and 
 
 the people, would 
 sate for tlu-ir prone- 
 — to the deceit and 
 cessarily engendered 
 ieh they exult. 
 
 on the other hand, 
 ^s of its pliant, timid, 
 )uld probahly be fa- 
 I with the bold and 
 w acquaintance, than 
 perior energy, their 
 eir fair complexions, 
 iking even to harsh- 
 
 the stormy indepen- 
 i favourable contrast 
 1 he had left. The 
 !, that, mingled with 
 would find the germ 
 i quality; and that 
 lent their great fail- 
 deny them a portion 
 
 cteristics of this pco- 
 
 I, is their hospitality, 
 
 d feeling, and there 
 
 with this principle 
 
 '. first is that of Nun- 
 
 signifying, ' I have 
 
 havhip a favour to 
 
 the individual on 
 
 to sit on his carpet ur 
 
 ioon be granted ; and 
 
 rty besought, custom 
 
 to concede. A still 
 
 d, being made hy a 
 
 son her veil, and ira- 
 
 for her family. 
 
 bitterest enemy, is 
 
 his roof; but this 
 
 nd the lands of the 
 
 and it is not un- 
 
 has benefited by it, 
 
 treatment, to be 
 
 once beyond its iu- 
 
 it in the Affghan 
 
 nstone, ' of which it 
 
 idea, than the mix- 
 
 rence, of generosity 
 
 tble in their conduct 
 
 »re do they attend to 
 
 pecting rights, that 
 
 plunder a traveller 
 
 lid give him a cloak 
 
 ill as in their regard 
 
 nuch resemble those 
 
 jst are more addicted 
 riculturalones; but, 
 ding with the chiefs, 
 single man, ensures 
 
 ifety; and the Aflghans, it is soid, are less prone 
 
 1 add munler to phuider than most other rapacious 
 
 ril)es. They are repniached with ignorance, bar- 
 
 irism, ond stupiditv, by the Persians, but on no 
 
 itHcient grounds. "They are less polished, it is 
 
 .lie, and have less of worldly knowledge thon their 
 
 kproachers ; but are in general prudent, sensible, 
 
 nd observant, and are less indifTerent to truth 
 
 lian most of their neighbours. Like most moun- 
 
 Uneers, they are proud of their lineage, and will 
 
 dly acknowledge one who cannot prove six or 
 
 >ven descents. Like Highlanders t<x), they are 
 
 ,'hly national. Love of individual frisedoni, 
 
 ■ong though it be, is exceeded by devotion to 
 
 lilv ond clan, and this seems by no means to 
 
 Jiilliee their love of country at largo ; for the 
 
 fuiiff flu Foosh tauHvh,' or, honour of the AtF- 
 
 an nomo, which is one of the feelings warmest 
 
 their breasts, apjK'ars to Ije equalled by local 
 
 Mtihmeiits, so strong in all mountaineers. A 
 
 Cive of the wild valley of Sp<!iga, who for some 
 
 fence had l)een forced to wander abroad, declared 
 
 his return that he had 'seen all Persia, India, 
 
 feorgia, Tartary, and IJeloochistan, but in all my 
 
 l\ els I have seen no such place as Sjieiga.' * To 
 
 jii up their character in a few words,' says Mr. 
 
 Iphinstone, with whom subsoc^uent travellers are 
 
 ' ijorfect agreement, * their vices are, revenge, 
 
 |vy, avarice, rajwcity, and oiwtinacy; on the 
 
 ber hand, they ore fond of liberty, faithful to 
 
 cir friends, kind to their dependants, hospitable, 
 
 ive, hardy, frugal, lab«)rious, and prudent ; and 
 
 /WUiv are less dis|)osed than the nations in their 
 
 ''fiighbourhood to fttlseh<K)d, intrigue, and deceit.' 
 
 ^Customs, Manners. — The former of these heads 
 
 iprehends the internal government of the 
 
 es. This is patriarchal. Tribes are subilivided 
 
 l)ranches, which are termed onloos, and each 
 
 [|these are commonwealths, which have their 
 
 "ef or speen-iherah (literally white beard), or 
 
 llik (master), if small; or if large, a khan, who 
 
 ; always chosen from the oldest family, and is 
 
 netimes selected by the king, sometimes by the 
 
 iple. These carr>' on the internal government, 
 
 [conjunction with certain assemblies of heads of 
 
 isions which are called Jeerga, and which 
 
 ermine all matters of consequence. In civil 
 
 inns the statutes of Mahomet are generally 
 
 lered to; but criminal justice is administered 
 
 ording to Pooahtunwullee, or A '' i^han usage, a 
 
 stem sufficiently rude, and founued on the law 
 
 /retaliation. This, however, as tending to per- 
 
 Wuate feuds and quarrels, is modified by judi- 
 
 ,al jcergas composed of khans, elders, and mool- 
 
 Ikhs who inflict suitable penalties on offenders; 
 
 id in fact this whole system is subject to various 
 
 id considerable modifications. 
 
 A family forced or induced to quit its ooloos 
 
 lay be recei) i d into another ; and once received, 
 
 t is treated with peculiar attention, and placed in 
 
 11 respects on an equality with the original 
 
 lerabers of the community. Every ooloos, more- 
 
 ver, has many persons called Uumsayaha (or 
 
 ompanions), who are not Affghans, and who are 
 
 Bgarded with consideration, but not permitted to 
 
 lare in the administration of affairs. Of such 
 
 heils oolooses and tribes the nation is composed ; 
 
 nd when placed under one sovereign, has seldom 
 
 ielded him a full or implicit obedience. Mr. 
 
 ^Iphinstone has compared it to that yielded by 
 
 cotland of old to its kings, who ruled pretty 
 
 bsolutely over the principal towns and country 
 
 their vicinity, but whose authority diminished 
 
 1 it extended to the extremities of the kingdom ; 
 
 rhose court nobles were inordinately proud, and 
 
 rliose more distant chiefs were nearly inde- 
 
 endent. 
 
 fFomen, Mnrrinqe. — Their customs with re- 
 gard to their females are nearly those of most 
 Mohammedan countries ; those in towns are jea- 
 lously setdudcd, those in the country have greater 
 liberty. They purchase their wives, who tliero- 
 fore are regarded as property. The husband can 
 tlivorce at pleasure ; and a man marries the widow 
 of a deceased brother. The latter, decide<lly Jewish 
 custom, is strictly adhered to, and it is a mortal 
 affront for any other man but the brother to take 
 the widow without his consent; but she is not 
 forced to marry at all. The age for marriage ia 
 twentv among men, sixteen for women. In towns, 
 courtships resemble those in Persia. In the coun- 
 trv, matches are made more according to the liking 
 of' the parties. If a lover can cut ofl'a lock of his 
 mistress's hair, or snatch away her veil, and in 
 doing so pnudnim her his alKanced wife, no other 
 will approach her with these Wews, and he gene- 
 rally obtains the consent of her parents on pay- 
 ment of her price ; if not, they elope ; and this 
 offence, which ranks not less fjravely than a 
 murder, is settled by intervention of parties. 
 Among some tribes the bridegroom earns his 
 wife by scn-ice, as Jacob did Rachel ; some permit 
 not the least familiarity before marriage, others 
 an excessive and perilous degree of it. Polygamy 
 is permitted, as in other Mohammedan countries, 
 but less practised; the poor content themselves 
 with one, those of middle rank with two wives, 
 and perhaps as many concubines. The wives of 
 the nch live in luxury and indolence; the poor 
 not only employ themselves in household, but in 
 field labour. In towns they go about, as in Persia, 
 veiled from top to toe ; in the country they only 
 veil in the presence of strangers, and that more 
 from decency than obligation. The Affghan women 
 are said to be correct in conduct and deportment ; 
 but adultery or incontinence is punished with 
 death to both parties upon the spot, by the injiured 
 relative. 
 
 Education is conducted much as in the conter- 
 minous countries. A village mooUah, or school- 
 master, teaches the children of the poor to sav 
 their prayers and to read the Koran; the rich 
 keep lallas, or private tutors, in their houses ; the 
 village schoolmasters are paid in allotments of 
 land and some small fees. Those intended for 
 the learned professions go to towns, and live in 
 colleges instituted for the purpose of instruction. 
 
 Literature is at a veiy low ebb. The Pooshtoo 
 language is an original stock, embracing a good 
 deal of Persian, with some Zend and Sanscrit 
 words: they use, in writing it, the Niskee cha- 
 racter of the Persian alphabet ; but there are few 
 or no works of much repute in the language. 
 
 Religion. — The Affghans are all Mohammedans 
 of the Soonee persuasion, and are superstitious 
 enough, believing in alchemy, astrology, and 
 magic; but are far from being intolerant to 
 others. Hindoos remain unmolested, on paying 
 a slight tax. Christians sustain neither persecu- 
 tion nor reproach ; they are called people of the 
 book, as deriving their tenets from a written 
 source, which they themselves respect, instead of 
 being pagans, as the Hindoos. Sheahs are de- 
 tested more than any sect: yet the country is 
 full of Persian sheahs, many of whom held im- 
 portant offices under the crown, and now do so 
 under the several chiefs. Sooffeeism (or free- 
 thinking), though denounced by the moollahs, is 
 common, and ^ains ground among the higher 
 orders. The priests and moollahs, like those of 
 Persia, are avaricious, hypocritical, and bigoted, 
 as well as arrogant and overbearing, and they 
 exert a very absolute and dangerous power over 
 the people. This ia strengthened by the occar- 
 
^4 
 
 AFFGHANISTAN 
 
 lii 
 
 i|(li ;:,! 
 
 I, I 
 
 
 Hinnal cxproinc of poml offices, ami l)y tlic in- 
 iliipiicc of Home rare vxanipli's of wlsiloin ami 
 virtiH*, ovinivil in roitrcsMJii); liloodslicil iiiid vio- 
 li-iicc. Kilt tlio Itliiid ri'pinl of tlu; Atf^liaiiH for 
 thcHc iioly im|M)stor!i ih ohiotly attriliutnl>l(! to 
 tlii'ir i(;iiorancc aiul NiqH^rstitioii, which leiul tlicm 
 uhnoHt to adore al! di^rviNhes and tithor axtrcticH, 
 and to visit their toiiilM aa those of canonised 
 Miinls. 
 
 J'ersomtl Aitpearancf, Amu»ement», — The men 
 of Ati'^lianislaii are for tite most part robust, ge- 
 nerally lean, thou^^h iMiny and mus<;ular. 'I'liey 
 have elevated noses, hi^li cheek hones, and loii|{ 
 faces ; their hair is commonly hiack, sonietinu-s 
 hrown, rarely red; they wear hint; thick beards, 
 but shave the middle of the head: the western 
 tribes are stouter than those to the east ; the lat- 
 ter have darker complexions, and more strongly 
 marked features : their demeanour is frank and 
 open, equally free from stateliness and j)nerility : 
 they are very s(H'ial, deli^htin^ in dinner-parlies, 
 smoking after dumer, and sitting in a circle telling; 
 stories of kings, viziers, and genii, or singing 
 songs, generally alnrnt love, to the sound of in- 
 Htmmeiits like rude guitars, tiddles, and hautlM>ys: 
 they take much snuff, of a high-dried line-jiow- 
 dered sort, like the Scotch : they arc fond of the 
 chase, driving the game into sonio valley, and 
 killing great quantities; also of coursing hares, 
 foxes, and deer with greyhounds ; and they ride 
 down iiartridges in the o|)en ground, tiring them 
 out till they can knock them down with sticks : 
 thev arc aico fond of horse-racing and lighting 
 cocks, quails, rams, dogs, and even camels. The 
 western Aftghans have a dance, called the attum 
 or ghoomlwor, in which ten or twenty jico))le 
 move in strange attitudes, shouting and clap])ing 
 liands in a circle, round a single jierson, who plays 
 on an instrument in the centre. The national 
 vostumc apjiears to consist of a l(H)se pair of 
 trousers of dark cotton stuff; a large shirt, like a 
 waggoner's frock, reaching a little below the 
 knees; a low cap, the sides being of black silk or 
 satin, and the top of some sort of brocade ; half- 
 boots, lacing up to the calf; and a cloak of soft 
 grey felt, or of well-tanned sheepskin with ^he 
 wool inside. The women wear a shirt like that of 
 the men, but much longer and of finer materials, 
 coloured or embroidered with silk ; their trousers 
 are tighter than those of the men ; a small cap of 
 bright-coloured silk, embroidered with gold thread, 
 conies down to the foreheail or the ears ; and they 
 throw over their head a large sheet of plain or 
 printed cotton, with which they hide their face 
 when a stranger approaches ; they divide the hair 
 on the brow, and plait it into two locks which 
 fasten behind ; they wear iound their head strings 
 of Venetian sequins, and chains of gold or silver, 
 which are hooked up, and end in two large balls 
 hanging down on either side: ear rings, finger 
 rings, and nose pendants are worn. In towns the 
 fashions more approach those of Persia, particu- 
 larlv to the westwanl. 
 
 Of individual Tribes. — What has been said 
 a])plics to the nation in general ; but almost every 
 tribe has its peculiar characteristic, which can be 
 but shortly touched upon. The IJerdooranees, 
 who occupy the north-eastern districts, are brave 
 but quarrelsome, active, industrious; but selfish, 
 bigoted, and remarkable for vice and debauchery. 
 Tlieir quarrelsome disposition is thought to have 
 given origin to a sort of federative alliance, offen- 
 sive and defensive, among tribes and sulutivisions 
 called Gtxindees, which were held more binding 
 than ties of blood. From these Gootulees, how- 
 ever, were excepted the EussufTzehees, the most 
 powerful and numerous, as well aa most Imughty, 
 
 insolent, nnil turbulput tribe of the Hordoomnees, 
 who are said to number 7tMI,0<M) S4nils. They now 
 (Mviipy Swaiit, llunerc, I'liiijecora, &<"., ami ant 
 notorious for the anarchy which reigns among 
 their imlmt»t». Though an agricultural people, 
 they do not themselves lal>our; this is left to their 
 fakirs, a species of villains or servants, consisting 
 \tf strangers or individuals of con(|uere<l tribes of 
 other nations, reduced to serve these invaders, and 
 jirotected by them for their services. Their mas- 
 ters, or hhawuuds, can iK'at or kill them at plea- 
 sure, but are lM>und by custom to jffotect them ; 
 and provided they pay the customary tax, and do 
 their work, they may engage otherwise in trade 
 as they i)lease, and are commonly treated mildly. 
 
 The Timrknlanees, who are brave, active, indus- 
 trious, and cheerful, are all subject to one jiowerfiil 
 chief, who exercises over them a very powerful 
 authority, 
 
 'J'he khyl)eree», who possess the njnier branches 
 of the Hajgul or Speengur mountain, and tlerive 
 their name from the formiihiblc pass of KbyU'r, 
 Hie the most rapacious and treacherous robbers of 
 all Affghanistan : no ])revious agreement secures 
 the traveUer from their assaults; they watch the 
 approach of the caravan, matchlock in hand, and 
 choose their victims with certaintv and security. 
 They are a lean muscular race, capital marksineii, 
 and carry swords and short s|)ears in aiUlition to 
 their matclil<K'k ; they are altogether more un- 
 couth than most of their countrymen. 
 
 The Khuttuks, occupying the banks of the 
 Indus, from the Oaiibul river to the Salt range, 
 are a tall well-favoured peojjle, as remarkable for 
 honesty and orderly conduct as is their country 
 for dreary and rugged barrenness. 
 
 The tribes of Damaun arc said to be more 
 sini])lc and honest, less bigoted and litigious, less 
 vicious and debauched, than the northern tribes. 
 They are a more bony and fairer race than tiie 
 licnkHiranees, and universally wear long hair and 
 beards. They owe the greater onler which jire- 
 vails in their oolooses to an establishment of ma- 
 gistrates, formed some fifty or sixty years ago, 
 which has been eminently efficient. 
 
 The GundejMmrs are a luirticularly thievish and 
 quarrelsome race, in spite of a commercial turn, 
 which leads many of them to make annual trading 
 journeys to India and Khorasan. 
 
 The Baboors are a civilised tril)e, much ein- 
 I)loyed in merchandise. The Stooreaneea were 
 shepherds, till robbed of their pasture lands by 
 the Cankers, when they bet<H>k themselves to 
 agriculture. These agricultural tribes have all 
 fakint, or villains, like the Eussiiff/.ehees. 
 
 Of the central di^asion, theJaujeea and Toorees, 
 hereditary enemies, live in the glens and valleys 
 of the Solymaun range. The country of the 
 former is colder, wilder, and higher than that of 
 the latter; the mountain sides are covered witli 
 pines. The Jaudraus, who dwell in a pleasant 
 district westward of the rich plain of liunnoo, are 
 remarkable only for their disgusting vices. 
 
 The Sheeranees, who inhabit the borders of the 
 Tukhtu-e-Solymaun, a wild inaccessible country, 
 arc very jwor and uncivilised, plunder every one, 
 and are at war with all the world ; yet they never 
 break their word, and a single individual of their 
 tribe suffices to secure the safety of a party : they 
 are described as wild and savage in their apiiear- 
 ance, as in their habits and mode of life. The 
 Zmurrees, neighbours of the last, resemble them 
 closely, but are less inveterately predatory. The 
 Vizeerees, NVV. of the two lost'-nicntioned tribes, 
 live in little societies, among pine-covered moun- 
 tains, and are eqimlly uncivilised and addicted to 
 plunder; yet the smallest escort ensures safety. 
 
 •I I" I 
 for 
 
 pet I 
 
of tlip norrtooranccs, 
 0(»0 wiiiIh, TIu'V now 
 iijt't'iirii, fic, mill lint 
 which ri-i^iiM aiiitni); 
 I a^friiHilturnl pi'opli', 
 ur; thU iit li>t°t to their 
 ir MervaiitH, con.si.stin^ 
 i>f con(|iu'ri>(t tribcM ot 
 vc the.su invatlvrs, uikI 
 sorvi<'o«. Thi'ir miis- 
 or kill thcin nt plt'ii- 
 ;oiii to |irotcet thcin; 
 nistoniary tax, aiul (Id 
 ^;c otluTwi.sc ill trade 
 noiily trratcd iiiiUlly. 
 
 Itravc, iu;tivc, iiuliis- 
 iihjct.'t to OIK! |H>wvrl'iil 
 liciii a very powerful 
 
 '88 the ii|i|H>r hrniielu>!i 
 nioiiiitaiii, ami derive 
 table pa.ss of KhylM-r, 
 treaeheroiKs roblxTs of 
 •us agreement HeeiircH 
 lults; they watch the 
 itchlock ill hand, and 
 ertaiiitv and security, 
 ice, capital inarkNineii, 
 8|H!nrs in addition to 
 altogether more uii- 
 intrynien. 
 
 if the banks of the 
 cr to the Salt range, 
 pic, as remarkable for 
 jt as is their country 
 iincss. 
 
 arc said to be more 
 ited and litigious, lesi 
 
 1 the northern tribea. 
 [ fairer race than the 
 ily wear long hair and 
 Iter onler which i)re- 
 cstablishmcnt of nia- 
 
 or sixty years ago, 
 ficient. 
 
 ticularly thievish and 
 ' a commercial turn, 
 make annual trading 
 san. 
 
 sed trilK>, much em- 
 he Stooreaneea were 
 ir pasture lands by 
 took themselves to 
 ural tribes have all 
 isaiiif/.ehees. 
 Jaujees and Toorees, 
 he glens and valleys 
 "'he country of the 
 higher than that of 
 les are covered witli 
 dwell in a pleasant 
 plain of liiiniioo, are 
 :ustiiig vices, 
 it the borders of the 
 nacccssible country, 
 ,, plunder every one, 
 orld i yet they never 
 e individual of their 
 ty of a party : they 
 age ill their apitcar- 
 modc of life. The 
 last, resemble them 
 !ly predatory. The 
 9t^nicntioned tribes, 
 pine-covered inouii- 
 scd and addicted to 
 cort ensures safety, 
 
 und the chicfH, powerful khnns, nrr, it, is said, rc- 
 lliiarkuble for their love of ikmicc. The Vizerees 
 divided into a fixed and eiriilii' population. 
 J'he long vallev of Zawura, wiiirli oikiis on the 
 jiiaiii of Tull and Chootceallee, is inhabited by the 
 vhite and black (n/w/i and tot) Z.-re.-iw, great 
 ■(^carriers of nierchaiuliHO lietweeii Upiier Simle and 
 ^it'andahar. 
 ' Tlie two most noble aii<l miimrtant trilws, how- 
 tMT, are the Hwirnnei-s and tihiljees. Their terri- 
 tory <«n.Hists chiellv of high bleak <lowiis iiiter- 
 iiHTsc.l with hills, in some parts desert, in others 
 iparselv cultivated, in all open, bare, and lit chiefly 
 for pasture. They are therefore chietly a pastoral 
 people, with patriarchal habits, and live for the 
 -tost part in tents of black wool. These (hizhdeet) 
 ■e from 2i» to '2i) feet long by it) or Ti '..road, and 
 or !t high, supported by a row of thrtH! pedes, and 
 (sed all round with a" curtain. In winter they 
 lined with felt, and are warm and ctmifortable. 
 le country of the Dooranees is KM) miles long 
 1.1(1 liroad, extending from the I'aropame.san 
 .oiintaiiis to the Khojeh Amran range. They 
 rere formerly called AlMlallee.s, till the late Ahmed 
 hah, their chief and sovereign, changed the name, 
 II eon.si'(|iience of the dream of a famous saint, he 
 ^kiiig that of Shah Dooree Dooran. They may 
 lluiioiint to 80(t,t)IIO souls; the Siiddoozehee, from 
 
 ? hence spning the king, is a sulMlivision of the 
 opulz<'hee. The king is their hereditary chief, 
 tnd military commander of the whole : he claims 
 4 horsemairs service for every plough of land; 
 |bi<l the oHicers commanding them are the civil 
 iiagi.-itrates of their respective districts, besides 
 &iiig employed in olRces of state at court, when 
 imero was a court. The internal govoniment of 
 JlSe clans is better maintained than among other 
 bes, and the progress of improvement and civil- 
 tioii among the agricultural Dooranees has 
 n correspondingly great. They are generally 
 iiidst)me stout men, with good complexiims and 
 e beards. They are brave and hospitable ; and 
 ough not quite strangers to rapacity, still may 
 esteemetl tlie worthiest of their race. 
 The Ghiljees occupy the upper valley of the 
 milk, and great i>ttrt of the Caiibul valley, to 
 le llerdooranee country; a tract which contains 
 ime of the principal cities, with some tine dis- 
 icts of land, but the climate of which is cold, 
 e Clhiljees were formerly the leading trilK) of 
 _ ffghaiiistan. It was a branch of them that 
 #onqiiered Persia and broke down the power of 
 i^e Sctl'avean kings; and they are still a liigh- 
 minded, brave, and numerous people. 
 
 The Hotekee and Tokhee are the noblest of their 
 elans, having produced — the first, kings ; and the 
 •eeond, their viziers; and they are a hospitable 
 and gootl people, ranking deset^'edly as the second 
 if the Atlghan trilies: they amount to about 
 00,000 families, and resemble much the Dooranees 
 ap]iearance, customs, manners, and dress, though 
 ating them, as their successful rivals, with an 
 nquenchable hatred. They ore perhaps the 
 fairest and handsomest of all the Atfghaus. 
 
 There is yet another class, which, tliough not 
 
 itrictly Atfghan, still, as amalgamated with that 
 
 ople, ought to be mentioned — the Tdjukt. The 
 
 ord is used in opposition to that of Toork, the 
 
 aceable to the warlike ; and it was applied to 
 
 e subdued Persians by their Tartar masters. In 
 
 ffghanistan they are sup^tosed to be descendants 
 
 " Arabs displaced by their conquerors, who now 
 
 ive scattered over the land which they might 
 
 ice have eultivated as their own. As tenants or 
 
 ir\-ants, tliey are mild, solwr, jwaceable, and in- 
 
 ustrioiis, and live on good terms with the Aff- 
 
 :hau8, who, though they regard them oa inferiors, 
 
 AFFOIIANIHTAN 25 
 
 tlo not treat thorn with contempt. Tliey are most 
 niiineroiis in and around the great cities, anil are 
 all zealiiiis sooiiiiies. There are also the llmnrrhi 
 and other allied triU's, whow language is a dialect 
 of tlie Persian; and the Hindki* and Jut», who 
 si)eak Hindi, or rather a dialect of that tongue. 
 There are also some Kashmires and \rmeiiiaim 
 settled alCaiibul, but their iiiimlier isinsigiiitieant. 
 Tlie llindhiH are very nninerous and are Hindus 
 of the military caste, transacting nearly all the 
 business of the country. The Jul* are a tine, 
 athletic, handsome race, usually very dark. They 
 are mostly very \\kwr, and are emplov«'<l iw fariii- 
 servants, barbers, musicians, he, I'lio llindkis 
 and the Jats number about (iOO,000. 
 
 HtDtonj and i'olitical ChdHijeg. — AtTghanistan 
 having, from the nmiotest |M>ri(Hl of aiilhentio 
 record, followed the fortunes of its more |M)werfiil 
 neighbours, or foniied but the centre of a greater 
 whole, cannot correctly lay claim to any history 
 of its own, until after the death of Nadir Shah. 
 For though several dynasties sprung from its soil, 
 they never erected there a separate kingdom of 
 any duration, unless |M>rliaps in the instaiiee of 
 Sii'imctageen, father of the celebrated MahiiioiMl 
 of (ihiznee, who resided at that city l)efore the 
 rise of his son's iwiwer — a power which extended 
 over great part of Asia. On the murder oi' Nadir, 
 ill Khora.taii, Ahmed khan Abdallee, after an in- 
 decisive conflict with the Persian troops of that 
 conqueror's atmy, fought his woy with 3,000 
 Atlghaii horse to Kandahar, where, seizing on a 
 convoy of treasure on its way to Nadir's camp, he 
 assumed the ensigns of royalty ; and, at the ago 
 of 2.1, in October 1747, was crowned as king, 
 the Dooranec, Kuzbilbash, Heloocliee, and other 
 chiefs assisting at the ceremony. Wise and ]im- 
 dcnt l)cyond his years, Ahmetl consolidated the 
 discordant mass of tlie Atlghan triln's by employ- 
 ing them in the congenial occu|>tttion8 of foreign 
 conquest and plunder; in which he was so suc- 
 cessful, that before his death, in June 1778, after 
 a reign of '2(! years, his dominions extended from 
 Nisha|Miur of Kliorosan to Sirhind of the Punjab, 
 and from the Oxus to the Indian Ocean. He was 
 succeeded by Ills son Timoiir Shah, a weak and 
 indolent prince, who died in 17!)3. 
 
 /cmaun Shah, the son of Timour, who was 
 placed on the throne by a faction headed by the 
 queen, began his reign with a promise of energy 
 and talent, which the event but ill redeemed ; for 
 after a seven years' reign of ill directed enter- 
 prises, domestic rebellions, and dark conspiracies, 
 lie fell a victim to the revenge of a chief whom he 
 had provoked, and who first opposed, then seized 
 the Shall, and delivered him to MahmtNHl, his 
 half-brother and most formidable comi)etitor, who 
 blinded the unfortunate Zcmaiin. 
 
 Mahmood, however, was in liis turn soon op- 
 posed by ShujalwKd-Moolk, full brother c»f Ze- 
 maun, who, seizing the treasure at Peshawiir, 
 proclaimed himself king. Ihit his prosperity was 
 short-lived. Mahmood, who had been made pri- 
 soner, escaped, and joining with Fiiteh Khan, the 
 able chief of the liaurikzehecs, who had caused 
 the niin of Zemaun, raised a rebellion against 
 Shujali. At this period the British mission under 
 Mr. Elphinstone arrived at Peshawur; and before 
 it had well quitted the country, the ill-fated 
 .Shujah was forced to fly and seek a refuge with 
 Kunjeet Sing, chief of the Sikhs, from whose per- 
 secutions he aftcnvanls with difficulty escaped to 
 throw himself on the protection of the liritish 
 government at Loodheana. Mahmood, a king 
 only in name, became a pageant in the hands <.f 
 Futeh Khan. This mhiister, turning his arms 
 westward, seized Herat, but soon after full a victim 
 
26 
 
 AFFOHANISTAN 
 
 
 & 
 
 to trcacIiGiy and the fcelinKS of <UiiKu«t which hl8 
 ami^niu;ct hnd excited in the mind of hin royal 
 «lc|)('ndant, Ixiinc tint blinded and then put to 
 death by order i.f MahtncHNl and hia son Cainr&n 
 MtHsrza. IliM numcrouit brothere, alarmed at this 
 act, tied to their voriouo Kuv-<mmentM and Htronif- 
 lioldH, exciting; diHcontent and rcbi^llion through- 
 out the kingdom, until nothing of IiIh dominions 
 remained to Mahmood, Have ller&t and its im- 
 mediate dependencies. .Since then the affuirH of 
 Aft'^hanistan i)rcHciit little save a scries of civil 
 broils, till the lato Sil<h chief, Kunject Sing, 
 8trip|)cd it of Cashmere and Pesliawur, with the 
 country between it and the Indus. It was subse- 
 quently partitioned among the chiefs of Caubul, 
 Kandahar, and Herftt. The attempt made by the 
 English in 1831), to dethrone the tint of these 
 chieftains, on account of treachery and bad faith, 
 led to some of the severest reverses wo have met 
 with in the East. The Bolan Pass, a long and 
 narrow detile, leading through the mountains on 
 the S. frontier of Affgiianistan, ha^'ing been passed 
 with ditticultv, the British forces advanced to 
 Kandahar andGhuznee. The latter was taken by 
 storm on the 22nd July, 1889. The army soon 
 after entered Caubul ; and the chief Shah Shiijah 
 was established on the musnud. Dost Mahomed 
 Khan having retreated with a few followers be- 
 yond the Oxus. 
 
 A force of about 8,000 men, partly Europeans 
 and partly Sepoys, exclusive of native troops, 
 having been left in the country (mostly at Cau- 
 bul) to support and consolidate the newly estab- 
 lished order of things, the rest of the British army 
 returned to India. But no sooner had they with- 
 drawn, than plots and conspiracies began to be 
 formed against the English garrison. From some 
 unexplained fatality, the latter did not become 
 fully alive to their danger till the envoys, Sir 
 Alexander Bumes and Sir William Macnaughten, 
 had been assassinated, when it was too late to 
 adopt the precautions necessary to ensure their 
 safety. Being unable to maintain themselves in 
 Caubul, the troops, amounting to about 5,000 men, 
 exc. of an infinitely greater number of camp-fol- 
 lowers, women, and children, commenced their 
 retreat from it in January, 1842. The defiles 
 through which they had to pass being of the most 
 impracticable description, the cold extreme, and 
 the attacks of the Affghans incessant, the retniat 
 was most disastrous, and resulted in the all but 
 total destruction of those engaged in it. 
 
 The receipt of this melancholy intelligence pro- 
 duced a great sensation in India and England. 
 Government immediately resolved to march a 
 fresh army into Aifghanistan to inflict a signal 
 and well merited punishment on its treacherous 
 people and chiefs. This was effected in 1842. 
 Having entered Caubul the British troops de- 
 stroyed its fortifications; the prisoners and de- 
 tachments that were left in the country were 
 relieved ; and our ascendancy and the prestige that 
 had so long been attached to our arms were again 
 triumphantly restored. But having wisely re- 
 nounced all idea of maintaining a permanent 
 footing in the country, we finally qmtted it in 
 December, 1842. 
 
 Dost Mahomed who had surrendered himself 
 our prisoner was set free, and returning to Caubul 
 regained the allegiance of his former adherents 
 and subjects. Having fully established himself 
 in the capital and central provinces, the outlying 
 districts became the objects 6f his aspirations. In 
 1850 he conquered Bsukh in Turkestan, and, four 
 years after, Kandahar, which he made a province 
 of CaubuL Herat, after the death in 1852 of Zar 
 Mi^omed Khan, by whom the defence of Her&t 
 
 AFRAGOLA 
 
 in 18n9 had lieen conducted, was governed by hit 
 son and a succcHMion of UNur|)crH till 1850, in wliidi 
 year the AfTghans, under the direction of Kalimi. 
 dil-Khan, a Uonraneo chief, threatened it. The 
 then chief of Ilcr&t, Isa Khan, a Har-l)ouran<>i>, 
 called in the aid of the Persians, who, espuuHiiii; 
 his cause, threw an army into Ilcr&t in IHiiH. 
 This Uting an infringement <if our treaties witli 
 Persia led to a war in 1850-7, in which a small 
 force, despatched under General Outrani up tliu 
 Persian Gulf, was able to bring the Persians tu 
 reason. In ac(;ordance with the terms of a new 
 treaty, the Persians evacuated Iler&t in July, 1857. 
 On their departure, the government fell into tliu 
 hands of one Sultan Ahmed Khan, a Baruk/vu 
 chieftain. The danger to his western fVontu<r 
 induced Dost Mahomed to invoke the aid of the 
 British, and the result was a treaty concludt'd 
 with him at Peshawur in January, 1857, grantiiij; 
 him a sulwidy so long as the Perttian war shouM 
 last, and providing that a deputation of BritiHh 
 officers should enter the country under the pro- 
 tection of Dost Mahomed to watch the movements 
 of the Persians, and aid in organising the forces 
 of the Ameer. The mission which was sent had 
 for political chief and head Major H. B. Lumsdcn, 
 and the medical officer of the mission was as- 
 sistant-surgeon W. H. Bellew, whose work we 
 have consulted in the compilation of this article. 
 The Indian mutiny of 1857 added to the dangers 
 of the mission, but by great tact and prudence the 
 danger was not only avoided, but the influence of 
 the mission decided the Affghan government to 
 remain faithful to the British alliance, and refrain 
 from attacking Peshawur, an attack which in all 
 probability would have been the signal of a rising 
 of the Punjab, with all the disastrous conse- 
 quences of such an event. Since the death of 
 Dost Mahomed in 18G3, the country has been the 
 scene of perpetual disonlers, owing to the quarrcln 
 among the sons of Dost Mahomed. One of them, 
 Sherc Allee Khan, succeeded in establishing him- 
 self in Caubul, consolidating his authority by a 
 'great victory' over one of his brothers in the 
 summer of 1864. After the battle the defeated 
 brother surrendered on the promise of good treat- 
 ment, but the Ameer treacherously imprisoned 
 him. Other brothers, however, still dispute the 
 Ameer's authority, but the state of matters is not 
 authentically enough known, nor of sufficient in- 
 terest to demand a more extended notice. 
 
 AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (or Black Castle of 
 Opium), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, 
 cap. Sanjiack, 188 m. E. Smyrna, lat. 380 45' N., 
 long. 30° 56' £. It is situated on the declivity ot 
 a mountain range, and is defended by a citadel, 
 built on a high and almost inaccessible'rock. Pop. 
 estimated by Kinneir at 12,000 families, or from 
 50,000 to 60,000 individuals. It is pretty well 
 built; but the streets are exceedingly narrow, and 
 in many parts very steep. Some of them arc 
 washed by streams that descend firom the adjacent 
 mountains. It has numerous mosques, two Ar- 
 menian chapels, six khans, and five public Imths ; 
 an extensive manufactory of black fielts, fire-amis, 
 short sabres or yatagani, with stirrups, bridles, &c. 
 But it is principally celebrated for the great quan- 
 tity of opium grown in its vicinity ; from which, 
 indeed, it derives its modem name. It is said by 
 D'Aiiville to be the Apumea of the Greeks and 
 Romans ; but the latter was situated a good deal 
 further VV. According to the Turkish annals, it 
 was founded by Aladdin, one of the Seljuckiun 
 sultans. It was the patrimony of Othman, the 
 founder of the Turkish empire, of which it has 
 ever since formed a part, 
 
 AFKAGOLA, a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 
OLA 
 
 il, wu governed by hin 
 qicrH till 185(1, in whiih 
 ho direction of Kaluiu- 
 f.f, tlircatunetl it. The 
 fvhan, a liar-Douranop, 
 L'ntiAnH, who, cKp«)ii8iii|r 
 into Herat in IK»>. 
 It of our treativH witli 
 5(S-7, in which a itmall 
 eneral Outrani up tliu 
 brinK the PcrHiuni) to 
 [h the terniH of a new 
 m\ Ilcr&t in July, 1857, 
 vemrocnt full into tlic 
 ed Khan, a 13arul</vi! 
 ) his wcHtcm flrontivr 
 invoke the aid of tlic 
 RH a treaty concludi'd 
 nnuary, 1867, (frantiiij,' 
 the Pentian war shoulil 
 deputation of Brititili 
 :>untiy under the pro- 
 I) watch the movements 
 1 orfi^aniging the forccD 
 >n which was sent bad 
 Major H. U. Lumsdcn, 
 the mission was a.s- 
 ellew, whose work we 
 pilation of this article. 
 7 added to the dangen 
 '. tact and prudence tlic 
 id, but the influence uf 
 ft'gban government tu 
 ah alliance, and refrain 
 m attack which in all 
 n the signal of a risinj; 
 the disastrous consc- 
 . Since the death of 
 B country has been the 
 , owing to the quarrels) 
 kbomed. One of them, 
 ^d in establishing him- 
 «ig his authority by a 
 >f his brothers u) the 
 le battle the def(>ated 
 )romi8e of good treat- 
 acherously imprisoned 
 ever, still dispute the 
 itate of matters is not 
 nor of sufficient in- 
 «nded notice. 
 
 (or Blaek Castk of 
 
 Turkey, in Anatolia, 
 
 lyma, lat. 880 46' N., 
 
 ed on the declivity ot 
 
 lefended by a citadel, 
 
 accessible' rock. Pop. 
 
 000 families, or from 
 
 It is pretty well 
 
 :eedingly narrow, and 
 
 Some of them are 
 
 end fh>m the adjacent 
 
 us mosques, two Ar- 
 
 nd five public baths; 
 
 black telts, fire-arms, 
 
 stirrups, bridles, &c. 
 
 d for the great quan- 
 
 icinity ; from which, 
 
 name. It is said by 
 
 of the Greeks and 
 
 situated a good deal 
 
 le Turkish annals, it 
 
 e of the Seljuckiun 
 
 ny of Othman, the 
 
 I, of which it has 
 
 anthem Italy, prov. 
 
.tt' 
 AfHIi'A. 
 
 I fH.». 
 
 Kililuautl-f Iiiuti 
 4avnl 
 
 AlHia ,hfii l.'i'oo Vii Vi/i-/ 
 
 »-^- II ' — 
 
 KlUjung* W all'. .<(.-,i ;i,-.il(ii /./I < fi.illtri i l.rn,,ll, M':< UiUt 
 
 l., -ililh jtofirilrj 
 
 50 
 
 Alivavpum 
 
 ■ vuiiail 
 
 fiI..,.K 
 
 i. unvrnon* ' 'lA uoo 
 
 puvrilw 
 
 M\l««in. .11.^0 
 AukMrwtr* 
 
 ».l»r>*ii«'rrr oadoo 
 
 
 ^iiv9 F^- ■ ttooo 
 
 giruwldt 
 
 KuufrM? 
 
 
 'V^4,<?V*<»-' -" -- mmu. T*/^J* »• A « ^ 
 
 MaiUir*. 
 
 
 
L. lillh ■{M,;:Mll^j 
 
 A»kft 
 
 Blwlth I Milrp. 
 
 Ktki^uxAt-WtX" IU,„.tih ;-jl 
 
 r.l.(V« UK"" 
 
 
 
 IVliti l|>al Hlvr 
 
 
 
 « 'IV.^fhiiii 
 
 
 *■ ^^ V K S Kv R' T 
 
 - — >. 
 
 ,<,,.l.lr. 
 
 \o-. ♦ *.»v*'«< ''i^'""*' -TT*^ "'"•''... 
 
 v. U'eller \i\TiIp* 
 
I 
 
 a: 
 
 III, 
 
 r 
 
 ! 
 
 
 Allnr* ./>. 'II <;;i'i'>> .'>'<' I'.j .Vi7>'. 
 
 
 KlI^luHL V i4l>» .tini liiHlli. A« S,).ilUn l-ni-ilh .IH.'i Mllrt 
 
 JtmMjb^Mat 
 
 ri-M 
 
 
 KiluiiBii4.'t fuuuu 
 
 
 ' Kllf^UlA*W,ir. 11,,. ullKi^JljJtg^ 
 
 l%Mu1|tal Klvi-t. 
 
 
 :,"J€A 
 
 
 ATMIIA 
 
 Mika. 
 
AinirA 
 
 Nnptriit ft m. NXF. Nunlon, on thfl rnllwny from 
 KoiiM^ to Sn\Avo. V»]>. Itl.717 ill IMitl. 'Ilio town 
 liiiH iiiuiiut'iictiin'N of hiraw liatH, iiiul a K"'iit mi- 
 iiiiiil fair, which foiiiiiiiuwH oil the hccoiiiI Muiiihiy 
 of Mav, 
 AKlUC'A. A viwt ponliiHuln, Olio of tho KTi-nt 
 
 ilivUi of thd n\»U; Hiluatnl to the H. of KurolM-, 
 
 and to th« VV. niut S\V. of Aula. It Im m-parati-il 
 from tln" former hy tli«> Moilltcrrnncaii Men and llii! 
 
 Strait of (iihraltar; t\w two coiitimntM npnronch- 
 iii^ at the Intlt-r within aJMiut 10 m. of fuc-h othi'r. 
 It in -iparatwl iVom Ania liy tlic IM Sea, at whtw 
 Hoiith.ni <'Xtrt'niity, tlin »fralt of l(al>-fl-nmn<l<>h, 
 the Nhon-s of the two contincntN ar« only l*> in. 
 apart. Hut at the mimt northerly extremity of 
 tlie l{e<l Sea, Ania niul Afrieii are united hy the 
 iHlhmnM of Suez; the Mediterranean being there 
 alxiut 72 III. from ihe Ked S4'U. 
 
 Tlie iiioHt Houtherlv jxdiit of Africa, Cape dan 
 AkuIIww ((;a|M( NeedU'N), U in lat. ;l|0 M' S. ; 
 
 and the nioMt northerly, Oapc Klaii opposite 
 
 Siiily, in lat. 37° 21' N. (.'ape (iarilnfui, the 
 niiHt eaxtcrly |M)iiit, Im in long. 51° IIO' K., and lat. 
 1 1° M' N. ; anil ("arw Verde, the extn-me weNferii 
 point, is in lonjf. 17" iVX VV., and 14° III' N. lat. 
 The (iiNtaiK^lK-twecn the inont Houtherly and inoHt 
 nortlierly poiiitx in con8ei|uently about ftUOO in., 
 and iH'tween the extreme eastern niid wcnteni 
 pointit not much Iomh. The area pmltably falL) 
 little Hhort, if it do not exceed, r2,0l)(),l)(H) mj. m. 
 
 Africa in diNtiiiKuished from the otluT conll- 
 nent!* Iiy itit coasts extending inoHtIv in continuoufi, 
 unliniiien linex, having but few indentatioiM of 
 the M'lX, and no cxtenttive peninNula.s ; m> that it 
 forniH a more compact and undivided inaHX of land, 
 Tlie uniformity or its outline seems to l>e in ac- 
 cordance with the uniformity of its interior. The 
 surface of the latter does not prcs<!nt that endless 
 HiiccesHion of changes which are met with in 
 Kiiropo and southern Asia, and which arc found 
 ill Ixtth Americas, but on a greater scale and at 
 greater distances. It resembles rather the north- 
 ern parts of Asia, exhibiting elevated table-lands 
 anil low plains, both of immense extent and of 
 remarkable uniformity. The whole of the con- 
 tinent, from a!x»ut 16° X. lat. of the eiiuator, and 
 S. of it to the northern border of tlie Ngami 
 Water, 20° 8. of the equator, constitutes, with 
 the exception of the central depression uf the 
 Lalce Hegioii, a mass of elevated land, comprising 
 extensive plateaus and high mountain chains and 
 groups. North of this table-land, between 10° 
 and 30° N. lat,, extends an immense but low 
 plain, the greater part of which is occupied by the 
 Great Desert, or Desert of Sahara. A compara- 
 tively narrow tract of mountainous country, in- 
 cluding Atlas and its dependencies, separates the 
 desert from the Mediterranean. On the E. the 
 desert does not reach the Kcd Sea, being sepa- 
 rated from it by the mountains of Abyssinia and 
 the rocky countries extending from them north- 
 ward along the Ked Sea to the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 The great central belt south of the equator 
 'rejects,' says Captain Burton, 'the old hypo- 
 thesis of desert and plateau, and forms the 
 sharpest contrast to our grandfathers' idea of 
 Central Africa.' He thus describes the eastern 
 section of it : — ' Near the coast are low littoral 
 plains and rolling ground, with lagoons, savan- 
 pahs, and grassy valleys, the courses of large 
 streams, whose banks, inundated by rain-floods, 
 retain in the dry season meers, morasses, reedy 
 marshes, and swamps of black infected mud. Be- 
 yond the maritime regions rise lines and moun- 
 tain groups of primary and sandstone formation ; 
 ridges and highlaiuu, often luicultivated, but 
 
 rarely uterlle, with hndlii" ami hill-plaimi of e xu- 
 iK'rnnt fertility, traversed by |MTeiiiilal rivuletn 
 and Hireaiii*. Ileyond the landward xlopeof theno 
 AtVican ghaiitH JH'^iim an elevated plati'iiii, now 
 level ami tabular, tlivn broken into undiilaiionn 
 and geiith' eiiiineiii'eit, di.'<playiiig liy huge oiit- 
 eropH of uraniteN anil NveiiileHthe activity of tlin 
 igiieoiiA period ; where rain in dellcii lit, thinly clad 
 with IiunIi, broom, and NhrulilM>ry, with thorny 
 and KUeeuleiit ihirkelM, cut by frirrows and liiinit 
 by torrid niiiim; and veiled where nioiilure alMiiindit 
 with tangh-d jungle rising (Voiii shallow vaMeVN, 
 with uiiiltrageoiiN foreMtt broken into glades of 
 exeiM-ding lH>aiity, and with interlaceiit plains of 
 emerald or aiiiber-<'oloiin'<l grauM, iVoiii whirb treen 
 of the darkeftt laurel-green, uiid kiiolli* and eluiii|H, 
 large and Minall, against which no feller has come 
 up, <!aNt thick Nhade over their Hiilijei't circlets of 
 luxuriant iindcrwuod. Dull, dreary, and mono- 
 loiioiiM, where lying desert, in iiart this plateau is 
 adorned with a lavish iiatunts choicest charnm 
 and varietii's. Itevond it, again, tiie land sinks 
 into the liake Kegloii, or the great Central De- 
 nrcHsioii ; the su|M'rabiiii(laiit nioistimnlift'iiKed by 
 Its network of waters, fordable and unfordalile, 
 covers the land with a rank growth of gigaiitiu 
 grasses and limber-trees, and the excessive luxu- 
 riance of nature proves unfavourable to the de- 
 velopment of animal organisms. Throughout the 
 line, to Judge without statistics, in the more ste- 
 rile parts, about tme-titlh, and in the more fruitful 
 one-lialfof the land, is under cultivation ; whilst 
 almost everj'where the abundance of the desert 
 vegetation evidences the marvellous eapabilitieit 
 of the almost virgin soils. The su|>eriicial eoii- 
 foniiation owns four great varieties. When low, 
 the plains are reedy uiu\ muddy ; when higher 
 raised and well watered, they In-ar evergn-eii 
 jungle and forest trees. In the deserts, when) 
 water lies deep beneath the earth, and rain is 
 scarce, the plateaus |)roduoe short tulty grass, 
 bush, and scraggy thorn, and in rare spots the 
 land is almost bare.' Dr. Livingstone, who made' 
 a Journey into the interior from Loaiida on the 
 west coast, represents the country as similar in 
 most essential characteristics. 
 
 At the southern extn^mity, Africa presents to 
 the Indian Ocean a broad line of coast, running 
 east and w-ost nearly along the t)4tli parallel from 
 1«° to 2(1° E. long., or from the Cape of (lood 
 Hope to Algoa Hay. Along this coast extends uii 
 undulating country, intersected with a few eleva- 
 tions deserving the name of hills. Its width varies 
 lietwecn 10 and 60 niiles^ North of this the table- 
 land rises in terraces. Tlic first terrace, called the 
 Limg Kloof, is enclosed by the double ridge of the 
 Zwarte Bergc, or Black Alountains, of which the 
 nortiiiin, or the Grooto (Grcot) Zwarte Berge, 
 rises to about 4000 ft. above the sea. North of this 
 range is the second terrace, called the great 
 Karroo, which is about 100 miles across and 8,000 
 feet elevated above the sea. It is bounded on the 
 N. by the Nieunveld Bergen, a chain of which 
 some summits are considered to rise to 9,000 or 
 10,000 feet On its northern side the table-land 
 seems to have attained its mean elevation, which 
 probably is not less than from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. 
 
 At both the eastern and western extremities the 
 two above-mentioned ranges run NW. and NE. 
 parallel to the sea-shore, at a distance of from 80 
 to 200 miles ; the intermediate space being like- 
 wise occupied by two or more terraces. The 
 ranges along the west shores do not extend farther 
 than about 29° S. lat., where they terminate in 
 isolated hills and with a high bank on the Gareep 
 or Orange River. N. of this river, the coast, when 
 seen from the sea, presents only high sand-hilla 
 
tl 
 
 wlthoMt «ny ^nit>» ofwntor, fiml U, n)n«rqiirtitly. 
 (••itlrt'lv iIi'kIIIiiIk 1)1' V)>Ki'liiliiiii, ll I'XliiiiU ii'< 
 fur n« ('»[»• Ni'Kru {\k" ,H. Int.), Tin- lulrrlor i-nM 
 orilii' wi'Hirni ratiKcN iiiiil ol' iliU roiixt U uii I'U'- 
 val<'<l Muiidy (trm-rl, with Ihvf wcIIh iinil lillli> rnln. 
 
 Tbit riintrrii hull' of ilitt tnltli' lunil tVuiii ilic 
 ('n|N> Ciilony to IH° M. Iiii. tirtVnt » i||||i>ri>iit ift|M-('i, 
 A nrvnt iiimiiInt of inoiiiitniii rlil^i'M, of iiio<li'riit<< 
 fit'vitlioii, tritviTNo it III illtl'iTi'iil illrcciloiiN; mill 
 ut lliv liHil of (lii'Mt ru\ut'A till! I'oiiiitry U wrll 
 wiilcri-ii mill fi>rtiU>; tliuiiKli ln-rc, too, cxti'iiKivu 
 hIitIIi- triii'tH ixri'iir, liiit thi>y iiri< not ciiiiliiiiiuuM. 
 'I'liii iliMi'oiii tVoiii iliiiliiltU'-ltiiiilliitlii' liiilliiiiOfraii 
 U foriiii'il liy two or tlirrtt irrriircN, ilu> liiKlii'Nt 
 ('iIk« of It iilNiiit IM) or |0(I tnlU'M iliMtttiit tVoiii tliv 
 Hliori', 'I'liU <mI){(>, fiiriiifil liv n iiiouMtiilii rlilKi', 
 lircvitiitK till' rivt>rN of ili<> tuliU'-liiinl from i-waiiiii^ 
 to till! Iiiiliiin Oi'oaii; piii that llii-y iMllu'r run 
 wi'Miwnril, mill fall iturlly into ilu* <inn'<'|i river, or 
 arc iwrtlv lont in tliu h»iiiIm of the ilcNtTt. 'riiii 
 ■■aMicrii lii'MTiit of till* tnlili'-liiiiil n-Hi'iiililcM tliiit 
 I'arllirr Hoiith, Ih-Iii^ foniit'il liy tcrriu'CN, Thin, 
 liiiwrviT, fxti'iiiU only to tint «>i|imlor, or tint 
 iiioiitli of llii> river .liilin; for fiirtlior tuirlli, np to 
 CitiM' (iarilal'iii, the coiiNt itHelf Ih fornieil by \\'m\\ 
 rockM, riMiii)^ to 4(MI feet mid iipwanl, ninl no nioiin- 
 laiii ranj^cH are vixililu from the una. On tli« 
 weHtcni Niile (if tilt) eoiitiiient, U'tweeii 1H° anil 
 •U)'^ H. Int., them ix a voiiMtilernlile ileprpMNioii in 
 the tnhle-lanil. TIiIm country, which Ih known 
 iinilcr the iintne of Lower Guinea, hiiM low Hhon«, 
 lM-hiii(l which at a coiiNiilerulile ilintunco Ihn Nur- 
 fiu;e riscM, hut not to n threat heij^ht. Then follows 
 nn uneven plain, watered in itH lower |)artH hy 
 iiiimeroiiN rivem, amoiiK which the Zuini or (Jonp> 
 mill the C'lianza arc the lnr({eMt; hut towanU tli« 
 BoiirceH of thcMC riven* the country Ih mountainoiiH. 
 In the plain nuinuniuit lakes uf cuniiiilcrablo ex- 
 tent are met with. 
 
 North of the river /aire, at about 4° 8. lat., 
 the country o^niii riHex at no Kft-'at diHtance from 
 the Hea to a ((reot lici){ht. This hiKh gruund is 
 called Hi>rra (Joniplide. Its W. declivity extends 
 NVV'., by (le^reeH aiipronchinft nearer the Atlantic, 
 till it reaches the inncnnost comer of the Hay of 
 Itiafrn, where it comes close down to the sea, and 
 forms for more than 30 miles the shore, risitiK, 
 under the name of Cameroon Mountains, to 13,00U 
 feet alxive the water. These threat mountain 
 masses form the W. extremity of an extensive 
 raiiKe, which at about b° of N. lat. traverses (He 
 whole continent. 
 
 l>r. Livingstone found the geological structure 
 of the earth, which he had an opportunity of exa- 
 mining at the river Mimmba (lat. iP 88' 8., long. 
 2()0 liP 34" E.), to ainsist uf— flrst, a capping of 
 ferruginous conglomerate, containing wnter-wom 
 jiebblcs of all sorts; then a pale red hanleiutd 
 sandstone; beneath that, a trap-like whinstono; 
 and lastly a coarse-grained sandstone, containing 
 ]icbblc8, and in connection with which is some- 
 times seen a white calcareous rock, or banks of 
 ([uartz pebbles. 
 
 The true nature of the centre of this southern 
 belt is now satisfactorily establish eil. Sir Roderick 
 Murchison had the honour of starting the theory, 
 which has since been verified by the discoveries of 
 African explorers, that, instead of the arid plain 
 long supposc<l, the centre of Southern Africa is a 
 vast, elevated, watery basin, whose waters escape 
 to the sea by Assures and depressions in the higher 
 lands by which it is surrounded. 
 
 Extending southward from Lake Ngami to the 
 Orange Hiver, and from 24° east long, to near the 
 west coast, is the Kalahari Desert. This tract. 
 Dr. Livingstone says, has been cnlle<l a desert 
 oiercly on account of the absence of running 
 
 AFRIHA 
 
 water, Tt Is hy no monn* ilMtltiitK nt yrgotation, 
 Many plaiitM are found there, liion< eM|H>riully tlm 
 water iiirloii, ami there are |Hitrlii'H of IhimIh'n hihI 
 even tr"es. The Mill In Mift, light -coloured Rainl, 
 and the graM grows ahundaiitly anil In tiit'lH. Tim 
 human liihaltltaiitHof this region uru the IhiNlinit'n 
 and the llHkalrthrtrl, 
 
 Still fiirtliir xoiith, at Cajie t'olonv, Africa pre- 
 Netits to the liiiilaii Oi'eaii a liroiid and undulating 
 line of I'oaNt, extending from the Ca|K) of (IinhI 
 lloiie to Algoa Itny. 
 
 S'orth .{t'rii'ii, extending from south to north 
 through a lireadth of alMnit '2't degrees, coiitiil'iH 
 two ilitlen>nt coiiiitrieM, the one fertile and i ' 
 other sterile. The fertile lands are, on one ki.|<', 
 tlioM* which lie along the Mediterranean, mid mi 
 the other, the tropical lands to the Noiitli nl' the 
 Sahara, called the Soudan. Of these Dr. Itiirlh 
 my*, that they are far from exliihltliig the iiioiio- 
 totiy |Nipiilarly aMTils'il to them. He dewrilM") Ihn 
 fertihi regions of Negroland as lH>ing as varii >l iii 
 any jiart of Inilla. lie tells us ' MontiliiiiiN In' 
 tweeii r>,lMI(l and (i.tHIO I'eet are not at all rare, and 
 most iMtaiitil'iil and pictiirestpie uleiis Jind vallevi 
 
 are funned by them Tnu general midiilu 
 
 altitude of mountainous tracts is '2,MHt fei^t.' In 
 many tiarts it is well watenil by rivers, which 
 descend from the table-lands or originate In tliu 
 low ridges by which the cimntrv is intersectwl; 
 such districts are co\ cred with In. • ">'•" foreMts, 
 and am very fertile where cultivated. In other 
 ])arts water is rather scame, and some of theni 
 partake largely of the nature of the Sahara. Its 
 climate is extremely hot, nevertheless it sometimes 
 hap|H>iis that during night the thermumeter de- 
 scends to the freezing |N>iiit. 
 
 The Sahara, or (ircat Desert, is not, as was onca 
 lielieveil, a dottp sink. It is rather, to quote fmm 
 Dr. Harth, ' an elevated tract of a mean elevation 
 of from 1,000 to 1,400 feet, mostly consisting ' I 
 rock— namely, sandstone or granite, the latt r 
 Udiig overlaki in the heart of the desert by viitt 
 tracts of gravel, while the sandstone mgion fomis 
 many elevated plains of larg(>r or smaller extent, 
 strown with small pebbles.' Se\ -ral moiintuinims 
 groups am found in diifemnt parts of this tract, 
 the most im|)ortant being Tilicsti, A'slien or A'ir, 
 the two mountainous regions of A'deri'r, and the 
 A'taleor. These atTurd a dwelling-place to a con- 
 siderable nomadic populotion ; but the inhabitable 
 localities are limite<l, and the ravines are very un- 
 healthy, though some of them ore amply pro- 
 vided with water-springs, and produce grapes and 
 
 These mountains, however, are quite destitute of 
 timber. A characteristic feature of this desert is 
 the immense change of temperature which is found 
 there. The greatest heat in summer alternates 
 with a considerable degree of cold in winter, the 
 difference l>etween the maximum and minimum 
 lieing as much as 80° The aridity of these tracts 
 Dr. IJarth thinks greatly oxaggeritcl, as they are 
 occasionally refreshed by showers. Another cha- 
 racteristic feature of the Sahara is the reaion of 
 Saitdliilli, which exist either in zones of saml- 
 ridges, or in the shape of isolated hills. The for- 
 mer sometimes reach an elevation of from 800 to 
 1,000 feet, and have a breadth of 60 geographical 
 miles. A great deal of moisture collects in the 
 depressions between these ridges, and in most of 
 them large quantities of dn* 's are produced. All 
 the western part of the Su.iara would, owing lo 
 its burning heat and the want of water, be totally 
 impassable, were it not that it is here and there 
 interspersed with venlant well-watered sjmts or 
 oases, which appear like islands of the blest in the 
 midst of dosolation. Th< ancients compared thuiu 
 
AFUK'A 
 
 M 
 
 iiiito ot vpuctAtion. 
 iiiiini i-ii|Hi'liilly iliii 
 li'lii'K III' IhimIii''* NMiI 
 l|;lll-riiliiun*il Mlllil, 
 y mill III liit'tM. 'I'liH 
 HI uru thu liiiNliiiii'ii 
 
 I'lilimy, Al>i<'i» |iri<- 
 iiiil unil uiiiliiliitliiK 
 th« Cu|)«) III' OihhI 
 
 i>m Miiith to iiiirtli 
 .') ili'Kri'i'K, ointiil'ii 
 iiiit fiTtlltt mill I 
 Ih iin', nil owi ni'lf, 
 llti-min<>un, tml mi 
 
 III lllll Hlllltll III' lllll 
 
 M° tlii'w Dr. Itjirtli 
 lilliltiiiK tl>'' iiiiiiiii- 
 II. H»' ilrwril"'" till! 
 N Ik'Iiik UN viirii-.| iti 
 iiH ■ MiMititiiiiiM Im'- 
 iiot lit iil\ ran', mnl 
 n' ulciiH Jinil viilii'vn 
 Thu ){i'iii-rul iiiiiliilo 
 H in >i/ilHl t'evt.' Ill 
 mI by riviTM, whiili 
 ur urlKiiiHtu ill thu 
 iiitrv ix iiitt'riM'ctiii ; 
 th In. • ""•" I'liti'iitH, 
 iltiviiuii. In other 
 ami Moino of thi'iii 
 of the Suhiira. Itn 
 rtheli'MH it Moini'liincii 
 lio theriiiunivtvr du- 
 
 t, Is not, an MraM onoo 
 iither, to quoto fmni 
 i>r a mean eluvatioii 
 
 IIOHtly COIINiNtillK ' I 
 
 j^ruii'itc, the lati r 
 If the ilencrt by viiil 
 iilHtone rcKhin fnrniR 
 >r smaUHr extent, 
 le\<'ral moiintuiiioii!) 
 purta of thin triiit, 
 Mti, A'filien or A'ir, 
 of AMen'r, ami the 
 lliii(;-i>luce to a con- 
 but tne inhabitable 
 ravines are very un- 
 em are amply pro- 
 produce grapes and 
 
 ire quite destitute of 
 lire of this desert is 
 fiture which is found 
 sumnier alteniaten 
 cold in winter, the 
 urn and niinimuiii 
 iiity of these tracts 
 geriti 1, as they are 
 vert. Another chii- 
 n» is the reaion of 
 in zones of sand- 
 ted hills. The for- 
 tion of from 800 to 
 of 60 freographicnl 
 tare collects in the 
 :es, and in most of 
 are produce*!. All 
 'a would, owing lo 
 of water, be totally 
 t is here and tliire 
 ll-wat<!rcd sjHits tir 
 of the blest in the 
 nts compared thcui 
 
 (1 
 
 lo the iipots on A looraril's skin. (S»r«»H>, p. 1.10.) 
 'ilii w ii««" an- mimllv of very llmllwl ilim-nsions! 
 bill Ki.ini- oftlH'm ani'vin- rxlcn-lvi': »hi> cimiiiry 
 III' Vv/.*niu for ••xnin|il«<, U In fsi't »•• """l'"- ''"'•''V 
 an- iidiiallv mimiiinilnl by bi»{hi«r land, wblih 
 iii.r>r« lo aiviiunl fnrlh.- spriiigK, and I'linwiiiii-nlly 
 till- vi'hhirr for wlilih ibi-y an> wi ridi-brnii-i!. Mm 
 • lii'ri' wrnis lo Imi much pVolMiliilliy in Ibr ulin-wd 
 ri>ii|i'<liini of Mnjiir HiiiiK'll, that the oasi's nn^ 
 iiiililiicd for no inriiMsiilerable portion of tlu'ir m- 
 |Mili-il iM-mil V and ib'liclous fh-shnt-ss to Iho ulriking 
 
 ilrast Ih-iWi'I'II Ihi'in and the jian'bi'd drwrl by 
 
 whirh thoy an- surrniimh'il. (I Ji'ogrniihy of lli-n*- 
 iliinis, Hvii. ed. ii. II. IMA.) Tliotir only who bavc 
 liiiU'd lor ilays amid a pathlcnH liiiniin»( Hand, can 
 I'limi a prii|M>r idea of ihe dniigbt cx|M>rii>nc(>d in 
 fulling in with one of 
 
 th«» tiiftH l»lcw, 
 That renlant rlM< amid thu Llliyan wild. 
 
 In Kngland or Franrn they might Ixi thought 
 tiiilhiiig of; but ill the Maliara they seem more 
 lliaii a iMiriidise. The fanioiiM lenipln of Jupiter 
 Amnion was erected in the oasis of .Siwiib, in the 
 NK. angle of the great desert, in lat. '21^ 12' N., 
 and long. 'JO" IM' K. 
 
 7'Af Aliy»inian MoimUiin* constitute an exten- 
 iiive nioiiiitaiii sysleni, wbose centre is placed be- 
 t«veim H" and vP N. iat. in the countries called 
 Niiri'a and KtTat. The highest ar« the Samcn 
 range, which, with the I^amalmon and Lasln 
 miiiintains, run north-east and south-east, in a 
 long but not unbroken chain. Si^veral of these 
 mounlaiiis are from 12,000 to lfi,000 feet in height. 
 lk>tween the Samcn mountains and the Red Sea 
 is the Tarania range, rising to an elevation of 
 7,0(10 feet. The most lofty of these mountain 
 p«>aks are frequently, if not alwaj^s, covered with 
 snow, though some'aro crowned with cedar forcsta. 
 The vallevs are fertile and well peopled. 
 
 From tlhe northern declivity of the Abyssinian 
 niiiiintaiiis cxtciids along the shores of the Ked 
 Sea as far as the Isthmus of Suez a rocky countrv, 
 which, lietweeii 12* and 20° N. lat., occupies in 
 width an extent of between ttOO and 400 m., but 
 further north bv degrees grows narrower. Ik'tween 
 2:1° and mK* N. lat. it is only from IflO to 200 
 miiim across. Near its western border it has a 
 (leei), but comparatively narniw, deiiression, in 
 which the river Nile flows N. from the Abyssinian 
 Mountains to the Mediterranean. This lon^ val- 
 ley is mostly very fertile. The small (lortioii of 
 the rocky coiintr\' which lies to the west of this 
 vallev, and which forms the eastern boundary of 
 the Mahara, does not rise to a great height, rarely 
 III more than about 1000 ft. alsive the valley. Hut 
 the countries cast of the valley of the Nile and 
 Isawcen it and the Ked Sea are more elevated. 
 They form a table land, mostly of an uneven siir- 
 fiice, which however in many" places exhibita ex- 
 tensive plains, whilst in others it rises into ranges 
 of high hills. Many of the plains arc covered 
 with sand, and resemble the eastern portion of the 
 Sahara ; other districts atTonl pasture ground, but 
 very few places are flt for agriculture and culti- 
 vated. 
 
 This rocky country terminates on the banks of 
 the Nile hi the parallel of Kahira (Cairo), from 
 the neighbourhood of which its northern Ixiundary 
 runs ofT in an ENE. and WWV. direction. The 
 former constitutes the Isthmus of Suez, and reaches 
 to the Mediterranean between the Lake of Menza- 
 leh and Has Ka/aroon in Syria; farther east it 
 joins the mountains of Arabia Petnca. Tliis rocky 
 country lies to the E. of the delta of the Nile. On 
 the W. of the delta the rocks nin from Kahira 
 VVNW. to the Arabs' (iiilph, where they approach 
 the Mediterranean near the Arabs' Tower (31° N. 
 
 lat. and 20o .ir E. long.). Fmm this line tb«i 
 riN-ky ciiiniiry I'Xlrnils weKtwnrd with a width of 
 alMiiil 71)111, al llie iiiiiNet, wblrli, however, iiirrraiea 
 as it ailvaiici'N further \V., m as to iicciipv U'lwei'n 
 200 and .'IDO inliis at 20° K. Imiu., when' it mid- 
 ileiily lenniniiii'ii. In the iieiglilMMirboiHl of ih« 
 Kgypiian della, the riH-ks an' hanlly a hiindn'il 
 feet above the iiliiiii, lint I'lirther W. Ibey riiM' iiitit 
 lliaii hills and ininnilniii ridges (lienlobab Moiiii- 
 tains), and tenniiiate with the high table-land of 
 llari'a, whime meiui ed vriliiin alsive the sea is exli- 
 inatt'il to In- alsiiil l.'iOO feet. Wlieni the titble- 
 Imid of the llanwi tenninate* with a rather alinipt 
 liewont (near20°i, a nnrmw strip of the Sahara 
 comes lip to the vi rv sbon's of the Mediterranean, 
 al the most southerly corner of the tiiilpb of Sydra 
 or Kibbir (thetln-nt Syrtis), whem it tennliiales 
 on the lieaeh with saiid-bills. This strip of tlin 
 Sahara se|iarates the rocky n-gion of the Nile fnun 
 the mountain system of l)ie Atlas, 
 
 Mount Alhi* and it» ilritendrncin, by far thn 
 most celebrated of the African chains, iHviipv that 
 IMirtion of the cmitinent nnmt to the iiorlli and 
 nean'st to Western Kiiro|M'. It seems to liegiti mi 
 the I''., near the easteni iMiiindarv of the eoiinlry 
 of Fe/./.an, whence two ridge.'i of nnHh'rate eleva- 
 tion run VVNW., r.iid in the iM'ginning are called 
 Kanish. Farther E., however, they receive other 
 names. This mountainous counlrv, which traver- 
 ses the N. of Fezzan and the S. of Trifsili, is no- 
 where piolmbly more than 120 miles in width ; but 
 the ridges of low hills which issue from it advance 
 to the very shon's of the Mediterranean, lietween 
 Ca|ie Mesiirata and thetiulph of Calies (the Lesser 
 Syrtis), so that the whole region may lie fnim iKt) 
 to 200 m. across. At the (iiilph of (!alM>s, however, 
 the region of Mount Atlas enlarges considerably 
 towarils the N., and thence to its western exlrc- 
 mity im the shores of the Atlantic Ocean its mean 
 breailth exceeds 850 miles. The highest ridge 
 seems to traverse the region in an oblicjiie line, 
 l)cginiiing on the east opiiosito Sicily, at Capes 
 lion and lUanco, and terminating on the shores of 
 the Atlantic at Ca|)es Cteer and Non. The moun- 
 tains which (H'ciir in that line do not rise alsivn 
 the line <if congelation. The country whicli ex- 
 tends N. of it to the shores of the Mediterra- 
 nean is mountainous, and contains a numlier of 
 fertile longitudinal valleys. Farther W. (alsiiit 
 5° W. long.), however, where its northeni slope 
 is diverted VV. to the Atlantic Ocean, it extends 
 in large plains, which fidlow each other in the 
 form of terraces. The tracts of country which lie 
 to the S. of the highest ground cannot lie called 
 mountainous, their surface being formed by wide, 
 broad-backed riilges, of verj' mislerato elevation, 
 anil by slight depressions lietween them in the 
 form of shallow valleys. These latter tracts* par- 
 take of the hot and diy character which distin- 
 guishes everywhere the 'African continent; whilst 
 the district situated towards the Mediterranean 
 and the Atlantic Ocean resembles more the coun- 
 tries of Southern Europe. (See Atlas.) 
 
 Climate. — By far the greater part of Africa lies 
 within the torrid zone, those countries only which 
 are situated towards its so;. them and northern 
 extremities being beyond the tropics, or within 
 the temperate zones. Owing to tlie vast extent 
 of its and plains, the tcmyicrature of Africa is de- 
 cidedly higher than that of any other of the great 
 ilivisions of the globe. The parts without the 
 tropics are destitute of that regular succession of 
 four seasons which is considered as a characteristic 
 feature of the tem|ierate zone. Here, as between the 
 tropics, the year is divided into the dry and rainy 
 seasons; but with this difltirencc, that between 
 the tropics the rainy season seta in when the sun 
 
so 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 appronchuR the zenith, whereas it oonirs in tlio 
 countries Iwyond the tropics when the mm np- 
 proachcs the opposite tropic, and conscrjueiitly is 
 at the greatest distance from their zenitli. Hut 
 Dr. Livingstone says: — All the interior of Smitli 
 Africa has a clistinct winter of cohl, varj'ing in 
 intensity with the latitudes. In the central parts 
 of the Cape colony, the cold in the winter is often 
 severe, and the ground is covered with snow. At 
 Kuruman snow seldom falls, hut the frost is keen. 
 There is frost even as far as the Chobe, and a jiar- 
 tial winter in the Barotse vallev, hut Iteyond the 
 Orange liivor wo never have cold and damp com- 
 bined. Indeed a shower of rain seldom or never 
 falls during winter, and hence the healthiness of 
 the liechuana climate. From the Barotse valley 
 northwards, it is questionable if it ever freezes ; 
 but during the prevalence of the south wind, the 
 thermometer sinks as low as 42", and conveys the 
 impression of hitter cold.' Mr. (jialton, travelling 
 in South-western Africa, over the hilly country 
 which separates the Fish liiver from the sea, savs 
 that the rains were perio<lical and very variable. 
 From the middle of May to November rain is 
 scarcelv ever known to fall. The rainy season 
 cxtcn({s from al>out the first of January to the last 
 of April ; the ground is seldom saturated till Feb- 
 ruary, and is quite dried up by June. Yet, not- 
 withstanding the appearance of drought, the 
 marks of violent torrents are visible. Captain Bur- 
 ton thinks the climate of Eastern Equatorial Africa 
 superior to that of the Western coast, but of too 
 uniform a temperature, and too deficient in cold 
 to be healthy for Europeans. 
 
 Rivers. — The last few years have produced an 
 entire revolution in our ideas of the water system 
 of Africa. Instead of the ' dry and thirsty land ' 
 which books of geography were accustomed to re- 
 ])re8eiit the interior, recent discovery has disclosed 
 n vast assemblage of rivers and lakes, which are 
 not only important as subjects of geographical 
 knowledge, but which it is hoped and believed may 
 be made the means of developing the resources of 
 the country, and of raising the condition of the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The principal river is the famous Nile, the only 
 large navigable river on the North African coast. 
 Assuming as its source the Victoria Nyanza of 
 Speke, a little to the south of the equator, the Nile 
 has a course nearly due north, extending over more 
 than thirty degrees of latitude, and its length and 
 depth of water entitle it to rank as one of the 
 most considerable rivers of the globe, while of the 
 large rivers it is by far the most famous. Till 
 quite recent years, the Nile was reckoned the only 
 large river of Africa, but modem exploration has 
 added to the list the Niger, flowing into the At- 
 lantic on the west coast, and the Zambesi, whose 
 principal sources appear to lie quite near those of 
 the Nile, in the great central depression of equa- 
 torial Africa above described, though it receives 
 numerous important tributaries farther south. It 
 is the chief nver on the side of the Indian Ocean. 
 Among other considerable rivers are the Senegal, 
 the Gambia, the Congo, the Coanza, and Orange 
 rivers on the west coast, to which may be added 
 the Ogobai of M. du Chaillu. On the east coast, 
 the most important river next to the Zambesi 
 appears to be the Ro^'llma, which flows into the 
 Indian Ocean north-east of the Zambesi, and 
 which has lately been found useful as a conve- 
 nient mode of access to the interior, where lie the 
 sources of the Zambesi. 
 
 Lakes. — These are numerous, and often of great 
 extent. The Lake Tangarrijika, one of the most 
 important in the great lake region, was discovered 
 by Captains Burton and Speke in the year 1858. 
 
 It is 1,800 ft.al)ovotho level of the sea; and has n 
 length of about 800, and a breadth of from 30 tn 
 40 miles. The same year. Captain Speke made a 
 more important discovery, in the Lake Victoria 
 Nyanza, the reservoir from which the Bahr-eU 
 Abiad, or White Nile, descends into Egypt. This 
 lake is between 8,(K)0 an<l 4,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and is at present alxmt 150 miles 
 in length and breadth, though Captain Speke sup- 
 poses it to have been at some period of greater 
 extent. The northern shore of the Nyanza is 
 parallel to the equator, and its north and south 
 direction is, from 24° S. lat. to &° 80' N. lat. It 
 has been oscertauied that two other lakes, viz. the 
 Baringa and the Luta Nzigi^,have a shore in feed- 
 ing the Nile : the Luta Nzigd lies 120 miles north- 
 west of the most nortlierly part of the Nyanza. 
 Previous to this. Dr. Livingstone had made his 
 discovery of Lake Ngami, 20" 8. of the equator, 
 and more recently he has explored Lake Nyassa, 
 a lake in East Africa, which gives exit to the 
 Shird river, and which is surrounded by a dense 
 population. During a certain portion of the year, 
 this lake is \'isited by clouds of midges, which All 
 the air to a prodigious height, and cover the 
 waters. The natives gather these insects, and 
 bake them into cakes. (See Letter from Mr. C. 
 Livingstone to Sir U. Murchison, Journal of (leo- 
 graphical Society, 18G8.) The Tchad Lake is 
 upon the southern border of the Sahara. There 
 are many other lakes of less moment. The Lake 
 of Dcmbea, in Abyssinia, traversed by the Bahr- 
 cl-Azrek, or Eastern Nile, is also of very consider- 
 able magnitude. 
 
 Races of People. — Although we are acaistomed 
 to consider the inhabitants of Africa as being 
 generally of the Negro race, the actual number 
 of varieties of the human family occupying this 
 portion of the globe is not only much greater than 
 those found in Europe, but the differences in colour, 
 form, and stature are much wider. There aro 
 alwut seven ascertainable varieties, which may be 
 enumerated as follows, beginning with the southern 
 extremity of the continent: viz, the Hottentot, 
 Katfer, Abyssinian, Egyptian, Numidian, Nubian, 
 andNegro. We shallgive a brief description of each 
 race in this order. In the Hottentot the colour of 
 the skin is a yellowish brown, and has been com- 
 pared to that of a * faded leaf.' The cheek Iwnes 
 are high, and much spread out in the lateral direc- 
 tion; and from these the lace is suddenly con- 
 tracted below to a very narrow and pointed chin. 
 Nose remarkably flat and broad towards end. 
 Colour of the eyes a deep chesnut ; they are long, 
 narrow, and removed to a great distance from 
 each other. The hair of the head is of a singidar 
 nature; it does not cover the whole scalp, but 
 grows in small tufts at certain distances from each 
 other. When kept short, it has the appearance 
 and feel of a hanl shoe-brush : with this difl'erenco, 
 that it is curled, and twisted into small round lumps 
 about the size of a marrowfat pea. When suf- 
 fered to grow, it hangs on the neck in hard twisted 
 tassels like fringe. There is little beard ; and the 
 hair on other parts of the body is either scanty or 
 altogether wanting. The stature of the Hottentot 
 is very short, about four feet six inches being con- 
 sidered about the middle size for the men, and 
 four feet for the women, which is about fourteen 
 inches short of the average stature of Europeans. 
 Their form is slender, delicate, and not ill-propor- 
 tioned ; but altogether they may be pronounced a 
 very ugly race. The sex is distinguished from all 
 others of the human race by a pendulous rugose 
 elongation of the nymphcB of from two to five 
 inches long, and by a vast accumulation of fat 
 over the glutei muscles, which invariably takes 
 
AFRICA 
 
 51 
 
 Ipliico after the flret conception. Both theno ap- 
 I pparanccs are well ancertaincd to be natural, and 
 In no way the result of art. The language of the 
 I Hoft*ntot« i» as singular aa their pcmonB. Ita 
 i pMniinciation haa lK!cn compared to the clucking 
 of a tiirkcv. Tliere arc numerous guttural sounds 
 prmluccd ('leep in the throat, and pronounced with 
 a peculiar clack of the tongue, which is quickly 
 • struck against and withdrawn from the teeth or 
 palate. The aspirated gutturals arc coml)iiie<l 
 with harsh consonants in a manner unpronoun- 
 ceable by Europeans, except those who nave ac- 
 quired the language in infancy. No portion o'' 
 this race, unconnecteil with Europeans, has ad- 
 vanced beyond the rudest stage of the pastoral 
 state of society. When discovered, they had do- 
 mesticated the ox and the sheep, the flesh and 
 milk of which afforded them fr 'I. and their skins, 
 with those of wild animals, cloM. ..., ; they knew 
 nothing of tillage, had no n. . I '...v filings, and 
 practised no mechanical art excepting that of 
 fabricating the bow and arrow. The ancient 
 country of the Hottentot variety may generally 
 be described as that which now constitutes the 
 liritish colony of the Cape of Goml Hope. 
 
 The immediate neighbours of the Hottentots, 
 and lying N. and NK. of them, are the Caffres, in 
 all respects a different race. The colour of the 
 Kaffer is neither black, like that of the Negro, nor 
 of the colour of a faded leaf, like that of the Hot- 
 tentot, but of a deep brown. Hair short, ciurling, 
 and woolly ; but it is not of the wooliness of the 
 Negro, l^ose tolerably elevated ; lips large and 
 thick ; but the lower maxillary bone does not pro- 
 : jcct in the remarkable manner of the Negro, and 
 consequently the facial angle is much greater. 
 The Iwdy, instead of being, as in the Hottentot, 
 I diminutive and feeble, is muscular and athletic, 
 I and the stature is equal to that of the European 
 I race. The peculiarities of the female form in their 
 southern neighbours have no existence among 
 them, and the genius of their language is distinct 
 and pculiar. In the useful arts they have made 
 considerable progress. })esides domesticating the 
 ox and sheep, they have also tamed the horse and 
 I goat ; and their agriculture extends to the culti- 
 vation of barley and millet. It is a singular and 
 distinctive trait that they practise universally the 
 rite of circumcision. Of the origin of the practice 
 they can give no account ; and it has most pro- 
 bal)ly been derived from intercourse, at some re- 
 mote period, with some people by whom it was 
 practised. 
 
 The Abyssinian race is entirely different from 
 those previously mentioned. Their colour is nearly 
 black ; but the hair is long, and generally lank, 
 like that of an Arab or Hindoo. Features regular, 
 after the European model, and the nose often aqui- 
 line. The stature equals that of the European ; 
 and the whole person is generally well fonned, and 
 occasionally handsome. The nations compre- 
 hended under this race have made considerable 
 progress in the useful arts. They have domesti- 
 cated most of the useful animals, as the ox, sheep, 
 horse, ass, and camel ; and cultivate most of the 
 common corns, as wheat, barley, and millet. They 
 also work, with some skill, articles of iron, copper, 
 and brass ; and except the ancient Eg3rptians, and 
 probably the Numidians, are the only native race 
 of the entire continent who have invented an al- 
 phabet or possessed a literature. 
 
 The Egyptian race is represented by the Copts 
 of Egjrpt. These have long hair, a yellowish 
 dusky complexion, neither Grecian nor Arabian, 
 a puffed visage, swollen eyes, flat noses, and thick 
 lijw ; and, in short, according to Volney, much re- 
 semble Mulattos, or the mixed offspring of the 
 
 European and Negro. It is almost nnnecossnry to 
 add, that this was one of the earliest civilised rarea 
 of mankind ; and that at least thirty ages ago it 
 had already tamed the useful animals, cultivated 
 the most valuable plants, smelted the useful aiul 
 precious metals, and erected architectural monu- 
 ments which for their durability, extent, and gran- 
 deur, still astonish the world. They were also 
 among the first to invent hieroglyphic and alpha- 
 betic writinf^. 
 
 The next race to bo named is the Numidian. 
 The people who inhabit the northern portion of 
 Africa from about the 18* of N. latitude to the 
 Mediterranean, and known by the various names 
 of Moors, Berbers, Tuanghis, and Tibbans, are, in 
 some cases with an admixture of Arab blood, pro- 
 bably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country 
 before the settlement of the Phccnicians, Romans, 
 Vandals, or Arabs ; that is, they are the descend- 
 ants of the Lybians, Numidians,' Mauritanians, and 
 kindred tribes. With this race the hair is long and 
 black i eyes dark ; the colour of the skin a light 
 brown, little deeper than that of the inhabitants 
 of Spain • the features are Euro])ean, but the nose 
 generally not very prominent, and never aquiline, 
 as is often the case with the Arabian. Although 
 apparently superior at all times in civilisation to 
 any Negro nation, this race appears at no period 
 to have made any remarkable progress in arts or 
 arms, and scarcely any in letters ; for it has been 
 ascertained only of late years, rather as a matter 
 of curiosity than anything else, that they once 
 possessed the art of alphabetic writing. Theii- lan- 
 guafje, indeed, is but the jargon of a rude jxiople, 
 destitute of terms to express the most common 
 distinct ideas, such as shortness, roundness, sloth, 
 and death. Such ideas are either expressed by cir- 
 cumlocutions, or in more ditlicult circumstances 
 recourse is had to the Arabic language. Their in- 
 feriority is indeed most decidedly implied by the 
 facility with which they have given way before 
 every successive race of conquerors, during a pe- 
 riod of at least 2,500 years. 
 
 The next race to be described may be called the 
 Nubian', and, with the exception of the Abys- 
 sinians, will comprehend nearly all the people of 
 Africa from about 8° of N. latitude to the southen 
 confines of Egypt, and from the Red Sea anH. jn- 
 dian Ocean on the east to about the 25^ of i;. lon- 
 gitude westward. In this race are included the 
 people called Barabra or Nuba, the people of Sennar, 
 the Sumuli, the Snaking, the Bishari, the Abab- 
 dah, the Galla, and others. A long oval counte- 
 nance ; a curved nose, somewhat rounded towards 
 the top ; rather thick lips, but not protniding ex- 
 cessively, like those of the Negro ; a retreating 
 chin ; scanty beard ; lively dark eyes ; strongly 
 fiizzled, but never woolly hair ; and a finely formed 
 person of the middle size, with a bronze com- 
 plexion, are the physical characteristics of this 
 race. Some of the nations of this race have made 
 considerable progress in the common arts of life, 
 but they !iave no indigenous literature. 
 
 With the exceptions now mentioned, the rest of 
 the African continent may be said to be peopled 
 by the Negro race, which commences at the south- 
 em boundary of the great desert, and, embracing 
 both the western and eastern coast, with the island 
 of Madagascar, extends to about 20° of S. latitude. 
 
 The following are the leading characteristics of 
 this well-kno%vn varietv of our species : — Skin and 
 eyes black; hair black and woolly; skull com- 
 pressed laterally, and elongated towards the front ; 
 forehead low, narrow, and slanting ; cheek bones 
 prominent; jaws narrow and projecting; upper 
 firont teeth oblique; chin receding; eyes promi- 
 nent; nose broad, thick, fiat, and confused with 
 
I 
 "St Ik !l 
 
 i 
 
 ^2 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 tho oxt«ncIcd Jaw ; lipn, nnrtictilorly the upper one, 
 very thick ; pahnx cif tfic hand and moIch of tho 
 feet Hat ; tibia and libula convex ; polviH narrow ; 
 knees turned in, tneH turne<l out. The Htnture ami 
 
 Shyttical Htrength arc equal to that of the European, 
 lany of the Negro trilwM have made conHiderublc 
 progrcflH in tho neceimary and uscfid artH, a pro- 
 grcHH which, it may be safely affinned, greatly »ur- 
 notiHcM that made by any native race of AuiT«rica. 
 I'hey cultivate utteful grains, r(H>ts, and fruits ; Ijave 
 appropriated the services of many of the domestic 
 animals, such as the ox, horse, ass, camel, goat, 
 sheep, and hog, all of which appear to be indige- 
 nous. It is singular, however, that no Xegro tribe, 
 nor even any native African race, has ever had the 
 ingenuity to tame and train tho elephant, a service 
 to civilisation which has been performed by almost 
 every Asiatic nation to whose country this animal 
 is indigenous, and which there is abundant evi- 
 dence to show was done by the Carthaginian and 
 Koman settlers in Africa. 
 
 It is a still more striking fact that no Xegro, 
 and indeed no African nati(m, save the Egyptians, 
 Abyssinians, and partially the Numidians, ever 
 ])ossesscd a literature, or had ingenuity to invent 
 any alphabet, however rude. 
 
 The general character thus sketched belongs 
 with more or less intensity to the whole Negro 
 race within the limits we have assigned to It ; but 
 it is not at the same time to be forgotten that there 
 is much variety — a greater perhaps than exists 
 among tlic European or any other family. The 
 Berbers form the chief part of the population of 
 Barbary, and, according to Dr. Barth, ' are of im- 
 mense importance in the whole question of African 
 and Asiatic ethnography, as a link between various 
 nnd most distinct races.' He estimates them in 
 Barbary, though existing under different names, 
 and speaking dialects greatly mixed with Arabic, 
 at between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000. The Man- 
 dingos are a numerous people, occupying the moun- 
 tainous country on the west side of the continent 
 which lies towards the sources of the rivers Senegal 
 and Gambia. They possess the true Negro fea- 
 tures, but not in an exaggerated form. The colour 
 is black, with a mixture of yellow ; the person 
 strong, symmetrical, and above the middle stature. 
 Of all the Negro races the Mandingos have exhi- 
 bited the greatest aptitude for improvement. They 
 are industrious, enterprising, and, compared vnth 
 their neighbours, of an o|)en and generous cha- 
 racter. They have adopted the Mohammedan re- 
 ligion, and with it the letters and literature of 
 Arabia. The Foulalts, or Fulbe, inhabit the same 
 portion of Africa. The colour of the skin with this 
 race is a sort of reddish black. Their countenances 
 are regular, and their hair Icmger and not so woolly 
 as that of the ordinary Negro. They are robust, 
 courageous, industrious and enterprising, and like 
 the Mandingos have adopted the literature and 
 religion of Arabia. They lack the industry of the 
 Mandingos, and manifest a want of political or- 
 ganisation, being, from their origin, cUsposed to a 
 nomadic exbtence. They are intermixed with 
 several other tribes, so that great diversity of type 
 and colour prevails amongst them. They are of 
 great importance as regards communication along 
 the Niger. Altogether they make a c(msiderable 
 approach to the family which we have before de- 
 scribed under the name of the Nubian. The 
 Suhnias are a sr^uat robust Negro race, not ex- 
 ceeding 5 feet 8 inches high. They are remark- 
 able for their courage and hardihood, and have 
 made considerable progress in the common arts of 
 life, but have not adopted Mohammedanisn or the 
 Arabic letters. The Jolofi inhabit both the mari- 
 time and mountain country on the south banks of 
 
 the Senegal, and arc. In fact, tho first Xegro nation 
 we encounter on the western side of the continent 
 after quitting the Berbers. Their complexion is a 
 tine transparent dc black. With the exception 
 of thick lips and a nose much roundeil at the end, 
 their tcatiires make some approacli to the Euro- 
 pean. The hair is crisp and woolly, the staliiro 
 tall, and the figure<good. To the south of tliu 
 Gambia, and extenilinj' to Cape Palmas, we And 
 the race called Feloupt, of a deep black odour; 
 with longish woolly hair; features so regular an 
 to be thought to licar some resemblance to tlio 
 Hindoo ; am', of slight and short stature, but mucli 
 agility. These are nearly in a savage state. To 
 tlie south of the Feloups are the Papain, a race of 
 very ugly Negroes, of dull, gross, and ferocir)iis 
 asiwct, with very flat noses, and of a dirty livid 
 colour. These and some other races resembling 
 them are followed in proceeding southward by the 
 Bullom, &c., of a fine black colour, of gcMMl features, 
 and well made, with persons above the mean sta- 
 ture. The Tehu, or Tedti, occupy the eastern half 
 of the desert, corresponding in ])OHition to tho 
 Berbers on the western side. The Baiisa form an 
 intermediate race between the Berbers and Ne- 
 groes : near neighlxxirs to these are the Kantlri or 
 Bdmu. On both sides of the Niger ore settled 
 the Yoruba-Nufe nations, industrious and com- 
 mercial people. Farther to the cast arc the Log6n 
 or LAggone, the Bagirma, and the Wadai. The 
 Bagirnia are a fine race, but cruel. Wadai isi 
 powerful kingdom, with a population of about 
 0,000,000. Procceiling southward, and more to the 
 Gold coast and the country lying inland from it, 
 we find the Intor, Fantee, and Ashantee nations, 
 which appear to constitute another distinct variety 
 of the Negro race. It is of the mean stature, and 
 well proportioned. The face is of an oval form ; 
 the eyebrows lofty and thick ; the lips fresh, red, 
 and not hanging down as in the extreme forms of 
 the Xegro ; and the nose not so flat. The hair is 
 rather curled than woolly, and occasionally so long 
 as to reach to the shoulders. Tho Ashantee belong 
 to * a larger groiip of people,' says Dr. Barth, * con- 
 stituting the O'chi race.' Xow and then are to lie 
 seen examples rather Asiatic than African. No 
 nation of this variety has ever possessed the art of 
 writing, either springing up among themselves or 
 borrowed from strangers ; and, although they have 
 all made considerable progress in several of the 
 common arts of life, they are in the habitual per- 
 petration of cruel and ferocious rites,- not to be 
 paralleled by any other race of mankind. From 
 the Bight of Biafra down to 20° S. latitude, where 
 we encounter the Kaffers, there is comparatively 
 little variation fi«m our general description of the 
 Negro family. Dr. Livingstone tells us that tho 
 amount of population in the central parts of Africa 
 is to be called large, only in comparison with Cape 
 colony, or the Bcchuana country, v. .ach extends 
 from tho Orange Kiver m IS** south latitude. He 
 says of these tribes, * The people who inhabit the 
 central rejjion are not all quite black in colour. 
 Many incline to that of bronze, and others arc as 
 light in hue as the Bushmen.' Amongst the 
 south-western tribes are the Ovanepo, a corn-grow- 
 ing, honest, and well-ordered people, who, consi- 
 dered as blacks, are highly civilised ; the Demaras, 
 a handsome, sprightly, but worthless race; aiul 
 the Ghou Danup, a very peculiar race of Negroes. 
 In the interior of Africa, lying between the Moun- 
 tains of the Mo<m, which cross, or are supposed to 
 cross, the entire continent in about 10° of X. lati- 
 tude, and the great desert, wc have, as far as our 
 very imperfect information extends, little variety 
 from the common type of the Xegro. This is tlic 
 coimtiy which the Arabs call Soudan; a word 
 
AFRICA 
 
 33 
 
 he first XegTo nntirtn 
 lide of the continent 
 heir complexion iH a 
 With the exception 
 roundetl at the end, 
 proncli to the Euro- 
 woolly, the stature 
 fo the south of thu 
 ape Palmas, we find 
 I ilcep black cidour; 
 laturcfl so rcRular as 
 resemblance to tlie 
 urt stature, but much 
 I a savage state. To 
 the Papal*, a race ot 
 f^ross, and ferocious 
 and of a dirty livid 
 ler races resembling 
 ng southward by the 
 lour, of gootl features, 
 above the mean sta- 
 cupy the eastern half 
 ' in jmsition to the 
 The IlaiiBa form an 
 he Uerl)er8 and Ne- 
 jse are the Kantlri or 
 he Niger are settled 
 idustrious and coni- 
 ie cost arc the LogAn 
 [id the Wadai. The 
 t cruel. Wadai isi 
 population of about 
 ward, and more to the 
 lying inland from it, 
 lid Ashantee nations, 
 lother distinct variety 
 he mean stature, and 
 ! is of an oval form ; 
 I ; the lips fresh, red, 
 the extreme forms of 
 t so tlat. The hair is 
 1 occasionally so long 
 The Ashantee belonj^ 
 says Dr. Barth, ' con- 
 >w'and then are to Ih) 
 than African. Ni> 
 possessed the art of 
 among themselves or 
 although they have 
 in several of the 
 in the habitual per- 
 ous rites,- not to be 
 of mankind. From 
 !0° S. latitude, where 
 ere is comparatively 
 ral description of the 
 ine tells us that the 
 entral parts of Africa 
 omparison with Cape 
 ntry, v. .iich extends 
 south latitude. He 
 ople who inhabit the 
 ite black in colour, 
 ze, and others are as 
 len.' Amongst the 
 v^anepo, a corn-grow- 
 peoplc, who, consi- 
 ilisccl; theDemaras, 
 worthless race; and 
 liar race of Negroc?. 
 between the Mouii- 
 s, or are supposed to 
 bout 10° of N. lati- 
 have, as far as our 
 tends, little variety 
 Negro. This is the 
 11 iSoudan; a word 
 
 Iwhioh means the countrj' of black men,* and \» 
 lexiictly c(juivalent to the Persian word Ilindostan. 
 [On the east coast of AfHca, between the Caffn 
 and Nubian races, we have notldng but true Ne- 
 groes. It is, however, U\ be observed of these, that 
 although the woolly head, black skin, flat nose, 
 thick lips, and projecting jaws are never absent, 
 their excess which is found in general on the west- 
 (cm coast does not exist. Captain Burton Siiys, 
 I that the aspect of the great mass of this Negroid 
 J race is not unprcposse .wing. They are tall and 
 I well-made Muhittos, tut a handsome man is never 
 seen except amongst the chiefs. The osteological 
 structure of the head is not so heavy as in the 
 I pure Negro. The haiv of these races is stiff, short, 
 crisp, and curling, 'jnder the same denomination, 
 I though shorter and feebler, is to be included the 
 inhabitants of the great island of Madagascar; 
 I who, because their language contains pntbably 
 I alx>ut 100 or 160 words of Malayan, are absunlly 
 I supposed by some writers to be of the Malayan 
 I race, which they no more resemble than they do 
 I Europeans. The introduction of such terms has, 
 tin fact, been satisfactorily accounted for by the 
 I drifting of boats with crews of Malays from the 
 Idhore of the island of Sumatra, two or three au- 
 Ithentic examples of which have occurred within 
 lour o^vn times. The fact of such occurrences 
 •having taken place is a suflicient answer to the 
 (apparent difficulty of open boats with their crews 
 I performing a voyage which cannot be less than 
 |<),000 nautical miles. The manner in which such 
 {events would take place is, we thinkj obvious 
 Icnough. A trading or fishing-boat, with a few 
 ■cocoa-nuts, affording meat and drink to the crews, 
 land known to be a constant sea-stock in such cases, 
 Jrivcn from the coast of Sumatra in the height of 
 the NE. monsoon, would in due course be carried 
 linto the SE. trade wind, and going with a flowing 
 nheet before the wind ^the only course she could 
 Ipnraue), would be carried to the shore of Mada- 
 Ignscar in a shorter time and with more safety than 
 Imight at first be imagined 
 
 I Such is a brief and necessarily imperfect account 
 lof the races of men inhabiting Africa. The sub- 
 liect is indeed full of difficidty; not only from its 
 Icxtent, variety, and complexity, but also from 
 Ithc imperfect infonnation, and indeed in most 
 leases the entire ignorance, which exists regarding 
 lit. Tlie numbjr of different nations, and even of 
 Idistinct languages, is proportional to the barbarism 
 [of the people; and there is no quarter of the globe, 
 I America excepted, in which the number of both is 
 I so great 
 
 There are no accurate means by which to form 
 I an estimate of the population of AJfrica, the calcula- 
 tions varj'ing between 60,000,000 and 100,000,000. 
 I Probably the mean of these, namely 80 millions, 
 [accepted by Ritter and other eminent geographers, 
 I will be nearest the truth. 
 
 Animah of Africa, — These, at its northern ex- 
 jtrcmity, where it approaches Europe, and at its 
 [eastern, where it approaches, or rather joins, Asia, 
 I arc generally the same as those of these two por- 
 Itions of the globe; but throughout its greater part 
 I they are not only different from the Euroixym and 
 I African species, but equally also from the animals 
 [of the two portions of America, and from those of 
 [the Oceanic continent and islands. We shall con- 
 [fine our observations chiefly to those more imme- 
 |dintely subservient to the uses of man. 
 
 Of 1,270 known species of terrestrial Mammalia 
 [there have been discovered in Africa, although 
 [ more imperfectly explored than any other portion 
 [of the globe, no fewer than 290, of which 242 
 [are peculiar to this continent. Of the Quadni- 
 inmna, comprchcudiiig apes, moiilccys, and lemurs, 
 
 Vol, I. 
 
 there are 65 upecicd, of which 48 are {tcctiliar 
 to it; not one of them being identical with tlio 
 species found in Asia or America. One of tho 
 most remarkable of the whole tribe is the Simia 
 troglodytei, or chimpanzee, which, after a careful 
 anatomical comparison with tho orung utan of 
 Borneo, is now considered to make in physical 
 formation a nearer a))pn>ach Xn man than the lat- 
 ter, while it is unquestionably more lively and 
 intelligent. Another curious specimen of tho 
 Troglodytei Ls the nshietfo-mhorme, or nest-making 
 ape, of which M. Uu Ciiaillu gives an account in 
 his travels, and which constructs for itself a house 
 of leafy branches in lonely forest trees, always 
 choosing a tree which stands a little apart from 
 others. The Kooloo-kaniba is another species of 
 African ape. But the most wonderful of all this 
 great family is the Gorilla. M. Du Chaillu thus 
 describes a meeting with one of these monsters :— 
 ' He stood about a doaen yards from us, and was 
 a sight I think I shall never forget. Nearly six 
 feet high (he proved four inches shorter), with im- 
 mense bodv, huge chest, and great muscular arms, 
 with fiercely-glaring large deep gray eyes, and a 
 hellish expression of face, which seemed to me 
 like some nightmare vision : thus stood before us 
 this king of the African forest. He was not afraid 
 of us. He stood there, and beat his breast with 
 his huge fists till it resounded like an immense 
 bass dnim, which is their mode of offering do- 
 fiance, meantime giving vent to roar after roar.' 
 Of the Cheiroptera, or bats, there are 80 species in 
 Africa, 4 of which only are common to it with 
 Europe and Asia. The carnivorous animals of 
 Africa are 66 in num1)er, of which 14 only are 
 found in other parts of tho world. The most re- 
 markable of these is the lion, which is known 
 historically to have once existed in the east of 
 Europe and west of Asia. With the exception of 
 an inferior variety found in some parts of northern 
 Hindostan, this animal, so renowned in the fable, 
 poetry, painting, and sculpture of almost ever^ 
 nation of the old world, from China to Spain, is 
 now confined to Africa (Leonum arida nutrix)', 
 which it ranges from its N. to its S. extremity. 
 Panthers, leopards, and many small species of 
 the feline race also exist; and the cat has been 
 domesticated, though it be much more rarely 
 found in this state than in Europe, Asia, or eveu 
 America. 
 
 Of the Canine family, Africa contains the dog, 
 wolf, fox, jackal, and hyena. The dog has not 
 been found there in the wild state, but many 
 varieties exbt in a semi-domesticated condition, 
 living in troops in the towns and villages, as it 
 does in almost all the countries of Asia. The 
 Africans have never, that we are aware of, used 
 it for food or labour, or even for the chase. 
 Jackals and foxes are numerous. Africa may be 
 considered the peculiar country of the hyena; 
 for of four existing species one only, belonging 
 to Hindostan, is found out of its limits. Of the 
 Viverra, or civets, several species exist in Africa; 
 among which is the true civet cat, domesticated 
 by the natives to produce civet ; and a species of 
 the Mongoos, viz. the celebrated Ichneumon, or 
 rat of Pharoah. Of bears, which either still exist, 
 or are known to have existed, in almost every 
 country of Europe, Asia, and America, no example 
 has yet been found in Africa. 
 
 The Marsupial order of animals, or that of 
 which the females have a double womb, is wholly- 
 wanting in Africa, as it is in Europe and con- 
 tinental Asia. Of tho Kodent Mammalia, or 
 gnawers, Africa yields many species of rats, 
 squirrels, and four or five species of hare; while 
 the rabbit is thought to have been originally 
 
 D 
 
^wm 
 
 'If 
 
 III 
 
 jiii: 
 in 
 
 84 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 brought to Eurnpo throuf;h Spain firom the Af- 
 rican coast of tho Mediterranean. The Pachy- 
 demutta, or thick-$kinned order, iit very aburdant; 
 more bo indeed than in any other port uf tho 
 world. We find among these tho horse, ass, 
 zebra, dow, and qua^a; tho elephant, rliino- 
 ceroH, hippoputomuH, common hog, and lingallo 
 or African boar. Ahhoiigh the horse cannot bo 
 asserted to be a native of Africa, not being found 
 in tho wild state, it has been domesticated there 
 from tho earliest ages of history. The Nnmi- 
 dians had their cavalry when the Romans first 
 became acquainted with them; and the horse 
 does not appear to have been a stranger oven 
 to tho ancient Egyptians; though among tho 
 mummies of quadrupeds found in the catacombs 
 that of this animal does not appear. Tho most 
 improved of tho negro tribes possesa the horse, 
 and have often a numerous cavalry; but, like 
 Asiatics, generally, the Africans do not apply the 
 horse to draught or burthen, and coniine its use 
 to war or pleasure. When tho Arabs conquered 
 Egypt and northern Asia, they introduced their 
 own breed, which, mixed in some degree with 
 the native one, constitutes the Imrb and Egyptian 
 horse — little inferior to tho pure Arabian blood 
 itself. Tho Dutch and English introduced into 
 the colony, at the southern extremity of tho 
 continent, their respective national breeds; and 
 the soil and climate of Africa being found gene- 
 rally congenial to the constitution of the horse, 
 it has thriven and multiplied there as scarcely 
 anywhere else. 
 
 The ass is most probably not a native of Africa, 
 or wo should still, in a country so little occupied 
 by man, find it in its wild state, as we do in so 
 many countries of Asia. It has, however, been 
 introduced into Egypt and Barbary, — possibly by 
 the Arabs, — and thrives extremely well in both. 
 The zebra, the dow, and the c|Hagga, quadrupeds 
 peculiar to Africa, and beautiful, at least as to 
 colour, are found in troops all over its arid plains 
 and deserts. But from a natural indocility or 
 wajrwardness of temper, or from the unskilfulness 
 of tho African people, — probably, indeed, from 
 both causes, — and the possession of the horse and 
 ass, they have never been tamed and applied to 
 economical uses. 
 
 Ruminating animals ore not less abundant than 
 the Pachydermuta, Of the 157 species of those 
 which are ascertained to exist, 73 are found in 
 Africa; and, with the exception of 10, all of them 
 are peculiar to it. Tho dromedary, or single- 
 humped camel, is now abundant in all the dry 
 parts of Africa, and is the principal beast of 
 burthen. In the earliest portion of scriptural his- 
 tory it is mentioned as being employed in carry- 
 ing on tho trade between Syna, Arabia, and 
 Egypt, and therefore it is fairly concluded that 
 it was well known to the ancient Egyptians. It 
 is also found sculptured on some of the earliest 
 Egyptian architectural monuments. Egypt, how- 
 ever, from position, physical character, and civi- 
 lisation, was always more an Asiatic than an 
 African country ; and from tho fact of the camel's 
 existing there, its general diflfusion over tho 
 country cannot bo inferred. It does not appear to 
 have been known in tho portion of Africa lying 
 along the coast of the Mediterranean during its 
 possession by the Romans ; and it seems not im- 
 probable, therefore, as some have conjectured, that 
 Its general diflfusion over the continent was the 
 work of the Arabs, after their adoption of the 
 Mohammedan religion in the 7th century. The 
 Giraffe, known to the Romans, and used in their 
 games, is exclusively an inhabitant of the dry 
 parts of Africa. Notwithstauduig \t» size, strength, 
 
 and grntloncms, it has never been applied, in itg 
 domesticated state, to any useful pur|Miso of man ; 
 and from its eccentric and awkward form of move- 
 ment, is probably unlit for onv. 
 
 Homed cattle, or oxen, of man^ varieties, an 
 general among all tho mot« civilised tril)es of 
 Africa; and in Egypt tho existence of the ox 
 is coeval with the earliest records of the country. 
 Mummies of this animal have been found in tlic 
 catacombs, supposed to be not less than three 
 thousand years ohl. Whether the original stock 
 was imported or was indigenous, cannot bo ascer- 
 tained; but most probably tho latter, for the 
 common ox in the wild state is not known to ex- 
 ist in any part of this continent as it does in many 
 parts of Asia and its islands, and as it is known 
 once to have done in Europe. The bufTulo (Bni 
 bubalui) has been naturalised in Egypt since the 
 middle ages, havhig been introduced from India 
 through the conquests of the Arabs. One speci(>g 
 of the ox family only is ascertained to be indi- 
 genous to Africa, and is peculiar to its B<juthcm 
 extremity. This is tho Duffalo of tho Cape, or 
 Bos Cajfer ; an animal of great size and ferocity, 
 which has never been tamed, and is probably uii- 
 tameablo. 
 
 Sheep and goats exist throughout all the drier 
 parts of the continent ; but neither are found in 
 the wild state, and have probably been intn>- 
 duced. The prevalent variety of the first is that 
 with the fat tail, of from 10 to 30 pounds weight, 
 the same which is so general in Persia, Arabia, 
 and Tartary; and which, though long looked 
 upon as a rarity and a monstrosity, is probably i 
 as extensively diffused over the globe as the 
 variety more familiar to us. Tho wool and flesh 
 of the fat-tailed sheep ore greatly inferior to those 
 of our own breed ; but the flesh of the lamb is 
 thought to bo superior. There are said to be but 
 two species of deer— one of which is the common 
 fallow deer — existing in this continent, and these 
 are confined to the countries boniering the Mecii- 
 terrancan. This is compensated by the existence 
 of not less than (iO species of antelope, all peculiar 
 to it ; a number far exceeding that of the genus 
 found in every other part of the world. Some of 
 the species, as the gazelle, do not exceed a foot 
 and a half high, and are remarkable for the beauty 
 and gracefulness of their form. Others ere equal 
 in size to a laige ass or zebra ; as the gnu, which 
 has the body, tail, and paces of a horse. The 
 most numerous species is perhaps the springbnk; 
 which, in the wide plains of southern Africa, is ! 
 said to be found in herds of 10,000, or even 60,000, 
 Not one of the whole family bos ever been do- 
 mesticated for the purposes of food or labour by 
 the natives, as tho rein and fallow deer have been 
 in Europe. | 
 
 The elephant is found in all the wooded and 
 low parts of Africa, from the northern limits of 
 the great desert to the southern capo ; and gene- 
 rally in greater numbers than any where else in 
 the world, if we except Ceylon and tho countries 
 lying between Hindostan and China. The African 
 elephant diflfers, specifically, from the Asiatic. 
 The crown of the tooth is marked by a lozenge 
 instead of ribbon stripes ; the hind foot has thru | 
 toes instead of four ; the forehead is convex in- 
 stead of concave, and the ears are longer. In 
 point of size, general form, st^acity, and docility, 
 there is probably no great difference. No native 
 African people, that we are aware of, ever tamed i 
 the elephant. When an African is told that this 
 is done in the East, he is as incredulous as a 
 European would be if an African told him that 
 his countrymen tamed the hippopotamus, and 
 used it as a beast of burden. The only hint wc 
 
AFBIOA 
 
 r been appliwl, In its 
 eful purjHiw! «)f man ; 
 kward form of mov»- 
 
 r many varieties, aro 
 re civiliHcil tril)es of 
 exisUince of the ox 
 !onl8 of the country, 
 I'G been found in the 
 not less than tlirrc 
 ler the original stock 
 QUA, cannot bo osccr- 
 tlio latter, for the 
 ) b not known to cx- 
 snt as it docs in many 
 I, and as it is knowii 
 e. The buffalo {Itm 
 d in Egypt since tlie 
 itroduced from India 
 I Arabs, One species 
 icertaincd to bo indi- 
 ndiar to its southern 
 ffttlo of the Cape, or 
 eat size and ferocity, 
 1, and is probably uii- 
 
 oughout all the drier 
 
 neitlier are found in 
 probably been intro- 
 ty of the first is that 
 I to 30 pounds weight, 
 ral in Persia, Arabia, 
 
 though long looked 
 •nstrosity, is probably 
 'er the globe as the 
 , The wool and flesh 
 reatly inferior to those 
 
 tlesh of the lamb h 
 here are said to bo but i^; 
 which is the common 
 s continent, and these 
 s bonlering the Medi- 
 tated by the existence 
 f antelope, all peculiar 
 ing that of the genus 
 r the world. Some of 1 
 
 do not exceed a foot | 
 lorkable for the beauty 
 jrm. Others ere equal 
 ra ; as the gnu, which 
 
 :e8 of a horse. The 
 jrhaps the springboit; 
 
 of southern Africa, is 
 
 10,000, or even 60,000. 
 lly has ever been do- j 
 of food or labour by ! 
 
 fallow deer have been 
 
 all tbe wooded and 
 
 |he northern limits of 
 
 lem capo ; and gene- 1 
 
 |an any where else in 
 
 Ion and the countries 
 
 Id China. The African 
 
 r, from the Asiatic, 
 
 larked by a lozenge { 
 J hind foot has thret 
 Irehead is convex in- 
 lears are longer. In 
 lagacity, and docility, 
 lifference. No native { 
 
 iware of, ever tamed 
 
 lean is told that this 
 I as incredulous as a ] 
 Jean told him that 
 hippopotamus, and i 
 The only hint w 
 
 Lave nccn that «nch a thing mkv be, is given by 
 JMr. Campbell, the African traveller, who mforms 
 us that he was told by a people of the interior 
 rhom he encountered, that another people more 
 idvnnced in civilisarion than themselves, the Ma- 
 J»ala»Iey, ' wear clothen, ride on elephants, climb 
 Into their houses, and are go<l8.' That the ele- 
 phants use<l by the Carthaguiians were of the 
 African species there cannot, we think, bo the 
 least question. One of the conditions of the treaty 
 forced upon them by the Romans after the battle 
 ttf Zoma implies this clearly enough. They were 
 surrender all the elephants which they had 
 amed, and to tame no more for the future. Livy's 
 _ccount is ! — * Perfugas, fugitivosque, et captives 
 omncs rcdderent Roman is, et naves rostratas, pneter 
 decern triremes traderent, elephanto»que, quos ha- 
 'erent domito$; ncque domarent alios.' — (Livy, lib. 
 ixx. c. 87.) The elephants of Pyrrhus were, no 
 (lubt, Asiatic, and received through the Mace- 
 onian conquests. His invasion of lUly was but 
 7 years after the Indian invasion of Alexander ; 
 ,iHt therefore, considering the long age of the 
 lephant, the very individual animals in the army 
 if Pyrrhus may have been the same which Alex- 
 nder brought from the banks of the Indus. The 
 nrthaginians being of an Asiatic, and not an 
 frican stock, form no exception to our previous 
 mark. The Egyptians, the only people of 
 frica from whose ingenuity we might have 
 ked for the domestication of the elephant, had 
 to tame; nor was their highly cultivated 
 Country well suited for their use, if they had. As 
 contrast to the Africans, it may be observed, 
 hat there is no people of Asia whose country pro- 
 luces the elephant by whom it has not been 
 lomesticated and used as a beast of burden, from 
 he Hindoos, the most civilised, to the Malays, 
 he least so. The Africans consider the elephant 
 ^nly as a beast of chase, and hunt it for its ivory, 
 1 flesh, and its hide ; and the herds are so nume- 
 0U9, and the population so scanty, that the supply, 
 ccording to present circumstances, appears for all 
 bractical purpttses inexhaustible. 
 
 The two-homed rhinoceros, of a different species 
 rora the two-homed rhinoceros of Sumatra, inha- 
 |)its the same localities as the elephant, and is 
 hunted with the same avidity by the natives for 
 Its tough and thick hide and its horns. Traces for 
 Dx-hamess, but above all shields, arc made of the 
 h>nncr, which are in repute throughout all eastem 
 pountries; and the latter are used for their sup- 
 K)scd medical virtues, and are a regular object of 
 aflic. It may be oteerved of this species of rhi- 
 noceros, as well as of the two which belong to 
 India and its islands, that their docility and capa^ 
 bity for domesdcation are not inferior to those of 
 [the elephant itself. The slow and sluggish move- 
 Qcnts of this animal make it, notwithstanding 
 {these qualities and its great strength, an unsuit- 
 able beast of burthen, especially in countries where 
 Ihe elephant, the ox, the buffalo, and the horse 
 exist; and, consequently, it has never been ap- 
 plied to such a purpose. 
 The hippopotamus is exclosively a native of 
 irica, inhabiting the rivers and fresh-water l^kes 
 bf the whole continent, from the southern confines 
 pf the Sahara nearly to the extreme cape. It was 
 veil known to the Greeks and Romans as an in- 
 habitant of the Nile ; from which, however, it has 
 |iow disappeared everywhere below the third cata- 
 act. In the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa it 
 ktill exists in undiminished numbers, being from 
 ^ts locality difficult to come at by the hunter. 
 
 The common hog, in the wild state, is said to be 
 
 found at the two extremities of the continent, 
 
 vhere it approaches Europe and Asia, viz. Bu- 
 
 bary and Egjrpt ; bnt there is no evidence of tho 
 existence, anywhere else in Africa, of this animal, 
 which was at one time general throughout Europe, 
 and is still general throughout Asia and its large 
 islands. Its place seems to be taken by the lingal- 
 lo, or masked boar. This animal, which has teeth 
 of a formation and growth resembling those of tho 
 elephant, and a large pendulous protuberance sup- 
 ported by a bony process on each cheek, giving it 
 a hideous api)carancc, is not only found on tho 
 continent, but in Madagascar and the Canary Is- 
 lands. It has never been domesticated, but tho 
 common hog has to a limited extent. 
 
 The native Ornithology of Africa does not pre- 
 sent the same number of subjects subservient to 
 man as that of Asia, or oven of America. Tho 
 common fowl, goose, and duck are all of them 
 probably strangers, and there is no doubt that thia 
 IS the case with at least the first. They are bred 
 by the native inhabitants, but only to a very 
 limited extent. The only bird which Africa haa 
 contributed to the poultry-yard is the Guinea hen : 
 of this genus there are four or five species found 
 abundantly on the western coast and its islands. 
 The bird, as its Latin name, Numida, implies, wa.4 
 known to the Romans, and bred by them. Most 
 probably they received it domesticated from the 
 Carthaginians. It i.s very remarkable that it is 
 now wholly unknown to any African people in the 
 domestic state, except as imported by European 
 colonists — a singular proof of apathy and dniness 
 in the whole race. This bird seems to supply, in 
 Africa, the place of the common fowl of Lurwiie, 
 the peacocks and pheasants of Asia, and the tur- 
 keys and alectros of America. The ostrich, which 
 once extended to the nearest parts of Asia, is now 
 confined to Africa; and the Arabs are said to have 
 introduced the practice of breeding them in the 
 domestic state, in order to obtain their feathers in 
 greater perfection. Of our summer birds of pas- 
 sage many pass their winters in Africa; as tho 
 cuckoo and nightingale, some swallows, and the 
 common quail and land-rail. The cheerful and 
 active period of their lives, therefore, is passed 
 among us, and the note of the cuckoo and song of 
 the nijrhtingale are wholly unknown to the jjcople 
 of Africa. The woods of tropical Africa abound 
 with birds of the parrot family, from those which 
 are no bigger than a lark to some which are 
 equal in size to a large falcon. As in South 
 America, the Indian Islands, and Australia, they 
 are remarkable for the variety and brilliancy of 
 their plumage, their dissonant and incessant notes, 
 and their utter inutility to man. Proportional to 
 the number of graminivorous and frugivorous birds, 
 and of wild mammals and reptiles, is that of eagles, 
 hawks, vultures, and other birds of prey. 
 
 Among reptiles are to be found a great variety 
 of the lizard family, from the chameleon up to the 
 crocodile ; and of snakes ^a few poisonous, bnt the 
 greater number harmless), some species not ex- 
 ceeding a few inches long, up to the python, 
 which measures 30 feet in length. All the 8])ecieii 
 of this class differ from those of Asia and America, 
 not to say of Europe, or the Indian Islands, or 
 Australia. Africa, of course, abounds in the insect 
 tribe. Of these the bee alone is directly useful to 
 man, but has never been domesticated by the 
 Africans. Africa yields no useful insect, such as 
 the kermes of Europe and Western Asia, the lac 
 of Eastem Asia, or the cochineal of South 
 America. 
 
 Plants of Africa. — In reference to its Flora, 
 Africa may be divided into three districts, namely, 
 the Atlantic, the Equinoctial, and the Austral re- 
 ^on. A fourth may be added in the principal 
 islands on its western and eastem sides, viz. the 
 
 »2 
 
«« 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 CanAricfl and MndapfOfloar, with the MniiritiuK and 
 ItoiirlNtii. The ))lant8 of the Mt'ditcrranuan cooiit 
 difTcr little or nothin;; from those of tlu; npjioHito 
 «horo of Andalusia. Wheat, barley, niai/.c, rico, 
 the KTii\w, the fl^, olive, and date, att well as the 
 cotton plant, thrive here in perfection. It is not 
 until we reaoh as far south as K^ypt, that the 
 Flora assumes a character intermediate, as it were, 
 Itetween Kuro|iean and Tropical ; an<l hore, to the 
 plantA already enumerated, may be added the 
 Bu^ar-cane, cotton, indi);o, and coflco. In lJp|)cr 
 Effypt, Nubia, and Al»yssinia, we have a some- 
 what peculiar vt^tation ; and hero we find the 
 acaciat, which prcnluee gum-arabic, and the ea»sia», 
 which yield the medicinal senna. In Altyssinia 
 first appears the Hcitaniineous fitmily of plants, 
 the same which in the Kast yields ginger, tunne- 
 ric, ani cardamoms. The coffee plant still grows 
 wild in the same regiim, which is indeed supposed 
 to be its native country. 
 
 In the equinoctial part of Africa a totally new 
 vegetation presents itself, entirely differing from 
 that of Europe, and almost equally so from those 
 of tropical Asia and America. One conspicuous 
 forest tree of great size, however, the Bombax 
 jittntandrum is common to the three continents. 
 Another forest tree of vast magnitude, the Itaobab, 
 or AduHsonia, is sup)>oaed to afford cxam])U!S of the 
 oldest living organized matter on our glolw; some 
 specimens, l>y counting the numlier of their con- 
 centric circlcit, being estimated at near 6,000 years 
 old. The African oak, or teak, which, however, is 
 probably neither the one nor the other, though its 
 rM>tanical place has not lieen as yet ascertained, is 
 an inhabitant of the same region. The bamboo, 
 so common and so useful in Asia and America, is 
 unknown to Africa. Whole plains in this quarter 
 are occasionally overspread with the papyrus plant, 
 to the exclusion of every other. Peculiar palms 
 of course abound; among which, however, the 
 date is no longer found. The most useful of these 
 is that which yields the oil of commerce, the 
 £lau Guineenni, Wliether from the barbarism of 
 the natives, or the nncongeniality of the soil and 
 climate, corns are little grown, and their place is 
 taken by hardy fai.naceous roots, pulses, «c, ; as 
 the Dioscoria or yam, the Aruchis or ground nut, 
 and the pigeon [tea or CyttBus cajan. The fruits of 
 tropical Africa, in comparison with those of Kuro]ie, 
 Asia, the Asiatic islands, or America, are few in 
 numiwr and of indift'eretit quality. The most re- 
 markable are the nitta or donna {Parkin Africa- 
 ns) , a sjiecies of custard apple {A nana Seneqalensis) , 
 the safu, the cream fniit, the negro peach (Jano- 
 rephalus lauritta), the monkey apple, pigeon plums 
 (Chry»ohalanus), the Kammee a]>ple (Mammea 
 Africana), and the star ai)|tle {Chryg(ti)hyllum). 
 The pine ap|)le, a native of America, grows luxu- 
 riantly in the forests, as if it were indigenous. 
 
 As we approach the southern extremity of the 
 continent, a new form of vegetation presents itself, 
 differing essentially from that of every other part 
 of the world, but bearing the nearest analogy to 
 that of Australia. Its character is suited to the 
 arid nature of the soil and climate ; and the pre- 
 vailing genera are euphorbias, aloes, crassulas, and 
 heaths, of endless species, and often of great beau- 
 ty ; plants generally with fleshy leaves, and slen- 
 <ler roots, which are nourished more bj' dew than 
 by the moisture of the earth. The grasses are 
 generally coarse, and forest trees are only found 
 m the moister parts near the banks of rivers. 
 
 In the Canary Islands the species arc for the 
 most |)art European, but their growth and luxu- 
 riance is tropical. The great island of Madagascar 
 has on its western side plants common to Africa, 
 and on its eastern some that arc common to the 
 
 Indian archipelngo. Ilut generally lioth liore niiit 
 in liourbon and the Mauritius, the Vlora is |ieculiar 
 ami local. 
 
 Heligum. — Feticism, or the wonihi|i of natural 
 objects, animate or inanimate, is, in its nnwt 
 degrading and offensive form, the religion of ihv 
 greater numlicr of the inhabitants of Africa, Immii^' 
 professed by almost all the Negrm'S, and by nearly 
 all the natives of Madagnwnr. They afi|K'ar 
 
 f generally to admit a g<MNl and an evil principle, 
 lave their lucky and unlucky days ; and their 
 priests claim the power of preserving men ami 
 animals from the influence of evil spirits. Sevt-ral 
 of these nations have a national and supremo fe- 
 tiche: the p<>ople called Ouidah or Widah, for in- 
 stance, worship the serjient, an order of i)riosts ainl 
 priestesses Ix'ing set apart to minister t4) this r<'|h 
 tile. The liissagos worship the cock; and the 
 tril)es on the Itight of Itenin, who regard their 
 own shadow as a fetiche, have a lizard for their 
 principal divinity. Other tribes worship alliga- 
 tors, hyenas, leopards, &c. ; and in some instaiu'cit 
 immolate to them human victims. The AgowH, 
 who reside near the sources of the Nile in Abys- 
 sinia, have, with less absunlity than most othern, 
 from time immemorial, offered sacrifices to the 
 genius of that river. The narrative of the MiMir 
 Sydy Hamed represents the inhabitants of Wat- 
 Bcnah and some frilMis of Nubia, and of other 
 countries in the region of the Nile and the inte- 
 rior of Africa, as worshippers of the moon ; and 
 tliose contiguous to Capo Mesurado in Guinea m 
 worshippers of the sun. The Galla hold as saen'il 
 certain trees and stones, the moon, and some (if ' 
 the stars. Sometimes tho Neprnies frame idoln 
 with a human countenance; and Capt. Tuckey 
 and Dr. Smith were surjmsed to see, on the banka 
 of the Zara in the interior of Africa, idols with 
 Eurojiean figures, and resembling tho Egyptian, 
 or rather the old Tuscan statues. The Betjouai:^! 
 have a kind of high-priest, who ranks as the most . 
 inqtortant personage after the king. At Dagoum- 
 ba, in central Guinea, there is a famous oracle, tlic , 
 resort to which renders it the entrepot of a flonr- 
 ishing commerce. According to M. Douville (who, ' 
 though referred toby lialbi, is a very doubtful autho- • 
 rity). the Cassange, Molouas, Muchingi, Moucan- ; 
 gama, and other nations of southern Nigritia, like ', 
 many trilws in its centre, unite to idolatrous super- 
 stitions the horrible practice of human sacrifices: 
 and though of an hos{)itablo disposition, arc sai<l 
 to l)c cannibals. Such are the dreadful aberratiniii | 
 to which unhistructed and uncivilised man is ex- 
 posed. 
 
 Among these nations, human sacrifices, accoitl- 
 ing to M. Douville, take place only on the acres- 1 
 sion of a sovereign, or on the occurrence of some I 
 great epidemic. The victim is always selected out | 
 of the country, and, if jmssible, at a great distance j 
 from the place of sacrifice : it must be a yonnj; I 
 man or woman, nnd ignorant of the fate that I 
 awaits him or her till the moment of immolation, | 
 Should any one reveal the fearful secret, death is I 
 the inevitable penalty. During the interval bo- 1 
 tween the selection and the sacrifice the victim is I 
 kept with the greatest care, and every possible I 
 means is adopted for the purpose of making him I 
 fat. On the arrival of the fatal moment, he iil 
 suddenly put to death in the midst of imposing 
 solemnities, and in the presence of the king, graii-f 
 dees, and people assembled to witness the spectacle,! 
 Hia body is usually quartered, and immediately I 
 roasted, to be portioned out among the spectator; i 
 according to their rank, and devoured on the spot.r 
 But enough of these brutalising enormities pcqie | 
 trated in the sacred name of religion. 
 
 With the exception of Abyssinia and the c«li>-| 
 
AFRICA 
 
 87 
 
 e wonhi|i of natural 
 inte, 18, in its mimt 
 I, the rt'li^ion of tli« 
 tant» of Africa, iH-inn 
 ('KnM'B, and liy nearly 
 wi'ar. Tlicy Bp|K'nr 
 Mid an evil prinii|(lc, 
 city dayd ; anil tlicir 
 prpHorvinK men and 
 f evil fiplritfl. Several 
 oual an<l supremo fi- 
 idah or Widah, for in- 
 an order of prientN ami 
 n miniatcr to this r(|i- 
 p the cock; and the 
 lin, who regard tluir 
 lavo a lizard for their 
 tribes worsliip allipi- 
 and in some instanort 
 victims. The A^owh, 
 of the Nile in Al>)s- 
 tlity than most others 
 fered sacrifices to tlic 
 narrative of the MiM.r 
 c inhabitants of VVa>- 
 Nubia, and of otlur 
 ho Nile and the int(- 
 e.rs of the moon; and 
 Icsurado in Guinea an 
 fic Galla hold as sacrnl 
 lie moon, and 8om<! of 
 B NcRToes frame iddis 
 ;e; and Capt. Tuckry 
 ed to sec, on the banks 
 r of Africa, idols with 
 jmbling the Epvptiaii. 
 itiics. The Betjoua.is 
 who ranks as the nm^t 
 he king. At Uagoiim- 
 is a famous oracle, tlic 
 the entrepot of a flour- 
 ig to M. Douville (wlm, 
 s a very doubtful aiitlui- 
 IH, Muchinpi, Mouciin- 
 Houthem Nipritia, likt 
 lite to idolatrous miiKr 
 e of human sacriCnes: 
 le disposition, arc miA \ 
 he dreadful aberrations 
 uncivilised man is ex- { 
 
 man sacrifices, acconl- 
 lace only on the iiocw- 
 the occurrence of some I 
 
 is always selected (nit I 
 ible, at a great distance I 
 
 it must Ims a ytninRJ 
 »rant of the fate that I 
 noment of immolation, I 
 fearful secret, death b I 
 luring the interval bo- 1 
 
 sacrifice the victim is I 
 re, and every possililel 
 urpose of making him I 
 e fatal moment, he ii 
 the midst of imposiii;' 
 ence of the king, gran- 
 ;o witness the sjicctaclf. 
 ered, and immediately I 
 t among the spectatnp 
 
 devoured on the fpnt. f 
 ising enormities pcriic-j 
 f religion. 
 
 ibyBsinia and the colo 
 
 tiiM foimdod In modem time* on some points of 
 Ithe Alrican coast, where Christianity is professed, 
 IlklohamnuHlanism prevails in all the countries of 
 lAfrica not devote<l to Foticism and idolatry. It 
 lis very widely dltt'uscd, having extended itself 
 lover the whole of Haritary, Kgypt, Nubia, Ac, 
 land lieing professed by a considerable niimlN-r of 
 •♦he more advanced Negro nations. Its introduc- 
 Itioii has iMMm, poriiaps, the greatest tioon ever 
 Iconferred on Africa, and has tended materiallv to 
 liniprovc the hat)its and morals of the jKiople. The 
 I Koran is the only rccogniMed code in many coun- 
 jtrieH; and, what is singular, the Arabic is evcry- 
 Iwliere throughout AlVica, with the exception of 
 JAbvHidnia, the language used by such of the iia- 
 Itives as either read or write, ft was iiitriKliiced 
 {ill lh(! lirjtt age of the Hegir.i, and has iMirticipated 
 lldit little in the improvements that have since 
 jjK'eii made u|)on it in Asia. Arabic bos Im-cu for 
 Isoine centuries the language of the Copts or de- 
 lucendaiits of the ancient Kgyptians. 
 
 The Christianity that jirevails in Abyssinia is 
 {largely alloj'cil with debasing practices and observ- 
 liiiices'; and the ))ricsts are as ignorant and wortli- 
 jlesH as can well l)e imagined. With the exce))tion 
 (of the Caijc Colony, the seats of ChnHtiaiiity in 
 lotlier parts of the continent are too trifiing to de- 
 I serve notice ; but a considerable number of Cbris- 
 jtians of various denominations, and of Jews, are 
 Ifoimd in countries where Mohammedanism and 
 IFeticism are prevalent. 
 
 iMugmye, — Halbi has given a classification of 
 |tlie people of Africa according to their languages. 
 |rerlia|is it was impossible to have sel(H;ted a worse 
 ittaiiilard. VVe know little, and sometimes literally 
 Slothing, of the j)eoi)le in some very extensive 
 Viiiintries, and if it be possible we know still less 
 of their languages. Our knowledge of the latter 
 Is indeed in most instances exceedingly imjierfect ; 
 ^o that any classification of the pttople bottomed 
 b)ii it must necessarily be little else than a tissue 
 ■of errors. The Arabic, as we have just seen, is 
 lllie learned language of the entire continent. The 
 |]lcrlH!r is the vcniacular idiom of the Ilarbary 
 ■states; the Sango& is used in Guinea; and the 
 Iroiil, the lolof, 4c., bear the names of the people 
 Iby whom they are spoken. The Ambounda is the 
 llaiigiiagc of all the trilies between the Congo and 
 Itlie coast of Mozambique. As was to be exjiected 
 Ifrom the low state of civilisation of those by whom 
 itlicy are used, these languages arc all miserably 
 [poor. The reatlcr will find in the article Abyssinia 
 Isomc account of the language of that singular 
 Ijiortion of the African continent. Speaking of the 
 I language of the tribes of the south. Dr. Living- 
 Istoiie says: 'The structure, or we may say the 
 |skelctons, of the dialects of Cafirc, liechuana, Da- 
 ly eiye, Barotse, Bat oka, Batonga or (icople of the 
 l/aml>csi, Mashora, Babisa. the negroes of Soudo, 
 I Angola, and people of the West coast, are wonder- 
 j fully alike. A great proportion of the root is iden- 
 jtical in all.' The most regularly developed of all 
 |iiegro languages is the dialect of the Bechuanos, 
 |into which the Bible is now nearly all translated. 
 |Thc Hauga language is the most sonorous and 
 ■beautiful of all the languages of Negrrdand, but 
 Igrammatically defective. The Kauttri is very rich 
 Im gmmroatic forms. A complete grammar and 
 ■dictionary of the Demara tongue has now been 
 |made by the Rhenish missionaries. 
 
 Government. — Most forms of government, may 
 ■be found in Africa. Despotism, however, in its 
 Iworxt and most offensive shape, is by far the most 
 IprGvalent. In some states there exists a sort, of 
 jeudal aristocracy, and in others an aristocracy 
 Idepending on the rude distinctions of superior 
 Istrongth and prowess in war, which porticiiuites to a 
 
 greater or loss extent In the rights of sovereignty, 
 and in some they are (s-cosionally shared by tJio 
 lieoplo. Some large states consist of a kind of 
 confederacy of jietty chiefs, who, however, are very 
 frerpiently at war with each other. In fact, with 
 but few exceptions, slavery and anarchy reign tri- 
 umphant thmiighoiit Africa. And it would be to 
 no puqsise, even if we were accurately informed 
 as to the discrepancies in the forms of government 
 established in ilitferent [mrts, to waste the reatler's 
 time by detailing in what res|M>ct one barbiiMUA 
 and generally Huctiiating system of government 
 difiered from another. Since the year IH.Vi, when 
 the privilege of self-government was iccorded to 
 the C(doiiy of the Ca|K! of Good IIo|ie, the im- 
 provement in its development and resources has 
 ■((■en most conspicuous. Algeria, too, has to l>e 
 reckoned as possessing a civilised government, as 
 well as the other colonies on the Afrii^an coast 
 )M)ssessed by France, ltrit:iiii, and Portugal; while 
 of late years, in Kgypt, some approaches luive lieen 
 made to Kiiroiieaii models, with the advantage of 
 greatly stimufaling material prosperity by securing 
 at least stabilitv and good order. 
 
 Inilustry in Africa is at the lowest ebb. I'lxcept 
 where they are associated with or have Ir'CU in- 
 structed by Kuro|)caiis or Arabs, the Africans have 
 made little progress in the arts. All the more la- 
 borious occupations are devidved (m females ; and 
 in some parts the wives of kings or |Kif(y jjrhices 
 are made to till the land for the support of their 
 barbarian lords. Kven the most necessary arts are 
 in an extremely backward state. 
 
 Commerce. — It may appear a singular and not 
 easily explained fact, tliat notwithstanding' the 
 low state of the arts in Africa, and the difiiciilMcs 
 of the country, an extensive intercourse has beeu 
 carried on, from the remotest antiquity, Iwtween 
 very distant parts of that continent. This, no 
 doubt, has lieen owing to the natural productions 
 in greatest demand being confined to certain local- 
 ities: and to the facilities aftbrded for traversing 
 the vast deserts which intersect Africa by the 
 aid of the numerous oases with which they are 
 studded ; and the emjiloyment of the camel, or 
 ihiu of the desert. Salt ond dates are the princi- 
 pal articles conveyed fnim northern to central 
 Africa. The extensive region of Soudan, to the 
 south of the great desert of Sahara, is completely 
 destitute of these valuable articles. Both m them, 
 but esjiccially salt, are, however, in great demand 
 in it; the latter being, in many piurts, so highly 
 prized and so scarec as to t)e employed to peiform 
 the functions of money. This necessary article ia 
 found in various places in the desert, while dates 
 are found in the greatest abundance all along its 
 north frontier, the country adjoining to it l)cing 
 called from this circumstance Biledulgerid, or the 
 country (if dates. But, though destitute of these 
 important products, central Africa has others; such 
 as gold dust, 'wory, gums, palm oil, feathers, and, 
 above all, slaves, for which there has always been 
 a ready market in Barbary and Egypt. In conse- 
 quence of this natural adaptation of the products 
 of one part of the continent to supply the wants 
 of another, an intercourse has sulraisted amongst 
 them from the remotest antiquity. Even so early 
 as the days of Herodotus, the merchants engaged 
 in the interior traffic hod penetrated as far as the 
 Niger, or one of the rivers flowing into lake Tchml; 
 which the venerable father of history correctly 
 describes as a considerable river lieyond a sandy 
 desert, which it required many days to cross, flowing 
 eastward, and infested with cn)codiles ! (II. § 32.) 
 Egypt and different towns in the N. or Barbary 
 states have always been, and continue to be, the 
 great scats of this trade. It is carried on at present 
 
88 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 M it wu 8,000 ydan tf^o, wholly by oaniTanii. 
 TheM conRMt of an indetinite number of camols, 
 widom loM than ftOO, and often aa many m from 
 XfiW) to 2,000. Thoy do not follow a dinwt coumo 
 acn>M the denert from their (Miint of do|Mrture to 
 where thoy are deittined, but UiverKe to the obmh. 
 or venlant itpotii, where thoy procure water and 
 refresh themHclvofl. If they \m diHamxtiiitod in 
 fliidintf water at one of these rcstinK-places, or bo 
 overtaken by a land-itorm, the coiutoqucnccs are 
 often most disastrous. In 1H05, a canivun pro- 
 ceeding from Timbuctoo to Tafllet, not havinf^ 
 found water at a resting-place, the whole persons 
 bcIonginK to it, 2,000 in number, with alMiut 1,800 
 camels, perished miserably 1 (Jackson's Morocco, 
 p. 8119. 8ce also the excellent chapter in Hceren, 
 on the Land Commerce of the CarthaKiniaiis.) 
 
 Exclusive of this internal commerce, Africa has 
 carried on a considerable commerce by sea, since 
 the discovery of lier W. coasts by the Portujjuese ; 
 but the probability seems to be, that she has lost 
 more than she has K^iucd b^ this commerce. 
 Hlaves have lieen the staple article of export from 
 the African coast ; and in some years aa many as 
 110,000 or 120,000 have been carried across the 
 Atlantic. It bos been said, and no doubt truly, 
 that the opening of this new and vast outlet for 
 •laves was advantageous to Africa, by lessening 
 the odious practice of cannibalism, and preventing 
 the immolation of the captives talien in war. But, 
 admitting this, it seems notwithstanding abun- 
 dantly certain that the slave-trade has been pro- 
 ductive of a far greater amount of misery than it 
 has suppressed. Without stopping to inquire 
 whether <lcath might not tie prcferalue to slavery, 
 it has multiplied the latter in no ordinary degree. 
 Formerly the peace of the country was compara- 
 tively little disturlKid by wars ; but now a whole- 
 sale system of brigandnpo and robliery is organised 
 in many extensive distncts ; the bulk of the people 
 being hunted down like game by the petty princes, 
 and by the Mohammedans, who affect to iKilicvc that 
 they are entitled to capture and sell the ' idolaters,' 
 to serve as beasts of burden in another hemisphere. 
 Hence it is that the suppression of occasional in- 
 stances of cannibalism, and of the sacrifice of 
 human victims, has been supplanted by a widely 
 diffused system of rapine, productive of a total 
 want of security, and subversive of everythinjj? 
 like good government and good order. Until this 
 state of things be tot My changed, it would bo 
 idle to expect that civihsation should make any 
 progress in the countries where it exists. Its 
 abolition is indispensable aa a preliminary mea- 
 sure to give them even a chance of emerging from 
 the barbarism in which they have been so long 
 involved. 
 
 There seems to be a reasonable prospect that 
 the meritorious efforts of Great Britain for the 
 suppression of the slave-trade will, at no very dis- 
 tant period, be crowne<l with success, in so far at 
 least as the nations of Europe and America are 
 concerned. But it is quite otherwise with the 
 slave-trade carried on from the interior with the 
 Barbary states, Egypt and Arabia. There are no 
 grounds for supposing that it will be speedily sup- 
 pressed ; probably, indeed, it is destined for a while 
 rather to increase. Luckily, however, it is much 
 less extensive than that carried on from the W. 
 coast, the entire export of slaves rarely amounting 
 to so many as 10,000 in a single year, and it is not 
 accompanied by so many disastrous results. 
 
 Exclusive of slaves, palm oil, gold dust, ivory, 
 gums, teak, timber, wax, hides, and feathers are 
 the principal articles imported into W. Europe 
 and America from Africa. Mozambique exports 
 ivory, boea-wax, sesame seed, orcbollo, coffee, 
 
 tortoisA-iholl, armw-mot, sago, and other can- 
 moditiea. /anziliar, in lat 6o 28" S.. and Iohk. 
 30° 83' E., exports gold, ivory, drugs, coir, cocov 
 nuta, gum«, IwoH-wax, tortoise-shell, spice, riiv 
 from Femlw, seaamo seed from Angoxa, and t 
 large quantity of timber. In 181H cloves w<>r« 
 introducctl into Zanzibar, and thrive so well that 
 thev have to a great extent BU|M>neded the cul'i- 
 vatum of the sugar-cane. The im|Mirta of Zanzi- 
 bar may bo valued at 500,000/. |)er annum. Lamii, 
 in lat. 20 Ifl' 45" S., and lon>^. 41° 1' 6" E., carriw 
 cm a cimsiderable trade in hides, and the export! 
 from Zanzibar. Urava, lat. !<> (i' 40" N., and Ioiik. 
 41'' 3' E., tradea largely with India and Araliin, 
 and it« trade with America rapidly increases. It 
 exports, hides, bullocks, horses, and camels, th« 
 skins of wild animals, and some other thiii}{N, 
 Beside the actual commerce thus going on in Kant 
 Africa, M. M'LcckI, t<t whose ' Travels in Easlcni 
 Africa ' we are indebted for these details, iioiniit 
 out various other places in this part of Africa, 
 which are rich in produce, and admirably adaiiicil 
 for tra<le : Ilio, Melinda, Mombas, and (jHamlMirii 
 offer great advantages in this way. Perhaps ex- 
 aggerated notions have been entertained of the 
 value of the trade and of its capacity of exten- 
 sion. That it may be materially incrcaaed is, no 
 doubt, true; but the fair presumption seems to 
 be, that till civilisation has wrought a radical 
 change in the African character, the wants of the 
 native Africans, an*l their industry, ore much loo 
 contracted to a<lniit of their ever becoming extvn- 
 sive <lcmandcrs of European produce. 
 
 Carthage, the flrst maritime power of antiquity, 
 though situated in iiortlicm Africa, was a IMiaiii- 
 cian colony, and her fleets were principally maniii'd 
 from her colonies in the Mc<litcrranean. Since 
 the fall of this powerful republic, no African pcojile 
 has had the smallest claim to lie called maritinu'. 
 The most advanced natiims arc at this moment, 
 and have always been, nearly ignorant of the art 
 of shi]>-liuilding. It is to European engineers 
 and carpenters that the Pacha of Egypt is in- 
 debted tor his ships ; and every one Knows that 
 this was formerly the cose with the Deys of Al- 
 giers, Tunis, &C. Ill some few places the natives 
 fit out a sort of large cutter; not, however, fur 
 the purpose of trade or fishing, but to engage in 
 piracy. 
 
 Besides salt, to which we have already alluded, 
 gold dust or tibbar and cowries are the articles 
 principally used as money in Africa. The latter, 
 a (ipecics of small shell gathered on the shores of 
 till] Maldive islands, ore used in small payments 
 throughout Hindostan; but in the interior of 
 Africa their value is about ten times greater than 
 in Bengal. 
 
 77^ social condition of the people of Africa is as 
 depressed as their industry and their science. The 
 practice of polyf^amy is diffused all over Africa; 
 and though forbidden in Abyssinia, the marriage 
 tie is there so slight as hardly to have any sen- 
 sible influence ; ai J morals are, in this respect, in i 
 state of almost total dissolution. That cannibalism 
 formerly existed to a frightful extent in man^ 
 
 Earts of Africa, cannot be doubted ; and though it 
 as greatly declined, partly because of the intro- 
 duction of Mohammedanism, and partly, and 
 principaUy, perhaps, because of the ready and 
 advantageous markets that have long been opened 
 in the West Indies and America for the slaves or 
 captives taken in war, there seems to be no doubt 
 that it still exists among certain tribes. Among 
 some considerable nations the exposure of chil- 
 dren, and the slaughter of those that are deformed 
 or maimed, is not tolerated merely, but enforced. 
 In some ports human blood is reported to be 
 
AFRICA 
 
 iga, Knd other earn- 
 (P 28" S., and Iohk. 
 ry, (Irugn, coir, cocon- 
 4iiMc-itli(!ll, iipicfi, rii« 
 rroin AiiKoxa, and « 
 In IHIH clovM W)>n> 
 id thrive wi well that 
 
 Mupenoded tho ciM'i- 
 ^ho importR of Zaii/.i- 
 )/. \tfiT annu.Ti. Lanm, 
 1^. 410 1'6"K., cnrri.,, 
 iideM, and the cxi>ortH 
 lO6'40"N., andloiiK, 
 :h India and Aral)iik, 
 rapidly iticrvaflCH, it 
 fHCH, and camcltt, the 
 . Bomo other thiiiKN. 
 thua Koinff on in Kiut 
 I ' Travels in EaHUni 
 r thcMC detailH, iMiintH 
 I this part of At'ricn, 
 id admirahlv adunlcil 
 )niba8, and UHumimrii 
 is way. Perhaps cx- 
 '.n entertained of the 
 ts capacity of extcn- 
 irially increased is, no 
 ircsumption seems to 
 IS wrought a radical 
 ntor, the wants of the 
 idustry, are much too 
 ever becoming exton- 
 produce. 
 
 no power of antiquity, 
 Africa, was a IMiu'iii- 
 rc principally maniii'i] 
 iffuditcrrancnn. Since 
 blic, no African people 
 to bo called maritini(>. 
 arc at this moment, 
 y ignorant of the art 
 
 European engincrn 
 icha of Egypt is in- 
 ivery one Knows that 
 rith the Deys of Al- 
 )w places the natives 
 not, however, for 
 ing, but to engage in 
 
 [lave already alluded, 
 
 vries are the articles 
 Africa. The latter, 
 
 crcd on the shores of 
 in small payments 
 in tho interior of 
 
 n times greater than 
 
 people of Africa is ai 
 id their science. The 
 ised all over Africa; 
 yssinia, the marriage 
 ly to have any sen- 
 e, in this respect, in a 
 
 That cannibalism 
 ful extent in manj 
 ibted ; and though it 
 ecause of the intro- 
 
 and partly, and 
 of the ready and 
 .ve long been opened 
 ica for the slaves or 
 leems to be no doubt 
 tain tribes. Among 
 e exposure of chil- 
 se that are deformed 
 erely, but enforced. 
 
 ifl reported to be 
 
 jiixo<l np with tho llmo or mortar us«l in tho 
 
 .iiiiNtniction of trmplcs. Anil it is said to bo usual 
 
 among the greamr numlKir of the nations on the 
 
 coast of Guinea for rich individuals to immolate 
 
 tinman victims once in their lives to the manes of 
 
 Itheir fathers. (Halbi, Al)n<g«<, p. H41), 2nd c<l.) 
 
 lAtrooilies like these are, however, prinoii«llv con- 
 
 llliied to the least improved tribes of the Negro 
 
 Irace. Hut, s|)eaking generally, bari)arism, cruelty, 
 
 land the most dogra<liiig 8ii|M)nttitlon ar»< univer- 
 
 Isiilly prevalent aininig liy far the greater numlH>r 
 
 lof the nations of African origin. (See art. Asii- 
 
 Iantke.) 
 
 I As already state<l, with the exception of Egjrpt 
 [and Aliyssiiiia, all tho science and literature to 
 \u> found ill Africa are of Arabic origin, Tho 
 lArnlw have schmds cstahlisheil in Cairo, Mcroii, 
 I ami Diirfoiir, in the region of the Nile; in Mo- 
 Irdtco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Ac, In Itarbary; niid 
 Itliiro are HcluHtls among the Mandingos, Koii- 
 ilnliH, JolofH, and other Mohammedan nations 
 [of central Nigritia or Soudan: these are placed 
 liiiKler Mohammedan teachers, and assist in dis- 
 Isciniiiating the rudiments of Arabic learning and 
 Igc'ience. The European colonics at the Cape, 
 lAlgiers, and various other places along tho coast, 
 I have l)cen regarded as so many centres, whence 
 ■ tho language and literature of EuMpo might lie 
 I expected gradually to spread over the whole con- 
 Itinent, Ihit our anticipations in this respect are 
 I far from sanguine; and the presumption seems to 
 lite, that if bturharism and ignorance are not to be 
 liinmortal, they are, at all events, destined to a 
 |))rol<iiiged exintence in Africa. 
 I Cauiiei of the Iiiferidrilif of the African*. — Tho 
 |lnw state of the arts in Africa, and the barlmrism 
 that so generally prevails in it, have been va- 
 riously accounted tor; and, perliaps, we are yet 
 without the means of coming to any satisfactorv 
 Iconclusion in regard to either matter, hut it 
 1 would seem that the first, or the low state of the 
 lartN, ii* mainly attributable to the climate, which 
 |su|K3rsc(lcs the use of many articles in<liHi>ensable 
 I in rvgiimsmorc to the N. and S. Manufacturing 
 I industry is princiiuilly devoted, in Euro}M!an and 
 I / sialic countries, to the production of articles of 
 I clothing; but where clothes aro an incumbrance, 
 land most of the people are satisfied if they have a 
 I piece of coarse common cotton stuff to wrap round 
 I their middle, it would be absurd and contradictory 
 I to exi)ect that this great department of manu- 
 I fnctunng industry, and its many dependent and 
 subsidiary arts, should make any progress. The 
 agriculture, too, of the greater part of Africa is ex- 
 cc(!dingly unfavourable to the development of a 
 spirit of enterprise and invention. The seasons 
 ! differ but Uttlo from each other; and in those 
 tracts not condemned to perpetual sterility, that 
 is, in the tracts watered by the periodical rains, 
 or by the overflowing of the rivers, the rudest 
 husbandry is sufficient, the heat of the sun o]«ra- 
 tiiig on the moisture of the soil being all but 
 enough to produce the most luxuriant crops. The 
 houses, too, in tropical climates may be construc- 
 ted at comparatively little expense; and, except 
 for the cooking of victuals, fires would be a 
 nuisance. It is idle, therefore, to wonder at the 
 I backward state of industry m Africa. It would 
 [ be as reasonable to expect to find a manufactory 
 j of freezing machines at the North Cape, as to ex- 
 pect to find extensive cloth factories in Nigritia. 
 The industry of a country always bears some pro- 
 portion to the wants and necessities of its in- 
 habitants; and few comparatively of those things 
 which employ a large part of the industry of 
 Europeans being wanted in Africa, they aro but 
 little produced. 
 
 It ht true that Itosides tlio groat artlcloa now 
 referred to, them are others, such as articles of 
 show and ostentation, arm*, and Jewellery, for 
 which it might be suppoMNl the taste in Africa 
 would be as strong a* in Europe. liut these are 
 costly articles; and, in point uf fact, are never 
 found generally diffused in any country not distin- 
 guished by its indiiHtrv. Men aro not instinctively 
 lalM)rious or oiitcr|)risiiig. Industry is with them 
 luily a moans to an end — a sacrifice they must 
 IMiy to obtain supplies of the necessariiw and con- 
 veniences of human life. Wherever the sai^rifice 
 required to pMcure ftMNi, clothes, anti other neces- 
 sary accommiMlations is considerable, the popu- 
 lation is generally industrious; and a taste for 
 lalN>iir iMsing widely difi'iised, those who are not 
 obliged to apply themselves to tho production of 
 necessaries, engage in the prisluction of siqier- 
 Hiiities. Hut wherever the priiici|ial wants of man 
 may Iw supplied with but little exertion, indolenco 
 lN!comes the distiiigiiishiiig characteristic of tho 
 |)opuliitioii ; and instead of^cniph)yiiig their spare 
 time in tho production of articles of osteiitatiiin 
 and luxury, they usually wast« it in id'' j and 
 apathy. 
 
 In athlition to the circumstances now mentioned 
 explanatA)ry of the low state of tho arts in Africa, 
 anil the Imrbarisin i)revalent in it, tho Negriws 
 and other African races have been supposed by 
 some phihisophers to be naturally inferior in 
 point of intellect, and not to iMissess the same 
 capacity for improvement as the Europeans, or 
 people of the Caucasian variety. This suppo- 
 sition has, however, lieen vehomently denied; and 
 it has lH>en contended over and over again, that 
 the peculiar circumstances under which they have 
 l)ecn placed siifHciently account for the condition 
 of the Africans — for their want of a literature and 
 their low civilisation. That groat weight should 
 be attached to tho considerations now mentioned 
 is true; but still thev aro insufficient wholly to 
 account for tho existing state of things. Egypt 
 was, at a very remote iwriwl, tho principal seat of 
 science and of art; and various nations of Africa 
 were in contact with, and had a pretty extensive 
 intercourse with, the Egvptians, and also with 
 .the I'hucnicians, and afterwards the Uomans. 
 Hut they seem to havo profited little or nothing 
 by this association. And while the people of 
 Greece, Asia Minor, and Magna Unecia raised 
 themselves in a comparatively brief |)eriml to 
 the highest pitch of civilisation and refinement^ 
 tho nations of Africa continue, without a so- 
 litary exception, down even to the present day, 
 immersed in the grossest barbarism. Yet, during 
 the space of 3,0U0 or 4,000 years, opportunities 
 must have been afforded to some of them to make 
 advances. 
 
 With tho exception of that of the ancient 
 Egyptians and Ethiopians, whose descent is in- 
 volved, in tlie greatest uncertainty, almost all tho 
 civilisation that exists in Africa seems to lie of 
 foreign origin. Tho introduction of Moham- 
 medanism, though in a debased form, has, as 
 previously stated, gone far to banish cannibalism 
 from many countries; and some of them havo 
 also adopted the letters and literature of Arabia. 
 But the progress they have hitherto made is not 
 such as to lead to any very sanguine anticipations 
 as to their future advancement ; and it would not, 
 indeed, be very philosophical to suppose that those 
 who have been wholly nimble to produce any 
 thing original should attain to much eminence in 
 the practice of foreign arts and sciences. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enter into any examination 
 of the vexata tjuestio, whether the varieties of tho 
 human race iii Africa originally sprung from 
 
40 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 UWrcroiit Hoiin^cii, or whether they all l)ol(iti(; to 
 thfl Nnmn NtiM'k, hut chanf^ctl to the Ntate hi wliirh 
 «rn Ihiil thi'iii hy th« itilluctifti of circiiinfilmuTN 
 in tint lu|Nm of AtftM, Whatever eiiiichii>iiiii may 
 
 \m i-iime to on ihiH iM)int eniniot in any wixe ntlVct 
 
 iiui'Miiiin OM to tl 
 the Al'rii'iin |M>o|>le. The Mime cirininiMtHnceH ihiit 
 
 the iiiieMliiin OM to tlie eoni|)nralive intelligence of 
 
 lire NupiNweil hy thiwe who eonteii)! for the ori){iniil 
 iilenlity of the riu'UH to have mo ^•nlly ull't'i'leil 
 their n|i|M'nrnnc'u ami iihyNiciil eaixu'itieM, coiilil 
 hanlly fail to have an ei|Mally iHtwerfiil iiitlucnee 
 over ilieir mental facnItieM, 'riiiM in faef ii* miiIi- 
 Hlaiilially a<lmitte<l hy hr. I'richanl, who Unn 
 nhly <'oni4>nileil for their eoinmon origin, ami the 
 p(|iiulily of their intelleet with that of the other 
 rneeH, 'The trilN'M,' Hayn he, 'inwhoNe iirevaleiil. 
 eoiiformalitin the ne^ro ly|H^ In iliNi'ernilile In an 
 exitKf^craleil decree, are iinifornily in the lnweNt 
 MlUKe of hnmun WN'iety ; they are either feriM'iouN 
 Mava^cM, or Mtuiiiil, HeiiHiial, ami imloh-nt. Siu-h 
 are the l*a|ialM, IhilloniH, an<l other rntht honli'M on 
 the eonMt of \Vi>Nt«>rn (iniiiea, ami nianv lrilH>M 
 near the Slave eoatit, and in the Mi^ht ol' liciiin; 
 countrieM when* the Hiave trade han heen earried 
 on to the ^n>ateHt extent, and luw exercised itM 
 UNunlly Imnefnl intlnence. On the other hand, 
 wherever wo hear of a Ne^ro ntate, the inhaliitantH 
 of which have attained any conNid«'ral>le <h-Kree of 
 improvement in their micial eonililion, we con- 
 Btantlv And that their phyHical characters deviate 
 coiiRiiferahly from the ntronglv marked or exaj^- 
 gerated ty|ie of the N'e^ro. ^I'he Awhantee, the 
 Bnlenia, the DahomanH, are exeniplilicutionN of 
 thin remark. The Nef^oeH of CinlM'r and llaiifia, 
 where a eonsidernhhi dej^reo of civilixation hart 
 loll); cxixted, are, perhapH, the llneHt race of 
 genuine NegrocH in the whole continent, unlcHs 
 the JohifH are to Iw excepted. The Jolofn have 
 Leon a comparatively civilixed |>eople from the 
 asra of their tirHt dim'overy hy the I'ortngiieHe.' 
 (|{e.searche8 into the iligtory of Man, ii. p. H'tM, 
 8rd ed.) 
 
 It M doubtful whether this is a perfectly correct 
 statement; hut at any rat* it may he worthy of 
 vonxideration as coming from a great authority on 
 qiieHtioiis of nice. As to the negro, the new era 
 opening for him in the great American repuhlic, 
 where he has l)ecn freed at such lM)iindle8s ox|>en- 
 dituro of European lilood, must ultimately settle 
 the question whether he is lit for a higher civilisa- 
 tion. 
 
 Geographical and Political Division*. — Africa 
 has lieeii variously divided, acconling as one stan- 
 dard or another has l>cen adopted. Owing to the 
 barharism of the people, our ignorance of the 
 ditferent xtates into which the continent is di- 
 vided, ano the revolutions to which they are per- 
 ])etually i :ili|ect, any distrihiition of the country 
 founded on its political divisions would l>e almost 
 impossible ; and, however accurate at the time, 
 would speedily become (juitt obsolete. A better 
 method would be to distribute it according to the 
 races of {Miople by which it is principally occupied ; 
 but OS these are in parts very much blended, and 
 it is sometimes no easy matter to say which pre- 
 ilomiiiates, it seems, on the whole, the better way 
 to distribute it according to the great natural fea- 
 tures of the country. On this principle, Africa 
 mav be distributed aa follows, beginning with the 
 North :— 
 
 1. The Rarbary Stales, Inohidtnfr the whole oonntry K. 
 
 of tlic deacrt of Saliora, and W. of the ii5th degree 
 of £, long. 
 
 2. Sahara, or the Oreat Desert. 
 
 3. The Region of the Nile, including Egypt, Nubia, 
 * Abyssinia, Senoar, Kordofaii, and all the country 
 
 drained by lt« oUiuenta. 
 
 A, Slarilift, which mav \te mitxllvlilcd m followi, vli.i— 
 
 •, Hoiiitan, (ir N. NlgrUIn, IH-Ing tlin country to tti« 
 
 H. of thii Hitliarn iiMil N, of ttm Kimg inoiiii' 
 
 titliiK, NVHtcnil liv lliii Ht'iicgut, OaniolA, Mkit, 
 
 and the rivvrii llowiiiif Into tlio gn<ut litloi of 
 
 I'i'llivl. 
 
 b. Cfiilnil Niijriliit, firing tho n-glon iNitween tlici 
 Kong niiiiihtikiiii) itiul tlic N. Hlicini uf tlm giiliih 
 of lliiiiii'u lo till' lllglilof llliirrik. 
 
 0, SiiilhiTii \i;irihii, liu'liiillng tlm iMiiintrlii< fnim 
 
 till' night of lllnfrik along the cinttt to Ciiim 
 
 Ni'gro, mill liiwnnlii to thn wiiirci'* of the rlvrrt 
 
 tliiwltig through It t > tliK coiiHt, 
 
 0, Hixilhrrn Afnva, or tho region 8. of CniM' Negro nti 
 
 till' W,, mill of tlm /nniU'Hi river on the K. 
 (I. hUitlerii A/ririi, or tho region N, of /.unilieiil river, 
 
 riiiinil hy Miu iM>n eoniit tu the coiitlncN of AbynMiniii 
 
 and the ()elHil-el-Kiiinrl,<ir MoiintninH of the Miinn, 
 7. The /W<m(/<i)/.l<nr«,lnelii(|lngthiiMiuli'lrn,('«niin, 
 
 mill CitjNi lie V'enio ImIiuiiIh on the W. coiutt, wlili 
 
 tliiM'of 8t, Helena, Aweniiloii, iiti., luiil on the V,. 
 
 ciiiint the greiit InIiiiiiI of MiuliigitHoar, tho inlea uf 
 
 Fniiiee luiil MikiiritiiiH, iSuentru.iiii. 
 
 I'riHjrtn* of l)i»covrry. — Africa, Himuig all llip 
 quarters of tlie gliilie, has always Ih'cii llie ciiiel' 
 olijecl of ciiriiiNiiy and discovery. Her Mcdiler- 
 raiiean coast indeed was well known to tlui 
 ancientH, and included in tlieir circle of civiliNtij 
 slates, lint her eaHtern .ind western liinili, 
 siretching an indctinile extent sotithward, loii;{ 
 balllcil the al tempts lo reiu'h their tenninatinii 
 and that of the iMintineiit; whih* iinmensc desiTl^ 
 barred the aci-ess into the interior. yV |M;ciiliar 
 dilliciilly was also found in tracing the soiirtv, 
 and sometimes tlie tennination, of the mi^iity 
 rivers by which its inland regions are watered. 
 
 Tyre, the earliest st'at of n tlourisliing com- 
 merce, migiit be ex|H'cted to seek a route to tlm 
 distant parts of Africa. In tho curious account 
 given by Kzekiel, Tarsliish is mentioned as Isitli 
 tlie most rc>inote and most ini|Mirtant place witli 
 wliich she trallicked. The learned, however, have 
 lieen much divided respecting its site; but llio 
 Tarsliish to which the Tyrians sailed thiwn the 
 Meiliterraiiean, whence they inqMirted iron, silver, 
 lead, and tin, the products of Spain and Itriliiiii, 
 was most probably either Carthage, or tlie S. part 
 of SiMiin. Carthage made violent ctt'orts to prt- 
 vent other commercial jiowers from iienctratiiii; 
 beyond Sicily, thus seekmg to monopolise the ex- 
 clusive trade of the remoter coantries, of whoso 
 products her merchants would, of course, keep an 
 assortment. 
 
 Mention, however, is mode of another route to 
 Tarsliish, by the Kcd Sea, which hos singularly 
 pcqilexed geographers. It was opened by Sih 
 iomon, during the most prosperous period of tho 
 kingdom of Judica, and aided by an alliance witii 
 Hiram, king of Tyre. To reconcile these two 
 voyages, M. Gosseliii supposes the term to mean 
 ' the ocean ' as distinguished from inland seas or 
 gulphs : 80 that one voyage was to the Atlantic, 
 the other to the Indian Ocean. But all the moiloii 
 in which Tarshish is mentioned — the fare of a 
 vessel thither, its merchants, its kings — seem in- 
 consistent with so very vogue a dense; nor does 
 there appear any room to think the Jews ever 
 viewed the Mediterranean as an inclosed sea. We 
 are disfsised therefore to prefer the suggestion of 
 Mr. Murray, in the Encyclopedia of tJeograpliy, 
 that the Tyrians gave the name of Tarshish to tho 
 whole continent, of wliich it formed for them tlie 
 most important part. Tarshish, in this larger 
 sense, becomes nearly synonymous with Africa; 
 the one voyage was along its northeni, tlio other 
 along its eastern coast 
 
 Ophir is another country much celebrated in 
 the Jewish scriptures, particularly for its golil. 
 Many learned men have sought it in India, 
 though gold was not then an article of export 
 
AFRICA 
 
 41 
 
 ileit Mfottowi, tIi.!- 
 Iiiif tliiK'iiiintry to tlm 
 , iif till! K»nt( r'liMiii. 
 iH'KiU, (l«niiil«, Nlifir, 
 i\u> tlio irnutt lukii (if 
 
 in rt'trlon Imtwiton tlio 
 N.HlKiniuf till) Kolph 
 if llliirrit. 
 
 \H tliii (i>iintrli<)i friitii 
 ug till* limit to ('aim 
 III wiimiii of thu rUiir« 
 
 < lllliHt. 
 
 I 8. of CiilM' NrKroiiti 
 ■Ivor on till- K. 
 N. of /.iuiiIitkI rlviT, 
 I floiiHiii'ii of Al>y»»liilii 
 lountnltiH of till' Moiiii, 
 K t)iMMiuli'lrii,<'niiiiry, 
 on till) W. iMiikNt, Willi 
 nil, &II., ikiiil on the i;. 
 iiilitt(>W4i.'ar, tliu Inli'H ill 
 rit, iio. 
 
 frii'ii, ntnoii^ nil lli<< 
 *uyn Im'imi till' rliii'f 
 vi'fy. Hit Mrdilcr- 
 
 H'cll kllllWII ill III!) 
 
 I'ir cirrlc of civillNi-il 
 uiil wi'mUtii liniilA, 
 I'tit MHitliwaril, lull;; 
 li tlii'ir tcrmiiiatiiiii 
 hill' iinmeiiMi' (li'tnTtn 
 iiiti'tiiir, A |K'ciiliar 
 
 truuiii^ the Hnurtv, 
 (ton, III' Ihu iniKliiy 
 {iiniH lire watori'il. 
 
 n lliiiirishiii^ coni- 
 I fH'A'k II mute to till! 
 
 thv curiiiiiH nc'coiiiit 
 H inontioiiuil ah Ixitli 
 ini|Mirtniit plavu wiili 
 iiriu'it, hiiwuviT, havi- 
 ng itH hUo ; but till' 
 aUH Hailcil down tiio 
 ini|M)rtc(l iron, hiIvit, 
 r S|iain and itritain, 
 
 tha^o, or thu S. ptirt 
 
 iolent cti'ortH to \m- 
 
 KlhM 
 
 monopoliHO the i-x- 
 coantricM, of whosii 
 1, of cuurxe, keep un 
 
 of another route to 
 
 hiuh has Bin^ularly 
 
 [was opencil by Si>- 
 
 jperous period of tiio 
 
 by an alliance with 
 
 Ireconcilo these two 
 
 the term to mean 
 
 from inland seas ot 
 
 ■aa to the Atlantic, 
 
 But all the moilua 
 
 ined — the fare of a 
 
 its kinf{8 — seem in- 
 
 a dense; nor does 
 
 hink the Jews ever 
 
 in inclosed sea. We 
 
 >r the suggestion uf 
 
 fedia of Oeof^raiihy, 
 
 ic of Tarshish to the 
 
 rormed for them tlie 
 
 lish, in this larger 
 
 /mous with Afrira; 
 
 northern, the other 
 
 inch celebrated in 
 Jilarly for its gold. 
 |>ught it in India, 
 
 ill article of export 
 
 frim that rminfr^', htit thfl contrary j ami no 
 one (itaplo of Itiiliiin triidii U mi'ntioni'd n« hroiiKht 
 from tiphir, hulii'd iln |H)Hition wini)* clnirly 
 (Ixi'il, wlmn we tlnil the Ki'd Sea voyage to Tar- 
 HJiiih ili'wrilM'd elmiwiiere an one toDphir. The 
 Inltcr, fhi'ii, won on the eOHtern maKt of Afrira, 
 wliiregolil la nowhen' found north of the Zam- 
 Im/.i'. I lire lU'fi.rdingly we llnd Sofnlo, long the 
 itili'f emporium of llml rivrr; audit may 'm. oI>- 
 Hirvid that Oiiliir i» ciilU'd in the Mi'ptiingint 
 HiMiphi'irn, while the modem Arab tenn u in- 
 dilliri'ntly Zofar or /ofont. 
 
 'I'liiH iMteriouriM' did not hiirvive Soliimon, whose 
 diii-ri'HMor.'*, weakened by the divinion of the kilig- 
 doiiii, were luialiK' to maintain it. 
 
 Our next information is derived from Ilero- 
 (lotiiM, who, during his ri'Hidence in Kgypt, made 
 Mrv earilul Inipiirii's of the priests and learni'd 
 nirii. lie given a very eurious report of no lens 
 an exploit than the entire eiri'umnavigiition of 
 Al'ririi. Ni'iho, one of the greiitext Kgvptiiin 
 priiiii'i, engaged for this purpose I'luenirian iiia- 
 riiiiTM, will) deseended the Keil Sea, and having 
 nmlii'd the iM-eaii, landed, Howed a eroii, reaped 
 it, and n'imwed their voyage. Tlins they pro- 
 ei'i'ili-d for two yearn, and in the third entered 
 till' Pillars of lleroules. 'they remarked that, in 
 roiuiiliiig Afrieu, they had thu sun on the right, 
 that In, on the south, whieh nnist have lieen cor- 
 rect. This brief ri'latiim has given rise to a mass 
 of controversy. flleriHlotus, iv. 12; (tosselin, 
 (■i'ogra|)liie den Anciens, i. li)U-210) liennell, 
 (ieog. IleriMlotiis, s. !i4, •25.) 
 
 Iliroilotus has given a detailed account of the 
 wild mid wandering trilics iM'hind the Atlas ridge, 
 \ exteiiiling to and somewhat b<>yond Fezzan. — 
 lie adds an interesting narrative of an expedition 
 to explore the interior, undertaken by some 
 voutlis from the country of the Nasamones lying 
 ndand from Cyrene. They passed, llrst, a ver- 
 dant and cultivoted territoiy ; then a wild region 
 tilled with wild lH>ast«; next entered into an arid 
 dreary desert. Here, while plucking some wild 
 fruits, a party of black men surnrised and carried 
 tlu'in along vast marshes and lakes to a city situ- 
 ated on a river flowing eastward. These last 
 features, after thoy were within the desert, could 
 not lie found short of central Africa; but it is 
 doubtful whether thev refer to Timbuutoo and the 
 Niger, OS supposed by Kcnncll and Ileercn, or 
 to the lake Tchad, and the Ycou or river of 
 Bornou. 
 
 Another singular circumstanco mentioned by 
 Herodotus relates to a tratUc for gold carried on 
 by the Carthaginians with a people beyond the 
 straits, and managed in a peculiar manner, with- 
 out the parties seeing each other. There is no 
 gold in Africa north of the Senegal or Niger; 
 but whether the Carthaginians penetrated thither, 
 or the gold was brouglit by natives across the 
 desert, there seem no means of certainly deter- 
 mining. 
 
 Tlio records of Carthage, which would have 
 I thrown so much light on ancient commerce and 
 I geographical knowle<lge, have unfortunately \)&- 
 I rislieiL There remains only one valuable docu- 
 ment, the narrative of a voyage by a commander 
 I named Uanno, sent to found colonies on the 
 western coast, and to push discovery as far as 
 possible. He is said to have carried with him 
 sixty vessels, and no less than 30,000 men women, 
 and children. After passing the straits, he founded 
 I successively four colonieo in convenient situar- 
 I tious ; then sailing thnie days along a desert 
 I cpost, came to Cerne, a small island in a bay. 
 In its vicinity he visited a lake, through which 
 I flowed a large river, a'jd another stream full of 
 
 criM-oililoit And hlpponntaml. Tlien, fptiimltig tii 
 ('erne, he sailed twi'lve ilnys along the cixtut of 
 tilt- Kthiiipians, a timid riu e, mIio lied at the n\t- 
 proarh of KtriingerN. His party (hen reached and 
 sailed for !M-vertu davs along a coast, when< lln-y 
 olMerved many striking oliji'i'tn. In one phu'e tlio 
 earth was mi hot (hat it could not lie troddi'ii ; 
 torrents of llame were seen to roll along it and 
 rush into the sea. During the day there appeared 
 only a vast forest; but in (lie nfght, the air wai 
 tilU'd with the sound of miiKiral instnimenis and 
 of human voices, (.jiniling on an island they 
 found a singular race of Is'lngs, in human sliajH', 
 but with rough skins, leaping from riM-k to ns'k 
 with preternatural agility, I'owards the close of 
 their voyage, tliere appi'uri'd a very lofty moun- 
 tain, seeming to reach the skies, called the Chariot 
 of the (iisls. 
 
 This voyage has U'en the Nubject of elaborato 
 disserlation by learned men, wno have iliflered 
 very widely as (o i(it extent. Iloiigainville carrii'H 
 it to ('a|H' Three I'oinis on the (iold Coast, 
 IteiMiell III Sierra Leone ; while (iiisselin restrirli* 
 it to the river Nun, in MoriK'co. The llrst wpaco 
 exceeds .'1,1100 miles; the latter falls short of 7l 10. 
 The dillicullies are very great ; not a single naino 
 coincides; the descriptive feadires are tmi slight 
 to llx any one s|Mit with precision. The |H'riiHl, 
 estimateii only ut JlH days, seems scarcely ade- 
 quate to HI) long a voyage of discovery along an 
 unknown coast. Yet the asis'i't of man and na- 
 ture; the ICtbiopians or blacK races; the gorilla), 
 evidently large apes, whose form resembled Ihu 
 human; the gn>at rivers, full of crocisliles and 
 bipj)o)M)lanii; the conllagralions, ap|>arently oc- 
 casioned by the still |)revalent custom of burning 
 the grass at a certain season ; silence during the 
 day, with music and gaiety in the night, — all 
 tbesu Htn)iigly suggest tropical Afrii^a. Uosseliii 
 indeed mainlains that the coast of Morocco, in its 
 then comparatively rude state, would much mora 
 than now resemble the negro countries ; but this 
 seems scarcely to account for all the alM)ve par- 
 ticulars. (Ilannonis reriplus, in Hudson's Ueog. 
 Gncc. Min. torn, i.; liennell, Ueo^. HeriMlot. sect. 
 1C-2U; Cfossclin, (jL<og. des Anciens, i. (il-llM; 
 liougainville, in Memoires do rAcadi'mio des In- 
 scriptions, xxvi. 10.) 
 
 The Persians, who entertained an almost super- 
 stitious dread of the sea, were little likely to ex- 
 tend maritime knowledge. Yet Xerxes showed 
 some interest in the subject. Having condemned 
 to death Stttas[)C8, a rersian nobleman, ho was 
 persuaded to commute the sentence to that of 
 circumnavigating Africa. SataH]>e8 passed tho 
 straits, but soon tcrritied by tho stormy ocean and 
 rocky shores, ho returned, and declared to his 
 sovereign that the vessel hod stopped of itself, and 
 could not bo got forward. Tho monarch indig- 
 nantly rejected this apology, and ordered the 
 original sentence to be executed. Tho attempt 
 was not renewed; and under this empire the 
 knowledge of Africa seems to have on the whole 
 retrograded. When Alexander sent an expedi- 
 tion down the Persian giilph to seek its way into 
 tho Ked Sea, it returned without success ; whence 
 tho inference was made that no communication 
 existed. 
 
 Under the Ptolemies, though they were an en- 
 terprising dynasty, and a learned school of geo- 
 graphy was then formed, little progress was mttile. 
 rhe prevailing hypothesis of on uninhabitable 
 torrid zone at once indicated the limited amount 
 of knowle<lge, and tended to perpetuate it. The 
 map of Eratosthenes makes Africa an irregular 
 tra|)cziiim, of which the N. and S. sides were 
 nearly parallel, and the whole terminated N. of 
 
41 
 
 i • 
 
 II 
 
 y.id 
 
 p\ 
 
 11 
 
 !i:t 
 
 11 
 
 ill 
 
 h 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 the rqimlor. Thn cnMtii Iwynml thi< Klntltit of 
 <ill)r«liiir iin<l (!ii|h' (••nlnfiii, ImiIiik oliMtrvi'il on 
 
 lM>tll rIiIiiM Ui ClinVcrKOf WUrtl «U|l|MNMtll U> VOIlUllIlt' 
 
 in that lUnN'tior. •ml miwt, A navlK(Ht<ir n«mt<<| 
 KikIoxoh, partly aiitiul l>y l'tiili<niy Uviiruvtc* ami 
 liy tliK mttrtUiaiilx of Daills, niatlo w>vrral *iiirit«Nl 
 attiimpu Ut |wrf'>nn thin voyauc, of wliirli lio <li<l 
 not miNiMwt the (ixUint ; Imt he ri'tunuMl alwayn 
 
 without NIICVdiN. 
 
 Tliu Komana did not much adv«nr« tho know- 
 Itniuo of Intnrior Africa. Mela, without any ail- 
 dithtiial Information, a<lo|itM thii NVi)lt>in of Kra- 
 tiMth^iKw, with Mtme fannifiil adiiitioiiN, I'liiiy, 
 howcvnr, had a<!Ri>M to all tht^ infonnation ool- 
 lcft4>d hy tho Koman chiitfn and voninian<l*>rN, 
 H«'i|iio had iwnt I'olyliiiiN to)>x|ilori) thn wi-Hi«<ni 
 roMHt, which won Niirvuyiid by that olHir«r for alxiiit 
 X(l(l itiihM, i'on.><equ<intly not Iwyoml thn limilM of 
 MoriH-(!o. Hm>t4tniuiil'aulinu)i had |N>nctrntt>d Into 
 thn region of Atlnit, <U>wrihint{ ItM loltvand rii^^i'd 
 •it<><!|M richly clothed with lorcHtit. Ondcr VcH|Ht- 
 Mlan, Comuliua llalliun made an cxiNMlition int^i 
 the dewrt, reM^ivin^ tho MulimiMiion of (Jydamux 
 ((iadamix), and Oarama (<icnnu), but we can 
 •cATcciy identify Hoin with Hortiou. 
 
 Alexandria meantime, iindnr the impulM (fivon 
 hy the luxiiriouH conNumptioti of Kuiue, ac(|uirc(| 
 a tfniat extcnMion of ('on)ni<'r(-e. HIm* oiMiiied a 
 regular rommunivatiiMi with India, and aiMo to a 
 t'onsidurablo extent nUmn tho eaiitem cooHt of 
 Africa, lioth are duMn'ilied in an important com- 
 mercial work written in the flntt century, calletl 
 the I'uriplun of the Krythrenn Sea. The African 
 rourne terminatoii at Hhnpta, a promontory ahd 
 llouriHhinK |N)rt, tho ptwition of whith, however, 
 from I lie usual cauN«H of <:hanKcd natniM and vaKue 
 dew^riprioiiM, Ih oiien to coiitrovurMy. ViiK^ont llxeit 
 it at (juiloa, while UosHelin mukeit it Ma^odorca, 
 not quite a third part of the dixtance from the 
 awrcriaiiied ]xunt of Ca|x> Aromala (Uuardafui). 
 Hut th«! former han one conxpieuouH fuaturu; Hvo 
 muccchhIvu lar^e eHtuaricM, which UoHHelin owuh 
 IiimHclf unable to tlnd within hix limitfi, but which 
 actually occur a little north of (juiloa, in the 
 moutliH of the f^at river (juillimanci. There 
 Bceinit little room to liCHitato therefore in tixin); 
 UliaptA at Quiloa. The f^old of the Zambezi had 
 not reached thin port, tJio exports from which 
 consifttcd only of ivory, tortxtiiie-Bhell, and slaves, 
 (l'eriplus,in Qeog. Gnec. Minor, torn, L; Uossclin, 
 iU^g. des Anciens; Vincent, Periplus of the Kry- 
 threan Sea.) 
 
 Aliout a century after, Ptolemy pnhlishcd his 
 gcofrraphical work, the most complete of any in 
 ancient times. On the eastern coast he odds to 
 that described in the Periplus on additional ronf^e, 
 stretching; south-east from Khapta to another 
 promontory and port called Prosum ; considerably 
 south-cAst fn>m which lay a large island, Mcnu- 
 thitts, evidently Madagascar, According to Uos- 
 sclin, Prasum is lirava, while Vincent makes it 
 Mozambique ; but the south-easterly direction of 
 the coast seems to limit it to Cn|)e Dclgado, This 
 too would harmonise with Ptolemy^s singular 
 theory ' '' a great austral continent extending from 
 PriiMiui to the coast of the 8inie (China), thus 
 making the Indian Ocean an immense inland sea. 
 
 In regard to the W. boundary, Ptolemy's ideas 
 seem by no means very precise. His graduation 
 shows an sxtent of coast which woidd reach far 
 into tropical Africa ; yet the Canaries are placed 
 opposite to his most southern limit, which would 
 thus seem scarcely to have reached beyond Mo- 
 rocco, Gosselin accuses him of having em- 
 ployed the materials afforded by three different 
 voyages along the same line of coast, supposing 
 tliom to ^ply to separate and succossivo ports, 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 theri'tiy trebling its extent t hut wn rnunt heititafe 
 In iin|iuting t^i this eminent geograiihcr an ernir 
 so llagrani. 
 
 On tho side of central Africa, Pttdcmy de- 
 lineates a very extensive region, reaching for 
 «4>uth, which he names Interior LybM. It con- 
 tains two siMicious lakes, the I.yhian and tlio 
 Nigritian, receiving the great rIveniOirand Niger, 
 lU'riveil from chains of lolly mountains, A nimi- 
 Iter of cities are iiiMTted which cannot Ini riMtiig- 
 nised by imslern names, liut the remarkaliln 
 ciri'iiinslance is, that these objects apiiear con- 
 tiguous to, and even connect4><l with otliers, thnt 
 uiieiiuivm-ally Isdong to norlheni Africa, llenco 
 
 /i ll» I ..,!...- . l,...^ I. ..I.. .I..J 
 
 (iosselln ana other writers conclude that his in- 
 terior Lybia was not central Africa, but merely 
 the region along the northeni Isirders of the descrl.. 
 We must oliM'rve, however, that the fonner, dc- 
 siTilNul OS a region of mountain, river, and lake, 
 all on a great scale, iN'ars vi-ry little restMnblame 
 to the desert iNirder of northeni Africa, Our ini- 
 pH'ssion is that i't^ileinv, n-ceiving his intelligeiii'n 
 from caravans itoming k. from lioniou Ut the Nili>, 
 not from those crosxing the great dest'rt, wns 
 ignorant of the extent of the latter, and conne- 
 qiiontlv of the interval S4>narating northern from 
 central Africa ; and that lie hence supfsised ami 
 delineated the two as almost in contact. Yet 
 this gt'ographer had received intelligent of two 
 marches, one by •Julius Matemiis (Vom ('yreno, 
 the other hy Septimus Flattens from (iarama, wlm 
 during perttsls res|M>ctively of three and of four 
 months had p<<iielrated into the country of tlin 
 Kthiopians, Ptolemy scarcely gives criMlit to 
 routes of such an extent ; but he la^s down 
 Agysimba (|)erhaps Agadiz), into which they 
 p«>netrut«Ml, as tint most southerly known region. As 
 it contains neither rivers nor lakes, it cannot lie 
 central AfVica; but if, in the manner alM)ve su|)- 
 iMised, he was ignorant how far south that reginn 
 Iny, tho length of the marches would neitessurily 
 oblige him to protract Agysimlm Istyond It. ((ieo- 
 graphia Nubiensis (Hdrini), in Lalinum verxa a 
 (iabrielo Hionita ct Joanne Ilesroiiitu (-liiiiatc, 
 i, iMirts 1, 2, 1), 4; Notices tics MS,S. d(> In IlililiiH 
 thcquo <lu Koi (Paris, 17H9), llie possagcH of 
 these writers relating to Central Africa tranul, in 
 Murray's Discoveries iu Africa, App. (2il ed.) il 
 519-583.) 
 
 In tho seventh century a grand revolution 
 changed tho face of tho wt)rlfl. Tht> folio wen tif 
 Mt)hammc<l, inspired by fanatical zeal, i.sxucd forth 
 from Arabia, anil not only shook llic Homaii 
 empire, but spread thoir con(|ucsts and scttlemenln 
 over countries never visitctl by the Roman arms. 
 To Africa particiilarlv they gove an entirely new 
 face. Along its Mctiitcrranoan coast, they estuli- 
 lished several flourishing and civilised kingdomx. 
 Their wantloring habits, and tho use of tho camel, 
 an animal expressly formed for sandy desertm, 
 enabletl them to overcome obstacles that baflled 
 tho Romans. The Sahara, across which no regular 
 route appears to have lx«n known to the ancient!*, 
 was penetrated by them in diflTcrent ilirections. 
 Their dispersion was aided by the great schism 
 between the dynasties of the Abbassiiies and Om- 
 miodos. The vanquished party, in large btslics, 
 crossed the desert, and formed settlements, where, 
 under the title of Fcllatiis or Foulahs, they still 
 exist as a race entirely ilistinct from the Negroes. 
 Their possessions extended along a great river 
 called by them the Nile of the Negroes, which, 
 however, was not, as long supposetl, our Niger, 
 but a tributary flowing into it fnim the east, 
 termed by Clapperton the Quarramu or Zirmie. 
 (ihona, the modem Kant>, was then the chief Mint 
 both of empire uid commorco. Tho 80veieji;n 
 
AFRICA 
 
 4S 
 
 ilUliUyoil « p«inp iinriv«llr««l In AWm, having hi« 
 IhMiio ailonu'il with « niiMi uf niint ifiM, iiittl- 
 miiiiir tho oommcrKii l>y wlilrh tnu city ww «>n- 
 rit-hi>tL Thiit irnlil wm foiinil In • country to tha 
 wiiith calloil Wnnffara, IntonKH-twl by numoniiw 
 lir»n«h«i of tliti NilK. *n<l whom th« nmUl wm 
 cxtriwU'tl from ulluviftl oartli. Tlii'm i» «>viiUmtly 
 xoiMo coiifuiiiiiii hons M tfolil, in Alliivial lirpoNti^ 
 lit only foHD«l In uountriM far to thn wi'nti the 
 error probably arUint; tttm the nhannvl by wlili-h 
 it WAM brought. Vartb«r rait, on tho N ll« of th« 
 Nf^iM'is Kilriiil ropmwntM ik<riiwa and Tirka, 
 which iweinnl to liavu U'en rocu^niMHl bv ('lain 
 Itrrlon In li«r»h«« and (iirkwa, Htill oonHidoralAo 
 townii. Farthor in that direction, Kiiku, a tfti'Ht 
 and HoiuriKliin^ kinKdom, i* ovidnntly Itomuii, tho 
 ch|iIih1 of which Ntlll lioan that namo; whil« 
 KniiKha, twenty dayn to the Houth, nnd dixtiit- 
 ^iiixhiHl bv itN artJi and inihmtrv, np|K>Ani pn>tty 
 clearly to Iw th«> Lo|{>fun of Denliain. Kotumiii^ 
 to (iliana, and procowlinn down the rivor, wo nrc 
 conducted to Tovrur, an inferior yet lar^o and 
 iMwerful klnplom. It a|)|M!an evidently to be 
 H(HX'nt<M>, whkh, in a diwiunient niioted by Clap- 
 
 Jierton, iii even called Takror. Snia, two dayn' 
 oiimey lower, cannot now lie idenlitled. Farther 
 woHt, tho knowledire of tho ArabianH became moHt 
 ini|H!rfrct. They conNidercd tho ocean as only 
 fi(H) milei liovond Tocrur, when it in nearly 2000. 
 They notice in that direction the island of Ulil, at 
 the niimth «>f the f^rent rivor, whence all tho 
 ciiuiitrictt on itn liankit were Hupplied with Halt. 
 This wa« pretty evidently MUKKt-'xtt^i by Walet, 
 the ^reat mart n)r tho Halt of tho northern dettert; 
 nn<l llH iHtioK reacltud acrotut the ^eat lake Dibble 
 nuKht attach to it the idea of an inland. 
 
 About four centuricH after Kdrini, central Africa 
 wii.>t vinited and described by Leo, a MoHlcm 
 S|iaiiiurcl, who was t*von surtiamcd Africanus. A 
 ^rrt>nt change liad now taken place, Timbuctoo 
 having rixcn to bo tho most powerful city, the 
 ciiicf city of commerce and splendour, the mart 
 fur K*'!!!*' 'f he neiKhb4)uring states, including even 
 U liana, called now Kauo, hod become its txibu- 
 turics. This writer mentions Romou under that 
 mime, and adds for the first time other states that 
 Ktill Hubxist — Cossina, Giiber, /cgzexiand Zanfiira. 
 Kyeo, under tho name of Gago, is justly described 
 a.4 a large and fine kingdom, 400 miles south-east 
 of 'I'inibiictoo. In a western direction, Qhinea or 
 (ihunooa, distinguished for its great commerce, is 
 the Jennd of Park. Thus all this part of the con- 
 tinent luul assumed nearly the shape which it has 
 ever since retained. 
 
 StMin after began that grand career of maritime 
 cntcr|)rise, which terminated in the circumnavi- 
 gation of the African continent and the discovery 
 of a passage to India, It was carried on entirely 
 by the Portuguese, and proceeded by gradual 
 8te|)s, from the rounding of Cape Bojador in 1433 
 bv Gilianez, to tho memorable passage of the 
 Cape of Good Hope in 1497 by Yasco de Gamo. 
 During this long period, at every successive point, 
 vigorous efforts were made to penetrate into the 
 interior. These were inspired, not only by the report 
 of gold mines and other objects of commerce, but 
 still more by a hope of reaching the court of a 
 mysterious personage named Proster John. This 
 name appears to have originated in reports brought 
 by Kubruquis and other early travellers of a ruling 
 Nestorian bishop in central Africa. When, how- 
 ever, notices arrived of a Christian prince in Abys- 
 sinia, the name Prcster John settled down upon 
 him; and, ignorant of the breadth of the con- 
 tinent, they supposed that, at no very great dis- 
 tance from tho western coast, his dominions might 
 be found. The commanders wero therefore m- 
 
 Hinirtcd fn\ ey«y nwr dliMWYwy to maV" Ihrir 
 lirst incpilry roncitrning PreHii^r John i and ttiou»{li 
 total IgimrnncH was evcrywhvnt profitMHtd, they 
 {M>rMW(ire<l, and really a|)|Miar t4t liavu wnt onilia*- 
 •iM even to Tlmbuct(M>. Dl ItarriM has given a 
 pretty correct acetHint of the tMwItion of that vity, 
 and of GennI (Joum<) its rival. The Kngllsh and 
 Fnnich foumi a ninslderable PortugueMi |Mipu- 
 latlun on the Hi^ni'gal and Gambia, and many 
 wonU of that language current among the |M>opl« 
 of liamlMiuk. Yet nothing was tlone to correct 
 the Arabian idea of the Niger ridling westward 
 into the ocean; and tho Senegal was thercfom 
 cunsidenid as forming its lower course, though Dl 
 llarroM expn^Nst's wonder that , after [MMsinu I hniiigh 
 so manv regions, it should not have rolled a greater 
 InmIv (>{ waters. 
 
 1 he Portuguese formed leading Mttlemonts at 
 Klmina on the (iold coast, and at the mouth of tliu 
 river Formosa, which has now proved to \m that of 
 tho Niger. They learned that the rulers here, on 
 their ai!ces«ioii, were acciist^imed to send ambassii- 
 don almut 'JAU leagues into tho intt>rior to tho 
 court of a prince named Agan(<, from whom, im 
 fViim a su|>erior lord, certain symlsils were received, 
 which formed tho prince's investiture. This \h>- 
 tentate, during tho interview, was screened from 
 view by a silk curtain, and only at the cUmmi bin 
 foot was put forth, to which they did homage. 
 (Di Ilarros, Asia, b. iii. ch. 3-12.) M^or liennell, 
 with Hocming reamin, presumes this to l>o tho king 
 of (jliana ; and in the uin|>s of tho sixteenth niiu 
 sevent^ienth centuries tlntro aji|>earM a very largo 
 lake named (iuantiu, which, from the site and a 
 rude resemblance of name, we Husp<!<\t to Iw tho 
 Tchad ; but D'Anville, llnding no authority in ita 
 sup|iort, expunged it. Tho Portuguese abto fonmtl 
 considerable settlements on the coast of Congo, 
 which, to a certain extent, they still retain ; and 
 their miHsiimaries |M>netrat.ed to i omo distaniro in- 
 land. After passing the (ya|ie, and on the way t<> 
 India, they sailed along nearly the whole of tho 
 eastern coast as far u» Melinda and Momliasiu 
 Tho king of Portugal hod previously sent out two 
 envoys, Covilhani and Do Payva, to reach Iiulia 
 by wa^ of the lied Sea. Their notices and oli- 
 Hcrvntions, coupled with those of tho circumnavi- 
 gators, first conveyed to Europe a full view of the 
 outline and circuit of this vast continent. 
 
 Covilham, in returning, settled in Abyssinia, 
 and transmitted such accounts as induced his sove- 
 reign to send thither a succession of missionaries, 
 through whom copious accounts wore received of 
 that remarkable country, scarcely at all known to 
 the ancients. They did not, however, curry dis- 
 covery far into the interior of tho continent ; and, 
 indeed, Huch ignorance nrovailed on the subject 
 that, in the maps of tne seventeenth century, 
 Abyssinia and Congo are brought nearly into con- 
 tact, while the Nile rises almost in the vicinity of 
 the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 In Europe meantime a growing interest was ex- 
 cited respecting the course of tho Niger, the coun- 
 trjr of gold, and the trade of Timbuctoo, It was 
 heightened by the conquest of that city by the 
 emperor of Morocco in the end of the sixteenth 
 century. In 1618, an English company was fonued 
 for the purpose of penetrating thither, by ascend- 
 ing the Gambia, supposed one of the mouths of 
 the Niger, They sent out Captain Thompson, 
 who, leaving his vessel at Kassan, went in a boat 
 to Tenda, which no European haid yet reached ; 
 but he was killed in a contest with the natives, 
 another body of whom, instigated by the Portu- 
 guese, attacked and massacred most of the men in 
 the vessel. Another crew, sent to reinforce him, 
 fell almost all victims to the climate. In 1G20, 
 
41 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 i 
 
 
 Captnin Richard JobHon eamo nut with a larf^cr 
 annament, and, iindiHmaycd bv those evil tidin^R, 
 motlc Um way conHidorahly hi^^hcr than hix ]trc- 
 ciiniors. Ho even supposed, on erroneous informa- 
 tion, tiiat he was near Timbuctoo, and returnc<l 
 with tiio intention of actively rcHuming his re- 
 searches, hut was prevented by a (pmrrel with the 
 nierithunts, who lost courage, and (lr<)p])cd the un- 
 d(!rtakinK. (Jobson, Golden Trade, or a Discovery 
 of the Kiver Gambia. Lond. 1023.) 
 
 A century elapsed without further effort, till the 
 Duke of Chandos, director of the African Com- 
 panv, entertained the idea of enlnrj<ing its scanty 
 profits by o|H:ninK a communication with the 
 country of gold. He sent out, in 1 723, Captain 
 Jiartiiolomew Stiblis, who having procured canoes, 
 ))ushcil vigorously up the river. On passing the 
 fulls of 1iarra(!onda, however, the stream became 
 in many ]ilaces so extremely shallow, that even 
 his little boats could scarcely be dragged upward. 
 1I(! was finally obliged to stop nearly at the point 
 which Jol>son had already reached. Ilis informa- 
 tion led him to conclude that ' the original or head 
 of the river Niger is nothing near so far in the 
 country as by the gcogra)>hers has been repre- 
 sented.' The Gambia, at a little distance upwards, 
 was described as dwindling into a mere rivulet. 
 It had no communication with the Senegal, or 
 with any lake. He nowhere heard the Niger 
 named, and had great doubts if such a river ex- 
 iste(L Moore, a zealous agent of the company, 
 strenuously repelled this conclusion, and endea- 
 voured to overwhelm him by quoting I'liny, Pto- 
 lemy, Leo, and other high authorities ; but >Stibbs, 
 though unable to meet him on this ground, con- 
 tiimed not the let>s steadily to affirm what he had 
 seen with his own eyes. (Moore, Travels in the 
 Inland Parts of Africa. Lond. 1738.) In fact, 
 notwithstanding one or two other attempts, the 
 English made no farther discoveries in this quar- 
 ter, nor obtained any intelligence of the real 
 Niger. 
 
 The French meantime wore making greater 
 exertions on the Senegal, which they early chose 
 as their place of settlement. About 1630, a com- 
 mercial intercourse had been opened by some 
 merchants of Kouen and Dieppe, without any set- 
 tlement, the crews merely erecting temporary huta 
 during their stav. (Taiinezina, Voyage de Lybie. 
 Paris, 1645.) They were obliged, however, in 
 1664, to give way to the great VV^est India Com- 
 pany, whose privilege included also western Africa. 
 In nine years, however, it fell ; and on its ruins 
 was erected a second, succeeded by a third, fourth, 
 and fifth, which last was merged in the Mississippi 
 scheme. These, like similar mercantile associa- 
 tions, were all disastrous ; but each had its interval 
 of activity, during which a good deal was done to 
 extend discovery and trade. The chief efforts were 
 made by the Sieur Brue, appointed governor in 
 1697. From Port St. Louis, where a settlement 
 was now formed, he immediately sailed up the 
 river, with a view to adjust some differendfes with 
 the Siratik or king of the Foulahs, and open a 
 trade with its upper regions. He succeeded m his 
 negotiations, and had hoped to reoch Gallam, but 
 was obliged to stop at Ghiorel, where he erected a 
 fort. In 1698 he reached Gallam, and arrived at 
 the rock of Felu, which stops the navigation for 
 large barks. At Dramanet he fixed on a position 
 for a fort, which was soon after erected under the 
 nome of St. Joseph, and became the centre of 
 French interior trade. Through the exertions of 
 one Compagnon, he acquired a full account of 
 liambouk and its gold mines, the most productive 
 in Africa. He laid before the company a plan for 
 conquering the country, wliich ho midcrtook to 
 
 effect with 1,200 men, but could neither obtain tho 
 requisite authority nor means. Ho made diligent 
 incpiirics resiHscting the re^ons Iwyond, and ob- 
 tained pretty distinct accounts of Itambarra, the 
 lake Maberia (Dibbie), and Timbuctoo. Re- 
 specting the Niger, two opposite statements were 
 made. According to one, it Howed westward, and 
 divided into the three branches of the Gambia, the 
 Fal(>me, and the Senegal; while others asserted its 
 course to be eastward. The former continued to 
 be the popular belief; but D' Anvillo, who bestowed 
 much attention on tho subject, and had access to 
 the best documents, became convinced that there 
 was a great river quite distinct from the Senegnl, 
 which Howed eastward, and was the one that passed 
 by Timbuctoo. Upon this jjrinciple he tomied 
 his map of Africa, a wonderful effort of sagacity 
 and ability, and which, in fact, is still tolerably 
 correct as to a great part of that continent. (Ln- 
 bat, Afrique Occidentale, 5 tom. Paris, I72H, 
 GollMjrry, Fragmens d'un Voyage en Al'riciiie. 2 
 torn. D'Aiiville, sur les Kivifcrcs dans I'lnteriiir 
 de I'Afrique, Academic des Inscriptions, tom xxvi. 
 64.) Hy restricting Abyssinia oud Congo to their 
 true limits, and obliterating imaginary features, 
 this great gcogra|ihcr first exhibited that vast in- 
 terior blank whicdi so strongly excited the curiosity 
 and entenirise of Europe. 
 
 The spirit of African discovery slumbered in 
 Britain till 1788, when it burst forth with an ar- 
 dour which led to the most splendid result.i. In 
 that year was formed the African Association, com- 
 posed of a number of distinguished individuals, 
 among whom Sir Joseph Banks and Mr. Beaiifuy 
 took. the lead. Ledyard was sent to nenetrate by 
 way of Egj'pt, and Lucas by that of Tripoli, 'i'lie 
 former, who, with an iron frame, had travelled great 
 part of the world on foot, excited great expecta- 
 tions; but unhappily a fever carried him off before 
 leaving Cairo. Mr. Lucas, long vice-consul at 
 Morocco, had the advantage of understanding )ier- 
 fcctly the African languages. He found no dilli- 
 culty in obtaining the concurrence of the Pasha 
 of I'ripoli ; and ha<l set out for Fezzan, but was 
 arrested by an insurrection among the Arab tribes. 
 Valuable information, however, was obtained from 
 several intelligent natives, confirmed by the tes- 
 timony of Ben AUi, a merchant, who happened to 
 be in London, and had travelled far into the in- 
 terior. From these sources pretty copious accounts 
 were received respecting the great countries of 
 Bomou and Cassina, the latter of which had be- 
 come the chief among the states of Houssa. The 
 informants described also a great caravan route 
 across the continent, from Tripoli to Asientc or 
 Ashantee, behind the Gold Coast. In this course 
 it crossed the great central river, described, how- 
 ever, as flowing to the westward. It was, in fact, 
 the Arabian Nile of the Negroes, the Quarrama of 
 Clapperton, which in that direction proceeded to 
 the main river, of which it is only a tributar}'. 
 Kennell, having these materials put into his hand's, 
 and not being aware of any central river but one, 
 reversed the direction given by D'Anville to the 
 Niger, making it flow westward to the ocean by 
 the channel of the Senegal. At the same time 
 Bomou, understood to be described as bordering on 
 Nubia, was carried far to the north and east of its 
 real position, and the bordering countries displaced 
 in consequence; so that this map, though ably 
 drawn up, formed decidedly a retrograde step in 
 African geography. 
 
 The Association now turned their attention to 
 W. Africa, and engaged Major Houghton, for some 
 time consul at Morocco, to proceed from the Gam- 
 bia. He went on foot, imprudently loaded with a 
 quantity of valuable articles. He passed uiimu- 
 
AFRICA 
 
 40 
 
 their attention to 
 Houghton, for some 
 ceed from the Gam- 
 lently loaded with a 
 
 He passed unmu- 
 
 ,lci»ti'il throjiph Medina and Bamlmuk; but on 
 IrcarliiiiR the territory of the Moors, was seduced 
 fbv tliatiK'0|)lc into the desert, where he was either 
 (killed or ahandoned to iierish. (Proceedings of the 
 African Association. London, 1790. Ibid. Loud. 
 
 1 17!t7.) . , 
 
 ( )n receiving this intelligence, the Association 
 [lost no time in seeking a substitute, and were for- 
 tunate enough to engage Mr. Mungo Park. That 
 gentleman, in Decemtier. 17i)r), set out from the 
 (ianihia, and passed through Medina, Hondon, 
 liallam, Kasson, and Kaarta. Havinj; suffered on 
 tlic way severe spoliation, he was seiised and de- 
 tained long in captivity by the Moors of Ludamar. 
 He contrived to escape, and though in extreme 
 distress, made his way through the kingdom of 
 llambarra to 8ego, its capitoL This formed a crisis 
 in African geopraphy, for he there saw ' the long- 
 sought majestic Niger, glittering to the morning 
 sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and 
 iiowing slowly to the eastward.' The extent of 
 the city, its crowded jiopulation, and the numerous 
 canoes on the river, presented altogether a scene 
 little expected in the heart of Africa. Mr. Park 
 penetrated down the Niger as far as Silla ; but his 
 destitute condition, and the formidable accounts of 
 tlic bigotry prevailing at Jenne and Timbuctoo, 
 ileterrcd him from proceeding farther. 
 
 This traveller's arrival in England in December, 
 1797, with accounts of such important discoveries, 
 raised higher than ever the enthusiasm for African 
 discovery. He retired into private life; but the 
 Association obtained the services «)f Homemann, a 
 Cierman, who possessed many requisites of a tra- 
 veller. He went by way of Kgypt to Fezzan, 
 thence into central Africa, and aiipears to have 
 IKiictratedby way of Cashna to Nyne on the Niger, 
 where he fell a victim to the climate. The same 
 fate tiefcll Mr. Nicholls, who attempted to reach 
 the Niger by way of the Gulph of Benin. Some 
 years before, Mr. Bro»vne, an enterprising indivi- 
 dual, by his own resources had penetrated by way 
 of Egypt into the interior coimtry of Darfour, about 
 midway between Abyssinia and Bomou. He ob- 
 tained there some important detached notices re- 
 Rl)ecting the neighbouring nations, and the origin 
 (if the White River or main branch of the Nile, 
 said to rise in the mountainous territory of Donga. 
 
 Meantime Park's mind was intensely bent upon 
 Africa; and tlirough liLs acquaintance with Mr. 
 Maxwell, who had commanded a vessel employed 
 ill the Zaire or Congo, he became persuaded that 
 that river was the terminatitm of the Niger. Being 
 invited by government to lead an expedition on a 
 liirge scale, he readily accepted it, and its arrange- 
 nioiits were adjusted with a view to his hypothesis. 
 ( )ri the 4th of May, 1805, he departed from the 
 tiambia, with a well appointed party of upwards 
 of forty ; but the harassing attacks of the natives, 
 with the pestilential uifluence of the -ainy season, 
 reduced them to seven before they reached the 
 Niger. He proceeded do>vnward, however, and at 
 t>ansanding obtained materials for conatnicting a 
 schooner, 40 feet long, which he named the Joliba; 
 and on the 17th November, 1805, set sail to ex- 
 plore the mysteries of interior Africa. It appears 
 that he passed Timbuctoo, and m.ade his way down 
 the river to Boussa, where the king of Youri, in- 
 dignant at having received no presents, pursued 
 with a large body of men, and attacked him ui a 
 narrow and rocky cliannel. Park and his com- 
 ])niuons, unable to resist, threw themselves into 
 the water, attempting to reach the shore, but were 
 drowned. His paiiers were never recovered. 
 
 A German named KOntgen attempted to pene- 
 trate byway of Morocco, and set out in 1809 from 
 ^Nlogadore ; but he appears to have been murdered 
 
 by his guides. Some intelligence was gleaned from 
 Adams and Kiley, two Americans, who were suc- 
 cessively shipwrecked on ihe coast of Sahara ; but 
 much uncertainty attached to their statements. 
 In 1809, the association engaged the services of 
 the celebrated Burkhardt, who undertook to ao 
 company the interior caravan from Cairo. While 
 preparing himself for the exiK-dition he made ex- 
 cursions through Nubia, and also througli Syria 
 and Arabia, his observations on which have be(^n 
 published, and are extremely valuable. In 1817, 
 however, when about tn set out on his main desti- 
 nation, he fell a victim to dysentery. 
 
 Tlic public mind continued to lie intently fixed 
 on African discovery ; jiartly from a wish to learn 
 tlie real state of countries so dithcult to explon*, 
 and so different from those of the temperate zone, 
 and partly, and perhaps principally, from r.bsurdly 
 exaggerated ideas as to the value of the commerce 
 that might bo carried on with the natives. At 
 length government, on the suggestion of Sir John 
 Barrow, determined to make a more extensive effort 
 than ever., Following up the hypothesis of the 
 identity of the Niger and Congo, two expeditions 
 were prepared; one to ascend the latter river, 
 another to descend the former. Captain Tuckry, 
 who commanded the first, sailed from England in 
 Februarj', 1816, and arrived in June at the mouth 
 of the Congo. The party proceeded for some time 
 with great spirit ; but being obliged by the cata- 
 racts to leave their boats, and proceed on foot 
 through a nigged country affording little shelter, 
 they became exposed to the baneful influence of 
 the climate. Severe sickness soon assailing the 
 whole party, obliged them to stop short, and ulti- 
 mately proved fatal to all the officers, including 
 the commander. The other expedition, destined 
 to go down the Niger, was commanded by Major 
 Peddie, who endeavoiiretl to reach the interior 
 through the country of the Foulahs. Having died 
 before the march began, he was succeeded by Cap- 
 tain Campbell, who reached the Foulah frontier ; 
 l)ut the sovereign, jealous of their designs, detained 
 them under various pretexts, till exhausted sup- 
 plies and general sickness obliged them to return. 
 Immediately after Captain Camptell died, and his 
 fate was shared by Lieutenant Stokoe, just as he 
 had planned a new expedition. Captaui Gray, of 
 the Boyal African corps, penetrated by andther 
 route to Gallam, but could not obtain permission 
 to proceed through Bambarra. 
 
 AH this series of disaster did not shake the per- 
 severance of the British government, A new open- 
 ing was afforded through the Pasha of Tripoli, who, 
 inspired with a desire of improvement new in this 
 quarter of the world, cultivated European connec- 
 tion, and influenced by the judicious conduct of 
 consul Warrington, offered his assistance to the 
 British government. Holding Fezzan tributary, 
 and having a commanding influence over the cen- 
 tral states, he could secure the safe passage of a 
 traveller through a great part of Africa. Under 
 his auspices, in 1819, Mr. Bitchic and Lieuten- 
 ant Lyon reached Fezzan; but through the 
 climate, and the treacherous ill-treatment of 
 the sultan, they incurred such severe illnesses as 
 proved fatal to the former, and obliged the latter 
 to return. 
 
 This failure did not prevent the speedy forma- 
 tion of another expedition, for which a more for- 
 tunate diistinj' was reserved. Its chiefr, Major 
 Dcnham, Lieutenant Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, 
 arrived at Tripoli in November, 1821. Nextspriiig 
 they proceeded to Fezzan ; but through the neg- 
 lect of the sultan were unable to procure camels, 
 which obliged Denham to return to Tripoli. Here 
 he received assurances of protection from Boo Khal- 
 
49 
 
 AFRICA 
 
 loon, a j^nat Arab nlave-mcrchant, who was set- 
 ting out for the vcrv countricH which he Bought to 
 explore. Under his guidance, the party, in the 
 end of 1822, began their route through the great 
 dcHcrt, paHMing lietween the tcrritori<^8 of the two 
 rc^miu-kable native tribes, the Tuaricks and the 
 Tibboos, They then travelled for a fortnight amid 
 hillH of moving f«and, without the slightest vestige 
 of life or vegetation. Soon after they entered Ka- 
 nem, the northem province of Bomou. At Lari 
 they came in view of Lake Tchad, the great in- 
 terior sea of Afrii a, 200 miles long, receiving two 
 great riven, and < ontaining numerous islands. In 
 proceeding along its eastern shore they visited most 
 parts of liomou and its chief cities of Kouka (Kuku 
 of Edrisi), New Bimie, and Angomou. This king- 
 dom, once the most powerful in central Africa, had 
 alM)ut thirty years before been conquered and 
 dreadfully ravaged by the Fcllatas from Houssa ; 
 but a private indiWdual, by valour and ability, had 
 reasserted its independence, and driven out the 
 enemy. That person, under the title of Sheik, ex- 
 ercised all the real power, while he suffered the 
 legitimate king to reign in empty pomp. Major 
 Dcnliam also visited the smaller kingdom of Man- 
 dara, bounded by an almost interminable range of 
 mountains filled with savage tribes, who are hunted 
 down for slaves. In Loggun, situated along the 
 great river Shary, which falls into the Tchad, ho 
 found a people more ingenious and industrious than 
 those of Bomou, 
 
 Meantime Glapperton and Oudney were making 
 an expedition through Iloussa, the most interest- 
 ing region of central Africa. It was found inha- 
 bited by the Fellatas, a people having nothing of 
 the Negro features, but apparently descended 'rom 
 the great body of Moslem Arabs, who had migrated 
 many centuries ago. They were quite superior to 
 the Bomonese both in aspect and character, culti- 
 vating the land with greater skill and diligence, 
 and manufacturing very fine cottons. The sway 
 of Ghana, and even of Cassina, had been trans- 
 ferred to ^ackatoo (Tocrur), the sultan of which, 
 about the beginning of the present century, over- 
 ran all Houssa, and for some time occupied Bomou. 
 Ghana, however, under the name of Kano, was 
 found great in its decay, and still the chief seat of 
 commerce. The transactions were extensive and 
 wrcU arranged ; but slaves were the staple com- 
 modity. Sackatoo was found considerably larger 
 than Kano, and the traveller was hospitably re- 
 ceived by sultan Bello. The river Quarrama was 
 observed traversing this country, and flowing west- 
 ward into the Niger, which, at the nearest point 
 to Sackatoo, had a southward course ; but accounts 
 varied, whethev continuing in that direction it 
 reached the sea, or making a great circuit emptied 
 Itself into the lake Tchad. The traveller, having 
 in vain solicited the means of proceeding to the 
 river and the coast, returned to Bomou by a new 
 route, which enabled him to see Cassina, a capital 
 now greatly decayed. Dr. Oudney died early on 
 this journey. 
 
 The British government determined to follow 
 up these extensive and important discoveries. 
 Clapperton was employed to land on the coast of 
 Guuiea, thence to penv trate to Sackatoo, and on 
 his way explore the termination of the Niger. 
 Instead of attempting to ascend the river of Benin, 
 he was advised to proceed by land from Badagry; 
 but from impradent exposure to the climate two 
 companions died, and he became sickly. He soon, 
 however, reached the Yarriba, or Kingdom of 
 Eyes, which he found populous and flourishing ; 
 and the natives, not imbued with Mohammedan 
 bigotry, courteously received him. In traversing 
 it he crossed the chain of the Kong Mountains, 
 
 peopled to the inmroit. Leaving Tarriha, and 
 passing through the large cities of Kiama and 
 Wawa, he reached Boussa on the Niger, where ho 
 received a confirmation of Park's death, and even 
 an invitation fn>m the king of Youri, who pro- 
 mised to give him that traveller's books and 
 papers ; but this visit was delayed till he should 
 return from Sackatoo. On his way thither he 
 passed through Nyffe, a highly improved territory 
 though dreailfully laid waste by the Fellatas ; and 
 through Zegzeg, also very populous and well cul- 
 tivated. At Sackatoo, or Soccatoo, an expedition 
 against the rebel territory of Goober enabled him 
 to procure farther information. The sultan, how- 
 ever, prepossessed with groundless jealousies, 
 treated him with a harshness, which, with pre- 
 vious sickness, brought this spirited traveller to a 
 premature grave. His servant. Lander, after 
 doing the last duties, conceived the plan of him- 
 self exploring the termination of the Niger, but 
 was forcibly prevented. 
 
 The information attained on ihis journey afforded 
 the strongest reason to suppose that the Niger ter- 
 minated m the sea. Lander, on his return, submitted 
 to government a plan for proceeding to Bousm, 
 and thence navigating the stream downwards. 
 The British Government agreed to furnish the 
 means, though promising only a very slender re-^ 
 ward. In March, 1 830, accompanied by his brother, ' 
 he arrived at Badagry, and proceeded by nearly 
 the former route to Boussa. Thence he visited 
 Youri, which proved a very rich and populous 
 country; but the king treated him ill, and <e had 
 no success as to Park's books and papers. On the 
 island of Patashic, below Boussa, he procured, 
 with great difliculty, two canoes, afterwanls ex- 
 changed for one of larger size, and thus began the 
 na^dgation down the Niger. He soon found it 
 expand into a most magnificent river, about three 
 miles broad, and bordered by noble forests. The 
 large island of Zagoshi presented an active scene 
 of industry and navigation, and by a large force 
 of armed canoes maintained its independence of 
 the neighbouring states. On the adjoining shore 
 appeared a very large town, named Kabba. Far- 
 ther down, Egga, another great port on the river, 
 terminated the comparatively civilised territory of 
 Nyffe ; below which were only detached states of 
 a very turbulent and lawless character, among 
 which serious dangers were encountered. The 
 next striking object was the influx from the west- 
 ward of the great river Tshadda, three or four 
 miles broad, and with a current so strong that 
 they soon gave up the attempt to ascend it. They 
 learned, however, that three days' journey up was 
 Fundah, of whose importance they had often 
 heard. It became more and more evident that 
 their voyage was to terminate in the sea, and that 
 the numerous river branches which open into the 
 Gulph of Benin are the delta of the Niger, Near the 
 large town of Kirree, they passed the one which 
 runs towards Benin. Here the natives were almost 
 entirely clothed in the manufactures of Europe, and 
 had fleets of large canoes adorned with European 
 articles. The travellers, however, were made pri- 
 soners, and carried down to Eboe, the greit mart 
 for slaves and palm oil, with which tra>ie the 
 natives, who are rude and dissolute, do not hesi- 
 tate to combine piracy. With great difficulty, and 
 the promise of a high ransom, they succeeded in 
 getting arrangements made for conveying them 
 to the sea. They reached it by the channel called 
 by the Portuguese Nun, by the English Brass 
 River ; not the largest of the estuaries, but that 
 which comes in the most direct line from the 
 main tmnk. Thus, by very humble agency, was 
 solved that grand problem in African geography, 
 
AFRICA 
 
 47 
 
 LcATing Tairiba, and 
 cities of Kiama and 
 n the Niger, where ho 
 'ork'H death, and even 
 g of Youri, who pn>- 
 traveller'a books and 
 delayed till he should 
 I his way thither ho 
 hly improved territory 
 \ by the Fellatas ; and 
 lopulous and well cul- 
 iccatoo, an expedition 
 >f Goober enabled him 
 )n. The sultan, how- 
 nt>andles8 jealousies, 
 ess, which, with prc- 
 flpiritcd traveller to a 
 rvant. Lander, after 
 iived the plan of him- 
 ion of the Niger, but 
 
 n this journey afforded 
 
 OBC that the Niger tor- 
 
 in his retum,8ubniittcd 
 
 proceeding to Boussn, 
 
 e stream downwanls. 
 
 agreed to furnish the 
 
 nly a very slender re- 
 
 npanied by his brothor, ' 
 
 I proceeded by nearly 
 
 )a. Thence he visited 
 
 ry rich and populous 
 
 :ed him ill, and 'e had 
 
 :8 and papers. On the 
 
 BouBsa, he procured, 
 
 ;anoe8, afterwanis cx- 
 
 se, and thus bcgnn the 
 
 ir. He soon found it 
 
 cent river, about three 
 
 by noble forests. The 
 
 isented an active scene 
 
 , and by a large force 
 
 d its independence df 
 
 n the adjoining shore 
 
 named Kabba. Fnr- 
 
 reat port on the river. 
 
 y civilLsed territorj' of 
 
 ily detached states of 
 
 ess character, amoiii; 
 
 e encountered. Tlie 
 
 influx from the west ■ 
 
 shadda, three or four 
 
 urrent so strong that 
 
 ipt to ascend it. They 
 
 days' journey up was 
 
 nee they had often 
 
 id more evident that 
 
 « in the sea, and that 
 
 s which open into the 
 
 of the Niger. Near the 
 
 passed the one which 
 
 e natives were almost 
 
 Etctures of Europe, and 
 
 lomed with "f luropcan 
 
 rever, were made pri- 
 
 Eboe, the greit mart 
 
 ith which traile the 
 
 isBolute, do not hesi- 
 
 great difficulty, and 
 
 I, they succeeded in 
 
 for conveying them 
 
 ly the channel called 
 
 the English Brass 
 
 e estuaries, but that 
 
 direct line from the 
 
 humble agency, wati 
 
 I African geography, 
 
 in the sfiarch after which so many abortive efforts 
 
 bad lK>*>n mailo. 
 
 This imiM)rtant discovery, opening a water com- 
 
 (luniuation into the very centre of the contmcnt, 
 
 iindc a strong impression on the mercantile world, 
 
 Wr. M'Gregor Laird, and some other gcntlemeri of 
 
 L,iven)ool, entered into an association for forming 
 
 settlement and opening a trade on the UpiMsr 
 
 ■Niger. Two steamers, the Quorra and Alburkah, 
 
 Iwprc fitted out; while the Columbine, a larger 
 
 Isailuig vessel, was laden with goods. They ar- 
 
 Irived in the mouth of the Nun in October, 1832, 
 
 Ibut suffered severely from sickness amid the 
 
 I swamps of the delta; and though before the 
 
 lend of the year they reached a healthier station, 
 
 Ithc survivors did not regain their health. In the 
 
 IcourHc of the next two years, Mr, Laird ascended 
 
 I the Tshadda, and reached Fnndah, nine miles in- 
 
 llaiul, which ho found a large city, with nearly 
 
 1 40,01)0 inhabitants, situated in a very extensive 
 
 I and l)cautiful plain. Its commerce, however, had 
 
 I been much injured by war, and b)^ the tyranny of 
 
 I its ruler, from whose power Mr, Laird had some dif- 
 
 Ificulty in escaping. Mr, Oldtleld in the Alburkah 
 
 I sailed about 100 miles up this river, but neither 
 
 I found its banks so fruitful nor the commerce so 
 
 I active as on the Niger, He also visited Kabba, 
 
 I which proved equ«5ly extensive with Fundah, 
 
 ITlic streets were crowded and dirty, but the mar- 
 
 Ikets spacious and well arranged. The state of 
 
 I the vessel frustrated the attempt to ascend to 
 
 iBoussa. Lander had unfortunately died of wounds 
 
 Ireceivcd in a contest with the natives. The 
 
 ■expedition was unfortunate in a commercial 
 
 Ivicw, the only valuable article found being ivory, 
 
 ■in too small quantity to pay the expense of the 
 
 irovage. 
 
 From the southern extremity of Africa, inter- 
 sting discoveries have also been made. It was 
 not till 1650 that the Dutch formed a colony at 
 itlie Cape of Good Hope, which quickly became 
 I nourishing. IJcyond the Karroo desert they set- 
 Itled rich grazing farms, at the foot of the high 
 linterior ranges of the Nienweld and Sneuwge- 
 Ibirge, compelling the natives to labour as slaves. 
 JTowards the end of the eighteenth century, Sparr- 
 Iman and Vaillant brought interesting accounts of 
 I the scenery of this tract, and its natural prmluc- 
 jtions both animal and vegetable. The settlement 
 [having been captured by Britain, Mr. Barrow, as 
 (secretary to Lord Macartney, made in 1797 an 
 I excursion into the interior, and gave striking pic- 
 I turcs of the pastoral life of the Kaffres, and of the 
 miserable aspect and condition of the Bosjemans 
 or mountain Hottentots. In 1801, Messrs. Trutter 
 I and Somerville passed the Sneuwgebirge, disco- 
 vered the large stream of the Orange Kiver, vrith 
 the pastoral tribe of the Koranas, and finally ar- 
 rived at Lattakoo, capital of the Boshuanas, a 
 more industrious and improved people than any 
 j yet known in southern Africa. On recei\'ing this 
 intelligence. Lord Calelon sent Dr. Cowan and 
 I Mr. Donovan, with a party of twenty, to attempt 
 I to penetrate as far as Mozambique ; but after pro- 
 ceeding considerably beyond Lattakoo, they were 
 I surprised and killed by a party of natives. 
 
 Tlie Rev. Mr. Campbell, in his zealous pursuit 
 I of missionary objects, considerably extended our 
 knowledge of this part of Africa. Beyond Latta- 
 koo, he passed through a succession of towns 
 I always rising in importance. Kurrechane, the 
 I last, was estimated to contain 16,000 inhabitants, 
 I who, besides agriculture, showed considerable skill 
 in adorning their habitations, tanning skins, and 
 j smelting iron and copper. Dr. Licbtenstein and 
 ! Mr. Burchell made important observations on the 
 I Boahuaua people, but neither penetrated so far as 
 
 Mr. Campbell. In lfi2S, whilo Mr. Thompson 
 was at Lattakoo, these districts were invadc<l l>y a 
 numerous and formidable Cati'ro people, from tho 
 vicinity of Caiw NataL Tlicse, it was discovered, 
 had iM'on driven from their country by a still more 
 powerful tribe, the ZihiIoos, whoso chief, Chaka, 
 could muster 100,000 fighting men. Yet thera 
 was found to l)c in that quarter a laigo extent of 
 fertile territory, to whicn a numl)er of DuU-h 
 farmers were induced to emigrate; but having 
 been involved in hostilities with this savage tril)o, 
 they have of late suffered dreadfully, and many 
 of them have |)crished. 
 
 During the years 1822 to 1826, Captain Owen 
 was employed by the British government in 
 making a very careful survey both of tho eiistcm 
 and western coasts. He obtained much informa- 
 tion rcsfxicting the former, which had hitherto 
 been very imperfectly known. In 1837, Sir Jamea 
 Alexander, under the auspices of the Geographical 
 Society, performed an expedition to the north- 
 west from the Cape, into the country of the 
 Damaras, where he penetrated farther than any 
 fonner traveller. 
 
 Within the last few years, a now and powerful 
 impetus has been ^ven to African exploration, 
 w^hich has resulted in most important discoveries. 
 In the first place, the true nature of the interior 
 has been ascertained beyond dispute. In the year 
 1852, Sir Koderick Murchison suggested the hypo- 
 thesis that the interior of Africa was now, as in 
 ancient geological perio<ls, an immense watershed, 
 occupied by fresh water lakes, outflowing to the 
 east and west through fissures in the inountiun 
 ranges near the coast. This theory has been com- 
 pletely established by the discoveries of our most 
 eminent African travellers. It is known to be 
 true of the passage of the Niger, and Dr. Living- 
 stone proved it to be the case in that of the Zam- 
 besi, whilst it received a fresh confirmation from 
 the discoveries of Burton and Speke, and Speko 
 and Grant, with respect to the sources of tho 
 Nile. The discovery of the latter is a most me- 
 morable one in African geography. It was in 
 1858 that Captain Speke first visited the Lake 
 N'yanga. He subsequently made a second jour- 
 ney for the purpose of farther investigation ; and 
 in a memoir, in the Journal of the Geographical 
 Society, he published a statement of the facts on 
 which he grounds his conclusion that this lake is 
 the great reservoir of the Nile. He says that it 
 appears 'that all the drainage of the N'yanga 
 must come down the channel of the Nile, unless 
 perchance the Sobat might be the rivej alluded to 
 by the Arabs and natives as "making Usoga an 
 Island." Should this not be the case, then the 
 Sobat must be an independent river, draining all 
 the mountain range north of Mount Kenia up to 
 this parallel, and so to the eastward as far as 
 possible the basin of the Nile is determined. Now 
 to complete the western side of the basin of the 
 Nile as far as possible, I must state as a positive 
 fact, the Nile at Gondokoro is the parent or tnie 
 Nile. No explorers on the Nile, of the present 
 time, doubt that for a moment; and all those — 
 there are many — ^who have recently directed their 
 attention to the discovery of the source of the Nile, 
 have invariably looked for it south of Gondokoro. 
 Thi0 matter established, — as on the east the only 
 affluent to the Nile worthy of any notice was tlie 
 Asua river, and that was so small it could not have 
 made any visible impression on the bo<ly of tho 
 Nile, — leaves only the Little Luta Nzige to be 
 discussed, for the rest of the land included in the 
 basin of the Nile is drained into the Nile north of 
 Gondokoro. Information assures me, that as the 
 Malagarazi and Uusizi rivers drain the southern 
 
48 
 
 AFBICA 
 
 ri\ I 
 
 i !■(■ 
 
 m, 
 
 side of tho mountains encircling the Tanganyika, 
 BO do tho KitniigiilJ and Little Luta Nzigii drain 
 the north side of those moiintainn; and thiH, I think, 
 is proved by the fact, that the Nile at Gondokoro 
 wuM not BO large aB the Nile was in Unyoro during 
 the flood. For this ntoson alxo I feel very sure the 
 Little Luta Nzigd of itself, if it wa« not 8U|iplicd 
 by the Nile a8 a backwater, would be nothing 
 more than a flat nuh-marBh, like the Uahr-el- 
 Ghnzal.' 
 
 Dr. Livingstone, in hiB exploration of the Zam- 
 l)o»i, has not only contributed largely to geo- 
 gra|>hical Bcicncc, but it may be hoped that hin 
 exertions will ultimately prove most uaeful in the 
 cause of humanity. lie propoBcs a chain of sta- 
 tioua licyond the Portiiguctio territory on that 
 rivcr^ m a means of facilitating commercial com- 
 munication with the natives. Some of the races 
 in the vicinity are anxious to engage in trade, and 
 the country is suitable for cotton. He believes 
 that it is only by encourasing industry in this 
 way, in connection with missionarv labours, that 
 real good will be done to Africa. We owe to him 
 the discovery of Lake N'gami, and ho has but 
 recently returned from explorations of the Shin5 
 river — au affluent of the Zambesi — and Lake 
 Nyassa. 
 
 Dr. Barth's researches in north Africa arc well 
 known as placing him on the list of illustrious 
 African travellers. Captain Burton i« not only 
 distinguished for his discovery of tho Tanganyika 
 Lake, and his explorations in western equatorial 
 Africa, but for his valuable observations on the eth- 
 nology and condition of the east African races. M. 
 Paul du Chaillu, during his travels in eq^^iiatorial 
 Africa, made some most important investigations 
 in connection with the river Ogolmi; and has 
 also greatly enlarged our knowledge of the ani- 
 mals of Auica, particularly introducing to us that 
 wonder of natural history, the Gorilla. Anderson, 
 Petherick, Galton, Krap)', Kebmann, Yon Decken, 
 and many other names occur in the history of 
 African exploration, in which field so much zeal 
 and heroism 'five of late been displayed. Von 
 Decken ascended the Kilimandjaro to a height of 
 13,000 feet, and there witnessed a fall of snow, 
 thus establishing by personal observation the fact 
 announced by Krapf and Hebmann of snow-capped 
 mountains under the equator. 
 
 But after all that has been done, there still 
 remain inteicuting points to settle, which will 
 afford abundant stimulus to the exertion of new 
 explorers. 
 
 AFItlCA, or MAHADIAH, a sea-port town of 
 Barbnrv, E. coast reg. Tunis, 110 m. SSE. Tunis, 
 lat. 35° 32' N., long. U^ 10' E. It contains about 
 iifdiiO inhab., and is at present a wretched place, 
 surrounded with broken-tlown walls, and without 
 8hops or bazaars. Formerly it was a sea-port and 
 fortress of very considerable importance. In 1550 
 it was besieged by a powerful armament, under 
 the orders of the \aceroy of Sicily and of Dorip 
 the famous admiral of Charles V,, who took it 
 after an obstinate and desnerate resistance; but 
 being found to be untenable it was subsequently 
 abandoned. 
 
 AGADES, a town of central Africa, cap. of Air, 
 or Asben, in lat. IC© 40' N., long. 7° 30' E. Est. 
 pop. 8,000 ; formerly 60,000. It is still an impor- 
 tant entrepot of the interior commerce of central 
 Africa. 
 
 AGADIR, or SANTA CRUZ, a sea-port town 
 of Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean, and the most S. 
 in the empire, lat. 30° 26' 35" N., long. 9° 35' 6()" W. 
 It is built on the declivity of a hill on the shore of 
 a gulph or large bay of the same name, well do- 
 fended from the winds, and ntt'ording good anclior- 
 
 AGLIE 
 
 nge for shipping. Agadir belonged at one time u> 
 the Portuguese, by whom it was' surrounded hy 
 walls. It was taken from them by the Moors in 
 1536, when its fortifications were farther strength- 
 ened. It was for a considerable period tho centra 
 of an extensive commerce; but having relKjlhd 
 against the government in 1773, the priiiciiml part 
 of its population was transferred to Mogadoro, 
 The vast sandy deserts of N. Africa commence 
 immediately to the S. of Agadir; and hence it.4 
 bay is aptly termed by the Arabs Bab-Somlun, 
 that is, Gate of tite Black*. 
 
 AGDE (an. Agatha), a town of France, dop, 
 Herault, on the river of that name, near when; it 
 is traversed by the canal of Languedoc, about II 
 m. above where the former falls into the Gulph of 
 Lyons, and about the same distance from where 
 the latter ia united with lake Thau. Pop. 9,710 in 
 1861. Ships of 200 tons burden come up to the town 
 by the river, near the mouth of which is fort Ilriscou. 
 It has a considerable coasting and some forei^m 
 trade, with ship-building, manufactures of venii- 
 
 grise and soap, and distilleries, lieing entirely 
 uilt of black basaltic lava, and surrounded by "a 
 wall and towers of the same material, it hns a 
 grim appearance, and ia called by the couiitni' 
 ■jieople the Ville Noire. It made a part of Gallia 
 JVarbonenais, and was in 506 the seat of a council 
 summoned by Alaric. 
 
 AGEN (an. Aginum), a to^vn of Franco, cap, 
 dep. Lot-et- Garonne, on the right l)ank of the (ia- 
 ronne, on the railway from Bordeaux to Touloiiso, 
 Pop. 17,263 in 1861. The town is ill built ; streeU 
 narrow, crooked, and dirty. The hotel of the pre- 
 fect is worthy notice, and there is a fine hndge 
 over the Ganmne of eleven arches. It is the sent 
 of a cour royule for tho depts. Lot-et-Garonno, 
 Lot, and Gers ; has a college and several literary 
 institutions, a public library with above 12,0(10 
 vols., and a theatre. Its situation, though ratlicr jl 
 unhealthy, makes it the entrepot of the commerce 
 between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Therj is here 
 a sail-cloth manufactory, which recently employed 
 above 600 work-people, and produced annunlly 
 130,000 metres of canvass for the navy : there arc 
 also manufactures of serges, printed cloths, cottons, ' 
 braziers' ware, pottery, soap, and spirits. En- 
 virons beautiful ; the promenade du Graviem is 
 one of the finest in France. The town is famous ii:i 
 the birthplace of Jasmin, 'last of the Troubm lours,' 
 who kept a hairdresser's shop in tho High Street 
 till the time of his death, in 1864. Agen is vcr\' 
 ancient, and under the Roman emperors was a 
 pnetorian city. 
 
 AGGERHUUS, a bishopric of Norway, and one | 
 of the most important divisions of that kuigduni ; 
 which see. 
 
 AGGERSOE, a small Danish island in the I 
 Great Belt, near the E. coast of the island of 
 Zealand, lat. 55° 12' N., long. 11° 12' E. 
 
 AGHRIM, or AUGHRIM, an inc(msidcral)1c | 
 town of Ireland, co. Galway, 82 m. W. Dublin. 
 Pop. 383 in 1861. One of the greatest buttles j 
 ever fought in Ireland took place in the vicinity 
 of Aghrim in 1691, when the troops of William III., j 
 commanded by Ginkell, afterwards Earl of Ath- 
 lone, gained a complete and decisive victory over i 
 those of James II., commanded by St. Ruth, who 
 fell early in the action. 
 
 AGINCOURT, or AZINCOURT, a village of I 
 France, dep. Pas de Calais, 13 m, NW. St. Pol. 
 Pop. 438 in 1861. The place is famous in histdn' | 
 for the great victory gained near it in 1415 liy 
 the English monarch, Henry V., over a vastly j 
 superior French force. 
 
 AGLIE, or AGLIA, a town of North Italv. | 
 prov. Turin, 10 ni. SW. l\Tea. I'oi). 3,321 
 
>long(Hl at ono time t<i 
 it WOH surrounded by 
 hem by the Moors in 
 were farther HtrenRth- 
 iible period the cciure 
 
 but having? relKillcil 
 773, the principal part 
 inferred to Monftdtirt, 
 
 N. Africa commence 
 Vgadir; and hence its || 
 e Arabs Bab- Soudan, 
 
 town of France, dtp, 
 it name, near where it 
 f Languedoc, about ;) 
 falls into the Gulph of 
 ) distance from where 
 eThau. Pop. 9,74fi in 
 en come up ti) the town 
 of which is fort Ilriscou, 
 ;ing and some forcifri 
 nanufactures of verdi- 
 leries. IJeing entirtly 
 , and surrounded by a 
 me material, it hits a 
 ailed by the country 
 made a part of GuUk 
 16 the seat of a council 
 
 to^vn of France, raii, 
 
 ! right bank of the (la- 
 
 IJordeaux to Toulouse, 
 
 own is ill built ; strccli 
 
 The hotel of the jire- 
 
 thcre is a fine bn(lf,'e 
 I arches. It is the neat 
 tlcpts. Lot-ct-Garoiine, 
 ;e and several literary 
 iry with above r2,llitii 
 ituation, though rather 
 trepot of the commtrce 
 ulouse. Therj is licr( 
 hich recently employ c4 
 nd produced annually 
 or the navy : there are 
 
 printed cloths, cottims 
 )ai), and spirits, i:ii- 
 
 lenade du Gravkn i< 
 The town is famous as 
 
 jst of the Troubftdoui^.' 
 
 np in the High Strcd 
 18(54. Agen is very 
 
 )man emperors was a 
 
 ric of Norway, and one | 
 ions of that kingdom ; | 
 
 Danish island in the 
 loast of the island of 
 
 110 12'E. 
 M, an inconsiderable j 
 ly, 82 m. W. Dublin, 
 f the greatest battk■.^ 
 place in the vicinity 
 troops of William 111., 
 erwards Siarl of Ath- 
 decisive victory over | 
 ided by St. Ruth, who 
 
 COURT, a village of I 
 , 13 m. NW. St. Pol, 
 ;e is famous in histnn' 
 d near it in 1415 iiy 
 iry v., over a va.stly 
 
 town of North Italv, 
 J\Tea. Pop. 3,;{21 ill 
 
 AGNES 
 
 Ififil. It has a collegiate church, and a mag- 
 nificent palace with a conniderable library. 
 
 A(iXF.S (ST.), one of the Scilly Islonds hcmg 
 i\\o nioHt S. of the group. It contains olM)ut iJOO 
 ires, and had in 1831 a jiop. of 281), ond 200 in 
 18(11, It is celebrated for itM light-house with a 
 revolving light, in lut. 4S)° .W 37" N„ long. (JO 1!)' 
 U3" \V. The lantern is elevated 138 feet above 
 hiigli-watcr mark. 
 
 A(;N0N'I':, a town of South Italy, prov. Cam- 
 idiiiMo, 18 m. NNE. iHomia, in an elevated 
 Siealtliv situation. Pop. 10,.H20 in 18C1. It has 
 Etn imincnuo number of churches, an hospital, and 
 Jive mont»-tlc-pieU<, which make loans of seed 
 corn to the peasants. It is the seat of the prin- 
 cijiid copjH'r manufactures in the kingdom. Some 
 iwritcrs have allirmed that it (K!cu|iies the site of 
 the ancient Aaullonia of the Samnites. 
 
 AdOA DE PAO, a 8ea-iM)rt town of St. Michael, 
 ^ino of the Azores, 12 m. K. Punta delGado; near 
 
 1 induntnin |)eak of the same name, 3,0(!() feet high. 
 A(;(»N, a small sca-|iort town of France, (lep. 
 
 La Mauclie, 7 ni. VV. t'outanccs. Pop. 1,605 in 
 
 AliOSTA, or AUGUSTA, a maritime town of 
 .icily, cap. cant., prov. Gatania, on its E. coast, 
 
 2 ni. N. Syrocuse, lat, 37° 13' 35" N., long. 
 5° 14' E. Pop. 9.735 in 1858. It stands on a 
 
 t)enin.sula, and was built in the 13th century by 
 the eniiicnir Frederick, who pcoi)led it from Cen- 
 jtiirissa, which was razed for sedition. It was 
 heiirly de8troye<l by the earth(|uakc of 1693, when 
 liiiiiil'iers of people were crushed to death under 
 )lic ruins of their houses, and a siil])hur()us vapour 
 
 iding its way to the jmncipal jMiwder magazine, 
 It blew upwitii a tremendous explosion. A similar 
 Tnisl'iirtHne occurred in 1848. Streets regular and 
 barallel, with some tolerable munici|)al edifices 
 liid magazines for articles of commerce ; but the 
 biiiiNus arc low and mean, and the inhabitants 
 have an air of dejection and poverty. Their whole 
 Lvistencc depends on the export of salt, and a 
 little oil, honey, and wine. It is strongly fortified 
 Ixitli on the land and sea sides. The harbour, 
 [hough rather difficult of entrance, is deep, spacious, 
 fnA .secure ; but in E. and S. gales there is often 
 , hea\-y swell. The holding ground is excellent. 
 
 AtiliA, one of the subahs, great divisions, or 
 provinces into which Ilindostan, or India N. of 
 lie Nerbuddah River, was divided by the emperor 
 Vkbar. It lies chiefly between 25° and 28° N., 
 md may be computed to contain about 45,000 sq. 
 II., and from 6 to 7 millions of inhabitants. Those 
 subahs or provinces of the Mogul empire were in 
 kact equal in extent and population to kingdoms. 
 The province of Agra lies in the alluvial plain of 
 the Jumna and Ganges, with an elevation but a 
 |few hundred feet above the level of the sea; and 
 the finest portion of it, well kno%vn under the 
 biame of the Doab, or country of the ' two rivers,' 
 [lies between these streams. By far the greater 
 iiortion of its surface is a dead flat. Although 
 hvatcred by three great navigable rivers, the Chum- 
 l)ul, Jumna, and Ganges, the country is charac- 
 terised in general for its drought, the greater jiart 
 ^)f its irrigation being effected by means of deep 
 jwells. It m&y also be descrilied as eminentlj- 
 klcficient of timber. From March to June the 
 [climate is drj', and extremely sultry ; from June 
 |fo ( )ctolier, sultry and rainy ; and from November 
 ^o February inclusive, serene, ilrj', and cold, the 
 thennonieter almost every morning falling below 
 the freezing point. With the excei)tion of a few 
 Kvuody portions of the province Iving towards its 
 ^V. extremity, and here only during the season of 
 the ]ieriodical rains, the climate is healthy. No 
 "nctallic mines exist in the province ; and ita only 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 AGRA 
 
 40 
 
 valuable minerals are the red sandstone, of which 
 nearly all the monuments of the cities of Delhi 
 and Agra an: constnictitd ; and a sjiccies of tufoiis 
 limestone, called hanghar in the language of the 
 country, and which is the only Hourcc from which 
 lime is obtained for e(;onomical nnqtoses. There 
 are commonly two har\-cst8 : tlie greater crops 
 iteiiig rcapt'd before the setting in of the rains in 
 May and June, and the lestter in December ami 
 January'. The principal corn crops are those of 
 wheat and borley. Rye is not known, and oats 
 bardlv so, and rice is not cultivated for want of a 
 sutliciency of water. Of the smoller kinds of corn, 
 those chiefly cultivated are two siK-cies of millet, 
 viz. llnlcua Sorghum, called in the language of 
 the coiintrv Jcwur; and Ilolvut »}iicutu», called 
 Jiajera. 'Ihese two constitute the chief bread 
 corn of the lalKiuring yicople, who seldom tiisto 
 wheat, (ireat quantities of pulses arc raised as a 
 winter crop for the ftxHl of man and cattle, the 
 most common of which is the Cicer urrietum, called 
 grain by luiro|icans. Mustard seed is raised for 
 oil, and the sugar cane is cultivated for the manu- 
 facture of sugar. Cotton is cultivated to a very 
 considerable extent, and indigo is produced more 
 extensively in this ])rovincc than in any other 
 part of Upper India. It was, in<i(;(Hl, from hence 
 that the drug, in the earlier periods of l''uro))ean 
 commerce, was ])rocured for the trade of luiroi>e. 
 The great ma.ss of the inhabitants are Hindoos; 
 among whom the two first classes in rank, the 
 lirabniinical and Military, are more frequent than 
 to the eastward, or to the south. To the W. of 
 the Jumna, chieHy arc found two nations or trilnta 
 well known in the liistorj' of Upi)e.r India, the 
 Jaiits and the Mematties, both distinguished by 
 their warlike and predatory habits. It is remork- 
 able of a country so long subject to Mohammedan 
 rule, ond the immediate seat of power, that the 
 pro]xirtion of Mohammedans found in this, as in- 
 deed in the neighbouring provinces, is smaller 
 than in the more remote one of Ilcngal. The in- 
 habitants, of Avhatever denomination, are of more 
 robust frames and a far bolder spirit tlian those of 
 the last-named country. The language of the 
 people throughout is the Hindi or Ilindustany. 
 The basis of this language is the Hindoo dialect, 
 which was spoken in the kingdom of Kanqje, 
 which is within the limits of this province, on the 
 first Mohammedan invasions. 
 
 AoRA, the name of a zillah, or district, consti- 
 tuting a judicial and fiscal divi.'-'ion of the last- 
 named province, lying on both banks of the Jumna. 
 Its computed area is 4,500 Eng. sq. m. ; and if it 
 be equally populous with the neighbouring pro- 
 vince of Delhi, of the population of which some 
 estimate has been made, and it is probably some- 
 what more so, it contains 273 inliabitant« to the 
 .square mile, or near one million of absolute popu- 
 latiim. In 1813, ten years after this district came 
 into British ]H)ssession, it was estimated to cont^uii 
 2,456,214 begahs of land, each equal to near one 
 third of an English acre, of which there were 
 under actual culture 1,222,667; fit for culture 
 330,807 ; and waste or uncultivable 902,740. Half 
 the area of the whole district, therefore, was imder 
 actual tillage. The land tax as assessed to the 
 land under culture was at the rate of two rupees 
 and two anas a begah, or near 18«. an acre; a 
 very high or ratlior opjiressive land tax, for a poor 
 country just recovering from long disorder and 
 anarchy. 
 
 .AoitA, a city of Hindostan, cap. of the above 
 province and district, on the SVV. bank of the 
 Jumna, which during the season of the Hoods is 
 here about half a mile broad, and at no season 
 fordable; in lat. 27° 11 N., long. 77° 63' E. It is 
 
so 
 
 AGRA 
 
 lllli 
 
 iliHtnnt from Cnlcutta 950 m., Mndros 1190, and 
 liiiinliiiy H.^O, tiiid iM coiiiiRutvd l*y niilwiiy with 
 Onlciiltn, linnarcM, ami l)(-llii. The prcHcnt popii- 
 Intioii iMCHtinintwl at hut ween 70,000 and Wl,0((0. 
 It in (if coiiNidcrabIc extent, and has now hntid- 
 wimo liiiuscM for Knr(i|M>nn officers, nulMcription- 
 rooms, churclicH, fort and nntenal. The town itt 
 very conveniently situated for the commerce of 
 W. India and K. l'er»ia, und in the mart, of a very 
 (;onHi(U'riil>l(> iidand and frontier trade. The trading; 
 comniunieation ix, licMideH the chief medium of in- 
 trrc(nirHe, the railway, carrieil on l)y boats on the 
 Jumna and (jhumbul, and by hurHes, camelx, bul- 
 locks, anti bullock carts by land. The jjimmIs c-om- 
 prisin^ the imports consist of shawls, horses, camels, 
 rock-salt, and the dry and fn^sh fruits and dru^s of 
 Persia , cotton wool and coarse cotton fabrics from 
 the S., with Kuro))ean commodities by the Jumna 
 and (lanyes. Tlie chief exiMirts consist of raw silks, 
 indigo, and coarse supir. A^ra, in remote times, 
 ap[icars to have been a fortified town of some 
 ••onsoquence ; luit it was not until the year 1504 
 that it was made the seat of Mohammedan em- 
 l)ire. This was ettcctcd by the Afghan emperor 
 Sihundur Lodi. About half a century later the 
 ]>Iacc was (0'<'at1y eml)cllishcd Jiv Akbar, by far 
 the most illustrious of all the Indian cmfierors. It 
 continued to be the seat of fjoveniment during his 
 reign and that of his son ; and Delhi was not re- 
 stored as the mctro]M>li8 mitil the rcif^ of his 
 fjrandsrin, Sliah Jeban, in the year 1047. When 
 Akiutr fixed the scot of his f;<'Vf"inient at Agra, 
 he changed its name to Akbarabad, which coii- 
 tiiuies to l)c its Mohammedan designation. It 
 contains many fine monuments, all of Moham- 
 medan origin. The fortress is of great extent, the 
 doultlc rampart and bastions lieiug built entirely 
 of hewn red saiulstonc, and at least fiO feet above 
 the level of the Jumna, on the bank of which it 
 Htaiuls. The most remarkable structure, how- 
 ever, is the Taj Mahal, literally the ♦ Crown of 
 Empires.' This stands alM)ut 2 m. IkjIow the for- 
 tress, and on the bank of the river. It is a mau- 
 soleum, built by the emperor Shah Jehan in 
 honour of his empress the Begum Narr Mahal ; a 
 building of white marble raised on a terrace, and 
 in the ordinary form of a Mohammedan mosque 
 with minarets. The mosaic ornaments of the in- 
 terior, including even the marble pavement, are 
 extensive, rich, and elalsiratc, the flowers and ara- 
 liesqucs l)eing composed of no less than twelve 
 different stones, such as agates, jaspars, lapis la- 
 zuli, and various coloured marbles, and the nu- 
 merous quotations from the Koran being in black 
 marble. A garden with fountains and highly 
 ornamented gateways surrounds the mausoleum, 
 and the toute etisemble is supposeil, whether for 
 extent, sjTnmetry, materiel, or execution, to sur- 
 pass any thing in the world of the same descrip- 
 tion. This is the uniform opinion, even of those 
 who have seen the master-pieces of Italian art. 
 ♦ It is possible,' says the celebrated and accurate 
 Bemier, ' I may have imbibed an Indian taste ; 
 but I decidedly think that this monument deserves 
 much more to be numbered among the wonders of 
 the world than the pyramids of Egyjrt, — those un- 
 shapen masses, which, when I had seen them 
 twice, yielded me no satisfaction, and which are 
 nothing on the outside but heaps of large stones 
 piled in form of steps, one upon another ; while 
 within there is very Uttle that is creditable either 
 to human skill or to human invention.' The ar- 
 chitect was a Mohammedan native of Sahar, and 
 the whole building is said to have cost 750,000/. 
 It is kept in excellent repair by the British govern- 
 ment, which assigns a handsome annual revenue 
 for this object. The'tomb of the emijeror Akbar, 
 
 AHMED ABAD 
 
 at Seeimdrn, <1 m. from Agra, would he considrroil 
 a splendid building in any place that had not tli<> 
 
 Tiy Mahal to Ismst of. It was constructed liy hi^ 
 son, tlie em|)cror Jchanghlre. A marble jialacp nf 
 Shah Jehan exists within the fortress; and ijip 
 neighlsiurhoo*! of the town for miles contains the 
 ruins of palitccs and tomlw of costl^v materials and 
 workmanship. Agra, with the district to which 
 it Isdongs, was conquered by the chief Madliaje« 
 Sindiah in 17H4, and formed a |)ortion of the jagliHT 
 assigned by this prince for the maintcnaiure of the 
 army, organised on the European systA-ni, and 
 officered by Kurojx^ans, by means of whi(di lie 
 maintained his su|iremacy in llpiwr Ilindotttan. 
 In the course of the military oiierations which de- 
 prived the Mahrattas in IMOJl of nearly the whole 
 of their possessions in Ilindostan, Agra was lie. 
 sieged by Lord Lake, and surrendered after a 
 practical breach had Im-cii effected in one of the 
 bastions. Since that time it has continued In 
 British occupation. The f<irtress has always a 
 considerable garrison, and about two miles bevdml 
 its walls is a cantonment where a inucli larpT 
 military force is stationed. There are several 
 modeni buildings, including the English and 
 Oriental College, the Metcalfe Testiuumial, and 
 the (Jovemment Mouse. Agra was the liirth- 
 lilace of Abul Fazcl, the famous immc minister of 
 the emperor Akbar. 
 
 A(;KAM, or ZAGUAB, a fortified city of the 
 Austrian empire, cap. Croatia, and the residence 
 of the governor-general, <in a hill on the banks of 
 th(! Save ; lat. 45° 49' 2" N., long. 15° 4' !•:. I'o|.. 
 Ifi,(!57 in 1H57. Agram is the seat of a bishopric 
 and of a tribunal of ap|K<al for Croatia, the Baiinal, 
 and Slavonio. It has a sujierior aca«lemy, a gym- 
 nasium, a Franciscan convent, a considerable ciini- 
 merce, partictdarly in the tobacco and com of 
 Ilungarv, and manufactures of silks and iwrcelain. 
 
 AGUkDA, a walled town of Spain, prov. Soria, 
 at the foot of Mount Cayo, celebrated l)v Martial. 
 Pop. 8,120 in 1857. The ttiwn is ill built, has I) 
 churches and 4 convents, with tanneries and pot- 
 teries. 
 
 AGREVE (ST.), a town of France, dep. Ar- 
 deche, cap. cant. Pop. 3,133 in 1861. 
 
 AGUAS CALIENTKS,a town of Mexico, prov. 
 Guadalaxara, 100 m. NE. (Juadalaxara ; Int. ff 
 N., long. 101045' W. Est. pop. 20,000. The town 
 is situated in a fertile district, has a fine climate, 
 and is one of the handsomest of the Mexican towim. 
 Being intersected by several great roads, it has 
 an active and considerable commerce. It is cele- 
 brated for the hot springs in its vicinity, whence 
 it derives its name. 
 
 AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of 
 Spain, prov. Cordova, 22 m. SSE. Cordova. Pop, 
 11,836 in 1858. 
 
 AGUTLAR DEL CAMPOS, a town of Spain, 
 prov. Valencia, on the Pisuerga, 40 m. KW, 
 Burgos. Pop. 1,026 in 1858. 
 
 AHANTA, a rich well wooded territorj- on the 
 Gold Coast of Africa, between the rivers Ancobia 
 and Sulterin. It has gold mines. 
 
 AHMEDABAD, a town of Hindostan, presiil 
 Bombay, prov. Gujerat, cap. district of same name, 
 on the navigable river the Sabermatty. Lat. 22° 
 58' N., long. 72° 37' E. Estim. pop. 130,000. 
 About the middle of the 15th centurjr it was a 
 flourishing city celebrated for the magnificence of 
 its mosques, palaces, and streets ; but it has since 
 fallen greatly to decay. It is surrounded by a 
 lugh wall flanked with towers ; and is a great re- 
 sort of itinerant players and poets. It suffered 
 severely from the plague in 1812, and from an 
 earthquake in 1819. The district of which Alime- 
 dabad is the cap. contains 4,356 sq. m. and an 
 
 ilist. same name, c 
 
AHMEDPORE 
 
 pstimntpd pop. of Cr)0,220. The town in the hoad- 
 iiiiarlurH of the iiortli diviHion of tlio Uumhay 
 uniiy. «ii'l hns n niilway to iJombny. 
 
 AIlMKItroHK, a town of IIuuloBtan, prov. 
 Uriswi. 1 1 ni. S. Jiiffifcmaut. 
 
 AIIM KDNUGGUK, a city and furtrcfls of India, 
 iiri-xid. liond)ay, prov. AurunKnhad, cap. district 
 iif same name, on the river Soena, 70 m. NVV. 
 p.H.imh ; lat. 19° 6' N., Iohr. 74° 55' E. The 
 town, ftiuiided in 1403, w enclrmcd hy a Btono 
 wall, and hat* a haniUome market-place and some 
 nrutty RixmI streets. At nrcHont it it* the head 
 station of a civil CHtalilislnncnt, and has about 
 iJK.OOO inhab. exclut*ivc of the f;arri«on. The for- 
 treitB, a little way from the town, is oval 8ha|)ed, 
 and alKtiit 1 m. in circ. : it is built entirely of 
 jitnnc and is surrounded liy a broad and deep ditch. 
 It surrendered U> General Wcllcsloy (Duke of 
 WflliiiKton) in 1808. 
 
 The ditttrict or collectoratc of which ^hmcd- 
 mUffuT is the cap., contains an area of 9,910 sq. m. 
 witii n pop. of about 990,000. 
 
 AIIMOOD, a town of Gujerat, 20 m. N. by W. 
 liroach; lat. 22° 3' N., long. 73° fl' E. 
 
 AHUWEILEK, a to*vn of Pnissia, nrov. Lower 
 lihine, cap. arc, on the Ahr, 23 m. VVNW. Cob- 
 Icntz. Pop. 8,709 in 1861. The town has manu- 
 factures of cloth and tanneries. 
 
 AHUN, a very ancient town of France, dep. 
 Crciise, cap. cant., 10 m. SE. Gueret, on a moiui- 
 t.iin at the foot of which flows the Creuse. l*op. 
 2,;!U0 in 18G1. There ore coal mines iu the neigh- 
 liuiirh(K>d. 
 
 AIIVVAZ, or AIIVVUZ, a town of Persia, prov. 
 Kuzistaii, on the Karoon, 48 m. S. Shuster, In 
 fiimier times this was a large and flourishing city, 
 cnp. prov. of same name, and the winter residence 
 (if the Persian kings. It is now a wretched place, 
 nith fiOO or 700 inhabitants. Some ruins of the 
 old city are still to he seen. Oi' these the most 
 worthy of attention are the remains of a bridge 
 over tlic river, and of a royal palace. The portion 
 of the wall of the latter now standing is built of 
 large blocks of hewn stone, and is about 300 feet 
 in length, and 14 or 15 feet high. A little below 
 Aiiwaz, at the deserted ^'illllge of Sabla, arc the 
 remains of a remarkable mound or dam made 
 across the river to procure water for the irrigation 
 of the surrounding country. (Kiuneir's I'er. Emp. 
 p. 8!).) 
 
 AIAS, or AJASSO, a ruined sea-port of Asiatic 
 Turkey, on tlic N. shore of the gulf of Iskendercuin. 
 
 AICHACII, or AK'HA, a town of Bavaria, circ. 
 Upper Danul)c, on the Hai r, 12 m. ENE. Augs- 
 liuffc. Pop. 1,950 in 1861. Near the town are the 
 niins of the ancient castle of Wittelsbach, from 
 wliich the rulers of Bavaria derive their name. 
 
 AIGLE, a town of Switzerland, cant. Vaud, cap. 
 (list, same name, on the torrent Grandc-Eau, near 
 the Rhone. Pop. 2,582 in 1860. 
 
 AiuLE (L'), a town of France, dep. Omc, cap. 
 cant., on the Kille, 18 m. NNE. Mortagnc. Pop. 
 5.154, Though old and surrounded by the remains 
 of old walls, it is well built, neat, and clean, and 
 Is distinguished by its industry. The needles and 
 pins manufactured here are celebrated all over 
 France, and it has also fabrics of iron and copj^er 
 wire, wire-gauze, and nails. It has witlistood 
 several sieges. 
 
 AIGNa!n (ST.), a to^vn of France, dep. Loire et 
 Cher, cap. cant., 24 m. S. Blois. Pop. 3,600 in 
 istil. There is in the vicinity the only quarry 
 of gun-flints in France. The quantity annually 
 manufactured is estimated at frt>m 35,000,000 to 
 40,000,000. Those for the use of the army are 
 kept in depot in the castle of Amboise. The town 
 luu manufactures of cloth. 
 
 AIN 
 
 II 
 
 ATGUE FENTLLE, a village of France, dep. 
 Charente Inffrieure, cap. cant., 13 m. NNE. Kochu- 
 fort. Pop. 1,HI2 in 1861. 
 
 AIGUE PEUSE, a to^vn of France, dep. Pay 
 dc Dt'ime, cap. cant., 11 ni. NNE. Kioin. Pop. 
 2,697 in 18(;i. Near it is the ("hatcau <le la 
 lioche, the birthplace of the Chancellor de I'lli'ipi- 
 tal. The town has manufactures of cloth and 
 mineral springs. 
 
 AIGUES MOUTES, n town of France, dep. 
 Card, cap. cant., 20 m. SVV. Xismes ; lat. 43° 33' 
 58" N., long. 40 11' 22" E. Pop. 3,865 in 1861. 
 Though now about 4 m. inland, Aigues Mortes 
 wos formerly a sea-port, and was, m fact, tlio 
 place where St. Louis emltarked on his two cx^)e- 
 ditions to Africa. At present it is connected with 
 the sea by a canal, which is prolonged to Beau- 
 cttirc on the one hand, while it is united on the 
 other with that of Languedoc. It is fortiflcd, and, 
 from its position, is an important post for the de- 
 fence of the coast. Owing to the retrogression 
 of the sea, the to'^vn is surrounded by marshes 
 (whence its name Aquic Mortuce), and is very un- 
 healthy. The salt lake of Peccais, in the iieigh- 
 lH>urhood, is celebrated as well for the quality aa 
 fur the quantity of the salt obtained from it. 
 
 AIGUILLE (L'), a celebrated mountain in 
 France, dep. Istre, 4 m. NVV. Corps, height 2,000 
 metres, or 6,365 feet. Its under part has the ap- 
 pearance of a truncated cone, and it« upper part is 
 of a ctdtical form. It was htiig supposed to Ite in- 
 accessible, and was hence called Mons Inaccestus ; 
 but in 1492 an ofticcr of Charles VIII. reached its 
 summit, 
 
 AIGUILLON, a town of France, dep. Lot et 
 Garonne, at the confluence of the Lot a'..d the 
 Gar(nine, 17 m. NW. Agen. Pop. 3,78'. in 1861. 
 It was unsuccessfully besieged by John duke of 
 Normandy in 1845 ; when, it has been said, but 
 incorrectly, that cannons were first made use of. 
 
 AIGUKANDE, a town of France, dep. Indrc, 
 cajj. cant., 12 m. SW. Chatre. Pop. 2,146 in 1861. 
 It is the centre of an extensive cattle trade ; and 
 has, or htid, an octagonal monument, believed to 
 be very ancient, but of wliich the object is un- 
 known. 
 
 AILSA, an insulated rock in the Frith of Clyde, 
 10 m. VV. (iirvan. Its base is elliptical, and it 
 rises abruptly from the sea to the height of 1,098 
 feet. It consists of columnar trap. The NVV. side 
 is almost perjiendicular, being formed of snccessivn 
 tiers of immense columns. It is frequented by 
 innumerable flocks of sea fowl, and is a very 
 striking object from every part of the Ayrshirn 
 const. It gives the title of marquis to the noble 
 family of Kcnnedj'. 
 
 AIN, a frontier department in the E. of France, 
 having the Rhone, which separates it from Savoy 
 on the E. and S., the Saone on the W., and the 
 depts. t)f Saone et Loire, Jura, and part of Switzer- 
 land, on the N. and NVV. Area 592,t!74 hectares. 
 Po)). 370,919 in 1861. Exclusive of the Klume 
 and Saone, by which it is partly bounded, it is 
 divided by the Ain, whence it derives its name, 
 into two nearly equal ports ; that to the E. iK-ing 
 rugged, mountainous, and principally adapted to 
 ])asturagc; whereas that to the W^,, though in 
 parts marshy, is generally level and fit for culti- 
 vation. There are in tlie SVV, ))ortion of this dep. 
 a great numlier of lakes or ponds, some of which 
 arc subjected to a very peculiar species of rotation. 
 It is usual to drain and cultivate thnm for a 
 season; and when the crop has been gathered 
 they are again tilled with water, and with dif- 
 ferent sorts of fish, according to the nature of the 
 pond ; and after being occupied iu this way for 
 two years, or thereabouts, arc again dried and 
 
 e2 
 
I 
 
 fil 
 
 AIN-TAB 
 
 11 
 
 
 h 
 
 \\\<i 
 
 11 
 
 l! 
 
 I .Ml ,|.' 
 
 fi ' 
 
 
 1:1 
 
 iiiibjprtcil to thn plmi^h. Tlic pxtcnt of tht nondu 
 no rmploycd Ih oMtiiiuitcd iit noarly Ift.OC hcc!- 
 tnrcM, TluH Ih fnunil to Ixt a vory prolltnlilo N|,,.'cii'it 
 of cultivnlidn ; thoii^li, from tlin liiiiiiidity it oci-a- 
 tiioiiN, it \n Hiiiil to n^iilcr tho climntc unhealthy. 
 Oxen, of wliii^li ]nr((u niinilM'nt are hrcd, iirc Ki'no- 
 nilly iiMid in tillnKC FriMhice of com cTit\m huIH- 
 cicnt for the coiiHuniption. Yinta(;u conHidernhle, 
 three-tlflhH of the pnNhiee <>x|)orted. W<mkIh very 
 exteiiHive, anioiintni^; to alMiut 120,000 hectan-H. 
 Nenr UelU'v arc pHMliiced tho Iwnt litho^nphit; 
 HtoiieH in l<'rnncc. ManufncturcM innonHiderRlile. 
 (■rent niimlHTH of tlie inhnhitnntH cmi^rnto an- 
 nnally after hnrveHt to Heck for eiTi)iloynient in 
 the eonti);uoiiH (le]>urtnientH, Chief townx llour^. 
 Nnntua, Trevmix, Melh-y, and Gcx. lint tlie 
 most celehratcd plac^e in tho dep. is Femcy, lonjf 
 tho roHidence of Voltaire. 
 
 AIN-TAH, tt Inr^ct town in the N. of Svria, on 
 tiic S. hIofk) of the Tunnis; lat. m° 58' jj., lony. 
 «70 V.i' 15'' K.; 70 m. N. Aleiipo, and 30 in. W. 
 liir, on tlie KunhratOH. I'op, iins iM^en eHtimnted 
 at 20,0(tO, whieh, if the town be two-thirds the size 
 of Ak>))po, OS stated l>v Manndrcll (.lournal, 210), 
 I'an scarcely \»>, consitiered as exaggerated. The 
 inhabitants consist of nearly equal numbers of 
 Annenian and (jreel( ChrislianN, Curds, an<l Mo- 
 hammedans, among whom a spirit of toleration 
 and unity prevails unparalleled in most otlxtr 
 liastem Boci(!ties. They tisc the Turkish lan- 
 guage. Houses were built, of a tine stone re- 
 Hombling porphyry, tlat-roofed, and generally of 
 only one story. There arc live mosques, and 
 Hevcral large and well supplied bazaars. In the 
 centre of tlic town is a castle on a moun<l, re- 
 sembling, in every respect, that of Aleppo, but 
 much smaller. Water abundant, many of the 
 strceta having streams flowing through them. 
 On the 8. is a large burial ground, which at a 
 short distance resembles an important suburb, and 
 is perhaps not much inferior in extent to tlie town 
 itself. Manufactures of goat-skin leather, cotton, 
 and woollen cloths, are carried on to some extent ; 
 and there is some trade in raw and tanned hides, 
 cloth, honey, and tobacco. 
 
 Ain-Tab may be regarded oa the capital of a 
 limited but very fine country, consisting of small 
 hills and valleys among the roots of the Taurus. 
 The towns and villages in this little district are 
 very numerous, the most impf)rtant being Adjia, 
 Silam, mid Kles. At Adjia, 6 or 7 m. distant, is 
 the source of the Kocik (the river of Aleppo) ; 
 and within 10 yards of this stream there nins 
 another, the Sejour, the banks of which are thickly 
 set with trees' and villages. Tho Sejour has a 
 good bridge over it, about 2J m. from Ain-Tab. 
 The air is good and the soil fertile ; but cultiva- 
 tion is not much followed, tho majority of the 
 rural population being shepherds. Principal agri- 
 cultural products com and tobacco. Bees are very 
 plentiful. 
 
 Ain-Tab was taken and plundered by Timour 
 Bee in 1400 ; but its favourable site and the tolerant 
 spirit of its inhabitants have kept the district re- 
 markably free from the usual Eastern casualties. 
 The Turkish pachas, notorious as they are for ex- 
 acti(m and oppression, respect the homes and rights 
 of these hardy mountaineers. They have, indeed, 
 been taught this forbearance by some severe les- 
 sons, having experienced, in every attempt at 
 tyranny and extortion, a firm and successful re- 
 sistance. The last of these attempts ivas made in 
 1780, when the Turkish forces were completely 
 defeated ; since which the men of Ain-Tab and its 
 vicinity have been suflFered to enjoy the produce of 
 their ticlds, flocks, and bees, in undisturbed tran- 
 quillity. According to Maundrell, Ain-Tab is iden- 
 
 AISNE 
 
 ticalwith tho Aniioi'hia ad Tiiurtim of the nnciontx; 
 but this is doubtful. 
 
 AIKDIMK, a royal and i>ar1. Imr. and m. town cif 
 Scotland, co, Lanark, pa. New Monkland, on ri^-in;; 
 ground U-tween two little rivulets, 11 m. K. (iliiA- 
 gow, on the railway from Kdiuiturgh to <ilaH);i)w, 
 I'oii. of pari. bor. in I Hit, 12,408, and 12,i)22 in 
 IMtil. 'fhe town consistM principally of two !«. 
 ralh'l streets joined by cross streets. It hint a 
 handsome town-house, and the houses of tlut 
 labouring population are well built and conifur- 
 table. Iti the early part of last (century Ainlric 
 contained only rmo solitary house. It owes \u 
 rapi<l rise to the coal and iron mines in its irnmn- 
 diato vicinity, and to its contiguity to the Mnnk- 
 land canal and the (iariiltrk railway. TheCaldor 
 and other great iron works in the nei^hlNiurliiMKl 
 em))Uiy a number of hands; and within the town 
 there are iron founderi<>s, at which machinery is 
 made, with distilleries, breweries, malt bams.'&c, 
 Tho weaving of cotton giHnls (m account of tlic 
 (jihisgow manufacturers has hitlierto, liowcvor, 
 been the princi|)al source of employment; audit 
 has, also, a cotton factory. It is divided into two 
 parishes ; and licsides t^io chundies attached tit 
 them, it has sundry clmiiels in connection with 
 the Free Church oiid the different classes of (lis. 
 senter.s ; with various schools and charitable insti- 
 tutions. It is governed under a (charter of iHIt;), 
 by a iirovost, three baillies, and twelve coiincillnrH, 
 liurgh revenue, 18r.;{-4, 2,70(1/. Tho Reform Act 
 united Airdrie with Hamilton, Lanark, Falkirk, ami 
 Linlithgow in the return of a memlx^r to the II, nf 
 C. I'arl. and municip. const. .38!) in 18(i4. Annual 
 value of real projicrty in 18(!2-3 (railways not in- 
 cluded), 12,241/. 
 
 AIHK, a river of England, important from its 
 navigation and the numerous canals with which it 
 is connected. It rises in Yorkshire in the contra! 
 mountain ridge, a little to the E. of Settle. It 
 pursues a SE. course, till passing Leeds it is jiiin(>il 
 by the Calder at Castleford ; its course is thence 
 E., with a good many windings, till it falls into the 
 Oiise, a little above Goole. From Leigh to Ferrj-- 
 bridge the Aire flows through one of the rich^t 
 plains in tho kingdom. 
 
 AiiiK (an. Vicua Julii), a city of France, dop. 
 Landcs, cap. cant., on the Adour, 80 m. SSlv. 
 Bordeaux. Pop. 1,9G0 in 1861. This is a vcrj 
 ancient city, and has been since the fifth centurj* 
 tho seat of a bi8ho])ric. Tho Goths became pos- 
 sessed of it in the sixth century, and it was for some 
 time tho residence of Alaric II. It suffered much 
 in the wars with the English, and still more in the 
 religious contests of the sixteenth century. The 
 fortifications by which it was once surrounded have 
 now wholly disappeared. It is pretty well built, | 
 has a cathedral, a college, and a seccmdary eccl^ 
 siastical seminary. A bridge has been built over 
 the Adour. 
 
 AiKE, a fortified town of France, Jen. Pas de 
 Calais, cap. cant., at the confluence of chc Lrs 
 and Laquetto. Pop. 4,864 in 1861. It is pretty 
 well built; has several public fountains; wth 
 manufactures of linen, hats, soap, Dutch tiles, ge- 
 neva, &c. In a military point of view, it h ni | 
 consideroblo importance for the defence of the 
 couniry between the Lys and the Aa. 
 
 AIR'VAULT, a to^vn of Fronce, dep. Deux 
 Se\Tes, cap. cant,, on tho Thou^, 15 m. NNE. Par- 1 
 tenay. Pop. 1,735 in 1861. The to^vn is well built. 
 and has the remains of an old castle and monastery | 
 destroyed in the sixteenth century. 
 
 AISNE, a dep. in the north of France, between I 
 48° 60' and 50° 4' N. lat,, and 2° 56' and 4° 12' L \ 
 long,; the principal town, Laon, in its centre, 
 being 75 miles NE. Paris. Area, 728,530 hectares, I 
 
fthcnnripnti; 
 
 ind tn. town nf 
 IiiikI, on ri.'-in;; 
 II m. K. (il)iit- 
 li to (flnxi^iiw, 
 niul 12,02-2 ill 
 ly of two |i«- 
 i'tit. It liiiM a 
 
 lOIIHCH of till! 
 
 t nnil conifor- 
 ciitiiry Airilrio 
 
 !. It OWCH itH 
 
 BS in itH inime- 
 f to the Mimk- 
 y. The ( 'iildor 
 iK'iKtilMiurliiHHl 
 atlun thi! town 
 h inacliinory is 
 itinlt ImriiH, Ac, 
 account of tliu 
 icrto, howovfr, 
 oyincnt; nndii 
 ividcil into twii 
 ipA attaclicil tn 
 connection with 
 t clasHcs of (liit- 
 chniritnhle in»ti- 
 chftrtcr of lKi;i, 
 ■clvc councilliirs, 
 riio Ueform Act 
 nrk, Falkirk, and 
 nl^r to tlie 11. of 
 n 1804. Annual 
 (railways nut in- 
 
 portant from its 
 ak with which it 
 ire in the central 
 E. of Settle. It 
 Leeds it is joino<l 
 course is thcnw 
 11 it falls into the 
 Leieh to Veny- 
 e ot the richest 
 
 of France, dep. 
 ^ur, 80 m. SSI'). 
 
 This is a vorj- 
 JthetifthcentuK 
 Iths hccame p«s- 
 lid it was for some 
 lit suffered much 
 
 still more in tlie 
 Ih century. The 
 I surrounded have 
 Lretty well hnili, 
 
 secondary cccle- 
 been built over 
 
 |ice, Jen. Pas dc 
 jence ol che Lys 
 l61. It is pretty 
 Ifountains; with 
 
 Dutch tiles, pe- 
 I of view, it is nf 
 
 defence of tlic 
 J Aa. 
 
 Ince, dep. Deux 
 V5m.NNE.Par- 
 J)Wi is well built. 
 lie and monastery 
 
 [France, between I 
 be and 4° 12' L 
 in its centre, 
 |728,530 hectares. I 
 
 AIX 
 
 Pop. .W 1,597 In 18(11. The department in traversed 
 liv tliii AiMiif, whence itH name, the ()iM>, Miiriie, 
 iiliil liy wverul ciuialH, Hiirface p-iicrallv Hat or 
 uiiilnlatiiiKi hut in parln hilly; itoil fertile. The 
 I'liltivaled land amoiintH to iilHiiit r>(KI,<)(MI licctan!H, 
 niNiiit 11111,1)110 iH'in^ occupied with wimmIh, and 
 .|'.>,(IIH) with nu>adowH, Agriculture K<**<*li nnil after 
 pniviiliiiK for the iiihnbitiuilH there ix a lar^e ex- 
 iKift of corn, as well as of itheep, o.xcn, horses, and 
 iiii;)t. It alHo iirodiices tla.x anil hemp, hopH, Kr<M>*'< 
 iKft root, iMitntoeH, Scv, In the Hoiilheni part 
 n'iiic is maiie ; liiit the ordinarv drink of the in- 
 liAliilaiits Ih wine and beer. This dep, is celebrateil 
 I'lir its manufactures, at the head of which must lie 
 iiliu'cd the cottons, laces, lawns, shawls, tabic 
 lim-ii, &c. of St. Quentiii ; the mirrors of St. (io- 
 luiin ; and the UittlcH, of which Folamhry furnishes 
 iilmiit i),00(),0(M) a year for the wines of ClinmpaKne. 
 It hoH also cast iron and iron plate fouiiiU'i'es, 
 lirii'k and tile works, manufactures of obemicai 
 iinMtucls, and of l>eet-root su^ar, bleach tlclds, &c. 
 It is divided into five arrond., iil i^ant, and 8;)7 
 I'linim. (Miief towns, Laoii, St. (jucntin, Suissims, 
 Chateau-Thierry, and Vervins. 
 
 AIX, an ancient city of France, dep. Tlouches 
 (111 lihone, cap. arrond. and cant., formerlv cap. 
 I'rovi'iice, in a plain at the foot of some hills, Iti 
 m, N. Marseilles, on a short branch of the railway 
 fnim Lyons to Marseilles. Pop. 27,(159 in 18()1. 
 The town was founded by Caius Sextius Cal- 
 vinus, a Itoman general, 120 years b.c, and re- 
 ceived the name of Aqme SextcB, from its famous 
 hot sprinf^s. It is a well-built handsome town. 
 Streets generally well paved, wide and clean. It 
 hoH a lieautiful promenade, and some good squares, 
 (imamented with fountains. A side of one of the 
 M|Uttre« is formed by what is called the Palau, an 
 iilil building containing some ppacious halls, for- 
 merly occupietl by the jiarliamc. t of Provence and 
 (ither public iMnlies. It has also a town-hall, contain- 
 ing a valuable collection of antiqiutics, a magniti- 
 cent cathedral, a nmseum of pictures, a theatre, and 
 nther public buildings. Previously to the Revolu- 
 tion, Aix was the seat of a university ; and at 
 pre.scnt it has an academy equivalent to a univer- 
 sitv, with faculties of theology and law, and a 
 valuable library containing above 100,000 vols. It 
 is also the seat of a cour imperiale for the dept«. of 
 the llouchcs du Rhone, Basses Alpes, and Var, and 
 of an archbishopric ; and has several learned so- 
 cieties. Aix has manufactures of silk, wool, and 
 cotton, and its industry and commerce, chietly in 
 oil, have materially increased within the present 
 century. The mineral springs, from which the 
 town tiMik its ancient name, were accidentally dis- 
 covered in 1704, and were identified by the medals, 
 inscriptions, and other Roman monuments then 
 dug up. The establishment of the baths belongs 
 to the hospital. Tounicfort, celebrated as a bota- 
 nist, and one of the best of the travellers that 
 have visited the Levant, was a native of Aix ; as 
 were Vanloo and Adanson. 
 
 Aix, a to\vn of France, prov. Savoy, 8 m. N. 
 Chambcry. Pop. 4,253 in 18G1. It is celebrated 
 for its hot baths, which were in vogue among the 
 Komans, and are still extensively resorted to. 
 There is a large and convenient building for the 
 accommodation of visitoi-s. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLIC (the Aachen of the Ger- 
 mans, and the Aquisgrana of the Italians), an 
 old and well-built city of Prussia, prov. Lower 
 Rhine, near the confines of the Netherlanils, on 
 the railway from Brussels to Coloffne. Aix-la- 
 Chapelle was formerly a free imperial city, and 
 is now the cap. of a prov. tlistrict of the same 
 name. It is divided into the inner and outer to>vn, 
 and contained in 184(3, 46,585 inhab., and in 1861, 
 
 AJMKIIK 
 
 A3 
 
 59.911, inrliiding a garrison of 1,.1H8. It U thii 
 seat of a bishop, of a court of apjM'al, a tribunal 
 of commerce, and has an exchangi', a gymiiiisiiini 
 or college, a school of arts, a picture gallery, and a 
 public library with alMtve 5I),IMI0 volumes,' Maiiii- 
 iiictiires considerabhs and recently increased. The 
 most iiii|Mirtnnt an* those of broad-chitli and colloti, 
 in which 4,.''>00 ihtsoiih an> engaged ; and next to 
 them the fanmus nei'dle-works, which emiiloy 
 aiNiiit 1,51)0 bands. Watchmaking and Jewellery 
 are extensively carried on ; and there are also 
 print-works and tan-works. ICxrliisive of tlio 
 cathedral, there are eight Catholic churches, a 
 Protestant church, and a synagogue. It had at 
 one time twenty-one monasteries and convents, 
 but most of them have In-en suppressed. Among 
 the |iiiblic buiblings, the most n^niarkiilile are the 
 town-house, cnrichetl with |Mirtriiits of the ditfer- 
 eiit ministers pri-seiit at the negotiation of the 
 treaty of 1748 ; the cathedral, fouiuled by Charle- 
 magne; and the fountain in (he principal market- 
 place, with a statue of (Jharlemagne,^c. Ilandsomu 
 private houses are to Ihj met with in every street. 
 Aix-hi-Cliapelle won the favourite residence of 
 Charlemagne, and for some time the ca|iital of his 
 empire; hence it was hmg customary to hohl (ho 
 coronation of the emperors of Germany in this 
 town; and till 1794, when they were carried to 
 Vienna, the regalia used on the occasion were to 
 1)0 seen in the convent cha)iel. Strangers arc still 
 shown a sabre of Charlemagne, a copy of the 
 gospel written in gold characters, and an imraenso 
 number of relics. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle is celebrated for its hot baths, 
 which issue from 6 distinct springs. The most 
 celebrated Is that called the Source tie V Kmpere.ur, 
 The water is strongly impregnated with siiliihur, 
 and has a temperature of 141P Fah. The baths 
 are generally ojiened with much ceremony on the 
 1st of May, and arc frequented by from 4,000 to 
 5,000 bathers annually. Two celebrated treaties 
 of peace hove been concluded in this city; the 
 first in 1088, between France and Spain ; and the 
 seccmd in 1748, between the dilferent powers en- 
 gaged in the wars of the Austrian succession. 
 Here also a congress was held in 1818, which 
 abridged the period uf the Allies' occupation of 
 France. 
 
 A.JACCIO, a sea-port town of the island of Cor- 
 sica, of which it is the cap., on its W. coast, and 
 on the N. side of a giilph to which it gives name ; 
 lat. 41° 65' 1" N., long. 8«> 44' 4" E. Pop. 4,098 
 in 1861. It has a citadel built in 1,554; is the 
 scat of a bishopric ; has a royal court and other 
 judicial establishments, a college, a model school, 
 a public library, a gixHl theatre, and a tine prome- 
 nade along the bay. The latter is spacious and 
 commodious, but exposed to the W. gales. Streets 
 straight and broad, and houses good, but it labours 
 under a deficiency of good water. It has a con- 
 siderable trade, exporting wine, oil, and coral. 
 Ajaccio is memorable from its having been the 
 birth-place of the greatest war-captain of modern 
 times. Napoleon I. was bom here on the 5th of 
 August, 1709, and a statue of the Emperor was 
 erected at the principal place of the town in 
 180.5. 
 
 AJMERE, a town of Hindostan, cap. district 
 belonging to the British, in Rajpootana, 225 m. 
 SW. Delhi; lat. 20° 31' N., long. 74° 28' E. Pop. 
 estimated at 25,000. It is a well-built, moderate- 
 sized town, on the 8lo|)e of a high hill, at the 
 summit of which is a fortress, formerly deemed 
 impregnable, and which, with a little improvement 
 from European skill, might easily be matle a second 
 Gibraltar. Ajmere is a holy city, having the 
 good fortune to possess the tomb of a saint whose 
 
A4 
 
 AKAMII 
 
 inirnt'liH nn* rpiuiwni'«l nil <iv«>r Imlin. The rmp«Ti>r 
 Akiiiir iiiiMlt' II pilurinin^i* on fixit In t\w NhrliiK nf 
 till' Njkitii ; itiiit ll i-iiiiiiiiiit'N to Im* ri'Miirti'il til liy 
 )l*>voti'i'H I'roiii III! |iarlMiif liuliii. It In nnl iiiicniii- 
 niiiti, in Mulwii, fur |ill^'riiiii4 wlm hiivo Imtii iit 
 AJincrn to iM'l ii|i n lirick or n itl(itii> inkcii rrum 
 Ihii Mtiiciiiitrv iH'ar lliclr iIwoIIIm);, niul to In'i'iimih 
 MiiiiilM llii'iiinrlvi'N, iiiid liav«t |iilKriiiiM;;i>N ini"lf In 
 thi'iii ! A Mir>in)( ili^liu'liiiu'iit nj' iriMipH In iiNiiiilly 
 Nliitinm>il Hi AJiiicrc, ami llic iii-iKliliniiriiiK town of 
 Niim'critliMil. It liiiH now a niiMlical xrlinol nml u 
 
 IIiIhnIiiII Nllltillll, 
 
 At It nliort iliMlnncc" \V. from AJmoro In tho cplti- 
 liratt'il lliiiilon ti'in|il(i of INinNlikiir, nil tlix liaiikM 
 of II MiicriMl iNinl iH'ikrly n niilo in cirriiil. 1 1 Ih 
 nnnnally vImiU'iI in Oi^IiiImt liy trnwilx of |iilgrimH 
 rmiii nil iiartN of liuliu. 
 
 AKAIIaH ((Jl'MMI ANDCASTLKOK). Tlio 
 piljili nf Akiiliali iMHiliTpnnrriiw inli'l.iiniliiiKwilli 
 llin NK. I'Xtrcinilvol' till' Ki-tl Sea. It uxIcikIh in 
 n NNK. ilinrtinn 'imin 'ino to '2\f> ;t2' N. lal., adiM- 
 taiuu!o(',-»l.nvn 100 V.wn. in. r liciii^, wlicri; lirmulcNt, 
 It! nr 17 III, acrosM, It > nniiniinicatcM with tlii^ Kcil 
 Sfii l>y flianni'lH nil wicli niilc tho ImIc of 'riraii at 
 ilH S. (^xtrl'lllity. 'Vh'in K<il|ili, lli» Sinim /•'/itnitiruH 
 of aiiti(|nity, no called from tliu |M>rt of Klaiia or 
 Klatli, i'nnim I In; K. Iionndary of tint |M>niiiHulii 
 (itriipi(>d liy Mnmit Sinai. It Iiiim tlu; apinMirancc. 
 (if a narrnw doi'p raviiio, tht; tilitlH riHin)^ in munit 
 niiiccH *J,000 IVut |M<rpcndicularly from tli<> ncu, and 
 iiiiH In-eii very littlt) frciiuciitvd in nuKlcrn tiini>H. 
 Itciiif; cxpoHcd to HiiddiMi and licuvy Nipialls, and 
 rncnmlicrcd in piirtn with coral ruufM, itM iiuviKatioii 
 in not a little daiif^croiiH. 
 
 The ciwtlc of Akiihah, from whieh the giilph 
 tak(!s its modrni name, in not a place of any 
 Hlrent^th. It w hitnatcd alMiiit I50 yanlH from the 
 lieacli, on the K :i lu nf the ^iilpli, and about 2} 
 m, from its extremity, in Int. '2',P 80' N., lonj^. 3;')° 
 iV K. It has a supply of ^ood water, and there 
 are neveral Arab linta within its walls. The j^nr- 
 riHnii cnnsists nf nlxiut !I0 K^^yptlan wildiefH, kept 
 to (jnard the com depoHitcd in it for the supply 
 of the caravnnH, m their journey from Cairo to 
 Mecca. 
 
 Akabah has been supposed to occupy the site of 
 Elan or Klath, fn)m which an extensive interontirsc 
 wdH carried on in the earliest nfjes with Uhinocu- 
 lura, now Kl Arish, nii the Mediterranean, only 
 IK! m. distant. There are, however,' no ruins nf 
 any kind nt Akabah, and nu port. It would, 
 therefore, seem more j)robablo that the situation 
 of Klath is identical with that of Jczirat Fnroun, 
 on the \V. side of the giilph, and about 6 m. from 
 its extremity, where there arc very extensive 
 niins, and a natural harbour. Ur. Shaw supposes, 
 apparently with much probability, that Mecnap- 
 cl-Dsahiile, i. c. the Golden Fort, on the VV. coast 
 of the gulph, and nearly opposite to Mount Sinai, 
 occupies the site of Ezumgeher, whence the ships 
 of Sohimon sailed to fetch f;<>l<l from Ophir. It is 
 said by Lieutenant Wcllsted to bo the only ' well- 
 sheltered ' harbour in the gulph. (Shaw's Travels 
 in Uarbary, &c. 4to. ed. p. 322. ; Wellsted's IVavels 
 in Arabia, ii. passim.) 
 
 AKEUMAN (on. Ti/raii), a fortified town of 
 Russia in Europe, in Bessarabia, on the W. side of 
 the aistuary or liman of the Dniester, near its 
 junction with the Black Sea; lat. 4G° 12' N., long. 
 30° 24' E. Pop. 11),076 in 1858. The citadel, sur- 
 rounded by a deep ditch, was constructed by the 
 Genoese during the time that thev were masters 
 of the Black Sea. The Dniester fieing rapid and 
 not well suited for internal navigation, the com- 
 merce of the town is not very considerable. The 
 exports consist princiiially of salt, the produce of 
 the salt lakes in its vicinity. Tlic basin of the 
 
 AKHIIKHR 
 
 DnieNter hnvliit^ only frnm T* to 7 frrt wnlor, ilh' 
 larger elnMit of venne'ri niielior oulMidc lliu liny, in 
 till' illnek Sen, nlwuit II! m. frnm town. 
 
 Akerinnii Im diMliii^uinhed in n nt dlplnninlin 
 
 hixlnry by the trenly eniii'luded here in IH'JII Ik'- 
 tweeii Itusdin and thii Ollninnn I'orte, by wliiih 
 Wallneliin, Mnldnvin, nnd Scrvin were eiiiami. 
 pnled fmiii all but a nnniinal de|K>ndencu nii iliu 
 Inller. 
 
 AKIirsSAK (an. Thyntim), n city of Tiirk.y 
 in AnIh, Aiinlnlia, llie Heat of one of the A|mh'iiIv|i- 
 lic ehurehes, I'lH ni, NE. Siiiynin. It Mlnnds on an 
 eniinenee (•levaled but lilllenbove the Hiirrniiniliii){ 
 mnrfthy nnd nlluvial plniii. The town iN'iiig nIih. 
 nted on the direi^t rond U'tween ('oiii<tanliMii|iln 
 and Sinyriia, wearx nn ;ippeiirnneo of comfort mi- 
 iH'rinr In Ihntnf Annlolian tnwiiH in geiiernl. Tlio 
 lin/.anrH are large and amply supplied; the kliiiii 
 haiidmiine, clean, and well ordered. Accnrdirig in 
 the latent eNliniales it hits 1,000 Tiirkixli, :iiim 
 (ireek, and 30 Arineiiiaii dwelliiigs, with a pup, 
 nf li.OOO, It exports <;nllnn giHidn. 
 
 AKIliiAT, tt town nf Turkey in Aitia, in Kiir- 
 dintaii, on tlu^ NVV. shore nf lake Van, nt llic I'lmt 
 nf the S<'ibaiidagli. It is very ancieiil, and wan 
 fnnnerly n pincu nf cniisideralile iinp<irtnnce ; Imt 
 it is nnw greatly decayed, not having inon* llinii 
 1,000 hnuses, or perhaps li,000 inhiib. Its territury 
 is tilled with gnrdeim and vineyards. ^See Kiii- 
 neir's Persian Eiiipin*, p. 32H,, where it is iioiiaul 
 uiidiT the name Artjkh,) 
 
 AKIITYKKA, n'town of Hiissia in EiiroiMs (;i>- 
 vem. of Khnrknll", liO m. N\V. KharkniV, I'op. 
 I3,!MI! in IH/iM. It has a pretty cniisideriilih^ com- 
 merce ; and among its chiin^hes is one lliiit allriiciit 
 a good inanv pilgrims to visit a miraculous iiiia^^u 
 of the Virgin. 
 
 AKISKA, or AKTIALZIKII, a city nf Asinlic 
 Russia, ])rnv. (lenrgia, formerly the cap. of a Turk- 
 ish ])achalik, on an atlluent of', ami at a short ilis- 
 tance frnm the Kiir, 1 1,5 m. W. Titlis; Int. 31° l,V 
 N., Inng. 43° r E. I'np. has liceii eslimnted iil 
 aliniit 1,5,000, two-thirds Annenians. It is an npen 
 town, but is defended by a strung castle silualcd 
 nn a rnck. It is remarkable fnr its tine mosipu' nl' 
 Siilliin Ahmed, built in imitation of St. Sophia, 
 and for the college and library attached therein. 
 The latter was reckoned one of the most curiniH 
 in the E. ; but the Russians have removed alidiit 
 300 of the rarest nnd most valuable works to 
 I'etersburgh. Akiakn is also the seat of a Greek 
 archbTshnpric, and has about GO Jewish families 
 and a synagogue. Ita environs are productive uf 
 silk, honey, and wax ; and it has some manufac- 
 tures. It was formerly a principal seat of the 
 slave trade. The slaves sold in its markets were 
 brought from Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeritia; nml 
 being conveyed to the nearest ports on the Hlaek 
 Sen, were shipped for Cnnstantmople and Alexan- 
 dria. This commerce is now entirely suppresscil. 
 Many of the Turkish inhabitants have left the 
 town since its occupation bv the Russians. 
 
 AKSERAI, a town of 'furkey in Asia, in K«- 
 ramania, cap. snnjinck of snme name, on the SW, 
 arm of the Kizil Ermak, 90 m. NE, Koneich (aii. 
 L'oniiim). Pop. cstim. at 10,000. It has a cnntle; 
 and its territory is productive of com and fruits, 
 
 AK-SIIEHR (the White City), a city of Asiatic 
 Turkey, Karamania, sanjiack of the same iinmc, 
 55 m. 1<:SE. Alium Karahissar; lat. 38° 13' N.. leu;:. 
 31° 30' E. It is situated near the S. extremity of 
 a considerable lake, at the foot of a mouulain 
 chain, in a rich and well watered country. Its 
 position is said to be identical with that of the 
 ancient Thynilirinm, visited by the younger t'ynis; 
 and, according to D'Anville, it was denoniiuaieil 
 Atitiochia ad J'isidiam, from its being on the cuii- 
 
 Mk 
 
a fity of AH'mlic 
 e Clip. ofaTiirk- 
 1(1 at li Hliort ilis- 
 itliH; Int. ilio I.V 
 leii I'Htitiiatod nt 
 iH. It ii«anii|i('u 
 rastle Htluali'il 
 :» tine nios(|iii' nf 
 |i of St. So|p|iia, 
 ittachcd thcri'tii, 
 |he most (^uriinH 
 removed iilmiit 
 IliiaMe works In 
 scat of n Greek 
 Jewish families 
 [re productive of 
 Home nianiifac- 
 ipnl Heat of the 
 pt8 market* were 
 Imeritia; nml 
 ItH on the Hlack 
 >le ami Alcxaii- 
 fircly suppressed. 
 [9 have left tlic 
 UBHiariH. 
 in Asia, in Ka- 
 ime, on the !S\V, 
 [E. Koiieieh (an. 
 It ha8 a castle ; 
 jtn and fruits. 
 |a city of Asiatic 
 ;he same nnmei 
 38° 13' N., Ion;;. 
 S. extremity iif 
 of a mountain 
 id country, li^ 
 ith that of till' 
 younf;'er<'ynb; 
 laa denouiiiialecl 
 ling on tln! cuii- 
 
 AKYAM 
 
 liiiiM* of I'inidiA, of wlilcli prov. it nflerwartU l>r- 
 I'liiiii' (lie •'Mpital. It In int'iiiioiii'd in 'I'urkish 
 iiiiiihU iv* llie place where lta,|il/.el wiw eoulWied 
 liv iiinour, nml wlirre he expired. It iit NUppum'd 
 lit Mr. Kiuiieir to have niHtut l/iiHt houiieii, wiih 
 iiijinv line »{ardenN in the vieiiiitv. Itx nrineipnl 
 iiriiiiiiielU in II linndNiiiiie iiii>m|ue and eolie^e, de- 
 iljiiiled Ki tl>e memory of lli^|a/.et. 'I'liit NireetN 
 arc I'leaned hy nu'iiiiN of MtreiiiiiM from the iieich- 
 Uiiiriiiu; moiitilaiiiH ilint niii tliroii^li iliem. (Kiii- 
 iMir's.li>iiriiey ihroii^li AKiaMiii'<r, p.'i'.'tl; Olivier, 
 
 vi. \>. .'I'.Ml.) 
 
 AKVAll. a marit, towti of India lieyond the 
 (iimvceM, <'ii|>. pti'V, Arraciiu, and of n diNt. of same 
 imine, on ilie K. of llie Island of .Vkyali) lat. 
 V'lr^M' N., Uiii^. U'^^tl' K. It is liuilt of wimnI; Iuim 
 linuwi streets, and markelH for >;rain, and K.uro|M'iin 
 mill Indian ^inhIs, Its harlsMir, llioii^'h inferior to 
 llifit (if Kyoiik riiyiw, is safe ; and it is^ in most 
 (ither res|MM'ts, Nii|H'rior to the lastmeiili iiied town 
 Its 11 place of trade. The vicinity is level, fertile, 
 Ih'c friiin jun)^le, and traverscil hy several roads. 
 It in the residence of a Itritish commissioner. 
 
 ALA, a sitiiill town of the T>'nd, on thu AiIIkc, 
 TJ III. S. Koveredo. I'op. ■\,H-H> in iHM. It has a 
 ^'yiiiiiiisiiim and a (!apiiehin convent, and manu- 
 lueliiri's of silks and velvelM. 
 
 ALAltAMA, one of the Ifniled Staten, in the 
 S. iMirt of the Union, iK'tween MP 10' and iUfi N. 
 hit., mill H,'>°and «H°;Ut' W. lawn., having S. Flo- 
 riilu, S\V. (Julpli of Mexico, W. .State of Missis- 
 ^i|l|li, N. 'reiiessee, and K. (Jeorf^ia. Area, .'")l>,72'2 
 K(i. III. i'op. in IH2I), 111,1)11; in IH.'ll), :il)!),.V27, 
 
 01 whom ll7,r(l!» were slaves, and 1,572 friie 
 hlai'ks; in IWIII, !)(i4,2lll, of whom l.'l'>,l*K<* were 
 Khives, and '2,<>'.H) free colounMl, The principal 
 river, the Mohil(>, formed hy the junction of the 
 hir(,'n rivers Tomhij^hee and Ahihama, Ixith of 
 which How S., falls into the Isittoni of Mohilu 
 Itay. Tim ChattahiM)chi>e also (lowing 8. forms 
 ill jiiirt the K. iHiiindary of the state. The uoimtry 
 ^Tailiially rises from tile low hivel lands alon^ the 
 (iiilph oi' Mexico, to an elevati(m of from 1,111)0 to 
 l,;")()ll ft. in its 'N. parts. It has, in consequence, 
 a cdiisiderahle difVerence of temperature. Soil 
 iiidstlyverj' fertile, particularly in the N. counties. 
 (!ott(iii is the staple produ(3t, the crop of which, 
 lin^viiius to the late Secession war, was rajiidly in- 
 erensiiij;. The su);ar cane is cultivated m the S. 
 districts. Indian corn is the princi]ial corn cro|>. 
 Alaliuiiia was erected into a state in 1H1!>. The 
 );nveniincnt is vested in a ^fvenior, elected for 
 
 2 years, a senate elected for .'1 do., and a house of 
 repreHentativcs elected annually. Meinhers of the 
 latter receive 4 d(dl, a day each, and their niiml)er 
 is not to fall short of GO, nor to exceed 100. 
 Judges of the supreme and circuit courts are 
 elected hy a joint vote of the two houses of as- 
 Remlily for 7 and (5 years. Several canals aiul 
 railways have heen completed, and more jjrojccted. 
 Ill lH(i2 there were 743 m. of railways open, hut a 
 (.'mill many have liccn more or less destroyed during 
 the civil war. Liberal jirovision has been made 
 fur education ; and a state university, well en- 
 dowed, and on a large scale, has heen founded 
 near the cap. Tuscaloosa. The princiiml foreign 
 trade of the state is carried on from Mobile (which 
 wc). The value of the domestic produce, jirin- 
 ci|)nlly cotton, exported during the year 183,5, 
 nmiiiinted to 7,572,128 doll, which had increased 
 ill IStiO to 38,670,183 doll. 
 
 ALABASTER, or ELEUTIIERA, one of the 
 Bahama or Lucayo islands, which see. 
 
 ALAIS (an. Alesia), a town of France, dep. 
 Ganl, caj). arnmd., on the Gardon d'Alais, at the 
 fiKit of the Cevennes, 25 m. NW. Nismcs; lot. 
 44° 7' 22" N., long. 3° 4' 25" E. Pop. 20,257 in 
 
 ALAND 
 
 AA 
 
 INrtl. Tlie town is anetent, and pretty well 
 liiiilr. I hiring the ndigioiis warn of Kriinc(>, thu 
 iiihaliilants went distingiilihed hy their nilacli- 
 ineiit III the I'rolestant party, and to hridle tlietii 
 Louis X I \', eoiisirucled a fort in the town. It 
 has n eiiiiimuiial college, a tribunal of primary 
 jimsdictioii, a theatre, a indilie library, a CMnsii>> 
 torial I'riitestani church, Ac. It has, also, inaiiu- 
 faetures of riliiiiiil, silk stockings, and gloves) 
 with a glans wmr., |sitteries, copiM'ras works, Mte. 
 liesides its own (inHliicts, it has a eonsiderablu 
 iraiU' in the raw and dressed silks, oil, grain, in'., 
 of the siirroiindiii^f country. There are inineH of 
 iron and coal in (he vicinity, 
 ALA.NI) (ISLAND.S oF), a group of islandM 
 
 belonging to Kiissia, at the eiilraiK fthe Gulpli 
 
 of llothnia, iH'tweeii Wi" 50' and lilio ;I2' N. Int., 
 and Ui^ 10' and 21° 7' K. long., eonsisliug of mom 
 than HO inhabited luid upwards of 2oo uniiihabite.l 
 islets and riH-ks (.VAtirrm), occupying an area of 
 alsiut 470 s(|. in., and divided into three oblong 
 clusters by the straits of Delel and LapiivUsi, The 
 llaltic iMi'iinds th(>in to the M. ; on the \V, the 
 straits of Alandshaf se)Hirate them from Sweden, 
 their width U'ing alsiut 24 m. ; and on the K. thu 
 straits of Wuttuskiflet, which are scarctdy 2 m. 
 broad where they are narrowest, and alsiiit 14 
 where the^y are broadest, iiiterisise between them 
 and the Kinlaml shore. I'op. t,),lMlO in IH5K. The 
 principal of the islands, called Aland, has a |Hip. 
 of ',),000, and the chief town hen-, likewis(i named 
 Aland, a |H>p. of nearly 3,000. Nearly all the in- 
 habitants are of Swedish extraction. 'Most of the 
 islanils stand at a oonsi(U>rable elevation aliovu 
 the level of the sea, and are intersected by chaiim 
 of granite rocks, which iH-casionally ris<> into 
 peaks, and are full of hollows. There are tut 
 rivers, but many small lakes. The surface ia 
 either a thin layer of clay or rich mould, slate- 
 stone or sand, 'i'he climate, tliiaigh keen, and at 
 times severe, is more tem|M'rate than that of Fin- 
 land. There are extensive forests, ehietly of 
 birches and pint's; the pasture grounds are very 
 |M)or, excepting near some iiarts of the coast; and 
 the arable land, on which rye and barley are 
 mostly grown, produces a suHlciency fordomestio 
 consumption, the Is'st yielding seven-fold. Hops, 
 cabbages, piusnips, carrots, and other roots, jsila- 
 toes, and a little tlax are likewise raised, Nuta 
 form an article of ex|iort, TIh! horned catth', of 
 which there arc upwards of 12,00(1, are small in 
 size, and few of the cows have horns; the latter 
 furnish the 'Aland ciieeses,' which are much 
 sought after, and nuuh; principally in the island 
 of Fagloe. Of sheo)i there are above 13,000, the 
 wfMd of which is converted into coarse stufls and 
 sail-cloth ; horses and goats are also bred in con- 
 siderabht numbers. The lisheries arc ]>r(Nluctivc, 
 particularly of {itromlinge) lu^rrings and seals, of 
 the lirst of which li,00"o tons and upwards arc 
 salted. Waterfowl abound. The ex|K)rts consist 
 of salt meat, butter, cheese, hides, and skins, dried 
 and salted lish, wood for fuel, tS:c. ; and the im- 
 ports of salt, colonial jiroduce, ironware, woidlens, 
 cottons, and other manufactures, t!lrc. The Alamlers 
 are excellent seamen, and navigate small vessels 
 of their »)wn that trade with the adjacent parts : 
 they are Swedes in their language, manners, and 
 usages. There are a number of good harbours, 
 many of which have been fortified by the Hus- 
 sions, who keep up a disproportionately large mili- 
 tary force in the islands, us well as a numerous 
 flotilla, called the ' Skaerentlott.' One of tliese 
 harbours, Domarmnd, strongly fortified, and gt. 
 station of the Russian fleet, was destroyed by the 
 Anglo-French fleet in 1854, The Lslands contain 
 8 parishes and as many churches, and 7 cliurches 
 
M 
 
 ALA-HIIKIIU 
 
 I If 
 
 :i: !" 
 
 I;;. 
 
 •ir i'ha|N'li) (if i>nM>, AoUiul, tlm Inrui-Ni iNlitii<l, U 
 nt'iirlv t'IrniLtr, Mtiu hInmiI 17 inili'x In Icii^ih 
 mill Itl III liri'inllli i It I'linliiliiN iiInivi' D.iMMi liiliit 
 lilliiiilD, itiiil liiiN ail )<xri'lli>iil liiirlHiiir nl \ttvr 
 imi'x, nil llii> W. xliji'. Il in ilivlili'il liy II iinrMw 
 •iiriill frmii KkiTiN', ilii> wrxli'miiiiMt IkIiiihI, wliirli 
 
 lull* II li'Irurillill. On ltii> I'!. i'inikI nl' Anliiiul l« llli' 
 
 iilil I'ltMili' III I 'itxilt'liiiliii, iiiiw III riiliiM, 'riicw)' 
 UtniiiU wiTc wri'»h'i| liy Itiiiwiii Iniiii Swi'ilcii in 
 iMii'.i) mill ){ivi' iliii rnriiiiT II |MiNiiiiiii t'riiin mIiIi'Ii 
 IIm'V iiiity i'iii«ll> iiiiikii n ili'Mci'iit nil III!) Swi'iIIkIi 
 «'nil»l. 
 
 AI.A Hlll'.llit (ihi^ rxniliil Hly), ii lity of 
 'I'lirkry In Anlii. (iriiv, Aniilnllii, riimniiN iin llm Ncnt 
 nf iiiif 111' till- AiMM'iilyiiilr rlniri-lii'H. ji wiut I'or- 
 lllrrly cnllcil I'luliulrlitliin. 'I'lii' Inwii \» hIiiiiiIimI 
 K'l III. v., Siiiyrini, iiciir tlic CnKiiiiiii'i, |iiirllv In tlii' 
 liliiln, mill |iiirily mi iini< of llm riNiiN nl' I'lnnlii'*, 
 >vliirli, w|iiiri(ti>il liy n viilii'y rrniii llix |HiNli>rinr 
 riiiiui', iinil rl^lii^ in n vorv eniiniilcriilili' cli'viiiinii, 
 lit till' hIIii III' lll(< Arrii|Hilli«, 'I'liK nlil Willi III' IIk' 
 tnwn, I'nniK'il III' Hiiiiill Niniit'it lii>li| tn^flln'r liy it 
 Mtrnii); I'fini-nl, iiikI Hircii;xllu'iit'il willi invvcrM, Im 
 liMkcii iltiwrn In ninny filnrtiN, iiiiil tin* Afm|Hiliit in 
 nUn ill riiitm. 'I'lu' innilcni liiiiiiti>N an' iiii'un ami 
 irrcKiilnr, iiml llit< Nln'Hi* iiiiiniw ami llllliy. 'I'lii' 
 riiiiiN III' ilic I'liiiri'li nf St. .Inlin am nf fitvni aiitl- 
 «|iiity, anil iinriciit n-liiM incut tln' I'vii at nvcry 
 ttlt'p. Ala-SliclircniitaiiiH nearly ll.OtHri'nrkiMli uiui 
 V!>')<Miri'i'k Iiiiiim'n; nh that the |miI), may Imi pmiI- 
 niateil at fmiii iri.lKM) In IH.ltlHI. It In the neat nf 
 nlireek archlilMlio|i, ami divine oervice in re);iilarly 
 |M'rfnriiieil in !t ClirlNtinii ehiirelieN. Tlu! emiiitry 
 roiinil In very fruitful ; the waten are Maid tn Ihi 
 cxiTlli'iit ill dyiiiiKi and Itein^ Nitiiated nii niieof 
 the mimt fru(|iiei)teil madN tn Sinyrnn, it Ih miieh 
 remirted to liy caravaim, and ha» a t("<Ml deal nf 
 trade. It id heid mi iinered, even by the TiirkN, 
 that, they oceoNinnnlly convey their dead thither 
 for intennent, fmin OnNtnnti'mmIe ; and apply tu 
 it the epithet of Aln, or the exalted. 
 
 riiilndelphia derived itrt name from AttaliiA 
 I'hilndelphiiH, liMthcr of KnineneM, by whom it 
 WOM fniinded in the Heennd century n,v, Strnim 
 KnyM, that it Hiitrered tniicli frnin re|H!ated NhnckH 
 of «!artlii|iiakes; and it wa.s one of the fourteen 
 eiticM which were |iartially or wlinllv destroved by 
 n Hubterraiiean coiivnlNion in the reipi nf TilHiriiiH, 
 Anciently, indeed, it waM matter of Huriirine that it 
 wiM not iibnndnncd; but it continueH to Ih' a coii- 
 ttiderabli! place; and the church nf I'liiladehihiii ii* 
 Htill erect, 'u coliiinn in a Hcene of riiiim.' It wax 
 the last city of AhIu Minor that Hubinitted to the 
 TiirkH. ' At a diHtancc from the Hea, fnr^nttcn by 
 the ciniM-'rorM, encoin|iaNNe(l on all Hiden by the 
 Tiirkx, lier valiant citizeiiH defended their reliKimi 
 nnd fri-ednm, alMive foumcore yearx; aiiil at len;;th 
 (in i:<!ll)), capitulated to tho proudest of the Uth- 
 maiifi.' ((iibl)on, cap. (il.) 
 
 ALASSIO, or AHKACI, a nea-port town of 
 Northern Italy, prov. (ienoa, 5 ni. SSVV. Albeii^a. 
 Pop. 4,*il'nn'lKt!l. MoKt of the inhabitantH are 
 industrioiiH, active, and daring Heanien. There Ih 
 jfood anchorage n|)|)o«ite to the town, which con- 
 HixtH of a long narrow Htreet. Fine coral Ih lisheil 
 «tn the const. A gocKl hnrlHiiir for tho Inrgest dims 
 of vettsels might 1)0 formed between CniKs Mele 
 and the ixland of Galiimra. 
 
 ALATKI, a city of Central Italy, prov. Fro- 
 sinone, m. NK. i'rosinnne. Pop. 11,370 in 18(»1. 
 Tbe city is the seat of a bishopric, has a cathedral, a 
 collegiate church, nnd some convents. Antiquities 
 arc frequently (lug up in the environs, which 
 abound in olives and vines. 
 
 ALATYK, a town of KnsHin in Europe, gov. 
 Simbirxk, at the confluence of the Alntyr with the 
 Sura, <J0 m. NNW. Simbirsk. Pop. 4,407 in 18u». 
 
 AI.MANIA 
 
 Il in built of wiiinI, Iian IniinerieH, a glAiw Mrnrk, 
 and a i'iiiii<ii|i<ralile triide in cum. 
 
 AI.AVA (mi, i'limirtium), n wn-imrt Inwil nf 
 'I'lirkey III Aula, Aiialnlla, rap. NnnJiiU'k nf the xiiini. 
 iiaine, mi the K. niile nf a Inliv prmniiiilnry ; Im, 
 
 ;iiio ;ii' :»i" N.. imig. '.\'if^ i' ir !•:. I'np." iii-Mit 
 
 '.',01111. 'I'lie prmiiiiiitnry mi wliidi thin tnHii i« 
 built iM'arN a Mirlkiiig ri'm-iiililniii'i' tn ilmi „( 
 
 tiibraltar. It iNjnlned In the ciillllni'lll nii Ihi' N, 
 
 bv n Inw Mainly iHiliiiiuM, frmii which it ri»i'ii 
 uliriipllys nnd IIm \V. mid S. Mides cihimImI nf jht- 
 IM'iiiliciilar clllt'i* .'lOO nr lidO feet high. TIh' K. 
 mIiIc, mi which llii' inwii in built, Im aUo mo Nii.<'|, 
 
 that the hmiMCM Mceill In Miami nii lln' lop nf I'lirli 
 
 iillier. 'liiMbiirl, It fiiniiH a naliiral fnrtn'MM ilmt 
 niiglil Im' ri'iidered iiiipregnable; and the iiiiiiiiTniiit 
 walJM and inwerM prnve how anximiMly iiM fnnni'r 
 iMiMMi'MMnfM lalMiuri'd to make It mh.' At preMcni it 
 Im nf trilling lin|Hiriniicc: ntreetji and limiMeM iimm'- 
 rable; ninMipii'M few and nieaii. When vlMitcil hy 
 I'aplain lleanfurt it hud im Mi>;iiM nf cmiiiiii'riv, 
 The bay Im oim'ii In Moiitherly wIiiiIh, and the an- 
 chnriige iiiilitli'ri'iit. 
 
 Oorai'i'Mliini Mhiit its gntcN ngiiitiMt AiiliiH'liuH 
 when nil the other lowiiNnf Cilicia had Mubiiilitcil; 
 and nt a Miilmeqiieiit |H'riod it wiim the place mcIi'i'. 
 led by llie pirates at which In make a IiimI Mlniui 
 ill their Mlriiggle with Pomiit^y. (Ik'aufnrt'M Knra- 
 inaiiia, p. I7'j, iic) 
 
 AI.liA, a tnwn of Xorlherii Italy, prov. I 'iini'ip, 
 on the Taiiarn, 'A'2 iii. HHK. Turin I'np. !i,ti7'« in 
 INIII. Il has a tribunal nf nrigiiial JiiriMilii'iinn, a 
 cathedral, !( pariMli churches, a college, and a cim- 
 itiderable trade in rattle, 
 
 AIJIA(!KrK, a town of Spain, prov. Miircia, 
 9 m. NNV. Chinchellii, agreeably Mitnated in a vtmi 
 and fruitful plain. Pop. II,NII0 in Wu. The 
 town liiiH manufactures of coarse cUith and miiii|i, 
 Oruat quantities of wine and salTron are onllectcij 
 in its vK^inity; and a great cattle market is annu- 
 ally held in SepUmiber. 
 
 ALIIAX (S'r.) a town of France, dep. Lo/.irc, 
 22 m. NNVV. Mende. Pop. 2,27(» in IWII. 
 
 AIjHANIA, a large prov. of Kuro[H'an Turkey, 
 iHMiiided N. by Dnlniatia nnd Servin, K. by Miut- 
 don and TliesMnly, S. by Livadia, nnd W. by ilii' 
 Adriatic, along with that part of the Mediterrniienii 
 called the Ionian Sea, lying generally lietween hit, 
 ;!!»«> and UP N., hmg, l\\° nnd 21° .'«i' K. It tiiii» 
 comprehends, in its widest ncceptntinn, the niiciciil 
 lllyrin and Kpirus, and is at present incluileil in 
 the Turkish government of Knmniiia. ItMnrenin 
 I X,\iH sq. in„ and the |Kip. is estimated nt I ,2(MI,ihhi. 
 The mountains in the north rise to the height of 
 !),000 feet, but tho country includes the fertile! 
 iilniiis of Scutnri and others. Tho climato is wnnn 
 liiit healthy. The maritime trade is for the iiiiint 
 
 rt cnrried on through the jsirts of Prevesn, Siiln- 
 lorn, (iomenitzn, Snynda, Snnti (jiiarnntn, iiiid 
 Avlonn, while nt most of the smaller |sirlH tlint 
 indent tho western const n jictty Irnde, of wliicli 
 no stntistics have lieen collected, is carried on with 
 (!orfii. The snfest jiort on the Adrintic is Avliniii, 
 The Inrgest town in the province is .Inninn, ona 
 Inke nf the same name, which has n |Mip. estimated 
 nt 3(»,000. Tho principal priMlnctions and ex|Mirts 
 are vnlonin, tobacco, olives, Inilinn com, dye-wixKl, 
 raw hides, wool, raw silk, choose, salt prnvisimis 
 drugs, sheep, nnd hnrscs; but nenrly all the prii- 
 ducts of Southern Kuropc, including cattle, may 
 lie included in tho list of the district's cafialiiiitirn. 
 The Albanians are principally Mohammeiliuis, 
 though on the coast a considerable number are 
 of the Greek or Roman chun^hcs. Lately coii- 
 sidcrnble nttention hns lieen pnid tn the coiiHtrui;- 
 tion of ronds. In the end of lHti3 telcgni|iliii; 
 communicatiuii was established between Cou- 
 
 C 
 
 ««':*', 
 
ft 1(1*"* ^"'lt> 
 
 ».IHlM »IIWII Clf 
 
 ii-k •>!' ill)' "iiiiM' 
 iiiiiiiiiiiiry ; lai, 
 K. ri>|>. IiIhhiI 
 
 II IIiIm Iiimii i« 
 I'll III llllll llf 
 
 lll'lll nil III)' N, 
 
 wliii'li it riin's 
 I niiiNUl iif iHT- 
 lii^li. 'I'liK i:. 
 
 Im IiUo no H|<1-I| 
 
 I III* l<)ll lit' flll'll 
 mil flirt ri'KH ilmt 
 
 III I III* iiiiiiii'riiiiK 
 muly llH liiriiHT 
 
 At |iri'Hi'iii it 
 
 ml llllllM'H IIIJM'- 
 
 rili-ll vl»ili'i| liy 
 
 IN of I'liiiiiiii'nv, 
 iIh, mill tliii aii- 
 
 ItillNt AlltilK-llll* 
 
 t liail Miiliniilli'il; 
 
 I I III* plnri- Hi'liT- 
 iiiki! II liiMi hlaml 
 Ik'Uul'iirt'M Kam- 
 
 uly, jiniv, Ciiiioii, 
 
 |'ii|i. ti,iS7V ill 
 
 ml jiiriitilirtiiiii, a 
 
 llo|J;t>, mill a run- 
 
 II, prtiv. Miircift, 
 niliiiitfil ill II viixt 
 1) ill Ih:)7. 'I'lie 
 > cliitli mill miii|i. 
 'nm am onllt'ctfil 
 ) miirkvt in aiinii- 
 
 nre, dcp. lior.crc, 
 I in IHllt. 
 jiirii|H>nii Tiirkoy, 
 via, 1'". Iiy M(i<<- 
 , ftiiil W. Iiy till* 
 lie Mi'tlitirriiiii'iiii 
 rallv liflwfi'ii Im. 
 :((i' K. It t llllll 
 Intion, the amiiMil 
 k*H(>iit iiidiiili'il in 
 niiia. ItHnronin 
 lateilntl,*20il,(l(l(i. 
 to the lififtlit of 
 :luiU'8 the I'lTtik 
 cliinato in wiinii 
 le in for the iiiiwt 
 of I'reveHa, Siil«- 
 i (jiiiiranta, ami 
 jnaller tx>rt« <l>»' 
 trttile, of wliiili 
 \in carried on with 
 Iriatie in Avlmiiu 
 in ,lniiinn, on a 
 a jMip. entiiiinteil 
 ions and ex|iiiri!i 
 |i com, (lye-wtMKl, 
 salt provimiiiiN 
 lirly all the pni- 
 [ling cattle, may 
 •ictV capaliilitien. 
 Mohamnipdiiii!', 
 iblc niinilwr are 
 Lately ci'"- 
 to the coiistriu'- 
 8ti3 tele(,Tniiliit! 
 between Cuu- 
 
 AI.IIANO 
 
 il^niliiiipln and .laidiin, Iiy tvay of Sntnhora and 
 .JHri""!), iiiid \^iirk>i wtrii In prn^reiut in Iwl'i lor 
 I'liiiiiiiiiiiiK it III Arlm and i'rt'veiui, ((!oiiMilar 
 
 Ili'iHirin,) 
 AMI.' 
 
 lANO (TOWN, I.AKi;. AM> MtUN TA!N 
 
 DKi. Ill '!■*' ('<""/""/'•'< ili Homii, Kiliialiil in llie 
 jiiii'iil' ilie Ajipian \\'i\\, on a hill, near llii> S\V, 
 niiliMif ilie lake, niNiiit 1 1 III. SMI'., Kmiie. Top, 
 il.liio ill IN.'iH, Thin liiwii in mil linlli, ax xiiine 
 Imvi' miplMiKiil, on llie xile of Allxi /.um/ii, wliieli 
 kIihmI nil llie ollliT xide iif the lake, lint on llie 
 mill" <>l l*iiiii|M>y'ii villa. Iin Niliialloii, al a ninde- 
 riiic I'levatiiin alNive Ihe level of the plain, line 
 NiliiiiriiMii* air, Mhaily walkii, and uiaKiiilleent vieWN 
 III' tlie 'elernal I'ily,' the ('iiiniiaKiia, and the nea, 
 make il a favoiirUe relreat iil' llie iimre opulent 
 jtiiiiiiiii I'ili/eiiN, (lariieidarly diirini; K|iriiii( and 
 AiiliiiiiM. It Im the Meat of an arrhliiNhup; U well 
 Imill; hait a ealhedral and Nome eoiiveiilN, with 
 iiiiiny line palaeeN, aiiinii^ which may Ih' N|H>eilled 
 ihiwi' III' the ('orNiiii mill l>arlH>riiii faiiiilii'N. Ala 
 liitle iliNlaiii'i'i on the iiiar(;iii of Ihe lake, In CiinIi'I 
 li/iiiiloll'o, the niiiiimer rcNidence of the pii|H<. The 
 ailjni'eiil eoiiiilry in alinoNt wholly apiirii|iriated In 
 thr i'lillnre of Ihe vine; and the wine which it 
 viiOilM i<lill inainlaiiiN ilN niieient repntttlion. 
 
 file lake of Alliano, a little to the NK. of the 
 tiiwn, In Hiirroiimled on all NidoN Iiy very \\\\i\\ 
 JMiikN, except towanU Ihe N., where they are a 
 lillle lower, it liiiM Ihe form of an irregular 
 I'llipii', and there would iip|M>ar to Ih* little doiiht 
 that it iK'ciipien the crater of an extinct volcano. 
 The ilimance round the crater, or Niitniiiit of the 
 iMwiii of the lake, in eNlimnled at ahoiit H in., mid 
 that Miiiid the wnter'n ed^e iilmiit 4 in. It in in 
 IMirtn very deep: n variety of IInIi are found in it, 
 aniniiK which arc vein uf nil imnioiiNO nizc, and 
 highly eNteenied. 
 
 Hut the tiihterrnnean conduit or tunnel, called 
 liy till* ItaliaiiN an rmimuirio, for cimv(*yiiiK away 
 ilx Hiirpltm water, in the feature inimt wort liy the 
 Attnitioii of the iiitellif;eiit traveller who vinitn Ihin 
 lake. Thin tunnel, intended to pn*veiit the watem 
 iif llie hike froiii inlnrin^; the fnirroiindin^ country 
 liy iiverllowiiiK itn liankn, and to keep them alwnyn 
 ai their prcient level, wan completed at an early 
 IH'ridd of the Uomnii hintory (alioiit 'I0(( yearn 
 ■I.e.), and henm uiieqiiivocnl proofn of the na^aeity 
 mill iK'Weverance of tliono hy whom it wan exe- 
 riiteii. ll in cut ri^lit through the mountain, and 
 miwily through solid rock, n dintancu of con- 
 hiih'rahlv mon; than a mile, bein^r generally nlKnit 
 !1 fwt io inches wide, and from (ij to 7 feet in 
 height; at its entry from the lake, and its issue 
 ill the plain, it is solidly built round with larj^e 
 ittuiivn, arched at top, and in in [M>rfect [in'serva- 
 tion. This ^cut work is said to Im'vo been com- 
 |il('toil in alHiiit a year; but it has Ih'cii objected to 
 tiiis, that as only tlm<u or at most four men could 
 have wrought touether, and these at the outer end 
 iiF the tunnel only, the other end Ix-ing under 
 water, it must have taken many years for its cmn- 
 |ili'(iiin. But I'iraiiesi has shown that after tracing 
 the lino of the tunnel alMivc ground, shafts had been 
 sunk, by which 'workmen might have been let 
 (Inwii in various places, and the work cuniplctcd 
 within the stated time. 
 
 The Alban Mount {3fon» Alhanun), now Monte 
 Cum, lies a little to the E. of the lake. It is 
 almut 8,170 feet in height; and the view from its 
 miinmit, extending over Iwiliiim and n great ex- 
 tent (if country, is one of the noblest that can be 
 iniii|;inc<l. It was crowned by a temple in honour 
 "t'Jiipiter Latialin, where sacrifices were annually 
 offercil up by deputies from the various Latin 
 NtateH. with the liomans at their head, to their 
 cummuii father and protcutur. Here, also, the 
 
 AMIANY IT 
 
 Itotiinn geiieraln nfiiNcd the hnnoiir of the gnat 
 Iriiiiiiph in llie cily, |M'rriiriiicil llir Iikmt triiiiii|ili, 
 
 or ovatiiiii, and *ik<'rill I to .Inpiicr l.aiitlin. 
 
 Some I'raumeiitN of iIiIn fainoiiN innple exi^icil in 
 1750; but tlicy have NJiice iliNappeiiri'd. i lleNlih'H 
 the ailllloritieN referrid to, Nee llie ixcclleill Wnr'l 
 of LiiiiiNdeii on the Antiipiilicn of Itoiiie, pp. ■liVI 
 -HI.'..) 
 
 Al, HAN'S (Sr.),aiiancieiil ImnMighof Kiiglaiid, 
 CO. Ilrriford, iicciipyiiig Ihe Niiinniil and nIiIcn of h 
 low hill, on a feeder of the t'olhc, 'ill m, NNW. 
 liiindon, on the Londnn and N'orih WeNierii riiil- 
 way. I'op. of pariMli ll,ii7<,l, and of municipal 
 iNiniiigh 7,tl7ri in \M\, The iNimiigb long luul 
 the privilege of n'tiiriiliig '2 in. to ihe II. of (',, 
 the right of voting having Im'cii vcnIciI in the free- 
 men, whether reNideiil or not, and in scni-and-lot 
 lioiiNeholdemi but il wiu* n few yenm ago diKlran- 
 chiNed on acciiiint of corriiplion at the eleciioiiH. 
 The place in very aiicieiil, and in either mi or \ery 
 near Ihe site of the ancient Koiiiaii Vrrulumium, 
 The abbey chiirch In the most imiHiNiiig iili|ci't in 
 the place; mid is celebrated alike for its anliipiily 
 and great iiuigiiitiide. It lately niiiler\vciit n 
 thoroiigh repair. In Ihe church of St. Micluiel in 
 the tomb of the great Lord liacoii, with a lino 
 marble moiiiiiiieiit to bin memory. There in a free 
 grammar ncIhhiI, with Mcveral chariiable iiiKlilii- 
 lioiin. The town in not thriving. Straw plait is 
 the (irinciiial inaniifactiire; and there are Is'siden a 
 cotton mill and a nilk mill, but neither on a largo 
 scale. Then- is a market each Siitiirday. 
 
 ALHAN'S IIKAI) (ST.), a cape of Kngland, on 
 the KnglinhChannel, co. Dorset ; lai.oO" \W 10" N„ 
 long. aO|i' 15" W. 
 
 A I, MAX Y, a city of the rnlled States, cap. slain 
 of New Vork, on the W. Iiank of the lludNon, 
 liri m. N. New York; Int. 4-2° ;t!l' !1" N., hmg. 
 7i«° -ll' 60" VV. Pop. in lH2o, l.'>.!t7l ; in l«l(i, 
 I<<i,7'2l ; and in iMiO, (i'i,<'ll!7. Ite.iiiles iK-iiig the 
 seat of government, it in, in |Mipiilatioii, wealth 
 and commerce, the neeoiid city in Ihe ntale. ll in 
 tiiiely situated at Ihe head of the river navigatiiiii 
 of the llndsiin, and in now coiiiiected by caiiain 
 with Lake Krie and the Minninnippi on the oiiii 
 hand, and with Lake Oliamplain and the St. Law- 
 rence on the other. It is also the centre where a 
 number of railways meet connecting it with Hiif- 
 falo, Hoston, Lake Chainplaiii, and New York; so 
 that it is, and has for a considerable time been, one 
 of the principal centO's of internal commerce in 
 the Union. A line basin has In-en eonstriieted for 
 the accommodation of the shipping on the river 
 and the canals. Among the public biiihlings are 
 the eapitol, the stale hoiLse, an academy, a splendid 
 miiseuiii, a jail, with iiumerouB banks mid placits 
 for public worship. 
 
 ALHANY, a district of S. Africa, lielonging to 
 Great Itritain, ot the K. extremity of the Capo 
 (johiiiy. It has on the K. the (Jreat Fish river, on 
 the VV. Hoshiiana river, on the N. an imaginary 
 line, drawn from the junction of the Great anil 
 Little Fish rivers to tlie Konap, and on the S. the 
 ocean. Its area has been variously estimated, but 
 may probably amount to about 2,000 sq. m. or 
 1 ,2«0,000 acres. I Is aspect is highly pleasing, being 
 divernilied with hill and dale, its verdant |)asiiires 
 and smooth grassy knolls, contrasting agreeably 
 with the dark masses of forest, which clothe tliii 
 broken ground near the river courses. Soil very 
 various. The stiff clayey lands would be the most 
 jiroductive, were they siitliciently watered ; but an 
 rain is precarious, and the rivers'nrc said not to bo 
 suitable for irrigation, light friable soils are pre- 
 ferred. Climate temiierate, tjalnbrious, and suit- 
 able for Kiiro|icaii constiliilions. Lions, wolves, 
 and leopards are oceasioiially met with ; but uro 
 
fiS 
 
 ALBEMARLE SOUND 
 
 S I 'M ii , 
 
 hjj 
 
 I n 
 
 cviTy (lay becomiii)^ riircr. KIcpliantH aro now 
 NoMotii Hccii within th(! limits i>f the ilistrict, 
 Hor.si'H, catth', h)ioi'|>, pi;itn, ho^'s, &.C., tlirivo. ro- 
 iiiai'kalily well, and their prodiK^c fonns tho Krcut 
 (U^IK'iiileneu of the colonists. The country is tra- 
 versed l)y nunicriins streams, of which the (ircat 
 Fish river is hy far the most important. I're- 
 vionsly to lH2li, there were not more than 1(500 
 KnropeanH in the district; lint government having 
 j^iven encourajjement to emigration to this cpiarter, 
 i'{,7'20 emigrants landed in 1820, at Aljfoa Hay, 
 whence the greater numl)(>r proceeiled to this dis- 
 ti'ict. For the lirst 4 or 5 years, the colonists suf- 
 f<Ted severely from a failure of the wheat crops; 
 but their prof^rcss from IH%') down to 1836 was 
 comparatively rapid, and presented a picture of 
 prosperity and advancement, not often to he met 
 with in the early annals, even of the most suc- 
 cessful colonies. At the last-mentiuned epoch, 
 however, this career was suddenly arrested by an 
 irruption of the Cafl'res, who destroved a ^ff^it 
 <]uaiitity of valuable jirojicrty, and killed several 
 of the colonists. This invasion havinj^ been re- 
 pelled, and peace havinfj been aji^ain restored with 
 the Caftres, a lieutenant-governor was appointed 
 to the K. ]irovince, and the district is fast recovcr- 
 iii<; from the losses it !iad sustained. The pop. in 
 l8(il was estimated at above 20,000, with 15,000 
 whites. (Iraham's Town, the cap. of the E. prov. 
 and the residence of the lieut.-Kovcrnor, is situ- 
 ated almost in the centre of this district, A town, 
 called Port Francis, has been founded at the mouth 
 of the Kowie river; but as the access to it is ob- 
 structed by a dangerous bar, it is doubted whether 
 it will ever become of any material importance. 
 The shi|)pinK trade of the district is cliiclly carried 
 from Port Elizabeth on Alf^oa Hav. 
 
 ALBKMAKLE SOUND, United States, coast 
 of N. Carolina, in the N K. part of the state, being 
 (iO m. lonf^ from E. to VV., and from 4 to 15 
 wiile. It communicates with I'imlico Sound and 
 the ocean by several narrow inlets, and with 
 (Ihesapeakc 15ay by a canal cut through Dismal 
 Swamp, 
 
 ALIJENGA Can. Alhium Iiiflaunum) , an ancient 
 8ea-port town of Northern Iralv, prov. (icnoa, 44 
 m. SVV. (lenoa, on the Centa. Pop. 4,189 in 1801. 
 It is the seat of a bishopric, and lias several re- 
 rn.iins of antiquity. The situation is unhealthy; 
 but the surrouniling country is jirt/ductive of oil 
 and hemfi. This is the birthplace of Proculus, a 
 comjietitor with I'robus for the throno of the 
 CiPsars. 
 
 ALBERT, a town of France, dep. Somme, cap. 
 cant,, on the Miraumont, J. 3 m. l-^NE. Amiens. 
 Pop. .'!,806 in 1801. It hai' a cotton mill, with 
 ))rint works, bleaclilields, and paper mills. In its 
 vicinity is a cave or quarry where tliere are a va- 
 riety of |ictrifactions. 
 
 ALBINO, a town of Northern I.aly, prov. IJer- 
 pamo, on the Serio, 7 m. NE. Uerjjamo. Pop. 2,027 
 in 18()1. It is very well built, the castle and f;ar- 
 dens of Count Siiini beinj; particularly worthy of 
 iKitice. '1 here arc silk lilatures, with a manufac- 
 tory of agricultural iinplements and machinery for 
 jiolishinfj whetstones renowned all ovci Europe. 
 
 r.I.BlON (NKW), a large tract of the NVV. coast 
 o( America. Tl'is designation was given by Sir 
 Francis Drake to California and part of the adjoin- 
 ing coast ; but recent geographeis, and among 
 others Humboldt, limit the (lenomination of New 
 Albion to that part of the coast which extends 
 from the 43rd to the 48th deg, N. lat. 
 
 ALI5UFE111A, a sea-jiort town of Porrutval, S. 
 coast Algarve, 28 m. E. Lagos ; lat. 37° 7' 30'' N., 
 long. 7° 1!)' 12" VV. Pop. 2,800 in 1858. Large 
 vessels may anchor in the port, which is defended 
 
 ALCAMO 
 
 by a citadel and batteries. The inhabitants mostly 
 subsist, by lishing. 
 
 ALIUJIIICUA, a town of Spain, Estreinadurn, 
 14 in. SSE. liailajoz, on the river and near tlie 
 mountain of the same; name. Hero, on the liltji 
 May, 181 1, a sanguinary conflict took place Ik'I ween 
 the allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese trcHipH 
 under Marshal Beresford, and a Fit'iich force under 
 Marshal Soiilt. Each army lost alxint 7,000 iiicii 
 in killed and wounded. (Jn the allied side tliu 
 chief brunt of the action fell on the British, wlm 
 suffered severely. In the end Soult, who com- 
 menced the attack, retreated. 
 
 ALlUKiUElKiUE, a towi of Spain, with an 
 old castle, prov. Estreinadura, on the front iiT di' 
 Portugal, 22 m. NNVV. Badajoz, I'op, 5,470 in 
 1857, It has cloth and cotton manufactures, 
 
 ALBY (Al/iij/ii), a city of France, ca]), dep. Tarn, 
 on the Tarn, wliicli is crossi^d by an old-fiushioiu'ii 
 bridge. Pop, 15,403 in I8(il. The town has a 
 station on the railway da Midi, It is situatiMt <iii 
 a hill, and has few public buildings worth notieo, 
 except the cathedral, begun in 1277 and finishcil 
 in 1480. It is ill built, the houses iMiing gloomy, 
 and the streets narrow, crookeil, and dirty; bin 
 the shady Fromenude de la Lice, on the side next 
 the country, is universally admired. It has a jmlt- 
 lic library, a museum, and barracks, with varimi-t 
 manufactures of coarse cloth, sacking, table linen, 
 handkerchiefs, cottons, hats, and jiajier. The pre- 
 paration of woad has been long carried on in the 
 vicinity. Alby has sutlered much at different 
 periods for its attachment to Protestantism. 
 
 ALCALA DE (ilSVEUT, an ill built towi of 
 Spain, prov. Valencia. I'op. 4,!»54 in 1857. 
 
 ALCALA DE HENARES {Complutnm), a city 
 of Spain, prov. Madrid, on the right bank of tli'o 
 river of the same name, 17 m, ENE, Madrid. I'dp. 
 0,400 in 1857. It is surrounded by walls tlaiikeil 
 with square towers, has a line (iothic cathedral, a 
 magnificent palace of the archbishop of Toledo, 
 with numerous churches and convents. It is the 
 seat of a university founded in 1510 by the illus- 
 trious statesman, Cardinal Ximenes, which, iiexi 
 to Salamanca, is the most celebrated seminary in 
 Spain : it had, in 1831, 17 colleges and 31 pniles- 
 sors. The cardinal also bequeathed his library in 
 the university, and founded in it a printing ))ress, 
 which produced, at his expense, in 1612-17, tli( 
 famous I'olyglott Bible, denominated the Biblin 
 Complulensia; an imperishable and noble luonn- 
 ment of his i)iety, learning, oiul liberality. The 
 remains of tl.e cariliiial were interred in the oil- 
 lege church. But it is the chief glory of Aleal.i 
 de Henares to have given birth, in 1547, lo Cer- 
 vantes, the inimitable author of Don (Juixote ; ii 
 is also the birth-place of the poet Figuerroa, ami 
 of Solis, the historian of Mexico. 
 
 ALCALA DE LOS GAZULES, a town if 
 Spain, prov. Cadiz, 38 m, E, Cadiz, and 48 m. S. 
 t'eville. Pop. 6,610 in 1867. The town stands in 
 a hilly and bleak district, totally unfit for tillajjc, 
 but well adapted fir rean.'g sheep, which consti- 
 tutes the chief employment of the peoi)le. It is 
 at a very short distance fron the river Barhate, 
 which flows inlo the sea 35 n . SE. Cadiz. Clnso 
 to the town r.rc the remaiir of an oUl Koiiian 
 castle. 
 
 ALCALA .^A REAL, a Knvn of Spain, prov. 
 Jaen, on tlvj (Jualcoton, at an elevation of mure 
 than '■^/".yi feet above the level of the sea, 30 ni. 
 WS».". «iic.!. Pop. 0,738 in 1857. There is a j 
 rich abbey, with various churches, convents, ami 
 a hospital. On the 28th January, 1810, tht 
 French defeated the Spaniards in the vicinity of | 
 this town. 
 
 ALCAMO, a town of the island of Sicily, in the I 
 
Ijitniits mostly 
 
 Kstrmmdiirii, 
 
 mul iH-ar tlic, 
 
 ■o, (III the IHlli 
 
 H)lllfl!lH!l\Vt'(ll 
 
 ■tuf^iiew triKips 
 leli force miclcr 
 Mint 7,tMH» mill 
 nllietl sitlf. tlw 
 10 llritisli, will) 
 )iilt, who coiii- 
 
 Spnin, with nii 
 the front iiT nf 
 I'op. J),! 70 in 
 iiiifactureH. 
 , cni). tieii. Tnm, 
 in oUl-fiuiliiimcil 
 he town I1U.S a 
 It is situntcHl oil 
 ;s worth noliw, 
 l77 and finiclieil 
 * iKiiun f^looiiiy, 
 and dirty; liiii 
 tn the side next 
 (1. Ithasaimli- 
 ;ks, witli varimis 
 win;,', table liiuii, 
 jiaiier. The prc- 
 nrried on in tlui 
 iich at (UH'crt'iit 
 ostantisim, 
 ill bnilt tow. of 
 i4 in 1H57. 
 ttmplutum), a city 
 if^lit hank of the 
 [E.Madrid. I'op. 
 by walls tlanknl 
 othic cathedral, a 
 |)iHhop of Toli'ilii, 
 iivents. It is the 
 510 by the illiis- 
 nes, whieii, next 
 ■ated Hcmiuarv ill 
 'ea and 31 priilcs- 
 |hc(l his library to 
 a printing l>r*'^*' 
 [, in 1512-17, till 
 nated the BMn 
 iiiil noble luiinii- 
 liberality. The 
 erred in the cul- 
 ;f ghiry of AU'alii 
 in 1517, 10 ("tr- 
 Don (Juixote ; it 
 it Figuerroa, ami 
 
 LES, a town m 
 Idiz, and 4« m. S. 
 lie town stands in 
 unfit for tillani, 
 lep, which cuiistj- 
 Vhe peoiile. It i* 
 |ie river IkirlKitc, 
 KE. Cadiz. Clii>« 
 If ail old Koiuaii 
 
 of Spain, prdv. 
 Ilevation of m''^ 
 I of the sea, 30 ni. 
 1857. There is a 
 les, convents, anil 
 luiarv, l«lll, il>''. 
 Kn tiic vicinity nl 
 
 IdofSicUy, iiitttcl 
 
 ALCANIZ 
 
 Vnl ili Mazzarn, on the ^jreat road from Pnlprmo 
 l„ IViiimiii. '-'I in. VVSW. I'alcriuo. Vo\). !!»,5!H 
 ill IHiii. Tlie town is situated on hi^jli f^round, 
 ill a line, open, cultivated country, and is well 
 uliclliTt'd by hiTtio. woods of olive trees. Within 
 the districts of Alcaino, and at no )^reat distance 
 friPin the town, (Inely situated on an eniinen<;e, 
 nre the mafjiiilicent ruins of an ancient Dorio 
 „,„,,,|,.j — (ill that now remains of the once power- 
 ful S(';,'ista. It is a parallelopjram, 1()2 by (Hi feet, 
 anil lias 3(5 columns, wliich, when examined by 
 Swinliiinie, were all, with one exception, perfectly 
 entire. (Swinlnime'sTwo Sicilies, ii.|).2.'SC,'lto.cd.) 
 
 AMJAXIZ (Arab, for trea«uri/), a town of Hnain, 
 iimv. of Ternel, Arafjon, on the r. bank o( the 
 (laiidalouiie on a hill side, above which is a castle, 
 Imilt by James I. of Ara^on, (12 m. SE. Sara^ossa. 
 I'lip. t!,l(H» in 1H57. A handsome coUej^iate church, 
 with a iiolde portico, is the chief Imihiing. It is 
 eiu'iri'lcd liy walls ; and is connected by a canal, 
 ciiiistnictcii by the Moors, with the Ebro. There 
 are in the vicinity rich mines of alum, and tiiriviii>;f 
 planfationH of mulberry and other trees; there is 
 alsii in its vicinity a pond, which produces re- 
 markably larf^e line eels. 
 
 A!>(jANTAI{A (from the Arabic nl-rantumt-al- 
 Hrif, the brid^fe of the sword), a fortilled town of 
 Spain, prov. J'Istremadura ; and the cap. of a dist. of 
 tlidsaiiH! name. I'o)). 4,273 in 1H57. It stands on a 
 stpcp hill, close to the K, bank of the Tafjus (run- 
 iiiii;; here N\V.); was called by the Romans, its 
 fiiiinilcrs, Norbn-Ctesurea ; and they in the rei^?n of 
 Trajan erected the famous bridjjc, whence; its 
 pri'si'iit name is derived. It was of fjranite, its 
 ]en;,'tii 577 ft., breadth 22 ft., span of the two 
 ccntri! arches 110 ft., thickness of jiiers SH ft., 
 ii(>it;lit aliove ri/er-level, 175 ft.; in the middle of 
 the liriilKC was a triumphal arch, 40 ft. hi;;h, with 
 a lioinan inscription. (Labonle's Voyaije I'ittor. ; 
 where see views and sections of the brid^^c. Ponz, 
 viii. |). 1)3.) This fine relic of antiquity was unfor- 
 tunately destroyed, tofjether with some adjoining 
 liiiililiiiKs, by the IJritish troops, June 10, 180!), 
 iiwiiit; to a mistake of military orders, (Napier, 
 viil. ii. p. 31(5.) The river was once navigable up 
 tills town, and before the separation of Portugal, 
 in loHO, a large trade in fruit was carried on with 
 Lisbon (Minano) ; but it now serves only to turn 
 a fi'W niill.s, and to su^iijly the people with dace, 
 harliel, eels and other fish, which greatly abound. 
 (I'miz.) It is joined a lit.ile below Alcantara by 
 tlip Alagon, Jartin and Salor. At the expulsion 
 III' the Moors in 1213, which was aided by the 
 kiiiirhts of San Julian del Pereyro, the defence of 
 the town was entrusted to them, and thoy thence- 
 fcinvard assumed the title of knights of Alcantara. 
 The order is now a dignity of some value, and the 
 mnnnrch has been tlie grand-master since 1405. 
 The knights, i.i 1506, built a handsome convent 
 and church, which still exist. A ch)th minufr';- 
 tiire once existed here; but it has ])erished. 
 lirick-making ami tanning are all the signs now 
 to bo seen of industry. 
 
 Aix)ANTARA, a sea-port to^vn of Braisil, prov. 
 Slaranham, on a hill, 15 m. NW. San Louis de 
 Maranham. The surrounding territory is pro- 
 (hictive of excellent cotton an(l lice ; antl the suit 
 lakes, a little to the N. of the town, might yield 
 the largest supplies if they were properly managed. 
 Estim. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 AI.CANTAUILLA, a dist. and town of Spain, 
 prov. Murcia, 4 m. from the 1. bank of the Se- 
 Cura, 5 m. SW. Murcia, and 50 SVV. Alicante. 
 Pop. 4,083 in 1857. The country around is famous 
 lor its wines. 
 
 ALCAKEZ, a town of Sjiain, prov. La Mancha, 
 on the Uuudarama, 45 miles VVSW. Manzanares. 
 
 ALCOY 
 
 A9 
 
 Pop. 2,!>07 in 1857, The town has a citadel, 
 manufactures of doth, mines of calamine ami 
 copper, and an ai|uediict. 
 
 AL(;A/AU do sal, a town of Portugal.) mi v. 
 Estremadura, on the r. bank of the Sailo, 21) m. 
 SIO. Setubal. Po|). 2,400 in 1857. The town is 
 delightfullv sit. in the midst of an extensive and 
 fertile plain, and is chiefly distinguished for ifn 
 salt works and sedge mat factories. 
 
 ALCA/AU DE SAN JUAN, a town of Spain, 
 prov. La Mancha, 55 m. SE. Toledo, on the railway 
 from Madrid to Alicante. It is the cap. of a dist. 
 which contains K! towns and villages. Pii]t. of 
 town 7,800 in 1857. The dist. (besides its |iasluro, 
 com, oil, and fruits, which are aliundant) produces 
 saltpetre and other minerals, su|i|Hirling above oOO 
 W(/rkmen and their families. 'Ihe town contains 
 several soaji factories. 
 
 ALCESTICH, a jm. and m. town of England, co. 
 Warwick, 103 m. NW. Lond., 1(1 m. WSW. War- 
 wick. Pop. of parish, 2,128 in 18(il. Tlui town, 
 situated at the confluence of the Alne and Arrow, 
 has a handsome (iothic cliurch, a free si-hool, n 
 good corn market, and carries on a pretty hirgo 
 needle manufacture. 
 
 ALCIHA, a town of Spain, prov. Valencia, on 
 an island of the Nucar, 25 m. SSW. Valencia, and 
 so low that the river by rising 12 feet above its 
 usual height, inundates the town; lat. 31)° (J' N., 
 long. 0O25' W. Pop. !),250 in 1857. It is fortified 
 and flanked with towers ; has several churches, 
 convents, and hospitals, with two tine bridges over 
 the Xucar. This is a very ancient town, having 
 been successively occupied by the ('arthaginians, 
 Pomans, and Moors, The inhab. are thritly and 
 intelligent farmers, su|)erior to most in Spain, and 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of the town they 
 raise excellent pimentos and tomatos, in addition 
 to the rice and other jiroducc of the district. 
 About 2 m. E. are some limestone hills, among 
 which is a stalactitic cav(! (Ciieva de Ian Maravillas), 
 visited as a natural curiosity. 
 
 ALCKMAEli. See Alkmaau. 
 
 ALCOHAZA, a town of Portugal, prov. Estre- 
 madura; lat.39° .SC N., long. !)0 W., 15 m. SSW. 
 Leiria, and within 5 m. of the sea, at the con- 
 fluence of two small rivers. Po]). 2,700 in 1857. 
 The town contains a very handsome and exten- 
 sive Cistercian mimastery, founded by Alfonso I., 
 possessing a good library with valuable MSS., and 
 a collection of pictures, among which are jiort raits 
 of all the Portuguese kings, from Alfonso I. to 
 Utmna Maria I. The cotton manufacture is 
 carried on here to some extent. 
 
 ALCOLEA I)]";L KEY, a town of Spain, prov. 
 Seville, 2G iv., NE. of that city, near the r. bank 
 of the(iua<lalqtii\'ir, in the midst of a tine and ]iro- 
 ductive plain. Pop. 2,200 in 1857. When the 
 (iuadalquivir was more navigable than at pre- 
 sent, this town appears t-) have been of some im- 
 portance. The recently completed railway from 
 Seville to Cordova and Jladrid has restored it to 
 bomewhat of its fonVier iirosiierity. 
 
 ALCOKA, a town of Spain, jirov. Valencia, 48 
 m. N. Valencia, in a comitry watered by the Mi- 
 jares. Pop. 5,()0!) in 1857. Its agricultural and 
 industrial ]iroducts are not important. 
 
 ALCOVEP, a town of Spain, prov. Cataluna, 
 on the banks of the small river Angiira. Poj). 
 2,812 in 1857. In the time of Alfonso VIIL it 
 was a place of some imj^ortance. 
 
 ALC(!)y, a town of Spain, Valencia, at the 
 source of the Alcoy, 24 m. N. Alicante. Pop. town 
 and district 27,001) in 1857. liesides churches and 
 convents, it has a college, a considerable manu- 
 factory of tine cloth, soaji works, and iiajier works ; 
 the contiguous territory is very fertile. 
 
 
60 
 
 ALCUDIA 
 
 1^ 
 
 m^'%1 Mk 
 
 AfiCnOIA, a town IxtlonKing to Spnin, nonr 
 Dm N. cxtroin. of tlio i»lc Miijorcii, on a winall )>i'- 
 iiiiiHiilii hclwccn tlic Ixivs of i'ol!(!nNn niid AhMidin; 
 Lit. :i\P MY, Ion),'. 3° 8' !■:. I'op, 1,11(1 in iHo?. 
 Two Ntaj^niuiit pools, or Albiifcnis, lie between it 
 nnd (he Iwy; nnd the exIialntionH from them 
 fjrciilly injure the health of the inhahitantn, a 
 nii;kly nnd miserahle ra(;e. The |X)ols mij^ht be 
 drained, and the Hoil rendered UMeful, if the natives 
 were |)o.sspssed of any enti^rprlse or energy. Coral- 
 flsliln;; employs some -lO vessels in the bay. At 
 nixxitii m. SIC. is a stalactitic cave, visited and 
 well descril)ed by Antilhm, Several other towns 
 in Spain have tlie name uf Alcudia, but none of 
 great importance. 
 
 ALDIJOUOlKill, a horonRh of EnRland, W. R. 
 CO. York, wapentake Claro, 185 m. NNW. Lond., 
 18 m. WNVV. York, Pop. 020 in 1831, and 522 
 in 1801. The borouph enjoyed, since the era of 
 I'hilip and Mary, the ])rivileRe of returning 2 mem- 
 bers to the 11. of C. ; but was disfrunuhiscd by the 
 Keform Act. 
 
 ALDIJOKOUGir, or ALDEnUUGII. a sen-port 
 town of Knglnnd, co. SuA'olk, hund. Plomcsgnto, 
 85 tn. XK. Lond. Pop. of bor. and pn, 1,721 in 
 1801. The borough returned 2 m. to the H. of C. 
 from the 15th Kliz. down to the passing of the 
 Iteform Act, when it was disfranchised. It lias 
 Huii'ered much from encroachments of the sen. 
 For the last few years it has been rising into 
 repute ns a quiet watering place. A short brancli 
 line connects Aldb'Tough with the Great Eastern 
 railwav. 
 
 ALi')KA DEL 1{EV, n town of Spnin, prov. La 
 Mnnclia (Ciutlad Heal), on tlie 1. bank of the .la- 
 balon, an atlluent of the Guadinna, 17 m. S. Ciu- 
 dad IJeal. Pop. 1,050 in 1857, The climate is 
 verv unhealthy, owing to inundations of the river, 
 ■which a very slight industry might obviate. Here 
 is a jialnce of the knights commanders of Calatrava, 
 
 ALDEA GAI>EGA, a town of Portugal, prov, 
 ]']s(remadura, lustuary of the Tagus, on the E. 
 side of the hay of Montijo, Pop, 3,750 in 1858. 
 I'revioiis to the cstablislinient of railways the town 
 was well known as a ftsrry station i)etween Lisbon 
 and the great road to Hadajoz and Madrid. 
 
 ALDKKXEV, an island belonging to Great Bri- 
 tain, in the English Channel, 55 m. S. from the 
 Isle of Portland, and 18 m. W. Cape I^a Hogue in 
 Xormandy. Tlie channel between Aldemey and 
 (he latter, palled the Race of Aldemey, is dan- 
 gerous in s'.onny weather from the strength and 
 ra|)idit.y of the tides. This island is about SJ m. 
 in length l)y ^ m. in breadth, and had in 1801 a 
 poj). of -IjO.'^i, Aldemey is sfronf^ly fortitied, nnd 
 largo sums have been expended in the erection of 
 n harbour for men-of-war. It is a dependency of 
 Gnemsi'V, find celebrated for a small breed of cows 
 which aiiord excellent milk and butter, 
 
 ALDKKSHOT, a par. of England, co. of Hants, 
 'which has come into notice since 1854. in conse- 
 (pieiioe of the eiital)lishm('iit there in that year of 
 a ]MTmanent camp for '20,00lt men. Tiie camp has 
 caused the erection of n town in the immediate 
 iU'ighl)ourh(H>d. Pop. in 1801, 10,720, of wliioh 
 8,11(15 were military. There are railway stations 
 in the N. and E. of the camp. 
 
 ALUSTOXE MOOH, a par. and m, town of 
 England, co. Cumberland, Leath ward, on the bor- 
 <l('rs of Northuml)erlaiid. The town stands on n 
 hill waslicd 1)V the Tvne, The parish contains 
 .■15,050 acres, "Poi). of'par. 0,404 in 1801. It, is 
 chielly celebrateil for its lead mines, formerly ihe 
 ]ir()perty of the earls of Dcr^ver'.twater, and now of 
 Greenwich Hospital. 
 
 ALI'UJO, a town of Spain, in the prov. of Mur- 
 cia, sit, on a mouiilaui side, m, from the 1, 
 
 AI-EITO 
 
 bank of the Sangnnern, n brancli of the Segura, 
 nnd nlxjut 25 m, WSVV. Murcio. Pop. l,02i) in 
 1857. 
 
 ALEN^OX, a town of France, cap, dep, Orno, 
 in nil extensive plnin of the snnie nnme, on Ihc 
 Snrthe, nenr the southern boundnry of the d(>|i., 
 5(! m, SSE, Cnen, on the railwny from Cnen to 
 Mans. Pop. 1<),110 in 1801, The town is agree- 
 ably situated and well built ; streets generally 
 broad ami well paved ; the walls by which it wiis 
 formerly surrounded have nenrly disappeared, niid 
 it has several considerable suburbs. Among tlio 
 public buildings mny be specilied the cnthedral 
 church, the town-house embodying two well-pre- 
 served towers, the only remains of the ancu'iit 
 castle of the Dukes of Alencon, the courts of jus- 
 tice, and the com market. It has a commuiinl 
 college, several hosjjitals, a public library, and an 
 observatory. Its manufactory of the lace, known 
 by the name of Point ttAlenfon, cstaldished by 
 Colbert, still preserves its ancient celebrity, ami it 
 has in addition manufactures of muslin, of coarse 
 nnd line line;i. buckrnm, serges, stockings, am! 
 strnw hnts. There are freestone ounrries in the 
 neighbourhood ; nnd nt Hnrtz, a little to the \V. 
 of the town, are found tlic stones called AU'nijdn 
 diamonds, which when cleaned nnd polished arc 
 said to be little inferior, in respect of lustre, to ilic 
 genuine gem. Several fairs arc held in the town. 
 which is the seat of a considerable commerce. 
 During the religious wars, Al('n(;oii, which was 
 generally attached to the Protestant piu-ty, sutFered 
 severely, 
 
 ALEXQUIR, a town of Portugal, prov, Estrc- 
 madura, 20 m. XNE. Lisbon. Pop. 3,200 in IH.X 
 It is one of the principal points for the defence of 
 Lisbon. 
 
 ALEPPO, a city in the N. of Syria, cnlled by 
 the natives Haleb-cs-Shabha (an. Chalybtm and 
 Beraa); lat, 30° 11' 25" N., long. 37° 10' 15" E.; 
 70 m. ESE. Iskenderoun, and 120 m. XXE. Da- 
 mascus. Its present pop. is estimntcd nt about 
 100,000 ; though from the middle of the 17th to 
 the beginning of the present century it was va- 
 riously estimated at from 200,000 to 258,000. Ac- 
 cording to Russell, it had in 1794, 2.35,000 inliali, 
 of whom 30,000 were Christians, and 6,000 Jew.*, 
 the rest being Mohammedans ; but, according to 
 Volney, the pop. in 1785 did not exceed lOO.dOii, 
 which we incline to think is the more proljaWc 
 stntement. Aleppo occupies nn elevation in tlic 
 middle of an open plain ; and is surrounded by 
 walls 30 ft. high nnd 20 broad; supposed, frcnii 
 the massive style of their architecture, to be Sarii- 
 cenic. The city, within the walls, is about 3J ni, 
 in circ, but including its suburbs, it occupies a 
 circuit of more than (louble that extent. Houses 
 of freestone : they are said to be elegant and du- 
 rable, and those belonging to tlie better classes 
 exhibit an elaborate degree of ornnment in tlieir 
 lofty ceilings decorated with arabesques, and tiieir 
 large windows of painted glass. Roofs Hat, as in 
 most Eastern towns : during the summer muntlis. 
 the inliabitants pass their nights upon them, un- 
 protected by tents or awnings of any kind. These 
 tlat roofs form also a continuous i ice, u]iiiii 
 which it is ea.sy, by climbing over tlu jow parti- 
 tion will)", to pass from one end of the town to 
 another. Streets broad, well paved, and clean— 
 remarkable qualities in the E. : the latter may 
 perhaps lie owing, in ]iart, to the drainage, occa- 
 sioned by the slight elevation of the town and 
 neighbourhood above the surrounding plain. The 
 seraglio, or palace of the pasha, which used to !« 
 admired for its magniticence, was destroyed in 
 1810-20 during the siege of the town by Khour- 
 chid Ahmed Pacha, Mosques numerous, but nearly 
 
 i 
 
ALEPPO 
 
 01 
 
 nil linve hcon injtirod, jind many of them arc in 
 ruiii^i 'f'"" •'"' <'"'*'«•''" "'f 'Ix! i'artli(|iuiki'« wliich 
 Imvc !<ii "I'toii nlmkcn tluH part of Syria; the Dja- 
 niic' Zacliaric, and ICl-Halawc are, however, line 
 remnants of the ancient Kt)inan style ; thev were 
 (iri"iiially CliriHtian cdillces, the latter built, it in 
 .•ini"!, hv the FCinpress Helena. There are ten or 
 twelve' Christian churches, tlirec Christian con- 
 vents, and several wakfs, the conventual establish- 
 iiiciiU of the MohanimedanH. An ancient aquc- 
 iliiit conveys a jdentiful pupply of ^""d water 
 I'riiin two stIrinKS. Thin work is an object of much 
 eiire ; and it is sin^rular tliat, l)eing certainly con- 
 ■itriii'ti'd before the time of Constantine, it should 
 liiivo remained uninjured amid the frequent con- 
 viiMoiis to which the town has been subject. 
 Within the walls of the city is a castle, partly in 
 niiiw, biiill upon an artificial mound, of considcr- 
 jilile lu'i^;ht, and 4 m. in circumference; this is 
 mirrmmded by a broad and deep, l)ut dry ditch, 
 crushed by a "bridge of 7 arches. From this spot 
 is fiinimaiided a very extensive view, bounded N. 
 bv the snowy to))s of the Taurus, W. by the ele- 
 vated rocky bed of the Aaszy ; while to the S. 
 mill F" the eye reaches over the desert as far as 
 the Ku|)hrates. Here are several large khans, 
 iiriiicipally occupied by Frank and otiicr foreij^n 
 merchants. These are handsome and convenient 
 iiiiildiiigs, containing counting-houses and store- 
 riioms raTiged round an interior court, in which 
 arc stands for loading and unloading the beasts of 
 himlen, and a fountain to sujiply tlictii wifli water. 
 At |iresent, liowever, Aleppo can be regarded as 
 little more than the shadow of its former self. 
 Sliffht eartluiuakcs are frequent in its neighboiir- 
 htidd, but in 1822 a tremendous shock overturned 
 most of the public buildings, and reduced the 
 j;reater part of the city to a heaj) of ruins. This 
 calamity has occasioned the erection of a new sub- 
 iirl), materially altering the a])pearance, and injuring 
 the beauty of the town. The houses in this sub- 
 urb, intended at flrst for the temporary shelter of 
 the ])o])ulation that had escaped from the town, 
 were hastily constructed of wood, lath, and plas- 
 ter ; but from want, either of funds to repair their 
 ,i(ire substantial dwellings, or of energy to set 
 ? Miut the work, or probably from a fear of return- 
 in;; into the city, these hastily constructed edifices 
 have become permanent residences, while many, 
 perhaps the greater number, of the large and con- 
 venient stone buildings in the city are either in 
 ruins or tenantless. 
 
 Although upon the borders of the desert, Aleppo 
 is advantageously and agreeably situated. A 
 small stream, called the Koeik (an. Chains), wate/s 
 the \V. side of the town. This brook, which is 
 about the size of the New Kiver, and never dry, 
 swells in the rainy season to a formidable and 
 rapid current : it rises at the foot of Mount Tau- 
 rus, about 70 m. N., and after a course of 80 or 90 
 m. liises itself in a large morass full of wild boars 
 and pelicans. The upper coiuse of the Koeik lies 
 between naked rocks, but near Aleppo and S. of 
 that town, it flows through an extremely fertile 
 valley, in a high state of cidtivation. This river 
 anil the aqueduct before mentioned furnish an 
 alinndaiit and unfailing supjily of water ; and 
 besides the piddic fountains and baths, every pri- 
 vate individual, who chooses to be at the ex|iense 
 (if pipes, may have his house served with water in 
 tlie European fashion. 
 
 The far fameil t/ardens of Aleppo are situated to 
 the SK. of the city, upon the banks of a small 
 rivulet, one of the very few affluents of the Koeik. 
 They are rather orchards than gardens, consisting 
 <if fruit trees, with vegetables growing between 
 iheni, but scarcely any flowers. They arc pleasant 
 
 spots, from the luxurianoo of their productions, 
 and the nightingales that resort to their sliailes; 
 but very little taste is exhibited in their arrange- 
 nuMits. W. of the town the banks of the river 
 are covered with vines, olives, anil tig-trees, ami 
 towards the K. are some plantations of ]iistiU'bio 
 trees, which, though still extensive, are only the 
 remains of much trore majestic groves, for which 
 this coimtry was formerly famous. 
 
 The air of Aleppo is dry aiul piercing, but ac- 
 counted salubrious both to natives and strangers ; 
 th(» former, however, are subject to a jteciiliar dis- 
 ease, said to attack them once, at least, in their 
 lives, the habal'es-sine; 'ulcer,' or ' ring>vorm of 
 Aleppo.' It is, at first, an intlanmiation of the 
 skin, subsequently becomes an ulcer, continues for 
 a year, and generally leaves a scar for life. It 
 usually fixes in the face, and an Aleppine is known 
 all over the E. by the mark left by this disorder, 
 the cause of which is unknown, but suspected to 
 be owing to some qmdity of the water. 
 
 Alep|)o ap|M'ars to have risen to in")ortance on 
 the destruction of Palmyra. Like the latter, it 
 was a convenient emporium for the trade between 
 Europe and the East, so long as it was carried on 
 over laiul. The |)rodu<-tions of Persia and India 
 came to it in caravans from IJagdail and Uiissora 
 to be shipped at Iskeiuleroun aiul Latakia for the 
 different ports of luirope. Ale|)po comnnuiicated 
 also with Arabia and I'.gypt, by way of Damascus; 
 with Asia Minor, by Tarsus; and with Armenia, 
 by Diarbekir. It rose to gr(;il wealth and conse- 
 quence imder the Greek sovereigns of Syria, and 
 into still greater luuler the early Hoinan emperors. 
 In (138 A. 1)., it resisted the amis of the Arabs for 
 several months ; but being liiially taken, it liecame 
 of as much importance under the Sanu'ens, as it. 
 had befori, been uiuler the b'onians or (ireeks. In 
 the 'iiith century it was reunited to the empires 
 of Constantinople, by the arms of /iinisc<'s; but. 
 it soon after fel! into the hands of the Seljiikian 
 Turks, under whose sway it remained during the 
 time of the Cni.sades. It suffered considerably 
 during the imii)tions of the Moiig(ds, in the thir- 
 teenth century, and again, by the wars of Tamer- 
 lane, or Timur I5ec, in the lifteeiitli. Selim I. 
 annexed it, in lolO, to the Turkish empire, of 
 which it continued a part till I8;i2, when it opened 
 its gates to Ibr.'iliim I'aeha, without a siniiinons. 
 Its political revolutions, with the excejition of its 
 two captures by the Tartars, affected its prosjierity 
 only temporarily and in a slight degree ; but the 
 discovery of a passage to India by the Cajte of 
 (Jood Hope struck a iloadly blow at its greatness. 
 Since that event it has continued to decline, and 
 the earthquake of 1822, together with the wars 
 which have distracted Syria, by causing extensive 
 emigrations, have reduced it to comparative in- 
 significance. Its capabilities are, however, very 
 great, and under judicious treatment it is more 
 than probable it would speedily regain a consider- 
 able .share of its former prosperity. It is the mo.st 
 convenient centre for the trade between Persia and 
 the interior of Arabia, on the one hand, and Asia 
 Minor and Armenia on the other: it is, beyond all 
 com])arison, the cleanest and most agreeable town 
 in Syria; and still, even amid its ruins, better built, 
 than almost any other lietween the IJlack Sea and 
 the Euphrates ; its inhabitants, a great proportion 
 of whom are sheriffs (descendants of the Prophet), 
 are the mildest and most tolerant among tlu! pro- 
 fessors of Mohammedanism. Tlie.se cireumstancjes 
 have made it the resort of strangers, and they are 
 not likel}',m peaceable times, to have less uifluence 
 in future. 
 
 Alejjpo formerly po.ssesscd several manufactures, 
 and before the eartluiuake, it was said to contain 
 
 tell 
 
 '•'"'At* 
 
 M 
 
ff2 
 
 ALESSANDRIA 
 
 m\ :J:. 
 
 Max 
 
 12,000 nrti/niiH, cliictly wcnvorH of ^old nnd Hilvar 
 Iiicc, nilk luiil ('iitli)ii ^'ihhIh, anil siniwls. TIicno 
 M'orkH an; now laiipiisliin^^s Ixit tlit-y Hiill v\int, 
 and, with tho pi.stai'liio nuts, furni tlie cliicl' part 
 (if its rcinainin;^ tradf. Its ini|Hirls are pmts" liair, 
 friini Asia Minor; pill mils, from Kurdistan : and 
 Indian jjoods, such as shawls and muslins. From 
 luiropt!, it receives cotton stntt's, cloth, suf,'ar, dye 
 ntulTs, &c. ; VV, I. cdtlcc, thon|;h a iirohihitcd arli- 
 v\v, is also introduced, and is cheaper than that of 
 ]M<H'ha. Within the last few years Alep])o and 
 the surrounding; district Imve sluired in the ])ros- 
 )«'rity which the wide-8])read demand for cotton, 
 (consequent on the stojipanc of su])plic8 from the 
 United States by the f^rcat civil war, produced 
 in many ditferent countries of tho, world. The 
 demand for native manufacturer, csiiecially for 
 the supply of the Kfi^j'ptian markets, also increased, 
 (iieport on the Trade of Aleppo; Consular Reports 
 Jan. to .lime 18(il.) 
 
 AI-KSSANDUIA, or ALKXANDIJIA, an im- 
 )>ortant town and fortress of North Italy, jirov. of 
 ilu! same name, in a marshy country on the Tanaro, 
 near where it is joined by the Uormida, 47 m. 
 ICSl'-. Turin, and iW m. Ni'IN. Genoa. Pop. 5(),.'j4,5 
 in 18(Jl. The town lias a very strong citadel, 
 and was surrounded by Napoleon with extensive 
 fortifications, demolished at his downfall. Of late 
 vears, however, it ha-s risen aj^ain into importance, 
 'riierc arc extensive barracks and armouries, and, 
 next to Verona, Alessandria is now the strongest 
 place in Italy. It is the centre of live lines of 
 railways, spreading in as many ditl'erent directions. 
 'I"h(! town IS well built ; has a cathedral, numerous 
 churches, palaces, and hospitals; a handsome town- 
 liouse, with a gymnasium, theatre, pid)lic library, 
 and large barracks. It has manufactures of silk, 
 cloth, and linen, and some trade. The latter is 
 promoted by its two fairs, held the one at the end 
 of A])ril, and the other on the Ist of October; they 
 are both well attended, not only by Italians, but 
 also by FreiKsh and Swss merchants. Alessandria 
 was founded in the twelfth century, and has fre- 
 (piently been taken and retaken. It has always 
 been reckoned one of the bulwarks of Italy on the 
 side of France. The village and battle-lield of 
 Marengo He a little to the E. of the town. 
 
 ALKUTAN,or ALKUTIAN, ISLANDS, a chain 
 of islands in the N. Pacific ocean, stretching from 
 the ]ieninsula of Kamtschatka, in Asia, to Capo 
 Alaska, in N. America. They are very numercus, 
 occupying a circular arc, cxteniling from 105" to 
 ;l!tr)° E. long., whose chord is in 55° N. lat., and 
 above (iOO m. in length. Apparently, this insular 
 chain consists of the summits of a range of sulj- 
 marine mountains. In 1795, a volcanic inland rose 
 I'rom the sea, in the middle of the line, which, in 
 1807, was found to be enlarged to about 20 m. in 
 circuit, and lava was then flowing down its sides. 
 There are always amongst them several volcanoes 
 in activity, and some, kno'wn to have emitted 
 flames, arc now quiescent. Earthquakes arc com- 
 mon, and sometimes so violent as to throw down 
 the huts of the inhabitants. IJehring's Island, 
 Attoo, and Oonulashka, an; the largest, the first 
 being 10-1 m. in length, but many are only incon- 
 8idc'rai)le rocks. Tl'.cy are intersected by chiinnels, 
 various alike in width, and in the safety oi" navi- 
 gation. All exhibit a barren aspect; high and 
 coiiii-al mountains, covered with snow during a 
 great portion of the year, being the most promi- 
 nent features. Vegetation scanty ; there arc no 
 trees nor any jilants surpassing the dimensions of 
 low shrubs .uid bushes. IJuL abundance of fine 
 grass is produced in the more shelti-red valleys, and 
 ditt'cront roots, either indigenous or introduced re- 
 cently. The seas abound iii lish, ami the feuthcretl 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 tribes nro numerous. The himting tho sea ottor. 
 whos(c skin affords a fur of the finest (piality, wum 
 formerly carried on to a great extent; fh"y wen- 
 wiint to be caught in thousands; but their iiuJiH- 
 criminate destruction has greatly reduced tlie 
 ninnbir of those now taken. The seal is partiiu- 
 larly valuable, affording tho inhabitantit a constant 
 supply both of food and clothing; the thin nicin- 
 brane of the entrails is also converted into a sul)- 
 stitute for glass. Foxes are the principal quadni- 
 l)eds. The natives are of middle size, of a dark limwii 
 com])lexion, resembling an intermediate rai-e 1k'- 
 twcen the Mongol Tartars and North Americans. 
 Their features, which are strongly mark<'d, have an 
 agreeable .vnd benevolent cx|)re8sion. Hair stmn;; 
 and wiry ; beord scanty ; eyes black. They are not 
 deficient in capacity, and the different works of I Kith 
 sexes testify their ingenuity. They are indnlcnt. 
 peaceable, and extremely hospitable; but stulilMirn 
 and revengeful. Tattooing, which was conimn:: 
 among the females, is on the donline, but t'lcv ]irnc- 
 tisc a hideous mode of distiguring themselves, liy 
 cutting an aperture in the under lip, to which vurioiis 
 trinkets are suspended. These (Uiforniitics, iiowevtr. 
 arc less common than when the islands were :li,'^ 
 covered, the more youthful females having learned 
 that they arc no recommendation in the eyes of 
 their liiissian \i8itors. A men takes as many wives 
 as he can maintain ; they are obtained by purclia.ic, 
 and may be returned to their relations; or tlie 
 same woman may have two husbands at once ; and 
 it Is not uncommon for men to exchange their 
 wives with each other. Their subsistence is prin- 
 cipally obtained by fishing and hunting. Their 
 dwellings are spacious excavations in the earth, 
 roofed over ■with turf, as many jis 50 or even laii 
 individuals sometimes residing in the different 
 divisions. Only a few of the islands are inhal)ited; 
 but in former times the population is said to liavc 
 been more considcndilc. Its decrease is ascribed to 
 the exactions of the Uussian American Comi)in)y, 
 who have factories in the islands. Its present 
 amotmt ha.s been variously estimated, at f'r(>in ,i 
 few hundreds to 10,000. The islands were partially 
 discovered by Uehring, in 1741. 
 
 ALl'LVAXDKKTTA. Sec Iskendeuoon. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Ifkendinjijeh), a cele- 
 brated city and sea-port of Ef^ypt, so called from 
 Alexander the Great; by whom it was either 
 founded, or raised from obscurity 332 years n.c, 
 about 14 m. WSW. of the Canoj)ic, or most \V, 
 mouth of the Nile, on the ridge of land between 
 the sea and the Ixjd of the old lake Mareotis. Lat. 
 of lighthouse SP 11' 31" N., long. 2!)° 51' 30" E. 
 Its situation was admirably chosen, and docs 
 honoiurto the discernment of its illustrious founder. 
 Pre\'iously to the discovery of the route to Iiuliii, 
 by the Cape of Good Hope, Egypt was the prin- 
 cipal centre of the commerce between the E. anJ 
 \V. worlils ; and it so happens that Alexanth-ia is 
 the only port on its N. coast that has deep water, 
 and is accessible at all seasons. It has not, it is 
 true, any natural communication with the Nile, 
 but this defect was obviated in antiquitv by cutting 
 a canal from the city to the ri\Tr. Al'ter Alexan- 
 dria came into the possession of the Saracens, this 
 canal was nllowed to fall into disrepair; and if was 
 not to be supposed that any attempt would be 
 made to reopen it, while Egypt continued suliject 
 to the Turks and Mamelukes. But Mchemet ^VJi, 
 the late ruler of Egypt, being anxious to acquires 
 na\'y, and to revive the commerce of the counlr}-, 
 early perceived the importance of AlexaiiilTia. 
 both as a station for his fleet, and a cei;tro o*' com- 
 merce. In furHierance of his views he gn utly im- 
 jiroved, beautified, and strengthened thj -nty, and 
 restored the ancient communication v.ith the Kile 
 
AI.EXANDRIA 
 
 68 
 
 ^ the Roa ottor, 
 »!Ht (iimlily, was 
 tent; tlioy wirt 
 Imt their iiulin- 
 y lediicctl till' 
 '. seal in partiiu- 
 tant« a cdiistaiii 
 
 the tliin nioiii- 
 jrtcil into a m\>- 
 rincipal qiindni- 
 ;,(ifa<larklir(iwii 
 nediate rai^e 1*- 
 ortli Americaiiii, 
 marked, have an 
 lon. Hair »tripi\|,' 
 k. They arc not 
 cnt works of I Kith 
 hey arc indolent, 
 )le; but still ilxiru 
 ch was coninio;; 
 :ie, hiltt'.ey i)rac- 
 n; themselves, l)y 
 i,towhichvarimis 
 irniities, nowevir. 
 ishmds were Us- 
 es having; leanipil 
 )n in the eyes of 
 tes as many wivca 
 lined by piirchahc, 
 relations; or the 
 auds at once ; ami 
 [) exchange their 
 iibsistencc is prin- 
 l hunting. Tlieit 
 ions in the earth, 
 ns 50 or even loi) 
 
 in the ditTereiit 
 nds are inhahjtwl; 
 ion is said to have 
 reasc is ascribed to 
 nerican Com)mny, 
 Inds. Its present 
 imated, at from a 
 mds were partially 
 
 [KENDEKOOU. 
 
 miinjijeh), a cole- 
 'j>t, so called from 
 )m it was cither 
 y 332 years ii.c, 
 topic, or most W. 
 J of land between 
 ikc Mareotis. bat. 
 fnt,'. 2i)° 51' 30" E. 
 chosen, and ihiei 
 illustrious founder, 
 he route t« India, 
 lypt was the \iriii- 
 ;tween the E. anJ 
 that Alexaiub-ia is 
 it has deep water, 
 It has not, it is 
 [m with the Nile. 
 tiquit V by cuttini; 
 jr. Al'ter Alexan- 
 [thc Saracens, this 
 irepair; andiMvas 
 tttempt would be 
 continued suliject 
 IJut Mehemet^Vll, 
 Ixious to acquire a 
 pc of the country, 
 [e of Alexaiulria, 
 j1 a centre o*' cora- 
 ws he gn utly im- 
 jned til J 'uty, ami 
 ion vath the Kile 
 
 liv inran-* ol tlie Mahmoudieh onnnl from Alex- 
 (inilria I" l''i>iiah, a distance of •!« ni., opened i:i 
 IMll). Il '■■' '"' '•*' I'ejfrctted that its (construction is 
 jn several respects defective; but i( is notwitli- 
 siandiiif; of ^'reat advantii>;e. Alexandria is built 
 iiiirilv nil a ]K'ninsula, consistiuf; of the island of 
 I'haros, so famous in antiquity for the lighthouse 
 iiriiliaros, whence it has derived its name, and 
 iiiirtly on the isthmus by which that island is now 
 eiiiHUM'ted with the mainland. The ])rincipal ]iul)- 
 lic iiiuliiiufjs, as the palace of the pacha, the 
 arseiinl. the hospital, ^c, are on the |)eninsula,'and 
 the town principally on the isthmus. The ancient 
 eitv wiui situated on the mainland opposite the 
 iniiileni tovvn ; and the vast extent ol its ruins 
 wiinld sutlii'ieiitly evince, were there no other cvi- 
 (Iciiees. its wealth and fO'catnesa. 
 
 ,v|e\.indria has two porfx. That on the \V. 
 i-JHe of the lity, called the old port, the EunoMitit 
 lit' (lie ancients, is the largest and by far the best. 
 'I'lie eiiiriiiu'c to it is narrow and rather ditlicult ; 
 tint when in. ships may anchor off the town in 
 friJiii 'I'l to l'» feet water, and there is good anciior- 
 ajre ill deeji water all along the shore. The new 
 harlMiiir, or liiat on the E. side of the town, is 
 vcr\ inferior, being comparatively litnited, having 
 a Imil !i:id rocky bottom, and being exposed t(.' 
 the N. wiiiils, 
 
 A dry dock was constructtd in the course of 
 IKiT. Naval and military bosjiitals have been 
 established, the fonncr under the direction of an 
 llnglisli. the latter u' a French (hietor. A ((iiaran- 
 tiiie lioard exists under i\w direction of tlie con- 
 sul, :r body, to which the I'acha has coiitided this 
 iiraiieh oi' service, and connected with which a 
 large and com;u(dious lazaretto has latidy been 
 creeled outsidt! the wall.s. V(cs.sels arriving from 
 aiiv of the infected port.^ nf the Levant, are sid)- 
 jecied to quarantine, tlie same as in Europe; there 
 is also a school for the marine, and a board com- 
 posed of the admirals and higher otlicers of the 
 tieef, for examining into the merits of candidates, 
 maintaining the discipline and regulating every 
 ninrter connected with that branch of service. The 
 Fj.iich system has been adopted in every dcpart- 
 nieiit ol the ser\'ice, and to the French tlic Pacha 
 was chietly indebted for the advances he made. 
 
 On the peninsula has been erected the Sr/inna, 
 (ir range of warehouses for the rcccjition of the 
 siir|ilus |)rodiice of lig.^•llt, and hither it all conies, 
 with the exception of tliat exported from Suez 
 and Cos,seir, for the maintenance of the iirmy and 
 Hoot in the Kcd Sea. According to tlie late 
 Pacha's monopolising system, the whole produce 
 ol'tlic country came into his hands, at prices fixed 
 hy himself, without the option of resorting to 
 other markets l)cing allowed to the grower. And 
 not only did this apjdy to the produce of I'-gyjit, 
 hilt to that of the adjacent countries, wherever 
 the Pacha's influence extended, embracung the 
 fdffee of Mocha, the gums and tlnigs of i\jabia, 
 [ the tobacco of Syria, elephants' teeth, feathers 
 from the interior, &c., all of which were purchased 
 for him in the first instance, the prohil)ition of 
 trading in their, applying to every one, and carrv'- 
 inj- with it the risk of confiscation, if contra- 
 vened; — the whole of this produce, native a" well 
 as exotic, being collected in Alex-^ndria was sold 
 i)y public auction, in the same way exactlj' as 
 auctions are conducted in Europe, the iqiset price 
 Iwing tixed according to the latest rc])ort of the 
 markets, the merchant having the privilege of 
 examining the article in the schuna before the 
 sale, and being required to pay in cash the pri'jc 
 at which it was knojked down to him within a 
 limited number of days when delivery took ]dace. 
 The iiriiicipal articles'thHSi!ispo.sed of were cotton, 
 
 which was hy far the largest, rice, opium, indigo, 
 gni.is, cotVee, senna, lienip, linseed, and tin* co- 
 tiifstihili of the country, wheal, barley, beans, 
 lentils, &c. Hut this system is now much modi- 
 fied. I>uring the ascendency of Mtbemet Ali, 
 every otln-r branch of industry was sacrificed to 
 the raising of cotton; but since his demise a more 
 rational system would appear to be followed, 
 though the stimulus caused by the failnri! of tin; 
 cotton supplies from the United" Stat eh again (caused, 
 in late yer.r.s, the revival of the cotton culture. 
 The greater part by far of the trade of the jiort is 
 carried on with England, but she has also a con- 
 sideralile trade with Marseilles, Trieste, Constanti- 
 no]de, Leghorn, the Isles of the Archipelago, Ike. 
 
 According to the rejiort of the Alexandrian 
 cnstom-house, it appears that, during the year 
 !«(U, the total valiic of the exjiorts from Egypt U\ 
 all parts was '2,(i3H,>i22/. ; but a very great incn^a-se 
 has since taken place. The exjiorts of cotton to 
 (Jreat Ilrilain alone ainouiited in l«<i2to:!,723,t 10/.; 
 IH(;3. H,H4\J>'t7l.; and in l«(!l to M,30(),507/. The 
 imports in lHli2 from (ireat ISritain, of liritisli and 
 Irish jiroduce and maniifacliin^s, amounted to 
 2.tO.">.!)H2/. ; in \XiV.i to 'l,.lHi,210/., and in ivtil to 
 0.070,221/. England of (onrsc had by far the 
 lar.:;est share of lioth the imitort and exjtort trade. 
 The (jutintitii's of cotton exported to (Jreat [Iritain 
 were, in 1H(;2, .')20,«1)V cwts.'; 1K().% «:i.",.2M!t cwts.; 
 and IKOI, 1,120,17!) cwts., .so that the increa.se in 
 value has been much greater than in quantity. 
 
 Tlie exjiorts from Egypt of other arliid'es in 
 which tbere has been less variation were, in IWil, 
 
 
 
 Valuo 
 
 
 Voluo 
 
 Wool . 
 
 , 
 
 . .€L'S,3I7 
 
 Onms , 
 
 . £!»l,:)sO 
 
 Beans 
 
 . 
 
 . 207,:!IH 
 
 Ivorv 
 
 ;iK,!M).'i 
 
 Wheat 
 
 , 
 
 . 37(1,721 
 
 Hico . 
 
 . 1'J.'.,S!I4 
 
 Barley 
 
 , 
 
 fifi.llO 
 
 Cotton seed 
 
 . 45,;!:i(! 
 
 Indian 
 
 com 
 
 . 45,.'i74 
 
 
 
 The imports from (Jreat Britain in 1864 included 
 cotton manufactures of the value of 2,4!t2,l)02/. sig., 
 the amount in l«r)3 having been 1,810,130/. The 
 Iirincipal other im])ort.s from (Jreat Itritain were 
 machinery, in-":, w<)(d!cn and silk goods, hardware, 
 timlter, drug... and other cidonial ])roducts, anil 
 coals, besides the quantities imported for the use 
 of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company 
 and of the l''ii.st India Company's steamers at 
 Suez. 
 
 There is no doubt that the population has trebled 
 or quadriqiled since the opening of the Mahmou- 
 dieh canal, and it is (•till on the increa.se. It might 
 amount in all, in 1K03, ti; 150,000, including troops 
 and arlizans in the arsenal. A good del of thi.< 
 incrciise has taken place at the exjiensc of Kosetta, 
 which has latterly very much declined. The po- 
 pulation of Alexandria is of a mixed character, 
 consisting, besides the native Turks and Arabs, of 
 Amienians, (ireeks, Smyniiotes, Syrians, Moghre- 
 biiis, or men from the Barbnry states, Maltese, 
 Jews, and Euro])e;ins of almost every nation, in 
 PMcb. numbers, that it may be questioned, whether 
 the strangers, in a commotion, W(udd not be more 
 than a match for the natives. The English have 
 numerous commercial houses; as have also the 
 French, Italians, and (Jrecks. Amateur P'reiujh 
 and Italian theatres exist, the iicrt'orinanccs iu 
 which rival those of the Acadi'inie Koyale and 
 San Carlos ; balls and routes are givtci) in the most 
 ajiproved style of fa.shion; a commercial journal 
 has been establisiied in the Italian language, which 
 however doe3 not treat of pcditics; Freni b mo- 
 distes, tradcrsmep in all de)iartincnts, and shops 
 tlLSjilaying every article of funiiture, and of male 
 and female attire, from the Parisian I)oir.ict of t'.e 
 latest fashion to the very humldest article of dress, 
 all conspire, in conjunction with the style of the 
 
 4'1 
 
 
64 
 
 ALEXANDRIA 
 
 IK ■'^■ 
 
 :^^^ , I 
 
 iiiiildinf^, nnd pretty cqiml bnlnncc of liat niul 
 tiirlian, to tukn iiwuy froin iIiih pliicu tlio u|)]K>iir- 
 niic<i of iin Oricniiil city; and it \h imly after 
 leaving if, ami iiiirHiiiiif; )iis way to Cairo, that 
 the NiraiiKer Irtiiy I'ccIh tliat liu in in the KaHt. 
 Here also exixt Cathohe and (ireek eonveiilM, 
 where divine Herviee in iH^rforined on SundayH and 
 liolydavs to tlie people of thoHe perNiiUHionH : the 
 AnnenuniH, Syrian (.'hri.Mtiunx, and JewH have also 
 plaeeH of won<liip, I'rotestunts alone licinft without 
 a temple. There is little intereourxe hetwcen the 
 iiiitive.s and FrankH, cxeept in the way of huHiiicHtt. 
 They oeeiipy dixtinet (puirterH of the city, the 
 former Hceludin^ their fumiliefl, and maintuiniii;; 
 all the reHcrvc of Oriental life, the siesta, pipe, uiul 
 cotlee filling up three-fourths of their time; the 
 latter adhering to the customs of their own coun- 
 try, in tlress, furniture, the use of carrift^es nnd 
 horses, and indeed in all thin^rH hut the siesta, the 
 ]iipc, and immuring themselves during the heat 
 of the day, wherein they imitate the Orientals. 
 Latterly also, after the example of some of the 
 hi;r|ier Turks, several of the richer Frank mer- 
 chants have ohtained grants of land from the 
 I'acha, on the hanks of the canal, nnd built houses 
 and made gardens, which serve tu beautify niul 
 give interest to tiie neighbourhood. 
 
 The Turkish quarter of the city consists of a 
 mnnber of narrow, irrej^ular, tortuous, filthy 
 nnd ill built streets and ba/.aars, with h.irdly any 
 };ood houses but those of the Pacini's olliuers, and 
 without a siuf^le pid)Hc huildiiifr, mosque, or other 
 object worthy the least attention, the bu/aurs beinf{ 
 mean, and hut very ii.ditt'erently provided. The 
 Frank quarter, on the otlier hard, jjrcsents several 
 streets of well built substantial houses, with pxMl 
 ohops ; in particular the square, which is the resi- 
 dence of the consuls and principal merchants, 
 called the I'iazza (irande, that may well bear 
 comparison, for the size nnd stylo of its buildings, 
 with some of the best streets of I'aris or London, 
 llirnhim Pacha owned the preater part of these 
 houses, which he built on speculation, and for 
 which he drew rents, varying from 200/. to 240/. per 
 annum. The whole town is built of stone and brick, 
 dug up from the foundations nf the ancient city. 
 
 During ])art of the year Alexandria is supplied 
 with water from the canal ; and during the otlier 
 ]iortion, from the cisterns of the ancient city (the 
 only portion of its public works that has been 
 s)iarcd), which, at the ptricil of the inundation, 
 when the canal is full, arc thence tilled, and to 
 which recourse is only bad, when the water of the 
 canal, by being stagnant, becomes untit for use. 
 As the inundation advances, the old stagnant 
 water is run otf into the sea, and the canal being 
 tilled brim full with fresh, is shut u]) at both ends, 
 and so remains till the following year, serving in 
 the meantime for navigation, for "the use of man 
 and beast, and for the irrigation of those small 
 portions of land on its banks, that have been re- 
 claimed from the desert, and brought into culti- 
 vation. The climate of Alexandria is considered 
 vcrj' salubrious, the heats of summer, which rarely 
 e:ccecd 85" Fuhr,, being tcm|)ered by the Etesian, 
 or NVV. winds, which prevail for nine months of 
 the year. In winter, a good deal of rain falls, 
 which, however, is confined to the const, and is 
 probably the cause, coiii)lod with the wretclied 
 habitations and miscrj- of tlie poorer classes, why 
 the plague so often makes its a])])earance here, 
 \Vere the labouring classes better clad, housed, 
 and fed, there is little doubt that this scowge 
 would soon be no longer heard of. 
 
 The municipal government of the city is en- 
 trusted to the governor, who has inider him a 
 oomiuandant de place, and uu uiiiuer, called the 
 
 Ilnshagn, or chief police magistrate, wIiorc duty it 
 is to see that onh'r and quiet are maintained, I'lio 
 city is besides divich-d into (piarters, over ('acli of 
 which a sheikh presides, who is res|Minsible to iIh. 
 governor for the peace of his district: and ninrc. 
 over, each trade and profession has its shiekli, 
 whose duty it is to collect the taxes, and to sec in 
 the g(MMl behaviour of the members. Guard-houses 
 are also distributed all over the city, and the niilj. 
 Inry are instructed to take all riotous and disor- 
 derly jwrties into custody, the oflicer of tlu! giiiinl, 
 if the ottender be m native, having authority to 
 inflict summary |iimishrnent by the bastinaiht ;' Imu 
 if n Frank, he must send him to his own ('onsiij. 
 to bo punished according to the laws of his own 
 country. The system works so well, that a nmri' 
 orderly place, or one freer from riot or criine,'i:i 
 rarely to be seen ; ind(>ed, when crime is ccitn- 
 mitted, it is usually by F'rank u|m)II Frank ; imil 
 then, from defects in the consular system, it ahiinst 
 always escapes detection. Uesides the liasha;;ii, 
 or pidice court, there is the Meh-kemeh, or Kinti'j 
 court, where all civi' (juestions l)etweeu natives 
 arc (ietcmiined; and u commercial court, with 
 F' rank judges, but presided over by a Turk, forik'- 
 ciding questions between the F'raiiks and natives, 
 where the latter are defendants: the F' ranks 
 themselves, besides exemption from all taxes anil 
 burdens of every sort, being amenable only when 
 defendants to their own consular courts, anil tu 
 the laws of their resjiective countries. 'I'liesc 
 immunities have been secured to the F'raiiks Ijy 
 convention with the I'orte, and are rigidly iii- 
 sisted u|H)n here as well as in every other part of 
 the Turkish empire. 
 
 Alexnndria, as everj' one knows, has recentl;- 
 acquired an unusual degree of impo»tnnc<! fim 
 her having become the central and principal sta- 
 tion in the overland route to India. Her jwirt is 
 now regularly and frequently visited by steanicn 
 from F^iigland, Marseilles, and other places. Her | 
 hotels and streets arc crowdetl with passt-n^'ers 
 going to or returning from India, C'eyl<i<ii, tlie 
 ICastem Archijielago, Australia, &c. She hn.*. in 
 consequence, become the centre of a considentUi' 
 transit trade ; and the influx of so many vi^rdrs 
 has not only add<'i greatly to her wealth, liu; i; 
 has, at the same time, given a powerful stimiiius | 
 to industry and civilisation in all parts of K^'\|it, 
 Alexandria is now connected by railwnv witli 
 Suez and the sea-bathing village of Kamleli, 7 in. | 
 distant, as well as with Cairo, 130 m. distani, 
 The shortest sea-route, from Southampton to I 
 Alexandria, is 2,0U0 m., the average time by steam | 
 11 days. 
 
 History. — The Ptolemies, to whom Egj'pt 
 on the demise of Alexander the Great, made I 
 Alexandria the metropolis of their empire ; anu ii 
 became, under their liberal and enlightened j;i>- 
 vernment, one of the greatest and most tlourisliini; [ 
 cities of antiquity. VVhen it was annexed 
 Augustus to the empire of Home, it 's said to have I 
 occupied a circumference of 15 miles, aiul to hiive | 
 had i500,000 free inhabitants, besidf s sla>'e>', ivli 
 were probably quite as numerous. It was rfiju- 1 
 larly and magniticently built ; an', was travcr*! I 
 by two great streets, each m.' c tiian I (Id tki | 
 across, and the large extendin,r more than 1 ni. 
 from E. to \V. Under the Ptolv.iiies and the I 
 1-i'omans, Alexandria was the entrejjot of the prin- 
 cipal trade of aiiti(|uity, being the market wlitrp 
 the silks, spices, ivory, slaves, and other prodiici* I 
 of India, Arabia, and Kthiopia, and the corn of I 
 I'2gypt, were exchanged for the gidd, silver, and [ 
 other jn'oduL'ts of the W, world. The inhnliitanu 
 were distinguished by their industry; either *x I 
 and every age were engaged in laborious occiipa- 
 
ALEXANI RIA 
 
 (ioiiK, and even tlut Iiinio uin li>c l)linil hnl ^m- 
 iiIdViiiciilH .siiilcil to their (■oiiit°<iiiii. ^-.loiiu; the 
 irji'icipjil iimiuil'ncturi'H wen- tlitwc oi ^jWi-hm, liiicn, 
 ;iiiil |)a|iyrii>*, Ihu |iii|H<r of aiilii|iiity, I'liilt'r the 
 KiJiiiim iinporiirs, I'^K.viit hiciniu! n j)riiici|)al Km- 
 iiiirv for the su|i|ily nl Ititly; and itH ]Ml.■tt*(^s^4U)ll 
 WIU4 roi'kiiiiud of Iht! iitiiiDst iiii|iort)iii('(>, and 
 walilH'd oviT with |K'ciiliar care. Variims jirivi- 
 Icp'^ mid iintniinitii's were! roiircrri'd n|Hin Alcx- 
 niiilriii; many ol" her inhaliilanls were luhuittiMl 
 III till' ri^'lits of Itninan citi/.i'ns, and hur 'weahh 
 iiiiii |iri>.s|ii'rity cdiitinncd inidiininishcd. 
 
 Itiii Ah'xandria was still inon^ dislin;;uis)i(>d l>y 
 liiT ('niiiu'M(-(^ in litiTatnrc and pliilosopliy tlian by 
 licrciimiiicri'i! and riches. The fonndalion of licr 
 iiri'-cniiiieniH! in tliis respect was laid hy the 
 I'liilcniies, wlio foinidod the ninseuin and library 
 (• tlnjitnliic n'ljum riiru'iiue eyrei/ium n/iits,' Livy), 
 iliiil'artenvards lH'<'aniesofani<ins,at tlie same time 
 lluil liiey K'lvc (lie most nnniilicent encouroRe- 
 iiHMit to lileritnn!' and learned men. This pa- 
 iriiiiiine lieinj; eontiinied by the em|KTors, Alex- 
 aiiilria was, for several centiiries, a distinguished 
 seal (if science, literal ur(' and |)hiloHopliy. (Gene- 
 rally, however, her literati were more distin- 
 I'lii'-licd for learning and reseandi than for original 
 };ciiiiis. She produeiid a host of gramnnirians and 
 critics; and the names oi' Knclid, Apollonins of 
 IVrfja, I'tolemy, Kratosihen.'s, Nieomachus, Hero- 
 iiliiliis, Zdpynis, Ae., are b,it a few of those most 
 disiiiigiiislicd in the schools of getimetry, astro- 
 iiiiniy, gcograjihy and medicine, that Hourished in 
 Alexandria. Ihit her jihihisophy was the most 
 iilrikiiig feature of Alexandria, in a literary point 
 111' view. The iidlnx of <loctrines from the K. and 
 \V. schools jirodneed a siiignlar''oiilliet of systems; 
 wliich ended in an attempt of the philosophers 
 A'liiniinius, I'lotiiuis, and Porphyry, to establish 
 (111 eclectic or universal system by selecting and 
 MciuJiiig doctrines taken from the )irinci|>ul exist- 
 ing' s;-stems, |)articnliirly froin those of I'ytha- 
 (.'iiriis ir.id I'lato. Christianity was not cxempte<l 
 Ircmi the iiilliiencc of this spirit; and on its intro- 
 duction, it was strangely alloyed with Platonism ; 
 anil |irin''iples for expounding of its doctrines 
 were lai'i down that would now be with ditliculty 
 admitted. 
 
 The schools of geomefrv', astronomy, physic, 
 
 and other branches of science, maintained their 
 
 ri'|iiitatiiin till A.i>. (i-lO, when, after a siege of 
 
 II mtiiiths, Alexandria was taken by Amrou, 
 
 fli'iicnil of the caliph Omar. The conquerors 
 
 wre astiinishcd by the greatness of the prize; 
 
 iiiid Amrim, in acquainting the caliph with its 
 
 [ caiuiirc, said, ' We have taken the great city of 
 
 I tiif West. It is impossible for me to enumerate 
 
 I ilie variety of its riches and beauty ; and 1 shall 
 
 ciijitciit myself with observing, that it contains 
 
 1 4,11(1(1 iialaces, 4,(UI0 baths, -100 theatres or places 
 
 (if ainusement, 12,000 shops for the sale of vege- 
 
 I lalilo fiioil, iuid 40,000 tributary Jews. The to\ra 
 
 lias been subdued by force of aims, without treaty 
 
 lor capitiilntion.' 
 
 It was on this occasion that the famous library 
 |i. said to have been destroj-ed, conformably to 
 lie fanatical decision of the caliiih, that 'if the 
 |\vritiiigs of the 'ilroeks iigreed with the book tif 
 Idiiil, they were iiseless, and need not be prc- 
 iMrvi'd; if they disagreed, they w>re pernicious 
 |.nnil might to be destroyed.' This biirbarous judg- 
 jmi'iit lieiiig carried into effect, the books and 
 Iniamiscripts were distributed among the 'tjOOU 
 tliatli!) belonging to tlie city ; and so prodigious 
 iwas their number, that six months are said to 
 lliavi' been required for their cvmsumjition. Such 
 lis llic' tale that has so often excited the iiidigna- 
 liii'ii and H'gret of scholars and the admir(.rs of 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 ALOARINEJO 65 
 
 ancient gonins, Hnt Uil.oon has shown that it 
 has no goiHl foundation: it rests on tlu; solitary 
 Htateinent of Abnipharagins, who wrote six cen- 
 turies after the event, and is not noticed by 
 those more ancient aniialists, who liave tiarlicii- 
 hirly described the siege and capture of Ilie cily. 
 It is, besides, repugnant to the character of the 
 caliph and his general, and to the policy of Iho 
 Mohammedans, Kven if it did lutcur, the loss bait 
 been nnich exaggerated, tireat part of the library 
 of the I'lolemies was accidentally consnined by 
 the tire which look place during the attack on thu 
 city by (liesar; and either the whole, or the prin- 
 cipal part of the library subsequently coUci^leil 
 was destroyed A, I), .'tM',), when the tenq'de of Sera- 
 pis, the most magnilicent structure of the cily, 
 was demolished by the enthusiustic zeal of Ilie 
 Christians. 
 
 Alexiuidria contimiod progressively to dediiu! 
 till, in l't!>7, its ruin was consunnnaled by the dis- 
 covery of the piissiigi' to India by the (.'ajie of 
 (iood llo|ie, Kut there can be no doniil, Uft pre- 
 viously slated, that it is destined to recover ii 
 large portion of its ambient importance, it liii'< 
 necessarily iK^come the centre of the (MUnmiuii- 
 cations carrieil on by uteain between Europe and 
 India. 
 
 The cisterns which, ns already seen, nro still in 
 pretty good |)reservation, are the principal monu- 
 ments of the inicient city that have outlived lli<! 
 injuries of time, and the ravages of barbarians. 
 Tlie catacombs are also comparatively enlire. 
 The magnilicent column, improperly called I'om- 
 pey's I'illar, seems to have been erected in the 
 reign of Diocletian : its shaft consists of a shigle 
 block of granite, (W feet in height. Two obelisks, 
 vulgarly called Cleopatra's Needles, of which only 
 one is erect, are said to ha\'u formed thu cntruncu 
 to the palice of the Ciesars. 
 
 Ai-i';xAN'i>uiA, a city and port of entry of the 
 Unitetl States, (list. Columbia, on the W. bank of 
 the Totomac, (> m. S. VVashington. I.at. 3»° ID' 
 N., hmg. 77° 18' W. l'oi>. 12,(;.J2 in 1«G0. It is 
 well built, the streets crossing each other, at right 
 angles, and it has commodious harbour with deep 
 water, the largest ships coming close to the 
 wharfs. Hallways c(jiinect the city with New 
 York, Uoston, and all the important towns of the 
 United States. 
 
 ALEXiVNDKOVSK, a town of Russia in En- 
 rope, gov. Ekaterinoslalf, caj). district on the 
 Onieper at the bottom of the cataracts, 140 ni. 
 N.E. Cherson. Pop. 4,217 in IMoH. It is forti- 
 fied; and ilisplays considerable activity fnmi its 
 being the place where merchandise conveyed 
 from Ekatennoslaff by waggon, to avoid the cata- 
 racts in the river, is again sliip]icd. 
 
 ALFAUO, a town of Sjiaiii, jirov. Soria, on the 
 banks of the Alama, close to its junction with the 
 Ebro, 12 m. W. by S'. Tudela. I'liere is a military 
 nwid between this pluce and Logrono. Pop. 5,043 
 in !.s,J7. 
 
 .\LFKLD, a town of Iliuiovor, prov. Ililde- 
 slieini, ut the contiux of tiicLeinc and \Varue, 
 and at the railway from llildesheim to (iottiugen. 
 Pop. 2,700 hi IMIil. The to»vn has paper and oil 
 mills. Flax and hops ui coiisiderable qiiantiiies 
 are grown in the neighbourhood. 
 
 ALFRKTOX, a |iar. and m. town of I'^nglan.i, 
 CO. Derby, bund. Scarsdale, 10 m. NNK. Derby. 
 Pop. of town 4,0!)(l, iiud of parish ll,r)4'J in l-SOl. 
 The inhabiliiiits of the town are principally em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of sto(;kings and 
 earthenware, and in the adjoining collieries. 
 
 ALGAKl N KJO, a town of Spain, prov. ( iranada, 
 close to th(> froniiers of t^irdoba. near the right 
 bank of the Uenil, in acounirv whose abundant and 
 
 F 
 
 
 '^k 
 
60 
 
 ALG.UirOIlO 
 
 IMP 
 
 '*jri 
 
 i i»iii I 
 
 ,,. », . 
 
 CirtiliKitiR BtronmH ('(ill into llmf rivor. PnntiirnRP 
 anil lilliiKO fiinn I lie rhirf biiniiiCNH of tliu [lopiila- 
 tidii. I'op. .|,;W.'» ill IHr.7. 
 
 AL(fAI{l«)IIO, n tfiwii (if Spnin. jirov. (Iriinndn, 
 *J III. rmm the Med. Sen, in Hie niiilHl of a cuiiiiiry 
 partii-tilarly rirli in Icinunii, orantxcN, fi^!*, ami 
 oilier t'niilH iN'liiM^in^ to tlH> huntli of Sjiaiii. 
 I(>i m. K. Malapi, uud 'M in. SSVV. (iranaila. 
 
 I'oit. 2.1t.>» in \Hi,7, 
 AIMM 
 
 kkVK, tlio mcmt 8, pniv. of Porliij^al, 
 wliicli M'c. 
 
 A[,<;i;('IKAS, or Al-Iijizirrth, \\\p Cnrtr'ui of 
 Itonian Kcoj^rapliv, n town of H|iain. prov. Cadi/,, 
 on till' VV'. nide of tin; May of (iiliriiltur, op|ii)Mitt' 
 to tli(! celcliratt'd rocU and pciiiiiNiila of that 
 name, from which it \n distant alioiit 7 in. I>y 
 water, mid 17 ni. hy liiiid. hat. ;i('p° H' N., lontc. 
 tfi ill'7"W. I'op. I t,'-'2!» in W,l. The town 
 liiiH a ^ood liarlioiir and nonie trade in the export 
 of ('<ial. It waH liiiilt liy the Moors, and taken 
 fnnii them after a two vears' sie^fe, in I. 'Ml. 
 
 AL<;i[r.l!l, or AI.('>nKI!(), a town and sea- 
 )Kirt of till- island of Sardinia on its W', coast. 
 If) III. SSW Sassari; lat. -lOo 2;")' .'ill" N.. lonj,'. 8° 
 l»r 45 " K. Pop. M,ll!t in IHdI. The town is Iniilt 
 on a low rocky jioint, Jiittiiin out from n sandy 
 lieacli, ill the Hhajie of a iiarnllelo^rani with sloiit 
 walls flanked hv Itastioiis and towers: the walls 
 are iii f^ood re]iair; lint lieiii^r eonimanded liy two 
 lu^i^hts it coiihl not ojijiose any vipiroiis attack 
 from the lanil side, lo the S\V. of the town 
 there is tolerable summer aiudiora^^ in from Kt to 
 \h fathoms, f;ood holdin^-^oiind. Thoiij^h narrow, 
 the streets are clean and well paved. It is the 
 neat of a liishopric, has a cathedral an<l 1 2 churches 
 and convents, with pulilic schools which carry 
 their Hcliolars through a course of |>hilosopliy ; and 
 a Hur^ical institution. It \\nn n, small theatre. 
 The town was hm^j occupied by the Spaniards, 
 and their lanpia^c and manners still |irevail. The 
 country round is well cultivated, ])roduciiiK wine, 
 liiittcr, and cheese. In addition to those the cx- 
 ]iort8 consist of wool, skins, tobacco, rags, ancho- 
 vies, coral, and bones, 
 
 ALCilKklA, now frc(|iientlv called Alokiua, a 
 coiintrv of N. Africa, and till recently the most 
 powerful of the Harbary »tnt«s, comprisiiifr the 
 Ntimidia Proper of the ancients, or the Numidia 
 of the Masxyii and the Numidia ^fussdsi/li, after- 
 wards called Mauritanin Cicmricimig, with c •ine 
 ])ortion of the rcfrion S. of the greater A'.ias an- 
 •^iently inhabited by the Getuhe and (luramantes. 
 It has been since 1H30 in possession of the French ; 
 bill for more than three centuries ])revi(msly it 
 formed a subordinate part of the Turkish empire, 
 and was (hiring that jieriod the seat of an exten- 
 sive system of ))iracy and Christian slavery. 
 
 Situatiim, Extent, Bouiidurieg, — Algieria lies be- 
 tween 2° 1 r VV. and H° 5;{' E, ; itH greatest N. lat. 
 is 37° !)'. It is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, 
 \V. by Fez (Morocco), and K. by Tunis; its S. 
 boundary is doubtful, but it extends beyond the 
 greater Atlas range to the confines of the desert of 
 Sahara : it is above 600 m. in length ; its breadth, 
 which is greater in the K. than in the VV., varies 
 from about 40 to about 200 m. The iiopulation, 
 in 18(il, amounted to 2,1)09,124 souls, nainelv, 
 2,«0(),378 natives; 10,000 negroes; 30,000 Jews; 
 and 1!)2,74G Europeans, A later estimate (]8()3) 
 makes the number of Europeans 21.'{,000. Algeria 
 is divided into three great militarj' jirovinces — 
 that of Algiers in ^'^c centre, Oran in the west, 
 and Constantinc in the east. The civil territory 
 (if each forms a deiiartment, having at their head 
 ji prefect, and subdivided into sub-prefectures, viz. 
 in the de[iMrtmeiU of Algiers, Dlidah, Me'de'ah, 
 Milianuli; in the dopartinent of Cunstuiitiiic, 
 
 ALOTKTIIA 
 
 Bonn, Philippoville, (iiielma, Si'tif; in that of 
 Oran, Mostaganein, Mascara, and llemcen. Tln' 
 
 ri'inaiiider of the territory is in each iirovii 
 
 administered by the military aiithnrity. Thccisil 
 
 territorii'N arc generally iinderst I to include imlv 
 
 the 7W/,or land N. of the greater Atlas, ex(diiilin|; 
 the territories of /aab or Wad-reag, S. of that 
 range. 
 
 Miiiintitln.% — Ah'ieria is mostly nioiiiilainoiiK: tjif 
 little Atlas, which runs along the coast parallel t„ 
 the greater Atlas, varies from .'1,000 to 4,0(mi ft, j,| 
 height. The abrupt mountains of Titteri. belcn^'- 
 iiig to the greater Atlas, reach in some poiiitr. in 
 an elevation of 0.000 ft., and send off three jirin- 
 ciiial ridges: NVV. towards (!ape Ivv; N. toward.. 
 Algiers; and NK. towai'ds Mugia. \laiiy of ilicc 
 mountains are remarkable; as VVannaslirees t/n- 
 IwHii), jirov. Oran, verv lofty, and .lurjura, SK. „| 
 Algiers, both capped with snow during wii 'cr; ilu' 
 Titteri Dosh, or rock of Titteri, is also a remark- 
 able ridge of rugged |irecipiees. 
 
 J'/iiIhh, — The principal is that of Metidjah. im- 
 medialely S. of Algiers, .OO m. by 20 ; fertile, will 
 watereil.and covered with an abundant vegetalimi. 
 but in parts marshy and unhealthy. In the \V, 
 |irov, are several plains, esjiecially thiit thrcnit'li 
 which tlu' Shellifl'rims; and another .S\V, of Oriiii. 
 sandv and saltish, dry in summer, but iiiiiiiiiatcil 
 ill winter. In the S. prov. are the rich ]ilaiiisiif 
 llamxa, watered by the Nasava. Many liixiiriiini 
 plains an> found in the E. |irov,, as those of Si'iii. 
 Majanah, and that skirting most part of the |;, 
 coast, which is, however, in many ports Dlttr^llv. 
 (Shaw, iip. 21, ;17, 44, 47, 50, M.) 
 
 The Jiivem are se))ar;ite(l liy the greater Alia* 
 range into those which run N. and S. Of iln^ 
 former, or those which discharge themselves iiiin 
 the Mediterranean, the principal is the Shidlitf (nii. 
 Chinahph), which rises S. of the VVonnashrec ,\l. 
 and afti^r a tortuous course of 20(1 m., during wliiili 
 it passes through the Titteri (Jawie or lake, falls 
 into the sea imder Ca(ie Jilibel Iddis, In the rainy 
 season it overflows its banks, and interriijits tlic 
 communication between Algiers and Oran. 'I'lii 
 VVad-el-Kelieer (an. Ainjmigu), which falls iiiio 
 the sea, N. of Coiistantine, 'in (i° E. hnig., is tin 
 second in inagiiitude; the others are the Seilnnis 
 or river of Hoiia, the IJooberac, Yissa, /owah. Wi 
 y-Zaine, &c. The large rivers, the Adjedi uiid I 
 Abiad, run SE,, and empty themselves into tiit 
 i>/(7r//(/_(/ Lake; and sev«Tal rivers of inferinr di- 
 nieiisions empty tlu^mselves into the Shott. Tho 
 are two very extensive salt marshes; the liminr I 
 on the S. the latter on the N. side of the grcaier 
 Atlas : they (-onsist partly of a light oozy .snii, as 
 dangerous as quicksands to travellers. The Liki- 
 are those of Titteri; two near Oran, which dry in I 
 summer, and from wlii(4i salt is collected; Mniif 
 salt marshes near Cape JMatifou, and others almi; I 
 the coast from Uona to the borders of Tiiui.-, f 
 (Koz(!t, p, 10 ; Shaw, p. .55.) 
 
 (Jlimate. — The climate of the Tell, i. o. lietHwn | 
 lat. .34° and 37°, is generallj- wholesome and tem- 
 perate. Shaw states that for twelve years duriji,' 
 his experience it only froze twice at Algiers; yii I 
 the heat was never oppressive imless duriiij,' S. 
 winds. The mean temperature of the year at 
 Algiers is 70° F., in July and August about Ni' 
 F. ; but ranging occasionally during the ])revak':iif I 
 of the khamsin, simoom, or hot wind fniiii tif 
 Sahara, as high as 110°, or even more. Luckily, 
 however, the latter ticldom or never continues lir I 
 more than 5 or 6 days at a time, and rarely llC(MI^ I 
 exce])t in Aiigu-st or September. In winter i 
 temperature is usually from 55° to ().5° F. Tu I 
 heiit is mitigated by the N. winds, which wiili liifl 
 li, prevail dmuity suininer. About the c(lllilHlXl^l 
 
(if Mt'tiil.j(»)i. im- 
 •>{) ; IVrrili'. Will 
 uliintvcuclniiuii. 
 tliy. In tluW, 
 llv" tl\af llirmiu'li 
 IktSW. "f'Omii. 
 ■r, liiit iiiiiiiilatcil 
 lip rich iiliiiiisi.f 
 Many luxuriiim 
 an those of Sfiil. 
 St |mrt of llic K. 
 ,ny liartH nmr>liv. 
 
 thr, p-patcr Allai 
 i. nii'l S. Of 111'' 
 p thiMnsclvcs intii 
 is the SlicllitV (nii. 
 (• Wannnslirpf M,. 
 II m., duriiif,' wliii li 
 lawle or Inlii-. falls 
 lilis. In the rainy 
 md intorruvts ilie 
 and Oriiii. 'flu 
 whii^li fulls iniii 
 K. lon(?., is till 
 . are the Scilimis. 
 issii, Zowiih. Willi- 
 the Ailjedi ami 
 ■mselves intii the 
 [>rs of iiiferitir (li- 
 the Shott. 'I'lu'w 
 .rshes; the fimiiiT I 
 .lie. of the urcatfi 
 Ufxht oozy soil. :i* I 
 .Hers. Tlie laki' 
 Iran, which dry iii | 
 collected ; smw 
 and others almij I 
 borders of Tiiiii;,| 
 
 Tell, i. c. hotwwn | 
 Kdcsome and tdii- 
 elvc years duriii; 
 cc at Algiers; yti 
 
 unless duriiif,' N i 
 
 a of the year at 
 
 A^iiffiist ahout M- 
 
 inji the i)revalei«* 
 
 it wind from tl' 
 ,1 more. Luckily. I 
 ever continues li* I 
 
 and rarely 'icfui< | 
 
 . In winter 
 lO t,. 1)5° F. 'I'i" 
 |ls, \vhi('h witliili'l 
 
 (Ut the eiiuiiKix^- 
 
 ALOIERIA 
 
 viiilciil SU'. wlndM occur ; NW. wind* nro pomnion 
 friiin NiivcMilx'r to Ajiril. at which lime sturiiiM and 
 slmwcrs (if ruin are iiKwt frci|iiciii ; hut in Niiinnicr 
 ihiw winds lirinj; dry weather; the M. and S. 
 »|ii(ls arc also (Iry, and (|iiile iiiihke what llicyan- 
 ciii ilic (i|i|i(iNilc l''.iirii|iean coasts. 'I'lie liiiroint'tcr 
 varies only from 'J'.l ami l-lntli lo iln and I-IoiIin 
 in. 'I'lieri' arr- alnMit All wet days during the year, 
 i'liii'll\ in Marcli. along the coast and on the lesser 
 Alias. The (|unntity of rain varies greatly in dif- 
 r.rciii years; Imt, at Algiers, it may average frmn 
 ■jr 111 ■i'* inches : little falls dnriiig summer. Dews 
 iiri' aliundant, and the air on the coasi is dam^i. 
 \r the end of Decemlier th(^ trees luse tlicir 
 I, lives; I'lit hv the udddle of Kehrinirv vegclaiion 
 in again in full activitv, and the fruit is rijie in 
 May. (Sliaw, lip. I.'l.'l-lllli ; I{<izct, i. jip. MO-I l!l; 
 li'Avizac, art. 'Alger.") Tim atnios|ihere is very 
 clear and llie ooimtrv healthy, excciiling in the 
 iii.ir>liv districts. 0(' late years Algeria has come 
 riiiiili ill vogue as a residence for invalids, 
 
 (livltiiji/ mill Miiuraln. — 'riie jirimarv rocks con- 
 i<i>i in jiiirt of granite, hut chielly o| gneiss and 
 iiiicaiH'ons s<'hist. Travertine is found on the 
 I'uast; nearOran a greyish (|narlz, hut novolcainc 
 rmks; in the interior a lime formation often aller- 
 iiaics with a schistose marl. The secondary dc;- 
 iHixits consist in many |ilaces of a lias fonnation 
 and calcareous strata, containing few organic and 
 nil vegctahle remains. At Oraii the lime contains 
 liivalve, hut no univalve shells. The tertiary de- 
 |iii,<its are mostly <'alcareons, in the Aletidjah of a 
 vellowish grey colour; sometimes a hlue clay en- 
 i'liising n mininary gypsum and a little iron, in 
 (itlicrjiarts sandy and miu-h impregnated with salt. 
 All llie chain of Atlas has a tertiary clay deposit, 
 'file W. iiroviiice a)>pears to be the richest iii mi- 
 nerals, hull is extremely abundant, in springs and 
 lieds, on both the K. and W. frontiers; near Con- 
 ^lanti^e, the Titteri Dosh mountains, and the Mel- 
 KJ^'g and Shott marshes. The salt jiits near Ar/.ew 
 (H't'iipy a space of (im. circ, forming marshes in 
 winter which dry in snmmei, when large (|uaiili- 
 ties (if salt are collected. Nitre, though not found 
 jiiire. is very jilentifnl in the \V. province, (ietn- 
 lia, ^c. Iron IS most abundant. Co|>|>er is found 
 ill variinis places; and there are some very rich 
 liail mines, the ore i>f those of the VVannashrees 
 I iK'iiig said to yield 80 per cent, of imrt^ metal. 
 'fliere are also fullers' earth, potters' clay, tab;, i)y- 
 I riles, A'c. Diamonds (verifying what was reckoned 
 the a|iocr\-|)hal statement of IMiny, Hist. Nat., lib. 
 ;i7, § 4) liav(^ been found in the sands of the VVad- 
 el-Kamniel that runs by Constantine, mixed with 
 Ismail ((uantilies of gold dust, silver, tin, and an- 
 jliiiKiny. Saline hot and cold springs are e\ceed- 
 |iiii;ly abundant, more so, in fact, than those of 
 ll'resli water. The latter, however, are by no means 
 Iriire, and may every when; be found by digging 
 llhniiigli a crust of tiaky soft stone lying jit ditVerent 
 (Icjitlis, but near Algiers ami Itona immediately 
 IkIow the siul'ace of the ground. (D'Avizac, art. 
 I'AlKer.') 
 
 Veijetatwri in the N. parts of Algieria is nearly 
 liho same as hi the S. parts of .Spain, Provence, 
 jltiily, and the rest of the Mediterranean shores. 
 ' iiKiinitains of the little Atlas arc coven'd with 
 Ithiek forests, in which are found _fivi; different va- 
 Irictics iif oak, the Ale|)|)o jiine. the wild olive, tlu! 
 ,fhiimnc tree (Hhus ciitiiius), with arbutus, cypress, 
 Irnyrtles, &c. S. of the greater Atlas are found I be 
 Idiite-ltearing ])alm, and other trees belonging to a 
 hviirmor climate. The Algerian Sahara is far from 
 pieiii},' a |ierfect desert. There arc multitudes of 
 Kiiises, full of towns and >-iUages, surroundcil by 
 tilivos, tigs, vines and luilms. 
 Ammals, — Lions of great size and strength, 
 
 67 
 
 panthers, liyirnnK, and leopnrdi*, inlmbif llie moun- 
 iaiuoiis recesses of the greater .\l las, but an- never 
 seen near Algiers: wild Imars, wolves, and Jackals 
 are more Cduiiiinn, and I here are n few bears. 
 Wild cats, monkeys, porcupines, and hedgc-bngs 
 are more or less abundiini; as well as aulelnpes 
 and other species of deer, bares, gennels, jerboas, 
 rals, mice, A-c. 'i'lie uscl'id animals are horses, 
 asses, black callle, sheep, camels, dromedaries, Ai; 
 (Isiricbcit are fiiiiud in the desert on the conliiies 
 of Morocco; iliere arc idso vultures and oilier 
 large birds of prey; bllierns, curlews, lapwings, 
 plovers, pigeons, and snipes; with great plenty of 
 gaim^ and small birds. Sonieseris'iits ol tlu- t'ldii- 
 ber race are mel wilb; and li/ards, ehamelcons, 
 and other amphibia. 'I'uiiuy and oilier sea lisli 
 abound on th<' coasts; barbel, perch, eels, &c„ are 
 found in the fresh waters, and even in the warm 
 siiline streams; conger at the monllis of the rivers; 
 and lidisters and many oilier crnstacea along iIk^ 
 shores. Among the insect tribe are scorpions and 
 tarantulas. Lix'usts seldom comniil the same 
 devastations here as in I'lgypl and Syria. Coral, 
 which is very abundant on the coasis. forms an 
 important article of produce and indiisiry; it is of 
 a larger sort, but less vivid in its colour, than lliat 
 of Sicily. (l!o/.el, vol. i. p. 21H; Shaw, p. I'.L'; 
 Campbell, Letters from the Soulli.) 
 
 /'(■o/)/c. — There are nine distinct races of in- 
 habitant", \iz. : 1st. Herbersor Kabyles, who, how- 
 ever, call themselves Miiziijli (noble) or Mininj 
 (free); they conslilute about bidf the entire po- 
 pulation, and are the lined descend.iiils of the 
 aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They .'ire. 
 principally foimd in the mountain dislricis; and 
 their lands are occitsionally well cnltivaled and 
 irrigated. 2(1. Itiskeris or Mo/.abs, supposed to be 
 the descendants of the (ietuke, living principally 
 S. of th(! greater Atlas, «nd comparatively in- 
 dustriiMis, ,'td. Moors; a mixed race, (h'scended 
 from the Mauritanians, Iterbers, Carthaginians, 
 Homans, Vandals, ami Arabs; they constitute the; 
 bulk of the ]iopnlalion of the towns and villages. 
 ■Itli. Arabs, consisting of three tribes: the tirst, 
 sup|iosed to have (U'scended from the ancient. 
 Amalekit(.^, is nearly extinct; the second (MHisisls 
 of cultivators of the soil, and is fixed to certain 
 spots; the third, or wandering .\rabs, are princi- 
 pall)' herdsmen and sbephents dwelling in tenis, 
 Titb, Negroes, called Ahijd (slaves) or Somldii 
 (black); originally brought tliitber from the in- 
 terior, and sold as slaves. Gth, .lews, who form a 
 third part of the inhabitants of Algiers, and a 
 fourth jiarf of those of Oran. 7tli. Turks, now 
 very few, nor ever very numerous, although long 
 the dominant race: they were a heterogeneous 
 body, com|ioscd of genuine Turks, (ireid\s, Cir- 
 cassians, Albanians. Corsicans, Maltese, and rene- 
 gades of all nations, mounted, and fonning a 
 militia similar to the Miuneluke.s. On the con- 
 (piest of Algieria, in 1h;J(I, by the French, the 
 'i'nrks being permitted to withdraw, evacuated 
 the country to the number of about 2().(MH». «th, 
 Kolouglis, or (lesccndaiits of Turks by Moorish 
 motluw, their name literally signifying 'sons of 
 soldiers.' Although jiosscssed of intlnenc<', they 
 did not formerly enjoy the same rights and con- 
 sideration as their fatbers. '.Mb, Kuropeans, who . 
 may ofcmir.se he subdivided into various nations, 
 but are mostly French. Amongst the Kabyles of 
 the Aiiress are a tribe distinguislKtl by a fair coin- 
 jdexioii, blue eyes, and liglii hair, believed lobe 
 descendants of the \'jtiidiils. Traces of the Huns, 
 Snevi, and other (iothic nations have been also 
 found, (For furtlier information res)iectiiig the 
 different native ..ces, see Akabia, Hajsuaiiv, ani> 
 
 MOKOCCO.) 
 
 F 2 
 
 -v'^ 
 
 '•' ■ 'if 
 
,if^:.^^:r 
 
 ^ u 
 
 Srrnrrif. — Pntrocdiim from \V. Ii> V,. n rifli 
 i'liniii|iiii^ii ciiiinlry ^'lr^•l^h(■'< fur hiiidi' iliHtniK'i' 
 illliiliil S. of Arascw, IiimiikIciI tuwunl.s the cfii liy 
 Htci'i* nx'kN mill |iri'ri|ii('i'N; iiihiiv I'criiUt pliiiii^ nr<' 
 irri^iili'il liy llii' Sij{({ rivi-r (nr Sikk, n ilraiii nr 
 frciH'h), ilN wuttTM liciiiK ilivcrlnl liy iiiiiiK'niiiN 
 niiiiilH I'nr tliiit |mr|iiiH<'. iN'liiiul Mii.xii^'niii, ami 
 iiciir the Slu'lliir, HH far att ilic koii, Im n Iriirt rttml- 
 ilnl M'itli iirrliarilH, (;arilriiH, iiiiil ciiiiiitry liiiiincH, 
 'I'lic niillilrv riMlllii SliiTslirll is of (III' iiiiikI 'XM- 
 
 ImthiiI Irriility, pnhNrHsiii^; liirni' iractH nl' ariiliii' 
 ImmiI, mill till* iniiiililaiim rnvcrril (u llirir HiiiiiiiiilH 
 with |ilanliitiiiiiN III' Iniil IrccM, ami hH'omIIii^ iIi'- 
 li;;liiriil iukI t'XlriiHivc |iri>s|M'rts, TIk' iiilaml (lariM 
 of llic W, |iri»vinri' jirt'M'iil iillcriialcly I'crtili' val- 
 li'VH ami lii^Oi raii^i'M of ro<;ky iiioiinlaiiiH, 'If wt> 
 ciitK'i'ivts' NavH Sliaw, 'a riuiiilit'r of liilln, iiNiially 
 of lliti pcrin'iiilitiilar liciuhl of Km). M»\, or tlOO 
 ynriN, wiili an caKV axi'ciil, ami Movcral f^rov' s of 
 fruit ami forrsl tri'cs ri.sin^ up in a Hiu'ccHsiim of 
 rikii^i'N omi licliimi amitlicr, ami if In lliiH iiroxpi'i^t 
 we licri' ami llii'ni ailil it roi'ky preripicr ot a Hiipc- 
 rior t'lniiu'm'r ami ilillii'iili an'i-ns, ami pliii'c iipmi 
 the niiUt or Hiiiiiniil of it a inml-wallr<l Daslikcrali, 
 or villaKC! of tim Kaliylrs, — \vc xliall tlini liavi' a 
 jiiHt iilca of the atlas lioiimliii^ ilir 'I'l'll.' 'I'lic 
 viTKi- of III)' Sahara liryoml this pri'sriits iiniliinn 
 lull HcaltiTi'il villa^^l'^' ami plaiitatioiiH of iltili's. 
 Till' plain of Mi'liiljnli, ailjoinin^ tlir capiliil, con- 
 tains many farms ami coiinlry Iioiihi's, iiroiliirin^' 
 ill pcrfci'tion tlax, hi'iiiia, roots, pol -IiitIis, riri>. 
 fruit, ami corn of nil kimls; it is ailorncil hcsiilcH 
 vitli iniiltitiiilcs of olcamlcrs, p'raiiiiiins, passion 
 llowcrs, anil other luxuriant sliriilm. Tlii' S. pni- 
 vinci! has I lie same >;eneral clianicter as that of 
 Orini, The Titteri Dosli, 211 ' ;. S. of .Meileali, is a 
 tou'erin^' ranp! of lii"ak precijiices. The .liirjiira. 
 HK. of Algiers, is a similar tract. The sea coast of 
 the K, province, as far as the river /hoore, is 
 inounlainous, ami calleil liy the Aralis l'',l-Ailwali 
 (the Lofty); thence to the Seilums it. is hilly; ami 
 from llie latter to the lionler mostly level, innl 
 Hoinetimes covereil with forests. Some ilistance to 
 the S. are the M. ThamlnH of I'tolemy. 'I'lie 
 Seilioiis in some ]mrts wamlers through tieantiftil 
 valleys, clotheil with olivt! tnu's, leiitisks, anil a 
 line turf. The country ahout ilie source of the 
 /eiiati is hroken ami irregular, ami appears to lie 
 voloimic; that to the N. ami X\V. of (Joustantine, 
 from which that city is chielly siipplioil, is watereil 
 by the Ifusuli, which is 'lionlereil by a few viUas 
 ami numerous ganlens, rich in every variety ol 
 vegetalile and fruit trees, with extensive groves of 
 iiomegranate, olive, tig. orange, ami citron,' nml 
 iioiimleil hy hold ranges of hills; its fruit is esteemed 
 over the whole province. In the roail from Algiers 
 to Oonstantine, lietween the plains of llamxa and 
 Majanah, a deep narrow ]iass, called Hreluin (the 
 liutes), which a few men might defend against an 
 army, leads tlirough a mountain ridge; and a 
 little farther E. the road is carried by a dangerous 
 track over the crest of a high mountain. 8. of 
 .Set if are many rich plains. The. territory around 
 Tifesh is the most fruitful in Numidia, and the VV. 
 province the linest of the regency. The villages 
 of Ziiab are collections of dirty liovel;^, siirroiimled 
 b}' date plantations; VVad-reag, a similar country, 
 lias 25 villages. To the VV. extends the vast 
 region of Ulaid-el-Jerride, 'a dry country,' abound- 
 ing in dates. (Shaw, pp. M-(>8; Sir (i. Tenifile, 
 Extracts in the Geograph. Journal, iHiW, ))art. ii.) 
 Antiquitkii. — Most ol tlie citit^s and towns bear 
 names little altered from tliose given tbcm by the 
 Womans. Many ruins remain ; those of Tipasa 
 (Tifcssad), li! m, E. of Shersliell, stretch for two 
 miles along the coast : on the brink of the SlieHill", 
 in about the same lat., tliere are several clas.-iical 
 
 remains, rorinttiiaii rnpitali*. ftf., in. Iitiblv ilm 
 ruins I'f the ( 'oluiiia Augusta of I'liiiy. AIhui 
 II III. I'',, of Algiers are the ruins of Itiisuciiriiiui. 
 At Uliiliaiwi, N. of the Shillilf, a stone iiiserti"' i\, 
 a inoderii nail, bears an inscription, wluiiie ii \in, 
 lii'iMi inferred lliill it was thepliici' where roin|ie\ k 
 gramlsou and great griinilsoii were buried. (Sr 
 Martial. Epig. lili. v, l.p. 7.').) Near lloiia are 
 rniiiH of llifiiiti liiiiitm. and many towns can Unis^ 
 of am Kill relicK ill tolerable preservation. Tin 
 province of ('iiiislaiitiiic especially iilioiinds witi, 
 them, and with li'oinan roinls; and i veil the ri'- 
 mote ili!<lrii'r of Wml-reag has niimeroiis reiimiiH 
 of |{oinan imisonry. Near the capital ix a n>l 
 lection of nnhi'Wii !>loiies, somewhat sinniiar ir 
 IhoseofStonehciini'. which the French call I 'I'liiijii', 
 lint others belicM' to III- I'liienii'ian. I'licre iirr 
 few ('hrisliiiii remains, their liiiildings tun iiig hicn 
 destroyed by he /.eiil 'I' the Saracens, (Slm«, 
 pp. 2l-tJ7. ; Sir <«. Teinple, f.xtracts.) 
 
 AiiriniltHrf.-- Mwh of the land is iincnltiMiliM 
 and waste; but the fertility for which it vva.i mi 
 famous in antiipiity — 
 
 ' .N'dii ipilffl|nli1 Llbvcli) tcrit, 
 Fcrvi'iis ana iiii'sslliin,' — 
 
 still continues nnimpiiired; nml rei|ulres incri'ly 
 the snhstitiition of regular government fnr \uvi\in 
 violence, and of imliisirioiis colonists for roviii.' 
 herdsnien. to render it once more the granary nl 
 Europe. The laud in many parts, ii\Ning tu iln 
 ipiMiitlty of salt with wl'lili it is iiiipri',"iiiileil, l< 
 so rich as to reipiire no manure but lninit wei'ils, 
 Itiit in a dry climate like this every thing depeinl. 
 on the conimiind of water; and the necessity iiii- 
 der which the native ilihiibitants were plaieil (I 
 providing this indispensable element for lliiir 
 lands, had so far countervailed their imloletu'i' iiii<| 
 want of scienci' its to makc^ them pretty expert in 
 the art of irrigation. The Erench were not, m 
 lirst, siilliciently alive to the vital imporlaiici' d 
 this; ami some of the Aridi works for irrig.'itiii;' 
 were in coiiseipience neglected, to the great iiijiirv 
 of tli(^ province, but the mistake has latterly fiiiii 
 repaired. The laud is usually iiloughed and >»m\ 
 in October, or (if with bttrley) in November: liy 
 the aid of April rains a good cro|) is tliiiiii;lii I 
 secure, and tln^ harvest takes place in the em! i( 
 May, or the beginning of .June, yielding lit ;in [ 
 average H or 12 for I. The sjiecies of corn iiin^tly 
 grown are the 'J'ritlcitm tliirum (liitrd wheat), aii<l 
 Jlorileuin vuUjare (common barley). Mai/e i» uni 
 miK^li cultivated, except in tlie VV. ]irovince ; wliiit | 
 millet for fattening cattle is (ilanted there; riiv 
 chiefly in the prov. of Oran. Oats not lii'liid] 
 grown, horses are fed wholly upon barley ami 
 straw. The plough used round Algiers is t he "iiiiif I 
 as that of S|)ain and rrovence; but in general ii I 
 not shod with iron. It is drawn by co> i and i\m\\ 
 very rarely by horses; yet with such iinprrliril 
 |)loiighing the crops are generally excellent. Wliw I 
 reaped, tlie grain is trodden out by cattle irl 
 horses; and after being cleaned by throwiii;; i: 
 iij) against the wind, is deposited in subterraiii'in)' 
 caves or magazines. The pulse crops are Ik'hD'. 
 lentils, kidney beans, pease, and garvam;os (cinr 
 jiea) ; turnips, carrots, cabbages, &c., are gomliro; 
 )ilentiful. Endive, cress, spinach, and nnii'lmlvi- 
 are in season from Ctctober to June; after wliiiii| 
 come calnbashes, mallows, tomatas, and waiir- 
 melons. Potatoes are frecpieiitly grown, liiif i\' 
 not arrive ata large size, and are of inferior finality. 
 The date is the princi]ial fruit, and is byfarili' 
 most valuable iiroilnct of the country .S. iil'tli(| 
 greater Atlas. It is propagated chiefly by yi>i«i- 
 shoots, and yields fruit \n its (ith or 7th year;]' 
 attains maturity at about its ;?Oth year. aiiili*i=| 
 full vigour for (it) or 70 more, after which it g« [ 
 
Ar,oiEniA 
 
 iliinlly (Iw'linox, till it iKTOiiKt oxliiii-t wluii hImpui 
 
 '.Niii \rnrn I'lil. (Hliiiw, 11. II'.'.) Triilv, llnTi'liin . I 
 nii;,'lii riillftiliiit SUV. ' < ui pliiirf cutn» luj- /•«• »tn n 
 IntHin ill" ixilmin r(»r/iVi7 iitHnrreniliii.' (d't. I'.M i 
 liiiriiu' ilK iMiKiirity il yirlcl-t iiiiiMiiilly frmii l.'i I" i 
 'ii (•li^-'i''f "•' •I'll''"' ''■'"''' vn'ijjIiiiiK' iViiiM l.'i III 
 
 •j('l II)*. 'I'llC illltr |.illlil {■ttmviO Wlicil il (lii'H is 
 
 alwiivn «iiri't'i'ilcil liy iillicrs Iniin MhoniH nr kiTiiclK ; 
 iilii'iirr iiiiiy |iriiliulilv lii c iiriKiii.itfil llii' I'lildi' or 
 III :;iirv III' 'lie I'ifit I'liuiiix. Tlir liilll.t iir Hirilril 
 
 Wit* » 'ii'fry Willi nil over tliii S. ilinlrii'l. .Miwi 
 III' ilii Iriiii in>(<.'4 ciiiiifiiiiii III l'iiirii|i*| nrc riuiiiil in 
 ,\l;,'itrr»; hut il>c friiiiH iirt' iiiCrriur, cxri'iiliiiu mi ■ 
 liiriiii'". |>*'»<'h*'^. <"|| |Hiiiii'Kriiiiul(>H ; tlicrc iirr im 
 liii/cl Illltr. tillit'ri.--, •*travvlHTrit'H, piu-rlicrriix. iir 
 I'lirraiil'i. 'Hie viiu> m I'lillivalcil with iiiiicli lul- 
 viinta;,'!'; ll"' Kf'M"'" fil"'!" I'v M"' <''"' "• •'"ly, 
 ,'inil tirr I'lllrii Imlli IVcsli ailil ilry liv llu> iialivt'N, 
 »|iii xrMiiiii ii^iiImi \viii(i; lliiiii;;li lliir<, iiii ilnnlii, 
 will lie iilli'iii|il)'i|, mill iiiiHl lik(>iv uilli siii'i'CH't. 
 jiv ilir Iti'iu'Ii. (Ill III :i MTV inrfrinr i|iiiiliiN . iiiiil 
 niwiivs iicriil, is iililaiiM'il rnnii llir> olive. Mi'Iihim 
 Mini liiiliaii ll^'^ ari> lar^'rly ^tuwii, ami rnnii a 
 i'iiii-.iili'ralilt> part iif tliii t'omt nl' ilui Aralis. In 
 Millie ^'roiiiiiln iicnr AI>,'i('rM llir Hii;;ar-(!anc in ciilti 
 vali'il. CiilliiH mill iii<li;;ii liavc lict'ii Iricil, ami 
 ihc I'liiiial)^ HiiilH lliciii well. Il apiicars fniiii 
 (pjliriiil rcliini-* llial llicrc were Il.'.'TI licrlari's ul' 
 iaml hlaiitt'il wiili ciillun in llic yrar |Ki;:i, in 
 .\l):i'ria ; iliai ilic i'Mji aiiinniiit'il to IvtHil.-U.') kilo- 
 ^'raiiiiiu's, anil tlic value is e^liinateil at :i,N,')',l,l«lll 
 IraiHM. hiiriii;,' the years ixtll anil \Hi',->, the 
 ^'PHiiiil jilaiiteil with coiion iliil not measure more 
 iliiiii l.l:.'i'i heetares, anil the value diil not e\(H>e<l 
 .■ill-.'.lHMI riMlies. 
 
 Calile coiistitnte the prin('i|inl wealth of the 
 
 imiivcs. Sheep are of two kinds: one small, with 
 
 n iliii'k lar^e tail ; the other of a miieli lar^'irsi/.e, 
 
 rliiclly I'liiiiiil in the eountry ol'llie Melano-tieliilie. 
 
 Slir('{i III' the line 'rmiisian hreeil are not iniit with. 
 
 Iliiais jirelty ahiinilant ; pi^js few, roiinil-hotlieil, 
 
 sliiirl-le^';;cil, anil );eiierally lilaek. Cattle iisiially 
 
 hlaik: ilieir milk is inferior to tliat of Kuropean 
 
 I'aiili ; llial of sheep ami pints is mostly ii.seil in 
 
 till' iiiakiii;,' of ehees(' ami Imtter. The .Vralis 
 
 Uclilnin iliiiiiiiisli their Mocks liy killing' them for 
 
 luiiil. lint live on ihiMr milk ami wool. No miiinals 
 
 I ari' lastrateil. 'Vhv common heasts of linrtheii are 
 
 canii'ls, (Iroi'ieilaries, asses, anil mules. Dr. Shaw 
 
 !.|i('aks of II »*iii;;iiiar rross lirecil lietween an ass 
 
 iiiiil u ('i)w, ealleil kiiiiiriili, having a sleeker skin 
 
 lilmii its sire, no horns, lint llie liam's head and 
 
 tail; hut Itii/.ci says that lit^ had not been ahle to 
 
 liiiil iiiiy trace of any such animal. The horses 
 
 larpiiiit always, nor even often of the imrc Aral) 
 
 llirocil, imr altoj,'ether well sliajied, lieuiK laiikv 
 
 mill niiiiiil-shoiildered ; head small, and not ill 
 
 lluniipili <'itrs erect; and they are hardy, lleet, 
 
 s|iiril('il, and docile: those of Oran are nccoiintud 
 
 Ilia' licst. They are used only for ridinj;, and like 
 
 lllio canu'ls are roared ami live in the tents with 
 
 lllii'ir tiwiiers. (Shaw. )ip. "J-tir), Iiili-17(>; liozct, 
 
 Ipp. 'iill-'.'lil ; Canipliell's Letters from S.) 
 
 Trades and MttniifiirUirvn. — Almost all the 
 jtrailosof Kuro|)e are ioUowcd in the towns; Imt 
 Iftiiiducted in a very inferior maimer, as well Ik;- 
 Imusc (if the indolence as of the if,niorancc 6f the 
 jiiiitivo.s. The Jews are the most indiistrions, and 
 |iniMioiiolisc the ^Tcater (lart of the external trade, 
 I with tlic hifiher branches of art, beiiif; the chief 
 Ijcivc'llcrs, watcdmiakers, and tailors. The Arabs 
 lart' merchants, tanners, and carpenters; the Xe- 
 Ltiii's unisons, brickhiyers, and other artificers; 
 jilie Kahylcs extract iron, lead, and cojiper from 
 Itlicir iniiiintains, and manufacture K""!"'^'"''''") *""'' 
 Itn 1» superior to that made at Alj^iers, The chief 
 Iniamil'ucturcii arc courno liiicii, wuulleii, and isllk 
 
 stiiU's, ilin first two fnnniinr the (frentrr part of tho 
 dress of till' |Mipulatiiili, Icalhcr, Haddhs, bridles, 
 inrpeln, lln'-ariii«, stei I aiiil ollitr meinl iiriicle", 
 pnitery, (iiiupowder, bill very inferior to that of 
 l'.iiri'|H'. Wmnen only are < inployeit in the liin'ii 
 itiid coarHe woollfii inaiiiil'ii'iures, as well nx in the 
 ••lavish occnpalioii of ^rindiiit; corn. l',uro|M'aii 
 plods are miii'h in reipiesl.and are liarlered in tint 
 S. fur pdd dust and osiricb leathers. 
 
 Triiilf. — I'revionsly to I hi iipiiliiin of Al)j;ieriii 
 
 by ihe Freiicli, the eslnblisluil rati's of duly wer« 
 
 •) mid III |M'r ci>iit. on iiiiporled articles, mi rdiii;^ 
 
 to tlie slipiiliitiiins ill the tri'iilirs with the coun- 
 tries of which they were the priiiUn'c, Itiil theso 
 (general rules Were eiilirely disreniiriliil in practice; 
 and, ill point of fad, little or no trade .'oidd bii 
 carried on except by limsewho obtaiiied lici-ncex 
 to I bat eU'ect from piveriimeni, which wen- either 
 sold to the lii(;liesl bidder, or to those wliii bad 
 most interest with the Mlvan, As ^ihmi us I Iiii 
 Freiii II bad taken possession of \l|^'ri:«, the 
 trreat resources of the ciiiiiilrv ((tine to be de- 
 veloped. The imporl -. cbiill\ irniii Kniiice iiilu 
 AlpTia, amounted to ".'I'Hi.oi'iii frs., or '.'ho.ihio/., 
 in iKll.aiid Kriidiiallv ruse to 111,01)0,000 frs., or 
 l.(;oit,000/.,in IHII: io'f<l,'.';it,l li"frs.,or:i.'.'lli,:i7T/., 
 in iH.'il; and to nearly I,) milllnus nierliii^' in IMtlil. 
 Iliit the exports scarcely kept pace with this );row- 
 in^' iiiniori trade. In ihe ten years from iH.'il to 
 lNi;;t, .\l;;eria never expor'ed more than frmn l,J 
 to 'J millions sterling worth of her prinluce, nearly 
 two-thirds of which went to France. However, 
 the exports from Algeria to the I'liited Kiiiploiii 
 j;reatly increased duriii),' the years lM(!o-;t, owiii;^ 
 chielly to Ihe sudden demand for cotton, prodiiced 
 bv the American civil war. The exports amounted 
 oiilvtol,.^7'_'/. in ixiio, and rose to;iil,:i-.''J/. in |Ki;i ; 
 U>\~;iMI ill iNil'i, and to llll.-J i|/. in \M\\. (Jn the 
 other hand, the imporls from Iheriiited Kinploin 
 into Alp'ria declined during' Ihe saiiui period. 
 Tliev were of the value of l.'t,7ol/. in IXlJO; of 
 'iO,!t'.V>/. in Ixiil; of M\:i:tM. in IMC-J, ami of 
 i;i.7;t'J/. in iMiill. In addition to corn, or rather 
 lloiir, the principal articles of importation are 
 cotton, Woollen, silk, and linen sliill's, but par- 
 ticularly the lirsl ; wines .ii'd spirits, siiptr and 
 colVee, arms, hardware, and cutlery. 
 
 The em|iloymenl of shipping correspondo with 
 the amount of trade; and the ]>roportion of both 
 in the hands of the French is increasinj,'. A regular 
 intercourse is kejit np by means of steam-packets 
 between Marseilles, Cette, Antwcqi, Havre, and 
 Alj;iers. 
 
 The weights, measures, and money in use are, 
 
 Wi-iijlilt. — Tlio Oiuiiiynli (1 (fninimps) ; Hotl H tliary 
 = Hi onipiyiili ; C'niitiir= loti rotlil. 
 
 Afi-iiMircMif ('ii/Hici/ii. — lAiiniil : llollnh, (Ifi'fifi litres) 
 = olioilfc 17 pltits. lirii: I'sa (IS litres) =r>l ll-7tli iiliits. 
 Oflemjlh: Dzeril i\ Torky (lUll iiillleiiietres) = l,(i!l'J feet 
 Kii).'. ; Dzenlil Uiiby (4Hil nilllemetresji: 1,.')74 foelloiiK'. 
 
 Moiieii [s OS follows: f>'i//(/, Seiiuili= S,«. ti^i/. .Silivr: 
 Mdii/.oiinali — 7-IOtlis of \il.; Ileal Hini(ljoux = '/l niou- 
 zoniiali. CiippiT! Dcrlii'iii '^cKiir, l-2!ltli I f anion/.. 
 
 Krciich money Is now, however, in fnxiuont use, and 
 Spanish dollars worth nlioiit •'!*. 4i/. 
 
 lii'irniwu. — It is iiii]iossible precisely to a.scerlaiii 
 the amount of revcuiues at the disposal of the dey 
 of Al^fiers previously to fhe French conipiest; but 
 it may be fairlv estimated a', about .3,1100,000 fr., 
 or 120,000/„ incliidiiif,' therein .■"),)0,000 fr., or 
 2'2,0IH)/. of tribute imid by Najiles, I'ortnpil, &o. 
 for exemption from piracy; but it is probable that 
 the taxes paid by the people amounted to at least 
 three or four times as much. The taxes were of 
 various kinds : the jirincipal was the tithe (dsc/ir) 
 of all crops; and there were also pidl taxes on the 
 Jews, with taxes on professions, trades, &c. ; juid 
 the govcrinneiit derived a considerable Hum fruin 
 
 
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 (716) 872-4503 
 
 
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 ALGIERIA 
 
 tlifi innnopoly of wool, lonthor, salt, and wnx. 
 Tlipsc! taxi!H have bpcii |mrtly rotainod l)y tlio 
 I'Vciicli ; liul. tlio iiKiri' opiircssivc, with tli(^ iiii>- 
 iiopdlics, have been alMili.shcd. A coiisidcraliU' 
 rcvciiim has hccn latterly (Icrivcd froin the sale i>l' 
 tlu; |iiil)iio laiiiis and other iiropcrlv ix'toii^iii^ to 
 the slate, which are he^iiiniii); to l)e extensively 
 |iiir<:hased and occupied hy Knroneans. Tlie re- 
 venue from all sources anioiinted in iHtilJ to almut 
 T)! ),((()((,( MM) CrancH, or 2 millions sterlin},'. The 
 Vreneh ex|)eiuliture in Alfj<'ria, from its conquest 
 to the end of the year l«(il, is estimated at. 
 ■l,(i;i-i.lH4,(MI0 fraiWH, or IHo.-.'Jtlt.atiO/. To France 
 Algeria always has heeii, and nuist contiiiiui to lie, 
 a most costly colony. 
 
 T/ii- Gorvriinifiit is ailmiuistered hy the com- 
 maniler-in-chief of the French forces in Al^ieria. 
 who is ^'overnor-f^'cneral, and responsihle to the 
 French cahiiu't. Ilis salary, hv an ituperial de- 
 cree of Sept. ."), I«(; I, has liee'n fixed at 12.'>,()II0 frs.. 
 or .j,(i(l(l/. The, pivernor-Kcneral exercises ali- 
 solute authority, rreviously to \H'M) the ^;ovcrn- 
 ment was vested in a dev. or pacha, lieiuiC ''"' 
 oHicer at the head of the I'urkish soldiery in the 
 rej;-ency. 
 
 M'dittirif and Naval Force.. — TTnder the Turks 
 the (K>y maintained ainiul 1(1,(1111) re^adar infantry 
 and (>,(l()() cavalry ; hut. in cas(( of need he coidd 
 liriiif^ into the lielda (Minsiderahle body of irrcKidar 
 troops, biinnd to serve, like the Kuropean forces of 
 the middle afj;es, for a certain mimber of days at 
 their own cost. The cavalry was recruited chielly 
 aniouf^ the Arabs and lierbers. The naval force, 
 so lon^' an object of terror to the Christian powers, 
 was never very formidable. In IHK!, when it was 
 nearly ainiibilated by Lord KxmoiUh, it consisted 
 of 4 frif^ates of fronj 40 to .")(! f^inis, 1 of iiS f;uns, 4 
 eorvettes. 12 brij^sand fjoelettes, anil .'iOjiun-boats. 
 In IH21 their corsairs had aj^ain bej-'un to infest 
 the seas; and in l«,'i(), on the cajituro of Algiers, 
 the French found a lar;;e frij^ate in dock, and two 
 others in the port, 2 corvettes, S cir 10 brif,'s, several 
 xebecks, and .'>2 f,'un-boats. (Itozet, iii. i). ;J(!2- 
 .'(MO.) The French troops in Ai^cieria in I8ti;{. .iccord- 
 iiifj to ollicial returns, were ()2,4(l7 men and 14.;i2;5 
 horses. The French troops of all arms inchuled 
 in these tij^ures amounted to 51,855 men and 
 10,714 horses, the surplus beiiif; formed of a foreij^ii 
 refi:imeiit and native troojis. In the so-called na- 
 tive troops, which never quit the colony except 
 for fijihtiiiK iiuqioses, there are a great mimber of 
 Europeans. They consist of three rci^iments r)f 
 Zouaves, three of Turcos, or • Tirailleurs Al<,^e'riens,' 
 three of ' (.Chasseurs d'Afrique,' and three of Spaliis, 
 but for some years a number of these have been 
 absent in Cochiu-China and Mexico. 
 
 Jicliylim and Education. — The f^cat bulk of the 
 people jiMfess Mohammedanism. The nej^roes, 
 iu>wever, arc mostly aildicted to felichism ; and 
 the creed of the Berbers is scarcely known, as 
 they Butter no stranjjers to witness their rites: 
 they pay jj^reat reverence to their marabouts or 
 mniiralici/x, ))ersons who practise a rigid and austere 
 life, and who sometimes all'ect to iicrforni miracles. 
 Tliey regard them as inspired, and honour their 
 tombs. This custom has crept in amongst the 
 Jews, who venerate the seimlchres of their rabbins, 
 and convert them into synagogues. ,Since the 
 French occupation a good many mosques have 
 been converted into Christian churches. 
 
 Morals arc at an extremely low ebb; the inha- 
 bitants, |)articidarly the Moors, being in general 
 grossly sensual, ilebauched, and corrupt. Drunken- 
 ness is not very frequent amongst the natives; but 
 the French have lost large luunbers of men from 
 excess. 
 
 'I'he Moora and other inhabitants of the towns 
 
 can for the most part read the Koran and write, 
 which, however, comiirise the whole of their in- 
 St ruction ; few understand aril hnu'tic, or go bcvdiui 
 the tirst two ndes; and this limited instructioii, it 
 will be observed, is enjoyed by the male sex mily, 
 women being brought up in the most cnni|ilii, 
 stat(! of ignorance. The Moors often traiis.Kt 
 business by placing their lingers on dirtereiit puns 
 of each other's hands, without speaking; (.luh 
 (iiiger and joint denoting a ditlerent ntnnber. Few 
 books, except the Koran, ami some ciu-oniiiisiic 
 commentaries ui)on it, are ever seen or siiii;;lii 
 after. The education of children in tlu- Kuruii 
 goes on for three or four years, when their tiiiiidn 
 ceases. The French have established schonl-i „i 
 mutual instruction in all the iirincijial town-, 
 which are chiefly suiieruitended by Jews, mid 
 tolerably w(41 attended. ()lli(?ial returns Aww 
 that, in" IH(;2. there were 471 establishments li.r 
 primary instniction, which received ;{5.!i',t!t pupil, 
 of both sexes. Uuring the three last years ih,. 
 mimber of children who have received i>riniary 
 instmi'tion has increased by over5.(f((0. In Iscj, 
 among the tribes which had submitted to the mili- 
 tary adininistratiou, 2,140 pnniaiy schools |„r 
 Mussulmans had been established, with 2,:) I .'Ijn- 
 stitutions at whic^h 25.000 iiujiils learned roadiii;', 
 writing, aritlunetic, and commentaries on tlu' 
 Koran. (Tabh'au (h- la Situation, &e. p. 254., ainl 
 French Ollicial |{etiirns.) 
 
 Artsand Sdences. — The Arabs (if Algieria. tliciii;;li 
 descended from the iieojilc who gav(! algclira in 
 ICiiro))e, and preserved medicine during the dark 
 ages, have no notion either of arithmetic, or nfilic 
 correct measurement of time or distance. Their 
 medicine, too, is in the rudest state, and few dis- 
 eases occur that do not, under their treatment, 
 become either chronic or mortal. Their romcdiis 
 consist chietly of superstitious practices, iis |iil- 
 grimages; or inert decoctions, as that of uiiillnws 
 They are accustomed, in cases of rheumatism and 
 jdeurisy, to jmncture with a red-hot iron ; to dri-s 
 wounds with hot butter, and sometimes with |ii'|i- 
 per, salt, and brandy ; and on the tield of battle in 
 thrust wool into them. When amputation is r- 
 sorted to, it is performed by the stroke of iui aia- 
 ghan, and followed by the application of hotpitiii. 
 Hence, notwithstanding their aversion to cliani;c, 
 we need not wonder that latterly the French anny 
 surgeons have been in great request by the natives, 
 Hospitals have been established in the ijrincipal 
 towns, and vaccination has been introduced. In 
 1«()3 not fewer than 23,;)0l civilians, lieliin},dii,' 
 either to the luiropean i)r to the native iHipiila- 
 tion, apjilied for ailmi.s.sion into the hospitak 
 (Shaw, p. 196-199 ; Campbell, Let. 20 ; and Oliieial 
 Returns.) 
 
 Social Life. — Tlie Berbers or Kabyles Uvc in 
 cabins (qu'rbies) made of the branches of trees 
 plastered with mud and straw, with a low door and 
 narrow glazed holes serving for windows; thesi; 
 huts are collected together in small gToii]i.< ur 
 dashkras. The Moors, Jews, Negroes, and nmst 
 others, exce])t the Arab.s, live in houses built (oia 
 uniform model, which from the earliest times liaj 
 not varied. An open court-yard forms the ccuirf, 
 around which are various aiiartments, opening ujinii 
 galleries supported by light pilasters: the rodt'sari' 
 Hat, surrounded by a battlement breast high, aiei 
 built with a composition of sand, wood ashes, aiiJ 
 lime, mixed wiiii oil and water, called /errmy; 
 whence our word. The rooms are floored and cis- 
 terns are made of this com]iosition. Water-cnurss 
 are compo.sed of tow and lime only, mixed iviili 
 oil; this mixture, as well as the former, .soon m- 
 (piiring the hardness and im[>crviousness of ftoin'. I 
 
 In most habitations there is in each apartuicni a 
 
ALOIERIA 
 
 71 
 
 rsUoil platform for sleeping on, the bed beinpf com- 
 l»ii<i'(l (if junk, muttinji, shcuji-HkinH, or more costly 
 iii.itcrial. iic<:or(linK to circumHtniicoN. The other 
 liiriiiturc oonMsts, among the noiniuUc trihc.t, of 
 tivi) liirge Htones for grinding corn, >vrought hy 
 immMi; ft few articles of pottery and hron/.e, and 
 ii nidc frame for weaving. The better cla.Hse.H have 
 cibliioiw and caqtetH to their rooms, the lower 
 part of their walls being adorned witli colonriMl 
 haiiKings, and the upj)er part painted and decorated 
 with fret work. The tents of the Arabs (tlie nui- 
 (/(i/itf tif the ancienti) are s-imetime.-* called A/iy»i(M, 
 iroin tlie shelter they afford ; and sometimes heut- 
 ihluuir, or houses of hair, from the wel)s of gouts' 
 li;iir iif wliicli they are made. They are constructed 
 at this moment iireciselv in the wav described by 
 i,ivy (lil). xxix. § 31.), Sallust (Hell. Jug. § 21.), 
 Virgil, &c. They are of an oblong shape, not un- 
 ilki' tlie liDttoni of a sliip turned upwards, and are 
 (■;j-ily set u)) and taken down. (Sluiw, i>p. 20(1- 
 t!t) Tlie dress of tiie Herbers is very rude and 
 (narsc; tliat of the other classes varies greatly; 
 lull it is common with both si!xes to wear abroad a 
 kik, or toga, and a benious, which covers the 
 iiiiul and shoidders : the facets of tlie women are 
 
 Ferdinand of Spain, having driven the Saracens 
 from Kurope, followed tliem into Africa, and in 
 l.")()l ond l.jl)!> took possession of Oran, Hugia, 
 Algiers, and other ])laces. The natives, wishing to 
 throw ott' the Spanish yoke, had recourse to the 
 famous corsairs, the brothers AroudJ and Khayr- 
 ed-Uyn, better known by the names of Karba- 
 rossa I. and II., who had distinguisheil them- 
 selves by the boldness and success of their 
 enterjirises against the Christians. The brothers 
 s))eedilv succeeded in expelling the Spaniards 
 from all their jxissessions in Africa, with the ex- 
 ception of Oran, wliicli they held to the enil of llm 
 eighteenth century. Algieria became the centre of 
 the new power founded bv the llarbarossas; the 
 survivor of wlioni obtained, in l^fM>, fnmi Sultan 
 Selim, the title of Dc^y, and a reinforcement of 
 '2,0(10 troops. Since lluMi it has been governed 
 nearly in the maimer descTiiied above; and has, 
 I with few interruptions, carried on almost iiicess;int 
 I hostilities against the powers of ( "nristendom, 
 ' capturing their sliips and reducing tlieir subjects 
 1 to slavery. Atletniits have been made at dillereiit 
 I periods to aliate this nuisance, in l.")4!, the em- 
 peror Charles V., who had successfully achiev(!d a 
 
 mm 
 
 v(T>- nniih concealed. Vegetables form the chief ; similar enterj)rise at Tunis, arrived with a powerful 
 
 diet (if all classes, not a fourth )iart of the animal 
 I'lHid lieiiig consumed by them that is cimsumed by j 
 an equal population in Kurope. iJread, conscouson 
 (a kind of Irish stew), legiiines. ])otatocs, tomatas, 
 anil iither ''egetables, dressed wilii spices, oil, imt- 
 iir.nr aromatic herbs; Indian figs, raisins, melons, 
 and titlier fruits; with water, sherbet, and coffee, 
 — Inrm the main articles of consumption. 
 
 Drinking coffee and smoking tobacco constitute 
 never-failing amusements. Almost all the male in- 
 lialiitaiits of the towns have a pipe attached to the 
 liiiltdn of their vest; and tiie more hidolent and 
 (i|iulcnt will sit for days in cafes, unmindful of 
 their families, smoking incessanth', or i>laying at 
 iliess. In the country, fowling, hawking, and 
 liiititing the wild boar and lion are a(;tively pur- 
 .<iic(L Theatres are now opened in the priuciiial 
 tiiwiis. 
 
 Tin: Language is mostly Arabic, but mixed with 
 MiHirish and I'littinician words. The Kabyleshavc 
 a [leeiiliar language, so very poor that it is wthout 
 ciinjiiiu^tions or abstract terms, and is indebted to 
 the Arabic for these, and for uU terms of religion, 
 science, &c. In conversing with Kuropeans a //«- 
 im Franca is made use of; a mixture of Spanish, 
 lialiiin, French, and I'ortuguese. (See IJaubaky.) 
 
 Railways. — In no respect have the efforts of 
 France to civilise this part of Africa been more 
 MK'ccssful than in the fonnation of good roads, 
 and, the most perfect of all roads, railways. At 
 the end of the year 1864, there had been prepared 
 in iUgeria a net work of 340 miles of railroads, 
 namely, a trunk line from Algiers to Oran, 287 
 miles long, and a branch line from Philip])eville to 
 Ciiiistantine, of 58 miles. The iirst section of this 
 mam, from Algiers to ISlidah, was ojieiied for 
 trallic in April 18()4, and the whole network was 
 exjiected to be complete in May IHti!), A connec- 
 tiiiii of all the towns and military stations of 
 Al^jeria by telegrapluc wires was brought into 
 iilienition in I8.;lti. 
 
 Hhtonj. — The countrj' formed part of the Ro- 
 man ein|)ire ; but during the reign of Valentiiiian 
 III. Count Boniface, the governor of Africa, liavnig 
 revdltod, called in the Vandals to his assistance. 
 The latter having t.aken posscssitm of the country, 
 held it till they were expelled by Helisarius, a. i). 
 o:!l who restored Africa to tlie K. ICinjiire. It was 
 ovemin and coinpiered by the Saracens in the 
 seventh century, and was soon after divided into 
 as many kingdoms aa there arc now provinces. 
 
 tleit and army in the vicinity of ^Vlgiers ; but the 
 tleet having been immediately overtaken and nearly 
 destroyed by a dreadful storm, the troops, without 
 jirovisions or shelter, iindenvent the greatest pri- 
 vations ; and the emperor wa.s compelled forthwith 
 to re-embark such of them as had escaped tin; fury 
 of the elements and the sword of the Turks. 
 (Robertson's Charles V., cap. (i.) This great dis- 
 aster seems for a lengthened period to have dis- 
 couraged all attempts at capturing Algiers. France, 
 however, as well as ICnglard and other powers, 
 repeatedly chastised the insolence of its banditti 
 by bomliarding the towni ; but in general the 
 '.'European powers jireferred negotiating treaties 
 tvitli the (ley, and ]mrchasing an exemption from 
 the attacks of the Algerine cruisers, to making 
 any vigorous or weU-combined effort for their 
 effectual suppression. In 181o, the Amr -icans 
 captured an Algerine frigate ; and the dey con- 
 sented to renounce all claim to tribute from them, 
 and to [lay them 60,000 dollars a.s an indemnilica- 
 tion for their losses. Hut the most effectual 
 chastisement they ever received was inflicted so 
 late as IHKi by the IJritish under Lord Fxmonth; 
 when Algiers was bombarded, the fleet in the 
 harliour ilestroyed, and the dey corajielled to con- 
 clude a treaty, by which he set the Christian 
 slaves at liberty, and engaged to ceose in future 
 reducing Christian captives to that ignominious 
 condition. But it is exceedingly doubtful whether 
 these stipulations W(nd(l have been better observed 
 than others of the same kind previously entered 
 into by his ])re<lecessors. 
 
 The last of the Algerine deys got entangled in 
 altercations with the French government. I'ro- 
 voked by the discussions that had taken (dace, and 
 the cl.aims that had been jnit fonvard, he had the 
 temerity to strike the French consul on the latter 
 jiaying him a visit of ceremony. Redress was, of 
 course, demanded for this gross insult ; but instead 
 of com])lying with any such demand, the dey took 
 and demolished the French jiost at La Calle. This 
 was equivalent to a declaration of war; and France 
 determined on being avenged. In this view, she 
 fitted out a powerful armament, including a land 
 force of nearly 38,000 men, with a formidable train 
 of artillery, under the command of (ieneral Bour- 
 mont. The annament arrived on the Algerine 
 coast on the 13tli of June, I8:!0; and having effec- 
 ted a disembarkation on the following day, Algiers 
 capitulated, after a feeble resistance, ou the &tli of 
 
 
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 Ill ,-. ' 
 
 lli'*!:!^ 
 
 72 ALOIERIA 
 
 July. The dcy wns allowed to retire with lii.s per- 
 sonal property iiiimolosted to Italy, and his troopH 
 to wherever they elioite. 
 
 'l"he I'Vcnch iound in the treasury of the (lev 
 fiold and silver, coined anil uncoined, of the value 
 of 'I7,II.'19,0I 1 fr., excIu.Hive of stores of various 
 kinds valued at 7,(l«(l,!»2(; fr. 
 
 The towns of Oran and Dona soon after suh- 
 mitlf'il, and the iiev of Titteri was also reduced to 
 ohedicnee. Hut the hey of Oran, or Tlenisen. 
 <'arri('il on for a len;f|hened i)eriod a series of con- 
 tests and nepttiations with the French, which 
 were terminated in ls;(7 hy the Ireatj' of Tafna; by 
 which he iifrreed to ahnndon the maritime parts of 
 the province, and to recoj^nise the supremacy of the 
 French in Africa. The hey of (jonstantine was 
 less (')isily dealt with. Trustin^j to the strenfjth of 
 his )irincipal city, its <listance from JJona, the 
 nearest jHirt, and the hadiu'ss of the roads, he 
 braved the hostility of the French. In Xovemher, 
 iH.-tti, a force of M,<M»0 men, under Marshal Clausel, 
 a<lvaiU'ed npiinst Constantine. Ihit the ex])edi- 
 tion, havin;; heen too lonjc delayed, encountered 
 the greatest difHculties on its march, from the se- 
 verity of the weather, and the impracticable nature 
 of the country ; so that when it arrived before Con- 
 Htantine, it was unable to luidertakc the siej^e of 
 the J (lace, and with difflculty cft'ected a retreat. 
 To wipe off this disfjrace a poweri'ul army left 
 llona in the foHowiu^c autumn for the attack of 
 Constantine, before which it arrived on the (ith of 
 October. The Arabs made a vifjorous resistiuice; 
 fcnt breaches having been cfl'ecled in the walls, 
 the city was carried by storm on the 13th. The 
 French commander-in-chief, General Uamremont, 
 was killed during the siege. 
 
 Since that time, France has heen engaged in a 
 continuous stubborn conflict with the native tribes, 
 imdertaking frequent expeditions into the interior, 
 the most important of them in the years ltS45-0. 
 The latter ended in the surreiuier of "the reno\\Tied 
 chieftain Abd-el-Kadcr, who was taken as a ]iri- 
 Boner to France in 1847. He was released by the 
 Emperor Nayxdeon III. in 1852. Minor insurrec- 
 tions and small frontier wars, however, contiiuicd 
 to occupy the French troops ; and a rather serious 
 revolt of the tribes in the south-east broke out 
 tow.irds the end of 18G4, and was not stojiped 
 without much bloodshed. To assist in the pacili- 
 cafion of the colony, the Emperor Napoleon him- 
 self went on a tour through Algieria in May, 18(55, 
 issuing many proclamations, in which the inhabi- 
 f.ants were exhorted to submit, without furthei 
 ojiposition, to the rule of France. 
 
 Ai.GiEus ^Arab. ^ZJeze/re e/.^niie, Algiers the 
 warlike), a city and sea-port of N. Africa, cap. of 
 the above countrj', on the Mediterranean coast, on 
 the VV. side of a bay about 11m. in width and fi 
 <leep; lat. of light-house 30° 47' 2(1" X., long. 3° 
 4' 32" E. It is built on the face of a pretty steep 
 lull, the houses rising above each other so that 
 there is hardly one of them which does not com- 
 mand a view of the sea. The summit of the hill 
 is crowned by the Kashj, or citadel, 700 ft, above 
 the level of the bay. The town is nearly 2 m. in 
 circ., being surrounded by thick and high walls, 
 flanked with towers and bastions. The fortifica- 
 tions towards the sea arc comparatively strong ; 
 but those on the land side, though greatly im- 
 proved by the French, are incapable of any very 
 vigorous defence, being commanded by the adjoin- 
 ing heights. Algiers had, previously to the French 
 invasion, 5 gates — 2 on the sea, and 3 on the l.ind 
 side; about 160 streets, 6 squares, 2 i)alaces, 4 
 large and 30 small mosques (some of which are 
 now converted into Christian churches), 2 large 
 and 12 small synagogues, many buihlings for the 
 
 militarj', and altont 10.000 private houses. Tlip 
 pop. was formerly estinuited at from IKl.OOl) t„ 
 1811.001); but it is* probable that the lowest of tlicM. 
 nuinliers was beyond the mark. It appears l'rii:n 
 a census taken in 1817, that the poji. of the cjiv 
 iind commune amoinited at that date, inc. garrisim, 
 to !)7,.'(8!», of whom 72,3!t3 were Fri-nch and ntlicr 
 ICiiropeans, the residue being Moors, Kabyles, mui 
 ,Iews. A considerable emigration of Turks iiii,| 
 olliers took place after the occupation of the city 
 by the French ; and the above statement sliiwcil 
 that the emigrants had not retunuMl. A linal 
 enumeration of the year 18(i2 showed a furtluT 
 decreiLse, the ])op. at this time consisting of Imt 
 58.315 souls, of whom 37,145 Eurojieans, niul 
 21,1711 natives. The citv has a very iinposin;; 
 appearance from the sea, looking like a su(^ces>iiiii 
 of terraces, the houses, which are all whiteiicil. 
 giving it a brilliant aspect ; but, on enlcriiii;, 
 the illusion vanishes : the streets are tilthy, dark. 
 crooked, and so narrow that, until latterly, the 
 widest was but 12 ft. across. The French linvc, 
 however, taken down many buildings to eular;;!' 
 the streets, amongst others the principal niosciuo, 
 in the view of making the Plare dii Goiivmnmntt 
 in the centre of the city, a large and haiulsi.nie 
 sqiuire in the Eur<>iiean style. The houses have 
 flat roofs, that command a fine view ; they vnrj- 
 from two to three stories in height, and have a 
 (piadrangic in their centre, into winch the windows 
 luiiformly open. The streets have, in conse([iipiico, 
 a gloomy ajipearance ; and they are farther dark- 
 ened by the successive stories of the houses ])ni- 
 jecting over each other, and by their being fre- 
 quently pro))])e(l up by timbers across from cmc lo 
 another. The ^ isluiuW whence Algiers derives 
 its name, are two rocky lc<lges o]iposite its N'K. 
 qtiarter, which have been united, strongly forlilieil, 
 and connected with the main laud by a mole; 
 another mole, stretching S\^^ from these islands, 
 and furnished with two tiers of cannon, inclnses 
 the harbour, which is rather smsill, and incapalilc 
 of accommodating any vessel larger than a niidille- 
 sized frigate. A light-lunise is ere> ted on oiic uf 
 the islands, at the jiniction of the two mtdes. Tlie 
 Kasha or citadel is surrounded by strong walls, niul 
 its fortifications have been repaired and strciij;tli- 
 ened by the French. It is, in fact, a little town 
 in itself. It was here that the French found tlie 
 treasure belonging to the (ley. The moscpics arc 
 octagon buililings, with a dome and minarets, ofleii 
 elegant, and adorned with marble colouiiailes. 
 There are numerous public and jirivate fountains, 
 and baths of all kinds; for though formerly desti- 
 tute of water, Algiers is now well supplied with 
 that important element, which is brought to the 
 tmvn by aqueducts constructed in the last ceiitiin,', 
 and which, previously to the French occui)ati(iii 
 were kept in repair by funds set apart for that 
 purpose. Many shops have been opened by Euri>- 
 ])eans; they consist of recesses in the sides of llic 
 houses, about 7 ft. by 4 ; but business is \{n»\\)- 
 transacted in the bazaars, which, with) barlx'rs' 
 shops and cafes, are the chief places of resort fer 
 the natives. Algiers is now the residence of flic 'fi^- 
 vemor-general of the Freiudi possessions in Afrita, 
 and of the ))rincipal government functionaries ami 
 courts of justice. It was created the seat of a 
 bishopric in 1838 ; is strongly garrisoned ; and liiis 
 a regular intercourse by steam packet^s with llar- 
 seillfcs. The maiud'actures are chiefly those of silk 
 stuffs, girdles, purses, clocks, jewellerj', woollen 
 cloths, kaihs, hemmis, sandals, harness, caqicls. 
 junk, bronze utensils, (.tc. The markets are well 
 provided with meat, vegetaldes, and fruit ; itrovi- 
 sions generally cheap, excepting bread, which is 
 dear: there were no ovens, and only handinills fur 
 
hoiiscH. Tlip 
 
 11 llll.OOO In 
 lWCH( of tlH'-.t.' 
 
 iippfiirs Iruai 
 
 I. i)f till' city 
 , inc. fcnrrisnn. 
 lU'li ami iitlicr 
 
 Kaliyli'H, mill 
 of Tiirkn aii,l 
 on of tlic I ily 
 citiciU si It will 
 ■lu'd. A tiiial 
 \v«il a fiirilicr 
 isistiii;; of Imt 
 iiroiioMiis, ami 
 viTy iin|>o.siii;r 
 kc n sii(M'('s>i(iii 
 ; nil wliilciu'il, 
 , on piitt'riiii;, 
 re liltliy, dark, 
 il Idtti'rly. the 
 i Freiii'li liavp, 
 ii\(fs to i!iilar„'e 
 incilial nmsiim', 
 K Gotircniiiimil 
 
 ami liamlsiinic 
 he liouHCs have 
 icw ; t'lcy van- 
 lit, and liave a 
 ich the windiiHs 
 
 ill consociupnce, 
 ire farther diirk- 
 the houses imt- 
 their heiiif; I'ni- 
 •ross from one lo 
 
 Alfiiers derives 
 ;Hi|iosite its NK, 
 (troiiKly forlilicil. 
 and by a nidlr, 
 m these islamls, 
 cuiinon, iiu'ldscs 
 
 II. and iiicaiialilc 
 |cr than a iniddlc- 
 >rcv,tetl •'» '>"<'»' 
 
 two moles. The 
 Istroiif; walls, ami 
 [cd and strciiK'th- 
 ct, a little tirtvn 
 rcncli found tlie 
 ITIic mosiiuos are 
 id minarets, (ifuii 
 [rlilc coloiinaik's, 
 ■ivate fouiitaiim, 
 h formerly desti- 
 fU supplied with 
 [s broufjht to the 
 the last coiitiiry, 
 jnch occu\)atiiiii 
 t apart for tlwu 
 lopcncd by lMir.i- 
 thc sides of llic 
 jsiness is iii(i.*tly 
 [h, with", barbers' 
 ices of resort lot 
 ;idcncc of the p>- 
 essions in Al'ricii. 
 lunctionarics ami 
 id the scat of a 
 isoncd; and lias 
 jkets with 5Iar- 
 [efly those of silk 
 [vellery, woollen 
 .aniess, carj"'''' 
 iiarkets are well 
 md fruit; provi- 
 bread, whit* i* 
 ily handniills fur 
 
 ALGOA BAY 
 
 rriiidiug <'fTi before the oc(!uiialion liy the French. 
 I'.iinipean hianners, habits, and dresses are com- 
 iiiiiii; II* many bats are seen as turbans; eif^nrs 
 riiilace pipes, simps ba/aars ; grand hotels, enfi's, 
 liilliard tables. ealin}r houses, cnhinets littirairfs 
 liavp been set up, and ft circus, >'osmoranm, and 
 ciiicra eslablislied. There is regular steam com- 
 iiiimifalion with Toulon and ("ette in France, and 
 Oraii and lloiia in Africa. The streets have all 
 received French names. There arrived in the port 
 111' Alfjiers. in |S(;;t, l,,jK7 vessels, of a total bur- 
 iIkii of l!»2,ll!> tons. Of these vessels, l.OOl, (tf 
 K'l.').;!-'!! tons burthen, were engaged in tlic foreign 
 trade, and TiS.'!. of 2<i,7!>'.) tons, were coasters. The 
 environs of Algiers are very beautiful, and for 
 Mime miles round inters|)ersed with great numbers 
 (if elegant villas. There are 2 small suburbs, those 
 111' |lali-el-()ueil and Itab-a-Xoun; the former to 
 the N., the latter to the S. of the city. About a 
 mile S. of the Kasha is the Snltan Kalvsgi, or fort 
 111' the emiieror, an irregular pidygon without fosse 
 or I'liiinterscarii, ab(ait \ m. in circiiniference. It 
 jiiauds on the s])ot where (Jharlcs V. encamjied, 
 A. n. ITi'tl, anil completely conmi.iiids the town; 
 Init is itself coninianded by Mount Uoujereah. 
 The ancient city of Uiistonium, the capital of 
 Jiilta, was situated not far from Algiers, to the W. 
 iif Torretta (Jica: some ruins of this city still 
 exist. Algiers was founded A. 1>. !)it5. For some 
 iiiiticp of its history, see the previous article. (Sr • 
 Talileaii dc la Situation; liuzet, iii, pp. 14-H,s. ; 
 Shaw's Travels, |)p. .S3-;i'),) 
 ALtjlOA HAY. See Port Euzabetii. 
 ALIIAMHHA. Sec Ghanaha. 
 ALllAXIJUA, a town of Portugal, prov. Estre- 
 mailura, on the Tagns, IM m. NNK. Lisbon. Pop. 
 1,(1(1(1 ill \H'>H, The town has some small manii- 
 facliires of linen. 
 
 AliK'ANTE (an. Lncenliim), a .':ea-]iort town 
 iif Spain in Valencia, cap, prov. same name, on 
 the Mediterranean, 42 m. KN'l']. IMurcia. Pop. 
 2(1.7(11) in IH,')7. Alicante is the terminus of the 
 Smitli-Kastern of Spain railway. It is situated 
 k'tweeii mountains at the bottom of a spacious 
 li.iy. having Cajie la Iliierta at its NK. extre- 
 mity, and Isla Plana on the S. Alicante is de- 
 reiidcd by a castle on a rock about '1(10 ft. high. 
 Streets n.irrow and crooked, but well paved and 
 clean. Xone of its churches, convents, or other 
 ]ulilii! buildings deserve notice. The trade of 
 Alicante had fallen much off, in consequence of 
 llie eni.inciii.ition of S. America, and the disturbed 
 state of the country, but is now again increasing. 
 lis exports consist principally of wine, almonds, 
 harilla, olives and olive oil, brandy, tigs, s.ilt, 
 esparto rush, wool, silk, and linen. The imports 
 cmisist principally of linens, salted fish, corn, cot- 
 tnn.and cotton stuflFs, colonial produce, timber, &c. 
 The iiumlicr of IJritish vessels which entered the 
 jtiirt in 1802 wiis 234, bringing coals, iron, machinery 
 anil guano, to the value of 224,805/, The exports, 
 lirincipally raisins, oranges, and wine, were i!2,2(i(!/. 
 The trade with other nations was, shi|is JJti!) ; im- 
 imrts ;!n7,9.").5/., exports 92,305/. In 18(!3 the figures 
 wcre,ltriti.sli ships 180; imports 145,710/. ; exports 
 Id,ti57/. Foreign ships 343; imports 182,025/.; 
 I ex|)orts 72,14!)/. The decrease in imports arose 
 friira the diminished quantity of railway material 
 I imported, and the inc^rease in ex])orts from an aug- 
 mentation in the shi|>meiit of lead and esjxirto 
 (feather gras.s), which last had doubled in price 
 ill coiispquence of its demand for the manufacture 
 •if paper. ' The prosperitj',' says a consular re- 
 jKirt, 'of Alicante since the oiiening of the rail- 
 Iway to Madrid in 1858 continues gradually to 
 |aii;,Tncnt. The town and suburbs now contain 
 |3I,'200 inhabitants, 3,950 dwelling-houses, 161 
 
 ALKSLVAR 
 
 •3 
 
 Htroets, and 17 squares. It possesses fi chnndies, 
 an inslilut(! or preparatory cidlege for the univer- 
 si(y, 14 sebools, a ])ublic library, a hiiiidsoino 
 theatre, 2 hospitals, and a well-conducted estiib- 
 lisbmcnt for foundlings and aged )ian|iers of both 
 .sexes. Hitherto little hue been done in the erec- 
 tion of manufaciories, for wliicli the position of 
 Alicante is well adapted, the remembrance of the 
 ruinous result of .several joint stock companies for 
 (ftnelting lead and silver ore in ixl I being still 
 fresh ill the memory of the iiihaliilants. An ex- 
 tensive cigar manufactory', a government mono- 
 poly, in which iqiwards of 4,000 women arc 
 enqdoyed. still continues, however, to retain its 
 reputation for superior linisli, and is constantly at 
 Work.' (IJeport of Colonel Uarre, Itrilish Consul 
 at Alicante, 18(;3.) 
 
 AMCATA, or LICATA, a sea-]>ort town on 
 the S. coast of Sicily. Val di (Jirgenti, at the 
 nioulli of the Salso; hit. 37° 4' 25" X.. long. 
 13° 55' 40" K. Poj). 15.481 in 18,')8. It is built, 
 partly on the beach and ]iartly on the slope of 
 some hills. Its walls have gone to decjiy, and 
 neither of its two castles is of any considerable 
 strength. It is a ])oor-looking place, but ex|iorts 
 considerable quantities of corn, with sulphur and 
 soda, pistachio nuts, almonds, maecaroni, Ac, The 
 port is shallow, so that large ve.ssids must load in 
 the oiling, or mail, about a mile S\V. of the town, 
 where they are exposed to the southerly winds. 
 
 ALICIJDI, the most VV. of the Lijiari islands, 
 t)(i m. KXK. Palenno. Pop. 4.-)0 in 18,'iK. It is 
 aboiii, fi m. in circ, nses abruptly from the .sea, 
 with irregular ravines and )irecipitous hills. It is 
 cultivated wherever there is any soil, with singu- 
 lar and laborious imliistry, and produces most ex- 
 cellent wheat, 4)arilla, tlax, capers, &c. The jieople 
 are said to be exceedingly healthy; it has only 
 t^.'o unsafe laiiding-iilace.s, and is rarely visited by 
 strangers. 
 
 ALKillUR, a strong fort of Ilindostan, in the 
 district of the same name, between the (iaiiges 
 and the .Jumna, 53 m. \. Agra. 82 m. from I)idlii 
 by rail; lat. 27° 5(1' X., long. 77° 59' K. It was 
 taken by stonn in 1803; and was soon after maile 
 the head-ipiartors of a civil establishment for the 
 cidlection of the revenue, and the administration 
 (d' justice. The X. portion of the district of Ali- 
 ghnr is a desidatc tract, overspread with low 
 jungle; but the S. |iortion is fertile and highly 
 cultivated. The natives, though turbulent, are 
 superior to the liengalee.s, and other tribes more 
 to the E. Alighiir was one of the places held by 
 the Seiioy rebels in 1857, and was retaken on 5t"h 
 October of that year. 
 
 ALKMAAI5, a tomi of N. Holland, cap. arrond. 
 and cant., on the great ship canal from Amster- 
 dam to the Hehler, 20m. XXW. the former, 
 and 18 m. S. the Helder. Pop. 10,500 in 1801, 
 It is strongly fortitied and well built; there are 
 many fine canals, shaded with trees, and the 
 whole town has a strikingly clean and comfort- 
 able apjiearance. The llotel de Ville and the 
 arsenal are the imly ]ml)lic buildings that deserve 
 notice. It is the .seat of a court of ))rinmrv jiiri.s- 
 diction, and has a college, physical .society, theatre, 
 concert-hall. &c. Vast quantities of excellent 
 butter and cheese are produced in the surrounding 
 meadows. Exclusive of butter, about 40,000 tons 
 of cheese are said to be annually disposed of in 
 its markets. It also manufactures canvass, and 
 has a considerable trade in cattle, corn, tuliiis, &c. 
 Its commerce has been m.aterially facilitated by 
 the construction of the great canal. Without the 
 town is a line promenade, similar to those at 
 the Hague and at Haarlem. In 1573, Alkmaar 
 was invested by the Spaniards ; but having liecii 
 
 
 ii'i, ':• 
 
 i': „'• 
 
 11 
 
 tt.^'-l 
 
■'*'.' 
 
 ii., t 
 
 -I , \ 
 
 'km 
 
 I'm h'f; lifU 
 
 mm'' 
 
 \m¥'0 
 
 mi 
 
 7i ALLAHABAD 
 
 rcpiilspd with (jprt'iif. Idhh, in nil ntfomiit to tnkc tho 
 liiHii hy Htonii. (hey almndoned tlio Hi('>;<^ In 
 I7!>',), tliu An^lo-lkiiMsiim iinny iniilcr lliu l>uk<> 
 of Viirk, advunuud fruiu the iluldur ua fur lu 
 Alktnuar. 
 
 Alil.AIIAllAD, nn extensive nnd populous 
 prov. or Hoiilinh of Ilindoslun projMT, hcfwccn th<' 
 'J 1° itnd 2tJ° N. hit. nnd 711° nnd Ki° K, lon^. It in 
 honndud on the N. hy Onde and A^ra, H. I>y 
 <iund\vnnu, K. hy Ituliar and (inndwnna, nnd VV. 
 hy Mnlwnh nnd A^rn. It in ni>uut 27U ni, in 
 h'n;;tli hy nhout 121) in l)rpndth. 
 
 It in divided into tiiu folhiwin^ zillaliH or dis- 
 Iricts, vi/.. : I, Alhiliahnd: 2. ISenarcs; ii, Mir/a- 
 poor; 4. Jnanpoor; !>, 'I'iie Ki^wah territory; ti. 
 IhnidehMiiKl; 7. (,'nwnpoor; K Manieipoor territory. 
 Ft in watered hy th(! (inn^:;<^s, .luiniia, nnd oilier 
 threat riverH. Adjaeimt to the fonner, tlie eoiiiilry 
 is Ihit and very prodiietive, hnt in tlu^ S\V., in tlie 
 I'linideli'nnd dislriet, it forms nn elevated tahle- 
 hind,diversilied with hi^^li hills eontaiiiin^ iIkm-cIc- 
 hrated diamond mines of I'lxinah. Tlu^ tint eountry 
 is extremely sultry and suhject to the hot winds, 
 from which tho more elevated region is exempted. 
 in the hilly country, where tlie rivers are less 
 niim(>rous than in the plains, the periodical rains 
 and well-water are chiedy relied on for iifirieiil- 
 tiiral purposes. On the whole, howes-er, Allalia- 
 liad is one of the richest provinces of llindostan. 
 'i'he principal articles of export are siipir. cnilon, 
 iiidipi, cotton (riotlis, opium, snilpetre. diainoiiils, 
 &L\; and, in addition, it proihices all kiiiils of 
 (jjrain and a vast variety of fruits. 
 
 The chief towns are Allahahad, Benares, Cal- 
 linjier, Chatterimor, ('hiinar, < ihazypoor, .Juaiipoor, 
 and Alirzapoor. The whole of this extensive; pro- 
 vince is now suhject to the Hrilish pivnnmeiit ; 
 the Itenares district hnvin;? heen ceiled in 177'); 
 Allahahad and the adjacent territory in IHOI ; 
 and the districts of niiiidelcnn<l in IKO:!. Total 
 ])opulation 3,710,2ti3 in iMill. Seveii-eifihths of 
 the iuhahitants are su|)posed to he Hindoos, the 
 remainder iMohnmmcdans. 
 
 Ai.LAiiAKAi), an ancient city of Hindostnn, cap. 
 of the fthove ])rov. and (list., near the continence 
 of the (imiffes nnd Jumna, heinj; hy the course 
 of the river Hii) m. from the sea, hut tlie distance 
 in n direct line from Calcutta is only 47.J m. ; from 
 ISennres, 7.J m. ; and from A^ra, 2M0 m. Lnt. 2.')° 27' 
 N., loii)^. Hl° .'iO' E. At a short distance from the 
 city, at the junction of the rivers, is situated the 
 fortress, founded hy the Emperor Akhar in \[)Hii; 
 hut much imi)rove(l since it came into the jiosses- 
 sion of the British. It w lofty nnd extensive, 
 completely commanding the navigation of hoth 
 rivers. ()n the sea-side it is defended hy the old 
 walls ; hut on the land side it is rcgiilarly and 
 strongly fortified. It could not he taken hy a 
 European army, except hy a regular siege ; and 
 to a native army it would be all hut im|)rcgnahle; 
 and hence it has been selected as the grand mili- 
 tary depot of the up])cr provinces. In the course 
 of the Indian mutiny in l«57, an insurrection of a 
 dangerous character broke out, on the 5th of June, 
 at Allahahad, and the Fiirojjcans had to retire 
 into the fort, where they were besieged. How- 
 ever, they soon recovered their ground, and, before 
 many days were over, retook possession of the 
 town. 
 
 Being situated at the point of union of two 
 great navigable rivers, Allahabad is in one of the 
 liiiest positions iii Iiulin for beuig the seat of an 
 extensive commerce. The town, indeed, was de- 
 caying for some time after its occupation by (ireat 
 Brilaiu in 17G5; but of late years, and i)articu- 
 larly since the opening of the great Ea.st India 
 railway from Calcutta to Delhi, on which it is a 
 
 ALLEOIIANY 
 
 chief station, it hnw heen grontly increasing ui 
 prosperity. The populalion, which was only aliiuii 
 2(1,11(10 in iHiKt. Iiad risen to (!1,7«o in iWil. Tiu' 
 extensive (Millivatioii of cotton in liidin. a ri'suli 
 of the American civil war, was also particularly lii- 
 vourahle to Allahabad, it having JH-como the clii«f 
 seat of an extensive trade in the nrticle. 
 
 Ill the eyes of the iintives, the city is chielly 
 important as a jilace of pilgriinaj^e — one of tlici 
 most renowned in India. Besiiles the (innges niul 
 Jumna, the Hindoos believe that niiother river, 
 the Sereswnti, joins the other two from beluw 
 ground. In conseipience of this cxtraordinary 
 junction, Allahabad is reckoned i)eculiarly lioiy, 
 anil is annually visited hv many thousands ol' 
 ))ilgrims, who come from nil parts of llindostan to 
 liatlie and purify themselves in the sacred streiuii; 
 ill some years their numbers have amounteil in 
 nearly 22(i.(((M), each of them paying a small l(i\ 
 to government: — 'When,' says Mr. Ilamiltoii, •;i 
 pilgrim arrives, lui sits down on the bank of ilie 
 river, and has Ids head and body shaved, so lliai 
 each hair may fall into the water, the sacred 
 writings jjromising him one million of venrs' reni- 
 deiice in heaven for every hnir so deposited. At'icr 
 shaving, he bathes; and the same day, or lliu 
 next, performs the obsequies of his d(H'eased an- 
 cestors. The tax accruing io government for |)cr- 
 mission to bathe, is 3 rupees each person; but :i 
 much greater ex))eiise is incurred in charity aiul 
 giflsto Ihelirahmins, who are seen sitting by llic 
 river-side. ]\Iniiy |)ers(ms renounce life at this licpjy 
 conlhience, by going in a boat, after |)erfomiaiire 
 of certain scdemnities, to the exact spot where the 
 three rivers unite, where the devotee plunges iiiin 
 the stream, with three pots of water tied to his 
 body. Occasionally, also, some lose their lives 
 by ihe eagerness of these devotees to rush in aiul 
 bathe at the most sanctified spot, at n jireeix; 
 lieriod of the moon, when the immersion possesses 
 the highest 'iHcacy. The llengalees usually jicr- 
 forin the ])ilgrimagea of (iaya, Benares, and Alla- 
 habad in one journey, nnd thereby ncqiiire gre.it 
 merit in the estimation of their countrynu'ii.' 
 (Hamilton's Gazeteer; Ileber, i. pp. 441-11.).) 
 Since 1K(>2, Allahnhnd has become the capital of 
 the north-western jmtvinces. 
 
 ALL.\N (HKIIXH-; OF), a neat village of Scot- 
 land, on the Allan, 3 m. NVV. Stirluig, on the 
 Scottish Central railway. Pop. 1,«03 in IWll, 
 The village is a good deal resorted to in suninicr 
 by visitors, on account of a mineral spring in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 ALLAUCII, a towTi of France, dcp. Bouchw 
 du Rhone, 5 m. ENE. Marseilles. Pop. 3,()41 in 
 18()1. The town is built on the declivity of a 
 hill, and is very ancient. 
 
 Alleghany or Appalachian moun- 
 tains, a chain of mountains in the IJ. States of | 
 \. America, running in a NE. and S\V. dircclimi 
 from the N. parts of jVlabama and (Jeorgia, te the I 
 state of Maine, n distance of about I,2(i(J in. It 
 consists of a number of ridges, having a mean 
 breadth of about 100 m. and n menn elevatimi if | 
 from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. Their highest summiij 
 are in N. Hampshire, where thev attain to an ele- 
 vation of between (>,0()0 and 7,000 feet. They are | 
 almost evcrj'where clothed with forests and inter- 
 si)ersed >vith delightful vnlleys. Their stceiie>t I 
 side is towards the E., where granite, gneiss, ami 
 other primitive rocks are to he seen. (_)ii the W. 
 they slo]ie down by a gentle declivity coiitiniuil 
 to the Mississippi. Iron and lead are both nu't I 
 with, the former in great abundance, in varimn | 
 parts of the range ; and the considerable ([iian- 
 titles of gold that have been found in the stream I 
 in the upper pjirta of N. Carolina ami GeorfcHil 
 
ALLEN (BOO OF) 
 
 f]v\\r tliftt it nlmi in nmon(; the products of tlio ' 
 \llc;,'lmni('H. Hut poal hitiiis to hv. \>y far tlio | 
 111(1^.1 iuiiiorlaul of ilicir uiiucral richt-s. Viwt. ami i 
 all lint uu'xIiauHtililc Ix'il.s, i>( liiluminouH and of 
 iiiitliracit)' or Mtonu coal an; found in ditVorcnt iiarlx 
 i,f the I'liain, and arc aln-ady very cxtcnuivt'ly 
 wrciiifrlii. 'I'll*' quuiiiiticM of anlhriu'it*; lirouKlit 
 1,1 |Miiliid(^l|iliia, ]>artly for the NU|i|ily of tlu< city, 
 ami iinrtly for Nhi|iiii(!nt to otlu>r placoM, have 
 LTcatly incrcawd of late. Within the liwt few 
 years.' most extensive oil wpIIh have also Iwcn 
 llisciiV(^red in thedistri<'t of I'enusHvania, (jiviuf^ 
 rise to vaf^er speculation, and the sudden growth 
 III' iiiHiicuse fortunes, Salt spring's are ahundaut 
 all aiout; the VV, slopci of the Alh%r|iaiiie>*, and 
 IViiMi some of them lurjje supplies of salt are pro- 
 cured. This mountain systc^ni is crossed hy the 
 jhidsou river, and is the only instano" known, 
 except, that of the St. I.nwreiiee, of the ocean 
 lidcs passin;r throu;^di a primitive nioinitaiu-chain, 
 ami carryiuf; depth for the larp'st vessels. It is 
 also crossed hy several (lanals and raihvava. 
 
 Al.LKN (IMXi OF), the name usually pvcn 
 til the extensive tracts of morass situalc^d in 
 Kildare and Kin^'n and t^uei'u's counties, and 
 llic adjoining counties of Ireland. These do not 
 hdwevcr fonn, as is commonly supposed, one 
 LTi'iit morass, hut a nuinher of <Minti;{uons mo- 
 rasses separated hy rid^(\s of dry fjroinid. Though 
 tint, the ho^r has a mean elevation of ahout 2.')() 
 feel aliovo the level of the sea, and j;ives hirth to 
 scinie of the princijial Irish rivers, as the Harrow 
 tlowinj; S., and tlu; IJoyne K. 
 
 ALLKN (LOlJdII), a lake, co. Leitrim, Ire- 
 land, ahout 10 m. in length, and from 4 to !> in 
 wiiltli. This lake is f^enerally HU|)p()sed to he the 
 simrce of the Shainioii, and it luis jjerhapH the 
 iH'st title to that distinction. It is eh^vated 144 
 feet al)ove the level of hi^di water-mark at Lime- 
 rick; and the .Shannon luis been rendered navi- 
 ((alilc as far as the Lou(;h. 
 
 AliLI'.XDOlil'", a town of Ilesac Cassel, on the 
 Werra, 23 m. ICSK. Ca.ssel, on the railway from 
 t'asst'l to Kisenach. I'oi). 2„")00 in ItJtil. There 
 is ill the vicinity a considerahle salt work. 
 
 ALLliV^Vl-JI). a town of France, dep. Isere, cap. 
 cant., 21 m. NK. Grenoble. Top. 1,047 in IWil. 
 There are valuable iron and copper mines in its 
 vicinity, and founderies where iron t>f an excellent 
 description is prepared for conversion into steel, 
 and also for being cast into cannon. In the neij^h- 
 liimrhood are the ruins of the castle of Hayard, the 
 lilrtli-jilace of the famous knif^ht of that name — 
 tlio, chevalier sans peur et sans reproche. 
 
 ALLIEU, a dep. almost in the centre of France, 
 so called from the river iUlier, one of the principal 
 atllueuts of the Loire, whic^h traverses it from S. 
 to N., between 45° 58', and 415° 47' N. lat,, and 
 2° IG' and 3° 57' E. long. Area, 723,!)8I hect., 
 whereof about 4()8,000 are cultivated land, 7I),000 
 meadows, 18,t)00 vineyards, G4,0I)0 woods, 28,700 
 lieaths, moors, &c. Pop. 356,432 in 18(ii. Ex- 
 clusive of the AUier, it is bounded E. by the Loire, 
 and is traversed by the Cher, and other lesser 
 rivers. The ponds and smaller lakes are so nu- 
 merous, that they are said to have an injurious in- 
 Huencc over the climate. Surface luululating, and 
 ill piuts hilly ; soil j^enerally fertile, iiroducin;,' a 
 siiqilus of corn and wine for exportation, with f^rcat 
 numbers of cattle, sheep, and excellent horses. A 
 Cood deal of the timl)cr in the forests is oak, suit> 
 alilc for ship-bnildin}^. A^^riculture in this, as in 
 many other departments of France, is in a back- 
 ward state. Many of the ])easantry are small pnn 
 lirietors, and wedded to the practices of their fore- 
 fiitliors. (See Fkanoe — ' Aj^riculture.') There are 
 valuable mines of coal, iron, and antimony ; and 
 
 ALLOWAY KIRK 7r. 
 
 (piarricH of marble and jrranite. AmouR the ma- 
 iiufacturiii(r establishments may be nu'ntinned the 
 l^liiKS Works (if Souri^uy and Comment ry, wliirli 
 eiiiphty alsiiit MOO workpeople ; the iron works uf 
 Troncais, which employ above 500 ditto, and fur- 
 nish annually alMive 500,0t)i) kilof^'s. of iron. Them 
 are also manufactories of cutlery, earthenware, 
 (doth, and pa|M-r, with spinning-mills, and nume- 
 rous breweries. The (U-partment is divided into 4 
 electoral arroiid, ; l(» can!, and ,'122 communes. 
 Chief towns, Moulins, Montlu(,'on, lianimt, aiul La 
 I'alisse, 
 
 AI.liOA, a sea-jiort and m, town of Scotland, eo, 
 Clackmannan, on tlu; Forth, at the |iidnt where it 
 
 ceases to be a river, and hi nies a frith, 25 m, 
 
 WNW. KdiiiburKh. I'..p. of town, in ixll, 5.i:i| ; 
 of parish ami town, I!, 505 ; in IMtll, town. ("1,125 ; 
 par, and town, m,k*;7. It is irregularly built ; l>ul, 
 lias recently been much improved. A church, 
 opened in IHII), has a spire 200 feet in height. 
 T'be barlioor is excellent; vessids of large burden 
 lying close to the (piays; there is also a dry dock 
 and two yards for shiji-bnilding. and a sjiaciouM 
 wet dock was opened in \xt'>:\. The trade of thu 
 town is considerable. In \H[\-> the reg. siiippiiig 
 was 4S, tonnage, I4,tl III ; steamers, 5, tonnage, 
 2;U, The customs revenue in 18(11 was 5,li2!i/. 
 There are very exieiisivc collieries, distilleries, and 
 iron works in the ncighbiiiirhodd, the produce of 
 which is principally shipped here; aiul in the town 
 and its vicinity are I'xtensive on'weries, which 
 |)roduce ale rivalling that of Ivlinburgh, with iron 
 founderies, woollen manufactories, glass works, tile 
 and brick works. The iustiee of (leace and sberilV 
 courts for the co, are held here. In a park adjoin- 
 ing the town are the ruins of a seat of the Karl of 
 Mar, ]iart of which consists of a tower of the 13lli 
 centurv, !tO feet in height, 
 
 AI.LOWAY KllJlv: the church (Scottice,Kirk) 
 of tt parish, on the coast of Ayrshire, long united 
 ■with that of Ayr, near the mouth of the l)oon, on 
 the road from Ayr to Miiylxde, about 3 m. S. from 
 the former. The Kirk has been for a leiigthemid 
 jjeriod in ruins, but being prominently brought for- 
 ward in Ilurns's inimitable tale of Tarn O'Sbanter, 
 aiul having in its immediate vicinity the poet's 
 birth-place, and the monument erected to his me- 
 mory, it has become an object of great int('rest. 
 Though rootless, the walls are in pretty good pre- 
 servation ; and the feelings with which they are 
 now associated will protect them from depredation. 
 The church-yard, which is still used as a burying- 
 gronnd, c(mtains the graves of Hurns's father and 
 mother; and such is the prestige with which it 
 has iKJcn invested, that latterly it has become a 
 favourite place of interment, IJctween AUoway 
 Kirk and Ayr, but much nearer the former than 
 the latter, is the cottage in which Hums was b<irn 
 (on the 25th of Febniary, 175'J),aone-8t4iry house, 
 of humble appearance, with a thatched roof, aiul 
 long used as an inn. About J m, on the other side 
 of the Kirk, are the ' Auld brig o' IJoim,' and the 
 new bridge — the latter about 100 yards below the 
 former, and built since the time of Hums ; aiul on 
 the summit of the acclivity of the E. bank of the 
 river, about h.ilf way between the <dd and new 
 bridges, is the monument of the poet. This ele- 
 gant structure was tiiiislied in 1823, at an expense 
 of about 2,000/, It is built in imitation of the 
 monument of Lysicrat«s at Athens, and consists of 
 a triangular basement, on which rises a fieristyle, 
 of 1) Corinthian columns, .30 feet in height, sup- 
 porting a cupola, surmounted by a gilt tripod. It 
 is above CO feet in height ; is built of line white 
 freestone, iuul has a chaste, classical a|ipearance. 
 Independently of the peculiar associations con- 
 nected wtU the place, the scenery aroinid is eijual. 
 
 !*j:'^i 
 
 w^ 
 
 L' 
 
 m 
 
7ft 
 
 ALMADA 
 
 iilf'^'" 
 
 i ,!L, 
 
 U! •,, 
 
 1*1 
 
 in r'nilincsH iiiiil viiricfv to any in Sfotlnnd. Tlio 
 ccli'liriiti-il HialiicM of 'rmn O'Slmnlcr imhI SnutiT 
 .liilinnic iirt' ,i|)|irii|iriiili'lv jiliu'cd in ii ;;riiitii williin 
 till' K^'oniils alliK'licil Id lilt' niiiiMiini'iil, 
 
 ALMAI>A, n town of I'lirin^ai, prov. ICstrcma- 
 ilnra, on llic 'l'aKnso|i|iosit(- to l.islion. I'o|i. !'>.'iiM 
 in |M.')M, 'I'licrc is an old rnnt\v on a rock, an Ims- 
 ]iital, il l.alin Hcliool, with lar^c ina^'a/iin- for wine, 
 AI.M.VDION, a town of S|iain, prov. La Mant'lia, 
 on its S\V. frontier, in tlic Sierra Morena, .''•"mileM 
 WSW.Cindad Iteal. I'op.H.dj.nn |s'.7. Williin 
 n Nhort distance of tliJM town is a I'anions mine, 
 wlu'iu'i! (piicji.silver wiis oltlained to tlui extent of 
 from ilO,0(»i» to Kt.dno (piintalM a year aliont 'I't 
 yeari^a^^'o; lint in IHilitllie produce w'as only lli.iinil 
 (|nintals. 'I'liis mine in very ancient, and is lie- 
 lieveil to )iav(! Iieen wronKl'f previously to, and liy 
 the lioniauH. Hut the statements of I'liny, wliicli 
 are nliiie curious and instrnclive (Hist. Nat. lili. 
 xxxiii. 7), apply distinctly lo Sisapo in Hietica. 
 that is, to Almaden ile. la J'liiht, 27 m. NNW. Se- 
 ville, wlien? tliere is still a |iroductiv(> mine; and 
 then^ are mines of the same sort, tliou^^h of very 
 inferior c<iiiMe<|uen(-e, in otlier parts of Spain. 
 
 The inliali. of Almaden are almost, wholly cn- 
 pif^ed in the mines, or in the sulisidiary employ- 
 ments connected with them. Fonnerly, the mines 
 were principally wrouj^ht liy convicts; hut that 
 Hvsteni has lieun relin(|nished for a ^niod many 
 A'cars, and they are now wholly wrouj,'ht liy free 
 Liliourers. Working in the mines is still, despite 
 the morittirions ctVorts made for its iniiirovement. 
 vor^' inihealthy; hut it is less so in winter and 
 Hpnn^ than in summer and autumn; and during 
 tlie latter the mines are comiiaratively deserted, 
 the miners \mni^ then mostly enf{afjed in ajfricul- 
 tural pursuits. The mines were formerly wron^jht 
 <ni account of pivernment, who disposed of the 
 produce liy contract to the hij^Hiest bidder; hut in 
 the year iHiil, owiuf; to tinancial dilHculties, they 
 were leased to the unnt liankin;^ house of liaron 
 Kothscliild & Co, for a numlier <if years. 
 
 ALMAOI'O.a t<iwn of Spain, )ir(iv. f^a Mancha, 
 12 m. KSK. Ciudad I.'eal. I'oji. iL'.tiori in iH.u. 
 It has an imjiortant manufacture of lilondes. The 
 country round is eeleliraled for its nniles and asses, 
 for which there is annually a larj^e fair. 
 
 ALMAN'ZA, a town of Spain, prov. Murcia, 'ifi m, 
 N\V. Alicante. ro|).«,7;((! in 1«,)7. It is well huilt, 
 lias broad streets, hnen falirics, and a ^^reat annual 
 fair. In the neij^hhourhood of this town, on the 
 'i.'ith April, 1707, the French, under the I)nkc of 
 I!er>vick, f^ained a complete victory over the allied 
 forces in the interest of the Archduke Cliarles. The 
 latter lost 5,0()() men killed on the liekl, anil nearly 
 ll),(»00 taken prisoners. 
 
 ALMKIDA, a fortilicd to^vn of Portngal, prov. 
 lleira. 24 m. W. by N. Cindad Kodrif,'o. I'oi). (),H,j() 
 in 18;")«. From its position on the frontier of the 
 kinffdom, it has always been deemed a military 
 jxist of tlie greatest importance. In 17(i2, it was 
 taken by the Spaniards, after a long sief^c. In 
 IHIO, it was taken by the French under M.assena, 
 who abandoned it in the following year, after blow- 
 ing u[) the fortifications. 
 
 ALMEKIA (an. Miirgis), a sea-port to^vn of 
 Spain, cap. of prov, of same name, and near the 
 month of the river, and at the bottom of the giilph 
 <if the same name; 4!> m. ESK. Alurcia. Pop. 
 27,(li{0 in 1S57. It is the se.it of a bishop, and has 
 falirics of soda and saltpetre, and of cordage and 
 other articles made of the esparto rusli. The harbour 
 is large, well sheltered, and is protected by a castle ; 
 the water is so deep, that large vessels anchor half 
 a mile from shore, in from 'J to 14 fathoms, and 
 straller vessels anchor, close in shore, in from 5 to 
 S> fathoms. Tlic ancieiit sovereigns of Granada 
 
 ALNWICK 
 
 I'onsidered this ns llu! most important town i,( 
 their dominions, as well on account of the ferijlitv 
 of the Nurroiiiiding <'onntry, as of iis nwinufaciuri 4 
 and commerce. 'I'lll of late the town had verv 
 much fallen ot)', but its importance as a connncrrial 
 port has greatly increased in recent years, niiij 
 It has been endicllished with many new Iniijil- 
 ings. Itesides the esparto trade, that in lead aini 
 grapes alVord considerable oc<'npation, and the pro- 
 iluctioii of liarlev is likewise oil the increase. TIh> 
 total shipping in lM(;;t was l,27« vessids, !IH,|n| 
 Ions. There art^ 111 smelting works for lead nrc, 
 and the products in iMIill was H.IIIKI tons. The ruails 
 in the district are very indilferent ; thi're are im 
 
 railways, and none projected ; and the inoiinlai i» 
 
 nature of tlu^ country interposes a natural hurricr 
 to ihe town keeping pace with more favoured iljs- 
 tricts of Spain. (Consular Ifeports.) 
 
 AI/MONIU'KV, a pa. and township of l''ngliiiii|, 
 U'.lt. CO. Vork, waji, of Aglirigg, diviiled by (lie 
 (Nilne from the pa. of llnddcrstield. The iia. is 
 very exti-nsivc, containing itO, I Id acres, with n 
 jiop". of I2,w.si» ill IMOI. Ii contains several vil- 
 lages, of which Almonbury, 14 ni. SK. llnddcrs- 
 tield, is the principal. I'op. of Almonbury town- 
 ship Kl.illil in im'il, mostly engaged in tlic 
 manufacture of woollens and cottons, especially 
 the former. (See IIudkkusi-ikmi.) 
 
 Ali.MOKA, a town of llindostan, cap, Kiimniiii, 
 in the NI'I. i>art of India, !l(l in. N. bv K. IliiriUly; 
 lat. 2i»° UiV N., long. 7!l0 1(1' K. It stands on' a 
 ridge r),.'t;i7 feet above the level of the sea, and 'n 
 compactly built. The houses of stone, and slalcil. 
 are gt'iierally two and some three stories high, tln' 
 grouiid-tloor being occupied as shops, Tlu- iilil 
 (ioorka citadel stands on a commanding |ioiiit nl' 
 the ridge at the K. extremity of the town, nml 
 several martello towers have be(^n erected on |ieaks 
 to t\w eastward. This jilace was acquired bv tlic 
 Itritish in IHI,"). The surrounding country is lileak 
 anil naked. 
 
 AliMUN'KCAK, a aoa-port town of Spain, pmv, 
 (Iranada, 41 m. S. (Jranada. Pop. 4,710 in ls.'i7. 
 The town is of Arabic origin, its name siffiii- 
 fyiiig a 'jilaco of banishment.' It has a riiiiicil 
 castle, ruined walls, and narr<iw streets. The sur- 
 rounding countrv, though nnsnited to corn, pni- 
 duces tigs, raisins, the sugar-cane, cotton, h\ 
 The anchoriige is lit only ior small vessels, ami 
 should not be used by them except in cases nf 
 emergency, as the E. winds common on this coast 
 are ihingeroiis. 
 
 ALXMOUTII, a village of England, in Nortli- 
 nmberland, at the mouth of the Alne, !>\ m. KSK, 
 Alnwick. Pop. 454 in IS(51, The village expnrts 
 considerable quantities of corn and other iirodiicc. 
 
 ALNWICK, a town of England, cap. co. Nortli- 
 nmberland, on a declivity near the river Abu, 275 
 m. from London by road, and 3tB m. by (Jrcat 
 Xorthern railway. Pop. of town, in 1«41, 4,1)45, 
 of township (i,(i2'G; in IHIil town 5,(i70, par, 7,;-)Jii. 
 It has a spacious square, where a weekly market 
 is held, and a town-house, where the co. courts 
 meet and the members for the co. arc elected: tlic 
 assizes, however, are not held here, but at Xch- 
 castle. Alnwick was formerly fortified, and ves- 
 tiges of its walls and gates still remain. At the N. 
 entrance to the town stands Alnwick Castle, once 
 a principal stronghold of the kingdom on the siile 
 of Scotland, and now the mjignificent baniiiial 
 residence of the Diikes of Northumberland. It 
 underwent, not many years ago, a complete repair 
 and renovation, executed in good taste. At the 
 entrance to the town, a c(diimn is erected in 
 honour of one of the Dukes of NorthumherlamL 
 A cross, called Malcolm's Cross, stands on thcsimt 
 where .uulcolm III., king of iScotlaiul, is said lu 
 
 k iM^i 
 
rtnnt town df 
 (il'tlio Icrlilily 
 * iiiiiiiul'iu'tiiri'H 
 own liiwl Very 
 tH It ciiiniiicrrial 
 •lit. yt'iirH. mill 
 iiy IK'W liuilil- 
 lii'kt in Iciul itiid 
 III, mill tlic iirii- 
 iiicri'iisc. I'Im! 
 VVSSflH. !W,|sl 
 
 kH fur Ifiiil iiri', 
 
 DiiH. The riiiuls 
 
 ; then! nrc im 
 
 |U> IlllilllltlUlllills 
 
 ntktiiriil liiirricr 
 Tc. I'livourt'tl iI'h- 
 
 iliip of I'MiKlainl. 
 (livitlfil liy III!' 
 ■Id. I'lif (111. is 
 I) ncrpH, with n 
 niiiM si'vcral vil- 
 n. SIC. lIllildiTrt- 
 Inionliury lown- 
 ■ii)4ii|ii'il ill tlio 
 tloiiH, esjK'ciiiUy 
 
 n, rap. Kiimadii, 
 . by K. llarc'illy; 
 It wtiinds on a 
 if tlic st'ii, and is 
 monc, and slalcil, 
 ! storii's lii^'li, till' 
 
 HhopH. TIk^ "111 
 
 maiidin^; i»iiiit of 
 if ilui town, ami 
 1 erect I" I on iicaivs 
 H iK-iiiiirod liv till' 
 g country is bli'iilv 
 
 |vn of Spain, pmv, 
 
 p. 4,710 in Ix.'iT. 
 its name fipii- 
 It liiw a riiiiii'il 
 
 streets. Tlic sur- 
 ed to corn, jiM- 
 ane, cotton, h: 
 
 niiiU vessels, ami 
 (•])t in cases nf 
 
 inon on this wisist 
 
 ngland, in Xnrtli- 
 \lne, 5^ m. KSK. 
 he villat,'e eximris 
 id other proiliii e. 
 id, cap. CO. North- 
 Jic river Alnt, i'h 
 313 m. by Groat 
 ;, in IH-U, 4,',)4.i, 
 5,670, par. 7,;l.V). 
 a weekly market 
 ire the co. cmirts 
 . are elected; the 
 ic'c, Imt at Xew- 
 "ortified, ami vcs- 
 emain. At the X. 
 wick Castle, once 
 igdom on the siile 
 ;niticent baninial 
 tluimberlaiid. It 
 a complete ropait 
 id tASte. At the 
 (in is erected in 
 Northnmberlauii. 
 itandson thesimt 
 itland, is said to 
 
 ALOST 
 
 jinvi' Iki'Ii killed, in l(i;>:i, by a soldier, who eame 
 I,, iiitir liiin the keys of the ciistle on the point of 
 a sjM'ar, 
 
 AIA 'ST (Flein. Afilit), a town of llelKinin, iimv. 
 V.H Flanders, on the l>eiider, aboiil liiilf way 
 liiiittci'ii llrns^els and (Ibeiit. I'op. IJM'.VI in If^.iti. 
 It iM >iirriiniid<'d iiy walls, and is idcan and well 
 liiiill: 111!' parish church, the liirK<'st in tlu' country, 
 i^ III it tiiiished; if has a colle>;e, and several other 
 (':|iicatii'iial establishments; a town-house, reiiiark- 
 alilc fur its anii'luity, with maniifaclnres of linen, 
 ,.„il,iii, lace, hats, Ac, print works, and dyi! works, 
 lircwrrics and distilleries, tanneries, soap works, 
 irnii and copper fonlideries, and polteries. Vessels 
 (if small size come up to town by the river; and il 
 liiis a coiisiiU'raiiK! commerce in the produce of its 
 inaiiiifactures. and in hops of an excellent ipialitv, 
 
 LTiiwii in the tieifrhbonrh 1, rape oil, A'c. At 
 
 ,\|(ist is the tomb of the celebrated Thierry Mar- 
 ti-iis, the friend of Krasmiis, who introduced Ihc 
 art iif printing into Itelgiiim. 
 
 Abl'IIKN, a town of the Netherlands, prov. S. 
 Iliiilaml, cap. cant, on the IMiine, 7J m. K. Ley- 
 dcii. I'op. 3,1 <!7 in isiil. it has maintfactures of 
 earl lien ware aiul pipes. 
 
 AM'NACIl, a village of Switzerland, cant. 
 1 jilerwalil, on the SW. ann of the lake <if Lucerne. 
 I'dii. I.titi" in IHtiO. A very singular road, called 
 llic Slidf of A/pnurh, is constructed in the imme- 
 dialc vicinity of this town, for conveving trees 
 rrniii Mmiiil i'ilatus to tin- lake, from which they 
 arc I'linvardeddown the l{hine to the Netherlaiuls 
 ill ilic fiinn of rafts. 
 
 ALPS (THK), the most extensive mountain 
 ,«vstcni of l'".urope. They extend from the banks 
 (il'llie Iihone in France on the VV,, to llie centre 
 iil'Slavoiiia and the frontiers of Turkey on the 1'"., 
 frmn tlie oth and l«th degree K. long., forming a 
 vjist semicircnlar bulwark which encompasses, on 
 the N., Italy ami the Adriatic Sea. The ex- 
 tremities of this semicircle a|i]iroach 4.3° N. lat., 
 liiit the great body of the range occupies the space 
 lictweeii the 4(itli and 4«th degrees X. hit, 
 
 Tlie Alps are closely united to two other moun- 
 tain ranges; on the \V. to the Apennines, which 
 traverse Italy in its whole length; and on the K. 
 tci the llalkhan, which covers Tnrkev and (Irecce 
 with its numerous ramifications. I'lie boundary 
 line lietwecn the Apennines aim the Alps is ditK- 
 tult to determine. It seems to be most expedient 
 to sii|i))ose that the Aljis begin on the \V. side of 
 tlie great road over the Uochetta jiass (2,.").5(l ft. 
 aliove the level of the sea), which leads from 
 lieniia to Novi in Piedmont, That portion of the 
 range which begins at this road and extends E. to 
 the sources of the Tinea, a tributary of the Var, is 
 called the Maritime Alps, and docs not contain 
 any very high summits; but it is extremely ste p, 
 anil is traversed only by one road jiracticable for 
 cfirriiiges. This road connects the town of Nice 
 with the town of Colli in Piedmont, and traverses 
 three ridges by the mh or mountain passes of 
 llroiis Hrovis, and dc Tende. The last col is in 
 the main ridge of the range, and rises to 6,159 feet 
 above the level of the sea. 
 
 Between the plain of the Po a.id the valley of 
 the Khonc, the mjuntain mass lies in its greatest 
 extent S. and N., reaching from the shore of the 
 Mediterranean, or from nearly 43°, to the lake of 
 Geneva, or to nearly 4(1° 30' N. lat. Its length 
 in here, consequently, about 230 m., and its width 
 averages about 100 m. The watershed, between 
 the rivers falling into the Po, and those emjitying 
 themselves into the Khonc, does not traverse the 
 middle of the mountjiin region, Init 's found at 
 about 30 ra. from its K. border. On it rise some 
 very high summits. The most remarkable ore, 
 
 ALPS 
 
 77 
 
 Monte Viso, 1'.',<*I,'( feet iibovp the sen, on whono 
 !•'. declivities the Po lakes its origin ; and Mount 
 Ct'liis II, "!•.") feel above llie sea. Mont iNcrau, il 
 apiM-ars, mils', lie dcpoHcd from the place il Iiim 
 long held aniotigsi mountains. On reaching I ho 
 sninmit of the Col d'Iseran. the traveller naturally 
 expects, says the Alpi'ie (liiide, to see this r«ninniil, 
 lowering, as has been described, 13,271 feet above 
 the level of the sea. Ihii no great peak lies close 
 to the pass; the bighcHi point near il, and thai 
 which occupies the place of the Mont Iseraii of 
 the maps, is not more iban IO,Hil(l feel above the 
 sea levt I. Farther N. is the iinineiise iiPiss of 
 rocks that coiistitiile M<int Mi. anc. whose highest 
 iioint, the Ho»»e dv Uromviliiin; in lat. 4.')° i")0' N., 
 long. 11° [>[' K., Ii'i,731» ft. above the sea, is the 
 highest elevation to which the Alps attain. Tho 
 vaUeys, both to the K. and W., branch otf at 
 right angles from the watershed. Those to the K. 
 are short, straight, and deep, and terminate in the 
 plain of th«! I'o; those to the W. are of much 
 greater length, and rather winding. On this side, 
 especially in the dep. ilis Jluiitis Al/ifH, belweeii 
 the upper branches of the rivers Isereaiid l>nraiice, 
 are placed a considerable number of verv high 
 summits; Mont l.oiicyra attains 1 l,l.")i ft".. Mmit 
 liOiipilla 14,144 ft., lilont I'elionx de Valloiiise 
 14,1 ID ft., and at least twelve others rise above 
 1 1,000 ft. The ])eciiliar disposition of the valh^ys 
 in this ]iortion of the Alps has rendered the eoni- 
 munication between I'"rance and Italy compara- 
 tive'/ easy. The roads follow the valleys up to 
 the watershed, and have then only to traverse one 
 high ridge. Three great carriage" roads lead over 
 it. The farthest to the S. is the road of Mount 
 (le'nfcvre, which ascends from the banks of the 
 Jvhone along the valley of the Durance to llrian9on, 
 and traverses the ridge N. of Mount tie'nevre, 
 where it attains (i,l lit It. above the sea, whence it 
 descends in the valley of the river Dora to Susa. 
 The second is the road of Moiuit Ceiiis, which tut 
 the side of France may be said to begin at (Ireno- 
 ble. It ascends lirst the valley of the Isere, and 
 afterwards of the Arc, a tributary- of the former, 
 and traverses the ridge N. of Mtint Cenis, where 
 it is (i,772 ft. above the sea, and then descends, 
 like the former, along the Dora to Susa. The 
 latter is by far the most used of all the roads over 
 the Alps; and it is stated that annually from 
 10,0(10 to 1 7,000 carrifiges of all kinds, and from 
 45,000 to .50,000 horses and mules, jiass along it. 
 A railway folliv '-ig the course of the road over 
 Mont Cenis, w' •' gigiuitic tunnel through the 
 mountain, is i .nipleted in 1M72. The third 
 
 carriage road L >liat of the Little S. JJernard, 
 which ascends the valley of the Isere, passes the 
 ridge between Mont Iseran and Mont Ulanc, 
 and descends in the valley of the Dora Baltea to 
 Aosta. It attains in its highest point to an eleva- 
 tion of 7,015 ft. above the sea, and it is most 
 commonly suiijiosed that it was by it that Han- 
 nibal penetrated into Italy. This jiortion of tho 
 Aljis comprehends what commonly are called the 
 Cottian, Graian, and partly the Pennine Alps, 
 together with those of Dauphinc' and Savoy; but 
 respecting the limits of the Cottian and Graian 
 Alps, there prevails considerable uncertainty. 
 
 At Mont lllanc the direction of the range is 
 changed. It runs hence ENE. and the N. ridges 
 continue in that direction to their terminarion in 
 the neighbourhood of Vienna. With the change 
 of direction a change in the disposition of the 
 valleys is observed. The range is divided into 
 two or more ridges, running nearly ])arallel, and 
 including extensive longitudinal valleys. From 
 the ridges enclosing these longitudinal valleys 
 short transverse vallevs descend S. and N. to the 
 
 Hk'. --^z^? 
 
Vu 
 
 'M'i. 
 
 1* 
 
 il-;t' 
 
 7H A I 
 
 filfiiiiK wliicli iHtiini) the inoinitniii rnnfff. This 
 iliHiMixiliiiii of tli<< riiii;;('H rcinliTH tlii> I'linimiiiii' 
 <'iiliiiii Ih'Iwitii ltiil\' nil dill' HJili', Mini Swit/.cr- 
 liiiiil mill llrriiiiiiiy cm tlx' nilirr, iiiiiili ninri' 
 ilillii'iill llmii tlif t'liiiiiniiiiii'iiiiiiii liriwiTii linly 
 mill Friiiicc ; I'lir tln' rmnlH iiiiiNt i'hIiit truMT;*!' 
 (wiior iniiri- riilm'M, or pcri'iit lii'lli'i'linim iiiiiMt In- 
 iiiailc III Hviiiil Olio of tlioni. 
 
 I'!, of Miiiit Itliinr llic riiiiKc \i* iliviili'il into two 
 lii>;li riilj;i'H, wliicli I'lirlouc tlio viilloy of ViiluiHo, 
 and iiiiilc ahiiiit H° lid' K, loii;;., iit tin' soiiri'i'H of 
 till' Itliolic, Till' HolillicriliniMl of llii'si' niliurr*, 
 wliirh iH iiiiiiii'iliuli'lv coiint'cti'il with Mmit lllaiic, 
 conlains nearly in Uh miililli' Mount ItoHa, tlic 
 Hi'conil lii^'lii'Mt Niiiiiinit of tlic AI|)m, liciii;,' l/i,'JI7 
 ft. al;iiv»' till! Hon. W. of it HtainlK Mount CtTvin, 
 or Matti'riiorn, the tliinl liiKhi'st Hiiintnit.risin^r to 
 ll,M,'(ti ft. Thi'ii follow Aloiint ("oinliin, which 
 htiH l'l,lt!4 ft., anil Mount \'i'lan, whirli nttaiiiN 
 l'-',.'iri.'i ft, I''., of Mount K'osa, anil near it, is the 
 rinia di' Sari. i.'l,7l(i ft. hi;,'h. This chain coiii- 
 lirisc." the f^rcalcr part of the I'eiiiiine anil a 
 |iortioii of the Le|ioiitiii(> Alpn, hut is coiiinionly 
 calleil the Alps of Valaise. In the cliain which 
 encloses the valley of Valaise on the N, the 
 j,'reati'st Kiiropean jilacicr is foiinil, not far W. 
 of the source of the Hlione, Here a ^freat part 
 of the chain rises ahove the line of con^;elatioii, 
 anil is always covered with ice. It is stated to 
 have an area of *20l> sq. m. Many hif,di siiininils 
 rise out of it in the I'onn of iiyraniids; and us 
 the snow does not adhere to their slee]) sides, 
 they form a siildiino contrast with the sea of ice 
 tliat surrounds them. The most famous of these 
 siiinniits are the Finsteraarhorn, Il,(f2(! ft.; the 
 JMoncli (Monk), l.'(,t;t« ft. ; the Juiififran (Vir(j;in)» 
 i;{.7t;i ft.; the Schrekhorn, l.'U'.H ft.; the Vis- 
 cherhorner in (irindelwald, which include six 
 summits raiif^in^ from 12,(i!)4 ft. to 1J1,2SI ft.; 
 and the Kifjer, l.'J,()4;3 ft. hif^h. The (glaciers of 
 (Irindelwald and Laiitorbninnen, whii^h attract so 
 many travellers, are only small detaeheil ])ortions 
 of this iniinense f^lacier. W. of the prcat fjlacior 
 the chain still contains many summits rising to 
 ll,()(lt), and even to 12,(M)() fr. "of elevation ; as the 
 Altels, the lilUmlisalp, and others. It may he 
 (Mtiisidered as tenninatiii;; on the \V. with the 
 Diahlerets, or Teiifels-homer, which attains about 
 1(),(1(!(» ft. of elevation. W. of them the moun- 
 tains are of moderate heif^ht, and Inwards the 
 lake of Geneva they sink into elevated hills. 'J'liis 
 <'haiii ii<>v» commonly by the name of Boniese 
 Alps (Jk'rner Alpen). 
 
 The depression of this cliain at its ■western 
 extremity has aflorded an opportunity of esta- 
 blishiiif; a carria/^e cominiinication between Ge- 
 neva and Jiernc in Switzerland, and Milan in 
 Jiomhardy. The road runs aloiifj the shores of 
 the lake of Geneva, and enters at its eastern ex- 
 tremity the valley of the h'honc or of Valaise. 
 It then ascends the vallc^y as far as the town of 
 IJrifif^, and passes thence over the S. ranj^e by the 
 pass of the Simnlou to Domo d'Ossola and the 
 nhorcs of the Laj^o Majij^iore. The hij^hest 
 point of this road is (!,.")«;') ft., the town of lirigR 
 '2,325, and Domo d'Ossola 1,01)3 ft. above the 
 sea. This road, made by order of Napoleon, 
 partly at the expense of France, and partly of 
 the then kinjrdom of Italy, is a noble work. It 
 is about 2l)i ft. wide, risiiif; IJ inch each yard. 
 In some ]ilaces it is tunnelled to a considerable 
 distance throuf^h the solid rock. It is the only 
 carrifm'e road over this ran^e ; hut another road, 
 used only by mules, has obtained celebrity by 
 Napoleon having passed it in 1800, previously to 
 his famous Italian camiiai.tcn. This is the road 
 of the Great 8. Bernard ; it beguis at Martigny 
 
 on till' Uhone, wironds the vale of the ttmnll rivir 
 Mrance to its source, where it passes over tji,. 
 I'liiiin mar the cclcbrati'd Ijiwiiice, at an eleviiiiuii 
 of M,I73 ft. above the sea, ftllil lUwemlH lieiiee ti, 
 Ao'^la oil the l>ora llaltea. 
 
 !•'. of the sources of the Ifhone is the niilv 
 place in the Alps rimiiin^' \V. and K. where ih, 
 raiiKe is not di\ ided by loii^ituiliiial valli'\s. Inn 
 is intersected by the two triuisverse val(e\s n| 
 the Ueiiss and Tessiiio. Hence there has e\iy|ii| 
 time imineinorial a line of commiiiiicatioii In 
 this point between Switzerland and Italy. Tin, 
 is Iht^ "oad of the S. (ioihard, niiiliiif; '/.w'wh 
 and fjiceriie with Milan. riinniiiK lirst aloii;; |||,. 
 shores of the lake of the four cantons (or of I.n. 
 cenie) to Allorf, and afterwards in the valley nt 
 the upper IJeiiss to Anderiiiatt. It passes the 
 riil/,re at an elevation of ti.MOM ft., dcsceinls in 
 Aviolo on the Tessino in Val I.eveuliua, and niiis 
 in this valley to the Ka),'o Mawiore. and tliinn: 
 to Milan. This much fre(|uenteil road has nnly 
 ill inoilem times been rendered practicable liir 
 carria;,'cs, on account of the jioverty of the sinall 
 cantons which it traverses. 
 
 That portion of the mountain system wliiiji 
 lies between Mont Itlanc and the road of ilic 
 S. (iothard is less broad than any other part. It 
 iirobably does not measure more than 8t( ni. acm.s 
 in a straight line; hut its valleys, both to the s. 
 and the N.. but I'specially the latter, known liy 
 tlienameof lli^rhlaiidsof Itenie (lleriierOberliiiiili, 
 are considered as exhibiting the richest mouiilaiii 
 scenery in the / Ips, 
 
 K, of the road over the S. Gotliard pass, the 
 mountain system widens considerably; so thai 
 between !)° and 13° K. long., its average hreailth 
 may be estimated at bct'.veen 120 and 13(1 iiiilcs, 
 lint nt the same time the high siinmiits ari' los 
 numerous, a few only attaining 12,000 ft,, tlimi>;li 
 a great number still exceed 10,000 ft,, and jiii.* 
 the line of congelation. The height of the iiiniiii. 
 tain passes shows evidently that the elevatimi nf 
 the whole mountain mass has rather incrcainl 
 than decreased, at least VV. of the pass over ilie 
 IJrenner. 
 
 That portion of the range which is hoiindrd nn 
 the south by the Val Tellina, tiie roail of the 
 Tonale. and the valleys of Sol and Noii ; on llit 
 north by the road of the Vorarlherg from Fcid- 
 kircli to Landock, on the oast by the Adige from 
 San Michele to its source, and then by the Fiiis- 
 tennllnz road to Landeck ; and on tlie west liy 
 the valley of the liliine and the Sjilllgen rmul is 
 called the Kli.i'tian Al])s, or the Alps of the (Irisinis, 
 It is traversed by a great valley, which is diviilci! liy 
 a high transverse ridge into two, of which the \V. 
 or shorter, called the Vale of Hregaglia, is draimd 
 by the river Mora, which runs \V., and falls into 
 the lake of Como, or rather of Mesola ; and tlic K. 
 and much longer by the Inn, which falls iutii the 
 Uanube. The Adda, and its tributaries, willi the 
 excefition of the valley of I'oschiavo, has liccii 
 united to Italy since the year 18.59. Kxcept Kn- 
 gadine, all the valleys running castwanl frmn 
 these Alps belong to Austria, as also belongs the 
 valley of the 111, opening into the valley of the 1 
 Hhinc at Fclilkirch. The valley of the Uiipcr | 
 Khine afl'ords two openings towards the Imv 
 country ; one to the lake of Constance, and tlie I 
 other to the lake of Wallstadt. Thus the towiiuf | 
 Chur or Coire, situated where the Kliinc tiinis 
 N., has an eosj connnunication both with Ucr- 1 
 many and Switzerland. Though a small jilaic 
 by far the greater part of the commercial iiuer- 
 course between Ilavoria, Wirtemberg, Baden, ai:il 
 Switzerl.and on one side, and Italy on the other, 
 is carried on by the road passing through it. The 
 
 |;,Miciers, occiipyinfp 
 
«mall rivi r 
 mm over tin. 
 
 ail t'li'vaiinii 
 IIiIh lirlU't' I., 
 
 in tllC lilllv 
 K. WlltTC lllr 
 
 ll vallrVH. Ijiii 
 ■HC VallcN » u| 
 
 •f has «'\isiii| 
 iiiiiiii'atioii ill 
 
 1 Italy. 'I'lih 
 iiiliiiH Ziirirli 
 lirHt aloii^' III!' 
 HIS (i>r ol' l.ii. 
 
 llm valley nl 
 
 It ))aMH('S I III' 
 
 ,, (li'Kcrllils III 
 itiiia, anil niiH 
 re, anil tliciin' 
 mail liiiH Hilly 
 liraclicalilc li.r 
 y of the Hinull 
 
 ByMtcni wliiili 
 n riiad "ll" III! 
 ollirr (larl. Ii 
 an HO in. aim-s 
 
 lidtli to llicS, 
 tier, known liy 
 TncrOlH'rliiiiili, 
 
 l.'llL'Ht luouiiluiii 
 
 Hinrd paw, the 
 ralily, ho llmi 
 ivt'ra^je lircailtli 
 t and l!)(i miles. 
 iiniinitH arc los 
 J.OOO ft.. tli(iii;;li 
 101) ft., and \<a.-» 
 
 ■lit of tilt' IIKlllll- 
 
 [thc elevation iif 
 ■atlier incrcaii 4 
 le jiass oviT llit 
 
 |j 19 lionndrilon 
 'k>. road of llic 
 id Noll ; on till 
 KTH from Fi'W- 
 tlu! Adi!,'*' I'roiii 
 |en by the Fiiis- 
 oii tiie west liy 
 S|)lilneii rii!i(ll< 
 isoftlieCirisiiiis, 
 lieli isdividcilliy 
 if wliieli tlicW. 
 :nj';lia. is draiiml 
 ., and falls into 
 sola ; and tlio K, 
 ich falls into tlii; 
 iitaries, with the 
 liiavo, has ln'cii 
 l9. Kxcept \'.\\- 
 eastward Irmn 
 ilso belongs the 
 lie valley of the 
 of tlie Ujijii 
 ivards tlic In" 
 listanee, and tlie 
 'luis the towniif I 
 he Khine tiin\s 
 both with (JtT- 1 
 1 n small plaw- 
 immcri'ittl iiucr- 
 jerg, Baden, ami 
 [ly on the. otlicr. 
 ;hrough it, Tk 
 
 fl»tlt<"> "f •'"' fifi*"""' "elKible of the ndvaillat'e 
 nuniiiii,' If'"" ''''" eoMiincrrial inirn'onrHe, lias 
 ,1,11-triirli'd three exeelleiit roadx over llu' raiinr, 
 nhji'li ilivideH the afllneiil of the liliiiie iVolii 
 tlm-i' ileHri'tldin^' into the |ilaill of the I'o, A 
 pmil nnis Iroiii Colre aloii^ the Ithiiie to the plaee 
 uhirr till' Vofiler liliriii and llinirr Kheiii jnin, 
 mill ilu'iiee acfi'iiilH in the valley of the laiicr \i< 
 till' village of S|illlp'n in the Itlieinwald. At tlii-< 
 iiliii'i' till' road divides in two. ( >ne eoiitinnes to 
 ii.iiiid llie valley of the llinter IJIiein to a village 
 ciillnl also llinterrhi'in, and passes theme o\cr 
 ilie lii^'li inoiintaiii rii||^^< to S, Iternardino; it is 
 caili'il till' road of S. Keriiardino, I'Vuin this vll 
 hu,'(' it ilrseeiids in the Val Misoeeo or .Miso aloii); 
 till' rivrr Moosa, which opens near llelliii/nMa 
 into the small plain snrronndin^ tlu' N. extremity 
 (iC the Lap" Ma>;giore. This mad, wliieh risrs to 
 7,ii|.'i ft, aliove the sea, has been made in modern 
 limes to avoid the heavy duties which the Aus- 
 trian ){overnm('iit laid on the li>rei;;n coiiiiiioilities 
 |lll.•|^in^C Ihroiiffh its territories; for from llellin- 
 ziina they now can pass to Turin and (ieiioa 
 williiiiit traversing any portion of the Austrian 
 iliiiiiiiiions. The other road leaves the IMiiiiwald 
 III the villagi^ of Splllgen, and directly pa.sses over 
 till' iiiiiiinlain ridge to Val (iiaeomo, which ojieiis 
 iiitii Val Hregaglia near (.'hiaveiina. The hi>,'liest 
 pari of this road between Sjilllgen and Isola is 
 l!.!i|ll ft. above the sea. Anoilicr road runs from 
 I'liiri' nearly directly S. over some mountains of 
 nmilirate height, till it enters the valley of Ober- 
 liiilhstein, wiiicli it ascends nearly to its iip|ier 
 cxtreiiiity, where it divides into two branches, of 
 wliii'h the K. pusses Mount Jiilier at an elevation 
 iil'.'.'H.') ft.; it leads to the valley of I'jigadien, 
 fiiiil is not a commercial liiut of eomninnication. 
 The \V. road passes over the Maloga and descends 
 iiitii Val Hregaglia, where it eonlimies to tint town 
 uf (!hiaveniia. It rises to 8,*J60 ft, above the sea, 
 iiiiii though practicable only for small carts, is 
 iimcli used. 
 
 The next road farther K. is ratlier n military 
 
 than a commercial line, and was rei^eiitly made 
 
 hy the Austrian government to ojien a carriagi^ 
 
 ('iniiiiiiniicatioii between the newly acijiiired 
 
 Vallcl'iU! and Tyrol, It begins at Innsbruck, 
 
 asci'iids along the Inn as far as Fiiistennlln/,, near 
 
 the hoiindary line between Tyrol and Switzerland ; 
 
 turns then soiitliward, and pas,ses the watershed 
 
 I (if the Alps, between Naiiders and IJeshen, where 
 
 its highest ]K>int is about 4,500 ft. above the sea. 
 
 I Tiicii it (h'scends along the valley of tlii' Adige to 
 
 (Hums; hut a few miles S. of this it leaves tlu- 
 
 I vaihy, and turning SVV. traverses a very lofty 
 
 lateral chain of the Alps, which at the ]dace where 
 
 I it is crossed by the road is calleil Monie Stelvio. 
 
 liieii rises to the height of lt,177 ft., being the 
 
 I lii);liest elevation of any carriage road in Kiiro|)e. 
 
 Frmii this point it descends rajiidly into the valley 
 
 (if the Adda to Ikimiio and Kondrio, and thence to 
 
 liMilaii. it is commonly 10 ft. wide, and has been 
 
 |niaile at a vast expense, and with great skill. 
 
 This road encircles on three sides an extensive 
 J niimntaui region, tilled up bj'snow mountains and 
 L'lacii'rs, ocoiipying the greater part of the country 
 hetwccn Innsbruck and (iluriis, luid displaying 
 I the wildest scenery of the Ali)s. I'^ternal snow 
 Icovcrsliere ii ^jiace not much less in extent than 
 jiliut which . irrounds the Finsteraarliorn and 
 jVirfjiii, and it is likewise overtopi«d by numerous 
 Ifteep summits of a ])yramidal form, many of them 
 Irisiiif; to more than 10,OtiO ft. above the sea; 
 liis the Gebatch Femcr 12,288 ft., the Wildspitz 
 |Femrrl2,.St;4 ft., the tUockthurni 1 1 ,284 ft., and 
 lolhers. Where the road traverser* Monto Stelvio 
 lit imsea near another niuuiitain grou]), less in 
 
 AI.I'H 70 
 
 I extent, hut rising to A greater elevniion. Tn it is 
 
 I Mniinl < trti'Inr, or Orlchr, the highisi suniiiiii in 
 
 Tyriil, r.'.H.ij ft. iiliove the sr;i ; and mar (he 
 
 hitter Miiiiiii Hock Ishiriiowald 1'.',!:.''.' It., and 
 
 [ .Mount /cl.rii l'.V'.7.i ft. Iiitii. 
 
 To the I''.., iiiit at Nome distance fnun Ihesfl 
 
 I miiiuitain masses, is the road o>er ihi' KniiiH'r, 
 
 I wliiili ma\' be coiisidcrcd as the !•',. bnuiidary lino 
 
 I III till' Itliiellan Al|<'. This rmtd iic^'iiis at Inns- 
 
 ! briii'k. ascends the valley <>f the small riM'r .sill, 
 
 I and jiiisscs tlielice over the watershed between the 
 
 Inn and the Adi;;e, where. N. of Sior/.ini;, it 
 
 attains the elevation of l.ri.'i!) I't. ll then descends 
 
 in the \alley of the I'.isaek from llrixen to llul 
 
 /.ami or ll<>t/.en, and thence to Ituveredo and 
 
 Verona, ll is one of the most freipieiiled coiii- 
 
 inereial roads over the Alps. 
 
 This road may lie consiilcred as separating tlio 
 W. from the I".. Alps. The latter are di-.tiii^iiiislied 
 from the former liy being more disiincily diviih'd 
 by longitudinal valleys running W. and I',.: by 
 the greater number of separalit ridges; their 
 greater width and lesser elevation; tlic niiinber of 
 snow-topped inoimtailis being comparatively few, 
 and none of t hem occiirriiii; l'„ of I 1° I'), long.' The 
 northern half of this mountain rc^^ion is known 
 by the name of the .Noric .Alps; and the Noiithern 
 by those of ('ariiilhian, Crainiaii or Julian, and 
 Dinariiin Alps. 
 
 Not far distant from, and nearly parallel with, 
 the N. border of this mountain region, extends a 
 very long longitudinal valley from 11° to \:>'^ \'„ 
 long.; but it isdividcilliy two transverse ridges 
 into three valleys, in which llow tlii' rivers Inn, 
 the rpper Sal/ach and the I'pper I'^iis. all of llieiii 
 running H, To the S. of the valley of the Sal/.acli 
 is placed the highest jiart of thi^ Noric Alps, 
 Many summits rise above the snow line, and be- 
 tween them are many extensive glaciers. This 
 highest summits are the (inLssliloekiier, I2,;")('>7 ft.; 
 the<iross Wiesbach, or Krnmmhoni, 11,844; and 
 the Ankogel, ll,87i» ft. above the sea. The hiii- 
 gitiidiiml valley south of this range is divided by 
 a transverse ridge into two valleys, of which the 
 W. is ilrained by the I'jsach, which runs W. and 
 falls into the Adige. The K. valley is drained by 
 the Drave, running I'",., and one of the largest, 
 tributaries of the Danube. The mountain chain 
 dividing thesis from the plain of l.ombardy is 
 much less elevated, rising only in a few siiminil.s 
 to above 8.(100 ft., and iioneOf them excei'diiig 
 !>,000 ft. above the sea. (Inly the Terglou. which 
 rises near 14° K. long., at the sources of the Save, 
 attains a height of !l,««l ft., and is by many con- 
 sidered as the most K. snow mouiittiin of "the S. 
 range of the Alps, 
 
 K. of 14° K. long, the Alps are divided into .'i 
 ridges by 4 longitudinal valleys, .'ill of them open- 
 ing to the K. These valleys are traversed bv the 
 rivers I'^ns, Miihr, Drave, "and Save, The iliihr 
 suddenly turns S., and running through a wide 
 and ojieii transverse valley, empties it.self into the 
 Drave. The ranges enclosing these valleys on 
 their N. and S. sides gradually decrea.se in height jw 
 they advance towards the K. ; so that when rr- 
 rived at l(i° they may rather be termed hills than 
 mountains, except the ridge which divides the 
 valley of tlie Drave from that of the Save, which 
 jireserves its mountainous aspect beyond ]8° K. 
 long. ; where, at the conlhience of the Drave with 
 the Danube, it sinks into low hill.s, but rises again 
 into mountains towards the contluence of the 
 Danube and of the Save, where it takes the name 
 of Sirmian Mountahis, or Friizka (Jora, This 
 latter group may be cimsidered a.s the most E. 
 oll'set of the Alps, but rises hardly to more than 
 3,000 fu 
 
 \:^ 
 
 «!% 
 
 . III!" : 
 
81) 
 
 AM'S 
 
 i'l 
 
 .11- 
 
 
 ■LJ ■ 
 
 'llif rimur «liii'h dUiilrs llic VHllcy'* nf lln- 
 Miilir mill III' ilii' I'jiN liiriiM S,, iiiiil nuiiihiii'H lur 
 n ilindiiiri' in tliul ilirt'i'linii, I'liriiiln^ iIk' I'!. Imiiii- 
 <liiry III llii< iritii'ivrrH)' vullcy nf ilir Mulir; Iml nil 
 till' liiiiiniliiry liiir IkIwci'Ii Slyriit iuhI lliiiiKury. il 
 tiiiliHiiIci iiitii jiiu liilU, wliirli iiri' riillnwcil liy lliil 
 lii^'li ^'riiiiiiil, riiiiiii'i'iiii^r ilic AI|iN Willi till' I'lirrHi 
 
 «>l Ittlknliy, 'I'llirt IIHIIK' i^ |^i\i'M In II InW llliillll- 
 
 liiiii riiii^i' wliii'li N<'|ifiriili'H iIk' Iwn |iliiiiift nl' 
 lliiiiKiiry rmiii nuc iiiinilnr, iiTiniiiitiiii^ wlirrr iIm' 
 |)iiiiiilif Hiiililciilv tiirii.<4 )<nulli>Miri|, mill wliirli 
 IIIIIV tllmi Ih! C<iUnuli<ri'(l Its nll(> nl' till' K, nll'silH nl' 
 
 Jill' ,\1|.M. 
 
 'I'lic iiiiihI N. ri(l>f«> of tli(> N'nric Alpi*, wlilfli 
 l<kir(.s llic vtillt'yN nl' llic Sikl/.ikrii iiiiil liiiN nil llii' 
 N., \H limki'ii ilirnii|{li l)v llicHc rivcrM wIhtc llicy 
 liirii N. Ill run In llicir r<'('i|iii'iil, tlic l>iiiiiili<'. 
 This rid^i' limy li*M-niihiiU'ri'il lo tcniiiiiiiic with 
 llii> Schiiii'liiTK. iK'nr Ni'IihIuiII, rixiiiK ti.NX'.' I'l. 
 alinvt' ill)' Hca. This riil^'i' semis niiiiicrniis lalrnil 
 lirmirhcs In iIk' N,, wliirh li'niiiiiittt' >'liw(> In, or itl 
 II xhiiri ilisimu'c IVniii, (lie l>iiiiiili<', litlwccii IJn/. 
 mill Vii'iiiiu. Hut ilii'y rarely ulluiii lliit IivIkIiI •>! 
 <|,niio nr .'i.iMio It. 
 
 ThrniiKh this purl n| the Alps lie the minis hv 
 >vhii'li till' Inw'iis III' I, ill/, mill \'iriiiiii I'luiiiiiiiin- 
 t'uli' with lliily milt Trii'stc mnl {''iiiiiu'. 'I'hcri' iirr 
 twocarriiiniTi'iiilH witliilill'i'riiii liiaiiclics; liii\iiiK. 
 U.S I't'ii trill I minis, tiif Inwiisnl' N'illut'li nil the l>raM' 
 ill Carinthia, mnl nf l.aylnirli mi the Save in Car- 
 iiiiila. Tlic lirst, uiiitiii;^' I. in/, nii the |)mnil>c 
 with Italy mnl 'I'lirstr, runs in the licKinniiiK 
 ninsily alnii^' iIki hanks nl' the river Traiiii, in a 
 \\'S\V. ilirertinii, tn the tnwil nl' S.'ii/.hni');' nil the 
 Siilzliaeh: it then rnllnws the valley nl' llie l.isl- 
 ineiitinlieil river lip to the plaee whire il is diviileil 
 hy a transverse I'iilj^e I'min that nl' the I'jis, and 
 Ihen |ia>ses nver that ridi^e tn K'ailstadt. Ileiiee 
 il direelly aseeiids the elevated raii|,'e wliieli 
 M'parales the valley nl" tin- l''.ns I'mni that nl' the 
 Aliilir, and is kiinwn hy the iimiie nf the Tanerii. 
 The highest ] uiiit nf this mad, at llirsi'Invaiid, 
 rises lo .">. '21111 ft. uhovi! the sen. Frnm S, JSIieliael, 
 in the valley ef the Miilir, llie road aseeiids agnin 
 to iiass over the tliird rmijje, whieli divides the 
 valley of the Miihr from thai nf the Drave. This 
 chain', linwever, is niiieh lower. The mad leads 
 to Spital on the Drave, and thence I'nilows the 
 lianks of the river In Villaeh. Frnni Villaeli it 
 Jisceiiils the valley of the tiail, a triliiitary of the 
 Drave, tn Tarvis, where the mads leadiiifj; lo Italy 
 and Trieste seiiarate. The road to Italy turns \V., 
 traverses tlii' lunsl S. ridj^e liy ihejiass nf I'niiteha, 
 2.;")72 ft. aliove the sea, and deseends through the 
 valley of the Telia to Treviso and Veiiiee. The 
 road to Trieste runs from Tarvis S., attains its 
 liif^host point at the piuss of I'redil (;i,S 10 ft. liiffli), 
 and deseends thence in the valley of the Jsoiizn 
 to (Joerz or (Jnriza, whence it turns S. to Veil h 
 and Trieste, This mad is connected with that over 
 the nreinier by n transverse mad, nnitin;; the 
 valley nf the liravewith that nf the Kisaeli. It 
 ascends along the Drave fmin Villaeh to Spital 
 and Lien/,, passes over the transverse bridge se|ia- 
 rating the valleys hy the pass of liinich, and de- 
 Hceiids the Kisacli in the wide valley of I'uster to 
 IJrixcn, where it joins the mad over the Hreiiner. 
 
 The road hetween Vienna and the towns on the 
 Adriatic runs in the lieginning along the K. skirts 
 «>f the Aliis to Neiistailt on the Leitha, whence it 
 ascends the ridge called the Sommering, on whose 
 dumtnit it is !{,.'J37 ft. above the sea. Ilencc it 
 descends along the small river MUrz to IJruok on 
 the Miihr. Along the last-named river it ii.isses 
 through (Jriitz to Marburg on the Drave. It then 
 traverses the range separating the Drave and Save, 
 passing through Wcudish, Teislrilz, Cilli, aiiil the 
 
 Triijntin ynnn to I,a> bach. Ik'lwern this pliiiT ■m.\ 
 Trli'sti> is the iiiniintitiiitiiis country callnl Uu 
 Adelxherg and Karsl. .Near AdeNlierg the ri||4 
 rir'i's I'.'.'TI fl. iibnve the sea; il llieine desciinli i , 
 Seiinnethli, mill pa-siiig nver the Karst arriM ■ f 
 Triesic. Frnin Ihe pa.'<H of AilelsUrg u nai 
 
 hrmirhes nil' In l''iiiliie. 
 
 There arc two r.iilwavH acrnss Ihe Alps, fi>||i,\t. 
 iiig. with but slight Miriatinii, Ihe course nl' ||„ 
 mads here ileKcrilied. The lirsi, and iiiohI weijirK 
 nf the twn, riiiiH I'mni Liu/, r/ii Sal/liriick, lu lim. 
 briii'k, where it is tocrims the llreinier, lalliii:; liuu 
 the plain of Lniiibiirdy al lloi/.eii, and then i^himu'. 
 in a straighl line, to Trieste and N'emna. 'Il,, 
 secoud railrnail— the earliest that was ever rmii 
 pleted across Ihe Alps — K"es frnlll Viellllil tii«iiri|. 
 iilnggnii/., ill a straight Hiiiitlnrly direciinii, iukI 
 then ascends, in cmistmil curves, in (iral/, ami 
 Cilli; the asieiit, very cniisiilerable at some imini., 
 being nvercniiie by pnw'erfiil Inconinlives, spn iail; 
 built for lliiN line, Frnm Cilli and Laybarli, tin 
 railnay falls, in gradual curves, towiirils Trii ^i., 
 Ihrnwing nif brmii lies in an easterly and wc-iiii; 
 direction. The jnuriiey fmin N'ienna to Trioir, in 
 this line, nceiipies llfleeii liniirs by the fast triiiiH, 
 
 Two carriage muds unite ihis railway with iliiu 
 which cniiiiecis Lin/, wiili Italy. The iimsi N, 
 runs in the valley of the Miihr weslward, l>ii;ii, 
 niin; at llriick, and traversing Lcnheii, Inileiiliiir., 
 mid .Miiraii ; al St. .Michael it joins the other ri>u<!. 
 The S. runs in the valley of the Urave, hii.\nn 
 .Murbnrg and Villaeh, and traverses Kliigeiil'iiii, 
 
 The |)iliiiriaii Alps, which may be eoiisidrnil ii. 
 the link conuecting Ihe inoiintain system with il 
 Ilalkhan mountains, occupy the eniinlry hciwn:, 
 the (iiilph of Ijuaruer;) or Fiiinie and the riMP 
 Verbas or \'erliri/a and .Narenta in Turkey, anl 
 have obtained their name I'mm Mmiut liinar,, 
 their higlust summit (nearly 11° N. hit.), whi, i; 
 rises to ti,(ll(! ft. above the sea. The priiiri|i,i; 
 ridge lies nearly jiarallel In Ihu Adriatic, at iiili>- 
 taiice nf abniit Itll miles mnre nr less, and I'oriii.i m i 
 the same time the watershed hetween the rivir^ | 
 falling into the Adriatic or joining tlu^ Si;\i, 
 Lower ridges, mostly )iaralle( to the )iriiiri|;il 
 ridge, lill the country Iwlween il and the sea; Im. 
 those branchiiig otf towards the Save run iiiarli 
 S. and X. Opliosite the (inlpli of (^ujiriieni, III 
 higher inountains cover only a space of less tlun 
 Kit miles from \V. to K. ; and as here the I'crii:' 
 plains of llniigary approach nearest tliesea, tl> 
 Austrian gnveriiment, desimns of devising shhh 
 means by which the nbundant |irodiice i>fllu:| 
 country could be brought to the markets nf ili 
 commercial world, made in the last century Itii I 
 roads over the numerous ridges which traviivl 
 thecounlrv. They are known by the iiaiiirMfl 
 the Caroline and Josephine roads; Ihe I'uniK! 
 rising at one point to 4,.57(i ft. abovt^ the sea. I!u;| 
 the lines were not judiciously clinscn. They run | 
 over a succession of steep acclivities and iIitII.i- 
 ties; and, as they traverse a eonntry destiiiili' nf 
 water, they could only be used by light carri;i;."< 
 mid mules. liiit in the beginning of Ihis ceiiiiin I 
 a enni])any of private individuals constructeiliin-j 
 other ami very siijierior mad, on which all sIhh 
 slopes have been avoided; so that it is praclicalilel 
 for carriages conveying the most bulky ciniiiini-l 
 (lilies from tlic interior nf Iliingarv to the ccnK 
 This road begins on the coast at F'iiime, ;is('i'i;il-| 
 directly the mountains, passes through Kiiiiiciij.il 
 and Skerbuteryak, and tenuiiiates at Carlsimli tiij 
 the Culjia, where this river begins to he iiavif;alilt. | 
 
 On three sides the Alps are siirmiinded by ]ilninN 
 On the S. by that of Lombardy, on the X.hytlii'H'l 
 of Switzerland and Havana, and on the F. liy 
 great plain of Hungary. The plain of Lombaiiiv I 
 
 I ^ 
 
ALPfl 
 
 fll 
 
 U l.M rlovnh'il timn flnwn« nf Swilzrrlniul hiwI | ti'itfrr, tlirn'forr, mnvM fnnlcr tlinn Iho ulitr*. niut 
 
 1' -.1... I ...... Vf ......Cm.. 1.. ....I.. Ull'. I't ll... .....I'. I'..„i... tl I... I..1. tt'l 1.^ 
 
 Iliniinfi; I'itiIk' I.iiK" Miikk'""' '* ""'.v H(»,'( I't 
 
 itiiililx' liiki' ■'! ('iiiiici il!)7 I'l,; wliilnl llii> Inki'H nl' 
 
 lii'iii'Mk /iirii'li. mi'l riiiiiiiiHii'i' nri' ri'»|K't'tivt'ly 
 
 I,;iil7, l,:lll», l.;lll| ((, lllinVf Ihc urn, 'I'lif llixlirxt 
 ritiiL'i'^ ol l'*'' iMotitilaiiiit itri' iiiiirli iinirrr lo llii' 
 pliiiii III' i.oiiilxirily lliiiii Id ill)' iiliiiiiM oil llic N,; 
 itiiil ilK'ir ill'"!'''*)! Ih tinicli nit'i'jK'r lowanlN liuly 
 iliiiii lii»'itril'* .Hwit/.rrlaiiil nr < imiuinv. i'lir iik'hii 
 (li'Vittiiiii of llx' (X^'itl plitiii of lliin^'ury it uiilv 
 :iiHi 11. iiIh'Vii lli« Noa; luid in it tcnniiiaio tint K. 
 r\iriiiiiii<"< i>f tiiu runKt!i«i wliich iiowlicri! riitu tii n 
 j;riill iii'lK'lil. 
 
 iliii ('ciiirat riil#x<'i* or til" Al|i« an' rinii|mH«'il of 
 priniiiivo mi'kH, i'n|H'i'ially nl' i^'raniln ami ^iii'Inn, 
 III! iiri' iliKiiMi;iiii«lii'il liy ilicii |ioiiiti>il pfakN. On 
 Mil' N.^illl'<•^ lliiK lonnittion r.MrnilM a Mlaltt for' 
 iiiiiliiiii <>r I'linniilrraltli'. wiillli. 'I'liii* iIovh not ap- 
 piiir III arroniiiany llin ranfrii on ihn S., I'Xi'i'pt 
 iiliiiiK' llx' l''<- AliiM, whrro it |i/iM IxM'n ol>M*'rvi'<i to 
 i'\ii'iiil IViini liri.xcn on ili<> Kinarli to Marlnir^ on 
 ilic Priivc, Nkirtin^' thai river on the S, iicyonil 
 ilii' nliitt' I'onnation, the ciialk oi't'u|iii>H a conNiitiir- 
 alili' spai't'. Il ii* fonnil to occupy lln> ^rcatcnt 
 I'Nii'iit on tl>" SIC, of the nionntani xyNicni, tlic 
 wliiilr Julian .Mpx U-in^ coinpoNcil of ii, On llu> 
 ii|i|Hi.iiti' or N\V. hIiIc, iIic NaintNlonc furniationcx- 
 iciiils I'roui llu> laki! of (icncva an far ax tho S. 
 iHiiniiliiry of Havaria. 'I'lu' clialk fornnilion Im iMn- 
 liii^^iii.tlii'il liy itx NutinnitN, which <lo not rino in 
 luiiiili'il peak?*, hut form cither coiicn or cn|iola)*, 
 
 ,MI tlioHc partrt of lh(! nnincronx riilp'H which 
 
 rill' aUivc I hit line of con){clation iirc, of c(MirM(>, 
 
 I'liviTcil with Hiiow all thu year ronnil. In many 
 
 iiliii'ci the Hiiow occupies a conNideralile Hpacu on 
 
 ilic upper pariM and NUinniilM of the nx'ky nniMHCH, 
 
 anil Inmi these ' eteriinl reservoirs' of snow the 
 
 illaciiru ahi derived. The sides of the rocky iiwihs 
 
 'lire usually furrowed hy lonj; narrow vaUeys; anil 
 
 ill these nuLsses of snow, descenditiK Irnni the npiM'r 
 
 purts under the form of ice, extend the fartlier 
 
 iliiwnwnrd the greater the mass and height of the 
 
 Miiiw from which thev are derived. These accu- 
 
 iiiiilnliiiiis of snow and ice form glaciers, many of 
 
 whiiii are from 15 to 20 m. lonff. In the Intro- 
 
 iii;('tioii to Messrs. Lon^^man's ' (iniile to the Cen- 
 
 trnl Alps' (Part II. of Alpine (juide), will be found 
 
 u ilctailed and interesting; airount of these pheno- 
 
 iiiPim. The author describes, in the tlrst plac( , 
 
 I tlie ninnner in which the snow-dust and minute 
 
 crvHtuls are partially mtJted nnil fused by the in- 
 
 1 tiiiciu'o of the sun m wann weather, and frozen 
 
 toct'tlicr into c<mipact [)articlcs of ice during; the 
 
 next interval of cold, — the alternate melting and 
 
 ciiii^'plntiiin hciiiK uontinnally repeated until the 
 
 wliiilc mass is converted into that ])eculiar rondi- 
 
 I tion called neve ; and how, in the lapse of years, 
 
 I tlie neve incroasinf; layer by layer, aiul each layer 
 
 I'.Kortiii^ considerable pressure on tliat beneath, the 
 
 I jifwcss of congelation n™<l"i'lly tnnis the deeper 
 
 jiiirtiims of the muss contained in the rr.ser\'oir 
 
 I into compact ioo. The.se reservoirs ]mrtaking of 
 
 Itlio shipc of the mountains, and the ice in this 
 
 Ltnte |N)ssessinf; considerable ]ila-4l icity, the masses 
 
 (if m've (gradually flow down through tlie clmimels 
 
 liif the valleys, t)r become gluciers. The Introduc- 
 
 Itiim goes on ; * We now see that the essential con- 
 
 lilition for the formation of a glacier ia the existence 
 
 liil' il reservoir large enough, and at a sutlicient 
 
 IlielK'ht, to accumulate such a moss of neve as will, 
 
 lliy its weight, convert ita own substance into ice, 
 
 liiiiil force it to flow in whatever direction it en- 
 
 li'iiuntera the least resistance. In moving onward 
 
 |tlie j,'laoier conforms to the laws that regulate the 
 
 niiitiun of imperfect fluids. The resistance of the 
 
 Itidcs luid the bed on which it moves retanla the 
 
 Iniiitinii of the adjoining portions of the ice : the 
 
 Vou I. 
 
 the xiirface faster than the iMiiiom. Wbrii tlio 
 icc'Miriain tlotvs through a iH'ud in the valhy, Ihn 
 jHiint of nioNi raiiid motion is shifted I'roiii Ibu 
 centre towards the convex slile of the curve. 
 While the ice thus conform'* to the lawt of lliiid 
 motion, the internal changes by which il is eii- 
 lUiled thus tocnm|Hirt ilxelf are jHTuliar, and havo 
 no example among other IsHJies of which we havn 
 ex|M'rieiice. 'I'he nature of the motion, involving 
 constant changes in the relative posit ions of iIdi 
 linrticles, implies frarlure, which must U- freipienl- 
 ly n-netvetl; but Ibis would s|s'edily reduce llui 
 whole to a mass of incoherent fragments, if it wi'ru 
 not for the pro|M'riy of regelation. At each ilep 
 in the progress of the glacier, this repairs Ihii 
 
 damage done to tht iitiniiity of the iee, and by 
 
 the twiifold process itf f'rm tun- niiil n-i/fliition, tht) 
 glacier moves onward, constantly eiianging itit 
 form, yet presenting a continuous mass of solid 
 hard ire.' When the general movement of the 
 l^lai'ier tends to draw asunder adjoining pott ions of 
 lee, the mass is rent through, and ('reriMxex aro 
 made. Where tli(> descent is gradiiiil, the siirfaco 
 of the glai-ier is nearly level, and olVers few cre- 
 vices; but where the declivity is rapid and une'.eii, 
 the glacier is rent with numerous chasms, atitl 
 covered with (devalions, rising from llHI to 'JOO ft,, 
 having the aH|M>ct of a sea agitated by a hurrican)>. 
 Tlu' chasms arc freipientlv many feet wide, ami 
 m»tv than Km deep, 'f'heir formation, which 
 never takes place in winter, but is frerpient during 
 summer, is accompanied with a loud noise resem- 
 bling thniuler, and a shock wliii^h makis the adja- 
 cent mountains tremble. These chasms are subject 
 to change every day, and almost every hour, and 
 it is this cln-umstance that ren<lers the ascent of 
 the glaciers so dangerous to tmvellerH. Kouietimex 
 there are found in the glaciers pyramids of ice of 
 a considerable elevation and a regular form, on the 
 tops of which are placed large pieces of rocks. At 
 the lower extremity of the glaciers is an excava- 
 tion in the form oi' a grotto, fre(piently IIHI feet 
 high and from *><) to HO wide, whence issues a small 
 river, bringing down a bluish water. Though 
 every single crystal of the ice of the glaciem 
 seems jierfectly white, (he whole mass is of u blue 
 colour, passing through every shade from tim most 
 feeble sky-blue to that of ihe lapis la/.uli; it Ih 
 most fiure and lH>autiful in the lower ))arts of the 
 chasms. The glaciers impart one of the gn>atest 
 charms to Ihc si'eiiery of the Alps, by the lioaiity 
 of their colour, aii'l their contrast with the sur- 
 rounding country, iheir lower extremities l)eing 
 commonly contiguous to meadows coventd with 
 the flnest grass and the most beautiful flowers, 
 and the de(;liyities of the mountains which enclose 
 them exhibiting large t racts clothed with magnitl- 
 cent trees, especially firs. 
 
 AvalunrlieH are more frequent in the Alps than 
 in most other mountain.s, because of the stee))nes.s 
 of their declivities. The most common <;oiisist of 
 masses of snow, which, commencing their descent 
 at the higher parts of the mountains, and increas- 
 ing in magnitude and velocity as they roll down 
 to the valleys, i»yer\vhelm, in their headlong ca- 
 reer, men and cattle, destroy villages and forests, 
 and dam up and obstruct the course of rivers. 
 Four kinds of avalanches may, however, Ims <li.'»- 
 tinguishod. 1. The drift avalanche takes place 
 when the up]M>r parts of the mountains have lieen 
 covered by a heavy fall of snow during a calm, 
 followed by a strong wind l)cforc the mass liaa 
 acquired consistency. An immense mass of loose 
 snow is then suddenly brought by the wind into 
 th" valleys, where it frequently covers villages ; 
 but ill general these avalanchea do not occa.sioii 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 ALPS 
 
 
 ':'•> 
 
 ii '< 
 
 ?i |H -: 
 
 , 1 .K- 
 
 ^^if 
 
 is* 
 
 
 nuich (InmflfrR, tinloHs when thoy cniiBO a compros- 
 Hioii of t\u' air. TIuh Mirt of avnIaiiclK! iiHunlly 
 •K-cuw ill the iH-^iniiiiif; of winter, 2. 'I'liP mUin;/ 
 ovalftiH'lics: tliow liriii^; down prcnt masHCH of com- 
 pact Hiiow, <'.ip<'('iaiiy towanis tlic ciitl of tlio. win- 
 ter, wlien it iH'^rJiiH to tliaw. In their pro^rens, 
 tliev are iiiiTeased liv all ttic snow thov meet in 
 tlieir il('M<;eiit; tluar impeliiH and inaMs iwiiij^ fre- 
 (pieiitly Niicii nH to ovenvliolm and heat down 
 ever\' tliiiifj, rocks not even excepted, that may 
 interrupt their course*. These, tiie most destnic- 
 livc of I he avahinches, cause fjrwit loss of life and 
 liroiierty, !t, Tim gl'uUiKj nvuianches are musses 
 iif snow (le8cendiii;r slowly aioiiff the surface of 
 a not very steep (leclivity. They take place in 
 xprin^, when a lon^; thaw has dissolved tliat por- 
 tion of the snow which lies immediately on the 
 TiM^ks, and thus loosened the bond with which the 
 whole mass is united to its base. They carry 
 before them every tliiiif^ that is too weak to with- 
 stand tlnur pressure. 'J'hey sometimes occ^asion 
 con8id<!rahlo loss, hut not frequently. 4. The ire or 
 ginner avalanches are formed by larj^er or smaller 
 l>ieces of ice, detached from a fjlncicr by the sum- 
 mer's lieat. They are precipitated downwards with 
 a noise like thunder. When seen from a dis- 
 tancCj, they re8enii)lc the cataract of a powerful 
 river; As they generally descend into uninhabited 
 piaffes, they seldom do much damage. 
 
 The rolling and slidiiif? avalanches expose tra- 
 vellers to the fo-eatest Jankers they have to incur 
 in traversing the Alps. There arc, in fact, certain 
 localities <m the most frequented roads, to which 
 they descend annually, and which are consequently 
 very dangerous. To obviate the risk of accidents 
 from this cause, in the construction of new Toatls, 
 as of those of the Simplon and over Monte Stel- 
 \\o, care has been taken at such places to excavate 
 the mountain to a certain dcj)th, and to cover over 
 the road with strongly built arclies, which effectu- 
 ally provide for the safety of the traveller. A few 
 places on the roads are also rendered unsafe by less 
 or greater pieces of rock, which descend with fear- 
 ful velocity from the steep declivities of the moun- 
 tains. This usually happens when, after some days' 
 continued rain, a strong wind arises, and shakes 
 the higher portion of the mountains. Luckily, 
 liowever, such places are not frequent. Travellers 
 on the glaciers run the risk of falling into chaBms, 
 or of liiiding the ice under their feet suddenly open- 
 ing in the progress of the formation of a new chasm. 
 
 The scenery of the Al|)8 owes a part of its nu- 
 merous charms to the great numlier of extensive 
 lakes, of which nearly every one is distinguished 
 by some peculiar lieauties. Most of them have 
 an easy access, being situated on or nejir the out- 
 skirts of the range, as the lakes of Geneva, Con- 
 stance, and Zurich ; or partly within and partly 
 without the range, as the lake, of the Four Cantons, 
 and the Lago Maggiorc and that of Como, and 
 the l)eautiful lakes in Austria. Innumerable are 
 the small lakes which occur on or near the sum- 
 mits of the high ridges and glaciers. Most of the 
 rivers and torrents have their sources in such lakes. 
 
 The chalk formation of the Julian Alps offers 
 the most interesting natural phenomena. It con- 
 sists of a tine-grained, much-decomposed jjrimitivo 
 chalk, which is rent by a great number of trans- 
 verse crevices and precipices, and frequently forms 
 deep depressions in the fashion of funnebi. In it 
 occur numerous caverns and subterraneous galleries 
 of great extent, in which everywhere the finest 
 and most fantastic stalactites arc formed. More 
 than a thousand such caverns are alrcadv known, 
 and many hjive never been visited. 'I'he most 
 remarkable arc those of Adelsl)erg (which see), 
 Magdalen in its neighbourhood, Zirknitz, &c. 
 
 Niimerons too arc the rivern and torrents wliidi 
 suddenly disap|M>ar underground, jirecipitaliiii; 
 thcrascrves iiit<i a largt; chasm, and re-appcariiii,' 
 after a subterraneous course of many miles. Here 
 are also many intermittent wills, wiiicii, at cer- 
 tain seasons, emit large quantities of water, nud 
 at others are dry. Several of them feed thf lake 
 of /irknitz, whidi has ac(|uircd ('clelirity for bciii;; 
 for several inonlhs quite drv, and for several olhiTs 
 tilled with water; so that it serves each year suc- 
 cessively for tillage, pasturage, hunting, and (isliju;;! 
 
 The Alps art! not rich in initials, except inm. 
 Some mines of gold and silver occur on tlu^ S. as 
 as well as on the N. deidivity, esjjecially in tln' 
 Austrian dominions; but their jiroduce is iiicdii- 
 sidc>rable. Others of copper and lead are mun 
 productive ; but they too are comparatively )MHir, 
 except the Hleiberg (li "' mountain) of Cariiitliia, 
 which furnishes some ., ihe l)est lead in lMirii|K.', 
 The quicksilver mines of Idria, NNK. of Tripstc. 
 are reckoned among t!ie ri(;hest of the globe, Tlic 
 iron mines of Styria, Carinthip and (laniiola arc 
 very productive, and their produce hardly iiiforidr 
 to any of Europe, Hock-salt occurs only in a 
 very few places jn the VV, Alps ; but on 'Ww X, 
 side of the K. Alps arc very rich layers of tliat 
 mineral, running, as it seems, in a continuous line 
 from the banks of the Inn at Halle to lUose of tlic 
 Enns in Austria. They arc worked with great 
 industry at difl'erent places. 
 
 VegetJition covers the greater part of the Alps, 
 The larger valleys, none of which rise to r),()(lO ft, 
 above the sea, contain some tracts tit for agricul- 
 tural puqwses. They consist generally of umwcn 
 ground, extending on both sides a river. Ik'hiiiil 
 it the mountains rise with a steej) and comnKnily 
 inaccessible ascent, which is covered with liidii 
 trees; in the lower parts with oak, beech, elm, 
 &c. ; and in the upper region with tir, pine, lurch, 
 and the Pinus Cembra. Kear the region of tiie 
 pastures the trees dwindle down to low huslit^. | 
 The pasture region, which occupies the nextplacf, 
 offers commonly a plain strongly inclined towanl* 
 the valley, and is in general of considerable wiiltJL 
 It is called in Switzerland the Alps. Here arc 
 found the huts or sennes of the herdsmen, inha- 
 bited only in summer, when the cattle are broufjlii 
 to these pastures. The upper part of the raii)j;cis 
 occupied by bare rocks, many of which rise nixive 
 the line of congelation. This line occure in the 
 Alps between 8,(100 and 9,000 ft. above tha sea, | 
 and is lower on the N. than on the S. declivity. 
 
 Com is grown on the N. side, not above 'i,>fi* 
 or 4,000 ft. ; but on the S. it succeeds 1,500 fi. 
 higher. The highest place at which barley riiwii- 
 is Skala in the Engadin, 5,950 ft. above the .sea, I 
 High trees are found in some places not alw: I 
 4.600 ft., at others they ascend the declivities even I 
 to 7,000 ft. and more. Oak is found up to 4,000 ft. I 
 elm to 4,300, ash somewhat higher, beech to 5,(Hln 
 fir to 5,300, mountain ash to 5,000, birch to 5,(tv, I 
 pines to 6,600, and larch to 7,000 or 7,300 ft.abovfl 
 the sea. Where the high trees begin to cease, the I 
 mountains are covered with bushes and the Alpine I 
 rose (Rhododendron ferrugineum and hinutm\.\ 
 Beyond the upper limit of trees, are found the saxi- 1 
 frage, primrose, pedicularis, anemone, gentian,©'^ 
 other specimens of the brilliant Alpine flora. 
 
 The author of the 'Alpine Guide' just quotell 
 divides the Alps, geologically, into thirty-thiwl 
 groups. He says: 'To the modem race of Smj 
 geoh)gists belongs the credit of having asccrtaiuedl 
 the real order of succession of the strata, andtlifl 
 general plan of structure which prevails throiigb-l 
 out the entire chain. M. Studer, who holds il 
 foremost place amongst .Alpine geologists, rccogT 
 nises tlic existence in the Alps of a series cJ 
 
AIJ>S 
 
 83 
 
 ;orrpntR ■wliidi 
 
 I n'-aii\H'iiriiii; 
 y miU's, lltTi- 
 wliicli. at iiT- 
 of watiT, ami 
 1 I'cfil the liikc 
 
 i'l)rity for iH'ili;; 
 
 Ttievi'riil iillicrt 
 o«ch yt'iir xm- 
 
 Ih, cxcopt imii. 
 \ir (in tilt' ^. ft> 
 specially in lln' 
 odiiw! w iiicdii- 
 li'iul aro iiKirc 
 ]»arntivi'ly iiiHir, 
 in) of Oariutirui, 
 lend in VA\r\i\*:. 
 INK. »f Tripstc. 
 ■ the nU)l)C. Tlic 
 [ind (.^aniiola nn 
 ;c liariUy inU'ridr 
 tccnrs only in a 
 ; but, on the N. 
 ;h layers of tliat 
 a continuous line 
 lie to iliose of tlu' 
 urked with ffwi 
 
 part of the Ali», 
 i:h rise to 5,(100 fi. 
 cts fit for aKricul- 
 niernlly of unmin 
 I a river. ISehiml 
 ep and commdiily 
 ovcred with lii;;li 
 1 oak, beech, eta, 
 ith fir, pine, liucli, 
 the region of tk 
 wn to low busliw. 
 lies the next place, 
 y inclined towanis 
 considerable widtli, 
 e Alps. Here are 
 ic herdsmen, inlia- . 
 ; cattle are brouj;k 
 )art of therantjcis 
 ,f which rise alxive 
 line occurs in the 
 ft. above tha sea, 
 the S. declivity, 
 le, not above 3,W»! 
 , succeeds 1,500 ft. 
 kvhich bariey n\m^ 
 ft. above the sea. 
 p places not abo'": 
 Ithc declivities evei 
 l)undupto4,00Ufi. 
 Iher, beech to 5,(iii", 
 1600, birch to 5,'<W.I 
 T)0or7,300ft.alxiul 
 J begin to cease, the I 
 ihes and the Alpine 
 turn and hir!>tttmi\ 
 V arc found the saxi- 
 lemone, gentian, an' 
 It Alpine flora. , 
 Tjluide' justquoWl 
 -, into thirty-thi«l 
 ndcm race of StoI 
 ■ having ascertaiuedl 
 the strata, and tht I 
 ih prevails thrmigh-l 
 £uder, who Iwltb'l 
 fc geologists, rcafrl 
 * Ips of a sencs i)| 
 
 (TTotipo, coch with its crystalline centre, Romctimes 
 piiriillul to each other, Honictimes arranged en 
 tthelim, like tlie s(iuareH of a chess-lMiard. 
 
 •TIk' intervals between the higher crystalline 
 masses liad been imperfectly studied liy the earlier 
 m'lildgists. It is now known that the.se inter- 
 niciliatc species, which we shall (h'signate hv 
 ihc general term tniiaih [I'V. m»it, (Jerni. multte], 
 IIP' I'dnncil of rocks completely ditlerelit from those 
 (■(lustiliiting the crystalline centres. As a general 
 riiir, these are stratitied rocks of softer and le.ss 
 resisting texture.' The crystalline masses may 
 JH' regarded as islet.s. which, in the process of up- 
 jiiaval. hav(! driven back or tilted up the denosits 
 tliniii(,'h which they forced their way. It is, 
 tlierel'iire, in the troughs or spaces, where it has 
 IxTM less disturbed, that the clue to the original 
 p'dliigical structure must be sought. 
 
 The iidiabitants of those ranges of the Al)» 
 wliicli extend from the Mediterranean to the lake 
 (if (ieneva are mostly of French origin, siH-aking 
 a ('(irrupt dialect of the French language. In the 
 rcniaiiider of the mountain system the ]K)pulation 
 is iif Teutonic origin, only a few of the more o))en 
 valleys terminating in the plain of Lombardy, 
 spiuking a dialect of the Italian language. The 
 must E. extremity of the whole range, between 
 tli(^ rivers Midir and Save and the Julian Alps, is 
 )iiirtly inhabited bv a population of Slavonian 
 (irifjin, called the VVendes or Shivenzi. As the 
 tracts of land lit ff>r agricultural puqioses are of 
 (.•oni|iarativ(4y small extent, the rearing of cattle 
 unil llie making of butter and cheese constitute 
 the principal cmph>yment. Many of the inhabi- 
 tants migrate, at certain seasons, to the neigh- 
 iKiiiring countries in search of work. Some of 
 them return annually, some after the lapse of 
 some years. Besides the dairy, the mines give 
 enipliiymcnt to a number of irdiabitaiits ; but this 
 is (inly the case in the Alps of Styria, (jarinthia, 
 and Cariiiola, where rich mines of iron and ex- 
 tensive layers of salt are found. In these districts, 
 alsd, arc some manufactures of hardware and iron 
 iitciLsils. In the other i)arts of the range manu- 
 facturing industry is almost unknown; but near 
 its outskirts on the N. side it has in lat«r tim(!s 
 iHHiome so diffused, that it hardly yields to any 
 (ither part of the continent. The inhabitants of 
 the mountains arc distinguished by their love of 
 lilicrty, their oppoJSition to every kind of oppression, 
 the frankness of their behaviour, their ahhcrencc 
 to their old manners and dress, and their lidelity 
 and honesty. 
 
 The iUps did not become well kno\vn till the 
 i reign of Augustus. That emperor finally sub- 
 dued the numerous and savage clans which inha- 
 hited the Alpine valleys, and cleared the passes of 
 the banditti by which they were infested. He 
 improved the old roads, constructed new ones, and 
 I succeeded iu establishing free and easy communi- 
 I cations across the mountains. The chain was then 
 [divided into separate portions, which have prc- 
 j scn-ed their boundaries and dcuommations nearly 
 I tu the present day. 
 
 The exploration of the Alps has, within the last 
 I few years, excited a considerable amount of public 
 I interest, principally through the exertions and 
 lachievements of the Alpine Club. In 18,59, the 
 llicv. C. Hudson established the practicability of 
 Ircacliing the summit of Mont Ulanc by the ridge 
 Ifnim the D(*)me du Gofit<f. The highest pinnacle 
 l»if Monte Rosa, 15,217 ft., was reached for the fiist 
 jtitne in 1855 by Messrs. G. and C. Smith and 
 Ithree other gentlemen. The north end, 15,132 
 [ft., was ascended for the first time in 1861 by Sir 
 T. F. Buxton, Mr. E. Buxton, and Mr. CowelL 
 riie Lyskamm, 14,889 ft., was ascended by the 
 
 Key. P. W. ITardy, for the first time, by the 
 Monte Hosft glacier. The Weissborn, IVnnino 
 Alps, 14,8(11 ft., of which the lutcent is (me of tho 
 most dilli(Milt and laborious yet r.c(Miniplislu>d, was 
 first ascended by rrofe.s.>»(W Tyndall in 1861. 
 Monte Vi.so, Coliian Alps, IJ,6i;i ft., which hnig 
 had the rcpiilntion ot liciiig inaccessibh^ was 
 a.scenilcd in 1 861 by Messrs. W. Mathews and 
 F. W. Jacomb; and a .second ascent was made in 
 1862 by Mr. Tuckett. The Grand Combiu, l'(^n- 
 nine Alp.s, 14,164 ft., was hnig one of the least 
 known of Alpine summits; but in 18,")7 Mr. \V. 
 Mathews reached its second peak, and in 186(1 a 
 Swiss gentlenmn attained tlie highest, and an 
 I'jiglisli olHcer performed the same feat almost 
 immexliately afterwards. The Dom, 14,!i;i,') ft., 
 the highest peak of the .Saas Grat, Pennine Alps, 
 was ascended for the first time by the IJcv. Llew- 
 ellyn Uavies. The ascent of tlie Dent lilanche, 
 14,1118 ft., a most (Utficult undertaking, is only 
 known to have been aidiii ved once — by Mr. T. S. 
 Kennedy and a party of friends, in the year 1862. 
 
 Amongst the pa.s,ses re(H'ntly ojieiu'd may lie 
 mentioned the Hied I'ass, from Sa.ss to St. Niklaiis, 
 discovered by I'rofes,sor Ulrick; the Col de (iran- 
 crou, from Cogue to Ceresole, first ellected in 1862 
 bv Mr. F. F. Tuckett; the Jungfrau Jocb, from 
 Weiigcrn Alp to i'Kggischhorn, one tif the most 
 ditlicult passes yet accomplished, and considered 
 insurmountable until ascended, in 1862, by tho 
 l{ev. Leslie Stephen and other enteqirising mem- 
 liers of the Alpine Club; the Kiger Joch, ettected 
 but once, in 185it, by the Kev. I^eslie Stephen and 
 friends; the Lawinen Thor, a pass made and 
 named by Profes.sor Tyndall in 1860; and the 
 StuiiT Joch, from (irimsel to the yliggischhorn, n 
 most (iifticult pass traversed by Messrs. Macdonald, 
 Buxton, (irove, and Hall, in 1863. 
 
 Ai.i'.s (.'iOWEu), Basses Alpes, a frontier dep. in 
 the SE. of France, having K. the Sardinian states, 
 S. the dep. ( f the Var, W. de|i. A''aucluse, and N. 
 the dept{>. Drome and I lautes Alpes. Area, 682,643 
 hectares. Top. 146,368 in 1861, against 152,070 
 in 1851, showing a consi<'erable decline in tho 
 decennial i)eriod. This dep. derives its name from 
 its being principally occupied by the VV. shipe of 
 the Alps. Its aspect is highly varied and pic- 
 turesque, presenting a succession of high rugged 
 mountains, crowned with eternal snow, vast som- 
 bre forests, and low, rich, smiling valleys. The 
 mountains and hills occupy about half the surface, 
 and the woods about a sixth part ; the extent of 
 cultivated land is estimated at 155,000 hect., of 
 meadows at nearly 18,000, and vineyards at 14,000 
 do. The principal river is the Durance, which 
 traverses the dep. from N. to S.; it is also in (lart 
 intersected, and in part bounded, by the Verdon, 
 and is watered by many mountain streams, tho 
 immdations of which often occasion great mischief. 
 The climate varies, of course, with the elevation 
 and exposure of the soil. There is a good deal of 
 spade liusbanilry; and mules and asses are used in 
 preference to either horses or oxen. Produce of 
 corn crops insuiticicnt for the consumption. Po- 
 tatoes extensively cultivated. Olive, fig, and 
 mulberry trees, are all cultivated in the hiwer and 
 warmer districts, and dried and other fnuts make 
 a considerable article of export. The lower moun- 
 tains afford excellent sheep pasture. They belong 
 partly to individuals, and partly to communes; 
 and besides the stationary sheep, or those that 
 belong to the dep., about 400,000 head are annually 
 brought from the adjoining depts. of the Var and 
 the Bouches du Rhone, to be depastured for about 
 four months in summer on the mountains referred 
 to. They pay at the rate of from 1 fr. to 1 fr. 25 
 cent, per head; and both their size, and the quality 
 
 a 2 
 
 t ■ ?, 
 
 
8t 
 
 ALPS 
 
 !(^" 
 
 
 of their flrsh and wool, are said to he materially 
 imnrovdl by the chiiiiKe. Tlie Hhrjihcrds never 
 ciiiit tlu'ir charj^c either hy iii^ht <>r by <laj'. 
 IlesideM I be Hlieep belitiiffinff to the (lep., the breed 
 of wiiieti haw lieeii materially improved, it has a 
 preat numlter of j^oatH; and the rearing of bees is 
 alHo much attended to. There are mines, but not 
 very productive, of iron, lead, cop|K'r, and coal. 
 IVIiinui'aeture.s have not made much progress; but 
 tbc^re ar(( several silk tilaturcs and silk looms, with 
 inanufiivtures of cloth, bats, earthenware, and tan- 
 neries. (Jrciat numlx-rs of the poorer classes leave 
 their homes for a portion of the year to seek 
 employment in the nei^^bbourinfi depts. It has f) 
 arrond., 30 cant., and 2i»7 communes. Principal 
 towns DiKiie, Histeron, and Harcelloncte, in the 
 picturescpie valley of the same name. 
 
 Ai.i'H (Uim'kk), Hautes Alne», a frontier dej). in 
 the SK. of France, on the 'is. side of the dej). of 
 the Baxmes Alpcs, and havinf^ on the K. tlm Sar- 
 dinian states. Area, r)i")i{,2(!4 beet. Pop. 125,100 
 in IHOl. The pop. numbered l.S2,038 in 18.51, so 
 that there was a decline durinf; these ten years. 
 The department of Hautes Alpes differs in few 
 respects from that just described, except that it is 
 more moinitainous anil less fruitful. Some of the 
 mountains rank, in fact, amonfj the highest in the 
 immense chain of which they form a i)art. Mont 
 I'elioux, the most elevated, rises 14,120 ft, above 
 the level of the sea, and Mont Olan 13,4(11 do. 
 The mean elevation of the mountains may he 
 taken at about 9,000 feet, and the elevation of the 
 liighest cnh or passes from one valley to another 
 sometimes exceeds 7,000 feet. There are several 
 glaciers in the N, ])art of the dep, Aj^culture 
 similar to that of the Hasses Alix-s. Only 1)7,500 
 hect, of surface is cultivated; 77,000 hect. are 
 occupied by woods and forests, and about 24,000 
 by meadows, the irrigation of which is an object 
 of great nnportance. The valleys principallv lie 
 alongside the rivers Durance, I'triuch, and ()rac, 
 lidi.ibitants jioor and laborious. Grenkrs tTahon- 
 ditnce, or com magazines, are established in dif- 
 ferent communes, which make loans of seerl and 
 necessaries to poor families. There are mines of 
 iron, lead, and other minerals. Manufactures 
 ^principally contined to coarse cloth, linen, stock- 
 ings, and hats, required for the use of the in- 
 habitants. The cheese and butter of the Hrian- 
 (jonnais are liighlv esteemed. Hread made of 
 
 Eotatocs is extensively used. Families using rye 
 read commonly bake it only once a year; it 
 keejjs for 15 or 18 months, is hard, and has to be 
 broken to pieces by a hatchet. Between 4,000 and 
 6,000 of the peasants leave the dep. every year in 
 the beginning of October, and return early in 
 June. It is estimated that at an average about a 
 ' fifth part of those that emigrate never return, and 
 that those who do, bring back >vith them about 
 200 fr. a piece; the emigrants principally take to 
 the trades of pedlars and sho^vmen. The depart- 
 ment has 3 arrond., 24 cant., and 189 communes. 
 Principal towns Gap, Brian9on, and Embnui. 
 
 ALKKSFOKD, a market town and two parishes 
 of England, co. Ilants, hund. Alton. The town is 
 situated on the Itchin, at no great distance from 
 its source, 57^ m. SW. by W. London. It is 
 divided into Old and New Alresford; pop, of Old 
 A. 626, and of New A. 1,546 in 1861. It was for- 
 merly a place of much more importance than at 
 present, and sent a member to the H. of C. 
 
 ALSEN, an island in the Baltic, formerly 
 belonging to Denmark, and ceded to Germany by 
 the treaty of Vienna of Oct. 30, 1864. It is sepa- 
 rated by a very narrow channel from Schleswig, 
 and by the Little Belt from Funen. Sha])e irregu- 
 lar, being about 20 m. long, aiid from 3 to 8 in 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS 
 
 breadth. Pop. 22,500 in 1800. Surface pleasantly 
 diversilied with wood and open (iclds. All O'w 
 country houses are surrounded by frint trees, mul 
 large quantities of fruit ani aninially ex])(irt(M, 
 Principal towns Norborg and Sondcrborg. Chris- 
 tian II., deposed by the states of Denmark in 
 1523, 'vas conliniHl for nearly 17 years in a tower 
 in the castle of Sondcrborg. The island was taken 
 by the allied Prussians and Austrians from the 
 Danes in June, 1864, the Danes having withilrnwn 
 to it after the imsiu'cessful defence of DUppcl (in 
 the opposite mainland. The capture of ^Vlscii waj 
 the last event of the war. 
 
 ALSFELD, a walled town of Hesse Dnrmstndf, 
 cap. bailiwick, on its N. frontier on the Schwalni, 
 I'op. 4,1.'J3 in 1861. It has manufiictures of rii- 
 teens, flannels, and linen, with considerable bloaili 
 fields and print works. 
 
 ALSLEBKN, a walled town and castle of Pnis- 
 sian Saxony, reg. Merseburg, on the Saale. iNip, 
 3,00!) in 1861. The castle is the projjert^ of tlio 
 Duke of Anhalt Dessau. 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS (TIIK), a series ef 
 mountain ranges of central Asia, forming nii 
 Alpine belt, intersected by wide vuUeys and tra- 
 versed by numerous rivers, extending from VV. in 
 E., about the parallel of 50° N. between the meri- 
 dian of 84° and 100° E., where the Altai proper is 
 separated from the system known as the Daiirimi, 
 by Lakes Kosgol and Baikal. The name had Inr- 
 merly a much more extensive meaning, the rnn(,'o 
 being reckoned as extending from the eastern 
 banks of the Irtish, a tributary of the Oby (8I)0 1;, 
 long.), to the shores of the Pacific, at the S. extre- 
 mity of the Sea of Okhotzk, opposite the island nf j 
 Tar'akai (142° E. long.). Its length, therefore, 
 was counted little short of 2,500 m. It was, luw- 
 ever, not possible to determine it with any dP},Tec 
 of exactness, since only the N. declivities of tlic 
 range had been visited by travellers, the S. de- 
 clivities lying within the territories of the Chinese 
 empire bejng inaccessible to Europeans. Of laic I 
 years, however, the mountain ranges between tlie 
 frontiers of Kussia and China, espj^cially in the 
 west, have been the scene of repeated exploralidns 
 by Kussian travellers; while our own countrj-man, 
 Mr. Atkinson, since 1846, devoted many years e( | 
 his life to the same task. 
 
 The most westerly portion of the system, betwen I 
 the river Irtish and the river Tshulysbmnn, tli» 
 uj)per branch of the Oby, is properly called ilie 
 Altai Mountains, which name has been aftcnvanlj 
 used to indicate the whole system. This portiun I 
 bears also the name of the Ore Altai, because i[ | 
 contains numerous veins of the precious metals, 
 It consists of several ridges, which mostly nin | 
 WNW. and ESE. These ridges advance tlicirW. 
 extremities close to the banks of the Irtish, wbere I 
 they are 600 or 600 ft. high, but at a distance if j 
 about 15 or 20 miles from the river they attain I 
 from 3,000 to 5,000 ft., which elevation may kl 
 considered as the mean height of the greatest pan I 
 of the ranges; only where they approach the lake I 
 Teletzkoi and the river Tshulyshman they rL<l 
 still higher, even to 10,000 ft., and this part is I 
 always covered with snow. It ia colled Altai I 
 Bielhi, and is, so far as is kno'wn, the highest por-f 
 tion of the system. Mount Katunsk, or BilouU I 
 is 12,796 ft. high. 
 
 Between the Tshulyshman and the great lake (< I 
 Baikal, the mountains appear to form two gniit 
 chains, running E. and W. ; of which the S., whickl 
 falls within the Chinese empire, and is called Ikl 
 Tangnu Oola, or Tangnu Shan, seems to he thtj 
 principal range. It is divided from the X. chaiil 
 by » long valley, in which run the Kemtslnitl 
 from W, to E., and the Oulou-kem from E. toW.J 
 
fiicc plpmrnntlv 
 
 (.|<|!4. All t)h' 
 
 IViiit trcos, ftiiil 
 iiilly cximrtcd. 
 ■rliiirfj. t^'liris- 
 f Doiiniftrk in 
 pars in a towir 
 liuul was taken 
 riniiH from llic 
 viiif^witliilrawii 
 c of DlliM"'! nil 
 iro of AlscH wai 
 
 PBSC Pnmistmit, 
 n the Scliwtilm, 
 lufuPturi'H of ni- 
 isidcrablc bleatli 
 
 1(1 castle of Tnis- 
 thc Snale. r<i|i. 
 ! property of the 
 
 E), a HPrips ot 
 Lsia, forming mi 
 vuUeys and trii- 
 niUiif^'fnnn \V. tu 
 jctwecii the mcri- 
 hc Altai proper ii 
 II as the Daurimi, 
 ['he name hail fur- 
 leaninfiC, the rftni;o 
 from the cnstcrii 
 iftheOby (WPi;. 
 ic, at the S. cxtr.'- 
 josite the island cf I 
 length, thercfom 
 ) m. It was, ^»™- 
 it \vith any dcRKc 
 . declivities of the 
 .vellera, the S. lU- 
 mes of the Clnnose 
 uropeans. Of Ime 
 ranf^cs between tlie 
 ,, esp(!ciftlly in tk 
 pealed explorations 
 ir own countrjinan, 
 ited many years «( 
 
 the system, betwffn 1 
 Tshulyshman, tlic 
 [properly called tl* 
 lias been aftenvanli I 
 ftem. This iwrtwui 
 Ire Altai, because k 
 lie precious mctak 
 [ which mostly ran 
 [es advance their W, I 
 lof the Irtish, whw 
 >ut at a distance i( I 
 ic river they attml 
 I elevation may b(l 
 of the greatest pan I 
 y approach the lab I 
 jlyshman they li^l 
 ft., and this part bI 
 It is called Altai I 
 m, the highest pot- 1 
 Latunsk, orlJilouUI 
 
 knd the great lakc((l 
 Y to form two pent I 
 twhichtheS.,whiclil 
 V, and is called tlul 
 U, seems to be thil 
 k from the N. clan 
 Irun the KemtsWI 
 l-kemfroraE.to«.;r 
 
 ALTAI MOUNTAINS 
 
 85 
 
 lifter their junction the river is called Yenesei, i 
 lirciiks liirough the N. chain. Tlu; portion of 
 
 ,and 
 jf the 
 jailer situated W. of the Veufsei river is called 
 ilic Sftvaiiskiiui range, but the K. chain l>ears the 
 iiaine of I'lrgik Turgak Taiga. Holh chains unite 
 alioiit 11)0° K. h>ng., at a cousi(lcrai)le distance VV. 
 ,,1'tlic lake IJaikal, at the sources of the Solenga, 
 llie iiio»t considerable river which empties itsi If 
 into the lake. The united chain is here called 
 (iiHirbi Uhilcu Dzong, which name it iireser\-es to 
 liiH° K. hmg., running in general K. On the K. 
 ^idfi of the meridian of 108° K. long, and the river 
 Selciiga, the direction of the mountain chains com- 
 posing the Altai system is changed; they run NE., 
 and form a very extensive mountain region E. of 
 the lake Haikal. This region is called the Jlaika- 
 lian or Daurian Mountains; but the highest chain 
 lieliiiiging to it, and lying withhi the Chinese 
 cmiiire, hears the name of tlie tJrcat Khing-Khan. 
 'I'lic most easterly iM)rtion of the Altai Mountains, 
 lietween 122° anil 142° E. long., lies again nearly 
 due \V. and E. ; but here it advances to 60° N. lat., 
 and is called by the Itussians Yabloni Khcrbet, 
 and by the Chinese Khing-Khan Tugurik. 
 
 The Aldun Mountains may be considered as a 
 continuation of this latter chain. They separate 
 from it at the sources of the river Aldan, a tribu- 
 tary of the Lena, enclose the valley in which it 
 runs on either side, and continue on the E. side 
 along the shores of the Sea of Okhotzk up to the 
 liav of Pershina, the most northerly corner of that 
 oeiL From this baj' one branch nms NE., and ter- 
 minates at IJehring's Straits with the East Cape 
 and the Cape of Tshukotshoi-Noss. Another 
 branch turns abruptly S., and traverses the jienin- 
 milaof Karatschatka, terminating at Cape Loj)atka. 
 The highest Summit of the Aldan Mountains, ad- 
 jacent to the road connecting Yakutzk with Ok- 
 hotzk, was found by Erman to be 4,055 ft. above 
 the sea. Hut the chain traversing the peninsula 
 of Kamtschatka contains several volcanoes, some 
 of which rise to a great elevation. Erman mea- 
 sured three of them. The highest peak of the 
 volcano of ShivcQutsk (36° 40' 32" N. lat.) rises to 
 10,591 ft., the volcano of Kliutshuvsk (50° 4' N. 
 lat.) 15,825 ft., and that of Tolbatshinsk 8,346 feet 
 alH)vc the sea. If the Aldan Mountains and the 
 range traversing Kamtschatka be considered as a 
 continuation of the Altai chain, more than 1,500 
 miles must be added to its length. 
 
 The country extending N. of the Altai Moun- 
 tains and the mountain chains which continue the 
 range to the eastward to the shores of the Polar 
 Sea, form one continuous plain, sometimes of an 
 undulating siuface, but mostly exhibiting immense 
 Hat lowlands, called, as others of a similar descrip- 
 tion, steppes. Tliis plain, at the foot of the range, 
 is hardly more than 500 ft. above the sea, to which 
 it gradually slopes do^vn. On the other hand, the 
 countries lying S. of the Altai Moimtains consti- 
 tute a portion of the great elevated table-land of 
 Upper Asia. Their surface is much more imeven, 
 being traversed in many parts by ridges of rocks 
 and hills, whilst others present themselves as im- 
 mense plains covered with sand. The mean ele- 
 vation of these countries seems to be from 2,000 to 
 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 Roads. — Two roads lead over the Altai, and one 
 over the Aldan Mountains. That most to the W. 
 is the great road of Kiachta, by which the com- 
 merce between Russia and China is carried on. It 
 hepsiB at Irkutzk, the capital of East Siberia, situ- 
 I ated on the LoAver Angara, not far from the point 
 where it issues from the lake Baikal. From this 
 town, which is 1,440 ft, above the sea level, goods 
 are carried in summer by water, and in winter over 
 I the ice of the lake, to Udinsk, and hence to Selc- 
 
 ginsk, where thoy arc landed, and transported to 
 Kiachta, the Kii'ssian commercial establishment, 
 and exchanged with the goods brought by tho 
 Chinese to Muimatshiii. The Chiiu'se bring tho 
 goods to Urga, the j)rovincial capital of the adja- 
 cent country; and in advancing farther S. they 
 attain the highest (loiiit of the range 8. of Urga, 
 t>n the mountain Dshirgalantn, S. of the riv' » Tola, 
 where it rises to 5,055 feet above the sea. They 
 aftcr^vards descend to the table-land, and traverse 
 the great desert of Cobi, or rather Gobi, sometimes 
 called Khamo. The other great road leads from 
 Udinsk, on the river Selenga, to the niiiiing district 
 of Nertshinsk. From Udinsk it runs E. in tho 
 valley of the river Uda, a tributary of the Selenga, 
 somewhat more than 250 m. ; then it traverses tlio 
 highest [lart of the range near 112° E. hmg., and 
 descends into the valh^v of the Ingoda, in which 
 it continues to (iorodisktshenk, where the Ingoda 
 unites with the Oiion, and forms the Shilka river. 
 On the bunks of the last-mentioned river it con- 
 tinues to Nertchinsk. The great road over tho 
 Aldan Mountains connects Yakutsk with Okhotzk. 
 Yakutsk is only 2«7 feet above the level of tho 
 Polar Sea, lietween this place and the river Aldan 
 the road rises gradually, and attains at Nokhinsk, 
 on the heights forming the W, bank of the Aldan 
 river, 751 feet. In the valley of the Aldan it (le- 
 scends to 424 feet above the sea. E. of this river 
 the road rises to 1,581 feet at (iamastakh, and in 
 the mountain pass six miles W. from Khoinia to 
 2,61!). It continues nearly on this level for several 
 miles, and then descends with a rather steep de- 
 clivity towards the Sea of Okhotzk. This latter 
 place is on'.v 3 feet above the sea. 
 
 Mines. — 'I'he Altai jNIountains are rich in me- 
 tals, especially in gold, silver, copper, and lead. 
 The mines from which these metals are extracted 
 have been worked on a large scale at some unknown 
 period, and by an unknown nation. In the middle 
 of last century the Uussians, following the traces 
 of the ancient mines, began to work them ; but 
 only at the W. extremity of the mountain system, 
 between the Irtish and the Oby, and again on the 
 banks of the Shilka river, east of the lake Itaikal. 
 The first mines are comprised in the mining dis- 
 trict of Barnaul, and the second in that of Ner- 
 tchinsk. 
 
 Latterly, however, the mines have been com- 
 paratively abandoned, and the attention of all 
 parties is now directed to the washing of the de- 
 tritus, or sand, earth, and gravel, found in the 
 valleys and in the beds of the various ailiuents of 
 the Irtish, Oby, Yenesei, and other great rivers 
 that have their sources m the N. slope of the moun- 
 tains. These efforts have met with great success ; 
 and the country of which Barnaul on the Oby (iii 
 about lat. 48° N., long. 83° E,), and Krasnojarsk 
 on the Yenissei (lat, 56° 1' N., long. 92° 57' 16" 
 E.) are tho capitals, is bv far the most important 
 and valuable of the auriferous regions of the Old 
 World. The district, of which Nertchinsk, to the 
 E. of Lake Baikal, is the capital, is also, thougb 
 in a very inferior degree, productive of gold. The 
 produce of the Siberian Gold- Washings amounts, 
 on the average, to 1,000 jniods, or about 45,000 
 pounds per annum. In 1837, they produced but 
 132 poods, but the quantity of g(dd found annually 
 increased every successive year, till it rose to 1,302 
 poods in 1840. The jiroductivity, after this pe- 
 riod, slightly declined, remaining, however, about 
 a thousand poods, worth nearly 3,000,000/. By far 
 the greater portion of the gold is raised by private 
 adventurers. 
 
 As the existing detritus must be enriched by all 
 the gold brought down from the mountains during 
 a long course of ages, the probability is that the 
 
 11 
 
 lyt'.i 
 
 
86 
 
 ALTAMURA 
 
 
 !'■ u.'l;.; 
 
 i 
 
 
 I'-yi'' 
 
 
 
 wuHliinRS will in the end Iwconio loss productive. 
 Kill Hiich ii\ the extent of the niiriferoiiH region that 
 it h(w hitlierto heeii (tiily imiK'rfeetly explored, 
 miicli leHH exhaiiHted. Silver, copper, and other 
 valiinlde prodiietH are iiIho found in thix region. 
 They are, however, of trivial importance, oh com- 
 pared with the HiipplieH of pild. 
 
 At KolywanoWonkrenenHk arcextennivo polish- 
 iiiH workH, where (rranite, porj>hyry, janper, agate, 
 and marble are worked into talileH, vohch, cliininey- 
 
 IiieecH, hasiiiH, and columim. The material irt 
 miiight from the river Korgon, and Uic wo;'kmun 
 arc employ<l at Ilie expense of ({ovmiment. 
 
 AL'IAMUKA, a town of SouiIh'iIi Italv, prov. 
 Hari, at the foot of the Apennines, 29 m. SVV. Hari, 
 I'op. I7,il(!.''> in IH(i2, The town is surrounded by 
 walls, ha.s u magnificent cathedral founded by Fre- 
 <leric II., an hospital and a lyceum, and is one of 
 the handsomest towns in the province. Having 
 taken part with the republican party in 17!)'.), it 
 was taken by the royalists, and given up to mili- 
 tary execution ; but it has since recovered its former 
 prosjierity. Altainura is supposed tt) be foundiul 
 on or near the site of the anuient Lupazia, This 
 opinion is strengthened by the number of Grecian 
 vases, of tlic most beautiful forma and workman- 
 ship, and other anticpiities, that have been found 
 in excavations in tlie town and its vicinity. The 
 Rurmunding country is fertile, being esjiecially dis- 
 tinguished by the excellence of its pastures. 
 
 ALTAVILLA, a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Avellino, 7 m. N. Avellino. Pop. 2,717 in 1802. 
 This also is the name of a town in the prov. Sa- 
 lerno. Pop. .S,J39G in 18(i2. 
 
 ALTDOHF, a town of Havana, eirc. Rezat, 13 m. 
 SE. Nuremlierg. Pop. 2,«00 in 1861. A great 
 number of wooden toys are manufactured here, and 
 are exported to all parts of Kurope and to S. Ame- 
 rica. There are also considerable breweries. The 
 surrounding country is beautiful and fertile. 
 
 ALTEA, a tttwn of Spain, Valencia, near the 
 sea, 30 m. Nli. Alicante. Pop. 5,502 in 1857. The 
 town has glass works ; and the contiguous territory 
 produces cottim, wine, tlax, silk, and honey. 
 
 ALTENA, a town of Prussian Westphalia, cap. 
 eirc. same name, on the Senne. Pop. 6,942 in 
 1801. The inhabitants are principally employed 
 in wire-drawing and in the manufacture of needles, 
 pins, and thimbles. 
 
 ALTENAU, a mining town of Hanover, prov. 
 Grubenhagen, Hartz mountains, about 1500 feet 
 alMtve the level of the sea. Pop. 1,996 in 1861. 
 There are in the vicinity mines of silver, copper, 
 and iron. 
 
 ALTENBERG, a town of the kingdom of 
 Saxony in the Erzgebirge mountains, 22 m. S. 
 Dresden. Pop. 2,419 in 1861. It manufactures 
 lace. The surrounding mountains abound in tin, 
 and are covereil with forests. 
 
 ALTENBKUCK, a town of Hanover, on the 
 Weme, near where it falls into the estuary of the 
 Elbe, a little atave Cuxhaven. Pop. 2,550 in 
 1801. The to^vn has some trade in corn and 
 cattle. 
 
 ALTENBURG, or SAXE-ALTENBURG, one 
 of the small German States, governed by a sove- 
 reign duke. The duchy is divided into two prin- 
 cipal parts by the lordship of Gera, with several 
 detached jwrtions in other states. Area, 609 sq. m. 
 Pop. 137,883 in 1861. The W. part, watered by 
 the Saale, is hillv and woody ; while the E. part, 
 watered by the I'leisse, ia, flat and fertile. The 
 hihab., who are descendants of the Wendes, are 
 industrious, and are almost all Lutherans. The 
 annual revenue fwm 1862 to 1864 amounted to 
 123.498/., and annual exi)enditure to 120,051/., 
 oiKThalf of the revenue produced by state domains 
 
 ALTORF 
 
 and about one-third by indirect taxcfi. Altenhiirj; 
 eontributeH 1,621 infantry with 17 arlilleryineii in 
 the army of the Confederalioii, PruHsia appoiiilin;; 
 the ollieers. In 1820, by a general exchange nf 
 territories among the Saxon princes, the slate wm 
 handed over to the Ilildlmrghausen branch of the 
 Saxon princes. (See Saxo.nv.) 
 
 Ai.TKNHuno, the cap. of the aliovo principolily, 
 24 m. SSE. Leipsic, near the Pleisw, on the riiil. 
 way from llerliii to Munich, Pop. 17,l(!8 in luiil. 
 The town is well built; has a gyninaxiiiin, with 
 a considerable library', a foundation for noble linlicK, 
 an orphan asylum, and a theatre; with manu- 
 factures of wool, tobacco, sealing-wax, gloves, and 
 an extensive trade in wood, com, and cattle. 
 
 Ai.TKNiumo, or Ovar, a town ctf Hungary, 29 
 m. SSE. Knoxhurg, in an island of the EriHm, 
 at the jMiint where it unites with the right ami or 
 the l)aniil)e. I'op. 3,150 in 1858. It has a gyni- 
 nasiiim and an old castle, now used as a com ma- 
 gazine. It was burnt by the Turks in 1683. 
 
 Al/I'ENKIHCHEN, a town of the Priissinn 
 states, |)rov. Rhine, cap. eirc, on the Wied, 10 in. 
 N. Coblentz. Pop. 1,697 in 1801. It has mm 
 fabrics of linen and cotton, and a forge. Tiic 
 vicinity of this town was, in 1791), the tht^atre nf 
 some obstinate conHicts between the French and 
 Austrians; in one of which, on the 21st Septemijtr, 
 the brave General Marceau was kilted. 
 
 ALTI':NSTEIG, a town of WUrtemberg, eirc. 
 Black Forest, 5 m. WNVV. Nagold. Pop.2,l00iii 
 
 1861. It is bnilt on the declivity of a steep hill, 
 at the summit of which is an old castle. 
 
 AL'rEll-DO-CHAO, a town of Portugal, prov. 
 Alemtejo, on the Avis, 14 m, VVSVV. Portalagrc, 
 Pop. 2,226 in 1858. It is surrounded by walls. 
 
 ALTKIRCH, a town of France, dep. Ilaut llhin, 
 cap. arrond., 34 m. S. Colmar. Pop. 3,108 in IWil. 
 It is situated on a hill, at the bottom of which in 
 the III ; has some tanneries, and a cattle fair once 
 a month. 
 
 ALTOMONTE, a town of South Italy, ym. 
 Cosenza, 24 m. NNW. Cosenza. Pop. 2,9.4;i in 
 
 1862. It is situated on an eminence, has good air, 
 with mines of iron and silver, and a brine spring 
 in the vicinity. 
 
 ALTON, a town of the U. States, Illinois, on 
 the Mississippi, a little above its confluence with 
 the Missouri. This town was founded in 181*, 
 and in 1832 contained only two or three dozen 
 houses. But the public attention having been then 
 directed to its advantageous situation for com- 
 merce and navigation, it advanced with extraordi- 
 nary rapidity, and, in 1860, had a pop. of 7,33«. 
 
 Alton, a m, town and parish of England, en. 
 Hants, hund. Alton, on the Wye, 47 m. SW. hy 
 S. London, on the London and South-Westcra 
 railway. Pop. 3,286 in 1861. It is a neat town, 
 with manufactures of dniggets and worsteds. 
 
 ALTONA, a considerable city of Ilolstcin, on 
 the Elbe, 2 m. W, Hamburg, and at the head uf 
 the railway from Altona to Kiel, Pop. in 18(ii\ 
 45,624. It is well built, is a free port, and enjiiys 
 various privileges. Altona has a good deal nf ] 
 trade; ship-building is also carried on to a con- 
 siderable extent ; and there are manufactures nf | 
 cotton, silk, and leather articles, with sugar- 
 houses, breweries, and distilleries. There is here a 
 superior academy or college, a public library, a 
 mint, an orphan-house, with numerous churchci 
 The inhabitants are mostly Lutherans. Altona j 
 was biumed by the Swedes in 1713, under circum- 
 stances of great barbarity. 
 
 ALTORF, or ALTDORF, a town of Switzer- 
 land, cap. cant Uri, situatetl in a narrow valley j 
 surrounde<l by lofty mountains, near the SK. fx? 
 trcmity of the lake of Lucerne, at the N. extremity I 
 
 il^i 
 
JR. Altpnhiiri; 
 irtillpryiiK'ii Ui 
 iHiii nppoiiiliiiu' 
 il t'xclmiiKc 111' 
 I, tlie MnU' \\M 
 I branch ol'ihe 
 
 vo iirincipalily, 
 HO, on the riiil- 
 17,W>H ill IHIII, 
 ninm^iuin, wiili 
 fornoblu liulii'H, 
 r; with maiiu- 
 nx, f{h)vcs, and 
 iiid cuttle. 
 )f UiinKwy. 29 
 
 of thf Fritliii, 
 lie ri^iit anil nf 
 
 It hiw a f?.viii- 
 •d 08 a com niu- 
 
 i» ill ich:«. 
 
 if tho rriisdinn 
 he Wieil, 10 in. 
 1. It ha8 Hiimc 
 I a for^e. Ti"' 
 ), the theotro of 
 1 the B'reiu'h and 
 I'ilst ScptemlxT, 
 illed. 
 
 rurtembcrR, rirc 
 .1. Pop. '2, 100 in 
 y of a steej) hill, 
 ca«tle. 
 
 f I'ortuRul, prov. 
 /SW. I'ortalagie. 
 nded by walls. 
 , dep. Haiit liliin, 
 'op.H,10«iii IHIll. 
 )ttom of whieli is 
 a cattle fair once 
 
 outh Italv, l)Tnv, 
 
 . Pop. '2.'.t3;i in 
 
 ^nce, has S"'"' "''• 
 
 id a brine spring 
 
 :ate8, Illinois, on 
 |r confluence witli 
 founded in ISIK, 
 [o or three dozen 
 having been then 
 [tuation for com- 
 sd with extraordi- 
 
 pop. of 7,338. 
 .. of England, CO, 
 e, 47 m. SW. Iff 
 d South- Western 
 :t is a neat town, 
 id worsteds. 
 , of Ilol8tcin,nn 
 id at the heiiil "f 
 il. Pop. in 1«IA 
 port, and enjoys 
 a pood deal of 
 ied on to a con- | 
 manufactures if 
 ;les, with siigar- 
 . There is here a 
 public librar)'. « 
 [merous churchci 
 iherans. Altona 
 [13, under circiira- 
 
 I town of Switzer- 
 a narrow vnllfv 
 incar the SK. (^ 
 ■t the N. extremity 
 
 ALTRINOIIAM 
 
 (if ilip pn*"* "ver l^Iount St. (Jothnrd. Pop. 2,420 
 jii I Mild. 'I'lie town siitt'crcd scvcrt-ly from a tire 
 in |7:i:). I)iit hit-M iH-en rebuilt on an im|iroved ]ilan. 
 Il lias a liaiidHome (Mtrinh rburch, a to^m-houM>, 
 uiiii ft Ciii'iK'hin convent, with a library attached. 
 Mtiirf iH mtiiiiately asHociated with the hiHtorv, or 
 ic'i'iul, of William Tell. He is mild to have been 
 hirni in UurKh'ii, a village chwe by; and an ohl 
 iiiwcr in the town of Altorf, covered with ]iaint- 
 iiiL's ill Imiiour of Tell, is said to mark the ajxit 
 nlicncn lie xliot the ap|)le ofl' Iun mm'g bead. 
 
 AbTHI^'""'^^^') ft town of Kiiglnnd, Cheshire, 
 H 111. Maniilicster, on the railway from Rlan- 
 clii'stcr to Cnwe. Pop. (tfiW in 18(»1. It is a 
 iicttt. tliriviiif? town, with factories for the spinning 
 „f idtton and linen yarn. 
 
 AI/i'SOHL, a free town of Hungary, at the 
 (•iiiitliii'iue of tho Szlatina with theOran ; Int. 48° 
 ;!1' ■,!)" N., long. 19° 7' 20" K. Pop. '2,«()0 in lHr>7. 
 The town is old, and is entirely occupied by Sla- 
 vmiiftiit. On a hill in the neigbbourhiHid arc the 
 ruins of a castle, said to have been a favourite 
 riwiilfiice of Mathias I. 
 
 ALTSTKTTKN, a town of Smtzcrland, cant. 
 St. (iail, y m. S. from the embouchure of the 
 lihiiie in the lake of Constance. Pop. 7,206 in 
 IWiO. It is Hituatcd on the declivity of a moun- 
 iniii ill a beautiful country, surrounded with coni- 
 tiidds and vineyards; has a fine church which 
 .servos both for Catholics and Protestant-s, a public 
 library, a muslin manufactory, and three fairs 
 iinmially. 
 
 AliTURA, a town of Spain, Valencia, 3 m. N\V. 
 Sfnorbe. Pop, 3,300 in 1857. The town has dis- 
 tilleries, potteries, and a paper-mill. The country 
 Mund produces a great deal of wine. 
 
 ALVA, o village and parish of Scotland, co. Stir- 
 liii};, 7. m. NE. Stirling. Pop. of par. 3,283 in 18G1. 
 The Devon iron company has considerable works 
 here i but the chief industry ia the manufacture of 
 tnrtaii .shawls and blankets, as in the neighbouring 
 towi of Tillicoultry. 
 
 ALVAKADO, a small town of Mexico, near the 
 mouth of the river of the same name, 40 m. SSE. 
 Vera Cruz ; lat. 18° 34' 18" N., lonp. 65° 39' 15" 
 W. The bar at the mouth of the nver, about IJ 
 ra. below the town, renders it inaccessible for 
 vessels (h-awing above 10 or 12 feet water ; lar^c 
 sliiiis being in consequence obliged to anchor m 
 the roads, exposed to all the fury of the N. winds, 
 which often blow with much violence. During 
 the period that the castle of St. Juan d'Ulloa 
 continued in possession of the Spaniards, after 
 Vera Cruz had thrown off their yoke, the trade o 
 the latter was principally carried on through Alva- 
 mdo; but upon the reduction of the castle by the 
 patriots, it speedily reverted to ita old chonneL 
 Pop, estimated at about 6,000. 
 
 ALVINCZ, a town of Transylvanio, on the 
 Maros, opposite Koberick, 7 m. SW. Karlsburg. 
 Pop. 1,570 in 1857. The inhabs. are almost all 
 Majtyars and Bulgarians. 
 
 ALVITO, a town of South Italy, prov. Caserta. 
 fij m. SE, Sora. Pop. 4,242 in 1861, The town 
 is built on a declivity of a hiU, in a healthy situa- 
 tion ; has an hospital, and several monts-de-piete 
 for the marriage of young girls. 
 
 ALWUK, a large tovni of Hindostan, prov. 
 Delhi, cap. dominions of the Macherry Kaja, 90 
 m. SSW. Delhi; lat. 27° 44' N., long. 76° 32' E. 
 It is situated at the base of a steep hill, and is 
 strongly fortified. On the summit of the hill, 
 about 1,200 feet lugh, is a fortress containing 
 several tanks. 
 
 ALYTH, a town and parish of Scotland, co. 
 Perth, 12 m. W. Forfar. Pop. of par., 3,422 in 
 1861, The soil is fertile, and the town, which is 
 
 AMARANTE 
 
 87 
 
 finely situated, carries on some branches of tho 
 linen niiuiufucture, 
 
 ALZKV, a walled town of Hesse Darmstadt, on 
 the Selz, 18 m, SSW, Mayeiice, Pop. 1,(1(1!) in 
 
 1861. It has manufactures of linen and stockings, 
 and tanneries, 
 
 ALZONNK, a town of France, dep, Aude, at 
 tho coiitluence of the Lampy and tlie Fn-sqiiel, 
 near the canal of Laiigiiedoc, 12 m, WNW, Carcas- 
 sonne, I'op, 1,566 ill 1861, It has manufucturcM 
 of fine cloth, caps, and lace. 
 
 AMAK, a small Danish island, on which a part 
 of Co|ieiiliagcn is built. It is principally laiil out 
 in gardens and pleasure-grounds. 
 
 AMALPIII, a city and seaport of South Italy, 
 pniv. Salerno, 9 m.' WSW. Salerno. Pop. 6,5(16 
 m 1862. This city attamed during the early |»art 
 of the middle ages to great distinction as an iiidc- 
 iiciident maritime republic, and was the first 
 Italian state that traded with Egypt and tho 
 shores of the Mediterranean. In the zenith of 
 her prosperity, ui the eleventh centurj", Amalphi 
 is said to have contained 50,000 citizens ; and her 
 wealth, and the skill anil intrepidity of her mari- 
 ners were then luiequalled. IJiit after being re- 
 duced by the Normans, she was taken and sacked 
 by the Pisans, in 1130; and from this period she 
 rapidly declined, and not long after fell into oli- 
 scurity. A unique copy of .Justinian's Pandects, 
 said to have been found by the Pisans among the 
 spoib of this city, was believed to have led to the 
 revival of the study of the civil law. Amalphi is 
 also famous for having been the birthplace of 
 F'lavio Gioja, supposed by some to have been tho 
 inventor of the mariner's conqiass, but who, it i.s 
 certain, was only its imjirover. The place is now 
 resorted to for sea-bathing. (Gibbon's Decline and 
 Fall, cap. 56.) 
 
 AMAND-LES-EAUX (ST.), a town of France, 
 dep. du Nord, cap. cant., on the Scarpe, 7A m, N W. 
 Valenciennes. Pop, 10,210 in 1861, Ibis town 
 is celebrated for its mineral waters, whence its 
 name ; it is very ancient, has a communal college, 
 and the ruins of a celebrated abbey, destroyed at 
 the revolution. It is situated in a rich, well-cul- 
 tivated country, where the flax is produced (/in 
 rame) of which the finest laces are made. These 
 are manufactured in the town, with woollen stock- 
 ings, cotton coverlets, soap, linseed oil, and chiccory. 
 It has also distilleries, tanneries, and a great fair 
 held on the 31st May, 
 
 AMAND-MONT-ROND (ST,), a town of 
 France, dep. Cher, cap. arrond., at the confluence 
 of the Marmaudc with the Cher, and at one of tho 
 extremities of the canal, joining the Cher and 
 Loire. Pop. 8,607 in 1861. It is well built, has 
 a tribunal de premiere instance, a commercial col- 
 lege, and a theatre. It manufactures wooden clogs 
 and leather; and there are forges, cannon foun- 
 deries, and porcelain manufactures in the neigh- 
 bourhood. It is the most commercial town of the 
 dep. ; the exports consist principally of the produce 
 of the surrounding country, viz. timber, staves, 
 iron, wine, chesnuts, cattle, leather, hemp, wool, 
 and goatskins. 
 
 AMANTEA, a sea-port town of South Italy, 
 prov. Cosenza, 14 m. SvV. Cosenza. Pop. 4,077 in 
 
 1862. It is encircled by whUs ; has an old castle, 
 4 parish churches, some convents, and a school 
 for belles-lettres. There are hot springs in its 
 vicinity, and its territory has the appearance of a 
 continued oUve wood. It is supixised to occupy 
 the site of the ancient Nipezia. It was taken by 
 the French in 1806, after an obstinate defence. 
 
 AMARANTE, an ancient town of Portugal, 
 prov. Minho, on the Tamega, 36 m. Nil. Oporto. 
 Pop. 5,500 in 1858. It is situated in an agreeable 
 
 
88 
 
 AMARUPURA 
 
 if '• ' ■ 
 
 ;3'!i! 111! ■ 
 
 ('■ ! 
 
 
 M^' 
 
 valloy, in well built, ha« a fine bridge, nn hoBpitnl, 
 an liiiH|iicir), (wo cbiirchrfi, mul a Litlin Hcbool. 
 
 AMAHlIl'lIltA (viiIk. Ummerapnrn), a city, 
 and formerly (he rap. of (lie llirmnn empire, on a 
 )ieniiiHiila between the lriiwn<li on the one hand, 
 and a deep and exti'iixivc lake on the other, (I m. 
 NK. Ava; lat. '21° 65' N., long. !»t>° 7' K. In IWIO, 
 the pop. was ewti na(e(l at 175,(l(Ht; but the seat of 
 government having been transferred to Ava in 
 lMl!t, it ban Hinoe rapidly declined, and is now an 
 inconsiderable place. Near the city i« a temple, 
 much frequented by devotees, containing the cele- 
 brated broii/.e Ntatuu uf (Juadania, brought from 
 Arracan in 1781, 
 
 AMASIKFI (an. Amnna), an ancient city of 
 Asiatic 'J'urkey, cap. Hanjiack of same luinie, in 
 the E. part of Natolia, <in the ,lekil Krmak ; lat. 
 40° i);i' N., long. ;«)» 2(1' !•;. The situation is i)e- 
 cidiar, Ix-ing (lilHciilt of access, and having a 
 citadel on a sharp-pointed rock, connected with 
 the hills whereon the town stands. Outside the 
 walls are some curious caverns ; and in the u|iper 
 part of the town, are to be r-cr the ruins of a 
 temple, a fountain, and aqueducts, mentioned by 
 Sirabo. Most of the houses are of wood, but many 
 arc of stone, and all are covered with tiles. Streets 
 narrow and lilthy. The mosque of Sidtan Bayaxid 
 is a fine edilice, with two lofty minarets of hewn 
 stone. (Jreat quantities of silk and wine are pro- 
 duced in the surrounding country, and some bran- 
 ches of the silk manufacture arc carried on in the 
 town, which has a considerable trade. Pop. esti- 
 mated at 25,000. Strabo, the most celebrated geo- 
 grapher of antiquity, belonged to Amasia, and has 
 left a very minute description of thia his native 
 city. 
 
 AM ASREII, a sea-port town of Asiatic Turkey, 
 Natolia, on the Ulack Sea; lat. 41° 4,V 27" ^., 
 long. 32"' 21' E. It is built on the declivity of a 
 hill, on a iicninsula between two jmrtM ; but its 
 proper roadstead is on the E. side of the isthmus, 
 at a short distance from land, in B or 4 fathoms. 
 Its commerce is inconsiderable. There are in the 
 town the ruins of a temple of Neptune, and some 
 other antiquities. 
 
 AMATUICI'^ a town of South Italy, prov. 
 Aquila, on a pleasant hill, near the source of the 
 Tronto, 22 m. N. Aquila. Pop. 6,725 in 1861. It 
 has 6 parish churches, 2 monta-de-pietv, and a 
 manufacture of counterpanes. 
 
 AM AX IC HI, a sea-port town, cap. Santa Maura, 
 one of the Ionian Islands, near its NE. extremity, 
 on a bay of the narrow strait separating the island 
 from the opposite coast of Albania ; lat. (castle) 
 38" 50' 15'' N,, long. 2(f> 43' E. Estimat, pop. 
 7,000. The access to the town by sea is defended 
 on the N. by the strong castle of Santa Maura, 
 dist. about 1 j m., and on the S. by Fort Alexander, 
 on the narrowest part of the strait. The town is 
 meanly built. Owing, probably, to the prevalence 
 of earthquakes, most part of the houses are of 
 wood, and only one story high ; but those in the 
 principal street are somewhat superior. It is the 
 residence of a Greek archbishop. Extensive salt 
 marshes, or rather lagoons, lie between the town 
 and the castle of Santa Maura, the communication 
 with the latter being kept up by a causeway sup- 
 ]K)rted on low arches. The harbour, though im- 
 proved by the construction of an extensive mole, 
 IS fit only for small craft. In summer, the town, 
 owing to the neighbouring marshes, is unhealthy'. 
 
 AMAZON, MAKiVNON, or OKELLANA, the 
 principal river of S. America, and perhaps the 
 largest in the world. It is formed by the united 
 waters of the Tungiiragua and Ucayale ; it being 
 doubtful which of these should be considered as 
 the main stream, though the precedence ha» gcnc- 
 
 AMAZON 
 
 rally Iwcn given to the first. The Tungurfipn 
 takes its rise from the lake of Ijlauricocha, in fern, 
 in 10° 30' S. Int., within (io ni. of the I'luiiiv 
 0<Tan, while the I'cayale is fonned by the jiniiiicm 
 of the Apurimucaiul I'aro, the source of the furmit 
 being near Arequipa, in alMUit the Kith deg, ol' S, 
 lat. Hoth rivers follow at first a northerly ('i)iir''c, 
 inclining to the \V., the Tunguragua till it reacliM 
 .laen, in about 6^° S. lat. and 7ho W. long., iiikI 
 the Ucayale till it unites with the other at St. Mi- 
 guel Yarrupa, in about 4J° S. lat., and 721° W', 
 long. The course of the river is thenrie geiicmlly 
 from W. to E. till it falls into the Atlantic, aliinwt 
 under the equator, in about 51° VV. bing. Taking' 
 the Apurimac for its source, and following \h 
 windings, its course nuiy Ih5 slaterl at above -I.Tiiil 
 m. It is studded with innumerable islands, niiiiiy 
 of which are from 10 to 16 m. in circ,, and sumo 
 much more. Its mouth, which is IKO m. in width, 
 has the large island of f'aviana in its centre, mul 
 marking its extreme limit. The rise and fall of dm 
 tide is distinctly felt atObidos, 400 m. inland. At 
 its mouth, two days before and after fulhnoon, tlic 
 phenomenon of the bore occurs in a very fomiidnlilc 
 shape; the water from the ocean rushmg into the 
 river, with a prodigious force and noise, in twn, 
 three, and sometimes four successive waves, each 
 iiresenting a perpendicular front, from 10 to l.")fi, 
 m height. No small vessel can encounter it with- 
 out certain destruction. 
 
 Of the rivers which fall into the Amazon, nftor 
 the junction of its two great branches, from llic 
 N., those most important are, the Nnpo, I'litti- 
 mayo, Yapura, and Hio Negro, the lattc^r Imviiii; 
 a course of fr<mi 1,400 to 1,500 m. To the S, the 
 principal tributaries are the Yavari, Yiitay or 
 Yotan, Y'urua, Madeira, Topajos, and Xingu, (If 
 these the Madeira is by far the largest, and wimlil 
 any where, except in America, be reckoned a river 
 of the first magnitude. Ita course may be esti- 
 mated at about 1,800 m. 
 
 The Amazon, and its tributaries, afford the 
 greatest extent of inland navigation of any river 
 system in the world. Its amount may be mcKJe- 
 rately estimated at 50,000 m. The Amazon itself 
 is navigable to the E. port of the Andes, 2,000 m. 
 in a rlirect line from the sea. The navigation to 
 the Pongo de Manseriche, in about 704° W. long,, 
 is not interrupted by a single cataract or rapiil. 
 Its channel is deep; and it may be navigated l)y 
 vessels of almost any burden, up to the junctien 
 of ita two great arms, Brazilian steamers of IflOO 
 tons navigate to Nanta in Ecuador, and as the 
 head waters of the river reach nearly to Quito, it 
 has been proposed to bring down produce tliat 
 way instead of taking it to Guayaquil, which Li 
 about 150 m. or nine days' journey. In ISfiO, the 
 number of passengers conveyed by the Stcani 
 Navigation Company was ()1,085. During the 
 swell in the rainy season the current is rapid ; Imt 
 at other times it may be stemmed not by stcani 
 only, but by the aid of the E. breeze which blown 
 perennially against the current. At Jaen, in 7^° 
 VV. long., the level of the stream is only 1.2^il 
 feet above that of its sestuary at Caviana, so tliat 
 ita descent is not at an average rate of a foot ever)' 
 2 m., and during the latter part of its course it is 
 much less. 
 
 At present the vast and fertile country travprsetl 
 by the Amazon, and its aflluents, is nearly in a 
 state of nature, being mostly covered with im- 
 mense forests, affording cover to wild beasts, ami 
 all descriptions of reptiles. During the period uf | 
 the inundation, a great extent of the low countrj', 
 on both sides the river, is laid under water ; the 
 rains swelling it to between 40 and 60 feet almve 
 its onliiiary level. There can, however, be little 
 
Tiinpirncim 
 nifhn, in I'crii, 
 ol' tlu< I'arllic 
 liy tlic jiiiii'iidii 
 •V of Ih'f loriinr 
 KUh (It'K. of S, 
 nrthcrly course, 
 latill it rcmlKH 
 > W. lonjj.. ftiui 
 ntliwr nt SI. Mi. 
 t., nn.l T-'Jo W, 
 lu'iu;p m'lirriilly 
 Atlaiitii!. nliniiKt 
 . \imfi. Taking 
 [I fdllowinn ii* 
 
 1 lit nl)ovn 4.7110 
 l(> islnll(l^ inmiy 
 circ, mill H(iiii(i 
 IHO ni. ill width, 
 1 its centre, niul 
 sRandfiiUofllu' 
 
 m, inland. At 
 iT full moon, tliii 
 
 1 vcrv forniidalili' 
 riishin(j; into the 
 d noise, in twn, 
 flive waves, rncli 
 from 10 to 1.5 ft. 
 icountcr it with- 
 
 ic Amazon, nfior 
 anclies, from the 
 he Napo, r>iiu- 
 !,hc latter liaviiiK 
 n. To the S. thi; 
 avari, Yiitay nt 
 and Xinfju. Of 
 irfjest, and wotiM 
 3 reckoned a rivtt 
 irse may be csii- 
 
 laries, afford the 
 ition C)f any river 
 lit may he mudo- 
 hc Amazon itself 
 Andes, 2,000 m. 
 he navigation to 
 [ut 7GiO W. loiiK,, 
 ■ataract or rapiil. 
 be navigated liy 
 to the junction 
 steamers of 1000 
 lador, and as the 
 learly to Quito, it 
 wn produce that 
 lyaquil, which 'n 
 ■y. In 18G0, the 
 [1 by the Stcara 
 i86. During the 
 rent is rapid; hut 
 icd not by stcara 
 ■cze which IjIow* 
 At Jacn, in 7^'' 
 im is only 1.240 
 Cavianu, so that 
 ite of a foot cvcr^■ 
 lof its course it is 
 
 Icountrj' traversed 
 Is, is nearly in a 
 lovered with ira- 
 J wild beasts, aiid 
 ling the perimlnf 
 I the low countt)'. 
 linder water ; llie 
 lid 50 feet alnive 
 lowevcr, belillle 
 
 AMIUZAC 
 
 ilniiht Ibnt, nt dotnc future period, nil its immrndc 
 liii^iH, roniprising above 2,-lllO,0<M) s(|. ni., will Iki 
 i„.|.|i|iii'd hy civilised nations, Tbc^ .Vniiizoii will 
 then lie one of lli(^ moM important and vahutlile, 
 1), well as extensive chaiuiels uf cunwnunication 
 ill the world. 
 
 The iiiijier part of the river, as far as the mouth 
 iiflhi' Vavare, which forms the boundary line be- 
 tm'cii Itra/il and i'erii, is caUed Mararion, (hence 
 tiitlie inoiilh of tlu^ i:io Negro it is called Soli- 
 iiiiH'iiK. and from the Negro to its mouth, Amazon, 
 Till' Mararton attains its greatest height in Ja- 
 niiarv, the .Solinuiens in l'"ebruary, the Amazon in 
 tho liiiddle of March. 
 
 A ciinimnnioation exists between tho waters of 
 the Amazon and those of the Orinoco. In fact, 
 lliiiiilioldt passed by water from the l{io Negro, 
 thr nriiicipal N, allhient of the fomier, into tho 
 i'lU'tsiiiiiari, an allluent of the latter, and thcnco 
 iniii the nukiii stream of the Orinoco. 
 
 The mouth of the Amazon was discovered in 
 l.'iDii, by Vincent Yancz I'iinjon ; but very little 
 was known respecting the river, till I5:W, when 
 Francis d'Orellana, a .Spanish adventurer, liaving 
 oinliarked on the Kio Napo, one of its remote 
 trilHitaries, and following tho currimt was carried 
 (idwn the stream to its embouchure. Orellana 
 iiaving reported that armed women were met with 
 iiii it.s banks, it thence obtained its popular name 
 (if Amazon, though it is still sometimes called 
 Orellana, from its explorer. Tho origin <if the 
 tcnn Maranon is not certainly kiuiwn. According 
 to Condnmine, it is the name of a Spanish officer, 
 who visited the river jireviously to ()rellana ; but 
 this is very doubtful, and the more probable opinion 
 R'ems to be, that it is derived from an Indian 
 iiation of that name, which had inhabited some 
 part of its banks. The Amazon was first accu- 
 rately described by M, de la Condaniine, who 
 having embarked upon it, in 174B, near Jaen, and 
 fiilliiwcd ita current to its mouth, gave an inter- 
 esting account of the expedition, with a map of 
 tiio river, in his Voyage de la Riviere des Ama- 
 ziinca, Paris, 1745, See also Humboldt's Travels ; 
 Jdiirnal of (leographical .Society, ii. p, 050, 
 
 AMHAZAC, a town of France, dep, Ilnutc 
 Vicnne, cap. cant. 12 m. NNW. Limoges. Top. 
 2,925 ill l«(il. 
 
 .VIIIIKKU, a town of Ilindostan, the ancient 
 oap, of the Jeypoor territory, 5 m. N. by E. Jey- 
 |uj()r; lat. 26° '57' N., long, /"oo 40' E. 'tho town, 
 riiniantically situated on the margin of a lake, is 
 now in ruins. In its vicinity is a fine old for- 
 tilicil palace, and a large castle. The former has a 
 noble hall of audience, and many beautiful apart- 
 ments, 
 jVJIBELAKIA, a to^vn of Turkey in Europe, 
 
 j fjinjiack Tricala, or Thessaly, on the W. declivity 
 
 j of Mount Ossa, near the Peneus, 15 m. NNE. La- 
 rissa. This place was distinguished during the 
 latter part of the last and the first part of the 
 
 I present century, by the industry of its inha- 
 iiitants, and the skill and success Avith which tliey 
 
 I carried on the business of spinning and dyeing 
 ciitton-yarn. The townspeople, who were wholly 
 (Irecks, formed a sort of independent community, 
 and either defended themselves from tho exac- 
 
 I tions of the Turks, or were neglected by the latter. 
 At first individuals carried on business on thou- 
 own account, on tho principle of free competition ; 
 hut thinking that their profits would be incre.ised 
 
 I by carrying it on in common, they formed theni- 
 wlves into an association on a joint stock prin- 
 
 I ciple. For a while this succeeded perfectly well ; 
 luit, in the end, the parties quarrelled amongst 
 
 I themsclve.'!, and the fruits of their industry were 
 
 I swallowed up in expensive and protracted litiga- 
 
 AMUOISK 
 
 89 
 
 tion. At length the staple trade of the place wan 
 tolall.v annihilated by the iniportalion of clicupcr 
 yarn from I'lngland ; the produce of our spinning- 
 niills having not merely superseded the liandHpiiii- 
 yarii of Ainbelakia in foreign mnrk<'ls, but in 
 those of Turkey itself. The town and Hurroiind- 
 ing country have since beconn! comparatively poor 
 and depopulated. In the acme of its prosperity it 
 might have 7,000 inhabitants; thu cHtimatu now 
 is 4,000, 
 
 AMItEIttf, n town of Uavaria, circ, Kegen, oil 
 the Vils, bv which it is inlerseclcd, ;il m, NNW. 
 liatisbon, ^'o|(. 12,012 ill iHlii, It was forincrly tho 
 capital of the IJpnt^r ralatinate; streets v.iile and 
 
 clean; and llinugh the houses an; mostly of w I, 
 
 it is pretty well built. It is encircled by a doiiblu 
 wall, flanked with numerous towers, I'rincipal 
 public buildings, the electoral, now royal castle, 
 arsenal, mint, salt-warehouse, town-bouse, anil 
 church of St, Martin. It has a Ivceiim, a gym- 
 nasium, a seminary for the education of teachers, 
 some well endowed hospitals, n convent for noblo 
 ladies, a public library, theatre, and liouso 
 of correction. It is an entrepot for salt, and 
 has manufactures of firearms, tobacco, and earlh- 
 enware. There are mines of coal and iron, 
 V ilh iron works, forges, and the principal glass 
 wtrks in ISavaria in its vicinity: its territory is 
 also very productive of bops, \t is the seat of a 
 tribunal of ajipeal, a commissariat of ]>olice, a 
 president, and a chamber of finance. The French 
 were defeated in the neighbourhood by the Aus- 
 trians in 17!M). 
 
 AMllEKIEU, a town of France, dep. Ain, cap. 
 cant. Pop. 2,7«2 in 18(;i. 
 
 AMIJ1C1[T, a town of France, dep. Puy de 
 Dome, caj). arrond. on the Dore, JIG m. SE. Cler- 
 mont. Pop. 7,(;GI in IHGl. The town is well 
 built, but the streets are narrow and crooked^ and 
 the houses being principally constructed of granite, 
 from the adjoining mountains, have a gloomy ap- 
 pearance, Ambert,aiid the arrondissemeiit of which 
 It is the capital, are distinguished by their indus- 
 try, Tho town is especially celebrated for its 
 paper for printing and engraving. There are also 
 in the town very extensive manufactures of rib- 
 ands, lace, woollen cloths for the marines, called 
 ctamines a p<a'ill<in, serge, linens and pins. 
 
 AMRLICTEUSK, a small decayed sea-port 
 town of France, dep. Pas de Calais, 6 m. N, Hou- 
 logne, on tho railway from Calais to Uoulogne. 
 I'op. 72G in 18(il. It was formerly a .sea-port of 
 considerable importance; and both Louis XIV. 
 and Napoleon endeavoured, by improving its har- 
 bour, to regain for it some portion of its ancient 
 consequence. Hut, owing to the accumulation of 
 sand, their efforts have had no permanent in- 
 fluence, and the town is almost deserted, James 1 1. 
 landed here after liis abdication of the English 
 throne in 1(!89, 
 
 AMBOISE (an, Amhac'm), a town and castle of 
 France, de]>, Indre et Loire, cap. cant,, on the loft 
 bank of the Loire, 15 m. E. Tours, Pop, 4,570 in 
 18G1, The castle of Amboise, celebrated in French 
 history, occupies the summit of tt rock, .about 00 
 feet in height. The town lies principally between 
 the bottom of the castle rock and tljje river; but 
 it has suburbs on an island in the river, and on 
 its right bank. The castle, which is of vast'ex- 
 tent, was commenced niuler Hugh Cajiet, and 
 finished under Charles VII,; it was a favourite 
 residence of Louis XL, and in it Charles VII 1. 
 was born in 1470, and expired in 1498. It is also 
 famous in French history as the birthplace of the 
 conspiracy, dite cTAmlmise, against the (iiiises, 
 concerted in 15G0. It suffered much during the 
 religious wars, and was partly demolished duruig 
 
00 
 
 AMIJOOR 
 
 I'M':! 
 
 "'ii!! 
 
 ♦ ho rovnliitionnry freniy. Tho rcinninin(( i>ortion 
 ix luiw rmiviTtcil into n i\e\v\t Tor llii> tlintH fi)r llio 
 u*<' of Hio French amiy, l>r()u>;!if Iroiii the rumrry 
 of MciiHiio, nt'ur Ht. Aij^naii. The viuw» from iu 
 towcnt nnil hattlompntj* nrn Hii|M>rl>, 
 
 AMItOOU, a town of lliiulontnn, in thn Car- 
 nntic!, <liHtri<a 8. Areot, IIIM m. VVSVV. Mftdrrw. 
 \m. 120 50' v., lonK. 7«o Jfi' K. It in nviM nn<l 
 regularly built: thu inhahitaiitn, who an^ in(hiH- 
 trioiiH, pr«|ittr<i a conHidcrahh! quantity of cantor 
 oil for exportation. To the left of tho town w a 
 lofty iMolatod mountain, that woh formerly iiur- 
 niounted hy an all hut im|>roKnal)lo fort; but it* 
 nppe,r workn have been (lentroved Bince it camo 
 into the iK)SHe»»ion of the Hril^iHh, and tho tower 
 is used on a place of conllneinent for malefactors. 
 
 AMHOYNA {Amhun, Malay), an island of tho 
 K. Archi|)ela>jn, in its third or E. division (Craw- 
 furd), Monjfing to the Dutch. It lies in il" 40' 
 H. lat., iKftwecn 1280 and 12!)o E. long., SW. of 
 (lerani; is 82 m, in Icn^'th, and 10 in breadth; 
 area 424 «q. m. Estimated population 188,000, 
 mostly Malays, with some Cliineso. Iwsides tho 
 1>utch residents. Tho sha|)o of tho island is irro- 
 (fular, bein^f indented by a long bay (Hinnen), 
 which divides it into two very unequal iKirtions, 
 connected by a narrow isthmus. Surface m<HUi- 
 tainous, and tho wholo district volcanic. It is 
 watere<l by numerous rivulets, and overjyrown 
 everywhere by trees and underwood, intcrsfwrsed 
 wth clove plantations; its soil, a rich red loam, 
 is <if a darker colour in the valleys, and some- 
 times mixed with sand; climato* healthy, the 
 averaf^e heat of the year 82° Fahr., the lowest 
 temperature 70° F. Tlic monsoons occur rcpularly, 
 but their effects are quite tho reverse of those 
 experienced in Ik)meo and the VV. division of this 
 nrchi{)elago ; tho E. monsoon brinf^ing rains and 
 tempests, and the W. dry weather. The Dut<:h 
 appropriated this island Ut the culture of the clove, 
 for the production of which it is especially calcu- 
 lated ; and to secure to it a monopoly of this valu- 
 able product, barbarously compel tho destruction 
 of tho trees in the otlier islands subject to their 
 power. Tho clove (gomode, Tidor lang.) thrives 
 nest in a dark loamy soil, but not very near tho 
 sea, on hills, oa sandy or hard clay soil, or on 
 sedgy grounds, and requires much care in its cul- 
 ture. "The plant resembles a large pear-tree, from 
 20 to 40 feet in height. In the Moluccas it bears 
 at 7 or 8 years, in Amboyna, not till 10 or 12 
 years old; about one-third of the trees are infer- 
 tile, tho rest may continue to bear fruit for 70 
 years. The crops are gathered in Oct. and Nov. ; 
 they aro very unequal in different years, but the 
 produce of each tree may average from 2 or 8 to 
 51b. ; the total annual produce is said formerly to 
 have been 650,000 lbs. (Hamilton.) Sago forms 
 the chief nourishment of tho inhabitants, and 
 very superior indigo, but inferior coffee, are also 
 grown. Sogo trees are 7 years in arriving at full 
 growth, and last about 30 ; but they aro generally 
 cut down when about 20 years of age. When in 
 full vigour, thej'. yield from 42 to 46 lbs. of sago a 
 year. 'The w'' nnimals of Amboyna are deer and 
 wild hogs ! there aro no beasts of prey, but a mul- 
 titude of birds and servants. Buffaloes, cows, 
 sheep, goats, and horses, were brought thither by 
 the Portuguese, but cattle are rare. The inha- 
 bitants are of four distinct races, viz.: — 1. Hora- 
 foras, the aborigines, who are in a savage state 
 and live in the forests, whither they were driven 
 by, 2. Malays, who compose the bulk of the popu- 
 lation : 3. Chinese, who are the principal mer- 
 chants : 4. Europeans, mostly Dutch. The Malays 
 are indolent, effeminate, and fond of imitating the 
 Dutch ; they are expert fishers, in canoes from 10 
 
 AMKLfA 
 
 to 20 feet long; in war they use horokoni, HO to 
 100 feet in length, and capable of containing' sii 
 men. Their houses aro of w<mmI, nxifcd with |ialiii. 
 leaves, and aro mostly of but ono story, on lU'ciiunt 
 of the prevalence of earthquakes. The prevtiiliri); 
 religion is Mohammedanism, iiitpNl. A. i>. l.')|,i; 
 but some of the AmlH)yiii>so are Christians, atui 
 lH>ar Portuguese names. The govenmient is i|o- 
 iM>n<lent on that of Itatavia; its seat is at Fun 
 Victoria: tho public revenues are derived frcnn a 
 m(mo|)oly of arra<'k, custom-house and {sirt dllti<'^ 
 taxes on merchandise, and licences to keep an inn, 
 and kill ))igs. The ex|M>rts consist of cloves, nmi 
 other natural pnNluce; the im|Hirts chiuHy opium, 
 and a few Euro|)can and Indian g(MHls. 
 
 Uintnry, — Amboyna was lirst distuivcred by th(> 
 Portuguese in 1515. It was taken by the Itiiti'li 
 in 1607, and by tho English in 1615. The latter, 
 who were soon aftor ex|Mdled by the Dutch, re- 
 tained a factory in tho island till 1622. Tha 
 destruction of this establishment by tho Dutcli, 
 and the cruelties inflicted on the unhappy iHTKnnH 
 found in it, afforded a theme for lengtliene(l iie^it- 
 tiations, and for much declamatory invective. At 
 length, under the vigorous administration i>r 
 Cromwell, tho Dutch were com|M>lle<l to ninkt! 
 somo comjiensation to the descendants of xhm: 
 who suffered in tho 'Amboyna massacre.' In 
 1706, tho island was captured by the British, wIm 
 restored it at the peace of Amiens. They recaii- 
 turcd it 1810, and held it till 1814, when it re- 
 verted once more to the Dutch. 
 
 Amboyna. The principal town in tho o1k)vc 
 island, and the second in imiM)rtance l)elnii);in;,' 
 to tho Dutch in tho E. Archqjelago, on the SK, 
 side of the bay of Kinnen, near Fort Victoria, in 
 30 40' S. lat., and 1280 15' E. long. Pop. 8!tt!t; in 
 1861. It is rcgidarly built; the streets, X\\m\A\ 
 not paved, are broad, and intersected by many 
 rivulets ; tho houses, excepting tho towii-lioiiw, 
 which has two stories, aro all of only one story, 
 constructed of wood and roofed with palm leaves 
 A long esplanade, reaching as far as tho fort, is 
 lM)unded by a handsome range of houses, anil .1 
 double row of nutmeg trees ; there ore two Chris- 
 tian churches, an hospital, a fine garden mid 
 menagerie, and several go<Ml bazaars and markets, 
 Fort Victoria is an irregular hexagon, siutouikIiiI 
 by a ditch, but as it is entirely commanded liy 
 two neighbouring heights, its best defence u 
 in the difficulty of anchorage in the cuntiguuuj 
 bay. 
 
 AMBRIERES, a town of France, dcp. Ma- 
 yenne, cap. cant., 7 m. N. Mayenne. Pop. 2,720 1 
 in 1861. 
 
 AMBROIX (ST.), a town of France, dcp. Gani, I 
 cap. cant., 11 m. NNE. Allais. Pop. 4,060 in 
 1861. It manufactures coarse silk stockings, and 
 has tanneries and nail works. 
 
 AMELIA (an. Ameria), a city of central Italy, I 
 prov. Perugia^ deleg. Spoleto, 23 m. SVV. Spolctd, 
 Pop. 7,024 in 1861. It stands on a small hill, v I 
 the seat of a bishopric founded in 1344, and has a 
 cathedral, three churches, and some convents. 
 
 Ameria was one of the most considerable and I 
 ancient cities of Umbria. The famous comedian. [ 
 Sextus Roscius, was a native of Ameria, which ii 
 frequently referred to by Cicero in his speech in I 
 defence of Roscius. It- is said to have Iwen I 
 founded 1045 years B.C., and became a colony [ 
 under Augustus. 
 
 Amkma, an island on tho NE. coast of Florida,! 
 from which it is separated by a narrow channel I 
 40 m. N. St. Augustine, between St. Mary's aiidr 
 Nassau rivers. It is 20 m. in length by 2 inj 
 breadth, is fertile, and its chief town, Fcmandina,] 
 has a good harbour. 
 
nrokorr; RO tci 
 4MiiitniiiiiiK Hii 
 
 iftll Willi |lllltll' 
 
 iir>', on iU'ciMiiit 
 The pri'vniliiin 
 •(hI. a. n. I. '•I.); 
 ChriHtiaMH, nml 
 cnimpiit U (If- 
 M-nt i» at Vm 
 (IctivihI fnnn a 
 and |M)rt iliitio, 
 I to keep an inn. 
 t of I'lovi'N, nml 
 (I chieriy uiiiimi, 
 imhIh. 
 
 Hcovcred l)y thn 
 n by the Uiitrh 
 J 1 5. The liittir, 
 r the Diitcli, re- 
 till 1<122. Tho 
 t hy tho Dutch, 
 unhappy pernoiw 
 ennthencA w^o- 
 py invective. At 
 lininiHtration nf 
 ilH'Ucil to nmU 
 cndantH of tluwi 
 a manHBcre.' In 
 tho Hritiith, will 
 mn. They riHUih 
 814, when it rc- 
 
 wn in the almvc 
 )rtanco beUmpntf 
 )claffo, on the 81„ 
 ■ Fort Victoria, in 
 ng. Pop. H\m in 
 10 streets, tlioujrli 
 OTCcted by many 
 r the town-house, 
 »f only one stcin, 
 with palm leaves 
 far 08 tho fort, i* 
 , of houses, anil » 
 ere ore two Chris- 
 fine garden nntl 
 r-aars and markets. 
 ..afion, surrniiiiileil 
 ly coromandetl liy 
 best defence w 
 the contiguoiu 
 
 france, dcp. Ma- 1 
 fenne. Pop. 2,720 
 
 iFrance, dep. Ganl. 
 P«)p. 4,0(;o in I 
 l^ilk stockings, and | 
 
 ,, of central Italy, 
 13 m. SVV. Spolete. 
 
 Ion a small hill, i^ I 
 in 1344, and has a 
 lome convents. I 
 I considerable an'l 
 [famous comedian. I 
 Ameria, which ii I 
 in his speech ill 
 Jd to have toi 
 I became a colony 
 
 £. coast of Florida,! 
 la narrow chainieU 
 Ten St. Marv'.s aii'll 
 £i length by 2 ml 
 rtown,"Fcmanilina,l 
 

 
 
 
J V 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 H o 
 
 
 M ^i 
 
 
 ^.1 /v) 
 
 7, 
 
 H ^"1 
 
 ■f 
 
 c) :"q 
 
 5' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -S /: 
 
 
 JM.U.JJ.J.I J 
 
 RKIUiUfUlU ' ' JVi «P" 
 
 LIUJ'WII «»i*l'JJ'W)IJUI 
 
 4 ;K 
 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
,\Mr; riK'A, or i 
 
 mi»|i(»'ri', I'll"' III' II 
 .urpnoiiifX nil llif 
 
 |V<'||||I>II llf Axiii, 
 
 lull.' iiifiTiiir. 'I'll 
 jii,| H. II ili'lniiri. 
 
 :tl<illt llic ''.'ml ill 
 
 III nUitii .'id S, liir, 
 l.ini.' iliviili'il liy 
 I irrilM'iiii Sen iiiln 
 ^l \, mill S, Art 
 
 |.|lilllll« nt' llltril'll, 
 
 N. Aiiiiririi, I'xriiiil 
 
 X'<l«> III, (UTIWH, III 
 
 ,l..'i*i III. rill' In 
 I'M I III' tlir Hrcilii 
 
 \,< i,,,xiii,iKio i;ii^. 
 
 jni' I) nlill lii^htT I 
 •Mli'llli'llt will ll|i|ii 
 
 uiixi ri'iiulilii Htiilini 
 
 N. Aiiirrira , 
 R AiiiitIcii , 
 I'liiiiiN 
 
 (irii'iiliinil anil thi 
 WlUlllN. nr II 
 
 Totu 
 
 Tlioroiitincnt of 
 Iniiiii' ami I'lirilli- o< 
 
 I lri>iii Kiirii|M' mill Al 
 ;ui<l Aiiilmiiii. All 
 
 I ilii' Aiiii'rii'iiii I'liiiti 
 
 till' miwt h'Ipllllli' Nr 
 J vliirll rilllM t'rnill III 
 
 I "iliiT, ami JM iirolo 
 
 I iliroiiKh till! wiiiil<> 
 
 |»iiit iif l('iif(tli, III 
 
 rhuin in tho olil wi 
 
 I ri«|Kcl of nliiiiulc, i 
 
 I miiiiiititiii hvkN'Iii wi 
 
 I till' lliiiiinufiiyu iiiily 
 
 l«iy», lukcN, cnlnrncti 
 
 of iiiirivnilfii extent 
 
 I rii licK M(>ni nUo tii li 
 
 "ilicronni incut; ami 
 
 if climnti', from tln! 
 
 I Z'lip to till! itcmni V 
 
 I is Hiiiffiiiftr, however 
 
 I votfitiililu natiiro art 
 
 ^n'alc in tli<» new ^ 
 
 '.<liiiiil(l bo compnrati 
 
 lAniprican k iiroimlil' 
 
 lOfiliclowfir aninmlHj 
 
 limrlinniHfouml in A; 
 
 |(ii»titutc of the home 
 
 jolHliioh vrervi carried 
 
 |aiiil(itliCT KiirojKian 8( 
 
 I N'. America w inoi 
 
 Iif the great (liviHions 
 
 ItruljiliiiaiKlarmsof th 
 
 I'flhcuc, in the NK. p 
 
 lifwiiat Kalhi hat< nc 
 
 |iWE«qiiiniaux, from 
 
 I'wipiwl with t,ril)c« 
 
 Jrai'c. It conHWtH of i 
 
 ISiraits and Hatfln'a 
 
 Ifnim the rest of the co 
 
 llj'ini; more to the S. t 
 
 lihe former by numero 
 
 Iweonly been recent! 
 
 Jtmn of tiicBO seas an 
 
 Ifivoiirablo seasons, is 
 
 I'liwbflinK constantly 
 
 lit « only during a shoi 
 
 ■fan l)c attempted. T 
 
 ■to on the American 
 
 ■Uwence, so called ft 
 
AMEninA 
 
 IM 
 
 AMFflK'A. nr fhf Sfw WofM i.f the W. »ir- 
 
 niKiJiiri'. I'll'' "I till' ^ri'iil iliviniiinn nf III!' kI"'*<'< 
 .iiriutwiMi; nil iIk' iiilirr'* in iiiit({iiiliiili', ivitli lln' 
 
 iMilillMll III' A^ill, Id Mrllirll, IlllWl'MT, il In lull 
 
 hull' iiifi'riiir. 'I'IiIn vitni I'miiiiK'nt ^iri'irlim N, 
 tii'l H, II iliitniirt' 111" iiIm'M' i»,tMMl III,, iir frmii 
 ,ii..iit till' '-i"l ili'Krri' 111' *v "if. Ill <'a|M« lliirii, 
 ,„ nlimil 'I'l S. liU. 1 1 it v<'r> ttf , 'il irS iiliit|H'il, 
 IriMk' iliviili'il I'V III" (iiili'li ipf M.m'i anil ttiii 
 ( »mt"'»ii ?*''" iitlii IIh" •«■' fiKiniiiiiw (^<i' "Mill'" 
 „i N, fliiii M. Aiiirrlrit, iiiillcil l>v ll«' u.iff • 
 l-iliinii" 111' hiifii'ii, iir I'ltiiiiiiiii. H >M'r»' l>ri>ii<l> >i, 
 S. Aimririi, I'M'liiiliii).: ' ' < 'Iniul, l« li"! Ii'A<i il^aii 
 I 'iiMi III, mriiMM, mill S, AnTifu imi |i,<4 tliitii 
 
 ,l,.'l»l 111. Tin' Im'hI •'MlllllHt - llllll llHVtl IhtII 
 
 i,,riiiiiliil'lli<'un'aiil' Aiiifriru vnfv h .w I I 7!hi,imm» 
 
 |.i l.'i.NIO.INHI l'!li){, |H|. III., while Niinil . 'Xliitrllii'N 
 
 JIM' a iitill liittlicr IlKiiri', I'nilnilil.v, ilic luljn'viii^ 
 .liiii'iiiriil will it|i|iriiiii'li tlin iiiuiui, ImwhmI uii llm 
 iui«i ri'liiilili^ HtiillHlirM: — 
 
 N. AiniTli'A 
 
 H. Aiiii'ricit 
 
 I'litiiilt 
 
 (inviiliiiiil mill tlin InIuiuIh ronnM'tol 
 Willi II N, nf MiiiImiii'm SlrulU . 
 
 Rn*. iq. m, 
 
 7,'tlNI.IHMI 
 
 U/llMI,INH) 
 
 IAO,l)<X) 
 
 fmo.iioo 
 
 I1,ll.-|0,IMH) 
 
 Tiitikl . . 
 
 TlnTiiiiliiiriil of America lies Iwlwccii the A»- 
 
 litniii' ami I'lirilic iM!cium, lliii t'lirincr .^'piirnlinK it 
 
 I fri'iii Kiirii|H> mill Al'ricn, ami Ilic InltiT friiiii y\Miii 
 
 ami AiiKiraiia. All the iliitiiii^'iiiHhint^ t'ealiircH of 
 
 I ilii' Aiiu'ricmi (■iiii(iiii>iit mi>i'iii |o Ih> rurini'il on 
 
 ihi' mimt )(i^'anli<' Mcale. Tlie chain of Ihe AihIi'h, 
 
 I uhirli riiiix froin onii cml ol' M, Aincrii'a to llie 
 
 I'tliiT, anil is iirolon^nl iinilfr ilill'tTcnt imnirr* 
 
 ihriiiiKli the wliole exii-nt of N. Aiiierieii, in, in 
 
 l«iint iif leii^lh, iine<|ii»lleil hy any iiiniinlain 
 
 ilmiii in the old worlil ; mnl in far Hiiperior, in 
 
 I n'<|Hrt iif allitiiile, to llie Alpx niul every iitliiT 
 
 muiiiilnin ovHteni with which wo nru Hci|iiaiiilc>il, 
 
 ilii' iliiiiinaiaya only excepteil. The plaiiiN, riven*, 
 
 I U\f, lakcM, calnractN, nnd foreNtn of Aniericii are 
 
 of iiiirivnllt'il extent anil ^ratuleur. I ler mineral 
 
 I nrlii'M M'cni alHo to Ih; Niiperior to t.liomi of every 
 
 iithcr colli inent; and Hlie ponneMneH every variety 
 
 I if climnle, from tlie extreme heat of the torrid 
 
 \im' to the eternal winter of tlie arctic circhi. It 
 
 u !<iii)^ilnr, however, that while inanimate and 
 
 Tcci'tnliiu nature arc devehiped on ho Krand a 
 
 I male in the new world, the animal kiiif{ilom 
 
 "iild bo com|>aratively dellciitnt. The iiativo 
 
 AnicrioRn iH pmhalily inferior even to the nejfro. 
 
 Idftliii lower animaln, neither tlio elcpliant, camel, 
 
 limrlinn iH found in America; and itwaa originally 
 
 lilniitiitv uf the home, the ox, and the 8heen, all 
 
 l(if which were (tarried thither hy Spaniuh, liritiHli, 
 
 |inil oilier Kiiroiiean Hcttlcni. 
 
 I X. America ih more indented thaii any other 
 
 I (if the );rpat ilivimonH of the ({i'*l>Ci with immeiiHe 
 
 IpilliliH and arini* of the aca. One of the principal 
 
 lifthciie, in the NK. port of the continent, conNiMt« 
 
 liifwliat Italhi hoH not unaptly called the oea of 
 
 lihi' l'>qiiiniaux, from it« coaotfl Imnft cverj-whero 
 
 Vcupied with trihea lielonKin^ to that jit'culiar 
 
 jraio. It conHiata of two threat divisionn, Davia'a 
 
 ISiraita and liaffln's Hay, aejiarating Greenland 
 
 Ifnim the rest of the continent ; and Hudaon'a Hay, 
 
 llyin),' more to the 8. and VV., but connected with 
 
 jihe former by numerous channels, some of which 
 
 Ihave only been recently discovered. The navifia- 
 
 |ii"n of tiicac seas and inlets, even at the most 
 
 jfavmirablo seasons, is extremely difficult, from 
 
 llWir bcinp; constantly cncumliered with ice ; and 
 
 lit Li only during a short period of the year that it 
 
 l«in he nttempted. The next ffrcttt mlct of the 
 
 Iw on the American coast is the (iulpli of St. 
 
 lUnTence, so called from the great river of that 
 
 immp wWeh full* Into Itn RW, rOrrmlty. I'«»>»Iiik 
 liver llie iiiiiiiiriiiiK iiih'N uiiil imlile liay^ mi the 
 I'liiiNt of iIm' I'lilli'il Siali'4, wi> I'liiiie til the (iiilph 
 (if Mi'xirii ami ilie < nrrilM'mi Sen, 'I'hla Mfl tiie- 
 ililirrmiean In N'pnraleil Irniii the Ailmiiic liy Ihi* 
 |M'iiliiKiiln lit Kliiriila, mid the linaier or l.eM«'r 
 Aiillll)'*, or Ihe Wi'xt imliaii UIiiiuIk, 'I'lie InlliT 
 are, an il were, a ixtiiliiiialinii uf I'lnrldn; ami iire, 
 Il in pmliiilile, llie oiilv reiti'tililliu: |HiililN nf M lull 
 waa iitii'i' a lirnail In'U of laml, Mhirli liiw* Imim 
 linikeii III pii'ceN mnl partly miliiiirrui'd ill Hiiiiii' iif 
 
 1 ii'iie Iri'mi'inliiliH i'iiiiviiIkIoiih In Hliirli the larlli 
 lui'; Ih I'll Nllliji'i't. Illll, however llli^ Miav Ih<, iIim 
 Kri'ut Inland wa In illvidcd liiio two imrtliiiiM hy 
 flu |>«'iiiiiiiiht of Viiralmi ami tape ,Mt, Aiilniiio, 
 at the W, rxtri'Milty of the ixlmnl of 4 'iiliii, which 
 niiprom'h will t l'lllnparali^elv aliurt iliilitiice 
 of each other; that In thi N. lieiii({ ralliil Ihe 
 
 tiiilph of Mexi ami thai In the S. llie < 'iirrilnaii 
 
 Sen, nr till- wa of the Aniilli'H, 'I hr l'<iliiiiii'< nf 
 I'Hiiniiia i^ i' Ihe extreme H, limit of ihe lal ' in 
 alMiliI the Mill i|r|;;ri'e of N. latitllile, Il in U'lii'Mil 
 that It Would Ih- hv im meaiia dillii'iilt In cut a 
 canal aerimn IIiIh iniIiiiiiih, and cntiNeiMii'iiily to 
 
 unite the Atlantic ami I'acili ihin. 'I'lic <iiil|ili 
 
 of ('alifnriiia,Ni'parailiig the pciiiiiKiiln nf thai iiniiio 
 frnin Ihe niaiii land, in the iiionI iiiijinrlaiit inlet 
 of Ihe Ken nil Ihe \V. coiiNt nf North Allli rica. 
 
 H. America hears a Hirikiiiu reNi'iiililaiice in Ihe 
 fonii nf its ciia.'tlM to Africa. Il in much inorecniii. 
 pact than N. America, and is cniuparalively little 
 unleiiU'd hy nriiiH of the nea. The great riverH, 
 Amazon, |,a I'lala, I'ara, Orinoco, Ki;, may, Imw - 
 ever, he looked u|)oii an a Npccics of inland Ncas; 
 and are, in some reNpects, ninn* Herviceuhle than 
 the latter. The \V. cniint nf America, I'mm tlio 
 liroxiniily of the Amies, has hut few gulphs; ami 
 IS, in great part, all hut deHlitiile nf liarhniirM. The 
 S. exiremily nf 8. America, nr liie cmintry nf 
 Tierra del Kiiego, is properly an archi|K'lngo, iM'iiig 
 
 sejiaraleil from Ih niiiient hv th<! narrow ami 
 
 winding strait of Magellan, nr AfngalhaeiiN, 
 
 Mouniuinn, — lliimlHildt has slmwu that all the 
 high elevntiniis nf the New World iM'Intig to that, 
 great chain Mrhich, under ditiereiil demiminatiniiH, 
 extends from one of its extremities to the other, 
 along its western coast, over a space of no lesa 
 than 10,000 m. The American mountains may, 
 however, he divided into riyht systems, nr prin- 
 cipal grniips, three of which Is'iong to S., and 
 three to N.America; and one each to the West 
 Indian nnd Arctic arclii[M-Ingos. 
 
 1st. Of thes«! systems, that of the Andes, or 
 Peruvian system, from the highest moiinliiinn 
 being, with one exception, in the country kiinwii 
 by the name of I'eru, is the most gigantic. Thin 
 vast chain of mountains commences at Carie Horn, 
 in about the ftllth deg. of S. Int., and lollowing 
 jiretty closely the line of the W. coast of the cnii- 
 tinent, to which it forms as it were a huge bul- 
 wark, sln^tclies N. to the Itay of I'miama, in aliniit 
 tlie 0th deg. of N. Int. Itut at ro|iayan, in nitniii 
 "i\l^ N. lat., the chain is divided into tliree gri at 
 ridges, of which Ihe most westerly takes the di- 
 rection alKive mentioned, while that farthest to llin 
 K. follows a NK. direction, terminating a little to 
 the E. of lake MatacaylK). The name rortJilkra, 
 sometimes given to the entire chain, iM-hings pro- 
 jierly only to the highest ridge. In parts the 
 chain consists of only one riilge, and in others of 
 
 2 or 3, enclosing very extensive Ahiine valleys, 
 many thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 Next to the Ilimmalaya, the Andes has the high- 
 est elevation of anv mountain system ; its mean 
 height may be taken at from lO.IKMI to 12,000 ft. 
 Chimborazo, near (jiiito, 2 1, '124 ft. above the sea, 
 was formerly supposed tu be its culmiuatiug point ; 
 
 h''J\ 
 
 w , 
 
 
 3 "!3 
 
 ''M 
 
92 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 "1; lilin 
 
 m 
 
 liiit it ifl HiirftAflscd in nltitiido l>y Aconcn^un, in tlic 
 Chiliiin Anih'H, lat. 324 ^*m '""«• ''^° ^V-> which 
 iMTtiiiiily rincH t(i hImivc '22,200 ft., or to more than 
 (;,'I!M) ft. above the hei^'ht of Mont lilonc. (Hc.e 
 Anues.) 2(1. Tlio system of La Parimo, or (luv- 
 nim, embraces the moiintaiiiH scattered over the 
 immense island formed by the Orinoco, Cassiqui- 
 nri, Itio Nep-o, and Amaxon. It consists of an ir- 
 regular group of mountains, separated from each 
 other by plains, savannabs, and immense forests. 
 The Sierra de I'arimc may i)e regarded as its nrin- 
 <iipal chain. The Peak of Duida, 8,2H0 ft. in 
 lieight, is the culminating point of the chain and 
 of the whole system. 3(1. The Brazilian system, 
 embracing the mountains that lie between the 
 Amazon, Paraguay, and Kio dc la I'lata, Tlie 
 Sierra de Kspinhazo is its most elevated chain. It 
 traverses, under difFerent denominations, the pro- 
 ^°inocs of liahia, Minas-(rerai!s, liio do Janeiro, 
 San Puulo, and the northern extremity of the 
 province of San Pedro. Its culminating points 
 arc Itambcand the Sierra da Piedade, nearly 6,000 
 ft. high, in the province of Minas-tierat's, 4th. In 
 N. America, the principal mountain system is that 
 of the Mexican Alps and Kocky Mountains, which 
 may be regarded as a continuation of the Andes. 
 In Mexico, it is divided into three distinct ridges ; 
 within which, between the parallels of 19° and 
 24° N. lat., are innncnso plateaus elevated to the 
 height of between (),()00 and 9,000 ft. Tnc central 
 Cordillera of Mexico stretches N. 10° W. from the 
 25 th to the 38th deg. lat., separating the waters of 
 the Kio del Norte, tlowing SE. from those of the 
 Colorado, flowing SW. The highest peaks in the 
 ridge in Mexico are tlio volcanoes of Pocatepetl, 
 17,717 ft., and Orizaba, 17,374 ft. From about 
 the 38th deg. the ri(ipc, which then begins to be 
 called the l{ock_- Mountains, stretches N. 28° W., 
 till it terminates near the mouth of the Mackenzie 
 Itivcr, on the Arctic Sea, in about the 69th deg. of 
 lat. and 138th deg. of W. long. Some peaks in 
 tliis chain, hetween 62° and 53°, are said to be 
 nearly 16,000 ft. above the level of the sea ; and 
 others, between 37° and 39°, have been ascertained 
 to bo from 10,000 to 12,000 It. in height. 6th. 
 Parallel to the liocky Mounliuns, and at no great 
 distance fum the sea, a chain of mountains runs 
 N. from the peninsula of California till it is lost in 
 L'ussian America. This chain, which has been 
 called by Humboldt the Califomian Maritime 
 Alps, increi^ea in altitude as it gets further N. 
 Mount Hood, near the 45th deg., on the S. side of 
 the Columbia or Oregon river, is said to be about 
 16,000 ft. high ; and Mount St. Helen's, about a 
 degree further N. on the N. side of the Columbia, 
 has an elevation of 14,000 ft. Mount I)'airvv rather, 
 in the 69th deg., is also 14,000 ft. high; and 
 Mount St. Elias, the loftiest in the chain, attains 
 to an elevation of nearly 17,000 ft. The last two 
 are volcanoes. Between the Rocky Mountains 
 and the Maritime Alps is an extensive prairie 
 tract, 700 m. in length, by from 100 to 200 m. in 
 breadth. The Kocky Mountains and the Maritime 
 Al|)s are connected by a ridge in about the 42d 
 deg. lat,, dividing the waters which flow N. to the 
 Columbia from those which flow S. to the Colo- 
 rado. Gth. The mountains E. of the Mississippi do 
 not at all approach the Kocky Mountains in mag- 
 nitude. They are included in what is called the 
 Alleghany or Appalachian system, extending in 
 a NE. by N. direction from Alabama, on the N. 
 confines of treorgia, to the banks of the St. Law- 
 rence, being about 1,200 m. in length, with a 
 mean breadth of 100 m. The White Mountains 
 of Now Hampshire, 7,300 feet above the level of 
 the sea, are the highest in this range, which is 
 crossed by the tidal waters of the Hudson river. 
 
 The immense valley of the Mississipp lies between 
 the Kocky and the Alleghany chains. 7th. Unlhi 
 proposed) to embrace, under the dcnominutinn nf 
 Arctic system, all the mountains that an: almuiv 
 or that may liercaftcr be, discovered within tl'ij 
 Arctic archipelago. The culminating points i,f 
 that system, in so far as tliey are at present kiunvn, 
 are the Com du Ccrf, in (irecniand, the hci^r|,t,i 
 which has been much exaggerated, but which i, 
 probably above 8,000 ft., an(l the Acraefl Tm>knl| 
 ni Iceland, 6,649 ft. 8tli. The system of tlic An- 
 tilles embraces the mountains in the orchipolagndf 
 that name. Its culminating fioints arc, the Antun. 
 Sepo, in Ilayti, nearly 9,000 ft. in height; aini 
 the Sierra de Cobre, in Cuba, the most clcvaicd 
 summits of which attain about the same lun^'ht, 
 
 Plateau*. — America has a great variety of jilj. 
 teaus, some remarkable for their prodigious dcva. 
 tion, aiul others for their immense extent. Undtf 
 the former are included the plateau of Titicaca, 
 divided between B(divia and I'cru, comprisinj; an 
 area of about 18,000 sq. m., with a mean elevaiinn 
 of above 13,000 ft. Ihe populous an(l well culti. 
 vated plateau of Quito is elevated about 9,600 ft,; 
 and the extensive plateau or table-land of Ana- 
 huac, in Mexico, from 6,0(tO to 9,000 ft, Aminn- 
 the latter, or those principally remarkable fortlicir 
 extent, may be mentioned the central plateau df 
 S. America, embracing the vast province of Matt,, 
 Grosso, with parts of Goyaz and San Pniilo in 
 Brazil, the whole of Paroguay, Chaco in the con- 
 federation of the Kio de la Plata, and a part of the 
 lands of the Chiquitos and Moxes in Bolivia. lu 
 elevation varies from about 750 to 1280 feet. 
 
 Volcanoes. — America has a great number ot | 
 volcanoes, and some of the most elevated volca- 
 nic mountains in the world. The states of Equailor 
 and of Cauca in Columbia, the states of Nia- 1 
 raguaj San Salvador, and (jiuatemala in central 
 America, Chili, Kussian America, and Iceland in 
 Danish America, contain a great number of vol- 
 canoes. The most remarkable volcanic mdiin- 
 tains arc, Cotopaxi, Sanguay, and Pichincha in 
 the Columbian department of Equador; Pastu, 
 Sotara, and Purace in that of Cauca; Guajnia- 1 
 Plitina, or the volcano of Arequipa, and Sehania | 
 in Peru ; the volcanoes of Copiapo, Chilan, An- 
 toco, and Peteroa in Chili ; those of Socomiisca, | 
 Guatemala or Fuego, Agua, Pacaya, San Salva- 
 dor, Granada, and Telica, near St. Leon, of Nica- 1 
 ragua, in central America ; Popocatapetl, or tie I 
 volcano of Puebla, Citlatepetl, or the volcano of I 
 Orizaba, the volcano of Colima, and that of Xo- 1 
 rullo, in the Mexican conicderation ; St. Elias and I 
 Fairweather, in the Califomian Alps; the two vol- 1 
 canoes of the peninsula of Alashka, and those of I 
 the Aleutian islands ; with Hecla, and otheis in I 
 Iceland. I 
 
 Plains. — In no other part of the world are the | 
 plains so vast. The immense space from the out- 
 let of the Mackenzie River to the delta of the I 
 Mississippi, and between the central chain of the I 
 Mexican system and Rocky Mountains, and the I 
 Alleghany, forms the lai]gest plain, not of Amelia I 
 only, but oif the world : it embraces the basimofi 
 the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, Churchill « I 
 Nelson, almost the whole basin of the Missoiiii I 
 nearly the whole basins of the Suskatchawan and I 
 Mackenzie River, and the entire basin of the C«|)- 1 
 permine River. Four-tifths of that portion of thii I 
 vast plain which lies beyond the 60th deg. of laul 
 is a bleak and barren waste, overspread with inmn I 
 merable lakes, and bearing a striking resemblaiin I 
 to N. Asia ; but its more southerly portion, or thai I 
 lying W. of the Alleghany chain, and N. from the I 
 (iiilph of Mexico, differs widely in character frm | 
 the other, bcuig well wooded and fertile on theLl 
 
AMERICA 
 
 03 
 
 ipp lips between 
 tiiiH. 7tli. Unllii 
 (li'iiotniiiutioi) i,f 
 that are alremly, 
 rcTcA witliiu the 
 latin^ pointH irf 
 it present kiunvn, 
 iiul, the ln'iKlit (if 
 ted, but which « 
 Acrnefl Tuekiill, 
 ystcm of the An- 
 tlienrchipelagiiiT 
 t8 arc, the Anton- 
 . in heif^ht ; ami 
 ho most elftvatoil 
 he same hei},'lit. 
 at variety of |ila. 
 prodigious elcva- 
 se extent. Umkr 
 iteau of Titicira, 
 Tu, comprisiiif; an 
 a mean eleviitiun 
 lus and well culii- 
 Bd abtmt 9,(500 fi.; 
 able-land of Ana- 
 9,(t00 ft, AiDdni; 
 imarkablc for tluit 
 central plateau df 
 province of Matin 
 md San Tnulo in 
 Chaco in the cnn- 
 1, and a part uf tlie 
 :e8 in Uolivia. lu 
 to 1280 feet, 
 great nuralicr nt 
 )8t elevated volia- 
 e states of Equadiir 
 ic states of Nlia- 
 itemala in central 
 ca, and Iceland In 
 pat number of vol- 
 e volcanic niduii- 
 and Pichincha in 
 f Equador; Pastu, 
 f Cauca; Guagua- 
 piipo, and Sehania 
 piapo, Chilan, An- 
 lose of Socomusco, 
 acaya, San Salva- 
 St. Leon, of Nica- 
 )pocatapetl, or the 
 or the volcano of 
 and that of Xo- 1 
 ition; St.Eliasand| 
 Alps; the two vol- 
 ishka, and those of I 
 icla, and othen in I 
 
 the world are tk | 
 space from the oui- 
 the delta of the I 
 entral chain of the I 
 lountains, and the I 
 oin, not of Amcria I 
 jraces the basins d 
 ence, Churchill or 
 in of the Missouri 
 Suskatchawan ani I 
 ■ebasinof theCof-l 
 that portion of thii 
 le 60th de{?. of lau I 
 erspread withinnii-j 
 riking resemblance [ 
 irly portion, or thsi I 
 in, and N. from the I 
 y in character ft« I 
 nd fertile on the 1 1 
 
 niile. hnrc but not infertile in the middle, and be- 
 (iiminK tiinnwt a desert in the extreme W. The 
 vcconil Rrcttt jilain of the New Continent is that of 
 ilio Anin/on : it embraces the whtde central [lart 
 ,if S. Amerit-a, compri.Ming more than half Urazil, 
 with south-went Columbia, the eastern part of the 
 rciiiililic of Peru, and the northern part of Iloli\'io : 
 iis limits are neorly identical with those of the 
 iiijilillc aii<l lower parts of the immense basin of 
 the Amazon and Tocantin. The plain of the Itio 
 ilo la Plata extends between the Andes and their 
 iirinci|)nl branches, and the mountains of l)ra/.il, 
 til tiie Atlantic Ocean and the Straits of Magellan. 
 It embraces the sotjth-wcst part of liraxil, Para- 
 r-iiftv, the country of the Chiquitos, Chaco, with 
 il,(. "greater part of the confederation of the Rio 
 dc la Plata, the state of Uruguay, and Patagonia. 
 A large jiortion of it is known by the name of the 
 I'umpaii of lluenos Ajtcs, or Kio de la Plata. The 
 iilaiii <if the Orinoco, embracing the Llanos of 
 Xcw Granada and Venezuela in Columbia, extends 
 fmm Caqiicta to the mouth of the Orinoco, ah)ng 
 the (iiinviaro, Meta, and hiwer Orinoco. In some 
 (if the Hat parts of America large tracts of terri- 
 tory are met with, which, in respect of ariility of 
 soil, and of the sand by which they are covered, 
 may be compared to the deserts of Asia and 
 AInca. The most remarkable and most extensive 
 (if these tracts are the desert of Pemambuco, 
 occupying a great part of the NE. ]ilateau of Bra- 
 zil; the desert of Atacama, extending with some 
 interruptions along the coast of the Pacific from 
 Tarapnca in Peru to Copiapo in Chili; and the 
 desert of Nuttal, at the E. foot of the Kocky 
 Mountains, l)etween the Upper Arkansas and 
 I'ailuka, forming part of the central plain of North 
 America. 
 
 The Rivers of America are on a much larger 
 scale than those of any other portion of the glolie, 
 aft'onling facilities of internal communication of 
 vast importance, and quite unequalled any where 
 else. The principal are the Amazon, IMississippi, 
 Plata, St. Lawrence, and Orinoco. TTie Amazon 
 flows E. through the broadest part of S. America, 
 falling into the Atlantic Ocean under the eqpator. 
 Its entire course is estimated at about 4,700 m., 
 and it has several tributaries larger than the Wol- 
 ya or the Danube. Uninterrujited by either rocks 
 or shallows, it is navigable for vessels of consider- 
 able burden to the E. foot of the Andes, a distance, 
 in a direct line, of above 2,000 m. from the sea ; 
 and though cinlisation has as yet made little pro- 
 ),Tess in the vast and fertile regions through which 
 ii tlows, there can be no doubt that it is destined 
 to become as it were a great highway for many 
 ]iowerful nations, and to have its banks thickly 
 set with populous towns and emporiums. 
 
 The Mississippi, taken in connexion with the 
 Missouri, the largest and most important stream, 
 flows from N. to S., falling into the Gulph of 
 Mexico, about 100 m. below Ne-w Orleans. Its 
 I course, including windings, exceeds 4,200 m. ; 
 many of its tributaries, as the Arkansas, Ked 
 Kiver, Ohio, &c., are of great magnitude ; and it 
 drains one of the larger and finest basins in the 
 world. It is navigable for about 1,700 m. in a 
 I direct line from its mouth ; and though civilisation 
 
 s only begim to strike its roots and scatter its 
 I seeds in the wide regions through which it flows, 
 I it is ahready a well frequented channel of commu- 
 nication. But the boldest flights of imagination 
 can hardly figure what the Mississippi will be, 
 1 when the rich and fruitful countries on its banks, 
 I and those of its afHuents, are all fully peopled, and 
 I making use of its waters to send abroad their sur- 
 plus products, and to import those of other coun- 
 tries and climates. 
 
 The Plota, which runs S. with a alight inclina- 
 tion to the E., is the grand channel of communica- 
 tion to a very large porticm of S. America. Its 
 course maybe estimated at about 2,r)00 m. ; and 
 its basin is inferior only to that of the Amazon or 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 The St. Lawrence, with its connected lakes, or 
 rather great inland sea»i, is the grand outlet of the 
 largest frerthwater system in the world. Including 
 the lakes, its course cxceeils 2,000 m. It is ni- 
 markable for the equality of its current, which ia 
 nearly uniform throughout the year. 
 
 The OriiHico has a course of aliout 1800 m., and 
 carries to the sea an immense body of water. There 
 is a water communication between one <if its artlii- 
 ents, the Cossicpiiari, and the Kio Negro, an afllu- 
 ent of the Amazon. 
 
 Owing to the circumstance of the Andes, and of 
 their prolongation in N. America, being generallv 
 within a comparatively short distance of the \V. 
 coast, there is not, in most parts, room in the in- 
 tervening space for the formation of any very great 
 river. Hence, notwithstanding the prodigious 
 length of the W. coast, it only receives two largo 
 rivers, and these not of the llrst class; the Bio 
 Colorado, falling into the bottom of the Gulph of 
 California, and the Columbia or Oregon. Their 
 course may be estimated at about 1,100 m. each. 
 
 The Mackenzie is the only great river flowing 
 into the jVrctic sea. It ha.s a NNVV. course ; it is 
 connected by a series of lakes and tributary streams 
 with lake Superior, and conseciut itly with the St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 Lakes. — No part of the world has so many lakes 
 as N. America, especially that portion between 42° 
 and 67° lat., which might be justly called the lake 
 region. It presents not only the greatest masses 
 of fresh water on the siuface of the globe, but so 
 many smaller lakes and morasses, that their enu- 
 meration is almost impossible. These lakes form 
 a most important feature in the physical geography 
 of the new world. In the rainy season, several of 
 them overflow their banks ; and temporary com- 
 munications are then established between rivers 
 whose embouchures are frequently at immen.se dis- 
 tances from each other. Some of these communi- 
 cations are permanent ; as, for instance, that of the 
 Mississippi or Churchill with the Mackenzie Kiver. 
 The ^eat lakes of N. America are. Lake Superior, 
 Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Eric, and Ontario. 
 These, which are all connected together, discharge 
 their superfluous waters by the St. La^vrence, and 
 form that vast reser\'oir of fresh water, sometimes 
 called the sea of Canada. (See the titles for a full 
 description of these lakes.) The next in size and 
 importance are Lakes Winnipeg, Athabasco, Great 
 Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake, stretching NN W. 
 from Lake Superior to near the mouth of the 
 Mackenzie River, and forming as it were a conti- 
 nuation of the Canadian lakes. There are some 
 considerable lakes in the Mexican states ; and the 
 comparatively small lakes of Tezeaco, Xochimilco, 
 (SfC, in the valley of Mexico, are remarkable for 
 their elevated situation, their vicinity to the ca- 
 pital, and the superb works undertaken to prevent 
 the damage caused by their frequent overflowing. 
 Lake Nicaragua, in central America, is remarkable 
 for its size, tlie beauty of its scenery, its volcanoes, 
 and from its forming the basis of the works jiro- 
 jected for uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 
 The limited size of the principal lakes of S. Ame- 
 rica, strikingly contrasts with the dimensions of 
 those of N. America. The lake of Titicaca, the 
 largest and most celebrated of the S. American 
 lakes, is situated near the NW. frontier of Bolivia, 
 or Upi)er Peru, in an Alpine valley surrounded by 
 ridges of the Andes. It covers an area estimated 
 
94 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 I . 
 
 Ii ||M»>,'' 
 
 ,11 L.i! 
 
 iVlf.l 
 
 iif 
 
 at 2,225 gcag. sq. m., Its length beinp; 120 m. and 
 brtiudth HH in., and it in elevated r2,HdO feet above 
 the level of the sea. Manco Capac made hin Unit 
 n|>pcnrance nn the hankx of this lake. The liaHina 
 <if the Hio Colorado, or Mendoza, and Kio Nep'o, 
 ]>r(!.s(Mit several very extensive lakes; but these 
 urc really rather vast monuscs, than lakes i)ro|)erly 
 80 called. 
 
 Jxlawla. — A multitude of islands bclonff to 
 America. We shall briefly notice the principal, 
 ill the order of the seas in which they are situated. 
 Jn the Atlantic Ocean are, the archipelago of St. 
 Lawrence or of Newfoun<lland, at the mouth of 
 the (iulph of St. Lawrence: its principal islands 
 are Newfoundland. Anticosti, Prince Edward's Is- 
 land, and Cayte lireton. The great (Columbian ar- 
 chipelago, or Antilles, commonly called the West 
 Inilies, comprises a great number of islands and 
 secondary groups, lying between the peninsula of 
 Flori(hi and the delta of the Orinoco. Its chief 
 islands are, Cuba, Hayti,or St. Domingo, Jamaica, 
 and Porto-Kico, called the greater Antilles; St. 
 Cruz, Antigua, (iuadaloune, Martinico, St. Lucia, 
 liarbadocs, St. Vincent, lobogo, Trinidad, and se- 
 veral others, called the smaller Antilles. The Lu- 
 cayos, or Dahaina Islands, a vast secondary group, 
 are situated to the N. of Cuba. Towards the 
 southern extremity of the New Continent, are the 
 Falkland or ]\Iulouinc Islands, which have no fixed 
 inhabitants; in the southern ocean is the archi- 
 pelago of Magellan and Ticrra del Fuego, the most 
 southerly inhabited part of the world. By its 
 Iiosition, at the extremity of America, it belongs 
 ns much to the ocean, to which we have assigned 
 it, as to either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The Antarctic archipelago, or Antarctic lands, 
 under which denomination we include all the 
 islands situated beyond 56° S. lat., next claims 
 attention. The greater part of these islands have 
 been recently discovered ; they are all uninhabited, 
 are mostly covered with ice, and are important 
 only to whale and seal fishers. The most remark- 
 
 able islands and 
 
 groupi 
 
 s are, the island of St. 
 
 Peter, called by Cook, S. Georgia ; the archipelago 
 of Sandwich, the Orkneys, S. Shetland, 'Irinity 
 Island, the small islands of Alexander I. and 
 Peter I. The Pacific Ocean has also a multitude 
 of islands, lying in groups, of which we can only 
 notice the following : the archipelago of Madre de 
 Dios, on the W. coast of Patagonia ; the Cam- 
 pana and Madre de Dios are the largest of these 
 islands : the archi)jelago of Chiloe, situated to the 
 8. of Chili, to which it belongs, and of which 
 Chiloe Island is the largest : the archipelago of 
 Gallopagos, situated under the equator, about 
 50U m. W. from the coast of Columbia, but which 
 has no stationary inhabitants : the archipelago of 
 Quadra and Vancouver, comprising a great number 
 of islands, and that of King George III., on the 
 NW. coast of N. America, with the Aleutian 
 archipelago in Russian America. In Behring's 
 Sea, are the group of Pribyh>f and Nounivok, be- 
 longing to Russia. The Arctic Ocean presents a 
 vast number of islands, the minority of which, 
 previously to the late voyage of discovery, were 
 regarded as parts of the American continent. 
 Balbi proposes to give to these islands the gene- 
 ral denomination of Arctic lands or Arctic archi- 
 pelago, and to subdivide them as follows : E, or 
 Danish Arctic lands, comprising the great group 
 of Greenland and Iceland, belonging to Denmark, 
 an(l Jan Mayen's Island, without stationary in- 
 habitants; the W. or English Arctic lands, ex- 
 tending to the W. and N. of Baffin's and Hud- 
 son's bays, the principal groups of which are, N. 
 Devon, N. Georgia, with the islands Comwallis, 
 Melville, &c.; and tlie archipelago of Boffin — 
 
 Parry, with the islands Cockbum, Southamptor,, 
 New Galloway, 4c. 
 
 The Climate of America is nearly rs colcbratui 
 for the predominance of cold, as that of Africa fut 
 the predominance of heat. With the excerption nf 
 the limited space along its W. shore, betwwn the 
 Andes in the S. and the Maritime Aljis in the X 
 the temperature of the New World, in the mIhJ 
 latitude, is everywhere inferior to that of the ()|||^ 
 Countries which, from their geographical jHwitidn, 
 we should supiiose would be mild and tcmjieratf^ 
 are exposed to long and severe winters, (hinnJ I 
 which thev are wholly covered with snow ; and ij 
 point of fact, the entire continent of N. AmiTiq 
 above the 60th degree of lat. is all but uninhabit. 
 able. Even in the 45th parallel, on the N. side uf 
 the Canadian lakes, frost is continuous fnr tnnn 
 than six months. Occasional frosts occur lu l(i« 
 down the Atlantic coast as the confines of Floriili^ 
 near the 3()th deg. of lat., in the parallel uf Mu. 
 rocco,_ Cairo, and Suez. This predominance of 
 cold is no doubt ascnbable to a great variety uf 
 causes ; among the most prominent of which nuv 
 be placed the extraordinary elevation of the siiii 
 Not only is the continent traversed from one cj. 
 tremity to the other by immense chains of moun- 
 tains covered with perpetual snow, but in manr 
 parts, as in Mexico and Columbia, very extensive 
 plains are found at an elevation of from (>,(Mili ui 
 10,000 feet above the level of the sea ! Thm 
 the plain of Quito, immediately under the equa- 
 tor, nas an elevation of above 9,600 feet, and iu 
 mean temperature is said not to exceed 63°Fahr, 
 In some parts, where the plateaus rise rapidly, 
 there is often, within a few leagues, an extraont 
 nary change of temperature. At Vera Cruz and 
 Guayaquil, for example, on the borders of the 
 plains of Mexico and (Juito, and nearly on a level 
 with the sea, the heat is often quite oppressive. 
 These different climates have dinerent vccetaUe 
 productions. ' Hence the traveller joumcyinj 
 down the deep descent of one of these magnificent 
 ravines (leading from the plateau of Slexico), 
 through forests of birches, oaks, and pines, his 
 himself suddenly on the level shores of the Kio 
 Alvarado, surrounded by palms, and has an oppor- 
 tunity of seeing the animal products of the X, I 
 and S., of the Alpine regions and tropics, nay uf I 
 the E. and W. hemispheres mingled together, f 
 Wolvcs'of northern aspect dwelling in the vicinity 
 of monkeys ; humming birds retuniing jjeriodicallv 
 from the borders of the frozen zone, with the X; I 
 bunting and soft-feathered titmice, to nestle neir I 
 parrots; and our common European whistiinj;! 
 ducks and teal, swimming in lakes which swam 
 with sirens and Brazilian parras and boatbilk,'! 
 (See Richardson's Zoolojjy of N. America, in the I 
 Sixth Report of the British Association, p. 135.) I 
 
 In addition to its vast mountain chains, and the I 
 prodigious elevation of many of its plateaus, the I 
 lower temperature of America may be partly as- 1 
 cribed to the great indentation of the sea between I 
 N. and S. America, and the want of extensive I 
 sandy deserts in the tropical regions, cosily im- 1 
 pregnated with heat. The place of the lottcrinl 
 the African continent is here occupied by vast I 
 forests, traversed in all directions by immtnsel 
 rivers. The forests, however, are not confined to I 
 the tropical regions ; they extend over the greater I 
 portion of the continent, powerfully diminishing | 
 the influence of the solar rays upon the earth, ami I 
 greatly increasing its moisture. A strong and I 
 abundant vegetation, the result of its greater ho- 1 
 midity, is, in fact, the distinguishing characteristic [ 
 of the New World. I 
 
 But a very small portion of North America is I 
 within the torrid zone ; it reaches for witMi I 
 
 mu 
 
ATHERICA 
 
 95 
 
 the Arctic circle, where it also attiuns to a p*ttt 
 imiiltli. The N\V. wind prcvnilH during wintur. 
 Iliis ttiiiil, HWceiiiiiRovern dcsoliite C(iuiitry,()vrr- 
 spreail witli ninr»lu'», forests, frozen lakes, nnd 
 J,„„„tftiiis, buried under eternal snows, contracts 
 »i, intense decree of cold, and in its i)ro{,'re»8 
 !i,iuttiwnr<l. passintt over a wilderness, wliero the 
 frciuiitl i'' shaded by forests from the solar rays, its 
 oriL'iiial character'is in no re>i|)cct clian^'ed. It 
 aliiwiv viclils to the dominion of the climate, and 
 iftaiiis it" temperature lonj; after it has penetrated 
 intii tlie rcjfions of heat. Throughout N. America 
 III,, ){, wind is accordingly felt to Iw keen and 
 iiicrt'liitl- I'' increases tlie rigour of the seasons 
 III tlic more northerly regions, and extentU the in- 
 lliiiMicc of winter far into those latitudes which, 
 in lilt' other hemis])here, arc blessed with perpetual 
 Mirinj;. The countries lying within the tro])ic8 are 
 (>NiHisc<l to the inroails of the northern blasts ; and 
 tiie (fteat heats felt at Vera Cruz and Ilavannah 
 arc often suddenly reduced l)y strata of cold air 
 lirought by the "H. winds from Hudson's Hay. 
 'i'liese wiii'ila blow from October to March, fro- 
 niiontly bursting forth in tremendous hurricanes, 
 anil c(N)ling the air to such a degree, that^ at Ila- 
 vannah, the centigrade thermometer falls to 0, or 
 320 Fahr., and at Vera Cruz it falls to 16°, or to 
 Gil* Fahr. At Zacatecaa, within the tro])ic of Can- 
 cer, it frequently froze hard in the winter of 1825 ; 
 anil in the city of Mexico the thermometer has 
 lnTii known, though rarely, from the same cause, 
 tdfall l)clow the freezing point. To the prevalence 
 (if these N. winds, thorelore, combined with the 
 cxiracmlinary elevation of the ground, and the 
 iiiiciiltivated state of the country, overspread with 
 vast forests, the greater cold of N. America seems 
 cliii'tiy ascribable. In S. America nearly the same 
 causes operate. The country is even more deso- 
 late; the climate is more inclined to moisture; 
 anil liable, beyond the 40th parallel, to dreadful 
 tempests ; while immense mountain ranges, rising 
 far above the limit of perpetual snow, aid these 
 cft'ects, and greatly increase the rigour of the sea- 
 sons. To these causes may be added the form of 
 the American continent, which being jrreatly con- 
 tracted in breadth as it approaches the S., is, in 
 consequence, exposed on every side, except towards 
 the N., to the surrounding oceanic winds. To the 
 S. of Cape Horn is the great Antarctic Ocean, 
 where cold prevails even to a much greater degree 
 than in the N., so that the winds coming from 
 those inhospitable seas bring to the American conti- 
 nent all the unmitigated rigour of the polar regions. 
 The Andes and the Maritime Ali)8 protect the strip 
 of territory between them and the Pacific Ocean 
 [from the freezing influence of the NAV. wind ; and 
 to this its greater mildness is partly at least, if 
 lot wholly, owing. 
 
 Mnerah. — The mineral riches of America are 
 
 jprobably superior to those of any of the other 
 
 treat divisions of the globe. The discovery of the 
 
 Imines of Mexico and l^eru effected an entire re- 
 
 olutiun in the value of the precious metals ; and 
 
 mother revolution, in the same sense, followed 
 
 he discovery of the mines of California, of recent 
 
 late. The annual produce of the American mines, 
 
 it the commencement of the present century, was 
 
 stimated by M. Humboldt at 17,291 kilogs. of 
 
 :ol(t, and 795,581 kilogs. of silver, of a total value 
 
 if 9,243,750/. This produce continued slightly to 
 
 Bncrease down to 1810, when it was estimated by 
 
 llr, Jacob, author of an Inquiry into the Con- 
 
 lumption of the Precious Metals, at 9,913,000/. 
 
 But the revolutionary struggles which began in 
 
 ;he lastTmentioned year to agitate Mexico, Peru, 
 
 1(1 the rest of S. America, speedily occasioned 
 
 e abandonment of some of the most productive 
 
 mines, nnd an extraordinary falling off in the 
 supj)ly of the precious metals. According to Jacob 
 their average annual produce in America, from 
 1810 to 1829, did not exceed 4,o:i(i,00()/. a year, 
 or less than half its amount at thccommeiicenuMit 
 of the century. (Jiutd), ii. 21(7.) Latterly, how- 
 ever, the supplies of bullion from Mexico, and 
 still more from Chili and I'eni, appear again to be 
 on the increase. And to the supplies from Mexico 
 and 8. America we have now to add those from 
 California and Columbia. The extraordinary pros- 
 perity of the former regiim, consequent on the 
 discovery and energetic working of its mineral 
 treasures, fidlowed as it was a few years later by 
 the Australian discoveries, and on a smaller scale 
 by the discoveries in Columbia, has quite thrown 
 into the shade the more ancient gold iitdds of 
 South Amctrica ond Mexico. The value of gold 
 exported fmm San Francisco in 1857 was esti- 
 mated ot 14,000,0(Kt/., and the entire yield of gold 
 to 1st July, 1802, was 13<i,000,000/. Gold was dis- 
 coveretl in 185G in Columbia, and in 1801 the total 
 yield was estimated at 1,527,975/. To these must 
 be added the produce of the silver mines of the 
 new territory (now state) of the United States, 
 Nevada, of whose enormous richness the most 
 marvellous reports have recently reached us. There 
 has already been a large immigration into the new 
 territory', but the working of the mines and the 
 knowledge of their immense fertility has been 
 comparatively recent, llesides gold and silver, 
 most other metals are found in less or greater 
 abundance in America. Chili and Cuba have some 
 of the richest copper mines in the world ; lead is 
 found in the greatest plenty in different parts of 
 the U. .States, particularly at Galena, Dubuque, 
 and other points on the Upper Mississippi, in 
 Mexico ; and in California, Columbia, nnd Nevada, 
 lead, antimony, mercury, and in some places dia- 
 monds are found. Diamonds are also found ex- 
 tensively in Brazil, which till late yeors was the 
 principol source of supply for the world. Iron is 
 extremely abundant in the U. States, and in many 
 other parts of the continent; salt also is very 
 widely diffused ; and coal, including onthracite, is 
 found in vast and indeed all hut inexhaustible 
 deptisits in different parts of the U. States, in 
 British America, and in Chili. 
 
 Vegetation. — Stretching, as America does, from 
 the eternal snows of the Arctic to those of the 
 Antarctic circle, and possessing soils of every ele- 
 vation and quality, her vegetable products are 
 necessarily of the most diversified description. 
 Owing to the prevalent humidity and coolness of 
 the climate, and the richness of the soil, her fo- 
 rests and pastures are unrivalled for extent, luxu- 
 riance, and magnificence. The forests consist ge- 
 nerally of very heavy timber, including many 
 species of pines and larches unknown in Europe, 
 with an endless variety of oaks, maples, cypresses, 
 tulip trees, mahogany trees, logwood, Brazil-wowl, 
 &c. &c. The Old World is indebted to the New 
 for some of its most useful and widely diffused 
 vegetable protluctions. Potatoes, though probably 
 not introduced into Europe for more than a century 
 after the discovery of America, already form a most 
 important part of the food of most European nations ; 
 and tobacco, though it also is of American origin, 
 has been diffused from one extremity of the Old 
 World to the other, and is, perhaps, the most 
 universally esteemed of all luxuries. We also 
 owe to America maize or Indian com, millet, 
 cocoa, vanilla, pimento, copaiba, cinchona or bark, 
 so important in medicine, jalap, sassafras, nux 
 vomica, and a great number of less important 
 plants. The Cactus cochiuilifer, which furnishes 
 I the cochineal, is also peculiar to America. Ou the 
 
 i8ti>. I i| 
 
M 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 other hnnd, America is indebted to the Old World 
 for a threat variety of cereal p'osacfl, trees, and 
 fruitjt. At the head of the former may Im placed 
 wheat, harley, oat«, and rice, all of which Huccced 
 admirably well in lar^e portions of America. It 
 Huems ]iretty well establiMbed that the sugar-cane 
 is indijLCcnous to some of the W. Indian islands ; 
 but it is abundantly certain, not merely that the 
 art of making sugar, but that the cane, now most 
 generally cultivated in the islands and in conti- 
 nental America, was brougtit to them either from 
 the K. Indies or from Madeira. America is also 
 indebted to the Old World for the coffee plant, 
 now one of her staple pnMlucts ; and for oranges, 
 lemims, peaches, and most descriptions of fruit- 
 trees. New York apples, though now very su- 
 jHirior to any produced in this country, are derive<l 
 from plants carried from England. The vine has 
 been raised in America; but either the soil or 
 climate is not suitable for it, or, which is |)erhaps 
 most probable, sufficient care has not been be- 
 stowed on the manufacture of the wine. The tea- 
 plant has been tried in Urazil ; but, owing to the 
 (loarncss of labour, there is no chance of its being 
 protitably cultivated there, or any where else in 
 America, 
 
 The Zoology of America differs in many im- 
 portant respects from that of the Old World. Of 
 about 1,350 mammals that have been described 
 and classified, America possesses about 540 ; but, 
 with few exceptions, she is singularly ill provided 
 with the useful animals. As already stated, nei- 
 ther the horse, ox, sheep, nor hog were found in 
 America on her discovery by Columbus ; and the 
 want of them must, no doubt, have been a con- 
 siderable obstacle to the advancement of the natives 
 in the career of civilisation. The elephant and 
 the camel are also unknown in America ; but she 
 was not entirely destitute of useful animals. lu 
 Peru they had the llama, guanaco, paco, and 
 vicunna, animals that bear a considerable resem- 
 blance to each other, if they be not of the same 
 species. The first has a considerable analogy to 
 the camel, though it is neither so large nor strong, 
 and wants the hump. It was, and still is, em- 
 ployed to carry loads, and being docile and sure- 
 footed, makes its way over the most dangerous 
 paths. Its pace is slow, seldom exceeding 12 or 
 15 m. a day, and it usually carries about 80 lbs. 
 Its wool, or rather hair, which is generally, but 
 not always, white, is spun and made into articles 
 of clothing. The guanacos and pacos are not so 
 serviceable as beasts of burden as the llamas, and 
 are comparatively little used. The vicunna, the 
 smallest of them all, inhabits the least accessible 
 parts of the Andes ; it is chiefly prized on account 
 of its wool, which is of a very superior quality. 
 The flesh of these animals, though dry and coarse, 
 is used OS food. They are almost the only animals 
 that the native inhabitants of America had been 
 able to subdue, and to render subservient to their 
 purposes. The bison, or American ox {Bo» atneri- 
 canus), the; largest native quadruped of the New 
 World, is principally found on the prairie lands of 
 the Kocky Mountains in N.America. It is rarely, 
 if ever, seen to the S. of the Mississippi; and it is 
 doubtful whether it was ever found on the At- 
 lantic coast. The Boa motchatui, or musk ox, is 
 found only in the most N. parts of America to the 
 W. of Hudson's Bay, from 66° to 73° N. lat Its 
 horns, which cover all the forehead, are often of 
 great weight. The Rocky Mountain goat, re- 
 markable for the fineness of its wool, inhabits the 
 Kocky Mountains from Mexico to the extremity 
 of the range. Several species of deer are found 
 both in N. and S. America. The rein-deer is the 
 most northerly ruminating animal, being found in 
 
 Orcenland and the remotest of the Arctic iRlandt, 
 On the W, coast it descends as low as the Culuin. 
 bia river. 
 
 America possesses several peculiar specim nf I 
 the genus Canh, or dog. The physiognomy nf il^ 
 American wolf, when contrasted with that of ji, 
 KurojHian namesake, is very distinct. There i, , 
 great variety of foxes. The fur of the Cunis /««,. 
 pua, or arctic fox, and of some other variuticH i,f I 
 the same genus, is of considerable value. Tlie | 
 best known variety of the American dog Is i 
 Cania familiarii, found in Newfoundland. Tlii) I 
 animal is now very common in Enghind, and '» 
 deservedly a great favourite. It is stn>n){ aiKj 
 active, has long, fine, glossy hair, a curved bushr 
 tail, and webbed toes, by means of which it 8winu 
 admirably well. The colour of the book anj 
 sides is generally black, with a white belly and 
 legs, and froquentlv a white spot at the tip (if the 
 tail. It is naturally fitted, by its thick cAvcrini; 
 of hair, for a cold climate, and is more active and 
 in better health in this country in winter thaii in 
 summer. 
 
 The beaver (Castor) is more abundant pcrhap 
 in the NW. parts of N.America than in an v other 
 part of the world. But the great demand ior,mi 
 high price of its fur, has led to a great dimiiiutiim 
 of its numbers, and to its nearly total extirpation 
 in the more accessible parts of the country. 'Die 
 coypou, known in commerce by the name of iifu- 
 tra, and the chinchilla, are found in 8. Aroerirt. 
 They yield a highly esteemed fur, and immeoie 
 quantities of their skins are now imported, 
 
 America has but few beasts of prey. The most I 
 formidable, the Felix onca, or jaguar, is found! 
 only in S. America. It is larger and strongetl 
 than the panther; but is inferior in size and fom- 1 
 city to the Bengal tiger, with which it is gene- 
 rally compared. The Felix ditcolor, or puma, \i I 
 found in both S. and N, America; though dcno- 1 
 minated the American lion, it is neither so Iai;,'e 
 nor fierce as the jaguar, A number of bears, some 
 of them of the largest and most formidable de- 
 scription, are found in Arctic America: two an | 
 peculiar to it, 
 
 Tropical America has a great variety of apei, I 
 but none of them approach so nearly to the human I 
 form as the orang-outang, or chimpanzee, and none I 
 of them have the ferocity of the baboon, Manr, [ 
 however, have prehensile tails, endowed with io I 
 great delicacy of touch that they have been com- 1 
 pared to the trunk of the elephant. This fit) | 
 them admirably for travelling from tree to tree. 
 
 The vampjrre bat, frequent in S, America, it I 
 veiy dangerous. It attacks the larger animalJ 
 and even man himself, when asleep ; and as iu I 
 bite is not sufficiently painful to awaken the w I 
 tim, the bleeding it occasions sometimes proval 
 fataL 
 
 America is inhabited, or rather infested, by an I 
 immense number of reptiles. Of these the rattle- 1 
 snake is one of the most common, and also the I 
 most dangerous: but there are others little les I 
 venomous. The true boa constrictor is found <( I 
 an enormous size in the marshes and swamps dl 
 tropical America. Centipedes, sometimes a,r»i| 
 in length, with enormous spiders, as well as scor-[ 
 pions, abound in these r^ons. According t)| 
 Humboldt, the white anta and termites are eval 
 more destructive here than their congeners in the I 
 Old World. 
 
 The birds of America are exceedingly numerm I 
 The condor, which inhabits the most inaccessibkl 
 parts of the Andes, though of less dimensions thai 
 was formerly supposed, is the largest and dx^I 
 powerful of all the feathered tribes. There nl 
 also a great many eagles, vultures, falcons, nil 
 
tho Arctic iftland^ 
 low as the Culuui- 
 
 lecuHor species if 
 hysioKiuimyoftlie 
 id with that of iu 
 itinct. Tlu're i« « 
 ■ of the Cunii /ujjo. 
 other vnrietits nf | 
 jraWo value. The 
 nericnn doj; is [h 
 wfimndlnnd, Tlib 
 in England, ami u 
 It ia Htrong and 
 ur, a cur\'e(l liusk 
 8 of which it Bwinii 
 of the back and 
 a white l)clly ami 
 )ot at the tip uf the | 
 r its thick covcrinf 
 I is more active and 
 ■y in winter than in 
 
 B abundant pcrha|« I 
 » than in anv other 
 rcat demand for, and 
 ) a great tlimiiiution 
 rly total extirpatinn 
 f the country. The 
 jy the name of nm- 
 bund in S. Amerifj. I 
 >d fur, and immeiM | 
 low imported. 
 1 of prey. The idmi I 
 or jaguar, is found I 
 
 larger and stronger I 
 srior in size and fero- 1 
 :h which it is gene- 
 ditcolor, or puma. Ii I 
 lerica; though deno- 
 it is neither so larj,'* I 
 umber of bears, some I 
 
 most formidable de- 1 
 ic America: two arc 
 
 reat variety of ap» 
 I nearly to the human I 
 jhimpanzee, and nm I 
 the baboon. Many, 
 lis, endowed with so 
 they have been com- 1 
 
 elephant Thisiitil 
 5 from tree to tree. 
 
 it in S. America, ill 
 
 the larger animaUl 
 in asleep; and aaiul 
 to awaken the w I 
 
 IB sometimes proval 
 
 ither infested, by ail 
 Of these the rattle- 1 
 lommon, and also the I 
 'are others littlclal 
 tutrictor is found '<| 
 .shea and swamps dl 
 ^8, sometimes ayarif 
 liders, as wellasscot-l 
 ions. According til 
 id termites are eval 
 leir congeners in tbtl 
 
 icceedinglynumeroittj 
 Ihe most inaccessibkl 
 I less dimensions thai 
 Ihe largest and mo«| 
 ■• tribes. There «l 
 atuies, falcons, wl 
 
Ill ^ I' 
 
1 
 
 }hh if I If] 
 
 *» 
 
i.llur \i\pU of 
 ■iiiiillcr (liuii I 
 
 lUlll ill)' Wllllll.M 
 \«'l lIlu'liN llC 1 
 
 Till! wnii'iM I 
 !>li; mill rlio I 
 iiii !• ftl.io ciiiim 
 liMt (iCilic Cai 
 N'lithiiiK, Ikm 
 ri'l.'iiiciii III t\u: i 
 !nI iiicrriiNc of 
 Ir'in Kiirojio, I 
 ilii' I'irciiiiiHimic 
 II Hiiiilil ciTliiin 
 »rri' iiiilij^'ciiiiii! 
 \\.:- liii'ir iiiuivt' 
 in iiiinK'ii.i(^ luM 
 mill xu iiiimcro 
 •liiii;;htt'r of ox( 
 It iIi(> liiilp, is 
 lAii'imivc provir 
 }iiir ftlidvc Hi)U 
 irmn Urnzil oiil 
 IrHiii lliK'nos yVy 
 III coiimMniciifc, 
 1 1 licirKCs, tlK> nfi( 
 ■cvfml |mrt.M Ims 
 licnmc i'.\|ii'rt I 
 I'irt (if llicir till 
 iliis rt'Kpoct Id t\ 
 (iciit wiirlil, SIk 
 ill America an ca 
 ill miiDt parlH, is 
 liiiii. 
 
 Uiiret of Mer,- 
 riia (JitrtT ill pJiy,- 
 li.ips in iiitcllfcli 
 variety of the In 
 ilie ),'cncral af,Teei 
 wives ia even m< 
 (.TW'incnt friim oil 
 Anicricnns call th 
 ilip Kuropcan an 
 il'Mtet and Blue 
 knowledge of.) exl 
 I'lthutigh extendi 
 •'1° on the S. side 
 ilwujfhtormoistu: 
 flee, have certaii 
 wii of the small 
 nlJe among thcrn 
 >.iy3 Humboldt, ' I 
 "lio inhabit Can< 
 • »ver 1,500,000 .s(i. 
 ""t. Laurence and 
 at the first glance 
 "I the features of 
 l*rceive them all 
 stock, notwithstai 
 their languages, 1 
 "f the Canadian ] 
 wattered over the 
 '■irony. The sa: 
 wth Americas.' ' 
 ''.'ll'>W8:_.skin da: 
 "litre, usually call* 
 'i' more correctly 
 'ii"ii; liairoftheh 
 '"OK. but not verj 
 ' ' Ihc body very d 
 ■■'"iKether wanting 
 '«'tltcn to present 
 ;oreheadlong;'ey 
 "ee broad across t 
 I'Miinent; nose y 
 ai'«; mouth larg( 
 ■'"glis massv, legs 
 
AMEHICA 
 
 07 
 
 nthrr liifilM of proy. A hihtIm of cmtricli, Imt 
 •mailer lliiiii llic Africun, iiiliiiliitM the l'arii|)iis; 
 mill tl"' winiil!< of Ixirli Anii'ricaM nrc iliti rcwirt, of 
 tii.i HiK'kN of will! liirkcyN, and iii^i'onx. 
 
 riK! walcrx of America are ucll Hiipjiliod with 
 li-li; niid till' rivern in the trojiiral ri'j.vioiiH pro- 
 iiiiiv aJxo ciiiimioiiH lixanli* ami aliipitorH, In the 
 hkf* of llu> CaraccitH in found l)u> cloclric rcl, 
 
 Xiithiii^, however, in no worthy of remark, in 
 nliiiiciii to the 7.oolo(,'y of America, (W tlie wonder- 
 liil liicrcaMe of the horNex and cattlu carried there 
 Irum Kiirojie. Had we not hocn fully aware of all 
 ilii'i'ircMniHlaneeH in repird to their ininiiuration, 
 ii wdiilil certainly hav(> been Hiipposed that they 
 Miri' iiidlKcnouN to America, and that it, in fact, 
 >,,; :iicir native country. Tiiey here roam aliout 
 ill iiiinu'n«e herilN in a state of jiristine fn'edom; 
 mill HO nnmeroim have they U'come, that the 
 >imyhtt'r of oxen, not for the carcass, hut merely 
 l,ir the hide, is the principal Itnsiness of matiy 
 i\iciinive provinces. (See 1'ami'AS.) In a single 
 Miir nhove Htl(l,(l(HI hides have heen exported 
 irnin Itrazil only, exclusive of those exported 
 Irniii Iliienos Ayres, Montevideo, and other ports. 
 Ill (viiiwiinence, too, df the extraordinary increase 
 if iKirnes, the mode of existence of the natives in 
 ■cveml jmrts has been wholly changed ; they have 
 liirume expert horsemen, and pass a considerable 
 {I'irt iif llieir time on horseback, approaching in 
 iliis respect to the Tartars and Arabs of the an- 
 liiiit world. Sheep have not succeeded ho well 
 ill America as cattle and horses; and their W(Md, 
 ill imiut parts, is gctiendly of an inferior descrip- 
 
 linll. 
 
 Haeti of Mer . — The native inhabitants of Ame- 
 rir;i littler in physical form, in language, and per- 
 liaiw in intellectual character, from every other 
 variety of the human race. Probably, however, 
 ilic ),'oneral agreement whi(rh exists ainong them- 
 Nlves is even more remarkable than their disa- 
 i.Ti'1'ment from (tther r.'u-es. The Ited men, as the 
 Anicricnns call themselves, in contradistinction to 
 ilio European and African races, (that is, to the 
 //7ii7f» and Black*, the only two they have any 
 kimwlcdgc of,) exhibit sur|)risingly little difference, 
 I'.lihough extending over 70° on the N. side, and 
 .'il° on the S. side, of the equator. Heat or cold, 
 ilnmf,'ht or moisture, elevation or depression of sur- 
 f.kp, have certainly no effect in the production, 
 ivMi of the small variations occasionally discover- 
 iilile among them. ' The Indians of New Spain,' 
 >ays Humboldt, ' bear a close resemblance to those 
 «lio inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. 
 I Ivor 1,500,000 sq. leagues, from Cape Horn to the 
 Si. Laurence and Hehring's Straits, we are struck 
 at tlio ttrat glance with the general resemblance 
 in the features of the inhabitants. We think we 
 [KTceive them all to be descended from the same 
 stock, notwithstanding the prodigious diversity of 
 their languages. In tlie portrait chrawn by Volney 
 iif the Canadian Indians, we recognise the tribes 
 scattered over the savannahs of the Apurc and the 
 I'arony. The same style of features exists in 
 lioth Americas.' The general jdiysical form is as 
 li.llrtw j ; — Skin dark, having more or less of a red 
 I liiifte, usually called copper-colour, but thought to 
 I'l' more correctly characterised by that of cinna- 
 iiimi ; hair of the head black, coarst-, lank, shining, 
 '""K. but not very abundant : hair on other parts 
 I'l the body very deficient. The beard is seldom 
 altogether wanting, but it is so uniformly scanty 
 as often to present the appearance of its being so. 
 Forehead long; eyes deep sunk, small, and black. 
 I lace broad across the cheeks, which are round and 
 jlirominent; nose well raised, and round at the 
 |i>|i«x; mouth lorge, ind lips thick; chest high, 
 tliighs massy, legs arched, feet large, hands and 
 
 >ouI. 
 
 wrists nmall. Tlie height is iieariy Iho mean sta 
 tiire of the Kiini|H'aii nice, but the IhhIv is iisiiallv 
 more squat and thick set. The coiinteiiance is 
 banl-favoured, and the liHik stern, yet with a cer- 
 tain sweetness in the expressimi of the mouth 
 which is a contrast to the n-sl of the feiitiires. 
 It will iiiipear from this siatemeiii that llie races 
 which the American miwi nearly resembles arc 
 the iMongul, Malayan, and liido-('hii«'.-<e. The 
 features of the face are, however, more umphi 
 chiselled than in any of these; the frontal bmie 
 is more Ihittened thnii in any of ilieni; and the 
 stature is greater than it is, at lea^t, in the Ma- 
 layan race. Although in the tropical regions nf 
 America (here are no black men, as in Alnea or 
 Asiii, imr in its teiiiiierate regions any whites, as 
 ill I'Jirope. still varieties do t'\\*\ in an inferior 
 degree, which may be coiiipared to t! use which 
 exist among Kuropciuis, ami among Negroes. Thn 
 most striking of these are found in the short, sipiat, 
 and tallow-coloured l'!s(piiinau\, about the polar 
 regions of the N., and the tall ralagonians towards 
 the S., extremity of the continent. The first of 
 these differ in no respect, as far as physical form 
 is coii(M>nied, from the people of the same name in 
 Asia and ICiirope. The I'alagoiiians or I'lielches, 
 inhabiting the SIC. coast of the soiitberii extremity 
 of America, may be considered, after rejeciing the 
 exaggerations of early, and the contradictions of 
 later travellers, as the talli'st people in the world. 
 If with us the niediiini height of the male sex 
 may be estimated at o feet M inches, that of the 
 I'atagonians may be taken at six feet. Other 
 races, remarkable for their great stature, also exist 
 among the Americiiiis; as tlie (,'aribeesaiid ("bero- 
 kees. Hut there are also races remarkable for their 
 shortness, as the I'ciriivians, who are between the 
 mean Kuropean standard and the Cbaynias, whose 
 average height, according to Iliiinbolilt, is .'> feet 
 2 inches, wliich makes them a. full inch shorter 
 than the Malayan race, yet much taller than the 
 Ksquimaux. Upcrn the whide, it may be remarked 
 that the American race exhibits u wider difference 
 hi stature than any other family of mankind, while 
 this difference, at the same time, would not seem 
 to be productive of any essential variation in 
 physical or intellectual capacity. In iioint of co- 
 lour there exists also considerable variety; the 
 brownish-red tinge for the most part prevails; 
 hut in some cases ita intensity approaches to 
 black, and in others to the fairness of a southern 
 Kuropean. The probability is, after all, that the 
 number of distinct races of men in Amerii^a is at 
 least as great as in other portions of the world, 
 although their smaller numbers, and obscurity of 
 the tribes make it more diilicult to distinguish 
 and class them. In this matter, languages, so 
 useful a guide in Kuropc and Asia, have not, in 
 America, on account of their multiplicity and in- 
 tricacy, afforded as yet much assistance. The ex- 
 ceeiling, and perhaps insunnountable difficulty of 
 this branch of the inquiry may, indeed, be judged 
 of when it is known that the number of distinct 
 languages spoken by men whose numbers are not 
 supiKised to exceed 10,000,000 has been reckoned 
 at no less than 438, and their dialects at '2,000. 
 The intellectual powers of the American family, 
 must, at first ^^ew at least, be considered as rank- 
 ing very low even among the uncivilised races of 
 mankind. The Americans, when left undisturbed 
 to the exercise of their native energies, had not 
 tamed any of the useful animals, whether for food 
 or labour, the llama and vicunna by one tribe ex- 
 cepted. The Peruvians used gold, found in its 
 native state, and they appear, also to have been 
 able to smelt and harden copj)er — the utmost 
 stretch of their ingenuity ; but they knew nothing 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 i;- 3; 
 
 i;i.-'' ^' 
 
 )' '" ' 
 
 
 
 5r¥ 
 
 
 A KB 
 
»8 
 
 AMEKICA 
 
 
 h ,»«», 
 
 «f the iiiw of inm. Tim imrirulfiirr of t\w immi 
 nilviiiH'cil (if tlic AitX'rii'iiii (rilH's wim (if a rude- 
 iii'Kit iiikI iiii|H'rfi'('iiiiii iif wliicli llicrc ciiii liiinlly 
 Ih' Hi\ii\ III liiiM' liccn iiiM'\iirii|il)' ill tlM>< llil Wiirlil. 
 The <^iiii'liuii, III)' iMiiNt iiii|inivi'il (if llicir liiii- 
 giiiHtcM, Iwiil III! wiinU til <>x|irc»H iilittrnct nr iiiii- 
 vcr^ill idciiH, UN n/Miir, limf,hfimi,mitllrr,»Hl>»tuni'i\ 
 (ir even Hiicli UH JitHtiir, hiinmir, iimtituilr, ilinl 
 fiinliim. 'I'licv liiul iiivciilt'il nil M|i('ci('M iif wriliiiK, 
 uml llic ('iiiilnviuici'H liy wliicli llicy atli'iiiiili'il to 
 
 <l)'|iii'l ami n nl their iitean are inure rmle than 
 
 aiiyiliiii); hitiiih'd ilnwii in liie irMililiniiN (if Kiim- 
 lieaii ami ANialic iialimiH. In ail the rexiieelN iiiiw 
 iiieiitidiied, the AiiiericaiiM evinced their iiiferinrity 
 til the natiiiim nf Kiirii|K' and Asia, and, in all lint 
 llle invent inn of a rude Hurt nf IliernKlyiillicM, tn 
 «<ven the Ne^'rn iiatiiniH nf Africa. Nature had 
 lint, indeed, ill niiillV respeclN, lieeil )ir(iliitinUH to 
 llieiii: whe had denied them nearly all the dn- 
 iiieNlic aninialH which have eniidiiced materially 
 Ut the civiliHatiiiii nf the iiihaliitantH nf thi^Old 
 Wnrld; ilH the horse, iimh, n.\, euinel, Hlie(>|i, ^oat, 
 hn^', and innst nidiir doinestic poultry. Ihil their 
 want nf ingenuity is siiniciently slinwii hy their 
 lint availing; theniHidvesof such as they iinssessed; 
 us the rein-deer, t;nnse, turkey, mid other (Miiillry, 
 Hiinii dnmesticate(l hy th(' I'liirnpean settlers. For 
 their want of iiip'nnity in imt discnveriiiK the 
 art of smelting' iron, im plea ciui he shnwn; ami, 
 indeed, it iniKliI ratiniially he supposed that the 
 paucity nf iisel'iil aniinais for dniiiesticatinn wniild 
 rather have had theeU'ect nf directing; and con- 
 ci'iitratiiifr their etfnrts in ntlier ((luirteis. M(>re 
 hamlfuls nf I'jiriipeans, in cninparatively rude 
 a;;es, siihdued the innst iniinerniis and warlike 
 trihes of America, and tlieM<( haiidfiilH have now 
 H'rown into the majority nf the iiopiilatinii. 
 
 Of the oriyiii of the American race wo arc 
 totally ignorant. Neither the evidence of pliy- 
 sical form nor of arhitrary customs and institii- 
 tiniis, which could spriii;; only from n cnmmnn 
 sniirco, or the testimony of lanfriia^e, coniicct 
 them with any otlier race of men. The testi- 
 innny nf lan^ua^o on this siihject is narliciilarty 
 clear. For example, incniiteHtable evidence of a 
 connection exists ninoii)r the j^eat majority of 
 those insular lanpia^es which extend over at 
 least (1(1° of latitude, and between Madn^rascnr f 'i.' 
 Kaster Island, over 'JOO"^ of loiif^itiiilc; hut t'le 
 moment w(! (piit the last named island, which is 
 hut \ifi from the coast nf America, all further 
 trace of a Polynesian lAii^riia^e ceases. Wo arc 
 lint, indeed, unaware that the comparison of a 
 jfreat iiunih(^r of American with n preat niimhcr 
 of Asiatic laiifriia^cs has exliihited a small number 
 of resemblances ; but those we are disposed to con- 
 sider as forced, fanciful, or accidental. 
 
 The moral character nf the native Americans 
 has lieen depicted under very different colours. 
 Their capacity of enduring hardships and priva- 
 tions nf all sorts, and oven the most cxcruciatiii}; 
 tortures, without murmur or complaint, is well 
 known, and is owiiifj; as much, perhaps, to phy- 
 sical causes as to the traiiiin;^ they undergo. 
 They cannot be accused of ingratitude, or of a 
 want of hospitality, but they are in the last degree 
 vindictive, cruel, and treacherous. When not 
 engaged in war, or hunting, or drinking, they 
 sinL into a state of toqior and apathy from which 
 nothing can rouse them. They have all, or 
 mostly all, an irrepressible rage for spirituous 
 liquors, to obtain which they will sacrifice every- 
 thing. If the state in which women live be taken 
 as indicative of the character of a people, the 
 American Indians will be found to be almost at 
 the bottom of the scale of civilisation. From the 
 one end of the continent to the other, woman, 
 
 with very few pxreptionn, iHaNlnvp; nhe hiw i„ 
 jierfiinn all the lalHirioiiN iHi'iipaiiniiM nf the iriu. 
 uml is, ill fact, degraded alniiwt to the level (,{' , 
 beast of burden. I'olygaiiiy is very ueiicriilK 
 practised; niid it is only in some rare cani* ilim 
 chastity is held ill any eMtiiniitioii. Their ri'li;,'iiiii 
 is a rude species of idolatry or feiicisiti. i'„|, 
 iiibalism has iindnubtedly prevailed nver the wlii,|,. 
 eniitiliellt, and is lint yet entirely extinct, '||„, 
 
 Mexicans, the innst iidvaii I of the native iiiiliHn,, 
 
 delighted in lilnod, and were ai'i'iiNtniiinl, m||,.|, 
 invaded by the Spaniards, annually tn nlVir uii 
 thniisands nf human victims on the altars of ili,.,, 
 gilds, Kveii the I'eriixians, the least sangiiiiiiirv 
 of all the Americans, they being Siibians, nrwi.r 
 shipiH-rs of the heavenly bodies, did tint Hiriiph., 
 on tlie death nf their moiiari'hs, to iiiimnlate Jim,. 
 dreds nf human victims nii their toiiihs. 
 
 The natural inferiority of the native Anieriiaii'. 
 and their incapacity to attain In anvthiiiglikiTial 
 civilisatinn, an* strikingly evinced fiy the rcsiili i.| 
 till! cniitiiineil efforts nf the .lesiiits in l*ani{;iiiiv 
 fnr their iniprnvenieiil. So Imi^ as tlii^ •li'4iiii< 
 resided among them, and could direct their cllnrii. 
 and compel theiii to be industrious, all went mi 
 very well, and the golden ag<! seemed tn li«> n. 
 stored. Hut the entire system was fnrceil an^ 
 factitious. The mnnient the .Jesuits withdrew, the 
 fabric that had cnst them so much pains aiii||;|. 
 Iioiir to raise, fell to |)ie(U's. Civilisation had tnkiii 
 no real root among the Americans; and llicv n- 
 lapsed forthwith into the indnlence, impniviilt'iui', 
 and idnlatry, that seem natural tn the race, 
 
 ' Frnin the moment,' says an able writer, ' ih.it 
 the Kuropear- landed in the New Wnrld, iH'iU'- 
 vnh'iice has ocen at wnrk to instruct mw 
 portions of ihi. e tribes in religion and the ari<, 
 and tlattering •:.' niiiits have been jnililislieil l'ri>m 
 time to (ill c of th«: success of those liuinain' 
 persons who dedicated their lives to the t.'i.<k, 
 Ihit, after three centuries of incessant exerlimi, 
 what is the result V Is there one tribe timt ex- 
 hibits the steady industry, the provident lialiit,. 
 the spirit of im|iroveinent, and the rational sm* 
 of religion, which are to be found in aiiv pari-li 
 of KnglandV We cannot liiid thnt there i>. 
 Mony tribes, living near the whites, have a(lii|itc.| 
 their habits and ideas to a certain extent, Imi 
 merely ander the inlluencc of imitation. Whilr 
 missionaries and teaclu>rs are among them, even' 
 thing wears a favourable aspect ; but their civi- 
 lisation is never self-sustained. It is created bv 
 the ageiii;/ of men of higher natural endownipiUii, 
 and when they are removed it moulders iiway, 
 because it has no foundation in their cliararier, 
 Many parties of Indians, remnants of trilictima 
 powerful, have lived peaceably, on reserves if | 
 land, inclosed amidst the ])o]iulati(m of the I JiithI 
 States, lor more than a century. No sitiiatiim 
 can be imagined better fitted to iironiotc tluir 
 improvement; but in no one instance, so far as 
 we know, have they mc Ited into the mass of ik 
 white population, or risen to any thing near their 
 level in knowledge and the useful arts. Thtv 
 live in huts in no material degree better than the j 
 wigwams of their wandering brethren. Tliev art 
 generally honest, but drunken, indolent, ami i{.niii- 
 rant, though teachers and missionaries are em- 
 ployed by the government to instruct them. 
 Hasket-making is almost the only trade they ply. 
 and in their habits and character they may l« I 
 aptly compared to the gypsies of I<;urope, wli" exist 
 in the midst of civilisation, without partnkin.!; if 
 its spirit or its benefits. It should be obsencJ \ 
 that there is not the same reluctance in the wliiw 
 to mingle their blood with the red men as with 
 the blacks. Much has been recently said of the 
 
AMKRICA 
 
 iiniifTt'" nm<I<' '>>• llic ('luinikroft; lint wo »iii<|M'i't 
 lliiit wiml Ik wiliU'Hwd iIktc in Itiil a IliiiiHy vi'il 
 i>i iniiiriivrnifiil, it|(ri'ii(l <ivi>r ImliiiM wliicli iirc 
 
 ,„«'iiii(illv "iiviiKf, We art iiviiiri'il, in nhort, 
 
 ihiii till' lii'limi •« truly llic timn »( tin- wimkIh; 
 itiiil lliiil. Iili<' llx' ^'"'1 aiiiiiwilM III' livi-i* ii|Hiii, III' 
 |. ili'!<iiiii>il to iliKiipiH'iir licl'iiri' ilii' lulviiiiriii^ lidc 
 1,1' I'iviliMktiiiii, wliii'li I'liiU iijioii him lil<i' » liliKlit. 
 In'ciiiisi' it Hii|i|ili<'H iirw fiMid III iiiiiiriHli liii* vii'i'H, 
 »liili' it ili'inanilK iiilclli'i'tiiul luiil nuinil litriillii'N 
 III wliirli I"' i" ilt'lli'ii'Mt, ami ri-mlrrK iisi'li'xn tlm^r 
 iiiitilitii''* wliii'li iirciliiiiiinali' in lii.t I'liararti'r. \Vi' 
 ni'iilit lint iliNi'iinraijt' the allrin|it to nii'linrati' 
 i|i,> liil III' llio lliiliaim; lint tlii'* «vill Nin'ri't'il 
 ImkI wlirii it iH (;ronnili'il on a trni' knowli'il^T uf 
 ilii'ir iiaiiiriil I'apai'ilirx. Soiiii> nf llicin an' iiiiirh 
 ninri' KMw'i-iitil'l*' of mural and ri'li^ioiis im|>rii\t'- 
 nii'iil lliiin iitlirn*; lint tii insiriii't ami ri'rlaim 
 ilu'iii I'rtVclnally, onr lit'lii'f is that the Myslcm of 
 till' .li'siiit.'* in lhi< only (ini'lhal Imlds unl a rhaiiri' 
 i,| niHTi'K^. Thi'y nm.it mit unTi'ly lie tanyht and 
 Kimlii'd to, lint they miiHt lit' rt'taincd in a Htalo ! 
 iiri>iipiliih'<>. trained io (heir diitii'H, I'lintrollcd and 
 ilirrrtcd in all tlicir iiroci'cditi^!* Iiy inlt'lliTtH 
 MiiMTiiir to thi'ir own; and tliiTr arc many Irilicx 
 i<Hi I'lTiiriiiiiH and inlrai'lalilc for even tliin mcllmd 
 III' iiiitiiin. We do not mainlain that the clia- 
 riiriiT of llic Indian nalioiiH ix imU'lililc; lint to. 
 iiViit any niiiKidcralilc chaiiKi' in it. the \h\ihc of 
 11 IdiipT iH'riod wonld hi' ri'iinircd than the cxinl- ' 
 iiici' nf llicsi' trilM's in likely to extend to. Nei- i 
 tlur ito we think that there Ih anvlhinK in the! 
 lAtini'tiiin nf the^e |ieii|il(! hy natural means wliieh 
 limimiiity shmild mourn over. In every utale uf 
 lil'i' iniui has Init a hrief sjian of exiHtenee allotted 
 inliini. SiieeesHivo (lenerations fall like the leaven 
 iif tlic fnre.it ; and it Hhoiild he remenihered that 
 ilii^ I'vtiiii'tion of n race of men hy natural caiiHCH, 
 iiii'Hiis merely it« min-renewal or the ttus|ieii.Hiiiii 
 iil'llinsc circumstances which enahled it to cniitinne 
 lis oxistcnce,' (Kncvc. llriiannica, ii. p. (i.'H.) 
 
 l'i>puliiliim. — Hosldes the oriffinal mhaliilants, 
 va.<t miniliers of Knro|ieans of all nations, have 
 iiiiijfrnteil to America sini-e its discovery liy Cu- 
 himbiin, teiniited originally, for the most jiart, hy 
 \W tiiira mirm f'ameii. It was this same passion, 
 liikiiit: it in its' most lit-ral and def^radiuK sense, 
 iliiit lin» made them till tlu; Antilles, and part also 
 of the (.'nnlinent, with millions of neurons hron^rht 
 Irom Africa, and reduced, with their descendants, 
 til ft state of slavery. Hut at a later period Ame- 
 ririi furnished an asylum for the victims of poli- 
 liial and reli(;;ious persecution in the Old World; 
 ami for these many years she has offered an all 
 liiil incxhaustihlc liclil for the profitalile cniphiy- 
 mcnt of its redundant ca|iital, skill, and lahoiir; 
 ami thousands upon thousands, who could hardly 
 t'l'iitrivc to exist on this side the Atlantic, have 
 attained, if not to opulence, at. least to comfort 
 ami inilepcndenee, in America. Hence she has louf^ 
 Ih'CII, anil still continues to be, the jiromised land 
 cf the poor hut industrious man ; and a city of 
 rifuffc to all who Imjipcn to be discontented with 
 the plicv, or who have given ott'eucc to the rulers, 
 iif the Old World. 
 
 The estimates of the population of America at 
 ilillbrent jieriods have ditt'crcd very widely, in 
 oiinsenuence of the vague and defective nature of 
 mir information with respect to it. Humboldt esti- 
 mated the populati(m of America, including the An- 
 tilles, at 35,000,000. Baibi estimated it, for 1827, 
 at 39,000,000; but we incline to think that this 
 was below the mark even for the epoch to which 
 ii refers ; and the population of the United States, 
 liritish iVmerica, and Brazil, but especially the 
 tirst two, has since increased prodigiously. Ac- 
 curcling to cstunatcs for the year 18G1, which we 
 
 linn in pMlmaled at nO.^.IO.OW ; 
 iiwiiig to the liirgi' naiiiral in- 
 I'linivi' iimigrii<''>ii from {'.iiropn 
 I Sim Ii Ainri ., mnsi at I lie 
 li'ii liy mm niilliniis, and ii 
 liliat lliepi'i ilioii amoiiiiK'd, 
 to at least . .oih),ihH) in ili«> 
 
 Riihjiiin, the ,, ,,, 
 lint this mil,),, 
 crcasi'. ami tli> 
 til liiiih Norili 
 pri'Mcnl ihiv he r 
 miiy lie salely sIhi 
 in rmiml mimltei 
 year lHil,'i, 
 
 Till' fiilliiwing aiTonnt of the dilV< rent Ani' 
 Slates, and of ilirir exlciil and pupiiliilioii ii 
 has liiTii carefully compiled from the late.'- 
 Iii'st aulhiirilieN : — 
 
 AWiwiii/f ii/Ihe A ini iiml I'lipiiliilion o/lhf A mrrifon ,^,t < 
 
 III iNlil. 
 
 utd 
 
 ■UIM 
 
 Noiiin Amkiiii'.v ; 
 ltii>'<liiii 'I'lTrlinry . 
 lirii'iiliiinl . , 
 Urltlsli N. America 
 I'lillnl StutM , 
 
 Mcxirc) . . , 
 (Viitnil Aiiierira . 
 West tiiilla Mitnili 
 
 Siiirii Ami.:iii(!a; 
 (liiiiiiiii , . , 
 (iruiiiiillanCoiifcdpratioM 
 Vciii/iii'la 
 Ki'iiiiilnr . 
 
 I'l'IU . . . . 
 Ilnlivia .... 
 Cliill . . . . 
 Arifi'iitlneConfoiliTntlon 
 I'nieimy 
 l*iii'iii,'iiiiy 
 
 llnizll . . . . 
 I'lUiiirnnlii and Falkland 
 IhIaiiiIh , 
 
 An* In ail. in. I l'ii|>ul«llnn 
 
 IIIII.IIIIO 
 
 :isii,iiiiii 
 ;i,iili>,niio 
 •i,li»l».sil 
 
 N.'.'.I.M 
 
 ITI.M.MI 
 HIi.MH 
 
 mil, 
 
 •t'.'il, 
 
 VH.'., 
 
 Mil, 
 11.'., 
 
 :>ri, 
 
 71. 
 
 71 
 
 l,i:iM, 
 
 ,1100 
 
 ,11110 
 ,.Mt 
 
 ;.\nn 
 
 .HII'J 
 ,7HI| 
 ,SIII) 
 ,11110 
 ,.|Sll 
 
 aim.ooo 
 
 7';,;i7ft 
 
 11,11111 
 
 :i;; III, Hill 
 
 :ii,i4Misii 
 
 7.1»li.'>.l'.iil 
 
 «,:i'.'tl,7'.il 
 
 •jiM'.'iia 
 
 •.'!)0,H'i!) 
 
 '.>,Hiiii,nno 
 
 H1.".,4IW 
 
 l,iMii,;ii< 
 y,;iiiii,iNiii 
 I,iw7.:i.v,i 
 l,.->.'iH,:ll!t 
 1,1 7 1, win 
 •jw.mr, 
 I,;t;i7,|:il 
 7,(I77,SI»« 
 
 Vir,,m\o 
 (Ht,3no,no)) 
 
 DheitufH of America, — The Anghi-Americaii 
 population is Huhject to the same diseases as the 
 people of r.ngland; but sutlers more from inter- 
 mittent and remittent fevers. Vellow fever sume- 
 times prevails epidemically as far imrlh as New 
 York and I'liiladeljihia; hut the mean duriition of 
 life in the Knglish race has been incnnsideralily 
 atVected by the climate of America. Deadly epi- 
 demics however, decimate the llavannah. Vera 
 (.'riiz, mill other cities in tropical America. Tho 
 yelhiw fever begins to prevail e)iiilemically at 
 Vera Cruz in Mav, when the mean temperature 
 rises to 7;')° 2' ol' Fahrenheit's thermoineter: it 
 attains its maximum force in Se))tember and Oc- 
 tob r. The di.sea.so is fatal to strangers, particu- 
 larly to the inhabitants of the teni|ierat(' and 
 cold climates. In the inteiideiicy of Vera Cruz, 
 the yellow fever, which rages in the capital, has 
 never been able to ascend above the farm of En- 
 ccro, which Humboldt found to be 3.0-M feet above 
 the level of the sea ; and as the Mexican oaks do 
 not flourish below this limit, it shows that the 
 constant average temperature is of a true tropical 
 character. Humboldt also observes, that, while 
 yellow fever rages at La (limyra, it never crosses 
 the Cumbre and the Cerro de Avila. 
 
 The condition of the mothers, and the training 
 of the children, exercise an influence upon tho 
 health and diseases of the native American tribes 
 which cannot lie overlooked. The women, though 
 doomed to severe labour, are s|)ared during tho 
 peri(Ml of pregnancy. They seldom marry till they 
 are about 20. Accouchemcnts take place in iiri- 
 vate cabins, and the mother, after washing herself 
 in cold water, returns in a few days to her usual 
 cmplojTiients. Sir W. Penn wos assured, and 
 correctly, that the American Indians plunge their 
 infants into cold streams as .soon as Iwrn, in all 
 seasons of the year. This practice, which ilestroys 
 
 H 2 
 
 :* )'.;■' I? 
 
 
 
 
 W^i 
 
 '^m 
 
 iSKiS^ 
 
 \l %,^^ 
 
 t, 1 ; 1 
 
 
JOO 
 
 AMKniCA 
 
 V ! 
 
 i^: 
 
 till- wrnklli-r InmIIck, nitil Htrpi)({l)i(>tiii llip Niirvlvuro, 
 liii'< Im'i'Ii ^iMU'riilly nilii|iii'it liy llir niwnni'n ot'riilil 
 mill ii'iii|H'riiii- I'liiiiaii'K. Ii wiiNi'iitniiiuii iii(ir4>i'r<>; 
 mikI Viruil iniikt'N our nf llic curly IiuUiuin uny in 
 till' .Kiii'iil : — 
 
 lliiriim It Kllr|i<> iri'Miio : imtowiul Itiinilim |irliiiiini 
 Ih'trrliiiiix, wi<viK|iiii Ki'lii iliiruiiiiix III iiiiiliit. 
 
 Till' Doriiiiii mill l*i'UH|{imi<« i>x)mhii>i| tliiir cliil- 
 ilri'ii ; mill l.yriir^iii ri'Kiiliii*'il ilx' |iriii'tiri> by 
 I'niirliii)^ (lull iiiiiii' lint llir iiillriii nml iIIni'iimi'iI 
 fliiiiilil lie illilllliliilH'il /iflrr ll |mlilir rxilinillllllnll. 
 'Ilirri' iiri' no ili'l'iirnii'il linlimiN or iilioin; ilit-y iiri> 
 riiirrillrril, MiiNH nil ii|iiilo|^i4t of NiiMi;{i'», liy I In* 
 Hi'M'rily ol'tlif Iniliaii iiiiiiiiirrM. 'I'o I'liiilliilf llirir 
 traii4|iort rrniii plai'i- lo iilarr, llic riiililrcii an* linl 
 |i> a liiiiinl, wlirri' lliry III' ii|iiill llirir liarkH I'lir •'>, 
 |M or IH iiioiirliN, Ity Hoiiif irJlK'N tin* lii'UiN iirr 
 tialli'iiril liy iiri'MMiiri', Tin- clillil ^'iiu'rally HiirkH 
 il-> iiioilii'r till it Ih 2 yi'ari* oil, aiul NoiiK-tliiu'ii 
 Imiurr. Till' t'iriMilatioii of ilii' IiIimhI Is inori' liiii- 
 (fiiiil in tin- liiiliaiM tliiin in |ii'rNiiiiM «vlio art- in tln> 
 t'oiiNlant fM'rriMc of the lialiilH of I'lviliwd lil'i'. 
 Out of H North Anirrii'iin ImliaiiH, uIiuho |iiiIni'h 
 IIiimIi i'xaniint'il at tint wri^tM, In' iliil not nirrt 
 ^nili OIK' ill wliiiiii till' artery licat niorti tliaii <ii> 
 Htroki'M ill a iniiiiiti'. 
 
 Till' iliwi'iiHi'M of till' IniliiiiM varv willi Ilii' rli- 
 nwiti' anil iorality. In llii' inirtli, ImwcviT, Ii'Vith 
 ('oiiHtitnti' tin- nioNi Hirikin^ ili-ii'aiM'N, I'li'iirixii'tt, 
 iii'ri|iin'niniinii'M, ami rliniinatiMiiiH are coinnioii. 
 byMi'iitcry i.-i an Imliaii ilisca.ic. iin-at ininilii'rK 
 ]nTiHli of fainini', ami llni iininiin'ralilc ilim'a.icM 
 Ki'iH'riiti'il liy faininc. In tin' lriii|i('rali' /oni', 
 w^w, ri'iiiittiiiK ami inaliKnanl I'i'vitm aHsail tlicin 
 in tini t'liilii'HH fori'HlM, ami in tin* inar^licH, ami 
 rlllnvial atninxiiln'rc of tini laki's ami rivcrH. In 
 (In- iro|iirM, lliiinliiijilt xnyH, they arc <'M<ni|it. at 
 X'cra (Vn/. I'roni ilic raviiKci* of vi'llow frvcr, wliirli 
 (irovi's MO fatal on I In- coaxt ami in tin' W'cnI liiilii'x 
 to ICnro|it<aiis, lint tlimiNiiniN liavti Im'cii carricil 
 olf in rcpcatoil I'liiilcmirM, liy a iliNoani' not very 
 (liircfcnt from yellow fever, ealleil MatUnnhui'lt. 
 Sniali-liox, wliieli is lielieveil to have lieeii ititro- 
 iliiceil ainoii^rrit tlieni hy the SpaniariU, Honu'tiiiioH 
 ilestriiyx lialf the hemU of a trilie. IMonte/.iimii 
 (lii'il (if Hniall-|Mix. It, hiiH been a K<'"*->rally re- 
 i'eiveil ii|iiiiiiin that liif» ri'iwrrn was ni'i|iiire(l 
 from the inhaliitantH of llisjiaiiiola (llayti), and 
 coiiveyeil liy the ei|iii|iaK() nt ('oliiinhii.s to Kiiro|M'. 
 The HOD of (.'iiliiinliiiH ntiatC'i in his narrative that 
 the ixhimlerx liinl n eiitaneoim niVeetion, called 
 rn.mraritrol, whieh roKeinliled ft tetter (Tenia) : 
 tlie liistorian Ferdiimnd Oviedo de VnldeH otliriiw 
 that the SpanianlM were iiifeoted with it- hy tho 
 Indinii women, and eonmuinieated the iliNeam* lu 
 (he Neaiiolitann in the ex|ieilitiiin of (iiin/.alvo de 
 ( 'ordova. Uc. lUicriheH its importation to the Hecond 
 fxpodition of (."oliiinliiis. Various i-ntniieoiiH atl'ec- 
 ♦ions hail been ilescrilied by earlier medical writers, 
 coiifoiiiii led with Icjirosv, and attributed to impure 
 intercourse; but, in I'iltll, syphilis appeared, with 
 its Htrikiiif; and appuUiiif; symptoms, almost simul- 
 taneously oil over Kiirope, Columbus diNembarkcd 
 from his llrst voyap*, Mnrrh 1."), at I'ahis; and 
 orrivcd at Seville in April, in the bopnninfr of 
 the summer, the disease was observed at Auverpio, 
 III Lombordy, in the rest of Italy, and in ItruiiH- 
 wick. It stiil, howevcT, remains a problem whether 
 the-, outbreak of the malady merely coincided 
 with the return of Columbus, or was conveyed 
 from America. 
 
 Violent deaths arc common among the Indians. 
 Their occupations expose them tu accidents. They 
 are engaged in an olmost peq)otual warfare ; and 
 entire tnhes are sometimes exterminated. Their 
 connexion with the European population has made 
 
 I hem nc(|iminlpd with NiiirltiiouK Hipinrn; mid tlii< 
 hns proved mini her priilitlc Mnirre ol di'iifilrr. 
 
 CeUlH Hixyi*, Mrilii'lHil HUHifuiim huh mt ; ntnl 
 this IioIiIm among the Ann'riraii Indians. Tlinr 
 nii'iliral treatint'iit, fur the intlrinith's to hIiI.Ii 
 they are niiIiJitI, is Minipjr, and nl'len ilinlriniiM'. 
 In fevi'm, they abNirart all kinds of Niiiiinlailiij; 
 fiHsl ; and allow their patiwiits to drink pli'iiiilujly 
 of colli water, Hweating is a ciiininon ri'ninl\. 
 The Indian iniHle of iirociiriiig Ihix evuciiatiiiii i< 
 as fiilliiwM : — the patient is conlliicd in a ilmi' 
 tent, or wigwam, over a bole in the earth, in whiili 
 a red hot sliiiii' is placed; a ipianlily of wiitir i. 
 thrown ii|ion this stone, which instaiilly iinnlu'i 
 the patient in a cloud of vapour and sweat sin 
 Ibis Nitnation he rushes onl and plnngcs biniiilf 
 into a river, from whence he retires to bcil, |r 
 the remedy has U'cii iiNcd with success, he ri«i'< 
 from bis bed in fniir and twenty hniirs perlrrilv 
 rcciiveri'd from his iiii|is|HiNitiiiii. This baili i< 
 Used nut olllv to cure fcNcrs, bill to reniiive lliiii 
 uneasiness wliicli arises fniiii fatigue nf body ; iiiil 
 used fur this pnqsise it is an excellent reiMi'i|\. 
 Thcv purge and vomit : ipecacnaiibii is one ntiliH 
 many mois ihev einpl'iv for the latter piiriHwi. 
 
 'I'hc> ntilie bleeding lo the parts atVecteil. \ 
 
 piece of rotten Wood is liiirilt upon the skill fiirllii^ 
 same pur|Hises as the iiioxa. They attctn|it lu 
 slaiincii the lliiw of blood fruin wounds by phiiiuii:;; 
 ill cold water, and eiideavnnr to restore drowiu"! 
 liciiplc by suspending ibelll by the heels. 'I'ljiv 
 nave a great many '|iccilics of nncerlain vuliu, 
 The Indians atteini li> the sick fora certain seiisnii, 
 lint aliaiidiiii them if the disease Imi protriictcil. 
 When the iiortliern Indian is unable, fnini NJii- 
 ■less, to continue hi^ Journey, h" is left behiiul liy 
 his ciiinpiiniiiiin, ainI covered over with deer »kiii!i; 
 he is supplied with water, food, fuel, if the ijIihi' 
 will atlord it, and informed of the track which lilt 
 companions iiitemi to pursue. (Ileanie.) 
 
 Some of the most important drugs in the Mn- 
 teria Medica arc derived from America, (iiiala- 
 ciiiii was iiitroiliiced, at an early periisl, n* a 
 specitic for syphilis in the place of mercury, wiiiili 
 it superseded (or several years. It is now I'lillcii 
 into disuse. Nut so the root of the American w- 
 saparilhi, which is coiisnined in great ipiaiitiliis 
 although it is exceedingly expensive. It is fouml 
 in the hedges and swamps of V'irginia. Thcri! lire 
 several sjiecies; the liest, according lo Iluniliiiliii, 
 grows oil the Isirders of a lake, two days' iimriin' 
 from Ksmeralda. The calumha root, jalap, rn- 
 iiaiha, and ipecacuanha are derived from AniFriri. 
 VVe are also indebted to the New Worhl for I'oru- 
 vian bark. These remedies are inyaliiable; they 
 contributed, in the 17th century, with the iiitr"- 
 ductioii of syphilis, to destroy the blind adortttinii 
 of (ialen, and led to a revohitiiin in mediciiii'. 
 
 Dhcnrery of Amrruui, — This is the most strik- 
 ing eveiit in modern times, and has perhaps inailo 
 the most imiiorlant change in the conditinii i>f | 
 mankind. Tnere is no rational ground for huji- 
 posing that the ancieiitx had the slightest idennf I 
 the existence <if the American continent. The I 
 form of their vessels, tint -bottomed and iinptlW 
 by oars, and their ignorance of the composii, al- 
 lowed them to move only at a short distance l'ri>ni 
 land. Their voyages tlicrefore, though in t*m 
 instances extensive, were always along the c(ia>t 
 of the great continents ; nor is there the fiiintN 
 record of any one having turned his daring ken! 
 into the vast abysses of ocean. Nothing could >» 
 less probable, than that tem|>est or accident shuulil 
 drive any of the few vessels which then navij;aifii 
 the exterior seas of Europe Ui so immense a &■ 
 tance, or, if driven, that they could ever have re- 
 turned. 
 
 ti'i 
 
AMKIlir,\ 
 
 lol 
 
 Imliiiiiii, 'I'lirir 
 
 lllii'X III mIiIiIi 
 
 Irii inxtriii'tiM', 
 I III' Nllniiiluliiit; 
 Iriiik |il)-nliriilly 
 iiniiiiiii ri'iiiriK. 
 in (•vnriUlliiMi i< 
 IlK'll ill II I'll"" 
 
 < t'lirtli. ill mIiIiIi 
 itity III' wiitiT i< 
 Kdiiilly iiiviiKn 
 r mill HWt'iii ; III 
 liliiii^i'M liini^i'lf 
 liri'it III lii'ii. If 
 Hin'i'i'HH, III' ri«M 
 ,• Imiirn |ii'rrrrlly 
 I, 'I'liiit ImiiIi k 
 
 I III ri'iiiiivi' lliiii 
 {ut< III' I II Illy ; nii'l 
 xi'i'lli'iil ri'iiii'ily, 
 
 lllllll il* IIIW 111 ill'' 
 
 I! liiltiT |iiir|piii«i', 
 iiirlH iilVi'i'iril. A 
 
 II ilii> Hkiii I'lir ilie 
 'I'licy iilli'iii|it I'l 
 luiiiU liy |iliMi«ii i: 
 II ri'Htiiri' ilruwiii"! 
 I In- lifi'U, liny 
 
 iincfrlain vuliir, 
 iriii'rrlaiii hi'iiwhi, 
 IMC Ihi iiMiraiii'il. 
 inalilf, tViiiii "ii'li- 
 
 < in Icl't lii'liiiiil liy 
 •r with lU'iT MttK 
 , fuel, if till' lllllll' 
 lie iriu'l* wliie'li liii 
 (lli'unu'.) 
 
 (Iriiiii* in llif ^lii- 
 AiiH'rit'a. (iuiiin- 
 ■arly |HTiiiil, a* « 
 (ifiiMTt'iiry.wliuli 
 
 It in llllW I'lllll'll 
 
 tlie Amcricnn nil'- 
 ffroat ((iiniitiiii'*. 
 isivo. It i" fi'iiii'l 
 Tuiiiia. 'riiiTt! art 
 iHK to llumlMiWi. 
 ,wii ilayH' jimnify 
 la riHit, jalaii, i'i> 
 ivt'il fnmi Aiiiprini. 
 w Wiirlil lor Tcru- 
 . iiivalualilpi tliey 
 .y, witli tJie imr- 
 lu! Iiliml ailorttiitm 
 n in iHeiiii'iiii'. 
 in tlie iiioKt uttik- 
 lias iicrha).H raaili' 
 . the cimilitiou if 
 il ^TimiHl lor KU!"- 
 ic (tlinlitcst i(lca"f 
 .. coiitiiifiit. Til* 
 nncd ami iinpcHfl | 
 )f the I'omiiaHS. nl- 
 wliort diHtanc'c I'm" 
 though ill some | 
 lyH ttlouK Ihe e(ia«t 
 i tlicrt! the fiiiiitesi 
 led his daring' W | 
 Notiiinj,' could l» 
 „ or accident sliiiulil 
 lich then navi^aieJ 
 »o immense a di>- 
 ould ever have te- 
 
 fliil It' «"" li"!"! •'• i«>m»< h'rtriiril niiHlrntu, 
 \iiM'rii'a » lllllll ii|i|H'ar I In- ^t'lirriil ri'l'iiui' nl' all 
 uho li'll I'li'Mlnrlvi'M MlnillflM'il ill tlli> Old Worlil. 
 
 ihii irnjiim*. HvrlniiK, CiiriliaKiiilntiK, ( 'anitAiiiii-ii, 
 I'lii iiImivi' (iH i(i<' .Irw, havi' Imtm ri'iirrwiilnl an 
 till' iiiiiliiiiilii'd niii'i'xtnrit III IIm iirrxoiii |i<>ii|ili', 
 llii'M' "III"! ii' iiloiiM {iriii'i'i'd ii|i<iii a tiiial iiiillvinii 
 Ml ilii' liii t II' ii niaii lian I'viTv wlii-ri' inaiiv lliiii^* 
 
 in riilllllixill with Win fi'lliiW'<. 'I'll)' dlviMliill ililo 
 trilii'ii mill rriiM'i't I'lir rhii'l'ii, ihi' laiiii'iilalioiix over 
 ili'inl ri'likti'i"'*! I hi' love III' nniaiiii'iii, ari'rmiKiili'ri'il 
 IK liiiliilK «t ' x'h till' AinrriraiiM iiiuhI have Irariii'd 
 rriini lli>- 'I rt«< liarria, hInxtvIii^ that iiiohI nl' 
 ihriii lii'tiiMiri'il llirir iinrrniN, aiiil niiiniili'n'il llii'l> 
 AMil niiirilt'r ai rriini'M, thinks it rlrarly iinivnl 
 thill iIk'V ri'ri'ivi'il the ti'ii i-nininaiiiliiii'iitH I'miii 
 Miwi'n, Mtlii'rx were olwiiiinle, iiiilii'lieviii^, ami 
 Miii;rni''lii "iirc li^^iiN nl Ihrir lit'liiMKiiiK In llii> 
 niifl'-iii-ili iHwirriiy nf Aliriihain. (Uan'ia. Ori- 
 ^'Pn il>- I Hiiliim; KMiii mir In i|iiri<iiiiii, Ijiiami 
 ct ('i)inmi Ml l'Aiiu>rii(iH' nl il «'li< |i('ii|ili''i' f> toni. 
 r.'niii. l7.'iT; Ailair'n lli»liiry of the North Aiiii'ri- 
 I'.Hi IniliaiiK, 'till.) Altriil|ilH liave lieni iiwiili' In 
 triii'r a liiiiilarily Im'Iwi'i'Ii fhi' laiiuiiaKi'x nl' tlw 
 lijil ^Vl>rld ami of Aiiierira, luil ''tTlaiiiiy with iiiont 
 uli'ilili'r niirri'MH, llartoii Iiiin nilli'i'li'il 'i.'i NJiniliir 
 miinuiii, wliirli I'ml'i'MHor Vatcr lian railed In In I, 
 mill Mallc-llnin In I'iO; Imt to |irniliir(> tliin, it 
 hill- lii'i'ti iii'ri'Hmiry to M(;areh throiiK;h nixty Ian- 
 (,'iintfi'H in cai'h world. 
 
 Hip WcImIi liavi' piil in n olnim to ihi'diHcoviTv 
 I.I Anii'rira, In 1170, .Madoc, a priiu'c nf Norlli 
 Wnli'n, wiili'd in i|iieHt of tnaritiinc advent itri', and, 
 aticr a \i>»n voya^'e, reached n ' I'aire and larKe 
 Kiiilltry' tilled with wonderfnl olijeets: he tlien 
 rriiinieil and took with hini li'ii v/iMNnlN and a 
 lirKcr parly. 'I'Uu* far HeeiiiH lideralily alteMled; 
 liiit iliiiii^ii nfl'onlin^ a NiiDieieiil rniindntioii I'nr 
 Mr, Siiiitliey'n |ioein, the idea of the re^imi arrived 
 III iK'iliK renllv Aineriea HeciriH Heareely to merit 
 ri'riilntiiin. 'I'^ie intiination, thai he li'll Ireland 
 fur til the Mori h. niakeM it not iiii|irolialile that he 
 niii,'lit have reaehed Home part of Spain, no iiicoii- 
 Milcralilit nchiuveineiit in that ut^u for h I'ymrie 
 I'liii'flaiii. 
 
 'I'lio claim of diMcovery hy the Northmen from 
 Ii'flaiiil lian lieeii much more jjenerally received. 
 Till' Scandinavian writerK have Nupiioried it iks a 
 |Hiinl nf iiatiniial honour; and the learned in the 
 n'.^l nf Kiiroiie have p'liernlly nc(iuiesced in Iheir 
 iiiiilinrity. They would not, we lliiiik, have done 
 mi liml they perused the oriKinnl narratives in 
 Tiirl'ii'iiH, and the lleimskriii>;la, or Sapi, of Kiii^ 
 ( tliif TrvKK'''*"'!* llioni, an Icelander, in sailhi^ 
 arpiHN III (ireenland, was overtaken hy n tempest, 
 ami alter iM'iiif; tossed aliout for several days, came 
 III view of an niikmiwii land. After navif^atiiif; 
 M'vcrul (lays nloiifj the coast the wind liecnme 
 favuiirnlile, and in four days lie reached his desti- 
 iiiiiinii in (ireenland. (.'an any one seriously siip- 
 [Hiso, that in this short iiitssaKe lie could have lie<ai 
 driven ii|miii Newfoimdlniid, iiiiwards of a thousand 
 Miili's nut of his way, or il driven, could thus 
 liiroilly and rapidly have retraced his course? 
 Xiiincrims voynKes to and from this new country, 
 iiamiiil Vinland, are then relaled, with no mention 
 iif IMirliciilar ditlicully or danger. One of them i» 
 staleil, without any surprise, |o have lieeii per- 
 fnmicil ill twenty-four hours; a manifest impossi- 
 liiliiy iinitcr the Newfoundland supposition. As 
 til I lie term F/'*i-lnnd, very innii))ro])rinte even to 
 Xcwfmmillaiid, the Northmen prohalily, who could 
 iiiii lie great comioisHeurs cm this siiliject, mistook 
 fur the grufie one of those <lclicate berries which 
 aliiaiiiil on the Arctic border. Wo are convinced 
 ilu'ii that 'Vinland was merely a southeni part of 
 (Greenland; for the mudeni hypothesis, which 
 
 plilci'M lhi< coiiinies nn the wealeni hwihI, Ik IiV mi 
 
 meaiiH «iip|Nirti'i| by K'""! early niithnriiie*. ('I'or- 
 fii'iiH, lli<i. Viiilaiid. Aiiiii|. I'll. I. Ii. v., p. .'iti 
 r.Ma|Ki III' Sii'phniiiiH and TliorlaiiiKi, lleiiiinkrin^- 
 In, cdii. I'rriii^xkinlil, I. ;l'iN-:i:i,'i.) 
 
 Annthcr alleged di very nf iiiiicli ci'li'briiy 
 
 HiamU on the report nf the >^eiii, Veiiciinn imbhi- 
 meli nf dislimtliiti, 'riiwanis the end i ( the Iniir- 
 ti'eiilh ceiiliirv, they vialli'd and N|M'iit a I'oiisider- 
 alile lime ill Krii'slatid. an iiiiiilar cnimtry in tlin 
 north of I'luroiie, which l''i>r<icr has kIihwu in 
 ajfrii- not ill wlili ( (rkncy, Mieilaml. mid the Kirni 
 
 iilainls. They tin re leiinied, lllill I'niir t|p«liillK 
 IhiiiI'* bi'liii; driven mure than a ibniiMainl niiles to 
 rlie wesiManI, liinl ri'iiched a cniinl iiumed by Iheiii 
 I'liisi-oui land, where they fniunl ciiliivatinii, lar^e 
 cities, ciisili'M, ninl a Latin library in |HiHsi"<»iiiii of 
 
 III)' kill^'. 'I'lience thev saili'd to a llinri' niiilthi'l'll 
 
 cniiiiiry, named hm^in, inhabiied by a riiile 
 people, i(;iiiiraiit nl' iron, wai^iii^ fiiriniis wars, uml 
 devouring each oilier. Kcpiirts wei-e iheii miidii 
 nf a mure civilised penple In the snillll West, who 
 alHiiiiided in ^rnld and ^il^er, iiinl had Hpleinlid 
 lem|ili's in which hiiinaii sacritices were otfercd. 
 Forsier, Malie llriiii, iiinl I'nr Mime time ^en^^ru' 
 pliers in p'lieral, iniiiidereil iliai ibexe coiinirii'S 
 Were iiiidnubledlv Newfniindland, New Kii^daml, 
 and iMe.xico. ^ir, iMiirray was, we believe, the 
 llrst III observe, thai eveii the distiuice of I.IHMI 
 miles by no means cnrresiiniii led: that the ensiles, 
 libraries, and popiilniis cities on the savaue cnasi. 
 of Newfoiindlninl, were the reverse of credible, 
 
 and that aci nls nf iMexico were liltle likely to 
 
 have ri'acheil the Frieslainl tishermen. Ilear;;iied 
 therefore that, siippnsinj; the iinrihern voyiipi 
 correct, iiiler|inlaiiiin mii-<t have been priu'tised in 
 what relaled In America, 't'liis has lieeii cnrro- 
 iNirated by the reiearch of .Mr. Iliddle, who, mi 
 coiniinrin;; ditVerent pO'ilmmnus edilimis nf Ita- 
 niiisio's work, found that the iiarratiM' bud been 
 altered in accordance with siiccessivc and cor- 
 rected a lints of the ni^w cniilineiil. lie tliere- 
 
 fnre rejects the whole as a liirt;i'ry : we rather in- 
 cline to think that the norlhen'i voyap- may Imi 
 genuine, while all that relates to America is iiii- 
 liniibleilly interpolated. 
 
 In the maps cnimtriictod diirinu; the lifleeiitb 
 century, snmeciiriniis features appear, wbirli have 
 been referred to a western world. In I l.'lt!, one. 
 fornicd at Venice by Andrea Itianco has in the 
 north-w»'sl Atlantic, not very remote from New- 
 foundland, the word Sloka ti.\a (Sincklisli). Ihit. 
 it is to be oliser\'eil that Iceland and the adjacent, 
 seas were then the .seat nf a ;;reat llslu'ry, and 
 the tenii may have been merely used in ex- 
 press tli<> abundance of its tinny trils's. Annthcr 
 remarkable object in this map, as well as in ono 
 lotiK prior, and in a subse(|uent one by Martin 
 Itehaim, is a loii^ niiij;e of territory west of llio 
 Canaries, named ,\ntilia. It seems impossible li> 
 lnu!e with certainly the ori;,'iii of this term, which 
 we slr»ii>jly suspect to be a cnrruptinii of llio 
 Atlnnlis of I'lato, and In liavi* no other ori;;in. 
 The inhabitants of tbime islands are said In bavir 
 cniilinned the imjircssion, by as.sertiiif; that, in 
 certain states of the atmosphere, thev saw in 
 mysterious distance a ^reat iinkin wit land; tlu! 
 w^ork either of imagination or of .so.ne o|ilicnl de- 
 ception. These ideas, however, rested on no solid 
 basis, and the sound jiid^nent of (Ndumbiis ap- 
 jKjars to have been in no dcf^ri'e iiiHuenccd by 
 them ; it was not to Antilin, but to other refjions, 
 that he directed his voyime. 
 
 Perhaps no individual ever stood so much nlone 
 as this iiavi;,'ator, in making? a discovery that 
 changed the face of the worhl. lie conceived the 
 dcsi^'n, and struggling against the ojiiiosition 
 
 
 
 M 
 

 103 
 
 mode by his iirp, sinply achieved it. Yet, like 
 every nther fitctxt rcvuuilioii, it wan (loiil)tleHH 
 prepared l)y previdUH eirciiinHtnnreH. The pro- 
 ^CMs of nnvi^.ition and cotnnierce, tlie entluiNinHin 
 excited liy ninritime diHco\cry, il» wide raii^e 
 aloiii; Al'ricn, nnd townrdN liidin. all tended to^ive 
 thiH (lireutii)ii to ld,s siiirit of lofty nnd daring ad- 
 venture. The invention of the eomiiaHH, nnd im- 
 proved eeleMtial observations, rendered itnolon>{er 
 impossible to steer through an unknown ocean. 
 Soinid reasoning;, aided by some errors, mnde him 
 hope, by snilin^ westward, to reach, even nt no 
 very j^rent distance, the (■oiiMts of l-iOstem Asia. 
 
 Columbus, bein^; lirmly im]>reHsed with this 
 opinion, nnd being supported by the judgment of 
 learned friends, made the tirst ofler to <icnoa, his 
 native country ; but the citizens, unused to oceanic 
 expeditions, at once rejected it. He then n|>plicd 
 to Portugal with seemnigly every chance of bftter 
 success; and King John accordingly referred it 
 successively to a special commission, nnd to the 
 council of state. 'I'here was then, however, a 
 powerful iiarty opposed to maritime enterprises 
 altogether, as wasting the luitional resources; 
 while their opponents merely defended n prosecu- 
 tion of the sure and successful career, by which 
 they had nearly rounded the southern point of 
 Africa. The j)roposal was rejected, while .John wjis 
 persuaded to take the mean step of secretly send- 
 ing n vessel on his own account, which, however, 
 returned without any success. Columbus next 
 repaired to S|)ain, then under the able sway of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella. Here, however, cosmo- 
 gra])hical knowledge was much less advanced ; 
 the globular form of the earth was doubted by 
 many, and even represented as against the atitho- 
 rity of scripture and the fathers. Financial ditfi- 
 culties, caused by the war with the Moors, and 
 the lofty demands of Columbus to have the oHices 
 of viceroy and high admiral made hereditary 
 in his family, operated against him : and five 
 years' solicitation was vaiidy employed. Pro- 
 posals were then made by his brotlier Bartholo- 
 mew to Henry VII. of England, who received 
 them more favourably ; but as Columbus was on 
 the point of setting out for this country, Isabella 
 ■was persuaded to recall him, and, after some fur- 
 ther ditiiculties, she engaged in the undertaking 
 with the utmost ardour, nnd even pledged part of 
 • her jewels to raise the necessary funds. 
 
 The expedition after all consisted but of three 
 small vessels, and cost only 4,000/. Columbus 
 sailed from the port of Palos on the 3rd of August, 
 1402, and went by way of the Canaries. He en- 
 countered innumerable obstacles arising chietly 
 from the timid and mutinous temper of his seamen, 
 and after exhausting every resource furnished by 
 his extraordinary address and perseverance, had 
 been obliged to promise to return in a few days, if 
 still unsuccessful. Signs of land, however, became 
 frequent, and on the night of the 11th of October 
 a light was observed at some distance, and the 
 joyful sound of land ! land ! burst from the ships. 
 But having been often deceived before, they spent 
 the night in a state of the utmost anxiety. As soon, 
 however, as morning dawned, their doubts and 
 fears were dispelled ; and the natives of the Old 
 and the New Worlds found themselves, for the 
 first time, in sight of each other. The land on 
 which Columbus made his descent, and which had 
 a pleasant delightful aspect, was one of the Ba- 
 hama Islands, called by the natives (luanahani, 
 and by the Spaniards San Salvador, Having landed, 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 therefore immediately set sail, and, shaping liis 
 course a little more to the S., successively dls- 
 cr)vered the great islands of Cuba, an<l Ilnvti nr 
 ilispaidola. After various transactions with tho 
 natives of the latter, he erected a fort, and leaving 
 there a detachment of his men, set out on liis 
 return to Spain, arriving, after l)cing ol)lig((l to 
 take refuge in the A/ores, and in the Tagiis, nt 
 Palos, on the \t>th of March, 1403, having spent 7 
 months and 11 days in his memorable voyimo. 
 He brought with him pieces of gold, a party of 
 natives, and specimens of the vegetable an<l ani- 
 mal productions of this new world. His arrival 
 was hailed with an enthusiasm of wonder and nd- 
 miration in Spain and in Eiurope, and he made Ids 
 entrance into Barcelona almost in regal pom]i. 
 
 Columbus found no longer any difticulty in 
 equip|)ing a new armament, to which vohuitccn 
 flocked from every quarter. In September lie i<et 
 sail with 17 vessels, several of large burden, and 
 having 1,600 persons on board. Tliough he found 
 his colony involved in many troubles, "le was not 
 deterred i'rom ])usliing his enterjirises to the west- 
 ward. Having fallen in with Cuba, he snilod 
 along its southern coast, then steering to the let'i, 
 lighted upon Jamaica. He was delighted with 
 the rich verdure and picturesque aspect of these 
 line islands, which he lirmly believed to be parts 
 of the Asiatic continent. Having returned to 
 Spain, he set out, in 1408, on a third voyage. 
 Having tirst jtroceeded southwnrd t'- tho CajKide 
 Verd Islands, and steering thence across the At- 
 lantic, he came in view of the h>fty mountains of 
 Triniclad. Bounding that island into the tiidiili 
 of Paria, he saw the Orinoco ndliiig by many 
 mouths its mighty stream into the ocean. Tins 
 discovery higldy gratilied him, and was, indeed, 
 the lirst time that any part of the S. American 
 continent had been visited ,by Europeans. Ik 
 sailed ah)ng the coast as far as Alargarita, uml 
 tlience to llaj'ti. In 1502 he undertook a fourtli 
 voyage, seeking to push westward till he sIkiiiIJ 
 arrive at regions belonging to India. In tliLs 
 course he struck against the coast of Honilnrib; 
 where, instead of turning to the righ^, which 
 would have led him to Mexico, he took the left, 
 or NVV. course, as most promising for his (dijcct. 
 He reached the Gulph of Darien, but without 
 seemingly gaining any intelligence of the South 
 Sea. lie then rettirned to Spain, where, weij,'licil 
 down by hardshijis, and disgusted by the ingrati- 
 tude of Ferdinand, he closed, m iSOG, his un- 
 rivalled career. 
 
 America had, in the interval, been explored 
 from a diflFerent quarter. John Caboto, or Calmi, 
 a Venetian, who had settled at "';risU)l, presented 
 to Henry VII. a plan of western discovery. That 
 monarch, who had nearly earned the glory of Co- 
 lumbus's voyage, gave his full sanction to the nu- 
 dertaking. The adventiuer, it appears, was williiii; 
 to defray the whole expense ; but whatever rosions 
 might be discovered, he and his family were to 
 rule them as lieutenants, and to enjoy the exclu- 
 sive trade, paying, however, to the khig l-yth 
 part of the profits. The patent was granted in 
 1405, but circumstances prevented him from sailing 
 till 1497. Then proceeding due west, he arrived, on 
 the 24th of June, at a land, w^ith an island ad- 
 jacent, which appears to be Labrador and Xeiv- 
 foundland. This was the lirst discovery of the 
 continent, since it was not tiU 1498 that Co- 
 lumbus reached the mouth of the Orinoco. Calmt 
 brought home several of the natives, and, tliuii|,'h 
 
 and taken formal possession of the country for the the aspect of the coast was not very invi 
 
 — -i* cj»_:.« / i,.i 1 1 i:..ii_,i J* IT __ T- i?/._ J Ai i 1- _ . 
 
 crown of Spain, Columbus became satislied, from 
 the poverty of the natives, that this was not the 
 rich country of which he was in search. He 
 
 Vltlll!!, 
 
 Henry was so much gratilied that he next year 
 granted a fresh patent, allowing him to take tip 
 any 6 ships within the realm, equip them at tlic 
 
AMERICA 
 
 103 
 
 id, dhaping Im 
 iccewtively (\i»- 
 i, 1111(1 llnvti (ir 
 ctiims witli tlio 
 ort, u:iil lenviiij; 
 Hct out on his 
 Kiiiin ohligwl til 
 11 the Tiisiis, ni 
 , hnviiiK NiM'iit ; 
 noniblc Vdvimp. 
 Hold, a party nf 
 rotable and ani- 
 ■Id. His arrival 
 wonder and ail- 
 and lie made liis 
 I regal pom]), 
 ny ditticulty in 
 vfiich voliintecw 
 icptember he set 
 irgc burden, ami 
 riiou(;h be fduiul 
 ibles, 'le was nut 
 rises to the west- 
 Cuba, be sftilcil 
 lering to the It'll, 
 .s deligbted with 
 e aspect of these 
 ieved to be parts 
 k^ing returned to 
 a third voynfje. 
 d t'- tbe C'ttjie de 
 ce across the Al- 
 ol'ty mountains of 
 d into the Oul|ih 
 niUiiig by many 
 tbe ocean. This 
 and was, indeeii, 
 ' tbe S. American 
 ' Europeans. He 
 iw Margarita, awl 
 indertook a fourili 
 [ard till be shdiiW 
 3 India. In this 
 jast of Honduras; 
 the rigbS whioli 
 », lie took the left, 
 ing for bis olijcct. 
 rieii, but witliiiut 
 ence of tbe South 
 n, where, weighed 
 ;ed by tbe ingraii- 
 in 1500, his uii- 
 
 •al, been explored 
 Caboto, or Cftlini, 
 ;ri8tt)l, presented 
 . discovery. Tliiit 
 d the glory of Co- 
 lanction to the iiii- 
 ppears, was willini; 
 It whatever regions 
 lis family were to 
 _ enjoy the cxclu- 
 to the king l-atli 
 nt was granted m 
 ed him from sailing 
 ivest, be arrived, on 
 vith an island ad- 
 .abrador and New- 
 discovery of the 
 ill 1498 that C'o- 
 fhe Orinoco. Calwt 
 itives, and, thongh 
 lot very invitiiii;. 
 that he next year 
 ig him to take up 
 equip them at tiic 
 
 rnvnl exponsp, and rerpivo on board any numlier 
 of Kiigli»*b subjects who might be pleased to ac- 
 t(im|i»iiv bini. John, from sonic unknown cause, 
 illil lint go out in person ; but the expedition was 
 led l>v his sun iScbastian, who, though a youth, 
 shotted already the talents of a great navigator. 
 Acciiriling t" 'he very imperfect accounts of his 
 viivage, he had with him 3(10 men, and sailing Ijy 
 waV of Iceland, reached the coast of Labrador in 
 alMiut hit. (><>°. Discouraged by its bleak aj)- 
 iicamncc lie steered to tbe south, and ctintinued 
 in that direction till lat. ;j»°. (Hackluvt, iii. ; 
 Memoir of Cabot, ch. 6-10; Tytler's Northern 
 Coasts, Amer.) 
 
 Jleaiitiine, in another quarter important dis- 
 coveries were proceeding, Vincent Vanez Pincon, 
 ill crossing the Atlantic from tbe Cape de Verd 
 Islands, was assailed by a tcm|K!st, which drove 
 him t4) the southward of the equator; and, after 
 being bewildered for some time amid unknown 
 seas, he cainc in January 149t>, to the view of an 
 unknown coast, which was that of llrazil, near 
 Cape St. Augustin. Thence he coasted northward 
 to the mouth of the Amazons, and viewed with 
 astonishment the immense IkhIv of water i>oured 
 liv it into the ocean, justly inferring that it must 
 have rolled through a continent of vast extent. 
 Three months after, Alvarez Cabral, despatched to 
 India to foUow in tbe footsteps of Vasco de (iama, 
 came u|Min a more southern ]iart of the same 
 coast, which he named Santa Cruz, and took pos- 
 session of it in the name of the king of Portugal. 
 
 America had thus been rcachccl in three dif- 
 ferent and distant quarters, on a scale which con- 
 veyed a high idea of its greatness, but without at 
 all ascertaining its outline and limits. There was 
 still ample unexplored coast to leave room for tbe 
 [lassagc to India, which continued to be the grand 
 ohjcct in the (liscoverics that immediately fol- 
 lowed We shall begin with those most important 
 ones, made by way of the Cinlph of Mexico. Kven 
 U'forc the fourth voyage of Columbus, Alonzo de 
 Ojeda, on learning the results of the third, set out 
 from Sjiain in 1491), and following up the career of 
 his predecessor, explored the coast from Margarita 
 to Cape do Vela. He was accompanied as pilot 
 tiy Amerigo Vespucci, a skilful navigator, who, 
 returning to Europe, published a narrative of the 
 voyage, representing himself as the first discoverer 
 of the continent. The relation was read with ex- 
 traordinary interest, and the public adopted the 
 name of America, yielding him an honour un- 
 doubtedly dufi to Columbus. In 1500, Koderigo 
 de Bastidas explored the coast from Cape Vela to 
 the point reached by Columbus in his fourth 
 voyage, thus connecting a vast extent of conti- 
 nent. Ojeda and Nicuessa obtained grants of 
 different portions; but their colonies, conducted 
 rashly and violently, were almost entirely de- 
 stroyed. A remnant was assembled at Darien by 
 Vasco Nugnez de Balboa, an officer of great en- 
 terprise, who, penetrating across the isthmus, 
 came ui ^iew of the great southern ocean. Vast 
 prospects were thus opened ; but the court of 
 S|)ain ungenerously transferred the chief command 
 to Pedrarias Davila, who, actuated by mean jea- 
 lousy, iiersecuted and put to death his predecessor, 
 viithout himself achieving any thing of importance. 
 
 The discovery of the northern coast of tbe 
 Oulnh was begun by Ponce de Leon. This officer, 
 while in command at Porto Kico, was misled by 
 the illusory report of a fountain, in which who- 
 ever bathed was restored from the most decrepit 
 old age to all the bloom and vigour of youth. In 
 liursnit of this chimera, he beat about from coast to 
 coast, plimging into every pool, of course without 
 success. In the course of his search, he came in view 
 
 of an unknown coast, which he named Florida 
 Sailing along to a ciiiisidcrable extent, and turn- 
 ing the southern |M)iiit, he ascertained it to be 
 part of the continent, and tbe S|>aniards long con- 
 tinued thus to name and to claim as their own 
 tbe vliole territory to ('annda inclusive, though 
 they were ultimately unable to maintain more 
 than this southern extremity, 
 
 The main direction was still towards the west. 
 In 1-517, Cordoba from Cuba sailed along the coast 
 of Yucatan, and C(dlfcted some iutelligeiice of the 
 wealth and civilization of Mexico. He was fol- 
 lowed next year by Juan de (Irizalva, who, in the 
 same directiim, traced the entire coast of Mexico 
 as far as Panuco. The fertile shori's, well built 
 towns, and abundance of gohl, inspired tbe most 
 flattering ideas of this coast, which was imme- 
 diately dignified with the title of New Spain. In 
 1519, Oaray, governor of Jamaica, sent four ships 
 under Pineda, who, beginning at Florida, traversed 
 the whole coast as far as Vera Cruz. The entire 
 survey of the (Julph of Mexico was thus com- 
 |)leted, (Oviedo. Hobertson. Marit. and Iiil. Discov. 
 1$. iv. ch. iii. iv. ; Bancroft's Hist. United States, 
 ch. ii.) 
 
 Velasquez, governor of CUiba, on receiving the 
 flattering accounts brought by (irizalva, deter- 
 mined to lose no time in tilting out an armament 
 for the conquest of New Spain. Jealousy, how- 
 ever, deterred him from employing the original 
 discoverer; and he gave the command to Ilernan 
 Cortes, a personal favourite, but who possessed 
 every quality fitting him for such an undertaking. 
 In March, 1519, he landed at Vera Cruz, and 
 having burned his ships, inarclied into the interior 
 with about 500 men. With this small force, 
 seconded by his own superior sagacity and daring, 
 Cortes subverted the cmiiire of Mexico, ])ut its 
 sovereigns to death, and annexed it to the Spanish 
 crown. Having reached the South Sea, he em- 
 ployed Alvarado to march along its toasts, which 
 he did for tbi- space of 400 miles, till he reachea 
 Guatemala. Nunez de (jiuzman afterwards jiene- 
 trated the northern provinces to New (ialicia, 
 now Guadalaxara and Zacatccas. Cortes himself, 
 having e(piip])cd a fleet in 1580, discovered the 
 ]icninsula of California, with its deep gul]>b, com- 
 monly named in that age tbe Vermilion Sea. 
 (Cortese Helazioni, liamusio. III. Kobertson.) 
 
 The iliscovery by Balboa of the South Sea re- 
 mained long >vithout any result, through tbu 
 weakness or disunion of the officers employed. 
 The most tempting accounts were however re- 
 ceived of the wealth of Peru, and the abundance of 
 its precious metals. In 1581, 1'izarro, a daring ad- 
 venturer, who had sailed with Ojeda, after one un- 
 successful attempt, succeeded in assembling a band 
 of brave and fierce followers, with whom be sailed 
 to attack that great country. By a union of bold- 
 ness and treachery, he seized the em]nre and trea- 
 sure of the Inca ; and Peru becan-f an appendage 
 of the Spanish croivn. Almagro, the companion 
 and rival of Pizarro, pushed .soiitliward into Chili, 
 but he met there with great difficulties, and was 
 recalled by the affairs of Peru. Pedro de Val- 
 divia, however, having the government of that 
 country conferred upon him, marched to the 
 southern border of its fertile territory, as far as 
 40° S. lat. Vadillo, in 1537, made a march from 
 Darien to Peru, through the fine countries of New 
 Gratiada and Qiuto. Expeditions to conquer the 
 latter were undertaken by Banalcazar and Alva- 
 rado, who, after contending for its possession, 
 agreed to divide it between them. In 1540, (ioii- 
 zales Pizarro, brother to the conqueror, undertook 
 an expedition through the Andes to the west of 
 Quito, m hopes of discovering a country said to 
 
104 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 alxiiiiul in flnc cinnnmnn. Mlcr nutnl)cr1cRs hnrd- 
 Bhipx. ho Clime to tlic l)ankH of tlie great river 
 Atnfi/.oii. Knviiig lollowod its course for some 
 (liHlance, he employed Orellana, one of \m offic^ers, 
 to descend the Htream in a light hark tt) search for 
 ]trovisions. Orellanu, inspired by a spirit of ad- 
 venture, continued his voyage, and traced the 
 >vluile of its immense course down to the ocean. 
 
 While the ahove-m<'ntioned events were in 
 progress, discovery proceeded, though in a less 
 brilliant train, along the eastern coast. In 1514, 
 •Juan Diaz de Solis, a skilful mariner, wa« sent to 
 Hail round America, and reach the opjiosite side 
 of the isthmus of Darien. Solis, beginning with 
 St. Augustine, the limit of I'ingon's discovery, 
 surveyed the whole coast of Brazil, and then came 
 to the grand opening of the liio de la Plata. But, 
 having incautiously ventured on shore with a 
 small party, he was surprised by the natives, and, 
 with several of his party, experienced the dread- 
 ful fate which await« those captured by the can- 
 nibal tribes of this continent. The remaining 
 crews, on witnessing this cataatroplie, were struck 
 with dismay, and immediately returned home. 
 Three years after, Fernando INIagalhacns, or Ma- 
 gellan, a Portuguese, discontented with his treat- 
 ment in his native country, offered his services to 
 Charles V. The immediate object was to reach 
 the Moluccas from the west, and thus, according 
 to the pajial grant, establish a claim to those 
 islands, which were then much valued. A fleet 
 of five sail being equipped, he sailed in September 
 1519, and having ])roceeded along the coast of 
 Brazil, reached Port St. Julian, where he win- 
 tered. In October 1520, he entered the strait 
 bearing his name, and after a few weeks' naviga- 
 tion, saw the great Pacific opening before hira. 
 He stretched directly across, and came to the 
 Philijipines, where he was killed in a contest with 
 tlie natives; but his vessel had the honour of 
 being the first that circumnavigated the globe. 
 In 1526, Sebastian Cabot was sent out to the La 
 Plata, where he ascended the Parana and the 
 I'araguay, and, notwithstanding the op])osition of 
 the Portuguese, established two or three forts. In 
 1535, Juan de Mcndoza, an opulent Spaniard, 
 founded the city of Buenos Ayres, and in 1537 
 Juan de Ayolas penetrated across the Andes to 
 Peru. Thus the great outlines of Southern Ame- 
 rica were traced in every direction. (Herrera. Ro- 
 bertson. jMarit. and Inl. Dis., B. IV. ch. vi. vii.) 
 
 Discovery in the north did not proceed with 
 the same rapid steps. We have already noticed 
 the important voyages made by the Cabots. This 
 excited the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in 1500 
 (iaspar de Cortereal, a nobleman of that nation, 
 set sail and surveyed a considerable extent of the 
 coast of Labrador. He carried off about 60 of the 
 natives, to employ them as slaves ; but the enmity 
 of the peo])le, thus justly roused, probably led to 
 the fatal result of his next voyage, from which he 
 never returned. His brother Michael, sailing in 
 search of him in the following year, met the same 
 fate, which was shared also by another expedition 
 sent in 1503. 
 
 The reign of Henry VIII. was unfavourable to 
 nautical enterprise. The discovery of the Cabots 
 was not followed up, and Sebastian sought the 
 service of Spain, lie was sent out, however, in 
 1517, as ])ilot to an expedition commanded by 
 Sir Thomas Pert, which, it appears, actually cn- 
 teied Hudson's Bay; but the commander then 
 lost courage and returned, to Cabot's great indig- 
 nation. This discovery attracted little notice, and 
 Avas soon forgotten. 
 
 France now entered fm the career of American 
 discovery. In 1524 FrancLs I. employed Giovanni 
 
 Verazzano, a Florrntinc navigator, who m\c\ 
 along and described the ('oast from Carolina to 
 Newfoundland. Unhappily, in a snbsecpient \i,\. 
 age, he fell into the hands of the natives, niV| 
 suffered a cruel death. Ten years afttr Janim, 
 Cartier, a seaman of St. Malo, jierformed scvcfid 
 voyages, in which he entercil the (Jnljih of Si, 
 Lawrence, and ascended the river as high as Ahiui. 
 real. Attempts were then made t^) c<donize i\wm! 
 countries, for some time without success: how- 
 ever, in 1(>04, De Montz founded the colony of 
 Acadia, and (Jhani))lain, in 1G08, that of Cnnadn. 
 The latter, engaging in warlike expeditions, pcne. 
 trated southward to the lake bearing his numi', 
 and westward beyond Lake Huron. 
 
 The Spaniards meantime, as already ohservnl, 
 had, under the title of Florida, claimed nearly all 
 North America; nor were they wanting in vlj^nr- 
 ous efforts to make good their title. In l,r2ii, 
 Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon discovered and at- 
 tempted to form a settlement on South Carolina; 
 but having begun by entrapping and carryinp; (f 
 a number of the inhabitants, he excited siR'h a 
 fierce enmity that many of the settlers were killed, 
 and the rest returned to Hispaniida. In lojl, 
 Kstevan Gomez sailed as far as the latitude (if 
 New York, whence he brought off a cargo of 
 slaves. A more important expedition was uiidcr- 
 taken in 1528 by Narvacz, the rival of Cortes, and 
 sent to supersede him, but who had been van- 
 quished and made prisoner. He now sought to 
 indemnify himself by a kingdom in Florida, lie 
 landed with a force of about 000 men, and ad- 
 vanced about 800 miles into the interior, ballling 
 all attempts to oppose his progress. The natives, 
 however, irritated by his violent and doniineerini,' 
 conduct, pC'Sted themselves in the woods, nnd 
 harassed him by constant attacks and siurprisw, 
 The Spaniards, completely exhausted, and in ex- 
 treme want, were obliged to seek the nciire.-t 
 coast. Unalde to reach their ships, they cim- 
 structed frail barks, which, on coming out to the 
 o])en sea, were wrecked, and almost the wliolfi 
 number perished. Alvaro Nugnez, the treasurer, 
 being cast ashore, contrived, by conciliating the 
 Indians, acting as a merchant and physician, and 
 even pretending to work miracles, to make hi^ 
 way to Jlcxico, after a seven years' pilgriina!,'e. 
 The land route was thus traced between that 
 country and Florida. 
 
 This catastrophe did not prevent another at- 
 tempt, Fernando di Soto had been an associate 
 of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, where he ili>- 
 tingui.shed himself by the capture of Cuzco. ainl 
 other exploits. He relumed to Spain with a lii|,'h 
 name and a princely fortune ; but instead of sil- 
 ting down to enjoy these, he resolved to make 
 them instruments for conquering an empire for 
 himself. His reputation attracted many of the 
 most distinguished Spanish youths a.s volunteei^; 
 and in May 1528 he landed in Florida, with a 
 more powerful armament than those which had 
 conquered Mexico and Peru. The exploits of 
 Soto surpassed, in daring valour and brillimit 
 achievement, those of Cortes and Pizarro; hut 
 his fortune was far dift'erent. There was here im 
 great empire, no central point to strike at. He 
 struggled on amid a succession of fierce and petty 
 tribes, whom he always vanquished, but who 
 rose around and behind him, and never left to \m 
 troops more than the ground which they covcreil. 
 He was lured on by reports and specimens of the 
 gold formation of North Carolina; but amvui:; 
 there, in a most exhausted stat«, and finding (inly 
 ridges of naked hills, he turned back. He after- 
 wards pushed far to the westward, crossed the 
 Mississippi in about lat. 35°, and proceeded nurlh- 
 
AMERICA 
 
 105 
 
 ir. wlio sailoil 
 )m (!nrolina in 
 iibsiequtMit vny- 
 ip nntivcs, nii| 
 w afiiT Jnr(|iiii 
 liornHHl iicvcfiil 
 ic (iiilph iif Si, 
 mliif^liasMmii- 
 o colimize \\\f>v 
 ; success; liow- 
 (l tlui colony (i( 
 :,lmt of Canailn, 
 Lpp.ditionB, jH-iie- 
 aritifj; his nuinv, 
 I. 
 
 ilrendy obaervod, 
 ,niinc(l nearly all 
 milting in vl^'nr- 
 titlu. In l.V2n, 
 •ovcred and at- 
 Soiith Carolina; 
 : and carryiii); off 
 e excited such a 
 ittlera were killoil, 
 auiola. In 1521, 
 18 the latitude of 
 t off a carp) uf 
 (lit ion was uikUt- 
 val «)f Cortex, and 
 had been van- 
 le now Bought to 
 n in Florida. He 
 ;00 men, and ail- 
 le interior, baliling 
 ess. The nativtf. 
 t and doniinecriii!,' 
 11 the woods, anil 
 icks and siirpriw*. 
 auated, and m ex- 
 seek the neim-t 
 • ships, they cim- 
 coranig out to tlic 
 almost the wlinfe 
 ;ncz, the treasurer, 
 ' y conciliatlnj,' the 
 ind iihysician, ami 
 idcs, to make hi-. 
 years' pil>,nriinai,'i', 
 iced between that 
 
 [event another ai- 
 been an associaie 
 fern, where he ili>- 
 ^ure of Cuzco. nn4 
 Spain with a liit;li 
 'jut instead of sit- 
 rcsolved to make 
 ,in{; an empire fur 
 Ictcd many of tte 
 liths as vohmteoi>; 
 In Florida, with a 
 those which h;ul 
 The cx\tli)it.s (if 
 lour and brilliiuit 
 [and Pizarro; but 
 ?here was here im 
 ^ to strike at. He 
 of fierce and petty 
 luished, but who 
 .ul never left to Ills 
 hich they covered, 
 specimens of the 
 jiia; but arriviiis 
 p, and lindinj,' only 
 fl back. lie alter- 
 Itward, cros^ell the 
 Id proceeded uurih- 
 
 wuril "> n*""' *''" present nito of New Madrid. 
 Fiiidint; no report of gold, or rich kingdoms, he 
 iHade a dftjdi at the extreme west, paused the Iieads 
 (if llic Wl'i'c Kiver, then descended the Washita 
 and Kcil Hiver to the Mississippi. Here, over- 
 iHiwcred by fatigue and disappointment, he mink 
 Into the grave. The miserable remnant of his 
 men, anxious to conceal his death from the In- 
 dians, carried the body at dead of night into the 
 middle of the river, and sunk it beneath the 
 waters, afterwards putting together some rude 
 harks, they made their escape to Mexico. (Alvaro, 
 Xaiifragi(>s in Barcia Historiaderes, torn, ii, Vega, 
 Florida. Bancroft, i. 41. A'c.) 
 
 The wanderings of Alvaro had attracted the 
 attention of the Spaniards to the regions imme- 
 diately north of Mexico. A friar, Marco di Nizzn, 
 net oiit with a party to explore tliem, returned 
 with a romantic account of a city, named Cevola, 
 iiaving 2l),0()0 8j)lendid houses, and its most com- 
 mon utensils of g(dd, silver, and the richest 
 jewels. Mendoza, the >-iceroy, hoping to emulate 
 the glory of Cortes, fitted out two large expedi- 
 tions, one to proceed by land under Vasrjucz Coro- 
 nado, the other by sea under Fernando Alarchon. 
 I'oronado, after a most arduous march through 
 riiLrgcd and des(date mountains, reached the plain 
 (if Cevola, and, notwithstanding a most desperate 
 resistance, forced an entry, but found a n.cre vil- 
 lajje of 4(K) houses, with nothing at all sjdendid ; 
 the jewels were only pebbles and rock-crystal. In 
 1 hii|ies of achieving something, he marched 300 
 leaj,'ues to the coast, where he found a city of 
 Uiimewhat greater c(tnsequence, named (^uivira, 
 which cannot now be identified. Alarchon, un- 
 ahle even to join his associate, returned equally 
 disappointed. Cabrillo, a Portuguese seaman, was 
 I tlien employed by Mendoza to explore the coast. 
 I He reached as high as 44° N. lat. but brought 
 h,ick a gloomy account of the aspect of the region, 
 I and the diflicidties of navigating this northern sea. 
 I(i!araiisio, vol.iii. p. 297, Ac. Vcnegas, Cnlajfornia.) 
 I The zeal of Spain now slackened ; but, in 1579, 
 |l)rakc, in his exjiedition round the world, traced 
 Ithe north-westeni coast as high as lat. 48°. There 
 lis a narrative by a Spaniard, named Juan de Fiica, 
 Iwho Iwasts that, in 1.596, he reached a similar lati- 
 Itiulc; and his report, h>ng discredited, luis been 
 Iconlinncd, in a great measure, by the discovery of 
 strait closely answering his descri|)tion, and now 
 icaring his name. In 1.59(' .nd 1(502 the Condc 
 Ic Monterey employed Sebastian Viscayno, who 
 Ilid nut, however, reach so far as Cabrillo. There 
 Is ako a narrative by De Fonte, who boasted that, 
 ■n lt)40, he had reached the latitude of 53°, where 
 Be found numerous islands separated by narrow 
 Itraits, which he named the Archipelago of St. 
 In/are, and within them a large lake named Belle. 
 Iliis account is generally branded as fictitious ; yet 
 Ic (,nnot but observe, that it strikingly agrees 
 kith the numerous chain of islands found by Van- 
 buver in the same latitude, while Lake Uelle may 
 c the interior sea between them and the main. 
 Torqueraada, Monarquia Indiana, book v. Murray 
 piscov. N. Amer. vol. ii. p. 87, &c.) 
 The power of Spain having declined, she was 
 uiable to maintain the vast pretensions she had 
 Vivanced ui relation to Flori(la. Britain, now be- 
 rime a much more formidable maritime jwwcr, 
 Btablishcd colonies in Virginia and New England 
 b defiance of Spain. In doing so, although there 
 fas not room for great discoveries, she acquired a 
 r more accurate knowledge of this long range of 
 bast. The expectation was still entertained that 
 line of its openings might lead into the South 
 ifa. and this was even viewed by the Virginia 
 pmpaiiy as one of then: leading objects. But the 
 
 laborious sun-ey of Chesapeake Bay, by Smith, in 
 KiOH, nearlv ])ut an end to lluwc hopes. 
 
 The Britwh, however, made indrfatignble efforts 
 to discover a passage to India by the north. Sir 
 Martin Frobisher, in 157(i, found means to e(piip 
 two slender barks of 25 tons ibr this arduous at- 
 tempt. Passing the southern extremity of < Jrecn- 
 land, he reached the coast north of Hudson's Strait ; 
 but, after sailing alwut for some time without |)er- 
 ceiving any opening, and the season being ad- 
 vanced, he returned. One of the party brought 
 home a shining black st(me, which some ignorant 
 persons pronounced an ore of g(dd. The utmost 
 enthusiasm was thus kindled, and a larger expe- 
 dition was easily fitted out next year. Frobisher 
 then discovered the straits bearing his name, lead- 
 ing into Hudson's Bay; but he was arrested in 
 them by the ice ; he carried home, however, a 
 store of the black stone. The hopes of the nation 
 were higher than ever, and the queen sent him 
 back with 15 shijis, a strong fort in frame-work, 
 and 100 men to form a colony. In approaching 
 the place, however, he was attacked by so furious 
 a temjKist, with islands of ice driving against the 
 vessels, that he had the utmost ditticulty in saving 
 Olid bringing them home. These disasters, and 
 the discovery that the appearances of g(dd were 
 illusory, caused a suspension of this series of en- 
 tenirises. 
 
 In 1585, a number of leading merchants fitted 
 out two vcs.scls under John Davis. Steering fai - 
 ther N. than Frobisher, he crossed from (Jreeuland 
 the straits bearing his name, and came uj)on the 
 Ameri('an land in about 00° N. He sailed .some- 
 what farther N., and surveyed dilferent parts of 
 the coast, but was obliged by the lateness of the 
 season to return. His report, however, being fa- 
 vourable, he was sent out again next j'ear. 
 Though much retarded by the encounter of n huge 
 field of ice, he reached his former station, and 
 steered thence SE. till he came to Labrador, having 
 pa.ssed numerous islimds, as apjwared to him, but 
 probably the coasts bordering on the sounds and 
 inlets leading into Huds(m's Bay. Being assailed 
 by tempests, he returned to I^igland, still giving 
 such favourable hopes that, though many of the 
 adventurers held back, Mr. Sanderson, his zealous 
 l)atron, procured for him a smaller armament. He 
 juished to the yet unattained point of 72° 12' \., 
 on West Greenland ; thence he steered 40 leagues 
 across, but was arrested by the fixed field of ice in 
 the middle of the bay. iHe vainly attempted to 
 round it, and was pushed southward to his former 
 station on the American coast. lie iienetrated (iO 
 leagues up Cumberland Strait ; then being obliged 
 to return, he observed, without entering, the en- 
 trance of Hudson's Bay. He returned home .13 
 sanguine as ever, but the perseverance of the mer- 
 chants was exhausted. 
 
 The Muscovy and Levant companies, in 1602, 
 sent out John Weymouth ; but the mutinous spirit 
 of his crew jjrevented his achieving anything. 
 They employed, in 1606, John Knight, who was 
 surprised and killed in Labrador by the natives. 
 In 1607, Sir Dudlej' Digges, Sir John Westen- 
 holme, and other gentlemen fitted out Henry Hud- 
 son, a celebrated navigator, who had already made 
 three arctic voj'ages. Though furnished only with 
 one ship of 55 tons, he penetxated, after many difti- 
 cultics, into the bay, or rather inland sea, which 
 now bears his name. He surveyed a considerable 
 extent of its eastern shore ; but as November had 
 arrived, was obliged to winter there. Much hard- 
 ship l)eing endured till spring, a mutiny arose 
 among his crew, who expo.scd Hudson and his 
 friends to perish on this inho,spitablc shore, and^ 
 with thiimcd numbers, made their way to Ireland. 
 
 
106 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 1N' 
 
 it 
 
 u.h:. 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 Nofwitlistnndinp; these melancholy circum- 
 ptuncoM, a. nTcnt o|>oniii^ hn<l Ihun iM'cn traced, 
 mill, in l<it2, the ('timnany Hcnt out Sir ThoinnM 
 ](utt(in, iiccompanied l)y liylot, oni! of Mndson'H 
 coni|ianion.s. Sir TlioinnH having entered the bay, 
 steered ('irectlyacnwM thrcdij^li Nuch an extent of 
 o|)en Hen, a.s made him hoym that he wa.t now in 
 the Pacilic; when he suddenly saw himself ar- 
 ri'Sted by a long line of coast, to which he gave 
 the name of Ho|>o Checked. He wintered in 
 Nelson's Kivcr, sailed up Itoc's Welcome, sur- 
 veyed various ]>oints on Southampton Island, and 
 returned to Kimland. Atler a fruitless attempt by 
 <«ibbons, Uylot and KatHn were sent in IGIT) ; but 
 they were arrested by the eastern coast of Sou- 
 thampton Island. In 1616 they went to try the 
 more patent route of Davis's Strait-s. They made 
 then the complete circuit of that great inland sea, 
 which has since l>cen named HatHn's bay; but 
 returned with the omviction that it was enclosed 
 l)y land on every side, and afforded no hope of a 
 ])assagc. The search in this direction was dis- 
 continued ; but, in 1631, Fox was sent out by the 
 king, and James by the ISristol merchants, to try 
 again the route of Hudson's Hay. Fox, afVer 
 vainly attempting a western route, sailed up the 
 channel bearing his name, the most direct route to 
 the strait of the Fury and Ilecla, but 8top|)ed 
 much short of that point. James stocMl to the 
 southward, and being entangled in the eastern 
 coasts of the gulph, was obliged to winter there, 
 where his crew suticred the utmost extremity of cold. 
 
 The north-western coast of America, notwith- 
 standing the Spanish discoveries, remained still 
 almost unknown. But after Russia had overrun 
 Siberia, and reached the shores of the eastern 
 ocean, her active rulers felt an interest respecting 
 the opposite continent. It was even doubted, 
 whether it was separated from that of Asia; but 
 this, in 1728, was nearly ascertained by Hehring, 
 who reached the eastern extremity of the latter 
 continent, on the straits which bear his name. 
 He saw the land thence stretching NW., but did 
 not discover anv part of America. A few years 
 after, Kmpishe/', a Kossac, from Kamtschatka, 
 descried, and sailed along it for two davs. In 
 1741, Hehring and Tcliirikoff were sent thither to 
 make a careful survey. They were separated : the 
 former reached the coast, and landed about the 
 latitude of 58°. He could not accomplish his ob- 
 ject of 8ur\'eying it to G.'fi, and being obliged to 
 winter on one of the Aleutian islanils, suffered 
 severe hardships, to which he fell a sacrifice. 
 Tchirikoft" came in view of it in about lat. 55°; 
 but being imable to land, and ha^'ing lost two 
 boats in attempting to communicate with the 
 natives, he returned to Kamtschatka. On this 
 voyage the Russians found their claims to the 
 American coast N. of 55°; and their traders soon 
 established along it a chain of settlements with a 
 >dew to collecting furs and skins of the sea-otter. 
 (Purchas, iii. 696, 716. Narratives of Fox and 
 James Biirrow's Arctic Voyages.) 
 
 Capt, Cook employed his last voyage in ex- 
 aminmg the north-west boundaries of America, 
 and in attempting to effect a north-west passage. 
 He traced the coast from 50° northwards, till he 
 came to Cape Prince of Wales, the western limit 
 of the continent: then steered north-east till, in 
 about 70°, he was arrested by an unbroken chain 
 of ice islands. He returned, naming the adjacent 
 promontory Icy Cape; and King and Clerke next 
 season in vain attempted to penetrate further. 
 The information obtained in this voyage induced 
 many English ships to resort to this coast with a 
 view to the capture of the sea-otter, for whose rich 
 skin there is a regular demand in the China mar- 
 
 ket. Dixon and Mearos, in this pursuit, oxpInrp,j 
 Nootka an<l the ailjacent coasts. The Spniiijirii, 
 attempted to op|M)se this trade, and even captun,! 
 tlie Argonaut, a Uritish vessel; but were ol)lij;„| 
 to willidraw their opposition. They now H'w 
 several expeditions, )inrticularly one under Ayala 
 and Maurelle; but these could make no disccivorv 
 which had not been anticipated. In 17!t|-2, Vmi. 
 couver was employed in making a I'areful survey 
 of these coasts, in the hope of tlnding a paxsn^.c 
 into the Atlantic;, through one of their niinuTiiM 
 bays; but this he proved to Iks impracticnhic, 
 Kroughton, under his dire(;ti(>n, ascended iii,, 
 Columbia for alxait !t(t miles. Capt. (iray. wn- 
 ploycdhy the United States, had before l>cr'n at its 
 mouth, and given it its name; but he is said ncvct 
 to have entered the actual channel of the river. 
 
 Meantime some straggling attempts after tho 
 jiassnge were made from the Atlantic. In ic^ 
 the Hudson's Hay Coniiiany was formed, and im' 
 dertook to make exertions for this object. Then- 
 is however no record of any till 1721, when Knii;||i, 
 governor of one of their iorts, jirevailed on them 
 to siqiply him with the materials for a v(iyii(;p. 
 Unfortunately, being obliged to winter «ni Jlnrlilo 
 Island, he and his Miiole crew fell a sacrilice t., 
 sickness and famine. In 1741, Mr. Ddhhs, a 
 gentleman of iniluence, and imbued with tlie | 
 most ardent zeal on this subject, jirevailed on the 
 A<hniraltv to send out Capt. Middleton with the 
 Furnace f)omb-ketch. That officer, in 1 742, xaile.! 
 to the head of Sir Thomas lioe's Welcome, wliere 
 he found on one side Kcpulse IJny, on the other a 
 frozen strait between Southampton Island andtlit 
 mainland. Having also looked up Wager Inlet, 
 he jironounced a passage in this direction itn- 
 possible. Dobbs and others loudly accus(-il liiinof I 
 carelessness and even treachery, and kindled smtii 
 a spirit that 10,000/. was raised by subscriptiim. 
 and parliament voted a bounty of 20,000/. to tl» 
 subscribers in the event of their success. Twi, 
 vessels were sent out under Captains Morr aiil I 
 Smith, who however merely examined the Wa^ 
 Inlet, ascertaining that there was no passage, aiiil 
 then returned. 
 
 Maritime expeditions were now suspended, \v 
 some imiwrtant discoveries were made by lanil 
 Ever since Baffin's last voyage, the impre,«i,ial 
 had prevailed that North America stretched in- 
 definitely towards the pole. But in 17(!ft, Mr, | 
 Ileame, sent by the Hudson's Bay Compaiiy, 
 descended Coppermine Kiver, and ' found it ioi 
 terminate in a sea at about 65° N. lat. In KiiS,l 
 Sir Alexander Mackenzie, an agent of the Xunl [ 
 West Fur Company, descended, much fanlirfl 
 westward, the great river bearing his name, a 
 came to what he termed a lake, but which, innol 
 its having tides and containuig whales, wius veirl 
 decidedly judged to be also a sea. There vis\ 
 thus foimd great room to suppose that, in a 1 
 tilde between 60° and 70°, America was bounJtJ I 
 by a great Arctic ocean : while from these obsen>[ 
 tions combined with those of Cook, the estimatei/l 
 its breadth was greatly enlarged. f 
 
 These considerations protluced little influeti*! 
 tiU, after the iieace of 1815, when the enerpiisl 
 called forth during the late war sought a differeml 
 direction. Sir John Barrow proved that the im-l 
 pression against the existence of a passage, (if- 1 
 rived from former failures, rested on very slight I 
 grounds. Under his auspices, Capt. RossivasMil 
 out in 1818, with the Isabella and Alexander, iJ 
 make a more full trial in Baffin's Bay. liJ 
 sailed entirely round it, but returned decidedrl 
 reporting that navigator's opinion to be comftl 
 and that it afforded no western passage. Liecl 
 Parry of the Alexander, however, and uitel 
 
 .illpljl 
 
IfiffiorTS, were of opinion Hint the spacious oponinj; 
 1 ,f I,nmii'''er Soiinil had Imoii qiiittrd without duo 
 IrsiiminatiiiM, «nd afforded « tnvourahle promise. 
 . y,nn tlK-rerorc scut *iut next year, and thoujjh 
 llriliil ii'it reach tlui sound till August, found all 
 111 expeitations fultillcd. The ships, during the 
 lipt (Ihv after enteriuf^ the sound, had an un- 
 J!li!itnu'te<l run of upwards of a hundred miles. 
 LUtcr sailiiiH '* ''*''•' further, ho wa« arrested hy 
 Ve ami "liliK*"'' '" '""' southward alonp the 
 Ltcni sliofe of rrince Hef^eiit's Inlet, Ikinfj 
 «,<tc(l there, he returned northwards, and was 
 fcnitilied to find the iinssa^o to the west become 
 oiiitc tlear. He run alonp it to beyond 110° W. 
 ■oiiL'.. thus entitling the crew to n royal bounty of 
 KiiUO/. lie was then obli^rcd to make arran^e- 
 Wnt» fi>r siKiuding the winter, during which, not- 
 Lihstandinj; the most ri^jorous cold, the health 
 L„[ spiritj* of the crew were sunirisinjfly jireserved. 
 lie was defeated in his attempt next year to 
 lenetmtc furtlier west, and obliged to return. 
 t'npt. Parry was again sent out the iollowing 
 Lar; but it was now resolved to try the channel 
 Iv the northern head of Hudson's Hay, which 
 I'iiildlcton was considered as having by no means 
 Idiniilctcly explored. He found no reason to doubt 
 The acciiracv of that navigator; but by iiushing up 
 Lie Fox Ciiannel, he arrived at a strait, named 
 Iftcr hw vessels the Fury and Hecla, which was 
 Xcertaiiied to afford a passage into the Polar sen. 
 |i was so blocked up with ice, however, that his 
 limnst efforts, during two successive seasons, could 
 lut fiirce a passage. Having returned to England, 
 |r was sent out a third time, in 1X24, to endeavour 
 J penetrate through I'rincc ]{egeni"s Inlet into 
 Sie ii(>cii sea, of which he had now fully ascertained 
 fee cxiiftence. The season, however, being jiecu- 
 larK rigorous, it was not till next summer that he 
 laiiicil the western coast ; and the Fury, being 
 lien sqiice'-c'l between two masses of ice, sustained 
 .1 severe an injury, that it became necessary to 
 iiandon her, and give up all attempts to proceed 
 krtlicr. 
 
 Totlier means were at the same time resorted to 
 Ir exploring the northern boundary of America. 
 lieut. Franklin and Dr. Richardson undertook to 
 locecd to the mouth of the Coiiperminc Kiver, 
 I tlience attempt to trace the whole coast, from 
 be strait of the Fury and Hecla to the Icy Cape 
 fCook. They sailed from England in May, 1820; 
 lere obliged to winter on the Athabasca Lake, and 
 I July, 1821, embarked on the Arctic Ocean. They 
 ned to the eastward, but were forced to take a 
 In' circuitous course through deep sounds and 
 Mts. particularly the great one named Coronation 
 kilph, Hence, on reaching Point Tumagain, in 
 wP 25' W. long., though the sea continued open, 
 ley found it necessary to return, from the ex- 
 lustcd state of the equipment. Tlie partjr, being 
 llii'cd to travel by land over a range of naked 
 ntoty broken by lakes and rivers, endured the 
 iiost extremes of human misery, and several 
 Imhed before they could reach Fort Enterprise 
 1 the Coppennine. They returned, however, with 
 Ibroken spirits and determination, and govem- 
 lent liberally furnished the means of renewing 
 leir efforts. At the same time, Capt Beechey 
 J sent by way of the Pacific Ocean to follow in 
 t steps of Cook, and meet them from the west- 
 Franklin's new exjiedition set sail in 1825, 
 btered on Great Bear Lake, and early next year 
 ! at the mouth of the Mackenzie, whence they 
 proposed to begin their survey. From this 
 nt Capt Franklin proceeded W. ; Dr. Bichard- 
 1 E. The former explored a considerable extent 
 [coast bordered by ranges of the Rocky Moun- 
 s;but, after passing Foggy Island, in long. 
 
 AMERICA 107 
 
 147° W., the obstacles became so serious as maiie 
 it necessary to turn back. Mcautinu', however, 
 Cnpt. Heeclmy had passed IJchriug's Straits; nnd, 
 though the shii> coid<l not b(< navigated beyond 
 the Icy Cape of Cook, Mr. Elson, in a iM)at, reached 
 15'!° '21' W, long., where a raj)C stretched into lat. 
 71° 2;i' N. The expeditions were tlius within It 
 short (leg. of long, from each other ; of which hacl 
 they been aware, thev would at every cost have 
 pushed through. Dr. liichardson succeeded in ex- 
 ]>loring the whole coast l)etwen tlie Macken/.ic and 
 the Cop|)emiine, connecting bis discoveries witli 
 those of the former voyage, and leaving imknowu 
 only two comiiaratively small ))ortious between 
 Franklin's extreme ]H>ints niul those reached by 
 Beechey on one side, ami I'arry on the other. 
 
 Catit. Ross, regretting the mistake by which ho 
 had tailed to discover the entrance into the Polar 
 Sea, anxiously sought the means of retrieving this 
 error. These were furnished by a public-spiril(^d 
 friend. Sir Felix Booth, nn<l the resources of steam 
 navigation were calleil forth. They were not of 
 much avail ; but Ca|il. Ross, through many ditii- 
 culties, made his way into Prince Regent's Inlet, 
 and reached considerably farther than I'arry on its 
 eastern limit. He thrice wintered there, and v.x- 
 jdored a great extent of the adjacent coasts. Ho 
 foiuid himself on what appeared a penir.sula, named 
 B(H)tbia, reaching to 74° N. lat., and connected 
 with the continent by a narrow isthmus. A con- 
 siderable extent of the American coast to the west- 
 ward was also cx)>lored, but without reaching 
 Franklin's Tumagain. (>)mniander Ross is (;on- 
 sidered as having ascertained the site of the mag- 
 netic pole on the western coast of Boothia, Capt. 
 Ross, ni attempting to reach home, was obliged tf 
 spend another winter near the northern point, of 
 the (leninsula. His arrival, in IH'Mi, occasioned a 
 joyful surimse, as the most melancholy foreboiliiigs 
 had prevailed as to his fate. 
 
 During the alarm felt at his long absence, an 
 ex])edition to discover and release him was titti'd 
 out, partly by government and partly by private 
 subscription. It was entrusted to Capt. Ba(.'k, a 
 companion of Franklui, with the liope that he 
 might also make somo further discoveries. Having 
 left England in February, 1838, he wintcrc<l at 
 the eastern end of Croat Slave Lake, and next; 
 summer descended a river named the Thlew-ee- 
 chop. It terminated in a spacious bay, at the end 
 of which the coasts appeared to stretch, one SIL, 
 the other due W. From Cape Ogle, where this 
 last direction began, was seen on the E. an ai)i)a- 
 rently boundless expanse of sea. By the observa- 
 tions then made it appeared i)rol)able, that Boothia 
 did not form part of the American continent ; but 
 was connected with a more southerly ])cninsula 
 which, along with it, formed one great island. 
 
 In 1838, the Hudson's Bay Company determined 
 to explore what was yet unknown m their o«-n 
 territory. Under the direction of Mr. Simpson, 
 the resident governor, Messrs. Deasc and Simpson, 
 in the summer of 1837, went over the intermediate 
 space between the points reached by Franklin and 
 Beechey. It was found to run in a nearly direct 
 line, presenting no remarkable feature except the 
 eitiux of two large rivers. The same gentlemen 
 were employed, in 1838, to explore from Capo 
 Tumagain to the strait of the Fury and Hecla ; a 
 more difficult task. 
 
 The first imjtortant steps in the discovery of the 
 interior of N. America were made by the French 
 from Canada, under the government of Count 
 Frontenac. Under his auspices, loylet and Father 
 Marquette, in two Indian bark canoes, undertook 
 to explore the vast regions on the Mississipjii. 
 Lake Michigan then formed the extreme boundary 
 
 ?t,E 
 
 
108 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 \ . 
 
 .'!!,! 
 
 r 'i 
 
 mi 
 
 hmm 
 
 li 
 
 «)f Kiiroprnn knowlnlffo. From it, iv>cpiiiling the 
 Fox river, niul ilcMci-iiiliiif; the OiiiNcniiHiii, thi-y 
 rtMiclKtil th(! (-pntral Ntn>nin, and wpm OMtoniNlipd 
 lit its ^raiidntr, and tlic niajPHlic fon'HtH on ilM 
 lianl<H. In prrMH-cdinK downwards, the (Irst pj-oplo 
 thoy met went the Illinois, who rwrivcd th«'in 
 lumpitably. Afterward« they wpro Htrnck i>y the 
 influx of tho mighty Htrcum, deeply liiiKcd with 
 mud, of the MiMHoiiri (named l>y them PeketAnani). 
 Under tlie name of OunluHkKou, they deHcril)0 the 
 imitcd stream of the Wohanh ond Ohio. Tliey 
 cumc next to the Akamseaa (at tha month of (he 
 ArkauNai*), l)ut perceiving now that the river muHt 
 terminate, not, as had i)ecn supposed, in the (tidph 
 of (!alifomin, hut in that of Mexiro, tlicy were 
 afraid of the Spaniards, and retume<l. 
 
 VViien the two travellers arriveil at Qucliec, 
 there hapf>ened to Imj in that city an enterprising 
 yomig Frenchman, of some blrtli and fortune, 
 named Hieur de la Sallc, who conceived an en- 
 thusiastic desire to prosecute this career of dis- 
 covery. Through influence at court, ho procured 
 ample means. After some time spent in erecting 
 forts upon the lakes, he reached the Mississippi 
 jiy a new route, ascending the Miami and descend- 
 ing the Illinois. On reaching the Arkansas, ho 
 hesitated not to prosecute his voyage, and passed 
 along the territory of tho Taoncos, Notches, and 
 Quinipissas. Soon after, by the vast breadth to 
 which the waters expanded, thoir brackish taste, 
 nrtd the shells on tho shore, he discovered, with 
 exultation, that he was at tho mouth of tho Mis- 
 sissippi. He hastened back by the same route to 
 (>anaila, and thence to France, where ho was 
 received with the highest distinction, created 
 governor of the region ho had traversed, and sent 
 out with four ships and 280 men. He went by 
 the W. Indies; but unfortnnatelv he could not 
 distinguish tho entrance of tho river, and, while 
 searching for it, a mutiny arose among his men, 
 in which ho was killed. 
 
 About this time Hennepin also attempted to 
 roach the source of the Mississippi; but, after 
 passing the Falls of St. Anthony, he was taken 
 ])risoner by the Indians, detained long in captivity, 
 and thought himself happy in making his csca|)c. 
 .Some time after. Baron Lahontan reported his 
 having ascended a great tributary, whicli he calls 
 Long, but which appears to be the St. Peter's. 
 He met some members of a distant tribe, who 
 described a chain of high mountains lying to the 
 westward, beyond which was a great salt lake, a 
 term which the Indians often apply to the sea. 
 These correct statements seem to absolve the 
 baron's rejiorts from tho suspicion of fiction, which 
 has been sometimes attached to them. 
 
 The English colonies on the Atlantic had made 
 a great advance in population and wealth, before 
 they attempted to penetrate across the Alleghany. 
 An opinion had indeed long prevailed, that this 
 range formed an iiisiurmoun table barrier. In 1714, 
 however, Spottiswoode, governor of Virginia, sent 
 a party, who made their way into the western 
 territory. It was still some time before the 
 colonists made any attempts to settle there, and 
 when they did, they were vigorously opposed by 
 the French, who, in virtue of tho settlement of 
 Canada and the discovery of the Mississippi, 
 claimed tho whole region. They drove out a 
 company who attempted an establishment on the 
 Ohio, and erected, on the present site of Pittsburg, 
 Fort Duquesne, which struck a general alarm 
 through the provinces. The conquest of Canada, 
 and tho peace of Paris, in 1763, removed this 
 opposition. Still the settlement was made, not 
 by any combined or official movement, but by 
 Boone, and other daring adveutiurers, who main- 
 
 tained a series of bloodv struggles with tlip m. 
 tivrs, by whom the Knglish were kept in iMr]i.ii|„ I 
 alarm. It was not till some years after tlie yc^.A 
 independence, that Kentucky was received jr,,, 
 the union, and that the great fide of enrt^rnii j 
 began, which has covered the valley of ihc %. 
 sissippi with so many |M>puIous and f!'.;'„ii>ii{,|, 
 states. 
 
 The Americans having in WH i)nrchnKO(l J,,,,,.. 
 siona from Napoleon, claimed under timr va;,, 
 title the whole region to and lwyon<l the ^W, ,.. 
 sippi, and commenced o|ierations for e.x|ili.rii; 
 that vast territory. An cxjiedition was nrriin;." 
 by Mr. .leflerson, then pn-sident, and was IcU^^ 
 (faptains Lewis and Clarke, tho former of wlnn 
 was his private secretary. On the •titli )|jv, 
 IH04, they began their vovage on the Jllswinr 
 Having a8cen<lcd 1,000 miles, and readied i!« 
 f(M)t of tho Kocky Mountains, they found iIk 
 season too far advanced for crossing tlmt (.t,;; 
 chain. They, therefore, built a fort naincil .Mr. 
 dan, where they 8^lent the winter. Early in A|iril 
 they wore again in movement, and in iiinotw! 
 days came to the influx of the Yellowstone, nb.: 
 equal to the main stream. Having reiuliod il* 
 crest of the great rocky chain, the travellers ,|,. 
 sccndod rapidly, though not without (Hlli(•lllli^ 
 from tho riiggednoss of the road and thewuniif 
 provisions, fhey at length, however, endjjirki.j 
 on tho southern branch of tho Cohniiliin, wlii.t 
 they named Lewis, and after passing its falls ax 
 it spread into a wide channel, and ultimately ii|« 
 into a bay, where they oxultingly heard tlicsimiii 
 of breakers from the Pacilic. 'I'hey wintercilii 
 tho mouth of the river, and hai^tened back liyil^ 
 same route in the following spring. They iw 
 not, however, the (Irst who had crossed the entin 
 breadth of the continent. This had been cApk 
 in 1792 by Sir Alexander M'Kenzie, in a m i> 
 northerly quarter; and in 1803, the agents ul tk\ 
 Montreal Company had crossed the mountains 
 and formed trading posts on tho northern htmi'^ 
 of the Columbia. (Journal of D. W. llimnni. 
 Andover, 1820.) 
 
 The American government sent, in 1805, nn(iik(j| 
 oxiMJilition under Major Pike, to trace the 
 unknown head of the JILssissi^jpi. It was l'iiiii>:| 
 in a direction almost due north, not rising fr-a 
 any great natural range, but in a flat mar-lir 
 region, and passing thnuigh a number of liiili 
 lakes, the chief of which, named Leech and U\ 
 Cedar, contend for tho honour of giving birtli ;» 
 this leading American water. Its length, i'«i 
 proved to be at the mutual junction Utile In 
 than half the Missouri, which therefore ought [r- 
 porly to rank as tho main stream. Pike, mi m 
 return, was sent to explore the course and (irL'j 
 of the Arkansas and Bed IJivers. The former li 
 found very broad, flowing through a couiid 
 richly stocked with game, and having its soiih 
 in tho Kocky Mountains. He lirst convcycliil 
 idea of tho loftiness of that chaui, which lie c 
 pared, though with exaggeration, to the CVinfJ-l 
 leras. He attempted thtii to descend the M 
 Kiver, but entered by mistake on the Rio H| 
 Norte, and proceeding into the Mexican terrii' 
 was made prisoner by the Spaniards, but tJI 
 treated and soon released. About the same tiim 
 Mr. Dunbar and Dr. Hunter, from NatcliPs,M 
 to a considerable height up the Bed Kiver rf 
 its tributary the Washita, sitfveyiiig the feni 
 country on their banks. 
 
 After a long sus))ension, the American gmfi 
 ment, in 1819, recommenced this career. M 
 Long and Dr. James were sent to explore m 
 precisely the western territory southward oft 
 Missouri. They iliscovered with regret ttoi 
 
04 ])iir(!hnHO(l I.auj. 
 
 UlllllT tlint \l\i<:, 
 
 iM^yoiul tlu' Mi^ I- 
 tio'nH for exiili.ni.' 
 litioii wiw nrmii;''! 
 nt, nml wan Icl Iv 
 ho fomipr iif wli„iii| 
 ;)n the 't'.tl\ Miv, 
 TO on the MisMiiir.l 
 *, nnrt reachiil iu| 
 IS, they fdniul iV 
 cro»^'iIlK that p.xl 
 . a fort iminw\ Mr, 
 Iter. KarlyinAiin'.l 
 nt, anil in nini'iw.f 
 ! YellowHtone, i\lni'»;| 
 Having rciii'licil i!,.[ 
 n, the tnivellcrs . 
 
 without dirticnliKl 
 ■oml mid tlicwunill 
 , however, eniUirkiJ 
 the Cohnnbin, wliiil 
 passing ittt falls sjjI 
 , and nltimatelyiiiffll 
 ingly heard the siniril 
 ;. They wintrmUl 
 hastened hack tiy il'l 
 
 5 Hpring. Tlipywwl 
 lad crossed the oniidl 
 'his had been eflfinl 
 M'Kenzie, in a iiicl 
 803, tlie agents nf ikil 
 [ossed the niountani\l 
 
 the nortlieni liramliel 
 I of D. W. UhtiikI 
 
 sent, in 1805,aiiiii!if] 
 ke, to trace tlic ; 
 ««>lH)i. It was l'"™''L 
 lortii, not risinn Ir il 
 Imt in a flat maMjl 
 li a number of litiil 
 lamcd Leech and Kf^l 
 tur of giving birili;! 
 ter. Its lenRtli, i-l 
 III junction litllt ImI 
 ;h therefore ought |<-l 
 stream. I'ike. »».*^ 
 the course ami iiri:il 
 ivers. Tlie formtrbil 
 J through a coiiiiul 
 and having its mm 
 He first conveycis| 
 chain, which luut 
 iration, to the Oe 
 to descend the U% 
 _)take on the K'* 'i^l 
 the Mexican tcmwl 
 , Spaniards, but w| 
 About tl»e same i»l 
 r, fromNatclics,suWj 
 p the Ked KivrtiiJ 
 surveying the lenii| 
 
 ;he American p«» 
 ;d this career. Mf 
 sent to explore H 
 tory southwaiil ('iiij 
 with regret tte' 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 rent M"'!^ (losort cxtcndH for a breodth of nI)out 
 no miles 'euHtwanI from the Kocky Mountains. 
 I hai I'hain was carefully examined, and its highest 
 ,.ik l'"inul not much to exceed l*2,(«»0 feet. Seek- 
 "Miidcsccnd the Ked Kiver, liv a fresh fnlalily 
 „*v inisliiok for it the (.'auudian, the longest 
 rjhiiiarv of the Arkansas, hv whose chaiuiel they 
 iiiiu'd tlic .Mississippi. Aleantimo tJeiieral Cass 
 |"i iTiiplovcd ill a more careful examination of 
 klii. last ruer, tracing in his way the southern 
 Lii„re of Lake Su|K>rior. Major J^ong, on his re- 
 kurii asiciiilcd SI. I'eter's IJiver, alreadv visited 
 |,v lialioiiian nu'l Carver. He found, rising from 
 Lnicrmiiioiis sources, the northern Ked Kiver, 
 kliidi lli'ws into the Hritisli territory, and ends in 
 ili,. \Viiini|>eg. These successive cx|M'ditii)iis 
 Miivcvcd to the United States govermnent a 
 [,ritiv correct idea of the interior of their vast 
 .rriiiirv, including those parts of the continent 
 hlilch iiad hitherto been most imperfectly known. 
 [\ntic; eiitcr|>rise, which had remained dormant 
 „r <ix years between 1H3!> and I Hir), revived with 
 liur'V ill the latter year, when Sir .John Franklin 
 fctarted iii>oii his exiicilition. His directions were 
 iihriiceed through Lancaster Sound and Harrow's 
 «imit to Cape Walker, ond thence south-west to 
 liliriiiK's Strait, a distance of about 'JOO miles; 
 r, il he found this route Impracticable, he was to 
 II III) Wellington Channel. The Erebus and 
 Vrriirwcre seen for the last time in July, 1815, 
 «(i months after their deiiarture from Kngland. 
 '(,r three years the government at home was oc- 
 ii|iiid oidy in speculations resi)ecting their pro- 
 raitoil altseiice, and jdaiis of relief; but in 1848, 
 xiietlitions of search were sent out, with one of 
 iliit'li sailed Sir John Kichardson and Dr. Hae ; 
 ihilst another was commanded by Sir James Koss. 
 ir James Ross's squadi'on returned in 1819, with- 
 iiil having succeeded in getting to the west of 
 ,poiH)ld Island; and in 1855, the ships IJnter- 
 irise and Investigator again sailed, the formor 
 lailcr the command of Captain Collinson, and the 
 Iter under the command of Captain McClure. 
 he object of this exijcdition was to search the 
 wrthcru coast of America, and the western coasts 
 if WoUaston and Hanks' Land, Melville Island, 
 iitoria Land, and the passage between. Its 
 ipinorablc result was the discovery of the North- 
 cst passage. Having passed through Behring 
 Itrait, Cai)tain McClure proceeded, according to 
 is i-istnictions, along the northern coast of 
 menca to Cape Parry ; then sailed NE. and dis- 
 ivered Prince of Wales's Strait, Ikring Land, and 
 riiicess Royal Islands. Upon the 2Gth of October. 
 |W0, whilst the Investigator lay in this strait, 
 plain McClure, having 'mdertaken an exploring 
 lursion on land, saw, from a hill, the frozen 
 aters of Slelville Strait lying away to the north. 
 rom the distance his eye commanded, it was clear 
 lat no land could intervene between them and 
 elvillc Island, so that there was notlilng to ob- 
 nict the passage into the Atlantic. Ihns, at 
 It, the North-west passage was found ! After 
 intering in the Strait, he found it advisable to 
 itrace his steps to Baring Land, and steer round 
 e west of lianlvs' Limd on his homeward track, 
 isre'jm voyage was one of disaster and peril, 
 d the ship was lost ; but at length, in 1854, he 
 :he(l the shores of England by a route wliich 
 iiisfactorily settled the question which had been 
 rjilexing English seamen for nearly three hun- 
 id years. Captain Collinson, of the ' Enterprise,' 
 itunied to England in May, 1855, having esta- 
 'i'hed the fact of the connection of Victoria, 
 iuce Albert, and Wollaston Lands, and bring- 
 ti with him some fragments, supposed to have 
 longed to the Erebus and Terror. In both 
 
 AMEKSITAM 
 
 109 
 
 those discovcrioH, however, he had boon foresfallnl 
 by Dr. Itae, who had U'cii sent out in IN,'i:(, to 
 complete surveys of llmilhia, and other {Hiiiils. 
 Ik'tween the years IH.IO, and I8.*)7, nnineroiis ex- 
 ]iedilions were sent out, ainniigsl others a se<'<iiid 
 American expedition, under Dr. Karre, which rt>- 
 sult«Nl in the discovery, by him, of the great 
 ' Humboldt (ikzier,' and the sup|M)sed discovery 
 of an »\»i\ Polar Sea. In IH57 the search was cimi- 
 mcnced, whitdi was destined at last to put at rest 
 the hoiK's and fears rcsiiecting Sir .lobn Eriinkliu's 
 fate, 'n the summer ot that year, C^antain Mc( 'lin- 
 tock sailed in the Fox for the Arctic Seas, The 
 results obtained by this ex|)edilion were of the 
 most convincing kind, not only as dt'tertniniiig 
 the unhappy end of Franklin's enteri«''sc, but as 
 proving, fmm the route through which he was 
 traced, that he, after nil, is entitled to the honour 
 of iMiing the earliest discoverer of the North-west 
 passage. Captain McClintock's vovage has also 
 furnished considerable geographical infonnation. 
 He has laid down the coast-line of lioothia, from 
 Itellot Strait to the Magnetic Pole, delineated 
 King William's Island, and oiicned a new channel 
 from Victoria Strait to Melville or Parry Souixl. 
 He also ac^hieved the navigation of liellot Strait. 
 Since Captain McClintock's return, Mr. Hall, 
 of Cincinnati, started on n renewed search for 
 the Erebus and Terror. Two other expeditions 
 from America departed in the course of the years 
 18G()-() I, to attempt the voyage to the Pole. In 
 England, the j>roject of n new North Polar expe- 
 dition is at present (18U5) under discussion, opi- 
 nions lieing divided as to the Smith Sound or 
 Spitzl)ergeii routes. 
 
 In British North America, Mi*. Palliser's sur- 
 veying expediti(m, which was finished in 1800, 
 has disclosed, between the southern end of Lake 
 Winnipeg and the base of the Hocky Mountains 
 a fertile tract of land admirably fitted for ctdoni- 
 sation. An expedition despatched by the Cana- 
 dian government, under the charge of Professor 
 Hind, has also made important investigations in 
 the country west of Lake Sujierior, giving good 
 ground for the belief that the Basin of Lake Win- 
 nipeg will one day have ' a great future.' 
 
 In Central America, surveys have been under- 
 taken for an Interoceanic Itailway across Honduras, 
 and in South America the vast project has been 
 started of a railway over the Chilian Andes, from 
 Copiaix), across the Argentine provinces, to Kosario 
 on the Parana. 
 
 AMERKOTE, a town and fort of India, terri- 
 tory of Sinde, in the desert, 85 m. E. Hyderabad; 
 lat. 2.5° 20' X., long. 09° 49' E. . The emperor 
 Acbar was bom here in 1541. 
 
 AMEKSFOKT. a town of the Netherlands, prov. 
 Utrecht, on the Eem, which becomes navigable at 
 this point, 12 m. ENE. Utrecht. Pop. 12,700 in 
 1861. It is well built and well fortified; has a 
 court of original jurisdiction, a college, a commis- 
 sion of agriculture, with manufactures of fustians, 
 dimities, and bombazeens. it is the mart for the 
 corn and tobacco cultivated in the contiguous ter- 
 ritory ; and has a considerable transit trade in 
 produce from Germany, embarked here in tlat- 
 bottomed boats from Amsterdam. The distin- 
 guished statesman and grand pensionary, Bame- 
 vcldt, sacriiiced in 1617 to the fanaticism of tlie 
 people and the hatred of Prince Maurice, was a 
 native of Amersfort 
 
 AMEIiSHAM, a bor. and pa. of England, county 
 Buckingham, near the Colne, 26 m. vVNW. Lon- 
 don. Pop. of parish, 3,550 in 1861. The town 
 consists of one long street, crossed by a shorter 
 one, having the church at the point of inter- 
 section. There is a free-school, to which are 
 
 l.'"^! 
 

 M 
 
 n, 
 
 'V 
 
 If 
 
 
 no 
 
 AMESnUHY 
 
 nttn«'1iod tliroo oxliil)iti(iim nt ('or|)ii« Chrlsli rol- 
 l('^i>, (Kl'iird. with nliiixhouNt-M ami tlirt>e chnritiiw, 
 A KDoil (loni of himik laci>, Ih tn<iiMirti)^tirr<<<l, mid 
 IIk^ iiiarkrt in well Httuiidi'il. I'n'viiiiixly to tlu^ 
 Itcform Act, liy which it wiim dixfrniicliiwd, thJH 
 hiiroii^h »<uiit two mcml)(>rH to tlic l[, of (J,, the 
 ri^ht of voting Itciiifr in th(> inlialiitniilH piiviii^ 
 sent and lot; hut tlicHii hoiii^ all tcluuitM ol tlic 
 lord of thu inaiior, it wuh in fact ii nomination 
 boroii)rh. 
 
 AMKSiniHV. or AMUItKSHIIIiY, a in. town 
 and pur. of Knfxhind, co. WiltH. Tlin town \h situ- 
 ated ou tiie Avon, 74 m, N, Salinhury. Though 
 ini'onMi<lerahlt>, it is noted for tlic ruinH of an ahhcy, 
 tin; vicinity of Stonchcn^fc, and for having hct'ti 
 Uw hirth-placc of A(idiHoii. Tlio)>ariMli coinprihu.i 
 6,(MiO acroH, witii a po)). of l.t8H in imil. 
 
 A.MIf.VliA, a division of Ahysainia, wliich hcc. 
 
 AMilKUST, a soa-port town of the Urit. prov, 
 of Martahan, India beyond the (jian^es, and tliu 
 chief liritisli military and commercial Htation in 
 the provinces IC. thu Than-lwcnj; river, on a point 
 of land in the NH. an^lu of the (iulph of Mar- 
 tal)an, fucni^ the montli of the Than-lwen^ and 
 the Isle of Ual.i t„ riie X. Lat. Kjo 4' 4h" N., 
 lonf?. !»7°35' 24" K. Estimated i)op. f),()()(>. Am- 
 herst was foiuided in l«2ti, after the restoration of 
 tlie town of Martabaii to the Hirmesc, in the view 
 of Hcrviiif; as a military jMist, and n commercial 
 establishment, and as an asylum for such refuj^ees 
 as mi^ht choose to eniif;ratc from the Uirmese 
 dominions. Tlie anex of the jiromontory, which 
 is the hi{j;heHt spot in the town, is occu|)ied by the 
 church, p)veriior's house, court of justice, fortiti- 
 cations and other public buildings; on the higher 
 fjround around it are tlie European and Chinese 
 quarters; and the lowest ore by choice inhabited 
 by the natives. The military cantimments are 
 about 14 m. distant, in a dry, levl, and elevated 
 spot. The harbour is spacious and secure, with 3 
 fath. water at low neap tides; rise and fall above 
 lit ft., with a How of <i ni. an hour, and i)criectly 
 still for 2 hours both before and after high water. 
 Ships may lie within IdO yards of the shore. 
 Jlangrove and a kind of oak are abundant here, 
 and there are teak forests at no great distance. 
 (iood water is found everywhere G feet below the 
 surface. 
 
 Amherst, a town of the U. States, Hompshire, 
 CO. Alossttchusets, 82 m. W. Hoston. Pop. 3,0;V2 in 
 1800. A college was established here in 1821, 
 which has an observatory and a good cabinet, 
 Amherst is the name of some other places in the 
 U. States. 
 
 AMHERSTBURCIH, a small town of Upper 
 Canada, on Detroit K., 3 m. above its embouchure 
 in Lake Erie, and 14 m. below De'troit. It was 
 founded during the administration of Lord Am- 
 herst, and was named after his lordship. 
 
 AMIENS (an. Samarobriva), a city of France, 
 cap. dep. Somme, on the river of that name, 72 
 m. N. Paris, on the Great Northern of France 
 railway. Pop. 58,780 in 18til. Amiens has a 
 citadel constructed by Henry IV. It is well built; 
 streets for the most part straight and clean ; and 
 it has some tine squares and promenades. The 
 old Gothic cathedral, in excellent preservation, is 
 one of the linest in Europe. It is 366 ft. in length 
 and 132 in height. Among the other public build- 
 ings may be specified, the Royal College, theatre. 
 Hotel de Ville, corn-market, courts of justice, 
 barracks, seminary of St. Acheul, and chateau 
 d'Eu. It is the seat of a bishop, has u cour Im- 
 periale, a court of assizes, a commercial tribunal, a 
 custom-house, a public library containing above 
 40,000 vols., an academy, an academy of sciences 
 and belles-lettres, a free school of design, and a bo- 
 
 AMMAN 
 
 tanical garden, itc. Manufactures very cnnsiilff. I 
 able. They consist principally of kirii-ymcrh 
 cassitnercH, tnerinoes, and serges, made partly ij I 
 honie, and partly of <ierman and Siiaiiisli wo.M 
 '\'\w liiK!!) trade is also considerable; hut it iiiiii,« | 
 surpassed by that of cotton. There are aiinuallv 
 produced alsnit (iO.llOO ^lieces of cotton velvet, ii,, I 
 aggregate valiu) of which is estimated at almu; 
 8,(((Ml,(MMM'r.; and alwiit 400 hxims are (M'cii|,i„j 
 in the production of velvets ditet irUlrer\t, 
 There are also several mills for the spinning ii I 
 cotton and tlax ; with dye and bleach-WDrtu; 
 manufactures of ma(4iiiiery, beet-root sugar, aiii| 
 chemical products ; tanneries, soaji-Works, anij I 
 paper-mills. The pi\tf» de cuimrd made here ,w 
 liighly estecmetl. Flat-bottomoil vessels, driiwiir 
 from 40 to 50 tons, I'oine up the river to the tiwn' 
 which is the centre of a very considerable trail*' 
 as well in its own prwhictioiis an in those of ikr I 
 surrounding country. Amiens is very aiKicnt, 1 
 being su|iposed to have cxistetl anterior tu ilr 
 invasion of Delgium by the Romans. It is kiKwo 
 in diplomatic history from the circinnstnncp nf 1 1 
 detinitivo treaty of peai;e between l^iigland ani 
 the French republic having been sigiie<t in iiml 
 the 25th March, 1802. It is the liirth-|)lace n' 
 Peter the Ilemiit, the apostle of the tirst criisade; I 
 of Ducange, author of the Ghiisarium ad SctlA 
 tores medice et injima: Latinitath, a work (if wnn. I 
 derfiil research and labour; and of Delambrc, [\> 
 learned author of the most accurate though m I 
 the most eloquent history of astronomy. [ 
 
 AM.IHKRKA, a small Rajpoot state nf N,| 
 India, Malwa, 46 m. WSVV. Iiidur. Area riSIsi],! 
 m. Pop. about 58,tM)0. Maize, cotton, siiKai-l 
 cane, and grain, are the chief products. Thtrekl 
 a town of the same name 60 m. N\V. Oojeiii, omi- j 
 taining about 500 houses, and large and well su|> 
 plied i)azaars. 
 
 AMLWCH, a sea-port town of N. Walen, X.l 
 shore of the Island of Aiiglesea, at the terminuil 
 of a branch line of the Chester and Hohlifiklj 
 railway. Pop. 6,949 in 18t!l. The town rose firm I 
 the state of an inconsiderable fishing villA$:eiil 
 consequence of the discovery of the famous cdpixil 
 mines in the adjoining Pary's IMonntain in IW.I 
 It has a pretty good port, excavated from tlil 
 solid rock. During the flourishing iiericnl oftl»l 
 mines, thev produced above 3,000 tons a yeaiiJ 
 pure metal; but they have been gradually lif I 
 dining for several years. Amlwch is united niii I 
 Ilcaumaris, Holyhead, and Llangefni, in retuniiii>| 
 a member to the H. of C. 
 
 AMMAN (the Rabbah of the Scriptures, anjl 
 Philadelphia of the Greeks), a city of Syria E.fil 
 the Jordan, deserted and in ruins; lat. ii2°8'N,r 
 long. 36° 8' E.; 25 m. NE. Dead Sea, and 30 nj 
 E. Richa (an. Jericho), 
 
 The remains.of Amman are very extensive, biJ I 
 none of them seem to be older than the rera of thil 
 (Jreek power in Syria. They consist of thcatial 
 temples, and colonnades, of great beauty and hijAl 
 finish, some of them being in very perfect prestml 
 tion. A great number of private houses still *l 
 main, but there is not a single inhabitant. 
 
 This is one of the most ancient cities mentioDJl| 
 in Jewish history. It was the capital of the Aii-I 
 monites, a people undisturbed by the Israclittll 
 settlement in Palestine, and with whom the Jenl 
 lived in a state of suspicious truce till the rem « 
 Jephethah, aljout 1161 b.c. Thenceforward tial 
 two nations were in almost constant hostilityJ 
 generally to the tlisadvantage of the AmmoniieiJ 
 and in 1035 b.c. Dawi took their capital 
 notwithstanding this untowanl event, and the m-l 
 successful war they waged against Jehosaptal 
 (B.C. 896), and Jctham (b.c. 760), theycontiniifil 
 
r»>« vrrv coiniiipf. 
 y of kiT^cymiTi'., 
 )H, miiilc |mnly(( 
 \\u\ Simnisli wi»|, 
 ililo; liiit It Ik iii.w I 
 I'Ucto artf iiiiniwllv 
 
 I'otton vi'lvi'i. 111, I 
 Htinmtcil at almu; 
 iMmis are i«'ciii*i I 
 4 ditet <rUtnrlii,\ 
 (ir the Hiiinniiitc i^ 
 kiid liU'iicli-wiirki; 
 ;t't-r(Mit HtiKiir, ami I 
 , H(m)i- Works, ami I 
 lard made licri' » | 
 oil vcHHcls, (Iniwiii; 
 e river to the timn, 
 coiiHidprahlo tnV. 
 
 as in tliose of ili. | 
 iH in vory uneii'iit, 
 l«!(l anterior to ili» I 
 iiinans. It is hmt I 
 e cireninHtaiH'e (if » 
 ween r.iinliiiiil u\\ 
 H'Cli Binned ill iti« 
 I the liirtli-i)liicei(l 
 of tlie llrnt iTibaiif; 
 'lomarium ad Scrip- 
 litis, a work of wim. I 
 nd of Delunilirc, tin I 
 iccurate tlioiij;!! m I 
 oxtroiiomy. I 
 
 [ftijMKtt Htute nf \| 
 Iiidur. AreauK^I 
 aizc, cotton, siij;ai-r 
 I" products. 'i'luTeiii 
 m. NW. Oojoiii, cifl- 
 il large and well mif 
 
 wn of N. Walci". \\ 
 
 .'sea, at the temiiniBl 
 
 lestcr and UoKheiij 
 
 The town rose from I 
 
 (Ic linhinK villasreitl 
 
 of the famous i'(i[i|x( I 
 
 8 Alountain in lift I 
 
 excavated from tfel 
 
 irisliing i>eri(Hl df tl«l 
 
 3,0(H) tons a year (I 
 
 ' been gradually fri 
 
 [mlwch is united wiii I 
 
 ilangefni, inrctuminjl 
 
 the Scriptures, iiiil| 
 [acitv of Syria E, ((I 
 I ruins; lat. 320 8!i.P 
 )ead Sea, and 30 ml 
 
 .J very extensive, bul 
 l;r than thearaofihi 
 Ky consist of theaiw 
 Ireat beauty and liifk 
 fvery perfect prcstm 
 livate houses still «■ 
 he inhabitant. 
 Went cities mentioM 
 he capital of the .\b- 
 ted by the Israclitfek 
 I with whom the Jen 
 truce tillthcKtaa 
 Thencefonvani tin 
 it constant hostiliiyJ 
 le of the AmmomiK 
 Ik their capital BU 
 Vd event, and the 10- 
 against Jehosapt* 
 .700), they contimM 
 
 AMMERSCIIWmn 
 
 t„ 1)0 « powerful pt'opic, and alioiit tiOO yonrp n.c. 
 
 ' plioil Scbiichadiiezziir with a strong auxiliary 
 
 l„nv to nxHist in the dcstrui-tion of their old eiie- 
 
 ,|,i,,H. Auuiiau was HuliNcciiiently incliuled in the 
 
 \^,vria" '""' l'*'"^'"" einpiri's; and after the battle 
 
 1,1' IsMis (ii.<'. illl-'l). it I>itsseil, with the rest of 
 
 'i\ rill anil ralestine, into the hands of the (ireeks. 
 
 In ilM II. f. Palestine was the st'eiie of war be- 
 
 iwiTii Aiilii'fhiis the (ireat and I'toleiny I'hilo- 
 
 fiitir; the former of whom utterly destroyed 
 
 \pimiin. Having Imu'ii rebuilt by I'tolemy I'hila- 
 
 ilclphii'', it received from him itstJreek appellation 
 
 '„( riiil:idelpli>»- It iH'canie a Koinaii town in the 
 
 list (Tiitiirv n.c, and reniii'iied siich till the coii- 
 
 I liucst of Palestine by the .Saracens, A. I)., tliW. 
 
 I'liderthe (!liristian emperors of the I'.ast, Ain- 
 
 I iiiiiii apiH-ars to have U-en a bishop's see, but it 
 
 wiin (h'ciiiiing liefore its capture by the Arabs, and 
 
 I \liul-Foda, in the early part of the llth century, 
 
 I iltscribes it as already deserted. 
 
 Tlic ruins of Amman stand on the banks of a 
 
 linxik, uiiiih i.tsiiing from a large jHind at the .S\V. 
 
 I ((iriiir of the town, flows (partly under ground) 
 
 (ivir a tlinty bed into the Zerka (an. JuMxick) an 
 
 atliiH'Mt of the .Jordan. The water of this stream 
 
 i, cxiM'lleiit, a eirciiinstanco which renders the spot 
 
 I a disiralde lialting-placc for caravans, the drivers 
 
 (if wliit'li use the ancient temples and buildings as 
 
 .shelter for their beasts, fulllUing, it is supjiosed by 
 
 Lmiii- stmkiits of |irophecy, the denunciation of 
 
 i'.zi'kiel, ' 1 will make Kablmli of the Amnnmites 
 
 111 stiiblc for camels and a couching-iilace for Hocks.' 
 
 hSiiinbers to Chronicles, jMtsaim ; I'olybius, lib. v. 
 
 leap. i>- oinl "• '• Kobinson, ii. 172-17,").) 
 
 I AMMEltSCIlWIHK, nt Marivillier, a town of 
 
 iKmncc, dep. Ilaut Ubin, 4 m. N\V. Colmar. Pop. 
 
 I'j.ii.'iil in IMUl. Excellent wine is grown in the 
 
 |]iei;;hiiourliood. 
 
 ASIOL, a city of Persia, prov, IVfozunderan, on 
 |thc Heraiiz, about 12 ni. above where it falls into 
 ithe southern part of the Caspian Sea ; lat Jlti" 30' 
 Jx., long. 52° 23' .'>5" E. Pop. (lifters at diflx-rent 
 Ifoasons; but in winter, when greatest, is estimated 
 Ihv Mr. Krazer at fnmi 3.5,000 to 40,000. The iirin- 
 |ti|ml (ilijcet worth notice is a mausoleum erected 
 lliv Shall Abbas over the remains of a former dis- 
 lliiigiiislied sovereign of Saree and Amol, who died 
 pn lit'H. This magniticent structure has, however, 
 ln'cn injured by an earthquake, and is rapidly de- 
 caying. There is a bridge of T2 lurches over the 
 pierauz, and there are in the v icinity of the town 
 naiiy mounds and other remains of Persian anti- 
 ijiiities. The bazaars are extensive, and well siip- 
 jjlieil with certain articles ; but it has little trade 
 tr industry. Mr. Frazer could not tind tea either 
 lereor nt Halfroosh, and the inhabitants iiad never 
 prard of cott'ee. Chilluw and mas, that is plain 
 milcd rice and sour curds, is the common ftxid of 
 llic jieople, some of whom season it with a little 
 lalt tisli. (Fraser'a Southern Banks of the Ca.spiaii 
 tea, p. 101.) 
 
 AMOOR, or AMUR, a large river of E, Asia, 
 khJL'h has its sources in ^Mongolia. It is formed 
 ly the junction of two great rivers, the Oiion or 
 tliilka, which rises nearly under the 1 1 deg. of 
 I. long, and the .")0 deg. of N. lat., and the Kerou- 
 iin or Argouii, which rises nearly under the same 
 peridian, but about 2^ deg. more to the S. The 
 btter riv°r traverses the great lake of Koulon, and, 
 piling from it, and pursuing a NE. course, forms, 
 r recently formed, for a considerable distance, the 
 ine of demarcation between the Hussian and Chi- 
 i empires. The Keroulun and Onon unite near 
 he fort of liuklanova, in about the 120th deg. E. 
 |«il,'. The combined river having taken the name 
 Amoor, flows E. and SE., till, at its most 8. 
 joint, it is joined by its large tributary, the Soon- 
 
 AMorn (ST.) Ill 
 
 giiri, flowing NE. ! the Am<Mir, liaving middeiily 
 taken the same direction, pres(>r^-es it during the 
 ri'inainder of its coiinte, till it falls into the ami of 
 the sea opiHisile the N. end of the island of .Sag- 
 balieii, or Tehoka, in alsiiit the 0,'ld deg. of hit. and 
 the !40th deg. of Umu, The entire course of the 
 river, to the source of the Keroulun, reckoned the 
 principal branch, is estimated, ineliisive of its wind- 
 ings, at 2,)i4l ni. It is navigable by steamers from 
 ■June to November, when it is free of ice, to a <lis- 
 taiice of 2,2i)'i m. from the sea. In the lower part 
 of its course it tlows through a comparatively rich, 
 well-cultivated country ; but the country round its 
 sources, and the upper part of its course W, of the 
 Kiiigan Yalo nioiintains, being contiguous to the 
 great desert of .Shaino or (iobi, has the samii 
 characteristics. The Kiissian fort of Nertscbiiisk 
 stands on the Nertseba, near where it falls into 
 the Cliilka. In \KM, a l{i:ssian expetlition went 
 ilown the Amoor, plantiiu; a number of posts, and 
 securing to Russia jHissession of the course of the 
 river to the sea, and the whole country to the. 
 north. In IMll the Russians also actpiired, by 
 treaty with China, all the region east of the h>wer 
 AuKMir and the river I'ssuri, an atlliiciit from thu 
 south, which joins the Amoor in lat. 34° 40' N., 
 giving to Russia the sea coast as far south as Capo 
 .Sisdro, in the Sea of ilajian. The Riissinii terri- 
 tory is divided into the (irov. of the Amoor (cup. 
 Wagoveschensk), area TlH.odO sq. m., pop. 40,(HI0, 
 and the maritime prov. of E. Siberia, separated by 
 the Kingan mountains. The country is as yet 
 very siiarsely inhabited. The chief places on thu 
 recently acquired coast, counting from .S. to N., 
 art — Victoria Hay.or Pcterthe (Jreat (Julpii ; Port 
 Seymour, or Ogla Bay ; and Vladimir Buv, in the 
 Sea of .lapan ; Constantinovsk, or Port Imperial, 
 on Barracouta harbour ; Alexandrovsk, on Castries 
 Bay, near the mouth of the river: and Nicolaicvsk, 
 at the mouth of the river, in the (Julphof Tartary. 
 The trading places in the interior are mostly t'lii 
 the banks of the Amoor. The Russians have also 
 the port of Dui, in the island of Saghalien, and 
 coal is found in the neighbourhood. Within the 
 last few years a considerable trade ha.s grown up 
 along the shores of the Anumr. In the year I8(j4 
 there arrived 9 foreign ships at Nicolaicvsk, name- 
 ly — 3 American, 2 (iermaii, and 4 Danish. In lM(i4 
 a Russian government steamer o])enctl the naviga- 
 tion of the Pocmgari, ascending a distance of iip- 
 Avards of 600 miles, as far as the Chinese town of 
 (iiiirine, a most populous place, estimated to con- 
 tain above 100,000 inhabitants. The Russian na- 
 val force in the Amoor river was composed, in 
 18(!4, of G corvettes, mounting 11 guns each; 7 
 schooners, each of them with G guns; and 11 steam 
 transports, with a total of 37 guns. (Consular 
 Reports; Ravenstein, E.G.; The Russians on the 
 Amur, Lond. 1861.) 
 
 AMOR(t() (an. Amorgos), an island of the Gre- 
 cian Archipelago, about 36 m. in circumference, 
 lying SE. from Naxia, in about 36° 50' N. lat., 
 and under the 26th deg. of E. long. Pop. esti- 
 mated at between 2,000 and 8,000. It is in part 
 mountainous and rocky ; but, in antiquity, it was 
 noted for its fertility, and is still well cultivated, 
 producing more com and wine than the inhabitants 
 can consume. It contains a town of the same 
 name. Port St. Anna, on the N. shore of the 
 island, is an excellent harliour, with goo<l anchor- 
 ing ground in from 18 to 20 fathoms. Simonides, 
 famous in antiquity for his iambics, was a native 
 of Amorgos. 
 
 AMOUR (ST.), a town of France, dep. Jura, 
 cap. cant. 9 m. SW. Lons-le-Saulhier. Pop. 2,343 
 in 1861. It has a forge, a nail work, a considerable 
 marble work, and tanneries 
 
 iiii! 
 
 
 
 I-/^U,P' 
 
 U*v;^ 
 
! I 
 
 ^1. 
 
 112 AMOY 
 
 AMOY, fi Hrn-port town nfCliinn, pMV. Koldrn, 
 with Ik I'liiniiiiHliiiiiH mill Ncciirr liiirliniir; lal. '21" 
 
 HI' N., Illtl^r. UN" 10' K. It Ih OIK) of tllM iioriM 
 
 iinw o|i<<n to I'tiri'ixii tniilx in Cliinii. 'I'lioii^li mIiii- 
 iili'il ill oiiit of till! IciiHi frriilc (liNtrii'iM of tliii 
 nii|iirt', llio iiKTi'liiiiilH of Aiiioy ciirrv on n very 
 «'Xl('ii.'«ivi' iiiliTiMtiirHf with Korniomi, wli*-iii'«> tlicy 
 itii|iorl iiroviMJoMH, with the oilu'r ('hiiii>N« jMirlM to 
 the N, iiikI S„ mill with Simii, .liivii, Siii^aiMirit, 
 the Siio-liHi isliiniN, Ai: Kx|HirtN to I'tirciKii coiiii- 
 trii'N, ten, mill nilk ; iiii|MirtH, rir<>, Hiipir, runi|ihor, 
 Ai; III iHti'J till- iniiiilx'r of HriliHli vchhi-Ik ciitcr- 
 iiit; till' port WHS — Nti'itnicrH I'Jti; Hiuliii){ vckhoIh 
 !>7; total tonnaK<'< ^'(■■'ll'.i. 'I'htt niiinhcrof foroiKii 
 vosimOm, other than llriliHli, wiut '<!til ; tonnage, 
 Ttt.V.tM. Tlu! iHtiinatt'il vahin of the ex|MirtH in 
 llrllish vcsmcIh, in Spanish ilollarM, waH 2,<lt)'2,<)'l!i 
 (:t<.Mi,2-.>()/.) ; ini|N>rtM, in SpaiiiHh ilollarH, it/i!) 1 ,1)2 1 . 
 'riiere hail Ikm-ii a very j^rcat il«'(.Ti'aM<! in the traile 
 as coinpaml with IHIHI anil l«til, owinj,' ••hielly to 
 the hravy exactions levied liy liieal aullioriticn. 
 (('iiiiMiilar Iteports.) 
 
 AMI'l'INtJ, n villaKo of Ilavarin, fl m. W. by 
 N. Miihlilorf. A i^rent hattle was fou^'hf in the 
 viiiiiity of this vilia^ce, on the 2Mth Septemlier, 
 l:)22, hetweeii Louis, duke of Kavaria, eni|)i<ror of 
 <ierniaiiy, and Frederick, arehdnke of Aiistria, 
 when the latter was entirely defeated and made 
 prisoner. (I'letlel, anno l.'!22.) It. was from this 
 point, also that Aloreau commenced his famons 
 retreat in I Ml 10. 
 
 AMl'LKITIS, a town of France, dep. Itlione, 
 J!» m. W.SW. Villefranche. Pop. 5,:U I in IWll. 
 It luiH niannfactnruH of linen nnd cotton, particu- 
 larly the latter. 
 
 AMI'TIIIMj, n m. town and p. of England, co. 
 ]k>df(ird, h. ItedlMirnstokc, 4/>A m. NW. London. 
 I'op. 2,011 in IKtil. It is neatly liiiilt, has a cha- 
 rity Kchool for li) poor children, and an hospital 
 for 10 poor men and women. Ampthill I'ark, a 
 niii<;ni(icpnt mansion, the property of Lord Hol- 
 land, is Hitiiated a little to the W. of the town. 
 
 AMPUIMAS, a town and castle of Spain, NE. 
 |)art of (.'atalonia, on the Llohre^rat, near the sea, 
 24 m. NE. (Jerona. Po]). 2,r)00 in 1857. 
 
 AMlfAN, a walled city of Arabia, in the Dsjc- 
 bel, or mountain land of Yemen, Wmg the chief 
 town of a district of the same name; lat 15° 82' 
 N., loll},'. 'i;J° iW E. ; 25 m. NW. Sanaa, anil 104 
 NE. Hodeida. Pop. unknown, but may probably 
 nmonnt to from 1,500 to 2,000. It stands near a 
 mountain, in a fertile country, in the centre of the 
 coffee lands, the dcj). to which it gives name bein); 
 a ])art of Haiichid-u-]{ckel, one of the most noted 
 divisions of Yemen for the >;rowth of coftee. Ara- 
 ran is not, however, politically united with the 
 state of Haschid-u-Itckel, but is under the govern- 
 ment of the Imam of Y'emen Proper. (Niebuhr, 
 Des. de I'Ar,, par. ii. pp. 127-220.) 
 
 AMKliTSIU or UMKITSIK (Pool of Immor- 
 talltu), a town of the Punjab, India, the holy city 
 of the Seikh peojile, 44 m. E. Lahore; lat. 31° 
 aa' N., long. 43° 38' E. Pop. estimated at 5)0,000. 
 It is un open town, about 8 m. in circ. ; streets 
 narrow ; houses lofty, and built of burnt bricks, 
 but the apartments are small. Manufactures in- 
 considerable ; l)ut being situated on the high road 
 between Cabool and Delhi, and Cachmere and the 
 Dcccan, it enjoys an extensive trade, and is the 
 residence of several rich merchants and bankers. 
 It is defended by a fort built by the Kunjeet Singh, 
 who united it to the Kavee by a canal 34 m. in 
 length. 
 
 i'he town derives its entire celebrity from its 
 being the principal seat of the Seikh reUgion. 
 Aniretsir, or the Pool of Immortality, is a basin 
 135 paces square, built of brick, in tlie midst of 
 
 AMSTERDAM 
 
 which U n temple, eoviTed with ' bimdshod ({ii|,| 
 (Hiirnrt), dedii'Mted to the warrior Hiiiiii tiiH.^,, 
 I iiiviiid Singh, the principal fniinder of the ri'lit;i<,|, 
 and power of the Seikhs. Within this Ii'iii|>If i, 
 jtreserved, under asilkun raiiop\ , the (Irinlh Siii,,!, 
 or sncred Imok of the Seikhs, U'ilig a eiHle nf !„»] 
 and ordiiiaiii'es, priiieipally eiinipiled by tluMilkit, 
 sainl. 'I'he temple is attended liy a nuini'riiii»l«a|v 
 of priests, who are supported by the voliiniiin' 
 oll'i rings of the devotees Ity whom it is frei|iii'iiih|. 
 ImmerHion in the sacred pisil is iM'lieveij \,\ ii,, 
 Seikhs, and many tribes of Hindoos, to I'mriiv 
 from all sin. 
 
 In 18 Ki a treaty was signed at Aniretiilr, 
 wliii'h the territory enniprised lietweeii the rivir. 
 Itens and SiitleJ was led to the Itritish, 
 
 'I'he total annual value of the iraih' of AmM.jf I 
 is estimated to exceed 1,000,000/. sterling, il,, | 
 most important items lieiiig — shawl fahrirs, dIjh 
 2;i5,<lt)0/, ; cotton piece giHids, 235,tit)0/. ; raw mIL I 
 I 17,000/.; silk fabrics, 18,(100/.; spices, drii(rH,i;r^ | 
 eery, and halicrdashery, I'ltl.otto/.; and tea, Iii.ihni/ 
 The remainder is made up of a great vnrit'iyufl 
 articles, including madder, alum, indign, tuUnn\ 
 sugar. Jewels, and cochineal. The silk nmim. 
 faciiire is a very ini|H>rtant one at Amretsir, iu< h,;| 
 as at Lahore and Alooltaii. The raw silk Is Jrji. 
 ported from Kokand, llokhara, Kalkh, Klmlm. i 
 Kashmir, and other part.s of Central A.^iu; (»« 
 Mengikl, and from China liv hoinbay. The ^Tniii't 
 portion of the trade is with Afghanistan iiinlCin. 
 tral Asia. Amretsir is the princiiial iiiiirt iiiili«| 
 I 'un jab for the cotton fabrics of MancliesttT, ili 
 golii thread of Agra and Delhi, the metal iitcii-i! 
 of Hindustan, the sugar grown in the HiimiiiiKlin 
 alluvial plains, and the grain and cattle nf tw| 
 neighbourhood. Founded about one liiiiulrod ycari I 
 ago, the town is now the terminus of a rnilwiir | 
 from Mooltan by Lahore, and the seat nf siini! 
 and silk manufat^turcs, and is advancing yi'iirlv in I 
 wealt h and population. It is proposed to coiMnin I 
 a road from Laliorc to Peslmwur, which willjfrpailt I 
 facilitate the trade Ijetwecn Amn'tsir and tlip liiti«l 
 place, through which is the principal trade vithl 
 Afghanistan and Central Asia. A further impiiUl 
 will be imparted by o railway lietween Aiiirei-iij 
 and Delhi in course of construction. (I{c|i(irti/| 
 Mr. Davies on Trade of Central Asia, 18t;.l.) 
 
 AMSTERDAM, a famous marit. and commet' I 
 cial city of Holland, cap. prov. N. Holland, mid i( I 
 a district and cant, of the same name, on tliei\| 
 bank of the Y, an inlet or arm of the ZuydcrZce,! 
 where it is joined bv the Amstel; lat. 52° 22' l"j 
 N., long. 4° 53' 15" iC. Being situated in amaril 
 its buililings are all founded on ])iles driven fn«il 
 40 to 50 icet into a soil consisting of alluvial (l«-l 
 posits, peat, clay, and sand. The canals bvwUl 
 It is everj'w^here intcrsecteil, aiul along which til 
 heavy burdens are conveyed, divide it into M 
 islands, and are crossed by about 290 bridges, panljl 
 wood and partly stone. Its form is that of a cwl 
 cent or half moon, the honis on either side pi 
 jecting into the Y, and inclosing the port. Ontifl 
 Imid side it is surrounded by walls having 20 b» I 
 tions and a wide diteh ; but its ramparts Imvebenl 
 ]>lanted with trees, aiul converted into public walkil 
 and boulevards ; tlie only defence of the towncoo-l 
 sisting in the facility with which the surr()iimliiij| 
 country might be laid underwater. Itisfruu*! 
 to 9 m. in circ., and covers a space of nhiiiit |»ll 
 acres. The Amstel, which runs through tlie citvj 
 divides it into two nearly equal portions; thattti 
 the E. of the river being termed the old, and tliiil 
 to the W. the new city. In the centre and oldesl 
 portion of the city, on both sides the Amstel, iiil 
 cluster of irregular streets and canals ; but il»l 
 streets and canals round this central nucleus ml 
 
AMSTI'IfDAM 
 
 11.1 
 
 ' ImniUlird ^iM' 
 iiir Hiiitit <i(air<, 
 |)<r III' till' ri'lii;i.,ii 
 ill tliin t<'iii|ili' I, 
 111" (Iriiitli .s'«*i*, 
 Hf II cimIc iif Inn, 
 ilnl liy Ihi' n\*,\, I 
 n iiiinii'riiii!«lii>|t 
 »y till' vi'liiiiinn I 
 n it ii* rr<'(|iii'Mii.i|. 
 
 « Irt'lil'Vl'll liy llir I 
 
 iiuliHiK, III imriit 
 
 nt AiiirolKir, 
 I'twoi'ii tliM rivih 
 i> MritiHli. 
 triidf <>l' Amrct-ir 
 i|)l)/. HtiTlin^, \U 
 awl fiilirirw, iilHnit 
 lf».(i(t(>/, ! raw »iH, 
 miici''*, (Irnxsun- 
 .; mill li'U, lt»,i»»'( 
 Ik itu-nt vnrii'ly 4 
 in, iiiil'ipi. tiiluiiY", 
 
 'I'lip xllk mniiii- 
 nt. Anirclxir. ih«(;! 
 riic raw nilk i^iu- 
 II, Kalkh, Kliiilm, 
 /('iitral Ah'ih; lri.ffl 
 iiibay. 'I'ln' uri'iun 
 rliaiiistaii amj IVn. 
 iiiciiial marl in th* 
 
 (if MaiK'lu'StlT, 111? 
 
 i, tin- metal iitwiMli 
 1 ill the Hiirrmiiiilin; 
 1 iiiul cattle iif iW 
 it oncluiiKlredywt 
 ■iiiiiiiiH of n rftllvK 
 ,1 tho weat of xlia*! 
 advniieiiiK yinrly ii 
 brolMmed to ronstnirt 
 r, whiiili will (,TPaik 
 nretHirnndtliolami 
 miM'iiMil trailc with 
 A further im|iuU 
 iH'twcen Aniret<ii 
 ruction. (heiHirtirf 
 al Asia, IHt!;!.) 
 marit. ntitl cummw- 
 . N. Holltind, ttii<li( 
 no imme, on the !\ 
 1 of the ZuyrterZw. 
 ltd; lat.f)20 2-2ir 
 Hituatcd inamarA 
 n pile» driven (m 
 stinR of olluvial lie- 
 The canals bvwliifk 
 md along which lil 
 1, divide it into « 
 it 290 bridges, partlt 
 irm is that of a cm- 
 on cither side p* 
 _ug the port. On tin 
 Brails having 20 b» 
 J ramparts have bM 
 ted into public walti 
 mccof thetown(^* 
 lich the surrounJic? 
 water. It is fwi* 
 
 space of alxi"' '•'"' 
 ins through the city, 
 
 lal portions; that* 
 led the old, and it* 
 [he centre and olta 
 ides the Amsteliii 
 ind canals ; hut '» 
 central nucleus « 
 
 ri..«ilv rririiliir. nnd pnrnlli'l In eneh other. 'I'line 
 
 I .,| llii-r sIriilH. Ilie llriTill. I\i'.\ -iT-i. aixl I'rilli'i'll 
 lirmhi. «f'' ""' eM'ily lo be liiiili'bed in any nllier 
 ,iiv "I r.i""!"' f'" ''"■''^ It'iiKlb. uiillli. Mini Ibe 
 runl'iif 10"' elf;.'aiiiM' <if Ibeir biiijiliii;;^. 'I'biy 
 :,'r,. null "I""" '-* •"■'"•'«• abiiiil -.'Jil (,v{ bniiiil : 
 !,,i,| iMlJiiwillH the illri'i'linli iif llie iilller Wall of 
 
 il,.' lity, ttliii'b it Ibat of a |iolyKoiial cretcciii, 
 
 lin,. all Ibe I'"""* IKTleclly Hlrai;,'bl betwccil llie 
 imiu'iilar [■■iiiil«. Tbe limi^es are lar^e and well 
 liiill; a eaiial, eniH'X'd by iiiiiiieriuM Nlmie brii|y;i'> 
 Lii,| linrdiTi'il with lree». rillix duwil tbe lllidijle iif 
 h iif ihi'^'e str.'ilx, tbe Mpaeet mi luidi siiles 
 |l«iin: well paved ami ligbled. at it iiiileiil ijir 
 ,;,.,. willi all Ibe iitber Ntreels, 'I'lie |iriiii'ipal 
 Liii.p«Mri' ill tbe Kalveri Slraal, tbe Nleiiweinlyk, 
 „„| ilii' WMriiioiK Slraat. Tbe imaiter (i.'eii|iie(| 
 ,\ llie .lews it Ibe illrtie.ti pari of llie Inwii, Many 
 iii-diit mid ntber.t lH'liiiif;in;{ lo Ibe iiiiiiriTela^-ieH 
 iiluiliit rellart under the liniitcn of tlir mure iipii- 
 liiii ; ami a great many rer«ii|e eimslanlly on ibe 
 iiir, ill I'liiiifortable a|iiirtiiii'nlt Iniili on ibe 
 ii|,|Nrilei'kt of Ibeir trading vetwels, inure parlieii- 
 liirlv ilii^e enipliiyed in inlainl iiavlKiilinn. '{'lie 
 ii'.iM, wliiili are all <if briek, are generally I ur 
 iiirii'K liigbi inid have ibeir gables Ui llie sir-,'!, 
 liiiiv ciltlieni are (■iiii«tnii'leil in an elegant style, 
 III iiinie of tbeiii are Mplendidly lltlecj up. 
 Of llie public buildings, tbe palaee, fnnnerly 
 I' «iiiill-lii'ute (ti>wn-b(inse), i:t tbe iiiD.st iiiag- 
 liiii'i'iit. Il HtiiudH III an open xpaee or sijiiare, 
 llie Paiuiii. Tbis line Hlriu-lure, regardeil 
 v ilic hiiteli at tbe eiglilli wonder of tbe wurld. 
 ini'ted nil a fciundatiim nf l;i,(!.'i!i piles; it i.t 
 .'fret ill lengtli, '2:io in depth, and I Mi liigli, 
 rlihive of tbe cupula, wliieli is 11 feel lil;;ber, 
 iii| Iriiin llie tup of wliieli Ibere is an excellenl 
 littiif Ibin shigillar city. Willi tbe exeeplimi 
 ilii' griiiind tliiiir, wliieli is of briek, il is built 
 tr('i'>tiiiie. Tbe ball-room, represcnled as one 
 till' liiietl in Kuriijie, is said to be I'JH feet long. 
 ill width, and !)li in beiglil. Tbe fiinndatiiiii.i 
 ilio ("tadt-boii.te were laid in llilH, and it was 
 lidinl in tbe short space of 7 years. .Viiinng 
 illier public biiiliiiiigs are. tbe exelwinge, 
 iiinili'd in HilW, and capable of accommoilating 
 JiHl |icr»(ius ; i\uy hotel iff villi; fnnnerly Ibe ad- 
 iriltvillie nuiseum, eniitaining an excellent 
 lirliiin nf about .'idO |iiclures, including wevenil 
 ■tcr-jiicees, |iriiicipally of the Diitcb and Fle- 
 li M'liiiiil.s; the arsenal, built on the isliiiid of 
 iicniiiirg: and tbe buildings of tbe sneiety of 
 i:i Mcritln, having a superb concert ball. Of 
 rlinrches, that most worlliy of utteutioii, tbe 
 w Chnreh. was begun in 1 KIS. It contains 
 111' line niiiiiuiiienis, ]mrticularly one in boiionr 
 till' brave admiral De l.'iiyter. Tbe painted 
 windiiws of the (Hil ('liundi, dedicated to St. 
 rliiilns, are ainong the linest in Kurope. 'I'liere 
 in all about .00 places of worship, ainong wbieb 
 >(wtii\ synagogues, the .lews being supposed 
 jainiiunt to about 1(1,(10(1, The principal bridge 
 T the Amstel. near where it outers the city, 
 feet in length by (i4 in breadth, with 11 
 Ihi's, through wliich large ships jiass. Tbe bar- 
 Iks, bnilt liy the French, three wcigh-liouses, 
 two ancient towers, called Imrring toMcrs, 
 It'ne to be noticed. In 1H22, tbe wareboiises 
 kinaliylmilt for tbe East India Company being 
 Ivily laden with corn, their foundations gave 
 f. and they sunk halfway ihiwn in the earth. 
 ImonR the literary institutions is the Alhe- 
 m. or college, with 10 or 12 professors, a good 
 firy, an anatomical theatre, and n botanical 
 pli'n. There are here also a school of naviga- 
 Pj a royal academy of the line arts, founded in 
 .with 6 professors; t be Amsterdam Institute, 
 I'll. I. 
 
 or So illy nf f'llir }firil!i>\ and n sociely nf I'lib- 
 lie I'lilily, fiMiinlril on iin i\li'ii«ive miih' In I7h7. 
 Seliniilt nf Ibi' bi'sl i|i'..i riplinll, fnr the KrilluilnllH 
 I'dlli'iilinll nf Ibe pimr. lirr fnlllld ill eViry part nf 
 
 Ibe Inwii; and iniiriii'linii limy be «aiil In Ih' uni- 
 versally ditVuted. There are tbree ibealres. 'I'lie 
 workhniiti's, bos|iiials, iiilinnarles, ibe bniite nf 
 
 cnrreetinli, or rasp-boilse, ibe nriibail bnll'.e, Ibe 
 eslablisbiiieiil fnr widow>, llie Innalie asyluui, 
 wilb Ibe iiiiinerniit nllier ebarilable e>lalilis|i- 
 iiieiils, may be cited at inndils nf i^nnd nrder, 
 cleaiiliiiffs, and ecniinmv, Tbe bo..pital fnr the 
 
 old and iinligeiit of bnlii sexes, nil llie (piay nf 
 
 the ,\mt|el, is admiraldy I'niitrived fnr Ibe cniii 
 fnrt ami cniivenieiiee nf its ininaiet. The luiililing 
 is '.'lid feet Inn;;, by ■.'.'10 deep, and .'t stiirii's high. 
 It bat galleries and a Kardeii wbere iit neenplers 
 elljny tile fresh air. There is here, a'ld in nt'ier 
 Idltidl Inwilt, a flats III' prnviilellt ill^lilillinil.. nr 
 asyliimt, nliicb iidinit a^ed per-'nii-- nC bntli mx's 
 nil piiytneiit nf a cniiipiiralivi ly tniall sum. M it- 
 ters ami iiii..tri ^ses freipi.'iitlv rew aid nil and f.iilb- 
 fiil servants, bv piiyiie,' fnr tlieir adiiiissinii iiiln mie 
 
 of Ihete exeellenl ii|t|ltlllinlis. 
 
 The innullit nf tbe canalt npeiiing inin the V 
 and nf Ibe Amstel are prnvided with stmii'^' llnnd- 
 gates; and on tbe side nf the Inwii nearest the 
 sea a new dyke has been (■iiii'-lriieted In ),'iiard 
 against inumlatiniis, The hMrlnnir it s|iaeinut a'ld 
 secure; tbe largest sbi|'s ciimiiig elnse In the ipiavs 
 and wareboiitcs. It Ium reeeiitly been inneli ini- 
 proM'il by tbe formiitinii nf ilneks and basiftx At 
 the pniiit where the V jiiins the /liy der /ee there 
 is a b;ir, called the I'mnpiis, wliieb ciinnot Imi 
 ernssed by large sliijis unless pre\i'msly liiibtelied. 
 To obviate the iiicoiivenienees arising I'lniii tbis 
 ciri'imistance, and the (liingirs and delays nrca- 
 siiined by tbe .sballnwness and dillii'iilty nf iia\ i- 
 gatiiig the /iiyder /ee, a ship canal has been 
 eniistriicted frnin Ainsterdani In tbe Ilelder. Tbis 
 iiiilile wnrk is abmit .'lOA m. in length: ami being 
 ■-'0 feet !l inches deep, aillilits large ships. Its h'vel 
 is that nf the highest tides, the niily locks it re- 
 quires being one at each end: but it has twn sliiicoH 
 in the intermediate space. It was begun in |M|!>, 
 and tini-hed in \H->,'), at an expense nf about 
 1,(100,00(1/. The dues are moderate: and it has 
 been nf the greatest service to Anislerd.iin, by 
 giving it, as it were, a decji-watcr liarbonron the 
 most accessible part of the Dutch coast. 
 
 Tbe maniitiiciures of Ainsterdani, iK'sides va- 
 rious branches of those of wool, linen, cntlon, and 
 silk, comprise sail-cloth, relineries of sugar, bo- 
 rax, sal-anmioniac, sulphur, ^c. : with ilisiillerieR 
 and breweries, tanneries, lobacco-manufaetnries, 
 imn-fnuiiileries, rope-walks, snialt/.-works, gjis- 
 works, soap-works, nil mills, A-c. Sliip-bnildiiig 
 is extensis'ely carried on. The art of cutting 
 diamonds and other stones liir tbe lapidaries has 
 here attained to great perfection. About 10,000 
 ]iersons, !t,(IOO of whom are .lews, are engaged in 
 the trade, and the annual value nf the tratlic in 
 )irecious stones ainoimts to .'")(),00(»,000 tlnrins. 
 .lewcllery, gold lace, itc. are also largely iiroiliiced. 
 Hut Amsterdam is far more distinguished as n 
 trading than as a manufacturing city. Through- 
 out tbe 17th century, and the first half of the 
 I Hill, she was what Kondon is at present, the me- 
 tro|M)lis of the commercial world, ( Jradually, how- 
 ever, ]>artly in consequence of the o|i|iressiveiiess 
 of the public burdens, but more, perhaps, of the 
 growth of commerce and navigation in Knglaiiil 
 and other countries, she lost the greater part of 
 the carrying trade, which she had neany en- 
 grossed, at the .same time that her lislieries and 
 foreign trade progressively fell off. During t\\'. 
 subjugation of Holland by France, her colonics 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 AMHTKUr)A>T 
 
 ' 
 
 Ml in»o tht> hniDli) of I'.nulimil, hrr >«l(l|m ilixip- I 
 |M>ari'<| rriiin ilif m'h, ami iId' irailr i>l' AiimtiTiliini 
 Will) aliniiKt ntiiiiliilMli'il, Itiii iiiiiwilli'liiMiliiiK 
 Iht'Mi' iiiitiiwiiril I'vi'iitH, mill iIiim xitrlioiin lo wliii'li 
 hIk' wjim ri'|M<itlri|ly niiIiji rii'il, xlii' |iri'Hi'r\t'i| lirr 
 iiiilii^lrv mill II vaxt aiiiniiiit nC fapilah ami ii'> 
 niiiiiii'r hail |H'ari' In'i'Ii ri'Mtiiri'il mill llnllaml IiikI 
 riM-iivi'ri'il a |K>rliiiii uI'Ikt nilmiifit, iliaii ilic ciiiii- 
 iiirrri' of AiiiHiiTilarii U't^nn ra|iitlly to liitTcaMi' ; 
 ami rliniiKli Hiill far nliorl of Iin amiiiil iiii|Hirt 
 aiiri', il m now of vi-r> i-oiiMiilcrnlilit ^xtriit uml 
 
 Vllllll'. 
 
 Tim iiiiiMirlt |irlnci|inlly ronniiit of mi^nr, coftVt', 
 
 NjiirrK, liiliai'i'ii, riitliill, Ira, llnliKo. < llllK'Hl, wll«' 
 
 niiil liraiiily, wiml, ^'riiiii oC all -uirti*, tiiiilHr, piU'li 
 ami tar, lii'in|i ami Max, iron, IiIiIi'n, liiim, niltoii 
 ami tviHillm nhillH, liarilwart-, mrk niiIi, tin jilaii'S 
 loal, ami ilrinl IIkIi. 'I'Ih' <-x|HiriM I'liii.xiHl parlly 
 III' till' iiniiinri' III' lliillaiiil, iiarlly ol' tlif |iriHliiri' 
 III' liiT |iiiNHi'«HionH in llif IminI iiihI Went liiilii'M 
 ami ollu'r tro|iical cunntrii'M, ami partly of rotn- 
 iiiiiiliilcN liri)ii(;lii to AiiiHti'nlain a^lo a I'lmvi'iiii'iit 
 
 riitrr/mt I'riini ilitViTrllt plirtM ol' I'liiriilNi, ( tr till' 
 llrMt I'laHH an' I'liiM'Kt' ami liiittrr; iniuliU'r; clover, 
 rape. Iii'iiip ami llax smln ; rnpr ami liiiHccil oil*: 
 Ihiti'li liiii'ii, iVf. (ii'iit'va il* prinripnily I'xpnrti'il 
 I'mni Srliit'ilitni uml Itoltcrilani (no Ii"*m lliiiii 
 .'MMi.OiMi lam-H wen- iliMpatiliiil to Aiixtraiiii in 
 I >«!'.') ; oak liark principally rnnii the latter. (H 
 the Hceoiiil cIiimh are xpicex ; Mocha ami .lava cof- 
 fee ; Hii^ar iif.lavu, llra/il, amICiilia; cocliincal, 
 inili;;ii. cotton, tea, toliacco, anil all NortM of caHterii 
 ami coiiiniiil proiliictH. Ami of the lliinl cI.'imm, all 
 kiinls of ^'raiii ; lineiiH fniin (icrinany ; tinilieriiml 
 all MiirtHof Haltic proiliice; SpaniMli, tierniaii, ami 
 l''.ii^Mi.-*li wooIh ; rremli, Itlienixh, anil Hungarian 
 wiiieK, hranily, A'c. The trade of AinMlcnlani may, 
 imieoil, lie liaiil to coinpriMe every article that 
 «'iiterH into the coniinerce. of Kiirope. The total 
 value of the iinporlH anil ex|Mirts are respectively 
 cMiniateil at alimit :i,oiM),il(l(i/. or I,(I(MI,imhi/. From 
 ti'JO to '2>'lii lar^e MliipH U'loii^ to .Vnixtenlam, eni- 
 iiloved ill the trailu to the K, ami \V. Imliex, the 
 Itattic, vVc. Then? in little coastiiifi traile; the 
 commin.ication with ino.it other |)iitch towns 
 licin;; principally kept up liy canalri anil niilwayH. 
 'I'lie total nnmlierol Mliipi of all wirtH entering; the 
 port ainoiint.M, at an averM^,-e, to alHiiit 2,"J0ii n year. 
 In IHti'J only l,72o vesne Is entered the port, ii con- 
 Hidenililo decrease from the pn'cedin^ year, Ain- 
 
 witli 
 
 mill, ill iMfll, to mviol. .VolwuhMnniliiiB ih, 
 lily U Hiirniiimleil on all Nii|f< wi'l' tvater, ami n,.,. 
 the Kreatot care and nitinil' tin> nijiiiri'd i, 
 pn'M'iit itM Im'Iiiu iiiiliiner((i'il, ii Inlxinrit uuilir, 
 loial want of xpriii^ wiiter. I'lic Malir in it 
 riNcr and canal" U'liiix liltliy. tirarkiHli, miil i,,|,,|;, 
 iiiilll for iM'. the iiihaliitantx an' partly >ii|i|,h^| 
 liy mill water can'fnlly cnllected in tmik», tni i 
 partly liy water liniiit{lit in a peculiar ilcrirnpiimi 
 of liarp'i* from the Veclil, tl or 7 m. iliNlaiil. |i>. | 
 "pile thi" want of ({inmI |Hiiiilile water, the hinn, 
 ilily of the alinimplnre, and the ellliiviaKi'iiinil*! I 
 in warm weiithcr i'mm the w iter of the caiiiil., i|, 
 town i.i fn'e from eiiideiiiic conlerN, and iIh' n, 
 haliltanl" an' healtiiy and ioIhikI, Mimi |>rul,.|i.|, I 
 tlli't if* owiii^ in a coilKldernlde de^^ni' to ihv ,-vai. 
 fortalile ninilc of living ol Ihe hulk of thr \»;,y\r 
 the pri'valence iif cIciiiilineKM, in will' li llic llm,;, 
 an' Hiiperior lo all oilier iialioii'*; and ihc iihonrri 
 of extreme povcrtv and deniitiilion. 
 
 The tolcialion tliat pr> vailMiit Am"terdnni< 
 honour to the peoiilc and the Kovcrnineiit, 'Hir|.j 
 i" hen' every vanity nfKcct; liiil they arc cli.ii,. 
 uni"lied liv nothiiu' "o much as l>y their ali-tiimh, 
 fnmi theolii^ical di-«'ii""ionN, and !iy their ii|i|iiiM: 
 n'Npecl for the opinioiiH of other". 1 1 hum n ; 
 however, he inferred that the tolcratlnii iaI.iih, 
 hen' and in the n'nl of llollaml — a lolcriitinii g 
 !■ c| in _/!«!■< iiH'vell a" in law — has its nriciii inaul 
 .JiKrec ofapmii_, . illi respect lo n'Mnimi. dn 
 any irn'liKions tendencies mi tlu? pari of llii'|a.. 
 pie; such a concliisiiiii would lie utterly errniii.ijj 
 iienerally sjH'akiiiK, the Kollanders, wliiiii'viriiirT 
 he their particular n'lif;ioui* pnifi's>ioii, mv tin| 
 helievers, and devilled to the practice nl' |iir:i 
 This virtue pervades all classes of smicty, .\it.| 
 stenlam for a>;es has lieeii ii 'city of rrl'iiL,'!' 
 the oppn-ssed mid |H'rseciited of all iiatiiiii*: irtl 
 iherein lies one of the main causes of its wcaliil 
 ami pmspcrity, 
 
 III every part of Ilollund, hut no wlicrr imcl 
 than at Anistenlam, do we llnd pniofs uf iIm' 
 nishiiiK power of in^'iiuity, industry, iniil |Nr«^i 
 I veraiice. This ^reat city is not i: I'ly liiiiliiiiil 
 niarsli, liiil is constantly exposed lo tlie rl<U| 
 Ik'Iii^ overwhelmed liy the iiillucnce of liiuli li.ifil 
 and storms. Itiit this danger has Im'cii I'tVi'itiuST 
 pnivided against; and the waters liy wliii'li ili| 
 city is all hut sumuindeil, niiil wlijcli iK'uiiniil 
 every one of its streets, nro under coiiiplcto »l 
 tml, mill made to coutriluitc to the coniliirt tC 
 nccomintHlation of the inhaliitnnts. The vitt 
 
 fit' 
 
 sterdam has re^ilar sttMiin coinmunicalion 
 llarlin^^'ii, iluinliur)^s London, and Hull, and is 
 
 connected liy railways with the lla|riioy liottenlum, 1 necessary for the piihlii! safety and protwti'in 
 ttiul Aniliem. The trade of Anistenlam is chielly j (|uire, however, to Im) watched over with iiniw 
 with Australia, ,lava, (iuinea, .lapun, ('liili, Kin: vifrilance; uml a lar^e annual ex|M'iiditiiri' i' 
 (l<! hi Plata, the Mediterranean, Sweden, Norway, \ ciirred in keispiii)^ them in tfoml repair, ami 
 tlie Haltic, and the While Sea. The trade with 
 Kn^land is decreasing;. 
 
 The merchants of Amstcniam were formerly 
 most nxtensive dealers in hills of exchange, and 
 in nil sorts of funded iiroperty and ^overnnu^nt 
 securities; but London is now, in this res|H'ct, far 
 Hii|KTior to her old rival : the latter, however, still 
 enjoys a lurt^c share uf the exchange business of 
 the (Jontiiient, and many of her capitalists arc 
 larjje holders of foreign securities. 
 
 The old bank of Amstenlam, founded in 160!), 
 and so celebrated amoiij; the moneyed institutions 
 of the iHth century, ceased to exist in I "!>(>, on 
 the invasion of Holland by the French, The pre- 
 sent bank of the Nethcrlunds was established in 
 1814, Insurance business is extensively carried on. 
 
 Amsterdam is scarcely more populous now than 
 it was eifjhty years aj;o. In 1785 the |)op. is said 
 to have amounted tu 235,000. It had declined in 
 1814, the epoch of its greatest depression, to 
 180,000; and it amounted, in 1841, to 211340, 
 
 dredging and ideuring the |Hirt and cinialK. 
 
 Notwithstanding the superabundance nf vriis 
 there is not, owing to the tlutness of the Mli 
 single water mill in Holland. There are, himtiif 
 immense iinimliers of wind mills, eniiiluvdl 
 (piently to pump up water from the low j.'muw 
 as well as. to grind com, and crush seciln. Tin 
 is a larp' windmill ou every one of the lia.«tiM| 
 by which Amstenlam is surrounded. 
 
 Amstenlam has been sometimes called the V| 
 nice ot the North ; and in respect of nitnaM 
 numbir of canals, and the niagniliccnee nfii 
 public and private edifices, it certainly U'lirsavd 
 strikijig resemblance to the Venice of the S«r 
 Hut ich of tliese. great cities has, notwithstiimlii 
 a perfectly original and distinctive chariu'tor. 
 
 Ill the 12tli century, Amsterdam was uiiljj 
 snuill lishing village ; in 1482, it was fortiliotl. - 
 tli«" outset of the revolutionary stniggle with Si« 
 tl'r Duke of Alva having expelled the I'mteifl 
 In. in the city, and committed the governiiccil 
 
AMMTKKDAM IS].\S]) 
 
 l„.„|„ii( t'lillKilirs it Mi|i|M.r|..| I'.if a Irii^tliiniil 
 i^rii"! lliriiiii""' "I 'li" Nuiiiiiinl' ! inul i| u.i< iml 
 
 I till |.i7»< lliill It Ji'iiiicl til iilrili rill ion. I''riirii 
 
 , i'|i4x li II Ih-|XiIII ril|>l<llv III ilirri'MX'. I'lic IIIukI 
 
 ANAM on ANNAM 
 
 IM 
 
 till 
 
 mill' 
 
 ,.|r toli'riltiiiii Ix'illU K^*l<l*'<l til nil Mt'i'ln, ll 
 
 IhiiiiiiH 1111 ii'.vl'i'" •"f III"""' ilrix I'll liy |»r«i'riitiiiii 
 |iy,,,„ ll tlnr liiSMii III' till' (.iiw ( 'iiiiiilrii'" inul 
 
 ,|.i«llirr. rili'r|ii>(llK ll|> III' till' Si'liclilt, ill It'ijX, 
 
 ll,,ii,(,rri'il till' uri'iiti'C |iiirt nl' tlii' Iridi'iil' AiituiTji 
 III. ViiniiTiliiiiK iiii'l riii-u'il llii- liillcr III till' lii^iii'^i 
 
 llH,'li"r|in.-|'''''">' 
 
 AM>III;I>\.M ISf.AM). n dMinli lull n iimrk 
 
 liil.jr i-l.iii'l ii' ••"' ^- l""<li'>'i ".M'liii, liil, .'17 J IT' S., 
 
 ,inr, ;r,'j ."i I' I'!., Iiiiiitf i\ III. ill li'iiKili, liy •.'4 in 
 
 ||,f,.i^|ili,iuiil 7<HI I'n't liiijli. ll it iili\ iiiii-l\ III' vol 
 
 i.iiii.' rHriiiilliiill. A liir;^'r |iiirliiill it iii'ril|iir.l liy 
 
 tliiit liii' iiiiiliiiilili'illy Ih'i'II 11 iiiiiixnillri'iil rriilrr; 
 
 ,iil ilii' ten liii\iiiK iiiiiili' nil imi|iliiili into mii' nt' 
 
 |i. .jili's it ii iHiw riiinrrli'il iiilii II rirriilar liiir- 
 
 Iniiir, ilii' ■xily iii'i'i't^ililr mil' ill till' itliiini, 'I'lif 
 
 Lirliii'i' i'< |'M'>'y^^ll•'^■' li^lit iiml x|Hin^y, iiml in 
 
 |i,iri. liiiniinK I'"'- TIhti' iirr scvrriil Iml Kpriii^H, 
 
 Mniii; ti'inpiTiiliirrt varyiiii,' rnnii hi)0 |.'hIi, t,, tlii< 
 
 biiiliiiL: jxiiiii : >vltl> ll>*' I'M i'|iliiiii III' a nIm^jIi' rlin 
 
 ^vU'iiii' tjiiiii^', having' a triii|H'nitiin' nt' 11'."^, all 
 
 <|iriiiu'< ill till' itiiiiiil ari' liriirkiNli, Sniin' uf 
 
 ll,' hill >|iriii>;H iiri' kh near llir walrr's cilur, that 
 
 I i> iin i'\<i^';;i'riitiiiii III alllriii thai lith taki'ii u itii 
 
 mir liiiiiil iiiiiy ll)' linili'il with till' iithrr ! Ihv 
 
 lirrniiiiiliii;,' "I'li" KWiinii with varioiii fiiccit'snl' ijul., 
 
 liiriuiiliirly with rriiylitli. No Iri'rs ur ntlirr Iriiil- 
 
 liiirin^' |iliiiit, iiiir i|iiailrii|i('ils, nor iaml-liirils, an> 
 
 !,Miiil nil tills i«liuiil; hut it in ri'oiirlt'il to liy vait 
 
 lintilicrHiir M'ti-liirils Snils anil rra linn-* nlmiinil 
 
 ll ii'i >liiiri"< inul ill lh<> ailjniniii^ m>ii, u liirh niaki'M 
 
 I lie iM'rii-liiiially visitnl hy Mlii|is ('n;4;ll^,'l•ll in fliii 
 
 kill rblury. It was ili-MMivrrnl liy a hiilrli iiavi- 
 
 litiir, Van Vlaiiiin;;, in Hi'.Iti, ami wnt viMiicil hy 
 
 |r. Ilarriiw in I7i>.'l. 
 
 .\.\|sri;i;i>AM. NKW. a timn ami hnrhoiir <il' 
 
 Aiiii'ririi. l'!iiKli-<li (iiiianii, near the in. nf tlm 
 
 kMic riviT. i'liji. I.T.'iO ill l^<•il. Itcin^H'niinilcd 
 
 ilic Diitrli, it is liiiilt in tlii'ir I'a.iliiun, nml in- 
 
 l^i'i'li'il liy iniiiicriiMs canals. 'I'lic |iri\ali' liiaiscs 
 
 iiuwtly III' wiiiiil, ciiviTfil with liamlHiu leaves, 
 
 ki tlu'ctivcriinient nlliees are nl' lirick. anil lianil- 
 
 HiicU liiiilt. 'I'lie eiifranee tn the river, in lat. 
 
 liit'X.. Illll^r. ri7° ir \V., is defemleil l.y three 
 
 H\ Tlieri' are mily 7 feet water mi the liar at 
 
 I'lili. Tilt! canals heiii); lilleit ami (aniilied hy 
 
 lliiw mill ehh ol' the tide, nil iiiiiiiirities arc 
 
 li'jit iilV, mill the health nl" the fnwii is presi'n'cd 
 
 Ituitlistmiiliii^ the heat of the (^liinnte. 
 
 ]AMTZ1;LI,, n villat,'!' of \VHrteinlierK', circ. Dn- 
 
 I>o|). l,ai)0 ill IKIil. Theri! in a. tinu old 
 
 kilo. 
 
 (,\NArAri!I, a town in the XW. onnior of the 
 nil nf Capri, in the (iiilf nf Naples, on the N. 
 ■ of Mmint ■Siihiro, nearly 'J.IHIO feet aliove the 
 Id iif tlin son. I'dp. l,ti(!7 in IHIII. The ascent 
 |il is \('ry utocp, and is clVected hy a stair of .'h>'2 
 jM'iillcd /(( ncaliimta. It has ii church, ii con- 
 pt, ami a castle in the nei^hhotirh<K>d : there 
 I almi two ancient towers, and the roninins of 
 be fdiliccs, nscrilied to 'I'iberiiis. The prospect 
 ni tlu! ensile is extensive, and singularly rich 
 llKwitiful,cominan(liii>; the Tyrrhenian sea, the 
 Bf of Xii|ik's, and VcHuvius. The inhahitants 
 li^iil to Ik! much attached to the situation ; and 
 p. it in ntfirmed, have never descended la sca- 
 Mii. 
 
 \S AdXr, a town of central Italy, 3« m. E. liy 
 tloiiio, on the railway from IJnine to Na|)les, 
 'i.iKii) in l«(il. The town sfamUi on a hill, 
 I has a very line jirosjiect; Imt its interior is 
 in ami niiserahlc. It is tlie seat of a bisliop- 
 If"miik'(liii-187, 
 
 ANVMiiiiAN N AM il'.tifiiiK )iK),nl*o known 
 
 as I'll) iiiN ('iiiN\, i .iiiiiiiry nf A'in enpyiiiix 
 
 Ihr I'!. |iiirlinil nf llir );rritl I'). |H'llilli>llhl of S. Axilli 
 
 or Iii4iii licMiml till' liantti's, i'oiiiprl'<lii(( I'lK'tiiii 
 t'liiiia and rmiipiiii (In which only the iiniiie ol* 
 All until |>rii|ii'rl\ hrlnii^H), with the h). and S, part 
 oft 'nnilHiilin, ami iiiaiiv Mniall islaiiilt in the < 'liineMi 
 Sea. It lies lietwi'i'ii n^ I,-,' iiiid 'i;!^ •.»•,»' N. Int., 
 and lo.i'^ In MMI" K. hiiii;. ; having N. the Chim-sti 
 iirnviiici'sof t^imiiK toii^, Ijnnii^ si, and Viinnnni 
 \V, t.iins mill Siaiii, and in the ri"l of its extent, 
 the iH'enn. It is !m;,'i in, in len^'ih, viiryin^ in 
 width frnni tl.'i ni. to lio in. Aren, pmlmlih almiit 
 '.iM.iMiii H|. in I'op. estiinali'd at from 10 to Ii 
 
 inillinlis, 
 
 111 iintry is siilHllvlded n* follown; — 
 
 1. t'liihin China (calluit DniiK-traoiiiKt or Cenlral 
 
 rniinlry ). 
 
 riiiiMMim. Uiiciliiii'ii, Nlmtniiiir, I'liiiyeii, (^iil- 
 
 lilmii, i.iiiiiimiil, <,iiiiiii^-iiiiii, \\\v. 
 ClllKl'iiriM. Iliii', till) eupltal (imp, tlO,r>l)il, (VrdC. 
 
 /iml), 'I'lunii, Kil(-fii. 
 
 2. Tiiiuiiiin (\}it\\;i\'ni\\, l''xtemal eonnlry). 
 I'lliiViNiKS, Ki'-i'lin, 'riiiif-|ii|i«, Wiil-liik, Siiiw-al, 
 
 KiiiK-|iiik,Sliiuk\Viiiii;, llliiu-wliii, Kii-plii^, I ii^> 
 
 Hnii,<'lihii/-\vliii,l,ii'iiiiiii iHr.l.n-iiiiiii'.'nil, Hiiljoii^f, 
 Awkwiiii|(, Miiii-nliiK-eliaii. 
 CniKi'cmr.s.- A'l -i/m (('aclmn), lAn,iiUi) Inlinliltimt*. 
 //.((/I, '.^n.iMio liihiililtiiiits. 
 
 ;l. CnmlHuljn (called Ko-nien liy the nnlives). 
 
 I'liiiviNCKs,— Yii-teiijr, Pliitr-roii);, l''ii-naii,Wlii-elienir, 
 
 IIii-hIii, 'reiiKcliiiiiK. 
 ClIIKK-i'llV. Siiy-Koli, JHO.IIOO, 
 
 The aliiive lltfiiri''! lire diielly taken I'rnm Cniw- 
 fiird's '.loiirnal of an Kinlmssy,' one of the liest 
 Winks on Aiiiini. 
 
 MiiMiitiiiiiH. — The principal chain, an nfl'sei from 
 the llinialaya rMii^i', runs tlirniijL^li the central ami 
 sniitliem parts nf the cniinlry, fnrniiii;; the W. 
 Iioiindary nf Cncliin China, and the K, iim> nf I.nnH 
 and Cainlinil|a. anil terniinnles at Cape St. .Iniiies, 
 in Int. 10° lii'N. Iletween this ran^e anil the sea, 
 Cochin China consists of a succession of others, 
 ^'radiially deereasiiiK in lieij;ht as they apprnaeli 
 the shore, and inclosiii<r a Kr<'<>t niinilier of ferlilo 
 valleys. These mountains have not lieen niea- 
 siireil by Kiiropeatis. The summits of the prin- 
 cipal chain are acuminated, sterile, and most pni- 
 hahly Kronilic ; Imt their steep sides are clotheil 
 with extensive forests, and the inferior raiij^es arc 
 often cultivated nearly to their tops. (White's 
 Voyage to Cochin China, p. 72; Finlaystin's Mis- 
 sioii to .Siam and Hue', p. il'i.'),) 
 
 I'ln'm*. — Ton(|uin and CamliiMlja are liotli im- 
 mense alluvial hasins of p-eat fertility, niid tra- 
 versed hy lar^e rivers : in addition to these, there 
 are n few small tints arinind the months of the 
 rivers in the central provinces. The plain from tho 
 miaitli of the (Juliefiuemme to Cape St. James is 
 hut little above the level of the sea, and subject to 
 inundation nt every spring tide. 
 
 Hivem, — The Mennm-konj;, or river of Cnm- 
 boilja, is one of the Inr^jest iii Asia; it rises in tlio 
 Chinese jirovincc of Yun-nnn, is joined by some 
 Inrjie streams from Til v,'t, and, running nearly duo 
 S. through the centre of Laos and Cambodjn, forms, 
 for some distance, the W. boundary of the Annmeso 
 dominions, and discharges itself in Int. 9° 35' ami 
 10" 16' by two principal mouths (the farthest N, 
 being called the Jaiiancsc river, the S. one the 
 Onbenuemme), and by many smaller ones. Tho 
 Sang-ko'i (Balhi) or river of 'f oncpiin, has a shorter 
 course ; it rises in the mountains of Yun-nan, runs 
 mostly SE. through Tonquin, passing by Ke-cho, 
 and falls into the Gulf of Tonquin by two prin- 
 cipal mouths, between 20" and 21° N. lat. IJoth 
 these rivers, as well as that of Sa'i-gon (which ia 
 
 I 2 
 
 m 
 
 V* 
 
 .l.i 
 
 '•■e.i 
 
 it 
 
116 
 
 ANAM 
 
 m 
 
 \ \i'- 
 
 t| of n mile in width nonr timt iMty), linvn doltfiH iit 
 liicir inoiitliH: flicy nrr navipilili! f^cncriilly for 
 hxTi^v HliipM; Inil owiiif; l<> .sitiiil hankti nt lioth its 
 iiKiiitlis, it is reported that tlic Tonqiiiii river is 
 nvniiali)(- to none nlnive 'iW) tons hnrtlion, tlion^li 
 Crawfurd donlits this statement ns respects tlie N. 
 moutli. ((.'ra^vfurd, Jonrnal, Ac, ]tp. 4.")!t-4(!2.) 
 Tiiorc are several other considerahle rivers in Ton- 
 (piin; ns the Li-sin^- K ian^ : alon^ the Cochin 
 Oliinese coast th.ey are all inucli smaller, and with 
 n shorter course ; tlie river of Hue' (on which ihc 
 ra|)ital is situated) is one of the most considerahle. 
 has n flne estuary, and is navi^^ablc by vessels of 
 200 tons Imrtlien! 
 
 Tjukf* — Ilarltours. — Europeans have dcscriljcd 
 no lakes of any mapiitude; hut the shores of 
 ( 'Ochin China aboinid with some of the finest har- 
 bours in the world. From Cape St, Jatnes to the 
 Jlay of Turon, there are no less than nine of these, 
 safe and accessible with every wind : that of Turon, 
 in the opinion of Mr. Crawfurd and others (th<tu;,'li 
 iidt in that of M. de liuupiinville), is not surpassed 
 by any in the Kast, 
 
 Count and S/iorea, — ^Thc coast here is generally 
 lM)ld, and presents many promontories, like that of 
 C. St. James, which is iJdO feet in height; the 
 ]irecipices occasionally alternating with a narrow 
 sandy beach. The anchorages are everywhere 
 good ; but nt no great distance from the shores sand- 
 banks and rocky islands are otU'n very jirevalent. 
 
 Geology and Minerals. — The jirimitive rocks, of 
 which the principal mountain chain is jilmost 
 wholly c()m])osed, are granite nnd syenite ; the 
 lower hills contain quartz, nuirble, and mountain 
 limestone. In the S. provini^es the granite is 
 seamed in every direction ; on the rounded sides of 
 the hills it niternates with syenite, and both rocks 
 arc jienetrated by veins of iron ore: near Hud, 
 all the hills are granitic, nnd their penks in the 
 liighcst degree sharp, nigged, and imcovercd. There 
 is a great diversity of upper soils in the valleys; 
 some being dry, friable, and sandy ; others of a stiff 
 clay. The soils of the central provinces are, how- 
 ever, mostly sandy : those of Tonqiiin and Cam- 
 bodja are, as already stated, alluvial. Aroun<l their 
 shores there are extensive and fertile mud-flats. 
 
 Toncpiin is the only part of the emjiire rich in 
 metals ; it produces large quantities of gold, silver, 
 copper, and iron: with the latter it suijplies all 
 the country except thc-most S. part. Its mines 
 nrc worked bv' Chinese, and about 1 00 ]>icuLs (or 
 17,800 lbs, Troy) of silver ore produced yearly. 
 Cochin China has no metallic wealth: silver only 
 is said to be found at Cape Avarella ; Combodja is 
 poor in metals. It produces iron, but in inadequate 
 quantity for its own use, and it is therefore imported 
 from the neighbouring countries to the W. of it : 
 the central provinces yield salt. 
 
 Climate — Is generally fine and healthy, the heat 
 being tempered in the maritime districts liy llie 
 sea breezes ; in the winter it is even cool in Cochin 
 ('hina, but in Tonquin the heats of summer arc 
 excessive, and the cold of \vinter proi)firtioiinlly 
 severe. At Hue, M. Clmigneau, who reside<l there 
 for some time, reports tiiat the greatest heat of 
 stimmcr was 10.'{°, and of the cold of winter .57° F. 
 During the wet season of August, Mr. Crawfurd 
 found that the thermometer in the shade ranged 
 in one day from 79° to 82° F. at Sai'-gon, In the 
 }S. the seasons follow the same order as in Malabar, 
 Bengal, and Siam ; viz, the rains prevail with the 
 SVV, monsoon from May or the beginning of June, 
 to September : the same takes place in Tonquin. 
 ]!ut in Cochin China, between 11° and 18° N. lat., 
 the rains set in with the NK. monsoon, and last 
 from October till March; the high mountain range 
 liruteetiiig this country from wet weather by inter- 
 
 cepting the clouds at the rnnvprso wnsonnfi^^ 
 vear. Tbegeiu'ral height of the baronicicrni Hu, I 
 IS 2!('8r)', Immense iinnidations last nomi'timM 
 for three or four days at n time, Tonquin is ,^1 
 ject to heavy fogs and violent hurricanes. 
 
 Vegetable Products. — The forests oft !<H'|iin Cliin, I 
 produce a variety of scented woods, as sninlnl, n~. 
 eagle-wood, itc. The true <'innamon {Ln'trmni 
 namomum) is indigenous to this country, and valu,,j 
 by the (.'liinese more than that iiroiluccd in nnrl 
 other: it is found wild chiefly in dry nnd »ati.|tl 
 soils. The banks of the- Sni-gon nnd tliomlit, | 
 large rivers are thickly covered with jiinclc 
 amongst which are teak, iron-wood {SydentujU 
 a kind of CaUophylliim, as straight as a Xiimail 
 fir and well adapted for shi|)s' masts; niaiii,'r.i\v | 
 &c. In the forests of (Jiu'liin China, cednn*. wj'. 
 nut, peltry, cocoa, areca, betel, banilMHi, raliai.l 
 ebonies, and oiost of the products of Itriti.sli Jnliil 
 Cambodja yields gamboge, the fiiuwt cnnliiniMmJ 
 aniseed,' areca, nnd indigo; the central prdvimhl 
 pepper and two sorts of sugar cane ; Tonquin, manjl 
 kinds of varnish trees, areca |)alins, nnd other vr;^ 
 table produce. Cotton, rice, nnd tlie nuilhcrryiriTl 
 nre nimost universnl. Amongst tlu' fruit arc ipraii;«| 
 af a blood-red pulp nnd delicious flavour, haiiain.,r 
 figs, pomegranates, pine-apples, guavas. Inlm;^»^,l 
 shaddocks, lemons, limes, and ))lnntaiM, (iiii;.Hl 
 and spices of various sorts, are nlso iiidi:;('ii.<^l 
 An inferior sort of tea, with a leaf twice orthriil 
 08 large as that of llohea, grows wild in the 1 
 parts of (^uang-ai, and is sold at from (! to 'JOfiimil 
 the picul, or, in English money, for about n ikiiiii| 
 a pound. 
 
 The coeoo-nut tree, next to the hamlmo, is ilJ 
 most useful of any. The trunk is used fi)r]hii,| 
 and shi)) building ; the husk produces cordii^'e awl 
 cables superior to any other ; the leaves are uvT 
 for roofing, nnd for making paper, nnd wickorwirrij 
 the oil for lamps and painting ; the shell fur ciin| 
 (to,; nnd the nut furnishes both food and drink. 
 
 Scenery. — The interior of Cambodja has Vil 
 little explored by Euroiieans, but its surface i«l*-l 
 lieved to be covered, in great jiart, with cxitn-inl 
 forests. The hanks of the river Sai-gon arc w\m\ 
 with mangrove trees, nnd no cultivation a|)|«J!l 
 until within from 20 to 30 m. of that city, N* 
 tliuon, the most S, i>rov, of Cochin China, pxtcnil 
 to about 12° N, lat,, and is most rcmarkalde fwisl 
 aloes, Nlia-trunff, which succeeds it, is an clevaii^l 
 and ill-ciiltivateil region, but produces .sill<. Pkt 
 yen, which renches as far as lat, 1 4°, is the rielwl 
 and the most highly cultivated and j)coplc(i pii>l 
 vince of all : it is full of fruitful valleys and jutmt 
 undulating hills, on which rice is grown in terraos 
 almost to their summits, and bounded W. h\\»fM 
 mountains, crowned with towers nnd paf,'ii(las, J 
 having their iiinnncles enveloped in fleecy cluitiT 
 Qiii-nhnn is a province of great extent, and nil 
 cultivated: Quamj-ai and Quiing-7iaii,i'x\m 
 from 14J° N. to nearly 17°, are nimost cxi'lii.*ivw| 
 the countries of the sugar cane and the tcairitT 
 The banks of the river of Hue, thoii;,di hemiiifti| 
 are more indebted to art than to natim'; il* 
 abound in ornamental gardens, laid out araon.'S 
 groves of cocoa, areca, banana, and bamlw, jm 
 rows of hibiscus. At Turon, and in most nf i^ 
 N. of Cochin China, there is a degree of steril 
 not met with in the S. ; but the wliolc cwiiitr; ij 
 apparently inferior in fertility to that of J"is 
 Tonquin "has been very imperfectly examincil l| 
 Europeans, but is the most populous pniviMj 
 therefore, most probably, of superior fertility i 
 cultivation. 
 
 Animals. — The elephant, rhinoceros, tijjor. 1 
 pard, bulfalo, bear, horse, deer, goat, &c.. im mM 
 of Anuni. There are no jackals nor foxes; < 
 
 
ANAM 
 
 117 
 
 ^mc wnson of iU 
 Imrmiu'tcrnt llw 
 iH lant Komi'tiiiiH I 
 Toiiquiii w »uV 
 virricmu's. 
 iti*of("iM'liin('liiM| 
 hIs, iu* Htindnl, n^.. | 
 imiHi (Lii'iriii m- 
 ;(mntry,niiiivaliiMi| 
 t pnttiutu'il iu nnyl 
 
 iu dry mid sank 
 ^oii mill llio (Ilk I 
 ■rod Willi jungle: 
 (Mxi {Syde.riwjU. 
 iii;;lit iiH a Nontsi I 
 
 inasts ; niaii;;ri.v.. 
 (Iliiiui, ('('liars, Ma- 
 i-l, banilio", ratiaii 
 ctH of llritislilnlii.! 
 c finest (;arilamim\| 
 V, central |iriivin«\l 
 uie; ToiKiiiin.matTl 
 lins, and other vcL'f. 
 ul tliP niullK'rrvttffl 
 ,tliefruitar(Mir,iii;«| 
 )us tlavdur, liananhf 
 >s, g'iavas. mimi.MiN I 
 I plantain, (lin;*!.! 
 are also iiulii;i'iifii\| 
 I leaf twice nr tliiitl 
 )ws wild ill tlicli&l 
 
 atfr()m('it(i'2tii|iw| 
 ;y, for about a i»nsf| 
 
 ;o the bamlKio, is M 
 'link is used (nt \mt' 
 produces corda^'c aw] 
 ; the leaves are ii< 
 jper, and wicker ivui: 
 ifT ; the shell f»r «[-, 
 oth food and drink, 
 Camboilja lias m 
 , but its surface i"!*- 
 t part, with cxlen.ii? 
 cr Sai-}:;on are ciivdii' 
 o cultivation aiii«JB 
 1. of that city, if* 
 Lehiu China, exlrat 
 host remarkable fnrii 
 ceedsit,isanelev,ii(i 
 It produces silk, ft 
 'lat. 14°, is the note 
 ited and peopled p 
 ful valleys and },« 
 icc i.s f^rowii in tenao* 
 |l bounded \V. by 1»H 
 
 >wcrs and \w^n\M 
 loped in fleecy cl»y 
 •reat extent, amUJ 
 iming-nan, extcii't:! 
 ire almost exelusivsf 
 ,.,ane and thete.it«l 
 [lu(.<, thonjih lieiiuii«| 
 ban to nature; m 
 ^ns, laid out amoiu^ 
 ina, and baml)w,»M 
 , and in most of 14 
 a degree of sttnJl 
 the whole ooiintr))^ 
 itv to that uf >f 
 leffectly examined !■ 
 
 ,t populous pnjviwj 
 sui)erior fcrtilit,*™ 
 
 J rhinoceros, ti!i«! 
 lr,Koat,&c.,areu.i"j 
 ckals nor foxes; » 
 
 liares Imt a profusion of ntlier kinds of ^anie. 
 lirciil iiiiMilK'rs (d' iiioiiUcys and biibnnns arc Imiiid 
 iiillicwoods: line lar;.'(' and iHiwcrfiil species seems 
 I,, lie peculiar to Ciicbiii China; the ilo;; and cat, 
 wliicli are also natives, are doinesticaled : elephants 
 are ii^ed in war. reacocks, |iarMfs, and a variety 
 111' liiriN of the richest iiluinage, inhabit the forests; 
 curlews, plovers, itc. tlie shores ; and aipiatie birds 
 iif all descriptions, the rivers. Allij;ators inhabit 
 ilie liiri;er rivers; the rohrti-ite-ni/iflli), and several 
 oilier large and venomous serpents, infest the 
 iiiiiiiiry. Tlie seas abound with an inexhaustible 
 ,iipply" of lisli, and atVonl siibsisteneo to a large 
 |i,,riiiiii of the populatimi; amongst the sjieeies 
 iiro, llic living lish, scorpion lisli (remarkably and 
 licaiilifully variegated), mango tisli of Ileiigai,&c., 
 villi soles, mullets, and many others familiar to 
 us; shriiniis and cniwlish are very line; and mol- 
 lu-ca', in large 'ji.ui."''^'"s. arc taken for food. 
 Miisi|iiiloe.s anil oiler \ .iccts abound iu great 
 (|iiaiitities. 
 
 Tlif I'cnple consist of several racca: — 1. the 
 Cmliln Chinese and Toiitpihiese, who are similar 
 ill person, and most of their habitH and customs, 
 111 the Chinese; 2. the CamlHuljuim, iu jihysical 
 (|imlitie.s, ni'inners, &c., more resembling the Sia- 
 uiese; it. the Mol rave, inhabiting the mountain- 
 iiiis country between (.Jochin (.'liina aiKKJambodja; 
 believed by some to have been the Aliorigines; 
 iiaid to be black like the Catl'res, and in a savage 
 state. IJesiile.s t)ic native races, tliere are 2,"j,00() 
 (,'liiiicsc, who work the mines and trade in metals 
 in Toiiipiin, and manj' others wlio are settled in 
 the oiinimercial towns, but mostly in the N. pro- 
 vinces. 'I'lie other strangers are chietly Malays, 
 alniut r),O0l) in the S. part,s of Cambodja, and Por- 
 
 tlli,'UCSC, 
 
 I'Injxieal Qualities. — According to Mr. Finlay- 
 fon. a surgeon, who accompanied ]Mr. Crawfu'rd 
 in his embassy in the year 1H22, the majority of 
 tlic inhabitants are of Malay origin. lie observes 
 ' that the men average i> feet 2^ inches in height, 
 which is below the ordinary standard of the Ma- 
 lays and Siamese ; they are less bulky and clumsy 
 than the latter, but of a somewhat S(]uat (igure. 
 Their upper extremities are hmg, their lower ones 
 short and stout; they are not fat; their muscular 
 system is large and well developed, lle.id and 
 face both nearly round; the longitudinal and 
 transverse diameters of e.ich being nearly equal; 
 I'lirehcad short and broad, check-bones wide, but 
 nut particularly salient, chin large and broad ; but 
 I the coronoid process of the lower jaw has not the 
 fulness apparent in the Malays and Siamese, and 
 I ilie atliinty in this respect to the Tartar race is 
 still less. Kyes rouii'ler and smaller than those 
 I iif the Chinese and Siamese, more lively and in- 
 tensely black ; lips moderately thick ; hair on the 
 scalp copious, black, and coarse ; beard grisly and 
 thin, and no hair on the cheeks. The colour of 
 the skin is olive, and very often, especially in the 
 females (who are sometimes really handsome), the 
 I complexion is no darker than that of the iuliabi- 
 I lants of the S. of Europe.' (Finlayson, pp. 298, 
 ■i7-l--378.) They are intelligent, without much 
 loriginahty or invention; but exhibiting a very 
 I great ajititude for imitation. Of their disposition, 
 such conflicting statements have been made by 
 I those who have experienced cither a handsome or 
 Ian unhandsome reception from them, that it is 
 I difficult to come to any conclusion. They are 
 sprightly, animated, good-humoured, and alto- 
 Igctlierdestitite of the solemn reserve of the Clii- 
 jnese; always laughing and chattering, volatile, 
 Icaprieious and changeable, vain, and endued with 
 lo'insiderablc national pride. Crawfiird and Fin- 
 11,'ivsiin sav that thev are iiiild, ducile, and inollen- 
 VoL. 1. 
 
 •«ivo; (iiii Iravcllers have accusicd tlicni uf I'lTniily ;l 
 alVable, kind, and atli'iilive to strangers; and ilie 
 lower orders nut rapacious, although a (l('s|Hiiic, 
 illiberal, and avaricious goveniineiit lias iiiii|ii('s- 
 tiiiiiably made all wilhiii the iiilliienee of the 
 (Niiirt the most arrant thieves, Iu iheir manners 
 and behaviour the Anamc.so are polite and grace- 
 ful ; but piiiK^lilioiis a'ld ('ereinoiiinus. 
 
 Atinniltnrv. — IJice, which is here the 'staff of 
 life,' forms tlii^ main article uf ciillure. 'i'hereare 
 ,six (lirt'ereni sorts grown; two 011 the uplands, 
 used for ('(infect iiinery, and yiebling only one crop 
 annually; the other sorts yield from two to ll,-e 
 eri/ps a year : but generally two, oik' in April, and 
 another ill October; or three, where the iniinda- 
 thiiis have been profu.se. Mai/.c, cotton, yams, 
 .sweet potatoes, ])iil.se, and fruit, are the other arti- 
 cles of general culture. 
 
 The sugar-cane is cultivated by the (^icliiii 
 Chinese only, and a very inferior, dark, clayey 
 produce obtained. Most of the cinnamon thai is 
 exjiorted is cultivated; tobacco, eaiisiciiin, pepper 
 of a very good quality in the central provinces, iiri! 
 other chief (dijects of tillage; no coll'ee is grown, 
 except in a few gardens near Hue, 
 
 Kaw silk is produced in large quantities in Ton- 
 qiiin and Cochin Cliiiia, The ground is but in- 
 ditl'ereiitly tilled; near Sai-gon, it is in many 
 small jiatclies of about half an acre, the rice 
 grounds being bounded by ditches. Agricultural 
 labour is almost wholly performed by women ; 
 they guide the plough, which is drawn by a buf- 
 falo, plant the rice, build and repair the cottages, 
 and are entrusted with all the household conivnis. 
 Their pay, as well as that of labourers of the 
 other sex, is 1 mas a day with food, or 2 man 
 without it. 
 
 The buffalo is domesticated, and is u.sefiil in 
 agriculture; the ox is of a small reddLsh-brown 
 kind, but not used as food, beef not being com- 
 monly eaten. A small species of goat is kept ; 
 but sheep are very rare and extremely inferior. 
 The hog is a very favourite animal ; the breed is 
 the Chinese, and remarkably tine. At Hue, hogs 
 are always stall-fed, and seldom suffered to roam 
 at large. The horse, of an inferior breed, is used 
 only for riding, being untit for cavtiiry service. 
 There arc neither asses nor mules 
 
 I'oultry, iu large numbers, arc kept every^vhere : 
 those at Saii-gon are said to be amongst the finest 
 in India, Gee.se are not so common as ducks or 
 fowls. The game cocks are trained for fighting. 
 
 Food, &c, — The diet of the people is to I'^iiro- 
 pean ideas often gross and disgusting in a high 
 degree. Kice, legumes, and lish form the chief 
 part of their food : but dogs' and alligators' llesli, 
 rats, mice, worms, frogs and other rei)tiles, mag- 
 gots, entrails, and putrid meats, are among their 
 favourite dishes, I'ork, boiled ducks and fowls, 
 boiled and stewed yams, and sweet potatoes, sugar- 
 cane, fruit, and much confectionery, corapo.se great 
 part of the rest; and tea, and rice-whiskey (of 
 which a great deal is drunk), compose their usual 
 beverages, Fish-jiickle is their favourite condi- 
 ment, into which nearly ever3' morsel they eat is 
 plunged. Elephants' flesh is eaten only by the 
 sovereign and nobility. Milk is not used at all, 
 and eggs are not valued until they are rotten, or 
 nearl}"^ hatched. They t.ake two meals a day ; one 
 at 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning, the other at 
 sunset. These they take in the open air, generally 
 in front of their houses, and eat with chop-sticks 
 tipped with ivory or metal, porcupine quills, and a 
 pottery spoon. 
 
 The tobacco that is grown is all used in the 
 country. All the men smoke, and, as well as the 
 women, chew betel and arcca, which either they 
 
 *i3 
 
 !J?t M 
 
 m. 
 
118 
 
 ANAM 
 
 n 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 or tliiir attonilanU (if rich) iilwnyt nirry witli 
 thorn ill lioxcs or Inrno purMOM for th(^ oxjircsH jiiir- 
 posf. In tlicir jicrsoiis they (ire extremely dirty. 
 liDtwithstaiuliii^ llieir freipieiit nlihilimi ; tlieir 
 uiiilur /,'iiniiaiitM iirLv lu^ver waslied nor elianpMl 
 until th(ty dro)! to jiieces; tlu'ir nails are never 
 cut, their len^itli Ix'inj; an indieation of rank. 
 
 Arh and Miimifiirtnres. — The inferior dweilintjH 
 consiMt of mild walln, tliatched or covered wilii 
 liamboo loaves; the hotter sort of houses are of 
 wood or hrick, and tiU'd, hit tho lirieks an; only 
 haked in tiio sun, and j;lazod windows arc un- 
 known. Tiio huts of the peasantry near iSai-j^^m 
 consist of wattled iloors, raised ahnut 'A or •! feet 
 ahovc the ground, and contain two or three coin- 
 partinents, one of whieh is a coniiuon room; in 
 the others ihc family sleo]t on mats on a kinil of 
 raised platform, ranged around the walls. The 
 ordinary furniture of a cottage cotisists of a co- 
 loured matting for the floor, an eartluTn stove, an 
 iron rice-)>ot, and sfmie verj' rmie porcelain and 
 other earthenware articles. 
 
 The art in which, above all others, the (Jooliin- 
 Chinese excel, is that of ship-building. Their 
 vessels, the construction of which, were it not for 
 tlicir rude materials, would not disgrace l'',uroi)e, 
 are built of from h to 100 tons burthen, but mostly 
 between IG and ill) tons; shaq) at either end, ami 
 the deck one-third longer than the keel. Their 
 bottoms mostly consist of wicker-work, covered 
 on the outside by a coating, ,J inch thick, of */«/</«/, 
 a close and durable mixture of jutch, oil, lime, Ac. 
 The sides and deck are bound together with cross- 
 bulk heads ; and as the larger vessels usually be- 
 long to a joint-stock company of merchants, there 
 arc as many separate holds ..s owners. The lish- 
 ing boats and others, .50 feet in length, are made 
 of 5 long planks extending from stem to stern, 
 their edges morticed, tightcnied with wooden pins, 
 and boiiiuled together by twisted bamboo fibres : at 
 each end they are raised much higher, and jiaintcd, 
 gilded, and ornamented with ligures of ilragous 
 and serpents. They often carrj' a covered cabin, 
 built like a house U])on the deck ; from one to three 
 sails of matting, which in the N. provinces are 
 often square and more like tiiose of Europe ; a 
 wooden anchor with one fluke, shrouds and cables 
 of rattan, and cordage of coir. During the unfa- 
 vourable monsoon, the boats arc taken to pieces, 
 and the larger vessels dra^ni up on shore to some dis- 
 tance. The mode of rowing is by pushing, and not 
 pulling, the oars against the water (White, p. 'J0!1) : 
 when there are many rowers, they push in regular 
 succession, beginning with the one at the stern. 
 The government rowers, who are selected from the 
 army, are paid but 1 quan per month. The boats 
 that ply for hire are chiefly conducted by women ; 
 but the very unfair and ungallant custom prevails, 
 that the men pay no fare, they being all supposed 
 on govomnicnt service. They have no wheeled 
 carriages ; but people of distinction are carried in 
 a palanquin, formed of a cotton net hammock, 
 with a mattress and pillows inside, covered by a 
 large varnished canopy, in form like a tortoise- 
 shell ; the whole slung upon a long pole, and car- 
 ried on the shoulders of two, four, or six men. 
 
 In most manufactures, the Anamese are very far 
 behind, and are superseded by the Chinese, from 
 whom they derive most of tlieir useful articles. 
 Sword-handles with very good filagree work, boxes 
 of lacquered ware, inlaid with pearl or gold, purses, 
 matting, baskets, coarse silk, and very durable 
 cotton stufis, bells, cannon, iron nails, scissors of a 
 rude kind, varnish, &c. they can make ; but they 
 cannot temper iron or steel, print calico, or make 
 a matchlock, and depend for all their arms on 
 European nations. 
 
 Tinih: — 'Hie (liineso are the butchers, tai!(l^, 
 confectioiK^rs, bankers, money-changers, luid |i(,|! 
 Iiirs of the ein|iire, ami are met with in nil ih,, 
 to\ ' s with an ehislic (lole across their sliijiililif 
 Mn>, .It either end a baski't containing tlieir wan,] 
 In the bazaars, gilt paper, fans, porcelain, dni^'J 
 and other ( Ihiiiii produce, tools, necessaries of liiv^ 
 and the other articles yielded by the country, ap' 
 sold. Provisions are cheap. Mr. Whiti' Vdiiii,! 
 that, at SaV-gon, |)ork was.'! cents per Ih.; 1h-(.|; 
 •I c. (Americ.) ; fowls, 50 cents per dozen; a lii,,. 
 deer, \\ dollar; rice, a dollar a picul (i;!;; Hu 
 I'Jig.) ; shaddocks and lemons, 50 c. per liiiinl,; 
 oranges, ,'10 c. jier liiind. Tea of Hue' is siili|j;i 
 boats on the rivers, as well as vaniish, wliidi, 
 with other combustilile matters, is not allowwl i,, 
 he kept on shore, and the varnish niereliaii|.i 
 live constantly in their covered houses, liiiiltun 
 bamboo rafts. The foreign trade is coiii|iara- 
 tively trifling, and almost wholly with the, '.'lii. 
 nese; verv little with the Siamese or i;iiri)|«',iii<, 
 
 Erom 2(1,000 to (10,000 piculs of sugar: -.'."iimhi'i 
 to 80(1,000 lbs. of true eiiinainon, not freed fn.m 
 its epidermis, at .OO to (50 quaiis per pieiil ; ."p.iiiiii 
 jiiciils of aniseed from Cambodja; raw silk at :;', 
 to (plans the catty ('JJ lb.), 2(10 piculs fnjin I'af. 
 foo, (!0 p. from llui', and 1,000 p. from Caclian 
 annually; cottons superior to those of lieii^'.il: 
 areca, s|)ioes, cardamoms from Cambodja, IjdV 
 lard, scented woods, rice, eilible bin' " ne^ts. ainl 
 molliisca>, and the precious metals, tjiC ex]i(irt(-,! 
 toChina; gamboge, red dyeing wood froniTimqiiin, 
 ivorj', pearl, horns, hides, gum-lac, gohl-iliisi. ,nii,i 
 other metals in smaller quantities to other jiartsi!' 
 the world. AVheii Harrow -wrote, sugar at 'I'limi 
 fetched .'t dollars, jieiiper of Cochin China (I ton 
 doll., and rice half a dollar the picul of lU;!Jlli., 
 llritish manufactures then sold usually at 20 tii,;'i 
 per cent, profit, and were paid in silver iiii,'iitj. 
 Ko-cho was formerly the centre of the Y.nAm 
 tr.ade, and at the end of the 17th cciitiiry the 
 English and Dutch had factories there, whence 
 they exported largely. 
 
 The imports are chiefly manufactured silks, 
 porcelain, drugs, a great quantity of gilt ]ia]Kr. 
 and line teas for the upi)er classes, with lunisiiioM, 
 &c. utensils from China; spices, saiidal-wo(nl,aiiil 
 tin, from IVfalay ; opium (which is, however, prii- 
 hibited) from India. 150 chests annually, 2-onlsii( 
 which arc coiisunicd in Tonquin ; cottons itm 
 Canton and 8inca|)ore (but none of a variety !■( 
 colours in the same piece, nor chintzes) ; l!riii>(i 
 woollens, chiefly scarlet, some yellow or },T'eeii. | 
 and all coarse ; a few serges and camlets, iron m\ 
 amis, from Europe ; but altogether aniouiitiii;; |.i 
 very little. The Cliiiia trade is chiefly in Ke-clin | 
 Sai'-goii, Hue, and Fai-fo, but the whole scaroiiv 
 amounts to 20,000 tons annually, being little iiiurt I 
 than half the Chinese trade with the single city of | 
 Bangkok, in Siarr 
 
 The transport of goods between Ke-clio ari'l 
 Ilud is facilitated by a canal, 180 miles in Iciigtii. 
 20 yards in breadth, and almost straight; saiJi.i | 
 be constructed by the reigning monarch in IMi; 
 near Hue it is used for irrigation as well as con- 
 veyance. 
 
 Weiyhts and Measures. — The picul is about 13oj I 
 lbs. Eng., and divides into 100 catties, each oquil 
 to ] and l-3rd lb. ICiig. A bag of rice wcij,'l:s >' 
 catties. The current coin is the sepeck, c<i«t ai I 
 Ke-cho, of a compound brittle metal, eallc.l h- 1 
 tenagiie, the base of which is zinc. It is about tiif I 
 size of a shilling, and jiierced with a sriuiire li ' 
 by which they are strung in numbers together, ad I 
 as they are the only coin used, they form avonf 
 bulky and inconvenient medium. Aeeount'i jrf I 
 thus reckoned :—()0 i-cpccks = l mas (5 cciit.-U'i | 
 
ANAM 
 
 119 
 
 ImtcliiTJ, tnilll^. 
 iiiiificrM. aiiil iH,| 
 with ill all till, 
 ss tlu ir siiDiililir, 
 iiiiifj tlioir wan^. 
 port'flain, (inii;<, 
 U'cc'8Srtri{'-( (if life, 
 ' the country, ar> 
 Ir. WhiU^ fuuinl 
 Ills per 11).; Iwf, 
 jH>r do/on ; a I'n.i. 
 II piuiil (i:!;! 11^. 
 i")() (•. per liiiinl,; 
 of llu(' is siiMiii 
 H viimisli, wliieli, 
 , is not allimwl in 
 urnish nicri'liams 
 il liouses, lmik(,ii 
 ;riiilr is I'oiiiiian- 
 illy with lUit rhi- 
 cs'n or I'airuiioaiH, 
 of suf;'iir : -J.'in.iHM 
 lOii, not fri'cil I'lmn 
 ns per iiiciil ; II.iniii 
 (Ijii; raw silk at ;i[, 
 »") piculs IVdin Fiii- 
 lil |). from Cai'han 
 thofiP of lieii;,',il; 
 1 Caniliodja, liii^'r' 
 lie bin' ■ lu'hts. mill 
 etnls, >5.i' exi"irt(«.! 
 wood from Tiiiiqiiiii, 
 -lac, gold-<hist. aii'l 
 ties to other iiartsif 
 )tc, supir at 'fiiMi 
 jchiu China fi tiiK 
 c picul of 13;!^lli>, 
 I usually at -.'U t" .io 
 lid in silver iiii;"!*. 
 itre of the l^astra 
 e 17th ceiilury tlie 
 ;ories there, whence 
 
 manufactured silks 
 mtity of gilt W. 
 sses, with Iiousi'IidU 
 Gs, jiandal-wodil, aiiil 
 di is, however, prii- 
 s annually, 'i-orils (it 
 nuin ; cottons from 
 none of a viirietvuf 
 ir chintzes) ; UtiiiA 
 ,\e yellow or ffm. 
 nd camlets, inm aiiJ 
 tether amouiitin;; u 
 lis ehietly in Kc-clin. ] 
 t the wiiole scarocly 
 jllv, being little iiiuit 
 'ith the single city of 
 
 Ltween Kc-clio an'! 
 MHO miles in Iciiijtli. ] 
 Jost straijuht; saiiltn 
 Ig monarch in 18ri; 
 ation as well as con- 
 
 U picul is nhout 133j 
 BO catties, each equil I 
 lag of rice wci|,'lis >' I 
 
 I the sepcck, c!i*t a; 
 Itle metal, ealle.l («• 
 Izinc. It is abdtit tne I 
 
 II with a sfiuare luiie. [ 
 lumbers tosiethcr. awl 
 ]>d, thev form avtnl 
 Bium. Account' arc I 
 
 : 1 mus (i> cciiti-'i. 1« 
 
 n]Aii=1 quan (50 cents), the two latter units ore 
 iiiiiuriiirtfy. A Sitanish iloUar is valued at IJ 
 iiimii; »ii ingot of silver, at from 27 to "iM ipiuns; 
 (here are also gold ingots of the same and of double 
 value, but the currency is subject to very capri- 
 tidusand roguish changes. 
 
 l>uUif Revenues are derived from, 1. a capitation 
 tax of 1 '""1 l-lf^t'' qiian, paiil by every male 
 alxive I'.lvearsof age; 2. a land-tax; 3. the crown 
 iaiiilH. wliieh are fanned by ditterent villages ; 4. 
 variiius eontributions, imiiostson fonugii trade, Ac. 
 'flu'se ini]i' sts are small, and there is none on 
 exported ■mgnr; those in the service of the govern- 
 iiiiiii are exempted from them. The king has 
 ,i,„iiiipoliei of gold-dust, ivory, and rhinooeros' 
 
 litiriis. 
 
 The Government is an hereditary military des- 
 iKitisni, in which, however, primogeiiilure is more 
 attended to than legitimacy. The sovereign has 
 the title of Kmperor. The central adminisfratiim 
 miller liini is conducted by six Mandarins, ininis- 
 tprs who have charge of the archives, religion, 
 justice, war, tinance, and woods and forests. He- 
 sides these, the viceroys of Toiuiuin and Cam- 
 IkhIju, and the Mandarin of Ekphantu, who is 
 iirinic minister, and mhiister of foreign atlairs, 
 have seats in the sujjreme council. Each province 
 isdiviiledinto 3 departments, called Hit-yen-^ each 
 (Icp. into 3 or 4 districts, called Tou. The pro- 
 vincial governments arts under a viceroy of the 1st 
 class iif Mandarins (or military class), who has 2 
 civil Mandarins under him; each /iw-wn is go- 
 verned by two and each tmi by one civil Alandarin : 
 the villages are governed by oHieers ehuiled by the 
 iK'asaiiiry, who are answerable for the taxes of 
 their constituents. 
 
 All rank is otHcial, and although in part here- 
 ditarv. descends a stej) in each succeeding gcnera- 
 tiiin." Each functionary has jiower to intlict 
 imiiishment im all inferior to him in rank, and 
 unlimited obediiMice to this power is disi)layed 
 anidiigst all classes. 
 
 Armed Force. — The royal guard consists of 
 3(1,0(111 men and «(M» elephants, besides the jiroviii- 
 cial troops, the number of which varies. All 
 males are liable to serve, and 1 out of 3 is gene- 
 rally a soldier. There is continually a levy of 
 tliiisc l)etween 17 and 20; and those who are 
 (ihli},'cd to serve, cannot leave the army till age or 
 iiilinnity coniiKjl them. They are in active ser- 
 vice for three successive years, and then have 
 leave of absence for the three next, which they 
 .s|iend with their families, eni[iloying themselves 
 ill the till»,i<'! of a small aUotment of land, granted 
 hy gdveminent to each. The standing anny was 
 formerly 10(1,000 men; but when Crawfurd visited 
 the country, it was only between 40,000 and 50,000 
 men. I'inhij-sou says, ' they arc robust, smart- 
 luoking troops,' clothed in British s«u-let woollens, 
 sumetimes turned up with blue or vellow, and 
 wear a conical helmet of basket-work, lacquered 
 ami gilt : their other arms are swords, muskets 
 with bayonets, shields, and long sjiears, decorated 
 with a "tuft of red horse-hair. Their cartouche 
 box(», and other accoutrements, bear a similarity 
 to those of Europe, the defensive arts of which, 
 discipline, &c., were introduced by the Ereuch 
 diiruig the last century, who om^j supjdied them 
 with 10,000 stand of" arms. Miu-h progress was 
 made in military aft'airs by the Cochin Chinese. 
 and the late king ca.st a number of caninm. Hue, 
 ^I'i-gon, and some other cities, are strongly for- 
 tilied. 
 
 The Xavi/ consists of about 200 gun-boats, car- 
 rying from IG to 22 guns, 100 large galleys of li-om 
 uU to 70 oars, with several small swivel pieces, 
 and a 12 or 21 pounder at the prow, and 600 
 
 smaller gnlleva wimewhat similarly armed. The 
 seamen art; classed in regiments the same as land 
 troops, t! of which are on duty at the capital, and 
 1 at each of the other principal forts, ((.'rawfurd, 
 p. 4!t2.) 
 
 tteliqion, — The religion of the mass of the 
 people IS a si^cies of lluddhisin ; the u|iper orders 
 follow the religion of ('onfiicius. Christianity was 
 introduced in 1024 by the l'ortugues<? Jesuits; 
 and there are alxnit 42'>,000 Christians in the em- 
 pire (Crawfurd), viz.: 300,000 in Toii(|uin, 100.000 
 in Cochin China, and about 2r>,000 in Cambodja; 
 but they are the most abject- of the )iopiilation, 
 and possess no |H>li(ical weight whatever. Tlie 
 religion of the Anamese does not affect their morals 
 or mode of life. Its ceremonies seem to consisi in 
 offering first fruits, scented woods, &c. to iibds, in 
 burning great (|imntities of gilt paper at certain 
 times, sticking inscriptions on posts, trees, and 
 houses, and carry ingal tout phylacteries, and other 
 sacred objects. The Cochin Chinese are verv 
 superstitious, and endeavour to apfx'ase the evil 
 spirit more than they venerate the beiieticent one. 
 '1 hey have jiagodas, and a jtantheon ; but their 
 idols and temjiles are most coimnonly an image of 
 the Chinese god Eo, enclosed in a small house of 
 wicker work, hung up in a tree, or elevated on 
 four long posts, and approached by alaihler. Their 
 priests are few, and but little respected by a people 
 who treat many of their gods with contempt, in 
 (!hiampa (7V«w/«j). tlie S. part of Cochin China, 
 Indian and not Chinese gods arc the obj(!cts of 
 worship. 
 
 Mr. White observes, that theft is universal, and 
 murders not uncoinmon. All travellers agree in 
 the want of chastity amongst unmarried females; 
 their open )irostitution neither degrades them in 
 public opinion, nor jm'vents their beconiing mar- 
 ried, after which, however, a strict watch is kept 
 over them. 
 
 Jurisprudence. — The police of the villages and 
 the laws are administered by the village chiefs 
 already spoken of; in the towns, one of the prin- 
 cipal inhabitants of each street is chosen by the 
 rest as head of the street, and is answerable for the 
 good behaviour of all the rest, over whom he is 
 an arbitrator. In ca]iital cases, judgment rests 
 with the governors of the hu-i/en, or there may 
 be apjjcal from them to those of the province, and 
 ultimately to the royal coumnl; wln^rc all the 
 evidence is scrupulously re-adduced. The judges 
 write and seal their individual opinions separately, 
 and the emperor himself determines on the case. 
 Xo distinction is made between natives and fo- 
 reigners, the latter In-ing under the protection of 
 the minister of strangers. The several tV.iefs give 
 audience and receive petitions every day; but 
 presents to each are necessary to obtain a hear- 
 ing. 
 
 The bamboo is constantly at w(jrk, and the 
 caungue, or yoke, for other minor crimes, which is 
 c(niiposed of two pieces of wood 10 feet long, fast- 
 ened across by two others, and worn somewhat 
 tightly round the neck. All capital crimes, as 
 murder, robbery, sometimes corruption (excepting 
 adultery), arc punished by decajntation : the cri- 
 minals are brought into the bazar, or public place, 
 and placed in rows, each oi)posite a placard, de- 
 claring the nature of his crime: then, with one 
 blow of a two-handed sabre, their heads are suc- 
 cessively struck otl". Parties convicted of adul- 
 tery arc tied together and thrown into the sea. 
 
 Polygamy is allowed ; the first wife is the chief, 
 the others being mostly of inferior rank; the 
 children of all are, however, equally legitimate. 
 The richer classes marry at 15, the poorer at 20 
 or 30 j'ears of age, or when they can afford to buy 
 
'h. 
 
 u 
 
 120 ANAM 
 
 11 woninii fVoin her frlcndH; Imt wonion raiiiiot 1)0 
 nmrricd iiLtaiiist tticir own t'<lll^<('llt. Miirriii^^e in 
 liiit a vcrlial (•■mtratt, ratiticd 'ty i-xcihaiiKiiiK |irf- 
 sonts Ix'titro wilncsMOK, ami (lisxolved as readily l>y 
 merely lireakiii;,' a pair of clioi>-nti<'l<H, or [torcu- 
 l)iiie qiiillw, lulorc a tliird party. Tlie reinaiim of 
 tlic dead arc often laid out with mnch pomp under 
 a ]mvilioii covered with Hilks, and surrounded with 
 tal)leH of the choicest fruits, and a hand of music 
 for l.'i day". White jjarnients arc worn, and much 
 fjilt ])aper is Immt at these times. No native nor 
 foreigner, if married, is allowed to quit the 
 country, 
 
 AmmemenU, Public Taste, §y. — The Anamesc 
 are very fond of dramatic representations, which 
 are performed in pavilions for several days to- 
 f^etherwiih little intennission, and to which no 
 entrance-money is re(|uired, the actors depcndinj,' 
 on vohintiiry contriltutions. The plays consist of 
 historical operati(r pieces, or of a li^lit and comic 
 dialoj;ne, interspersed with cheerful airs, each con- 
 cluding with a common chorus. Their daiu-in^' 
 and music is in exa<'t time, the latter not destitute 
 of melody, not unlike some Scotch airs. The iii- 
 strmneiits in use arc K')nfcs, drums, violins, flutes, 
 guitars, and trumpetssufliciently harsh an<lKratiiiK; 
 hut the applause is always in proportion to tlie 
 noise made. They have some notion of sculpture, 
 the hest s)iecimens of which are seen on fomhs. 
 They are foiul of shuttlecock juid footliall, cock 
 and (piail fi;,'htinf,', the tricks of Juf^f^lers, itc. ; 
 and the upper ranks of elephant, tij^cr, or hnffalo 
 hunting, and fireworks, cards and. dice, without, 
 however, heinij addi<:ted to ^anihlin^. 
 
 Dress — Is the same as that of the Chinese be- 
 fore the Tartar coiuiuest, consistiuf^ of loose 
 trousers, tied roun<l the waist with a sash ; several 
 loose frocks of ditlereiit lengths, the upper one 
 the shortest, and haviuf; long loose sleeves, a small 
 close collar, and live buttons and loops ; a broad 
 basket-work hat, or a turban of crape; slip|)ers 
 by which the feet are not cramped like those 
 of the Chinese; hair lon^f, and turned up in a 
 knot on the top of the head. The dress of both 
 sexes is alike, only in that of the women the 
 frocks are lonf;;er, and they wear bracelets and 
 armlets of pearl, of ivory, earrings, and other 
 ornaments. Dress is au object of great attention 
 with all classes, 
 
 Lamiuufle, — The language of the Cochin Chi- 
 nese, like their dress, &c., has been derived from 
 that of China : it is monosyllabic, destitute of in- 
 fl(!xions, its written character like the former, 
 althougli it |)osscsses several elements, as the B, 
 D, and H, which the Chinese are unable to pro- 
 nounce. The Cambodjans speak a different lan- 
 guage, and the [)eople of Tsiampa another distinct 
 from both. Lit(!rature is confined to Chinese 
 books, chiefly on modicijie, and the works of Con- 
 fucius. 
 
 History. — In 234 b.c. this country was con- 
 quered by the Chinese, who held it till am, '2().'}. 
 In 140() it was reconquered by the Chinese, who 
 abandoned it again in 1428, In 1471, Cochin 
 China was complcitely subjected by Tonquin; hut 
 in 15r)3 threw off the yoke, ami, until 1748, was 
 governed by both a nominal and real sovereign, 
 the latter of whom was a military commander 
 aiuV regent. The nominal ^'overcigns then ob- 
 tained the mastery, and ruled in the midst of 
 anarchy till 1774, when, in the reign of Caung- 
 shung, the revolution of Nhac {Yinyac) and his 
 brothers overturned their j)ower. Bishop Adran, 
 a French missionary, the tutor of the late king's 
 son, obtained for linn the alliance of Louis XVI., 
 nnd, with the aid of a few of his countrymen, was 
 the maiu cause of the restoration of his pupil Gia- 
 
 ANCONA 
 
 long to the Ihnme of his ancestors, on whicli |,,. 
 was firmly seated in I8((2. Adran refornicil tl,,. 
 jurispriiilence, coimnt-nccd [)nhli<' works, survcviii 
 the coasts, promoted trade, established naval arxc- 
 nals, and new disciplined the king's army : Imi 
 dying soon afh>r, many of his wholesome retiiniu 
 sank into disuse, (iia-long died in 181!), and wn^ 
 succeeded by an illegitimat(' son, who was invcsti.,!, 
 in 1821, by i\w. court of Peking with the enipift 
 of Tonquin and Cochin China. 
 
 Anam. — TiiK Fkioxch Colony, Before the 
 French revolution the g(»vennncnt of Louis XVI. 
 made great endeavours to obtain a foofiriK in 
 ('oehin C'hina, and they were successful for a time, 
 causing many of the places to be fortified in Y.\u». 
 pean fashion, introducing Freiu-h oflicers im,) 
 places of authority, and generally modifying tli(> 
 government according to ICuropean ideas. In the 
 beginning of the prcsc'Ut ccntiirv these cliaiij;M 
 had become obsolete ; but, in |8(!(), a powcrlnl 
 Franco-Spanish expedition reduced the city of 
 Saigon, which was made the capital of a iiiw 
 French colon.v. The territory of tliis colony Odin- 
 prises the three pro\s, of Dongmii, liicn-lioit, .nul 
 Saigon, or that part of the country extcndin;; 
 east of the Cambodia 8"» m, in a direct line, aiii] 
 north on the Cambodia to 1 1° 10' north, V.'Mm, 
 along the river course. (See Sakion,) In »t\\v 
 (piarters in India, the ])osition of the Frendiji 
 viewed with some concern, more especially ^il|l■(. 
 the French have rocogniseil the sovereign off jiiii- 
 bodia as independent, while he is really depciulcnt 
 on Siam, an empire on tenns of enmit.y witli tht 
 Bunncse provin(;e of India. The French arc en- 
 deavouring to attract tlus commerce of the [ini- 
 vinces of China bounding the Anamite empire' mi 
 the north, down the Catnbodia river, while l!riii.«li 
 nu'rchants, both in India and at home, favmir a 
 scheme to (!f>nstruct a road into these Cliincso 
 provinces from Rangoon. 
 
 AX.U'A, a sea-port town and fortress of F.iim- 
 pean liussia, Circas^ia, on the NF. coast iif tho 
 Black Sea, 47 m. SK. Yenikale, lat, 44° ij I' ,rj , 
 hmg, 37° 1(>' 21" K, Pop, ex, of military, H.Oiiii, 
 The fortress, constructed by the Turks in 17k|. 
 was taken by the Russians in 1791, and in IsiC, 
 and finally in 1828, since which it has been ili- 
 tiintively ceded to them. The houses are iiiosily 
 mere cabins, built of woo<l and mud. The iiilia- 
 bilants consist of Circas.'ians, Turks, Tartar, 
 (Ireeks, Jews, Armenians and Hussinns, The |«n, 
 or rather road, is nearly open, with bad hdldiii;; 
 ground, and so shallow as to admit only ships ui 
 small biu-den. Anapa is at jiresent prineipiilly 
 important as a military post ; but were triiiii|uii- 
 lity restored in Circassia, it would most likely 
 become the seat of a considerable connnercc. Tlie 
 exijorts are grain, tallow, and butter, hides, pel- 
 tries and wax. 
 
 ANCFNIS, a town of France, dep. Loire Info- 
 rieure, on the Loire, 21 m. EXK. Nantes. \'«\\ 
 4,(!28 in ISGl. It is well built, hits a liandsonie 
 college, an hospital, and barracks. There arc coal 
 and iron mines in the neighbourhood; and it liu 
 a good deal of trade in wine, vinegar, braml.v, 
 and timber. Its jjort serves as an eiitrei)ot aii'l 
 station for the vessels navigating the Loire, Tlie 
 town is commanded by a Gothic castle placed en 
 a steep hill. 
 
 ANCFK'VILLE, a town of Frjince, dep. Alcii* 
 11 m. SSW. Bar-le-Duc. Top, 2,003 in 18(il. 
 
 ANCIIOLME (Isi.E of), see Lincolnshikk, 
 
 ANCONA, a marit, city of Italy, on the Ad- 
 riatic, 17A m, SK, Sinigaglia, 15 m. NN\V. Loreta 
 and 188 ni. NE, Rome, lat, 43° 37' 42" N.. H', 
 13° 30' 35" E, Pop, 4(;,OnO in 18G2, of wliuoi 
 nuiny are Giccka and Mcjhaiumeduns, and exdu- 
 
<, (III wliii'li )i,. 
 I rct'driiud il«. 
 orkN, !«iirvpyc,| 
 IiimI naval arsi'- 
 \fi'>\ nmiy : Imi 
 Uwdiio rct'uniu 
 I l«l!t, niidwiu 
 no was iuvi'stcil, 
 nt\\ the vm\m 
 
 Y, IJi'fiiro tlic 
 t of Louis XVI, 
 ill (I foiitin^' ill 
 ^ssfiil tor II tinii', 
 brtirti'il ill luiru- 
 •h otHccrs int.) 
 y iiiodifyint,' tlio 
 ill ideas. In \h 
 y tlicsi! chaii^^'iH 
 SCiO, a pnwcrl'iil 
 iced tlin I'ily nl' 
 a|)ital of a luw 
 tills colony dini- 
 «i, liicii-lioa, ;ni4 
 iiiitry cxlciiilin;; 
 a direct line, lUiil 
 1(1' iiorlli, i:>itni. 
 .KioN.) Ill siniii' 
 
 of tlic Frcmli i< 
 ft especially mim' 
 sovereijiiiofCam- 
 1 really dciieiulc!)! 
 
 eiiiiiity with ilic 
 he Freiicli arc cu- 
 mercc of tlie \>ui- 
 ^iiamite eiti|)ir(! m 
 iver, while lJriti>h 
 at home, favmir a 
 iito these CliiiKs; 
 
 d fortress of R«m- 
 NK. coast (if tlic 
 ,e, lat. -14° ij I' h-r, 
 |of military, !!,<iii", 
 lie Turks in 17x1, 
 |l79I, and iii Ix"". 
 ;h it has hcenili- 
 Ihouscs are mostly 
 mud. The inlia- 
 , Turks, Tartim, 
 lussiaiis. Tlic \MU 
 with had hdldiiii; 
 limit only sliipn I'l 
 irescnt principally 
 but wore traiKiuil- 
 [vould most lilitly 
 lie commerce. The 
 butter, hides, inl- 
 
 \c, (lep. Loire hifo- 
 kl-:. Nantes, l'"!'. 
 It, lias a liaiiilstmi* 
 Ivs. There are t"i 
 Jirhood ; and it li w 
 vinegar, briimly, 
 an entrepot aiil 
 L' the Loire. Tli< 
 |o castle placed un 
 
 Ifrance, dep. Mciu* 
 1 -ijOO;! in 18f)l. 
 
 LlNCOl-XSIlIKK. 
 
 I Italy, on tlie Ad- 
 • m. NNW. Lorrtii. 
 
 |o 37' 4-2" X., y^f' 
 
 18G2, of whiiB 
 
 Leduiis, and exdu- 
 
 ANCONA 
 
 ..ivc of L**"^^ •^'■"'^ '^'''" '"''"'''t " Hopnrnfp quarter, i 
 ii JH tlic ^eat of a civil tribunal, of a tribunal of 
 i,i.j,jii„l jiiriMlictioii. and of a bishopric: is built 
 ,,iiipliitlieatre-w i.-c, on a sloping ground, declining 
 III tlie sen, between two hills, on one of which 
 siaiids its cathedral, on tlic other its citadel; 
 ircctn narrow, dirty, anil irregular; but many 
 |„„is«>s siMicions and elegant; quay fine; port 
 tiiriiicd by a mole 5J,(l<)() ft. in length, KM) do. in 
 lirvadtl'i I""' ''"' '»''o^<' the sea, having at its ex- 
 ircniitv a lighthouse, with a handsonio revidving 
 IJi'lit. ' The mole iK'ing hooked at the extremity, 
 vessels may lie imnie<liately within the harbour in 
 friini ' to 8 fathoms; but it shoals rapidly, and 
 viwiH'ls drawing more than to or 10 feet water 
 sliduld anchor within a short distance of the entry. 
 There is good anchorage ground about J in. witli- 
 iiiit the nude, in Ittand 12 fathoms. The harbour 
 It miiidty imiiroving under the present Italian 
 ..'iivcriiiiieiit, several dredges of late ycar.( having 
 Krii kept constantly at work increasing the depth 
 iit'tlieliarlponr. On the mole stands a iiolile ancient 
 triuinpli.'il arch, in honour of the Kmiieror Trajan, 
 HJii) iiiipriived and einbellished the town and port : 
 it is funned of large blocks of white marble; and 
 ii has also another arch in honour of I'ope lleiie- 
 ilict XIV. The cathedral, situated on a b(dd jiro- 
 iiKMitorv on the site of an ancient temple of Venus, 
 liiw a cnriods iiorch, supported by two lions of 
 Kfivptian granite; a very ancient altar, and many 
 line marble pillars. There are 10 other churches, 
 loiitaiiiing many good paintings; 1,") convents, a 
 (•(illcge, and two hospitals. The jialace of the 
 delegate, the exchange, the town-bouse, and the 
 I'urtilicatioiis, particularly the citadel, are also 
 wiirthy of notice, 
 
 Itsinannfactures, ehielly in the hands of the 
 .lews, consist principally of wax, tallow, silk hats, 
 and imjier. The harbour is well adapted for biiihl- 
 iiij; and repairing shijis, and is frequented by those 
 ipf all nations. It was made a free port by Cle- 
 ment XII., and liaa a more considerable trade than 
 any other town on the VV. coast of the Adriatic, 
 Vp'nicc excepted. This trade is now on the in- 
 creiiiie, outside the harbour is a tine lazzaretto, on 
 an ariilicial island, communicating with the town 
 liy a bridge. The market-place is spacious, and 
 tiie town is well furnished with cheap and good 
 |irorisioiis. The women are said to be remarkable 
 luf their beauty. The town is now connected by 
 i railways with Kimiiii and I'escara, Steamers 
 leave tor Corfu, Patia.s, Athens, Smyrna, and Con- 
 siantiniiple. Hxports, corn, hemp, bacon, sulphur, 
 ami tallow. Imports, colonial goods, drugs, and 
 nictnls, and large quantities of coal from liritain. 
 llxports lX(i.-J !f2,24o/. ; imports ;U7,I1!»/. : of which 
 the British share was 2«,48y/. and 196,520/. re- 
 spectively. 
 
 Ancona is said by Strabo to have been founded 
 liy a colony of Syracusans in the time of Dionysiiis. 
 The liomans established themselves in it B.C. 
 iW. living justly regarded as a naval station of 
 ^Twit iniijortance, Trajan expended large sums 
 uion it, and built the mole; A. d, 592, it was oc- 
 ( iipicd by the L(jmhards ; in 839 it was sacked by 
 the Miissulmiins ; and it afterwards formed an in- 
 (li'lK'ndcnt republic, till 1532, when Hcriiardino 
 liarlia, under pretext of defending it against the 
 Turks (having built the citadel which entirely 
 iiiinmaiids the town), placed it in the hands of the 
 'iipc. In 1799 it was taken by the French, and 
 ill 18111) formed the chief city of the dep. of the 
 i Jk'tauro. in 1814, it was restored to the Pajial 
 SCO. Ill Feb. 1832, a detachment of Freiicli troops 
 landed unexpectedly, and took possession of the 
 citadel; which the French government announced 
 its resohitiuii to rutaui so long as any AiL'^tviau 
 
 ANDALISIA 
 
 I'il 
 
 troops remainpil within the Papal territories; flic 
 latter, however, having been withdrawn, the 
 French evacuated the town in the course of 1839. 
 In the year |8I9 the town having shared in llur 
 revolution in the I{oman States, was bombarded 
 and then occupied by Austrian troops and held by 
 them till 18,J9. On 29tli October I8(;() it surren- 
 dered to the Piedmontesc tniops, and has siiici* 
 formed part of the Italian kingdom. (Kampoldi, 
 Corogratia dell' Italia, vol. i. p. 80; Consular L'e- 
 lM)rts, 18(i;J-l). 
 
 ANCY-LK-FHAXC, a town of France, dep. 
 Voniie, cap. cant, on the canal of liiirgundy, Ht m. 
 SK. 'i'onnerre. Pop. 1,839 in 18(!|. It is neat 
 and well-built, but is chietly remarkable for the 
 magnificent castle in its vicinity, built after tlio 
 (h!signs of Prima ticcio, iM'longing to the descendants 
 of Ijouvois, minister of Louis XIV. It is sur- 
 rounded by a beautiful park, and has fine gardens. 
 
 ANDAi) KUAN, or ANDKJAN, a town of In- 
 (le|ieiident Tartary, Kliaiiat of Kliokan, on the 
 Sihonii (Jti.rartea), r>,") m. K. Khokan, lat, 1 1° 21)' N., 
 hiiig, 71° 27' K. It is siirrounded by gardens, and 
 is a place of coiistih'rable size and antiquity, 
 
 ANPALUSIA, a district of Spain, so called, 
 either from the Vandals who settled here in thu 
 fifth cent., or from an Arabic wonl, signifying 
 Land of the tFvat, It is the most S. division of 
 Spain, comprising the four Moorish kingdoms of 
 Seville, Cordova, .Jaeii, and (iraiiada, between 
 3(iO()' and 38© 38' N. lat., and 1° 37' and 7° 25' W. 
 long,, having N, Estrcmadnra and La Manclia; 
 E, Jliircia; W. Portugal; and S, the Atlantic 
 Ocean, the Str. of (iibraltar, and the ^Mcdilcr- 
 ranean : length, K. to W., about 350 m. ; greatest 
 breadth nearly 200 m. : area, 27,153 sq. m. Pop. 
 3,927,357 according to the census of 1857, being 
 an increase since 184(5 of 1,509,298. Andalusia is 
 at present divided into eight provinces, vi/. — 
 Seville, Cadiz, Cordova, (Jranada, .laen, Malaga, 
 Almeria, and Iliielva. Its chief cities are Seville, 
 Cadiz, Cordova, Jaen, Almeria, (iranada, Malaga, 
 Huelva, and (Iibraltar. Two ranges of nuamtains 
 traverse it from I'], to W. : the most S, of these 
 ranges is the loftiest, and has several ])oiiits covered 
 with penietual snow; the highest, Miilahacen, 
 being 11,078 ft. above the level of the sea. The 
 Sierra Morena belongs to the N. chain, and forms 
 jiart of the N. boundary of the district. Between 
 these two ranges tlows the (Juadalqnivir, by far 
 the largest of the Andaliisian rivers, and swelled 
 by numerous stre.ims from the latenil valleys open- 
 ing into its basin. There are numerous small lakes. 
 On the coast, the climate is hot and ojipressive ; 
 but N. of the Sierra Nevada, the temperatiu'e is 
 more equable, and cooler, although it never freezes. 
 The iirimitive rocks <if the high S. mountains are 
 chietly mica-slate, gneiss, and clay-slate, covered 
 in some ptirts by black transition limestone, con- 
 taining sulphuret of lead. Soqientine marble, and 
 alabaster, arc found in Granada ; and there aro 
 numerous mines, that either produce, or have pro- 
 duced, gold, silver, copper, antimony, mercury, 
 iron, lead, vitriol, coal, and sulphur ; but, with the 
 exception of the lead mines of Adra, near Alalaga, 
 they are at present mostly in a neglected state. 
 Tlie vegetation partakes of the I'^uropean and 
 African characters : mastic, olive, myrtle, palms, 
 bananas, &c., abound in the central parts of the 
 country, but on the S. shores those common to 
 Euroiie almost wholly disa|ipoar, and the sugar- 
 cane and cotton are cultivated. Wheat, barley, 
 fruits of all sorts, and wines, are .ibiiiidantly pro- 
 duced ; the chief wines are those of Xercjs (sherry), 
 Pajarete, Malaga, and !Montilla; silk, is iilso an 
 article of considerable culture. There arc many 
 rich pasture-lauds; and the cattle and horses, ea- 
 
 m 
 
 V'y 
 
 It 
 
122 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS 
 
 iD;h 
 
 m 
 
 '\i 
 
 
 iK^cially tl)« lattor, nre renowned an nmongHt the 
 liont in Spain, Tiie wulf and Imar arc tlii' only 
 fonnidalilc wild animals; tlicrc is plenty of kohi*'' 
 an al)und'ni(H! of lisli, and none of (he niimt veno- 
 mouH reptileH : the cochineal insect is successfully 
 cultivated near Cadi/. Most part of the coinilry 
 is parcelled out into vast cstatt-s, Ijelon^iiiK to 
 grandees, the church, and corporations. Af,'ricid- 
 ture is in a very backward state. The (greater 
 part of the conntn* is appropriated to pasture, the 
 traveller often jourueyiuf,' many miles without 
 tM'ein^ a single house, or any symptoms of culti- 
 vation; and, iiolwithstaiidiiif; the fertility of the 
 fMiil, there is auiiiuiUy a consi(h'ralile importation 
 of com from the opposite coast of Africa, Sicily, 
 and the llhick Sea. The occupii^rs of the lauil 
 mostly live tof^ether in towns and villaj^es; their 
 rents are usually ])aid on the mi'tuijer principle, 
 and they are at once i;;norant and poor; the iu- 
 )ial itants of the inountuinous and less fertile dis- 
 tricts are. as niinht he expected, the most indus- 
 trious. Th(! chief maniH'actures are those of 
 Woollens, silk, and leather; and hut for opjiressive 
 custom laws, there would he a more consuU'rahle 
 trade than there is hoth with other i)art8 of Spain 
 and foreign countries. Cadi/, is the chief ])ort. 
 
 The Audalusians are a mixe<l race, desci-iided 
 from Afri<'ans, Carthafjiinians, Kornans, (ioths, \'an- 
 <lals, anil Moors, 'i'liey retain much resemhiauce, 
 both in jwrsou and maimers, to the latter; al- 
 tliou;;h li^-lit hair, eyes and complexions, are by no 
 means iiiifreipient. When they have any motive 
 to exertion, they are not deticient in industry, 
 nnd are int(dli},'ent and imapnalive. Andalusia 
 lias jiroduced nmnv p)od poets and distinguished 
 men in all «ii?es : 'IVajan, the Seiiecas, and Silius 
 Italiciis were natives of this prov., with Miirillo 
 the jiainter, and some of the be»t lyric authors of 
 modern Spain. 
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a Ipiifctheiied narrow 
 groii]! of islands, none of which are of any very 
 considerable mapiitude, in the K. jiart of the Day 
 of Itenj^al, stretchiiit; N. and S., between 10° ;{()' 
 and 13° 40' N. hit., under about 112° .W K. lonj,'. 
 ThvV an' within the full sweep of the SW. mon- 
 soon, and are washed foreifflit months a year by in- 
 cessant rains. They produce many larj^e trees, that 
 miKht, furnish timber and planks for the construc- 
 tion of ships, and for the tinest cabinet work. The 
 quadrupeds are but few, consisting' princijjally of a 
 diminutive breed of swine and rats. Amoii}; the 
 birds is the swaUow, that jiroduces the edible nests 
 80 hiffhly esteemed in China. Fish are fjfeiierallv 
 plentiful, but occasionally scarce. The inhabi- 
 tants, who are not su))])osed to exceed 2,500 or 
 8,((00 ill number, seem to be a ])eciiliar race in the 
 lowest state of barbarism. Tliey seldom exce(!il 
 6 feet in heif^ht, have jirotuberaiit bellies, limbs 
 disproiiortioiially slender, skin a deep sooty black, 
 liair woolly, nose flat, lips thick, eyes small and 
 red, their countenances exhibitiiifj the extreme of 
 v;retcliedness — a mixture of famine and ferocitj'. 
 The}' go quite naked, and are insensible to shame 
 from exposure. They ha\-e made no effort to cul- 
 tivate the ground, and are found only on the sea- 
 coast, de))ending i)rincipally for subsistence on 
 fishing. Their implements are of the rudest texture; 
 but they use them with great dexterity, particu- 
 larly in spearing and caitturing tish. They are 
 Bkilful as rowers, and in the management of their 
 boats. They have no utensil that will resist lire, 
 and dress their food by throwing it on the live 
 embers, and devouring it half broiled. Their ha- 
 bitations display little more ingenuity than the 
 dens of wild beasts, being mere huts, funned of 
 four irregular posts stuck in the ground and covered 
 •>vith paim leaves. Leing much incommoded by 
 
 ANDERNACH 
 
 inserts, their llmt occuiMition in tho momin;; Ih to 
 niaster their iMMiies all over with mud, wliii),, 
 hardening in the sun, forms an impenetrable anu' 
 our. They jiaiiit their woolly heads with n,| 
 ochre and water, and, when completely drcimci, 
 have a most hideiais appearance. They have lui 
 intense hatred of strnngers, with whom they iiiii- 
 not be |iersuaded to hold any intercours%. 'TIicv 
 are suppos(>d to worship the sun ami moon; niiil 
 during stonns and temiM'sts, endeav<Mir to avert 
 the wrath of the <lemoii bv whom they sn|i|HiM: 
 them to be produced. Their language is peiMilJar. 
 and is not known to have the slightest alliiiity to 
 any spoken in India, or in any of the liiilian 
 islands. They have been said to be ««Mm/«i. 
 j)liii(iii<tii, but this is not continned by the luti.i 
 visitors. Some have supposed them to be a rare 
 of degenerate negroes; luit this ajtpears not icil,,. 
 the case. No distinct resemblance can be irami 
 between them and any other race — M'llay, AiMral- 
 asian, or others — a descent from oi.. r otlicrcif 
 whom might have been looked for, and they iiH^t 
 reseiniile a dwarfed and undefonned Liirdixaa 
 race. Their want of correspondence with aiiynilur 
 tyi)e raises an interesting question in ethimldjjy, 
 
 A lirilish settlement was established at I'urt 
 ("ornwallis, on the largest of the islands, near (lie 
 N Va. exi remity of the grou|), in 1 7i);}. The liarlKiur 
 is excellent; and the settlement tvas desigiicdii.r 
 the reception of convicts from llengal, aixl lurilic 
 security of shipping during the monsoons; hut ilii' 
 situation turned out so very unhealthy, as toncrn- 
 sion its abandonment in ll'M. Since then tliiv 
 have been but seldom visited, except in 1x21 anil 
 \H2^>, when some of the ships, on tludr way tn 
 llaiigoon, ttaiched at the islands. On one of tliiM' 
 occasions the natives attacked a jiarly waleriiii; 
 with the utmost fiirj'; and were not repulsed wiih- 
 oiit great hiss on their side, •iiid after they liail 
 killed one soldier, ami wounded three others. A 
 place on one of the islands, I'ort lUair, was selcdiil 
 as a penal st^ttlement for the Sepoy reliels in Isjs, 
 (Syines, Kinbassy to Ava, jip. 127-liW, llu. iil,; 
 and Mouat's Adventures and Kesearches uniuiiL; 
 the Andaman Islanders, I8<!;(.) 
 
 ANDKLYS (LI'^S), two towns of France, wiiliiii 
 a very short distance of each other, de|i. Mure, caii. 
 arrond. one on the Seine, and the otluu' a lilile 
 inland, 10 or II m. K. L(Hiviers. Pop. ."),i;i7iii 
 18dl. The greater Andely is ill built, with iiarroiv 
 crooked streets; but it has a fine collegiate (•liurcli, 
 The lesser Andely has to boast of the magiiilicciil 
 ruins til' the chateau Uaillard. There are manu- 
 factures of line cloth, kerseymeres, rateens, cotlui: 
 yarns, and jiaper, with tanneries. Nicholas l*mi«- 
 sin, the famous painter, was bom in the haiiilet nl' 
 Villers, near the greater Andely, in ir>i)l: ami a 
 monument has been erected to his memory iu that 
 town, 
 
 ANDl'^NNI'^S, a town of Belgium, prov, Xamur 
 on the Maese, l;{ m. FNH. Namur, Pop. (I,.')L'iii 
 IM.jO. There are manufactures of earthenware ami 
 l)orcelain. and of jiipes formed of the clay foiuiJiu 
 the neighbourhood, 
 
 AN 1)K IfN ACI I (the A ntunacvm of the IJomanj), 
 a town of the Prussian jmiv. of Lower h'hiiic, mi 
 the left bank of the lihiiie, 10 m. NW. Colileiitz, 
 on the railway i'rom Cologne to Cobleiitz aiiJ 
 Mayence. Pop. 4,2;')7 in 18(!1. It is situated in a 
 country formerly volcanic, and its massive towiK 
 tuiTcts, and ruined walls are admirably suiteil i' 
 the sombre scenery by which it is surrdimiinl 
 Streets narrow and ill jiaved, and the liiiiw> 
 gloomy, old, and out of repair. There is a tiiieuM 
 archway, supposed to be Roman, forming the jiale 
 of the town on the side next Coblentz; and liclow 
 it, iu a line towards the river, are the ruins of iui 
 
mominp 1h u 
 
 I mud, wliiili, 
 iciit'triilili' nriii- 
 .i'UiIm villi Ml 
 ili'Irly tircswl, 
 
 'I'lll'V llliVW nil 
 
 k'hiiin they ciin- 
 ■rcoiirs.. 'I'liiv 
 iiiii itiiKin ; ninl 
 i>nv(iiir ti) avert 
 n tlioy su)i|Ki»(: 
 uviH' iH (iciMiliiir, 
 htcHt utiiiiity t<i 
 of lh(! Iiidmii 
 to 1k! itnlhivim- 
 ,[ by tlic latiM 
 i>ni til lie. H rail' 
 |i|i('iir!< mil t" 111' 
 I'f can lie trmi'l 
 -M'llny, Aii>iriil- 
 01.. r (itliiTiif 
 r, iuhI IIh'V iiii.<i 
 mnetl l'',iirii|ii'.iii 
 •{'. with iiiiy ntlur 
 
 II in «'tliiiiilii(;y, 
 ililislictl at P'Ti 
 
 islaiiils, near llu' 
 '!»;}. Tilt' liarlHiiir 
 
 •,vus (U'si;;m'il l"r 
 ni^iil, ami I'lir iln- 
 lonsoiiiis; Imt llir 
 ■allliy, as to ni'ia- 
 
 tSiiiw llii'ii llii'V 
 ccopt in is-il ami 
 
 oil tluiir way tn 
 , On OIK' ot'tlicM' 
 a iiarly wati'tin; 
 not ri'iiulscil wiili- 
 id al'tiT ilioy liiiil 
 
 tliree otliiTs, A 
 llUair, was .-iclci'ti'il 
 
 Kiv ri'licls in l"'"*' 
 liiK, 'llii.i'il.; 
 
 tesearfhcs aiiiuii;; 
 
 of France, within 
 .T, dcii. Kurp. tail, 
 the other a link' 
 ... I'op. o.Ki'iu 
 built, with iiarmw 
 collegiate I'liurdi. 
 uf the ma^'iiiliccni 
 
 There are iiiaim- 
 •es, rateens. cotli'ii 
 Nicholas l'»u<- 
 11 in tlie hanik'i "i 
 y, in 1;VJ1: m\^ 
 
 is memory iu tkt 
 
 '■ium, prov. Nanira 
 
 lur. I'op. <"',:il-' '" 
 f earthenware and 
 
 ' the clay foiiuil ill 
 
 i«nofthel{(iman.<). 
 ■ Lower Hliiiic,*'ii 
 ,n. N\V. Colik'iitz. 
 ' to Cohlentz aiiJ 
 J It is situated in a 
 its massivi^ towi'K 
 llmirably suited i|' 
 lit is surrmiiidtil 
 and the limw; 
 iTliere is a liiu' "'i 
 1, forming the f.* 
 Iblent/; aiuUiel'* 
 lire tlie niius ol im 
 
 ANDKH 128 
 
 cxtonnive palncn, or cniilln, HUpiiohiHl to hnvo been l the name of Smyth'x (Channel, ami iliviilmt first 
 liiiilt liv tl>^' ('otlit >**>*>n after the I'.xpiilsloii of the { Kiii^ William's Lund Iroml^ueeii Adelaide's Arehi- 
 Ii'ijmi.iii's. I'll'' '■>wii e.NjKirts mill-sloiies maile of pelaf^o, and allerwardsjuiiis the Frith of Siii.silid, 
 iiciriiiis lava, and larn'e iiuaiitities of iioumli'd /«/(«, 
 (Iciiiiiiiiuati'd Intim, u cement which, when mixed 
 Willi water, liecomes as hard as stone. The former 
 are in j^'reat demand in most parts of Kuroiie; the 
 latter is principally used bv the Dutch in tlie con- 
 
 ^triii'tiiiu of their dykes, liut is also exported to 
 iitlier countries. Immen.so rafts of timber from the 
 (iennaii forest.-*, destined for tlie Low Countries, 
 arc tiiriiied near Andernach. 
 
 ANHl'.S ('I'llK), an immense mountain raiiKe, 
 runs aliinj^ the whole \V. coast of S. America, 
 I'DveriiiK with its chains, declivities, and valleys 
 iiliiiiit a sixth part of that continent. The Cur- 
 (lilliKt, a name soiiietiuies ^iveii to this chain, is 
 iiriiperly applicable only to the hinermosl and 
 hi^rliest riil^e of the mass. 
 
 Cape Horn, on Cape Horn Island, in about MP 
 S. lal., may be cunsidered as the S. extremity of 
 the Amies.' The most N, chain of the mountains 
 is till' raranio de las llosas, Avhicli extends to the 
 K. of Lake Maracaybo, and terminates at about 
 !i°N. lilt. The whole system ii thus found to I'x- 
 teiiil lenK'thwiso over I!.') deg. of lat. Us width 
 varies very much; in some parts it occupies only 
 between il'u or 10 miles across, in others it covers 
 with its branches and valleys a country extending 
 iW miles and ujiwards from E, to W. 
 
 Ik'Kiniiing at the southern extremity, the Andes 
 toimiieiiee at the Cape of Good Success, on the W. 
 Bhores uf the Straits of Le Maire, in about 70° W. 
 lull},', Lven the high rocky mass which consti- 
 tutes the island of Stanten Land, and extends 
 nmrc than a degree farther L., may be considered 
 iLs a continuation of this range, from which it is 
 fcparateil only by the Straits of Le Maire, between 
 yi) and 41) ni, across. From the Cajie of (jood Suc- 
 cess the range runs W, uhiiig the S. shores of 
 King Charles's Southland, the most extensive of 
 the islands constituting the S, Archipelago of 
 America, commonly called Tierra del Fuego. It 
 Clivers about u third jiart of the surface of that 
 island, as well as the whole of the islaiuls lying S, 
 (if it; as Navariii, Ilosle, \V(dlastoii, Hermit, and 
 I'lipe Horn, Towards the Straits of Le Maire, the 
 range consists of rocky hills, of no great elevation ; 
 but farther \V. they rise to an altitude of '2,WH) or 
 3,1100 ft. Cape Horn itself is a conspicuous rock, 
 with a steep ascent, upwards of ;j,l)l)0 ft. high, 
 llmmt Sarmieiito, near Magdalen Chaimel, is the 
 liigliest summit, and rises C,!.iU( ft. above the sea. 
 in the W, part of King Charles's Soiithhuid, 
 the range extends over the whole district S. and 
 W. of Admiralty iiay. Farther VV. it changes its 
 direction, running in a >i W, direction as far as 
 the Fiitli of Saiisalid (Ancon Sinsalida of the 
 hlianianls), 52° S. lat., and 73° \V. long. This 
 jiart of the range, whose mean width may be about 
 WOorliO miles, is longitudinally divided by that 
 ]iortion of the Strait of Magalhaens which extends 
 iruin Cape Frowanl to Cape \'ictoria. Two trans- 
 verse channels divide the S. portion into two 
 islamls. The E. or Magdalen Channel separates 
 Clarence Island from King Charles's Southland; 
 and the W. extends between Chirencc Island ami 
 hiiuth iX'solation; the latter bears the name of 
 liiirhara Channel. That part of the range which 
 lies tu the M E. of the strait is intersected by two 
 decii transverse inlets. The south-eastern, called 
 Jeriime (Channel, terminates on the E. in two large 
 lufjoons, called (jtway and Skrying Waters, which 
 are both situated on the eastern side of the Andes 
 ill the plahis of I'utagonia. IJy this extensive in- 
 let, Itnniswick IVninsnla is divided from King 
 William's Lund. The Is \V. transverse inlet bears 
 
 which likewise piuielrates through the whole chain 
 of the Andes, and terminales with its numerou.H 
 branches in the plains of I'atagonia. South of this 
 frith the mouiiiains rise siimewhat higher than on 
 King Charles's Sontlibind, but their mean eleva- 
 tion does not exceed -liOlM) ft. above the sea. 
 
 The mountain range south of the Frith of Sinsa- 
 lid may be called the iMiiiiiillini-nH -i nf/c.'t, extending 
 principally on both sides the strait bearing that 
 name. It consists of idands and )ie,il<isiilas inier- 
 seeleii by deep but narrow arms of t'le sea. The. 
 summits of the mountains are covered with eternal 
 snow, the snow line oceurring in thes ' countries nt 
 about ;j,."iOi) feet above the sea. The lowi^r parts 
 of th(' miiuntains and the sti'cp and rocky simres 
 of the islands are jiartly covered with evergreen 
 Woods; except towards the ocean, where they pre- 
 sent the asiH'ct of bare black rocks. 
 
 At the Frith of Sinsalid begins the tininter- 
 mpted chain of the Andes. At this place il again 
 changes iis direction, running due N. with slight 
 bends as far north as the liiglit of Arica (!«'-' S, 
 lat.). It compreliends the ratagouian iViides be- 
 tween b'iP and -12°, the siiulhern Chilean Andes 
 between -12° and ;Jo°, and the nortbern C^hilean 
 and Atacamean Andes between 35° and 20° S, lal. 
 The I'utaijoniuH Andes extend from the Frilli of 
 Sin.salid to the N. corner of the Uiilpli of AiiciuL 
 opposite the island of Cliiloe. They are only known 
 from the side of the ocean, whence they risi' to a 
 considerable height with an eAtrtmely steep ascent. 
 It would seem as if the range i:' this part Iv I once 
 oceuiiied a much greater breadth, iii:'' tliat by some 
 extraordinary convulsion the whole of the western 
 declivity, with the summits of the range, hud beuii 
 broken down and buried in the ocean, so that only 
 the eastern declivity has remained standing, 'i'hu 
 numerous and rocky islands which skirt this slioa! 
 in all its extent, except at the protruded cape of 
 Trcs Mollies, appear to support such a supposition. 
 The eastern declivity of the range has not been 
 examined ; but what we know of it seems to be 
 ! suHicieiit to warrant the supposition that in this 
 part the Andes occupy a width of only from 30 to 
 40 miles. The mean height of the i'atagonian 
 Andes may be estimated at about 5,000 or ((,000 ft., 
 and the extreme height H,030 It. Ihii snow moun- 
 tains, and even glaciers, are stated to be freipient. 
 The lower jiart of the declivity is covered with 
 trees and shrubs, the upper part bare, as also those 
 portions of the shore which are exposed to the 
 iiiimediate cU'eets of the gales blowing from the 
 I'acilic. 
 
 The Southern Chilean Andes extend from the 
 most N. corner ol' the Gulph of Aiieud (12-' S. lat.) 
 to the lofty suinmil of Aconcagua, in aboiu 32^^ 
 S. lat. and 70° W, long. Towia'ds the S. extremity 
 the Andes keep for sonic extent a distance of aliont 
 150 miles from the shores of the I'acilic, the greatest 
 which they attain in their whole course; but to- 
 wards the N. tlii-y gradually ajiproach it to within 
 about 100 miles. Jietweeii the Andes and the 
 shore are extensive plains, from 1,200 to 2,000 ft. 
 above the sea; and from these ]ilaiiis the moun- 
 tains rise with an extremely steep acclivity to the 
 mean elevation of 13,000 or 14,000 ft. above the 
 sea. Some summits attain 15,000 and even 15,500 
 feet. Thougli our knowledge resjiecting this jiart 
 of the Andes be comparatively scanty, it would 
 seem that they form one e.-wtensive mass from (iO 
 to ><0 miles across, which, however, in its upper 
 jiart is furrowed by a longitudinal valley, diviiled 
 iiy short iniiisvcrse ri Iges into sever.il shorter val- 
 leys. This great m;i»s of rocks is mostly clotlicd 
 
 M 4i 
 
 
12 » ANDKH 
 
 with lorcxt irct'M ami ii rich vt'tcctntlon ; luit in tht< 
 interior it prfo'iits miiv l>iirf rin'l<M, iioiirly without 
 liiiintN of liny ili'scriptioii, 
 
 Thrct! niiNHCH art' known to travorso the Chilean 
 Antlei*. That fartliext S, Nkirtn the hi^h volcano 
 of AhIhio, lK!tween ;170 an<l 'M° S. hit., leadiiij,' 
 
 from the itniail town of Tneapel to the ^;reat pining 
 K. of the Anden. It is also nneil liy the •iliiiri;;ineM 
 inhaliiiin^ these iilaiuH, who li.-in^ to Chile nalt 
 ami xonie eoninioditieH, 'I'he Necoinl roail traverm's 
 th(! J'linH ilrl /'/(i/ii'Aon, wliieh eroHHeN the inonntain 
 rldj^es near .'l."i° S. lat., he^iiniiiiK <"i the went at 
 tin- village of (Jnrieo. and leailiiiK to the territory 
 of tlu! I'elnienelieH, who occupy the K. ileclivity of 
 the AndcM, and llicntie to Mciido/a. It '\* riaid to 
 lie the lowest of the mountain ]iasNeH of the Andes, 
 vef^elalion ascendin|r up to the highest part of the 
 road; it is further staled to he more ffentle in its 
 ascents and descents. Vet it is little used, exi'cpt 
 liy persons trailing with llu- Indians in the Pam- 
 pas. The third pass is (hat of I'mtilh, which at 
 first runs aloiiK the river Maypo, S. of Santiaj;o, 
 the capital of Chile, and at'lerwards crosses (he 
 two rid;;es of the Andes which cnclosi^ the valley 
 of Tunuvan. On the \V. riilp! the road rises to 
 M,:it;i', (in the K. to i:i,2l(l feet aliove the level of 
 the sea. From the latter it descends to the plains, 
 and leads to .Mendo/a, It is the nearest way lie- 
 tween the last-inentioned town and Santiap>, the 
 capital of Chile, and is therefore sonu'times, lint 
 not frc(|nently, used. There is also the )iass of 
 San Kranci.sco, and other passes to he descriheil in 
 fipeakin;; of the pro|iosed railway and new roatls 
 a»'ross th(! Andes. (See end of this article.) 
 
 Thi're is some douht as to the exact hei^jlit of 
 the i«unnnit of AconeaK'iui ; hut it certainly ex- 
 ccedn 2.'t,!{0(t ft.; and is, therefore, entitled to he 
 ropirded as the eulminatiiiK point in this vast 
 chain. N. of thissunnnit the iVndes, which farther 
 S. form only one enornioiis nniss of rocks, divide 
 into two masses, which enclose lon^ and wide 
 valleys eonsiderahly lower than the surrounding 
 ridf;i'>*. The lirst valley of this description is that 
 of ljs]mllata, which extends ahout ISO or 2IH» miles 
 S. nnd N. It is traversed liy two rivers; the Ifio 
 lie Mendoza, which (lows S. ; and the Kio <le S. 
 Junn, which runs X. The watershed between them 
 lies N. of iVJO S. Int. This valley is ahout 15 miles 
 ill width, .. :d presents an undulating suiface. It 
 is about (),<)()0 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 range K. of it, called the I'arnmillo de Uspallata, 
 seems not to exceed 10,(UI() ft. ; but the VV. or prin- 
 cipal range attains ll.ltOO ft. and upwards. The 
 foniier is about 2.5, and the hitter more than 70 
 miles acniss. The V.. range has two narrow breaks, 
 by which the two rivers of the valley liiid their 
 way to the plains extending E. 
 
 Over these two ranges, and through the valley 
 of Uspallata, lies the most frequented motmtain 
 road crossing the Andes. On the west it begins 
 at the town of Santa Kosa, in the valley of the 
 C^uillota river (2,()I4 ft. above the sea) ; it next 
 follows the bed of that river for a great distance, 
 and then crosses the high range nearly at equal 
 distances from the mountain summits of Tupun- 
 gato and Aconcagua (between 33° and 32° S. lat.). 
 The Cundire or highest point is 12,454 feet above 
 the Pacific. Hence the road descends along the 
 liio de Mendoza into the vallej' of Uspallata, passes 
 tlie I'aramillo range, and enters the plains near 
 Villa Viciosa, whence it runs along the last-men- 
 tioned mountain chain to Mendoza (2,608 ft. above 
 the sea) ; from Mendo/.a it leads over the Pampas 
 to Hueiios Ayres. Thougli much frequented, it 
 cannot be passed by carriages, and only mules are 
 used for the transport of conunoditics, and by pas- 
 sengers. In winter (from June to September) the 
 
 passage is very dangerous, on ni'connt of the heavy 
 ialls of snow, which eatise frei|uent hisses if |i||. 
 and property. The pass is by some named that ni' 
 the Cuinbre, and by othent oi' ('M|iallata. 
 
 N. of the valley of Uspallata the Andes coiitiMiic 
 to form two ranges, including extensive lonKilii- 
 dinal valleys. The llmt in order is that of Agiui- 
 lasla, of which we know only that its soil is sterile 
 but its mountains rich in metallic ores. Then M- 
 lowM the valley of Anilalgala, which is entirely un- 
 known. The Matter extends to 2.'I°S. lat, A great 
 number of mountain passes ar(> stated to exist hvit 
 the W. range enclosing these valleys, which wmilil 
 indicate that the mean elevation of the Andes is 
 here much less than in other parts. Ihit nonenf 
 these passes seems to be much used, nor has any 
 of them been visited by Kuro|K'an travellers, ft 
 is, however, known that towards the Pacilic this 
 range does not descend with a short and rapiil de. 
 clivily, as in th(> S.Chilean Andes, but by taMi: 
 laiiils in the form of terraces, which lu'ar the prin- 
 cipal ciiain are 5.00t) feet and more abovi- the m>ii, 
 lint lower by degrees as lliey approach the ocean, 
 where thev slill t'orni a shore from 30(»to 500 |'(.,.t 
 high. Ileing furrowed by deep watir-courses. iIkx. 
 table-lands, when seen I'rom lh(^ banks of rivers, 
 appear frequently like mountains of consideralilu 
 height. 
 
 From their farthest M. point as far as the V. |Kiint 
 of the valley of I'psallata, the Andes do not seml 
 out lateral branches. Ihit from the K. range, in- 
 cluding the valleys of Agnalasta and Andalgiilii, 
 several ranges branc' olf into the K. jihr «, an'l 
 extend in a S. and Iv. direction to a distance uf 
 from 200 to 250 m. By these lateral chains the 
 countries extending K. of the Andes, between ;i;i<' 
 and 2.'!° S. hit., are rendered hilly, and in simiu 
 districts even mountainous. In tlu! S. districts 
 the height of the ranges is not considerable, hut 
 farther to the N. it increases greatly; and the 
 chain, which branches olf at the N. end of the 
 valley of Aiuhilgala, and forms at present the Imuii- 
 dary between the republics of lluenos Ayres and 
 liolivia, may attain a height of 10,0I><> ft. almvc 
 the sea. It terminates at no great distaix'e I'roni 
 the p<iiut where the liio Grande enters the l!io 
 Vermejo. 
 
 Kelween 23° and 20° S. lat. the principal rnnxc 
 of the Andes seems to constitute a single chain, 
 rising to a mean height of ab<ive 15,000 feet. la 
 it stands the Xevailo de Chorolqiie, which is staled 
 to rise l<i,548 ft. above the sea. From this eliaiii 
 several lower and narrow ridges run K. 120 or IM 
 m. The 8. districts of liolivia are in consciiiunoc 
 rendered a succession of valleys and mountains. 
 However, these ridges do not attain a great eleva- 
 tion over the plains on which they rise. A road 
 traverses the prnicipa! chain ; it l)egins on the coast 
 of the Pacilic at C'obija, or Puerto de la Mar, the 
 principal harbour of Ucdivia, passes over the hi;,'h 
 And .s of Liiiez near the volcano of Atacania, and 
 descends to I'lipiza ; hence it runs to Potosi and 
 Chnquisaca. This roa<l is not much used, on ac- 
 count of the sterility of the surrounding countr}-, 
 and the dilliculty of ))rocuring provender for the 
 mules and other animals of burden. In sonic parts 
 water too is extremely scarce. 
 
 Near 20° .S. lat. is the mountain knot of Force. 
 Here begin the Bolivian Andes, which extend to 
 14° S. hit,, and may he considered as collstit^ltin^' 
 the central jiortioii of the wh<ile mountain system, 
 In no other i)art do the mountains generally attain 
 an equal height, nor do they cover so great a .sur- 
 face. The chain, which previously formed one 
 great undivided ridge, here diverges into two 
 smaller ridges, the one to the E. being deiionii- 
 iiated the Cordillera do Anciuiia, and that to the 
 
t of ihchcHvy 
 
 I loHM'H «if li||> 
 
 tiaiiu'tl iliiii III' 
 liitn. 
 
 LlliU'HCdIltiliiiP, 
 iiitivti limniin- 
 
 llllll llt'A^rilll- 
 
 H soil 'wMlcrilc, 
 r«'H. 'i'licii (ill- 
 
 ix entirely ini- 
 ■(. liU. A Krcat 
 'd to exint liver 
 X, wliieli uiiiilil 
 if the Amies is 
 . Itiit none III' 
 il, nor linH (inv 
 
 frnvellefH. ft 
 lie I'aeilir this 
 t itnil rapiil ilc. 
 s, but liy talili' 
 I near llie |iriii- 
 
 alioV(! Ilie M'li, 
 naell tlie iicriili, 
 
 ;i(HI to i")(HI liTl 
 T-l'olirM'S, IIli'm' 
 
 laiiks of rivers, 
 (if cdiiHiileriililu 
 
 r ax the N, imint 
 lies ilo imt senil 
 lie K. nuiKe, iii- 
 aiiil Aii<lal;:'iila, 
 e v.. |)la' I, aii'l 
 Id n clisiniiee nt' 
 teral ehaiiis tliu 
 les, hetweeii X'fl 
 ly, and ill simii! 
 Vlie, S, (liKtric'ls 
 •onsiderahle, liut 
 reatly; ami the 
 ! N. end 111' the 
 ireseiit the lioiiii- 
 leiiow Ayi'es iinil 
 1(1,(10(1 ft. aliiivc 
 nt distaiiee Inmi 
 enters the llio 
 
 principal rniiKC 
 
 a single ehain, 
 
 15,00(1 feel, la 
 
 wliieh is stated 
 
 'roin tlii.s ehaiii 
 
 111) K. I'iO (ir 150 
 
 ill foiisciiiieiicc 
 
 and inoiintaiiis. 
 
 in a great eleva- 
 
 jy rise. A mad 
 
 ;^ins on thceiia.st 
 
 o de la Mar, the 
 
 IS over the hi^'li 
 
 if Ataeania, and 
 
 18 to I'otosi and 
 
 iicli used, on ac- 
 
 luiiding country, 
 
 rovendcr fer the 
 
 In sonic parts 
 
 knot of Porco. 
 •hicli extend to 
 1 a.s constitutini; 
 lountain system. 
 generally attain 
 ir so great a siir- 
 isly formed ene 
 erges into two 
 , being denonii- 
 and that tu the 
 
 ANDES 
 
 W. the rordillprn de Ion Andox, or of Iho coast. 
 Ihev unite afrain in abont 1 1° or I IA° S. lal., eii- 
 ijiisiii;; U'tweeii them the great Alpine -alley, 
 piiini'tiines called 'rilienen, from the fainons lake of 
 thai iianie, and xomeliinex hesagiiadero from the 
 river which llowx from it. This immenxt< basin is 
 iilHiiit :i:i') m. ill length from N. to S, ; its breadth, 
 whii'li is dilVerent at ditferent places, may Im' esti- 
 iii.iteil at about Ciii III. at a medium, making its 
 iiri'H aliout IN, l;i'> sq. m., of which the lake is reck- 
 Miiiil at about '1,000 si|. in. 'I'he latter ix at the 
 |.riNli;,'iims idcvalioii of I"J,H|7 It. nlxive the level 
 ,,1'llie sea; and the mean heighi of the moimtaius 
 |,v which it ix Hiirnninded <'annot be less than 
 11,11(10 ft. The highest xiimmitx on each side ax- 
 I'l'iiil far alH>ve the liiu> of perjietnal snow. The 
 Ci'mxla I'otosi, near the S. extremity of the range, 
 iiiiaiiis to an elevation of lO.la'i ft.; and farther 
 III the N. lllimani and the .Nevado de /orata in 
 ihe K. ehaiii rise respectively to the height of 
 '.'1,1 10 and '21,2N(> ft. Ihil the peaks in the W. 
 rhaiii are still higher, Sahania, in lal. 1N<^ H' S, 
 hi'liig 2'.',;i')0 ft. abov«', the, sea, rariuacota, "J'i.O.'IO 
 II,, anil th(^ volcano of Are(piipa 'JOiIliO ft. These 
 iiad iilher altitudes have Im-cii dt^lermined by Mr. 
 IVnlland. South of 17° S. hit., the two ranges 
 run nearly tlu(! S. and N., Imt N. of thai parallel 
 .•sSi;. amrNXW. At their N. extremity (I 1° S. 
 int.) they are united by a transverxe range, which 
 (Xieiiils XNK. and SSW, It has x((veral snmniits 
 I'livereil with perpetual snow, but their elevation 
 has iiiif been ascertained. 
 
 The --'uteau or valley of T'Ucaca (h)cs not pre- 
 sent a l(i'el plain ; those portions of it which are 
 I'lmtiiuioiis to the ranges being covered with moun- 
 tains, or rather hills, rising several hundred and 
 Niinetiines even a thousand feet abovi^ their bases. 
 Itut the internal districts preserve notwithstanding 
 a snlliciently htvel snrl'ace. The 1 )esaguadero, 
 hIiIcIi issues from the S. extremity of the lake of 
 Tilicaca, Hews S. till about \\)fi° S". lat., when it ix 
 I'l-t ill a Hinall lake. The former lake is famous 
 ill the history of Peru, for being the scene of the 
 niiracahms appc^aranee of Maiico C'apac, the founder 
 III tiie Inea dynasty. lie is said to have inhabited 
 ihc largest of its many islands, which was, there- 
 fire, ludd in peculiar veneration. Snccce<ling Fiicas 
 erected on it a magnilicent temple, which became 
 111 the I'eruvianx what the tem|ile at Mecca is, or 
 r.'ilherwas, to the Mohnnimedan world; for it wax 
 iiiennibent on all Peruvians to visit it, and to bring 
 wilii them rich od'erings. Hence its wealth became 
 iinnicnse. It is staled that when the Spaniards 
 iiiiik ii(isscs.sion of the coiinlrv, the natives, to dis- 
 ii;i|iiiint the avarice of the coiupierors, and prevent 
 ilii- ]iiillution of the temple, threw its treasures 
 iiii" the lake, and rased the fabric to the founda- 
 liim. Some ancient ruins are still to be found on 
 ilielmnlers of the lake, and Mr. Prescott supposes 
 it to have been the seat of civilisation anterior to 
 j ilieera of the Incas. — (Hist, of Peru, I. 11th ed. 
 ■^h.) The storms that rush from the mountains 
 I render the navigation of this lake peculiarly dan- 
 U'eriius, Its waters arc said to be bitter or brack- 
 li-li; hut they are drunk by the cattle in the vi- 
 riuity. The lake is well stocked with trout and 
 I otlier lish. 
 
 The ranges enclosing the alpine valley of Titi- 
 loaea are traversed by several mountain roads, of 
 nvhich the following are the most frequented: — 
 Itliat through the pass of Potoul, traversing the 
 ll'aerto between the (Jerro of Potosi and tbat of 
 jllaaviia Potosi: it leads from Potosi to Oruro, 
 land rises in its highest point to 1 l,.'!'2(» feet. The 
 Iriiad over the pass of Cnndiir Parhi-ta, between 
 lOruni and (Joohabaniba, rises in its highest part 
 
 The road tlirongh 
 
 lie 13,'J50 ft. above the sea. 
 
 V2ti 
 
 the jiisx of Piirvnnl, lendin;' from I, a Vm to the 
 countries east of the ridges, rises to l;"i,'J'.'tl ft. The 
 most used road ix over the western range, and 
 that through the pass of l,iii> (lunlilliis, leading 
 from Arica on the coast, and Tacna, to l,a Pa/, in 
 lhi> valley of Titicaca; il traverses the range at 
 17° TiO' S. lal., S. of the Nevado de Cbipicani, 
 where it rises to 1 I,h;10 tt. Tarlher N. {\ffl 'J' S. 
 hit.) ix another mad, which, connecting Areiiuipa 
 with Pniio, atlainx in the pass of .IIIhh <lr 'lulah 
 an elevation of l,"),.'r.'H feet above the sea. 
 
 .Several lateral ridgex run off from Ihix great 
 mass of rocks to the V„\ bill none of Ihcm xeetim 
 to be dixtingnished by its height or extent, except 
 the Sierra de Santa Crn/, which detaches itself 
 from the priiK'ipal range aboul 17° 10' S. lal,, and 
 lerminatex near tbi> banks of the Itio (iuapai or 
 l!io lirande, within a few leagues of the town of 
 S. Cm/, de la Serra. It exteiulx aUiiit .'too inilex, 
 and is of considerable elevatimi in its wexterii 
 part, where il fornix the Nevado de Tinaica, near 
 ( 'ochabaniba ; farther eaxt it becoinex gradually 
 lower. 
 
 The Periirliin Amlfii oecuny the next ))Iaee, 
 extending from 11° to (i° S, lat. Ilelwcen these 
 latitudex they ineaxure from 100 to I.")!! tri. in 
 width, and their area doex not pndtably fall xliort 
 of "JOO.OOO ^"J. in. On their borders extend two 
 ranges; of wliicli the 1''.., separating the mountain 
 regimi from the great )ilains exleiiding south of 
 the Ama/.oii, branches <itf from the K. exliiiuiiy 
 of the .\iides of Vilcanola in a N. direction. It 
 divides the alllnenix of the I'cayMle from those of 
 the Vavari, and lermiiialex near 7° S. lal., about 
 llio m. from the Amazon. \V(- know very littlo 
 of this range, but it does not seem to rise any- 
 where to a great lieight ; probably none of its 
 summits exceed 10,0(M) feet above the sea. 
 
 The W. range of the Peruvian .\ndes, which, 
 with its W. declivities, approaches the Pacilic 
 Ocean to a distance of 50 m. or less, must Ixi con- 
 sidered as the )irincipal chain, on account of its 
 Insight anil breadth, and because it fonnx with the 
 N. jiarts of the AmU's an nninlerru]ited chain. Il 
 may be said li> eommenee near the Nevado de 
 ChiKpiebamba, where the Andes of Vilcanola join 
 the \V. range of the valley of Tilicaca. It is re- 
 markable that the Peruvian Andes seem to be, 
 rather a eontinnation of the Andes of Vilcanola 
 than of the great \V. chain ; for near 1()° S. hit. 
 and between 71° and 75° W. long, the Peruvian 
 Andes extend in a direction K. and \V., whilst 
 three degrees farther S. the liolivi.'in Andes run S. 
 and N. In this portion of the Andes are some 
 very high summits. Besides the Nevado de Chn- 
 quebamba, already notii'ed, arc the Cerro de Ilu- 
 ando and the Cerro de Parinacocha, whose eU'VJi- 
 tion, however, has not been determined. Near 
 75° \V. long, the principal chain of the Andes 
 declines to N\V,, and runs in that direction to the 
 neighbourhood of Cape Parina, the most W. ex- 
 tremity of S. America. In the S. iiortiun of this 
 chain several summits rise above the snow Yww., 
 but the elevation of ikjiic of them has been deter- 
 mined. The best known are, the Toldo de la 
 Nieve, seen from Lima, to the SK. of which it is 
 situated; the Altuncliagua, near 10° S. lat.; anil 
 the Nev.i(h> de Il.-iuylillas, 7° 50' S. lat. Hut 
 between the last named snow-peak and IMount 
 Chimborazo, in the Andes of Kenador, or P'quator 
 (2° S. lat.), there is no summit which attains the 
 snow line. 
 
 The country lying between the two outer ranges 
 of the Peruvian Andes presents a continual suc- 
 cession of high ridges and long valhivs, here and 
 there intennixed with plains of moderate extent. 
 It forms the best portion of the rcpublio of Peru. 
 
 
 .is 
 
lift 
 
 AXDKH 
 
 'lit! I 
 
 li'ii; 
 
 !!| 
 
 it^h' 
 
 'I'ln' tniiNt rciimrkiilili'ili^trif'f wci-niHtn licllic |>liiiii 
 <i(' IIkiiiIioii, iii'iir 11'^ S. Iiil., wliii'li U IiI.immi Irrt 
 nlxivf till' li'vi'l III' iIk' Ki'ii, mill •'xtcmU iiImhiI Ih 
 iiiili'M ill wiillli Iriiiii 1). til \V., iiiiil 10 or Mt I'miii 
 S. to N. A KTvnt jiiirt nl' llii.s I'lcviili'il pliiiii, 
 Wllii'll 'iM I'lli'loM'it liy two riilp's III' llloiltilililM, 
 mill oil wllirll llir iirKirrrollH Crrro of I'lim'o 1.1 
 
 iiiliitilt'll, i« covfrt'il wllli K\viiiii|pH. Till' wiitiT 
 riiiiiiiii^ oil' rriHii llii'iii, mill I'l'iiin tlir I'U-vati'il 
 ^roiiiiil, wllirll hri|ui'iit!y is covi't'i'il with niiow, 
 is collirti'il ill ^I'vt'riil U\kf!*, Ill' wllirll lliri'c iiri> 
 t'H|M'rjiilly iiiitii'i'il, lift Ki^'"W I'i'"!'! '" tliri'r coii- 
 HiiliTiililt' rivers. Tlic l'artlii"<t N. U ilu' Liilin of 
 l.liiiiriroclm, froiii wliii'li tlu' Anniitiiii ri-i"* ; tlir 
 fiirtlii'.tt S. U ciillril tilt' Niiko of (/iiilimroi'liM, 
 wllirll kIvch liirfli to till' Smijii nr Miit;irii, mii' of 
 till' |iriiii'i|iiil liniiii'lii's of till' r<'ii>'iilr. Iti'twi'i'ii 
 
 till'"!' l.'lUi'M irt llial of ('llil|llilli'oli|, wlli'lli'i' llli' Ikio 
 
 lliiallii^ii isNiii's. 'l'|ii> jiliiiii of Itoiiilioii is farllii'r 
 to III' ('oti,<iiilcn'il an II iiioiiiitniii i<iiol, I'roiii whii'li 
 ililt'i'ri'iit raii^'i'M liraiii'li oil' in ililVi'i'riit iliri'rliiiii.i, 
 li('-<iili'.s till' |iriiiri|ial raii),'(Mif thi' I'mniaii Anili's, 
 wllirll lii's I'ontipioiis to it on llio \V., two niniiii- 
 tiiin cliiiiiiM run olf froin it to tlif N„ ami oiii' to 
 till' S. 'I'ln! most W, of lliti two N, cliniiis riiiH 
 111 iirly jiMi'allcl to the |iriiiri|ial raii^'i' of tlii' IVrii- 
 vian Aiiili'M, ami forms the I'',. Iioiimlury of the 
 valley of the Maniiioii or Uiiper Ama/nii. It rises 
 to II ureal elevation, liiit iloes not enter the snow 
 line. One of its fartlie,-.t N. Iiraiiehes extends 
 close to the hanks of the Ania/.oii, where it forms 
 the faimiiis I'on^o, or cataract of Maiiseriche. A 
 lateral riil);e of this chain, liraiichinn' oil' from it 
 (It alioiii 7'-', runs I'],, ami terminates on the hanks 
 (if the Ikio lliiallapi, where that river forms its 
 yreat cataract, or /lomin. Tlie fartliest I'",, of the 
 K. cliains separates tlie valley of the Hiiallapi 
 from the i>iuii/i(iH of S, Safjjramento, traversed liy 
 the li'io llcayale. It is towards its he/^'inninj;, in 
 the moiiiitain knot of Iloinlion, of ^rreat. liei;;lit, 
 lint lowers consideralily farther N., terininatinK 
 lietweeli (J° and 7° S. lat., at the I'ol|i,'o of till! 
 Jliialla);!!. The S. chain, issiiin;;; froiii th(> plain 
 (if iioinlioii, runs SSi;., nearly parallel to the prin- 
 cipal riili;,'e of the Andes, and encloses the rich 
 valley of the IJio Saiija. It terniinates in the 
 most S. IkuiiI of that river, nhoiit l.'i° S. lat. and 
 Tl" \V. hiiij,'., and nearly opposite another raii^e 
 of hi|i?h moiintains, which issm^ from the Aiiiles 
 (if Vilcanota, and run N., separatiiijj; the vallev of 
 tht! liio Apiirimai! from that of the Hio (^lullii- 
 liainliu or river of (Iii/.co, The valleys enclosed 
 liy these several chains of mountains seem to hnv(! 
 a mean elevation of from 3,0IJ0 to 5,000 feet above 
 the se.'j. 
 
 The roads traversiii;; the Peruvian Andes are 
 somewhat imperfectiv known. That most to the 
 S. leads from Arcqn'ipa (near 1(1° iiO' ,S. lat.) on 
 the coast ii- (Juzco in the valley of the t^nilhi- 
 bamha, and traverses very hif^h raii^jes of moun- 
 tains. Another ronil leads from Lima to the town 
 of Tanna, in the valley of the Sanja, and thence 
 to (luaneavelica, Iliiamanpi, and (Juzco. It ris('s 
 on the principal chain at the i'ortacnelo de Tiicto 
 to l."),7(iO feet above the sea. Farther north is the 
 road passiiiff over the plain of liomhon to the 
 Cerro de Pasco. It traverses on the iinncipal 
 raiif^e two mountain passes, of which the \V., 
 called Alto de Tacaibamba, attains an elevation 
 of 15,li{5, and the K., or Alto de Lacha^^ual, 
 1.5,48(1 feet above the sea. Another road connects 
 the town of Tnixillo with the vall(\v of the Ma- 
 ranou. It traverses the jjnmt ran,i,'e near the >i'e- 
 vado de (iiiaylillas, and li^ads to Iluamachucoand 
 Caxamarquiila ; but we are not acquainted with 
 its partienlars. 
 • The Aiuks of Ecuador, or the Equator, extend 
 
 to the \. of the prriiviiiii Aiide", Their rum. 
 
 Ill) liceiiii III llliiy be lixed oiipo«ile the I'luil,! ,|,, 
 Akujii (0' S. hit,), mid the place where the Mun, 
 lion climiKes its NNW, cour-e iiiio a NNK. |„ 
 llii^ same parallel the chain also cIiiiiiki s ilsijin.,. 
 tioii. It runs bclwecii li'^ S. Int. and the eijiiainr 
 nearly due north. This portion of the iiii>iiiiii,i„ 
 system closely resembles the Chilean Aliijes. |f 
 constitutes one enormous mass of hi);li roiks, i,f 
 aboil* MO or loll III, in width, overtopped Iimi^'j. 
 tilililllllly by a double scries of very elevalnl iiim. 
 mils, HO that belweeli them a siiecessinii of hi^;!, 
 valleys is liiriiieil. These Andes are also iji-tln. 
 ),Miished from those between .'I;i'^ and 11° S. Lit, |,v 
 their not sending olf to the I'!, lateral liriiiii'lu., 
 Their eastern declivities are siipiiorled by ■.|i,,ri 
 cuiitreforls, which probably nowiiere extcinl U., 
 ymid oO 111. into the I'!, plains. 
 
 It is reniarkable thai the elevated valleys mrii. 
 pyillj,' the middle of the railp- rise ill eli\ali.,ii 
 as they advance hirthcr N, That portion nf tli.' 
 raiiKc which lies between 'i\^ and '.\\'^ S. Lit. i, 
 occupied by all extensive nioiintaiii knot, liie An- 
 des of l.oxa, which, however, at no place aliaiiK 
 the snow line. 'I'heii follows the loii){ilii<|iii;i| 
 valley of ('uen(;a, which extends from IP I."/ t,, 
 •J° ;io', and rises to about 7,NiiO feet above Hi,. 
 sea. On this side no snow nioiiiitains occur, Tlh' 
 mountains of Assiiay, which form the N, bomnlarv 
 of the valley of ('iien(;a, extemliiiK betwiiii tli,. 
 two outer raii;,'es, rise to I r),.")00 feet above the mm, 
 and enter the snow line; but they are iiarniw, 
 occiipviii); oiilv about ;i mill, of lat, (lictwcin 
 2° -27' and -1° \W). To the N. of them eMin.h 
 the loiiKitudiiial valley of Alaiisi and llaiiilmii., 
 which extends betweeii 2° 27' and lo' S. Int., ami 
 risi^s to about 7,!)20 f>'et above the sea, Tiie mhh- 
 mits of th(i raii^jcs which enclose it on the ll, i\\\,\ 
 \V, rise to a ^jreat eh^vatioii. On the wc-tirii 
 raiij;c stands the famous ('himhora/.o, risiii;,' :'l,r.'ii 
 ft. above the l(\vel of the sea. It was until latilv 
 considered as the hi;;liest summit of the Andes 
 but it is now known that Aconca^ciia, and trc lii;,'li 
 peaks of the Kolivian Andes, Parinacota and Sa- 
 iiama, rise (Minsiderably hij,'her. On tlu^ K, raii;;ii 
 stand the volcanoes of Saiinay, Collancs, and hlaii- 
 >iaiiat('. On the N, the valley of Alaiisi and Ham- 
 bato is bounded by a narrow transverse riilj,'e, tlip 
 Alto de ('hisinclie, which hardly rises ;!00 ft. al»ivo 
 the adjacent h^vel ^rroiind. Hut at its extrciiiilics 
 and precisely on the lateral raiif,'es, rise tMii very 
 hi(;h siunmits; on the K, the volcano of (!oliiiiaxi, 
 atlaininjf |K,W)0 ft,; and on the W. the Vliiiiza. 
 attaining; 17,;{7(! ft. above the sea. 
 
 The valley of (iuito extends from 10' S, lat. In 
 20' X. lat., and has an elevation of !),(!0i) ft. almvfi 
 the sea. It likewise is skirted by very hij,li "iini- 
 mits, on the E, by Antisaiia, which attains lii,l.i'! 
 ft., and by C'ayambe IJ rcii, which attains lli,,"i;i,'i I;, 
 above the sea. The summit of the latter ninuiitaiii 
 is traversed by the Equator. On the W. raiip; 
 the hij;liest .summits are the Pichincha, risin;,'to 
 10,030 ft., and the Cotocache, ll),448 11. aliovt'tlie 
 sea. 
 
 The three longitudinal valleva of Quito, Alami, 
 Ilambato, and (.'ucnga, beiu}^ only separated fmm 
 each otlier by very narrow transverse riitp'Siimy 
 be considered as one valley, extendinfj 2!(i iiiilw 
 ill Icnf^th, Avith a mean breadth of from 12 tu hi 
 miles. They form the most populous and riehc-t 
 jMn'tion of the reiniblic of l']qnator. 
 
 The northern boundary of the valley nf Qiiiln 
 ia formed by a transverse rid-je between the Xi.- 
 vado of Cotocache and the volcano of Iiiilialum 
 (21' N, lat,'). To the N, of it lie the Amln of hi 
 Pantos, an extensive mountain rej^ion, which ix- 
 teiuls to l** 1 3' N. lat,, and is crowned by .severaliii;.'!! 
 
Their fftm- 
 
 till' I'llMl.l.l,. 
 
 iTi' tlic Mini 
 .1 NNK. In 
 
 HlH !« it!t lllriH'. 
 
 ct till* ri|liilli>r, 
 IIk' llliMilllahi 
 III! Allili'-", It 
 
 hinli ri»\\ if 
 
 rln|l|inl |n|l;;i. 
 cIcviiIimI ■.iiiii 
 •i"<-<iiin 111 lii-li 
 ire nlfci ili-tin- 
 III C.o S. lilt. I,v 
 tiriil liriiiiilii'., 
 
 Hlll'll lis illnrt 
 ITf I'Xtl'llll Ih'- 
 
 il vnll<\V'< "ITU- 
 
 sf ill I'liv.ilimi 
 
 I Mil-til HI 111' til'' 
 
 I ;i\o S. lilt, is 
 
 II Uiiot, till' Aii- 
 
 lio jillU'r lllliiilH 
 
 lll> lllll){itll'lilllll 
 
 rriiiii :P l.V I'l 
 
 t'cl't IlllllVC till' 
 
 liin iirriir, I'li'' 
 till' N. liiiiiiKlnry 
 iijj; lii'twi'i'ii til'' 
 ft alii'Vi' till' Mil, 
 hey iird iiurrnw, 
 il' lilt. (Iii'lwiia 
 if tliriii ixliii'ls 
 \ tniil lliiiiiliiit", 
 (1 lo' S. Iat„ ami 
 1' st'it. 'rill' Mim- 
 it nil till' K. Illl'l 
 
 On tlir wf.-tiTii 
 ;a/ii, ri-iiit,'-!,!'.''! 
 
 was until latily 
 it 111' till' Aiuli"; 
 
 na, anil tii'hi;'li 
 rinacntii nml ^n- 
 
 Oii tlic, i;. raii-i) 
 illant'S ami Llaii- 
 Maiisi anil lliim- 
 is\ crsu riil^;i', tlio 
 
 isi'M ;((i(ll't.iili'iv.^ 
 Ill its cxlrciiiiliis 
 
 I's, rise two very 
 
 ano ol'l'iiliili'ixi, 
 
 W. tilt! Yliiii/a, 
 
 jVom 10' S. lat. t.i 
 Jill" it.fiOi) It. alii'Vi' 
 vcrv liit,li ^""1- 
 li'li attains l'.i,i:i'' 
 1 attains ll)..W.n!, 
 Jc latter iiiiiiiiitim 
 [)u the W. '""'r'' 
 J'liinelia, riMiif-'t'i 
 l-l-W rt. alxivi' tlio 
 
 i of ()uito, Al'iu'i, 
 ly separati'il t'nwi 
 [verse riiir'''S'""y 
 lending '-'H' '"'1''* 
 J of from \i til 111 
 lulous and riclii'>t 
 lir. 
 
 valley of QwM 
 rbetwcen the N«- 
 |ano of Iiiilialiiiw 
 _) the Aii(li'!< of I'" 
 K'ffion, whii'l' w- 
 I'll by .several lii!;li 
 
 ANl 
 
 ,iiinmit< mill volonnoo*: n« the volennne^ of ("iim- 
 (,«! (lull', ail'' l'a-li>. 'Ihe iiiirniw valleys w liiih 
 li,. ii.twi<i> the ililli rent riilKen liy wliieli it is irn- 
 vcr-il nil', at a ineillmii. |ii,"iiii (i. alMive the sea. 
 I'liji jmrtii'ii of the Amies U illmteil froni S\V. 
 
 idNK.. ami may Ih' eon-lilereil us iIi ntre of 
 
 ih.' N." Ai'iles; tor It Is lieri' that the ehalii U'l^ins 
 III iliv'iile into two liriliei^ial lii'iinehes ; the western 
 
 ,i| wllii'll is ealleil t'linlllleril lie Ilk Ciista or ileSill- 
 ,\■^^f^[n, whilst tho K. iH-arH the name of Amies ile 
 
 |,i. I'll.'tliS. 
 
 'I'lii' Amies of SinilH|;iin have ii hreak nt iilMiut 
 |0 jii' \. Lit., hy whiih the liio ile las I'atiiis eur- 
 rii'iitV the waters ile«eenilinK from the Andes ile 
 |,i< I'li-'tiis anil those whieh colleit in the valley 
 ,,l' Vliiiiiixiler. This valley exteinls lietweeli I" l;l' 
 mill 1° •''•' '^'' ''^ siirl'aee is very uneven, and its 
 ini'aii ileviilioli may lie aliont ti.lHKI t'eet iiiiove the 
 .(•a. Ill Ihe nioimtaiiis wliieli extend to the l''„ of 
 it isa Lnv'e aliiine lake, theCuiiievca de Seliondoy, 
 ill wllii'll the liio I'litiiinaya or lea, a larp' trilnt- 
 tarv iif till' Ania/on, takes its oriirin. This !''„ 
 rliiilii i'X|ianils eoiisideralily to the N. of 1° ."iii N. 
 Int., >ii iisto forma iniiiintain knot, whieh reeeives 
 till' name of I'aramo de las !'a|ias. A little t'ar- 
 tlirriiiirth (-p tt' N. lat.) the knot divides into two 
 iliaiiisiif iiioiintains, which advaiieiiif^ N. eiielose 
 till' valley of the liio Ma^dalemi, as we Nliall see 
 ailirwanis. From the mountain knot of the i'a- 
 raiiiiiiie las I'aiias a transverse riiiu'e liraiielies nlF 
 wi-twaril, imitmtc the eastern chain of the Andes 
 with the Cordillera of .SindiiKua, and sepiiratiiiK 
 till' valley III' Almauuer from the >;reat vaMey of 
 tlii'l'aiii'ii. Near the place where this fransver>e 
 niii^'e leaves the moimtain knot of Ins I'nstos is 
 till' viileimo de I'uraet', ll,;'ill IT. aliove the sea. 
 'I'lijs viili'Hiio may he considered as the most N. 
 I'liiiit of the Andes of l'',i|iiator, comprisiiihr those 
 nt'i/iiito and of los I'astos. 
 
 Tiieeiiuiitries lyin^oii lioth declivities and at the 
 
 fiKitiif the .Viides" of the l'",i|nator are verv thinly 
 
 liilialiiti'ii, and almost entirely liy idiori;,'!nal na- 
 
 tiiiiis, iiiuicipiainted with civilisation and com- 
 
 iniri'e. Hut the elevated valleys lyiii)^ lietweeli 
 
 the two riin},'es are comparatively well peopled, 
 
 |iartly hy tlie descendants of Kiiriipeans, and 
 
 |iiirtly liy Indians who have made some profjress 
 
 ill I'ivilisatiiin, and arc aci|uainteil with the ad- 
 
 vaiitani's of eommeree. Hence the f^reat com- 
 
 iiiinial riHid which traverses this portion of tlie 
 
 Amies runs longitudinally over the internal val- 
 
 li'vs, iH'fjimiinnoii the north at I'opayan ("2° 2(1' 1 7" 
 
 N. lat.) in the vaHev of the (.'aiiea, and terini- 
 
 iiatiii;; at Truxillo (H° it' 40" S. lat.) on the Paeilie. 
 
 Fruiii I'ojiavnn ("),72 1 ft. above the sea) it nscend^ 
 
 till' Alto de'Koble (('slTti tt.). and then tho Alto de 
 
 (Jiiilijuase {(i,lltl ft.). Hence it descends to the 
 
 iliciiie (iiiaehicou (;i,(M2 ft.), whence it rises afjaiii 
 
 hy ili'>;rt'es to the town of AlinaKuer (7,4-10 ft.) in 
 
 till' valley of Almafjuer, It next enters the moun- 
 
 laiiis of los I'astos, |ias.sin;{ over the I'aranio de 
 
 l'urii),'uay (!),40«) to the villaf,'e of I'asto (8,o7« t\.). 
 
 Siutli of this it descends to the Kio de (inaitara 
 
 i'VI.'iti ft.), and aj^ain ascends n steep declivity to 
 
 the villiifje of (iuachuKal (10,;{20 ft.), whence it 
 
 p.wcstuthe village of Tulian (10,112 ft.). Havin/.; 
 
 traversed the I'aramo de Holichc (ll,o04 tt.), ami 
 
 the Alto dc I'ueara (10,400 ft.), it descends by n 
 
 stM'|i declivity to tho river Cliota, which is passed 
 
 at the I'lmte'de CIr.ita (ri,2K() t\.), and hence it 
 
 liads upward to the town of (iuito (9,");t() ft.). 
 
 From (Jiiito Ihe roail runs over tho plain (o the 
 Alto lie Chisinclie, which ha.s a little more than 
 l",il(iil ft. of elevation. It next passes throu;ch 
 the valley bv Hambato (8,H(i4 ft.), Hiobamba 
 Niieva (9,472ft.), (iuamote (10,224 ft.), and Alausi 
 (','J84ft.). Between the last-nientiouod place and 
 
 >i':^ lir 
 
 the town nf riienen Is the famous and dnntreroiM 
 iia^s oxer the I'liranio dc .Vxiuix, whlih in It4 
 IduheKt point, the j.adilil de ('iidbiil, ri-is In 
 l.'i,.')di'i ft., and {■> iiliiivi' the '<iiow line. .Mure or 
 fewer lixes are auniially lott on this fiiinimii, 
 Ciieni;!! is H,i; In I'l. iiliiive the sea. I.i'iiv In^ this 
 town Ihe rmid dciiuds In the Itio de Siirii^iini 
 |7,;I7)I ft.), iind ai/ain ri'<i's to the Alin de I'ldhi 
 
 (III.IMMI ft. I, wlielio it pasie'< to l.nXll ()'>,7)lH ft.). 
 
 From I.Mxa the road passes in the \V. derlivity 
 of Ihe AmU s.where it traverses Ayavacii (X,'.ll»2 t\.) 
 and l)llcr>>s ( |,7ilH it.), whence it repasHcs Iho 
 raiiKc bv till' I'aramo lie I Inaniani (lo.'.M'ii* t>.),iini| 
 enters t)ie valley iil' the .Marauon, In thi< it tra- 
 vers,'^ I iiiancibiiiiiba (t!,.'ltiO ft.), Zulaea ( I.l.i2 It.), 
 the I'aramo de Vaiimea (H,7tiM ft.), the I'asso do 
 I'licura (.'l.'ViJ ft.), Miintiin (H.jiiii |\.), and Caxii- 
 iiiarea ('.•,2mi It.). From the liot-meiitiiiiiid plaen 
 il ai.'iiin pasMs the Andes to liuaiii;aiiian';l 
 (H.oiio II.), and runs heme to Cascas (I.;In| It.) 
 and l.os Mnkiiiiis (liilM ll.i.terminatiii^at I'nixillit 
 (200 ft, abiiv:' the sea). Thus this loiif,' nuid riiii'4 
 I'oiitiiiually over mountains in traversing tl^^ 
 of lat. 
 
 Frmn <inayai|iiil a road leads to (juito. From 
 the lirst-nienliiiiied place it runs thrmiyili the lii\/ 
 fxriiiinds >klrtiii;;tlii' K'in dc I iiiayaipiil to ( 'araeol, 
 and then iiIihik' the banks of the Itio ( ijiluir In Ca- 
 Inma, where the ascent of the niniintains cnui' 
 mcliies. The acclivity is extremely .-ticp lielweiil 
 Caluma and riiimbn, whieh is situated mi an 
 elevated cnimtry S. nf the ('himbora/n. Frtiiii 
 Chiinlio the mad leads to Mocha and Hnmbato, 
 where it jnins the ^reat mountain mad. 
 
 At abniit 1" 20' N. lat. the Andes nf Sinda^iiii 
 branch ntf frnm the niniintain kimt nf Ins I'listus. 
 The I''., ran^je divides attain at alioiit -p .V N. liil. 
 in two hi;;'h mniiiitain riin;;es. Thus, we Iind N. 
 nf the latter parallel the Andes diviiled into tlii'eo 
 distinct chains, which eiiclnse the Nallevs of tho 
 rivers iMiif^il.iieiia and Caiica. These ciiaiiis aro 
 ealled the !■;. Central and W. Andes. 
 
 Till! Kimtfrn Aiiilfn lA' New (iranaihi run be- 
 
 none of its Minmiits, exieiit Ihe Nevmln de Cliitil 
 ('}° ."lO' N. lat.) and the Nevado de Mnciichnes 
 
 tween 2°.V and 'P .'10' N. hit., nearly parallel with 
 the central ran^e NN !■'..; but N. of 'fi .'to' they 
 incline farther I']., running' due NF.. Thnii;;U 
 icieiit 111 
 le N'evj 
 (8° 12') enter the line of perpetual cnii^;clatinn, its 
 ineau height is cnininniily abnvt! the rej^inii of 
 trees; and the /(((r^miw, whieh extend on its sum- 
 mits, have a scanty ve;;etatinn, and rise to an 
 eh'vation of between 12,000 and 14.000 ft. I.as 
 IJosiis, the most N. of these paramos, terniiiiates 
 near 0° N. hit., and may be considered as the must 
 N. extremity of Ihe Andes; for the hilly ((iiintrv 
 lyiiif,' farther N. about the towns of Tiicuyo and 
 Itaripiisiinento is not known to contain summits 
 exeeediiiK 1,000 or ."i.OOO ft. in elevation, and on 
 that account alone cannot be considered as a con- 
 tinuation of the gij^antic mountain HyHteni uf the 
 Andes. 
 
 The eastern doelivity of this rnnf,'c is so ])reei[ii- 
 tons that it alfords no space for agriculture and 
 can only 1)0 ascended with j^reat ilifHculty; but 
 on its \V. declivity recline several extensive talde- 
 laiids, exliibitin}f a more or less level surface, and 
 risinf^ to an elevation of from 0,000 to il.OOO It. 
 above the sea. Such are the rich and fertile jilains 
 of HoKota. with those of Tiinja, Socorro, ,Sof,M- 
 moz/.o, and I'amplona. These table-lands termi- 
 nate rather abruptly, and at a little dislance from 
 the banks of the Hio Maj,'dalena. The river 
 Fiinzha, or Hio do liopita, wlieii issiiinj,' fn.m the 
 |ilain, precipitates itself at Teiiuendama, at two 
 liounds, down a perpendicular heifjht of (ioO ft. 
 In no other cataract is there so great a mass of 
 
 AM 
 
 vtij 
 
 !> - 1 •V'l 
 
 i, 
 
 , '*.■ ' 
 
 •'■ 'S:i| 
 
an 
 
 ASUKH 
 
 Y/ttivt prrrl|iitili>il fr<im mi ifrrnt ii liri;,'lit! mill j I lc\ntiiiti of 1 1„')0| rt. nluivp iho IivpI nfirip 
 
 U\ 
 
 %r 
 
 
 ii, 
 
 'ikf "olitliilr III' llir |i|||"i', llii' liiMil'iiiln r )il' llli 
 
 Vi>K<'tii>l<»i, anil till' 'iri'iiilt'iil runr, prfKnit a Mi'iic 
 of iHiriMilli'il Nitliliinily. 
 
 'I'lii' I'.. Aiiilt''" nr>' lwir<> IrnviTxi'il l»y JIip r<mil 
 li<n)liiiK rrmii llii^ntii in 4 'nrriu'iiK, Kruin Ilir rii|ii- 
 iiil III' N'i'W (iriininla it riiiiH nviT tlir liiMi' IjiihI nt' 
 lliiKiilll llliil 'rillljii III till' wilirri''* III' llir 'I'l-uiii/l, n 
 trilillllirv III' tllr '>iiKlllllii//<i, wllrrr it |iil"»r« iiViT 
 III!' I'lirillllii ill' Alllliirililrrii, nil till' Nliiiiniil nl' 
 
 vliirli It nitfiiiih nil I'li'viilinii III' l:.',H,'iO IK iiIhivo 
 till' m'li, It tlit'M iji'irniilM tiinanU till' I''.. |il/iiii i 
 
 lll'l'liri' lllllllllllU' Wllirll, it IIKIlill llni'lMll" till' rilM^I' 
 
 III llii' town It l',iiii|iliiiiii, uliirli iiriiliiiMv i'< imI 
 li'HN lliiiii tP.iKMi I'l. lii((|i. ']'.. ilic N. Ill' liil'i it irii- 
 vi'TNi'M till' iipiKT jiiirl lit' III!' riiMKi', mill |iiiN-'i'ii to 
 li'iiitiiio ill' riiriilii, Kriiiii till' liiHliimiii'il pliii'i' 
 till' riiMil !'• nillilr IIVIT the liiu'll (.'■'■'O**''" wlllrll 
 ><kirt till' N\V. ili'clivity nl' lln' rliiilii, |ia-<->iiiK 
 IIii'iiukIi Mi'i'iilii, Mriii|ii/ii, mill 'rnixilln, tn To- 
 ciiMi. Kniiii 'I'l'i'iiyo It tnivi'rii'K tlir liilly ri'Kiiiii 
 liy wlllrll till' Slcrrii ilr IiiCuhIh N iinilril fu tlii' 
 Ainlri. jiiiKMiiiK iliriiii^li lliii'i|uiNliiii'iilii, S, CiirliM, 
 
 N'llli'liliil, 1111(1 \'li'tiil'lil. III Clll'liri'lli. 
 
 Till Ci'iitnil .-tiulfiii I Nitw tirmiiiilii run N.,witli 
 n NlJKlit iti't'hiiMliiiii I.' till' K., -Mill I'lirin Ix'twi'di 
 llli'lr riilMiMriM'cnX'nl niiil /i° l.'i nlli' ^Tctit immhn nl' 
 rni'ki, iiliniii 'lOor /ill niili'H In lircMilili, wliiwi' nIiIi'h 
 lire niily I'limiwi'il liy raviii("<, liiit nut iiitiTMi'dt'il 
 liy viilli'yn, Its iiicmi lii'i^,'lit hi'I'Iiix tn lie riitliiT I li° N. Int. It niiiH In tlir \V„ ami »r|iariiiii tl 
 
 It ili"<ri'iiiU al'liruiirili In llir I'uvii nl" ('ariii)(irii, 
 Ihi' vallry nlthi' Ciiiiril (;l,|.i'^ li'i't). 
 
 Tin- U'. ,t»itii 111' Ni'« tiriiiiiiila arc ilu' ,|,„,^ 
 rwiui', wlili'h I'lirtlirr H. in cnlliil Hirmi ij.. |, 
 
 Cimla or ill' SillilllKIIM. It liiWiTl rirtlnjillTlllilv III 
 
 iiilviiiii'iiiK In till' N., "II that lii'iwi'i'ii 1'^ ,'|ii'',|,| 
 • >° N, Int. \\* inraii rli'Milinii ilm's nnt i'Xi'(.,,{ 
 
 r».0(MI nr (i.dllO ft. iilinvc till' ni'II, nr I'rnin 'i.lHKI |„ 
 .■|,IMMI l'(, iiIkivi' llii'Xalliy III' till' I 'aura : imri. m. 
 Iiri'aillli rnMiiiliTiilili'. |iriilinlily imt iiinri' Ilmniv,,,, 
 l.'i In ■.'<> iiiiliK, lull il ri'i'N with a vrry |in'ii|iiti,i|, 
 iln'li\ity. N. Ill' .■)'5 I hi' raiiKi' ii liiuhcr. nml ii, 
 liri'ailtli iiinri' ri>ii'<ii|i'rali|i'. Iim lii^'hoi mininiii 
 
 \* till' 'I'nrra ilrl Cli M'.. nl" Sii\ilii, whiiii, 
 
 linui'ViT. !<< I'ar rmiii ntl'iiniii;; tlu' kiuiw Iim, mH 
 |iriihalily iIim'h iml riir In lliiiih llinri' lllilli IH.iiKi 
 
 li'i'i. N, III' iIiIm niiiiiniil till' ran^fi' a|i|>iiiar|ii, 
 rliiKi' In till' li'in<'aiu'a. liniiiii);ilM lii^li lnuik^ I,.. 
 Iwi'i'ii till' Salln ill' S. Aiitniiln anil llir lliii'i"|.{,| 
 
 l'!>i|iirilii Sanln, nii<l rniinitiilin^' with || ^^„. 
 
 Hill- ninui'M III' till' Ci'iiinil .Viiilrn, ai« It win'.iiii,. 
 niniiiitain knni, 'I'lii' Wi'hiiTii AihIi'm hiiiiI fr,!,, 
 this |initil a ran);i' tnwiinl.M the rarihlii'iiii Sn. 
 whirli nkirlM till' liin Catira nii thi' W., I'xtin.jiiij 
 In till' N. nr«° N. Int., ami cniilains Ihr Aliip,!" 
 Virnin, n Hiininiit whirhallaiiiH iimri' than '.i.hinih. 
 
 nri'li'>'alinM, 
 
 Krotii Ihi' W. AtiilcH (I riil>;(' lirnnrlios nil' mar 
 
 Kri'iilcr than that nrihc l''„ AiuIrN, ami it I'liiilaitiN 
 Hi'vrral hiiiimiiIIh wliii'li cxo'cil thi> Htinw Hiii>, 'i'lir 
 Itin.st rciiiarkalili' nl' tlicin arc rmni S. In N.; the 
 Ni'vailiiN ill' lliiila, ill' lliira);iian,ili' Tnlinia (wliii-li 
 iittiiiiiH iM.il.'iii I'l,), iimlih' lii'rv'cn. In thr viriiiity 
 nl'llir Itillcr (^fi I.V) the rmi^'n ('X|iaml)* tn nliinit 
 iliiiililc il.H wiiltli, M'pariiliii;; Ml Ilic hiiiih' litnc liitn 
 Kcvcriil riil^cH, Nnas tn fiirni tininiitiltilii kiinl,wiih 
 iiitirvrtiliif; viillcyH. This iiiniintiiin rcf^inii, knnwii 
 ittiilcr the iiMiiic III' Sierra ilc .\iitiiii|iiin, I'nrniH in 
 its iipiicr valleys a hi^li iiniiitry, t'min ri.OOli tn 
 T,lilMi I't. ahnve the wa. nil which the riilKcs rimi 
 iJ.iMMi It, anil ninre. It Mii|irnMi'hes very clnse In 
 the Kin Caiicii, mi ns tn skirt iln lieil I'nr iilmiit h'lO 
 miles. (>|i|Hisitc to the liinh hmiks tiirtncil by 
 I hoe riil^'cs, nther ninnntaiiis, liclnii^riii;^' In the 
 W, Aiiili ^ ii|i|iriincli as near tn the river, which 
 riitiH I'nr nearly IJO miles in an iinniense clrl't, 
 over a nicky and rnf,';rc(l hntlntn, ami rnrnis a 
 Hcrii s (ircalttnii'tH ami rapiils lielween .Salin ile S, 
 Anliiiiin, ami Itncca del I'lsiiiritn Sanln. In all 
 lliiss|iac(' the river is i|nite unlit I'nr iiavi;;atiiiii, 
 fitiil travelling hy lanil is in this cniintry very 
 I'ttliuuiti); ami mil withniit dan^^'r. 'I'he riil^eM 
 which issue fnnn the imnintain kiint nrihe Sierra 
 lie Anliiii|iiia M|i|iriiiich the Ilio Ma^rihilcnn tn n 
 distiniee nC ii lew miles, and tcrniiiiatc nut )iir 
 
 siiiirccs of the li'iii lie S. ilnaii. which falls iiitiiili.< 
 I'acillc, I'riitn tlmse nl' the Atrain, which ruii'i tn 
 the < 'arrililican Sea, This raiij^i' smin tiirn-tciil,!. 
 NWV., and advanees in Ihat direclinn IiiImxh 
 the Itin Alralii and Ihe racilic, lis eli'vuiifiii 
 seems iinl III lie cnnsidcralileal Ihc heKiiiiiiii;:,iiii<! 
 it j;riiws Inwcr as it advances farther N, It miuk 
 tn ilisa|i|iear eiilircly hi'tween 7° and H'^ iiii|j(i,i|(. 
 In Ihe harliniir nl' t'lijiica on llie I'ai'itic; I'liriii, 
 niniiiitnin ran;ce is I'niind on the islliniii« nf 
 Panama, where il is iiarrnwest. 
 
 Six roiids arc said to cross the W. Aiidci: Imi 
 they can mily he used with ^r^'n\ ililliciilty, mi 
 account nf Ihe c\liiiiii' slci'|iiiess nf the riilp'. 
 They arc cnnininiily ini|inicticalile fur iiiiili',-', uinl 
 travellers as well as pmils are liriiiij;ht ipmt .n 
 the hacks nf Indians. The roads nmsl iihi'iI nr 
 that nf Las .Inntas, which leads from Cali in thr 
 valley nf theCanca In lliiciiavenliirn. a liarlKiir 
 on the racilic; the road of S. Aiikii^I'iii. coiiiini- 
 iiif,' Cartnpi with \ii\iln; and that of N'lrnip'.ln 
 which the Inwn of Citarn in the valley nf iln' 
 Atratii communicates with yViitin(|uia mi ll»' 
 hanks of the CaiuM. (Kor n further accuinii if 
 existing' and |irii|iiised roads over the All(l(■^«(' 
 liii!/iriii/.i, at the end nf this article.) 
 
 77;<' llinliii/i/ of the Andes is very inijicrfrillr 
 known. Only n Nmall |inrliiiii of their ii:inii'ii" 
 exieni lias heen visited liv seii'iilillc trnvi'llir> 
 
 frnin the place where thai river joins the Itio 
 Cancn, ahnut H° !10', 
 
 That portion of the Central Andes wliicli fonns j and the information ohlnineil from them tcarln- 
 one iindivided nuihs is crossed hy two roads ; one j only a few isolated facts, which do imi jii-iifv 
 lending from liopila to I'opaynn, and Ihe other to ; ^;cneral cniiclnsioiis. We are, Imwcver, iiit'nniiiil. 
 
 Carlaj,'!!. The tirst runs alter descemliiiK from 
 the elevated )ilain of Jlopitn to the hanks of Ihe 
 li'io Ma^dnleiin, in the valley of this river to the 
 (S. n» far as the town of l^a I'lata, whence it turns 
 \V., and erosseH the raii^e over the I'aramo de las 
 (iiiniiacns, on wliieli it rises to II. TO.") ft. ahove the 
 sen. It then descends into the valley of the (.'ancn 
 to the town of I'opaynn. The roail between Ilo- 
 ffota niul Oartajio descends from tlie plain of Ho- 
 fjotn («,73(! ft.), crosses the Hio Maplaleiin at the 
 pnsH (Ic (iiinynennn (l,'2()<> ft.), passes tlirou<;li the 
 town of Ihn^iie (•l,'l«(l ft.), and crosses the rniifjc 
 liy the famous mountain )inss of (^nindiii, lietween 
 the Xevndos of llnra^iian and Toliinn; at its 
 Li^lic'ut iMiiiit, the Guriloilel I'uramo, it attains nn 
 
 tliiit the most frci|nei!t of the iirimilivi' riii'l> i 
 the Alps — urnnite nnd j^niciss — arc hy no 1111:111 
 frequent in the Andes, which nre eoiiiposcil iiih-iI; 
 of porphyry and inicn-slale. I'lirphyry is liy lir 
 tlie most widely extemlcd of the niistraiiticil rmk- 
 of the Andes, and occurs thron^rh the whole riiiyf 
 at all eU^vations, nnd freqiu'iitly the hi;rhi'st Mini- 
 mits nrc eoniposed of it. Next to ])or|iliyry ami 
 mica-slnte, truchyteaiidhasalt nre most fri'iiuall} 
 met with. 
 
 Vidcnnoea nrc frequent in certain pnrtiims nf | 
 the rniif;''. ('apt. 11. llnll ohserved apliciiiiTiH'in'ii. I 
 which induced him lo think Ihat a volcinin c.visi' 
 on one of the Inrj^cr islands N. of Cnpe Ilnrii, iiii'i 
 t hut the observed phununienon waspruducuclbyaii 
 
ANDK8 
 
 130 
 
 ill of I'lirlii^., II, 
 
 I). 
 
 Ill iin' iIk' »»mi- 
 
 Itxl Hitmi ill' U 
 
 (•irtlniill'fillilv III 
 Wl'fll '.''■' :i"'«ii| 
 
 IM'N not IXl'IKJ 
 
 iir I'miii •J.iHHM,, 
 
 'iiiirii ; liiir ii lu 
 t ntiirr iliniiffMiTi 
 
 very |in'ci|iiii,(i, 
 
 I liiulicr, Aiul li< 
 IiI^IicmI Niiiiiniii 
 
 r Si>>illl< «Ulirli, 
 
 III' umiw line, niii| 
 iinro llwiii l",i««i 
 iiii^t' iiii|iniarlii, 
 
 li lli^ll IllUlkn l«- 
 
 ll.l till- llcMVl.l.l 
 
 \r witll lll'Ml|H»,. 
 
 'H, «l« it WTI'. "Ill' 
 
 Aiiili'r* Hi'ii'l Iriin 
 i' ('iirililirllM Nil, 
 lie NV., cxli ti'lini; 
 iliiiiis till' AIiimI,. 
 :iliiri'l1lllll'.).<")IMI. 
 
 liratwlio'* citV iinf 
 mill Hi'|iiiniii"< III!' 
 p'liii'li ('ikll!*iiii"ili'' 
 ilii, wliicli niM« III 
 (• Hiinll I urns liillii' 
 
 iliriTl'iKii Ipi'iMim 
 ifu'. llH I'li'Miiimi 
 till' lii'Kiiiniii;:.!!!!! 
 rtlicr N. Il »<'iiin 
 7" mill >*^ itl"»i''' 
 tlif I'lii'ilic; I'nriiii 
 
 II tlu' ii<lliiiiii'* I'f 
 
 lie W. Aiiclt"«: I'Ul 
 j;n'(»t (lilliriilly, mi 
 
 IIH'SM of till' riilp'. 
 
 lalilc for iiiiiliMiinl 
 V liroii(,'lit (ivirun 
 [iuIh iiii'^I "•'•''I iif 
 Is fnnii Ciili ill t'li' 
 liviMiliini. a liiirl»'ur 
 
 All^'U'-lill. I'lillll"'!- 
 
 ll'at tif Virrii-.liy 
 
 till' valley 111' ill" 
 AiiliiKiiiiii "" ""', 
 
 fiirlluT ni'i'iiiiiii "I 
 ivcr the AmU's, w 
 
 icU'.) 
 
 IS very iiii|it'rfi'i'tl' 
 of tlifir h'.miiii- ■ 
 
 ■ii'iilitif trll\Tllc^^. 
 
 froiii tlifin Kiiili" 
 
 ifli <li> nut jii-ii(| 
 lliowcvcr. iiiriiniuil. 
 livimiiivi' riH'kM'l 
 
 -arc I'v 11" '"'■''"' 
 
 .•(' (•OIII\IOf('ll 111""'')' 
 
 Iri.riiliyry i-' liyf" 
 (' uiistraiiticilr'"'-' 
 ,'h tlK' wlicilf riiii).'!' 
 
 Iv the lii^'lii-'t Miiii- 
 t to i«iriiliyryanil 
 re mttst freiiucuily 
 
 [•ortain portions »! I 
 
 \\('\\ Ullllfll'lIIH'"""' 
 
 lat ft volfiiiii"-'''* 
 (of Cniip Hiirii.iwl 
 
 l,.,n,lrtni Iwl r«p». KlnR, who lurveyml thi-mi 
 
 fiiiiml » v"l<«no In Tli'rr* M Furuo, nor in «n.v 
 
 Inilw-r imrti"" "( Ih" w"Ko wmth of At\° S. lat. Hut 
 
 liinlirr N. Ilx'y <i«'i'nr In ifn^t nunilM<rR. Four 
 
 iMiUnomi urn vUll>lii Aroni tho Ulmnl ofChiliM'; 
 
 l,h,.v lldiin tlirio|)|K»iillinio««t, iM'twi'un 4i\° mid VJP 
 
 L |||,_ ^till nmri' niinn'Mim nni voliitMiiM-K In Mm 
 
 li hilfin Anilt'N not Iiwk tlinn nlimlwii lo-iiin known 
 
 Itii lir thfrc In a «tatii of m-tivily. Th» nioxi N. In 
 
 lilinti'l' ('i"iitinilx>. wiini'wlmt to llic H. ofilil°S. 
 
 Iliii !'*■' Ix'tw'*'** "*'** voliniio nml that of AtH- 
 
 Vniiii* (Iw'w'''"" '•"" "'"' '^'^ ^' '"'•) "" *'"'''""'• " 
 
 Lnti'il •<• »'*'"•' FttftliPf \. Ihti volranif nioiin- 
 
 |,i,iii« iKciiriinly In tim W. raiiKii of the l»ollvi«n 
 
 lAiiiliKi noiii* of tint hiuh NiiininitM of the K. riuiK« 
 
 \tiv\»it <'v<'r ln'cn known to Iwivn niiiilf nn «im|i- 
 
 LiiM.iircmitliilHinoko. That |M>rtlim ol Ihi' Anih-* 
 
 L which voii'iwili' agency in inont aotivc lien \h\- 
 
 Swii .'li° H. Int. anil ■i*' N. lot. Tim nuinlxT of 
 
 Liiiiiiiil" wli'"*«" «'niiition» iini rt'conh'il Im hcM- vi-ry 
 
 [iiiiniiliTnliic; nml lluintHililt lit Ini'liniul to think 
 
 llmt till' vnlli'VH N. of tin- |in>w of Annuny nr«) to 
 
 I I'onHJilcror OM in'iun |ilu<'<'i| on an tixtfiiNivn 
 
 ..ilcmiii^ iMwii*, mill that niimt of tim tiiinmroiiH 
 
 Liiiiinilii HurrDiiiiiliiiK them liavi> oiicn Mirvcil, anil 
 
 Lhv ntfaiii M>rv)>, at chaniii'lM for tIm xulitorrancan 
 
 L' iummiiiiliatiii); with llm atniiM|ilii'rt>. Tim 
 
 ftirtlii'Kt N. of tliosit volcmioi'H in that of l'ura(;i<,in 
 
 Ihi' iic'it:li'x'"f*"'"'<l "^ Popnyan, whiTfl tlm AikIhh 
 
 iririn til iliviilu into throu rnngiiH ; which Nutim to 
 
 If, in tlii'ir prcwnt state, (initii t-xeniiit from vol- 
 
 niiio a^vnRy, lumu of thoiriiuminitH liuviiiK vvur 
 
 liiviii an i-ruptiiin. 
 
 Sii (HPftioii of tho fclobc Is (tulijpct to Hurh fro- 
 Lrnt mill friKhtful enrthquakoH iw tlin couiitriuH 
 |inlKMom(!il within thu raiiKd of the AikIoh, and 
 hine lyiii(? Iietwppii them and the I'acillc (K-ean. 
 
 Kiobamlia, Callao, 
 and othont, have 
 Itililtirent tiroen been more or lorn* destroyed Ity 
 Pii'ir attsncy. 
 /.iMd/i^iTJe/Ma/Coni^e/tt/iVm.— ThcolMicrvationH 
 Aileby Ihimholdt in tho AndeH indnncd him to 
 Ix the Know line near thu equator, at an elevation 
 iri.T.'ii) ft.; and he thought that, near tho 
 rupio, it would lio found at ahout 14,U()() ft., or 
 jumrwliat higher. lUit Mr. I'eiitlaiid fimiul it 
 Ur 17° S. lat., at nearly 17,000 ft. ; and later ol>- 
 tnationit tix it near l'i° S. lat., at aliout l*i,<UM) ft. 
 txive the level of tho Hca. It in farther remark- 
 ^Ic, that though a groat number of BuminitH 
 i aliovo the snow line, glauiers aro of raru oc- 
 \mncQ in the AndoH. TIiIm m partly to bo at- 
 Hbuted to the relative position of their Hummit^, 
 ■hich ({oiivrally form a continuou!* lino, without 
 pinK other xummita on their sidoH ; and partly* to 
 kecoiiitiilf rahle distance which everywhere is found 
 ( uitervcne between two summitx. It is only in 
 ke narrow ravines, by which some of the sides of 
 p ),naiit Dummits are furrowed, that glaciers of 
 nail extent are met with. 
 
 I Vrgtiation and Zoology of the Andes. — The dif- 
 mt plants and trees peculiar to tho different 
 ^ons of tho globe appear in regular succession, 
 iwe ascend from the level of the ocean to tho 
 rii(ht« of the Andes. In tho lower grounds, bo- 
 kfen the tropics, from the level of tho soa to tlio 
 fijiht of from 3,000 to 6,000 ft., cassava, cacao, 
 [aiiie, plantains, indigo, sugar, cotton, and coffee 
 je cultivated. Indigo and cacao, the plantain or 
 Je banana tree, and the cassava nwt reipiire great 
 at to be brought to maturity, fjenerally a climate 
 [which the mean temperature is To", 'But cotton 
 til cotTee will grow at a considerable elevation, 
 Jd sugar is cultivated with success in the tcm- 
 mte parts of Quito. Miuzo is cultivated in the 
 iVou I. 
 
 UliiW IVIIlg >N'[Wi*ni iimiii iiiiii UK! 
 
 Ibetii'wnM of Hogoto, Quito, Kiol 
 piipiajxi, Val|>araiMo, Conce|icion, ni 
 Itilimrent times been moro or Ics 
 
 Munfl rlimate M the lianana; lait Itn rulllvation 
 i*xteniU ovur a much wider Nphrn<, an it arrlvpii at 
 maturity at an elnvation of tl.ooo ft. alMiv« the ura. 
 Th« low country within the tmtilcs U aU> thn 
 ri'gion of orangn^ pine-apph's, anil tho mimt d«ill- 
 cious fniilN. Hf twi><>n the altitudoii of (I.ihhi ft. ami 
 D.IHIO ft. lien tho cliinato U'xt >iuito<l for tlm cultiim 
 of all kiniU of KiiroiN'nn grain. W'hoal, undor tho 
 (>(|uator, will Mddoin fonn an oar IkiIow an eleva- 
 tion of 4/iOO ft., or ri|M>n if aiNivti that of IO,tMNl ft. 
 At the Mime tiiiio it must Ixi olMorvitil that tho 
 Kuro|M>aii ooloniNts have not sulHciontly varioil 
 thoir agricultural oxpcriments to ascertain' oxactly 
 the niiiiiiniim of liolglit at which Kuro|Ntan coroalia 
 would cointi to nmtiirity in the oi|uinoxial rogioim 
 of America. lliinilNihlt montions that in tho 
 Cararcas Im saw tine linrvosts of wheat near Vic- 
 toria, in tIm latitude of UY> III' N., at thu height of 
 l,Oti) and 1,000 ft., and at Cuba wheat HourishoN 
 at a still Hinallor elevation. Kye and barley, on- 
 |M«cittlly the latter, reNi<«t cold iM'ttor than wheat; 
 they are accordingly cultivated ut a greater eleva- 
 tion, liarloy yields abiiiulant harvusts at hoightit 
 whore thu tlierinonieter randy keeps un during tho 
 day above tt"'^ Fall, Within thu limltH in which 
 KiiniiH'an grain tlouriNhes is to lie found the oak, 
 whicli from an elevation of l),20(t ft. tiover deHconds, 
 near the eipiator, In'Iow that of ttJM) ft., though it 
 is met with in the parallel of Mexico at the height 
 of only 2,*!20 ft. lloyond tho limit of !),00() ft. 
 large trees of every kind Uigiii to disup|M'ar, though 
 some dwarllsh pines are to Imi found at thu height 
 of i:i,000 ft., nearly 2,000 It. from the lino of per- 
 (Mttual snow. The grasses clothe the ground at an 
 elevation of from 13,/iOO ft. to iri.lOO ft.; and from 
 this to tho rogiotis of ico and snow tho only plants 
 visible are the lichen, which covers the face of 
 the rocks, aiul seems even to penetrate under tho 
 snow. 
 
 In districts as elevated as the valley of Titicacji, 
 agriculture is conilned to potatoes, onions, and ca|>- 
 sicum, and to tho grain called i/uinna {Chenopedium 
 qui.wa, Lin.) ; liarley and ryu are only cultivated 
 as fiMtdor. ()n the plain of Bogota a farinaceoui) 
 rout, called aracacha, is cultivated, and lately some 
 attempts have been made to introiluce its culture 
 in Kngland. Trees are found to ascend to 12,000 ft. 
 or 14,000 ft. on tho declivities of tho mountains ; 
 but their summits, which commonly form plains 
 of some extent, are nearly bare of vegetation, 
 nourishing only two or three kinds of low plants. 
 
 Among the vegetable productions of the Andes, 
 nono has obtained greater celebrity than tho cin- 
 chona, or Jesidts' bark, which is now known to 
 grow not only on different parts of tho Andes, but 
 also on tho other high mountains of S. America. 
 Tho liost bark, however, is collected on the Andes 
 between 5*' N. lat. and I'P H. lat., where tho trees 
 grow at an elevation of from 10,000 to 14,000 ft. 
 above the sea. 
 
 The most remarkable kind of animals in the 
 Andes is the sjiccics comprising the guanacos, 
 llamas, and vicunas. The llamas aro used as ani- 
 mals of burden ; but they are slow, making only 
 al)out 12 miles a day, and carrj'ing altout 70 lbs. 
 of burthen. Tho vicunas give a very valuable kind 
 of wool. Among birds, the condom have always 
 attracted the attention of travellers, on account 
 of their enormous size. They are a species of 
 vulture. 
 
 Mineral fFealth, — If the high table-land of Ana- 
 huac in Mexico be excepted, no mountain range 
 can vie with the Andes in mineral riches, especially 
 in the precious metals. Many of the rivers de- 
 scending from the Andes between the tropics con- 
 tain small particles of pold in their sand. The 
 particles of gold deposited in the alluvial soil 
 
 K 
 
 ":en 
 
 w 
 
 
 

 mz 
 
 m 
 
 f 
 
 I <y.[ 
 
 ^: 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 I'm, 
 
 iil'iii. 
 
 '!i^:' 
 
 iHi..i,l*'i 
 
 : ll'ir 
 
 i;<o 
 
 ANDES 
 
 NkirtinfT the 1)«(Ih of some of tlienc rivers linvo at- 
 tractoil tho attention of luiru])nuii.s, and at Home 
 plucitH tlie Hoil is carefully wuHlicd. The alluvial 
 noils richest in gold are those lying to the W. of 
 the Central Andes of Xew Granada, on both sides 
 of tho Kio (lauca; as also in the provinces of Uar- 
 Imcoas and Choco along the Pacilic. In the latter 
 districts |ilatinn also (xicurs; and, till within these 
 few years, wlien it has been found in the Ural 
 moinitains, these were considered as the onlj>' places 
 in which it was to be met with. Alluvial soils 
 rich in gold are alsv) found along the rivers which 
 descend from the range of the Holivian Andes, 
 between 14° and 17° S. lat.; and here, too, con- 
 t-iderable quantities of gold are extracted. The 
 annual produce of the lavaderos and gold mines 
 of the Andes is stated by Hiimlwldt to have 
 amounted, in the l)eginning of the I'Jth century, to 
 2><;},42'J oz.; equal, at 4/. jieroz., to 1,133,710/. As 
 far as can be ascertained, it has rather decreased 
 than increased since that time. 
 
 Silver occurs in many i)laces of the range be- 
 tween 33° antl the equator ; but it is conmionly 
 found ut an elevation where vegetation nearly 
 ceases, which renders the working of the mines 
 very expensive, and frequently disappoints the 
 otherwise well-founded expectations of the under- 
 takers. The number of mines which have been 
 worked and abandoned is very great ; many of 
 tnem, however, arc still worited. The most cele- 
 brate<l silver mines are those of Fotosi and Pasco. 
 The former are in the Cerro de Potosi (19° 30' S. 
 lat.), which rises to 1(),()37 ft. above the sea. This 
 mountain is ])erforatcd in all directions; and it is 
 said, tiiough the statement be jirobably exag- 
 gerate<l, that there are no fewer than 5,000 exca- 
 vations in it. The Cerro de Pasco is a hill, rising 
 on the high jdain of Bombon (about 11° S. lat,). 
 It has been worked for more than two centuries, 
 and may now be considered as the richest silver 
 mine of America ; unless, which is doubtful, it be 
 surpassed by the silver mines discovered in N. 
 Chili in 1830, about 30 or 40 m. S. of the town of 
 Copiapo, where silver ore is very abundant. There 
 arc also to be mentioned the silver mines in the 
 iSan Juan i)rovince of the Argentine republic, 
 Avhere also, according to late reports, gold has been 
 iliscovered. The yield of the San .Iiiau mines, to 
 work which a company has been formed under the 
 patronage of the Argentine government, is very 
 considerable. At the beginning of the present 
 century the annual produce of tlie silver mines of 
 the Andes was stated by Humboldt to amoiuit to 
 ()!>l,4y2 lbs. troy; which, if we take the silver at 
 5». the ounce, gives a sum of 2,074,470/. It is not 
 easy to estimate its amount at present ; but pro- 
 bably it is not much fallen off. 
 
 Mercury or quicksilver occurs in many places 
 N. of 14° 8. lat., and S. of the equator; but since 
 the destruction of the mines of Guancavelica, we 
 are not sure whether it be anywliere worked. 
 These, which were extremely rich, yielding from 
 4,000 to 0,000 cwt. a year, were unluckily ruined 
 in 1789, through the ignorance and mismanage- 
 ment of a superintendent. 
 
 Copper seems to occur very frequently S. of 14° 
 S. lat. Large masses of nearly pure copper are 
 Btated to exist on the surface of the S. extremity 
 of the valley of Titicaca, but the expense of 
 bringing them down to the coast is at present so 
 great that they cannot be turned to advantage. 
 In the N. jirovinces of Chili several mines are 
 worked with advantage. Miers estimated the 
 quantitj' of copper exported from these countries 
 in 1824 at 40,000 cwt.; in 1829 it rose to 00,000, 
 and has since materially increased. It is mostly 
 exported to China, Iniliu, and the U. States. 
 
 Ores of lend, tin, and iron exist in variouii parti; 
 but they arc little worked. 
 
 Travelling in the Amies. — The improvement o( 
 the countries embosomed within tho AndM ij 
 much retarded bv the want of easy communication. 
 Sometimes the mtercourse l)ctween places in th( 
 immediate vicinity of each other is interrupted hv 
 quebritrias, or rents, generally nanow, someiimw 
 of a vast depth, and with nearly perijendiculi, 
 sides. The famous natural bridge of Icononxu, it 
 Columbia, leads over a small quebradn ; it is t>|^ 
 vated abfiut 312 ft. above tlie torrent that flowj 
 in the lH)ttom of the chasm. Most of the torrenti 
 that are passed in travelling over the Cordillfrai 
 are fordable ; though their imjietuosify ia micIi 
 when swollen by tho rains as to detain "truvollen 
 for several days. IJut when they are too deep \i, 
 be forded, or tho banks too inaccessible, suspensioo 
 bridges are thrown over them, of a singular make: 
 but which, notwithstanding their apparently Jaj. 
 genius an(l fragile construction, are found to ansiirr I 
 the purjioses required. Where the river is iiamur, I 
 with high banks, they are constructed of «•(«({ I 
 and consist of four long beams laid dose tu^^eihtt I 
 over the precipice, ond forming a path of alioutil 
 yard and a half in breadth, being just suflicinnl 
 for a man to pass over on horseback. These bricljM I 
 have become so familiar to the natives that fm I 
 pass them without apprehension. Where ikil 
 breadth of the river will not admit of a bwil 
 being laid across, ropes constructed of ltejucoi,t 
 species of thin elastic cane, of the length reqiibl I 
 are thrown over. Six of these ropes are stretcWl 
 from one side of the river to the other ; two, in- 1 
 tended to serve as parapets, being considerallrl 
 higher than the other four ; and the latter k'iazi 
 covered with sticks laid in a transverse (lirci;iici,l 
 the bridge is passed by men, while the mules, Ixin; I 
 divested of their burdens, are made to swim acre* | 
 All travellers have spoken of the extreme da 
 of passing these rope bridges, which look lilit| 
 ribands suspended above a crevice or irapetuwl 
 torrent. lint this danger, according to HumbolilJ 
 is not verj' great when a single person passes oral 
 the bridge us quickly as possible, with his Wil 
 leaning for^vard. But the oscillations of the ropal 
 become very great when the traveller is conduet(i| 
 by an Indian who walks quicker th.ui himself; otl 
 when, frightened by the view of tlie ■water <m\ 
 through the interstices of the bamboos, he iia4ll«l 
 imprudence to stop in the middle of the briil;,t,| 
 and lay hold of the ro])es that serve as a rail 
 Some of the rivers of the higher Andes are pad! 
 by means of an invention or bridge denominattil 
 a tarabita. It conveys not only the passcii;.fri| 
 but also their cattle and burdens; and isus^dttl 
 pass those torrents whose rapidity and the tofil 
 stones continually rolling down, render it iiiipis-l 
 sible for mules to swim across. It consists »Ii| 
 strong rope of bejuco, extended across the rivsl 
 on each bank of which it is fastened to stout poal 
 On one side is a kind of wheel or winch to straiMJ 
 or slack the rope to the degree required. Fral 
 this rope hangs a kind of moveable leatiiera hiii-l 
 mock, cajjable of holding a man, to which a rofti 
 is fastened for drawing it to the side intenWl 
 For carrying over mules two ropes are nccesfwl 
 and these much thicker and slacker. The creaiuij 
 being suspended from them, and secured bvpinkl 
 round the belly, neck, and legs, is shoved olf, iiil 
 dragged to the opposite bank. Some of tiiesetfrl 
 juco bridges are of great length, and elevated toiT 
 great height above the torrent. 
 
 A bridge of this sort was constructed bv I 
 6th Inca over the Desagiiadero, or river that iss« 
 from Lake Titicaca, where it is more than it*'^ 
 in width ; and, on account of its utility, is s 
 
ANDES 
 
 131 
 
 t invonouRpait!; 
 
 kept up. SometimeH, Instead of being made of 
 Mxieot or oslcm, these suHpension bridguit are 
 mide of twiftted strands or thonp of bullock's hi(!e. 
 Mr Miers passeil along one of this sort in Chili, 
 •>2a ft in length, by 6 ft. wide. It conveyed over 
 I'osded mules, and was perfectly seiiure. (Ulloa, 
 Voyajre en Amerique, i. 358 ; Miers, Chili, i. 835 ; 
 Humboldt's Kescarches, ii. 72.) 
 
 The ruggedness of the roads in the less fre- 
 quented parts of the Andes, can hardly be de- 
 Iribcd. In many places tlie ground is so narrow 
 tliat the mulcscmployed in travelling have scarcely 
 room to set their feet, and in others it is a con- 
 I tinned series of precipices. Tliese paths arc full 
 of holes, from 2 to 3 ft. deep, in wliich the mules 
 set their feet, and draw their bellies and their 
 riders' legs along tlie ground Tlie holes serve 
 as steps, without which the precipices would be 
 I in a ^'reat mcusiu'e impracticable ; but, should the 
 Icrfature happen to set its foot between two of 
 I these holes, or not place it right, the rider falls, 
 land if on the side of the precipice, inevitably 
 liierisilies. This danger is even greater where the 
 [holes are wanting. The tracks are extremely 
 I steep and slippery, and in general chalky and wet ; 
 I anil where there are no holes to serve as steps 
 I Indians ore obliged to go before with small spades 
 I to dig little trenches across the path. In de- 
 Iscending those places where there are no holes or 
 jlienches, and which are sometimes many hundred 
 Yards deep, the instinct of the mules accustomed 
 jto pass them is admirable. They are sensible of 
 Ithe caution requisite in the descent. On coming 
 Ito the top of an eminence, they stop ; and having 
 Iplaccd their fore feet close together, as if in a pos- 
 Itiire of stopping themselves, they also put their 
 [hind feet together, but a little forwards, as if going 
 [to lie down. In this attitude, naving, as it were, 
 ken a survey of the road, they slide down with 
 khe swiftness of a meteor. The rider has only to 
 keep himself fast in the saddle, without checking 
 hi beast i for the least motion is suiHcient to dis- 
 btdcr the equilibrium of the mule, in which case 
 Ihey must both unavoidably perish. The address 
 pf these creatitfes is liere truly wonderfid ; for in 
 Ihis 80 rapid motion, when they seem to have lost 
 ■11 command of themselves, they follow exactly 
 [he different windings of the path, as if they had 
 Iteriously reconnoitred and settled in their minds 
 [he route they were to follow, and taken every 
 Irecaution for their safety. There would, other- 
 ifije, indeed, he no possibility of travelling over 
 llaces where the safety of the rider depends on the 
 Ixperience and address of his beast. 
 I The valleys of the Cordilleras, wliich are deeper 
 |nd narrower than those of the Alps and Pyrenees, 
 Bii present scenes of the wildest aspect, give rise 
 ' I to several other peculiarities in tlie mode of 
 ■avelling. In many parts, owing to the humidity 
 flhe climate, and the cljclivity of the ground, 
 lie streamlets which flow down tlie mountains 
 jave hollowed out gullies from about 20 to 25 ft. 
 I depth. The pathway which runs along those 
 ttvices is frequently not above a foot or a foot 
 kd a half in breadth, and has the appearance of 
 Igallery dug and left open to the sky. In some 
 lates the opening above is covered by the thick 
 It gelation which grows out from both sides of the 
 hvice, so that the traveller is forced to grope his 
 lay in darkness. The oxen, which arc the beasts 
 1 burden commonly made use of in this country, 
 D scarcely force their way through these galleries, 
 me which are more than a mile in length ; and 
 Ithe traveller should happen to meet them in one 
 Tthe passages, he has no means of avoidmg them 
 •t by climbing the earthen wall which borders 
 le crevice, and keeping himself suspended by 
 
 laying hold of the roota which penetrate to this 
 depth from the surface of the ground. ' In manv 
 of tlie passes of the Andes,' says Humboldt, ' such 
 is the state of the roads that the usual mode of 
 travelling for persons in easy circumstances is in 
 a chair strapped to the back of one of the native 
 |K)rters, called cargueros, or, men of burden, who 
 live by letting out their backs and loins to travel- 
 lers. Tliev talk in this country of going on a 
 man's back (undar en cargueros), as we mention 
 going on horseback. No humiliating idea is an- 
 nexed to the trade of cargueros ; and the men who 
 follow this occupation aro not Indians, but mulat- 
 toes, and sometimes even whites. The usual load 
 of a carguero is six or seven arrobas; those who aro 
 very strong carry as much as nine arrobas. They 
 earn, by a journey from Ibague to Cartago, only 
 12 or l4 piasters in from iifteen to twenty-tive days. 
 The passage of the mountain of ( juindiu is not the 
 only part of South America which is traversed on 
 the backs of men. The whole of the province of 
 Antioquia is surrounded by mountains so ditlicult to 
 pass, that they who dislike entrusting themselves 
 to the skill of a bearer, and are not strong enough 
 to travel on foot from Santa Fc de Antioquia to 
 llocca de Narcs or Hio Samana, must relinquish 
 all thoughts of leaving the country. The number 
 of young men who undertake the employments of 
 beasts of burden at Choco, Iboguc, and Mcdelliu 
 is so considerable, that we sometimes meet a file 
 of fifty or sixty. A few years ago, when a project 
 was formed to make the passage from Nares to 
 Antioquia passable for mules, the cargueros pre- 
 sented formal remonstrances against mending the 
 road, and the government was weak enough to 
 yield to their clamours. The person carried in a 
 chair by a carguero must remain several hours 
 motionless, and leaning backwards. The least 
 motion is sulKcient to throw down the carrier; 
 and his fall would be so much the more dangerous, 
 as the carguero, too contident in his own skill, 
 chooses the most rapid declivities, or crosses a tor- 
 rent on a narrow and slippery trunk of a tree. 
 These accidents are, however, rare; and those 
 wliich happen must be attributed to the impru- 
 dence of travellers, who, frightened at a false step 
 of the carguero, leap down from their chairs.' 
 (Kesearches, i. 69.) 
 
 Railways. — Within the last few years measures 
 have been projected, and steps have been taken to 
 carry them out, which there is little doubt will 
 break down the barrier to commerce which the 
 Andes of South America now form. Most promi- 
 nent of these is the project to prolong westward 
 the line of railway from Kosario on the Parana 
 river to Cordova in the interior ; and in fact, con- 
 nect the Atlantic with the Pacilic, the Kiver Plate 
 with the coast of Chili, by a railway crossing the 
 Andes at a height of l(i,023 ft. abjve the level 
 of the sea. It was originated and roughly sur- 
 veyed about ten years ago by Mr. Wheelwright, a 
 New England gentleman of long experience in 
 constructing mountain railways in Chili. Under 
 his direction a railway was constructed from Val- 
 paraiso to Santiago, which Ues about 2,000 ft. 
 above the sea ; opened for traffic in 1863. In 184!) 
 he completed 50 miles of line, from the seaport of 
 Caldera to the mining station of Copiapo, now 
 extended 52 miles farther to Chanaryillo, passing 
 over an elevation of 4,476 ft. above the sea, with 
 a maximum gradient of 1 in 20, a steepness un- 
 precedented, but worked for more than three years 
 at a slo'v speed with powerful locomotives, draw- 
 ing a maximum load of 43 tons. The success of 
 this line as a pecuniary speculation, and mure ex- 
 tensive knowledge of the country, suggested to 
 Mr. Wheehvright the greater scheme of crossing 
 
 k2 
 
 m 
 
 ''*^fe.^ 
 
 *1>K^:(^''V 
 
132 
 
 ANDES 
 
 % 
 
 'I*..; 
 
 > Kit, 
 
 m 
 
 i. ;,' 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 '0 
 
 the Andes. Frrrni' Copiapo a pftfs, railed by the 
 name of Han FraneiHco, croxHcit the Chilian Conlil- 
 lera. Though it exceedH the height of 16,000 ft., 
 it i» rarely if ever bliicked tip with Bnow, partly 
 owinR to the drj'ncss of the atniosphcro, partly to 
 its wide and open clmrnctor. From (,'opinpo to 
 the Hiimmit is 225 miles, the rise in heif;ht alM)ut 
 14,80(( ft. From the summit to Fiambnla, where 
 the ])lains which extend to the Atlantic may he 
 said to bepn, the distance is 125 miles, the fall 
 near 11,000 ft., Fiambala being over 5,000 ft. 
 almvc the sea. Here, however, rich soil and abim- 
 dant vegotation, with almost tropical products, 
 begin, and the rest of the distinicc to Cordova, 
 850 miles, and thence to Hosario, 250 miles, though 
 ])assiiig occasionally through salt and barren lanils, 
 offers no engineering difficulties ; and, indeed, like 
 the neighbourhood of Huenos Ayres, is singularly 
 favourable to cheapness of construction. From 
 Copiapo to the simimit only two places involve 
 much difficulty or heavy works. The first re(|uires 
 steep gradients and a tunnel between 1 and 2 miles 
 long, in a space of about 1 1 miles, at the ])assnge 
 of a secondary mountain ridge called Cuesta di los 
 Chilenos. Passing it, the road comes o'!t :;n the 
 great central plateau of the Cordillera at a height 
 of near 13,000 ft., at a point distant about HO 
 miles from the summit level, and with a total rise 
 of little more than 3,000 ft. in that distance, in 
 which only one difficulty occurs — a gradient of 
 600 ft. to the mile f;)r 3 miles, to lie reduced to 
 200 by taking a circuit increasing the length to 
 10 miles. The first portion of the descent, for 13 
 miles is on a heovy gradient of 150 ft.; and no 
 furtler difficulty occurs except ot a place called 
 the Angostura — the contraction of the Los Losas 
 river, where it falls rajiidly for 5 miles. Hut it is 
 probable that this difficulty, itself not excessive, 
 might be avoided by a side valley, which would 
 also shorten the route. As yet only a survey of a 
 rough description has been made ; but the prac- 
 ticability of the line is proved by the gradients 
 not exceeding what have already been worked. 
 The scheme, it is also remarked, includes only 2^ 
 miles of tunnelling. It is even expected that 
 when more accurate surveys come to be made, 
 more suitable parses may be chosen. 
 
 Mr. Wlieelwright stated, in a paper communi- 
 cated to the British Association in 1863, that 
 since he left Copiapo, ' a Mr. Hrewer, a very reli- 
 able person, who resides in that city, has driven 
 over the mountain by San Francisco to the pro- 
 vince of Tucuman, and returned in the same car- 
 riage by the Horquera Pass, further south, which 
 he preferred. Mr. Brewer describes the summit 
 of the Horquera as licing only a few thousand feet 
 in width, whereas at San Francisco it is 100 miles, 
 and that there is an abundance of water except 
 for a space of 20 to 25 miles. He is, no doubt, 
 the first i)er8on that ever crossed the Andes in a 
 carriage.' The pass called Planchon, above des- 
 cribed, has also attracted attention. 
 
 If this should be found practicable, another 
 trunk line would probably be planned to diverge 
 from the Rosario and Coldova line at a place 
 called Villa Nueva, and run direct by the impor- 
 tant towns of San Luis and Mendoza to the Plan- 
 chon. It would then descend to join the Great 
 Southern Railway of Chile at Curico, 85 miles 
 south of the capital, Santiago. In that case, the 
 otlier line on arriving at Horquera, a central posi- 
 tion for the provinces of Catamarca, Tucuman, 
 and Santiago de Estera, instead of turning west- 
 ward to the pass of San Francisco, might run 
 nearly north through Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy, 
 and enter Bolivia and Upper Peru even as far as 
 Potosi, if it should be found practicable. 
 
 ANDORRE 
 
 Among the advantages expected from thn* 1 
 railways is reckoned not only the commeitt of 
 Chili and Peru, seeking a port or a river tlny,\^ 
 into the Atlantic, bnt it is anticipated that theg 
 construction would lead to the aaoption of a nn 
 passenger route from Europe to Australia. Ai 
 Admiral Fitzroy pointed out before the Geopj. 
 phical Society in 1860, 'a ship ninniiifr afetl 
 hundred miles to the north from Copia|>o or CjI. I 
 dcra, gets into the heart of the trade-wind, vhkii I 
 woiiUi carry her across to Australasia. On tin I 
 other hand, by running a little south from Ad«. I 
 tralia or New Zealand, a ship would get into tin I 
 south westerlv winds, which would carry herrisliil 
 across to Chili : so that a ship without stonm nii;;|ii I 
 make the vovage either way in live or six wceki I 
 without having to guanl against any intcr\-eniii; I 
 land, or peculiar danger of any kind, beyond th« I 
 of an oceanic passage without a hurricane.' flit I 
 actual distance, again, across that part of .Soott I 
 America from New Zealand to Europe israthcrbl 
 than by the Isthmus of Suez. The voyage fma| 
 Liveqiool to Rosario is reckoned at from twentr-l 
 five to thirty days, so that, allowing five tlavslifl 
 the railway transit, little more than two mnnibil 
 would be sufficient for the transmission of mailil 
 and piissengers between Australia and Knplani I 
 
 ANDLAU, a town of France, dep. Has I'hiil 
 arrond. Schelestat, on the Andlau, lOm. NXwl 
 Schelestat. Pop. 2,018 in 1861. I 
 
 ANDORRK (REPUBLIC OF), a small aijl 
 nominally independent state on the S. (Ifcliriirl 
 of the Pyrenees, between the den. of Arioge iil 
 France, and the district of Urge! in Spain, lil 
 stretches from N. to S. about 36 m., and from [I 
 to \V. about 30, comprising three mountain vallml 
 and the basin formed by their union. These vitl 
 leys are among the wildest and most pictnre«]ii| 
 in the Pyrenees, and the mountains, with thtil 
 immense peaks, by which they arc encMI 
 among the highest and least accessible. Itil 
 watered by several small rivers ; the largest it 
 which, the Embalin, having received the othenl 
 falls into the Scgre, an affluent of tlic Ebul 
 Pop. from 7,000 to 8,000, divided among six mt 
 miines. Andorre, the principal town, has dImI 
 2,000 inliab. It has but little arable land, kli| 
 considerable extent of excellent pasture grounl 
 sheltered by vast forests of fir. The inhab. depa 
 principally on their flocks and iron mines, iliij 
 pro<luce of the latter finding a ready markfts 
 Spain. This little state, though connectdi 
 some degree with both its powerful neighbots 
 has preserved its independence for alwut \,4 
 years. The government is composed of a «« ' 
 of twenty-four members, chosen for life, i 
 commune electing four. The council elect t 
 Syndics, who enjoy considerable authority, ( 
 voking the assemblies, and carrj'ing on thejij 
 vernment when they are not sitting. Aiidfg 
 owes its independence to Charlemagne. In li!(| 
 that prince, having marched against the lidi 
 of Spain, and defeated them in the neighl* 
 ing valley of C'arol, the Andorrians are s 
 to have rendered themselves so useful toi 
 French army, supplying them with prore 
 and taking care of their wounded, that the 1 
 peror, by way of recompence, made them imi 
 pendent of the neighbouring princes, and |« 
 mitted them to be govemecl by their own M 
 After him Louis le Debonnaire ceded to theBisM 
 of Urgel a part of the rights over Andone »l] 
 Charlemagne had reser\-ed to himself andr 
 successors. In virtue of this grant, the m 
 acquired right to a part of the tithes of the! 
 communes, and a sj)iritual jurisdiction ovci» 
 countrj', which he still exercises. 
 
ANDORRE 
 
 In l"!*". ♦'"' rights exercised by the sovprpignfi 
 of France in Anrlorre \mi\g considered as feudul, 
 were abandoned, and the republic was for a time 
 fompletelv sejMirated from timt country ; but not- 
 ,itli.Ht8ii<iing tW» temporary independence, the 
 Andorrians continue<l to preserve their attach- 
 ment to France. They resisted the violation of 
 their territory by the Spaniards, and furnished to 
 I the French armies, during the late war, guides 
 and assistance of every kind. At the same time 
 thev anxiously solicited the estal>lishment of the 
 ancient order of things ; and Napoleon yielded to 
 their wish. By » decree of the 2t)th of March, 
 1806, Andorre was declared to l)e a republic con- 
 nected with France ; its viguier, or criminal judge, 
 was to be a Frenchman, of the dep. of Ariege ; and 
 I it was allowed to import certain quantities of cer- 
 Itain specified articles, free of duty, on payment of 
 I the trilling simi of OCO fV. a year. Except thore- 
 Ifore, as regards the spiritual jurisdiction of the 
 JBinhopof Urgel, which cannot be said to interfere 
 I with us independence any more than the Pope's 
 lecclcsiastical authority over Catholic countries 
 lean with theirs, Andorre is altogether independent 
 |of Spain ; and, as regards France, the annual 
 Ipavment it makes to her is not a tribute, but an 
 linadequate compensation for a valuable privilege; 
 «nd there being little crime in Andorre, the ap- 
 mintment of a Frenchman for criminal judge was 
 jnore with a view to deter Frentih crimmals from 
 Itaiiing refuge in this neutral territory, than to 
 Vssert any superiority. Andorre may," therefore, 
 ke justly considered as the oldest free republic in 
 ^istence. The people oil belong to the church of 
 liome, and are very religious. Their clergy, and 
 Ihe more wealthy of the inhabitants, are educated 
 ■t Toulouse or Barcelona. Each cure', in addition 
 lo his pastoral duties, has charge of a school, 
 Ifhere the i)oor are instructed gratuitously ; but 
 his does not give him much extra trouble, few of 
 he peasants thinking it necessary to send their 
 ihildren to school to acquire what, in their land 
 If shepherds and labourers, they imagine can be 
 (f little consequence in their future lives. Hence 
 Jhe great majority of the people can neither read 
 |or write. 
 The Andorrians are simple and severe in their 
 planners, the vices and corruptions of cities not 
 laving hitherto found their way into their valleys. 
 ihey live as their forefathers lived a thousand 
 rears before them : the little thev know concem- 
 W the luxuries, arts, and civilisation of other 
 puntries inspiring them rather with fear than 
 nvy. Their wealth consists in their sheep or 
 ittle, or in the share they may have in iron 
 Irges, only a very few of their numl)er being the 
 Voprietors of any land beyond the ganlen which 
 prrounds their cottage. Each family acknow- 
 llges a chief, who succee<ls by right of primo- 
 kniture. These chiefs, or eldest sons, choose their 
 Jives from families of equal consideration with 
 Ifir own, reprobating mesalliances, and looking 
 Itle to fortune, which besides is always very 
 pU upon both sides. They never leave the pii- 
 rnal roof until they marry ; and if they marry 
 I heiress they join her name to their own. Un- 
 M married, they are not admitted to any share 
 I the management of public attairs. 
 IWhcn there are only daughters in a family, the 
 lest, who is heiress of the entire property, and 
 «eeds as an eldest son would do, is always niar- 
 i to a cadet of another family, who adopts her 
 nc, and is domiciliated in her family. By this 
 tangement, the principal Andorrian houses have 
 fctinued for centuries without any change in 
 Va fortunes, ni plus riche, ni plus pauvre. The 
 Vrcst inhabitants are not so badly off as in most 
 
 ANDRE 
 
 18S 
 
 other conntries ; their wants arc few and easily 
 Hupi»lied, the opulent families taking care of those 
 who arc not ; and the latter honouring and rc- 
 sjiecting their benefactors. 
 
 The Andorrians arc in general strong and well 
 proportioned ; the greater part of the diseases pro- 
 ceeding from the moral atfections are unknown, 
 as well as those originating in vice and corruption. 
 The costume of the men, composed of coarse brown 
 clotli made from the wool of their own sheep, re- 
 sembles that worn by the |)easants of Bigorre, with 
 this ditference, that the Andorrians wear U>e Mow- 
 ing red cap of the Catalans. There woulil seem 
 to be but little galUmtry among these mountaineers, 
 for the women are not admitted to any of the as- 
 semblies where public affairs are considered ; nor 
 even to the masses performed upon the reception 
 of the bishop or judge. Crime of every kind in 
 rare, and i>unishnients, though mild, arc effectual. 
 There are no law-suits relative to paternal suc- 
 cessions ; and should disptites of any kind arise, 
 they are at once referred to the Svndics, whose de- 
 cision is never controverted. The men are all 
 liable to serve in the militia, should they be re- 
 quired ; and every head of a family is obliged ti> 
 have in his possession at all times a musket, and 
 a certain quantity of powder and ball. 
 
 Commerce of every kind is free ; but, with the 
 exception of iron, of which it has some mines 
 and forges, its manufactures are all of tho 
 coarsest and nidest kind. 
 
 ANUOVEH, a borough and m. town of Eng- 
 land, CO. Hants, near the Anton, on the great road 
 from London to Salisbury, being 63 m. WSW. of 
 the former, and 17 N E. of the latter, with a station 
 on the London and South- Western railway. The 
 municipal borough and pari, district which" include 
 7,670 acres, had 5,221 inhab. in 18GI. It is com- 
 pactly built, extending on either side alraut one- 
 third of a mile from the market place, in the centre 
 of which is a modern town-hall, supported on 
 arches, under which are held the markets. Tho 
 church, an old Gothic building, is on the N. side 
 of the town. There is an hospital for six poor men, 
 a free school founded in l.'jfi'J, and a charity school 
 for thirty boys. Some trade is carried on m malt- 
 ing, and the manufacture of silk; but its principal 
 support is derived from its being a considerable 
 thoroughfare, and the only market for the sur- 
 rounding coiuitry. It is in a thriving condition ; 
 and contains several good shops and respectable 
 private houses. The great annual fair of Weyhill 
 (which see) is held within a short distance. There 
 is a canal from the town to Southampton. It re- 
 turns two members to the H. of C. From 168!), 
 down to the passing of the Keform Act, the right 
 of voting was in the bailiff and corporation. Pari, 
 constituencv, 257 in 18(>5. 
 
 ANDOVkli, a town of the U. States, Massa- 
 chusets, CO. Essex, 20 ni. X. Boston by road, and 
 23 by railway. I'op. 6,748 in 1860. It is finely 
 situated, and has some manufactures; but it is 
 chiefly distinguished for its literary institutions, 
 particularly its theological academy, founded in 
 1807, and liberally endowed. There is also a very 
 flourishing academv, founded in 1778. 
 
 ANDKACIO, or'AXDKACY, a town of Spain, 
 on the SW. coiust of the island of Majorca. Pop. 
 4,(i0i) in 1857. It is situated at a little distance 
 from the sea, but it has a small port accessible to 
 vessels drawing little water. Its territory is pro- 
 ductive of olives. 
 
 ANDUi:, or ENDRE (ST.), a town of Hungarj', 
 on the right bank of the Danube, opposite to the 
 island of the same name. 111 m. N. liuda. Pop. 
 2,080 in 1857. It has one Catholic and seven Greek 
 churches. The hills in the vicinity produce ex- 
 
 !>.« 
 
 !^Af 
 
 r '\t 
 
 4i^ 
 
134 
 
 ANDRE-DE-CUBSAC 
 
 !&. 
 
 
 m 
 
 ii,j 
 
 I; 
 
 ■^■ii!;' 
 
 'H 
 
 »^K 
 
 iil 
 
 m 
 
 III 
 
 cellent wincH, and tlio island in the river is cele- 
 brated for its fertility. 
 
 ANDHK-DK-CUHHAC (ST.), n town of France, 
 dep. (iironde, cap. cont. 12 m. NNK. IJordcaux. 
 I'op. 3,(i!IO in IK<il. It is Nituntcd at a little dis- 
 tance from the 1 Jordoj^ne ; hut it has a port, (3ul)- 
 sac, on that river. Tlie hi>;h road from Hordeaux 
 to Paris crosses the Dordogne at this point, and 
 formerly, previously to the construction of roil- 
 ways, jmssengers and carriages were conveyed 
 across in a large ferry hoat. 
 
 AXDKKASHKIUl, a town of Hanover, princi- 
 pality of (irubcnluigeii, in a district which has 
 mines of iron, cohalt, copper, and silver. Pop. 
 4,300 in IHfil. The town has a college, a council 
 of mines, and manufactures of lace and thread. 
 
 ANDREW'S (ST.), on ancient and celebrated 
 city and seaport of Scotland, co, Fife, ftnely situ- 
 ated on a low eminence on the (Jerman Oceon, 
 81 m. NE. Edinburgh, lat. 6(;o 20' N., long. 2° 50' 
 \V. Pop. of pari, burgh, 5,1 7tt in 18(11. The 
 population in IHOO was only 2,519. The city 
 chiefly consists of three principal streets, leading 
 in a ^V. direction from the cathedral, is in general 
 well built, and has been much improved during 
 the present century. St. Andrew's was long the 
 metropolitan see of Scotland ; and is highly inter- 
 esting from its numerous remains of other ages, 
 and the historical associations connected with 
 it, many highly important events having occur- 
 red within its precincts. Its splendid cathedral, 
 founded in lltiO, and completed in 1318, was re- 
 duced to a ruin in 1659 by the barbarous zeal of 
 the reformers. The castle, long the residence of 
 its archbishops, and a place of considerable strength, 
 stood on a precipice overhanging the sea. The 
 famous Cardinal licaton was assassinated in it in 
 154(i, in revenge of the share he had in bringing 
 Wishart, a preacher of the reformed doctrines, to 
 the stake in the previous year. Its picturesque 
 ruins now serve as a landmark for ships. There 
 arc also, among others, the ruins of a chapel, and 
 a square tower 108 ft. high, called the chapel and 
 tower of St. Kule or St. licgulus, suppose<l to be 
 the most ancient of the existing fabrics. The 
 priorj' of St. Andrew's was one of the best endowed 
 in Scotland ; and part of a gigantic wall, intended 
 to enclose the grounds of the priorj"-, 870 ft. long, 22 
 high, and 4 thick, with fourteen turrets, erected by 
 Prior Hepburn in 1610, is still in good preserva- 
 tion, and is not one of the least interesting relics 
 of bygone times. The foundations and part of the 
 walls of this edifice were uncovered in 1800. The 
 parish church, founded in the Pith century, but 
 rebuilt in 1797, has a monument to Archbishop 
 Sharpe, assassinated in 1079. The university of 
 St. Andrew's, the most ancient in Scotland, and 
 now the principal support of the city, was founded 
 in 1410 bj' Misho]) Wardlaw, and confirmed by a 
 papal bull dated the following year. It originally 
 consisted of three colleges, St, Salvador's, St. Leo- 
 nard's, and St. Mary's ; of which the two former 
 were united in 1747, when the buildings of St. 
 Leonard's were pulled down. The two colleges 
 are in different parts of the town, and their pro- 
 fessors and discipline are quite distinct. The 
 United College consists of a quadrangular edifice, 
 in which some excellent rooms were recently 
 erected at the expense of government. This insti- 
 tution is appropriated to the study of languages, 
 philosophy, and science, ami St. Mary's to that 
 of theology. The chapel of the United College, 
 founded by Bishop Kennedy in 1468, is a fine spe- 
 cimen of the light Gothic ; and is used as the col- 
 lege chapel, and as a parish church. It has a 
 tomb of the founder ; on opening which, in 1683, 
 six .silver mccea were found, of which three were 
 
 ANDRIA 
 
 sent to the other Scotch imivcrsitics, and thrw 
 retainml in the college. St. Mary's CoUeKB j, , 
 handsome stone Btnicturc. A librarj' contJKiioiB 
 to the latt4!r, and containing alxiut 00,000 Vl)ll|ln^, 
 is common to both colleges ; and until the |iri\i.' 
 lege was commuted, in 1880, for 45(!/. a ym, it 
 was entitled to a cony of every work entered at 
 Stationers' Hall. Tlic llnite(f College nnd Si, 
 Mary's have together thirteen professors ; each ni 
 lege has a principal, the principal of St. Man'i 
 being one of the professors, antl the univerHiiyji 
 presided over by a lord-rector and a chancefldr, 
 The f ndowments arc considerable, each proff,«ir 
 receiving at an average alxiut 230/, a year, exclu- 
 sive of fees from pupils. The fee for attenilingone 
 of the literary classes is HI. 8». ; students in tht 
 theological cliuwes pay no fees — with the exceptim 
 of a fee of 6». on matriculating, which is ciimmoii 
 to both establishments. The United ( Joliegc hv 
 69 bursaries. Within the last thirty yearn a vm' 
 large addition has been made to the facilities for 
 education already enjoyed by St. Andrew's, tlimucb 
 the lil)erality of' Dr. Hell, of l^Iadras, who diwljii 
 1832, bequeathing the sum of 45,000/. three ^ I 
 cent, stock for the erecticm of a seminary on a cnm- 1 
 prehen.sive plan in this his native citv. A lin« 
 building for this school has been erected at a litil; I 
 di,stance from St. Mary's College. The number (^ I 
 teachers in the Madras Coilege (the name given in I 
 Dr. Bell's establishment) is nine, exclusive of lil 
 sistants. This seminary affords instniction (jraii* I 
 to the poor ; and the fees are very low, beiiiK unlv I 
 7». (>rf. per quarter for Latin and tireek ; tiie saiw I 
 for (ierman and French ; the same for mathenit I 
 tics, and the same for drawing : 6«. per quartw I 
 for geography : 3». for writing : 2». firf. for arilfc- [ 
 metic : and 2». for English. Students may atten.] I 
 one or more classes, and pay accordingly, 'flit I 
 average numter of pupils at this wiiiinarj- b I 
 been about 800, but it is rapidly increasing, aniliil 
 now 900. There is also an infant school, with u I 
 average attendance of 120. Of the nnmljenJ 
 people at the college, above a half are straii|,w I 
 attracted to the citv by the d&servedly high chi-l 
 racter of this excellent institution, the best put I 
 bably of its kind in the empire. To this cau«l 
 it is also in great measure owing that the tow I 
 has been completely renovated of late yearsan^l 
 the population largely increased. Much credit t(«l 
 the improvement of the place is also due to llnl 
 late provost, Lieut. Col. Sir Hugh Lyon Plaifcl 
 Through his exertions a broad foot i)avemeiit wnl 
 laid down, in place of the once grass-grown cau*! 
 way, and the old townhouse, which fonncrly.sioJ 
 in "the middle of Market Street, obstructing i!»| 
 thoroughfare, was swept away, and a more elciiaiil 
 building erected in South Street. St, Andrcwsiil 
 becoming increa-singly a place of fashionable ^1 
 sort, and its buildings are rapidly extendin;,', Tliil 
 harbour, partly formed by two piers, is on the Ll 
 side of the town, extending about 430 yards in-l 
 land ; but it dries at low water, and the aecessM 
 it being difficult, it is little frequente<l by shi« 
 ping. The town has no manufactures worth p*| 
 tice, unless it be that of golf-halh, or ball*™ 
 plajdng the game of golf, which employs about .if 
 or seven men, who ])roduce annually alwut m 
 dozen balls, of which about 800 dozen arc mii^ 
 other places, the rest being consumed in St,.' 
 drew's, which has been long famous for this gi 
 A good workman makes eight or nine balLfaiirl 
 St. Andrew's unites with the two Anstmthfr 
 Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem inretiii 
 ing a member to the H. of C. 
 
 ANDRIA, a town of South Itah-, prnv, 
 cap. cant. 9 m. S. Barletta. Pop. in I8()I,.W 
 It stands on a ploin on the edge of tiie eiielo: 
 
k 
 
 ANDRO 
 
 rniintn', flii'l i*" environs iirc far from nnplrnsnnt. 
 It in the neat of o bislioprif, has n Hupcrb catlic- 
 (Iriil, « foval coUc^jc, and three iiion» flepit'U': It was 
 founded in Wii by I'etcr, Count ot'Trani, anil uv- 
 niiircd its name from tlie antra, or cuvems occu- 
 I'irti by its lirKt Rfttlers. 
 
 ANUKO, or AXDKOS, an island of tuo (Jrecian 
 AriliipelaK"' '>''">? '" '''" ^' "'^ Ne^rojiont, and 
 iiiimcdiatc'ly td the N. of Tino, from which it Im 
 nfimrated by a verv narrow channel. It rxtcnds 
 all,,iil •.'" m' in a N'VV. and SE. direction; but its 
 linmlfli docH not exceed "or H ni. Though numn- 
 tAJnoiis, it has several extensive, fertile, and well 
 watered valleys, and a number of villaf;es. The 
 Kip. has been estimated at from l.l.dOd to 1(!,()()0. 
 (Vine if the principal article, the annual j)roduct 
 amountinj; to 2WV"W ft"'"- i exelusive of which 
 there is a considerable export of silk, oil, oranges, 
 citrons, Ac. The corn raised in the island gene- 
 rallv sutlices for the consumpti<m of the inhabi- 
 tants. Andro, or Castro, the capital, a consideral)le 
 town, with about ."),0()0 inhabitants, is situated on 
 the E. coast of the island ; its jjort, which is de- 
 fended by a castle, is too shallow to admit any but 
 the smallest description of vessels. I'ort (iaurio, 
 orGabrin, on the W. side, is a much better liar- 
 Ixiur. The Andrians took the part of the Persians 
 on the latter invading Greece, for which they were 
 afterwards chastised by Themisiocles. 
 
 ANDKOS ISLANDS, or ISLKS DEL ESPI- 
 lurrU SAXTO, a group of islands among the 
 Bahamas, which extend about 120 m, from N. to 
 ig., lat. 24° to 25° 20' N. long. 77° to 7«° VV. 
 I AXDUJAH,a town of Spain, Andalusia, on the 
 iiadalnuiver, in a plain at the foot of the Sierra 
 Morena, 2(1 m. NW. Jaen, lat. 38° 1'32" N., long. 
 IB0o»'33"W. Pop. i),.^;! in 1H;)7. Mr.Townsend 
 avs that, in 17H(>, it contained 6,800 families; 
 iriiifh, if accurate, would show a great decline in 
 [the interval. (Travels in Si)ain, ii. p. 297.) It is 
 (upposcd to be built of the ruins of the ancient 
 ^"orumJulium; it is defended by an old castle, and 
 has numerous churches and convents, a theatre, 
 ■nd an old bridge of fifteen arches over the river. 
 Its environs arc fruitful, and the inhabitants are 
 Mostly employed in agriculture; but there arc 
 [tanneries, and manufactories of wine and water 
 toolcrs, made of a peculiar species of white clay 
 found in the neighbourhood. 
 I ANDUZE, a town of Erance, dep. Gard, cap. 
 bant., on the Gardon, 2(5 m. NW. Nismes. Pop. 
 I,2»3 in 18G1. The inhabitants are mostly Pro- 
 Eestants. It is ill built, but agreeably situated at 
 [he foot of the Cevennes, between nxiks and bills 
 fclanted with vines and olives. It has a tribunal 
 Bf commerce, with manufactures of hats, silk, 
 lojicry, cloth, earthenware, and glue, a silk lila- 
 |ure, and tannery. 
 AXET, a handsome town, dep. Eure et Loire, 
 ap. cant., 9 ni. NN E. Drcux. Pop. 1 ,40(i in 18t;o. 
 It is principally celebrated for the niins of its tine 
 lastle, built by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers, 
 Iml destroyed during the revolutionary frenzy in 
 r92. There are in its environs forges and paper- 
 Bilk 
 
 j Anet, a village of Switzerland, cant. Berne, on 
 i hill, 17 m. W. by N. Heme. Pop. 1,378 in 1861. 
 Roman antiquities are found iu the ueighbour- 
 liood. 
 AXGELO (ST.), the name of several towns 
 n Italy, of which the principal are St. Angelo in 
 krov. of Milan, circ. Lodi, 7 m. SW. Lodi. I'op. 
 1,334 in 18G2. St. Asoklu in the same kingdom, 
 Jrov.Padua, 11 m. NE. Padua. And St. Angeix), 
 South Italy, distr. Campagna, 16 m. SSE. 
 fampagiia. Pop. 2,264 in 1862. 
 AXGELO DE LOMBAUDI (ST.), a town of 
 
 ANGERS 
 
 136 
 
 South Ttalv, 48 m. E. Naples. Pop. 6,.1-I4 in 1862. 
 The town IS the seat of a bishopric, has a college, 
 and two parish churches. In 1664 it was almost 
 entirely destroyed by an rarthipiake. 
 
 ANGEKHUlUt, a town of Prussia, prov. E. 
 Prussia, cap. circ, on the Angerap, (iO m. SE. 
 Konigsberg. Pop. !!,!)'.) 1 in 1861. It has a castlo 
 and manufactures of woollen stutTs and leather. 
 The .\ngerap falls, a little to the S. of the town, 
 into the large, irregularly shaped, shallow lake of 
 Maucr, celebrated for tlie abundance and excel- 
 lence of its eels. 
 
 ANGEI{iMi:NI)E, a town of the Prussian 
 States, prov. lirandenburg, reg. Potsdam, cap. 
 circ, on the lake Munde, 43 m. NNE. llerlin, on 
 the railway from Merlin to Stettin. Pop. 6,205 iu 
 1861. The town has manufactures of hats, 
 woollen stuffs, and tobacco. 
 
 ANGEKS (the JulUtimujti* of Cavsar, afterwards 
 Andeijavia, and hence ^liii/em), a very ancient city 
 of France, dep. Maine et' Loire, of which it is the 
 capital, on the Mavenne, which divides it into 
 two jHirtions, near Us contliu'iice with the Loire 
 and the Sarthe, lat. 47° 28' !•" N., long. 0° 33' W. 
 Pop. 51,7!t7 in 1861. The town is 131 m. SVV. 
 Paris, on the railway from Tours to Nantes. It is 
 surrounded by massive Wiills, built in 1214 by 
 John, King of England. Speaking generally it is 
 ill built, and mean looking; houses partly of wood 
 and partly of slate, streets narrow ond crooked. 
 Principal objects of attraction, cathedral and 
 castle. The first begun in 122r>, and of large di- 
 mensions, has its front ornamented by two sym- 
 metrical spires, each 225 ft. high. It contains the 
 ivionnment of Margaret of Anjou, daughter of 
 Kene', King of Sicily, and wife of Henry VI. of 
 England. The old castle, the fonncr residence of 
 the dukes of Anjou, stands on a rock having the 
 river at its foot : its plan is that of a vast paral- 
 lelogram, surrounded by high massive walls, de- 
 fended by tleep fosses cut out of the rock, and by 
 eighteen towers; but these, with one exception, 
 have now been reduced to the height of the walls. 
 The castle ser\'es at present as a prison for the city, 
 and a powder magazine: on the side next the 
 river it is becoming ruinous. Angers is the scat 
 of an imperial court for the departments of Maine 
 et Loire, Sarthe, and Mayenne; has a tribunal of 
 original jurisdiction, an academy, a royal college, 
 a school for deaf and dumb, and a secondary 
 school of medicine. It has also a school of arts 
 and trades, being, with the exception of that at. 
 Chalons-sur-Marne, the only school of the kind 
 in France. Each department is entitled to send 
 three piiinla to this school — the instruction of one 
 to be entirely gratuitous, the others paying one a 
 fourth part and one a half of the ordinarj' pupils. 
 It has also a school of design ; an agricultural 
 society; a public librarj', containing 35,000 vo- 
 lumes; a museum with about 600 pictures, many 
 of them good; a lK>tanical garden; a cabinet of 
 natural history ; and a theatre. There is an im- 
 perial manufacture of sail-cloth, a cotton mill, 
 with manui'actures of linen, serges, handkerchiefs, 
 hosiery, and starch ; a sugar refinery, a wax re- 
 finery, and tanneries. The town has three bridges. 
 It labours under a deficiency of water, that of May- 
 enne not being fit for use. Previous to the revolu- 
 tion Angers was the seat of a university, founded 
 in 1246 : it had also a celebrated academy of belles 
 lettrei ; and such was the fame of its riding-school, 
 that it was attended by I'eter the Great. It suf- 
 fered severely during the wars of La Vendee ; but. 
 since 1815 it has been comparatively prosperous, 
 and various improvements have been effected. 
 Angers has produced several distinguished per- 
 sons, among whom Bodin, the author of the work 
 
 my- 
 
136 
 
 ANGERVILLE 
 
 U'lll "'I'H., 
 
 ¥ ■. 
 
 ml 
 
 m 
 
 Pt5 
 
 ^•i,:h 
 
 ' I)n In Ropubliqiin,' pul>liHho(l in 157G, Menage, 
 and Ikniier, the fainoim trnvoUer. 
 
 The Hinto qimrrieH in the vicinity of AngerH, 
 whence the town in huilt, and which nlso Nupply 
 Inr^e qiinntiticH of r(M)tlng HlnteH to other deji^, 
 are imrnenHe cxcaviitioriN. It ir* noticed in Frencli 
 workH that the ahundnnco of nlntc iH tiuch that 
 almoxt all the houMCH are covered with Hlates, for 
 which reason it haM been termed the Black Town 
 ( Vill« noire). 
 
 AN(ii:KVILLE. a village of France, dep. Seine 
 et OiKe, tVA m. S. Ver.sailles, and on the railway 
 from PariH to OrleanH, pop. 1,545 in 1801, 
 
 ANGHIAKA, a town of Italy, nrov. Arezzo, 
 near the Tilwr, 18 m. K. Arezzo. I'op. 6,88(1 in 
 18fi2. The town is (celebrated for the victory ob- 
 tained near it, in 14'tO, by the FlorentincH nnder 
 Piccinini over the forces of the Duke of Milan. 
 This also is the name of a village of the Veronese, 
 and of a decayed city on the banks uf the Logo 
 Maggiore. 
 
 AN(iLES, a town of France, dep. Tarn, cap. 
 cant. 16 m. ESE. Castres. Pop. 2,66a in 18()1. 
 This is the name of several small villages in other 
 parts of France. 
 
 ANGLESEY (the Mona of Tacitus), an island 
 and CO. of N. Wales in the Irish Sea, separated 
 from the mainland of Itritiiin by the Menai Strait, 
 but connected with the co. Carnarvon across the 
 , strait by the famous Menai bridge, and the Uri- 
 tannia tubular railway bridge. It is of a triangular 
 form, extending, Ilolyheacl included, about 27 m. 
 from E. to W. by about 20 from N. to S. ; orea, 
 173,440 acres; surfoce gently undulating ; climate, 
 temperate, but liable to fogs; there is in most 
 parts a great deficiency of wood, and it has gene- 
 rally a bare uninviting aspect. 
 
 Since 1768 Anglesey has been famed for its 
 mineral riches, the celebrated copper mines in the 
 Parys mountain having been discovered in the 
 course of that year; but they have now greatly 
 declined. (Sec Amlwch.) Lead ore and asbestos 
 have also teen found ; and coal is wrought to some 
 extent at Maltraeth. Soil various, but principally 
 a fine loamy sand, which, when properly cultivated, 
 is highly i)rotluctive. Agriculture is not, however, 
 in an advanced state. So late as 1810 it was no 
 uncommon thing to take five white crops in suc- 
 cession, most of which were so poor as hardly to 
 pav their expense; but an improved system is 
 bemg gradually introduced. The stiff loams, of 
 which the extent is considerable, are usually ma- 
 nured with a sort of shelly sund. Principal crops, 
 oats, barley, wheat, and potatoes, the latter being 
 grown more extensively than in any other part of 
 N. Wales. Grazing is the principal object of the 
 farmer's attention. Several thousand head of cat- 
 tle arc annually sent from the island to the main- 
 land, exclusive of consi<lerable numbers of sheep. 
 Manufactures unimjrartant, consisting merely of 
 some of the coarser descriptions of woollens. Chief 
 towns, Beaumaris, Holyhead, Amlwch, Llanerchy- 
 midd, and Llangefni. It is divided into 3 can- 
 treds, 6 comots, or hundreds, and 73 parishes. The 
 pop., which in 1776 amounted to 19,780, had in- 
 creasal in 1831 tt) 48,325, and in 1851 to 67,327, 
 but hod decreased in 1861 to 54,600, or a decrease 
 in the ten years of 2,718. It returns a m. to the 
 H. of C. for the co., and one for the boroughs of 
 Beaumaris and Holyhead, lieg. elect., 2,389 in 
 1865. 
 Anglesey seems to have been a principal seat 
 .of the Druids. The Romans, under Suetonius 
 Paulinus, havuig taken it after a fanatical resist- 
 ance, A.D. 61, cut down the groves of the Druids, 
 atevis supemtitionibus sacri, and seem to have ex- 
 terminated both the priests and their religion. 
 
 ANGOLA 
 
 (Tacit. Anna!., lib. 14, S 30.) It was mibiiiKatM 
 along with the rest of VVales, by Edwarcl I., m^J 
 was incoriM)rated with England and made acounir 
 by Henry VIII. The most important events in 
 its recent history are the tliscovery of the I'an, 
 mines, in 1768, building of the Menai liriilKc'ig 
 1825, and the constnuition of the Britannia tul«j. 
 lor bridge for the railway from Chester to Holv. 
 head, which was oficned Octolwr 21, 1850. 
 
 AN(JLET, a town of France, dep. Uasaes py. 
 nmne'cs, near Uayoime, famed for its exccUein 
 white wine. Pop. 2,663 in 1861. 
 
 ANGOLA, DOXtiO, or AMBONDE, a kin?. 
 dom of the W. coast of Africa, extending fn,,, 
 8° 20' to 90 15' S. lat., and from 14° to IH^ nr i;^ 
 E. long., but the eastern boundary is not dctiiu^ 
 On the N. it is se])aratcd from Congo liy tti,, 
 Danda ; on the S. the Coanza divides it fmm tii( 
 districts of (juassima and Libolo ; and on the W. 
 it has the Atlantic Ocean. It is rcctanpilji 
 shaped, lies nearly parallel to the equator, Ijcin' 
 about 350 m. in length from E. to W., 50 (ir Gil a 
 in width from N. to S. ; containing an area i( 
 probably not less than 18,000 or 20,000 sq. m. Tht 
 district of Benquela, to the south of Coan/a, lyini; 
 between lat. 10° and 17° S, and long. 12° and IP 
 E., is also claimed by the Portuguese, aiui iher | 
 have established in it the new colony of MoW- 
 medes, the population of which district and coldnv I 
 is usually included with the retiuns for Anj^nla, 
 (Ace. of Discov., 22, 143 ; Annales des Coloniw | 
 de Portugal.) 
 
 This country is properly a part of Congo, from I 
 which, however, it has been politically scpiimtd 
 since the middle of the sixteenth century, wiieni I 
 chief, whose name or title was Atujola, made hini!«ll I 
 independent of the King of Congo, and gave iu I 
 present designation to his new kingdom, the u- 1 
 tive name of which was Dongo, or Ambunde. It I 
 is very powerful among the neighbouring states, I 
 the paramount authority of its monarch beji«;[ 
 acknowledged by several districts, some of tbea | 
 greatly exceeding itself in extent. 
 
 Physical C/iaracter. — Angola is extremelr | 
 mountainous, with no plains, except upon tlie ti 
 shore, and some small plateaus on the sides ml 
 in the gorges of mountains. The land ap|ieai<,| 
 however, to be making advances on tiie sea, an>l 
 forming islands, which are wholly of an allmiil I 
 and level character; such is the isle of Loaiiila,! 
 lying a short mile from the coast, and formiDi;| 
 with the Cobo Palmareinho one of the most m- [ 
 venient harbours on the W. coast of Africa. Tl»| 
 cope itself is also a plain of the same nature, an<! I 
 very evidently in a state of progress weslffarlf 
 (Pigofetto, Del Regno di Congo, 10 ; Merolla,| 
 Viaggio del Congo, 70.) 
 
 The country is extremely we'' watered (aSjk-l 
 deed, is the whole of Congo) ; thu , ,. lacipal streaiiB | 
 ore the Coanza, Benga, and Danda, which i 
 nearly parallel to each other, and to theeqiiatur;! 
 the first and last forming the S. and N. Ixnimlarrj 
 of the country. The Coanza, however, before ran- 1 
 ning east and west, has a north-westerly cciitji I 
 among the mountains, east of the district of Bni-I 
 guela. Among the mountains inland from Aiigolii 
 and Benguela arc also the sources of the soutlieril 
 branches of the /aire or Congo river, whichflonj 
 into the Atlantic Ocean to the north of Angolil 
 and of the Leeambye and Chobe rivers, ivliicil 
 unite in the centre of Africa to form tiie greatj 
 Zambezi river. The interior mountainous comitit I 
 has been comparatively little explored, but ol'tel 
 years some progress has been made with the Jt-I 
 termination of the courses of the principal rivasl 
 by the travels of Dr. Livingstone, of .a PortuguMl 
 merchant, Silva Porto, and of Dr. VVeiivfeil 
 
ANGOLA 
 
 137 
 
 lioNDK, a kini;. 
 I, extending fnm 
 I 14° to IHOfliW 
 ary i8 not dclinpil 
 im ConRo !))• the I 
 iivides it from tk( 
 lo ; and on the \S. 
 It is rcctniiKuW 
 the equator, ijoin^ 
 . to W., SO "Hill in. 
 tainiiiK an ana i( 
 • 20,(100 Mi.m. Th(| 
 th of Coanza, Iviiic ' 
 Along. 12° audi 
 rtuguesc, and they I 
 iV colony of Mosjj- 1 
 t district and colrniy 
 returns for Antjdii 
 males dcs Cuiuam 
 
 ;)art of Congo, im 
 jolitically sepnratml I 
 ith century, when H 
 ingola, made him.<«ll I 
 JonRO, and gave iu [ 
 w kingdom, tlie m- I 
 ro, or Ambonde. It 
 leiglibouring states, I 
 I its monarch lieini; 
 ;rict8, some of then | 
 tent, 
 igola is extTemfly 
 ■xcept upon the inr I 
 us on the sides m\ I 
 The land api)w,| 
 nces on the sea, a 
 holly of an allu\Tal| 
 the isle of LoanJi,! 
 coast, and kmm,\ 
 ae of the most M-f 
 jast of Africa. TbI 
 lie same nature, a»! I 
 progress wcstwajill 
 ongo, 10; Merollj,| 
 
 (Tpl' watered (as, in- 1 
 he ,,.;ncipalstrean!| 
 Danda, M'hichrail 
 and to tlieequati*;! 
 S. and N. bounJiiirl 
 lOwever, before tin- 1 
 jrth-westcrly cia«| 
 the district of Bn-I 
 inland from Angoli I 
 /ces of the southern I 
 .•o river, which Hon I 
 he north of Angolil 
 Ihobe rivers, wm| 
 to form the gteisl 
 loimtainous comitiyl 
 ■xplored, butoftel 
 1 made with the ilf I 
 the principal riv«l 
 )ne, of a rnriufjue*! 
 of Dr. VVehvi»| 
 
 iinilor the au«plcpn of the Portugnosc Rovommont. 
 Those travellers have also adde<l to the information 
 ^,. i)()S(io!« of the trilKiH inhabiting tiio interior, the 
 nriHliii'tiiins, and geological chuructcristics of the 
 
 '" Soil, Climate, — The worst soil in Angola is that 
 upon the coast, and the moro recently formed 
 island", which is sandy, hut by no means desert r 
 f„f at any time, by digging to the depth of a foot, 
 or less, an abundant supply of good water may lie 
 uroctired. It is, however, a remarkable fact, that 
 it the e^h tide these temporary wells an? always 
 found nther brackish, while at the Hood their con- 
 tents 'je perfectly sweet. (I'igafetta, 10; Lebat, 
 i, 09.) The mountain sides, and the valleys of the 
 rivers, present all the richness of soil common in 
 e(Hi..torial countries which are well irrigated, 
 thou);h the useful productions of the land are said 
 to l)echicHy owing to the agricultural labours of 
 the Portuguese. The climate is excepted by Adams 
 (Remarks, 200) from the general charge of malig- 
 nity towards Europeans under which the rest of 
 tropical Africa labours. Situated so near the equa- 
 tor, Angola might be expected to have two dry and 
 two rainy seasons in each year ; but this does not 
 appear to bo the case; and, indeed, the accoimts 
 of travellers on this point are sufHcientIv contlict- 
 ing. I'igafetta says (p. 7) that the ramy season 
 is from April till August; Lebat (p. 107), that it 
 oecupics November, December, and sometimes 
 January. Bnrbot (.'>22) leaves it uncertain, but 
 makes the drj* season extend from May to Sep- 
 tember; though ho remarks that this period is 
 not without an intermixture of pleasant showers, 
 Dejnrandpre (Voyage b, la Cote d'Afnque, i. 4) says 
 that rain teldom falls, and never abundantly. The 
 game author remarks, that the abundant dews arc 
 fully sufficient for the devchipment of vegetation, 
 anil in this he is br>nie out by all the other nu- 
 tlioritics. The trade vfiM blows steadily from S\V. 
 til S., the sea breezes commonly from VVSW., and 
 the land wnd from E. by N. Angola is, however, 
 sufficiently remote from the internal deserts to 
 pievent the ill effects that might be otherwise 
 feared from this breeze. Tornadoes are not unfre- 
 qiient; and at such times the wind shifts violently 
 to all pouits of the compass, settling, finally, uito 
 the direction of the trade. Gold and silver have 
 been discovered in the mountains near the coast ; 
 but no gold dust is found, though it appears to 
 have existed formerly. Iron is produced plenti- 
 fully through the energy of the Portuguese ; and 
 copper is said to exist in the interior. Lead, sul- 
 phur, and pitroleum are among the mineral trea- 
 sures; but there is no mention of precious stones. 
 The natives are reasonably good miners, under 
 European direction ; and it is asserted that the 
 subterraneous exhalations produce as sensible a 
 dilferciice in their colour, as the same cause is 
 known, in many cases, tu effect in that of Euro- 
 
 Vegetation has the magnificence observable in 
 lall wdl-watercd tropical regions. A species of the 
 iFicus, called by the natives Eiisada, and posscss- 
 ling the property of dropping its branches to the 
 Iptiund, where they take root, and germinate like 
 la new plant, is very abundant. Some of these 
 Itrees, resembling small thickets more than indi- 
 vidual plants, extend to more than 1,000 paces in 
 Tcireumference. The ensada is an extremely use- 
 Bid plant : the fruit, which resembles an ordinary 
 m;, 18 an important article of food ; its outer bark 
 psiits in the construction of huts and boats, and 
 M inner coating, being washed and beaten, is 
 fnaniifacttired into cloth. The date, and every 
 per species of palm, the citron, orange, lemon, 
 iiia,guava, banana, cocoa, tamarind, mangrove, 
 
 and every fruit and forest fnMi common tn tho 
 equinoxial n'gions, grow here spontaneously, and 
 reward the least exiwiise of labour with the most 
 abundant n>turn. The same remark holds good 
 with regard to yams, potatoes, and the whole riu-o 
 of rtM)ts; and though the climate be too hot for 
 the priMluction of Euro|H>an grain, yet four HtHM-ics 
 of wheat, Turkish, Sarosin, Massingo, and l<uiiii, 
 are raised in great abundance. I'lilses of all kinds 
 are likewise plentiful ; and the sugar-cane, |iep|M\r- 
 vine, and a plant called mandioca, of wbiidi a very 
 good bread is made, absolutidy struggle with man 
 for the possession of the soil. Many trees prodiico 
 tine gums or resins; and, in a word, tliere is 
 scarcely a vegetable proihu^tion which Angola <loes 
 not, or under reasimalilo care might not Iw made 
 to prmluce. The wo'mIs and mountains shelter 
 lions, tigers, leopards, liyu'iias, and wolves ; of 
 smaller wild animals, there are foxes, wild cats. 
 Sec. Of the useful animals, there arc hares, rab- 
 bits, all the species of antelopes, slags, goats, and 
 bogs of the (.Chinese variety. The sheep, cow, 
 horse, and ass are strangers to the countrj', and 
 known only as importations from Europe; but the 
 zebra, elephant, and rhinoceros traverse the woods, 
 and the bip|Ni|Mitamus is found in the rivers. Thu 
 civet cat is also a native of this country, which 
 likewise almunds in monkevs of all kinds, among 
 which is the chimpanzee, the most intcllijr nt of 
 the trilic. A species of wild dog is said U» bo 
 found in the woods. 
 
 To enumerate the birds of this part of Africa, 
 would be to give a list of almost interminablo 
 length ; all that arc found in other tropical re- 
 gions, and some that are p«iculiar, flourish here. 
 The tlsber and the sergo, w honey bird, are among 
 the lattttr, and with whidc hosts of pelicans, ami 
 nearly every variety of parrot, constitute the chief 
 characteristics of Angolian ornithology. Reptiles 
 numerous, consisting of centipedes, scorpions, and 
 exceedingly venomous serpents. Some of the 
 lizard tribe, as the camelcon, are less danger- 
 ous than these ; but the rivers swarm with two 
 or three s|)ecies of croc(Kliles, which make fishing 
 dangerous, and bathing all but fatal. Lifi; is an 
 ainindant in the wuf ers as on the land ; and be- 
 sides the usual tenants of the deep, as whales, 
 sharks, dolidiins, macknrel, oysters, crabs, &c., tho 
 coasts and rivers possess an endless list of err' - 
 tures, the very names of which are unknown in 
 Euroiie. Insects are as numerous, Ixiautitul, and 
 destructive as in other tropical climates; and 
 among tho last-named class, the termites or white 
 .•\nt stands pre-eminent. 
 
 Dr. Frederic VVelwilsob, director of the Botanic 
 Gardens of Lisbon, has been engaged for many 
 j-ears in the scientific exjiloration of the province!, 
 of which be has given an account in the ' Annalcs 
 des Colonies de Portugal.' His travels on the coast 
 extended from Quizembo to the north of Ambriz, 
 in the north, as far south as the mouth of the 
 Coanza, and he afterwards gradually penetrated 
 to the interior of the continent, among countries 
 previously imknown. He ascended the course of 
 the Pcnga, as far as Saiige, the chief place of a 
 district called Golongo-Alto, where bcest ablisbed 
 his head-quarters, from which to make diverging 
 excursicms among the surrounding precipitous 
 mountains and virgin forests. Travelling east- 
 ward, M. Wclwilsch, after leaving the dictrict of 
 Ambaca, reached Pungo-Andougo, which he se- 
 lected as a second centre for liLs operations in the 
 interior, and hence he exphired the banks of the 
 great river Coanza, the mountains of Pedras and 
 Guiga, and the islands of Calemba; the vast 
 forests lying between Quironda and Condo, the 
 salt marshes of Quitagc, the river Luxillo, and 
 
 i,/' M 
 
 m 
 
 
 . . -^M 
 
 ■'ilJNri/iir 
 
 '"m, 
 
 /t>:, . 
 
138 
 
 ANOOLA 
 
 ( fr< •( 
 
 i.^ ,:; 
 
 1 
 
 t. , 
 
 l;>:'if» 
 
 % 
 
 'i 
 
 "i'l 
 
 m 
 
 ti.i 
 
 the (liMtrirt of <'nmlmnilH>. During thin Icmj; 
 jiiiiriicy, M. Wi'lwilNch colli-rtril H,227 vr)j;ol«l)lc 
 anfcii-M, iM'lon^inK to Itlii fntnilitM, lie rct'OKiUNCN 
 ttirpt' lM)lnnictil rc^iotm in Angola. I. The n>n'um 
 orihn coottt iirwliioli the llioniy pInniN, the nca- 
 ciiiN, and the Imolmlm fonn tlic principnl vr};(>ln- 
 tion, 2. the inoiintain rrKioXi I'hietly cliarnctrriMol 
 by itn maJcNtio forcxtN, itx on^hiilN, an<l a |Milin am 
 iiMffiil AH hpaiitiful {the eluii fiuineen»i»), and tho 
 region of tlic phitpnun diNtinKiiixhi'd hy an iin- 
 mcnxe variety of vegetation, the elegance of the 
 H|)eeieH, and e.speeially by a multitude of aromatic 
 and bullMiUH iihtntH, and tho luxuriant verdure of 
 the vaat proirieH. The overoKo annual tempera- 
 ture of Angola he found to Im; ii'29 F, and that of 
 the region of the plateaus 7<t<'. 
 
 Population, Cuttomt, ^c. — Tho population w 
 denxe for a barbanuiH country, the monarch l)eing 
 called Ineue, from tho great number of Hubjectj* 
 under bin command. It is not, however, easy to 
 oitxign tho amount, but it mav ))erhapH lie taken 
 at between 2,0()(),0()() and a,()m),()n(). The capital 
 city, St. I'aul, or I.oaixla, contaimt H,0(H). The 
 nativcH have few of the negro peculiarities in form 
 or feature : they arc of onhnary stature, well 
 limlM>d, and, but for their cfdour, very like the 
 Portuguese, by whom they are surroundeil. Illuc 
 eyes and red hair arc not uncommon among them. 
 Society is divided into fourclosBcs, two free and two 
 slaves; the tlrst two consisting of nobles and hus- 
 bandmen or artificers; the others of slaves, native 
 lH)m, and those acquired by war or foreign \mt- 
 chase. Marriage is an extremely simple cere- 
 mony, a mere agreement between the hus()and and 
 the /ather of the woman. The appearance of the 
 first tooth in children is an important epoch ; the 
 infant being then carried from house to house, and 
 gifts extorted from friends and strangers. For the 
 rest, they do not differ much from other ncf^roes. 
 Dancing is a favourite diversion, and a religious 
 rite; and, like other African jHiople, their cere- 
 monies are defiled with bUxxl and cnielty. Money 
 is of several kinds : marked cloths, the shell of a 
 small fish called simbo, a red wood brought from 
 Malemba, and iron, which last was introduced by 
 the Portuguese. The country is parcelled out 
 into an immense number of little lordships, each 
 imdcr a magistrate called a sova. It would ap- 
 pear that the king is able to control the petty 
 despotism of these governors; for they have 
 neither wealth nor any other distinction, except 
 the personal respect paid to them, which is, how- 
 ever, very jirofound, to distinguish them from 
 any other freemen. The religion f the bulk of 
 the people is Feticism, differing in nothing from 
 that «in the coast of Guinea (see Ashantkk) ; but 
 there are many Christian families among the na- 
 tives, and at one time the Jesuits had converted 
 nearly the whole population, and established a 
 regular form of church government. But the 
 eflect of their labours has now nearly vanished, 
 and the negroes have relapsed into the idolatrous 
 rites of their ancestors. The language is less bar- 
 barous and more uniform on this coast than in 
 most other parts of Africa ; the whole of Congo, 
 that is, the country between the Coanza and the 
 Zaire, speak a dialect of the same tong-ie, which is 
 extremely musical and flexible ; not particularly 
 sonorous, but very agreeable ; with a perfect syn- 
 tax, and bearing in some points a resemblance to 
 the Latin. 
 
 Trade. — The Portuguese established a factory 
 on this coast in 1 485, and their power has been 
 constantly extending to the present time. Two 
 of their establishments are 700 m. inland ; but it 
 is not to be supposed that they possess a sove- 
 reignty over the whole country to this extent. 
 
 ANOOSTITRA 
 
 Their p«wts, rolled fairs, nrfairria, are litilr nrnn. 
 than enlre|M')tM for trade ; though the ri'hi<lH,ii 
 exercise a |M)litical [M)Wor in their ininiiiliM,. 
 neighlMiurhood. These eHlabliNhmentH have, it i, 
 said, excited a spirit of manufacture and cuni. 
 merco among the negroes; but we doubt miKli 
 whether this has lieen tho rose in any considoralili. 
 degree; and whatever lienellcial iiiHuence iluv 
 might otherwise have had, has t>een couni('r\'ail(i| 
 and nullified by the sup|Nirt given by tliv l'„j. 
 tugucwe authorities to the slave tradi-. In fmi, 
 Angola was for a lengthened series of vi-nrs, the 
 great mart whence slaves were obtained for Itrazil; 
 but the slave trade to that coinitry has nowal!ni>.t 
 entirely ceased. The Portuguese gov. of Aiipili 
 is undo. stood to embrace the kingdoms of Aiipilg, 
 IJenguela, and other Presidenirios. Area with 
 Ambri/, Henguela and Mossamedes alMiut 'JD.lllii 
 sq. m. Pop. estimated at 2,0(MI,0(M»; but llin |'i,r 
 tugueso colony in IH5H was reckoned to luimUr 
 only 0.')!),l!M}. Attention of late has Ik'oii direcidl 
 to the cultivation of cotton. A Koyal Portii^'ui-y 
 decree of December 4, IHOI, provided for the 
 granting of waste lands in Angola and Mnzam- 
 biquc, for the cultivation of cotton at a niuninal 
 rent, and on other advantageous condition!!, aii<| 
 at the same time a Mr. John lieaton obtaiiitdihe 
 concession of -lOOiOOit acres. He had engofjid lu 
 form a cotton-growing company, but the com- 
 l)any not being formed witlun the contract timr, 
 the con(!ession became void. A similar allninKm 
 of land to alMMit the same extent was mailctni 
 French gentleman, M. de liellegarde, lK>i*ii|M 
 smaller grants to Portuguese speculators for »imila: 
 purposes. The actual exports of cotton have as yet, 
 however, been inconsiderable. (See Poitxt/oAi-i 
 
 ANGOHA, or EXGOUUI, the ancient Anc^n. 
 a city almost in the centre of N'atolia, near the SL 
 source of the Sakariah, or Sangarins, lat. 10° ii 
 N., long. 330 18' K. After undergoing varioiw 
 revolutiims, it fell under the dominion of the 
 Itomans ; and being embellished and otlicmsf 
 favoured by Augustus, the inhabitanti erected in 
 his honour the celebrated Monumentum Anq- 
 ranum, a temple of white marble, on the walli if I 
 which an account of the principal events in the 
 life of Augustus was inscribed. The ruins i>( \\m \ 
 edifice still remain. Notwithstanding the (lt'mL<e 
 of its powerful patron, Ancyra continued to flimrish, | 
 It was here that St. Paul preached to the (.iali- 
 tians; and when the Christian n'ligiiin sprtad : 
 itself all over the world, it was advanced tn the 
 dignity of an apostolic see. It came into the p"?- 
 session of the I'urks in 1359. The great Iwitif 
 between the Turkish sultan, tiajaxet, or ISaynzi'l 
 and the famous Tartar conqueror Tamerlane, "t 
 Timur Ilec, which ended in thi total defeat anJ 
 capture of the former, was fought in the viciniiy 
 of Ancyra in 1401. It continues to be one tif iht 
 principal cities of Natolit , and is celebrated k 
 manufactures of stiifli 'nade of the silk-like khJ 
 of the goat of Angora, a variety pecii'iar to the 
 country round the town. The population has Iwn 
 variously estimated at from 35,000 to mfiW. t)«i 
 according to the latest accounts it is consideraUv | 
 less, the numbers being 10,000 Mohammedm 
 6,000 Armenians and Greeks, and 200 Jews. 
 
 ANGOSTURA, a city of S. America, rep. of I 
 Venezuela, on the S. bank of the Orinociu 
 about 240 m. above its embouchure, and aboai I 
 190 ft. above the level of the sea, lat. «° 8' I'H 
 N., long. 63° 65' 20" \V. It was founded in 1». [ 
 Owing to its situation in a fertile countrj-, on 1 1 
 great navigable river, and its command of a \w I 
 extensive inland navigation, Angostura is favour- 1 
 ably situated for commerce, which it carried on i« [ 
 a very considerable extent previous to the revoln- 1 
 
ri, nro lirtlo mxn 
 i;h lh«' roiilciiti 
 
 thi'ir imniciliai' 
 imtuitH tmvi', it I, 
 I'licturp iiiul mm. 
 
 wt! (Ii till It miicli 
 \ any coimidcralil 
 111 iiitliK^tico thc'v 
 locii c(iiiiilcr\ailh| 
 ivt-n by the I'l.r 
 c truiU'. Ill foci, 
 }t'wh of yi'iirs, ilie 
 ^lainril tnr llriuil; 
 ry has imw almihi 
 HO f{()v. of An){(iU 
 
 ll^doinit ofAllKnlg, 
 
 iicioH. Area with 
 i>(l(>H alioiit '.'O.'t.llii 
 ,0111); but llipl'iir 
 :knnv(l to mimlii'i 
 3 ha» been ilirecinl 
 , Uoyal I'ortiiKuw 
 providtMl fur the 
 ip)la anil Mozani- 
 iitton at a lumiiiial 
 )UH L'oiiilitiims, ainl 
 Icaton <il)taiiii'il the 
 Ic bad pii);bki'(I in 
 ,ny, but the em\- 
 the foiitract timr, 
 \ Himilar allutmm 
 tent was nindctot 
 HoUonarde, lioniilci 
 cculators for wmila: 
 ifcottonhaveasyei, 
 (See r<ntTiioAU' 
 be ancient Ancm. 
 utolin, near the NL 
 mgarius, lat. liP5 
 undcrnoinj; variow 
 le dominion of the 
 4hcd and otherwise 
 iabit«nt» crccteii in 
 lonumentum Ancj- 
 blc, on the walLi of 
 icinal events in the 
 . The ruins "f ihL* 
 itanding the demise 
 iontinucd to timirL<li, 
 ■ached to thctiak- 
 ian reli>,'i"ii spn'aJ 
 i» advanced tu the 
 t came into the piJ- 
 Tbc liTvat Iwtile 
 Bajazct, or IJayazil 
 leror Tamerlane, "t 
 h". total defeat w\ 
 igtit in the viciiiiiy 
 ues to he one i)f lli« 
 id is celebriitcd foi 
 jf the silk-like vd 
 iety peculiar to the 
 population ha*! li«» 
 ■,,00Oto80,0Ull:hui 
 
 its it is considerably | 
 000 Mohammedans, 
 and '200 Jews. 
 S. America, rep. «l 
 ik of the Oriiioo'. 
 louchure, and about 
 16 Bea,lat.«0 8'W 
 was founded in I'M 
 fertile country, on i 
 command of a very 
 Angostura is favour- 1 
 hich it carried on i« 
 ivious to the rev* 
 
 ANOOULKME 
 
 linnaiA- KtmUKloo. These, however, hnvo dl- 
 miiiii'lit'tl its <ommer<M«, wealth, and nopulntion. 
 The Inst, which in IH07 was estimated at alKint 
 H.VNi, was for a time eonsid<'ral)ly less, but is again 
 'pilm'lilv alsmt that nninlier. It lias a largo ball, 
 where meetings of Congress have iM'en held, with 
 ,„h<H<|>ilfll n"'' aeidlege; and is defemled by a 
 f„rtiinthe opposite bank of the river. Though 
 liiw, and subject to inundation, the climate is tem- 
 l»TiitP, and liot unhealthy, 
 
 AN'OOl'L^-MK (an, /<M/Mmrt),a city of France, 
 (Ifii. Chnrente, of wbh-h it is the capital, on a 
 plateau elevated 2'-'l ft, above the river (^lia- 
 rente, on the railway from Paris to llordeaux, 
 m ni. NK, Ilordeau'x. Pop, 'il.Otil in IHtil. 
 The old town, which (M-cii|des the summit of 
 the plateau, has narrow, crtM)ke<l streets, and is 
 Iriile et laifir. In its centre sti.'uls the old castle 
 in ruins. The walls, with wbicl: the city was 
 liimierly surnuinded, have been m.-stly demo- 
 lished, and the ramparts <'onverted into public 
 waiks. The new town, built on a declivity to the 
 S, of the (dd town, has broad straight streets, 
 fm\ houses, and is rapidly increasing, 'I'her* are 
 alw several suburbs, of which llouiiieau is the 
 must important. Its port is the entreiMtt of the 
 mmmcrce of Angouleme: cathedral ancient, but 
 neither large nor In^autiful ; and, with the ex- 
 reption of the tine bridge over the ('barente, and 
 an olielisk erected in biuiour of the pn>seiit l)u- 
 ehcHse d'Angoulemc, the other public buihlings 
 deserve no particular notice. The Plnce tTArtoin 
 i.« a tine promenade, and, from its elevated posi- 
 tinn, commands a view of the valley of the Aii- 
 puienne and the surrounding ccmiitry. Angouleme 
 Ik the seat of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal 
 of uriKiiial jurisdiction ; and has an im))crial ly- 
 ceiim; a society, of agriculture, arts, and com- 
 merce, which ])ublislieH memoirs once a month ; a 
 large public librarj', a cabinet of natural history ; 
 gseliiH)l of midwifery' ; a foundling hospital, and 
 various other hos]iitals; a theatre, &c. It has 
 also under the Kcstoraticm a royal marine school, 
 the ImildingH of which were <m a large scale : this 
 institution was, however, transferred in 1S;J7 to 
 Brest, Angouleme is celebrated for the extensive 
 pa|ier manufactures in its vicinity: it has also 
 iahrica of serges and coarse stiitt's, and earthen- 
 ware; with extensive distilleries, which produce 
 excellent brandy ; tanneries, a cannon foundry, a 
 manufacture of arms, a sugar refinery. The pdtci 
 de perdrix aux truffes d'Aiigouleme are sent to all 
 parts of Europe, 
 
 Angouleme is very ancient, being noticed by 
 Aiisonius, who flourished in the tliird century. 
 Balzac was a native of the town and so also was 
 the detestable regicide, Kavaillac, the assassin of 
 Henry IV. In the vicinity are the ruins of the 
 famous abbey de la Couronne, founded in 1122, 
 long the ornament of the Angoumois. This ve- 
 nerable and niagniticent structure, after escaping 
 therevolutionarj' phrenzy, was demolished in 1808. 
 The fountain of Trouve, a few miles from Angou- 
 leme, is, next to that of Vaiicluse, the most cele- 
 brated in France. 
 
 ASGOUMOIS, the name of a district in France 
 prenously to the revolution, nearly but not exactly 
 coincidiij. with the dep. Charente, It formed, in 
 eonnexioii with the district of Saintonge, one of 
 jthe pmmces into which France was formerly 
 divided, 
 
 ANGRA, a town and sea-port of the island of 
 Tcrceira, one of the Azores, being the cap. of the 
 [archipelago, and the residence of the governor, at 
 the hottom of a deep bay or creek, lat. .S80 .IS' 33" 
 [X.. long, 270 12' 33" VV. Pop. variously estimated 
 [»t from 10,000 to 15,000. It is beautifu'lly situated 
 
 ANIIALT 130 
 
 on A hill, rising gradunlly from the son. The 
 streets are broad and regular, and the bouses, 
 generally of three stories, lliougli gh>omy, are well 
 built. It is well supplied with water, but the 
 streets, as well as the inhabitants, am iiolwiih- 
 slandlng excessively liltliy. There are a great 
 nimilier of cbiinhes, and it formerly also bad 
 various monasierii's and convents; but the latter 
 have iM'eii dissolved, and the buildings appli<-d to 
 other uses. As a jiort, Angra has notliing to Umst 
 of: it is open to all winds from the SS\V, by the 
 S, to the K, The swell from the SNV. in particular 
 which sets round Mount llrazil, on the \V, side 
 of the bay, is tremetiihnis. In the bad weather 
 months, large vessels anchor in the mouth of the 
 bay, abreast of St, Antonio, in 2H and .'1(1 fathoms, 
 to be ready instantly to put to sea in the event of 
 storms setting in, the coast all'ording no sludter. 
 The town is (lefended^on the \V, bv the citadel at 
 the foot of Mount lira/il, and on tiie opposite side 
 of the bay by the fort tt( ISt. Sebastian, the <Ui»- 
 taiice lietween them being almut J m, 
 
 Anoka, a »en-jM>rt town of llrazil, prov, Kio 
 .laneiro, liears SVV. distant 78 m. from tlm city of 
 that name. Its |Kirt admits large ships; it is for- 
 tified bv two reihxibts, and has som<' <'oinmerce. 
 
 ANtiUlLLA, or SNAKK ISLAND, so called 
 from its torttioiis figure, an island Udonging to tlut 
 Itritish in the VV. Indies, Indiig the most northerly 
 of the ('ariblMie Islands, and separated by a narrow 
 channel from .St. Martin's; lat. IH° «"' N., long. 
 (!3° 12' K. Area alniut iUi sq. m. It is Hi m, in 
 length, by alwut 3 to 1} m. in breadth. Pop. 
 ttlsiut 2,.")00, of whom nearly 2,400 are coloured or 
 black. Surface flat; sidl chalky, and not very 
 prmhictive ; and there is a deliciency liotli of wood 
 and water; climate healthy. Hy far the largest, 
 portiiui is uncultivated. It produces some sugar, 
 with maize and provisions of vari(uis kinds. 
 Cottim is exciting attention and alMuit tiO acres 
 arc under cultivation. A salt lake in the miihllu 
 of the island furnishes a considerable supply of 
 salt, and the revenue is chiefly derived from a 
 duty of ,5 c, per barrel on salt. The island has no 
 giMxl harliour. The town, an inconsiderable plac'e, 
 stands near the SE. extremity of the island. The 
 islantl is part of the government of St, Kitt's, and 
 sends one member to the assembly. For local 
 purposes it is governed by a stipendiary magis- 
 trate paid from the Imperial Treasury, assisteil by 
 a vestry of which be is (;hairmaii. The n^veniio 
 in I8(!l' was 4141. and exp<!nditurc 210/, Besides 
 the local courts for administering justice there arc 
 also supposed to be Courts of (Queen's IJencb and 
 Commons Pleas, and Chancery in the island ! 
 The colonists elect their chief magistrate, subject 
 to the approval of the governor of Antigua. 
 
 Anouiixa, one of the lialmma Islands, about 
 20 m. Ion. and 5 broad ; lat. 23'^ 36' N., long. 
 79° 20' W. 
 
 ANGUILLARA, a town of North Italy, on the 
 Adige, 23 m. S. Padua. Pop. 3,500 in 18(;2. This 
 is also the name of a town of nearly ctpuil size on 
 the H. side of the lake Braccioiio, 16 m. NNW. 
 Home. 
 
 ANGUS. See Forfar. 
 
 ANH ALT, a principality of Germany almost sur- 
 rounded by the Prussian dominions, having Briin- 
 denburg on the N., Prussian Saxony on the E. and 
 S,, the county of Mansfeldt on the SW,, and 
 Brunswick and the Prussian circ. of Magdeburg 
 on the NW. Its greatest length is CO m., and its 
 breadth varies from 12 to 16 m. Principal river the 
 Elbe, by which it is intersected. Area 8(i9 sq, m. 
 Pop. 181,824 in 1861. It is mostly flat, and is 
 very fertile and weU cultivated. It was formerh' 
 divided into the three duchies of Auhalt-Bernburg ; 
 
 
 
 
110 
 
 ANHOLT 
 
 f . ,: 
 
 : « 
 
 :|t 
 
 !l 
 
 ■i»M; 
 
 m] 
 
 
 "h:i 
 
 h'' 
 
 ^'[■i[ 
 
 AnlmU-rrnthnn, and Aiihiilt-DmNaii, Imt tlir lino 
 of Aiihnlt-Ca'llicii U'ciiniiH extinct in iHi' nn<l (if 
 AnIinll-llcniliiirK on An((. ID, IHIIH, IcnvinK thn 
 family of Anhnll-l)pNi*nu in wili* pomoitNion. The 
 conwMit of thn NtaloH in nivi'K^inry to tha im|HiNi- 
 tion of any new tax, Imt liy a foiiMtiliilion 
 liroclaimcd in lH/>0, the rcprcm'ntation of the 
 peoplo In meri'ly noniinnl. Inhali, nioMtly I'ro- 
 tuHtanta anil very iniluNtriouN. Tlin cntin^ princl- 
 pality fiirnifthuM 2,(K»4 nion to tliu army of tlm 
 confiMlfration. Principal townfi, l)uHMau, /orbnt, 
 CiN'then, anil II«>rnliiirK, 
 
 ANHOLT, a xniall DaniMli iMianil in the Cnttc- 
 gat, nearly halfway lietween I^eNNoe anil /calami, 
 A liKhtliouNC, liavinff tlin lantern elcvatcil 1 12 feet 
 al)ov« the level of thn wea, han lieen crecteii on itH 
 moHt eantcrly promontor>', in lat. 6(5" •14' 20" H., 
 long. l|0iW'^6l" K. 
 
 ANI, former capital of Armenia, now in ruinf). 
 It waH vi:<iteil liv an KngliHli traveller, Mr. Jolni 
 llHHhcr, in 1^04, and in tliuH graphically ite- 
 wribed ; — ' Making a IfHK circuit, we enten d the 
 duM'rtcd city by the centre aato, there iH'inu three 
 pvat entrances in the double walls which were 
 built of largo blocks of hewn Htone. Over the 
 outer gate wan an Armenian inscription, over the 
 inner a leopard was sculptured in lM)ld relief; 
 while near it, on the towers, were carved crosw's, 
 ornamentcil with decorations and tracery of a 
 very delicate nature. We found the ground in 
 i. interior coveretl with fragments of sculptured 
 stones, broken columns, capitals, and carvings. 
 Clambering over the masses of ruins we entered a 
 few of the churches, three or four of which seemed, 
 with the exception that their doors had been 
 carried away, quite as perfect as when just out of 
 the hands of the builder. One of them in particu- 
 lar, which stood just above the bridge that spanned 
 the abyss below, was in complete preservation, the 
 fresco paintings on the interior of the dome re- 
 taining their bright colour and hues uninjured by 
 time, the subjects being Christ riding into Jeru- 
 salem, the Virgin at the sepulchre, d'c. These 
 churches stand solitary among the niins, in which, 
 save a few pigeons, no living creatures seemed to 
 exist. In the centre of the city were two lofty 
 octagon towers, on which were small turrets ; and 
 not far from them was an isolated steep rock, near 
 the edge of the precipice. Tliis was also covered 
 with scattered fragments of what had onco been 
 buildings — the citadel of the fortress city. The 
 walls of the palace yet remain, and are of great 
 extent and solidity. The masonry is perfect, the 
 huge stones are squared and put together with the 
 greatest care, and the whole is covered with the 
 most elaborate candngs, decorations, and mosaics, 
 all of exceedingly delicate workmanship. There 
 were also two mosques ; one built on the edge of 
 the precipice, the interior of the dome of which 
 was covered with perfectly preserved arabesques, 
 resembling in character and finish of design those 
 of the Alhambra.' (Ussher, John, F.K.G.S., from 
 London to Persepolis. 18(55.) 
 
 ANIANE, a town of France, dep. Herault, cap. 
 cant., 16 m. W. by N. Montpellier. Pop. 3,557 in 
 1861. 
 
 ANJAR, a town of Hindostan, prov. Cutch, cap. 
 district of same name, ceded in 1816 to the Itritisli, 
 near the NE. shore of the Gulf, lat. 23° 3' N., 
 long. 70* 11' E. It is fortified, but not strongly. 
 In 1819 neorly holf the town was destroj'ed by an 
 earthquake, in which 165 persons lost their lives. 
 The pop. is estimated at 10,000. 
 
 ANJENGO, a sea-port town of S. Hindostan, 
 
 Jirov. Travancore, 18 m. NNW. Cape Comorin, 
 at. 80 37' N., long. 76° 53' N. The E. I. Com- 
 pany had a factory here from 1684 to 1813, when 
 
 ANNAN 
 
 It was alMilUhed. Itin lM>Ht coir rablen nn th, 
 Malabar coast ant made here and at CiH'Inn; anj 
 IM'p|ier, coarMi plece-giKMis, and drugn an- ixiKirtfi^ 
 
 AN.MXI.an ancient prov. and gov. of Frm,," 
 now diNtriliiiled among the depti*. of Mnlnp ,t 
 Loire, l^oirn lnfe'rleun>, Venilt'e, Inilre et |,i,|n 
 Harthe, lllu lit Vilaine, Maycniie, anil Ij^j 
 Hitvres. 
 
 ANKLAM, a town of Pniwla, nrov. Piiin(>r(ni4 
 rap. circ, on the navigable Uiver Peene, alNuu Tml 
 from where it falls into the strait MepiiratiiiK ih' 
 Ixle of I'xedom from the cimlincnt. Pii|i. !),;iiii|j„ 
 IHlll, It was founded in 1 188 ; has a I'lillc^oaiul 
 three hospitals, with maiiiifactures of clntli g„,| 
 linen, and carries on a coiiMiderable trade in aiiJK. 
 building and shipiiing. 
 
 ANK(>l,'>rANbKn(),atownofltiikhnra.;,^ni 
 W. Italkli. lat. 36° 48' N., long. 6<io |;. M«v»„.' 
 dortf says that it has nearly 4,000 hoiiNi"), wiilrh 
 would infer a pop. of at least from 25,0011 tu.'lii.iHid, 
 consisting nrincipnUy "f Arabs. A Ntnnll river 
 flows past tm town ; but as it dries in miinini'r, 
 the inhab. are obliged to sunplv tlu^mNelvcH witil 
 watur from wells. (Voyage a Ikiukhara, p. 14,1 1 
 
 ANNAHKUG (ST.), a town of Saxony, ciffl, 
 Erzgebirge, 8 m. SVV. Alaricnburg. Pop. ll.Tlnii, 
 1861. It is well built, has three chiirclii-A, twu I 
 hiMpitals, and a gymnasium, with nuiiiuriictuni 
 of lace and ribands In its vicinity arc ininos <i 
 iron, tin, cobalt, and silver. 
 
 ANNA 11, a town of Asiatic Turkey, cap. S«r- 
 jiack, on the Euphrates, 160 m. NW.'itagilnil 
 34° 10' N., long. 41° 47' E. It is finely HituaM I 
 on the route of the caravans that cross the dewn 
 of Mesopotamia. Il was surprised in 18(17 hy tht { 
 Wahabites, who, after committing all sorti* nf ex- 
 cesses, set it on fire. The |)op. docs ]iriilialily noi I 
 exceed from 8,000 to 4,000. The eaviriinn are | 
 very fertile. 
 
 ANNAMABOE, one of the four fortiiicil pnub I 
 occupied by liritain on the Gold Coast of Afrita, 
 formerly prov. Fanti, empire of the Asluiiitw>, 
 lat. 6° 5' N., long. 1° 16' E. It was burnt l.y the 
 Ashantees in 1808. Pop. probably from 3,000 to 
 4,000. 
 
 ANNAMOOKO, one of the Friendly Isla 
 (which see). 
 
 ANNAN, a borough, sea-port, m. town, Ami p. I 
 of Scotland, co. Dumfries. The town is situatal 
 on the E. side of the river Annan, wliicli if here 
 crossed by a fine bridge of three arches, erected in I 
 1824, about IJ m. above its conflucncu with tb( 
 Solway Frith, 67 m. S. EiUnburgli. Pop. d 
 borough, 3,473 in 1861 ; inhabited houiie*, ii;B; | 
 annual value of real property 8,113/. in IM(i4, ev 
 elusive of railway ; corporation revenue fjHM/. in | 
 1863-4. It is clean, well built, neat, anil tiirirat,'; 
 has a handsome new church and spire ; a is'oui I 
 natural harbour, which has been much impruveil I 
 by an embankment constructed at the expend 4 1 
 Mr. Irving of Newton ; and an academy wliioh u [ 
 well attended. There is also a cotton maniifncton', I 
 and ship-building is carried on to a ciinsiileratik I 
 extent ; but the principal trade of the town ciin>i$u 
 in the curing of bacon and hams for tiie Xewiwli 
 and London markets, and in the shipping; of m, I 
 fat cattle, and sheep, by steam, for J,,iverpool [ 
 Annan unites with Dumfries, KirckciulbriRht, 
 Lochmabcn, and Sanquhar, in returning a mcmlic; I 
 to the H. of C. Parliamentary and muiiicipil | 
 constituency 176 in 1865. 
 
 Annan, the river on which the above town bj 
 built. It rises on the S. side of Hartfell, a monni 
 tain on the confines of the cos. Dunil'rics ai»i| 
 Peebles, near Moffat, and after pursuing »M 
 course of about 36 m. in a direct line, unitw mik I 
 the Solway Frith, IJ m. below Annan, to vhichiil 
 
Ir rahlpn nii Ih. 
 
 lit Cocliin; an I 
 
 HK» flfi' I'XiKirici. 
 
 |ltn. <if MhIiii- .1 
 
 , Indri' I't l.nm 
 
 itlllV, Ullll \h[i\ 
 
 nrov. I'limPMnu, 
 INhmumiI milt. Tin, 
 lit M'|iiiriiliiiK til' 
 It. l'ii|>.'<Viil*iiii 
 
 lllkN It ('>i|ll')(C tllil 
 
 ir«'H (if clipili Hn,| 
 till! triidi! in <i|i||i. 
 
 lof Itiiklmra,;.^!)!. 
 , «itlo K. Mavm- 
 IMKI hiiiiw'H, whii'li 
 
 ir2&,ooiMi>:tii,iH>i, 
 
 ». A Hiiinll river 
 (Iriex ill Hiiinnirr, 
 y tliemwlvt's *iili 
 kmkhnrn, p. I4;i,i 
 . «)f Hnxony, e'wk 
 irn. I'op. '.i.Tlnin 
 lit- (1 cliiirflK's, iwii 1 
 ivilli i)iiimifii('tiin'< 
 ;inity nru iiiinra uf | 
 
 Turkcv, Clip. S«n- 
 , NW.'UantlmUai. I 
 t iH ilnuly HituatM 
 lat croHs the dwen 
 iHcd in 1807 bytht 
 :inn all sortu nf es- 
 il(ic8 iiriilinltly not 
 The envirimi art | 
 
 four fortirtcd iwt* 
 
 lid Coast of At'rici, | 
 
 of the AslmiitM!, 
 
 t was burnt liv tht I 
 
 |bably froina,000t« 
 
 le Friendly Islamlj | 
 
 rt, m. town, ami p. 
 lie town i:< situatal 
 man, which ic ti« 
 '0 archcH, i-rt'ctwl in | 
 [onflueiu'o witii th« 
 iinburt;h. Pop. 4 1 
 ibited houses ti^fl; 
 ),113/. in \m,n- 
 n revenue (.SM. in 
 Incat, and timM: \ 
 and spire ; a p»>l 
 ■en much iraprovni 1 
 |l at the expanse rf I 
 II academy wliiili LI 
 Jiotton maniifactcir). I 
 In to a consideralil! 
 of the townconsi* 
 j» for tlie New(*«il* 
 lieshippinRofwni, 
 [am, for Liverpwl 
 IS, Kirckcudbriptt. 
 „-eturninf,' a mcmte 
 [ary and municipil 
 
 the above town i) I 
 If llartfell,nnionn-| 
 1 cos. Uunifrics hikI I 
 Iter pursuing »''■[ 
 )!ct line, unitw wtk 
 
 Annan, tu which II 
 
 ANNANDALK 
 
 !< ntviKuhl)*. It I**** "<**' 't* niouth Mlmon fiHh- 
 ,rif« of riin»lder«bli) vnlu«. 
 
 AN'N'ANI>AhK, th« name xivmi to thn valley 
 ,f liiw tC^MiniU tfttvorMNl IvnKthwiite Ity thti rli >>r 
 
 AN'NAI'OMS, n town of Nova Hcotia, on the 
 S ,«iclt' III' tix' river of the name name, near where 
 ii t'iilii« iiilii it<* eittimry or iMiitin, on the S\V. nhte of 
 ,l,r |,av ..f Fundy, lot. M)° 47' N., loii^. Wfl M VV. 
 'Ihf harlwiur in iipnrioii)> and stHMire. This is the 
 iililist Kiirii|H'aii M'lt lenient in N. Aineriea, haviiiK 
 Uh'ii fiiiiiidi'd in IliOt, It was ealU>d Fort Knyal 
 i \ the Fri'iu'li; bi't. on their ceding tlie prov, to 
 Kiicliuiil in •!'" ""'''K" "'" <^ieeii Anne, it received 
 it< pri'ii'iit nniiie in lionour of her MuJcKty, Not- 
 witn^taiiditii; it wax tliu cap, of tlie iirov. till the 
 fiiiiiiilntiim of Halifax in lifiO, ami its line liiir- 
 iHiiir, it never attained to any coiiNideralile magni- 
 tude. At iirtwiit the for' illcations and ^overii- 
 nii'iil liuil(lin){^ are pdiiK to ruin. Top. of co. 
 Ainiapiili-i, lt',i'i7H in IHt!l. 
 
 ANNAnn.iH, a city and jiort of entry of the 
 r. States I'lip. Maryland, on the Severn, 2 m. 
 t'roin itH mouth, '2H m. SSK. Italtimure. I'op. 
 4,;V.".I in I8«>0. It is a handsome, healthy town, 
 with a slatehouse, H theatre, <itc. The proximity 
 ami more iidvantaKeoiiM situation of Italtimure as 
 a place iif trade, have uccosioncd the slow growth 
 of Annniiolis. 
 
 ANXW'Y, a town of France, den. Ilaute-Savoie, 
 nt tliH norfliern extremity of the lake of thu same 
 name, 22 m. S. (;eneva. Pop. I0,7!J7 in IHtil. 
 TIr' town is ph-asantly situated umoiiK hills and 
 mountuins; and is thriving; and industrious, 
 having estaldishments for the spinninK <>f cotton 
 Olid xilk, with inanutiicturcs of earthenware and 
 );liM.«, vitriol, straw hats, white iron and steel. 
 It is the seat of a bishopric, and is very ancii^nt. 
 
 ANNI'yr, one of the Scilly Islands, about 1 m. 
 from that of St. Allies. 
 
 AXXOXAV, a town of France, dep. Ardbchc, 
 liein^', tliou);h not the cap., the princdpal town of 
 tiip dep., at the i^ontlueiK^e of the Caiice and the 
 Ih'iime, 7 m. from the Uhoiie. I'op. l(i,271 in 
 IMiil. Aniionay is a thrivinj^ town, a^treeably 
 Mtuated on the elevated uneven ground between 
 the two rivers, with siiliiirbs on the opposite banks ; 
 Iwiii); well, though irregularly built. The only 
 |iulilic Iniilding worth notice, is an obelisk in 
 honour of the celebrated a-ronaut MontgoUler, a 
 native of the place. Annonay is principally dis- 
 tinguished by its inanufiictiires, particularly by 
 that of paper, long reckoned the liest in France ; 
 and hence the recommendation so frequently seen 
 in French catalogues, of books biting printed on 
 ]»p{er fin d Annonay, (See Audkchk.) It has 
 also manufactures of cloth, woollen stockings, and 
 (tloves; establishments for the spinning of cotton 
 and silk, part of the lotter of a peculiarly line 
 (|uality, been employed in the manufacture of 
 I tulles and blondes ; with dye-works, tanneries, &c. 
 JThe town is projirietor of a large nursery; anil 
 jin its vicinity is the first suspension bridge con- 
 I striicted in F ranee. 
 
 ALOPSl I K II H, a town of H indostan, prov. Agra, 
 Ion the W. side of the Ganges, 68 m. KSF], Delhi, 
 I lat. 28° 23' N., long. 78© 8' E. It is surrounded by 
 la strong mud wall, and is thickly inhabited. 
 I AXSPACII, or ANSBACH, a town of Bavaria, 
 leap. circ. Kczat, 24 m. SVV. by W. Nuremberg, 
 Ion a branch line of the railway from Augsburg to 
 iXiwraberg. Pop. 12,24.') in 1861. It is sur- 
 Inmnded by walls, and has four gates ; is the seat 
 lof'he provincial authorities and of a court of 
 Tijilieii'. The objects most deserving of attention 
 lare the rastle and gardens that formerly belonged 
 Ito the Margraves of Anspach ; the church of St. 
 
 ANTIHF.S 141 
 
 .John, with thn lomb* of the princtxi. It ho* a 
 gymnaniiim, nil honpital, an orphan himpital, a 
 ll)irary of l«l,«HH) vols, with a cabinet of inednls; 
 and manufactures of wisdlen and cotlon vtiitis, 
 enrlheiiwnre, while lead, and plavlng cards, 
 
 ANSTH|;TMKU (F.ASTI'u «ml WKSTKH), 
 two inconsiderable iNiroiiuhs and M-a-|M>rtMof Scot- 
 land, CO. Fife, on the N. shore of the Frith of 
 Fiirfh. Po|i. of JMilh iNiroiighs, with their pari'«hr'i, 
 1,4:ir in In:I1 ; |,,v.):i in iHiil. Pari, const. ||-J 
 ill l8i;;i. The iNiniiigliH unite with Hrail, Pitleii- 
 wei III, and Kilreiiiiv, in returning u in. to tha 
 
 II. ..re. 
 
 ANT ARCTIC .HKA.theniimegiven to the ocean 
 extending tVoni the Antim'ticCircle, lat. tiO© III)' S. 
 to the South Pole. It was long considerisl iiii- 
 iM'iietralde for ships, on account of the ice; but of 
 late years many discoveries have lN>en made, 
 chielly liy Kiiglish and American explorers. Sir 
 .lames Koss, in |8 II, reached lat. ~H° \' the highest 
 S, latitude yet reached. Various tracts of barren 
 hind have Ihicii obst-rved bv Iheexplorers, to which 
 the names of AdiHie, Ibilleny, K.nderly, Sti- 
 briiitt and Victoria have Imk'u given, but a great 
 deal of adventurous research is still necessarv 
 iH-fore our knowledge of these regions is mai(e 
 copious. 
 
 ANTIC(^ITF,KA, a town of Spain, Andalusia, 
 30 m. NNVV. Malaga, on the railwav to Cordova, 
 Pot). 22.0)!)) in 1857. It it built partly on a hill, 
 and partly on a plain; has an ohi castle built by 
 the Aloor's, several <4iurcheH and convents, with 
 establishments for the sjiinning of silk and cotton, 
 and fabriirs of pa|H'r, morocco leather, and soai>. 
 There are in its neiglibourliood ipiarries of marble 
 of ditVentnt colours, and plaster, a salt lake, and 
 a mineral spring. It was taken by assault from 
 the MiMirs, by Ferdinand, afterwards King of Ar- 
 ragoii, in 1411). A railway, completed in 18(ir>, 
 jdaces Malaga and (iranada in communication 
 with the rest of the Peninsula. The line nuisfroia 
 ]\Ialaga bv way of Antequera to Cordova. 
 
 ANTIlkMK (ST.), a town of France, deii. 
 Puv de Dome, cap, cant, on the Ance, li in. E, 
 Anibert. Pop. a,22») in I8(!l. 
 
 ANTHONY (ST.), FALLS OF, in the Mis- 
 sissippi, alxnit 2,(1(10 m. aljove its embouchure, 
 lat, 44° .'iO' N. Here the river descends about 
 74 ft., vix. IG ft, of perpendicular fall, and 58 more 
 of rapids. 
 
 Anthony (St.), a capo on tbe coast of S. Ame- 
 rica, Argentine republic, being the S. extremity of 
 the estuary of the La Plata, lat. BG" 15' 19" S., 
 long, oljo -AT W. 
 
 ANTIBES (an. Antij)ol!$), a sea-port town of 
 France, dep. Var, cap. cant., on the Mediterranean, 
 22 m. ENE. Frejus, on the railway from TouKm 
 to Nice. Pop. G,82!) in 18G1.' ^Beiiig an important 
 station on tbe side of Italy, Antibcs is pretty 
 strongly fortified. It is the scat of a tribunal of 
 commerce, and of a school of navigation. The 
 ])ort, which is circular, of considerable size, and 
 easy access, is formed by a mole ])rojecting from 
 the town, the distance from its extremity to the 
 point on which F'ort Carrd is built being only 
 alMiiit 150 fathoms. In most parts the port is 
 shallow ; but within and near the mole there are 
 from 15 to 18 ft. water. The inhabitants are 
 principally em|>loyed in the fishing and curing of 
 sardines and anchovies. 
 
 Antibes is very ancient, ha\nng been founded by 
 a colony from Marseilles, 340 ii.c. It was after- 
 wards occupied bv the Romans, by whom it was 
 fortified and embellished. Having been destroyed 
 by the Saracens towards the end of the ninth cen- 
 tury, it continued in a comparatively neglected 
 state, till it was again fortified by Francis I. and 
 
 
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 ' k. 
 
 m 
 
 
 mj 
 

 "! J 
 
 'i.i:'; 
 
 mi 
 
 IHi.'.^ 
 
 k. f 
 
 'K' 'i: 
 
 
 fiff^fl 
 
 'S-mI 
 
 IV2 ANTU.'OHTI 
 
 IlKiirv IV. It WUD iiii«iicrt>Mfiilly lM'i>i«>t(i'<l Uy {\u> 
 KiiglUli ami lni|H'rlNlliiU hi 1 7 111, 
 
 ANTiniHTI, « \mu» UIiiikI In tli<- inotilh of 
 the SI. ^•wn<ll<•^ iH'twwn III" niul Mr^ N. Int., 
 iiikI tll° 4U' mill HI°liA' VV. Iomk. It ha* mi uii- 
 t'liviiuralilti Mill, U wltlioiit a kIiikI)' K''*"! Imrliour, 
 Mini ii iiiiiiiliiiliiti'tl, witli till' i'Xi'i'|itiiiii itf til)' at- 
 
 tt'lKJillltN nil tint liL'llllliiliM'n, tun- of wllirll llilt 
 Imi>ii i'rit't)i| on IIhT:. imliit ; iiikI aiuitliiT <>ltli)'r 
 lull* Ih'I'II or ix uUiut til Ihi iTirli'il (III Un W. t>X- 
 trt'iiiilv. 
 
 AN''ri(irA, All iiilitiitl lii'loiixini; lodrriit llrl 
 liiiii, ill till' Wi'Mt liiilii's Ih'Iiik mil' III' tliiixi- ilt'ini- 
 llllliali-i| lllr Wiiiilwiiril iNlaililH. It wum nllli'il liy 
 tliii Iiutivi-N XaviiiiK'ii, liiit CoIiiiiiImih i(u\v it tin* 
 liiiiiii' lit' Santa Mariii ilc In Aiitii^iiii. It \n aiNiiit 
 '2tt III. NI'l. MiiiitMcrrat, uml '10 in, N. (iiiHiliiliiii|ii'. 
 It In o\ul-Hlia|i('il, lii'iii); 'JO III. in itN K''*')it'''<l 
 li'M^tli, unci ciiiitaiiM uliiiiit liiN Ni|. ni., or iii'arly 
 7<i,iMMi iicn'M, Till' |Hi|i, linN (It'ci'i'iiMii Hiiu'i* 1771, 
 vlii'ii it hail 'i.ri'.Mi wliili'N, ami 'l7,Him Mlavt'H. In 
 |n:i7, tint |H'ii|ili> III' I'liliiiir ami Mliiicn tnurtliiT 
 HiTi' Hilly aliiiiit 'J,(ioo ; uml tlii' lilarki, all nl' wliinii 
 wiri'i'MlfamliiMi'il in IM.'ll, uliiint :i:i,ono. In iml:!, 
 till' niiiiilii'r!* wiTi' — wliitf, 'JiJM; lilack, 'J7,'iit7; 
 I'liiiiiiri'il, (i,)il!l: total, :MI,II'.'. Aiiti^Mia Iiiih |ittl(• 
 ll^ thr iiioiiiiiaimiiiH I'liiirarti'r III' tin' iiriKlilHinriii;; 
 ixliimlN, till' 1,'rriiti'Ht rlrvatimi In'iu^ only l,°JIO I't. 
 On a|i|irimrliin^ it I'roni tin* Ni'a, instead of immn- 
 taiiiH cliitlu'il with rich I'oliiiKi' uml luxuriant 
 vi'p'tatliiii, a liarri'ii ni^'^i'il i'oii><t. alimiit ili'nii- 
 tiiti' of vrnliirr, jiri'iu'iitit it.'^i'lt'. A I'l'w niili'n, Imw- 
 t'vcr, I'riiiii till' Hliort', the iiroMin'i't in inori' plcuiiiiiK, 
 
 till iintry lu'lii^ a^^ri'calily ilivrriiliril with hill 
 
 uml ilaltt: unilwlicn imt |iari'lii'il liy tint ilroii^htn, 
 to whirli it ii4 Niilijt'i't, Krt'i'ii lU'liln ol'('am'.i, rluin|ii« 
 (if I'cathcry liaiiilioii.i, IIowi'M of ila/./liiii; lirilliaiicy, 
 mill vi-rilant cliirN hiiti^ with liraiitil'iirvarictii'H of 
 iiiti'rlrii|iical |ilaiits, iiii'liant tin- voyager. Thu 
 iNlnml liiiM iicitlu'r loiintain iinr river, ami liut a 
 f(!W HL'anly Hprin^H aiming the liillx. It'ain water, 
 ]ireMi'rveil ill liinkK, in NuliNtiliiteil, ami it is foiiml 
 jiurtiriilarly \\n\\t ami |lh'a^allt to the |iahite. The 
 Miil in the lii);h laml.s in a reililihli elay on a kuI>- 
 Htrutiini uf marl ; that in the low hiiiili*, a rieh ilai'k 
 niiiulil on a Hulistratiiiii of elay. The eliniale in 
 rviiiarkalile for itn want of imii.itiire, thoiiKh the 
 uverajje fall of rain be Att iin'lies. The dew id 
 M'anty, ami the rainy sea.soii very iiiu'ertain, but 
 it may be wiiil generally to extend froiii .liinu to 
 the end of the year. The alternatiniis of leinpe- 
 rature are very Nli^ht, the therinonieter Neldoin 
 runKiiiKinorc than 'l<^in twenty-four hourx. The nu- 
 );ari.'ane ixthe iiriiicipal article of eiiltivation ; but 
 Muliiciunt ground provi.iioiia are alHu ]iroeureil in 
 favourable Heaiwiiis for the Kiipplv of the inhabi- 
 tants. The crops vary euiiMiderubiy. In the veur.i 
 1770, 177.'(, 177M, there wan iiiiiiriHluceof any kind, 
 thu canes and Kroiuid provisions beiiij; destroyeil 
 by driiii|rht, and the iiihab. wouhl have perished, 
 but for the imiMirlutioii of Hour and eorn-meal 
 from America. The total value uf imports in 
 18.'J3 was 17<l,S<<'M/. ster., the principal of which 
 were grain, meal, and Hour, cotton iiiaiinfai'tures, 
 linens, woollens, and lish. In lKi4, the value of 
 the ini|iorts was I70,07(i/. ; in IHM the imports 
 amounted to 2(i0,.'tti.'i/., but had diminished in the 
 year iHtiJI to 17iJ,'jrJ/. The exports, which in 
 1«3« were a2i'J,«l(l/„ had fallen in ISiiii to 2ii\) fiMI. 
 The produce in IKOii was 1'6,ImH hlids. of sugar, 
 930 iiuncheoiis uf rum, and (),U18 punchcuiis of 
 inolusses. 
 
 The government is composed of a governor, un 
 executive council and a legislative council, both 
 appointed by the crown, and an elective assembly 
 of twenty-seven memliers. The courts of equity and 
 law are the same as in Ureut llrituiii. The governor 
 
 ANTIOCH 
 
 for the tlini< U'liig act* aa iliaiicfllor nf lh«riiiiri 
 iif I'ipiity, and miiturit have a riulit of nii|M'al fn^t 
 IiIn lU't'n't'K to the klnt( in euiiiieil. on KlviiiKw,,, 
 rilv for I'lmtn, There arw II plaerH of «i««||iu 
 Im'IoiikIiiu to lh«i (,'huri-h of Kiit(laiiil, lit Mun 
 vian, 10 Weiile^aii. 7,IA«l/. U annually >|ifnt m 
 the mipiHirl III piHir-hoiiM'N, hiMpilMU, iHuiril „( 
 health, and for iiiiilieal relief, viieeiiiulinii, A, 
 The iiiniinera, eustoimi, uml huliiln of tlii' \m».\, 
 diller In no degree Imin llio«e of the iiilnr Ur.i 
 Imliti ImIuiiiIs, The revenue, in |n:I|, wai li;,ii!i;/, 
 
 the eX|H'lii|iture iri,70M/. ; in tNli:l, il.'vIlK/, „„|' 
 
 il<''>,l7 1/, The ini|M'rlnl ex|i«'mliture for llie ihjhin 
 ill iKi'i,'! was ll.llilM/. The island I'liiituitiMaix iiiwii, 
 ami villages, viz, St, .lohn's, I'arhnni, Kiiltiioui:,, 
 Williiiigliby liny, (Mil Idiad, and .lanieN ^'urt, >i. 
 •Iiihn's the capital, on the NW, side of tlie i'.lniiii 
 lat, I MO 2'/ V , loiig.tlio ir \V„ is regularly ImiiIi' 
 luirtly III! n high rock, eotinerted with tlii' ninn 
 land liv a caimeway, which is, however Miliiiirrifni 
 at liigfi Hater. In the hiirlMnir there is Kiiillcirni 
 depth of water for meri'hant vesHels, ami |H'rht 
 MTiirity in all winds, Knglisli harlsiur, mi i|if>, 
 side of the island, is, however, the iM'it liiirlmiirin 
 Antigua, and is indeed uiie of the Ih'kI in llii'\V<.| 
 Indies. It has water for ships of any ni/.v, m\i{» 
 well sheltered ill all weathers. It has it iM. 
 yard, a iiuval hospital, uml every eoiivi'iiii'iiiyf^r I 
 careening aiel repairing ships.' Antigua ii iw 
 ohiest W. I, colony, alW St. Kitl's ami lluHuul.., 
 in possession of the l'',nglish, having been iiriiuiM 
 in Iti.'I'J. Its planters have been reimirkulili' i;.t { 
 their leniency to thu slaves, who were liiiiillyrn. 
 fraiicbised in IN.il. The uinnunt uwanli'il tu I 
 Antigua out of the 20,000,1)00/. grnnted U,nU\ 
 freedom of the slaves, was 'I25,H(!()/, 7». O.^i/., tlmv | 
 of Angiiilia included, 
 
 ANTII.KKS. See Wkst Indikn. 
 
 ANTKHTI (vulg. Antakiu) (Antioiii), pni|iirir | 
 Antiocheia ('Afnox'ta), a famous city of Syriii.Mil 
 once the residence of its Hovereigiis, on llio lelt I 
 bank of the Ans/.y (Onmtri), 20 m, hIkivc iii | 
 moiitli ; Wi\ m, V„ Ale|ii>ii, and 2'.) iii, S. Inkin- 
 deroiin, in lat. Wfl 12' N,, long, Wfi \:> V.. Tlw 
 population, which at its most floiirishing p|*«li 
 jirobably umoiiiited to 100,000, is estiinatiil (IxC 
 al IH,oriO, of whom 2,000 are (jreeks, thu utiitn | 
 Amieniaiis and Mussulmans. 
 
 Modern Antioch does not cover more tlmnil 
 sixth |iart of the area of the ancient city, tlii' hiIIi I 
 of which, though ruinous, may still lie di.Hiimilr 
 traced throughout their whole circuit. Tliv lI9l^ 
 lliiuloiis ((iate of St. I'aul), the entrance fruni iht I 
 K. is now ^ m. from the nearest bouses; aiiiLiil 
 every other direction except the \V., the lmiliiiii;'i | 
 have similarly receded from their old liinitn. Vul- 
 iiey describes it as a wn'tched collection uf huKi 
 built of mud and straw, with narrow umiminf 
 streets, and exhibiting every ap]iearance nf mis'rT 
 and desolatiiiii. Kiimeir, however, suys tlmt'ilii 
 liouseH are in the Turkish fashion, small, Ui I 
 neatly built of hewn stone.' liut thougli tliiilM 
 the case with some of them, the mnjority awo* I 
 striictedof slight materials; and, unlike iliclimiMri I 
 of other Syrian or rather Kastern towns, have [ 
 sloping roofs covered with thin tiles. There aw in I 
 or twelve mean and uniiii|Mirtant iniisqiii'M'iilil 
 low minarets; but in this city, so fuinoU'* 'm\^\ 
 annuls of Christianity, there is not at presontii 
 single Christian church. The baths uiul luzxi I 
 are numerous, but neither exhibit ttiiytliin); n- 1 
 murkuble. It has manufactures of cuarsc iwtien, 
 cotton stuffs, leather, &c. ; but the greater part ^ I 
 thu inhabitants are engaged iiithecultivutiuiiaii'| 
 manufacture of silk. I 
 
 All traces of its famous theatres, its circus ar^ I 
 its magniliceiit baths, hove irretrievobly |)trbb«l. I 
 
i>l|iir of lh*niiiit 
 
 It of •ll)M'tl hit. 
 L oil KlviliK mti 
 iImi'I'n ii( »iir«hly 
 
 it{litii<l. \'A Mun 
 intiiinlly ■(x-m m 
 MpiliiN, \nAtt\ .( 
 viii'i'iiiiitiiiti, Ai 
 liilii ol' till' |irii|.|. 
 if till- otlicr Wh 
 Mill, wiix lii,iiii;i.. 
 Nii:i, :t.'>;iiM/. ii»i 
 
 uri' lor I In' iiil.iin 
 
 IMlltlllllXxiX lllWII. 
 
 iirlmini Kiilmniii:,, 
 I .Ihiiii'h hirt, H 
 xiilt' ol' till' i'laikl. 
 , iH rt'uiiliirly liuili, 
 
 111 will) till' III Mil 
 lOWI'Vt-r MllllllirKr'l 
 ' tlllT*' H "llllli'lrnl 
 'I'nM'Im, Hint jniht 
 
 liarliour, on ilii'>. 
 till' iM'it liiirlH'iirin 
 III' lii'Nt ill iIh'W"! 
 
 of miy "i/.i'. mill i» 
 
 H, It lull « ll'»k- 
 vty i'oiivi'iiii'iii\("t 
 »,' Anti^iiii i» Ihr 
 iti'i* mill Harliiiilin 
 living Ih'*'I> i»'<|iii'"l 
 iccii n'liiiirkalilc f.t 
 A\i> wiTi- liniillym- 
 nioiiiit uwiinli'il Vi 
 i>t>/. urniiti'il liir ilu 
 ),Htlll/. 7». I'Wm ">« I 
 
 NlUKS. 
 
 ) (Jnri'o<'/i),pri.|)frly 
 iiUHiuty ofSyriii,mi.| 
 •fri'ijfiii'. on the Wt 
 i), W in. nlwivi' 111 
 lul 'iit in. S. lAn- 
 
 mH. !"''° '•■>' '"'• "" 
 
 Hi tloiiri»liiii^' fl'*!" 
 
 1, in I'HiiiniiK'illI*' 
 
 (irei'liH, tlic iitlii'n 
 
 cover mori' llmn < I 
 lu'ii'iit <'ity,tlii'»«IM 
 ly Htill l)« <li»li"'il? I 
 jc cireiiit. 'I'lii' Half 
 lie enlriinci^ frura ibi 
 irt'Ht lioiisfs; amlii 
 ilui VV., Ilu' \i\Mw I 
 [heir old limits. Vul- 
 1(1 I'olU'ctiou uf hull, 
 til niirrow and mii)' 
 Li)lK«urunceofnii*f!l 
 
 •evt-r, Huys tlmfilit 
 fashion,' Hmall, ta I 
 lUit though this l« 
 
 the mnjority awciH' 
 
 indiUiAiki- >!'<!>""'*' 
 kustern towns, hnvel 
 [ntilew. There art w 
 Irtnnt mosques, wii 
 Itv, HO fuinoii* iniin 
 'is not nt iirescntil 
 he huths umlbann 
 xhibit anytluiii; «■ I 
 lrc» of coarse iwtieP' I 
 It the greater part ')i 
 fii the cultivation Ml 
 
 cntroH, its circus, ai^ 
 retrievablyiietisWI 
 
 ,„'„l,iit |.«M«iiHit Htill txl»i«: mill on lhi< S. urn 
 ,|m' riiiii" of nil «<|ii«'iliiii, whlrli roiiveyi-'l N «ii|)|>ly 
 „l wniir from ilif I'iNit of llio IIJi'In'I Okriih (nn. 
 \[l I'uuiitt). '\Ui< olil wmIIx mt\>, howKvcr, lii- 
 iffMlliiK """"""•'"'*• Tlii'Hilimtioiiof llninnrienl 
 ,,(v wim moHt (h'llKlitfiil. I» miunlfil tlu' miinmilN 
 iiiil oliilM'" ol^ 1^" ■oiiRiili'mlili' lillk mill thi> plulii 
 Mmn-w ilii'm «"'! '•"' riyt. Ovi'r tlu'W liilU nml 
 ^■„m» tlili |>li»in thi' wiiIIh w«'ri« liuill nearly in n 
 r,'.iiiii«iilar funn, Iih'IoxIiik it i<|>H»'t« of (n-vernl in. 
 II, I iniiinfiri'iiri'. Tlii'V an« of variotiK auex, imrt 
 l»'lii^, a|i|mn'iilly. w olil ai tin- llrnt fonnilallon of 
 ilii'iiiwiMwrl reiiniMo to ilir n-raof Uoinaii |iowi'r, 
 ,111,1 part III'' work of the triiwilfm. Tiny art' 
 iiirrie'l iiMT the Ix'ilx of iiiouiitain torreiit», ami 
 iliiwii ilie "iili'« of aliniwf |i('r|M'iiiliiiilar |ire«i|>iii's 
 lillinif ii|( the Intervening Kornex ami ravinen, ho 
 'hill tiny vary from '.'o or !i(» ft .in lieiifht to np- 
 ilih'Kt |Hirti<)ii of tlie walU U 
 
 y,„t,\* of 7lt. Till 
 
 iiUitlir most |ii'rfei't; It Htamln ii|Hin a riM-k, ami, 
 liiiviii^ Ihi'Ii oriKlnallv well Imill, hil.i re^Utnl the 
 iiilliii'iue iif time ami the NhoekH of earlhiiiiakeH. 
 TliiTi'ari' two liriilKi'*, Olil! of live ari'lu'H with pier^, 
 ,'iit mil of the roek, aeronH a ravine; ami one of 
 iiiliTi'ir ilimelitionH, aeroNH the Oroiitei. Ill the 
 siili'inl till' miiiintaini* to the Si'l. of the town are 
 iiiimiMin* I'Maviitloiis, apparently inleinleil for 
 I ciiiitirii'i or I'litaeonilw, hoiik^ of whirh are now 
 1 ii-iil aji plttieit of womhip \>y the Christian popnla- 
 
 I llilM. 
 
 Till' uiieient Syrian name of Ant loch ix wiiil to 
 hiU'lHi'M Itililath; hut heing enlaru'ed and heaii- 
 {Ihii'il liy SelemiiH Nieator, he j^ave it, n.i;. IKII, 
 iil'iir Ills tiilhrr, the naine of Aiitioeh. It heeanie 
 iitiiiii'c the eapilal of the Macedonian kingdom of 
 Uvria, anil eoniiniied for nearly 24 centuries to lie 
 I tlic n'«iileme of tin- inoiiarchs of the .St'leiiceidan 
 ilvnanty. AlM)Ut tl."* years ii.c, the coii(|iiestH of 
 |'iiiii|iiy hroii^c'it Aiitiiieh, witli the whole of Syria, 
 luiiilertlie rontrol of |{iinie. At this lera it con- 
 Ki^tiiliif four distinct towns, each having separate 
 r,irtilli'ati<iiis the wlnde lieing Hiirroumled liv a 
 Iriiimmiii wall; hence it was sonieliines ealled 
 I Ti'irapoli'i. Under the Konians, Antioch continued 
 Itoadvaiiru ill importance: it was the centre of an 
 lixieiisive conimeree, the residence of the governor 
 Id!' Syria, the fre(|ueiit resort of the ein|H-rors, and 
 Itlii' iiiiwt celehrated town of the empire (the capital 
 Idiily excepted) for the aimiseinenis of the circus 
 Innii the theatre. It is intimately connected w^itli 
 llhc early history of I 'hristianity. the diH'triiies of 
 Iwliii'h were planted in it hy I'aiil and Marnahas; 
 laml ill it, also, the term Cliriiiliiin had its origin 
 |a.'< a distinctive a]ipellat ion. (Acts xi. '2(i.) It has 
 ImHired wverely on many oircasioiis from earth- 
 quakes. One of the most celehrated and disastrous 
 ^if the>;e eulamilies occurred a.i>. 1 1 '). T'lie emperor 
 Trajan, who had just concluded his victorious 
 p'urtliian campaign, heing then in the city, it was 
 nmdeil with trooiis and strangers from all jiartj* 
 k the ancient worl'. The shocks are said to have 
 rmtimieil for a lengthened period, and to have 
 Vnmost severe; the emperor himself narrowlv 
 psajied with some hruises; and many thousanits 
 III' individuals were hurled in the ruins of the city. 
 lAiicient Uiiiver. Hist. xv. liW, «vo. ed.) It again 
 kutfered severely from similar catastrophes in the 
 );i'ars 34l), 31M,';J!I(!, 4.W, hH), and .J«.S : the last 
 'stniying, it is said (hut such statements are 
 fclmiMt always much exaggerated), above (iO.OOO 
 Vrsons. Notwithstanding these repeated intlic- 
 jiiins, and its devastation by Chosroes the I'ersian 
 ■M, it revived again anil again, and continued 
 I be the ' Queen of the East,' and a place of great 
 il'drtance, till tJ3«, when it fell under the power 
 f the Saracens. In lO'JS it was taken by the 
 
 ANTKU'll 141 
 
 Cnisiiders, mi'l eontliniiMl to Ih< the rnplial of » 
 ChriNtlan priiici|i«lliy till r.'il*,), whin it wu« lakm 
 hy Ihii Kgypiimi Niilian, by wliuiii it wax |M»riialty 
 di'tnollxhed. It wkj* added to the ( ttloninii empire, 
 by .Mt'llin I., in 1,1111; but il« commercial iiii|Mirt- 
 a'lice had alrewly vmiixhed; and it hax coiiliiiiied, 
 under the iHtrbaroiix xway of ilu* Tnrkx, to di'cliiiti 
 till it hax reacheil its present xtate of coiii|Hirativti 
 iiisignillcanct'. 
 
 The vallev of the I >riiiitex xpreailx, In the neigli- 
 iNtiirhoiNl ol .Vnlioi'h, into a fertile plain, ID mUei 
 In length, ami ooril in width; the town ami river, 
 
 iM'i'Upving the extreme edge, iH'ing I'lose to tllU 
 iMiiimling mountains mi the SK. Tlie xnll is ex- 
 cellent, coiiNisiing of a rich alluvial depixit, pro- 
 ducing llgN, olives, vines, ami mulberries in great 
 abiimlaiii'e. The deserted spaces wiltiin the old 
 walls are one eonlinued garden ; but in geiieriil tho 
 country is ill ciiliivated, U'liig abainloned lo ilin 
 Tiirkmiins ami other wniiderlng trils's. I'liiiy 
 speaks of a iiart of Antioch lying on the right 
 bank of the river. (Hist. Nat. v. 'Jt.) 'I'his must 
 have been a suburb, and probably, as in the case 
 of Aleppo, as extensive iis the town within the 
 walls; but no vestiges of it now remain. 
 
 Modern critics and travellers ditl'er in opinion 
 as to the site of the grove, and village of llaiiliiie, 
 and temple of Apolhi, in the iminediate vicinity of 
 AntiiH'h. (iibboii has given the following deserip- 
 tlon of this loiig-l'aiiious seat of religion and plea- 
 sure. 'At the distance of 5 m. from .Vutioch, the 
 Macedonian kings of Syria had consecrated to 
 Apollo one of till' most elegant idaces if devotion 
 in the pagan woild. A magnltlceiit temple rose 
 in honour of thetind of light; and his colossal 
 tigiire almost tilled the capacious sanctuary, which 
 was enriched with gold and gems, and adorned by 
 the skill of the (ireeiaii artists. 'I'lie deity was re- 
 iireseiited in a bending attitude, with a golden cup 
 III his hand, pouring out a libation on the earth, 
 as if he supplicated the veiierabh! mother to give 
 to his arms the cold and beauteous liaphue; for 
 the spot w^iis ennolded by liction, and tlu^ fancy of 
 the .Syrian poets had transplanted the amorous 
 tale from the hanks of the I'enens to those of tho 
 Oroides. The anrieiit rites of (ireeee were imi- 
 tated by the royal colony of Antioch. A stream 
 of propliecy, which rivalted the truth and reputa- 
 tion of the Uelphic oracle, tlowed from the Cas- 
 taliaii fountain of Danhne. In the adjacent lields, 
 a stadium was built by a special )irivilege wliii'h 
 had been iiurchased from Klis: the Olympic games 
 were euhdirated at the ex|)eiise of the city; and a 
 revenue of .'tO,UI)()/. .sterling was annually applied 
 to the public pleasures. 'I'he perpetual resort of 
 ]iilgriins and spectators insensibly formed, in the 
 neighlsiurhood of the temple, the stately and |s>pu- 
 lous village of Daphne, which emulated the splen- 
 dour, without aci|uiring the title, of a ))rovincial 
 city. The temple and the village were di'eply bo- 
 somed in a thick grove of laurels and cypresses, 
 which reached as far as a circumference of 10 m., 
 and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and 
 ini|>enetrable shade. A thousand streams of the 
 purest water springing from every hill, j)reserved 
 the verdure of the earth and the temi>erature of 
 the air; the senses were gratitied with harmonious 
 sounds and aromatic oiloiirs; and the peaceful 
 grove wiw consecrated to health and joy, to luxury 
 and love. The vigorous ycaith ]mrsiied, like AixiUo, 
 the object of his desire, and the bliLshing maid was 
 warned by the fate of Daphne to shun the folly of 
 unscasonal>le coyness. The soldiers and the phi- 
 losophers wisely avoided the teiuptatiun of this 
 sensual paradise, where pleasure, assuming the 
 character of religion, imperceptibly dissolved the 
 tinnncss of manly virtue. But the groves of 
 
 m 
 
 lt'f( 
 
 . ' ■•! 
 .1 'Mi 
 
 
 ,1 V' 
 
 m 
 
 »*■"■> if 
 
 Vfi 
 
 
 i. 
 
 'm \' 
 
144 
 
 ANTIPAROS 
 
 'I, <:> 
 
 •IP 
 
 
 
 t 1 
 
 lk.l, I 
 
 
 a 
 
 M, 
 
 Iff- 
 
 Daphno continucil for runny nj^es to enjoy the ve- 
 neration or natives antl stranKcrM; ttie privilc^^cM 
 of tlic lioly ^ound were enlnr^eil liy tiio niiinili- 
 cence of Nuccccdin^ emperors ; and every tH'Mim- 
 tion added new ornumentB to the splendour of tlie 
 temple.' (Uedine and Fall, cu|). 2li.) 
 
 ANTIPAHOS (an. Oliuros), a small island of 
 the Urecinn Archipelago, k''<*"1> •''' the Cycliides, 
 between I'aros and .Siphunto, 1^ m. \V. of the 
 former, and IG m. K. of the latter. It is about 
 7 ni. in length from N. to S. by about 3 ni. breadth, 
 its hif^hest jwint buiiiK in lat. 30° I't'.t' W N., long. 
 'Jo° 3' (>(>" K. It consists of a mass of marble co- 
 vered with a moderately fertile soil ; ami, exclu- 
 sive of some cotton and wine, it produces Parley 
 <'n(aigh to sulHcc for its hdiab., consisting of some 
 ()(( or 70 families who live in a miserable village 
 about 1 m. from the shore, and are partially em- 
 ployed in fishing. Though hardly worthy of notice 
 in other resjiects, this islniul is famous for an im- 
 mense subterranean cavern or grotto. Its entrance 
 is on the side of a hill under a low arch. The 
 passage thence to the cavern is long, narrow, and 
 in i)art« jirecipitous. ' The mode of descent is by 
 ropes, which are either held by the natives, or 
 joined to a caole fastened at the entrance round a 
 stalactite pillar. In this manner we reached the 
 spacious chambers of this truly enchanted grotto. 
 The roof, the floor, the sides of a whole series of 
 magnilicent caverns, are entirely invested with a 
 dax/,ling incrustation, as white as snow. Columns, 
 some of which were 2.5 ft. in length, ponded in tine 
 icicle forms above our heads ; fortiniately, some of 
 them are so far above the reach of the numerous 
 travellers who during many ages have visited this 
 place, that no one has been able to injure or re- 
 move them. Others extend from the roof to the 
 tloor, with diameters equal to the mast of a lirst 
 rate ship of the line. The last chamber into which 
 we descended surprised us more by the grandeur 
 of its exhibition than any other. Probably there 
 are other chambers still unexplored.' (Clarke's 
 Travels, vi. p. 125, 8vo. ed.) 
 
 The lera of the discovery of this cavern in mo- 
 dem times is not ascertained ; but it was first made 
 fully known by the visit paid to it by M. Nointel, 
 ambassador from France to the I'orte, who de- 
 scended into it with a cortfege of no fewer than 
 500 individuals, at Christmas, 1()73. On this oc- 
 casion it was brilliantlv illuminated. His exce'- 
 lency and suite remained in it for three entire 
 days, and celebrated high mass at midnight on 
 Christma.. in this most magnilicent of subterranean 
 temples. It was also visited by the learned and 
 excellent I'aveller, M. Toumefort, who supposed 
 that he saw in it conclusive proofs of his singular 
 theory as to the vegetation of stones. (Tournc- 
 lort Voyage du T^evant, i. pp. 185 — 195, 4to ed.) 
 It has since been repeatedly vlsued by other tra- 
 vellers; and it is said that the ^aioke from the 
 numerous torches that have thus necessarily been 
 carried within its recesses, have somewhat im- 
 paired its otherwise unrivalled splendour and bril- 
 liancv. 
 
 ANTIVART, a town of Turkey in Europe, 19 n. 
 W. Scutari, within a short distance of the sea, I Jt. 
 42° 15' 20" X., long. 10° 4' 15" E. Pop. estira at 
 4,000. It is defended by a castle on a steep 'ock, 
 is the residence of a Greek archbishop, ov.d the 
 entrepot of the merchandise of the va. '-y "^ T~>rin. 
 
 ANTOING, a market town of Belgium, prov. 
 Hainault, 4 m. SE. Tournay. Pop. 2,200 in 185G. 
 
 ANTOXIN (ST.), a town of France, dep. Tarn 
 et Garonne, cap. cant., in a spacious valley at the 
 confluence of the Aveyron and the Bonnette, 22 m. 
 EXK. Montauban. Pop. 5,152 in 18(il. The 
 waters of the Bonnette beiiig charged wi; the 
 
 ANTRIM 
 
 refuse of various tanneries establiiihed on itn bonk) 
 render the town at times unhealthv. It hufu! 
 bri(!8 of serges and other wordlen stuns, and iiaiicr; 
 and a considerable commerce is carried on iii 
 leather, primes, and juniper. 
 
 ANTUAIGUE8, a town of France, dep. Ardfcchc, 
 cap. cant. 1 1 m. W. Privas. Pop. 1,570. Near 
 the place is a singular causeway, cnllwi the 
 Clumissie-de»-Geants, formed by colonnailus uf ba- 
 salt, 700 yr.rdu in length. 
 
 ANTRIM, a marit. co. Ireland, prov. Ulster; in 
 greatest length being about 55 m., and its (,'raitw 
 breadth about 32 m. ; having N. and K. the Iruh 
 Sei, S. Lough Neagh and Down, and W. L(m(l(jii. 
 derrj', from which it is separated for the ),'n'aitr 
 part by the Uann. It contains 758,800 im|i. acn'< 
 of which 225,970 are mountain and boj;, and 
 49,790 water, being part of Lough Neagh which 
 lies principally within this county. The X. am! 
 E. districts arc mountainous, and there are some 
 high rugged grounds in other places, while thctiat 
 ground along Lough Neagh is in many parts 
 boggy. Still, however, there is a large extent of 
 fertile ground. Property in very great estatw 
 hut large portions of some of thcin are leased fur 1 
 ever. Farms small : agriculture in most rcspeou 
 similar to that of Down (which see). The coumrv' 
 round Belfast has more of an improved apixjar- 
 ance, and the people are more orderly and iniluv 
 trious than anywhere else in Ireland. Linen ma- 
 nufacture universally diffused : the manufacture I 
 of cotton has a' so been successfully introducdl, 
 with some others of inferior importance, A coal 
 mine is wrought at Ballycastle ; but not exten- 
 sively, the coal being of bad quality. IJesidea the | 
 Bann and the Laggan, which form part of its .S, 
 boundary, it is watered by many smaller streams, I 
 but none of them are navigable. The N. coi<t 
 is remarkable for its basaltic columns, which are 
 l)articularly conspicuous at the far-famed Gianii 
 Causeway (which see). The lofty proraontoria 
 of Bengoie and Fairhead are also, in a great niea- 1 
 sure, composed of these columns. There are con- 
 siderable salmon fisheries on the coast. Carritk- 1 
 fergus is the county town ; but the principal to«iu 
 are Belfast, Lisbum, Antrim, and Lame. Pop, 
 202,800 in 1821 ; 316,909 in 1831 ; and 247,564 in 
 18G1 : it contains 14 baronies and 75 parishes; and 
 returns five m. to the H. of C, viz. two for tlieco, I 
 two lor Belfast, o'le for Carrickfergus, and one for I 
 Lisb'im. Pari, constituency of co., 10,921 in IStiJ, [ 
 
 AiTUiM, an inland town of Ireland, cap, ccj 
 Antr m, prov. Ulster, on the Six-mile-water near I 
 its en bouchure in Lough Neagh, 94 m. N. Duhlin.1 
 Its anc'ent name was Entrium, or Entrum-nea);h, I 
 and it >' supposed to owe its origin to a religionil 
 house fou.uled by a disciple of St. Patrick, 
 suffered mucu '.i the wars with the Danes i 
 with the first English settlers; and in 1641 was I 
 burnt by the Scotch, under Munroe. In 179i<it| 
 was the scene of a sanguinary conflict between the I 
 king's troops and the insurgents, in which the! 
 former were victorious, but with the loss of LotJl 
 O'Neil, who commanded a regunent of miliiin.! 
 In 1831 the pop. of the par. was 5,543; of whifhl 
 750 were of the E. Church, 1,252 K. Catholics, and I 
 3,541 Prot. dis; in 1801 the pop. of the par.wl 
 4,G59, and of the to^vn, including Massarene, 2,loil 
 The town, lying in the bosom of a fertile valley,! 
 consists of two main streets, with several branches.! 
 Houses substantially built of stone, several exhi- 1 
 biting proofs of considerable antiquity. Its puhtf I 
 buildings are the par. church, an ancient edifr'^l 
 but lately repaired ; a spacious R. C. chapel; t»o| 
 places of worship for Presbyterians ; two for 5le-l 
 thodists; and one for the Society of Frii'mlil 
 There are schools for boys and girls, under tiiee»-| 
 
ANTWERP 
 
 145 
 
 l„»int'iif of l>ii?»niu» Siuitli ; niul Hevernl priviite 
 
 1 1, |ii«iK ill nil of which nearly 70i» i-hildrcii receive 
 
 iii.inii'tioii ; oIho a menilicity Hociety, and a m- 
 
 {m:»btink. rreviously to (lie Union the borough 
 
 snttwo m. to the Irisli pari. The coiirt-honse, in 
 
 ilip centre of the town, is used for holdinp t;cnoral 
 
 j(,.inns of the jjeace in April and October, and 
 
 iKitv wssion.H on alternate 'riipsilays. The court- 
 
 it t and court of record of the manor of Moylenny 
 
 _»iihin which the town is, and at whitih the sc- 
 
 1 n ^hal, ajipointed by the Manpiis of Doiietja ,, pre- 
 
 .ili's— are also held here ; the latter court decides 
 
 Ifaj nf debt to the amount of 20/. I'art of the 
 
 liiiiirket-hduse is \ised as a bridewell, ('lose to the 
 
 llnnii iit the re8i<lence of Viscount Ferrord, and 
 
 laliiit 4 ni. distant is a perfect pillar-towjr, 95 ft. 
 
 Ilii.'h, with conical roof. The manufactures are 
 
 |lh"sc »f linen, cotton, and hosiery. There are 
 
 Lveral bleach-greens in the neighbourhood ; and 
 
 Itwii paiHir-niills, one of which lirst introdiicecl into 
 
 ilnlanil the process of making paper in webs like 
 
 Idth, instead of 8C[)arate sheets. Tliere are also 
 
 iH'veral Hour and meal mills, and a brewery. Most 
 
 |,f the grain is sent to Kelfast, its conveyance 
 
 fuiiii; facilitated by the contii;iiity of tough 
 
 l>'(ii(,'h, where a small fpiay has been erected at 
 
 th nioutli of the Six-mile-w iter. Markets are 
 
 ..Ion Tuesdays for grain, and on Thursdays for 
 
 tfiieral purposes; and fairs on Jan. 1, May 12, 
 
 l\\\". 1, and Nov. 12, Antrim is a station on 
 
 ihi'lielfast and Ballymcna railway, 14 m. NW. 
 
 I(lfa.st. 
 
 ANTWERP (Ger. Antwerpen, Fr. Anvers), a 
 
 Lrit. city of Belgium, cap. prov. and arrond. of 
 
 wine name, on the N. bank of the Scheldt, 26 m, 
 
 . Brussels, 32 m. E. Ghent, on the railway from 
 
 |!riissel9 to Rotterdam. The city is in the shape 
 
 kf a Iww, the arch bemg formed by the walls, 
 
 (lid the chord by the river. A strong pen- 
 
 ii;;onal citadel, built by the Duke of Alva in 
 
 l.'iii', and improved by the French, stands on the 
 
 >i(le of the town, which is farther defended by 
 
 larioiis forts on both s'des the river. Though 
 
 Biich declined from its former prosperity, Ant- 
 
 Irerp b a well-built fine old city, and is in various 
 
 opects highly interesting. The principal street, 
 
 fLice de Meer, rivals any in Europe. It is about 
 
 Ve width of Portland Place, but the variety and 
 
 ithncss of the architecture render it far more 
 
 kapiificent. The older and narrower streets, bor- 
 
 Vred by lofty houses with their gables to the 
 
 eet, are singularlv picturesque. Antwerp had 
 
 11846 a pop. of 881487, and of 114,669 in 1861. 
 
 [he {treat boast of Antwerp is its cathedral, a su- 
 
 p Gothic structure, begun early in the fifteenth, 
 
 Idnot finished till the sixteenth century. Itsspire, 
 
 ]f the most beautiful and delicate workmanship, 
 
 i by Schreil)er and others to be 466 ft. high; 
 
 |it according to a statement in 1 he * Penny Cyclo- 
 
 Jia,' this is 100 ft. too much, the height being 
 
 lere alfimicd to be only 366 ft. ! The interior 
 
 liTfspunds in grandeur with the exterior, and 
 
 1 contains two famous pictures of Rubens; one 
 
 [which, the 'Descent from the Cross,' is gene- 
 
 Jly regarded as his chef-tTccuvre. Of the other 
 
 furches, that of St. James, which contains the 
 
 nb of Rubens, St. Andrew, and St. Paul, are the 
 
 9st celebrated. All of them are adorned with 
 
 le paintings. The Bourse, or Exchange, is one 
 
 I the finest buildings of its class in Europe : it 
 
 Id to have served as a model for the London 
 
 tchange, burnt down in 1837. The Hotel de 
 
 m, a marble structure, rebuilt in 1581 after 
 
 Ing destroyed by fire, is a magnificent fabric. 
 
 |ic convent of the Recollets has been converted 
 
 I a museum, in which is a superb collection 
 
 I paintings, including many that were formerly 
 
 IVfli, I. 
 
 scattered among the ditl'urent churclies and con- 
 vents. It comprises wime of the choictst speci- 
 mens of the masters of the Flemish sclxxd ; a.<i 
 Rubens, Van Dyke, Jordaeiis, Van Vien.and Mar- 
 tin de Vos. Antwerp has a theatre; an academy 
 of painting (St. Luke's), which originated In the 
 16th centurv; a royal academy of the fine arts, 
 establishetl ni 1817; an academy of sciences ; an 
 Atheiuuum, or college ; Latin, medical, and naval 
 schools; a gallery of sculpture; a public library, 
 with 15,000 vols.; a botanical garden ; with vari- 
 ous learned so<;icties, and many good private col- 
 lection.! of works of art. Its charitable institu- 
 tions include several hos|iitals, asylums, and work- 
 houses. It is the scat of the courts of assize for 
 the province; of u tribunal of original jurisdiction, 
 a commercial tribunal, &c. The p(^ople have every 
 appearance of being in comfortable circumstances, 
 and are quiet antl orderly. The upper classes 
 8i)eak French, and the lower Flemish. 
 
 The manufa(;tiures are very various, and are of 
 considerable importance and value. They com- 
 prise fabrics of silk and cotton stockings, thread 
 and tape, linen and calico ])rintiiig. Embroidery, 
 bleaching, sugar-refining, and sliip-building are 
 extensively carried on. The lapidaries of Ant- 
 werp are very skilful in the cutting of diamonds 
 and other precious stones. 
 
 The depth of water in the river opposite to the 
 city is from 32 to 40 ft, at ebb tide, with a rise 
 at springs of from 12 to 14 ft.; and as this depth 
 is increased towards the sea, Antwerp is a pecu- 
 liarly eligible sitiiaticm for the formation of dock- 
 yariis and the building of large ships. Its cai)a- 
 bility in this respect did not escape the observation 
 of Napoleon, who endeavoured to raise it to the 
 first rank as a naval arsenal. His plans in fur- 
 therance of this object were judiciously devised on 
 a very grand scale, and were zealously prosecuted. 
 Two large basins, capable of admitting ships of 
 the line, were excavated on the N. side of the 
 town ; one comprising an area of 1 7, and the other 
 of 7 Eng. acres. Attached to these was an ex- 
 tensive dockyard, with careening and repairing 
 docks, storehouses, &c., all planned and executed 
 in the best and most approved manner, and at an 
 immense ex]iense. On the downfall of Napoleon 
 the dockyard, with its fortifications, was com- 
 pletely destroyed ; and it was even debated whe- 
 ther the two great basins should share the same 
 fate. Luckily, however, they were preserved ; and 
 being converted into commercial docks, are of the 
 most signal service to the trade and navigation of 
 the city. The fleet and naval stores in the arsenal, 
 wiisn it surrendered to the allied forces in 1841, 
 were divided ; two-thirds being assigned to France, 
 and one-third to the King of the Netherlands. 
 
 Her fine river, and the numerous canals with 
 which it is united, give Antwerp great adyantages 
 as a commercial emporium ; and during the early 
 part of the 16th century she was one of the first 
 trading cities of Eurojx!. Owing, however, to the 
 ascendancy and jealousy of the Dutch, and the 
 supineness of her rulers, her foreign trade was nearly 
 annihilated during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries. But the navigation of the Scheldt, which 
 had been formally closed by the treaty of West- 
 phalia, was re-opened on the occupation of Belgium 
 by the French, and since the peace of 1815 the trade 
 of the town has rapidly increaicd; and the pro- 
 babilitj' seems to be, looking at the natural advan- 
 tages of her situation, that it will go on increasing. 
 The greater part by far of the foreign trade of 
 Belgium centres here. The imports consist prin- 
 cipally of wheat, coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, 
 and all sorts of colonial produce ; with cotton 
 stuffs, wine, hardware, ashes, coal, hides, pepper, 
 
 '■• N. 
 
 . !1. 
 
 ' i' ■ 
 
 .)■ •'?; 
 
 
 ■fisii 
 
 .•.''\i 
 
 '»« 
 

 U.I , 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 illir-'^ 
 
 ^in! 
 
 ■pi^H^r.. 
 
 fcH 
 
 1 \6 ANTWERP 
 
 indi^ro niid other (lyo-Hliin\ Tho timlier used in 
 Hliip-liiiildi'iK in iiKistly broiifjht Ity water from 
 till' intfrior. Tiie cx|)ort« conmHt cliietly of corn, 
 ]ins('i'<l, llttx, Imrk and madder, linen, lace, eariKttH, 
 tiiiliiw, hops, (-'iin**, paper, mneliinery, and fruit. 
 In IMfJI, 1 ,!).")4,!M!7 (jrn. of (jfrain and tioiir were 
 importeil into, and 9H,K'J3 qrs. exported from, 
 Antweq). 
 
 The increase in the trade of Antwerp is evinced 
 by the fact, that while only (iHl »hips arrived at 
 the port in 1«"24, and HOO in 1«25, there arrived in 
 l«i{(J, 1,24.') HhipM of the burden of 176,079 tons, 
 and in 1h;}7, 1,4-.'<; Hliips of the hiirden of 22,'>,{)80 
 tons. In IWII, 2,77H vessels entered the port, and 
 2,7H() cleared. Antwerp is connected by railway 
 with Rotterdam, (Jhent, Malines, and Hrnsscls, 
 and is an important ])oint in the liel^ian nystem 
 of railways, throng;!) which it is connected with 
 the railway syslems of France and Germany. 
 There is renulur steam packet communication 
 between Antwerp, London, anil Hull. 
 
 Antwerf) has produced many distinKuishe(l )r.en, 
 being the i>irfhplare of the painters Teniers, Van 
 Dyke, Jordaens, and (Irayer ; the pcof^rapher 
 Ortelius, and the admirable cuf^raver Edelink. 
 
 Antwerp is very ancient. Lodovico Guicciardini, 
 in his « Descrizione di I'aesi Hassi,' describes it in 
 l.')6() as a city of vo-st wealth and the most exten- 
 sive commerce; adding, that it was no uncommon 
 thing ftir 500 ships to enter and leave its port in a 
 single day ! And making every allowance for the 
 exoggeration obvious in this statement, there is 
 no (loul)t tliat it then enjoyed a more extensive 
 foreign trade than any other city in the X. of 
 Europe. Jhit this prosperity was destined to be 
 of short (hiriitiou. In l.')7() it was sacked and 
 iiartly burned iiy the fSpaniards. In ITiS."), it was 
 invested by the famous Alexander Farnese, prince 
 of I'anna, who took it after a lengthened and 
 memornble siege. After its ca])ture the greater 
 ]mrt of its merchants and princi]>al ])eople emi- 
 grated to Amsterdam and other towns in the 
 United Provinces, carrying with them their capi- 
 tal, skill, and connections. The niin of its trade 
 dates from this e|)och, and was consummated by 
 the Dutch obtaining the command of the river, 
 and by the stipulation in the treaty of Westphalia 
 by which, as already seen, it was regularly closed. 
 In 1704 it fell into the hands of the French, who 
 made it the ca|)ital of the de|)artment of Deux 
 Nethes, and held it till 1814. On the revolt of the 
 Belgian ])rovinces in IKJJO the Dutch garrison 
 contiiuied to hold the citadel for the King of the 
 Jietherlands : and the latter having refused to 
 nuike it l)e evacuiatcd, agreeably to the determina- 
 tion of the great powers, a French army of (i.5,(IO() 
 men, under Marshal Gerard, entered Helgium in 
 Novi^niber, 1882, to coin|>el its evacuation. The 
 details of the siege are well known. The treiuihes 
 wen; openi'd on tlie 20th Xovenilier; and .ifter an 
 «)bstinatc, but not a skilful or en.Tgetic defence, 
 
 ilie citadel surrcudpred on the 24tli of December, 
 n recent times, |)arficularly since the year 1848, 
 the population of Antwerp has taken up a some- 
 what hostile position against the Helgian govern- 
 ment, owing chiefly to the determination of the 
 latter to surround the town with new /ind exten- 
 fiive iortitications, which, it is feared by commercial 
 men, will interfere with trade and shipping, and 
 lead to ])os8ible ruin in another war. 
 
 AXZIX, a village of France, de]i. du Xord, .3 m. 
 W. Valencienuos, on the railway from Valon- 
 fiennes t( Douay. Pop. (!,,SO.i in 18(il, Thepoimtrk' 
 near Aiizin is the seat of tho richest coal mines in 
 France. They have been wronglit since 1734, and 
 some of the jiits are as much as 1,500 ft. in depth. 
 'I'hc mines of Anzin, Vieux Coiide, and Funics, 
 
 APENNINES 
 
 are said to employ in all above 4,000 wnrk-poopi, 
 and to furnish annually nearly !1,00U,(I0I) licctnliL 
 of coal. There are also iron-foundries and kIjs^ 
 works. I 
 
 AOH, or AUR (Pulo), an island in the('liii„l 
 Sea, ofT the K. coast of the Malay Peninsula, 3 » I 
 by A m. in diam. Est. pop 1,400. It is doui,!,. I 
 peaked, the one peak 1,805 and the other l,.52iif. I 
 HI height. On the NW. side there is a t«| 
 sheltered from the XE. monsoon, in whicli shii I 
 anchor in stormy weather, awaiting afavumatiJI 
 change for entering the Straits of Siuj^apore. 
 
 AOSTA, a town of Northern Italy, cap.pn,rl 
 same name, at the confluence of theHutcrawJiil 
 the Dora, at the opening of the two vnlloysofiliil 
 Great and Little St. Bernard, 49 m. NN\V. Turin,! 
 Pop. 7,8;i0 in 1861. It has straight broad stwiij 
 and many of the houses having gardens attaclKil 
 to them, it covers a large extent of ground, hi I 
 the seat of a council of justice, and oi'aliishnnricL 
 but is principally distmguished by its ruin4ij| 
 editiccs constructed by the Romans, nmoiijjwhicil 
 are a triumphal arch, a superb gate with thnti 
 arches, and the remains of an amphitheatre, iJ 
 received different names from the Romans, imjA 
 sometimes called Civita* Amiiisti, Auijimtu M 
 toria Jul'up., and Augusta Saiasiiorum ; tho hwA 
 from its having been the capital of the Salassil 
 subdued by Terentius Varro. 
 
 APEXNIXKS, the name given to the moimual 
 system which traverses the whole length of Italtl 
 
 TJmbrosismwIiam qua colUbus Apenninus 
 Erigit Italiam, nulloqua vci'tice toUus 
 Altius intiimnit, proplnsqiie occessit Olymim, 
 Mons Inter gomlnns modius so porrigit iind'is, 
 Inforni siiperi(iue maris : collosquc cocrcent, 
 Hinc T.vrrlipna vndo friingentcs lequoni I'isie, 
 Hinc Dalmaticis obnoxiu fluctibus Aneon. 
 
 Lucan. lib, ii. 
 
 At its W. extremity this range is so closely wl 
 nected with the Alps, that it may be consi 
 as an extensive offset of that great system, itii 
 difficult to determine where the Alps tcraiinffll 
 and the Apennines begin ; som" think tli.it tl«| 
 road over the Col di Teiide P^- ti) K. hn«;.)k 
 the boundary ; others assign for it tl at rnad vrtiii 
 begins on the N. at Alessandria, rr.iis in thcvallt 
 of the Bormida to Acqiii, Spigno, d'c, .indtm 
 nates on the coast at Savona, rising at its lii^-ta 
 point to 4,4()0 ft. above the sea; others think tli 
 the sea Alps extend to the road which leads frJ 
 Novi on the N. over the Pa.ss of the Bucclieial 
 (2.550 ft.) to Genoa on the coa.st. 
 
 The Northern Apennines extend from the PiJ 
 of the Bocchetta E., with a .slight (U'clinatki 
 the S. through three degrees of longitude (ii'ii 
 12°) to Monte Falterona, lying E. of Fhjrciii* 
 
 The Central Apennines extend from .Mtc 
 Falterona SE., with some bends to either siifc.l 
 far as Monte Velino, or nearly two degree-soflf 
 tude (440 and 42°). 
 
 The Soiitheryi Apennines, beginninf; at M'« 
 Velino, run ESE. between 42° ami 41° N. ' 
 South of the last-mentioned paralhl, betwiiiiO 
 towns of Con/ii crenza, and Verosa, amlaiiil 
 sources of the i)iandano, they divide iiii'ini 
 branches; of which the E., extending first K.J 
 then SE., terminates at Uapo de Lcuca, o|if 
 Corfu. The W. range runs between 41° ami 5 
 N. lat., nearly SSE., and between 'MP ami 
 SSW., and terminates with the Capo dc" 
 on the S. extremity of the Straits of Jleviiii 
 
 The Northern Apennines, which, near tlic M 
 of the Bocchetta, are of moderate liei^dit 1 
 breadth, occupy farther E. a greater space 1 
 rise to a higher elevation. The highest sunm 
 are between 10° and 11° E. long., where ii 
 
10 wnrk-pwpl, 
 ,00()hectolitJ 
 ricn and ^\i^ 
 
 (I in the Cliin, I 
 I'diiimikSit, 
 It is (IdiiiiVl 
 B other l,.Viii(J 
 there is a !« [ 
 in whidi»hi]»l 
 DK a favumiiil 
 Siiit;ap(ire. 
 Italy, cap. prill, L 
 the Hiitcra»iil| 
 fo vallpvsdfilnl 
 n. NNVV.Tuia 
 lit hroadrtwul 
 jardenn attach I 
 
 [)f (JMUIUl. Iu| 
 
 1(1 ()t'al)i»hn[iri(;f 
 by its ruins ((I 
 118, amoiii; rtil 
 gate with thru I 
 mpiiithcatre, J 
 iR Himians, Wii^l 
 'i, AuyuHlu fr«l 
 iorum; ttie lattdl 
 .1 of the Salail 
 
 1 to the tnoum^l 
 e lenf^lh of Itjltj 
 
 IpenniiuH 
 e tellus 
 3essit Olymim. 
 lorrlgit niiil;is, 
 que cocrcent, 
 ! lequoni IMsiB, 
 bus Aneon. 
 Lucan. lib. ii. 
 
 is so closely n*| 
 
 nay lie coiisi 
 
 cat system, li ill 
 
 le Alps tcnninal 
 
 think iluitihil 
 
 ,0 K. loiin.) fir 
 
 lit tl at road \rii:i| 
 
 rr.iis in thevallfi 
 
 (i'C, and ten 
 
 IsiiiLC at its liyl! 
 
 others tliinkul 
 
 which Icaii.'I'M 
 
 of the liucduB 
 
 |t"ml from the Pd 
 ;ht (U'cliiiiUi'in:^ 
 [lonf;iliiile {^fin 
 J E. of Floreivt. 
 lend from Mi« 
 Is to cither >iiie.l 
 Vo ile^'rees ol'li 
 
 ■f^iniiiut; at Mi«l 
 
 y ami 410N.1 
 
 ^allcl, hetwirtitl 
 
 a-rosa, andaii* 
 
 divide inH't 
 
 tiulini; fir^i 
 
 Be Leuca, a\>Y' 
 
 fweeu 41° ami 1 
 
 (•eeii ;iO° aii'l ' 
 
 CaiK) dfir 
 Its of Mesfiiii 
 lich. near the P^ 
 Icrute hci;;htr 
 greater space i 
 " liif^hest sunn 
 hg., where Mi* 
 
 Pdlocrino rises to 5,lfil ft. anil Monte Cimone to 
 
 f'l-') ft. Their northern dcelivity towards the 
 
 niniii of the I'" »» ffradnnl and Rentlc ; hut towards 
 
 L S thev lower with an nhrupt and sleep dc- 
 
 .fiit On the S. thev send off some lateral ranges, 
 
 lainonirwhioli that which is calleil the Alpi Apnani 
 
 luihe most remarknhh>, and highest. It leaves 
 
 Itho main tunRe \V. of Monte Pellejjrino, and is 
 
 Lrarated from it l>y a considerable depression. It 
 
 lextends Mnithward," and temiinatos at a short dis- 
 
 Itniicc fn in the sea, near the towns of Miwsa and 
 
 |( irrara. It forms a mas of finely crystallised 
 
 lliiiicatotic nearly .SO miles long, and scarcely ever 
 
 \[ a less elevation than 4,000 ft. above tho sea, 
 
 tl.iiii: often mufli higher, as In the Panni della 
 
 kpN^e. at the S. extremity, fi,102 ft., the Pizzo 
 
 il'ccilo, at the NW. end, C.147 ft., and Mont« 
 
 > ,iro, near Carrara, 5,540 ft. On the slope of the 
 
 lii^t mentioned mountain the quarries are worked, 
 
 |r„ra which, nearly for 2,000 years, the finest 
 
 nirble ha.* been extracted. 
 
 Besides the road over the Boccbetta, the N. 
 
 kiiennines arc traversed by three roads ; one be- 
 
 tiiij at Parma, runs over the plain to Fornovo, 
 
 Indthen in the valley of the Taro to the u|)per 
 
 liirt of the rang!', which it crosses by the Pass of 
 
 Viito Croci ; it afterwards descends to Poiitre- 
 
 Lli. and then, mostly in the valley of the Ma 
 
 APKNNINKS 147 
 
 the Adriatic at Fossonibrono, on the Melauni ; 
 runs S. to (jagli, and passes over the raiiKC between 
 this place and Sif,'illo, whence it continues to 
 
 Neccra and Foliffuo, and hence by Spoleto, Terni, 
 and Nnrni, to Kome. The S. road be>;in8 nt An- 
 conu, runs S. to Loreto, and hence W. to Tolen- 
 tino and Uclforfc; between the last-mentioned 
 place and Folif;no. it passes the ran^e at some 
 distance \. of Monte Sibilla. Only one road 
 traverses the southern higlu'r part of the Central 
 Apennines. It bej^rins on the N. nt Terni, <hi the 
 Nera, a tributnry of the Tiber, passes hence to 
 Kieti and Civila l)ucale, on the Vi lino, whence it 
 traverses the ranj^e by a long mountain-pass, 
 which terminates near Aqiiilo, on the Alterno, 
 and thence Mie road continues to Sulmona. 
 
 The undivided ))ortioii of the S. Apennines re- 
 sembles, in part, the Central Apennines: its off- 
 sets, towards the Adrintii;, rini otl'at nearly right 
 angles; butcm the \V. it has a lateral ridge, which 
 runs parallel to it for a distance of more than 
 60 m. ; and between it and the principal range ex- 
 tends a longitudinal valley, drained by the V'ol- 
 tiirno, and its tributary, the ( 'ah. re: lifter these 
 rivers have luiited. thev break through the lateral 
 range. an<l enter into the plain of Terra di l.avoro. 
 The princi])al range contains some high sinninits, 
 n.s MdUte Meta, 7,-J(;i ft.. Monte Miletto, (!,7-J0 ft. 
 
 to the Gulf of Spezia. Farther F,. is the [ above the ,sea. The highest part, however, seems 
 
 Lillietwecn Modena and Pistoja ; ii runs through 
 k\al!o, Pieve Pclago, on the west of Monte (;i- 
 inne. and traverses the range by the I'a.ss of 
 J;;naibo. The third road unites liologna with 
 Jloreiice; it runs from Hologna over the plain of 
 ,„mbardv to Lojano, crosses the range by the 
 fx« of I'ietra Mala, at an elevation of ;3,'.'84 ft., 
 1 descends into the valley of the Sieve, whenc 
 [ passes over a lateral ridge of moderate elevation 
 I Fiesole and Florence. 
 
 iThc Central Apciniines may be divided into 
 ioliart.s. Hetween Monte Falterona (8. of 41°) 
 Id Monte Sibilla (S. of 4,'?°) their general direc- 
 Im is SK., and though their upper declivity is 
 \t\- steep, they do not .seem to rise to a great 
 Vvation, one of the highest summits, Cima de 
 tmina, hardlv exceeding 4,000 ft. IJetwccn 
 Imte Sibilla imd Monte Velino (N. of 40° lat.) 
 le Apenninea attain their greatest elevation. 
 lonte Siliilla rises to 7,212 ft., and Monte Ve- 
 lio to 8,1H3 ft. Nearly at equal distatice from 
 |hcr, and near the source of the Velino, two 
 Icral ranges branch oft", wlii<di are overtopped by 
 kh summits; on that which runs to the SE., 
 hards the Adriatic Sea, is the (Iran Sasso d'l talia, 
 |iosc summit, the Monte Corno, attains 9,521 ft. 
 ]ove the sea, and is tlie highest in the range. 
 ithc W. lateral range is the Tcrminello Grande, 
 134 ft. above the sea. Ninnerous are the 
 |eral ridges which branch off from the Central 
 icimines. Those running towards the Adriatic 
 , f(irm nearly right angles with the princiyjal 
 |ij!('. preserve for some distance a con»ideral)le 
 Ivation. and lower afterwards rapidly but gra- 
 lly. They terminate with hills, at no great 
 Jlaiice from the shore. The lateral ridges, which 
 |verse the much more extensive cimntry between 
 f Apeoiiines and tiie Mediterranean, run mostly 
 slid to the princi])al range, so that nearly all 
 I rivers of this region run in valleys extending 
 , or XW., and form as it were terraces of 
 ierent elevation, by which the country gradu- 
 B' lowers towards the sea. In these lateral 
 ges Some siminiits attain a considerable eleva- 
 , as Monte Aniiata, W. of Kadicofani (S. of 43° 
 IJat) which rises to 5,794 ft. 
 wi roads traverse the N. portion of the Central 
 |6nniues. The northern begins on tho side of 
 
 to be th(; Matcre, an enormous itiass of chalk rocks, 
 40 m. in circ, situated at t lie sources of the Hi- 
 feiuii. nearly in 41^° X. lat. On somi' id' its sum- 
 mits snow is stated to be fuiind the wlnde year. 
 
 Near the sources of the ri\fi- ('aluri :i lateral 
 branch runs off lu'arly due \V., wbicli iiniiinates 
 with a high ridge on the peninsula S. of the (lulf 
 of Xaples. It contniiis the .Mimte S. Aiigido di 
 ('astelaniare, which rises to the licight id'l.f>><H ft. 
 The VV. extremity id' this ridge is the Piinlii didla 
 Cain](an(dla, opposite the rocky ishfiid of ('at)ri. 
 Monte (iargaiio, a pronmntory projecting into tho 
 Adriatic, is commonly considered as tlie E. ex- 
 tremity of another lat(Tal ridge id'tlu^ Apeiniines, 
 but it is quite uiuioiuiected witli that range, being 
 separated from its nearest oll'set by a low plain, 
 many miles in breadth. 
 
 This range is traversed by two roads: one runs 
 from the town of Naples to Capua and Presenzano, 
 and pa.sses over the lateral ridge enclosing tho 
 valley of the Vtdttirno to Venafro and Isernia. 
 Between Isernia and Cast(d di Sangro it crosses 
 the iirincipal range of the Aiiennines, and from 
 the last-mentioned place it continues to Sulmona 
 and t'hleti. The .second road strikes off E. from 
 Xaiiles, and pa,sses over the tirst range by the 
 pass of Monte Virgine ; it then desceiuls into the 
 valley of the river Calore, in which it traverses 
 the towns of Avellino and Ariano. E. of the last- 
 mentioned town is the )trin('ipal range of the Ajien- 
 nines, over which the road passes to Ponte di 
 Hovino, and then enters the great plain of Puglia 
 (il Tavolieri della Puglia), and continues to Foggia, 
 Bari, &c. 
 
 The most easterly ridge, arising from the bifur- 
 cation of the A])enniiies, preserves a considerable 
 elevation as far as the town of Altamura ; but E. 
 of that it is contiinu'd only by a series of hills, 
 called Lc Murq'w, which extend through the whole 
 of the iieninsu'la lying between the Adriatic and 
 tho Gulf of Taranto. They are interruiited in 
 several ])laeos. and tenninate at CajM) di Leiica. 
 
 The otner chain runs directly S., and apjiioachcs 
 by degrees the shores of the Mediterranean Sea : 
 on the E. side of the Gulf of Policastro it C(jnies 
 close to it, and contimies to run along the sea as 
 fur fis tlie Gulf of S. Enfemia, where it suddenly 
 turns to the E., but soon again to the S., in wldch 
 
 l2 
 
 ;i.:u ^ 
 
 \\X\ 
 
 >?)» 
 
I4d 
 
 APKNKADK 
 
 
 iU: 
 
 *'l. 
 
 
 IsRi,''):.iyi:.'iM-.'; 1, 
 
 
 
 «liro('tion if ttkirt.s llic eastern HlutreH of Calnhriii, 
 butw(!(!ri llu! (iiilf (if Squillaeu anil ('itiiu S|mrti- 
 venli). In (liix cliain an; Honn! cIcvHtcii HuniniitH 
 Muntu Pollino (nt'ur 4(1° N. lal.) Hhcn to 7,()ti7 ft.. 
 iiImivo the Hon, anil Monte Alto, the lii^^hest snni- 
 init (if the ^reat nionntain inasM, witii which the 
 Apnnnin(!8 terminate im the Straitj* of McHHina, is 
 4,;iH() ft. alxive the sen. 
 
 In addition to the roads eninnernted, the A]ien- 
 nines arc crossed ut several points by the Italian 
 network of railways, in conrse of construction, or 
 already completed. {Si:h Italy.) 
 
 Geiitix/i/. — The N. parts of the AjH'iinines are, 
 in );encral, coniixiscd of sandstone and chalk. 
 The former is known in Toscana hy the name of 
 viuciyno, ht pietra serrntt, and several hi^h moun- 
 tains are comjiosed of it : others consist of chalk, 
 and (It hers of maci^no and chalk tot^ethtif. In the 
 S. ranfjes the chalk formation iiredominates, es- 
 pecially on the W. side ; on the E. de(;livity sand- 
 stone occurs in a lew places. A (jrent portion of 
 the hilly districts, which extend to the VV. of the 
 range, and intersect the plains aliuifj the Mediter- 
 ranean, is comtMiscd of Inva and other volcanic 
 productions. This rej^ion extends from Monte 
 Vesuvius on the S., to the river Ombroiie, in 
 Tuscany, on the N. Near this river is Monte 
 Amintu and Monte Kadicofnni (3,01)0 ft. hijrh), 
 both volcanic mountains. A volcanic country en- 
 closes the lakes of Itolsenannd liracciano, and the 
 rocky iniuiscs near Vitcrbo are also of volcanic 
 origin. S. of the Tiber other volcanic rocks of 
 considerable extent and (devation form the moun- 
 tains near Ali>ano: here Monte Cavo rises to 
 8,110 ft, above the sea. The country roimd 
 l{onic is overspread with volcanic matter; and the 
 Seven Hills themselves are ])artlv comjioscd of it. 
 A third volcanic region occurs U. of Oajuia, near 
 Teano, wlierc several heights rise to a considerable 
 elevation, esjiecially Monte St. Croce. Jlount 
 Vesuvius and the volcanic country' roimd the town 
 of Naples, constitute the most southerly region of 
 the volcanic tract which skirts the W. side of the 
 Apennines. On the E. side of the Ajiennines only 
 a single extinct volcano lias been found ; — it is 
 Monte Vulture, near Mclli, .lot far from tlie place 
 where tlie bifurcation of the range takes place. 
 
 The lower declivities of the princi|)al range, and 
 a great part of the lateral rangcis, where they do 
 not rise above an elevation of 3,000 ft., are com- 
 monly clothed with woods, especiallj' evergreen, 
 oak, and chestnut. The upper parts of the principal 
 range have, in general an arid soil, or are formed 
 of bare rocks, of fant^istic forms, and destitute of 
 vegetation, except a few stunted bushes. The 
 whole range is poor in metals, none of them oc- 
 curring, except iron ore in a few places, and of 
 bad quality. But in many places excellent 
 marble is met with, and in a few it is worked. 
 
 The higher parts of the Apennines begin to be 
 covered with snow in October, and they are not 
 entirely free from it before June. It is deserving 
 of remark, that the quantity of rain falling in the 
 countries E. of the range is much less than that 
 \vith which those on the W. are favoured. In tlie 
 plain of Puglia the rain amounts only to about 
 19 inches annually, whilst in that of Terra di 
 I.avoro it is 27 inches. 
 
 The countries lying VV. of the range are subject 
 to frequent earthquakes, and even some i)arts of 
 the range itself are visited by them. An earth- 
 quake in the country lying about Mount Matese 
 oi'curred in 1805. by which 8,271 [jersons lout their 
 lives, and l..'iI3 were wouiuUul. 
 
 APENKADE, a sea-port town of the Duchy of 
 Schleswig, (Jennany, at the bottom of a Ijay of 
 the same name on the £, coast, opposite to the N, 
 
 APPKNZELL 
 
 end of the island of Alsen ; lat, li3° '2' '>'" \ i,. 
 9° 2(1' 38" E, i'op, 4.100 in l«(i1. It is tiii-'L, I;, 
 a bailiwick. Its port is shallow, and not v('r\' >ii, 
 but it has, notwithstanding, a consiilcrulili. tr>,L 
 in the export, of agricultural produce, witi, ,||' 
 tilleries, breweries, and tanneries. ltcMirt,.,| .„ 
 from June to September forse/i-bathiiiK. 
 
 AP01J)A,a town of thelJrand I)u(•lly(lfS,^x^ 
 W('imar, Oermnny, 9 J m, NE. Weimar, }'■, 
 7,732 in lH(il, It has a castle, a ciillcj;i.. wjii/j 
 iK'll-foundrv. fabrics of cloth and cassimerc, amMn 
 tilleries. lis fairs, four annually, are well attcinW 
 
 APPKNZELI, (Canton (ik), a caniciii h, ,i^ 
 NIC, |>nrt of Switzerland, th(! l.'lth in tlii> (,'„f,f,. 
 deration. It is coinpletely enclosed wiihin il, 
 t(frritory of St, tJall, and is sliap«'(l soiiii'tliin;;liU 
 a ham. tlu^ knuckle end stretching N'K..\\itf,i 
 area. l;')3 sq. m. (7'2 ( Jenn.). Pop. (ill,!!-.'! in i*j 
 or 'M')'y.i to th(^ sq. in. Its surface consists tliifii, I 
 of mountain ranges; those of tlu- S. Iicl(iii!rii,„t, 
 the higher Alps; the j)rincipal of wliiWi/i>J 
 IIocli Seiilis, is 8,109 ft, liigh, but bavin;; its, irj. 
 niit covered with perjietual snow: most iff iJ 
 others belong to the Lower or Fore-Alps ,<„\ 
 Switzkui.and), which enclose niu>ieriiin -ni. 
 valleys. It is watered by several rivulet-, m 
 chief of which is the Sitter, ruiining tl roiyh j;, 
 centre; there are also several siiinll iniinntiiil 
 lakes. The prevailing geol >gieal I'lirmiuiun m 
 calcareous; Im!- pudding-stone and samly (iribil 
 soils are likewise found. Cliniale ciilil ami urii 
 able, but not unhealthy. TIk! mineral riihp*j| 
 the canton consist of ]ieaf. and coal: sa't, ciiali 
 bcate, and sulphurous springs are met with, s<«| 
 of which, as those of Weissbad near AjJiioiUfJ 
 and Waldstatt near Ilerisan, .are used as laiJ 
 Its forests, mostly of pine and lir, oriifiimllv rj.f 
 tended over the whole surrounding Cduiitrv; hi 
 their extent has been greatly diminisheil witli iJ 
 increase of population and cultivation; aiiiliiiil 
 animals, game, lisli, &c., have become pro|wrtiii-l 
 ally rare. Before the Hcformatioii, the wkJ 
 canton wa.'i under one governmei.t; hni at iLiI 
 epoch, part of the inhab. haviii', emliractil iljj 
 Protestant faith, while the other ]iart ciiiiiiiiiiJ 
 Catholics, violent disputes were kiiulled \whJ^ 
 them, which after much contest, were at Icmii 
 settled by a singular compromise, Hyauai.'n 
 ment in l.')97, the canton was divided iiitu n 
 portions — Rhodes Interior and HIkxI-h Eik 
 it was stipulated that the former should h app 
 priated to the Catholics, and the latter to lii 
 Protestants, Accordingly the two parties sf 
 rated, and formed two indenendent denuionitiii 
 republics, having each a distinct system of j] 
 veriiment, police, and linance. Exterier or Om 
 lihodes, coniprLses about two-thirds of thewhiij 
 cant(m (its N, and VV. parts), and has ■\>i,(i)iA 
 hab,, engaged chiefly in manufacturer; Ira 
 Rhodes has 2,020 inhnb,, principally aj,md 
 turists. Both republics have but one viiteim 
 Swiss Diet, and send their deputy hy turns 
 cept in a few districts at the N E. extremity, 
 penzell produces neither corn nor wine; but I 
 mountains abound with rich pastures, aiulcaiiij 
 breeding forms the chief occupation of ilie ki 
 Rhodes, 15,000 cows and oxen, 000 sheep.! 
 2,000 goats are fed there annually, it beiel 
 practice to jnircliase them when lean, ami 
 them again when fattened : cheese, beer. aiii| 
 liqueur made from a fine kind of black chemi 
 the other iiroducts of the agricultural dl-ffl 
 The manufactures of the Outer I.Miodesarorta 
 and linen goods, and embroidery : there are slfl 
 10,000 looms, by means of which are woven ami 
 rage of the same number of pieces of cluih kf 
 ells in length. Machinery has not been intn)J»' 
 
 infnyft^ 'vork from 
 Hnv, ThfV are dir 
 Liiiliiiiewi'th their I 
 M «mnil fanners, be 
 Ihrir lamilieM, 
 
 The houses are di 
 
 ■rmieiice, and clenni 
 
 niih Karileii.<) and I 
 
 Jver the country, gi 
 
 jf|iert. \\'cavers gen 
 
 [if.xd. to !»». 2rf,) pc 
 
 OiiKT litioiles has I 
 
 lii'l n f,Taii(l c(Miiicil 
 
 W'i^trales of each 
 
 hviic a year, and es 
 
 riie errand council |ir( 
 
 Bieiii for approval to i 
 
 tscmlily ofall tlie ma 
 
 <>n years of iigc, win 
 
 ay in April, in the o 
 
 |iul iheir veto on th 
 
 «iipei>, il'c., are pi 
 
 fiiiillies are iinpos(>d 
 
 the 1,'ovenimeiit of t 
 
 Ve|i( that the cler^ 
 
 jiatiiiiiii'iiiulereiglitei 
 
 fviilin;; in the geiien 
 
 universally cstalii 
 
 iiliments of ediu'ntio 
 
 ni,iii;; are taught, 
 
 kit.'.ated. Savings' 1 
 
 llalilishod in every ji 
 
 jiK orphan a.sylums j 
 
 Itioii.t. The Appenzt 
 
 of (iernian, those c 
 
 tninre simtheni linear 
 
 llpllif;eiit, and exliib 
 
 nity, and, with few ^ 
 
 oral, well-behaved, pi 
 
 («le of life. 
 
 [In the seventh or ei; 
 
 fip hestowed this coi 
 
 and it remained s 
 
 pun the inhabitants re 
 
 lie of their iicighlmur 
 
 lliifved their liberty, 
 
 ' the forces of the 
 
 jtnt.s. In 1.513 it wf 
 
 peration, with the 
 
 Wf|iiently connected 
 
 \P1'EXZELI,, a town ( 
 
 pell, cap. Inner Khoi 
 
 h council, in a pleasai 
 
 Ithe Sitter, 9 m, S. St, 
 
 lis dirty and ill-built; 
 
 Ih'CO, which contains 
 
 inerw.irs by the App 
 
 hmoil house ; and tw 
 
 ^c annual general Asser 
 
 ippA!""" ^* "•• '^^ « 
 ftilliN, an cxtensivi 
 
 i'J'l" (which see). 
 miEm, a borong 
 %'land, CO, VVestmore 
 230 m. NNVV. Lon 
 '•;'ftowii,9(;0,ofpar. 
 neipally on the left I 
 J* nf a hill, and cons 
 reUiavrng the castle 
 >li church at the low( 
 p.v <'f the earls of Tlia 
 Jg either of Saxon oi 
 
 f; hut It was mostly rel 
 ! rebuilt in l(!f,5, by 
 pfaeiresa of the town 
 rndwl to the Thanct 
 r'lment to her ladv^ 
 
AI'PIN 
 
 rMvers work from tliirtpt-n to foiirtorn 'loiirs n 
 
 ,v Thev nrc diHiKTMcd ovor tim ('(nintry, nnd 
 
 ■ 'liiiiP wi'tli tliflir lniMiiicMs an maiiuracturcrH tlmt 
 
 H *ni«ll fnrincrH, being, in each case, assintcd by 
 
 fhoir familinn. , . ,. 
 
 The hoiiHca are distmpuisned by neatness, con- 
 
 onit'iMC, and I'lennlincKH ; and being Hiirrounded 
 
 iih parilons and bed(rfi», and thickly Hcattcrod 
 
 iver ilip country, give it Honicwhat of an Knglixli 
 
 iiocl. WcaverH generally earn from 2 to 6 fiorins 
 
 ;l,,.Hr/. tn9«.2rf.) per week. 
 
 OiiiiT KlioilcH lias coninninal and lessei- councils, 
 
 iiiil a {iTumi council, composed of the principal 
 
 aciritratcs of each commune, wliicli assembles 
 
 iviio a vcar, and exerci.scs the execulivo power. 
 
 lie frraiid onuucil (iroposes the lawn, and submits 
 
 iriii tbrnpi>r(pv«l to the Inndngemntide, or general 
 
 scinlily olall tlio males of the" republic above six- 
 
 II years nf age, who meet armed on tlie last Sun- 
 
 vin Ajiril, in tlie open air, and either sanction, 
 
 iiiii their vrto on the laws proposed. Hankrupis, 
 
 iiipori, itc, are j)rcclu(ied from voting; and 
 
 naltios are inipoHed on others who do not attend. 
 
 f ;;iivcrnni('iit of the Inner Hhodes is similar, 
 
 •p|it that the clergy take more part in it, nn<l 
 
 aliiiiiii' under eighteenyearsof age have the right 
 
 voting in tiic general assembly. Public schools 
 
 universally established; in which, after the 
 
 liiments of education, arithmetic, drawing, and 
 
 ill},' are taught. Music is very generally 
 
 Iti.iited. Savings' banks and poor-houses arc 
 
 iMliiislied in every j)arish, and there are niime- 
 
 iisorpiiau asylums on<l other charitable insti- 
 
 ilimw. The Appenzellers of the Outer Khodcs 
 
 iif (iornian, those of the Inner lihodcs chietly 
 
 more southern lineage; all, however, are livelj', 
 
 itdlifjent, and exhibit much mechanical inge- 
 
 iiy, and. with few excei)tions, are said to be 
 
 irai, well-behaved, prudent, and simple in their 
 
 «ie (if life. 
 
 In the i^eventh or eighth century, the Frankish 
 iifis k'stowed this country on the abbots of St. 
 11, and it remained subject to them until MOl, 
 iiiii the inhabitants revolted, and, with the assist- 
 iif (iftheir neighbours of Glaiirus and Schwvtz, 
 |hicv«l their liberty, defeating the Austrians 
 the forces of the abbot in several engagc- 
 nts. In 1513 it was admitted into the con- 
 icralinn, with the history of which it is 
 iseqiiently coiniected. 
 
 ri'ENZBLi., a town of Switzerland ; cant. Ap- 
 
 izell, cap. Inner Khodes, and scat of its execu- 
 
 e ciiiincil, in a pleasant valley on the left bank 
 
 the Sitter, 9 m. S. St. (lall. Pop. 3,277 in l.stiO. 
 
 isdirtyand ill-built; has a (iothic church, built 
 
 1IIG9, which contains various baimers taken in 
 
 erwars by the Appenzellers; two convents; 
 
 miincil house ; and two bridges over the Sitter. 
 
 le annual general assembly of the republic is held 
 
 About 2J m. S. are the baths of Weissbad. 
 
 PPIX, an extensive district, of Scotland, co. 
 
 ^-jlc (which see). 
 
 API'LEBY', a borough, m. town, and par. of 
 
 land, CO. Westmoreland, of which it is the 
 
 , 230 m. NNVV. London, 28 m. SSE. ('arlisle. 
 
 oftowni, 9()0, of par. 2,824, in 1 8fil . It stands 
 
 loipally on the left bank of the river, on the 
 
 of a liill, and consists chietly of one broad 
 
 t, having the castle at the upper end, and the 
 
 *li eliiirch at the lower. The former, the pro- 
 
 y of the earls of Thanct, is very ancient, |)art 
 
 g either of Saxon or early Norman arcbitec- 
 
 1 hut itwiis mostly rebuilt in lOSO. The church 
 
 ribnilt in IGfio, by Lady Pembroke, a great 
 
 idkiress of the town, from whom the castle 
 
 diileil to the Tbanet fa;nily. and hns a line 
 
 iiiument to her ladyship, 'fhere is a good 
 
 APULIA 149 
 
 market-houRO crecte<l in 1811; and a town-hall 
 and giud on the right bank of the river, which is 
 here crossed by an old stone bridge. Applcbv had 
 a grammar-school, Amnded in the reign of hliza- 
 bcth, ofK'n to all children l)olonging to the town 
 on payment of a fee of lOn. ayear, and having 
 attached to it livesclKdarsbips at Queen's (^oUegc, 
 Oxford, and a right to participate in as many ex- 
 hibitions in the same college. It has also nn 
 almshouse, founded by Lady Pembroke, for thirteen 
 i)oor widows. Previously to the passing of Mio 
 Kcform Act, when it was disfranchised, Appleby 
 returned two m, to the II. of t!. ; but they were in 
 reality the nominees of the Tlmnet and Lonsdaln 
 families. The town is without manufactures, but 
 has a good market. It is the seat of the assizes 
 for th(^ county, and of quarter and petty sessions, 
 
 APT (an. Ajitn Julia), a town of France, dep. 
 Vaucluse, cap. arr(md., on the ('anion, 20 m. 
 KSI-:. Avignon, lat. 43° 2' 29" N.,long. 5° 23' r>2" E. 
 Pop. 5,78.') in 1801. The town is situated in a 
 spacious valley, surrounded by hills covered with 
 vines and (dives. The walls originally c(mstrncte(l 
 by the Romans, and repaired by the Conitcs dc 
 Provence, still partially exist. 'I'lic older streets 
 are narrow, crooked, and the houses mean ; but 
 the more modern streets are broad and straight, 
 and the hiuises comparatively good. Principal 
 public biiihling, cathedral of great anti(]uity, 
 and remarkable for its subterranean chnfuds. A 
 bridge over the Canhm, of a single arch, is said 
 to be itonnuntr par »a hardlttsse. There are esta- 
 blishments for the spinning of cotton and silk, 
 with fabrics, (if cloth, hosier^', cotton-stutfs, hat.s, 
 and earthenware; the latter, and the cimjiturea 
 made here, being highly esteemed. Several re- 
 mains of Homan works are found in the town and 
 its vicinity. 
 
 APULIA, PUGLIA, or APUGLIA, a portion 
 of S. Italy, lying between 3<.»o 4.V and 41° 40' N. 
 lat., and 14° 57' and 18° 34' E. long., c(mij)rising the 
 SK. provinces of the fonncr kingdom of Naples; 
 \\'/ (.'apitanata, Bari, and Otranto; having NVV. 
 tl:. |)rov. Sannio, NF. the Adriatic, SK. the Ionian 
 Sea, S\V. and W. the Gulf of Taranto and the 
 ])rovs. of liasilicata and Principata Ultra. Area, 
 8.0!t2 sq. m. Pop., 1802, l,31.'),2«!t, being an in- 
 < lease of 80,422 since the census of 1848. It 
 hiis, at it« S, extremity, the sub-peninsula of 
 Otranto, which forms the lieel of the fancied Ita- 
 lian boot; and on its NF. shore the promontory 
 of (iargano. Although it has 440 m. of coast, it 
 is singularly deticicnt in b(\'s aiul harbours, and 
 the shores are low; forming in both respects a 
 great contrast to the SW. shores of NapU^s, 
 
 Puglia ])resents also a striking contrast to Cala- 
 bria, and the SVV. prov. of Naples, in being almost 
 whidly a plain coimtry, and iiuleed containing by 
 far the most considerable extent of level lands of 
 any tract of the same size S. of the Po. It is 
 divided into I'm/lia piana, and Pvglia montana; 
 tlie latter is conqiosed of the Apennine chain, 
 LOr) m. in length, wlii(;h, emerging from Basili- 
 cata. runs through the 'IVra di IJari and Otranto 
 to the extremity of the latter, and of the Garga- 
 nese, and other branches chietly in the N. and W. 
 of Capifanata. The mountains of Bari and 
 Otranto are much loss elevated than the Apen- 
 nines in any other region. The plains in the N. 
 are pretty well watered, while those of the central 
 and S. ])arts are nnnnrkably destitute of water, 
 forming another contrast to the sidj-|)cniusula of 
 Calabria on the opposite side of the Gulf of 
 Taranto. C'hief rivers, Candclaro, with its tribu- 
 tary streams, Kadicosa,Tri(do, Salsnla, an(lC(done ; 
 and the Cervaro, both of which run into the La- 
 gime Pantano Salr-o; the Fortore, Carapella, and 
 
 'It %'•* 
 
 il>,.'n;i 
 
 :; "I, Kfc 
 
 
 l^if 
 
 W'^'^ 
 
 m 
 
 <: » iW. '■ • 
 
 'k .*' ES' 
 
 
 fmy.. 
 
I,'' 
 
 nil K 
 
 Ml 
 
 I JH ■.) 
 
 
 «ifc 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 iifi:!lKl»' 
 
 i'li.?i 
 
 t 
 
 IS 
 
 p...., ■,.! 
 
 
 11 iN |ii--f^ 
 
 IIIIIfyii:M 
 
 '!««l|i»i|:I^.nl 
 
 l! ■' i) ■:■ 
 
 ml 
 
 :';r'!, 
 
 IffO 
 
 APULIA 
 
 Ofmito, which di»rhnr>;o. tlirniHolvM Into the Ail- 
 riatic, nil in Ihf |)ri)viiir(>ol'('ii|iilnimtii; tliclnttcr 
 riviT is tlip only one i)i>t ilricil iip ili.riiiK Niitnnicr, 
 On its liiiiiks iicnr (.'aiiiic, was fought Ihtt fiiinoiiH 
 haltlc (il'Cuimm (xw Cann.k). Tlu'iicc loC. St, 
 Maria ili Lfiica, a tract Hill in. in Icnutli, thcru 
 arc only a lew insi^'niticant HtrcaniH, I'licrc arc 
 no lakcK, lint several la^nncs of sonic si/.c, alonf^ 
 tlic shore round unit near M. (iarpino, as those of 
 Lesina (14 ni. lon^^ ami I) ni. Iiroad), Varnno, 
 I'antaiio Salso, and Salpi ; nii<l n few Hniullcr ones 
 near 'rnranto. 
 
 Apulia is divided into the provinces of Capitn- 
 nata, ptip.:tl'J,lK."); Terra ili Ilari, pop. 00 1,1112; and 
 Otranto, pop. II7,1)h2. 'I'Iic chief town in Capi- 
 tanata is Fo^^^ia, poji. IM.nrri; in Terra di Itari, 
 Itari ill.lli;;!; Ilarletta •ii\J>'.>2 ; Moiiopoli I'/iOo; 
 Trani '>->,7i>> ; Itilonto 2:t,«;fJ ; M<illilla 2l,!t.">H ; 
 niuK'orato'JI.Mo"; and in Otranto, Taranto27,IMl, 
 J.ccce •JI,;il.'», and Fraiicavilla I7,<>(III. 
 
 .'IsiH'ft und Aiiriciiltiire. — Much of the land Ih 
 uncultivated and aliandoned to wanderiiif; herds 
 of oxen and liiitfaloes: in otiier parts a piod deal 
 of corn of dill'ereiit kinds is frrown ; lint niai/.e does 
 not generally flourish, owiiifj to the dryness of the 
 noil. Corn and wocd arc the chief products of 
 Capitanata, which also produces plenty of wine 
 and oil. III this prov. lands are let in lar;;c tracts, 
 and a ramie or larj;e house estahlishcd upon each 
 fann, in which the iKjente and laliourcrs reside. 
 Tiiere are also extensive^ tnvolicre or pasture lands 
 lie'oiininf; to the crown, capahle of feeding; as many 
 as 1,2(1(1,(100 sheep. The centre of Capitanata has 
 a snndy soil, and consists chielly of pasture. From 
 F'l'KKin to Manfrcdonia this tract aliounds with 
 thisth's, asphodels, wiltl artichokes, and giant- 
 fennel, of the stalks of which latter chair-hottoins 
 and licc-liives are made. On the hanks of the 
 Cervnro the mountains are chitlied with line woods, 
 and thickets of tloweriiiK shruhs; near Uovino the 
 ]>lain is wooded with htw stimted oaks; n forest of 
 oak, manna and other ash, jiitch-pine, chestnut, 
 and cverjjrcens (hut none of them lar|;;c) adorns 
 M. Gargano ; the country is well cultivated at its 
 foot. Capitanata produces excellent A'e;;etal)lcs, 
 M'ine, and fruit of all sorts, lii|U(iricc and tohacco. 
 A finmt deal of wine is produced in the Terra di 
 Jtari ; the vines are cut low, hut not staked a.s in 
 France ; it is fertile in corn, oil. satFron, almonds, 
 tohacco, mnllierry-trecs, liipiorice, and capers, 
 generally without manure, though in some jiarts 
 th(! soil is hilt indill'erent. Its slieep (all of n dark 
 colour) furnish the best wool in Apuglia; goats 
 and swine are kept in large numhers. This prov. 
 yields also, aninially, l,()(iO,000 mofigic of salt, and 
 12,000 cwts. of nitre. It yields wine, olives, cot- 
 ton (good and aliinjdant), wheat siitiicieiit for the 
 inhali. ; the nralih; lands are well culli\ate(l, hut 
 there are no artificial pastures, and much of the 
 land lies waste. The chief natural disadvantage 
 if lahours under is the want of water, and tiie rain 
 that falls is therefore carefully i)reserved in sub- 
 terraneous cisterns. 
 
 The hilly jiarts of Apuglia feed many flocks, 
 and produce an ahundance of corn, oil, colton, and 
 flax; which latter is ex|)ortcd to Venice, (Jermany, 
 and Switzerland. The shore is generally sandy, 
 micultivated, and covered with hushes, wild ])runes, 
 myrtles, ericie, Ikr.. that serve as food for oxen and 
 hnflalocs. The whole coinitry, in Hari and Otranto, 
 abounds with aromafic plants; and botli the wines, 
 and flesh of souic of the animals, as the butl'aloes, 
 have an aroniaiic- tla\ mir. I'uglia is famous for 
 its deer and otlicr gain(! : (he sport -iinen run down 
 hares with grcyhonuils, and pursue the wild-boar 
 with lurchers and mastiffs, riding armed with a 
 liuice and brace of pistols. The shores abont 
 
 AQUILEIA 
 
 Tnranto fuminh large (pinnlities of shell-fi^h, T*. 
 viper, asp, a species of large black snake, niiij \i 
 tarantula infest thix part of Italy. 
 
 The dyeing of wool is an imp^irtnnt hrnnrhff 
 industry at Taranto; the inlernni commcrre ,1 
 A|mglia, of which Foggia is the hcad-(|imrt(r,(„i,. 
 sists (diielly in 1 he sale of wool, uhecito (from shcm,, 
 milk), anil corn. '' 
 
 The country is quite healthy, the peojilo ii,,!,,^ 
 trioiiM, peaeealde, and handsome. Alaiiy df tiif,, 
 in various districts are (Ireeks or AlhaiiiniiH; i^ 
 iK'ing, in the Terra d'Otranto, one-fourth nf ih, I 
 whole : they preserve their original custoiiK.dr,,^ 
 and religion, and occupy themselves in coiiun. 
 weaving. 
 
 This territory was originally called Daunii, 
 lapygia, reiuietia, and Messapia, and fornioil kvt 
 of Magna Ciriecut. Having fallen under tlu' Ijuniaj 
 dominion, Augustus made it the third pniv. 1^ 
 Italy, niuler the name of Apulia. After tlu; U\,{ 
 the empire in the \V,, it was occupied succfiwivciv 
 by Oihiacer, The(Mloric, and the Oreek (■m|Kn.ri, 
 till, in the eighth century, it wius wrested f'njniiht 
 latter by the Arabs; and from them in turn IiviIk 
 Nonnans, in the 11th century; Jtobert (iiiiiarj 
 styling himself (irst Count or I)ukc of Ai)ii),'lia. li 
 continued in the possession of IiIh succcsiuir!* til] 
 the death of Manfred, at the battle of Uoncvcnt^ 
 in I2M2, when it fell under the dominion of (.'liar|« 
 of Anjon, as well as the rest of the Ncnpulim 
 territory. Its subsequent history belongs tn ih« 
 of N oples, with which it wa« incorporated, in lw;i, 
 into tiie kingdom of Italy. (l{ampohli,C()r(i);niiii 
 deir Italia ; Swinburne's Travels in the I») 
 Sicilii!s ; and Consular Reports.) 
 
 At^UILA, a city of Southern Italy, cap. prov, 
 Abruzzo I'ltra, on a hill at the foot of whidi tion 
 the AHerno. lat. 42° 27' N., hing. liP 2«' K. 1',,;^ 
 1.5,7;)2 :n 1(<*)1. The town is surrounded by wi'k 
 and ranks i»s a fortifinl jilace of the fourth dw; 
 is pretty well built; ha* a cathedral, and varjnoj 
 churches, conyents, am? lunspitals; is the scat 0(1 
 bishopric, of a civil and criminal court, a cliamlw 
 of finances, &c. A royal college, esmliiishdl & 
 Sulmona in 1807, was transferred thither in \%: 
 it was soon after raised ti> the rank of a Ivrtiiii, 
 differing little from a university, and is aiimW 
 by about 400 pupils. There is also a swniiilui 
 school, cstablistied in 17(W, and various othcrstnii- 
 naries. A handsome new theatre, Imilt on ibi 
 model of that of Viccn/.a, was opened in iKil 
 Kxcellent water, conveyed from the Mimte Su 
 Ginliano, about three miles distant, by an aqiK- 
 duct, constructed at a great expense, diirin); lit 
 flourishing jjcriod of the city, is liberally ilistrilmii 
 to some line public fountains, as well as [irivwj 
 houses. The town has manufactures of liimiaiill 
 wax ; and a considerable trade in saflrun rai*iii 
 its neighbourhood. 
 
 Aquila was founded in 1240; and ruse inn 
 long time to be one of the richest, most iiopiilois 
 and powerful cities in the king(h>m. Hut m 
 combined influenced of misgovernment,pcstilfnrti 
 war, and earthquakes, from the latter of wliich it 
 sufl'ercd severely in 170it and 170(i, have ruM 
 it to its present state of decadence. I,utterh',li)t- 
 evc, •'^ has been improving 
 
 AQUILKIA, n small town of Austrian Italj, 
 near the bottom of the Adriatic, 1« ni. SSlf, 
 Gorizia, 22 m. WNVV. Trieste, lat. l,".o|.V;Ji'.\,l 
 hing. liJ<^23'E. I'op. l,7.'Win llS'iH. It is siirnniiiW 
 by a wall and a fosse, and is connected liy ;ir(uiil| 
 with the port of Grado, the residence of altwii? 
 ermen. This Ls all that now rcmahis of one "HI 
 principal cities of ancient Italy — its chief biihv 
 on its Nli. frontier, and the great emporiuiii nl 
 trade with the nations of lUyria and raiiiw«»| 
 
ARABIA 
 
 151 
 
 Auiioniiw wisij{n«''l t" '' *'"* ninth plnco nmonj; the 
 
 c-rcatfiliPHol'thocnipiro:— 
 
 Xnn» Intpr clnrnii, Aqiillnia cinhorid, nrhoa, 
 italniv) lll.vrii!<>H objiHitu (x)loiila montcH, 
 MirnlbiiH ct porta ccloU'irliim. Clarm ('rbt», 7. 
 
 Aqiiilvin witliHt<HNl n Hip^e l>y MAximinii!* ; and 
 in 4'>"- it <'I'|x»*'''' * vin'TouH anil ^allnnt rcwHtnnco 
 I til Attil« i ''"' "'*' '"•'''"»'i'>n having; cnrried it by 
 n^^ult, razed it to tlie p-iiuud, the d«»triictioii 
 ln'inir HO cdinplptfl that tlio Hiu-ceedin); ^cnvrntion 
 foiild wart'cly diHcovcr its Hite. The iiiiiu>altlii- 
 no.tn i>f iti* ititxation hax oaiiHod the miMcarriaKo of 
 tho attPinptH that have been made for itH rextora- 
 tion. In I "5 1, two arc'hliish<)i)ricH were formed 
 out of tlie natriarohatc of Aqiiileia. 
 
 AKAHIA, an c:.,cn»ivc pcnniHula, comj)riHin>; 
 
 the SW. |M)rtion of tho A.siatie continent, Httiiated 
 
 Uiwccn the rent of Asia and Africa, and hctwecn 
 
 li-o fi and 3;(0 45' N. lat., and 82° />(»' and SHO 
 
 I ii E. lonp. It if lM>undo<l on the S. and K. hy 
 
 jth»t part of the Indian Ocean calkHl the Araldan 
 
 Lspa; on the NK. hv the (lulfs of Oman and Ter- 
 
 Ifia; and on the W. tho Aral)ic (Julf, or Hed ,Sea, 
 
 Ifiirras its bonndary from the Straits of IJah-el- 
 
 IMaiuifb to the iHthmus of Snez. The N. limit is 
 
 I IfM olearly defined; the dcHcrt in which Arabia 
 
 Itorminatcs i." this direction being conterminous 
 
 Iwith that of Syria, and no well-dclined line of 
 
 Idimarcation axisting between them. The most 
 
 liiatiiral boundary on this side ap|)earH to he a line 
 
 Idrami from the head of the Persian Oulf to the 
 
 Vami westerly |Miint of that of Suez, coinciding 
 
 Iven- nearly with the 34th parallel of N. lat. ; but 
 
 lit is usiml'to include in this country a considerable 
 
 Ipartof Irak Arabia, and the desert, plains S. and K. 
 
 |i)f Svria and Palestine ; and under this view, the 
 
 Is. iKiundarj' follows verv nearly the course of the 
 
 lEuphratcs. ' The countries contiguous to Arabia 
 
 tare, (in the N. the Asiatic provinces of the Turkish 
 
 Empire; on the W. I'^gypt and Abyssinia; on the 
 
 p, Adel, the most easterly portion of Africa ; and 
 
 iDn the XK. Persia. On the K., except along the 
 
 Peniian Gulf, the nearest land is Ilindostan. Us 
 
 viesi length from Suez to Cape Kas-al-Hhad is 
 
 90 ni., and its greatest width from the Straits 
 
 bif Balvel-Slandcb to the town of Keyham on the 
 
 Euphrates, 1,400 m. Its area, measured on D'An- 
 
 rillc's maj), is about 1,100,000 sq. m. ((.'ompare 
 
 P'Anville, Carte d'Asie, with Travels of Ali l$ey, 
 
 p, p, 9 ; Map of the Coast of Arabia, same work, 
 
 up. 27.) 
 
 Diminns, Ancient and Modern. — From the 
 
 irhcst period of authentic history, Arabia has 
 
 m the connecting link between the K. an<l the 
 
 world. It was the mart whence the Phte- 
 
 licians drew the supplies of g(dd and silver, gems 
 
 Ind pearls, sj ices and perfumes, with which they 
 
 jimiihed the countries of Kurope. And even be- 
 
 pre this more extensive intercourse existed — be- 
 
 pre Phoenicia was a nation, or her ' traitickers 
 
 rincesi,' the Arabian caravan wa.s seen ujyon the 
 
 Kile, air' on the borders of Palestine, iaden with 
 
 p most rare and precious products. (Genesis, 
 
 I. xxxvii.) That these were only partially, if 
 
 all, native prinlucts of Arabia, is sufHciently 
 
 ■ovcd; but the W. nations, who received them 
 
 lom Arabia, looked at first no farther for their 
 
 tigin. Exaggerated notions were formed of the 
 
 jfauty of a laud whent;c such precious luxuries 
 
 Iw procured, and the term T.vHaiixuii; Felix, or 
 
 le Happy, became connected with its name. Ihit 
 
 incii, in the course of time, the (ireeks first, and 
 
 Im the Komans, camo to this fancied paradise, 
 
 li;y I'mmd the st)ll, wherever they essayed to 
 
 Iter the countr}-, a burning sand or an unfruitful 
 
 Vk. The nossiliility of an erroneous theory Avas, 
 
 ki«ever, seldom admitted by ancient infpurer.s. 
 
 Arabia was still believed to l)c the Happy or For- 
 tunate, but its blisxliil regions were sup|ioM-d to 
 Ik! separated from the less favoured portions of 
 the earth by an absolutely sterile /.one or belt. 
 All the country K. of Kgypt had, indeed, Im-cii 
 known, time imnu'inorial, by the conmiou tunnu 
 Arnltid; aiul this desifrimtion iM-ing still retained, 
 the inhospitable tracts on the N. and \V. received 
 the distinctive epithet of Kprj/ii. /fenertu, or tho 
 Desert. (Mercxhitus, Thalia, §tj 107-1 13; Dio- 
 <lorus Siculus, lib. ii. pp. loO-liii', lib. iii. pp. 'Jl 1- 
 'Jlt'i; Strabo, lib. xvi. pp. 7(»7-7Hl ; Pliny, Nat. 
 Hist., lib. V. § 11.) 
 
 Ptolemy subsequently ailded a third division to 
 Arabia, including the coinitry between the Hed 
 an<t Dead Seas, and iM'tween Palestine and tho 
 Kupbrates: in other words, he gave to his Arabia 
 the N. limit which, since bis time, it has gene- 
 rally l)een considered as retaining. To this new 
 district he gave the name of Arahia I'etrwii, from 
 llcrpa, a town on the lesser Jordan, south of tho 
 Dead Sea, and the capital of the Nnbat beans. 
 (See Pktua.) This division of the country by 
 the Greco-Koman geographers was universnlly 
 ado))ted, not only by their contemporaries, but by 
 all the western nations in the middle ages. On 
 the revival of learning, the great work .if Ptcdemy 
 was taken as the text-book of geography, and his 
 arrangements were univer.sa''v ado)ited. Kven 
 Gibbon was deceived by tb . * It is singular 
 enough,' he remarks, ' that a countrj- whose lan- 
 guage and inhabitants have ever been the same, 
 should scarcely retain a vestige of its old geo- 
 graphy,' (Dec. and Fall, v. chap. .50.) Hut he 
 forgot that this ' old geography ' was the invention 
 of foreign nations, po.s.s(!ssing neither p(ditical 
 powbr nor influence over the wandering Arab trii)e,s, 
 ni almost total ignorance of the settled portion of 
 the Arab people, and, con-sefpu-ntly, without the 
 means of making their divisions known among 
 the natives, still le.ss of causing them to be adopted. 
 The fact remarked by (iibbon of the idcmtity of 
 the people and language in ancient and modern 
 times, leads, indeed, irresistibly to the conclusion 
 that an ' old qenyraphy,' of which the natives retain 
 neither vestige nor recollection,- never had an 
 existence among them, and that the ancient 
 Arabic divisions of this country are as identical 
 an the people and the language with those exi.sting 
 in the present day. These native divisions are 
 the following : — 
 
 1. Bar-el-tour-Sinai (the Desert of M<iunt Sinai), 
 nearly identical with the Aralua Petraa of Ptole- 
 my. It comprises the small iieniiisula between 
 the Gulfs of Suez and Akaliab, and the country 
 northward as far as the Dead Sea. This is tho 
 region .so celebrated in Sacred Hi.story as the scene 
 of the wanderings of the Jewish people ; but, 
 though it may bo gathered from the Mosaic ac- 
 count that it was tlien the residence of several 
 warlike tuitions, it is, at present, nearly uninha- 
 bited. (Ni.'buhr, par. ii. p. 345.) 
 
 2. El-Heiljaz, or the Ijand of Pilgrimage, oc- 
 cupies a considerable portion of the coast of the 
 Hed Sea. It.i boiindarii' ■ are K. Nedsjed, W. the 
 lied Sea, S. Ynnen, and N. Bar-el-tour- Sinai and 
 Nedsjed. This district ai.'knowledges a sort of 
 doubtful .lutbcrity in the grand Signior .as pro- 
 tector of the hilly cities (Blecca and Medina) ; but 
 tho.xe cities, aid the whole southern part of lledjaz, 
 called Beled-el- Harem (Holy or Forbidden Lund) 
 were, till within these few years, under the go- 
 vcmnicnt of the sheriff of lilccca. The sberitr.'j 
 (HHver, lias, however, of late been much shaken ; 
 first by the VN'ababees, a fanatical sect of Ned.sjed, 
 and more recently by Mehenict Ali, PaclLa of 
 Egypt. (Niebuhr, par. ii. p. 302; Ali Rev, ii. pp. 
 
 %, 
 
 
 'v /■■ 
 111 \ i- 
 
 ... '^'^I 
 
 If'. ' i 
 
 
 
 !• «i 
 
 
 
 :-i-lifr 
 
 
1.V2 
 
 ARAHIA 
 
 liurckhnnit'H Travclit in Arnhiii, 
 
 •> 
 
 ^N^i. 
 
 'K, 
 
 
 hii^i-h 
 
 
 
 U.y 
 
 \f ;i!: 
 
 >■.,, -ji. 
 
 If. t- 
 
 
 a!», el ii-,i.\ 
 pnimiiii.) 
 
 .'I. \eihjril roiiNtitnloK tbp cnifrnl part of thn 
 
 Itoninxiila, It In tlic Inr^i-ftt of nil Ihi! iliviNiimN. 
 t In IhiuiiiIciI N. I»y tlie- Syrinn Dcwrt, K. Iiy 
 //tirAMi, S, l>y Kcwjj-n, and W. by //«(/<«. (Nidnilir, 
 |mr. ii. i>, '1W\\ liiicklmnlt, vol. ii. p. iitH*, et mi/.) 
 
 4, Ju- Hiitmt- Lufhiia, otIierwiHt', /Mvhiui, IIaii»- 
 jiir, or Hiihreiii, lii's upon tlu! I'l-rumti Oiilf. ItH 
 iMniiulnricH arc, towanlH tli« N. tlio ooinitry of 
 Irak Arahi, VV. NrdnJKfl, S. Oman, and l'<. the 
 IVrMinii (liilf. (Niflmlir, iiar. ii. i>. "ilW.) 
 
 /). Omnn M IxmiKlcd N. by tlio IVrnian (lulf 
 ami lAuhm, K. Iiy the (iiilf "of Oman, W. and S. 
 by van! Handy dr»«<rt» (j)artH of \fihjfd and //«- 
 Hrnmnuf), in the inidNt of which il HormH to rJNO 
 liko a little knot of inountainH out of an extuUHivc 
 »i<a. (Nieltulir, par. ii. p. 2M.) 
 
 (>. Hiirtrumaut fomiN Ihc SIC. divittion of Arabia, 
 and In bounddd N. and NK. by the DcHcrtM of 
 Keditjed and Omnn, S. and Sh. by the (iidf of 
 Aden and the Arabian .Sea, and VV. by Yemen. 
 (Niebubr, par. ii. j). 245.) 
 
 7. Vemen, the Houthem part of the peninnula, 
 has the Ucrl Sea on its W. Bide, the StraitH of 
 IWvel-Mandeb and the (Julf of Aden on the S., 
 Ifndrammit on the E., and Xedsjed and Hedjaz N. 
 (Nicbuhr. par. ii. p. IfiO.) 
 
 Vemen and Hadrnmaut point out the Hituation, 
 if not the extent, of the Arabia Felix of Strain) 
 and Ptolemy. The inhabilantH regard them»elveH 
 as the chiefof all the Arabian people, cnllinp; their 
 country Bellad-d-Ulm i Bellad-ed-l)in, 'The 
 birthplace of the sciences and of relipion.' (Xie- 
 huhr, par. ii. p. 247.) Ihit the Arabia Felix of 
 Greek geography seems to have extended much 
 further N., comprising the whole of Hcdjaz and 
 Oman, together with the greater part of Lachsa, 
 and a very considerable portion of Nedsied. (Stra- 
 bo, lib. xvi. cap. 3, p. 7(i5 ; I'tolemy, lib. vi. caj). 
 7, p. 112.) The Arabia Deserta included the N. 
 parts of Ncdsjed and Lachsa. In Ptolemy's map 
 this district is separated from the former by an 
 imagiiiarv range of mountains, running from the 
 Persian ("iulf to another range, equally imaginary, 
 supposed to form the boundary between Arabia 
 Fehx and Arabia I'etrivn, The jjosition of this last- 
 mentioned province has h'^on previously pointed 
 out. 
 
 Phi/niral Features of the Country, Mountains, 
 and FUiins. — The name (Nednjed) of the central 
 and largest division of Arabia signities high or 
 elevated ground ; and the whole peninsula, as far 
 as at present explored, consists of an elevated 
 table-land, with a general inclination towards tho 
 N. and IL. 'Taken in the aggregate' says Dr. 
 Wallin, 'Nejd [ Nedsjed] presents an undulating 
 and rocky surface, intersected on the AV. by off- 
 shoots of the hilly ranges which run from the 
 western chains, and in other places varied by the 
 occurrence of broken groups, and of isolated hills 
 and peaks, apparently unconnected with each 
 other.' It is surrounded by a belt of low land, 
 varying in width from one or two days' journey 
 to a single mile or less. (Xiebuhr, par. ii. pp. 160, 
 296, li'c. ; liurckhardt, ii. p. 397, et seq.) This 
 flat belt is called Gaur or Tehama, Arabic terms 
 for a plain country ; and the W. part of Yemen, on 
 the Ke<l Sea, has received the latter name as a 
 distinctive a])pellation. A range of mountains 
 runs S. from the borders of the Dead Sea to Ye- 
 men ; the face of which is much more steep and pre- 
 cipitous towords the W. than the E. ; so that the 
 feat plain which commences immediately to the 
 of these mountains is very considerably raised 
 above the level of the sea. (Uurckhardt, ii, p. 146.) 
 The hills of Oman seem to fonn the E. shoulder 
 
 of this table-land, and the plaiuA of I.mlKn th> 
 termination of its inclination towards the IVmu 
 Oulf. (.\iebuhr, ii. iip. 'iM>, '2im.) TliLi |ii,,|, 
 plain In diversilled witli several considcrnlilp Hr- 
 vations, which cros« its surface in every (iJr<Tii„ii, 
 shooting off like braniOies or snurii fVoiii the iirjn! 
 cipnl chain. The main cham, supportiiiK 'liii 
 tahl(!-landon the \V., increases in elevatinti imi 
 extends towards the S. ; and, although it 1)8.4 iii>t 
 lH<en explored in the SK. part of the iM'uiii.^nli, 
 there can lie little doid)t that the same cimiii, aii«r 
 following the direction of the Red Sea to Vinm, 
 and lladramaut, is continued in a lino, |iarallil 
 to the Indian Ocean, as far as Oman. I.oril V|. 
 lenlia lU-scrilies that part of the E, coast of Amiiji, 
 which he saw in his vovago from India to id, 
 Hed Sea, as a sandy Ik'OcIi with a chain of mmin! 
 tains in the distance (V'oyages and Trnvdi., ii, 
 p. 12.); and Nielmhr has no doubt that the hijji 
 of (Jman form the N. termination of ilds diaig 
 (par. ii. p. 20.')). The elevations of the laiiii are 
 rather in masses than in |)eaks, and the fiwi^'mt 
 eminences of the latter kind, noticed by trllv('lll'^ 
 are referred to in terms which seem to im|ily ihu 
 they are regarded as singularities. Mouiiisilnri'li 
 an<l Sinai are, out of all comi)arison, tliv mini 
 celebrated in the world ! they are coiniecteil wiili 
 some of the most imixirtant events in sacred liLc | 
 tory ; and are regarded with feelings of rciininui 
 awe by Mohammedans as well as by Jews is,\ 
 Christians. The Sinai group is the hut crni- 
 siderable elevation towards fhe NW. of tlic mmin- 
 tuins which su|)|)ort the table-land of the intrrinr, I 
 This group fills the ])eninsula between the tiulfi 
 of Suez and Akabuh. Mount Arafat, an cminrim 
 extremelv sacred in Mohammedan estimaii(Jii, n 
 a short distance from Mecca, rises from the plain 
 country of the table-land to an elevation ni l.Vi 
 or 200 ft. It forms the centre of a natural 
 solitude, being situated in a plain aliotit thM 
 quarters of a league in diameter, and siirroiimlBl 
 by barren mountains. The compoi<itioii uf iIk 
 Arabian mountains, towards the N. anil W,, is | 
 limestone rock, with granite towards the summit*; 
 but in the higher parts of the coinitry the \m I 
 granite rises uncovered from its very base. (Ik \ 
 liurckhardt, Ali Itcy, and Niebuhr, iHtuim.) 
 
 The Gaur, or Tehama, from its regular inolini- 1 
 tion towards the sea, and the nature of itti »oil- 
 sand with saline incrustations (Nicbuhr, par. iL;^ I 
 1 Jl ; Lord Valentia, vol ii. p. 361)) — seems tohavt I 
 been under water at a comparatively recent perini I 
 At Mocha the soil for 28 ft. in depth is whollvl 
 composed of marine productions ; and at ( Ikits [ 
 close to the Straits of Ihil>el-Mandcb, where an- j 
 ciently there was a harlionr in which a fleet coiiH I 
 lie, there is not, at present, much more th.in a Ik I 
 of water. (Lord Valentia, vol. ii. p. 3lil). Thtl 
 town of Musa, formerly on the coast, is nnw sovf [ 
 ral miles inland. This fact was remarked even Li I 
 Pliny's time. ' Nowhere,' says he, ' has tiie carii I 
 gained more, nor in so short a time, fruni tbt | 
 water.' (Nat. Hist., lib. vi. § 27.) 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. — There are no rivers, in iht I 
 strict acceptation of the term, in Araliia. All 
 streams of nmning water known to exii-t in tte | 
 coimtry have more or less the character of iwi- , 
 sional torrents. Niebuhr remarks it us a si:ii,*| 
 larity, that the Massora and another smnll fin-m [ 
 in Oman continued to run throughout tlic year; a»l I 
 he states, that in the Tehama of Yemen there are I 
 no rivers that retain their water during tiie eiitiit I 
 summer. (Des de I'Ar., par. ii. jjp. 25.5, ItJl. fei [ 
 The few perennial streams are all reduced toiiisij- j 
 nilicance during the dry season; but, under thtl 
 influence of the periodical rains, these and it* I 
 others often swell to uii immense si«;c, and *iii«- 1 
 
ARAM I A 
 
 ]M 
 
 time* mnkp iifiw clmniu>U fur tlu-inwlvcs, clmiin- 
 inu, ill tlii'* wiiy, th»> ii|i|MMirain:« til" the coiiKt, unil 
 |( iiiinc to roiitrmlictory Htiitt-iiu'iitt nutotlii! mmi- 
 Irr milt cnilMiiu'liiiri'rt' of tho diti'uront slruuiiii. 
 
 iViilt'iitm. '••P- •"•"•) 
 
 I'lic arid *MuU of tlic Tphonm, iinfavouriiblo to 
 t!ie fomiiitioii of riviTst, iiri', of course, i>(|uully 
 hmtili' to tl'" mTuniulation of water in lakes. In 
 liu t, tlio itrjiit'.HH of tlio Aniliiaii soil is nroverliial. 
 
 (•/„„„jt,J-Tlie Trojiif of Caiicer iliviiles Araliia 
 iiitiitwoiiot very uiieniial oarts. It lies, tliere- 
 i.irc, (inrtly in tiie torriil, and partly in the S. part 
 „l till' N. teni|K'rate zone ; hut mo many ino<lifyin){ 
 ,.|f,.,iiii»tniices exert an inlluence over its eliniate, 
 tlmt tli« "'•"■« l"t't"<l« "f ''•■* t'lveral parts is, jier- 
 haiw, the hNist ini|H)rtant element in detenniiiinj? 
 the tem|ieratiire, hnmiditv, and saliihrity of its 
 iiiiiiosphere. In ({oncral, the climate in very simi- 
 l.ir to tlmt of N. Africa. lAinn under the trojm;, 
 it has, of course, its succession of dry anil rainy 
 M'titniis; and on the moinitaiim of Yemen the 
 iliinvi'M re({ularly fall from the middle of .linu^ 
 till the end of September. Durinj; the early part 
 vf the season the rains arc most abundant, and at 
 this time the sky in sometimes, but very rarely, 
 covered hy cUmds for twenty-four hours together. 
 Uiiriii)? the dry season a tdoiid is scarcely ever seen. 
 In Oman the rainv season liej^ins in Novemiier, 
 awl continues till tho middle of Kebruary. In the 
 iiiaiii country on the coast, and in the Tehama of 
 Vcnicn (thouj^h so close to the mountainous re- 
 poiis of rc({uh»r showers), a whole year frequently 
 parses without a drop of rain. (Niebuhr, {jar. i. 
 |i|). 1)4, et set].) In this resjicct is foi4nil strikinj; 
 iiliysical rcscniblnnce between Africa ond Arabia. 
 Ill the latter, as in the former, the parched plains 
 aro denied the refreshment of falling showers, and 
 owe what share of fertility they jMJSsess to the 
 iiiuiulatioiis consequent upon the saturation of the 
 iiioiiiitaiiis, 
 
 The temperature of Arabia, like that of other 
 [ oniiiitrics, dill'ers widely, according to tho eleva- 
 tion of tho surface, the nature of the soil, and 
 the nei|{libourhood of the ocean. In general, the 
 [ mountains of the S. Yemen and lladrannuit arc 
 the most habitable, and even the coolest parts of 
 the peiiinsuhi ; but the heat of the Tehama is 
 excessive; and great extremes of temperature are 
 exiierienccd within very snuill distances. At Mo- 
 cha, oil the h'ed Seo, the thermometer rises in 
 I summer to 'M° l'"alir. ; while at Saana, in the 
 mountains, it never exceeds 85°, and in this dis- 
 trict freezing winter nights uio not unfreiiuent. 
 rriie iiiliaLitunts of Yemen live, consequently, un- 
 Idtr several difl'erent climates, and very ililferent 
 |f|iecicsof animals and vegetables tiourish within 
 I its limits, (Niebuhr, par. i. p. 4.) From the bor- 
 llieniuf Hedjaz to the banks of the Euphrates the 
 Icoiintrj' is a vast plain, and wholly destitute of 
 I rivers or )icrnianeiit springs. The soil is one mass 
 luf moviiij; sand, and the dreary monotony of the 
 jwiie is broken only by the appearance of a few 
 
 liciriiy shrubs, which, taking vigorous root in th<' 
 Isaiid, supply the patient camel with the only food 
 Iwliich he can liiid in these deserts. (Yooseph-el- 
 iMilky, in Zach's Correspondence, Xo. 18.) This 
 Icountrj", with the Desert of Syria, seems to have 
 |funnedthe Arabia Descrta of Strabo and Ptolemy. 
 
 Another plain of the same kind, and most pro- 
 Ihahiy even more extensive, called the Uesvrt of 
 tAkluif, lies between Y'emeii and liadranmut, on 
 Ithe S. and W., and between Nedsjed and Uman, 
 l>ii the N, and K. (Niebuhr, par. ii., pp. 245-25,5.) 
 ITIiese vast sandy deserts increase very greatly 
 tU heat of the atmosphere in their ueiglibour- 
 piowl. The wind blowing over them, about the 
 puiiiiucr solstice, becomes so dry that paper and 
 
 parchment oxnoscd to Its InMiienrr wrorch and 
 crack as thoiigli placed in the month of an oven, 
 and life, Ixilli animal and vegetable, perishes In 
 the noxionit blast. (.^11 itev, vol. ii. ii, Ki.) Thix 
 is the wind known, in different and often very 
 ilistunt coimtrieM, by the names of the Simooni, 
 JSamiel, Sirocco, and Horaiiu ; and which is alwayH 
 generated hi every trtipical country having exten- 
 sive sandy deserts. Its grand seat is the vaxt De- 
 sert of .Saliara, in Africa; and next to it, perhaps, tho 
 deserts now mentioned. It comes from a dilVerenl, 
 quarter in dillerent jiarts of the peninsula, accord- 
 ing to their position with respect to these deserts. 
 Thus, at Mecca, the Simoom coim-s from the V..; 
 ill the neighixiurhood of the Persian (iulf ami 
 tho Kuphrales, from the W. ; in Yemen ami lla- 
 drainaut, from the N. and NK. The chain of hilln 
 seems to shelter the Tehama of tlu! liedjaz from 
 the intliience of the Simoom from the .Arabian 
 Desert, as tho hottest wind known in this district 
 comes from tho African deserts across tho Uvx\ 
 Sea, and is, consec|uenlly, very considerably cooled 
 and mitigated in its viilleiice. 
 
 It is only, however, during the intense summer 
 heats that tho .Simoom is dreaded ; and such in 
 tho general nurity of the atmosphere, owing to 
 tho few exhalations from the dry soil, that both 
 man and beiist in .\rabia are aware of the approach 
 of the poisonous blast from the sulphurous oiloiir 
 by which it is preceded. It is said, also, that thn 
 point of the liouvens from which the Simoom is 
 approaching is always marked by a peiniliar co- 
 louring, easily distiiignisbable by an Arab eye. 
 Thus forewarned, the Arab throws himself upon 
 the ground, and the beasts hold down their heads; 
 for it is found that this terrillc blast has little or no 
 power near tho earth, perhaps because, blowing in 
 a horizontal direction, it is broken by the inequal- 
 ities of the ground, and also, perhaps, because the 
 few slight exhalations forced from the arid soil by 
 the oxtronio heat have jiower to counteract its 
 virulence. Those who are rush enough to face it 
 are suddenly sutTocated; and in the deserts, ■where 
 the Simoom blows hmg and stronglv, wh(do cara- 
 vans have been buried beneath thi! iiiirning sands, 
 which then rise in waves as high and strong as 
 those of a stormy ocean. (Niebulir, par. 1. pji. 7, 8.) 
 
 Natural Productinns. — The ditl'erences of soil 
 and climate occa.Hion much variety in the specieji 
 and amount of the natural products of Arabia. 
 Nothing can, perhaps, be more strongly contrasted 
 than the vivid descriptions of tho country by 
 ancient and oriental writers, and the cidd realities 
 exhibited to the traveller or voyager who ap- 
 proaches its conlines. Kven on Hearing the 
 southern shore, the Arabia Felix, or terrestrial 
 paradise of the ancients, the eye hioks in vain for 
 the beauty; nor is the smeil gratified by tho 
 ' Sabioan oiUiurs ' which have been so vividlv, 
 but erroneously, described. A wide sandy beacli, 
 bounded in the distance by a range of mountains, 
 dreary and unproductive, without a patch of ver- 
 dure to relievo the eye, or a running stream to 
 slake the thirst, or break the dull mimotony of tho 
 view, constitutes the southern coont of Vcmen. 
 (Valentia, ii. p. 12.) 
 
 The fertile sjwts, however, like the oases of the 
 African deserts, arc so luxuriant and beautiful, 
 as in simie measure to warrant the hyiierbolical 
 l)raises bestowed on tho ])cninsula. In consequence, 
 too, of tho various circumstances of elovati<tn, as- 
 pect, temperature, and moisture, there is no country 
 whose productions are more numerous and varied. 
 
 The sandy plains of the centre jiroduce the same 
 plants as N. Africa, — the mesanbryanthemuni,aloe, 
 euphorbium, stapcla, and sals(da ; |)hiiit3 which 
 answer u wise purpose iu tlioye waiitcs, by allevia- 
 
 
 
 'm 
 
 
 .1.*;% 
 
 •.H 
 
 '.f^J' 
 
 j,f^' 
 
lAI 
 
 ARAniA 
 
 
 ;l 'lUj:! 
 
 
 ¥ 
 
 % 
 
 i:;ll! 
 
 
 liiiK tlic thimf "f ihp rnmpl, diiriiific t^P pniiilul 
 Joiinii'yt of thr raravniiH. 
 
 'I'lu' »e«-coo8«, ooiiKiMliii^ f(ir (he vnrmt part of 
 arid HaiidH, pnitliiccN, in (tciicral, iliit muw plants 
 aM the ri'iifrnl lifHcrtH ; liiit wherever the Tehnnia 
 iH watered \>y riviiletM dem-eiidiii^ from tlie nioiiii- 
 iain.'), or wherever tlie Hoil is Hidijected to orea- 
 Mioiinl iniindalioim, a very iliffereiit Hceiie ix pre- 
 M-iiled. (Jiuh'r these eireiiiiiHtitiH'eH, a veKetiition, 
 hixiiriant and diverNitled, Ih produced, the cHect 
 of wliich IH the more N(rii<in|;, frmii the d(>f*<dution 
 with whioh it in Mnrromided. The valleyH, too, in 
 the mountains, ex|HiNed to the intluenrc of the 
 re^'uiar rainx, and coiiHeciuenily alioiindin^ in ri- 
 VMlelM, are the HcutH of an al)iindant veKcintion, 
 In Hiieli di.ilrictM, the lainarind, cutton tn>e, mn;wt 
 cane, hanana, nutmeg, iM'tel- and every variety of 
 nielonM andpiinipkiuN, are iHitii/emmii; at all eveni.s 
 tlicy have^rown tliere from theremoteNt antiiiiiity 
 (Stralio, liii. xvi. 11!, cap. H, pp. 7(14, et »rq,\ IMiny, 
 Nat. liiNt. lih, xii, rap. M, p. Mi\ lb. lil). xii. «ap. 
 Id, I). I«!I); Ih. lih. xix. eap. i. p. 't), and eontiinio 
 to tfouriHh in (greater luxuriance than in any other 
 part of the world, except in the Niniilar miil and 
 under the Himilar clinuile of N. Africa. Arahia 
 produeeH Hcveral kindH of liard wood, of which the 
 a;;all(ichum seeniH to Ix) the Haine with the xundal 
 wood of the Kant In<tia iNlandi*; and it nuiy Imi re- 
 garded ax the native home of the date tree, the 
 cocoa, and the fan-leaved palm. Of other treex, 
 there are the li^, orange, plantain, almond, apricot, 
 acacia vera ^iiroducni); the K<>in Araliic), (piincc, 
 and vine. Anionf^ xhrulw, the HCUHitivo plant, 
 caxtor-oil plait, and senna (holh nited in medicine) ; 
 tl<c ^htXw amaranth, white lily, and [lancratium 
 (all (liHtinf^uixhed for their fragrance) ; the aloe, 
 Htyrax, and Hexamum are very ahundant. Hut, 
 notwithxtanding thix varietv of woihI, although 
 there arc xome t^rovex or thicketx on the mountain 
 side, Arabia poxxesxex lU) forext, properly so called. 
 
 Of Arab treex, the moxt worthy of notice are 
 the eofl'ee tree, and the tree producing the halm 
 of Mecca, called, by the nutivcx, Abu Schiim (that 
 ix, the odoriffnmi tree). Both are nativex of 
 Yemen, the eofl'ee p1antati<mx bcinj^ found chicHy 
 on the W. xlopexof the mountainx, in that tlivixiim 
 of the peninxula. It ix xaid that the Arabs have 
 alwayx prohil>itcd the exportation of the cofleo 
 plant ; but it ix a well known fact that it wax tirxt 
 introduced into the W. Indies from Arabia. The 
 cofl'cc of Yemen xtill, liowevcr, prexervex its sujH!- 
 riority, and fetchex the hip^hcst nrice in the Euro- 
 pean markets. The balm of Mecca is the moxt 
 fragrant and valuable of all the gum rexiiix, but it 
 is never met with pure out of Arabia, and there j 
 scarcely hovond the confines of Yemen. The mer- 
 chants of Mocha convey it in great quantities to 
 Medina, whence it ix never exnorted for the pur- 
 poxes of external commerce till it has been con- 
 siderably adulterated. (Niebuhr, par. i. p. 127.) 
 
 Among the natural productions is the singular 
 substance called Manna, prodiu'cd from a little 
 thorny bush, which xeemx to be abundant in all 
 the deserts and their neighbourhood, and exactly 
 answers the description in Kxudus xvi. and Num- 
 bers xi. 
 
 Wherever water is found, or can be procured, 
 the labour of the Arabian agriculturist is well re- 
 paid. Maize, wheat, dhourrah, barley, and millet 
 cover the mountain siilex of Yemen and other fer- 
 tile i)arts. Indigo, tobacco, l/urs, a plant yielding 
 a yellow ilye ; Ftiar, aw herb which prodiuies a reel 
 colour ; together with many xi)ecie8 of garden 
 fruits and vegetables, are cultivated ; but, in order 
 to inxure success in the cultivation beyond the 
 districts watered by the scanty rivulets and tor- 
 rents, much labour is required. It is true that the 
 
 agricnitnrni linp1empnti« arr of a very xlmplp itid 
 primitive construciinn, but (t U not in \\w i,„.„f 
 these that the great lalxiur <'. Arabian nKririiltnrt 
 exixln. (!hantM'lM anddykcK liavi to U- riin:«inii'ii',| 
 to conrluct the water to HiM>ts when' imne llnw* i,,. 
 fnrallv, «nd to retain it there it i| it mav fcriiliw 
 ilirni. (irt-at reser^'oint are iMuitcd, in »hii'||||,r 
 abundant rains of the wet sroxoi m'<> cull I'lt'ilfnf 
 future use. The I'litfw* grouii'l nd yn .Icn. „n 
 the mountain xidex iin- Hupiwirted by «•«//.«. t" ^la,, 
 their surface horixontal, and no prevent ih,. ,.,,,„.,, 
 of the moisture. Wells are ilug i\\ iiiiini>nw 
 depths ; and, in xhort, since il is upon the nmoiint 
 of irrigation that the iirodnctivenexx nl the unij ,i,. 
 pends, it ix to the collei'lion and Just diHtriliiiilun 
 of water that the carcN of the cultivator are prin. 
 ciiially dire<-ted ; and the nature of the Amlijiin 
 climate uuil hydrography reiiden* these cnr<'n in 
 the highest degree lalxirious. (Niebuhr, Mr, i. 
 pp. i:»l— I 12.) 
 
 The fame of Arabia a« the land of incrnHp im^ 
 I)erfiitnex is of very (dd date. Hut it has Iteon hi<- 
 torieally pro\ ed that Ih'' frankincense, myrrh, miil 
 similar products with wli li it supplied the nticifnt 
 world, were not all of ns own growth, liiii hitp 
 principally brought to its isirls from Africa ariil 
 various l5. coiinlricH. (Niebuhr, |iar. i. p. iiij; 
 Valentia, ii. I). 12.) 
 
 The catnel is to the Arabian what the reiiidifr 
 is to the Laplander. It has l)eeii justly ciilliilihe 
 'Shin of the I)esert ;' and without it the Anih 
 coiihl never cross the W!ax of sand that IVncf hi* 
 countn-. There arc two sjjecieM of this ii-ifnl 
 animal; that used in Arabia and N. Afrien hu 
 only one hump, while that found in I'erxin and 
 Itokhara has two. The latter is freipiently calM 
 the Hactrian camel, and the Arabian spri'icn u 
 sometimes called ilromedary. This last imrtipti, 
 however, inn)ro|)erly apjdied, the (Jreek term ipoMi 
 (swift), iM'ing, most probably, unknown to tlie 
 Arabians, while by the Greeks themselves it vm 
 a|)plied to only one variety of the Araliiiiii caiiifl, 
 distinguished by its greater speed from thime best 
 adapted to carrying burdens. (Diodonis Siciilu*, 
 lib. iii. p. 120.) Arabia is generally regnnlod at 
 the native cimntry of the horse; and llierf are, 
 perhaps, no breeds to be compared with tin* 
 trained by the Ueihaiins of the desert, ThchirsM 
 arc of two kinds : the one called Kadeichi, thai v, 
 of an unknown race, are used for the jjurpoiieiiiif 
 labour, reside in the towns, and arc not more n- 
 teemed than the horses of Kiirope. Ihit the true 
 Arab steed, the horse of the desert, is siiid to be 
 descended from the breed of Sidomon; this kiml 
 is called Kochluni, or horses of an asccrtaineil 
 race; and it is pretei' le<l that their gonenloftyhu 
 been prescr^'ed in the country for 2,(H)l» yt'an, 
 (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 142 — 144.) Horses are. h(iw- 
 ever, by no means so numerous as has i)eeii sup- 
 iKiscd. In the settled districts the most commoo 
 t>cast« of burden are oxen and (!amels (Xieliuhr, 
 passim) ; and among the Itedouins the mm b 
 rather a mark of distinction than a sulisiantive 
 part of her master's wealth. In many trilws (dud 
 those among the richest) not more tliaii one mm 
 to six or xeven tents can be found; in some of the 
 W. districts there are many encampments witJKini 
 a single horse or mare among them ; and when, 
 in IHI.'J, the S. tribes united against MehemetAli, 
 out of an army of 2.'),0t)0 men not more tliati M 
 horsemen could he mustered. The Arab tribe) 
 richest in horses live without the limits <ir the pe- 
 ninsula, in the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, td 
 ill the plain country ot Syria. Burckhnnit tliinkf | 
 that the number of horses in Arabia docs not ex- 
 ceed .W.OOO. (Notes on Hedouiiis, pp. 40, Ho, (< I 
 seq. 246—249.) 
 
 iither. This breed 
 
 . . K'>ats and asses, 
 P^'"*-oiie not (liHi 
 
ARAIUA 
 
 \f>5 
 
 j]^f great ra»ne of tliiH (wnrrit^ U iinilouhiiilly 
 till' >lilll<'"l'y "f |in>vl<lini{ food lur he anlrriiil, •'!•- 
 i^vinllv ill ill*" S. <liKtri<'tii; Iml annihrf omiw, cIa- 
 ' ,„ll„')r priiltnlily ii|Min Iho llrxt, Im, i)int (ho AiiiIm 
 'iliiiniii uniforrnly riilc lln-ir miirr-H, miil nvW t\w 
 liiirwi* '" thi' t"Wii'!t-|i»'o|iU', 'I'lii' hiirMOH llint llioy 
 
 fi«.r\T in- riHTi'ly lor llif |iiir|M>.>M' of lir Iiii>{, niiil 
 
 a u'cMiiiu' i* riiri'ly if over coi'ii in tliii (l<wri, Al- 
 iliMii|;|i till' jli'ilnuiii pnrlH ri'itiliiy wilh lli*' homi'M 
 ,.; iu<liimini" Kiiihliini lirci'il, lit' rnn-ly (lisiMwi'K of 
 till' iiiiiri'4 until llicy lifcoiiic old, or iiri> from xotni* 
 .'iilt'iit iiMtlt for witr; mill ('Mil tlicii ho coiilriMiN 
 
 'li the Imyor to rccoivo llio llrnl liily I'oiilod of 
 iiii\ iimrc tlii'n ho tnuv moII, or to rocoivo lim-k fho 
 iiiiirc. till' liiiyor rotaliiiii^ tlio lillv. Somotiinox 
 till' lir«t two.tiiroo, or oven li.iir tlllici nro thim ro- 
 htvciI to llio Hollor; and tlii", in Aralt |)liriiHoolojry, 
 j. I'lilli'il Holliii|{ a half, a third, or a fourth of tho 
 iiiiin's Ih'IIv. It iH vory rarolv, iiidcod, that n 
 llriliiiiiii will |iart with li Kochlaiii niaro oxcont 
 iiii.ji'r HiH'li roMorvatioii of ri^ht in licr future otV- 
 ^|lrill^;. (Ihiri'khardt'H Noton on the Iti'doiiiiiN, ii^). 
 117, IIH, i(fe.) An Arali will Hoinoliint'o lake Lh 
 niiiri- n Jniimcy of Moveral dayx, in order that hIic 
 riiiiv liri't'd hy wmie eelehratod horne; hut, in ^eno- 
 mi, the KoiloiiinH are liy no nieanN ho |>artlctilar in 
 thi:* ri'!<|M'('t iiM Kiiro|ieaiiN, and eonsider the goo<l 
 i|iuiiiiii'H (if the colt to (le|M>nd rather ii|)on llie 
 iliim tlinii the sire. They never, however, will- 
 iiicly mix the Km-hlnni with the kmU-itrhi liroed ; 
 oiiilif Huc'h mixture take (dace hy aceideiit, the 
 riijt \* reckoned of the inferior race. In tho towtiN, 
 KwlnM niarcH are emijjled with Kwhlani liorHOH, 
 tint ill thix ('a.so, alxo, the iittMprin); is aocuiinteil 
 Kudrmhi, (Nieliiihr, par. i. p. t-i t.) 
 
 Knrhlani hornoM are moHtly .small, neldom alir, ,'e 
 fiiiirtfcii IwukIh hif^h, of a delicate lint extremely 
 ):riii'i'fiil I'urin, ami have all Home charactcriMtic 
 iK'iiiity which diHtiii^uiHhoH their hreed from every 
 iiilicr.' This hreed in Huhdividcd into almost iiiini- 
 mcralile families; for every mare (liHtin^uishi>d for 
 ii|pe('(l iir bcniity may tfive riHC to a new hreed called 
 after her. They all, however, Indoiifj to live jjreat 
 iliviHidiw, named after the favourite mares of Mo- 
 hainmnil, Taneyse, Manekeye, Moheyl, TakUncye, 
 anil Dujlfr, 
 
 A cult" is not mounted till it is two rears (dd, 
 tmt friini this time the naddlc in rarely oti its hack ; 
 it lieciimcs the intimate companion of its manter, 
 fhiirin)? all his comforts (siKih an they are), and 
 iilwi all his privations. I'asture in the rainy soasim 
 — Iiarley and wheat when the plains are scorched 
 hytlie tropical sun — date-])aste, and dried clover 
 wlicnKTuiii is srarce — form the variable diet of the 
 Arali liorse, in ditl'iTcnt diHtrictH and weasonH. As 
 liiiii;, tiio, an its miuster's camc^ls can supply milk, 
 I it reocivcs its share, and the nedouin most coin- 
 mmily nivos the fra^rmcntM of his own meal to the 
 I mare on which he rides. 1 1 is, moreover, a common 
 |iracti(,'e, more especiall.v in Nedsjed, to jjive horses' 
 I lii'nh, iMith raw and cooked, particularly before tlu; 
 iiiinnicncemcnt of a fatiffiiinj; journey. Like their 
 I miiHicrs, the Arab horses live all the year in the 
 "lien air. With little uToomxwf^ and attention to 
 I tln'ir health, thev are seldom ill. licing constantly 
 ill the society ot' their miwters, they become gentle, 
 hlmile, anil intellif^eiit in a hij^h deforce ; they are 
 I riiidiMi without bits — generally, too, without' stir- 
 Inilw; and instances of vice or ill-temper are almost 
 1 unknown among tlicm. (Niebuhr, par, i. pp. 141- 
 W: Hiirckhardt, Not«» on IJedouins, pp. 115-123, 
 
 1 lie other domestic animals arc oxen, Ronerally 
 ■"falmmiK-'d kind, like those of Syria; sheep, one 
 Ivariety of which lias extremely thick and broad 
 rails: (;oatM and asses, of which last there are two 
 Ivariciii's— one not difiering from those of KiuroiK!, 
 
 tho other Inrco, coininroioi, and more donirnblo lor 
 a loumey thiiii oven ilio horno, Krom ihom' a^NOM 
 a hrrod of \ i-ry valiiahln miili>» I* procurol. The 
 liufTalo, thiiii^ii common in Ktfypi, Syria, and on 
 the bmikM of tho Kiiphralos and li^ris, that In, all 
 round tho conllnoH of Arabia, is not found within 
 itN limits: at leant Niobidir did iioi moot wilh it, 
 and no otlicr writer montloiis tho imimal, except 
 in oni> or two instancos, when the InimiN'd Syrian 
 ox Hociiis to have U'ou mistakon for tlie biitfalo. 
 The latter rri|iiir*'.s a inoixt pasture and a plentiful 
 Hiipply of water. Iloiice it is found on the iiaiikit 
 of the Nile and (he OrmitoN, thouKh in the dime 
 noiglilioiirhood of parched deserts; but the want 
 of Witter in Arabia ch^arly renders that country 
 uiilli lur its location, 
 
 Anion^ the wild animals are the Jackal, hya>ns, 
 Hoveral kii»ds of as ■<, the jerUia, widf, fiix.'lMiar, 
 and panther. U('.'<i ics (liirse, there an^ several 
 kinds of aiitol(i|-.M the goal runs wild niiioiii; tho 
 iiiouiitalus, aiK . wild oxi'ii ami asses an' in Im> mot 
 with ill the plains. Domestic |)oiilir>- ih very 
 plentiful ill all the fertile distrlclH, and tho plaiim 
 are lllled with partridges, the woods with guinea 
 fowl, and the mountain sides with jihoasants. Itiit 
 'he inoNt. celebrated bird is one of the thrush kind, 
 called by the natives Snmin-nu>g, which comes in 
 llocks every year from Persia, and commits gnat 
 devastation among the llights of locusts. For ibis 
 im|Mirtaiit service it is held in a degree of reH|M'ct, 
 amounting almost to adoration. The ostrich wan- 
 ders in tlie sandy doserts, and Is called by Ihin 
 Arabs Thar-rthmjmm'l, that is. camel-bird. It ia 
 certainly a remarkable circumstance that in a conn- 
 try lying on both sides the tropic there should Im) 
 no great abiii dance of insects ; yet this apjH'ars to 
 bo the case. Ali Hey, s|)eaking of lledjax, says. 
 'There are few Hies, and no gnats or other ins<H-is.' 
 (Travels, ii. [ip. lo, I IH.) The locust in, however, 
 one of tlie ncoiirges of Arabia, though even thin 
 |K'st seems to lie loss destructive here than in tho 
 neighbouring countries of Syria and IVrsia. Tho 
 esculent locust is sohl in the markets, and is 
 esteemed r. ^'reat delicacy. (ItiK'hart, llierozoicon, 
 par. i. lib. iv. cap. li, p. -lit.) These destructivo 
 ravagers come to Arabia from ditl'eroiit quarters: 
 a SVV. wind brings tlieni from the Libyan Desert 
 to the shores of Venieii and Iledja/ ; a N W wind 
 hurls them upon Oman and Lairlisa, from I'ersia 
 and Mesopotamia; and a wind from the NK. fre- 
 quently ovenvhelnis Nedsjed with this plague, 
 from Syria. They seem, however, to lie contincd 
 to their several localities, iHtrbaits from inability to 
 pass the interior deserts ; for the W. flight, as it 
 may be called, or that from the African shorea, 
 never jiasses the raoimtains of Yemen, and com- 
 monly retraces its route on the day following ita 
 Hrst appearance. No i)art of the year seems to be 
 peculiarly exposed to or exempteil from this 
 plague. Niebuhr noticed li.cust tliglit-s in the 
 months of •January, May, .luiie. July, November, 
 and December. In one of these, the lied Sea be- 
 j twcen Mocha and the opposite coast of Africa was 
 covered with tlu^ir ilead ImkUoji. 
 
 Of t'le rejitilc tribes, land and sea turtles are 
 very numciMiis; there are also several species of 
 serpents, one of which, very small, and covered 
 with white blotches, is extn'mely venomous, its 
 bite being instantly mortal. The gnaril, a large 
 lizard, is said by liocliart, on the mithority of Kar- 
 wyiii and Ab<lollatif, two native writers, to lie equal 
 in size and strength to the crocoililc. (llierozoicon, 
 jiar. i. lib. iv. cap, .'<, p. 1070.) All the coasts abound 
 ill fish; reefs of coral and madrepore extend along 
 the shores of the Hed Sea, and the pearl oyster is 
 abundant in the Persian Gulf. (Niebuhr,' par. i. 
 pp. 142-159.) 
 
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IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 1.25 
 
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 HiolDgraphic 
 
 ScMices 
 Corpordtion 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 
 
 (716)S72-4503 
 

1A6 
 
 AliABIA 
 
 m 
 
 Mincraln arc scarce; but this may proceed from 
 aw-niit of industry or skill in working mines. The 
 mountains, of an old formation, arc precisely those 
 in \vhi(;h the precious metals are found, and the 
 unanimous voice of anticpiity proclaims this coun- 
 try as the land of gold and gems, as well as of 
 incense and nerfumeH. Nicbuhr affirms, however, 
 that no gold is found, and that only a small por- 
 tion of silver is found mixed with lead in the 
 mountains of Oman. There are some iron mines 
 in the N. of Yemen, but the metal they yield is 
 brittle and of little worth ; and with regard to 
 gems, it is now well known that the agate called 
 Mucha stone and the Arabian cornelian come from 
 India; and there is nothing to contradict the pre- 
 sumption that the other gems for which Arabia 
 was formerly distinguished, were derived from the 
 same source. The onyx, however, is found in 
 Yi-men, and an inferior emerald. The other mine- 
 rals are basalt, blue alabaster, several kinds of 
 spars and sclenite. (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 123-126.) 
 
 Population, Manners, and Cugtoms of Arabia. — 
 Tiie native Arab has always been an object of 
 interest and curiosity to the rest of the world. 
 Descended in all probability from the same stock 
 with the Jews, he has preserx'ed his race almost as 
 unmixed, and traces up his genealogy to Abraham 
 through Ishmael, with the same ])ri(ie as his con- 
 genitor looks up to the same ))atriarch through his 
 lawful but yoinigcr offspring Isaac. Through all 
 the centuries which have passed over his head, he 
 has preserved the character given to his infant 
 ancestor in the wilderness. The desert has con- 
 tinued his home; he has been a man of war from 
 his youth — 'his hand against every man, and 
 every man's hand against his.' 
 
 Though the various eastern traditions on the 
 subject arc too numerous and too involved to be 
 lierc stated, it seems pretty certain that the Arabs 
 of the towns and those of the desert owed llieir 
 origin to different ancestors — that the settled popu- 
 hilion on the coasts are descended from a more 
 ancient, if not an aboriginal race, while the wild 
 horseman and shepherd of the waste is the de- 
 scendant of the discarded son of Abraham. Be- 
 tween these a marked and striking diflerence has 
 existed throughout the historic jteriod; and not 
 only is this the case, but each class seems to have 
 retained pretty nearly the same distinguishing 
 features which marked it in the earliest times. 
 1'he caravans from I^IooJia and Sanaa still convey 
 the produce of the South to Turkey, Egypt, SjTia, 
 and Persia (Niebuhr, par i. p. l'2(i) as they did 
 2,000 years ago (Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. vi. cap. 28), 
 though the Arab merchant be not so important a 
 character in this commercial age, as when it could 
 be said of him that ' he must, of necessity, be ex- 
 ceeding rich ; for with him the lioman and the 
 Parthian leave large sums of gold and silver for 
 the products of his woods and seas, which he sells 
 to them without buying ai.ything in return.' 
 (Pliny, 1. vi. § 28.) '1 he IJedouins, too, or Scenitte, 
 are described by Pliny as living in the black hair- 
 cloth tents, under which they shelter themselves 
 at present ; and he expresses his astonishment at 
 the fact, that, being ho numerous a race, the half 
 of them, at least, should live by plunder. (Nat. 
 Hist. 1. vi. § 22.) 
 
 Though the younger race, the Bedouins account 
 themselves the more noble; and the Arab is 
 prouder of his rank than the native of any other 
 country in the world. They have no titles of 
 nobility, excepting such as refer to religious or 
 political offices. The Bedouin has no idea of rank 
 depending upon letters patent of a caliph or sul- 
 tan ; all men descended from the same ancestor 
 are, in his estimation, equal in rank ; and hence 
 
 the prespr%ation of their genealogies is amattpt 
 of extreme care. Among their great hmiwj 
 those descended from the Prophet hold thefi^t 
 rank; then those whose ancestors diverged ttie 
 latest from the common stock ; the lowest place 
 being seemingly assigned to those who trace their 
 genealogy to Ace, the second son of Adnara, thus 
 diverging from the Prophet's stock in the first 
 accredited generation. (Sale, Introd. Koran, p 9- 
 Nicbuhr, par. i. pp. 9, 10.) ' 
 
 According to Niebuhr, the Bedouins are now 
 the only true Arabs,— the inhabitants of the citiw 
 and coasts being, in consequence of their com- 
 merce, so mixed with strangers, that they have 
 lost much of their ancient manners and customs' 
 whereos, the Bedouins (les vrais Arabes) have 
 olways looked more to their liberties than their 
 ease or riches, and continue to live in separate 
 tribes, under tents, preserving, in the present 
 day, the same manners and customs which dis- 
 tinguished their forefathers in the most remote 
 times. (Par. ii. p. .427.) Niebuhr enumerate? 
 above a hundred Bedouin tribes, each under its 
 own particular sheikh or sheriff; these are not, 
 however, all found within the limits of the penin- 
 sula, but extend over Syria, the plain countt)- 
 between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and even 
 from the left bank of the latter river into Persia. 
 There ore, however, two closses of Bedouins; the 
 Ahl-el-Abaar (true, noble Arabs) who live entirely 
 by ijasturage ond plunder, and those tribes, who, 
 finding any portion of the country fitted for agri- 
 culture, bestow their labour on the ground, an 
 occupation which the true Bedouin considers far 
 beneath him. This second class of Arabs is called 
 Mvedun, and it seems to hold an interracdiatft 
 place between the Noble Shepherd {Ahl-el-Abaar) 
 and the peasant of other countries. 
 
 The liedouin tribes who inhabit the open 
 country between the Euphrates and Tigris, ex- 
 tend as far north as Orfa and Diarbekr. Thcv 
 are under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish 
 pachas of Bagdad, Moussul, and Orfa; tlieir 
 sheikhs frequently receive the Tojh, or horse's 
 tail, from the grand signer ; but it appears that 
 the bestowal, and the acceptance of this mark of 
 dignity is almost the only assertion on the one 
 one hand, or acknowledgment on the other, of 
 supremacy or subordination that is ever attempted 
 or conceded ; except in occasional instances, when 
 direct force has deposed a sheikh, and a])pointed 
 another in his place, without, in the slightest de- 
 gree, changing the relative position of the tribe 
 and its so-called sovereign pacha. 
 
 The Bedouins of the Syrian desert are rather 
 more closely connected with the pachas of SjTia, 
 inasmuch as the necessity of protecting the trade 
 between Aleppo and Damascus on the W., and 
 Bagdad and Balsora on the E., has caused the 
 employment of the various Arab tribes as a kind 
 of irregular soldiery ; and the liestowal of the 
 rank of emir on the reigning sheikh of the most 
 powerful tribe for the time being. This emir 
 sheikh (hi consideration of his rank) is obliged to 
 conduct the caravans in safety through the desert, 
 and to hold in check any or all of the other tribes, 
 ' We may easily judge,' says Niebuhr (Des. do 
 I'Ar. par. ii. p. 389), 'that this is not done for 
 nothing.' In fact; if it happen, as it not unfre- 
 qucntly does, that the pacha is unable to fulfil his 
 engagements with thu sheikh, he is compelled to 
 cede to him such towns and villages as border on 
 his encampment ; and thus to make him, in effect, 
 the master of the settled, as well as of the open 
 country. The tribe of Anocse is the most con- 
 siderable of all the Syrian Arabs. It has fre- 
 quently been at war with the pachas of Damascus; 
 
ARABIA 
 
 157 
 
 amt,ttt»ucli times, the departure of the i^arnvans 
 twiu tliiit fity for Ba^^dad lias been delayed ; and 
 the reason, openly assij^neil, that the Arabs of 
 Svri.'i were discontented with the pacha. 
 'Tlic Bedouins, within the penin'tula, do not 
 jfknowledKe a sovereiijnty of any kind, except in 
 (heir native chiefs. They arc very numerous in 
 NeiLsjeil, and are scattered amoni; the settled 
 pipulation in all the other provinces. The most 
 Hiiwerful tribe of any in Arabia is, perhaps, that of 
 Beni-Khaled ; it inhabits that ])art of the desert 
 nhich borders on the Persian Gulf, and has under 
 its dominion not only many smaller tril)es, but 
 also most of the towns and villages of Lachsa. 
 The reifjning sheikh passes a portion of each year 
 ill these towns ; but by far the greater part is 
 spent in the open country, under tents. 
 
 The form of government among the Bedouins 
 is strictly patriarchal, and their manner of living 
 is that of the pastoral ages recorded in the Bible. 
 The head of a tribe receives a submission from his 
 mbjects, similar to that which a father receives 
 from his family ; and, in the East, that submission 
 is unbounded. There is, however, a cheek upon 
 the abuse of power in the sovereign sheikh, 
 which, thoi.gh indirect, is by no means weak. 
 Since every tribe consists of many branches, the 
 various heads of these sub-tribes, as they may be 
 called, form a powerful restraint upon the chief ; 
 ami should he become unpopular, though direct 
 opposition to his will is never attempted, the dis- 
 contented branch not unfrequently leaves his en- 
 campment, and either forms itself into a new tribe, 
 or, if not powerful enough for that, joins itself to 
 the tents of some other powerful sheikh. In- 
 stances have been known in which a Bedouin 
 chief has been entirely deserted, and thus the 
 names of several tribes have vanished. As, how- 
 ever, the pride of tribe is strong in every Arab 
 breast, this expedient is only resorted to in the 
 last extreme : but the assumption of supremacy 
 by some subordinate branch, is frequent enough 
 to render the continuance of the sovereignty of the 
 tribe of Montefidsj in the same family, since the 
 (lays of Mohammed, a remarkable circumstance. 
 The preservation of their herds being the first care 
 of the Bedouins, a wandering life seems awarded 
 to them by nature ; the search for proper pas- 
 turage leacls from place to place in their extensive 
 country, according as the desert has become tem- 
 porarily fruitful under the influence of the tropical 
 rains, or has been burnt up by the continued ac- 
 tion of a tropical sun. Accustomed to live in a 
 clear air, their sight and smell become extremely 
 fine, insomuch that, on arriving at a spot which 
 affords nourishment, however scantily, to plants 
 or herbage, they can at once determine at what 
 depth water is to be found, and, consequently, 
 whether it be worth the labour of digging for. 
 Accustomed to privations, the Bedouin is tempe- 
 rate from habit as well as from dbposition, and can 
 almost emulate the endurance of his camels, which, 
 in the burning desert live five days without drink. 
 A conspicuous part in the Arab's character is 
 his hospitality. In many of the towns where the 
 population is most unmixed, houses of entertain- 
 ment are kept at the public expense, or at that of 
 some rich individual, where the traveller is fed 
 and sheltered without charge. But, in the desert, 
 hospitality is a part of the Bedouin's nature ; and 
 though the influence of foreign manners has, upon 
 the Hadj roads, considerably dimmed the lustre 
 of this virtue, yet even there a helpless, solitary 
 traveller, is sure of finding relief, though the 
 membled Hadjis should crave in vain for assist- 
 ance or mercy. In districts off the Hadj roads, 
 that is, over much the greater portion of the 
 
 desert, the Bedouin considers his pro|)orty less as 
 his own than as that of the casual stranger he nuiy 
 meet; however hungry, he shares his last morsel 
 with the wayfarer ; and sacrifices which he woulil 
 not make for himself or his family, are m.ide un- 
 hesitatingly for tiio wants of his guest. The inha- 
 bitants of the towns have fewer points of interest 
 than the Bedouins. Niebuhr (par. ii. p. 327) siiys 
 they have lost much of their distinctive character ; 
 and" other travellers speak of them as having super- 
 added the vices of civilised society to tliose of a 
 savage state. 'Superstitions, yet irreligious; per- 
 forming all the rites of their faith, yet living in 
 the practice of every vice, natural and unnatural. 
 Hypocrites by profession, pr('f('rring a lie to the 
 truth ; even when not urged by motives of in- 
 terest, deceit forms a part of their education from 
 youth. Their governments are systems of ex- 
 tortion and tyranny ; their traders are fraudulent, 
 corrupt, and dishonest or\-crreachers ; the in<li- 
 viduals of their communities are sunk into the 
 lowest state of ignorance and debauchery.' Such 
 is the character given of the town Arabs by Lord 
 Valentia (ii. 354, 35.5), and a similar picture is 
 unwillingly exhibited by Niebuhr (par. ii. iip. 180- 
 19U). (Ali Bey, Burckhardt, and Bucknigham, 
 passim.) 
 
 In prosperous times, the right of entertaining a 
 guest is frequently disputed ; and should a stran- 
 ger reach the encampment unobse-. ved, it is reck- 
 oned an affront if he pass the first tent on his 
 right hand, and enter another. 
 
 In many tribes the women are permitted to 
 drink coffee with strangers; and in some, towards 
 the S., the wife entertains a guest in the absence 
 of her husband, and does the ho.iotirs of the tent. 
 To tell an Arab that he neglects his guest is the 
 greatest insult that can be oftered. (Xiebuhr, 
 par. '. pp. 41 43 ; Burckhardt's Not. on Bed., pp. 
 100- 102,192-190.) 
 
 The superiority of the Bedouins appears to bo 
 admitted by the town residents ; for the descen- 
 dants of lilohammed, resident at Mecca, set •!. 
 their male children, eight days after birth, to tlie 
 tents of the neighbouring Bedouins, where thej' 
 remain till they are eight or ten, and frequently 
 fourteen or fifteen years old. All sheriffs (desceri- 
 dants of the Prophets), from the sovereign down- 
 wards, have been thus bred ; and, as they usually 
 take wives from the tents where they liave beeii 
 educated, they preserve the race and many of the 
 customs of the Bedauins, in the midst of the mixed 
 population by which they are surrounded. This 
 custom is very ancient among the pure Arabs. 
 Mohammed himself was educated in the Bedouin 
 tribe of Beni Soad. (Burckhardt's Travels, vol. ii. 
 pp. 424-428.) 
 
 The Arabs are of a middle height, generally 
 extremely thin, and when either very young or 
 far advanced in life, of a highly prepossessing op- 
 pearance. The mild but expressive countenance 
 of an Arab boy, and his dark, sparkling eye, arc 
 si)oken of in terms of admiration by all travellers. 
 As he reaches manhood, however, a very disad- 
 vantageous change takes place; his meagre figure 
 becomes still more attenuated, and seems as thougli 
 it were parched and shrivelled up. The very splen- 
 dour of his eye, buried between high cheek-bones, 
 apparently destitute of every covering except the 
 tightened skin, is then rather a deformitv. But, 
 in old age the Arab is truly venerable, 'fhe fine 
 dark eye contrasts admirably with the long white 
 beard ; and the emaciation which, in middle life, 
 seems to intimate premature decay, assimilates 
 well with the closing scenes of existence. There 
 are exceptions, however, to this general descrip- 
 tion. The Aeneze Bedouins are generally short 
 
 
 
 'm 
 
158 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 i\u'hi 
 
 filial' 
 
 
 m 
 
 'hi;-'', 
 
 well fomipd, an<l by no mcnnH bo lliin na llic 
 niajiirity ol" their (Miuntryinon. Thn (ilifirrah Hc- 
 douinn are a line atlilctic race of men. ' It ntruck 
 me,' Hays (Captain IIaine.s, in his Memoir of the 
 South and I'-ant Coasts of Arabia, contrihiited to 
 the Journal of the fieojcraphical Society, 1845, 
 * that their women (who arc modest, though they 
 wear scarcelv any covering) an«l their younj; men 
 have a JeWish cast of countenance.' The lower 
 orders in Mecca are generally stout. The Aral> 
 women are stouter than thij men, and larj^er 
 limbed. The complexion of the Bedouins is 
 tawny, but this is evidently the effect of their 
 exposed life ; an effect which the same exposure 
 Would proihice on the most N. people. At the 
 time or birth the infant is fair, even of a livid 
 whiteness ; and Burckhardt, who, as a physician, 
 saw the naked arms of a sheik's lady, states that 
 her skin was as fair as that of any European. 
 Lord Valentia makes the same remark rcf;arding 
 the wives and daughters of an Arab of Djidda. 
 (iii. 308.) In the towns, the Arabs may l)e des- 
 cribed as fair, especially in the mountain districts. 
 But this remark must be understood as limited to 
 those of pure descent : on the coasts, and in the 
 towns of Mecca, Medina, &c., the prevailing co- 
 lour is a sickly yellowish-brown, lighter or darker 
 according to the origin of the mother, who is, in 
 many, perhaps in most cases, an Abyssinian slave. 
 (Niebuhr, par. 1. p. 41 ; Ali Bey, vol. ii. pp. 103, 
 106 ; Burckhardt, i. p. 322 ; ii. p. 240 : Notes on 
 iJedouins, p. 29 ; Valentia, ii. p. 351.) 
 
 The Arabs, like other Eastern people, wear long 
 dresses. A cotton shirt, over which the more 
 wealthy wear a komhar, or long gown of silk or 
 cotton stuff, and the poorer classes a woollen man- 
 tle, is the usual costume. The mantle is of vari- 
 ous kuids : one very thin, light, and white, is 
 called meaoumy ; a coarser and heavier kind, worn 
 over the former, is called ahha. In some cases, 
 however, this last is a very splendid garment. It 
 is usually striped white and brown, but the rich 
 Arab frequently clothes himself in a black ahha, 
 interwoven with gold, in preference to the komhar 
 or Turkish gown. The abba is not used in the W. 
 districts, Yemen and Hedjaz. In the towns, large 
 cotton drawers are worn by the men ; but these 
 rarely form a part of the Bedouin's dress, among 
 whom any covering for the feet or legs is almost 
 unknown. Though they walk and ride barefoot, 
 they greatly value yellow boots and red shoes; 
 but more as articles of ornament than use. A 
 very rude kind of scandal is worn by the lower 
 orders in the settled parts of the country, and the 
 more wealthy inhabitants of the same districts 
 use a slipper of yellow or red leather, sometimes 
 very elaborately worked, brought from Egypt or 
 Turkey. The head-dress is a turban, varying in 
 form, size, and material, according to the taste or 
 wealth of the wearer. 
 
 Arab cookery is very {)eculiar. No oil is used 
 for culinary puqwses, except in frying fish. But- 
 ter is their universal sauce, and of it tbe consump- 
 tion is immense; their vegetable dishes all float 
 in butter ; with it they work their adjoue into a 
 
 {)ropcr consistency ; dried com, or bread crumbs, 
 >oiled in butter, is a common breakfast with all 
 classes ; and, in the desert, the kemmayes are pre- 
 pared for use in the same manner. Arab butter 
 IS made from the milk of sheep and goats, that of 
 camels not being used for that purpose. The 
 home supply is not nearly sufficient for the con- 
 sumption, and butter consequcntiv forms an im- 
 portant article of importation. It is brought from 
 the opposite coast of Africa, chiefly from Souakin, 
 jiassouah, and Upper Egypt. Salads are un- 
 known. Coficc is used to a great extent, though 
 
 scarcely so much as might l>e expected ; and to. 
 bacco is smoked universally by young atul dlil. 
 
 The parental character is highly re»|)ooted' 
 though the Arab children, both in the towns ami 
 in the desert, have more freedom than in anv 
 other K. country. The Bedouin child runs nnkci, 
 in tlio open country round his father's ti'nt ; ami 
 at Mecca, Djidda, and other towns, the cliiMrcn, 
 even of the lietter classes, are allowed to plnv in 
 the streets as soon as they can walk, nearly in 
 the same primitive state. But, within doors,' tho 
 strictest decorum is ol)8erved, a boy never pn.. 
 suming to cat in his father's presence, unlec, ex- 
 prcssly invited. It would seem, however, thai 
 this is little lietter than mere ceremony ; for, when 
 emancipated fVom his father's authority, the ymini; 
 Arab pays him little deference, and instances are 
 not uncommon where the old man, having fallon 
 into poverty, is left by his, perhaps wealthy, sun, 
 to struggle with distress, or to seek for assistance 
 at the hands of strangers. An old Bedouin v, 
 sometimes supported by the charity of the whole 
 trilic ; and the daily quarrels between the father 
 and his adult sons form one of the most revolting 
 features in the Bedouin character. On tlie other 
 hand, however, it should be stated that the Arab, 
 young or old, invariably treats his mother with 
 the most respectful attention. This fact is the 
 more remarkable as contrasted with the little esti- 
 mation in which the female parent is held in other 
 E. countries ; and as combined with the fact that, 
 in Arabia, the facility of divorce (see Laws, if,) 
 tends naturally to loosen every tie that connects 
 families. (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 44, 45; Burck- 
 hardt's Travels, i. p. 340 ; Notes on Bed., pp. 6J, 
 66, 199-203.) The Arab has a grave deportment, 
 but a lively imagination ; he is a stranger to 
 gaiety, in the European sense of the word, but 
 the silent reserve of most other E. nations is 
 equally unknown : he delights in public nieetiiijri 
 ^-especially on occasions of weddings, births, and 
 the like; his language is animated and pictu- 
 resque ; he is intuitively a poet and an orator, and 
 is extravagantlv fond of music. In a word, the 
 demeanour of the Arab may be characterised a> > 
 serious cheerfulness ; equally removed from bois- 
 terous mirth on the one hanil, and dull apatliy on 
 the other. One of the chief amusements is listen- 
 ing to the recitations or songs of poets by pro- 
 fession, who travel from town to town, or from 
 encampment to encampment, after the fashion of 
 the bards and minstrels of Gothic Europe, accom- 
 i>anying their verses, usually in praise of some 
 native hero, with the nebaba, a kind of guitar, 
 Niebuhr affirms (Voyage en Arabic, ii. p. 134) 
 that it is reckoned scandalous in people of credit 
 to practise music ; and Burckhardt (Notes on lie- 
 douins, p. 143) states that, in most districts 
 slaves only perform before company. This con- 
 tempt for instrumental music does hot, however, 
 extend to vocal performances : songs, or chantcii 
 poems, form the great delight of the Arabs. Love 
 odes, closely resembling the similar productions 
 of the Trobadours and Provincials of the middle 
 ages, are in every mouth. Dancing is reckoned i 
 disgraceful in a man, but a woman piques herself 
 upon nothing more than skill in that art. Their 
 ordinary amusements, beyond those now men- 
 tioned, are of a sedentary and indolent kind. The 
 military, indeed, and the young Bedouins, practw 
 the djireed, and other warlike sports ; but unle« 
 particularly excited, the Arab, both of the town 
 and desert, employs his leisure in smokinf;. or in 
 playing games of chance, of which chess, draughts, 
 and cards are the principal. The cards in use are 
 similar to those of the Chinese, which are mucii 
 more numerous than those of Europe ; and tbe 
 
ARABIA 
 
 159 
 
 [pectcd; nmlto. 
 iiiti;; and nlil, 
 Khly respected; 
 II the towns ami 
 im than in any 
 ihild runs nnhi], 
 thcr'a t(!nt ; anil 
 lis, the cbiMrcn, 
 lowed to plav in 
 walk, nearly in 
 ivithin doors, tlip 
 boy never pre- 
 lence, unle!'» ex- 
 1, however, that 
 mony; for, when 
 liority, the vdiiiid 
 ind inHtunccs are 
 in, having fallen 
 apB wealthy, sdn, 
 cek for assistance 
 1 old Bedouin ij 
 rity of the whole 
 Btwecn the father 
 he most revolting 
 er. On the other 
 ,ed that the Arab, 
 his mother with 
 This fact is the 
 rith the little esti- 
 nt is held in other 
 ivith the fact that, 
 8 (see Laws, ic) 
 tie that connwij 
 . 44, 45; Biirck- 
 is on Hed., pp. C'l, 
 grave deportment, 
 is a stranper to 
 of the word, but 
 tier E. nations is 
 in public meetiiijts 
 Idiufts, births, and 
 nated and pictu- 
 and an orator, and 
 , In a word, the 
 characterised as a 
 moved from bois- 
 nd dull apathy on 
 isements is listen- 
 of poets by pro- 
 to town, or from 
 fter the fashion ot 
 lie Europe, accom- 
 in praise of some 
 a kind of guitar, 
 \rabie, ii. p. 1S4) 
 people of credit 
 irdt (Notes on Be- 
 in most distridj, 
 pany. This con- 
 loes not, however, 
 songs, or chanted 
 f the Arabs. Love 
 milar productions 
 'ials of the middle 
 ncing is reckoned I 
 man piques Iwrselt 
 n that art. That | 
 those now men- 
 idolent kind. The I 
 Bedouins, practise 
 iports; but unlc« 
 both of the town 
 . in smoking. 01 in 
 ch chess, draughts, 
 e cards in use are 
 which are much 
 Europe; and the 
 
 eameH, also, are more intricate and involved. The 
 Miiliannni'dau law prohibits idayiiig for money, 
 Imt tiiis prohibition is not always attended to. 
 (\iilmhr. V'i)yage cii Araltie. tom. i. pp. 141-1.52; 
 liunkliftril'- N'otos on Bed., ]>. 202; Travels, i. 377; 
 Liird Valentia, vol. ii. p. 308.) All jiublic occa- 
 sions are festivals to the Arabs. The noorest will 
 make Ids marriage a gala ilay ; but tne greatest 
 famiiv festival is that of the" circumcision of an 
 infant : on such occasions the great«st efforts arc 
 made to give a handsome entertainment. In the 
 desert it is usually so arranged that all who have 
 families perform the ceremony on the same day, 
 wliicli is consequently one of great festivitj^. The 
 reli(,'ioiis festivals and the saints' days — witich are 
 verv numerous — are also days of sport and re- 
 ioicing. On such occasions the town Arabs affect 
 ereattsplendour in appearance, and a jjcrson wouhi 
 rather be thought a thief than allow one of hia 
 equals to exceed him in finery. The Bedouin, 
 iLsu, on such occasions, loads his wife with gold 
 and silk, but seems little careful as to what ap- 
 pearance he may make. Ali Bey affirms that the 
 people of Mecca ore the dullest and most melan- 
 choly he ever saw; that their marriages and births 
 are "unaccompanied by rejoicings, and that the 
 arrival of the Hodj is the only thing that arouses 
 them from their lethargy; and that it is rather 
 an incentive to avarice than pleasure. (Ali Bey, 
 ii. pp. 103, 111; Burckhardt, i. p. 338; Notes on 
 Ited., pp. 50, 51, 147, 148.) Mohammed found the 
 alave trade so firmly established in Arabia that he 
 made no effort to abolish it ; and throughout the 
 peninsula there are a great number of black slaves, 
 Africans, or the descendants of Africans, or mixed 
 races, besides a great number of free blacks, the 
 offspring of emancipated negroes. The great slave 
 dealers are the Yemen and Muscat merchants, 
 who annually import fresh supplies from the coast 
 of Africa. In the towns, especially those of the 
 Hedjaz, every man, almost, keeps an Aljyssinian 
 mistress, whom it is reckoned shameful to sell; 
 and whom, if she bear him a child, he generally 
 marries. This accounts for the swarthy com- 
 plexion of the people of Hedjaz, The male 
 slaves and the females, not Abyssinian, are usu- 
 ally employed in domestic duties. The Bedouins 
 never cohabit with their female slaves ; but after 
 a few years' service they give them their freedom, 
 and many them to some of their own complexion. 
 I The ufTspring of these marriages are free, so that 
 a vast number of these black naturalised Arabs 
 are spread over the country. The emancipated 
 slave possesses all the rights of a free Arab, but 
 no Bedouin, male or female, will intermarry with 
 the race, so that they remain a distinct people, 
 dLscriminated by their colour from all around 
 them. They have, however, lost much of the 
 nej,^) appearance, especially the woolly hair and 
 I tliii'k lip, but the form of the head still bears wit- 
 I ness to their origin. Greek and Syrian slaves are 
 I found commonly enough in the bazaars ; but they 
 I arc not regularly supplied. A native Arab is by 
 Ikirth a freeman; and though, in most ca.ses, the 
 I condition of the mother fixes that of her offspring, 
 I there is no difference between a man's children by 
 jliis Arab wives and those by his Abyssinian slave. 
 Ilnstaiices of harsh and cruel masters occur (Ali 
 I^.V) ii. p. 103), but, generally, slaves are con- 
 jadered as part of the owner's family ; the younger 
 lones are instructed with their owner's children, 
 Ifrora whom indeed, they are distinguished only by 
 Ijverj' slight difference of treatment, and the'per- 
 Iformance of some menial offices. They are pro- 
 wled by legal provisions ; and upon a just ground 
 p complaint against his master, the cadi will 
 per a slave to be sold. Servilitv is no bar to 
 
 official dignities ; indeed, the dolas, or governors 
 of towns, are not unfrequeiitly scleiited from slaves, 
 for the express reason that they belong to that 
 cla>(8; Ijcing supposed to be more strictly bound 
 to their masters' interest than free Arabs of noble 
 blood. (Burcklurdt, i. pp. 342, 343; Notes on 
 Bed., 10.1, 104 ; Ali Bey, li. pp. 45, 103 ; Niebuhr, 
 Des de I'Ar., par, i. p. 91 ; Lord Valentia, vol. iii. 
 pp. 328, 329.) 
 
 Arabia, if united under one, or even a few go- 
 venimcnts, wouhl possess many of the elements 
 of |M)liticaI power. The imtufe of its soil and 
 climate has always proved a formidable obstruc- 
 tion to foreign invaders, while the conquests of 
 the immediate successors of Mohammed bear wit- 
 ness to the effect that the combined operation of 
 its military energies is capable of producing. 
 Split as the country is into some hundreds of 
 petty sovereignties, this effect is little likely to 
 be reijeated. Though every Bedouin is by birth 
 a soldier, dreams of conquest, beyond the plunder 
 of a camp or caravan, rarely disturb his imagi- 
 nation; and though the princes of the settled 
 districts surround themselves with regular troops, 
 they employ them rather to avert internal trea- 
 chery than to make any attempt at foreign og- 
 grandisement. Still, however, the military power 
 of the Arabs is considerable. In 1816, the princes 
 op|x)sed Mehemet Ali with an army of 25,000 
 men ; and in 1803, the VVahobee chief marched 
 atcainst the same potentate at the head of 45,000. 
 (Hurckhardt's Notes, p. 248; Ali Bey, Travels, 
 vol. ii. p. 115); and though unable to prevent 
 the establishment of the Egyjitian power in the 
 Hedjaz, they delayed it for some years, during 
 which thay more than once defeated the troops of 
 the Pacha, and failed at last, more, as it would 
 appear, from want of concert in their operations 
 than from want of force. It should be remarked, too, 
 that Mehemet Ali seems fully satisfied with the pos- 
 session of the sea-ports of the Hedjaz, and the holy 
 cities. During twenty-four years he has made no 
 attempt to extend his conquests ; but has sought 
 to conciliate his neighbours, and liis new subjects, 
 by enacting laws equally favourable to both. The 
 sultan sheriff of the Hedjaz, previously to the 
 Egyptian conquest, maintained a guard of 1,000 
 men at Djidda, and probably 3,000 or 4,000 more 
 in the other towns of the Hedjaz : this army is 
 still maintained. The iman of Yemen has an 
 army of 4,000 or 5,000 men, and the iman of Mus- 
 cat, one of about 1,000. The smaller settled 
 states have also their military forces, but no re- 
 turn of their amounts can be obtained. 
 
 The Bedouin attends his chief much in the 
 fashion that the feudal vassal attended his liege 
 lord during the middle ages in Europe. He arms, 
 ec[uips, and clothes himself; and trusts for pay to 
 his share of booty. The Wahabee chief, who is 
 essentially a Bedouin, has indeed kept on foot a 
 lar^e body of mercenary troops ; but this system 
 is in its infancy in the desert, and it is doubtful 
 whether it will survive the present generation. 
 The Wahabee j)ower, since 1815, has evidently 
 been on the decline. In the settled states, on the 
 contrary, the soldiers are all mercenaries, their 
 pay being, in general, 2J dollars per month, in 
 addition to food, arms, and clotlung. This ac- 
 counts for the different appearance made by an 
 army of Bedouins, and one belonging to the states 
 of Yemen, Muscat, Hedjaz, &c. The former pre- 
 sent a motley appearance as to arms and equi|>- 
 mcnt ; the latter have the same arms and uniform. 
 The Bedouins use long lances, sabres, and short 
 crooked knives ; and shorter lances for the foot- 
 men. Clubs are very common, where lances, 
 (which are never of home mauufauture) cannot 
 
 "■2'k 
 
 
 
IGO 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 Hillli'li 
 
 be procuroil ; ami tlie IloiloiiiiiH Imvi' sovoral 
 kiiulu, Home wholly of wood, Home Imli'ii willi 
 iron, and otlirrn wliolly rompoHod of tlie liiltpr 
 material. l\IalPlil(M'kH,'and, in more recent tiincH, 
 rillpH, arc in xreat recjueHt, bnt not very plentiful ; 
 tlioup^h, when posccHHed of one, the lledouin is 
 an ulmoHt unerring niarkHman. The pistol Ib a 
 favourite weapon. 
 
 A shield, IH in. in diameter, covered with ox or 
 liippopotamns hide, in a veryeommon piece of dc- 
 feuHivc amiour; in addition to which, coats of 
 mail are worn whenever they mn hv. i)roeure(l. 
 An iron cap, without a feather, iron plovcH, and 
 somctimeH fjrfftves, for the Icgn, complete the cos- 
 tume of the mailed Aral), 'riiis mode of equip- 
 ment is, however, chiefly confined to the nedouins. 
 Of all tlie arms in use, only the jamhea, the cluhs, 
 and the target, arc of home maimfacturc; the 
 lances come from Syria and Persia, the sahres 
 nominally from Damascus, but in reality from 
 I,iege, in Belgium, the matchlock from Egypt, 
 'I'urkcy, ond ICurojie, and the coats of mail, prin- 
 cipally, from Syria. 
 
 It IS a common practice for all Arabs, except 
 merchants and learned professors, to go armed. 
 The jambea is the usual weapon. (Niebuhr, par. 
 ii. pp. 184-190; Burckhardt's Notes, 30-32, 134, 
 135, 218; Travels, vol. i. pp. 338, 339; Ali Bey, 
 ii. pp. 109-1 15 ; Lord Valentia, ii. p. 348, iii. p. 329.) 
 
 Agriculture. — The nfaure of the soil restricts 
 the pursuits of the agriculturist to particular lo- 
 calities, and his return varies materially in dif- 
 fcreuc parts of the peninsula. In Oman, the 
 better sort of wheat, even when the sea-son has 
 been peculiarly rainy, will not return more than 
 ten for one; nor the dhourrah (a coarse kind of 
 barley) more than twelve for one; while in the 
 most fertile parts of Yemen, wheat is said to yield 
 sometimes as much as fifty times the seed, and 
 the return for the dhonrrah, it is affirmed, amounts 
 to 150, 200, and sometirties even 400 for one. But 
 statements like these, being liable to extreme 
 exaggeration, must be received with considerable 
 scepticism; though, as the dhourrah yields, in 
 this district, two and even three crops in the year, 
 the accounts of its extreme productiveness are not 
 so very extravagant as, at first sight, they seem 
 to be. (Niebuhr, Des. de I'Ar. par. i. p. 135.) 
 
 The Tehama of Yemen, whenever its arid soil 
 is naturally, or can be artificially irrigated, is 
 plentifully sown with dhourrah. The plough is 
 dragged in every direction over the field, till the 
 eartli is well broken and completely mixed. The 
 sower follows the plough, and casts the seed into 
 the furrow, as it is formed, the return of the 
 plough covering the grain. In about eight weeks 
 the dhourrah is fit for the reaper; but as the fanner 
 wishes the com to be extremely ripe and dry be- 
 fore it is gathered, it remains standing a week or 
 two longer, and is then pulled up by the roots. 
 As, by this process, a considerable (quantity of the 
 dry seed is shed, the plough is again passed over 
 the ground, and, in about ten weeks, a second crop 
 is produced, which, being gathered in the same 
 way OS the first, is, as before stated, not unfre- 
 quently followed by a third. 
 
 The plough is of the mdest description, and 
 even this cannot be used on the mountain side ; 
 the latter being tilled by means of an iron hoe, or 
 rather pickaxe. These, with tools of primitive 
 construction for cutting channels in the fields and 
 gardens, and for forming banks or dikes to pre- 
 serve the water, complete the scanty list of agri- 
 cultural implements. When the com is to be 
 threshed the Arabs place it in two rows, ear to 
 ear: a large stone is then drawn over it by two 
 oxen, so that the grain is rather cmshed than 
 
 beaten out of the hiisk^. A water-m'iW would I* 
 an anomaly in a country where there arc Imnllv 
 any Hf reams; but, with tho exception nf niic (ir 
 two, lately introduced into the Hedjaz. Iiy the 
 Kgyptians, there are no v.-indmilla in Ariibin.' Tin, 
 corii, when ready to he ground, is placed iM'twcpn 
 two stones, of which tlie uppermost, if Hinali, j, 
 turned by the hand; if large, it is worked by an 
 ox or ass. (Niebuhr, par. ii, p. 189.) 
 
 litit notwithstanding this rude state of nf;rii'ii|. 
 ture, such is the fertility of the S. parts of Amliin, 
 that they not only supply corn for their own am- 
 sumption, but for that of the greater part of the 
 other ilistricts, and of the wandering tribes of the 
 desert. The Hedja/. is, however, almost whullv 
 dependant on supplies from Egypt. (Ld. Vnleiitia, 
 iii. 325 Kt seq.\ Ali Bev, ii. 40, 101, &c. ; Niebuhr 
 par. ii. 302-;^07.) 
 
 Manufactures, — These are at a lower ei)h in 
 Arabia than in perhaps any other seini-civiliswl 
 country. Among the Bedouins, two or three 
 blacksmiths, and a few saddlers, are the otily ar- 
 tists : they arc not memlK-rs of the tribe for whioh 
 they labour, but natives of the neighbouring towns 
 and villages. The Bedouins regard them as an 
 inferior race, and would feel degraded were anv 
 individual of their tribe to give his daughter in 
 marriage to one of them. It is curious, liowovcr, 
 that while they thus regard the service of their 
 horses (their greatest pride) as a meiiinl occupa- 
 tion, they should themselves unscruimloiisly fier- 
 form other works, which appear to us quite of m 
 low a character. The businesses of dyeing and 
 tanning are performed wholly by the men. The 
 Bedouin women weave the coverings of tents and 
 the bags for holding provisions, of the hairof poaii 
 and camels, but the manufactiira of tent-covcn is 
 confined to the mountainous regions, where Roau 
 abound, their hair being exclusively used for that 
 purpose. (Pliny, Nat, Hist., lib. vi. ca]). 28, p. 14'2.) 
 
 1 hese are all the arts or manufactures ])ractL««d 
 among the Bedouins ; and the standard sccnu 
 scarcely higher in the towns. It is true that gold 
 and silver ornaments are manufactured in Yemen; 
 but by Jews and Banian Indians. Even the money 
 which is coined in that district (and there is none 
 coined in any other) is the work of the fornier; 
 and the only watchmaker who ever settled in the | 
 country was a Turk. Of machinery, there is next 
 to none. Some rude sorts of amis are made in 
 Yemen, as the crooked knife, jambea, and a yert 
 inferior matchlock. There are also, in Yemen, 
 several looms for the manufacture of coarse linen; 
 and this, like the hair and wool-weaving among 
 the Bedouins, forms by far the most important of | 
 all their industrial occupations. Some wotilli 
 cloths are also woven ; but this manufacture ii I 
 much less extensive than the former. Tiie shp- 
 pers and sandals in common use are brought from 
 Egypt and Constantinople ; and the only attempts 
 at manufactures are confined to the construction 
 of rude matchlocks, janibeas, and lance-heads, to- 
 gether with" vessels of copper and tin, in which the 
 pilgrims carry away the water of the hoi)' well, 
 zemzeni. (Burckhardt's Travels, i. 343 ; Ali Bey, 
 ii. 99, 100.) In Oman, the only manufactures « 
 sashes and turbans of silk or cotton, the ahba.'» 
 Arab cloak of wool or camel's hair, a coarse kind [ 
 of cotton canvass, arms of a very rude descriplioi. 
 earthen jars, called murtaban, and gunpowder, 
 (Frazer's Journey into Khorasan, p. 18.) I 
 
 At Suez, Hodeida, Mocha, and Muscat, somerfl 
 the vessels are constructed in which the Ab» | 
 carry on their coasting, and Indian trade. 
 within these few years, ship-builiUng was earned I 
 on at Djidda also (Ali Bey, ii. 45) ; but though ill 
 be still a very important shipping-station, no\* I 
 
ARABIA 
 
 161 
 
 a lower el>h iu 
 lier Bcmi-civilisod 
 18, two or tlirw 
 are the only ar- 
 he tribe for wlikh 
 iiphboiiriiiij tflwm 
 •Hard tliein as u 
 cj^rnilcd wore any 
 c Ilia dnu);htcr in 
 1 curiouH, lupwovcr, 
 le service of their 
 a niciiinl occupa- 
 nscriiiHiloiirtly [*r- 
 r to us quite of a^ 
 sea of dyeing and 
 by the ntcn. The 
 erings of tents anJ 
 of thchiiirofcoals 
 ra of tcnt-covcK is 
 ?pons, where RoaU 
 aively used fur tint 
 >. vi. cap. 28, p. 142.1 
 lufacturcs pract'twl 
 he standard seems 
 It is true that Rold 
 factured in Yemen; 
 s. Even the money 
 . (and there is none 
 orlc of the former; 
 ever settled in the 
 linery, there is next 
 arms are made in 
 jambea, and a very- 
 re also, in Yemen, 
 mre of coarse linen; 
 lol-weaving among 
 most important (if 
 ,119. Some woollen 
 ihis manufacture ii 
 former. The slip- 
 se are brought from 
 Id the only attempts 
 to the co'nstruction 
 ind lance-heads, t>- 
 id tin, in which the 
 T of the holy well, 
 d8,i.343; AUBey, 
 ly manufactures »« 
 [cotton, the abk.« 
 [hair, a coarse m 
 TV nide description, 
 and gunpowder, 
 
 an, p. 18.) , 
 
 ,nd Muscat, some^ 
 „ which the Ante 
 Indian trade. M 
 aiilding was carnrt 
 45); but though It 
 ling-station, no VB- 
 
 „1, of «ny kind are now built at It, and it Ih with 
 liiBciiltv that means are found of even rrpairini; a 
 Zor lx«t. niir.-khar.lt'H Travels, i. <l«.) The 
 want of wuKl,m Arabia, lavs the shipwrinht under 
 itfiuliar (liHftdvantaKes. '1 be timber used in Suez 
 [i feilotl in the WfMMis of Asia Minor, conveyed up 
 the Nile to (lain), and tliencc, overland, to its j)laco 
 Lf leslin*!'"'"' When ships wore built at DJidda, 
 the timl)cr came by the same route ; and it may 
 Ik. presumed that it* further transit, by the Hetl 
 Sn.fwn' Suez rendered it too costly. In Moclia 
 Lil IlwU'ida a part of the timber is procured from 
 III,, mountain-sides of Y'emen, but the jjrcater |K>r- 
 ti.in is imported from the coast of Africa. (Uurck- 
 hanll's Travels, i. 42-49.) 
 
 I The M\>» of the Arabs, excepting those of Mus- 
 
 Ifat. wliioli are of a very suiMirior description, are 
 
 Lxtnmely rude and simple. Those called (lows 
 
 lire the largest, and are the only ones that perform 
 
 the voyage to I ntlia. ( Uurckhardt's Travclsj i. 48.) 
 
 Theunskilfnlncss of the Arab seamen, with the 
 
 (lumsv nature of their dows, ren<ler shipwrecks of 
 
 jerv frwiucnt occurrence. Ali Hey was wrecked. 
 
 iin his voyage from Suez to Djidda, and again on 
 
 L return fmm Djidda to Suez (Travels, ii. 84, 
 
 jiil); and ho affirms that not a year jiasses without 
 
 everal vessels being totally lost, and many more, 
 
 noie or less injured ; so that ships are always 
 
 K'injf built or repaired, without increasing the 
 
 tual number employed in the coasting trade (ii. 
 
 j). That number is, however, considerable ; the 
 
 jiips belonging to Djiilda only amount to 2.'i0 ; 
 
 hill it is estimated that about as many Inslong 
 
 Jf.<pertivcly to Suez, Hodeida, and Mocha. (Burck- 
 
 lanlt's Travels, i. 42 ; Ali Bey, ii. 45.) Many of 
 
 hese ships are purchased at Bombay and Muscat ; 
 
 he vessels of the latter beinp ver^ superior to 
 
 liose of the Kcd Sea, and their navigators much 
 
 tfore the sailors of Yemen in energy and skill. 
 
 Bee Muscat.) 
 
 I The best houses of the Arabs are built of stone, 
 ■, if upon the coast, of madrepore and coral. This 
 ittcr material is of such a nature that it rapidly 
 imposes when exposed to the weather. In 
 llher parts they use a sun-burnt brick with little 
 r no lime, so that constant care is necessary to 
 !\'cnt the introduction of moisture, the tropical 
 ns bringing w ith them sure destruction to the 
 iglected buildings of an Arab town, quickly re- 
 kcing them to a heap of rubbish ; and as the 
 noden materials very soon vanish in a country 
 pre wood is extremely scarce, the very ruins of 
 pny cities, formerly celebrated for their magnifi- 
 nce and grandeur, may now be sought for in 
 n, Even in towns that are populous, and stir- 
 g with activity, many houses are falling rapidly 
 [decay; and while no part is old, many parts are 
 lapidated and ruinous : yet an Arab town, on the 
 kt approach to it, appears handsome and pictu- 
 «)ue; the houses, like those all over the East, 
 ! flat-roofed, and among them rise, here and 
 re, the dome-covered tombs, called kobas,vihich, 
 [ihthe tapering minarets of the mosques, give to 
 t whole outline an air of variety and elegance, 
 ^er}' good house exhibits a series of gaudy lat- 
 i to its windows; and many of them are oma- 
 nted with fanciful designs in wliite stucco. 
 ket of the gateways have pointed arches ; and 
 ^general character of the ornamental architec- 
 1 is not very dissimilar to the Gothic. The 
 (|ue8 are square buildings, or rather parallelo- 
 ms, without much external beauty, except 
 r tall and slender minarets, which always ap- 
 ! light and graceful ; but their interior fre- 
 Btly displays much skilful workmanship. The 
 ^t mosque at Mecca contains more than 5()0 
 nns and pilasters of very great beauty. The 
 foul. 
 
 houses of the poorer classes are of the most wretchc<l 
 description. Huts coninosed of wicker work or 
 date-tree leaves, covered on the insiile with mats, 
 and sometimes on the outside with a little clav ; 
 huddled togetlicr, and hanlly sufficient to aflfonf a 
 slieUer from the weather. These cittnirastaiiceH, 
 with the tilth collected in the unpaved streets, and 
 never removed, impress the mind of a Euro|iean 
 with a sense of xitU'T des<dation and misery. 
 
 No remains of tlie line Saracenic architecture of 
 the miihllc ages are found in Arabia ; singular aa 
 it may appt^ar, that a |)eople who have left the 
 traces of tlieir skill in this art in every land, from 
 Mesopotamia to Spain, should possess no trace of 
 it in their native country. The perishable natiiro 
 of building materials in Arabia muj/ account for 
 this fact, for even the holy mosque at Mecca has 
 undergone so many repairs* that it may lie regarded 
 as a modem structure ; but it is much more pro- 
 bable that, while ihe Arab conquerors caught the 
 love of arts and sciences from the enervated, but 
 refined, nations subdued by them in their headlong 
 career of conquest, those arts and sciences did not 
 find their way into the peninsula, and that architec- 
 ture, like the rest, never flourished within its limits. 
 
 The Arabs use no lev(!ls in their buildings, con- 
 sequently their floors are very uneven ; and, not- 
 withstanding the heat of their climate, they have 
 a very bad, or, rather, no idea of ventilation. The 
 large ventilators, ])laccd on the house-tops in 
 Egypt, and which diffuse a current of air through 
 all the lower apartments, are totally unknown. 
 In many places tlie windows are composed of trans- 
 parent stone, built into the walls, and, consequently, 
 incapable of opening, (Burckhardt's Travels, i. 
 17—22, 153— 153,18.')— 242; ii. 160, 329, Ac; Ali 
 Bey, ii. 30, 42, 94—104, ICl— 174 ; Lord Valentia, 
 ii. 845—348 ; Eraser, 7, 8.) 
 
 Commerce. — Owing to the situation of Arabia, 
 nearly surrounded by the sea, and oecupj'ing, aa 
 it were, a central position between Europt^ Asia, 
 and Africa, it has always enjoyed a considerable 
 trade, which, in later ages, has been materially 
 promoted by the resort of pilgrims to the holy 
 cities. The hadjis, indeed, are expressly autho- 
 rised by the Prophet to combine commercial pur- 
 suits with the performance of a religious duty 
 (Koran, chap. ii. Sale) ; and a great amount of 
 business is, consequently, transacted at Mecca, 
 during the period that the pilgrims remain in that 
 city. With the exception of coffee, and a few 
 other articles of infenor importance, Arabia has 
 but little native produce to export. Its trade, 
 therefore, is, and always has been, principally one 
 of transit. Great quantities of commodities are 
 annually brought to Djidda, Mecca, Muscat, and 
 its other entrepots, from Turkey, Persia, Africa, 
 and the Indian Islands. With our own country, 
 however, Arabia has scarcely any intercourse 
 whatever. The total value of imports into the 
 territories of the Iroaum of Muscat from the 
 United Kingdom, in the year 1863, amounted 
 to 1,189 f., representing 2,489 tons of coaL In 
 the four preceding years the imports were nil. 
 The exports from the United Kingdom into the 
 territories of the Imaum of Muscat, in the year 
 18C3, were of the value of 3/. steriing. (An- 
 nual Statement of Trade and Navigation.) The 
 great centres of Arabian trade are Djidda, Mocha, 
 and Muscat. The flrst is the port of Mecca, and 
 also the principal' channel through which the re- 
 gular trade between the Hedjaz and Egypt is 
 carried on ; the former being principally dependant 
 upon the latter for its supplies of com. Since the 
 zeal for pilgrimage has b^un to abate in the Mo- 
 hammedan world, the trade of Arabia has conside- 
 rably decreased; but it is still carried on to a 
 
 M 
 
 ;'il •■ 
 
 
 : ;■■■ Mw 
 
 h 
 
 ■\l 
 
 m 
 
 i-'n 
 
 
162 
 
 AHABIA 
 
 
 *&i?:'H'' 
 
 
 ffTpntcr rxtont than would romlilv lio Mipiuwi'd, 
 cotisiili'riiiK thii limitcil amount ol' iIh |M>i>uialiitn 
 unil produittiouH. Moclm ih tho priuc-ipal Hcnl of 
 tlu! cdtfco tra(l(>, tliou^h LoIkmii hiut of lato yvun 
 niada wmio ixtwcrfiil attoinptH at rivalry; and 
 MuHcat liaH n-ccntly risen to vpry connidpralili' cnii- 
 ni'Mci! an a H»(a-port and wat of tlic carryinn trade, 
 particularly with India and llie ('oiuilrii'H mund 
 the rerxian Gulf. (IJurckhardt'H TravelH, i. 'J'.l- 
 !tl; Ali lUry, ii. 101-107; Fraser, 10; Lord Va- 
 lentia, ii. il7b; Nielmlir, par. ii. p. IDS. Sec aUo, 
 D.nn.iA, MociiA, Muhcat, tl-o.) 
 
 Litiin, Crime*, itnd Punishment*. — The law» of 
 
 Arabia arc those of a |)riinitive j)e<»j)le under a pa- 
 veninient. The eivil laws, foundec 
 
 Iriarchal ^ov 
 
 upon the Koran, are administered l>yea<lis, distin 
 guislutd hy their experience in the eustonis of the 
 nation, liut to whom a knowledge of the arts of 
 readimj and writimj is not always indispensahle. 
 It sluiuld he ohservcd, however, that the Arab 
 judges arc of two kinds; the Cndi-el-ferian (judge 
 of customarj' law), aiul the Citdi-el-iilteryua (judge 
 of written law), tlie latter heing more common in 
 what are called the Turkish towns (that is, in 
 towns governed by Turkish law), thon in those 
 where the unmixed customs of Arabia exist. 
 Written ])leadings arc not, however, unknown, even 
 in pure Arab towns ; but precedents (in some cases, 
 perhaps, reduced to a nule form of coditlcation) 
 seem to form the principal, if not the only guide, 
 to an Arab judge's decision. The sovereign, 
 wliethei he be monarch of a state, or sheikh of a 
 Kedouin tribe, is only president of the tribuiuil of 
 justice; he cannot decide a case, either civil or 
 criminal ; everyone iimst he referred to the pro])er 
 tribuiuil ; and the sovereign jiossesses no power of 
 reversing its tlecision. Hut this protection from 
 despotic power is, in the towns, merely apparent; 
 for, tLS the sovereign names the cadis and dismisses 
 them at {)lca8ure, they regard themselves sim|ily 
 as his otHcers, and never dream of pronouncing a 
 Bcntence of which he disajiproves. Among the 
 Bedouins, however, the office of cadi is elective, 
 and the sheikh has no intluence in the appoint- 
 ment, (Nicbuhr, par. ii. pp. 18U, &o. ; Burckhardt, 
 Notes on Bed., pp. (W, &c.) 
 
 Capital piniisimients are very rare; being in- 
 flict(!d only for blasphemy, and conjugal inlid-lity 
 in women. The blasiihemcr is hanged; the un- 
 chaste wife, if her guilt be unequivocally proveil, 
 has her throat cut ; and, by an unhetird of retinc- 
 ment of atrocity, her father or brother is coin|)elled 
 to be her executioner. This detestable barbarity 
 is, however, rarely perpetrated ; for the marriage 
 tie being, on the part of the husband, of very easy 
 dissolution, he generally prefers sending his offend- 
 ing spH>usc back to her family, merely assigning as 
 a reason that she does not suit him. (Niebuhr, 
 par. i. p. 21 ; Burckhordt, Notes on Bed., p. 03.) 
 Cor])oral punishments are almost unknown. The 
 immemorial usage is to award a pecuniary fine, 
 whatever may be the nature of the crime. Every 
 offence has its ascertained mulct, even to murder ; 
 but, in this case, the friends of the deceased are 
 not compelled to take the compensation, being, 
 by the law of Thar, or blood revenge, allowed to 
 take the life of the homicide, or that of any of his 
 relations within the fourth degree. If, however, 
 the fine be accepted, the Koran expressly jjrovides 
 for the safety of the murderer. (Koran, chap. ii. 
 p. 21 ; Niebuhr, jiar. i. i)p. 28-31 ; Burckhardt's 
 Not(!8 on Bed., pp. 84-89.) Insulting exjiressions, 
 acts of violence, however slight, and the infliction 
 of wounds, have each their respective tariff of 
 lines. The decisions of the cadis are generally 
 founded upon the amount of testimony before 
 them ; but, if there be no witnesses, the defendant 
 
 is called upon to oxpurgato himself by nnih. Ti, 
 judicial oaths vary in sanctity and Nolcuuiiiy; «,,; 
 if the accused swear, by the one propoiwl, ti, (,,^ 
 innocence, he is considered as acrpiitted. 
 
 Among the liedouins, the customs of friuyu,! 
 Ihthheil luive all the fort-e of law in ullicr mur,! 
 fries; by the first, an Arab family binds \\m:\\]„ 
 be the protector of another, and this (ililiKaii<ii, i 
 once undertaken, descends through all tlin|;i>nen. 
 tions of both. There is no Arab, from llifl(i««i 
 to the highest, but has his wumj, or guitnliaii; «,] 
 the duty of protection iiderrc<l from this I'lianita, 
 is among tlu; most sacred recognised in Arnliij. 
 
 Hy the law of dtikheil, a person in actual tknn I 
 who can touch another, or even miytliin^; ini 
 which that other is in contact, or can hit him!,; 
 
 sjiitting or throwing a stoiut at him, nt tlic nam i 
 tune exclaiming, ^ Ana lUthheihik,' (I iuntliy|)pJ 
 tccted,) ac(piires a right to the protectiiiirvthiitl 
 he seeks, and which is always acconlcil to il« I 
 fidlest extent. Kven a detected thief, if lit fa I 
 touch anyone in his ca|itor's tent (cxecpt iln I 
 captor himself), l)ecomes safe; for wliich ^y^A 
 he is bound hand aiul foot, and lieatcn, tilli«l 
 agrees to renounce the ilukhe.il for that dny. Jul 
 for this reason, too, that he is subsequently Inirk I 
 alive, as it were ; for should he become the ili^X 
 of anyone, his right to freedom is immcduifltl 
 allowed, and he is treated, in every rcs|)*ct, like'il 
 newly arrived guest in the tent of his Intc Piirail 
 There is only one offender to whom the privilijl 
 of (Ittkheil is refused, namely, the tliiof rplcwjl 
 u|M)n the respimsibility of some third party, if iil 
 should, when at liberty, refuse to satisfy his Itil 
 Under such circumstances, he is proclaimed hmbi 
 and loses all the privilege in question; infnl 
 becomes outlawed. The daklteil does not applr J 
 a homicide under the thur. (Hurckliordt, N'iiigl 
 on Bedouins, pp. 74, 75, 8!)-100, 182.) 
 
 Though polygamy be allowed by the Mohi 
 medan law, in practice it is by no means |,'eoei 
 Few men, of moderate fortunes, have more Ibi 
 one wife ; and many, even of the highest i 
 similarly confine themselves. (Niehuhr, pv.il 
 p. (if); Burckhardt, Not. on Bed., p. 61.) Onil 
 other hand, the nature of the marriage cereni 
 and the facility of divorce, renders cAawjn^ 
 wives of very common occurrence. In the ton 
 an agreement Ix-fore the cadi, in the destrt, il 
 slaughter of a lamb ui the tent of the t«ii| 
 father, completes the contract, which is bni) 
 quite as readily as it is formed. The hmli 
 having said, liefore witnesses, ^ent talek' (t\m 
 divorced), and sent the woman back to her fan 
 both iMirties are considered free ; the husbanilfii 
 the maintenance of his wife, the wife to fumuK 
 ccmnection. In these cases, the woman's pun 
 is returned; and, among the Bedouins, thchitti 
 adds to it a she-camel. The custom of divowl 
 however, much more prevalent in the tenuii 
 in the towns. In the latter it is always consii 
 indecorous, and implying dishonour in theffoi 
 but in the desert a wife may have l)een div* 
 three or four times, and yet l)e free from anys 
 or imputation on her character. Polygamy.b 
 ever, is much more common in the to»nJtl 
 among the Bedouins. 
 
 If a man leave a widow, his brother genen 
 offers to marry her; but this is entirely a 1«J 
 custom, and not binding on either (Mirty. A» 
 has, however, an exclusive right to the handrfj 
 cousin ; and, although he cannot be cora|)ell ' 
 niartj'' her, his renunciation of his right is o 
 sary to enable her to marry another. M«r 
 arc consummated at a very eorly age; it* 
 r koned discreditable in a man, ami ata*]^ 
 nious in a woman, to lead a life of celibacy. 
 
ARABIA 
 
 103 
 
 liy outh. T}i( 
 Milcniiiily; uj 
 pni|Hineil, toha 
 littctl. 
 
 OH of Waty iti,l 
 
 in oilier (dun. 
 
 ' MikIh itM'lf (,, ' 
 
 thiit (il)liKaiii,i;, 
 
 I all t)i« Ki'iien- 
 fnim t)i<' l(i«K 
 r ^iiurilian ; m\ 
 
 II thiH vharii'tH. 
 <uil ill Araliii. 
 ill actual ilanM. 
 1 miythiii)! «iik 
 ■ cikii hit iiim III 
 liiin, nt the ttiw I 
 t,' (I am tliy|iM.I 
 protc'ctioH wliukl 
 , lu'i'onh'd l(] till I 
 I thief, if lit ritl 
 tent (cxw'Vi tl<| 
 for which viaii 
 
 ul licnton, till mI 
 •r that (lay, luj 
 il)SP(|iK'iitly'.mri«!l 
 lecomc the dnlUl 
 im is inimeifair 
 k'cry reftjioct, likul 
 
 ofliin late eiiraT,l 
 i\wm the priviKil 
 
 the thief rcMJ 
 e third pttrtv.il!*! 
 
 to satisfy his Ul 
 n prochiimcd (raibl 
 1 question; infttl 
 eil (lot's not ap|)ln| 
 (lJur('khardt,!igB| 
 10, 1H2.) 
 fcil by the Mohi 
 y no means f^t 
 [cs, liave morettir 
 f the hifjhcst ' 
 
 . (Nichuhr, pir.il 
 
 ed., p. CI.) On It 
 marriaj^c cereiM 
 renders ckww^ 
 ■lu-e. Ill the ti)«i 
 , ill the desert, 
 tout of the l)ni| 
 .f.t, which is bnii 
 [ned. The husta 
 
 ent talek' (ttwujj 
 ,. backtohcrfam 
 ic ; tVie husbandit 
 hcwifctofonmii 
 the woman's pun 
 edouins, the bush 
 
 custom of diviMti 
 ut in the tenuir 
 
 is always consii" 
 
 lonourintbeM 
 J liave l)een divdi 
 
 )C free from any* 
 I'olycaniy.t 
 
 in the" towil 
 
 er. 
 
 hanU'^i N"''"" "" ^''''- PP- "•-'"'! NIcbiihr, par. i. 
 
 "ilit' law of iiihrritnncc in vf rj' simple as n-KanU 
 iiriiixftv. The cftict.s of n dcfcaMed father nre 
 jmLl amoiiK his children, the iMirtioii of a male 
 
 Ilia brother m 
 s is entirely a Wj 
 cither iwirty. AjJ 
 [fht to the handal 
 nnot be compeWj 
 l,f his right IS"' 
 another. Mm 
 early age ; it , 
 _nan, and almofii 
 |e of celibacy. (!■ 
 
 ;iiim'd amoiijf rus cniuiren, uio jm 
 Irinir double that of n feinalc. Ihe HUCcesHioii to 
 i„wer is less clearly ajwertained. If a tdudkli or 
 Lcreiifn ilie. his succeHsor is usually taken from 
 1 iiminu his sons; but it does not seem"that any («!<• 
 li,n a well-established ri^bt in preference to the 
 lihers. Ill Yemen, it would appear that the inian 
 I i, ,iif('eeded by his eldest liviiijf son, even to the 
 
 ' ' ' ' ~ - ' ised. 
 
 s on 
 I li,','l.7|ip. <W, 75; llord Valentia, vol. ii. p. .'IHii.) 
 
 /ff/K/i'mi,— Antecedent to the earliest records, 
 Ibe city of Mecca had been sacred f,''"""!'! ; «"<l its 
 iiilv temple, the hanhu, ideiitillcd in the minds of 
 Ithi" Arabs with every sacred feelin^f. The le^'ends 
 Iwilh res|)oct to it, to which it is unnecessary more 
 liiiinicularly to allude, show that the relipmi of t\w, 
 Itarlv Arnlis was, to n considerable extent, mixed 
 lull with that of the llebn^ws. They acknowledj,'ed 
 Lie supreme tioil, reh'nnlinj,', however, ltie sun, 
 liiKwn, planets, and stars, mt inferior and subordi- 
 Inaie intelligences. This religion has been called 
 Isabianism, either from Rami, a sujiiMised scui of 
 Ist'th, or, as is more probable, from the word Saka, 
 Tjijiiifying the Host of Heaven. The supreme (io(l 
 Las callc(U//aA Tmhi <Most lIi>,'hCiod), the Mib- 
 bniinatc deities, Al-Slii)ial (the Powers). It was 
 llifse titles (one jiarticular, tlie other ^eiieral) that 
 ed HeriKh)tiis to atlirm that the Arabians worship- 
 jeil only two frods, namely, Urotalt and Alilat; 
 Iticfiimier of whom he identifies with the IJiicchuH 
 liiiiHipcK) of the Greeks, the latter with Urania, 
 Ilie muse of astronomy. (ner<Mh>tii», Thalia, § H ; 
 Rl-Firawz, ShahrestAn et aliis in Po<!ocke, pp. 1 U(, 
 m 143, 2H4 ; UTIerbelot, pp. 726, 72(5, &c.) The 
 Vbian religion can scarcely bo deemed irrational, 
 Jrlien profes.sed bv a rude peojile, iiihabitiiij; an 
 l[K"i country, under a clear sky; who must have 
 wiiiccted tlie changes of the seasons and the rc- 
 ums of the jieriodic rains and drouKhts, that reii- 
 tred their plains alternately fertile and sterile, 
 rith the rcvolutioii-s of the lieavenly bodies. Hut 
 iie^Vrabs also worshipped angels (Koran, chaiis. 
 hi. and Ixxi.) ; and their images, which last they 
 |flieved to be inspired by the Hii])renie divinity 
 Kth life and intelligence. This sort of idolatry 
 Bvin); been once introduced, gradually spread; 
 Ljiii the sixth century, and long before, the num- 
 kr of these deities was very great, each tribe 
 ping chosen one to be its peculiar interce,ssor 
 Kth the Supreme Ileing ; and 300 were enshrined 
 I the kaaba, as tutelary guardians of the davs of 
 K Arab year. (Al-Janaub, Shalirestan et aliis in 
 pciicke, 90 et seq.; Sale, Intro. Koran, 14-22; 
 prckhardt's Travels, i. p. 299, &c.) 
 iThe Arabs seem, indeed, to have admitted, wth- 
 (t hesitation, all deities ; and thus, in the sixth 
 nlury, a figure of the Virgin Mary, with the in- 
 lit Jesus, was sculptured on one of the principal 
 liars of the kaaba as an object of adoration. (El 
 bky, quoted by Burckhardt, Travels, i. p. 300.) 
 lis most probable that this iniliscriminate sAop- 
 kn of the objects of veneration of all sects, was 
 lemltd to render the sacred city sacred to all 
 p, and thus to increase the resort of lulgrims. 
 'iflcr the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, 
 70, many Jews tied into Arabia. These exiles 
 de many proselytes among the natives, whole 
 lies embracing the Hebrew faith ; so that, in a 
 fctury or two, the Jewish Arabs became a very 
 perful section of the whole people. A similar 
 pe, the persecution early in the third century 
 I tlie Christian rera, drove many Christians to 
 
 Arabia, wlu.sc zoni, nnchroked by former siifU'r- 
 iiigs, h'd Iheiii to preach their doclrincM in their 
 new homes, and that with such success that in a 
 short time thtiy had made a very great progresH 
 in the <'ountrv. 
 
 The faith of tlie I'ersian Magi, or the «'ligion(>f 
 /oroaHler, had, at a « ry early |ierio(l, found ilx 
 way into the peninsula; had been embraced with 
 avidity by ninny tribes; and thus, in the middle 
 of iIk; nixtb century, the population of Arabia wtm 
 divided, |M'rhaps ii4it very unequally, into Sabians, 
 .lews,Cliristians,aiid Magians. (Shalirestan etnliU 
 ill I'iK-ocke, \ U) 1 1 Hei/, ; Sale, Intro. Koran, 21-21.) 
 
 Such was the state of religion in Arabia at tli'j 
 birth of Mohammed ; an e|MMdi which may be re- 
 garded as the conimenceineiit of one of the most 
 extraordinary revolutions that history bos to re- 
 cord. It occurred at Mecca in the month of Mav, 
 A.i>. 571 (Dr. rrideaux. Hist. Mob. (!) or TxO 
 (Abiil-Feda. Vit. Mob. 40). This founder of a new 
 ndigion, and of a ]iolitical power which, even in 
 his lifetime, extended over bis native country, ami 
 which, under his succ<>Msors, tbrealened to etnlirace 
 (be empire of the world, trr.ced his genealogy in a 
 direct line through eleven ibwceiits from Koreish, 
 the founder of tlu; powerful tribe that bore hia 
 name. Koreish, again, was aHirmed to l>c the 
 tenth in direct descent from Adiuin ; and Adnan, 
 the third, seventh, or eighth (which is doubtful) 
 from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. (Abul-Fcdo, 
 Vit. M(di. cap. ii. pp. ('<, 7.) 
 
 The future I'ronhet sprung, tlierefore, from the 
 noblest tribe of the Ishmaelitish Arabs, and bi» 
 grandfather was, at the time of bis birth, sovereign 
 of Mecca, and guardian of the kaaba; coiise(|uently, 
 from the sac^redness of bis territory, and the ludi- 
 ness of his oHice, a prince of great power and influ- 
 ence. (Abul-Feda, cap. vi. p. 13; Al-I''irawz et 
 aliis in I'ococke, p. 51 ; Kccbelensis Chroii. or Hist. 
 Ar., par. i. cap. iii. p. 130 et aetj.) 
 
 Yet, notwithstanding his high connections, Mo- 
 hammed's early life was passed in comparative 
 poverty. His father, r. younger son of the sovo- 
 rcigii of Mecca, <lying before Mohammed was two 
 years old, the latter, and his mother, were left 
 with no other provision than five camels, and u 
 female slave. To his grandfather, AlMlol-Mutalleb, 
 in the first instance, and subsequently to his uncle, 
 Abu-Taled, the future Prophet was, therefore, in- 
 debted for his infant protection ; and this guar- 
 dianship was exercised with the greatest kindness, 
 the uncle especially (f > ' vdol-Motalleb died when 
 Mohammed was on! ' ' years old), continuing 
 the firm friend of his ' ul, throughout his life, 
 and protecting him in ti.a dangers and difflcultiea 
 wliich beset his first attempts to disseminate his 
 d'-jtrines. Under the aus]<ice8 of his uncle, Mo- 
 hammed began life as a merchant, accompanying 
 a trading caravan to Syria, in his thirteenth vear. 
 Subsequently, and at a very early age, Abu-1'aleb 
 recommended him as a factor to Khadija, a rich 
 widow, to whom his skill in commerce, or his other 
 accomplishment<), so far endeared him, that, in a 
 short time, he exchanged the name of servant for 
 that of husband ; raising himself by this alliance 
 to an equality with the richest, if not the most 
 powerful men of Mecca. At the time of his mar- 
 riage, he was twenty-five, and liis wife forty years 
 of age. (Abul-Feda, caps. iv. and v. pp. 10 and 12.) 
 It would be useless now to attempt to discover the 
 proximate cause that led Mohammed to attack a 
 system of idolatry, of which liis own family were 
 at the head. It was not, however, as some have 
 surmised, a sudden outbreak of enthusiasm ; for, 
 after his marriape, he continued to live in all the 
 privacy compatible with the station of a rich and 
 iiighly connected individual for thirteen years. At 
 
 M 2 
 
 •''•- -Its-n 
 
 't* 
 
 
101 
 
 ARAIJIA 
 
 m^i^i 
 
 <.w { 
 
 fep'*''^ 
 
 k 
 
 H: 
 
 ^!*- 
 
 m 
 
 llic torminntinn of thif* period, he willidrow from 
 Mocicly, ri'Nnrlt'il toiK-iivo in I ho nci^lilMUirlKHMl of 
 Mi'cni, wIktc, for two yviw, lii> uiivi' out Hint li« 
 WHN in ilnily cAnnnunirnlion uitli tlH> Divinity. 
 At t\u' 011(1 of tliin lime, liciii^j tlii-n forty yrnrn of 
 nifr, hi' nuMutticil tho chiiriii'tcr of n I'roiihot, Mont Itv 
 thi> AlmiKhly lo rNtnhliMh a new religion; or, if 
 wo niny taltohiH own woriJN. to roHtoro tho anciont 
 ono, profoHNod hy Adam. Noah, Ahralinm, the 
 I'rophctH. and tJoHUH (^hrittt ; hy doxtroyin^ tho 
 liTiiKH iddlntrioN of hix connlrymoii, and woodinj? 
 out tho oorniptioMN and Hii|H>rMlitionM hy which, aH 
 ho alh-^od, tlio .I«'Wn and 4'hrixtianM had doformod 
 tho iMwuitifnl Nimplit'ity of tlio triio faith. (Ahul- 
 Fcda, cap. vii. pp. 11-17; Ahid-IMiarimiti», p. 102; 
 Kl-Macin. Hi.st. Sar.. lih. i. cap. i. p. I!», Ao.) 
 
 NothJMK ran well oxoood tlio Nimplicity of thn 
 Moliammodaii iloctriiioH, nx dolivorod hy the 
 foiiiidor and hix iinmodiato NiiocoHHorH ; and iih 
 thoy aro omiMidiod in tho 114 ohnptorM of tho 
 Koran: The unity of (iixl; tho diviiio mixMion of 
 IMohamniod; tlio Htatod ohHorvani* of prayer; 
 th(^ K'vinK of almH; tho olworvanco of an annual 
 fiwt ; and tho ))ilH;rimii>;n to Mecca; comprixo 
 nuder Hvo headn, tho principal points, whether doc- 
 trinal or practical, which were to he enforced. 
 The resurrection of the hody was proclaimed, and 
 n future state, in which men will receive thc! re- 
 vvaril of their ^'ood actions and ohodicnco to the 
 law of the Prophet, or ho siihjected to a fmrij'i/ing 
 imnislinieiit for their evil deeds and inlidelity. 
 Ihi'fiiifil admission of nil true hclievers to n state 
 of hiiss, is an article of Mohnmmodan faith. 
 {Koriiu, juiHiiim, especially chaps, ii, iii, iv. v. and 
 cxii. ; IJolniid'H Mohnm. Theol.. p. 20, dc.) The 
 Hiijiposod divine lepition of Mohammed is the 
 ]>rincipnl novelty introdiicod. The stated prayers 
 were only ndnptntions of customs already existing 
 among the Sahians, Jews, Christians, and Ma- 
 gians; the annual fast was a very ancient prac- 
 tice among the oldAralis; and the only change 
 cfloctod hy Mohammed in its ohservance, was, tiy 
 pndiihiting the intercalation of a month in the 
 lunar year, to mal«c the sacred season fixed in- 
 stead of ambulatory. (Koran, chap, ix.) The 
 pilgrimage to Mecca was, as has been shown, a 
 practice followed from tlie very earliest times; 
 and the rewards and punishments in another life 
 were adopted, but with much adulteration, from 
 the Christian doctrines. The grossly sensual 
 character of Mohammed's paradise, is, in fact, the 
 great blemish in his religious system ; and has had 
 a most debasing and degrading influence over the 
 otiuntries where it hos acquired an ascendancy. 
 
 The new religion being in most parts little 
 more than an adaptation of various parts of the 
 religions previously existing in Arabia, was well 
 fitted to attract all by the respect it iirofesscd for 
 the peculiar tenets of each, excepting the idola- 
 trous worship of the Sabinns. Accordingly, Mo- 
 hammed was heard with patience by the people 
 of Mecca, till he denounced the idols of the 
 Kaaha, This, however, raised so strong a feeling 
 against him, that his ruin was prevented, and his 
 life jireserveil, only by the firm friendship of his 
 uncle, Abu-Taleb, who, although unconvinced by 
 the preaching of his nephew, protected him 
 against his enemies. In the sixth year of his mis- 
 sion, the persecutions to which he was exposed 
 became so severe, that many of his followers 
 sought by permission, refuge in other lands, chiefly 
 in Abyssinia ; where they became the first instru- 
 ments for planting the new faith in Africa. This 
 event is called by Eastern writers, the first 
 TIkjira or flight. (Abul-Feda. caps, 
 pp. 21-27; Kbuoil-Athir El-Firawz 
 rocoke, p. 177, et serrJ 
 
 ix. X. xi., 
 el tdiis in 
 
 In less than nine years, Mohnmmod nurr(«»,|ft| 
 in uniting all Arabia in one faith; hut ili,|,.^ 
 live long to enjoy his triumph. .Some y(<A^ hn^ 
 viiitiHly. or in the Moventh llejirn, A.i>. iJ'iM, h^ »^ 
 poiiMined by a .Jowohh of Chaihar, who, mi him.|,. 
 leriiig that town in triumph, olferod him ami,, 
 eggs, previously drugged, profeHsedly to tnt i|„ 
 reality of his divine knowledge. (Alml-K(i|i 
 cap. xlv. p. 1*2.) Henceforward his KtreiiKth ,1,, 
 dined; hut his (h'ath was caused hy « u.\„ 
 which, having at intervals deprived liitn ni |,i, 
 retiHon, terminated his existence in the a|ia,',. ,,| 
 fourti-e.i days, on tho 12th of the Ist nioiitli, i!,,. 
 hizah, in the ehivonth ilejira (Dth.luiie, tiilAm 
 his sixty-third, or, iicconliiig to nouio nutlmriii,^ 
 sixty-fifth year. lie was buried at Medina; mii 
 the Mohammedan dm-tont ditt'er as to whiili j, 
 tho most sacred — Mecca, which gave hirih l, 
 their AjH>stlo, or Medina, which received liim in 
 his flight, and contains his mortal remaiiin. (U. 
 Macin, lib. i. p. 10; Abul-Feda, caps. Ixl-lxiv 
 p|.. M-M2; Ockley's Hist. Sar., i. I.) 
 
 Mohammed died in the midst of prepartliuDi I 
 to carry his spiritual faith and toinponil \m^ 
 into otlier countries. His death w'arci^lv, luiv. 
 over, siiHponded the completion of liw (.im 
 designs : a momentary state of confusion ku 
 followed bv the election (d' Abu-llecre, faliw-in. 
 law of Mohammed, to the oflico of supreme lirM 
 of the Mussulman religion and power, under lU 
 title of ' Khaliif,' or ' Siicci-ssor of the rr«|ihei. 
 Under his reign, and that of his two siiccessdrn, ihe I 
 Arab arms were carried triumphantly iiitoallilitl 
 neighbouring countries ; and by the tweiitit'tliycii I 
 of the Hejira, or within loss than ten ycaw inn I 
 the death of Mohammed, the conquest iif Sym, 
 Persia, and Kgy])t, was completed. la theiljirl 
 toenth year of the Hejira, Oamasciis was laku, 
 in the seventeenth, Antioch; in the ninntceiiili, I 
 Ispahan ; and in the twentieth, Alexaiiilrin. (tl- 1 
 Macin, lib. i. cap. ii. pp. IG-H8 ; Abul-l'li«ni(,'iiu, I 
 pp. HW-117; Ockley, i. pp. 1— 3'Jl.) 
 
 The khalifatc continued elective for four succw- 1 
 sive elections ; the last who held the |M)wcrbyiiub-l 
 lie suflrage, iHiing Ali, the cousin and siiii-iii-la«ii| 
 Mohammed. This fiuht hki.ikvku hail \m\ 
 thus long passed by, in consequence uf hisie-l 
 fusing to hold as sacred any thnig not contninti I 
 in the Koran, or the immediate traditions iif thtl 
 Prophet. (AlNlul-Pharagius, p. 116.) From tliiil 
 circumstance arose the division of the MohaO'l 
 mcdans into two great sects, the Sonnites mil 
 the ISciiiTKH. The latter, the disciplea uf.\lil 
 whom they denominate the vicar of God, rMeiviijI 
 only those doctrines which he admitted tu lii| 
 sacred; while their adversaries (the orthoiliiil 
 Mussulmans) hold, at least in eaual reverence, liil 
 7,275 Sontia, or oral laws, whicn, within the fal 
 2U0 years of Mohammedanism, had grown iiul 
 respect and veneration. (D'Herbelot, arts. Boiiliiii| 
 Hadith, and Sonnah, pp. 288, 416, and 807.) I 
 
 Ali fell by the liaiid of an assassin, a/leril 
 troubled reign of five years; andMoa\viJ8h,8oii« 
 Abn-.Sophian, the greatest enemy of Mohamn^l 
 usur])ed the throne ; and, what is more reiMi4-| 
 able, had the power or art to make the khalifw 
 hcreilitary in his own family. His descemlm 
 are called the Ommiyade race of khalifas ^ 
 Oinmiyah, the grandfather of Abu-Sophian; i 
 they possessed the regal and sacerdotal po« 
 through fourteen generations, and for nearly 111 
 years. (El-Macin, lib. i. caps. v. and vi. pp. Si*-))! 
 Abul-Pharagius,pp. 117-123; Ockley, ii. pp. l-'if^r 
 
 The Ommiyade khalifs were, in the 133tdHejii^ 
 (A.it. 7iiO), superseded by the descendants of Abta 
 one of the uncles of Mohammed. The Ommiy«l 
 dvimstv had never received the cheerful siibm 
 
ARAUIA 
 
 IflA 
 
 i|,m of (he rmphct'i* fnmWv ; iiikI, after n Iciitfth 
 f>ini^K'l<'< III*' I'^l < 'iiiniivnilt^ klinlit' witit 
 Icd'lv ilrfriili'il in McNci|Mit''-iii», iinil iiuiiiii 
 'where III' wiiM Niniii iil-AliiiM-SatVii, 
 
 clinl 
 |MI71|' 
 
 ill K^fviit. 
 
 mill tix' liriiiccn, IiIm ili-m't'iitlHiitM, arc known in 
 hj.iiin OK !)>•' Alilinxiilc kliulirM. (Kl-Mn<'in, lili. i. 
 Kh, xxi; lit'.''- <'iip. i. pp. U6-HHtj Alml-I'lmriv- 
 
 mi*, pp. I''l"> ''"*•) 
 
 Ihritt'at iirnovtinimfiif liml, in tlip mrnnwluli', 
 
 l,yn n'niDvcd from Moliiin l<> 1 >itiniv<fiiN, nnil 
 
 fnmi the inltrr to liiiK<ln*l. It wan in tlii^ ni<w 
 
 iip«t <if I'nipini thnt the Arnli cliiiin to litcniry 
 
 and K'ii'tililiti cminrncc wiw llntt ruimMl. It wiw 
 
 hi'iv that tlu! itplciKliii conrlM of lliiroun-nl- 
 
 i{aM'hiii, anil hii* wmih, Al-Mnnwior nnd Moti>i*n<>ni, 
 
 wiff htiil. It wim lu'D' that, under their patron- 
 
 1 jp.', tlietin'ek MUeH iind nliilomipluTH were iran!<- 
 
 Uiiil, that the native Aral) f^eniuM raiHed its head, 
 
 ami carried the scieneen, plivHieal and metaphy- 
 
 Liral, tetJeiher with the nHelul artN, to a point of 
 
 LTamitur unknown in former tinien. The naniei* 
 
 aliMie of the SaraiTU iiliiloMoiihrrH, niatlieinaii- 
 
 riaiis iuitri)nonien4, phvmciaiiH, iMitnniHtM, clieiniMts, 
 
 «mi ari'hitectH, wlio illnntrated tliis |K'riod of Arali 
 
 hi'torj', woid<l nil a volume. Of cliemiHtry, they 
 
 may be culled the inventor*; and altliou^h in 
 
 [jmnpiiiiiny, they did not jircHuu'o to (Upart from 
 
 lihf I'tolumean hy|MitlieNiN, they carried out the 
 
 I views of the Alexandrian philimopher, and at- 
 
 Iwinml remdtH manellous for their accuroey, when 
 
 ■ the crroiUMiiiH nature of the data on whieli tliey 
 
 Iwerr founded ix considered. To the aNtronomieal 
 
 Italilo* of lln^dad, (.Cordova, and Samarcand, nuI>- 
 
 lieqiiont (ib!ter>'eni owe a lar>,'e debt of gratitude; 
 
 limlmany of the common ternw in modern atttro- 
 
 Iniiniy, aild moat of thu names apidicd to the lixcd 
 
 Idam, attest the source whence Kuroiic ilrew the 
 
 Ifieinonis of astronomical science. The Arabs, if 
 
 Itiicy dill not invent, ot least were the p\'nt im- 
 
 Ipmvpw of aljjcbra (the name sufKciently at- 
 
 itmiH its orif;in), which placed in the hands of 
 
 |lhe analyist an instrument of vast and apparently 
 
 Mtiliraited power. Perhaps, liowevcr, the most 
 
 ini|)iirtant invention wo owe to the Arabs, is that 
 
 \i the arithmetical characters, now in common 
 
 if, which banished at <mcc and for ever the cum- 
 
 ^ri>uiiand unwieldv notation of the Romans. In 
 
 medicine, the Arabs were pre-eminently great : 
 
 ind the mof^iilicent remains of their public and 
 
 Irivatc biiildinpt, in Syria, Kj;yi>t, and Spain, 
 
 Innce their skill in architecture. The Arab court 
 
 |f Bagdad was, in fact, the centre of the know- 
 
 eii^'C and retiuement of thu ])eriod in which it 
 
 Ixisted; and, by a sinfjular contrast, that period 
 
 pine^ponded with the darkest and most degraded 
 
 (orlion of Euroiwan historv. (Abdul-Pharagius, 
 
 , 1511, etieq.; UTIerbelot, pp. 430, 51.5, &c.) 
 
 School* ami Edueatiwi. — The learning which 
 
 javc celebrity to the court of liogdml in the 
 
 piddle ages, does not appear ever to have been 
 
 liuiraliiied in Arabia. Before the icra of Muham- 
 
 ked, i^iiorance (that is, ignorance of written 
 
 Itarninf;) was so far fnmi being accounted dis- 
 
 'eful, that wo learn from the Koran (chap. 
 
 ixLx.) that Mohammed, though of the royal 
 
 Iwisc of Hcdjaz, could neither read nor write ; 
 
 pi, in the jtrescnt day, judges aro frequently 
 
 literate. (Uurckli irdt's >«ot.es on Bed., 08.) It 
 
 innot, therefore, I supposed that education in 
 
 bia a either very good or widely ditt'usciL 
 
 [cording to Niebuhi (Ues do I'Ar., pur. i. p. 91) 
 
 ' B Arab princes by no means encourage science ; 
 
 kd, throughout tho East, you meet few who 
 
 krit the title of learned.' 
 
 [Public provision is however made for the edu- 
 Ition of youth ; and a teacher for the children 
 W young .slaves is no uncommon part of the 
 
 donio<tic oMablishmont of dislingninhed families t 
 no that, in the ritieM, the greater part of the |HipU' 
 latliiii <-iin reitd ami write — attniiinients wbii-li 
 are aUo fouiid ennnnonly (•nmigli among tbi> 
 Kheikbs of irilH'H in the neighlMnirhood of the 
 nettled diHtrietx. 
 
 To iilinost ever)- mosipie tben- is attached n 
 HchKid, where the ptmrer ihildreii may In> taught. 
 gMtuitousJN ; iH'side.o which, lIuTi' are in every 
 great town nmre or lewer private establisbnientA 
 where the children of the miildle cluMMeN are re- 
 ceived. The edu<'ation is of a limited kind, com- 
 prising little more than reading, writing, the 
 simple rules I '* arithmetic, and the doctrines of 
 the Mnhannnedan religion. Sehotd- houses, like 
 the shops, are open to the street, so that lint 
 whole process of education is conducted in publii", 
 and to prevent the distraction incident to such n 
 situation, the readers and re|M'aters sjieak in tho 
 highest iMishible '.ey, and accoinpiuiy their deli- 
 very with violent gesticulations. 
 
 HesideH these, there are in many of the greater 
 towns sclitsds of a higher character; colleges, in 
 fact, in which the higher sciences — nnitbenuttics, 
 astronomy, astridogv, and ntetlicine — are taught. 
 In the Imaiuit of N'enieii (which is but a small 
 part of the district so iiilled) there are two of 
 these c<dleges. Oll<^ of the chief studies in them 
 is tho ancient Arabic, now a demi langiiiige ; for 
 their learned men an> expected to understand 
 clearly, not only the Koran in its original tongue, 
 but also all tho ancient commentators, of whom 
 tho number is very considerable, t'andidates for 
 otiices, civil or ecclesiastical, are saiti to undergo 
 a very rigonais ]iublic examination as to their 
 literary and scieiititic attainments ; but tbi.i iH 
 mere pretence, the most initerale persons iH'ing 
 fretpiently appointed to tho highest )M)sts, while 
 tho best instructed get a precarious living om 
 scriboM, teachers, and public reciters or poets, 
 llenco the wish to acipiiru a high degree of scho- 
 lastic knowledge is very weak in the majority of 
 Arabs ; and tho jmtfession of teacher is far from 
 rcs|)ectablo or lucrative. In many of the towns, 
 the f^)iiblic schotds are falling to decay ; and IIiosd 
 qualitiod to conduct them prefer wandering over 
 tlio country like the bardi* and troubadours of tho 
 middle ages, as ])octs and orators ; in which cha- 
 racters, as tho reciters or singers of the glories of 
 the mitioi), they arc welcomed and rewarded aliku 
 by tho sheritl's and sheikhs. There is no public 
 provision whatever for female education ; and, 
 among tho Bedouins, whole triltes can neither 
 read nor writo. A very great obstacle to tho 
 advancement of education in Arabia is, the preju- 
 dice of the native^s against printing. From the 
 nature of the Arabic characters, interlucing each 
 other, and frequently placed vertically, they ap- 
 pear handsomer, when well written, than when 
 printed. There was not, a few years ago, and 
 perhaps there is not at present, a single printing- 
 press 111 the country, (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. S)l-l)(i ; 
 rnr. ii. p. 188; Ali Bey, ii. 100; BurckhordtH 
 Notes on Bc<l., 42, et ney.) 
 
 Folitical Diviuion*. — Sources of' Revenue. — 
 Without reckoning the Bedouin tnbes, the num- 
 ber of which can hardly be ascertained, the settled 
 parts of Arabia arc divided into a groat RMiny in- 
 dependent governracnts : hence states, also, not 
 unfrequeutly spring up. The political divisions 
 of this country aro therefore very uncertain, but at 
 
 iiresent they may bo reganleil as consisting of— Ist. 
 • ourteeu or fifteen states, upon the SSW. coasts ; 
 2nd. A much greater number uiion the shores of 
 the rcrsian Gulf; 3rd. The hali-settled Beilouiii 
 tribes on the N. part of that Gulf; 4th. Tho 
 dominions of the VVahabee chief, Abdullah, in 
 
 
 '^ w 
 
 
IM 
 
 Km 
 
 AKAKIA 
 
 %.t\]< \ 
 
 ^1 Dd 
 
 I 
 
 M 
 
 
 Npilnjpili Ath. Tlir-Ilcdjn/. mill Hfthr-ol •mir-Shml, 
 on llit^ W. mill NW. ol all llicNf. Tlu- Inxl arc llir 
 only |i/irlH ihiit nwii a Inri'l^ii iimi«ii'r, 'l'lu< ilm- 
 ci'iiiJanlN III' Miiliiiiiiiiii'il niiiiiiiiK'il in rciKii in IIk' 
 llriljll/ frnrn IiIh liniit iluwil In it llllf i'Ihm'Ii ; ur 
 kiiiiwIcilt^itiK. liKWi'ViT, llif i«M|irt'inur,v, llrsl hIiIki 
 court III' llii^ilitil, mill iit'irruiirilM nl' thi> 'i'iirki'<li 
 Hiilliin, itM lii'Hil ol' llir MoliMinninlan I'lkilli; iiiinlH- 
 tiTM III' ilm imrinioiint powiT ri'Nlillii^ iit ilii< hhuc- 
 liiitry ill till- holy ciiics, Wliiln llii* 'I'lirkinh K"- 
 V(riiini>iil ri'liiiiicil iu Hircii^lli, iIiin roniii'rlioii 
 wiis iirknowlcil^i'il iiiiil ri'H|M'i'ti>il in llic llnljiu; 
 Iml in Ihi^ Inlin- pitrl of lant rciitiiry, llu' nlii'rill'N 
 r«-noiiiu'i<il ilii'ir nominal iilli'Kiain')', aliurknl 
 thr 'I'lirkith iiat'liax, ami llnallv i^xih'IIciI tlii'in, 
 Hcarci'ly, how«vcr, wax tliij* flVfcli'il, when llu- 
 \Vulial)ot-N hiiIhIiu'iI tim wliolf of tlir Holy Ijiiiil, 
 mill hvlil it till lHl,'i-l4; when Mulitaiuil Ali, 
 I'at'lia of K^yiit. nominally rt'itorcil lti<< Holy 
 C'itim Id t\n' |iriili>«'lioii ol'ilii' I'orti*, Imt virtually 
 niaili^ liiniHoir iiiaMtcr of ihr llciljajt; wliirli lif 
 lian fiince rctaiiicil, anil ptvcriit'il ut iliNiTclion. 
 Tlui DcNcrt of Sinai lia.i alwavH IicIoii^imI, inoru 
 or It'MM, to K^vpl. (Uiirrkliarill\ 'I'ravflH, /NixKi/a; 
 NotoM on VVttliuliet'H, ;i,il-l'JOj honi Valuiitia, iii. 
 »2r)-,l27.) 
 
 Taxi'M, ill tlio HCtllisI portioim of Arnliia nri! 
 pretty iinifomi. A twnlh of the proiliu'timm of 
 l\w land in paid to the wiverei^n, and this not 
 iinfreqiienlly in kind. (Kra»er, p. lo.) In Veiiien, 
 liowever, thiH tux appcarM (o he compounded for 
 liy the payment of a tixed huiu annually (Nie- 
 liiihr, pur. ii. p. IH.'I) ; ami with repird to the 
 town ]iopiilutioii, IIiIh method niunt neecMHurily he 
 (general. The tithe upon land ix the only le^ul 
 fixed impoHt which the Miihjet'ts of the native 
 Aral) ]irinceH are called upon to pny. Mul u fur 
 more priMluctivo Hiiiirco of revenue Ih found in 
 the cuNtoiuK and dulieH upon merchaniliHe. The 
 Iman of MuNcut layH ^ per cent. u|>on all (^ihkIh 
 IiUHMiii); up the PerNian (iulf, in Aruh holioniM; 
 and thiH xmall duly Ih no productive that it yielilH 
 from U(),l)UO to l(i(),(l()0 dollam annually. (Fra- 
 8er, p. 1(>.) Ill Yemen, the Imuii levicH !{ ptT 
 cent. u)Min the coflee carried from hiH dominions 
 boyoiid the StruitH of liuh-el-Mundeh, and 7 per 
 cent, upon all that in nent up llie Heil Seu; and 
 the Sultan Shcrift'of Muccu— or ruther Iiih present 
 niUHter, Mehenict Ali — tukcH (! per cent, more in 
 the port »if DJidda. (Lord Valeiitiu, ii. ati«, •{(i'J.) 
 The large quantities of piodH that are coiiNtaiitly 
 poHHiiig fniin India, AhyHHiiiia, Kgypt, Syria, &c., 
 to all the tradin)j; towimof Araliiu, have al^o their 
 Htated rale8 of duticH ; and the income derived 
 from them is 8u threat, that Mehcmct Ali cheaply 
 purchoHcd hiH popularity in hit) new dominioiiH hy 
 foregoing the Nettled tithe which had formerly 
 been paid in them. One of his first acts was a 
 declaration that the inhabitants of the Iledjuz 
 Hhould be wholly free from tuxes. (liiirckhardt's 
 Kotes on IJed., p. 30().) The city of Meilinu was 
 said to be impost free, oven before this period. 
 (Ali JJey, ii. 1'27.) 
 
 Certain articles of commerce are monopolies in 
 the hands of the governments; us suit in the 
 Uedjuz,aud the same article and sulphur, in Oman, 
 (liurckhiirdt's Travels, i. p. 65 ; Fraser, 10.) He- 
 sides which, the sovereign is frequently possessed 
 of large landed jiroperty in privuto right, which 
 he lets out precisely like any other lundlord ; and 
 in certain coses, us in those of the ImaurasofMuscat 
 and Yemen, he is also the most considerable mer- 
 chant in his own dominions, (^iiebuhr, pur. ii. 
 pp. 182-184 ; Froser, 1«.) 
 
 These are all legitimate sources of revenue ; but 
 the evU in this and all other Mohammedan ooun- 
 trics is, that the governments, being despotic, prac- 
 
 AHACAN 
 
 tim< and tiilernte nil Nnrtn of I'Xtortion, FWnrr h,, 
 coliqiieitt of tliii ili'dju/ liy llie Kgvpliiuix, ii «„ 
 ciiiilonmry for the itutlun Bherilf of Mi'nii in im ,,, 
 priMiiim with |H'rNoim upon chnrgi'H of ilixiilVivii.t 
 III IiIn {mthoii, ihui Ihry might puri-liiwii' ilii'irli.,^ 
 and liU'riit'it by large IIik'n. (lliirckliuriir-iTrjiti^ 
 i. p. ■Ilti.) In Vi'ini'ii the dolus rcnivi' lln> ijni, 
 and cuNloniH of the Iowiin, pay llii< iriiii|i4, ii;, 
 JmlgcH, and other public fiiiiclionarii'N, mul \tim>- 
 mil the buliilire to Suiiiui, the hcuI of gnviriiiijiiii. 
 In this urraiigi'iiiriit, the iinun hiiiicc/i'h all hi'.jij 
 from tliednlu; uiid the latter, wIiohi- iiiiiiiiimi,,,. 
 I'oine is very trilling, rcHorlH to uny iiii'iiik, h,„. 
 ever infuinouK, of reiiliNiiig u large itu'iinic liir liim 
 Molf. The chief HulliTfrs in lliese lraiinncii(iin.,ri 
 the Indian, and other foreign mfrrliiiniH, n, 
 I'ollection of the cuNloniM, too, is utti'inliil vtnti 
 coiiNiderable fraud ; and it in in the {hiwit ih\i,\ 
 ollli-er to fuvoiir his frieiulH, und opprrsH Kirnii^'i^ 
 without incurring any respoiiNibility. 'I'Iu'mi' uiiu,, 
 have, however, been conftiilerubly inmlilii'cl in iiu 
 lledjaz since the eslabllHliment of the K(!\|iiiu) 
 iHiwcr. (Lord Valeiitiu, iii. p. U'2ri; lliirikjiurk, { 
 Travels, i. iip. Mil, 417.) 
 
 Arm iiiul I'i>i)tiliition, — Arabia has been KU|i|aMi| I 
 to ontain from I2,(MMI,IMII) to II.IMKmhiii ii,yj 
 Ihoiigh this is probably I M>yoml the iiiiirk, Dk | 
 nomadic hubili of the greater part of itit |i.i|,iii,. 
 tion, and the number of petty stales into whicliilK I 
 settled |Hip. is divideil, and the little tl>at inkiioii 
 with respect to most of them, remlcrs it iin|H».ii,|, 
 to UNMign cither their limits or their |ii>|iiikii'ii. I 
 Accoriling to Italbi, the iinanat of Vi'imn, ,< 
 Yemen I'roper, and the imanat of A.uscat, uniLcl 
 coast of Omar, huvc resi>eotively — 
 
 iMANAT OK YKMK.N. IMANAT OK MI'WAT. 
 
 SiiiMTtlciiil extent, OJi.UUO tiu|ierllcial uxtciit, M/Ki | 
 H<(. m. 
 
 I'op., •J.fiOO.OOO. 
 Uevi'iiiiu, 4!i:i,iHW. Btcrl. 
 Army 6,000 men. 
 
 H(|. m. 
 Top., 1,1(00,1)0(1. 
 UuvL'iiuo, Hi.'i,0ll()/. gtorl. 
 Army, 1,000 mun. 
 Niivy, 1 Hlilp, ;i frigjw,! 
 
 .'10 inferior viwoln. 
 DciiHlty ut \wp., 91 pi I 
 
 8*1. m. 
 
 Density of pop., 47 per 
 iKi. m. 
 
 The lledjnz hnsbccn very well survoycd, ojk- 
 cinlly by Ali Hey and Hiirckhardt, biu iiMvarr- 
 ing |iopiilation, owing to the intlux niid clllu.Mf 
 pilgrims, together with the crowil of tratli'M rti 
 are constantly passing between its h\mtvh ami A* 
 tunt countries, renders it diilicult, if not ini|Hih4lr, 
 to assign its real numbers with uny toleralileaoiv 
 rncy. I'robably, however, it is more deiisdy |«* 
 pled than either Yemen or Muscat. 
 
 The states of Yemen, as enumerated by Xiebulii, 
 are the following : — 
 
 1. Yemen rrojier. 
 
 a. Allen. 
 
 i). Knnkcban. 
 
 4. Uu8cliiil-u-Bckcl. 
 
 6. Abu-ArlHli. 
 
 (1. Bclca-cI-Koball. 
 
 7. North Kliaulan. 
 
 8. Bahnn. 
 II. NeUnjircii. 
 
 10, Kachruii, 
 
 11, Uajof. 
 
 I'J. South KImulnn. 
 la. Nehm. 
 14, Joft'u. 
 
 There are, also, a great many little states upon ilti 
 Persian Gulf; and I ladramaut consists of biif 
 niticunt sovereignties, mostly of no greater extail 
 than a mile or two round the town where tlieehi 
 resides. (Niebuhr, pur. ii. pp, l(jli-24J, *H 
 29-2, »!tc.) 
 
 AKAHKIK, a town of Asiatic Turkey, pack 
 of Sivur, cap. sanjiack, 7 m. N. Euphrates, andil 
 m. NNE. Jlulattia, lat. 39° 5' N., long.3'J°E 
 Estim. pop. 25,000. The town is well built, 
 the country round is exceedingly fertile. 
 
 AKACAN, a country of Asia, culled i)y then 
 lives HaA/iai/u;, extending along the W. o*ij 
 the great E. peninsula of S. Asm, acquired li^ 
 the Birmese, by the British, in 1824. It liw' 
 
 iwrrn I.V M' (Ct 
 mi,! :»'.«' 'io' ami I 
 
 It" 
 
 nl.Hit .'ii^Tl III. ; lir 
 ilii'iiee Miiiiliwaril 
 |ii,:'.'iO iu|, gi'iig. 11 
 
 nIxMll '.'.'lO.INHI olll 
 
 iiuii'il, lull priilia 
 I'.iliio.iNMl. (I'eml 
 iiiri>rilritiiili Iml 
 Hie Vt'iiiiiamloi 
 iiuni>, »' a liraiii'li 
 \'«li' iif Ahmiiii ; ni 
 Aru'iiii Aiiil I'liiiii 
 :'.IKII( III N.IKM) ft. 
 
 hiii.1 1'.')" !•;. long., 
 
 ilie-eiu Near lal. 
 I |i>r iiIh'UI It degree { 
 h X. to M. ; they 
 lintT iniiiiiTiiim p/i 
 Kliynuiizflli and (ii 
 I liiluli, ami Aeiig, it 
 I in', in almimi ever^ 
 llliiler, Krilkiimie, 
 . Hie I'lHintry, gen 
 liiiil ilale, lint on th 
 lihen^ are Intv ami n 
 IniiiMly in a SVV, 
 liiat ipilili! fur tradin^ 
 lllie laixe^t is the 
 Jwliich risi'i* ill ihe II 
 iLii.. ami ilischnrgcH 
 ImiiulliH; DM one of i 
 Tllif town iif Aracaii, 
 [liinii hurl lion, Thei 
 \m(, Aeiig, Alioii, , 
 "fiir (kxree navigab 
 The coast, in the 
 plly, I'liiitains mai 
 iilintcd by creeks, a 
 liicki., which render t 
 )wnewh«t daiigeroii 
 ii(jii»(Kiii : (luring the 
 ^aier w Hinooth, and 
 \mg the coast, in 
 duijily iHittoni, 
 The principal islam 
 ikyab, between the J 
 pioy arc UMually sept 
 amiw channels, and 
 H*i't, 
 
 Tlic climate is dccii 
 \kvi splits, as Kyonk 
 mm; and esiieciallj 
 F atiackcd by intei 
 Itwiii (if mnlaria. 1) 
 ti«i|«i (lied ill jrreat 
 [hi' eountry is niundf 
 PSW. ni<in»()on, whi 
 \ Octdher. 
 
 J ihc abundance of foi 
 lins have hitherto Ix^e 
 |™i» any kiiowled^. 
 ^iinitive rocks that h 
 fic. The lower hills t 
 [ih a stiff clay occnsioi 
 )n of the coast coral ai 
 I low alluvial soil exte 
 mry from the foot oi 
 [uttlc systematic info 
 I '"the products of tlu 
 pluccd in the creeks. 
 
 w met with ; jmigle 
 
 ^ilNl-*! 
 
m. 
 
 M< 
 
 ("ft I III 
 
 ;v|itliiii«, II »i, 
 
 ktl-r>'lklMlU||;. 
 lit' I li nil till III r, 
 
 liiUK- thi'ir lr.< 
 Imrill't TriHii,. 
 rcivf llic uxk 
 t\w triKi|.... Ill, 
 ir'u'N, mill iriuH. 
 of i^KViTiiinii.i, 
 
 ICI'/.I'M M III' ..111 I 
 
 ,(iw< llHliiiliul III- 
 my llll'ltll^ h'.<. 
 
 iiu'iiiiii' tnr liiiii 
 
 lriini»iu'iiiiiii(,,it 
 iit'rrlimilH, TU 
 
 iH Ullt'lllU'll Viilh 
 
 !»• )Hiwt'r 1 1' ihf 
 ijHin'!*H ^lraln;l^ 
 ly. 'I'lifHciiliiNi 
 y niixlUlcil intlK 
 of the l''.t;y|iiiiii 
 lb\ lUirckharlti 
 
 hnittHTiuu|i|«ii>«{ I 
 i 1,(111(1,111111 iiiliilj 
 I tilt? iiiiirk, TIk I 
 lart of i(i< ihiiiiiIa' 
 kicM iiitowliicliiU I 
 ittU'. ll>iil iHkiii>iii| 
 ihU'W it 'hiiikmH, 
 • Ihi'ir |iii|iiiliHii.ii.| 
 at of Ycimii, ( I 
 
 of &.llSCUt,011lli 
 
 y— 
 
 INAT OK MCMAT, 
 
 llolul wwnt, Mini I 
 
 111. 
 
 i,tin(),(M)(>. 
 
 luo, KiS.dim/.gtorl. 
 
 r, 1,(1110 Illl'Il. 
 
 L I ship, !) trl«M»,| 
 nferlor vtwclii. 
 ty ol jiop., 31 pa I 
 111. 
 
 (•llsur\-cyoil,c»f»-| 
 IliariU, 1)1(1 it* vaiyl 
 
 idiix ami «'ltiuxi( 
 iW(l tif trailcrt M 
 
 its Mliiin'Hiiiulili>-| 
 
 t, if iioi i!ii\»»i'iU'.[ 
 luiiy tolenilile ac*| 
 
 [cut. 
 
 crated by Niebukr.] 
 
 Iihan. 
 Iwlsjircii. 
 Jat'liraii. 
 Iitjof. 
 
 )utli Klmulan. 
 lehin. 
 ilu. 
 Ittlc states iiii«nilii| 
 
 If no^'reatercxl«| 
 Iwn where t)iei' 
 i.p, H5U-i4J, »'■ 
 
 Ic Turkey, Vi>A 
 
 I Euphrates, and' 
 
 Is' N., long- *-^' 
 is well limit, r 
 hy fertile. 
 fe, called by then 
 f ^r the NV. f*"' 
 Vsia, ac<)uir<!«l If' 
 18-21. life 
 
 iwrfnliV>M' (('n|t«' I-rnrain) nnd ai" 110' N. l«t., 
 ,i„i;r." jo mill Itl'J II' i:. li'iiK. ; Imviiix N. ilii> r. 
 Nmil.. wbirli i«i;tHr«H'n it from <'liill«K""Ki ''•■ 'h'" 
 ),.Miiiuiil"»K inouiiiHiiiN, iliviiliii^ it from the llir 
 iiinMiliiiiiiiii""". mid NV. llui Imliaii Oiiaii; thf 
 mn Utitr iKuiiiilnrieit nn'«'tiii« nt iiii ariite aiiKb' m 
 ( i|K Secraii. il« S. I'xtn'iiiiiv! IriiKih, N. to .S„ 
 ,l„iit .'iiMi III.; breadtli, nt iti« N. I'lid, !•(> m. ; but 
 iliiiii* miutliwanU eoiiliiiiially di'rr«|iD.iii)< ; ana, 
 lii.j.'HI M|. K''Of{. m. (I'l'llllM'rloli) ; |Mip, Kiiiil to Im 
 nlii'iil '.'IKM"'" oulv, wlu'ri'im, in ITK.'i, it wiw f«li 
 iii.iiiil. but priiba^ily iiiiicli iM-yoml llm mark, at 
 ■.MliHi.iKMi, (IVmlH'rloii'H H«|Kirl on tliu K, Kmii- 
 I I'liriif llritinli India.) 
 
 Ilu' Vciiiiiaiidoiijf, or Aru)o-|M'«t<M)-m(Mi ninun- 
 
 „„,, ii> a braiicb from iluw<> that bound S. the 
 
 I VjIc of An»aiii ; (inil form tlu- K. boundary of both 
 
 \riMiiii anil t liiltaK'Xij,'. 'I'lielr lieiKhlH vary from 
 
 MUNI III X.tNH) ft.; Table Mounliiin, in 21^ N.lal. 
 
 I'liiil IKI" I'" liMl^.i ii* W,l.'l() ft. alKive the level of 
 
 ilii Mil. .Near lal. 'i*^ they take n middeii turn V.. 
 
 I f„r iilmiil « ilcKfee i but ill general their direeiiim 
 
 N, to S. ; they nru covered with forewiN, and 
 
 lliiivi' minii'riiUH p(WHei«, the ehief beilin tbiwn of 
 
 iKIiviiunznli aniHioa in the MirmeHe, and Tonsil, 
 
 T»liik,aiiil Aeiii;, in the Itritinli dominioiiH, 'I'bey 
 
 jw. ill almiwt every eiwe, inen^ narrow foolpathx. 
 
 IdiiiliT, Krilkiinde.vol. i.p. ;i(IM.) 
 
 lliiMoiiiitry, Keuerally, U diverHitlrd with hill 
 ijiiil ilale, biit'on the N. border and the wa-)<liore 
 lihcn' an^ low and mandiy traits. The rivern run 
 Iniaidy in n HW. diree'tioii, and are frei(ueiiily 
 liiavi)(iilile for IradiiiK veHMeU of Honiit nia^iiituih; ; 
 laruest in the Araeaii (properly Kiiladyne), 
 Ivhit'li riseK in the liirmeNedominioiiH, near '2'.P N, 
 Iki.. mill (li-'elinrneH itself in 'ill" 15' by neveral 
 Imniiilm; oi) one of iti« minor braneheH ix Mitiiuti'd 
 Tthc town of Araeaii, aeee.sNible to veHxeli* of '2i"i(( 
 lliiiiii liurilien. The other principal HtreaiiLsare the 
 Saiif, Aei% Mioii, and 8andoway riverN, nil in 
 k'liir decree navigable. 
 
 The toaitt, in the central iinrt of Arncnn eupc- 
 
 kinlly, contmns many K<i*>d harbouni, is much 
 
 liiiliutcd by creeks, and studded with islands and 
 
 (iiokx, wliieh render the mouth of the Aracan river 
 
 Kimewliat (Inii^erouH to approach in the S\V. 
 
 iwiiitoiin : during the rest of the year, however, the 
 
 )iuet k Ninooth, and there arc pxid anchorages all 
 
 lull),' the coast, in from U to iu fathoms, with a 
 
 builily iMittom. 
 
 ihu principal islands aro Chcdulm, Kamrcc, and 
 
 kyab, between tho liivers Kuladync and Mioii. 
 
 it'y arc usiinlly separated from the mainland by 
 
 lamiw channels, and partake of the same natural 
 
 ^|Krt, 
 
 The climate is decidedly unhealthy, except in 
 
 [fi'w !i|MitK, as Kyouk-l'hyoo, on the N. side of 
 
 pmrcf, anil especially hostile to Kiiropeans, who 
 
 attacked by intermittent levers, and other 
 
 IttkiH (if malaria. During the Uinnese war the 
 
 «i|is (lied in fjreat numbers from these causes, 
 
 !ho cnuntry is inundated by heavy rains during 
 
 krSW, munsoon, which begins in May aiul ends 
 
 \ (Wolier. 
 
 The abundance of forests which cover the mouii- 
 
 m have hitherto been insurmountable obstacles 
 
 Iwanln any knowledge of their geology. The 
 
 [imitive rocks that have been seen are mostly 
 
 He. The lower hills consist chicHy of sandstone, 
 
 iih a stiff clay occasionall v iiitermi.xed ; on every 
 
 tof the coast coral and sliell-lime arc abundant. 
 
 |low alluvial soil extends over the whole of the 
 
 «imry from the foot of the mountains to the sea, 
 
 iLittie systematic information has been collected 
 
 11" the products of the country. Salt is largely 
 
 Vluceil in the creeks. Gold nnd silver are said 
 
 be met with; jiuiglcs of mangrove crowd the 
 
 AUACAN IflT 
 
 banks of tho rivrr*; flrn nn' common N. of the 
 Araiiiii river, leak, baiiilMio, rc«/ /urM/, loon, Ac. , 
 are I'liiind in ihe foreols, and niiu'i' the llriliMli 
 iM'riipaliiill have Imtii iimmI for ship-biilhlilig ; Ihe 
 sugar raiie, ronia, palm, indigo, coiton, rice, ml 
 |M'p|H'r, cnriimlH'r, iiii'loii, planlaiii, iiiango. laiko, 
 orange and oiber fruits, are iiidigeiioiis: clrpliaiii s 
 cattb', birds of many kinds, llsh, silkwonns, and 
 Ih'c^ are found In grral pleiilv. 
 
 The iiibab. are I Kith Itimiese, M-HUhs Mohain- 
 medaiis and liniiaiis, and Ihe remainder i I'hiin or 
 li/ii-in, as Ihrv call tlieniHrlves, the Miighs of Ibii 
 I'.iiroiii'aiis, 'I'l > latter are of middle height, with a 
 broad face, liigh and prominent cheek-bones, tho 
 iiiiM' Hat, and Ihe oyes like those of the Chinese: 
 thev are cunning, and addicted to stealing, but not, 
 III I'alschood. Tilt ir laiigungeand religion resembln 
 lliime of llic llirmesc; the latter, however (that of 
 llooilh), tbey do not adhere lo very siriclly, since 
 they do not abstain from animal food. The Aracan 
 esc are by nomransiineibicaled; almost all of I hem 
 can read and write ; the latter they prm tise with a 
 chalk pencil mi a paper made from the bark of a 
 tree; their records are kept on palm-leaf, lacipiered 
 in Japan or red upmi a gilt ground. The jieoplc 
 are fond of lliiery ; Ihe dress of the women is a red 
 binder wrapt closely round them, over this a robe 
 reaching to the knee, and the (K'tticoat fastened 
 loosely on one side all down, so that in walking 
 Ihe wlioh- of one limb is exposed. Women are not. 
 k(>pt secluded, but enjoy as much lilHTty lis the 
 other sex. Slavery in all its forms is loleruled. 
 Marriages are arranged by the pan>iits of the par- 
 lii's; solcmniMMl by feasts, and ralilied bv the 
 married couple eating out of one dish. It they 
 separate nt a future tinu^ at the wish of the hus- 
 band, he must take ii|Hin himself all his wife'K 
 debts; if such a determination originate with Ihe 
 latter, she lakes them niioii herself, but can demand 
 "i!) rupees from her husband. If n man b<' in want 
 of money, he may pawn his wife ; but if she Ih'- 
 conic pregnant in conscipience, he can claim her 
 again, and the contract lo pay liccomes null and 
 void. The dead are either buried or burned. 
 
 This country has l>ecii very greatly imnroved 
 since it came into the possession of the llritish, 
 previously to which it wos in tho worst |s)ssiblo 
 slate. The bands of robbers by which it was iii- 
 fcstiil have been extirjiated; and the habitat of the 
 bulk of the people materially improved. 'I'he 
 introduction of trnnriiiillity and commtirce bus 
 awakened a spirit of iii'lu.stry, nnd rendered the 
 Iicople cultivators, salt-ninnufacturers, and traders. 
 Akyab Ls daily becoming of more and more im- 
 portance. 
 
 Uefore 17WJ, Aracnn was independent, though 
 often ravaged by the Moghuls and I'eguans : in 
 that year it was conipiered by the liinncsc, nnd 
 governed by their viceroys; whose oppressions de- 
 iiopulnted the country, causing many of the inlia- 
 [litantH to fly to Cbittagong and Tipperah, where 
 they settled; and others to become jungle-robbers. 
 A revolt broke out in IKll, anil the violation of 
 the iiritisb frontier by the Hirmesc, both then and 
 subsetiueiitly, was the cause of the Uirmese war of 
 IX21 ; which ended in the cession of Aracan to tlio 
 British. 
 
 Akacan. a town and cap. of the nliove prov., on 
 an inferior branch of tho Kuladyne river, which in 
 here crossed by several lofty wooden bridges, 60 
 m. NE. Akyab, lat. 20° 44' N., hmg. m° 2«' E. 
 Eslirn. pop.'lO,000. The town Ls in the form of 
 an irregular square, walled on all sides except tho 
 Nli., wlierc it touches a shallow lake. As a fort- 
 ress, however, it is worthless, liciiig commanded 
 bjr varion . hills in the neighbourhood. S. of the 
 principal street which runs E. and \V. are the ruins 
 
 "•*«.;■ 
 ^^.H 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 V ♦••5'h 
 
168 
 
 ARAD 
 
 of an ancient nalacc anil rurt, the latter Ritrroundcd 
 bv a triple enclosure of Htiinc patched up with brick. 
 There arc many paf;<Mlai4, Imth in the towii and on 
 the heiKhtH an>und it. Next to Akyab, it hax the 
 bcftt market in the prov. for liritiith manufacturcM 
 and the wilkH of Pe^u, and its river is navigable 
 for lN)ats at hi^h tide; but itA consequence has been 
 gradually diminishing since Akvab began to rise 
 into importance. Aracan was taken in 1783 by the 
 Birmese, who captured much booty, including a 
 large brazen image of Cruadma, held in the highest 
 veneration, and other idols. 
 
 AKAD, a town of the Austrian empire, on both 
 nidcs of the Maros ; that part which is on the N. 
 bank, or Old Arod, being in Hungary, and the 
 other, or New Arad, in the Uannat, 27 m. N. 
 Temeswar, lat, Hi° V 66" N., long. 21° 18' 8" K. 
 Pop. of both jjarts, 30,959 in 1858. New Arad is 
 strongly fortined ; and Old Arad is the residence 
 of a Greek bishop. The most opulent inhabitants 
 are the Jews, who are very numerous. The town 
 is the entrepot of the pro<luct4) of a large tract of 
 country, which are here embarked on the Maros, 
 and sent by the river to the I)anul)e, and thence 
 to Germany, Hungary, and the lilack Sea. To- 
 bacco is manufactured, there is a large trade in 
 corn, and the town is the place of the greatest 
 cattle mark.tt in Hungary. 
 
 ARAFAT (MOUNT), a hill of Arabia, 16 m. 
 8K. of Mecca, consisting of a granite rock about 
 160 ft. high, a principal object of the Moham- 
 medan pilgrimages to tnat city. 
 
 AR AGON, one of the ancient divisions of Spain, 
 formerly a separate kingdom, comprising the provs. 
 of Zaragoaa, Huesca, and Temel, lying between 
 40O and 42° 55' N. lat., and 46° E. and 29 7' W. 
 long., having N. the Pyrenees, which divide it 
 from France; £., Catalonia; 8., Valencia; and 
 W., Navarre and Castile; length, N. to S., 216 m.; 
 breadth, 65 to 136 m. ; area, 14,692 sq. m. ; pop. 
 880,643 in 1867. It is a basin everywhere sur- 
 rounded, except on the £., by mountain ranges ; 
 on the N. offsets from the Pyrenees extend mto 
 the prov. as far S. as lat. 42° 10', enclosing many 
 picturesque and fertile valleys ; the Sierras Mon- 
 cayo Cuen^a, Molina, and Albarracin separate it 
 from Castile, and those of Morella from Valencia. 
 Another distinct chain nms parallel to the latter 
 through the S. part of Ar(4;on, from N VV. to SE, • 
 between the Sierra and this chain is the valley of 
 the Xiloca; and between this latter chain and the 
 Pyrenees is the extensive plain intersected by the 
 Ebro. This, which is not only the largest of the 
 Aragonese rivers, but the lai;gest river which has 
 its embouchure on the east coast of Spain, runs 
 through the prov. in a S. easterly direction, di- 
 viding it into two nearly equal parts. Exclusive 
 of the Ebro, there are a great number of other 
 rivers, mostly its affluents, having their sources in 
 the mountain ranges that bound on either side the 
 central plain; as the Gallego, Cinca, and Segre, 
 from the N., the Xiloca, Guerva, ^Xguas, S. Martin, 
 Guadaloui)e, and Alguaa, from the S. : the Tagus 
 and the Guadalaviar have, also, their origin in this 
 region. Salt is everywhere abimdant, and gold, 
 silver, copper, iron, lead, nitre, alum, &e,, are met 
 with, but the mines are mostly neglected. The 
 mine of rock salt at Kemolinos, near Alagon, is, 
 however, extensively wrought, furnishing supplies 
 not only for the prov., but also for Catalonia and 
 other parts of the kingdom. Climate temperate 
 and warm in the valleys and plains, but on the 
 Pyrenees the snow is often found 6 or 6 ft. deep 
 in Jvne, and violent storms occur in winter. 
 The coimtry is, however, universally healthy. The 
 soil of the plains is, in general, fertile, and well 
 adapted to the growth of most products of tem- 
 
 ARAGON 
 
 pcrate climates. Though agriculturo ha vny ,\^ 
 fcctive, m'ire com and wine are produced thaiun, 
 required for home consumption ; and there arc al»i 
 laigo supplies of tine fruits, with leguraen, Hit 
 hemp, oil, saffron, liquorice, madder, ciijjartn, an,| 
 bHrilla. Homed cattle are scarce. VVulvcit anl 
 liears arc met with in the mountainous (luitricic 
 game is plentiful, and the rivers abound with es' 
 ccUcnt lish, es|)ecially eels and trout. The manu. 
 factures are confined to common woollen and oth^t 
 cloths, cordage, and hempen articles, gunfxiwiier 
 with soap, vinegar, brandy, paper, hats, earthen- 
 ware, and leather. The manufacture of silk in ih, 
 capital and other towns has greatly diminiahtd, 
 Arogon is divided into thirteen districts urfrobtennti: 
 its chief cities are Zaragosa, Huesca, Calatavuil. 
 andTeruel. The first is an archbishopric: therein 
 six bishoprics and two universities. Several rDadi I 
 cross the prov., passing - \11 the great towns; ml 
 the Imperial canal, from I'udela to Zarngoxa, lijfi, 
 in depth and 70 ft. wide, commenced in I52!l bv 
 Charles V., and completed to its present extent iJi 
 1772, serves the double purpose c'" promoting tnult 
 and navigation. Several railways ore also cdn- 
 structed through the province ; among them, t\» 
 Madrid, Sarogossp., and Alicante ; the Sari^;i».M 
 and Barcelona; and the Saragossaand Pampelum 
 lines. The Aragonese are strong, and w<>U-buiii; 
 not so active as the Catalonians, but indiutriiiu.>! 
 brave, and honest. They are intelligent, anil k- 
 sirous of knowledge, hut proud, sullen, ami ex- 
 tremely opi)osed to foreign interlcrencc with tliei; I 
 government. The original harsh Aragoncae dii- 1 
 lect has now become intcmiixed with the (Jastiliaii. I 
 The male peasantry wear a waistcoat and a muirf I 
 jacket over it, drawn together by a thong, anil 1 1 
 large round hat, or sometimes two, to work in I 
 during the heats of summer. The dress of the I 
 women is odd and grotesque ; it consists partly (if I 
 two woollen corsets, and three or four thick petii- 1 
 coats one over another, tho whole weighing 1 1 
 quarter of a cwt. Under the Romans Aragon wu I 
 included in CeltilMiria ; in a.d. 470 it was ovemis I 
 by tho Goths, and in 714 by the Moors. After tbt I 
 expulsion of the latter, it was governed by its on I 
 kings till the marriage of Ferdinand with Isabelli | 
 of Castile in the foiurteenth century. 
 
 The gov. of Aragon, previously to the junciiM I 
 of its crown with that of Castile, and tor nm I 
 time aftenvords, though monarchical in form,vii| 
 in principle essentially republican. The kiiip,! 
 who were long elective, retained little more thai 
 the shadow of p<iwer ; it being really vested in tbt I 
 Cortes or parliament. This supreme osscmbli ral 
 composed of four different arms or members; thel 
 nobility of the first rank, the equestrian onlenJ 
 second rank, the representatives of cities auli 
 towns, and the ecclesiastics. No law cuuld | 
 without the assent of every arm ; and withoul 
 permission of the Cortes, no tax could be impuseiil 
 no war declared, no peace concluded, normoufTJ 
 coined or altered. The power of reviewing thtl 
 proceedings of the inferior courts, the privilti^iJ 
 inspecting every dqiartment of admiui8trauoii,| 
 and the right of redressing all grievances, beio^till 
 to the cortes ; to which, however, those aggrievdil 
 did not address themselves in the humble tonei'l 
 supplicants, but demanded its interference as dntl 
 to them as freemen. This sovereign court nil 
 held during several centuries every year; butfiiol 
 the beginning of the fourteenth centuij' was m-l 
 voked only once in two ye^rs ; the sension wn-l 
 tinned forty days, and the king could neiiheil 
 prorogue nor dissolve the assembly, after it Ul 
 met, without its own consent. ' I 
 
 Not satisfied with having erected such fomiii'l 
 able barriers against the cncroaclimcntti of tliil 
 
ititainoutt (liHtricU; 
 r» alxiuiul witli ex- 
 trnuU The rnanu- 
 n woollen and othtr 
 irticlcH, nuinxiwiler, 
 uper, hntis earthen. 
 ttcture of silk in tin 
 >;reatly diminishrf. 
 li«triclHor(;()l)iOT.is; 
 llucHco, (.'alatayuiL 
 libishoijric : there ue 
 liticB. Several rotdj 
 ;he great towns; and 
 la to ZaragoKa,lljfi. 
 umenced in 152"J by 
 itt* iircHcnt extent iii 
 tc <•' promoting twit 
 ilways are also m- 
 ;e ; anions thrm, ihe 
 ante; the 8ara);iit«i 
 [Tosaaand Pampeluni 
 rong, and wiU-buili; 
 ians, but indugtrimir, 
 ■e intelU(;ent, and de- 
 oud, sullen, and es- 
 riterfcrence with tlieii | 
 harsh Aragoncse dii- 
 icd with the (Jastilim, 
 tvaiatcoat and a itiuiiil I 
 ler by a thong, audi | 
 mea two, to wotii in 
 er. The dress of the I 
 > ; it consists partly *l I 
 rce or four thick peiii- 1 
 I J whole weighing i 
 B Romans Aragon »« 
 •D. 470 it was ovemm 
 the Moors. After the 
 _ governed by it«ow 
 •rdinandwithls8bell«| 
 [century, 
 lously to the jimctiw 
 .Castile, and lor scum 
 Inarchical in fonn.nB 
 lublican. The kin?, 
 iiiied little more thsa 
 ng really vested in ibt 
 lupremc assembly™ 
 imis orraembers; ihel 
 lie equestrian order i< I 
 Itatives of cities M 
 No law could pj»l 
 .J arm ; and withMtl 
 tax could be imposeAl 
 wncluiled, nor moDwl 
 jver of reviewing tbil 
 iourts, the imvikgei* 
 it of admuiistniiiiil 
 _ grievances, belonkflj 
 .ever, those aggrievKJ 
 lin the humble tone i(l 
 its interl'crenceasdiiel 
 sovereign court wj 
 every year; butftiol 
 mthccntuij'wasas-j 
 irs ; the session m-I 
 king could neithetl 
 isembly, after it Wj 
 
 erected sudifomijl 
 iiicroachments o( m 
 
 ARAGONA 
 
 mv»l prcroRativo the Aragonese, by an infititiition 
 iictiiliar to thcmsclvcH, electe«l ajustUa, or supreme 
 uilcc as the protector of the jKiople anil the coii- 
 trolier of the prince. Tl o person of the Justiza 
 ««< sacreil, and his power and jurisilictiou almost 
 unbounded- he was the supreme interpreter of the 
 Igws, and not only inferior judges, but the kings 
 themselves were bound to consult him in every 
 difficult case, and to receive his responses with 
 implicit deference. An appeal lay to him from 
 the royal as well as the baronial judges, and even 
 when no appeal was made, he could inteqwse by 
 hi, own authority, prohibit the ordinary judge 
 from proceeding, take immediate cognisance of 
 tiie cause himself, and remove the party accused 
 to the prison of the manifestacion, to which no 
 ijerson had access but by his permission. His 
 nower was exert«d with no less vijjour and effect 
 in superintemUng the administration of goverr- 
 ment, than in regulating the course of justice. It 
 was the premgative of the justiza to inspect the 
 conduct of the king. He reviewed all the royal 
 pwclamations and patents, and declared whether 
 they were agreeable to law, and ought to be carried 
 into execution. He, by his sole authority, could 
 exclude any of the king's ministers from the con- 
 duct of aflairs, and call them to answer for their 
 mal-administration. He himself was accountable 
 to the Cortes only for the manner in which he dis- 
 chaiged the duties of his high office, and jjcrformed 
 functions of the greatest importance that could be 
 committed to a subject. The Aragonese were so 
 jolicitous that their monarchs should know and 
 feel their dependence on their subjects, that even 
 in swearing allegiance to their sovereign, the jus- 
 tiza thus addressed him m their name, ' We, who 
 are each of us as gowl, and who are altogether more 
 [wwerful than you, promise obedience to your 
 government, if you maintain our rights and liber- 
 ties, but not otherwise.' Conformably to tliis oath 
 it was expressly declared in their constitution, 
 that if the king shouhl violate his compact with 
 them, it was lawful for the Aragonese to disclaim 
 him, and elect another sovereign, even though a 
 heathen, in his room. 
 
 Aragon. while a separate kingdoir, was the most 
 powerful of the peninsular states, it comprised, 
 exclusive of Aragon Proper, Navarre, Catalonia, 
 Vdcncia, the Balearic Isles, and Sardinia. The 
 marriage of Ferdinand with the heiress of Castile, 
 the conquest of Granada by their united forces, 
 with the possessions they inherited or acquired in 
 other parts of Europe and in the New World, by 
 giraig the sovereigns extrinsic, and as it were 
 foreign resources, rendered them in a great mea- 
 sure independent of the supplies voted by the 
 Cortes, at the same time that it enabled them 
 gradually to subvert their authority. The estab- 
 lishment of the Inquisition was also a great blow 
 to the liberal institutions of Aragon and other 
 parts of the Peninsula, which were finally sup- 
 pressed during the reign of the bloody and tyran- 
 nical bigot Philip II. 
 
 AKAGONA, a to^vn of Sicily, Val di Girgenti, 
 " m. N. Girgenti, on a hill. Pop. 10,440 in 1861. 
 The town is ill-built, and dirty ; but is worthy of 
 notice for its castle, its antiquities, and for having 
 in its vicinity the mud volcano of Maccaluba. 
 This consists of numerous little hillocks, with cra- 
 ters on a kind of truncated cone of argillaceous 
 liarren soil, ^ m. in circiut, elevated about 200 ft. 
 above the surrounding arid plain. These craters 
 •re continually in action, making a hollow rum- 
 bling noise, and throwing up a fine cold mud, 
 mixed with water, a little petroleum and salt, and 
 uccasionally bubbles of air with a sulphurous taint. 
 Sometimes reports like the discharge of artillery 
 
 ARARAT 
 
 1G9 
 
 are hcani, and slight local earthquakes, till an 
 eruption takes place by the ejection of mud and 
 stones to the height of from BO to til) ft., the ordi- 
 nary height of the spouts being only from a few 
 inches to 2 or 8 ft. (For a further account of 
 this singidar phenomenon, see Smyth's Sicily, 
 p. 218.) 
 AKAICHE (EL). See Larachk. 
 ARAL (Sea ok), an inland sea or lake of Asia, 
 in indei)cndent Tartary, between 42° and 40° 12' 
 N. lat., and 5GA° and 01° 15' E. long., Ixdiig alMiut 
 800 m. in length from 8W. to NE., and from about 
 100 to nearly 250 m. in breadth ; so that, with the 
 exception of the Caspian, it is l)y far the most ex- 
 tensive inland sea ot the Old W orld. At its SW. 
 end it has a prolongation called Aibueoorskoe lake, 
 80 m. long, and about 20 broad. It has a great 
 number of islands, particularly towanis the S,, 
 and is generally so shallow, that it can be safely 
 navigated onlv by fiat-liottomcd Imats. Its waters 
 are salt, and its coasts generally low and sandv, 
 the country round consisting Im'wtly of vast arid 
 steppes. It is well supplied with fish, of which 
 sturgeon are the most valuable ; seals are also met 
 with. The Sea of Aral receives, bafidcs smaller 
 streams, the waters of two great rivers, the Sir- 
 Daria or Sihoun (the Jaxarlet of the ancients), 
 and the Amoo-Daria or Jihoun (the Oxus of the 
 ancients). But notwithstanding it has no outlet, 
 the prevalent opinion is, that the supply of water 
 brought to it, and also to the Caspian Sea, from 
 which it is separated by the desert ])lateau of Oust- 
 Oust, is unequal to what is carried oft' by evapora- 
 tion, and that their level and surface arc being 
 gradually diminished. It is 117 ft. above the 
 Caspian and 33 ft. above the Black Sea. The 
 extraordinary difference between the level of the 
 Caspian and the Sea of Aral, and the level of the 
 Black Sea (b<ie Caspian Sea), as well as the 
 nature of the Svdl in their vicinity, the traditional 
 and historical btatements with respect to their 
 boundaries, and t^ie opinions of the most eminent 
 naturalists, all lead to the belief that they once 
 extended over a m\tch larger tract of country, and 
 most probably made part of one great inland sea. 
 (For further details, see Casi-ian Sea.) 
 
 ARAMON, a town of France, dep. Gard, cap. 
 cant, on the Rhone, 16 m. E. Nismes. Pop. 2,31*3 
 in 1861. Manufs. of saltpetre. 
 
 ARANDA DU DUERO, a town of Spain, on 
 the Ducro, 48 m. S. Burgos. Population. 4,122 
 in 1857. 
 
 ARANJUEZ. ( Ara Jovis.) A town of Spain, 
 new Castile, in a fertile and well-watered valley 
 on the left bank of the Tagus, immediately a)M)ve 
 where it ia joined by the Xarama, 28 m. SSE. 
 Maiirid, and 22 m. ENE. Toledo, on the railway 
 from Madrid to Alicante. Pop. 10,727 in 1857. 
 The town derives celebrity fwm its royal palace, 
 commenced by Philir" II., and enlarged and em- 
 bellished by several of his successors, particularly 
 Charles IV., who added the fine gardens and 
 groves along the banks of the Tagus, and a small 
 but elegant pleasure hoase, the Casa del Labrador. 
 The palace is a handsome square building, with a 
 fine marble staircase, containing many fine sculp- 
 tures, and (as well as the church and monasteries 
 of the town) paintings of the Spanish and Italian 
 masters, especially of Raphael Mengs. The town 
 is built after the Dutch model ; having broad and 
 well-paved streets, houses uniform and painted, 
 fine promenades, and a square adorned with many 
 handsome edifices. The court formerly used to 
 occupy this palace from Easter till the end of 
 June; in July and August the situation is ac- 
 counted unhealthy. 
 ARARAT (Turkish Aghur Dagk, Armenian 
 
 * .M.- 
 
 If 
 
 ■:\ m 
 
 -'^M 
 
 'km 
 
170 
 
 ARAS 
 
 
 F'l 
 
 Macit), a famnuA mountain of Armenia, on the 
 coiithiuH of the KuriHian, Turkish, and Persian em- 
 pires, it« ]>rincii)al Hiimmit bein^ about i)5 m. S. 
 Erivan, lat. 890 30' N., long. 44° 35' E. lU base 
 K. and NE. is waslicd by the Araxcs, from the 
 low plain of which it rises most majestically to 
 an immense height. It forms the termination in 
 this direction of a range of mountains connected 
 with the Caucasian chain; but these, though 
 elevaied, seem in comparison with Ararat so low, 
 as to strengthen the impression of sublimity and 
 greatness made by contemplating it singly from 
 the plains to the E. It consists of two enormous 
 conical masses, one much higher than the other, 
 but the lowest ascending far within the line of 
 perpetual congellation. Ke|:)eated efforts had been 
 made at different times to reach its summit, but 
 this Herculean task was not effected till 1880, 
 when I'rofessor Parrot, of Dorpat, accomplished, 
 by dint of extraordinary ijcrsevcrance and energy, 
 what had previously been reckoned all but im- 
 possible. He determined the altitude of the 
 highest peak to be 16,'200 French or 17,230 Eng. 
 ft. above the level of the sea, being about 4,700 
 ft. higher than Mont Blanc. The summit is de- 
 scribed as a circular plain of limited dimensions, 
 united by a gentle descent to the less elevated 
 peak towards the E. The whole of the ujjper re- 
 gion of the mountain, from the height of 12,750 
 ft., is covered with perpetual snow and ice ; and 
 not unfrequently avalanches precipitate themselves 
 down its sides with tremendous force and furj'. 
 The mountain was again ascended in 1860, by 
 Colonel Khoelsko and a party of sixty, engaged in 
 the Kussian triangulation oi Transcaucasia. 
 
 On one of the sides of the principal cone is a 
 chasm or cleft of protligious depth, having much 
 the appearance of the crater of a volcano. '1 oume- 
 fort says, that its precipices are blackened as if by 
 smoke, but that nothing issues from it except tor- 
 rents of muddy water ; but the mountain presents 
 many appearances of volcanic action, and Dr. 
 Keineggs affirms that he has seen fire and smoke 
 issue from this chasm for three days together. 
 
 Ararat is not only an object of superior interest 
 from its mass and height, but still more from the 
 association with which it is connected. It is be- 
 lieved to be the Ararat of Scripture, on whose 
 summit the ark rested. (Genesis, viii. 4.) And 
 certainly it would be difHcult anywhere to find a 
 mountain that seems better entitled to the honour 
 of serving as a stepping stone ' d Noe pour de- 
 scendre du del en terre avec le reste de toutes les 
 creatures.' (Toumefort, Voyage du Levant, ii. 
 p. 360.) 
 
 Ararat, a district of Victoria colony, Australia. 
 Pop. 49,646 in 1859, of whom 3,300 were Chinese. 
 Ararat b one of the important gold-mining dis- 
 tricts of the colony. 
 
 ARAS (an. Araxes), a river of Asia, which has 
 its source in the mountain laud of Armenia, 20 m. 
 S. Erzeroum. It flows E. past the N. base of 
 Mount Ararat, then SE. to Curdasht, and NE. to 
 IVjrat, where it falls into the Kur, 60 m. in a 
 direct line "rom the embouchure of the latter in 
 the Caspian Sea. Its entire course may be esti- 
 mated at 420 ra. Notwithstanding its rapid 
 current, it is in many places fordable. It is de- 
 scribed by Ussher as a long, wide, and shallow 
 stream, a good deal of its water having been di- 
 verted for purposes of irrigation. (Ussher, From 
 London to Persepolis. 1865.) 
 
 ARAUCANIA, an extensive territory in South 
 America, comprising the country lying between 
 37° and 89° 50' S. lat., and 70° and 76° 20' VV. 
 long. On the N. it is bounded by the River 
 Biobio ; on the S. by the Valdivia or Calacalla ; 
 
 ARAUCANIA 
 
 on the E. by the Andes j and on the \V. hy Hj 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The Araiicanians divide their country into tni 
 liutolmapus or tetrarchies, viz. : — 
 
 1. Langenmapu, 1. «. the maritime countr}-. 
 
 2. Lclpunmapu, 1. e. the plain country, 
 
 8. Inapiremapu, t. e. the country at the foot o| 
 
 the Andes. 
 4, Pircmapu, 1. e. the Andes country. 
 Each tetrarchy is governed by a 'foqui or te- 
 
 trarch, anil is subdivided into nine Allarej^ua or 
 
 Brovinccs, at the head of each of which is an Ano- 
 'Imcn. Each prov, is again subdivided into nine 
 Regues or district*^ severally presided over hy an 
 Ulinen, This division existed before tlie arrival 
 of the Spaniards, and is supposed to be of great 
 antiquity. 
 
 The dignity of Apo-Ulmen and Ulmen are he- 
 reditary in the male line. In case, however, ii( 
 failure, a successor is chosen by the iKoplc, anil 
 their choice is afterwards confirmed by the Toqui 
 or generalissimo. The succession is thenccfont-ari 
 perpetuated in the family of the individual newlv 
 chosen. The ensign of an Apo-Ulmen is a staf, 
 with a silver globe at one end and a silver ring in' 
 the centre. 'Ihat of an Ulmen resembles the fore- 
 going, with the exception only of the ring, which 
 is peculiar to the former. The ensign of the 
 Toqiii's authority is a battle-axe. 
 
 '1 he form of government comprises a mixtuie 
 of democracy and aristocracy. 
 
 The natives proper of Araucania belong t« the 
 race of the Moluehea, and the name of Araiica- 
 nians has been given them by the Spaniard". 
 Their range of information is extremely limited, 
 and though Spanish writers afiirm that they have 
 some notion of geometry, and are sutticiently ac- 
 quainted with astronomy to distinguish the'stan 
 by particular names, the credibility of theii 
 account is much to be questioned. 
 
 The industry of the country is confined to a 
 little agriculture. The .Araucanians cultivate a 
 few fruits, and make a kind of cider. Their prin- 
 cipal wealth consists of their flocks and herds, and 
 they possess a great number of horses, of the 
 Spanish breed, as well as oxen, guanacos, anil I 
 vicunas. The oxen and guanacos yield them t 
 plentiful subsistence, and the wool of the vicunu 
 supplies them with various articles of clothing, 
 
 The Auracanians have a sort of criminal code, 
 and the crimes which seem to be regarded as the 
 most heinous by them, are murder, adulter, 
 robbery, and witchcraft. The latter is mted 
 with immediate death. (Wimmer neustea Ge- 
 mSlde von Amerika, vol. iv. p. 812 ; Wien, 1833.) 
 Their religion consists in the belief of the ew[- 
 ence of a Supreme Being, besides that of many 
 lesser deities, and also in the immortality of the 
 soul. (Stein's Handbuch der Geographic, V0I.E 
 p. 752 ; Leipzig, 1834.) The Araucanians main- 
 tain no standing force, but every male is inuied 
 to the use of arms, and being naturally a warlike 
 people, it needs no compulsion to rally them in 
 defence of their country. None of the aboripnsl 
 race of S. America have resisted with so much 
 obstinacy and such determined bravery all the 
 attempts of Europeans to reduce them to a state 
 of subjection, and to the present time their efforu 
 have been successful, and they remain indepemlent. 
 They are extremely proud of having maintauied 
 their independence, and call themselves the w- 
 conquered people. They have derived from the 
 Spaniards the knowledge and the use of cavak 
 in battle, and then- skill in this mode of warfare 
 is scarcely to be surpassed. 
 
 The clothing of the men consists of trowseu, 
 reaching to the ankle, of woollen stuff and a | 
 
on the W. by iht 
 
 r country into fum 
 
 itime cnunlr)-. 
 n country, 
 atry at the fwt ol 
 
 countiy. 
 
 by a Toqui or t^ 
 nine AUarepies or 
 if whicli iH an Apo- 
 ulHlividiHl into iilnt 
 resided over by an 
 
 before tlie arriv»l 
 ised to be of gtcji 
 
 ind Ulmen are he- 
 i case, however, »( 
 by tbe iMjople, ami 
 rmcd by tlie Toqni 
 on is thenccforwanl 
 lie individual newly 
 po-Ulmen is a »t«f, 
 and a silver ring b 
 I resembles the fon^ 
 f of the ring, whifh 
 The ensign of the 
 xe. 
 iompriscs a mixtuR 
 
 icania belong to tbe 
 le name of Arauci- 
 by the 8paniari^ 
 J e'xtremely limited, 
 fflrm that they have 
 d are sufficiently «c- 
 distinguish the ttan 
 credibility of theii 
 )ned. 
 
 try is confined to i 
 icanians ctdtivate a 
 f cider. Their priii- 
 locks and herds, and | 
 [er of horses, of the 
 ixen, guanacos, and 
 inacos yield them i 
 wool of the vicunu 
 ■tides of clothing, 
 |ort of criminal code, • 
 be regarded as the 
 murder, adulter;', 
 he latter is \Tsited 
 limmer neustea G^ | 
 . 312 ; Wien, Iffi) 
 [e belief of the exul- 
 isides that of many 
 immortality of tie 
 Geographic, vol. iiL 
 Araucanians main- 
 [very male is inuied 
 I naturally a warlike 
 on to rally them in 
 Ue of the aborijiinal 
 jted with 8(1 muck 
 led bravery all tlie 
 [luce them to a stale 
 jnt time their effotu 
 remaiu independent. 
 having maintained 
 themselves the un- 
 ■e derived fmm the 
 , the use of cavalry 
 this mode of warfiK 
 
 ijonsists of trovm 
 tooUen stuff and » 
 
 ARAUCO 
 
 rninokof the same matcrialH, usually white, over 
 which is thn)wn a piece of cloth 2 ^ds. wide, and 
 i\ Icing, with a hole in the centre for the purpose 
 oi ailmittiiig the head. This garment is styled a 
 noncho. lucir hat is of a conical shape. The 
 dress worn by the women is a long white tunic, 
 .i„| a black upper garment fiwtened round the 
 liiin with a girdle, together witli a small mantle 
 called an ichillo. The favourite colour is blue, 
 ha«ng a greenish hue. The latter wear no licad- 
 dtess and go bare-footed. They are fond of dis- 
 plavi'ng a quantity of rings upon their lingers, 
 ,ii(i ornament their arms and necks with strings 
 of beads. Kverv woman is obliged to present her 
 husband annually with a ponclio of her own 
 making, and daily with a dish cooked by herself. 
 (Wimmcr, vol. iv. p. 313.) Both the men and 
 women are exceedingly hardy, and capable of 
 enduring great fatigue. The children go naked 
 till their tenth or eleventh year. 
 
 A tribe, called Cunchi, inhabits the country 
 between Valdivia and the Gulf of (iuayatica; 
 and another, known by the name of the Hinlichi, 
 that between the Archipelago of Chonos and the 
 GiilfofPennos. 
 
 The government of Araucania was republican 
 till the year 1859, when a French gentleman, a 
 barrister named M. Do Tonners, who had tra- 
 velled through the country, gained some adhe- 
 rents, and proclaimed himself sovereign, under the 
 title of Kmg Aurelius Antonius I. To get rid of 
 this ruler, his opjwnents called in Chilian troops, 
 who defeated the king and made him prisoner in 
 Febniary, 1862 ; but at the same time annexed 
 Araucania to Chili. ' Aurelius Antonius I.' was 
 I liberated soon after, and returned to Paris. 
 
 AKAUCO, a town of Chili, cap. prov. and bay 
 I of same name, 230 m. SSW. of Valparaiso. Pop. 
 ofprov. 43,466 in 1856. 
 
 I AKBE, or AKBA, a small island in the Gulf 
 [of (iuamero in the Adriatic, separated by the nar- 
 Iniw channel of Morlacca from the coast of Croatia. 
 I Pop. 3,600 in 1857. It produces, com, tigs, and 
 I excellent wine; and has salt lakes. Its capital, 
 I of the same name, is situated on a bay on its S. 
 I coast, has 1,100 inhabitants, and is a bishop's see. 
 AKBELA, or AKIUL, a town of Turkey in 
 I Asia, pachaUc Bagdad, between the Greater and 
 ■ Lesser Zab, on the high road from Bagdad to 
 I Mozul, lat. 36° 11' N., long. 44° E. This was for- 
 Imerlyalarge city, the cap. of the prov. of Adia- 
 Ibene, and is renowned in history for the tinal and 
 I decisive victory obtained in its vicinity, anno 331 
 I B.C., by Alexander the Great over Darius, which 
 Iwas speedily followed by the death of the latter, 
 land the total subversion of the Persian empire. 
 JBut, under its present Turkish masters, Arbela 
 Ihas sadly declined from its former greatness, and 
 lis now an inconsiderable mud town, with about 
 |3,0UO inhabitants. Part of it is built on an orti- 
 Iticial mound, 150 ft. in height, formerly surmounted 
 |by a castle. 
 
 AKBOGA, an inland town of Sweden, prefect. 
 
 iWesteras, on the navigable river Ulvison, which 
 
 [falls into the lake Maslar, near the point where 
 
 jthe former is joined by the canal of Arboga, pro- 
 
 ; from Lake Hielmar, 160 m. VV. Stockholm. 
 
 Pop. a,Q22 in 18G0. It is the entrepot for the 
 
 '[on, and copper of the surrounding country ; has 
 
 I considerable transit trade, and has been the seat 
 
 |nf several diets. 
 
 ARBOIS, a to'Nvn of France, dep. Jura, capt. 
 
 ant,, on the Cuisance, half-way between Salms 
 
 md Poligny. Pop. 6,672 in 1861. The town is 
 
 kU built, situated in a valley surrounded by hills 
 
 Bid raeyards, which produce excellent white 
 
 ^ues. It has a royal college and a tribunal of 
 
 ARCIIANOEL 
 
 171 
 
 original jurisdiction, with fabrics of oartlienware, 
 rape seed, oil, andpajMsr; tanneries, and tiatling 
 mills. Pichogru was a native of this town ; ami 
 after the Kestoration of 1815, a bronze statue was 
 erected to him in one of its squares. 
 
 AKCADIA, the classical name of central Pelo- 
 ponnesus, now an inl. immarchy of mod. (irect'o, 
 Morcn, of which it occupies the high tnlde-laiid 
 l)ctwcenlat.37015'jaiulnear380 N., h>ng. 21°44' to 
 22° 35' K., having N. Achaia, E. Argolis, VV. Elis, 
 and S. Mcsscnia and Loconia: length and breadth 
 aliout 40 m. each. Area, 1,600 sq. m. I'op, 
 96,546 in 1861. It is intersected by hill-ridges 
 ill various directions, ond on the N. a lofty moun- 
 tain range renders its access difficult. It contains 
 several plains of tolerable extent, as that of Tri- 
 polizza, 25 m. long, and from 1 to 8 m. brood, with 
 those of Loiulari, Mantinea, Tegea, &c. Its chief 
 streams are the lioulia (Al/>heii») the largest river 
 of the Morea, and its tributaries, the Dogana, 
 Ladon, <&c. : its lakes are insigniiioant in si/,e, but 
 the Stymphaliis, of classic fame, is amongst tlicni. 
 Arcadia has many gcogra]ihical features in com- 
 mon with Ikcotia : it is copiously watered, but its 
 vaUeys are often quite encased by hills, and having 
 no good outlet, the waters are but i)artly carried 
 off by subterranean channels, leaving stagnant 
 marshes, which deteriorate the air. Arca<iia, from 
 its elevation, is much colder than the rest of the 
 Morea ; its climate is even rigorous. Much of it 
 is uncultivated or given up to pasture, cattle- 
 feeding being by far the most important rural 
 occupation, the Arcadian shepherds roving about 
 with their Hocks in families of twelve or lifteen 
 persons, living in tents, and changing their loca- 
 lity as fresh pastures are required. Some of the 
 plains contain many vineyards; that of Henjea 
 was said by Pliny and others to proiluce a wine 
 that made ' men mad, and women fruitful : ' a 
 sweetish red wine is still made at that place, with 
 more flavour and body than almout any other iu 
 the Morea. The Arcadians are strong and lalxj- 
 rious, but all the operations of agriculture devolve 
 upon tlie women: the men devote themsel/es to 
 tending cattle, or pert'orming necessary joiuneys 
 on business. The decline of the cultiure and 
 population of Arcadia dates from a very remote 
 period. Strabo refers it, or at least the conversion 
 of the corn laiub into pasture, to the lera of the 
 foundation of Alegalopolis, to settle in which city 
 many of the smaller towns and villages were 
 abandoned. Forests, however, have not appa- 
 rently much increased ; and that of Pelagus, in 
 the plain of Pallaiitium (Tripolizza) has wholly 
 disappeared. Arcadia presents, m many places, 
 most beautiful scenerj' ; as, for uistance, the val- 
 ley of Megalopolis. (See Leake, Mouea.) The 
 plane, iir, chestnut, oak, ilex, wild-pear, lentisk, 
 &c., are the most common trees ; deer and game 
 are plentiful ; wild boars, wolves, bears, &c., com- 
 mon only in the N. Arcadia, which was formerly 
 divided into four eparchies, is now divided into the 
 deps. of Mantinea and Gortynos : Tripoli/.za, Lon- 
 dari, Karitena, and Andruzzcna, are its chief 
 towns. It contains the remains of the cities of 
 Phigaleia, Megalopolis, Pallantium, «tc. besides 
 many other interesting ruins. 
 
 AliC-EN-BAKltOlS, a town of France, dep. 
 Haute Marne, cap. cant, on the Aujon, 13 ni. SW. 
 Chaumont. Pop. 1,349 in 1861. There are 
 woollen manufactures. 
 
 AKCHANGEL, or ARKHANGHELSK, a 
 government of Russia in Europe, occupying the 
 whole country from the Oural Mountains on the 
 E. to the Grand Duchy of Finland on the W., and 
 from the frontiers of Vologda and Ohnietz on the 
 S. to the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea on 
 
 n^i 
 
r:i 
 
 178 
 
 ARCHANGEL 
 
 
 \ i ml 
 
 the N. It indiKlcH, alm>, Novn Zembln, and Romc 
 otlinr lar^c MlaiulH in the Arc-tio Sea. The (>i«li- 
 matoH of the area ditler conHtdcrably, but it Ih 
 believed, excliisivo of tho inlands, to exceed 
 2r>0,00() Hq. m., or more than double tho si/c of 
 (ireat Dritain and Ireland; incl. islandH its area in 
 CHtitnated at 29(),0f)7 h(j. m. The largcHt portion 
 by far of this vast temtory is condemned to j>er- 
 petual sterility. Tho itart of it within the Arctic 
 circle consists principally of an almost boundless 
 expanse of sandy and mossy plains, having ice, 
 even in tho middle of summer, always a little 
 bolow the surface. The country on this side the 
 Arctic circle consists, also, of iminense plains, 
 partly occupied with forests that cover more than 
 naif the entire extent of tho prov. ; partly, but in 
 a very inferior degree, by low pasture grounds ; and 
 partly with lakes, and morasses. Principal towns. 
 Archangel, Onega, Dwina, Mezcn, and Petchora. 
 Pop. in 1846, 253,000; in IHM, 274,951. Owing 
 to the severity and variableness of tho climate, 
 com crops cannot be de]H;ndcd upon; and, in 
 consequence, even in the southern districts, where 
 the land is most fertile, they are but little at- 
 tended to ; though considerable quantities of hemp 
 and flax are raised. The principal wealth of the 
 government consists in its immense and appa- 
 rently inexhaustible forests ; but tishing and hunt- 
 ing are the chief employments. The rein-deer 
 is the domestic animal of the Laplanders and Sa- 
 inoyedes, the former occupying the N W. and the 
 latter the NE. parts of the government. Among 
 the tril)es now mentioned, dried flsh occupies the 
 place of bread ; and in the more S. districts, the 
 inner bark of trees, and certain species of moss, 
 are intermixed with meal, or substituted for it in 
 tho making of bread. Horses and cattle diminu- 
 tive, and but little attention is paid to their treat- 
 ment. The district of Kholmogor, on the Dwina, 
 a little below Archangel, where the pasture is ex- 
 ceedingly goo»l, must, however, be excepted from 
 this remark. A breed of Dutch cattle, imported 
 into this district bv Catherine II., and distributed 
 amongst the inhabitants, still preserves its supe- 
 riority ; and the calves of these cattle, being well 
 fed, furnish the delicate white veal so much 
 esteemed at St. Petersburgh. (Tooke's Russian 
 Empire, iii. p. 89.) Ship and boat building, and 
 the preparation of pitch and tar, are carried on to 
 a considerable extent. A good deal of coarse 
 linen is made by the peasantry of Archangel, and 
 of the contiguous districts ; and they also manu- 
 facture a good deal of cordage and immense quan- 
 tities of mats, with leather, tallow, turpentine, 
 potash, &c. The population, though originally 
 Finnish, is now essentially Russian. The Sa- 
 moyedes, who are almost at the bottom of the 
 scale of civilisation, though spread over an im- 
 mense surface, do not exceed 6,000 or 7,000 indi- 
 viduals. They are exempted from tho Obrock 
 and from compulsory military service, paying only 
 the issaak or tribute imposed on Asiatics. The 
 Laplanders, who are a little more advanced, do 
 not amount to 2,000 individuals. They are sub- 
 ject to the capitation tax. 
 
 Akchanqul, the cap. of the above govern- 
 ment, and the principal city and port of trade in 
 the X. of Russia, on the right bank of the Dwina, 
 about 34 m. above where it falls into the White 
 Sea; lat. 64° 32' 8" N., long. 40° 33' E. Pop. 
 28,981 in 1858. The town ia almost entirely 
 built of wood, and has been materially improved 
 since the fire of 1793. The principal building is 
 the Gostinoi dwor, or bazaar, for the exhibition 
 and sale of merchandise, and its protection against 
 lire. It is of stone, and of great extent. The 
 marine hospital also deserves to be noticed. Arch- 
 
 ARCIIirELAOO 
 
 angel is the residence of a general and civil gn. 
 veriior, and of an archbishop. There is an ccdnj. 
 Bstical seminary with nine professors, ag^'mnasimt, 
 a school of commerce and navigation, and mmj 
 other educational establishments. Notwitliittand. 
 itig its high N. latitude, and the lengthened p«rii,i 
 during which it is annually inaccessible, ithiM» 
 pretty extensive commerce. It owes this t« ji, 
 situation on the Dwina, one of the most importtni 
 rivers of Russia, and which has been united |jv 
 canals with the Wolga on the one hand, and ihf 
 Neva on the other. The greater part of the 
 articles of export are brought by this channel 
 mostly from a considerable distance, some even' 
 from Siberia. The principal are com, flax ui,| 
 hemp, timber, iron, linseed ; vast quantiticji li 
 mats, potash, tallow, tar, pitch, train-oil, cauvjsi 
 and coarse linen, furs, cordage, and dcalx. Xhe 
 cxjjorts vary materially in different years, prin. 
 cipally according to the demand fi)r cum in 
 this and other foreign countries. During the live 
 years prccecUiig 1864 they amounted to— ifiji) 
 1,297,879/.; I860, 906,851/.; 1861, 1,157,345/': 
 1862, 1,128,965/.; and 1863, 796,898/.; tUe^'^ 
 falling oft' in the latter year, however, arinin;; 
 from the failure of the grain and linseed cru|« in 
 the districts which supply the port. About th^e^ 
 fourths of tho exports are to Ureat Hritiiin. Tiie 
 value of the im|)orts, which consist principally uf 
 colonial produce, spices, salt, woollens, cottons, 
 hardware, and flsh, is always much less than thii 
 of the exports. 'I'he figures for the same yeam 
 as the exports above given were — 67,771 /., 67,'7oii/ 
 61,180/., 69,608/., and 80,480/., about one-founh 
 of tho amount being from Great Uritaiii. The 
 article most hugely imported is flsh, the value cf 
 which in 1863 was 41,928/. Of late years there 
 has been a considerable importation of tea from 
 England, competing with the teas brought over- 
 land from Kiachta. The amount in M'i m 
 5,305/. The exports, being bulky articles, employ 
 a great number of ships, varying from 30U to oW, 
 The number of vessels which cleared in 1863 »« 
 354 ; tonnage 68,870 ; of which 187 vessels, and 
 35,989 tons, were British. There were, beside!, 
 181 vessels employed in the coasting trade mih 
 Norwegian Finmark. The harbour is at the Island 
 of Solembolsk, about 1 m. below the town; and 
 the ships are principallj^ loaded direct from the 
 prams, rafts, &c., that bring the produce down the 
 river. There is a bar at the mouth of the river, 
 with from 13 to 14^ ft. water ; and vcssek 
 drawing more than this must, of course, partly 
 load and unload by means of lighters in the 
 roads. There is a govemment dockyanl, with 
 slips for building ships, about 12 miles' below the 
 town, where also are situated warehouses bclongiiij; 
 to merchants of the city. A flshiiig company wis 
 established here in 1803. Exclusive of the ship I 
 and boat builiUng, and the manufacture uf conlage 
 and canvass referred to in the preceding article, 
 there is here a sugar rcflnery and several brcweriesi [ 
 
 The entrance to the Dwina, where Arclianj.fl 
 was soon after built, was discovered by tlic famoiii 
 Richard Chancellour, the companion of Sir H%'li 
 Willoughby in his voyage of discovery, in 155i; I 
 and from that period do^vn to the foundation of I 
 Petersburg, it was the only port in the empire [ 
 accessible to foreigners. (Commercial Reports.) 
 
 ARCHIDONA, a town of Spain, 34 m. .V. 
 Malaga. Pop. 7,611 in 1857. 
 
 ARCHIPELAGO, a term applied to suchtracB 
 of sea as are interspersed with numerous and con- 1 
 tiguous islands ; but it is especially applied to the I 
 islands in the /Egean Sea, or that part of the | 
 Mediterranean lying between Asia Minor audj 
 Greece. 
 
ARCraPELAOO (EASTERN) 
 
 ARCHIPELAOO (EASTEUN). Thw most 
 ,j,„ivc archii)clnfto citmpriHCM a vast number of 
 i<l«ii(l.s H'""" "* which, 88 IJonico, Java, .Sumatra, 
 ('i>lel)€»t &'■ ""^ "^ ^*"y liWC dimeiiHioiis. The 
 i*lnn(l» extern I within the tropics iM^twcen 95® and 
 11150 E. ionj?., nnd 11" 8. and 19° N. lat., having 
 siv. and N. tlie ChincHO Sea; NK. and E. the 
 i'aeitic! and S. and S\V. the Indian Ocean. The 
 im'hip«l«K" " divided by Mr, Crawfurd into the 
 'olldwii'X "^'^ divisions, eacli distinguished by pe- 
 aliarilicH of situation, climate, and producta. 
 
 1st Uiv. From long. 95° to 11(5°, including 
 Sumstra, Java, Uali, liombok, Madura, Dangita, 
 Billiton, the Malay penins, and the VV, and larger 
 wrtm of Horneo. The soil of this division is 
 LkI, and suited to the production of most kinds 
 of vfL'. f<HHl. I^i'^o is the chief subsistence of the 
 inliabitaiits, who are the most civilised of the 
 ATctui^lago, 
 
 ill. Div, From long. 1 1C° to 124°, includes 
 
 I CclelieS) Sumbawa, Flores, Sandal-wood, Timor, 
 
 nnd the K. part of Borneo to 8° N, lat. The soil 
 
 is inferior to the former ; rice is not so abun- 
 
 (iaiitly produced, and sago partly supplies its 
 
 I nlui-'e. 
 
 3(1. Div, From long. 124° to 130f ; lat, 10° S. 
 
 1 to "2° X. : includes Ceram, Booro, Gillolo, Timor- 
 
 I laii't, the Arooc I, and Papua, The climate differs 
 
 from that of most of the other div, : the E, mon- 
 
 s(Kin is rainy and boisterous, the W, dry and tem- 
 
 jiemte; the plants and animals of the 1st and 
 
 1 2ml division disappear, and others take their 
 
 I place, peculiar to this region of the world, as the 
 
 cliive, nutmeg, tfec. Very little rice is grown; 
 
 I sa(!o ftimis the chief food : the natives are greatly 
 
 iiiferiur to those of all the other div. in civiliza- 
 
 itiun. 
 
 4th Div. From long. 116° to 128°, and lat. 4° 
 I to 10° N. includes Mindanao, the Sooloo I., Pala- 
 wan, and the NE. part of Borneo. Prwlucts of all 
 I the former div. are found here ; but the clove and 
 I nutmeg are very inferior. Kice is consumed, but 
 Isajj'oisthe principal article of food; the natives 
 I are above those ot the 3rd division in civilization. 
 5th Div. From 10° to 19° N. lat. includes the 
 Iteraaindcr of the Philippines, and is the only 
 Iportion within the limits of the hurricanes. The 
 Isuil 13 fertile in rice, tobacco, and the sugar-cane, 
 Ibut not in the pepper of the 1st, nor the fine spices 
 lof the 3rd div. The manners, institutions, and 
 I language of the inhabitants differ from those of 
 lall the other divisions. 
 
 Mr. Wallace, in a paper read before the Geo- 
 
 Igraphical Society June 8tb, 1863 (vol. xxxiii. 
 
 Ipp. 217, et seq. of Journal) gives a different and 
 
 Inoic extensive definition of the archipelago. 
 
 ■Acoording to his views, the Malay— or, as he 
 
 lehould prefer to name it, the Indo-Australian — 
 
 larchipclago, extends from the Nicohar Islands on 
 
 ■the XVV. of St, Christoval, one of the Solomon 
 
 Jliilands on the SE. ; that is, between long. 95° and 
 
 11 62° E,, and from Luzon on the north to Rotti, 
 
 Tnear Timor, on the south. The whole region, in- 
 
 Kluding the Malay peninsula, which is almost an 
 
 bland, and from which the archipelago is not 
 
 physically separated, is of a somewhat triangular 
 
 Ibrni, with an extreme length of about 5,0U0, and 
 
 breadth of rather more than 2,000 English 
 
 niles, 80 that it is comparable in its dimensions 
 
 rith the primary divisions of the earth, while its 
 
 nmponent parts are on an equally extended 
 
 ale— two of the islands, Borneo and New Guinea, 
 
 leing the largest on the globe. They are nearly 
 
 qual in extent, and the only other island which 
 
 Approaches them is Madagascar. Borneo would 
 
 iintain within its vast area the whole of Great 
 
 Britain and Ireland, with all their islets from 
 
 173 
 
 Scilly to Shetland in their true relative positions, 
 and still leave boundless forests stretciiing out 
 like an ocean beyond tliem. Then comes Sumatra, 
 about equal to great Britain; after which fcdiow 
 Java, Luzon, and CelcU's, either of which may 
 compare in size with Ireland, or one of the larger 
 New Zealand Islands, After tliese succect! eighteen 
 islands which average as large as Jamaica, mora 
 than one hundred alnnit the size of the Isles of 
 Wight and Man, with many thousands of isleit 
 anil islets below these, and which arc practically 
 innumerable. The region deserves to be hniked 
 on as a separate continent, possessing its own 
 races of men and its own as|)ects of nature, alto- 
 gether cut off from the great continents into 
 which we are accustomed to divide the globe, and 
 
 ?uite incapable of being classed with any of them, 
 f Australia bo a fifth division of the globe, this 
 great archipelago may be considered a sixth, Mr, 
 Wallace considers that the northern jM>rtion of 
 the archipelago, consisting principally of the 
 Islands of Java, Sumatra, and liomeo, must have 
 formed at a comparatively recent date a portion 
 of the continent of Asia, drawing tlie inference 
 from the general likeness of the /uu»a anil Jlora 
 to those of Asia, and the shallowness of the Mean 
 dividing the archifjologo from that continent, the 
 depth not exceeding 60 fathoms. F<ir similar 
 reasons, Mr. Wallace considers that the southern 
 half of the archipelago formed a portion of the 
 Australian continent. The contrast between the 
 two halves is abruptly exhibited in passing from 
 the Island of Bull to that of Sombock. The strait 
 here is 15 miles wide, so that we may pass in two 
 hours from one great division of the earth to 
 another, differing as essentially in their animal 
 life as Europe docs from America. Eastward of the 
 Malay archipelago, a group of islands stretches 
 out into the Pacific Ocean ; but these character- 
 istics arc distinctively Australian, and they are 
 therefore, not included in the island-continent. 
 
 The E. archip. is mountainous, and its principal 
 mountains, which are often isolated, have all a 
 volcanic character. It is very generallv covered 
 with deep forests of stupendous trees. The num- 
 ber of grassy plains is very small, and there ore 
 no arid sandy deserts. It is distinguished from 
 all other clusters of islands by its periodical winds, 
 and peculiar natural products, one of which, sago, 
 ' is such as man nowhere else subsists upon ' as a 
 chief article of food, Gold is found in almost 
 every part, but especially in Borneo and Sumatra, 
 the total yearly produce being estimated at 
 165,000 oz. Silver is believed to be native, tin is 
 very plentiful in Bangka ; and there are als«> iron 
 and copper; diamonds are found in Borneo; 
 sulphur pretty generally, and salt from springs, 
 especially in Java. Palms, bamboos, and ratana 
 are universal ; the most remarkable of these trees 
 is the sogo-palm (Metroxylnn sago), one of the 
 smallest of its tribe, seldom reaching to more tluin 
 30 ft. in height, and growing only where the E. 
 is the boisterous monsoon, a region extend- 
 ing W. to Celebes and Borneo, N. to Mindanao, 
 S. to Timor, and E. to Papua ; Ceram is its chief 
 seat, and there large forests of it are found. The 
 edible farina is the central pith, which varies con- 
 siderably in different trees as to the time required 
 for its attaining proper maturity. At the age of 
 perhaps fifteen years the tree is cut down, and may 
 yield 500 or 600 lbs. pith, but the average is about 
 300 lbs. ; this is ground into powder, clarified, and 
 made into cakes kept dry for use : it is eaten by 
 the natives in the form of pottage. Sago grows 
 well only in marshy places : ' a good sago planta- 
 tion or forest is a bog knee-deep. A farina of an 
 inferior kind is supplied by the gomuti (Borassus 
 
 I >'" 
 
 
 r 
 
174 
 
 ARCIIIPELAQO (EASTERN) 
 
 lid 
 
 ffomntuH), nnotlirr pnlm pprnlinr to th'xn jMirt «f 
 tliu wiirlil, which (jrowH in the K. ixl. in the val- 
 li-ys of hilly tractH, nnd yicltln nlw) totldy, ami a 
 flhroiiH qtidprmisuHcd in tho corda^^c of the native 
 Hhi|)|)in^, Tonk itt abundant in Java, and tho 
 banana f^ntwH commonly in the f^roatcHt perfection ; 
 t lie orange and lemon tril)0, Hlmddock, pome^^ra- 
 natu, pino-applc, (fuava, tamarind, Jack-friiil, 
 maii^o, &c. are iilentifiil ; and wvcral Wne fruitw, 
 an tiio vhnmjmnnah, mamjitgtein, and duriitn, are 
 confined to the orchiiK-lago. The latter in eHtcemed 
 by the natives before all other fniitH; it in as 
 lar^e as a piim|>kin, its seeds liein^ enveloped in 
 n rich white pul]), the edible ]>ortion ; and, though 
 repnlsive at first by a strong smell, a taste for it 
 once accpiired is lasting. The copal tree is found 
 in Palawan, and others yieldiuj;; resins arc plen- 
 tiful ; the ))alma christi, cocoa-nut, and sesamum 
 yield oil, as well as a lar^e and handsome tree 
 called kunari, peculiar to the E. isl., benzoin, 
 <!atechu, camjdior, olibanum, are the gums na- 
 turally produced, and tho pterocaqjus, yielding 
 dnifTuns' blood, ^rows in Sumatra ond llornoo. 
 I'Ibony, toon, sandal-wood, in Timor and the ad- 
 jacent isl., sajjan-wood, lipuim-aloes, &c, are 
 foiuul; and indi^^o, annotto, satllower, and tcr- 
 meric in nearly all tlie isl. The clove nnd nut- 
 niej; flourish in Amboyna and the Moluccas, black 
 ]U'pi)er in Sumatra, and Ringer and cassia pretty 
 {generally; cid)ebs, cnjeput (melaleuea cajuputi), 
 and sassafras in various parts, areca in all, as well 
 as the auchar or poison tree : the chetik, Avronply 
 called u)xts, is confined to Java. The sugar-cane, 
 otton, tobacco, capsicums, onions, cucumbers, 
 nnd the sweet potato in tho W. are common arti- 
 cles of culture ; many kinds of pulse arc grown 
 OS articles of AhkI ; millet is but seldom cultivated, 
 but maize, which is next in imjiortanco here to 
 rice, flourishes evervwherc. The natives gene- 
 rally are very fond o^ flowers ; those of the archip. 
 are mostly yellow or red ; blue is rare amongst 
 them ; lotuses and other aquatic plants are pro- 
 fusely numerous. European flowers and other 
 vegetables transplanted thither, in general soon 
 lose their perfume and excellence ; and the same 
 is the case with those from America, which, like 
 the pine-apple, «S.'C., are treated with indifference 
 by the natives. The buffalo and ox, l)eing both 
 of remarkably large and fine breeds, are used in 
 agriculture ; elephants are found in the Malay 
 peninsula and Sumatra only. 
 
 The argus pheasant and bird of paradise ore 
 the most remarkable birds. The latter is exceed- 
 ingly abundant in Pai)ua, the Arooe, and other 
 E. isl. The edible birds' nests, so much valued by 
 the Chinese, are built in caves, most commonly 
 on the sea-shore, by a species of swallow {Hirun- 
 do esculenta). Tortoises are numerous in the E. : 
 the shores, esjiecially in the W., profusely abound 
 with fine fish, as the pomfret, ealcap, soles, <JL'C. : 
 the whale fishery of the S. seas is reputed worth 
 upwards of 1,000,000/. perann. ; sharks, whose fins 
 are important articles of export in China, pearl 
 oysters, cowries, or gigantic cockles, are common ; 
 and the Holothuria, or sea slug, is fished for on 
 coral reefs from one end of the archipelago to the 
 other. The lac insect exists in most of the 
 forests, esjiecially in Sumatra and the Malay pe- 
 nins. ; and bees are very numerous in the E., but 
 they have never been domesticated. 
 
 Native Tribes. — The inhab. are of two distinct 
 races, differing widely in conformation; one 
 having a fair or brown complexion, wliile the 
 other is block. The former inhabit chiefly the W., 
 the latter the whole of the archip., but become 
 more prevalent as we go farther eastward. The 
 fair or brown tribes are short, squat, and robust, 
 
 T) ft. 2 inches l)eing the greatest height commnniT 
 of the men, and 4 fl. 11 in. of tho women, Tlieit 
 lower limbs are large nnd lieavy, but not 11). 
 formed, the Imsoms of the women rather m\\\ 
 than largo in proportion to their size, and th« 
 arms and limbs of both aoxcs are round and tlc«hv 
 rather than muscular. Face round, mouth wid/ 
 teeth remarkably fine, chin square, onglos of Inwit 
 
 jaw vervprominent, cheek-bones hi|?h(clu'('k8 there- 
 fore hollow) ; nose not very pnimment, l)iit nevj, 
 flat ; eyes small and black ; hair on the hetil 
 long, lank, harsh, and generally black ; vlHcwhere 
 very scanty. This race is superior in ni)pcaraii« 
 to the other, but less good-looking tlum munt 
 Asiatic nations. Tho black or Papuan race is i 
 kind of dwarf African negro, never more than 5 ft, 
 ill height; spare and puny, with a projcctiii)(bf||v 
 and buttocks, which are much lower tlian the 
 African's; complexion sooty, noso and uiukr-lin 
 projecting very much from the face ; hair wmiilv, 
 III small tufts, and each hair with o spiral twiiii 
 For undersized ]ieople, the inhob. of the arcliip, 
 ore strong and athletic, though not agile, nur, like 
 some Asiatic nations, fond of practising ami ex- 
 hibiting feats, to show the flexibility of their 
 bodies. They hove a singular strength of cim- 
 stitution, and ability to recover speedily frum 
 bodily Occidents and resist inflammatory disonlcrs. 
 They are temperate and abstemious, and not d^ 
 voted to intoxicating liquors, although thev 
 universally use betel, areca, and tobacco, and 
 would consume much opium, were the price nut j 
 so high. They are good-tempered, brave, luimaiie, 
 hospitable, and neither bigoted nor perfidious, but | 
 very revepgeful. They are capable of attachmem, 
 gratitude, and fidelity, have great parental ami 
 filial affection, love for their country, ond a. KpA I 
 for truth. The faculties of their mind arc gcneraUv 
 feeble ; they are slow of comprehension, cnKluluib, 
 and superstitious; their judgment narrow, 
 their reason, memory, and imogination alike I 
 weok ; they are, however, good imitatoni, and | 
 hove on aptitude for music ; in their manncn they 
 are grave, courteous, and reserved ; they consider I 
 it most respectful to sit, cover the head, and 
 turn the back to their superiors. The more savajie 
 tribes go quite noked, with the exception ofi 
 smoll piece of cloth worn round the loins. In the 
 Philippines the dress is nearly the same for tah 
 sexes, and between the flowing dress of the 
 Asiatics, and the close one of Europe, consisting 
 of two coverings : excepting the Mohammedans, 
 all weor the head uncovered. Their teeth are I 
 usually filed and blackened : the women's orai- 1 
 menta'ore chiefly of gold : pearls are never worn. I 
 All the men are armed with the kris, or diigfier, 
 which, with the spear, is the favourite weuptin; 
 the others are the club, sling, sword, and bow I 
 and arrows ; the latter are often poisoned with I 
 auchar, which is, however, by no means, a power- [ 
 ful drug. They are not expert in the use of fiie- 1 
 arms. The materials of their dwellings an I 
 commonly bamboo, ratan, palmetto loaves, and 
 wild grass, the two latter of which are used k I 
 roofing : houses in the neighbourhood of the sea I 
 are mounted on posts 16 to 20 ft. high, and so- 1 
 perior residences are enclosed within temporaiyj 
 ])nling8. They consist of but one floor, and their I 
 furniture is rude and scantv ; the beds are roufk I 
 mats, or often mere benches, on which a person I 
 lies down, with his day-dress wrapt around hini. j 
 Knives and forks are unknown, and porcelain j 
 dishes are a luxurj' : meals are taken sitting m I 
 the ground; the food is served up in trays rf I 
 wood or metal, ond grasped by hondfuls by exi I 
 as he wonts it. The Polynesian language, whlcb, I 
 in various dialects, is spoken over nearly tin | 
 
ARCHIPELAGO (EASTERN) 
 ,\w\f of the orcJiip., and cxtcniU n« well 
 
 ARCO 
 
 na 
 
 to 
 
 !,vcne« towonl the 8., i» in every renpect ilifferent 
 from »11 "thow, and probably derived from an 
 nncifnt nation originally settled in Java, where it 
 U unokcn in its Kf'"''*'*''^ purity. Next to the 
 aialiM't (if Java, those of the Malay jieniiis., lUiKis, 
 and MiionsHHr, arc the nrjoHt civilisecl ; Sanskrit is 
 jiitnHluceil into the more improved islands of the 
 \\ (livinion; Arabic has also been intriMluced by 
 ilic Mohnnimednns. There is in parts also a 
 miiill admixture of Chinese and Tcrsian, Portu- 
 guese and Dutch. , . , , . 
 
 Kvfnr the greater imrtion of the land is yet 
 iipcultivntcd ; and of tliat which is, the chief iiart 
 i, tio iK^tter than a morass for half the year. There 
 |!i H wide diflVrcnce in the industry of the natives; 
 f,me arc roaminf? alwut their forests, but the 
 ureatcr number have actually made ' a respectable 
 nriiLit'ss in social order, tamed the useful animals, 
 miiilicil themselves successfully to agriculture, to 
 tUhcrics, to navifjation, and even to mining.' The 
 luL'W race are fond of hunting; all arc devoted to 
 pimcs of hazard, and in Java cock-fighting is a 
 favourite amusement. They are fond of dancing ; 
 tlifir (lances being grave, stately, and slow : their 
 music is not destitute of melody. Polygamy and 
 oincubinage are common amongst the higher 
 ranks, in the more civilised states. Chastity is 
 variously appreciated ; but women are never im- 
 mured, and are even eligible to govern in elective 
 monarchies as Celebes. Slavery exists every- 
 where except in Java. The inhab. of the nrchip. 
 are clothed in cotttm, mostly woven by them- 
 [ selves: silk they never wore generally, nor wks 
 I the silkworm ever cultivated by them : their loom 
 thev have derived from the Hindoos. They know 
 liuw to work many of the most useful metals, as 
 iron, tin, and gold. Some of their musical instru- 
 ments are made of a kind of bell-metal, which 
 they cast themselves ; and they sometimes use a 
 metallic coinage. Iron, however, is but little 
 used for tools and implements of agriculture : their 
 cutlery is ^vretched, from a want of knowledge 
 how to temper it ; and they arc unable to make a 
 lock for a musket. They car\'e kris handles, and 
 make betel-boxes in a very superior manner, and 
 huild vessels even to 40 or 50 tons burthen ; but 
 their smaller ones are better, safer, and swifter. 
 They manufacture balachong, a kind of lish-sauce, 
 liotli for home consumption and exportation : salt 
 they obtain by the usual means of evaporation, 
 ami saltpetre by boiling the soil of caves which 
 bats and birds frequent. The manuf. of glass is 
 unknown ; but they attempt that of gunpowder : 
 the great request, however, in which they hold 
 that of Europe, proves the inferiority of their own. 
 In war, the flower of their land-forces always con- 
 sikts of infantry; but their naval strength ia the 
 more formidable : their warfare has always been 
 cimtined to predatory descents on adjacent islands. 
 Every description of government is to be met with 
 in this archip., from unlimited freedom in a 
 savage state, to absolute despotism in the most 
 civilised; in no one is there an hereditary no- 
 bility, and the civil and religious authority are in 
 even- case kept distinct. The public revenues are 
 usually derived from the three sources of taxes on 
 land, a poll-tax, and taxes on articles consumed 
 or imported ; in Java there is a tax on lisheries. 
 Famimg the revenues is a common practice, and 
 it is common in manv states for the prince or 
 chief to reward his officers by assigning to them, 
 instead of iwying them directly, a certain extent 
 of land, or the amount of the value of the labour 
 of a certain number of cultivators. The prevail- 
 ing religion is Mohammedan, which was introduced I 
 
 into the archip, in the thirteenth, and continued to 
 HI tread till the end of the sixteenth century. i!hris- 
 tianity itrovailn (mly in the Philippines and the 
 Spice isl. The Mohammedan laws are thoso 
 chiefly in force in the civilised |>art4<, and are 
 closely adhered to sometimes ; but the task of 
 avenging private injuries mostly Vassos into pri- 
 vate hands. The ItJ^ UiVumit is very jiopular, 
 though almost all punishments may Ixt com- 
 
 iiounded or alleviated by paying the party injured, 
 iiis friends, or the executioner : slabbing by the 
 kris is the most usual m(Mle of capital punishment. 
 Trade in the arclii|)elag<i is esteemed a most 
 h(m(mrable emph)yment, and even sovereigns 
 ]>crsonally engage in it. Java, Sumatra, and 
 Celebes are the chief seats of trade : from the 
 latter forty vessels go annually to the N. coast of 
 Australia, and many others into the rest of the 
 archipelago, to collect articles for the Chinese 
 trade, the most considerable of all, yet not of IHO 
 years' standi?.^'. The ex|)orts to China are jiep- 
 per, cloves, mace and nutmegs, scented w(io(ls, 
 ebony, ivory, horns, hides, tortoise-shell, sharks' 
 tins, edible birds' nests, gold dust, l>enzoin, cam- 
 j)hor, betel, wax, wool, tripang, and t^urojiean 
 woollens and cottons. The trade with India is 
 believed by Mr. Crawfurd to have commenced nt 
 the l>egiiiiiing of the second centurv of the 
 Christian tern, and is now very extensive. The 
 imports consist principally of i)epiier, tin, betel- 
 nut, fine wiKids, gold and silver, dainar and spices. 
 The ex[)orts to Kurope and America have vc^y 
 greatly increased within these few years ; priii- 
 ci|)ally in consequence of the wonderfully ex- 
 tended growth of sugar, coffee, ond indigo in 
 Java (which see). Hut, exclusive of these great 
 staples, Java sends rice to the other islands, to 
 the Cape of Good Iloiie, and even to Euro|Ki ; 
 sago is sent to Kurope, China, and liengnl ; cotton 
 is produced principally in the great S(mtli chain 
 of the first and second divisions, but little, how- 
 ever, is sent beyond the archipelago. The chief 
 imports are black tea, coarse porcelain, wrought 
 iron, cottons and silks, brass and tutenague ware, 
 paper, books, shoes, fans, umbrellas, ])aint ami 
 toys, from China ; salt, tobacco, blue cotton cloths 
 and chintzes from India. Chintzes dyed red, 
 green, and other bright colours, and especially in 
 patterns of running flowers, are peculiarly accej)- 
 table to the natives. Manchester and Glasgow 
 cottons, bandana handkerchiefs, cotton velvets 
 and woollens. English saddlery and inm, fire- 
 arms and ammunition, glass and plated wares, 
 raw and wrought silks, and opium, are also in great 
 request. These nations are ignorant of arithmetic, 
 and, excepting in Java, 1,000 is the highest num- 
 ber they have any term to express. Interest on 
 money lent is very high ; bills of exchange are 
 unknown; and women are almost solely the 
 merchants, brokers, and money-changers. (His- 
 tory of the Indian Archipelago, by John Craw- 
 furd, 3 vols. 8vo.) 
 
 AKCIS-SUK-AUBE, a town of France, dep. 
 Aube, cap. arrond. on the river of that name, at 
 the point where it begins to become navigable, 
 and where it is crossed by the high road from 
 Troyes to Rheiras. Pop. 2,81.5 in 1861. The 
 to^vn has manufactures of woollen stockings and 
 caps, an establishment for spinning cotton, tan- 
 neries, &c., and is the entre]K)t of the iron of the 
 valley of the Aube, and of the wire and wood- 
 work of the Vosges. This town suffered severely 
 during the campaign of 1814. Napoleon, who 
 displayed equal skill and courage, repulsed at this 
 point, with a very inferior force, one of the prin- 
 I cipal divisions of the allied armv. 
 
 ARCO, or ARCH, a town of 'the Tyrol, with a 
 
 Vi J|'V 
 
 

 178 
 
 ARCOLE 
 
 '•I. 
 
 I 
 
 caxtln, on the Rarca, 7 m. W. Rovcrcilo. Pop. 
 8,430 in m,7. 
 
 AUCULK, a villiif^c of northern Itnlv, on tho 
 AI|M>ra, lA m. KHK. Vcronn. Pop. '2,1n/> hi IHfii. 
 A Ni>riFii of NAM^uiiinry eM((n^<<m<>ntH tiMik |ilacc 
 licreon tlio l/ith, Itit'h, and 17th of Novonihor, 
 17!Mi, iN-twccn tho AiiNtriunM nml tho French 
 nn<h>r Na|Mile(in, when tho hitter f^niiieil one of 
 the inoMt Hif^iml victuricH in the fainuiiH campai^^n 
 of that veiir. 
 
 A1{C()S DK LA FHONTEUA, a town of 
 Hpiiin, AnilahiHin, on tlie Uuatlalete, DO in, KXK. 
 (,'ii(liK. I'op. 1 1,272 in 1H57. The town Ih Hitnated 
 on nil elevated rock, nn<l in of ditHcult acceHit. 
 StreetM unimved, aiul ill adapted for foot pax- 
 fleiiKont. It hoH two imriMli cliureheN, and Home 
 t'onveiitd for lioth hoxch. 'I'ho nwnt altar of tlio 
 (■htirch of Hunta Maria w much adorned. The 
 rouiitry in the vicinity ix moiintainouH, interHected 
 by vallevft, and very fertile. 
 
 AKOOT, a marit. district of IlindoHtAn, prov. 
 ('arnatic, prcHid. Madrax, divided into two huI>- 
 ditttriuts, or coUectoratefl, compriHiii);; the whole 
 country from Coleroon river on the S. to tho 
 frontier of the Nellorc diiitrict on the N. and K. of 
 i'udilupah, Mysore, and 8alem, with tho excep- 
 tion of tho Ohin^leput dintrict Iviiiff round 
 Madras, United area, lJJ,400Hq, m. Pop. 1,578,042 
 ill 1801. The districtH are divi<led hy the Palnnr 
 river. Near the sea the country Ih low and well 
 cultivoted; hut further inland it is hilly, with 
 exleimive tracts of jungle. Agriculture is the 
 ({reat liusineM) of the natives; and thin depends 
 very much on irrigation, to assist in which many 
 very lar^o tanks, artitiitial channels, and dams 
 liave Ik'cii constructed. Tho country is held under 
 the ryotwar system. (See India.) The trade in 
 piece f{0(Ml8 has been well iiiKh annihilated by tho 
 introduction of the cheajier cottons of Great 
 liritain; but cotton stuH's still continue to l>e 
 manufactured at Pulicat and Irrycum, and there 
 is an extensive iron foundry at Porto Novo. 
 
 AncoT, a city of Ilindostan, tho former Mo- 
 hammedan cap. of the Carnatic, on the S, side of 
 the Palaiir, 0« m. WSW. Madras, lat. 120 54' N., 
 lonf?. 7!)° 23' E. It is well built, is enclosed by 
 walls, and contains the ruins of the ])alacc of the 
 nabobs of Arcot. The popul{>tion consists prin- 
 ciiNiUy of Mohammedans who speak the Decanny 
 dialect, which we call Ilindostani. It has a hand- 
 some Mohammedan mosque, with some other Mo- 
 hammedan religious edilices. The citadel, for- 
 merly of largo extent and considerable strength, 
 is now (luitc in ruins, its principal defences having 
 been blown up ; but the rampart next the river, 
 as it protects the town from inundation, is kept 
 in good repair. Arcot is very ancient, and has 
 undergone many missitudes. It come dctinitcly 
 into our possession in 1801. 
 
 ARCTIC OCEAN, the name given to the sea 
 exteniUng from the Arctic circle ; lat. 60° 30' N. 
 to the North Pole, and washing the northern 
 shores of Europe, Asia, and America. North of 
 Euroiie it is called the White Sea; north of 
 Siberia it forms the Gulfs of Kara, Obi, and Ye- 
 nisec ; and noi ' "f America it takes the name of 
 the Polar Sea. The principal rivers flowing into 
 it in America are, the Mackenzie, Coppermine, 
 and Back ; and in Asia the Oby, Yenisei, Olenek, 
 Lena, and Kolima. Its chief islands are Spitz- 
 bergen, the Loffoden Islands, Kalgouef, Waigatz, 
 and Nuvaia-Zemlia in Europe; the islands of 
 New Siberia, in Asia, and the Polar archipelago 
 ill America. Ice, covering a space of nearly 4,000 m. 
 extends for a winter season of about eight months 
 round the Pole, and even in summer the surface 
 is at the freezing point. From this region, during 
 
 ARDECHE 
 
 the spring, ieelicrgN and flehls of ice drift intoDn 
 North Atlantic — the former sometime.i extcniliiw 
 to I0<> m. in length, and tntm 25 to Ho „, j^ 
 diameter. The coast-line in Europe and At<iihu 
 iK-en pretty well ascertained by EiiKiinh ui 
 Itiissian navigators, and the roast-line tif S'l,^), 
 America has also Iwen traced; hut the arcliiprii^ 
 of islands in the Polar sea rt^mains yet to be n- 
 niored, though the professed ex|iedition lo (^ 
 North Pole must add considerably to our inriimu. 
 tion, (See AMKitirA). 
 
 AltI>A(ill, an insigniflcant village of Irplanij, 
 CO. Longford, Tho church is very ancient; atidit 
 was the see of a bishopric, united in IIIH,') U\ ih( 
 bishopric of Kilmore, but separated from tlic laiii.( 
 in 1741, when it was unitM to tho archbiiiliii|iric 
 of Tiiam, 
 
 AKDEHVL, a town of Persia, prov, Azorliijun, 
 38 m, VV. from tho Caspian Sea, from which it 
 is separated by a chain of high mountaiiia, nev 
 the edge of an extensive and elevated pltig, 
 lat. 380 15' N., long. 48© 28' E. Pop, iMti,| !,, 
 amount to 500 or 000 families, or fn>m S.inni id 
 8,000 individuals. Houses mean and Hmsll, Imiit 
 of mutl or Hun-hiimt bricks, with Hat mtU. like 
 those of tho poorest villages. It is summndnl Ijt 
 a ruinous mud wall; but the fort is a rcpiiv 
 square, with bastions, a ditch, glacis, and draw. 
 bridge in the European style. The jilace is k- 
 markable for containing the tombs of Shiikli 
 Sull'u, the founder of the Sulfite dynasty of IV 
 sian jirinces and of a religious sect, and* uf mnt 
 of his descendants. It is a good deal resorted lo 
 by pilgrims, but is now falling into decay, A Ijm 
 library formerly lielonged to Ardebyl ; hut it wu 
 carried to Petersburg on the town being taken liv 
 the Russians, by whom, however, it was rmtomi 
 to the Persians. (Fraser's Travels on the Shores ul 
 the Caspian Sea, p. 290.) 
 
 AUDECHE, a dep. of France, lying IcnRthww 
 along the W. side of the Rhone, by which it ii 
 separated from tho Drome, having S. the Garil, 
 W. tho Lozere, and Hauto Loire, and N. the 
 Loire. Area, 639,000 hect. or 2, 1 30 English m, m. 
 Pop. 880,559 in 1851, and 888,529 in 1801, With 
 the exception of a narrow border along the Rhone, 
 most part of the surface is occupied by liiils and 
 mountains belonging to tho chain of thcCcvciin«i: 
 Mount Mezen, on its W. frontier, the hi);hest in 
 tho dep., rises to the height of 1,774 toiscs (6,""(lfi,) 
 alKive the level of the sea. Several of the smaller 
 hills are of volcanic ongin. The cultivable soil ii 
 estimated at about 129,000 hectares — meadov), 
 44,000— vineyards, 27,000— forests, 98,000 moiui- 1 
 tains, heaths, &c., 148,000 — and culture$ dinna, 
 68,000 hect. Besides the Rhone, the dep, ii 
 watered by the Ardeche, whence it derives iti 
 name, the Erieux, and Doiix ; and it has to bout j 
 of the source of the Loire, which rises about 18 in, 
 W. Privas. There are mines of coal, iron, leaJ, 
 and antimony. The produce of com is insulHcicnt 
 for the consumption of the inhabitants ; the it- 
 ficiency being sup])Iied by potatoes and chestnnis 
 of which last the forests pnnluce immense quan- 
 tities. Valleys cultivated with the plough ; hill) 
 generally with the spade. Tho inhabitants tie 
 exceedingly industrious, as is evinced by theii | 
 careful system of irrigation, and by the ten*» 
 formed on the sides of the hills planted nith vines, 
 The culture of the latter is an object of great at- 
 tention ; and the wines of Limony, St. Joseph, 
 Comas, and St. Peray, particularly the last men- 
 tioned, ore highly esteemed in foreign countries, [ 
 OS well as in Prance. The raising of the silk- 
 worm and the production of silk is also a no* I 
 important object in the economy of the dep. The 
 culture of the olive has been abandon! d, and the 
 
ice, lyinR lenRthww 
 [lonc, by which it ii 
 iavint<; S. the GanI, 
 Loire, and N. tli« 
 2,180 EnKU8hiiq.m. 
 <,629 in 1H«1. With 
 ler alun^ the Rhone, 
 jcupieil by hill« and 
 ainoftheCcvciines; 
 [itier, the hijjhert in 
 ,774 toises (6,770ft,) 
 »veral of the smallet 
 .'he cultivable soil ii 
 hectare*— meadof^ 
 jrestfl, 98,000 mooin 
 md cnlturei dittrm, 
 ;hone, the dep. ii 
 lence it derive* iu 
 , and it has to boa« 1 
 fch rises about ism. 
 [s of coal, iron, le«i. 
 of com is insufficient 
 Inhabitants; thede- 1 
 toes and chestnuis 
 luce immense quin- 
 th the plough; hill 
 'he inhabitants ue 
 IS evinced by theii 
 ind by the Um» 
 planted wthvinei | 
 object of great at- 
 .imony, St. JoMph, 
 jlarly the last men- 
 \n foreign countries, [ 
 raising of the silk- 
 silk is alsoanwst 
 ay of the dep. Tbe 
 alMUidont d, and tlie 
 
 ARPKE 
 
 ,niv oil '""*''l '" ^"^ proriireil ft-om wnlniifn. 
 
 lliiiii'f «'"' <'b''<''«' yii'lil conHidcriilib' rctiinift; 
 
 ,f,,,,t luiriilHTM (if flit Ui'nn uri' f.\|Mirt(Ml; iiml thr 
 
 flu'i'P, ttiii<'li arc niimcnui!*, fiiriiiMh annuiilly 
 
 i alKiiit 4l*l."<"* ''■'"U'*- wool. Miiniifacliirin^ iii- 
 
 iln<trv is priiMPiMitcd with much Hiiirit and huccohm, 
 
 ihr |irim'i|'"l iK'in^j silk, besides cloth, cot ton, iiml 
 
 laiH'r. TIk' |>a|><'r jiriMliicctl iil Aiiiioiiay and nthcr 
 
 rliirit riiiik" anions tlic very bent in Kiinipi-. Tlic 
 
 I m!inii('iicliir'' '"• ""•• howovcr, very cxtciiMivc. 
 
 LiiiitIv iIk' tanning of h-atlicr, purliciibirly of 
 
 Lisii-skinn for (jIkvch, has Imcoiuc a ronsiilfriibli- 
 
 I liiiMiKW. TlnTc nrv also fnlirics of coarse clnlb, 
 
 llliii'ii, mill straw hats, rslablisbincnts fur s|iiniiiii^ 
 
 |('fii;i>ii, with iron works, and lories. Tbi> dep. has 
 
 lilinc iimiiid., I/Ar^'cntii-rc, Trivas, and Toimioii, 
 
 liaiit.niid'l.'lii t'omni. It fonns partoftho oi^lilli 
 
 I niiliinry division, and is cinbraccd in tho dioccsp 
 
 1,1' Vini'fs, and under the Jiirisdii'tion of the coMr 
 
 ii'mriH/f of Mines. I'riiu'ipal towns, I'rivas the 
 
 |(;i|i.. AiiiiDiiay, and Aubenas. 
 
 AliDIlK, an iiilaml town of Ireland, co. liOiilb. 
 
 iiriiv. I.ciMstcr.'oii tbe Dee, wlienc«> its ancient 
 
 hiMiiiMif Athcrdee, 'Town on tb<> Dee,' Kt! in. N N\V. 
 
 |]iiil>liii. A strong; castle, now fitted up as a coiirt- 
 
 |)i,.iiM'. Imilt here by one of the early l'',iij,'lisli 
 
 Killcn. liiii^ rendered it a place of nnicb iin- 
 
 Kfliiin'o; lint it was, notwithstanding, burnt by 
 
 [[jlwnrd llriice, during his invasion of Indand, in 
 
 J:11J. imil iifjaiii byO'Neil, during tbe wars in tbe 
 
 (lipi (if Klizabetb. In Kill, it was the bead- 
 
 fciiaricrs (if Sir IMieliin O'Neil. Afterwards it f(dl 
 
 |iitii ilic hands <if Cromwell, and was one of tbe 
 
 Iwtiiin.i (if the army of .James II., while retiriuf; 
 
 K'l'iin' thiit (if William III. previonslv to the 
 
 iiilc of the Hovne. Pop., in 1 82 1 , ;(,r.8H ;' in I s;i I , 
 
 |,!t:,); in 18t;i,'2,r)HO; pop, of iiar. in I8(il. •J,27;i. 
 
 'town, which stands in a fertile district, con- 
 
 lisiK (if a main street, baviiif; several lanes branch- 
 
 ifrom it; the dwelliiifjs, with the exiH'ption of 
 
 lumi' K'Hul houses, are mostly miserable cabins. 
 
 ■hcchureh, built in the early part of tbe tbir- 
 
 riilh century, and orifjinally forniiiif; part of an 
 
 ^iipistine monastery, is a ]daiii t'tructurc in ^ood 
 
 t|i,iir: the K. C. chai)el is a new and spacious 
 
 ■liticp. There are scbocds for both sexes, under 
 
 )ie eiiilowment of ICrasmus Smith; a savinj^s' 
 
 laiik, and a disiiensary. In the centre of the 
 
 |i»'ii is another ancient castle, now fitted up a» a 
 
 \rp|linf,'-h(inse, and near the entrance is a larfje 
 
 itilii'ial mound, called the Castle Guard. It was 
 
 |wir|K)ratc(l towards the reign of Edward III., and 
 
 K'oived additional privileges from Hubsc(]ucnt 
 
 iimarchs. Its ndinp charter is that of 1 1 th Anne, 
 
 Diler which tt'.^ gov. consists of a portreeve, 
 
 hnty-thrce burfjcsscs, and an unlimited number 
 
 ifwmen; the municipal government being vested 
 
 ]ilie portreeve, six burgesses, and six freemen, 
 
 ' (lid office for life. Tlie local courts have fallen 
 
 ho disuse ; general sessions of the peace are held 
 
 1 Janiiarj' and .June, and petty sessions every 
 
 lodnesdftv : part of the ancient castle is used as 
 
 Ibridcwcll The manufacture of malt is carried 
 
 \ to a considerable extent ; there are also flour 
 
 raeal mills. Turf is brought from a bog, 
 
 joiit two miles distant, by the river Dee, which 
 
 |licrc navigable for boats. A market-jdacc for 
 
 1 was built in 1710, and shambles in 1790, in 
 
 |iich a well-stocked market is held every Tucs- 
 
 Fairs, principally for live stock, are held in 
 
 tee enclosed area provided by the corporation 
 
 [1st March, 10th April, fith Juiie, 8th July. 20th 
 
 k'ust, 23rd October, and 17th December; that 
 
 Idrtnber is principally for sheep. 
 
 lAKDELAN, a prov. of Persia, forming the E, 
 
 |i.<i(m of Kurdistan. It extends 200 m. in length, 
 
 the stream Sbarook to tbe Turkish district 
 
 AKDKNN'KS 177 
 
 of Zohaub, and is near'v Itio in. in breadth. Frmii 
 the Sliariidk to Senna, ca|i. prov., in l/it, ;t.'i'' 12' N., 
 long. ■10'^ K., the Miirlacc |ireseiits NMCccssivc clus- 
 ters of hills, beaiied, as it were, on each otbcr, on 
 extensive tidde-lands, covereil with huts, and the 
 thicks of tribes iHwxing tbe Hunimcr innnths here, 
 and migrating ni winter towards jlagdad. Tbe 
 soil in gdiid, and will yield abundance of wheat 
 and barley; but tbe Kurds, who prefer a pastoritl 
 life, content Ibeniselves with raising only wli/it is 
 absolutely iieci'.sMnry for tlieir sulii,i.'<t4'nce. To- 
 bacco is cultivated in xiiiall (|uiintities; and llio 
 extensive forests of oak on tbe mountains \V. of 
 Senna alliinl alMindance of timber and gMll-initH. 
 Tbe fdrnier is floated down the /ab in rafts info 
 the Tigris, and tbe latter exported to India. Va- 
 rious tribes inhabit Anhdan, which are reiiresented 
 tis robust, brave, temperate, and living to a great 
 age; but they are averse fniin settled habits; war 
 and rapine are their didight ; and they scarco <!on- 
 sider innrder and parricide as crimes ! They havo 
 a language of their own, and are proud of their 
 descent, which they trace back to the must distant 
 eiimdis. Some of their (diiefs have great power, 
 (kinneir's Persia, p. 1 12.) 
 
 .VIMM'A'NKS, a(h'p. in the \. of France, having 
 N. HelgiLun, V.. dep. Mcuse, S. dej). Marne, and 
 W. (h>p. Aisne. Area, .'')l7.;wr) beet., or about 2,(100 
 Kngli.sh s(|. m. Pop. :i;il,2!t(i in IHol, and :(2!t,l 1 1 
 in 18111. riie department derives its name from 
 the old forest of Ardennes, which occujiics its N. 
 division. It is divideil into two purtiims by a 
 mountainous ridge, a ramilicatidii of tbe chain ol 
 tbe Vosges, b_v which it is traversed from SI',, to 
 X\V. Principal rivers Meuse and Aisne, C(innect(>d 
 by means of the canal of the Ardennes and the 
 Har. Soil of very different degrees of fertility. 
 The N. is interspersed with mountains or high 
 bills covered with forests and heaths, and soiiu> 
 plains in tbe SW. district are naked, arid, and bar- 
 ren. Ibit it has some large aiul fruitful valleys, 
 particularlv that of the Aisne. one of tbe Ix'sf c("irn 
 countries in France. The extent of its ]irinci|ial 
 divisions is set down as foHows: viz. ciiltivaldo 
 lands, ;U l.OOO; meathiws, 48,000; forests, 90,000; 
 and lieaths, &c„ 11,000 beet. Some inferior wine 
 is made in the S. districts. There are large herds 
 of cattle and tlocks of sheep, there being aininig 
 the latter, which are celebrated for their mutton, 
 several of the long-wooled and merino breeds. The 
 dep. is distinguished by it.s mines and manufac- 
 tures. Among tbe former are those of iron, lead, 
 calamine, &c., with quarries of slate luid marble, 
 the fonner the most imixtrtant of the kind in the 
 N. of France; coal is also found, but it Ls not 
 worked, at least to any considerable extent. Above 
 6,000 indivi(hials are employed in tbe iirrondisse- 
 ment of Mezibrea in the nail tnide, ami 000 in th,c 
 manufacture of ironmongery goods. Immense 
 quantities of slate an? quarried at FUmay, Fepiii, 
 and St. HamalH>'. Fabrics of superior earthenware, 
 glass, white lead, tanneries, ifcc. are met with at 
 Monthemie and other places. There are also nu- 
 merous establishments C»r tlie spinning of wool ; 
 and various branches of the woollen nianuf^i<;turc 
 are extensively ciUTietl on at Sedan, anil Hethel. 
 The great manufactory of fire-arms on account of 
 government, carried on at Charleville, has been 
 transferred to B'eltri and Cbatellerault. Besides 
 furnishing timber and other proihujts for exporta- 
 tion to the contiguous depts. and Belgium, the 
 forests are the great source of the pmductivenesK 
 of the mines, timber being the fuel used in tbe 
 iron and copper works. 'Flie dep. is divided into 
 5 arronds, 31 cant., and 478 ('(imm. It beb)ngs U\ 
 the finirtb military division, diocese of Reims, and 
 is under the jurisdiction of the cour iin/x^riale of 
 
 N 
 
 '<i : 
 
 ill 
 
 ■ ' . ^ 
 
 ■*A.. 
 
 ^.■. 
 
I,''lf' 
 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 ii'tm 
 
 
 "«)|Nv:V,^i 
 
 178 AUDKH 
 
 Mclz. rriiicipal towiiH Mt'xi6rcK, .Sodiin, (,'lmrlfi- 
 villc, Hitli.-I, anil (iiv«'». 
 
 AU|)I'^S, n lown of Krnnrp, tU-n, Puy-ilp-I»omo, 
 cnp. ciiiii.oiinMiiall river ihni I'lilN inro llu> Allivr, 
 H> III. MW, iMHoiri'. I'l.p. I.MIH in IMtil. 
 
 AIUKJLAS.H. timnrit. town nf Inlmul.co. Down, 
 Iirov. I'lHii-r, on tlic m'u loiiM, ii littlt- lo tlic N. of 
 St. Jolm'H I'oiiil, lirhvi'in hiiiitlrnin Hiiv mihI IIii- 
 oiilriinccofHtraiiKroril l.nutth, M m. NN'l'".. Diililiii. 
 'I'Ik! town wuN formerly of miicIi (•oninifrciiil ini|iort- 
 niicc that n nu-ri'iiiiiilii foinpmiv from Lmiilon 
 M'ttlcd herd ill the rei^'ii of Men. )V., iiiiil in lliiit 
 of lien. VI, itH tniile excelled tliiit of any port to 
 the N. of DroKlieda. It w«m also a place of eoii- 
 Hiilerahld Htreii^'tli, an ap|M'ari4 from llie f^allant 
 Htand made in it liy Simon Jordan, at llie elone of 
 tlie reif^n of Kli/.alt'etli, wlio maintained it HiiceeNH- 
 fiilly dnrin>; a Hie^e of tliree veunt apiiiiHt tlie Karl 
 of Tyrone; lint HidiNeiiiienllv, in eonHecpieiice of 
 itH exchiHive eoininercial privilefjeN having lieeii 
 piireliaHcd uii Ity the Crown, and transferred to 
 Newry and lielJiiNt, its trade deelined, iiisomneli 
 that It lias lieeii for many years merely a tlsliiii^ 
 station and watering-place, and the port for ein- 
 harkalioii to a few passenjfcrs t> the Isle of Man. 
 Top. of town 771, of jiarish !,Otir» in iHdl. The 
 town stands on tliu side of an elevated tract of 
 land overlookinj; the sea, hetween two remarkalile 
 hills. It consists of a loiij; semicircnhir street, 
 with lanes hranchin)^ from it ; a ranne, called the 
 ("res<'ont, overlookinif the bay, and several di'- 
 tached residences. The j)a. ciinrch and I{. Cath. 
 chapel arc neat Imildin^s. Schools, on tliu foun- 
 dation of Knutmns Smith, educate ninety lioys and 
 fidelity fjirls; there arc also several private schools, 
 in which about IIMI pupils are instructed. The har- 
 bour consists of ^i iimercove, capable of udmittinf; 
 vessels of 100 tons, but nearly dry at low water, 
 and of a lar^c outer harbour, which, having been 
 still farther enlarged by a pier, extendiiif^ !iO() ft, 
 into deep water, admits vessels of ."JOd tons at any 
 time of tide : it has a lighthouse at its extremity, 
 A constabulary force and eoast-Kiiard are main- 
 tained here. The lishery is tlic almost exclusive 
 occupation of the workiiifr classes; that of herriii){s 
 beiiifj most followed. Duriiiff the season, which 
 continues from the bcpnniii^ of June to the close 
 of Aii^iHt, vessels assemble here, not only from 
 the tisliiiiK ports on the K. coast of Ireland, but 
 from the Isle of Man, and (lornwall. 
 
 AKUNAMUKCIIAN POINT, a promontory on 
 the \V. coast of Scotland, Argyleshire, bein(( the 
 most westerly jxiiiit in the mainland of Great 
 llritain, lat. 6(io 46' N., lonf?. (>° «' 30" VV. 
 
 AKUNAKKE, a marit. town of Ireland, co. 
 Sligo, prov. Connaiiglit, KiOJ m. WNVV. Dublin, 
 on the Moy, a bridge over which river connects it 
 with the town of Uallina. It being, therefore, in 
 reality a suburb of the latter, the particulan rela- 
 tive to it will be found under Bai.lina. 
 
 AKDOCH, a village of Scotland, co. Perth, pa, 
 Miithil, 8 m. N. Dumblane. Pop. of parish 1,074 in 
 1801. The village is remarkable for having in its 
 vicinity one of the best preserved Itoman stations 
 or forts in the empire. It is on oblong, 420 ft. by 
 375 within the lines. On the W. side it is defended 
 by the steep banks of the river Knaig, on the S. by 
 n deep morass and two ditches, and on the other 
 sides, where it is most exposed, by no fewer than 
 live parallel ditches and six ramparts. On the S. 
 side the ditches have been partially destroyed in 
 the process of cultivation, and the W. siilc has 
 been injured by carrying (unnecessarily) the mili- 
 tary road from Stirling through Crieff to the High- 
 lands through part of the works ; but it is now 
 luckily enclosed and protected from further depre- 
 dation. The Pnctorium, which is well preserved. 
 
 AUECIFK 
 
 is n square, fiO ft. in the side, but it U lint mm, 
 in the centre of the ntation. Near t\m Ntnm);(„n 
 are three camps of different magniludi's, niii' .i,<,„ 
 by I,!).'i0 fl„ estimated to acnimiiMHinlt' 
 men; another, l.'.llo by I,.'I10 ft., acc(inim.Klai»! 
 I'.'.OtiO men; and the' third ami sninlkiit, 1 1^, 
 by iMMi fi., accommodating 4,000 nn'ii. .\'i,ii,„J 
 certain is known as to the (htIimI wli<'n,iiri 
 general by whom, this station and cnmiH «,„ I 
 conHtrut'tcd ; but they are generally nii|i|hmi',| {., 
 have U'eii the work of Agricolii. A liii||. luii, 
 \V. of Ardocb a cairn formerly existeil li<ifi.|,| 
 height ; but it in now nearly deinoli.s||('i|,t|iPKti«^ 
 having been carried away to build \\inim isj I 
 fences, (Hoy's Military Aiitiipiities.) 
 
 AUDOVh;', a town of lUlgium, II in, ,ssw I 
 Uriiges. Pop. 7,400 iu \HM\. 
 
 AHDISA, or AYKM, a country of Afria,ft.| 
 nierly independent, but now a prov, of llahnmttl 
 Ardra is also the name of the capital of the ilnnil 
 countrv, about 40 m. inland. I 
 
 AHIHtKS, a small but well-fort itlH to«Ti J 
 Frani'e, dep. Pas de Calais, cap, cniit., !) m, >t,l 
 Calais, (m the Northern of France railway. K>l 
 '2,'i77 in INOI, In the vicinity of this tiiwii,'iiiJgii(l 
 ITi'JO, was held the famous mci^ling between Fru.1 
 cis I., king of France, and Henry Vin„kint;i/I 
 Kngland, The pomp and magnillceiu'c di^iilni^l 
 on both sides, during eighteen <lays that tlicniiWl 
 ing lasted, acquired for the (ilace nf reiulraiol 
 the name of the Chump dti dran dor. Thtiii»l 
 view liad no very important political remili. I 
 
 AUDHOSSA^f, a jiarish and sca-porl tnwn J 
 Scotland, co. Ayr, the town being "24 m. W>».| 
 (ilasgow, 20 ir. S. Unienock, and almiit I ra, NtJ 
 Saltcoats. P.ip, of parish in I H4 1 , 4,<.I47 ; in Ik| 
 (>,770; of town in I HOI, 2,8!)(i, The towin 
 founded by the late Karl of Kglintoii, \X\i\ 
 sbi]i's intention was to make a Imrhoiir here iki 
 should be accessible at all times of the tiile; 
 as a nroject was, at the same time, sot on hnk 
 bringing a canal from (ilasgow to AnlnissaiLH 
 was supposed that the latter would liennni' ! 
 port of the former, and that the circuitoiin naiij 
 tion of the Clyde would be avoided. In fimbi 
 ancc of this design. Lord Kglinton expeiuieih 
 sums on the harbour and town. The harWiJ 
 partly fonned by a small islet, called IIo^el 
 wliicli shelters it on the N\V., and by n lciij(thf»| 
 circular pier, and a breakwater. Within the « 
 ta'inity of the latter, there are 20 ft, wjwd 
 spring ebbs, shoaling gradually to 1.5 ft,, wla 
 tlie ])ier commences. 1 here is a fixed li^jlit diitlJ 
 N K. breakwater. The wet docks which it »as^ 
 tended to construct have not been ])rocc«le<l» 
 The town is laid out on a regular and m»),'ni&\i| 
 plan ; there is a splendid establishment uf mt 
 and the purity of the salt-water, the niildnwj 
 the climate, and the facility of ttcces.s, haven 
 it be largely resorted to by visitors in the baiki 
 season. The projected canal from Glasgow loii 
 drossan not having been excavated further ill 
 the village of Johnstone in Keiifrewi!hiie,aiiij 
 was obtained, in 1827, for constructing a tail"^ 
 from Johnstone to Ardrossan. For a while in 
 only completed as far as Kilwhiiiing; buiitk 
 since been finished to Ardrossan; which. in m' 
 quence, has become more accessible, and i*ii 
 frequented. There is regular steam conimuii' 
 tion with Arran and Belfast, in coniicetidn i 
 trains from and to (Jlasgow by the railway. 
 
 AREBO, or AKBON, a town of Benin, cM 
 river Formosa, 60 m. from its mouth. Lat. J*! 
 N., long. .'JO 8' E. 
 
 AKECIFE, a sea-port town, cap. island of U 
 cerota, one of the Canaries, on its E. coa<t.M 
 50' N., long, 13° 30' W. Pop. with I'ori )i< 
 
i>wn,cap.i!<lai«>f , 
 Pop. with I'ori >i 
 
 ARENDAL 
 
 in |H()I, Till' luirlMiiir, nlilrli l)ii>ii;^'li miiiiiII 
 
 |i»,iriiiriii"'''". '•»' ^'- •'"viiiKii il«'|ifli <i|' r.». mill 
 , , . |;_||f 171 ft'fl, ai l"w wilier, with ii ',( ft. rifv 
 ,1,.'. Hiilli clllrillii'rM lire ili'l't'iltlcil liy ImiiiiIi 
 l,r,.,.|l'nrtH. Tlic iiilmli. iiri' niiwdy ciijiiiK'''! ill Hie 
 
 jiirv nil iIh' <i|i|Mmiii' omHi ol' Aj'riiii. 
 
 ^i;|.;>;|)AI„ iiHi'ii-jMirt town nl' Norwiiy, on llii- 
 .„,ii,l„l, ;,') III. NK. I lirintiansimcl, liil. tM° '.'r'N., 
 
 ,-. 1*0 .Ml' '.''>" K. I'op. '.'.•.'■'iT ill iMdo. Arciiiliil 
 
 ,iiiii>ilv li"!'' "" pil''"! """' "•null vi'HMi'l.t micli iil- 
 
 ■1 iili iiarlHol' till' lowii liy iiu'iiiih of tlic I'liiiiils 
 
 iv wliiili i' '" iiitfTwfcri'il. 'I'lic ImrlMiiir in |pnt- 
 
 ,K.il liv ttio oppciHitc iftiiiiiil ol'TrcniiDc, 'I'lirri' 
 Ir, imii iiiiiK')* '»■*' lor^iH in llio vicinity ; iiiid a 
 |i.<lili'itiol'irail(' i^ carrii'il on in iron aiiillinilMT. 
 
 I'liri' iiri' ni!*o iliMtillvrifM, tobm.ro iiiamiractoricH 
 
 „l.hi|HliiiiiiliiiK. 
 
 AIIKNIX'I'K. ft villayp of llolj^nun, prov. Ant- 
 Ini, fit ni. I''-, iiy l^. 'I'lirniinut, l'o|i. .'I,2.'li> in 
 L.'id, Tlic town luiN iiiannrat'turuH of HtiH'kiii({!4 ami 
 LiiMiiiil ili-'tillt'i'ii''*- 
 
 lAllkM'^ !>!'' MAH, afown of Spaiii,('ataloiiiii, 
 i ni, Ni'l. Itari'clona, iioar tiit> Mca. Pup, l,7H I in 
 Till' town iH neat ami clraii, lias a lino 
 icliiircli ami u convciil, lalirics of nilk nml 
 liiiiii *ti"'l<iii},"'i a Hfliool of plloiii^jt'. a yiiril for 
 L'liiiililiiii; offimnll vessels, ninl anelior-forp's. 
 Lnumi'ii omploy tlieniselveN in milking lace. 
 lAKKNSIIl'Ud, a nea-port, town of Kiiropeiin 
 ti<siii. );iiv, Livonia, cap. of the island of < >esel, in 
 llaiiii', at till' inontli of llu> (iulf of lli^a, 
 |iii;;«itimtcil on tlie S. side of the island, hit. j')N° 
 SJiiiij;. '2-JO 17' t:)" K. I'op. :i,iV,l2 ill |n:.H, 
 I lm.4 1) ('little, ft liiissian and a Lutheran church, 
 ililii' si'liiiol and a hospital. The water in the 
 miir lioiiiK shallow, vessels are ottli^jed to aii- 
 l[ir ill till' roads at a considerahle distance from 
 irn, The nrticles of ex|)ort consist of corn, tiin- 
 f, liiitter, clieeso, tallow, hides, and seal oil. 
 ien«liiir),' luis receiitlv Iuhmi much resorted to for 
 liiitliiii); niul ' mini liaths,' 
 \liK(iUirA, ft city of S. America, reii. Pern, 
 .prov. same name, in the valley of ( jiiiica, on 
 (Chile, lit the foot, of M, Oinate, 7,70(1 ft, nliove 
 Itvcl of the sen. Hi) m. K. from tint Pacillo 
 ^aii.aml -JOOm. fiSW, Ciizco, lat. KiO ill I' S,, loiij,'. 
 'll'W, It was founded by order of Pizarro, in 
 li). The houses, though low, on account of the 
 ploiiceof cnrthniiakes, are stronjrly built; and 
 latliedral, ft hroiizc fountain in the great 
 C and the hridj;c over the Chile, deserve iio- 
 It has four convents, a collej^e, a workhouse, 
 I several churches, as well as tlourishiiig maiiu- 
 (urcsof gold and Hilver cloths, woollens, and cot- 
 Its environs, notwithstaiidint.; their elevation, 
 Iverj- fruitful; and by means of its port Mol- 
 llo,aiulofthproad)iassiiig throiif^h it from Limn 
 |hc S., it is the seat of a pretty extensive com- 
 *■ carried on chielly with the port of Isliiy, on 
 |Paiilic, and with the interior of I'erii. It is 
 r subject to earthquakes, from several of wliich 
 i sustained {^reat injury, and it has also been 
 »ll)y frequent revolutions. The accounts of 
 «ip, (liffer very widely ; but it may jierhaps be 
 nated at about 35,000. The pop.'of the prov., 
 [liy Indians, is estimated at 1«0,II00. The pro- 
 1 are wheat, maize, sugar, gold, silver, lead, 
 «r, sulphur, nitrate of siida, wine and brandy. 
 exports of Islny, the port of the i)rov., 
 TOtcd in 1863 to' 52(),17«/., the importa to 
 |l;i9/. 
 
 KKTHUSA, a famous fountain of Sicily, which 
 close to the sea, in the city of Syracuse. 
 "isay9ofit. III hue insula {Ortijijia) extrema 
 |™s aqua dulcis, ciii nomen Areilmsie est, i«- 
 f'/i viagnititdiiie, phnisslmus pisvium : qui 
 
 AUdKNTAT 
 
 IT'.i 
 
 Jliiilii /iifiin iifirrlii hir, iiIhI miiiiiHnnr iir mii/i' lii/ii' 
 iliim II miiri ilinjiiinhiit mint. (In \'err., lib. iv. 
 § ."i.l.) piielry and fiiblc bnvc cuiiibincd lo give an 
 i-ndiirliig cidi'briiy lo tliJM fniiuiaiii. Il was siip- 
 piHi>d iliat the rl\cr AlplniH, which llnws piisi 
 
 Olyinpla in (irei , ami liills luio ihc Niciliiin Sea, 
 
 dill Hill icriiiinale its course lliiTi' : biil llwii il cmi- 
 tiiiiied tollow in a subicrraiietiii clwiiiiicl, preserving 
 the jiiirily of its waters till lliey iigiiiii rcappciircd 
 in llie fiiiintaln Ari'lliiisn; and in pronf of this 
 it was Mlllrined lliiil things <'a>l iiito the AI|iheiM 
 were lifter It while thrown up by the foiililiiili ! 
 Virgil alludes to this uircninstnncu when he Hiiys, 
 
 Hie tilil.ciiin lliictuH Hiilitcr liilirri'Sli'iinoj, 
 Uorl.4 uiiiui'U Kiiiilii lion liiteriiil-cnil iiinhiiii, 
 
 lii'liiK' x> IIO' '!< '> < 
 
 and it is referred to bv Pliny (Hist. Nat., lib. ii. SsH.) 
 Seneca ((^iiii'st. N., lib. iii. § '.')l). and other iiiuiiiii 
 aiilliors. The poetical arciiiint of the foiiniaiii 
 niiiv be seen in Ovid's .Met. lib. v. liii. r>7'-'. 
 
 'I'his celebrated spring is now sadly chiiiiged. 
 The sea has made its way, |inibiilily by the agency 
 of the eartliipiakes so fri'i|iieiil lure, iiitu the finiii- 
 tniii ; so lliiit, instead of being sweet, the wiilir, 
 which also is greatly dliniiiislied in (|iiaiiliiy, in 
 coiiseipience of a large portion rising i;: the scii, is 
 br.'icki'ih and until for any piirjiose but that of 
 washing. Its lisli have disappeiired with the sa- 
 cred groves and temples thai adorned its bunks; 
 and this glory of ancient Syracuse is now de- 
 graded into a sort of public washing tub for the 
 poorer classes of the niodeni city. 
 
 AIMCVALO, a town of Spain, t »ld('aslile, ]irov. 
 Arels, on the Adaj'i, 'i'.l ni. NNIl. Avilii. Pop. 
 4,i")llO ill IH.')7. Jlesides churches, it has two hospi- 
 tals and two corn markets, 
 
 AliKZZO (an, Arnliiim), a city of C'eiilriil 
 Italy, in the rich plain <if Chiiiiia (which see), 
 ill in. K. bv N. Sienna, on the railway from Flo- 
 rence to Ancoiiii. pop, ;il),K(l(i ill \H{\->. It is 
 siirroniided liy walls, has a citailel, but is neither 
 well built nor widl laid out. It is the seal of n 
 bisiioi), and has n (iothic cathedral. Its tinest. 
 building, /(■ Lo;i(ie, containing the ciisloni-hoiise 
 and theatre, in the principal square, has a mngni- 
 liceiit ]iortico, '100 ft. in length. The town has also 
 iinmerons churches, convents, and four hospiliils. 
 There are nuinnfactures of woollen sliitfs ami pins. 
 Petrarch was born lu're, on the 20th July, LiOl ; 
 and this also is the native countrv of Vassiiri, 
 Itacci, and of Lcoiido Itriiin, called Aretin. 
 
 Are/.zo is very ancient, having been one of the 
 ))rinci)ial states of Ktruria. After it became sub- 
 ject to the Homans, it was reckoned a jiost of great 
 importance us a defence against the incursions of 
 the ('isalpine Gauls, It Uus famous for its terra- 
 cotta vases, ranked Ity Pliny with those of Samort 
 and Sagnntum. (Hist, Nat., lib. xxxv. § 1'2.) The 
 remains of the ruins of an amphitheatre are still 
 visible. It was taken bv lussaiilt by the rreiich 
 on the 19th of October, 1«00. The jirov. o{ Arczzi) 
 was an area of l,2it0 sq. m. ; jiop. 222.1) ">1 in 1 8(12. 
 
 AU(f KNTA, a town of Central Itiilv. delcg. and 
 18 m. Si:. Ferrara. Pop. I"),ii2t> in Ifiiil. 
 
 AIJGENTAN, a town of France, dep. Onie, cap. 
 ftrrond,, on the river of that name, 22 m. N. by W. 
 Alencjon. I'o]). f>,(!;!8 in IHOl. It is agreeably 
 situated on a liill in the middle of a large and fer- 
 tile plain. The walls by which it was fonnerly 
 surrounded have been demolished, and its ramparts 
 converted into agreeable promenades. It is jiretty 
 well built, ha.s a tribunal of original jurisdiction, 
 with manufactures of linen, lace (called poini 
 (VAlentvn), tanneries, and bleaching-groumls. 
 
 AU( i !•: NTAT or AUt JEXTAC, a town of Franco, 
 dep. Correze, cap. cant, ou the Dordogne. Pop. 
 
 S2 
 
 
 ■4 
 ■ '4 
 
 11- ,'*^ 
 
 I ,;' 
 
 S.I 
 
 ■»i 
 
 

 ^ 
 
 \m4 
 
 
 I«f» AnOKNTKl'ITi 
 
 •I. lit') in IMOI, Tlii*ri< nrc inliii-ii nf coal ntid Inul 
 in III** rnvirmK. 
 
 Ai»JI'.Nri;rH„ n t«wn nf FnmiT, (Icp, H«ini« 
 I'l l)i»i', I'ltii. I'linl., on llii' Mi'iiii', 1:1 ni. N \V. I'lirlH, 
 on lli<> riiilwity In I 'lirrlHuir^, riiji, ,'i,|il,'i in IMiil, 
 'I'lii' rt'li'liriiii'd lli'liiiKii wimi'iliii'uh'il in n iiiiniirrv 
 
 in lllinliiuii; mill il witM III III!' MitllK- |tll|i'l' llllkl 
 
 hill- ntlml, in ll,i(i. iiliir ilu- iiiiKliirliiiif nf Mm- 
 lunl, lii'l'iiri' hIic U'riinii' AIiIh'm uI' I'lirnrli'l, 'I'lirrc 
 Ih licrii n liiwiiiial, iMtiililiMlu'il by Si. Viiui-ntiU' 
 i'lnil. 
 
 AlKiKXTIKMM'.. n lown of Vrivu'v, i\vy. Ar- 
 
 lU'i'lir ilic 1.1^111', .'n ni. SW. I'riMkM, rop. 
 
 '2,7/1.') in iNiil. Il itt'rivt'M itN niinir Iniin inini'H ul' 
 nilviT, \vri>ii({lil liiTi' in llii- UvtU'lli iinlury. Il 
 Im Niliiiiit'il iin It riM'k in n ilt'cii Millcy, liii-i iiitrmw 
 criMikcil Niri'i'lM, mikI in ill luiill liinl ilirly, Il liiir< 
 Iliiitiiri'M Mini I'lilirirH nl' Nilk. 
 
 AI{(ii;\TINK IMll'L'MMC, me 1'i.ATA (U), 
 ]{i'|inlill(' III'. 
 
 Al{(ii:NTON-SirK-CIM:rSK.iil()wniifKrmirf. 
 (li'|i. Iiiilri', i-a|i, ctnit., on ilic Cri'iiitc, Hi in. SSI',. 
 ('Iii'ili'tnininx. I'i>|>, ■l,7)i>'i in IHIII, 'I'liiN Inwn is 
 iliviitcil inio two parlM liy llir Cri'iiNc. Tin' IiIkIkt 
 mill more ikiii'ii'iil pari t'ontaini'tl a van! (iotliii' | 
 cuslli', ilisnianl It'll liy LoniN .\IV„ and ol' uliii'li 
 tliiTc arc now lianlly any ri'inaiiiH, 'riir lilcarliin^ 
 f;roiinilM for wooIIciin al iIiIh placi' liavi' U'cn \i'\m 
 ft'li'lirali'il. Ar^ciiioii wan callcil .iriiiiiloiiuii/iiH liy 
 till' I'oinanH; ami nicilal!*, ami oilier rcniain.s of 
 llial illiiNtrion.'« pciipU-, art' Hiill foinid in llii^ town 
 and ils virinity, 
 
 AlKiOS, ft city of Grocco, in llio Morca. in 
 nntiipiily llii> cap. of Ar^^oliM, the kiii){iloni of Api- 
 ini'innon, and one of ijic mionI ancicnl and ci'lr- 
 liralcd of the (ircrian cities. It \h siliialed alioiit 
 "i III. from the Itottoni of the ttiilf of Ar^oh i.lr 
 QiiliriiM Sinus), and alioiit Ijl in. N\V. Napoli di 
 noiniinia, lal. .'17° Id' N.. lon>,'. '2J° II' K. Sonio 
 fraKnieiiLs of iu <'yelopeaii wallH, and vexli^feH of 
 the Ihialre, are the only remains of the ancient 
 city that can li(> idcniilied helow the acropolis. 
 The lallcr stood njioii a pointed rock of consider- 
 iilile elevation, and H'^'ut natural strength, which 
 is now snmionnted liy a castle, liiiilt on the foun- 
 dations of the ancient citadel. The town snll'ered 
 inncli during t\w revolutionary strii^^le lietween 
 the (ireeks and Turks, hnt it is said to have since 
 rapidly risen from its ruins; the buildings, how- 
 ever, are mean and poor, 
 
 AH(iOSTOIil, a sea-port town, cap. Island of 
 Ceplialonia, on the K, side of the gulf of the same 
 name, lat. ;1mo U»' 40" N„ long. 20° 2'J' Ui" K. 
 Vn\). est. from 4,000 to 5,000, Situation low and 
 unhealthy, and the hoiises mostly mean and |Hior; 
 lint hoth the appearance and police of the town, 
 jiarticularly liie latter^have heen much imiiroviMl 
 vliile it was under the imitection of the F.nglish, 
 The Gulf of Argostidi is about 8 m, in depth, by 
 about 1^ or 2 m. in width, and has in must ports 
 good aiutljorage. 
 
 AUGUIX, u very small island, in the gulf of 
 the same name, on the W. eott.st of Africa, about i"»4 
 ni. SE. from Cape Hhnico, It is abundantly 8\ip- 
 plied with fresli water, and is supposed, apparently 
 on gooti grounds, by D'AnvilU;, ISoiigainville, 
 «nd liennell, tii be identical with the Island of 
 C"(!rne, where Ilauno settled a colony during his 
 famous voyage of discovery. In modem times it 
 lias been «uccessively possessed by the Portuguese, 
 Dutch, and French ; but hasbecn abandoned for 
 more than half a century. The dangerous bank 
 or shoal of Argubi extends SE. a considerable dis- 
 tance from Cape Blanco. It has been the scene of 
 nun\erous siiipwrccks ; among others of that of 
 the French frigate la Me'duse, 
 AUCiUNSKOI, a town and fortress of Siberia, 
 
 AnnvLK 
 
 on the ArKiin, the chief brninh of ilii> \^f^^ 
 Itt'J III. from its nionih. Tlii' fort Is pnli»ii,|,.,|, ,j 
 the right liilllk of the t\\vt, llllil ill lai..'il-' :,\\ 
 hiiig. Il!»"..n' v.. 
 
 AlIliYM'., or AIIOYI.I., nmnril. Oil, Ki'ntv 
 consisiiiiK wirily of iiiaiiilMiid,aiiil piirih ud.i;,, ,^ 
 of which iiM' priiii'ipal are (slay. Mull, mil Inn 
 having N, Invcrin'ss shire, V., I'crlli iiinl |liimi« 
 ton shlri's, S, the Irish Sea and the Krlili uf i u i, 
 anil W. llic Allaiiiii', lis shores an' cxinin,;, 
 irregular, coiiKisliiiu "f Iciiglhened prdin.ini.rvi 
 and deep bays and inli'ts. The loialiiri'a('i>in|ir«i 
 H.-i.'h't si|. ni., or 2,om;),I2iI acres, of wliiili,!„4 
 1,1 10,1110 acres are niaiiilainl, ami •iOM.oiiii |.|„„,^ 
 The rivers are iiiiiniiiorlinit i luit ihc frinlm,],, 
 lakes ill the niaiiilami and islamis are nii|i|m.«|:„ 
 cover j'l I, H in acres. Owing to ils dn p Imvi ^ 
 gulfs, the sea coast of the niaiiilaiid ii« i'»i|tiuvi 
 at about t'lOO III. A large portion of the rm»i 
 I'onslsis of heathy moors, inoriksses, mckii, iin.l » j 
 rugged niounlains, lien Criiachaii, thi> mii<i,> 
 valed of the latter, rises !t,li70 ft. almvi' thr 1.-, 
 of the sea. Woods and planlatioiiH ('i>\(T iM 
 llo.OllO III |.'i,00i) acres, Lead, copper, and \m»\ 
 niel with, and coal is wrought near riiiiipl„!i<^| 
 (iood nnirlile is found in the Isiaiul iiI'lirir.iKi 
 several other places; and the slale i|iiiimr< 
 l''.asdale and llalachiilish supply a large |mrii.i, 
 Ihe deiiiaml for Scotland, ('liinale iiiiM, '.(iin^i 
 varialih'. and boisterous. The entire exlcniidjil 
 arable land is not sii|iposed to exceed I7il,iiiiii 
 so that graxing consiitiites the iiiuiii Iiumim 
 the farmer. Argyle is celebrated for tlu: cxcilln 
 of its native breed of black cattle; Ihi'vurt 
 hardy, easily fed, and, when fatlemd In tlier< 
 pastures of ihe Ijowlands of StMiilaiid or Kiuli 
 ali'ord Ihe very best beef that is liriPU);lii im, 
 Sheep fanning is not carried on so extciwiMV 
 in some other Ilighlaiid connlics; hut Iniiirlv 
 has been a good deal extended, and the hmL- 
 sheep much imjiroved, I'roperty in a I'w In 
 Farms of all sizes, extending from a few nw 
 many square mih's. In various ilistridn in 
 CO, the iiractice of holding lanil in piiniic 
 or what IS called run-rig, was kept up until 
 cently, and still exists in some rtinutc n.ii 
 I'nder this system, a number of |«'r«(Mi* uli 
 fann in common, each being bound for the 
 They then divide the arable land iiitti uniall 
 tignous portions, or ridges, as eniiiiliy--(|iiai 
 and (piaiity taken together — as is puioiilile; 
 space falling to each tenant being (k'torniiin*! 
 lot, sometimes for the whole lease, anil suraei 
 only for a single season. IMoiighiiiK anil 
 other sorts of labour are perfonned in cimii 
 and if, as is usually the case, any hill \mw 
 attached to the low ground, it is let iii (ima 
 In some of the low Highland districts occupiiij 
 this way, the land falling to the share nf an 
 vidual (foes not exceed from three til sevfiiawi 
 that, perhaps, is divided into some doziiiortw 
 jiatches. Farm buildings of various kinds ; tW 
 the largest and best farms good and wiiwUK 
 but, in general, the houses of the snmlli'r(l«| 
 occupiers, and of the cottiers, are miscraUebu 
 sometimes without cither windows or t'liim 
 Improved cottages, are, however, bej,'untiit« 
 troduced; and it is to be ho}ied that thcjiuj] 
 universally diffused. Principal com cfi'P*' ] 
 and barley, esjiecially the tirst. Potati** •«_ 
 extensively cultivated, and form an imi*' 
 part of the food of the inhabitants. Kdp.i-* 
 along the shores both of the mainlaiulai"''*' 
 but the business has latterly fallen vcrj' M* 
 This, also, is the case with the herring"' 
 which used formerly to be prosecuted m" 
 greater extent than at present, in Ludi Fji" 
 
ARoYRrt 
 
 li„ nmK "if If"' n'l,|i»''<'iit Nia. Mrnni nn\ iKniinii 
 I) in Uti'ly K'*''" li'M'"'"'' •" •'*"> Itiuh'Ii nf In- 
 
 liajini»i"' •' ""' "" ''"' '■'■'''' "I ''l><l<' 1» III 
 
 i,j|vi''iiiiiiiiiiii'''>''"ii *•''' <<lii''Kii" iiiiilliri'i'iiiii'k, 
 li,f,. iiIkii iliirt' iir<' iniiiii'miiM wiiliriiiK |iliii'i''<, ilic 
 ,,urili' nwrt "f lli»' ••ili/i'ii" "I tilnhnnw, nx Wfll 
 ii.iicirK I'riiin more n'rimi*' |mrtt nf SchiIiiikI, in 
 
 A I! KANSAS 
 
 181 
 
 ur -i\cn 
 
 |l„ •iiiniiii'r. 
 
 \ritylf i" |K)|>iil>t*'ly iliviili-il iiii> 
 1,1. nf Aruvli', < '"Will. Kiiilvn-, Lom, .Ai>|.iii, 
 tin, hikI MiiII. imk' I'oiitiiiiiH (Itiy (larishcM. f'"' 
 li»| tiiwiiK, (''»iii||l"''l"'i> liivi'itirv, aiwl <»*>nii. , 
 
 l.iiilH;il, I'.llii inliiili. li"U(»«'i<, ID.a.ViifBiiiiU.-.. 
 
 ,l'|(i(i,li;;l iiilinl)., Imvliig in' TPa""! (Vi'TO li.^iiit 
 
 l»(i|. hi IWil, liiiwrvrr, owiiiV to the <-li(i7 
 I,,, I'ifi'liil "I' ••"' «'"lti<rM, llii' )., ■j/iiluti.iii liiul 
 niiiii*lii'il III 7!i,T".'l, ami the liilmll*Mt Ji-uiscs 
 
 1:1,112:1, It iM'iuU iiiK' III. •" llif II. <<f < fur 
 
 ami ('Hni|)lM'lion iiml liiMTiiry joiii vmiIi 
 
 tr mill IrviiK' in rrlnniiiiK a in. Pari, mn- 
 itiiiniy ill f^i'l. ■•<'l't. Valni'd rint, I l!i,.'>!)ii/. 
 
 ,i,h ; aiiiiiial valni' of ri'iil |irii|Mrty in l«i(l-r), 
 
 i.i;:'/. 
 
 AlJdVKO CASTUO. n town (if Turkey in I'.n- 
 r. in Allmnia, tli*> |iriii(-i|ial piai't' in the extm- 
 r itiiil W(ll-nillivat('<l valley "I" l»erii|inli, near 
 > rivtT lirinii, on tlit^ lower iliTJivitv of the 
 niitaliiK nil the W. ciile of the valley, at a Hliort 
 laiic'c frniii the lite of the oiil Itoinan town 
 lliidriuHnfitiliii ur JiiHlinHiiii^iiiliit, la 111. N\V, 
 iiiiiin, mill I'll III. .SK, of Aviona. it haw an 
 ...iiUfiinii iK'culiar aH|K'et, lieiiij,' Imill on three 
 rail' riilifi'H, iliviiled from <'aeh other liy deep 
 m* "I riiviiiei*. The houses, w hii'li are mostly 
 ■I, «n' lint eonti^nons, liiil stand in variiuis 
 iilmm, 'Slime are placed on eommandiiiKenii- 
 iiM, otIicrH iieiieath proji'clinj; era^s, and many 
 ilio riiltfi's of iireeipiees; liut the j;reater nart 
 111 the lint snrlaeo of the roek, lietween its deep 
 m»: the whole aiipearanee ih singularly 
 ikiiii;, mill its tine ofleet. augmented, not only 
 the miiinrets (if its nios(|ues, lint liy the ^raiid 
 le or fiirtress, u|miii a mneli lar^'er ticale than 
 over iH'I'iire coiiBtnieted in this oonntry.' 
 nlicM, ii. ;il!0, 8v(i. cd.) Pop. estinukted at 
 lut 1,1100. It has a ffood Imzaar, which used to 
 Iwcll siipiilied with articles of commerce. I're- 
 ly til its siiliJuKation by AH I'acha, it was a 
 If hi' ('(iiisideralilo industry, had a pretty ex- 
 ive internal trade, and enjoyed u considerable 
 uf iii(U'|iendenco, 
 
 KIAXO, ft town of South Italy, prov. Avrl- 
 011 H Meep hill, in one of the passes of 
 AiieniiiiK'H, 17 ni. K. Ilencveiifo, on the road 
 Naples to Fof;)i;iu and Manfredonia. I'oii. 
 U,m in I8(>l. It is the residence of a 
 ip, and hoH n tino cathedral, with luimerous 
 ilipii. ciinvents, and monts-de-piete; a semi- 
 , a lioHpitftl, and a manufacture of earthen- 
 It will'ered much from eartli(|uakes in ILOt! 
 32, and seems latterly to have lieen de- 
 hf. t\\m\ji\\ now partaking in the prosperity 
 rnewltiilian kiiif^dom. 
 
 IICA, a Koa-port town of Pern. S. America, 
 ic Pacific Ocean, at the month of a Hmall and 
 »atcr(!(l vallev, 210 m. NW. Potosi, lat. IH© 
 " 8.,lo!i|,'. 70'° la' ao" VV. It was nearly de- 
 eil by an earthquake in UiOo, and has heen 
 since in n comparatively noor state, thoufih 
 pimint; in importaiu*. Pop. tiliont 80,(I(I0. 
 abetter Innilinfr place than the contij^uous 
 ofllo, Miillendi), and(juilcn; and it is much 
 t situated fur commerce than Lamar, that 
 tolierto liocn the principal p<irt of Holivia. 
 >twith8taiidin)» its superiority to most other 
 on this part of the American coast, it 
 till lately, owing to the heavy surf, at all 
 
 I liinen iIIiIIimIi to I Ifeel n Inndinif, ami mmie. 
 tillH'ii ipiile iin|H>'<sllile, unless in the titi/mf iil the 
 nali\e». There is now a pier fur laiiiliii^, and n 
 ! Iwiiiery III defend the ahip|>iMU in Hie rniids. Thi> 
 chief exports are I'lipjier on', Wool, and sihcr, Arien 
 Is eoMiierled liy rnihuiy with the city of Taiiia, HI 
 m, to (he north, where most of the foreign nier- 
 eliants reslije. The net earnings of the raii\«ay 
 in |H<;:| MiTc ■.*!!, I la/. 
 
 AKKiN \, a place in tlip N, of the eo. WoHcotn- 
 <i>"ii. Ireland, on the W. side of l.oii^li .\den, near 
 I' lire colli and irmi mines that lia\e lieeii 
 »'>ii>><i III dilVerelll limes with Vlirintis siiccessi 
 IhiI Keiieritlly with ^reat lunn to the parties carry- 
 H\u them on. The coal Is of an inlerior (piality. 
 I'lie proM'i'diii^s of a company formed in l.oiiilnu, 
 ill IH-.'J, f,,r wiirbiiitr the Ariniia mines, were nl so 
 singular, or rather s. !i"^'rncel'iil a chariu'ler, as to 
 uive rise to an iiupiiry liefute ii loniniitlee of (he 
 Mouse of ('ominous. Full deiiiils as lo these 
 mines iiiiiy Ih' found in ' VVehl'it Survey ol Iton- 
 common.' " 
 
 AKISPK, n town of Mexico, In the intendency 
 of Soiiora, near the source of the river Yagriii. 
 Pop, estimated at .^,l)iMl. 
 
 AKI/ONA. a district of the V. S. \. America, 
 lioiimled on the \V. Iiv the Itio Colorado, on iho 
 1:. by hiiig. |(l,|0 \V. to the ;illli paraUel of Int., 
 and thence \V. on the same parallel to the t'olo- 
 rado river; on the S. by Soimra and Chiliiiahiias, 
 on th(! boundary line between the I', S. and 
 Mexico, and from Itio tirande on the :i'.'iiil 
 parallel in Texas to long. Iiil°. Area about 
 100,11110 N(|. m. Till' dislrirt was ceded by the 
 Mexicans in lN,j;i to the (J, S., and forms now 
 a |iortion of New Mexico, 
 
 AlfKANSAS, a large river of X. America. It 
 rises in the h'ocky Moiintaiiis, in about 11° N. lat. 
 and 110° or 111° W. long.; and, pursuing an 
 F.SK. direction, unites with the Mississippi in lat. 
 .'(i»° ;■);■)' N., hmg. !»10 10' \V. The river has a course, 
 following its iM^nds, of about "2,170 m. It has seve- 
 ral im|iortant tributaries, of which the tireat 
 Canndian, falling into it on the right, is the prin- 
 cipal. During tlie |K>rio(lical swell, the Arkansas 
 is navigable to the iiocky Mountains; and at 
 other times it may be navigated for about liOO m. 
 from its continence with the Mississippi. Its navi- 
 gation is safe, being uninterrupted by rocks, 
 shoals, or rapids. If the Missouri be reckoiieil 
 the first in magnitude among the tribiitiiries of 
 the Mississippi, the second rank is due to the Ar- 
 kansas, it being hinger, and draining more surface 
 than the Ohio, Mississippi proper, or Platte. 
 
 AitKANHA8, one of the V. S. N, America, so 
 called from the above river, by which it is tra- 
 versed through its whole exti'nt from W. to K. 
 between iJifo and 3(1° HO' N. lat., and «!»° 1 1' and 
 !U° ao' \V. long., having K. the Mississippi, by 
 which it is divided from the states ofTennessee and 
 Mississippi. Length 210 m., breadth 22H m. 
 Area about 52,000 sq. m. Pop. in 1H20, 11.27:1; 
 in l«ao, ao,aH«; in 1«I0, 97,574, of whom l!»,!t:!5 
 were slaves; and in l«ti0, 324, 14a, of whom 111,11.^ 
 were slaves. Hesides the Arkansas, the princij^al 
 rivers are the White Kiver, the St. Francis, 
 Washita, and Ked Kiver, all atHuents of the Mis- 
 sissippi. The country is divided into three iior- 
 tions, viz. Ist, the K. portion, or that lying along 
 the Alissjssippi, low, flat, and covered with a dense 
 forest; 2nd, the central jiortion, a little more ele- 
 vated, and cuntniuing several extensive prairies ; 
 and the ard, or W. portitm, which, compared with 
 the others, may lie called mountaiiioiLs. All de- 
 scriptions of soil are met with. On the borders 
 of the rivers it is exceedingly fertile, hut as it 
 recedes from them it becomes jiodrer, and in some 
 
 pi 
 
 W 
 
 .jjik-I 
 
 *'»h 
 
 .'«■ k- 
 
 m 
 

 ■'-■' '••^<'!i 
 
 1«2 ARKLOW 
 
 of (ho moro elovntcd (inrts in sterile. In mmiy 
 • listrict.i ihcro Ih a scunity of wntcr. In tlie K. 
 piirt of tlio Htate, nnil in tlic Jiollowx nlonj; the 
 rivers, esiu'ciiilly the ArkiuiHnH, tlie elininte i.s 
 moist nml tniliealtliy; Init in tlie middle and \V. 
 |i(irtH it is roni|iftrutively salnlirious. The mineral 
 riclics of the state are very iniiierfectly explored: 
 hut it eontniiiH vast quantities of saltj^ which, in- 
 deed, render the waters of the Arkansas hraekish. 
 Iron ore, coal, zinc, lead, manganese, and jfy])sum, 
 are also fnund. Indian corn and cotton arc sta|)le 
 products ; wheat, oats, tohacco, &c,, are also raised. 
 The country is well lifted for the rearing of cattle, 
 and lar;;e herds of ludlaloes arc met with. Wiiil 
 turkeys are also very abniulant. Manufactures 
 have made hut little pro;;ress. Kducation ai)pears 
 to he in a hnckward state. It is very indifl'erently 
 snp])lied wilii common schools; thou/^h these 
 Would appear to he much neglected. Arkansas 
 was (Mirchased, as part of Louisiana territory, hy 
 the L'nite<l States from France in l«(l!J. It was 
 erected into a separate territory in 18lit, and into 
 a state in IfiSt!. It joined the so-called Confede- 
 rate States by an Act of Secession from the 
 I'liion, jiassed May ti, 18(J1; but was conquered 
 before lonj; by the army of the United States. 
 HntT'rago universal: senate, elected every four 
 years, to consist of not less than seventeen, nor 
 more than thirty-three members; liouse of rc- 
 )ircsentatives, elected biennally, consists of not 
 less than fifty-four, nor more' than a lumdred 
 mernbors. Governor elected for four years, jnd^jes 
 fi ir ei;,'ht years. .Slaves not to he cmanci| lated, with- 
 out owners' consent. The state is divided into 
 tifty-one conntics. Caj). Little Kock, or Arka- 
 ])r.iig, on the S. bunk of the Arkansas, about 80 m. 
 ni a direct lin.' from its month. Pop. in 1840, 
 2,r)()0; in 18(i0, ;<,727. It stands on lii^jh ground; 
 and has a statc-honse, theatre, academy, gaol, 
 and penitentiary. Several newspapers are pub- 
 lished in the town. During the late civil war, 
 the post of Little iiock was one of considerable 
 importance. 
 
 AKKLOW, a marit. town. E. coast of Ireland, 
 CO. Wick! )w, prov. Leinster. nn llie Ovoca, at its 
 month, S'.i m. S. by E. Dublin. It was taken jios- 
 session of, and a castle erected by the first English 
 settlers. In lG4t) it was taken by Cromwell, and 
 dismantled. A severe conflict took place here in 
 17'.t8, between the royal forces and the insurgents; 
 in which the latter were defeated with much 
 whiughter, and their leader killed. Pop, in 18G1, 
 l)ar. (i,257, town 4,760. The toAvn, placed on the 
 declivity of a hill on the S. side -^^ thp Ovoca, 
 which is crossed at a short distance below by a 
 bridge of nineteen arches, is divided into the 
 Upper Town, consisting chiefly of a main street, 
 formed of well-built houses, and of the Lower 
 Town, called also the Fishery, from being chiefly 
 inhabited by fishermen. The church, a handsome 
 buihling in the English style, was erected in 
 18-2;5. The K. Cath. chapel is also an elegant 
 modern structure. The Methodists have a small 
 place of worship. A male school is snpiiortcd on 
 the foundation of Erasmus Smfth; two female 
 schools by private contributions, and some others 
 in the same manner; in which, and in private 
 seminaries, about 550 children receive instruction. 
 A fever hospital, vrith a dispensary, is in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of the town. A small infantry 
 barraciv stands on the site of the ancient castle, 
 and a coast-guard station is in the neighbourhood. 
 Petty sessions are held every Thursday. The 
 to^yn is a constabulary statifin. The inhal)itanta 
 derive their sup])ort chief!}'' from the fishenes. 
 There used to be an abmidant summer fishery for 
 herring and hake; but the former have deserted 
 
 ARLES 
 
 the coast for some vears, and the winter flRhor\- jj 
 also declining. Tlie oyster fishery eoniinuM i,, 
 l>e a great and constant source of cmploynicni J I 
 the fishermen, who attribute the eonilorts ihev 
 enjoy to its continuance. The oysters ure ,,,rrj„i 
 in iMiats to Keaumaris, in Anglesey, wliprc iIk 
 are laid on banks ; and raised, when rcqiiiml. t'i I 
 the Liver)>ool market. These people hiiiMii„j,| 
 cottages on the sandy beach ; few have nnvkiirfl 
 of garden. Their exertions are much imixllcl Ir I 
 the defects of the harbour, which has a liariiiiiJ 
 mouth, with seldom more than 5 ft. water cvcmt I 
 high spring tides. The boats, wluni rctuni;! 
 honH\ are obliged to lie oft" the bar and wnkh ilJ 
 opportimity of crossing it on the rise of tiicwavfl 
 and few boats come in without strikiii);, Tlil 
 tishemien keep iq) a light, at their own t'.xpowj 
 during the season, to |)oint out the bar. Tln^iil 
 a floating light S. end of Arklowbank.lat.ai'tfl 
 \., long. 5° 57' W. I 
 
 AHLANC, a town of France, dep. Puy de Dfiml 
 cap. cant., on the Dolore, 10 m. S. Aniliert. ivJ 
 f!,!iliOin IHtil. It manufactures ribbons amlani-l 
 cles of memie-mercerie, t 
 
 AIJLES (an, Arelns or.<4re/a<e), acity of FraiKtJ 
 dep. Houches dn Khcme, cap. arroiid., ontiieli 
 bank of the Rhone, at the ))oint wiiere the rival 
 divides into two branches to inclose its ilelin 
 the island of Camargue, 40 m. WNW. Mnrstill 
 on the railway from Marseilles to Avifj^ion. p, 
 25,543 in 1 801. The situation of the town, thoud 
 pleasing, is, owing to the adjacent inaralips. »! 
 very healthy; and its streets!heingnamiwaiii|ilim 
 and its houses mostly old and mean, it is iniklnijl 
 for its celebrity princi|)allv to the liistorical a.« 
 ciations connected with its name aiiii its miiuJ 
 ments. It was an important town on tlic inva>i( 
 of Gaul by Cie.sar, who calls it Arelatc, It suli* 
 quently became a Roman colon}', and wna lunjj 
 large, rich, and populous city. Its ani|)liithei 
 (which does not, however, apjiear ever to have Ik 
 quite finished) is a noble monument, capahle.i 
 cording to Martiniere, of accommodating .iii.ni 
 spectators: it is of an oval form, l.'iW ft. in(i| 
 enmference, three stories high, occupyini; i 
 highest [dace in the city, and is older, larger, i 
 more magnificent than that of Nismcs, butnwJ 
 well preserved. The obelisk of Aries cniiastsofi 
 single block of granite about 54 ft. in hei):t 
 though, unlike other monuments of the sane kii 
 it be without hieroglyphics, it is all but cem 
 that it has been brought from Eg}q)t ; but the 
 arc no authentic accounts with respect to it, esai 
 that, after being long buried in the grnira(l,it« 
 erected on the pedestal 20 ft. in height, on itlii 
 it .stands, in 167(J. A beautiful .•statue of VeoJ 
 now in the museum of Paris, was discovfre(f bi 
 in 1651; and exclusive of the above, the nikj 
 an aqueduct, of two temples, of a triumphal v 
 an extensive cemeter}', and numerous frayiK 
 of granite and marble columns, e\iiicc tlie f* 
 grandeur and imjiortance of the city. It hasid 
 thedral and numerous churches, and hastenij 
 seat of .several ecclesiastical councils. The m 
 hall, built by Mansard, is a handsome edifice;! 
 it has a school of navigation, a college, a miM 
 of antiquities, and a small pidilic librari-. Ji 
 soap, glass and bottles, are manufactured, and ij 
 sausages of Aries are in the highest esteem. J 
 obviate the difficulties in the navifratinn cf) 
 Rhone and Dur.ince, a navigablo canal has l« 
 made from the city to the sea, at Port Itaif. i 
 12 m. E. of the E. embouchiu-e of the Ulninf.^ 
 from the city to the Durance op]wsite to Cads 
 It is also connected with the canal of Beaiif 
 and consequently with that of Laiiguwloi'. 
 water communication, together with tliat »f| 
 
flic winlor fishm- » \ 
 llHlicry coniiniiPH i., 
 
 CP. (if CtniiliiytlKliI |„ 
 
 c the cumfiirts ihev 1 
 he oyntcM arc carridil 
 ^iijfU'scy, wliprc thev 
 :i\, when rc(|iiiml. u j 
 !HC peoiile t)uil(lilM[| 
 1 ; few liave any kinl 
 are much itiUH'iled W | 
 whidi has n ImratiiJ 
 inn fi ft. water cvHuil 
 iiats, wh(!ii ri'tim.it;, 
 thehar ami wntetiiliel 
 n the rise (if tlicwav*,! 
 ithoiit Htrikin;;. Tlitl 
 It tlicir own expoiii*.! 
 out the har. Tlipniii 
 rkluwbank,lat,5f'l*| 
 
 relate) , a city of f tniiffj 
 ;ap. arroiid., (mtlielifr 
 E point whore the riva 
 1 to inclose its (Wtm 
 ■) m. WNW. Marstilln 
 ;iUes to Avignon. I'^i, 
 ion of the tdwi. tliouji 
 i adjacent marxhes m 
 s!l)eiii^ narrow aaililinf 
 and mean, it is imkiM 
 / to tlie historical »» 
 ts name and its mm 
 mt town on the inviii.< 
 lis it Arelate. It »ul« 
 colony, and was \m\ 
 city." Its amiihitlicji 
 appear ever to haveli 
 monument, capaUc) 
 ' aecommodatiiiK Sw^ 
 al form, 1.2«4 ft.ind 
 9 hif^h, occupyint; ' 
 and is older, larger, i 
 at of Nismes, but nrd 
 lisk of Aries cnibi<tsi<| 
 about 54 ft. in heijtl 
 unientsofthesaraekia 
 ics, it is all but wrti 
 from EKJiit; biiilb* 
 with respect to it, esM 
 iedin the ground, H 
 Oft. inhei};bt,on«liii 
 cautiful titatuc(if\(ii4 
 iris, wa.s diseovtrtifh 
 if the above, the niiij 
 :)les, of atrium|ihalaii 
 and numerous fra?n4 
 umns, e\iucc tlic m 
 of the city. hliasJJ 
 urches, aiidhaslwaj 
 ical councils. The in 
 a handsome editiceiij 
 ion, a college, a m« 
 all public librar}-. N 
 re manufactured, anilfl 
 the hijjfhest esteem, I 
 n the navigation dl 
 navigable canal has J 
 J sea,' at Tort Bouc, ill 
 
 ichurc of the Uh'ff'i 
 ance opposite to Cada 
 
 h the canal of Beaua 
 lat of Langnedoc. »" 
 .■other with that 1)11 
 
 ARLESnEIJI 
 
 railirnvs, hnvc mndo it the centre of a considerable 
 ami LiiiwiiiK trade. 
 
 After beinff pillaged, a.d. 270, Aries was re- 
 laimi and cmljellishcd hy Constnntinc, whose son, 
 ((iiintantinell.jwasbominit. It declined under the 
 Menivingian kings. In 855 it liecame the capital 
 iV t kingdom of the same name, united in 9ii3 to 
 iliat of Burgundy. It was sacked by the Karncens 
 in 730. In the' twelfth century it constituted a 
 npublic, and in 1251 it submitted to Charles of 
 
 I Anjou. 
 
 AULESIII'HM, a village of Switzerland, cant. 
 l^r, 4 m. tiil'^. Kale. It has baths and a tine bo- 
 laidc'al garden. I'op. O.'Jt! in 18(i(t. 
 
 ARLKS-SUR-TIiCII, a town of France, dep. 
 I I'vren^s Orientales, cap. cant, (! m. VVSW. Cdret, 
 I'iip, 2,450 in 1861. It has hot mineral springs. 
 
 aIrLEUX, a town of France, dep. du Nord, cap. 
 I rant, on the Sausct, 6 m. S. Douay. Top. 1,6G0 in 
 
 I IHtil. 
 
 ARLON (an. AroJaunum), a town of the Ne- 
 
 I ihoriands, duch. of Luxembourg, can. cant., on a 
 
 liill in the middle of forests, 16 m. WNW. Luxem- 
 
 IlKiurg, with which it is connected by railway. 
 
 Pup, 6,647 in 1801. It has iron works, and some 
 
 manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, and 
 
 (arthcnwarc, and a trade in grain. Arlon, which 
 
 I ij of very remote origin, was formerly fortified. In 
 
 I ihe excavations that have been made in the town, 
 
 Kiatues, medals, and stones bearing inscriptions, 
 
 I liave been dug up that leave n<i doubt in regard to 
 
 its ancient importance. It was nearly burned 
 
 Iddira in 1785, and several engagements have 
 
 [taken place in its vicinity. 
 
 I ARMA(iH, an inland co. Ireland, prov. Ulster, 
 I having N. Lough Ncagh, W. Tyrone and Mona- 
 Ighan, S. Louth and E. Down. It is about 31 m. 
 I in length from N. to S., and '20 m. across where 
 I broadest, containing 612i sq. m., or 312,327 imp. 
 lacres, of which about 40,000 are unimproved 
 Iraountain and bog, and 18,000 water, being part of 
 IliOugh Ncagh. Surface partly rugged and moun- 
 Itainous, but generally flat. Soil jiretty fertile. 
 Il'roperty to a great extent in the hands of the 
 Ichurch, colleges, and corporations, but some noble- 
 Imen and gentlemen have good estates. Minor es- 
 Itates numerous, and the tenures by which they 
 lare held such as to reduce them into the minutest 
 Ipcrtions. Potatoes, oats, and wheat are the principal 
 Icrops. There are some dairies which produce but- 
 lier, and cattle of an inferior breed are reared in 
 ■the mountains. Sheep, few and inferior. Mid- 
 Tdlemen but little known. Habitations of the bulk 
 lif the lower orders decidedly superior to those of 
 |the same class in most other parts of Ireland, ex- 
 cept the neighbouring counties of Down and An- 
 llrira. They are mostly white\vashed, well thatched, 
 Vnd have a clean and comfortable appearance. 
 Notwithstanding their, alleged propensity to 
 ambling, the inhab. may be advantageously com- 
 lared with those of most other parts of Ireland. 
 linen manufacture widely diffused. The rivers 
 lann and Ne\vry being joined by the Newry canal, 
 Jhere is a navigable communication between the 
 I at Cnrlingibrd Bay and Lough Neagh. Ar- 
 pa^h contains eight baronies, and twenty-eight 
 Mnshes and parts of parishes. Principal town, 
 taagh. Pop. in 1821, 197,427 ; in 1831, 220,651 ; 
 1 1841, 232,393, and in 1861, 198,086. It returns 
 I m. to the H. of C, viz. two for the co. and 
 Ine for the city of Armagh. The co. constituency 
 lumbered 5,805 registered electors in 1865. 
 ARMAGH, a city and pari. bor. of Ireland, the 
 Nt of the archicpiscopal sec of the ' Primate of 
 '1 Ireland,' prov. Ulster, cap. of the above co., on 
 |ieCallam, an afllucnt of the Blackwater, 70 m. 
 ■. by W. DubUu, and 33 m. SW. of Bellast by 
 
 ARMAOII 
 
 183 
 
 railway. The city is said to have been founded 
 by St,'Palri(k, a.u. 450, but we have no authentio 
 notice of Armagh or of its primacy previously to 
 1122. Since the Kevolution it has gradually in- 
 creased in extent and prosperity, particularly from 
 its having been the residence of Primate Boulter, 
 and of his various successors in the see, who have 
 all contributed to its imprtivement by liberal do- 
 nations and lieqnests. The jiopulation in 1821 
 amounted to 8,493; in 1831, to 9,470, and in 
 1861 to 8,801. There have always lieeii more 
 Homr.n Catholics than Protestants at Armagh, 
 notwithstanding the fact of the town* being re- 
 garded as the head-quarters of Protestantism in 
 Ireland. The census of 1861 showed 1,313 males 
 and 1,499 females who belonged to the Established 
 Church, and 2,112 males with 2,711 females who 
 were lioman Catholics. 
 
 The city is well built, chiefly of a hard reddish 
 limestone, raised in the vicinity. The streets, 
 which are flagged, and macadamised, diverge from 
 the cathedral down the sides of the hill on which 
 it is built. A plentiful supply of water is conveyed 
 thAiugh them, in pipes, from a rcser%'oir at some 
 distance: they are kept perfectly clean, and arc 
 well lighted with gas. A library, containing up- 
 wards of 14,000 volumes, was endowed by Primate 
 Robinson, the great lienefactor of the town. Ho 
 also founde<l and endowed the « bservatory. It is 
 supplied with an excellent astronomical aiiparatus, 
 and enjoys a well deser%'e(l scientilic celebrity. 
 Primate feobinson endeavoured to raise the city 
 to the rank of a university, but in this he failed. 
 The archbishop's mansion is plain in style, but 
 elegant in its architectural proportions, and near 
 it is a private chapel. Barracks in the vicinity 
 afford accommodation for 300 men. 
 
 Armagh derived its corporate privileges from a 
 charter of James I. in 1613, contirmed by Wil- 
 liam III. The ruling body, which consisted of a 
 sovereign, twelve burgesses, and an unlimited 
 number of freemen, was abolished by the Munici- 
 pal Reform Act. The bor. returned two m. to the 
 Irish pari. ; but it only sends one m. to the Im)). 
 pari. The constituencj', in 18()5, numl)ered 416 
 registered electors, of whom seven were ' old free- 
 men,' and the rest 10/. householders and 8/. rated 
 occupiers. The assizes and general sessions of the 
 peace are held twice a year ; a court for insolvent 
 debtors three times a year; and a court of petty 
 sessions every Satunlay. 
 
 The ecclesiastical prov. of the Primate of all 
 Ireland comprises the six united bLshojirics of — 
 1. Armagh audClogher; 2. Tuam, Ardngh, Kil- 
 lala, and Achonry; 3. Derry and Raphoe; 4. 
 Down, Connor, and Dromore; 6. Kilm<ire and 
 Elphin ; 6. Meath. The diocese of Armagh is 
 divided into the upper or English part, which in- 
 cludes the cos. of Louth and Meath, and the lower 
 or Irish part, containing Armagh, Tyrone, and 
 part of Londonderry. The archieiiiscopal estates 
 extend over 100,563 acres; the annual income, by 
 rents and renewal-tines, is stated to be 17,670/., 
 which, on the demise of the present archbishop, is 
 to be reduced to 12,000/. The cathedral, a large 
 ancient building, has recently undergone very ex- 
 tensive repairs, principally at the expense of the 
 present pnmate. It contains several fine monu- 
 ments; but, to the extreme regret of all true 
 Milesians, the moiiument of Brian Boru, said to 
 have been interred in it after the battle of Cloii- 
 tari", can no longer be traced. A cha^iel of ease, near 
 the Mall, is consecrated to St. Mark. In tlie l>. 
 Catholic arrangements, the parish is one of those 
 belonging to the archbishop, who re.sides and has his 
 cathedral in Drogheda. The parish chajicl, which 
 is remarkable for its triple roof, b too small for the 
 
 -m 
 
184 
 
 ARMENIA 
 
 iL'-f! 
 
 (Miiifjrcfjntion. There an; pInccH of wor»hin fi>r Pros- 
 by tpriniiH, Spccdcrw, Iii(le|i(>n(lc>nt8, nn<l MctluxliHt!*. 
 
 Armngh hns one of the free p-nnimnr-scho<ilH no 
 lihorally endowed hy JnnieM I. It in a Inr^e hnild- 
 iiiK. in «» enclosed area, willi accommodation for 
 100 reHident pupils. The present jmmatc main- 
 tains a separate school, for the i?encrnl education 
 of the boys of the choir. There is a charter school 
 for boys and girls, under the endowment of Mr. 
 1 »relhicoiirt ; a F^ancastrian, a national, and a Sun- 
 day school, besides several iirivate establishments. 
 
 ^'hougb little or no manufacture l>e carried on 
 in the town, Armagh is the centre of a large inlaiul 
 trade, chietly in grain, linen, and yarn, which has 
 considerably increased since the o|M!iiing. The 
 linen-hall, a large and well arranged building, is 
 open for sales on Tuesdays, chiefly for brown linens. 
 '1 here are considerable weekly sales of yam at the 
 yarn-market. 
 
 AKMENIA, an extensive country of W. Asia, 
 consisting principally of the table-land lying be- 
 tween the Kur on the N. and the Kurdistan 
 mountains on the S., having the Euphrates from 
 the ridge of Mount Taurus to Krzingan on the W., 
 and apjiroaching to near the Caspian Sea on the 
 E. But the limits of Armenia differed widely at 
 iliffcrent periods, arid were at no time exactly de- 
 lined. The tlat parts of the country are, probably, 
 not less than from S.OOO to 6,000 ft. alwvc the 
 level of the sea, and it is intersected by several 
 lofty mountAin chains, the summits of some of 
 wlii(;h — as that of Ararat (see Akauat) — ascend 
 within the line of |)cr|)etual congelation. Armenia 
 gives birth to some large and celebrated rivers, as 
 the Euphrates aiul Tigris, flowing S. to the Per- 
 sian (Julf ; the Cyrus or Kur, arid its important 
 tributary, the Aruxea or Aras, flowing E. to the 
 Caspian Sea; atid the Akampais orChorak, flowing 
 >J. to the Hlack Sea. It has three great lakes; 
 those of Van, Shaliee or Urmiah, and Goukcha or 
 Sevan. The circumference of the first is estimated 
 at 240 m. ; it has several islands ; and its waters, 
 though brackish, are drunk by cattle. The other 
 two lakes arc also very extensive. The water of 
 that of Urmiah is excessively salt, and so buoyant 
 that one can with difliculty stand where it is 3 ft. 
 deep. The soil atid products are very various ; 
 l)ut in general the former is abundantly fertile, 
 especially in the few spots where it is irrigated. 
 In the higher iwrts all sorts of corn may be ad- 
 ■\antageously cultivated ; and the valleys produce 
 excellent cotton, tobacco, granes, &c. The ploughs 
 are all dra>vii by oxen or builaloes ; no fewer tlian 
 flight or ten of the former being frequently attached 
 to one. The only minerals raised in modern times 
 are copper, iron, and rock-salt; but in antiquity 
 the precious metals ranked among its products. 
 Owing to the great elevation of the countrj', the 
 climate is in most parts rather severe ; but though 
 the winters last long, the summer heats are suffi- 
 cient to bring all the fruits of the eartli to perfec- 
 tion. The country is in many jMirts desert, and 
 is everrwhere very thinly i)eopled. Besides the 
 Armeninns, or old inhabitants, who are principally 
 eiigage<l in agriculture and trade, the pojudation 
 (^unsists of Turks, Persians, and Kiissians, and wan- 
 dering jMistoral hordes of Turkmans and Koords. 
 The jmncipal towns are Erivaii, Erzeroum, Nak- 
 chivan, Akhlat, Van, and Akhalzikh. 
 
 Armenia, though it has long since l)een effaced 
 from the list of nations, was governed, for a length- 
 ened jMjriod, either by independent princes, or by 
 vassals of the Assyrian and Persian monarchs It 
 subsequently became the theatre of long-c«ntinue<l 
 struggles between the Persians and Komans ; and 
 iu)twithBtanding the hardiness of the inhabitants, 
 and the natural advantages of the country for de- 
 
 fensive warfare, it seems never to have \wn al.|; 
 to oppose an effectual resistance to any iiivmlir 
 In the thirteenth century it was ovorriin liv ly 
 Moguls; and in the succeeding century tlio li.t 
 trace of its Indeiicndcnce disapiieared, and the Ar- 
 menians ceased to have a country. 
 
 The people early began to seek an asylum in 
 foreign parts from the oppression under which ilipv 
 suffered at home, and they are now widely ilitl'u*ftl 
 over Turkey, Persia, Kussia, and India. Tlnir 
 emigrations have not, however, always beoii vnlim. 
 tary. In 1604, Schah Abbas, emficror of Ppm^ 
 in order to protect his dominions on the side (,f 
 Armenia against the Turks, resolved to earn- i,f 
 the inhabitants, ond to lay waste a large tHini(,n 
 of the country, so that it might no longer U ai,!,, 
 to support an army. This monstrous rpsohitinn 
 was executed with the most revolting barharitv, 
 Tlie inhabitants, driven off like cattle, j)eri»hpi| hv 
 thousands, while their houses were burnt (lowi 
 and even,' vestige of civilisation obliterated, A 
 part of the sun'ivors were settled in one of tlij 
 suburbs of Ispahan, where they were kiniilv 
 treated; but the greater number, being settltdii 
 an unhealthy part of the prov. of MazimdcnD, 
 were soon swept off by disease. Until rewntly, 
 Armenia was divided between Turkey and I'una; 
 but the fonner ceded to Russia, by the treaty o( I 
 Adrianople, a considerable portion of her Am 
 nian territories; and in 1827, Kussia acquired ihe 
 entire prov. of Erivan from Persia. These acqiii. 
 sitions have been consolidated into the Kovm- 
 ment of Transcaucasia. The Turkish portiim i^ 
 Armenia is subdiN-ided into the pashalics of £n:e- 
 roum, Kars, and Van. 
 
 Whatever may be its influence in other rcupeoii, I 
 there can be little doubt that the occtipatinn iH 
 part of Armenia by the Uussians will be of sin^nt I 
 lar advantage to its inhabitants. Great imnilJei! 
 of Armenians have already emigrated fnim ike I 
 Turkish and Persian provinces to those of Hum. I 
 where they have been advantageously setilnlj 
 The depredations of the petty chiefs and of iht I 
 wandering tribes will now be effectually restrained; I 
 and for the first time for these several ceiiturifs, I 
 the Armenians will be made aware of the advji- 1 
 tages resulting from the security of pn)perty, ai>l I 
 from living under a strong and (compared iriib I 
 those under which they formerly lived) a IIIkiiI I 
 and tolerant government. Col. Monteitli Ijejflj 
 decisive testimony to the benefits that have r- I 
 suited to Georgia and other Transcaucasinii mm- 1 
 tries fnim their occupation by Kussia. 'Youinivj 
 now,' he says, 'travel in perfect security, mthpnll 
 horses, froin the mouths of the Phasis to tlicKul 
 and the Caspian, through countries where, ill 
 1815, the roads were all but impracticable, amil 
 exposed to the unrestrained attacks of robhersdl 
 other banditti.' (Journal of the Geographical SiJ 
 ciety, vol. iii. p. 37.) These remarks are coiitiniifil| 
 by the experience of late travellers. 
 ' The total number of the Arraeninn nation ii| 
 estimated by Mr. Conder at about 2,000,000, it 
 whom about two-thirds may be within the Oit*| 
 man dominions. With the exception of theJenI 
 no other people is so much scattered. Itissuf-I 
 pt>sed that there are about 200,000 in Constanii-I 
 nople and the adjacent villages ; about 40,0(«) III 
 India; 10,000 in Hungary and the coiitip»H»| 
 countries ; and they are met with in Africa aoll 
 even America. Jf r. Ussber (Travels, Lond. 1W)|I 
 states that the number of Armenians in AnneMl 
 proi)er is not very large : they are supposed li-l 
 together to consist of ten or twelve milliomj 
 scattered over nearly every country in ' 
 world. 
 
 Like the Jews, the Armenians found in forfia| 
 
ATIMENIA 
 
 1S.7 
 
 r to have Won aH« 
 ;!c to nny invailu. 
 as (ivcrriin liy iW 
 H century the la>t 
 (t'arcd, and the Ar- 
 try. 
 
 seek an aHvliira in 
 (H under which iliey 
 now widely ditlWi 
 and India. Tlw 
 , always been vnlim. 
 , cnijKiror of Pmij, 
 lionH (in the itiile it 
 resolved to earn- 4 
 astc a large wirtinn 
 ;ht no longer lie alile 
 nonstrouH rpsiihiti.in 
 revolting Imrharity, 
 ce cattle, jKirisheil liy 
 B8 were biinit dmn 
 ition obliteratwl A 
 let tied in one of tht 
 they were kimlly 
 fiber, being settWij 
 irov. of Maziimlmn, 
 sase. Until roccnily, 
 n Turkey and PeM; I 
 issia, by the treaty iij 
 portion of her Amif. 
 r, Hussia acquired the 
 Persia. These aeqii 
 ited into the govm- 
 he Turkish (lortidn li 
 the pashalics of Ene- 
 
 uence in other rcupwt!, 
 that the occupatiiiii !■( 
 ssians willbcofsillu^ 
 tants. Great mimliei! 
 y emigrated fr»m tbe 
 iices to those of Ktim 
 dvantageously scttW 
 etty chiefs and of tbt 
 c eftectually restrained; 
 [hcse several centuAs, 
 dc aware of the advai- 
 curitv of property, aiti 
 ft and (eompare<l mill 
 Irmerly lived) a lilieni 
 Col. Monteith bun 
 benefits that have le- 
 Transcaucasian coun- 
 by KuBsia. 'Yimiwy 
 yfect security, Kith foi- 
 thePhasistothcKiil 
 countries where, ii 
 lut impracticahle, ail 
 1 attacks of robbers aiid 
 i)f the Geographical S.> 
 |c remarks arc cuufiH I 
 Iravellcrs. . , , 
 
 lie Armenian nation n 
 at about 2,000,UO(l, d 
 lay be within the Otto- 
 » exception of the Jen 
 fh 8cattei«d. Iti«s«H. 
 200,000 in Comtanfr 
 laces; about 4O,O0«« 
 y and the contifjiM 
 net within Afnca art 
 «r (Travels, LondJW 
 'Armenians in ArmeM 
 they are supposed H- 
 in or twelve m^^ 
 ivcry country in ' 
 
 enians found in fowl 
 
 mnntries arc mostly all cnRagcd in some dcpart- 
 imiit <)f C(»mmercc, or of the employments con- 
 ii,,,if(l therewith. The moment, in fact, that they 
 liavp their native soil, they endeavour either to 
 .(('t themselves or their children into some brantdi 
 p|' trade. Tlmy begin with the lowest depart men ts; 
 the more aide or fortunate ascending gradually 
 ipmi "lie grade to another, till they arrive at that 
 iif banker, the summit of their ambition. A large 
 iiroportion of the foreign and internal trade of 
 liirkey, Persia, Southern Russia, India, A'c, jiar- 
 ticulurly the tirst, is in their hands. They arc 
 oxreedinglv industrious ; and though not free 
 triini the vices produced by slavers- and ignorance, 
 arc lioncster in their dealings, and less prone to 
 iiractisc deceit, than the (Jreeks. 
 
 The iVrmenians are Christians differing but little 
 ftnm those of the Eastern or ( Jreek church. They 
 reject the decrees of the council of Chalcedon, and 
 admit only a divine nature in Christ. Their olHci- 
 aiiiiji clergy, or vartabeds, arc obliged to marry ; 
 I Imt celiliacy is enjoined upon those of a higher 
 "radc, as patriarchs, bishops, &c. The election of 
 fhe officiating clergy is in the hands of the peojde, 
 and is uniformly exercised by them ; but, notwith- 
 siamliiig this circumstance, and that the priesta 
 have no fixed incomes, but depend entirely on 
 I'lW and other ywrquLsites, they do not ap))ear to 
 have much influence, or to be very attentive to 
 their duties : they are uniformly almost in the last 
 AtfTfce illiterate," and their morals are not repre- 
 sented in, the most favourable point of view. 
 (Misaonary Ucsearches, p. 243.) 
 
 The Armenians generally do not acknowledge 
 tlie supremacy of the Pope ; but since 1441 have 
 recojjniscd, as their siiiritual superior, the patriarch 
 lit' Echmiadzin, residing at the famous convent of 
 the three churches, near Erivan, now in possession 
 of Russia. The jiatriarchs of Constantinople and 
 ilenisalem have no authority in ecclesiastical 
 alfairs; but the Turkish government consider 
 the former aa the head of the Armenian rnyahs : 
 tlirough him all applications are received, and all 
 [ orders issued ; and he is accustomed to receive an 
 annual stijiend from the different bishoiw, which 
 [was paid him even by the patriarch of Echmi- 
 adzin till the latter became a IJussian subject. 
 Previously to 1441, the patriarchs of Sis and 
 Athamar (a monastery on an island in Lake Van) 
 sliarcd the spiritual authority with the patriarch 
 (if Echmiadzin ; and latterly the Porte [with little 
 [success] has been endeavouring to sever the coii- 
 luection between its Armenian subjects and their 
 lid spiritual heail, now under the control of a 
 \imffi power, by directing their attention to, and 
 |rc\iving the pretensions of, the patriarch of Sis, 
 sident witliin the Turkish territories. (Elliott's 
 Travels, i. p. 470.) 
 
 A considerable number of Armenians are in con- 
 
 noi'tion with the Koman See ; they are called the 
 
 lljiitcrt Armenians. The Armenians of Poland, 
 
 together with their patriarch, submitted to the 
 
 llidy See as early as the year 1616. But a more 
 
 jni[wrfant fact in connection with these views wfis 
 
 {he foundation of the order of Mechitarists, first 
 
 the Morea, and afterwards in the island of San 
 
 ^azaro, at Venice. Mcchitar, an Armenian monk, 
 
 fas bora at Sebaste in Asia Minor, in 1676. 
 
 Thirsting after knowledge, and filled with ardent 
 
 uve for his people, he endeavoured by spiritual 
 
 |nd moral influences, and the dissemination of 
 
 iumpean culture, to elevate his unfortunate and 
 
 niressed nation ; and to this purpose he dedicated 
 
 lis life. He submitted to the Poi)e, and founded, 
 
 fith his consent, an order and monastery, into 
 
 thich only native Armenians were received. He 
 
 ' established an Armenian printing-press. He 
 
 and his companions and successors have done much 
 in translating from otlu-r languages into Armenian. 
 He himself translated Thomas h, Kcinpis, These 
 Armenian books are sent by caravans into Persia 
 and India, and prepare the way for the education 
 of the peo|de. ... In (ieorgia there are many 
 Homnn Catlwdic Armenians: they have a great 
 dislike to their non-united countrymen, and do not 
 call themselves Armenians, but Catholics, as if 
 that were the name of a nation. . . . Many at- 
 tempts have also been made to unite the Armenian 
 with the (treek church. Six Armenian villages 
 on the west bank of the Euphrates have a(h>pte(l 
 the (Jreek faith, the largest of which is called Aga 
 or Aguntsi. The Protestants, too, have endea- 
 voured to make converts. The Hasle missionaries 
 founded an Armenian scluxd at Shusha, whicdi 
 was, however, removed, at the request of the Pa- 
 triarch, who regarded it as dangerous. (Hax- 
 thausen ; Ussher's Travels, p. 26!).) 
 
 Nowhere is the patriarchal system carried to a 
 greater extent than among the Armenians. Dnriiiff 
 the lifetime of the father, all the sons and their 
 descendants live together in one common dwelling; 
 and thus houses may he found which, from tlio 
 numl)er of their inhabitants, resemble beehives, 
 often comprising three and four generations. All 
 the i)roperty is liehl in common by the desccndant.s 
 of the head of the house. Brothers and sisters 
 inherit equally ; but unvil the death of the head 
 no one can possess anything sejiarate from all the 
 others. Until marriage the Armenian girls go 
 about as they like ; they are unveiled, and enjoy 
 OS much free<lom as they could do in I'^iiropciiu 
 countries, flirting, love-making, and marrying to 
 ])lease themselves, as in mt)re civilised lands. Put 
 once married, and all is changed. From ihat time 
 until she bears a child, she never speaks to any 
 one except her husband ; and then only in iirivatc. 
 After she becomes a mother, she may speak to her 
 mother-in-law first, and after the lajise of certain 
 periods, to her own mother, her sisters-in-law, and 
 iier own sisters. She is always veiled, even in her 
 own house; she never speaks to male strangers, 
 and she seldom or never leaves the house. Her 
 finery, jewellery, and ornaments can be shown 
 only' to those of her own sex ; and in every way 
 her* seclusion is as complete as that of the Turkish 
 women. On the other hand, the Armenian women 
 seldom do any liard work ; they remain at home 
 while their husbands labour in the fields, and they 
 enjoy, probably on account of their acquaintaiu^e 
 jinor to marriage, much more respect and confi- 
 dence from their husbands than falls to the share 
 of the Turkish wife, who, moreover, has to divide 
 with two or three rivals the little affection or re- 
 spect which her husband deigns to bestow on her. 
 As the Armenian woman can only talk in her own 
 house below her breath, that none of her male 
 relatives may hear what she says, it follows that 
 the consequence which usually results from the 
 residence of so many women in one house, inces- 
 sant quarrelling, is quite avoided. Custom, the 
 strongest of all laws, forbidding them to speak 
 above a whisper, a war of words could only be 
 carried on under preat difficulties. (Uasher, John ; 
 From London to Persepolis, 186.5, p. 248.) 
 
 The language of Armenia is harsh, and over- 
 loaded with consonants. Itcsides a great many 
 Indo-Germanic roots, it exhibits numerous rela- 
 ticms with the Finnish idioms of Siberia, and 
 other languages of N. Asia. Its grammar is ex- 
 ceedingly complex. The ancient Armenian is no 
 longer spoken, and exists only as a dead language 
 in books. It is so very different from the modern 
 Armenian, that it is no longer understood, except 
 by those by whom it is studied. The modern 
 
 ' ' 'II 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 ..1, .f 
 
 ■ih .1 
 
 m 
 
 ■% iff 
 
 
 irvH 
 
 (' 
 
180 
 
 ARMENT 
 
 itii 
 
 
 IniiKtinpe is larptly inndc up of Persian nnil Tiirk- 
 ihli wohIh; anil itH frrammar, anil the conHlniction 
 or its ])liraH«fi, arc totally iliHtinct from tlumc of 
 the ancient language. 
 
 The alphabet of the ArmcnianH, introiliiceil a.t>. 
 400, ami Ntill in uhc, consiHts of tlurty-cif;ht ietten, 
 of wliieh thirty nro consonantH, anil eight vowels. 
 At an early pc'riotl the Armenians had a literature 
 tinil leanied men ; and, thouf;h the great bulk of 
 the nation be now plunged ui the grossest igno- 
 rance, they continue to this day to (wissess lioth, 
 ;inil works of considerable merit are still iirinted 
 in their language. They have j)rinting-pre«ses at 
 (youstantinoplc, Venice, Moscow, Calcutta, and 
 other places. (.laubcrt, Voyage en Arme'nie et en 
 I'erse, /M«»/m; Smith and IJwight's Missionary 
 Kcscarches in Armenia ; (^>lonel Monteith's I'aper, 
 in the .loumal of the Ocograjihical Society, vol. 
 iii. ; and Ussher's Journey from London to I'ersc- 
 jiolis, imn.) 
 
 AHMENT, a village of Upper Egypt, near the 
 left bank of the Nile, 20 m. N. Esnd It occupies 
 the site of the Ancient Hermont'iH. It has in its 
 environs a tem]ile, on the walls of which, among 
 other ligiires, is a giraffe — an animal now un- 
 known in Egynt. 
 
 AHMENTIEKES, a frontier town of France, 
 dep. dii Nord, cap. cant, on the hvs, 13 m. NVV. 
 Lille. Pop. 11,901 in 18(!1. It is well built, clean, 
 and handsome; has a communal college, anestal>- 
 lishment for spinning cotton, fabrics of tablc-Iincn, 
 mattresses, laces, thread, tobacco, &c.; with bleach- 
 ing-grounils, soai)-works, distilleries, and a refinery 
 of salt. Large quantities of bricks, made in the 
 environs, are exported by the Lys, and boats are 
 built for its navigation. It has a celebrated mar- 
 ket for seed com. 
 
 AKNAY'-LE-I)UC, a town of France, dep. Cotc- 
 d'Or, caji. cant, near the Arroiix, 29 m. SW. Dijon. 
 Pop. 2,oiJ7 in 18(>1. It has manufactures of cloth, 
 serges and druggets. On the 2;)th June, 1750, the 
 great Huguenot leader. Admiral Coligiiy, defeated 
 near this town the army of the Marshal de Cossc- 
 Gonor. 
 
 ARNEDO, a town of Spain, prov. Burgos, on 
 the Cidacos, 10 m. S. Calahorra. Pop. 3,;}35 in 
 1857. (jikkI wine is made in its neighbourhood. 
 
 AKNHEM, a town of the Netherlands, cap. prov. 
 Giielderland, on the right bank of the lihine, at 
 the foot of the Veluwe hills, 34 m.E. bv S. Utrecht, 
 on the railway to Dllsseldoif. I'on. 20,904 
 in 1861. It is a fortified place of the hrst class; 
 its fortifications having been greatly improved 
 and enlarged, in 1702, by the famous engineer 
 Coehorn. The ramparts, planted with elms, af- 
 ford an agreeable promenade. The town is well 
 built; has a good port on the river, which is 
 crossed by a bridge of boats; ond is advanta- 
 geously situated for trade. It is the residence of 
 a governor, and is the seat of a court of assizes, 
 of a tribunal of original jurisdiction, and a tri- 
 bunal of commerce ; and has a college, a literary 
 society, an agricultural commission, &c. In the 
 church of St, Eusebiiis are the tombs of the old 
 Dukes and Counts of Giielderland. 
 
 AKNHEM LAND, N. coast of Australia, be- 
 tween the Gulf of Carpentaria and Anson Hay, dis- 
 covered by the crews of the ' Anihem ' and ' Ptre,' 
 in 1(!18. ' It forms part of the territory appor- 
 tioned to South Australia by the Koyal Letters 
 I'atcnt of July 18(!3, for the juiqiose of the colo- 
 nisation of the north coast of Australia. (See 
 AusTitAi.As:A.) 
 
 AHNO, a considerable and celebrated river of 
 Italy (Tuscany), the Arnus of the Hoinans, has 
 its source in the Apennines, at Mount Falterona, 
 fi or m. N. I'ratovecchio. At lurst it flows S. to 
 
 ARPAIA 
 
 Piinte a Huriano; thenco N.W. to Pimtasion> 
 where it receives the Sieve; whence it pursues a 
 wesK-rlv course, flowing through Florence ^^^ 
 Pisa; I m. Indow which it falls into the Mcdiier. 
 ranean. Its emimuchuro was formerly a g,^ 
 deal farther to the S. ; hut having Iwonmc uh. 
 striicted, it was diverted into a new chniiiicl cm 
 for it in l<i03. Its course may he eHtimatftl 
 at from 140 to IfiO m. It is naturally imvi);al,le 
 from the sea to Florence, and has been mailcnnvi 
 gable from Florence to near its source by memi* 
 of twenty-seven htcks; but its navigation Ih liahlt 
 to many obstructions, at cerlain ciisoiin rmm 
 floods, and at other seasons from droughts: in 
 guard against the injurious influence of thcfoniipr. 
 it has l)een embnuked for the greater part of iij 
 course. The A'lil d'Amo, or the country l)otwo(ii 
 Florence and Pisa, is one of the richest, ixisttui. 
 tivated, and most l)caiitiful of any in Italy. 
 
 AKNSUl'MtG, a town of Prussian VVeHtphnlij, 
 cap. reg. and circ. of the same name, on tiieltuiir' 
 by which it is almost encompassuii, i7 m. \|.;' 
 Cologne. Pop. 4,300 in 18(il. It isthe residenw 
 of the provincial authorities, and has a cdurt i>f 
 appeal for the regency, a Catholic gymnasiimuful 
 an agricultural society. The inhabitaiiiH an> 
 principally employed in the preparation of poi- 
 ashes, and in distillation. 
 
 AKNSTADT, a well-built town of Saxony, prin, I 
 Schwarzbiirtt-Sondcrshausen, on the Girii, U m 
 S. by W. Erfurth. Pop. 6,09(5 in 1801. Tlictomi 
 has a castle, a college, a cabinet of natural hii- 
 tory, and fabrics of cotton and brass, with a cnn- 
 siderablc trade in corn, timber, wool, furs, ami 
 colonial ])roduce. 
 
 AKNSWALDE, a town of the Pmssinn stales, 
 prov. IJrandenbiirg ; cap. circle, 19 m. SE. Star- 
 gard, and a station on the Stettin and I'ds^n 
 railway. Pop. 4,700 in 1801. It is nearly sur- 
 rounded by three lakes well supplied with li'sh. 
 
 AUOKSZALLAS, a vill. of Iluiigary, Jnzvpi 
 44 m. ENE. Pesth, and an entrefnit for the inidi; 
 lietween that city and Upper Hungary. IW 
 8,170 ill 1858. 
 
 AKOLSEN, a town of the prin. of Wnlilock.dn 
 the Aar, 12 m. N. by W. Waldeck. Pop. !,%:> in 
 1801. It is the residence of the prince, and liie 
 seat of the principal authorities of the iiroviiief; 
 is well built ; has a fine castle, in which is a valu- 
 able collection of coins and antiquities, with i 
 library and a picture gallery ; there is also a al- 
 lege, and grammar-school. 
 
 AKONA, a town of North Italy, prov. Nnvaa 
 on the Lago Maggiore, near its southcni cxire- 
 mity, on the railway from Novara to Hcllinztiiij. 
 Pop. 3,259 in 1801. Its fortifications, whicii mre 
 formerly considerable, were demolished by ihf 
 French after the battle of Marengo. It is wdl 
 built, has a gymnasium, a hospital, a collcfnaie 
 church and three others, a port on the lake, with 
 yards for the construction of vessels for its navi- 
 gation, and a pretty considerable commerce. Si. 
 Charles Borromeo was a native of this town; anJ 
 in 1097 a colossal statue was erected in honour I'f 
 the saint, by the people of Milan, on a neighbour- 
 ing eminence. 
 
 AKPAIA, a small village of Southern Ilalj. 
 prov. Benevento, l)etween Capua and Bencvoiiiii. 
 3 m. E. Arienzo. Pop. 1,385 in 1802. The vil- 
 lage is supposed to occupy the site of the anciiiit 
 Caiidium, memorable for the great disaster thai 
 befell the Bomau arms, anno 311 ii.c. Hut ili( 
 better opinion seems to be, that the defile siliian'l 
 a little to the N. of Arpaia, between St, Afiatoainl 
 Moiano, is the real scene of this tlisaster, amlilie 
 l)lace so celebrated by the name of the Furt 
 VaudhuB. The Forks consist of a small plain 
 
l.W, to PimtaMorp, 
 vho,nr« it jmrsiifi a 
 }»HU Florence imi 
 Is into thii Mwliitr. 
 in formerly a sm\ 
 huviiiK licpnme (ih- 
 a new chnnnel rut 
 may Iw I'stimathI 
 nat\irally niiviualile 
 Ims l>ccn made iiavi- 
 itfl Hourcp by menin 
 » navi);nti<miHliali|i; 
 erlaiii • viwoiih I'mu 
 1 from (Irounhts; tn 
 Huenco of tliefoniifr. 
 c greater part nf it* 
 tlio coimtry Ijelwom 
 the richent, Ijcst cul- 
 f any in Italy, 
 I'msHJaii VVcHtphalis, 
 e name, on tlie Hulir, 
 mpaHHirii, o7 m. NK, 
 I. It i»thc resiilciKf 
 'H, and haH a cmirt i.f 
 holic gymnasium anil 
 The inliahitnnta arr 
 B preparation of poi- 
 
 , town of Saxony, prin. 
 1, on tlie Gera, lira, 
 [)Giul«(il. Tlietcmn 
 binet of natural hit- 
 and brass, with a con- 
 mber, wool, furs, aiiJ 
 
 nf the Pmssinn states, 
 irele, 10 m. SE. Stat- 
 ic Stettin and Po»en 
 !G1. It is nearly »ur- 
 1 supplied with li>h. 
 . of liungary, Jazyps. 
 entrepot for the trade 
 [pper Hungary. Top. 
 
 ic prin. of WaWecli.on 
 aldeck. Pop. l,M.iiii 
 >f the prince, and the 1 
 l)ritie8 of the prnviiire; 
 tie, in which is a valu- 
 id antiquities, with i ] 
 there is also a tol- 
 
 [h Italy, prov. Nnvara, 
 tar its southern cxire- 
 [Novara to IJeUinznia | 
 rtitications, wliich wre 
 re demolished by the 
 Marengo. It is wll ] 
 . hospital, a collejriaie 
 port on the lake, m\ 
 lof vessels for its navi- 
 llerable commerce. St. | 
 Itiveof this town; ami 
 erected in hnnounf 
 [Milan, on aiieighta- 
 
 cc of Southern Italy. 
 Ijapua and KcnevoiiH'. 
 Kto in 18(!2. The vil- 
 Ithesiteof theanmnt 
 Ihc great disaster tta 
 Inio 311 ».c. liiitiH 
 1 that the dotilesiliiaii- 
 
 IlM'tweon St,Apiit(Mii<l 
 If this disaster, ami tlif 
 le name of the i'«w 
 
 List of a small ptoi 
 
 ARPINO 
 
 traversed by a stream, having a narrow outlet at 
 ,.,ich end, o'l'l •*''"'■ "!' everywhere else by con- 
 liiiiKiiiR and impracticable mountains. A power- 
 ful Koman anny liaving unwarily entered this 
 iletile, the Samnites immediately blocked up the 
 I'lirtlier outlet; and the liomans, liaving retraced 
 tlu'ir Hte|u<, found that their enemies had antici- 
 iintcd their movement, by bh)cking up the pass 
 hv which they hail entered as well as the other. 
 Cauttht thus, as it were, in a trap, they were 
 (ibliL'ed to accept the terms dictated by the Sam- 
 nites, who granted them their lives, on their de- 
 livering u|) their arms, and passinjjone by one half 
 naked under the yoke. (Liv. lib. ix. cap. 1-7.) 
 
 AlilMNO (an. Arjnnum), a town (if South 
 Italv, prov. Caserta, (ini. SVV. Sora. Pop. ll,r)22 
 ill IHIIl. The town is agreeably situated on some 
 eminences, has various churches, a liospital, with 
 inmiiitiictories of the best cloth made in the jirov., 
 iiftmr, and taiuierics. Ar])in(> is a very ancient 
 litv. Having In-en wrested from the Sanniites by 
 the Kdinims, it became a municipal town, and its 
 citizens were enrolled in the Cornelian tril)c .'}(I2 
 vears n.c. (Liv. lib. x. § 1, and lib. xxxvii. § 3ti, 
 iiiid Cicero pro Cn. Planco.) IJut it is chietly 
 ineinorid)lc for being the birthplace of two of the 
 most distinfjiiislied men Italy ever produced — 
 Cniiis Mariiis, surnamcd the third founder of 
 Kiinic ; and Al. Tullius Cicero, the prince of Roman 
 cratiirs. The latter frequently alliulos to Aq>intim 
 ill his Letters, and dwells with complacency on 
 the rude and primitive simplicity of its inhabi- 
 tants. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, vol. ii. p. 1 11.) 
 
 AlUJUA, a town of Northern Italy, prov. Padua, 
 12 m. SW. Padua, in the bosom of the Euganean 
 hills. Pop. 1,0!>0 in 18(i2. Arqua is famous for 
 liaving been the residence of Petrarch during the 
 latter years of his life, and the place where that 
 •jrcat jMiet and restorer of modern literature 
 breathed his last, on the 19th of July, 1.S74. ' His 
 ailics are prcserx-ed in th<j churchyard of the town, 
 ill a sarcophagus of red marble, raised on four 
 pilasters on an elevated base, and preserved from 
 an association with meaner tombs. The kindred 
 genius to whom we arc indebted for these details, 
 observes : — 
 
 They keep his dnst in Arqna, where he died ; 
 The "mountain village where Ids latter days 
 Went down tlie vale of years : and 't is their pride — 
 An honest pride — and let it be their praise. 
 To offer to the parsing stranger's gazo 
 His mansion and his sepulchre ; both plain 
 And venerably simple, such as raise 
 A feeling more ficcordant with his strain, 
 Tliaii if a pyramid form'd his monumental fano. 
 
 'The house in which Petrarch resi<led is on the 
 e(lj;c of a little knoll overlooking two descents, 
 and enramanding a view not only of the glowing 
 amicus in the dales immediately beneath, but of 
 the wide plains, above whose low woods of mul- 
 berry and willow, thickened into a dark mass by 
 I'l'stdons of \'ines, tall single cypreeses, and the 
 spires of towers, arc seen in the distance, which 
 stretches to the mouths of the Po and the shores 
 iif the Adriatic. The chair in which the poet 
 breathed his last is still shown among the pre- 
 riims relics of Arqua.' (Childe Harold, canto iv. 
 § 31, and note 9.) 
 
 Akqua, an ancient ^^llage of Northern Italy, 
 prov. Kovigo, on the Castagnaro canal, 5 m. SS\V. 
 lii'vi),'o. Pop. 2,7G0 in I6G2. It has some trade 
 in cotton and silk. 
 
 AlKJUENNES, a village of Belgium, prov. 
 Ilainault, 13 m. N. \V. Charleroi. I'op. 2,22.') in 
 K>6. The village has valuable lime tuid marble 
 (piarries. 
 
 Alit^UES, a small decayed town of France, 
 
 ARTIAN 
 
 187 
 
 dep. Seine Inferieure, about fl m. from niepnc, 
 Pop. IMiltin IKIil. During the middle ages tins 
 was the principal bulwark of Normandy towards 
 the N. ; its eastle, now in ruins, having withstood 
 several sieges. In the vicinity of this town, in 
 loHO, Henry IV. defeated the triiops of the League 
 under the Due tie Mayenne. 
 
 AKKAN, an island of Scotland, co. Bute, in the 
 arm of the sea between the Mull of Cantirc and 
 the Ayrshire coast; being separated from ttio 
 former by Kilbrannan .Sound, and from the latter 
 by the t'rith of CIvde. It is IJ m. from the near- 
 est jioiut of the Isfii of Bute, 3^ m. from the near- 
 est point of Cantire, and ItlJ m. from Ardrossaii 
 point in Ayrshire. It is about ItiJ m. in length 
 from N. to .S. and from to 9 in brejidtb ; extreme 
 breadth II m. Acreage, including the ish-t of 
 Plmhla and Ilcdy Island, 10(),tit)(). It exhibits a 
 striking contrast in its N. and S. divisitnis, the 
 fonner, or that to the N. of Hrodick, presenting 
 lofty, bare, and nigged granite mountains, con- 
 nected by steep ridges and intersected by deep 
 valleys and ravines. Goatfell, the highest moun- 
 tain in the island, rises to the height of 2,874 ft. 
 above the sea. The S. and largest division of tlio 
 island is composed of undulating, hilly ground, the 
 eminences of which are of a tiattened or rounded 
 eontiguration, and covered with a deep stratum of 
 peat and other alluvial matter. Hound the greater 
 part of the coast an almost uninterrupted broad 
 bank or girdle of gravel has been formed by the 
 action of the sea, the soft greensward on which 
 att'ords a pleasant and convenient access along tlio 
 sea-side. The shores are generally steep and 
 rocky, but high clifls are not frequent. Generally, 
 the island may be considered as an illustration of 
 a geological epitome, containing ])robably more nu- 
 merous varieties.of ge(dogical formation than any 
 other district of similar extent. Three deep baya 
 indent the island — Kansa on the NVV., and Bro- 
 dick and Lamlash on the K. : the latter being de- 
 fended from the VV. gales by Holy Island, 1 m. in 
 length, is one of the best asylums for .shi|)ping in 
 the Frith of Clyde. Marble, jasper, agates, cairn- 
 gorms, and a tine siiccies of rock crystal called the 
 Arran diamond, are met with. The red deer and 
 wild goat, formerly very abundant, are now nearly 
 if not entirelj' extiqiateiL Cheviot sheeii are 
 generally introduced, and the native breeds of 
 cattle and horses are being superseded by the 
 larger and more esteemed breeds of Argyleshire and 
 Ayrsliire. Swine are raised in considerable num- 
 ber^ and the steamboats that touch at the island 
 have opened a new market for fowls and eggs. 
 Grouse and black-cock are very plentiful. The 
 system of agriculture fonnerly followed in Arran 
 was as bad as can well be imagined ; the lands 
 were held jointly by several tenants on the com- 
 mon or run-rig plan (see Augylk), and were 
 scourged by a constant course of corn crops, which 
 succeeded each other in a series, unbroken except 
 by the occasional introduction of potatoes, as long 
 as the soil would produce any thing ; but, since 
 1815, the Duke of Hamilton, who is proprietor of 
 nearly the whole island, has laboured strenuously 
 and successfully to introduce a better system'; 
 partly by letting farms to individuals for a iixc<l 
 term of years, excluding sulj-tenants and as- 
 signees ; partly by introducing conditions into the 
 leases fitted to insure a better system of manage- 
 ment, and partly by exjiending large sums on the 
 building of houses, enclosing, making drains and 
 roads. The people at first were very much opposed 
 to the change, but their prejudices have gradually 
 given way, and they are now for the most part 
 sensible that it lias been as advantageous to thcni 
 as to the proprietor. Since the occupiers have eii- 
 
 i i! 
 
 -. d'i 
 
1«8' 
 
 Ann AN 
 
 a* 
 
 it-.:. ''' 
 
 ^4 
 
 Joyed poNRONxioim cnoli tni^ht cnll liix own, tliry 
 nave utondily ndvniu'rd in ImMtH of indiiHtry, mid 
 tlioiiKh ill fliiH n'Hprct tlioy nre titill ln'hiiid the 
 tciimitH Hiid labourers of tlio iiiainlaiid, it im Iio- 
 licvcd tliat in no insular lli^liland diNtrict in 
 gn'ntor industry hIiowii than in Arraii. 
 
 There are now n numln'r of hirge fannn enclonpd, 
 Hidxiivided and well ciiltivnted, having vuhiahlc 
 HloekH of cattle and comfortable farm-steadiiiK!*, 
 where formerly there were niinieroiix luitH without 
 chinrincyH or windowa, niid rid^eH running in all di- 
 reelions without a Niii^le enehmurc or Hulidivi)*ion. 
 The (general rotation, exce|)t on the ttliorcH, {h, 1. 
 OatH; 2. Green croji — notatoea, turnipa, beana or 
 jieaa, with manure; 8. Hear or innn, wheat oroata, 
 often manured ; 4. Hay; 6. I'aatiircgraaa; fi. Pas- 
 ture, Hometiinea ffrann a year or two longer. On 
 the ahorca and h(dma, the rotation ia, I. Oata ; 2. 
 (ireencrop; 8. 1%^ or wheat — thcae often with 
 manure; 4. Hay; and then oatM, tSic, af^ain. 
 These rotationa are not always adhered to by the 
 tenants having; the small posaeaaions, but they all 
 row (,Tas8 aceda with the com crop which aiiccecda 
 1 he ureeii one, and this of itself neceasarily leads to 
 better mana(;ement than they formerly practised. 
 AVlieat to a eonaiderabic extent has for a few years 
 jiast been raised by the tenants of the larger jwa- 
 ^esaiona, and a great number of the small tenants 
 (dao grow from lialf an acre to two acres each of 
 lliat grain. 
 
 Hy these changes in the mode of |K)aseaaion, and 
 by the improvement of the aoil, it will easily be 
 M'cn that more and better cattle may be reared 
 and supported than formerly, and the produce of 
 milk is also much greater. Since 1822 the Duke 
 <>f Hamilton has supidied good Argyleshire bulls, 
 Mt his own expense, for the cattle on liia projierty, 
 kee)(ing always in the island from twenty to thirty, 
 placed at convenient distances. The consequence of 
 t ids arrangement is, that the cattle have been aur- 
 lirisiiigly improvetl in every respect. On a few of 
 the larger farms stocks of Ayrshire cows are kept, 
 and succeed very well. 
 
 A number of' Iraats employed in the herring 
 fishery belong to Kilbride and Brodick, the prin- 
 cipal villages. But the herring tiaherj' in the Frith 
 of (31yde and Loch Fyne is not nearly so {jroaperous 
 lit ))resent as it once was. Luckily its decline is 
 little, if any, loss to the island ; for. having no con- 
 siderable town population, the fishery is principallj' 
 carried on by the cottiers and small farmers, en- 
 grossing their attention at the time their services 
 arc mtist neceasary on shore, at the same time that 
 it has a tendency to generate and keep alive idle 
 and dissipated habits. Kelp used to be produced in 
 considerable quantities, but its manufacture has 
 now nearly ceased. Most of the woollen cloth for- 
 merly used in the island was made by the women, 
 but a good deal is now imported. 1'he principal 
 exports are catvle, sheep, oats, and fish. 
 
 A good deal of illicitly distilled whisky was 
 formerly exported, but that branch of industry, if 
 it may be so called, has all but ceased. Steamers 
 ply regularly l)etweeii Glasgow and Greenock, and 
 various places on the island, and also between Ar- 
 drossan and the island, which is now much re- 
 sorted to by the citizen^s of Gla^igow and of the W. 
 of Scotland, as well as by tourists from all parts of 
 the world. Its singular l)eaiity would bring t^^ it 
 still greater numbers if encouragement was given 
 to building, but tlie Dukes of Hamilton, who own 
 the greater part of the island, are not in favour of 
 converting the island into a watering-place. 
 
 Brodick, the principal ■village, is finely situated 
 at the bottom of Brodick Bay, on the E. side of 
 the island. Near it is Brodick Castle, a seat and 
 occasional residence of the Dukes of Hamilton. 
 
 ARRAS 
 
 TJioiigh Gaelic be generally spoken, Engli«]ii»m,. 
 derHto<id by evervlMidy. 
 
 Arran is divided into two parishes. ItsiMipni,. 
 lion amounted, in 1755, according to Dr. WcliHtor 
 t(>8,<i'Ui; in I HOI it amounted to 5,17!); niicliii 
 IKII to *i,427. It declined somewhat (liiriii); tiie 
 ten years ending witli IH5I, but is agiun on the in. 
 crease, amounting in \mi\ to5,58N. 
 
 AKHAN (N. ISLES OF), on the W. coa«t „f 
 Ireland, co. Donegal, opposite Dangloe, tlu> m(Mt 
 N. extremity of the largest, called Arruiinion. 
 being in lat.V>° N., long. «<> 29' W. A liglitlKuw 
 ia erected on this point, with a tixe<l light clcvnicil 
 2()(» ft. above higli-water mark. This iaJHiKl ii,,,. 
 taina about 2,fl(l0 acres and nearly 1 ,(HI(» inlml)., the 
 land being divided into themiiiuteat |iortioiiN, Hiii'h 
 aa a ' cow's foot,' or the quarter of a cow'a (;ra,s<. 
 They are mostly fishers. On a smaller isjimil a 
 fishing village called Hutland was erected by iii^ 
 Fishing Board, in 1780, but it is now nearly 
 ileserted. 
 
 AKBAN (S. ISLES OF). Theac conmt of 
 three islands stretching NW. andSK., about lim, 
 along the mouth of Galway Bay, in Irclaiul, iK'in^' 
 part of the co. (Jalway. They contain in nil aUmi 
 7,000 acres ; the largest, Arranmore, comiirisir.;; 
 about 4,()07; Innis More, L''-**^ i «"•' Iniiis Lw, 
 00!). They are vcrj' fertile, but occasionnlly sufl'ir 
 from a scarcity of water. The fishing of cod nmi 
 ling is carried on to a considerable extent, n jiicr 
 having been constructed at the village of Killam v, 
 on the largest island, at the expense of the Fislicrv 
 Board, for the accommodation of the craft ciii"- 
 ployecl. The principal jiroducts are fresh and curfil 
 fish, oats, feathers, the produce of puffins, a sn- 
 jierior kind of yearling cnlvea in great deiiiaiiil hv 
 the Connaiight graziers, to which were tiimurly 
 added great quantities of smuggled whisky. A 
 lighthouse, with a revolving light, has been crcotcil 
 on the highest point of the largest or most ndrtji- 
 erly of the islands, lat, 530 7' N., long, i)" 4(1' W., 
 having the lantern elevated 498 ft. above the Icvd 
 of tlie sea. These islands give the title of Karl to 
 the family of Gore. The inhab., who arc ven- 
 poor, continue in a rather primitive state, and llic 
 Irish language is universally ripoken. 
 
 AHHAS, a city of France, dep. Pas de Calais, of 
 which it ia the cap., on the Scarjie and tlic Crin- 
 chon, GO m. SE. Calais, 35 m. NK. Aniiciis. ami 
 100 m. NNE. Paris, on the railway from Paris lo 
 Brussels. Pop. 26,905 in 18U1. The city is situ- 
 ated in the middle of an extensive and fertile 
 plain ; the Scarpc divides it into two parts ; it 
 18 well built ; houses stone ; several of \u 
 squares and public buildings handsome, and 
 worthy of notice. Among the latter arc tlic 
 old Gothic church of St. Waast, the hotel if 
 the Prt^fect, theatre, belfrj-, and barracks. Tlic 
 cathedral, a fine old Gothic building, was (l^ 
 stroyed (luring the revolutionary frenzy. Aim 
 was fortified during the reign of Louis XIV., hy 
 Vaiiban. The citadel, which is yerj' stronir, is 
 8e|)arated from the town by an esplanade, but it is 
 included within the line of the works. It is the 
 seat of a bishopric, and has a court of nmm. a 
 tribunal of original jurisdiction, a college, a gmml 
 diocesan seminary, a secondary ecclesiastiral 
 school, a school of engineering (ecole regimmtuin 
 de genie), an ac"'!"my of belles-lettres, a litcran' 
 society, a bot-'ii, ,;l ;j;arden, a school for deaf and 
 dumb, a school ui uesigii, a cabinet of nntiiral his- 
 tory and ant'.quitics, a museum of pictures, and a 
 public library eon tain ing 30,000 volumes. TIktc 
 are establishments for the spinning of cotton, 
 manufactures of cotttm sfufl's, hosiery, laec, ('oa^e 
 woollen stufTs, and potteries, and fabrics fur the 
 preparation of beet-root sugar, soap, starch, beer, 
 
okcii, Kiij^liHliisuii. 
 
 ARRAYOLI.Oa 
 
 iinil rflpc-oiL 1'^° Scarpo bccumcH navigable at 
 •liin iHiiiit. 
 
 Arriw in « very nncicnt city, and hnn boon tlip 
 lliwiiru of nioiiy sanguinary C(inH'«tH. TIki tvvo- 
 fiiiioiiiif the <'<lu't "f NantPH gave a mivoro Mttw 
 ,„ it.s manurocturcH. It alw) Hutliurcd much during 
 the revolution, having i)eon for a considcraldc time 
 nt the mercy of Lebon, a ft-rociouH terrorixt, a 
 iiniivt' tif the place. Kobcdpierre, of famoiiH me- 
 iimrv, wuH also a native of Arrax ; ati was Da- 
 miens tlie nxHanHin of Louis XV. 
 
 AKKAVOLLOH, a town of Portugal, prov. 
 Mi'iitcj", 16 ni. NNW. Kvora, at the foot of a 
 inciimtain on the summit of which is a citadel. 
 I'lip. 2,050 in 1858. It ha<t some fabricM of stained 
 
 AKRIE<»K, a dcp. in the S. of Franco, on the 
 Siwiiiiih frontier, having 8. the Pyrenean moun- 
 tairw. K. the ilepts. Pyrdnc'es Orientales and Aude, 
 and N. «'«' ^^- ^^*^ Haute Garonne. Area, 455,000 
 hfitareH. Pop. 251,850 in 1801. This (le|). con- 
 sists principally of the N. slope of the Pyrenees ; 
 the mountains, which cover the greater part of its 
 jiirface, increasing gradually in elevation iw tliey 
 apiiroach its S. frontier ; the altitude of the highest 
 summits varying from about 7,000 to about 10,500 
 it. above the level of the sea. The principal 
 valleys arc those of the Arribge and the Snlnt, tlie 
 onlv navigable rivers in the dep. According to 
 tlie official tables, the cultivable lands occupy alHtut 
 148,000, meadows 34,000, woods (on the moun- 
 tains) JIO.OOO, vineyards 1 l,<i30, and heaths, wastes, 
 ic. 186,000 hectares. Gold has been found ; and 
 there are valuable iron mines near Vic Dessos, 
 and other places. The N. portion is pretty fertile 
 and well cultivated, producing wheat, rye, oats, 
 maize, and millet. Horses an inferior breed, and 
 iixen and mtdes frequently employed in their stead. 
 The total produce of wine is estimated at 1 15,000 
 licetolitrcs a year; but the quality is inferior, and 
 it is wholly retained for home use. The forests 
 have not l)een taken proper care of; and in many 
 parts, owing to the consumption of the iron fur- 
 naces, ami the want of sutticient attention, there is 
 a scarcity of wood The working of metals is the 
 principal branch of manufacturing industry ; but 
 there arc also manufactures of cloth, serges, floss- 
 silk, and cotton stuffs. It is tlivided into 3 arr. 
 (Foix, Paraiers, St Girons), 20 cant, and 336 comm. 
 it l)elong8 to the third military division, is in the 
 iliiicese of Pamiers, and under the jurisdiction of 
 the cour imperiale of Toulouse. Pnncipal towns, 
 Foix, Massat, and Pamiers. 
 
 ART, or ARTH, a town of Switzerland, cant. 
 Schwitz, at the S. extremity of the lake of Zug, 
 7 m. S. Zug, at the foot of mounts Rigi and Ross- 
 Imig. Pop. 2,196 in 1860. The town is well 
 huilt. The church of St. George is remarkoble 
 for its architecture, and for an immense fountain, 
 formed of a single block of granite. There is a 
 convent of Capuchins, with a good library. The 
 valley of Art is very picturescjue and interesting, 
 from its position among the highest mountains of 
 breccia anywhere to be met with. 
 
 AUTA, a town of Spain, island of Majorca, on 
 its NW. angle. Cape Pera, where there is a small 
 fort, (lepen(£ on it. Pop. 4,535 in 1857. Its terri- 
 tor}', which is very fruitful, produces cotton, and 
 has mill-stone quarries. 
 
 Arta, a town of Turkej' in Europe, Albania, 
 on the Arta, about 7 m. above where it falls into 
 the gulf of that name. It is a place of consider- 
 able size and trade. When visited by Dr. Holland, 
 in 1812, it contained six mosques, a large cathe- 
 ilial, and a great number of (ireek churches, and 
 was supposed to have a population of about 6,000. 
 It suffered severely during the Greek insurrection ; 
 
 ARTKRN 
 
 180 
 
 and Lieut. Wolfe, by whom it was visited in 18:iO, 
 says that, in many places, masses of ruins im- 
 peded the passage of the streets, and thot an as|M>ct 
 of desolation and misery hung over it. It has 
 since improved, though the population is esti- 
 mated at only 5,000. It is governed by a bey, 
 under the nacha of Yanniua, and is the seat of a 
 Greek bisnop. It has manufactures of cottons, 
 woollens, and leather. The floccatas, or shaggy 
 ca|M)t«s made Iutc, are reckoned very superior, 
 Kniltroidery is said to be brought to considerable 
 i>erfection ; and . 11 articles of dress from Arta are 
 highly ]iri/,ed. Kach trade has its seiHirate streca 
 or bazaar; but, bv a judicious regulatum, butchers 
 are obliged to kill, and sell their meat outside the 
 town. The market is abundantly supplied with 
 fniit and vegetables. There is a curious Venetian 
 bridge over the river, coiisisting of one large and 
 several very small arches. 
 
 Arta occupies the site of the anc^ient AmhracUi, 
 Traces of the ancient walls may be seen in many 
 places, but es|K!cially under the more modern re- 
 mains of the ruined* castle : the stones consist of 
 vast quadrangtdnr blocks, so admirably fitted tluit 
 it is with dilHculty the point of a penknife can be 
 inserted between them : — no mortar seems to liav(! 
 Ixicn used in their construction. There is here, 
 also, the ruins of a convent, built in 845, now con- 
 verted into a caravansero. (Holland's Travels in 
 Albania, p. 82, 4 to. ed.) 
 
 AiiTA (Gui-K of), the Sinus Amhraciux of tlio 
 ancients, is a deep inlet or gulf of the Ionian Sea, 
 between the Turkish province of Albania and tlie 
 NW. part of the new kingdom of (Sreece. The 
 entrance to it, between Prevesa on the N. and the 
 fort of La Punta on the S., is only 700 yards across. 
 The fort now mentioned is built at the extremity 
 of a low, niuTow tongue of land, celebrated in 
 history as the J'romimton/ of'Actium, Outside the 
 entrance is a bar, composed of gravel, coarse sand, 
 and sea-weed, with 15 feet water when shallowest. 
 On entering the Gulf, we first come to what is 
 called the Bay of Prevesa, occupying the space 
 between the mouth of *lio Gulf and CajK's Ln 
 Scorn on the N. and Mu i ma on the S. ; and it is 
 only after passing these ik dlands that the Giilf 
 properly opens. It is a noble sheet of water : its 
 extreme length from W, to E., including the Bay 
 of Prevesa, is about 25 m., and its greatest breadth 
 about 10 m. ; but in several places it is a good 
 deal narrower : the depth varies from 13 and 14 to 
 36 fathoms. The S. shore consists of high land, 
 with bold promontories, clothed with rich and ex- 
 tensive woods ; the N. shore is for the most part 
 low, and has encroached considerably on the water. 
 Part of the vast chain of Pindus is seen from the 
 Gulf. It has been long celebrated for the variety 
 and excellence of its fish : red and grey mullet 
 are the most abundant; and there are plenty of 
 soles, eels, prawns, tfcc. : sardine fishing is exten- 
 sively carried on. 
 
 The entrance to the Gulf of Arta was the scene 
 of one of the most memorable and important con- 
 flicts recorded in history. The battle of Actium, 
 which decided the fate of Augustus and Mark 
 Antony, and of the Roman world, was fought off 
 the promontory of that name, at the southern 
 entrance to the Gulf, anno b,c. 29, The exact 
 space occupied by the hostile fleets has been dis- 
 puted. Most probably the battle raged all round 
 the promontory, but principally on its W, side, or 
 in what is now called the harbour of Prevesa, and 
 the contiguous sea. 
 
 ARTERN, a town of Prussian Saxony, reg. 
 Merseburg, on the Unstrut, 30 m. W. by S.Halle. 
 Pop. 3,700 in 1861. It has a castle, a brine-spring, 
 and a distillery. 
 
 ■m 
 
100 
 
 ARTHUR'S SKAT 
 
 •'I,'* 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 ARTHUR'S SKAT, n hill in tUc. immnlintn 
 vifiiiity of K(liiil)iirf(h, im t\w SK. hIiIo of tlu; city, 
 riKin^ H'i'i ft. niMivo tlin Icvt-I of lht< hvh. Its 
 iim'ciil from tint liittcr Ix Kriuliiiil niid cnHv ; l>iitoii 
 t\u' hIiIo townniM tlut city it tIhcm aliriiptly, ainl, 
 ill |inrlM, almost |M'rpciiiliciilarly, from the low 
 ^roiiiiilH. On till) S. xiiln of tlitt hill, ahovu tlu! 
 fiM>t|inth leading; fnmi KiliiihiirKh to DinlilinK^tonc, 
 isaMii|i(>rl)ranKcof|>orplivritic^nH>imtoiiitcoliimnN, 
 from /)<) to tiO ft. hi|(h. 'I'hc part of the hil! ncnrcNt 
 Jlolyrooil lIoiiNfl iH called SaliHiiiiry CriiK'*, mid, 
 till within Iho laHt thirty ycant, itw qiiarricx fur- 
 iiixhcd moHt part of the paviii^-NloiK'M iiHcd in 
 London. Tlui view from the top of Arthiir'H Scat 
 iH one of the moNt diverHilled and tine in the 
 empire, 
 
 ARIJUV, a town of France, dep. RasscH F'yrem'CH, 
 cap. cant., on the Osscaii, 12 SK. (Hormi. I'op, 
 l,!)<'<lMii IHOI. It Ih the centre of an activ(! and con- 
 giderahlc crmimerce with the nei)r|ilN)iirin^ viiIIcvh. 
 
 ARUNDKL, a hiir^h, m. town, and pa. of Kn;;- 
 laiid, CO. of SiiMHCx, on the \. hank ot the Arim, 
 nlxiiit itj m. from itn emhouchiire, 55 in. SSVV. 
 liondon l>y road and (!H|| miles hy Rrij^hton and 
 South Coast railway. I'op. of pa. 2,I!W in I HOI. 
 The town is pretty well liiiilt, aiul has a thrivinj^ 
 n|ipenrance. It derives its entire consequence 
 from its l)cing immediately conti^moiis to Arundel 
 Castle, formerlv a strong fortress, now the mafj- 
 jiilicent baronial residence of the Dukes of 
 Norfolk, having; been rebuilt at a fjrewt ex- 
 pense by the late Duke. The possessor of this 
 castle enjoys, without further creation, the 
 difjnity of eiu"!. Previously to the Reform Act, 
 Arundel returned two members to the II. ofC, 
 the ri^ht of voting; bein^f vested in the inhabitants 
 paying scot and lot ; but since the Reform Act it 
 only returns one member. The constituency, in 
 18(i4, consisted of 192 registered electors, 51 of them 
 being remaining sent and lot inhabitants, and the 
 rest 10/. householdefs. The Arun, which is hero 
 crossed by a neat bridge, is navigable thus far ; 
 and is joined by canals with the Thames (m the 
 one band, and Chichester liarbour on the other. 
 
 ARVERT, a town of France, dep. Charentc, 
 Inferieure, 24 m. W. Saintes. Pop. 2,627 in 1861. 
 It is the chief place of the peninsula of the same 
 name formed by the Gironde, the Sciidre, and the 
 sea. It has a considerable trade in wine, and 
 fresh and salt fish, particularly sardines. 
 
 ARZAMAS, a town of Russia in Furope, gov. 
 Nijni Novgorod, cap. district, at the confluence of 
 the Choka and Tioncha, 62 m. S. Nijni Novgorod. 
 Pop. 4,700 in 1858. It is old and ill-built ; has 
 twenty-two churches and two convents, with soajv 
 works, tonneries, print-works, and iron-foundries. 
 It has two great annual fairs. 
 
 ARZAXO, a village of South Italy, in the im- 
 mediate neighbourhood of Na]>les. Pop. 4,797 in 
 1861. It has numerous villas; and flax and 
 hemp are largely produced in its environs. 
 
 ARZEVV (on. ArseiMria), a sea-port to^vn of 
 Algiers, prov. Tlemsen, at the mouth of the Sigg, 
 30 m. NNE. Oran, lat. 35° 45' N., long. 4° 64' K. 
 Pop. about 1,000. The bay is small ; but, though 
 open to win(bj from the E. and NE., it is the best 
 on this part of the coast. The modern to^vn, 
 ■which is ill-built ond inconsiderable, occupies the 
 site of the ancient Arsenaria: fragments of 
 columns, inscriptions, cisterns, and other reraauis 
 of the ancient city, being scattered all round. 
 Corn and salt are both exported. The latter is 
 obtained from the salt pits of Arzew, about 5 m. 
 inland. 
 
 ARZIGNANO, a town of North Italv, prov. and 
 10 m. W. Vicenza. Pop. 7,700 in 1862. It is 
 situated in an agreeable plain, surrounded with 
 
 ASCENSION 
 
 cultivated billH, and has fllfitun's of silk, rnhri , 
 of doth, dye-works, and brick -works. Its t{'n\Uir\ 
 produces good wine, and has t^o coal-miiH.H 
 
 ASAPH (ST.), a city of .N. Wales, co. Flint, nm 
 also part I v in co. Denbigh, 185 m. N\V, Lmni,,,, 
 5 m. N. benbigh, linely situated in the Vale ,; 
 Clwyd, on an eminence on the banks nf t|,,! 
 KIwy, near its confluence with the Clwvd, nvcr 
 iMith of which it bus bridges. Pop. of parisji ,'),.V.r.>. 
 offmrl. lH)rough 2,0i;)t in I8<il. It consists |,rini 
 cipally of a single street ; and is reniHrkiUiJc dniv 
 as being the seat of a bishopric, worth (p,.'l(iii/. n 
 year, 'riic cathedral, a plain building, was mc idi 
 towards the end of the tlfteenth century. Iiiit li,,, 
 since undergone many repairs: it is init iiw'ili',,^ 
 public wonliip; the parish church, in the lnwir 
 Jiart of the town, l>eiiig appropriate<l to thnt pur. 
 pose. Drs, Harrow (uncle to the faimiim Pr. 
 Isaac Harrow), Heveridge, Tanner, and Il(in«liv! 
 have Wen Kishops of this see; an<l in the ciiiIh! 
 dral is a handsome monument, erected in ;s-.i;i, 
 in memory of the celebrated iX'aii Shii)ley, Itlm^ 
 a free grammar-si;hool, endowed by nislmp \W\\: 
 ridge; an<l an almshouse for eight poor wiijuw., 
 endowed by Itishop Hanow. It unites witli Hi,! 
 other boroughs of Flintshire, in rcturniii^r a m 
 to the II. of C. 
 
 ASyVRO, a town of Sicilv, prov. Catania, !) m 
 8. Nicosia. Pop. 2,9(18 in 1862. 
 
 ASCAI.ON, an ancient seo-port town of Pules- 
 tine, 15 m, N, Gaxa, and 45 m, ESE, .JeriiHiiIdn 
 lat. 3|0 89' N., h>ng„ M° iW E. There is iii,t a 
 single inhabitant witliin the old walls, wliicli an 
 still standing; but a modern suburban villii^'c, 
 called Scalona, from the ancient name, has n |hi{i. 
 of 300 or 400, .and is fn>quentcd by the suwli 
 vessels trading to this coast. 
 
 The ruins present a strange mixture of S^^^nll, 
 Greek, and Gothic remains. There arc nlito tlic 
 remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and the 
 columns of a temple, supposed to be that nf ilio 
 Syrian Venus, mentioned by Herodotus (I. § lUJ), 
 or a Greek edifice raised in imitation of it, 
 
 Ascalnn is exceedingly ancient, Hefore tho 
 establishment of the Israelites in Palestine, it wji< 
 one of the lordships of the Philistines, Slll)s^ 
 quently, it became one of the ports belongiiit; to 
 the tribe of Judah ; and, on the downfall of th>< 
 Jewish kingdom, it fell to the king of Assj-ria, 
 It afterwards formed part of the Persian cmiiirc. 
 then of the kingdom of the Ptolemies ; aiid, on 
 the subversion of the latter in the last coiitun 
 «.('., it was subjected to the dominion of Knnw, 
 It was a bishop 8 see in the first ages of Chrisii- 
 anity; was conquered by the Saracens at the 
 commencement of their conqiicsta, and twcarac 
 the scene of more than one battle during tlie time 
 of the Crusades. It was one of the stronghol'ls of 
 the W. Christians ; but Saladin, on gaiiiinj; yHU- 
 scssion of the town, destroyed its works. It has 
 since continued in a state of decay : the prdpliecv 
 of Zachariah, 'Ascalon shall not be inhabitwL' 
 and that of Ezekiel, ' It shall be a dcsulatinn,' 
 are now considered actually fulfilled. Asealon 
 stands at the mouth of a stream (the Sortki, 
 where the accumulation of soil is so great, tliat 
 the ruins are every day removing farther from 
 the sea. 
 
 ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 between Africa and Brazil, about 8 m. in leiiph 
 by about 6 in breadth, its fort being in lat. 7' 
 26' N., long. 14° 24' W. It is of volcanic forma- 
 tion, and one of its hills, of tufous limestone, ri«i 
 to the height of 2,870 ft.. It has a bleak anil 
 barren appearance ; and was uninhabited till the 
 imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena, wlicii ii 
 was garrisoned by a small British force, througli 
 
(I 
 
 im>i4 of nilk, fnliri , 
 workH. IIh ((•rril.,^ 
 '\ii coMl-iniiii'ii, 
 Vnli'.H, CO. Flint, nil] 
 .'» 111. NW. l,Mii,|„i,, 
 itf'U ill tlic Viilc ,■ 
 tlut Imnks of III, 
 th the. I'lwycj, iiM.f 
 l'(»p. i)f|HiriHli;t,.v.i.;, 
 I. It foiiHintH |iriii. 
 
 in rpninrkiilili K- 
 
 ric, wcirtli t!,;i(ii);. ,, 
 iiildiii^, wns crocici 
 itli ('('iiturv, Imt liii, 
 : it JH not iiHcil i;,r 
 mroh, ill tiu^ \mf, 
 priiitrd to thni pur. 
 i> the raiiioiiH |)r, 
 aiiiirr, niid \hmh\. 
 ; nii<l in tin- catlii.. 
 nt, tTcctcil ill [H->\ 
 i»'(iii Sliiiilcy. Ithii, 
 ed l»y IJisliop Itcvc 
 oinlit poor wiilim<. 
 It iinilcs witli tile 
 in returning a in, 
 
 prov. Cntnnin, 9 m, 
 l!-2. 
 
 -port town of Pnlos- 
 m. KSK. JiTiiHiilcni, 
 ' K. Thorv in iini a 
 old walls, whicli W' 
 •n Buburliaii villiyc, 
 t>.nt name, ImH n |j<i{>, 
 entcd by the nuiali 
 
 mixture of SjTi.in, 
 There arc iilaoilic 
 
 ihithcatrc, mid llio 
 
 >d to Ik! that iif III!' 
 
 Herodotus (I. §10.)), 
 
 iiitntioii of it. 
 
 iicieiit. Hefore the 
 in Palestine, it yaa 
 hilistines. Sul)s^ 
 ports belonf,^!!); In 
 
 the downfall of tho 
 
 lie kinn of Assjiia, 
 
 the Persian cmiiirt. 
 
 Ptolemies ; ami, on 
 
 in the last cciitiin- 
 
 dominion of Kunie. 
 
 irst ajjcs of Chrisii- 
 
 he Saracens at the 
 
 qiiesta, and lieo.imc 
 
 ittle during the time 
 
 of thestroiiRhol'lsol' 
 
 Un, on gainiiiK [Ku- 
 
 ita works. It has 
 
 lecay : the prophecy 
 
 not be inhabited,' 
 
 all be a deaolaiiim,' 
 
 fulfilled. Aacnlon 
 
 stream (the Soreki, 
 
 oil is so great, thai 
 
 oving farther ftum 
 
 J the Atlantic Ocean, 
 ibout 8 m. in length 
 jrt being in lat. i^ 
 J of volcanic forma- 
 ifous limestone, risei 
 It has a bleak ami 
 uninhabited till the 
 St. Helena, when ii 
 ritish force, througli 
 
 AS Oil 
 
 «hiiw pxertlonH It ban Ikth partly cultivated and 
 ,„i„l(.rfiiUy iinprovoil. Sprinun of fresh water 
 liiiv,. iH-cn dinoovered. Vajtt iiuinlioni of turtle are 
 laki'ii oil it" shores. Th»« eliiiiate is remarkably 
 hiiiWiv. »i><l 'l'«' anchoriige on the NW. side, o|h 
 ,^i,,. '(iiMirjjetown, is said to Imi good, (leorge- 
 !,iwii \* n s'«t'"" consistiiig of a fort, military 
 liirtcrs. «"'' " •^'■w detaelu'd resideiuu-H. 'I'lie 
 illijiit ill occujiyiiig it is tliat it may serve ai« n 
 ileiKit for stores, and a plaee for watering ships 
 miixiiiK o" ''"^ '''""*' "^ Brazil, or in the S. Atlaiilie 
 (iccuii. If name is derived from its having been 
 ilisiiivered on Aseeiision-day, the '2(tlli of May, 
 l.vii, by a Spanish navigator in the Hvrviuu of 
 l'iirtu);al. 
 
 \St'H. n t"wii and lordship NW. frontier of Uo- 
 homia, eiri'lo Khiliogeii, 14 m. NW. Kger. Pop. 
 r,H,^i) ill tH'*7. There arc maniifueturcH, cotton 
 hiiHierv, woollen fabrics, and wire. 
 
 .\Si;HAFFENHUK(r, a citv of Bavaria, circ. 
 LoVer MUrz, on a hill, on the Main, which is 
 here crossed bv a stone bridge, il8 iii. N W. Wllrz- 
 liiirj; 1)11 the railway from WUrzlmrg to Fraiikfort- 
 (iii-ihc-Main. Poji. 9,H0(( in iHtil. The town is 
 yitforently built, and the streets are narrow and 
 crmiked. It has, however, a fine palace, formerlv 
 (K'ciipied by the electors of Mayencc, to which 
 majtiiilicent gardens are attached. It has also an 
 old Gothic church, containing tho tombs of its 
 iirinces, a town-hall, with a lyceum, a gymna- 
 sium, an ecclesiastical seminarv, a scho(d of de- 
 sign, a public library, anil a ciil^ection of pictures. 
 h manufactures tinted papers, and has a good 
 deal of trade in timl)er, wine, and tobacco. It has 
 also shiI^l)uillling vards and a transit trade. 
 
 ASCHP:KSLKB'1':N, a towi. of the Prussian 
 states, prov. Saxony, reg. Magdeburg, at the con- 
 Hiicncc of tho Eino anil the VVipper, 11 m. E8K. 
 (iiictlliiiburg. Pop. 12,139 in IWU. It has five 
 I'nitcstant churches, one Catholic do., a syna- 
 gogue, a gymnasium, two hospitals, and very 
 idtDiiilerable manufactures of woollen and linen 
 8tull"n, and earthenware. 
 
 ASCOLI, a town of Italy, in the Marches, cap. 
 deleg. same name, on tho angle formed by the 
 junction of the Castcllano with the Tronto, 15 m. 
 al»>Ye where the latter falls into the Adriatic, lat, 
 4»5r 24" N., long. IS* 25' 15" E. Pop. 17,448 
 ill 18lil. It is a well-built, handsome town ; has 
 a cathedral and numerous churches, many of 
 which are ornamented with valuable paintings by 
 native artists. The church of St. Gregorio Magno 
 consists principally of the remains of a lioman 
 temple. Of mmlem buildings, the principal is the 
 M2Z(>,iJu2tana/e, containing a museum, a library, 
 and a theatre ; there is also the palace of the 
 I );uvemor, and numerous palaces belonging to 
 resident nobles. Ascoli is a frontier town, on the 
 side of Naples, and is a place of some strength, 
 iieing surrounded by old walls and towers, and 
 furnished with a citadel. Its harbour, at the 
 I mouth of the Tronto, is a good deal frequented by 
 coasters, and is defended by two small forts. 
 
 Ascoli, the Asculwn Picenum of the Romans, is 
 I one of the most ancient of the Italian towns. It 
 is described by Strabo as a place of great strength, 
 I simouiuled by walls and inaccessible heights. It 
 wiis the first city to declare against the Itoraans 
 when the Social War broke out: and, in the 
 Course of that war, it sustained a long and me- 
 morable siege against Pompey ; by whom, how- 
 ever, it was finally taken. (Cramer's Aiic. Italy, 
 i. p. 288.) The area of the prov. is 809 sq. m. 
 Pup. 196,030 in 1861. 
 
 ASCOLI DI SATRIANO (an. A»culum Apu- 
 km), a town of South Itr.ly, prov. Capitanato, 13 
 % E. by S. Kovino. Pop. 6,720 in 1802. It is 
 
 ASIIANTKK 
 
 101 
 
 situated on a hill; has a tine cathedral, a diiv- 
 cesan seminary, a hospital, and somo conventJt. 
 
 This town IS very anriciit. It wa« under its 
 walls that Pyrrhus eiit'ounlered the Koiiian le- 
 gions for the second time, with no decisive ad- 
 vantage on either side. It was idniost entirely 
 destroyed by an earthquake in 111)0, 
 
 ASl')<)lJI) (the /luAf/rif/ of Scripture, and A^urot 
 of the Ore* ks,) a sea-jxirt town of Palestine, on the 
 coast of the Mediterranean. Lat. 31° 45' N,, hmg. 
 34" 37' E.,35 m. W. .Jerusalem, and II NE. As- 
 calon, on the summit of a grassv bill, surrounded 
 by luxuriant pasliir<>-!;roun(is. Its present |Mip. is 
 very limited, probably not more than 200 or 301), 
 It has no ruins; and would '>e unworthy of notii^e, 
 were it not for the tlgiire it makes in sacred his- 
 tory. It was one of the live lordships of the Phi- 
 listines (Ph<viii(!iaiis) ; and thither the Ark of tho 
 Covenant was brought when that |)eopl( took it 
 from the Jews. (1 Sam. v. 1.) It may be ga- 
 thered, generally, that the Philistine jiower yielded 
 to the ami of llavid (2 Sam, v. 29, etnefj,, rcbroii. 
 xviii. I) ; and it is probable that Aslidod became 
 then a Jewish town. If this, however, were the 
 case, it did not remain so ; for, two hundred years 
 later, tho destruction of the walls of Aslidod is 
 reckoned among tho triumphs of Uzziah over tho 
 Philistines. (2Cliroii. xxvi. 0.) Itappears to have 
 fallen into the bands of the Assyrians soon after 
 this; and subsequently, according to Herodotus 
 (II. § 157), stood a siege of twenty-nine years by 
 the Egyptians, under Psammeticus. It is not at- 
 terwan'ls heard of as a jilace of importance. Tlu! 
 existing village is celeorated only for tho number 
 of scoqiions that infest it. The water ujmn this 
 part of the coast is shallow, and tho land percep- 
 tibly gaining on the sea, 
 
 ASHANTEE, an extensive native kingdom of 
 W. Africa, lying ahmg the Gold (Joast of (Juiiiea; 
 extending from 4° 37' to 10° N. lat., ami from 
 4048' W. to 10 10' E. Icmg., being about 280 in. in 
 length and as many in breadth. It moy contain 
 about 70,000 sq. m. 
 
 Phimcal Features of the Country. — Mmmtnim 
 and Plains, — This isamountainous countrj-, though 
 it has few eminences very abrupt or precipitous. 
 None of the mountains approach the snow lino, 
 being, like those of Africa in general, more remark- 
 able for breadth and extent than for height. W^itli 
 reganl to composition, all the species of granite, 
 quartz, and slate are met with, but there is an 
 almost total absence of calcareous stone. There 
 are some small tracts of level land on the E. and 
 W. ; and the whole country N. of 74° or 8° lat. is 
 a large plain, terminated on the NW. by a moun- 
 tainous country, called, from the nature of its sur- 
 face, KoNo, that is, mountain, and on the NE. bv 
 the sandy desert of (jhofan. (Isert, Vov. (Jiiin. 
 249; Bowditch, 103, drc; I)upuis,par. ii. 30, &c.; 
 Capt. Adams's Remarks, 176.) 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. — Though not Iving in the 
 basin of any one of tho first-class African rivers, 
 few countries are better watered. Along the coast 
 are found tho embouchures of several respectable 
 streams, the various affluents of which intersect 
 the countrj^ in every direction. The A.ssinee, a 
 lar^e river, is usually reckoned the line of demar- 
 cation between the Gold and Ivory Coast ; and 
 forms, for some miles from its mouth, the W. limit 
 of Ashontee. The Volta, or Asweda, the largest 
 of the Ashantee rivers, runs into the sea in 30' E. 
 long. : its length is estimated at about 40O m. There 
 are several lakes which, in the summer season, 
 frequently overflow their banks. 
 
 Climate. — Soil and Natural Products. — The heat 
 and insalubrity of the climate of Guinea are pro- 
 verbial, but both appear to be exaggerated. It 
 
 ! I 
 
lO'i ASHANTKR 
 
 nci'iiii to Ih> now ndmil toil timf (*oiintrii'>< iiiiili'rntnl 
 iinir llic n|iialiir ari> Ichm Iml lliiiii iliiMr iiiiilcr niiil 
 iK'iir llii< lri>|iii-A, llii> iiiiiiiial iiiniiiiii of iIh> carili 
 
 
 
 
 ki'cpliiK (lie litlliT ri'^ioiiN (or u liiiii'li loii^rr |h>- 
 riitil vrrlii'iklly lH>iii'iitli t\w nihi, Kroiii IImm raiiMC, 
 HMTfl'iin', iIh' licaJ of AHliaiilrc iii'ikIiI Ih( cxiM'ctcil 
 lo Ih< It'Ptt than thai or<imiitri('M 12'^ or i^fi lartlicr 
 N, Tim at't'iiniiilatioii of water M«'rv«'H nUo to lower 
 tli(> Kciirral ti'iii|M-ratiirc, uml, upon tlui whole, 
 iIioiikIi ilurin^ hix nionlliN, or from (K'toU'r to 
 March, the heat M extremely violent, during the 
 oilier half year it Ih ho far from Ih-Iu^ inconvenient, 
 that lireN anil warm elolhiiiK are frequently ilexir- 
 alile. The niKhlH (alwavx nearly of the Mune 
 leii;;th) are eolil, eveniliirin^ the hot monlhH,nnil, 
 ■ in a ni«lit-hall in a foreMt, u l»la/.e in ax neccHsary 
 npiiiiMt the colli heavy ilewM aHu^'uinsI the I'erociouH 
 beiiMlH, The eoaHt in, however, t'xlremely nn- 
 iiealthy, CMpeiially to Kuro|ieanH. This iM owiii;^ 
 partly to the Hcor'cliinK ilayH followeil hy chillinj; 
 iii)^htH, hill more toa NiilphnreouH mist (apparently 
 a upecicH of miaKina) which riHCH from tlie vallevK 
 ami the iiei)rhlionrh(HHl of rivers every morning, 
 especially iliirin;; the rainy season. I'oor fooil, hail 
 iii'coininiHlation, anil exposure to the i.ifjlit iiir, ailil 
 to these evils, which are still farther increaseil hy 
 a want of repilarity in livinj; anions; lioth natives 
 anil Kiiropeans; lint, after all, the climate of this 
 coast is not worse than that of most others simi- 
 larly siliialeil, anil much superior to that of W. 
 Africa farther N., or to that of (iniana, in the same 
 lat., on the other siilo of the Atlantic. The in- 
 terior, tliou);h covered with dense forests, and 
 consei|iiently exposed t» the ellects of venelahle 
 decoiniMtsil iiin under a viTtical sun, enjoys a compa- 
 ratively salulirioiis atmospheri!; and Isert (^). "J.')?!) 
 recommends the cri'ct ion of hospitals, in the inlanil 
 ])arts, for the benetit of suHerers from the Kiiropean 
 forts on the coast. The air is usually calm, except 
 in the cases of tornadoes, and the wind fron> the 
 desert, called Harmattan. The former, however, 
 arc pretty frcijiient, and, in the dry season, parti- 
 euliirly annovniK, from lieinin followed hy violent 
 eolil ruins. 'I'he llarinattan is mostly ex)iericnced 
 between the end of December and the bej^inniiii;' 
 of February. It lias ii NK. or an KSK. directioi. • 
 is perfectly dry, extremely cold, and loaded wit. 
 an impalpable jKiwdcr, sutHcientl^ thick to obscuru 
 the 8un at noon. It is exceedingly destructive; 
 its dryness being such that it absorbs the moisture 
 from every thing with which it comes in contact ; 
 ojieiiing the seams of ships, the joints of floorings, 
 mill destroying nil animal and vegetable life oij- 
 posed to its' unmitigated violence. It blows usually 
 for two or three days, but occasionally for a fort- 
 night nt a time, and with much force. Like other 
 tropical countries, Ashantee has its dry and rainy 
 seasons, or rather two rainy and one dry season in 
 each year. The first rains, ushered in by violent 
 tornmlow, occur about the latter end of May or the 
 beginning of June ; being followed by fogs and 
 linzy weather, extremely pernicious and particu- 
 larly i)owerful in .July and August. The second 
 raiiis come on in October, and thence till April is 
 the dry and hoi season. 
 
 A small part of the coast, towards the E. and W. 
 boundaries, is sandy, but the greater portion, and 
 all the interior, is an argillaceous and allnminous 
 soil, mixed with a rich black earth. This, with 
 the abundance of water, renders the country ex- 
 tremely fertile. From 74° N. lat. down to the 
 water's edge, Ashantee presents a solid mass of 
 forest, extending Ii. and W. from the Volta to the 
 Assinee rivers. The trees have all the stupendous 
 characteristics which mark African vegetation, but 
 arc strikingly different on the coast and in the in- 
 terior. Near the sea tlourishes the gigantic boabab 
 
 (Adnntnnin lUtjlMit), the ractns (pfobnlilv iinfj. 
 diiceil from America), the manirrove {Hlittmih,,,, 
 
 mitufilf), various species of palm, the cuti ,||i 
 
 other large trees, mixed with a wild enliui«li't!i,,| 
 of thorny bush, itself growing to n ni/i> in,,.' 
 ceivable to n Kuro|N-an. Alsnit ITi in. inliuiil, ,4, 
 reaching the Huininit of the tlrst moiiiiiiiii|,/||, 
 boabab ilisap|H'ars, but u tree eipial in iiiii^'hii„,i 
 supplies its jihu'e; the mangrove also vniii.|„i 
 and palms Inn'ome ver>' scarce, except the ulii, p.ni 
 </Clai» ijuinertmn), and the villiferous (I'hin,,' 
 Instead of thi-se ap|iear many |MM'iiliiir i.|n, j,,,' 
 among which is one tall tn>e of gn'at i'Ii'^mmo^ 
 iH'aring llowers like the tulip; a new kind uf ,11,,! 
 and citron ; and, in a word, u whole forest of in,^ 
 unknown elsewhere. 
 
 N.of 74° or'H<^ Int., trees and shrubs appiWdniv 
 in widely distant patches, the laiuls arc cuvirhi 
 with jungle and (iiiinea grass, which grows ti, ml 
 eiionnoiis height and thickness; and wliicli, Irin 
 tired, is used by the natives to mannre tlicir |il:i!,' 
 lations. The sngar-cuiie grows wild; niiil ii„ 
 country produces, U'sides, tobacco, mai/.c, illii.nrn 
 millet, yams, rice, potatoes, and all the iiliiiiiiiiiir 
 iilaiits. 111 the utmost profusion. Of I'rniis thr ||; 
 IS interminable ; including the piiie-appli', iiriiii;,v 
 banana, cocoa, tig, papay, and in short all iliiiiiJrH 
 prodnced in any part of the world betwi'i-ii ili, 
 tropics. Of gums and aromatii! plants tlii'|{.iii, 
 very great; its is likewise that of dye ami liw| 
 woods. The exuberant abiindaiice of alnc^, !«]. 
 sams (dhrioiue liiinerliw), tiilM'roses, lilies, anil nni,h | 
 rant lis. given to tlie tlora of Ashantee a s|iliiii|i«ir 
 and magniliceii ..; nowhere excelled, and hut ranlv 
 equalled. 
 
 The animals t n« various and numerous an iIim I 
 jilanls. Klepl Hits, I'linoceroses, girull'i's, Imffi. | 
 liM's, deer, antelopes, civet cats, apes, numki'V!. 
 baboons, porcupines, and goats, are anmiiK \h I 
 hannless kinds; lions, tigers, leopards, jiuial.. 
 wolves, wild boars, and wild cats, ainoiig tlicw,( | 
 a ferocious sort. The rivers swami willi lii; 
 potami and alligators of several species; mmii'ifl 
 which are eaten by the natives. A gii,'nutif rai. 
 an odoriferous mouse, and a small aiiimul nM 
 iirompo {imtn-vuter), which digs up anil Av\\m 
 dead biKlies, seem to be peculiar to Ashiuitoi'. TIk 
 domestic animals are the same as those of KiiPij^. 
 but the horse is scarce, and of a bad brceil, ami ihf 
 sheep peculiar in fonn. Hcptiles arc prmliKidiisly 
 numerous; serpents of every size, from tlio onur- 
 mous boa to a frightfully venomous cMtiiti', 
 scarcely a yanl long, infest not only the wnoiNaml I 
 long grass, but the dwellings of tlic natives, aixl 
 the forts of the Europeans. Scorpions (sonictinifj 
 as big as a small hibster) and coiiti]K'il('s-ili( 
 wonnii from which, though not dangerous, i.« h- I 
 tremely painful — abound in ever\' place; uiiiltiiaili| 
 and frogs are not only as plentiful as in Knn^ , 
 but the former grow to such a size, that lloMnaii. 
 when he lirst saw one, took it for a Innil-lortii* I 
 (p. 2.07). Lizards of all sizes, from the ipianil 
 downwards, including two sjieciesof canicli(>nj,iiR I 
 found here. Of birds, there arc pheasantd, pir- 1 
 tridges, wild ducks (of a beautiful pluinagc), ilcivfs I 
 crown birds, parrots, ]>aroquets, Guinea sparnnvj, I 
 bcccaficoes, and a multitude of all kinds, grtal ml i 
 small, many uf them yet unclassed by naturaliitt, [ 
 The waterfowl are — herons, bitterns, and sal 
 mews : the birds of prey — eagles, kites, and «|*-l 
 culiar species, which, though not larger than 1 1 
 dove, is bolder and more rapacious than aiiyoilKJ,| 
 A large and ugly bird, called the pookoe (uf(,i«il I 
 service in destroying the field-rats), is iMTiiliail 
 here, as is also a creature about twice the sizeufl 
 a sparrow, with a remarkable hoUow anil pinvin;' [ 
 voice, the sound of which is regarded by the ni- 1 
 
ASIIANTKK 
 
 103 
 
 ■I'H. A j;ii,'iiiitic rai. | 
 siiinll luiimnl ciillcl 
 1111 mill (U'Viw 
 iiirto A^*lmnt('('. Tim 
 m those of KiiPi|«. | 
 a 1)11(1 bri'cil, and till' 
 itilcs are pr(Kli(;i(iiisly 
 Hi/(>, from llie i'"'"- 
 vt'iuiinouM cn'alim', 
 otoiily thewiiiiilsanil 
 of the iintivcs. 31x1 i 
 Sforiiions (soniciinw 
 mill i'eiili|)i'iU'i'— ttie| 
 not ilannonius, is n- 
 jverv' pliu'i' ; iii"lii*t' 
 lentiful as in Kiinf . | 
 a size, that ]hnm. 
 it for a hind-tdrtiiw I 
 zes, from the ipuw 
 eciesof caincliims,att| 
 are jihcnxants, pir- 
 tiful pUiina^c), (loves 
 ets, Guiiifa apamim, 
 of allkiiuKffri'aisna 
 jlassed hv iiaturalisii, I 
 ., bitterns, and m 
 jf^loa, kites, and «!*• 
 ;h not lart'ertluni 
 ifiou8 than any otiici. 
 I the pookoc{of(,'Te«t 
 ield-rnts), is F'lib 
 (out twice the size of 
 hollow and pi«« I 
 regarded hy tk M- 
 
 (ffjumnffvll nincn. Tlic rpiipmI chnrnctcriHiit! 
 I ihc .V«hiiiitc<i hinlr* iit cxln'tiu' iM'aiity ol'ldii- 
 |iij,r, ; liiit iilciifinx voiceK arc rare aiiioiiix ilicm, 
 iticiiiiliiii>>{''d«' ami thriinh Uliif^ Itie only hhii);- 
 ,i,tH kiiiiwii- !^|"irr(iWH and swhIIowm arc very 
 iiiinii'niii'*: and thi^doiiicMlIc fowl arc tlx- muik^ an 
 i|i„^. iif Kiiri'|«'. The woodi alMiiind in Ikm-k; 
 jiiililicilcstriictlvc N|H'ii<'H of ant, called icniicn, 
 l, *j niinu'rouN ntid rapatdoiiM, that a Hhccput- 
 uikiil liy them diiriiig the iiii^ht Ihim In'cii found 
 rfirl Hkclcton in the inoniin)^. It in wiid Ihcy 
 iiltai'k any animal, even the iiioHt powerful 
 iij.i vpiiimiou'^' Hcqient, and dcMtroy him. Fin^- 
 lili,., driiK"" -•"''•"• ■* "y •'xactly rcNcinhlinjj the 
 ■luiilmriilcs in amH'aranee and ncciit, l<>nelher with 
 lilic iiiM'ct irilK'H cominon to the IVopics, except 
 hf ni"";<"'"> '^^ found ii|Hm the coast; and in 
 hfintciidr, hcrt,ainoiiK a vant v»ri(\ty of i*|Mriei*, 
 wncd several whii^li ap|M>ar(<d to he |N>c.iiliar, 
 |tt> liH'iist ii* not wludly iiiiknown, hut itH de- 
 miiiivi" visits are rans owing prohahly to the 
 ii ilintHiice of the denert, and the intervention 
 if |il;,'li moiiiitainM iHitween it and Ashantce. 
 Iti'k 1111(1 hnni|Hbaeke<l whalcM are niimeroiiH on 
 iii. oiHst k'twceii Septeinher and Dceeinher, 
 ;irks arp very niiineroiiH, are fr«'(|ueiitly cap- 
 iimI, and fonn the mowt eonimon food of the 
 Ciinst negroes. Other sortH of Hca llsh are 
 imaliundanl ; and the riverM arc an well niipplit^d 
 ilic Kcii, yielding, among others, great ipiaiiti- 
 ifs iif oysters and erahs, which feed upon the 
 iiuWof the mangrove and other trees, hut are 
 ,i ;;ihkI fur food if tlio Water he fresh. 
 Pmlittion, lluhit», Maunerg, and Cu»tom*. — 
 iwilitcli estiinHtcM tlic poj). of Asliantcc I'roptT 
 l,iiiW,(H)l» ; of whom 20 1,000, he says, are war- 
 in; 1(11,11110 eliihircn under ten years: r>0,000 
 iiv«helwecn ten and sixteen; 7,(»tO ohi men; and 
 .iKlii females; and the pop. of the wlnde em- 
 ire may, i^'riiaps, \vi Hoincwhere alsmt ;<,000,000. 
 ic men are well made, more miisiMilar on the 
 tthon in the interior, and free from the more 
 iviiliiiiK iMiculiaritieH of negro form ami feature. 
 e higher order of females (those not subject to 
 ml labuur) may be said to lie handsome, with 
 itiires rather of an Indian than an African 
 uliL lk)th sexes arc eleanly, washing from 
 ml to f(K)d every day, and afterwanls anointing 
 mselvcs with the grciuso of the shea, or huttcr- 
 agood cosmetic, and a preservative of the 
 ill this hot climate. The clothes of the better 
 isscs arc convenient, and not ungraceful, con- 
 ing of immense cloaks, exactly like the Human 
 p. manufactured of the most costly silks. The 
 ■JresH substitutes for this a close vest, covered 
 :h metal omamcnta and scraps of Moorish 
 itini;, as spells against danger, loose cotton 
 mn, and large boots of dull red leather. The 
 irior chiefs have g(dd breast-plates ; and all 
 10 can procure them, wear gold ornaments in 
 ifn»i(in. Some of these are well wrought, others 
 merely lumps of rock-g(dd hung to the wrist : 
 war-cap consists of gold or gilded rams' horns, 
 irting ail extravagant plume of eagles' fea- 
 iisi. In peace, the liead-ilrcss is usually a fillet. 
 lower orders wear nothing but a piece of cloth 
 ened round the waist. Bosmaii enumerates 
 degrees, or orders of 8<tciety ; — the king, the 
 iiceers, the gentry, the traders, and the slaves, 
 the kuig, however, there is, in fact, but 
 distinction, that of slave and freeman. The 
 iiceers, or magistrates of towns and villages, are 
 indiscriminately from the gentry; aiul these, 
 I, are merely such as have enriched themselves 
 lie or inheritance, and who, not unfrequcntly, 
 bom slaves. The occuiiations of trade are, 
 tlsed alike by the poorer freemen and the better 
 
 OL, I. 
 
 ilime ''ctwecn the kcnun 
 lotiiu Marri << Is ef- 
 '■ nicii y to ll 
 
 iM. The 
 < nut Im'ciiiiii 
 . vv, however, ( 
 ■III ire than one wile, and 
 for the hiislNUid liaving 
 
 jiareiitN 
 IsTty of 
 '■mniiin. 
 •cpt the 
 
 class or>lavp"i. TIioJi 
 is oil the Worst |M>sMi)i 
 fcclcd liy iMiying a silii 
 i<f the girl, uiid a I'ainii 
 Ihe man and nninaii il 
 ('(dygniiiy is allowed, i 
 richest individuals, have 
 verv many have iidihs 
 
 uiilnnilcd power of life, liinh, and liberty, over his 
 wife (and |inistitiition Is'ing noways (Kscredilable), 
 feinal(>s freipieiitly refuse to marry; the father, 
 in such cases, never altemniiiig compiilsiiiii, hut 
 instantly disclaiming all hitiire interest in IiIm 
 daughter, liifaiils are not uiifrci|iiently married 
 to infants. The food of the higher cliksses consista 
 of soup of dried llsh, fowls, U-ef, or miilldii; wild 
 hog, de<>r, and monkey's tiesh, together with the 
 varii^ty of vegctabli>s which the soil pnHluces. 
 VVell-stimkcd ami well-regulated markets are liidil 
 in the towns, for the supply of these necessaries, 
 as well lis for articles of elolhiiig and Kiirnpeaii 
 manufaetun>. The isiorer dosses, excepting hoiise- 
 hohl slaves, live almost exclusively on tish and 
 dhoiirrah. The common drink is palm-wine. 
 
 The Ashantees liave two high festivals; one 
 annually, at the yam liarvest, in Septemlwr; the 
 other at intervals of aliout twenty-one days, 'rim 
 last is called the adai custom, and alternately the 
 great and little adai. It forms the calendar; the 
 
 veiir, whiidi commences in October, Udiig dividi^d 
 hy it into eiiiial parts, and tiTininated by the great 
 yam festival. At these festivals, as on all public 
 
 occasions, the most brutal excesses and cruelties 
 are practisi^d. The skulls of all the kings and 
 chiefs whoso fall has swelled the |Miwer of the 
 reigning monarch, together with those of rebellious 
 calsiceers, to the amount of more than 200, are 
 paraded before the assembled multitude. Kuni and 
 i>alni-wiiie are swallowed like water, till the guests 
 are brought to a state of intoxication and mad- 
 ness, when hundreds of human victims are sacri- 
 Hced. They seem, in fact, to delight in cruelty 
 and bhxHl. The death of a free iierson is, in almost 
 all coses, attended by the slaughter of a human 
 being, to ' wet the graoe ; ' and that of a chief in- 
 variably causes a frightful sacritlcc of life, if a 
 man ot ordinary rank marry a royal female, he 
 must bo killed on his wife's grove, should he ha|>- 
 |>eii to survive her; and the ocros (iiersonal at- 
 tendants on the king) are all murdered on their 
 master's grave, togetlier with many others, male 
 and female, often amounting t4i some thousaiuki. 
 Cannibalism, as far as res|iects the blood and heart 
 of uii enemy, is practised, though not avowed : 
 and the teeth and smaller bones uf vonipiished 
 foes are ostentatiously worn as ornaments; the 
 skulls and larger joints being preserved as publiu 
 trophies. Such ore the disgusting enormities (K>r- 
 petrated by this nation of savages ; who, if they 
 contrast advantageously with other negro tribes in 
 energy and decision of character, yield to none in 
 that cruelty and bloodthirstiness which seem to 
 lie leading features in the African character. To 
 complete their character, it may be further ol>- 
 served that they are great thieves and extraordi- 
 nary observers of etiquette. 
 
 InduBtry and Commerce. — The labour of clearing 
 away obstructions in a raukly luxurious soil is tho 
 chief employment of the Ashantee agriculturist ; 
 and in tliis his chief instrument is tiro ; by 
 means of which ho both clears the ground, and 
 spreads a mass of rich manure upon the soil. Tho 
 only implement in use is a rude hoe ; but this is 
 sulncient, in productive grounds, Hooded twice a 
 year, to protluce two crops of most kinds of com, 
 and oil abundant supply of yams and rice. Tho 
 plantations arc laid out with considerable ordor 
 
10( 
 
 ASHANTKK 
 
 I 
 
 
 liifii^. 
 
 
 )1 
 
 If *l ■'■*•-. 
 
 !!. 1 
 
 '*i]i ,■ ... «;'^ 
 
 1 i' ' 
 
 ; 'V„ . t;*) 
 
 ' il'' 
 
 ' ,:^ r . 1 , 
 
 ':■ 
 
 , , ' ' l', 
 
 1 ('t' 
 
 
 • '' r 
 
 ■ ; Tl'^i: 
 
 
 ■^"'■:?*^,!ij 
 
 !!'■' ■ 
 
 '^^•^^ 
 
 
 ! M; ■(), . 
 
 !• , 
 
 ... rS;. '"I' 
 
 i 
 
 •',:■■ ;fl^ 
 
 1 1 
 
 ^i:i-. . ilil.. 
 
 ' '''■>ii,,.K''n': 
 
 '» 
 
 ,p>"-. 
 
 l'-.#*- 
 
 mill nontni'N*, mill llir ciillivnlciltfroiinilinri' pri'lly 
 
 t'XlrMxivi', lllllll){|| lll||lll'l|IIHll' III till' WlllllM III' till' 
 I'lillKlinirrN, |><'i<|iilr |)ii> ftTlilily nl' llir "nil. ll"' 
 
 N|i|iriiiirli iif liiirvt'Ki in nlimmi iilwnyx pri'i't'ilril liy 
 m'lirrily, if mil liy rainilii', Tliiiiit{li lliry ilo mil 
 mni'll ini-liilx, llu' AmIiiuiIi'I'n, likn Hrvrrid nl' tlif 
 Al'rii'iin imiiiiiiM, liuvi< liliirkmiiiiliH nml t(iililMiiililii< 
 ol' n NiiiN.rinr ^riii|t> lo wliitl ini^'tii Ih* fX|M-rii'il. 
 Till' I'liriiicr iiiiiiiiirnriiiri' nil ilit-ir nrimt (<'xr<'|il 
 iniiNkclx), rn/iint, Ikt; 'I'Ih' i;iililNiiiiitiN I'lir^i' niiii- 
 
 <try iirniiiiifiilH, hm riiiftN, i-hiiinN, nml lin Iicn, nml 
 
 cnfit. ll^iirt'N III' laiiiii nml wilil Imwi^-im, i'licy nn* 
 nImo till' );ri'nl iiliil-rnnki'M, niiil uri> ulilc to priHliirn 
 lino ^iilil ilirt'nil. 'I'lii' Hih'IK'nn, vuririy, ami liril- 
 liniiiii' III' ilui cliilliN III' ilir iinlivc wi'iivcru wmilil 
 Dili ilix^rni'*' nn Kn^liMli loom; llic iinlicrnN nrt' 
 tininlcil liy nii'HiiK of t'cnlliiTM, witli Miiltl<'ii>nl rr^n- 
 Inrily to hnvii tlui n|i|icHnim'i- of n cnnrMo |iriiit. 
 hycrn, pottiTN, t/kiincrN, nml rnrpnitiTit i-oinpU'li' 
 Ihii liNt of AHliiintcii nrtillriTH; of wIionii liumli- 
 work n niiniliorof inaniifai-lurril nml otlit'rnrlli'ifH, 
 in VIM' It, rooui I, of ilm Itriii.ih MiitiMini, nnt 
 NiM'i'irm'iiN. Tliii hiMiMCM, K(>iiorallv of omt Ntory, ant 
 tiialclii-il, anil tlm (ixlcrnnl vhi\]h ilccorntcil willi 
 n rmlo liii>ro^lypliii; Noulpturn! tlit-y nnt usually 
 pnintcil, liiit not. tloorcil, nml prrliy cloHt'ly nt- 
 Hcnililc an Kn^liMli linrn. It Nlmnlil \m incntioni'il, 
 Ui tlifir (Ti'ilit, that, all ^oo<l lionH<>,>4 have their 
 cloacas whirli a^rccx well with the AMiianU'c cha- 
 rni'lcr fur cUiniilincNN; nml uviiu'i'N, in this ri'H|H'i't, 
 a Hn|M'riority to niimt other iieKro nniioiiM. <!oin- 
 merre with Knnipo having now lieen cnrrietl on 
 for Noine eentiirieM, the iialiveH have liei;onie Mhrewil 
 anil ex|H>rt, ilealem : they prai^tiHe nil HorlM of 
 frnuilN; nml their ilexterity in nihilterntiiif; k<>I'I 
 ('(iiuiIh that of n lirHt-rnte iheiniHt. Knrliot {'i'M)) 
 utIlrinH that, tho I'lirtu^neHC tnn^ht thuin thiH nrt, 
 nH a nieaiiN of ilriviiiK the other Ktiropean natioiiM 
 I'nim the conHt ; nml if thiH be trim, thev linve 
 hIiowii theniMelvex, in thix inHtanee, miicii inoro 
 exjHtrt HchotarH than in any other, (iolil Ih now, 
 tH'rhn^w, the ehief urtiele of exfiort. ; and Monm 
 littli! IH alHo (lone in the wav of ex))ortinfr ivory, 
 nml (lye ami liani wimmIh. slnveM nre exported on 
 every iMmxilih; opportiniit y; nml notwitliNlnniliiit^ 
 the vigilance of the KritiNli eriiiHers, there i« reiwon 
 to tliink that voiiNidernlilc iiiimlierH find their wny 
 ncroHH the Atlaiitie, The im|Mirtj< nre iirincipnlly 
 niiiMketM nml other arnii*, ^nniMiwder, HpiriliioiiH 
 liipiorH, tobaeeo, iron, tin, eopjicr, lend, with (Milton 
 and Indian ^mxIn, whieh nru tnkeii,(!liietly for their 
 ciilouni, to Ik) unravelled and remannfa<!tiir(!d in 
 the native looniH. The laNt-mentioned artiolen 
 arc, however, received chiefly through the interior 
 from Da^omlin and Fezzan, with which the Axli- 
 aiitites niaintaii> n verv extcnHivo trade, Hiipplvin^ 
 them in return with luimirn, iron, and other Kuro- 
 |K>an comnKHliticH; hut never with armH. 'I ho 
 currency in ni>U\, cither in duHt or Hmall lumpH; 
 but the cowric-Hhells, in use farther N., are not 
 unknown. The denomination and viiliieH may bo 
 given an follows : — 200 cowrie.s (^i Htrin^x) = I tokoo 
 (about HJ.) ; H tokooA =3 I luikie ; 1(> ackies = 1 
 newemccii (ounce) ; 2.^uunuc8= 1 bcnda; 1^ benda 
 bI pcr^uin. 
 
 Government, Cimntittitum, Laici, Jteventie, — Be- 
 fore the power of the Ashantce kin^ hnd Hwallowed 
 up that of the other states, each jiossessed its own 
 IH!ciiliar form of government and administration ; 
 some, as Kaiiteo and Mina, were rejmblics; others, 
 and by far the greater number, were despotisms ; 
 but now all are alike brought under the Ashantee 
 constitution ; the legislative power of which lies 
 profcHscdly in the king, an aristocracy, consisting 
 of only four (M'rsons, and the assembly of cabocecr.-* 
 or captAiiiH. The aristocracy was formerly much 
 more uumcruua ; but Sai Cudju, who reigned be- 
 
 Iwcni I'rt.lniiil I7m,'», lM<gnn to reduce It.liyiiiiinr 
 
 I he kIimiI (hchI iif nillhiiril V) of a ilcrriliiil ihil.ln* 
 I hat of line xtill living (itnwdilrh, '.'.'Ilil; an.lil,, 
 plan hiiM Im'i'ii Mm-|.|'HH|'iill\ piirKUud, lill tin. priwi,. 
 ri'Niill Is the ('iiniii'i|iiriiri'. On all i|iii«li>in< ( 
 fiiri'ign iiolirv, the nrintm'rni'y liavi' n v.iin. ,.i|.|,| 
 to till' king'*, exli'iiillng even In n vi'iu ..n i., 
 derlsiotii). In ilniiii'.<tic ntfairs they hnvi' i'iii|,|,|,, 
 able iiilbicnre; but it is exerciMi'd In Imih ,,,, 
 privntcly, the public iinnnum'etni'iils nlwny,,.^ 
 |H'ariiig to einniiAle from the snlc will nt t\w ni..ii. 
 arrli. The nNsenilily of caliiii't'crs has miili'lilHrin,, 
 voire; lliev are meri' recipienls of |)u' l>i«,|,.. 
 niulgnled liv Ihe king ami ariNtoi'rni'v, id win.!,, 
 Iiv thi'ir iilllce, they are bound In k'wv i.|l'i.,i ' 
 t^ifir H«'V)'ral giiveriinicnls. The iiilliii.|in' ni n, 
 nrisiiicrai'v is ciirlii'il by their pnvrriv; ilicywi 
 privih'gi'il frnin capital piiiiiNhim'nl, ^mt iim'>| 
 i|i'N|Hiili'il fur any nll'i'iHi' ; a regiilatinii tlim 1^1 
 niadc and keeps them lii'ggnrs; ninl llm.4, iii(.|f,,i 
 though not ill I'lirm, ibe inoiiarch in aliMi|iiir;T| 
 dcipolic, lie is also heir to the gold nf i'V|.rvi«>.[ 
 The king's fninily nre not exetiipled Innii (iipji);! 
 puniNlimcnt, but their lilnod niu.<i| imt U'lilinl:, 
 dentil lie awarded thi'iii, they arc (Imwih'iI imiJ 
 hah. Death is the piiniHhnieiit for niwarlLTif 
 for picking up gold dropped in the iiiiirki.t-|i|ii.i.;l 
 for killing an rifnal; for treason; iiml, in «,rn,.| 
 cnses, for thet\ nml ncliiltery. The cniiininii |iiiiihiJ 
 inent for the latter is, however, line, or, il'...u.r 
 milted in the o|)eii air, slavery; fur llic liniHl 
 rt'Hliliilioii by the rriciids of the thief, MiitiliUMl 
 is intlicted for mnny oU'eiices; but all ii('i'u>iiii..u| 
 nre mostly made iit the peril of the acriwr. wli.J 
 if he full to estalili.Hli his clinrge, must liiinwlhg.1 
 dergo the |H'iially of the olt'ence. The nlati'i.ftwl 
 
 country, ns res] is security, mny U; iiircn'cil i'n« 
 
 the tiK^t that interest of money is at 'M\ \wun\ 
 for forty days, and the creditor has tln^ |Hwrr.| 
 seixing his deliinr and family as slnvcN, Tw.i ( 
 three s|K>cies of orih'nl are practi.<u'il in i|iiiiiKfiil| 
 cases; one of which con.iists in mnkiiiK tlu'inviu 
 chew about A uf an ounce of a poisoiiniifi hark, 
 then drink tliree or four calabashes of wiitiT. 
 he vomit, be is proiioiinctMl iniiiM'eiit; but if k 
 stomach Ik) pntenl enoiigli lo retain the |Mii«iii.iiij 
 Ik'IiI to Ih> a cnncliisive proof of guilt. The n-veng^ 
 as far ns it (^nn lie ascertnined, coiisixt.^ uf-l^ 
 The gold of deceased |iersoiis, and tliepHNUnfili 
 gracitd no! lies, 2ml, A lax on slaves purch; 
 for the coast, iJrd, The gohl mines and wii<li 
 in Sokoo, Dinkra, Akim, and Assiii. AiIl ' 
 washings of the market-place, litli, TrilmiwfrJ 
 the ritccntly compicrod states, varying; rnnnl 
 Imndns to 2il0 p<>iiguins of gold annually, in*. 
 cases this tribute is taken in kind, \.\w lar?d 
 amount for any one town Iniing /iOO slav('j«,'.'i«ioi»j 
 400 sheep, 400 cottim chillis, and 2(111 Hilli cldihi 
 
 Belitfum. — The allegory of ' The Hunk luijr 
 Calabash' is prevalent through all the (iulil i « 
 and the stales of Ashantee, The (irriii Spigj 
 after (Tenting three white and as many lilmkii 
 and women, placed In't'ore them a lar^'c oAM 
 and a sealed pajicr, giving to the biiu^k nkti 
 choice of the two. They took the caliilwli. «'lii' 
 contained gold, iron, and the chniccHt |irmiiic«^ 
 of the eurtli, but left them in igimrain'c of tb^ 
 use and application. The paper, on the ciinin 
 instructed the wliito men in every thiiit;; i 
 them the favourites of the (ircnt Spirit; iinil|.i| 
 them that superiority which the iiegnie!) alu 
 readily acknowledge. 
 
 From this legeml it is clear that they haven 
 notion of one supreme deity; but tliey liave.n 
 withstanding, lapsed into the absurditimufFa 
 cism (see Akuica), or of the lowest and i-tiaj 
 HiHJcies of idolatry. They have an evil priudf 
 
ily, but tlU'V imj.'] 
 
 , the absiinlitic»^'l*3 
 
 ' the lowest ami if^f 
 
 ' have an evil priiw 
 
 \snANTi:i; 
 
 . ^hciin •'"'>■ "'"""I ••' Kf«"' <lr<'nil, Iml It I* 
 
 :|,i„,| ihnl llii'> 1 IV him iiiloriKiiiii, On tUv 
 
 iiriirv. ii i* ""'''I ''"»' '" ' ''"' "'""' ■"il'i'in 
 
 |,r,||l"lll''' "' ""•" irilH" it nil IIIIIMIIll ll'«'<rll|lllv 
 
 ' ,||,.|,, •iKiiii'M, iiii'l iliililri'ii, 111 ilrivf Ihf t'vil 
 
 ,1 ml I'niiii ill'" li'Wii'* ""il >illMui"<. 'I'lii'v Uiwv n 
 
 lin.il iK'li'l '" '^ I'li'uri' Hiiiii' — kiiii^x, prir'.ift, iitnl 
 
 , ii.Kffr^ Ix'i'iw l"'>''vi'c|, iil'icr il''iiih, 111 rf.'iilr 
 
 r«iih iIk' '•"'"' •'^l '•'■ '" "" '''''"'"' rciii'Miil III' 
 
 hi'ir i'*r<i>l> "'"''' '''"' '' i" futi'l liiot lix' i*<><'i'i- 
 
 ,, ,il' Kd lining tiiiiimii iM'tii^x nil till* ^niM'M ul' 
 
 lilirirkiiirfi* i» iiil«'iiil<'<l '•• "iiliplv Ihi'in with ill 
 
 liriul'iiii* ii> ''"' liiiiii'i' wiirlil, 'I'lii' viriiiiiM niNi), 
 
 Iji i< iiillniH'il. ;irr "t nhn(fcihi'r nvcrw IVinii ihi;* 
 
 L.nli'i'i »'"'■'■ '' '' •'"■>' ''<'li''vt' tln'V will ixir- 
 
 liiki' till' «ii|ii''i'' ii'iivi'ii 111" I heir i'liicl'«: tlirir 
 
 Imn iH'iiiK. ■!> Ill '■ iiHTt'ly a ri'li'iiNo I'riiiii Inliniir 
 
 1„ ihf JiciiiiM' III' KiiiiH' iiilVriiir KciInIi, An iiih'iimi- 
 
 Ini'iii luiinln'r ul' t'liiiriiis, tuiii'iit, liickv ami iiii- 
 
 iikv iloyi*! '>*''' '*'* illl|'''i''l niiIiiiiImmIiiII Id IIic 
 
 ,'riL-li, i'iini|i'*'i<' '!>** Nii|M'rMliliiiii ot' ihc ANhaii- 
 
 1^. Ill hiiine trilM'M, 'rilcHiliiy JH iilwrrvril itM lli«> 
 
 iirrnl Fi'iiili ilay nr Salilialli: Imt tlilt'crciit 
 
 iniillt'ii ({('iK'nilly niiiHi'iTatf <lil1'i'rt>iil ilavn; all, 
 
 iwi'vrr, iiliHi-r\iiiK "oi^ 'riicn; aro many Alnliam- 
 
 ImiJi iiiMiiiiK ')»' AKlianlt'i'it; hiuik', liy tlirir 
 
 i,'hii'ri'iiiii|ili'xii»i< alti'Ntln^ llicir Araliir nriKiii; 
 
 I ilii> iiujiirily ari> mil ilistiii){iiiNlialili' I'miii (In- 
 ihrriHVMK'i*. 'I'hcy havi< ftrcal inlliii'iirn in the 
 iiiirtol'l''Xiiiiai<'*ir. arr Nulijni in their nun oKiccrM 
 
 ill!.|iiniiial alVairH, ami, wlii-rt' very iinincmiiM, 
 1, ilic I'tt-w ill Hi'vcral Inwiis, an? KiivtTiicil liy 
 mnl'-'i in t('Tii|Miral mait<>rM. 
 //iiK/Mii'/f.— I'll' Kiirii|iiiin who hn« olworvoil 
 iMltiiiitii'H iminii^ th(Oaii|Xiia!;rH N|iiikoii in hin 
 n (livininn of Ihii world, the W. «( Ania, ami 
 rn ihc N, nf Al'rit'a, ixill pri'iiarcil Tor Iho llaU'l 
 iiiM^'iicH tlint prevailH S. nl' the Sahara. In 
 Dm, iif the liolil CnaNt, no t'cwrr than m'vcii or 
 jilt lRn);iia(;('i« am I'onml, each iminU'lliKilile to 
 iririU'H Hpeakiii^ the other, and hearing' no re- 
 iun wimtever to any oilier. (HoNiiiaii, iii.) 
 imiliich (Appendix, p. /")(»;<) jriven the iiiimeral!< 
 
 ihirty-iiiie tribes, wheiiee it apiHMtrs that, 
 
 iiKhwime few may be eonsidered as variatiniis 
 lhi> same root, the majiirity do imt assinii- 
 
 in the Hlijjhlest dej^ree. The Ashaiilees, Kaii- 
 WiwiiniiH, Akiiicse, Assinese, and Aipiapims, 
 
 ik iliiiliM'ts of the same laii^naKe ; but for the 
 
 II III' the trilH's that make up this liarbarian 
 lom, aa imaginary line often separates two 
 
 u pnHKPiw no means of soeial iiiterfnnrse. This 
 
 iilnblc olistnt'le to all eommiinieatioii is. no 
 
 III, a chief cause nf the continued (le;;radatioii 
 
 itip iio),^!! race, more especially as none of llicir 
 
 .mimes possess symbnlical characters. In Asb- 
 
 w, as in other parts of .\frii;a, the only persons 
 
 ail read or write are the Moslems, and the 
 
 ly written liii ^iia^e the Arabic. 
 
 ''irtiiry. — 'Ihc AshantecH have two trailitions 
 
 to their iirsi establishment in their present 
 
 les; tirst, that they camo in twelve tribes from 
 
 iiintry nearer the sea; the other, that they 
 
 driven from the interior by the Mobam- 
 
 iii cdiiqnests in the tirst UavH of Islamism. 
 
 may lie that these accounts, ttuHij^^h appa- 
 
 iywntrailiotorj', arc but ditferent versions of 
 
 »«nie talc. It seems certain that the Ashan- 
 
 wcrc, ill 1)140, seated in the centre of their 
 
 ■nt iKwst'ssions, and occasionally cxercisiiif; 
 
 intluciiee over the surrounding states of Akim. 
 
 ' I. t^wlion, and Akeya. Then, and for near 
 
 iiiiry h»ter, the ))ara'mouiit wtate of the f;old 
 
 iirifs was Dinkra; but in the he^iiiniii}; of 
 
 eighlpenth centurv, the kiuR of that country 
 
 ini'il' ilowcreil a wife of the Ashantec mcmarch, 
 
 latitr, though considered a very inferior po- 
 
 AsmUUTDN H)'. 
 
 leiilnle, Invndi'd the llinkraii lerrilorie*. ilefealeil 
 llii« I'lleiiiii't ill Iwii deci'<i\e liattl«<i<, killilltf, il iM 
 •>alil, liMi.iHMi men, ami i'arr>iii){ ntf imineiiMt 
 pliiiiiler, hiiikra, iipiiii ihii, ln'<'aiiie ailacbed ;o 
 
 the Aihaillee i|nmiiiln|i>, ailil ri'nill lliii e|Niell the 
 exleiioinii nf Ibe latter priH'eeileil rapidly. < hie 
 by one llie ditVereiil Nlalex lietweill tile Assillee 
 
 and \'n|(a r'ni-rn were .xiiliiliieil ; and, in |Hii7, Ihe 
 ilMMiinli 111 h'aiilee brnilKhl the Ashaiilees illlo 
 enllininn willi Ihe llrilisb. I 'ape CnaMM 'astle, the 
 prilieipal fnri nf the I'lnulifh nll ihe linliH'nnHl, 
 was in Ihe l''aiili'e eminlry, and held, like Ihe 
 ntller l'',lirnpeaii fnrin llpnii ibiil cnasi, not as a 
 
 lerriinrial rii^lii. Imi at a rent frmn the native 
 
 l^nveriinieiil. Alter Ibe cnmiiiesl nf Kaillee, the 
 rent was claimed by ami htiiil In the kiii){ nf Ihe 
 Ashanteex; bill some dilllcitllies miide aisiiil re- 
 cn^njsin^ his snveri'it;iiiy. led to mmli discuN-<ion, 
 and to IwnembaMsies (ilinse nf llnwdilcb and Ihi- 
 lillis) In the eniirl of Cnnliiasnie. Ill jllsliee to llie 
 kiiiK it miisl be admit ted that, wliaiever may be 
 Ihnii^hl nf his enlldllcl tn Ibe natives, all nncnlil 
 
 mnii det;r f fnrbearance marked his U'liaviniir 
 
 to the llrilisb anlhnrilies. The treaty concluded 
 by Ihipiiis in iN'.'il was not ralilled liy the cniiiieil 
 at Cape ('nasi Castle, because, by the liflli article, 
 il reen^niMed Ibe (iiiesliniiedsnverei^nty nf llie Kaii- 
 lee cniinlry ; but llie heart burning neeessiirily coii- 
 seipienl nil Ibis nlep did not break out fiir some 
 lime after. The dealb of Sai l^iamiiia (kinu of 
 Ashaniee), who, aeenrdiiiK to Ihipiiis and llnw- 
 ditiOi, was the sli<ady friend of the whites, jteems 
 to have been the si;;iial for bnslililies. Ills suc- 
 cessor declared war apkinst the KiikIIsIi ; and on 
 the 'Jlst of .laniiary, IH21, Sir C. M 'Carl by, ^o- 
 v(>mor ofCapeCnast, at the head of 1,001) men, 
 was totally ilefealcd bv Ihe Asbanlees. It took 
 aliitost three years lielore the Kn^lisli |Miwer on 
 the (iold Coast recovered frnm this blow ; but in 
 |X2)S, Ihe Asbanlees baviii); siill'ered a rninoim 
 ilefeat, I'oiiNenled to pay li.oon n/., nf ^nhl as the 
 prii'e of [H'ace, and to send the kind's sun for edu- 
 cation, or rather as hnstai;e, to Cap<> Coast Castle. 
 In iMiJI, a treaty was sij^ned between <iovernor 
 Maclean, the Ashaiilees, and the Faiilees, by 
 which the Kiii^ of Ashaniee was (umipelled to 
 acknowleilpt the independence of these and tho 
 other irilK'N under llrilisb prnteclinn. The Ash- 
 aniee power on the cnast, since this event, may Ira 
 cniisidered as nearlv desirnved. 
 
 ASIIIlOCKNK.a m. inwn of Knulnnd, co. 
 Derby, on the K. side of the Dart, 122 m. XW. 
 l.onilon, i;ij NW. Deiby. The parish, in which 
 the town is situated, had, in IKII, -l.tSH-l inhab., 
 and •'),07N in INiil. It has an old church with n 
 line spire, a free Krammar-scbool, two elementary 
 schools, one for thirty boys, and the other for 
 thirty ^irls, almshouses for poor men and women, 
 and some other charitable instilulions. Dnvcdale, 
 famous for its romantic beauties, is in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of this town. 
 
 ASllML'HT()>f, a boronj;h m. town and par. of 
 Kn^land, CO. Devon, bund. Tei^nbrid^e, th.^ Im- 
 roii^h Ihuii^ situated within 1;^ in. of the Dnrt, on 
 the bi^h road from London to I'lyinoulh, 170 m. 
 WSW. London, and I!) m. ,SVV. Kxctcr, on a branch 
 line of the (ireat Western railway. The parish 
 coiitauis K,!l'2ll acres, and had, in 18!H, a pop. of 
 4,l<i,'i, and ;),0ti2 in IKlil. The town hat* a hand- 
 some (iotliic church, with a tower, !)0 ft. in height, 
 a f^rammar-Hchool, and free schools, which supplv 
 elementary iiiMtriiclion to about toi) chihh'eii. It 
 is the seat of one of the stannary courts. Ser(j;e 
 and similar articles are manufactured, and there 
 arc tin and coi)per niinea in Ihi; vicinity. I're- 
 viously to the Keforra Act, Ashburton returneil 
 two ni. to the H. of C, the franchise being vested 
 
 o2 
 
 I ! 
 
 
 
106 
 
 ASIIBY-DE-LA-ZOUCII 
 
 in frocholdora having lands and tcnemonts hold- 
 ing of the iNiroughonly. ThoKeform Act dcprive<l 
 it of one m., and made the hftiindarics of the 
 parish and pari, horough identical. The conHti- 
 tucncy conaiHted, in 1805, of 232 rcgiNtcred elec- 
 tors, two being old freeholders, and tlie rest 10/. 
 householders. Ashburton was the birthplace of 
 Dunning, thr- famous lawyer, who was created 
 Itarou Ashburton; and of William (iifford, the 
 translator of Juvenal, and editor of the (Quar- 
 terly Review, who, on his death, left a legacy to 
 the town. It now gives the title of llaron to the 
 head of the family of Ilaring. 
 
 ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a m. town and par. 
 of England, co. Leicester, hund. VV. Goscote, 
 1 16 ra. NW. by N. London, on the Midland Kail- 
 way. The par. contains 8,300 acres, and had in 
 1861, 6,958 inhabitants, of whom 3,772 belonged to 
 the town. The latter consists of one main street, 
 and some smaller ones ; has an old church ; seve- 
 ral free schools, for girls as well as boys; and 
 manufactures, on a small scale, woollen and cot- 
 ton stockings, and hats, and has some trade in 
 malting. In the vicinity arc the extensive re- 
 mains of Ashby Castle, built by Lord Hastings, 
 in the reign of Edward lY., and dismantled in 
 that of (^-harles II. 
 
 ASHFOKD, a m. town and par. of England, 
 CO. Kent, lathe of Scray, the town being situated 
 on an eminence near the junction of the upper 
 branches of the Stour, 47 m. ESE. London by 
 road, and 67 m. by South Eastern Railway. The 
 par. contains 2,950 acres, and had 6,950 inhab. in 
 1861. The church, a Gothic fabric of considerable 
 note, has a lofty well-proportioned tower, and 
 several ancient monuments. There is a free 
 grammar-school of some eminence, founded in 
 the reign of Charles I., and some other charities. 
 
 ASH RUFF, a town of Persia, prov. Mazun- 
 deran, about 8 m. from the W. extremity of the 
 l)ay, and 62 ra. W. from the city of Asterabad. 
 Near it are the ruins of an extensive and magni- 
 licent palace, built by the greatest of the Persian 
 raonarchs, Shah Abbas. The town, which was in 
 a great degree dependent on the palace, has been 
 Hcnously affected by the decay and ruin of the 
 latter; and does not contain above 500 houses, 
 thinly scattered through an extensive jungle. 
 (Fraser's Caspian Sea, p. 19.) 
 
 A8HT0N-UNDER-LYNE. a pa. of England. 
 CO. of Lancash., hund. Halford, 6 m. long. N. to S., 
 4 m. broad; area 9,300 acres. Pop. in 1801,15,632 ; 
 1821,25,967; 1831,33,597; 1841, 46,304, and in 
 1861, 66,801, of whom nearly half resided in the 
 town of Ashton, and the residue principally in the 
 hamlets of Lees, Mossley, Audenshaw, and part of 
 Staley-bridge. Surface level, soil marshy and 
 poor. But the inferior quality of the soil is com- 
 pensated by the abundance of mineral products, 
 coal of good quality and in the greatest abundance 
 being found in almost ever^ part of the parish. 
 From this circumstance and its proximity to Man- 
 chester, of which it may be regarded as a depen- 
 dency, the parish has become a principal seat of the 
 cotton manufacture, most part of the population 
 being engaged in and dependent on its various pro- 
 cesses. Stout printing calicoes and ginghams are 
 the articles principally produced. The manor 
 and ecclesiastical patronage belong to the Earl 
 of Stamford, who derives a large income from the 
 parish. 
 
 Ashton-tjndkr-Lyke, a m. town of England. 
 CO. of Lancashire, in the above pa., on the N, 
 bank of the Tame, 187 m, NW. by N. London, 
 and 6i m. E. Manchester, on the London and 
 North Western railway. Pop. in 1821, 9,220; 
 1831, 14,670 ; 1841, 22,614, and in 1861, 34,886. 
 
 ASIA 
 
 The town is well laid out, well built, ..nd u emij 
 nently thriving. Its rapid growth is owitiR tnthl 
 still more rapid extension of the cotton maniifacl 
 ture. In 1864 there were about ninrty e„\u 
 mills at wofk in the town. Among the puiiij, 
 buildings are an old and a new church, with nu 
 merous chapels and other places of worsliip, ; 
 cotirt-house, a theatre, conccrt^room, anil an exl 
 cellent market The free school is but Hlcmlcrll 
 endowed ; but there are several other sch(H)lA, w-jil 
 a mechanics' institute and large Sunday schiHill 
 The Ashton, Staley-bridge, Ac, Hanking ('unJ 
 pany, established in 1836, has its head office in ihl 
 town ; and here, also, the Manchester and LivpJ 
 pool District Banking Companv, and other baiikJ 
 nave l)ranchp«. Market-day, Saturday. TlicnJ 
 a cattle market on the lirst Satiinlny in »] 
 month. Fairs, March 23, April 29, .'lily 14 | 
 and 25, Nov. 10 and Nov. 21. 
 
 Ashton is admirably situated for trade mi 
 manufacture, ui the centre of a populous nM 
 bourhood, havin)^ an unlimited command of ool 
 and communicating by mean:4 of canals and rail 
 ways with all parts of the empire. It was anciontll 
 a borough, but for some cause or other has Idnj 
 been disfranchised. The Reform Act ciinffir 
 on it the privilege of sending one n. to the H, ii 
 C. It had, in 1864, a constituency of l,flfi2 njiJ 
 tcred electors, the whole of them being lO/.houJJ 
 holders. 
 
 ASIA, the largest, earliest civilised, andinmiuil 
 respects the most interesting of the great (livislm 
 of the globe, extends from P 20' to 78° X.lai] 
 and, when the islands lielonging to it arc incluW 
 from 1° 19' S. lat. From W. to E. it extends fn,J 
 26° to 190° E. long. The most northerly point3 
 the continent is Cape Taimura, 78° N.lnt.Mhj 
 most easterly. Cape Tshukotakoi Noss, 19(i° I 
 long. ; the most southerly, Cai)e Bums, 1° 2(1' 1 
 lat,; and the most westerly. Cape Baba, in Aii| 
 Minor, 26° E. long. Cape "f aimura and Cape Bin 
 are more than 5,300 m. distant from each oilid 
 and this consequently is the extent of Asia M 
 N. to S. Its greatest breadth occurs under tu 
 parallel of 40" N.lat., between Cape Baba and lU 
 E. coast of the Corea, where it extends ahfJ 
 5,600 miles from W. to E. Its surface is m\i\m 
 to cover about 17,500,000 sq. m., being above foa 
 times the area of Europe. 
 
 I. Sketch of Asia. — On the N. AsiaisTOsbi 
 by the Arctic Sea, which separates it from i 
 Arctic countries of America ; c Jie E, by the PJ 
 citlc Ocean, which divides it from the continent ( 
 America ; on the 8. by the Indian Ocean, i\hi 
 lies between it and Australia; on the W. itiu 
 terminous with Africa and Europe. The boiimta 
 line between it and Africa is formed by the Gulf I 
 Aden, the straits of Babelmandeb (where I 
 continents are only about 16 miles apart), the li 
 Sea and the Isthmus of Suez, where Iwth conii 
 nents unite for about 70 miles. Asia is aeparalij 
 from Europe by the Metliterranoan Sea, tlj 
 iEgean Sea, or Archipelago, the straits of the I 
 danelles, the Sea of Marmora, the channel ofCd 
 stantinople, and the Black Sea. From the easq 
 shores of the latter sea the boundary -line i 
 along the crest of Mount Caucasus to the Casfiij 
 Sea, which constitutes the boundary as far as li 
 mouth of the river Oural. Thence it follows tM 
 course of that river up to its source in the Ouraliif 
 Range, which latter forms the remainder of tf 
 boundary line to the Gulf of Kara, E. of f 
 island of Novaia Zemlia. 
 
 To the S. and SE. of Asia is the greatest of j 
 archipelagos, containing many thousands of Id 
 and small islands. These belong partly to Aa 
 and partly to Australia, but they arenutseiifflil 
 
veil built, ..nd is fniil 
 growth iHciwinKtdiiJ 
 f the cotton mmmfael 
 I about ninety cmti,, 
 n. Among the iiuliiii 
 new church, with „i, 
 
 ■ plOCCH of W(IMlli|i, 
 
 cert^room, and an c J 
 school w but HlcmlirlJ 
 eral other soIkmiIs, wiij 
 
 large Sundn^y sclm.,! 
 c, &c,, liankni); Cum 
 has it« head office in tij 
 Manchester and Live. 
 panv, and other hankj 
 \y, Saturday. Tluni 
 liret Satuninv in ci,] 
 April 29, .'uly 14, 
 21. 
 
 ituated for trade n.,, 
 ■e of a populous ncit'li 
 lited command (if ciciJ 
 am of canaU ami raiil 
 impirc. It was ancicmlJ 
 ause or other hai Idnl 
 
 Reform Act cdnfomi 
 ing one m. tt> the II. i 
 ^tituency of l,flfi'.> ng. 
 f them being 10/. huiB 
 
 st civilined, and inn 
 ng of the great divisimi 
 n 1O20' to 78° X.latJ 
 inging to it arc incluli 
 V. to E. it extcmh fm J 
 ! most northerly point J 
 imura, 78° N.lat.Mh] 
 iikotskoi Noss, 1911" I 
 , Cape Euros, 1° 20' J 
 Iv, Cape Baba, in ii 
 I'aimura and Ca|)c Bnn 
 distant from each oilii>j 
 he extent of Asia M 
 cadth occiws under tiJ 
 vcen Capp Baba and ikj 
 where it extends aim 
 Its surface is sup|»* 
 sq. m., being above fod 
 
 3n the N.Asia is wa«l» 
 h separates it fmm 
 ;a ; f Jie E. by the 1 
 1 itfrf)m the continent j 
 le Indian Ocean, nhiif 
 lia; on the VV.it ncdd 
 Europe. The boiinilsij 
 is formed by theGultj 
 ibelmandeb (where ' 
 16 miles apart), the K 
 Suez, where Ixith fucii 
 niles. Asia is se|)arat(| 
 [editerrancan Sea. 
 ro, the straits of the 1 
 lora, the channel ofdi 
 [ Sea. From the easta 
 the boundary -line 
 Caucasus to the Ca'ia 
 B boundary as far as ij 
 . Thence it follow? ti 
 its source in the Oumlij 
 IS the remainder of t' 
 ulf of Kara, E. of 
 
 sia is the greatest of 
 many thousands ofl 
 5 belong partly to M 
 lit they are not sepani^ 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 I i 
 
 ( I 
 
 li 
 
( mitiuput uf \»^^k Area IS 7i!i no Stf MUtJ 
 
 Imttth 5000 MtUs 
 
 MnuaiMim 
 of 
 
 ASIA 
 
 fcl' Kvrrvil tr.'.v 
 
 Kimcluiijiufpi jiiri 
 Illiawiil«|^iri ygfiSa 
 
 Londcn LcriiimajtJt Co 
 
 rrtimSs!^ 
 

 Continrnt of \>ia 
 
 F.U|;liMid % Wnlri triadtk t;«TiJw 
 
 A*» »»« 
 
 S trraiUh 4>tv Hit/t 
 
 l^ y i/ ., dl ^ 
 
 ' '^■tthnfl 
 
 hWelier • .ip' 
 

 
 ('iiaiualtin ^ 
 
 * ramlotil 
 
ASIA 
 
 107 
 
 liv any nntiiral Iwumlary. When the PortUf?ucHC 
 ami MiMUiinrdit Iwgan to bo acquainted willi tlie 
 islandx of India, they cnnmiereii or Hcttled tho!*c 
 (inly which were 8upnoiHxl likely to repay the ex- 
 jicnsc and trouble, TheHu were then, and are Htill, 
 t'lintti'lcnul at) Ijclon^ing to Aoia. The othen*, 
 wliicii <lid notofl'cr Huch advantagcH, and were not 
 w'ttli'<l or vittitcd at that time, are now included in 
 Au:<traliii. In this way, Ja|)an, Formosa, the 
 |'hili|>|>ii>cs, the Moluccas, ancl tliat lonfr chain of 
 islamls which, in the cast, bc^iim with Timorlant, 
 ami on the west terminates with Java, are con- 
 liiilvrcd as lielonj^ing to Asia, whilst the numerous 
 islands dis]>ersc(i between the Moluccas and New 
 (iuinca, and lyin^ at a short <listunce from the 
 fdrincr, are included in Australia. 
 
 Ill l(Nikin); at the majt of Asia, we are struck by 
 (iliservin^, tliat the I'acitic Ocean, which divides 
 it fnim America, nowhere reaches immediately to 
 ilie ciinsts of the continent, but is H(!i>aratcd trom 
 ilieni by several chains of islands, whi(di,with the 
 ioa.it, forni a number of smaller sea-basins. The 
 must northerly of these sea-basins is the Sea of 
 Kamtehutka, lying between the NK. extremity of 
 Asia and the 5«'\V. of America, and senaratcd from 
 tliu Pncilic by the Aleutian Islands. The Kurilian 
 Islands, extendinf? from Cape Lopatka to Yeso, the 
 must northerly of the islands forming; the empire 
 (if Ja|)nii, separate another sea-basin from the 
 I'acilic ; it is called the Sea of Oklutt.sk, from the 
 lar),'e island forming its W. side, and commonly 
 called SagliiUien. Farther 8. lies the Sea of 
 Juitan, shut up by the islands constituting that 
 cniinre and the o)i|>osite coasts of Manchooria and 
 ('urea. Then ftdlows the sea called Tung-Hut 
 (Eastern Sea) by the Chinese, with its extensive 
 northern gulf the Wung-IIai (Yellow Sea). This 
 liasin is more open towiirds the I'acitic, its entrance 
 bi'ing shut up only by two or three small groups 
 III' islands, among which the Loo Choo have ol)- 
 tuined some celebrity in later times. The Island 
 (if Formosa forms the southern boundary of this 
 lasin. From this island to the equator extends 
 ilie Han-Hai (Southern Sea) of the Chinese, 
 called by the Europeans the Chinese Sea, because 
 ii is traversed by them in their voyage to China. 
 The eastern boiuidaries of this basin ara the Phi- 
 li|i|iincs and the islands of Palawan and Borneo, 
 iiiiil it forms two great gulfs in the continent, 
 those of Tonkin and Siam. The formation of these 
 hvc sea-basins is partly owing to the three great 
 IK'ninsulas, which project from the continent, the 
 [icninsula of the Tshuktshes, occupying 00,000 sq. 
 m,, and those of Kamtchatka and Corca, which 
 are nearly of the same extent. 
 
 The S. coast ol Asia is not surrounded by close 
 $cas, but is quite open to the Indian Ocean, except 
 vhcre it borders on the Chinese Sea; but in these 
 parts are s<!veral gulfs which deeply penetrate 
 into the continent, and thus form extensive penin- 
 sulas. The principal are the Bay of Bengal, the 
 Sea of Arabia, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of 
 Ajan, and the Ked Sea, separating Asia from 
 Mrica. The peninsulas which occur on this side 
 are those of India without the Gauges, which has 
 an area of nearly 800,000 sq. m., Inilia within 
 liie Ganges and Arabia. Kach of the last meii- 
 liuned comprising upwards of a million sq. m. ; the 
 three together being nearly equal to Euro^Hj in 
 extent. 
 
 Where Asia approaches Europe, we meet the 
 larfje peiimsula of Asia Minor, covering a surface 
 of more than 200,000 sq. m., which being sur- 
 rounded by the Mediterranean and Black Sea, 
 facilitates the intcrcotirse of both coutmcuts by sea 
 as well as by land. 
 
 The N, coast of Asia, indented by numerous 
 
 deep bays, and having several projecting tonf^iics 
 of land, would give great advantages to maritmie 
 intercourse with other countries did the severity of 
 the climat« not render them inaccessible all the 
 year round. They arc nearly everywhere en- 
 closed by ice. 
 
 1. Great Northern I'hiin. — Conformation of the 
 Surface. — Rivers. — Ahing the coasts of the Arctiis 
 Sea, always covered with ice except in the sum- 
 mer months, when it is o|)en along the shores to a 
 distance of a few miles, extends the greatest plain 
 of the globe. This plain not. only covers nearly 
 the whole of Northern Asia, but advanc(!s west- 
 ward, extending over the east of Europe, ami 
 reaching to the very shores of the North Sea o)!- 
 positc Great Britain. We mav even atHrm that 
 the h)w and level countries which in England oc- 
 cur ahmg the North Sea between the Thames and 
 Iliimlter, constitute the farthest W. corner of this 
 vast plain. For, a traveller departing from Emi- 
 don and advancing eastward between the parallels 
 of 62° and 53° N. bit. as far as 85° E. hnig., and 
 hence between 55° and oG° N. lat., will arrive at 
 Takutzk, on the river Lena (liJOOE.long.) without 
 having passed any mountain-range. '1 he highest 
 ground in his way would occur about (50° E. long., 
 iK'tween the river Oural and the sources of the 
 Tobol, where a chain of hills rises, but only to an 
 absolute height of less than 2,000 ft. Jn this Umg 
 journey he would hove traversed 130 degrees of 
 h»ng., or more than a third part of the curvature of 
 the earth, and this is the length of the great plain 
 in this parallel. But along the Arctic Sea it 
 stretches farther east, and terminates at 165° E. 
 long, on the banks of the river Kolyma. 
 
 This plain would extend from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacific Sea, but for two mountain-ranges, 
 which rise at its W. and E. extremities like high 
 walls, to protect it against the encroachments of 
 the sea. At its W. extremity are the Scandina- 
 vian mountains, lying NNK. and SSW. Atits 
 E. extremity are,' first, the Y'ablonoi mountains, 
 and then the Verkhoianskoi and St^mnovoi moun- 
 tains, which extend from the S. limits of the lius- 
 sian prov. of Zabaikalskaya, E. of Lake Baikal, in 
 a NE. direction, until they terminate on Behring's 
 Strait. This range occupies a considerable width, 
 being probably nowhere less than 160 m, across, 
 but does not rise to a considerable height, the 
 highest of its summits which have been measureil 
 attaining only 4,055 ft. above the sea, and its 
 mean elevation being estimated at less than 2,000 
 ft. Its N. branches till up the whole countrj' 
 between the peninsula of Kamtchatka and the 
 Polar Sea with mountains of moderate elevation, 
 many of which, however, are always covered with 
 snow on account of their high latitude near the 
 Polar Circle. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that in the seas adjoin- 
 ing the two boundary ranges, two of the most 
 active volcanic systems are met with. To the 
 west of the Scandinavian mountains a great num- 
 ber of volcanoes are placed on the island of Ice- 
 land, and, as it seems, also on the neighbouring 
 island of Jan Mayen. On the east of the Yablo- 
 noi and continuing ranged!, the peninsula of Kamt- 
 chatka offers a similar phenomenon. It seems that 
 the chain of mountains is mostly covered with 
 volcanic matter, and several very high summits, 
 are still active volcanoes. The highest of the 
 two summits of the volcano of Sliivelush rises toi 
 10,591 ft. above the sea, and that of the volcanck 
 Kliutahewsk even to 15,825 ft» The tracts of low 
 land which extend along the sea-coasts of thi.^ 
 peninsula are partly coveBed with thick forests, 
 and partly with line grass, but neither agriculture 
 nor the rearing of cattle is attended to, the very 
 
 V 
 
 ft! m 
 
 iF m 
 
 ■:jn 
 
 
lOR 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Mciiiily |Mipiiliition (iiiiliiiK it more rnny to gel itx 
 Hiilmintciu'c by IIhIuii^, 
 
 ItoHiilcH thi' rniip'N furminff thr> Imiinrlnry nf tho 
 pliiiii to the K. hikI VV„ it 'it iwarly in ilH iniilillo 
 iravcrmMl liy nnothcr cliiiiii, the Oiiraliitii iiioiiii- 
 laiiiH, wliicli run nciirlv iliic N. niiil S., on liotli 
 ri.lt'Hof (!0° K, Inii);. 'I'IiIm riinf,'(', wliich in hn'iiillh 
 ot'cniiicH liiinlly anywiicrt! inor(< llian i>0 or (ID ni., 
 cxIiiliilH near itH N. fxlrcinitv a few Hinnnntx 
 wliii'h riH(> to from 4,(MI0 to 5,IMM) ft. lint tlic 
 mean (■Icvation ii4 prohaMy not more tlwin 2,000 
 t'l. nifovi' Hie MCft, lU'lwoen fiti'^ unil ()l° arc alno 
 sonii- HnmmitH wliieli attain lii>tw(><>n 4,000 ami 
 ■"i.OOO ft. At t lie Honrces of the river ( Jnral the raiifje 
 lowern coiiHiilerahlv, and dividcH in several ridp's ; 
 of whit'li one, eailed the IiIIIh of MnpidHharsk, 
 ailvani'e!4 in a S\V. direetion, and tenninntes on 
 (he plain which divides the Caspian Sea from the 
 lake of Aral. Thns this chain does not join the 
 mountain-ranges in the interior of Asia. 
 
 Nearly in the middle of the S. horder of the 
 (ireat Plain, on both sides of the hills of Muk'mI- 
 sharsk and the conntries lyin>? S. of it, between 
 4.")° and (i4° K, Ion/;;., oi^eurs the most remarkable 
 tlepression on the surface of the earth. A tract of 
 conntry, extending over nn area of more than 
 ;J00,000 sq. m., exclusive of the Caspian Sea, is, 
 nucordint; to tlic supposition of Humboldt, hiwer 
 than the surfaiH; of the ocean. The lowest part of 
 it is occupied by the Cas|iian Sea, which was sup- 
 posed by Humboldt, to be no less than 84H ft. 
 l)elow the surface of the lilack Sea; but later, and 
 it is believed, more correct, measurements make 
 the level of the Caspian Sea only llti ft. below, 
 and that of the Lake of Aral 14 ft. above, the level 
 of the Ulack Sea. According to Humboldt, this 
 (lepression extends l>etweeri the rivers Kooma, 
 ■\\'olf;n, and Oural, up to a line drawn from Sara- 
 tow to Orenburfi, whence its bonnilar\' rims to the 
 Lake of Ak-sa-kal (4«o \. lat., and (iHO K. lonj;,). 
 and then includes tlie countries traversed by the 
 lower courses of the Sir-I)nria (Siboon, Jnxurtes) 
 and Amoo-Dnria {Oxu»), consisting; principally of 
 the state of Khiva, on the course of the latter river. 
 'Phis country is so little elevated above the ^reat 
 lakes, whicii lie in the midst of it, that a stronj; 
 north-westerly wind -of some continuance forces 
 tlieir waters over man_v miles of the adjacent 
 tracts. Its soil consists |)artly of sand, and partly 
 of hard clay, on which neither trees nor shrubs 
 jjrow, and wliicli only in s])rinff, after the meltinj; 
 of the snow, is covcreil with a scanty but nourish- 
 ing grass and numerous tloweis. It is only used as 
 patiturc by the nomadic tribes which wander about 
 in this desert. Natimil wells are nowhere found, 
 but water is met with (m digging some feet down 
 in those districts which have a sandy seil, but not 
 in those where it consists of clay. Along the 
 banks of the watercourses trees and shndjs grow, 
 and the soU is tit for agricultural purposes, but is 
 commonly used as meadows. 
 
 Along the shores of the Caspian Sea this low 
 and desert coimtry extends to the very edge of 
 the table-land of Iran (Fer-sia), where it temiiiiates 
 between 3(1° and 37° N. lat., but from the table- 
 land of Eastern Asia it is separated by a mountain 
 region, which comprehends the countries of Kho- 
 kan and Badakslmn, and between them and the 
 desert extends Bokhara, whose surface is broken 
 into ridges of moderate height, and valleys of con- 
 siderable width, wliich, being watered by artilicial 
 means, are very productive of all kin(ls of grain 
 and fruit. This country, therefore, offers a succes- 
 sion of fertile and sterile tracts over the whole of 
 its surface. 
 
 The Caspian Sea, which covers a surface of 
 120,000 sq. m., is very deep towartls ita S, ex- 
 
 tremity, where it is surrounded by the mouiifnin. 
 ranges of Iran, but where it JHinlers on the dew>rt jt 
 is shallow. Its waters are salt. The Lake or Sciini 
 Aral, lying farther east, has a surface of between 
 40,000 and f')0,tHHI sq. m., and its waters are like- 
 wise salt, as is the ease with all the nuinenms 
 smaller lakes which occur m the abovc-mentiniied 
 depression. The Lake of Aral recoives the iw,, 
 largest rivers whi(4i drain the S. parts of ilie 
 des«'rt, luid descend from tlie table-land of K. Amu, 
 The Sir-Darirt, which in its upper uourse lliuvs 
 through Khokan, runs about DoO m., ami the 
 Ainn-I)aria, whi<'h rises in Madakshan, and flows 
 along th(> southern boundary of itokhara, aiul 
 afterwards through the desert and Khiva, ban a 
 course of nearly 1,100 m. 
 
 The Oural dividing Asia from Kurojic, the ^>^\ 
 [ilnin is divided between these two contiiieiiix. 
 riiough that portion of it which belongs to i'jiri>|K' 
 has immense tracts of very fertile land, es|K'ciiil|v 
 in the centre of liussia, the plain of Siberia ikI- 
 where exhibits sucli a soil. Those jiarts wliich He 
 contiguous to the great depression, and as far K, 
 as K2° K. long., are steppes, that is, level coiimries 
 with a sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil, destitute ef 
 trees, except along the iMittoms of some of tin. 
 rivers, and covered jiartly with low shriihs, niul 
 partly with coarse grass, which affords only verv 
 scanty pasture. In most parts they are destitute 
 of water. The great steppe ttf Uarabinsknja, lie- 
 tween the rivers Vrtish and Obi, is partly coverc'il 
 with large swamps, and intenningled with nunier- 
 ous salt-lakes, some of considerable extent; tlie 
 remainder has a dry sterile soil, but when it \wpm 
 to rise in hills towards the Altai range, many dis- 
 tricts are lit f(-i' agriculture, and are cultivated. 
 This last observ-ation a)tplies still more to tlie 
 countries farther K., between the rivers Oiii ami 
 Yenesei, where agriculture has alrea<ly advaiucd 
 from .5(!° N. lat. to Krasnoyarsk. This portion nt' 
 the plain is considered the granary of Siberia. Its 
 surface is rather hillj'. The countries lyiiin east 
 of the Yenesei do not exhibit a level plain, Imt 
 rather an undulating surface, which in sonic pans 
 is even broken. But as the climate is loss mild 
 than farther west, agriculture is only juirsucd in a 
 comparatively few sheltered jilaces, and the rear- 
 ing of cattle and the chase afford subsistence to 
 its scanty iiopulation. This part of the plain is 
 covered with immense forests of |)ines, bircli. At,, 
 of whicli the W. stejiiies are destitute, and its pav 
 tiiros are also much richer. That portion of tin; 
 plain which e.Ktends N. of the Polar Circle has \H 
 surface frozen ten months of the year, and even 
 in July ice is met with at the depth of a foot. It 
 is an immense desert, covered with moss, and iii- 
 tersjiersed with numerous lakes ami swamps, hi 
 summer its whole surface is changed into a sv/anip, 
 and then it is inaccessible. This mossy desert i* 
 culled tundra. It is worthy of remark, that at tlie 
 month of the Lena, and between it and that of the 
 Iiidighirka, immense masses of bones, and even 
 entire skeletons of elephants, rhinoceroses, and 
 antediluvian animals are found imbedded in the 
 ice, which never is dissrlved by the rays of tliesiin. 
 
 This plain is drained by numerous rivers, which, 
 descending from the Altai and other lofty moun- 
 tain-ranges, on the southern border of the plain, 
 traverse it in a northerly direction. Some of them 
 may be enumerated among the largest rivets d' 
 the globe. Such is the Obi or Oby, which unites 
 with the Yrtish, and whose whole ccurse rather 
 exceeds 2,000 m. The Y'enesei is still longer; fr 
 if we take for its source the Selenga, whicli falls 
 into the Lake of Baikal, and issues from it uinler 
 the name of Lower Angara, but changes it al'ter- 
 wards into that of Upper Tunguaka, it nins iiui 
 
AHIA 
 
 lOD 
 
 Ifss Ihnn 2..10ft m. Thr Lcnn, wliii-h w jdiiird liy 
 ilic liiru't' trilinliirit'N Vitini luid Aldiin, luiMftnuirxo 
 m( liarilly Ii'hh llinn 2,000 in. riirllur K. is the 
 ViiiiA, which tiowH alM)iit 400 m,, tint Iiulighirl^ii 
 alHiiit 700 m., mill thi> Kolyma !)00 in, 
 
 1 Khraird Tnhk-lund of h'linli'rn Alia, — The 
 iMJiiiiilnrv iif rhia oxtciiMivo region lien nrnr Mm 
 |,iiri>l!i I "of 50° N. hit., Iictwi't'ii H"2° mid li'20 K. 
 lull;;. On the VV. tlic hi)iindiiry is fumii'd l)V ii line 
 iNiiiiiliiiK tirst fr..in ^0° N. hit. mid H-i° K. imn. to 
 .|i|0 .N. lilt, mid 72° K. loiij;., and hcnw nearly din' 
 S, til Ml°. Fri'in tliis |ioiiit it foilowN the raii(;R of 
 ilic lliinnhiya niouiilains in its SK. dirfctimi to 
 y>p K. loiifj., where this chain, which constitutes 
 ilii' S. eii^e of t)ic tahlu-hind, bepns to turn nearly 
 iliio V.., and continiieH in that direction om far as 
 :i;o 1',. loiiK.. niiUT the parallel of 2K° N. Int. Hence 
 it piiHses SK. to the tahle-lniid of Yu-iinn, 25° S. 
 Int. mill I0;t° E. loiij;,, which forms the most soiith- 
 (fly |)i)iiit of the (freat talile-land of ICa«tern Asia. 
 Till' eastern boundary runs alon^ the raiiHc of the 
 Yiiii-liiiH mountains, which rise in the most suutli- 
 irly Ik'IiiI of the river Kin-sha-kian^c. 
 
 'flic whole of the immense area included williin 
 tliiw lines is coiisideralil}' elevated ahovc the 
 Ifvel of the sea. Only a few comparatively small 
 iriiftsiif country are supposed to liave less than 
 ;i,iiiHl ft, of absolute elevation, and man v of its 
 siiiitliorii |)lnins rise to more than 10,000 ft. Ac- 
 (•iinliiiK ••' f <"■ scanty information, we may siip- 
 |Kise that the whole country rises continually 
 lii^'her in form of terraces os it a])]iroachcs its 
 wiutliprn boundary, the Iliinnlaya range. Hut, 
 examining the course of the rivers, wc are obliged 
 Id miiipose that this country gradually declines 
 Idwarilsthe east, as those rivers which flow from it 
 til tli« west rise only on the verj' borders of the 
 table-land, but many of those which traverse its 
 internal plains descend to the I'acilic Sea. Kven 
 those which are not connected with the sea, but 
 iinniimtc in lakes having no outlet, run mostly 
 from VV, to E. 
 
 This table-land does not extend in one uninter- 
 ni|itcd jilain, but besides its being almost every- 
 ivliero .surrounded by mountain-ranges, its interior 
 is likewise traversed by several extensive chains. 
 Wc shall tlrst iiuiicnte the ranges which arc met 
 on it8 borders, then those in the interior, and 
 make a few observations on the countries lying 
 between the mountain chains. 
 
 Alung the N. edge of the table-land runs a 
 series of mouii tain-ran jj 38, beginning in the ex- 
 treme west with the Altai range, a chain of moun- 
 Ifiuis which varies in width between 200 and 300 
 m., and extends along the table-land to Lake 
 Kiisgul, It was formerly 8up]K>sed to have a much 
 jjreater extent, but it is now known that this lake 
 \s'ith that of Baikal separate this range fnnn the 
 mountains of Dauria. The highest part of the 
 wliolc range is near its W. extremity, where, on 
 the banks of the river Tsliumya, an upper branch 
 lithe Oby, it rises in some summits to more than 
 10,000 ft, above the level of the sea, and is always 
 iiivered with snow. To the north-east of Lake 
 Kosgid is the great Alpine lake of Baikal, 355 m. 
 in length, by 30 ami 40 m. in width, and covering 
 a surface of 14,800 sq. m„ so that it is larger than 
 half Scotland. 
 
 The \V. boundary of the table-land, between 
 50° N. lat. and 82° E. long., and 40° N. lat. and 
 ("2° E. long., is not formed by a mountain chain, 
 but by a country with a broken surface, which we 
 sliall notice hereafter. But between 40° and 34° 
 X, lat, a continuous range rises to a great height. 
 It is called, on our maps, Bolor Tagh, but, by the 
 natives, Tartash, and by the Cliinese geographers 
 Tartash-i-ling. 
 
 The vast range of ilio ITimalnynmonntainH ninn 
 along tlu' S\V, and S, cdgeof Ilie talile-liiiid, from 
 .•11° N, lai. and 7;»° E, hmg,, li> 2h° N, lat, mid !»7° 
 E. long., iH'iiig about 1,300 m, in length, and from 
 2.'i(> lo 350 m, across. From the low iiluiiis of 
 India, which border on the range on tlio SW,, 
 the mountain-mass rises abruptly to about 4,000 
 or 5,000 ft. Behind it lies a Udt of an extremely 
 broken surface, from loo to 200 m, in breadth, 
 overtoiiiied by numerous high summits, which 
 grow higher and higher ns they approach tho 
 table-land. The base on which they rest also risen 
 gradually, till it attains near the table-land the 
 height of 8,000 or !t,00(» ft. Then follows the 
 highest portion of this sttipend'ms range, the crest 
 of the Ilimi.iuH or Jmiiiis of the ancientH, some of 
 whose summits exceed by 10,<I(M) and 11,000 ft. 
 the altitude of Moiit Blanc, and arc the highest 
 ill any country hi'herto discovered, Tho IHia- 
 walngiri (28° 30' N, lat,, and 83° 30' E, long,) 
 attains 2C,8(i2 ft, above the sen, and theC'liamalari 
 (2M° X, lat,, and 80° 30' E, long,) is probably but 
 little lower. The Tawahir (30° 22' X, lat,, and 
 70° 57' E. long,) rises to 25,740 ft. There are prt>- 
 bably above 200 summits, which rise more than 
 18,000 ft, above the sea, and ar'i covered with 
 eternal snow. In fact, the name Himalaya or 
 Himaleh is merely a Sanscrit term for snowy; 
 a circumstance of which Pliny was well aware 
 when he savs IinUiia incolantm lingua nimmiim sig- 
 nijirante. (Hist, Xat,, lib, vi, § 17,) By far the 
 greater number of these high summits lie VV, of 
 the Chamalari ; for E. of that high pinnacle, the 
 mountains which attain the snow seem huge, 
 but few. On the SVV. are the plains of Iiiclia, 
 which are nowhere more than 1,000 ft, above the 
 sea; and on the north of the range are the plains 
 of Tibet, which have at least 10,000 ft. of absolute 
 elevation. The highest crest of the range towards 
 this table-land is between 10,000 and 18,000 ft. 
 high, the Ncetec pass, one of the lowest, rising to 
 l(i,5ti!J ft, above the sea. 
 
 The country which lies between the E. ex- 
 tremity of the Himalaya range (97° E. long.) and 
 the table-land of Yu-nan (between 100° and 104° 
 E. long.) contains the sources of the Irawaddi, and 
 rises to a considerable elevation, being overtopped 
 by high summits. The table-land of Yu-nan it- 
 self is of considerable height, and the winters arc 
 very col<l, though it be jilaced near the tropic. 
 Some mountain summits which rise from it attain 
 the snow-line ; they are mostly situated along the 
 most southerly bend of the nver Kin-sha-kiang, 
 and may be considered as the most southerly ex- 
 tremity of the Yun-ling. 
 
 ThcYun-ling, which rises on the E. edge of the 
 great table-land, and runs in a XNE. direction in 
 the great bend of the river Kin-sha-kiang, is also 
 of considerable height, so that it is frequently 
 called by the Chinese the Siue-ling (Snow-range). 
 The snow-capped summits are numerous, between 
 30° and 3(5° N, lat,, and more especially between 
 32° and 34°. The eastern boundary of this table 
 land is formed by the mountain-ranges of the 
 In-shan and Khing-khan, which extend east and 
 north from the most northerly bend of the Whang- 
 ho river. The length of the In-shan does not 
 much exceed 360 miles. But the Khing-khan, 
 whose northern extremity advances to the most 
 northerly bend of the river Amoor, has a length 
 of nearly 800 miles. 
 
 The most northerly of the mountain-ranges 
 traversing the interior of the great table-land of 
 Eastern Asia is the Thian-shan. It begins at 
 the northern extremity of the Tartash-i-ling, or 
 Bolor Tagh (40° N, lat,), with which it forms 
 nearly a right angle. But, properly speaking, it 
 
 , 
 
 v 
 
 i 
 
 ?ri 
 
 f ji 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 -1 
 
2no 
 
 ASIA 
 
 pritjcctH under the nome nf Ak-Tiuh into the 
 plnirm of liokharn, lyinf{ farther W. The 'niiori- 
 Hhnii niiiH from VV.* to K., U-lwecn TO" and Wfi, 
 anil then it tcrminateii abruptly in the plain. 
 ItH wemern |H)rtion, which Ih called Muz-TnKh, 
 though riNin^ to a fo^tat elevation, in paitiuHl hy 
 the cnrnvauH litaween Kiildja and KhiinKnar. Here 
 itH bn-a<lth doeH not exceed 30 or 40 ni. lUit near 
 7'J° K. lona., where it m travented by the rood be- 
 tween Kuldja and AkHii, the liiKhent part of t'.ii! 
 nionntain-|iatiH Im covered with miow, and leadH 
 over a j^lacier. Hence thin paw is called Muwiir 
 dnbdhn, or the ^lacier-pnNM, Fiurlher K, in the 
 hinh volcanic (H'ak, called IV-nlinn. The centre 
 of the whole ranf^c in occupied by an exIeiiMive 
 moMH of very high rockw, which rise far above the 
 Hnow-line, and tliiN rnaHH ih known m one of the 
 highest inountaiuH in Northern Attia by the name 
 of Hoplo OOla. To the K. of this Muh mountain- 
 masH occurH another volcano, named the voli-auo 
 of_ Uo-theou (Fire-town). Snow-capped moun- 
 taiuH appear likewise on tlic H. of the ltog(h)Oiila, 
 but we are very little acquainted with tlu« port of 
 the range. 
 
 It was formerly supposed that u high mountain- 
 range, running' SW. and NE., connect':! the 
 western extremity of the Thian-8han with the 
 western extremity of the Altai range, but it is 
 certain that no such range exists. The country 
 lying between these ranges is indceil traversed by 
 several lower ridges, of which some are of con- 
 siderable extent, but they are not connected with 
 each other, wide plains extending between them. 
 These plains do not much differ from the steppes 
 of Western Siberia, being only covered with coarse 
 grass ; but along the rivers are considerable tracts 
 of land, Ht for agriculture, and yielding rich crops 
 of rice and millet. Uesides, there arc similar 
 tracts along the foot of the ridges. This country 
 is, besides, remarkable for the great number of 
 largo lakes which are met with over its whole 
 surface. The most remarkable are the Jialkash, 
 which is said to extend from liJO to 140 m. from 
 N. to S., the Issckul or Temurti, which is half as 
 long, the Ala-kul, Zaisan, Kijilbash Noiir, Ike 
 Arnl NoiJr, Ubra Nolir, and a great number of 
 smaller ones. Except the Zaisan they have no 
 outlets, and the water of none of them arrives at 
 the sea. Another remarkable circumstance is the 
 occurrence of volcanoes, at a distance of about 
 1,000 m. from the sea. For, besides the volcanoes 
 noticed in the Thian-Shan range, there occur 
 others to the N. of the chain, and one is found on 
 an island in the Lake of Ala-kul. 
 
 Not far from the S. extremity of the Tartash-i- 
 ling (between 85° and 3G° N. lat.), another moun- 
 tain-range, running E. and W., is connected with 
 it. This chain is called by the Chinese geogra- 
 phers, Kuen-luen, or Kul-kun. We know very 
 little of it, except that it stretches over the whole 
 breadth of the great table-land, and nearly in the 
 middle of its extent (about 92° E. long.) divides 
 into two ranges, of which that which declines 
 somewhat to the N. is called Nan-Shan, and is 
 probably connected with the In-Shan by the Ala- 
 Shan, a range of mountains extending along the 
 banks of the Uoang-ho, where it Hows N. The other 
 branch of the Kuen-luen, which declines some- 
 what to the S., is called the Bayan Kara moun- 
 tains, and frequently also the Kuen-luen. These 
 ranges are in many parts covered with snow all 
 the year round ; whence they frequently are called 
 Siue-moiintains (snow-mountains) by the Chinese. 
 The immense tract of country which lies to the 
 N. of this range (on the W. between it and the 
 Thian-Shan, and on the E. between it and the Altai 
 Sloimtains), is known by the name of Gobi or 
 
 Creat Steppe. Out the whole of this tract In not 
 a desert. The W. istrtion of it, lH>twecn 7'^ ami 
 06° K. h)ng., or lM>t ween the Thian-Shan and Kiifii- 
 luon, is onl^ from 800 to 400 m. acriMM, an<l nearly 
 1,200 m. in length. Hero we Hnd a trait lif 
 country from 60 to HO m. a«'ross, along the f(Hit nf 
 the TIdan-Shan range, fertile in many diMirict", 
 priKlucing dilYerent kinds of grain, cotton, wiiii'. 
 and fruit, or covered with nourishing ^itn^^, 
 Through this tract runs the great commercial rinul, 
 which connectji W. Asia with the more euxitrn 
 countries, -uid here are situated the commcreinl 
 towns of Khasghar, Aksu, Kutsh*', Karashar, Tur- 
 fan, and Khaniil, or llanii. The W. portion (Ik- 
 tweeii 72° and 77° E. hmg.) is also notadmn, 
 Through the tracts separating the rivers urc 
 stej)|)es, i.e. plains without trees, and prodiicini; 
 only a coarse grass; the lands bordering the liuiik.i 
 of the watercourses are fertile in gram and cut- 
 ton. Here is the town of Yarkand, and, towaril.s 
 the Kuen-luen, Khotun, through which two pinm 
 a road runs, which connects N. Asia with IikIui, 
 It is sup|M>sed that the term votUm is derived rrmn 
 the name of the last-mentioned town. The re- 
 mainder of this region is a desert, and mostly of 
 the worst kind, where the sandy surface, acvi'inl- 
 ing t«» a Chinese author, moves like the waves of 
 the sea. This desert is sometimes distiuguiitlii'il 
 by the name of Sha-shin, or the Gobi of Lop Nuur, 
 'Ihe Lop is one of the extensive lakes without an 
 outlet, which frequently are met with in tiiis de- 
 sert. It receives from the W. the Tarini, im.i 
 which flow the Yarkand-Daria, Kashgar Daria, 
 and other rivers from the Kuen-luen, Jailor, ainl 
 Thian-Shan ranges. This part of the (ireatTulile- 
 land is supposed to be between 4,000 and 5,i)U0 
 ft. alK>ve the sea-level. 
 
 It seems that under the meridian of Khamil 
 (90° E. long.) the desert is narrowed to about l.Vi 
 m. across by the fertile districta of Tangut, wliicli 
 skir.the declivity of the mountains of Nan-Sliaii, 
 and protrude far northward into the desert. The 
 desert, dividing it from Khamil, and called (iobi of 
 Tangut, is also less level, more stony, and better 
 adapted for pasture, than farther E. or W. llpme 
 the Chinese government has extended its N\V, 
 prov. of Konsi through this desert to the >i. tiide 
 of the Thian-Shan mountains. 
 
 The Gobi-Shamo Steppe extends from the east- 
 ern extremity of the Thian-Shan (90° E. long.) to 
 the Khing-Khan (120° E. long.), nearly l,2Uli ni. 
 in length, and its width between the Altai raiige 
 on the N., and the Nan-Shan, Ala-Shan, and lii- 
 Shan,.on the S., varies between 600 and 700 ra. 
 Through the middle of this tract extends, in tlie 
 whole of its length, what is properly called the 
 Sharao (Sand Sea). It is from 150 to 250 ra. 
 across ; and in it sand almost exclusively^ cuvcrs 
 the surface, which commonly is level, but in suinu 
 places rises into hills, on which masses of luo.-e 
 stone are met with. Small and shallow lakes are 
 frequent, but their water is either salt or bitter. 
 The vegetation is very scanty, and affonis but 
 indifferent pasture. In a few places a small niiin- 
 ber of stunted trees are met with. This part uf 
 the Gobi is about 3,000 ft. above the sea-levcl, but 
 it sinks in some places even to 2,600 ft. In th(i>e 
 parts of the Gobi which lie to the N. and S, of 
 the Shamo, the surface is between 3,000 ami 
 4,000 ft. above the sea. Here it is not, in general. 
 covered with sand, but with gravel and pebbles 
 and is in many places rocky. The vegetation !< 
 much more vigorous, and the pastures conse- 
 quently richer. It is even thought that, in miuiy 
 districts, agriculture would succeed, if the no- 
 madic nations inhabiting these countries wuuM 
 attend to it ; and in some districts which border 
 
ASIA 
 
 Ml 
 
 nn rhiiin, millet in powii ahiinilanlly, nnd oven 
 wiicnt and hnrlcy, tiioii^h not to a ^"'1' ('xtniit. 
 irt'1'1 am nlm) met with, an well on I he N, an on 
 the S. of the Hhamo, cit|)ocially tir. birch, nnd 
 iKipliirtt, i)iit not in lai>;n foreHtH, 'I ho rounlrieM 
 nrc likewioo iM'ttor |in>vitl(>d with water than the 
 Slinnio, which could not Im traverxcd, if welU 
 were not diiK at certain ptncoti wlu-ru the roadM 
 iiaMf*, The northern and Hotithcm diHtriclM have 
 iilrto a IcMM level Hiirface, ridKCH of Htony nnd rocky 
 hills irnverHiiiK it in many placeH; tliey run coin- 
 niniily from \V. to K., and are culled the Illack 
 OIouiIn. The few and Hhi|;pMh riveni which nw. 
 niel with, are Itmt in lakcH without outlclN. Oidy 
 ill the north-eattteni an^lo nrc the Kerlo< ti and 
 Klmlka-l'ira rivers, which, entering Lake 'rHhuu. 
 fiirm the Ar^ouii, the princiiial liranch of the 
 AiniHtr, The temperatiire of the air is extremely 
 liiwover the whole (iohi.thc wnten* being covered 
 with ico nix montliK of the year. 
 
 The country which Ih included between the two 
 hrnnches of tlic Kuen-lucn ranjje, tlu* Nan-Slum, 
 andlinyan Kara mountninH, m called Thoiu);- 
 lliii, or Khoo-khoo-noor. The latter name in 
 (icrived from nn cxten8ivo lake in itH Nl'i. 'diH- 
 trii'i. It is very little known, nnd necniH to ex- 
 iiihit a succession of narrow valleys and very 
 lii^di mountains, whoso numerous nummits iuims 
 fnr licyond the snow-lino. These mountains hirin 
 very extensive and hi);h masses in the bend of 
 the Whang-ho, wliich river has ita sources in the 
 \V. districts of this region. 
 
 Tiie whole country S. of the Kuen-lucn moun- 
 tains, as fnr S. .is the Himalaya range, is compre- 
 hciulcd under the name of 'i'il>et. It is, doubt- 
 hs», the highest pnrt of tho grent table-land of 
 Eustern Asia, and there arc goixl reasons for as- 
 M^niiiig it an average absolute elevation of 
 10,000 ft. above the sea-level, though, towards 
 the cast, the valleys of some rivers may be consider- 
 ably less. A mountnin-rango runs through it from 
 Vf, to E. It is connected with the Himalaya 
 range by a level table-land of 14,000 ft, elevation, 
 wliii'h surrouiuls the sacred lakes of IManassa- 
 lidwora and Knvan- Hrad, and un which, or near 
 wliicli, are the sources of three great rivers, the 
 Indus, Ganges, and Yaru-TBau)io, or lirnhmanoutra. 
 The mountain-chain itself is called (lang-dis-ri on 
 llic VV., but farther E. it Iman the name of Zang. 
 Its K. extremity is separated from the Yun-luig 
 hy the valley of the Kin-sha-kiang, which here 
 flows from N. to S. Little is known of this runge, 
 which probably, being placed on so elevated a base, 
 posses with its summits tho line of congelation. 
 
 Of the country which lies to the N. of this 
 range very little is known, if wc except the most 
 westerly comer, where tho Indus river, issuing 
 fri)m a table-land between mountain-ridges, enters 
 the spacious, level, and fertile valley of Eeh, or 
 Ladak, and runs in it about BUG m., till it breaks 
 through the mountain-ranges which oppose its 
 cimrse, and enters the plam of India. On the 
 W, of this fine, but elevated valley, is the Hima- 
 laya range; and on the E. another high chain, 
 the Kara-korum mountains, which, extending 
 XW. and SE., connect the Kuen-luen chain with 
 the Gang-dis-ri mountains. 
 
 The country east of the Karakorum mountains, 
 and extending between the Kuen-luen and the 
 (iang-dis-ri ranges, is called Katshc,orKorKatshe. 
 There occur in it some ranges, but the greatest 
 port extends in wide plains, similar to the steppes, 
 but abundantly provided with good pasture. 
 Near the Gang-dis-ri range is an extensive lake, 
 called Tcngri, and N. of it are the sources of the 
 Kin-sha-kiang. This river enters China on the 
 borders of the province of Szcchuen, and after 
 
 trnvrrslng the N\V. pnrt of fhi-* province imdei 
 the name of Kin-sha-kiang, or Kiverof theOtddeu 
 Hand, it iiasNcs into the nrovince of Yu-iian. It 
 IcaveM tliis province again towards the NE., and 
 re-entering S/.echuen, traverNcM its HE. |M)rtion. 
 At the city of Leuchow, it n'ceives the river Min, 
 or Wei, and after this Jumlioii, it Iomps itti iwnne 
 of Kin-sha-kiang, and takes that of Ta-kiang, or 
 Great Kiver. At Wuchang, in the province of 
 Ilupih, it is Joined by the Ilu-kiang, or ilu river, 
 and the nmm river is from this point known by 
 its name of Yang-tse-kian^' 
 
 The country between the (iang-<lis-ri range and 
 the llinuilavn mountains is Tibet Proper. Its 
 surface exhifiits oidy low riM'ky hills, without any 
 signs of vegetatitin, rising on extensive arid plains, 
 coveretl at certain seasons with rich grass, ami 
 alforditig pasture to numerous herds of cattle. 
 The valleys in which the rivt-rs run are consider* 
 ably dciiressed below the surface of the plains, 
 and in these valleys agriculture is carried on with 
 great care. All kinds of European grains are 
 cultivated, and in some places nee. Alostoftbo 
 fruit-trees of Euro|M! alst> succeed. Hut, as the 
 portion of the country which is tit for agriculturo 
 IS only a small part of the whole, the populatiini, 
 though fnr from numerous, is partly supplied with 
 corn from tho ndjncent countries. The (diinato i.-i 
 very severe, nnd the rivers covered with ice for 
 some months. Tho E. part of Tibet is very liltio 
 known ; it seems to be traversed by high ranges, 
 nnd not to exhibit the large plains which occur 
 farther W. In Tibet is the lake I'alte, which luiH 
 n large island in its centre, so that the lake hns 
 the form of a ring. The Yaru-Tsauiio, or llrali- 
 inupoutra river, runs through this country from \Y. 
 to E., and after a course of more than 1,000 m., 
 breaks through the chain of the Himalaya raiig(>, 
 alM)ut 95° E. l<mg., and joins the bruhinapoutrn 
 under the name of l)i-hong. 
 
 The table-land of Yu-nan, which forms tho 
 most southerly portion of tho great table-land of 
 Eastern Asia, has an extremely diversilied surface, 
 being a succession of mountains which in some 
 places rise above the snow-line, and of valleys, 
 which, however, frerpiently widen to small ]dnins. 
 The climntc indicates n considerable elevation 
 above the sea-level, but it is not so high as to pre- 
 clude agriculture, corn being raised in the yalleyn 
 and nlains, and in some districts rice. Towards 
 the NW., however, it rises much higher, as tlieru 
 the rearing of cattle forms the principal occupation 
 of the inhabitants, who have lienLs of chowry- 
 tailed cattle (lios griinniens,) which arc only found 
 in verv cold countries. 
 
 3. dountrieg lying to the East of the Table-land 
 of Eastern Asia. — East of the desert of Gobi ex- 
 tends 8hing-king, or Manchooria (the country of 
 the Manchoos), bordered to the coasts of the Pa- 
 cific, except in the extreme north, where the east- 
 em boiuidary of Manchooria is the river Ussuri, 
 an affluent of the Amoor. The country enst of 
 the Ussuri, between this river and the Pacific, has 
 recently been annexed to the Russian empire. 
 Manchooria is divided from the desert by the 
 Khing-khan mountains, which on the side of tho 
 desert are destitute of wood, but towards Man- 
 chooria are covered with fine forest-trees, among 
 which oak is frequent. Tho boundary between 
 Manchooria and the peninsula of Corea approaches 
 the coast and runs so close along it as to leave only 
 at some places a very narrow strip of low coun- 
 try until It terminates at the mouth of the river 
 Amoor, opposite the Y'nblonoi Khrebet. Along 
 this coast the mountain-chain rises with great 
 steepness to from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. above the sea. 
 The countries eucluised by thciie mountain-ranged 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 <M:t 
 
202 AS 
 
 rxliiliit (liffrrcnf clinriU'K'ru. Tlip HW. pnrt of i(, 
 N. iiIiIk' river Mru Miircti, nr I.i'iki Im, Ix mlfMirl, 
 iiiiil iiinv Ih> t'liiixiilcrril UN piiri iii'tlit- linln, wliidi 
 licrr |irii|t'i'tH lii'viiiiil itH imiiiriil liiiiiinliir\, ilic 
 Kliiii^r-kiiiiii riiiiK<'> ll hiiM H Nciiniv M'^'i'iiiiinii 
 mill is (itily iiiliiiliiii'd Ity iiomiiilic niiliniiM, I'., of 
 it, mill nn I'lir N. iim thr Aiiumr river, tin- niiiiitrv is 
 Iriivcrxeil liy riil^'es nf iiioiiMtiiiiiN mul liilN, lie- 
 I ween wliii'li, liiiwever, H|ini'ii>iis viilleVN exieiiil, 
 wliiiNe I'ertile Niiil is in Himie pliiees well eiillivilleit, 
 mill vielils rieli erii|iN, 'I'lie iniiiinliiiiiM mul hills 
 lire |iiirtly eiivereil willi trees, iiiiil |iiirtly iiHiinl 
 rieli iiiisliire-wiilks tor niinieroiiH lienls of entile 
 iiiiil slieep. Tlie eliniiile of this |iortion of Mmi- 
 elionria is very teni|ieriite. N. of the river Amour 
 the whole eoimlrv is eovereil with nioiintaiii- 
 iiiiisses, iliterseeleii liy niirrow viilleys. Here ii^'ri- 
 I'liltiire eeiises, mul eallle torn) the |iriiiei|iiil riches 
 of the inhahitmils, who also applv theiiiselveH in- 
 iliistrioiisly to the ehase of aninials ntlonlin^ furs, 
 of which there is a ki'*''>I ahiimlaiice. The prin- 
 cipal river is the Ainoor, whose upper hraiich, the 
 Arpiim, runs thriiii);h the Nh;, districts of the 
 (iolii, anil lifter entering the iiioiintain Joins the 
 Shilka, when the river is culleil Ainoor, or Sak- 
 hnlieii. The whole course of tliiit river iIui'h nut 
 fall short of '.',0(1(1 miles. 
 
 The peninsula of Corea is fiepnrated from Maii- 
 chooria hy tlieChann-re-slian, and from this rmi^'e 
 miother hranches oil' to the .S., which runs close to 
 the K, shores, towards which it descends with 
 fcreal rniiidity, and in these districts the level or 
 cnltivalile tractti are of small extent. The iiii- 
 ineroiis otf'sets to tlie W., which are less steep mid 
 I'levated, eonlaiii Iwlween them larj^'e and well 
 cultivated vallevs. Itiit the whole country seems 
 to have u eonsiderahle elevation ahovc the sea- 
 level, 08 its climate is very cold, its N. rivem 
 lieinj; covered with ice for four months; yet rice, 
 cuttoii, and silk, are produced in ahuiidance. 
 
 Cliiim I'roper occupies the renminder of the 
 eniinlries lyiiij^ lietweeii the (jreat tahle-laiid of 
 Kasteni Asia and the I'acitlc. Several moiiiitaiii- 
 ran^es issuing from those that surround it, 
 traverse its interior. Where tlie In-Shnn and the 
 l\hin;;-Khan meet, stands a lii^h summit, the 
 I'etslia, more tlian i(i,()(M( ft. above the sea-level, 
 iind from it u chain runs first SW. and then ,S. 
 '1(1(1 m., and terminates at the last ffreat liend of 
 the Iloaii^-ho. It isealled Kho-ihsin^-Shnii, and 
 thonK'h liiK'l'i 'I'"'-"* ""' '"''**' '" the snow-line. Near 
 ;i 1° N. lat., two ranges branch ott" from the Yiin- 
 liiif;,, the IVliiifr (northern range) and the Ta|Ni- 
 ling, and tlicy continue na liigh raountnin-cliains 
 as far K. as 11 1° or 112° E. lonjj., when they sink 
 tlowii to hills. These ranges contain some snow- 
 eapjied summits towards the W., and are steep 
 and rugged. From the K. side of the table-land of 
 Yu-nan branches ott" another range, culled Nan- 
 ling (southern range), which constitutes the most 
 extensive mountain-system in China. It runs E. 
 as far as 11 (>° E. hmg., passing about 150 miles to 
 the N. of Canton; it then inclines to the NE., in 
 •which direction it continues with a slight bend to 
 the VV. to its tcrmiimticm on the sea, near the Imr- 
 Ixiur of Ningpo, o]>positc the ishuids of Chiisan. 
 Several summits of this range rise above the snow- 
 line, W. of 110° K. long., and here it extends also 
 to u considerable widtli. East of 110° E. long., no 
 snow-capp'id summits occur, though some rise to a 
 great elevatior, but everynvherc tlic descent of the 
 range is steep and rugged. 
 
 T'hc country lying lietween the Kho-thsing- 
 8han and the Ta])a-ling is full of high and exten- 
 sive mountain masses, and intersected by valhi^vs, 
 vhich are very narrow, excejjt two which are 
 tlraiued by the Wei-lio, a tributarj' of the Ilooiig- 
 
 lA 
 
 ho, niid bv the Knn-kiang, n brniich of VanK-ino. 
 kiniig, 'riii'se arc wide, and iitl'ord large triiru i;,r 
 a;;rii'ultiiral purposes. The large tract wliiiji ,'x 
 tciidn U'twcen the Taiin ling and the Nan Iiiik, j, 
 traNcrsed by many ridges of moiiiitains ami lijH,, 
 which mostly branch olf from the last-nieiitiiiiiiil 
 range, but these elevntiniis rise only ton inoiliriii' 
 height, and the gentle declivilies are iniwily ,.,,|. 
 tivalcd, Itesiiles, they are Heiiarated rrnin n,,,. 
 another by wry wide vallevs, wliich frenuenily nrc 
 intersi'cti'd by very extensive plains, thai i'\irv 
 where recompense the industry of the careful dii 
 liMitor. They arc, in fact, hardly inferior in 1,^ 
 lility to the great Cliiiiese IMain. 
 
 This great plain occupies the NK. part of Cliijm, 
 extending in length 70(t m. from the tireal Wull. 
 N. of I'e-king, to the continence of the river.. 
 Vang-tse-kiang Mini Kan-kiang, m-ar :io" \. Im. 
 its breadth is various. North of Il.'i'^ N., wIutc it 
 partly extends to the shon'sof the lloaiig-liiii.niKl 
 partly borders on the W. declivity of the Cliain;- 
 tiing mountains, a low riinge, occupying Ihepi'iiin. 
 siila of that name, the width of the plain vnrii'i 
 between l')0 and 2'»(( in. Hetweeli .■la^ainl :i|« N. 
 lat. the plain I'lilarges, and in the parallel of ihc 
 Iloang-ho it extends more than ilOO in. I'), aiul \V, 
 Farther S. it grows still wider, and reaches iiearlv 
 5110 in. inland, in the parallel of the iiioiilh uf ihV 
 river Yang-tse-kiang, This large plain, tluni^'li 
 the N. districts have mostly a sandy soil, and the 
 \',„ between the embouchures of the llniui^'-lin 
 and Vang-tse-kiang, are partly covered wjih 
 swamps, is, perhaps, the best cultivated and iiiii»i 
 populous piirlion of the glolie, producing almii- 
 dance of rice, cotton, wheat, and tobacco. It nm- 
 tains at least 210,000 hi[. m., so that it is ncvcii 
 limes as large as tlie most fertile plain of l'',urii|ii', 
 that in the north of the kingdom of Italy, known 
 as Lombardy. The internal cominiiuicalion cjf 
 this fertile tract is rendered easy by the (Ireal nr 
 Iniiierial Canal, which traverses it from S. to X,, 
 and whose length exceeds 500 m. in a strai^jlii 
 line, but iirolmiily its whole length is not lesstimii 
 700 m. ll is, also, traversed by the h)wer cmirKcs 
 of the two great rivers of China, (he lloaiig-lmaiiil 
 the Yang-tse-kiang, which How through it Inuii 
 W. to E. The Iloang-ho runs upwards of 2,(H)n. 
 and the Yang-tse-kiang more than 2,UUU ni., it' 
 their bends be taken into account. 
 
 4. ConntrifH lyinij to the Soitth of the Great 
 Table-hmdof Eastvm Asia. — 'I his region compriwn 
 the two peninsulas, which ak'c known in Eiirnpeliy 
 the name of India, within and without the(iuiip'!i, 
 
 The ])eninsnlu without the (ianges is travcrsiil 
 by four mountain-ranges, of which the three far- 
 thest oast are connected with, or branch oft'fmin, 
 the table-land of Yn-iian, the most Houtlimi ex- 
 tremity of the (Jreiit Table-land. The most east- 
 erly, which may be called the Anam range, be- 
 gins at 22° N. lat., and runs SE. till it approarlii's 
 the Chinese Sea, near 17° N. lat.; hence, fartliiT 
 south, it proceeds parallel to the shores of that H'li, 
 and terminates at Cape St. James ^10° 15'). This 
 range occupies about 100 m. in width ; its eleva- 
 tion has not been ascertained, but it seems to !« 
 considerable, though far from rising to the smw- 
 lino, except, perhaps, where it is connected with 
 the table-land of Yu-nan. Two other mmiiitaiii- 
 chaiiis branch off from the SW. side of the Mine 
 table-land, between 9.5° and 97° E. long., and nm 
 nearly due S., including the narrow valley of the 
 Thaluen river. The most westerly, which may be 
 called the liirmah range, terminates as a chain of 
 considerable elevation at the mouth of tlu'Tlin- 
 lucn river; the other, which nins to the E. of that 
 river, and may be (billed the Shan or Siain raii(re, 
 cunliuucs farther S., but gradually declining iu 
 
ASIA 
 
 son 
 
 tiiik'ht •'" " (llMpi>onr* t'lUlrclv N, of the nuwi 
 i,irr>»v |Miri nf tlu' |M'iiiiiNiilii nl' Mitlii>'i'ii. ilic i'<ili 
 iiiiinol" Krnli (ll°:»o' N Int.); for ilir low momi 
 i;iiM«, wliii'li (Kviipy iIk' inlrriiir nl' tlif S. (Mirt nf 
 iliiit iM'iiiiiKulii, iiri'iiiil fiiiiiicciiMl with it. 
 
 Itt'twi'i-n lliv Aiiiini riiiiKi' nml tli« 4iiilf of 
 rniikiii licM n liir^i' i)lniii, tlini i>l' 'rmikiii, iiImiiiI 
 |iKi III. ill IciiKtIi hihI wiiilli: il i^ Ihm, it'vi'l, ami 
 , AirciiH'lv fiTlili'. I'^iiM'tiiillyii^ liiriiM ii luii U' irri- 
 .iilcil. ft i" HiirriiimtU'il mi ilic N.iiiiil W. Ity mtv 
 hriili' viillt'y*, iinil triivi'rxcdby llii' river Smin rii, 
 \<|iic'li riHCMiiii till' iul>lt' liiiiil iir Vii iiiiii, mill riiiiH 
 ill an KSK. «lirf<'(iiiii iirnlmlily iimri' tliiiii "on in. 
 Ilic |pliiiii "f"!'''"!*'" itTiniimitH Itciwi'tii l'.t° iiml 
 ■.'iiJ N. lilt.! I'lirllirr S. till' (ifl'ni'ti* rriiiii tln' Aiium 
 
 niiitf'' "I'l""""''' '■''"*'' •'• ''"' "''"' '""' I''"*'" ""'^' 
 l,,iw('(ii lln'iii liir^jcr i>r Hiiiiillir viiIIivm, wliitli 
 loiiirniiiily lire wty Icriilr. .S.mili of ( ii|h' Avii- 
 rillii Hii'i'ii roukit (K'i'U|>y Hourly tin- wliok- of tin- 
 i.iiiiilry. 
 
 Tlu' N. jHirlion of tho country, oiTiipyiiin tlic 
 ,■\ll■ll^'ivl< iriifti* wliicli Hcimriili- tin- .Vimiii riiiinc 
 irmii tlif Sliiui riiiim', oxIiiliiiH ncvcnil lii^li inoiiii- 
 iiilii riil^t'H, wliii'li incliidtt vnilcyi* ami xiirroiiml 
 iIcviiIimI plaiim. South of l(l<' N. lat., however, 
 |,iw (ilaiiiH eoUHtitutc the neiieral rhiiraeter of the 
 ((Piiiitry i for 111011^)1 Ncveral rid^i's oceiir, they do 
 imt nwin to rise at any iiliieo uImivh the elevation 
 (if Iiiiii hilli*. TliONV low plaiiiH have a greater 
 iiliiimluiu'e of water than any other eoiiiitry of 
 A>iii. A eouHiderahle portion of their Hiirface is 
 (iivtTcd with iK'nnanent lakes: others are fonned 
 iliiriii); the rainv Heasoii, liy the iiiiimlatinn of the 
 imiiuTtms luiil lar^e rivers; and at that m'iisoii a 
 uTcnt |Hirtion of thu land is ehaiififed into iininense 
 fWimips. 'Ihwuf^h till! soil is very fertile, ami 
 yields very rit^h eroim of rice and every kind of 
 vinitiihles" cultivatPtl for food In'tween the troiiics, 
 livilixation is less advanced than either in Ciiiini 
 „t llinilostan; liccaiise its inhahilants liein^ iiii- 
 al)li' to turn this alaiiidance to their advunlaKc, 
 it wis as an incentive to idleness. Three lar^e 
 rivirs drain this country. The most easterly is 
 ihc Siii-f,'un, which nins aloii^j the Aiiain riin>;e, 
 mid lulls into the sea near t.'aiie 8t. .lames: its 
 iiplK'r course is entirely unknown, hut from its 
 t'v/y tiiwiirds it8 mouth it is supposed to run from 
 :m\ to tlttO m. Tho Mackhaim, or river of L'am- 
 IkhIjo, is called by the Chinese Lan-tsan-kiaiifx, 
 mid rises in the interior of the (Ireat Tahle-laiul, 
 w) tlmt its wliole course jirohalilv exceeds 2,0(Kt 
 111.: it falls into tho kch \V. of the mouth of the 
 Siii-j;iiii river. The third river is the Menam, or 
 river of .Siain, which ruiiH about 7UU m., and fulls 
 into the tiulf of Siuin. 
 
 Till! valley, in which the Thaliien runs, lictween 
 the mountnni-ranKes of Siain nnd Uirmah is nar- 
 row; it.s soil 18 stony, imd too much elevated to lie 
 irri),'ateil by the water of the river, which rushes 
 with t;rcat impetuosity down its contiiied bed, 
 desci'iuliiin from the (Jreat Table-land, where it is 
 called Loo-kiang, or N<Ki-kiuiig. Its whole course 
 liniliably exceeds 1,500 m. 
 
 The ])eiunsula of Malacca, which constitutes the 
 most southerly part of tho continent of Asia, and 
 tcmiiiiateH with the capes of Ihiros and Ifomanin, 
 lietwccn which the island anil town of Singapore 
 lire situuted, Ih coiincctcil with the mainlanil by 
 the isthmus of Krah (between 9° and 11° S, lat.J, 
 (ilxiiit loO m. long, and from 70 to HO m. wide. 
 It is low, and its soil is furmeil by alluvium. The 
 jicnir.siila itself contains a mountain-ridge in the 
 interior, which rises to 3,000 or 4,0t(0 ft., and is 
 mostly covered with thick wisid, but along the 
 shores extends a level coimtry, which in some 
 districts is very fertile, but mostly not very pro- 
 ductive. 
 
 The moMt westerly of the four moiintain-i'haiiis 
 which IraverHc the iHiiinsula beyoinl the tiiiiiui'^ 
 from N. to ,S, neiirly in its whole li'ii^lh. In the 
 ,\riii'iiii range, disidiiig Aracaii from the lliriiwiii 
 empire. It is not cnliiieited, like the otllirx, willl 
 
 the table-land of Vn nan, but with the lliiiiiilii>a 
 riuiKe. The lliiiialiiya inoiiiitiiiii'* are cniiHiilerrd 
 to tertllillMle at the soiiri'es of the Itfitlllliapoiilril, 
 (H7^ :W r.. long., and 'ii*^ N. hit.). The imoiiiiiiiiiM 
 which surround the upper course of that rixir are 
 i-alh'd the l.aiigtiiii nioiiiitaiii'i, iiinl many of their 
 Niitiimils rise above the Niiuw line ; the highest 
 of those which have been ineasiired, the Itiipha 
 itiHini, attaining lil,7l:l ft. iiliove the sea leNel: 
 the passes wliii'h lead over it do not wink below 
 ll.iMio It. Kroin these niouiitaiii'<, which rather 
 constitute a laruc mountain knot than a range, a 
 chain issues, riiiiniiig \V. pariillrl to the lliiuiilayii 
 range. That portion of tlie chain which is ininie- 
 diately connected with the l.anglaii inniiiiiuins in 
 called I'alkoi tiioiinlaiiis : it seems to he niiieh 
 lower, and more accesHible. Karilier \V. tliey are 
 called the Niiga nioiiiitiiins, wliiidi are still lower, 
 and extend to about !i:i° ilO' I'!, long,, where they 
 are siiccteded by the (iarrow Hills, which rarely 
 rise to more than ti,0()0 ft., and terminate opposite 
 the mountain ridges which surround the enornioiis 
 pinnacle of the i'haiiialari in the Uiniiilaya range, 
 Itetween this range and the Himalaya inoiiii- 
 taiiis extends the valley of Asam, or of "the llriih- 
 mapoiitra, one of the largest in Asia: its length 
 exceeds 100 m., and in width it varies between IIO 
 and i'))) ni. Its soil is very fertile, and the cliinatit 
 such as to bring to perfection nearly all produc- 
 tions cultivated between the tropics: but here also 
 the too great abundance of water retards the pro- 
 gress of agriculture and the increase of the popu- 
 lation, 'i he lirabm.'ipoutra runs more than oO<) 
 III. through the centre of this valley, and is here 
 joined by the lli-hong, which, under the nanie of 
 Siiinpii, or Varno-Zangbo-tsiii, flows through the 
 plains of Tibet, and has run a course of more than 
 1,000 m. belore it reaches the Itrahmapimlra. 
 Issuing from the valley of Asam, the Itrahma- 
 iioiitra runs 30t) m. farther through the plain of 
 Iteiigal. 
 
 The country wliich extends along the moun- 
 tain chains coiistitiiling the S. boundary of the 
 valley of Asam, and advances us far .S. lis 21° N. 
 lat., seems to be considerably elevated above the 
 sea, the iilaiii on which the town of Mooni|Kire is 
 built having an elevation of nearly 2,000 ft. Unt. 
 the plains ore commonly not of great extent, and 
 thu valleys are narrow, thoiigli thu mountains 
 which cover the gruater port of the surface do not 
 rise to a great elevation, A» fur as is known (for 
 the eastern portion of thw region has not been 
 visited bv Kuropeun travellers) these ranges run 
 S. and l)., and form right angles, or nearly so, 
 with the range from wliich they issue. One of 
 these ranges, extending along the meridian of 1)1° 
 K. huig., is called the Khiebuiula mountains, be- 
 tween Mmmipore and Katshar, but farther S., tho 
 Aracan mountains. This chain, whose length 
 rather exceeds 700 m., attains, towards thu S., 
 only a mean elevation of about 3,000 ft. above 
 the level of the sea, though some of its summits 
 rise to 5,000 ft. and ujiwanls. Its mean width 
 may be 50 m. : it turminatea at C'ape Negrais. 
 
 Dctwecn the Aracan mountains and the Itinnah 
 range lies the greatest part of the Hirman empire. 
 A small portion of its surface consists of rich cul- 
 tivable lands; thusu lie in the wide valley of the. 
 Irawaddi, and in two large plains; one situated 
 between 22° and 23° N. lat., along the X. side of 
 thu great bend of that river, and the other butweeii 
 10° ttud 1«° N, lut, : tho latter comproliciula the 
 
201 
 
 AH!A 
 
 hiTitr ili'ltn (if I ho Irnwmlill, niul tho ni^iirnit low 
 fimniry am fat K, nx llic llirmiih iiiniinrnliii), niiil 
 niii.v liiivc n mirriM'i' nf iii'urly KHi.tHMi iti|. in. Iliii 
 it* ntfriciihuri* itiini-rM from t'M'imi* of Mriii«r, 'I'lii* 
 ciiiiiiiry K. <if ilii> Iriiwitilili, niiil H. of iiM i^ri'iii 
 Im'IiiI, U It IijkIi ('<itiiiiry, from l,:iiNi lo J.inhi fi. 
 iiIhivo tlii< It'Vt'l of 'hit M'lt, whoN<> hilly Niirfiirr 
 Miilli'rM from wniil of wiiifr, lhi> noil \n-'um Hiituly 
 ntiil dry, 'I'lii* Iriiwiulill, whirh <lriiin<< thr lliniiiiii 
 i'iii|iiri>, riMVit ill ihiii imkiiown ri'f;ioii I''., of ihf 
 Laiit;liiii inoiiiilain-kiioi, ami riiii* ii|i\varilN of 
 l,'Jii)l III,, if iiM Im'IiiIh Im' tiikcii iiilo ar ml, 
 
 Arai'an, or Iht- country lyiii^ caNl of Ihf Araran 
 mouniaiiiM, In hilly, ami I'Vi'ii iiiiiiiiilainoM" in Iin 
 iiorlherii tlinlrii'lN, thr lalih' iiioimlaiii (iii'iir .'1° 
 N, lal,) rifting' lo H.IIKl ft. /ihovc llii> nnl; lillI iln 
 niiiliih' |iarlN an- oiM'tijiiicI hy the ralhiT wide val- 
 ley of the iiiiritiiiitf or Arai-an ri\i'r, ami ihif« \* 
 fo'tiiiinii'il farihi-r ^<. lo \\t° N, lai„ IhIii^ xt'iiaraiicl 
 from llii> Mca to the S, of the inoiiih of tlii' river 
 hy a rii|){<> of lirokni hillN, whirh riMt> to liriweni 
 Mi) ami 7lN) ft. The raiiiH ilnriiiK the Honih-wcnl 
 inoiiMooii iM'in^ cxlri'ini'ly hcitvv ami of loii^ ron- 
 tiniiiiiii'c, iiKririilliiru i» Uvtv iiIhii relurdiMl hy Ihc 
 uliiimiam't' of water, 
 
 IliiidiiHlan, or the (K'ninNiila within or on this 
 xide the (iaiif^i-M, Ih not eoiiiieeted either with Ihe 
 lultle-ltkiid of KaNt(>rn or thai of Weniern .Xnia, 
 iH'iiiK Heparaled from eaeh hy n wide plain, ex- 
 tending tirHl fruni the month of the (ian;(eN aioii^ 
 Ihe Monlhern declivity of Ihe Himalaya raii^e to 
 the nhoreH of the river ImhiH, in a WNW, diree- 
 lioii, and thence aloii^ the inoiintain.H forming; Ihe 
 lioiimlary of the table-land of Iran, in a SS\V, 
 direction to the inoiilh of Ihe Indus, Thus this 
 plain haM the form of a rit;hl an^h' ; and is, on 
 account of ilH dill'erent cliaractcr in Ihe eiiMlurn 
 and wcHtern diHtrictt*, with proprii'ty divided into 
 the plain of the (laiiKeN and that of the Imlus, 
 
 'liie plain of the (■aiip'H may U' I'oinpared with 
 the ^reat plain of (Ihina, in respect of ferlilily mid 
 oxtetil, though not of poiinlalioii. IIh lenf;th is 
 ii|iwurdM of l,<IUO ill,, and iti* width varies hetweeii 
 I'JI) and t>5l) m. : it coverx an ana of more than 
 2IMI,II0U nq. in. From the month >>f the (ian^'es it 
 riscH imperceptihiy towards the NVV. ; hut, even 
 at a diHlanco of 200 in, from the sea, its surface is 
 not 1,000 ft. ahove it. The country lietween Ihe 
 W. nuMitli of the. Unni^cs, the lloo^hly, and that 
 of the l(rahma|ioutra, to a ilislancu ol nearly lou 
 m. from the sea, i» extremely low, and frequently 
 inundated hy hi);h tideH. It is called tlic Siinder- 
 hiinds, and is nearly uiiinhahitcd on uccoimt of its 
 nnhealthiiuws, lieiii); cuvcrcd with lar^o forest- 
 trees, and frequented hv ti^^crs and other heasis of 
 iirey. The country wfiicli lies N. of the Smider- 
 liuiids, to an extent of '200 m. and upwards, is 
 mihjeut to the animal inundations of the (ian^cs; 
 hy wImisc de{x>sit it is fertilised, ho ns to pve the 
 most nlmiulunt crops of rice. It is cultivated with 
 the greatest care, and nourishes a very numerous 
 ])opnlatioii. N. of 26° N, hit. the aiumal inunda- 
 tions of the river cease; and where no artilicial 
 means arc cmph>ycd to effect an irrigation for the 
 culture of rice, the country produces wheat and 
 other grains, lint the natural ferlilitv of the soil 
 <lccren.HC8 as wo advance higher up the river. It 
 liuiuimcs more sandy, and N. of Dellii the tracts 
 ahiiig the rivers can only Ih) cultivated. At .'{0° 
 N. lat. it is a complete desert. Hetwcen this ]ilain 
 and the lowest range of the Ilinuilayn mountains 
 extends the Tariyann, a narrow strip of land from 
 12 to 20 m. wide, covered with immonse forests, 
 and frequcntcil hy a great luimhcr of elephants, 
 tigers and other animals. It is uiiinhahited on 
 account of its nnhealthincss, the suiface in the 
 rainy ucaiiuu being uuuvcitcd iutu ou iuiucui>e 
 
 Mnnh 
 
 Nwnmp; hut lielwrrn Novrmlirr and 
 may In> viviti'd withoiil dniig*''. 
 
 'Ihe river which drains thlH plain, Ihe Oauki,,, 
 riwii In Ihe hlKhent •ml miMi northerly rniit;i< „c 
 the liiiimlayn mounlaiiiK, iHirdcring on the tuM,. 
 land of the Hucreil lakes of Maiiaiwa, ItoMarrn, imi 
 of llrawan llrad. Its ncveral smiri'i'N unite U'lnr,' 
 it ixMucN from the moiininiim nl llnrdwar. It hihh, 
 iN'gins to chaiit^e Its W, into n H. and miuiIi <>ii.i 
 eriy I'oiirNc, in the latter direction It traviTH,^ 
 ihe upjH'r iiarl of ihe plain, hut from its juMril,,!, 
 with the ,himna it runs l''„ tii ihc iieighrHiiirlnoi 
 of Iti^ainahal, where it again turns to the SK„nii.| 
 soon alter iM'gins to form its extensive delta, i|| 
 viiliiig in a gnat luiinher of liranches, of wlii.li 
 the miml easterly luid piiiuipiil falls into the Ituv 
 of Itengal, a few iiiih's \V. of the month of i|,',. 
 ltrahnia|Hiiitra ; hut Ihe western mouth, callcil iIm< 
 lliHigldy, is in a straight line IHU m, distant In.m 
 it. All rivers descending I'riiiii the llimalayanh iiii- 
 lains, lietween 7H° anil W^ K. long., incrcaM- ji, 
 watifs, and most of them iiinudiiiiiig Ihe liiii,|. 
 I'oiiiiguoiis to their hanks during the r^iiny '-viiii.n. 
 ciiniriliute lo increase the fertility of the |j|aiii. 
 The course of Ihe (ianges exceeds I,;|00 ni. 
 
 The plain of the Indus is somewhat Icx^ in o\ 
 tent, and greatly inferior in fertility. It cMiniU 
 in length alsiiit <iOO ni., and in width ,'liiii ai im 
 averikge, lis surface iiiav cover an area of Ihii.ikhi 
 si|. III, lis N, part is called th<! I'eiij-al> (cuuniry 
 ol live rivers), from heii 4 watered \i '\\i> 'ar.;,, 
 rivers, which afterwards Juiii Ihe Indus. '1 hix irmi 
 is I'oiiimoiily very fertile along Ihe walerciuirx,.., 
 anci there are evt'ii, U'tween the rivi-rs, diKiricu 
 whose soil recoin|M>nses the lahoiir of the Im.'-liiiihl. 
 man ; hut in general they have a light soil, wliiih 
 frequently passes into sleriU; sand or clay. Tlii't 
 description also ap|ilies for Ihe most part In tlic 
 tract of land which lies on Ihe right of tlic rivir, 
 helween it and Ihe ranges which «cparalc it rrmn 
 till! tahle-land of Iran, Ihit on tlu^ left of i|,,. 
 Indus extends an immense sandy desert, wliiili i 1 
 the N, is called Maroost'hali, or the (iniit DcMri. 
 and lo Ihe S, Thur, or Ihe Little Desert, It i\- 
 tends over Ihe tlelta of the Indus, and occupicH 
 lU'arly half Ihe whtdu plain. At it- hoiiiImtii i'n- 
 Iremily is the Kiinn, an extensi\c salt ini>m^-. 
 connected with Ihe (inlf of Ciitch. In the ilcscri 
 also occur smaller lakes and marshes, in wliii'!i 
 salt is produced. It is only inliahited in n tVx 
 places, where rocks ]irolrude through the miikI, 
 naviiig their surface covered with scanty gra». 
 The Indus, which drains this plain, has its r^mri'i'* 
 near those of Ihe (ianges ; descending throii;,'li tlu' 
 siiacioiis valley of Leh or Laduk ; it hreaks tlirimgh 
 tlie mountains at the north-western extrenilly d' 
 tho Himalaya range. Its whidc courMs umouiit'i 
 to upwards of 1,.500 m, 
 
 \V here the two plains of the Gang^ and Iiulm 
 meet, hi the |iarailel of Delhi, between 7ti° aii<l 
 77° K. htng., begin the mountainoll^ couiilrioi if 
 llindostan, which cxtciul to its most southern ex- 
 tremity, ('ai)e (Jomorin (near H° H. law."*. This im- 
 mense tract may be divided into luo triniitflcs, 
 connected at their bases at the Vindhya nunni- 
 tains, which cxten<l l»etwecn 22° mid 2iVo from tlic 
 Hay of Cambay, to the plain of the (Janges, X\V, 
 of (Calcutta. Tliis chain is of m<Hlerate eleviitimi, 
 its highest summits probably m-t exceeding :).()iiii 
 ft. above the sea, and the mos; frequented (il ih 
 mountain-passes, thatof Jaiim. only rising In llii's 
 ft. At its western cxtremitv , about iJO in, Irimi 
 the Hay of Cambay, it is coi iccted with aiicitluT 
 chain, the Aravulli range, woich lirst runs X,. iii 
 broken masses, uj) to the vicinity of 21° .N'. Int.. 
 but farther N, forms a conl^imoiis range, riinnin;: 
 N^E. It dciiceudti westward, with a steep di- 
 
ASIA 
 
 3nA 
 
 ivliy, tn Ihf ili>M'rt of MnnMwt'linli, nml prrvmeit 
 „. •I'lnil of lliiit ili'ilrirl Iroin i-ik'Mui'IiIiiij on ilit> 
 .riili' roiinirv Ivlii^^ fitrtlii'r K, lu iimtjiui' fir 
 , ,11,111 |iri>l>iil>lv iliM'M iioi <>M'i'i'il :i,oiM) II,, tliiiiiK'lt 
 .,1111' aiiiiiniiu ri^t' lii^lKT, mill ilii< AIhhi or AImkIii 
 ink (iH'twitii •.M'^Hiiil '.'.V), fvcii lo iiiori' tliiiii 
 ..iiimMI. 'riii'Kii iwo rliiiiiiK, lliK Vitiilliyil liioiiii 
 
 iitiiiit mill llii' Arikviilli rikii^i' iiMlitiiir two hIiIch 
 
 ,,l thiMiorllii'rii lriiin({li', mill t'roin llit'in llif country 
 ;miliinlly lower*, iiniil ii iiiim>im llir (iliiln of ilii> 
 I'limix*'!*! '■*<>' f'^' '■'""I !'■*' Ii''>>il<'* of till' .liiniiiii. 
 i'Hiilit{iionN III llu< tnonnliiiiiN itri> Iwo lonNlili-rulilo 
 {lUiiin ; ilx^ iitlili'-laiiil of .Mitlwii, well known liy 
 lit i-xIciinIvo |iliiiiliitii>ni4 of o|iiiiiii, nkiru llit< 
 iioftliiTii ilcdivilv of llii> Vlmlliyii iiinniitiiinM for 
 ;iIh>iiI Hihi III,, mill hiiK iin iivrrik^r liri'iidili of oil in. 
 Ni'iir till' iiioiiiilikinM ilN t'li'viilion In iH'lwci'n l,>«Ml 
 111,1 1,'HIII l>, iiliovc llii> Mi'ii-li'Vcl ; lull towiiriU llic 
 S, ii iiii|M'rt'i'|ilil(ly lowers lo lexn tliiin I.UOil ft. 
 I'll, iiklile-lmul ofMiiwar cxlemlH nloiik; llie Arii- 
 Milli rmi|.(is it iH lietwei'i) l'>0 mill IHO iii, loii^;, 
 irmii H. lo N'., nml from 70 lo loo in. wnle. ilx 
 I'li'vitlioii iKtiir till' iiioniitninM In iiltoiit '^,000 ft, 
 itlKKc tliii H«>n, I'lit on Itit citKtern iHinler It NJiikM lo 
 l.liKi ft. in fertility it in niiicli inferior to tlie 
 i,|iiiii of Miilwii ; it proiliieex illirereiit kimU of 
 ,'min, liiit litlic rice. 'I'lie iriieU of coniilry wliiili 
 I'IMkritte lllexe plitillM Allil exteliil to tlic pluin of 
 ilid (iiuini'". 'I'kvii H very hrokeii Hiirfuee, wliieli on 
 iho K.. ill lIurriioiiltM', rim>H in Hteep mnl ni).'Ke<l 
 liill^i.liiil further NV., in Hiiiiilleeiiiiil, prenenlH iiiorti 
 i.-iitlii iifi'livitii'H, nml wider, m well an more fer- 
 iilf, viiiieyH. The riverH whieli ilniin tliene coiiii- 
 irii'Kfiill iiiloflieJiimna, ntriliiitiiryof ilieOmi^eM. 
 Tlie peiiiiiHiila of (injernt, lyinf( oppnNite the 
 iiHiiitli of tli(^ rivers Nerlimlila aiiil 'I'lipl v, \n nniteil 
 iiitlie ooiitinenl, of IliiuloHtan l>y nn i.sthiniiM more 
 ih^iii M m. loll);, between tlio Noiitheni part of the 
 N'kit nioriiKH ealleil the Itiiiin ami Ihe Hay of Cani- 
 liiiy. Till)* iNlhmiiH Ih ho low that, in Ihe rainy 
 M'.'i'iin, the waters of Imtli ^tnlfi* iiiiile ami con- 
 MTt Ihe peninsula into nn iNlnml. I'lii' iti.strietH 
 loiiiiniioiiH lo this isthmus, ns well as those lior- 
 iliTJiij; on till' jfiilfs of Canihay anil Ciileli, have 
 an iinilulatin^ surface, aiul contain extensive tracts 
 III Ttile ami well cnllivnteil laml. The lamls 
 iilmiH the western «'oiist are rather level, liiit their 
 Mirl'iioe is stony, covered with little earth, nml not 
 lirtile. The interior of the peninsnln, and all the 
 liUlrictM aloiij; the Nonthern coast, have? n very 
 liruki'ii surface, and are mostly covered with hare 
 pick!*, hilt contain a nnmherof fertile valleys. The 
 iiiiiiiutain.s in Ihe centre of the peninsnln attain a 
 luipilcrate elevation. The whole is well supplied 
 Willi niniiin^ water, except the iiorth-wi'stern ex- 
 irimitv, hilt is destitute of wood, except on the 
 liilN nliin^ the Houthern const. 
 
 (!iiiitij;iioiiH to the eastern extremity of tlio 
 Vinillivn mi)iintains, tint S. of them (hetween Hl° 
 imil h;1° K. loiiK., nml 2-2° nml •.';»° N. Int.), the 
 I'liiintry rises to a consideralile elevation, prohahly 
 111 iniiro than 5,000 ft. It is overtopped by nume- 
 nnm siimmits which rise 2,000 ft. hi;;lier. This 
 nifi^^od cmiiitry, which seems to constitute a mouii- 
 laiii-knot, from which ridges nml rivers run out in 
 nil (lirpclions, is calleil Omerknntiik. The most 
 wiiwiilerahlc of these rivers is the Xerlmddn, which 
 runs westv.-nrd in n deep valley, overhnn); on the 
 N, liy the steep accliviliea of "the Vindhya moiin- 
 laiiiM, mill iHunidod on the S. by another raii^e, the 
 S. Sautpoorn mountains. This vnlley, which is 
 wlilo, except nt its eastern extremity, nml of eon- 
 siilcrahle fertility, is considered ns the boundnry 
 line lictween Iliiidostnn Proper, lyiuK N., nml the 
 Hi'waii, cxtemUiif; S. to Cape ("omorin. The 
 lon(,'tli of the vnlley, and of the river, is about 1100 
 m. Siiuilar is tile valley hi which the Tai)ty 
 
 riinii aIiHik Ihe noiillieni decUviiy of iho Siiu(|HHirrt 
 mountains, parallel to the NtrbiidiU, liul llNcounMi 
 iliH's mil niiH'h exceed •IIHI m. 
 
 To till' S. and SI'!, of Uinerkiinlnk, JM'lweeii Ihn 
 lower part of the plain of the liaiiKes, and if fur S, 
 as the coiirxi'iif the river liiMlnvery, exieiuls a tract 
 of country whose elesiilinn alnive Ihe xea has not 
 been deierniim'd ; bill the coiiiparutively tow teni- 
 jH'raliire nf the air, mid the lieallhiiietHof the di- 
 niale, seem lo Indicate that it muKt Ui between 
 :i,IHK) mid I.OINI fl. Its surface is broken ; Ihe hills 
 rise to 'i.ooo ft. nbiise it, but they are separalid 
 from each other by wide valleys, and Iri'tpieiitly 
 bv plains of niiHlerale exlenl and indilTerent fen 
 lllily, except alnim the foot of the ridges, where 
 the soil coiiinionly is rich. The eastern Itorder 
 of this riiK^eil lalile land is formed by n chain of 
 nioiintains, which does not seem to rise consider- 
 ably above it, bill they are so steep as to Im' nhllost 
 impassable for lior-<e or wheeled carriages. Their 
 distance from the sen varies between )!o niid HO m. 
 On the nionntain-knoi of Onierkuiitnk rises tho 
 river Mahaniiildy, which traverses this broken 
 country in an KSK. direction tienrly in the iniddle. 
 
 It falls into the May of llen^nl, after n irse of 
 
 more than iiOO m,, and fonns nt ils nioiilii an ux - 
 tensive delta. 
 
 South of the month of the river Taiity, nml tienrly 
 in its pnrallel, rises siiddenlv from the plain a coii- 
 liiiuoiiHmouiitaln-rant{i' called l he tilmiits, extend- 
 ing Houthward as far ns the river I'mianv (1 1° S. 
 lat.), tliroii);h 10" of hit. In some parts ii is :I0 or 
 even to m, distant from the sen; In others it coii- 
 Htitntes its very shores. It ri'<«s abruptly with a 
 steep ascent from the lowcoast.and allainsa mean 
 elevation of from 1,000 to.^.OOOft.; but some of 
 its summits rise much higher. The highest por- 
 tion are the Neil^fherry hills (11° S. lat.), whiili 
 are more lliaii 11,000 ft.nbove Ihe sen; the l.ilian- 
 diimale (Ijo N. lat.) is above r>,riO)) ft. ; nml the 
 Snbramniii (12'^ llo') nbove .'i,|oo ft. In many 
 points, the raii^'e sinks down to less than '2,000 ft'., 
 and over these ile|iressioiis lead the (//kim/x or moiiii- 
 tain-pnsses; whose name linn In^en truiisferred to 
 the rniiKe itself. 
 
 The narrow tract of country which inter\-eneH 
 between this ran;;c and the sea-coast is called Ma- 
 labar. It is mostly occupied by the short olVsets 
 of the (itiants, which preserve their chnracter of 
 steepness, but include small valleys which display 
 a viKoroiis ve^'ctalion. The narrow trnct of level 
 Iniiil nloiifr the sen. which seldom exceeds It m. in 
 width, mid is in ^renernl much less, is separated 
 from the sen by low downs; this t^ives them Ihe 
 ndvniitn^e of irri^'ation dnriiif; the rainy season. 
 The fresii water descending from tin; monntniim 
 has no vent, nml must therefore stnt;nnte until it 
 evn|K)rates : heiii'e these tracts produce much rice, 
 though their soil is |ioor,consistitr^ ehietty of sand. 
 
 The Neilf^herry hills constitute the S. exireinily 
 of the (ihniits, which are called the W. (ilinuts, 
 to distin;;uish them from nnothcr chain of moun- 
 tains called the V.. (ilianls. The Inst-menlioiieil 
 monntaiiiH be>;in on the Imiiks of the river Caverv 
 (I lO'iO' N. lat.), mid extend thence, first in n N K. 
 direction, ns fnr ns i;i° N. Int., where, op|iosite the 
 town of Mnilrns, they turn to the N., and con- 
 tinue so to the liniiks of the river I istnn (iienr 17° 
 N. Int.). Hetween this river nnd the tJodnvery nro 
 n raii({e of hills, which conneetH them with the 
 mountains which separate the Circarx from the 
 elevated country lyinj; fnrther W. The K. (ihnuls 
 «h) not form nn uniiiterni|)te(l chnin, bcinj; nt 
 several places broken hy the rivers which rise on 
 the v.. declivities of the W. Ghauts, and descend 
 to the Hay of Heiiiial. They also do not form one 
 ina>^s; but arc frciiiiently divided hi several ridges, 
 
 '.m 
 
 m 
 
 £ 
 
20fl 
 
 ASIA 
 
 l)y lonf^ituclinnl valleys. Tlipsp mniintHinfl do imi 
 ri.HO to (ho clpv'Uion (if the W. (iliiiiits; vot to I he 
 W, of MiiilrnH, liic Niillii Mnllii mniiiitiiiiiH ati.iiii 
 Jl,('"<» ft. mill more, mni fiirtlicr S. (iiour 12°) tin 
 iShi'rwiilmry nioiintniiiH t'im'. to l,!!.'!;! ft. 
 
 'riie cxtcnsivo eoniitrv enclosed between flie 
 two ridf^e.s of the (ilinntM is an elevnteil talile-lnnd. 
 Its Hnrfaec extends nearly in a l(>vel, which is 
 only hero and there hrolien l»y Hhort ridfjes or 
 ^ronpH of hilLs risinfj a few Inniitred ft. ahove it. 
 Its elevation above the level of the sea, where it 
 is eontipions to the W. .(Jliants, varies between 
 '2,000 and .'(,000 ft,, and thus it may eontinnc to 
 the middle of the table-land ; but it siid<s in ap- 
 proacliinfr the K. <Thauts, where, in most places, 
 It has barely 1,000 ft, or less of elevation. Its 
 soil is rather fertile, and well adapted to the cul- 
 tnre of rice, where it can be irrij^ated, and where 
 not, it produces abundance of wheat and other 
 grain. The S. part is called the table-land of 
 Mysore, and the N. that of Ualajjliaut. 
 
 The Kastern (ihauts are at a distance of about 
 150 ra. from the sea, or coast of Coromandcl. The 
 surface of the intervening country extends mostly 
 in wide plains, which here and there are intcr- 
 sjicraed by hills of no ffr^at elevation. The soil is 
 dry, light, and sandy, but nevertheless it gives 
 rich crops wherever it is irrigated, which is ren- 
 dered easy by the great numlier of rivers descend- 
 ing from the Western Ghauts, or originating in 
 the Eastern Ghauts. The coast is low, sandy, and 
 without harbours, snrroiuidcd by shoals, and cx- 
 ])oscd to a very heavy swell, which renders it ex- 
 tremely dangerous during the north-eastern mon- 
 soon. Three large rivers (iescend from the eastern 
 declivity of the Western Ghauts through the 
 table-land of Mysore and Balaghaut, to this coast, 
 and fall into the Bay of Bengal. The most 
 southerly is the Cavery, which nms about 450 m. 
 I'arther N. is the Kistna, or Krisha, and the 
 Godavery, the former flowing about 600, the latter 
 700 m. These rivers, though in many j)art8 very 
 valuable for irrigating thv- contiguous lands, are 
 only navigable in the low plain of the Carnatic. On 
 the table-land they in general have little water, and 
 where they break through the Eastern Cihauts, 
 they are broken by numerous rapids and cataracts. 
 
 On the parallel of the embouchure of the Cavery 
 river (1 1° N. lat.), the |)eninsula may be traversed 
 without passing any mountain. Here exists a 
 great depression in the Western Ghauts, called 
 the (iap of Coimbatore. The narrowest passage is 
 at the fortress of Animally (77° E. long.), where 
 the level low country between two mountain- 
 ranges presents a valley about 12 m. wide. The 
 elevation of the highest part of this gap is <mly 
 400 ft, above the sea-level. The whole country 
 in this district is covered with large forest-trees, 
 esjjecially with teak ; but during the rainy season 
 it is converted into a swamp. 
 
 To the S. of the Gap of Coimbatore the Giiauts 
 rise again with a very abrupt ascent : they attain 
 also a great elevation. The Permaid Peak, situ- 
 ated W. of Uindigul, nearly in the middle between 
 both seas, is 7,367 ft. above the sea-level, and 
 according to the statements of the natives, the 
 mountains farther W. rise to the snow-line. The 
 chain lies here farther from the sea, leaving a low 
 tract from 30 to 40 m. across between them, and 
 runs SSW. towards Capo Comorin, terminating 
 abruptly at a distance of about 20 Eng. m. from 
 the Cape with a huge mass of granite, 2,00(t ft. 
 high : a low rocky riilge extends to the Cape. The 
 mountains are here covered with thick forests. 
 
 The country W. of these Southern Ghauts is 
 throughout intersected by iiilets of the sea, which 
 often run for great length parallel to the coast, 
 
 receiving the various mountain streamn, and corn- 
 nuMiicating with the ocean by ditl'cnMit shnllnw 
 and narrow openings. Between ('ochin anil 
 • iluilon these lakes form a continual series, iM'In.r 
 united to one another bv short channels, niul 
 alfordiug an easy means ol communication. TIh^ 
 low country, which extends for some miles inlaiul 
 from these lakes, has a good soil, an<l lit'iii<r 
 abundantly watered, gives. very rich crojis of ric?' 
 and other tropical jiroductions. Still more vi^'nr- 
 ous is the vegetation in the valleys which nrv 
 ench)sed by the offsets of the mountains, but thov 
 ar(! not cultivated with equal care. The low couiit 
 is here exposed to a continual and very hcuvv 
 swell from the ocean. 
 
 The jilain and nearly level country, which nn 
 the K, of the Southern (rhauts extends to mi 
 average width of between 70 an<l 80 m., is |)nrllv 
 covered with extensive forests and iiartly witii 
 cultivated (ields, yielding rich crops of rice: tlicir 
 irrigation is rendered ejwy bv the numerous snmll 
 rivers. Along the shores ol* the Gulf of Maiian, 
 and of the I'alk Strait are a great number of sfili 
 swamps and laginies, which mostly cotnmMiiiciitG 
 with one another. Jletwccn them and the sen 
 are sand downs, which in some places cxtpiid 
 to several miles across. The stagnating water 
 renders these places very unhealthy. 
 
 Deccan, being placed between two seas and tlip 
 conflict of the monsoons, is always cooled by soa 
 breezes. Its surface being formed by a series «( 
 terraces, and lying within the tropics, enjoys nil 
 the advantages of tropical countries, without par- 
 taking of their disadvantages. On the siiltr>- 
 coast the luxuriance of vegetation Ls displayed in 
 the cocoa-palm, the mango-tree, the cinnamon- 
 laurel, and the pine-ap])le; it thence passes 
 through forests of teak-trees to the table-land <ir 
 Mysore and of Balaghaut, and still higher, on tlie 
 co(d summit of the mountains, it offers the fniit- 
 trees and corn-fields of Europe, flax plantations, 
 and rich meadows. 
 
 5, T/ie JJindoc^-Coosk—The NW. extremity (if 
 the plain of the Indus is only abtnit 300 m. distant 
 from the plains drained by the Daria Amu, wliiih 
 form the southern districts of the level country 
 that extentls S. of the great depression, in whidi 
 the Caspian Sea and the Lake of Aral are placcil. 
 This tract, between the S. and N. plains, is occu- 
 pied by a mountain system, called the Hinddci- 
 Coosh, which, like an isthmus, connects the great 
 table-land of Eastern Asia with Iran, the most 
 easterly of the table-lands of Western Asia. The 
 whole tract is occupied by high and steep ranges. 
 running in every direction, but the principal of 
 them runs E. and W., and seems to be a prolonfja- 
 tiou of that high chain which is called on tlic 
 great table-land of Eastern Asia, the Kuen-liicn 
 range. Many summits in tliis range rise far be- 
 yond the line of congelation. One of them, tlie 
 Son Tchookesur, NE. of the town of Peshawer, is 
 at least 22,500 ft. high ; but that snow-cappeil 
 enonnous mass, which properly is called tlio 
 Hindoo-Coosh, seems to attain a much grejiter 
 elevation. The valleys of this mountain-rcffion 
 are but narrow, except that in which the river of 
 Caubul flows, which is of considerable brcartlli. 
 The mountains present mostly naked rocks on 
 their steep declivities, but afford pasture ground 
 where the slopes are more gentle. 
 
 Western Asia, or the countries lying west of the 
 plain of the Indus, the Hindoo-Coosh mountnins. 
 and the plains of Bokhara, is, like Eastern Asia. 
 an elevated table-land, but each differs con- 
 siderably from the other. Whilst in Eastern Asia 
 the table-land forms one m!i.ss, extending in all 
 directions, that of Western Asia has nearly in its 
 
ARIA 
 
 207 
 
 miildln nnd in fho diroctinn of its p-rntost extent, 
 fruin HIC. to N\V., a deep (l('i>reMMiiin, wliicli at 
 ii,< Koiith-ejwlern oxln^nuty, wiicre it is occiipicd 
 liv tlic tiulf lit' IVrxia, varien between M) and 
 ■jiH) m. in width, Imt fartlier to the N\V. extc'uds 
 iivrr tlie haMin of the river Kupliratt^N and tin; ad- 
 jart'iit denerl, m as to he from "idO to WMt in. 
 "iKTDHS. The wliolo lenjjth of this depreMsion, from 
 ('ii|i(> Kas el Had (Sat), the soiith-eatitern pttint 
 lit' Aral)ia, to Hunikala, where tlie Knplirates issues 
 fruin the mountAins and enters the plain, <loes not 
 lull short of 1 ,500 in. in a straight line. On the 
 XI';, of this (ie)>ression is the table-land of Iran, 
 ihc mountain-region of Armenia, and the table- 
 land (if Asia Mhior; the latter ])roJects far beyond 
 till? depression. On the S\V. of it is tiie table- 
 land of Arabia, whieh latter is eonneeted with the 
 lalilc-land of Asia Minor, by the mountnin-range 
 iil'Sdristan (Syria), whose mountains separate the 
 niirth-western |)art of the lowlands from the 
 Mediterranean Sea. Besides, the '(ilv 'amis of 
 Western Asia do not rise to so higl. «>• el- •.- ion 
 as the southern portion of the table-lanii 01 East- 
 ern Asia: they attain only the heiglit of the 
 northern region, but being plaecd farther to the 
 S„ and nearer the sen, they enjoy a better climate 
 and are more adapted to agricultural purposes. 
 It is also to be (d)served that the table-lands of 
 Western Asia descend almost everywhere with a 
 sleep descent to the adjoining plains or seas, and 
 are iiDt surroiuided as those of I'^astern Asia on all 
 sides l)y lowlands. 
 
 ti. The Table-land of Iran (Persia) extends from 
 K. t() W. from the plain of the Indus to that of 
 ihe Euphrates, and from S. to N. from the (Julf of 
 I'ersia to tlie Deslit Kowar, or desert of Khiwa 
 (oK° X. lat.), and the southern shores of the (Caspian 
 Sen. Tiie interior of this great tract of country 
 extends in large and level plains, only in a few 
 pliiecs broken by rocky hills, mostly unconnected 
 witli one another. The elevation of these interior 
 districts seems rarely to exceed 6,000 ft. above the 
 sea-!evcl, and as rarely to descend to less than 
 li.OUO ft. These plains are bounded on every side 
 by a broad border of more elevated tracts, whose 
 siirrace is diversified by moinitain-ridges, valleys, 
 and some table-lands of moderate extent. 
 
 Tlie highest portion of this elevated border is at 
 the eastern boundary of the table-land, contiguous 
 to the plain of the Indus. From this jdaiii tlie 
 country rises in several steep ridges, running pa- 
 rallel to the plain, and including deep ami narrow 
 valleys. Thesi; mountains are called, S. of 2!)°, 
 lliila mountai is, and N. of this, Soliraan moiin- 
 laiiis. Adjacent to these parallel ridges, on the 
 west side, are several elevated |)lains of moderate 
 extent, especially the plains of Kelat (21)°), Kwella 
 t:llo), and (ihizni (33° and 34° N. lat.) : of whicli 
 the former is elevate<l between 7,000 and 8,000 ft., 
 and the latter probably more than 9,000 ft. ; yet 
 tliey are cultivated, especially towanls the hills 
 that surround them, and the depressions of their 
 surface, which frequently descend some hundred 
 I'eet : the higher districts atford good pasture. All 
 these tracts are very cold, and covered by deep 
 snow during winter. 
 
 The southern border of the table-land of Iran, 
 extending from the plain of the Indus as far VV. 
 as the Strait of Orraus, does not rise to a great 
 elevation. From the sea, however, the mountains 
 rise rapidly, having onl^ a narrow low strip along 
 the shores, but their height probably does not ex- 
 ceed 2,000 ft. North of this ridge is a mostly level 
 plain, which, as it contains extensive plantations 
 of date-trees, cannot have a great elevation ; it is 
 othcr\vise sterile, and has few spots which can be 
 cultivated. Mortli of tliis plain is another much 
 
 more elevated chain, the WiishutCG monnlains, 
 which probably attain .''i.OdO ft. In this )iart tho 
 mountainous border of the table-land is hardly 
 120 m. across; but towards its western extremity 
 a moiiiitaiii-groiip ])rojecls northward (near fi()° 1',. 
 long,), the Siirhad nioiiiitains (cold mountains), 
 which seem to attain a higher elevation, but havo 
 several fertile valleys towards the K. From thin 
 mouiitain-group issues northward a rocky ridge, 
 which is narrow, and in general low, but h.^sa few 
 elevated summits. This ridge, advancing to the 
 northern border, divides the interior plain of Iran 
 in two ))arts, and forms the political boundary 
 between Afghanistan, or East Iran, and Persia, t»r 
 West Iran. 
 
 Hy far the greater part of the plain of East Iran 
 is occupied by a sandy desert, which, from the 
 VV^nsliutee mountains, extends northward to tlio 
 parallel of Ferrah, (iliirish, and Kandahar (from 
 27° to 32° 10' N. lat,), nearly 400 m,, and from i;. 
 to W. nearly the same distance. Its southern 
 part, the desert of Keloochistan, is covered with 
 line sand, which, when moved by the wind, rises 
 some feet above the solid surface. It is entirely 
 uninhabited. The northern portion, the desert of 
 Sigestan, or Seistan, has a few small oases, and 
 considerable tracts of fertile and cultivated ground 
 along the banks of the river llelmund, which rises 
 on tile western declivity of the llindoo-Coosh, and 
 runs about 500 miles. Half its course is through 
 the desert, and it loses itself in the Lake of Zareli, 
 al)out 120 m, long and 50 m. wide, but when swelled 
 by the melting of the snow in the more elevated 
 regions, it occupies a space more than double these 
 dimensions. Along the northern border of the 
 desert lies a country whose surface is partly hilly 
 and partly undulating, but its breadth is not con- 
 siderable, being between 50 and 80 m. across. 
 
 The northern Ixrnler of East Iran is formed by 
 an extensive table-land of very broken surface ; 
 the upiier part extends in wide level pliiins, but 
 they are frequently intersected with deep valleys. 
 This region, the Faropamisus of the ancients, has 
 been called by modern geographers the mountain- 
 region of the Eimaks, and Ilazarch, from the sa- 
 vage nations which inhabit it. It extends S. and 
 N. about 400 m,, and nearly double that extent 
 E. and W. The ground is cultivated only in the 
 narrow valleys, but the extensive pastures nourish 
 large herds of cattle an<l sbeei». On the N. it is 
 sejiarated from the plain of Bokhara by the Ila- 
 zareh mountains. 
 
 The interior plain of West Iran is of greater ex-, 
 tent, its length from the boundary of Afghanistan 
 to the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, N. of the 
 town of Kfisbin, exceeding considerably 500 m., 
 whilst its mean width may be 400 m., but towards 
 the north-western extremity it narrows to 150 m. 
 and less. Its middle is occupied by a desert, called 
 the Salt Desert, its surface being impregnated Avith 
 nitre and other salts. Towards the boundary of 
 Afghanistan it may be 250 m. across, but farther 
 W. its width hardly exceeds 100 m. Its length 
 is 400 m,, or nearly so. It is entirely uninhabited. 
 Those portions of the plain which extend on both 
 sides the desert have a broken surface, but the 
 level ])lains are extensive, and the hills, though 
 sometime^s high, d(. not occupy a great space. 
 These districts, far from being infertile, are fre- 
 quently well cultivated and abound in pastures. 
 Ill many districts line fruits are raised plentifully : 
 but rocky plains also occur frequently. 
 
 The northern border of West Iran seems not to 
 exceed 100 or 120 m. in width. It is likewise 
 composed of ditterent ridges, which mostly run in 
 the direction of the table-land I'], and VV. Though 
 very rugged and steep, the mountains do not rise 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
208 
 
 ASIA 
 
 to a Rrcnt olcvntion above the clcvatod plains lying 
 southward, before thcv arrive at tlie meridian of 
 .')(>° or 55°. From hence, westward, they rise 
 liiglier, but their width narrows to from til) to «() 
 ni. This more elevated part of the chain is culle<l 
 I lie KlburK mountains, and runs parallel to the 
 southern shores of the tJosjiian Sea, at an overa^je 
 • listance of 2(t m,, dcscendnif^ to it with a descent 
 which ia extremely rapid. It« offsets, which are 
 not less steep, though less elevated, fill up tlie 
 space between the principal range and the sea, 
 tvith the exception of a narrow stripe along iti' 
 shores. The valleys, though not very wide, are 
 very fertile. 
 
 The HW. motmtainous border of the plains of 
 AVcst Iran is still more distinctly marked. The 
 riountain-tract, alwut 80 or 'JO m. wide, extends 
 from the Strait* of Ormuz along the Gulf of Persia, 
 «n<l farther N. along the plain of the Euplirates, 
 to the place where the Tigris, breaking through 
 t)ie mountains, enters the low plains N. of the town 
 of IVIoHul. This mountain-tract consists of from 
 tlireo to seven ridges, running parallel to each 
 other, and se])aratcd by as many norrow longitu- 
 <iinal valleys, which sometimes are many days' 
 journey in length. They are seporated from the 
 Kca by n narrow low coast called the (Jurmsir (warm 
 region), and rise in the form of terraces towards 
 the interior. The valleys in the southern portion 
 of this region are cultivated, but N. of the parallel 
 of .H0° N. lat. they are inhabited by different tribes 
 of Kurds, who prefer a nomadic life and the rear- 
 ing of cattle. This northern range was anciently 
 called Zagros, but is now known under the general 
 name of mountains of Kurdistan. 
 
 The great commercial road which connects the 
 ^ve8tern countries of Asia with India, traverses the 
 table-land of Iran. It runs between the deserts 
 jiiul the northern mountain border, through the 
 fertile and cultivated district between them, and 
 passes from the town of Tabriz in Azerbijan tlirough 
 Casbin to Teheran, and thence to Nishaboor, Me- 
 shed, and Herat. Thence it declines from its east- 
 cm direction to the S. to avoid the mountain region 
 of the Eiraak and Hazarch, and leads to Kanda- 
 har, where it passes over part of the table-land of 
 (ihizni to Caubul. It then follows the valley of 
 the river Cabid to Peshawer and Attock, where it 
 piusses the Indus, and traversing the Penj-ab, en- 
 ters the plains of the Ganges. 
 
 7. The Mountain-region of Armenia. — The most 
 northerly and narrow extremity of the interior 
 plain of Iran reaches to the vicinity of the river 
 Kizil Ozein, and N. of it extends a country filled 
 with mountain-masses, which rises higher and 
 higher as they proceed northward. East of Tabriz 
 is Moimt ScUevan, which attains an elevation of 
 12,000 or perhaps 13,000 ft. above the sea-level, 
 and other summits seem not to be much lower. 
 IJetween these mountains are numerous deep val- 
 leys, which are partly cultivated, but the inhabi- 
 tants mostly depend on their herds of cattle and 
 sheep for subsistence. A few plains lie embosomed 
 between the mountains: the most extensive are 
 those which are filled up by the Lakes Urmia and 
 Van. The former is 300 m. in circumference, and 
 its waters are salt, more salt than those of the sea, 
 but they are perfectly clear. The Lake of Van is 
 somewhat less in extent, and its waters are like- 
 wise salt, but not to such a degree. North-east of 
 the Lake of Van the mountain-region attains its 
 highest elevation in Mount Ararat, whose summit 
 is 17,230 ft. above the sea-level, and the country 
 which extends VV. of it to the sources of the river 
 Aros and the two upper branches of the Eu])hrates, 
 tlie Kara-su and Murad, has at least (),()00 ff. of 
 absolute elcvatiuu, as the town of Erzcroum is 
 
 5,r>00 ft. above the sca-lovel. Four mountain 
 ranges, rising from 4,000 to 6,000 ft, above thcjj 
 bases, run V„ and VV. between 3H° and 41° N. i^t 
 and the most northerly descejids to tlie Ulaek Sia 
 wilh great steepness, and so close to its shores that 
 no road can be made alu the coast E. of Treln- 
 zonil. Though the mountains occupy the greater 
 portion of its surface, the valleys along the lar™ 
 rivers are so wide that they may be taken ttt 
 plains, being from 10 to 15 miles across. Tlicse 
 valleys, though cold, arc mostly very fertile, and 
 yield rich crops of com, whilst the declivities (,f 
 the mountains afford abun<lance of pasture. The 
 farthest south of the above-mentioned mountain- 
 ranges, that wl.ich, branching off from Mount 
 Ararat, contains thesor.rces of the Murad river or 
 eastern branch of the Euphrates, and which farther 
 W. is broken through by this river, after its two 
 upper branches have united, is to be considered aa 
 the con' inuation of Mount Taums, which traverses 
 Asia Minor. But it does not constitute the sduth- 
 eni boiuularj' of the mountain-region of jVrmcnia: 
 this is constituted by a much less elevated moun- 
 tain-ridge runnin;^ E. and W. between the rivers 
 Euphrates and Tigris, alxii 
 
 alMiut 370 20' N. lat., ami 
 on whose southern declivity the town of Mcrdin 
 IS built. After breaking through this range at 
 l{omkala, the Euphrates enters the plain; the 
 Tigris does the same N. of Mosul. 
 
 8. Natolia, Nadoli, or Asia Minor.—Thk ex- 
 tensive peninsula is to be considered as a westcni 
 coiitinuati(m of the mountain-region of Armenia. 
 It is nearly of the same breadth, and lies between 
 the same parallels (37° and 41°); but there is 
 doubtless some change in the direction of the 
 mountains where both regions border on each 
 other. From the Gulf of Iskenderoon, on the side 
 of the Mediterranean, to the town of Trebizond on 
 the Black Sea, the ranges run from SVV. to NK., 
 as is also clearly indicated by the south-westcrii 
 course of the Euphrates between 39° and 36° N. lat. 
 These ranges are a prolongation of those of .So^ 
 ristan, which continue southward in the same 
 direction. The middle part of this tract, Ixjtween 
 the towns of Sivas, Malatiah, and Cicsaria (Kai- 
 sariyyeh), forms a table-land of considerable ele- 
 vation; the winters are severe and snow falls 
 abundantly ; the summers are short and not warm. 
 Its suri'ace is a succession of levels, divided frmn 
 each other by ridges of low elevation ; the phiins 
 are fertile and produce rich crops of com. The 
 southern border of this table-land is Moimt Taurus 
 (near 38° N. lat.), which sends off some branches 
 to the Mediterranean, among which the Alma 
 mountains (Mons ^Vmanni), which enclose the 
 Gulf of Iskenderoon on the E., seem to attain the 
 highest elevation. A northern offset of the Taimis, 
 the All Tagh mountains, terminates near Cicsaria 
 with Momit Erjish, which is always covered with 
 snow, and probably rises to 12,000 ft. above the 
 sea-level. 
 
 From this eastern and much elevated '.jrder the 
 peninsula extends nearly 600 m. westward. Along 
 the Mediterranean as well as along the Black Sea, 
 it is traversed by ranges of mountains. That 
 which mils along "the Mediterranean constitutes a 
 continual range of elevated mountains, the SIoiis 
 Taurus of the ancients. The average distance of 
 the highest part of it from the sea may vary be- 
 tween 30 and 70 m. ; but the whole tract lying 
 between them is filled up by mountains of con- 
 siderable elevation. They attain the greatest ele- 
 vation on the broad peninsula between the Gulls 
 of Adalia and Makry (29° and 31° E. long.), where 
 Mount Taghtalu is 7,800 ft. high. But the moun- 
 tains farther inland are even in August covered 
 with snow for a fourth part of the way down their 
 
ASIA 
 
 200 
 
 iir moiiiUain- 
 t. alxivc tlicir 
 luUloN.lut., 
 I 111! black Sta 
 ilH short's tliat 
 it K, of Trel)i- 
 |)y the greater 
 long the lar(,'c 
 Im taken for 
 iicroH8. These 
 ary fertile, and 
 1) declivities (,f 
 pOMture. The 
 iictl mountain- 
 f from Mount 
 ^lurad river, or 
 1 which farther 
 r, after itH two 
 e considered as 
 vhich traverses 
 tiite the 8011th- 
 :)n of Armenia : 
 devatcd moun- 
 vcen the rivers 
 20' N. lat., and 
 own of Mcrdin 
 I this range at 
 the plain; the 
 
 I'uor. — This ex- 
 ed as a western 
 on of Armenia. 
 nd lies hetwccii 
 ) ; but there is 
 irection of the 
 lM)rder on each 
 'oon, on the side 
 of Trebizond on 
 )m S\V. to NE,, 
 e Bouth-wcsteni 
 »0and3(j°N.lat. 
 of those of .So- 
 l^d in the same 
 ,9 tract, between 
 Cawaria (Kai- 
 :onsidcrable ek- 
 and snow fulls 
 rt and not warm, 
 lis, tlivided from 
 tioa ; the plains 
 s of com. Tlie 
 is Mount Taurun 
 some brandies 
 rhich the Alma 
 ich enclose the 
 em to attain the 
 et of the Taurus, 
 tes near Cicsaria 
 lya covered with 
 00 ft. above the 
 
 ivated '.order the 
 fvestward. Along 
 g the Black Sea, 
 lountaiiis. That 
 Ban constitutes a 
 iitains, the Mons 
 srage distance of 
 ea may vaiy be- 
 hole tract lying 
 Buntains of coii- 
 
 the greatest cle- 
 stween the Gulls 
 
 E. long.), where 
 But the nioiiu- 
 
 August covered 
 
 way down their 
 
 Hides, which indicates an elevation of at least 
 l.i,nOO ft. above the sca-levcl. Farther AV. the 
 rnnnntnins rapidly decease in hoi,dit, and are 
 only of moderate elevation where they terminate 
 on the shores of the vKgcan Sea, on both sides of 
 the (iiilf of Kos. The rocky masses of this chain 
 press so closely on the shore of the sea, that com- 
 mnnly only a narrow stripe of low or hilly surface 
 intervenes, except along the innermost part of 
 the titilf of Adalia, anrl along the N. shores of 
 that of Iskenderoou, where low plains of moderate 
 extent occur. In some places high mountains 
 innsfitutc the very shores of the sea for many 
 miles together. 
 
 Tiic mountains which occui along the Black 
 Sea do not form a continual range, being fre- 
 (piently broken by deep, and commonly open 
 valleys, by which several lar/;er or smaller rivers 
 tind their way to the sea. They therefore con- 
 lii'ute several sej)arated ranges, and have nei- 
 ther in ancient nor in modem times been de- 
 fignated bv a general name. The, several ridges 
 which lie between these valleys run E. and \V., 
 parallel to each other, forming commonly a wider 
 mnuntain-border on the N. of the peninsula, than 
 the higher chain of the Taurus on the S. ; their 
 mean breadth may be 100 m. None of their sum- 
 mits pa'<s the snow-line; the highest which has 
 lieen measured is Damaun-Tagh, the Mons Olym- 
 pus of the ancients, SE. of Bnisn, more than 9,000 
 ft, (1 ve the sea-level. The wide and extensive 
 valleys which lie between the mountain-ranges of 
 this tract contain much cultivated land, which 
 Miinetiines extends, even on the gentle slopes of 
 the mountains themselves, whose higher parts are 
 used as pastures, whilst nearly the whole of Mount 
 Taurus is only available for the latter purjMse. 
 
 Tlie country which lies between these two 
 mountnin-districts. and the meridians of Cwsaria 
 (Do' 30') and Kutahiya (30° 20'), is, properly 
 speaking, a plain whose elevation has not been 
 iletermintd, but it does not seem to be much 
 alKJve or below 2,000 ft. above the sea. Its surface 
 is not every where level, but it exhibits extensive 
 Iwel plains, and the ranges of hills which occa- 
 sionally occur do not occupy much space, nor are 
 they commonly much elevated above their base. 
 The soil is dry, but not sandy ; and, along the 
 watercourses, or where water for irrigation can 
 he got, rather fertile ; but the tracts where no 
 water can be ])rocured are very extensive, and 
 »Tve in winter as pasture grounds to S'averal 
 nomadic trilies, who in summer retreat to Jlount 
 Taiims, or the high lands E. of Ciesaria : even 
 the fertile tract.s are not cuMivated, because 
 fxposcil to the continual robberies of these tribes. 
 The soil in the S. districts is strongly im- 
 pregnated with nitre and other salts, and hence in 
 these parts a considerable number of lakes occur 
 whose waters arc salt, and from which great quan- 
 tities of salt are prociu-ed. These lakes have, as 
 is eommoiily the case with salt-lakes, no outlet. 
 The most important of the riv^ers which drain this 
 talile-land is the Kizil-ermak, which rises at a 
 short distance E. of Sivar, and runs 200 m. west- 
 ward, and aftenvanls nearly 300 m. NE. and X. 
 It is the Halys of tlie ancients. 
 
 The table-land extends even W. of the me- 
 ridian of Kutahiya, but in these parts its surface 
 liegins to be broken in hills and dales. The hills 
 [ increase in height as they proceed westward, and 
 the valleys sink deeper, and become wider. Both 
 tlie hills and valleys continue to the shores of the 
 1 Agean Sea, indicated by the indented sea-coast, 
 ^riiich consists of boldly projecting promontories 
 and deep bays between tlieiri, forming excellent 
 I liarlmiirs. This is by for the best portion of Asia 
 
 Vol I. 
 
 Minor, the cultivated land extending ove" the 
 valleys, and on the sides of the mountains, and 
 yielding rich crops of rice, cotton, and corn, whilst 
 the gardens produce many kinds of excellent fruits. 
 This region is also the most populous, aiul con- 
 tains probably more than half the population of 
 the peninsula. 
 
 S). Soriiitan or Syria, which unites the table- 
 land of Nadidi with that of Arabia, is a country 
 which ha.s a very jKiculiar physical constitution. 
 Two elevated ranges run from its northern ex- 
 tremity (37° N. lat.) through its whole lengtli. 
 and terminate on both sides the Gulf of Akaba 
 (2«o N. lat.), the farthest ea.st of the two gulfs 
 which the J{cd .Sea forms at its northern extre- 
 mity. But both mountain-ranges, with the inter- 
 vening valley and the adjacent shores of the 
 Mediterranean, occupy only a space trom fiO to 
 70 m. across. The most easterly of the two moiin- 
 tani-chains lowers considerably soon after having 
 branched off from the Alma Tagh ; and in the 
 parallel of Aleppo (30° 10' N. lat.) it sinks down 
 to hills of moderate elevation, nor does it rise 
 much higher until it reaches 37° 20', where it 
 rises to a considerable height, probably 5,000 ft. 
 and more : it is called Jebel Esshari, the Antili- 
 banus of the ancients. It preserves a considerable 
 elevation as far S. as 32° bii', where it lowers again, 
 but so<m widens in an extensive mountain-region, 
 railed El Kura which extends to 32° 10'. Hence 
 it continues as a rocky ridge of moderate elevation 
 on the eastern side of the Dead Sea, to its southeni 
 extremity E. of the Gulf of Akaba. The western 
 chain is much higher, at least in the northern 
 districts. As a high mountain-range, it skirts the 
 eastern sides of the Gulf of Iskenderoou, and at 
 some distance S. from it is broken by the river 
 Aazsy (Orontes), but S. of that river it again rises 
 to a considerable elevation. Its highest portion, 
 hoAvever, is between 34° 30' and .'13° 20' : this is 
 the famous Libanus of the ancients, its northern 
 and more elevated portion still retaining the name 
 of Jebel I.iban : but towards the S. it is called 
 Jebel el Dms, from its being inhabited by the 
 Druses. 'Ilie highest summits of the Jebel Libitu 
 are always covered with snow, and that which 
 bears the iiiime of Jebel Makmel (34° 12') attains 
 to 12,000 ft, above the sea. S. of 33° 20' the 
 mountains sink much lower, and these low ridges 
 continue to its southern extremity, on the rocky 
 ]icninsida between the Gulfs of Akaba and Suez. 
 Near the most southerly point they terminate 
 with the stupendous and famous mountain-mass 
 of Mount Sniai, whose highest summit is pro- 
 bably more than 9,000 ft. above the sea. 
 
 The valley, which extends between the two 
 ranges, has nowhere a great width. N. of 32° X. 
 Int. it may vary between 8 and 20 m., but is much 
 wider N. of 34° N. lat. than between the two 
 ranges of the Libanus. From the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Dead Sea, to the Gulf of Akaba, it 
 is reduced to a narrow, rocky, and waterless cleft 
 in the mountains, jmibably not more than 1 m. or 
 IJ across. The northern and wider part of the 
 valley is w^atered by the river Aazsy (the Orontes 
 of the ancients) ; the middle and highest part, 
 lying between the two ranges of the Libanus, by 
 a small river, the Liettanie : this district is pro- 
 bably 2,000 ft. above the sea, S. of the Liettanie, 
 the valley is watered by the Jordan, which tra- 
 verses the Lake of Tiberias, and empties itself ui 
 the Dead Sea, after a course of about 100 m. The 
 Dead Sea, called by the Arabians Balir-el-Loot, 
 is aliout .50 m. long and nearly 15 m. broad where 
 widest ; it is remarkable for the asphalt or bitumen 
 fouiid on its shores, and for the remarkable events 
 and associations connected with its historv. 
 
 
 \ti 
 
 i J 
 
 J,- 
 ;-( 
 
 fc;1 
 
 1:1 
 
 lilt sM 
 
 M 
 
210 
 
 ASIA 
 
 Hcfwwn tlip wcHtnrn mounlnin-rniiKC and the 
 Hlioros of the Mcditcrraiipaii. iiro Hurni! cxtciinivc 
 liliiiiiH, S. of ;{;»°, where llii' coiiiilrv fur ninny 
 miles inlanil is low and sanily, lint willmnt liar- 
 litiurs. Helween il;i° and .'!'»° is the connlry (if the 
 aiKticnt riuenicians, lyiii(^ lietweeti the sea and 
 the, Lihanns. The wlioli' tract, fnmi the sea to 
 the nionntains is tilletl with hills, and. in ad- 
 vancing; to the shores, these hills form nnnierous 
 mnall harlionrs : the country further N. is of the 
 itaine (lescriplion. 
 
 The soul hern ]iart of the re;,'ion just deserihed is 
 nearly a desert. South of the Dead Sea the sur- 
 face istnosily nothing; lint hare rocks, destitute of 
 ve;;etahle ininildand water. It is therefore called 
 Arahia I'etrea, or Stony Arnhia. North of it is 
 I'alestine, wluiso plain towards the !Mediterraneau 
 is nearly a desert, on account of its sandy sinface; 
 lint lh(rhi;j,her |iortion, lu-lwcen this iilaiii and the 
 Jordan, is rather fertile, where cultivated. th;inj,di 
 sonic districts have a stony soil. The valley of 
 the Jordan is not distitiKuished hy fertility. The 
 Country west of the J.ihanus is ni<ire fertile, esjie- 
 cially aloiifi the raiif^'e, and in its small valleys, 
 and even on its dei'livities; hut on its side some 
 of the valleys are sterile, and the 1".. <leclivity of 
 Lihanns is ii naked rock. X<irth of I-ihaiius the 
 country improves; and is in p'ueral fertile, and 
 partly 'well cultivated. J'.ast of the mountain- 
 refjion is the Syrian desert, which heloiij^s to the 
 f^reat depression in the interior of Western Asia; 
 hut this desolated country does not advance to the 
 foot of the ranges: it is divided from them hy a 
 tract of most fertile eouutry, intermixed with 
 sandy sjxits. This tract may he ,W or (>() m. 
 across, hut it hecomcs niorc sandy and sterile in 
 ndvanciiif; further J']. 
 
 10. Aruhin is a tahlo-laiid of eonsiderahle ele- 
 vation, but wc are niiahle to determine the line 
 where it heffins to rise from the low jilain of the 
 Syrian desert. Prohably this line is a j^ood way 
 Sl of the caravan road leadiuf; from Damascus to 
 Bussorah, but not far fmm a line drawn from the 
 most northerly corner of the (iulf of Akaba to the 
 mouth of the Euphrates. Th(! table-land rises 
 abruptly on the other three sides, at a distance of 
 fromil toJOm. from the sea, exceiitahmp the north- 
 ern coast of the (Iulf of Persia, to which it descends 
 with a gentle declivity. The low narrow border, 
 with which the table-land is encompassed on all 
 sides, is called the 'I'ehama, and the table-land 
 itself Jsejd, or Nedjed. Tlie rocky and uneven 
 border, which divides the Nejd from the Tehama, 
 is mostly called Jebel (mountain), or Iledjaz. 
 
 The Nedjed is dividecl into two parts hy a rocky 
 ridge, which cuts the Trojiic Circle with an angle 
 of about 30°. It begins on the VV. near 22° N. 
 lat., and terminates near the (iulf of Persia, near 
 25°. This ridge, called Jebel Aared, divides the 
 table-land into two parts, of which the southern 
 is nearly a comidete desert, and scents almost un- 
 inhabited. North of the Jebel Aared, sand also 
 covers by far the greater part of the Xedjed, but 
 is in numerous places interspersed with rocky 
 tracts and some hilly grounds ; where, during the 
 rainy season, water collects and forms small 
 streams, by which these tracts become inhabit- 
 able, and even fit for the culture <if some kinds 
 of grain; especially dhourrah. a kind of millet. 
 There occur also extensive plantations of fruit- 
 trees, especially dates. The sandv desert which 
 separates these inhabitable s])ots is also covered, 
 after the rainy season, with grass and thjwcrs, and 
 the Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, liiid there all 
 the year round subsistence for their horses, camels, 
 and shce]>. 
 The Iledjaz, or rocky edge of tlie Nedjed, la 
 
 narrow. North of thn Tropic, where it (trohnlilv 
 never I'xceeds IT), or at the utmost 20 m., e>i('p|ii 
 in two or three places where it is contigiious to « 
 rocky district of the Nedjed. South <if the Tnnii,' 
 it considerably widens, and here its mean brcmltli 
 i.iav b(> about "lO in. : S. of !Mrkka the Telianm 
 and IledJM/ together extend more than 100 ni. 
 from the lied Sea. The Iledjaz resembles miicli 
 the rot'ky tracts enclose<l by the Nedjed, excopt 
 that water is mon^ abundant, and that therefurct ii 
 is better adapted to agriculture. In it are exten- 
 sive pliintalions of culfce. 
 
 The low plains of tluf Tehftma have a snmly 
 soil, which It is supposed has been deposlteil In- 
 the sea along the foot of the great moiintniii- 
 inass. by which the Hedjaz and Nedjed nro sii]>- 
 ported ; aiicl it is maintained that it is still in- 
 creasing in width. As it <loes not rain, freqiioiith, 
 for niiiny consecutive years, it (Miuld not he nilii- 
 vated but for the watercourses, which, duriii(; tlio 
 rainy season, descend from the adjacent llwlja/. 
 Irrigated by them, with the addition of mw 
 artiticial means, these sultry dry plains yield \im\ 
 crojis of some kiiuls of grain, and are rich i:i 
 fruits, dates csjiecially. 
 
 II. The Plain of the Eiiphrateit romprisps tlu' 
 whole of the great depression in the iiiterinr (f 
 Western Asia, except that jiortion which is dc- 
 cnpied by the (iulf of Persia. Its northern Imim- 
 dary is formed by that range of mountains whicli. 
 on the W. of the Tigris, begins a little nimvi' 
 IMosul. aufl running westward near the tnwuit nf 
 ^lerdiu and Orfa, terminates on the banks of tlii' 
 Euphrates, near I'umkola. On the VV. it i-i 
 bounded by the table-land of Iran, on the K. In- 
 the moiintaiii-rcgi<in of Syria, and on the S. In- 
 the northern declivity of the Nedjed. That ]iiir- 
 tioii of it which lies contigucais to the Nedjod ninl 
 Syria, u)) to the eastern banks of the Kiiphrntes, 
 is a com|ilete desert, mostly (covered with sand. 
 and subject to the pestiferous blast of the mmmti 
 or saiiiiel. It is, however, inhabited hy soiiii' 
 wandering tribes of Arabs ; and through it nm 
 the roads which lead from Aleppo and DnmaiiciK 
 to Bussorah. It is called the S\Tian Desert, h 
 spreads even beyond the Kuphrates to a coiisidpr- 
 able distance from the river in its middle course. 
 where its banks are hardly better inhabited than 
 the desert itself. In the northern districts of the 
 plain sand also prevails, but it is frequently inter- 
 spersed by extensive tracts of rocky ground: and 
 as these patches have commonly mould on tluni 
 they are cultivated and planted with trees. This 
 tract, through which I'uns the road from Aleiipi 
 to Bagdad, extends on the banks of the Tigris tn 
 the last-mentiolied place. South of Bagdad the 
 country between the two rivers is fertile, whoii 
 irrigated, which is done by water derived from the 
 rivers themselves, and from several canals; hiii 
 those tracts, which lie to the E. and W. of these 
 rivers, are only cultivated along their banks, 
 sandy deserts beginning at a short distance (rm 
 them. The two rivers, which wiiter this cnat 
 plain, the I'-uphrates and Tigris, rise nearly in 
 the same pnralhd, between :>H° ilO' and S'P Sn' 
 N. lat.. on the declivities of the same mountain- 
 range in Armenia; but the Euphrates, runnin,- j 
 first W., has already had a course of oOO ni. lictlir' 
 it arrives at the |)arallel of the sources nf tli ■ 
 Tigris. It then by degrees tiinis SK., and i""- 1 
 tinues in that direction, ajiproaching graiiiniUy 
 nearer to that river, and unites with it nlH^i' | 
 100 m, from its mouth. The united river is calirl 
 the Sliat-el-Arab, and falls in the northern cxtrt- 
 mity of the Gulf of Persia. 
 
 12. Mount Cuurams, which at present is con- 
 sidered as the bouudary betwceu Asm. and liuroi i'. I 
 
ASIA 
 
 211 
 
 re it iirolialily 
 'iO ni., ojicciit 
 ili(;u<>iiH tn II 
 
 of tlic Tmiii'' 
 menu lirciulili 
 I the Tt'lmniii 
 
 thnti 10(1 m. 
 )<cinl)l('>* mu('l\ 
 "JcMljcd. ('X('C|it 
 lat thrrt'fiirfiii 
 u it are cxteii- 
 
 hftve n snnily 
 n deposited liy 
 ent mnuntftin- 
 edjed lire »ii|i- 
 t it is still iii- 
 niii. frefiuently, 
 1(1 uiit lie ciilti- 
 lieli, (lurint: tlh> 
 IjjuTiit lledja/. 
 lilition '<( sdiiv 
 Inins yield nm.\ 
 iiid arc rich in 
 
 s roinprisps tlio 
 
 I the interior (f 
 on wliieh is (ic- 
 s iiorllierii Imiin- 
 ioiiiitaiti.-< wliicl!. 
 s a little aliovi' 
 ^ar the towns nl' 
 he liaiiUs of tlu' 
 
 II the W. it i-i 
 an, on the K. liy 
 111(1 on the S, I)y 
 •djed. 'rimt i«ir- 
 (1 the Xedjed nnd 
 of the Kuphmtes, 
 ivercd with siiiu), 
 nst of the simmin 
 lahited hy soitu' 
 I thron^h it nm 
 po and llaJTiiisciK 
 ijTian Desert, it 
 jtes to a coiisidor- 
 its middle ('ou^^ 
 
 •r inhaliited tlwii 
 
 rn districts of tlic 
 frequently intfr- 
 
 oeky (icround; ami 
 mould on tliwii 
 with trees. This 
 road from Alciijn 
 .s of the Tigris t^i 
 
 ith of naRilud the 
 •s is fertile, when 
 
 ;r derived from tlic 
 eral eaiials; liiii 
 and W. (if tlipw 
 onj; their tanks. 
 hort distance frciii 
 water this mf 
 ris, rise nc.irlv in 
 rto ao' and 3!I5 S"' 
 le same nioiiiitnin- 1 
 ;iil)hrates, ruiiiiin^' | 
 •se of oOO ni. MiK 
 the sources (if tlu' 1 
 inis SIC, nnd O'li- 
 :oachin« gr,idiially 
 ites with it nl«iii' | 
 nited river is cnliil 
 the northern cxtti- 
 
 at jiroscnt is con- 
 ni ^Vsia and ^m'- 
 
 inft not conHtitute a part of the table-lands and 
 nKiiintain-re^ioiis of VVcstern Aula, beiiij; tiepa- 
 mtcd from the monntain-ma.siioH uf Armenia liy a 
 kind of vallev, about 10(( m. acroH."!. This valley 
 \i a level plain, where it approacrhca the CaNriian 
 Sea, aiul at a dintnuce of about 100 or 150 m. trom 
 it. Farther W. the surfaee of the valley is hilly, 
 intcnnixed with some undulating (dains of mode- 
 rate extent. It rises in higher Jiills, between 43° 
 and -14° E. Ion., where a ridge of low mountains 
 forms the watershed between the river Kur (the 
 Cyrus of the ancients), and the Kioni (the I'hasis 
 of the ancients^. The most westerly district of the 
 valley, which is watered by the Hioni, is almost 
 ontirtdy tilled with hills, the valleys and level 
 tracts occupying onlv a small part of its surface. 
 
 Mount Caucasus itself rises from this valley, 
 wth a rather steep descent, and forms a continual 
 mass of high rocks, running from ESE. to WNVV., 
 from the shores of the peninsula of Absheron, on 
 the Caspian 8ea, to the small town of Aimpa on 
 the Black Sea, a distance hardly less than 700 m. 
 Its width does not exceed 120 m. where widest, 
 and hardly more than (!0 or 70 m. where nar- 
 rowest, 'f his mass of rocks covers 56,000 sq. m., 
 or nearly the surface of England and Wales. Its 
 highest summit, Mount Ellirooz, or Elborus, at- 
 tains an elevation of 17,785 ft., and is situated 
 nearly in the centre of the range. The portion of 
 the range, which extends VV. of that high pin- 
 nacle, nowhere rises to the snow-line, Init several 
 snow-peaks occur to the E. of it, among which 
 Mount Kazbeck is 14,600 ft, high. Traces of 
 agriculture are met with in but few of its valleys, 
 tlic inhabitants living almost exclusively on the 
 produce of their Hock.s. This mountain-system is 
 remarkable for the great number of nations, be- 
 longing to different races, which uihabit its ele- 
 vated valleys. At both extremities of Mount 
 Caucasus are places where the soil is impregnated 
 with naphtha or bitumen, es])ecially in the penin- 
 sula of Abcharon. 
 
 13, The Islands of Asia. — Tho Aleutian islands, 
 which extend between the peninsula of Kamt- 
 ehatka and the peninsula of Alashka, in America, 
 as well as the Knrile islands, which lie S. of Cape 
 Lopatka, and terminate near the eastern shores of 
 Jesso, are of volcanic origin, and in some of them 
 are still found active volcanoes. Their soil is 
 mostly rocky, and dchtitute of wo(xl, but the most 
 southerly islands of the last-mentioned group are 
 cultivated on the lower grounds. 
 
 The large island, called Sakhalien, Tarakai or 
 Karafto, extending along the coast of Manchooria, 
 forms an enormous mass of rocks, which rise to- 
 wards its centre probably to the height of 3,000 or 
 4,000 ft., and perhaps even higher. 
 
 The islands of Japan, consisting of four large 
 ( Ft'so, Niphon, Sitkokf, and Kioosioo) and a con- 
 siderable number of smaller ones, are also formed 
 by immense masses of rocks, which, especially on 
 Xiphon, rise above the snow-line. In most places 
 th( steep or gentle declivities of the rocks extend 
 to ttie very shores of the sea, but at others plains 
 of considerable extent extend between them. 
 Though the soil docs not seem to be distinguished 
 for fertility, it is rendered productive by the great 
 care with which it is everywhere cultivated ; corn- 
 fields extend on the slopes of the mountains to a 
 considerable elevation. In many districts the 
 murface consists of lava. 
 
 The island of Formosa, divided from the con- 
 tinent by a channel about 70 or 80 m. wide, ex- 
 tends from N. to S. more than 200 m. Its south- 
 cm extremity is a level, but not of great extent, 
 fur not far from it rises that mountain-range which 
 traverses the island in its whole length, and which 
 
 in its higher parts seems to attain nn elevation of 
 from 10,000 to 12,(KM) ft. alnivo the sea. Its val- 
 leys towards the western shores, and the small 
 level B|M)ts which occur along the sea are fertile 
 and well cultivated. The country E. of the range 
 is not known. 
 
 The island of Hainan, near the S. coast of China, 
 is sejiarated from the mainland by a strait hardly 
 more than 10 m. across. It extends from SVV. to 
 NE. more than 180 m. ; its average width is alMiul 
 100 m., or somewhat more. In its centre rises a 
 mountain-mass to a considerable height, from 
 which some lateral ridges branch off, but they do 
 not reach the shores, except in some ])arts on the 
 E. coast. Everywhere else a low flat coimtry 
 separates the mountain from the sea. The Hat 
 districts are either sandy, or covered with grass, 
 and without trees, like the savannah ; in some 
 places they are cultivated and fertile, aa are also 
 the valleys. 
 
 The extensive group of the Philippines, which 
 lies between 18° 30' and 5° 30' N. lat., comprises 
 more than 100 islands ; of which, however, most, 
 of the smaller ones are uninhabited. Most of them 
 are mountainous, and the smaller ones naked 
 rocks ; but the larger islands contain many plains 
 of considerable extent, and of a very fertile soil. 
 They are well watered — perhaps too much so : 
 some of them are volcanic. 
 
 The Sooloo islands, between Magindanao and 
 the eastern coast of Donieo, have a rocky and un- 
 even soil, but it is very fertile, being covered with 
 a thick vegetable mould. But the large Lsland of 
 Palawan, lying farther N., is a rocky mass, rising 
 in the middle to a high range, in which some 
 summits attain a great height. The rocks are 
 commonly bare ; in some parts the sides of the 
 mountains are covered with trees ; but agriculture 
 is confined to a few small spots on the coast. 
 
 Borneo, the largest of the Asiatic islands, and 
 not much inferior to France in extent, is nowhere 
 mountainous except in the peninsula which pro- 
 jects NE. from the main body of the island ; and 
 even there, as it apjKsars, the mountains do not 
 attain a great elevation. The remainder, which 
 comprises at least four-fifths of its whole siurface, 
 seems to be a plain, on which a few ridges occur 
 at great distances. This plain has an alluvial 
 soil, to a distiince of several miles from the shores, 
 and aftenvards the country rises graduallv, per- 
 haps 200 or 300 ft. The whole of this plain, as 
 far aa it is known, seems to possess great fertility; 
 and the want of culture v hich everywhere is 
 visible, is probably the cff^CbOf the too great abund- 
 ance of water, as the islrud is subject to continual 
 rains. All kinds of productions and fruits com- 
 monly met with betw^een the tropics, grow to 
 perfection. 
 
 The island of Celebes, divided from Borneo by 
 the straits of Macassar, is traversed by four ranges 
 of mountains, which, however, do not attain a 
 great elevation, except where the four mountain- 
 ranges and the four peninsulas, of which the island 
 consists, meet together ; in this part the moun- 
 tains are of considerable height. The surface of 
 the whole island is hilly or moimtainous, the flat 
 tracts along the coast being of small extent. Its 
 soil is rather sandy, and not distinguished by 
 fertility. Its produce in rice is not equal to the 
 consumption of the inhabitants ; but it produces 
 many tropical fruits, and sago in great abundance. 
 The Moluccas, lying \V. of Celebes, consist of 
 some hundred of smaller and larger islands, di- 
 vided in several groups between 6° N. lat. and 
 8° S. lat. They rise mostly with a steep ascent 
 fn)m the sea-shore, but rarely to a considerable 
 elevation. Many of them seem to owe their origui 
 
 v 2 
 
 ' K^ 
 
 m 
 
 I: 
 
 'ii; 
 
 
 --rm 
 
 
 V-V. 
 
 ill 
 
21'2 
 
 ASIA 
 
 to volonnncB ; nnd on cinht, Bfill exist volcniiocH 
 in activity. Thi>ir noil, though inoxtly Hniidy nml 
 Htony, iM ifcrtilc, nnd |inrticulurly ada|ited for some 
 prtHltictionfi. Amixiynn has Inrgo plantatioiiH of 
 clovco, and thu llnnda K^otip fnmiHhoH miiHrnt 
 nutH and macr. The culture of rice and other 
 grain ia very limited, an the Hoil Heema not favour- 
 able to their fO'owth ; hut thiM want Ih HUppllud by 
 the extenxive plantationn of nago-trecs. 
 
 That sericH of mostly considernblc iAlnndfi wM('h 
 beginH on the K. with the i.-land of Timour and 
 tonninatCH on the W. with that of Uali, inciluding 
 tiie iHliuidH of Uofti, Sav(>o, nnd Snudelhowh, 
 which lie S. of the Heries, arc called bv geographers 
 the LeHser Suuda IhIuik/h, to distnigulNh them 
 from the grouj) of the Larqer Siinda Inlands, 
 eompriwng Itorneo, Celeben, .Java, and Sumatra. 
 'I"he Lesser Sunda Islands are mountainous ; nnd 
 In some of I hem the mountains rise to 8,000 or 
 )),0(I0 ft. above the sen, and probably higher. 
 Several of them nre active volcanoes, which fre- 
 quently bring destruction over the islands in which 
 tney are situated. We arc not well acquainted 
 with these islands, nor with the degree of fertility 
 they ])osse8s; but from the few indicntions we 
 hnve received, it may be inferred that, in general, 
 they are as far from being sterile, as from an 
 exuberant i>roductivencss. Many of the tropical 
 productions grow to ])erfcction. 
 
 Java, the most important of the islands of the 
 Indian Ocean, is properly a continuation of the 
 former series. It extends in length nearly 700 ra., 
 but its brendth hardly exceeds 100 m., where 
 widest, A continuous chain of mountains nnis 
 through the island in its whole length, lowering 
 more rapidly towards the N. than the S., where 
 the coast is high and nearly innccessiblc. Some 
 summits of this chain rise to more than 12,000 or 
 13,000 ft. The highest are the Semeero and 
 Tagal. Most of these snmmits arc volcanoes, 
 cither extinct or still active, and their frequent 
 eruptions have in later times laid waste several 
 districts. The more fertile tracts lie along the 
 northern shores, which are low, and from which 
 a flat country extends several miles inland. Their 
 fertility is very great, and produces rich crops of 
 every kind of grain or roots cultivated between 
 the tropics. Hut part of these Hat lands are so 
 low and so badly drained, that they are converted 
 into swamps during the rainy seaaon. Some 
 tracts preserve their swampy soil all the year 
 round ; and hence arises the insalubrity of these 
 coastA. 
 
 Sumatra, only second to Borneo in extent, is 
 900 m. lon^ and from 160 to 230 m. wide. In ita 
 length it is traversed by a mountain-chain of 
 great elevation, several of its summits exceeding 
 12,000 ft, of elevation : Mount Ophir exceeds even 
 13,000 ft. Many of these summits are volcanoes, 
 but most of them appear to be extinct. The vol- 
 cano Gunong Dcmpo ismore than 11,000, those of 
 Ber Api and Barawi more than 12,000 ft. high. 
 The declivities of these mountains extend in 
 many places to the western shores, which there- 
 fore "afford several good harbours. The eastern 
 shores are flat and sandy, and the adjacent plains 
 extend in some places 100 to. and more inland. 
 Some tracts of these plains are swampy, and others 
 sterile and covered ^vith sand. Still a great part 
 of its surt'ace is fertile, and affords many valuable 
 productions. The western districts, being more 
 uneven and consequently better drained, are more 
 fertile and much more healthy. In the extensive 
 woods which cover the declivities of the moun- 
 tain, the camphor-tree is frequent, and yields the 
 best camphor. From the eastern shore extensive 
 shoals extend far into the Straits of Malacca, and 
 
 render the navigation tedious and difllcult. Frn^t 
 of this island, and townriL* its southern eMremity, 
 is the ishmd of Banca, famous for its inexhauittililu 
 mines of tin. 
 
 Cey/on, divided from the peninsula of the Deornn 
 by the Gulf t<f Manaar antl Pnlk Strait, is from S. 
 to N. 280 m. long, but its greatest breadth dm i 
 not exceed 140 m. In the niidille of the inland, 
 an<l towards its Houlhem extremity, on both hIiIcs 
 of 7° N. Int. is a niountain-mnss, which extondu 
 over nearly an eighth i)art. of its surface. Tlui 
 mean elevation of this mass mny exceed 1,000 ft. 
 above the sen, though some of its more elevntcil 
 valleys rise to nearly 4,000 ft. This mountiiin- 
 mnss is overtopjied by several high summits, 
 nmong which the Adain's Peak attains fi,liV2 fi.; 
 but I'edrotallagalla, the highest pinnacile, is 8.2h(I 
 ft. above the sea. This moimtnin-region is H»r- 
 rounded by a hilly country, to a distance of 10 dr 
 12 m. ancl more. Its mean elevation alM)vc tlio 
 sea varies from 400 to 1,000 ft. This hilly region 
 mny in some degree be saitl to extend to the very 
 shores of the sen in the S. districts ; f(ir the country 
 contiguous to the coast between Batticaloa. on the 
 E. coast, an<l Negumbo, on the Vf.j is not Icvd 
 and undulating, and the coast itself is rather lii(,'li. 
 The northern half of the island is a level plain. 
 and it is supposed that, even in the intennr, it 
 dues not rise above 300 ft. Its coast is everywlicn; 
 flat nnd sandy, and remarkable for the great num- 
 ber of lagunes with which it is skirted. Tiicso 
 lagunes increase in size during the rainy season, 
 so as to flow into one another, affording an inlaml 
 navigation for boats, in some places for 60 or 80 m. 
 Along the whole of the eastern coast, from Point 
 Pedro to Dondrah Head, and hence to Negumlxi, 
 the sea is deep, and may l)e navigated by vessels 
 of any burden ; hut the W. coast, N. of Negumlxi, 
 as far as Point Pedro, is surrounded by a shalluw 
 sca, in which only vessels of 100 tons can be used; 
 and the common vessels employed in this trailc 
 vnrj' between 25 nnd 50 tons. The fertility of tho 
 isln'nd is very grent ; snndy tracts indeed occnr, 
 but they are not extensive, and produce commonly 
 good crops, when irrigated. Swamps, which in 
 the other islands of the Indian Ocean, cover great 
 tracts of the low country, arc rare in Ceylon, and 
 of small extent. The islands and islets of tho 
 Philippine and Indian Archipelagoes are coni- 
 
 {(uted at 6,000. The Dutch possessions are calcu- 
 ated to have a population of 17,000,000; the 
 Spanish of 5,000,000 ; and the British of 250,000. 
 In 1860, the import and export trade of the Puteli 
 population was 14,747,414/.; of the Spanish 
 2,160,000 ; and the British, 16,430,152/. 
 
 II. Botany of Asia. — Temperature, soil, hu- 
 midity, and light are the principal agents in the 
 geographicnl distribution of plants. These ele- 
 ments exist under greater variety in Asia than 
 in any other region ; and hence the nmount and 
 diversity of jYsiatic vegetation are absolutely with- 
 out tt parallel. It is not alone the extent in l.ni. 
 of this vast continent, though stretching from the 
 equntor to the highest N. parallels ; it is not sim- 
 ply the different elevations of its surface, though 
 of these the greatest and least are respectively 
 27,000 ft. above and 110 ft. below the level of the 
 sea ; it is not even the abundance of winter in one 
 district, and its almost total absence in another. 
 which will or can account for this amount ami 
 diversity. Powerful as are these causes in influ- 
 encing the physical conditions of any region, niie 
 still more powerful exists in Asia ; viz., the ven- 
 iieculiar nnture of its conformntion. The ccntR' 
 18 a high table-land, varying from 6,000 to perhaps 
 15,000 ft. of elevation, bounded on every sidehy 
 high mountains, which effectually shut itoutfirum 
 
ASIA 
 
 213 
 
 the non, nml on thn pxtorlor .'Aon of which tho 
 kinploiiiH of Anin iint nrrniiffoil in every variety of 
 iiii'linnlioii. T!ic (liirtTeiu'e of jwpert thim iiithireil, 
 Mill nioro than eitlier lat. or eU^vation, Nerves to 
 (livido tho whole continent into live f^rent Itolnnical 
 r.'i;ii)n8, wliieti, however Hiihjeot to Hnlxtivi^ion 
 aiiiiin); themmtlveM, are (liMtin^uiMhetl from each 
 iitliur by peetilinriticH an Ntrikin^ ax thoni^h tlie 
 Atliiiitii; or Paeilie rolled iM'tweeu them. N. from 
 tli(< ^^rent tuMc-land, the va.st t'otintry of Siboria 
 jldpes to tho Arctic Ocean, The inten»ity and 
 (liimtion of the cold in this dreary rcj^ion prevent 
 the tlirivinfj of any but the most hardy |)lnnts, 
 ('X<'n|)t in tho 8. districts; where in addition to the 
 cirirts of hiwcr lat., vej^otation is protected by 
 nuiiuitain raii(;CH, which xcrcen it from the frec/.ln^ 
 iiiirtli-eaHterly windH. The oak and lia/.el are { 
 fimml in Daoiiria, on the bonier of the country of 
 tho Manchocm ((.imelin, Flor. Si!)., i. M)) ; but 
 tlidr size is diminutive, their vegetation languid ; 
 nor are they met with in any other district X. of 
 il'o Altai mountains, (I'allaH. Flor. Uiiss., i. il.) 
 ;. 'lo well watered lands of H. Siberia nboinid 
 in tliick forests, consisting of birch, willow, juui- 
 |icr, maple, ash, pino, alder, llr, larch, po|>lur, aspen, 
 ,111(1 elm trees, ((imelin, i. loO-lSO, iii. loO; 
 I'iillfts, Flor. IJuss, ; and Voy. en Kuss., pass.) Of 
 I'ruits there are the Silvjrian cedar (Pinus veinl/ra), 
 the mit of which is an article of commerce ; two 
 (If three s|)ecies of raspberries, blacklwrries, and 
 (ithcr bramble fruit ; a species !)f cherry (Prumig 
 fruticoHus), from which is distilled a wine ; bil- 
 U'lTios, whortleberries, and the Siberian apricot, 
 (imelin (iii, 17il) j^ives a list of four species of 
 ciin-nuts; and I'alhw (Flor. Kusis,, i, 2(»-'i;{) one 
 of live si)ecies of pcjirs ; but the fruit of these is 
 valueless, with tlie exception of one species of 
 ciirruut, which is confined to the banks of the Ar- 
 pion, a tributary of the Saghalien, in tho SK. 
 I'linivr of Daouria. During the short but jHtwerful 
 summer, the Siberian soil is covered with tlower- 
 ini,' and aromatic plants in immense profusion, 
 ((imelin and I'allas, passim. See also (Jeorgi's 
 I'liys. (ieog,, vol, iii.) Hut these, as well as the 
 tiiribcr, gradually diminish towards the N. ; till 
 above the (iOth parallel scarcely anything remains 
 but the hardy beech and a few of the more vigor- 
 (1U8 lichens and mosses, (.imelin remarks (Pre- 
 I'aoe, xliii.) that vegetation undergoes a marked 
 change E. of the Yenisei; and, as it is a well- 
 kiiuwu fact that tem[ieraturt>, decreases towards 
 the E., it is not surprising that this should be the 
 case; but the un|)roductive nature of the soil 
 sfctna to have been overrated ; for, in IW.'K), an 
 agricultural society was founded at St. I'eter and 
 St, Paul, in Karatchatka, from whose pa|)er (of 
 Xi>v. 20, 1830) it appears that the return of wheat 
 raised in that district was 13J for 1, of rye 21 for 
 1; and that the cultivation of buckwheat, Hima- 
 laya barley, and other grains had proved equally 
 suocessful. The potato, cabbage, onion, beetroot, 
 chieury, and melon hod also thriven ; and though 
 the cucumber had failed, its failure was owing not 
 to the impracticability of the soil, but to the bines 
 having been destroyed by rot. 
 
 The second botanical kingdom of Asia is con- 
 tained in the great central table-land itself. This 
 is unquestionably the highest and most extensive 
 plateau ui tho world, having for its bearers the 
 mountauis of Altai and Yablonoi to the N. ; the 
 Manchoorian mountains £. ; the Himalayas and 
 the mountains of China to the S. ; and on the W. 
 the Ueloi Tagh, the Elbiirz, and the Persian moun- 
 tains. Lying at a great though not equal eleva- 
 tion, bounded and intersected by lofty raomitain 
 ranges, and without a single natural outlet to the 
 uccaii, the climate, soil, hydrography, and general 
 
 physical feot'irw of thU vnut region (occttpying 
 more than two-lifthii of Asia) are all of a very 
 peculiar kind. The characteristics of the tlrst aro 
 dryness and coldness ; the second coiiHisIs of a dry 
 sand, sometimes broken by patches of verdure, at 
 others stri'tchiiig out into innncnse deserts, like 
 that of (idbi or Shamo ; and tb(> water system 
 consists of hikes witho>a outlets, the linal reci- 
 pients of many rivers, some of them of consider- 
 able length and magnilinle. Many of the streams 
 are, however, absorbed in the sandv soil. Wootl 
 of all kinds is extrenudy scarce in these high and 
 consequent Iv bleak regions ; so scarce that tho 
 nomadic iniiabitants use the dinig of their cattle 
 for fuel (L)u liable, iv, IK), and similar niate-ials 
 not uniVei|uentlv serve for tlu^ groundwork of their 
 gihled idols. (.Slarco Paulo, lilt. i. c. I!».) On tho 
 S. slopes of the table-land are found oaks, ns|)enH, 
 elms, ha/.els, and walnut trees ; but all, even on 
 the immediate contines of China, diminished to 
 mere shrubs; while on tho high lauds and_N. 
 sh)pes of tho same frontier the only wood consistH 
 of some wretched thorny brambles. (Lortl Ma- 
 cartney, ii. 2(((>.) This remarkable absentee of tim- 
 ber throughout so great an extent of country is 
 owing ))robably (even more than to the luiture of 
 the soil) to violent and cold tornadoes, which ari> 
 extremely frequent, esitocially during the summer. 
 (Carpin, cap. xvi. art. 1.) In the N. ))arts of Mon- 
 golia tho timber approaches in characler to that of 
 S. Siberia, but Ls still very nderior both in kind 
 and quantity. (Tunkouski, i. 44, ii. 2!)(», &c,) 
 Considering tho vast nmnber of beasts that tra- 
 verse these plains (sec Zoology), there niust lie, 
 notwithstanding the extensive deserts, a great 
 variety of grazing herbs and grasses ; but except 
 in the K, (Timkouski, ii, 22i)) agricidture is not 
 practised, and the vegetable food of man un- 
 known. The natives live exclusively on tlcsh and 
 milk (Carpin, c. xxvi. art. 4; Uubnu|uis, cup. v.; 
 M. Paulo, liv. i. cap. f>7, &c.) ; and when ques- 
 tioned as to why they so totally neglect the earth, 
 their reply is, "that Miod made herbs for beasts, 
 but the tfesh of beasts for men.' (Du liable, iv. 
 32.) Timkouski saw, in the N. parts of this re- 
 giim, red currants, peaches, hemp, and flax, all 
 growing wild (ii. 290), There is also here a verj' 
 remarkable fungus, called, from its resemblance to 
 the animal, the Tartar lamb ; and there can bo 
 little doubt but that tho flowering and anmiatiu 
 plants of this region are numerous and (peculiar. 
 
 The E. shipe of the table-land, comjirising tlu! 
 basin of the Saghalien (or Amoor) and other great 
 rivers which flow into the Pacilic Ocean, forms 
 the third great kingdom of Asiatic botany ; and 
 is, in every respect, strongly contrasted with its 
 immediate neighbour. Here are immense forests; 
 so extensive that it required nine days to traverse 
 one of them, and eo thick that it was necessary to 
 fell several tre&s in onler to take on observation of 
 the sun's meri(Uan. (L)u liable, iv. 7.) The cold 
 is very severe to as low a lat. as 43P ; and conse- 
 quently the trees are of the kind usually met with 
 in the more N. parallels of Europe. Of fruits, 
 this district possesses apples, pears, nuts, chest- 
 nuts, and filberts, all in great abundance ; and of 
 grain, wheat, oats, and millet are produced, to- 
 gether with a peculiar species, unknown in Europe, 
 ciiUcd mai-se-mi, partaking of the nature of both 
 wheat and rice. Kice itself Is grown, though iu 
 no great quantities ; and, in fact, from the little 
 that Ls known of this great region, it would aj)- 
 pear that there Is no large district of tho earth 
 bettor adapted for the residence of an agricultural 
 population. Its capabilities arc, however, wholly 
 Deglected by the Chinese government ; while tha 
 natives of the soil (the jSIunchoos), though they 
 
 1 
 
 il 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 si 
 
 :'■ i.r, z 
 
 :! Ki 
 
 I 
 
214 
 
 ASIA 
 
 <l» not, like the gnat mn|ority of flio MohkoIh, 
 utterly iit'^lort tlio piirMiiitN of htiHlMinilry, yet, 
 ill Ki'iicnil, tlii'y may U' (IpHcrilM'il iim n rm-o of 
 huntcn, ri'Hcinblintf HlmiiKly in )inl)itH ninl ninii- 
 norH tlio alN)riKinnt iiilinliiliintH of Ainrrica. Tlio 
 cotton Hhmb >{row(t Ihtc; liut owiiiK to tlui low 
 toiniH'ratuni (the Int. Im'Iiik rcincinluTid) it iIooh 
 not thrive wt'll. KHculrnt root« of vory miiny 
 ItindH, arc however, itU'iiliful; niul the ineiliiiniil 
 livrb Kinxen); In fuuiiil nowhere but in tliiH country 
 and N. Anierifii. Tht* CliineHO believe thiit plant 
 to be an infallible remedy for every (llHen«e, men- 
 tal and UMtilv ; and it in miuf^ht amid incredible 
 fatif^ieH and dan(;(>rH by particH who are marHlmlled 
 under ofticerH, atmoNt in the manner of an army. 
 iSomo partM of the itoil an; Hwaniny, and full of 
 wild dcHert marslieH; Imt Hand in almost unknown, 
 and, in general, the ({round Imvim a Htroni; rcHcm- 
 blaiice to the l)eNt partx of X, Kuro])e in the tbick- 
 nesH and vivid colouriiij; of its fjrnHWH, and the 
 variety of itH tloweriii^ plantj^. It in a eurionn 
 fact that the roscH, lilicM, and other tlowers of tlii.t 
 
 1>art of Asia excel (greatly thoHC of ICnrope in 
 lenuty, but are very delicuMit in |Miint of o<lonr. 
 The pincH and oaks tluit clothe the niountaiiiH arc 
 of fi^rent Hize, but iliminiHh rapidly aH tlu^y ap|iroacl) 
 the 8ca. (i)u liable, iv, f)-", Ac; La I'erouHc, 
 iii. I(i, 17, '21, 75, ^'c. ; MuUer, liot. Diet. iii. art. 
 Paimx.) 
 
 The three forepoinj; diHtrictn of Asia, though 
 very extenHivc, are each remarkably uniform in 
 their productions and general {>liyHicul appearance. 
 The variations in diflerent parts are chietiy of de- 
 gree, not of kind ; and whatever peculiarity of 
 vegetation marks ony one part of any region, ap- 
 pears to mark the whole, and to distinguish it from 
 both its adjoining neighbours. The case is <lif- 
 fcrent on the W. slope of the great table-land, the 
 fourth botanical kingdom of Asia. This region is 
 uniform as far W. as the deep depression of the 
 Caspian Sea, but lieyond this all becomes changed : 
 ■ ..e face of the coimtry, the direction of the rivers, 
 the natural ])roductioiiH, everj'tbing constituting 
 the physical geograjjhy of a region, puts on a new 
 appearance ; ond the Caspian seems placed by the 
 hand of nature on the i)recise spot where it could 
 most decidedly mark the limits of two large dis- 
 tricts possessing few things in common. The 
 great plain of Tartary (the only true W. slope from 
 the table-land) is very jiroductivc in its E. ports; 
 that is, in the countries of i^okhan. liadakslmn, 
 and Bokhara. The description of Ebn Haukcl, an 
 Arab geographer, is particularly vivid. 'The 
 cultivated plains of Bokhara,' he says, 'extend 
 above IS farsang by 12 farsang; and the Soghd 
 (the Sogdiana of ancient geogra])hy) is for eight 
 <lays' journey full of gardens and orchards: corn 
 liclds and running streams, reser\'oira and foun- 
 tains, both on the right hand and the left.' 
 (Ouseleye's Trans., 237.) Corn of all kinds aixl 
 rice are here very prolific ; so much so, that, ac- 
 cording to Hadgi Khalfa, a field of one or two 
 dunen (acres) is amply suflicient to support a 
 family. (UTlerbelot, 207.) Of fruit, grapes, melons, 
 pears, apples, figs, &c., grow to such perfection, 
 and in such abundance, tliat they are exported to 
 Persia, and even to the more fertile region of llin- 
 dostan. The pasture grounds are also extremely 
 luxuriant ; but it may be gathered that timber is 
 scarce, and the whole country deteriorotes os it re- 
 cedes W. and N. The soil of the Kirghiz country 
 N. of the Sihon is chiefly of a saline character ; 
 but the {)asturage must still be good, since im- 
 mense numbers of animals, wihl and domestic, are 
 fed in the extensive steppes. Trees of the hardier 
 kinds, larch, beeeh, and firs, appear also on the 
 banks of the rivers. (Pallas, i. 018, 030, &c.) In 
 
 Jonmcying W, the rountr>' for n time cxhibitx tho 
 extremes of richnesM and tlcMdation (lliirin'ii 
 i. ICI.'i); the former, however, gradually dimini<<|^ 
 ing till the whole soil iM'conu's a wretched nii|iri>- 
 (biclive sand, except in the immediate neighlHiiir- 
 hiHMl of rivers. (Iturnes, ii. 1, 10, Hi, 41!, ht\) 
 There is not, iM>rlui|)s, in the world a more Micrilc 
 district than tliat iM'tween the Aral and Cnxiiiun 
 iSeas. In the countries W. of the latter, a HirniiKo 
 contrast is pM-sented : on the X. Hlo|>es of the ('„„, 
 casus, indee<l, a constantly deteriorating coiintrv 
 terminateH at last in the wretched waste of .vi. 
 trakhan; but even here corn fields and rich jmn- 
 ture grounds dispute the soil with the taninri<k, 
 the camel's thorn, the absynthiiun, and oiIut 
 desert plants : while on the K., \V., and S., ijc- 
 clivitiesofthe same mountains, magnili(u>nt fnresu 
 of cedars, cvpresses, savins, red junipers, Ijeeclu'^, 
 oaks, lire, flourish in great luxuriance; while uf 
 fruit, the soil boasts thi! ulmoiul, fig, peach, qiiiiu't', 
 apricot, |H>ar, date, injulio, olive; and of Itowi'r*, 
 the rlKHltxIendron, tjhrist's thorn, ])onticiun, iisnlia 
 pontica, laurel, seringa, jessamine, lily, CaiiciLsiim 
 rose, and a whole host of others. The bread cdnn 
 and the most useful roots are also produced in innnt 
 parts of this mountainous country, ((iuldenstnili, 
 Com. Petrop. xx. 10, '135, 483, itc. ; PallnH, ditto, 
 1779, ii. 274.) With regard to Asia Minor, Meso- 
 potamia, and Syria, it is im[iossible to give wiiliin 
 any rcasoiud>lc limits the slightest sketch ol'tiu'lr 
 inimerous productions; though the two lust Im- 
 ])artially desert, and their deserts be of the iiiosi 
 sterile character, yet their fertile spots are scarcclv 
 iid'erior to any oil the earth's surface. Iticv anil 
 barley yield u return of ahundred-foUl; the cotton 
 shrub tlourishes ; and indigo, sugar, and tobacco nru 
 among the useful productions. Lemons, oran^'cs, 
 tamarinds, apricots, dates, and gra|)es, are a very 
 few among tlie fruits of these regions; which pro- 
 duce in great abinidancc also nearly all the escii- 
 lent roots, indscs, and grains. Wood is extremely 
 scarce in Mesopotamia (the date palm is the only 
 tree known there) ; but in Svria the ninjpstio 
 cedar of Lebanon maintains the fame wliieli it 
 acquired in the days of Jewish greatness ; wliilo 
 majestic oaks, cyi)resses, planes, sycamores, savins, 
 olives, mulberry trees, pistaidiios, jiuiipers, ami tin 
 trees clothe the sides of the Anatolian and Syrian 
 mount^iins, and spread their arms over plains 
 where flourish almost every species of fiowerinf; 
 roots and shrubs. Among the oaks of Asia Minor 
 is the Querciia infectoria, the gall of which is an 
 important article in dyeing. The pistachio Is 
 rarely found beyond the neighl)ourhood of Aleppo. 
 (Volney, ii. jjasaim ; Nicbuhr, Voy. en Ar. il iat), 
 &c.; Olivier, iv. 2G. 134, 197, &c. ; Leake, /wsjim, 
 also in Walpole, ii. 202, &c. ; Belon, 7i), l(i5, 
 1G(!, A-c.) 
 
 The fifth kingdom of Asiatic botany remains to 
 be noticed. It comprises the S. slojie of the central 
 plateau, and contains the three great pcninsnloii uf 
 Arabia, India, and Malaya, together with the ex- 
 tensive territory of Chi la proper, and the S. slum 
 of Persia and Beloochistan. The W. part of this 
 region is badly watered (see Auabia, L.vhistax, 
 Beiawciiistan) ; and consequently consists ehicHy 
 of deserts, or of pasture grounds depending on rain 
 for their fertility. The vicinities of the few and 
 small rivers, are, however, even here crowded with 
 vegctatiim ; and from the Indus eastward (wlierc 
 the hydrography is on a scale of the must profuse 
 luxuriance) a district is comprised unequalled fur 
 the abundance and variety of its productions by 
 any other part of the world. Nearly every plant 
 of the E. continent is indigenous, or can be raiswl 
 in some part of S. Asia. Tne following is an im- 
 perfect list of the trees alone ; and these are not, 
 
 lianilioa 
 llirrli 
 riit'stniit 
 l'>pri»ii 
 
 Alniniid 
 
 A|.|.l.« 
 
 Aliricut 
 
 lllUIUIIIl 
 
 lliiiiyail 
 
 iiitriioiilii 
 nu\\i\ Ki'uit 
 
 t'luliuw 
 
)tany remains to 
 )|>e of tlie central 
 •eati)eiiiiisiila.suf 
 »er witti the ex- 
 and the S. shore 
 W. part of this 
 
 IBIA, LaUISTAN, 
 
 ly consists chictjy 
 ;epcndin(5 on rain 
 of the few and 
 icrc crowded with 
 eastward (where 
 the most profuse 
 cd unequalled for 
 1 productions by 
 ;arly every plant 
 . or can be raised 
 llowint; is an im- 
 nd these are not, 
 
 lii^onornl, ronlliiod to pnrtimtlnr liN-nlitio*, hut, in 
 iii.Ht cases, Hprcail over the wlioUi rcj?iou : — 
 
 ASIA aift 
 
 With ro^'anl to thn nutnlxr of hijocIoh In encli 
 
 FoUKtrr TllKKM. 
 
 llanilKKi 
 llirrli 
 CMi'Mtniit 
 Cjliasit 
 
 Aliio« 
 Urfln-wood 
 
 Aliiimiil 
 
 Ari'l" 
 
 Apri.'iit 
 
 lliiiuina 
 
 11,111 viiu 
 
 llctcl 
 
 IllKiionlii 
 
 llri'iiil fruit 
 
 ttt.sllc\V 
 
 Fir 
 liiiri'li 
 Muii»rn>vo 
 Mjrilii 
 
 Oak 
 
 I'llWu 
 
 I'liiit 
 
 I'llllUlliu 
 
 IIAUI) WiHiim, 
 
 KlK)ny 
 Irou-wood 
 
 l.iiii;i>ii 
 Iloai'-wiiod 
 
 I'oniui 
 Poplar 
 T.uk 
 Willow 
 
 Huuilul-wuoU 
 
 Citrou 
 
 Coroii 
 ('iilVfO 
 Diktc 
 iMinon 
 
 (liiaiiii 
 Uiiiiva 
 
 FUIMTH. 
 
 •turn 1 11)1 1 
 
 l.rllliill 
 l.illKi 
 
 Muii»{OHtuin 
 
 Jliillu'rry 
 
 Olivi- 
 
 Oriiiirfn 
 
 I'miiluiiiM 
 
 I'ciU'll 
 
 I'rur 
 I'luin 
 Pniiii'Ki'anatD 
 
 hllii'liliu'k 
 Tiiiiiuriiul 
 
 Villi! 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Ciuuiilinr 
 
 CaHsia 
 
 Sl'K'K TuKm, 
 
 Ciiiiiivmuu 
 t'lovu 
 
 Miii'ii 
 Niuiiu'i' 
 
 Many of those trce.«tyi('lil >;uni»,reHinH, odoriferous 
 liliissiin'is, or art' otherwise ii.sehil hcyoiul I he p'uc- 
 mliiy of llii'ir class. There art; also several species 
 HliiJli cannot ho. conveniently cla.sscil ninter either 
 i.l'the lour forcj;oin;; heads; as the chain, laka, nia- 
 liir, and tanjaiifi, liower-hearinj^ trce.s; the toiiki, 
 Iroin the hark of which the A.sialics niainil'aeturc a 
 lin|K'r; the liian^;, which yields a ricli red dye ; the 
 lalliiw tree, whit^h exudes an unctuous matter, 
 wliciu'c its niliue ; the upas, the most deailly of 
 vi');('talile )iiiisons ; the cotton tree, luul aliovc all 
 the tea plant. 
 
 The other kinds of vegetation are not less ahiin- 
 daiit. lirain of every kind, incliuliiig '.'T species 
 (il'rico, and some varieties of dhoiirrah aiid barley, 
 siancly known in other regions, is ^rown with 
 lillh' laliolir to tlu; cultivator, the richness of the 
 lartli ill many |)laccs prechidiii); the lu-ccssity and 
 (Veil the possihiliiy ol' usinij; manure, though two 
 rnijis arc produced ininiuilly. 'I'he le;^'uininous 
 plants i:iiw coimnon in Kiirope came, in most iii- 
 siaiurs, originally from S.Asia; hut, in luhlitioii 
 III the peas, heans, lentils, Ac, there are here a 
 whiilc host which liavc never fouiul their way W., 
 as the lotus, moong, nnirhns, tai.na, tour, toll, il'c. 
 (See India, (.'iiina, Ac.) A root calhul katchill 
 Mijiplies the place of tlic American potato ; hut 
 iliis last root, as well as the ytuii, is ahmuhuitly 
 cultivated, especially in China ami the K. penin- 
 sula <if India. This is also the native home of the 
 nrriiw-root, j^alanga, jala|>, sarstiptirilla, datura, 
 anise, opium, ami other drugs. The tiehls ahouiul 
 in tiax, hemp, tobacco (tiut latter is a native 
 jilaiit, aciMirdiug to l.ionl Alacartiiey, ii. 171), to- 
 gether with flowers of every kind ami <lye, though 
 11 is remarkable that those of powerful scent are 
 loiiliiied to the N. parts. The liiie rose tliar, yiidds 
 tlie altar is rarely fouml S. of '2^°, and is ehiclly 
 liuiitcd to the plaius of the Upper (iaiigcs and 
 I'mijauh. (SecLuciiNow and Ca.hiimi;ii1';.) Dye 
 idaiiis are very nutneriiiis; the sugar cane grows 
 luxuriaiilly; and among the nnineroiis strongly 
 (Khirileruus gums, attempts have been made to 
 iilentiiy the spikenard, bdellium, nial.abathrum, 
 se|iaelira, and other precious ointments of the aii- 
 eient.s, but witlunit much success. (i>u ilaUh>, i. 
 14, in:, ii. 1)1, itc, Lord Macartney, ii. -i'.i, Iti^, 
 ic; tJrawford, Kmb. to Siam, passim; UusseU's 
 hit, to Itox burgh's I'lanta of Ooromandel, I — (!t>; 
 I'liilavsoii's Mi.ssion to Siam, passim ; Asiatic lle- 
 suarches, and Journal of Asial. tioc. IJeiig. pashim.) 
 
 imDor 01 HiK 
 onlerof plants. It is toU* remarked tliat lIundMihlt 
 gives IheCryptogamaMis l-l.'ith of the whole vege- 
 tation fur cipiluoxiat plains; as 1-.'ith for I'ljiii- 
 iioxlal mountains; as ^ (on an average) for ttio 
 regions o| the temperate /laic ; and as the naif 
 \egetation of mouutains in polar lands. The same 
 authority gives the Monucntyledoiis (of the old 
 
 I tineiit) as l-'ith fur the torrid, l-lth fur tho 
 
 Icmperale, and l-'lnl (on an average) fur the frigid 
 /.une. (Diet, dcs Sri. Nat., xviii. l:>i'i.) Hetaii- 
 dulle, fultiiwiiig I'er.-ooii, makis the proporiiuiis 
 siimcwhat dill'crciit; namely (fur the whole world), 
 Cryp. l-)>tli, Moiiuc. l-i;tli, l>ico. Il'itlis, uf llio 
 whole vegetation. (Idem. ;t',<."i.) Frulil tlu'se data, 
 and the viirioiis autliurilies cited lliruiigliuut this 
 article, the lulluwiiig MpproximntiveTiilpleuf .Vsia- 
 tic ilulaiiy is dedliceil. Hut it is lieccssuy to 
 observe that the ali.*uliile numbiT of known species 
 is very uiicerlain. In Ihiiti, there were bin ■JT.onU; 
 llrown's splendid addition of An^tniliaii plants in- 
 creased the ainuiml by nearly l-litii, ami since that 
 time discovery has been rapidly at work. It may, 
 however, be doubted wbetlur the very love of 
 science has not betrayed some of its fulluwcrs >• 
 too nice distinctions, |)e CiiMdulle thinks tiial 
 rersoiin's 'J7,()l)0 spci'ics should be increased to 
 I'lii.iMHi, ami that the mmiber of plants yet unknown 
 or nnclassilied would swell the list to 1 |(1,(MM) or 
 1-'(I,1MII(. (Kict. Sci, Nat., wiii, IJd.) Mndlcy is 
 more moderate; he makes the gross miinber of 
 species Mll.tlltO. (Intro, to Itolaiiy, odl.) That, 
 a.ssigncd in the table (M,iail)), is fnuii liumboldi's 
 data. 
 
 Orilcri 
 
 Wholo 
 
 N... of 
 kiliiMii 
 ulircica 
 
 0,000 
 
 (:,!I0!) 
 
 .11 .01(1 
 
 41,000 
 
 Wlifii- 
 
 Nil. iir 
 
 known 
 AhIiiiIc 
 H|iri-li*« 
 
 No. of 
 
 ii|tt('li-«f-om- 
 
 liiiiii to AhU 
 
 mill olliir 
 
 n-Kioiii 
 
 No. of 
 
 ^|i' fim 
 |tiiMl.i.tr 
 to A<lu 
 
 0:J7 
 1,075 
 l.S«l 
 
 Cryptoftnnioiis 
 Miiiux'utyle- 
 
 lIullKIIS 
 
 Dicotyhilo- 
 nous . 
 
 Total . 
 
 i.8;)7 
 
 l,!».-.0 
 4,0.'«0 
 
 ono 
 
 87.'i 
 
 '.Mfin 
 
 7,H!I7 
 
 :i,!)4t 
 
 3,8!»a 
 
 HI. /tiKLooY OF Asia. — Asia is tho native 
 home of all the more useful species of animals ; 
 with the exception, perhaps, tif the sheep. From 
 some tlistrict or other of this continent came, ori- 
 ginally, the ox, hor.se, camel, goal, ass. together 
 with the whole raci^ of thunestic poultry; except 
 the turkey, which is a tlenizen of the New (!onti- 
 nent. Utility may, intU-oil, be regarded as the 
 leailing characteristic of Asiatic Zoology ; for 
 thougit its carnivorous mammalia he tmmerous as 
 ctanpared with the wlude iiiindter of species, the 
 majority are not nu>rely harmless to man, but in a 
 considerable degree u.sefiil to him, consisiing of 
 several kinds of seals, ami the fur-bearing (piadrii- 
 peds of the north. Ilirds of jirey are reinarkablv 
 scarce, when the great extent of mountain land is 
 taken into consitU'ration ; ami of those existences 
 which have little but pecidiar or ainimalous fur- 
 matitm to distinguish theni Asia is till buttlesti- 
 tuie. I'he truth tif tlie.se remarks will be at oiicu 
 evident from the following Tables, coiistmctcil, 
 with as much care as jxi.ssihle, from ("uvier's liegiie 
 Aninutl ; Shaw's /oology; Pennant's Hist, of 
 (iuad., Uoneraof Uirds. Arctic Zoology, and View 
 of IliiuUiostan ; Dii llalile's C!hina; La IVrouse's 
 Vt)yages ; (ieorgi's tieog., I'hy.s. and Nat., vi. aiul 
 vii. ; I'allas's Spicelegia Ztiologica, Travels, it;-. ; 
 (imelin'.s Ha'iisc der Sibicrin, lieisc der liits.sland, 
 
 I I 
 
 iii 
 
 '.nv 
 
 Ji 
 
218 
 
 AHIA 
 
 Mammalia. 
 
 Orilira 
 
 Qnndmmnna 
 
 ('liiiri>|i(i'rii . 
 Iii'-i'i'tlviiru . 
 Cnniiviirii , 
 MiirHiipliilla . 
 Uinli'lltiii 
 
 I'^ll'lltlktu 
 
 I'lM^iyilcr- 
 
 IllUtll , 
 
 Tliiiiiiimntln , 
 
 CotHUl'll , 
 
 Whnia 
 
 N.I. ,.r 
 
 kniiwtl 
 
 Total . 
 
 ir.n 
 tiiii 
 •n 
 
 177 
 
 ;■!• 
 
 1112 
 21 
 
 «i 
 112 
 27 
 
 Whnlii 
 AalNIIti 
 
 44 
 
 (ID 
 II 
 
 77 
 2 
 
 7:1 
 I 
 
 II 
 f.7 
 U 
 
 0(H) 
 
 9141) 
 
 Nn-aT 
 
 
 ■pep|<'» pom- 
 
 Krt. rtf 
 
 IIIIMI In AaiA 
 
 •tii'i'li'« 
 
 iin'l "ilnr 
 
 |M'i nitar 
 
 ri||luH< 
 
 lu AaU 
 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 m 
 
 l.^ 
 
 4ft 
 
 A 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 :i.'> 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2lt 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 III 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 U 
 
 134 
 
 924 
 
 
 AVKM {/llnlii) 
 
 
 
 
 
 WInilii 
 
 S|irpl,'i 
 
 1 
 
 
 Whol» 
 
 No. of 
 
 conniinn to 
 
 ftprrlr* ' 
 
 Ortlrri 
 
 N f 
 
 known 
 
 A.iii 
 
 in-i'ullnr 
 
 
 knnwn 
 
 Anlnilr 
 
 tml nili' r 
 
 loAil* 
 
 
 fft><>i-li>« 
 251 
 
 ■liKlri 
 41) 
 
 n'Kloni 
 
 
 Acolpltros . 
 
 .10 
 
 l)riitlro.itrpM. 
 
 1,2711 
 
 217 
 
 77 
 
 170 
 
 FiKxIroKtrcn . 
 
 127 
 
 ill) 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 ConlriiMtri'M . 
 
 411) 
 
 H7 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 Tcnulnmtres 
 
 :iil 
 
 4I> 
 
 17 
 
 82 
 
 Hyniliwtvli'H . 
 
 lilt 
 
 fi:l 
 
 IH 
 
 35 
 
 HciinsorcH 
 
 4NI 
 
 IDI 
 
 2.") 
 
 70 1 
 
 (llillilllU 
 
 :i4i 
 
 |:lll 
 
 20 
 
 110 
 
 (1 nil la- . 
 
 :i:il 
 
 107 
 
 4!) 
 
 AH 
 
 Pulllli|MHlcH . 
 
 2H'J 
 
 7H 
 
 41 
 
 87 
 
 Total . 
 
 3,0(13 
 
 087 
 
 310 
 
 021 
 
 IlKi'ni.iA. 
 
 Ordcri 
 
 Whole 
 No. of 
 known 
 K'urrtt 
 
 Wholo 
 No. of 
 known 
 Ailullu 
 gmiT* 
 
 (icniTft 
 coininoi- to 
 
 Aiht 
 And other 
 
 ri'Klona 
 
 
 12 
 4 
 2? 
 
 27 
 
 nenrrft 
 |>oiMilliir 
 
 lu AllA 
 
 7 
 
 ail 
 III 
 
 0? 
 
 Chelonla 
 8uurin , 
 OpliUUnii!) . 
 Uiitravliiims . 
 
 (10 
 
 117 
 
 !l:l 
 
 UA 
 
 10 
 
 :iH 
 
 20 
 2? 
 
 Total . 
 
 305 
 
 70 
 
 49 
 
 The l{c))tilin nro (liviilnl into c/pnera, not uprries, 
 jU'iMirdinfj to tin; text of CiiviiT. Tlic list of spfcic.^ 
 is sulllcii'iitly loii^ in some other authors; hut 
 th(>y nhouiul in repetitionH of the sanio Kpceics 
 I'liiior ditlurcnt imincH and in truiis)>osilioiis of 
 synonyms (ix. 'ioK). Similar considerations forbid 
 tiio attempt to ci.tssify the I'isccs, Inscrta, or 
 MoUiisca, H tabular arranRcmont of whit^li classes 
 wonUl not, indeed, possess nnicli inferest, 
 
 A f^laiu'c at these tables will ".■{hibit, nt one 
 view, the zoological riches of Asia. Of the class 
 Mammalia, more than a tltird of the whole num- 
 ber of species are found upon its soil, and nearly 
 n fourth (accurately 7-30ths) are ])cculiar to it. 
 lu the more important species, these proportions 
 are considerably increased. The Asiatic liumi- 
 nantia are nearly two-tifths of the whole ; those 
 peculiar to the soil, nearly two-.seventlis. The 
 I'achyderniata are in a still higher ratio; the 
 lioiicntia and ("arnivora, which two orders include 
 the more useful fur-liearinfj animals, in nearly the 
 same. Tlie 8trong-wni}.;ed Cheiroptera are indeed 
 almost equally niimeriiu.s ; but the (jiiudrumnna 
 are reduced to little more than a fourth oi" tiie 
 whole, and the anomalous orders of Mar.su|)ialia 
 find lidentata can scarc;;Iy be .said to ha\e a place 
 
 in .Xsirttic mnmmnlojfy. Hut it Im not rhliortlm 
 arliiiil or ri'liiiive iiiiioiiiil ofnniinal life lliuti'iin. 
 siitiiii'H thr i'birl'advtintiit;i'of .Xsia in thiM ri'<.|irrt., 
 ainiiMic it" niiuicrouM H|N'rii'< of llu' more iin|iiiri;iiit 
 ord'Ts it n'i'kiiiis ilii' tmist iiii|Hirlaiil of tlicnjK'i'h'H 
 till niti'lves. ( ){' tlii'.'M', the llr-^t in raiil<, wiili n I, r 
 cure III its locality, is, |H'rliiipM, the cuiih'I, Dtliii' 
 aiiiiuiils arc iiiorc p'tieriiliy U'«rl'ul lo inuti; |,m 
 without this pntli'iil iiiid iiilclliKciit scrvaiii, u 
 lurni', pcrlmpH liic lar^,'i'!<l, purl of .\sia >mmiIi| U. 
 1IO lioini' fur the biiinaii race. Mxprissly fnriniil 
 fur exlHlcnce in a iIcmtI, it has biTii doiiii'Ktiiati'ii 
 fur a period Um^ aiili'i'cili'iil to all bislory, ami lur 
 i'olllltU'S'4 ^'elleratiiilH lilM bfi'll llie nii'llllH nf I'lm. 
 nrt'tiii>; dislricl.-i iith('r»vi><i' edi'ctiially Hcpurati'il, 
 and bus fornicd the principal wealth of ilirlr in- 
 lial)ltanl,s. The caiiiil has ibis pci'iiliarily to ills- 
 liiifjcuish it from oilier domestic aiiiiiiiil.i, ilwit it 
 does not follow its niuHier in bis wanili riii^H, flu. 
 other iriJM's, with out! exception (the rein dein. 
 have beeomi^ deiii/eiis of every corner of the carlli, 
 boweviT reinoic from their native home. It hitmi-, 
 indeed, a law, I bat the lower animals ulileli hcnl 
 with man sliall follow biin, with tbe.se two e\ii'|>. 
 tioiis; but these, tboiigh fully as siilM'rvieiit uii.l 
 as useful as any otliei-, have never becoiiu! iialii- 
 ralised bcvoiid the limits where they were llr«t 
 foinid. 'I'be attempts to establish the eaincl in 
 (ireece, Italy, .lamaica, and llarhadocs liavc lu'in 
 sigmil and dcci.'iive failures. Vet I be aiiiinal ran 
 support as great a range of climate as most niliw, 
 being found in N. Tartary, as far a.s the shiircsnr 
 Lake Haikal (from olP tii.");')" X. lal.), where tin. 
 average temperature is scarcely, if at all, lii;;liir 
 than that of Lapland, and where the winter'.s coM 
 is frighlfiilly severe, as well as under the seori'liiiii,' 
 siiii of intertropical countries. It is true, in tjit'si' 
 N. lands, its si/.e b(>comes diminutive; but it Drc- 
 serves its hardy character, nniltiplies abiiiiilaiitly, 
 and forms tbc'wealtli of the Hiirat and Mnii^'nl 
 not less than of the Arab and Syrian. (.Mann 
 I'aiilo, ii. li'dl; Tallas's Spic. Zool., xi. 4; l)u 
 liable, iii.ln;!; rennaut's Hist, tiuad., I2I); Ciiv. 
 iv. H, &c.) 
 
 Of the ox tribe, tho most iisctfiil spccicn an- 
 Asiatic, as the common ox (llos Taurus of Liii- 
 niviis), the aurochs, the biill'alo, and the viiik. 
 Their varieties are almost numberless; hut tliiiw 
 enumerated arc eonsiilered by C'uvier (iv. '.'H-;il| 
 as the only tlistinct sjiecies, with the cxce|iti(iii nf 
 tbo.sc not found in Asia, such us tlu! Anu'riona 
 bison, the (.'ape biill'alo of Africa, and the iiiu.«'v 
 ox. Tho most Ktriking di.stinclioii between tlw 
 Asiatic and mm-Asialic species of this gemw k 
 that the former only are domesticated, or nppeflr 
 capable of domestication. In all other rcspfci.i 
 they exhibit a general resemblance, amminiiii;,' 
 alnio.st to identity; their gregarious baliit.s llii'ir 
 food, their internal formation, all arc extriiiuly 
 similar; nay, they breed promiscuously, aail tlio 
 issue of a cross are prolilic : but while the A.siatif 
 species have been domesticated as long as suoiuly 
 has existed, the others remain to tlii.s day a.s un- 
 tamed as when they lirst took jiossessimi (if tlicir 
 native woods. A natural result of this distimtioii 
 I'.as been the distribution of the common ox Iruni 
 the Arctic circle to New Zealand, and round tiu' 
 whole world in longitude; while the American .ind 
 African siiecies apiiear incapable of multiplyiii;; 
 beyond their original limits. The bull'aluus, it 
 humped, arc less dispersed than the straiglit-baekoil 
 species, and appear to be less capable of sHppi)rtinic 
 a low temperature ; but wherever the cliiiiatc is ai 
 all adapted to them, they, like the others are 
 found to be naturalised, and thus they have siireail 
 from India (apparently their native home) over 
 N. Africa and S. liuropc ; nor can there exist any 
 
ASIA 
 
 21T 
 
 lil'c iliiit ciiii 
 
 tl tirHrc»|iiTt; 
 
 Hire iii\iMirliiiit 
 
 III' tile n|i<'rii'i 
 
 iiU, wllli ri lir 
 
 INIIIII'I. Ollitr 
 
 to man ; Imt 
 ■lit wrvaiit, II 
 
 AkIu NMllllil Ik' 
 
 l>rt>i<«ty fiirniiil 
 
 I llolllI'Mljl'lltl'll 
 
 liMiory, ami fur 
 nit'iiiii III' niii- 
 iiliy wimrati'il, 
 Itli III' llii'ir iii- 
 iiliarily in ilin. 
 iiiiiialM, tliat It 
 iiidiriiiK^ Till' 
 [till' rein ili'iri, 
 icr til' tilt' carili, 
 
 liilllt-. It m'l'lii-, 
 
 imIh >\Iiu'Ii liinl 
 
 ll'HC two I'Xl t|l- 
 
 HiiliMTvit'iii aii'l 
 r lii't'iiiiU! iiatii- 
 
 tlify wcri^ llw 
 li till' raiiu'l ill 
 iildi's liavc 111 
 
 till' lUiiiiial rail 
 • as iiiiwt llllll'^, 
 
 IH tllli shiilfi* III' 
 llll.)f wlllTI' til" 
 
 it' at all, lii;;lii'r 
 Ihf wiiili'r's iiiM 
 ItT tin- Hi'iiri'liiii;; 
 
 is triit', ill till')"' 
 tivc; liiit it Dn- 
 ilios aliiiiidaiitly, 
 irut and Mmi^i'l 
 Syrian. (Miimi 
 jii'iil., xi. 'i ; I)ii 
 ^iintl., 1'2(); Ciiv. 
 
 tt'fiil (i))ficien nrc 
 Taurus nl' I.iii- 
 aiiil the yuik. 
 rlt'ss ; iiut lliDM' 
 iivier (iv. "JH-;!!! 
 tho exft'iitiim i/l' 
 IS Iht! AiniTica.i 
 mill tlic iiiu.-'i 
 
 lull holWi'l'M tlll^ 
 
 ;il' tliis fjt'Uiis i.1. 
 it'fttftl, iir apiii'iir 
 II titlifr ri'spi'i'is 
 int't', amiiiiiuiu;; 
 Dim liiiliits, tlii'ir 
 11 ur« tjxtri'iiii'ly 
 'iiDUsly, and tliii 
 ivliili! "the Asiaiii' 
 liiiin as soi'ifty 
 this ilay as iiii- 
 isscssiiin III their 
 )f this ilistini'tiuii 
 comnitm ox Iruiii 
 1, and round tiii' 
 lie American aiui 
 , of nuiltiiilyiiip' 
 l'Iic biiffiilocs, (T 
 B strai|,'ht-l)iiL'ko(l 
 l)le 1)1' supportini; 
 the cliinute is ai 
 the others, aw 
 they have spreail 
 ive home) over 
 I tliere exist any 
 
 rrii«iiialiliMliiiil)l hut that tht'ywiiiilil i>i|iially Ihrivir ^iint ilii> llnu iiiii-tin or IIm<x, niid llii< tinnu' liii 
 ,11 Aii'l! riilia, I'nlyiu'Kia, and 'rcniiti'iuld AiiiiTitn, sin'i'li's, ('>f/irii ////' im, ari> Ihtuiiiisi imti'd vitrli'tii'". 
 iiiri' iht' fX|M'riint'Mt trii'd. • 'I lii> anitnul is in a very hii^h ili'uri-t' siTvifealih' In 
 
 rill' aiiriit'h and llit> yaiU (ur i^Tiintlii;; ii\) art' i niati, t'><|ii'i'i<dlv to tlii' iiiiniadif raii't nt' its iiativn 
 ,,iily |iariially rrrlaiiiii'd, il, iiidri'd, llif luriin'r do t'luiiitry : il4i'>Mil turiilshiii;; an iiii|iiirliiiil arllrlii 
 
 i,,t still i'xIhI in all his uri^'inal wildtii'ns; Imt , nl' niiiiiiirai'tiirr, il'< ■<Kiii tin' h'atlii'r nl' wliirli lint 
 I iitier si't'ins tti III' iniolaUi'ii wlii-ii lu> limits his : waiidi'ri'r niiikfs Ids watiT Imtlli's and jiai'kim;- 
 1,,,'iility to Ihi* Carinilhiuns and t'liiinisiis. Tar- | fast's ; its milk is salutary in many cnmitlaints; 
 
 iiriaii travi'llt'rs dcsfrilM' th<> liri'i'tl as cxisiin^ in j and, wht'ii ynuiii;, it aHurdsa nittriliniis and a^'ri't*- 
 
 ;i •late III' si'iiii'diimi'slirutiiin nil tlii> )ilali'aii iil' 
 .Mmicolia, and liri'i'diiiK ^vith th<; diinii'slii' I'liw, 
 ilii'ii'liy jiriiiliii'iii); ai'mss iniifh siniiiKi'r and nmrt^ 
 Ml |i>r lalsiiir Ihan llii' t'onimun ii\. (Marrn I'aiilu, 
 ill. Uii. |>. •'>'-; lCnliriii|nis, eh. xviii. |i. i>7.) This 
 iri'iiiiirt' is, next lo llitt rhiniit'cnis, lliit lar;{t'sl nl' 
 land aiiiiiials. It has Im'I'Ii In' siinit> natiiralisis 
 .u|i|nisi'd III \>i\ t\w iiri'.;iiiHl s|ii'riiiii>ii ul' I lit' tln- 
 iiii'^iie varii't v ; liiil Ciivifr has iininlt'd mit snini' 
 ii'.ii'iilii^di'nl ililVi'ri'nrfs wliii'h plainly rrfrr it to a 
 ilill'i'ri'iit s|Hu-it's. It has also lIu* ^.triiiiiiii;; vnice 
 III till' yaik, wliii'li nii>,'lil liy piissiliiliiy lie ri'>.carili'd 
 M'laniiiall varlt'ly nl' Ilif aiirnt'hs, \vt'i'i> it imi for 
 ihe tail, whit'li in tin- yaik rt^scinlili's thai nl' the 
 liiTsi', anil is Ihe same whit'h fnin|in.^)'s the staii- 
 iluriUiil' Iht! Turkish nilit'i'rs. The nninlit'r nl' raillt' 
 jid liy the wandt'riii;; I'arlar iialion sei'ius almost 
 iiiiri'ililde: every I'lTlile plain, and soiiii' plains that 
 uri' aliiiiist slerilt', are t'overed liy tlicin; and siuiie 
 iilie iir nllllT nt' tilt! spet'ii's tlirivi! ll|inn tilt! sidi!S 
 iiiideveii iipnii the siiniiiiits nl' Ihe wiiilry iniiim- 
 lains iil'Tiiii't anil Daniiria. Thi! dniiieslif nx was 
 iiiikiiiiwii in Kainli'hutka till inlrnilui'i'tl there liy 
 the Itiissians ; nntl the musk i>x appears In hi! un- 
 kiiiiwii ill Arclii! Asia, llinu^li remains nl' Ihe 
 iTculiire liuvi! lieeii neeasinnally foiinil, cspeeially 
 a si'iill (lint lossil), near the mouth nf the Old, in 
 ilie latter t^ntl id' the last eeiilury. (I'allas's Nov, 
 Ciiin. I'tt. xvii. (i, l; limelin's N'. ('. 1*. v. K.'tl, 
 iV'c; I'll llaItU', iv, iiassini, Hcc,; Tinikonski, ii. 
 •.'ND, A'f, ; I'eiiiiunt's IliNl.t^uail., i. li'i-L'?; Ciivier, 
 IV. '.'M-Iil.) Nor aru sheep less iilentil'iil in Asia 
 tli.ui eatlle, thoiiKh it may perhaps lie ilouhted 
 whetlierlhis nsi!riil ereatnrt! he tint niie of tlii! very 
 lew treasures which helniij; nrif^iiially tn Kiirnpe ; 
 till! derivaiion of the varimis woolly speeies is 
 iliiiilitl'iil hetween the Motillou nf llalv and the 
 Ar;,'ali nf !Sil)t!ria. (Ciivier, iv, 27.) 'I'liere is no 
 rn'u of animals, except Iht! iU><r, so siihje.et to vary; 
 and amid the mnltiliide of lireeds imw liistrihnted 
 all over the world, it is prt)balily useless to atleiii|it 
 til identify the t>riginal. The Arj^'iili, liiiuid in 
 Silieriu and all the innuntaiutais reji^inns of Asia, 
 is, like the Kiiropeaii varieties, tlistin^uisheil hy its 
 short tail. Like other Arctic aninials, the Arpili, 
 also, cliaii;;es its covering, which is rather fur than 
 wool in tlio winter. In liiiliu the sheep are lonj:;- 
 tailed ; and in Persia, Tartary, China, anil .Syria 
 Ihe tail is nut only cloii^ateil, hut Inuileil with u 
 mass of I'ut. The power which this creature pos- 
 .M'sscs to acciimmndate itself to climate seenis 
 almost unlimited: in the hot plains of Asia its 
 uiverini; bucnines coarse and scanty ; while in the 
 frozen re;,ai)ns of Tibet its thick wool has an uiitler 
 ruling of the linest kind, forming an inipurtatit ar- 
 tielc in mnnufactures and coninu!rce. (l'an>u<'.s 
 Spic. Zool. xi. 3-31, 68-X2 ; (imelin's Heise diirch 
 Uussland, iii. 48(1, ct sen. ; lieisc lUirch .Sibcrieii, i. 
 ItiSctscq.; l)ullald(>, iv. pass.; I'ennant, 33— Iti ; 
 t'uvier, iv. 25-28.) There can be little ilniibt but 
 that the C'apra Kgaijriis of Gnuilin, the lbv.v Al- 
 piiim Sibericuruin of I'alltts, is the oritr'"-:il stock 
 whence all the varieties of the K""f- ''"''J'' "'t! ''i^" 
 rived. It herils in the mountains oi Taurus, Tar- 
 tary, Persia, China, K. Siberia, ami Kamtchatka. 
 It inhabits indilferently all elinates, but assumes 
 averydilferent appearance uui'eriliU'erent circuni- 
 ataucea. The Angnra yoat of Cappadocia, the Tibet 
 
 able food. (I'allas's S|iic. /ool,, xi. 3l-.'i7; I'eii- 
 iiaiit's lll-'l.l^iiid., Hf-.'iii; Ciivier, iv. 2 l-2.i.) Tin! 
 ri'in deer isi'iinimoii to Ihe uri'tie ri'^iniis of Asia, 
 I'iiiriipe, and America. It runs wild in Ihe snnwy 
 wastes III Siberia and Kamlchatka, but is likewise 
 ilomesliealed, and supplies to the lenanls nf llieso 
 ilreary ri'Kinns the place nf Ihe linrse, cmv, sheep, 
 ^oal, and camel. Il is imi, Imwever, sn exleiisivt'ly 
 domestii'iiied In N. .\sia ns in Lapland. (Ilisi, 
 Kaiiilcliatka, 2-.'H; llill's Travels, 1.213; (Uivi"p, 
 iv. 11.) Till! elk is also cnmnion to Asia, Kiirnpe, 
 mill America; il inhaliits the cold re;xicins nf Si- 
 beria and .Mongnlia, where, tlinil;;'liiiiiil>inii'slii'alt'd, 
 it is hi)^dily useful as an animal of chase, the llesli 
 furnishing a Kond species of fond, Ihe tnngui! es- 
 pecially beiiiK esieemi'il a (j;reat delicacy; and Ihe 
 skin making; a biilf leather, capable, according In 
 gnnd autlmrily, of turning a niiiskel ball. (I'eu- 
 nant's Mist, (^'iiad., I. '.KI-',I8 ; Cuvier, iv. !l.) 
 
 Of other ruminants, Asia has the most, appar- 
 cnllv Ihroiighiiiit its whnlc exleiil from Siberia to 
 Cevloii (.N. C. I'et., iv. 3',I3; I'allas's Sjac. Zonl., 
 xiii. 3-l.'i; Ili'll'sTravels, i. 2I!», ii. 8«! Du llalde, 
 i. li.'l, :t2 1 ; Hamilton's Vnv.K. Ind., i.2iil ), Ingether 
 with a great variety nf ileers and aiitelnpcs ; it is, 
 however, among thesi', with the llamas of Americii 
 and Ihe giralfe of Africa, nnipiestiniiably llu^ least, 
 useful of tilt! iinh'r. that Iht! niily lliiminantia waul- 
 ing in Asia will be finind, (I'allas's Spic. /onl,, 
 i. 3-1 1, xii. 3-71 ; (!iivier, iv. .O, 8-2.'(.) 
 
 In its i'aclivdermalnus tribes Asia exhiliils Ihu 
 saiiie snin'riiiriiyovernther regions; thi! elephant, 
 hoi'.->e, ass, and ling have their hniiie in its I'nrest i 
 and plains; while the animals of this nrder absent 
 frniii its snil are Ihe hippnpnlamus, and the tapir, 
 pticcary, pliacn, ilanians, with some other inferior 
 species, and such as art! usi!less to man. The ele- 
 jiliant rarely prii|iagales in a ihnnestic state; but 
 It is an (!rriir to suppose that this never lakes pliu'c : 
 the tame females sometimes esiNipe to the woods 
 in breeiling-tinie, anil, after coupling with tlit! wild 
 males, return to the lu^ril, orare brought batrk, and 
 iiroiluct! their young at the end nf nine mmiths, 
 I'lie locality ni' the Asiatic elephant is liinited: it 
 lines not appear to be found W. of India or N. of 
 the Himalaya mountains; but in India, Malaya, 
 liirmah, China, antl the islands of the I'^asterii 
 Archi|)elagii, it is numerous bntli in its wild and 
 domestieatcil state; and, besiiles its utility as a 
 beast i>f bnrtlen, antl the value of its tusks as an 
 article of conimerce, it is hehl in great regard for 
 many occult medicinal properties supposetl to exist 
 in its llesh, eves, bones, d'c. (Uu liable, iii. 480; 
 Crawfnrd's itm. Si., 42!), 47!»; I'ennaiit's Hist, 
 (^uad., loO-Uil ; Cnvier, iii. 32t'i.) The horse antl 
 ass are both iiiiligenous to Asia, antl nriginaiiy 
 pocnliar to that continent. .Species of the .saniii 
 genus are iiuli!etl found in Africa, but, as in oth''r 
 similar cases, they si>cm incapable of domestica- 
 tion; while the Asiatic s|)ecics, especially the 
 Arabian variety, have supplied the whole worlil 
 with two of the most useful qnailrupcds that wait 
 on man. The Dziggetai, a creature intermediatt; 
 in size between the liorse ami ass, still runs wihl 
 in the Asiatic deserts; like his congeners, he in 
 gregarious, and, like them, too, his iiunibers seein 
 almost nnliiiiited ; a similar remark w-ill apply tt> 
 . the Ivoulau ur wild ass. (Du Halile, ii. 1 7, uO, iv. 
 
 
 1 
 
 I" 
 
21 H 
 
 ASIA 
 
 110 iHimwiiii; l)«'ll, i.32''^; I'rinmiit, l-l.'l; (.'ii^ kt, iiiark^ llini tlin liitrn nnd rnliliit nm unkimwii In 
 
 ill, ;i|o-il|;i.) 'I'liM liii({ ii s,i ii|iri'i(i| over ili« <« Mrlil tli<^ luwcr luiriH uf Mliuti. 'I'lit' |Hiri'ii|)iiii<4, uii iiu' 
 
 tli'fll ii Ih illlllriili to Hi"<>»{n iiM original liiciLiiivt "IImt liiiml, Hri> mil I'liiiiiil In t>ii> N. ri'Kionii; iiii,| 
 
 lilt' liK'l lliiit the Niici'it'.'i iuni< |N't'uliitr uri' itll Atri- the J*tIhiiim nfciii |MM'uliiir In the Hiil<> i>|n-ii |iliiiii., 
 
 t'liii nnd iiiiili>ini>Hiii'nli'il, hcciiim, Imtvi'Vi'r, In iiii|)lv 
 tliiii thii iirii^iiinl hiurk nl' ilic iliiini'Klif nwiiin (n 
 Axiiiiit'; III)' iiii>ri> i'r<|><'<'iiillv iix ili<- criitiiiri* i>« 
 ilin|i<'rM'it over I'Xiry |>m t nl' ilii' ntiiliiiciil trmii ilM 
 S. I'xiri'iiiily III iliu \. nliori'N nl' l.iikx iVtiikiil in 
 luio N. jut. (IU'H'h Trav.'iM. i. -J/K; I'lilLc'-. S\>\i'. 
 /iHil., ii, !!; CruMriirii''* I'^iiilianity In Siain, li'.l; 
 I'uvicr, illtO-JlllJ.) 'I'wn h|M'('i('H nl' iIk' rliiiiiHTriH) 
 iirt' iH'ciiliiir In AnIk Mini llii> Imliiin Ulamlx, ilit^ 
 lulUT iliNiinfcniHiii'il liv ii ilnnlili' Imrii likr llii< Wi. 
 ylfririiiiuM. (|)u lla'lilf, I. •.'.Ill; <'ni\vliir.l, l.".». 
 
 ((■nii'liii'M Ki'im' iliirrli Silt., iMiKxiin ; <'rawt'iiri|\ 
 Km. Si., 4'iM, I7H; t'livicr. Hi. li;M).» i iVimum', 
 IliNl. (^latl., iltlH-D'i't; I'alliiii'it .Still., |iam. ; ( otn. 
 I'i'l., \)n.>\) or till' (^iiiiilriiiniiini ilir |>riiii i|>iil 
 Anialir >|i<'ri<'H nri' till' nniii^ iiiitatiK ainl ilir u'i>>- 
 Imiiim; ilii-Hiniilli'riii I'll mill inniikcvM ari' iiiiini'rnii.t 
 in till' .S., cHiHriully ill liiiliii, t'liiiiii, iiiiil till. 
 iNhimU. A'* II p'lii'ral t'.iri. the Anialii' iiimikivH 
 arc iiil'iTinr in Ninirliiri' anil iiili'llit;'i'ni'i' In tiio 
 .Vrriraii, lint iiini'li Mii|H'rinr tn tlumf nl' Aiiurii'ii, 
 (('•ixii'r, i. •Jn7-'.''.'0,) 'I'hn ('liririi|itrrii an' iiii- 
 
 i\iH; rcniiiiiu'H lli^i. l/iiail., i, \'.\H ; Ciisii'r. lii. in<'rnii<* all nvi r Ihi'wnrlil; lln'V hi'i>iii, Imwi'vcr, 
 llitii.) 'rrnjiirul A^ia iHiNKi'-uti'M iniiHl nf till' IliTi't'i' In aliniiiiil iiinri' ill till' .\4ialii' i'-ianilH llian mi tin' 
 t'ariiivoni limi-. li;;t'i'», li'n|iarilN, Mark |iaiillii-rr«. , rmiiliu'iil : hiiiiii' nf lln'iii, h* iIk' Kiiu.'<'M'I|i' ni' th,. 
 
 iiiliK't'M, ami 11^1' I a In, III tlir ral ;;riiiiN : tvnlvrH, 
 liyciiaM, ami jarkaJH, nl' ilu' iln^ triln'. I'licy ili 
 
 Siiiiila anil Mninrra i.ili'H, arc iii'i'nniili'il iti jiiiui' 
 I'linil; ntliiTN, as llic 'riiiinr lull, rather iar;{i' iiii<| 
 
 iini, liiiwi'vcf, all cxInI ill cijual iiiinili<'ri, nnr ilcsirnclivc; luii llic iiinrc |iii\vcrl'iil anil iiiini'jiiiv- 
 
 rijiially in every part, 'i'iic limi is liccniuin^' very 
 r irc in Asia ; lie ii imw rniiinl niily in ilie iliHerU 
 r iMeM'|iniainia, i'erxia, ami Inilia, liiiil perliaji.-i 
 Jl Hniiii |iarl-< nrCllilia. lie ilneii mil .i|i|>e!ir tn lie 
 lie.inl ol ill Siaiii nrCnelilii 1 liilia; m wliii'h iliM- 
 irietH the wnir, hyena, anil lackMJ, ii> far as m yet 
 knnwii, are alnn Htranneri. (('rawuinl'i Kin, Si., 
 ■I'.'H.) 'i'he inaniil, lyii\, .mil wilil eat arc iiiunI 
 mil' ninn in leiii|irrale Amu; Ihe ilmt cMemliii;;, 
 Ilin.i'Ver, ulimint tn llie tll'i'lii' I'e^iniiN, llie ncennil 
 titr lehiii^ inln linth the I'ri^n,! uriil Inrriil /.iiiich; 
 liiM liic last (M'lireely ever iiiel with lieyniiil tile 
 < .iiiia^iiin niiiiintaiiiH) ap|ieai'.s nriKinally in have 
 lieeli Kuril) x'aii. 'I'lie ilnj;; anil lux, ill all their 
 varieties, are eniiiinnii to all llie eniiliniiit ; Ihe 
 Inrnier, in hinne jiarlH (as Kaniii'halKa), Mippjyin^ 
 the place nl'a liea.st nl' iiiinleii, in ntheri lieiii;>' lined 
 UM an ariii'le nt Tiinil,' 'I'he .Vii;;'iira ami I'ernian eat 
 are eelelir.iteil t'lir the tinciie'>s nl' their l'ni°, as is alsu 
 the lilneeiit nf Siberia; liinii;;!! Ihe last, if luit \Uv, 
 two fnriiier, seem In have lieeii ileriveil. as well as 
 the ihiineslie eat, rrnin Kiii'npe, Knrniiilalile as are 
 mime nf these ereatnres, they cnii.-.titnle ainiisiiler- 
 alile (Hirlinii of tlie weallh nf the cniiniries which 
 they inliahit ; their skins fnnii an impnrlaiit ar- 
 ticle nf eniiiliierce ; ami what is rcniarkalile, the 
 /niiitH nf the ti;;er are slippnscil, like tlinse nf the 
 elephant, In pnssess ineiliciii.'il ipialilies, ami are 
 liiH;hly valiieil acennliiiKly. (* 'rawfiiril's Km. !Si., 
 •VJiX.) The smaller Caniivnra are ahn fminil in 
 jj,reat uliiiiiilaiice, as the ililt'ercnt species nf mar- 
 tens, nmnii^ wliii'h llu^ ermine ami salile siaiiil 
 pre-emiiieiil liir I heir fur; the Asiatic civets, which 
 pntisess thcoilniir, ihiiiiK'h mit Ihe ;rlamlnhir excre- 
 t inn, nf the African species; anil ihe inan;;iinsti nr 
 ifhiifumnn, which attacks anil desirnys tlie most 
 (hiiiu'eruiiH Kerpciils: hears, liailt;ers, j^lut Inns, sea 
 otters, innrses, walruses, seals, cmnplete the list 
 of Asiatic (.'arnivnrn. (Hell, i. 100, li.Mi et pass.; 
 I )u I lalile, jiass. ; I'allas's Sjiic. Zonl., xi v. '_".( et sen. ; 
 t^'rawfurd's Km. Si., ■l'2H, 178; I'eniiant's View nf 
 lluidnnstun, i. l<.Ki-l<.l7 et pass.; Hist, (jtiail., 2I'J- 
 i!00; Cuvier, ii. 2;J-til.) The liiseclivnra and 
 Ikddcnti.'i ' iisist, the first, of hed}i;ehn;;s, shrew- 
 inice,aiiu nmles in their varinus species ; Ihe latter, 
 of tliu more iinpnrtant animals, heavers, hares, rab- 
 bits, leiiiniiiins, inarmnts, sipiirrels, lUirmicc, pnr- 
 ciipiiu's, jerboas, rats, miee, &e. Ol those, the 
 Asiatic s|iec! 's are very iiiimcrnus, and they form, 
 •with the smaller Caniivnra, the principal wealth 
 of Siberia, since, nmniif.; them are found iiinny tliat 
 iifl'ord sonic of the richest furs, especially in the 
 winter, when the coverinj; of the creatures becomes 
 thicker in texture, liner in quality, and fjeiierally 
 Hiipcrior in colour. Auiinals of this order do not 
 uppeur U) U) numerous in S. Asia. (Jrawl'iird re- 
 
 olis species lit this oriler lipiM'iir tn lie yinieririin, 
 and siraiiKcrs to the soil nf .Asia, (rallas's >|i|>', 
 Znnl., III. ;i-;i"i; I'eniiant's ilisi. i/iiml., .'iIn-.m;!; 
 Cnvier, ii. l-ln.) The Marsiipialia nf ibis cmiij- 
 
 llclll cnlisisl nf bill Iwn species nf l'lmlim;;rrH, 
 
 /'/kiI, HiifiiM and I'lutl. Chn/HorrlKm, (Itull'mi, .\iji. 
 Ill; Teiiiminck, I'.'.) 'I'hey are jiecnliar In llir 
 Mnlnrcas, .lava, and CelelM's, exhiliiiiii); tliiis.at 
 the exiremilv nf Asia, the first indicalinii nf llii> 
 tmninalniis AlaminalnKy nf .Viislralia. The s|iii;|c< 
 I'iileiilata i-<tlie sbnrt-lailed Miiiiis, which, like iIh' 
 last nnler, is peculiar In the liiiliairislamls, rMvpt 
 some few iiisiances fniind in Heiij^al, (I'eiiiiiiiit, 
 ."lO.'i.) Marsileii (Sumatra, p. IK) seems in iiii{ii\ 
 thai the African liiii;;-lailed Miiiiis is snini'iiim'H 
 fiiuiid in that island. Lastly, thet.'eliicea cmisi'.ii 
 nf dnlphins, inanati, piir|Niises, sea niiicnriis, ainl 
 whales, nf which snnie niie nr nl her species is luuiul 
 nil all (he enlists nf Asia. (I'ennant, uillwlj; 
 
 (Jiivier, iv, i;m-ii;i.) 
 
 The Oriiillinln;.c>' "f Asia is less ricli ilimi ji* 
 Mamnialn^y; Ihe former cniiiaiiiin;; cniisiiliralily 
 less Ihaii a fniirlh nf all ihe kiinwii s|iei'ii's, \vliili> 
 the hitler pnssesses verv much mure iliaii um- 
 lliii'd. The cniiliiient nl Asia, hnwever, iiiaiiilaiiii 
 Ihe peculiar characier of iiiiliiy in iis pnsscsj.ii.ib; 
 fur of the (iallinie, iiiiipieslinmibly the iiin.st ii^i'liil 
 nrder to man, the iiiimber nf lis species is lictwiTii 
 a third and a half of Ihe wlmle, and fully a iliinl 
 nf the whnle is peculiar in iis snil. Amnii;; llii^i' 
 species are reckniied Ihe nri^inal slncks ol all lliu 
 dnineslic pniillry, except the turkey, wliiili is 
 American; Ihe pheasants, pari rid;,'cs, pearmU, 
 and whole lli;ihts nf pij;eoiis. The species iiiwliiili 
 it is must delicient are amnii^ the ^rmi'-e, i|iialls 
 and |iiiitadiis; but there is scarcely a piuisnl'tlil.'i 
 useful order of which Asia is wholly ilcsiitiiti'. Of 
 other birds, llu* order (iriilhe furnishes the nsirlrli, 
 crane, lieriin, stork, bitti^rn, plnver, spnonhill, ihis, 
 many of which arc hi^^hly useful in Impical ili- 
 males as deslmyers of .serpents and olher daii(,'i'riius 
 reptiles: the Scaiisnres cniisist nf ihnse cliiiiliiii;; 
 birds, parrnts, iiarrn([ueis, wondpeckers, ami iii.i- 
 caws, the beautiful plumage of which adilsn iiiiiih 
 to the splendnnr nf ei|iiiiinxial fnresls ; ami tlii^ 
 Syndactyles (the smnller order of hrinht phiiiiiifjcsi, 
 of bee-i'aters. kiii>;lishers, and linrnbills; wliiili 
 last, Irniii their f;reater size and iieculiiir lialiiis 
 have far less resemblance to the other gciieriuil' 
 the order than they have to each other. In all 
 these orders, it will be nli.served that Asia is rda- 
 tively rich, except with roKard tn the .Swiiisures 
 which, haviiif; little but their beauty tii rirom- 
 niend them, are the least iiBeful of any yet eim- 
 iiierated. In the others the propnrtiiui Iw'iimfs 
 still lower; and though among the palmiin'ile, 
 
prirrl*, n1t)A(roiwoii, polloiina, H\\\U, gft^f^, i1ii<-k)«, 
 
 „„| awnilH, Ailtk hllH Noiiic Mllirll lll«' lllllivi'N 
 
 ii.iM' iiiriinl ii< iii'riiiiiil, MM III)' ^ri'iit ri>riiiiiriiiii. 
 ,„i^>|ir liy III!' Cliiiii'M' III iIkIi : yd itir t^ri'iit liniiio 
 ,,i ||||4 iinli'r III' liiriln lii"< In nilirr i|iiitri)'ri; Aiiit'- 
 ri.ii, Al'rii'ii, AiiKirnliii, iiml cvni KiiroiM-, Of liinU 
 ,1 |.ri'> ( Ai'ri|iiir('n) A"iit Iuim iu i'iikI<''*< viiliurt'n, 
 
 |.,l 14, iiwIh, mill liiiwkH; lull licri', iikiiIii, iIm' 
 
 I iiiiiIxT III' ii|MTi)>H U riiMipiirnllvcly miiull, llimi^'li 
 III .iiiiif riiHi'M lilt' liiilivliliirilit III' It N|M'<'i<'M iiri' vtTy 
 iiiiMirriiiiN : mill in llif linir ri'iiiuiniiiK iirilcrM, niii- 
 ,i.iiii|{ III' nil III" trilH''« III' i^riiiiiviiriiiiM ami iii- 
 .,.,'iiviiriiiM lilriU, Hlirikt'M, pii'M, tliriiHlit'H, crnWK, 
 .(tnliow*. fC""'"!**''^''^' I'iril'* III' I'liriiillMt', mill ilir 
 viiriiiii" HiiiiUHlcru, llui AHiiiiif wihhIh arc very iiimr; 
 ihrirrliii'f U'lmnlK, iit'ilifw uriirni, iM-iny (ji'iicrally 
 .,i,|i iiH iirt> iUhiIiikiiIhIii'iI tnr ln'iiiily i>t' |iIiiiiiiik<'< 
 Niiii; liinl* i»f" viTv »riim'. (I'iiIIiin'h S\,u\ /ih'1,, 
 iv,v., vi.; liincliii. I. JM-Tti, liV.»; ii, lil.l-llW ; i,i. 
 wi.|iMi, 'Jl'.»-'2.'»l, ;H!I, !17M, Ac. J iViiimtH'* lien. 
 llipK pnitH. ; Crawriinl ■< Km. Hi., -la-.'-lHO ; |>ii 
 lliilih'. pUHK. ; CiiviiT, \ i.— viii.) 
 
 Ill Ili'iililt'M, HH ill liiriln, Aniii U tosit nlniiiilniit 
 iliiiii Hiiiiii' otliiT ri'Kliiii'*' Of till' Clii'liiiiiii ii liiiH 
 Mviriil tine N|H'i-ii'!« nl' I'llililii liirtli', miil hIIiitm llial 
 ;iri' rliii'lly vnliiiililc I'nr llirir hIicII. M/.iinls arc 
 'irv iiiiini'riiim in iiiiliviiliiain, IIiiiukIi nut in p'lic- 
 a niiil priilmlily mil in H|i<'rii'N ; nnimi;; iIii'm<>, 
 hviinr lliri'c kimU uC ailiKaturK art' very ilrMiniclivc 
 in ilii- rivers ol' liulia. OC M<'r|H'iitM, tfic iiinMt daii- 
 ;,'i'riiiH !'< ill)! Iiiiliaii I'yilioii niii|irii|H'rly cnn- 
 haiiiilril wllli till' liim riiiisirii'liir) ; liiil, llirri' ari' 
 nmnv nilii'r* liinlily viiiiiiiiiiu«, ami Hiuni! wliicli 
 uri' rxirriiii'ly licaiitiriil ami i|iiiio llarlllll'^4)4. h'r»ii<* 
 iiiiil tiiaiU aliiiuiiil ill all inarMJiy |ilari'i4, Imt it 
 .I'cnis (Imiliil'iil wlicllior Ibi'v ln' of iii.iiiy (lillcrcnt 
 kiiiik (i'allas'i* Sjiic. Ziml., vii. ; (inicliii, iii. tiH, 
 ic; IVnnant'H View of llimlostaii, pass.; l)u 
 linlili', iias»iin ; Ciivii-r, i.\.) 
 
 The hi'as ami riviTs n|>|i«'nr'to jxwsors cvory 
 kimwii kiiiil of HhIi, ami hoino tliat arc pniiliar 
 ij'iilliis vii. viii,) ; anilllio in.sccl trilK'iiri' iiiinn'r- 
 I'lh tlirmi;,'liiiut till' wliok> coiitiiicnt ; tlio ravaK<'n 
 iil'iiiinu',ns iliii locust, in Araliia, Syria, ami Persia, 
 U'iiiK fur lining drcailcil than tin- attacks of car- 
 iiiviirmis aiiiiiiai.s. (I'allas, ix. x. ; (,'iivicr, ix. 
 xiv, XV.) 
 
 iV. Racks ok I'Kort.K and Laxouaoki. — Not 
 Hilly lliii niiijority of tlio liiimaii race- in niiinlHT, 
 liut' also ilu^ ({roatcst. variety in the wpecies, is 
 I'liuiiil within the limits of Asia. Tlin Huhject, an 
 well from extent, iintiire, ami, in many respects, 
 ik'ticienov of information, is one of >;reat ililliciilty ; 
 but wc sliiill, nevertheless, oll'er some ohservatioiiH 
 ii|Kin it, fmiiiiled on the physical fonn, intellect nal 
 oliaractcr, ami jceniiis of the lan^ua^e of the races. 
 Sinic of these families or races consist of many 
 miilinns, while others emhrace hut a few thuusanils, 
 a ciri'iiinstaiice which has naturally arisen from 
 t)io fiivmimble or iinfavourahlo jiositioii in which 
 tlicv have bt^en hicated on tlieir original dislri- 
 liiiliim, niid ])erlia|)s also from an intrinsic dif- 
 tirciicc in the capacity of the races themselves, — 
 imiscs which have multiplied some into numerous, 
 ]iiiwerfiil, and oiviliseil nations, nnd kept others in 
 ilie coiulition of petty and rude tribes. We begin 
 our cloKsilication from the west. 
 
 The first family, which mav be palled tJic Catt- 
 riiiiun, coninrises all the aboriginal inhabitants of 
 tlic mountainous region lying lietween the Hlack 
 Sea ami the Caspian from about 38° to 4'2° of X. 
 lat. It inchules the mountnineers of the valleys 
 of the Caucasus, such as the Abasians, Ossetes 
 iir Iron, Lcsghians, and Kisti : and, in the more 
 level countr)-, or wider valleys lying to the 
 (iiiiith of the Caucasus, the Georgians, Mingre- 
 liaiis, and Anncniana. In iK-rsonal form tliis 
 
 ASIA tit 
 
 family mny ln> <l«'«rrl1>»il a* Fump^nn, Imt In 
 
 iiiliid A»iatic, Till' fiiri' is of nil o>«l fonn; th« 
 fori'lii'iiil, \\\i\\ mi'l I'Niiamli'd ; tin' iiom' I'li'Mttcd, 
 with a "liu'hl I'oiivcxlty ; the niniith Kiiiall; tho 
 lips miHJi'niti' hi si/e, and the chin full and roiiiiiL 
 Till' complexion Is fair, without, hnwevcr, tlm 
 cli'nriiess of the I'liiriipi'iiii ; the eyes are generally 
 dark, nml the liiiir of the IicmI fiirelv of any other 
 
 colour than black or brown : nml, (ml I, it may 
 
 here lie once fur all ole>i'rved, that the ureal variety 
 ill the colour of Ibis leguiiieiit, willi which we nrit 
 fmniliar, isconllned to iluro|s',— black U'lii^ nearly 
 universal in every other part of the world. Thn 
 hair on other parts of the inHly, with tliel 'niiciislim 
 family, isabiiiidaiit ; IheHtatiire is nearly eipiiil to 
 that of the Kiirii|H'aii, and the foriii of Ibe wliiilu 
 person is syiuinetrical mid liiimlsonie. The per- 
 Momil beauty ol this race has liidiiced llhiineiibacli 
 ami ■'oiiie other eiiiineiit naluralists, to iisniiim' itM 
 foru) as thetype ofllie ICiirii|ii'iiii,or tirst of ihe/^i'M 
 great varieties into which they hiiNe, fancitiilly 
 enough, divided the whole oj' niaiikind. Tl "y 
 have even gone the length of fancying that the en- 
 tire Kiiropcati I'liinily sprung froiii the imuin- 
 lailietrs of the Caiuiisus; an hypnlhc'^is for which 
 it is almost iintiecessarv to say tli.it there is not a 
 tittle of historical, |ihilological, or any other evi- 
 dence. N'otwitlistaiiding nmloiihled advanlagcsuf 
 physical fonn, no nation of this family has ever 
 made any einiiieiit advance in civilisation. Maiiv 
 of tlieiii, with a ciiiintrv not unlike Swil/.erlmul, 
 tboiigli with a belter soil and cliinati', arc, at tha 
 present day. Mot inori' advanced in civilisation than 
 the Swiss or (lermaiis as described by Cirsar iiettr 
 '2,(10(1 years ago. The Arineiiiai^' aloi'i' of tho 
 whole family liave made a coiisideriibic thonghfar 
 from a distinguished lirogress. About live cen- 
 turies before tne ( 'bristiaiwra, they constituted nil 
 extensive sociely, and eveii <'..ercised some iil- 
 llmiice in the political events of Western A^ia: 
 they alone, of all the nations and tribe s coin|iosinf( 
 the Caucasian family, possess a national litenitiin; ; 
 but even tlieir invention of alphalM'tic writing dales 
 only from a.d. loti, for previously to that time they 
 Used th(< characters of the <ireeks and I'ersians: 
 
 lart, 
 
 always acting n secoiiilarv and siibordinale iii 
 they have been siicci'ssiveiy subdued by Persians, 
 (ireeks, Koinans, Arabs, 'Turks, and llussiaim. 
 I.anguage, it should lieri! be observed, considered 
 as the (est of unity of race, must be viewed, as re- 
 spects its genius and the general character of its 
 fonnation, and not by the iiU'iitity or dissiinihr.ity 
 of individiiul words,'whieli, through the accii' iiit-* 
 of coiupiest, settlement, religion, nnd comiuerco, 
 often lliid tlieir way even into languages of very 
 opposite genius. As hnppens in rude and early 
 stages of society, in every jinrt of the world with- 
 out exception, the number of languages spoken by 
 the nations of tin; Cuuvasian family is very great. 
 The tribes inhnbiting the valleys and mountains of 
 the (.'aiicasiis are saiil to speak seven distinct lan- 
 guages, besides maiiv dialects; a number, how- 
 ever, which falls far sliort of those s])ukeii within n 
 similar extent of territory in many parts of 
 America, as well as of the islands of the Indian 
 Ocean. Tho only language of tho Caucasian 
 family, of which Kiiropeans have any critiiinl 
 knowledge, is the Armenian, of which wo jiossess 
 dictionaries and grainmnrs : those who have ex- 
 amined it consider it as quite (leculiar and distinct 
 from all other known tongues : it abounds in 
 rough consonants : its structure is exceedingly 
 complex : it has an article nt the end of nouns : its 
 nouns and adjectives have each ten Inflections in 
 the singular and as many in the ]ilural, and the 
 verb is agreeably varied by corresponding changes. 
 All this, which applies, however, more especially 
 
 IJ 
 
 i;: 
 
 i '' 
 
 
 : Am 
 
 
220 
 
 ARIA 
 
 to tho nncient InnKiiapjo, implies thnt tlic Armo- 
 iiiiiii i.s n ])riiiiitivi! and original toii^iix, wliicli, 
 like tlio Simscrit, Ar.iltic, (trci'lt, tlie Laliii kciip- 
 rilly, and lor tlii) most part tlic (Jerman, has nut- 
 {'i'TMi littln (;lmn)r(! in Ktrnotnrc from tlui eommix- 
 Inru of forci;,'n nations and tlicir laii<riia{;os, Tlio 
 modern Armenian has hocn siniplllied in its f^ram- 
 maticnl structnro hy the mixtnrn of tho pcoplo 
 ■with for('i);(ii nations, cspGoiaily tlic Persians and 
 Turks ; chantfes similar to, hut not so extonsivo as, 
 the I.atiu ian^ua^u lias under^oni; in its convcr- 
 tiion into Italian, Spanisli, and French. 
 
 Tlio Noeond Asiatic family has been called hy 
 philolopsts and naturalists, the Anihian, or Semi- 
 tic, the last name hcir.j^ pvcn to it on the hypo- 
 thesis that the whole is derived from thcldest son 
 of Noah: it embraces all the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Palestine, Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, from 
 i\n\ east coast of the Mediterranean and Red Sea, 
 up to the VV^, coast of the Persian Gulf. A brown 
 complexion; more or less intense black or dark 
 brown vycn; h)ng, lank, and almost always black 
 crinalhair; bushy larjje beards, generally black, 
 but sometimes of a reddish tinge; an oval face in 
 bold and distinct relief, with a nose always eleva- 
 ted, and not nnfreijuently aquiline; high forehead, 
 and stature nearly of the iMiropcan mean; — are 
 among the most prominent characteristics of this 
 family, as we occasionally see it exhibited in one of 
 its handsomest forms, the Jewish: we say occa- 
 sionally, f )r the dilVerenccs existing botweeu the 
 .lews settled in dillerent foreign nations, show 
 plainly enough that they have more or less mixed 
 their blood with the people among whom they have 
 established themselves: for tliey are fair in Cler- 
 niaiiy, brown in Poland, and nearly bla(;kin India. 
 Comi)ared with the European, the whole tbrm of 
 the Arabian is spare, slender, and of small bulk 
 and weight. Tho wrists are comparatively slender, 
 the hand small, ami the libre tliroughout soft ami 
 dcxible. These last characters, however, it is to 
 be observed, belong more or less to the inhabi- 
 tants of all warm climates. In intellectual power 
 and energy, the Arabian family stands unques- 
 tionably next to the Kuropeun. The history, in- 
 stitutions, and literature of the Jews ; the early 
 civilisation of the Assjj'rians ; the commerce and 
 colonies of the Phamcians; and the conquests, 
 settlements, and literature of the Arabs, attest the 
 truth of this assertion. The influence of the He- 
 brew institutiims has pervaded the whole civilised 
 world; while the language, literature, and religion 
 of the Arabs may be traced from the western con- 
 fines of Spain and Africa to the Philippine Islands 
 over i;JO° of Ion., and from the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn to Tartary, over 70° of lat. Among a race so 
 energetic, civilisation made a very early ))rogress, 
 and it is not improbable but that 4,000 years ago 
 (he Plucnicians, Hebrews, Assyrians, aiid Arabs 
 had already domesticated many of the useful ani- 
 mals, cidtivated manj' valuable plants, and were 
 accpiaintcd wth the useful and even precious 
 metals. Several of the nations of this family had 
 invented alphabetic writing, in times far beyond 
 the memory of history ,-^as the Jews, Phccnicians, 
 Arabians, and Assyrians. Their literature has al- 
 ways been of a more vigorous and masuline char- 
 acter than that of any other Asiatic people, but 
 still has never evinced the taste, sounil judgment, 
 and practical common sense displayed \)y several 
 JCuropcan nations in various periods of the history 
 of the latter people. For the fine arts, if we except 
 architecture, they have not exhibited a glimmer- 
 ing of capacity. There is one circumstance, how- 
 ever, in the jwsition of this family, which has 
 always proved a serious obstacle to its advance- 
 ment in civilisation — the unsuitabloncss of much 
 
 of the country which it inhabits fornnyotliortlian 
 tho pastoral state of society, owing to its hnnt 
 drought, and sterility. In the genius and stnic! 
 turo of th(! languages of the Arul)ian familv, tlu^n^ 
 is a common alHnity. They possess sound's wliicii 
 no other jx-ople can articulate: while their ncijfh. 
 hours liavo sounds in their languages, which thev 
 in their turn, cannot imitate. In grannnatielii 
 stnicture tlu^y resemble each other, and the words 
 of their language are readily interchanged, wiiiji. 
 they, rarely, if ever, admit those of neighboiiriiv 
 tongues. VVhile the dead language of India, fur 
 example, has found its way into the idtra-(inn;roti(: 
 languages as far even as N'ew Guinea, into lumiv 
 of the Mongolic and Turkisli languages, and im'o 
 most of the ancient and modem languages of Ku- 
 rope, it has made no impression whatever on the 
 languages of the Arabian stock of nations. 
 
 IJetween the Caspian Sea ond Persian Gulf, tu 
 the west, — the ocean to the south, India to tlii^ 
 east, and an indefinite line to the north, exfendiiii; 
 at least to 50° of latitude, — there are several racos 
 which have nnich res(^mblance, but which dilfcr 
 enough in person, mind, and language, to ciiiidi! 
 us to class them as <liflerent families. The lirsi 
 of these, beginning in a westerly direction, is the 
 Persian. With this family, tho complexion i< 
 fair without transparency; there is little tir no 
 colour in the cheek. Tiio hair is long, striiif;lii, 
 and almost always jet black ; the beard abundant, 
 bushy, generally black, but now and then with » 
 reddish tinge. The features, according to Knro- 
 pean notions, are regidar and handsome, tlioii;,'li 
 generally minute; ami, beard excepted, rutlicr 
 effeminate. The stature is little short of the Kii- 
 ropean standard ; and the body gracefully but nut 
 strongly formed, being altogether less robust tlmn 
 that of the European. The jjresent inhobitants of 
 Persia arc much mixed with the blood of Arabian 
 and Turkish settlers ; and probably, therefore, tliu 
 purest sample of tho genuine Persian will be found 
 ni the emigrants established in foreign coiuitrii'si, 
 called Parsees, who scrupulously abstain from in- 
 termixture with the people among whom they are 
 settled. The Persians were among the earlit:*! 
 civilised nations of mankind; but their ])ro),'rcss 
 has not been in ijropordon to their prc'cocily. It 
 is prob.-ible that a thousand years before the (Jiiris- 
 (ian era they had tamed the useful animals, lul- 
 tivated useful jdants, were acquainted witli tlie 
 useful metals, and constituted a considerable coin- 
 numity. That they had at an early period a writ- 
 ten language, and that it was national, is attestiil 
 by the existence of the imdecyphcred and ])ei;iiliar 
 characters, of unquestionable antiquity, still found 
 at Persepolis and other places. When the Arabn 
 conquered and converted the Persians about the 
 middle of the seventh century, they found tliree 
 spoken languages ; viz. the Parsee, Pehlvi, and 
 lieri, besides the Zend, or language dedicated to 
 religion. Tho first of these has superseded the 
 rest, which are known only by name, and become 
 the universal language of the country. The mu- 
 dern Persian is of simple structure, like Eiisiish, 
 French, or Italian, that is, it possesses few or mi 
 inflections, prepositions governing its cases, and 
 auxiliary verbs its times and modes. Many of it.s 
 roots can be readily traced to the Sanscrit, .Sinoe 
 tho Arabian conquest, it has received a large ac- 
 cession of Arabic words, easily discovered by their 
 exotic sounds, for there are many sounds ]ieciiliiir 
 to one j)Cople which are foreign to the utterance of 
 Jio other. The entire literature of the Persians 
 dates since tho Arabic conquest, and flicrorore 
 the earliest portion is little more than 1,000 years 
 old, while the great bulk belongs to the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. It consists of songs of 
 
ASIA 
 
 231 
 
 nyotliortlian 
 [ to itH h(>at, 
 lis unci stmc- 
 fiimily, tlifiM 
 Aimnils whii'ti 
 ! their ni'itjh- 
 4, wliich they, 
 (^iniimutiviii 
 uid tlie wnnls 
 hiinpMi, whili! 
 nci^liboiirin^; 
 L< of liuliii, fur 
 iiUru-(.inn;;otii' 
 ea, into iiiaiiy 
 iifjcs, and iiitii 
 inuane.s of Ku- 
 latever on the 
 ations, 
 
 ersiuu (lulf, tn 
 I, India to tlic 
 )rth, uxtcndiui; 
 re several racts 
 lit whicli dirt'cr 
 ua^e, to ciiliili! 
 ilies. Tiie tirsi 
 direction, is thi' 
 complexion U 
 is little or nu 
 » lonj;, struinht, 
 beard abundant, 
 ind then with n 
 )rding to Kiiro- 
 mdsome, though 
 ixcepted, rather 
 short of the Ku- 
 racefuUy but nut 
 less roi)Ui<t than 
 nt inhal)itants uf 
 blood of Arabian 
 ly, therefore, the 
 lian will be fouml 
 foreign countries, 
 abstain from iii- 
 ir whom they arc 
 long the earliest 
 .it their ]>rot,'rcss 
 ;ir priicociiy. It 
 before the Cliris- 
 |ful anini.ils, t'lil- 
 lainti'd with tlie 
 [onsiderablc ccira- 
 •ly period a writ- 
 ional, i» attesteil 
 ■red and peculiar 
 [quity, still fwmd 
 When the Avals 
 Irsians about the 
 :hey found three 
 lee, Pehlvi, and 
 ge dedicateilto 
 superseded the 
 Ime, and become 
 [uitry. The mo- 
 ire, like Ellgli.^l^ 
 losses few or no 
 its cases, and 
 ics. Many of its 
 ISanscrit, Since 
 jiveil a large ao- 
 fcovered by their 
 sounds peculiar 
 the uttcrnnce of 
 of the Persians 
 and therefore 
 ban 1,000 years 
 , to the fifteenth 
 iista of song" »f 
 
 crnixidorahle merit; of popticnl romnnros, wild and 
 oxtrivft^janti •'*" 1""*" chroniclcH without date, 
 c'„„„|P(f on tradition alone; and of treatises on 
 iniiralt^vritten to little )mriw»e f«>r one of the most 
 Heiisual, mendacious, and astute, but also one of 
 the cleverest people of ANia. For the history of 
 the Persians, for I, AGO years before the Arabian 
 conquest, we jwssess, from themselves, nothinp; but 
 iiiconfrruous table ; and were it not for the occa- 
 hioual, but always unsatisfactory informntion re- 
 siicctinR them communicated by the Cireeks first, 
 and then by the Homans, wo should have known 
 lis little of'their early history as we do of that of 
 the ilindoos or Mexicans. For 2,r>00 years they 
 have not l)een wholly stationary; but, measured 
 l)v the Kurofiean standard, they have made little 
 iirnj^rcss. The physical geoffraphy of their country 
 in not propitious to civilisation. Much of it, like 
 Arabia, is, from drought and sterility, unlit for 
 agriculture, and fitted only for occasional pasture ; 
 and hence, at all times, the roving and predatory 
 habits of a lai-gc portion of its population ; while 
 the same character belonging also, and even to a 
 "reater degree, to the countries wliich surround it, 
 The progress of industry and civilisation has not 
 (iiilv been obstructed by internal, but also by 
 foreign enemies. The Persian family has never 
 beon distinguished for the bold spirit of enterprise, 
 or capacity for social improvement, which has 
 characterised the Arabian. Very different from 
 the .lews and Arabs, such has always been the 
 mediocrity of talent among the Persians, that they 
 have no name which belongs to history, except 
 that of Zoroaster. 
 
 The next family of nations is the Turkish, or 
 Scvthian. The extensive country in which this 
 family is found, or rather its parent country, lies 
 between the 35® and 60° of lat. from the Hindoo 
 Koosh, a continuation of the Himalaya, to the 
 Belur Tagh, a spur of the Altai chain', and from 
 the Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the 
 (Insert of Gobi, where they are mixed with the 
 Mongols. The family consists of the Scythians 
 and Parthians of antiquity, and of the true Tar- 
 tars and Turcomans, with the eastern and western 
 Turks of the moderns — the Usbecks, Tadjuks, 
 and Kirgis. To the west it has probably been 
 considerably intermixed with Greek and Caiica- 
 >i,iii blood; to the east and north, with Mou- 
 gulian; and to the south with Persian. The 
 coiiiiilcxion of this race is a light brunette. Tlie 
 hair generally black, strong, and long ; but when 
 the complexion is remarkable for its fairness, it is 
 brown, and of a more delicate texture. The colour 
 of the eye is a light brown, but the form some- 
 what contracted. The skull is remarkably glo- 
 bular, the forehead broad, and the space between 
 the brows very prominent ; the proportions of 
 the face are symmetrical ; the npper jawbone is 
 singularly short, and the basis of the lower jaw 
 is also remarkable for its shortness ; the facial 
 line is nearly vertical. The bod)' is sivnit, but 
 the stature shorter than the Eurojiean. Abstract- 
 ing hair, complexion, colour, form of the eye, 
 and stature, with the intellectual powers as they 
 have been hitherto dcvelojied, the Turk is in fact 
 a European. The Turkish language is one of 
 simple stmcture, like the Persian or ICiiglish ; and 
 its i-ounds, but not its words, resemble those of 
 the former. IJy the conquests of the various 
 nations who s|)eak it, it has been spread from 
 lireece to Chinese Tartary, and from Persia to 
 5j°lat.; but, unlike the Arabic and Persian, the 
 more cultivated languages of a more civilised 
 jieople, it has nowhere sujiersedcd or much mixed 
 iiself up with the dialects of the conquered 
 people; nor in the government of a conquered 
 
 people have the Turks over exhiliiled the skill or 
 tiderance of the Arabs or Mongols. What lia-t 
 been said of the character of the physical geo- 
 gr.if»hy of the native country of the Arabian and 
 I'ersian families, is still more applicable to t\w 
 Turkish. A great portion of it is mere desert, 
 without trees and water; ond the cultivable por- 
 tions are, in fact, but so many patches along tim 
 banks of rivers, thinly scattered over a boundles.-i 
 waste of sand. In these patches industry and 
 civilisation spring up, surrounded in everj' direi^- 
 tion by robbers and freebooters, and liable at 
 every moment to be crushed by them. To usci 
 the words of Mr. Krskine, in his introduction to 
 the 'Translation of the Memoirs of the Eiii|M'riir 
 Uabcr,' we And among the Turkish family ♦ trilM .-4 
 who, down to the present day, wander over their 
 extensive regions, as their forefathers did, little, 
 if at all, more refined than they appear to liax-c 
 been at the dawn of historj'. Their flocks ar<) 
 still their wealth, — their camp their citj' ; and tliu 
 same governmetit exists of separate chiefs, who 
 are not much exalted in luxury or information 
 above the commonest of their subjects aroinnl 
 them.' This cause, however, it must be admitted, 
 will not account for the backward civilisation of 
 the Osmanli Turks, who have now for centuricM 
 occupied some of the finest regions of Asia ami 
 Europe, and been during the same time in close 
 communication with the civilised nations of the 
 latter. 
 
 That some nations of the tnic Turkish family 
 were early civilised to a certain extent, is not to 
 be doubted. It was among them that Alexander, 
 more than three centuries before the Christian 
 era, ftmnd the principal materials for founding 
 his Greek kingdom of Uactria; and from tinui 
 immemorial the horse, ox, camel and dromedary, 
 ass, hog, and dog, have ])robably been domesti- 
 cated among them. The ass and hog are still 
 wild animals of the country; and in early times 
 it is not improbable the others were so also. 
 
 The Turkish or Scythian family seems to havo 
 invented no ^vritten character, and hence, in early 
 times, to have had no literature. The evidence 
 of some Bactrian coins shows, that when the more 
 improved nations among them had advanced to 
 wnting, thev used the alphabetic characters of 
 ancient Persia. The best and most fertile portion 
 of the country of the Turks was conquered by the 
 Arabs towards the end of the seventh century, 
 and this was followed by the adoption of the Ara- 
 bian alphabet, and by much of the language and 
 literature both of the Arabs and Persians. It was 
 not, however, until the establishment of a firm 
 government under Jaghatai, the son of .Jcngis 
 Khan, that the Turkish language — from him 
 called the .Taghatai Turkish — began to assume 
 the character of a polished speech, and to be 
 written ; and its most nourishing period is com- 
 prised in the short time from the death of Timiir, 
 m HO."), to the death of Baber, in 1630. Its lite- 
 rature consists chiefly of popular poetrj', in the 
 form of odes or songs; but there are also some 
 prose compositions, religions and chronological ; 
 of which last the most remarkable are the me- 
 moirs of Timur and Uabcr. Turkish composition, 
 as described by Mr. Erskine, is less inflated and 
 rhetorical than Persian and Arabian ; and, judg- 
 ing by his own translation of the last of the works 
 above mentioned, we should be disposed to con- 
 rider Turkish literatnre as making a nearer ap- 
 proach, on the whole, to the good sense, taste, and 
 simplicity of that of l'^uroj)e, than any other lite- 
 rature 01 Asia. The Uiciur language, used by a 
 great portion of the inhabitants in Eastern Tur- 
 kestan, resembles the Jaghatai much in form, but 
 
 m 
 
 I'M 
 
 
 i;,^ 
 
 
 'I 
 
 ; ^m 
 
 if 
 
222 
 
 AKIA 
 
 id reported by flip most recent travellers to prewnt 
 coiiHideralile ililt'ereticPH. 
 
 In till! poiith-onHtem nnple of vlint is roni- 
 moiily ronsiilered Persia, aiiti now known l)y liie 
 mime of Iteloochistan, we have three riieeH of n»en, 
 distinct ill perxoii and laiiKiuif^e, living; in tlie 
 jtaiiie eoiintrv, and dwelliiif; lonether, yet. not 
 often inlerinixiiif; their Mood, — a eircunwtanee 
 whieh will frequently he found in what reinain.s 
 of our review of the ' Kaces of Asia.' Tliese are 
 the Heloehcen, Krahoos, and Dehwars. The JIv- 
 litehrm have dark-hrown eomplexions, hiaek hair, 
 long visages, elevated features, with tall anil active, 
 but not rohiiHt lu'rHoiis. Half their langiiii^e is a 
 corrupted I'ersiaii; and, allhouf;h the nature of 
 the other he not ascertained, we have little doubt 
 of its heiiiR primitive and ori^^inal. The Jirnliuon 
 are wholly unlike the Heloehees. They have 
 thick short bones, — are, in fact, a squab instead of 
 a tall people. Their faces are round, and their 
 features tlat, instead of beiiij; raised. Krequently 
 they have lirown hair and beard, from which 
 we should aiif^ur a fairer complexion than is as- 
 cribed to them. 'J'he lanpuiKe of the Hrahoos is 
 entirely dill'erent from that of the llelochees; it 
 contains no J'ersian, ami but a few words :)f the 
 neifrhhourin^ dialects of the Hindoos. The Deh- 
 tviim have blunt features, hin'li cheek hones, blulf 
 cheeks, and short bodies. What is remarkable of 
 them is, that their lanpnifje is that of a jieople 
 to whom they bear no personal resemblance, the 
 I'ersians. This, it may here be observed, is alst) 
 the case with the Tadjuks of the Turkish family, 
 M'ho claim to be the aboripnal inhabitants of 
 Bokhara; but then the Tiidjiiks, though stout in 
 stature, have elevated features, and a riuUly brown 
 complexion. None of these nations have a na- 
 tional literature, or seem ever to have invented 
 nil alphabet. Kven in the time of Alexander, al- 
 though rude barbarians, they were far from heiiif; 
 savages; for they had oxen, pmts, and camels, 
 and cultivated wheat, barley, and several fruits. 
 
 To the N.of the races now described, and in the 
 NK. anf;le of I'ersia in its widest acce])tation, we 
 lind another race, the Afiiltan. This family is 
 marked by a brown complexion, black hair, some- 
 times brown, a profusion of beard of the same co- 
 lour, high noses, high cheek-bones, long faces, a 
 robust person, and a stature short of the Kiiropean. 
 Their langiiiige, called Pushtoo, is peculiar; it 
 contains lew Sanscrit words, but a good many of 
 those of the |Hi]iular language of Upper India, or 
 Hindi: the sounds are rough, and some of the 
 consonants are such as have no existence in the 
 Persian. They have no alphabet, and use the 
 Arabic characters; and their national literature, 
 consisting chielly of lyrics, is said not to be above 
 150 years old. In the time of Alexander these 
 people were rude barbarians, but not savages, for 
 they had towns, and com, an<l cattle, and were 
 probably on a level with the (iermans and Hritiais 
 m the time of ('a'sar. It is only in comparatively 
 late times that they have made any ligiire in 
 history. Conquered by a Turkish nation, in the 
 last years of the tenth century', they continued, 
 by their military enteqirises and hivasions, to ex- 
 ercise great iiiHuence o\er the all'airs of Iliiuhistan, 
 and some even over the atlairs of Persia, down to 
 the mi(Ullc of the eightceiith century. 
 
 Among the high mountains and n.irrow elevated 
 valleys which lie E. of the country of the Afghans, 
 exists a iieojile, of whom little is known beyoiMl 
 their names: these arc the Rafters, or intidc'ls, so 
 called by their Mohammedan neighbours, the 
 Dards, Tibet-lialtai, Chitral, Hazaras, and Aimaks. 
 These people are described as remarkable for their 
 fairness ; the possession, occasionally, of light hair 
 
 and blue eyes, and great personal lioaiity. They 
 speak nianv hingiuiges which arc absolutely im. 
 known to KiiropeaiiH. According to a inimt Jmli- 
 cioiis writer, Mr. Krskine, they eonstitiite 'aHirics 
 of nations, who appear never to have attniiied lint 
 arts, the eiLse, or tlie civilisation of the stnitlicrii 
 states; but who, at the same lime, unlike ttii)si> 
 to the north, have, in general, settled on some par- 
 ticular snot, built villages and towns, and eiiltivai(>i| 
 the soil. They cultivate small quantities ofwliciiL 
 and millet, but their |iriiicipal wealth consists in 
 oxen and goats. The nKMintain barriers wliich 
 surround them liavc protected them from invasicni; 
 and the narrow vallevs which comprise tlicir 
 cimntry, diviih's them into numeious tribes, niiil 
 hinders their civilisation. 
 
 Proceeding eastward, we come to a groat and 
 nuineroiis family, the llindtiit, spread from tlic 
 7th to the iJiith degree of north latitude, and fmin 
 the tWth to the !t.")th of east h)ngitude. Correctly 
 speaking, this is |H'rha|>s not one family, hut na 
 aggregate of rac«'s, hearing such a general rosom- 
 blaiice to each other, as the Kuro|)ean varieties do 
 among themselves, altbough wider in degree. The 
 colour is commonly black, or at least a deep bniwn ; 
 and hence the name of Iliiuhio, apjdied to them 
 by their fairer Turkish and Persian invaders; fur 
 that word in \\\v Persian language is eqiiivalciit 
 to negro in ours. The hair is always long, course. 
 andblairk; the beard of the same colour, aiul iidt 
 delicient; the eye invariably black, or deep brown, 
 the face oval, and the features well raised, syiii- 
 inetrical, and handsome ; so far at least as the iih- 
 sence of colour and transi)arcncy will allow, Imt 
 generally with an elVeminate cast: with some dc- 
 fect in tiie lower limbs, the person is well formed. 
 The staturi^ is generally short of the Kiiropean: 
 the body is .s]iare. and deficient in strength «nd 
 capacity of enduring toil, if compared with tlio 
 surrounding families; but the want of force is in 
 some measure compensated by lightnes.s, flpxi- 
 bility, and dexterity. .Indging by the fonn ofthc 
 skull, modern naturalists have (ilaced the Ilindws, 
 or still more whimsically, ' the higher orders' of 
 them, in the same class with the natives of Kiirii|ie. 
 This is hilt an ingenious ]>hilosophical dream; anil 
 Orine. who knew them well, and who never sus- 
 |)ecled the possibility of placing them in the same 
 category with men of white skins, robust frames 
 and high enterprise, justly describes them as h.win;,' 
 Iwen 'from the earliest ages of antiquity a people 
 who have no resemblance, either in ligiire or man- 
 ners, with any of the nations contiguous to them,' 
 Their general ajipearance to a stranger is truly 
 and graphically described by Mr. Ford, chapiiiin 
 to the factory at Surat in the commeneemont cif 
 the seventeenth century. 'A people,' says he. 
 ' presented themselves to mine eyes, clothed in 
 linen garments, somewhat h)W-descendiiig; of a 
 gesture and garb, as I may say, maidenly, ami 
 well-nigh effeminate ; of a countenance shy, and 
 somewhat estranged, yet smiling-out a glozed 
 and bashful familiarity.' Clearness and subtlety. 
 rather than <lepth with vigour, characterise the 
 intellectual capacity of the Hindoo. In practical 
 good sense they arc below the Chinese; in enerfiy, 
 vigour, and enterprise, below the Arabs, Persians 
 and Turks ; but they arc ecinally astute with .any 
 of these ; if, indeed, they do not, in thb rt'9])eci, 
 surpass them all. They h.ive been repeatedly, 
 and, for so numerous a peoj)le, easily conquered ; 
 but, on their side, they have never gone abroad 
 for conquest. 
 
 The 1 liiidoos were probably among the earliest 
 civilised of the families of mankind. Nearly '2,".'t*l 
 years ago, the (irceks found tliem coniposuif; com- 
 munitie,^, whose advance in the arts of lil'e was 
 
l)onufy. Thpy 
 alimihilcly uii- 
 n a inoRl judi- 
 ititulo 'iiwrii's 
 vc nttniiiiMl the 
 if tlip Roiithcni 
 
 0, uiilikv \him 
 •A on 8onu' pur- 
 , uiul cuUivatcil 
 nliticH 111' whim 
 ilth connlsts ill 
 
 bnrri(;r8 wliiili 
 1 from invuNiiiii ; 
 coniprisp tlieir 
 nma tribes, uiiil 
 
 to a KTcnt. ftmi 
 prenil from tlic 
 litiulc, and frmn 
 ;ii(U'. Correctly 
 fmnily, Imt an 
 I gWK'ral rcsom- 
 iciin vftrioties An 
 ■ in ilrKi^PC. The 
 Ht n (U'l'i) brown ; 
 applied to tliom 
 an invader!*: fur 
 ^e is i(niival('nt 
 uys loiifi, eoarxc. 
 L! colour, and not 
 <, or (Uh'I) brown , 
 vM raisod, hjul- 
 
 1. U'list as the al>- 
 y will aUow, Imt 
 : : with some dc- 
 n is well I'omicd. 
 f the r.iiropcan: 
 
 in strenijtli ami 
 nnpan'd with the 
 Hit of force is in 
 liffhtness, flpxi- 
 fy the form of the 
 ^ipod tbe Iliiulwis, 
 liinher orders' ><( 
 lativi'sof ICurniio. 
 \\k:>i\ dream ; ami 
 I who never siis- 
 tlieni in the same 
 ns. robust frames, 
 s them as having' 
 inti(|uity a iicnple 
 in tifjufc or man- 
 it ij^uous to them,' 
 stran};er is tnilv 
 Ford, chaplain 
 oinmenccmciit (if 
 people,' says he. 
 jycs, clothed in 
 descendiii};; of :i 
 maidenly, ami 
 tenance shy, and 
 ufj-out a pWd 
 ess and subtlety, 
 characterise the 
 loo. In practical 
 linese ; in energy, 
 Arabs, Persians 
 astute with any 
 t, in this rcsijoci, 
 been repeatedly, 
 :!iisily concpiered; 
 ever" gone abmad 
 
 nioiit' the enrlio-t 
 nd. Xearly2.-i(») 
 ^ compo.'iui;; corn- 
 arts of life was 
 
 ffliinl to that of the PprsiaiiH of the Hnmo pcriiMl ; 
 1,11,1 to imvo attained hiicIi a Htatc, must have In-cn 
 ilicwdrk of many previous centuries. The trountry 
 thev inlial)it has a favonrable climate, and fruitful 
 miil, anil nature presented to tlie cKercise of their 
 niitliral infjenuity many valuable products in the 
 nninial. venelablc, and mineral kingdoms, such as 
 the useful aniiimls, numy of which an; still found 
 ill a wihl state in the country, with several ilc- 
 scriptions of corn, es(Mdent. roots, irolton, and silk. 
 All the lan(;uHneH of tlu! Hindoos are of simple 
 L'ramuiatical stnuiluns except one, the dead San- 
 scrit, as complex as the (ir«^e,k or Arabic. There 
 arc at least ten al|diabets, which seem to have been 
 separately invented, itnt afterwards more or less 
 imiiroveii by borrowiiif; from that of tbe. Sanscrit, 
 tiic most. c(")m|irebeiisive of them all, piirlicularly 
 ill the adoption of its re^^nlar and almost philoso- 
 phical arraiii^emcnl. The Hindoo lauf^uai^c, which 
 (•(iiitaiiis tbe >;reatest amount of Sanscrit, is tlut 
 iiiiidern Hindi; and at the close of the tenth cen- 
 turv, on the lirst Mohammedan invasion, a lan- 
 miiH'. was spoken at Delhi and its vicinity as 
 nearly re.senibliuji; it as Saxon (hies Mii^jlisb. The 
 nation, then, of which the. Sanscrit was the ver- 
 nacular laiijjuaf^e, imibably had for its jirimitive 
 scat the countries on both banks of the .Inmna, 
 ftliiuii the 'JHtb de^jree of N. latitinb'; and this is, 
 indeed, pointed out by many intelli):;ent Hindoos, 
 as the, locality of the ancient jn'ople who.se lan- 
 Uniure and institutions have ex»'rtod so }freat an 
 iiilluciicc over a hirj;(; |)ortion of mankind. .'\s we 
 diverge from this focus, the proportion <d' Sjiiiscrit. 
 fiiund ill the dialects of India, bei'oines less and 
 less; and in some of the laiif^iiaKcs of tbe ,Soulb, 
 not, more of it is to be, found, nor in any other 
 shape, than that in which we lind Latin in luif;- 
 liali. Hindoo literature, notwithstanding tin- un- 
 C|Hestioii«blc aiiti<piity of its cnltiin;, is exlrava- 
 );aiit, rhapsodical, puerile, and destitute both of 
 iiislTUctioii and amu.sement. In inp'iiuity and 
 ii'.vention it can bear no comparison with that of 
 the Hebrews, Arabs, or I'ersians; nor. in common 
 sense or authenticity, with that of the Chiiiese, 
 tame and mechanical as is tbe, latter. The aii- 
 thcntii- records of the Hindoos cannot be carried 
 hack by any iiifiennity beyond eh'ven centuries; 
 ami even this niucli is the work of l^uropean .-iii- 
 tiipiarics. That perioil then carries Hindoo cliro- 
 ncddf^y only to the middle a^jes <d' Kiiropean his- 
 tory ,-^corresponds with theArabcoiKpiestofSp.'iin, 
 —and is lonj; posterior to the conipiest of I'ji^land 
 hy the Saxons, of Franco by the Franks, and <)f 
 Italy by the Lombards. The cajiiicity of tbe Hin- 
 doo' family, then, tried by tbe test of literature, 
 inlands lower than that id" any of its considerable 
 nci(;hbours. We have already said, that thoii};h 
 in colour, form, and feature, a common character 
 hcloiifis to the whole Hindoo family, there exist 
 &U) sirikiiif; diU'efences. We shall enih'iivonr to 
 point out a few of these. Uej^iniiiiifx from the 
 north-west, we have the Citsfinii'iliiiis, with fjeiiuinc 
 Hindoo features, brunette complexions, jiiid rather 
 stouter and taller ])ersoiis t'.uin tbe inhabitants of 
 the ]daiiis of Ilindostan. They have a ix'ciiliar 
 laiij^uafje and a national alphabet. South of these, 
 and on the plain, we have tbe more numerous and 
 powerful nation of the Sviks or Slni/hs. 'The 
 features of the wb(d(' nation,' savs Ihirnes, 'are 
 now as distinct frimi tho.se of their neifjfbbonrs as 
 the Indian and Chinese. With .t,ii extreme re;.;u- 
 larity of physiofjnomy, and eloiifjatltm of coniite- 
 iiauce, they may be readily distinfjuished from the 
 other tribes.' We shall add to tliin, that they are 
 a tall, active, handsome race; of very dark com- 
 plexiiuis, but of features stroni;ly marked by the 
 genuine Hindoo character. Their laiigiuige id a 
 
 ASIA 223 
 
 <lialpet of the Hindi, lletwppn the 2.')th and 'J.lrd 
 de^crce of N. hit., and the 72nd and H7th deforce 
 of I''.. Ion., exists a numerous peoph>, now, for the 
 most part, speaking; also a dialect of tbe Hindi, 
 
 ...I.:.. I. I : i' .1... «f .1 I.... 
 
 which has, ni conse(pHMice of the Mohammedan 
 coiupiest, received a lar>;e admixture <>( I'ersian. 
 They are generally taller and fairer than the ))(Mipli! 
 of the south, and of all the Hindoo family may bo 
 considered im having made the greatest advanci; in 
 eivilisati(m. Their laiiKuage is writlc^n in the 
 same alphabet as that used in writing Sanscrit. 
 Thron^bout India they are known iw HlmliiiittiHirii. 
 To the east of these, and inhabiting; the extreme 
 eastern portion of the country of the Hindoos, wo 
 have the, Iteii^ralee raci;, distin^iiisluMl by dark 
 (Complexions, low st-iture, and feebhi and slend(cr 
 frames b(>yond any other Hindoo ])eo]de. Tint 
 Henpilees have a peculiar lanpni^u of simpltt 
 structure, without, intlexions, the parts of speeclt 
 beiiin fonned by the, ii.sc! of particles and aiixi- 
 liariccs. Sanscrit words and roots enter lar^jtdy 
 into its composition; and it has Ihu'u alle^(-d of 
 this, and of most, of tin; other vernacular lan^ua^e.s 
 id' India, that Sanscrit fonns their frroiindwork, as 
 Latin fonns that of Italian, French, and Spanish. 
 This, howevi^r, is unipiestionably not true of all 
 the lan^iia^esof the south of India; and we think 
 it very donlilfiil if it be so even of that of the IJeii- 
 pdees. This lust has a pi-culiar alphabet, fonned 
 on the )irinci]de of tbe Dewana^ari, an alphabet 
 of the Sanscrit, the basis most, probably having 
 been a rude, character of indi^eiions invention. 
 There is no Henjialee literature which f^oes further 
 back Ibaii tlio lifteenth century, and very littlo 
 even of this. Tbe lieiif^alee.s, like the other 
 Hindoos, havi! no history; and the first anthentit! 
 dale in their chronolojfy is the year I'itKi, when 
 the country was invaded and coiiipuTed by tliii 
 Tnrko-I'ersians, from Delhi. Upon the whole, tlus 
 Itetipilee racit may be, looked upon as the least 
 .enertjetic, physically and mentally, of tlic Hindoit 
 family. Kveii within Ilindostan, they have never 
 ventured, as conipierors or «!niif;rants, beyond the 
 limits of their own country; wliile, from the e.'ir- 
 liest .ifjes, ibicy seem to have been invaded and 
 subdued by all their western nei^'libonrs. In tlexi- 
 bility and acuteness, however, they erpial any 
 other Hindoos; and in onr times, have ('.xbibiteii 
 a capacity for improvement beyond them all. 
 
 To the south id' the I{enj,;alees, we tiiid the 
 Oria race, or Orias, taller .'ind stronger than the, 
 former, but still with slif^ht and delicate li^'ures. 
 This race is remarkable, even amon^; Hindoos, for 
 a lack u( spirit and intelligence. They have a 
 jieculiar lauj!;n.i^e, of simple, structure, into the, 
 composition of which both Sanscrit and Iteii^alee 
 enter larj;ely, but its foundation is most proliably 
 native. The al|diabct is founded on the principle of 
 the Dewananari, and the literature coiisi.st.s almost 
 wholly of translations and parai)hrases from the 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 To the south of the Nerbudda river, and of the 
 Orias, are the populous race of the l^clinf/as, 
 stouter, taller, and much more enerf^ctic. These 
 are the iieople called by the earlier European 
 settlers dentois. Their langnafjc is inharmonious, 
 harsh, not very simple in its structure, and is 
 written in a peculiar national aljihabet; followinf^, 
 however, as all the Indian aljdiabets do, the con- 
 venient cl.is.silication of the Dewanagari. Sanscrit 
 rs found in it, as French exists in Knglish, (Jreek in 
 Latin, Arabic in Persian, or Turkish and Persian 
 in the dialects of northern India. Their national 
 literature is considerable in extent. This is tbe. 
 only Hindoo race which has exhibited any thini;- 
 like a spirit of foreij,'n enterprise ; and that enter- 
 prise is wholly mercantile. Their commerce and 
 
 i 7 ' 
 
 ill 
 
 ( A.^ 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 1 wm 
 
\t 
 
 ASIA 
 
 tlipir mijn'nfi"!"' nf prcsont cxtpiiil. nn\ seem from 
 wrv rcindtc |icri(ii!,s to Imvo cxUMidcd, to tlm 
 iNlniids of fliti Iiiiliiin Orcnii, iiiid the countries 
 li('t\v(!oii India nnd ("iiiim. Tlio siircnd of tlui Inn- 
 pin^'c nnd institutions of the Hindoos, indeed, to 
 llicMe countries, wus most probuhly in a great 
 measure their work. 
 
 To the west of the Telingns, arc the Miihmttn 
 race, smaller in person ; rather of meagre and di- 
 minutive form. The Mahrntta lnn>;ua{;e is l)ecu- 
 liar; nnd in reference to the admixture of Sanscrit 
 found in it, the same ohser\'ntions apply as to the 
 Telingn, Amonj; all the considerable races of the 
 Hindoo family, the Mnhrnttn had lonj; been the 
 most backward in civilisation, nnd were totally un- 
 known to history as a people, until the be^imiing 
 of last century, when they suddenly entered on a 
 career of conquest which threatened, and, but for 
 the presence of a Euro|>ean ])ower, would probably 
 liavo cflccted, the siilijugation of all India. 
 
 The South of India, i)eyond the Telinpa and 
 !Mahrnttn races, is occupied by four distinct races, 
 (liircring in Innf^unge, nnd, in some respects, in 
 physical form and intellectual character. All of 
 them are (the inhabitants of IScngal excepted) 
 of shorter stature, but of more compact form, tiiaii 
 the Hindoos of the north. They are commonly 
 also of darker complexions. Immediately to the 
 east of the Telin{ja, is the Taiiml race, occupyiuf? 
 the whole of the level country below and to the 
 cast of the preat table-land of the peninsula as far 
 as Cape Comorin. iSouth of the river Krislina, 
 nnd occupying the table-land, is the Karnatu or 
 Oanaresc race, considerably civilised, and wide- 
 spread in this ]iart of India. Below the table-land, 
 and on the western coast, are two races, the Ma- 
 labar, and the Tiilawa, to the south, )ieculiar in 
 their physical orgniiisntion, intellectual character 
 and language. Hesidcs these well ascertained 
 races, there are evidences of the existence of dis- 
 tinct races also in the peninsulas of Gujrat and 
 Kutch, and in t'le territory of Sinde ; in nil of 
 which there seem to have been pcniliar languages, 
 reduced at present to dialects by the admixture of 
 conquerors and settl vi from the north. Among 
 the ilindcx) races must bo included the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of Ceylon, or Cingalese, who resemble 
 the Hindoo, and no other family, in their colour, 
 the form of their jiersons, the character of their 
 features, and the texture of their minds. They 
 have a peculiar language, an indigenous aliihaliet, 
 following the Sanscrit arrangement, and their 
 speech contains an abundance of Sanscrit words. 
 
 IJut bi'siilcs these more considerable races of 
 the Hindi" ■ family, there are a good many rude 
 tribes. diU'cring essentially in language, and often 
 in person, from their more civilised neighbours, 
 antl from each other. If we reckon these last at 
 not more than half a dozen, we shall find that the 
 whole Hindoo family of nations does not consist 
 of less than eighteen difl'ercnt races, differing more 
 or less from each other, in stature, strength, mien, 
 and intellectual endowment. If we carry our 
 minds back to a ))eri(Ml of Hindoo history when 
 society was in as rude a state as in America on its 
 discovery; — before the time when some of the 
 races, by their sujierior energy, and more favour- 
 able position, had destroyed or absorbed those that 
 ■were more feeble, or less suspiciously situated, we 
 shall probably be led to conchide that the number 
 of races and languages was, in proportion to extent, 
 as great in India as we have found it to be in the 
 New World, uniform as the Hindoo physical form 
 and mind is commonly considered to be. 
 
 From the eastern limit of the country of the 
 Ilindfios to the western limit of China, and from 
 the 7th to the 2Gtli degree of N. latitude, there 
 
 exists n great family, wliich has n common rhn- 
 ricter, that is, the (iin'crcnt races, or nntions, nr 
 tribes composing it, agree as much nniong tlioni- 
 selves as Kuropenns, Hindoos, or Chinese, 'flic 
 gciieri(^ name most commonly applied to this t'amilv 
 is the llind<M)Chinei>e, 'l"he fidlowing is an outline 
 of its physical form. Head geiu'rally well jim. 
 )>orti(iiu'd, but of remarkable tiatness in the ncii- 
 pital part. Features never bold, prominent, dr 
 well (lelined as in the nations of central Asia. 
 Xose small, round at the point, but not flnttenpil; 
 and the nostrils, instead of being parallel, divir(,'(> 
 greatly. Mouth wide, but the lower part of ilu. 
 face does not |)roject ; lips rather thick ; eyes simill 
 and black. Kyebrows not prominent, nor wdi 
 marked. The face, instead ol being oval, as in the 
 Hindoo, Persian, Turkish, Arabian, and Kumpeaii 
 families, is of a lozenge form ; arising from its great 
 breadth across the cheeks, and the prominenec u{ 
 the latter. Complexion n light brown; niueli 
 fairer than the Hindoo, but darker than the I'lii- 
 nese. It is never black, as in many Hindoos and 
 most negroes. The people described are them- 
 selves aware that thev are a fairer race than the 
 Hindoos; and. like the Turks and Persians, cnll 
 the latter ' black men.' The hair of the head is 
 always black, lank, coarse, nnd abundant. On 
 every ether part it is scanty ; and the bean! is 
 throtighout thin an<l defective. The average stature 
 may be taken at live feet three inches ; so that 
 they are shorter than the Hindoos and Chinese, 
 but rather taller than the Malayan family. The 
 lower limbs are better formed than in the" Hindoo 
 family, and the hands larger and less cffeminaie. 
 The whole person is robust, but without the liphl- 
 noss, flexibility, and grace of the Hindoo furni. 
 It is at the same time more vigorous, strong, and 
 hardy. The languages of this family of iiatimis 
 are for the most part motiosyllabic, ai'id os wc ap- 
 proach China wholly so. Even the polysyllahie 
 words of foreign languages naturalised ammi;; 
 them are pronounced as if each syllable were a 
 distinct word. It follows of necessity that thoy 
 are extremely sim])le in their structure, particles 
 supidying the jilaces of inflexions in all jiarts of 
 speech, and words following each other in the 
 natural order of ideas. There are, besides the 
 Pali, or character of the religious language, six al- 
 phabets, employed by as many distini^t nations. 
 which, however, on examination, may be reduwil 
 to three. The Uirmcse, Pcguans, and Aracanese 
 write in the same alphabet, with trifling nioditica- 
 tions. The Siamese, Cambojans, and, for the nio.-t 
 part, the Laos, write in one alphabet — that usually 
 called the Siamese. lUit a ])ortion of the ppopK; 
 of Lao also write in an alphabet distinct from these 
 two. The nirmese and Siamese have adopted tlio 
 classification of the Sanscrit, but not so the pceii- 
 liar al))habet of Lao. We hold all three to ho of 
 native invention, and the introduction of the San- 
 scrit classification to be only recent atul incidental. 
 The fourth alphabet, or Pali, in which relifrious 
 works are generally written, is common to ail tlii^ 
 nations now mentioned, and is the same which i< 
 now u.sed in Ceylon for {\ similar purjiosp. ami 
 which was once used in Java and other regions 
 remote from India, the country in which it un- 
 questionably originated. The languages of the 
 Hindoo-Chinese countries now mentioned have not 
 only a common character, as to sound, structure, 
 and genius, but they contain also many words in 
 common, the necessary etlcct of invasions, con- 
 quests, and settlements ; the greater nunilier of 
 them, probabh% in rude and early periods of so- 
 ciety, and of which, with few exceiitions, liistor)' 
 has j)reserved no record. A large infusion of San- 
 scrit, through the medium of the Pali, is also com- 
 
ASIA 
 
 22ft 
 
 mon fi> tlifin nil. The Pali difTprR cliiofly from 
 Siiiwrit in lirinj; more vocalic, more crt'ciniimtp 
 in ilH proiiiiiu'iiitloii, nw\ Ichs coiiiiiIcx in its 
 L'mniiimti<'iil Mtructiiro. Most prolmhiy it wii^t a lan- 
 jriia;;i' wliifli arose on the niins of the Sanscrit; 
 mill was the result of a conquest of the jieoj)le 
 wim s|M>ki! the latter, effected (ly some other Ilni- 
 iliiii iiiition, the principal scat of wiiose ptvernment 
 w:is iMii^ndlia or llahar. The I'ali is nut an in- 
 trinsic portion of the ilindoo-tjhinese lan^ua^es; 
 lint it is found to exist in thcin, as Arabic does in 
 I'lTsiiin or Turkish. The mind of this family, as 
 I'xiiiliitcd in theirlitcr.iryefl'iirls, ranks llicin lielow 
 llmt of the Hindoos. In enterprise tlicy rank also 
 Ih'Iiiw tiie latter. Their wars and enterprises have 
 Ih'imi wiioUy confined amonjj themselves, and they 
 Imvc never exercised the sli;;htest intliience over 
 till' (ilhcr fjreat families of mankind; nor have 
 iliev |irodiiced a sintfle ffrent name known to his- 
 tiirv, »r one rememi)ered even liy themselves a 
 (riitnry after his death. Still their civilisation 
 must lie of consideralile antiquity, for tlieeh'ments 
 til proiniite an early advance uncpiestioiialdy exist 
 in their country, and these have never lieen jire- 
 .-■itlril toaiiy family of mankind without l)ej;ettin{i 
 i.irly impriivement. The ox, the htirtalo, and the 
 cli'iiliiiiit, are natives of their countries throU},di- 
 iMit : niid very jjrohahly the horse and dofx were so 
 in I'.irly times. The soil too is fjenerally of re- 
 niiirkalile fertility ; is well watered ; and. in all 
 lilii'lihiiod, rice and some smaller (grains, with some 
 firiimcpims roots and useful fruits, arc indifjenous. 
 (nfiTiiir to the Hindoos, and still more to the 
 I'crsians, Arabs, and Chinese, their superiority over 
 all the iic<;ro and American nations is in a still 
 crentcr proportion. Their proj^ress in nfjriculttire, 
 in the rorrimim arts of life. th(? character of their 
 ri'lisiiiti'' and civil institutiims, and their pos- 
 sMiiii of a written character and a literature, to 
 whii'li they have been little indebted to foreiffners, 
 dttest. in short, an early and considerable proj^ress 
 in smicty. Uinnese temples, with every apjiear- 
 anceiif authenticity, can lie traced back to the !>th 
 (intnry, ciirrcsi)ondinj^ to the n{j;es of Charlemagne 
 anil liariiun-al-liaschid. This, to be sure, is no 
 jircat antiipiity; but the peojile who constructed 
 >ui'l\ biiildiiiifs were already i'ar removed from 
 lic'ini; savajjcs. 
 
 We shall now offer a brief sketch of the races 
 or varieties of the Hindoo-CJhinese family, begiii- 
 ninj; inir examination from the westward. After 
 leaviiit; the country of the Hindoo family — of the 
 men nf black complexion, tine ])rominent features, 
 sleiuler person, an(l {'n'aceful form — weaiijtroach the 
 men of browni complexion, flat features, and stron;^- 
 liiiilt bnt squab i)ersons. Still the Hindoo form, 
 vlietlier from admixture of races or orij^inal con- 
 stitntitmal difference, has not wholly disappeared, 
 .ami the half-civilised people of Cassay. Cacbar, 
 ami Assam, with about a dozen small tribes in a 
 wild and lialf-sav»fjc state, may be described as 
 Iiartakiiiff of the physical form of both Hindoo and 
 Iliniliw-Chinese. All these sjiealc different lan- 
 (;uiit,'es, and the more civilised write, some with 
 the alidmbet of the IJenj^allees, and some with 
 that (if the Uirmese. Amont; a few language is 
 liiilysyllabic, but monosyllabic dialects jirevail. 
 
 To the south and east of the savage semi- 
 Imrliariius or half-civilised tribes and nations now 
 mentioned— extending to the south as far as the 
 Till degree of north latitude, and to the oast as far 
 asthe Aiiam race — we find six considerable na- 
 tiiiiis in which the physical character we have, 
 a^i'rilied to the Hindoo-Chinese family is well 
 marked, the genius of whose languages agrees, 
 and who are nearly in the same state of social 
 ailvaneemeiit. These are, the Arucaiicsc, IJir- 
 Voi.. 1. 
 
 iTiese, Pcgiians, Laos or Shans, Sinmcso, and Cam- 
 bojans. Kach of these has its own jM'culiar 
 language; and there exists even in their iihysical 
 form, especiallv as to size, strength, and feature, 
 differences which, though not very obvious to a 
 stranger, are sensible enough to themselves. 
 I^iving among them in scattered communities, as 
 far -IS Kiiropean inquiry has extended, there i'xist 
 no less than eight tribes, migriitory or savage, 
 speaking as many distinct languages. 
 
 From the eastern frontier of (!ambiija, to the 
 western frontier of (liina, exists the Anam race, 
 comprising the Co<'biii-('biiiese and Toiuiuiuese. 
 These, though they have the common cbaraclers 
 of the Hindoo-Chinese family, ditler from tlii^ rest 
 in so many jiarticnlars that tliev might probably 
 have been considered, without impropriety, as a 
 distinct family of the hinnan race. In stature 
 they are shorter than their neighbours, the Laos. 
 Cambojans, and Siamese, and greatly shorter than 
 the Cbmese. Their jiersons are sijiiat, but well- 
 ]iroportioned and active; their features are im- 
 seemlv, their cheek-bones very high, and in that 
 direction the face is very broad. Their language 
 is piindy monosyllabic, and in its terms has no 
 admixture of the western languages. It has no 
 alphabet; but, in lieu of it, uses, with little varia- 
 tion, the symlxdic writing of the Chinese. He- 
 sides the Anam nation there are two considi Table 
 tribes inhabiting the same country, the Vbanipa 
 and ISIoi, sjieaking their own distinct anil iieculiar 
 idioms. Thus, throughout the wholeof thclliniloo- 
 Chinese cimntries, and amimg a people probably 
 nnt}>y one-tenth part so numerous as the Hindoos, we 
 have thirty-two nations with distinct languages. 
 
 \Vc now come to an important family, comprising, 
 indeed, a very large ]iortion of mankind, the 
 Cliincne. The outline of its physical character 
 may be described as follows : — Colour a sickly 
 white, or pale yellow; hair of the bead lank, 
 black, coarse, and shining; beard always black, 
 thin, and deficient ; there is but little hair on any 
 other part of the body ; eye invariably black, or 
 dark ; eyes and eyebrows oblique, turning up- 
 wards externally ; cheek-bones high, and face 
 round — neither square, nor lozeiige-fonned, nor 
 angular in its outline; nose small, de])ressed at. 
 its extremity, and thick at the root; lips thicker 
 than with Kuropeans, bnt moderate compared to 
 those of the negro. The whole person is w(dl 
 built and symmetrical ; there is not in it the 
 lightness and agility of the Hindoo; but there is 
 sufficient activity, and far greater strength. The 
 hands are small and soft, like those of the other 
 l)(-o])le of wann climates. The lower limbs are 
 particularly well formed, far excelling in this 
 respect those of all other Asiatic peojile. The 
 languages of this ]ieii])le arc purely njonosyllabic, 
 none of the nations comprising it having ever 
 known how to put two syllables together; Ho(> 
 poor mcmosyllables, beginning with a consonant, 
 and ending in a vowel, a liquid, or a nas.al, and 
 each monosyllidde admitting commonly of about 
 four intonatiiais, so as to make in .all about 1,I!(I0 
 words, make up the wlude of their meagre col- 
 lo(piial dialects, which are no less than tifteen in 
 number, corresponding with theiincicnt provincial 
 divisions of the country, which in e.arlv times eom- 
 jiosed. jmibably, at least as many distmct nations. 
 The Chinese monosyllables arc neither affected by 
 number, case, nor gender; by mood, tense, «ir 
 person ; hut are designated by prefixeil or aflixcd 
 ]>articles, about thirty in number. The Chinese 
 family never invented an aljihabet. From knotted 
 words they came to their present symbolic cha- 
 racter, which t)ears no resemblance "to the Kgjq)- 
 tian or any other hicroglvphics. It is a language 
 
 
 ■y 
 
 r 
 
 if [ 
 
 
 W\ 
 
 
 m 
 
 {• 
 
 1^ 
 
 w' 
 
 ."I'VM 
 
 
 'm 
 
 1 »■ 
 
 It 
 
 '■ m 
 
 li 
 
226 
 
 ASIA 
 
 lor fhc oyp, nnd not fho rnr — n <'linrnctor wliii-h 
 iniiv lie read in Kiifrlinh or in Arnliic as wi-ll as in 
 any Cliint'so lau);iin),'('. and itroliiilily, indeed, >vitli 
 more jtreeision. 'i'lie Cliinese writing, in Cai'l, is a 
 inii vernal eliaraeter, like tlie Araliic nnnierals, and 
 IwiH eonsei|nently many conveniences ; lint it lias 
 also i(s inconveniences. It lias prevented iIh^ ciil- 
 liire of oral lanKnai;)-; occasioned I lie continnance 
 (il 'many distinct lan^iin^cs in the same country; 
 and these wretchedly meagre in strnctiire, sound, 
 nnd coniprehonsiveness. 'I'h(> Chinese mind, as 
 indicated hy its literalnro, is I'ripd, mechanical, 
 nnd nninia;;inative. For tlie Ihie arts, in which 
 the (ireeks and Ktrnscans had made such re- 
 marUahle proj^ress '2,ii>M years ap>, the Chinese 
 have never, to I lie )iresenl flay, exhiliited any 
 capacity. They are lahorious, jiraclical, orderly — 
 u vast assenilila^^e, in fact, of sho|ikee|iers anil 
 inechaiiics. They are nmouf; those families that 
 made the earliest prof,'ress in civilisation. What- 
 ever they have is, also, indinenons; for of all man- 
 kind they owe least to strangers. The Chinese 
 carry their authenlio history Imck to a iieriod of 
 nearly ;1.0(I(» years; and their sayie, Coiifiicins, 
 lived and wrote in the present character '2,M»t 
 years a;;o — wrote, in short, his moral rhapsodies 
 wldle Herodotus was writing; historv ; and in the 
 smne af;e in wliicli tlourished I'ericles, I'hidias, 
 Hippocrates, and I'liito; so that China was oh- 
 vioiisly as inferior to Europe then as it is now. 
 At that time, however, China, south of the Yellow 
 river, which at present contains the fjreatest and 
 most indn.strions ])ortion of its population, was in 
 a state of entire harliarism ; and evju the northern 
 frontier was divided into many petty states. Two 
 hundred and lifteen years hefore (lirist, or above 
 two centuries and a half later, the Chinese Imilt 
 nlon^ their frontier a wall of \,')(M miles in extent, 
 some ■_'(• ft. hi,i,di, and hroad cnoujjh for half a 
 do/.en horsemen to ride ahreast. This was in the 
 i^;e of the Ilannihals and Scipios, and in point of 
 mai^nitude, hnt nothing else, far exceeded the 
 ]M)wer of the li'omans and Carthaftinians of the 
 same period. We may infer from it that a peo|ile 
 who could erect such a work, nnd wli(» 'i-tMio years 
 a^'o had a frontier of l,;'>()(l miles to defend, were 
 already numerous, and to a certain def^ree indus- 
 trious. We may safely infer, then, that the Chi- 
 nese, from their early profjrcss in civilisation, from 
 • heir invention of printin^^ their discovery of silk 
 and |>orcelain, their i)rojj;ress in useful works, such 
 as domestic architecture, hrid;;es. nnd canals, and 
 their acfpiaintnnee with the art of civil ndininis- 
 tralioii, are, if not the most showy and hrilliant, 
 at le.'ist the most jiractical and useful of the 
 Asiatic races. One tiling has heen always com- 
 mon to this nnd the Hindoo family — an ahsence 
 of the spirit of enterjirise. In no afi'o have the 
 ("liinesc f^one ahroad in search of forei}^n con- 
 (piests or adventures ; and even their indirect in- 
 lluence on stranj^ers has heen contincd to their 
 own immediate nei^'hhourhood, no doubt n wide 
 circuit. Like all Asiiitic ])eople, too, they exhibit 
 n disposition to stand still, after making certain 
 ndviinces in civilisation, Avhich, in their case, 
 have undoubtedly been respectable. They at all 
 events display none of that illimitable facility of 
 expansion which, in the history of our race, has 
 hilberto alone characterised the Kuropean family. 
 'I'lie Huropeans of the l!)th century bear very little 
 resemblance to those of the loth, excejit in spirit 
 nnd enterprise ; but we perceive thnt the Chinese 
 of these two distant ages are in all respects very 
 nearly the same. 
 
 Kven in flic apparently homnpone.ius population 
 of China there is to be IoiiikI considerable diver- 
 sity, both jdiysical and intellectual, probably as 
 
 Kreat as in the Kuropean family or the Hindoo. 
 It has been nlrendy staled that there nre lirtecii 
 Iniifrua^es, helonpn^ to as many provinces; ai,,{ 
 indeed, several provinces have more than oiii> 
 lan^iia^e. The inhabilantH of the soiitheni nihl 
 eastern const nre commonly more nthleiic t|,,,„ 
 those of the centre nnd north; nnd amoiiL,' i|j,. 
 hitler are found some who have less of the obli(iiiiiv 
 of eye which is so chnracl eristic of the Cliiii,.sr, 
 and whose features nltop>ther approach ninri' 
 nearly to the Kuropean, There nre even rnccs 
 wiiliin the empire that are not Chinese eitlier in 
 person or speech, and who still preserve their in- 
 dependence, as the Meaoii-tse in the interior, tin. 
 I.olos on the western frontier, with (he monn- 
 taineers of Hainan and Kormosa. These tw„ 
 islands, indeed, seem only to have heen e()loiiis(.,| 
 by the Chinese, as the Saxons colonised llriiaiii; 
 Hliile the almri^rines, like the Welsh and lli;r||! 
 lamh'rs, have been conlhu^d to the mouiitain^. 
 The laiiK'iui^^' of Formosa is, in fact, iiolysyllnliji^ 
 and contains many words of the iMalayiui rniiiju' 
 of laii^ua;;es ; and the Chinese colonisation (il'tlij.s 
 island we know to be only of two centuries' date. 
 Near the Chinese we have another f^reat fainih-, 
 bearing; it some resemblance, but still so distinct 
 in physical nnd intidlectiuil character, tliiif we 
 are warranted in dassiii); it separately. 'I'his U 
 the •/«/«««('(«', which occupii^s a country of f;ri\'it 
 extent, in the line and temperate (diniate from niP 
 to 1,")° \., and comprises a population inl'crior 
 only to the Chinese. Their colour is tawnv; 
 stntiire short but robust; noses tlnttish', evcliils 
 thick, nnd, a.s it were, pulled ; eyes, ns usual, dark. 
 hut less sunk thnn those of the Chinese; lowir 
 limbs lar;;e and thick, not clean, nnd well made. 
 as with the latter. ' [ii the mnin,' says Keiii|it'ir, 
 ' they an; of n very iij^ly nppearance.' Tli.' 
 laiiKua^'e of the Jtipanese, instead of heinj; hkhki- 
 syllabic, is polysvHabic, The Chinese can |irii- 
 nouiice the aspirate /i ; the Japanese liave iiu 
 such sound in their lanpnme. The Chinese liavc, 
 as it were, n natural incapacity of pronoimciiif; tlm 
 consonants r and tl, whi(di they always cinivcri 
 into /. The >Iapaiiesc ))roiiounce them with tho 
 same facility as Kurojieans. The ditfcrem |iri- 
 mmciatioii of the two people made n lively im- 
 liression on Kempfer, who describes it ns f(dlii\v>; 
 ' As to the pronunciation, that also is very ditl'm'iit 
 in both lan;;naf^es, whether we consider it in 
 f^eneral, or with ref^ard to particular letters; ami 
 this <liftbreiice is so remarkable, that it seems the 
 very instruments of voice, are dittiTently fornicil in 
 the Ja|)anesc from what they are in the CIiIiicm'. 
 The proimncialion of the Japanese lnnj,'im};(' in 
 f^eneral is iiure. articulate, nnd distinct, there Ik'Iii;' 
 seldom more than two or three letters, acoprdin;' 
 to our nlphnbet, combined to>;ether in mic 
 syllable : that of the Chinese, on the contrary', is 
 nothinj^ but n confused noise of many consonants. 
 pronounced with a sort of sinKiiif,' accent, very 
 disajcreeable to the ear.' He acids, that, with tin' 
 exceiitioii of a few commercial terms, the liiii- 
 jLfiinf^e of Ja])an cloes not contain a siiifjlo wurl 
 borrowed from the dinlectsof China ; nnd liciirt' 
 he arf^ues, with justice, that the two nations ,iri' 
 wholly of distinct orij;in. The Jn]ianesc. I" ii 
 certniii extent, have ado|)ted the synilM>lic writiii:,' 
 of the Chinese; but they hiivealsoan alpliabci ■ I' 
 their own, which is syllabic, like that of tin' 
 Manchoos, and like it, too, written from tiip i > 
 bottom. A Hindoo alphabet has also bcwi r- 
 cently discovered nmoiif^ them, contiiied to ilii] 
 priesthood, who.se ritual is in the Sanscrit or I'.iH 
 laiifruagc. The Jnpaiicse, from the acoomiis w 
 possess of them, are a race of consideralilc |ili)- 
 sicid and intellectual encrf^y ; inferior to the Clii- 
 
ASIA 
 
 Tl' 
 
 n(.sii in iiiK<'""''y, but siipcricir to thom in sjiirit 
 „iii| iciiinvi'. Faviiiircil liv n coiiiilry ('iijcivinj,' 
 i„,iiiy iiclviiiJliip's III' Miiil, clinifiit'. insular jiuHiiiun. 
 widi iiiiifil |iriilialily the iinsMCHMinn, on the spot, 
 iil'iiiiiiiv of thi> most useful jilants iinil aninials, 
 llii.voi'iiltl lianllv Tail to make an early pro^'ress iu 
 (•l\ili.''iiii"n. 'I'lu'ir aullientic liistorv, ai'conlin^ 
 Id lhi'in»t'lves, dates tilio years n.f. This is pro- 
 jiiililv j;re«lly over-rat iuf,' its real authenticity; lor 
 it wciiilil eiirry us hack almost to the founilation of 
 Kiiiiic, luiil would preeedc, l>y nearly two cen- 
 liirics, the Hf,'e of ('onfiu'ius and I'erieles. In 
 lait. th<'y admit tluit they are n people of more 
 ri'iciit I'ivilisation tli.ni the ("hinese liy twelve 
 ii'iiliirics. They have had, however, a Ion;; time for 
 iiiiliriiveiiienl,aud for .he last three centuries may 
 |ii.c"iisiil<'rcd ashavi'.;i lieen id isohitely stationary, 
 ir. inilccd. as the result of their scdt'-exclusioii from 
 ^lrall^;^'^s within that period, they nuiy not rather 
 111' niii^iilc'ed to 'le in a more ind'iivourahle po- 
 piliiin than hefori' it. While Chinese civilisation 
 li.is liei'M repeatedly interrupted liy the invasions 
 iiltlii' sliepherds of the North, no stran;;('rs have 
 ivir siii'cesst'ully invaded .lapnn ; and the only 
 iiili'iiipl at con(|uesl — made hy the Mo;;nl coii- 
 i:inriirs of China hetween live and six centuries 
 .,^rii_ti[e elements, and the coiira^rc of the .la- 
 iiinii'sc, repelled, and pupiished hy the desiruction 
 111' liMi.iiDii of the invaili rs. An industrious, and, 
 ill many respects, an inj;enious ciiltury of rice, 
 Imrlcy, and wheat — respectahle manufactures of 
 i-ilk, ciillou pottery, and lac(|iu>rcil ware, — letters, 
 liU'ratiiri, authentic records, the art of ]irintin^, 
 anil jiiilitical institutions — jirove the ,lapanese to 
 III' lapahle of n respectahle civilisation according,' 
 111 llie Asiatic standard ; hut they prove also that, 
 iiiiiwiilistaudiuf;' their more tiivourahlc position, 
 liiitli as to climate and jiolitical .security, tlieir 
 natural f;c"'u.'< !« inferior to that of the Chinese. 
 Tliat they are n pecidiar and on;;'inal family we 
 ihink there can he no ()ucstion. This is "their 
 imii iipinion ; and Kenipfer oh.nTves, in referc.ice 
 111 this siihject. that tliev * ijmcy theiii-'el vcv 'ni;;hly 
 atl'riiiileil liy the oniicavours of some who husy 
 itiiinsi'lves i<; draw the ori,L;iual of their nation 
 liniii the I'liinese or others of their neiiihlmurs.' 
 
 Tlio individuals of the .Japimese family, like 
 iillicr races, exhihit fjjvtit difTcrences, physical and 
 inti'llcclual. The iiduiliitants of Nipon, the prin- 
 lipal island, are distinguished hy liij; heads, flat 
 miscs, and inusculous tleshy coni]ilexiiins. Those 
 III' Saikiil-.f are short in stature, of slender make, 
 liiit well-shaped and handsome. The inluihitants 
 111' the I,iiiichoo islamls are descrihed as lieinj^ 
 iii'itlierCliiiicse nor.lapaiu'se,liut par(akiiij,'oflioth. 
 Tlicir stature does not excc^ed 5 feet i' inches, .so 
 that tliey are a very dimi lutivc nun-. Their lan- 
 L;ua;;e is jieculiar, imrtakinj; equally of tue moiio- 
 syllaliic and polysyllahie character. The Japaueso. 
 on ilie whole, show much diversity, thounh not 
 til so frroat an extent as in China; owinj; to the 
 existence of a more perfect oral lanjj,ua,i,'e, a com- 
 m:in alpliahet, and, in general, the ahseuce of the 
 (irtiliciiii medium of comnuinication which is uni- 
 versal uiniinf,' the ]ieople of the latter country. 
 
 Til the NK. of China we have aimther family, 
 the Ciirenn, occupyiuj; a iienin.sula equal to liritain 
 ill extent. The Coreans are descrihed as superior 
 ill stren^'tli and stattire to the (.'hinese and >Ia- 
 |iaiu'si>, Imt they are evidently a race very interior 
 ill mental cnerf^y and capacity to either. Their lan- 
 (;nii,i;p, or most prohahly lanj^uafjes, are jieculiar, 
 ililleriii!,' fnim those of their inmiediate neifjhhours, 
 the Manclioos, Chinese, aiul Jajiancse. It would 
 aii|iear, also, tliat they liave a national alpliahotic 
 cliaraeter, althoufih occa.sionally havinj; recourse 
 •il^ to the svniholic writing of Chiiui. In the 
 
 nsi'fnl arts they have made consideralilc iirn>;ress, 
 hut the stinidanl of their civilisation is miirli 
 lielow that of the i'hinese and ■lapanese. Their 
 aulheiilic history pies hack to llio years li.c, or 
 ciirrespniiils with ijie clas,ic era of liomc, 
 
 'i'he inhahiiants of two thirds of the superlicicH 
 of Asia, from the scats of the families alreiidy 
 specilied to the Fro/cn Ocean, remiiiii to he de- 
 scrihed. These lia\e a common rcsemlilance in 
 some im|iiirtunt features; hut it is only such il 
 rcsemlilanci , colour alone excepted, as exist- in 
 all the families already mentioned from the ca-lcrii 
 shore of the Atlantic to the eastern coufiues of 
 Iliiidostaii, Modern niituralists have descrihed 
 the whiile, iucludin;;' iu it the iiiilioiis to the I'',, of 
 the Hindoos, wliicn we have just classed, as oi/c 
 of the live permanent varieties of the human nice, 
 nuder the name of the Momiiilinii. I'lider another 
 cla-sitieiilion, we miiy divide the races into thn-i^ 
 which iiihahit the valleys or southern slnpesofthe 
 Hiiniil.iN'a chain; those which dwidi hctweeii the 
 latter, the Chinese and Coreau families, and the Altai 
 mountains; and, lastly, those which dwell lid ween 
 the Altai nio^'c ;;en,.ri,|iy and the Norlhern Itccaii. 
 The tirst rac", proceedin;; in the iiliove order, 
 and lie;;iuniii;,' from the \',., is the I'lootcM, or 
 iuhaliilaiits of ISootan. ' It is not possihle to 
 conceixe,' says Tiirm^, who was perfectly well 
 acipiaiiitcd with lioth, 'a ;,Teater dissimil'irity he- 
 twccii the in.ist remote inhahitimts of the ■^'lolie 
 than that which distiu^'uishes the feelile-hodicd 
 and meek-spirited natives of Iteimal, and their 
 active ;tnd herculean iieiLjhlionrs. the niountaincers 
 of Itootan.' 'i'hev have iiivariiilily lilack hair; the 
 eye is a very rcmarkahle feature of the face — 
 small, hiack. with loii^ pointeil corners, as thiiui;li 
 stretched and extended hy artiticial means; their 
 eye-laches are so thin as to he scarcely ]ic , eptihle; 
 and th.' <>velirow is hut sli;;hfly shaded, lielow 
 the eyes is the liroadest |iart of the face, which is 
 rather thit and narrow from the cheek-hones to the 
 rhin. "/he skin, ahout as fair as that of a southern 
 KurojK an. is remarkahle for its smoothness; and 
 the heard iloes not present itst'lf until a very ad- 
 vnnccil aj,^'. and then is scanty. The Mooteas arc 
 a stout, active race, and their stature occasioually 
 rises to six feet. Mr. Turner, indeed, descrilies 
 tluun as ' models of athletic streiiK'th.' The Itoo- 
 teas are a louf,'-settled agricultural iieoiilc, and 
 have made considerahle iiroj^ress in the arts; hll\■^'. 
 a peculiar lau;;uaj,'e; an alphaliet which follows 
 the Hindoo arraiij,'ement ; and in civilisation, 
 nllowance heiii),' made for their remote, insulated, 
 and mountainous countr\', may he considered mi 
 a par with the inhaliitants of the countries lyiiij;' 
 hetwecn India and China. 
 
 Westward of the liootcas is the country of the 
 Nejial, which, independent of Hindoo colonists 
 anil settlers from the S., who are sometimes of 
 pure lilood, hut have often mixed it with that of 
 the natives, contains eiyht ahorif;iual races, viz., 
 the (iorkhas, ^lapirs, (iurunn's, .lariyas, Xewars, 
 Murmis, Kirauts, and Lupchas. This, from the 
 liredomiuaiit race, may he called the Gothlui. 
 family. These arc a short, rohnst ]ieo]ile, of an 
 olive comph'xion, and of features less jlontjolian 
 than those of the liootcas. Their lau},'unKcs arc\ 
 for the most part distinct from each other, and 
 polysyllahie, and the greater nnmher of them Imvc 
 a knowl(ul):;e of letters. There is. among one of 
 the races at least, the rudiments of a native al|>ha- 
 liet ; hut the Dcwanagari, nda|itcd hy additions 
 and omissions to their native ]irouunciation, has 
 heen adopted hy the greater nimiher. Their state 
 of civilisation is nearly the same as that of the 
 liooteas; hut they have, recently a I'.east, exhi- 
 bited a greater spirit of enterprise. 
 
 Q 2 
 
 .'^Vi 
 
 ii 
 
 I. 
 
 *'^' '>Vi 
 
 Ih 
 
 
aas 
 
 AKIA 
 
 To tin* N. of IUmiIiiii mid Xi^piil, mill on llic 
 trrrnco of llic Kriiiul cliaiii of tlu> lliinnlnyn, nt iiii 
 clcviilioii of I'J.iliiO or lil.niio li. nliovc n'n' ncii, in 
 n t'olil iiiiil ilrv I'liiiialc, iiml an iiiiK<'i<ial wiil, an' 
 found tli(^ 'filiclian family, wliicli, an far hm oiir 
 knowledge hkvh, rxJi'iidH over Ud d('>{rot'M of ion^i- 
 tiidt>, or from till' 7'ltli to the lOOtli. 'llic 'i'iltct- 
 iaiiM liav«! what is coinnioniy <'allt'd tin- Tartar 
 ('oiinti'iiaiu'(^ — II fai'c aufjiiiar and iiroad arronn the 
 flu'ck-hiincs, and hniall hhick cycn willi very iilth- 
 heard, ln.'«li'ad of hcin^ tall, like the llooieaM, 
 they arc uliorl, n(|nat, liroad-xlionldcrcd, hut nIow 
 and Mlii^'iiifili in nnnd an well nx hody. They are 
 nnid in dispoHilion, and Unvf never <'xhihited the 
 mental encr^fy or enU'rp'iHe <d' their nei^hlMinrH 
 either to tlicN, or S. The hornc and ass, two 
 HiPceicH of till' ox. the jjoat and shccii, are doiiu's- 
 tieated anions them. All thcMC ar(! jirohahly nii- 
 tives of the conntry, and tlic two first are naiil 
 still to exist in the wild Ntate. Their linif^naKc is 
 ;;iiilnral, nasal, and harsh, and in a ^reat measure 
 |iolvsyllnliic. They possess a iieeidiar alphahel, 
 which hears some resemhlance to that of the lliii- 
 (loos in their nei;;lil>oiirhoo(|, lint does not follow 
 its arr.'in^ri'iiunt. For rc^lijrions |mr|)oses Ihey have 
 aiiolher iil|ihahet, nnich resenililin^ the I'ali, and 
 which they no donht rcccivi'd aloiiff with the reli- 
 nion of Itnddhii or l'"o, which they havt^ heen the 
 incdiuin of c<iinmniiicatin^ to niaiiv of the trihes 
 of I'artarv, inclndinj,' the two winch have imhi- 
 (|ncrcd Ciiina. They have Ion;; possessed the art 
 of printin;^ with iniinoveahle wooden hlocks, which 
 they use, however, uiily for the nudtiplicatioii of 
 reli.uions works, 
 
 VVe now come to far more important races : 
 those inhahitin^r ffenerally the vast, plateau and 
 «'xlensive ascents hetween the llinialuya ranf,'e in 
 the sonth, and the Altai ranj^e and the ran);'es 
 which continue it to the eastward, in the north, 
 lis I'm' as the llOlh dej,'. of htiif;,, anil tlieii hetween 
 the laller and the riyht hank of the Ainnr, or 
 Anioiir, This is {\\c Mimijotian finnily, and may 
 he ilcMcrihcd as heinj^ t,'«'nerally coiiiprisi'd hetween 
 IIk! hiih and oOth dcfxrees of hit,, and ran^'iiif^ 
 over Hi»° of lonj,',, or from the (ilUh to the I loth 
 ih'.iC. K.. althonuli, in some situations, exceedin;; 
 these limits N, and S, hy a few deforces. We shall 
 first f,'ive the prneral description of tlic whole 
 finnily. Forehead low and slantinj^;; head alto- 
 P'ther of a square form. The (;heek-hones stand 
 out widely on either side; the ulahdlu and osut 
 ■iitisi, which are flat and very small, are placed 
 nearly in the same jilaiic with the malar hones; 
 there are scarcely any superciliary ridjjes; entrance 
 of th(! nose narrow; the malar ,/(>.s'sa forms hut a 
 slight excavation ; the iilvnlar edf^e of the jaws is 
 ohtusely arched in front; chin rather prominent; 
 hody short of the Eiiro])ean stature, hroad, square, 
 and rohnst; extremities short, hut slender; shoul- 
 ders hij^h; neck thick and stroIlf,^ Hair always 
 hlai'k, and the eye invariahly hlack or dark hrown. 
 Hair of the head long and lank; and there is a 
 paucity of heard, an well as of liair over the rest 
 of the hody. 
 
 There are two great divisions of this family 
 known to Kuropeaiis. under the name of Eastern 
 and Western Tartars. The first com]irise chiefly 
 the IManchoos, sometimes called also Mansliurs 
 and Manjurs. These are the jiresent hirda of 
 China, of which their jiarent country constitutes 
 but a dependency, though a favoured one. Those 
 that are seen in China arc not always easily dis- 
 tinguished from the Chinese. T'ley arc described 
 as shorter and squatter than .lu Chinese, and 
 having a more angular counti lance lunl harsher 
 features. It must, he rocollei:ied. however, that ii 
 perfect similarily of dress and <iis(iimc is apt lo 
 
 mislead the observer, and that most of di,, Of^j 
 conquerors marrying ChineHe women, the noniinni 
 .ManchooH of China arc in reality, in a Kreiii una 
 sure, a mixed race, Inhiibiiing a incin* ^ini;,! 
 climate and a better soil than Ilii* Miiiip,i„ „f 
 Western 'I'lirtiirs, iln^ Miinchoos are a niorc iIm- 
 lised people than the latter. They have I'nr |||,. 
 most part hiibilatiouH, and some a^'rii'iiitniv. 
 though thicks and herds constitute t|ii>ir cliiif 
 wcallh. The great river Amur, or Saghalicn, iiinl 
 its many branches, which abound In fish, pns.iu,. 
 through their territory, many exist as llslicnniil] 
 The Alanchoo Iiingii.ige is (iiiite natioiuil inul jh'.' 
 ciiliar; it is polysyllabic, full, and sonorous, it hjs 
 tli(! sort of copiousness which I'liaracteriscs tlic 
 Sanscrit and Arabic, and wliicli, in a iicrtci't iaii- 
 giiiige. ought rather to be called redunilaiicy. Tin, 
 iinmbcr of words for the horse, ox, itiul dug, h,- 
 cording to age, sex, si/,e, colour, and oihi n|iiali- 
 ties, is, for example, overwhelming. The jiri'-iciii 
 alphabet of the Alanchoos is syllabic, wriliiii In 
 columns from the top to the bottom of the {i,'i;;i', 
 like the Chinese, but, contrary to the ipriicilcc nf 
 that character, from left to riglit. The MiiiiiIhmi^. 
 though they have acted a considerable, havchv :iii 
 means acted an eipially distingnished, part mi tli.' 
 great theatre of I he world with their ncigliliniirs tlic 
 Mongols. In the eleventh century, however, iln'v 
 ('stablished the great empire known in the inidilji. 
 ages bv the name of Katay or Cathay, by nniiin;; 
 to their own country the northern lialf iif t'liiii:), 
 This, after lasting 117 years, was suhvcrtcilliy 
 the arms of .Jengis Khan; but in tli(\ year lil^i, 
 and at an interval of more than four centuries. 
 the Manchoos again possessed themselves oft 'liiiin, 
 and have now for more than two ccnturios ph 
 veriied that empire, and probably with a skill ami 
 wisdom never equalled by its native iniistcis. 
 
 We come now to the true Mongols — to the raco 
 'whose rajiid conquests,' as (iibhon expresses It, 
 'may be coniparcMl with the |irimitive couviilsimis 
 of nature, which have agitaled and iillcrcij tin; 
 surface of the globe.' 'I'hey extend weslwanl frnm 
 the longitiidi! of IVkin, or about 1 IG°, to flic Sia 
 of Aral, a sweep of nt least ;<,(HHt m.. and wiili the 
 same physical form, the same language, anil im 
 great variety of manners, embrace the coinmnni- 
 ties or trihes known to us under the various (Iciin- 
 minations of Mongols, or Jloghuls, Kalkos, I'Mutlis, 
 Ogiirs, Kokonors, Kami, anil Kalmucks. ]tis]K- 
 culiiirly to this family that the descriiitioiis given 
 by Kuropeaii writers of ' the Tartars' is appliealilc. 
 They live, in fact, tlu! same men as thec(impai)ii«i.s 
 of Attila, .lengis Khan, and for the most part nf 
 those of Timur, who, though priding hiinsuH' mi 
 being .. Turk, was in reality a Mongol, wIihsc 
 family had been long settled in a Turkish cmmtrv, 
 and whose liiyriads were a mixture of both niivs. 
 Gibbon, on the authority of Jornandcs, (loscrilHs 
 the jierson of Attila, and says that it cxliiliitid 
 ' the genuine deformity of a modern Cnlniiivk.' 
 An ecclesiastic, quoted hy Matthew I'ari ; pvis. 
 in I2lii, a picture of the JFoiigids who wore 'm 
 instruments of the conquests of Jengis and !"•' 
 sons, which is evidently drawn by nn eyc-wilncss 
 ' The Tartars,' says he, ' have lirni ami ruliii-t 
 bodies, lean and pallid countenances, lii<,'li ami 
 hroad shoulders, short and distorted noses, puiiileii 
 and proTi. incut chins, a h>w and deep upper j.w, 
 long teeth, distant from ciieh other, eyelids stretcli- 
 ed out from the temple to the nose, lives black aii'l 
 uiiste.idy, an expressiim oblique and stem, ex- 
 tremities bony and nervous, large and nm.:eiil.ir 
 thighs, but short legs, with a stature equal to imr 
 own, the deficiency in the length of the Inwit 
 limbs being made up in the rest of the limiv.' 
 The Catholic missionaries, who in the reign f'U'nc 
 
Cliinc'o rmjioror KiiiiK-lii it'iionli'dly fmvclliMl 
 
 ,n,r iIh- (Miiiiiry dl' llm MimpiN, unci iii'tniilly 
 
 ,iir\('Vt'il « i>i'r'i"H <•'' i'. <'<'iillrm iliit (l('>'i'ri|iliiiii. 
 
 Till' Miiii^'iil'*. !'>■ ••"•ii" Hliitcmi'iit, iiri' ii stmit, Mi|imt, 
 
 -rtiiriliv, mill ill-ravDuri'il |icii|il(', witli tlici'iiiiiinnn 
 
 Tartar'('iiiiiit('imn«'<' «'Xliit'Mf<t'(l in itn ImlilcMt linra- 
 
 iiinil.t. Till' liiiipmut' i>»' till' Miiiii^iiIm is iiolvsyl- 
 
 1 iliii', ami ilitt'trn wholly from that of Ihn Muii- 
 
 , liMdt. \Vliat i.t rt'inarknhh', ami ainioHt iifciiiiar 
 
 to ilii-i ii('ii|il<', i'*. that the whole riirc s|i('ak tin- 
 
 .,11111' laii^,'iia(,'(', Croni tlii; loii^rjtnilc of I'cUiii aliinist 
 
 liiilic ('aH|iiaii, and in .xomc Nitnation!* cvrn inio 
 
 ihc liritrl iirsilit'ria, and westward witliin tlie coii- 
 
 liiic^iir Kiiropc. This arises, no dniilil, troni their 
 
 \nw^ pliysirally the same raee, (rum their ever 
 
 waiiileriiij; and niilixed haliits, the (Ve(|nent inix- 
 
 iiiri" arifiii^? from these hahits, the practiee of 
 
 a universal hospitality, and their havint; heeii 
 
 iv]iiat('iliy iniitcd under the same (iovernnK'it. 
 
 Suini'lliiii;,' similar to this niay l)e found anions; 
 
 ihc i^Liiids of the Indinn Oeean, the liin}iiin;;es of 
 
 whii'li have a vast ninnher of words in eonnnon, a 
 
 i>;irili<' sea const it nl in;; in this case aeominon me- 
 
 iliiiiii of intercourse and eouimunicatimi, like the 
 
 .lv|ipi's and deserts of the Moupds, the iiriio and 
 
 llic oaiioe, in fact, taking; tln^ place of the horse, 
 
 ilic iix, and the cainel. The coiuitry of the Moii- 
 
 pilsisciilil, elevated, and dry, few parts of it liein^ 
 
 III fur culture, and a ^reat portion of it consist in^ 
 
 (il'ili'serts, or 'seas of sand,' iis the('hinese express 
 
 il, ill which tliire is neither lierh nor water. It 
 
 iilimiiiils, however, in ^aine and wild animals. For 
 
 ll.i' chase there is the ti;;i'r, leopard, th'er, aiile- 
 
 ln|ics liares, and many species of the pilliiiiiceous 
 
 lainiiy. The camel, ass, and even the horse, are 
 
 >iill loiiiid in it in tlieir wild state; and no donht 
 
 lilt' (IX and sheep were so also hefore they were 
 
 ,i|i|irii|iriatcd. Such a country lu^cessarily made 
 
 till' Miiiipils early a nation of s. "pherils and liiiu- 
 
 liTs and cliuiiied them ilowii as it were to that 
 
 '.'(iiiililiiiii. 
 
 The Monpils, with tho excpption of n very 
 .-mail iiiunher, live almost exclusively on animal 
 liwiil; niid their clothiiij; and dwellings, or tents, 
 11-1' fiir the most part of animal teKimieiit or lilire. 
 When iir;;e(l to a^^rieultural employment, their an- 
 y.vcris, 'Ilerhswere made forthcheastsof the lield, 
 iiiul tlic hoasts of the lield for man.' (Ante, p. 1 7H.) 
 Their whole employment consists in the tending 
 i.f cattle, war, and the chase. Their kiiowled^'c of 
 lilirs is of the humhlest order, and aiiplicahle 
 iiilytotlie jiurposes of superstition in the hands 
 iif ilieir priests. One trihe, the l^'urs or O^'UfS 
 iiUTiiti'il a inea^;Te alphahet of fourteen Iclli^rs, 
 ■vhiili, improved and extended from that of Tihct, 
 i< still in use. Of their own history and inipor- 
 iiuit nii^Tntions, which civilised nations have 
 r.riiriled for more thnii 2,0(10 years, they know as 
 liillu as rats or marmots do of theirs, .len^is 
 Kliaii was wholly illiterate, and Timur and IJaher 
 lad a knowledge only of Turkish and I'ersitin 
 UttiTs. The unmense country of the Alon^ols 
 may ')c descrihed as n viist nursery of soldiers, 
 fiiiMstiii^ of many camps, equipped, provisioned, 
 iiiul ready to inarch at a moment's notice with- 
 out iiu'diiveiiience or expense. The people have 
 'iri'iifjth and hardihood of hody, and vij^our ami 
 iiiti'llijfpiice of mind, to avail themselves of these 
 ii'lvaiita^'es; and whenevi'i a leader of i^'enins, ca- 
 jiahle i)f uniting the trihes in a common adven- 
 iiirc. has sprunu; up amoii^;' tliem, thev have proved 
 !i i»t and nui-iaiu'e to all the civdised races of 
 mankind within their reach. Such a union made 
 il mrcssary for the ITiiuese to hiiild their ^;rcat 
 "all mure Ihan two centuries hefore the Christian 
 '■ra; wcasiuiied alioiit the same period the de- 
 'iructluu of the Greek kingdom of Uactria ; caused 
 
 ASIA 229 
 
 the selllcment of the Tlims within the rontines of 
 l',nro|M', with their acts of dcstruclion and riipino 
 in the llncst iiarts of it. in the fourth and lll'ili 
 centuries; iiiul the conipiest of Turkestan, l'cr«ia, 
 India, and China, achievc'l hy .leiiKis Khan, T'i< 
 mnr, and Ihcir descendants, in the thirteenth, 
 fourlcciilh, and lirteenlh centuries. The ri'|H'titioii 
 of such exploits has hecome impossilile in modern 
 limes, owiii^' to the immense strides maih^ hy 
 western civilisation, as in other things so in war- 
 fare. Asiatics, indeed, thon;;li sometimes olitain- 
 iu^ temporary advantages, have never hecn ii 
 match for the l'',nropcans, even when the latter 
 were cornparalively weak and semi-lnirliaroiis. 
 Attila was defeated in the plains of Clialoiis hy 
 an inl'irior army of tli<> liarliariaiis of noriherii 
 Knrope; and the whole of his adventures were, 
 after all, hut so many prcdalory inroads on a lar^'u 
 sciile. Jeu;;is Khali, his suci'essor, elfcctcd only 
 the coni|iicst of the weakest and riide-'t nations of 
 I'.urope, the Itnssians, I'oles, and lluii;;iiriaiis, and 
 even llicir suhjii^aiiou was tcin|Miriii'y. Timur 
 did still less, and llie li.psporiis wa> sulllcient to 
 stn]i I he pro^^Tess of a coiiipieror who had marched 
 in triiiinpli over .Voiiii ni. of Asiatic territory. 
 The Franks defeated the Arahs in the hei(;lit "of 
 their pride and power. A handful of Normans 
 dispossessed them of Sicily, and the mouiilainecrs 
 of liiscay, after a Imi;,' stru^rn'h'. liually expelled 
 them from Spain; so that within the memory of 
 history no Asiatic people has foniied any tiling 
 hetter than a leiiiporary estalilishnient iii I'.urope. 
 (Uvilised l''.iirop(!aus have hei'u coiii|iiereil hy liar- 
 hariaiis of their own family; hut not, since the 
 historic a^e, hy ( hicutalists. The researches of 
 modern pliilolo^^isls, however, make us ac(piaiiited 
 with the sin;;iilar imd apparently unacconntalile 
 fact, that lliv lan;;iianes of India, the Manchoos, 
 and Alon^^ols, and of the Turkish, Persian, and 
 I'hiropeaii families, contain many words in com- 
 mon; not so mucli changed hy the peculiar pro- 
 nnnciiitiou of eacli peoide as not to he clearly 
 ideiitilicd; while the Arahic and other lau;;iia;^c< 
 of the same family do not contain any such com- 
 mon words. Hut this may he acemiuted for on 
 the sup|iosition of an invasion tind settlement of 
 Tninsoxiana, I'ersia, and Knrope hy the Mon^^ids 
 in times far heyond the reach of liistory, hefore 
 the invention of letters, when there were neither 
 (irceks nor itomans to tell the story. How thu 
 Moiif^'oliau languages caniL' to possess many words 
 in common with the Hindoo seems olivious enough. 
 All the ^loiif^olian nations at this day receive tlu^ir 
 religion, and the lan;;ua^e in which that relif;ioii 
 is explained, from the T'ihetians, and thcTihetians, 
 it is admitt<'d, have received hoth from India, lint 
 what, it may he asked, could tempt the Mon/^oliau 
 nations to tlie invasion, conipiest, and settlement 
 of a country so rude and remote as l''.urope in the 
 times we are suiiposinjj; V The answer is, the same 
 cause which produces constant international wars 
 amou^ themselves down to the present luomenl, — 
 the restless military haliits enn-emlered hy their 
 ]i(>sitioii, — the constitutional animal eonra.ue of a 
 race ener^jetie and enterprising;, — the desire (o lind 
 new i>asiiires for horses, henis, and tlocks, which 
 a well watered and (then) thinly peopled country 
 like I'Uirope coidd well supply ; and the victories 
 of one trihe forciii;; the compiered to ahandoii 
 their own lands and seek new estahlishmeiits. 
 This was, in fact, the cause which drove the Huns 
 of the second century i:.v. upon the Greek kinic- 
 dom of Hactria, and eventually hrou^cht that 
 people to Furopc in the third and fourth centu, 
 ries after (,'hrist, producing even their perinaneiil 
 setlleuient on its eastern eouliiies. Thi- coiuiuests 
 of Attila Jind of Jeiigis il may be ailded, had 
 
 'Ii 
 
 '!' 41 
 
 !.'■ n 
 
 J? 
 
 
2;irt ASIA 
 
 hiiiiiliir (iliJrclK ill vii'W, l)ii> tnoU n ililTcrcnt dircr- 
 liiiii, Mini I'liili'il iliM'rri'iilU, iiuiiiij til ilii' rrxi^l 
 
 Mtiri' ill ilii'ir liiiii'N III' 
 
 II I'liiiiiiiiriilivrlv MiiinrriiiiN, 
 
 wi'iilrliv, mill I'iNiliMcil |M'ii|ili'. 'riiiiiir. with the 
 firi'tiu'lli uliirli l'!iirii|ii' liii'l iilri'inlv itUiiiiiril, iil 
 till' I'liwf lit' till' Nth rnitiirv, niilv ihrralciii'il 
 
 >'</>«(>//<•>/» oxti'iiil iiJiiiiK the Fri(/,cii Or 
 
 iiii fnim 
 
 In iiiMiilt' it. Itiilh hi< 
 
 il .)i'ii-: 
 
 \n iiiMiili'il iiikI 
 
 (iMrriiii nil the hIIiit nuiiitricH ut' tin- W'vM in 
 till' liiii|.''iiiiK<"< ol' vvhii'h liiili/iii uiirih iiri' to I'l' 
 liiiiiiil ; lint, likt' till' ri'iniiti' invinli'i'H tn uhnin mir 
 tlirnrv iillinli'H, they iii'Vcr liiiii'licil the Aniliiiin 
 
 ln'iiiiiNiihi, imr I'liri I iiny iicriniini'iil rotMlilinh' 
 
 nil nl ill iinv innntry in wliiili llii> Sciiiilii! iIiihh nl 
 lilli^niii;;('H \H ^iiiiki'll. 
 
 The iiiitivc rii|iii('itv iif tin- Mniipilinn fmnilv 
 it Hiillirimtly ltlll'^<tl'li hy ilii' |iriiilni'liiin nl' Hur)i 
 ini'ii UN Altilii, .li'ii^is, 'ritiinr, Itiilirr, timl Kiihlny 
 "'inn MS well mm in the cuiiiiiicNt, llic ri'liiilinii 
 
 I'nr niiiri' IIimii '.'ii*> venrx, ninl 
 
 r<l\iiriil i^iiviTii 
 
 nii'iil iliirin^ ih'mi-Iv the kmiiu' tiinr, nt' tlu' VMMt 
 i'in|iirc 111' ('liiii:i. 'it is siiij;iil(ir, indrcil. that ilic 
 iiiiiHt ii.Mcl'iil, ;* nut the uri'Mii'Mt Miihlicuiirk in iliMt 
 I'linnlry, Mic ^niinl ciinMl nl' (!()(i in. in lonnlh, \\i\» 
 the work of llir lirst, Miiii;;iil ('tn|it'i'nr, wlin wmh 
 
 |i)<3 III 1 1,-|'^ i;. I Till' xlnliiri' III' \h\:^ vi ry i| 
 
 tinrt I'Miiiih' U ciiiiiinniily I'min I It, tn ,'• It,, mni 
 
 riillsiM|lirlllly III liil't II timl Mhnrt 111' till' KiiM|ii.|||| 
 
 HtMiiihinl. Ilriiil ilioiimiinrliniiMti'ly lar;,'i'; I'n,,, 
 Mill ; inniith liirp' ; I'liri nUo liirKr, mihI ihr \„n,.f 
 |iiirtinii III' ihi' I'mit |irii|ri'tiii^. TIk' Tiliiiiiki.h'n, 
 
 ] illiiiiiiiii», iinil Kitriilll» iM'ril|iy llir rMriliii' 
 
 rrii miikIi' 111' Axiii rrniilini; /Vini'iirii, Mini 
 I'liiirst' li'iiliirril, xiinrl |ii'ii|ili>, willmnl, \\„\,<, 
 
 111' iiHt- 
 
 the lint llimrN iir IH'rillilirlv MMIiill I'vi 
 
 'iri' II 
 '■vir, 
 
 "!■ lid 
 
 KMliilrhiitrMilaK'H. riiry rrHfiiihlc Ilic I'.Miiiiiiiniix 
 
 I M|H'iikin;; thri'c ili^lhiri j 
 
 iiii- 
 
 Kniip's. iirt' iirohiihly iis iiiMiiy •li'<linrt riirix. ri,( 
 h'limtiliiiti'iii/iiliH ntv n very Hlinrl tmi'I', with lir,,ii,| 
 Mliniililirx, M liirp- lii'Mil Mini ii lla( I'lmi^'Mlril iinni. 
 li'liMlii'i', thill li|iM, Niiwill cycN, Mini vrrv litlli' I 
 
 TIk 
 
 All II I in II n, nr inliMliilantH nC tl 
 
 A I 
 
 ii'ir, 
 I'liliiiii 
 nv uri' 
 
 inlMinls, lire a ililVrrcnl rai'i' I'miii ili)-rti>, '|'| 
 Nwarlhy, iliorl, hut kIihiI. ami wi'll-|irii|iiiriiiiiii'i|, 
 
 'I'lic |ii'ii|il(' ni'i'll|ivin;; lllf ^ri'Ml iMlMinl 111' S||;,'||||, 
 
 lii'ii, Ml tin* innulii III' llic Aiiinr, ami ilii' w]|ii|i> 
 
 .-hi 
 
 nl' tint Knriic iMiiiiniK, I'min tin' i 
 
 KaiiilrhiilkM III Jt'HH, in .lii|ian, arc a iliHiimi 
 
 M|M' l,|' 
 
 run 
 
 Iht' iini|is|iiiii'i| lonl nf ihi' wlinli', Kiiliiiix Khan, : rrniii any nl' tIniHc iilmvi' nicniinni'il, 
 
 llli' f^'rainUnll III' .ll'll^'i.-i, thnii^h hnni ll Nhi'|ihi'ril, i 'Ihi' MlniltCMl Mini innxt vi^nrnns nl' Ihr |ii'ii|i||. i,f 
 
 mil In I In ihcc'iilrl'lirisi'MMil i'uiir;i;(i' nl' his iiWIl ran 
 thr Irarnin^' iiml hkili nl' ihi' i'nni|iirrnl |ii'n|il(' 
 
 IiIm part 111' Asia, nr llmsc I'miinl tn tin' S., ilwiH 
 
 in liniVI'lllilc tents, liki' llic Mnlii>;nls, havr In 
 
 Itctwri'ii the Altai ami Daiirian riin^'i's ami j ami nxcn, ami ari' nut wauling in .siMtiiri',Kii'rnL;ili, 
 
 I'iviT Aniiir In the S. anil till' Krii/i'ii Oci'Mii In the I Mild Ihi- inilitiirv virlncs. On the < iriry.ihc 
 
 inhaliitMiitK nl' llic hlc.'iU and inhns|iii:ih|i' rr^iim^ 
 Inwards and nii the Hlmrcs nl' ihc I'nIarSia all 
 cxi'liMii^c the Inirsc, n\, Mini shei'|i tiir the ri'Jii- 
 ilcer Mild dn^'; live in culiiiis nr cavcriiN iiisirail 
 III' ninvcaiile tents; are snial weak, mid )iii>ill 
 mice. The whnlc are sn | aniimnis: ' n nice,' mm (iiliiinii e.\|ircsscs it, 'i>|' 
 
 icre cMsi triiicM iilinnsl mm niitiierniis mm hi any 
 ('(|iial extent ol' the American cniitinciit, mnl tar 
 
 ' " I 
 
 liinre distinct In 
 lire nhvinnsly llir 
 4'iinsiilereil, will, 
 
 |4||Cll 
 
 nil a hcllcl 
 
 lh( 
 
 Aim 
 
 I'l 
 
 ivsici 
 
 tinct fan 
 
 we 
 
 are >• 
 
 a CI 
 
 iiaint 
 
 I I'nnn. Mmiv nl' then 
 
 iiIicm; am 
 
 I nil 
 
 lers, lint sn 
 
 salislied, he rmiml tn 
 
 nninei'iiiiM, nliscin'e, and iinini|inrtant, that it is 
 dilliciill, nr rather iniiinMsihle, tn elaMsil'y Iheiil 
 catiMl'actnrily. 
 
 There are rnniid near In ami nil the bnnkx nf 
 fhi^ Amur nr .Saj^lialien, I'liiir mil inns, enlled Sn- 
 Iniii, Kertchiiif;, |)M;;nri. mid Nalkis, all nt" which 
 wlinllv iliU'creni I'lMin Ihcir iiiimc- 
 
 liMve laii;;;nMj;-es 
 iliiite iieiHlilinnrM the iMmichnos, while tlicy ilill'cr 
 alsn mining Iheinsc'ves. They arc rmic, dull, and 
 vhiilly wilhniit the knnwlcd^ic nl' letters; live nil 
 lish; and with lliein we Iiml the dn;;-, rrnin iicecM- 
 bity, tli'Mt MuhMtitiited I'nr the Imrse and the nx, 
 
 SherliMiii, the jfrandsnii nl" ,len;;iM Khan, led a 
 eiilniiy nf Mnii^nls iiitii Silieria, aiininiiliiii; In 
 
 dernnned and diiiiimilive sava;;eM, wlm trciiilili' 
 the Mniiml III' arms.' Anmn^r mII the native raiis 
 In Ihc N. nl' llie Altai niniintaiiiM letters ar>' 
 wlinlly iinkiniwn; aK'ricnltiirc Im scarcely |iraiii.iii: 
 I'nr war nii a lMr;;e Mcnle the penple Iimvc iiiiiliir 
 ilis|insilinn, cM|iiicily, iinr inciins; iiml, tn nliiaiii 
 I'nnd mid elnlhlii^, nearly their wlinle time i» ciiii- 
 Miiined in lishiii^ mid Ihc chiise. 
 
 r 
 
 icre lire iin inemiM wliMlever hv which In Ii. 
 
 Miiylhiiij^ like a enrrect estiniale either el' ilic 
 »'Xleiit nr ]inpiilMlinii of the n'rcMter miiiilicr nf 
 AsiMlic stales. The estiniali's nl' the pii|iiilali'>ii 
 nl'l 'hinaniily vary I'miii ahniit ".'.'itl lnahiiiii;!(IMiiii|. 
 linns (the latter is pmhalily nearest the Iniilii; 
 
 1.1,111111 I'Minilies, and his desceinlmils rei;;'m'd there i and the dillerciices in the esliinMles nl' tin 
 
 I'nr ;i(MI years, nr until the l.'iiMMimi i/isionn/ mid 
 «'nn((iiest ; sn tluit the Mniij;nls, iilthnii^^li nriy;iii- 
 iilly liireif^ners, iinw I'nrni a cniisiderahle pnrlinii 
 111' the pnpulaliiin of Silieria, either pure nr mixed 
 
 lip w 
 
 Ilii the natives trihes nl' the cmmlrv. 'I'll- 
 
 ' iiiiiiiMis Mre sail 
 
 I to he allied In the .Mmiclii 
 
 They are nf nrntiHiii^ stiitiirc, with rcaliires nmri' 
 
 di-'tiiiet Mild mure ni ri 
 iM 
 
 ■lief tl 
 
 ■an I lie Kalmucks or 
 
 iMnllnnli 
 
 wcll-niade, active, iiml cniirMfieniis. The 
 Jliiriiils, it is prelendeil alsn, t\n\ nf the Minijun- 
 liaii race: lint, it is evident frniii their physical 
 fnrm that this cmiiint In; the ease, nntwithst.'iinliiif; 
 tlic existeiici? nf Mniif^nlian wnrds in their liiii- 
 Acenrdiiiu; tn I'lillas, an eve-wilness, tliev 
 
 K'-i-'ifT''. 
 
 are slmrl inslaliire; and sn ell'eiiiinate thai six 
 
 111' iheiii hardly equal, in pniiit nf sircni;ili, a siii^^'ii^ 
 
 Iv'ns 
 
 lalinii nf nllier ciiillilries, thnii;;'li much 
 alisnlnle ainnunt, are ipiite as ^n'eal in ilci^riv, 
 There are alsn ^rciil discrepancies in the i-ii- 
 inates timl have lieeii I'nrined nf the area d' iIh' 
 dillereiit stales, nrij;iiiatiiii;- partly in the waul nf 
 enrrect ineaMiircineiitM, and partly in I he lliii'tii.ii- 
 iiijL,' and ill-delined nature nf (heir iHiiiinlarii-, 
 These estiinates will he ^iveii in trcaliii^; d iIh^ 
 (liH'erent states, SiiinmiiiK up the whnle. wi' liii.l 
 the tntal area nf Asia tn he 17,XII,"),1 Hi l':ii:;li.|i 
 sipiare miles, inliiiliited hy a iiiip;il;ili"ii nl' 
 7M(>,r)(MI,l)lllt sniils. 'I'his fjives 11 inhalillaiils i" 
 thi^ sipiarc mile, slinwiiifr the density nt' |iii|ml,i- 
 tinii In he rather iiinn^ than half thai nf Kiircii', 
 
 T.'ikiii;,' the area nf terra liniiii nii the ;;IuIh' al 
 
 ril.jl);), l.'iH sipi.-irc miles, and the |iiipiilali"ii .il 
 
 These caiinni he nf the same stuck willi I 1 ,•.'•.'1,110(1,0(10, the variniis divisiniiswill lie a- (i'l- 
 
 the pnwerfiil and inlrepid penple thai, ccnii 
 
 lllfn. cnmpicn 
 
 ll tl 
 
 lese same liiissimi 
 
 'I'l 
 
 ;/', 
 
 iidiil I'liiistitntes a siiijill family dwelling; helween 
 ilie Oiiralian inniintaius and the Ohi, nf st.'itnre 
 
 hi'low the Miirni 
 
 Aviih 111; 
 
 ick iiair, scant V 
 
 Kiirope, 7.5. This jjives the aver.'ij;c iIcmmIv "I 
 |inimlMlinii on thenlnlie at '1'2 per sip niile.Mi ili;ii 
 Asia has exactly dniilile the amniint, 
 
 V. l'i!iioi!i;s.'i 111- Discovi'.itv.— Tlio nex'^n- 
 jihic'il kiiiiwleil;,'e nf Asia may he eniisiilcri'il .i* 
 Iniir and reililish liii;^ce. They can cniiiit nn further ' cnmmencini^ willi its western cniiiilries, iimi with 
 tliaii 10, and live almost exclii-ively nil lisli. The tlivecc, the cradle ui' mir picscM civiri>a:ii'ii. 
 
 iicari 
 
 I, and Tartarian face. The tMin/is 
 
 liiiiiilv small !iml feelilc. with h;iir nf a li";ht ci 
 
 h) 
 
 the 
 
 pnp. nf Anstral.'isiii I jier si). 
 
 Aineric.'i, i>; of Africa, 7; 
 
 if As 
 
 il 
 
 ill': .'I 
 anil III' 
 
.Iml.'ii mill I'liii'iiiiiik iiri' llii> iiiiiirlirs rrmit t\liirli 
 till' inrlii"') iiironiiiilliiii I'liiiit'M. 'I'lir .IrwM i<4'(irr«'ly 
 ririwiii"t'i|ili«liii<'tl.vMny iil'jfcl iiiiin' I'lixicrlv tl im 
 ilir |':ii|>liriitr><,t'in|>liiilii'»lly t<'riii<'<l liy tliciii mIk* 
 rixT,' iM'yiiiiil .■'hli'li, III Ik VMKiii' iiiiil iinriTliiiii : 
 ili.liliMC, lliry liliucil Mill' ciiiIh "I' (lie •■iirlli.'| 
 r\ri' irii'U'il Milii m'Vi'rill rilirn iiii ilN liilliltH, liiil 
 (|('« •■. mil «'i'ii' •" 'i"v<' lui'linl licr ii>t<'ri'iiur«c liir- I 
 ilur; tlii>ii)(li Dr. Viiiri'iii rt'dwnuilily i'iiii|i'<'tiiri'N, j 
 ilitii the I'hcxU of rirli ii|i|iikri'l, I'lirrriillv Iniiiinl ' 
 niili ninlH, llrllu^,'llt l>y »lii« t'liiiiinrl, wtTi' rrmii 
 roiiiiirii'i* niiii'li ini>n< ri'iimic, A ^'niii tnitllr irt 
 iiiiiiiiiiiii'il with llciliiii, II >'ily i>r Ariiltiii, uhicli, 
 irniii itH iiiniiy i-lcH, iiiid it« incrrliiiinlisi' cii' |iri>- 
 liuiH rliilli . Miii^^t litivo U'lii ill lilt' \ii'iiiily ol' 
 iiniiii/., anil li'ivf ilnnMi iIiim' rniriiiiiiiliiii's irniii 
 liiiliii. 'I'lu'v wi'Tf triiii»|Mir;('i|, liy liirj^i' I'liriiviiiiM. 
 ;iiti>MiAriiliiiili> Kiluiiior liliiiiii'M.uliii'li wiix^rri'iitly 
 iiiri>'li<><l l>y ihi'* iriitNc. Knini tlii' miuIIi of Ani- 
 liiii, Slii'litki or SiiIh'h, "m'IiI ciiriiviiiiM lir Icti with 
 ;,'iilil HMil iiirciiH)', Itotli t>riiliuliiy oliliiiiicil froiii the 
 i,|i|H>Nit<> I'oiiNi.t of Africii. 
 
 riic kiiottlcil^ii' of Aftiik ciimc to he fuiinrwlirit 
 I'Mi'iiilril ill tilt' filli fi'iiliiry ii.r. 'I'lii- triiiiii|ihmit 
 
 mllli'Ml of Ort'ci'f with I't'rHilk t'Xfilt'il ilrrp illltTfrd, 
 
 iiii'l t;t'Mi'nitt'il |iliiiiH of I'oiKiiii'Nt which ri'iuli'ri'il 
 I'viryinloriiiikt ion ri'.t|ii'('tiii|,rt hill i'iii|iirt'nt'i'i'|iiiililt'. 
 Till' Miiint valiiiklilf t'oiilriliiitorwiiM llcroilotiiH, who, 
 iliiriti^'ii ri'Niilt'iK't' III llikhyloii, collt't'tcil inntfriiilN 
 Inr iiili'Mfriiilioii of ihf i«iktrii|iifs iiilo whii'h il wiim 
 iliviilfil. To thi^ iiorlh il I'Mfiiilril ovit ii piirt of 
 ilii' I 'niifi'tiaii iiroviiifi'K, I'liiililiii^ Ihf writer lo 
 ili'liiii'iilc tolt'riilily till* t'xlcnl iiml hlllllllltlril'^* of 
 lilt' ('ii;<|iiikii. Atiir^iniia ami Iliii'Iria prohahly 
 ri'iu'lii'il to till' Oxiis, hi'voiiil whifli wainli'ri'il tlic 
 Scythian lrihi> nanii'tl Massn^'t'lu'. Inilia wan thf 
 imwl I'astcrly satrapy; lint liciii^ ili'srriht'il as 
 iiiiiliiiiiiiiK no nrvnt rivor t'xci'pt the IihIiim, muiI 
 iHiiiiiilt'il liy an iinini'iiHt> lU'si-rt, il cviili'iitly 
 iiiiitaiiu'il only t\w wt'stcni provinci's, while the 
 lliiiitft'lii' mill Honthern conntrie-t were entirely 
 iiiiknowii. Ileroilotiit* fiivoM Ik wmiewhiit rinle ile- 
 M'ri|itiiin of the iiilukhitaiit'4, Hu^;;'eHleil proliiihly 
 liy tlic liorilerili^ nioiinlaineer trilies, 'I'he fail 
 III' iti« atfonlin;; n revvmie four times that of 
 r,);yiit shows eleiirly lluii it was iilremly opulent 
 .'iiiil improved. I>ariiis is said to have employed 
 Si'vlax, the ( jirvaiidriaii, lodeseend the Indus, sail 
 aliiiiK the sontiiern coast, imil come np the lied 
 S'a: a voya^je aceoiiiiilished in two yeiirs. 
 
 The next f;reat Roiiree of infnrniation to the 
 llrtcks was the ex|H'<litioii of .Mexiinder. It did 
 hill, inileed. extend liineh licyond the already 
 kiiiiwii limits of the Persian empire; but the 
 (iiiiiitrii's, heforo known only liy vajjiin report, 
 WMV then earefiilly examined and tleserilied. 
 I'liilor his direct ion two eiifiineers, IHo^fiictiis and 
 llai'iiiii, iniide surveys of each march, which were 
 imlilislied hy the latter, lint are nnfiprtuiiately 
 111"!. To the north, Alexninler pushed lieyond 
 till' .laxartes, hut without lieiii(.if alile to lirini; 
 uiiilcr sulijection the nitle trilies who teimnted 
 tliiw regions. On the siile of India, he learned 
 ilii' cxisieiice of t\\e (Janp's nnd the tine coun- 
 irics III) its hanks, to which he ea;,'erly sought to 
 jHiictrate; lint the nuilinv of his trooiw com 
 |K'llt'il liini to stop nt the llyphasis. Tlie(ire('ks 
 'lail then an opportimity of oliservint; some of tin 
 eople; their d' 
 refij^ions anste 
 iiiiii the merit attached t<i suicide. Alexander tic 
 >ii'nilt'il the liidiis to its month, and sent thence a 
 iliit timier Nearchus, who traced the coast of Asia 
 iisrarus ihe Persian (iulf, which hi^ asceiuled, and 
 jiiiiicil his master at lialiyloii. This voyap", now 
 SI wisy, was then considered ft most perilous 
 ai4iii'vemt'iit, and tlio n'irty arrived in a state of 
 
 ASIA in 
 
 dish I "H nnd i>xhiiiistion, AlcMinder himself, in 
 ri'liiriiiii^ tliroiiLcli (he maritime prnv iiii'ts, liccamK 
 
 aware of their eNtreiuiK d lale clinraiiir, 
 
 iliroii^h which, iiiilt'ed, hin unny wiks in dungcr of 
 perishing; 
 
 Oil Ihe partition of Alexntuler's t'lnpire, Selen- 
 ciis oliiiiineil Syria, with ns much of ihe coiiiilriei 
 III the I'lisiwiird lis his amis could hold in sulijcc- 
 lioll. lie Is siiiil lo have alli'illpted till' I'oiiipiesr. 
 of India, Imi tin re is im ili'<tinct airuiiiit Imw 
 far he penetrated; jinilialily it was imt lieyond 
 Alexmidfr's limit. He sent, Imwi'Vir, an tniliHsHy, 
 under .Mi'^'iislheiK ", to Piiliholhra ( pMt;lllpillril) 
 on the t illumes, capital of one of the niosi power- 
 ful kiii;;i|i>ms ever forineil ill Indiii; and thriiut^h 
 Ihischaiiuel a i^nmd ileal of iiddilional iurnrmatinn 
 was olitiiini'd. lie also emiiluyed his adiiiiriil, 
 Palroi'lns, in an attempt to circumnavii^'iile Asia; 
 and rnmiinr even represents him as liavinii; ac- 
 comiilished tliisxnst circuit, and entered IVniii llio 
 norlliern <M'ean into theCiispiiin ; hut the mani- 
 festly faliuloiis chiiracter of this report makes it, 
 impo.xsiliUi to t.'onjecture how fur he renlly pene- 
 Iriilt'd, 
 
 All lhi> materials thus collected were at the 
 disposal of I'lraliisllieiies, the leiiriied lilirarian of 
 Ali'Mindria, and were employed l>y him in fnrin- 
 iii)^', on the asirniioiniciil priiuiples of liippnrc iih, 
 Ihe lirsl Hvstematic deliuealion of the ^l<ilie. Il 
 is, however, as to Asiii, cMremely inipeifect. The 
 < illumes is made lo full into the eiistrrn an, re- 
 presented as liiiuntlini; the hiiliitalile eiirlli. The 
 ('ape of the Coliaci (Connirin) is made lit once the 
 most southerly anil moHi easterly point of Asia, 
 Alioiil ten iU';;recs imrth of Ihe t tau;;'es, and ii 
 MTV lillle east, is placed, in the siiine oci'iiii, the 
 city of Thinie, iifieu alluded tons the e\ti°emily 
 on that side of the hiiliitiihle world : lliis iippear.H 
 Ihe lirst \-ery iinperrect riimnnr wTiicli readieil 
 the wesit rn iiatioiis of the Chinese empire. Not 
 far from Thime Ihe cmist Inrned westwaid, 
 stretchiii;; iilmiy; the ;;real imrtlieni ocenn, which 
 liiiitiiil-' liotli I'.nrope and Asia, Imt at so low ii 
 lalilude that Ihe t'asiiianwas considered to lie ik 
 j;ulf connected with it hy a narrow strait. This 
 was a relro,t;riiile step even froin ilerodotus, who 
 liilil descrilied it Justly as ail inlinid sea. Asia, 
 thus wuiilin;; Tiliet, China, the (ireater iiart of 
 Turtiiry, and all Siheria, possessi'd lillle iilmve ii 
 third part of its real dimensions. 
 
 The Itoinaiis did not, hy their coni|nests, oli- 
 
 taiii aiiv accessiiiii in the knowled^'c of Asia. 
 
 lielore tliev reached Persia that couiitiy had liecii 
 
 occupieil l>y the Parlhiaus, ii lirave norlliern 
 
 leople, the altem|its to sulidue whom were mil. 
 
 jiiriiliiirities of the Indian iieople; their division 
 iiilii castes ; their I'antiistical refijfions austerities; 
 
 I . 
 
 only Iruitless hnt most disastrous. Put the 
 
 lioundless wealth ilcciimulilted in the inipeiial 
 capital from the spoils of couipiered ualions, 
 liroujjlit all sorts of commndities, Imwever ilistanl 
 the place of their prodiiclinu, nnd however liinh 
 their prices, to its markets. The Scrim nstiii (silk), 
 then tirst inirodnccil, liecame for souie time ipiile 
 the ra^'c, and was readily paid for at its wei^'hl in 
 fiolil. The fni^Tant miilnliiithriim (lietel, or tea), 
 and the ornameiited vessels named miirrhina (pro- 
 hahly porcelain), 'irou;^ht also vast prices. 'I'lie 
 meridiants of Alt xandria ami Hy/antinm wen> 
 thus impelled no. only to emhark liirnc capitals 
 hut lo lirave hardship and dauber in rciichin;;' Ihe 
 remote extremilies of the continent where these 
 commodities were produced. 
 
 Of the miiriliine route, Arriaii, n merchant of 
 Alexandria, has fjiven a tleiailed and correct ne- 
 count, snpposiii;;' it to he written in tlit^ lirst cen- 
 tury, lie tlescrihes il as exlendiiiu; alon;; Persia, 
 Araliin, and India, as far as Nelisiitinm (Ni I- 
 kuiiila) on the coast of Malahar. The (irick u;i\ i- 
 
 TAf 
 
 \H 
 
 ''i'^'sri 
 
n-i 
 
 ASIA 
 
 >{iiii>rM (mil nut then jirixTcilcil fnrlhrr rn»l, Imt l rmili', wlilrli liml hitlicrdi iM-m ihrnii;{h lmnii'ti«i 
 riiiiiiil ill lliitl |H'rl Nii|i|ilirN III' llii> iiii|i<irliiiil iir | iiiiil IcmI iiliiiiin, Inl ilnii ii\rr llmx' IhIIn iihiim 
 lii'lt'it of nIIIi mill iiinliiiiiilliriilM. i'liix Iriiilc miik Iniii riiiiK<'>« lliiil lli' In llii' imrlli nl liiilin, \||, ^ 
 tlirriril nil liy xlll|i'< llllll xtrrri'il illrri'll) iiirimn till' J It litliiiriiilln ll.«irlll, llli'V rrili linl || xlilliiiii I'liJIi i| 
 lllilillll Ori'illl tViilll llic MtriltlNiir llllll I'l Milllili'li, I lllf Sliitli' 'I'liHrr, Mllirc tlir llirrrlllklllM ili'mlii|,.,| 
 
 liv llii' rniiir ilrNt ijixi'iivt'ri'il liy lli|i|ialiiN, III liir llic rriiiiiirni t'\tri'iiiiil<K nl' Axiii iinlifii |',,r 
 lfii> iiiiirt' rii^lrrlv riiiixtn, Arrliiii ^ivt'N mily limr { iniiliiiil iiiil nml ili'lrinr; llii'iiri', ii riiiiii> of m'\,.n 
 »ny ai riiiiiilx, iHTiiiniiiit KriMliinlly I'liiiilir aii>l | iiimiiiIiii, i'lii'i|iirri'i| liy inniiy iNTiU ami vlrlmi. 
 
 liinri' I'aliiiliiiiM ; liiil lir iliHliiu'llV imlirali't Ma 
 Kiili|ialaiii ami lln' iiiniitli ul' I lie (iaiiKi'N, >«itli 
 III!' cxiiuiiiti'lv lliir I'liiiiitii ilirrc t'alirliaU'il. I'lvi'ii 
 tx'Viiml lliJM lliiiii, III' iiii'iiliiiiin riiryni' nr Ilic 
 Kii)i|fii Ulf (Siitiialrii or llnnii'ii). 'riiiiin' ix 
 
 lliilii'i'il, lull III n liiaillirr nlill Illnri' riilil'llxnl lliiill 
 l>y Kratimtlii'iii'N. Miil lu' ^ivt't u I'lirimin ari'inint 
 • it' llii' riilli'i'lliiii III' till' li'avi'H III' iiiMlalialliriini liy 
 a |ii'ii|ilt', till' I'liriM III' M'liiiM' vixa^i' nIihwh tlniii 
 III Ik> I'artarN or Cliiiii'Hc, ami nl' tix' iiiniiiu'r in 
 mIiIi'Ii tliry v>vrv |iii-Ki'il, ilriril, ami ciirlcil, Vhn- 
 hiiiM, Viiii'i'ui, ami imiHi nilur \vi'ilrr'<, i'iim'<'i\r 
 
 imliM, liriiii^lil ilii'iii iiiMrrii, tlii' i'a|iilal nf SitIih, 
 't'liai lliix I'liiiiiiry ix Cliiiia, ix imw xn p'lii'rnllv 
 ailiiiitlnl lluil Ml' iiiTil xcari'i'ly millet' Ihi' lliinrii'^ 
 wliirli axni^'ii ii III II It'KH ilixlani |iimiiiiiii, rx|K'. 
 rially llial nf (iiixxclin, wlm, in |iriiliiiiiiil iuni>- 
 rum')' III' till' Int'iililicK, Hiiiilil tiiakc it Srriiin^'iir, 
 
 ill till' imrlli III' liiiiia. 'I'lii' iirutlii I' xilk, ihr 
 
 rliarartrr ul' Ilir ii<'i>|iii', imliiHiriniix, iiiilil, |iaiiiii', 
 lliiiiil, ami xliiiiiiitii;; ilir iiiii'rniiir'O' nl' I'liri'lLtiiir-', 
 
 all rnlllliilK' In I'XrIlliii' ally nllliT xu|i|iiMitii>ii, || 
 
 ix ri'iiiarkaliir tlial miriluTii Cliiiia, narlinj lit 
 lllixrnllli', ix rilllril Si'rii'il, wliili'il^ xniilhirii nmM 
 
 lliix til Im' till' Ih'Ii'I. Mr. iMiiri'a\ , linwi'ViT, liax ii iiaiiinl thai nl' llii' Simi'. It is, in I'art, iii:nt 
 
 rmlcavniirt'il in hlinw thai llii'i laxl, U'iii^ niiiy 
 iixt'il I'nr wrM|i|>iii;{ tin' arcca mil, iniixl t'nr that 
 |iiir|in-<(' Ik' iiHi'il Irc^li, ami wmilil lie ilrxlmycil liy 
 till' alinvc lirnruNxiN ; lluil it I'lllllint i'nnxi'i|iirnlly 
 
 III', ami ix tint, nil iiliji'<-i nl' irinli', tlinii;r|i tlir arcra 
 ix; ami tlial llic liialalialliriini iillmlcil tn wax, 
 lluTi'liiri', ninxi jiriilialily ha. Tin' aiii'ii'iit in'- 
 riiiiiitx, linwi'VtT, ^ixc no ilixlini't inliinatinii Imw 
 till' artii'ii' wax iixi'il, imr iiiiy mixiin In think, 
 hii|i|iiixinK it tn hi' tea, thai it uas liy ilrinkiiiK llii' 
 int'ii>iiin, lint ralliiT, in xmnc I'nrin, a.x an nhjcrl nl' 
 
 tain, wlii'tlirr llic Iwn wrri' llii'ii nii'lrr nni' K"^' ni 
 inriil ; at all cvi'iitx, I hi' naini'.H wrrc pniliiilily 
 Ihii'x' iixnl hy thi' m'i^'hhniiri:!^ naliiiiii, a*, ni 
 liirxriil, till' liTiii (liinii, lln* xanii' with T'-iiiii, .,r 
 Siiia, ix ri't'i'ivi'il hy nx t'rntn the |ii'(i|ili' nl tli,' 
 nririital arrhiiirlaKii. I'tnJi'iny'H kimwli'ilp' ijiij 
 mil rriii'li In till' raxiiTii ni'i'iin ; ami, iinliki' Km 
 ti'Nihini'x, III' dill nnt axxiinm ilx I'si^imri', Imr 
 liniiiiili'il ,\xia nil that xiiir, nx well ax nil llic 
 mirth, hy a vast i'N|ianxi' nl' ■ nnknnwn lam!,' 
 'i'liix t'oinnniniraiinii ii|i«'nrii hy Itiuiii' ilnrin ; 
 
 xri'iit. (Arriaii, ri'ri|iliiH Marix rirrllirri, in llml- her liiKln-xt |irnx|i('riiy wax );railnally IikI nini'l 
 Hiin, (it'll};, (iricr. 1^1 iniir, tniii, ii. N'iiii'i'iil nn tin' tlii- (iihtrarlinim ami wt'akiii'xx nl' ilu' t'iii|iiri', im | 
 l't'ri|ilnx, •III), INil.'i, Murray, lli-'tnrio. ami De-iwhi'ii ail llit^ inlcnnnliah^ riinnlrii'x wirr mrn 
 rn'rijil. Ai'i'onnt iirCliiini, Kilinh, iMIKi.) | pii'il hy tlitt hnxtili' Sarart'ii |inwrr, Sti'|ilii'n 1,1' 
 
 Aiiiint II fi'iilury iiI'ltT, I'iniciny |iiilillshi'il liis Ity/aiitiiiin, ami liii' <ii'n;;rii|iiii'r nl' KaviiiiHi, 
 clahnratt' Mvxtt'm nl' ^'I'^foi'l^v, whirh xlmwx a almnl Iht' Hih I'l'iitiiry, xhow niily llir niu t 
 
 viTy rt'inarftahlc t'xtt'iixinn of kiinwliilm' in rt'j;aril iin|ifrl'('il Unowlni),'!' of tin nnlric.t Iiimiii(| 
 
 to Axia. )Ii! tli'liiii'iilt'x, liinii^h rmit'ly, a very , Itactriana, iiirlmliii^ tht'in umliT thi; viif^iii' iinii 
 laryu I'xtt'iit of I'liaxt frmn llu', imintli nf llii< nf India Scrira 
 
 tlan>,'('x to I'atti^ara, nn llii' foaxi of tlu'.Siim'; 
 t'iiii'lly frmn a prt'tty lU'taili'il ronii' nf hix jiri'iU' 
 
 A new |iro|il(' now nroso, who, Imiiclicii hy mim- 
 hilion and ri'li^ioiix xi'al, <'X|ilori>il ami civlli^nl 
 
 fi'xxor Marinnx, partly fnniisht'd hy .McxandtT, a a mvat pnrlion of liic world. Tlif Arahx, iimlir 
 mariner, who, from hix iiatnt', was prnhalily a the iinpiiixe ^iveii hy Mohaiinned, riixhed rrmii 
 (ireek, Ilix xtatvinent thai it reaehed l,.'tiM) in. I their dexertx, and eoiiipiered an empire iiinn' i'\- 
 SK., and tlien n^ain alimit ax iniieii Nl''.., eiuild leiixive than thai of Itoiiie. They peni'iriiii'il 
 nnly foiixixt with a voyaK*' from tlie head of the ; even into Seythia, which had remained imiicrviniiH 
 Jtay of llenpil toOiina. Sada, Ihe point where hotli In the I'erxianx and (ireekx, and eslaliliMluil 
 
 lie tnrne'l north, iiinxt ho at or near Sinpipore 
 Tlu'iiee he descrihed a eoaxtiiiK voyage nl'."!.'!!! in., 
 when he ' emxxed the bca ' (evidently the hmad 
 month of the (inlf of Siain), and reaehed what 
 he terms the (iiilden Clierxoiiexe, u name very 
 nalnrally NnKK'"'"*''''' ''.v tlio rich ininex on the 
 o|i|Hixite eoaxt of llornen. Theiu'e he liad twenty 
 days' I'onstin^ sail (alonj; Coehin ( 'hina and 'rmi- 
 (piin) ; tinally, a emirse partly south, hnt more 
 east, led to Catti^nni, wliieli must thns have heeii 
 on the sniithern eou>t of China, and from its name 
 
 llniirixhin<r kin^doins on the hanks of the ()\iis 
 and Ihe .laxariex. During; the enliKhieneil iitii nl' 
 Ihe caliphs, particular altenlion wax ptiii! in 
 KeoMjrapliical knowltdp'. A niinilier of Icinliii;' 
 poxilions were ileterinineil hy axii'onoiniriil hIimt- 
 vatinii, n process to which thelJreeks iiail Ikiii 
 aiinosl, slran^jers: India was well known tn tliciii, 
 and ere haif^ iH'caine Hiihject to Alnhainaii'ihiii 
 princes, ('hina was never even apprnacln'il liy 
 cnmpiest, hilt eoiiniierce conveyed some prciiy 
 accurate ideas respecting that country; imlcnl. 
 
 )iroliahly I'anlon. I'tolemv, however, thoiijfli he in the ninth eenliiry, two Arali merchants, Wahiili 
 
 professedly innile this the hasis of his delineation, | and Ahusaid, visited it, and piihlished an aci iii. 
 
 evidently adopted, and imskilfiilly conihined with 1 in some respects very accurate, and act'iinlaiii 
 it, information from other quarters. In his tiihles, | with modem ohservation. They nieiition itHfiruii 
 Ihe (ioldeii Chersonese, from ils vast extension fertility and |Hi|inloiisness; the prodiiciinn iiihl 
 
 southward, and containinfr the nanu^s Malayo 
 cohiii and coast of the I'irates, very clearly desi^;- 
 iiatos Malacca, conjoined iimlmhly with fSuinatra, 
 'H'hich is not separately iiientiniied. 
 
 Tlie same geo(fra|iher descrihes a caravan route, 
 funned thronj^h Asia hy the mercliants of l!y%an- 
 liiim. J'roceediii;; due east, Ihmiijrh Asia Minor 
 and I'lU'sia, they made some circuits in order to 
 include Ilyrcania (Astrahad), Aria (Herat), and 
 ]Marjj;iana(Kliorassjin) ; they then reached Haclria 
 (Itaikh), which seems to h.'ive lieen Ihe main 
 centre u( the inland trade uf the euutiiieiit. The 
 
 (General use o( nee, silk, tea, and porcelain; ilu' 
 riKid watchfulness of the police; the ^fciuTiil ilil'- 
 fusinii of readiii);, and Ihe iireference of wriiicii 
 over spoken lan;.;iiap>. On the north, smiie iiii|"r- 
 fect notices were received of Silieria and llic Arclii' 
 Ocean. This re^^ion excited intense interest Inmi 
 its hciiif; supposed III contain the casileofhviM'iuir- 
 inons^'iants, (io^and Manoj;, the search after wlii'li 
 impelled the caliphs to expeditinlis of disciivrrv. 
 After several frniiK'ss ell'nrls, one was ilispiilcliiil 
 witli strict orilers not to return willimiL liiiviii:,' 
 discovered this castle. Uuder this iiuimlsc tluy 
 
ASIA 
 
 2M 
 
 rn4ri'lii'il lownnU llio Alliii, ntnl rriiirni'il witli n | 
 iriilt f<>riiii<liilili' ili'irrliiiiiiii ol' ttic furtri''"), n* 
 .iirnniiiilnl li\ MiilU iif iMti, mill wllli it k')I<' MI'Iv 
 iiiliiiH IiIkIi. I lii" ri'|iiirl wiix iiii|iliri(lv ri'ti'lvnl, 
 iiiiil il<i' I'l)"!)*' ii|i|>«'ar>«riiii>i|iii'iiiiii'i 111 u\\ llii' iiiitin 
 iil'ilii' Miiilin<>iiK<'"> (l''.<lrl'<i, (ii'iiKf, Niiliii'ii'*. I'lirt', 
 
 IMI!!; Nnlii'i'N I'l KxInillH ili'H Mllllliwrilit (III |{iii 
 
 lie i''riiii> r, ii>iii. ii. ; Aiirii'iiiii'H Ki'litlioiiH, Al*. irit- I 
 i|{iiir'< I'lir Ki'iiiiiiilot. I'lirix, I7IN,) 
 |',iirii|M' iiifiiiiliiMi' wn^ liiirii'il in tlio i|i'«|H-<t 
 
 iL;iiiiriiiii'i' iiH !<• ill! Iliiit ri'lali'il lo lli i-'Iitii 
 
 nurlil. Allriiliiiii, liiiwcvi'r, wiin ill liixl iiiiwi'n'iilly i 
 iilirni'ti'il to it l>y ■)»' criMiiili'i, Moiiic ilin'ci nf 
 I'iMiiiiK »i'r<' rt'< rivi'il, mill Ii^IiIm witi' Muii^lit in 
 I'liilciiiy mill iiilnT mirii'iilN; ilir ri"<iill \vii'< it vrry , 
 i'iiiir>i<i'i| iiiiiM III' iiiiiiiiMH, wliirli iiri< riiri<iii'<ly I'X- 
 lilliliril iiy Smiiiilii, ill ilii' tiiii|i jiri'llxi'il In tiii iinr- | 
 
 riilivr III llli-Mt' i'X|irililiiin><, cnlillnl, 'lirslil |>i'i 
 iNf I'nilirnH.' 'I'lir Worlil in lIliTr rr|iri'->i'lilri| an 
 
 II t'riiit rirriiliir |iliiiii,iii tlii' I'i'iiirc nlwliirli nimiiN 
 .liTiitiili'Mi. Srrii is linrriiwi'il rrom rioli'inv ; Imt 
 liiiliil \i* liltiri'ij |>arliy licyiiinl it, miil, iiiiilir llir 
 iiili"< III' Mii|iir, Minor, iiml liiliTiur, in KrudiTi'il \ 
 lliriiii^'li ilill'rri'iil mill iliNliinl |iiirtH of AhIh. 'I'lm i 
 jiiilii'', ill till' ti'Ni. i>* niMilii llii' liiiiiniliiry nl' llnil ' 
 I'liiijiii'iil. 'I'll till' iiiirlli, Allwiniii iiml <M'iir\;iii| 
 .irrirli aliiiiixt III till- >*vu III' ilai-lviirsM, mill in ilir 
 ^iiiiir i|iiurU'r ii|i|ii'urM ilui ciihiIi! of (in^; ami i 
 .Mmkiii;. _ . I 
 
 AiiriiliiiM NvniiiliMiil llii'xniiio limi' lii..'ili!yilrawn \ 
 
 III aiiiitliir ANiatii' I'lLciuii, 'I'lic MuiimhI rliii f 
 .li'iiK'i'<< ami lii.s ili'Mrt'iiiliinlH, (>-<t;il,ii<ilii'i| an I'liijiiri' 
 III' iiiiiiii iisci-xiriil, riiiii|irlr<iiii; on onr nliltt I 'lima, I 
 Mini nil ilir ollirr llu.HMia, wllii'il was lollf; lli'iil j 
 iiinliT 'I'arliir swiiy. 'I'luiu'i" tlii'v inarrln'il j 
 ilir<iiiu;li roimiil iiilo |[iiii)L;iiry anil Sili'siu, 'l'\w 
 (iiikc 111' llial r iiintry, liaviii;; vriilnri'il to imi- 
 (niiiiliT tlii'in, was ili'l'cati'il ami nlaiii. Ciri'iiin- 
 Ktiiiiii's ili'tiTfi'il tlii'in I'l-iiin iirori'i'ilin;; I'artlicr; 
 lull llirir miinlHTs, I'rriH'ity, ami riim|iii'sts, siriu'k 
 I'iiiriiiii' wiili tt'rrnr. In ho|it's of aviTlin^; I'ntiiri' 
 mviisimi, it was lii'trrniiiii'il to si'iul I'liiliassii's 
 Iriiiii till' rope, as llic I'liid' of ('iiri^iriiiluni; i.iiil 
 i»ii iiiiiiiks, ('iii'piiii ami ltiilirui|iiis, wcrr mio'cs- 
 -ivily I'liipiiiyi'il. 'I'lii'V triivi'Ui'il liy lon^; jmir- 
 iicy. III' many iiiontlis, over llm vast plains of 
 Tiiriary lo Karrakariun, a rmli! capilal, siiniilcit 
 liiri'ii>t ill Unit n'xion, 'I'liry wrm Inicialily wi'll 
 n't'civni. IIS orii'iital coiirls arc foiiil of llii' altcn- 
 ilmi ami liiiii)a^!;f wliirli missions imply; lint, tlus 
 ilircali'iH'il inviisiiin was iiri'vi'iiti'il liv qnili^ ililVc- 
 ri'iit I'liiisi's. Iti'in^ profialily tlic lirst who liiul 
 in'iiclralril into lliosn rcinoM^ rcjijions, llicy I'oni- 
 iiiiiiiiratcil new iilcas rcspcitiiifi tlicir vast cxli'iit, 
 ami till' conntrics sitnatcil liotli at their eastern 
 ami iinrtlieni extremities. 
 
 AIkiiiI llie same time that this intorcoiirse with 
 llie I'ast was ojK'iieil, ami partlj' in conseiineiu'e of 
 ll. llu' sjiirit of iiiihiMlry ami eoniim'rre revived 
 iiiiiiiii;; tlie niarilime eities of Italy, Venie(> ami 
 (ii'iiiia liail estalilish(>(l factories ami ean°ieil on 
 traili', lint only over nil the Levant, lint on the 
 ciiiist of the ItlacU Sea. From this last unarler, 
 twd Venetian mililes of f^reat enterprise, of the 
 nami' of I'olo, iimlertook lo visit the eoiirt of n 
 I'ariar prince, dcscemled from .Ien),'is, with a view 
 iiiilispiise of some valiiuhle cominoilities. Various 
 vicissitihles led them (in to linkhara; ami they 
 were there induced to nccomiiany a mission to 
 Ciiiiilialii, the court of Kulilay, named tlu^ (ireat 
 Kluiii, who inherited the most viiliialile of Jen^is's 
 i"iii[ii('sts ill Cliinii and the nei^jhliourinj; eoiin- 
 trii's. Having retnriied to Venice, they aj^aiii 
 Ml nut fur tlic Kasi, iakin;;wilh llicm Marco, one 
 iif their Hiiiis, to whom we ari' imlelited for ii iiiosl- 
 iuieri'Miiij,' account of his and their travels. On 
 tkir outward jouruey they passed llirough Ijallvhj 
 
 Ka'«liuar, Klioiiiii, Taiiiriii, nnd oiher poiinlrh'M In 
 till' ({real I aide I'liiilof Mlildlc A-iia, uliirli »e iiainii 
 l.iille lliicliariii, and renpeclin^ which »i> liiivti 
 liiile iH'ller iiil'oriinilioii ilmii Marco eoiiiiiiiini- 
 catcd, 
 
 Calhiiy, as Norlhcrii Cliinit was llieii called, 
 Willi ('aniiialii, its capilal, the niiMlmi I'ekiii, 
 coinpli'lely ila/./lcd llie Intvellcr'*, I'lie walU 
 forniiiit; a xiiiiare, each side nf Mhicli iiiea'*iired 
 nix miles — the lolly ornanii'iilcd Kiilci— llic s|mi 
 cions Ml reels — the inilliellse palace, with its paillled 
 halls — the licmiiifiilly oriiiiiiiiiiicd ixardeiis — tlm 
 poinii iif the inijieriiil I'csiUhIs — all llicsc oli|eci •, 
 nearly on the same scale as now, far siirpas<i'd 
 any iiniKiiillccnce of which Kiirope einild iheii 
 Imasl. ilcili^ well r(>ceive>l, and even olllcially 
 eiiipliiycil, Marco ncl out ii|hiii an evlciiNive lour 
 tliriiii;;li llie wcsicrii provinces, vi^iiliiiK part of 
 TiU'i, and ohiaiiiiin; iiifiiriiiiitiuii rcspcciiii;^' Mien 
 (Ava). This was rullowed liy ll iimre iiilerestiii;x 
 Jiiuriiey iiilii Maii^i, or Sinilhernl 'hina, which not 
 loii^r liefore had i'lirnied a scparaie kinvcdom, Iml. 
 hii|i|iciici| then, as now, to lie suJijccl to a power 
 I'esiileni in llie niirtli, lie dcscrilies it justly as 
 iiiiirc fniiil'iil and iiopiiloiis ihaii the region ilrJ. 
 visited, lis capilal, i^niiisiii. or the ('ele<<tial I 'iiy, 
 is painted ill ^liiwin^ colours; iis edillces, caiial>, 
 oriianieiiicil lirid;,'es, spiicioiis lake, and the palace.H 
 which einlielliilied its slmres. 
 
 Marco heard also of Xipauifii, or .lapati, ns n 
 rich iii.-iiilar empire, wliicli llie tircii Khan had 
 made a vain aiicnipt to siilidiie. Iteluriiin^ hy 
 sea, the travcllci's lniiched al 'I'sionijia tliid Sii- 
 iiialra. 'I'licv spcnl some liinc siiccessivi ly in 
 t'eyliiii, Coriiniaiidcl, and Maliiliar, mid .NJann 
 KIM'S a lint iiiifailhl'iil accuiii:! of iiidiaii niMiiiicrs 
 mid siipersiliioiis. 'liieii siiiliiiL; np the Persian 
 liillf, lliey |il'ocecded from (Iniin/. lo 'rreliisniid, 
 whence lliey reiiiriied lo Venice, Iweiity-foiir year-t 
 alter their ilepariiire. 
 
 The ureal discoveries thus made were in it 
 m'ulecled. In the li(';;iiinili^' of the I Itli ceii- 
 liiry, iliiaii ile Monh Cnrxiiio, n Minorite friar, 
 undertook a reli^^'iiuis mission into llu; east. Ho 
 penelraled lo ('iinilialu, where he was allowed to 
 resiiU^ fur a iiiinilier of years, and made uiany enii- 
 verls; the city was even creeled into a see, of 
 which lie was miiiied ari'hhishop. Aliniit tliesanui 
 time I'epilettI, an llalian merchiuil, Irai'cd llio 
 caravan route through Asia as far as Caniliahi, and 
 pnldished his itinerary. Another Miiiorile friar, 
 Oderie of I'orteiiaii, narrated a viiya;;e made, to 
 India, the orieiiial archipelago, uiid China, reliirn- 
 ilifX hy way of Tiliet. 
 
 In the cud of this century, the eoii(|nesls and 
 wiilelvexlemled einiiire of Tiiniir, witli his victory 
 over (taja/.el ilieTnrkislisnllan,resiiuiidedlliroii<;'h- 
 out Asia, ami in soim? de).;ree through Knrope, 
 Henry 111. of (.'aslile sent two sueces.^ive eiiiliiiH- 
 sies to the court of the Tartar eoiiipieror, the last 
 in 1 l(i:t. under Clavijo, who spent some weeks at 
 Sariiiircaud, ami, thoim'h he has not added much to 
 (;'eo^;ra|iliical knowledge, hi- ^ave an iiilerestiiifj 
 acciiunl of iIk^ court ami policy of that monarch, 
 
 Hy these diirereiit means, a li^ht. tlionf,di some- 
 what dim, was thrown upon the farlhest extre- 
 mities of Asia; hut it did not much avail llio 
 Italian repiililics, who were iiiiahle to reach ii.s 
 sonlhern shores liy sea, wliile the land ronle wits 
 too arduous ami (leriloiis to he much freipienled. 
 The iieriod, however, was now at hand wlieii the. 
 fiirtlu'st extremilies of Asia were to he tlu^ sci'iie 
 of Knro|ieau enterprise and adveulnre. In I I!l7, 
 Vaseo lie liama donhled llie Cape of (iood Hope, 
 and reached the sliorcs of India al Calicut. In 
 the short space of iweiily years Ihe l'ortii;j;ucH(', 
 hy u siicccsLUoii of vicloriuns annanieuls, e.stab- 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 t^'ir 
 
 
 
 \% 
 
 ^'t' 
 
2;it ASIA 
 
 IIhIumI forts nn<l Bcttlrmfiils in Ilindostnii, (Jip 
 Miiluynii iicniiiHiila, nnil most of tlif iMliiiicIs of tin- 
 iircliipi'ln^o, and even ntt<'niiitc>(l tlicni in ('liinii. 
 Alllion^li lliiH cnrcfir conld not Ims miid to bcMine 
 of discovery, nlnioHt all tlicsc countries lieinj^ to n 
 certain dej;r<^n known, tlie iiitlierto doiilitl'nl ac- 
 count!* were antlienticated, and tliey were t*urv( yed 
 willi much >;reater precision, in the sevciiteeiilli 
 century, a lM)dy of French missionaries, enunent 
 for mathematical and astronomical knowledf^e, ol>- 
 tniiied permission t(» reside in I'ekin, and were 
 oven employed in making a Hnrvey of China and 
 the ailjacen't coiuitries. The materials thus col- 
 lected were transmitted to France, and arranged 
 l.y D'Anville. 
 ' Hut thoii;ih the south of Asia, inclndinj? it« 
 finest regions, had thus he<iome known, there re- 
 mained north of the Altai mountains nearly a thinl 
 part of the continent to which neither conipierors 
 nor merchants had yet penetrated. Its discovery 
 was reserved for IJussia. After groaning for ages 
 i)cneath the, Tartar yoke, she emancipated herself, 
 in the. lifteenth century, under ,Joan Vassilievitch, 
 and has ever since continued an active and in- 
 creasing power. Altout the end of that century, 
 having conquered the Cossacs, she had the aildress 
 to engage that active and hardy race to explore 
 4ind con(|uer for her the v.'jst region of Silieria. 
 They )irocceded step hy step, till, in \(VM. lifiy 
 years after the commencement of the undertaking, 
 Dimitrei Kopilof arrived at the (iidf of Uchotsk, 
 a liranch of the eastern ocean. Another division 
 marched south-east upon the Anuiur, hut there, 
 having encountered the Chinese, were obliged to 
 fall hack. This |)rogress, being along the southern 
 liart of the territory, did not bring them in contact 
 with the coast fonning the frozen boundary of the 
 continent, which the English and iJiitch were, in 
 the meantime, exerting themselves to traverse as 
 Iho nearest route to China. Middleton, Itarentz, 
 Hudson, and other navigators, engaged in this 
 aftem]>t; but none of them reached lieyond the 
 (iulf of 01)i, a little east of Nova Zembla. About 
 Kilo, however, the Cossacs sent exjieditions down 
 the rivers Lena, Indigirka, Alaska, ■ .ul Kolima, 
 tracing their mouths, and the coasts between 
 them. In ItUti they rea<'he(l the extreme N'E. 
 peninsida of Asia, inhabited by the Tchulchi; in 
 llilH Ucschnewand another chief undertook to sail 
 round it, and, though the accounts are imjierfect, 
 scorn to Inive accomi)lislied their object. Towards 
 the end of the century, llebring discovered the 
 most easterly cajie of Asia; he and Tchirikolf 
 al'tenvards made voyages to America. Cook, in 
 his third voyage, sailed through tb.'se straits, and 
 ap])eare<l to Jiscertain the disjunc ion of the two 
 continents. It wasstilll>ossil)l(',h(l^■ ever, that their 
 coasts, by a vast circuit, might joii; each other; 
 but this idea ba.s been completely remove.! bv the 
 voyages of Wrangelon one coast, and of Heecbey, 
 Dc.ise, and Simpson on the other, t'ook, I'erouse, 
 and IJroughton did also mucn to explore the e;ist- 
 ern boundary of Asiatic Kussia, and its connection 
 with the large island of Jesso, with Japan, and 
 China. 
 
 The entire coast of Asia has thus been explored, 
 and in a great measure ])oss(!ssed. by Kuropeans. 
 The gre;it range of tlic Ilinimalab, better described 
 by rt<dcHiy than in ni.iiiy modern maps, lias been 
 carefully Hurveyed, aiic its astonisliing height as- 
 ecrt.iLned. The cx]ieditions of Turner and Moor- 
 croft into Tibet. KIpliinstonc into Caubul, aiul 
 ISurnes into liokhara, greatly extended our know- 
 ledge of these regions. The embassies from l!(issii 
 to China crossed iMongolJa and the desert of (iobi , 
 while I'alhus and Ilumboldl, from that sid(',gained 
 much information respecting these central regions. 
 
 ASSAM 
 
 Our more rerent Kng'ish authorilien are Abhoft 
 Knight, and Atkinson, the last of wliom sju'iit 
 many years of his life in extensive travels tlirou^^h 
 Southern Siberia an< I Tartary, and in exploraiimi 
 of the immense territory recently annexed to the 
 Itussian empire, and known as the country- of tin. 
 Amoor. (Atkinson, Thos. \V., Travels in the rcginns 
 of the Upper and [.owcr .\moor. Lond. iHlill.) |„ 
 Central Asia, the three brothers ,S('hlagintweif dls. 
 tinguished themselves as explorer., two of iIh, 
 brothers, Hermann and Hobert, i)assing (in |h,"i(;) 
 the Kuenluen mountains, a feat never before ac- 
 complished. Another foreign traveller, M. Arinl- 
 nius Yainb(>'ry, nccomplishcd, in lKli;i, the dillicnit 
 journey from Teheran to Khiva, liokhara, and Sa- 
 nuircand (Viimbery, Travels in Central Asia, I.iiikI. 
 im\ti.) Two Hussian explorers, Cn\A. Valikhain.C, 
 and M. Veniukol, likewise added, very recently, Id 
 our knowledge of Central Asia. (Michell, J.'iiiul 
 K., The Itussians in Central Asia. Lond. iKd,"),) 
 Nevertheless, there are still large portions of tins 
 f.mmensc continent which have remained a term 
 incognita, or nearly so, to the present day, 
 
 ASIA-MINOIJ. Sec Natoi.ia. 
 
 ASIAtiO, a town of Northern Italy, prov. Vi- 
 cenza, '2 1 m. X. Vicenza. I'oj). o.l Id in l«tll ft 
 is l)uilt on the simmiit of a lull, and is celelinitcil 
 for its dye-works and fabrics of straw lials. 'i'lu. 
 ainninl value of the produce of the latter exceiids 
 loO,()0()/. 
 
 A.siago is the chief town of a district contaiiiiii(( 
 ■seven communes, the inhabitants of which spcnk 
 a corni|)t dialect of the Germiui. They are siip- 
 po.sed, by some antiquaries, to be descended I'rnm 
 fugitive Cimbri, escajjed from the great i.iltle in 
 which that ))eoi)le were totally overthrown liy 
 Marius, 101 years n.c. INIarco I'ezzo, an eccle- 
 siastic, and a native of the district in (|iie.<ii(]n, 
 publi.shed a curious di.^sertation on this subject, a 
 third edition of which ajipeared at Verona in 17(1,). 
 
 ASOLA, a town of Northern Italy, on the ( 'liicsi, 
 2(1 m. N. by W. Mantua. I'op. 6,*4(i7 in \M->. It 
 is fortilied, h.'is a hospital, and a lilature of silk. 
 Its foun(lati(.n dates from the remotest antiqnity. 
 
 Asoi.o, a town of Northern Italy, 1!» m. \\'N'\V. 
 Treviso. Top. -1,720 in 18(52. It is liuely siiualcil 
 on a bill, and is encircled by walls Hanked witli 
 towers. The town has an old •cathedral, a piililii; 
 fountain, and sonn^ good houses. It is very ancient. 
 
 ASl'Fi, a town of .Spain, Valencia, 1(! in. \V. 
 Alicant, in a mountainous country near the Ta- 
 rort'a. I'op. 7,|H.") in 1857. There are quarric.< uf 
 line marble in its vicmitv. 
 
 ASl'KI.'C, a to.vn of ' W'i rtemberg, .3 m. NW. 
 Ludwigsburg, Po)). !,«.')« n IWil. Its duirdi 
 has some remarkalile antiqu ties. At a little dis- 
 tance to the N. is the fort ol Uohen-Asperg, (Ui a 
 steep rock, 1,1 Oo feet above ti e level of the xi\, 
 It is at pre.'ient used as a ])rison. 
 
 ASIM'",1>N, a small village of th>, irch-f'.icliy ef 
 Austi.'.'>, on tilt! left bank of the Danube, iippii>ite 
 the is) Mid of I^obaii, al)out 2 m. below Vii'niia. 
 I'op. 7;!(t in !«;■)«. This and the iieighlHuiiiiii; 
 village of Fssling were, in IHO!l, the scene of a tre- 
 mendous coiitlicr between the grand Freiicli army 
 commanded by Na|)o)s!on, and the AustriaiisinuliT 
 the i;>'cbduke Charlr.s. After two days' (21st ami 
 22(1 May) continiu us tighting, with va.'^t ki.^s mi 
 both sides, Naixdei i was obliged to withdraw his 
 troops from the lie Id, and take refuge in tlicislaml 
 of Lobau. 
 
 ASI'l'V''' .. iown of France, dep. Haute Gnnninp, 
 cap. cant. « m. Mv St. (Jauden.s. Top. 2,l.")7 in 
 IH()I. The town has manufactures of nails, wiuli.s 
 anil boxwood articles. 
 
 ASSAM, an iiiLnid terri'ory of India lieyoml 
 the (janges, a dependency of the liritish empire, 
 
ASSAM 
 
 fcinninj; part of t\w K, frontier of our Indian piw- 
 scssioiis. It is incIudtMl in the viilU'y of the Hrah- 
 nm|KPiitrn, Iwtween -*rfi iW, and W° 10' N. lat., 
 mill !tO° to !>7° iiiV K. lonf^. ; liavinj^ N. tlio llinia- 
 iiiva mountains, whicii He])arate it from Kiiontan 
 mill Tibet; K. 'I'ihet ; S. tiie Napi and (iarrows 
 iiiiiiintainM, wliieh divide it from the Dirnian iind 
 Miiiinci'ixior terrilories; ami \V. lten;;al : length, 
 !•; to W. alioiit ItiO ni. ; area, 18,200 .sq. m. Ivsti- 
 iimt. pop. 7(tO,000. 
 
 Tlif general aspeet of Assam i.i that of line and 
 fiTiiit' lowlands, inclosed hv ran>;es of undulating' 
 liijjs, and llicse again by loftier ones, the surface 
 (ifwiiich is mostly covered by forests, hut their 
 siinnnits, in winter, are often covered with snow. 
 Till' geology of tills region has not been much 
 siiidi('<l ; the mountains whicli form its S. boundary, 
 wliii'ii increase in height as they proceed eastward, 
 iijiisist ill part of a hard grey granular slate ; and 
 III) the inferior heights there are many s(;atteri'd 
 lidiililers of granite. Shell liuiastone is found in 
 large quantity near DIuirmpoor. 
 
 The most remarkai)le natural feature of Assam 
 is the number of rivers, in which it surpasses every 
 iilJuT coiiiilry of equal extent. Ilesides the Itrali- 
 iiiapi'iitra, which runs through its centre in a S\V. 
 (lirci'tioii, it has tliirty-foiir rivers (lowing from its 
 N.. and twenty-four from its S. mountains, all of 
 which are navigable for trading vessels of some 
 hizi;. 
 
 In Upjier Assam, the Brahmapoutra divides 
 info two streams, inclosing the considerable island 
 (pf Dcliing, one of the most fertile tracts in the 
 (ipiintry, having an area of 1,M(M) s(|. ni., and a pop. 
 ur25,(MM). The inundations whicli prevail during 
 a part of the year {nee I$isAHMAi'(iUTi{A),and give 
 A.-sain the appearance of an extensive lake, and 
 the great subscc(uent heats, render the climate 
 must unwholesome and pestiferous both to Imii'o- 
 pcaiis and natives. The chief mineral products 
 arc gold dust, in the sands of many of the rivers, 
 the collection of which enqdoys a great miinlier of 
 pi'ople, the produce of the Dhunsereo river alone 
 hciiig estimated at 1«(>,»*00 nip. a year; silver; 
 imn; salt, chietly from springs in Upper Assam ; 
 lead, coal, and petroleum. Throughout tlie whole 
 length of the Assam v:i)l'jy, a forest seven or eight 
 iiiiics wide extends along the N. border, chielly of 
 a tropical character; but at the foot of the hill 
 ranges, ehestmit, alder, &c., are intermixed with 
 the ()tli"r trees. The timber is not remarkably 
 line, nor any of the trees large, cxceiiting the 
 laiiutehoiic ( hciiseluntlra, Koxbiirgh),which grows 
 Military, sometimes to the height of 100 ft. and 
 idvcring with its branches an area of UOO sq. ft. 
 Tea, of a genuine kind, has been discovered in the 
 ri';;i()ii inhabited by the Singpho tribes where it 
 •,'riiws over a large tract of tlie peculiar yellowish 
 siiii so characteristically ada))ted toil. About the 
 yi'iir IXliO, it was brought to the London market, 
 liiitli black and green, and fetched a hi^-h price. 
 Since then its cultivation has been much extended, 
 anil it has now become one of the most prmiiising 
 agricultural products of India. The exports in 
 lsii;i were of the value of •J2"2,0.'l.')/. ; in the same 
 yi'ar there were KiO tea plantations, extending 
 "viT an area of nearly 14,0(10 acres, and enijiloying 
 17.1)1)0 daily labourers. Assam is very favourable 
 III the production of silk, which is of a very superior 
 i|Hality, but mostly made by wild insects, of whicli 
 iliiTe are live dillerent species. A beautiful deep 
 'ivo is obtained from nmm, a species of Itiiellia, 
 i''(mtliaee<e ; and a ]iowcrful poison is procured 
 liiHii Slime plant i)y the Assamcic, into which they 
 ilil> their arrows. T'lie hills along the bed of the 
 Irnlicli arc very stee]i, and covereil with dense 
 jiaijjle nearly to theii summits. There are no 
 
 ASSEEROIU'R 
 
 23« 
 
 tigers, hut many bears, monkeys, squirrels, A-r. 
 The chief object of culture is rice, and next to this 
 nmstard seed; wheat, rye, barley, and millet aro 
 rare; many sorts of pulse, the banana, orang(>, 
 and other fruits, black pepper, ginger, turmeric, 
 caiisicum, onions, tnnl garlic are cultivated, and 
 cotton by the hill tribes. Cattle and jioultry are 
 few; the buttalo is most us"d in agricultiin^ " Vil- 
 lages rare, and the scattered huts mostly built of 
 bamboo. There is some small trade witli ISootaii 
 and Til)et : several remtirkable roads or causeways 
 intersect Assam, the origin of which is not known, 
 but they aj)|iear to have been constructed at u 
 distant period; one of these extends from Couch 
 llahar in liengal to the extreme K. limits of this 
 country. 'I"he land is tilled by py/its, or natives 
 of four ditlerent classes, who are obliged, for a 
 portion of the year, to give their services fur the 
 beiielit of the rajah granting them their land. 
 
 The mannfaiUures are those of silk velvet and 
 cotton sfutls, and are carried on by the women : 
 silks are in general use for clothing, mid similar to 
 those of China. The trade is mostly with Bengal, 
 the imports from which are broadcloths, muslins, 
 chintzes, tl'c., salt, opium, litpior, glass, crockery, 
 tobacco, betel, and rice ; the exports being gold 
 dust, ivory, silver, amber, musk, daos, ISirmeso 
 cloths, and a few Chinese cloths; in IM.'l.'i, cotton 
 was added for the first time to the exports from 
 Assam, and the cultivation of this plant has, since 
 then, liirgely increased, owing to the dearth occa- 
 sioned by the civil war in America. Justice in 
 administered by the heads of tribes, and their 
 punisliinents are at times of the most barbarous 
 description. T"hc religion is that of lirahma, in- 
 troduced in the seventeenth eentiiry ; before that 
 period, thegoiK!bang (probablytliesame as Itoodh) 
 was a<lored: the priests have great inlluence, and 
 are intriguing and vicious. The people are active, 
 hardy, and enterprising, but barbarous, revengeful, 
 and (h'ceitful; tliey consist of numerous ditt'creiit 
 tribes, as the Mor-Kliamli, Singphns, Jlishniees, 
 itc, etich under a separate chieftain. l'riiici|)!ii 
 food rice, hut they also eat serpents, rats, locusts, 
 dugs' tlesh, itc. ; tl'ey use an Ilindoostaiiee dialect, 
 the langnigeof Assam being nearly extinct. Some 
 of the tribes go ipiite iiak(Ml; others have a cover- 
 ing round their middle, iind over the head and 
 shoulders : lliey wear moustaches, but shave the 
 scal|) and chin. Their habitations, even in the 
 liriiicipal towns, are mere huts, with a clay tloor 
 and conical roof of straw or bamboo. Jii every 
 respect this country is in a state of abject bar- 
 barism. Little is known of their history ; in Id.SH, 
 they invaded Uciigal, but were repulsed by some 
 of Shah .leliann's ollicers, and lost some, of their 
 own frontier pro\-iiices. A general of Anriing/ebo 
 subsequently led an army into Assam, whicli he 
 lost before (iergoiig during the rainy season by 
 disease and the re.-^istance of the enemy. Assam 
 is one of the provinces ceded to the Ilritish by the 
 liirmesc in \XM. Principal towns Cherghong, 
 Joorhatli, and Voiirhalti. 
 
 ASSCIll'^, a town of lielgium, ]>rov. South llra- 
 baiit, about half way between lirussels and l)en- 
 deriiionde. Pop. "),!il7 in 18oG. It has some trade 
 in liojis, tlax, and com, 
 
 ASSKKIMilUJI!, a town and fortress of llin- 
 dostan, presid. Itombay, prov. Candeish, cap. distr. 
 belonging chiefly to Sindia's doin., on a detached 
 hill of the Saiitpoorah Kauge, lo m. N. Itoorliaii- 
 poor, and '21.") in. KXK. Surat. Lat. 21° --'s' N., 
 hiiig. 7i;° 2.'!' !•:. Top. about 2,000. The town, 
 straggling and irregular, with one good bazaar, 
 stiiiids iit the base of the rocky hill on whicli the 
 fortress is placed. The summit of this hill is about- 
 1,100 yds. from E. to W., by GOO yds. wiile; it is 
 
 if] 
 
 'ill 
 
 l». 
 
 'm- 
 
236 
 
 ASSENDELl'T 
 
 ; kU^- 
 
 iiKtloHoil hy n wull, and xurroiiinlL'd l»y n procipicc 
 from MO to 100 ft, in |)cr|)ciiili('iilar lic-i^lit, so wi'll 
 Ncarpi'd iUi to Icnve no niciin.s of (iHccnt except lit 
 two .spots, botli of whieli are slroitf^ly 'ortilied. A 
 Heeoiid line of works of excellent masonry protects 
 it on tlie S\V. side, on tlie ])rincipal road to the 
 fort ; and a third lino end)races the liill imme- 
 diately ahovc the town. It is besides protected 
 by ravines an<l deep hollows on every side, and 
 psoscsses the rare udvantaf^e of plenty of water, 
 Magazines and a sally port, easily blocked nj) by 
 the ^jarrison, are excavated witiiin tiic rock. Tiie 
 approacii from the X. is over a wild tract infested 
 with ti)j;ers and wolves. Assccrf^^iiur is surrounded 
 on every mW except the .S\\', by Sindia's dom., 
 and is the nearest place in tiie ISondmv presid, to 
 ItenKal. It was taken in \H(Ki and iWllt by the 
 Itritish, who have held it sin<je tiie last-mentioned 
 A- ear. 
 
 ASS1:NDF.LFT, n villnijc of tiie Netherlands, 
 )irov. Holland, 7 m. NNK. Harlem. I'op. 2,UIS0 
 in IMfil. 
 
 ASSKNKDK, a town of Helpium, prov. East 
 riandens, !!) m. N. (iiu'nt. l'u\). 4,2(M) in I ;■!.")(). 
 It has manufactures of wool and cotton, dye 
 works, breweries, and son]) works. 
 
 A.SSKMlKI.M, a town of the G. duchy ITcise- 
 Dannstadt, at tlic continence of tlie Nidda and 
 the Wetter, Hi m. NK. Frankfort (tn tlie Maine. 
 I'op, !)12 in iWil. A f{ood deal of wine is]irodu(e(l 
 in its territory, and it has considerable coal mines. 
 
 ASSKNS, a .sea-port town of Denmark, W. 
 coast of tlie island of Fiin'Mi, on tiie channel called 
 I ho Little licit, 22 ni. WSW. Odeiisee, hit. 0;")° 17' 
 \.. lonif. 'jOiVl'E. I'op. ;i,ri«l in MW. It has 
 ilislillerie.s, and a considerable trade in corn. It 
 is llie usual point of departure for persons Icaviiii; 
 I'"iinen fur S^'hl(^swi^,^ 
 
 AS.'^ISl, a town of central Italy, 1.T ni. HSi:. 
 TeruKia. I'o]). l:!,«72 in iHlil. It is siluated on 
 iv mountnin, is the seat of a bisliojiric, has a cathe- 
 dral and several other cliurclic.s, some of which 
 iiK (irnameiited with line jiicturcs. ]\leta.stasio was 
 born ill this town. 
 
 AS.SU.AII'TIOX, or ASUNCION, a city of S. 
 America, eaj). of I'araKuayi finely situated on an 
 eminence on the left bank of the f^reat iiavitjai)le 
 river of that name, lat. 2i">° iti' S., loiij,'. 57° .■17' \V. 
 Pop, estini, at 12,(10(1. It was founded in loiio, 
 ;ind from its ad\ aiitap'oiis sil nation l)ecame of 
 hullicient impia'tain;e to be ma<le a l)ishoprie in 
 1647, It is miserably built, the .streets beiiif^ 
 nnpaved, and most of the houses no better tliaii 
 huts. The only jfooil lniil(lilij..cs are the conveut.s. 
 The country r(,r.n(liscom|iaratively well cultivated 
 and populous. Assumption is the centre of a con- 
 siderable trade in liide.s, t()l)acco, timber, imitli'; or 
 I'araf^iuay tea, and wax. (lvoi)ertt!Oii's I'araguav, 
 i. 2X8.) 
 
 AssiiMrxiox, a small island of the jMarinnnc 
 archipelap), I'acific Ocean, lat. 19°l.j'X,, lout;, 
 14;')° .") r K. It is cone-shaped, and consists almost 
 entirely of lava and other volcanic jiroducts. It 
 produces a few cocoa iiiit trees, and is described In* 
 reroiise as a most wretched i)lacc. 
 
 ASSl'S, an ancient city of A.sia Minor, in Troas, 
 iiciir the sea, wlin.se ruins occiiiiy a site eontij^iious 
 to the modern and iiicoiisiderablevilhiHeof Heiraui, 
 12 m, K, ('ajie liaba (an. Xecfiim), iio m, W.SW, 
 Jloiint Ida, and noirly o])posite to Jlollivo in 
 Mvtilcue, It is said to have Ik'cu founded by a 
 colony from Lesbos, and was famous in tlie iiistorv 
 of (u'ccian iphilosophy I'roiii its liaviiiii' been tlie 
 birtli-iilace of Cleaiillies the stoic, and for a while 
 the residciici! of Aristotle. Colnnid Leake says of 
 its luiiis, that ' tlie,v are extremely curious. Tiure 
 is a theatre in very perfect jireservalioii ; and the 
 
 ASTI 
 
 remains of .several temples l^vin^ in confused Iipa|n 
 on the^^ronnd: an in.scription ii]ioii an arcliiirave 
 on one of thes(! buildings shows that it was dedi- 
 cated to Anj^nstii.s, but .some tijjnres in low relief 
 lai another architrave appear to be in a niuclininn; 
 ancient style of art, and they are s<'ulptnred on ||||. 
 hard >;raiiite of Mount Ma, wdiieh forms the ma- 
 terials of .several of the bnildiiif^s. < )n the W. side 
 of the city the remains of the walls and towers 
 with a tfiih', are in complete preservation ; aini 
 without the walls is .seen the cemeterv, with nu- 
 merous sarcophagi still standing in tlieir places 
 and an ancient causeway heading through them to 
 the gate. Home of these sarcophagi are of gigantip 
 diniension.s. The whole gives, pcrlia])s, the most 
 jn'rlect idea of a (Ireek city that anywhere exists.' 
 (Leake's A.sia Minor, p. 128.) 
 
 ASSVK, a town of Ilindostan, prov. Ilerar, in 
 the Nizam's (Umi., 28 m. N. .lanliia. It is cele- 
 brated as the spot where the Duke of \Velliiigt(iii 
 commenced his career of victory. On the 2;ir(l nf 
 September, l8();t, the Duke, then General WellesU v, 
 with 4,.')00 men (of whom only 2,000 were Itritish), 
 completely (U'feated ii^u eombiiUMl forces of Dowlut 
 K'ow Kindia and the Nagjioor rajah, anionntiiig to 
 ;iO,00(t men. The confederates tied from the lielij, 
 leaving about 1,200 slain, ninety-eight pieces (jf 
 cannon, .seven standards, their whole camp equi- 
 page, and much ammunition. The liritisli-liuliaii 
 army hist Lotit! men, killed and wounded. 
 
 ASTAFOKT, a town of France, dep. Lot-et- 
 Garonne, cap. cant, on the (Jers, 10 ni. S. .\geii. 
 I'op. 2,i;tl in I8(il. The town has linen mauu- 
 factiires. 
 
 ASTFItAIJAI). or ASTILMIAD, a city of Per- 
 sia, caj). of a snijill jirov, of the same name, on llie 
 (ioiii'gan, about 12 in, fnan where il fulls into the 
 ISF, angle of the Caspian Sea, deiKiniiuiited the 
 May of Asterabad, lat, .'iii'^ ,jo' X,, long, l,:'fi •_»:!' |;. 
 Mr, Fraser .says that it contains fnun 2,(iuil to 
 11,000 houses, so that its pojiulatiou inav lie esti- 
 mated at fnaii 12.000 to IS.OOO. It is .siiiToiiniled 
 by a low mial Avail, about ilA m. in eircint. Fin- 
 merly it was much more extensive than at present; 
 a great part of it being in ruins, and llu re heiiii;', 
 also, within the wall, e.xteii.-ive gardens anil nu- 
 merous trees. ILaises, chielly of wood, are .said lo 
 be ]iicturcsipie and iiKasant, and are fre(|iieiitly 
 furuishcil with verandahs resting on wooden [lij- 
 lars; their roofs project far beyond their w.iUs. 
 Tlie .streets are well paved and clean, and are tur- 
 nislied with drains to carry olf the water, wliich in 
 most other I'ersian cities is allowed to stagnate in 
 po(ds. None of the piil)lic or private buiiiliiii;.s 
 deserve notice. The palace of the jirince, orguvei- 
 nor, is a miserabU? fabric, 'i'lie bazaars, or pulilic 
 nijirkets, are tiderably extensive ; but theycoiilaiii 
 little besides tlie articles reipiired for theoaisiaiiii- 
 tioii (d" the ]>hice, Asterabad, though in fact u 
 port, has but little lra(U'. It is .said to bevery uii- 
 liealtliy. (Eraser's t!aspiaii Sea, p. 7.) 
 
 ASTI (an. Astu or Jlasta J'omjiiiu), a city of 
 Northern Itaiy, ]irov. Alexandria, on the lionrhn, 
 near its conlliience witli tiie Tanaro. 2S in. KSK. 
 Turin, on the railw;.,- from Turin to (ienoa. l'i'|i. 
 28,087 in l>;(il. The town is surrounded iiy eiil 
 walls in a ruinous condition, and wa.s faincms fur 
 its 1(1') towers, of which liardlv tliirty now remain, 
 Streets narrow; but it is in general pretty well 
 liuilt. The cathedral, a modern building, oeenpiis 
 the site of a icinple of Diana, and it has, liei-idis, 
 iiiinieidus jiarisii chnrfhes and palaces. Asli is tlic 
 seat of a bishopric, of a court of original Jurisilic- 
 tion, and a royal c(dlege, and has several silk lihi- 
 tiires, with niaiud'actures of silk and stiill's. The 
 vineyards in its vicinity furnish the best wim'sot' 
 ricdinuiit : aiui it carries on a considerable trade 
 
ASTIER (ST.) 
 
 Jn thom, in raw nnd mnnnfuotun^il Hilks, nml other 
 iitticli'f. One <)f the ;^rimt('st ixw-tHof inixli'rn Italy, 
 ami, iiiilpcil, nrniiiilcrn Kuropc, Victor Allicri, dc- 
 scciiili'il I'roni an ancient and nulilc family ol' A.sli, 
 win liiini Iktc on tiii' I7lli ,faiuiarv, ITI'.t. 
 
 AM\ is a very nn(;ient city. In 11 .'it it was 
 Imrneii down by tlie Ivnperor Frodcrli! Uarliamssa, 
 liut it had been jirevionsly evaenatcd by tiie iniia- 
 liiliMits, It soon recovered its ancient >;randenr, 
 iiiid in tlie lhirt<'enth .H'utnrv was aliU^ to contend 
 witii the forces of ('liarles \, of Naples. In tiie 
 fimrteentli centnry it formed part of the tc^rritory 
 (if the hirds fif Milan, and was traiisferre(l. in l;tM7, 
 as the dowry of a Milanese |)rin('ess to the Uiik(! 
 cif Orleans, \irofher to t^liarles VI. of Franco. It 
 rcniaiiieil nnder the (hmnnion of tlie French till 
 l.VJ'.i, when it was ceded liy the Treaty of Camhray 
 1(1 the F.Miperor (Jhnrles V. The latter made it 
 over to one of his female relations, who married a 
 iirince of the llonsc of Savoy. 
 
 ASTIKIi (ST.), a town of France, dep. Dor- 
 (jdiiiie, on the lsl(', l(t m. \VS\V. l'erii;ii'>ux. Top. 
 l'.hTII ill l«(il. In the neij^hbonrhood is a mineral 
 source. 
 
 ASTOlMrA, a town of Spain, prov. T.eon, '50 in. 
 W. beoii. in an extensive! and fertile plain near 
 ilic hanks of the Tiierto, hit. \->° 27' N.. htii''. 
 (1^ Id' \V. l'o|). t.HlO ill l.s.')7. The town is very 
 aiii'iciit, a'ld was formerly lurlilied bv a w.iU and 
 ,'\ castle; but both of these liave been allowed to 
 nd to decay. It is the seat of a bi>lii>p, has a 
 (Idtliic cMtliedral. celebrated for its high altar, four 
 parish churches, and some conveiilM. 
 
 AS'L'liAKIlAX, an exicnsiv(! f;ov. of Kiissin in 
 I'.iirdpe, lyiiiic aloiij; the N\V. sb(n;< of the Cas- 
 |iian Sea, and divided into two nearly c(pial por- 
 tiiiiis bv the Wol^'a. Area h;J,()(»(I s(|. in. Pop. 
 '.'Ml.liiii' hi INK!, and 477.l!>-2 in \X'>f<. Astra- 
 kliaii is one of the least valuable provs. in the em- 
 ]iir('. With the exce|ition of the Delta of the 
 \V(il;,'n. and a iiaiTow strip of land alonj,' llie banks 
 (if tliat river, it consists almost entirely of two vast 
 sii'iiiKS. one on ctwU side the river, in part occii- 
 jiii'il with sand hills, but mostly low and tiat; the 
 sdil ciiiisistiiif^ of mild and sand, stronj^ly imjire;,'- 
 natcil with salt, interspei'M'd with saline lakes, 
 anil parlly iiiisuscei)tib!e of cultivation. In con- 
 ,'cr|iii'iice aijriculture is iie.i;lected ; but in the Delta 
 (if the \Volj;a. fjardeniiifj; is |)ractised with some 
 success, and su|ierior fruits are raised. In summer 
 ihe heats are frequently excessive, while in Aviiiter 
 Ihc frosts an\ equally severe. Horses are of the 
 liiaiitit'til Calmuck breed, and some of the wan- 
 (Iciiii^ trilies have j^reat numbers of camels. That 
 iVrliiity which nature; lias denied to the land, she 
 has jiivcii to the water. The tisliery forms the 
 ■|iiiiicilial source of the wealth of this government. 
 Mini is carried on nyiun a j^reat scale on the Wolj^a, 
 which tceiiis with iish, and alon.ic the shores of the 
 Caspian. Sturgeon, carp, and seal, but pariicu- 
 larly the iirst, tiw. the Iish most coininoiily taken. 
 The annual value of the siurneon tisliery is esti- 
 niaicdal from ■2,00(1,(1(10 to ;!,0()0,000 naililes; and 
 ahivc ;i(i,0(iO barrels of caviar, prepared fnan the 
 riios (if the sturgeon, have been exported from 
 Astrakhan in a single year. Though few in 
 iiiiinhcr, the inhabitanis consist of a great variety 
 dl' races. They are mostly noniades; and, aeeonl- 
 iii},' to the otlicial statements, there are, in the 
 cutircgovennnent, (aily 20.0',).s individuals subject 
 Id ilic capitation tax. With the exceiition of some 
 Niiiic falirics in Atrakhaii, manufacturing industry 
 is iiiiluKiwn. 
 
 AsTUAKiiAN, a city of IJiissia. in the cap. of the 
 ahdvc gdveinmeiit, on a small island in the Wolga, 
 I'll the Mt bank of the main stream, about ISO in. 
 l'rdmit,stinb(aicliure,lat.lO'=20'03"N.,loiig. 17°,').")' 
 
 ASTURIAM 
 
 237 
 
 E. Pop. 4 1."fl0 in IH.'iH. This 'Alexandria of I ho 
 Scythimi Nile, as it liiw been Honietimes called, 
 stands on gnauid elevated siilliciently to be above 
 the reach of the inundations. It consists of three 
 parts : — the Kmiiliii, or citadel; the Jiii'liHi'iriiil 
 (while town); and the M/oW/ci, or suburbs. In the 
 Iirst, or nucleus of the city, is the cathedral, a largo 
 s(|iiari! editice surmonnted by live domes, the con- 
 yeiit of the Trinity, and the arehiepiseopal palac(!; 
 in the second are ilie buildings for the government 
 functionaries, inidiiding an admiralty board, having 
 charge! of the ttotilla kept on the Caspian, thu 
 gymnasium, and the bazaars, or factories for the 
 use of the merchants. The hemses in iho suburbs, 
 where the bulk of the )io|iiilalioii resides, are ol" 
 wood; wlieroas in the other two divisions they 
 are of stone. Streets crooked, and mostly without, 
 pav(!tnent. It is the seat of an .Vrmeniaii as well 
 as of a (Ireek archbishop, and it has also Mo- 
 hammedan, Hindoo, and Protestant places of 
 worship. F.xclusivc of the gynniasiiim, there is 
 an ecclesiastical academy, a district grammar 
 .schoid, and .some inferior schools Then! ar;! 
 several manufacturing establiihtncnts for th<! pro- 
 duclioii of cottons, woollens, and silks; with ilis- 
 tilleries, tanneries, and soap-works. Astrakhan i-j 
 th(! centre of the lislicrics carried on in tlu! Wolga 
 and tlaspian. Its burgesses had funnerly a mo- 
 nopoly of the lisliery in the Wolga; biit since 
 IcSO;! they have been free to everyone. During 
 the season, the lisheries employ immense mimber.s 
 of people and boats. Tlie |Mi|iiilatioii (,f the citv 
 is then much augmeiiteil, ji id it presents an ani- 
 mated, lively scene. It is (he grand tishiiig mart 
 for all tlu! interiorof the empire; it isalso the greaf, 
 
 enirepi'it of the trade with Persia and tin iintri< < 
 
 tothe east ol'llieCaspiini, sending lotliein leather, 
 furs, iron, copper and tallow, and getting back silk 
 and (•( Itoii goods, raw silk, cotton twist, drugs, 
 c.Tpets, iVc. Tlie (!X|iorts to the coiinlrie's in ques- 
 tion aniiiunt.on the averagc.to twoinillions roulilcs 
 l>er annum, and llii! imports to rather more than 
 one million, but they liavi! sometinies biicu inon! 
 than double these amounts. This trade is piiii- 
 cipally carried on by Armenian merchants. 
 
 ASTLTil.VS, an ancient principality in the X. 
 of Spain, now the jirov. of Oviedo. Iviiig along the 
 Kay of jlisuay, between 4° .'iO'aiid "7° 10' W. long, 
 having K. the (Jastiliau prov. of Saiitander, S. 
 Leon, and W. Galieia. Area S.tist; sq. in. Pop. 
 4.'i4,().4i3 in lull), and .V24,iVi9 according to the 
 census of IK,")7. The surface of the ]iroviiice is 
 much (liversilied. Its .S. border consists of a chain 
 of high mountains, which graehially diminish in 
 height as they approach the coast," along which 
 there arc extensive tracts of pretty level land. 
 It is extremely well watered, being uitersecteil 
 by the Nalon, Xavia, and other rivers, and 
 has several sea-iiort,s, as (Jijoii. liivadesella, (Jii- 
 dillero, and Aviles. The climate along the 
 coast is mild, but in the mountainous )(arts it irf 
 frequently severe, and it is distiiiguislicd by its 
 humidity, liut little wheat is raised, the inha- 
 bit;iiits sulisisting chiotly on maize, and a species 
 of corn (tailed cgcfmJa. Haz.cd nuts are .scarce; 
 but chestnuts are very plentiful, and of excellent; 
 rpiality. The vine is cultivated in some parts; 
 but the ))roduce of wine is not snlliciciit for the 
 coiisiunption, the deficiency being sup]ilied with 
 cider, which is jiarily also exported. Oranges and 
 lemons are jirodiiced in a i'vw jilaces, ami great 
 numbers of cucumber.-*. J5esides the chestnut, the 
 wood of which, as well a.s the fruit, is n.ost valu- 
 able, the nioiintains are covered with forests of 
 oak. beech, and ]ilane. There is a consiih-rable 
 exportation of cattle and horses from this prov. to 
 tlie interior. Iimu, copper, lead, antimony, jel, 
 
 
 
 
 -m 
 
 
'2M 
 
 ASZOD 
 
 nnilirr. mnrblc, awl niill-siniics, nrp foiiinl in dif- 
 rcrt'iit |iltu'cH. (.'(till is also riniiKl, ami Mifiano 
 ^<a,vs tliat IMl.iliMl (iiiiiiialM arc Hlii|>|i('il fur iitlicr 
 parts <il' iIh' iK'niiisiila. Willi tin- rxci'iilimi nt' 
 iiardwar*', with iiiaiiy arliflcs of which this ]ir(>v. 
 Hiiiiplics llu' rest (if Spain, its mainifactiircs arc in 
 a very liackwani states 'I'lif liiilk of the- inha- 
 Ititants arc cxcccdin^'iy moderate in Ihcir'wav of 
 liviii){. 'I'licv cat little llcsh, drink little wixw.; 
 their usual diet is Indian corn, with l)«'ans, (lease, 
 chestnuts, apjilcs, pears, melons, and eiieiiinliers; 
 and even their bread, inad(^ of Indian corn, has 
 iieillier liann nor leaven, Imt is inifermented. The 
 prinei|ial towns arc Orviedo, (iijon, Aviles and 
 >i'avia. 
 
 iVslnrias may he siiid to lie the cradle of Spa- 
 nish independence. 'I'lic Saracens, who had over- 
 run the rest of the country, were iniuhle to over- 
 <'ome the Christians, who had taken refiij^'c^ in th( 
 fastnesses of its mountains. I'elayo was proclaiiiu'd 
 kiiiji in 7IK; and his successors, havinj;' gradually 
 extended their coiuiuesls, tooU,ahoul two ceiilurics 
 after, the title of I\inf,'s of Leo. In l.'tMM (heprov. 
 was crectccl into a principality, and hecanie the 
 appanap' of the heir presumptive to the throne, 
 who has since liecn styled I'rince of Asturias. 
 Several |ieeuiiar iirivilc'^'cs have hecii conferred 
 on this |irovince on account ol' the services it has 
 rendered to the monarchy. 
 
 ASZOl), u market town of Ilunfrary. cr). I'estli. 
 on the (lalpl, '_'.'! m. N !•;. I'esth, in a fertile valley. 
 I'op. l!.'_'l.'! in IH.")7. The inhahitaiits are mostly 
 J'rorcstants. Here is a hir^e and handsome 
 country-seat liclonj;iiij| to the ISarons rodnia- 
 nic/.ky. with a line colh'ction of coins and natural 
 curiosities. The town has manufactures of hlue 
 ami fcreeii dyed .sheep-skins, for which there is a 
 considerahlc demand. 
 
 ATACAMA, an extensive district of n(divia, or 
 I'pper Peru, lyinj^ iiloii^' the J'acitic Ocean, lie- 
 Iweeii the river Lao on the N., and the Salado on 
 the S., or hetwcen 21^° and 2hi° S. hit. 'J'owards 
 its N. extremity there are some fertile valleys, 
 hut liy far the fjreater jiart of its surface is an 
 absolute desert covered with dark brown or black 
 moveable sand. The arid soil of this ])ortii)ii is 
 never refreshed with vain, and, except whure a very 
 few rivers descend from the Andes, it is both 
 uninhabited and uninhabitable. Cobija, or Port la 
 Mar, is built at the mouth of one of these rivers. 
 
 ATKSSA, a town of Southern Italy, jirov. Cliiesi, 
 It m. W. Vasto d'Ainmone. Pop. 10,72'J i-i l^iCil. 
 'I'he town is situated on n hill, has a tine colle- 
 giate church, with parish churches, convents, an 
 hos]iital, and three moiits de piete. The poet (Jar- 
 done was a native of Atessn, 
 
 ATFIKII, a town of EfijTit, cap, prov. same 
 name, near the rifjht bank of the Mile, 42 m. SSE. 
 Cairo. I'op.cstim. at 4,000. It is sn|iposcd to be 
 till or near the site of the anc'wHtA/jliroditojii)lis. 
 
 ATH, a town of Itelniuni, prov. Ilainault, on 
 the Deiider, and on the railway from Tournav to 
 lirussels, l.") m. X. by VV. Mons. Pop. ;>,200 in 
 iMfiti. The town was fortified by Vauban, and the 
 works have been materially ini])roved and streiif^tb- 
 CMcd since lUlo. It is well built. Priiiciiial ])ub- 
 lic biiildiufjs, the arsenal, town-house, and the 
 <luirch of St. Julian: the sjiire of the latter, loO 
 fl. ill hei^xlit, was destroyed by liijhtning in 1^17, 
 and has imf bci'ii rcliuill. Ath has a collcfre, 
 founded in 1410; a school of dosifiu, andaii orphan 
 ]u)s|)ital. It has manufactures of linen, wo(dh!n, 
 and cotlon-stuffs, hats and gloves; establishments 
 lor bleaching and dyeiug, with oil mills, soaj)- 
 worUs, bn^weriis and distilleries. It is an entre- 
 pot lor the tradi' iii coal, and fur the proiluce of 
 the surrounding country. 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 ATIIAPF-SrOW, or ATIIAIJASro, an exten- 
 sive lake of N. America, Ix'ing about 200 ni. in 
 length, niid from II to I.'') in average width. Vun 
 Cliipewyan, at its S\V. extremity, is in lat.oxo |-j' 
 N., long. I 1 10 l«' W. It receives the Alhapeiinw 
 river; and the Slave river Hows from it into (inai 
 Slave Lake, lying about 170 m. NM. Its N.sJKin. 
 is high and rocky, whence it is sometimes called 
 the lake of the hills. 
 
 ATimoV. an inl, town of Iridaml, co. Jfcatli, 
 lirov. Leinsler, on a small branch of the Itovin-, 
 from which it is supposed to have its name, sinni- 
 fying 'the yidiow ford,' ;tl m. N\V. by W. Ihililin. 
 on a branch line of tlu^ railway from Dulilinin 
 Navan. I'op. I.',i."i!i in IKil.aiid 2,211 in ism. 
 The town, siliialccl in a level and fertile diinii. 
 consists of one long street ; it has a modern cluinli, 
 with an iuicieiit tower: a large and (dcgaiii I;. 
 Catli. chapel, in the ancient Lnglish style, \iii]| a 
 steeple llOfl.high; a dispensary: Nclmnls, jutrllv 
 endowed imd partly jirivalc, in which alioiil Inn 
 |iupils are educated; and almshouses, in wiiin 
 twelve ]ioor widows are supponed. Kud Is mij,, 
 plied in plenty from an extensive neighlMnniii:; 
 liog. Tlu^ Hill of Ward, nciir tlic town, liiii d. 
 high, is a striking object in this Mat couniry. Tlic 
 town, which is a bor. by )irescriptioii, reciivcil a 
 charter from Hen. I V., <'onlinning and exldidin:;- 
 its privileges, which were conlirmeil and liirtlnr 
 extended by suhse(|uent monarchs, ji'irliciiliirK li\- 
 Lli/.abeth, who conferred on it the right of sciidin;;- 
 2 Ills, to the Irish Pari,; and by .lames i,. by wliciiii 
 the municipal limits were tixed at a mile hevdiid 
 the town in every direction, to whicl) was aildcil a 
 right to hold a court of record, lint tlicse, and 
 some manorial iiowers, have fallen into dcsnitiulc 
 since the Union, when the bor. lost its right in 
 return ms. to Pari. I'etty se.s.sions are Ik Id licf 
 on ultcrnate Thursdays. The market, hclil in \hv 
 market-house on Ihiirsdays, is w(dl supplied with 
 corn and jirovisions. The fairs are nunicroiis; ilic 
 |)rincipal being those held on Hie Thursday lidnic 
 2« Jan., on 4 Alay, 4 Aug,, iind 7 Nov.; the<illitiv. 
 held on il and 10 March, 22 and iJO June, iuitl oii 
 22 and 2!' Sept., are less iinporlant. 
 
 ATlIKNIiV, a decayed town of Ireland, co, 
 (iaiway, 14 m. K. (jalway. Pop. 1,;}1',» in Isill, 
 and 1,2«3 in iHtil. The town was foniierly nl 
 some im))ortance, having been enclosed by widls, 
 ami possessed of a university. It returned a ineinln r 
 to the Irish I'arl. but was disfranchised at th: 
 Union. 
 
 ATIIl'LNS, one of the most famous cities of 
 anti(piity, the chosen seal of literature, )ihiliisii|iiiy, 
 and the tine arts, and the ca)iital of the new kin-;- 
 dom of Greece, on the VV. side of Attica, ubout 1 in, 
 from the (Julf of ^''.gina, lat. 37° /is' 1" N., Imif;. 
 2;io 4;{' 64" E. Pop. 41, 2!)« in 18112. The town 
 is built on the W. side of an abrupt and rocky emi- 
 nence rising out of an extensive ])lain teriiiiiiaidl 
 N. by mounts Pentelicus and Panics, N L, by .Ahmni 
 Anche.snms, K. by Mount Ilymettiis, SW. by ili o 
 Ilill SIuseium,now called Pliilopapims. and \V, liy 
 Lycabeltus. JJuring the jmilonged contlicis cil'iln' 
 revolutionary war (1M20-27) the town was laid in 
 ruins; and when the seat of government was tian- 
 ferred liither in 1S;{4, it was with the grcaK-i 
 didiculty that buildings could be litted up liir tlic 
 members of the regency, the diplomatic hndy, iniil 
 their oilices. It is, however, iigain gradu.'illy lisin.; 
 into importance. Several streets have been nin'iicii. 
 levelled, and widened, the principal being Ucrmcs 
 or iSIercury Street, yKohis Street, iMiiierva Strwt, 
 and the iJazar or Market Street, The first i.l' 
 these tra\-er.ses the town, which it divides iniM 
 two ((pial parts, parallel with the Acropolis, ami 
 is crossed at right angles by that of ./Eoliis, wiii'li 
 
ATIIKNS 
 
 280 
 
 trnninntps flnsc under the Acriiimlis. Miuorvii I attained its j;ri'iitpst innmiitiulp, it was cincnmpnsHe-d 
 Siri'i't. tlx' liroadcsi of ail, runs in ncarlv (lie I li\ a wall sunuoinitcil at intervals liystron^'ly I'nr- 
 
 'i'lie plan nl' this wall, many parts 
 of wliii'li ntill remain, exiiiliits tlie furni of an irri-- 
 t^nlar nliiiaif^, havin;^ Ml its \. extremity the f^ato 
 III' Aehanias on llu^ S. (he Itonian pite and lh<> 
 riinntainCallirhiii', (HI the VV. tlief,'aie nl' Dinchares, 
 and on tin; K. the I'eiraie ^^ate. Ite^innin^ willi 
 the pitc of Aeliariue on the north, the wall ran 
 eastward iienrtlu^ l)ase of Ancliesmus, and past th(( 
 Diomeian f,'ate lo the t^ate of Dioehares, wiiieh led 
 to the Lyeeinni; it tlu^i e(aitinned parallel to tlu; 
 llyssns on the western side of that stream to tho 
 fonntain Callirhoi^ w I'jnieaenmos: and thence to 
 the hill of the Mnseinm, which it crossed, conipre- 
 liendin;; the still exislin;; moimment of I'hilopap- 
 pns within its circuit. Its course from tlii^ Mtiseium 
 was north, takin;; in the chief )iart of the I'nyx 
 and Momit Lycai)ettiis, to the Dipylnm, which icil 
 to tli(! (inter (.'erami<'ns or (ireut linryin^r (ground, 
 and to the Acadeinia or School of I'lalo in tlu- 
 de)pressiipn lietween the I'nyx and Lycaliettus, 
 Athens had three fjreat Inirlionrs. the I'ineiis, 
 Mnnychia, and I'halcrnm, Theses ports formed a 
 sepanite city lar;;er than Athens itself, and were 
 connected with it liy iTieans of the lon^,' walls 
 (juifpn TfixT)). The harlionr of the I'lriens was a 
 spacions hasin eniliraced liy two arms of mcky laml 
 which formed ffif^antic nalnral |)iers. Kven now 
 it is considered a sale jiort, and in former times it, 
 constitiilc(l at once the liarhonr, dockyard, and 
 arsenal of Athens, 
 
 Athens, at its most tlonrishinf^ period, containeil 
 aliont llt.DlU) houses (Xeii. .Mem. iii. O, II), which 
 were for the most jiart so small and mean in ap- 
 |iearance tiiat. accordinj; to Diia'Mrchus, it was to 
 the piilplicedilicesalone that it owed its attractions. 
 The inhahitants were comprised under three classes, 
 citizens (rroAtroi), sojourners (fieroiKoi), and sla.i.^ 
 (iouAoi) ; of these the slaves j^reatly prei)onderated, 
 thonijh it is dillicnlt to make an accurate com)in- 
 tation of their innnliers. Indeed, the whole cpics- 
 tion as to the popnhition of .Vlhens is involved in 
 ^Tcat ohscurity. Hume, Letronne. Hoeckli, LeaKe, 
 ('linlou,and()f'!ers, have in onrowu times directed 
 their etl'orts t,,vards its elucidation, aiul have snp- 
 jHU'tcd their reasonings with j^reat learnin;^ and 
 in^iemiity, thouj^h with little unanimity or success; 
 and the tlillicnlties that surround the suhject, from 
 the vajfiu'uc -, inaccuracy, and discrepancy of tho 
 data, are so ^reat as almost to ])re(^lu(le the pos.;i- 
 hility of arrivinj,' at anylliinj^ like a satisfactory 
 conclusion. IJocckh ha-' estinuited the iiopulatioii 
 of the citv and its por;* at IHO.OOO; Clint(ai at 
 Kili.OiM); and Leake at ll(;,()(M). The .itatenicnt 
 of Aiiu'ua'\is that the mnnher of slaves in Athens 
 (or Attica) was 10(1,0(111 is universally admitte<l to 
 lie f;rossly exajif^eraled. The commercial opera- 
 tions of .Vtheus t'lnhraced every known coimtrv 
 and commodity. '.Ml tiie jirodncts of foreiijn 
 countries,' says JSoeckh, 'came to Athens, and ar- 
 ticles which, in other ])laces, could hardly he 
 olitained siuiily. were collected to^fcther at the 
 I'ira'us. l)esi<lcs the cum, the costly wines, iron, 
 lirass, and other olijects of connuirc(> which eaine, 
 from all the rcn-ions of the Mediterranean, they 
 im|iorted. from the coasts of the IJhu'k Sea, slaves, 
 tind)er for ship-linildinj^, salt tish, iioney. wax, 
 tar, wo(d, rifiiiiiifi. leather, and i^oal skins: from 
 iJyzantium,Tliracc,ai!d Maceiionia, tiii'lier, slaves, 
 and salt lish; slaves from Thessaly ; carpets and 
 tine Avool from i'hrvf^^ia ami Miletus.' ' All the 
 finest products.' says Xenophon (I)e Uep. Atli. ii. 7), 
 'of Sicily, of !taly, Cyprus, Lydia, l'onlii>, mid 
 the Pelo])(mnesns, Athens by her (empire of the 
 sea is able to collect into one s|)ot.' Nor were 
 muiuifacturcs negle(;ted. It is true that commerce 
 
 Hidii' direction as .Kolus Street. Ita/.ar or iSiarkct j tilled lowers, 
 
 Stri'i't, ,so called from its containing the shops tor 
 
 the supply of the vario\is articles rcipiireil by the 
 
 iiii{i(ilalio'n, is about half a mile in leni^th. The 
 
 JiDiisi's, huilt in the nn)dcrn (ierman style, are 
 
 .ri'i'ii'rallv supplied with balconies, and contain 
 
 "imps and coffee-houses on the lower story, 'i'lie 
 
 utiicr streets hardlv de.s(!rve the name, beiiiKiiU're 
 
 luirri'W laiu's, dis|)layin); a marked cont"nipt ti)r 
 
 ic;;ii!arify. The pulilic buildings comprise the 
 
 niviii palace, the iniiversity, the hall f'or the 
 
 iia'liiiiiMl rc))resenlatives, a theatre, a mint, an 
 
 olwrvatory, barracks, hospitals, with a cathcdrid, 
 
 ;iiiil .several churches, including; an l'",n.t;lisli chapel. 
 
 'flu' palace is a lar^je (piadran^i'ular edifice at the 
 
 I'niit iif M<nint l.ycabettus. 'I'he university, the 
 
 lincst (if thi' modern buildiu;;s, estalilished on the 
 
 (icriiimi model, has a jiretty extensive library, a 
 
 miincnms corps of ]irofcssors and teachers, and 
 
 aliiiiil two hiiiMired pniiils. Athens has also a 
 
 wiH-altciiilcd j;ymnasium, in wiiicli Ihe^-ovcrn- 
 
 iiu'iil lia» founded sonu! exhiliitious with various 
 
 iiirri'inr ai'adcinies and schools, and a botanic 
 
 ■,'arilcn. The ]iopidation is of a more hi'tero- 
 
 fi iicciiisde<cii|itioiis than that of iiiiy othi'r city of 
 
 it,- size. Kuropean shops invite purchasers by the 
 
 siilc if I'.iistcni bazars; eoHce-honses and billiard 
 
 rddins, and French and (Ierman n'sldiiniiit.i. two 
 
 (ipciicd all over the city. The mixture; of its 
 
 liiipiilation bears a striUintc aintloicy to the extra- 
 
 (iriliiiary contrast., )iresented by the city itself. 
 
 ' fill! same half acre of ;,^ronnd.' says a recent 
 
 lravt'lli>r, 'often contains two or three remaining,' 
 
 cipjiinnis of an ancient portico, a small ('hri.stiau 
 
 cliapi'l of the middle aj;es. a Venelian watch- 
 
 tiiwiT, a Turkish mosipie, with its accom)ianyinj; 
 
 cvpres.sesand palm-trees, and a modern fashionablc- 
 
 loiikin^' residence; thus, as it were, distinctly ex- 
 
 liiliitiiiLC the difVereiit phases of the varied exist- 
 
 I'liiv of this eelebratcil city.' (ireat etl'orts have 
 
 Ikcu made to seizure the health of the city, by 
 
 taking down the walls by which it had been sur- 
 
 iiiiuiilcd by the Turks ; by deansiu^' and rejiairiiifj; 
 
 .ill' ancient sewers; and draininj; the marshes 
 
 tiiri'.icil by the overtlowiiif^s of the (jcphisns, the 
 
 I'xlialations of which were extremelv noxious. .\ 
 
 }:iiiiil road coimects the city with its harbour at 
 
 tilt' I'ineus. Here, also, several lar^'e houses have 
 
 liccii liiiilt, and .some fiooil streets, tlankeil by re- 
 
 :ilM'('t.ihle dwellings, have been com)ileted. A 
 
 larue custom-house, a quay, and a lazaretto, have 
 
 lie™ erected, and though trade cannot be said 
 
 til lliiurish, the town has rather a bustling 
 
 aiiliciirance. 
 
 Athens stands on a spot rich in remains of an- 
 tiipiity; and it is reasonable to suppose that its 
 prt'si'iit tranquillity will prove favourable to the 
 lifiliT illustration of momnnents and iilaccs already 
 iilontilied. and that the excavations everywhere 
 fiirming for laying the foundations of new build- 
 iiifjs will lead to many valuable discoveries. 
 The ancient city of" Athens — 
 
 " Tlie eye of Orecxye, mother of arts 
 And eloiiiience, native to famous wits, 
 Or hosiiitablu — " 
 
 omsiderahly exceeded in extent the modern town; 
 iiiul, unlike the latter, which, as already observed, 
 •^liicails into the plain chielly on the \V. and S\V., 
 ciicirclcd the Acrop(dis. It was enclosed in a sort 
 iiI'lH'iiin.sula formed by the contJuem-e of thetlephi- 
 «is and llyssu.s, the former of which tlows due S. 
 imst the W". side of the city; the latter, wiiich rises 
 a l('\v miles to the }\K. of'the city, runs jia-^t it in 
 a !S\V. (liiection. At the time when Athens had 
 
 M 
 
 I' :rt 
 
 ii 
 
 t 
 
 
 '>*' ^f 
 
 M 
 
340 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 wa-i ro;;(irilp(l ns llie diiof point of nntioiml policy, 
 mill tliiit every I'lirmir/if^eineiit was >{iven In it 
 >vliii'li liii;li prolectiii^ re);iila(ioiiH iiml nllier pri- 
 viU';;e.s eiiiilil heslow. Itiil no reMlriclion wils iin- 
 )ioseil upon iniliiMlry: llie nii'iinest niaiiniil oeeii- 
 
 Iialicin was atlenii<Ml hy no disj^^raee; lienee every 
 iraneli of industry tiourislieil, anil the niainiliu-- 
 tnres of AtlieiiH were ev<'rvwl.er(( j'steetneil. The 
 lia;ive proilnets of Athens, too, were of j;rent ini- 
 tiiprtance; they consisteil ehielly of oliv«'s, lif^s, anil 
 lioney, and have heen eelelmiteil in all a^fes. 'I'lie 
 Wealth of the <'ily was also an;;inented hy the 
 Hiher mines of Laurion, ami 'those snniptnous 
 eililices wliiih eonstllnteil the |)riile of the Athen- 
 ians, and the admiration of t]w present day, owed 
 their i>ri;<in to the ninrhle (piarries of I'enleliens.' 
 (Dodwell's (ireeee.) The opnlenee, prosperity, and 
 jpower if Athens are fully exhiliiled by 'I'huey- 
 diiles (lilt, ii. 111). J'revionsly to the I'eloponne- 
 xian war, the treasury eontained !t,7(l(( talents, 
 hi'siile.-i a j,'reat (piantity of ^'nld and silver depo- 
 sited in the temples of the pxls and in other pnli- 
 lie ediliees. The eity was defended hy l,'.'ilit 
 cavalry, 1,(11)0 howmen, and 1.'I,ii(m» heavy armed 
 troops; Ki.niill men were stalionid in the i'ortilica- 
 tions, and the coast, was ^niarded liy ittHI well- 
 manned ships. The same historian has distinctly 
 indicated (lih, ii, <lli) that tlu; frc^edom of the 
 Athenian institutions, so pre-eminently adapted 
 to ilevelo)ie the enerjries of the hinnan mind, was 
 the chief source of ilieir unparalleled jfreatness; 
 hut our limits preclude us from entering into 
 details on the /[government nnd jnihlic economy 
 of Athens, and we can only refer the reader to 
 Itoeckh's iuvalunhlc trcntiiiu on this ditticult and 
 inlerestiufi snhjcct. 
 
 The most strikinjf ohject of Athens is the Acro- 
 polis, or old ('ecroiiian fortress. The Acropolis 
 alone formed the aiu'ient city, and from its elevated 
 ))iisition was tenned rj avia no\it, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the lower part, v Kma n-oAn, afterAvards 
 liuilt, Athens, iuclndini,' the upper and lower 
 jtarts, was styled, h}' way of eminence, jtoAk, or 
 aarv, t/iit viti/. Jt was founded hy C'ecTops, ahout 
 ninio 1");')(1 A.c. At its \V. end, hy which alone it 
 was aceessihle, stood the rropyltea, the f^ate, as 
 will as the defence of the Acropolis, Throuffh 
 this gate the jteriodical processions of the I'ann- 
 thenaic juhilee were wont to move; and the marks 
 of clianot wheels are still visihlc on the stone 
 lloor of its entrance. It was of the Doric onhT. 
 aiul its central pediment v,-a.i .-upported hy six 
 fluted marble columns, each .') ft, in diam., '21t in 
 
 metopes wn« senlplnred the hnttlp nPtho rontniim 
 with the l.apithie; and the frie/.p. contained a re- 
 presentation of the I'atuilhennii? festivals, [cij, 
 mis, Callicralcs, and Carpion, were the arcliitt'iin 
 of this temple; IMiidias was the artist; ami ii« 
 entire cost has been estimated at 1^ millinuH sier- 
 lint,', <*f "•''< buildintf, ei),'ht coiunnis oC the 
 eastern front and .several of the lateral coliiniiiidin 
 an- still staniliiif^. Of the frontispiece, wlnrli ro- 
 jtresented the contest of Neptune and iMinervn, 
 nothing remains hut thi^ head of a sea horse aiiij 
 the llt,'ures of two women without heads. Tin, 
 combat of the Centaurs nnd the Lapithie is In 
 belter preservation; but, of llu! nunu'roiis slatiifs 
 with which this temph> was enriched, that i,f 
 Adrian alone remains. The Parthenon, however 
 dilapidated as it is, still retains an air of inexpres- 
 sibh^ t^randenr and sublimity; aiul it forms at 
 one(> the hi^'hest point in Athens, nnd the ceiitri! 
 of the Acropolis, (►n the Np;. side of the I'ur- 
 tlienon stood the Kreehtheium, n temple dedieiiti'il 
 to the joint worshi]) of Neptune and Minenn. 
 There arc considerable renniins of this buililiii'', 
 purticularly those beautiful female li;;-ures callHl 
 Caryatides, which supiiort, instetul of cohnniw 
 three of the porticos ; besides three of the colnmii, 
 in the north hoxastylo, with the roof over tlieM' 
 Inst colnnnis. The rest of the roof of this (;riice- 
 lul ]iortico fell during the siepi of Athens in 1«27, 
 iSneh is nil outline of the chief buililin;;s of f|ii> 
 Acropolis, which in its best days had four ilistiin't 
 characters; heinj,' at once the lorlress. the sacnvl 
 indosnre, the treasury, imd the museum of art, of 
 the Athenian nation. In the modem city nf 
 Athens itself there arc still many monuments of 
 antii|uity to be found. Of these the principal arc, 
 three exquisite- Corinthian columns crowned hy 
 architraves; the Temple of the Winds, built by 
 Cyrrhestes, of an octnj^onal tif,'urc, with a repn'- 
 sentatioii of the dilfercnt winds on each of its 
 sides; and the monuineiit of Lysicratcs, cillcil 
 by the miKh'm (ireeks, the lantern of J)cmo," 
 thenes. 'i'his buihling consists of a |)C(leslal siir- 
 roinided by a colonnade, and is surmounted by ,i 
 dome of Corinthian arcbitecturi' ; it was siipposnl 
 to he the spot which Deinostbencs used as lii> 
 study — a supposition which has, however, Ioiil'- 
 been overthrown. JJcneath the sonthern wall ■•; 
 the Acrojjolis, near its extremity, was situafcil ilio 
 Athenian or Uionysiac theatre. Its seats, rising' 
 one nbov(! another, were cut out of the slnpiiif; 
 rock. Plato alKrms it, wii>i ; ..panic of v-Mitaiiiin;,' 
 iiO.iliHl pcrsim.s. It cont lined statues of all tiie 
 
 height, and 7 in their intercolinnnitition. On the | ^treal triif,'ic and comic popts, the most coii.s],iiiiiiiis 
 
 riffbt winj; stood the Temple of \'ictory, and on 
 the left was a building; decorated with ]paintiiigs 
 by the pencil of Polvf^notus, of which Piin.sanins 
 liiis left us an accomit. In a part of the wall still 
 rem.iiniiif,' there are frnj^mcnts of excellent desif^ns 
 in basso-relievo, re])rcsentint^ the combat of the 
 Athenians Avith the Ama/.ons; besides six colunms 
 while as snow, and of the liiiest architecture. 
 Js'ear the Propylivn stood the celebrated cnlos.sal 
 statue of Jlinerva, executed by Phidias after the 
 battle of Marathon, the height of which, inclndiii;,' 
 the ]K;de.«tal, was (>() ft. Ihit the chief t;lory of 
 
 the Acropolis was the Parthenon, or Teniiilc of I pods, from its cont.ainiiif; a number of 
 
 of which were those of yEschylns, .Sophiiclcs, ami 
 Kuripides amoiii;- the former, and those of Aristu- 
 ])lianes and IMcunnder amon^' th(( latter. On the 
 south-west side of the Acropolis is the site nf 
 the Odeinin, or musical theatre of llcroiies Atli- 
 cus, named by him the theatre of Ifejiilla. in 
 honour of bis wife. On the north-east side uf tlie 
 Acro|iolis stiiod the Prytanenm, where citizens 
 who had rendered services to the state were main- 
 tained at the ])ublfc expense. Kxtenitiiij,' .simtli- 
 warils from the site of the Prytanenm, ran tlic 
 street to which Puiisanias !j;avc the iianic of Tri- 
 
 sniall ti'iH- 
 
 Miiierva. It was a ]ieripteral octostyle. of the 
 Doric order, Avith seventeen (Milnmns on the sides, 
 each t) ft. 2 in. in (li.imeter at the base, and .'M ft. 
 in liei^ht, elevated on three steps. Its heij;ht, 
 from the base of the ]ieiliments. w.as (15 ft., and 
 the dimensions of the area TA'A ft. by 1(12. The 
 eastern pediment was adorned with two groups of 
 statues, one of which rei-resi^ntcd the birth of 
 IMinerva, the other the contest, of Minerva with 
 Neptune for the government of Athens. On the 
 
 pies or ediliees crowned with tripods, to coiniiiciiin- 
 ratc the trium])hs gained l-y tlie ChoraKi i" '''•' 
 theatre of Hacchns. Opposite to the west einl nf 
 the Acropolis is the Areopagus, or Hill of IMars, 
 on the eastern extremity of which was situatoil 
 the celebrated court of the Areopagii.s. This puiiit 
 is reached by means of sixteen stone ste|is cut in 
 the rock, immediately above which is a hciicli nf 
 stoiK^, fonning three sides of a quadrangle, like a 
 tricliiium, generally supposed to have been iIk.' 
 
ATIIKNS 
 
 211 
 
 iriliimiil. Thp niins of a wrmll clmpcl {•oiiMrcnitccl 
 III Si. niipiivniiiM tlu> Ar('(i|iimit<', ami ('iiiiiiiK'tini- 
 ntiiit; li'^ t'oiivorniim l»y St. I'liiil (Ads of the 
 Am«. xvii. •'It). HI"*' IxTf visildc. Almiil ii iinurtcr 
 III' II mil'' «()iitl)-w<'sl from tlio cpiitrc of tin- Arcn- 
 |l.■l:,'ll^ st/iiids I'liyx, iIh' pliicc priiviiliMl fur the 
 iiiililii' iisscinlilics iit Alliens in its |iiilniy days, 
 Tlic ftcps liy wliicli (lie speaker nnmiiled the rns- 
 tniiii. iio'l '> '''''' **' ll><'<'*' seats hewn in tlie solid 
 riik fill- the andieiKv, are still visilde. This is, 
 pcrliiips, the most intereslint; spot, in Athens lo 
 tlu> liivcrsof (Jreciaii p>iiiiis, lieinif nssocialed with 
 thf rciiiiwii of '. )eniosthene«, and the ut'iier fumed 
 Ailii'iiiiui orators, 
 
 ' AVIinfo resistless ploqupiioo 
 ■\VIc1iIih1 at will that tlcne ilcmocrnlle, 
 Pliiiiik till" iirsi iial, anil fnliiihird over Oreeoo 
 Til iliiceilon, and Artaxerxes' iiirone.' 
 
 Outside the modern city are the ruins of the 
 (.inpli' of .liipiter Olympins. This was one of the 
 lir-t ciiiiceived and the last exeeiitpil of the sacred 
 iiiiiimniciits of Athens. It was liefjiin liy I'isis- 
 initiis, liiit not linished till the time of the lloinan 
 (ininTiir Adrian, 7(10 years afterwards ; Imt nf thi^ 
 IJil I'lilliiiiiis which supported it, only !(! remain. 
 Siif far from it is the temjilo of Theseus, hnilt liv 
 (iiiiiiii, shortly after the hattio id' Salamis. This 
 i.<iim> nf the most nohle rcmaiiis of ancient Athens, 
 :iiiil the most perfect, if in t the most lieantifiil, 
 I'Nisiiiif; specimen of (ircciiin andiitectnre. It is 
 Iniilt nf l'eiit(dic maride. The roof, friezes, and 
 fiirnirt's still remain ; and so j^cntly has the- hand 
 iif time pressed upon this veiieralile editlce, that 
 ilic tirst iiiipression of the mind in hehohliny; it i" 
 il.iulit nf its antiquity. 
 
 (jiiiceniiiif,' the early inhnhitants of Athens, wo 
 arc almost wholly destitute of infonnation ; and 
 ivfii after its history hei;iiis to emerj;e from oh- 
 M-arity, the events which distinj^uish it are for a 
 ion;; time sc.inty and doulitfiil. Though Onyjie** 
 i< niciitinned as the lirst kin^ of Athens, it is' not 
 till three centuries later that Atlienian history as- 
 ^^^H■s a delinite form, when Cecrops (a.<;. ir)i")()),ft 
 native of ICgyiit, hy marrviii};; the daughter of 
 Ai'taMiii, ohtained thesovereifjnty. He collected the 
 liitln'rto scattered iiihaliitants of Attica, divided 
 tliiiii into trihes, and toiinded the Acropolis. No- 
 tliiii;,' el' importance occurs in the history of Athens 
 iiaiiiiij; the successors of Cecrops, till the time of 
 iiii'seiis (a.c. liKIO), who united in hi/iiself the 
 attrilmtes of legislator and w'lrrior. The reins of 
 ;,'ijv('nimeiit descciKh'd in his family, without any 
 luYiirreiiee of historical importance, till Codrii's 
 lA.c. l(lt)K) heniically sacriti.-ed his life for his 
 ivuiitr}'. At this time an aristocratical was sul)- 
 >iitiito(l for the moiiurchical form of government, 
 iiiiilthe title of 'king' was exchanged for that 
 (if •archoii.' On its tirst institution, the odice of 
 iiri'hiiii was hereditary, .iiid for life; but after the 
 lapse (if two centuries, it was limited to ten years, 
 and after passing through six hands on tliis foot- 
 in;;, was tiiially changed to an annual ollicc. 
 When the last change took place, a further al- 
 itratidii was made hy dividing the duties of andion 
 aniiiii}; ten jiersoiis, selectetl by the people from 
 the class of the nobles, in whom were vested all 
 lp;,'isli'tive ,111(1 judicial powers. Such a form of 
 ^.'iivui.iment was peculiarly ex])osed to party 
 s|iirii and contentions for power, and a strong de- 
 sin foradeliiiitc code of laws arising, Draco was 
 •iiwii as the lawgiver (a.c. tii'l). The atrocity 
 (il his code, however, Avhich awarded the |niiiisli- 
 miiit (if death at once to the most venial otfences 
 andthe most lliigrant crimes, soim rendered it iii- 
 capahle of execution ; and Dr.-^co Uist the imblic 
 favdiir and died in exile. To (luell the distur- 
 Voi.. 1. 
 
 baiiep!t wliicli continued to distract the city, the 
 people (.\.r, "till) hail rec'iiirse to Solon, who had 
 already disiinguished hlinsidf as a general, an<i 
 invested him wilh the oilice of arclion. The code 
 of laws whi(di he framed was admirably suited to 
 the exigency of the limes; for Ihoiigh its ten- 
 dency was decidedly democratic, u counterba- 
 lancing check was given to popular encroaidinieiit, 
 by the <>stablishiiiciit of the assembly of lni), and 
 by the prerogatives vested in the court of Aren- 
 jiagiis. Indeed, the freedom of spirit which Solon 
 inlrodneed and rendered durable, and the liberal 
 education which the whole system of his laws 
 made indispensably necessary to the noble ami 
 wealthy citizens, soon rendered Athens the central 
 |ioiiit of illumination to all tlu^ republics of 
 (ireece. Nor were the conse(|iieiices of .Solon's 
 measures at all retarded by the siibserpieiit domi- 
 natioii of I'isistratus (a.c. oil I). For iiotwilb- 
 standing his assumption of the regal power, bis 
 adniinistratioii was characterised by an as>iiluoiis 
 eiiltivalion of the arts and sci(>iices; and it is lo 
 him that posterity is indebted for the collection 
 of the Homeric poems in their present delinile 
 form. That the spirit of Athenian freedom was 
 not extinct, was iiroved by the expulsion (a.(\ 
 510) of llippias and llipparchus (the sons id' 
 risistratns), whosi- tyranny became oppressive; 
 and from this time the I'onslilnlion of Solon was 
 gradually midtcd down into a pure denioeracy, 
 until t'leosthenes g.'ive the last blow to the aris- 
 tocracy by the iiistitnlion of ostracism. 
 
 'I'lie petty internal contests wliiidi had agitated 
 Athens were now however lo be swalloweil u|i in 
 others of far greater magnitude. With ra|iid 
 strides the Persian moiiareliy had been encroach- 
 ing uiion (ireece, and most of the (irecian states 
 had already Hworii fealty to Darius, when Athens 
 and Lacediemon raised the banner of deliance, anil 
 the battle of Marallion (a.c. IIMI), under the con- 
 duct of Miltiades, at once achieved the liberty of 
 (ireece, and enshriiied Athens in the centre of ;i 
 glory. Then followed the iiiva>i(in of (ireece by 
 Xerxes, his alternate successes and lUd'eals, tlu? 
 seizure and conllagration of Athens and its cita- 
 del, the slralagems of Thcniistocles, the memo- 
 rable battles of Salamis, IMatiea anil Mycale, and, 
 lastly, the defeat of the Persians, Among other 
 consequences that resulle.l to Athens from tlio 
 I'ersian invasion, was the impetus given to ;ts 
 naval alVairs. Themistocles, who was eminently 
 imbued with a naval spirit, caused (a.c. IT'.l) a 
 new and more commodious harbour to be built at 
 the Piriens, whiidi in )irocess of time was joined 
 to the city by the celebrated Long Walls. 'J'liis 
 precaution invested Athens with llie command of 
 the sea, and raised her (Mimmercial and military 
 marine to an niiexunqiled pitch of iiros|ierity ; a 
 ])rosperity which w,is inainlained in full vigour 
 by the moderation of Arisiides, so deservedly 
 named the .Just, and liy the geiKroiis and martial 
 spirit of ("imon, son nl Miltiades (a.c. KiC)). l!e- 
 !'(rethe Persian iiivasii.!i. Athens had conlribnled 
 Kss than many other citii-<, her infitriors in mag- 
 nitude and in political im|iortaiice, to the iiilel- 
 leetiial progress of (ireece. She had produced no 
 artists to lie compared wifiv those of Argos, Co- 
 rinth, Sicyoii, /Kgina, Laconii,, and of many cities, 
 both in the cislern anil weslern colonies. She 
 couhl boast of no jioets so cvlebrated as those of 
 the Ionian ami Jvilian school :. Her sjiirit hitherto 
 had been decidedly martial; Imt her |)cacefnl 
 glories quickly followed, and outshone those of 
 her victories and political ascendency. After the 
 termination of the Persian war, literature and the 
 fine arts began to tend towards Athens as their 
 most favoured scat, for here, during the age of 
 
 It 
 
 f J. 
 
 i:t^ 
 
 
 '■■ % \^ _ 
 
242 
 
 ATHENS 
 
 I'lTiclM, nlHtvp nil other parto of (Jrrrrp, (c<'>ii»'* 
 mill tali'titM wrro fiwtorcd l)y an niiipl<> tU>lil nt' 
 rxcriiim, liy |miIiIIc Hvnipnlliv hikI npplniiMc. It 
 wiiH iliirin^ tliirt n^c lliiit piiiiitiii^, nrcbitt'ctiin', 
 and HCiilptnrc, rraclifil lliv liiKlu'Ht tlt'^r)-*^ of p<'r- 
 ffction ; ntui that < irt'ck pix'trv wah cimiOifil willi 
 n iifw kind id' coniponiiinn, tlu^ driiina, tvhirli v\- 
 hiliiti'd nil lhi> Kmo; and vigour of tli<> Alliriiiaii 
 iiiiat^ination, to^'ctlirr with thn fidl niinpnHs 
 and the hif^hcnt rctiiiommitH of the lanftua^n 
 ix'cidiar tu Attica. Tlic^ drama wan indci'd tho 
 ()rani'h of litcraliiro whii;h |K'culiarly nij^naliHcd 
 th(! ui(ti (>'' l'<!ri(dcM; and tho intcllnctual character 
 of the AllienianM is vividly |M)rtraveil hy the 
 Hnhlinu' and inipaNHioned Htrokeii of ytlNehylnx, the 
 graceful and ele^'ant toncheH of Sophorie!*, the 
 elahorate ))hiloHophy of Kurijiidi'H, and the eauxtie 
 raillery and moral power of AriNtoplianeH. And 
 thon^'li time Iwih etlaced all traeeN of the pencil of 
 I'arrhaNiuN, /euxiH, and Apidlex, poHlerity han 
 OHxiixned them a place in the temple of fame he- 
 side Phidiax and I'raxileieH, whoHe workH are, 
 even at the prcHent day, unrivalled for clasMicai 
 purity of (h'«i>iii and perlection of execution. Hut 
 It was not alone to works of art and the emiiel- 
 liNhment of the city hv Kplendid architectural 
 decorations, that the eftorls of I'eridcH were di- 
 rected. For at the ]ieriod in question, the wlxde 
 of Athens with its three celehrated harhours, 
 I'irn-us, Munychia, and I'haleruni, connected hy 
 means of the l^onj; Walls henun hy Themisfodes, 
 was made to form one j;reat citv, enclused wilhin 
 a vast paraluihis of massive fortitications, extend- 
 in<; to no less than 17-1 stadia, of which the cir- 
 cuit of the city amounted to -liJ, the Lonj; Walls 
 taken together to 75, and the cin^ind'erence of 
 the harlKMirs to 70. Hut the advantages that 
 tlowed to Athens from the administration of I'e- 
 ricles were not without alloy. The splendour 
 which he introdnced exhausted the puhlic reve- 
 inics ; and to supplj' deticiencies, recourse was had 
 to the infliction of rigorous imposts upon the 
 allied slates. Hence a spirit of disatl'ection was 
 engt^ndered ; and Sparta, who had long viewed 
 with jealousy the magnilicence of her rival, seized 
 the opiiortuiiity of fanning the discord into a 
 tiame. This issued in the I'elopomiesian war, the 
 various fortunes of which have been so ably re- 
 corded by the pen of Thiicydides. After the 
 lajise of twenty-seven years, during which (K-riod 
 the movements of the conflicting j)arties were 
 characterised by various success, victory at length 
 declared for the Spartans, and the Athenians were 
 forced to submit to the dominion of the Thirty 
 Tyrants; a humiliating period in the history of 
 Alliens, over which we would willingly throw a 
 veil. ]t was reserved, however, for the skill of 
 Thrasybulus (A.r. 403) to restore to Athens its 
 former constitution ; a revolution which he was 
 able to effect without much scveritv, or effusion 
 of blood, Perha|« in the whole history of the 
 Athenians, there is no feature more remarkable 
 than the vigorous elasticity of spirit which they 
 displayed in recovering from disasters ; and never 
 was the truth of this remark so strikingly illus- 
 trated as at the present period. One generation 
 had scarcely passed away, since she was groaning 
 beneath the Tliirty Tyrants and the Keign of 'l"er- 
 ror — her nativ« energies prostrate, her external 
 resources swept away — and now we find her on a 
 lofty eminence. Seventy-five cities hail her as 
 the head of tlie'r confederacy ; the ^igean isles 
 are numbered among her foreign settlements; 
 Lacediemon recognises .ler dominion of the sea ; 
 she is confessedly, and without a rival, once more 
 the first of the Gre(!ian communities. Nor is this 
 all; hitherto we have seen her producing and 
 
 fimtering IrglMntors, wnrriow, Rfntrrnien, paiutcra, 
 wulplors, poclM, historians, and oralors; ui' un' 
 now to Isdiold her in another as|i«'<'t, ax tlu' 
 iniilher of that pliiloHophy at once Niibtli' nml 
 Hidilime, which even at the nresent hour exfrt-ia 
 |Hiwerful inllnence over the liuman mind. 
 
 From this lime a new lera begins in Ihe liiitnrv 
 of Athens. I'hilip, king of Macedonia, by liint lif 
 dissimulation and brilM>ry, contrived lirst to t>ni. 
 broil the dilferent stales of (Jreece, and tli(>n |„ 
 trample on their iiiiie|M'ndence. The Athciiinib, 
 roused by Ihe thunders of Demosthenes, niiiili' ii 
 vigorous defenc(^ (a.<;. H.'IM) ; but the imiilc i,|' 
 Cliu'ronea ]irov('d adverse to their ho|M's, and i.n 
 Ibis lield sunk the supremacy of Albi-iis. I'mlir 
 Ihe sway of Alexander thedreat, ami tin- (lilliniii 
 generals who succeedci, him in the governiiii'iit nl 
 Alliens, she maih' varii us clforls to Ihrow nlV tin. 
 yoke; but these efforts resembled more the tluilli- 
 tions of a slave than the aspirations of a mhIiIc 
 siiirit struggling to be free. In Ibis stale hIh' cirii- 
 tniiied, tUv sport of every tyrant who chaiu'cil tu 
 draw a prize in the lottery of war, till Sylla prii- 
 claimed Athens a tribiilary of Home ("a.c. sil|. 
 Hul while Athens thus saw every trace of Iiit|hi- 
 lilicnl existence vanish, she rose to an i'rii|iin' 
 scarcely less flattering, to wliicb Houk- it,-.(ir was 
 obliged to bow. Her conquerors looked Id h('rii> 
 the teacher ond arbiter of taste, philosopiiy, iiii,| 
 science; and all the Honians who were amliiiiniH 
 of literary attainments flocked to Alliens in unhr 
 to acquire them. Tiiis tribute of respect In Alhc- 
 nian taste and genius was paid by various. Humini 
 emperors in succession. Under Adrian (a.d, 117) 
 she even regained miuih of her former iiiteniiil 
 splendour; and his example was followed !)>•«■- 
 veral of his successors, though on a less miujuili- 
 ceiit scale. The description of Athens by Puusa- 
 iiias belongs to this iienod. Id the third ceiitiirv. 
 ac(!ordiiig to /osimiis, Athens was taken by tioihii: 
 invaders, who, however, did not long retain tlicir 
 accpiisitioii, having been expelled by liie inliulii- 
 tants under the command of Cleodemus. In the 
 year 3!»H, it was again taken by Alaric, kin;; »( 
 the (ioths, who is said to have laid in ruins its 
 stately structures, and to have stripped it uf its 
 ancient splendour. After this dreadful visitatiini, 
 Athens sunk into insignificance, and bccaim' iis 
 obscure as she had once been illustrious. We are 
 told indeed that the walls of Athens Mere piil in a 
 state of defence by .lustinian ; but from the fiiin' 
 of this emperor, a chasm of nearly seven centiiriii 
 ensued in its history, excejit that in the year Il:tii 
 it funiished Roger, king of Sicily, with a nunikr 
 of artificers, who there hitrodiiced the culluftMil' 
 silk. Doomed apparently to iKJCome the jirey ijI 
 every spoiler, Athens again emerged from ohlivimi 
 in the 13th century, mider lialdwin and his cru- 
 saders, at a time when it was besieged by a jjeiic- 
 ral of Theo(h)rus Lascaris, the (ireek cm|ioror. In 
 1427 it was taken by Sultan Murad; hut sinic 
 time afterwards was recovered from the Tiiriis liy 
 another hotly of crusaders, imder the Marquis nl' 
 Montfcrrat, a iM>werful baron of the west. \\h» 
 bestowed it on Otto de la Hoche, one of his I'ullmv- 
 ers. For a considerable time it was '^ovcriied liy 
 Otto and his descendants, with the title of duke; 
 but this family was afterwards displaced by Walur 
 of Brienne. The next rulers of Athens were llu' 
 Acciaioli, an opulent family of Florence, in wliusc 
 possession it remained till 14.5.5, when it was taken 
 by Omar, a general of Mohammed II., wliosetlleil 
 a colony in it, and incorporated it comfiletely wiili 
 the Turkish emi)ire. In the year 1(!«7 it was ca|i- 
 tured by the Venetians under Morosini, alter a 
 short siege, during which the Parthenon, tluii in 
 an almost perfect state, and the other buildinf,'s nl' 
 
ATHERflTONE 
 
 lie Armpoli^*, miMtrtiiH'il tiTvnt ilnmnf^p. After n 
 ►htiri interval, it iijjiiin fell info Hie IiiiikIh ol' the 
 Tiirl>s oiiilcr w(iim<> jiirimlii-tiiiii it niiiiiinc-il, until 
 the in'fttv <il Ailrii»ni>|il« in |M".".I, I'l.llowinK nptlit' 
 iiriivi^iiiii^ Hii*l tl>" Hti|iuliilli)M<i iif tin- trrnty <it' 
 l.iiiiiliiii ill I**-'. •'.'•tHidiNlK'd till- new l<in({(i(im iil' 
 (ini'ct', «'!' whiih Atlicnx it now tlu- ciipitiil. 
 
 AriiKNX M tlie nnmc of wvcriil townH in the 
 r. Stiili'!), Iiiit nunu o( tlivin of nny iiiiitcriul ini- 
 
 iKirtiinci'. 
 
 ATIIMKSTON'K, a m, town of Kn^lnnd, co. 
 Wiirwiik, Imnil. llcniliiiKfonl, contijfnons to tin- 
 ( iivi'iitrv iimiii. 1-4 in. N. rovcnirv, and Kii'i ni. 
 Irotn {.(iriiioii l),v the l^ondon and Sorth-SVcHicm 
 railwav. I'op. ''i.^"" in IMtil. It lia.t a !>('<> hcIiooI, 
 I'liiiiiilt'd ill li')'-'). and niHiiiiractnn')* t\( liatn, rililionM, 
 and slmllooiis. Tlicrc arc lour annual fairs; that 
 which i.'t lu'ld on the lUtli of Scptfrnlicr hciii^c one 
 i.f the MKiHt con.tideraldt! in Kn)j;lund for the huIu 
 
 (,r i'Ikh'sc. 
 Ariir.icrov. sop chowuknt. 
 
 A'i'liis, a towr. td" Fraiuu-, dcp, < )rnp, cap. rant., 
 arnnid. Dnnd'ront. I'oj). 4,.'>0H in 1801. Tliu town 
 has Hcvcriil cloth manufactures. 
 
 ATIILONI''- im inland town of Ireland, eos. 
 Wi'Ktnieiitli and Hoscominon, on the Shannon, ti.'i 
 ni. \V. Diililiii, on the Midland tireat VVeslern rail- 
 uiiv. I'dp. lij-'w!" in IHtil. llu! nanuMif the town is 
 ilcrivcd from Ath Lwiii, ' the ford of the rapids.' To 
 I'onniiaiid this ford a castle was luiilt here liy the 
 )iii:lisli shortly after their arrival in the country, 
 th.'it hecninc a |)ost of ^reat conse(iuence. In Kill 
 Atlihiiie was U'siened by the Irish army ; hut, 
 niter ft resistance of «])WHrds of live moiitlis, was 
 relieved hy the Dnke of Onnond. In the sid)sc- 
 (|ueiit war of H\HH, it was gallantly defended hy 
 I (il, (Irace af^ainst the Kn(;lish, but was taken by 
 i-tdrm the next year by (iinkell, afterwards luirl 
 nl'Athlone. The' fortilications, which had siitVered 
 much (hiritif; this sie^e, were renovated ; but in 
 Kill? the castle anil the jjreater jiart of the town 
 were destroyed by the cx])losion of a ^cuni)owder 
 nuifjazinc, nccasioned by lifjfhtnin^'. l>nrin^ the 
 war with France it was made the military depot 
 f.ir the W. of Ireland, and secured by strong; works 
 nil the t.'onnaiifjlit side, coveriii}^ an extent of 
 liftoen acres, and containing two magazines, an 
 nrihinnce store, an annonry for l."),0()0 stand of 
 Miiall arms, and barracks for !)()() men. 
 
 The town is divided into two nearly equal por- 
 tiipiis hy 'lie Shannon, over wliicli is a loiif; and 
 iiiiiiiiveniently narrow bridge, built in the time of 
 Klizrthcth. Its public buildings are tlie two parish 
 rimrches, four Itonian Catlxdic jiarochial chapels, 
 a FrancitK'an chapel, a I'resbyt(!rian and two Rle- 
 tliiiilist meeting houses. A pidilic school, endowed 
 liyime of the lianelagh family with 47(( acres of 
 1:111(1, educates, maintains, and apprentices tifteen 
 Ihivs; there are also parish scho(ds for boys and 
 (.'iris, and an abbey schocd for Catholic children. 
 The ureal majority of the inhabitants are Homan 
 Cathdlics. Accordiiifi to the census of 1H(!1, there 
 wore but 1,009 members of the Kstablished Church, 
 00 Presbyterians, and 21 Methodists. 
 
 By its ruling charter, received from James I. in 
 IGOt), its Umits are lixed at IJ mile in every di- 
 rti'tinn from the centre of the bridf^e ; but ior 
 clecloml purposes they are contined nearly to the 
 space ccivered with dwelliiif^-houses, whicli extends 
 miraliout 4«.5 acres. The governing body con- 
 sists of a sovereifjn ; thirteen burf^e.sses, one of 
 whom is the constable of the castle ; a common 
 ciimioil (if about twenty members, chosen for life ; 
 and an unlimited number of freemen nominated 
 l)y tiie Common council. The borough was repre- 
 sented by two members in the Irish, and is now 
 riprcscntcd by one in the Imp. Pari. The right of 
 
 ATHOfl 848 
 
 plecflon pxistn In the n-inaining old ft-oompn, anil 
 ill the III/, hoiim liiddcrs, 'i'be niinilH'r of elcctori 
 in iMiil wiiH 271), of whom nine old frccincu ikiid 
 the rest III/. householdeM. The general scsnioiH 
 for Itoscoinmon are held here twii'e a year, and 
 those for Westmeath four timers. There are petty 
 Nessions on alternate Saturdays. 
 
 There are in th(« town, or in its immediata 
 neighbourhiHHl, two distillericH, and the same 
 nundH>r of breweries, tanneries, and soap and 
 candle manufactories, iM'sidcs several llour-inills. 
 Coarse hats were formerly made hert^ in large 
 nuiiiU'i's, but the demand tor thcin is imw tritliiig. 
 Itcsides the railway, which (duces Athlone in 
 direct comnnniicatioii with Diddin and (ialway, 
 and has greatly U'liellted the town, a small trade 
 is carried on with Shannon Harbour and Limerick 
 bv steamers on tlu; Shannon, the intercourse being 
 aided by a canal about I m. in length, near Ath- 
 lone, by which the rapids in the river are obviated. 
 Markets on Tuesiho s and Saturdays. Fairs on 
 the Monday after I'Viphany, lllih March, Holy 
 Thursday, and 21th Aug. : each fair continues fur 
 thre(^ davs. 
 
 AI'IIO.S, AtilOS-Ol.'OS, orMONTK SAyi'O, 
 a famous mountain of Turkey in luirope, near thu 
 S. extremity of the most easterly of those penin- 
 suhis that nroject in a SIC. direction from the dis- 
 trict of ,Saloniki (nart of Macedonia) into thu 
 -.•F.genn Sea, being that between th(^ (iulfs of Con- 
 tesa (Siiiim Sfn/iHonivHs) and Monte-Santo {Sinia 
 SiHi/itir,!::). This (teninsida is joined to the main- 
 land by a low isthmus, not more than I J m. across, 
 and not more, where highest, than 15 ft. above 
 the level of the sea. Hut the |)eninsula itself, 
 which is about 2,') m. in length by about 4 m. in 
 breadth, is mountaino.is and rugged. Mount Athos 
 has, by a recent survey, been found to be in Int. 
 40° Id'' N., h.ng. 24° 2lV:tO" K., and to reach the 
 height of ti,U4!» ft. above the level of the sea. It 
 rises abru|itly from the water, its lower parts being 
 covered with forests of pine, oak, chestnut. Ac, 
 above which towera the bare conical peak of Iho 
 mountain. 
 
 Mount Athos has been fiunous both in ancient 
 and modem times. Herodotus relates that tho 
 fleet of Mardonins, the Persian general, in at- 
 tempting to (hiidde Mount Athos, was reported to 
 have lost above .'lOtt shii)s and 2(l,ii(M) men. (Lib. 
 vi. s. 44.) When Xerxes invaded Greece, he de- 
 termined to guard against the occurrence of a simi- 
 lar disaster l)y cutting a canal across the isthmus, 
 of such dimensions as to admit of two triremes 
 l)assing abreast (Ilerod. lib. vii. s. 24); of which 
 great work the traces still remain. In modern 
 limes the peninsula of Mount Athos has been oc- 
 cupied from a remote epoch by a number of monks 
 of the Cireek church, who live in a sort of fortified 
 woiiJisteries, of which there are about twenty, of 
 dilTerent degrees of magnitude and im]iortance. 
 These, with the farms or uivtovhh attached to 
 them, occupy tho whole peiunsiila, which has 
 thence derived its modern name of Monte Santo. 
 The situation of the dittercnt inoiuisteries is gene- 
 rally the most romantic and strikingly beautiful 
 that can be imagined. Some of them belong to 
 Russians, t)thers to Hulgarians, and others to .Ser- 
 vians. Except the jiroiluce of their own farms 
 and vineyards, and the sale of crosses and beads, 
 they dejjend chiefly on the oblations otrered by 
 the numerous jjilgrims by which they are occa- 
 sionally visited, and on the sums ctdlectcd by 
 their mendicant brethren in other parts. They 
 pay an annual contribution to the Porte. No fe- 
 males are admitted within this peninsula. 
 
 Most of the '• .masteries possess considerable 
 collcctiuns of manuscripts, and it was long a pre- 
 
 II 2 
 
 I- 
 
 ■f . I, 
 
 'm 
 
 
 'Ak j't 
 
 ':4 
 
214 
 
 ATIIV 
 
 vnlont oftlnfnn that nrnw <>r tlut IumI tr(>niiiiri>ii of 
 niiciciil K*'ii)»'* '>i>>{l>t 'h' ri'i'oviTcil, MtTc h ililii^i'Ml 
 m'lirrli iniiili' III till' iii<>Mik'<ii'rli > ul' >|i>uiit Atliu'a. 
 Ill Ixoi, liiiwi'viT. llii'v Here tliiiriiii);li|y <<x|ili>r<'cl 
 !»>• I>r, <'iirlyli', ami, with ilio (ixrv|iliiiii of ii ('ii|iy 
 111' llic IlliucI mikI OilvHtcy, n few ul' tlic I'clitfd 
 \i\nvn 111" I III' (lltti'rriii iniKciliiiiiM, ii i-ojiy »( riiulur 
 niiii IIi'mIimI, till" OriilliiiiH i.f |)i'iiiii'<iIii'||i'n hihI 
 .Kirliiiii-N, iinrU of Ari.tiotlr, .iiiil coiiii'H of I'liilo 
 mill .(os(<|imii<, ho illil not iiii'<>i with iinyllilii|{ 
 vikhiiililt'. Then' Wert' houu- vuliittlilc MSS. of the 
 Xt'w 'ri'NiitiiK'iil, liiit iioiii' NO old liy ci'iiMii'ifM II- 
 tln'Coili'x AU'XiiiiilriiiiiH or MS. of Ilrzn. I'oh'iiii- 
 citl iliviiiiiy, ami IIvch of tlio MuliitH, lurriinl liic 
 Kf'iK liiilk of the liliriirlt'H. 
 
 'I'lif iiioiiiiKti'rit''t NiilU'rcil Hovcri'ly from the cx- 
 nrtioiiH of the 'I'lirltH cluriiiK tlic (Jrfi'k rcvohitioii. 
 'ril<> ciiliri' |)o|iiilitlloii of the pcniiiKiiltk wiiN csli- 
 iiiiktcil at iilioiit li.diiii ill l><iil , liiii, at prcHt'iil it ix 
 prolialtlv rather iimlcr M.OIMI. 
 
 ATIIV, an in!, town of Irt'laiul, <*o. Kililarc, |ii'<>v'. 
 Lciiislcr, on the Harrow, .is m. SW. Oiildin by 
 roail, ami I ij \iy the South- MuMtrrn railw :iv. Pop. 
 'M'.'l in iHiil. The aiii'it'iit nnini' of tlii> town 
 was Alhlcjjar, 'the wctlcrn ford.' From its posi- 
 tion on till' liordir of the l'',ii),'liMli pale, and on a 
 lord of the ri\cr, it has Iwcii a frriiiicnl Ht't'iii' of 
 I'onllii't. Ill l;tllH it was plundered by the Irish, 
 and JMiriit hy I'.dwaril llriiee in lill'), Afort,l>uill 
 ahoiit l.'iilii, to ).;iiard the pass of the river, wan 
 iM'cupied ill KllM liyOweii Itoe ( t'Neal, on the part 
 of tlie Irish, Imt in lil.")ii it surrendered to the par- 
 liaiiieiiiarv forces. The two portions into whieli 
 the town IS divided l>y tlie Harrow, are connei'ted 
 liy n hrid^' of live arches, thus foriiiin^ one j'oii 
 tiniious main strci^t, whence several lessor avenues 
 diver;;e. There is a |iar. I'lilirch, a phiin huildili;^ ; 
 n spacious |{. Ciitli. cliapid, with a I're^liyteriaii 
 and a Methodist iiu'ctiii^-honso. Adjoining the 
 town is a small cha|iel, an ancient cemetery, and 
 n small Dominican inoiiastery. The vast miijority 
 of the inhaliitants are Itomaii Catlndics; llie census 
 of iHdl sliowed 'Mr* memliers of the Kstahlished 
 (,'hiirch, I" I'reshyti'riaiis, and oV Methodists. Ilc- 
 8ides the parochial school, there are two others 
 Hupported hy voluntary siil)s<'riptions. There is 
 also a dispensary and a poor fund. It is a chief 
 constahulary station, and has a siuall cavalry har- 
 rack. I(y a charter of 1 1 James I., the corporation 
 consists of n Movereij^n, two hailill's, and twidve tnir- 
 j^esses. Previously to the Union the horoiif^h sent 
 two ms. to the Irish ]iarliamcnt. The summer 
 assizes for the county are held here, as are ({cneral 
 sessions of the peace in .lanuarv and June, anil 
 petty sessions every Tuesday. 'I'he markets are 
 held on Tuesdays and Saturdays; the fairs on 17 
 Mar., '2") Apr,,".) June, 2.") July, 10 Oct., and II 
 Dec. The modern coiisoqiieiice of the town is 
 mainly dorive<l from its heiiif^ a statioti on the 
 Hoiith-Kastern railway, as well as at the junction 
 of a branch of the (irand Canal with the Itarrow, 
 and from the latter beinj; made navigable to its 
 embouchure. It has, in consecpience, become a 
 jilai^e of considerable commercial iiniiortance. The 
 principal trade is in corn,of which large quantities 
 ure purchased, partly for mills on the Harrow, but 
 chietly for the Uuliliu market. Corn, butter, and 
 
 iirovisions are also sent down the Harrow to New 
 {oss and Waterford ; and timber and other arti- 
 cles, for the use of the adjoining districts, are iin- 
 jiorted l»y the same >!liannel and bv railway. 
 
 ATINA, a town of Southern Italy, jirov. Ca- 
 Bcrta, 12 in. Sl'2. Sora, near the Melfa, among some 
 of the loftiest summits of the Ajieiinines. Po]). 
 6,1 10 in 1802. The town has a cathedral, a con- 
 vent, and a hospital; and wiis formerly the seal 
 of a bishopric, siii)prcHsed by Poj* Kugeno III. 
 
 Illy 
 nii- 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 I It In pHiicipally rrmarkable for Ita Cyrlnpotin ro 
 
 ! mains. 
 
 I This l« ono of the most niicicTit of (he liHiini, 
 
 cities; b.'iiig, aciording to Virgil (Kii, Itli. Mi. 
 , <'2!l), n coii'>id<rablc town as early as the I'ri.jn 
 
 war. It was taken from the Samniies hy li .. 
 
 Komiiiix, A.v.f, 1 10. Cjceni savH it witi u i.r,. 
 
 fecliire, and oiic of the iii<>s| ihi)iiiIous and di>iiii 
 
 giiished ill Italv. iCic, |ii,, Pliinco.) It receivci 
 I a coloiiv from IIoiih during the reigii of Nerii, 
 I ATl.ANTIl' (M'KAN.oiie of the great di\iM„n, 
 
 of that watery e\panse which covits luori' ihiin 
 
 three fourths of the slirfaii' of the globe. Till. \|. 
 lanlic Oiiaii lies li.'tween the Old aiiil Iht- Nmi 
 I World, washlnglhc M. shores of the AmiTicii-, mul 
 I the \V. shores of l.iirope and Africa, exlniilin., 
 ' lengthwise from tlic Arctic to the Antarctic Scj,^ 
 Where mil lowest, Li I ween (irecillniidanil NurAviiv, 
 it is about !t;iii in. acmsi; but Itetweeii \. AlVlin 
 and Florida, \\'i<'re it nniins to its niaxiiniiiii 
 breadth, the disiaiice from sli.ire to itliore exci'i'd^ 
 l.l'tO III. Thoij^li it comprises little mure tliiui;) 
 lifth |Nirt of the whole oci'/iii, itH .shores furm u 
 nion^ extended line of i nasi than those of nil tlii> 
 other seas taken togciln r. This arises fnim sevirii 
 extensive inediterranean seas, which enter ■ 
 into the contiguous continents, being cmi 
 by straits with the N. Ailaiitic Ocean, aiui 
 ing portions of it. Such are the Italiic ami Miiji- 
 terraiieaii Sea ill the ( )ld ('oiitineiit ; and IIiii|m,ii.i 
 and Hatlin's Hays, and the ('oliiinbian Sea (ddli' 
 of Mexico anil Caribbean .Sea), in the New W'.irM. 
 And it is jtrobably in some degree owiii;; to tlii< 
 facilities all'orded for commercial intercourse liy 
 these arms of the Atlantic, that the cnimtrii'^ in 
 their vicinity have made a greater and iiiore cirly 
 progress in civilisation than those of most iitjur 
 parts of the world. 
 
 To the same cause has also been a.scriliiii lin' 
 circumstance of the nations iiihabiiiiig the .linri"! 
 of the Atlantic having applied them.selves jHrii- 
 liiirly to navigation: they havi^ not liiniti'il lliiir 
 activity in this branch of industry to the Ailmilii', 
 but navigate every other sea; and there is iKiwim 
 harbour, how remote soever, which is imt r('f,'ii- 
 larly visited by their ships, with the excepiimi i.f 
 those to which a free access is denied, or wliiili il'i 
 not furnish any article of trade. The Alliiiiii^ 
 Ocean has thus, as it were, become the must liv- 
 (pieiiled highway of commercial nations, ami Im< 
 been More coinpletidy explored and exaniiiieil iIimii 
 the otl:er seas; and freiiueiitly repeated ex|K'ri- 
 ments have enabled rules to be laid down furilic 
 guidance of vessels traversing its ditl'ereut pun-. 
 in ditl'erent seasons of the year, which give tin; 
 greatest facility and security to its navigatimi. 
 
 Those groups of islands which impede iiavi;::!- 
 tioii.and render it comjiaratively dilliciilt uml ilaii- 
 gerons, are much less numerous in the Vtlaiiiii' 
 thiui in most other seas. If, indeed, we ex(i'|ii 
 the chain of islands which se))aratos the Coliuiilji.ri 
 Sea from the Atlantic, and which, tlierel'ori'. may 
 be considered as forming part of the shores of tin' 
 ocean, it can hardly be said that there exi.si.s nnv 
 such group of islands between .")0° N. lat. ami 'i' ' 
 S. lat. The Azores, (!anaries, and Cape ilcVirl 
 Islands, as well as those of (iuinea ami the lic- 
 niudas, occupy a comparatively small spai'c, .ml 
 are easily avoided ; and the two litst-mcntiiiin 1 
 groups lie far from the common track of vpsmI-. 
 The Canaries, including Madeira, are frcqui'ml. 
 visited; being situated where it is usual fur vu.n-iIs 
 to change the direction of their course. 
 
 The direction of the winds and currents i.s ■ I 
 special importance as att'ecting the |)eil'orniiiiK'i' ' i 
 voyages; and to the more exact kimwleil.LiV"! 
 their course and influence, as well as to oiliir im- 
 
ATLANTIC ()('I«:A\ 
 
 3M 
 
 ririivcmont!t ill iIk' 'irl <>f nnvl^iitimi, U lo Ihi iih- 
 .rilKil lli<" III'' 'I'"' voviitim (ire III |ir<'H«'iil prr 
 I .riiM'il ii> iK'iirl.v liitll tlu> liin<> tlu>y oci'ii|)it''l only 
 m MiliirJiH liisit. 
 
 »V«(/i<.— V" 'Ix' AdniHli- OiTan, infliiilin;^ tJi** 
 iwii li'V SrtiH III ilH r\tri'iiiitii'n, cxIi'ikN Cruiii the 
 Aniii' I" IIk' Anliirclic I'ldc, it i^ in |uii-t4 «iilij>'cr 
 l.p itic ittriiiliutl 111 Iriidr wimit, In hiIiiTh to flic 
 riiriii/'lf wlniM i ami alnii^ nuiiii' nt' itx i'i>ii.i|h, Ih'- 
 (Hnii lilt' ini|»ii'.H, i.ii' wliiih arc Hiilijt'rl tn it rc- 
 (.'iilari liiiiiK"' iK'i I'nliii;,' t» tlic xiihuiih — or, in uilu-r 
 « nl.«, //MiM««i'n am there |irt'v:ili'nt, 
 
 Tlie irmle winiJH iliiniit exteiiil U'vutiil tile •'I'Jinl 
 imriill' I '' "n 'lie e'jnii'or; Hiiineliinex tliev itre not 
 iiH'l will, ai .'renter ili-tniice tliiin '27° lilt. The 
 wliiile surlaee ( (' the «en extemliii;^ from tlieK»> la- 
 lilililen to the ptileN 1h the priiviiu'e of the rnrinhk 
 wiiiik The latter lilow in every nenNon I'mm all 
 iKiiiil^ of the eoiMjMiHH; lint, liy loiij^ ex|Mrience, it 
 
 liii-i I n I'liiiiiil that the \V. wimU |ireMiil in hoth 
 
 liiiiii^lilu'ri's. If u line lie drawn in the ilirei'tion 
 III a iiieriilian, il is eNtiinaieil that the iiro|iiirtiiin 
 iKlweeii the \viiiil.-< Mowing from the \V . to those 
 lliai iiiiiie from the K. in as II to TfJ. 'I'liiw, at least, 
 is llie |>M|Hirlion ill the N. hemis|ihere, where the 
 I'siiiiiiile lias lieen iiiaile with the ^rreale.st exaet- 
 lii-is, It is, hesiiles, to lie oliserveil, that whilst 
 ihcwiiiils lii'lween the tro|iies anil near tin'in Idow 
 iiiiirlv ali^.ivs with the name ilej^'ree of foree, the 
 variaiile wiiiils vary extremely in this resitect — 
 liliiniiit; someiimes almost with the streii;;tli of 
 liiirririiiies, ami at other tiincM Hiiikin^ into dead 
 (■alius. 
 
 Tlie two trade-winds do not liliiw over the whole 
 Mirliiif of the sea lyiiiKhetweeii the tropics. They 
 lire separated from each other hy the m/mfi of 
 riilmn. This re;;ion varies, accor.liiiK to the sea- 
 Niiis, ill extern; and does not always occupy the 
 winie part of the ocean. It is fomid to extend 
 Irmn ii short distance otV the shores of the I lid 
 Ciiiitiiieiit to a short distance o'f those of the New, 
 lull its lireadth is very various. Sometimes it 
 (iirapies not more than U° of lat., and at other 
 Miisiiiis up to 10°. The most reiiiarkalile fact 
 rc-pcctinj.' this re;;ion is, that it does not extend 
 (i|iially on ImiIIi siiles the equator, lint lies nearly 
 llii' whole year round in the N. hemisplu're. (Inly 
 nlii'ii the sun is near the tropic of Caiiricorn it 
 |iii.s>('s tlie line, Imt never extends liirtlier to the 
 S, than '2,^°. On the N. of tho eipiator it ad- 
 viiincs at certain seasons, (!ven to the I Ith or I 'ith 
 ilcf;. of lat. These chan;^es in the extent and in 
 till' raiij;e in which the rejjion of calms is met 
 with, and in which the trade-winds lilow, depend 
 cviilciitly on the position of the sun. When the 
 Mill is near the N. tropic, or retirinjj from it, 
 i'|n'i'ially in July, Au/^ust, and Septemlier, the 
 liiliiis advance towards the X. even to the lltli 
 anil l.jtii (li% of lat. : and at the suine time the 
 S. triiile-wiiids encroach consideralily on the N. 
 lKiiii.-|ilK're, lieiiiK met with as far as the -Ith* or 
 .'illi ilcf,'. of X. lat. Then the lireadth of the re- 
 Kiiiii (if calms is 10°; but when the sun is near 
 ilie S. tropic, or hefjins to retire from it, the S. 
 traile-winds also recede farther S. ; and in January, 
 IVliriiary, and March, the calms extend to the 
 S. iif the line, hut only to a distance of from 1° to 
 '.'i°. In this season the X. trade-wind advances 
 to 2° X. lat.. and the width of tlu^ repon of calms 
 i* then narrowed to from .'1° to 4° lat. The central 
 liiii'of the region of calms may be placed at about 
 •i" (ir .5J° lat. ; and its mean breadth may e.vteiid 
 liver 5° or fiAO, m- from .'500 to 3 JO sea in. Con- 
 liiiueil calms reinn in this rej^ion ; and they would 
 I'lnn an insuperable obstacle to the profjress of 
 viNscls, were not the air daily ajfitated by a wpiall 
 which occurs about two o'clock iu the ufteriiooii. 
 
 At niHiii, a black and Hell ilellned cloud a|ip< ant 
 near the hori/.on, whl. h iiiiii'H'.cs, and aunonnccH 
 i» violent ihiiinlcr storm; suddenly a wind arivs, 
 blows for a ^liiirt lime with creat viiileiici>, >«'iid< 
 down ,1 few drojis of I lui; and after this luniult 
 of the elements inis l,i,i,d In. in half to one hour, 
 til.' calm r-iiirns. IIkh*! short viileiit mpialU 
 are ciilli'd innuiilom. 
 
 'I'lie nttrthrrH Intili-ii'iml It mibj"it to clianirn, 
 Hot only respecting the extent of »ea over wiiiili, 
 but also res|M'ctinK the direction in which, it blows. 
 When the sun advaiii'i's In the N. hcmi'.phen', it 
 withdraws, as already seen, further ll'im llie eipia- 
 tor. It also blows over a wliier ran^e of wa, near 
 the coasts of America, than «t a short distancn 
 from the tllil Coiiiinent. In the sinis inclii^<ln^ 
 the Canary Island-', it U rarely met with at .'Kl" 
 lat., and often imi before tlie -.'Ttli parallel U 
 reached; here, therefore. Hi N. boiiiidarv may be 
 IKcil at -.'MJ"^ N. lat. ii^ a mean, <>ii the W. bor- 
 ili rs of the ocean, hoWi vcr, in .n ' i'iin,»t of Ame- 
 rica, it extends farther N., i en td .r.' lal.; hem 
 ils mean iMiiindarv m;iy be ilxi-d at ;tii° Int. In 
 the nei^dilionrhoiHl of the (lid ( ■mtiiient, this 
 irade-wind blows fri .m the Nl'., but it dci liiieH 
 more to the I'",, a" il proceeds farther W. In tlio 
 middle of the ocean it is !•',. \ X.. and where it 
 approaches the New ('out incut it blows IViiiii dim 
 I'l. This wind is sinncwhal changeable towards it.H 
 N. boundary; siniietiines violent Nl'!. winds aro 
 found to prevail between the '.'•-'nd and .'loth dcf;. 
 of lal., and in the same |iarall( 1> it is frcipicntly 
 very weak. Ihit no navipitioii can be more plea- 
 sant than that with this irinh'-wind. It is riiihi^r 
 to be called a lircexe than a wind; and is uniform, 
 and never interrupted by sipialls. The waves 
 which ar(^ raised by it arc low. and their swell 
 Ucntle. Where this wind blows, the passap' from 
 the (11(1 Continent to America may sutely be ef- 
 fected in an open boat. Hence "the SpanianlH 
 have caMeil this part of the Atlantic ( Icean tho 
 * Scant' the Ladies,' — (iolj'ii ilv hm Daiiutu, 
 
 The mutliiTH trndv-wiml ditl'ers from the north- 
 ern in the >;realer extent of sea over which it. 
 blows, extending;, as we |)reviiiusly observed, iu 
 summer, to .'^i° or even (i^ to the X." and never rc- 
 ce(lin;; farther to the S, I' the eipiator than •^4°. 
 It is, farther, much more rejfnlar, not bein;; inter- 
 rupted towards its S. boundary by other winds, 
 lis direction near the (lid Con'iinent is also some- 
 what dirt'erent ; for here it blows parallel to tho 
 coast extending from the Cape of (iooil Hope to 
 th(! Hi;;lit of Henin — that is, from the S. At n 
 distance from the coiuinciit it becomes by dcfjrees 
 mon^ easterly, and where il approaches' America 
 its direction is nearly due K. The meridinn of 
 '20° W. of (Jreenwich may be considered as tho 
 line of se|)aratioii lu^tweeii the winds which idow 
 more southerly or more easterly. To the K. of 
 this line, the wind varies between SSW. and 
 SSI''.; but to the W. of it, between SSK. and 
 SSW. 
 
 Ill some parts the trade-winds extend to tho 
 very shores of the continents; in others, a tract 
 of sea lies between the trade-winds and the land 
 in wlucli u dirt'erent wind is prevalent. Thus it is 
 found, that in the sea between the X. trade-wind 
 and the African coast, ti. m the Canaries to the 
 ("ape de Verd Islands, the wind lilow\* constantly 
 from the W. This phenomenon is sulHciently 
 explauied by the peculiar nature of the (Jreat 
 African Desert, the Sahara. Its surface, destitute 
 of vegetation, and covered with loose .sand, is 
 heated by the sun to uii excessive deforce, and in 
 consequence the suprinctimbent air is raretied, 
 and rises. W^herc this raretied air coni(!,i into con- 
 tact with the more dcu-ic air covering the surfa- e 
 
 
 
 '.' rf 
 

 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 ■^ Ui2 12.2 
 
 lj& 
 
 
 III 1-25 III 1.4 III 1.6 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 6" 
 
 ► 
 
 0% 
 
 / 
 
 
 "^^"V 
 
 W 
 
 ^.^• 
 
 y 
 
 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Cbrporaiion 
 
 
 23 WBT MAIN STRf IT 
 
 WfBSTER.N.Y. MSSO 
 
 (716) S72-4503 
 
 '^ 
 

246 
 
 ATLANTIC OCKAN 
 
 ' ' 
 
 ifl 
 
 of the son, the Inttcr expands over the desert; 
 and this f^ivcs rise to a continual flow of uir from 
 VV. to K. 
 
 Fiirtlier S., between the Cnpo dc Verd Tslnnds 
 and Cnpe Mesurado (7° N. lut.), a kind of nion- 
 Hoon prevails, wiiicli, in rertiiin places, Mows to 
 tlift distance of 200 ni., and opposite Sierra Leone 
 altout ir)0 m. ofll' shore. From Septenil)er to June 
 it proceeds fnmi the X. or N'K,, and in tlie rest of 
 the year from S\V. AlonR the coast of (iuinea, 
 and in the lUfjIit of Heiiin, tlie H. trade-wind 
 prevails nearly the whole year round, but its 
 direction is a little elianj^ed, the winti blowing; 
 from the SVV. Between tlie Hif^jht of Henin and 
 80* S. lat., the trade-wind blows to the very shores 
 of the continent. 
 
 On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, along 
 tlie coast of lirazil, a re^fular monsoon prevails. 
 It proceeds, between September and March, from 
 between N. \ E. and N k. ^ K. ; an<I from March 
 to September, from between E. ^ N. to ESIC. 
 These winds blow with considerable force, and 
 extend sometimes to a great distance from the 
 shore, especially in the months of June and July. 
 There are instances on record of its having been 
 met with nearly as far as the middle of the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 N. of Cape St. I'oque, the trade-winds reach the 
 very shores of (he American continent and the 
 M'est Indies. Li these parts they seem even to 
 extend over a considerable part of the continent 
 itself; forthe c(mtinual E. wind which blows over 
 the plain of the river Amazon, to the very foot 
 of the Andes, is generally considered as a con- 
 tinuation of the trade-winds. The same may be 
 said of the E. winds which blow over the plains 
 watered by the Orinoco, where this wind is felt 
 as far as Angostura, and at certain seasons still 
 farther W, 
 
 Currents. — We are less acquainted with the 
 currents than with the winds. This arises partly 
 from the diflicultles in which the sul)ject is natu- 
 rally involved, aiul partly from the comparatively 
 short time which has elapsed since they have 
 attracted the attention of navigators and natu- 
 ralists. 
 
 Currents are to be distinguished from drift- 
 water, Uy the latter cx])ression, that motion of 
 the water is understood, which is produced on the 
 surface of the sea by perpetual or prevailing 
 ■winds. By jiushing continually the upper strata 
 of tlie water towards that point to which they 
 blow, they cause a slow motion of the water in 
 that direction. Accordingly, we find that that 
 part of the Atlantic Ocean which is subject to the 
 trade-wind, is in a continual motion towards the 
 VV. ; which Ls most sensible in those regions which 
 are alwaj's exposed to the trade-wintls, and less 
 80 where they blow only in certain seasons. This 
 kind of current is in most parts constant, but, its 
 tlow very gentle. Its moan velocity is from 9 
 to 10 m. a day, and it is very favourable to 
 navigation. 
 
 Other drift-currents are met with in those pares 
 of the Atlantic in which the wind changes with 
 the seasons ; as along the coast of Sierra Leone, 
 and that of Brazil, S. of Cape St. Augustine. In 
 the former the current runs, from September to 
 June, S., and in the remainder of the year in a 
 M. direction. Along the coasts of Brazil, the 
 current, from September to March, runs in a S. 
 direction, and from March to Septemlier, N. 
 
 I'A-eu in tliosc parts of the Atlantic which are 
 subject to a continual change of the wind, a drift- 
 <-urroiit is observable. We observed that N. of 
 itoo jj, lat,, and S. of .30° S. lat., in the region 
 of the variable winds, the W. \\'inds prevail, and 
 
 in these ])arlH of the ocean a W. current is por- 
 ceived ; but it is feeble, and manifests ilNcIf in i||.' 
 X. Atlantic only on the whole course of a V(iyii);i' 
 from Europe to America and backward, reliircliii); 
 the former and for%vardiiig thi^ latter. 
 
 Besides the drift-currents, the velocity of wliioh 
 is moderate, there are others of much grcatu 
 force, called projierly vurrenta. Their ori};iii is 
 still involved in obscurity ; but, frimi some fact.-i, 
 we may su|i|>osc that they are not formed (ui iiic 
 surface of the water, but are of great deptli, ami 
 in nuiiy parts, if not in all, extend to the vt-rv 
 bottom of the sea. These currents cannot lie 
 compared with rivers ; for they extend over sui'h 
 a portion of the 8urfa(!e of the sea, that if they 
 were transferred to the continent they wonlll 
 cover countries of great extent. 
 
 In the Atlantic, these currents run across the 
 ocean in three places. The current crossing the 
 Atlantic ne^ar the line, is called the Eipiutnriul inr- 
 rent; it runs from E. to W. The current, whicli, 
 in a direction from W. to E., traverses the X. At- 
 lantic between 'M° and 44°, Ijears the name of the 
 Gulf Stream ; ami that which runs hi the siiiiie 
 direction, through the S. Atlantic, between .'iO°aiii| 
 40° S. lat., is named the 8. Atlantic current. Otiier 
 currents run along the shores of both contincm.H 
 between 40° N. lat. and 'MP S. lat. Along the 
 Ohl Continent they run towards the equator; but. 
 on the shores of America, they How from the line 
 towards the iioles. These latter kind of cnrrents 
 are intimately connected with the equatorial cur- 
 rent; but very slightly, if at all, with the gulf 
 stream or the S. current. 
 
 The Equatorial current may be supposed to iiave 
 its origin in the Bight of Benin, on tlie VV. sliorcs 
 of Africa, between the islands of Anno Ihira aii<l 
 St. Thomas ; whence it jiroct^eds in a W. directiun, 
 towards Capes St, Koque and Augustine, mi the 
 coast of Brazil. Its breadth is different in dilTcreiit 
 parts. Near its origin it is not quite 3° df lat, 
 across, about 100 m. ; but, in its progress to the 
 VV., it increases consideralily in width. Op|iosite 
 Cape Palmas, its N. border is found at about 1°45' 
 X. lat., but the S. reaches nearly to 5° S. lat.: 
 thus its breadth extends hero over more than G° 
 of lat., or upward of 3(S0 nautical m. It attains in 
 greatest breadth between 20° and 22° VV. lon^'.. 
 where it extends over 7° or 8° of lat., from 4^° nr 
 5° S. of the equator to 2Jo or 3° N, of it; iuTe, 
 consequently, it is 450 nautical m, across. A little 
 farther VV., between 22° and 23° VV. long., it semis 
 off a branch to the N\V. ; and here it narrows to 
 about 300 m., which breadth it probably preserves 
 up to its division into two currents, opposite Ca)X's 
 St. Koque and St. Augustine ; but that part of its 
 course which lies VV. of 23° and 24° VV. long, is 
 somewhat declined towards the S. Its veluciiy 
 varies likewise, not only in the different parts of its 
 course, but also in dilierent seasons, being muili 
 greater in summer than in winter. From AniM 
 Bom to 10° W. long, it may run from 25 to 30 ni, 
 a day; but between 10° and 10° its velocity in- 
 creases to from 44 to 80 m. at the end of June ami 
 the beginning of July; in the other SHmmer 
 months it is somewhat less ; and, from October tn 
 March, very moderate, and sometimes very weak, 
 Between 10° and 23° VV. long., where it is com- 
 monly crossed by vessels, the rupidit}' of the eur- 
 rent rises often to 46, 50, and even 00 ni. per day: 
 but its mean velocity mav be fixed at about 30 m. 
 The temperature of the water within the cuirent 
 is everywhere some degrees lower than 'hat ol tlie 
 seas without the current. The whole length ol 
 this current, from St. Thomas to Cape St. Koque, 
 amounts to upward of 2,500 sea m. 
 
 The portion of the equatorial current v^k" 
 
ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 247 
 
 current i« por- 
 I'HtH iiHcif ill ill.' 
 ir»e i>r a viiyiij;i' 
 iwanl, retiinliii;,' 
 ;(!r. 
 
 elocity of which 
 much ({rcatir 
 Tlu'ir (>rit;iii is 
 nini Home, t'licts, 
 )t formctl (111 I 111' 
 ^eiit (U'pth, ami 
 end to th(! very 
 rents caiiiint he 
 xtcnil over sui'h 
 ea, that if they 
 jnt they wuulil 
 
 8 nin aernw the 
 rent cross! nj; 'he 
 \e. Eipiutorial nir- 
 e current, whicli, 
 verses the N. At- 
 < the name of the 
 runs in the siinw 
 ;, between ;ili° ami 
 itic current. Other 
 f both cdiitineiits 
 . lat. Ahiiij,' the 
 the cqiiatiir; hut, 
 ilow I'roin the line 
 r kind of currents 
 he equatorial eiir- 
 lU, with tlie giilf 
 
 )C supposed to have 
 , on the VV. shores 
 of Anno ISora ami 
 s in a \Y. diroctiuii, 
 Augustine, on the 
 ifferent in different 
 ot quite 3° of lat. 
 t8 progress to the 
 I width. Opiiiisite 
 .und at about 1°4'V 
 larlv to 5° S. lat.: 
 ive'r more than (P 
 jl m. It attain.s its 
 and 22° VV. Vm- 
 i)f lat., from 4jo ^r 
 3° N. of it; here. 
 Im. across. A little 
 W. long., it semis 
 here it narrows to 
 probably preserves 
 nits, opposite Capes 
 but that part of Us 
 lid 24° W. lonf,'. IS 
 ie 8. Its veluciiy 
 itterent parts of Its 
 isons, being miuli 
 liter. From Anu'i 
 ji from 2.5 to 30 ni. 
 [g° its velocity Ill- 
 he end of June ami 
 [he other summer 
 id, from Octoher to 
 letimes ver\- weak. 
 where it is com- 
 ipidity of the cur- 
 -en 60 m. per (lay: 
 ..wed at about 30 m. 
 [within the current 
 her than that "I 111'' 
 e whole length el 
 •0 Cape St. Koque, 
 m. , . , 
 
 L-il current wd^ 
 
 hr.inehps off from the main stream iK-lwcen 22° 
 and 23° W. long., ami about 2^° N. lat., is called 
 the .VT. current. At the point of separation, it 
 may Ik- from IND to 200 m. in width ; farther N. it 
 uidciiM even to 8(10 m., but narrows again to 24lt 
 and less. Its velocity is not so great as that of the 
 main ('iiiintorial current. In ilJ4 S. part, as far im 
 10° N, Lit., it may run 30 rn. a day ; but it after- 
 wards slackens considerably; yet at all times it 
 may Ik; traced up to IH° X. lat., and commonly 
 even to 2.5°. In the N. part of its course it de- 
 clines more to the N., till It is lust in the drift-cur- 
 rent. It is not improbable that tbi.s current in- 
 creases the velocity of the drift-current, whi(;h 
 navigators have observed between 35° VV. lat. and 
 the island of Trinidad ; and that the change in the 
 direction of the drift-current, which here declines 
 to the NVV., is also to be ascribed to the same 
 caii.sc. 
 
 At a distance of about 300 m. from the coast of 
 Ilrazil, extending lietween Capes St. Hoqiie and ,St. 
 Augustine, the equatorial current divides into two 
 hran<'hes. That which continueH to run ahmg the 
 X. coast of IJrazil, turns at the mouth of the Ama- 
 zon to the N,, and proceed.s along the shores of 
 (iiiyana to the island of Trinidad, where it enters 
 the'Caribliean Sea. It is called the Guyana cur- 
 rent, and the length of its course does not fall short 
 (if 1 ,.')(I0 m. Its velocity is greatest in summer and 
 winter, and may, in the former, be about 30 m. a 
 day at a nii'aii. It enters the Caribbean Sea by the 
 dilfcrent straits which, S. of the island of Martin- 
 ique, divulc the smaller Antilles from one another 
 and from the continent of 8. America. In the.se 
 straits the currents setting into the Caribbean Sea 
 a>e strung: that between Trinidad and Greiiaila 
 nui.s from 1 to \\ m. per hour; less rapid is the 
 cunent in the strait between St. Vincent and St. 
 Lucia; and lietween the latter island and Martiii- 
 i(|iic it runs not more than 21 m. i)er day. At the 
 Virgin Islands the (low of the water is only 8 or 10 
 m. a day, and that is not more than the common 
 rate at which the drift-current runs. In the Carib- 
 liean Sea the Guyana current terminates ; for in 
 I hat sea no perpetual current has been traced. It 
 rather seems that the currents which exist there, 
 de|K.'iul oil the winds, and change the tlirectiou of 
 their course according to the seasons. 
 
 The other current, which branches off from the 
 eiiuatorial current, opposite Cape St. Augustine in 
 liriuil, is called the Brazil current, and runs to the 
 ^\V. along the shores of S. America, but does not 
 ill any part of its course approach near to them. 
 From 8° S. lat., where it separates from the Guyana 
 current, to H)° or 17° S. lat., the current has a 
 eonsidcrable width, and runs about 20 m. or some- 
 what more a day. Its distance from the continent 
 is nowhere le.ss than 250 m. Farther S. it increases 
 ill hrcadth and velocity, and approaches at the 
 same time nearer the continent. Opposite Cape 
 Frio it runs about 30 m. a day, and is not more 
 than 200 m. distant from the coast. A.s, however, 
 from the last-mentioned cape the land falls back 
 to the VV., the current is soon found at 300 m. and 
 more from the continent. By declining, by de- 
 grees, its course farther to the W., it approaches 
 nearer, but never is found at a distance less than 
 2'')!) m. Thus it continues to the mouth of the La 
 I'lata river, running all this way Irom 15 to 20 m. 
 per day. It becomes weaker as it advances farther 
 S., hut may be traced to the straits of Magalhaens 
 and Le Maire. 
 
 The (iuyana and Brazil currents are those with 
 which the equatorial current is connected (m the 
 shores of America. The currents with which this 
 (.Teat sea-stream is united near the coast of the Old 
 Continent, are the S. and the N. Afirican currents. 
 
 [ The S. African current seems to have its origin 
 
 I sonic degrees N. of the Cape of (iood Hope. It 
 
 appears, however, not to be connected with the 
 
 Agiillia.s current, whicii is found at a short distance 
 
 S. from the Cape, and which runs VV. from Ihe 
 
 , Indian into the iVtIantic Ocean. Itetween lH°iiiid 
 
 j 11° S. lat. exists a current running from S. to N. 
 
 I at a short distance fror- the coasts of .Vfrica, but we 
 
 , arc not acquainted either with its breadth or ve- 
 
 hicity; neither, however, app<-ars to be consider- 
 
 alile. Between 11° and the Island of .\nno Horn, 
 
 the current runs in a NVV. by VV. direction at the 
 
 rate of from 15 to 25 or even 30 m. n day, but 
 
 seems to be of inconsiderable width. It increases 
 
 ill velocity ot the mouth of the river Zaire, /uid in 
 
 width at Cape Lopez ; but soon afterwards merges 
 
 into the equatorial current. 
 
 The North African current, which is also called 
 the Guinea current from its terminating opposite 
 the coast of Guinea, has it-s origin opposite the 
 coast of France, between the southern shores of 
 Ireland and Cape Finisterre in Spain. It is impo.s- 
 sible to determine more precisely the place where 
 it originates ; but it is a fact well established by 
 exjierience, that the whole body of water between 
 the Feninsula and the Azores is in motion towards 
 the S., the western jiart setting more southerly, 
 and the eastern more to the SK. Hctween C^aju' St. 
 Vincent in I'ortiigal, and Cajie Caiilin in Morocco, 
 the motion is directed towards the Straits of (Mi- 
 raltar; and this motion extends as far westward 
 ■IS 20° VV. long. Hetween Cape Cantin and (.'ape 
 Blanco the general direction of the current is along 
 the coast, but it sets in nearly periiendiciilarly 
 towards the shores. This portion of the current is 
 about 300 m. across between Cape Cantin and Cape 
 Boja(h)r, but ouly from 150 to 180 between tlio 
 last-mentioned t,'ape and Cape Blanco. Between 
 Cape Blanco and Cape de Verd the current runs a 
 little to the VV. of S., approaching the general 
 directi(m of the drift-current of the trade winds. 
 Netir the Cape de Verd Islands the temperature of 
 the water of the current is 8° lower than in those 
 parts of the sea v, hich lie beyond it. After ]iassiiig 
 C'ape do Verd, the current turns S., and by degrees 
 SE. and SSE. Here it does not approach the 
 shores of Africa ; at least, between Cape de Verd 
 and C^a|)e Mesurado it is met with only at a dis- 
 tance of about 200 m. from the coast. The inter- 
 mediate space is occupied by periodical curreiit,s, 
 which run, from September to June, S. or SVV., ; 
 but in the remainder of the year, N E. S. of Capo 
 Mesurado it approaches the coast, and increases in 
 velocity, running sometimes at the rate of 2 in. per 
 hour; here its temperature is considerably in- 
 creased, but still lower than that of the ocean at 
 large. At Cape Palmas it turns entirely to the E. ; 
 and skirts the coast of Guinea until it disappears 
 in the sea o])posite the mouth of the Quorra, and 
 in the Bay of Biafra, where it partly seems to 
 mingle with the Etpuitorial current. 
 
 With the N. African current another current is 
 connected, which runs across the British (Jlmnnel 
 at its western extremity. It niiis E. from Capo 
 F'inisterre along the S. shores of the Bay of Biscay ; 
 turns then to the N. and NVV., along the VV. coast 
 of France; and passing Ushant, it traverses the 
 British and Irish Channels. At the Scilly Islands, 
 which it touches with its eastern border, it is tJO m. 
 across. It then continues to the southern shores of 
 Ireland, W, of Carnsore Point ; and hence turns to 
 Ca|)e Clear, where, after entering the ocean, it turns 
 to the 8. and SE., and rejoins the N, African cur- 
 rent. By this current vessels are frequently placed 
 in danger near the Scilly Lslands. With certain 
 winds this current runs from 24 to 28 m. a day. 
 
 The Gulf stream wliich crosses the Atlantic 
 
 "Its 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
218 
 
 ATLANTIC 0CI:AN 
 
 licuvcpii ."('i° fliid 1 1° N'. l!it.,"riKiii»t<'f* i" •'«' •■"If 
 (if Mcxicii. 'I'lic water in lliin sen is* Net by two 
 ciirri'iits into it iicnrly ciri'uliir inotioii, wliich 
 .Kocins to t)(' till' |iriiiri|iiil rcasini why it lU'fiiiircs 
 sui'li II liit;h (It'^ri'ti of t('iii|)('riitiiri', — Ix-iiiK Hip 
 Fiilir., wiiilst tlmt nt" llic occjiii iil liir^c in llin 
 name Int. C2'>° N.) docs not cxcccil ~x° Fiilir. 'l'\w 
 two I'lirrcntH, wliicii jint in motion |)i'rlia|iN tiircc- 
 t'l^nrtlm of the wiitiT of the ;;nlf. unili- aliont 70 in. 
 W. of tlu^ llavaninili; imd i)y this jMiictioii ti)(t 
 <inlf stream is formed. It riinsahtii); the \. coast 
 of tlie ishind of Culm, eastward; lint it is neither 
 liroail nor rapid at the entrance of the Straits <if 
 Florida at the Salt Kays, where it lie^fiiis to run 
 iiliont \h in. nn hour After euteriiif; the straits, 
 its velocity increii.ses to 2,J, M, luid occasionally 
 ■I in. an hour. In the Narrows, however, hetween 
 ("ajK' Florida and the Hiiniiii Islands (which lio- 
 lonj; to the liahanias), where the strait is only 
 •H ni. across, and the water-way is straitened by 
 reefs and slioals to .'15 in., it runs, in the month of 
 AufTUHt, 5 m. an hour; and at that rate commonly 
 tliroiijLth the tvmiiiiider of the strait up to Cape 
 Cailiiveral. 'lhou;:;h the current has traversed, in 
 tills space, about 1° of Int., the temperature of its 
 water is not sensibly diminished. From i'a\)(i Vn- 
 ilaveral (about 2M° N. lat.) the pilf-stream runs 
 lirst due N., and then nearly NK. aloiif^ the shores 
 of the l.'nited States, up to Capo Hatlerns (38° N. 
 lat.). It increases fj,Tadiially in width, and decreases 
 ill velocity. At Cape llattenis it is from 72 to 
 75 ni. across, and it runs only 3^ m. per hour. 
 The temperature of its water has sunk from HCfi to 
 Hi'fi, In this jiart, the current runs not so close to 
 the shores as hi tlie Strait of Florida. Its N\V. 
 edf^c is about "24 m. Sl'^. from Cape llatteras. 
 After passinj; this cape, the current increases still 
 more rapidly in widtli, and diminishes {jradually 
 in velocitv. 15etweeu (.'ape llatteras and the banks 
 of Nantiicket and St. Gcor-e (-1(1° X. lat.), the 
 jjeneral direction of the current continues to be 
 from SW. to NK.. thouf^h the W. edpi runs nearly 
 due N. At the Nantucket and St. (Jeorge Banks 
 it suddenly declines its course to the K., and 
 brushing tlie S. extremity of the great bank of 
 NewfouiKllaiid, it continues in that direction as far 
 as 4:5° or 44° W. long., between 37° and 43° N. 
 lat. Farther K. it bends to the SE. and S. ; and 
 having inclosed the islaiicls of F'hires and Corvo, 
 belonging to the group of the Azores, it is lost in 
 the ocean. There are some instances on record 
 of the warm water of the gulf stream having ad- 
 vanced to the very shores of Spain and Portugal. 
 The strongest current is between 38° and 3il° N. 
 lat. ; and it is probable that the breadth of the 
 wluile current does not exceed 120 naut.in., though 
 the warm water is found to be 200, 2.)0, and even 
 .'>20 m. across. Between 0.5° and (j(J° \V, long, 
 the strongest current runs from 55 to 56 m. a day; 
 but !)00 m. farther K., only from 30 to 33 ni. In 
 the neighbourhood of the Azores its mean rate 
 does not exceed 10 m. a day. The temperature of 
 its water decreases less rapidly. At the meridian 
 <if ()3i° W. h>ng., or (iOO nautical ni. from Cape 
 llatteras, the thermometer shows in summer 81°, 
 <ir from 1 0° to 1 1° above the water of the sea under 
 the same lat. At 73° hiiig. its temperature is 75° ; 
 .•iiid even at Corvo, not lower than 72h°, or from 
 8° to 1 0° above the ocean. The length of the gulf 
 stream from the Salt Kays to the S. of the Azores 
 is upwards of 3,000 naiit. m. It traverses from 
 • 1',)° to 20° of lat. (from 2.3° to 42° or 43°), and its 
 temperature decreases only 13J° (from HtJ° to 72i°). 
 The sea whi<'h is traversed by it is subject to nearly 
 rontiniial gales ; especially towards the outer edges 
 of the current. 
 Nearly in the middle of tlie Atlantic the gulf 
 
 stream is joined by the Airtlr viirren!, v hich nrj. 
 ginatcs beneath the iinmeiise ina-ises of ice ii,,,, 
 surround th(! pole, and thence runs in a SW. dV 
 rection along tlu^ K. shores of (Irceiiliuid. ciirrvin.' 
 with it a great iiiimlicr of ii^'bcrgs, ice-lii liU.' miri 
 ic(!-lloes. Pressing these icy masses against iIim 
 coast of (ireenlaiKl, the current renders that (•(ia>t 
 inaccessible; but it prevents the ice from sprcaij- 
 ing over the North Sea, and from enciiinlHTiii' 
 the shores of the Mritisii islands. At (;apc Fan" 
 well llu^ width of the current seem^ to Im> fr,,!,, 
 120 to I'iO m., the ice-masses extending to sinh a 
 distance from it. After passing Capn Farewell 
 the current bends to the N. and enters Davivs 
 Strait, running along flu! western coast of (;re,.||- 
 hiiiij up to the I'olar Circle, where it crosses ihft 
 strait t« Cape VValsingham (about titio N, lai., j 
 hence it Hows southward along Ciiiiiberlan I's 
 Island to Frobisher's and Hudson's Straits. Oppo. 
 site these straits it runs from 15 to Hi ni. a dav. 
 .Approaching Newfoundland, the current diviijcs: 
 one branch, running through the strait of Ilelji" 
 Isle, mixes with the waters brought down hv tlu' 
 St. Lawrence; whilst the other skirts the I',. s'li(in>» 
 of Newfoundland, when! it passes between Ihegrcni 
 and the outer bank of Newfoundland (between l.'iO 
 and 4(1° hit., and 4(i° and 47° long.), and at ln<i 
 Joins the gulf stream between 41° and 47° \V. luii". 
 The width of this current, probably, nowhere ex- 
 ceeds 200 m. ; the tem|ierature of its M-atcr is 
 always considerably lower than that of the iiccaii, 
 sometimes as much as l(!° or 17°. 
 
 The last current we have to notice, is the Smilli 
 Atliintir current, which traverses the ocean frum 
 !•:. to W. between 30° and 40° S. lat. In the \V. 
 )iart of the Atlantic its velocity seems to he inoiie- 
 rate ; but it increases as the current advances far- 
 ther E., and opposite the Cape it is very stnnif;, 
 It is met with at a distance of from 150 to iMii m. 
 from the Cajio ; hence it flows in a straight line 
 into the Indian Ocean, and traces of it are foiiinl 
 2,000 m. beyond the (^ajie. That spact^ of sea 
 which intervenes between this current and the 
 Cape, is occupied by another current, which runs 
 in an opposite direction ; being formed in the In- 
 dian Ocean by two currents which desceml on 
 both sides the island of Madagascar, and unite 
 between the first point of Xatal and ('ape Itfi'ife, 
 about 3.3° S. lat. Passing the (,'ape of ( Joud Ilii| o, 
 it enters the Atlantic as a current, running at the 
 rate of from 1 or I4 m. an hour in a X\V. di- 
 rection, and may be traced as far as 25° S. lat. 
 This current is called the A<jiilhas vurrt'iit. frnm 
 jiassing over the bank of that name at the S. ex- 
 tremity of Africa. 
 
 Trucks of Vcsseh. — In proportion as our know- 
 ledge of the prevailing winds and of the stri'iifjth 
 and directiini of the currents has increased, the 
 tracks have been fixed with more precision, whiili 
 vessels should follow in sailing from or to a coiiiitry 
 lying on the shores of the Atlantic. In u few- 
 cases they follow the same route, whether initwar I 
 or homewanl bound ; but in most cases they fnUow 
 ilirtereiit routes. We shall notice a few of tlio.«e 
 which are most freipiented. 
 
 1. IJetween Europe and the IF. count of N. Ame- 
 rica vessels keep dear of the gulf stream, sailing' 
 along its N. border, between 44° and 5l)° X. lai. 
 If, in sailing from E. to W., they were to enter 
 the gulf stream and to stem its current, they wonhl 
 be delayed in their course, perhaps, not less than 
 a fortnight. If, in sailing from W. to K., they 
 were to enter it, they, doubtless, would arrive four 
 or live days sooner in Europe ; hut the vessels 
 would Slitter, from the continual gales which pre- 
 vail within the borders of the stream, so iiuicli 
 damage in wear and tear, that it hardly could be 
 
|^ v)iic)i riri- 
 (* of ice Ihiit 
 in It S\V. di 
 mil. i'i\ir\ ill;,' 
 I'c-t'uldx, mill 
 H iiy;:ruist ilii' 
 ITS lliiil I'oa'-t, 
 I'nim sprrnil- 
 I'licmiilHTiii^' 
 It (laiic F.m- 
 is to lie IVniu 
 Till},' til MiH'h II 
 'a)K'. Karcwt'll, 
 ['liters DiiviV.s 
 Ddxt iif (jrccii- 
 I it criisscs the 
 t (iCiO N. liil.i; 
 Ciiiti)it'rliui I's 
 Straits. (»|i|iii- 
 o ICi in. a iliiy, 
 irrciit (liviilcs; 
 strait nf llcllc 
 it down liy tlic 
 rts tlic E. shores 
 itwpen lli('),'rc:il 
 ul (llC'tWCCll l.'i^ 
 {;.), nnil at liK 
 iiiill70\V.lim^'. 
 ily, nowlicrc ex- 
 dl' its wator is 
 lut of the ocoaii, 
 
 tice, is the Smilh 
 tlic (K'ciui from 
 , lat. In till' \V. 
 ■cms to lir iiioili- 
 eiit advances far- 
 it is vorv slnnij;. 
 (in 150 to iKiiiii. 
 u a strai);ht lino 
 'S of it arc foiiml 
 lat s)KU'(^ of sell 
 current and tlie 
 rent, wliieli rims 
 j'orined hi tlie iii- 
 lliich deseeiid on 
 ;ascar, and unite 
 and ('ape Itei'ifc. 
 hie of (iood Il"i'i', 
 It, rnnniiif; at the 
 lur in a XW. (li- 
 ar as 25° S. lat. 
 kas citrri'iit. ffimi 
 ,rae at the S. ex- 
 lion as nur know- 
 ]l of the strenntli 
 las increiused, tlie 
 preeisidn.wliii'h 
 Ini or to a eninitry 
 Jin tie. In a few 
 Iwhether outwar 1 
 leases they f 'U""' 
 te a few uf tiiose 
 
 IcoaxtofN.Am- 
 If streiim, saili:y 
 > and 50° N. l^it. 
 ky were to cnler 
 irent, they would 
 Ins, not less than 
 I W. to !■:., they 
 [vould arrive four 
 1 Imt the vessels 
 kiles whieli \\k- 
 Itream, so nuicli 
 1 hardly couW be 
 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN 
 
 (•nmpen'atrd I)y tlm >,'ain of a few days. In sail- 
 i,i,^ to ilie i'niled States X. of the t,'iilf stream, 
 vissi'ls liiive the advantage of a counter rurrent. 
 
 249 
 
 wiiieli runs from the Nantucket and St. lieorne 
 Hanks to (;iiesapeak Bay, and perhaps to Cape 
 llalieras. . 
 
 •>, 111 sailing ff'"" F.urojw. to the Wv»t Indies 
 and the countries S., W., and N. of the (^otuinl)iaii 
 Sea, dill'ereiit tracks are followed, outward and 
 liiiiiieward. In sailiiiK from Kurope, the trade- 
 winds are taken advaiitaj^e of. The vessels jmiss 
 Madeira and the Canary Islands, and sail S. as far 
 XH 21° N. hit., whero they are certain to tind a 
 ciiiistaiit tradc-wuid. In this course they must 
 avoid approaching too near the coa.st of Africa 
 lictweeii Cape Nun and Cape Blanco, tecausc the 
 N. African current sets in towards the shore-s of 
 the Sahara, and the winds blow continually from 
 the »(^a towards the land. Many navigators who 
 liopeil to make the island of TeneritFe, according 
 lo ilieir dead reckoning, have hcen carried so far 
 Id the K., that they have been cast on these 
 inhospitable shores, where most of them have 
 iieri^lied. Between 1790 and 1«0>'), not less than 
 thirtv vessels are known to have been thus h)st; 
 and it is supposed that many others had the same 
 t'iite, without its being known. Having got a con- 
 stant trade-wind at 21° N. lat., the vessels sail \V., 
 and enter the Ctdumbian Sea, commonly by one 
 iif the straits lying between tlie islands of Mar- 
 tinique and Trinidad. 
 
 Ill sailing homeward ships sometimes go through 
 the Mona (between Puerto L'ieo and Ilai'ti) and 
 windward (between Haiti and Cuba) jiassages; 
 lint more commonly they pass round the island of 
 t'liba on the VV., and sail through the Straits of 
 Florida. As soon as they have got clear of thf 
 strait, they sail E, to get clear of the gulf stream. 
 Tliev then direct their course across the Atlantic. 
 S, ofthe Bermudas, till they come into the longi- 
 tude of the island of Flores. They then sail N., 
 either passing lietwcen Flores and the other Azores, 
 or to the E. of the groufi. 
 
 3, In sailing from Europe to the coast of Guyana 
 (Deniarara, Surinam, anil Cayenne), and to those 
 jirovinees of Brazil which are situated W. of Cajtc 
 St. Kotpie, ships go S. till they meet the trade- 
 wind, and then shape their course to the place of 
 destination, but keeping a few degrees farther to 
 the E. ; for, on approaching the New Continent, 
 they meet tlie Guyana current, which carries them 
 \V." If, therefore, they make land somewhat too 
 far to the VV., they tind it verj- ditlicult to attain 
 tiieir place of destination, — having to bear up 
 aj;aiiist the current. 
 
 Ill returning to Europe, the vessels sail along 
 ihft shores of America, where they are favouretl 
 liy the Guyana current, as far as the island of 
 Trinidad. Then they keep to the windward of the 
 Antilles, till they get into the variable winds, 
 wliere they follow the track of the vessels return- 
 iiij,' from the W. Indies. 
 
 4. Sailing from Europe to S, America, S, of Cape 
 St. Roqiie, ships have to pass through the region of 
 calms, and to traverse the equatorial current. The 
 lirst retards their progress, and .the second carries 
 ilicm forcibly to the VV. If they cut the equatorial 
 line VV. of 25° VV. long., they cannot make Cape 
 St. Riique, and fall in with the (iuyana current, 
 which carries them still farther VV., and along the 
 N, coast of Brazil. Then they can only get back 
 10 Cape St. Koque by a toilsome voyage of many 
 ilays, and even weeks. To avoid this, vessels tra- 
 verse the line between 18° and 2i}° W. long. 
 Having (Ume this, they are assisted by the Brazil 
 lurrent in making, with ease, any part of the 
 euast they please. 
 
 Vessels homeward bound from this coast lake 
 dilTereiit tracks, according to the seasons. From 
 March to Septi'mber, when the monsoons blow, 
 and the currents run, from S. to N., between tho 
 Brazil current and the continent of S. America, 
 they sail along the shores, till, at Cape .St. Uoque, 
 they meet the (iuyana current ; and then they 
 fidlow tho track of the vessels returning from 
 (iuyana to Kurope. But, from September to 
 March, the periodical winds and currents blow 
 and run from K. to SVV., in the din^ction of tho 
 Brazil current. Ships then sail across the cur- 
 rents, and try to get into the middle of the At- 
 lantic, where they follow the track of the vesseU 
 returning from the Hast Indies. 
 
 5. In sailing to tho East Indies, it in now tho 
 general practice to avoid the numerous difHcultiei) 
 met with in navigating along the coasts of Africa, 
 S. of the equator, and to follow the tracks of tho 
 vessels bound to Brazil. Afterwards, the vessels 
 j)roceed along the coast of S. America to 32° or 
 .'13° S, lat,, where they get out of the range of tho 
 SE. trade-winds, and are certain to meet with tho 
 S, Atlantic current, which (uirries them eastward. 
 They do not touch at the Cajie of (iood Hope, but 
 follow tho current until they cuter the Iiuliau 
 Ocean, 
 
 In returning from the Ea.st Indies to Europe, 
 vessels enter the Agulhas current near Madagas- 
 car, and are carried by it to the Cape of (iood 
 Hope, where they commonly stop for some time. 
 From the Cape, the same current takes them by 
 its NVV. courso to the miiUllo of the Atlantic. 
 They then shape their course X., so as to traverse 
 the line between 22° and 21° VV. h)ng., where 
 they meet the NVV. current, which takes them to 
 20° or 25'' N. lat., whence they proceed to tho 
 Azores. 
 
 Ice. — Both extremities of the Atlantic Ocean 
 are invaded by great masses of ice. They either 
 have been detached from the enormous masses 
 which inclose the poles to a great <listauce, or 
 from those countries which are situated so near 
 the poles, that their coasts are covered with ice 
 for the greater part of the year. In the N. 
 seas the ice consists of icebergs, ice-fields, and 
 ice-Hoes. The icebergs are enormous masses of 
 ice, sometimes several hundred and even thousand 
 yards long and broad; their summits being, in 
 some cases, 100 ft. and more above the level of 
 the sea, though only a seventh part of the whole 
 mass rises above it. They are properly glaciers, 
 formed along the high and snow-covered coast of 
 (ireenland, and which have afterwards been ])re- 
 cipitated into the sea. The ice-fields and ice-lloes 
 are considered as having been detached from the 
 ice surrounding the pole. This ice is commonly 
 of the thickness of from 20 to 30 ft., and rises 
 from three to four ft. above the sea. These m.isses 
 are called fields whenever they are so extensive 
 that their limits cannot be discovered from the 
 mast-head ; and floes, when their extent may be 
 overlooked from it. In the S. Atlantic only, 
 fields and floes are found, icebergs never ha\-ing 
 been met with. It is further worth remarking, 
 that the ice advances much nearer to the N. than 
 to the S. tropic. The ice-floes at Cape Horn are 
 far from being numerous ; and Capt. Weddell says 
 that at 55° 20' S. lat. there is no fear of falling in 
 with ice. In the X^. hemisphere, we always find 
 great ice-masses at some distance from the E. 
 shores of Newfoundland, from .January to May and 
 June ; and icebergs arc annually seen grounded 
 on the (ireat Bank. It even sometimes happens 
 that icebergs are met with in the gulf stream, 
 40^° N. lat. and 32° \V. long., as was the case in 
 1S17. 
 
 m 
 
 
 v'effa 
 
 i m 
 
 m 
 
 
2.>() 
 
 ATLANTIC OCKAN 
 
 minrrllmimuii HemnrhH, — fV.iA wfcm to ho niiicli 
 niiiro iilcntilul in tlu- mciis near tho arctic, tliaii in 
 those HiirrouiKlinjr the antarctic, |iiil(>. This is [tro- 
 hahly to Iw nccounted for l)y the fjrcnicr nnnihor 
 unit greater extent of haniis found in tlie N. sean; 
 anil these, hesides, waNJi a far greater extent of 
 sliorrs, which many Npei^ieH of tish resort to in 
 quest of food. Another remarltahU! fact is, that 
 the seas near the equator, and, in general, those 
 lying ill lower latitiules, are much richer in species 
 than the N. parts of the ocean; hut that, in the 
 latter, the numhcr of nidiviiiuals belonging to each 
 species is far greater. Hence we tind that the 
 most extensive (if heriea are those which are (^arritid 
 on to the N. of 45° N. lat. ; ax the cod fisheries 
 on the (ireat Bank of Newfoundland, and at the 
 LafToden Island!), the whale fishery at Spit/lntrgen 
 and uii both (tides of Greenland, the herring fishery 
 along the coasts of (ireat Britain, and the pilchard 
 fishery in the liritish Channel. The most impor- 
 tant fisheries H. of AiP, if we cxct?))! the whale 
 fishery near the 8. pole, seem to be that in the 
 CaribWan Sea along the coasts of Venezuela, and 
 that which the inhabitants of the Caiuiry Islands 
 carry on iii the sea Hurruunding Cape Blanco in 
 Africa. 
 
 The temperature of the water is greater in the N. 
 than in the S. hemisphere. In the s«>as N. of the 
 equatorial current, the thermometer indicates 80° 
 or «l°, and S. of it 77° and 7«°, at the time when 
 the sun approaches the line. This difference may, 
 ]ierhaps, be satisfactorily accounted for by the 
 sun's remaining aniuially seven days longer to 
 the N. than to the S. of the eijuator. 
 
 The specific gravlti/ and mitness of the sea-water 
 is, doubtless, greater near the eipintor than in the 
 vicinity of the poles; but the experiments wliich 
 have been made to determine the exact difference 
 have given such different results, that we must 
 still consider this question as undecided. Accord- 
 ing to Capt. Scoresby, the 8|)ecitic gravity of the 
 sea-water near the coasts of (ireenluud varies be- 
 tween 1'025!) and 1*027(>. Between the tropics, 
 some have found it l'U80{), or nearly this much ; 
 and near the equator, even l'((578, but the last 
 statement is, with reason, regarded as doubtful. 
 
 In a part of the Atlantic, the gnlf-weed. or J'licus 
 natans, occurs in great quantities. This region 
 extends nearly across the whole ocean, beginning 
 on the K. at the 30th meridian, and terminating 
 on the W. in the sea washing tiic E. side of the 
 Bahama Bank. In width, it occupies the whole 
 si)ace between 20° and 80° N. lat. ; but the whcde 
 extent of the surface between these lines is not 
 ecpially crowded with weed. The inost crowded 
 part extends between 80° and 32° VV. long.; 
 where, in the neighbourhood of the island of 
 Flores— one of the Azores — it forms first only a 
 small strip ; but farther to the S. ex])ands to a 
 great width. In this part of the Atlantic, which 
 is called by the Portuguese, Mar de Sarijasso 
 (Weedy Sea), the fucus covers, like a mantle, far 
 and wide, the surface of the 8ea, extending from 
 N. to S. more than 1,200 m. Another part of the 
 sea, covered with fucus in a very crowded state, 
 occurs between the meridians of 70° and 72°, and 
 the parallels of 22° and 2()°, towards the VV. end 
 of the region. The sea lying between these two 
 crowded districts is, in some parts, only lightly 
 strewed with sea- weeds; but m others it occurs 
 in dense masses. 
 
 An attempt to sink a telegraph cable in the At- 
 lantic, between the shores of Ireland and New- 
 foundland, was made in 1858. The work was 
 completed on the oth of August of this year, and, 
 •according to official reports, a message througli 
 this cable was actually sent from Europe to Anic- 
 
 ATLAS (MOUNT) 
 
 rica, and a reply returned, on the 22nd of August, 
 However, electricity, id'ler this llrst faint esKuvi 
 refused to run its desired course, ami the wnrk 
 had to be abandoned. Still less fortuniite wiis a 
 second attempt, made in the summer of jxt;,'), i(, 
 siihinergc a stronger cable, I A inch in thicknesx. 
 The loss of this eal)le, some thousand miles IVdiu 
 the shores of Europe, lu<l to a postponenunit ol tliu 
 great undertaking. 
 
 ATLAS (M(MjNT), according to IIero<loiiis, 
 was a single isohititd mountain of great elevaiinn, 
 on the VV. c^oast of N. Africa. This iiiforniatiou 
 was probably obtained from the first navigators of 
 these seas, who observed the elevated inountHJii 
 which forms at Cape Oeer (80° 40' N. lat.) tlic 
 western extremity, and as it were the galile-eml 
 of that extensive range now comprised under the 
 name of Mount Atlas. 
 
 The |)rincipal and highest range of Mount Atlai 
 is that which begins at ('a|)e (ieer (near 10° \V. 
 long.), and extends E., with a slight declination 
 to the N., as far as 5° W. long., where it ii|i- 
 |)roaches 32° N. lat. As to cross it requires two 
 days' journey, its width may be estimated at from 
 30 to 40 m. Its height nowhere seems to excctil 
 the snow-line ; for its highest summit, the Milt- 
 sin, 27 m. SE. from the town of Morocco, ims 
 been measured by Lieut. Washington, and louml 
 to have an eleviitiim of U, 400 ft. above the sea. 
 It is only once in aljout twenty years free from 
 snow. During the winter months the N. declivity 
 of this range is frecpiently covered with snow lor 
 several weeks. This is not the case witli the S. 
 declivity, turned towards the great African doscn 
 (the Saluira), and towards the hot winds blowinj; 
 from that quarter, and snow falls rarely tlicrc, 
 even on the highest summits. The whole raii^'n 
 is called by the natives Kjibbel Telge, that is, tliu 
 Snow Mountains. 
 
 From the E. extremity of the Djibbel Telge a 
 chain branches off on the S. side, which runs in a 
 WSW. direction, and terminates with low hills on 
 the Atlantic sea at Cape Nun. According to Jack- 
 son, it contains a snow-cappe<l summit, E. of 
 Elala, but its mean elevation iloes not appear very 
 great. Between this range and the Djilibel Tcljjo. 
 lies the jirovince of Suse. Along the S. base of 
 this range runs the river Drah, which reaches the 
 sea about 32 m. S. of Cape Nun. 
 
 At about 5° W. long, and 32° N. lat., the chain 
 forms a mountain-knot, from which issue two 
 ranges, one running a little to the E. of N., and 
 the other tirst NE. and then E. The range which 
 runs a little to the E. of N. continues in that di- 
 rection from 32° to 34J°, where at a distance uf 
 about 30 m. from the MediteiTaneau, it divides 
 into two ridges, which hence run along the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, in opposite directions, the W. ter- 
 minating on the peninsula forming the Straits of 
 (iibraltar, at Cape Spartel, and the E. contiiiiiiiii,' 
 through the whole of Algiers, and terminatiiij; at 
 Capes Blanco and Zibeeb, on the strait separatini; 
 Sicily from Africa. The undivided range (liei. 
 32° and 34J°) is called by the Europeans (ircater 
 Atlas, and by the natives Djebbel Tedla or Adthi. 
 The chain which extends W. to Cai)e Spartel, is 
 commonly named the Lesser Atlas ; ly the na- 
 tives, Errif, that is, the Coast Mountains. The 
 hijijhest part is hardly anywhere more than 15 or 
 20 m. distant from the sea ; but in numerous places 
 its branches occupy the whole space lying between 
 it and the elevated shores ; it forms tiie capes of 
 Tres Forcas, (iuilates, Negro, and Ccuta. lis 
 mean elevation hardly exceeds 2,000 ft. 
 
 The chain which skirts the Mediterranean from 
 8° \V. long, to 10° E. long., or to Cape Blanco, lias 
 no general name. The distance of the highest [lart 
 
id of AiiRint. 
 I'llint omiy, 
 ikI till' wiirk 
 Uinnt« wiis Ik 
 cr of iMCi.'), Ill 
 ill thii'km's!". 
 Ill niiU'M IVuiii 
 iiuiiutiit ol tlie 
 
 ,0 HcriMlolus, 
 ■eat I'leviiiiiiii, 
 It iiil'oriiintiiiii 
 iiavi>{iifi)rs 1)1' 
 itcd iiKiiiiilain 
 I)' N. lat.) llic 
 the j5iil)le-oni|, 
 iNod under the 
 
 (f Mount Atlas 
 r (near 1(1° W. 
 ;lit declinaliiiii 
 , where it ap- 
 it requireH Iwd 
 itnated at Irom 
 ueins to exci'i'il 
 mit, the Milt- 
 
 MorociMi, lias 
 
 ton, mid t'miiiil 
 
 ahove the son. 
 
 ^ears free fmni 
 
 he N. declivity 
 
 with snow lor 
 lino with the S. 
 t Afrienn desert 
 ; wimls Idowinj; 
 Is rarely there, 
 lie whole raiiKi' 
 ;lge, that Ls, lliu 
 
 Djihhel Teliica 
 whieh runs in a 
 ith low hills uii 
 cordiiif,' toJai'k- 
 siiminit, K. ef 
 not !iiii>ear very 
 c l)jil)helTel};c. 
 the S. Imsc nf 
 lich reaches the 
 
 lat., the chain 
 Ihich issue twu 
 \fi E. of N., ami 
 'lie range whicli 
 Allies in that (li- 
 ft a distance uf 
 lean, it divides 
 iloiiK the Mccli- 
 [)ns, the \V. ter- 
 Ig the Straits of 
 . E, continuing,' 
 terminating at 
 ttrait separatiiis 
 [led range (Int. 
 Iropeans (ireatcr 
 Tedla or Adtlii. 
 pape Spartel, is 
 [as ; by the iia- 
 jountains. The 
 Inore than 15 or 
 .lumerous plact^ 
 |e Iving between 
 18 the capes uf 
 lul Ceuta. Its 
 )00 ft. 
 
 literranean from 
 
 lapc lllanco, lins 
 
 the highest iiart 
 
 ATLAS (MOUNT) 
 
 of the ranRo from tho Bcn varies lictwoen 10 and 
 ;(() ni., h'lt at iiiiineroUH )Hiiiits the coast itself is 
 I'oniu'd hy nioinitaiiis of coiisiderahle elevation, 
 wliifli are parts of the great iiiilssos lying behind 
 llicm. N" li'^'ti' iJouiitrv "f any extent occurs 
 iiliiiig the shores, except tiio IMaiii of Metidjah, E. 
 ipf tile town of Algiers. This range is of greater 
 flevatioii than the W. Shaw states that the 
 liiglier iHirtioiis of it are covered with snow a con- 
 siderable ]mrt of the year; and the French natu- 
 ralist Desfontaines estimated their height at 7,201) 
 I'l. Ihit the highest poiiitH have lately been mea- 
 sured, ami one has been found to rise ,j, 124 th,aiid 
 aiintlier tJ.Ti'J ft. only above the sea, E. of 5° E. 
 long, the mountains in tho interior seem to be 
 imicli lower than farther VV., but some high suin- 
 inits occur on the coast very near the sea. This 
 I'iiain is at several places brukon down, and it is 
 liv these wide chasms that the most considerable 
 riVi^rs of Northern Africa find their wav to the 
 .Meiliterraiieaii Sea, as the Miilwia, Sbelfif, Fsser, 
 Siinieini, Wad el Kebir, Seiboiis, and Mejerdah. 
 
 Tiie mountains in which these rivers have their 
 origin are very imperfectly ktiowii, even as re- 
 s|iccts their geographical position. It is supposed 
 iliat they form the continuation of the ridge which. 
 Iiruiiches otV from the ni(Uiiituiii-kiiot at 0° W. 
 long, and 32° N. lat. towards the NK., but after- 
 wards by degrcies declines to the E. East of the 
 rii'ridiaii of tJreenwicli, its |iriiicipul masses si^eiii 
 III lie near the parallel of il.'P N. lat. and to ex- 
 icnil eastward to the meridian of 1(P. Hetweeii 
 tliis range and the more southerly one, lie wide 
 valleys and pbiiiis of moderate extent but of great 
 I'lrtility; they have a temperate climate, and coii- 
 siitiite'the best portion of the countries embosomed 
 within tlie range of Mount Atlas. The height of 
 the range to the S. does not equal that lying X. 
 of the valleys, tlioiigh it occupies a greater widtb. 
 Among the natives a great jMirtion of it is known 
 under the name of Djebbel Amer, or Lowart. 
 
 The country extending south of this range is 
 called Sahara by the natives, which is the land of 
 the steppe. It partakes in some respects of the 
 
 :.•)! 
 
 I'liuracter of the Clreat Desert, but ditlers widely 
 Ironi it in others, and must Ikj coiisidereil us be- 
 longing to the system of Mount Atlas. This 
 country presents a succession of tlat-backed ridges 
 III' muderutc elevation, but considerable breadth, 
 running commonly E. and W. The lower grounds 
 hy which they are separated from each other, are 
 completely closed valleys or plains of moderate 
 extent, each of which has a temporary or perma- 
 nent lake ill its lowest part, the receptacle of the 
 waters that liow down from the adjacent high 
 ;,'i:ouiuls during the rains. The surface of this ex- 
 tensive country is composed of a sandy soil, en- 
 tirely destitute of trees, and, in most ])arts, even 
 of every kind of vegetation, at least during the 
 ih-y season. But along the water-courses exten- 
 Mvc plantations of date trees exist; hence the 
 coimtry has received the name of Bled-el-jcreed, 
 or the country of dates. In most districts the water 
 is salt or brackish; but in parts potable water 
 may be obtained in abundance by digging wells 
 to the depth of 100 and sometimes 200 fathoms. 
 This country extends S. to the very borders of 
 ihe Great African Desert, and extends eastward 
 far beyond 10° E. long. 
 
 Our knowledge of the roads traversuig this 
 mountaia system is very scanty. It is believed 
 that only two passes, Bebawan and Uelavin, exist 
 lietwceii the provuice of Suse and the country N. 
 <||' the Atlas. Farther E., between 5° and 4° \V. 
 long., lies the great caravan road, on which the 
 commerce between Fez in Morocco, andTimbuctoo 
 in Soudan, is carried on. It traverses the tlis- 
 
 tricts of Talilctt and Drah, and is connerli'd witli 
 the great caravan road leading to Mecca, which 
 llrallcbe^' of)' from the former between 32° and 'Xi'-' 
 N. Int., not fur fr.un the sources of the river 
 Miilwiu. The principal stations of the <-aravaiis 
 within the Atlas ni<iiiiitaiiis are named Kassabi or 
 Aksaiti Shiirefa, 'V'u Figbig, (iardeia, and Wurglah, 
 all of which are situated near the S. borders of the 
 mountain system. Fnnn Wurglah the road passes 
 to (tadumes, and hence to Mur/.ook in Fez/.an. 
 
 We are very imperfectly accpiaiiited with the 
 mineral riches of the Atlas; the precious metals 
 seem only to occur in the province of Suse, and 
 not in abundance, at least no mines are worked. 
 Hut copper is plentiful in tho principal range S. of 
 tho town of Morocco, where it is worked by tho 
 natives who inhabit tho mountains, and who aro 
 in a great measure independent of the sultan of 
 Morocco, Iron of good quality occurs in many 
 places, and is worked in few, as is likewise lead : 
 antimony in abundance is found and collected in 
 the range of Tedla. liock-salt is also plentiful, but 
 not worked, because salt may be obtained with 
 less labour by evaporating sea-water, Sallpetro 
 of a superior quality abounds in some districts of 
 Suse, and in the neighbourhoodof the town of Mo- 
 rocco; fuller's earth is abundant and of good quality. 
 
 Mount Atlas is inhabited bv a nation which 
 must be considered as aboriginal, having probably 
 been in possession of N, Africa long before the be- 
 ginning of our historical records. It is known 
 uiiiler llie name of Hendibers, or Ik^rbers; though 
 it seems that this denomiiiation is entirely un- 
 known to themselves. This nation, which still 
 forms the bulk of the pop. of N. Africa, iiieliiding 
 neurlv the whole of the Sahara, is divided witlun 
 the limits of Mount AtltLs into two great tribes, 
 the Amazirghes, or Mazirghes, and tlie Shelliihs. 
 The latter occupy the two high western ranges, 
 including the province of Suse; and tlie Amazir- 
 ghes the remainder. It has htiig been a question, 
 whether these two nations speak only diflerent 
 dialects of one language, or two essentially dilt'erent 
 languages; but a learned traveller, (iraberg do 
 Ilemso, who published a work on the empire of 
 Monjcco, with perfect knowledge of the languages, 
 states that they arc substantially the same, tho 
 difference between them being not greater than 
 that between the Portuguese and l^panisli, or the 
 English and Dutch languages, Both nations, how- 
 ever, differ in their manner of life and occu|)utioiis, 
 the Shelliihs living in houses, cultivating the tir- 
 tile valleys of the mountain ranges, and applying 
 themselves with assiduity and success to sevenil 
 meclianical arts ; whilst the Amazirghes dwell in 
 tents or caverns, attending only to their numerous 
 herds of cattle and sliee{i. Only a few individuals 
 of these nations are subject to the emperor of iMo- 
 rocco and the French rulers of Algiers. Those in- 
 habiting the mountains have preserved their inde- 
 pendence, and are governed by independent chief's. 
 They are freiiueutly at war with the sovereigns in 
 whose territories their possessions are included. 
 Among both nations a considerable number of 
 Jews are settled. 
 
 The most exaggerated notions were early enter- 
 tained of the height of IMount Atlas. Mela says 
 of it, In arenis nwn» est Atlas, dense consunjens, 
 veruni i7icisis undique rupibus, pneceps, inviiis, et 
 quo magis surgit, exilior, qui, quod altius quam con- 
 spici potest, usque, in nnbila eriyitur, ctnlum et sideru 
 non tangere niodo vertice, sed sustinere qiwqite dictus 
 est, (lib, iii. 8. 10). This supposed extraordinary 
 height of the mountain, and the ignorance that 
 prevailed in the earlier ages of the contiguous 
 countries, afforded full scope for the exercise of 
 the imagination. The poetical history of Atlas 
 
 «-i^;,K 
 
a.vj 
 
 ATUI 
 
 
 i'i 
 
 niiiy Ik' «r<>ii ill Ovid (Mptatni)r|ili. Ill), iv, liiii' filH), 
 mill iH rct'crrcd Id Iiv Vir;;!! in one of tlii; lliu'.st 
 pHMxiiVTi's of till- .1''.iici(i, lit), iv. line "2 Hi. 
 
 ATIM, or A'l'IMA, ii Ic.wii of Soiitliorn Italy, 
 iirov, Tt'raino, 'i 111. rnmi llic Adriatic, and II iii. 
 S'. I>y I'-. Civita I'ciinc, on n Ntfcp iiioniilaiii, 
 poll. I0,ll'.'> ill IHf'i'i. Till' town in the scat of a 
 lii.sliopric, liM.s a catlicdral, parish cliiircli, wvt-ral 
 coiivfiitH, a ^rraniniur mdiool, two hoitpitalH, and a 
 inont-dc-pioic'. 
 
 Thin in a very aiiciciit city, niid iiiHtrad of tin? 
 Yt'iictiaii Adria, it lias liccn ^*ll|lpos<>d toliavcKivcii 
 its naiiK! to the Adriati(!; lint tlic wci;;lit of nu- 
 tliority and prolialiility is a;;ainst lliis snpposilioii; 
 its origin is, however, iinilctcniiincd, or lost, in 
 (ilisciirity. Some cxtraonlinary excavations exist, 
 in a hill near the town, forinin^ n series of cliam- 
 hers, distrilinted with such regularity as to autho- 
 rise the notion that, they were desi^fned for some 
 particular object, such as prisons or nia/,'azines. 
 riienc )ieciilii'iritics have snjr^jcsted the idea that 
 they arc of a more remote cmistniction than the 
 Lathomiiv at Syracii.se, which they much resemlde. 
 or than the ctdcliratcd prisons of Servius Tiilliiis at 
 liomi!. Some antir|narics have supposed, not 
 without considerable ])laiisibility, that the word 
 Atrium must have been derivecl from these exca- 
 vations. The town received a Itoman colony about 
 till' year -Kir) u.r. It seems to be generally al- 
 lowed that the Kmperor Adrian was descended of 
 a family ori^rinally of Ibis city. 
 
 ATI{II'(\LI).\,"n town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Avellinn, on the Sabato. 2 m. V.. Avelliiio", I'op. 
 .'i.Od.'J in IM(!2. The town has a collej^iate and a 
 jiarochial church, with fabrics of cloth, paper, and 
 nails. 
 
 ATTKUCLIFFK, a township in the par. of 
 Sheflield, which see. 
 
 ATTI(!A, in antiquity, the most celebrated 
 rcf^ion of Greece, and the seat of its most renowned 
 jieople, now part of the monan^hy of Attica and 
 JJd'ol in, and forming the eparcliv of Athens. It 
 lies between lat. 'A~° UlC (Caiie ('oloniia), and 38° 
 'l-l' X., and loiif,'. 23° 2(1' and 21° ,5' (C. Marathon) 
 K., liaviiifr N. lid-otin, E. the vEj^ean Sea, S. and 
 SW. the (Inlf of Ejjina (Saronic G.), and W. the 
 oparchy of Megara: shape triaii^rubir, the base to 
 the N\V. : length 44 m.; breadth about 34 ni. 
 Pop. of the modem monarchy 87,223 in 18"»I, and 
 ]|(i,()24 in I8(il. Attica owed all its ancient 
 filory to the industry and genius of its inhabitants. 
 Soil mostly rug^jed, the surface consistinj^ of barren 
 hills, or plains of little extent. The chief moun- 
 tains are Nosea (Pnrnes), tbe loftiest; Elalea 
 (Cithieron), and Manfrlia, which form its X. boun- 
 <lary ; Mendeli (Pcntelicus), famous for its marble; 
 Vrelo-vuni (llymettus), and Latirini {Laurlon), 
 famous for its silver mines. The most remarkable 
 ])lains are those of Athens and Marathon ; rivers, 
 the Samnda]ioro. Ccphissiis, and Ilissus. The pro- 
 duce of Attica differs remarkably from that of Hieo- 
 tia; it is deticient of water, and yields little {;rnin 
 except barley ; its pastures are but few, and its 
 spontaneous vegetation consists mostly of e\er- 
 greens, as the pine, priimri, olive, myrtle, &c. 
 Panics is covered by a forest, and siiiiplies Athens 
 and tlie surrounding country with fuel ; llymettus 
 abimnds with lentisks, wild thyme, and other odo- 
 riferous plants; its honey still enjoys some portion 
 of its ancient fame ; and its mutton has a delicious 
 tlavour. The oil is equal to that of France : what 
 rorn is produced is very good, and the har\'est 
 takes place earlier than in any other ])art of Greece, 
 (iame is very abundant, aiul wolves, wild boars, 
 and a few bears are met with in the N. Owls, 
 especially the small grey owl {Str'ijc passerina), still j 
 inliabit the vicinity of Athens in great numbers ; , 
 
 AUni! 
 
 but Iiickilv there arc remarkably few voiinnidn^ 
 reptiles cirlii.Hccts. The I'bicf iniiicral IrciiMinvMirr 
 marble, while at M. I'eiiicliciis, and grey m M, 
 Ilyincltiis; the anc. silver mines of l.aiiriiiin nj,. 
 n<i longer productive. Air pure and bealihy ; aiul 
 tbiiiigh the country is in many parts dreuVv aii<| 
 iiiii'iillivated, the siimiiiils of the nioniitaiii.s al)i>ri| 
 siililiiiic views, einbcllishcil by niiinerinis cia't.'.irul 
 rcinaiiis, as.-'oejaled with imperishable aii(| ,,||. 
 iiobliiig recollcciioiis. I'',vcry hillock of Allieaaii. 
 pears to have been dedicated to gods or liemo, 
 and decorated with their altars and Ntatiies, |||,! 
 ruins of which are ol'ieii clearly traceable. \\ 
 originally contained 171 denii or boroughs; ii ndu 
 possesses no town of any importiiiice, e.xcciii 
 Athens ; its villages are mostly inhabited by .Ulm- 
 iiiaiis. 
 
 ATTLEHOKOrGII, a m. town and |>nr. of 
 England, vxt, Xorfolk, bund. Shropham, 1."),^ ni. 
 S\V. Xorwich. anil 1 10 m. from Loudon by (Ircm 
 l''.asterii railway. The par. contains /i.suo ncrr., 
 and 2,221 inhali. ace. to the census of IMIII, i{|,! 
 town, formerlv a ]ilace of some importance, i« imw 
 deciiycd and mconsid(Table. 
 
 A'lTOCK {.Itiir, a limit), an. Vurmias, n furt 
 and town of th(> Punjab, llindostan. on the j;, 
 bank of the Indii.s, in lat. 83° od' X., long. 71° j;' 
 i:.. 42 m. ESi;. Peshawer, and 23(> m. XW. \,t[h,m: 
 The modern fort stands on a low hillock besiileihi' 
 river; it is of an olilong form; its shortest (ikim 
 parallel to the river, being KXI yards in leii;;ili, 
 and the others twice as long. The walls ariMil 
 polished stone, and the whole sfriieliirc is haiiil- 
 sonie ; but in a military point of view it is of iitili: 
 importance, Ixdiig commanded bya hill, from wliirli 
 it is divided only by a ravine. Estiniatetl pipp, ol' 
 town 3,(I(HI. On the opiiosite side of ilie river is a 
 small village, having a tort erected by Xadir Shall, 
 and a line aipiediict liuilt by some forincr Kliiiiiuk 
 chief. The Indus is here 2(10 yards broad, tlio 
 channel deep, and the current rapid, but .so tran- 
 quil that a bridge might be thrown over if ; ami it, 
 is easily ])assed both in boats and on the iiiMaicil 
 hides of oxen, a contrivance eomnion here uml a.s 
 old as the days of Alexander the Great, who is lic- 
 lieved to have crossed the Indus at or near this |iiiiiii. 
 
 AUIJAGNE, a town of Fiance, dep. lioiiclKsilu 
 Khoiie, ca]). cant., on the V'eaume, 1(1 m. K. .Mar- 
 seilles, on the railway from Marseilles to Miv. 
 Po|i. 7,232 in 18()l. Aubagne consists of an nlil 
 and a new town; the former built on the docliviiy 
 of a hill, and the latter at its foot. In the lirst, iIib 
 houses are small, and the streets narrow and dirty, 
 but ill the new part the houses are good, and tlic 
 streets broad and well kept. It has fabric.'* if 
 earthenware and pai)er, and tanneries; and .sevcril 
 fairs are held in it, for the sale of horses, miile.-s, iiml 
 jewellerA'. 
 
 AUHE. an inland dep. of France, SE. I'nri.s, lii- 
 tween 47° 55' and 48° 42' X. Int., and 3° 21 .iiid 
 4° 48' E. long., having N. dep. of Mariie, E. Uauic 
 Marne, S. the Cote d'Or and Voiiiic, and W. Si'i:ii: 
 et Marne. Area, (•)()0,13i) hectares, or 2.3113 Kii-li-ii 
 sq. m. Pop. 2(!4,247 in 1851, and 2(;2,7«5 in IM.I. 
 The department is trnversed by the Seine, wliiili U 
 navigable from Troyes, and also by its imiMirtaiit 
 afthient the Aiibe, whence the dep. has its name ; 
 the latter is navigable from Arcis-sur-Anlie. Sin- 
 face generally flat, but in the X W. quarter then' 
 are some low hills. The soil of the region to the 
 N. and W. of Troves consists of chalk thinly 
 co\-ered with mould, and is exceedingly barren uml 
 unproductive, a geat part of it not being worili 
 cultivation. The subsoil of the other purdon, ur 
 that to the E. and S. of Troyes, also c(iiisi.-l.< i f 
 chalk ; but being for the most jiart thickly coviicil 
 with alluvial deposit, produces luxuriant crops ol 
 
'W VOnoTHiMIl 
 
 tri'a>iiri'-.ar.' 
 I t^rev ui M. 
 
 I.iiiiriiini arc 
 lit'tiltliy ; ainl 
 is ilri'iirv an<l 
 iiiilaiiis iiDiiril 
 ■rmis rliH^i^al 
 Itlilf iilhl (>i|. 
 , III' Allien ii|i' 
 
 ids tir iiiTiic*, 
 
 (I Nlllllll'X, till' 
 
 triici'iililc. Ii 
 itiintit; il iiiiw 
 
 tlllU'C, »'XC1'||| 
 
 biti'd l>y Allia- 
 
 I and pnr, df 
 |iliiiin, \it>j ni, 
 idem liy (Irciii 
 
 IH .'■».SIMI ftiT,-, 
 of I Hill. Til,. 
 
 irtani'o, is ikiw 
 
 'ariiims, n fcirt 
 an, (III till' I',, 
 1„ liiiiK. 71° J7' 
 i.NW. I.aliiirc. 
 UiH'k licHiiic ilii' 
 4 (diiirti'Ht I'aii'i 
 irds ill l('ii).'lli, 
 lie walls are nl 
 ii'lurc is lianij- 
 w it is (if littii; 
 liill.l'riiinwiiirli 
 tiiiiiitcd piiii. Ill' 
 (if till' river isii 
 liy Nadir Shall, 
 rdrmcr Kliiitliik 
 ards broad, tliu 
 id, Imt, sii triiii- 
 (ivcr it ; ami it 
 on tlio iiitliiteil 
 ion hero ami an 
 ireat, whoisln'- 
 riiearthisiiuini. 
 lep, lioiidiis (III 
 10 m. i:. Mar- 
 seilles to Nio'. 
 dsts of ail iiM 
 III llio deelivily 
 In tlielirst.tlie 
 arrow and (liny. 
 H'ood. ami tlif 
 has falirics "f 
 ics ; and several 
 irscs, inulcs, iiml 
 
 [, SK. Tnris, 1k- 
 atid ;{° -^ I' ."■■'I 
 ;arnp, K. llii"i<' 
 , and W. S('i:ie 
 Ir ■l.W.i Kn^'li>h 
 tCrJ.TH.') in IWij. 
 ] Seine, whieli i-< 
 |y its imiHirtaiit 
 , has its name ; 
 |nr-Anl>e. Siir- 
 f. quarter then' 
 te renicn to the 
 If chalk thinly 
 af,dy barren ami 
 lit beiiiK wiirili 
 Itlier portioii, "f 
 lalso consi.-^ts el 
 Tthicldy ei)ViTi<i 
 liriant" crops ol 
 
 AUBEL 
 
 eiiiii'idenibie pronrt'sH sini'i' till' reviiliitioii.parlii'ii- 
 lurlv ns resiH'i'ts llii> eiilliire of liirnips, and the 
 riiriiiatiiin ol urtilicial nii'iidows. Oxen as widl as 
 hefses are cmployi'd in liidd I'lboiir. Tlie annual 
 liriiiliice of wool is cstiiimled al 2-'tl,tlitlt kiloKs. A 
 .'real iiiiniber of lio>,'s are fiiltened. 'I'lie meadows 
 Til the \ alleys of tlie Seine, Aiibe, and Arinancean- 
 iiiiallv siipjily about 'J,<mmi,imm) i|iiinlals liav, about 
 iiiie-tliird part of which is sent to I'/irls. The 
 I'liresis in some iiarls arc pretty extensive, hut in 
 the liarren ehalK region there is a >;reat want of 
 irei"*. The best wines are Ihoso of IJicey, Mac. 
 lliiiiiilv, .lavernant,Mnil l.aines-anx-hnis. .\ccord- 
 iii" III the oilii'ial tables, the principal divisions 
 i,niie soil are — cnllivablt! land ll'.tl.nnn, meadows 
 .CMHi, vineyards -ill.tMid, woods Hd.iMiii, heaths, 
 niiinrs. fic. ■iL'.Olllt hectares. KxcepliiiK elialk ami 
 iiiarlile. t'u) minerals aro nniniportant. The 
 niaiiiil'actn'"e of cotton stiilVs ,ind yarn, hosiery, and 
 Hiiiilleii still's, i,s extensively carried on, and alimil 
 '.'.alHI Idoiiis and U,iill(» workpeople are employed 
 ill the weaving; of sto<rkinKs, The estiiblishmeiits 
 rurspiiininti wool, produce annually about |(lll,il()0 
 kilii),'-i. of yarn; and those for spinning; eoiton put 
 ill million liH,nt)ll spindles, einployin;^ from 2,7(tn to 
 :l,(i(H( workpeople, and furnish aiiiiuallN' ,"iii( ).((((( I 
 kilii;,'s. of yarn. There are also tanneries, works fur 
 (lie preparation of heet-root siii^ar, ;;lass-works and 
 lile-works. With the exception of Troyes, tin; 
 ihif'-lieii, or ca|>ital of lln^ (le|iarlineiit, none of the 
 (iilier towns are of much importance. The depart- 
 ment is divided into live arrondisseinenis, vi/., 
 Tniyes, Arcis-siir-Anbe, Uar-sur-Anhe, Har-siir- 
 Seiiie, imd No>;eiit-sur-Seine, and subdivided into 
 twenty-six cantons and -IIT coniinnnes. The 
 eirlesiastieal affairs are under the bishop of 
 Tnives, siilfra^can of the archbishop of Sens. 
 
 Al'ItKI^, a town of Helgium, pmv. Lie);e, ,5 m. 
 N. Verviers. I'op. .'{,0,")0 in IK.'ili. It has n (^ood 
 weekly market, ami u con!)i(.lerablc trade in butler 
 and cheese. 
 
 AU HKNAS, n town of France. (U ,i. Ardeehp, cnj). 
 cant., near tlie Ardeche, at the foot of the Ceven- 
 iies, i;i m. SW. I'rivas. Pop. «,">-"■» in l«iil. The 
 tiiwii isheautifully situated on the slope of a well- 
 wiiiiilcil hill, and is surrounded by the ruins of an 
 iilil wall Hanked with towers. The interior of the 
 tdwii, however, by mi means corresponds with the 
 lieaiity of its situation, its streets heiiifx generally 
 (TiHiked, narrow and filthy, and the houses ill- 
 luiilt. Aiihenas is the seat of a tribunal of com- 
 niiwe, and has manufactures of chith, lilatiiresand 
 fahrics of silk, and establishments for the dressing; 
 (if leather. It is the f^reat mart for the sale of the 
 wines and chestnuts of the dep., and has also a con- 
 siderable trade in raw and wronyht silk, wool, and 
 cottun. 
 
 AUUERVILLIERS, or Nolredame-des-Vertus, 
 a villaf;c of France, dep. Seine, a little to the N. 
 (ifraris. Po]). (i,0!»8 in IH.il. The inhabitants 
 are principally employed in the raising of garden 
 stuffs for the supply of I'aris. 
 
 AUBIGNV, a town of France, dep. Cher, cap. 
 cant., on the Nfcre, 28 ni, N. IJourges. Pop. 2,(iiVl 
 ill 1«()1. The town is (dil and ill-built. It has 
 niaiuifactnres of coarse cloth, linsey-woolsey, 
 serjies, &c,, and is the centre of a tunisidcrable 
 trade in wool. Auhigny, with its lordship, was 
 erected into a duchy in 1(184, in favour of the 
 Duchess of Portsmouth and her son, the Duke of 
 Kichmnnd. 
 
 AUlUN-DE-COinriKR (ST.), a town of 
 France, dep. Ille et Vilainc, on a steep hill, IG m. 
 NE. Kenncs. Pop. 2,098 in 1861. 
 
 AUBIX (ST.), a town of France, dep. Aveyron, 
 cap. cant., 18 m. NE. Villefranche, on a branch of 
 
 AnirsMON 
 
 2:1.1 
 
 the Southern railway. Pop. 7,8,-)ti in 1801. In the 
 environs of this town arc the burning mounlainH, 
 or ratlier hills, of Foiitagnes and lliiegne, in which 
 siilitcrranean llrcs hn\e been in actimi fur iigcs. 
 The smoke and oilier vapuurs pniduceil by the 
 llres deposit on the sides of the criM'ices of the 
 rocks and earth, by which Ihey make their escape, 
 large (piantlties of imperfect aliiin and subli- 
 mated siilplnir. The alum crystals being cul- 
 lected and rellned furnish excellent alum, siilllcient 
 for the siijiply of France. 
 
 Al'llIN (ST.), a limdy situated sea-iiort town 
 of the island of .lersey, oppusilc to St. llidiers, on 
 the \V. side of the bay on which the latter is 
 hnilt. Pop. 2,070 in \H(\\. The town cmisists 
 iirincipally of a single street of W(dl built lionses. 
 There is a harbour formed by a pier, but il is de- 
 licieiil in water; but the largest ships may 1111- 
 (dior inside the pier ut St. Aubin's Castle, in the 
 vicinitv. 
 
 Ai:it( )NNE, a town of Swit/.erland, cant. Vaud, 
 on the Aiihiinne, II m. W. by S. Lausanne, mi iIh' 
 railway from haiisainie loCieiieva, Pop. 1.7.11 in 
 18110. The caslle of Anbonne, which commands 
 a very line view, was built by the counts of (ini- 
 yere, and repaired by Taveriiier, the celebrated 
 traveller, to whom it belonged, in the s('veiiteeiitb 
 century. The heart of Diiipiesne, one of the most, 
 celebrated naval otliccrs of France, is interred in 
 the parish church, where a nioiiument has been 
 erected to his memorv. 
 
 AIJIUIKN, a town of the IT. States, X. V,,ik, 
 co.t'avnga, at the N. end of Owaseo Lake, lIlO in. 
 N\V. Alban, and IM 1 m. N\V. New York. Pop. 
 12,100 in l«(iO. The streets are wide and nmc- 
 adainised, having nnmeroiis h)fty buildings of 
 brick and dressed liniestone. Auburn is prin- 
 cipally celebrated for its state prison, founded in 
 I8|(i. This is a very extensive building, and has 
 been conducted, since I82.'l, on what has been 
 called the 'silent, <ir Auburn plan,' that is, on tin; 
 plan of contiiiing the prisoners to separate cidls 
 during the night, and making them work together 
 during the day, taking care to enforce, when they 
 are together, the strictest silence. The prison 
 was at lirst conducted on the system of solitary 
 contineinent, which not being found to answer, the 
 liresent system was established in its stead. Ex- 
 clusive of tlie state prison, there are at Auburn 
 a county nrison, built in 18;1H; a Presbyterian 
 theological .seminary, incorporated in 182(1, with 
 a good library; a college, founded in I8.'l(i; a 
 court-house, with numerous places for publiu 
 worship. 
 
 AUHUSSOX, a town of France, dep. Crense, 
 cap. arrond., on the river of that ■ . ;..;, 20 m. SE. 
 (iiierct. Pop. 6,003 in 1861. , -.vn is pic- 
 
 turesquely situated in a sterile cou . ry, in a nar- 
 row gorge, surrounded by rocks aiiu mountains. 
 It consists of one long street of goml houses; has 
 a theatre, and an agricultural sociiu y. The carju^t 
 manufacture of Aubnsson is the most celebrated 
 in France, after that of the Gobelins and Hean- 
 vais. It was formerly, however, much more ex- 
 tensive than at present. In the early part of the 
 seventeenth century the town is said to have con- 
 tained 12,000 inhabitants, of whom upwards of 
 2,000 were directly employed in the carjjet trade. 
 Hut being mostly Protestants, the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, by makinji^ the greater num- 
 ber emigrate to foreign countries, gave a blow to 
 the manufacture, from which it never recovered. 
 In 1780, it emphjyed about 700 workpeople. It 
 languished for a fong time after the revolution ; 
 but within the last dozen years it has materially 
 improved, and at present it employs a greater 
 number of hands than in 1780. 
 
 I 
 
 
II Hi 
 
 251 
 
 AUCH 
 
 AITII, n city «>f Friimc. (I()i. (>Pt», iif which It 
 in thi' Clip., on the hit lutiik <>)' llic (icn*, niiil on 
 the rnilwiiy Inmi A^'H •"> TnrlwH. |'ii|i. I I.'.mmi in 
 IHtil, 'l'\w liiwii NtiilnlN nil Ihi^ plali'iiii niiil ili'- 
 rli\ ity nC a hill, whirli ^:\\v)* it iit ii ilitlaiicc i\ 
 tliio ik|i|i<'nriiiirc. A >'iinHi<li>ralih' Miiluirh i* hiiilt 
 «ni llic n|i|Mwil<> hIiIc of lhi> river, the ('nniiiiiiiiira- 
 tioii ^vitli it iH'iii^' kept up liy n hriil^rc. It if* llir 
 Meat III' a court of iiHNi/c, of triliuiiaJN of coiii- 
 Micrcc and original JiiriMliction, anil of an nrch- 
 liiNJiopric; ami lian a royal coilci^ri', a primary 
 iioniial Hi'hool, a tlu'oio^irnl wniiiinry, a ncIiooI 
 of ilrxi^n. an aKrii'ulliiral wicicly, a iiiuhi'Iiiii, anil 
 aiiiililic lilirary with iilMint ri.tllMi voIumii'h. Not- 
 Wilhstanilln^ iiioilcrii inipriivi'incntH, Aiich inMlill 
 IXi'iicrally ili-ltuilt, and the Htrccts ihoii^h clean, 
 arc narrow and crooked. The IichI |>art of the 
 town i.M on till' Miiinniit of the pialean. There is 
 ]iere a inafrniticent promenade upon an elevated 
 terrnce of (,'reat extent, linely shaded, and eoni- 
 niandiiiK an exteii»ive view over tlie iieiKh- 
 lioiirin^ coiintrv iim far an the ryreiieeH, Prin- 
 cipal piililic liiiildin^'H, the cathedral and the 
 hotel of the prefecture. The former is one of the 
 most inajriiiticent in France; hut though taken 
 nH awiiole it i.iadmirahle, its partsare not n little 
 incon^ruoiiN, the principal part of the buildiiiK 
 Iwiiif; (lothic, while tlie front and Home other 
 iiortionH arc (Jreek, The ilitl'ereiit partH of the 
 interior are exeeediiijtly well itroportioncd. The 
 hotel of the iirefectnre, fomu rlv the archie]iiH- 
 I'opal palace, in a vaxt and noble ImildiiiK- There 
 U alxo (in the sulnirh) nn immense hoHpital, with 
 ft town-hoiiHe mid hiirrackn. Anch has manufac- 
 tiiri's of thread and cotton Htnll'd, coarse cloths, 
 with tanneries, and cstahlishments for the «pin- 
 iiinj; of wool. A ponniderable trade is carried un, 
 liarticulnrly in the brandies of Amin^tnac. 
 
 Anch is a very ancient town. Itefore the Un- 
 man coiu|nest it' was called Climherris, and was 
 the capital of the Aiiscii. Aiifiustus haviiif; 
 ])lante<i in it a Itoman colony, it took the name of 
 Aii<iuiitn-Auii<ociiriim, whence its modern name 
 lias iK'en derived. The old city stood on the rij^lit 
 bank of the (Jers, on the site of the present 
 mibiirh. 'I'he modern city is, however, very an- 
 cient, havinp been fuuiulcd previously to the 
 reign of Clovla. 
 
 AUCHTKHAKDER, a town of Scotland, co, 
 Perth, on the S. bank of the Ham. Pop. 2,«44 in 
 IWil. The town, which is nearly 1 m. in lenfjth, 
 consists of a single street on both sides the high 
 road from (Jlasgow to Perth, being alioiit 14 m. 
 \V. by S. from the latter, and having a sta- 
 tion on the Scottish v^cntral railway. The town 
 is princi])ftlly occupied by cotton weavers in the 
 cmjiloyment of the (tlasgow manufaelurers. At 
 one time it returned members to the Scotch par- 
 liament, and it is uncertain how or when it lost 
 the privilege. At present it is the seat of a Pres- 
 byterv. It was burned down by the F.arl of Mar, 
 iii 17i8, and has no building worth notice. The 
 agriculture of the parish has been greatly im- 
 jiroved within the present centurv. 
 
 AUCHTKKMUCHTY, a royal burgh and par. 
 of Scotland, co. Fife, the town being situated on 
 the high road from Kinross to Cupar, !) m. W. the 
 latter, on the Edinburgh-Perth railway. Pop. of 
 town 1,215, and of suburbs 1,223 in 1861. The 
 town is intersected by a rapid streamlet, employed 
 to turn flax and other mills, and to supply a bleach- 
 Held. It is very irregularly built, but contains a 
 fair proportion of good substantial houses. The 
 inhabitants are principally employed in the 
 ■woaving and spinning of linen and cotton, esjie- 
 <i.'illy the former. It was created a royal burgh 
 by Jiimes IV., but has never enjoyed the privilege 
 
 AlDINCOniT 
 
 of voting In the return ofn m. ritlicrto the.Scntcli 
 or ItriliKh piirllaini'iits. 
 
 AI'hK, a niarilime ilep. In the M. of France, ,iii 
 the Mi'iliierrani'iin, scpMratnl from Spain hvihi' 
 ill p. of the I'yrciiccH Orii'iitah'4. Area. (!ilii.:iii7 
 hectares, or 2,21*! English mi. ni. Pop, 2x!i,7l7 j„ 
 IM.'il, aiid ;i."»:i,fi;i;i in IHIII. The Audi', wln'iin. ii 
 derives its name, is the onlv cousideralile ri\i'r in 
 the ilep. ! but it is travcrHi'i^ from E. to \V, hv ihc 
 canal of Eangiii'iloc. The coast along the Nlrdj 
 tcrraiiean is mostly low, and Is borderi'd by mi'vimI 
 lagiMiiis, or, as they are called in the laiigiingr oi' 
 the country, iViini/n, or ponds. At the nmiiili ,,( 
 one of them is La Noiivelle, the only purl in iii,. 
 de|i. Surface generally hilly and niiiniitiiiiiuih, 
 being encunihereil on the X. with the Mcmlairiii' 
 Noire, a prolongation of theCeveiines, and on tin. 
 S. with ramilicatioiis of the ryreiiees, Th,. 
 highest summit of the latter, the I'ic Mnx^it, 
 rises about H.dOll feet above the level of llic sea; 
 the highest |Miint of the Monta^^ne Nnireis hIumm 
 !1.!M)(I feet aboM' the sea. Soil of the plains and 
 valleys generallv calcareous and ver\' priiilnctlvc. 
 Climate variable, and iiriiicipally distiiigiiislini 
 by the prevalence of hot winds; that frmn tlir 
 SE. called the ^ ((/«», and that from the N\V. 
 called the Crm. Jloth of these blow with greiil 
 force; and at Carcassonne and Castelnaiidarv the 
 aiitan is occasionally so violent as to niininr 
 houses and tear u)> trees. In summer it simie- 
 times strikingly resemliles the sirocco. All snrti 
 of com are raised on tlie iilains, and millet niiil 
 buckwheat on the mountains. The priHJiire ex- 
 ceeds the consumption of the inhabitants so iiincli, 
 that the export is estimated at about iViD.diiii 
 hectolitres a year. Next to corn, wine is tliR 
 most important agricultural product, the vine- 
 yards being supposed to furnish about M!in,iHiil 
 iiectolitres a year. The red wines are iiiferinr, 
 liut the white wines, particularly the hlaiu|uctle 
 lie Limoux, are much esteemed. A good dnil nf 
 brandy is manufactured. Sheep niinieroiis: nn- 
 niial product of wool estimated at l,8(l(l,(i(Mi kiliif;!<. 
 Irrigation well understood; and there are sunic 
 line artiticial meadows. The honey of Xarlidmic 
 is the liiiest in France. According to the iiflicial 
 tables, the soil is principally appropriated ns 
 follows; viz. — cultivalile lands 27H,ttO(), meadows 
 1 l,(H)n, vineyards 5(),(MH>, forests 44,(10(1, and wiintc 
 lands, heaths, &c, IKMMIO hectares. Landed jiro- 
 perty is greatly siilKlivided in this as in the other 
 South-west departments; the average extent of 
 the farm is CO acres, and a great many are less. 
 This subdivision is of old date, and existed long 
 previous to the revolution. The dej). is rich in 
 mineral products. Mines of iron are wnniglit in 
 different places ; and the total produce of the 
 foundries is estimated at about 17,000 metricnl 
 quintals a year. Above 3(),()(I0 pieces of clntli are 
 annually manufactured at Carcassonne, of which 
 (i,(lO0 arc exported to the Levant. There is also 
 a large manufacttiry of combs and articles of jet, 
 with fabrics of paper, tanneries, distilleries, and 
 salt-works. Trade and industry have been greatly 
 promoted by the facilities of communication af- 
 forded by the canal of Languedoc, as well as by 
 the railway from Toulouse to Cette, with its 
 branches, which crosses the department. Princiiml 
 towns Carcassonne, Narbonne, and Castdnau- 
 darv. 
 
 AUDINCOUKT, a ^-illnge of France, dep. 
 Douba, cap. cant., on the Doubs, 3 m, SE. Mont- 
 beliard. Pop. 2,8fi4 in 18(!1. This village is 
 distinguished by its iron-works, which fiiniish 
 annually above .5,000,000 kilogs. of bar and 
 wrought iron, exclusive of considerable qiiantiticri 
 of iron and tin plates. 
 
Al'Hltl'K'Q. a town of Frnnro, dop. l»nn ilo 
 Culrtis call. <iuit., 'i,HT:i m. NNW. Sl.Oinir, on 
 ilii'drt'iil Norilifni riiilwHv. I'lip, 'J,'J'J<l in |Ht)|, 
 11,(1 1 1 iw 1 1 U nlronKly Inriiru'il. 
 
 All'.KIJACII, II town of Siixnnv, on the 
 Onl/M-li, I-.* ni. K. I'Iniirn. I'op. 1,111 In IN«1I. 
 ||ii> tiiwn wit!* iilinoHl entirely ili'^troyt'il l>y llff in 
 |n:U, liiit liiiM iM'i'n ri'liuilt in ii HiiiH'rior Ktylr. !t 
 |i,'t^» iiiniiiirurinrrM of nniKlin anil liliick liU't', witli 
 liri'wcrii'H, |>n|M'r-worl<H, iinil ttn lu'tivf truili', 
 
 AiiKitiiAt^ii, II liHiiilHoini' village of j^. il. Ilc<i»i> 
 lliirni.'ttiiiit. I<'i III. S, DiirniHtitilt. I'oii. I,?.'*!) in 
 IHiil, It lull II I'liMlIt', the Niininit'r rcftiiit'llct' of the 
 Dmiiil l)iik«; iiiiil m-viTiil wiiIIk and liatliN, mncli 
 p.^irlril to l>y the iiilialtitanlMot' DiirniHtaili. 
 
 Ari'il'!^'"'^"'"' u Mniall villaj;!' of I'ruxsian 
 SiiX'iny, n%. MiTsclinri;, (J in. W. Naiiinliur);. 
 iliTi'. on the I Itli ot'OctolitT, iHdii, III)' iniiin limly 
 i,r the (jrcat I'mssiaii army, iimU r tliu i)nUc of 
 
 jlruiHwii'k and tin- kinn in |><th was il<'t'cat<Ml 
 
 liv ilic division of the uraiid Frt'iicli army coni- 
 riiiiiiilrd liy Marshal havonst, 'I'ho naiiif day 
 .\ii|)iili'on dcfeati'd, at .lena, the rinlit win;{ of thi- 
 I'riiwiaii iirniy, under tieiieral Mcdleiidorlf. 'I'lic 
 niiiiliiiied action has lieeii ealled the hattle of 
 .Iriiii. (See .Ikna.) Davoust, in reward of IiIm 
 -kill mill pillaiitry, rereived from Nuiioleon the 
 lltli' of l>nke of Anerstiidt. 
 
 Al'titil'lt, a town of llindiwtan, prov. Malwa; 
 ill the iloin. of Siiidia ; on n roeky eminenee, l.o'.m 
 ft iilMive the level of the sea, hetwet'ii two lakes, 
 Hini. N'K. Oojein; lat, .'Jio l:t' N., Ioiilt. "U" 1' K. 
 It is surroiiiidiid hy a stone wall, and lias u well- 
 luiilt native fortress: it is of eonsideralile extent, 
 anil in 1'<'20 eoiitained n,()'») houses; Init these, 
 cxci'iitiiit; one street, were nearly mud liiiildin^s. 
 
 Ai;<iSUl'K(t (tux. Aiigimta f'ituMicorHin),aM[y 
 iif Itavaria, eap.circ. UpiVr Danulie, (Inely situated 
 ill ail extensive and fertile plain, lietweeii and near 
 till' I'liiilluence of the VVertaeh and Lecli, .'!.'» in. 
 N\V, Miinieli, at the junction of the railways from 
 Miiiiich to Dim, and from N'Uriiherj; to the lake of 
 Ciiii^taiiee. I'o]). 3H,HiO in IHiil. Aiiffsliiirn was 
 liiiiK line of the richest, most eommercial, and 
 IKPWorl'iil of the free cities of the empire. Its forti- 
 licntiiiiis were dismantled in IVDii, and the old 
 walls have heen partly converted into promenades. 
 Till' streets arc mostly narrow and inconvenient, hut 
 iiiii' of them, the Maximilian Strnsse, is n iiohle 
 llioniiiKlifare, more than ij of u mile in lenj^tli, wide 
 mill iiiry, with lofty, well-built houses, and orna- 
 iiicnied with several line fountains. There arc 
 some other good streets and squares. The houses, 
 which are mostly old, are larf^c, and sculptured 
 ami painted fronts arc common. The town-hall, 
 near one of the extremities uf the Maximilian 
 Strassc, the finest buildinjj in the town, was 
 liiiislied in l(i20. It has a hall <m its second story, 
 ilenominated the j?olden hall, from the profusion 
 of ^'ikliii^;, reckoneil one of the finest apartments in 
 lii'maiiy. The other public buildiiifjs are the 
 |wLicc, formerly the residence of the bishop, but 
 now used for jyovemment offices ; the cathedral, 
 an extensive Gothic fabric, dating, in part, from the 
 sixth century; the arsenal; the abbey of 8t. lllric, 
 with the church of !St, Afra, and the new ' VVaa- 
 renhalle,' or commercial exchange. The town is 
 extremely well sujiplied with water, and Ls inter- 
 sected by no fewer than four canals. Exclusive of 
 the walks on the glacis and hi the neighbourhood, 
 it has a fine promenade in front of St. Ulric's 
 cliurch. Among the educatioiml establishments 
 are two gymnasiums, at one of m cli I'rince Louis 
 Naimlcon, subsequently Napoleon III., Kmpcror, 
 rweived his education ; an academy of arts, founded 
 in 1820; a |)oIy tecihnic society ; twoendowed schools 
 f'lr females, a Lancastrian school, and several 8un- 
 
 ATCif.STA 
 
 ma 
 
 day HrhooN, The public library oontnlMM a valu- 
 able collection of printed and iiianiiwript (ireek 
 wiirk». The I'olh'ctioii of piiiiiliim'N, chicHy of tlio 
 (icrniaii schonl, fnriiii'rlv in iln' io«vn hall, has been 
 
 fiarlly removed to .Vliiiiich. An g the chiiritiiblo 
 
 estulilishini'lits is the t'liijijiTri. This cniiHiMls of o! 
 Niiiall boiiHes coiitaiiiiii»{ lINi dwellings, built in 
 l.'il'.t by the Fiiggcr family, and let tolndigi'iit ciii> 
 zi'im at a mere nominal n'tit. In our own times, 
 Schae/.ler, a banker of the city, has follnwed up 
 Ibis example, by endowing a hcIuhiI of indiisiry 
 for loil orjihaiis and poor children, ami foiindiiig 
 an asylum for decayed iiiwiis-|M'opli>, 
 
 The nianufiictiircs of Aiigsbiiri; are various and 
 im|Hirtaiit, That of woollen sliilfsis the niusl ex- 
 tensive and thriving; those of cotton and linen, 
 though still considerable, have declined. It has also 
 a cannon foundry, and pnsloces large ipiiiiitilii's 
 of paper, with gold and silver lace and jewellery, 
 print iiig-types, soap, and glass, Augsburg is liki'- 
 wise the ceiiire of an extensive trmle in prinliiig, 
 engraving, and bookbinding, but its principal iiii- 
 itortiince at present, and for n long time past, has 
 lieeii derived from its being, next to Kraiikliirt, the 
 grand scat of banking and exchange opiTaiioiis in 
 Central Kiiro^K-, The greater part of the exten- 
 sive transactions between Vienna and W, (icr- 
 inaiiv, as well as most of those between (icniiMiiv 
 and Italy, are finally b«lanccdaiid adjusted in this 
 citv, 
 
 'I'liis was formerly a place of much greater popu- 
 lation and importance than at present. It is verv 
 ancient, Angiislus having settled a colony in it 
 about twelve years »,«^ In the niidd'c ages it 
 was early distinguished by its trade; and having 
 purchased its freedom from the dukes of Siiabiii, it 
 rapidly rose in importance. At the end of the litli 
 century Augsburg, Nuremlierg, and some other 
 cities in .Southern (iermany, had establishineiits in 
 Venice, and i;arried on a very extensive trade with 
 Italv, the !<(tvaiit, anil the rest of (iennany. The. 
 family of the Fiiggers, [irobably the richest and 
 most extensive mercbants of the loth and Kitli 
 centuries, and who afterwards liecome princes of 
 the empire, were originally sim]>le burghers of this 
 city, weavers by trade, and though the most, 
 celelirated, they were not its only citizens who 
 attained to almost n^gal opulence and power. 
 Augsburg declined, partly in ccmsequence of the 
 proloiigeii wars of the Kith and 17th centuries, but 
 more, perhaps, from the change in the channels of 
 commerce, occasioned by the discovery of the route 
 to IniUa by the Cajie of GocMlHope, and the rise 
 of other em|)orium8. Latterly it has improved 
 considerably, 
 
 Augsburg has been the theatre of many important 
 events. At a diet held within its walls — in an 
 ancient buihling still standing, called the ' Resi- 
 dence ' — on the '2")th of.Inne, l.i.'lO, the famous 
 Confession of Faith, drawn up by Melancthon and 
 suliscribed by the I'rotestant yirinces, was pub- 
 licly read before, and iffesented to, the Kmperor 
 Charles V. This celebrateil document has thence 
 been called the Augsburg Confession. Here, also, 
 the interim, or provisional edict, was published by 
 Charles V. ill 164K; and here, in I.55r>, was con- 
 cluded the peace which assured the full enjoyment 
 of their rights and liberties to the Protestants, 
 Augsburg continued to be a free city till IKdti, 
 when it was ceded by Naiioleon to Bavaria. It is 
 now the cap. of Suabia, one of the eight provinces 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 AUGUSTA, a city of the U. States, E. frontier 
 Georgia, on the Savannah river, by which it is 
 separated from Hamburgh in S. Candina; 12.'{ m. 
 NNW. Savannah, liW m. WNVV. Charleston, bit. 
 33° 33' N., long. 80° 4G' W. Pop. 13,20t) in !«(>(), 
 
IN 
 
 I'* 
 
 '2/in AIM JUST INK (HT.) 
 
 'I'ho I'ify In nitMnli-il on mi rli<v/itr<l pliiiti ; utrrrln 
 HJilr, mill iiilcrMi'i'liti^ null neliir itl rJKlil 4imkI)'>< ; 
 liiiiiHi's lirirk, tiimiy nf (liriii Ih'Ih^ Kiiiirinnt mnl 
 I'irumil. Il lull* II ritv liiill, I'liiirl liiiiini', llli'illir, 
 nniili'iiiy, liiii«|iiiii|, wiili iiiiinrriiiiN mIih'I'm I'nr |iiili 
 lii- wiirHliip; a niciiii'iil i'iilli'^i>, mnl u nilK'Kr I'ur 
 Mi'iliiiiii'^tN, Aii^^rii"!!! liiiM 11 riiii'-iili'ritlili' irmiNii 
 
 trililr, |ilirtirilllirl\ in lllc niiurx lll^ nl' ruttnn III 
 
 SiiMiiiiiiili mill ('liiirli"<iiiii, lull «\liirli NiilVi'ml 
 niiirli (luring llii> rivil wiir In ilii< I'liiti'il SIiiIi'n, 
 iNiil -'i, iliiriiiK till' mIiiiIi' III' uliirli llir lily war* in 
 till' IiiiiiiIm of (lie riiiilrili'mli' );iivrriiini'iil, mnl ml 
 oil' rrmn nil iiiliTi'mirM' \«illi llir Nurllii'm StnirH. 
 AriiiMTA, M tuttii 111' llii' r. Sliilrw, t'H|i. Aliiinc, 
 on llli' Ki'lllirlii'i', IIIH III, SI',. IIiinIiiII, I'ii|i. ill 
 |M|n, |,MO,'i; ill |h;|0, ;|.!)HII; iiiiil ill \Hi\l\, llt.lMin, 
 
 Il U a liiK'ly Hiliiiili'il liiwii, mill Iiiih Iktii, sinrr 
 lM-l°.', Ilii' Mtal III' ilic li'(;iNliiinri' aiiil piv rrnini'iit 
 111' till' f<lal('. 'I'lu' rivrr, which Im Ihiii* t'lir navi- 
 ^illilr I'nr vi'nhi'Im III' ino loiiM, i.s liiTc crnHMCil liy a 
 liriil^'t' III' Iwii iinhi'M, cai'li Md I'l. in Npaii, 
 
 Al (irs'l'INI'l (ST.). a iiiwii ami »ra-|iort of ilio 
 r. Siali'x, I'.. ('ii«hI iif Kluriilii, lal. I'll'-' !>■!' N., Imiik. 
 Hl° •.',")' \S'. I'ri'viiiii^ly 111 Ihr Mr<|niHiiiiiii of I'Mo- 
 rida liy llic I'. SIiiIi'm, thin was a pliii'i' of miuiic 
 iin|ioriiiiiri', I'linliiini'tl frmii l.ooo lo ,'i,imm) inliah., 
 ami WMN ilcfciiili'il hy ik fort, lint it liii:4 Ninrc ih'- 
 I'linnl, |iriiiripaily in conMcipii'in'c of the liinlncss 
 of ilH port. 'I'lii' liar al the iniuilh of llic laltcr 
 liax not inort' liiaii N or '.) ft, water at lii^li Mpriii)^ 
 liih'H, ami at low water not iiinrc than Ti ft., wliieh 
 at tiiiicM makes il InipoH.Hihlc even for Imats to ynsn 
 in or lint. A liKlitlHiiiHC, on the N, end of Aiia.-<laNia 
 iHlaiiil, with a llxeil li^ht, iiinrkN the entranie to 
 tlu^ |iiirt. (Ithiiit'M Anurii'iin CoiimI I'ilnl, p. '.'I.'l.) 
 
 Ari.r.NDOItl'F, a niarkei-iown of Wllrldii- 
 lier^c, eirc. Daiiiihe, 12 in. .SSW, Itiheraeh (Itili- 
 eraeli, on llic riiilway from I'Ini lo the lake of 
 Coiisiaiiee). I'op. l.llViin JHtil. It is heaiilifniiy 
 Hilnateil, ami Iiiih a ca.sile, jiartly liomaii, with a 
 line jiietnre >;allery. 
 
 Ai'l.KT'l'A, a town of Soiitliem Itnlv, jirov. 
 Salerno, on a hill, near the Nej^rro. itt! ni. I'.SI',. Hn- 
 h-nio. I'lip. IliMH in lH(l-.». This town is very 
 nneient, havinj; heen fnnnileil hy ii (ireek colony. 
 
 Al'I.ONA, or VAI.ONA {hh. Aiilim), a sea-plirt 
 town of Turkey in l''.iiriipe, prov. Alhania, cap. 
 Suiijiack, near the month of the Adriatic, on the 
 K. sidit of a f;iilf of the smne iinnie, tiA m, KNK. 
 Otranto, in Italy, hit. '111° 27' I.')" N., loiif,'. lU" 
 2t>' 20" K, Top." estimated at (i.lHMI, consisting of 
 Turks, (Jhristians, and Jews lianished from An- 
 oona, liy I'ope I'aul IV. Thonjfh v.erv ancient, it 
 has few or no remains of anlii|uity. ft was taken 
 liv the Turks from the Wnetians in l(l!U; and 
 the only jjood houses of which it has to lioast, 
 were huill by the latter. It is defended hy a 
 castle. The (iulf of Auhma has nt its month the 
 Hmall island of .Sassino. which Her\'es as n natural 
 breakwater, iirotectinjj: it from the heavy seas that 
 would otherwise be thrown in from tiie W. and 
 Ju'W. There is deep water on each side the island, 
 and within the pilf ox|iaiids into a tine basin with 
 excellent anchoriiif^ ^ronnd. The country round 
 Aiilona is exceedingly fertile; but it is very un- 
 healthy ill summer, when the town is nearly de- 
 serted by the inhabitants. 
 
 AUM'ALI'', u town of France, dcp. Seine Infe- 
 rieure. cap. canton, on the IJresle, 14 m. KNK. 
 Keiichatel. Pop. 2,134 in 18lil. The town has 
 manufactures of coarse doth ; some (jood mineral 
 sources are in die nei(;libourliood. Henry IV, 
 was wounded in an action with the Spaniards 
 under the Prince of Parma, on the bridge of this 
 town, in 1;>92, 
 
 AIJUAY, a sea-port town of France, dep. IMor- 
 bihan, caii. cant., on the Aiiray, 11 m, W. Vannes, 
 
 AIUINOAIIAI) 
 
 on the rnllway from ViinnrH lo 1,'Oririit. ]'„u 
 'A.W.t in lHi;i,' The town U Imilt mi ilii. ,|,,,.||.' 
 \iiy of n hill: the to., ii hiiii«<' and ilir imrMi 
 cliiirrh are Wnrlh imlire. \'e»«e|fi iif Kiiiuil lilirili'ii 
 come lip III the town; but ii'< purl lower ijiiwii j, 
 ai'ci"<'<ili|e to vesseU of ciiii>.ii|t'ralile luirilrii, mnl Ii 
 ha* a ^iiiiil ili'iil of riiiixiiiii; I null'. ('Iiiir|r« „( 
 lllois was killeil and hii^^iiesilin made prinniur in 
 a liatlli' fiiiiichl lure in l.'lii I. 
 
 .\l ItlCII, a town of Hanover, cap. W. Krii'«- 
 hiiiil, l.'iin. ST.. I'.mileii. Top, 1,712 In INill. T|„. 
 town in the xeat of the pro\ iinial ^'nvcriiiiii mi, n 
 chaiMcllery, mnl a IVotesiant I'lHiKiKlnry, h ||.,, 
 thru' ehiinhes, a colle^fe, and a KymnaNiiiiii, uiih 
 falirirs of liibacrii, piipt r, and pipes. 
 
 Ari!IM,,\(', a town of l''raiiri', cap. dip. Cin. 
 tal, on the .liiriliMie, 117 m. I''„ llorileaiix, mi iju, 
 railway I'rmu llnnleau.x to Lyons. Tup, |ii,<i:n; ji, 
 iMiil. The town isluiili on tlie decliviiy nl' u Iii||. 
 and beiweeii it and the river is the aurriiililc pm- 
 ineiiade. called Ac (inirirr. Tliminh KeiiiTilllv wrll 
 built, il is|;liHiniy aiidili'<a;{reeable : the.strii'tn uri' 
 narrow, eriiokeil, and ill paved, Imi well wiiiiri'ij jiinl 
 clean. It was fnrmerlv siirrmuiih'il by h.iII-, luiij 
 drfended by u castle; iiiit excepliiij; a pail nf tin' 
 latter, the rest of its forlilicatinns Iuim' liei'ii i|i>. 
 niiili'<lied. The cnllcf^re is the liir^'i'-it nfilii' piiMii- 
 buildings: the hotel of the iirefecl, tin' Iuhii- 
 lioiise, and the church of St. (Mrmid, helmi^'in^M'i 
 the ancient nionaslery lo which the town iinm',, ju 
 fiiiindalioii, deserve notice. Then^ is a liiiiiilsnnii' 
 bridj,'e over the river. Anrillac has triluiimls it 
 oriKinikl jurisdiction and of cmnmerce; a tliiiiiri', 
 a iiiiblic library conlainiiiKli,<iiiii volumes, aMniiiy 
 ol a^nii'iilliire, a cabinet of natural hi.itnry, nuij ii 
 ilijii'it (/(■ iliiraii.i; or hums, 1 1 is an iinlii-'irli.ib 
 town, and has mainifaclnres of paper, Ijiie, aiul 
 taiM'strv. I'ipiniol de la Force, the aiiiliur nl' it 
 ' |)escriptimi (ie'o^rraiihiipie el llistoriipic ile In 
 France' (I'aris, l7.V2-,j;j, I. 'i vols. l2mo.), wjiNlmni 
 here in lli'll. Carrier, infiiinmis for his atniriiiis 
 duriiifr till! revolution, was also a native of iiii^i 
 place. 
 
 Al'liIOL, n town of France, dep. Dmiihes i|ii 
 l>hone, on the Veanme, IT) m. KNF,. M.irMciJii-. 
 Pop. 0,1117 in IHiil. The town has niiiiiiiriirtiiri'H 
 
 of wool and lapeslrv, and in the neif^lilimirl I 
 
 are valuable coal tuid copper mines. A pind irmlc 
 is carried on, and well freipiented fairs arc liciil mi 
 the IMih Se|it('niber, itrd October, and the (iili «f 
 December, lor hoj^s, mules, f;rain, and clulli. 
 
 AL'IUIMiAHAI) (the phue of the thioiir), n 
 lar^e inarit. prov. of tlie Deccan, llindnsiiin, rum- 
 liri.sed jiartly in the Kritish dominimis (|ln■^ill, 
 Itombay), and partly in those of the Ni/.iiin; |iriii- 
 cipallv'belween 1«° and 21° N. hit., and 7;i°aiiil 
 77° h, long.; having ^. the provs. (iiijrat, I'liii- 
 deish, and Jlerar, K. Ueeder, S. IJejapdor, mid 
 VV. tlie Indian Ocean. Surface very irrcpilar, 
 and in general mountainous, especially tnwiinl 
 the W., where the (ihauts attain a cmi.siiicralili' 
 height. That part of the (irov. K. of the Western 
 (ihauts is a table-land rarely less than l,H(i(iri. 
 above the sea, and often much more: it aluMiinls 
 with natural fortresses and strongholds. Tlii'ic 
 are no rivers of any size ; the N'eern, Hei'ina, and 
 (iodavery rise within this prov., but nc(|iiirc im 
 magnitude until after they have left it: llic twn 
 former streams unite in marking the S\V. Itniin- 
 dary. The climate is particnlnrly favoiiriililo I'nr 
 the production of European fruits, which arrive at 
 greater ]ierfection than in any other part of India, 
 especially the peach, grape, and strawberry; nee- 
 tarines, tigs, and melons are excellent ; hut llw 
 oranges arc inferior to those of Sylhet and iip- 
 pcraii. The gardens and tiehls around the vill.'i^.'e'* 
 are very generally inclosed by hedget "f pri' kly 
 
 f 
 
ATTRrNOAnAT) 
 
 AI'STnALASIA 
 
 2^7 
 
 Mtr iinil nillk-pliiiit j rifi> In lhi> (rniiti fni)))> riiUI- 1 A maiiwilnim tTcrii'il liv ilutt mnnnrrh to a 
 
 I . <• . I ..«• I i.-.i. tf..l 1'. _i :«• _ ..." I 1...11 i;.. - ..:.i. _ 
 
 vniiil. 'iD'Hi MiiinlM'n i>r liiirNi'N (nr till' .Mitliiiiiiilii 
 ,.„,,ilrv Miri' l'i>riiii'rl\ mirccl mi ilic liiinkx ni' iIh< 
 ,\irrii nn*l iiot'tiiii; llirv iiri> n Imnlv lirccil, hut 
 iii'jilirr "iriiii^ rmr liiiiicltitnic. Tlu' iiiliiit>, nri> 
 iliKtIv MiilinriillNM; lull till- |iriiv, \n roiiiiiariilivi'ly 
 ililiily |M'i>|ili'<l. i'N|M'('iiilly iiiwiiril llii> NK. : lhi< 
 
 M<>llllMI'l»'<l'»>1 'tl**' '*> 'III' lllMlllHIlt OIllV ItN I til 
 
 y, Aiiniiiuiili'iil liax tliirti'i-n miliilix jhIiiiin, nml 
 niiilniii" (III' I'ilii'H of iliiiiiliMy, riKiMiili, AiiriiMKn' 
 liiiil, mill SiiolaiHMir, Tlii' lia/iiitrH nl' iim lar^rr 
 inHiin iiri' rlii'iTliil anil i'iilivriiiii^'riiiiii(;li, lull ilif 
 ,trn lit of il'* Niiialirr uni'it fxlrriin'ly iliill ami 
 
 ^,| ,iv, rri'iiilliraliHriii'cnruiiiiliiwirarin^iiiwiirilH 
 
 ilii'iii, 'I'Ik' ri'lii^liiii'* t'llillri'M ari' iIIniIii^iiImIii'iI Iiv 
 nmiiv |M'i'ii!iHritii't ('rmn llnwi' iil' llic pniv, Imili 
 
 I'aviiiiriir wlt'i', an iMtaKoiiikl Imililiiit; wiili a 
 rii|ii>lii ami t'liiir ininarrlN, rmi'-lriirli'il nn ilin 
 iiiiiili'l III' I III' TiiJ Mnhiil at Aktm ; ilii> inrlimiiri' 
 Hiirriiiinilintf ii fiiniaiiiH prrliaiM thirty acrcN of 
 Inml laiil mil in K'lrili'nx. 'riii> |iriiiri|tal Niihiirh ii< 
 i>n iht> ii|i|MiNiii> xiilii III' ilm rivrr, nml I'lmnrrii'il 
 will) till' lily hy iwi) NiiliNlaniial xlmui liriil({ri<, 
 'riiMiinl till' N, lliiTf ii a illr^;l' iii»r'<hy trail nl' 
 KMiiml riiliivati'il v\ilh ri>'i', ami nrar tlir llrllii 
 ^ati' in a rmiHiili'rahlf lank, now nvrrttniwii wilh 
 wi'I'iIn; I'l'iiin wliirli riri'iiniHiani'i'N, cmiihiniil with 
 ilH low Nilnatiim ami rninnnx nlali', iIiIm city is i|i>- 
 riili'illy nnlirallliv, ll is, Imwi'viT, hy rriiMun nl' 
 ilH iiiiNJiimi, wi'll Nn|i|ilii'i| willi ^niiil waliT, run- 
 vryi'il lliitlifr in Ntmn- r'unliiiN I'rmn llir iii'IkIi- 
 
 N'. mill M, Imlia; tin' jHirlii'ii in nl'li'ii iirariy | hniiriii); liilJN, ami liislrilininl hy carlliin |ii|ii"4 
 
 of 
 
 n.* Iiir^'i' 1'* 'ill I'x' ''<''*' ■'(' ill*' liiiililin^i luiil in 
 Miiiii' tiiu'iiM llio piiK' I'lM arc rllliiT luclvc niili'il 
 {ivr:iniiili or miiiarc o.iililin^)* Niinniiiinti'il hy a 
 1,'iruT I'lijiiila. Nliiny rciniirkahic aiiiii|iiiiii"i exist 
 ill ilil4 |iriiv, ; iif* the Icinpli'saml cavrNat Salscllc, 
 |'.li|ilimiiii. t'nricc, ivllnra, Ki; I'ntii the ili'sirnc- 
 iJMii I'l' Miiliaralta pnwcr, in \H\x, pliiiiilcriii;; hy 
 liiiiil mill piracy hy ncii pri'vailcil iiiiu'li in ami 
 rmiiiil iIiIh priiv., the ^'rcalcr part ul' wliicli, fur 
 
 iniii siiitii' ri'HcrvnirH In cxcry ipiaricr, 'I'lic cliniain 
 Im Nulijcri III ^rrcal ami Hiiililm aiicratimiH: I'ur 
 mil' lliiril part ul' Ilic year I''., wimlH pri'vall, ami 
 till' thi'rnimni'ii'r ranges Inun .'in" ioHIIO Falir, ; I'ur 
 llic ri'sl III' the year WSW, wimln arc Ilic iihimI. 
 cniniiinn, llic llicniiiiini'li'r uficn risinij lo |iii|0, 
 Triipiral IriiitH of ail IuiiiIm arc prmliiccil in ahiin- 
 ilaiii'c, aiiil till' ^rapcH ami i>raii),'i's arc Hcarci'ly 
 inlcriur 111 iliiisc of Miiriipc, The military canton- 
 •iHiii' time |ireviom*ly til thai year, wait (tnliject to 'nieiits are in a MaliihrimiM simt ahmit a iniie SW. 
 
 *■" -' • • -• • (hccity, Aiirinipihail was iiri;;iiiiilly naineiKiiirka, 
 
 anil hci'iiinc llieitcat of the provincial ;<ovcriiiiicnl 
 
 till' I'i'isliwa. Anrnn^ahail was alno the ^'real 
 rdiiri'i'iif llie preilalory haml.s that ilevastcil llin- 
 (|ll^lllll fur imirc llian a ccntnrv ; Ihmi^li, alter llic 
 iiMrihriiw uf llic IMahnrallaN, ll hecanie one of ihc 
 i|iiii'ti'si ami niiiHl onlerly portioiiM of ilie pciiin- 
 Mihi. 'I'lic ciin.sirnctioii of a line of railway, con- 
 iiiriiii^' the city of Aiiriinpihail with llmnhay, 
 \\n* u'ri'iilly tenilcil to tlu' increase of iraile anil 
 icMiiiii'rcc, mill (lie ;,'ciicral prosperity of the iiiha- 
 litimli*. Tliis pruv. was furnicrly calleil Ahineil- 
 mt^'iir, anil afierwanls l)owleialiail, from ilie 
 ciiii'H mi nanicil hcin^' in tnrn its capitals, iimlcr 
 two ilyim.slies previously to A.i>. IHU,') : at which 
 iKrinil Sliiili,lclian linally coii(|uercil ami aiinexeil 
 It 111 (lie Mii^'nl empire. The scat uf piveriiimiil 
 Kiis tlii'ii transfcrreil from Duwletahail todiirka, 
 whicli town hceiiinin^ the favonrile resilience of 
 Aiiruiijt/.ehe, acqiiiruil, uh well us the prov., its 
 niiiilcni a|ipcllaliiiii. 
 
 Ai)m!x<iAiiAi), ft city of the Deccftn, llimlostan, 
 rnii. iiruv, of same imine, within the doni. of liie 
 M/.iim, Mini tlie heail-ipiarlcrs of a hattalion of his 
 army miller Krilisli olliccrs, 1 1 is hiiilt in a hol- 
 liiw oil the hanks of tlie Kuwlah, a trihnlary of 
 ilii'diHlavcry, in 19° W X. hit., «iul 7iP IM' K, 
 lOiiK., 275 m. NVV. Uydcrahail, IHll in, KN K. IJom- 
 liay, anil 141) m. NK. I'oonah, witli a Htutioii un 
 tlie railway from Nnf^jMior to Komhay. Poii. esli- 
 mati'il nt (iO.dllO. Auruii^almil was once lii^lily 
 tiiiiiriihiiif;, ftiid the favourite residence of Aiirniif;- 
 zrln', hut now, in f^reat part, ]ires<'nts an appearance 
 iifili'cny and ruin ; though, at a distance, its lofty 
 niiimn'ts, large white domes, and terraced lionses, 
 (;ivi! it an imposing character. The wall which 
 mirrmiiKls it, though capahle of ntrording profc^c- 
 tiiiii from predatory hodies, is lower than such walls 
 iwmily are. The streets are hroad, especially the 
 |irim'i|iiil hazaar, which is 2 m, in length, anil has 
 01 one extremity a spacious cpiadraiigle, with a 
 Iwmlsomc modern market: aomt! few streets are 
 pnvod. There are many large and good houses; 
 ami the puhlic huihlings, mosques, luid caravan- 
 «rais, are superior to tliose usually met with in 
 niitive cities, and intentjiersed with iiumerous gnr- 
 (Iciis, RTovcs, and fountains. The sliojis are snp- 
 plicil with the goods of both India and Europe ; 
 but there is not much commercial activity. The 
 only utructures worthy of notice arc the royal 
 palace of Aurungzebe, which covers a large space 
 of ijround, but is now fast mouldering away ; ami 
 
 Vol* I, 
 
 after the iNlognl cuiiipiesi in a.d. IInII. 
 
 Al'SI'IT/, ur llimlo/iilsrli, a lown of the Aus- 
 trian empire, Moravia, circ. ilrlhin, hclonging lo 
 I'rince l.ichtenstcin. Pop, .'l,li;» in iM.'iH. The 
 nei;^'liliuiirhiiud is fumoiiK for ils wine, 
 
 ArsTI''.KMTZ, a sniall seignurial town of Mo- 
 ravia, circ. Itrthin, on Ihc l.ittawa. III in. SI'). 
 Ilriliin. I'op, il,l.'i".' ill ix.'iM. The lown has a 
 inii;;niliccnt casilc and gardens. In the vicinilv 
 of this town, on the •Jml of Hcccinher, iMOo, took 
 place the famous htillle ihat hears ils name he- 
 tw'cen Ihc French army tinder Napoleon, and the 
 coiiihiiicd Itiissian Mild Aii^lriaii ariiiics iimicr Iheir 
 roped ivc cnipi lurs. The halllc of Ansicriit/, was 
 followed hy the treaty of I'rcshiirg, signed on the 
 '2lilh of hecciiiher. 
 
 AU.STLK (ST.), a m. town nml par. of Kngland, 
 CO. Cornwall, liumi, I'tiwder, on the declivity of a 
 hill, at the liottoin of which is a small rivulet, 'Jl,'l 
 III. NVSVV. London, M ni. NNK. 'I'rnro. The par. 
 contains ll,<''i'l(l acres, and. accortling to the census 
 of \W,\, had ll,N!i:t inhah., and the town :t,K25 
 inhah. It is siliiated ahmil 2 m. from St. Anstle's 
 Kay, and is cmnn ilcil hy a railway with the |Mirt 
 of i'cntewan, and also with the port of Charleston. 
 It has a gootl church, Iml liie streets are narrow 
 and inconvenient, many of thciii hcing unpaved. 
 It is the seat of the most considerable i J the stan- 
 nary courts ; hilt it owes its entire conseipiencc t»» 
 the I'olgooth and Crennis tin and copjier mines, 
 and the soap-stone (iiiarries and china-clay works 
 in its immediate vicinity. The pilchard fishery is 
 also prosecuted to a considerahle extent in St. 
 Aiislle's liav. The extension of the mines and 
 day-works iias been such that the population of 
 the parish has more than trebled since IHIII, it 
 having then amounted to only i\,'HH. About ,'),(MI(( 
 tons of soap-stone and 7,(MI() tons of china-clay 
 are annually shipped from Charleston and I'ente- 
 waii, jirincipally for the potteries. 
 
 AL'STHALASIA, a great division of the ghibc, 
 lying S. and SE. of Asia. 
 
 It was for a lengthened period supposed that 
 the (liflTerent points of land that were discovered 
 in the Southern Ocean, to the .S, of the islands of 
 Java anil Celebes, and of the Caiie of (Jood Hoiks 
 and Cape Horn, belonged to or formed parts of a 
 vast southern continent, tu which the name of 
 
 . f^ 
 
 M 
 

 'I 
 
 2.'>8 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 ■^''^. - i 
 
 Ti-rra Amtrali* wns pivon. The cxistonco <>f lliis 
 Urcat coiitint'iit wuh infi'ircd, ni>t merely from tlie 
 «li«fovpry of Ipii^ttliciipd jmrtions of coiiHt, ItiitalHo 
 on thcofctirnl f^roiiiuls, it \w\n\i HuppoMiil to lie 
 nopcHsary utt ii coiititcrpoiHu to the vast extent of 
 land ro.md the Arctic jM)le. (Ilistoire des Naviga- 
 tions uux Terres Anstrales, i. 13.) Hut as tliiH 
 Terra Australis was supposed to extend quite 
 round the- >;lobe, the ex|>ediency of HulxlividiuK it 
 into smaller portions iMicame evident; and the 
 learned President de Urosses, in liis exeellent work 
 referred to above, supK<'*'t<'d that that jxirtion of it 
 to the S. of Asia should he called Auslrnhtmi, 
 that to tlie S. of America Mai/i-lltinira, and that to 
 the S. of the Pacific Ocean Poli/mma, from the 
 iiumlier of its islands. (Navigations aux Terres 
 Aiistrales, i. 80.) The discoveries of Cook and 
 other modern navif;»tors have shown that there is 
 but little ground for thinking that there "s any 
 continent S. of America. Ihit the apiiropriateness 
 of the names jjiven by De llrosscs to the other 
 portions of the Terra Australis have been very 
 fjenerally acknowle<lf;ed. And with the exception 
 of the usual, althouf^h incorrect, conversion of 
 Australasia into Australia, and the extension of 
 the latter a little farther to the E. than De Urosses 
 had probably in view, his definitions are now uni- 
 versally adopted. It is not, however, very easy to 
 aasif^n the precise limits of Australasia, minfjlinjf 
 ns It does with the Polynesian islands towards the 
 NE., and with those of the Indian archipelago 
 towards the N\V. : [jhysical rather than purely 
 geographical considerations dictate the demarca- 
 tion. 
 
 S. of the tropic of Capricorn, Australasia ex- 
 tends from the 113th to the 180th meri'ian. 
 
 Between the tropic and 11° S. lat., from the 
 113th to the 170th meridian. 
 
 Between 11° and 6° S. lat., from the 135th to 
 the ICftth meridian. 
 
 Between 6° and 1J° S. lat., from the ISlst to 
 the IGOth meridian. 
 
 Between li° S. lat. and the equator, from the 
 130th to the 150th meridian. 
 
 Within these limits are included the continent 
 t>f Australia, formerly called New Holland, and 
 the islands of Tasnuinia or Van Diemen's Land, 
 New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, 
 ,Queen Charlotte's Islands, Sol .imon's Archipelago, 
 Ne\% Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Admi- 
 ralty Isles, and Papua or New Guinea. In the 
 subjoined description the continent of Australia is 
 more particularly treated. New Zealand and Tas- 
 mania or Van Diemen's Land being left to special 
 articles. Seo Van Diemen's Land aiid Zealand, 
 New. 
 
 The continent of Australia lies between 1 0° 39' 
 and 39° llj' S. la*, and extends from 113° 5' to 
 1.53° IG' E. long. In form it is verj' compact; i(s 
 greatest length, from VV, to E., between Dirk 
 Hartoy's Point and Sandy Cape, being 2,400 m., 
 its greatest width, from N. to S., between Cai)e 
 York and Cape Wilson, 1,971 m. Its average 
 length and width may, ])erhap8, be estimated at 
 1,800 and 1,700 in. resi)ectively ; its coast-line at 
 7,760 m. ; and its area is estimated at about 
 3,000,000 sq. m. (Flinders' Charts, Voyage, i. 224, 
 ii. 8, passim; King, ii. 178, et pass,; Picture of 
 Australia, 11.) 
 
 Sketch f)F AusTKALtA Coast. — In compari- 
 son with the outlines of Europe and Asia, and 
 the E. seaboard of America, Australia nuiy be 
 regarded as almost iron-bound. It jiossesses only 
 three large indentations, namely, Cambridge Gulf 
 and the Gulf of Carjjentaria on the N., and Spen- 
 cer's Gulf on the S. Shark's Bay on the W. and 
 Her\'ey'B Bay on the E. are the next largest, 
 
 but they are very inconsiderable, not more than 
 40 or 5(1 m. in width and depfli ; and for tiie rest. 
 though some of tlic-in, as I'ort Philip mi tli(. s.! 
 and Van Diemen h Gidf on the W., arc l.iri,'(" 
 when regarded as liarlMiurs, they are iiiNignifiimit 
 if consid'-red as breaking the continuity of ijji' 
 coast. The same remark applies tfi sui'h'inlcts ns 
 King George's Sound, Western Port, Corner Inlet, 
 Ac. on the S., or to the Twofold Bay, tirrvis ltav[ 
 Botany Bav, Port Jackson, &c. on (the K. It nuiv 
 Ihj observed, too, that these ports and hnrli(iiir.-< im 
 numerous only on the E. and N. s'lorcs; a very 
 considerable portion of those on the S. niwl \V. 
 being (pnfn unbroken. (Flinders, i. 49-2'.'3; Kiiiir' 
 ii. 159-178 ; Australian Directory, 30, 31, A,.) ' 
 
 But the most remarkable feature in the Aus- 
 tralian coast is the total absence of outlets t'ciriiny 
 large rivers. So conijilete is this, that after Fliii- 
 ders' survey (in 1801-3) had established the fa, i. 
 a belief became pretty general that the wlmlc 
 land was fenced, at no great distaiu'e from tlic 
 coast, bv a continuous mountain ridge ; ■ n tli(> 
 inner sides of which the princi))al rivt. naij 
 their sources, flowing inwardly to a great intoniul 
 lake or mediterranean sea. Wild as tliir- hypd- 
 thesis may now appear, it received some clmn- 
 tenance from the earlier results of interior discovcrv, 
 though it was unwarranted by the account I'm 
 which it was founded, and has been comiilctcly 
 disproved by more recent and more acciirntV 
 investigation. The S. coast, through a length nf 
 more than 20°, from Cape Leuwin to SptiK'cr's 
 Gulf, is generally low and sandy, with only hero 
 and there some eminences, and scarcely anvwhcre 
 exhibiting a high inland countrj'. (Flinders' Charts, 
 2-4, Voy . i. 49-255.) On the E., indee<l, a raiifte 
 of mountains rises at no great distance f'ntni tlic 
 coast, extending from the S. extremity of the cmi- 
 tinent as far, at least, as the 2()th parallel, ami 
 most probably as far as Cape York, on Tnrrfs 
 Straits, the most remote point of the mainlaml 
 towards the N. (Adni. Ch. Flinders, ii. l-TC; 
 King, i. 1G5-240; Bligh's Nar, 4G-G9.) But on 
 the N. shore, a mountain, not higher than the 
 mast of a sloop, is noticed by Flinders as the liii,'li- 
 est ])oint of ground seen by him in a nui of 17.) 
 leagues along the coast, (Voyage, ii. 131.) huw 
 levels, with only here and there some elevations 
 of no great character, mark, also, the; shore W. u( 
 Carpentaria, as far as Cape Londonderr)-, wherf 
 the land begins to tend towards the SW., fomiiiiv' 
 the Cambridge Gulf. The coast continues nnniiiii; 
 south-west till the mouth of the Victoria rivtr, 
 discovered, in 1839, by Capt, Wickham, and tlicii 
 again turns northward up to Van Diemen's Giilf 
 and Melville Island. 
 
 Interior. — From what has been said, it is evi- 
 dent that the readiest means for the investigation of 
 a strange country, that is, extensive creeks, iiilaml 
 seas, and navigable rivers, are wanting in this 
 'land of anomalies.' Its interior rece.«ses hiwl to 
 be explored, if at all, by land travelling; and to 
 this there appeared, at first, to exist an muon- 
 querable barrier. The first settlers on the K. coast 
 found their horizon bounded towards the W. by .i , 
 dark and rugged chain of mountains which msi? 
 at no verj^ great distance from the sea, and i« j 
 cross which the earlier attempts, though made hy 
 parties of no common skill and energy, com- 
 pletely and signally failed. (A. CuniiinghanH I 
 Geog. Joiim. ii. 99.) A rugged and abrupt as- 
 cent, called ' Caley's Repulse,' marks the limit 
 of the first adventurer's tour (Oxlf^y, 3G.S), and 
 the efforts of Daws, Tench, Patterson, Ilakin;:.] 
 Bass, and Bareiller, though some of them pro- 
 ceeded a few miles farther than Caley, led tu noi 
 useful result. The aborigines, when questioiiwl,] 
 
T 
 
 ot moH! than 
 I for tlic rest, 
 lip mi I lie S.. 
 iV.. lire l:»ri;i', 
 (■ iiiNiKiiiliraiit 
 tiiiiiity "f ill!' 
 
 I Hiich iiilrt^< at 
 ,, Ctinicr Inlet, 
 ly, .IprviH Kay, 
 the v.. It nuiy 
 11(1 liiirlKHir.-i iiri! 
 H'loroH ; a vcrv 
 the. S. mill \V. 
 
 4i>-'2-2:i; Kiiij;, 
 30,ill, Ar.) 
 irc in tlin Aii^- 
 r outk'tH lor any 
 that after I'lin- 
 blisliptl the fa. I, 
 that tlui wliiilc 
 <tam'fi fniin tlic 
 
 II riilfjc; ■'" tlio 
 jipnl rivi. Had 
 1 a prrat intrnial 
 id ns tliir liyi>"- 
 ived 8(imft cmm- 
 ntcriordiscdvorv, 
 
 the accimiii's mi 
 
 been conniU'tcly 
 
 ;\ morn acciirati' 
 rouf^h a Iciifitli lit 
 iwin to Sp(ii''or'» 
 y, with only liero 
 warcely anvwliore 
 , (FliniU'rs' Charts, 
 [i., indeed, a raii^'e 
 distance from tlic 
 tremity of the cwi- 
 2()th "parallel, ami 
 . York, on T'Ttm 
 of the mainlaiiil 
 Flinders, ii. 1-Ti!; 
 40-09.) lUit on 
 ^ higher than the 
 indorsasthehiirli; 
 im in a nin of 17.) 
 ^c, ii. 131.) Low 
 re 9(.me elevatiniis 
 ;o, the shore W. "I 
 'mdondorr)-, when' 
 the S\V., foniiin- 
 continues niumii;,' 
 he Victoria riviT, 
 nekham, anil tlnn 
 an Diemen's Gulf 
 
 kii saiil. it is «^'- 
 Iheinvestiftatiimiii 
 Isive creeks, iiilmm 
 s wanting in tlm 
 Ur recesses liml to 
 travelling; amH" 
 ] exist an nncim- 
 brs on the K. coast 
 Vards the W. by .i 
 ntains wWch rose ^ 
 - the sea, ami to ; 
 I, though made l>y 
 \nA enerf^y, c"""; 
 lA. Cuiiniiifjha'"* 
 [l awl abrupt as- 
 marks the hmu 
 hxlov,3G3), "i"M 
 Jktlerson, llakn'r'- 
 Ime of them pro- 1 
 lcaley,le<l .'»";' 
 Lhcn qucstionoil, 
 
 H 
 ^•'J 
 
KintMid *• W iilgjJVwrfy .M.fMW Sq. Uilrs. Lmgth Mi 
 
 Iriuith :':iSO Mil. 
 
 
 
 
 Xiit^nZongman & 
 
r.nuith iiSU MUfs 
 
 iVtutralia 
 
 Hrrmllh ifm> Mild 
 
 Endnnil A- W»Je» Ji rnuMi .'to MiIm 
 
 ^ 
 
 13 iO" 
 
 iiHr 
 
 ISO' 
 
 16 O" 
 
 ,iPilH 
 
 
 'If'-J 
 
 »•*, 
 
 
 fi,™^»^^-'' •-^• 
 
 
 ***"' 
 
 ■^.-M-'^ 
 
 ^rLORis ■■* 5- «. • o ■'•of ar *^ Y"*-**- " j, "^-^ 
 
 Oap^ 'jIMri«tri«// 
 
 
 
 
 Zcn^n.Ldr^ni€Lrx&C\ 
 
 E'-VfUra-. doi et Sruln 
 
H: 
 
 
 ■II 
 
 H. t 
 
 ,1; 
 
 I, 
 
 .Australia ^/mri ,'ioott.ftito Sii Milrt 
 
 jmn. 
 
 Hrraiilh iti>i> Milrt 
 
 , K _ H- •' l^iMuni 
 
 /.Kim 
 
 E'«V'U<pr. ilri el SriUi. 
 
AUSTRALAHIA 
 
 2/)!) 
 
 wore totally iKi"'"'*"* of aiiy<'iifiiiiiK'iii tho moiin- 1 iliimrv riiiiwc (icciir cxlronii'ly nonr tlic siimniilH, 
 
 t.iiiis (A. (!iinii., (icoK. Jouni. ii. !>!»); Imt they 
 liail n triiiliticiii (hut malignant spirilM rcsidcil 
 tliirt', aiitl tliat llic ('diitilry licymul was inlialtitcil 
 \iYtcliile men. Ill IKllI, lidwevur, after ail iiitcn-al 
 (if twi'iity-fivc yiars, an extremely dry HcaHim 
 Imviiif; destroyed tlif minor vegetation, and i>ro- 
 iliK'cd a \itei\i mortality in the tlocka and henU, 
 Lieut. LawHoii, Mr, ISIaxlaiid, aiul Mr, \V(^iit- 
 w<irili iitteiniple<l to pciiclnilc! the hitherto iin- 
 |i('iii'tralileinOiiiitaiii harrier, ill the liope of lindin^ 
 |iastiire and water for the exhausted eattle of the 
 ccpldiiy. Tiiey were ho far HiiecesMfiil that they 
 fjaiiu'd a view of an extensive ronntry \V, of the 
 iiiiiiiiitains; hut want of jirovisions coninelliiifr 
 llicin to retiini, the honour of eompletin^f the dis- 
 covery was reserved for Mr. Kvaiis, the deputy 
 Mirvcyor-neneral, (Oxley, Iiitrod, 7-!); Stiirt, In- 
 iriid. til-7.>,) The harrier oneep(Mietrated, the lands 
 licviiiid were not left lonj; unexplored. In the 
 liliy years that have since passed, Messrs, Ilnnie, 
 lldvei. (Jurrie, ('nnniiifthain, Oxley, iSturt, Mit- 
 clii'll, Landor. (Jrepiry, Stuart, Uiiriie and Wills, 
 llinvitt and others, liave pushed their eiKpiiries all 
 (ivcr liie eoiitiiient, leavin/; hut small portions of 
 till! vast territory entirely unknown. Thus, au 
 area of ahove two millions of sipiare miles has 
 Imcii tlioroii^hly exphtred within a jjeriod of little 
 nmre than half a eentiiry : a faut hoiumruhle alike 
 111 ihe zeal and thi! industry of the oiiservers. 
 
 MomitithiH uiifl I'luins. — In the 01<1 World, the 
 niiiiiiitain ranges, however tortuous, af^ree in {gene- 
 ral ijirection with the (greatest length of the con- 
 tiiimtM in which they lie. Thus the axis of 
 Anieriea runs N. and S. of the K. continent 
 {Kiimiie, Asia, and Africa) from XE . to SW. ; 
 but in Australia the |)rincipal chains, so far as 
 (ibscrvation has yet hecn carried, apjiear to run 
 transversely to the direction of the land; that is, 
 friim N. to S. The dis(M)veries of Major Mitchell 
 have made known a mass of mountain land, called 
 by liiin the Australian Grampians, which com- 
 iiicnocs near the 8, coast at Portland Hav, in lat. 
 :i(l° 52' S., long. 1420 25' E. The direction of 
 tlicsc mountains is at first due N.,. but in lat. 
 37° 30', long. 142° 47', a range of grassy liills 
 (livpr};es to the ENE. to connect them with the 
 lii.!,'hest masses yet seen in Australia, called by the 
 natives Warragong, and by the settlers the Aus- 
 tralian Alps, The connecting range received from 
 llitihcll the title of Australian Pyrenees. The 
 Warragongs may be described as running NNE. 
 fnim near the S. termination of the continent at 
 Caiie Wilson as far as 3o° 20' S. ; but a.s high as 
 3ti° S, a chain of less elevation, called the IJlue 
 Mountains, branches off from them, and following 
 (.'oucrally the direction of the E. coast divides the 
 E. and the W, waters. In lat. 32°, long. 1.50°, the 
 raiifje. after tending, for some distance, a little to 
 tlie W. of N., suddenly turns due E., and under 
 tlip name of the Liveqiool Ifange, runs in that 
 •lireotiim for about 1° of long., when it resumes 
 its nortiierly course ; but though it has been traced 
 as low as 20° S. lat., no name has been bestowed 
 11)1011 any part of it beyond the parallel of 32°. 
 'llie highest peak in the Grampians is Mount 
 William, 4,500 ft. above the level of the sea 
 (Mitchell, ii. 2G5) ; of the Pyrenees, Mount Cole, 
 • or Mount IJyng, probably 3,000 ft. No measure- 
 niHits liave been taken" of the Warragongs, but 
 lis tliey are covered with eternal snow (Mitchell, 
 ii- ^'JT, itc. ; Currie's Geog, Mem. 37.3), their 
 'iciKht, in tliis lat., cannot be estimated at less 
 tlian 15,000 ft. The Blue Mountains, so long im- 
 passable, do not attain a great elevation ; ]Mount 
 ) ork, the highest peak, being no more than 3,202 
 ''•> but the valleys and plams in this cxtraor- 
 
 Kiiigs table-land is 2,727 ft,! the Vale of ("Iwihl 
 2,4!»t; ft., and Italhiirst Plains. I.!I70 ft, ahove the 
 level of the sea, (Oxley 'a Bar. Meu. P. Cur. Hvo. 
 i. 152; \Ventworth, H2.) 
 
 The Liverpool h'ango is almost a» diHlcnlt of 
 passage as the Hlue Mountains (A. Ciinninglmin's 
 Geog, Mem. 152-177); its highest jK-aks In-ing 
 between (i.OOO and 7.000 ft., and the continuation 
 of Ihe dividing chain apnarenlly still more rugged 
 and abrupt. A gap of the kind, called by the 
 .Spaniards <iurbrntlm,'m S. America, stopped Oxley 
 in his journey from the interior to the coast, 
 in l>*IS. This * tmiifHiioim rarini',' he describes 
 as being from two to three miles wide at top, and 
 3,000 ft. in per[)eiidi<ular depth; its width at 
 bottom does not exceed 100 or 200 ft,, and is the 
 bed of a river, (.Journal. 205.) Sea View Hill, in 
 this part of the range, is between (1,000 and 7,000 
 ft. high ; hut Oxley did not think it the most 
 elevated ground ui the neighbourhood. (Journ. 
 3U(.) Practicable passes are, liowever, being con- 
 tinually discovered; one over the Itliie Mountains, 
 near the 35th parallel, was effected by Mr. 
 Thorshy as earlv as IKIO. and two others bv 
 Mitchell since IH.JO, (Mitchell, i, 153; Wentworth, 
 81,) That over the Liverptxd Kange, traversed 
 hv Mitchell in 1M31, which is nearly on the meri- 
 dian <if Sidney, seems to be easier than I'andora's 
 I'ass, 1° to the E,, crossed by A, Cnnningham in 
 1«23 (Mitch, i.25; A, Cun., (ieog. Journ. 170), 
 an<l breaks have been observed in tlu; more N. 
 mountains, which promise to be free from those 
 difficulties which were well nigh the destructiim 
 of Oxley and his part}'. 
 
 TIk! W. mountains, viewed from the S., consist 
 of three )>arallel ranges, extending about 20' E. of 
 the llKth meridian, and running, like the E. 
 chains, almost due N. through the continent. The 
 most E., and the highest of these mount^iins, rise 
 a few miles behind King George's Sound; the 
 second, called the Darling liange, commences at 
 Cape Chatham, in 3.5° S., ll(i° 35' E., and the 
 third and lowest is found running close to the 
 shore from Cape Leuwin. (.lournals of Expcd. in 
 W.Australia; Surveyor-Gen. Hep. May 11, 1830.) 
 However, the first is not a continuous range run- 
 ning N. and S,, hut consists of two detached and 
 ])arallel chains extending longitudinally and sejta- 
 rated from each other bv a [)lain of considerable 
 magnitude. (Journ. Dale, 1(J3-1(!7.) The W. 
 chain, culled Koikyennuruft", is considerably the 
 higher, one of its peaks, Toolbninup, attaining the 
 elevation of 3,000 ft., an altitude much exceeding 
 that of any other mountain yet examined in W. 
 Australia. The S. chain, called Porriingorrup, is 
 not only lower, but of much less extent, having 
 a base of only 13 m., while that of the Koikyen- 
 nuruff is full 30. (Journ. Dale & Collie, 1(!1-1()7, 
 130, 173, &c.) The Darling Kaiige is continuous 
 as far as 31° 8., to which distance it has been 
 explored, and there is every reason to conclude 
 that it runs in the same direction to the N. coast, 
 in the neigh bourhooil of Dampicr's Archipelago. 
 Capt. King (i. 30-53; Adm. Ch. NW.& W. Aust. 
 vii.) lays down this coast as high aiwl rocky, 
 though bounded to the W. and E. by a low sanily 
 shore, that is, as having all the appearance of the 
 termination of a mountain chain ; the high N . 
 coast, commencing at Cape Preston in 110° 5' E., 
 and Point D'Entrecasteaux, to which these moun- 
 tains extend on the S. shore, lyuig in 110° 1' E. 
 (Flinders' & King's Adm. Ch.) The Darling 
 Mountains average from 30 to 40 m. in width, 
 and their greatest elevation is 2,000 ft. It is not 
 likely that S. of the 31st parallel they anywhere 
 exceed this height. (Journ. Preston, 0, 11; Dale. 
 
 s 2 
 
 m 
 
26() 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 I 
 
 I' 
 
 Bl, fl3; SiinvOcn. 'on. Mar. 22, 1830.) Tho 
 third rnriKo, nii>ntione«l in tJu! Siir\oy«r-(lt'ncrftrH 
 KoiMirt, iH uniniiM)rtnnt ; it in prolmlily t'ontiiuird 
 in Morcshy'H ffat-tuiipcd rnnK<", tlu! nllituilr «f 
 Mliich in itiMiiit 1,01)0 ft. (Kin^r, i. 22; ii. 174, 
 Adm. Ch.) In alx.nt JW S. lut„ a Tn^f^cd and 
 irrcffiilar NnrccxHion (if niountnins hrunclivM (iff W. 
 fruni Hi(> Itliui Iklountaiti rnnne, and apjx'arH like 
 tlu! dividing line of two i^rvnt river baninM. It 
 miiokly dividoM, liowpvcr, into jjronpH, alnioHt 
 (k'tftcliod from oa(!hoHicr, to wliicli varionH names, 
 OH ( 'anoboliiN, Croker, I'eel, ]Miu'(|uarri(', Ac. have 
 iK'cn fjiven ; and farther \V. the interior in here 
 and there Htiidded with ttmaller knots ; hut, an far 
 as ha.s been yet, obs('rv(!d, only in a belt of about 
 2°, namely, lietween the iiaraliels of .'11° and 2!l° S. 
 The L'anobolas is l.'Kil ft. in lieinht, an altitude 
 much exceediuf; that of the Ilhie Mountains; 
 and the Marpi, aiiotiier peak of the same series, 
 attains the elevation of 2,100 ft. (Mitchell, i. 102 ; 
 ii. 10, .'177.) Isolated mountains, which in other 
 coimtries are rarely met with, excejit in the ease 
 of volcanoes, arc common pnout,'h in this new 
 land. Vet exact scientilit; observations of nearly 
 all of them are still wanting;. Thou};;h the deserts 
 of (!ven the interior of tlu; vast continent have 
 freiiuently been ex|il(pred, the investi/^'ation of the 
 coiuitrv, in most instances, took jilaee in such a 
 hurried maimer as to make careful surv(!ys im- 
 possible. The most celebrated of all inlaiKl expe- 
 ditions, the famous ride of Messrs. Iturkcand Wills 
 rif^ht across the continent, from S. to X. and 
 back, in lKOI,wa8 so far characteristic of many 
 Australian explorations, as to be a tiKht with 
 savaj^e nature ratlu?r than a scicijtilii! investipi- 
 tioii of her ]iheiiomena. However, a few of these 
 journeys of ex|)loration had the most valuable 
 results, notwithstanding^ the enormous dilticultics 
 o])p()sinff them. Amon;x the number were Leicli- 
 liardt's journey from Moreton Hay to I'ort I'^s- 
 i<iii^ton, in IKIt-.') ; Walker's ex]ie(litioii from 
 IkOckhain|>ton, in (Queensland, to the (iulf of Car- 
 pentaria, which ho reached in Decendier iNlil ; the 
 journey of M'Kinlay from Adelaide to the mouth 
 of the Albert, at the bejjinninj; of 1H02 ; and of 
 
 Stuart throufjli the central re^^ions to the Cam- sea determine, in manj* cases, the direction aiul 
 
 presents little or no nppoarnncc of utrotifimtinn. 
 (Mitchell, ii, !MH.) Trap occurs in many iiIucck, 
 hut no location can be assigned to it with relereiuv 
 to the position of other rocks, and vesiinilar lava is 
 abundant in the neiKlilxxirluMMl of the only Vdl- 
 cano discovered in Australia. ^Mit(!hell, ii.'.l.'iii.) 
 This v(d(;aiio, called by Mitchell (ii. 2.'tr>-'.>)(;) 
 Mount Napier, and by the natives Miircoa, lies 
 between the (Jrampians and the S. coast, in lal.:!7o 
 <V2' 2!»" S. loiifj. afumt U'*° 20' K. A bituniiiioiH 
 burning; hill, behiiiKinff to a low ran>;e called Win- 
 Heii (the native name for tire), a litfle to the S. nf 
 the !,,iver|)o(d I{an(;e, is chieliy remarkable for tlie 
 yreat variety of nn'ks of which it is coni|Mis(i|. 
 The neighbouring peaks are chieliy porjilivritic; 
 hut the burning mount itself contains witliinn 
 very short distance, clav, shale, argillaceous sand- 
 stone, felspar, basalt, ironstone, trap, and linrii- 
 blendo, (Mitchell, i. 2.'1.) WinK(!n has been hiirii- 
 iufj apiiarently for a very considerable time, Imt 
 no marks of any extensive ehan^'e appear on ili(> 
 surface near the burning; fissures. Itcd lu>,it 1^ 
 found at the depth of al>out 4 fathoms. 
 
 Malte-ltriiii obser\-es, that the rcmarkalile pn- 
 larity of the jirincipal mountains here dcsiTllicij, 
 extends throii^'hout the whole of what h(^ icrniH 
 Oceanica; and if this be a Utile strained uiih 
 rcffard to some of the islands of I'idynesia mid ilip 
 Indian Arcliipela;,'o, it is at least true with ri';,','ir(| 
 to New Zealand and the islands incliideil in Aus- 
 tralia Proper. The same author (xii. H) coiiccivcs 
 the chain of the Itliu! Mountains to be contiiMiiil 
 in the islands of Hass's Straits, and the axis of Vaii 
 Diemen's Land, to Cape I'illar. the S. teriiiiiintidii 
 of the latter. Mitchell also (ii. ;i;i7) thinks llitit 
 ;ieol(if:;ical a|)i)earaiices lead to the conchisiini that 
 the two lamls were not always scjiarated ; ami this 
 is at least hiffhly probable, and is supported liy 
 similar appearances in the Old World: bill in ili'o 
 words of Oxley (HI), 'The wlude fonn, cliiirai'tcr, 
 and composition of this country is so sin^jular, that 
 a conjecture is hardly hazarded before it is iivcr- 
 tiirned, every tiling seems to run counter to tlin 
 ordinary course of nature in other countries.' In 
 other lands the rocks and reefs that nin into tlu? 
 
 bridf^e (jiilf, in the summer of the same year. 
 Uesides their scientific importance, all these jour- 
 neys of exploration had the immense value of 
 ojiening up unknown territories for the white 
 settler and the track of civilisation. (Oxlev. 4-77, 
 2;t4,2rj8, 201,275, A'c; Start, i. G'J-82 ; Mitchell, 
 i. 3t), 45, 48, 02, tfcc.) 
 
 All the usual formations are found in the Aus- 
 tralian mountains (Fitton Kinj^'s Appen. 588, el 
 seq. ; Sturt, i. 197-200, ii. 249-256 ; Mitchell, ii. 
 849-.S69), hut they seem to occur ■without order, 
 and in defiance of all known geological laws in the 
 Old World. A ferruginous sandstone forms the 
 Blue Mountains, granite being rarely met with, 
 cxce])t when it appears to have cracked the thick 
 overlying stratum, in wliicli case it is found in the 
 valleys and the beds of streams. (Mitchell, ii. 349, 
 351.) W^estward this fundamental rock is some- 
 times found in mountains of limited extent, and 
 no great height, while more important ranges in 
 their neighbourhood jiresent regular liorizontal 
 strata. (Dale, 107.) In the intenor the isolated 
 hills are uniformly diflTerent in composition from 
 the connected ranges, the latter being of granite, 
 the former of sandstone (Oxley, 77) ; limestone, 
 so common in the formations of the N. hemisphere, 
 ■was unknown in Australia before 1813. It was 
 first discovered, W. of the Blue Mountains, in a 
 district, named from it, Limestone Creek (Oxley, 
 6) ; and although it has since been found in other 
 parts of the continent, it is far from abundant, and. 
 
 continuity, or othenvise, of the mountain systems 
 hut the rocks and reefs of Australia afibnl no such 
 key to the enquirer; they belong not to geoln^'v, 
 they are the work of the coral insect, rising jur- 
 pendicularl}'- from the depths of the ocean till thcv 
 form ridges and islands above its surface, wliich 
 have nothing in common with any thing but tlieiii- 
 selves. (Flinders, ii. 113-110.) Even the fact. 
 that the geology of the continent and it-s adjacent 
 islands is similar, is not conclusive, for the luinilicr 
 of detached ranges and isolated mountains, exist- 
 ing in the former, prepare the mind for a niiidi 
 more startling admission than that the Van Dio- 
 men System may be wholly unconnected with that 
 of the Blue Mountains, from which it is separated 
 by a deep sea, 140 m. in average width. 
 
 From the parallelism of the jirincipal chains (the 
 Blue Mountains and the Darlings), it might ii»t 
 be unreasonabl}' supposed that the iiitorierwaKa 
 table-land of moderate elevation. It has already 
 been stated that early belief was directly contran' 
 to this; and the course of discovery has slunvii 
 both ideas to be erroneous. W. of the Blue Moun- 
 tains, a succession of terraces, commencing at a 
 great elevation, descend rajiidly to a vcrj- li»f 
 level. Oxley, at a dist.ince of less than HO m. 
 from Bathur'st, found himself only 000 ft. alxne 
 tho sea; that is, 1,370 ft. below the "town. (Joiinial, 
 9.) The transverse mountains divide levels, a|t- 
 parently interminable, of the most monotonous clia- 
 ractcr, and with a deficiency of vegetable matter, 
 
 -!_ 
 
rntiflcatinn. 
 miiy iiliiffH, 
 til rcftTi'iicc 
 i:\ilikr liiva H 
 m only vnl- 
 ic'U, ii.':V,((.) 
 ii. 'illiVJIi',) 
 Miirciiii, I'u's 
 it, ill liil.:'.T° 
 i liitiiiiiiniiiM 
 > called Wiii- 
 I' to tlio S. iif 
 'kiilili' for thfi 
 is coniiHwcil. 
 lioqilivritic; 
 iiiiiK williiii n 
 
 llUH'Olltt HlUld- 
 
 1), mill liorii- 
 in.Hhocii liiirn- 
 iililc tiiiii'. liiit 
 iiiilicur on \\w. 
 K(mI liciit u 
 ns. 
 
 ,'iiiiirUnlilo |iii- 
 icri". (Icscrilicil, 
 ivlint lie tiTiiiH 
 straiiuMi wiili 
 yiicsiii and llin 
 lie willi r(';;iirii 
 chulcil in .\n*- 
 ii. H) conceives 
 II lie continiieil 
 tlipaxisot' Van 
 S. tcrininatiiiu 
 i;j7) tliiiiKs tlial 
 conclusion tlmt. 
 irnted; and tliii 
 is siipiiorted liy 
 irld: lint i" 'In' 
 ((inii, cliaracter, 
 «) siiijinlar, tliat 
 icforc. it ii* over- 
 coiiutcr to the 
 •countries,' In 
 Kit nin into tin' 
 e direction ami 
 luntaiii systems, 
 a alTonl no sudi 
 not to jj;e(iliij;y, 
 isect, rising per- 
 e ocean till they 
 < surface, wliicli 
 thing Imttlieni- 
 Evcu the fad. 
 and its adjacent 
 >, for thciuimlier 
 lountains, cxist- 
 lind for a niurli 
 at the Van Uie- 
 incctcd with that 
 ;h it is separatcil 
 
 width. 
 
 icipal chains (the 
 
 ;s), it miftht nut 
 le interior wiis a 
 It has alrciuly 
 directly contrar>- 
 ,ery has sluwn 
 the Blue Moun- 
 lomraencinK at a 
 ,' to a very 1"W 
 less than HO ni. 
 ily (iOO ft. «lf"^« 
 etown. (Journal, 
 livide levels, aii- 
 monotonouscbii- 
 ■egctnble mattif; 
 
 AUaTRALA.SIA 
 
 tlmt, in the opinion «f Stiirt (i. I OH), argiu's 
 iKiHerfully for llieir recent origin. 'I'lio line of the 
 tiiirizDU is, in thoso vast Hats, ns nnlirokcn as it is 
 iiiimu the surface of the sea; and there is every 
 rca-Hon to helieve, not only that they were at a 
 c(iin|iaratively recent iieriod under water, lint also 
 tliat ft very coiisiderahle portion of them is tlooded 
 liv the overtlow of the interior rivers, iluring wet 
 seiitons. The surface of these plains is extremely 
 ili'iires..*ed, and so flat that the detached ranges and 
 iHiilated mountains which rise out of them, appear 
 like islands snrrouniled by an nnlirok(Ji ocean. 
 (Oxlev, 'ii et mi,, Kit et »i'</,, I(t7, &(!., '27:i ; Stnrt, 
 i. 11 1," Ac, ii. .')2, iV.t, Ac. ; Mitchell, ii. /i" et m/.) 
 HiriTH anil Laken. — The vicinity of the dividing 
 ran^jestothe coast jirevents the accumulation of 
 larice rivert: towards the K, orVV. ; liut from the 
 I'aet of their running more or less through parallel 
 valleys, these streams possess in general a longer 
 cinirsc than might have been anticipated. The 
 I lilef of those that rise in the Hliie Mountains, 
 are (he Mnrroo, Clytle, Shoalhaven, llawkeslmry, 
 Hunter, Hastings, and llrishanc. Tliere isiuithiiig 
 rerimrkftlile in them, except the fact that some of 
 them, as the Shoalhaven and llawkesliury, not- 
 withstanding their short courses, issue to the ocean 
 ill iinhle hays. They possess few facilities for in- 
 ternal navigation, both as being very shalhiw, and 
 I'riim the t4irtuous nature of their currents. Some 
 of their adliients are, however, sntliciently striking. 
 They How through ravines in the sandstone rocks, 
 of from nil) to;i,4(M) ft. in depth, andof such width 
 that Mitciell supposes that a inas.s eqtial to l.'ll 
 dihic ni. must have been removed from the single 
 liasin of the Cox, <inc of the tributaries of the 
 llawkeslmry. The Grose, another alHuent of the 
 same river,' flows through a valley of less extent, 
 hut of more precipitous character ; so that the 
 amount of stone displaced is probably not less than 
 ill the case of the Cox. Wliat adds to the iiecti- 
 liarity of this feature in Australian geography is, 
 ihat the outlets to these stupendous ravines are 
 ;;euerally very narrow ; the disposal of the vast 
 iiias.ses of earl h is therefore as mysterious as their 
 .niniiinit is marvellous. (Mitchell, i. I 'il, ii. i>.")l.) 
 The rivers here iuenti(nie(l have their outlets be- 
 iweeii the parallels of 27° and ;iri° S. Oxley, in 
 1K2I, discovered the Hoyne, a rajiid mountain 
 stream, falling intol'ort Curtis, in lat. iii° oli' ;$!)" 
 S. (Field's Mem. 7.) I'liiiimice-st one IJivcr falls 
 into Morton's llay, in •20° ,'A' ill)" S. It was dis- 
 iiivered by Flinders (Introd. cxcvi.) ; but in con- 
 n'qnenccof only cursorily survt^ying the W. shore 
 df that bay, he overlooked the more important 
 lirislianc. probably the largest stream upon the K. 
 eiiast. (Oxlev, in Field, 12-2o.) Kiideavour liiver, 
 ill Ufi 27' 12 S., is chiefly celebrated as the place 
 where I'apt.Cook repaired his sliii)after it hail lain 
 (111 a coral reef for twenty-eight hours : it has a 
 wiilc and convenient mouth ; but at a very short 
 ilislanec inland, it becomes incapable of floating 
 ilie smallest boat, (King, i. 221.) On the VV. 
 ciiast the rivers arc less numerous, and, with the 
 exception of one or two, less imjiortant. Hums or 
 lirooks of excellent water are tcderably abundant, 
 and four or live streams, such as the Fitzroy river, 
 (lisodvercd by Capt. Wickham, in 1839, issue to 
 tile sea by very large estuaries, which seem like 
 the entrances of noble water-courses : but a.s they 
 all have their sources in the larther VV. mountain 
 miigc; their length is insigniflcant, and they are 
 useless for internal navigation. The Swan and 
 ('aiming which unite in Alelville Water, near the 
 iwrallel of 32°, are the most notable rivers on this 
 iHirlion of the coast, (Cro.ss's Juumnls, 110; 
 Inyn, 7 ; Dale, 27, 30, loo ; King, ii. 167, 11)1 ; 
 Adm, Ch. lirskiiic, 92,) 
 
 361 
 
 'I'lic X. shorn \n nonrly n« destitute of river 
 mouths, 'the MverjM'ol in 131° I.V 1'",., the Alli- 
 gators in 132°;lli'. I;l2°2li', l3-.'O20' V.., the Hunter 
 and the Ifoe iii 12,'i° 27' V.„ and I'cince Ifegeiil'n 
 Kiver in 121° ."i.'f K., were found by Capt. King in 
 his laborious survey (l«IH-l!t). ' Of these, ilie 
 largest (Prince Kegent), is not navigable for boats 
 more than .Ml in. (including windings) from its 
 mouth; but they are all full and wide streams; 
 and, like those upon the K. anil \V. coasts, issue to 
 the sea by immenst^ estuaries, through which (he 
 tiiU' rises sonielimes as high as 30 ft. The I'rinco 
 li'egeiit. Hunter, and l{oe, flow between sleep 
 rocky hills, from .'IliOtotllO ft. perpendicular alti- 
 tude'; the Liverpool and Alligators through u 
 flat muddy soil, of the tamest and most mono- 
 tonous lU'scription. (King, i. It'.l-I07, 2."ir)-2til, 
 2!I2-.'!II2, lO-J-lKl, .i;»;t-l3!».) In lH3;i, Mr. Filz- 
 maiirice, of the ' lleagle,' disi'overed the Adelaiiln 
 river, emptying itself in the Clarence Straits; and 
 soon after ('apt. Wickham found the Victoria, Iho 
 noblest stream on the norili-western coast, navi- 
 gable for alMiut 00 m., and from K to 10 fathoniH 
 deep at the mouth. (Howitt, History of Discovery 
 in Australia.) On the S. coast, the lllackwoud 
 falls into Flinders' llay in 11.')" 10' 1'. long. ; anil 
 in 117° .'JO' F,., Oyster" HariMiur, the N. part of K. 
 (ieorge's Sound, fonns the large estuary of Iho 
 Kalgan or French river. At the bottom of Mii- 
 coniiter May, in about long. i;i!l°l';., we nuutwith 
 a river's mouth of iniiiy dimensions, and so encum- 
 bered by banks as to be inaccessible to vessels of 
 any considerable draught of water. Hut, how 
 unpromising soever, this is the embouchiin^ of Iho 
 Murray, by far the most im)iortant river liilherN) 
 discovered in Australia, and which aflbnls a vast 
 channel of internal communication. (See post.) 
 In 1«30, Mitchell traced to its termhiatioii tlio 
 (jilenelg, a river which, rising in the (irampians, 
 falls into the sea hi 111° 17' K. about 10 m. F. 
 Cape Northumberland. This is one of the largest 
 coast rivers in Australia: its alllueiits are niinier- 
 ons, and its course, including windings, upwards 
 of 130 m., though its source be not more than 70 
 ni. from the sea. It is wide and deej), vxt-ept atitH 
 mouth ; but, like most Australian streams, it first 
 expands into a eonsiih'r.able basin, which, alter- 
 Mards contracting, ]iresent.s a very narrow outlet 
 to the sea, the entrance from which is chokiMl up 
 by sand-banks. Except a few very small streams, 
 there are no other watt-r-courses on the vS. coast. 
 
 Along a coast-line of nearly K,I)(I0 m., there are 
 thus not more than thirty river mouths; and of 
 the streams to which these give egress, none have 
 a course of more than 20(1 in., inclusive of wind- 
 ings, and but very few jienetratc to a direct dis- 
 tance of oO m. from the shore. Since it is evident 
 that these cannot drain l-loth part of the whole 
 land, it is not very »nri)rising that the belief of an 
 internal lake or mediterranean sea shoiilil have 
 been entertained by the first encpiirers; ami though 
 this be now jiroved to be unfounded, tb(! hj'dro- 
 graphy of the interior is scarcely less anomalous 
 than such an arrangement would have been. It 
 is diflicult both to describe and to »'omiirclieiid this 
 internal water system, to which nothing bearing 
 the least resemblance exists in any other part of 
 the known world. Immediately W. of the Ulue 
 Mountains, and in the very highest terraces and 
 table-lands, a host of mountain streams co":b:v^ 
 to form the Darling, the Macqiiarrie, and the 
 Lachlan, which, nearly on the same meridian (the 
 ll'.lth), diverge towards the NW. and NNW. in 
 their ))rogress to the interior. The course of the 
 Darling is a curved line, enchising all the country 
 W. of the nine Mmmtains, from an unknown 
 point N. and E. of the 30th parallel iuid Mtjlh 
 
 m 
 
202 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 ;:" 
 
 11. !■ 
 
 morlclinn to its Junction with tlip Murray, in .'11°"' 
 S., I rj°;i' K. in lliis i-onrno, Im'sIcIcs tin- rivcru 
 iilrciiily nlliidcil to, it. rcccivcH liio llo^nn (New 
 YciirV Crcfit of Stnri), nnd Hurli pnrt of the wiilrrs 
 of llic Miii'i|unrrit' iis arc iiol nlworhcd in llic noil. 
 (Siurt. i. Ki;-lir, ; ii. IOC. Ilii-iaO; Mitrlicll. i. 
 *2i.'l-.'i'pH, ii. lOK-llC.) ConMiiifriilily I'lirtlu-r S. 
 nnotlicr liirK<' Kircani, liic Mornnnliiil({<-(>, rixt'x in 
 tln^ NV/irranonn'M, and, niter rcrcivinn niiniy »<liort 
 lint I'nll Htrcanis from tln' W, faccN of ilic lllno 
 Monnlains, runs a, very torluonM conrMO, HOttlin^; 
 (Inally into one varying Imt little from dnc- W. 
 Still inor«' to till' S.. in alioiit 'M'P S. lat., the 
 Mnrray, already allndcd to, issnen from the flanks 
 of Monnt Wellington, the enlminatin^ point of 
 the Anstralian Alps. This >;real river follows 
 with numy windinfTH a \VN\V. conrMe from its 
 Minri'e through aliont H^ de^'s, lon;^'., till, at a point 
 in ahont I IDiO K. Ion;,', and :ilo S. lat., it tnrns 
 snddenly to the S., nml ultimately nnites with, 
 imd loses itself in, tlie lar(,'e shallow lake of Alex- 
 luidrina at the liottom of Kneonnler Hay. In its 
 «• ', it rei'eives llu! waters of some very lar^e 
 Ills, ini'lndiufr the Miirriiinl>idp'eniid Lnchlan 
 the Darlin;,'. In the year IH'i.'l the Murray was 
 lor the first time navi;;ated hy a steamer of 10 
 horse |iower, having; a har>,'e alonf;side, for a dis- 
 lanec of t,.'IOO m. from the sea; it is sn|i]iosed 
 that of its entire course of nliout ,'{,000 ni., from 
 l./iOO Id I.SOOm.ninvhenavi^'nhleforei^'hl inonllis 
 <if the year. (I'ur'l. I'aper, No. H!), .Se.ss. IH.VI.) 
 And if wc add to this tln^ navigation of its nfllu- 
 ents, we shall have an extent of inland connnnni- 
 <'ation mieqnalled. except hy that aft'orded hy the 
 Mississippi nnd other ^reat American rivers. 
 
 It would appear, however, that the flow of water 
 is not nearly so eqinihle in the Australian as in 
 tho American rivers. Notwithstanding their ffreat 
 length of course, the former are in p'lieral of the 
 iintnrn of mountain torrents. Formed in the hills, 
 by the confliu>ncc of many powerful streams, they 
 ruah from their nionntatn homes inniortnnt water- 
 courses ; hut quickly reaching a level country, 
 they become sIu^k'**'' '» their motion, except when 
 iirijcil by the inthience of tloodin;; rains; nnd, re- 
 ceivinji; few or no tributaries, their existence de- 
 jiend.s on the magnitude of their sources, so that 
 they shoal and narrow an they jiroceed, — an etT'ect 
 exactly tlie reverse of anything obser\'ed in older 
 countries. When the momitains are saturated with 
 ■water, the beds of these streams become fully 
 charged, nnd then they foam nnd thunder along 
 their track, till, in the tints of the low country, 
 they meet with some opposition, when (their hanks 
 no longer able to contain them) they spread to 
 the right nnd left in marshes, of which the over- 
 flow finds its way by insignificant channels to 
 other streams. In drv' seasons, on the contrary, 
 these rivers dwindle to trifling brooks, even in the 
 momitains, while, in the plains, their wide and 
 deep beds become converted into drj' and dusty 
 chasms. This is the case with the Slacquarrio 
 nnd hacblan, which, issuing from the mountains 
 in large nnd full streams, are lost in extensive 
 swamps, which in wet seasons are everywhere in- 
 tnulnted. After a long-continued drought, the 
 beds of the rivers jiresent a succession of jMinds ; 
 and their marshes, nenrly or whi '\,- dried, exhibit 
 the creeks by which their imperfect comnnniicn- 
 tion is kept np during the immdation with the 
 1 )arling and Morrumbidgee. (Oxlev, So-HT, 102, 
 I.'IG, 1-12, 382, 383, &c. ; Stnrt, i. m, J58, 02, 148; 
 and Mitchell, i. 321, ii. 32, 771, &c.) The Darlihg 
 itself, which Sturt found, in 18;J0, to be n large 
 and powerful stream, was seen by Jlitchell, in 183(), 
 to be nearlj'dry; as it would have been but for 
 the backwater forced into it from the Miirrnv, 
 
 The latter, however, from the prrntor nntnhor 
 of its aflluents, and iNrhniis, aNo, froin liie nninri' 
 of th<' country through wi.ich it flows, ni mt [<,■»., 
 
 the character of a cont'.:;;- .;•.« river. And il jr}, 
 
 lit certain seasons its waters are reduced, lis imvi- 
 galion.and that of its tribntarv llie .Mnmiiiilijd;;, ,,_ 
 inav, it is believed, lie depeniied upon for iit Imvi 
 «'iglit months of the year. 
 
 The extent of the basin of the Murray niiiv I..' 
 estimated at from loo.ooo to .'ido.ooo si'|. ni." |i, 
 of course, comprises every variety of soil; a liirt;c' 
 extent of laiiil along its hanks and those of iIh' 
 Morrumliidgee being ainongst the nmst frrijlc 
 
 hitherto discovered in the continent, Il ;f|i ji 
 
 must be nt the same time admitted, that liiiiijs i>|' 
 a dill'erent and very inferior qnallly of soil iircpmi. 
 derate. Hut, despite ibis drawback, it isnni va^v 
 to imagine the exient of trafllcof which the Minrav 
 will prohiilily be the channel when the iiiMiiiiiM' 
 country through which it flows has been oirnpicil. 
 Il is much to be regretted thut its einlMiiii'luiri' 
 should he so disproportioiied to its niiigniiinli'. 
 Mill that defect has heeii, to some exieiit, alrimlv 
 overcome or greatly modified by the help of rnii- 
 ways. And il is by no means iinprohahle ilmt tin. 
 fiitri'/iiif ii\ its Jiinclion with the sea may iii -.iniii. 
 fiiliire period rival New Orleans in the extent of 
 its trade and navigation. 
 
 Liikis are abundant in Australia, as might in- 
 deed be inferred from the level nature of the pjnin 
 ciMinlry, Imt none of them are very large, iiiul lew 
 ajipear to he |iermiment. Lake Alexinidriiin, ilii- 
 recipient of the Murray, has a very lar^ sml';ifi'; 
 hut, lis before observed, it is shallow; and l,;ikr 
 (ieorge (lat. .'>.">° .'>', long. 1 111° bV), which, in Is-j.s, 
 was a sheet of water, 17 m, long and 7 wiile, w;im 
 said, by an old native female, to have been a tlijrk 
 forest within her memory; nnd in iKlli it hail 
 dried up to a grassy jilain. (Mitchell, ii. ilbl.) 
 The lakes of the interior are subject to the siiiiii' 
 variation (Oxley, 120-130; Mitchell, ii. JM-U?). 
 and when excited curiosity has drawn the travellir 
 from his road to inspect one of these reservoirs, IiIh 
 examination is almost sure to end in (tisa|i|ii>iiii- 
 nient. (Sturt, i. l/i.) These lakes, such iis tlicv 
 are, abound along the banks of the Laclilan aiul 
 the Murray, as far as thejuncfion of the Darling'; 
 they are so far from yielding any supiilies in the 
 rivers, that their own waters seem, in part, to 
 depend upon the latter overllowing their liaiiks 
 Some of them are, however, quite isolated, aiul 
 none h.ive nn.v outlet. Many, nnd those the largf'-i. 
 are salt ; and small salt-lakes, or rather hriiu'-|iils 
 appear to be common in the dead levels of tliu in- 
 terior both v.. nnd W, 
 
 Soil. — Were the soil of Australia merely ex- 
 tremely various in different parts of the coiitinriii. 
 it would be no more than what is seen in ovprv 
 other part of the worhl. But the Australian m\ 
 varies according to laws of its own, apiiari'iiilv 
 unknown in any other region. In tither cmintrii^. 
 rivers are the great fertilizers, nnd their iiitluoinr 
 is the greater the longer their course. In Au-- 
 tralia, fertility is confined to the higher imrt.-i (.f 
 streams ; and, as has been shown, those wliicli 
 pn.mise fairest at their outset from their mountain 
 sources, invnrinbly and quickly either dry in their 
 be<ls, leaving the country on arid desert, or sprcail 
 into marshes, rendering it an uninhabitahle swamp, 
 equally destructive of animal and vegetiililp litV. 
 Thus situated, it is not wonderful that |iro(liiclivc 
 soil should be mostly found on the sides aiul sum- 
 mits of considerable elevations ; or that tho ex- 
 plorers of the interior .should look for the indica- 
 tions of mountain land with n feverish anxioty, 
 which it is ditHcnlt for a native of the fertile plain-* 
 of Europe and Asia to comprehend, ' Hml «>' 
 
Al'STHALA.slA 
 
 ■i03 
 
 pirkwl lip 1 "'"•i*'.' •">>■" J^'iir'. »IM'ilkiiiK 111" his 
 „l„„„|,iiiiiiciii ol' tlif iiivi'».tiKiili"ii <•!' till' DurliiiK 
 (j I III, 'ni iiiilii'iitiii^' our ii|i|irciarli in Ui^h liiml, 
 I woiiM l■'■^*' Ki'lx' "II- I'll' ''i'^ rrriili'il a ilrnrrl, 
 lliiit not •vt'ii a liiril iiilialiilril. I'lir vt';;i'lalili 
 
 till' iiiiiriml rivrrx, in tlio ucurral rlmrnrtorifilii' of 
 ItathiirNt I'laiiiH, liivi'r|iool I'laiiis, Vaji I'laiiiH, ami 
 llii> otlirr tlirtlrii'tx llnil ntrrli'h away ii|ioii ilin 
 ^iiiiiniitn ami \, nJiIch of llic lljiir iMniiiilaiiiN, ainl 
 N. of till' liiviTpool Kaii^c, 'I'lii' W. viillr\ « of 
 
 kjii;:<li>iii wa.-< almost aiiiiiliilait'il ; itml tlio nallvf : llif Nnnii> inoiiiilaiiiK partiiki- aUo of ilir Haiiic t'liii' 
 
 iliu', Ko thin that li mlil Hrarrdy walk, sci'tiit'd I riU'tpr; ami a niiiiilar ilrHrrijitioii will ii|i|ilv to ihii 
 
 III jriijilort' Koiiii' iiiiTcifiil hami to ilrijiait'li hiiii,' j ('orrt'N|iomliii^' coiiniry on ihc l], facrs ol ilir |)ar- 
 ihi. WHS chiriiii? a ilry Hcawiii, ainl llii> coiimciiiu'iiI liiij; riiiiKi'. (tKli'v, iNd, 'M>~, •JT.'i, Ar, ; A. Ciiii- 
 I'lilliin'of till' sirt-aiiis. ■ Then- was not ihi'HiniillrHi ! iiln^rliaiii, in Fii'lil, CII-I'.M ; Shirt, i. li-l I, ii. 
 (■iiiiiirin'i'.''<iiy'* **■'''''>' O'- '*•''>'""'''''''''''''""'*"""'''■'' j ll-;iti; Mili'lii'll, i.".'7-.'i7; Irwin, il-M ; Oalr, in 
 iliiiiiH'lric ally "p|'""'''''i ' ^''"''"''' a vii'sv iiii^;ht In- Cross, ]")l-7'.', »Vi'.) Miit the lii'sl lami hithcrlo 
 
 (ilii.iiiiril, llif ronntry n|)p('arin); a tlcail h'vi'l ; ami 
 allli"<>uli ^^'<' I'onlil Hi'i' lor soiiir ilislaiirc all roiiml, 
 M'l ilit'n- was not a risini; ^'ronml in any iliri'clion. 
 'fhc iiiar^'iii "'' tim stn-ain was a wi-l hni,', full of 
 tviitiT-holi's, ami rovcri'il with marsh plants. It 
 watoiilv <"• tin' viTV I'lliti' of ihi' hank, ami in Ihi' 
 IkiMoiiis of tlii^ hi;;iils. that any cnralypti ^fw. 
 
 'flicrc was not Ilic It'iist a|ip<'araiit f nativrs; 
 
 iiiif WHS liird or aninial ol any ilt'scriptioii Mcrii 
 ihiriiitf till' 'lay, except a soliiary native ilo;; ; — we 
 in'i'iiit'il, imh'eil, tli(^ sole liviii)^ ereatnres in these 
 vnul ilcsertH.' ' From a tree near the eanip.' says 
 
 foniicl in Australia, is that ili^eovereil in iH.'lt'i hy 
 Alitehell, near the S, eoast, ami inelmleil in Vie- 
 loriii. It lies anion;; the (Irainpians aiul fyretiees; 
 iiml, thoii);li snrroiimleil ami interseeteil liy iiiinl 
 ami swamps, its lii^'li levels ami valleys, ahiiii- 
 (lantly, hut not exeessively watered, are so pro- 
 lilie, that the diseoverer justly con^^ratiilated him- 
 self on ' l)ein;{ the harliiiiK'er of nii;;lity I'lian^es, 
 since his steps would soon he followed liy the ineli 
 and tuiiinals for whom this fertile ri'i;ioii seeins Id 
 have heeii prepared.' (ii. Ii')7-"JW!I.) 
 
 So inanv theories have heeii Inuarded loacconnh 
 
 Miti'lu'll (ii. I'l^)- ' Ihirnett descried a piodly hill, for the host of anomalies in this S. world, and 
 
 ilijitaiit '2~ 111. It was indeed (p. iri.'i) a welcome 
 kI^jIiI to iifi, iil"t''f traversing; for several inontlis 
 so iiiiicli of the dead levels of the interior; a. id 
 I nii'iiriliii;;iy named this hill. Aloiint. Hope.' 
 'Wiiliin theWater-line' (of l.e^jent's Lake, now a 
 i;riissv plain), ohserves the same authority, ' stood 
 ilrail trees, of a fnll-nrown size, np|iarently killed 
 l)v too iMiich water, loo plainly showing; to what 
 lull;; periods the extremes of droii;;hl and inoistnre 
 may extend in this sin;;iilar eoniitry.' (ii. HI.) 
 A;,'ain (ii. Ii>7) he speaks of n row of hare poles, 
 llic renniaiits of yarra trees, ei^;ht or ten years old, 
 which occupy the very middle of a stream, though 
 they must have attained their f;rowth while the 
 lied of the river was dry. The soil of these ileso- 
 lalc and extensive jilains is variiuis ; in some jdaces 
 red (uiiacious clay; in others, a dark ha/.el-coloured 
 liiain, rotten ami full of holes: sand is not very 
 almiidaiit, hut it is found; and whatever the eoin- 
 |Hwilioii, one unvarying appearance of dreariness 
 and desolation marks the scene. A strikiii;; de- 
 HTiptioii of Australian scenery is f;i\'en hy jMr. 
 A.Win. Howitt, who skctolioil the nei;;hh(iiirlioo(l 
 (if Lake, 'i'orrciis, South Australia, in a letter dated 
 Wiljiena, Oct. 4, 185!). lie says, ' The >;reat fea- 
 iim's here are extensive plains, covered with salt 
 luisli, and with f;ra.ss after rain. These plains run 
 Iiciwceii hills, varying from 100 to 2,000 ft. hi;;li, 
 and quite destitute of tiinher. Indeed, the only 
 limlier found here grows on the hanks of the water- 
 (durst's, and a few he or she-oaks on the hills. 
 The lower ranges arc most like sheep downs ; the 
 lii;;li('r onca are masses of rocks, toni into all kinds 
 (if ja);i;cd peaks and ]irecipicea, ami generally of a 
 reddish hue, hut, seen in the distance, of u deep 
 iiidi;;o. The country is intensely stony, hcing. 
 so to say, " metalled," and the roads are mitnrally 
 splendid. It is very hot and dry, and 1 should 
 fancy must he like the interior of South Africa, 
 only that there are no animals to be seen, except- 
 ing kangaroos and kangaroo rata. Large flocks of 
 emus stalk ahout the barren )ilains, like some en- 
 chanted creatures in the "Arabian Nights." The 
 air is so clear that the distances are ditlicult to 
 estimate. Altogether, it is a verv' wild, stran^fe 
 eountrj'.' (Ilowitt, W., History of Discovery ni 
 Australia. Loud. IHt!.").) (.'imipared with the 
 jllcKimy sterility of these flats, no contrast can be 
 stronger than the abundant fertility of the ele- 
 vated terraces. A rich, dry, vegetable soil, broken 
 into ;;eiitle undulations, and watered Avilh the va- 
 rious streams that form the abiuulant sources of 
 
 each in sncces.sioii found to be erroneous, thai, 
 great circutnspcclioii is necessary in oHcring even 
 a snrinise as l'> the causes of physical arraiige- 
 nieiits and appearances so much at variation with 
 former experience. One fact, however, forces 
 itself on our iiolici'; the fertile parts of Australia, 
 conlineil to the higher regions, are as etfectnally 
 separated from each other by apparently irredeem- 
 able deserts, as Ihoiigh the ocean llowed hetweeii 
 them. And how iminy cciiliirics is ii since the 
 ocean did so tlow? The dillcreiit explorers niia- 
 nimoiisly declare the dead Mats of the interior to 
 be ««'/(• IiiikI, — new, that is, in coinparisoii with 
 the mountains by which they are bounded ; while 
 those monnlaiiis themselves, judging by their po- 
 verty in primitive formations, are apparently more 
 recent than the similar elevations of the N. Iieiiii- 
 spliere. Sturt believes the Darling to have been 
 tlie main channel which carried olf the last waters 
 of the ocean from the low lands, and its bed — 
 which he esteems an estuary rather than a valley 
 — to have remained the natural and proper reser- 
 voir of the streams falling from the K. and \V. 
 (ii. nil.) None, however, fall into it in (itJO m. 
 (Mitchell, i. '2\).'>) ; but the wlnde appearance of 
 the coiinfv on its banks is strongly corroborative 
 of Sturi's opinion. Hut what, then, wa.s the con- 
 dition of the country, jireviously to that convul- 
 sion or change, of whatever kind it might be, 
 which laid bare this extensive tract? Kvideiitly 
 that of island groups, at greater or less distances 
 from each other, the surfaces of which (now the 
 terraces and table-lands of the mountains) had 
 remained ex|)osed sulliciently long to enable niiiie- 
 nil and vegetable decomposition to iK'rforni its 
 work of creating a fertile soil. The rivers of these 
 islands (now the sources of the anomalous internal 
 streams) wouhl, like other island rivers, run their 
 short courses to the t/ivn sea, and having per- 
 formed their otHcc of irrigating the tracts through 
 which they flowed, be there absorbed. On the 
 exi)osure of the interior all this wouhl be changed. 
 The newly uncovered land, deslitnto of vegeta- 
 tion with the exception of marine ]ilaiits, wouhl 
 of necessity remain sterile till the decomposition 
 of these gradually, though slowly, began to form 
 a soil. (Flinders, ii. 111!.) The rivers, no longer 
 received into a sea, at no great distaiure from their 
 sources, wouhl begin to wear themselves channels 
 in the new ground — a process which, while the 
 descent Wits considerable, would Ik; ra))id in its 
 operatious; but wliicli, when the stream, reaching 
 
 .'> I 
 
2(n Ai'sin 
 
 n livit lint, Imil limt miiili of itx Inilitkl im|M<hi«, 
 «<nil(l ili'<'ri'iiii<< in cniTjty ! iiml, mi tin- tirciirrciit't' 
 i>r II hollow, woiilil wliiilly tcnw, iil IciikI for a 
 MWoii, .Siich n hollow Is ihc Miirxli of the Miw- 
 <|iiHrri(> (Siiirt, ii. l.'iW), iiml n miicccnmIoii of mith 
 hollowM MciiiH lo fnnn till- nmrshcH of the Lm-hliMi. 
 (Milclicll. ii. /■.IMIJ.) '{'111. wul<T \iif\un ItM How, 
 nn<l N|iri'iii|iiip;ovrr llii'Hc IioHowh, (IciHiHtlft In tlirni 
 
 • In- fcrtiU' (ii'lirJH from Uh niiiivc hilN, nnil iIhim 
 Kivi'N liirlh to niarNli pliuilH, iht> ilfconipoNillon of 
 which Nlill fiirlhi-r iinprovfH the mtil; iind, in thn 
 w'liHon of Ihtod, till! WHuhiiij; of thlN dcliriH to tin- 
 hidcn of t\w concnvity, hv i;rmhially forniinj^ ii 
 
 • hininil, n'nt'H to tlic cxlmnstrd Hlri'iini new 
 HlrfiiKih to Htri(>f>;li>, inch hy inch, n\«un Iim 
 t'onrNc. 'Dial hoiiic. hiicIi |iroc(>Hrt hiiM liccn nt 
 work I'vcr nIiicc iIiIh land wan llrnt explored, 
 McciiiH I'vidnit from the hcrjf<, or outer Imnkn 
 of the Rlnrray, Morrninliidp'e, Ac.; and Mitchell 
 
 I'oiild ho otherwise aci nt for the remarkahle 
 
 appearance of many of ihe liikcM which he pn^Hcd, 
 than Ity nii|>po»iii^f that their IioMowm exi.ited 
 /";/();•(• //)(• rifiri) Iiiijiih to Jloir. (ii. ill.) ' We 
 eaniiol doiiht,' Hays' llumlioldt (I'erM. Nar., iv, 
 !•')"), 'that ill hotli coiitineiitM (Africa anil Aiih- 
 tralia) there are NyMti'iiix of interior rivers which 
 niav he <'oiisidered lis not yet fully developed, and 
 which commiinicMie with each other, either in the 
 liincH of f,'reiit rif<iii>{s, or hy permanent Itifiirca- 
 tioiis;' a xapicions remark, madt! more than ten 
 years hefore the discovery of the extensive con- 
 nection hetween the channels of the Australian 
 streams, hv whicJi it is so remarkahlv coiilirmcd. 
 (See also Carl Kilter. Krdkimde, i. ill.').) lint if 
 Sturt's snrmihe he founded in truth, the hedof the 
 Darling;, or its coin iiinat ion, (hat of tlu^ Murray, 
 slionld he the coiiiiikiii drain of all the land he- 
 tween itself and the older mountains towards the 
 E. and !S. ; and this it is, or is in prof;ress of he- 
 cominj;. The niiion is efVected for all the known 
 streams except the Liichlan and Maccjiiarrie ; 
 niKJ of tliesc the foniier has completed its heil 
 (Mitchell, ii. 7K), Ihuii-'li it has not yet lieeii alile 
 to till lip tlii> hollows which fonn its marshes in 
 the wet season ; and the latter, tlioii;j;h much iin- 
 ]ieded hy the extent and lowness of lis swamp, 
 IS striifrKliiiK to estalilisli a ])ermaiienl connection 
 with the C'a^tle^c(lf;■ll, throiij^h Morrisett's I'oiids 
 (Stnrt, i. 1 Ki), and with the Darlinj; direct, 
 lliroiijjh Duck Creek. (Mitchell, ii. Hi'.) Tlie f;"'''iit 
 deliciency of spriii;;s giiid triluitary sirciims is one 
 Hreat ciui.-^e of the slowness of this o|iei;iliim ; hut 
 the deliciency itself is only what nii^lit reasonalily 
 be looked for in ii country uf recent formation, 
 esjiecially in one where the eminences are so lew 
 and so little elevnted as they ii])l)ear to he in the 
 interior of Australia. Springs can be formed only 
 by the accumulation ol moisture in the cavities 
 and f^iillies of liills; and this accumulation must, 
 in the first instaiH'c, proceed with extreme tardi- 
 ness. When ovcrcharj^ed. and not till then, these 
 reservoirs will f;'ive forth their superfluous waters; 
 at first by a simple overflow, and, when the addi- 
 tional sujiijly lias piven to tlie torrent thus first 
 formed sufficient jiower to deepen its Ix-d, in a 
 continual stream. (See the very profound article, 
 HiVKK, in the Ency. llrit., xviii. 39-91, more 
 especially at p. 70, et seq,) When this process has 
 been \onfs in operation, these streams will be nu- 
 merous, and such is the case in the terraces and 
 older mountains of Australia: where the land is 
 com]iaratively new, they may lie expected to be 
 scarce, and they are scarce beyond parallel in the 
 interior of the same conthient. Even when he- 
 cumo permanent, time must be allowed for them 
 to cut their path to their final ehanncl ; and this 
 is a most wise arrangement, since, did such new- 
 
 ALAftlA 
 
 iKirn eiirreiit* find their wav ilirerlly lo nn rxton- 
 sive iH'd, the Noiirce from wliicli thev are iiiip|ilin| 
 would Im> i-xhaiiNted. Centuries, ilierefore, iiiii«t 
 iiriiliiklily elapse U'tweeii the flrsj iippearaiicenf |)|,; 
 infant torrent anil its final nlmoqitiiin iuin nom,; 
 river Nvstein. In the interval it will pursue ii^ 
 course surely, however slowly; and Willi a i>|ii'ii| 
 and direciion viiryiiiK according to the olmtriiciiniH 
 which it meets with, and the amount of Iin iiiiiial 
 supply. Many of these incipient Htreatns ntv 
 found in the interior of Australia, makiii){ ^rreaiir 
 or less approiichcN to what llumlioldt calls ilut 
 'developiiii'ul of their system,' the InmIs of Hi>ini< 
 of them, thoiifjh dry during the siiniiner hcntn, 
 exhibit ill); iiiiipieslionable sij^ns of floods at nijiir 
 seasons; while others appear to be periiiiini'iit in 
 the point to which they have already cut ilnlr 
 way. (Stnrt, i. r.'.t ; Nlitchill. i. -.'(Ml, 'ij'.t-.'.i.i, 
 '.'til, it-c.; ii. .'I'J, Ac.) llut.iiKain, upon the siirliixi 
 of a new count ry, so singularly devoid of ve^r<'talilt> 
 decav (Stiirt, i. ll*W), production will iiecesMirilv 
 he limited to those siiots where the rivers imil 
 floods have deiiosited liieir fertilizing slime, ilni 
 barrenness of tlie disiricis remote from sireains aiut 
 swamps is, in fact, the universal iheiiie of nil ira- 
 vellers; whiles yiirra frees so disfiiiclly mark ilic 
 bed of a river, that the course of the latter inav 
 be kept ill view even at the distance of ilie visllife 
 hori/.oii, and every flat suhject to iniiniliuiuii in 
 crowded with dense shrubs, box-trccs, poly^fmiiim, 
 kangaroo grass, reeds, and other native vegeiaiinn, 
 Here, then, are aliiiiulaut elements of a soil, ihu 
 process of forming which is expedited hy ilie re- 
 markably prolonged and fierce extremes of' dnuiulit 
 and flood to which this region is siibjecti'il. (>i'u 
 Ci.i.MATK.) The vegetation of Interior Aiislralia, 
 such as it is, does not live its natural term, nrilii- 
 of natural decay; but when a flood has given 
 birth to that race of trees and shrubs which draw 
 their sustenance from excessive moisture, a Imi);- 
 contiiiued drought destroys nearly the whole irilic 
 (Stnrt, i. M."j, Ac); while such plants as deli;,'lit 
 ill a dry soil spring from the earth foniiid frmn 
 their decomposition, to be iii their turn ilestrovi'il, 
 after ten or twelve years' growth, by the cousiiint 
 exposure to too much water in a return of ilie 
 season of thimls. (Mitchell, ii. ill, llM, ;;i;i.) It 
 is quite clear that this alternation iiiiisi tcinl tulVr- 
 tili/.e the land niiicli more rapidly than if eiilicr 
 race of jilants coniiiiiied to ilraw their inniri.^li- 
 ment from the newly de])osited and still iii('a;,'rc 
 earth, till they perished from pure exhaiistieii. inu 
 more especially as deciduous trees are aliiinM 
 unknown, and consefpiciitly one great smiric uf 
 sii)i))ly, the scatterings of autumn in other regiiiiLs, 
 is wanting to the native soil of Australia. 
 
 It apjiears probuhle, then, that both the laiul 
 and water are here still in a course of foriiiatiuii; 
 that the various anomalies in each which till the 
 minds of Kiiropeaiis with wonder, are only tlie 
 nat'.iral a|)i)earaiices of an imperfect, or rather uf 
 an nnflni.slied work; and that they will vanish 
 when the causes, now in operation, shall liiive 
 produced their full effect. These o|iiiii(His are 
 ha/.arded, however, with much iliflideuco ; fiiul 
 only because they a)i|iear to result from the fails 
 collected by actual observers. 
 
 Climate, — About a third ])art of the Australian 
 continent, the N. jmrt, together with the lar;'e 
 island of New (tuiiiea, and the other isles oiuinic- 
 rated at the beginning of this article, with the 
 exception of New Zealand, lie in the torriil zmie. 
 The other portion of the continent, the islaiuls 
 immediately adjacent, and New Zealand, are in 
 the S. temperate zone. The proportion of inter- 
 tropical to extra-tropical land is, therefore, alti>- 
 gether about as j to |-_'. (Malte-Ilrun's Tab. xii. 
 
• o nil rxtPii- 
 
 nrr itii|i|>liiNl 
 rrcl'oro, iiiii«t 
 I'uraiiri'iil' ilii< 
 nil iiitci Mniiit 
 
 ill |iiii>ui' iii« 
 
 I will) II npnil 
 t> olwlrilrrhnn 
 t III' ilH iniiinl 
 : HirvitiiiH iiri' 
 inking ^ri'iiii r 
 I ill It I'lillit \\m 
 
 Im'iIn III winii' 
 miiiniiT hi'niH, 
 tliHiilM III iitliir 
 > iitTiiiiiiirnt III 
 •iiilv I'lit iliiir 
 
 •-'tiii, -2 l'.t-J."i;t, 
 I II III the Kurl'iiin 
 liiliil' vc^i'ialile 
 lill lU'iTOMirily 
 tlui riviT!) iiinl 
 nK Hiiiiii', Till' 
 
 I III! NirriliiiK iiiiil 
 H'liic III' nil im- 
 lu'lly murk tlip 
 the latter may 
 :v, of till' visilile 
 
 II iiiiiuiUtiiiii in 
 ■j'.H, |iiilyj;iiiiimi, 
 ilivii vt'ni'laiiciii, 
 tn of n wiil. tliu 
 lilfil liy the rc- 
 •I'liH'tt 111' ilriiiii.'lit 
 
 l<ull)l'Cl('ll. (N'O 
 
 tormr Aiixiriiliii, 
 irul term, nr ilii' 
 lliHiil lias pM'ii 
 III)!* whit:h ilriiw 
 
 III list lire, a liMi;.'- 
 ' tliu wliiilo irilic 
 limits Its ilcli;;iil 
 
 til I'liniuil IVuin 
 turn ilrsiriiyi'il, 
 bv till' ciiiiMtimi 
 ii" ri'lurii lit' tlic 
 
 I. ii><, :;i;i.) It 
 
 Inuisl ti'iiil til I'sr- 
 y lliaii it' I'iiliiT 
 
 tluir iiimrisli- 
 
 nil still iiii'iijtre 
 
 oxliaiistimi. i'mi! 
 
 •I'i's lire almiist 
 
 jjrcHt. siiiiri'i' iif 
 
 ill otIiiTri'fjiiiiis, 
 
 uhtralin. 
 
 t liiith the l:inil 
 
 l^c tit" I'lirnirtti'iii; 
 
 ;h wliii'li lill till' 
 
 ■r, art' (inly tin: 
 
 I'l-et, iir ratliiriif 
 
 lii'V will vaiii^li 
 
 ioii, shall liiivc 
 |sc ojiiiiiiiiis iif 
 
 (lifliilciiee; anil 
 t Iroiii the facis 
 
 \{ the Australinn 
 with the law 
 Ihcr isles oiumu'- 
 Vticle, with tlic 
 the torrid zniic 
 lent, the islands 
 IZwiluiul, lire '» 
 l)(irtiiiu of i""-'f' 
 therefore, alli>- 
 llJnin's Tab. x". 
 
 AUSTUALAHIA 
 
 27rt, .17ft.) f^ 'h** Rpnrriil (•Hinritc In the I'nnncr 
 
 2nA 
 
 iHiriioii lillli* ■■* ixmilively kiniwii, (hmiKh it iiiiiy 
 
 Ih' tiHi iimlialily iiilVm-il that it riwiiililrH >{i'inriilly 
 
 thiiM- rt'){iiiii» iif tlu' N. lifiiiisiilu'ri' iiimilnrly situ- 
 
 „,,„l, whert' riiiiiiiii« w»<"'r it snirri- ; iliiti u, lliitl 
 
 AiiiiiKiilerulile |Mirtiiiii of it ih liuriiiil ii|) with iii- 
 
 liiinr lu'UU On the N. eniwt a wiiiil I'rimi tli«i S, 
 
 raid's III" H'lniKTHliirf with I'Xireiiie hiuIiIi'Iiiii'hs, 
 
 mill A N. wiml iiriHhu'eM tlit; huhw vttWt iin the H„ 
 
 aru'iiinXi '" '•*'''' •■"*•■"• * |'i»''HaK<^ over » liinhly- 
 
 heateil noil. Trii|iieiil AiiMtriiliit ih in the ruii^'e of 
 
 till' liiiliaii inoiiHooiiH, of whli'li the NVV. hoIh in 
 
 iiMiallv alxiiit the IK-Kiiiiihi),' of NovemlMT, miil 
 
 that from 'lie 8IC. in the early |Mirt of April. 
 
 Thire is, ho\/«ver, niiieh irreixiilurity in their re- 
 
 I'lirreiire, the vurintion HonietiiiieH imioiiiiliii); to 
 
 iimre than it moiiili. (<'iuii|iIh>II, in (ieo^. .loiirii., 
 
 iv, 1 1'^.) In llieHe re^fiiins the seiiHoiis ciin Hciircely 
 
 U> iliviileil into <lry ami rainy ; for ihiuiKh the 
 
 N\V. (or Hiiiiiiner) inoiisoon lie attemleil with very 
 
 lieavv falls, yet they Heliluni eontiniie iibiive two 
 
 iir tliree limirs at a time, mi that they rarely, if 
 
 ever, |>iit a <'oiii|ilete Hto|i tu iiiit-iliior lalmiir. 
 
 Friiiii •liiiH* t" Se|iteiiiher no rain falls, thoii^'li 
 
 tlie>e are iitii|iii'stiiiiialily the healthiest nioiiths of 
 
 the vear. A jfri'iit niiiiiitity of innisfiire iiiiist, 
 
 iiiiwi'ver, at nil times Ut sus|iemleil in the atimi- 
 
 !i|i|iere, tlioiiKli iiiiiien'e|itilile to the senses, iliirin;; 
 
 the prevaleneu of the ilry or SK. iiioiisooii : liir 
 
 irmi articles me kept from riistiiif; onlv liy iiiees- 
 
 >«iit eare; nml the exposeil siirfaees ol the mcks, 
 
 aiiiii),' the inter-trojiical eoiists, are so f,'eiii'r;illy 
 
 I'lilniireil by the o.\iile of iron, that the term reil 
 
 init;ht without impropriety be ailopteil as ile- 
 
 niriptive (if the NXK. amrNVV. shores. (Camp- 
 
 Ih'H's (i. J. iv. lilt; KiiiK. i. illKi.) The averap! 
 
 tem|ii'raliire at Melville Islaiiil, on the N, toast, 
 
 Iriim April l«-.'7 to Mnreh 1«2« was Ki° Fiili.; the 
 
 winter average NO^ ; that of the siiiinner H(i°; 
 
 imil the extreme averages 7.")° (for .Inly), and «7'^ 
 
 (I'lir Dee.). It may also be observed that the eool- 
 
 iKt part of the day appears to be (i a.m., the tem- 
 
 lnTutiire of that hour beiiifj fniin 1° to 7° lower 
 
 than that of midiiinlit. (CimipbeH's (t. J. I.V.'.) 
 
 Witii regiird to Kxtrii-tropical Austrnlia, it is a 
 
 pretty eoiiimou observiifioii, that the cliiiiate of 
 
 .\, S," Wales nssiinilates very closely to that of S. 
 
 Italy; but this must be taken with some liiiiita- 
 
 tiims. First, the atmuspherc is very eimsiderably 
 
 ilrier; seiMiiidly, the extremes of temperature are 
 
 {.'reater; thirdly, the average heat is rather less; 
 
 anil fourthly, the temperature appears to decrease 
 
 niiire rajiidly by elevation. Aeconliiijic to (Jouiit 
 
 Sirzeleeki, n't an average of the three years ending 
 
 witii 1813, the maximum temperature at I'ort 
 
 .lai'ksoii was Sl*!)°, the iniiiiiniiin Urlf, and the 
 
 annnnl ti(i't>°. At I'ort Macqiiarrie, more to the 
 
 X., the maximnm temperature during the same 
 
 tlirccycnrs was 8iS'3°, the minimum -Itl'iso, and the 
 
 annual mean (!H° ; and nt Port IMiilip, more to 
 
 the S., the maximiiin was WH'P, the minimum 
 
 3(W)°, and the mean (}1'!1°. (IMiysiciil Descriiition 
 
 of X. S. Wales and Van Diemen's Land, "i^lt.) 
 
 It appears, also, contrary perhajis to what is the 
 
 common opinion, that the quantity of rain falling 
 
 at Port Macquarrie amounts to ti2'liK inches ; nt 
 
 I'ort .Inckson to .V2-42 ditto ; and at I'ort Philip 
 
 to 30"72 ditto. ]Jiit notwithstanding this ubuii- 
 
 (lancc of rain, the climate is properly characterised 
 
 a^* ilrj- ; and it is a curious but well-authenticated 
 
 fact, that Hoods on the const occur simultaneously 
 
 with dry wenther in the interior, and conversely. 
 
 May is the rainy seasim on the coast; in the in- 
 
 ti'rior the rains fall during the summer, or between 
 
 September and February. The spring months 
 
 comprise September, October, and November; 
 
 those of summer, Deccraljcr, January, and Febru- 
 
 ary; tliiKo nf autumn, March, April, nnil May; 
 And tliiiMi of winter, iliine, .Inly, and Aiigii^l, 
 This in nn regards the I'ontineiil of .Vusiriilia; but 
 llii> climale Ih very dill'erent In the iHlatids of .\us- 
 tridnsia, partieulnrly at New /calmid. In mhiio 
 iiartN here it rains often I'lrmany iiiMnths ingi'tlii r. 
 Nir. Slierrin, the explurer, while exaiiiiiiing the 
 western coast of New /ealmid, siilVeied fearfully 
 from the excessive wet. ' I ri'inemlH'r only three 
 line weeks during the six mmilhs we were on lliu 
 const,' be says in his Jniinial. (Printed in tho 
 ('hristchiireh Press, .laiiunry IMiil.) hescribliig 
 his Journey to hake llriiniier, he exelaiiiis, Mlh, 
 the iiniitternble misery of that Jiniriiey ! Itaiii 
 every day; directed wrongly by the natives . . , 
 this trip was the worst and hardest that I ever re- 
 meinber in the whole course nf my life. Wet 
 Ihriiiigli nil the time; scarcrly ever dry nt night ; 
 freshes every hour; n mist hanging heavy iiinl 
 dense, eovcring every thing: the iuuruey was wnr-e 
 than description can piiiiit it. ( llnwiit, Wm., 
 Ilistiirv of Oiscovery in Australia, Tiismauia, and 
 New >{ealaiid, Lund. iHtl.'i.) 
 
 An inipnrtant division of the Australian diinate, 
 that is, of the eiiiitini'iit of .Viistriilia, into wet and 
 (lry,isinarked by periods or eyclesof ten and twelve 
 years each. Once in such cycles, n year of nii- 
 initigated driiught prevails, (hiring which mi rain 
 falls, and the etl'ects of whicn are ennally inleiise 
 on the coast and in the interior. Close iipnii this 
 visitniiou follows a year of llund; but the rains, 
 which are at lirst continuniis ami as general as 
 the jireceding dninght, decrease with every siic- 
 ceedtng year, till they again wholly fail for ti time. 
 It follows, therefore, that the two or three years 
 following the great dniiights may be deiiinninaled 
 the wet iivr'nut, and that nil eipial space of tiiiiu 
 preceding the great droughts may be regiirded a» 
 the long dry season of Austrnlia. It is only in the 
 intermediate years that the regular recurrence of 
 sensons, noticed nbove, is obserynble. (Oxley, vii.; 
 Stiirt, i. liv. 1.) A grent drought began in 1h-.'I, 
 and did not terminate till l«'2!l. Very little rain 
 fell during the whnlo of this lengtlieni'd pcrinil, 
 and during the last six months tliere was not ii 
 single shower. In consi'ipieiici'. the whole surface 
 of the ground was so parched and withered that 
 all minor vegetation ceased, and even cnliniiry 
 vegetables were raised with iinicli dilliciilty. 
 Many of the settlers were Well nigh ruined; ami 
 the cattle did nut for siiiiie years recover from its 
 ell'ects. (llruton's N. S.Wales, 21tii: Stiirl'sS. Aus- 
 tralia, i. 2.) In 1« 17 the Maiieriio Plains, an ex- 
 tensive siiuatting district, sulVered from a similiir 
 cause. The mortality among the thicks ami herds 
 was frighiful; the wafer- holes being nearly all 
 dried up, and tilled with the carcasses of sliee|i and 
 cattle. (Southey on Colonial Wools, ilO.) Fnr- 
 tnnately, however, these visitations nre not of 
 frequent occurrence, and when they (U> occur, they 
 are mostly eoulined to not very extensive local- 
 ities. On these occasions, and in the rcninter 
 places, cattle frequently stray away in search of 
 water, and either ju'rish or are lost to the owners. 
 Ill reference to the reverse order of the seasons in 
 Kurope and Anstralin, it is worthy of remark that 
 a cold winter in the one appears to be coincident 
 with a hot summer in the other, and conversely. 
 (P. Cunningham, i. 2 IS.) For the rest, dews are 
 very abundant, mid, fortunately, fall the heaviest 
 during the summer heats and the long-continued 
 droughts. Hail-storms arc frequent, as are also 
 thunder and lightning; the latter (lushing fre- 
 quently for a succession of days, wholly unaccom- 
 panied by the former or by a single drop of rain. 
 Knrthquakes nre occasionally felt on the N. coast. 
 The climate of Extro-tropical Australia is pecu- 
 
 
'2M 
 
 ATTsTIl 
 
 i; 
 
 liiirly raviiiinilili' to llir liiiiiiiin i;!!!!^!!!!!!!!!!!, 
 |iriiliillily rrnMl llir ili'tliiriii-y nl M'^rtillili' ili'iniii 
 |Hi>iili<iM, r.iicli'inir ilini'MKri iiri' iiliMii"! iiiikiiiiwii : 
 
 CVI'tl hliiilll |iii\, iiii'ikIi'M, iitiil lliiii|iJM^ riMI|{ll liri' 
 
 KlriiiiK<'>''< ; lint llir l> I N, mIiiiI |ir<H|iiri'>i ii|ilitlml- 
 iiilu; mill till' iirrx, ur rniiiiil wnriii, i« tlii' riiiiitiniii 
 
 jM'^t III' rliiiilliiinij, l>\Nflllrr\' Im IIii' IIIi>'<I |iri' 
 
 Mili'iil ilix'iix'; liiii iiMi' priiiir, Mini lliiil II •triiii)X 
 mil', III' till* lirikilliy IlilMiri' nl llir iltllliiN|illi'ri', Ih 
 lll<> I'lirilily Willi uliirii nil tli'iiriliTK, rvrii tlit' 
 MTtir-t ciiMi'-t III' vriK'ri'iil iilVt'i'iiiiii, yifiil to (lie 
 hIiii|iIi"<I rrllli'ilIrM, 'I'lii' N, I'liiint i'4 lllllirilllliy, 
 
 liiil I'rriiiiiily li"<H Kii lliiiii iiiii'<l iiiliiT lrii|iii'iii 
 I'Hiiiilrii'i, 'lyiiliiiN mill iiriiic I'i'M'Tm iiri' tlicri' pri'- 
 Milrlil ill till' wi'l iiiiiiimhiiih; mnl iliiriii;; IIii' |M'riiiil 
 of viiriiilili' wiiiilM, iM'i'tiiiiiiiiii (iniiiiii liliiiiliii'HN) ii|t- 
 IH'illH III MiiiitTNt'ili* ii|ililliiiliiiiii; mill Hi'iirvy "fi'iin 
 to lie mi )'nili'iiiii-, I'xliiliiiin^ ilMflf with |ii'ruliiir 
 viriili'iii'i' wluTc till' iriijiii'iil ln'iit Im cxcrciii'iliiiinii 
 n <liiiii|i Hiiil. Km'Ii lit'ri', Imwi'ViT, Kii'kMi"w< |iiiti« 
 on II p'tii'mily mild I'uriii : tin' niiiiilM'r of ili'iitli'<, 
 tVoiii iliNi'iiMc, ill Mi'lvillt' Irilmiii wii-* miiy I in !l 
 lor liiiir vi'iirM, or I in 'Mi iicrminiiin. (I*, ('iinnini;' 
 liiim, i.'l7l-l7:t; ('mii|ili<'li'H (i. .1. iv. I4!l-I.jl, 
 KIM; Wnitwortli, .Vi; IrHin, I, IJI.) 
 
 JM'iiiiriiliHiji, — Iron in Hiircini in yrciit ]iriiriiHiiin 
 ovi'r III! the rontiiU'iit iiiiil ilH iiiljjii'i'iil iNlmiiJi. 
 Tilt' iininciiMi' t'Xti'iii oC irmi onIiIc on tin* N. coiimI 
 liiiM Ih'cii airciuly iilliiili'il to, mnl Hcviriki of tlic 
 iiioiiiitaiiiM viiilt'iiliy iilVi'i'i tlit- iniifjiiitii' nci'illc. 
 (Oxlry, ■.'.■(!(; Sliirl.'i. Il.''».) ('ii|i|i<'r miilli'Uii (llir 
 latter inixcil oci'iiMJonally with Nilvcr anil ar.-M'nic) 
 liavc lii'i'ii triiccti iioili in llir llliii' Mountains ami 
 the liariiii^ ritii>;i', iik well ax, in Niili greater 
 iilMiiiilaiK'c, ill the hilly Irai'tM ailjaccnt to Ailr- 
 laiilt', in S. Aiixtriiiia; iiiul iniiiiii;; liat lit'conic mi 
 iiii|iorlaiit liraiicli of imliiNtry carricil on in that 
 • oioiiy. (Sec AiiHTiiAi.iA. Soirni, V'U'TdHiA, anil 
 till' (U'S('ri|itioii of the other AiiHiraliaii coloiiieH 
 for more iletuileil iiolices of mineralo^ry, milieu, 
 and iiiiiiiiif; o|ieralioiiM.) lint the niiiii'H of eoal, 
 (■o|i|ier. iron, ami other onlinary iniiieralH foiiiiil in 
 AiiMlralin, have lieen reiulered of little importaiice, 
 con)|iared with the ^oid dejiosit.M with whirh it is 
 jirofiiHely endowed. 'I'heMe are of the most, extra- 
 ordinary ]irodiietiveiie.ss. The j^old is found at 
 varioiiN points, mostly on t\w western Hanks of 
 tlie f^reat mountain chain whieh runs parallel to 
 iiiul at, no jjreat dlstanee from the K. eoast of the 
 continent. This chain consists of a ^real, variety 
 iif rocks; those of primary foniialion hein;^ in 
 many parts pierced and hroken through hv those 
 of ifjneoiis ori;L;in. Niiinerons ipiart/. veins are 
 foiinil in the rocks; and these form the matrix of 
 the ^old, which is most fre(|iieiitly found with the 
 quart/, ailherin^ to it, and accompanied with iron. 
 
 The existence of fj;oltl in this inoiiiituiii chain 
 had been conjecturcil on theoretical grounds hy 
 Sir 15. J. Murchison and other emiin'iit geologists. 
 Itut its existence was not jiractically ascertained 
 till IHol, when an extensive gold liehl was dis- 
 covered near the town of Katlnirst in N. S. Wales, 
 aliout 120 m. WNW. from Sydney. The dis- 
 <;overer, a Mr. Ilargrave, reireived a Howard of 
 10,0(10/, A great variety of other gold fields have 
 since been explored, especially in Victoria, where 
 thev are of unparalleled richness. 
 
 'i^hc gold hitherto found in Australia has nil 
 been obtained froin 'diggings' in the beds of 
 streams descending from the mountains, or in the 
 tletrilus in ravines anil hollows on their flanks. 
 It is found ill every variety of form, in grains or 
 dust, in llnkes or scales, and in lum|is or nuggets. 
 The separation of the smaller particles from the 
 (.arlli isefl'ected in the same way as in California, 
 |,y washing, liut though the labour be severe, it 
 13 less so than in the latter. And owing to the 
 
 ALAHIA 
 
 water lii'iiig ))"<« Colli, mill the mm lew iMiwcrriil, 
 the heallli of the diggerx Is not ex|H».<'d |,, .,| 
 severe u trial here as in < 'alilnrniii. 
 
 The etl'i'it of the discnMry of gold in Ainlriilln 
 
 has been niii«l Mirlkilig, At It txel it tliniii 
 
 eiii'd II liital ili'<rilpliiill of Noriely; and it liiiK 
 made n gniU ihaiiue in all the koiIiiI rilaiiMiiK 
 that tormerly prexalleit in the coiiiini'iii. i|„, 
 di'iiiand fur lalionr, the rale of >Miues, ihe prirr^ i,t 
 liiilgiiigs itiid iif inimi artii'les "f iirnvininii, |ia\,, 
 iin'reilsed ill an llilpri'ri'di'iited degree, lli'iu,. 
 aUo, a Mi-t aniiMint of eiiiigratinii has Inch r|j. 
 reeled III \'irtiiriii and .\. ,S. Wale, aii'l popiilaiiun 
 and trade have niinli' asloiiishing iiiUaiires. 
 
 'I'liiiiigh iniliixiiiiralile at llrsi to ihoMc i'iigiii;ii| 
 in agrii'iiltiiral and pasinral pursuits, iln- jaiiir 
 
 have now inaily ri vered from the xl k, iiii.| 
 
 will probalilv Is'come more proKperniis iliaii rvir. 
 The •iligKiiii^H' are in.w bruiniiing in j,,' pm,, . 
 ciiied iimre as a regular cinployiiM'iit Ilii4n iii n 
 gambling inlveiiture. Many oi' lliuse wlm wvxv 
 at llrst attriiiii'd In them from other depart iihih , 
 have since ri'iiirned In their fi inner piirniiii,.; hIiji,, 
 the rapid iinri'/ise of population, by nccaNiiniini; ii 
 proportional increiiM' of demand for oilier iirn- 
 ducts, has given a new and powerful siiiiniliii i.i 
 aliinifit every lirmnli of iinliisiry. In proof nf ilii^ 
 we may refer to llie carcasses of sheep, wliich, 
 from bi'ing wnrih little or nothing, have, iiii',,ii' 
 sei|Ueiice of the gniilly increased consiiinpliiiii d 
 butcher's meat, lu'ioiiie of iiuicli greater valiic 
 than the lieeces. 
 
 Ityliiiii/.— U is well known that IJoiany lliiy 
 rei'i'ived its name from the abiinilaiit vigelnliim 
 which ('apt. Cook and Sir .). Hanks foiniil llmirhli 
 iiigoii its coasts; but its soil was notwiih'<iiiniliii;,' 
 foiiiid to li(< inipi'olitable, barren, and totally iiiiiil 
 for a setllemenl, which was, in coiiseiiiu'in'i , 
 established at Tori .lackson. 
 
 'I'he first great division of plants is into twn 
 great classes: the Cryptogainous, which have ii.> 
 blossoms nor visible means of fructillcatioii: nurli 
 are mosses, ferns, fungi, <tc. : and the I'liaiuTnpi- 
 inoiis, which are reproduced by visible orgaiiH. ilii, 
 class includes, of coiirs<', all the higher onlcM ui' 
 vegetables, hut is subdivided into Monocntylciln- 
 nons plants, such as have but one seed Inlie; mnl 
 Dicotyledonous plants, which an^ possessed nfiwo 
 or more: the former comprises the grasses, cy- 
 peraceie, Ac; the latter those |)roductiims of tfii' 
 earth, the organisation of which is inosi ciimi'li- 
 eated, as the trees, superior shrubs, in\ Tlic I'nl- 
 lowing table exhibits an outline of t lie arraiii;v- 
 ment of these primary orders in Australia. It is 
 ottered merely as an" aiiproximatioii, for kiimv- 
 ledge on this subject is yet but scant v ; but it liiis 
 been constructed with much care from llrnwn's 
 ' lloliiiiy of Terra Aiistralis ' (Appendix to I'liii- 
 ders, i);i;j-(>liJ) ; the botanical jiapers of A. Cun- 
 iiingham (Appendix to King, ollT-oCi.')) ; Fii'lirs 
 Memoirs, ^^•i:t-'A^Jh ; 1*. Ciiniiiiigham (i. l«li-2iMi); 
 Oxley. jmmm ; Sturt, jxisnim ; Alitchell (i. xx. i( 
 /la.iiiiin). 
 
 Orilirt 
 
 Whole 
 No. of 
 known 
 hpevlci 
 
 «,000 
 
 C,!tOi» 
 Sl.OlM 
 
 44,0U0 
 
 Whol» 
 N f 
 
 AllNt. 
 
 Slii'clci 
 700 
 
 1.144 
 
 ;i,.suii 
 
 No. of Spec. 
 
 com. lit Aii^l. 
 
 mid oMuT 
 
 Ut'Kloui 
 
 No of 
 
 Si Min 
 Vccullnr 
 lu Auit 
 
 41W 
 
 1,104 
 ;i,H4ll 
 
 ' 6,440 
 
 CryptoKnmoiig 
 Sloiiocotylu- 
 
 donoiis 
 Dicotyledonous 
 
 Total . . 
 
 'i\0 
 
 40 
 •JO 
 
 6,710 
 
 :<7u 
 
 So profound wore the early invcHtipations ff 
 Hrown in this newly-opened region of slriiii;'!' 
 vegetation, that his name was given to it as u dis- 
 
AlSTRALAsfV 
 
 wr 
 
 ,,„,( l«.ti«iil''rt' l»liwl"m, (JiImiIIi'v, fii.'.) Ill lii« 
 ( llii' kiKinii iiliuil" <>l' nil llic wiirlil Miiiniiiiti'il 
 tliiMt' III' Aii'iriillii III I, '.Mill, 
 
 il.i 
 
 I,. ;l,l,(ltHI i>|M rli'K, 
 
 iHiiiiliT"' A|i|M'ii. ''lit''.) I III' liil"'iir>i 111" poifi'i'il 
 Im;; li'itiiiii*!" Ii'tvi< ili'iii' liltli' iiiiiri' lliiiii niliir;;!' 
 ill,' li.i, wItliiMil III nil iilVri'liiiK (III' iirriiiiu'i'iiiriii, 
 „ii,| iiiilf III Ik ^'fv irilliiiK ij.uri'i' niii'riii^ tlii> 
 viiri'i'i- |>r><|H>riliiiH. Tlu' ltn<i lA't whlrli nirlkcM 
 ill,. iilinTM-r ill IIh- t'i'riiji.liiK IiiIpIi' i^ lliii vrry 
 ^rriiii imiiilxf "•' |H'<iiliiir Aii^inih m »<|h'i ic-.. 
 iini"iiiitii>t( '" •"'"''.>■ iiin' I'lutiili I'liii "I """' 111 
 pri'ii'iit kiii'WM. riii'« i^ « |>ri>|'iirlicill linuli ^tv,,'- r 
 ilijiiiiiiiil'l Ix' l<iiiki'ilt'i>rrriiiiillii'rt.|iili\<' iiiii^iiitinu 
 1,1 till' rcuii'iii mill wliliti. «irf tin' in li\ idfuil!* of 
 i;i'lii<|M'rii'n ill niiylliiiiKlikru»lmiliirri»tlii,<<f l^t'fB 
 till' i<|n'ii<'» llii'iii«'lv<'H ol' II kiiiil lii.;l>ly ii.scl'iil t" 
 man, Moiilil ri'inlcr Aiiilriiliii ii |iMniili>(', rnrnrii^ 
 iiiiii'lv. iiriilit'riHilu' (■II"''. Fi'Tiin, iii'tiU- .I'lvvcrs, 
 iiii'lrvt'ii K'riiKi*!'". Iiiiviii|4 till' I'lriii, liiilk.iiiil l,.'J'i|.< 
 ,1 iri'i'". arc huiiu' hI' tlirili'iiii^iii'liiti); I'l'Mtun . iii 
 Aii-iriiliiiii V('K''''"'"" ; l"f '111' I'"*'. III!' liiiilirr In 
 
 'I'licriilly III' (III' Iwinl wiiiiil kiml iHi»iiii^ nl' all i 
 
 H,i' varirtii'i* i>l l'.iii'aly|>ti>'< iiinH 'ifiiiirliiit, with 
 
 -iiiiii' varii'iii'i nl' ilic rnnc-wiMMl, winilul-wiiiiil, iiinl 
 
 inliir. M<»l *'l III*' I'lD'alyiitt iiri^ callnl k'i'k- 
 
 iri'i's iIh'iikIi iI<i' I'MiilaiioiH nl' many nl' ilii'iii 
 
 :iri' |iM|H'rly ri'^'ui'*. lii'iiiK iiifnliilili' in wairr; wliili' I 
 
 uiliiTK yiclil a manna ax lini' ami ii.* |iiiri' an ilnit 
 
 111 Anil iiu. Aiiiiilii'rfi|i«'i'ii'M yii'liJH ilii' |iiir<'»t j;niii 
 
 iiriiiii'. 'I'lii'n' i^ a lri'«^ licrc rulitMl tlir l,';i tree, 
 
 ilii' Iriivi'H III' XNliii'li an* iimi'iI liy tlic I'nlnniMis in- 
 
 Mrinl I'l' the I'hini'Mi' |ilaiil ; ami tlirrc arc uUn 
 
 ^ciini' iiinliriiial trees, hm iIic »aHsii('raH ami the 
 
 i:hiiiMiil tree, i'aliiis arc limitctl In the \. ami 
 
 I'., nliiiri'H, nil tlic I'nrmcr nl' wliii'li till' li'iijiii'ii! 
 
 iii.'in^T'ivi' ^^rnWH in all ilr* liixiirlaiirc; and, in I'ari, ' 
 
 ijii' jHTiiliiir ai«|ic<'t nl' AiiHtriilian vc^'i'iaiinii ili.s- ; 
 
 ,i|i|iciirs ill iliis|iart nl' the cniiiincnl, heliip; Miper- 
 
 M'lli'il iiy line aMsiiiillatin;; iimrc tn ihal nl' Imiia. I 
 
 hi 'rmiiiral Ailitniliil llie Krcaler nniiilier nl' tlnmu | 
 
 plants lire fniinil which an^ cniiminii iilike In this | 
 
 aiiiliilliercniililiciilN. It has liecii iK'I'nrc nlwcrvcd 
 
 ilmt, with nnc cxce|itinii, the Australian trees arc 
 
 ivrfK'rt'i'iis : many nl' them arc reiiiiirkalile alsn 
 
 liif llie inverted pnsitinn nl' their leal'; the mar^'in, 
 
 aii'l nut either siirlnee, licin^; directed Inwards tlie 
 
 .•iiciii. An Australian nutvi: has, cniisc(|iiently, a 
 
 |K'(iiliiir 1111(1 fjinnmy niniearancc ; nor i.s the limlier 
 
 ilial it yields nl' the hi>,'hest utility tn the arclii- 
 
 tiri, lii'i'n^;' liahlc tn rnt at Ihn heart, and sn cnii- 
 
 irai'lilc lliiit it has liecii kiinwii tn shrink upwards 
 
 III' two inches within n week. (1*. ('iiniiin^'haiii, 
 
 i. 111'.'.) It reiimins tn he nliservcd that the trees j 
 
 ill Australia art^ rarely sn iiiimemiis as tn iiii|)ede ^ 
 
 ImM' triivellin^: and iix a reniarkahlc tact, lliatj 
 
 tliiy appear tn h(> mnst aliiiiidant nil iiil'erinr snils, 
 
 ((iiiv. Ifcp. Oxley, UtiM.) FlnwcriiitJ iiliiiits nl' very 
 
 ^Tojit iK'iuityarc I'nuiul; lint the lily, tulip, and 
 
 liiiiivysni'kle exist in the. fnrin nl' standard 
 
 ir(*s (if jjreat size. TIutc arc alsn (idnril'urnufi 
 
 plants, which scent the ntninspherc to a prwit 
 
 ilisliHK'c; and prickly shnilis, which prow u|hih 
 
 siiiiily soils, and hind them down, thus prevcntinp 
 
 that ilril't which is the haiiu nf the Aruhiau anil 
 
 Afriiftu deserts. (Mitchell, i. '*■>■>; ii. lOli, Ac.) 
 
 liribscs nre ahundiint and iintritions, hut they 
 
 tniw ill detached cliiiiips, so that a heavy enii- 
 
 liiniiiiis sward, re.senililiiip an KiiKlish ineadnw, is 
 
 luikiuwM. Flax, tnliiiecn, a w|K'cie.s nl'cnitnll. tares, 
 
 iiiilipi, cliii'iiry, trefoil, and Imrnet (the last a f,'on(l 
 
 Hilbtitiite l'(ir tea), are ainniip the natural iimdnc- 
 
 lii'iis, Imt there is an unparalleled delicieiicy nf 
 
 Iniits and (if vcfjetahles lit I'nr human I'nnd. The 
 
 lerm/i'd are tntally ahsent; and the hestsniisliiiitc 
 
 tiT tlu'iii (nijiears tn he a spciries nf reed, which. 
 
 li'wi'vcr, Mitchell J'ninid In make n very li;;lil 
 
 t"ik(!. 'i'lic only native fruits are raspberric;;. ciir- 
 
 rnill* (llinre like crnnltrrric^), ntir or two tHi«leleM 
 fruits, itnd n sperlin nf nut. 'Ihe ll'<i fill |>r<Mlll''- 
 linns nf III her lllll'N are imw, llnwe\er, i'Meil>i\)'ly 
 
 ncclim.'iiiKcd, ami cirii cmiis mid nrchariU nri< 
 I'liiiid ill every I'erlile i<|hi| in ihe si'llled (lint rid .•. 
 lAci'v spci'ien nf cum, iinhidim; mii/.c, i« ciilti- 
 
 valcii l\ilh '•line's J while nf Infrinil frilils, llin 
 
 nrniiu;!', Icinnii, ciimii, iieitarine, iijirii'il, peiicli, 
 phini, cherry, llu:. miillNrrv, ipiiini', luinana, ^iiit\ a, 
 iiiiii' it|i|'li', KrajH', ail I iiiaiiy cilicr.*, have Inii;; 
 
 I II a snliric nf prnlit In llie smaller sell|iT«, 
 
 n apahililii'i nf Ihe soil are thus alli'slcd ; imr 
 
 Hii ihere Ih' n dniiht thai the su^'itr cane ami 
 hi' f tr'Hiiciil prndiii'tinlis wiiiild thrive in Mm 
 lower (i,,llildes nf the N. Snine di.<lrii'tK here, 
 »>«|^'clally llin-'e lyin^' (III the Imilks nf the Vic- 
 tnritt river — c:illiil the ' llarcnn ' liy the unlives 
 — afr <'^(f('m<ly fertile. Sir riininas Mitchell, 
 who vi...ited 111, I iiiiiilry ill iHl.i, descrilns it m 
 niie nf milk and hniiey. I'liere was it vcuelatinii 
 /(■: ahiindaiil as that nf N.uuii .\iii''rii'a: iiiimeii>i< 
 
 tree.< lined the liilllk nf the river, llm k-< nf ( ka- 
 
 Inns lilli'd ilii' air with tin ir deiifenini; churns, aii'l 
 Watrr fnwl, ill vikI I'miliirs, (glided acrnss llie 
 
 lliii'd, and llew up niid dnwii uviT the iieiKhtmuriii^ 
 
 reiiihes. 
 
 /.mtliiijii. — Animal existence in Australia as- 
 sullies a fiirm mure annmalniis and jiecnliar than 
 evi'ii that which marks it., Ilntany. 'Ihe I'nllnwin^ 
 tallies have liceii ciinsiriicled with every pn«sililit 
 care I'mni the ' lii'^ne Animal ' nf ( iivicr, with the 
 addiiiniis nf lirillilli, tiray, iVc,, the /nnlii^y nf 
 Shaw, the Iransaciinnsiif tlie Liiinieaii Sncieiy, and 
 the wnrks (if the variniis travellers in Australia. 
 
 In these tallies, t'livicr'. ^fnal nrders nf CiiriiiH- 
 siers and I'lisseres are divided itiln their several 
 families; the fnrnier into ('heirnpicra, liiscciiviira, 
 ('ariiivnra, and .Marsiipialia; the latter inln llciiii- 
 rnstres, FiMHiruMtres, Cniiimstrcs, and 'ruiiiiirnsireH. 
 
 Class Mammalia. 
 
 
 Wlii.lc No. 
 
 Wliiilii No. 
 
 No.»rilpa. 
 com. Ill A. 
 
 Kllil olhlT 
 llrHliilia 
 
 No. of Kp«. 
 
 Orilen 
 
 of kiiuwii 
 
 llf .Vllatia. 
 
 IH'i'iilmr I.I 
 
 
 h|>«'i-ii>i 
 
 N|H.il|.a 
 
 Aiiilrullii 
 
 i^imilriiiiiiiiia 
 
 I.V. 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 i:lK'lro|iteni . 
 
 |;iii 
 
 'i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 liiscf'tlvoni . 
 
 '^7 
 
 (1 
 
 (1 
 
 
 
 t'lU'iilvora . . 
 
 177 
 
 K-y 
 
 u 
 
 :i'/ 
 
 Marsu|iiiiliii . 
 
 .'ill 
 
 :i:l 
 
 II 
 
 :i:i 
 
 Illllluiltiil . . 
 
 \Wi 
 
 II 
 
 I'l- 
 
 f. 
 
 I'Meiitiita . . 
 
 •i\ 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 t'aclivder- 
 
 
 
 
 
 iimtii . . . 
 
 '1\ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iluiuliiuntia. 
 
 11'.' 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 II 
 
 L'etiioea . . . 
 
 •n 
 
 r. 
 
 !, 
 
 (1 
 
 Total . . 
 
 unu 
 
 fi8 
 
 13 
 
 4U 
 
 Avm. (UiuiM.) 
 
 
 Wlioli. No. 
 
 Orileri 
 
 of klltiwil 
 
 
 MlKSSlci 
 
 Acc'Ipitres. . 
 
 •i.ll 
 
 'Deiitirostres 
 
 l,'.'7:t 
 
 l.'issiro»ti'(^< . 
 
 I'JH 
 
 Coiilrostres . 
 
 410 
 
 Temilrostres 
 
 .'l|:l 
 
 KyiiilHctyles . 
 
 III! 
 
 Seal ISO res . . 
 
 4.H'.' 
 
 (Inlliiuu . . . 
 
 ;t i.-i 
 
 (iralliu . . . 
 
 ;i:i.-> 
 
 I'uUnipwlos . 
 
 L'8!) 
 
 Total . . 
 
 3,97'i 
 
 Wholp No. 
 
 SiHrlrfi 
 
 No. ors|ii'.' 
 
 of kiiiiwn 
 
 AiKtriiliitii 
 
 h|H'i-i,.i 
 
 ciimiiiiiii 111 
 Aililr mill 
 uthor Rt!||f. 
 
 is-trullnr in 
 Auiiritllu 
 
 ii; 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 i:to 
 
 7 
 
 \i\ 
 
 !'.> 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 yo 
 
 ;i 
 
 17 
 
 ;)() 
 
 1 
 
 •Ji> 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 lit 
 
 ti 
 
 :u 
 
 •JO 
 
 » 
 
 17 
 
 •ih 
 
 4 
 
 •n 
 
 'ii 
 
 'i 
 
 •ji) 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 31(i 
 
 U7 
 
 'im 
 
 F'rom these tallies, which, tlinuph not cmhndy- 
 iiij; the mnst reci^iit di.scnveries, yet snllicieiitly 
 valuahle for jjeneral piirpnises, it apjiears. first, that 
 the imtivc uiiiinuls of Australia arc I'uw in number; 
 
208 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 mill, Rccdiidlv, timt llipy mo. vcrv iirculiiir in kind, 
 or all the known MimiHinlin ni tlio world, but 
 lil'ty-ci;,dit H|i('cio)*, lit lie more thnn ono-8(!vcn- 
 tccnfli part of the whole, belong oriK»nnlly to thin 
 r('jj;ion. Of thcue lifty-ei;;ht Hpecios forty-nix were 
 never lieiird of till iliey were lirnt met on tliiH 
 Kiiil ; mid of the twelve Hpecien eoninion to Austrii- 
 lin and other repoiiH, tivc are whules, nnd four 
 (out of the five (^iiriiivora) neals ; ho thiit, in truth, 
 of the terrentrial Mmnmaliii, only three upecio.snre 
 common ; of which one i» the Inrj^e nnd Hlnnif^- 
 win^eil hnt of MudngOHcar, another (the single and 
 questionuble common nxlent.) u regarded by Mr. 
 Ogilby aH connected gencrically only with the 
 JerbonH of America and Asia (Linmeau Trans, 
 xviii. 12!)-l.')'2), and the third is the <log, of 
 which it is a remarkable fact, that he is never 
 found out of the Hociety of man, and very rarely 
 alment from any spot which man inhabiUt. The 
 nuthoritv just quoted (p. 121) lielieves, indee<l, 
 that he IS not an aboriginal inhabitant of this con- 
 tinent, but that he came to it with the first 
 ]irimitive settlers, in the same state of savage 
 (ionieslication in which he now exists. lie was 
 unknown in Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) be- 
 fore the settlement of the IJritish colonists there, 
 (p. 122.) The other three Carnivora (iirobably 
 only two) marked in the tal)le »'< jiecnliar to 
 Australia, are seals (Grillith's iSynopsis of Cuv. 
 ]S()-1«3); so that the whole of this important 
 order, together with the numerous tribes of the 
 Qiiadnimana, I'achydcnnata, and Kuminantia, are 
 absolutely without any known land-representa- 
 tives ill this extensive portion of the globe. 
 (Ogilby, Linna!an Trans, xviii. 121.) Of the Eden- 
 tata, four sjiecies are marked in this table, after 
 the arrangement of Cuvier (iii. '2(>)W2V)i>) ; but 
 that arrangement was made in the. uttc' despair of 
 fonniiig a better, and not l>cca.i^e it ha<l any 
 systematic analogy to recommend it. Toothless, 
 or all but toothless, the creatures unquestionably 
 are; but classing them in this order reduces the 
 naturalist to the dilemma of admitting that there 
 are Mammalia which do not possess the dis- 
 tinctive mark of the class. The Echidni and 
 Omit horhynchi are destitiiti of teats, and do n't 
 suckle their young. The former genus consisis of 
 two species of porcujrines, one entirely covered with 
 thick spines, the other clothed with hair, in which 
 the spines are half hidden. The Oriiitliorhynclii 
 consist also of two s])ecies — O, paradoxus and O. 
 fmcus. Possessing the body and habits of a mole, 
 the feet and bill of a duck, and the internal forma- 
 tion of a reptile, these creatures lead a burrowing 
 life amid the mud of rivers ond swamps. They 
 are extremely ehy, and hence their mode of 
 repro<luction is yet unknown. Should they be 
 oviparous, it would be perhaps more consistent to 
 class them with the Keptilia than with the Mam- 
 malia: but, at present, their hot blood seems to 
 forbid such an arrangement. The Oniithorhyn- 
 chus has two cheek-teeth iri each jaw : but they 
 are without roots, and are merely fibrous. (Cuvier, 
 iii. 264.) 
 
 Of the Rodentia, two species belong to the sub- 
 genus Hydromys, and consist of creatures that 
 seem to unite some of the peculiarities of the dor- 
 mouse, rat, and beaver. (Cuv. iii. 72.) According 
 to Griflith (Synop. Cuv. 222), they are the only 
 true Hydromys, are peculiar to Australia, and 
 almost to Van Diemen's Land. A new genus of 
 liodentiawas made known by Mitchell's expedi- 
 tion in 1835, which has been called Conilurus, to 
 mark its general resemblance to a rabbit. It is, 
 however, a rat ; and the species found by Mitchell 
 is remarkable for the formidable defence which it 
 builds for itself against the dingo (native dog), 
 
 and birds of prey. From this habit it liiis bflcn 
 named Conilurus constructor. Two Hiicrics nf 
 mice (both peculiar), and the Dipiis Mitclielli (the 
 Australian jerboa), discovered by Mitchell in \KM\, 
 comiilote the list of AiiHtraliaii Hodonlia, iiiil('.<i,sa 
 Hinail animal, omitted in the talile, from tluMin- 
 certninty of its classitlciilion, belong to that orilcr. 
 Mitchell names it Myrmevohius rufiis, but with 
 considerable doubt, and says that it was geiiornllv 
 called the ' red shrew mouse ' by his i)arty, (i, 17,') 
 Should it prove to belong to the genus s'orex, it in 
 the first instance, in Australia, of the order In.scc- 
 livora. VV'ith these few exceptions, the wlioh' (jf 
 the Australian Mammalia consist of the very 
 peculiar order Marsiipialia, of which order iridri! 
 than four-sevenths are limited to this contiiiciit 
 and its adjacent islands. The leading iieculiaritv 
 in animals of this order, is the birth of the ynunir 
 in an immature state; in such a state, in fiict, as 
 is scarcely comparable to the ordinary develop- 
 ment at which other faiti arrive within a few dnys 
 after cimception. From the time of this preinalurc 
 birth, without limbs or other external organs, tlic 
 little animal remains attached to the teat of its 
 mother (which enlarges, so as completely to till 
 the mouth), and enclosed in a natural pmicli 
 formed by the skin of the abdomen. It is this 
 IHiuch which is the distinctive mark of the order; 
 and its use induced Linnieus to arrange siicli »|ie- 
 cies of these animals as he knew, under his genus 
 D'idelphis, a word implying double matrix. At 
 the period of full development, the young fall 
 from the teat, and this may be regarded as the 
 real moment of birth; but for a long time after 
 the dam continues to carry her offspring in the 
 same receptacle ; and the latter, even after they 
 can walk, constantly return thither on the ap- 
 proach of any danger. This rcmarkalilc confor- 
 mation is observed in every marsupial animal, ami 
 the arrangements of bones and muscles, nccet^sary 
 to it, is found in the males as well as the feraale.i. 
 In other rc8])ects, however, the several genera nf 
 the order differ so essentially, that tlie whole 
 might be regarded as forming a distinct Class of 
 Vertebrata, and divisible, like the otiier Mam- 
 malia, into various orders, (Cuv, ii, t51-0;),) The 
 kangaroo, the largest animal of this order ami uf 
 Australian Mammalia, has been known since 
 Cook's tirst voyage, (Ilawkeswortb, iii, riTl!.) It 
 is as large, in some of the sjiecies (of whicli 
 Griffith enumerates ten), as a good-sized calf, is 
 very large in its hinder quarters, and ilisi)roportion- 
 ateiy small forwards. Its fore-legs are very short, 
 and quite useless to the animal's motion, which is 
 pflr..;.fo,i \yy fl succcsslon of springs, assisted ma- 
 terially by its long and powerful tail. The 
 attitude is erect, except when feeding ; the colour 
 various in the various species, but is generally of 
 different shades of grev. One species (K, rufm), 
 however, is red and white. The other animiils arc 
 the Potorvus, Phalangers (so named by Hufliiii, 
 because the only species with which he wiis 
 acquainted had two toes united by a mcnihraiie), 
 the Dasyiiri, the Paranieles, the "Pctaurista, the 
 Phascolarctos, and the Phascolomys. The differ- 
 ent species of these genera vary in size from that 
 of a rat to that of a dog ; the largest, the (log-fateil 
 Dasyurus {Thylacynus Harisii), and Da-^vunis 
 ursinus (the devil of the colonists), being coiilinetl 
 to Van Diemen's Land. (Ogilby, Linn, Trans. 
 xviii. 122.) The former resembles clojicly an ill- 
 made dog, but is marked with zebra-like striiies; 
 the latter is represented as an extremely ugly ainl 
 disgusting-looking animal, whence his colonial 
 name. The other species of the Dasynri approach 
 in size and outward appearance to the ww 
 tribe. The Phalangers of Australia arc not all 
 
AUSTRALASIA 
 
 260 
 
 jjn^lnpiishcd by nnited toc«! on the contrary, 
 (Mime of t''*""? "" *''" Vulpine PlmlauKcr, iipproncrJi 
 in tlie formntion of their extremities, to tlie (i»nil- 
 rutnnnn. (Slmw'« Z(K)lojjy, i. WX) Home of tlicsc, 
 the iiistnncc taken, for iinc, are pretty and (graceful 
 aniiiiBl"' The Petaurista are a sul)-f;eniw of tlic 
 i>l,^ln„|Tcrf), and (liHtingiiixhed hy an extension of 
 tiie dkin of the side, so as to form a kind of 
 imrailuite ; tliey are sometimes palled llyin^j Plm- 
 IniiUff*. Of tliis j;cnus the JJuM/jIiih Sciitnui 
 (Miiiirrel opossum) has so much the appearance of 
 a sniiirrol, that a close inspection is necessary to 
 detect its marsupial character. (Shaw's Zoo. N. 
 Hull. 29.) The Parameles approach in form and 
 lialiits to had^ers, and indeed are called pouched 
 l,,„ljrpr,(; they differ from the other Marsupialia in 
 tlie weakness of their toil, that member beinj^ 
 L'eiu'riiUy serviceable to this order, either by its 
 gtreiiL'th" or its prehensil)ility. (Grillith's ^otes, 
 Cuv. iii. H!l.) The Phascola'rctos, or Koa'a, as it 
 is iiKire commonly called, consists of only one 
 kiidwii species; it has a clumsy body, about the 
 H/(. of a moderately lar^c dof?, short h'f^s and 
 flaws, adapted for climbing and burrowinj;. Tlu! 
 ftniale carries her yoim;;, for a lonfc time, on her 
 jiliiiiilders, and pot in her niarsu|)ial ba{^. Some 
 iiatiiralists have referred this animal to the Plui- 
 liiii"ers, and others have denominated it the New 
 lldFlaiid ."loth. It has, however, no resemblance 
 to the Tardiyjrada, ])(>sKesses cuttiiif; teeth, and is 
 dixtitiite of canines, (Cuv. ii. 70; see also iii. 
 L'.Vi; and (Iriflith's Synops, 2!)1.) The Phasco- 
 loinvs, like the last fjcnus, contains at present but 
 one siK'cics, tiic wombat of the colonists. It is a 
 iihiiitif,n"iide animal, extremely slow in its motion, 
 and is about the size of a l)a(lj;pr, Siiaw (i. .'iO-l) 
 mentions this creature under the name of Didel- 
 phis iirsinn, and a second species is suspected to 
 have been seen by Bass. (Cuv. ii. 7«.) 
 
 In haliits the (iifferent genera of the Marsupialia 
 differ as much as they do in form. There is 
 scarcely, iiuleod, an order of the whole class Mam- 
 malia to which one or other of them does not 
 assiniilato. Thus, the Dasvuri are carnivorous, 
 and have many of the habits of the Fclinie ; the 
 I'halangers are insectivorous, and it has been 
 already stated that some of them ap])roximate in 
 f(inn to tilt Quadruniana; a similar approach will, 
 jKrhaps, be admitted of the Petaurista to the 
 Cheiroptera ; and the Phascolomys or wombat is 
 a tnie rodent. (Cuv. ii. 61-78.) 
 
 The kangaroos, though strictly herbivorous, can- 
 not be compared with any known genus but 
 themselves ; and the useful orders of Kuminantia 
 and Pacliydermata are unrepresented by any 
 marsupial form. 
 
 But those tribes comprising most of the animals 
 that, by their strength, docility, fleece, or hide, 
 and the nutritious quality of their flesh, are most 
 useful to man, though only recently imported, are 
 now extremely abundant in all the settled parts 
 of Australasia. On the 1st of May, 1788, a stock 
 was carried out b}' the first settlers of 1 stalli(ni, 
 B mares, 3 colts, 2 bulls, 5 cows, 29 sheep, 19 goats, 
 49 hogs, 25 pigs. (Phillip, 110.) And from this 
 late and scanty stock, assisted by a few subsequent 
 importations, have been derived all the vast num- 
 bers of sheep and other useful animals now to be 
 found on the Australian continent. It is needless 
 to trace their progress in detail. Suffice it to say, 
 that though for a while their increase was compa- 
 ratively slow, there were in New South Wales 
 alone m 1810, 25,888 sheep and 12,442 head of 
 cattle. In 1822 the former had increased to 
 2911,158, and the latter to 122,939. On the 1st of 
 Jaiuiarj', 18(i3, the proNnnce of New South Wales 
 had 6,145,051 sheep, while Victoria had, on the 
 
 SI St of March, 1803, no loss than 8(1,067 horses, 
 57(i,r.01 head of cattle, and fi,7t)4,851 sheep. So 
 rapid an increase is probably unequalled in the 
 history of the world. It is clear, therefore, that 
 the pastures and climate of Australia are well 
 adapted to the useful animals so long strangers to 
 its soil; and the lieneficial changes which their 
 intnxluction has effected in this new laml, is one 
 of the most interesting instances of the power 
 possessed by man of modifving the physical jieeu- 
 liarities of the world which ho inhabits. (For 
 farther details regarding the progress of agricul- 
 ture as well as of trade oikI commerce, in tho 
 states of Australasia, see the separate articles.) 
 
 The ornithology of Australia is less anomalous 
 than its mammalogy : no order of birds is without 
 its representative, and there are but two the Aus- 
 tralian species of which are wholly peculiar. Yet 
 the common species bear a very small projHirtion 
 to those which are jjcculiar ; and, for the most part, 
 are common only to X. and K. Australia, and S. 
 Asia, or the nearer Polynesian islands. Several 
 g(!uera are wanting ; all the tribes of usual singing 
 liirds, for instance : and of the commcm species, tho 
 most numerous are, an might be cxjiected, those of 
 strong flight and comparatively light bodies; sucii 
 as the Acci[)itres (liirds of prey) and the Dcn- 
 tirostres (shrikes, pies, &c.). Among the rapacious 
 birds, the most singidar is a white '^agle, wbicli 
 Cuvier thougiit was onlv an albiiu) of some other 
 species (vi, 49), and which Shuw referred to the 
 list of hawks (vii. 93), but which subsequent inves- 
 tigation has proved to be a true eagle, ((irillith's 
 Notes Cuv. vi. ."iO.) Am(nig the order Dentirostres, 
 are S(mie species of great beauty ; the sujierb 
 warbler, a bird having the habits of the redbn-ast, 
 is perhaps the most ))eaiitiful. There are also soma 
 varkgated thrushes ; but of these and other birds 
 of this order, though very accurate descriptions bo 
 given of their apjicarance (Phillip, 157 ; Shaw's 
 N. IIoU, Zoo, 25), nothing is said respecting their 
 notes ; and it may be inferred that, notwithstiind- 
 ing their names, they are songless. A species of 
 thrush, called thunder bird (Cuv. vi. 434), iios 
 obtained from the colonists the name of the laugh- 
 ing jackaxit, from his peculiarly loud and discordant 
 cry. Swallows and goatsuckers, of the order Fis- 
 sirostres, are numerous ; and of the Conirostres, 
 the most remarkable species are the beautiful 
 birds of paradise, which are almost coniincu to 
 New Guinea. There are also several crows and 
 magpies of this onler; but the larks (so called) are 
 but poor imitations of those of Europe, and appear 
 all to belong to Cuvier s genus of field larks (vi. 
 480), and consequently to the order Dentirostres. 
 Of the Tenuirostres, the various species of the 
 Epimachi are, like the birds of paradise, confined 
 to the N. parts of Australia; like them, their 
 plumage ranks amongst the most beautiful; and 
 like them, too, they have been the subjects of 
 innumerable fables. (Cuv. \u. 382.) The Syndac- 
 tyles give to Australia its kingfishers an<l bee- 
 eaters, of which the sacred kingfisher of the first, 
 and the variegated bee-eater of the other, are 
 worthy of notice for the extreme beauty of their 
 covering. All the Australian species of this order 
 are peculiar, as are also those of the Scansores, 
 consisting of the parrots, paroquets, cockatoos, &c. 
 These last are very numerous in the Australian 
 woods, supplying there the place of the European 
 songsters. (P. Cunn. i. 21C.) The pheasants, 
 quails, and pigeons of the order Sallinae, are tole- 
 rably numerous; and, according to Cunningham, 
 the momitain ])heasant is a bird of song. The 
 same gentleman makes the same remark upon one 
 species of Australian magpie (i. 302), and states 
 further, that wild turkeys, of two varieties, are 
 
270 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 founil; but. tbrso nro, most probably, a npccioH of 
 bustard, anil Ik'Iihi^ to t)io order (inllii*, wbicb 
 yicldn alno Ibc ( niii or Australian conaownrv, nearly 
 i'(|ual in hi/c t<> tlu- oHtri(Ji, and rcxemblinK it in 
 nniny imiMirhuit particulani. (Cuv. viii. 2W.) Of 
 this order, Au.slralia ha8 alito wimc H|H!dcs of cur- 
 h'WH, liorouH, avoHetH, railti, <tc. (Cuv. viii. 342- 
 2194.) LoMtly, uf tbc I'almi|H!deR, there are in thin 
 re;;ion pelicuim, Imobies (ho numcruuH as to have 
 ffjven name to un inland on the N. coast), petrels, 
 p('n<;uins, ducks of a peculiar kind, and Hwans 
 M'liich realise the rant aria in terri» of the Latin 
 poet, being coul black. (Cuv. viii. 5(11-024.) it 
 remains to be observed, that the eighteen turkeys, 
 twenty-nine geese, thirty-live ducks, and eighty- 
 seven chickens, which arrived in New South VVales 
 in 1788 (Phillip, 110), have multiplied to an ex- 
 tent not surpassed by the sheep. Within the last 
 few years some of our singing birds have also been 
 transplanted to Australia, and there seems little 
 doubt that the songstcrsof Europe will before long 
 be acclimatised to the woods at the antipodes. 
 
 The reptiles of Australia are comparotivcly more 
 numerous than either the Mammalia or the Aves. 
 They consist of two or three genera of turtles; as 
 many varieties of «lli"ators; and a considerable 
 number of Ii;<ards an,^ serpents, both venomous 
 and harmless. The liuid lizard and the Coluber 
 jiorfihyriacus (crimson-sided snake) arc represented 
 as of extroordinary beauty. The seas and rivers 
 'almund in tish, many of them peculiar; and the 
 Watts' shark, tlic .sniullcst of the species at jiresent 
 known, is remarkable lor having the mouth near 
 the end of the head, instead of underneath, as in 
 other animals of this geims.' The insect tribe are 
 very numerous, but they appear to dift'er far less 
 than the other animals from those in other coun- 
 tries similarly situated. 
 
 Jiacen of Men. — If the division of the human 
 family, by Itlumenbach, into live varieties, be 
 rigorously abided by, the native of the con- 
 tinent of Australia must be classed with the 
 I'^thiopian, or negro, as a])proaching, iijion the 
 ■whole, nearer to his conformation than to that of 
 any other race. But Mr. Crawfurd (Hist. Ind. 
 Arch. i. 24) says that the ' east insular negro is a 
 distinct variety of the human species ; ' and, indeed, 
 lie has peculiarities quite suliicient to 'make his 
 classitication with the African Ethiop one of con- 
 siderable violence. ' The skui is lighter ; the 
 woolly hair grows in small tufts, and each hair has 
 a spiral twist; the forehead is higher, the nose 
 much less depressed, and the buttocks are so much 
 lower than in the African, as to form a striking 
 mark of distinction.' It is to this race, if any, 
 that the Australian must be referred; and the in- 
 habitant of the continent recedes still more from 
 the true negro, by having straight, or at all events 
 curling, hair. Capt. Cook's description of this rr.ee 
 has been verified by everj' succeeding observer. 
 ' The skin,' says he, ' is of the colour of wood soot, 
 or what is commonly called chocolate colour. 
 Their features are far from disagreeable ; their 
 noses are not flat, nor are their lips thick ; their 
 teeth are white and even, and their hair naturally 
 long and black ; it is, however, cn^iped short ; in 
 general it is straight, but sometimes it has a slight 
 curl; we saw none that was not ^ .. ted and filthy, 
 though without grease, and t' t en at astonish- 
 ment free from vermin. The. . 1 ■ • iids were of the 
 same colour with their hair, bushy and thick; 
 but they are not suffered to grow long.' (Hawkes- 
 worth, iii. G32.) The colour of the Australian does 
 not appear to be uniform ; some, even when 
 cleansed from their filth, are nearly as dark os 
 the African, while others have a tint not deeper 
 than that of the Malay. The Australian is gene- 
 
 rally tall ond slender, with little development of 
 muscle, and more remarkable for agiiiiy than 
 strength, rrichard, alter comparing the variniirt 
 authorities, descrilKJs them in the last edition of lii^ 
 great work as follows :— < The stature of tlu. Aus- 
 tralians is moderate, and often below the meaii 
 The limbs among many tribes are slender, thin 
 and in apitcarance of disproportioncd length, whilo 
 some individuals, on thccontrarj-, have them dtmit 
 and well-projiortioned. Their liair is not wooliv • 
 it is liard, very black and thi<;k ; they wear it dis- 
 hcvcUed, and in general slujrt, in frizzled niassps. 
 Their beard is of the same nature as their iiair' 
 commonly rough and tufted on the sides of tiLcir 
 face. Their countenance is tiattened, nose vcrv 
 large, with nostrils almost transversely placed 
 thick lips, mouth of disproportionate width, tectll 
 projecting but of the finest enamel. Loose circular 
 ears very amply deveh>iied, and eyes half cluscd hv 
 the laxity of their upper eyelids, give to their phv- 
 siognomy a savaj^e and repulsive aspect. Tiic 
 colour of their skin, gentrally of a smoky black, 
 varies in its hue, which is never very dec'i). i'lic 
 Australian women, still more ugly than the iiipii 
 have squalid and disgusting fon'ns; the distaiui.' 
 which separates them from tlie beau iV/c«/ appears 
 immense in the eyes of a Kurojiean. A great 
 number of families place in the septum of the mw^ 
 round sticks, from four to six inches long, which 
 give a ferocious aspect to their counteiiaiucs.' 
 (Researches into the Natural History of iMankimi, 
 i. 250, 4th ed.) Itmust be remarked^! however, that 
 the Tasmanians (inhabitants of Van Diemcn's 
 Land) are woolly headed, as are also the natives uf 
 New Caledonia, New Guinea, and the other islands 
 considered in this article as constituting Australa- 
 sia, with the single exception of New Zealand. The 
 latter, though more remote from the Polynesian 
 islaiuis than any of the others, is inhabited' by the 
 brown race of those groups which is said by Craw- 
 furd (i. 18) to have the same superiority over thoir 
 sooty neighbours that the white men of the West 
 have over the African negro. The physical dis- 
 tinction between the continental and insular Ans- 
 tralasians is otherwise very great. The continent 
 of Australia may with great propriety Ije regarded 
 as the native home of a distinct and decidedly 
 inferior variety of the human race (Crawfurd, i, 
 24), which has spread itself to a considerable dis- 
 tance N. and E. among the islands of Poi_\niesia 
 and the Indian archipelago, and even to the k ex- 
 tremity of continental Asia. That this variety is, 
 physically considered, the lowest in the .scale nl 
 rational beings, is sufliciently evident. Piuiy and 
 weak, in comparison with the African negro, the 
 Australian is hunted down, without making any 
 eftectual opposition, whenever he is encoiintercd 
 by any of his fairer neighbours ; while the African 
 is subdued only by superior intelligence, and snc- 
 cessfully resists mere physical force. As personal 
 strength is one effect of superior physical stnictnre, 
 the following results may be interesting. They arc 
 the averages deduced from the power exhibited in 
 the arms and loins of thirtv-nine Australians, fifty- 
 six Timorians, seventeen frenchmen, ami fourteen 
 Englishmen. These people were found capahle of 
 bearing respectively the following pressures :— 
 
 Strength 
 
 12 Tasmniiinns, av. 
 17 New Hollanders, av. 
 6G Tiraorinns, av. . 
 17 Frenchmen, av. 
 14 Englishmen, av. 
 
 OfArnii 
 
 or Mm in 
 
 in Kilo. 
 
 .Mjrla- 
 
 gramniei 
 
 graramw 
 
 60-0 
 
 
 M)-S 
 
 10'2 
 
 f)8-7 
 
 11-6 
 
 m-2 
 
 i.va 
 
 71-4 
 
 iti-;i 
 
 (Lawrence, 404.) The Timorians, it shouhl 1* 
 
AUSTRALASIA 
 
 271 
 
 le <lcvi'lonmont of 
 for ajiility than 
 nring lilt! variiiii* 
 liiHt edition of his 
 taturc (if tlu; Alls- 
 below tl\e mean, 
 lire Hlcmlcr, thin, 
 imp<l leiiKth, while 
 y, have, them ntcint 
 luir i« not woolly; 
 ; they wear it ilis- 
 in friz/.led masM>s, 
 turc as thi'ir liair, 
 the siili'w of tlu'ir 
 iittencd, nose very 
 •aiisverscly phicoi'l, 
 ionatc width, tcwli 
 nel. LooKU t'iri'iilar 
 eyes half dosed hy 
 SHive to their jihy- 
 ilsivc asjK'ct. 'I'hc 
 of a smoky black, 
 er very dei'ii. 'I'lie 
 Ufjly than tiie iiion, 
 fonns; the distanci' 
 i htuH iileal a\>\mm 
 i'^uropean. A j^cat 
 i) septnm of thenuMi 
 L inches lonfj, whicli 
 their countenances.' 
 ilistory of Mankind, 
 larkcdj however, that 
 I of Van Dienien's 
 re also the natives df 
 and the other islands 
 institutinfc Anstraln- 
 )f New Zealand. The 
 from the Polynesian 
 9, is inhabitcil by the 
 hich is said by Oraw- 
 Isuperiority over their 
 liite men of tiie West 
 The physical dis- 
 iital and insular Aus- 
 rcat. The continent 
 iropriety be rejinrded 
 stinct and decidedly 
 ... race (Crawfurd, i, 
 to a considerable dis- 
 ilands of Polynesia 
 md even to the S. ex- 
 That this variety is. 
 iwest in the scale uf 
 evident. Puny and 
 le African nc},To, the 
 without makiiif,' any 
 er he is encountered 
 while the African 
 intelligence, ami snc- 
 il force. As personal 
 lor physical structure. 
 interesting. They are 
 16 power exhibited ni 
 line Australians, tifty- 
 nchmen, and fourteen 
 rtcre found capable ot 
 wing pressures :— 
 
 Of Arms 
 in Kilo, 
 gramniet 
 
 Of Mm 1" i 
 Jljria- ■ 
 paromM 1 
 
 sn-G 
 
 f>8-7 
 
 10'2 
 11-6 
 
 71-4 
 
 V,-2 
 16-3 
 
 lonans, 
 
 it should Ijc 
 
 ohM'r\'od. nro of the brown rnco; and it may bo 
 wen that in stren^tli of arm they exceed the Ans- 
 tralinns more than they fall short of tlie Kiiropeans. 
 lletweeii these two, tho wmkext I'iMglish arm was 
 mure powerful than tho strongest Australian, and 
 I he most muscular of tho latter coultl bear upon his 
 loins tinl.v li"lf « myriagramine more than the 
 weakest of the former. 
 
 The Australian is not more inferior in physical 
 viL'durthaii in moral and intellectual attainments. 
 Ills is the only race with which we are acr|iiainted, 
 that has no sJirt of clothing. The Australian has 
 (|ipmesti<'ated no animals, and has no knowledge 
 (ifaicricultiire, even in its simplest form. His huts, 
 inferior hy many degrees to tlie wigwams of the 
 American IinliaiiH, are but rarely met with in the 
 warmer portions of the continent. His canix^s 
 nen'c only tti carry him across narrow creeks or 
 inlets of the sea. And these, with spears and lish- 
 hcMiks, stone hatchets, a kind of shield, and a carved 
 ivodden missile, whicli, when tlirown by a skilful 
 hand, rises with a rotatory motion in the air, 
 striking at a considerable distance, aiul rebound- 
 liic to near the thrower, form the sum total of his 
 instriinients of production, defence, and aggression. 
 The subsistence of the Australians is alike scanty 
 and lilthy, consisting of tlie He.sh of wild animals, 
 shell niui other fish, worms an<l other reptiles, ants 
 and ant eggs, wild-honey, roots and berries. And 
 the suppl.v of wild animals and of edible plants 
 liciiiK limited in the extreme, and apt occasionally 
 to siifl'er greatly from droughts, they schlom have 
 a .siitlicicncy of food, and wh(dc triiies sometimes 
 hecomc the victims of famine. The treatment of 
 females in Australia is in the last degree brutal. 
 Wives are not courted or purchased, but arc seized 
 ujion, stuiiilied by blows, ami then carried off to 
 lie the slaves of their unfeeling masters ; and 
 should a mother die with a child at the breast, it 
 is usual to burv the latter alive with its tlead 
 ]ttrent! (ColUns'N. S. Wales, App.p.GOl.) They 
 are in so far acquainted witli the right of iirojierty, 
 that each tribe claims the exclusive possession, for 
 hunting iiurjjoses, of the territory which it occu- 
 jiies. They seem, also, to believe in the existence 
 (if good and evil 8|iirits ; but they have no feeling 
 of f,Tatitude towards the former, though they eii- 
 (leavdur by superstitious observances to avert the 
 wTath of the latter. In short, this race, the last 
 and lowest of the human species, appears to be as 
 barbarous as can well be imagined; and in this 
 state it has hitherto existed, without apparently 
 ]io»sessuig either the power or the wish to make 
 the first step in civilisation. Hence it has been 
 concluded, that the Australians are inca])able of 
 civilisation ; and that they are essentially, and not 
 accidentally, inferior even to the lowest type of 
 the negro. But, degraded as they are, this infer- 
 ence has been denied, at least to its full extent. 
 
 Nature, it is said, has been singularly unkind to 
 the Australian, not in his conformation only, but 
 in the circumstances under which he has been 
 placed. The fertile spots fittxul for the supjily of 
 his limited wants are sei)arat(Hl by deserts as wild 
 and inhospitable as the sands of Arabia ; and to 
 pass these, he had not, like the Arab, the assist- 
 ance of patient, strong, and faithful servants of 
 the bnite creation. Few navigable rivers flow 
 'hrough his strangely constituted land ; and thus 
 Communication, the great refiner and improver of 
 mankind, Avas rendered difficult and of rare occur- 
 rence. His soil was destitute of those plants, 
 which, though 'eaten in the sweat of his brow,' 
 sre at once the incentives to and the reward of 
 man's labour; nor did it feed a single animal like 
 those which, in more favoured regions, have formed 
 from time immemorial the shepherd's occupation 
 
 and wealth. The Australian being thus abut out 
 from the two grand jiritiiitive employments, bin 
 life could l)e neither pastoral nor agricultural. 
 Under less adverse eir('innstan(a>s, tho red man 
 continued u hunter in the greater part of America, 
 during the age.s that preceded his discovery hv 
 the Kuro[)eanH. And even this resource was ail 
 but denied to the Australian ; the animals anuind 
 him being not only inferior in kind, but also re- 
 markaldy fcAV in numlier. It is farther said, that 
 even the excitement of danger, whi(!h may be su|)- 
 jio.sed to have roii.sed the African to e.xertion, l>y 
 making his life a constant struggle with the fierce 
 and powerful tenants of the woods, was wanting 
 here ; for in Australia there was nothing dangerous, 
 except some noxious rcjitiles, whicli do not, how- 
 t^ver, appear to have any very fatal jiowers. The 
 Australian had nothing but hunger to contend 
 with; and this he endeavoured, as already .seen, 
 to appea.s(> by jiicking up the spontaneous prodm-ts 
 of his ungrateful soil, and the shell-fish found on 
 the sea-shore, with insects and reptiles; to which 
 he occasionally added a kangaroo or bird, over- 
 taken or destroyed bv accident. And Mitch(;ll 
 nenfions, that such is the scarcity of the latter 
 kind of food, that young men are forbidden to eat 
 it. (ii. itltt.) The surmise of (Jook, that it was 
 impossible for the inland country to subsist inha- 
 bitants at all seasons (Hawkesworth, iii. (iUI), was 
 found bv Sturt to be fatally verified in the dry 
 year(jf iML>8. (i. 137.) 
 
 lUtt the adverse circumstancer now alluded to, 
 do not, as some sup|)ose, fully account for the bar- 
 barous condition of the aborigines of Australia. 
 The stupidity of his nature, and the inertness of 
 his faculties, are evinced by his having made few 
 or no efforts to increa.se his supply of food, or to 
 obviate those incessantly recurring attacks of fa- 
 iniiie to which be has always been exposed. His 
 want of other things should have made him an 
 e.\]iert hunter and fisher of such animals as are 
 native to his country and its seas: luit he is 
 neither the one nor the other; and though it be 
 perhaps going too far to say tliat the Australian 
 is iiica)>able of civilisation, the fair presumption 
 .seems to be, that he is destined to remain for ever 
 at the bottom of the social scale ; and to be in- 
 ferior ill point of comfort, as he lias hitherto hardly 
 been superior in contrivance, to many of the lower 
 animals. 
 
 It has been supposed, apparently with much 
 probability, that the increase of wild cattle will 
 materially improve both the comforts and the 
 character of the natives ; but at present it is not 
 
 {lossible to imagine a closer approximation to the 
 east intelligent of the brutes, than the Austra- 
 lians. And yet this barbarous and degraded race 
 has had its admirers. According to Count Strze- 
 lecki, the Australian would seem to have attained 
 to the summit of human felicity, and he apiiear.s 
 to regret that the immigration of Europeans 
 ' should have disturbed liis liapjiy economy.' 
 (p. S48.) To comment on such a statement, would 
 be about as absurd as the statement it.self. It 
 would be a libel on Providence, to 8U])pose that it 
 was intended that this extensive portion of tho 
 earth should be for ever occupied by a handful of 
 naked savages, without arts, science, industry, or 
 civilisation of any kind. Some of the Europeans 
 who have visited Australia, have not certainly 
 been very favourable specimens of civilised man. 
 Hut desiiite their crimes and their vices, they 
 carried with them science, talent, and enterprise, 
 with the germs and the capability of rapid and 
 unlimited improvement ; and we are bold to say, 
 that the least and worst of tiie .settlements founded 
 in this vast continent, has a thousand times more 
 
 
272 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 or nil thnt (1i(:ni>1<'At cxaltn, and adorns humnnity, 
 thnii ever was iM)M8e88ed by its entire aboriginal 
 impulntion. 
 
 Uktitry and Discovery. — Some accidental dis- 
 coveries were made by the Spaniards as early as 
 1(')2(!; but the tlrst accurate knowledge that was 
 jcaine<l in Euroi>e of these S. lands, was by the 
 voyage of the Dutch yacht Duyfhcn, which, in 
 KiiW, explored a part oi" the coasts of NcwUuinca. 
 In the following year, Torres, a Spaniard, having 
 
 {)assed tlirougli the straits, which Ijenr his name, 
 >etween that island and continental Australia, 
 gave the first account of the N. part of the latter. 
 The Dutch continued to be the chief discoverers 
 for the next forty years, chiefly from their ]>os- 
 sessions in the E. Indies ; ond between the years 
 Ifi-I'i and 1044, Tasman completed the discovery 
 of a large portion of the Australian coast, to- 
 gether with part of the island of Van Diemen's 
 Land, now |)retty generally, anil we think pro- 
 perly, called Tamiiania, During the period referred 
 to, the Dutch navigators succeeded in surveying 
 nlsiut half the continental coast Hue ; and the 
 names bestowed upon various parts of the land, 
 ns (Carpentaria, De Wit's Land, Arnhcim's Land, 
 Kndincht's Land, Nuyt's Land, Lcuwen's Land, 
 Kdel's Land, ifrc, commemorate the names cither 
 of the discoverers themselves, or of the ships in 
 which they saihul. It was late before the English 
 entered on the career of discovery : but once en- 
 tered, they prosecuted it with vigour. Dam))ier, 
 !)etwcen i(')N4 and W.W, exjdored a part of the 
 W. and N\V, coasts ; and in the remaining jiart 
 of the 17th century, ocmipleted this survev, gove 
 his name to the archipelago lying E. of' N. W. 
 Cape, and ])uslied his eiujuirics to the islands of 
 >iew Guinea, New liritain, and New Ireland ; the 
 straits between the first two being called by his 
 name. The account which Dampier gives of the 
 native inhabitants of Australia, being gra|diical, 
 and, in most respects, accurate, will be read with 
 interest. ' The inhabitants of this country,' says 
 he, ' are the miserablest people in the world. The 
 Hodmadods of Monomotapa, though a nasty 
 IKjople, yet for wealth are gentlemen to these; who 
 littve no houses and skin garments, sheep, poultry, 
 and fruits of the earth, ostrich-eggs, Ac, as the 
 Hodmadods have; and setting aside their human 
 shape, they differ but little from brutes. They 
 are tall, straight-bodied, and thin, with small long 
 limbs. They have great heads, round foreheads, and 
 great brows. The eyelids are always half closed, 
 to keep the flies out of their eyes. . . . They have 
 great bottle noses, pretty full lips, and wide 
 mouths. The two fore-teeth of their upper jaw are 
 wanting in all of them, men and women, old and 
 young; whether they draw them out I know not; 
 neither have they any beards. They are long- 
 visaged, and of a very unpleasing aspect, having 
 no one graceful feature in their faces. Their hair 
 is black, short, and curled, like that of the negroes, 
 and not long and lank, like that of the common 
 Indians. The colour of their skins, both of their 
 faces and the rest of their body, is coal black, like 
 that of the negroes of Guinea. They have no 
 sort of clothes, but a piece of the rind of a tree 
 tied like a girdle about their waists, and a handfiil 
 of long grass, or three or four small green boughs 
 full of leaves, thnist underneath their girdle to 
 cover their nakedness. They have no houses, but 
 lie m the open air without any covering, the earth 
 being their bed, and the heaven their canopy.' 
 (Dampier's Voyagts, ii. 404, ed, 1729.) Between 
 1703 and 1700, Wallis and Carteret followed in 
 the track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries 
 those of New Hanover and other islands. These 
 were followed by Cook, who in 1770 discovered 
 
 and traced the whole E. coast of eontinentnl Auv 
 tralin, fVom Cape Howe at its S. to Cape Yorke at 
 its N. extremity. In the same vovage this frtem 
 navigator discovered the island of Kew Caltilonia 
 and did more, in fact, for Australian diNcuvi n' 
 than had been done by all the navigarors liv 
 whom he had l)een preceded. In this briel' notice 
 the name of liligh should not be forgotten, wlm, 
 after the mutiny of the Bounty, in 17«!», tlniii);|| 
 in an open boat, and devoid of almost every news- 
 sar>', carried on a scries of ol)servations* on tho 
 N 1'!. coast, which added considerably to the Kcnernl 
 stock of knowledge. A colony having Im'cii ontu- 
 blished at Sydney in the previous year, intcnial 
 and coasting expeditions were simultanemislv sci 
 on foot for exploring the new land which limi y. 
 come the residence of Englishmen. It niiiy lie 
 obser%'e(l that, previously to this, France eiitcml 
 on the task of southern discovery, Imt witli ikp 
 great success ; Navigators' Islands, and the 
 Loui.siades, explored by Bougainville, iM'twocn 
 1708 and 1770, being the most ini|s>rtant mlili- 
 tions her otHcers had then made to the maps of 
 this division of the world. Edwards, in I7i)i, 
 liligh (second time), Portlock, in 17!ii', nnd 
 Bampton and Alt, in 171)3, nearly com|ilft(.'ii tiid 
 knowledge of Torres' Straits and a great piirt nf 
 the N. coast ; but the greatest discoverers, towanU 
 the end of last century, were Bass and Fliniicri, 
 who surveyed a great extent of coast, mostly in 
 open boats. In 17!t8 they sailed thn)ii),')i"ilie 
 strait between Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, 
 and the continent. In the last year of the ixth 
 century. Grant exjilored a portion of the 8. mai't, 
 which bears his name ; and, in the five fdilowin;; 
 years, Flinders completed a survey of tlic S, ami 
 E. coasts, and of the Gulf of Carjicntarin, wliidi 
 may be regarded as nearly perfect. In tlie same 
 years, Baudin's expedition was employed on the 
 same coast and Van Diemen's Land, the Frciicii and 
 English commanders having met in Encounter Hay, 
 so named in consequence of that event. Cajitaiiis 
 King, Stokes, and Fitzroy surveyed the cdasts 
 in 1821-2; Major Mitchell (afterwards Sir Tlioma'<) 
 followed in 1835-0; Lieutenants Grey and Lush- 
 iiigton examined Western Australia in 1837-40; 
 Captains Wickham and Fitzroy made extensive 
 surveys from 1837 to 1843; and Sir Thomas Mit- 
 chell made another expedition to the X. coast 
 and the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria in 
 1854-5. The subsequent 8ur^'ey8 and explora- 
 tions were chiefly inland, and have been already 
 noticed. 
 
 Extent and Popvlation,—KccoT(&ng to official 
 returns of the year 1804, the area and population 
 of Australasia, at that period, was as follows :— 
 
 SUtM 
 
 Eng. iq. mtln 
 
 Fopultlion 
 
 New South Wales . 
 
 323,437 
 
 307,495 
 
 Victoria .... 
 
 86,831 
 
 673,941 
 
 South Australia . 
 
 383,328 
 
 13r),:)'i9 
 
 Western Australia . 
 
 978,000 
 
 17,246 
 
 Tasmania .... 
 
 26,216 
 
 90,728 
 
 Nev Zealand . 
 
 106,259 
 
 10C,;)lo 
 
 Queen&I.-nd 
 
 Total for Australasia . 
 
 678,000 
 
 45,077 
 
 2,582,070 
 
 1,330,131 
 
 The native population, in 1804, was vcrj' small 
 in -lumbers, and fast dying out. The white popu- 
 lation, on the other hand, is rapidly increasinjf. 
 
 Britkh Settlements in Austndasia.-^Tha oldest 
 of British colonies was founded in 1788 at Sydney, 
 on the E. coast of Australia, in the vast tract dis- 
 covered by Captain Cook, and known by the name 
 of New South VVales. The island of Tasmania, «r 
 Van Diemen's Laud, was next occupied, but not 
 
r eontlnental Anii. 
 . to Cap« Ycirke at 
 
 vovaRC thin ((real 
 of Kew CRlttldnia, 
 BtraliandiHcovtrj', 
 the navi^HtiirK liy 
 In thw brief iintiJe 
 ; be forfjottMi, wlui, 
 ty, in l7Wt, tlidiinh 
 ihnost every ncws- 
 l)scrvatum.s ini ihp 
 r«l>ly to tlie ncnernl 
 r having been csta- 
 vioiw yeiir, intmial 
 
 Himnltaneously set 
 land Avhich limi Ik'- 
 hmc'ii. It niiiy lie 
 liiH, France eutcrcd 
 overy, luit witli lui 
 
 Ittlunds and tlic 
 igninviUc, iK'lwoon 
 Dst. iin|i(irtant nddi- 
 iftdc to tlic maps df 
 
 Kdwards, in IV'.ll, 
 ock, in I'll-.*, ami 
 early comiiU'tcd tlic 
 Rud a preat |iart nf 
 ; discoverers, tcjuards 
 I Uass antl Flimlcrs, 
 I of coast, mostly in 
 
 Bailed tbnmuli llie 
 Van Diemen's Land, 
 ast year of the ixth 
 >rtioh of the S. cuast. 
 in the five ftdlnwin;; 
 survey of the S. and 
 of Carjientarin, wliiih 
 )erfect. In the same 
 vas employed im the 
 1 Land, thcFrcncli ami 
 met in Encounter Itay, 
 [that event. Captains 
 
 surveyed the cciasts 
 fterwardaSirTh(imas) 
 
 ants Grey and Lusli- 
 
 L\istralia in 1H37-4U; 
 
 zrov made extensive 
 
 and Sir Thomas Mit- 
 
 tion to the N. coast 
 of Carpentaria in 
 
 !u^^•ey8 and cxploro- 
 
 id have been already 
 
 -According to official 
 
 e area and population 
 
 I, waB as follows :— 
 
 ig.iq. mllM PopulaUon 
 
 323,437 
 
 367,495 
 
 86,831 
 
 673,941 
 
 383,328 
 
 135,:K9 
 
 978,000 
 
 17,246 
 
 26,216 
 
 90,728 
 
 10(!,259 
 
 106,;il.i 
 
 678,000 
 
 48,077 
 
 ,582,070 
 
 1,336,131 
 
 18G4, was very small 
 out. The white popu- 
 rapidly incrcaamp. 
 ,<m/a«a.-Tl.c oldest 
 led in 1788 at Sydney, 
 , in the va.st tract (U^ 
 id known by the name 
 
 Island of Tasmania, 
 >xt occupied, hut nut 
 
 AUSTRALASIA 
 
 till 18flS. And at still later pcricMls we estn- 
 Idishcd the colonics of Victoria and South Aiis- 
 tralin, "H the S. coast of the continent, and Swnn 
 l.'ivor on its VV. shores. We have also numerous 
 jHllemcnts in New Zealand. 
 
 Tlif colonies in N. S. Wales and Van Diemen's 
 Land were originally intended principally for 
 piiiai settlements; and their jirogrrss was, in con- 
 sequence, retarded by the vicious chararter of the 
 iMipnlntion, and by the comparative scarcity of 
 fcniah'S. Ihit des])ite these adverse circumstances, 
 llipv liave continued ra|iidly to increase in wealth 
 ami pfipulation. This has been principally a con- 
 spiiuciu'c of the suitableness of the country to 
 ihi- growth of sheep, and of the unprecedented 
 iniTcase in the exports of wool ; but it is also 
 (jwin^, tiiough to a less extent, to the discovery of 
 
 ffM. 
 
 I^niiffrat'fn to the Australian colonies holds out 
 varidus advantages to the industrious and eiiter- 
 iirisinir emigrant ; though it must at the same time 
 lie slated that these are, partially at least, coun- 
 iirlialnii('e<l by certain disadvantages. Amongst 
 the tiiriner may be mentioned the fact of there 
 licing. almost invariably, a pretty brisk demand 
 tor additional labour; wages, previously to the 
 I'idd discoveries, though not extravagant, were 
 lii£;h : ]irovisions, except in seasons of drought, 
 which ilo not often occur, are abundant and rca- 
 sonahlc in price; and, above all, the climate is 
 mild, healthy, and well suited to European con- 
 stitntions, and the country is remarkably free from 
 all varieties of dangerous and offensive animals. 
 The principal drawbacks are, the immense dis- 
 tance from Kurope, and the consequent cost of the 
 viivafre, with the general inferiority of the land. 
 
 Aniung the other drawbacks incident to emi- 
 gration tliitlier may be mentioned the fact, that 
 conveyances of land by one individual to another 
 arc framed in all the Australian states, except 
 South Australia, on the model of those of Eng- 
 land. Apart from the extraordinary attraction of 
 the pold-lields, the greater mildness' and salubrity 
 (if the climate is the principal, or rather, perhaps, 
 the only, recommendation in favour of emigrating 
 to Australia rather than to Canada or the United 
 States. 
 
 Ciimmercial Intercmirsemth Great Britain. — The 
 imports of Australian products into (Jrcat Britain 
 made a very decided progress during the ten years 
 from Wii to 18(14. Thus in 18.55 thev were valued 
 at 4..i0n.200/. ; in 1856 at 5,736,043/.; in 1857 at 
 5,9'2,V!()o/. ; in 18.58 at .5,291.287/.; in 1859 at 
 u.i<;i4,G41/.; in 1860 at 6,469,243/.; in 1861 at 
 (U101.487/. ; m 1862 at 7,109,809/.; in 1863 at 
 ;.16n,fi6G/.; and in 1864 at 10,039,329/. The ex- 
 ports from the Australias made a great stride in 
 the j'ear 1864, every settlement participating in 
 the advance. Thus the value of the exports from 
 Western Australia in 1864 was 71,408/., against 
 C(M181Un 18ti3; from South Australia, 1,203,131/., 
 apainst 1,097,795/. in 1863; from Victoria, 
 4.043,813/., against 2,681.2.39/.; from New South 
 Wales, 2,809,915/., against 1,966,948/. in 1863; 
 from Queensland, 344,362/., against 253,201/. in 
 18G3; from Tasmania, 464,293/., against 360,405/. 
 in 1863; and from New Zealand, 1,102,407/., 
 against 740,397/. in 1863. Thirty years before — 
 in 1835 — the exports from the Australias were 
 valued at less than 1,000,000/. per annum; while 
 in 18C4 they exceeded 10,000,000/. annually; and 
 yet the work of Australian colonization has little 
 more than commenced at present. 
 
 Fom of Government. — The form in which the 
 
 Iffiislative and executive authority is exercised 
 
 (lifTers, to some extent, in the various states of 
 
 Australasia, though the main features are the same. 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
 AUSTRALIA (SOUTH) 
 
 273 
 
 The first charter for the Australasian colonies was 
 issued in 1H5I, by the liritiMi act of the previons 
 year, the l.'l ft 14 Vict. c. .59, combined with the 
 5 it 6 Vict. c. 76. The executive power was then 
 vested in an executive council, usually consisting 
 of the governor, the commander of the troops, tbn 
 cohdiial secretary, the attorney and solicitorgeneral, 
 and one or two more functionaries. The legisla- 
 tive councils, in which the legislative power was 
 vested, consisted of meml>ers partly elected and 
 partly nominat<-<l by the ("rown. The electeil 
 members represented counties, cities, and districts ; 
 the right of election being given to natural born 
 or naturalised male subjects of the thrown having 
 freehold estates of the nett value of ItlO/., or lease- 
 hohl estates of the annual value of 10/., or occupy- 
 ing houses of the annual value of 10/., ot holding 
 licenses to depasture lands. Provision was mmlo 
 for varying the limits of electoral districts, and 
 for increasing their number and the number of 
 ele(!ted members ; but with and under the condi- 
 tion that when two such niemi)ers w«'rc added, 
 another member might be named by her Majesty, 
 so that one third jiart of the additional members 
 alwavs consisted of nominees. The goveniors and 
 legislative councils were empowered to make laws, 
 provided they be not re])ugnnnt to the law of 
 England, or interfered with the rights of the ( 'rowu 
 to the lands iielonging to it within the colonies, or 
 to the revenue accruing from the same. 
 
 These arrangements, which had obviously been 
 formed on the model of the English constitution, 
 underwent subsequent alterations, in a democratic 
 sense, in several of the more tlourishing states of 
 Australasia. An account of the constitutional 
 form of each government must therefore be left to 
 fall in with the more detailed sketch of the seven 
 states into which the commonwealth at the Dritish 
 antipodes is divided. (See 'Australia, South,' 
 * Australia, Western,' ' New South Wales,' ' (Jueens- 
 land,' and 'Victoria,' ftdlowing this article, as form- 
 ing a portion of the great continent of Australia ; 
 and 'Van Diemen's Land,' recently called Tas- 
 mania, and ' Zealand, New,' given in separate ar- 
 ticles, as not belonging to Australia Pro{)er, but to 
 Australasia.) 
 
 AUSTHALIA. — The continental part of Austral- 
 asia is divided into five different states, namely, 
 South Australia, Western Australia, New South 
 Wales, Queensland, and Victoria. We treat these, 
 adopting the plan laid down in the first edition of 
 this work, in the followuig order : — 
 
 1. Australia (South) ; 
 
 2. Australia (Western) ; 
 
 3. Queensland; 
 
 4. New South VVales ; 
 
 5. Victoria. 
 
 I. AUSTRALIA (SOUTH), the name given to 
 that portion of the great Australian continent 
 comprised between the 132n(l and 14lst degs, of 
 E. long., and extending from the sea N. to lat. 
 26° S., having E. the region watered by the Murray 
 and its tributaries, and the colony of Victoria. 
 Area, according to the returns of the colonial go- 
 vernment, 383,328 Engl. sq. miles. Pop. 135,329, 
 in 1862, of whom 69,608 males, and 65,721 females. 
 South Australia was first colonised in 1836 by emi- 
 grants from Great Britain, sent out under the aus- 
 pices of a company called the South Australian 
 Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained 
 a grant from the Imperial Government of the lands 
 of this colony. The conditions were that the land 
 should not be sold at less than 1/. per acre; that 
 the revenue arising from the sale of such lands 
 should be appropriated to the emigration of agri- 
 cultural labourers ; that the control of the com- 
 pany's affairs should be vested in a body of commis- 
 
 T 
 
 ■^\M 
 
274 AUSTRALIA (SOUTH) 
 
 Bloncre approved by the BPCTotnrj' of HtnJc for the 
 colnnipH, anil that the f;ovcriior of tho colony 
 Rlumld bp noiniimtpd by the (^rown. 
 
 Tlip r(dniiy ih IxiuiuUmI on tho north by Cpntrnl 
 North AiiHtrnlin, and on the Houth by tiic ocean. 
 It JH HiU m. in leiifTth along the eaHterii boundary, 
 and 417 along the wcMtcrn boinulnry, and M'J ni 
 breadth. 
 
 Tlie coast of S. AiiNtralia in more indented than 
 that of any otiier part of the continent : SpenccrV 
 Gulf, which stretches inwards in a XN'K. direction 
 for about 2(10 m,, is separated from St. Vincent's 
 (Julf, lying mfire to the K. by Yorke peninsula. 
 Opposite the latter and the (iulf of St. Viiu-eiit is 
 Kangaroo Island, about KK) m. in length from VV. 
 to K„ and 'M m. in its greatest breadth. This 
 island, which is said to contain several fertile, 
 grassy, and well-wooded tracts, has on its N. side 
 the harbour of Ne|)enn and the settlement of 
 Kingscote; but hitherto few portions of it have 
 been o(TUpied. Most part of the settled land in 
 th(( colony lies ou the K. side of the (iulf of St. 
 Vincent, In which direction, also, is the greater 
 portion of the ex|(lored territory. Several parallel 
 mountain or hill ranges traverse this j)art of the 
 coiuitrv from S. to N,, but none of them is of any 
 greatclevation : Mt. Hryaut,ai)parently the highest 
 peak, reaching to only ;(,((l'2 ft. above ( he sea. The 
 surface is mostly imdulating and abounds in ' park- 
 like scenery,' interspersed with scattered woods or 
 scrub. The hills are moderately steep, and their 
 Bides covered with forests of gum-trees (ein'ah/pii), 
 casuarinas or she-oak, pines, various kinds of 
 acacias, &c., or with a sward aft'ording extensive 
 pasturage; but their summits are uniformlj' bare. 
 and exhibit fonnations of granite, gneiss, mica, 
 quartz, clay-slate, sandstone, and many varieties 
 of limestone. Some of these rocks have been found 
 to contain prolilic veins of valuable minerals ; and 
 mining has, in consequence, becomo a very impor- 
 tant branch of industry. South Australia has no 
 great river, except the Murray, which, however, 
 as already seen, is of the highest im|)ortance. 
 Unluckily the entrant* to it is obstructed by a 
 bar, which jjrevents the access of any but small 
 vessels from the sea into Lake Alexandrina at its 
 mouth. But a tram-road, that will probably be 
 replaced by a caiuil, has been already constructed 
 from where the Murray ceases to be navigable to 
 I'ort Kliott, on the NE. coast of Encounter Hay, 
 lat. 35° ;)2' Ah" S., long. 138° 43' 15" E. ; and the 
 navigation and trade of which the Murray is no 
 doubt tiestined to be the channel, will eventually 
 render this an important entrepot. In ad<lition to 
 Lake Alexandrina and that of Albert connected 
 
 ■with it, this territory comprises the large and 
 mostly unexph)red Lake 'loiTens, and a great 
 number of ponds and creeks. It is also watered 
 by numerous small rivers, along the banks of which 
 there is commonly a rich alluvial soil: one of 
 these, the Torrens, on which Adelaide, the cap. of 
 the colony, is situated, loses itself in a marsh before 
 reaching the sea. It is stated that where water is 
 not abundant on the surface, it maj' generally be 
 obtained by sinking wells from 20 to 100 ft. in 
 depth. Between May and October, SW. winds 
 chicflj' prevail, and are accompanied by showers : 
 these are, however, less heavy than in \V. Aus- 
 tralin or Van Dienien's Land, and the mean annual 
 fall of rain at Adelaide, during the live years 
 ending with 1843, was found to be only 19*9 
 inches, being considerably less than in either New 
 South Wales or Phillipsland ; but evaporation is 
 much less rapid than in the former of these regions. 
 The annual temperatiu-e is a good deal higher than 
 in England, and more analogous to that of some 
 parts of Italy. The thermometer ranges from 
 
 alwnt 87° to 115° Falir., and ico as thick m a 
 shilling is rare in the winter months. In summer 
 that is, in .January, February, and March, n \v![ 
 and oppressive wind occasionally sets in from i|ii' 
 N., which, however, is soon followed by a n«i\ 
 breeze from the S. It is said that no drou<r|it Iuh 
 (KHUirred in the colony since its settlement, Tlu' 
 atmosphere! is, in general, remarkably clcnr an(| 
 sniubrious. Mr. Wilkinson states, that with emi- 
 grants establishing themselves in the country, 'a 
 house to live in is a secondary consideratid'n on 
 account of the healthiness and geniality of tlie iiir 
 and climate, which enables persons to <lo thiiifjH 
 there that would consign them to a bed of sickneM 
 in ICugland. Thus it is common to sleep for niijlm 
 togetlier in tho open air, without any injury td 
 health ; and on first entering on a country lii'c, a 
 tent or such-like slight covering is coiisiilcrcil 
 amply sutlicient for all wants till the emigrant 
 has ploughed, sown, and fenced his land.' (S. Aus- 
 tralia, p. 02.) Storms sonu'times occur, and earlh- 
 (puvkes have been felt, but the latter have iint heiii 
 l)roductive of damage. Dysentery and iutliicnza 
 are the oidy e|)idenii(; diseases, and the fdrmcr is 
 said to have become rarer than at the first ,<eiili.. 
 ment of the colony. Ophthalmia apfM'nrs to lie 
 less fri'queut than on the E. side of the contiiieiit; 
 Mr. Wilkinson says it is produced by a small tlv, 
 which at certain seasons infests the coimtrj-. 
 
 It has been stated that of the country li. of St, 
 Vincent's (Julf about a third part is a'dajiteil f»r 
 agriculture or grazing, that another third is 
 covered with scrub or forest, and that the re- 
 maining third is barren. 
 
 The most extensive grazing tracts lie X. of 
 Adelaide : in that direction is a good deal of level 
 land, watered by the (lawler, Broughton, Wake- 
 lield, ami other rivers, which terminate nlioiit 
 1 00 m. from the capital in a chain of grassy ddwiis. 
 E. and S. of Adelaide the country is more limkeii, 
 but there are many fertile valleys, and the hill 
 slopes are well adapted for pasture. Alonf; tlie 
 shores of Ivake Alexandrina and the banks of fiie 
 Murray, for 100 m. from the lake, arc some f;o<"l 
 sheep and cattle runs, with strips of rich alluvial 
 land. Many valuable tracts border the coatt fmni 
 Encounter Bay to the Glenelg river on the froulier 
 of Phillipsland. Yorke and Eyre peninmlns, w\ 
 either si(le of S|)encer's Gulf, appear to be much 
 less fertile than the other explored portions of the 
 colony : the latter has the harbour of Port Lin- 
 coln, and some good grazing tracts, but the 
 greater part of it is said by Mr. E>Te to l)C 
 ' barren, arid, and worthless.' Its table land is 
 generally about 1,300 ft. in elevation. 
 
 The land in S. Australia is sold in smaller lots 
 than in N. S. Wales ; tracts of various sizes bciiij,' 
 disposed of at the government quarterly sales, 
 the minimum upset price being here, as elsewhere. 
 tixcd at the rate of 1/. per acre. From 1885 to 
 1852 inclusive there were sold 790,077 acres, at 
 an average price of about 1/. per acre. During 
 18(52 the area of land sold by the Crown wa.s 
 129,910 acres, which realised 152,(!59/., asainst 
 147,355 acres, and for which 189,015/. was paid 
 into the Treasury in 18()i. From 1835 to the 
 close of 1802 the total extent of land alienated 
 from the Crown was 2,610,315 acres, or upwards 
 of 4,400 sq. m. (giving upwards of G2 acres to 
 each male over fourteen years of age), v/hich 
 realised 3,150,210/. (Report -^f Governor Sir D. 
 Daly, dated Adelaide, Sc...;, i;), i862.) Lands are 
 divided into the three cl«.:.ots, of town, suburban. 
 and country lots : the intended sales are notitied 
 by proclamation at least three months before sale; 
 and on purchase a deposit of 10 per cent, is r^ 
 quiretl to be paid immediately, and the remainder 
 
 I* 
 
AUSTRALIA (SOUTH) 
 
 275 
 
 tracts lie N. 4 
 frood ileal (if level 
 koufihtdii, Wake- 
 tiTminate nl«)ut 
 in of {grassy (Ihwiis. 
 rv is tnoreliriiken. 
 [leys, and tlic hill 
 sture. Alonj! the 
 I the banks of the 
 le, arc some khjhI 
 ps of ricli alluviiil 
 ■der the coait fnmi 
 ver on the frontier 
 fTd [leninmlas, w\ 
 ipcar to be miuh 
 red portions of the 
 miT of port Lin- 
 tracts, but the 
 Mr. Km to k 
 Its table land is 
 ■ation. 
 
 lid in smaller lots 
 k'arious sizes beiii),' 
 at quarterly sales, 
 here, a3 elsewhere. 
 ;re. From 1H35 to 
 790,077 acres, at 
 per acre. During 
 y the Crown was 
 15-2.(>r)9/., auainst 
 189,015/. was ;«iul 
 T"rom l«3r) to the 
 of land alienated 
 acres, or iipwanls 
 rds of 6-2 acres to 
 I of age), which 
 Governor Sir 1). 
 1 1862.) Lands are 
 of town, suburlmn, 
 sales are notihed 
 .jonths before sale: 
 1 10 per cent, is re- 
 and the remainder 
 
 within a month. Conntry lotd put up and not bid 
 lor mflV l)e claimed by a purchaser without cora- 
 iiclitioii; «nd persons may apply for 'i}0,0<H) acres 
 without competition, the i)rice, liowcver, not to Iw 
 l(.^!i than the minimum of 2(»*. an acre. The deeds 
 of purchase contain a (jrnntof all above and l>elow 
 the soil: the j{oveniment reserves no rif^bt to the 
 minerals that may Ik; discovered, or to make roads 
 ncniss the proiHsrty ; its only claim is to (lu* soa- 
 coant within lOO ft. of hi^jh-water mark. A tract 
 i,f 11,(1(10 sq. m. has Im'ou leaseil for pastoral pur- 
 imsw for fourteen years from the 1st July, 1«51, 
 anil 1,1 1'^ ••'•• under" leases annually renewed. 
 
 The value of the exjiorts of bread stiift's and 
 irrain nnmuuted to Chl.'l,'-' 1 1 /. in 1802. The returns 
 show that 2,105,877 acres of land were encdosed 
 at the end of 1802. The average cost of enidosure, 
 I am informed, may be stated at 70/. jicr mile. 
 The area of land uiiilcr cultivation was 49l,.')ll 
 acres in 1802, against 48(!,007 acres in 1801. Tbc 
 main cmiw cultivated were, wheat, barley, oats, 
 maize, and hay. The wheat crop extended over 
 ;t'j(l,l()0 acres "in 1802, giving .3,841,824 bushels, 
 or an average produce of 12 bushels to the acre, 
 while it covered 310,0;i0 acres in 1801, yielding 
 n.llO.'.IO bushels, or an average produce of 10 
 liusliels and 59 llis. to the acre. The low pro- 
 duce of twelve bushels of wheat per acre is ex- 
 plained in the report of the governor, as fidlows : — 
 'The reason for the low average as to quantity per 
 acre is, that a verj' largo extent of very bad land 
 has been ploughed up ; land that could scarcelv 
 lie expected to yield a crop liefore it had been well 
 worked and manured, and which will not be done 
 while land is so much cheaper than labour. In 
 fact the least possible amount of labour is be- 
 fitiiwed uixm the land here. It is simply ploughed, 
 sown, and reaped. I know land in the ncighbour- 
 hixMl of Gawler that has been cropiied every year 
 for the last fourteen years with only one small 
 siirinkling of manure. This slovenly mode of 
 cultivation will easily account for the small pro- 
 duce in the colony. (He))ort of Govenior Sir D. 
 Daly, Sept, 19, 1862.) Good farm implements are 
 maiie at Adelaide and elsewhere ; and a Mr. Kid- 
 ley is stated to have benefited the colony, and 
 distinguished it in the annals of art and science 
 hy the invention of a machine which reaps, 
 thrashes, and winnows at the same time, at the 
 rate of nearly an acre an hour. 
 
 The country produces all the choicest fruits of 
 southern France and Italy, such as vines, olives, 
 mulbcnries, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, me- 
 lons, peaches, almonds, figs, &c., with tobacco and 
 hops. 
 
 The live stock has greatly increased in the 
 course of twentv-two years. In 1840 there were 
 959 horses, 16,"052 homed cattle, and 166,770 
 sheep, grazing on the pastoral lands of the colony; 
 at the close of 1862 there were 66,261 horses, 
 258,342 homed cattle, and .3,431,000 sheep. The 
 total area leased for depasturing purposes was 
 3l'i,901 sq. m., besides an area of 25,571 sq. m. ap- 
 plied for but not yet leased. 
 
 Commensurate with the vast increase of live 
 stock has been the produce of the wool staple, the 
 total export of which amounted at the end of 
 lffi2 to 13,229,009 lbs., representing a money 
 value of 6.35,270/. 
 
 Wild dogs, which are the great pest of the 
 colony, sometimes prove very destructive to the 
 sheep; but their numbers are rapidly diminishing. 
 The '■, Australian Company are the largest sheep 
 propnetors: several other proprietors own from 
 10.000 to 16,000, and flocks of from 4,000 to 5,000 
 are common. Of late years some large sheep-nms 
 have been leased around Rivoli Bay and other 
 
 parts of the 8. E. conut, and beyond Port Lincoln 
 in the VV. 
 
 The breeding of cattle and horses is not pursued 
 on nearly so extensive a scale as in New Snulli 
 Wales or Victoria. The breeds were originiilly 
 im|>orte<l from the Cape of Good IIo|)c and Vaii 
 Diemen's Land. Itullocks are mostly used for agri- 
 cultural labour, liefore the introduction of farm 
 sliMtk into the cohmv, the tiesh of the kangaroo uuil 
 emu formed the princiiial food of the settlers : at 
 present these animals, trom the whole.iale destruc- 
 tion to which they have Iku'U subjected, are sehlom 
 met with in the vicinity of the scitli'inciits. 
 
 In the year 181,'t, a sudden inipfliis was given to 
 the enteqirise of the colonists by the discovery of 
 valuable metallic ores in different parts of the 
 country. Such was the influence of tnisdiscoverj" 
 on the sale of land, that whereas in 184.-1 the go- 
 vernment sold only 598 acres, in |8 44 it sold 3,428 ; 
 in 184.'), 09,(1,')8; and in lK4(i, 31,.3(tl acres, realis- 
 ing as much as 75,71. '>/. to the colonial treasury'. 
 
 Lead and copper arc the principal metals. Tlio 
 former is most abundant K. and S. K. from Ade- 
 laide ^in the Glen Osmond, Wheal Gawler, Wheal 
 Watkins, &c, mines), at Mt. Heevor, and at (Jat- 
 tagolingo, close on the coast near t^'ape .lervis. 
 Copper is raised in numerous localities in the hill 
 chain between the region of the Murray and the 
 (iiilfs; also in a plain 15 m. S. of Adelaide, at 
 (Jattagoliiigo, at tbc head of St. Vincent's Gulf, 
 and W. of I'ort Lincoln. The ores are met with 
 near the surface of the ground, and some of them 
 are extremely rich. 
 
 Mineral produce has been shipped from South 
 Australia during the ten years 18.')3-02, oftlie value 
 of 3,524,641/. l)uring the first half of that iieriod 
 1,294,013/., and 2,2.30,028/,, or nearly double the 
 amount, during the latter. In 1802 the exports 
 reached to 547,019/., greater than in any preceding 
 year, and 95,447/. more than in that previous. 
 
 The following table gives the quantities of mi- 
 neral prcHluce exported in quinquennial [icriods, 
 with the average yearly shipments : — 
 
 Periods 1 Copper 
 
 Lead 
 
 C„j.p. 
 
 Lead 
 On 
 
 Rcdu- 
 lua 
 
 < Cwti 
 
 Cwu 
 
 Tom 
 
 Tom 
 
 Tom 
 
 Total In five 
 
 
 
 
 
 years, 18.')3-f)7 ^46,r>r,(\ 
 
 84 
 
 28,.'i.17 
 
 1,016 
 
 245 
 
 Do. 18SlMi2 310,889 
 
 4,707 
 
 35,133 
 
 1,295 
 
 1,441 
 
 Average of five 
 
 
 
 
 
 years, IS.I.Vf.T 29,310 
 
 7 
 
 5,711 
 
 329 
 
 49 
 
 Do. 18.')8-«2 63,378 
 
 953 
 
 7,020 
 
 259 
 
 288 
 
 In 1802, 85,872 cwt. of fine copjjer were shipped 
 against 61,047 cwt. in 1861. Of the former, 26,005 
 cwt. were sent to Great Britain ; 31,382 cwt. to 
 Melbourne, for transhipment; and 28,145 cwt, to 
 India. The greater part of the ore being now 
 smelted in the colony, the export of the crude 
 mineral in 1802 was only 6,216 tons, against 7,817 
 tons the year before. This quantity went forward 
 to England direct and by way of Melbourne in 
 about equal proportions. Of lead, only 426 cwt. 
 were shipped in 1862, against 1,256 cwt. in 1861 ; 
 but an increase appears imder the head of lead 
 ore and of regulus; of the latter 418 tons were 
 exported. 
 
 There are in Adelaide numerous flour-mills, 
 breweries, malt-houses, machine factories, and brass 
 and iron foundries ; with manufactures of barilla, 
 tobacco, soap, candles, leather, and earthenware. 
 The three great articles of export are breadstuffs, 
 wool, and minerals. The subjoined two tables ex- 
 hibit the total exports at various periotls, as well 
 as the per centage in which the staple articles 
 shared in them : — 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 AUSTRALIA (WESTERN) 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 ! I 
 
 1^' 
 
 ill 
 
 ^:jl 
 
 i^iili 
 
 Period 
 
 ToMI F.«pnrta of 
 FroalucD 
 
 A 
 
 73i,fl»a 
 
 1,744,184 
 1,920,487 
 
 n,'in:,,r,'i\ 
 
 8,1U2,(1.'>H 
 
 l,nr.i,i04 
 
 l,(!3H,l:ll 
 
 In thoycar INM . . . . 
 lHf.7 .... 
 imi'i .... 
 
 Total In flvo years, 18.'..1-/17 . 
 
 Avorngo of five ycnw, 18na-n7 . 
 iHr.8-(ia . 
 
 or the Tolkl HhlpmcnU 
 
 llrpiMl«tu(T8 fomieil.pcrci'nt. 
 
 Wool 
 
 Mliu'rnls . . „ . 
 MlKcolliiiicouHrrodiicto,, . 
 
 Atitmc, 
 
 IH.M-te 
 
 Atitiwp. 
 
 Kurthifr, 
 
 IHMUUI 
 
 IH.'iH-ll'J 
 
 ;w.:i 
 
 :iH"i 
 
 ■M-n 
 
 •2H-\ 
 
 :il-(l 
 
 11.1 -4 
 
 •.\-i-» 
 
 !i7'(l 
 
 27 "i 
 
 .;-4 
 
 •2-(i 
 
 ;i'9 
 
 The whole trade centres nt Port Adclnide ; ftnd 
 in nt pri'seiU in f^rciit part ('(irricd on liv .KJiipitini^ 
 Itelonpn^ to S. Anstriuiiui coloiUHtH. Tlu'rc imMio 
 hnrhonr diicn, toiinn/^o rates, or othi'r duties on 
 Hliippin^ in any of the ports of tliis colony. Hence 
 they are espeeinlly well fitted for the repair and 
 refitting of the xhipM engaged in the Southern 
 whale tishery. 
 
 South Australia possessed, at the end of the year 
 18(i2, ina(!adanii/e<l roads of the length of 2.')() in., 
 nil of them in an excellent state. There were also 
 57 ni. of railway, whidi, in the course of the year 
 I8(!2, carried .'iOO.MO passengers, and 187,7<!2 tons 
 of goods. The introdu(^tion of 'he railway system 
 dates from the year 18/JO, when the tirst 7 m. were 
 opened. 
 
 The revenue and exjienditure of the state in the 
 six years l«.'>8-()3, was as follows : — 
 
 Yean 
 
 Rcvonuo 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 
 £ 
 
 A 
 
 18.18 
 
 (ini..5no 
 
 f.4.'l,0'>.5 
 
 ]8.-)9 
 
 f!(!!»,«8;j 
 
 fi20,7.'i(i 
 
 ]8«0 
 
 />()4,04.") 
 
 492,(;.-,0 
 
 18«l 
 
 B.18,.'>H6 
 
 482,9.11 
 
 ]8(!2 
 
 G.')i),870 
 
 61.1,114 
 
 1803 
 
 6.31,700 
 
 63.1,205 
 
 The public debt, at the end of 18G2, amounted to 
 870,100/., at a rate of interest of six per cent. 
 
 The constitution of South Australia bears date 
 Octolier 27, 186(i. It vests the legislative power 
 in a Parliament elected by the people. The Par- 
 liament consists of a Legislative (Council and a 
 House of Assembly. The former is composed of 
 eighteen members, six of whom retire every four 
 years, their successors being then elected for twelve 
 years. The executive has no power to dissolve 
 this body. It is elected by the whole colony voting 
 as one district. The qualification of an elector to 
 the Legislative Council is as follows : — lie must be 
 twenty-one years of age, a natural-bom or natu- 
 ralised subject of her Majesty, and have been on the 
 electoral roll six months', besides having a freehold 
 of 50/. value, or a leasehold of 20/. annual value, or 
 occupying a dwelling-house of 25/. annual value. 
 The qualification for a member of council is merely 
 that he must l)e thirty years of age, a natural-born 
 or naturalised subject, and a resident in the pro- 
 vince for three years. The president of the council 
 is elected by the members. 
 
 The house of assembly consists of thirty-six 
 members, elected for three years by seventeen dis- 
 tricts, but liable to dissolution by the executive. 
 Tlie sole qualification for an elector is that of 
 having been on the electoral roll for six month.s, 
 
 and of having arrived at twcnty-ono yearn of njjc; 
 and the qiialitlcation for a nu>ndier is the fuimi'! 
 The speaker is elected for the Parliament by tlui 
 menilHTs of a new House on its first nin'tiiiK, 
 .liidges and miinsters of religion are ineligitili. f,,r 
 election as members, as well as aliens who lim. 
 not re.iided five years in (he ccdony. The flc('ti(,ii, 
 of memlK'rs of l>oth bouses are conducted hy Imilnt. 
 
 The executive is vested in a governor uppoiiiti.>| 
 bv theCrown and a n^sixinsible Kxecutive(,'oiiiicil, 
 tfio memlK'rs of whicli must have lieen eiccti.,! 
 deputies uf either of the two lluusos of Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 South Australia was erected into a colony tiynn 
 act of the llritish Parliament in IHill, when it"win 
 jirovided that no convicts sh(ndd at any \)ft\m\ \„. 
 transported to it from the mother country or else- 
 where bv tiie Itrifish (loveniment. 
 
 II. AlJSTItALIA (VVI'.STKWN) soenllodfroni 
 its being situated on the VV. side of the contiiiciit, 
 is understoo'l, in its most extensive ncfeptutiim, in 
 comprise the portion of Australia VV. of the I2iiih 
 deg. of K. long.; but in a more limited Nensc tlio 
 term is ap)died to what was formerly known iistlio 
 • Swan-river colouv,' Iving l)etween the ifJnd ainl 
 .'l.')th degs. of S. Iat.,aiid the 115th and llilthdi;'*, 
 of K. long., comprising the SVV. portion ot' ilio 
 continent, its VV. and S. coasts being washed In- 
 the Indian Ocean. The area of the state enilirnceH 
 978,(100 Kngl. sq. m., with a white population, in 
 1802, of 17,210. The m'cupied region is nhinit .'Inii 
 m. in length from N. to S., by 150 m. in nvoracfi 
 brc'adth. The aborigines are estimated at frum 
 4,000 to 5,<I00. 
 
 'J'hree parollel mountain or hill ranges run from 
 N. to S. through this colony, progressively iiicreiH- 
 ing in height from the W. coast to the intcriiir, 
 the culminating summit near King George's Soiiinl 
 is about 3,500 ft. above the sea. The Swan liiwr, 
 with its main stream the Avon, makes iti wny 
 through these ranges, and after receivinj,' the 
 Helena and Camiing widens into an estuary, which 
 unites with the ocean in lot. 32", opposite Kottiicst 
 Islands. The town of Freemantle is at its nio-ith, 
 and Perth, the cap. of the colony, about lU ni. 
 farther up. The other princip. rivs. are the Miinay, 
 Preston, Ulackwood, Denmark, and Haleigh, ail \i> 
 the S. of the Swan River, but none of them is uf 
 any very considerable magnitude. The inlets (if 
 the sea arc numerous : principal, Cockhtim Soiiinl. 
 Peel Inlet, and the bay du Oeof/ruphe on the W., 
 with Flinders' Bay and King George's Sound mi 
 the S. Cockbum Sound, though its entrance is 
 unluckily impeded by rocks, forms a sheltered ami 
 secure harbour ; and on its shore, where there is deep 
 water, the foundation has been laid of the new town 
 of Hockingham. The mouth of the Swan Kivcr is 
 the next most eligible harbour on the VV. const. 
 There are also anchorages at Peel's Inlet, Port 
 Leschenault, Augusta, &c., and in Shark's ami 
 Doubtful Island bajys beyond the limits of tlic 
 settled territory. Kmg George's Sound has all the 
 qualities of a good harbour, except that it is often 
 diflicult to leave it, owing to the prevalence of 
 strong westerly gales. All round the coasts arc 
 numerous petty inlets, lagoons, and lakes; ami 
 salt-pools and marshes are scattered over the inte- 
 rior. Much of the siuface is, notwithstanding, Imt 
 indifferently watered. From April to July a gm\ 
 deal of rain is brought by W. winds to the territorv- 
 bordering the sea: the quantity falling at Kin;; 
 George's Sound during the winter months \mn^ 
 about equal to the fall on the W. coast of En;:- 
 land; but the country 100 m. inland is much livs 
 abundantly supplied with moisture, and in the iiot 
 season, between November and Ai)ril, droughts arc 
 common. The climate is favourable to the con- 
 
yw«M of nRP; 
 ■'in tlin snmc. 
 iiiint'iit liy tin: 
 llrnt iiit't'iiiii;. 
 I! iiu'li^iltli' for 
 
 t'HH Wlll> 111 vi: 
 Till? I'ld'liclH 
 
 (•tcilliy Imlldt, 
 rnor u|i|iiiiiiti'>l 
 cutivuCiiiiiicil, 
 
 iH't'll cll'l'lisl 
 
 MM» uf I'urlia- 
 
 ft cdlony 1)y nn 
 111, wlu'ii it wilt 
 it iiiiy jicriml III! 
 country or cW- 
 
 ;) HO oiiUcil from 
 if tho pimtiiii'iit, 
 (• iu'('('iitiitiiin, In 
 VV. of till' \-M\ 
 limiti'il Hi'iisi' till' 
 ■rly known n'<tlu' 
 en" the iViiiil mv\ 
 
 1 and nsttlnli;'*. 
 [, portion lit' till- 
 iH'inu wH'ilii'il liy 
 he state cnilirni'i's 
 \U' popiilntiiin, in 
 •^ion is nlmnt 'M 
 150 m. in iivontKn 
 istimatcd at fmrn 
 
 11 rnnROs run from 
 gressivoly incrcns- 
 it to the" interior, 
 inK GeorKo's Smiiul 
 The Swan Uivi'r, 
 in, maltes its way 
 fter reeeivinn tlw 
 an estuary, which 
 r, opposite Kottncst 
 tie is at its niii'ith, 
 lony, altotit \'i ni, 
 vs.*arc ttieJIurray, 
 and RalciKli, «" i" 
 none of them is of 
 ule. The inlets nf 
 Cockbum Soiiivl, 
 (Hf raphe on the \V., 
 Ocornc's Sonitdoii 
 j^h its entrance is 
 ms a sheltereil ftwl 
 •where there is deep 
 ftidofthenewtowii 
 the Swan Hiver is 
 on the W. coart. 
 Peel's Inlet. Tort 
 d in Shark's nnil 
 the limits of the 
 A Sound has all tlie 
 !ept that it is often 
 the prevalence of 
 md the coasts arc 
 B, and lakes; ami 
 ^ered over the mto- 
 Lwithstandintf.tmt 
 Ipril to Jnlv a p"*! 
 Inds to the territory 
 Iv fallinR at Kini; 
 Inter months \m\\f. 
 \ \V. coast of I'.ni:- 
 Inland is much less 
 lure, and in the hot 
 lApril.drouf-htsare 
 Vrablc tothecon- 
 
 AUSTKALIA (WKSTKRN) 
 
 Mitiitlon of Europ<'nn.s : thnu(,'h in miminer the 
 ,li,vH are hoi, the niKlits are iiivurialdy tool. I>y- 
 Mi'iti-rv of rt '"••'' ••liiiriicter, and ophilmlniia, are 
 the ii"rinri|i«l diseases whith all'cct Kuriipeans. 
 (Iriiniti', jfneiss, and red HUndstoiie, intermixed 
 with ciav, and roollii);-slate, and limestone, are 
 ihe prevalent fjeoloKieal riK;ks; aloiiK the Hay du 
 (iniTaphe basalt is aliundaiit ; and in one locality 
 tiicre is a columnar basaltic I'orinalion similar to 
 ihe (Jinnt's Causeway. There apiwars to be a 
 (liriileillv K"'"'^''" •'"'"•'•'' "f '""' "'"' '"•'«'"'"■ '""d 
 ill this than in the other Australian colonies, 
 ,li„„jrh with manure ^'ood crops may be produced, 
 
 277 
 
 TMn 
 
 liniHiru 
 
 KipMW 
 
 
 C 
 
 e 
 
 IH.W 
 
 VJJ.'MH 
 
 44.710 
 
 IN.'.T 
 
 »»,.'..li 
 
 AD.IIIT 
 
 IK.MI 
 
 ]r>:Mi 
 
 lt:i,(i:l7 
 
 imiii 
 
 iim,ii7i 
 
 H!l.-/ltl 
 
 I Hill 
 
 II7,!MJ 
 
 I»:..7M» 
 
 IHtii 
 
 140,(103 
 
 1U,7A4 
 
 llie weight of the wheat has sometimes exceeded 
 mil), per bushel, and its (piality >,'enerally has 
 Ikcii 1'^ K<"'d as that ol S. Australia. Soil upon 
 wliicli sheep have been folded produces nt an 
 averiiKe alimit 2I» bushels un acre, but the yield 
 iiiiifht 1h> increased. 
 
 The lierbiiK''. except In the bent watered dis- 
 
 trii'ls, is scanty, and at a medium live or six acres 
 
 are requ''"'"' ''"" " "•"K'" Hheep. The stock of the 
 
 latter is now, however, rapidly increasiiit,'. In 
 
 \h:){ the cxiMtrts of wool amounted to .'t.')lt,ir):i lbs, 
 
 iif the estimated value of l(l,7tiH/. 7*. Hr/. The 
 
 iiuality of the wool is similar to that from the 
 
 «Uer colonies; butowinf,' to its beiiiK' at lirst sent 
 
 over in bad condition, it brouKlit a less price. It 
 
 iimstitutes the main article of export, and is sus- 
 
 ciptihle of an indelinite increase. (Southey on 
 
 Ci'loiiial Wools, p. « 1 .) Sandal wood promises to 
 
 liirtn avaluable article of export, Indnf,' sent to .Sin- 
 
 uaiMire and China. There is likewise an available 
 
 Mipply of ship-buiMinf? timber, which grows quite 
 
 cliisc to the sea : it is analojjous to Honduras ma- 
 
 lm);any, is of large size, resists the sea-womi, and 
 
 is not" apt to split or warp, while at the same 
 
 time it is more easily worked than any other wood 
 
 ill Australia. It has been used in the colony for 
 
 iiiiilding small vessels, and al»t> for rafters, &c., in 
 
 houses. A shipload was recently supplieil at the 
 
 liuekvard at Chatham, and was liiglily approved 
 
 uf. 'f he vine, the tig, and the olive are beginning 
 
 ti) lie cultivatal. Zaiite currants thrive as well 
 
 as the grape, but none have been produced for 
 
 iximrtation. Wine has been made tor consump- 
 
 lioii in the colony, and projects are entertained 
 
 |,ir procuring a supply ol German vine-drcssers. 
 
 Ill 1852 the value of the imports amoiiiitcd to 
 
 117,304/., whereof those from Great Uritainaimmiited 
 
 III 1)5,447/. : the value of the exjwrts in the same 
 
 vtar amounted to 1(5,671/., wool (except triHing 
 
 i|iiantitie8 of tiral)er, whale-oil, and whalebone) 
 
 Will),' almost the only article. 
 
 Cual of good quality has been traced in veins 
 III' luiisidcrablc thickness over a large surface, 
 and, it has been stated, within foiu: or live miles of 
 till! coast. At present the cost of bringing it 
 iliiwii for embarkation, in consequence of the high 
 lirice of labour, exceeds the cost of English coal ; 
 liutAvere smelting works established near the pits, 
 the reduction of the ores of S. Australia might, 
 ler'.iaps, prove a prolitable business, no coal 
 luivinj,' hitherto been found in that colony. Iron 
 lire of excellent quality is met with in large 
 i|uaiititie8, as is also zinc ; and traces of copper, 
 leail, quicksilver, &c., have been found, though no 
 luiues of these metals have been opened. A trade 
 ill gum; is commencing, their collection being en- 
 trusted to the aborigines, who dispose of them to 
 tlie Europeans at the various settlements. A 
 ^\<id^ of Phjrmium (enor, or tough Hax, is stated 
 to be amongst the indigcnoua plants wliicli might 
 1« turned to account. 
 
 The total value of the imports and exports of 
 Western Australia, in the six years from 1856 to 
 1802, is shown in the subjoined statement : — 
 
 The exports of the colony, very small in 
 amount, consist almost enlirtdy of wool and tim- 
 ber, tli(! former being of the average vahio of 
 tiO,(IIHl/. annually. The soil is believed to be rich 
 in mineral ore, principally cooper; but as yet 
 milling has not proved remunerative in Western 
 Aiistriilia. 
 
 The llrst settlements in this territory were 
 establisbeil on Swan Hiver in IMi'M; and on the 
 formation of the colony very large grants of landn 
 were made to individuals, to which cause its com- 
 parative want of progress may 1h>, in part at ItMist, 
 attributed. One settler had" a bhick of '25<i,iiii() 
 acres, and there were other grants of a similar 
 nature, so that not less than l,.'j<H),()l)U acres had 
 been appropriated previously to INIl. liabour is 
 scarce, and wages high. 'Ihe community being 
 small, they would not Iw able, fnmi want of 
 capital, suddenly to receive and employ any great 
 number of immigrants; but it is supposed that 
 from 1,5(10 to I,(i00 labourers aiiniially might be 
 jirovided for with us much advantage as in any 
 other colony. 
 
 Tor years past, immigration into the colony lias 
 been conlineil to the |>ersoiis sent out by the llri- 
 tish Government — paupers and criminals. During 
 the ten years, from Dec. HI, IM"i4, to Dec. .'U, IKliU, 
 there were introduced to Western Australia : — 
 
 Convicts 4,800 
 
 Oovoriiment immigrants, prlsonors' families, 
 pensluucrs, iic 4,8S0 
 
 Total 
 
 0,G'iO 
 
 On the other hand, there left in the same period — 
 Fr(X! emigrants, oxplrccfl, &c. . . . 4,7!)1 
 
 It thus appears that but one-half of the convicts 
 and immigrants remain in the colony. The cri- 
 minal statistics of this c(mvict ]iopulatioii appear 
 to be, however, not altogether unfavourable. With 
 a population of some K,()00 adult males, where the 
 boiui class, including expirees, outnumber the free, 
 there were only 20 cases of crime during lM(i2, of 
 such importance as to be tried before the Supremo 
 Court. Of these cases 22 were of the convict 
 class, and the majority of the crimes for which 
 they were tried were not of a very serious nature, 
 not one case of murder being among them. 
 
 Owing to the extensive grants originally made, 
 land may be obtained at a low price in thiscidoiiy. 
 In 1844, a million acres might have been pur- 
 chased at Sh, an acre. Owing to this low price, 
 the sale of land in the colony, in proportion to 
 the number of its inhabitants, w very great. 
 12,000 acres were sold in 18(12, a larger amount in 
 the two preceding years, and with a po])ulation of 
 17,000 persons, the majority of whom hold little 
 or no land ; nearly one and a half million acres 
 of land have been alienated in fee, and seven 
 millions of acres are held under lease. (Report of 
 Governor Hampton, dated l''eb, 20, 1863.) 
 
 The public revenue of Western Australia, in the 
 year 1862, amoimtcd to 69,406/., and the expendi- 
 ture to 72,267/. The government is administered 
 by a lieut.-governor appointed by the Crown, who 
 is assisted by an Executive Council comptised of 
 certain oflice-holders, nantcly, the senior olMcer in 
 
1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 «. 
 
 m 
 
 278 AUHTKALIA (QUKKNSLANI)) 
 
 commnnil of Ihc forrM, thn rnlonlnl wcrofary, tlir 
 ('iiiiiptriilh'r-Ki'iitTiil of I'oiiviftM, th<! mirv<'ytir-K<'n- 
 «'riil, lli<^ iitlortify-Ki'iifnil, mill tlii> IrriiMiirfr ami 
 riilliM-tiir III' iiitiTiml rt'vciiui', TIhtii Ih nlxo u 
 
 lil'U:iNllltivitCl>IIIICil)('IIIM|IIIWll, illC'lllllill^ til)* h'OVIT- 
 
 iiiir, III' i*lx (illii'iiil ami lour iimilltcial nii^mlHTH. 
 Thr otlU'iftl iiii'miIh'M ari! Ilii' KoviTimr, llio coiii- 
 inamliT of lli<> forci'N, tlio colonial Ncrrutary, tlm 
 Niirvi^yor-Kviierul, tlic attorMcy-Ki^iicral, ami lliti 
 iri'iiHiircr ami collcitor of iiid'nial rcvi'iiiKt. Tlu; 
 iiiiollirial int'inlMTH arc appoiiitt'il liy tliu C'ruwii,oii 
 till* rci'oiiiini'iiilalioti of tlii' i^ovi-nior. 
 
 III. (il!KKNSLANI>, tlui fonm'riy northern 
 province of New South Walen, erecteil into an 
 lmle|iemlent colony in IHi'iD. It eniliraccH the 
 iniineiiw* iliHtriet exIenilinK ahm^ the K, coiiMt of 
 Aiixtralia, lietween the Iroiiie of Capriconi ('i.'IJ) 
 ami (he .'loth tU'H, H. lat. Hut the occuiiieil |Hir- 
 tion of the territory extemlM only lietween the 
 'Jtlth anil Hildi ileKk'C!*- 'I'"' colony coniiiriiH'it 
 the whole norlh-ea.tlern |M)rtion of tho AiiHtru- 
 lian continent. It also inchtdeH, in the teniiN of 
 her inajv"<lv'H h-tters patent, ' all and every the 
 adjacent ii«landN, their iiienilM'rs and aiiiiurtenanceM, 
 in the I'ucillu Ocuun and in the Gull of t'ariien- 
 taria.' 
 
 It appenrH IVom thn statlMiual register of 
 f^ieen«laml for IWJI, that the mir\eyor-Kener«l 
 has made a careful calculation of the |irencut area 
 of the colony ; and tho rctiult in, in round nunibcrM, 
 m follown : — 
 
 AllEA OK QUKKXBLAND. 
 
 Ettdt Of lopRltiuIo 141° 
 Uctwooii 141" Mid lab" 
 
 Sqiurp mlln 
 
 fillO.IIIH) 
 UH.IilHI 
 
 Total .... 
 OccuriKn CoiiNTiiY. 
 Approximate area of country occupied by 
 
 «7a,u()o 
 
 pastoral stations 
 
 SquM* mllM 
 19fi,000 
 
 The vBHt territory thuH defined forme<l a part of 
 New South VValcH until it was erected into a 
 Hcparate colony, under tho name of (Queensland, 
 liy an order ol'her majewty in council, which took 
 elYect on December 10, IM.")9, upon the arrival of 
 tho lirst governor. Sir G. F. llowen. 
 
 The population amounted to 2-l,H70 on Decem- 
 lier ai, 18.")!! ; to '2!t,074 on December 31, IMtJO; 
 to :M,(Mi7 at the wame date in iHtil ; and to 45,077 
 on Decemlier 31, 1802. The increaHO of population 
 in the year ISfi'i by immij^ation from Europe 
 amounted to 8,080— namely, 4,703 maloH and 
 3,377 females; and the increa.se by immigration 
 from other colonies wa.s 1,725 — namely, 1,285 
 males and 440 femnlcH. At the end of 18(i2, the 
 population contained three males for every two 
 females ; but it is remarkable that in the course of 
 the year 18(12, though the male births were 110, 
 to every 100 females bom, the excess of births 
 over deaths gave but 387 males and as many as 
 518 females. The total increase by immigration 
 in the year 1862, from all parts, was 0,805 ; and 
 the population on December 31, 1802, was esti- 
 mated at 45,077, of whom 27,180 were males and 
 17.891 females. 
 
 The Australian Andes, a mountain chain mostly 
 from 60 to 70 m, distant from the Pocilic Ocean, 
 and separating the affluents of the Darling flow- 
 ing W. from the rivs. flowing E., have a general 
 elevation varying between 3000 and 4000 ft. ; but 
 some heights in New England are much more 
 lofty, and Mt. Lindsay, in a spur near Moreton 
 Hay, rises to 5700 ft. above the sea. Immediotely 
 on proceeding into the territory firom New South 
 Wales, the mountains are seen to assume a peaked 
 and volcanic shape ; they are mostly granitic, and 
 
 NamUtono iH-ing Iom prevalent than In the rnn. 
 round Sydney, the miil is MUjierior, Morehiii ll«\' 
 the nioNi remarkable geographical feature, i.^ ^li 
 inli'l of the iK-eaii iH-tween the i^7th and'jHili ,\,.^, 
 S. lal., and IM and 153^ degN, K. long,; it j, ,,|J 
 m, in h'ligih from N. to S., 20 ni, in wiilth, 
 Mliiddeil with islets, and Mheltered wawani lij 
 Moreton and Slradbroke islands. Its Mhiires, wliiiji 
 fonn thn CO, Stanley, are suited to the eulliiri' ,,|' 
 iHith Kuro|ioan and tropical priHlucts. I'riN'ei'dJn,' 
 from S. to N., tho principal streams tlowiiii; K. 
 through the territory are tlie Clarence, Hii Iiini,i|,i' 
 I.ogan, ItriHiiune, and VVidebay rivs., all ofM|ii,'|| 
 are navigable, but, like the streanis nearer tn ih,. 
 S., they have bars at their inouths. The Clu. 
 rence, the largest riv. in E, Australia, erii|itii"i 
 itself into shoal bay, lat. 2!»" 20' S. It is Mi\\»\ 
 to be navigable for sleambiiats of 100 tons liiinlin 
 for 80 m. alsive its bar, and througiioui iliiitiiart 
 of its course its banks consist of rich alluvial mijl, 
 well litted for agricultural |mr|Mises{ in the iiiiirr 
 |iart, it waters a line pastoral region on wlmli 
 many s<|uatters are settled ; ami near its niniiih |t 
 encloses a large island. The Itichmiimt, alHuit i:, 
 m. further N., is navigable for 50 m. frnm ilic 
 ocean. The country Ix-tweon this riv. and .Mur". 
 ton liay, a distance of 00 or 70 ni., is a contiimnui 
 forest of pines, some -f very large si/.e; ami iho 
 river Tweed towariU its centre is a gcHid ilial 
 resorted to for cedar timlier by coasting \\\\»U 
 from Sydney. Tho llrisbane, a large ami line 
 stream,' with a very circuitous course, is navi),'iit(,| 
 by steamers for 00 or 80 m. from its nioiith jn 
 Moreton IJay ; on It is lirisbano town, the ciiii. nf 
 ('(M)ksland. Widebay riv. enters the sea ut I'lirt 
 Curtis, the N. limit of the e>.'vlored regiim. Thr 
 average temp, at Moreton I'uy was found tu k 
 alKiut 58° Fah. j in Dec. of the time year it varinl 
 from 72° to 80° ; and in Ju.ie k vus alxmt 54° Fnh, 
 Nothing can exceed the ou'uority of l!ie climate 
 of this region. The travollei', it is said, nmy 
 sleep in the ' bush ' uncovered on the haregrouiul; 
 and may ford rivers, ride in *et clothes, iiinl 
 expose himself with all but perfect impunity tn 
 every variation of temperature, nicslgkiiiwn'* 
 Australia, Ac. p. 107.) Owing to tlie vicinity u! 
 the tropic, rains aro more abundant ami rc^nikr 
 tlian further H. ; and the alluvial flats alon^' the 
 sides and i "•■■ : the mouths of the rivers heiii^' uii- 
 usually fertile, the country is better titteil llif 
 agriculture tliun the central region of New .Siiith 
 Wales. The crops, olso, ore less iiijiireil liy 
 dmughts. At ])resent, wheat, salted Ijccf, wihiI, 
 skins, tallow, and pine timlu'r, arc the princi|uii 
 articles of export. According to Mr. Kent, pi- 
 vemment superintendent at Moreton liay, the 
 average produce per acre of the agricultural (lists 
 between tho Clarence and Widebay riv., is ui 
 wheat; from 20 to 30 bushels, of maize from 50 tn 
 00 do., of sweet potatoes 30 tons, and of toliacco 
 about 15 cwts. (Lang's Cooksland, {i. 238,) 
 Sugar-cane of the Tahitian variety is inilifjcnmi'. 
 Tobacco, cotton, cottee, indigo, rice, baniiiias 
 oranges, melons, pine-apples, arrow-root, lln.x, 
 millet, guinea-grass, come to perfection; tiicail- 
 turo of silk has been successfully attcnipteil, 
 though hitherto not to much extent : the tempe- 
 rature is suited to the vine, but periodical rams 
 occurring when tho fruit is ripe, spoil tlie grapes 
 so that Cooksland is not likely to become a wine- 
 growing country. Darling Downs, New Engiaml, 
 and indeed most parts of the territory, except the 
 allimal Hats, aro extremely well adapted to aliif p 
 reoring, and a gocxl deal of land is occupicil in 
 large runs by squatters. Some squatting stjitiims 
 have liecn occupied as far N. as tho river linyne, 
 and extensive tracts have been discovered, $u|)- 
 
t than In the rm, 
 iiir, Mort'loii l(«\, 
 itntl fttntiirc, in ah 
 
 H. K. I<iit|{. : il i< nil 
 ., '20 ni. in wiilili, 
 I'Ucri'tl w'uwiinl l.y 
 Ih. ItM xhiircH, wliii il 
 i>il to llu' t'liitiiri' i.|' 
 (NlllctN. I'rixt'Ciliii;; 
 
 Htn-auiN Hiiwiint K, 
 Ulun-neo, lUi'liinmul, 
 IV rivft., nil nf wliiili 
 iiri'iinii* nearer i>i ilii> 
 
 inoutliH, Tilt! t'lii- 
 ;, AuMiruIln, cniiitici 
 J 20' 8. It in Klaliil 
 trt (if too tmiM liiinlin 
 llirout^diiut tliiK |iatt 
 : i)f rich nlliiviitl Hull, 
 
 iqMtHV.H; in till! lUHHT 
 
 iral rcffion on wiiiili 
 and lu-ur Itn uioiitli it 
 i Uiclnniinil, ulxnit I'l 
 c lor M m. froin ilie 
 n thin riv. and Mhp'- 
 70 ni., i» ft c'ontiiiiicMn 
 •y larn« "''•*' i 'mil tliv 
 tentru in a kihkI ilciil 
 IX by eoaxtinn vi'»*l* 
 line, a lar^i^ and liiif 
 >U!i course, in navijtuti.l 
 m. from its nimitli in 
 d>ano town, the eiiii. nf 
 enterH the sea at I'orl 
 e-..'dorcd rt'nion. Tlu> 
 I'.uy was found to k 
 ll't i line year il varitil 
 icit .vus aWit 5l°Fah. 
 rt'i.ority 01 Ihe cliniatc 
 voUei', it in naiil, niay 
 red oil the bare urouiul; 
 e in ivet elothes, ami 
 )ut perfect impunity In 
 ■rature. (HotlKl*'"*'''' 
 winj; to the vicinity o! 
 , abundant and rcpilar 
 alluvial tlat» alonn tlic 
 of the rivcrn lii'inn u"- 
 ry iH better littwl U 
 al region of New South 
 0, arc le«8 injured liv 
 heat, wilted l)ecf, wi»il, 
 mber, are the iiriiiciiml 
 •dinj; to Mr. Kent, pi- 
 at Morcton Hay, tlio 
 )f the nuricultural ilist*. 
 id Widebay riv., i« "I 
 lelw, of maize from aO l" 
 30 tons, and of toliawi) 
 Is Ci)oksland, p. iSS.) 
 m variety is indigenous. 
 indigo, rice, banaiias 
 ii)les, nnow-root, flax, 
 to perfection; tlic oil- 
 successfully attcmptiil. 
 iich extent: theteunie- 
 ,ne, but periodical raiiu 
 ia ripe, spoil the (^p. 
 likely to become a wmc- 
 K Downs, New EnglM 
 fthe territory, except the 
 ly well adapted to «h«p 
 of land is occupwl m 
 Some squatting Mm 
 t N. as the river Hovw, 
 fe been discovcretl, sup- 
 
 AUSTRALIA (N. H. WALKS) 
 
 iKiMil to Ik) wpII ftdajUeil for sheep, nIIII further N. 
 williin tlio liniilH ol the tro|iic, (|,i 
 
 
 ,aiiK, pp. 111.', 
 i;l.l, 4c.) Slit'cp wi'IkIi at ah averuge rroiu "0 lo 
 fill 11 IS. nt Miireton Hav, and caltln from lil (o 14 
 cwt', Ihe Morrtiin lliiy pine (Aniiiruriit ('««- 
 niiiii'hi'ioi) is I'orithii'd to ihe geographical limit of 
 
 ,^1,; MJand; it grows to fnuii loo tn l.'id fi, in 
 
 |iiit{lit, and yields excellent lintlHT for iiiasis and 
 pilars. 'I'n' bunya-bunyii pine (,■(. hiitinllin), 
 ri'il ci'<lar, iron-bark, blue gum, rose and tulip 
 Ihix, silk, and furesi naks, Av„ are imble 
 ' Dr. I.eichhart found not fewer than 1 10 
 ililViri'Ot species of trees, exclusive of parasitical 
 iiliiiitt and sliridis, in the brush or alluvial llat 
 iiiiil of Miireton Hay, and 27 in Ihu open forest, 
 and idling only :>0 paces of a cattle track at Mme- 
 ^llllle riiiin, near Ijiswich, not fewer than 17 
 ilill'iTt'iit species of grass in stied at Ihe same time.' 
 (Iliiil. p. ■^•I-) Honey is becoiiiing un article of 
 I'liinincrcc. Dyewoisls and gums abound in great 
 \ariclv, l)Ut they have not yet (or had not at the 
 ilate iiV last reiHirt) found a place in the markets. 
 Turtle of various sorts, and pearl oysters, an- 
 aliuiiilant on moHt luirts of the coast, Cnal has 
 U'i'ii met with on Isith sides of the Australian 
 Amies, lint hitherto no iniiies have been opened. 
 Must of the iinxluctions of iMith temperate and 
 tropical countries can be cultivated with success 
 ill (jiiceiisland. The climate is stated to be 
 lavuiiralile to pastoral occupations, and to Ihe 
 (jriiwllnif wool. KxiH-rience has shown that ex- 
 tciiitive districts are also adapted for the growth 
 of cotton. Many writers rcganl this ccdonv as 
 iMiiied to become the future cotton-lleld of (lireat 
 llrilain. A bonus is ottered by the govertitnent of 
 ii'ii iicn-s of land for cverv bale of 8ea Islaiul 
 cotton weighing 8(K) lbs. llowcver, the registrar- 
 ^'('iicrnl of (^lecnsluiid, in his report of .luiiu IHI)8, 
 ntatvd that agriculture hud made little progress; 
 till' high rate of wages, uncertainty ot getting 
 lalsair, and the difficulty of conveyiiig produce to 
 market over roads always rough and often im- 
 jiassable, having hitherto made it more economical 
 to inipiirt almost all kinds (d' agricultural |iroduce 
 than til grow them, Acitording to an ollicial re- 
 iiini of Marcli IMtii), the extent of land set aside 
 liir the cultivation of cotton tit that period was 
 uiiiliT 100 acres. 
 
 Tlie value of the im])orts and ox)>orts of Qneens- 
 laml, ill the years 1«C0, IMtil, and I8(i:;, is given in 
 the t'oHowing table. It shows that, during this 
 trii'iuiiiil period, the imports have nearly (hiubled, 
 vliilu the exports also huvu largely increased. 
 
 (ireat gold fields have hith 
 thiingli the metal is ladh'v .^ 
 ipilintilies. 
 
 The fonn of govenmu , 
 tjuecnslaiid was establishoi 
 on its separation Irmii New 
 power of making laws and 
 vested in n I'arliameiil of tw 
 
 270 
 
 not heon disoovered, 
 U> existing in large 
 
 Ymt 
 
 ISliO 
 I IWil 
 
 ImporM 
 
 742,023 
 
 9(I7,!)50 
 
 1,320,225 
 
 Eiportt 
 
 Tot»l IniporU 
 uiil K&|)ortt 
 
 523,470 
 70!»,5!»8 
 748,519 
 
 1 ,205,499 
 1,077.548 
 2,008,744 
 
 Tlio commercial intercourse of Queensland is 
 oliii'tly with the other Australian cohmies, and, 
 next to them, with Great liritain, as shown iii the 
 sulijoiiicd table : — 
 
 ! 
 
 \ 
 
 T«»r 1 ImporU 
 
 1 £ 
 
 Exporti 
 
 Tout 
 
 ; 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 ( 18«0 50,730 
 J 1801 90,905 
 
 — 
 
 60,730 
 
 Gnat Britain . 
 
 119,515 
 
 210,420 
 
 
 I 1802 228,591 215,059 
 
 443,050 
 
 
 1800 523,105 101,540 
 
 684,711 
 
 Auntralian colonics 
 
 1801 874,797 589,033 
 
 1,4(U.431 
 
 
 1 1802 1,080,338 627,545 
 
 1,613,883 
 
 There arc several coal mines in the colony, pro- 
 iluciiig about 18,UU0 tons of coul per tumum. 
 
 of til rolonv of 
 'i-oeni' .r H», ' ■% 
 ith VVnlott. ilio 
 nposing tn\ Im 
 lloiiscH, the 1,1 ^is- 
 lative Conncil and the LeginlatiM' Asm'iiibly. Ihe 
 fonner consists of twenty ineinlHTs, noniinated by 
 the Crown for life; ami the latter of twenty-six 
 deiiiities, idected by all natural born or naturalised 
 cili/ens, who |iay taxes, and have undergone no 
 coiiilcnniation tor a,i'- criminal act. The execu- 
 tive is vested in a governor appointed by the 
 ('rowii, 
 
 IV. NKW SOUTH WALKS, the earliest set- 
 tled of the liritish colonies in Australia, comprises 
 the territory between the tropic of Capricorn on t\\v. 
 N. and Cape Howe, in aUiiit U7(<' S. hit., having a 
 coast line of about !)7:i in. 
 
 The Itbie Mountains extend irregularly throiigh- 
 ont the wlude length of this region, parallel to the 
 coast, at a distance averaging from iio to M m. 
 Their medium elevation varies between il.oiio 
 to 1,0011 I't., and their slo|Mt is most abruiit on the 
 K. side, between which and the ocean is a well 
 wiMided undiibitiiig territorv, watered by iinnie- 
 rons rivers. The l,iver|MHil range, coiisiderablv 
 higher than the llliie Mountains, trend from \\ . 
 to H. ill the N. |iart of the colony, dividing the 
 COS. jlligh and llrisbane from the sipiatting 
 district, Liver|Hiol plains, N. K. of the range. Sea 
 view, perhaps the loftiest in the colony, rises to the 
 height of (i,000 ft. Shores mostly bold; but in- 
 dented with some line bays or inlets, as lioliiny 
 and liroken liays, I'orts .lackson, Ilniiter, Ste- 
 phens, and Hacking, Kateman and Twolidd Itavs, 
 die. It was on the K. Hunk of the Coniiabalas 
 Mountain, not far from Ilathurst, and alsiiit 120 
 m. W.N.W. from Sydney, that the gtdil deposits 
 were lirst discovered in IHol. Several of the 
 rivers are of (-oiisiderable size; but the months of 
 all of them are more <ir less encumbered by bars, 
 so that they arc of comparatively little use for 
 navigation. The Hunter, after a winding S. and 
 K. course, estimated at 200 m., ilisembogiies in 
 I'ort Hunter, near hit. H.j" S. The main stream is 
 navigable only for ."Jo in., but it receives several 
 tributaries available for shipping to a niticli 
 greater distance ; and the districts watered by it 
 and its atlliients are the richest in the cidony. 
 The Hawkesbury, fomied by the junction of the 
 Ne|K!aii and Grose rivers, ImmiiiiIs the eo. Cum- 
 berland on the W. and N., and receives many 
 coiisulerablo alHuents in its course to the sea, 
 which it enters at Urokeii Hay. It is navigable 
 for vessels id' 100 tons for Mo in, from its monih. 
 The MacLeay disembogues in Trial Hay, hit. 
 30° 40' S.; it has a bar at its entrance, with, ge- 
 nerally, aulHcicnt water for vessels drawing 10 or 
 1 1 ft., and is navigable for vessels of .50 or tiO tons 
 for 34 m, from its mouth. (Hodgkinson, p. !>.) 
 Lakes neither large nor numerous : Macquarrio 
 and Itrisbaiie, both in co. NortlmmlH'rland, are tho 
 largest; Illawarrn (Camden) and the Tuggerali 
 beach lakes arc mere inlets of the ocean, with 
 narrow mouths. The sites of lakes George (co. 
 Murray), and Uathurst (co. Argyle), in the S., 
 have been for many years dry and imder culti- 
 vation. 
 
 The Climate is warmer than that of Knglaiul, 
 mean temp, at Port Jackson liciiig tiO* (i', and at 
 Fort Macquarrie (!K° Fah. In winter, that is, in 
 June, July, and August, snow sometimes lies on 
 the mountains, and occasionally in the upland 
 valleys, for some days together; but it is wholly 
 
Si 
 
 1 
 l> b 
 
 
 II- 
 
 980 ArHTUAI.IA (N. H. WAI,^:.S) 
 
 unkiiiiwn in Ihr virinUy of Hyi|ii<>y nml ailing th<< 
 cnanl ; iIktc tli<> winh-r U ii m'ummi of rain witli 
 uli^lil IVikIn, i'lic luinniil fall nl' rain at I'ort 
 Mari|iuirrii' anmuiilM In alMMit )t'.'l| inrlit'ii, anil at 
 I'liri .liii'kxon III ^'.''12 till. ; a niiirii larK'T ainninil 
 iliaii at I'lirt I'liilliji I'nr t'xatn|ili', wlirri' tlir ikvrr- 
 ii^'f iit iitily :i))'7 nirlii'M (SIr/.i'li'cki), (IhhikIi tli« 
 laittT In i'i|iial III till- avrra^i' in nnwt parlM ol' 
 I'.iiKlanil, itixl ciiM^iili'ralily ^ri'attr than tin* i|iiaii< 
 lily railing mi lii-r M. cnaKi. Wain Miinctiiiu-N 
 iIi'mi'I'ihIn in liirrrnU In N, M. Walt'N: it iHHlaioil 
 thai i>n onii iK't-axiiin '2't ini'lirn Irll at I'orl JackNiin 
 in 'J> litinrH (Sir/i'lccki) ; anil a river in thi' nioiin- I 
 tiiiniMiN rt'^ioii liiiM riM'n I'roiii a HJniilar caiiNc, in a I 
 few lioiirM, to '.17 It. aiNivi* iu nrilinary li'vcl, lint, | 
 
 lln> Niiil Muft in n ntvnt ini'M'«iin tn|iiii*i'il nt' ' 
 
 ilixiiili'i^ratt'tl NanilNliinc, tliiN cxcchs nl'moiiliiro \n 
 Miiiii ilrit'il n|i. It In, aim I, iniiri< i'Ximim'iI than iniwt 
 otlicr iiariM nf AiiMiralia tu hut ami iiari'hinu wimln 
 Iriiin till' N, Thi'Ki', wliiih hear a i'Iohc aiiaingv to 
 till' SiiniMini of till! Anilw iinil the SiriM'co ot S. 
 Italy, an> wry oiiprcHnivt', ami |iriiiliit'i'i>iihtlnilinia 
 luniin^Mt iHitli l\w Knrii|H'an ami nalivit rat'i'i*. 
 l>yNt'nti'ry nnd intincn/.a arc |irt'tly iircvalfiit, 
 iitiHckiii); I'hit'lly the inhaliM, of l'liirii|K'an lU'vM'ciit. 
 
 Count Str/i'lci'ki iiIimtvi'h, that, coniimri'il with 
 the virgin HoiU which hv hiiil cxainiiicil * in 
 Cainida, the II. States, llra/.il, the Argentina Ho- 
 iiiililii', (■iiatt'iniila, Mexico, ami thii i.'tlamlN of 
 llally anil Loinliok, thoHc of N. S. Waleii anil Van 
 J>ii'in('n'H hnnil nrv iirruth/ iiifirinr in the ainoiinl 
 of NiiltH anil alkalicN they cnnlain, and thcrel'orc in 
 fertility.' (Str/.decki, |"»|i. :Hit), .Kil.) Thin lerri- 
 tnry ifi, in fact, much lii'tter ailapU'd for u grazing 
 than for an agricultnral country. Tlio tilled land 
 lie.t chietly along the liankH of the larger rivers, in 
 the valleyHof the llnnter, llawkcNlairy, Neiuini, 
 WollondillM, (ioiilhurn, «l'c., and along the Mac- 
 nnarric and(Jani|ihell, down to Wellington valley, 
 'rhu faniiH of the AuHtraliati Agricultural >Soci<'ty 
 in the N. are aniongnt the hcHt conducled uml 
 mimt thriving : the iieighbourhiK)d of Newciixtle, 
 from its excellent harhonr, the facility of obtaining 
 coal, tiderahic irrigation, nnd giMNl roiidH, i.i the 
 iniKst tlouriNhing agricultural iliHtrict in the cidony. 
 
 The Htate nnd j)rogreH« of agriculture is hiic- 
 «'Uii'tly exhihiUsl in the following table, which 
 mIiowd the land under crop at two periiKU : — 
 
 Crojn 
 
 Sill March 
 
 18tl.i 
 
 Slit March 
 
 IHU3 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Maize 
 
 Dnrley nnd Onts . 
 
 Hyo, Slillct, ami yorglium . 
 
 Kown Uniiwt.'ii 
 
 I'otntooH .... 
 
 Vliieyanis .... 
 
 Oanlt'iiH .... 
 
 Toliocco .... 
 
 Cotton .... 
 
 Other Crops 
 
 Totals . 
 
 Acrrt 
 
 12i>,!17.V 
 
 fiD.lt!)} 
 
 4l,71t!»i 
 
 l,4!Mi 
 
 4;l,'^!»2 
 
 lo,o;!!ij 
 
 1,1 :I0 
 
 8,7(»7i 
 
 JJ'Jili 
 
 2,;)coi 
 
 Acre! 
 
 117.H.V|^ 
 7H,W.'} 
 60,(101 
 741 
 32,010 
 !),282J 
 l,4.')!»i 
 8,410 
 HU.'.J 
 64? 
 3,ll»«i 
 
 297,675 
 
 :)02,iy8i 
 
 nhnnihint, ihiit Kort of famiing may lie niii'in|iir<| 
 MiiliNonie primiM'i'l of Mii'i'ON, hill not till ihin, 
 
 'rowariN the end of laxt ceniiiry the a| ■, j„ 
 
 N.M. Wali'N con'<i'<li'd prlm'ipally of llie lin.,.,{, ,,, 
 llellgal ami the ('ajie of (iniHl Hope; hihI ||„ 
 
 ciiliiiiy it niainly iiuleliii'd for the inii'iHliiciinn „i 
 the nheep fanning xv-'lein, and i'on'<ei|iieiiilv niji, 
 Ktaple Miiiini' of wealth, to the example aii'ilixir 
 lioiiN of .lolin Macarihiir, l->i|. 'I'lint gi'inli'm,,,, 
 nHcertained, Noniew here alHmt I71i'i or I7',);i, ilim 
 bv jndii'iou.tly cnwhing the colony breeds wm,' 
 tfiiw of (ireat liritiiin, the imality of the IIi'i'ii'Mh, 
 very niiii'h improved, ami that ii ranked wiili i|„. 
 Im'»i l''.uriiiiean wool. 
 
 'I'be following waM the (|nnntity of nhoep nn.l 
 "iher live ."lock in .New Mouth Walei*, in the ilin, 
 \earH IHiiiMi-J :— 
 
 ,Tawa 
 
 IMIII 
 
 IMII2 
 
 llanH 
 
 llnrni'cl 
 t'alila 
 
 N*. 
 261,4117 
 
 '2M,Ti') 
 
 Ma. 
 
 2,40M,riNII 
 
 •;,'^7t,l»'^:l 
 
 2,ii'.iO,;iH:l 
 
 klix 
 
 N„ 
 
 II.IIIMfl'l 
 fi.iil.^i.ii.'hl 
 i>,i|.-i,i;:<i 
 
 The olive has been introduced to a small extent. 
 8ilk also hm been tried, but only on u limited 
 M'ale : though not indigenous, the mulberry growH 
 very well. The orange grows magnilicently. Tlie 
 cotton plant, unlike the American deitcription, is a 
 perennial, the same as in llrazil, the Kast Indies, 
 and Egypt. We believe, however, that these 
 branches uf industrv are unsuited to the present 
 cimdition of the cofony ; and that those who em- 
 bark in them on anything like an extensive scale 
 
 will be heavy losers. W hen the sheep-runs have , ^ „ _.,,_. - 
 
 been all occupied, pop. become dense, and labour I and black races iu the U. States ; but within tiiisc 
 
 New South Wales was lirMi colniiiHed bvciiiiviri« 
 inl7^H. In May 17h7, six transports ami i[irn'<ii>ri'. 
 sliiiis ciiiivoved by a frigate and an arineil ii'ml, r, 
 nailed from kngland with .'iti.'t male aiiil I'.l.' trimili' 
 I'oiivicl.-*, under the cumniand of Captain l'liilli|>. 
 lie arrived at Motaiiy Hay on .lanuary '.Ml, {'m, 
 but, discovering I'ort Jackson by acciilini, |„. 
 removed his licet to it. In I7i^<.) a Iimi'M'sI wiiniir-i 
 reaped nl rarnmattn. In I7!MI the lirsl griiiit di' 
 land was made to a convict. In I7'.i:i there wiri' 
 l,"-'()i) hnshcls of surplus wheal grown in lliecnlniiy, 
 and piirchused by governinent. In 17ns il'n. 
 whide ]iopulntion, including the giKertmieiit cMa- 
 hlishment nnd convicts, nnioiinted to 1,0,10, jn 
 IMOII the llrst newspaper was printed. In ItHi 
 the population, free and felon, nmoinited to s,'.'!i.i, 
 There were nl the same iR'rioii l)7,(l!i7 acres uflniiil 
 granted, and there were iii theclilony 1,111 |ii>rM>, 
 ll,27(i liorned cattle, ;i'l,ool) sheep. In IM'.'I ihr 
 population incrensed to 2!),78.'i, and iu IN'.'N in 
 27,1)11 mnlesnnd H,',\lH females : total .'Kv'iim. (ij 
 this nundier, lt,l<'i() were male, luid l,.)l.'l I'ciiiali' 
 convicts; nnd />,.'i02 males, and 1,312 feinak'ii, live 
 by servitude. 
 
 The munber of eniigrnnts which arrived in the 
 colony in the twelve years 1K2'J to IHIO aini>iiiiti4 
 U> 41,704. During the years 1841 and 1X12 ilic 
 nnnibcr of emigrants was :t().224. The popiilatinn 
 of Svihiey in IM.W was l(l,2a;i; nnd in iH.li;, 
 ll),72k In lM4(t it amouTitcd to 2!V.>7;t ; nnd in 
 l«4r)-40, to .'i8,Jli")H. The colony was relieved I'ri'm 
 the Iransportntion of criniinuls in IMIO. 
 
 While this was u iienal settlement, it wa.i imiiI, 
 after convicts had been detained for a loiifjiT cpr 
 shorter (leriod, in the hulks or government (<- 
 tablisliments in the colony, to assign them an Mr- 
 vants to the s(!ttlers ; anil subsequently it iM'i'iiiiir 
 customary ti) give them tickets of leave, eiiiililin,' 
 them to engage themselves to musters — a privikj,'e 
 wlricli was commonly coupled with a cninlitional 
 parihin. As might be expected, a distinct line nl 
 demarcation was early drawn, and is stilt, tii(>ii;'li 
 less strictly, kept up between convicts wlie liad 
 acquired their freedom, and the rest of the jKipiila- 
 tion. Society in N. S. Wales is divided info tlie ih" 
 classes of free emigrants and their de.scrniiani-, 
 and of those convicted of any offence, or win) Iwvi' 
 sprung, immediately or remotely, from a cuiividcd 
 party. Tiiese clu.ssc8 have, down to a late \ittm\, 
 kept aa distinct from each other as the pure aii<l 
 impure castes auiong the IIi!idoo.s, or the wliiie 
 
 |M,5;i-S7 
 
 iH.'iS-OS 
 Total 
 
 Scawarrl , 
 Overland an 
 t Murray 
 
AI'STIIAMA (N. H. WALKS) 
 
 r |» »Mrm|iUK| 
 MUtllhlKii. 
 
 y lilt' p>liii|i in 
 ll' lln' lirinU .11 
 
 |ii|ic; mill III! 
 inii'iKliii'iii'ii mI 
 Ht'Hiu'iillv 111 ii, 
 iiil|ilt' mill lAir 
 I'liiil K''i>*li'">'»i 
 ■2 iir IT'.tll, lluii, 
 ly lirt'iil* Willi 
 of IIh' lli'nc v^;l^ 
 
 runktil Willi the 
 
 ty iif hIii'<|i iin.l 
 lit'H, ill tlu' iliriT 
 
 No 
 II.M'.I.IM 
 f.,i>|.'i,ll.Vl 
 II.U.'i.lUl 
 
 mim'd l>vt'imviri« 
 ■tmuiil iliri'f.tdrr 
 nil iiriiird ii'iiilir, 
 ill* mill I 'I- iciiiiili' 
 ('ii|ilaiii riiillii'. 
 Jiimiiiry 'Jn. I Tux, 
 
 liy lU'fiiliilli 111' 
 a I'miM'st wiiKlir.i 
 tlif tirsi uriiiil III' 
 I I7'.';t lIuTf wiri' 
 •own ill llii'i'iilmiy, 
 
 it. Ill 17HH llll 
 (riiMTlllIllilt I'Mll- 
 
 iti'il to l,t>:n>. Ill 
 
 )irnitcil. Ill li^l'i 
 UlKllllltCtI til «,'"'.l. 
 
 17,(1117 lUTi'H III' liiiiil 
 (iloiiy 1,111 li'T"''. 
 lu'ep. Ill I'^'.il 'I"' 
 ;l, iiml ill l«'^» I" 
 
 : t.itui :it'v.im. or 
 
 1,1111(1 l,.')i:i fi'iiii'li' 
 
 l,;j 1-2 t'cmiili'x, fill' 
 
 Lich arrivcil in Itio 
 I to \HW umiiunii'l 
 IHll anil l«l'- !l"' 
 ll. Tim iiopiiliiti"" 
 l;i;i; uuil ill I'*'"'. 
 I to iiSilTlt ; mill in 
 I wait rolinvcil Iri'i" 
 liii IHIU. 
 
 lineiit, it was iii-niil, 
 V'll for a loii;;i'r '" 
 kir gove'riiniiiit i- 
 Lsinii tlicni as M r- 
 eqiumtly it U'mw 
 . of leave, eiialiliii;' 
 [lasters— a priviU't;^ 
 I with a coiiilitiiiiwl 
 111, a ilintiiict liiii; "t 
 laiul is still, tliim;;li 
 ' ciiuvicls who hail 
 1! rest of the iMirula- 
 fUvided into the iwi» 
 I their dcHcciiilants 
 Iffencc, or whuhavi' 
 ly.from a ei)livii:ltil 
 kvn to a late i*riiHi, 
 Icr as the imre ninl 
 luloos, or the white 
 Is; butwitliintlw.se 
 
 fi'W n*t», the |)rr|iii|lri"4 in wliirli tliiH i«'|)iirikiii>ii 
 .iri({liirt""l liiive I'llmlni very »{r<"llv. iiml will, 
 iinilHilily III III) ili"tiiiil i'ItIihI, wliiilly illHit|i|M'ar. 
 
 ||iii Ktlniillll" kIm'II III illlliliuiallnll liy llie <\'\* 
 (iiMT* 111 ™''il'l ha^ Ih'1'11 I" ^ll ln'i'e llimi in N ii' 
 l.iriii;' liiii H liaN iiiilM iiliKlamliiiK. I"'iii viTv 
 iKiwrrliil. It i' iiii|"'i'-il''''. lio«.M'r, to I'lii'iii liny 
 niiiji'i'tiiri' ill ri'mai'il tn il>* nuillniiaiii'i', iim IIiiii 
 iiiiiDt ill ureal ni'iisiir"- ilr|M'iiil on ilie future pro 
 ilurlivi'lli 1" ol (he »>il<l llelilN. lint wlietlier ll 
 I'liiilliiiie iiImiiiI nlalii'iiiiry, iliininl-li or iin'reaie, 
 Mill ll i-i |ilain thai llir ' nitiiiil of tlii>^> eiiKiiKi'il 
 ill llie iM'ari'li fur ^uhl inr |iriivi.<4liin'< ami oilier 
 .irtli'le* iif ai'i'iiiniiiiiilali'.ii, eaiinot fail in llie einl 
 III >{ivii a eorresiMiniliiiK ini|ml''e in e\ery hraiii'li 
 lit iiiilii<iry, mill (n n- |iitiililii|i that (general i><|iiiil 
 iiv, lakiii^ all tliiiiK-* iolo ari'iiinit, wliieli ii'<iially 
 .I'lliiUix lH>tw('en wii^: mill |irollt'i in illlVerent 
 i|i|iiirliiit'iit->. 11"** I ~|i«'n>iis Hofver the "iIIk 
 niiii,'"' '•"•>' '"'' •'"' ' ' "ifi'" draw 11 to I hem in 
 llie lli'il iiittanee fnnii nt^rienlliire mid oilier piir- 
 .iiilK»ill Ix' sure to Ih) rLHtoi'ed to the latter, or 
 n|iliii III hy otlnirs. 
 
 Tlii'iiital |io|iiilaiii'ii oflliiii'idonyof N.S. Wales, 
 „iillie;llst of Dei'enilier IH.V2, was otileinlly eKti- 
 iiiiileil at '2iW,'2j'>I. of whom ll«,tlM7 were 'males, 
 
 ami N'.l,')i'i7 feniali's. A« riling to estiinaleM made 
 
 al'let the retiiriit of the reg;istrar-^eiieral, the 
 |iii|iiilatiiiii miiiilH!reil: — 
 
 11,.1'nili.Tni, IHi;i 
 iMvnilierill, IHi;-.' 
 
 M»1hi 
 
 aiej.oiM) 
 
 Frm»ln 
 1.MI,I7!( 
 ll)l,IMI4 
 
 Tiiial 
 
 M.'iS.'JTH 
 illl7,l!l.'. 
 
 The returns of immigration for the ten years, 
 IM.'h't III IHi'iJ iiieliiMive, exhibit the results shown 
 ill the fiillowiiif; table:— 
 
 QiillHluen' 
 
 iiliil 
 
 |i|irlmli 
 
 ItCS-UJ 
 
 Total 
 
 AtiUlml 
 
 ToluiiUry 
 
 TiiUl 
 
 Mam 
 y4,'J4H 
 
 i»,im7 
 
 Kemala 
 
 ■2.'.,4fifi 
 
 »,;i7J 
 
 !4,:lll 
 
 :.7,iiH-2 
 
 Ki'inAlo 
 
 11,(117 
 14,571 
 
 •23.n8H 
 
 Mils 
 
 KomKli' 
 
 8H,nAI) 
 (I7,l»41» 
 
 :i-l,47.i 
 aii,ii4;i 
 
 U4,2I& 
 
 ;I4,«'27 
 
 7'2,*2«a 
 
 These ll>;ures show that, whilst the nasisted Im- 
 iiii);riitioM has been eondueted with due regard to 
 llie equalisation of the sexes, the voluntary immi- 
 ):riiliiiii nets at nought this important soeial coii- 
 >iili'rntuiii. The above luimlMirs arc exc^liisive of 
 :t,ii2'2 Chhiesc iinmigrnnts, who arrived in the year 
 isj'j, and of li,\}M uf the same nation, wliieli ar- 
 rived ill I8(i0. They were nearlv all males. 
 
 AiTordiiig to Count Strzcleeki, six acres per 
 hi'iul is the least extent of land rerpiired in the 
 (Tiitriil part of the colony for pasturage ; but from 
 liiiir III live acres is perhaps nearer the average 
 iilliiwed ill the runs. The arts of breeding, jias- 
 int'uiii hy rotation of ground, ibc, os pursued in 
 lirilaiu and in Silesia, are in general little under- 
 ^tllod, nioitt part of the wool-growers being persons 
 iviio, licforo emigrating, had little, if any, expe- 
 rience in sheeji-fann i ng. The rearing of other stock, 
 lliiui);li less nttendeit Ut in the colony than sheep- 
 lii'iliii);, is, as seen above, far from unimportant. 
 Tile quantity of wool exnorted in each of the years 
 W>[ and 1802 was as foUows : — 
 
 Eiporti of Wool 
 
 18U1 
 
 1804 
 
 Seaward .... 
 uvcrlniid and vid the 
 
 t Murray 
 
 1 Totals . 
 
 I.bi. 
 la,745,8Ul 
 
 B,425,318 
 "l8,171,209 
 
 Lbi. 
 
 1.3,4H2,iaO 
 
 7,fiOC,264 
 2(),»88,3!>3 
 
 During the revnlsiou that followed the wide- 
 >|)rcad mania liir buying laud and stock that ]ire- 
 
 2HI 
 
 vailed in IKIil mill |n;I7, the priif< of ahreii Itll 
 from ii|iward« of '2/. Ill J*, lii/., and exeii l«. a lieinlt 
 and llial of eiillle Irnm '.(/. nr Id/, to I/, or le<4. 
 In lliii« de^perale I'liirruenry, Hlieii many of the 
 xillliT" Wire riiliireil In liiiiikriipliy, the prai'lirii 
 was ailiipli'd of ihiiiKJiiiiriiii; ihc <liei'p fur ilii'ir 
 
 nklns and lallnw. To priH'lire (he bttirr, llie cur- 
 rime will iHiili'd iliiwu; the IhmI portlnim of tliii 
 meal, n» the |i>i;>, \e,, Inixiii^ Ihtii llril (in "■itiio 
 caMi'K) reinii\i'il lur Hide or siililn^, ||y iIiIk means 
 ihe xlieep were liiidle to yield llieir owiiitk almiit 
 ^i». or I'lK. per lieiid. Iliii iIiIh practice lias long 
 
 xincr bi'cii iibmidiilied, 
 
 III Ihe year Ix.'dl, mIhhiI 7(l,(i(i(l acren of laml 
 were in eiiltivatiiin in New Siniiji Wales ami llm 
 ciilnny hadri,(i(i(i,N'2<l Hliccp, ll.i2,H.V2 liiiriicd callle, 
 (l.'I.Niiii liorNen, and 2:I.h!I(| iii^'s. jn Im,'i!I ihr niim- 
 liers were: land in cull l\ at ion, '217,11(1 acres; 
 nliei'p, 7,7:i('i,:i2:l ; hnrncd callle, '2,ll(i,liiMi; liuries, 
 '2(i(i,i(i(l; and pig<, ti'2,Mii(i. In nine yeaiH llin 
 number of acres of land in enltivalioii had been 
 lielilcd; and above '2,(MI(l,llii() sheep uiid iimre lliall 
 1,(1(1(1,11(111 head of cattle had lH<en added to the 
 stock. In |Hii-2, the agricultural slatisijcs of the 
 colony, which in Ihe nicaiitime liiid been deprived 
 of the important dislricl of < jiieeiislmid, were as 
 follows: — Acres in ciiltivalion, '2'.l7,o(l(l; above 
 (!,(HI(I,()(I(I acres, as yel uncultivated, were eiudoscd. 
 'llie niiniber of sliccp at the same pi'riod ainniinted 
 to ri,(;iMI,(l(l(); of lioriied cattle to *2,-27(>,(KIO; (if 
 Imrscs to -2'i:i,(i(i(i; and of iiigs to I lii.ddd. 
 
 In the early period of tlic colony, the best part 
 of Ihe conniry near Sydney was given in free 
 grants to colonists; (be rest has been sold bv 
 governnieiit. The abolition of free gninls louk 
 elt'ect in IKIII, after which land was for a time 
 oll'cred for sale 111 a niinimnm upset price of 'm. 
 iier acre. In iHII!) the niiniiiiiini iirice was raised 
 from CiH, to l'2.<i. ; the sales producing in that vear 
 !l-2,!M>H/. ; and in IH 10, during the /.eiiiib ol' the 
 land mania, the sales produced <,l7,'t',l'.)/. A period 
 of great de^iression and general insolvency fnllowed, 
 during which, in IH 111, the upset price of laud waa 
 raiseilto the sum of I/, an acre. 
 
 liy an order in council, dated 0th March, 1SI7, 
 the lands are diviiU'd into settled, iiilermediale, 
 and iinsetlled; the llrsi of which conipris(>s the 
 '21 COS. in the central part of the colony, lands 
 within from Id to '25 in, of the priiiclpnl settle- 
 ment, '2 in. from either bank i>t' the (jllcnelg, Cla- 
 reiiee, and Hichmond riv, (for certain distances), 
 and everywhere within i( in. from the sea. The 
 governor is empowered to grant leases of runs of 
 land in the settled districts of a year, in the inter- 
 mediate districts of eight years' (liiratinii, and in 
 the nnsetth'd ilistricts for a term not excceiling 
 fourteen years, exclusively for pastoral purposes, 
 the lenaiit being allowed to raise grain, hay. vege- 
 tables, or fruit, for the supply of his establislmient, 
 but not for sale or barter. The rent is propor- 
 tinned to tlie numlHT of sheep or cattle the run is 
 estimated to Ix^ capable of supporting : each run 
 carrying at least -ItOtHt sheep, or (!4d head of cattle, 
 is not to lie let at a hiwer rent than Id/, per aiinuni, 
 with '2/. 10«. additiuiial for every additional I,(id0 
 sheep, or an equivalent number of cattle. Uiiriiig 
 the continuance of the lease the land is not o| en 
 to purchase by any one but the lessee, who may at 
 any time purchase not less than IGO acres, at not 
 less than 1/. per acre. The lease is forfeited by 
 non-payment of rent, d'c. ; and the government 
 reserves to itself the right of entering ujiou any 
 ]iortion of the laiiils thus leased ' for any jinrposo 
 of public defence, safety, improvement, couvcuieuce, 
 utility, or enjoyment.' 
 
 Mining is extensively pursued in Victoria. 
 There were, ill 18U'2, coal mines to the number of 
 
282 
 
 twenty-ono; and flflcon other miiicH, of copjM>r, 
 iniii, lead, zinc, and Hilvur. The K<>l*l 'itddn cxteml 
 over three diHtriutM, culled the \Vcfttern Fiekl, the 
 Northurn FieIdH, and the S )Uthuni Fiuldx. The 
 following iit a liHt of the annual yields of gold in 
 the colony, from the tireit discoveries to the end of 
 18G2 :— 
 
 AUSTRALU (N. S. WALES) 
 
 V«»r» 
 
 Ol. 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 1851 
 
 144,120 
 
 468,330 
 
 1852 
 
 818,751 
 
 2,660,940 
 
 1853 
 
 518,652 
 
 1,781,170 
 
 1854 
 
 237,910 
 
 773,200 
 
 1855 
 
 171,367 
 
 654,i!)0 
 
 1856 
 
 184,600 
 
 689,174 
 
 1857 
 
 175,950 
 
 674,470 
 
 1858 
 
 286,798 
 
 1,104,170 
 
 1859 
 
 329,3(i3 
 
 1,259,120 
 
 1860 
 
 384,1185 
 
 1,462,772 
 
 1861 
 
 470,034 
 
 1,808,560 
 
 1862 
 
 684,219 
 
 2,306,876 
 
 The quantity of gold found in New South Wales, 
 it will be ^«cen, is very considerable, and mining 
 industry continues to l)e on the increase, as shown 
 by the above table, as well as the otHcial returns 
 oi' the number of miners' rights and business li- 
 cences issued in the year 18()2. The following 
 ligures represent the number of licences issued to 
 miners in each of the two years 18(J1 and 1802 : — 
 
 Mining DiilrlcU 
 
 18GI 
 
 1801 
 
 Western Gold Piolda . 
 South-western Gold Fields . 
 Southern Gold Fields . . , 
 Northern Gold Fields . . 
 
 Totals .... 
 
 7,050 
 6,118 
 1,242 
 1,834 
 
 17,183 
 4,617 
 1,643 
 1,796 
 
 16,244 
 
 26,038 
 
 There is thus shown to have been a net increase 
 of 8,794 upon the number of licences issued in 
 18(!1. 
 
 Assuming that each miner's right or licence re- 
 presents an individual, and that its possessor was 
 occupied during the whole year in the search for 
 g(dd, it would appear by the return of production 
 that as nearly as possible twenty-three ounces of 
 the precious metal (supposing it to be equally di- 
 vided) would fall to the lot of each man. This, at 
 the mint value (3/. 17s. lOhd. per oz.), would pro- 
 duce an average wage of 88/. I3s. per annum, or 
 at the rate of U. 14». Id. per wfeek per man. (He- 
 port of Governor Young, dated Sydney, Oct. 19, 
 18(J3.) 
 
 Railway! 
 
 Yeari 
 
 Colt of Con- 
 itruction of 
 £xt«niion> 
 
 Trafflo 
 
 Total 1 
 Expenditure 
 
 Great f 
 Southern 1 
 
 Great 
 Northern 
 
 Great 
 Western 
 
 Total 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 £ 
 
 94,300 
 151,857 
 126,930 
 101,964 
 
 96,434 
 110,097 
 
 65,208 
 
 72,337 
 
 £ 
 
 36,367 
 39,446 
 42,002 
 11,200 
 16,230 
 19,992 
 6,720 
 7,033 
 
 £ 
 
 130,667 
 191,303 
 168,931 
 113,164 
 112,664 
 130,089 
 70,928 
 79,370 
 
 196,264 
 313,499 
 309,363 
 
 47,567 
 61,396 
 69,027 
 
 243,831 
 
 374,895 
 378,390 
 
 The commerce of New South Wales, in the year 
 1802, is rep.'^3ented in the following figures: — 
 
 The total imports for the year were . . £9,334,645 
 The total exports 7,102,562 
 
 Showing an excess of imports to the extent of £2,232,083 
 
 The imports were at the rate of 25/. 8«, per hcml 
 of population, and the exports ut the rate i,|' 
 19/, Cm, M, per bead. The exports consisUid of the 
 following articles : — 
 
 ; Eximru 
 
 ISDl 
 
 llhia 
 
 (Seaward. 
 
 A 
 
 £ 
 
 Grain .... 
 
 84,086 
 
 15;i,ofii 
 
 butter and Checso . 
 
 20,7.'>4 
 
 19,11111 
 
 l.lvoHtock 
 
 49,280 
 
 62,1157 
 
 Salt Meat 
 
 18,513 
 
 1H,4KH 
 
 HlUuH uiiU Leather . 
 
 100,459 
 
 105,458 
 
 Wool .... 
 
 1,396,426 
 
 1,283,8 IK 
 
 Tallow .... 
 
 60,816 
 
 104,IW(1 
 
 Timber .... 
 
 19,554 
 
 25,;i|H 
 
 Gold .... 
 
 1,890,908 
 
 2,7I5,();17 
 
 Coal .... 
 Totals . 
 Orerland. 
 
 160,966 
 
 'iv,,m 
 
 3,802,661 
 
 4,731,780 
 
 
 
 LiveStoek 
 
 492,353 
 
 B2n,7S4 
 
 Wool uiul II ides 
 
 380,284 
 
 527,illi:, 
 
 Fish and other Produce . 
 Totals . 
 General Total . 
 
 3,360 
 
 10,M2 
 
 875,997 
 
 1,067,111 
 
 4,678,65a 
 
 5,7I)8,8»1 
 
 The destination of the exports was as follows ;— 
 
 Exporti lo 
 
 1801 
 
 18C« 
 
 United Kingdom . 
 British Colonies 
 Foreign States 
 
 Total 
 
 £ 
 
 2,037,550 
 
 3,026,661 
 
 631,628 
 
 £ 
 2,143,497 
 4,72.'),21:> 
 233,853 
 
 6,694,839 
 
 7,102,5C2 
 
 As will be seen from the last table but one, the 
 chief articles of export in the year 1802 were wool 
 and gold, the former amounting to 1,283,818/., 
 and the latter to 2,71.5,037/. in value. 
 
 The value of the imports into New South Wiilps, 
 in each of the two years 1801 and 1802, was wt 
 follows : — 
 
 Import! 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 1 
 
 From the United Kingdom 
 „ British Colonies 
 „ Foreign States . 
 
 Totals . 
 
 £ 
 
 3,062,435 
 
 2,338,641 
 
 990,470 
 
 £ 
 
 4,814,-i64 
 3,0t)«,.'19;i 
 1,451,788 
 
 9,334,(!4.5 | 
 
 6,391,556 
 
 The principal part of the public revenue, to Uk 
 amount of nearly one-half, is derived irom custonw 
 duties, chief among them the import duties on 
 spirits. The other sources of income consist "f 
 miscellaneous receipts, the most imjiortant of wliidi 
 are from land sales and rents of land. Direct ta.x- 
 ation does not exist. The total amount of the 
 public revenue and expenditure, in each of the 
 years 1801 and 1802, was as follows :— 
 
 Revenue . 
 Expenditure 
 
 1861 
 
 £1,421,831 
 
 1,629,788 
 
 1S6Q 
 
 £l,.V,7,6:!fl 
 
 l,36y,:«3 
 
 The constitution of New South Wales, the old- 
 est of the Australasian colonies, was proclaimeil in 
 1848. It vests the legislative power in a I'ar- 
 liament of two Houses, the first called tlie LegLt- 
 lative Council, and the second the Legislative 
 Assembly. The Legislative Council consists dl' 
 twenty-one members nomuiated by the Crown for 
 the term of five years ; and the Assembly of 
 seventy-two members, elected in eightj'-niiic con- 
 stituencies. To be eligible, a man must be of age, 
 
AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA) 
 
 of '25/. R«. jM!r licml 
 tH ut thu rate ci|' 
 rta cuimitited ul' tliu 
 
 a 
 
 t 
 inul 
 
 tai 
 
 18D3 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 U,!tH« 
 
 1.'i:j,()«1 
 
 J(»,7.'>4 
 
 llt.iiiil 
 
 l!),2H0 
 
 62,ii.',7 
 
 iH.sia 
 
 IK,4SS 
 
 M),4'>U 
 
 105,4.'iH 
 
 )(l,4'2t> 
 
 1,2H;(,818 
 
 (i(l,HU) 
 
 104,(i;jii 
 
 VJJi^'i 
 
 25,;||H 
 
 !M»,y08 
 
 2,715,o;17 
 
 UO,9U0 
 
 245,4'Ji 
 
 02,661 
 
 4,731,780 
 
 102,353 
 
 520,7,14 
 
 [1H0.2K4 
 
 627,ii(i;i 
 
 3,360 
 
 lli,:l,Vi 
 
 875,997 
 
 1,067,111 
 
 G78,«r)a, 
 
 ii,71l8,K!tl 
 
 )rt8 was 
 
 as follows ;— 
 
 1861 
 
 18C!i 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 ,037,550 
 
 2,143,497 
 
 ,025,661 
 
 4,725,'212 
 
 031,628 
 
 233,8.';:) 
 
 ),594,830 
 
 7,102,502 
 
 last table but one, the 
 e year IHtJ'i were wnol 
 iinting to 1,283,818/., 
 in value. 
 
 to New South Wales, 
 861 and 18C2, was as 
 
 1861 
 
 1863 I 
 
 £ 
 
 ,062,435 
 ,338,641 
 990,479 
 
 £ 
 
 4,814,264 
 3,0«8,.'>9H 
 1,451,788 
 
 6,391,585 9,3iU,«45 
 
 Ipwblic revenue, to tiw 
 I derived from customs 
 [the import duties uu 
 I of income consist "1" 
 lost important of which 
 i of land. Direct tax- 
 total amount of tlie 
 [iture, in each of the 
 follows ;— 
 
 lei 
 
 11,831 
 
 l9,<88 
 
 1«62 
 £1,557,639 
 l,36l),328 
 
 £outh Wales, the old- 
 lies, was proclaimed iii 
 live power in a I'ar- 
 Iflrst called the J.egis- 
 Icond the Legislative 
 le Council consists (A 
 >ted by the Crown for 
 Ind the Assembly ol 
 Id in eighty-nme eon- 
 i mail must be of age, 
 
 nalural-born subject of the queen, or, if an alien, 
 hen he must have been naturalised for live vi-ars, 
 111(1 resident for two years iHjfore election, i'hero 
 IS no iiro|)erty qualiftcaticm for electors, 'i'hp exe- 
 cutive is in the hands of a governor noniinateil by 
 
 " V^VUrrORIA, formerly POUT PHILLIP, or 
 l'inLI'll'''*l'ANl), comprising all that portion of 
 the continent H. of the nver Murray, between lat. 
 ;tl° and ii'J° S. and hmg. 141° and 15(»° K., having 
 '\K. N. S. Wales, from which it is divided by a 
 Htrdght line dra>vn from Cape IIowc to the near- 
 est source of the Murray, and then by that river ; 
 \V. the colony of S. Australia ; and S., the ocean 
 anil Itass's Straits, by which it is separated from 
 Van Diemcn's Land. It is divided into 24 cos. 
 ex., some very extensive, unsettled and sipiatting 
 districts. The total area embraces K(),831 Eng. 
 sq. m., with, accortling to the census of 18G1, a 
 iHipulation of 640,322 inhabitants. 
 
 This territory, from the mouth of the Glenelg river, 
 its W., to Cape Howe, its K. extremity, has about 
 iiiiO m. of coast, along the most 8. part of the 
 Australian continent, towards the centre of which 
 is Port Phillip, a magnificent basin, about 4(» m. 
 in length and breadth, entered by a narrow chan- 
 nel, only 1| m. across. Melbourne, the cap., is 
 situated on a river fiowing into the head of this 
 hay ; and the riourishiug town of Gcelong stands 
 on" the extremity of its W. arm, about 40 in. from 
 Jlclhourne. E. of Port Phillip arc tlie bays of 
 Wcsteniport, Comer Inlet, and Lake King; on 
 the W. are Discovery and Portland bays, and 
 Port Fair)'. Chief headlands, cajjes IJridgwater 
 and Otwav, and Wilson's promontory. Most part 
 uf the surface is level or undulating, and separated 
 hv mountain ranges into different basins. The 
 \Varragong mountains, or Australian Alps, stretch 
 from the settled country of N. S. Wales sotith- 
 ward to the extremity of Wilson's promontory : 
 Mt, Wellington, or Kosciuszko, the culinmating 
 point of this chain, rises to 6,000 ft. above the sea. 
 W. of this chain are successive ranges isolated 
 from each other, known by the names of Mount 
 Macedon, the Australian Pyrenees, the Grampians, 
 ic. : they have mostly a i^T. and S. direction, and, 
 with the Australian Alps, separate the Hume, 
 Huvell, and other tributaries of the Murray from 
 the rivers flowing southward. 'J"he rich gold fields 
 of Mount Alexander, near the sources of the Lod- 
 don, are about CO or 70 in. NW. from Melbourne; 
 those of Ballarat lie more to the S. ; and there 
 arc others in different parts of the colony. The 
 streams in this region are small and innavigable ; 
 but the country is in geiKtral well watered, and it 
 contains niunerous salt lakes the principal of 
 which. Lake Carangamite, Ls upwards of 90 m. in 
 circuit. The climate approaches nearer to that of 
 Great Britain' than that of any other part of Aus- 
 tralia. It has ' somewhat of an intermediate cha- 
 racter between the climates of N. S. W^alcs and 
 Van Diemen's Land ; not so hot as the former in 
 summer, nor so cold as the latter in winter. There 
 U frost sulHcicnt to freeze the surface of the poiuls 
 for two or three days perhaps every season, and 
 snow falls occasionally, but more rarely. There 
 is a good deal of wet and cold weather during the 
 three or four winter months ; and in summer 
 again, the heat is tempered by cold breezes, the 
 nights being always cool, excepting during the 
 prevalence of hot winds. Fires are agreeable 
 morning and evening for eight or nine months of 
 the year.' (Lang's Phillijisland, p. 336.) The 
 temperature at Port Phillip has been found in 
 January to average from 65° to 74° Fah., and in 
 •lune from 50° 8' to 56° Fah. Its annual range 
 is from 32° to 90°, and its annual mean about 
 
 283 
 
 61° 8' Fah. (Sfrzelccki, p. 229.) Less rain falls 
 hero than in either N. 8. Wales or Queenslaiul; 
 the annual average at Port Phillip not bi-ing moro 
 than 30'7 inches; but evaporation l)ciiig much l(>s.s 
 rapid than in the latter-named regions, this is 
 pridmbly thu district of Australia that is lH<st 
 su|)pliud with moisture. It is, however, like tlio 
 other portions of the continent, liable to severe 
 droughts. 
 
 On the N W. and E. frontiers of Victoria, there is 
 a large extent of arid and desert country, but on 
 the banks of the N. rivers there is a great deal of 
 land well adapted for agriculture, and this also is 
 the case throughout nearly all the country within 
 50 m. of the coast. Gipp's Land, in ]iarticular, 
 NE. of Wilson's pnmiontory, is a basin ccmtain- 
 ing, it is said, 320,tl00 acres of alluvial soil unen- 
 cumbered with timber and ready for the plough. 
 The port Fairy district is also sufHciently pro- 
 ductive ; and, according to Dr. Lang, there is on 
 the (ilenclg and Wannon rivers a tract of 50 ni. 
 square without an acre of bad land. (Ibid. p. 181 .) 
 The produce of wheat in the vicinity of Lake Colac 
 is stated to average 80, and that of barley 40, 
 bushels an acre ; in other parts, near the coast, 35 
 bushels of wheat are said to be a fair average. 
 Sheep-rearing is in this, as in other parts of Aus- 
 tralia, a principal branch of industry. Here, as in 
 N. S. Wales, it is chiefly let in large rmis to 
 stpuitters and grazing-fanncrs. 
 
 An attempt inaile by Col. Collins to form a 
 settlement at Port Phillip in 1803 not having 
 been persevered in, the country remained little, if 
 at all, known to Europeans until its exploration 
 by Messrs. Hovell and Hume in a journey over- 
 land from N. S. Wales, in 1824. About ten years 
 subsequently it was surveyed, and reported favour- 
 ably of as a grazing countrj', and various exten- 
 sive tracts of land were, in consequence, purchased 
 from the natives by the Van Diemen's Land Asso- 
 ciation. Immigration immediately set in with 
 great rapidity from Tasmania ; and by the end of 
 June, 1836, the pop. exceeded 200, and the stock 
 of sheej) amounted to 60,000. ' A regular villago 
 on the site of the present town of Melbourne had 
 been formed; 50 acres of land were in cultivation; 
 gardens had been laid out in various localities, and 
 the comitry was occupied for 50 m. from the port. 
 For the next eighteen months, the arrivals, both 
 of settlers and stock, from Van Diemen's Land, 
 continued at a similar rate.' (Lang, p. 29.) But 
 the colonial government having refused to recog- 
 nise the legality of any purchase made by the 
 Van Diemen's Land Association from the natives, 
 or any other in which the initiative was not taken 
 by the crown, that Association, with othetu, broke 
 up, its members being allowed, ' in consideration 
 of their payments tt) the aborigines, a remission 
 to the extent of 7,000/. of the purchase-money of 
 whatever lands they might choose to purcha S'.>. in 
 the prov. from the crown.' (Ibid. p. 33.) The 
 purchase-money obtained by the N. S. Wales 
 government for lands in this territory was then 
 appropriated to further immigration, and by the 
 end of 1840, the pop. had increased to 11,738 per- 
 sons, who possessed 50,800 head of cattle, and up- 
 wards of 782,000 sheep, and had 4,875 acres in cul- 
 tivation. In the years immediately following, the 
 mania for buying land raged as much here as in 
 N. S. W'ales: land set up by the colonial govern- 
 ment ill small lots, and at extravagant prices, was 
 so eagerly bought up, that Dr. Lang states, that 
 'a single acre of building ground in the town 
 of Melbourne realised 10,000/., or from 15 to 62 
 guineas per foot of frontage.' 
 
 The reaction which followed the land mania 
 was here, as elsewhere in Australia, productive of 
 
 H 
 
ill 
 
 284 
 
 wifle-Hpread (listrcRS. Hut tho colony, notwith- 
 Ktandini^, continued to advance. The proffrcsH of 
 Victorin, sinec tlic discovcrv of the pdd ficldH, in 
 iKol, hoH exceeded everj'thing prcvi<iusly licard 
 of, and in, in truth, all but niiraculim.s. The 
 growth of the t)o])ula(ion, as hIiowu hv the censuH 
 of nine succcH^uve periods, ia exiiibitou in the sub- 
 joined table : — 
 
 AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA) 
 
 
 
 
 
 NiimhtT 
 
 Datet of Cooiut 
 
 Mkloi 
 
 Fomkloi 
 
 Toul 
 
 of Ft'inului 
 to o»iry 
 liMHaIra 
 
 May 25, 1836 . 
 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 art 
 
 177 
 
 24-6 
 
 Nov. 8, 1(-;I6 . 
 
 186 
 
 38 
 
 224 
 
 20-4 
 
 Kept. 12, 1838 . 
 
 3,080 
 
 431 
 
 3,511 
 
 14-0 
 
 March 2, 1841 . 
 
 8,274 
 
 8,464 
 
 11,738 
 
 41-9 
 
 March 2, 1846 . 
 
 20,184 
 
 12,695 
 
 32,879 
 
 62-9 
 
 Morch 2, 1851 . 
 
 46,202 
 
 81,143 
 
 77,345 
 
 67-4 
 
 April 26, 1804 . 
 
 155,876 
 
 80,900 
 
 236,776 
 
 51'9 
 
 March 29, 1857 
 
 264,334 
 
 146,432 
 
 410,766 
 
 55-4 
 
 April 7, 1861 . 
 
 328,651 
 
 211,671 
 
 540,322 
 
 64-4 
 
 toral pursnita amounted to 62,801, cxclimivc n| 
 612 (Chinese and alM)ri(rine8, the latter nearly all 
 in the s<|iiattinK di,strictn. 
 
 The foUowiufr tal)lc» iiroscnt a succinct view ol 
 tlie state of Agriculture : — 
 
 The following were the birthplaces of the po- 
 pulation 01 each sex, according to the census of 
 the year 18G1 : — 
 
 Btrthplacei 
 
 PopulaUoD 
 
 
 
 
 
 Molei 
 
 Fonialn 
 
 Total 
 
 BnmsH : 
 
 
 
 
 Victoria 
 
 69,389 
 
 68,686 
 
 138,075 
 
 Other Australian Colo- 
 
 
 
 
 nies and New Zealand 
 
 10,336 
 
 9,500 
 
 19,386 
 
 England 
 
 108,037 
 
 61,549 
 
 169,586 
 
 Wales .... 
 
 4,333 
 
 1,722 
 
 6,058 
 
 Scotland . . 
 
 37,032 
 
 23.669 
 
 60,701 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 47,176 
 
 39,984 
 
 87,160 
 
 British Colonies (not 
 
 
 
 
 Australian) 
 
 2,675 
 
 915 
 
 3,490 
 
 India : British . 
 
 437 
 
 217 
 
 654 
 
 „ Natives . 
 
 188 
 
 16 
 
 204 
 
 Foueiqn: 
 
 
 
 
 France .... 
 
 1,026 
 
 224 
 
 1,250 
 
 Germany 
 
 8,118 
 
 2,300 
 
 10,418 
 
 Otlier parts of Europe . 
 
 6,562 
 
 376 
 
 6,938 
 
 United States 
 
 2,209 
 
 345 
 
 2,564 
 
 China .... 
 
 24,724 
 
 8 
 
 24,732 
 
 Other Countries . 
 
 346 
 
 60 
 
 406 
 
 Born at Sea . 
 
 987 
 
 853 
 
 1,840 
 
 Unspecified (British 
 
 
 
 
 Names) 
 
 408 
 
 265 
 
 663 
 
 „ (Foreign) 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 „ (Names not 
 
 
 
 
 mentioned) 
 
 1,094 
 
 106 
 
 1,200 
 
 Of British Parentage, out 
 
 
 
 
 of British Possessions . 
 
 770 
 
 409 
 
 1,179 
 
 Migratory (exclusive of 
 
 
 
 
 Cliiuese) 
 
 2,873 
 
 468 
 
 3,341 
 
 Total . 
 
 328,651 
 
 211,671 
 
 540,322 
 
 It will be seen from the above table, that among 
 the )iatives of the colony the sexes are nearly 
 e(|iuilly balanced, while they are far from beuigso 
 among the immi^ant population. Yet here, too, 
 exist enormous differences. The immigrants from 
 Scotland and Ireland seem more generally to be 
 accompanied by their families than those from 
 lingland, while among the foreign immigrants the 
 disproportion in the sexes is very striking. The 
 Germans alone have any considerable number of 
 females among them, and the rest of foreigners 
 are nearly all males. The disproportion is most 
 unfavourable among the Chinese settlers, consist- 
 ing of more than 24,000 males, but only eight 
 females. The above enumeration, in stating the 
 birthplaces, does not include l,t)94 aborigmcs, 
 namely, 1,046 males and 648 females. The abori- 
 ginal race is draAving towards extinction. 
 
 By the returns of the census of 1861, the num- 
 ber of persons engaged in agricultural and pas- 
 
 Total 
 Number 
 oftk'cu- 
 lilcn on 
 
 NaturaofCropf 
 
 Land under Crop 
 
 Tear ending Slit March 
 
 51 It March 
 
 IHU3 
 
 
 
 18U1 
 
 isot 
 
 vm 
 
 
 
 Acres 
 
 Acres 
 
 Acrts 
 
 -| micat . 
 
 161,202 
 
 196,922 
 
 lti2,IHI!) 
 
 
 Muize , . 
 
 1,«,')0 
 
 1,714 
 
 I,ivi 
 
 
 Barley 
 
 4,123 
 
 3,419 
 
 <>,S:|i| 1 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 86,337 
 
 91,061 
 
 108, lie, 
 
 
 Turnips . 
 
 495 
 
 187 
 
 \% 
 
 
 Mangold Wurzel 
 
 1,029 
 
 806 
 
 XOH 
 
 14,90oJ 
 
 Potatoes . 
 
 24,842 
 
 27,174 
 
 24,H21 
 
 
 Onions . 
 
 — 
 
 249 
 
 143 
 
 
 OtherVfgo tables 
 
 21,190 
 
 430 
 
 590 
 
 
 Other Crops . 
 
 8,652 
 
 8,041 
 
 9,;W2 
 
 
 Tobacco . 
 
 91 
 
 220 
 
 508 
 
 
 Hay . . . 
 
 90,021 
 
 74,681 
 
 101 ,«;)!) 1 
 
 
 Sown Grasses . 
 
 17,061 
 
 l(i,6«2 
 
 2.S,7I3I 
 
 
 Vines . 
 
 1,138 
 
 1,464 
 
 2,(KI7 j 
 
 
 Fallow . 
 Total . 
 
 — 
 
 16,835 
 
 18,34a 1 
 465,430 1 
 
 419,381 
 
 439,895 
 
 The subjoined table shows the produce of this 
 land under crop. 
 
 Nature of Cropi 
 
 Produce 
 
 Year ended Slit March 
 
 1801 
 
 1862 
 
 1803 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 Maize . . . 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 Oats . . . 
 
 Turnips . . 
 
 Mangold 
 Wurzel . 
 
 Potatoes . . 
 
 Onions . . 
 
 Other Vege- 
 tahlcs . . 
 
 Other Crops 
 
 Tobacco . . 
 
 Hay . . . 
 
 Sown Grasses 
 
 Vines . . . 
 
 Wine pro- 
 duced 
 
 Bushels 
 
 8,459,911 
 
 25,045 
 
 83,854 
 
 2,633,692 
 
 Tons 2,275 
 
 „ 18,446 
 „ 77,268 
 „ 1,309 
 
 ,. 4,128 
 Bush. 13,693 
 Cwts. 1,256 
 Tons 143,020 
 ^ „ 1,191 
 No. 2,838,114 
 
 Galls. 11,642 
 
 Bushels 
 
 3,607,727 
 
 20,788 
 
 68,118 
 
 2,136,430 
 
 Tons 1,161 
 
 „ 6,142 
 
 „ 69,864 
 
 Cwts. 6,262 
 
 Tons 2,731 
 Bush. 12,295 
 Cwts. 2,552 
 Tons 92,479 
 
 No. 3,818,335 
 
 Galls. 47,568 
 
 Bushels 
 
 3,0(18,487 
 
 ]43,(i.-)l 
 
 2,504,301 
 
 Tons 1,45() 
 
 „ Sfim 
 
 „ 60,.59; 
 Cwts. 6,54f' 
 
 Tons 4,31.'l 
 Bush. ld,'i:H 
 Cwts. i,»>i 
 Tons 110,680 
 
 No. 4,492,942 
 
 Galls. 91,893 
 
 The rearing of sheep and the export of wool, 
 tallow, and ludes were at Victoria, the same a-i at 
 the other Australian colonies, the chief industr\-, 
 until the iliscovery of gold. Uut even the 'gold 
 fever' did not interfere to a very great exttiit 
 with the progress of the staple occupation, as will 
 be seen from the subjoined table, which exhibits 
 the value of the exports of wool, tallow, and 
 hides during the septennial period from 1856 to 
 1862. 
 
 Tcari 
 
 Wool 
 
 Tallow 
 
 Hii'.ei 
 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 £ 
 
 1856 
 
 1,506,613 
 
 35,980 
 
 72,103 
 
 18.57 
 
 1,335,642 
 
 62,363 
 
 191,828 
 
 18.58 
 
 1,678,290 
 
 43,987 
 
 'lOO,.^? 
 
 1859 
 
 1,756,950 
 
 10,354 
 
 172,446 
 
 i860 
 
 2,025,066 
 
 18,269 
 
 144,23(i 
 
 1861 
 
 2,088,713 
 
 75,784 
 
 100,384 
 
 1862 
 
 2,360,956 
 
 66,515 
 
 130,350 
 
 The total value of the imports and exports of 
 Victoria in the twelve years from 1851 to 1862 
 was as follows : — 
 
AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA) 
 
 28.'i 
 
 ,Rni, cxrlimivc ol 
 10 latter iiuurly all 
 
 a Buccinct view ul 
 
 Land under Crop 
 it ending 51it March 
 
 381 
 
 1864 
 
 Acre* 
 
 190,922 
 
 1,714 
 
 3,419 
 
 91,001 
 
 187 
 
 800 
 
 27,174 
 
 249 
 
 43(1 
 
 8,041 
 
 220 
 
 74,081 
 
 1(S,692 
 
 1,404 
 
 16,835 
 
 m05 
 
 439,895 465,430 
 
 the produce of tliU 
 
 Produce 
 
 idcd Slit March 
 
 1802 
 
 BuebclB 
 
 3,607,727 
 
 20,788 
 
 68,118 
 
 2,136,430 
 
 Tons 1,161 
 
 1803 
 
 6,142 
 
 59,364 
 
 6,262 
 
 2,731 
 ish. 12,295 
 
 2,552 
 M 92,479 
 
 Bushels 
 
 3,008,48" 
 
 l'J,7'Jii 
 
 143,".-,( 
 
 2,504,;;i)l 
 
 Tona l,4il(. 
 
 „ 8,0811 
 „ 50,.Mi; 
 Cwts. 6,54!' 
 
 Tons 4,31-1 
 Bush. 19,2.'>T 
 Cwts. 4,3-.M 
 Tons 110,68(1 
 
 .3,818,335 No. 4,402,942 
 ,11s. 47,508 Galls. 91,893 
 
 the export of wool, 
 itoria, the same as at 
 1, the chief industry-, 
 But even the 'gold 
 _a very great extiMit 
 le occupation, as will 
 ible, whicli exhibits 
 ' -wool, tallow, and 
 period from 1856 to 
 
 rallow 
 
 Hidei 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 5,980 
 
 72,103 
 
 2,303 
 
 191,828 
 
 3,987 
 
 in(i,.V27 
 
 0,3.')4 
 
 172,446 
 
 8,209 
 
 144,23(i 
 
 5,784 
 
 100,384 
 
 6,515 
 
 130,350 
 
 )orts and exports of 
 from 1851 to 1862 
 
 Tean 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 1H5'I 
 18.'4 
 1K.'|5 
 1H56 
 1857 
 1858 
 18.19 
 1860 
 18(11 
 1802 
 
 
 ImiwrU 
 
 F.ipnrtt 
 
 
 .fi 
 
 £ 
 
 
 1,050,437 
 
 1,422,909 
 
 
 4,009,742 
 
 7,451, .549 
 
 
 16,842,037 
 
 11,001,514 
 
 
 17,059,051 
 
 11,775,204 
 
 
 12,007,939 
 
 13,403,338 
 
 
 14,902,209 
 
 15,489,700 
 
 
 17,250,209 
 
 16,079,512 
 
 
 16,108,249 
 
 13,989,209 
 
 
 16,622,891 
 
 13,807,859 
 
 
 16,093,730 
 
 12,902,704 
 
 
 13,532,452 
 
 13,828,606 
 
 
 13,487,787 
 
 13,039,422 
 
 Tiic immense Increase in both the iniport.t and 
 exports, visible in the preceding table as com- 
 nicnciii},' witli the year 1H.'J8, marks the era of the 
 Victorian K"1<1 discoveries. It will be seen that, 
 owinir to these discoveries, the imports lonjied 
 siiddi'iily from 4 to above 15J millions, and the 
 exports "from 7 to 11 millions, between 1862 and 
 18a,^. In 1830 Victoria produced 2,985,00(5 ounces 
 of gold; in 18.57 the quantity was 2,70 1,. 528 oz., 
 in 18,58 it was 2,.528,188 oz., in 1859 it was 
 2,280,670 oz„ in 1800 it was 2,150,001 oz., in 18(il 
 it was 2,072,359 oz., and in 1802 it was 1,711,508 
 
 ounces. . .... 
 
 The following was the estimated popiuatu)n, dis- 
 tinguishing the Chinese, in each mining district 
 of the gold fields, on December 31, 1802. 
 
 Dbtricli 
 
 Ballarat . 
 Castlemalno 
 Maryboro* 
 Ararat . . 
 Sandhurst . 
 Beechworth 
 
 Total. . 
 
 Other than Chlneie 
 
 Chlneie 
 
 Men 
 31,126 
 13,973 
 39,613 
 
 7,550 
 13,720 
 13,504 
 
 Women 
 11,025 
 6,510 
 8,289 
 2,210 
 4,080 
 4,260 
 
 Children 
 16,516 
 4,924 
 13,2.38 
 2,400 
 4,820 
 4,315 
 
 Total 
 
 67,006 
 24,407 
 61,170 
 12,160 
 22,020 
 22,009 
 
 5,7.')2 
 6.183 
 3,304 
 1,400 
 2,740 
 6,447 
 
 119,515 
 
 35,364 
 
 48,212 
 
 200,091 
 
 24,880 
 
 The 24,880 Chinese engaged in search of gold 
 were nearly all males, there being but one woman 
 of the same race included in the number. The 
 larger proportion of the Chinese males were be- 
 tween the ages of 20 and 45. 
 
 According to returns of March 1863, the popu- 
 lation on the gold fields amounted to ?'?9,600, of 
 whom 88,000 were actually engaged r. mining. 
 They had in use 776 steam engmes, equal to 
 11,760 horse power. For alluvial mining there 
 were besides 3,256 puddling machines, and a va- 
 riety of other machinery, estimated of the value 
 of 1,486,000/. The total area of the territory of 
 the colony where gold had been found, from 1851 
 till March 1863, extended over 1,764 m. The 
 produce of the gold fields, however, appears to be 
 steadily diminishing, and agriculture is again be- 
 coming the main industry of the inhabitants of 
 Alctoria. (Westgarth Wm., The Colony of Vic- 
 toria, London, 1864.) 
 
 The great, but by no means beneficial, influence 
 exercised by the gold discoveries upon agricul- 
 tural pursuits, as far as regards the rearing of 
 live stock, is shown in the returns during the 
 twenty-seven years from 1830 to 1862, as given in 
 the following table. 
 
 It will be seen, from this table, that the extra- 
 ordinary growth of commerce, beginning with 
 the year 1853, was marked also by a decrease in 
 the live stock, which continued steadily for several 
 
 years, till having got to the lowest, it again rose, 
 
 and, in 1861-02, reached the old figure, showing a 
 
 healthy revival of agriculture. 
 
 Tean 
 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 llorwi 
 
 Homed CattI* 
 
 8hnp 
 
 78 
 
 624 
 
 2,373 
 
 165 
 13,272 
 
 60,837 
 
 41,332 
 
 i;:o,f4« 
 
 782,283 
 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 4,066 
 6,278 
 7,076 
 9,289 
 
 100,792 
 107,156 
 187,873 
 231,002 
 
 1,404,3.33 
 1,002.708 
 1,800,912 
 1,792,-527 
 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1860 
 
 11,400 
 13,292 
 16,495 
 10,733 
 21,219 
 
 290,439 
 322,824 
 380,088 
 a40,5(i2 
 878,806 
 
 2,990,992 
 4,104,203 
 6,130,277 
 6,318,(140 
 6,032,783 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 18.'.3 
 18.54 
 1855 
 
 22,086 
 34,021 
 16,100 
 27,038 
 83,430 
 
 390,923 
 431,380 
 410,139 
 481,040 
 634,113 
 
 6,589,923 
 6,551,50(i 
 6,594,220 
 6,3:12.007 
 4,577,872 
 
 1856 
 18.'i7 
 18.58 
 18.59 
 18(i0 
 
 47,832 
 65,(i83 
 68,323 
 69,288 
 76,536 
 
 646,613 
 614,537 
 699,330 
 683,534 
 722,332 
 
 4,641 ,.548 
 4,700,022 
 6,578,413 
 6,794.127 
 6,780,896 
 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 84.057 
 86,067 
 
 628,092 
 670,001 
 
 0,239,258 
 6,704,851 
 
 Victoria po8se.sscs the largest railway system 
 in Australia. There were in existence on the Ist 
 of January 1863, the following lines : — 
 
 Kallwaji 
 
 LcnKth 
 ofUnm 
 
 Coit of Conitructinn 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 Total Coit 
 
 & 
 
 Victorian Uailwuys :— 
 
 Miles 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Melbourne Si Sandhurst 
 
 101- 
 
 4,084,080 
 
 40,430 
 
 Melbourne, Oeelong, 
 
 
 
 
 and Ballarat . 
 
 OS- 
 
 2,064,377 
 
 21 ,005 
 
 Williamatown Branch 
 
 S' 
 
 402,260 
 
 4'1,694 
 
 Melbourne and Hobson's 
 
 
 
 
 Bay .... 
 
 6-37 
 
 4.33,486 
 
 68,020 
 
 Melbourne and Brighton 
 
 6-57 
 
 234,068 
 
 36,015 
 
 Melbourne . 
 Total . 
 
 6-63 
 
 367,114 
 
 63,431 
 33,435 
 
 226-67 
 
 7,675,375 
 
 The whole of these lines were either constructed 
 by the state, or purchased by the same from private 
 companies, the money being raised by h)ans. 
 
 The total amount of the gross public revenue 
 and of the expenditure of the colony, in each of 
 the years 1856 to 1802, was aa follows : — 
 
 Tean 
 
 ReTenue 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 18.56 
 
 2,940,658 
 
 2,232,064 
 
 1857 
 
 3,272,040 
 
 2,963,326 
 
 1858 
 
 3,064,783 
 
 2,915,-379 
 
 1859 
 
 3,258,792 
 
 8,450,241 
 
 I860 
 
 3,039,035 
 
 8.311,308 
 
 1861 
 
 3,070,721 
 
 3,125,767 
 
 1862 
 
 3,217,760 
 
 2,853,121 
 
 The chief sources of the revenue of Victoria, 
 until the year 1862, were customs' duties and sales 
 of public lands, which, with some fluctuation.s, 
 produced about one-half of the annual income. 
 A new source of revenue was more recently added 
 in the receipts derived from public works, including 
 the railways, the management of which remain.s 
 in the hands of the government. 
 
 The debt of Victoria amounts to about nine mil- 
 
Ui f 
 
 '::li 
 
 286 AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA) 
 
 Unnn, of which not more thnn one million is held 
 in the colony, the rent heing hold in (Jrent Hritnin. 
 Tins debt iHnluKwt entirely conipom-d of the grent 
 rnilwny lonn authorincd in 185K, and amountinf^ 
 to eight millionH. Seven millionH of this sum 
 were made payat>le in I^ondon, and the remaining 
 million in MellxMinic. T le total of eight millionH, 
 it is probable, will l)e exceeded to some extent in 
 the construction of the railways, in consequence 
 of liabilities involved in the purchase of the Gee- 
 long and Melbourne line from a jmvate company, 
 with the object of completing the railway system 
 in the hands of the government. The remainder 
 <if the colony's debt consists of several other 
 sums, that amounted originally to above a million 
 and a half sterling. One of these items was 
 600,000/,, and another 200,000/., contracted in the 
 year IHM, on Iwhalf of the municipalities of Mel- 
 bourne and (leelong, and repayable by the goveni- 
 mcnt; another was for W20,odo/., exiwnded in the 
 construction of water-works for Mell)ourne. The 
 great railway loan is not repayable until the 
 years 18X3-85; but the other liabilities are to be 
 discharged previous to ISTf) (Westgarth, The 
 Colony of Victoria, Lon<l. 1804; ]{eport of <Jo- 
 venior Sir C. Darling, dated Melbourne, March 14, 
 18(i4.) 
 
 The constitution of Victoria was established by 
 an act, ])assed by the legislature of the colony 
 in 1854, to which the assent of the Crown was 
 given, in pursuance of the power granted by the 
 act of the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict, 
 cap. 55. This eiiarter vests the legislative autho- 
 rity in a parliament of two chambers, the Legis- 
 ative Council and the House of Assembly. The 
 council consists of thirty and the assembly of 
 seventy-eight members. I'he members of council 
 must be owners of freehold estates worth 500/. a 
 year ; and are required to be at least thirty years 
 of age and British bom subjects. Six members 
 retire by rotation every two years, and new ones 
 arc elected by voters, possessed of a property qua- 
 lification of 100/. a y( Mr. In the constituencies for 
 the election of members of the assembly, a vote is 
 given to every man of the age of twenty-one years, 
 iMjing a natural Iwm or naturalised subject, hold- 
 ing a freehold estate situate within his electoral 
 district, or being a householder of the anuiial 
 value of 10/., or having a leasehold of the annual 
 value of 10/. It is provided also by the electoral 
 act that no man shall he entitled to vote, who 
 has been attainted, or convicted of treason, felony, 
 or other infamous offence in any part of her 
 Majesty's dominions, unless he has received a free 
 pardon, or one conditional on not leaving the 
 colony for such offence, or has undergone the 
 sentence passal on him for such offence. The 
 members of the House of Assembly receive com- 
 pensation for their service. The salary of the 
 l)resident of the Legislative Council is 1,000/. per 
 annum, and that of the speaker of the House of 
 Assembly 1,600/. The executive is vested in a 
 governor-general, appointed by the Crown. 
 
 AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY OF), the nucleus 
 and centre of the Austrian empire, divided into 
 tlie two provs. of Austria above the Enns and 
 Austria l)elow the Enns, commonly termed Upper 
 and Lower Austria, lies between lat. 40" 57' 26" 
 and 49° 0' 30" N., and long. 12° 46' and 17° 7' E. 
 It contains 15,017 Eng. sq. m., of which 7,317 
 belong to the upper, and 7,700 to the lower prov. 
 The boundary of the archduchy is formed towards 
 Tyrol and Carinthia by the central chain of the 
 Korth Alps, in which the primitive formations 
 predominate. The highest summits are the Gross 
 Glockner, 11,782/ ft., Sulzbach Kees, 11,270 ft., 
 
 AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY OF) 
 
 and Krummhorn, 11,104 ft. Immense glndpni 
 and beds of etenial snow fill the clefts and cover 
 the higher declivities of these mountaiiiH, fmni 
 which several important rivers derive their oriL'in 
 The N. limestone range of the Alps forms the 
 iKnindary between the archduchy and Styrin, ami 
 branches from it cover large portions of tho 
 country. One of these, the Wiener Wald, nit- 
 p taches to nenr Vienna, but it gradually ditnl- 
 '.lishes in elev^ation as it recedes from the f,Ti»ni| 
 ihain. To the N. of the Danulte the Itohc 
 mian forest throws out its offsets to that rivcr'n 
 bed, whose banks oft'er, in cons<'quence, liji'hiv 
 picturesque scenery during its course from IWaij 
 t'« Vienna. The Lesser (!arpathians and the \.vi\\\n 
 lills mark the frontier towards llinigary on tliu E. 
 The southern, or limestone, range is traversed at 
 several points by the affluents of the Danuln', the 
 Inn, Salza, Traun, and Enns, which are navipiMe 
 along the greater part of their course. Th ' Lcitlm 
 falls into the Danube in Hungarv, and the M(i- 
 rawa, or March, which rises in Xloravin, imitos 
 with that river on its left bank, a little to tlip \V, 
 of Presburg, after having for some distance markcii 
 the Hungarian frontier. The Mur, wliich rises 
 amongst the lofty summits of Lungau in Salzburi; 
 flows into StATia. 
 
 The Danube enters the Austrian territon' at 
 Innstadt, opposite Passau, where it is joined liy tlio 
 Inn, which is here nearlv as large as the stream 
 into which it merges. Linz being looked upon as 
 the key of the river, strong fortifications have been 
 erected for its protection. The navigation of the 
 Danube between Passau and Vienna is accnm- 
 panied ■with no difHculty except that of over- 
 coming a strong current in mounting the stream, 
 The high rocky banks confine the river in one licil, 
 and its depth is considerable, with the exceptinn 
 of a spot near Grein, where reefs of rocks occasidn 
 a surf which used fonnerly to be much dreaded; 
 but they have been so far reduced by blasting 
 that they no longer offer any serious obstaele to 
 navigators. Between this point and Presburf; the 
 fall of the river is said to amount to 450 ft., and 
 the rapidity of its current in the canal of Vienna 
 to be 8 ft. a second. This canal is an arm thrown 
 off from the main stream a few miles above the 
 city, under the walls of which it passes. The 
 main stream is separated from Vienna by the 
 Prater island, and one or two small islets. " The 
 island of Lobau, about 2 m. below Vienna, is 
 famous for being the spot to which, in 1809, Na- 
 poleon retreated after the battle of Aspem, and 
 from which he issued previously to the battle of 
 Wagram. On the frontiers of Hungary th<. Danube 
 is once more shut in between the fall of the Alps, 
 which flatten down almost to its level on the S., 
 and the rise of the Lesser Carpathians on the N. 
 bank. This passage divides the river into the 
 Lower and the Upper Danube ; the former in 
 antiquity was called the Ister. 
 
 The lakes of Upper Austria are celebrated for 
 their picturesque scenery, and are eminently use- 
 ful as means of internal communication. The mdst 
 remarkable are those of Gmllnden or Traun, 7J ni, 
 in length, and nearly 2 m. across in the broadest 
 part; and of Hallstadt, 5 m. long, and about 1 m. 
 broad ; the lake of Aussec, which is much smaller, 
 is connected with the other two by means of the 
 river Traun, and the salt produced along the line 
 it traverses, with the timber and other products of 
 the extensive forests of the Sahkammergut (as 
 this portion of the duchy of Salzburg is named), 
 are forwarded by its means to the Danube. The 
 Atter Lake is 11^ m. long, and 2 J m. broad 'The 
 lakes Mondsee and St, Gilgen are also extensive, 
 but are not connected with any navigable river, 
 
Y OF) 
 
 mcnse (jlncioni 
 lefts nn(i ('(ivtT 
 ounlninH, fruni 
 ve their orijrin. 
 Vlps f'oni\.s the 
 jiitl Styrift, nncl 
 irtioiiH of tlif 
 ■ner Wnld, nji- 
 ."•n<liinlly dimi- 
 fnim tl\e (^nml 
 hJk) the lldlic- 
 » to tlmt rivcr'n 
 i'quonce, lii!,'lily 
 THc from I'liiisim 
 H nntl the l.citlm 
 iiiKHry <>» tli(! K. 
 e is travcrwd at 
 the DnniilM', the 
 ch are iinviniilile 
 rsc. TlvLi'itlia 
 rv, and the Mii- 
 Moriivin, iiiiitos 
 I littUi to tlip W. 
 distance markcil 
 Slur, which rises 
 igau in Saliburj;, 
 
 rian territorj' at 
 it is joined tiy tlio 
 r^e as tlie Htream 
 !}f hK)ked upon as 
 icationshavc liccn 
 navigation of the 
 Vienna is aecom- 
 !pt that of ovtr- 
 inting the stream. 
 le river in one bed, 
 ith the exception 
 » of roclis occasidn 
 be much dreadwl; 
 luceil by hlastini;, 
 srious obstacle to 
 . anil Presbur}; the 
 .int to 450 ft., and 
 je canal of Vienna 
 |l is an arm thrown 
 \w miles above the 
 \\ it passes. The 
 m Vienna by the 
 [small islets. The 
 below Vienna, is 
 [hich, in 1809, Xa- 
 :le of Aspem, and 
 [ly to the battle of 
 ingaiy the Danube 
 16 fall of the Alps, 
 its level on the S., 
 [athians on the N. 
 ihe river into the 
 the former in 
 
 are celebrated for 
 kre eminently HPC- 
 tication. Themopt 
 lenorTrami,7Jni. 
 |a in the broadest 
 fig, and about 1 m. 
 Ih is much smaller, 
 To by means of the 
 tccd along the line 
 Id other products of 
 Kahkammergut (as 
 Ilzburg is named), 
 ItheDamibc. The 
 l2im. broad. The 
 Ire also extensive, 
 ly na\'igaWe river, 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 287 
 
 except for the ptirpose of flontlng down wood. 
 The niiml)ef and variety of the waterfalls add 
 itrefttlv to the Iwauty of the mountain scenery. 
 
 Kx tensive morasses are found in Upper Aus- 
 tn»,M the valo of I'inkgau, or of the Salzn. In 
 the Mlihl circle, on the N. siile of the Danube, 
 and in the ncighlM)urhood of the principal lakes, 
 Wf tracts <jf marshy land also occur. 
 
 The climate of the archdiuihy varies according 
 to tlie elevation of the ground. In Up|)cr Austria 
 the moan temperature at Linz has licen found to 
 • + 7° ()' Keaumur's scale ( = 48° 2«' Fahr.) ; at 
 
 Salzl)iirg it w 
 
 at kremsmllnstcr, 7"^ 4'. 
 
 510 7' 
 
 The 
 
 <'4i'R. 
 At Viemia the mean heat is 8° JHI' K. ( 
 Fdir)- in 1830 it reached + 5° .5;j' K, 
 L'rcatest heat in that year was + 2(io 8' 1{. (!100 
 4«'Fahr.): the greatest cold, -14° 4' (= 0° 2 1' 
 Fahr.). The mean elevation of the barometer 
 wan -*«' 2" 4'". In 1837 the greatest cold was 
 _li)°5'H. (= — l'55Falir.). The elevation of 
 Vienna is 054 ft., that of Salzburg 1 ,2.50 ft., aliovo 
 tlie level of the sea. Baron Wehlon has llxcd the 
 limit of forest vegetation at 5,000 ft,, that of 
 etennd snow at 8,000 ft. 
 
 Tiic surface of the country in Upper Austria 
 presents a succession of mountain tracts, whose 
 elevation, in the southern parts, admits of little 
 cultivation, but which are extensively clothed 
 with tine and valuable forests. As they subside 
 towards the Danube the country assumes a more 
 cidtivated appearance, but the effects? of the cold 
 winds from the snow-covered summits is detri- 
 mental to the growth of the more delicate plants. 
 The vine is first met with at Krems in Lower 
 Austria: it follows thence the course of the 
 Danube, and where the mountains open near the 
 capital, both their sides and the plains are covered 
 with vineyards, interspersed with fruit trees of 
 every description. The valley of the Enns is re- 
 markable for its luxuriant growth of com, as is 
 the plain of TuUa on th»j Danul)e, The March- 
 fcld between the Moravian frontier and the Danube 
 is also highly productive, though much exijosed 
 to drought. 
 
 The archduchy is distributed into ten divisions, 
 whereof iive, including the captain-generalship of 
 Vienna, are in the lower, and the like number in 
 the upper, prov. The pop. of the former amounted, 
 in 1857, to 1,681.697, and that of the latter to 
 707,450, making together 2,389,147. 
 
 The agriculture of the archduchy is generally 
 (rood, although open to many improvements, espe- 
 cially in the cultivation of the vine. The best 
 wines are produced near Vienna. Cyder is exten- 
 avely made in Upper Austria. 
 
 Coals, iron, and alum are produced to some, 
 though but a very limited, extent, in Lower Aus- 
 tria: and in addition to these products, the mines 
 of the upper prov. supply smaU quantities of gold, 
 silver, and copper. The salt works, at different 
 places in the latter, furnish employment to more 
 than 6,000 individuals, and yield large quantities 
 of salt. 
 
 Owing to the great consumption of all articles 
 in the capital, the province exports but little pro- 
 duce, while ita imports are proportionally great. 
 As the high roads from Trieste and Hungary to 
 the westem and northern provinces pass through 
 Vienna, the carrying business is extensive, and in 
 li^eneral well managed; and the communication 
 between the cajntal and all the provinces is very 
 brisk. The roods throughout the archduchy 
 are excellent, and the communication between 
 Vienna and the upper province, as well as with 
 Hungary, is facilitated by steam navigation on 
 the Danube, by means of which the journey from 
 Linz to the capital is p^ormed in a day, and that 
 
 from Vienna to Pcsth in eighteen hours. Vienna 
 is also connected by railways with all the provs. 
 of the emi)iro. 
 
 The inhabitants of the archduchy ore all Ger- 
 mans, and are distinguished for their industry 
 and quicknest of apprehension. As the pojiula- 
 tion is more sparingly distributed in the moun- 
 tainous parts than in the plains and valleys, there 
 is an appearance of well-doing throughout all 
 classes of the inhabitants ; and the scIkmUs for the 
 lower classes are both numerous and well at- 
 tende<l. The dress and manners of the inhabitants 
 of the mountainous parts, especially of Salzburg, 
 resemble those prevailing in Styria and Tyrol, as 
 the manners and customs, as well as the (K;cupn- 
 tions, of the Austrian mountaineer are nearly the 
 same with those of the neighbouring provinces. 
 The business of driving the cattle up to the Alpine 
 pastures in summer, whence in the autumn they 
 are brought (h)wn with festive parade, is the dis 
 partmcnt of the women. Ilantl-weaviiig and the 
 spinning of flax, cotttm, and wool, arc much 
 carried on, especially during the winter. Agri- 
 culture is the chief employment of the inhabitants 
 of the duchy, and is managed with considerable 
 skill. The mountaineer is confined to more frugal 
 fare than that enjoyed by the inhab. of the plain ; 
 oatmeal or barley puddings, prepared with the 
 milk and butter of his cows, being his chief sufn 
 port. Whether this species of nourishment, or 
 the quality of the water, or the nature of his oc- 
 cupations, be the cause of the goitre or swelling of 
 the neck, which commences on the mountains on 
 the Styrian frontier, is unknown. The lowlanders' 
 enjoyments are sought in the dance and in the 
 wine-pot, of which his libations, especially of the 
 one-year-old liquor {heuriger), arc both deep and 
 frequent. The large earnings of the peasantrj' 
 give a cheerful appearance to a large portion of 
 the lower classes, that is scarcely to be met with 
 anywhere else ; and the Lower Austrian deserves 
 credit for both earning the good things of this 
 life, and for enioying them. 
 
 The Gubenna at Linz and Vienna are the chief 
 provincial authorities for the provs. of Upper and 
 Lower Austria. Under these is the captain of the 
 circle, who unites the judicial and administrative 
 powers, in as far as the inhabitants of the country 
 are conceme<l. In towns the administration of police 
 is confided to a special commissary, and the magis- 
 tracy performs the judicial functions. The manorial 
 courts of the large proprietors are placed under the 
 courts of the circle, and may be appealed from to 
 the latter. The governor of Upper Austria resides 
 at Linz, the cap. of the prov. and the seat of the 
 authorities. Those for Lower Austria reside at 
 Vienna. The Archbishop of Vienna is the head 
 of the clerical authorities in the Catholic Church 
 for Lower Austria; the Archbishop of Sakburg 
 exercises the same functions for the upper prov. 
 Superintendents at Linz and Vienna conduct the 
 clerical affairs of the Protestants under the Con- 
 sistory at Vienna. The commander of the forces 
 for both provinces resides at Vienna. 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF), one of the largest, 
 mos.t populous, and most important of the Euro- 
 pean states. 
 
 Situation and Extent. — The empire of Austria is 
 situated in central and southern Europe; and, 
 with the exception of a narrow strip at its S. 
 extremity, projecting along the coast of the Adri- 
 atic, its territory forms a compact mass. It ex- 
 tends from about 42* to 51' N. lat,, and from 
 about 8° 30' to 20° 30' E, long. Its length from 
 Lake Constance to the E. frontier of Transyl- 
 vania is alM)ut 850 m., and its breadth (exclusive 
 of Dalmatia), from the S. frontier of Croatia to 
 
 M 
 
288 
 
 tbo mont N. point of Rolicmin, about 4!i'2 m. Tlic 
 totul nrcn Is cNlimuti'd, in th« olficial rctimiN, at 
 I l,'2<V2'NH AiiNtrimi hi|. m., or '2.'l(i,.'ll I Mn^l. xq. in. 
 On tlu! H., An.striii ix iHiundtul \ty Tiirkt-y, tlic 
 Ailriatii! 8(>n, nnil tlu; kiiiplom of Ilnly; W. by 
 Itnly, Swilzcrlnnil, iinil Ituvnria; N. by I'niHMiu 
 nnit liuHHinn Polnnil ; and I'), by KuHxia and Mol- 
 ilavia. The fronticrH of tlic I'mjiiro are wfli de- 
 fined liy natural IxiundarieH, conxistin); princiimlly 
 of nnountainM anti bir^e riven*, with tlic oxcej)- 
 tion of a I'onNiderablu |M)rtion of the frontier of 
 (iaiicia, along the Ku88ian territory, which h 
 quite o|)en, 
 
 DivmoM and Population. — The Austrian em- 
 pire in coni|>o«ed of miniy HtatoH, tlitVeriuK widely 
 ni extent and iKipiilation. Tlie p-eater part of 
 these HtateH haviM^ been united under the iin^ic- 
 rial sceptre by |K>acenblc nieauH — that is, by ni- 
 lieritance or by treaty — llie boinidaries of all 
 remain as Ihey existed whilst they were inde- 
 pendent, with the exception of the reduced Italian 
 provinces. 
 
 Tlie foUowinR table shows the area and nop. c»f 
 each prov., accordiuf^ to tlie census of October .'11, 
 lt<(>7. Deducted from the statement are the 
 Lombard i)rovinces ceded to Italy in 18o9 : — 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMriRE OF) 
 
 
 Arra 
 
 Populaltoti 
 
 FroTlncM 
 
 In AuBtrInn 
 t$4uari) Mllcf 
 
 Total 
 
 To each 
 Square HIIp 
 
 Tjower Austria 
 
 344-49 
 
 I,<i8l,fi97 
 
 4,882 
 
 Upi»r „ 
 
 a08-47 
 
 7»7,4M) 
 
 8,394 
 
 Sal/,l)urg . 
 
 124T)'J 
 
 14(i,7(i9 
 
 1,179 
 
 Styria . 
 
 JlitO-lU 
 
 l,or)(i,773 
 
 2,708 
 
 Carinthia 
 
 180-Jfi 
 
 3;t2,4.')(i 
 
 1,844 
 
 Caniiola 
 
 17HT.7 
 
 4S 1,941 
 
 2,(i04 
 
 Const Innd 
 
 i;m-H2 
 
 620.978 
 
 8,763 
 
 Tyrol & Vorarlberg 
 
 fioa-oo 
 
 8.''>1,01U 
 
 l,tl72 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 90'J-8.'i 
 
 4,li>r,,r,-2r, 
 
 6,212 
 
 Moravia . 
 
 38fi'2!) 
 
 I,8(i7,n94 
 
 4,833 
 
 .Silesia . 
 
 8!C4.5 
 
 443.912 
 
 4,903 
 
 Gnli'iia . 
 
 l,3(i4-0(t 
 
 4,.W7,47II 
 
 3,370 
 
 Biieowina 
 
 181't;0 
 
 4ri<i,92n 
 
 2,616 
 
 Dnlmntia 
 
 22-J-:io 
 
 404,499 
 
 1,820 
 
 Lombard-Venetian 
 
 430-92 
 
 2,44<>,0.'iU 
 
 5,698 
 
 Hungary • ) 
 Servia & Temesva j 
 
 3,727-07 
 
 9,900,78.') 
 
 2,066 
 
 Croatio ii Slavonia 
 
 33'.'500 
 
 87(i,009 
 
 2,016 
 
 Trnnsylvania 
 
 9.'54-33 
 
 l,92fi,797 
 
 2,019 
 
 Military Frontier . 
 Total 
 
 683"00 
 
 1,0(14,922 
 
 1,827 
 
 11, 252-88 
 
 35,019,068 
 
 3,114 
 
 Included in the above total of the population 
 arc 679,989 men, of different provinces, inscribed 
 on the lists os bclon^ring to the military service. 
 
 The population is divided with respect to race 
 and language into the following nationalities, ac- 
 cording to an official estimate of the year 1861 : — 
 
 Germans 
 
 . 8,200,000 
 
 Bohemians 
 
 ' 
 
 Mornviiins 
 
 • 3,000,000 
 
 Slovncks 
 
 
 roles 
 
 . 2,200,000 
 
 Tlussians 
 
 . 2,800,000 
 
 Slovenians 
 
 . 1,210,000 
 
 Croats . 
 
 . 1,300,000 
 
 Servians 
 
 . 1,470,000 
 
 Bulgarians 
 
 26,000 
 
 Magyars . 
 Italians (in-\ 
 elusive of I 
 Latins and f 
 Friauls) j 
 Eastern-Bo- 
 mans . . 
 Members of 
 other races . 
 
 6,050,000 
 3,050,000 
 
 2,700,000 
 1,430,000 
 
 Nearly every province, aa shown in the pre- 
 ceding table, differs from the others in the density 
 and cllstribution of its populadon. In Ualicia and 
 Hungary, both agricultural countries with com- 
 paratively little trade, the villages are usually 
 very large and populous, but widely scattered. In 
 the .southern and western provinces, the inhabi- 
 tants are so much ditTused over the face of the 
 country, that the inmates of towns form but a 
 small proportion of the whole, and consist almost 
 
 ex(dusively of tho nobility and traders. Tli(> 
 (ierman and Slavonic provinceH Hhow a mediiim 
 iM'tween the two. 
 
 fare of the Country, — Mountu'mii. — The A ii»f rinn 
 empire exhibits every variety of surfaeo. '\\<i„ 
 grand mountain ranges, branching from tlu'contml 
 groupof the Alps, traverse it in diHerent dircciinn^. 
 throwing out numerous and extensive (h'peiiilcin 
 branches. The first of these, which hns hoin 
 termed the //cm/n<>-C»rpa/Aian chain, divides the 
 regions of the (ierman Ocean and llaliit; fKim 
 those of the lilack Sea and Mediterranean, l.eavlii" 
 the canton of Orisons, in Switzerland, lhi)i mm\\. 
 tain range traverses Vorarlberg in a N. dircctinii 
 to the lake of ('onstance: thence it passes tliriiii;,'li 
 Wirteniberg and liavaria, separating the rcKldiis 
 of the Kliiiie and Kibe from that of the Daiiiilic, 
 and re-enters Austria on the NK. frontier of Hd. 
 hernia, where it throws off an extensive branch of 
 the Krz (Ore) mountains, which stretclies inid 
 that kingdom and into Saxony. Taking a S\'„ 
 direction from the sources of the Kyer, this clinin 
 runs, under the name of the 'Koheinian F(iro>i,' 
 nearly to the Panulie. where it once more divcri;! ■( 
 to the N'K., and dividing Moravia from liohc^mia. 
 sends out a branch into Prussian Silesia and I,i|. 
 satia, named the Hiesen (Oiant) mountains, (in 
 the frontiers of (ialicia and Ilnngar}- it joins the 
 Car|>ntliians, which branch off to the Dmiiiljii 
 near I'resburg. The central Carpathians fonn Wv: 
 boundary between the above-named prnvini'cs, ns 
 far as tho sources of the Save and Dniester, wli(>ro 
 a chain of low heights stretches from them into tln' 
 Kussian territories, se|)arating the region of tlic 
 Vistulo from thot of the Dniester. The enstcni 
 Carpathians cover the NE. counties of Hiiiifjnn', 
 the Hiikowine, and Transylvania, aa far as tlit 
 Danube. 
 
 The second mountain range, which has muoli 
 more elevated summits, and covers a larger tract 
 of countrj', divides the regitm of the Mediterrarcaii 
 from that of the Black Sea : it stretches from the 
 frontiers of'Switzerland and Italy in three chains, 
 which, through the Tyrol, run nearly parallel to 
 each other. The central chain exhibits the pri- 
 mitive formations of granite and slate : \i» summits 
 are covered with eternal snow, above the elcvatidn 
 of 8,000 feet. Following the right bank of tiie 
 Inn, as far as the point of junction of Snlzburj; 
 and Carinthia, it to'ies a NE. direction through 
 Styria into Hungary, and subsides in the Leitha 
 chain near the Danube. The two accompanying' 
 chains are of limestone: that on the >i.covm 
 northern Tyrol, Salzburg, and great part of the 
 Archduchy of Austria, and is intersected by the 
 numerous streams which flow from the central 
 chain to the Danube. The S. parallel chain sends 
 its ramifications from S. Tyrol into Italy, and, 
 possing through Illyria and the Croatian frontier 
 district, unites with the Balkhan on the borders of 
 Bosnia. Three important branches strike off from 
 this chain, one of which stretches between the 
 rivers Kaab and Drave, under the name of the 
 Bahony Forest, into Himgary; a second dividw 
 the regicm of the Drave from the valley of the 
 Save ; and the thinl, stretching along the Adri- 
 atic through Dalmatia, is called by the natives, 
 from its dark colour, Monte Nero, or Negro. 
 
 The principal valleys in Austria are situated in 
 the southern provinces, and nm parallel with the 
 Alps, in the direction of W. to E. They are foiuid 
 in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and Illyria. Croatia 
 belongs for the greater part to the valley of the 
 Save ; and Slavonia to the valley of the Drave. 
 
 Large plains are also found within the empire ; 
 they follow, for the most part, the course of liie 
 principJ rivers. The plam or basin of Vienna, 
 
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 wliich strptphp" from Hic T^oiUm moiiiitniiin to the 
 liriL'lili* "'" Mofiviii, in Iravcwrd \>y tliu DaiiiilHi 
 
 aii,l tlie Miiri'li. 
 
 , yliich liaa miieli 
 )ver8 a larner tract 
 ithcModiterrancau 
 stretches from the 
 ily ill three cliaiiis, 
 nearly parallel tn 
 , cxhibitH the pri- 
 slate : its sunimits 
 Ibove the elcviUiim 
 [rifiht bank of the 
 iction of Salzbiirj; 
 itUrection through 
 clea in the Lcitha 
 
 III lliin(;iiry I hero iire two vory 
 oxtciiHive plainn; one in IJ|>i"mt IliiMKiiry. xitiiate'd 
 IhIwci'ii the ('ari)athiniin ami tin; IJaJtody forest ; 
 i| . st'Cdiiil. exteniliiij? from Die K. fall of tho hwt- 
 iiiiih"! forest and the Matra hilU to the rino of 
 ,li,, I'raiisylvanian inouiitaii.M, and from the oen- 
 tmK'arpathian eliaiii on the north, to the nioiin- 
 ifiiiiH of Siavoiiia on the mmth. The plain of the 
 Vistula and the Sun, in (Jalieia, Ih a |Mirlioii of the 
 L'n at N'vel which stretchen from the full of the 
 (.iiriiatlilaiis on the norlli to the llallie. 
 
 liinnnnd [Mkii>. — Two tliirdH of the Austrian 
 
 pmiiire arc comprised in the hasin of the DaimlM'. 
 
 I'lJ, jjrcat river enters Austria at F,ii>,'elhard's Z<dl, 
 
 near rassaii: in itH SK. course through Upper 
 
 mill Lower Austria and llunpiry, it re»;eives all 
 
 ihc rivers falliii); from the two ^raiid mountain 
 
 riin'W (lescrilied aUive ; the chief of which are, on 
 
 ij< K.|t linnit, the March, Wan^. (iran, Theiss, and 
 
 rimes, and on its ri;;ht hank, the Traun, Kiins, 
 
 Kaali, Urave, and Save. Tluwe rivers, witli many 
 
 „f tlii'ir iriliutaries, are navigable to a greater or 
 
 liss extent, and afford very extensive means of 
 
 ininmercial communication. Uohemia belonj;s to 
 
 ilif liasiii of the Klhe, which, rising; on its NIC. 
 
 IViiiitier, traverses it in a direction from N. to S., 
 
 uiid then \V. aril NW., beinj,' navijjable for bar>;es 
 
 from Meliiik, where it is joined by its important 
 
 irilmtnry the Moldau, flowing N. bv Hudweis and 
 
 I'rnitiie. The Oder has its source in the chain of 
 
 hills which connects the Silesian Mountains with 
 
 the Carpathians. The Vistula has its sources in 
 
 tlie (Carpathians, near Jabluiika. It may be navi- 
 
 Cnted, in favourable seasons, for the greater jiart 
 
 (if its course aloiif? the N\V. frontier of Gabcia. 
 
 It receiNCS the Dunajetz, the Wisloka, and the 
 
 Sail. The last-mentioned river is sometimes navi- 
 
 pilile for a part of its course by tlat-bottomed 
 
 IkiuU drawiiif^ little water; but the trutli Ls, that 
 
 the navijjation of all the (Jalician rivers is liable 
 
 to much obstruction, csiwcially in dry seiusoiis. 
 
 Kven the navijcation of the Vistula, from Cracow 
 
 (liiwnwanls, is frequently interrupted; and the 
 
 ilillioulty of transport thence arising occasions the 
 
 extraordinary tliscrepancy that usually obtains 
 
 jjetwecn the prices of wheat and other fjrain in 
 
 Daiitzic and in (ialicia. The Dniester, which, 
 
 also, has its source in the Carpathians, runs in a 
 
 Sl"„ direction through the centre of the K. portion 
 
 (if (ialicia, beinj? oc-asionally navi^jable for barges 
 
 from Koiiiuszki, 35 in. S\V. Lember^,'. The Adij^e, 
 
 tiic Tagliaraento, and the Lisonzo, traverse the 
 
 povinces of Venice and Illyria in their course to 
 
 tlic Ailriatic. The Rhine bounds the extreme VV. 
 
 ftdiiticr of the empire for a small portion of its 
 
 Course before it falls into the Lake of Constance. 
 
 On the N. side of the Alps the largest Austrian 
 lakes are those of Atter-Gmllndeii or Traun, 
 Uallstadt, and Augsec, connected tofjether by the 
 Traun, and the lakes of St. Gilp^en and !Moncl 
 Sic. The Neusiedler and llalaton lakes, in Upi>er 
 Hungary, are, however, by far the lartcest in the 
 iniiiirc; the water of the former is saltish. On 
 the 8. side of the Alps, Lake Garda forms the 
 i wstern boundary of the Austrian dominions. 
 
 Clmutte. — Four distinct climates are found 
 I within the limits of this extensive empire. The 
 most southerly part of Ualmatia produces the palin- 
 I tree, and at iiagusa, the mean elevation of the 
 |thcmi(imctcr is stated by IJlumenbach to be 
 i+lPS'R., or 570 3' Fahr.: upon a line drawn 
 I al(ing the S. foot of the Alps, the mean tcmpera- 
 1 lure at Milan is + 9° 4' ; at Temeswar, + SP 2'. 
 I UnthcN. side of that chain, in Liiiz, it is + 70° C ; 
 I in Vienna, + 8° 5' (nearly the climate of Straa- 
 Vou I. 
 
 28!) 
 
 burtj:); IJuda, K°H'i in Klnunonburff, +80.T. In 
 l*riu;iie, the menu heal is -f 7° '.)' ; in Olniiilx, 
 + 7°il'; in Trojipaii, +7"^ 3'; in Lcmbcr^j. +ti° 1' 
 It. Wine and Indian corn ihi not thrive to the N. 
 of the last drawn line, excejit in unusually favour- 
 able situaliouM; but corn ot all other <h>scriptiniis, 
 thix, hemp, niid hardy fniits, ntlaiti p<>rfcclion. 
 The oliserval ions at Vienna pve for the mean 
 tem|M'rature only + 7° 2' K. The air is for the 
 most part clear and salubrious; but the heats of 
 Humnier and (he odds of winter are lM)tli in what 
 we should consii^er extremes. The Krealest ipian- 
 tily of rain falls in Tyrol and VorarlU-rg, the 
 smalh'stcpiaHtity in the central district sof I luiigMry 
 and in Dalmatia, which often suffer from excessive 
 drought. In this last province, the fall of rain 
 avi-rafjes 12 in.: at Vienna the average is al)out 
 1(1 in. The classilication given by Frnncini for 
 Switzerland has lieen found to suit Tyrid with 
 eipial precision. — 1. The region of the vine from 
 7(M> ft. to 1.7(111 ft. above the h'vel of the sea.— 2. 
 The region of the oak, from 1,70(1 ft. to 2,Mt>0 It. — 
 ;j. The region of the beech, 2,Ht)0 ft. to 4,|()(» f(.; 
 the walnut only reaches 3,r)(KI ft. ; the plum-tree 
 3,72(1 ft.; |i(-ar and apple-trees, 4,l(Mt; but little 
 wheat is grown in this region, but the mea(h>wa 
 are excelli'iit. — 1. The region of lir, from 4,1(10 to 
 U,itiW ft. — ii. The lower Alpine region, famous for 
 its pasdires, U,i>m ft. to (!,')00 ft.— (1. The Upjier 
 Alpine region, (i,.')(M) ft. to 8,200 ft., above which 
 is the region of eternal snow. 
 
 NutiintI Proiluct'um» and M'mfrah. — The mi- 
 neral riches of the Austrian empire, sii|)]iosiug 
 they w(!re fully developed, are probably not in- 
 ferior to those of any other ICuropean country. 
 Hesides gold and silver, considerabh' (piantities of 
 which are produced by the mines of Transylvania 
 and N. Hungary, Austria has inexhaustible sii|>- 
 plies of the more useful metals, with coal and salt. 
 Native steel, or carbonated inm ore, is found in 
 Styria and Illyria, in masses that require ratluT 
 to be quarried than excavated. Of the rarer metals, 
 titan is found near Koese, in Ilungarv, uran in the 
 Sudcsen in Bohemia, tellurium in iliingary and 
 Transylvania. Hesides the ojials of Hungary, the 
 most beautiful that are known, an inferior kind is 
 found in Moravia; carnelian, beryl, chalcedon, 
 topaz, garnet, and amethyst, in llohemia and 
 Hungary, of sujwrior quality. Coal has l>eeii found 
 in nearly every province, but the cheapness nnd 
 abundance of lire-wood have hitherto prevented 
 much search from being made after it. Upwards 
 of 100 descriptions of marble, quartz for tlie ma- 
 nufacture of glass, clays for porcelain and mineral 
 dyes of all kinds, are also found in abundance. 
 Upwards of 100 mineral springs are annually fre- 
 quented ; amongst which Carlsbad, Toeplitz, Ma- 
 rienbad, &c., attract visitors tirom all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 Animals. — All the domestic animals found in 
 England are met with in the Austrian em|)ire. 
 Exclusive of these the brown bear is indigenous 
 in the Alps and the Carpathians, the W(df in both 
 these mountain chains, and the lynx is found in 
 all the provinces. The chamois, red and fallow 
 deer, roebucks, wild boars, all descriptions of game 
 known in England, with the exception of grouse, 
 and several other kinds of binls unknown in our 
 islands, are objects of chase. The unis and elk 
 are sometimes found in the E. Carjjathians, but 
 only as stragglers. The ibex is nearly extermi- 
 nated. Herdis of wild horses of a diminutive size 
 range the Hungarian plains ; and even where the 
 improvement of the breed is attended to, they are 
 allowed to rove almost in a state of nature. The 
 golden eagle inhabits Slavonia, and other large 
 species are found in the Uhctian and Noric Alps. 
 
200 
 
 i I M 
 I 
 
 4.'^ 4 
 
 J \ f ■ 
 
 IIororiH nf vnrioul* kiiidx, Homo of llin clioiroNt 
 pliiiiwiKC', nlMtiind in ttio muriiMsoN of lliin^:.i>'yi 
 iiikI thiTc nUii till' liiiiil lortdifii' is riiiiii<l in ^rcnl 
 iiiiiiilicrH, 'I'll!' Hmiic niiiriisHcM fiiniiKh iiii iilaiiiilaiit 
 Hiipply (if ItM'clicN, w)u'iii'<! ttii'v lire rcKiiloHy trnim- 
 IHtrlt'il liy iiu'iiiiH urn wrrifM iifiHiinU, Ihal xorvc iih 
 iv> iimiiy NinlioiiN, to I'liriN niiil tlut \V. of Kiiroi)(>, 
 M'lix JH nil important product of th(> lliikownid 
 mid other S. provincrH, OnnthnridoH uro found in 
 ncvcral parts of lliinpirv; ('(M-iiiiicnl in (ialicia; 
 nnd iicarlM of n licaiitifiif water aru liHlicd in the 
 Moliliiii. 
 
 I'ei/i'tiililf I'roilurfii.—'rhvHP compriMC I lie dif- 
 ferent MortM of eorii aiidof ciiliivaled ^raxxcH found 
 in lOtirope, willi viiieH, Hax, and lienip, lohacco, 
 hops, Nan'ron, woad, Honio specicH of iiidipi, yellow 
 W'oad or rliim aitiiiim, ^'alis, and an immense variety 
 of fruits, Tlie forests are of vast extent, mid will, 
 no iloiilit, eome to Ik^ of p-eat value. The nioiiii- 
 t4iiii ehains of tlie northern provinces and of the 
 Alps are covered with tlr, pine, heech and larch. 
 The low frriiiinds, including the vast forest, of 
 IJukony ill Iliiiifjary, with others in Transylvftiiia, 
 the Ihikowine, (iulicin and Slavonia, proiluee 
 oaks of a (;i^aiitic si/.e, wii!< heech, ash, alder and 
 elm. Kvery jirov, is well rui.j''""-.'. with wood, 
 with tlie exception of Low. Austria and Hungary, 
 where, from iiej;lect of inanafj^cmeiit and had eco- 
 nomy, the stock has in many jtnrts hcen alarm- 
 inf,'ly HMliiced. In the other jirovs. the forests are 
 well maiuif^ed; and care is taken to Hii|)|)ly the 
 annual consimiptioii hy sowing; nnd ]ilantinf{ in 
 proportion to tlie quantity felled. Tlie proprietors 
 (if estates are oliii^ed, in Austria, as nil over 
 (ierinnnj', to employ foresters, who have hecn 
 educated in forest suliools, and have passed the 
 necessary examination. Their hnsinos is to 
 calculate the niiantity of tiniher that may he 
 felled without diminisliin^ the stock. The means 
 nt their command in hack ran^'cs of mountains 
 are p'lierully applied with fjreat inf;eniiity to for- 
 ward the felled trees to the common channels ol 
 commiini<^ntion. A kind of hollow railroad of 
 timhcr (W/(!«e»),sh)pinf; down the side of a moun- 
 tain, often several thousand yards in lenjjth, and 
 down which the trunks of trees arc precipitated, 
 is one means of transport. The tnniks are raisecl 
 from n valley to the summit of a iieighhourinK 
 (•hain, over wliich they have to he transported, 
 by means of ropes nnd pulleys, worked hy a rude 
 water-wheel temporarily erected hy the woodman 
 on a little hrook {Hnhimfzug) ; and the s))rings 
 n Jar the summits heiiif? led into a temporary reser- 
 voir on the ridffc of the hills, the burden thus 
 raised is received by it in order to be precipitated 
 into the hollow on the other side, when the sluices 
 confiniiig the waters are opened (Klause), The 
 Tyrolese arc particularly distinguished hy their 
 inftenuity in devising these sorts of contrivances, 
 nnd by their wooden fabrics. Among others they 
 construct houses and shops, the parts of whicn 
 being regularly marked and numbered, are jincked 
 uj) nnd conveyed hy the Lake of Constance to 
 the adjoining coimtrios, where they are erected 
 with tlie utmost facility. Ihit while this inge- 
 nuity is shown in the mnnngement of the moun- 
 tain forest-tracts of lir, the far richer wooded dis- 
 tricts of Slavonia, the militarj' frontier, and Upper 
 Hungary, in which the more valuable forest trees 
 nttain a size unusual in Kurope, are neglected 
 and but little known. Tliere nre .S,18(i'i) Aust, 
 sq. m. of woodland. The forests produce, on an 
 average, 3O,0()O,0ttO Vienna fnthoms of w()0<l per 
 annum, mostly of excellent qualitv. The forests 
 yield, besides, 500,000 cwts. of gall nuts, 100,000 
 cwts. of potash, 2.')0,000 cwts. <if turpentine nnd 
 resin, and •l.'KiO.OdO cwts. of tanning bark, an- 
 
 AUSTUIA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 nnntly. Without rnnnting conHiderahle trnrta 
 within the forests which nre used for gra/iin; 
 purposes, there are in the empire 2,N'2tK'l w|, (,, 
 of grass land. These, priHiiice, nnniinllv, rUiui 
 m;;i.O(Hi,000 cwts. of hay, and '20(),(Mm,(i(io"owt..„f 
 various herbage for ftslder. Home idea of t|,,. 
 extent of the oak forests niny \m formed fmiti t||,. 
 fnct thnt nearly 200,000 hiishelM of gnll nppltxari' 
 annually exporte(L The diNtrihution of the fi>n>,i< 
 ix, however, very im-gular; and, while in ih,, 
 moiinlninouH trai-ts they nro of immenNiirnlili' 
 extent, the want of firewiMMl Is so great in ih,' 
 plains, that dried dung is a common sulMtitiito 
 for faggots. In Transylvania, es|K'cially, hiuI tlii> 
 military frontier, the forests are of great extent. 
 nnd tilled with tn-es of the finest quality, ef)inilly 
 adapted I'or the use of the builder and lliv imvul 
 architect. 
 
 HoattM anil JJnihrayii,-— The. rulers of Aiintria 
 have always paid great attention to the dev('l(i|>. 
 ment of all iiiteninl means of communii'nil«ii. 
 From Verona on the SW. frontier, an iiiiinicr. 
 riqited Mwiulamined road conducts the tnivcllir 
 to (V.cniowit/ ill the Ihikowine. a distance nf ii{>. 
 wards of 1,000 m. From the Italian frniiticr lo 
 Vienna there are three lines of road, and tlir(iiii;h 
 (ialicia the line is double. Three grand liyii- 
 roads from Venice, and two from Trieste, Icnil to 
 the Tyrol and (iemiany, and double lines nm 
 from each of tliese cities to the capital. I'rii),nio 
 is connected with Vienna by numerous lines nf 
 communication, which are continued to tlielnm- 
 tiers of Davaria, Saxony, and Prussian Sil(>i,i, 
 Materials for making ronds nlxiund in most pni- 
 vinces, though not in nil, nnd the art is well 
 understood. Upwnrds of sixty mountain pnsw, 
 varying from 10 to 70 m. in length, have Incn 
 made not only practicable, but commoilidiis U 
 travelling ond commercial purposes. On the 
 roads across the Alps, through Tyrol and Illyria, 
 the greatest sums have lieen expended; their im- 
 portance in a military point of view, and llie 
 necessity of facilitating the communication with 
 n powerful and not very well affected pm- 
 vince, rendering them indispensable. Tlie rmiil 
 over the Stelvio, or WOnnser Joch. in S. T\tii1, 
 passes over an elevation of 8,400 feet almvp 
 the level of the sea, and is covered in dniiKi'miu 
 parts with solid stone arches, over which the ava- 
 lanches glide into the depths below, Tliis tin- 
 dertaking surpasses the ronds of the Simiilmi 
 and Mont Ccnis in boldness and splendour of exe- 
 cution. 
 
 The railway system of Austria dates from the ywr 
 1849, when the most energetic efforts were made 
 hy the imperial government to raise the material 
 prosperity of the country. The principle adnptoil 
 at first was to construct the chiei lines at the ex- 
 pense and under the supervision of the statu; but 
 the financial emergencies of the goveniment sul>- 
 sequently occasioned the abandonment of tliis 
 principle, and nearly all the railways thus con- 
 stnictcd were given up to private conipaiiies, 
 formed by French and German capitalists. Con- 
 sidered without reference to the division amtiti;; 
 companies, the Austrian railway system tmim 
 of two great lines, running from north to sniith 
 and from east to west, and crossing at right anvil's 
 the point of junction being at the capital of tlw 
 empire. Numerous branches connect the outlying' 
 districts with these two great tnink lines; and 
 there is scarcely a single town of importance imt 
 
 embraced within this network of iron roads, 'ilie 
 subjoined two tables show the various railways j 
 extant in the Austrian empire, together with ilif 
 receif)ts and expenditure of each in the year | 
 I8(;,'5:— 
 
 Otuominatton o 
 
AUSTRIA (EMIMUE OF) 
 
 IcraMc tractn 
 I lor ^!ym\\^: 
 2,H'.>(i-:i w). m, 
 iDunlly, rImiui 
 
 )(I,(MI() owl", i,f 
 
 i«, iiU-a (if til" 
 irmcd frnm ili" 
 Kill) a|i|iU'i> ari' 
 n of iJic f>ir('»i« 
 
 while ill till' 
 
 iiTiTncnHurolili' 
 r> ^jrent in iln' 
 m<m Miilwtitiiii' 
 •cinUy, luiil til.' 
 >f nn'iit cxiMii, 
 rjimUty, ('(juiilly 
 r and the naval 
 
 \en of Austria 
 
 to tllP (ll'Vclllll- 
 
 CDinmunli'aiiiiii, 
 WT, an iininlir- 
 i!tH tlio truvcllit 
 a (lintiincc iif u\>- 
 nlian frniiticr i.i 
 iiail, anil tlimivh 
 r('(' uriiiiil liwli- 
 n Trit'^*t(^ '''ml t'l 
 (l(mlil(^ linc!* niii 
 
 (■n)iil"'l. V'"'-''"' 
 luincrous lines nt 
 
 nucd to the friin- 
 
 I'riissiiin Silisin. 
 iind in mii«t yto- 
 A tho art in will 
 
 Tnoimtnin pawc", 
 length, hnv(; Ikoii 
 it eoinmodiiiiw f"( 
 urpoKCs. On the 
 'rvrol and lUyria, 
 cppndcd; their im- 
 of view, nii'l ^^ 
 iinmnniratiim with 
 
 ■ell aft'ecteil pru- 
 nsnlile. The m\ 
 
 ,„cli. in S.T\-n.l, 
 S,4(10 feet nl»ive 
 _,red in dmiKeniiis 
 
 vcr which the ava- 
 bohiw. niis iin- 
 of the Simiilmi 
 splendour of cxc- 
 
 Hrrr.ivm nr ArirrniAN nAii.wAm. 
 
 IVni'iuintilon i>( Ihn Dili**;! 
 
 i 
 
 Enilier>r rcnllniuid'M(North- 
 
 ITII) 
 
 BnllwiivH nf tho Hoiitliurn, 
 l/miiiiirilo-Vi'ni'tlnn, niul 
 (Viitnil Itiilliin Comimnli'H— 
 
 I, VIenim-Trlitito Lliiu . 
 
 V, llioiKnrinn Mmoh 
 
 3. Norfliiuid Mouth Tyrol 
 
 Line 
 
 4, Veni'tinn Lines . 
 Aimirlnn StutcH ('oni|mulea — 
 
 I. Niirtlicrn Lino , 
 
 •J. SoiitlH'iiHtoni Lino . 
 
 a. Vii'iinu New B/.iiiiyer 
 I.ino . . , 
 Kiii|in>w EllzatNith's (WoHt- 
 ern)— 
 
 1, Vi('nnn-Sr»IzburK-raH- 
 I mill .... 
 
 I 2. Ilrnnoh r.ine,LAinba(.')i- 
 I (Imllnilen . 
 
 ! 3. Briiiu.'li I.ino, Llnz- 
 \ UiulweU . . 
 
 ' flnw-Kiifliu'h Unilway . 
 1 .Snitli-Nurtli Gorman Juno- 
 
 I tioii 
 
 i Biistclirniler Unilway — with 
 1 im-oniotlvoH 
 
 I niiKteliriMlcr Hallway -horw) 
 I trnniwny .... 
 I Itohcniittn W<'Hteni Lino , 
 1 AiwlK-Tiiplltz Lino 
 ; IlrUnn-Uiis«itz Lino 
 linlldnn (('Imrh'.H-Lonls) Lino 
 1 I'rfnliiirif-Tlrnan Lino . 
 . Tliei™ Kiiilwny . , 
 I FUnfkiroliun-Mobacz . 
 
 Sum total t . . 
 
 Tr»in|i<>rl 
 
 ■if 
 Puii'iiirvri 
 
 riurlni 
 
 Total 
 
 I Florin* 
 ,tA,«0-j,41A 
 
 ;),m)n,«:ta 
 ui4,u:ii 
 
 47H,4:i;i 
 1,(l'i4,7HU 
 
 14,770,'i7« 
 :),:it4,iriH 
 
 l,0(;n,.'i4i 
 
 U,(i7H,(l4l , 
 
 •j,i'in,(H8 
 a,r)K!i,!)7() 
 
 8,r.l2.H(12 
 H,4(iA,74l 
 
 us:),(i:i4 
 
 1 ,(i7U,4(il) 
 
 2,14(1,077 
 
 n,iri3,;ui8 
 
 41,2(12 
 
 2(m,298 
 
 2I,h;I4 
 (Ki.r.iM 
 
 ni4,i(i;i 
 ;i7i,7;m 
 
 274,:i91 
 
 1,04(1,829 
 
 \9,r,Vi 
 
 670,7(10 
 
 in,002 
 
 28H,a2'J 
 H2,U(i4 
 22,r>22 
 
 9():i,()7« 
 
 05,()4!» 
 
 1,(>:I2,740 
 
 44,()46 
 
 nil.Hft.l 
 9r..'.,!m 
 :i(io,i'.'U 
 ;i20,27r> 
 
 3,(140,412 
 14«,4i)7 
 
 2,904,8.'il 
 6fift,l4S 
 
 19,994,183 
 
 74,200,308 
 
 2U1 
 Ihiir 
 
 EXI'KNDITUIIK AND SURPLUS. 
 
 Dniominttlon of the Ratlwijri 
 
 Emperor Ferdinand's (North- 
 ern) Lino .... 
 Il»ll\vay» ot the aonthem, 
 Lombimlo - Venetian, and 
 Central Italian Companies. 
 Austrian Stato Hallways 
 Company .... 
 Emprexs Elizabeth's (West- 
 em) Line — 
 Vienna- Solzburg-Passau 
 Branch Line, Lambach- 
 
 GmUndcn . 
 Branch Line, Linz-Bud- 
 weis .... 
 nraz-Kiiflach Railway . 
 South-North German Junc- 
 tion 
 
 BuBtchrador Railway — with 
 locomotives . . . 
 Biistchrader Railway — horse- 
 tramway .... 
 Boberalan Western Lino 
 Aussig-Toplit^ Line . 
 Bmnn-ltossitz Line 
 Oalician (Charles Lonls) Line 
 Pregburg-Timan Lino . 
 Theiss Railway 
 
 FUnfklrchen - Mohacz - Ball- 
 way 
 
 Totnl F.i- 
 pcndlturo 
 
 Niirplui of 
 
 Rwfiptii o»i*r 
 
 Ki|)pn(ll 
 
 lure 
 
 Florlni 
 7,391,024 
 
 8,476,049 
 8,761,869 
 
 2,296,706 
 
 144,291 
 
 481 .306 
 103,748 
 
 673,076 
 
 204;864 
 
 119,764 
 418,(191 
 108,076 
 122,003 
 
 1,771,098 
 110,728 
 
 1,716,806 
 
 312,613 
 
 FlorlDi 
 8,370,792 
 
 14,; 56,663 
 9,890,194 
 
 2,866,663 
 
 66,004 
 
 112.868 
 210,990 
 
 373,764 
 
 306,912 
 
 64,141 
 
 637,220 
 
 192,0.13 
 
 168,272 
 
 1,8(19,314 
 
 32,709 
 
 1,188,046 
 
 843,632 
 
 The whole of the above lines, chiefly constructed 
 liy tlie state, became private pri)i)crty at the 
 (■ml of 1863. They carried in the same year 
 nearly fifteen millions of passengers, and returned 
 
 an avrraKd dividriid of Ft^ per rent, to 
 proiirictiirH. 
 
 The river Hyufom of An-'triii, though upon ii 
 L'rniid m'ale, is Irw* nviiilnlilf fur llic piiriii''«i"< id' 
 uitcniiil I'ominiinlciilion iliiiii in, periuips, ii>milly 
 MipiMiHod, the navigation of the greater nnndicr 
 of till! rivers iM'iii^ liable to Ih' Nerioiisly ini|NM|i'it 
 ImiIIi by tliMNls and ilroiiKhtH, csperially ihe liillir. 
 It In also to Ih> rei^relteil Ihnt none of Ihe iiavi- 
 ^abln AiiHtrian, lIuiiKarian, or Croalian riverx 
 liiivu their einlNiiK'hiire in t!ie Adriatic ; but are 
 all nllliients of the Danube, which, after Ira- 
 vendiijf tho centre of the empire, iMiurs its wntcri 
 inio the Hlacl< Sen, whence only it is accessible. 
 To obviate this dellciency it Iiiih been prii|Misei| to 
 unite the navipible river the Save, one of llie 
 principal tribiitarieH of the lltintibe, with the port 
 of Kiiinie on the Adriatic; it bein^ Hup])osed tlint 
 the com and other produce of lliiii(;ary iiii^ht 
 Ik! conveyed by its means to a iniieii more con- 
 venient anil better market than it is ever likely to 
 meet with at (ialalz or other port near the inoitth 
 of the Danulic. lint it has not been seriouslv 
 attempted to realise this project ; and tboiiKh it 
 were realisiMl, it may, as previously stated, lie 
 (Unibted whether it would have the anticipated 
 su(u;esi\ It would cost a very lar>;e sum : and the 
 expense of conv(!ying so bulky a commodity ns 
 wheat bv its means, would 1m^ so jrreat that the 
 iirobaliility is it ini^rbt be broii<^ht cheaper tu 
 Marseilles by (ialalz than by Ibis channel. 
 
 For many years past, the Ilaiiilbe has been navi- 
 gated by steamers from KatislMin to Vienna, which 
 (beni-e convey goiwls and passengers todalal/., Tre- 
 bisond, Constiuitinople, and .Smyrna. Ihit its navi- 
 gation is subject to considerable ililliculties. Frimi 
 Vienna to I'resbiirg, the river is so very shallow as to 
 l)c navigable, in dry seasons, only by vessels drawing 
 from 18 inches to '2 or 2^ feet water, anil even their 
 nrogress is not unfrequPiitly interrupted by changes 
 m the channel of tlic stream, and the shifting of 
 movid>le sandbanks. Lower down, for a space of 
 about «0 m., between Jloldova and Gladova, w hero 
 the river leaves the Austrian territory, its chininel 
 is much contracted; and the water rushes over its 
 rocky bed with so much violence, especially at the 
 point called tho Iron (iatc, near C>rsiiva, that it 
 cannot be safely navigatiul d.<wnwar(ls exci-pt 
 during floods, and is nearly imjiracticable for ves- 
 sels ascending the stream. Various efforts have 
 been made, in modern times, to obviate this dilli- 
 culty, but with no very decided success. In consc- 
 (lucnce, passengers and goods, passing upiuul ihiwn 
 the river, arc now mostly conveyed by road from 
 the one end of the rapiils to the other. (See for 
 further details on this siibiect the art. Danubk.) 
 
 Ports and liar bourH, — Ihe principal commercial 
 port of Austria is Trieste upon the Adriatic. It is 
 a free port, and is, with Venice, which has tho 
 same privilege, shut out of the customs line ; the 
 duty on goods imported into them not being de- 
 manded until they are .sent into the interior. 
 Venice is the seat of the admiralty, and has dock- 
 yards and naval arsenals. Pola, in Istria, cele- 
 brated for its magnilicent am[)hitbeatre, has one 
 of the finest harbours in the Mediterranean ; but it 
 is HO very unhealthy that it is almost uninhabited. 
 Shipping, — Since the loss of Flanders, the mer- 
 cantile navj' of Austria has been whoUv concen- 
 trated in the ports on the Adriatic, lint it is, 
 notwithstanding, very consideroblc ; imd engrosses 
 a large share of the trade of the Mediterranean 
 and Black Sea. The oak timber of Caniiola and 
 the Dalmatian coast is reckoned alxiut the very 
 best in the world ; so that the Austrian ships, 
 being built of it, arc very strong, at the same time 
 that they arc particularly handsome. Tbev arc 
 
 U 2 ■ 
 
li!! '^ 
 
 Ilii 
 
 202 
 
 mIho woll ninimoil niiil provided. The wnim'n nn' 
 <'X|irri, l<'rii|H'ruti>, ami ordiTly; mid the luwn for 
 tliK ri'^julatiiin of (hii tnvrchuiit H!r>-icu an; Miid to 
 Im' rxi't'llfiit. 
 
 Hv fjir tlu' Kn-ntcr iinnilM>r »{ \onM-\n of lurK<' 
 Itiiriicii lit'loii^ to 'l'ri<'i«l(>. Tint rcMl iMdon^ to 
 Vi'iiit'c, Kiiiiiit', KaKiiMn, and the Him-i-Ihi di t'at- 
 liiro. On lli« otiinr hand, llic xniallcr vohhi'Im 
 i'in|iloyi>d ill tliu I'lMiNtiii^ trade, which ix very 
 
 foiiHJdi'raldc, are inor |imlly ilivided; Venice 
 
 having, |irohahlv, an many ax 'I'rieHte, wliil(> a 
 pMid niiinlier hcfdiiK to the iH>rtM of iHtria, lliiii- 
 K'trv, and Daiinalia. 
 
 'I he forei^:ii trade of 'IVicMtt' coinprineH all voy- 
 n>,'CH U'vond the limits of the Adriatic; and niiiy 
 Ix* divided as IoIIowm: — 
 
 t. 'I'he Levant trade, incliidiiif^ the Ionian In- 
 lands, (ireece, ('onNlMiitiiio|ile, Smyrna, Odessa, 
 Ac,, the ports in Syria, Cyiinis, (;andiM,and I'-Kyp'- 
 more especially Alexandria. 
 
 ■J. The /MiMi'/i/c or Medilerranenn trade, in the 
 west, comprising ili<> coast of Itarhary, Spiiiii, 
 France, and Italy; heiiif; principally carried on 
 with Marseilles, (ieiioa, and Le^diorn. 
 
 .'I. The commert'e on lh(> ocean, which the Aiih- 
 trian nierchanis have attempted with consideralde 
 Hticcess. .Several ships sail for llru/il, Cnha, the 
 U. Stales, Kn^land, llamhiir^', tl'(;. 
 
 The commercial marine of Austria consisted, in 
 .June |M(!2, of il,70Jt vesnels, of an iijfKrejyate hiir- 
 deii of .HID, I /i7 tons, and manned hv Kt.lidl sailors. 
 Only C.Otl of these ships, of 22H,H('t() tons hiirdeii, 
 with (!,7I2 seamen, were for the 'long course,' ami 
 nil IIh! rest small coasting vessels. Ilut the list 
 comprised 5!) steamers, of 21,;tiJ8 tonnage, with 
 1,70(1 sailors. 
 
 There is an important Ntoam navigation com- 
 pany at Trieste, under the name of Lloyd's A iis- 
 triaeo. They have a large numlier of steam hoals 
 with which a communication is kept up hetween 
 Trieste and V^enice, the Dalmatian harhoiirs, 
 (jireece, Smyrna, and Alexandria. 
 
 State of ylt/ririiltiiri; — The arahle land, con- 
 finiiously or intermittingly under tillage, com- 
 prises ii,M2 Austr. sq. m. distrihiitod among the 
 Hcvernl provinces, us shown in the suhjoincd talilc. 
 
 AUSTRIA (FMPIHK OK) 
 
 
 NumhiT of 
 
 Scali' of Pit. 
 
 Provinces 
 
 Aiulrian 
 
 crrilnKHiifthij 
 
 
 bq. Milot 
 
 whulu Area 
 
 Austria, Lower 
 
 141 -4 
 
 41-1 
 
 Upper 
 
 7:i-fl 
 
 3.V3 
 
 Salzburg .... 
 
 11-7 
 
 n-4 
 
 Htyria .... 
 
 8(1-.1 
 
 2'J-l 
 
 Ciirinthla .... 
 
 a:i-9 
 
 i:VH 
 
 Cnrniola .... 
 
 li:l-7 
 
 13-<i 
 
 I.lttoralo .... 
 
 a4-l 
 
 17-3 
 
 Tyrol and Vornrlbcrg 
 
 •iti'O 
 
 r.-i 
 
 Bohomia .... 
 
 4:i;i-l 
 
 48-0 
 
 Moravia .... 
 
 1!M!-1 
 
 C(f8 
 
 Silesia .... 
 
 41 •« 
 
 4(i'S 
 
 Onlicia .... 
 
 6r,r>-\ 
 
 40-7 
 
 Itukowina 
 
 44-6 
 
 24-5 
 
 Dalniatia .... 
 
 '2i-i 
 
 ll'O 
 
 Lombardo-Vcnotian King- 
 
 
 
 dom .... 
 
 lfi9-8 
 
 3S-9 
 
 HuuKary .... 
 
 12(i.V3 
 
 33-9 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia 
 
 89-0 
 
 2(i-(i 
 
 Tronsylvania . 
 
 21(i-l 
 
 22-fl 
 
 Military Borderland 
 
 i;i(;-(i 
 
 23-4 
 
 The value of arable land fluctuates between 30 
 and 1,,)00 tlorins — 8/. and 150/. jier acre; the latter 
 being the average price paid in the German pro- 
 vinces. (Arenatein, Oesterrcich in der Weltauss- 
 tellung, 18(il ; Report of Mr. Fane, Her Majesty's 
 Sec. of Kmbassy, 1863.) 
 
 The following is the estimated annual produce, 
 after government returns published in the year 
 
 iHt'i'i, of the jirincipnl kinds of grain. It is i^iven 
 in melxen; 1 iiulzeii eipml to I'tilM bushel:— 
 
 MfffMn 
 
 . nO,IMHI,INVI 
 
 . 1IMI,IIIIII,IIIHI 
 
 . n<'i,iNNi.(iiiii 
 
 . fiD.IKNI.IKNI 
 
 44,ll)KI,nilll 
 
 • lA.iMNi.mii) 
 
 . 1»,IK)(),1KK) 
 
 Wlicnt (annual produce) . 
 
 OlitM . „ . 
 
 Ilye . „ . 
 
 Itarloy . „ , 
 
 Miii/.ii . ,, . 
 
 MIxmI Corn ,, . 
 Millet iiiiil lliickwhent 
 
 The mi'iin market price of grains in Aii«tri;i 
 iluriiig the year |H('>I was, for wheat l-.') lli.riiu. 
 rve 'i'7 lloriiis, mai/e •."ll llorins, and imH h 
 llorins, Austrian currency. Cereals form a vitv 
 iinporlaiil ilein in the export trade of the einplri'., 
 as I have had l'rc(piciit occasion to show in m, 
 fonner reports. In the year IHlil, the viilin' ,',f 
 cereals and fruits exported aniounled to l,'i„'i;|s,i;;i^ 
 tlorins, iteing an increase on Ihe value of tlic v\. 
 ports of \H(W of r),;i(W, |M-.> llorins. 
 
 It is computed thai of hemp and flax tlun ii 
 produced annually il,IHIO,nilO cwts,, of hops |ii.iiiii| 
 i^wts,, of other <-oiiiiiiercial plants I'ltli.iiuu i^d., 
 The amount of the cro))s of linseed and liriii{ip.ir.| 
 is estimated at •2,51(11,(100 met/en, of riipi' x, | 
 l.'itld.nno mclzen : the pr<Mlu(H) of olive-nil i< 
 11)0,0(10 cwts. The quantity of tobacco grinmin 
 IHCI was 1,000,000 cwts. Tobacco (like •.all) i, 
 an article (d' government monop(dy ; but by n \m 
 which has recently U'Cii passed, the gmwin i.f 
 this important plant are now i)ermitted to ex|H<rt 
 on their own account any surplus of tlie imn. 
 modity whi<'h may bo lett on their hands hytlit 
 government iiurchasers. 
 
 Hungary lias almost iineqiinlled ca[mcitio« f(,r 
 the production of wheat and of all sorts of {•cmi; 
 but these have hitherto been all but wholly m^ 
 lected, and, with a few trilling exceptioiis, iniri- 
 eultiire, within the Hungarian territory, is in a 
 state of primievol barbarism. The country IrMin 
 I'esth to the borders of Transylvania, anil fnnn 
 Ilelgrade to the vine-bearing hills of llegyaljii, i< 
 a vast plain, from 12,000 to 15,000 sn, ni. iiux- 
 tent, traversed by the Danube, the Tlieins, aiiil 
 the Maros, and presenting, one should think, il«> 
 most inviting field for the lalnairs of the Iiii.sIjiiikI- 
 man. Mr. Paget, in his work on Hungary, n- 
 marks on this vast plain as fidlows :— ' The sdil 
 of the plain (Puszta), an might be anficipmnl 
 from its extent, and, I might ad:l, from the na- 
 ture of the rocks from whose debris it has Imh 
 formed, is various in its nature and in its ixiwir* 
 of production. A considerable )>ortion is a iltiii 
 saiul, easily worked, and yiehling fair cro]« in 
 wet seasons; a second, found principally in the 
 neighbourhood of the Danube, Thoiss, and Tcnifs, 
 is boggy, and much deteriorated in value from ilio 
 frequent inundations to which it is sulijcot, Im! 
 capoble of the greatest improvement at little (wt: 
 and a thinl is a rich black loam, the fertility if 
 which is almost incredible. When the reader re- 
 flects that this fniitful plain is bounded on two 
 sides by the largest river in Europe, that it is tra- 
 versed 'from N. to S. by the Tlieiss, and tliai it 
 communicates with Transylvania by the Manw, 
 it is almost impossible to calculttte what a simne 
 of wealth it might prove to the countrv'. In anv 
 other part of the civilised world, we should sec it 
 teeming with habitotions, and alive with &ffimi- 
 tural industry, the envy of surrounding iwwep. 
 the granary of Europe. Here it is the ni">t 
 thinly populated, the worst cultivated, ami tlie 
 least accessible portion of the countij'. A'ariiw 
 causes have contributed to produce this etl'«t. 
 Most of the inhabitants of the plain arc llii};vars, 
 whose warlike propensities induced them to take 
 the most active part iu the constant wars in «Iim 
 
in. It 'm eivdi 
 I Imxlivl :— . 
 
 (H),0(HI,I1(V) 
 
 , nri/NMi.iiiKi 
 
 , 44,iMiti,iliiii 
 , tli.iHHi.imi 
 
 •aiiin in Aihlria 
 liiiit V't lli'riiK. 
 iM, mill iiiii!* I <« 
 •uIh I'tirin II vvry 
 lie III' llir ('iii|iiri', 
 I III kIiiiw ill inv 
 
 (il, till' Mill I' 
 
 (It'll til (.'i.r.lW/.'is 
 vuliu' III' till' i\ 
 I, 
 
 anil lliix llicrr'M 
 H.. of liii)H |ll,iini| 
 
 \\\n '.•im.iiiMi cwi,, 
 
 i>«><l nml lii'in|>Mi'i| 
 /.en, III' raiii' Mr,| 
 
 IH! of tllivi'-liil il 
 
 ' tiiliiK'i'" uriiwn ill 
 mci'o (liki' will) i» 
 Mily ; I III I liy ii law 
 •il, tin- ttrnwi'is if 
 ^rniitliil lo <'X|»iri 
 rjiliiH III" till' I'liiii- 
 thi'ir IiiuiiIh liy llit 
 
 nllcil cnimcitiPH fur 
 1" all Kiirls iif ccini; 
 ill Imt wliiiUy iiii;- 
 
 ft (•X('<'lil'"il"'< "(.'"■ 
 
 n tciritiiry, in i" n 
 Till' oimiitry Irmn 
 Isylvanift, aii'l I'rum 
 iJIIkoI' 111'Kyaljii.i* 
 15,000 Hfi. ni. in i x- 
 10, the 'rlifiKS mill 
 ic hIiiiiiIiI think, iln' 
 iirs of the liiislmml- 
 k on lliuitjary, ti- 
 folhiws:— 'Tlu'M'il 
 ijrht be aiiti('i|winl 
 ' nil;l, from the iia- 
 (Icbris it hnn Iwn 
 ■c and in its [xwirs 
 ; portion is a ih-\> 
 'l(linn fiiir cro\i8iii 
 principiiUy in the 
 Theiss, and Tenifs, 
 •d in valiio from tlw 
 . it is Hulijcct, liiit 
 ..mental little nisi; 
 am, the fertility of 
 Vhcn the reailet re- 
 is hounded on two 
 iTopc, that it is tni- 
 rheiss, and tlmt u 
 ania bv the Mans 
 [iilate what a wmw 
 le coiintr\'. 1" «")' 
 Id, weshoulilswit 
 alive with ai;ruul- 
 lurroundiuK ik)«W' 
 ■re it is the w;>i 
 mltivated, aiul.t«« 
 countrj'. Vaniw 
 ,roduec this cffw- 
 plain arc Mn!.'yars. 
 uluced them to take 
 
 itantwarsinwliw 
 
 AUSTKIA (KMl'IRK OF) 
 
 1),,. rmintn' was formorly cn(,'(«tfpil, . . . Anmni; 
 
 Ihi' ,M»Kviir«, loo. the iiiiinlMT of rliildrt'ii i^* ^ene- 
 
 mIIv Kiiinll'- why llic Irish hIioiiIiI Ih< ho prolillfon 
 
 >iiirvniion. and tlii' MuKyar^i .sn miii'li llii< I'unlrary 
 
 Mil aliiiiidaiu'e. is. I innwl «'iiiilt'«j«, a mvMitTv to 
 
 iiic; lull Kiii'li is tin' f'K't. 'I'"' eafio willi wliicli 
 
 till' land is oliiaiiieil. its I'lieapneNH, the rii'hncM of 
 
 till' Miil. and the few waiiti* of the |M'ii|ile, have 
 
 „|„, n|«'ratt'il to elu'ck llie proKn'sn of iiniimve- 
 
 iiii'iil ill aKrit'iilliire. 'I'lie forinalion of roiiilK. loo, 
 
 i, niidiTi'd exreeiliii),'ly dilllriill bv Ibe iliitlunee 
 
 Iriiiii wliii'li the iieceitMirv inateriaii* would often 
 
 riiiiiire til In' conveyed; Imt xlill mori> by Ilii> iin- 
 
 {11. 1 I'haraeter of the law, wliii'b IbroWN ilie whole 
 
 liurii' II of inakin^r ibeni on the |H>af<ant, tliiiN reii- 
 
 iji'riiiL;' it iiiiiioKsilile to exjieiiil ho lar^e a eapital 
 
 a< U'Mild Ih' rei|iiireil for their llrxt fornwition in 
 
 Mirli siiiialioiii'.' (TravelH in lliin>iurv. ii. ;i.) 
 Willi' is n priiii'ipiil ebjeet in viirioiiH purlM of 
 
 lliiiiKary, and iniieli care Ih iiNniilly beHio^M'd boili 
 
 1,11 ilii' iMiltiire of ihe vinevariln and llie inaniifae- 
 
 liiri' of the liipior. The lient of nweet wines, To- 
 
 jjiiv, owes its celebrity entirely to llie care with 
 
 wliii'li the Ki'<*"i"' '-'* tiUed and Ibe );ra|i<'s Horli'd. 
 
 Till' vine is, also, extensively urowii in 'I'raiisyl- 
 
 Miiiia; and thmiKh notbiiiK eaii be ruder tlian tlie 
 
 iiri'ni'iit priHM'Hs of wine-inakiiif; in Ihe prov,, llie 
 
 uliii'H are remarkable for Ibeir boiiipiet and llavonr, 
 
 tiiiil liave considerable body. There are tbroii^di- 
 
 <,iii llie emiiire, accordinK to retiiriiH iniiile in I mi'.-.', 
 
 uiiilur ({overnment inHpeittiiin, 1 10 Aiislrian hii. in. 
 
 n| viniynnls, U'sideH I 10 Austrian hi|. m. of ' lielilH 
 
 hlaiili'il with vine.' The annual prodnctioii of 
 
 uiiii! ranges between Jlll.ooo.ooo and lO.OOll.lMlO 
 
 ijiiicrs— I I'imer beiiifj e(pial to lO'llll l'',ii;;'lish 
 
 -iiiliiiiH. (Iteportof Mr. CiiiiHiil Fane, dated Vienna, 
 
 Kill, HI. imi;t.) The I'lillnre of nilk is rapidly in- 
 
 1 ri'ii-iiiK, ami mi^jlit be rained in every part of 
 lliiii(;ary. A (?reat obstacle to the improvement 
 
 111' imrii'iiltiire wiw removed by the Diet of IXitii, 
 whin a law watt paHsed for lixinj; the divi: ion of 
 liiiul. Down to that period llie peasant only tilled 
 his |Mirtion for three years, after which anotlier 
 \Mi.i alliitteil to him by' bis lord, and the share he 
 |io'ist'«.''eil was either given over to others or turned 
 mill Kra/.iii); laml. The want of a market for 
 ilicir cum, and their nomadic habits, have tempted 
 the lliin);arians to |trosecnle, on a larj^e scale, the 
 raisini; of sheep and wool. 
 
 Ilniii'ia is tlironglioul an agricultural prov. Its 
 
 mm' lirt'le portion begins to the K. of the San, 
 
 ami foUiiws the course tif the Dniester, being part 
 
 .1 tlii'Kreat plain extending nearly from the Car- 
 
 lathlans to the Klack 8ea, and embracing IVididia, 
 
 iho Ukraine, and Moldavia. The soil is here 
 
 nearly as rich as that of the best jmrts of the 
 
 j,'ront Unngarian plain, and produces the beautiful 
 
 whiiii Dantzic wheat, so much iirizcd in the lion- 
 
 ilmi market. That large portion of the land, 
 
 wliii'ii in lieltl in small jiarcels by the peasants, is 
 
 ill (ialicia particularly ill cultivated and unpro- 
 
 ihiclive. The rent of the Inddiiigs of the jieasantry 
 
 iscuninKinly rated in contributions of labour (ru- 
 
 l»l). pavable to the projjrietors ; and as the latter 
 
 ;'iiii'raliy insist on this labour or service being 
 
 li'tfomicd when it is most valuable, and is most 
 
 iiwdttl by the peasants themselves, it leads to 
 
 ciiiUcss quarrels and oppression; and, besides being 
 
 the lianc of agriculture, has been the priiieipal 
 
 Miurcc of the atrocities that have been committed 
 
 hy the ixjasantry on their lords. The estates of 
 
 liic nolnlity in (ialicia arc in general pretty well 
 
 liinned, and may be classed with those of ihdie- 
 
 mia, Moravia, Austria, and the provinces to the 
 
 smith of the Dannbc. On these estates regular 
 
 nilations of crops, with artificial grasses, are now 
 
 iretty general ; and many of the muchiiics ui use 
 
 89t 
 
 in KiiglMMil, Hiii'h Afi Impmvod iilongliK, xowing 
 and Ibri'sbiiig inachineH, iVc, have been intniibii'i'd. 
 A gentleman, who farms bis own estate in a purl 
 of Moravia, wbcre the Hoil Is of average ipiality 
 and the climate lias a mean temperature, has fur- 
 nislicd us Willi llie following deiails: — 
 
 An estate of mean sixe contaiiiN from N'lO to 
 1,100 Kng. acres of arable land. I 10 to IJO acres 
 of meadow land, and l.oooto '.',,'iOi>, or inure, acres 
 
 w I, according to llie Hiiualioii, tbat is, wlii'tlicr 
 
 near Ihe moimlains or in the plain. The estates 
 eonfrrring Ibe right of represent at inn (laiidtitllicbe 
 (inter), and which are only held by kiilgliis or 
 nobles, are of all si/.es, from a few acres to several 
 (ierman Hip m. These eslales can, Hiriclly npeak • 
 ing, be held also by a commoner, but only mi bis 
 paying a |Mirtion of Ihe taxes twice over, and mi 
 liis renoiini'ing Ihe rigbt to all kiiiiN of palrmiagi' 
 and Judicial aiilburily. The estaleN of mean si/.e 
 may be eHliinated at two-lhirds of Ihe whole. In 
 Moravia, about thirty are fmind to exceed A'^ l'',iig. 
 sip m. in extent. In purchasing land, a prolii of 
 from I to 'U per cent, per annum is generally 
 looked for. riie Hi/e of tlie iieaHanl's holdings is 
 also very various. In the plains a peasaiit'H linld- 
 ing may Ihi about '2H |'',ng. acres. In the billy 
 parts, where Ibe poiinlalion is Ibimier, and llie 
 soil li'HH prodnclive, it is :I0, |0, and in some pnils 
 70 acres. Half Imlilings, ipiarter holdings, as well 
 aHeoiliers willi small gardens, are also freipieiil. 
 Il is, however, siippnsed tbat of the peasant 
 families two-t birds bold land, and aliont one- 
 lliird may be I'misidered as mere labourers. Tlie 
 mode of cult ival ion adopted bv Ibe peasants in 
 Ibe low lauds is a rotation of three crops, vi/, 
 wheat, rye, summer corn, fallow; the fallow being 
 only partially used. In the billy parts Ibe fallows 
 are more used for potatoes, turnips, tlax, <^c, ; in 
 Ibe mountains tillage is more irregular. Oats, 
 |Mitaloes, and tlax are grown; and in Ibe morn 
 elevated spots oats and biickwlieal. On the 
 greater |iart of the snnill estates of the nobles a 
 better rotaliiin of crops, with chiver, green food, 
 and meadows, |ir(!vail, according as the soil or Ibe 
 local advimtages of common gra/.ing (wliicb is 
 very extensive everywhere) render it necessary. 
 
 Distilleries and breweries are commonly estab- 
 lisbed on large farms; and the culture of beet 
 having been of late years greatly extended, there 
 are numerous factories for the extraction of sugar 
 from the root. 
 
 It is not usual to let land on lease in these parts 
 of the empire. The few cases in which this modo 
 of tenure occurs must rather be considered as ex- 
 ceptions than as a rule, although it is the opinion 
 of competent judges that the incomes of Ihe largo 
 landholders would Ihi increased by the introduction 
 of the practice. In I'oland villages are often let 
 for short terms, that is, an estate willi the resident 
 lalMiurers upon it, 'who are iHinnd lo labour so 
 many days in the week in lieu of rent for their 
 lands. ' In the management of his holding tbu 
 peasant enjoys the liberty of turning at pleasure 
 vineyanls into meadows, of tilling pasture lields, 
 or of Converting the tillage lields into pasture ; 
 oidy ill the ease of wooils the landlord reserves 
 a right of inspection, to prevent, and punish, 
 their being dealt with contrary to contract. Hut 
 the peasant cannot let his land, nor leave it 
 uncultivated, nor sell it in parcels. From tbo 
 peasants' holdings the lord usually derives, 1st. 
 All that was stipulated on the original cession of 
 the land, whether in the slia|)c of a reiit-cliarg(! in 
 money or otherwise, 2ndly. The iMmli-mhim, or 
 line, on transfer, whether by sale or inlieritancu 
 (usually ."> jier cent.). 3rdly. The Robot, or )ier- 
 suiiul service, the maximum of which lias been 
 
>ll 
 
 ;■« 
 
 1 
 
 
 291 Ar.STKIA (!•; 
 
 Ilxril liy Inw, 'I'lii* rDtiNiHtii ((rncrnlly in tlircf 
 ilnyit' work, with it yunttU"" n"'! l><>rM«'Xi wri'kly. for 
 (lit> iicnMiiirM I'litiri' lidliiiMKi llio half liiililiii({ 
 l^ivi'M iiii<> iitiil A liiiil' iliiy'x wiirk, nnil ilir ((iiiirti'r 
 linliliiiK Iwii iir lliri'i' iIiivn' InlMiiir, weekly ; 4'i)l- 
 lii^crH ^ive rroiii It'll lo tdirli'i'M <lnvN |M'r iiiniiiiii. 
 'tllily, 'I'lii' ri^lit of itm/.'wK on iinniltiviiii'il ftilluwii 
 mill mIiiIiIiIi'm; wliirli liowcvrr llii> |)riii<itill liiilV 
 excrrimi ii|iiiii tlie liiiiil of IiIn liinl. /ilhly. The 
 ;;reill mill xliuill lltlieM, wllirll lire often iN'ileil til 
 the ehiiri'll, or lliive lieell iilherwipe trilU'<terreil, 
 PoinMiirHl pro|)4'rty (nlliHliiil enlateit) |)iiy. in )^e- 
 lieriil, nil tithe, 'I'lie |ieiiMiiiil iniiy eeiie or leiive 
 liv will IiIm liolilin^ III whirliever III' IiIn whin he 
 lilenneH; hut it Im then nmiMlly t'linr^eil with ii 
 mini I'lir eiirli of IiIn hrolherH anil HiNterN. The 
 cUNtoin lireviliUof leavillff il to the elilent noIi ; hill 
 it in oth'ii eeileil iliirili^ the fiilher'N life, who re- 
 tuiiiMa eerlain (|iiaiitniii of the |)ro<|iii-e t'orliiiown 
 UN' : tliiNK*'nerally haiiiieiiN when the father winheM 
 to free IiIn Moii from lialiility to the i'onHrri|itioii,' 
 
 The KroN.i niiioinit of the ii^'riciiltnriil ami liorti- 
 niltiiral |iroiluee of ilieHoil thrnii^rhunt the enipire 
 in eNtiinateil at an aiiiinal value of l,l)l)0,(K)t),tKIU 
 tloriuH, or KKi.iMMi.iiliti/. 
 
 (■real attention Ih now IteiiiK P'l!*) to ''«* lirewt- 
 in(;of eattle In AiiNtria. llomeH, niiileH nn<l aMxeM, 
 oxen, Nheep, f;*">l>*i un'l x^viiie are hreil in vant 
 i|iinntitieN, The value of the eiitl le of all kiiiilit now 
 exiMtin^ in the empire in eiliniateil at I,(I(MI,oimi,imm) 
 lloriiiN, anil the annual proiluee fniin them I'oin- 
 lirim-H l(M),(M)<),(HM) eimerH of milk ()iartly miiile 
 into hiilter nnil elieene) ; 'J(),()<HI,iMH)heail of yoiiiiK 
 tattle; IM,II(II),IJIM) ewtn. of meat anil fat' from 
 f^'rown enttio; I'i.lHHMMX) liiilex anil xkiim: 7lllMH)0 
 cwIh. of wmil : the whole heiii^ extiiimted ut a 
 tolnl value of toO.dOO.OllO llorlim. 
 
 The rearing of Hilk woniiN in lar^^elv practiNeil 
 in the Hoiith of the empire; Vciietiu anil the 
 Hontheni Tyrol Hiip^ilyin^ anniinlly ahoiit 270,111111 
 ewiN, (if eociMiiiN, eNtnnateil at a value of 2'J,(MMl,iliM) 
 tloriiiN, or '2,2tMI,OtH)/. (l{eport of iMr. Consul ranc, 
 (lateil Vienna, Feh. Itl, |Kt>:(.) 
 
 Wo refer to our urtiileN on SrvitiA, Iij.ykia, 
 lIuN()AitY,an(ITi<ANHYiA'AMA,form>inc iiotieeMof 
 the mining wealth of the Auntriiin empire. Iron 
 and native Htcel are fonnil in Niitrh almnitance in 
 •Styria anil lllyria, that the ore In merely quarried 
 from moiintaiiiN Hcveral thouNand feet in height, 
 whieli aro Holid liloekH of earhonate uf inui ore. 
 Yet thew! riches arc but very im|ivrfectly uwil. 
 The whole priMluetion of iron, in the year IHO.J, 
 anuiunted to 4,i)lH,ti!M poiinilH, the greater (|uan- 
 tity of whieh, vi/. II,1A7,!)H8 |KiunilH, eame from 
 the (iennnn provinces. Of Hteel, (UtiilNtl pounilN 
 -were mnnufacturcil during the Numo period. The 
 article of native Ktecl is eHpccially worthy of atten- 
 tion ; for though, owing lo the want of improved 
 means of communication, KngliNh steel be, at 
 )ireNent, sold cheaper at Trieste, yet not only is the 
 quality of the St^'rlan and Illyrian metal superior, 
 but it is found m such abundance, that it could 
 supply the most extensive demand. The mining 
 industry of Austria occupied, in the year IHtiil, a 
 total of 107,h;U persons, viz, S)8,6o() men, 4,iWJ 
 women, and 6,2()!» children. 
 
 The total number of factories in the empire 
 nmountcd to alMiut 12,(100 in the year l«o8, JSinco 
 that time no returns have lieen ])ublished, the old 
 system of government sujiervision and regiilotion, 
 as well as the privileges of close trades and guilds, 
 having succumbed to a freer spirit of legislation, 
 Ity an imjierial decree of Dec, 20, 1869, a new 
 ' Gewerbe-ordnung ' was introduced, which re- 
 iiealed nearly all the restrictions previously incum- 
 bering the free exercise of the various industrial 
 occupations. The princijial scats of the cotton 
 
 MI'lUK OF) 
 
 mid wiHiIleii maniifiii'liin X are, Itoheinin, Murnvln, 
 Mih-nia, and AiiMtrin; mid there they havf iitiiijiir,| 
 to t'oiixlilerulilt' |H'rft'ction. ('oar)>ei'loiliMari't'M>r\ . 
 where mnniifacturi'il ; and large i'X|MirtN of cniicii 
 and wiMillen wareH, eN|M-t'ially of iiilVrior hIuihI. 
 and red cajM, are annually made to Tiirkt<y iin,| 
 the I'liiNt. l.ini'U In a leading article of iniinii 
 fiii'liire; Npinning and weaving furiiiiiig ilie inm. 
 I'itial eifiployiiieiit of the iieasaiitry diiriiiu ihi. 
 wlnliT, eN|H't'iallv of the woiiifii, in the iiiirtlnrn 
 proviiift'N, In tHilii'ia, iioi only a purl Inn uf ||,,. 
 rent, but, In many large eNtalilinhmiiiiM, n imrt 
 of the wagt'N of NcrvaiitN, In paid in lliicii. I'li,. 
 Nlaini'd gliiKN ware of lloheniiii ix n truly lii'iiiiiji,|| 
 fabric, iH'iiig Nii|M'rior in the rirhiicNN and hrijlini' v 
 of the coloiirN to liny that is cNewheri' priHln 
 It In exli'iiNively ex|Mirted, Ittthemiaii pure irv -i„| 
 ii not, howt ver, equal to thai of |''.iiglauil. 
 
 There are a great niimlHr of wonieii ;iiiil diij. 
 dn'lli'liiployt'il ill the viirioiis maniifiii'liiroiu <'Ktali- 
 liHlimeiilN, and the goyeniineiil Iuin tViiliU'ij t..r Ihiir 
 iiroti>i'tion Npffiiil laws, w hich are rigidly rii(Mri|.,|, 
 The chief of these regiilatimm are as full. , >»,,:_ 
 I, Tli(> earliest age at which I'liildreiii nin Ipfi'in. 
 ployed is at twelye years, 2, Theoivly i'xrc|illiin 
 shall be for rhildren'who, at nine yeai "of ii^'c, ||,i\|. 
 for three yearN received n religioiiN t'ducatiuti niui 
 attended ncIiihiI ; but as long iin these I'liiMnn 
 shall continue at an age at whirh they nii^'hi i„ 
 attend Nt'hiHil, the manufacturers shall wiiiili ovir 
 their education, aii<l call to their u. ' ''.le iiiiiii>ii'r< 
 of the gosiiel, but \<i iihoiit interrupt iiig (liiir wnrk, 
 Ii, For children IsMween nine and iwchc yi'arx i>|.| 
 the iHHximum of the time they are to work \* lixnl 
 at ten hours, and iK'tweeii twelve and sixti'cii M'iir< 
 of iige at twelve hours, but tlie\ shall IsMillnHnl 
 an interval of one hour. -I. ManiifartiiriTit up' 
 iMinnd to prevent all diNonler and scandnliniH om 
 duct among the adults in their estahliNhint'iiis 
 fi. Manufacturers shall keep registers, in wliiili 
 shall be enlereil the names and ages of tlii^ chil- 
 dren, their residences, and the iieriod at wliicli II / 
 enten-d the manufactory, Tliis register sliiil »■ 
 prisluced iK't'orc the magistrate and the iiiiiii-H'r 
 of public Worship whenevi'r it may he rciiiiircil. 
 IS, All contraventions of these regulatioiiH shall In' 
 iiunished with a tine of from '.' to IIIU tloriiiH ; ami 
 in case of a reiietition of the oU'encc, the (ill'iinli'r 
 may Im! interdicted from having any children iindcr 
 twelve years of age in his employment. 
 
 The Wst and surest scale for a ratio of tlio 
 development of factory system and priidiiclidii liy 
 machinery is the ciaisuinption of niiiiernl cnal, 
 this fuel having been comparatively little iindliii 
 the households of Austria. Itut the coiiNiini|iii<>n 
 of coals has, since 1 8iW, Increased from lotoiiwly 
 70 million cwts. Moreover, there is in the iii(lii>- 
 trial districts of the Giant ami Ore tnoiiutaiiK 
 scarcely any water-power left that is not availnl 
 of, so that lit iircsent water-works make their way 
 out of the valleys into the plains; and in tlic ini- 
 mcdiatc vicinity of coal-tiehls large industrial dis- 
 tricts arc rising into existence' where the works 
 are carried on with steani-powt^r. 
 
 Commerce, — The trade of Austria, owing In hit 
 central situation, and the disrance of all lier iiii'>t 
 important provs, from the scii, labours mulcr con- 
 siderable natural dittic-ulties. Notwit Imtaniliiit! 
 these, there )ia« been of late a steady iwrnm 
 both in exjMirts and imports, owing chietly to the 
 partial adoption of free-trade iirincipk's. How- 
 ever, a large portion of the revenue is still ilcrivcil 
 from customs' duties, d etly on iinjiorts, as will 
 be seen from the followiiig table, which shows (he 
 chief articles, and classes of articles, inipDricii i" 
 the year 1868, and the amount of duties levied un 
 them. 
 
ArsTIUA ir.Ml'IUK OF) 
 
 301 
 
 I In, M'lTntln, 
 iikVi' rilliiiiii'il 
 lid urr IMT\ . 
 irtM <>r nilloii 
 
 iVriiir iilia«»l< 
 'I'lirkfy nii'l 
 I'll' iif iiiiihii 
 lli^ III!' |iriii 
 ,- iliiriiiu ilii' 
 llii< Iliirtli>'rii 
 |iiirtliiti iif il >' 
 iniii», n iHin 
 
 II lini'ii, rill' 
 riilv U'liiiiiliil 
 iiikI lirilliiii v 
 liiTi' jiriKlii 
 
 III |ilire (TV Mill 
 
 i;laii'l. 
 
 iiini uiiil iliii- 
 ii'liii«iiu "'kIhIk 
 Viiin.'iir"r llii'if 
 jtiilly riil'Tci'il, 
 i> iiM lull' «»;— 
 Iri'M I'liii iN'i'in- 
 oivly I'Xfi'iitlim 
 
 llV'of IIK<'. llJIM' 
 
 I'lliicnll'iii mill 
 llii'Mi' I'liiMrrii 
 llii'y "iiwlii I'l 
 Iwill wnlfli "vcr 
 . ' ''.II' iiiiiii>ii'h 
 itiiiHtlii'irwiirk, 
 w«'l\i' yi'iir>uli| 
 to work in llxiil 
 iiKlKixtft'iiu'iirt 
 hIiiiU iK-alliiwi'l 
 uuifft''tiir('r« iiri' 
 HCiiiiilnliiun cmi 
 (<Mtal)liHliim'ni\ 
 fmti'M, III wliiili 
 l^I'M of llit^ I'li'l- 
 (Mint wliiiliil > 
 r('^{iltt('r itliiil' « 
 iml llu- imin-:rr 
 liny 1)1' ri'iiuiriil. 
 iilntioiiH nhalllK' 
 IIKI llnriiix: mill 
 
 lU'C, till! (itl'llll'T 
 
 V I'liililrt'ii iiiulit 
 luient. 
 
 a rntiii of tlm 
 1(1 prixUii'ti"" ''>■ 
 i>f niincral m\\. 
 cly littlii need ill 
 the coiiKiiniliii"" 
 [from 10 to nearly 
 
 is in the imlii'- 
 Oro tnomiiaiii< 
 Iftt Is nut nviiilril 
 iniike their way 
 , niul in tlie iiii- 
 irc industrial ili>- 
 phcro the wiit'hs 
 
 Irin, owin^' to ht 
 . of nil liiT iii">i 
 jours niiiler imi- 
 P«!otwitli!«tiiiiili"t! 
 J Mteudv incn'ii^o 
 Inn I'liiotly to tlie 
 liiK'iiilcs. llo«- 
 le is still (U'rivc'l 
 Timiwirts, as will 
 Iwhicli shows llif 
 T'los, imiHirtcam 
 rautiMlcvicil''n 
 
 IMI'IIIITH. 
 nMUiMlliin "< <">"•■• M >lM«»i Valiidiir 
 
 "^ III ih« tMl* ImywM 
 
 ('<>|niil»l Wiirwt »nil Month. 
 
 .rii Kriiiu 
 l',,hu< I unit Miiiiiifiu^tiin'* 
 
 ,i| liilllU'M) • • • 
 
 l',.n'4tl>»nil Kriiltii 
 
 Viilmikl* . • • 1 
 
 Aiiliiml rriHliii't* 
 
 (Iriiw »'"' ""' • • • 
 
 |,l.|ii(pr«»ii'l lvll'>l''« . 
 
 llui.rliU« for t'lit'l mill Tim- 
 
 Irr . . •. ■ 
 M»lli'nmi'tit«, Prrriiiiiiii, 
 
 liyi'liilC, 'rminliiK, iiimI 
 
 Chi'iiiliiil HtulTn 
 Mi'iiil", prti'iiiiin, riiw ami 
 
 hiili-iiiiiii"'"''tii'''''' . 
 WiitvliiK k 1.00III Miiti'rliiU 
 VuniK . . • . • 
 WciYi'ii mill Loom (IhikIk 
 
 Pii|«'rnnilHtiitloiH'r.v . 
 Uiiilier iiii'l U'rtlli' t'IikmIh. 
 WihhI, tiltuw, uiiil I'liiy 
 Wuri'it . . . ■ 
 Vi.|iiI(I>kkI«. . 
 V.hli'liii . . . . 
 
 Miwhlnci «iiil Hurilwarn . 
 Chi'niU'ul I'riHUiotn.Colourii, 
 
 unit FutH . . . . 
 
 I'riiiu^l llookii und OliJooU 
 
 oi An , . . . 
 
 I lUlilMK 
 |I*««M«* 
 
 Sinn total 
 
 tularin* 
 
 |.l,tHit,T:i7 
 l'J,'ilM),im:| 
 
 ir.i'HtT.iu: 
 
 7,lNli,lMI 
 l;l.:).'i7,HHft 
 ■i,./ii:l,IIU 
 
 A,)l7il,Aa4 
 
 l7,4iM,»il7 
 
 :i:i,Aim,l!iA 
 
 I7,;i';;l,fti»ti 
 
 'jl.lini.ihiH 
 
 li,iMM,Hao 
 
 I .'tn.iM 
 A,:i.i.i,m)0 
 
 a.'VTii.Hiiii 
 
 'i.liiil.lCiM 
 
 irji.iHHi 
 «.'jaH,()74 
 ■;,UIH,44'J 
 6,aAl,470 
 
 'j:|-J,7il'i,AA4 
 
 florin* 
 A.OI'i.l'i'i 
 
 |:i,A'J» I 
 illM.III 
 
 l.'ii'M'iN, 
 
 llDt.IlM 
 H.M.IN-. 
 
 A.'>;, It. I 
 7,1)01) 
 
 aft7.7:ill , 
 
 97!l.aiA 
 .\»,Hi\ I 
 I.«iu,m:.(1 
 l,4l'J,iH.a I 
 
 4n,'i7A I 
 •ioo.'iao j 
 
 liA.Hr.ii 
 
 liMi.mi 
 
 U,H-.o 
 
 4ii),4Nl) 
 
 lOH.IMH 
 
 U.IOA 
 
 l'i,AH7,70fl 
 
 The dulijoiiiwl tabln cxliihitM the cx|H>rtH of tlm 
 ve»r IHtJit, tontitluT with tin- iiiHioins' ruvt'iiiif de- 
 rivcil iherulroui, which, it will bu itt'cu, ww very 
 
 •light. 
 
 ExroitTN. 
 
 Dnlfiiuion «! UikhU u elMMid 
 111 Ilia I'MlIt 
 
 C'liloiilttl Wnreii 
 
 TubHot'o and Manufactures of 
 Tobiuico . . . • 
 C'l'rvals niid Fruits 
 AiiiiimlH . . • • 
 Aiiliiiiil I'roduuta . . 
 (iri'iiMiaiulUilii • • 
 
 Miiuoni 
 
 MaU'rittls for Fuel ii Tliiilicr 
 MeJlcumunts, Purf unics, Uj o- 
 InK, TanidiiK, and Cheinluul 
 Htull8 
 
 Metalii, prccloui, raw and 
 
 half-manurnvtured . 
 Wravlng and Loom Materials 
 
 Yiiniii 
 
 Woven and Ijoom Goods 
 lioudii made of Htrnw, Bast, 
 
 Paper, and Stiitiuiicry 
 Uatlier and Leather (Jouds 
 ■ Wood, Glass, and Clay WarcB 
 Metal Uoods 
 
 LttuU and Water Vohlclos 
 , liutrumunts, Machines, and 
 
 hardware . . . . 
 Chemical I'rodncts, Colours, 
 
 Fats imd Combustibles 
 Printed Docks and Ubjeots of 
 
 Art 
 
 lUifuiiO, Rags .... 
 
 I 
 
 Sum total 
 
 Valiii' of 
 Knpuru 
 
 Plorlni 
 A,7»0 
 
 AHH.HOO 
 4A,.'.aH,li'J,S 
 
 u.aiiii.axu 
 4,a:iA,ij.'i 
 
 a,H4,/,(l7fl 
 
 a,!Mo,aiii) 
 
 •J4,«U7,A10 
 
 4,903,380 
 
 3»,n4 1,070 
 
 3.'),(i40.»4!» 
 
 •J,.'iNi,'JlA 
 
 48,7-Jl,Aa8 
 
 A,l'JO.a-Jt 
 
 ia,.')iiA,auo 
 
 •i'^,H7'J,4ll 
 10,aii-J,li74 
 
 a.uaa.ooo 
 
 ai',493,85'i 
 
 4,4Ul),938 
 
 2,4!)a,:.oo 
 iiio,;.')8 
 
 310,«87,'JA0 
 
 C m H w i 
 
 lUVMIIW 
 
 riorlui 
 
 41,001 
 
 V«,748 
 
 'J7,A33 
 
 aa7,0O7 
 
 37,830 
 404.130 
 
 -, . 
 
 ImtiMtU 
 
 1 riM>H 
 
 Y.«n 
 
 
 
 
 I'lutllM 
 
 ri'iiiMi 
 
 |!MI.A'^».44l 
 
 l>«AI 
 
 |.'M.nT4.M.1 
 
 IM.VV 
 
 vtio.a'iii.Hio 
 
 IIIA.MOI.MiH 
 
 IMAJI 
 
 !M7,'w;,';iM» 
 
 W».l»-il,»7l 
 
 iH-.t 
 
 •il!',lll.'i,0l7 
 
 •iJH.Uil.JOl 
 
 |h..A 
 
 ';iN.JHM,|r.7 
 
 '^ll.l U.IIJ 
 
 IM.MI 
 
 aiM,i4i,avt) 
 
 'iiii,itiN,);il 
 
 l«:.7 
 
 •ilti.lMI.-i.'Jftl 
 
 •iri,aiia.7ii 
 
 IN.-.M 
 
 aiw.'jNA.ti'^t 
 
 a7ft,.'.!Mi,H7i 
 
 IM.Mt 
 
 !<iiM.'i'i7,7Ha 
 
 aifi,ioi.7Ji 
 
 iMtIO 
 
 'iai.';'jti,7ii!j 
 
 aii.*i,iii7,r»a 
 
 INOI 
 
 l/aA,H47,ii.".7 
 
 »ii7.0Mo.i;,:, 
 
 IWI'i 
 
 ■iil4,UIH,4l)0 
 
 aaa,M.vi,om 
 
 The progress of Austrian cDmmerce in the twelve 
 years 1851-U'2 is exhibited in the sulijoined atutc- 
 nicnt :— 
 
 ThiM'lil(<ri'imnnoiliili'itlin|Hirleilliitiilhi' Ciiiti'il 
 Kiii^iloiii from Aiisiriit iiri' corn iiinl llmir, lii'm|i, 
 liilliiw, f(hiHN iH'iids, olive oil, i|iiirksilvi'r, I'lirriiitis, 
 eremii of inrlnr, liird, hci'iI, nliiimnr, h|iiiiiKi', wimkI, 
 and wiHil, III |Mi'i-J, iht' totnl value ol ilie importit 
 iiiiioiiiiii'd lo l,l7!i,Nii-.'/.! in imil, to l,-2 111,11 It)/, 
 mid ill INiio, to imil.aiil/. 
 
 'I'lie ih'cliired value of llriiish proiliice niid iiia- 
 iiufiiriiireM Hlii|i|iei| to ilio Aiislriaii iliiiiiiiiioiis in 
 IHiij was 7H7,.'i)il/., an nnioiiiit less by lHO,.'lto/, 
 ili.'iii in iMiil, anil by I'lM'i.loM/. than in iMtiii. 
 t'oiioii inaniiliu'iiires ami eotioii yarn iiloiie prii- 
 diii't'il more than a iiioiciy of the yearly Iraiisau- 
 lions. 
 
 The usual eoiiis in eireiilation are the diieat of 
 llollaiiil ^4 II. I'lll kr.; Ihe sovereiKii^- l.'IJ II. ; ihti 
 llorin of -^On. 1 iliii' mark, iliviihd iiilo lio kr. ; I/, 
 slerlin^, nl |iar--!Ml, :il kr. Hank Holes, ol Ti tl. 
 and u|>wnrils, eirciilate, as well an Ihe iioIcn \m- 
 loii^iiif; lo the di'iireeiated eiirrciii'v. of which /> H. 
 -I II. ill silver, ami I tl.'»'2l kr. 'I'liis is deiiomi- 
 iialeil I'ifniui value ; Ihe silver value is called Ihitt 
 of the VonrvntioH. Pieces of 'Jll kr., silver. ■'< of 
 which form a tloriii, with smaller jiieces of 10, r>, 
 and I'l kr., form the silver coiiuii^e. The 20 kr. 
 piece is termed, in Italy, lire Aiistrhico. 
 
 Iiiritmr unit J'J.ri>eiiiltliiri: — The liiiaiicinl system 
 of .\ustria has been till recently involved in iniieli 
 mystery. The taxes vary in ihe ditVerenl provs., 
 and are seldom assesstHl on tlii! same principles. 
 The taxes are tlislributed iimh'r Ihe two ^reat 
 heads of direct and imtirevt. The former com- 
 prise, 1st. The land-tax, or nmtrihiition fmtcit're, 
 extending Keiierally over Ihe empire, but assesseil 
 dilVerently in the dill'erenl provs.; 2nd. The house- 
 tax, from which lIuiiKury is exeinpled; Jlrd. A 
 poll-tax, contined vbietly to the Italian provs.; 
 4tli. A tax on iudusiry, or rather on licences re- 
 ipiired to carry on certain branches of industry; 
 oth. A tax on Jews; and llth. A tax on succes- 
 sions. The indirect tuxes, which also (litter in 
 ditterent provs., consist principally id' excise diitiot 
 on lupiors and butchers' meat; customs duties, the 
 important monopolies of t(dmcco and salt, stump 
 duties, and some others of minor importance. 
 
 To the revenue of the empire the (ierman- 
 Slavonic population contributes about ti.j |>erceiit., 
 the kingdom of llunpiry 25 percent., and l.om- 
 banhi-Veiiice about I! jier cent. The mono|Mdy of 
 the government for the sale of t(>bnc('o, one of the 
 principal items id' revenue, Iwi" existed since the 
 year 1(170. This source of income has been con- 
 tinually increasing of late years. Then; are several 
 branches of the administration, such as the depart- 
 ments of the interior, of the urmy, the navy, and 
 (d' public education, wliicb have specnil funds at 
 their ilis|M>sal, derived from what may bo called 
 endowments, and consisting chietly in lauded 
 projicrty. 
 The subjoined tables show Ihe revenue and cx- 
 I peuditiirc ut' the empire lor the year IM'd : — 
 
if 
 
 ■ l'-'\^' 
 
 iim; 
 
 296 
 
 AUSTRIA (E 
 
 Rkvknuh or 1803 
 
 
 Dihk(tTaxk«:— 
 
 Florins 
 
 C 
 
 Liitid Tiix 
 
 ('.•.',4H1,'JII0 
 
 0,37:i,OH2 
 
 Iliilldlntfrt Tax 
 
 l!i,'jiil,:i(Hi 
 
 l,!li;i,tl63 
 
 Triwlo Tux 
 
 ri,KI4,!)ll() 
 
 5!i;l,l20 
 
 I'oUTax 
 
 6,a7 1,000 
 
 {i:i7,i;>0 
 
 Xji'ttiwy Tnx . 
 
 ao.f.oo 
 
 3,011!) 
 
 lufomo Tax . 
 
 16,167,700 
 
 1,840,085 
 
 TnxoH on Milltiiry Quar- 
 
 
 
 h'rx .... 
 
 1,799,100 
 
 183,610 
 
 I^•l)lll^x,T Taxks— 
 
 
 
 Kxoixo .... 
 
 87,078,700 
 
 6,923,227 
 
 CiiHtoms 
 
 ir>,'J47,616 
 
 1.656,240 
 
 8nlt .... 
 
 ;i:),or.9,(ioo 
 
 3,372,079 
 
 Tobncno .... 
 
 JIO.HOI ,470 
 
 3,161,947 
 
 Stani|M .... 
 
 13,ll(i,619 
 
 1,337,884 1 
 
 TaxcH on legal i)rof08sionH 
 
 21,271,(139 
 
 2,1(19,70(1 ' 
 
 Lottt'rioH 
 
 fi,().'t4,4()0 
 
 015,513 
 
 Post-oltlco 
 
 8,714,2(H) 
 
 878,850 
 
 Tolls .... 
 
 a,!»2H,(!()0 
 
 298,717 
 
 Htampinpr Motals . 
 
 (10,600 
 
 fi,783 
 
 A'unutinn Duos 
 
 100,010 
 
 10,818 
 
 Indirect Taxes on Mili- 
 
 
 
 tary Qnarters 
 
 156,604 
 
 15,807 
 
 ■Revenue from State Lands 
 
 7,016,IH7 
 
 770.748 
 
 Other Ueculi)t8 
 
 'J,S74,6'.'0 
 
 293,201 
 
 
 KXI'KNMMTUHK OF 18(i3 
 
 
 Florins 
 
 £ 
 
 Civil List 
 
 7,468,-00 
 
 700,787 
 
 Ueiclisrath . 
 
 72tl,6:l7 
 
 74,106 
 
 Cabinet .... 
 
 7(1,000 
 
 7,762 
 
 Cotineil of Stato . . 
 
 161,H;17 
 
 15,487 
 
 Foreign Affairs 
 
 2,480,160 
 
 263,687 
 
 Ministry of Stato . 
 
 25,727,680 
 
 2,024,213 
 
 Ministry for Ecclesiasti- 
 
 
 
 cal AfTairs . 
 
 4,724,600 
 
 481 ,899 
 
 Provincial Chancelleries 
 
 18,672,186 
 
 1,894,358 
 
 Ministry of Finance 
 
 21,584,7(1(1 
 
 2,2(H,(;40 
 
 „ of Justice 
 
 9,150,6(17 
 
 933,357 
 
 „ of Police . 
 
 2,646,C7« 
 
 209,857 
 
 Commerce 
 
 4,013,142 
 
 470,640 
 
 Other Branches 
 
 1,380,200 
 
 131,392 
 
 War ... . 
 
 107,023,000 
 
 10,910,300 
 
 War, Special Revenue . 
 
 6,777,000 
 
 689,264 
 
 Navy .... 
 
 10,481,019 
 
 1,009,125 
 
 Quotas of Interest to 
 
 
 
 Companies . 
 
 4,843,060 
 
 493,991 
 
 Interest on Debt . 
 
 113,098,760 
 
 11,690,272 
 
 Old Debts 
 
 18,870,600 
 
 1,924,791 
 
 lloilwoy Telegraphs 
 
 6,001,901 
 
 610,320 
 
 Loss on Bills and Coin . 
 
 7,1 18,420 
 
 720,079 
 
 (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 compnnying dcflcil, during the years 1851 
 1B03:— 
 
 The progressive increase of the revenue of the 
 empire in the course of fourteen years is exhil)itcd 
 in tlie subjoined statement, drawn up from oflicial 
 returns : — 
 
 Tcnr 
 
 Hcvcnuo 
 
 
 Florins 
 
 £ 
 
 1850 
 
 197,443,372 
 
 19,744,337 
 
 1861 
 
 225,006,350 
 
 22,500,535 
 
 1862 
 
 230,110,271 
 
 23,011,027 
 
 1863 
 
 238,383,005 
 
 23,838,366 
 
 1864 
 
 250,094,220 
 
 26,009,422 
 
 1866 
 
 282,722,006 
 
 28,272,200 
 
 1850 
 
 290,189,337 
 
 29,018,933 
 
 1857 
 
 317,390,980 
 
 31,73!l,(i98 
 
 1858 
 
 315,188,865 
 
 31,518,880 
 
 1859 
 
 260,829,190 
 
 24,778,774 
 
 ISOO 
 
 301,5S9,455 
 
 28,650,998 
 
 1801 
 
 342,349,714 
 
 32,523,222 
 
 1802 
 
 321,909,684 
 
 30.687,110 
 
 1803 
 
 398,657,905 
 
 33,221,497 
 
 Tlic decline of the revenue in ISSO marks the 
 detachment of the fiourisliing Italian provinces. 
 The war of that j)eriod is still more strikiuffly 
 A'isiblc in the expenditure, shown in the following 
 table, which gives the expenditure and the ac- 
 
 I'he Austrian budget was settled, uji to the war 
 ISfiiJ, from the tirst of November to the Inst'd.iv 
 of October every year. A uhaiige was intniilnciii 
 in 1K(!H, wlien it was arranged tliat, for the fiiiiirc, 
 the iinancial nccomits of the empire shoidil run 
 current with the ordinary year. To acc(ini|ili>li 
 the change, the budget estimates for IWi.'MMwcrp 
 for fourteen montlis, from 'November 1, l8(i,'i, i,, 
 the last day of Decend)er, 1 8G4. The revenue t'ur 
 this period' of fourteen months was estimated nt 
 at 570,047,3(15 florins, and the expenditure at 
 r.00,447,2><9 florins, leaving a delicit of 3it,;i!l!l,tl.V| 
 florins, to Iks covered, with jiart of former deliciis 
 by the loim of 70,000,000 florins. 
 
 The public debt of the empire has grown upp^- 
 dually since the middle of the last century. At 
 the end of the Seven Years' War, in 1 7t).'{, Austria 
 had a debt of 1. 50,000,000 of florins, which grew lo 
 283,000,000 in 1781, and at the commencement uf 
 the French Revolution, in 1789, had risen to 
 349,000,000. From this period the deltt grew in 
 extraordinarj' proportions. From 1789 until lNi;,{, 
 there was not a single year in whicli the reveiuii! 
 of the state came up to the expenditure. On tlic 
 3l8t December, 1803, the total liabilities of the 
 state, both consolidated and floating, amoiuiteil 
 to 2,3C4,31(i,7()l florins, of which the fioatuigdcU 
 consisted of 39(i,972,20tj florins. 
 
 Form of Giwernment. — The emperors of the lioiifc 
 of Hapsburg, previously to the year 1848, ruled 
 the dominions accuniulate<l under their sceptre in 
 an absolute manner, commonly described as ']ia- 
 ternal despotism.' The revolution of the year 
 
 1848, originating among the German portioii nf 
 the ])opulation, put an end to this sway, by ori- 
 ginating a purely democratic constitution, wliich 
 the emperor was forced to sign on the 4th of Marcli, 
 
 1849. Tlus verj' liberal charter, however, was re- 
 pealed by an imperial decree of Dec. 31, 18.")1, 
 which substituted a more absolute form of govern- 
 ment ; and, during the following years, new edicts 
 altered the public charter. Finally, by an im- 
 perial diploma, dated Oct. 20, 1800, followed by 
 a decree, or 'Patent' of February 2(i, 1801, the 
 present constitution of the empire was estali- 
 lished. Its main features are a tripartite lei^s- 
 lature, consisting, first, of (he provincial diets, 
 representing tiie various states of the monarchy; 
 secondlj', a central diet, called the lieichsrutk, ur 
 coiuicil of the empire ; and, thirdly, a re(hiceil 
 form of the latter, entitled Enger Ueiclisrath, ur 
 Partial Council of the Empire. 
 
 There arc eighteen Provincial Diets — namely, 
 for Hungary, llohemia, Lombardo-Venicc, Dal- 
 matia, Croatia and Slavonia, (Jalicia, Higher Aus- 
 tria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Cariidhia, 
 Camiola, Bidtowina, Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol ami 
 Vorarlbcrg, Transylvania, Istria and Trieste. The 
 
10 years 1851 to 
 
 Dvflcit 
 
 £ 
 
 7,mi'J.(is!) 
 8,:«ir.,H:iH 
 
 ir.,714,SKH 
 ir),H3l,!t!l(> 
 8,1(I2,-Jil7 
 6,:Mi'.,!t45 
 r),18(i,:i82 
 24,:iHO,(ir)i 
 4,I)H1 ,t>62 
 3,4H2,7<)4 
 4,872,ia« 
 6,221,208 
 
 ttlod, up to tlic yrar 
 \\w.Y to the last dny 
 lUf^c was iiitnHliii((l 
 I tlmt,for the fiiiiirc, 
 3 cmi)irc should run 
 car. To aol•(lm|lli^ll 
 att'sfor lH(i;W)l\v('rf 
 iovember 1, I8(llt, in 
 34. The revcmii' fur 
 ths was cstimntod at 
 
 the exppiulitiiro at 
 , deficit of 31l,;!!)li,!i.Vl 
 art of former delicits, 
 rins. 
 
 lire has grown up gw- 
 he last century. At 
 War, in ITtlil, Austria 
 Horins, which (,tcw tn 
 the commencement (if 
 1 1781), had risen tu 
 riod tiie del)t fjrew in 
 From 17W» until im, 
 in which the rcvemn; 
 expenditure. On tlic 
 Dtal liabilities of tin' 
 Id lloatiiif;, nmoiinlt'il 
 
 hich the tloatuig debt 
 
 Ins. 
 
 _ emperors of the houfc 
 Ithe year 1«48, riilod 
 under their sceiittc in 
 ily described as 'pa- 
 ■olution of the year 
 le German portion if 
 Ito this sway, by <ni- 
 |c constitution, wliitli 
 on the4thofMar(li, 
 •ter, however, was ri>- 
 ■e of Dec. 31, IH.il, 
 iolute form of sovcni- 
 ing years, new edicts 
 Finally, by an ini- 
 '0, 18t)0J followed by 
 [bruary 20, 1801, tlie 
 empire was estali- 
 ire a tripartite leu'i*- 
 the provincial diets 
 |cs of the moiiari'liy; 
 id the Reiclisruth, ur 
 thirdly, a rednwd 
 Inger Kekhsrath, ux 
 
 iicial Difi^s— namely, 
 nbardo-Venice, Dal- 
 Icialicia, Higher Aus- 
 , Styria, Cariiithia. 
 _., Silesia, Tyrol a"'l 
 Iria and Trieste. 'Uic 
 
 (lietn of all tl"'*"' provinces arc formed in nearly 
 the snino manner, only iliffering in the nnmlter of 
 diimties. Kach consists of only one assembly, 
 t'liiiiiioHed, 1st, of the archbishop and bishops oi' 
 tlu! itoinan Catholic and Oriental (ireek Church 
 mill the chancellors of universities; 2iid, of the 
 ri'Tirescntativcs of great estates, eh^cted by all laiid- 
 owiicrs paying not less than KM) tlorins, or ID/., 
 taxes; ,'lrif. of the representatives of towns, clecled 
 bv those citizens who possess municipiil rights; 
 .I'tji, of the representatives of boards of coinincrce 
 and trade-unions, clioscn by tlie res|K'ctive nu^ni- 
 jiiTs; and ftth, of the renresentatives of rural coin- 
 niiiiies, elected by such uihubitants as pay a small 
 ainiiuiit of direct taxation. The |>rovincial diets 
 iin^ competent to make laws concerning local ad- 
 iniiiistration, particularly those art'ectiiig county 
 taxation, the cultivation of the soil, educational, 
 church, and charitable institutions, and public 
 works executed at the publi' > . ;ien«e. lluugarv, 
 (.'roatia, and Transylvanih h."' -u , arate consti- 
 tutions, allowing somewhat greater latitiiile of 
 sidl'-goveriiment. The diet of Transylvania, con- 
 viikeil for July 1, 180;{, consisted of Kif) members, 
 of which number 12.') were elected by the ju'Dplc, 
 and 40 nominated by the cro^Ti. In the elections, 
 every man has a vote wlio has attained the age of 
 twi'iity-four, and pays direct taxes to the amount 
 III' 8 tlorins, or 15s. ; and capable of being elected 
 are all citizens of the age of thirty who ' iu:c of 
 irri'proachable character.' 
 
 The lieii'hsrath, or C'ounoil of the Empire, con- 
 sists (if an upper and a lower house. The upjier 
 house is formed, Ist, of the iirinces of the iin|)erial 
 family, who are of age ; 2nd, of a number of no- 
 liles-lsixty-tM'o in the present reichsrath — ])o8- 
 sessing large landed jjroperty, on whom the em- 
 )K'ror may confer the dignity of state-councillors ; 
 ;)rd, of the archbishops and bishops who arc of 
 princely rank ; and 4th, of any other life-members 
 iiomiimtcil by the emperor, on account of being 
 distinguished in art or science, or who have reii- 
 dereil signal services to church or state — forty- 
 seven in the present reichsrath. The lower 
 liiiuse is comiwsed of .343 members, elected by the 
 oif,'litccn pnndncial diets of the empire in the 
 following proportions: Hungary, 85; JJohemia, 
 54; Lombardo- Venice, 20 ; Dalmatia, 5 ; Croatia 
 ami Slavonia, 9; Galieia, 38; Higher Austria, 10; 
 Lower Austria, 18; Salzburg, 3; Styria, 13; Ca- 
 rintliia, 5 ; Carniola, G ; llukowina, 5 ; Moravia, 
 ti ; Silesia, 6 ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 12 ; Tran- 
 sylvania, 26 ; and Istria and Trieste, (». The elec- 
 tiiiii for the lower house of the reichsrath is 
 made in the assembled provincial diets, the elected 
 deputies to be members of such diets. The em- 
 peror has the right, however, to order the elections 
 to take place directly by the various constituencies 
 of the provincial representatives, should the diets 
 refuse or neglect to send members to the reichsrath. 
 
 The emperor nominates the presidents and vice- 
 presidents of both chambers of the reichsrath, the 
 remaining functionaries being chosen by the nieni- 
 liers of tlie two houses. It is incumbent upon 
 the head of the state to assemble the reichsrath 
 annuallv. The rights which, in consequence of 
 the diploma of Oct. 20, 18G0, and the ' Patent ' of 
 R'h. 2t), 18{il, are conferred upon the reichsrath, are 
 as follows: — 1st, Consent to all laws relating to 
 military duty; 2nd, Coo/jem^/on in the legislature 
 <in trade and commerce, customs, banking, posting, 
 telegraph, and railway matters; 3rd, EMtmination 
 of the estimates of the income and expenditure of 
 the state; of the bills on taxation, public loans, 
 and conversion of the funds ; and general control 
 of the public debt. To give ^•alidity to bills ptisscil 
 by the reichsrath, the consent of both chambers 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 297 
 
 is required, as well as the sanction of the head of 
 the state. The members of both the \\\\\wx and the 
 lower house liave the right to propose new law.-* 
 oil subjects within the competence of the reichs- 
 rath; but in all other mutters the initiutivu 
 belongs solely to the goveriinient. 
 
 The linger Ueichsrath, or Partial Council of tlio 
 Kmpire, is formed liy the full reichsrath, leaving 
 out the representatives of Iluiigiirv and of Croatia 
 111 both houses. The laws passed by the partial 
 council, and sanctioned by the sovereign, havo 
 effect in the whole empire, excepting tliese twi» 
 provinces. It is with the object of giving the for- 
 merly independent realm of Hungary and her 
 dependencies a larger share of self-governineiit 
 than the remaining jirovinces of Austria, that tho 
 Knger Keichsrath has been instituted. 
 
 The legal code of Austria rci.;ains, in its most 
 essential points, the same as the * Gesetzbiieh,* 
 drawn up by a commission of lawyers by connnaiul 
 of the late cmjieror Francis I., and ])ul)lisheil by 
 his order. It is much ]iraised as a theoretical 
 compilation; but open to the objections raiseil 
 against all codes in practical respects. In Austria 
 tile decisions of the judges are not published, ami 
 each judgment iiiter])reting a paragraph of the 
 codes is a fresh improvisation on the i)art of tho 
 judge. If it be discovered that, undiir the sanio 
 circumstances, a former judge or another court 
 decided ditlerently, the case is referred to tho 
 muiistry of justice, which decides what the law is 
 In that pitrtkular ease; but its decision is not to be 
 taken as a construction of the law for future cases. 
 The judges are removable, and may be promoted 
 at the jdeasure of the crown; but, like all other 
 emphiye'es, can only be dismissed with pensions, 
 unless convicted of improper conduct by some 
 court of justice. In all cases trials under "the lato 
 ri'yime took place in secret, and the proceculings 
 were in writing: even the examination of wit- 
 nesses was not public : the decision was according 
 to the votes of the ))resident and assessors of the 
 court. Criminal tritils were protracted to an enor- 
 mous length ; and accused jiersons were often 
 suffered to be in prison for years before their cases 
 were brought on. All this has been altered under 
 the new constitution, by which the laws of Austria 
 are brought more in conformity with those of liio 
 West-European states, particularly of France. 
 However, the police is still entrusted with very 
 great powers, infringing on the liberty of the indi- 
 vidual. The political and local exercise of its 
 authority includes not only the preservation of 
 public order, but the permitting strangers to reside 
 in any part of the empire, — tlie allowing subjects 
 themselves to change their places of abode or to 
 travel, passports being requisite even in the coun- 
 try itself, and frequently only procured after 
 long delay and much trouble. The police of tho 
 provinces is entrusted in the large towns to a 
 board, whose olHcers are appointed by the crown : 
 in small towns to the magistracy : in the country 
 the captain of the circle united these functions 
 with his judicial and administrative powers. 
 
 The Austrian prisons are divided into three 
 cliisses: — state prisons, for political otfenders, the 
 chief of which are the Spielbeivc at Ilrunn in Mo- 
 ravia, Kuttstein in Tyrol, Munkaes in Hungary, 
 Lembcrg in Galieia, and Venice ; houses of correc- 
 tion (Ziichthailser) in'all the chief towns, in which 
 criminals are kept at hard labour (those in irons aro 
 sent to tlu! i'ortresses) ; and houses of detention, 
 under the care of the police, in which jiersons who 
 are arrested are kept Iwfore and during the judicial 
 proceedings. A large prison, on an improved plan, 
 was erected some years since in a healthy situa- 
 tion at Vienna. It is usual to give every needy 
 
21)8 
 
 Itrisoner, on hU disclmrf^c, n small Hiim «tf tnrmry, 
 to ko«|i liim frum the tcmptutiuiiH uf muinenliiry 
 iiKlipuiicc. 
 
 Ihe Church and Ckrgif, — The stnto rclitfioii of 
 AiiHtrift if) the Hoinnii (Jnthnliu, ami next in iin- 
 ixtrtancc Mtandx tho Grt'ck (.Jhnroh. Calvinism and 
 LutheraiUHni are alHo jirol'essud by lar^re ninnlicrs 
 of the people ; the former mostly in llimpiry and 
 Transylvania, the latter in the (icrman ])roviiices 
 nnd in Galicia. The occlesiantical hieraichv (if 
 Austria comprises II Itoman Catholic tirch- 
 bishops, 1 Greek archbishop, 1 Greek schismatic 
 archbishop, and 1 Armenian archbislio)). Tlie 
 
 Itoman Church has furthers!) bishops, willi chap- 
 tors and consistories, and 43 abbots of ancient 
 endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria, lUyria, 
 Jtohemia, and Moravia. Jluiif^ary has 2:2 abbots 
 with endowments, i24 titular abbots, 41 en- 
 dowed and 20 titular jjrebendaries, and JJ col- 
 lej^c foundations. Transylvania has H titular 
 abl)ots, and upwards of 150 monasteries and con- 
 vents; and Galicia 70 monasteries. The (ireek 
 United Church has 1 archbishop and 1 bishop in 
 (ialicia, and 5 bishops in ilunf^ary. Tiie Ar- 
 menian Catholic Church has an urchbisho]) at 
 Leinberg. The archbishop of Carlowitz is head 
 of the Greek Church, with 10 bishops and GO pro- 
 topapas or deans. The Protestants are ])laccd 
 under 10 superintendents for the Lutherans, and 
 1) superintendents for Calvinists. In Iluiif^arv 
 and Transylvania, the I'rotcstants choose tlieir 
 superintendents, who are controlled by district 
 inspectors. A great jiartof the Magyar inhabitants 
 of Iliingary are Calvinists, and Protestants enjoy, 
 in that kingdom and its dependent lands, equal 
 rights with the Catholics. The Unitarians are 
 tolerated, or rather recognised by law, in Tran- 
 sylvania, where they have a suiierintendent, and 
 are dispersed over I()4 ])arishcs. The Koinan Ca- 
 tholic religion is dominant throughout the empire ; 
 nnd, in case of dispute, the right to the tithes is 
 assumed to bo vested in the parish priest. The 
 extent of landed property in Austria belonging to 
 the Catholic Church is very considerable. Though 
 reduced in numljcr within the last half century, 
 there are still nearly 300 abbej's, and above 500 
 convents in the empire. Some of the Itoman Ca- 
 tholic prelates have very largo incomes, as thearch- 
 bishop of Prague, the revenues of whose sec amount 
 to 150,000 Horins, or 12,500/. The church is, how- 
 ever, far from being the only possessor of the 
 tithes; its wealth consists principally in eiulow- 
 meuts of land, or revenues charged upon estates. 
 The richest see is the primacy of Hungary, tiie 
 archbishopric of Olmiltz being next in importance. 
 On the suppression of the convents by Joseph II., 
 a portion of the confiscated lauds and revenues was 
 appropriated to form a fund for improving the sa- 
 laries of the parish clergy, the minimum of whose 
 incomes has been fixed at .300 fl. for a parish 
 ])riest, and 150 fl. for a chaplain or curate. This 
 fund is nominally under the control of the bishop, 
 as far as concerns his diocese ; yet estates belong- 
 ing to it are constantly advertised for public sale. 
 The united tireek and Armenian Churches arc as- 
 similated to the Poman Catholic Church, as far as 
 their parishes extend. The schismatic Gr(<eks pos- 
 sess a fund, vested in bonum mitinnis, in Hungary, 
 which is managed by tho metropolitan and three 
 assistants. The Protestant confessions have no 
 endowed churches or parishes out of Hungary and 
 Transylvania, the clergy elsewhere being chosen 
 and supported by their flocks. The right of pre- 
 sentation to livings is vested, in general, in the 
 landed proprietors and various coqjorations, as in 
 ICngland. The parishes in the gift of the crown, 
 as lieir to the suppressed convents, are numerous. 
 
 AU8TRIA (EMI'IRK OF) 
 
 Tho emperor nominates all the bishops, with th« 
 exception of tho archbishop of OlinUiz, wiio u 
 chosen by the cliajitcr of that city. 
 
 Church property throughout all tho provinros, 
 except Hungary ar-' Transylvania, is very liighlv 
 taxed; and the stai ■ inherits a moiety of the per- 
 sonal property of every Catholic clergyman, it 
 being of course supposeil that he has no diroet 
 natural heirs. Put the line of policy rosppctiii); 
 the Church of h'ome, of which the emperor .Ios(|ili 
 laid tho foundutioii, has not of late l>ecn ailhcn-il 
 to; new religious orders having been sullVrcd to 
 establish themselves, and even the Jesuits Imvc 
 been jiermitted openly to settle in several jiroviii- 
 cial towns. The number of members of the, varimi.'i 
 religious |)ersuasions is as follows, according tn ihe 
 census of October 31, 1857, deduction bcuig niaile 
 of the provinces ceded in 185!) : — 
 
 ralliolips 
 
 2.'t,n(ia,(:ar) 
 
 Calvinists 
 
 . 2,1 fil, 7(15 
 
 (lixt'k Church 
 
 .•j,(i!»t.,-<!m 
 
 Unitarians 
 
 •'iil.'m 
 
 United (rreeks 
 
 3.1l«,t!0.'> 
 
 .Jews 
 
 . l,04!),,s;i 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 1,'J8(1,7!)U 
 
 Otlior Sects 
 
 a,:J50 
 
 The Jews, fiirmerly much ojiprcssod, and sulijcrt 
 to all manner of indignities, liave been not oiilv 
 released from all these restraints since the yiiir 
 184!>, but have even become powerful in the state, 
 owing to tlie great wealth amassed by many mem- 
 bers of the community. 
 
 Classes of Inhabitants, and State of the Pru- 
 vinres. — Tho three classes of nMes, citizens, iiiiii 
 peamuts were strictly detlned in all the iiniviiices 
 previously to the late changes. The nobility arc 
 ixith numerous and rich in Austria, where estates 
 are generally entailed ; and tho higher oilices uf 
 the court, the army, and the church are reserved 
 for this class. The memlwrs of the male sex of 
 the various noble families throughout the empire are 
 estimated at 250,000. Of these, 163,000 belon{,'t() 
 Hungary, 24,900 to Galicia, and 2,200 to Uolumia. 
 The latter country has fourteen princely families, 
 172 families of counts, 80 of barons, and 100 (if 
 knights. Their total incomes are estimated at 
 18,000,000 fl., or 1,800,000/. The privilege of ma- 
 norial rights can only be enjoyed by a noble in 
 Austria. These include the right of prcsentatinn 
 to livings and schools on his estates, and the riglit 
 to hold courts of justice in the first instance. Other 
 privileges are those of peculiar tribunals, hefiire 
 which he can only be cited ; the freedom from the 
 conscription ; and the right of sitting in the pro- 
 vincial estates. These immunities are also enjuyeil 
 by the newly-created nobility; but the court 
 draws a marked distinction between old families 
 and those recently ennobled. As the patent is 
 given without difliculty to all who are williiij,' to 
 purchase it, the price thus paid bj' citizens wlio 
 wish to become landholders, may be loolced on asii 
 tax laid upim the transfer of estates. Persons imt 
 of noble birth, who do not purchase a patentof this 
 kind, jiay a double amount of certr' i taxes. The 
 peasant is personally free throughiuit the empire; 
 and an appeal being allowed from the niaiKiriai 
 court of his lord to the circle court, his coiulitioii 
 is daily iinprovuig, and his riglits and property' 
 obtain more res])ect. Put the fact that, in some 
 provinces of thoemi)iro, tlie rent of his cottage and 
 land is ])aid in contributions of labour, is a j,^re.it 
 drawback upon his inilustry and upon the im- 
 provement of agriculture. On the introduction of 
 tho present system of direct taxation by Maria 
 Theresa and Joseph II., an arbitrary regulation of 
 the dues claimed by tho landlorils was ettiected, 
 and the total amount which a landlord could de- 
 mand, whether paid in money, service, or kind, was 
 not to exceed 1 / fl. 40§ kr. lor every 100 ti. whieli 
 tho land produced. At the same time the pea- 
 
bishops, with the 
 Olmlltz, will) li 
 
 V. 
 
 ill the provinros, 
 ill, is very hi^lily 
 rtoiety of the iicr- 
 (lic cle^^;yInlUl. it 
 he UftH in) tliri'ct 
 jioliey resfiici'tinn 
 w. cin\uT()r .loHi jih 
 
 Into \)ccii aiilicrud 
 g been sulViTcd to 
 , tlie Jesuits have 
 
 in several (mtviu- 
 ihersof the variiius 
 ,-s, »eci>riUii(,'ti) ili(> 
 action bciut; mailc 
 
 iiista 
 irlans 
 
 : Sects 
 
 2,1 fll ,7(15 
 l,04'.),.sn 
 
 iprcsscil, andsulijcct 
 lave been imt tmly 
 dut.s since the yiar 
 iiwerfiil in the state, 
 issed by many luem- 
 
 I State of the Pnh 
 nobles, citizens, anil 
 in all the provimca 
 Bs. The nobility arc 
 ustria, where eslati's 
 the higher olliees iif 
 > church are reserviil 
 i of the male sex nf 
 ughouttheemiiirearc 
 esc, ltiB,OUObel.«iinto 
 mil ^.'iGO to liohcmia. 
 uen V)rincely faniilits, 
 )f barons, and KH) uf 
 108 are estimated at 
 The privilege of ma- 
 njoyed by a noble iu 
 
 ri^htof pr<^^*'"*"''"" 
 estates, and the rit;lit 
 e lirst instance, Otlitt 
 iliar tribmials, before 
 the freedom from the 
 of sitting in the pro- 
 iiities are also enjoyed 
 ilitv, but the court 
 between old familiis 
 As the patent w 
 Hi. who arc willitii; ''> 
 feaid by citizens who 
 'may be looked on as 11 
 estates. Persons udt 
 irchase a patent ol tins 
 (fcertf- I taxes. Tlic 
 jroughouttheemiure; 
 [ed from the manorial 
 court, his condition 
 rights and iimiicriy' 
 the fact that, in some 
 rent of his cottage awl 
 1 of labour, is a ii'Mt 
 •y and upon the nn- 
 )n the introduction (it 
 
 ■t taxation by Mana 
 urbitrary regulation ol 
 indh.rds was ettecteil, 
 ha landlord could di- 
 sservice, or kind, w 
 [or every 100 tl.whi.'i 
 same time the pca- 
 
 fi^ni'n pn^fty in the land lie held, from wliatcver 
 liird was declared indisputable; and though the 
 latter may scii^c uiH)n hitt stock and moveables, he 
 cannot elect for arrears of rent, unless the land be 
 held on lease ; which is by no means common in 
 
 Austria. - . , , . 
 
 Great differences are found in the state of civi- 
 lisation of the different provinces. Among tlie 
 hii'lier classes, in the great capitals, this difference 
 is nearlv imjierceptibie ; the universities and the 
 iK'tter institutions for instruction being open to the 
 iidiabitants of all provinces, and being arranged 
 throughout on a uniform ])laii. Another cause of 
 this similarity in thi' larger towns is the gr,at 
 nroixirtion of Germans found ainorg the trailing 
 classes, even in the Slavonic and Hungarian dis- 
 tricts. The mass of t'le people are most advanced 
 hi the German provinces; then come the Italian 
 IHiiiulatum; and ne.xt the llohemians, Silesiuns, 
 and Moravians. The Slavonians of Carintliia, 
 (nmiola, and lUyria, may be ranked with the 
 poles or Jloravian inhabitants of Hungary. The 
 rude and almost nomadic life led by a largo por- 
 tion of the Magyars of Hungarj', will be noticed 
 in treating of that country. Tlie Dalmatians stand 
 III! the lowest footing of civilisation in Europe. 
 The want of a central pt)int of national interest to 
 which the inhabitants of the provinces might have 
 looked, and which might have directed the cur- 
 rent of popular feeling in each to the common 
 advantage of all, has been strikingly felt; and 
 eadi province having its own representation by 
 estates, and many having had a different form of 
 jjovemment from the othersj each has been led to 
 lool; upon itself as having interests separate from 
 tlie rest. The effects of this system have of late 
 years grown especially jierceptible in the repeated 
 applications made by tlie Bohemians, Poles, and 
 llniife'arians, to have their resjHictive languages 
 exclusively used in public business, and in the 
 provincial schools. 
 
 As ever}' province forms a separate land, each 
 has its pecuhar language or dialect, and its distin- 
 gnishing customs and habits. Of the Slavonic 
 languages, the Polish possesses the richest litera- 
 ture; but the Bohemian has of late years been 
 most cultivated, and forms the written lan- 
 guage of the Moravians and Slowaks of the NVV. 
 counties of Hungary. The dialect of Caniiola has 
 iiceii mcthoilised, and is grammatically taught as 
 thcwTitten longuage of Illyria and Croatia. The 
 Slavonian nations have all the distinguishing 
 characteristics of ardent feeling and sanguine tem- 
 iwranient which make them more easily elated 
 and sooner depressed taaii their neighbours the 
 Germans. They are fond of music ; and every 
 district has its national airs, which are often of 
 great antiquity, and usually plaintive. Among 
 the Slavomans, the Poles are distinguished by a 
 martial ilisposition and love of show. The na- 
 tional costume is now only kept up amongst the 
 lieasantry, whose winter dresses especially are 
 tasteful, and even elegant. In the other Slavonic 
 nations of the empire, the love of ornament is less 
 remarkable, the national spirit liaving sunk in the 
 long lapse of time during which they have been 
 dependent. No Slavonic dialect waa used pre- 
 viously to the late changes, in the courts of justice 
 or in public instruction in the higher schools of the 
 empire. The German peasants wear the ilress 
 commonly met with all over Gennany, with va- 
 rieties iu the colour and headgear, in nearly every 
 village. The Austrian women wear cajis or bon- 
 nets made of gold lace and decorated with span- 
 gles. In Tyrol the German costume is most 
 picturesque. The German language is used in 
 transacting public business iu the German and 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 2i»9 
 
 Slavonian provinces, and in the universities on the 
 north side of the Alps. 
 The Magyars, or inhabitants of the Iliingarinii 
 
 plains, of Tartar descent, are a high-spirited neople 
 warmly attached to their national language, liabits, 
 and rights. Though inferior in point of numbers, 
 they have licen the ruling race in Hungary ainl 
 itH sul)ordinatc countries for nearly DtM) years. 
 They have sometimes l>cen compared to the Nor- 
 mans in England; but they have not, like the 
 latter, intennixed with the subjugated people, and 
 become identilied with them. On the contrary, 
 the Magyars conthiue to be almost as much sepa- 
 rated from the other inhabitants as when they 
 lirst established themselves in the coinilry, towarils 
 the ch)se of the Itltli century. Their costume in 
 the most splendid in Europe, and every family 
 hiLH its distinguishing cidours. The rich Dolliiiunn, 
 or 1 liissar jacket, and the tasteful Attila, a frock- 
 coat, trimmed with fur, are only worn im state 
 occasions by the nobles ; but the tight pantahioii 
 and short boot is the usual dress of the peitsant, 
 who also wears a blue jacket and a low broiul- 
 brimmed hat. Though fond of music the Hun- 
 garians arc no musicians ; the national dances are 
 often highly ))antomimic ; and the Slagyar, who 
 is seldom seen to smile, expresses the excitement 
 of his feelings, whether in joy or sorrow, in 
 dancing. The Magyar and Latiri languages are 
 those used in the courts of justice and in the 
 public otWces ; and the law jMussed by the Hun- 
 garian Diet, in 1H44, to force the use of the former 
 on the Slavonian ^trovinces incorporated with 
 Hungary, has helped in no oriUnary degree to 
 exas|>erate the existing animosities between the 
 JIagyars and the Slavonians. The dress of the 
 VValachian peasantry, on festive occasions, is 
 highly omaniented. The Italian costume is both 
 ricli and elegant; especially the head-ilresses of 
 the women, which are more tasteful than those 
 worn on the north sjile of the Alps. The Italian 
 language is used in the government offices, in the 
 courts of Justice, and in public instruction, in the 
 still remaining Italian provinces of the empire. 
 
 The Komaii Catholic peasantry in every pro- 
 vince have a religious turn, which they not only 
 evince by their regular attendance at Church, but 
 by assembling in great numbers, at stated periods, 
 for the annual pilgrimages made to the cliurches 
 of the Virgin Mary. The chief of these places of 
 resort, Maria Zell in Styria, is annually visited by 
 more than 100,000 devotees. The next in impor- 
 tance is the shrine at Calvaria in (>alicia, to which 
 pilgrims annually flock from Bohemia, Silesia, 
 Poland, and Hungary. The pilgrimages are, how- 
 ever, said to be, like the field 'preachings' for- 
 merly held in Scotland, anything but conducive 
 to morality. The Sunday evening is everywhere 
 devoted to festive enjoyment, and to indulgence 
 in wine in such |)rovinces as produce this beverage. 
 Smoking is an all but universal habit iu the pro- 
 vinces north of the Alps. 
 
 With respect to the comforts of life, the Hun- 
 garian, Italian, and (iemian ))easants are the most 
 advantageously situated. The largest share of 
 landed property falls to the Hungarian, and he 
 receives the best remmieration for his labour. 
 Bohemia and Moravia rank on a level with the 
 German provinces. The Galician peasant is the 
 lowest on the scale except the Dalmatian. 
 
 Frovisioti for the Poor. — Each i)arish is bound 
 to support its own poor ; but as the allowance is, 
 in all cases, very small, the charge is nowhere bur- 
 densome. The large towns have poor-houses, 
 supported partly by revenues from foundations, 
 partly by voluntary contributions; and, on extra- 
 ordinary occasions, government supplies a sum 
 
! I 
 
 [AUi;-- 
 
 300 
 
 frirtn the public rovcntics to meet tlicir exiKcncies. 
 iSnvin^H' Uankn liavo been introduced into the 
 (litt't;rent jjrovinccM. 
 
 Anioiiff the iii.slitutions for ameliorating tlic 
 Mtittc of ttic poor, the iiospilals Htand in th<! first 
 ranli. Tlic exert ions of JoHepli II., to iniprovc 
 tlie medical department of tlie army, liad a very 
 advantaKeoii!) intliiencc over the medical esluli- 
 lislunents throu^liout tlie empire. In tlic AUiji;- 
 tne'mes Kranken llaua, at Vienna, one of the (inest 
 liospitalH in Kuro|)e, about 10,000 pauper patientH 
 are ainiually Hupported and relieved; and Ninii- 
 lar e.stabli>*hmeiitH are found in every provincial 
 town of importance. The numerous bospitaU 
 of the 'Hrot hers of Charity,' in the various pro- 
 vinces, likewise relieve a vast number of the poor. 
 These hos])itals arc 8up]K>rtcd by voluntary contri- 
 butions. 
 
 lAtvruture and the Fine ^rA<i.— Newspapers and 
 periodical imblications are published in many lan- 
 f;ua>,'cs. According to ollicial returns of the year 
 JNdiJ, there were at that time 'AiVl Jounnils issued 
 in Austria, among them l;M ]iolitical ones. Of 
 these HO were German, 6 C/.ecliish, 4 Polish, 2 
 Servian, 2 Croatian, 1 Illyrian, 2 Kuthenian, 13 
 Italian, IG Hungarian, 3 Kumenian, 2 Greek, 1 
 tSlavonian, 2 Hebrew, and 1 Trench. Tlie non- 
 ]i(ditical ])apers comprise 100 (iennun, 13 Czechish, 
 14 Polish, 7 Servian, 4 Slavonic, Croatian, 28 
 Italian, hi Hungarian, 2 Kiitlii^nian. 1 Greek, I 
 French, and 2 Hebrew. At A'ieiuia alone there 
 were 08 periodical publications, including 15 news- 
 papers, devoted to p(ditical matters. 
 
 The tine arts arc in a languishing state, in part 
 owing to the apathy which prevails both amongst 
 the higher classes and the artists. The pictures 
 in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna arc not i)er- 
 rnitted to be copied by artists; and every compo- 
 sition which is piddicly exhibited is subjected to 
 <:ensorship, for the enforcement of moral and re- 
 ligious restrictions. Kecently there have been 
 annual exhibitions at Vienna. Music is culti- 
 vated with success, and enters largely into the 
 education of all' classes in Bohemia and in the 
 German provinces. The Bohemians are remark- 
 able for their skill in instrumental music ; and 
 not only is it common to find eminent i)erformers 
 in small villages, but many of these excel on two 
 or three different instruments. 
 
 Eilacat'wn, — The foundation of elementary in- 
 struction in Austria was first laid in the early 
 |)art of last century ; and soon after about one in 
 twenty-five of the inhabitants M'ere taught to 
 read. Joseph II. directed his energies to tlie in- 
 struction of youth ; but the clergy, high and low, 
 opposed him, and after his death succeeded in 
 establishui^ generallj' their own plan of educating 
 children. Ji3y the terms of a law passed in 1821, 
 it is enacted that no town or village shall be with- 
 out an elementary school — that no male shall 
 enter the marriage state who is not able to read, 
 write, and understand casting up accounts — that 
 no master of any trade shall, without paying a 
 heavy penalty, employ workmen who are not able 
 to read and vn'itv. — and that small books of moral 
 tendency shall be ])iiblislied and distributed, at 
 the lowest possible price, to all the emperor's sub- 
 jects. But this law, which in reality amounts to 
 comjiiilsory education, is far from being enforced. 
 The German-speaking po])iilation of the empire is 
 most advanced in general education ; and least 
 the people of the jirovinces of Slavonia, ('roatia, 
 and Dalmatia. At the conscription of 1857, it 
 was found that of 2,04!) recruits in the archduchy 
 of Austria, 2,323 were able to read and write ; 
 while in Bohemia there were among 11,213 re- 
 cruits only C,697 able to rea<l and write; and 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 finally, in Dolmatia, among 028 conscripts, only 
 y were possessed of the rudiments of ediicatinii. 
 
 The total number of educational estabiJHliiiii'jits 
 of teachers, and uf Htudeiits was as follows, in 
 18(il:— 
 
 
 NumluT of 
 
 Niinilwriir 1 
 
 
 EilalilUhinenta 
 
 DiUill'llll j 
 
 Suiierior Institutions 
 
 a.iB 
 
 aii.iis 
 
 Miildlu Htihools . 
 
 i\l 
 
 Vi,IVM , 
 
 JIllltiiryH«!li<iols 
 
 bi 
 
 ■ 7,U75 i 
 
 OtlitT Soliools : 
 
 
 i 
 
 For Uojs . 
 
 147 
 
 ll,;i:)i 
 
 „ nirls . . . 
 
 408 
 
 »:l,4ii:l 
 
 Jllxcd . . . 
 
 :i7 
 
 l.lilHi 
 
 Natlonol SchooU 
 Total . . . 
 
 47,270 
 
 3,73-.',862 
 
 48,(!1S 
 
 I'-lementarv instruction is not, perhaps, so much 
 diffused in llungary and Transylvania as in tlic 
 majority of the other provinces of the enipiri'. 
 But there is, notwithstanding, scarcely a villiij,'c 
 in the kingdom without one or more scIuhiIs. 
 ' Where,' says a traveller, ' the inhabitants arc all 
 of one religion, there are no difflcultics to be over- 
 come. Where differences exist, if the scparnti! 
 creeds be too poor to maintain a school eai'li, the 
 jtoorer attend that of the more powerful, wliicli is 
 commonly Catholic; the Protestant chililreii, linw- 
 ever, not being forced to take a part in the reli- 
 gious instruction, which is left to the priest, (ir, 
 still more ctmimonly, to his capeUan, or clerk. 
 The education extends to reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, moral maxims, and sometimes a little 
 geography, historj', and Latin grammar. Tiicse 
 schools are maintained, and the masters chosen. 
 by the peasants themselves; the landlord beiiiK 
 obliged to give ground for a school-house, and .'in 
 or 40 acres of land for the use of the master. The 
 payment is for the most part in kind and lalndir. 
 There are normal schools in different parts »!' 
 the country', for the cducati(m of masters in the 
 national schools. (Paget, Travels in Hungarv, 
 ii. 533.) 
 
 The machinery for the teaching'of the lii;.'hcr 
 branches of education is very complete. The L'ni- 
 versity of Pesth is one of the richest in EiiruiH', 
 its revenues amounting to above 34,001)/. a year. 
 It has, exclusive of several more, nine theologieal, 
 six juridical, thirteen medical, and fourteen phi- 
 losophical professors, with libraries and inuseiinij, 
 and is attended by above 1,000 stutlents, cniii- 
 prising all religious denominations. Tliere arc 
 eight universities in the empire, at Vienna. I'rajiiie, 
 Pesth, Gratz, Cracow, Innsjiruck, Lemberg, ami 
 Padua. The number of students attending these 
 universities amounted, in 18(50, to 8,25(1, alimit 
 one-fourth of which number were at Vienna. 
 Next in rank to the universities st.ind the tliei)- 
 logical seminaries, 129 in number, with l.O,)! 
 pu])ils; ond the Polytechnic schools, seven in 
 number, with 2,072 ]ni|)ils. 
 
 Army and Nary. — The army is raised in all tlie 
 provinces, with the exception of Hungary and 
 Transylvania, by conscrijition, from which, how- 
 ever, the families of the nobility and titled geiiirv, 
 or so-called Kleiner Adcl, are exem])te(l. With 
 the exception of these jirivileged classes, every 
 man is liable to conscription who has reaclied his 
 twentieth year. In times of peace, the govern- 
 ment tmdcrtakes to furnish substitutes, at the 
 average i)rice of 1,200 florins, or 123/. each. The 
 term of service is eight years, after which the 
 soldier is liable to serve two years longer in the 
 army of reserve. During peace, a largo propor- 
 tion of the troops are sent home regularly on 
 
oriRcripto, only 
 
 tf (Mlut'Utilll), 
 
 •Htal)liKliii)i'iit.s, 
 OS iuUuw», ill 
 
 Kiimberof 
 Ktuilciili 
 
 ■ 7,075 
 
 11,:IM 
 a;t,4t;:i 
 
 1 .li'.lli 
 
 3,ri;):j,.j().| 
 3,73'.>,8(i2 
 
 wrhaps, so miidi 
 IvHiiia n.s ill tlic 
 
 of the enipiri', 
 carcely a villimc 
 If more scIkmiIs. 
 habitants arc all 
 ulties to he ovcr- 
 
 if the aoparnlf! 
 school each, the 
 jwerful, which is 
 nt chililreii, Imw- 
 i part in the roli- 
 t« the priest, or, 
 ipdlan, or clerk. 
 fj, writing, arith- 
 mctimes a little 
 grammar. These 
 ) masters cliDson, 
 le lamllord bciiif; 
 [)ol-hoiisc, ami SD 
 ' the master. The 
 1 kind and lalnjiir. 
 different parts iif 
 of masters in the 
 rels in Hungary, 
 
 ing"of the higher 
 
 mplcte. TheL'ni- 
 
 icliest in Europe, 
 
 k-e 31,000/. a yrar. 
 
 , nine theolngical, 
 
 ind fourteen plii- 
 
 ics and musennis, 
 
 [) students, com- 
 
 tions. There arc 
 
 It Vienna, Pra|,'iiP, 
 
 ;k, Lcmhcrg, ami 
 
 [» attending tliose 
 
 , to 8,25(;, nbiuit 
 
 were at Vieniin. 
 
 i stand the thei>- 
 
 nher, with iM 
 
 schools, seven in 
 
 s raised in all the 
 of Hungary ami 
 rom which. Inl- 
 and titled gentry, 
 Bxcmpted. Witli 
 led classes, every 
 1) has reached his 
 leace. the guvern- 
 lihstitiites, at the 
 Vl'Al. each. The 
 after which the 
 lars longer in tlie 
 I, a large pmiior- 
 'me regularly on 
 
 AUSTJilA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 AirlnttRh. It is part of the military policy of the 
 ■joveninient to cncourajfe, by all iKtssihle means, 
 the re-enlistmcnt of old soldiers, for which piir- 
 piise the finid contributed by those wlio seek siib- 
 .siitiites is distributed in the shape of bounties. 
 Ttie pav of tlie troops, privates as well as otiiccrs, 
 is smaller in the Austrian army than that of any 
 (itlicr country in Kurope, except Uussia, Tlic in- 
 faiitrv are dressed in white coats, of coarse but 
 conitortalile clotli, with light blue trousers, tlie 
 Hungarian regiments licing distinguished by their 
 national light pantaloons. The cavalry wear the 
 iiMionnl dresses iicculiar to their several descrip- 
 tions of arras, lliingary furnishes the hussars, 
 and (Jalicia the lancer regiments; the Italian, 
 Slavonic, and German ' cavalry regiments wear 
 white uniforms with helmets. The men are 
 usually taken from the provinces in which each 
 regiment has its conscription de)M)t; but the 
 (illicers are mixed throughout the army, and their 
 promotion is seldom conliued to one regiment. 
 The tinest men of each infantry regiment are 
 selected to form the grenadier comjianies, usually 
 ill garrison at Vienna, I'esth, and Prague. The 
 lroo()s are well clothed and fed; and though 
 an annual drain of the strongest and healthiest 
 part of the population must be felt by the com- 
 munity at large, the conscription is not regarded 
 as a hardship by the ]M)orer classes. In Hungary 
 the case is different ; the regiments of that coun- 
 try are raised by recruiting, and the men are 
 usually seduced by the promise of being placed 
 in tlie'hussar regiments ; but in general the Hun- 
 garian peasants are averse from the service, though 
 they make excellent soldiers. Though it is ])er- 
 mitted to find substitutes, the conscription too 
 (iftcn includes persons of education, wlio, l)cing 
 unable to purchase their exemption, are cut off 
 from all hopes of advancement, as no promotion, 
 except in the artillery, is made from the ranks. 
 The colonel-in-chief of each regiment names and 
 promotes the officers up to the rank of captain. 
 The field-officers are nominated by the emperor, 
 and usually advance according to seniority. A 
 large proportion of the officers are noblemen. In 
 Wl!l there were 103 princes, 590 counts, 898 
 barons, 570 knights, and 2,826 untitled nobles in 
 the army ; the largest number proportionately in 
 the cavalry, and the smallest in the artillery and 
 the engineers. The upper hierarchy consisted, in 
 1HC4, of 3 field-marshals, 14 feldzeugmeister and 
 generals of cavalry, 77 field-marshal lieutenants, 
 125 general-majors, in active service, besides 
 337 field-marshal lieutenants and generals on 
 half-pay. 
 
 According to official returns, Austria p<)ssessed, 
 on the peace-footing, at the end of October 1863, 
 an army of 269,103 men, rank and file, with 
 42,"201 horses. The papers furnished by the war 
 office to the reichsrath describe the troops of the 
 empire as constituted in the following maimer: — 
 
 lUroglmentHof ffpld-artlllery, of 10 batteries,' 
 
 wltli 4 compnnioH 
 
 1 rofflment of oonst-artlllerj', of .T batteries, 
 witli 4 coniimidoH 
 
 1 rcKlinont of nikctours, of U batteries, with 
 :t companies 
 
 2 regiments of entflnocrs, of 4 battalions 
 (i battoliuiui of pioneers .... 
 
 301 
 
 32,87» 
 
 8.7l»7 
 
 80 regiments of infantry of the line, each of 
 3 battalions, witli U companies . , 
 
 1 regiment of Kaisorjager, of 8 battalions, 
 
 with 4 companies 
 
 32 bftttnlions of Feldjiiger, of 6 companies 
 
 each 
 
 14 regiments of frontier infantry . 
 10 companies of ' sanitary troops' . 
 
 Total of infantry . . 
 
 12 regiments of cuirassiers, of C squadrons each 
 
 2 „ of dragoons, of squiulrons „ 
 21 „ of hussars and ul^lors of G 
 
 squadrons . . . „ 
 
 3 „ of volunteer hussars and 
 
 uklars, 8 squadrons „ 
 
 Total of cavalry 
 
 124,590 
 
 3,974 
 
 23,200 
 8,640 
 1,914 
 
 1(!2,318 
 
 11,370 
 3,120 
 
 23,400 
 
 2,448 
 
 40,344 
 
 The rest of the army of 260,103 men, on tho 
 |M>ace-footing, according to the government tables, 
 consists of the transport service. 
 
 On the war-footing, the infantry is raised to 
 •I 12,003 men, the cavalry to 57,75!),' and the artil- 
 lery to 51,881 men, with a corresponding uicrea.so 
 of engineers and pioneers. 
 
 The navy of Austria consisted, in August 1861, 
 of thirty-nino steamers, with 639 gnus and I l,7.!l» 
 horse-p(»wer, and twenty-sailing vessels with 1 15 
 guns, manned by 13,99rsailors and nniriius. 
 
 Hi^ and Increase of t/w J'Jmpire. — Tho Hoiiso 
 of Austria derives its origin and tho foiindatinns 
 of its power from Kodidpli, count of Ilapsbiirgli, 
 in Switzerland. Kodolph, who wfus oik! of the 
 ablest princes of his age, having extended his 
 authority over the greater part of Switzerland, 
 and distinguished himself by his ability ami 
 bravery, was raised in 1273 to the imperial 
 throne. His elevation was owing pruiciiially to 
 the wish of the electors to have an enifieror of 
 undoubted ability, capable of putting down the 
 anarchy that had hmg prevaileil in the greater 
 part of the states hicluded within the limits of 
 the empire, and who, at the same time, was not 
 powerful enough to occasion any fear of his sub- 
 verting the privileges of the ditt'erent states. The 
 family of the ancient dukes of Austria, of tho 
 House of IJamberg, having become extinct a, 
 shortwhile previously to the elevation of Kodolph, 
 their states were taken possession of by Ottocar, 
 kingof Bohemia, whose ascendancy threatened tho 
 independence of the empire. But Kodolph, having 
 secured the sanction of the diet, declared wnr 
 against Ottocar, whose forces were totally dc;- 
 feated, and himself killed, in tlie decisive battle, 
 of Marchfehl, in 1278. Tliis formidable com- 
 petitor being removed, Kodolph had little difficulty 
 ni procuring from the diet the investiture of tho 
 du:;hy in favour of his eldest son, and it has ever 
 since continued in the possession of his de- 
 scendants, and formed one of the principal sources 
 of their power. 
 
 Albert, the 8<m of Kodolph, did not inherit the 
 talents of his father. The Swiss revolted from 
 his dominion in 1307, and after a lengthened con- 
 test achieved their independence. But notwith- 
 standing this event, and the elevation of several 
 princes of other families to the imperial throne, 
 the power of the House of Austria rapidly in- 
 creased, and in no very long time its dominions 
 embraced some of the largest and most important 
 countries of Europe. It has been principally in- 
 debted for its extraordinary aggrandisement to 
 fortunate alliances. The marriage, in 1477, of 
 Maximilian, son of the emperor Frederick III., 
 with the daughter and heiress of Charles tha Bohl, 
 the last duke of Burgundj', brought to the House 
 of Austria all the rich inheritance of the latter in 
 the Low Countries, Franche Comte and Artois. 
 Another marriage opened to the House of Austria 
 the succession to the Spanish monarchy, including 
 its vast possessions in Italy and the New VVorld. 
 And Ferdinand I., liaving married, in 1521, Anne, 
 sister of Louis, king of Hungary and Bohemia, 
 succeeded, on the death of the latter at the battle 
 of Moliacz in 152(;, to these states. There is, 
 therefore, as much of truth oa of point in the 
 lines, 
 
 : «■« 
 
 'H. 
 
 ■4 
 
302 
 
 lit 
 
 11' ! 
 
 
 " Bella grrnnt nlll, tn, follx Auntrta, niibo, 
 Nnm ()Uiu Mara ulilti, ditt tibi rcgnu Vpntm." 
 
 (')iiirlcH v., the most nowcrful monarch of the 
 House of AuHlria, concluduil, in lA'il, a trcnty 
 with hi» hnithiT Ferdinand, by which ho asxif^nrd 
 to him tlic licrcditary |K>.4HCHNi(mH of the family in 
 < ierniuny. And there can bo little doubt that this 
 nmnif^cmcnt waa fur the advantage of both 
 brnncheM of the hoiiHc — that of AuHtrio, properly 
 BO called, and that of Spain. 
 
 Tlic great power and ambition of tho princeH of 
 thu lIoiiHc of Austria excited a well-founded alarm 
 among the other European piwerx. For a length- 
 ened period the whole politico of Europe, itM al- 
 liances, and itH want, had little other object than 
 the humbling of the power of AuHtritt. ThiH was 
 the motive of the thirty years' war, terminated by 
 the treaty of Westphalia, in 1 048, which secured 
 tho inde|M>ndi'nce of the different states of the 
 <ic'rmaiiiccm])irc, and the free exercise of the I'ro- 
 testaiit rcligitm. 
 
 In l(ii)'J the Turks were finally expelled from 
 Hungary ; and the genius of I'rince Eugene gave 
 the Austriana an ascendancy over the Ottomans 
 they have ever since iireserved. 
 
 In 1740, the male line of the House of Haps- 
 liiirg terminated by the death of the emperor 
 (./harles VI. Itut his daughter, Maria Theresa, 
 married to Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of 
 Tuscany, succeeded to his dominions, and, even- 
 tually, to the imperial crown. Hhortlj' after her 
 nccession, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, 
 seized upon tho greater part of Silesia. The re- 
 covery of this province was the principal object 
 of Austria and her allies in the seven years' war. 
 liut his Prussian majesty triumphed over all his 
 enemies, and Silesia was finally ceded to Prussia, 
 by the treaty of Uubertsberg, in 17C3. 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 
 
 The reign of Joseph II., the son and sucrcMirir 
 of Maria Theresa, is important from the refnrmi* 
 lie effected in most <leparlments of tho govem- 
 m(!nt, and the territories he added to tho eni|iin<. 
 It has been objectwl to tho formtir that they were 
 not introducetl with sufticient caution, and that he 
 would have accomplished more had ho attempted 
 
 less. No doubt, it must be admitted that he did 
 not make sutficient allowance for the inveteruvy 
 of ancient prejudices, and that his innovatiimii 
 were frequently neither appreciated nor approved 
 by those for whose bciiclit they were intcmled; 
 but there can be no doubt as to the rectitude of 
 his intentions; and, notwithstanding the olmtnclcH 
 he cx|)erienccd, his ret'onns, and the change he 
 intHHlucod into the minle of government, have 
 lieen prcMliu^tive of tho greatest advantage. He 
 acquired (ialicia from Poland, and the Uukuwiiie 
 from Turkey. 
 
 It wouUl lie unnecessary, even if our limits 
 admitted of it, to attempt any sketch of the tliic- 
 tuatioiis of Austrian iH>wer during the eventful 
 peri(Hl that has elaped since the breaking unt (if 
 the French revolution, in 1789. At certain stiiKu 
 of her great stniggle with France, Austria seemed 
 to be depressed almost to the rank of a secoud- 
 rate power. But the ambition of Napoleon havijii; 
 etfected his downfall, Austria was left at the end 
 of the contest as powerful as ever; the loss of the 
 Low Countries being fully compensated by her ac- 
 quisitions in Italy, a portion of which, however, 
 was again detached by the war of 1859, fuUnwed 
 by the peace of /urich. 
 
 The subjoined tabular statement shows the area 
 of the Austrian cm]iire at different peri(Mls since 
 tho death of the empress Maria Theresa, iu 
 1780 :— 
 
 Period! 
 
 1780 
 
 ProTlncci 
 
 1782 
 1791 
 
 1795 
 17l>7 
 
 1801 
 1803 
 
 1804 
 
 Austrian District 
 
 Sunbian Uistriot 
 
 Burgiindinu District 
 
 Falkenstein District 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 Moravia 
 
 Silesia 
 
 Eastern Galicia 
 
 Bucowina 
 
 Milan, Mantua, Castiglione, and Sabionctta 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia 
 
 Transylvania 
 
 Military Frontier 
 
 Total in 1780 
 
 Subsequent Alterations 
 
 Acquired by Emperor Joseph II. ,by Treaty, In the Inn District 
 Acquired by Emperor Leopold,in Alt-Ostrova and Unna District 
 
 Total at tho beginning of the Reign of Emperor Francis I.. 
 
 March 1792 
 
 Acqiiired by the Third Division of Poland (Western Galicia) 
 (Peace of Campo Formio), by which Austria ceded Belgium, 
 
 Lombardy, and Brelsgau ....... 
 
 And received in return Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and Albonia 
 
 Total in 1797 . 
 
 (Peace of Lunevllle) ceded Etsch, Falkenstein, and Frickthal 
 Ceded Ortcnau 
 
 Acquired, Trient and Brixen 
 
 Bought, Blumcucck, Lindau, and Rothenfcls . 
 
 Total at the Assumption of tho Title of Emperor of Austria 
 on the 11th August, 1804 
 
 AuitrUn Square Hllet 
 
 Fnicllih 
 Square kII'm 
 
 _ 
 
 1,766-92 
 
 37,105 
 
 —^ 
 
 149-50 
 
 3.H0 
 
 
 
 479-00 
 
 lo,o.^8 
 
 _ 
 
 2-00 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 902-85 
 
 18,960 
 
 — 
 
 386-29 
 
 8,112 
 
 — 
 
 89-45 
 
 1,879 
 
 — 
 
 1,420-60 
 
 29,831 
 
 — 
 
 181-69 
 
 3,81« 
 
 — 
 
 124-60 
 
 2,617 
 
 — 
 
 3,627-18 
 
 76.170 
 
 
 
 329-00 
 
 6,909 
 
 
 
 954-27 
 
 20,0,19 
 
 — 
 
 682-00 
 
 14,322 
 
 — 
 
 11,095-20 
 
 232,999 
 
 4-00 
 
 
 _ 
 
 1-60 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 11,100-80 
 
 233,117 
 
 883-40 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 645-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 643-00 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 11,982-20 
 
 251,626 
 
 33-00 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 8-00 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 41-00 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 89-00 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 10-50 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 12,040-70 
 
 252,855 
 

 FiiKlUti 
 
 et 
 
 SquMU "I'.'m 
 
 i-02 
 
 37,10.5 
 
 )-r.o 
 
 3,140 
 
 >-00 
 
 10,0.')8 
 
 !-00 
 
 42 
 
 !-85 
 
 18,WI0 
 
 i'29 
 
 8,11-2 
 
 »-45 
 
 1,879 
 
 I0-8O 233,117 
 
 l-i"20 251,626 
 
 
 AUSTRIA (EMPIRK OF) 
 
 
 • 
 
 30.3 
 
 Ptrlodi 
 
 VmiitiM— 
 
 AuilrUn li|u»re Mlln 
 
 r.nitlUh 
 Rquar* Milci 
 
 I80A 
 
 (Pi'iicoof rronhnrR), rr<li><l Voi,l(-o, Vciirt.-lMtrijt, Pnlnintln, 
 AII)niiln,Tyrul, and Vornrll)c>rg, iiiul nil I'dhmivIoiih in ,Siiitl)ia 
 
 Acqiiln-il, SalzbiirB, norchtP>>ffmIon, Mntroi-ZlUor, nnd Brix- 
 i-iitlml 
 
 (Trciity o( Foiitaiiiulik-au), ctiktl Munfiilconn . . 
 
 Totnl In 1807 . 
 
 (Poftco of Vlonnft), crdwl PnlzhnrK, ■norchtoHKndoii, Jliitrol- 
 Zlllcr nml Urlxontlml, Inn, nnd lliilf Dtxtrlctof Ilimsnu-k, 
 Vlllnoh, Curnlolft, (liirz, CinuHscn, AuHt.-lBtrlii, Trifsto, 
 Fliimo, Ifiilf of ("rontin, Wi-stt-rn OnlUdn, nnd /.iiniopk 
 
 (Ta-nty with Buwia), ceded Tarnopul und Czortkow . 
 
 Totnl in 1810 . 
 
 (Tronty of Paris, Juno 3), recovered North Tyrol nnd Vorarl- 
 IwrR 
 
 (Vienna CnnBTPSH), ncqulnnl nnd ri-covorol Lomlinrdo-Vonp- 
 tlnn KinKdimi, Gi>ri!,(lrn<ll«-n, Trli-ste, tlio Wlioli- of Intrla, 
 Pnlmntin, UnRusn, Vcnet.-AUinnia, ('anilola, Finnic, Cm- 
 ntin, South Tyrol, Mnlrei-Thal, ViUach, TamojK)!, nnd 
 Czortkow 
 
 Total in 1815 . 
 
 (Trendy of Munich, April 14). recovered Salzluirg, Inn, Half 
 of Uanaruuk, Zillcr, and Brixenthal 
 
 Total nt Accession of Emperor Ferdinand I. 
 
 (Treaty with Russia and Prussia), Incorporated Cracow and 
 District 
 
 Total nt Accession of Emperor Francis .Joseph I. 
 (Pcaco of Zurich), ceded tho greatest part of Lombardy 
 
 Total In 1859 . 
 
 1,1 06-60 
 1R6'M 
 
 
 
 
 _„ 
 
 231,497 
 
 1807 
 
 U-»4 
 
 11,0-23-68 
 
 1809 
 1810" 
 
 ],85l-4n 
 1:10-17 
 
 1814 
 18IJi 
 
 213-01 
 
 2,116-72 
 
 212-02 
 
 21 -.13 
 
 0,042-06 
 
 18»,88;i 
 
 1818 
 
 11,372-09 
 
 238,827 
 
 18^5 
 1846 
 
 11,684-71 
 
 243,279 
 
 1848 
 18;j» 
 
 853-16 
 
 11,600-04 
 
 243,727 
 
 
 — 
 
 ll,'25-2-88 
 
 236,311 
 
 In 1804, Francis assumed the title of hereditary 
 oraiicrnr of Austria ; and on the 6th of Aufjust, 
 18()G, he renounced tlie title of emperor of (Jer- 
 maiiy. This latter event had been preceded by 
 tlic formation of the confederation of the Rhine, 
 .ind tiic entire dissolution of the old Germanic 
 Empire. 
 
 AUTUN, a city of France, dep. Saone et Loire, 
 on the Arroux, 43 m. SW. Dijon, on the railway 
 from Dijon to Nevers. Pop. 11,897 in 18G1. It is 
 picturesquely situated, partly on the declivity and 
 partly on the top and at the bottom of a hill. It 
 IS neither handsome nor regular ; most part of its 
 edifices are old, and have a mean appearance; but 
 there are several among them well worth notice. 
 It has two cathedrals, situated on the summit of 
 the hill; but neither has been completed. The 
 spire of one of them, 325 ft. in height, is remark- 
 able for its elegance and the lightness of its con- 
 fitruction. The church of St. Martin, built by 
 Queen Brunehault, and containing her tomb, fur- 
 nishes specimens of different kinds of architecture. 
 The champ de Mars, in the middle of the town, 
 a spacious square elevated on a terrace, and planted 
 witli trees, affords an agreeable promenade. The 
 square of the cathedral has a magnificent foun- 
 tain. There arc two bridges orer the Arroux, one 
 of which is said to be built on the foundations of 
 a Konian bridge. Autim is the seat of a bishop, 
 of tribunals of original jurisdiction, and of com- 
 merce ; and has a college, a diocesan seminary, a 
 cabinet of antiquities and natural history, a collec- 
 tion of pictures, tAvo small libraries, and a theatre. 
 It has also manufactures of cotton velvet, of 
 a sort of stuff described as tapis de pied, dites 
 
 marchnux, fitted for coverlets, horse cloths, &c., 
 with hosiery, and tanneries. There is a coal mine 
 at the hamlet of Chambois, within about a league 
 of the town. 
 
 This is one of the most ancient cities of France. 
 It was originally called Bihracte, and is described 
 by Coisar as by far the greatest and wealthiest 
 town {Innge maximo ac copiosissimn) of the ^Edui. 
 (De Bello Gall. Ub. i. § 23.) Having been made a 
 Koman colony by Augustus, it took the name 
 of Augustodunum from that emperor, and dun, a 
 Celtic term for a hill. Subsequently it was called 
 Flavia jSduorum. The Burgundians took it in 
 427 ; and it was afterwards sacked and bumecl by 
 the Saracens, and latterly by the English, in 1379. 
 It espoused the party of the League, and suffered 
 much during the religious wars. It still possesses 
 many fine remains of antiquity. Of these the most 
 celebrated is the triumphal arch, called the gate of 
 Arroux, of large »limeiisions, and which, though 
 built wthout cement, is in exceeding fine preserva- 
 tion ; a smaller triumphal arch ; the ruins of an 
 amphitheatre, of a Roman burying-grouiid, of tho 
 temple of Janus, built by Dnisus, and of a temple 
 of Minerva, with many bas reliefs, medals, and 
 utensils. The ancient city was much more con- 
 siderable than the modern one. The walls may 
 still be traced, and are so solidly built as to be 
 almost like rock. 
 
 Tacitus mentions (Annal. lib. iii. § 43) that tho 
 noble youth of Gaul resorted for instruction to 
 Augustodunum. Eumenes, the rhetorician, who 
 was bom here about the year 2C1, states in his 
 or.-ition (Pro liestaurandis Scholis, § 20), that re- 
 presentations, or maps, of the tlifferent countries of 
 the then known world were delineated on the 
 
304 
 
 AUXKURR 
 
 iMirtiroH or plnocu wlicro tho youth mot, KottiiiK 
 fnrtli their tiiiincN, Nilnalioim, the rine and courHe 
 lit' tlieir riverw, Ihi^ oiitlnie of their ciiiixtM, A-e. ; anil 
 it is worthy of remark llial. Nome portion of thix 
 ancient <leiiiH>ation in waid to have iM'eii rceetitly 
 (liHcovered. (Kneyc. der< (Jciih dti Monde, art. Aii- 
 tioniteM d'Aiilnn.) 
 
 The Prince de Talleyrand, who nfterward«playeil 
 HO many important |iartH in the polilieal drama, 
 VMM hixhop ol' this Umi\ at the commencenn'nt of 
 th(^ revolution. The AIiIh! I{(ii|uette, whom M<>- 
 liere is sniil to have tnlicn for a model, wm also 
 t>Ui'. of its iiishoiiN. This has ^iveii occasion lor 
 the following epif^rani : — 
 
 " Uoqiii'ttc (liiiis will tcin|w, Tnllryrand, dong lo n6tro, 
 Kiiri'iit Irs fvciinrH il'Aiitmi : 
 TftrtiilTe est It' jiortralt do I'un ; 
 Ah! h1 .Molii'i-ueut coniiu I'lvutrol" 
 
 AITXKltlMC (an. Aiitiimiodiirniii), n town of 
 ]■' ranee, cap. dep, Vonne, on the h'ft hank of that 
 river. It") m, 8K. I'aris, with which it is connected 
 hv railway. I'op. ir),(»HI in IMdI. It is iinree- 
 nidy sitinited on a hill, and its environs art! cliarm- 
 iiif^ ; hut with the exception td' the houses alon^ 
 till! quay and the river's side, it is generally ill- 
 liiiill, with various crooked streets, and has a 
 ^'liioiny a])pearanec. Principal pulilic liuildin^js, 
 cntiii'dral, one of tho tincst Gothic ediliccs in 
 1'' ranee ; tho church of St, Peter; the ahliey of .St. 
 (iernuiin; the hishop's palace; and the hotel of 
 the prefect. A finely shaded promenade surrounds 
 the town, and it is well supplied with water dis- 
 triliuted from n pulilic fountain. Auxerrc was the 
 seat of a hisliopric which has \w.en suppressed; it 
 lias triliunals of original iurisdlction and of com- 
 merce, a college (IukI' school), a secondary eccle- 
 siastical school, a model school, a society of agri- 
 culture, a hotanical garden, a museum of antiquities, 
 tt jiulilic lihrary with 24,000 vcds. and MO MSS., a 
 haiulsome theatre, &c It has manuttuitures <d' 
 fali<:oes, woollen coverlets, hosiery and caps, hats, 
 earthenware, violin strinKx, and wine casks. The 
 wines i)rodiiccd in the environs are much esteemed, 
 particularly those of Miyruine and Chainettc ; and 
 a considcrahle trade is carried on in them, and in 
 cowks, wood, and staves. The Yomie is navigable 
 from a little above the town. 
 
 AUXOXNK, a town of France, dt'p. Cote d'Or, 
 cap. cant, on tlio left bank of tho fSaone, M m. 
 KSK. Diion. Pop, 7,103 in l«(il. It ranks in tho 
 fourth' class of fortilied toAviis, bein;^ defended by 
 works constructed by .'auhan. It is well built, 
 and the ramparts serve as pleasant promenades. 
 There is a tine bridge across the Saonc, with a levy 
 pierced by twenty-three arches to nivc a {lassttfrc 
 to the water in inundations. Auxonnc is the seat 
 of a tribunal of commerce ; ond has a collcf^e, a 
 school of artillery, a small imblic librarj', &C., with 
 manufactures of cloth, serges, and muslins. 
 
 AVA (Ang-wa, a fish-pond, so called because 
 one formerly stood there) ; the ancient and again 
 the present cap. of the Birman empire, on the left 
 bank of the Irrawadi, IGO ra. SW. IJhamo, and 
 above JJOO m. N. Hangoon, lat. 21° 51' N., long. 
 05° 68' 10" E. I'op. under 30,000. (Wilson.) It 
 consists of an outer and inner city, both fortitied : 
 tho outer is 5^ m. in circuit, and is snrrounilcd, 
 except on the Irrawadi side, where there is scarcely 
 any defence, by a brick wall 15 ft. liigh, and IJ 
 ft. thick ; outside of which, on the S., is a deep, 
 rapid, and unfordable torrent, the Mi/it-tha ; on 
 the W. a jungle and swamp ; and on the E. the 
 iV/y/7-r «/(?',' a rapid stream, 100 yards broad. The 
 inner city is placed at the NE. angle of the former, 
 and is surroundiid by a better wall, 1 m. in circ, 
 and has also some natural defences. The inner 
 city ia almost wholly occupied by tho palace, 
 
 AVEIUJUY 
 
 rouncilchamlior, arsenal, and tho dwellings of., 
 few of the principal courtierw. Ava contaiiiH innnt' 
 templeN, in one of which is a sitting iina^'c nC 
 (iaudanwi, 24 ft. in height, said to consist of u Kiii;;|i' 
 block of marble ; in another all oaths of chhm.. 
 qiience ore administered, the breach of wliicli j^ 
 cotiNidered a heinous erinu>. The houses are giin.. 
 rally mere huts thatched with grass: the iniirki'ii 
 are furnished witli llritisli, as well as (liiiicNi- umiI 
 I.ao manufactures; but for trade, wealth, and 
 prosperity, this capital is verj' far beneath Itaiigknk, 
 the cap, of Siani. 
 
 AV'Al.I.t ).\ (nil. Ahiillo), a town of Eraiuo, ilcp. 
 Voiiiie, cap. arroiid, on th(! ('onsin, 25 m, SSK. 
 Aiixerre. Pop, 5,5Hti in iHlil. It is lieautil'iillv 
 situated on a granite rock, and comniiiiidM, ojh'- 
 cially from tho promenadi! of tli<! J'rtit Viiiirn, a 
 line view of tlu! rich and well-cultivated valley nf 
 the Cousin. It is a handsome town, with ^im\ 
 houses, and broad and well-kejit streets. The Irdnt 
 of the parish church, the hospital, the thenlrc, and 
 the concert hall, deserve notice. It has a "oiirt of 
 original Jurisdiction, a commercial tribunal, iindu 
 college; with fabrics <if doth, paper, mustard, \i', 
 The casks and ottier articles of timMrie mc in 
 high repute. The hills round the town |irii<ln('(> 
 excellent wine, of which it is tho eiitrepoi ; anil 
 it has also an extensive trade in corn, tiiiiU'r, 
 stas'es, and casks. 
 
 Avallon is very old : it owes its foundation tn a 
 strong castle, every vestige of which has now di>- 
 apjicared, that once occupied the suminit of Ww 
 rock on which it is built, 
 
 AVKIICHY, or AHL'RY, a parish and small 
 village of England, co. Wilts, 5 m. W. Marilni- 
 rough. I'op. 747 in 1«51, and 725 in l«OI. Tho 
 parish contains tho gigantic remains of what is 
 usually considered to he a Celtic or Driiiiiical 
 temple. This singular and stiqiendoiis ruin U 
 situated in a flat tract of country, and consists ni' 
 a largo circular space of ground, having on tlio 
 outside a bank or mound of earth, the inner sinpc 
 of which measures about 80 tK in width: immedi- 
 ately within this bank is a broad and deep diii'li; 
 and along the inner edge of the latter stninl the 
 relics of a circle of vast upright stones, similar tu 
 those of Stonehengo, measuring from 15 to 17 ft, 
 in height, about 40 ft. round, and estimated In 
 weigh from 40 to 54 tons each. The diametemr 
 this circle is abont 1,400 ft. : when complete it 
 contained 100 stones, 40 of which were stHiiiliiii,' 
 in 1722, when Dr. Stukeley examined it; hut iu 
 1802 only 18 stones were left, and the numlx-r 1ms 
 since been still further reduced. Within this outer 
 circle, or great temple, as it is sometimes called, 
 were two smaller temples, each fonned of two con- 
 centric circles of stones, having one a single stmie 
 in the centre, and tho other a group of three stones. 
 Some of the stonca in the two inner temples are of 
 a prodigious size. They are all of a siliceutis f,Tit, 
 and are of the same species as those tliat accomiiany 
 the great chalk fonnation that hero crosses the 
 kingdom. 
 
 In connexion ■»» '. th the circular stones, or temples, 
 already noticed, were two avenues each above I m, 
 in length, formed by double rows of vast upright 
 stones. One of those led in a SK. direction to 
 Overton, where, according to Stukeley, it termi- 
 nated in a small elliptical temple of similar stones: 
 the other, or W. avenue, terminated in a sin^'le 
 stone. Stukeley supposes that the SK. avenac 
 had, when perfect, 200, and the W. 203 stones; 
 but of the former, which had 72 stones staiidin;' 
 in 1772, only 10 arc now left, and of the latter 
 only 2. 
 
 'f he village of Avebury stands within the peri- 
 phery of the great circle, or temple, and is in part 
 
acontaiiiHiiiaiiy 
 
 iiiiiiK ii>«ii;>' <>r 
 
 iiimittor a Miiiuli' 
 
 oatllK of t'lMlsc- 
 
 at'li "f wliii'li 'h 
 houNt'H art' n'lii'- 
 utH : the iiiiirki'i'i 
 1 nH tlliiiifw ii'kI 
 <!«>, wcaltli, ami 
 uiicnth liniiKkiik, 
 
 ■luif Ki'aiu'c, i|c|i. 
 Mill, 'l'> III. SSK. 
 It in iH-aiilU'iilly 
 uoiiiiDaixl!', t's|i('- 
 !(• I'flit ((iHr,«, II 
 llivatcci valley nl' 
 town, Willi K'«"l 
 trt't'ttt. 'I'lic Iniiit 
 I, tlic llicatrc, ami 
 It lias a "iiiirt nf 
 inl trilmiial, iiiulii 
 muT, iimstaril,J([c. 
 t' tutttllvrie arc in 
 tins town ]iri«lu(c 
 liii I'litiviiol ; aiiil 
 i ill corn, tiiiiljcr, 
 
 itH foiinilation to n 
 ,-liii'h lia« now ili»- 
 hu HUininit of tliu 
 
 parish and small 
 5 m. VV. Marlliii- 
 7-2r) in l«(il. Tlip 
 •cniaiiiH of wliat is 
 leltic or Druiiliral 
 itiiiK'Tiiloiis ruin U 
 try, anil consists nf 
 nil, having on tlw 
 Irth, the iniipr slope 
 in width : iinnicili- 
 ail and deep dilili; 
 ic kttcr stand tlin 
 stones, similar In 
 from 15 to 17 ft. 
 and estiniatctl t» 
 The diameter nl' 
 ■when coinplete it 
 lich were stiinilini; 
 nniined it ; but in 
 n(i the mimlior has 
 Within this tnitir 
 somctinios calU'il, 
 formed of two coii- 
 onc a siiiRle stone 
 mp of three stonis. 
 iiier temples are uf 
 of a siliceous t^\\, 
 isethataccoiniuiiiy 
 ,t here crossed the 
 
 r stones, or tcmpleii, 
 les each above 1 m. 
 vs of vast upriijlit 
 la SK. direction to 
 Itiikcley, it tenni- 
 Ic of .similar stones; 
 linated in a single 
 It the SK. avemic 
 Ve \V. 203 stones; 
 (•2 stones standini,' 
 land of the latter 
 
 is within the yieri- 
 iplc, and is in !«>« 
 
 AVEIRO 
 
 IhiIU of the Rtoncfl with wlilrh It nml the miitnr 
 I'inlcK were compoM>d, thonn linvin)^ lM>pn hlnsted 
 nivl hriikrn to piecM, tu itvrv'u for thiH and itiniilnr 
 liani'»«'i', 
 
 Ininuiliatt'Iy S. from tlio KTont circle or temple 
 nt Aveliiir-, dUt. | m., Ih the bnmiw, or nrtitlcinl 
 mound of' earth, called Silbiiry-hill. TIiIh hii^e 
 liorrotv coven, arcordin^ to tlie menMiiremeiit 
 B.loptc(l by Sir U. V. Hoan', 5 ncrcH and :10 |M'rclic» 
 of j;riiiind, lM'inj< 2,0'i7 ft. in circiimfcnMico nt the 
 li<'iM>: il« diameter at the top Ih t'JO ft., the sloping 
 lit'ik'bt of itJ* <*><le liltl ft., and itit |M>r|M>iidicular 
 liei^'ht 170 ft. It !m im|M)Hsible to say for what 
 iiiirposo this immense nuiss of earth wiu* hea|H>(l 
 together ; hut it seemH not unrensonalile to con- 
 I'lndi' that it mnv have been in some way connected 
 with tlic stone circlen nt Avebiirv. (Dr. Stnkeley'H 
 viilumc on Avehiiry, piiblished In 1 7'l:), and siibse- 
 iiiieiitly Sir U.V. Iloore's Ancient Wiltshire.) 
 
 However desirable, it diK's not appear verv pro- 
 Imhlc that nnv satisfactory explanation will ever 
 U' Kiven of tlie purposes for which the singular 
 ftnietiires descrilK'<l above were erei-ted. All traces 
 of their origin seem to be buried in im|)eiietrnble 
 (ilisnirity. The favourite theory is, that the struc- 
 ture nt Avebiiry, as well as tfmt of Stonehenge, 
 were druidical temples, where the Druids, or priests 
 (if the ancient Britons, celebrated their sacred 
 ritp.1. liut, notwithstanding the conlldeiico with 
 which this theory has l)cen put forward, and the 
 h'Aming and iiigennitv displayed in its support, it 
 api*«r« to Ih) entirely destitute, not merely of 
 iifdof, but even of any considerable degree of pro- 
 bability. Caesar, Liican, Tacitus, and I'liny, the 
 |iriiici|ml authorities with resjKict to the Druids, do 
 not give the smallest countenance to the notion of 
 their having constructed or made use of any such 
 tomiilcs. Ctesar (»(« Hello Gallico, lib. vi. s. 13) 
 m» that they retired at a certain jwriod of the 
 vcar lorn ctmteerato ; for which (inuviiis has pro- 
 posed to rend luco eotuenrato : and this emendation 
 1* rendered pwbablc bv what is said by Lucan, 
 Tai'itiis, and I'liiiy. The first says, in reference to 
 the Uruids, 
 
 ' Nemora alta remotU 
 
 Incolltis lucia.' Lib. i. line 4fi.3. 
 
 Tacitus (Annal. lib. xiv. s. 30) tells us that the 
 Itiimans, having taken Mona, or Anglesey, appa- 
 Mitly the grand seat of the Druids, cut down their 
 proves sacred to savage superstitions — exchiipte 
 lim, tavii tuperstitionibtts saeri. And Pliny (Hist. 
 Xat. lib. xvi. s. 44), states that the Druids roborum 
 ilipnt lucos, nee ulla sacra sine eafronde coiifieiunt. 
 Hut no classic author makes the remotest alhision 
 to the Druids using such extraordinary temples as 
 those previously described. Hence, if any depen- 
 dence be placed on ancient authority, it would 
 seem that the seats of druid superstition were in the 
 n>ce9sea of the forest — in places as remote as pos- 
 sible from Stonehenge, or even Aveburj'. 
 
 AVEIRO, a sea-port town of Portugal, prov. 
 lieira, 34 m. NNW. Coimbra, on the S. shore of 
 the astuary of the Vouga, lat. 4()<» 38' 24" N., 
 j long. »° 37'54" W. Pop. 4,913 in 1858. It is the 
 mi of a bishopric and of a custom-house ; and 
 has a good deal of trade in salt, manufactured in 
 the little islands in the bay ; in sardines, of which 
 there is an extensive fishery ; and in wine, oranges, 
 io. It has a college, a hospital, a workhouse, 
 and seven convents. The oysters on the adjoining 
 coast are reckoned the best in Portugal. The en- 
 trance to the mouth of the river is pointed out by 
 two stone pyramids, each seventy feet high, which, 
 I vhen brought into a line, show the course over the 
 I bar. The latter has about 15 feet at high-water 
 siirings, and 9J at low water do. : at ne«ps the 
 
 Voul, 
 
 AVENCnE.S 
 
 305 
 
 depths are rrspwtively 12 and 7J feet. It is ne- 
 ••iiwnr)', however, t<i olworve, that the Itar l)eing of 
 shining sand, is liable to per)H-iual changes, and 
 that it sliouhl never lie attemjited without the aid 
 of ajiilot. (Totlno, Siianish I'ilot, Kng. trans., p. 
 07, Sn\) 
 
 AVKf-OIIKM, « town of llelgiiim, prov. W. 
 Flanders, on the Hchchlt, U ni. KSK. Courtnay. 
 Pon. 4,007 in 185(1. 
 
 AVKLLA (an. AMln), a town of Southern 
 Italy, prov, Avellino, 5 m. NK. Nola, in a cliann- 
 iiig situation, commanding a view of Naples. Pop, 
 r>,-.>50 in I8(;i. It is celebrated by Virgil for its 
 honey or its apples, it is not certain which : — 
 
 ' Kt (juoi malifene dcspix^tant mieiilii AlH'lIn'.' 
 
 i«n. vll. 710. 
 But some MSS. read tnelif'ene, 
 
 AVKLMNO (an. /</ie//inMm),a town of Southern 
 Italy, cap. of province of same name, (ni the decdi- 
 vity of a hill, in a fertile valley near the Salmto, 
 '2!)m. K. Naples, Pop. I!»,'2!l5'in I HOI. It is for- 
 titled. is the seat of a bishopric, of the civil and 
 commercial courts for the prov., and hn -oyiil 
 college. It bos a cathedral, three parish v ....iclies, 
 n sniiare adorned with an obelisk, a public granary; 
 with manufactures of coarse cloth, pa|H>r, niacca- 
 r<mi, sausages, whose su|ierior excellence lias long 
 been admitted, anil dyeing works. It is the eii- 
 trejKkt of the surrounding country, and has a pri'tty 
 extensive trade. Chestnuts are gathered in large 
 quantities in the environs, but ha/.el nuts are their 
 most immirtant product. The latter were greatly 
 esteeme<lby the Romans, ami were called by thci'n 
 nuvea At'eOano!, 
 
 Avellino is said bv Swinburne to lie ' a con- 
 siderable city, extending a mile in length down the 
 declivity of a hill, with ugly streets, but tolerable 
 houses. The churches have nothing to recom- 
 mend them, Iteing crowded with monstrous orna- 
 ments in a barbarous style, which the Nea|MilitanH 
 seem to have borrowed from the Spaniards. The 
 cathedral is a poor building, in a wretched situation, 
 with little to attract the eye except some uncouth 
 Latin distichs, and shapeless Gothic sculpture. 
 Their only edifice of note is a public grnnar}', of 
 the composite order, adorned with antique stAtiies, 
 and a very elegant bnuize one of Charles II., king 
 of Spain, while a boy. The town aboimds with 
 provisions of every sort, and each street is supplied 
 with wholesome water.' (Swinburne's Two Sici- 
 lies, vol. i. p. Ill, 4to ed.) It has, however, l>eeu 
 a good deal improved of late years ; but the above 
 is still a pretty fair representation of its general 
 appearance. 
 
 AVENCHES, Germ. Wifflishurg (an. Aven- 
 ticuiti), a town of Switzerlanil, in a portion of the 
 canton de Vaud enclosed in that of Freiburg, 6, m. 
 from Port Alban, on the Ijike Neuchatcl, and IJ 
 m, from the shore of Lake Morat. Pop. 1,756 in 
 18G0. This town, now hardly worth notice, waa 
 formerly one of the most important in Switzer- 
 lancL According to some authorities, it was built, 
 and a Roman colony placed in it, by Vespasian ; 
 but others, with more probability, conjecture that 
 it was only repaired and beautified by Vespasian, 
 after being laid waste by Vitellius. The ancient 
 walls enclose a space of more than 5 m. in circum- 
 ference. It has some fine remains of antiquity, 
 such as mosaical pavements, an amphitheatre^ 
 columns of white marble, an aqueduct, 4c. ; and 
 its importance is known from several Koman mile- 
 stones found in parts of the Pays de Vawl, being all 
 numbered from Aventicum. Though now at a 
 considerable distance from the lake, it was during' 
 the period of its prosperity upon its margin, the 
 iron rings to which the hoat& were fastened being 
 still visible. 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
S06 
 
 AVKNWELDK 
 
 i„<' 
 
 AVr,NWI'',[,I)K, n villiifto (if I*nii»»in, prov, 
 W«'(i»|)lmli«, n'u. Mindpii, nlNiiit hnlf-wiiv Ik'»w('<'ii 
 llii-lcrclil mill Winlt'iilirutk. I'op. 1. 1!)'.') in IHt'.l. 
 The inlinhitniUH aru cliiflly I'liKiiifcil in liiicii 
 niniiiiriirtiiroH. 
 
 AVKUNO (LAKK OF), (nn. Ar,Tniiii),a fnm.m« 
 lako in Noiithrni lliily, iiIniuI Id ni. \V. Nnplt-M, 
 near thn wn. The lakti iK'ciipii<N wlinf tlii-rc iM({<MNl 
 n>nfi<|n to think in tliiMTntcmrnn cxtiiirl volfiun), 
 ami in pvprywIuTt' NiirroinKU-il hy liiKli liillH,i'xci'|)t 
 whci* tlnn' Im nn oiitlfl, liv wliiili it lomKriy 
 rouiniuniciitcil with tlic Lni'riiic laki>. It Ih fnini 
 14 t'l U ui. in circiinifi'n'iu'f ; tin- wiiiir rloiir, 
 vi>ry (li>i>p, liiiil wt'll Niipplioil Willi tcnoli. During 
 
 th<> i>nrly |M-ri<Hl »{ Ittiniiin liiMlon- tlic hillN n I 
 
 thi* lakfl WITH thickly covireil with dt'iiHt' fonnlN, 
 which jtHvo it n gloomy nppcarani'o, anil l>y cmi- 
 tlninf( thn nicpliilic vniioiirs that nmc frniii the 
 vulcanic noil, rcmlcrcd the air cxlrcmt'ly 1111- 
 )i(<nlthy. Ill coDMcfpii'iico the place waH early 
 n'Kardcil with Hn|M.'rMlitiiiiiN awe. Tim poets re- 
 jireKentPd AvenniH an nacred to the iiil'eriml kimIh, 
 and nn lii'iii(;,inract,tlioenlraiicetiy which I'lyHHCH 
 and iKiieao deHuciided to the lower re^ioim ! 
 
 ' fnmn est AnlioroiitU ml iukIiih 
 
 rnmlorn lt<'r cn'ciw NtnRiiaiiti< voriiKlno fiiiiuiM, 
 l.nxiit ct horrt'iidus lUHTlt ti-llurlH liliitiiH, 
 IntvrUumquu nuvo iHirturbnt liiiiiiiie iiihiicn.' 
 
 Hil. ItiillcuH, .\!1. 
 
 It was Raid that no hird could (ly over the lake 
 vrithoiit liein^r dcNtroyed hv itx poiHoiioiiN exlinla- 
 tionH, and hence its name AveniuM (Aoprot), with- 
 out liinig). 'I'IiIm m noticed liy Virgil, in Hoine 
 well-known lincB (/Kn. vi. '2'.i7)'. 
 
 Hut during the reipi of AuKiiHtiw, Agrippn (Hh- 
 pclled the oliMcurity and sanctity that had ho hmn 
 encirclwl the Avennix, Ho cut down ltd f^roves; 
 nnd hnvinj; Joined it to the Lucrine liay, he lironght 
 Hhipx into itH HolitiideN, and lined it oh u harlioiirin 
 which to exerciHc galleys ! The Lucrine lake, or 
 rather hny, was almost entirely Jilled up hy the 
 Huhterraneoiis eruption of Monte Niiovo, in 1538. 
 On one side the Inke of Avemo are the remniiiH of 
 n large octagon temple, probably appMpriated to 
 the worship of Hecate; nnd opiiosito the temple, 
 on the other side the lake, is the o|icning of the 
 Niihtemmeaii conduit usually called the grotto of 
 the Sybil, hut which was, in fact, u tunnel leailing 
 from the lake to the sea. The hills round the lake 
 are now covered with ganlcns nnd vineyards, and 
 retain none of that gloomy gruiuleiir for which 
 they were once so celebrated. They are still, 
 liowcver, at certain seasons unhealthy. 
 
 AVF.HSA, n town of Southern Italy, prov. Ca- 
 perta, 9 m. N. Naples, nnd 1 1 m. E. from the Me- 
 diterrnnenn. Pop. 18,.')18 in IHUl. It is situated 
 in n Ix'nutifiil plnin covered with vines and orange 
 trees; is well built and well laid out; is the seat 
 of a biinopric, said to be the richest in the king- 
 dom; of a royal governor, and of a tribunal. It 
 Iins nine churches and .-lome convents; but it is 
 principally distinguished by its foundling hospital 
 and its lunatic asylum. The former is said by 
 lialbi, to be a nurserv of artists and artisans for the 
 entire kingdom. Tlie latter is exceedingly well 
 managed. The apartmentu are laid out and fur- 
 nished so as to suit the state of the patients ; and 
 every method is resorted to, by amusement and 
 exercise, to divert tlieir attention. Those that are 
 furious are of course separated from the others, and 
 subjected, if need b^ to the strait-iackct. This 
 establishment has served as a model to others, at 
 l-ieggio, MiHlena, and Palermo. A sort of almond- 
 cake, called torrmie, made here, is in great demand 
 at Naples. 
 
 Aversa was built in 1030, by the Normans; but 
 it was subsequently twice burnt down. Andrew, 
 
 AVKVnON 
 
 of Hungary, hiiMbaiid to .loan I. queen of ifuhU 
 was miinh'ri'd here in IJII/l. ' 
 
 AVFSNKS, a town of Frnnrr, rl«<p dii Xon| 
 rnp. nrrond. and cnnton, on (he grenicr KIim-, |ii( 
 in. S. MaiilN>iigc. Pop. Jl,.')l(l ill iNiii. I, 'j, ^ 
 fortided place of the Ith class, its fnrtitlciiiidiu 
 linving Is'eii repaired hy Vnuban. Il In ihi' «.|,t 
 of a siilHprefect, and has a tribunal of oriulnai 
 iiirisdictioii and of commerce, a comnu'rcinl („|. 
 lege, an himpilul for old |M>rsons, nnd nn iiKrlml. 
 tiiral Kocltly. It is ill built, and triitr. li,,, 
 cnlhedrnl hiis a spire .'luo ft. in height, wliicji h.,, 
 live chiinrs of bells. It has inanufactiires iiri'iiiiN> 
 serge, woollen hosiery, cnr)M<ntry work, wiih tan. 
 neries, breweries, sonp works, and di^lillcricN. \ 
 particular kind of cheese produced here in kiiimii 
 as ' Marolles.' Avesnes siilt'ered severely frimi ilu' 
 explosion of a (Miwder niagaziiio, whcii lM'»it,;„| 
 by the Priissinns in IHIA. 
 
 AVKVIMN, a dep. of France, in the HniulKm 
 part of the country, being separated from thi' Mi - 
 dilerraiiean bv llie llerniilt; Uitween IIP ir;iii' 
 nnd -HO W ''J.V N. Int., nnd 1° M' |,V' „||,| 
 :»o 2(!' K. long. Area «H'2,I7I lieclares. p,,,,, 
 ;j!>(;,025 m m\\. This is one of the most niuuii' 
 tainouH depls. of France. With (he exccptidii i,f 
 some volcanic plateaux ih'tnched from the Plunili 
 deCnntal, and which advance as far as ilic 'I'rii- 
 yere, nil the other moiinlnins lieloiig to lliciliHiu 
 of the Ceveiines, the summit ridge of which Um\» 
 its S. frontier. The mean elevation of thowiiJM 
 very considerable, KIhhIc/. being 'i.'JHO ft, aluw 
 the level of the sea. The mountains are inicr- 
 sected by ra> ines, and have many siihtcmiiiciin 
 caves. The soil of the plateaux and eicviiicd 
 grounds is generally verj' inferior; hut llintnf ihc 
 valleys is very fertile, and produces all sortu i.f 
 corn. Principal rivers, Lot, Aveyroii, wiicnii. lin' 
 dep. takes it iinme, ami Tarn. Agriculture is in a 
 verv ba<'kwnrd state, in consequence partly of tlh' 
 uiilruitful nature of the soil, partly of ilic Uyt 
 continuance of frostn and the fnupient occiirrcnre 
 of bail-storms, but principally of the wniit df ca- 
 pital nnd |ioverty of the iiihnbitaiits. Field lalHiiir 
 IS mostly perfonned by oxen. I'Mducc of (um 
 sullicient for the consumption. Sheep niiinpMii.«. 
 and their wool, which is generally line, e»tlinai(cl 
 nt 800,0(10 kilogs, i year. A great iiuinlior if 
 cnttle, horses, nniles, nnd i)igs ar»^ raised. In tlic 
 district tif l{o<|ucfort, where cheese is made fmm 
 sheep's milk, and the district of Giiyole, tlie (Iain- 
 is an object of great attention. In some parts the 
 farms nre extensive, nnd the strictest gnulationU 
 preserved among the lulxiurei's attacheil. The 
 latter cat little butcher's meat, and their {m\ b 
 very indift'ereiit. Some wine is made, but the 
 qualitv is inferior. According to the otTiciiil tiiliK 
 the soil of the dep. is mostly cjistribiited ni^ fnllnw^: 
 — (.'ultivable land 305,000, meadows 122,000, vin"- 
 yanls 34,000, forests 84,000, and lieatlisi, roik.<, 
 wastes, &c. 209,000 hectares. The exixirt of npi- 
 cultural produce reaches at an average 12,0(lO,iMl 
 fr. a year, of which the cheese of Huqucfort and 
 Giiyole, sheep, and woollen stuff's, enter together 
 for about one- fourth. The coal and iron mineii uf 
 the Aveyron are among the most important in 
 F'rance. Iron-works have been established within 
 the last thirty years, and they are now prosecuted 
 with great spirit ami success, and furnish employ- 
 ment to some thousands of workpco)>lc. Apwd 
 deal of copper is also pnaluccd. Manufacturing; 
 industry has made very considerable pr^Tess, 
 About 20,000 workpeople are sujiisised to be em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of coarse woollen stuffs, 
 hosiery, «frc. In the anKmdissement of St Alfrique 
 about 900 hands ore employed in the spiuninj; 
 and manufacture of cotton ; and there are in ll>e 
 
upon «)f N«|il(>», 
 
 , (It'll 'lu N(ml, 
 ;ri'ill<T I'.IlK', mj 
 I im'.l. II \« t 
 ilD lortiDi'iitidnA 
 
 I, It U tilt' X'Dt 
 
 iiiinl of <)n)(lii:il 
 
 finnmiTcial cul- 
 
 mxl III) iiKriciil- 
 itnil Iritlr. Tlic 
 (■it{liti whicli \\M 
 iluftiin'Hofciiiir* 
 f work, Willi tail- 
 Ill (li«iiUcrit«, A 
 n>(\ liori^ \* kiiiiwii 
 Ht'vtTi'ly frmn iIh' 
 ic, wJu'ii U'Hii'Kiil 
 
 p. In i\\v KiHiilicm 
 riit«'tl from the Mi- 
 .twcon IIP llMn' 
 I 10 5(1' \h" uiiil 
 i lici'tiirrN, l'o|i, 
 of t\w inoHt mmiu- 
 til tlu' «'X('('iitinn iif 
 \i'A from till' I'lumli 
 1 iiM fur UK tlic Tni- 
 IwloiiK to tlu' ihaiii 
 1(1^(1 of wliii'U fnnm 
 viition of tliii diiil i* 
 
 •inn "•'•-**" f'- "'"'" 
 ountiiinH nr« iiitcr- 
 miiny Hiilttcrrmn'iin 
 toavix (inil I'li'vniid 
 rior; l>"t tlmtdftlu' 
 iroiluci'H all Hortu "( 
 Vvpyron, wliciice mo 
 An"iHiUur« in iiu 
 qnoniu! luirtly (if iW 
 piirtly of tlic liM« 
 frwiui-nt oi'i'iimiu'* 
 V of the wftiil »f la- 
 )itantH. V'u'M latxmr 
 I'roihu'P i)f fcirn 
 Shppp nimionm*. 
 "rally lino, putimntfl 
 A >,'rpat munlKi nf 
 ;s arc raised. In tlu' 
 ^•hppse in inixlp f" "" 
 of (iiiyole, the dairy 
 1. InHomcliartttlin 
 Htrictpst piiilatiim U 
 rc.iw attached. Tlie 
 at, anil their f(»"l » 
 . is made. l»it I'l* 
 to the ofticiiil tallies 
 iistribute(lni*f»llt'««: 
 .allows r22,tH)0,vin.- 
 and heathii, rock*, 
 ThePXiHtrtiifacti- 
 1 avera!,'e 1-2.0<IO,000 
 L'se of Koquefort and 
 stuffs, enter toj;ethct 
 lal and iron mines (il 
 moHt important in 
 lencHtJiblishedwiltiiij 
 Iv arc now pmwcuteil 
 [and furnish empluy- 
 workpcople. Apwi 
 Iced. THanufactiiniii! 
 msidcrablc pt(H,tess. 
 B supiiosedtobeem- 
 I coarse woollen stuff*, 
 .mcntofSt.Affrif 
 red in the spinm"!! 
 ind there are m «« 
 
 AViy.ZA.V() 
 
 >n. nlmtit *•" pini'loy'l '" •'"' •'•""'mk niitl dresK- 1 
 ji.l .pfjiiiilur niul tlif kIovi' inidc. rinn- nu-\ 
 iii?,. Iii.l'irii" of hitl.t niid piiiirr, with dyr wi.rk*. 
 iiimI I""!"''''' «"''*''• Avi'vriiii M-iit ilircf ini'iiilii'rx 
 i„ ilin lri;i«l(i(i\f iisM'inlily in Mill. I'riiiil|.iil 
 i.iHii'", i;ii "l"''^. Milliaii. M. Alt'rii|iic, ami Villi' 
 Iniiicli'"'. Il'p inlial'iliiiits /ire oiild to Iw iiiihIi 
 ;i,|,|iclril tiitlrinkiiiK mid inmrrrlliiiK; ainl as iliry 
 iill iiirrv H kiiil'is I'lillfd a ni/niihiiilnii, their (jimr- 
 f,,|, .niiii'iitin"< I'lid latiilly. 
 
 AVK/./AN'O, a town of Soiithrm Italy, prov. 
 Aiiiiiln. ill a lini' |iliiiii, ullliiii iilioiit u iiiilc rroiii 
 
 (III. N\V. allele of the liikc Kmi I'op. I,7J0 In 
 
 IHiil. Il i* -iirniiiiiilcd liy wiilh, wliirli, Imwt'VtT, 
 IIP' ill II riiiiiiiii" fiiiiilitioii. 'I'lif liiiiiHcs arc nciit'- 
 riillv iiH'iiii. Il"' Ihcfo "f Hoiiii' hihmI liiiildiiit,"*, 
 ,iiii,',ii(.' wliiili a fiLsllr licloiiKiiiK til till- t'ldiiiiiia 
 
 VVI'll'IANA, a town of N'nrllitTii Italy, pmv. 
 Iiiriii, I.'. Ml. W. Turin. I'op. ;i.lll in lAr,!. It 
 i> iliiclv Hitiiali'd on a hill, liax it t'linllc, rulirics of 
 iiiiirH' I'liilli.ai'd liliiliirt's of ^ilU. 
 
 AVKil.lANO, a town of Sontlicrii Italy, prov. 
 I'JiiMiz.i, <'ii|'. <'i>i".. " III. NNW. I'litfiizii. Tup. 
 IJ.i'i.VJ ill iHlil. It Ik liilill on tlii< ilri'livily of n 
 liiil. II piirl (iC wliii'li liiiii;,' iiiiilciiiiiiird, in \HJ\, 
 |,v iiiiiliiiiird rniiM, pivc way. and dt'j<lrii>t'il a 
 ,'uri 111' till' liiwii. il lias a lint' <'(ill('H;iiitc fliiircli, 
 Miiiilry cuiivciiis, anil a myal collrffc. Tin' Miir- 
 ruiiiiiliii^' coiiiilry produces th« lliu'st oxen in 
 Siiutliirii Italy. 
 
 AVIIiN'lN (an. Avinin), a city of Kniiico, ca)!. 
 ili'ii, Vaiii'liisf, on llic left liiiiik of Ilit' lilmiii', M 
 m. NNW. Marseilles, on the I'aris-Mediterraiieiiii 
 niilwiiv. I'lip. ;W,t>«l in IHill, It is the seat of 
 
 AVOLA a<»7 
 
 niPitiH! Itiiildinfi, in whieli l.ooil old stddiers am 
 iieniinnii'ii.'iii'il, The lloii'l hieii i<i iiIko on a larK" 
 
 "••all'. The lliriitre, II liii);i' liiilii|''o||ie edilh'e, was 
 eriM'ti'il ill IK'.' I. A\iniiiiii I'oiiiiniiiiiciiteH with 
 the iippimite hank of the river liy two liriil^'i'M, one 
 of Wood mill one III' lioal-i, Siiiee the o|H'iiilli; of 
 the railway from |>Mri'< to llie Mi'iliteriiiiiean, wlilrh 
 liii'< a Nlation here, the trade of the city liaHKi**''*'')' 
 
 ini|iroveil, ami it Iiiim I me the Nciit of «everal 
 
 new niitiiiirni'tiiri"). Tliev nni^ist priiieipally of 
 wilk stillVt mill vel\et'<. 'I here are lll'wi Home wool- 
 len and eotioii I'tilirieH, with it eiimioii I'oiiiidry, a 
 type I'oiiinlry, dye worki, nml tanneries, A ni»»\ 
 many works are priiilvil in the to\Mi. l,m'i;'o 
 ipiantilies of madder lire proiliieed in the llei^'li- 
 luiiiriii;; eoiiiiiry, and A\i;;niiil is the eeiilre of tlio 
 trade ill llial dm;;. 
 
 Avi^'lloii existed hel'ore the Itolililll invasion, 
 and al'lerwarils liei'miie it Itoiiinii • nloiiy. In l-li>''> 
 n"inelit V, trilll-ri'ned lllillur the resideln'e of 
 the popes, who roiiliiiiied to lesjije here till I'lTT, 
 when tliey relnrni'd to Uoiiie; Init I wo seliisiiialieal 
 popes, or po|ies eleett'il liy the l''retirli ranliiials, 
 resided III Avi;;iioii till I Ii'im. ( 'lenient VI. Imviiij; 
 ai'ipiii'i'il till' properly of the town iiiid dislriit. it 
 I'olllilllieil to helling to llle holy see; mid tlloiljjh 
 sometiines litkeii liy tile [''reiieli, it was always 
 restored, till I T'.H, when it was llimlly ineoriiorati'd 
 willi I'' ranee. 
 
 AVKiNONI'/r, a town of I'Vaiiec. ilep. Iliiiitn 
 (iaroiine, near the canal of l.miKiicdoc, In in. NNV, 
 ('astclniniilry. I'op. •J.'i'.M in jfiill. Mere tlvu 
 iiiipiisilors were put to dciilli liv the AlliiK<'ois in 
 I'Jl'.'. Ilayiiioiiil, Coiiiit of Toiiionse, suspected of 
 secretly iiislij;jiliii>; the crime, was coiidemnt'd hy 
 
 ari'lihisliopric, of a trilniiinl of orij^inal Juris- ' Innoceni III, to he stri|>|icil naked and wliip|ieil 
 
 AVILA, II town of Spain, cup. pmv. Avila, on 
 the Adiija, i'>l in, \VN\V. Madrid. I'op, il.ll'.) in 
 IM.')?. il is the seat of a liisliopric, and liiis a uni- 
 versity, eij4;lil parish churches, and iiiniK'rons con- 
 vents and hospitals. Formerly it was richer and 
 more tloiirishiii<; tliiiii at present. It has still 
 mmml'actnres of cloth, cot ion, hats, and silk, 
 
 AVII-KS, a town of Spain, Astnriiis, at tlio 
 
 month of till! river of the same name; IH in. 
 
 N. Oviedo. Top. ;1,2'.»7 in iM.'i;. There is ti 
 
 lieantifiil stoni- liriilKo across the river. If has 
 
 tunitimdes aloiif^ the walls, and its ipiavs aloii^ j Home mannfactiires of coarse cloth, and iircparcs 
 
 nil . 
 
 ilii'iimi mill of connnerce, and has a royal colle','e 
 hi' 111!' '-'lid class, a i>riinary normal school, a tlieo- 
 lii'^ical si'iiiiiiary, a school of desi|,'ii, a piihlic 
 liliriiry containing Hll.oon voliitncs and .")l»l MSS., 
 n iiiiisi'iim of pictures, a holanical ^iii'den, with 
 xKiciii's of arts and atfriciiltnrc, lliiviiii; heeii 
 jiini; till! residcnci! of the popes, AviH;iion was 
 fillnl with cliiirches, convents, and other reli<;ions 
 limiscs, many of which have now fallen into decay. 
 It is siiuatt'd in a tine plain, and is surrounded hy 
 liiwii walls, tlanked with nnmerons towers. Its 
 
 till' river, are hoth said to he very line. The I'ity 
 
 WW fiiniierly much more jiopnlons and thriving; 
 
 iliiiiuit present, and half the space now iiiclnded 
 
 niiliiii the walls is occupied with pirdens, itc. 
 
 'Ilii' stn'cts are narrow and crooked; and the 
 
 liniiscn and hiiildiiiKs have f;enerally a f^loomy, 
 
 imiaiiolioly appearance. Mr. Iiifjjlis says. — 'I 
 
 ni'ViT saw any town that I should not prefer to 
 
 Avinmiii as a residence: its liltliiiiess is disj;ust- 
 
 iiiu', alisiihitely iiiconceivahle to he found in a 
 
 civilised couiitrv. And it is the less exciisahle as 
 
 the tiiwa is well siipidicd with water.' (Swituer- 
 
 kid, d'c, ]). IMO.) This was some thirty years 
 
 acii, and iiincc then thing's have somewhat mended, 
 
 aliliiiiifjh the ancient city is not yet famous for 
 
 I'lcanliiit'.ss. The ancient nalace, occupied by the 
 
 iHilics, stands lai the declivity of the rock called 
 
 be Dons. It is a (iotliic building, constructed at 
 
 iliti'iTtnt periods, of vast extent, with liiwii, thick 
 
 mils, and now serves as a )trison, military depot, 
 
 and Imrracks. The cathedral church of Notre 
 
 liiiiiie lie Dons is very ancient, and contains the 
 
 tmnlis of several distinj^iiished p'.r.-s>ns. The 
 
 church of the Cordeliers, of whie'ii only th j spire 
 
 now remains, contained the ♦.tinb of Laura, im- 
 
 miirtalised hy Petrarch, niiil of the 'brave Crillon,' 
 
 the friend of Henry IV., and one of the most 
 
 1 chivalrous of French wnrtiors. The Hotel des 
 
 Invalidcs, subsidiary to tliut of Paris, is nn im- 
 
 boilcrs and other utensils made of tiie copper 
 obtained from the nci^^lilionriii^ iniiies. It has 
 very little trade, the water in the port bein^c 
 so shallow that it is hardly accessible even to 
 coasters, 
 
 AVIS, a town of the Tyrol, near the Adifxe, l.'l 
 in. SSW. I.'overedo. l'op.";i,,j;!() in 1H.'>7. It has 
 a castle, mannfactiires of silk anil velvet, and a 
 ipiarry of lliiits. 
 
 AVIZ, a town of l*ortiif;al, ]irov. Alentejo, ,1.'iin. 
 WSVV. I'ortalcKre. I'op, I, oild in I H.'iH, 'it is the 
 chief place of the knijilits of the orderde I'Avis, 
 founded by Alplionso 1. in 1 1 l(i, 
 
 AVTZK, a town of France, ih'p. Manie, cap. 
 canton, 15 in, SSF, Kiiernny. Pop. l,H7l in ISiil. 
 Its territory is celebrated for its vineyards, which 
 produce lar^c quantities of Chumjmiine ihoiihm'h.v 
 of the second quality, it has an. extensive trade 
 in wine. 
 
 AVOLA, or AULA, a sea-port town of Sicily, 
 nrov, Syracuse, 12 m, SW. Synicuse. Pop. Kt,";")! 
 in 18(il. The town is jirettily and saluhrionsly 
 situated on a woody cininence, haviiifj a mariiio 
 village on the beach, a tonnara, and a battiTy for 
 defence ; anil from several res|)ectablc cdilices, tcde- 
 rable streets, anil a (food market-iilaee, has an air 
 of cleanliness and regularity. IJesides the profits 
 of the tonnara, the town has a considerable tratUc 
 in wine, corn, cheese, carubbas, alraonds, oil, honey, 
 
 X 2 
 
84M 
 
 AVOLD (HT.) 
 
 «. ' ' ^ f" 
 
 ■ikI (Villi, Ami «inie in miffar, mihic Irom Min only 
 r«ini |ilant«tiiin now li«ft on lh« IrIiukI. Th« ml- 
 Jiurnt rouiitrv ulHiiiriilit with ftnrw. itml mipiilli-n 
 |iii»liiriwi' Id II (.rent niiiiiU'r <il' llii.i entile, nimiy 
 of whitli nrv cxiiortiMl lo Mullo. 
 
 AVOJ.I) (ST.), a lown of Krniiw. .I.'p. M..h,.||.., 
 cap. i-niit., on ihn ItiNtavl, Iri m. W. MariincMiliifN 
 IW It,"iH« in \mn. 
 
 AVON, III' iinmft of iinvpral riven in KiiKianil, 
 of wliirh the riiimt ini|Nirtniit nr»>;— 
 
 ^l. Till) ('Mn'r Avon, luiM iN Noiiri'c at Avon 
 VVVII, near NiiM>l>y, In Nortlminptoimliln', almiii 
 HOO (1|. nlM)V)> i|i(> lnvcl of llie m-h. It IIowh ki-iu'- 
 rolly ill a SW. ilinTtion, Imt with a vitv wiiulliin 
 I'oiirm', iKiitHin^ KUtJCciiKivi'ly Hut lowim olAViirwitk, 
 StralConl-dn-Avoii nnd Kv<>r>)iain,lill it uiiiii-H with 
 tim .Silvern at TflwkcMliiiry. It hiw a liirx"' iMMly of 
 v.ntrr; ami Ih iinvi(^alil« fiy ImrxcM for niNtiit ■!(» m., 
 or Croiti tlu" Sovcrn lo StrmfonI, wlicn! It in Joiiicd 
 l>v till' stniiroril cnnul. Un vntiro connv may Im; 
 a(M>ut imi in. 
 
 'i, Tim Litwrr Avim, ha« IIm mwtct* rnnti^iioiiM 
 ti) Malnii'Hhiiry ami Wooton-liuHHet, in WillMliirf, 
 itH two ariiiN nniiiii^ near (Iroat Soniorfonl; it 
 tlifliK'o purxiu'N a <;ir«nlar cixiriM', |»anHiiiK Clilp- 
 |K>iih/un, Itriulfonl, liitli, ami HriNtol, falling into 
 tlic liriNtol Chanml alMiiu H m, In>Iow Itriitlol. 
 OwiiiK t" tHc Kwiai rine and fall of the tiilf. tlio 
 lar^cHt elaHd of nitnliantmi'ii oomi! up tho rivi r to 
 Hriiitol. Th« Kt-iwiet ami Avon canal, from Ncw- 
 Imry to liath, coiii/ioctH the ThamcH with the Avon, 
 cMtalilixliinK a water coininunicatioii acrowi thu 
 kingdom. 
 
 il, 'i'liu Ifampthire Avon, riHcs near Devizen, on 
 tho N. side of SaliHhury Plain. At Sali.Hliiiry it in 
 Joined hy the Wily anil th« IJonriu! ; and in navi- 
 KaMo from TrafalKar-homw to wliero it falla hito 
 the KiiKliHh Channel at ChriHtchiiroli. 
 
 There are hoiho other rivern of tliiti name in Knff- 
 land, Imt none of them Ncem to Iw coiiNidcrahle 
 eiiuu^h to require any sjiccial notice. There are 
 uImo three small rivem of thiH name in Hcotland : 
 one an allluent of the Snoy, one of the Clyde, and 
 another having itx embouchure in tho Frith of 
 Forth, near HorrowHtoiienH. 
 
 AVKANCIIKS (an, Inifena), a town of France, 
 dc^p. Manchc, cap. arrotuhiiHement, on n hill near 
 tho Suez, 32 m. 8SW. St, Lo, and 3 in. from tho 
 ma, on tho railway from Ar)rentan to (iranvillc. 
 Pop.8,r}92iiilH(il. This is a very old town. ltd ca- 
 thedral, consecrated in 1121, was unroofed during 
 the revolution, and is now in ruins. In it, in 1 172, 
 Henry II„ king of England, did |x!imncc and re- 
 ceived absolution for the miinlcr of Iteckctt. (Lyt- 
 telton's Hist., Henry II., v. p. 123.) Avranches 
 hAs a tribunal of original jurisdiction, a college, a 
 workhouse, a theatre, ami a jmblic library, con- 
 taining 10,000 volumes and 200 MSS., with'manu- 
 fucturcs of lace and blondes. Small vessels come 
 up the river to the bridge opposite the town, but 
 it has little tra<le. 
 
 AX, a town of France, dt'p. Arriege, cap. cant, 
 on the river of that name, 20 m. SE. Foix. Fop. 
 1,1)79 in 18G1. The situation of Ax ia very pic- 
 turea(}ue and romantic. It derives distinction 
 from ita numerous but mineral springs, the heat of 
 til water of some of which approaciies nearly to 
 the boiling point. Tlwir reputation is increasing, 
 and with it the size and importance of the town, 
 the latter being entirely dependent on the resort 
 to th" wells. 
 
 AX E L, a fortified lo^vn of the Netherlands, prov. 
 Zea'and, 21J m. VVNVV. Antwerp. Pop. 2,681 in 
 18G1. 
 
 AXMINSTER, a m. towu of England, co. Devon, 
 hund. Axminster, oji the Axe, 147 m. WSW. 
 JU>ndon, 16 m. £. Exeter. The parish contains 
 
 AY 
 
 fl,A!!t0 umn, and 2,ftlH InhaK, arcnnliiiK to thu 
 ci'tiMM of IHill. It In Irregularly built on the ii*.. 
 clivity of a Kmall hill, hnj< wide slffei*, mni j, 
 elt'aii and healthy. The cliurch, a iliiiiiiiy mru, . 
 ture, Im In iMirt very ancient, and ilun* U » fr,, 
 sfliiHtl whent fiMirleeii children an^ educaUil uraii.. 
 The inhab. are princiiMlly viigage«l in the tnanu 
 fat'tiire of i'ar|H>ls, in Imiialioii of thoM< of [>,tA» 
 ami Turkey, which are but little if at all iniVniir 
 to the geiiiilni' I'librlcH. 
 
 AXtIM, an ancient and much deraynl town nf 
 Abyssinia, prov. Tign', near one of the wiumhi.i' 
 the Mareli (.lufHMiji/N'x), 1 10 m. SW. Arkeikii.on 
 the Ited Seai InL • •°'i' N- b'Ug.aH* 'i'J' K. Tho 
 populalioii is variously eslinmletl at frmn nix in 
 ten thousand. Il is sfliiated in a mstk fomud liy 
 two hill'*; and is said by Messrs. ConilM'K anil 
 Tamisier, by whom It has Ikhmi visiteil, in Ih' tlu' 
 hanilNomest town of Tigrt'. The houses »»• df .^ 
 cylindi!cal form, suniioiintetl by a cmie. In ji, 
 citnire is a Chnstian church, wfiich seems in w- 
 cupy thu site of an ancient temple, dcMTils'il hy 
 Mr. Salt tValenlia's Travels, ill. HH) ; but iho tra- 
 vellers refem-d to alM>vu say, that Salt's slntciniiiiK 
 with res|H>ct to it are much exaggerated. Acmnl- 
 ilig to them it is inferior even to wm yreuim onli. 
 naireti mo that in Ibis instance Hriice, who Imuc. 
 ciis<>d by Salt of having undervalued the > Inmli, 
 wouldseem to Ite the prvferable authority. (Vnyiii;n 
 en Abyssinic, i. 2(17.) Axum, however, wimhi nei 
 Ik! worth notice were it not for its ancient laiui', 
 and its antiquities. That it is very aiuitnt ii 
 abundantly certain ; and its former grealiicNH w 
 evinced by the ruins which still remain. Of tlio«B 
 the most conspicuous is an obelisk 00 ft. in hvi^lit 
 (Salt says, in Lord Valcntiu's Travels, H(l f(.j Imt 
 he afterwards rectified his mistake), fomu'd uf a 
 single block of granite, crowniMl with a ii(ilera,mi\ 
 lieaiitifiilly scui|iturcd, though not with hii'mjfly- 
 phics. There are said to have been foniu^rly alxive 
 fifty oUdisks in the city; but, except the uiic imw 
 noticed, tho others are all prostrate. 
 
 It is known that a Greek kingdom was fiiuiideil 
 in Ethiopia, of which Axum was the capitnl, ami 
 gave its name to tho country, soiii(> time after tlic 
 Christian lera. The (Jreek writt'rs of ilu' later 
 ages used, in fact, to call tho Ethiopiiins Axumilc*; 
 and the IVriplus of the Erythnean Sea nl)'»n|j 
 authentic evidence of tho existence uf tlie iiule- 
 |>cndent kingdom of Axum, towards the end uf 
 the second century. Some light is thrown mi tliu 
 intricate subject by the discoverv, at Axum, of an 
 upright slab or stime, licaring an lll^(Ti|)tilln, ((ijiud 
 and translated by Mr. Salt. Tliis reiiinrkaljlo 
 monument records the result of a succoxsrul tttiack 
 made by Aizunus, king of the Axiimitos, on sdine 
 barbarous tribes. And it so hup|)ens that Aizoiw 
 was king of Abyssinia during the reigii of tlie 
 emperor Cimstantius, who luldri'sscd a letter tn 
 him anno 330. This, therefore, may fairly be m\- 
 eluded as the date of the inscription in quuMlimi; 
 but there is no evidence to show the a'ra uf the 
 foundatiim of tho iVxumito kingdom, or how luii;; 
 it existed after the above <late. 
 
 Adulii, situated at tho bottom of Anneslcy Bay, 
 on the Ked Sea, was anciently the jxirt of iVxuni, 
 and a great mart for the commmlities of Ethiopu, 
 Egypt, Arabia, 4c. It was the port whence Ethio- 
 pian slaves were shipped for all parts of tho world. 
 (Ancient Universal History, xviii. 329, 8vo. eA) 
 
 AY, or AI, a towii of France, dep. Mame, cap. 
 cant on a hill near the Mame, 15 m. S. Kheim^ 
 Pop. 3,418 in 1861. This town is famous fur its 
 wine, tho best of the vins moumeua: de Champaguc. 
 It is said by JuUien to be fn, spiritueux, pvtilM, 
 di'licat, et pourvu dun jolt bouquet. (ToptifeTaphie 
 dcs Vignobles, p. 81.) Dr. Henderson uajs, tliat 
 
 iii|;.- 
 
cronlliiff tA th* 
 Inikll on the <lr- 
 ' uln-fU, mill l« 
 M I'liiiimy St rill . 
 I tliiri' U % frif 
 I nliii'nUMl Krtiln, 
 [kI In llui iiianii- 
 r tlnMM' of lVr<i« 
 If nl nil Int'iriir 
 
 (Ircayttl town nf 
 
 llf th» WHIM'Unl' 
 
 S\V. Arknki., 1.11 
 ,l»MO-2"4'K. Till. 
 il At I'mm nix til 
 I ntMik fonni'il l>y 
 MtrN, i'oniU'H aiiit 
 
 VIHitl'll. Ill I* till' 
 
 n liiiiiM'H iin' llf a 
 iv a ciini>. Ill ii< 
 iiich w'cinH III iK'- 
 nplp, lU'iH'rilK'il liy 
 , HH) ; Imt III)' mi- 
 I MhU'h Htnlcinciit* 
 fUtTBtt'tl, Aciiiril- 
 ( n(>» yrenitrt iirili- 
 Hrufo, who i* 111'- 
 .•nlut'il till! V liiirili, 
 utlmrity. (Viiyime 
 lowevor, wiuilil nut 
 r itM nnc'U'iil I'aiiii', 
 in v<>ry ancii'iii U 
 iirmcr uri'miiiKH '» 
 1 rumiiin. Of lhe-« 
 link DO ft. ill liviKlit 
 I'ruvplH. «oft.; liiii 
 Klftkc), fornu'tl of » 
 I with a iMiteni, iiiM 
 not witli liii'n>|ily- 
 bocn fttrnu-rly alnive 
 cxoeiit tlic ime imw 
 tratc. 
 
 u^jtloin via* fimiiilfil 
 
 iim tli« oapital, awl 
 
 [hoiiic time lifter llie 
 
 .Tili'rM llf llii' later 
 
 hiopiims Axiiniilc«; 
 
 [tlini-nn Sou iilVuriU 
 
 iHtcnic of the iiule- 
 
 owanls the cml "f 
 
 lit in thrown im iliU 
 
 TV, at Axiini, iif an 
 
 "iiiMriinioiiieit"'^ 
 
 This roninrkalilc 
 
 n Hui'ccsi*ful fttiaii 
 
 lAxumiles, on siiiiiu 
 
 ijUKMis that Aizanaj 
 
 the reinii of tlie 
 
 irvmcA a letter t» 
 
 [, may fairly be coii- 
 
 ription in (luentiim; 
 luiw the ivra of tl"! 
 [igdom, or how loui! 
 
 ,.1 of Anneslcy Bay, 
 j the portofXMinii 
 Imlities of Ethiupia, 
 port whence Ethift- 
 fparta of the woiliL 
 yiii. 329, 8vo. eil.) 
 k de'p. JIame, cap. 
 Je, 16 m. S. Khcim*. 
 Il is famous for lU 
 !««.■ lie Champagne 
 pirittteux,petilli'nt, 
 Met. (Topoijrapn'e 
 Lnderson says, tint 
 
 A 
 Vl'llf. 
 
 AYAMONTK 
 
 Ml I* nnqiiM*i»i)«l>)y on rxriiiixllx Ilquttr, tM>lntr 
 
 IlKhU'f «"•' "W"''" '*'''" •'"' ^^illi^ry, anil m m- 
 
 i*ni«l hy a <l«'ll<'»l«' Havoiir and nrumn. mmu-whal 
 iiii»li«otw to that of tlii^ |ilHi<«pplr. llittt which 
 mi'ti'lv rri'amn on th«> unrfiu-n (drmi mimiutruj) \n 
 hfifrrrwl to thfl fiill-frolhlnK {iimml mimiuttu) 
 wint'.' (Iliitorv of WInim,!). lt)i). 
 
 AVAMoNTk, a furtilh-il town of S|wln, iiMv, 
 
 Si'vill)*! "11 ''i<* ^" "''''^ "'' '''*^ rinlMiiirhiin> of thit 
 
 (laiiillMna, !ii\ m. W. Iluclva, lat. !«"° III' N., lonu. 
 
 p 111' l.'i" W. I'ojK '>.t)''>I' ill lHr>7. It NiandN on 
 
 ihr ilrt'Uvity of a hill, and han two parinh chim'him, 
 
 fiiiindliiiK hiMpilal, an nlinNhonitn, and ntrnw con- 
 
 iir<. Thf inlialiitanlK am itrlm-ipiilly I'nKaKcd 
 
 III il.<liiiiK : hut Home NhiiHlinlldln^ \» alnu rnrricd on, 
 
 ami JAi')'. >*i>aj>, and i>nrili<>nwar«i arc miiniiriii'liirt'il. 
 
 AYI.KHIIlKV, a liorotiKh, m. town, and \mt, of 
 
 KiiKlnnd, t*o, Hni'kinKham, hiind. Ayloiitiiiry, on 
 
 nil I'mineniT in th<> i'i>l<'bratt>d valt> of the name 
 
 immi', IW in. NW. London. IMJ MK. UiKkliiKhilio 
 
 Tilt' lioriiiKh Int'hideM an anta of M.'JOO ncroN, ami 
 
 ii|Hip.<)f II.IIM In iNtll. It 1h irri'>{nliirly Itiiill, hax 
 
 a miHJern market houM'.conMinicli'd after the modol 
 
 iil'ilie temple of the eiKht windM at AllienM, and a 
 
 lianilMiiiie i-ounty-hall, in whieh the Lent MHiztw 
 
 fur the county are held : the county Jail In niNo in 
 
 the town, aiid here, tiMt, the memlH<rN for the 
 
 nmniy arc nominateil, and I ho return declared. 
 
 The church ia a lar^e ancient atnictiiro, with a 
 
 liiwn vidihle many milea round. The charitiea of 
 
 AvIrnlHiry am numerouH and valnahlc. Amon^ 
 
 iitliern tliere U a free achool, for the mipiiort of 
 
 which a cotiNiderahle amotint of pro|M<rly Iium Iteen 
 
 lKH|iieatli(Hl, that furniMhcii education for uImiuI 
 
 |:liilKiyN; them arc alMo a numlwr of other cha- 
 
 ritieis with almtihouHCM, Jik. Some lace in nianu- 
 
 fiidiiretl, and a number of the inl:aliiiHiitM of the 
 
 town and ita vicinity emiiloy thcmHelvcH in the 
 
 hreetliiift and fattening of duckit, of which large 
 
 iiuralierH are sent to the metropolis. Ayleslmrv 
 
 hax returned two m, to the 11. of C. since LOM, 
 
 I'reviDiinly to 1H04, the riuht of voting was in the 
 
 inliali. llf the iMirtnigh iinyiiiK scot and lot ; but in 
 
 ciiiiMHiuencu of the flagrant oorniptiim of the 
 
 electors, the privilege of voting for the memln-rs 
 
 fir the borough wa« then extended to the frt'e- 
 
 holilent of the hund. of Aylesbury. The pari. 
 
 Imniunh had 27,(»90 inhnb., according to the 
 
 rcnuiiK of 181)1, registered electors l,Htl4. The 
 
 vale of Aylesbury is one of the richest tracts in 
 
 the empire. It is principallv appropriated to the 
 
 fattoninR of cattle and dairying. 
 
 AYLESFOKl), a village and jwr. of England, 
 cfl. Kent, lathe Aylesford ; the village being on 
 the ri{;ht Imnk of the Medway, which intersects 
 ihe par., m. 80, SE. London. The par. contains 
 ■A,m acres, and a pop. of 2,0.'i7 in 18G1. The 
 church, a handsome building. Is situated on an 
 eminence higher than the roofs of the houses in 
 the village. There is a bridge over the Medway, 
 anil an almshouse, endowed in 1605. Near the 
 iiiwii was a Carmelite monastery, granted at the 
 ilissolution of the monostenes, by Henry VIII., to 
 Sir Thomas Wyatt ; from whom it has descended 
 til the Fuich family, now earls of Aylcsfonl, who 
 have modernised the building, and made it a 
 I'limfortable residence. Ihit the most remarkable 
 iniinuraent in the vicinity of Aylesford is Kitscnty 
 llimM, about I m. NK. from the village. It con- 
 Mstd of three large upright stones, each almut 
 dfi. in height, with another lying on the top, 11 
 ft. in length by 8 in breadth,' and 2 thick ; and 
 there are some similar stones in the vicinity. An- 
 liqiiarianH difler widely in opinion as to the object 
 llf llii« singular structure ; but the more common 
 iiliinion seems to be that it was intended as a 
 niunumcnt to Catigcm, a British chief killed iii a 
 
 AYR SOO 
 
 fmttif, rlren A. it, 4AA, with tho fUxona under 
 llenglsl and llorsa, (llasleirs Kent, Hvo. rd. 
 vol. iv. ; Turner's Anglo-Haxon*, iMMik iii. ca|). M.) 
 
 AVU, a niaril. r f Hcothind, on its W.coasi, 
 
 Hlrelchiiig for atsmt 7i^ m. ahmg the Rliorea of Iho 
 Irixh Hea and the Frith of Clyde, having N. thn 
 
 < f Kenfn'W, K, Lanark and Diimfries, .SIC, 
 
 Kirkcudbright and H, Wigtown. It conlaiim 
 II '(0, 1 .'ill acres, of which nearly a half is siip|MHN>d to 
 Im* arable, U is divided into the three dislricis of 
 Carrick, Kyle, aniK'unninghain. The lint, which 
 comprises the county to the S. of the river Dikiu, 
 is for the most |Mri nuNirish, wild, and mountain- 
 ous. Kyle, the middle district, lying between thu 
 Dotin on Ihe .S, and the Irvine on the N., ismseMseN 
 a larg'' extent of low, well-ciiltivaied laiul along 
 the shore; but Iho K. |>art is hilly and mountain- 
 ous, Cunningham, though Ihe smallest of the 
 districts, is the most |M)piilous, U'st cultivated, 
 and richest. Climate molNt and mild. Agri- 
 culture, ihiwn to the dose of the American war, 
 WON, speaking generally, execrable; but it has 
 Is'en prodigiously improved in the interval, and 
 es|M<cially during the last ten or ihizen years. 
 The whole co, is now intersected with gtsHl roads, 
 ami is well fenced and subdivided. Drainage, the 
 most im|Mirtant of all improvements, has been 
 prosecuted to a great extent ; and the )irnctice of 
 furrow druiitinj/ is carried on with extraordinary 
 /.ea' and the most |M'rtect success. Improved ri>- 
 tations have l>een everywhere introduced ; and 
 lands that formerly only pnuluced |ioor crii|)s of 
 black oats, now carry heavy cro|)s of whent and 
 barlev. The Ayrshire cow is narlicularlv titled 
 for tlie dairy, which is extensively earned on, 
 chietly in Cunningham, the original country of 
 the Uunlop cheese. Farm-houses and oDlces, for- 
 merly mean and wretched, now, for the most |iart, 
 extensive and commislious. The ohl valued 
 rent was 16,007/., the new valuation for 1M04-5 
 amounted to 702,001/., exclusive of railways rated 
 at 118,777/, Coal is found in several parts, and 
 is extensively wrought and exported. Iron is 
 made at Muirkirk, (ilengarnock, and other places. 
 The woollen manufacture is carried on exten- 
 sively at Kilmarnock ; and cotton mills have Ik-cu 
 erected atCatrine. Principal towns, Kilmarnock, 
 Ayr, Maylsile, and Ir\ine. Ayr contains forty-six 
 parishes. It had, in IHOI, a population of 84,207; 
 in 1821, of 127,2m); in 1841, of 104,8.50; and in 
 1801, of 198,971. Of the |>op. in 1801, there were 
 males 90,994, and females 101,977. It sends two 
 m. to the H. of C. ; for the co., and the boroughs of 
 Kilmarnock, Ayr, and Irvine are associated with 
 others in the election of re|)rescntatives. I'lirl. 
 constituency 4,042 in 1804. (Onsiis of Scotland, 
 1801 ; Oliver and Hoyd, Kdinb. Almanack, 1M0.''>; 
 New Statistical Account of Scotland ; Uobertson's 
 Rural Uecollections.) 
 
 Ay II, a sea-port, myal borough, and m. town of 
 Scotland, cap. Ayrshire, on the S. side of the river 
 Ayr, at its coiiHiience with the seo. 0.'> m. SVV. 
 Kdinburgh, and 30 m. SSW. tilasgow. The pop. 
 of the burgh and parish amounted, in 1801, to 
 19,059, of which 9,094 males, and 10,.50,) females. 
 The number of families, in 1801, was 4,502, and 
 of inhabited houses 2,281. Ayr is tinely situated 
 on the margin of a broad level plain, and baa 
 recently l)cen much improved and enlarged. Tho 
 county' buildings, containing a county hall, with 
 apartments for the justiciary court, «l-c.,and town'a 
 buildings, containing a news-room, and nsmis for 
 dinners, balls, assemblies, &c., are lM)th on a largo 
 scale : to the latter is attached a tine sjtire, 220 ft. 
 in height. The Wallace Tower, erected u lew 
 years ago, on the site of an old building of the 
 same name, is 115 ft. high. A statue uf Sir 
 
^.'l, . 
 
 J'ii 
 
 IBs 'I 
 
 I! 
 
 il 
 
 m 
 
 II 
 
 % 
 
 iiti 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 P'' 
 
 M 
 
 h 
 
 •^1" AZAM 
 
 Willinm Wnllncn, l)y Tlnnn, Ims hron pincnl in 
 a iiiclu! ill iiH front'; Imt tlio nrdst 1ms not lu'cn 
 «o linpiiy in this instiiiicp ns in liis stiUiics of Tiim 
 O'Slmiitcr niiii Hoiitcr Jolinnic. 'I'lu'rc is an olil 
 nml a new church, hut licit lior is rcnmrkahle. 
 The ac.wlcniy is a plain liiiihliiijj. in a f,'o(i(l situa- 
 tion : nml no iiutonsiiicrahh' part of tiic h'ltc iin- 
 provcincnt of the, town may he ascrilicd \n tiic 
 wcll-nicritcd reputation of its teachers, whicii has 
 attracted a f^rcat nuuiher of families, Avr is a 
 very ancient hurf;h. It was chartered iii l'.'(i-2; 
 and parliaments have heen frequently hehl in it. 
 It is the seat of a synod and i)resl)ytcry ; of a 
 justiciary and sheritV's court; has a jiood' town's 
 lihrary, and n mechaiii(^'s institute; a theatre ; and 
 neveral charitahle iiiMitutions. Ahoiit 1.0(10 hand- 
 looms are cmidoyed in the weaviii},' of cotton for 
 the (rlasf,'ow manufacturers; and there is an ex- 
 tensive foundry, with two fan-works and a flonrisli- 
 iuf; earpet-mannfactory. The total shippiiif;, in 
 the year lH(i;(, consisted of 130 Hritish vessels, of 
 .'i2,f»()2 tons, and i;j forciijfii vessels, of 'i.OJKJ tons, 
 ivhich entered the jiort. The jiort, at the mouth 
 of the river, is formed hy twojiiers, whii'h (miject 
 a considerahle way into the sea; hut it lahoiirs 
 nnder a de(ici(!ncy of water, not having more than 
 T) ft. water over the har at ehh-tide, nor ahovc 
 15 ft, at high waler springs; and is exposed to 
 the_ W. gales, which throw in a very heavy sea. 
 This defect has, howe\er, heen in part ohviated 
 by the construction of a breakwater, which it is 
 pro])osc(l to enlarge. The aimual value of real 
 property, in ]«(U-i>, was •b'ijaro/., exclusive of 
 railways. A railway connects Ayr with (JIasgow, 
 Kilmarnock, and all the chief' towns of Great 
 Uritaiii. Ayr is joined with Campbelton, In- 
 verary, Irvine, and'Obaii, in the return of a mem- 
 ber to the H. of C. The parish, according to the 
 Ordnance Survey, contains an area of 7,1;}!* acres, 
 and the pari, constituency in 18(!4 was (iJi!, the 
 municipal 448, The corjioration revenue for 
 ]8(i4-.j amounted to 2,()4(i/. The cottage in which 
 IJobcrt linms was born, Avith Alloway Kirk, are in 
 the immediate vicinity of Ayr, about 2,^ m. (listant, 
 on the road to Maybole. (Oliver andBoyd's luliiih. 
 Almanack, lUdn.) 
 
 AZAXI, a city of Phrvgia, on the Edrenos 
 {n/ii/ndufus), now wholly in ruins. The small 
 moclern village of Tjaudere-IIissar, 22 m. W. by 
 S. Kutaleh, appears to have been entirely built 
 from its remains. Little is said about this city in 
 ancient authors; but its ruins, which have been 
 carefully described by Major Keppel, show that it 
 had been a place of great wealth and magni- 
 licence. The princi])al remains are two bridges, 
 coiuiected by a sujierb quay, with a tcmi^le and a 
 theatre, the latter being 2i52 i't. in diameter. Some 
 of the columns of the temple are still standing; 
 they are of the Ionic order ; the shafts, formed of 
 a single block of marble, being 28 ft. in length. 
 And this is really only a fair specimen of the 
 numberless remains of antiquity in a country once 
 swarming with cities, an<l in the highest state of 
 ■wealth and imjirovemcnt; but now all but depo- 
 pulated, steeped in i)overty, and a prey to every (lis- 
 order that a barbarian government and a debasing 
 superstition can inflict. 
 
 AZEKHI.IAN (an, Atropntena), a prov. in the 
 N\V. of Persia, between 26° and 38° 40' N. hit., 
 and 44° 20' and 4!»° E. long., having N. the Aras 
 or Arsvxcs, E. a part of the liussian territories 
 and the Caspian Sea, S. the Kizil-Ozein, wliii'h 
 separates it from the other Persian provs., i'iid \V. 
 Turkish Armenia. It consists of a succession of 
 high mountains, separated by extensive valleys 
 and plains. Mount Scvellan towards its E. fron- 
 tier, the next highest mountain to Ararat in this 
 
 AZOl'F (SEA OF) 
 
 part of Asia, rises to between 12,000 and I.S.Oflo ft 
 aliove the level of the sea. The Sahend Mmm- 
 tains, ill the centre of the prov., attain to thu 
 height of '.t.OOO feet. The Talish Mountains niu 
 from N. to S. |)arallel to, and at no great distniKv 
 from, the Caspian. The great salt lake of rrmiiili 
 (see An.Mi.NiA and liH^iiAii) is one of the distin. 
 giiishiug features of the |)rov. It has niinuTmn 
 rivers, of whndi the Araxes, Ki/,il-()zciii, mid 
 Ingatly. are the chief. The summers arolint- 
 but the winters, owing to the height of the ciiiin] 
 try, and the inimber of high mountains covcnil 
 with snow for the greater part of the year, ari' 
 severe and long-continned. In the valicvs ainj 
 idains the land is very fertile, and yields ahiimlinit 
 cro]is. Mr. Kinneir says, ' Azerbijan is rcckiiinij 
 among the most productive provs. of lVr^ia, iiinl 
 the villages have a more pleasing appearaiu'e than 
 even those of Irak. They are, for the most part, 
 embosomed in orchards and gardens, wliicli yiihi 
 (U'licions fruits of almost every descri|itii)n ; and 
 were it not for the tyranny of their rulers, no 
 peojile could anywhere enjoy to a greater (1(';,tw' 
 the comforts of life. Provisions are clieaji ami 
 abundant, and wine is also made in coiisiiicralile 
 (piantities ; Imt the bulk of the people are too piinr 
 to avail themsclv(!S of these blessings ; and, in the 
 hope of bettering their condition, C(iiitem|ilai,: 
 with pleasure the approach of the h'ussians.' (.Me- 
 moir, p. 14!>.) The principal towns are Tabreoz, 
 iVrdebyl, and Uriniah. 
 
 AZiNtJHUH, an inland town of llinddstan, 
 prcsid. Itengal, i)rov. Allahabad, cap, distr. ; 40 m 
 NXE. Henares; in- 24° G' N. lat., 8;!° 10' E. ],«-, 
 Pop. incl. troops, 13,332. Cotton stuff's arc larstlv 
 manufactured here and in the vichiity. It wiis 
 ceded by the Xal)ob of Oude in 1801. 
 
 AZMEKIGUXGE, an inland town of India lie- 
 yond the Brahmapootra, jires. and prov. liciijial, 
 distr. Sylliet ; Si") m. X K. Dacca ; lat. 24° 33' N„ 
 long. 91° .5' E. It is a iilacc of considerable iiilaiKl 
 tratlic, and has an establishment for builduig native 
 boats. 
 
 AZOFF (SEA OF), the Pains Mamtls of the 
 ancients, an inlaixl sea in the SE. qiiartiT of 
 Euroi)e. It communicates by the narrow Strait 
 of Ycnicale (an. Bosphonis Cimmeriiis) with llii" 
 XK. angle of the Black Sea, and is everywlicre 
 else surrounded by Russian territories. Its name 
 is derived from the town of A/.otf (see next article), 
 near its XE. extremity. It is of a very in-opihir 
 shape ; its greatest length, from the long, narrow 
 sand-bank facing the E. coast of the Oimca to 
 the mouths of the Don, being about 212 ni. : and 
 its greatest breadth about 110 ra. From the Strait 
 of Yenicale to Taganrog is about KiO ni. It is 
 generally shallow, and encumbered with sand- 
 banks, having, where deepest, not more than seven 
 fathoms water, and in some places mucdi hw. 
 Along its western shore it is marshy ; and its XK. 
 division, or that extensive ami denominateil the 
 Gulf of the I )on, is so very shallow that it cannot 
 be navigated, even where deepest, by vessels draw- 
 ing more than 10 or 12 ft. water. Durhij,' the 
 prevalence of easterly winds, the waters at 'I'aitaii- 
 rog, and other places in the gulf, recede sometime* 
 to a considerable distance from the shore, rushiii;' 
 back with great violence when the wind clianires 
 to an opposite direction. Iiiasnuich, liowovcr, ,i* 
 its bottom consists mostly of mud, vessels takitho 
 ground without being injured; and it is, in con- 
 sequence, less dangerous th.'ui might have hem 
 sujiposed. Owing to the vast quantity of Iroh 
 water brought down by the Don and other 
 rivers, its waters are little more than brnckidi, 
 ami at times are potable more than 20 m. IhI'iw 
 Taganrog. It teems with fish, and the lishcms 
 
100 and is.nnofi. 
 
 IV Siilicnil MiHin- 
 k-., ntlnin to tlic 
 >li Mountniiis run 
 no ^rcat (listiinco 
 ll luUc of rrmuili 
 oM« (if the (li'-t'm- 
 It has iimiU'rniH 
 Kizil-Ozcin, ninl 
 lumiiuTs lire lidi ; 
 •iKlit of the ciiiiii- 
 noiintuins cdvcrril 
 t (if tlio year, iirc 
 n tli(> valleys mul 
 1(1 yields aliumlant 
 Tl)ijaii is rcckimi'il 
 ovs. of I'crMii, ami 
 11(1 n\))iearaii(c tliim 
 , for tin; most |iart, 
 iirdcns, wliicli yiiM 
 ry (Icsi'riiition : iiml 
 of their rulers, \v> 
 to a j;reater il(';,'rt'(' 
 IOI19 are clieaii ami 
 ule in coiisitleralilc 
 3 people are ton jiimr 
 pssiiiKs ; and, in tlic 
 ilition, ('(.ntemiilat.: 
 the Hussians.' (Mi- 
 towns are Tabreez, 
 
 town of lliniliistaii, 
 adjcap.distr.; 10 in. 
 Int., KJ° 10' K. l»n^'. 
 toll stuff's arc lar^'dy 
 he vicinity. It Wiis 
 in 1801. 
 
 ind town of India lic- 
 9. and prov. lieii;,'al, 
 [»cca; lat. -iloXiN,. 
 if considerable inlanil 
 •nt for building iiiitivc 
 
 Pains Mteotk of tiic 
 the, Sl'^. quarter nf 
 Ijy the narrow Strait 
 iCiminerliis) with tlio 
 I. aiul is everywlurc 
 [erritories. Its iianic 
 /.I'll' (see next articlci, 
 Us of a very irroiiiilar 
 torn the loii},', narrow 
 [ist of the Crimea m 
 Walxnit ■Jl'.'ni.; ami 
 ) m. From the Strait 
 uhout 1(!0 m. h is 
 und)ered with saml- 
 not more than scvoii 
 le places mucli l(;>*. 
 marshy, and its Nl!. 
 inn denoniinatctl tlie 
 [hallow that it eanmt 
 pest, by vessels (tov- 
 water. During tlic 
 ithewatersatTairaii- 
 ^ulf, recede sonui mil* 
 \m the shore, nislmi^' 
 len the wind cliait'i* 
 lasniuch, however. a< 
 innid.ves.selstakelk 
 
 Ll ; and it i-^- "> ;'""■ 
 an mi^jht have hwn 
 ist quantity of I"''" 
 Vhe Don and mli't 
 more than braiki-h. 
 ,rc than "iO m. Ih1;.>v 
 ih, and the lislK"^' 
 
 AZOFF 
 
 iirp important and valuable. It u partially or 
 HJioliv covered with ice from November until 
 Kebriiary, or even March. The navigation of the 
 Sea ol Azoff generally commences the tirst week 
 ill Ai)ril and terminate.^ the la.st week in Novem- 
 l)cr. It is (tonsidercd unsafe for vessels to imdon^ 
 their stay after that date, as thev incur the risk 
 i,r lieitig t'auKht in the ice. \\'hen masters ()f 
 vessels Observe the 'barber' llyiufr, it is an in- 
 fallihlc sign of apprimcbiiiK frost. There are no 
 iKirts in the Sea of Azoll' suitably adapted for 
 vessels to winter in, and Kertch is invariably 
 eliosen for that purpose. Uerdiansk, however, jjoh- 
 ^eiwes on the west side of the s|)it a small bay 
 iftlMible of holdinj? from 150 to '200 lifjhfers, and 
 wlilili is f?e"C''"ll.V made use of by the small craft 
 (if the Azoff. The coasting trade of the Sea of 
 Aziilif has nearly trebled since the Crimean war. 
 in 1W)3 as many as 601 vessels entered the port 
 (,f Itenliansk with cargoes amounting to 54,20.')/., 
 mid .Wa cleared with cargoes to the value of 
 '.'.'i/.tl')/. iliey are principally emitloyi'd in carrj'- 
 ins government nrovisloiis from the river l)(m to 
 tlie different Hlack Sea stations, coals from Kostofl", 
 timlicr, fruits, salt and tish. (Keport of Mr. Acting 
 Consid Wngstaft'on the Tra(le of Iterdiansk, dated 
 .Iiilv 14, l**t)4 ; Purdy'.s Sailing Directions for the 
 Hlack Sea,&c., p. 212.; Ilagemcister on the Com- 
 merce of the Black Sea.) 
 
 AzoKF, a town and fortress of European Russia, 
 (in an eminence on the left bank of^ one of the 
 arms of the Don, near the XK. extremity of the 
 alidve sea. This town was foiuidcd at a very early 
 lieriod by Carian colonists engaged in the trade of 
 the Kiixine; and was called by them Tajiaw, from 
 the river (Don, then Tanais), of which it was the 
 jHirt. In the middle ages it was called Tamu It 
 eame into the possession of the Venetians after 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Latins; and 
 was held by them till 1410, when it was sacked, 
 mill its Christian inhabitants ])ut to the sword, by 
 llie Tartars. The latter gave it the name of Azoft", 
 which it still retains. Formerly it liiid an ex- 
 tcii.sivc trade, being the cmiiorium of all the vast 
 countries traversed by the Don. Hut owing to 
 the (,Tadual accumulation of sand in that channel 
 (if tlic river on which it is built, and the conse- 
 (|uent difliculty of reaching it by any but the 
 smallest class of vessels, its trade has been entirely 
 transferred to Taganrog; its fortifications have 
 also fallen into decay ; and it now consists only of 
 a cluster of miserable cabins, inhabited by little 
 more than 1,200 individuals. 
 
 AZORKS (THE), or WESTERN ISLANDS, 
 an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging 
 t(i Portugal, from which it is about «00 m. distant, 
 occunving a line of about 100 leagues from F2SE. 
 to WNW., between 3G° 59' and 39° 44' N. lat., 
 and 310 7' and 25° 10' W. long. It is divided 
 into three subordinate groups. The 1st, lying at 
 the WXW. extremity of the archipelago, includes 
 Flores and Corvo; the 2nd, or cent'il, Fayal, 
 I'ico, St. (icorge, Graciosa and Terceira ; and the 
 Srd at the ESE. extremity, St. Michael's, the 
 largest of the whole, and St. Mary's. The name 
 {llhos dos A(ores) is said to be derived from the 
 vast number of hawks (falco milvus), called by the 
 natives ofor, by which thsy were frequented at 
 the epoch of their discovery. These islands seem 
 to be of c(miparatively recent volcanic fonnation. 
 Their general aspect is picturesque and b(dd. For 
 the most part they present an irregular succe-^sion 
 ifbolated, conical, or acuminated hills, with table 
 lands rising from 2,000 to 6,000 ft. in height ; the 
 I'omier separated by valleys, the latter stratified 
 and intersected by tremendous ravines and deep 
 diasnis, formed by the action of rain on the soft 
 
 AZORES 311 
 
 V(dcaiiic remains composing the mountains; the 
 wh(dc are almost invariably lK)unded by magni- 
 ficent mural precipices, rising abruptlv from tho 
 sea, and frequently rendered inaccessilde by soft 
 crumbling lava and nuisses of loose tufa, of which 
 they are formed. The i)eak of I'ico, about 7,000 ft. 
 in height, is the highest elevation in the Azores. 
 When seen from a distance it app<!ars like an 
 isolated cone in the middle of the ocean. This 
 archipelago is sulyect to the most fremen(Uuis 
 convulsions, towns and villages being sometimes 
 .swallowed up, while, at other times, rocks and 
 islaiuls have been forced up from below the waves. 
 The last of these phenomena occurred in IMll, 
 when an island was thrown up that has sin('e (lis- 
 afipeared. The soil is extremely fertile, imd in- 
 dustry and intelligence ore ahinc wanting to make 
 it in the highest degree productive. The climate, 
 though im.settled and humid, i.s, on the whole, 
 excellent. The average annual range of the ther- 
 mometer is from 50° to 75°. Rains are frequent, 
 and often so violent as to effect consulerablo 
 changes in the ajijiearance of the country; but 
 scarce a day passes in which the sun does not, at 
 some period, shine forth. The dcchlcdiy fine days 
 may be estimated at about 200, and the wet days 
 at about tiO. Sudden gusts and gales of wind are 
 frequent ; and this, combined with the fact that 
 they have not to boast of a single good harbour, 
 make the islands shuiuicd by the navigator. 
 They produce luxuriant crops of all sorts of grain 
 and pul.se, wine, the finest oranges and lemon.s, 
 bananas, sugar-canes, coflec-pliuits, tobacco, the 
 valuable lichen roccella ; and, with a little care, 
 most vegetable products may be brought to tho 
 utmost jMirfection. Asses and bullocks are the 
 usual beasts of burden. Horses are scarce and 
 bad; sheep and goats numerous; and [ligs and 
 (h)gs swarm to an excess. Owing however to the 
 idleness, occasioned in part by the jirodnctiveness 
 of the soil and mildness of the (dimate, but in a 
 far greater degree bv the ignorance of the i)eoplc, 
 and the influence of' vicious laws and regulations, 
 industrj' is all but unknown. The lands are geiie- 
 rally divided int<j large estates, hehl uiuler strict 
 entail; and the system under which they are 
 leased out to the actual cultivator is as bad its 
 possible. The latter, being exposed to evory sort 
 of exttction and tyranny, never thinks of attempt- 
 ing any improvement. Hence the practice of 
 agricidtiire is but little, and the science not at all, 
 understood. The rude system of their forefathers 
 is continued without change or modification of 
 any kind ; and their itnplements are little superior 
 to those of the American Indians. And yet, de- 
 spite this want of industry, such is the extra- 
 ordinary fertility of the soil, that, though in great 
 l)art waste and uncultivated, it not only fumi.shes 
 sufKcient supplies of corn and other things for the 
 native population, but also a considerable surplus 
 for exportation. , A good deal of coarse linen is 
 manufactured, part of which is cxjiorted. 
 
 The principal exports are, in ordinary years, to 
 England, about 130,000 boxes of oranges, 2,000 pipes 
 of wine and brandy, and some roccella ; for which 
 she sends in exchange woollen and cotton stutts, 
 hard-ware, and wearing apparel. To Brazil the 
 exports are about 5,000 pipes of wine, 12,000 yards 
 coarse linen, and pulse of all sorts ; for which 
 she sends back rum, coflee, sugar, tfec. To Ham- 
 burgh and the N. of Europe are exported 14,000 
 boxes of oranges and lemons, and G,000 pipes of 
 wuie and brandy, the returns being made in pitch, 
 iron, glass, and cordage. To the United States aro 
 sent 4,000 pipes of w-ne, 200 of brandy, and 12,000 
 boxes of oranges and lemons, the returns being 
 lish, staves, timber, uir and oil. To Portugal are 
 
 ■#v" 
 
312 
 
 AZPYTIA 
 
 sent Im^c quantities of grain and pulftc, salt pork 
 and hecf, conrHe linen and chceHc. 
 
 The population of the archiitclogo wan found, by 
 the ccnsHs of 1858, to amount to 240,f>48, not a 
 Hixth part of what it might be, were the i.slands 
 moderately well cultivated. They are divided 
 into three departments, and are governed by a 
 governor-general and two lieutenant-governors. 
 The seat of government is at Angra in Terceira, 
 but Ponte Delgada, in St. Michael's, is the ]>rin- 
 cipal town. The revenues amount, in all, to about 
 525,000 crowns a year, and the expenditure to 
 nearly 200,000, leaving a balance of about 330,000 
 crowns to be remitted to Portugal. (Hold, p. 80.) 
 The men are well proportioned, strong, and well 
 made; and the women fairer than those of Por- 
 tugal. All classes are grossly ignorant ; and are, 
 consequently, in the last degree superstitious n\Hl 
 bigoted. The lower orders are temperate, and all 
 ranks are passionately fond of music. Tlie dress 
 of the common peo))le is rude, and they arc in- 
 tolerably filthy and <lirty in their ptirsons. The 
 higher classes are pompous, overbearing, and in 
 the most abject state of moral debasement. The 
 ladies possess few acquirements, have uo conver- 
 
 BAAL-BEC 
 
 sation, and load a life of excessive indolence, The 
 low state of intelligence and morals i» principally 
 ascribable to the ignorance and vices of the cler^'v. 
 Previously to 1832, there were numerous moiin'*! 
 t^ries .011(1 convents, which were suppressed at the 
 lost-mentioned epoch. 
 
 The history of the Azores is obscure. Thpy 
 were unknown t« the ancients ; but the Arnljian 
 geographers of the middle ages seem to have had 
 some knowledge of them, though it was not till 
 towards the middle of the 15tn century that a 
 Flemish merchant, who hod soiled from Lisbon 
 was driven by stress of weather on their constJi! 
 The court of Portugal, being informed of the cir- 
 cumstance, sent the navigator Cabral to prosncute 
 the discovery, who fell in with St. Mary's, in 14;!2. 
 In 1467 they were all discovered. At this eptioh 
 they were entirely uninhabited and covered with 
 forest and underwood. 
 
 AZPYTIA, a town of Spain, prov. Guipiiscoa, 
 15 m. SVV. San Sebastian. Pop. 2,335 in 1857. It 
 is surrounded by walls, and has some iron foiuidrics. 
 There ore jasper quarries in iU vicinity. 
 
 AZREK (liAHK-EL), or the BlueKiver. Sec 
 
 NiLB. 
 
 B 
 
 ■&!,« 
 
 BAAL-BEC, or BAT.BEC (the HelinpoVtH of the 
 (Jreeks), luicientlj' a large and splendid city ; 
 lot. 34° 1' N., long. 3(io U' K ; 40 m. NVV. Da- 
 inasciis, 41 m. SE. Tripoli, 58 m. NE. Sidon, and 
 130 W. by S. Palmyra. It is situated in a fertile, 
 well-watered valley, the Cocle-Syria (hollow Syria) 
 of the ancients, and the Batena of the modems, 
 between the ridges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, 
 at the foot of the lower ranges of the latter. 
 
 Baal-Bee has been declining for a lengthened 
 period ; but, of late years, its decay has been pe- 
 culiarly rapid. In 1751 the pop. amounted to 5,000, 
 in 1785 it had diminished to 1,200, in 1818 it did 
 not exceed 500, and in 1835 it barely amounted to 
 200. In 1810 it had a serai (the residence of the 
 emir), two handsome mosques, and one good bath: 
 in 1816 one mosque had vanished, the other was in 
 mills; and in 1835 there remained no trace of 
 cither, or of the serai. The remains of ancient 
 architectural grandeur are, however, more exten- 
 sive in Baal-Bee than in any other city of Syria, 
 Palmyra excepted ; and Burckhardt regards them 
 as superior in execution even to those of the 
 latter. Finely grouped together, on the W. side of 
 the town, are three temples, the largest occupying 
 a circuit of more than half a mile, and originally 
 consisting of a portico, hexagonal court, and a 
 quadrangle, besides the peristyles of the temple 
 itself. Of this last, six gigantic and highly po- 
 lished pillars, 71 ft. fi in. in height, and 23 ft. in 
 circumference, with their cornice and entablature, 
 remain to attest the stupendous magnitude and 
 beauty of the structure of which they made a part. 
 The two courts were encompassed bj' chambers, 
 copen towards the front, supposed by Wood to have 
 lieen cither the dwellings of the priests, or public 
 schools ; and the peristyle was surrounded, towards 
 the W., by an esplanade 29^ ft. in width, and ter- 
 minated by a slopms; •wall 32 ft. high. In this wall 
 are three enormous stones, of which two are (iO 
 and the other 63 ft. in length, their common 
 breadth and thickness being 12 ft. These gigantic 
 masses are more than 20 ft. from the ground ; and 
 the course immediately below them consists of 
 Ivlocks, less enormous, certainly, but varying from 
 30 to 37 ft. in length, with a i)rcadth of 12 anrl a 
 /Jiickness of 9 ft. Tlie remainder of this cyclopian 
 
 wall is formed of very large stones, but there are 
 none so vast as the aliove. Immediately to tlie S. 
 of the great temple is a smaller, but more jjcrfrct 
 edifice, of which the peristyle, walls, and twenty 
 columns remain. The door-waj leading into the 
 body of this temple is 25 ft. high by 20 ft. 10 in. 
 broad, surmounted by a superb basso-relievo, re- 
 presenting an eagle hovering, as it were, over the 
 worshipper when about to render homage to the 
 presiding deity. Both ruins are among the finest 
 specimens of the Corinthian order. Walls, ceil- 
 j in^s, capitals, entablatures, every »^i where the 
 chisel could be introduced, is covered with tlic 
 j most exquisitely finished carving and sculpture. 
 I Solidity, too, has been most successfully conihined 
 j with, and not sacrificed to, ornament. Thnujjh 
 I little cement has been used, the joints are so ad- 
 \ mirably formed that a penknife cannot be intro- 
 duced into them. The more ponderous masonn- 
 has preserved its position by the mere force (if 
 gravity ; the parts of the pillars are connected In- 
 iron cramps. When perfect, the great temple, 
 with its courts, exhibited 130 pillars ; the Icsjer, 
 00 ; and, according to Wood and Dawkius, the 
 dimensions of each were as follow : — 
 
 GnEAT Temple. 
 
 Steps 
 Portico 
 Hexag.Uourt 
 Quadrangle 
 
 Lonf^th 
 
 Width 
 
 Feet 
 
 Fcpt 
 
 50 
 
 188 
 
 48 
 
 aei 
 
 1!)0 
 
 2(j<i 
 
 404 
 
 420 
 
 Lcngihj Wlilth 
 Feet I Fcrt I 
 
 Peristyle . 280 | \m i 
 Esplanade. — | 2i)jl 
 Height of Ternpie from I 
 ground to pediment, I'iol 
 
 
 Smaller Temple. 
 
 
 I^n|i;th 
 225 ft. 
 
 width 
 118 ft. 
 
 Height 
 102 ft. 
 
 The smaller temple is wthout courts. 
 
 A barbarous Saracenic wall is built across these 
 ruins on the E. ; 300 or 400 ft. from which is tlic 
 third temple, a beautiful circular building, sur- 
 rounded by Corinthian pillars ; its extreme ex- 
 ternal diameter being 63 ft., and its interior 32 ft.; 
 most probably it had been surmounted by a cupula. 
 It is considered as a chef-iTcsiivre of art ; but un- 
 fortunately it is in a very dilajiidatcd and tottering 
 
 :!i 
 
c indolence. The 
 ■al» is principally 
 ices iif the cleri,^. 
 mmerouR monn»- 
 BupprcsHcd at the 
 
 ! obBCtire. They 
 [ but the Arahian 
 Bcem to linvc hml 
 rh it wan not till 
 1 century that a 
 liled from Lisbon, 
 >r on their coastii, 
 iformcd of the cir- 
 3abrnl to prosncutc 
 it. Mary's, in 14;i>. 
 ed. At tins epoch 
 and covered with 
 
 , prov. Guipiwcoa, 
 |). 2,336 in IHoT. It 
 Nome iron foimdrios, 
 vicinity, 
 e Blue Kiver. Sm 
 
 itones, but there arc 
 ramcdiately to the S. 
 Her, but more iK'rfcd 
 le, walls, and twenty 
 way Icadinij into the 
 hi^h by 20 ft, 10 in. 
 lerb basso-relievo, re- 
 ;, as it were, over the 
 ender homage to the 
 arc amonj; the finest 
 1 order. Walls, ceil- 
 evcry spot where the 
 is covered with tlie 
 irving and sculpture. 
 luccessfuUy combined 
 ornament. Though 
 1, the joints are so ad- 
 Luife cannot be intro- 
 ■c ponderous masonrj- 
 jy the mere force nf 
 liars arc connected liy 
 it, the great temple, 
 10 pillars ; the lesser, 
 (d and Dawkius, the 
 illow : — 
 
 (•LE. 
 
 Length, Wldih 
 Fcrt 1 FW 
 
 istyle . 280 1 im 
 
 blanndo.l - \ _^^\ 
 
 light of Temple from| 
 
 Vind to pediment, I'iii} 
 
 ■mplg. 
 
 Height 
 102 ft. 
 
 Jiout courts. 
 
 ll is built across these 
 
 Ift. from which is tlic 
 
 Vcular building, >^"r- 
 
 nrs ; its extreme ex- 
 
 Jind its interior 32 ft.; 
 
 Imountedbyacupi'ln. 
 
 BHureof art; butim- 
 
 tpi dated and totteniii; 
 
 BAAL-BEC 
 
 itate. Lil'o '''" Inrgcr temples, it w built of com- 
 pact limestone, witli but little, if any, cement. In 
 tlic S\V. comer of the town, on the highest 8W)t of 
 irroimd within the walls, is a solitary Doric column, 
 til) ft. high, including capital and pedestal. On 
 the top is a batin 3 ft. deep, from which a lu)lc, cut 
 through the capital, communicates with a curved 
 channel in. wide and 6 deep, cut in the S. side of 
 the shaft, from top to bottom. From this it has 
 been inferred that the pillar was connected with 
 the water-works of the city : some suppose it to 
 have been a clepsydra or water-dial. The walls of 
 the city, 3 or 4 m. in circuit, exhibit a strange 
 mixture of materials ; the breaches made by time 
 or war, in the older erections, having been repaired 
 At ditfcrent times from the ruins of the ancient 
 temples and other buildings. In one place may 
 lie seen a large altar-])iecc reversed; in others, 
 stones inscribed with Greek or Koraan characters ; 
 hut all in confusion, and many turned upside 
 down. The gates are of the Saracenic period. 
 Without the walls, 5 or 6 m. W., is a remarkable 
 isolated Corinthian column, between fiO ond CO ft. 
 liigh, with a sijuare compartment on its N. side, as 
 for an inscription, but no letters remain. NE. of 
 the to^vn is a subterranean aqueduct, 16 ft. below 
 the surface, with severiil curious cliambers cut in 
 tlie surrounding rock. The whole neighbourhood 
 l(M)ks like an immen le stone quarry ; and on the 
 S.E., at 50 or tiO paces from the walls, among 
 other stones of immense size, is one worked on 
 three sides, larger than any used in the wall of 
 the great temple. It is 7(f ft. in length, with a 
 breadth and thickness of 14 ft. Greek, Koman, 
 and Saracenic ruins cover the oountrj' for three or 
 four leagues round, all evidently connected with 
 the former greatness and prosperity of this city. 
 
 No ancient author refers to the buildings at 
 Baol-Bec. John of Antioch, a Christian writer of 
 the 7th century, ascribes, in an incidental manner, 
 the erection of a temple to Antoninus Pius ; and this 
 is the only account, with any pretensions to autho- 
 rity, of the origin of these extraordinary remains. 
 Ihit Haal-Bec was a tiourishirj, city ages before 
 the Christian lera, and the probability seems to be, 
 that the Baal-Ath, built by Solomon, in Lebanon 
 (2 Chron. viii. 6), was identical with fiaal-Uec. 
 This is, indeed, the received opinion of all classes 
 in Syria; and though the remains of Corinthian 
 architecture cannot be referred io a remoter period 
 than that of the Koman emperors, the cyclopian 
 wall is evidently of a far more ancient date, and 
 answers to the description of the ' House of the 
 Forest of Lebanon,' built for the daughter of Pha- 
 raoh. (1 Kings vii. 10.) 
 
 That the Syrian deity Baal (literally Lord) 
 was a personification of the sun, as the vivifying 
 principle of nature, is evident from the Herodian 
 (V. 5), the various passages of Scripture from 
 Judges to Jeremiah, and, indeed, from the united 
 testimony of antiquity. (Calmet, Dictionnaire de 
 la Bible, art. Baal.) Bec, or more properly Beit, 
 is a dwelling. Baal-Bee signifies, therefore, the 
 house or city of the sun, and this designation the 
 town retained, in the Greek form, HdiopoUs, which 
 is merely a translation of its Syrian name. It 
 may be concluded that Ben-hadad subdued this 
 city with the adjacent country (2 Chron. xvi. 4) ; 
 and that, on the overthrow of the Syrian kingdom 
 of Damascus, it passed beneath the sway of the 
 Assyrians (2 Kings xvi. 9) ; but the silence of all 
 the must ancient authors, respecting so populous 
 and wealthy a city, ia as profound as it is remark- 
 able. It, of coiuse, shared the fate of the rest of 
 Syria, passing, successively, into the hands of the 
 Persians, Greeks, and Komans. It was the station 
 ofa garrison in the time of Augustus; but, while 
 
 BABA-DAOH 
 
 313 
 
 under the Romans, seems to have l)enn famed, 
 rather fur its wealth and splendour, than for ita 
 military importance. It made, however, a brave 
 resistance to the Arab arms, a.d. 635, and was at 
 length surrendered upon a capitulation, the terms 
 of which sufllciently attest its groat resources ; 
 2,000 oz. of gold, 4,000 do. of silver, 2,000 silken 
 vests, and 1,000 swords, besides those of the gar- 
 rison, being the price demanded aiul paid to prc- 
 8er>'e it from plunder. In 748 it was sacked and 
 dismantled in the wars of the Ommiyade and 
 Abusside caliphs, and from this blow it never re- 
 vived. During the Crusades it submitted, alter- 
 nately, to whichever party hapiiencd, for the time, 
 t« be the stronger. In 1400 it was plundered by 
 the Tartars under Tamerlane or Timur Bee, since 
 which periiMl it has l)een of no importance except 
 to the antiquary and historian. In 1759 it was 
 shaken by an earthquake ; and, judging from its 
 decline during the last century, the day is not far 
 distant, when, like many other eastern cities, it will 
 cease entirely to be inhabited. 
 
 Though nothing certain be known of the history 
 of Baal-Ilec, it is sufHciently obvious that its opu- 
 lence and grandeur mu.;t have Injen mainly owing, 
 partly to its situation in a fertile and well-watcreil 
 country, but more to its being a commercial entre- 
 pot. Any one who takes up a map of Syria will 
 see, at a glance, that its position is one of the best 
 that could have been selected for an intermediate 
 station between Palmyra and the cities ond ports 
 along the Phcenician coasts. Commodities passing 
 from Palmyra to Tripoli, Berytus (Beyrout), Si- 
 don, and Tyre, and conversely, would be most 
 conveniently and expeditiously carried by way of 
 Baal-Bee. No doubt, therefore, it was mainly in- 
 debted for that wealth, of which its ruins, like 
 those of its great rival Palmyra, attest the magni- 
 tude, to the trade of which it was long a principal 
 centre. And the desolation in which these two 
 splendid cities are now involved is at least owing 
 as much to the changes that have taken place in 
 the channels of commerce, as to the barbarism and 
 ignorance of their modem masters. (Wood and 
 Dawkins's Kuina of Balljec, passim; Vcdiicy, ii. 
 195, 205; Burckhardt'a Travels, 10, 17: Richard- 
 son's Travels, ii. 502-610.) 
 
 BAAU, a town of Switzerland, cant. Zug, 2 m. 
 N. Zug. Pop. 3,323 in 1860. It is situated in a 
 fertile plain, has a fine town-house, built in 1674, 
 and a ]>aper manufactory. 
 
 BAAKLE, a town of the Ketherlands, prov. 
 Brabant, 12 m. SE. Breda. Pop. 1,853 in 1861. 
 It gave its name to Barkens, the celebrate<l lit- 
 terateur and Latin poet. 
 
 BAB A (an. Lectum), a cape and sea-port town 
 of Asiatic Turkey, Anatolia!, 22 m. S. from the 
 most southerly point of Tenedos ; lat. 39° 30' 5" 
 N., long. 26° 6' E. Near the cape is the town, 
 small and ill-built, with about 4,000 inhabitants. 
 It was formerly famous for a manufacture of knives 
 and sword blades ; but, though not entirely aban- 
 doned, this manufacture has greatly fallen off. 
 The port is practicable only for small vessels. 
 Large quantities of valonia are produced in the 
 nciglibouring country. The trees, with the fielda 
 on which they grow, belong to a multitude of in- 
 lUviduals; one man being the proprietor of five 
 trees, another of ten, and so on. The right to 
 export the valonia is a privilege annually con- 
 firmed by a firman ; a less or greater sum being 
 paid to the seraskier by whom it is obtained. 
 (Voyage du Due de Kaguse, ii. p. 146.) 
 
 BAliA-DAGH, a town of Turkey in Europe, 
 prov. Silistria, near the NW. angle of Lake Kas- 
 sein, which communicates with the Black Sea, 
 21 m. S. Danube. Estimated pop. 10,000, coii- 
 
 '«f 
 
 I 
 
 «W(? 
 
 ,<".. 
 
 i 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 f 
 
 .«* 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 f 
 
 f; 
 
31 1 BAH-EL-MANDEB (STUAITS OF) 
 
 niNtinf; of TartarR, (irpckfi, Jcwh, and TiirkH. It 
 is well fortified ; Btreet« pnved, but dirty ; Ims five 
 mosques, two public bnlhs, and a collofje. The 
 P'ouiid on wbich it stnuds is marshy ; and the 
 only wntcr fit for drinking is conveyed' to it a dis- 
 tance of about 3 m. by an aqueduct. It curries 
 on a considerable trade by menus of tbe port of 
 Kara Kennan, one of the outlets of Luke liussein 
 on the lilack Sea. 
 
 liaba-Du^h was built by the Turkish sultan 
 llajazct. It is a place of considerable importance 
 in the wars Iwtwecii ]{ussin and Turkey, and has 
 sometimes been the winter quarters of the grand 
 vizier. 
 
 UAB-EL-MAXDKn (STHAITS OF), the strait 
 uniting; the Indian Ocean with the Arabic (Julf or 
 IJed Sea. The distance across, from a jtrojectinj^ 
 cape on the Arabic shore U) the op|)ositc (toast of 
 Africa, is about 20 m. ; but in the intermediate 
 space, though much nearer Asia than Africa, is 
 the small island of I'crim, and some other still 
 smaller islands. I'erim is in Int. 12° 35' 30" N , 
 long. 43° 2H' K. The channel between Ferim an(l 
 the Arabic const, though narrower than the other, 
 and the current more rapid, is the most frequented 
 by Arabic vessels, jirobnldy because, being only 
 from 7 to M fathoms deep, it allows of their cast- 
 ing anchor, which, owing to its great depth, is 
 impracticable in the greater or western channel. 
 
 Jial>-cl-Mundcb means literally tbe gate of tears; 
 a designation it may have derived either from the 
 dangers incident to its navigation, or from those 
 incident to the navigation of tbe seas on cither 
 side. , 
 
 BABYLON (Ba/Si/Aoii'), or BABEL (^33), a 
 city of Asia, cap. Chaldea, and of the Assyrian 
 empire, being jjrobably the largest city of anti- 
 quity, and certainly one of tbe most famous. 
 Nothing remains of the ancient buildings but 
 immense and sliapeless masses of ruins ; their 
 sites l)eing partly occupied by the modern and 
 meanly-b'iilt town of llillnh, the cap. of a dis- 
 tritrt, and the residence of a bey appointed by the 
 ]mcha of Bngdad. This town lies on the VV. bank 
 of the EHphr:v:<3s, and occupies nearlv tlie centre 
 of tbe S. part of the old enclosures; lut^. 32° 2«' 30" 
 N., long. 44° 9' 4.5" E. Fop. estimated at about 
 (ij.^OO, chiefly Arabs and Jews. It is surrounded 
 liv mud walls and a deep ditch, and has four gates. 
 Aiodem Babylon, or Iiillnh, has a rude citadel, 
 tlic only public building within the walls, except 
 a single mosque, and six or seven oratories. The 
 Ivuphrates, at Hillah, in its medium state, is 450 
 ft. wide, 7i ft. deep, and its mean velocity is about 
 2J ni. an hour. The whole surrounding country 
 is intersected with canals. The undoubted anti- 
 qtiity of many of these works is not a little sur- 
 prising, considering the nature of the soil, whicli 
 IS wholly alluvial, and so soft that the turning tlie 
 course of the river by Cyrus (Herod. (Jlio, ^ 191 ; 
 Xen. Cyrop., vii. 5), does not appear to Rich an 
 ex|)loit of any great difficulty. (Mem. 17.) The 
 Euphrates ammally overflows its banks, inun- 
 dating the country for many miles round, anu 
 even rendering the district between the Euj)brates 
 and Tigris navigable in many places for flat^ 
 bottomed boats. This annual flood fills the canals, 
 and facilitates agriculture in a siu-prising degree. 
 The air is salubrious, and the soil extremely fer- 
 tile, producing dates, rice, and grain of every 
 kind, in astonishing profusion; but, in consequence 
 of the illegal and irregular exactions of the pachas, 
 and the insecuritjr to which all kinds of property 
 is exposed, the inhabitants exert no sort of in- 
 dustry ; the numerous canals are left dry and neg- 
 lected, except when filled spontaneously by the 
 river; and the small quantity of land that is cul- 
 
 -17; Mignnn's Trav. in Chaldcn, p| 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 tivntcd is not half filled. (Niebuhr, Voy. en Ar 
 ii. 234-237; Kauwolf's Travels, p. 174, d'c; l{pn- 
 nell's (Jeog. Her., i. 45!), Ac; Rich's Mem. nn l!ii, 
 Bab., pp. 1- ■" "■■ 
 114-122.) 
 
 Such IS the present state of a city, onrn tli(> 
 greatest, most magnificent, and powerful, in the 
 world ; 'the glory of kingdoms, the beauty dl' \\\p 
 C'hnhlees' excellency.' (Isn. viii. 20.) \Vp need 
 say little of the identity of the site occupied hy 
 the ancient and modern towns; this has \m'n 
 completely estaldislKMl by Major Hennell. It in 
 siifliclent to observe that the traditions prospr\-('(| 
 by eastern writers, the universal belief of Hie 
 present inhabitants, the descriptions of the ancient 
 historians, and, above all, the discoveries by mo- 
 dern travellers of stupendous ruins answering to 
 those descri])tions, — leave no room or ground fur 
 any reasonable doubt up(m the subject. (Itenncll 
 i. 459-511.) The magnitude assigned by ancient 
 writers to this celebrated city is so immeii.se ns to 
 stagger belief. It was a perfect square, and, ne- 
 cording to Herodotus, 400 stadia in cir. (Clio, 
 § 178.) Strabo (p. 738) gives the circ. iit .'iS,') 
 •stadia; Diodonis Siculus at 3()0, on the credit of 
 Ctcsins; but at 3(15, on that of Clisnrchu.i, wlio 
 was on the spot with Alexander (ii. I.), (^nintiis 
 (fortius gives it nt 3(!8 stadia (v. 1), and Pliny 
 (vi. 2<)) at (10 Koman m. .The incNtricalOe ob- 
 scurity in which the itinerary stadium of the 
 (Jrceks is involved (see Bennell, i. 1 7-44) renclers 
 it exceedingly uncertain Avhctber these ditlercncos 
 are to do regarded as real, or as arising from Hie 
 adoption of dill'erent standards. Assuming, how- 
 ever, that the same stadium is meant in eacii case, 
 taking it at its least pos.sible value, 491 ft.; and 
 taking also the measure of Diodonis. the Icist of 
 the whole, the area of ancient Bal)yl()ii, witiiin 
 the walls, will be found to be upwards of 72 s(|. 
 m., or nearly 3,^ times that of London with all its 
 suburbs. If, at the same value of the stndinm, 
 the measure of Herodotus, or that of I'liny, lie 
 taken, the area will amount to more than 121J 
 sq. m., or about 5 times that of London in iN'i.J; 
 and finally, if the common stadium of Ilerodotiij, 
 fiOO Grecian or (I04A Engli.>;li ft. (Kuterjie. § 1411), 
 be ado|)ted, as well as his measurement, the nri'a 
 will swell to 188^ sq. m., or more than seven 
 times that of London. 
 
 Various attemi)t8 have been made, by compnrini,' 
 its area with the area and population of modem 
 cities, to estimate the population of Babylon. Hut, 
 on the lowest calculation, it would be found, suit- 
 posing it to have borne any considerable resem- 
 blance to a European city, to have had a po|nilii- 
 tion of 5,000,000 — a sujiposition to wiiich all Imt 
 insuperable obstacles are opjioscd. For, notwitli- 
 .standing the amazing fertility of the siimiundin},' 
 country; the fewer wants of it.s inhaliitunts com- 
 pared with those of northern latitudes; and tlio 
 facilities afforded by the numerous canfds, wliicli 
 intersected the adjoining provinces, and by the 
 Juiphrates and Tigris, to the importation of bulky 
 an(l distant i)roducts; still there were circum- 
 stances connected with its situation and govern- 
 ment suHicient to counter\'ail these advantapfs, 
 and to render it all but impossible that so vast a 
 |)opulation could be supjiorted within its walls. 
 The maj) of Asiatic Turkey shows that the extent 
 of country round Babylon available for agricul- 
 tural purjwses must have been quite inadequate 
 to su|>ply the necessary demands of the sujiposci! 
 population. The Babylonian plain, fertile as it is 
 is soon lost in the interminable deserts of Sinjar 
 and Arabia ; the marshes and lakes of Lower Me- 
 so])otamia tmd Chaldea make a large <lc(luction 
 even from its fertility; while, as if wholly to neii- 
 
BABYLON 
 
 315 
 
 p, Vov. en Ar., 
 74, *.•.; Ken- 
 H Mt'ni. on Hii, 
 1 Chalilcn, |i|). 
 
 city, oiiro the 
 iiwi-rrul, in tlic 
 
 > Im'UUIV (if tlio. 
 
 >{).) VVo need 
 to ocp\ii)ieil liy 
 tiiiit liiw liw'ii 
 Honnpll. It )» 
 itioiis jireson'cd 
 
 I WVwt of llifl 
 18 of tlip nncifiit 
 covoricit tiy mo- 
 IH answiTiiiK to 
 [ti or f^nnincl fur 
 lyect. (lU-niicU, 
 r;iicil l)y niicidit 
 imini'iisB iw to 
 Hqiinro, iiud, iic- 
 
 II ill cir. (Clin, 
 tlie c'irc. at "iX'n 
 , on the credit (if 
 
 ClisnrcliuK, who 
 
 (ii. !.)• Qii'"t"» 
 (v. 1), iind I'liny 
 
 inrxtric'iilil(! oli- 
 
 stndium of tli(! 
 
 i. 17-44) rpudcfH 
 r these diftercncos 
 
 uriwiiiK 'f™ t^'" 
 
 Assuniint;, how- 
 
 leaiit in eacli case, 
 
 fthie, 4'.tl ft. ; and 
 
 loriis, the least "f 
 
 , IJahylon, witldii 
 
 upwanls (if T'i wj. 
 
 ,ou<l(>i» with all its 
 
 le of the Htadidii), 
 
 that of riiiiy, !« 
 
 o more than I'.Mi 
 
 L()ii(l(in in W^'>\ 
 
 lium of IlerodotiiN 
 
 . (Kuteqie, § 1 t'.i)t 
 
 [urcment, the area 
 
 more than seven 
 
 .larte, by comparin;,' 
 liilatiou of modcrii 
 lofUahyhm. Hiit, 
 [ulil be found, su])- 
 lonsiderablc resem- 
 lavc bad a \ioimla- 
 [n to which alllmt 
 Icel. F'T- notwij''" 
 l>f the snrronndinj,' 
 k inhabitants eoni- 
 latitiules; and tlic 
 Irons canals, wlucli 
 linces, and by tlic 
 iportation of l)iill<y 
 liere were circimi- 
 lation and P'vcrii- 
 I these advaiitajrcs. 
 ^ible that so vast a 
 within its walls. 
 »V8 that the extent 
 lilablc for aKnciil- 
 li quite inadequate 
 lis of the suiiposcd 
 lain, fertile as it is. 
 t deserts of ^mji'^ 
 tikes of L'wer Me- 
 la larjie deduction 
 Is if wholly to neu- 
 
 tralise the natural nilvnntnRO» of the city, the 
 Italivlonian monarclm threw a variety of obstacles 
 ill the wav of commercial enten>nse. (Her. Clio, 
 U IX.).) 'fhe fact is universally a'lmitted, that lla- 
 (ivloii liossessed but fewiioints of resemblance ton 
 iiiiiderii Kiiroiiean town. The buiUliiiKs and popu- 
 liiiiiiii bore no jiroportion to its extent, and, in the 
 woriLs of Hich, ' it would convey the idea rather of 
 nil enclosed district than that of a rej^ular city." 
 (p 4H.) i'asture and arable land was contained 
 within the walls, sutlictient, says (}, L'urtius (v. I), 
 III supply '''" wants of all the inhabitants. This, 
 ii„ doubt, is an exaKKcration ; but if, as must have 
 Ik'CU the case, a Inrj^e portion consisted of prodiKJ- 
 tive (,"■""'"'• ''•■' l"''"'"'^''' mij^ht have added consi- 
 dcrablv to the provisions it was possible to place 
 ill store. Xenopbon allirnis, that when the city 
 w.is taken by Cyrus, it was stored for twenty 
 yl.^f^^—rtMovrflKoaiviruv (Cyrop. vii. 6); and 
 'tli(iii>,'li this may reasonably be considered as much 
 lievoiid the mark, yet, at a subse(|iieiit period, it 
 actually did sustain a sie);e by Darius Ilystaspes, 
 oroiie'vear and seven months, and was then, as 
 ill the former case, subdued, not by famine, Imt 
 1)V suriirise, (Herod. Thalia, liVi.) That only a 
 small part of its immense area was occupied by 
 Ijiiililiiigs is therefore evident. How much is 
 another question, and one which it is im|)ossible 
 to decide. I'erhaps, on the whole, we may esti- 
 mate the population of Jiabyloii at fnun l,()U(l,()()tl 
 to I.'.'OD.'IDIJ. This siipjiosition derives siipjiort 
 from' the fact that .Seleticia, with a poji. of (iO(M)OO, 
 is stated to have been about half the size of IJa- 
 livloii in the days of her f^reatest glory. (Strabo, 
 xvi. 7;f'J; Pliny, vi. Ki.) 
 
 Hut though a itopulation at all commensurate 
 to the magnitude of the city, calculated on a scale 
 of Kuroixian density, be tlius improbable, it does 
 not follow, seeing the way in which the area was 
 jiartially tilled up, that the magnitude itself is to 
 1k! discredited. The authority on which we must 
 iimiiily rely is of llenidotus. Not only is be the 
 earliest profane writer uiion this subject ; but he 
 alone, ol all the ancient historians, had the ad- 
 vantage of having visited Jkbylon in person, and 
 while it was stillin a state of tolerable preserva- 
 lioii. His account of this interesting city has 
 lieen, with few exceptions, amply corroborated by 
 the testimony of succeeding writers, as well as by 
 the investigations of modern travellers. 
 
 IliTiMlotus says nothing of the foundation of the 
 city or its founder, merely remarking tlxat, after 
 lliij destruction of Nineveh, it be(!aine the scat of 
 tlic .\ssyrian empire. (Clio, § 179.) But even in 
 his time it was of considerable antiipiity, and bib- 
 lical critics have unanimously referred" its origin 
 to the presumptuous attempt of the early post- 
 (illuviaiis to ' build them a city, and a tower whose 
 top may reach to heaven.' (Gen. xi. 4.) Joscpbus 
 (Antiq. I. iv. il) expressly says that Nimrod, the 
 praudson of Ham, was the originator of this at- 
 tempt; and to this day the inhabitants of these 
 parts are as fond of attributing every great work 
 to this 'mighty hunter before the Lord,' as those 
 of K^'ypt are of referring similar works to Pliuraoh. 
 (Kicli, 41.) Asshiir, the founder of Nineveh (Gen. 
 X. 11 ; Died. Sic. ii. 1), having subdued the Uaby- 
 Iniiian with other surrounding powers, laid the 
 fmmdations of the Assyrian empire. A domestic 
 tragedy, resembling in many points that of David 
 ami Bathslieba, having made him the husband of 
 Seiniramis, the strong mind and many accom- 
 phshments of his wife induced him, on his death, 
 III leave her regent for his son, though it would 
 aiipear that she governed in her own name till 
 lier death (Uiod. .Sic. ii. 20) ; and to her wa.s owing 
 most of the grandeur of IJabylou. 
 
 According to Herodotus, the city wnn luiilt on 
 both sides the Kiiphrales, the connection between 
 its two divisions being kept u)i by means of a 
 bridge formed of wooden planks laid on stoiin 
 jiicrs. The streets are described as having been 
 parallel, and th(! houses from three to four stories 
 III height. The city was surroiiiidod by a deep 
 and broad ditch, and by a wall Hanked with 
 lowers, and iiierced by 10(1 gales of brass. Tiio 
 wall was built of bricks, formed from the oartli 
 taken out of the ditch, and cemented by a compo- 
 sition formed of healed bitumen and reeds; tho 
 foniier being brought from Is (Hit), on the 
 Kiipbrates, about 12H m. aliove llaliylon. The 
 accounts of liabyhm ditler in the statements in 
 regard to the height and thickness of the wall 
 bv which it was surrounded. Herodotus savs it 
 w"as 200 royal cubits, or about :iOO ft. tlioa fl.ti In.) 
 in height, and 50 cultits, or 75 ft. tliii^k. Atrord- 
 iiig to (juintus (Jurliiis they were only half tho 
 height mentioned by Hero(h)tus (Curt. lilt. v. 
 cap. 1) ; and Strabo reduces them still further, 
 or to .')() cubits or 75 ft. (lib. xvi.) Strabo fiirtlier 
 says, that two chariots (Iriving in (MHitrary direc- 
 tions could pass each other on the summit of 
 the walls. 
 
 The temjde of Jupiter TWua (most probably 
 the Tower of Mnbel) occuiiied a central position 
 ill one of flic divisions of the city. llcrodotuH 
 describes it as a square tower of the depth and 
 height of one stadium, upon which, as a founda- 
 tion, seven other towers rose in regular succession, 
 the last tower having a large chapel, a niagnili- 
 ccnt couch, and a table of solid g(dd. The build- 
 ing was ascended from without by means of a 
 winding stair. The space in which it was built 
 was enchised within walls, 8 stadia in circum- 
 ference, and consequently comprising above iiii 
 acres. The gates to the temple, which were of 
 brass, and of enormous magnitude, were seen by 
 Herodotus. In the other division of the city 
 stood the royal jialace, which seems to have been 
 a sort of internal fortitication, and was, no doubt, 
 of vast dimensions. (Clio, § 1><1.) 
 
 It is dilliciilt to say to which of the ancient build- 
 ings the existing ruins are to be ascribed. Tho 
 principal of these are the Kasr, or palace; the Mu- 
 jellibe, or the overturned; and the IJirs Nemroud, 
 or tower of Nimrod. Tiiese are all of great mag- 
 nitude, and arc at very considerable distances 
 from each other. The most considerable, tho 
 Hirs Nemroud, is a mound of an oblong ligiire, 
 7(!2 yards in circumference. On its VV. side it 
 rises to an elevation of 1!)8 ft., and on its sum- 
 mit is a solid pile of brick 37 ft. Iiigh. It con- 
 sists entirely of brick-work, and Niebiilir, Uich, 
 and Migiian agree in supyiosing it to be the 
 remnant of the sacred edilice, and identical with 
 the Tower of Babel. (Niebuhr, ii. 23tj ; Hich, oH. 
 4'.t, f)l, &c., 2nd Mom. pans. ; Mignan, 202.) 
 
 The particulars given above of the ancient 
 state of this famous city have been mostly de- 
 rived from Her()(httiis, bv whom, as already 
 stated, it was visited after its conquest by ('yriis, 
 and before it had sustained any material injury. 
 But if credit be given to later and less trust- 
 worthy authorities, Babyhin had to boast of still 
 more extraordinary monuments than any pre- 
 viously mentioned. Among these may be spccilicd 
 a tuiinel under the Ku])hrates, and the famous 
 hanging gardens, containing iie.ar four acres of 
 land, elevated far above the level of the city, and 
 be.iring timber trees that would have done no 
 discredit to the Median forestjs. (Diod. Sic. ii. 
 7, 9, 10; Strabo, xvi. 738; Curt. v. 1.) 
 
 But there are doubts as to the existence of any 
 one of these structures. Strabo, who describes the 
 
 w 
 
 • --if'l- .1; 
 
310 
 
 BABYLON 
 
 iyl 
 
 i.ih 
 
 i-*5 'Si* 
 
 hanninn f^nrdrnH, did not vinit liabylon, nnd cntitd, 
 thorpforc, prm-ccd only on the report* of othcn*. lie 
 reprewentA them an conHiHtinK of a Hcrien of ter- 
 raoen raiMed one above anntlier like neatM in an 
 amphitheatre, and n>Nting on an-hcH and pillarx, 
 Honio of the latter lH>iii^ hollow and tilled with 
 parth. And it iit easy to we that structures of 
 conitidcrable extent and altitude mi(;ht have l)ecn 
 raised in this way, and mif:(ht have afforded oc- 
 commo<lation for a (n'*'<>t variety <if plants, liiit 
 it is hardly possible to sup|s)se, had these j^nr- 
 dens been or anythiiiK like the magnitude as- 
 crilicd t4) them, that they should have esca|)ed the 
 notice of so curious an observer as llorodotiis. 
 It is also very doubtful whether the Hal>vlonians 
 were not i^iioraMt of the arch, and, il' so, the 
 ditiicullies they would have to encounter in the 
 construction of the f;ardens would be so much 
 the greater. On the whole, the presumption a]v 
 pears to be, cither that the gardens did not exist 
 nt all, or that they were of such mtNlerate dimen- 
 sions that their formation could not be regarded 
 as a work of any extraordinary liitticulty, or likely 
 to arrest the attention of Herodotus. 
 
 The tunnel below the Euphrates, constructed, 
 we are told, to enable Scmiramis to pass privately 
 lietwecn her palaces on the opposite sides of the 
 river, is mentioned onlv by Diodorus. Had it 
 really existed, it would have been decidedly the 
 most extraordinary work in Babylon, or, rather, 
 in the ancient world. But the statements in re- 
 gard to it do not appear to be entitled to much 
 regard. The obstacles in the wav of such a work, 
 es])ecially in the loose alluvial soil on which 
 Babylon stood, were not of a nature thot the 
 engineers of tliese days could have overcome. 
 Herodotus describes the bridge over the river, 
 which was far less worthy of notice, and less likely 
 to attract attention than the tunnel. But he does 
 not say a word res])ecting the latter, and in this 
 reserve he is followed by Strabo. 
 
 The great works of Babylon were all con- 
 structed of brick, except the bridge, the stones 
 for which must have been brought from a dis- 
 tance, since none are found in the alluvial soil 
 of the country. The bricks are of two kinds, 
 sun-dried and kiln-dried : thev arc much larger 
 than the bricks now in use, and generally marked 
 •with figures or cuneiform letters. Straw or reeds 
 are mixed with the courses, and bitumen, pro- 
 cured from Is or Hit, is the usual cement, though 
 mortar and slime are also frequently used. Such 
 is the extent of these vast ruins, that nearly all 
 the cities in the neighbourhood are built from the 
 materials found there, and the storehouse seems 
 to be regarded as inexhaustible. 
 
 From the death of Scmiramis, Babylon conti- 
 nued a kind of second capital to Assyria, till the 
 revolt of Arbaces and Beleses against Sardana- 
 palus, thirty generations later. It was subsequently 
 sometimes the capital of the whole country, and 
 sometimes that of the separate kingdom of Baby- 
 lonia; but always advancing in grandeur and 
 prosperity till the days of Nebiichadnczzar, under 
 whom it may be considered as having reached its 
 zenith. (Joseph. Antiq. X. xi. 1.) In the midst 
 of ita glorj', however, the voice of the Jewish 
 projihet was raised against it. The Median con- 
 quest was threatened full 1"20 years before its 
 occurrence ; and ' this glory of kingdoms ' was 
 doomed to the fate of Sodom and (iomorrah ; to 
 be swept with the besom of destruction ; to become 
 a possession for the bittern and pools of water ; a 
 lair for the wild beasts of the desert, doleful crea- 
 tures, owls, and satyrs (Isa. xiii. xiv. et pass.) ; 
 predictions, the accomplishment of which has been 
 literal and complete. In the rtign of Labynctus, 
 
 BACIIARACH 
 
 or Delshazzar, son of Xcbuchadnezzar and Nito. 
 <ris, ('ynis led his ormy against the city. Tnnt- 
 iiig to their fortiticat ion's, the liabylonians dcridn) 
 his attempt; but cutting a canal, he divmnl 
 the course of the Kuphrates, leaving its rhannrl 
 through the town sutliciently drj- for the pnsNiigc nf 
 his army. The same tiling had been doiut t,n g 
 former occasion, by Nitocns, to buihl the bridjfp; 
 but in this instance an additional work scrnu tii 
 have been [wrformed in the erection of looks nr 
 dams,, to preserve the river in its natural counte 
 till the very moment of attack, and thus nifvent 
 suspicion of his design ; for had the Hal)yl()niaiiii, 
 says HertHlotus, been aware of it, they might cnnilv 
 have enclosed the Persians, as in a trap, anil 
 effected their total <lestruction. Taking advaiita);i> 
 however, of a festal occasion, Cyrus drew ofl' the 
 waters, entered the town by sur])nse, and cnptiireil 
 it almost without resistance. (Xeii. Cyr. vii. 5 • 
 Herod. Clio, §191 ; Dan. v.) The sacrecl historian 
 gives u vivid account of the manner in which the 
 lost Babylonian king spent the night before hU 
 death, and of the awfid warning which prcceckd 
 his tfverthrow. Babylon remained subject to the 
 Bersian monarchs till the reign of Darius Hys- 
 taspes, when it revolted, but was again subdued 
 by stratagem. Darius took away the gates, and 
 otherwise injured the city, so that its declension 
 may be fairly dated from his time. Xerxes is 
 said to have defaced the temple of Belus on his 
 return from Greece ; but such were the resources 
 aiid conveniences of the city, that it remained the 
 winter residence of the Persian monarchs for se- 
 veral generations. It made no resistance to Alex- 
 ander, who intended making it the capital of his 
 gigantic em|)irc. He contemplated, also, tlie re- 
 storation of the temple ; and having employed 
 10,000 men for two months, in removing the liitv. 
 bish, the work was stopped by his death. Sclciicus 
 Xicator, who, after that event, became monarch (if 
 Babylonia, founded the city of Seleucia, on the 
 banks of the Tigris, and made it his ca])ital. Frnm 
 this time the decline of Babylon was very rapid; 
 but the mighty city which required ages to rear, 
 required also ages in which to perish. It was still 
 important, though in niins, at the commencement 
 of the Christian lera. (Hennlotus, Thalia, la'J ; 
 Strabo, xvi. 738 ; Arrian, xvi. ; I'liny, vi. 2(!.) 
 Its subsequent historj' is unknown. It' is said to 
 have been turned into a hunting-park by the Par- 
 thian kings, who overthrew the Seleucidiaii dy- 
 nasty ; and it is probable that the materials of its 
 vast buihiings served to construct the newer cities 
 in its neighbourhoml. It had shrunk to a mere 
 name in the early days of Arab greatness (Kbn. 
 llaukel, 70) ; and in the 49.5th Hcgira, a.d, 1101, 
 was founded the present town of Hillah. (Abul. 
 Fcda Irak, art. Babel.) The rest of this once 
 famous district is now, and has been for ages, a de- 
 solate void ; its buildings masses of shapeless niin.i, 
 channelled by the weather, and literally the 
 desolation which the prophet predicted :-^' And 
 Babylon shall become heaps, a dwelling place 11* 
 dragons, an astonishment, a hissing, without an 
 inhabitant.' 
 
 BACCARAT, a town of France, dcp. Mcurthe, 
 cap. cant., on the Meurthe, 16 m. SE. Luneville. 
 Pop. 4,121 in 18C1. This town is the scatofthe 
 
 i)riiicipal manufacture of fiint glass or crystal, iu 
 •'ranee. It was established so far back as 17(i4 ; 
 but it did not attain to any very considerable emi- 
 nence till after the peace" of 1815, when a manu- 
 facture carried on at Voniche in Belgium was 
 transferred thither. There are also cotton mills, 
 and good wine is grown in the neighbourhood. 
 
 BACH AKACH, a town of Prussia, prov. Khinc, 
 at the foot of a steep mountain, on the left bank 
 
czznr and Nit(v 
 h«! city. Trudt- 
 yloniaiiR dcriilnl 
 ial, he diverted 
 v'iiiK itfi rhannel 
 r(irtiic|)i»i(Hn>;c(if 
 been doiK! on a 
 Ijuilil the hridxe ; 
 al work dconw in 
 ction of liH'kn or 
 In natural coume 
 ind thus prevent 
 the ItahyliiniBiiii, 
 they might cnnily 
 in a trnp, ami 
 'aking advaiita);c, 
 lyrus drew ofl' the 
 irise, and cnpturcil 
 [Xen. Cvr. vii. 5 ; 
 :ic sacred historian 
 nner in wliich the 
 f night before his 
 g which preceded 
 ned sulyect to the 
 11 of Darius Hys- 
 ros again suliducd 
 'ay tlic gates, and 
 :hat its (teclcnsinn 
 time. Xerxes is 
 Ic of Bclus on his 
 were the resources 
 lat it remained the 
 1 monarclis for «e- 
 resistttiice to Alcx- 
 t tl»e caiiital of his 
 elated, also, tlie re- 
 having emph)ycd 
 I removing tlic rul>- 
 iiis death. Scleucus 
 became monarch of 
 of Seleucia, on the 
 It his capital. From 
 on was very rapid; 
 quired ages to rear, 
 [lerish. It was still 
 tlie commcnccmeiit 
 lotus, Thalia, 159 ; 
 I'liny, vi. 2f..) 
 i)wn. It is said to 
 ig-park by the Par- 
 lie Seleucidiaii dy- 
 the materials of its 
 uct the newer cities 
 shrunk to a mere 
 ■ab greatness (Khii. 
 Hegira, A.i). 1101, 
 of Hilltth. (Abul. 
 rest of this ouoc 
 been for ages, a di'- 
 ■8 of shapeless ruins, 
 and literally tlie 
 predicted:— 'And 
 dwelling place for 
 lissing, without an 
 
 ance, dc'p, Mcurthc, 
 
 , m. SE. Luneville. 
 
 n is the scat of the 
 glass or crystal, iu 
 far back as ITW; 
 
 ._, considerable enii- 
 815, when a manii- 
 in Belgium was 
 c also cotton miUs, 
 neighbourhood, 
 russia, prov. Uhmc, 
 in, on the left bauk 
 
 BACKEROUNOE 
 
 of the Rhine, 2^) m. SSK. Coblentz, on the rollwav 
 from Cologne to Maycncc. I'op. l,f!IH m iHtil. 
 flic town IS surrounded by ohi walls, strenglliened 
 bv eleven towers. Huch'arach is a trunsla'ion or 
 rorniption of Bacvhi am, or altar of liaccluiH, the 
 name given to a rot;k in the river, usually covered 
 with w'lter, but appearing m very dry seasons, or 
 in those most favourable to the growth of the vine. 
 Hence the iiomans are said to have sacrillced on 
 the rock tu Itacchus ; and its appearance is still 
 hailed as an omen of an excellent vintage. The 
 iH'^it wine produced here is known as ' Mus- 
 knteller.' 
 
 hAt'KKRGUNCiK, a distr. of Ilindostan, prov. 
 llengal, div. Dacco, including part of the Sunder- 
 Imtids, and the mouths of both the (ianges and 
 llrahmai«>otra ; having N. Dacca, Jellupore <listr., 
 K. I'ipinrah and the Hay of liengal, SW. Jesson; ; 
 area :t,"ytJ !''"♦?• "I- ro- ! estimated jxip. 734,0(10 ; 
 land revenue '.M,!**!)/. It is mostly covered with 
 jungle, abounding with alligators and the largest 
 ila>s of tigers; but in parUs it is vt-y fertile in 
 rice. It has been noted tor the frctjuency of crime, 
 csriecially of river jiiracy or dacoity, the coimtry 
 iiresjeutii'ig great facilities for the shelter of the 
 culprits. It is subject to inundations that are 
 utcosionallv very destnictivc. 
 
 UAUAJOZ (an. I'u.v Augusta), n city of Spain, 
 caj). Estremadura, near the Irontier of Portugal, in 
 an extensive plain in the angle between, ami at 
 ilic |)oiMt of continence of, the small river Kivillos 
 with the (juadiana; lit« m, SW. Madrid, 13.j m. 
 K. Lisbon; lat. 3«« 52' N., long. 0° IV \V. Pop. 
 '.'3,310 in 1857. The castle, situated on a rock 
 overhanging the coulluencc of the two rivers, 
 cumniands them and the town, which is further 
 defended by various very strong fortitications. 
 'Hie Guadiana is here crossed by a good bridge of 
 tweuty-eight arches, erected in 159(i, and [)ro- 
 tected' by a strong tete du punt. Streets narrow 
 and crwiked, but they arc well paved and clean, 
 and the iiouses good. Ii lias tiv. gates, and a line 
 promenade alon^ ihe river. There is a deliciency 
 iif springe, and the supply of water is derived from 
 reservoiw, cisterns, &c. It is the seat of a bishopric, 
 and the residence of the captain-general of the 
 lirov. The cathedral has some good paintings, 
 especially those by Morales, a native of the place ; 
 and there are several convents and hospitals. It 
 has manufactories of soap and coarse cloth, with 
 tanneries and dye-works, and is the seat of a pretty 
 active trade (mostly contraband) with Portugal.' 
 
 Itadajoz is very ancient, having been a con- 
 siderable place under the Romans. It has always 
 Leeu regarded as a military post of the greatest 
 imiKirtanee. During the late war with France, it 
 was taken by the French under Marshal Soult on 
 the 10th of Jan., 1811 ; the garrison, amounting 
 to 15,000 men, becoming prisoners of war. In the 
 course of the same year it was twice unsuccessfully 
 besieged by the Anglo-Portuguese army. In the 
 foUowuig year the siege was undertaken by the 
 army under the Duke of Wellington ; and, after 
 icime of the outworks had been carried, it was 
 taken by storm, after a desperate resistance, on 
 the 6th of April. On this occasion the allied army 
 lost about 6,000 men, killed and wounded. The 
 glor}' of this brilliant achievement was unhappily 
 tambhed by the excesses committed by the vic- 
 torious soldiery, despite every effort to prevent 
 them, on the defenceless inhabitants of the town. 
 
 BADALON A, a town of Spain, Catalonia, within 
 a short distance of the sea, with a castle; 6 m. 
 NE. Barcelona. Pop. 9,525 in 1857. The climate 
 is excellent; and the environs are fertile and 
 beautiful 
 
 BADAUMY, a strong hill fortress of Hindostan, 
 
 BADEN (GRAND DUCIIY OF) 317 
 
 pTov. Ilejapoor, i>ro»id. Itombav, Afi m. NK. Dar- 
 war; lat. 15" 55' N., long. 75° 'lit' E. Pop. alK)ut 
 2,500. It consists of fortilU'il hills, with a walled 
 town at the bottom, containing an inner fort. It 
 has always been reckoned one of the strongest 
 hill-fortresses in India, and successfully resisted a 
 whole Mahratta army. It was taken by storm in 
 1818, by a division of the army uniler Sir T. 
 Monro. A remarkable chaotic distribution of rocka 
 prevails throughout the coinitrv amund liadaumv 
 
 HADEN ((iUAND DUCllV OF), in tJ.miany 
 is bounded on the S. by the Lake of Constance, 
 with its two arms, the lakes IMtrrUnnen and Xvll, 
 as fur as Stein, iK-tween which town and Eglisaii, 
 the territories of the Swiss cantons, SchatVhausen 
 and Zurich, intervene three times Ijetween thu 
 Khine and the frontier of liaden. On the W, tho 
 lihiiie forms the boundary towards Switzerland, 
 France, and Khcnish liaviiria, with the exception 
 of a iMirt of the territory of liasel, which lies upon 
 the right bank of the river. Tt>wards the N. tho 
 territory of tho grand duchy of Hesse and the 
 kingdom of Bavaria, and towards the E. the king- 
 (bun of WUrtendn'rg and Prussia form its b<nni- 
 duries. It lies between lat. 47° 32' and 49° 47' N. 
 The surface is exceedingly varied, the length of 
 the grantl duchy being about 150 m. fnmj N. to S.; 
 its breadth, in Lower Khine circle, from the Khinu 
 to the Bavarian frontier, being about 00 m, ; in 
 the Middle K'hine circle, from the Hhinc U\ tho 
 frontier of WUrteinberg, about 20 m. ; and in thu 
 Lake circle, from the s<nne river to the WUrtcm- 
 berg frontier, extending to nearly 115 m. ; thurt 
 forming a long irregidar tigure, very narrow in 
 the centre, but stretching out to some breadth ab 
 the N. and S. ends. The eastern half of this tract 
 of country is entirely occupied by a moimtainouit 
 tract extending from S. to N., undr v the deno- 
 minations «)f the Black Forest and Odenwald ; 
 while the western half extending from the fall of 
 these mountains to the Hhinc is partly an inidii- 
 lating, but along the banks of that river, mostly 
 a level country. 
 
 Mountains. — Tho Black Forest stretches from 
 the bunks of the lihine, where that river forms the 
 Swiss boundary, in a northern direction through 
 the grand duchy as far as the Neckar, and towards 
 the E. fur into the kingdom of VVllrtemborg, fall- 
 ing gradually in the latter direction with prolonged 
 oft'sets, but suddenly and steeply towards the 
 valley of the lilune. Its main stock is composed 
 of gneiss and granite, which form, as in the Vosges, 
 dome-like masses, with steep sides, rising in tho 
 Feldberg 4,(>50 ft., in the Belchen 4,397 ft. (this 
 name is analogous to the Ballans of the Vosges), 
 and m the lierzogen Horn to 4,300 ft, above the 
 level of the sea. On the granite red sandstime is 
 superimposed, and forms extensive plateaux, ca- 
 pable of cultivation to a great height ; so that not 
 only extensive forests cover these mountains, but 
 pastures, and even small villages, are found iu 
 them at an elevation of 3,500 and 4,000 ft. Deep 
 valleys, with picturesquely precipitous sides, in- 
 tersect the sandstone layer, and pour rapid streams, 
 for the most part navigable for rafts, into the 
 Valley of the Khine. In some hills as the Knie- 
 bigs, for instance, the sandstone appears to form 
 compact isolated masses. 2. The bed of the Nec- 
 kar, which divides the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) 
 range from the Odenwald, is also of sandstone, 
 which alternates in the northern parts of the grand 
 duchy with blue limestone and marl. The prin- 
 cipal mass of the Odenwald is likewise, according 
 to Keferstein (from whose work we take these 
 details), composed of sandstone, little interrupted 
 by the rise of the granite. The highest summit, 
 the Katzenbuchel, 2,180 ft,, lies in Baden; but 
 
 ^--^ 
 
 

 ii 
 
 I! 
 
 ; !ti 
 
 
 I Hj.; ;i 
 
 
 i» ft 
 
 rj il 
 
 
 318 
 
 tlip j^calor part of tlin cliiiin IicIomj^h to llic >;ri»inl 
 iliicliy of llcMHP. Iiik(> till' Kliick Forcxt, tUfM' 
 lici^litM fall Hlt><'|ily loward.H (lie Itliino, ami iiloii); 
 tlu' foot of the raii),'!^ tlic HeniHtrtiHui; from llciilrl- 
 U'TK to Frankfort, a roailccli^liratod for |)lctiir<"4(|(i(> 
 nioiinlaiti Hticncry, iiiiiliii;^ with tlio rich liixii- 
 riaiico of vi'KC'tatioii of the valley, has Imm-ii oarrieil, 
 H. The Kai.serMtiihl, in the eirele of tlu^ I'piirr 
 l{hint>, M fonneil of a ehinip of hei^htH of volcanii; 
 origin, xoparatetl from tlie iUaek Forest hy the 
 Dreisam and the Klz, On the rock, called the 
 Todtenkojif (deatli'H head), n tradition tells tis 
 that UcMlolpli of llaiwhnrK held a court of jiisti(;e, 
 ■wlionce the name ol Kaiserstnhl (emperor's chair) 
 is derived. The hi^'hest point is l,7(i.'< I'aris ft. in 
 elevation. 4. A ranp> of steep hills, stretching from 
 the l{hine, near StrhatflianHcii, alonj; the W. and 
 N. siiores of the Lake of Constaiice, is named the 
 Kanden. The dominant formation of these hills 
 is limestone ; the highest ]ioint is '2,/i°27 ft. in 
 height. They rnn into the Hhick Forest on the 
 W. and N., and on the NK., into tlie hilly district 
 of Nellenhnrn and lle^jan. The last named ele- 
 vations are composed of Jura limestone, in which 
 tlie Imsiilt and other isolated volcanic rocks of 
 llohendwyl, llohen^totfcln and llolieidiinvcn oc- 
 enr. it. Finally, the lleiliKcnhcrf;, a ron;;h and 
 (itcrile tract, rises XK. of the F.ake of Constance, 
 and slopes down towards itsbaidis ; on its summit, 
 *J,20(I ft. hiffh, Prince Fnrstenhcrt; has a hnntiiif? 
 seat, from which there is a line view of the lake 
 and the Swistt monntains. 
 
 Jtirem. — The principal riVer of the pranil duchy 
 is the Hhine, wiiich receives all its streams ex- 
 cept the Danube. Aft(T losing itself in the Lake 
 of Constance, at a distance of 100 m. from its 
 poiirce, it reappears as a rajiid stream near Stein, 
 %vhere its breadth is 2.")0 ft., and works its way 
 through limestone rocks to .Schaft'liaiisen, a little 
 lielow which place it falls over a jirecipice from 
 M to CiO ft. in heif;ht. Near Laufenburg the bed 
 narrows to a width of only 50 ft., forming a rapid 
 Hcarcely iiderior in grandeur of eflect to the celc- 
 l)rated"fall at Schaffhauson. At Kheinfelden the 
 rockv ravines in its bed form a violent eddy, and 
 all these obstacles preclude the possibility of ren- 
 dering the stream navigable above Uasel, from 
 which city onward it takes a northerly anil traii- 
 ciuil course. Its breadth at ISascl is 750 ft. ; but 
 its dejith is by no means proiwrtioiuite to this ex- 
 tent of surface, the stream being in many spots no 
 more than 3 ft. deep, while its greatest average 
 depth, between Hasel and Strasbiirg, does not 
 exceed 10 to 12 ft. At Mannheim the bed of the 
 river is 1,000 ft. in breadth; but its average ileiith 
 between Strasburg and Mayence varies between 
 6 ft. and '24 ft. The fall of the Khine between 
 Stein and Hasel is stated by Hennitsch to be 703 
 I'aris ft., and between Hasel and Mannheim 494 ft. 
 The navigation on the Ithine is the most im- 
 portant of all the inland water carriage. Between 
 Hasel and Strasburg bitats of 25 to 30 tons are 
 used, and between the latter city and Mainz barges 
 of 120 tons burden. Steamboats go up to Uasel, 
 notwithstanding the islands and banks formed by 
 the shifting of the river's bed, and the uncertainty 
 of its dei)th, which varies after everj' Hood. The 
 Hhine is spanned by stone bridges at Khel and at 
 Mannheim, besides several flying bridges. 
 
 The greater number of the streams falling into 
 the Khine on its right bank descend from the 
 Klack Forest with so rniid a fall that but few of 
 them are navigable c n for forest wfts. The 
 most considerable are 1 le Wiebach, which, during 
 part of its course, founs the frontier of the canton 
 of Schaff hausen ; the Wiesen, which falls into 
 the Khine below Basel, the Elz, the Kinzig, whicli 
 
 TJADKN (ORAND DUCITY OF) 
 
 mill 
 
 joins the Khine near Kchl, and the Miirg. Tlio 
 two last named streams, on which ||u< grciiti'.t 
 quantity of linduT anil tircwood is fliiatcil liumi, 
 have a fall of lU'arly M.OOO ft,, in a course niit r\! 
 cei'ding 00 Fnglish inilcs. The largest H((ci..i,,ii 
 which the Itliinc receives during its course tliriiii|,'|| 
 the grand duchy is the Ncckar, which Ii«., i,< 
 source in Wllrtcndierg in the Hlack Forici, nml 
 al'Icr traversing that kingdom, enters hadcii ni 
 lli'insheim. It is mivigable for iHtats from t'linii- 
 stailt near Stuttgart, below which place it isji>iiii'<| 
 bv the Keins, the Koclier, and the .lax on ji^ 
 right, and the l''n/. on its left bank: it full.s 
 the Khine near Maimheiin. 
 
 2. The Maine forms the frontier towards lln- 
 varia, but for a short distance, and reccivcN tji). 
 Tanlier at Wertheim, Its depth is not great, Imt 
 is regular; and its gentle fall, which is n.sNJMti'il 
 by the numerous windings of its bed, renders lis 
 current well adapted to navigation. 
 
 3. The Danube, whose sources are in the gmnd 
 duchy, leaves the territory before it assiinics aiiv 
 greater importance than that of a iiKiiuiliiiii 
 stream. Its most westerly source is that of the 
 IJrcge, between the Kossiik and llrigleiii, in tlic 
 Hlack Forest, a few miles NVV. Fiirtwangeii, It 
 is joined a little above Donaneschingen hy the 
 Bri/.acli, and into their united streams, wliicli 
 from that )ioint bear the name of Daiiiilir. the 
 waters fall, which, issuing from the springs in tlic 
 castle-yard of this town, claim the hoiuuir (jf 
 being the original sources of the great river. Aftor 
 traversing a small district of Wllrtetnherg, the 
 Danube once more enters the territory of Hiidcn, 
 and tiimlly leaves it at Gutcnstein on the frontiers 
 of Sigmaringen. 
 
 The natural facilities for intenial navigntiim in 
 the grand duchy bend for the most |iart tcuviinU 
 the \V. and X., and merge into one grand chamu'l, 
 the Khine. With the exceitlion of some cuts tn 
 regulate the course of this river between Kclil 
 and Mannheim, the execution of which is rc^'u- 
 lated by a treaty with Bavaria, accordiii}; id 
 which those on the left bank are inanagcil liy 
 Baden, and those on the right bank by tlie Ba- 
 varians, no navigable canals exist in the gruiul 
 diichy. 
 
 The Lake of Constance is an important fcnture 
 in the natural facilities for water coinmuiiicatiini. 
 Part of its northern bank, from linnu'iistmlt to 
 Mersberg, together with tlie whole shore iif its 
 northern branch, the fycberlhigen See, and the 
 north shore of the Zeller Sec, with the city of 
 Constance on its southern shore, belong to liadcii. 
 \ considerable trade with Switzerland is carried 
 on across it, and the introduction of steamlMi.its, 
 which keep ii]) a daily communication between 
 Constance, Lindaii, and Kolirschach, in Switzer- 
 land, has made it a ctmvenient jiassnge for travel 
 lers. The whole lake with its branches coiitniiis, 
 according to Hennitsch, an area of 'JJ <'''miiii' 
 sq. m., and its deepest j)art, betw an t'onstancc 
 and Lindaii, is 85J I'aris ft. Its level ibove the 
 sea is 1,255 ft., but at the period of the meltiiifjof 
 the snow its waters rise as much as 10 ft. A sud- 
 den swell, which takes place at other times, aiid 
 which is termed the Kuhss, is not easily accounted 
 for. The lake is not iinfreqiiently frozen over in 
 wii.ter, and in 1 830 horsemen and carriages passed 
 over it. The Ilraen See, near I'fullcndorf, in the 
 Lake circle, and the Miiking See, are rather lish- 
 ponds than lakes ; and the various meres in tlie 
 Black Forest, which arc found at considerable 
 elevations, the largest of which are the Feldsee 
 at 3,401 ft., the Tittisee 2,598 ft., the Miimmekee 
 3,130 ft., the Xonnenmattweihr 2,845 ft., and the 
 Eichner Sec L494 I'aris ft. above the sea, are 
 
IP Murji;. Tlio 
 
 It I III' ^TculC't 
 
 4 fliiiitcil iliiwn. 
 nmrHO not (■\. 
 
 rKt'r't Hcrii.Hii.ii 
 
 coiirm' llirmi^jli 
 
 Wllil'll llll,'* ill 
 
 lU'k KiircMt, And 
 iitcrit lliiili'ii lit 
 iiitM friiiii <'aiin- 
 )lii('(t it i)* jiiiiiol 
 llir .lax on it'i 
 ik: it I'ulU iiitii 
 
 ior townnlH Hn- 
 
 iiiiil ri'fcivcH ilic 
 
 is not iitvnt, liiit 
 vliifii ii* nssisifd 
 
 lifd, renders iu 
 II. 
 
 are in the {jnM 
 V it axsunies any 
 
 of II niounliilii 
 ce is that of tlu' 
 , Uriftleiii. in the 
 
 Fnrtwanneii. It 
 est'liingen liy tlic 
 I Ktrenins, wliicli 
 [> of Daimlie. the 
 the s|)riiins in tlie 
 in the lionuiir ul' 
 
 threat river. Alter 
 
 VVUrteiiilierj;, the 
 territory of Itiulcn. 
 L'in on the frontiers 
 
 [>mnl navigfttiim in 
 most jiiirt townnls 
 one strand channel, 
 Ml of some cuts In 
 vcr lietween Kelil 
 of wiiieli is rej,'ii- 
 nria, iieeordui;,' to 
 are managed hy 
 t hank hy the lia- 
 exist in the paiul 
 
 h imiiortant feature 
 Iter eommnnieatiim. 
 Dm Imnienstiult tn 
 kvhide shore (if its 
 Ijtgen See, and the 
 , with the city df 
 u', belong to liiidi'ii. 
 itzerlniid is earrieil 
 [tion of steauihiiftts, 
 lumication hetwccn 
 ichach, in Switzcr- 
 ]iassaf;e ftir trayei 
 branches contniii", 
 irea of 'J4 ('"mii"' 
 Ibetw an (.'onstaiwe 
 Its level ibovc the 
 d of the meltini; "f 
 Lh as 1(1 ft. A siul- 
 fat other times, fiiu 
 lot easily aecoimteil 
 Wlv frozen over in 
 |nd'carriai,'es pis^''! 
 IPfullendorf, mtlic 
 fee, arc rather lisn- 
 jrions meres in the 
 hd at considcralile 
 •h arc the FeWsee 
 it., tlic Miimmete 
 fir 2,845 ft., and the 
 
 ibovc the sea, are 
 
 neither iiiterestiiiK for ihcir rxleiit, nor for |)ie- 
 tiiresiliic scenery. The last-ineiitioiied lake drieM 
 inHic.iiiioiinlly, so that corn is sown in its lied; 
 and ill the Noiiiieiiinult a tlonliiiK island of iiirf 
 rises and falls with the water which Mii|i|iorts it. 
 
 iTimiitr. — The climate in the luoiinlaiiiims |iiiriN 
 of the diicliy is very severe, the snow lyiii^; in 
 mmie situations for tlie ^fealer part of the year, 
 jtiil in the lower distri»'ts, esiieidally aloiif,' the 
 jihiiic, the Neekar, and the Maine, the tempera- 
 tiin' is inihl and ({eiiial, heiii^ suitable for the 
 I'piwtli of vines, eliestniits, and even almonds. 
 Theopiintry is everywhere healthy. 
 
 (Iliscrvati'ins, as to the full of rain, $(ive a mruii 
 nt Fri'ilmr); of '2H in. iier annum. In Carlsrnhe 
 the mean variations ot the weather are, '2H cU'iir, 
 Ki'i suiisliine, Kil mixed, 12 partial cloudy, t)\ 
 cldiidy days in the year. Kuin falls 1 Iti, snow 2t>, 
 (iiiil I'liK^ occur on 12 <lay». The meii:> direction 
 (if the winds is, in Oarlsr'uhe, S. «H° W. oi nearly 
 W., in Mannheim N. (i.')° \V. Tluinderstorn. ■ in 
 (arlsriihe occur un 2(i, at Mannlieiiii on 21 days 
 
 til'' >■'''"'• . , , 
 
 I'rtHhi't'iona, — lleforo the nceession of the >;rund 
 
 ilucliv to the (.iermaiiie Cnstonis' Lea^jue, tlie at- 
 
 teiitiiiii iif the inhabitantH of the valleys of the 
 
 Ithiiie and Neekar was almost ex( lusively devoted 
 
 t(i agriculture, for which the soil and climate of 
 
 thiist! districts is admirably adapted. Corn is 
 
 i;ritwn with >;reat success; the average return 
 
 j;ivrii for the whole state by ISerKhaiis liein^;, for 
 
 harley 8 to 9 Add, wheat 1» i'oM, mai/e .110 to ;i.')0 
 
 harley 
 
 fiihl, iMitatot's 28 to iJO fohl. The slopes of the 
 
 hills are everywhere covered with vineyards, in 
 
 which excellent wine is fjrown, althou>;h only the 
 
 N. shore of the Lake of Constance and jiart of the 
 
 vale of the Hhino have a S. declivity ; and here 
 
 the vicinity of the Alps, the Jura, and tlie Jllack 
 
 F(irest, diminish the warmth. Hetween the vines, 
 
 the wtthiut, chestnut, pca.^'). ajiricot, jduni, ainl 
 
 cherry trees produce abundantly the ehoicest fruit ; 
 
 and the valleys above mentioned resemble one 
 
 tieautifiil garden. Tobacco, hem]), of a very tine 
 
 description, and flax, are extensively cultivated ; 
 
 and the forests send annually a large quantity of 
 
 exoellcnt lir and oak timber down the Hhine. 
 
 Mining is also carried on with partial success. 
 
 Silver is found at St. Anton, in the valley of the 
 
 Kinzig; copper at Kork and Neustadt; iron is 
 
 jirwlucedat Kundern, near Waldshut, near Hansen, 
 
 and in other parts of the Black Forest ; manganese 
 
 is dug near V'illingen ; salt in two chief beds at 
 
 l!aii|)ennu in the circle of Lower lihinc, and at 
 
 Diirrlieini, in the Lake cindc. Coals in the neigh- 
 
 iKnirhood of Ortenburg ; besides alum, vitriol, and 
 
 sulphur, form the principal mineral prodnctioiis. 
 
 l'|iwards of sixty mineral springs are counted in 
 
 the grand duchy. The thermal springs of Baden 
 
 are those which are the liest known and the most 
 
 used for medicinal piirixises. 
 
 The grand duchy is divided into four circles, the 
 area of which, and ])opulation, at two periods, is 
 sliuwn in the subjoined tabic : — 
 
 KADKN ((IHAXD DUCIIY OF) «19 
 
 l,(M»r»,8!t!>. The nnmliers nugmrnted at o rate of 
 rather lesN than |ii,<ii)0 souls aimiially. till tho 
 year |8K!, when there watt a in'riisl of decrease, 
 extending (ill IH.m. I'rom 18lt> till I8t<.), the de- 
 crease amounted to '1,712; from IHl!) to IM.V.', to 
 8,2M2; and from l>*.'>2 to IK,'(,'i, to the large number 
 of 'I2,liir>, or I4,i):<.'i |M'r annum. .Since 1855, theni 
 has U'en again a gradual increase. 
 
 The decline of iiopnlalion has U'en ehiefly owing 
 to emigration, l<rom 181(1 to 18 1<), the nnmlH>r of 
 emigrants was 2;l,!Mit!, and from I8."((» to 1855, it 
 rose to ti2,ll't. Ill the year I8'i-i, no less tliaii 
 I'Lltliti people left the country; in |8,'i:i, (he niim- 
 iK'rs were I2,'.):i2, and in I85'l (liev rose to 2l,5ttl, 
 Most of the emigrants were families |H>ssessed of 
 some )iro|K>rty, It was ascertained that the emi- 
 grants of Moi'l carried with them property amount- 
 ing to I,li2:i,!li)lt florins, or rather more than IIH) 
 tlorins — 8/. 7k. — per head. The great majority of 
 the emigraiiis went to North America; but alsmt 
 two (ler cent, were induced, previous to 185(1, to 
 go to the French stUtlemeiits in Algeria. Tho 
 result of this Algerian emigration proved so dis- 
 astrous that it has been discontinued, 
 
 Reliijiun. — The census of 18(11 showed 8!»('>,('***1 
 Woman Catholics; 4l5,.5!)il I'rotestants; 1,221 
 Mennonites; 1,741) other Cliristian l)issenters; 
 and 24, ODD .lews. The ecclesiastical management 
 of the Human Catholic Church is under the Arch- 
 bishop of Freiburg, who is ap|Miinted hy the pope, 
 and ipiite independent of the graiid-<hical govern- 
 ment. A standing feud between church and statu 
 has biX'ii the result of this inde]iundence. 
 
 Ai)ricttltnre. — Tho cultivated laiul is ilividcil 
 OS follows : — 
 
 Aral). I.aiifl, | 
 Kii(j. Atri'i 
 
 Tul. Mea- Conimonii, 
 
 FornU 
 
 1,212,901 3(iO,791 j 301,828 l,l.'i3,300 
 
 Vlne7*rdt 
 
 60,501 
 
 The produce is stated to amount to — 
 
 Total J 
 Proiluci) of routoca. 
 Corn. <iuarti'r> 
 ' QiiiirMra 
 
 Wlna. 
 In Uili. 
 
 Ilrmp. 
 tjulntali 
 
 48,000 
 
 Tobnccn. 
 Quiiiuli 
 
 nopi. 
 
 Quintal) 
 10,000 
 
 1,728,9G5| C'20,000 
 
 13,459,236 
 
 90,000 
 
 Cireln 
 
 Arpa in Kng, 
 Sq. Mllt'i 
 
 Population 
 
 1858 
 
 1801 
 
 Lako . . . 
 Upper Rhine 
 Midaie Rlune 
 Lower Rhine 
 
 Total. . 
 
 1,.S03 
 l,C->' 
 
 l.t.iy 
 
 1,314 
 
 195,249 
 330,403 
 4.')7,:i27 
 346,911 
 
 198,160 
 345,913 
 409,782 
 355,436 
 
 6,904 1 1,335,952 
 
 1,369,291 
 
 The population of Baden has not greatly in- 
 creased since the year 181G, when it amounted to 
 
 Of the Ccrealia, wheat is grown, but in a small 
 proiiortion, not exceeding l-30th of the whole. 
 Spelt is tho grahi of which bread is principally 
 made. Maize is extensively cultivated, but chiefly 
 as green food for cattle, being sown thit'k, and 
 allowed to run up to a great height. Artiflcial 
 grasses and turnips arc in universal use in tho 
 vale of the Hhine, in which agriculture, on the 
 whtde, is carried on upon the best scale, and far 
 exceeding the cultivation of any other part of 
 (Jermany. The meadows arc irrigated in tho 
 Italian stvle, which the nnnierons inountain rills 
 assist, while the corn-fields ore interspersed with 
 countless fruit-trees, and even the beds are sur- 
 rounded with plants of hemp, sown singly, which 
 attain a remarkable height and thickness. The 
 best descriptions of wine are those of the Ortenau 
 and of the valleys of the Maine and Neekar. Tho 
 Klingenherger and IVertheimer growths are those 
 most admired. The produce of timber and fire- 
 wood is estimated ot 978,000 cubic fathoms, of 
 which a large pmrtion is sent down the Khiiic to 
 the shiivbiiilders of Holland, ond is known by the 
 nome of Hollitnderhoh, Masts of 150 ft. in length, 
 and oaks of the choicest growth, ore yearly felled 
 in great numbers for exportation to the mouth of 
 the Khinc. 
 
 The number of head of cattle in the grondduchy, 
 in 1861, amounted to 72,817 horses, G2l,486 horned 
 
 fif 
 
 
in 
 
 m 
 
 320 BADKN (ORAND DUCHY OF) 
 
 rattlf, 177,!»W nhorp, and nO'.Um jiijf).. Of tin* 
 iijip<<|i, Klxiiit onn-tirih am il(>i*it(iiati>il nn 8|iniiiNli 
 mi>rln<M<i(, nntl the rout an iinprnvcil tircnU, Tin' 
 niinilM>r of lN>*'hivi«N in IHill niiiouiitfil U>2ri,Ol7, 
 An aKriciiUiirnl Hiw<M-inti<m at ('nrlxruhn Iiiim 
 lirnnchnii in Mwcral other towiiN, an<i |iri/('N ar» 
 annually dlittriliutp<l to rnoouraKv im|>nivpnu<ntH, 
 
 Alining and ManuJ'iirturtt. — (t(>l<l-waMhiii)< wax 
 fonncrly a |irint'i|inl olijfct of iniliiMtrv ii'omk tlic 
 lUiino, Vroin ItaM>l to Klannhnm; it U now con - 
 liiifti t4> tlio (liMtrict iN'lwrcii I'liiliiwIiiirK nn<l Wit- 
 Icnwi'ier. The mine* of T<'uli'lnKn""l yit'ldeil 
 fonncrly a itmaU Nutiply of hilvcr, liut which ncchim 
 now uxhnuNtcil. 'I he niincH of St. Anthony in 
 tho valley of the Kinzi^, priHliico Hilvcr and colmit 
 ore, Tho Halt HprinKx ant thu niont priMliiclivc 
 minernl hranuhcH, thu two iirincipnl onen yielding; 
 IIOO,(HH) cwtM. annually. Since the acceHnion of 
 ltH(len to thu I'ruwiian CiiHtomH' I^euKuu the nnm- 
 lM>r of fnctorieH hax very much inrntiiMvd. In IH2!) 
 the ^rnnd duchy nundM-riMl llil fuhricH, with '2,7>'><l 
 worlttneii. AtVho end of lH!t7 tho nundM<r wiim 
 2!)4, With 9,2HI worknici., and thu cpuhun of IHttI 
 Kh.-wcd t!,Hr>!» factoricH, cniphiyinK (II.Htl'i work- 
 men. The principal manufucturinK undertakin^^H 
 are cotton-itpinidnK and weaving eHtahliHhnientH. 
 The foruNt and mountain troctH, which iH'cupy ludf 
 the country, scarcely Hupiily fomi for their Hcanty 
 inhahitantH, whoHc manutucturcH of clockH, wiNHlen 
 toyH, Htraw liatx, laco, and cniliroidery, liavu lieen 
 (<ent, tVom a lonj? date, into all partH of Kun)|M>. 
 Tlic numl)or of wmHiun clockH annuullv exiHirted 
 in CHtimal«d to amount to 6U(),00U, iM'HiJen muHical 
 Hnutt'-boxeH, barrvl-orKann, and other articles for 
 whitd) the forcHtM furniHh tlie material!*. 
 
 The Hubjoiiicd table HhowH the nature of the 
 manufacturing establinhmcntH in the grand duchy, 
 together with tho numl)cr of handM employed, 
 according to the oiHctal returns of tho year 1801: — 
 
 
 FutorlM 
 
 Workman 
 
 Hpinning 
 
 WeavtnK, Cloth, Ribbon Manu- 
 factures .... 
 
 Metals, Iron Works, do. 
 
 Metal Wares .... 
 
 Mineral and Mixed Goo<lg for 
 Industrial and Domeittlo Use 
 
 Vegetable and Animal Pro- 
 ducts for Industrial and Uo- 
 mestio Ubo .... 
 
 Wooden Wares, Paper, and 
 Hardware .... 
 
 Articles of Consumption 
 
 Other Factories 
 
 Total .... 
 
 103 
 2I« 
 198 
 909 
 
 1,314 
 
 813 
 
 8,«78 
 
 « 
 
 0,210 
 27,382 
 
 no2 
 
 7,175 
 3,798 
 
 2,740 
 
 «,341 
 
 18,ft8ft 
 
 117 
 
 8,889 
 
 04,802 
 
 Of tho total number of families in tho grand 
 duchy about 42 per cent, are employed exclu- 
 sively in agriculture and the forests. 
 
 The prosperous state of the agricultural popula- 
 tion has necessarily acted favourably upon other 
 branches of industry. The building trade espe- 
 cially has very much increased, both in the coun- 
 try and in the towns. 
 
 Domestic and manual industry, which had 
 considerably fallen off in consequence of the 
 rapid development of the factory system, has 
 very much Te^•ived of late years. The Baden 
 government, convinced of the many advantages 
 which domestic industry possesses over the latter 
 system as regards the health and moral condition 
 of the industrial population, have done much in 
 the last ten years, and are still engaged in pro- 
 viding the best means for improving the condition 
 of domestic manufacturers by the establishment of 
 industrial schools and the general diil'usion of 
 
 Hcientitic knowledge. (He|M>ft of Mr. Ilaitlio, \\ex 
 Majesty's Secretary of Legation, date«i CarUniln., 
 Felmiary ir>, IWii.^ 
 
 t'lirm of (iuvrrnmrnl.—'Vhfi const Itutiiiii nf K,. 
 den vests the executive |N>wer in the grand-dnlii. 
 and the legixlative authorily in a hnuse of iMirlig. 
 nient com|K)Hed of two cliamU-rM. The upiKt 
 chamlH>r conipriHes the princes of the rel^imiK 
 liiut who are of age; the headn uf ton imM,' 
 fatnilies; the prnprielorH of liereiliinrv laiiil<'<| i.,. 
 tates worth l»(M»,(MMi HoriuH, <.r '}.t\i\ml, ; i)i,. |;,,. 
 man Catholic archbishop of l-'rei)iiirg; the Nii|Ht- 
 intendent of the I'nttestant ('hurchi two (l<>|iiiii<i 
 of univerNilicH ; and eight inendsT^ noniiiiiitni 
 b^V thu grand-duke, without regard to rank dr 
 birth. The Hccontl chanilM-r in conijMmed nf i;:! 
 rcpreHentativcH of the |M'ople, Ti of wliltli w 
 elected by burgensi's of towns, and 41 bvlhein- 
 hnbilants of rural iliHtrictH, Kvery citl/eii iK.t 
 convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, Imi 
 a vote in tho elections. To \m a deputy, it \* 
 neeesHary to posHCHH tax-paying pro|H'rty to iln' 
 amount of t(l,(HM) tlorins, or Kt;i/, ; or to Imlil a 
 public ofHce with a salary of not less than 1,.'iIhi 
 llorins, or 1'25/. The cleetionn are inclincf; ilic 
 ('itiiteuH nominating tho Wahlmttnner, or (li'imiv- 
 electors, and the latter the repreHenlntivcH. Tlic 
 mendiers of the second chandsT are elected lor 
 eight years. Tho chamltent have to In; culled Ut- 
 gcther at least once every two yeuD. 
 
 Public Havenue and Krjicmliture, — The chief 
 income of the state is derived from direct taxcM. 
 The direct taxes are levitul as follows :— Tlie liml- 
 tax upon tho estimated value of all lands, cnlru- 
 lated ac(;onling to sales of landed pn))N'riy in 
 each <listrict at two periods, viz. between' tlie 
 years 17HO-tlO and lHO()-!», half the average prion 
 of the district in the one (tcriod being aililcil tn 
 half the price in the secoiul, and all lands Immiii; 
 classed, accoriling to their (pialitv, in several 
 classes, Tho rent and revenue tax fs h^vied u|i<jii 
 all dues payable by landholders to their l(iniii, 
 whether as rent or ser\'ice dues. The cajiital taxed 
 is calcidatcd at 25 years' purchase for tithes, ami 
 18 vears' purchase for other dues ; and the cost of 
 collecti<m is deducted. The house tax is rated 
 according to a scale of the value of each tenement, 
 between tho years 180() and 1809. The whole ef 
 these direct taxes produced above seven millions 
 of florins in tho year 1802. The sidynined state- 
 ment gives the total public income and exijendi- 
 turo fur this period. 
 
 In'Come I''oh the Year 1802. 
 
 
 Flortiii 
 
 Produce of Crown Lands 
 
 . 1,;M6,7'.'4 
 
 Forests and Mines . 
 
 . 2,.W2,!l-.'l 
 
 Direct Taxes . 
 
 , 7,(184,»t2 
 
 Salt Monopoly 
 
 . l,43i»,:i(!;t 
 
 Customs 
 
 . 3,(i;lH,!»,'.!» 
 
 Foes and Fines 
 
 7i);i,!t4;» 
 
 Mint .... 
 
 H22,l)(l!) 
 
 Miscellaneous Income . 
 
 122,071 
 
 Total 
 
 17,140,192 or £1,428,349 
 
 KxPENorruRB for tiie Tear 1862. 
 
 Florini 
 
 Civil List .... 752,490 
 
 MinUtry of Foreign Affairs . 117.200 
 
 „ of Justice . . 1,311,398 
 
 „ of the Interior . 2,134,489 
 
 „ of Commerce . . 1,335,580 
 
 „ of Finances . . 700,524 
 
 „ ofWiur . . . 2,918,318 
 
 Public Debt .... I,322,;i48 
 
 Qenernl Cost of Administration 6,504,733 
 
 Miscellaneous Expenses . 247,992 
 
 Total .... 10,411,072 or £1,367,581) 
 Which left a surplus of 729,120 florins, or 00,760/. 
 
Mr. llAlllio, Htt 
 lnlr<l CnrUnili*', 
 
 iMltiitliiii of lla- 
 
 )iiiuM> nf (Mirlm- 
 T», Till' iipiMr 
 of th« n'l({nmu 
 lU of ten iiiililc 
 ililnry Iniuli'il i* 
 ir),(Mld/. ; till' Un- 
 idirn; lilt' ""HINT- 
 vli ; two (l('|nitii< 
 iiImth iiiiminiiliil 
 %ntt\ to rank nr 
 (•(iiiiiHiHcil iif tl:! 
 Ti or wliioli HP' 
 iiiil 41 I'y llieiii- 
 '.ViTV ritl/.i'll Iliil 
 
 { IMihwIi rclit'f, lift* 
 41 Ik (It'imly, it i* 
 H |)r<)|M'rty to tin' 
 »;i/.; or to liiiM 11 
 lot It'HH tlinn \,:m 
 I arc iiKlin'ft; tin- 
 ittnHor, or (li'imtv- 
 n'Hcntntivi'H, Tlu' 
 KT nrc «'U't't('(l I'lir 
 ivo to Ih! eiiU'il tu- 
 vi'iin. 
 
 Mure.— Thf diiff 
 from lUrcrt taxcu. 
 oUoWft :— Tln" /fill''- 
 of all lamlH, calcu- 
 andwl iirojH'rty in 
 vi/.. botwpen tli« 
 f tho avcraijo price 
 iixl bclnj; aiKlcd tii 
 and all lamlnlK'inn 
 iiualitv, ill Nfvt'fttl 
 tax IS levied u|hiii 
 Icrs to tlioir lonln, 
 The oapital taxed 
 banc for titlios.aud 
 lies ; and tlie coat »f 
 ihousc tax iH rated 
 ije of each tenement, 
 809. The wli(dc nf 
 jove HBven millituM 
 'he subjoined fltftte- 
 icome and cxiHiiidi- 
 
 KR 1802. 
 
 Klorlni 
 k,:M5,7'.'4 
 
 b,r..vi,i)'il 
 r,tm4,i)t3 
 i,4ni),.'it>3 
 p,o;m,«.'i» 
 
 73;t,!t43 
 
 ia'2,071 
 
 ri40;mor£l,4M,i»» 
 1 Tear 1862. 
 
 1 Horini 
 
 7r)'2,490 
 , 117,200 
 1,311 ,398 
 fc,l 34,489 
 T,33r.,68() 
 f 700,W4 
 b,918,318 
 I,322,:i48 
 ),.'iG4,733 
 247,992 
 
 1,411,072 or£l,36'.'«' 
 
 lo florins, or 6O,7C0;. 
 
 T^ADKN (OUANI) Dl'CHY (»!•) 
 
 riie I'lililii' ilfbl of lliiileii cniiniitlcd oil .Inn. I, 
 
 I'l;!, ipj— 
 
 t'lnrliii 
 1^.1,1, MVIiri'l "11 <l"' I'lowii 
 
 l,;iii<l', kv., iN'iii'iiiK no In. 
 
 ,,p..t 1M78,MI 
 
 Ii,„r..i N'lirlnK l)<'l>t . . 2l,«!.':slim 
 
 |;„,|,. H iP.bl, (of Wllll'll 
 
 .i;;i, ;,."..M» ln'urliig no IiiUtumI fiA.T'fO.yiii 
 Total .... tMl,2K4,37l or«H,02:i.(IIW 
 
 ylrmv. — Tlo' «nn<'(i force of I lie jrniiiil ihirliv it 
 r.rnii'il I'V i'i>iiwrl|iiii>ii. Siib.-^liliitiiiii, liowcvcr, it 
 mIImhicI: Ibi' ^iivrrniiirnl uiidcriiikiiiK tlif rliiir;;c 
 ,,l till' !<mii(' at a liveil roNt. In l«tl'.', ilie |irii't' 
 \vi(H iIm''1 by till' niiiiifier of war iil .Viii tlnrinN, or 
 |i;/„ fur lilt' troops lit' ilu' iiil'iiiitry ; and to liiM) 
 ili.riii". iir i"'/.. for ibe caviilry mid iirlillfry. Tbi' 
 
 III, f !.i'r\ii'e \* ni\ ycart in tlie iictiM' army, and 
 
 imi vi'iirn I'liribi'r iiiH<'ri|illiiii anionj; the iroo|ps nf 
 ilii' risirvi'. Hut, hm a riilc. iiImhii tln'i' limrllit of 
 llii' lime i~ (llliiwrii t'l Im' iiiism'iI ihi fii/lipiii;b. 
 
 ilie iiipniitial xlrt'iiKlh of the army coiiNisleil, in 
 l^l'p'.', of— 
 
 :, IliKimonts of Tnfiuitry 
 '.p „ of DriitfipiPiiH 
 I „ of Arllllcry 
 
 Hiiir, lo, . . . 
 
 TiPtul . 
 
 |ii,!"i7 men 
 
 I.N7II ,, 
 
 2,077 „ with .'18 ({tiiiR 
 I4,1M» iiii'ii, with ;1H ^iiliM 
 
 Thoai'lniil number of men under nniiN, 'on the 
 l< ii'i' -fipiptiiiK.' xeldoMi amoiinlH to more tlian be- 
 iwi'i'ii 7,tiiHi and H,<MI0. In the year IN.V.I, when 
 ilii'ticriiian l>iet ordered the ' war-fooling',' the 
 iimiv iiiiiNtered, on an inHpei^tion, '2i\,~2'2 men, 
 Willi ■),■.'••'.• Iiornes ami f)7 ipieccH of ordttanee. 
 
 I'lihlir Eiliicitliim and l'(mr-hiif». — Mdiiealion is 
 i.'iii|piilMPry in llaiten ; and parents are eompelled, 
 hvstrii'tly enforced jienalties, to send tlicircbil- 
 liri'ii to hcIkhpI. It is )iroliiliited also to employ 
 rliiUrcti in factories, until they have completed 
 Ihi'ir I'K'veiilli year. In |H(>I , then? was one school 
 l.if every i')JI(» (pf the population. The university of 
 lliiilellper){ has a faculty lor Ltilberau, and Frei- 
 hiir^'ipiie for liipman Catholic theolo^^ical students. 
 Tlu' fipnner had, in |M(!i», ('p.'( jirofesnors and ll.'IT 
 >iiiilents; and the latter, 21. J students. The uiii- 
 vcrsity (pf Ileidelberj; is one of the oldest esta- 
 llislieil ill (lemianv ; it was fouiided in UWG ; that 
 ol l'reilpiir>; in ll.'il. 
 
 Tliere are minierons charitable institutions for 
 tile |i(Mpr. kept up by private etlbrts, and, us a rule, 
 I'lii'li parish maintains those which are unable, 
 iliMiidli old af;e or illness, to {;ain their subsistence. 
 Miiee the year 1851, the decrease of pauperism has 
 Ihcu ^'rniliial and constant, owin^% in part, to 
 I'Meiisive eniifjratlon. In addition to the rcfjii- 
 larly iprjianised maintenance of the poor by their 
 i'«ii iiiiri.-lies, all classes id' civil and reli>;ious 
 liiiiiiiniiaries have subscription funds for pro\-id- 
 in^'fipriprphaiis and widows, and savinj^s' banks 
 are general, to eneoiiriif;e )irovidence amon},'st 
 Ilie iipwer classes. Ileyoiid tbet.e institutions no 
 I'i'miiil provisiipu is made for the poor, whose nio- 
 iliraic habits keep them from beiiif; burdensome. 
 hi tho larger towns, subsiiliary relief is (generally 
 ;'iven ill the shape of food, clothiiif;) or fuel, from 
 yiilmitar\' subscriptions raised by the inhabitants. 
 The re),'ulations as regards settlement in the com- 
 munes were very despotic until the year 18IJ2, 
 "lull nearly all the ohl municipal restrict i( pus, as 
 ivill as the |H)wer of ffuilds, were swept away by 
 111 w laws, which introduced '(.Jewerbe-FreiheitV 
 't iiuiustrial freedom. Foreigners and natives are 
 ui'W at lilitTty to settle wherever they jilease, and 
 I" exercise any trade, handicraft, or profession. 
 
 ftxi'/j and liuilwai/s. — The grand duchy is tra- 
 v*ei|, ill all directions, by excellent roads and a 
 Vuu I. 
 
 H.MlKM 321 
 
 complete network of railways. All the llnrs of 
 linden are property of tin' stiile, giving a dividend, 
 on the eapitillexin lldiil, ipf abiPNC I.I per cent. Ill 
 Ilie year iHii.'. tiie grip>"< iiii'oiiie Ironi railways 
 nmoii ited III t;,0'.'7.ti;i7 llnrilis; and Ibe expen- 
 diture lo .'l.li Itl,'.':i8 tloriiis. leaving a siir)pliis of 
 '.VlN|,.-t!l<l lloriiis, or l!)|,i;')|/. The accounts of tliii 
 income aiiit ex|iendiiiiri' of the state railways, an 
 well as of the post ollli'c, are iiol eiileretl ill the 
 geiicral biidgi '. but fipriii a speiiiil fiiiiil. 
 
 //M/ori/.— HiipIi'Ii, an old prov. oi tlic tlernianirt 
 enii ire, was er<«'tcd into a grand duchy at I bo 
 ('liiignsN of V i. una. ill Ih|.'.. TIh' rii).;iiiiig iMinily 
 ile^ii'iiiU from llcrtbipid, liiiidgrii\e i.l| /hbriiigi II, 
 one of the iniwt (Miwerfiil ami iiicritiprippu-i fiimilies 
 of the mil eelltliry, wIiohc wHI acipiired llie dis- 
 Irirt of lliiili'ii. Margrave Augii..tuslicorL;'' uiiiied 
 all the p. •"eM^iiPllN of the two bouses of ll;iili'll Mild 
 Diirlacb, and received, by the treaties at l.iiiiev ilUi 
 and I'resbiirg, as additions, the bishopric of ('oii- 
 staiiie; tbi' Austrian llreisgaii ; part of the palii- 
 liniite of the bishoprics of Spire, St rasluirg, and 
 llasel; Ibe county of llanaii l.ichleiiberg ; tbe 
 (Irtetiaii; Ibe island of IMeiiiaii in the Lake of 
 ("oiistance ; seven free imperial cities; a inirt of 
 the estati'sof the Ttutonic order, and nine abbeys; 
 together witli Ibe Novereignly over seven inedi- 
 ali/.ed nobles of the emjiire. with a terriiipry of ii7 
 srptienn. in., and •-'■J-.'.nnn inbaiiiiants. Tbe reign- 
 ing (iranil Duke Frederick siicceedi'd his fallier 
 ill l«.V.', ami married, in l8,jli, u daughter of King 
 Williain of rrussia. 
 
 Haiikn, ulown and celebrated bathing-place of 
 Lower Austria, on Ibe F.. bank of an alllueiit of iliu 
 Danube, at the «ntraiice of a line valley. III m. 
 SSW, Vienna. Kesidellt po)i., with ibe neigh- 
 boiiriiig townships of (iulteiibninii and Weikcrs- 
 (hirf l,l."i(l in I8.'»7. It is increased during tho 
 summer months by Il.tltlO visitors, amongst whom 
 are usually tbe einiiemr and oilier members of the 
 imperial family. 'I'lie presence of mineral springs 
 here wiis known to the anciciit.s. by whom ibey 
 were called Aiiiki- Cutiii; from tbe neigbliipuring 
 mountains; and in I7lii>, when the modern baths 
 were constructed, Ibe ruins of a IJoinan vapipiir- 
 batli and other buildings were discovered. There 
 are It! baths, each ea]uible of at once accoiniuo- 
 duling from M to IlKt persons. 
 
 Th(! waters, according to ilie analysis .if Volta, 
 cdiitain sulphate and muriate of soda, sulphate and 
 carbonate of lime and magnesia, sulphate of alu- 
 mina, and considerable qiiantilies of carlionio 
 and bydrosiilphuric acid giwits : their tempcraturi! 
 varies" from 88° to 1)8° Fab. Next to the baths, 
 the most remarkable buildings are, St, Stephen's 
 Church, tbe palace of the Arclnliikt! Anthony, the 
 town-house, and theatre. Then; are many well- 
 built private bouses; several hospitals and other 
 charitable institutions; and a lunidsome park and 
 )iiiblic (ironu'iiade : tin; neighbourhood abipiinds 
 with natural beauties, and contains various ancient 
 remains. 
 
 llADKV, a town (pf the grand duchy of Itailen, 
 famous for its hot baths, usually called liadeii 
 Itadeii, to distinguish it from the watering-place 
 of the same name near Vienna, romantically situ- 
 ated in the Middle Khine ( ircle, 21 m.'SSW. 
 Carlsruhe. Pop. 7,734 in 18lil. It was foniierly 
 the constant residence of the margraves of liaden, 
 and the grand duke still usually passes the sumnur 
 in a \'illa here. The mineral s|)riiigs were well 
 known to, and apprecijited by, the IJomniis, who 
 planted a cohniy in if, and gave it the name of 
 Civitas Aurvlia A<iutnKts. The springs, thirteen 
 in number, burst out of the rocks at the foot of 
 the castle terrace. The teniperatiire is not atlecled 
 by the 8ca.soiis : the hottest arc i}49 Keiiumur, 
 
 V 
 

 'H' 
 
 ilu> ciiIiIcmI ;I7°, a liniiilriiini' Imllrliii;;, in form of 
 a li'in|il<<, \n (Tct'ti'il over I In- lr»itn>)iji, iw lln' 
 tiriiirijiitl KpriiiK In 4'itll('il. Dr. (iriiiixillr, K|i<'iik 
 liiU oi IIiIn Hjirlnt;, "/i^ >>— * 'I'lii' wairr l> |H'rlri'ily 
 v\vM, \u\» n t'liiiii luiiiniil Hiiifll, II IiimIc Notncwlint 
 NiiliiMli.iiml mIii'm ilruiik nnir i>wiii"< I'rcini ili<"<|iriii|{, 
 ii|i|>riMii'liiiiK to iluil of wriik lifiilli,' AiToriliiiK 
 to II ri'i'i'iit iiiiiilyHii*, iiD M|H'i'iii(' ^riivily ix I'Oilo, 
 A |iiiil of llii' wiiirr, (!(iiiiiiiiiiii^ 'I'W'xi KriiiiiN, roii 
 liiiim 'i;V',\ Moli.l iMMticr, rlii> iiriiicijinl iiixri'ilii'iii of 
 wliii-li Im I'liliiiiiry or I'oniiniin niiIi (lil^rx,); ilii' 
 next ill iMi|>or(iiiii'<< an- ilu- Hiil|ilinlf, iniiriitli' iiml 
 I'liriioiiiiii' of liiiic iii^ grH.) ; ilii' n'liiMiiiili'r con 
 NJ^.iH III' II '•iMiill |ioriioii of tnii^'iii'Nia anil of inni'H 
 
 III' iron, Midi alMnii liall' a I'lihii' inrli ornirl ir 
 
 mill KiiM in iiililidiin. 'I'liiri' ix lirri- no |iiililii' 
 liiiililiii^ n|iiiro|iriait'ili>.\rln!<i\i'ly to iln' |inr|iimi'o|' 
 liiilliiiiK. 'llii' watrr In ioiivi'mmI liy |ii|it'F* to ilic 
 ililViTi'iit lioii'JM, in wliirli lliiTi' iiri' nnnn'roiiN 
 tialliN, Hoiiif III' ilii'iii' lii'in^' vrry lii\iiriiiiitl\ lltlnl 
 ii|i. Itaili'ii-ltadi'ii U oni' of ilii' nioHt ln'iiiiii- 
 fillly Hiliiiilril ol' ilir Oi'rniiiii IkiIIim, ovi'II hiiiiuinm- 
 iii;;, in iliiH rrN|M'ri, ijir NiiNHnii llninni'ii, 'I'lii' 
 Hiirroiniilint; roinitry, witlioni llii' Hiilirnnity ami 
 Kriiiiili'iiir of Swit/rrltniil, Ih iliNtin^niiflii'il liy a 
 lili'iiniiip; anil roinaiitif wililni'NN, ami Ih, iim it wi'ri', 
 n |iri'lnili' to llir AIjm, July ami AiikiimI iirr tin- 
 Ni'iixoii wlii'ii till- liiiiliM ari> inimt frnini'iili'il ; Imt 
 vixiiorM, to till' annual niinilicr of I'roni r.',iMiii to 
 '20,0110, niiiii> ami ^n Iroin May lotti'iolifr. 'I'lirri' 
 art' II iininlii'r of lianilHoini' linililin^'s.ainon); wliirh, 
 ItCKiilcM till' li'iii|ili' ovi'r till' t'ru/iiiiiiji, till' Ciinnr- 
 miliiinnhiinn, with ilH iilaiitalioiiH, in <'onM|iii'iions. 
 Till' iliin^fonH iiiiilrr llii' AVi/i' SiIiIohh, or luilarf, 
 art* Nii|)|HHi'il III liavK Ihtii tlii< Ni'at ami priNoiiH of 
 Hiiiiii> Hi'iTi't mill ilrrailfiil Iriliniial; Imt noliiint; 
 i-rrlain ii* known of tlicir liiNiory. 
 
 IIaiikn, a town of Swit/.iTlaiiil. rant. Aari;iiii, 
 on tlii> li'fl hank of llii' Liininat, 1 1( in. Nl''., 
 Aarini, rop, 'J,!K10 in jHDO. It is Niirroiimli'il liy 
 walU; bi Ilii; wat of a Irilninal of original jiiri.s- 
 ilii'lion ; Iuim a pmil town-lioiim', a lianiisoinr 
 Calliolic I'linri'li, two ronvi'iiiM, an lioM|iiial, nml a 
 lioiiHi' of I'orri'i'tion. 'I'lii' rivi-r is croM.-nl liy a 
 wooiti>n liriilK'f. Iliiiti'ii U ri'ii'liratril for itH Imt 
 liatliH, known to tlii> Itoinanx liy llir iinnir of 
 Tlurma' t/i'li't-tlviv ; llicy art' at a ftlmrt ili.-ilaiu'i' 
 from llic town, on lioili hIiIi's tlic rivrr: llir wiitiT 
 in liic liotlcst liatliM lias a li'ni|n'riitnrf of ;17° 
 Iti'ainnnr: tlii'V an- inni'li fri'iinintnl liy tlii' inlia- 
 liilantN of lliiHcl ami /iiricli. 'I'lii' I'lixiroiiH an' 
 vi'ry lii'iiiilifnl ; ami a ninnln'rof line rot taucs for 
 till' iini' of stniiiKi'rs arc nrattrri'il ovi-r tlu' m'ij;li- 
 lionriiif; lii'i^flilH, 'I'lic ili'imtii's of tlir Swis.s nin- 
 tons iiavo ofti'ii lii'lil tlii'ir ilicts at Hailcii. 'I'lii' 
 Iri-aty lii'twci'ii I'Vani'i' nml the Miniiiru in 1711 
 viiM Hi;;n«'<l In^ri!. 
 
 1IA1>IA, a town of Aiixtrian Italy, jirov, I'olo- 
 nina, on tlm Aili^*', l»j ni, W. liy N. l{ovi;;o. l'o|i, 
 4,!t7(t in iH.">7. It lias n tlni- liridfic ov«r tin' AiIIk*', 
 ami two I'onvi'iitH for monks; with a mnnnl'ais 
 fiiri' of cartliciiwarc, anil sonic traiio in I'orii, silk, 
 lirrwooil, tlax, and li'Htlicr. 
 
 l!AllOl-AT(t, a town of Sontlicni Italy, pro v. 
 Calalirin Ultra, 24 in. S. Cntiin/aro, sitnatcil on a 
 liill near the m-a. I'op. I.O.V.' in iNfil. 
 
 HADONVILLKIf, n town of Franrc, ilip. 
 jMi'iirtlic, on the IHetti-, 20 m. V.Sll. Liinovilli'. 
 I'op, 2.711 in IHtil. It has a mnnnfactory of 
 awls, whii'h proilnccs nliuut 1,00(1,(100 u year, with 
 falirii's of i-otton and earthi'iiwaro. 
 
 J{AK< 'A, a town of Spain, prov. .Jacn, 2(» m, \E. 
 Jai'ii. Poji. 11,7115 in lNa7. It is Hilnatcd on a 
 liill, in a fcrtilt' and cxti-iisivc jilaiii; has j;oo(l 
 Htrci'ts and sipiarcs, one of the latter liein^ adorned 
 with n superb fountain. Anions the principal 
 public buildings are the Uuthic cutliedral, tiie col- 
 
 hakfin'h hay 
 
 li'lfrii of the .Ji'Niiiti) and of ihc oratory, Ihe i'liii|.i| 
 of the am irtit iiiii\i'r'<iiy, and the priniiii, || in,, 
 a i'o||i'){iaie I'linrrh, xcvrral pariiili i liiinliia. „„ | 
 I'liiivi'iiin lor boih ni'Xi'it, iliri'c lionpit.ilii, nn iimi,, 
 iiileal mii'iciy, and •mine laniii'ricM, llai'i;a i< aiii, 
 
 ptiHi'd to iH'i'Opy till' site of llir limiilil llnilia ■ 
 and It Uim the rrxidilire of ni'Veral MonrMi kliL-.. 
 ha>iii|{ Ih'i'Ii Mri'xird I'roiii tin' liiitir in I'^.'s, .\, 
 this epiH'h its |Hipnlalion in xnid to have niii>iiiiit,,| 
 III l.'iO.iioO; bill thin !'< probably an eMiu:i,i'riiij,,|,, 
 The blKlioprii', of which it wni once the ovni, h.i, 
 triiii'<ferreil |o .lacii in 12 |M; and iim uiiiM'rhiivluii 
 
 also been siippresKi'd. 
 
 IIAKNA (an. Cimtnt r/w/nwi). a town uf Mimin, 
 iirciv. rordova, 211 ni, SI''., t'ordova, on tin' \|„r 
 liclla. I'lip. (tiixMi and districij I I,)'i07 in Im.'i;. |i 
 has four parish clnirches and live convciiiH, 'rii,r, 
 are, in lis environs, very prodnclive salt ininit, 
 
 IIAI''I''A (an, I'litihon), n sea port town i.n \\v 
 S\\, coast of the i'^land of Cvpriis, Int. Ill" i; ju 
 N., lon)f. 112*^ 2ti' 20" v., Tim iiiconsiilcriilili'iiiwn, 
 not coiiiaiiiini; more than l.ooo inliiih,, miiiiii, , 
 Ihc site of the I'amoiiM raphim of aniiipiiiy, i>|ii,h, 
 after liciiii; destroyed several limes, »as nliiiili Ly 
 AiiKMstiis, and was thence called /I Hi/»iihi. Iinrin;' 
 the occupation of Cyprus by the \'i iictialii. IIhII.i 
 was a lily of considerable wealth and iiii|Hiri;iiiri, 
 It is iiow nearly deserled, and Is lllled uiih ||„. 
 mills of chiii'i'hes and palaces lliat are evfrvwliirc 
 criiniblin|{ to the (^rmiind. The bay is luru'e: Imi 
 the port, commamled bv a castle on the liiiiili, U 
 shallow and iinsal'e. ( avc . or railur dui llin;,-- 
 places, have been cut in several of I he rnik-. in 
 the nci^diboiirhood, some of which are iiiliiiiijinl. 
 The country round Haifa is friiilhil, and prmliiiTH 
 considerable supplies of corn, coiioii, nml >llk, 
 
 < >ld I'liphos is supposed to have slood iilmiii i; ni, 
 HK. of I'aphos or IlaiVa, nl a little distanci'lriiinilii' 
 sea. It was the favourite residence of Venus, Itirn 
 /Mifi'im (I//)/-/. the place where the sea-lMini piiMi-* 
 lirst took lip her abodi', and was I'iiiiioih I'diii a 
 very remote e|iocli for its temples appropriiili'il i>i 
 her Worship, and for llie rites and prniiviiMH 
 
 Iierfornied l»v her votaries. Hence the i-iiillicM 
 'apliian ami Cyprian applied to Venus:— 
 ' t) VeiiiiM, reifliiii (liiidl I'liiihlipic, 
 i^pcriu' (Id'cuim Cyprun.'- - 
 It is worthy of remark that, accordiiiif to Tmi- 
 tiis, Ihc ^joildcss was not represented at l'ji|iliiu 
 under the human liK>iie, but under that nl'iicuni, 
 (Ilisl. lib. ii, § ;l.) There Were also liiii|il(> anl 
 altars where sacrilices were olVered to llic j,'i»Mi" 
 in New I'aphos. The ollice ol hin'li ■pric^l nl' llic 
 I'nphian N'cniis was both lucrative aiiil ImiiiMir 
 able. Ill proof of this it may be nieiiliiuii'il, ikii 
 when Ciito was sent to Cyprii.', he reprc^'i'iiti'ii in 
 I'lolemy that if he snbniilted without I'lKlitinK, >>i' 
 should not want either for moiiev or luiiiniir*. |i>r 
 the Koman people would make iiini ;;raiiil |irir<i 
 of the raphian Venus. (Larelier, iMciiniiri! >ur 
 Veinis, p. 12.) 
 
 HAKKIN'S or nVLOT'S HAY, n liirKo iiilanl 
 sea, between (■reeiihmd and the NK. vm>l il 
 America, belweeii «)«'' and 70° N. hit., inuj V^' 
 and «0° W. loni,'. It extends, from SK. to \\V.. 
 about Jt.'iO 111.; its width varyiiif,' I'ruiii 'Xi» m 
 somethin^; less than 100 ni. at its N, ciul, in 
 surface may therefore be estiinaied nl ill"'"' 
 2(!<i.000 H<i. "m., an area exeeedin^r by ninrc lli.iii.n 
 half that of the Bailie. In fact, hnwivir, it is 
 iniich hir^er even than this; its natiiral l«'iiii- 
 daries beiiif^ evidently Cape Farewell, tlie S. |i('int 
 of Greenland, and Cape Climlleij;li, on the o'l-i 
 of Labrador, both nearlv on the (lOth parallel, .wl 
 respectively in lo" aiid M° \V. loii;;. Tiikiii.' 
 iliese for it's dimensions, its surface will ammiiii i' 
 ITilsOOO sq. m.; but it is usual to take I'nr its limin 
 
 ■lli:,'ll 
 
 ;irl> 
 
 l.llllii 
 
 mil 
 
 llll 
 
 Mil 
 
 llllivilllllll 
 
lofV, th«< rhll|«t 
 
 li I liiin III"), nil I 
 
 |lil,ll>, nil I'lKllr. 
 
 lllH'l.'ll i' "111' 
 lUirii'lit Ifiiiliii i 
 i MniiflOl kliv. 
 
 ti r in \t:x. Ai 
 
 I liitvt' niiiiiiiiiiul 
 nil rxiljfi,iriilii.ii. 
 
 lilt' llll' "lilt. W.H 
 
 itM uiiiviTKhy liiK 
 
 , (I liiwii iif S|.iiiii. 
 )\H, nil llir M.ir 
 
 A, Ml ill l^'iT. 1 1 
 riilivi'lilK. Iliiri' 
 livi' xitll liiiliiK, 
 iiiirt li>»ii nil ill" 
 i,H, liii.:U" i::'"' 
 
 irollHiilrnilili'tiiUM, 
 II) iiiliilli.. iK'nijih < 
 
 riiiniiliiiiy.wliicli, 
 licit, \Mi» rilmill !■> 
 il AmjiiHld, Itiirii .; 
 ir V( iirtiiiii". IliiH.i 
 til mill iiii|iiirl,iih'. 
 l„ lillnl Willi 111'' 
 liiit lire cvrrywIiiTi' 
 ,. liny in liirni'; liiil 
 lie nil llif iMiiiii. U 
 ,r riiiln'i' ilwilliii,' 
 nil of till' riirk> ill 
 liirli nil' liiliiiliitiil. 
 liil'iil, iiu'I I'riiiliiiTi 
 'oitiiii, mill ^ilk. 
 iivi- hIiiimIiiIiiiiiI tlni. 
 lli'irwtmiii'iniiiiilii' 
 
 H'lUTIlf VllllH. /'"" 
 ;|H> HCIl-lMiril Hlvllll«-< 
 
 wm* fmiiiiiiK I'""' !» 
 (ilcH iiinintriiiiiil 111 
 
 Irrt mill |iriin»iiilH 
 
 llfiiii' III*' I'll"'"'* 
 to Vciiu^:— 
 
 II riijililuiu', 
 
 •nil.' 
 
 .^ llCfonrMlf,' toTliri 
 irVxrllli'il 111 I'lll'li"- 
 llllilrr tlllll 111' II "'II'' 
 |-,. alnn H'lllplf' ill^'l 
 
 IVrctl I" llll' p"l'l'" 
 il lii^ili-)'"!'"' "' ''"■ 
 rntivc iiml li'iin'iif 
 !((• nii'iitii'iii''!'''''" 
 ;. lie ri|irri"'iii''il I" 
 witliiml rinliliiik'. •»' 
 jmu'V or Imii'iiir'' I"' 
 L- iiini Hfi""' I'"' "' 
 Ircliur, Mt'inomi Mir 
 
 r.\Y, n liirjjo iiil.iivl 
 Il tiif Nl'",. I'l'ii'i "' 
 Troo N. Int., mill •':^ 
 , t'riiiii SK. tiiNW" 
 
 lirvinK If""' •'■'"'" 
 At its N. iii'l. "^ 
 
 Ltiiniiii'il «t "'""" 
 llinij; liv miiri> Hum 11 
 
 1 fai't, liowt'Vi r. 11 w 
 
 I. its iialiiral Imiiii- 
 
 Kircwi'll. till' S. l»'ii« 
 
 lii.'i^jii, "">'»•;■'*■', 
 
 111. tioili iiJirulli'l. nil'' 
 
 \V. liiiiH- ''"''"'- 
 
 Jirl'iicc will iiniouiii i" 
 
 ItotakfiWi^li""" 
 
 IIAKKIN 
 
 ihiiM> tlrvt nuiilitnril, ili<> mliliiioniil N, iwrt In<Iii^ 
 ,1, iinitiiii'ii"''' l''ivi«'t 'Hiriiii. (Arriiwiiiiili'i* ,\iiii«, 
 |! Ill; Itallln'n Vi>y. 1 I'lin liiiKp* rilnriiii". lii. Hll - 
 i.|M; 'h<»»* Kiwi >'«)>•., iM-Klli Vuny'n V\rM 
 
 \,iv.. •'-•i"*-) 
 
 JiliHJrni illKCiivrrv hnx Khi.wn tlint llii> NK. nti<l 
 \ ', .i«»i"< "f AiiH'ri'ii. It" I'lir iiH I '.MP" W., Mf liriikcii 
 jiiiH intiiiiiii'riilili' i«lmiilx, niiil iliiit Hiitlln'M Itiiy it 
 iMiiiii'i'inl vviili iiilicr ^rriii liiii'riiiil >(■<"''*'• "'"''> 
 
 n. I lull III' lloiii Ilia (ItiiMMH Hi ml \'iiy., !).'l-l l)i). 
 
 iiiiil llll' liirjfiT ImikIii III' lliiilMMirM Hay (I'urry 'i Sr- 
 i.Hiil Viiy.. ■.'•I7-.'H7), ami iil»ii with tin' I'nliir Sni, 
 
 lI'iirrVK Fir'<l Vny,, '.'H-a'.'.) 'I'lir Irrill Mnlitir 
 
 ,fi»ri/N I'liiiiK'i III' ilirn I'lirr jiriijii'rly a|i|iliril in iliiii 
 ^rnil i'\|iiiii«<' III' wiitiT, nIiii'i', liir^i' ai* il i«, il In 
 ii|ll\ iilK' llllliill^ 1) IIIIIIiIhT nl' I'linriimilN (.'IiII'm ill till' 
 
 •liiu'iiliiHv inrtiiniiH I'liaiiiii'l I'liiiiii'cliii^ llic N. At - 
 liiiiiii' mill llll' Arrlir nci'niw. 
 
 llll' wilier III' iIiIn liay ntiaiiiN n KTt'nt ilrplli, llii' 
 niiixiiiiiiiii lii'iii^ l.ll.'ill I'lilliniiix, anil llili wim t'niiinl 
 III ii'i^'ri'iit iliNiiiMir rmiii llll- liiml in lal. 7'."^ '.'.'I' 
 
 N,. Iiilltf. 7.1'^ 74' \V. 'I'lli' linllnin lllllnl, linWi'ViT, 
 
 Im' I'Xiri'iiM'ly tniiiinhiiiioiiN, Hiiiri' Mt in, I'lirilH'r N, 
 Il itiii ri'iii'lii'il in I'.'O ralliniiiN, 'I'liv Imtiiuii in 
 Ixili rii<i'K wiiM niml ; Mini tlimij^li, I'miii tlir nTvnivr 
 i|''|iili, iirrniirM', nriilii'r in.'trct iinr nrumiir niiiMrr 
 Hill iiriH'iirnl, vi'l a Hinall Htar-liNli uiim Iniiml 
 !,iii'kiiit( III llll' liiK' lii'liiw till' jiniiil niiirkiiiK i^oo 
 liiiliiiiiiK, mi t'xlrtiiinliiiary ili'|iili I'nr lil'i' in iIiIn 
 Int., if III*' rrt'iituri' witi' lirmi^'lit iiji I'miii llii' 
 |Hiilil imlirnti'il. (Kiim.h'h First Vny., ItH, I'.l'.'.) Ill 
 ililliri'iil |iiirlN, I'arry rninnl im lintinin in 2iii) 
 liiiliiiiiiii mill ''till I'lilliniiH, wliilt' ill nilicrN his Irail 
 
 ri'iulii'il tlic Kfol'ixl ill -I'll t'lltlinlllN, I'jr* rallinlilN, 
 
 mill I'.'ii ratiiiiinx, lli> iiIhii, in a IiIkIi laiitiulf 
 
 i:U°), I'liiniil till' ili'jitll til lie l.oril) till lintllH, lint 
 III' miiiKiiicil tliMl Ino iir 'JOO fallinins nIiihiIiI Ik' 
 nlliiwiil nil thin lor ilril't nnil nwi'll. (Kirnt Vny,, 
 oN'.'il, (10.) 'I'lid ti'inju'ratiirc of tlii' water is, 
 ill iiiniini'r, t'roin 'i'^tolio lower lliaii that of the 
 air ill till' xliaile; nnil this tciii|ii'raliirc ili'crcasi'H 
 niili till' ili>)itli. It. wonlil Hi'i'in, however, that 
 till' Imiiiim tiiiiil is iiretty iniii'nnnly at •2'.»° or 
 •Jli,i°. (I'lirry's First Voy., 27 ; Ifoss's First Voy., 
 A|i|ii'ii., i;i;i,) The nioiith nf this liay or sea lieiiiK 
 iiiniinls the ,SK., that is, lowanls the a|i|iroa('h nl' 
 llll' liilal wave, titles are, of eniirse, ex|ierieiieeil 
 ill its \s liters; hut they ilo not a|i|i('ar to rise to 
 iiiiy ^ri'iit lii'i>,'lit, esjieeialiy towanls the N. Six 
 llll iirN I'eet seeins ahiiiit the averaj,'!'. (IJoss's 
 KiM Vov., 'II, (•< /MiHM.; Parry's First Voy., 27, et 
 imm,) The nieltiii)r of the vast masses of snow 
 iiiid ire liriiiliiees very sensilile ilitfereiiees in the 
 ii{i|ii'iiraiii'emiileoiM|iosilinii of these waters : iiniler 
 Mirli ilillili'iiee, tliev heeonie tiirliiil ami of a ilirty 
 liniwn I'liliiiir; their jjravity tliininishiii^, at the 
 Niiiii' tinie, very niateriallv,' so that the oliserved 
 ixirimi's in .liily, IH|;», w'ere l't)2lll anil IDMKl. 
 ll'iirryV First Viiy., 7, 2H.) Strong,' enrreiits. set- 
 tin;' luwnrils the S., are cxperieneed in Davis's 
 Mraiiii; anil il was this faet wliieh leil to the lie- 
 lirf tlint Itiillin's Hay was not lioiiinleil by land 
 ii|iiin the N., as marked liy its intelligent diseo- 
 virrr; liuf would yield a direct jiassiijie. in the 
 MiiiiiiU'r, to the Ari'tic Sea. (lioss'sOtlicial Instr., 
 Hm Voy., i(.) ; hut these currents were found not 
 "Illy toiliininish in intensity with increase of lat., 
 I'lit even to run N. in the uiiper jiart of the hay 
 li'iirry's First Voy., ill) ; while the continuity of 
 liiiiil rminil lliehay-liead was fully demonstrated hy 
 111'"*, who, in \H\H, followed very iiearlv the ideii- 
 iiial truck which UatKii had sailed over 21)0 v«'"rs 
 I'lfiire. (First Voy., 1 WA, et/MtHa.) Ualliii's liny is full 
 III iiiileataliims upon lioth its coasts, hut oiily one 
 I'liiitiimiiiis channel has heen discovered; this is the 
 >^irJ.Lmm!itpr'ii iSomw/ of Uatlin, to thei'oiitinii- 
 aiiwi of which to the I'olar Sea, i'arry' gave tlii; 
 
 •H HAY MS 
 
 imnie of narrow's .Sirnlt. (Kiml Vny., f>'I,) Il ntn* 
 \V. frnni hit. 7 I";!!!'.! ' N., Ioiik, "h" V \V. It !• now 
 in the hiuhi'si di'Kn'e iiinimlialili' ihiil ai y 'I'liir 
 niiili'i Nhoiild exlxi from iliis hay in any direriion. 
 There are Imi few ishindo in tlit'se waters, jtiKco, 
 
 nil the F. nst, in lal. 7n" N., hanr. M-> W. (iiuan), 
 
 is a I'linisli whaliiit; siatinii; and Hare or Way- 
 untl Isle, a little N. of the former, has a<i|iiirril 
 
 snme celelirity MS llie place M here one nf the llinxl 
 lllnilern eXjierlnienlt was made to determilu llie 
 elllplieily nf the ciirlll. The lU'eelefillinll nl the 
 peliilliliirn lielweeil l.nndnu mill llli-i plliee \MH 
 
 il.i'2'lMil viliriiiinns in a mean »nliir day, slmwiiin " 
 diniiiiiitinn nf gravity fmm pnle in i'i|iiainr, ei|iiiil 
 In ■iMi,'i,'i|;i!), and a cnmprensioti of the pnlar iinIh 
 eipial to , i||^|, (I'arry 's First Vny,, Aiijien.. liiil.) 
 The Imid in the tiei^rliliourhond is niniiiitiiiuniis, 
 and in the last de),'ree luirreii ; wood is tniidly 
 alisent, and the few pliiiits thai are fnuiid are nf 
 the Inw ^rouiiif,', hardy kind, lilted to eiidnre the 
 
 illlellse cnid nf tlie-e ri'>;inU'«, (IIom.i'h First N'ny., 
 
 Apiien., Ill-Ill; I'arry 's Fir'-t \ oy„ /«/n».) The 
 cniilpni-ilinn nf llie rucks is \ery varinlls, hut uitll 
 ail iniiiieiise prciinuilcriiiice nf nid I'nnnaliniis 
 (Kraiiilc and gneiss) ; Inuevioiie is fniuiil, hiii imt 
 aliundanily ; and triipfi/>/i('(/n) In I'nrm a \ery elia- 
 racterislic feallire nf these sllnres. Itilsall occurs; 
 ami rnck nf evcrv kind is hrnii^hl dnwii on the 
 
 tlnatill;,' ice. (>l'('ullnch's I'lllier; l;nsf,'s First 
 Vny., Aliiieii., ril)-.'<2; Parry's First Vny., 2i'., it 
 IMiHK.) 'rlie hints and aiiiiiials are tlinsc nf the 
 arctic ri';;iiins neiiernlly ( lidwiird's I'liper; Ifnss'H 
 First Vny,, ll-til) ; ami in llie waler llie whiilo 
 and seal are parlienlarly iiiiiiieroiis. Parry, hy 
 shouiii;; the possiliilily of cin'.Miim- throii^h tho 
 ice, which always occupies the leiitre of the hay, 
 jierlnrnied an important service in the whalers, 
 whose tisheries had hefore heen cniililied to tliii 
 coast of (ireeiilaiid, where the whales are fewer in 
 niimlicr, and inferior in iiiiality to those met with 
 oil the American shore. (First Voy., |H-2;i. 2!t.) 
 The discovery of a NW. passa>;e to India lian 
 lieeii a favourite project for iiinre than three ccii- 
 turies. In this atleinpl. .Sehastitin ( 'ahot led the 
 way ill I l!»7, when he a|i|irnached this sea as nearly 
 as the .')r<th parallel of lal. lie was I'nllnwed hy 
 Marl in Fmhislier, who, hetwcen li')7ll and I.'iTA, 
 maili' three vnyaffes I'nr the same purpose, eiilercil 
 liclwcen the shores of (Ireeiilund and Ainerlca. ami 
 ^ave his name to the strait hetwcen Itcsnlutioii 
 and Cumherlanil islands, .lohii I>avis, heiweeii 
 loM.'i and l.")«7, made three voya>,'es, and prncecileil 
 as liirli as l'i«° N, hit. ; his iianie is very prnperly 
 preserved in that ]inrtinii of the sea which he tra- 
 versed ; hut the tenn strait (Havis's Stuait) in 
 not very apiiropriately ajiplied to it, the narrowest 
 part of the sea lieiii); Hill m. across. Lastly, in 
 Kilii, Itoliert Itylot, or Hilett, commanded an ex- 
 peditinii, tilted out hy iirivate adventurers, for 
 similar discovericH. Hatlin was pilot of this ship; 
 and the result was the explnration of the Imv to 
 its very head, and the ascertaiiiini; of all its points, 
 sounds, and hearings, with a precisinii that has not 
 heen improved, excejit in the correction of somo 
 errors of hmf^itiidc. ISylot ami ItalHn not liavin;; 
 heen followed hy other navi;,'ators for more than 
 200 years, sus|iicions liejj,aii to he entertained as to 
 the authenticity of their statements ; and Ilallin's 
 Hay (N. of 08°), if not actually struck out of the 
 cliarts, was laid ihiwii in the f^reater nunilier as 
 doulitfiil. There never, however, was any prohahlo 
 j^round for this discredit ; and late discoveries have 
 shown how unjust it was, and have placed the 
 names of Hattin and Pylot in the lirst class of en- 
 teriirisin^,; and trustwnrthy navifjators. (Ilakliivt's 
 ('olU'ct. Vov., iii. (;-!>, 2!»-!)li, !tH-ll!>; Purchas's 
 Pilyrinis, iii. 831-8'l«, &c.; Uoss and Parrv, /m.s-.«.). 
 
 Y 2 
 
 
824 
 
 UAFRA 
 
 li .^ 
 
 ■I '■ 
 
 n 
 
 -' ' i 
 
 : lii 
 
 !l 
 
 v-(i 
 
 HAFHA, n town of Asintic Turkey, pnch. SivaR, 
 on tliu rifilit l)nnk of the Ki/.il Kmidk, i;) in. nlixvo 
 wluTc it fnlln into tlic llhick Stn ; Int. 41° !I2' /i'2" 
 \., Iiinj,'. ;{(>t> II' I.V K. i;niinml('(ljM>p.alnMit;MI<>0. 
 Itluwiilinc'liridf^canil two nKtsqiius. The onvirons 
 an- fniiiriil of rice and Hax, ami it« bazont arc wiid 
 to Im" well s*ii|i|)li('(l. 
 
 1IA(JI_)A1), an ini|)ortant prov. or padinlik of 
 Tiirki'v in Ania, of a trian^nlar form. Ntrcicliinf^ 
 NVV. from the iKtttom of the IVrsinn (iiilf, in ahoiil 
 •M° to UHO N. Int., nnd lyiiiK liclwccn the Kith and 
 ■l«th dcf^rci! of K. lonfr.,'linvin;c W. and .S. the i;ii- 
 phrntcx nnd the Araliian dcsprt ; K, Kn/isinn, 
 mount Znfiros. nnd the I'cmiim prov. of Azcrliijan ; 
 NW. tlie I'nchalik of Diarlwkr; and N.. Anncniii 
 and tilt! territories of tlie Kurdish tdiief of ,)idn- 
 nK'rick. This immense tract extends over an area 
 of above 1(10,000 sq. m., and comprises the whole 
 of th(! aiieient Hiihi/lotiin nnd Untlihii, and the 
 j;Teater pari of Aum/riu Pro/jcr liud SiiHiiina. I'.x- 
 eepl where it is blinnded on tlie W. by the K\\- 
 phrntes, th(! prov. is traversed in its whole extent 
 iiy this f^reat river and its rival the Tip-is, and by 
 the},'realer and lesser Znb, the Dinln. and other 
 alHnents of the latter. It is natnrally divided into 
 three ])orti()iis, vi/. 1st, the country between the 
 Arabian desert and the Kn]ihrates; 2n(l, that be- 
 tween till' latter and the Ti^cris, the Mvso/Hitiimio 
 of the ancients ; nnd, Hrd, the conntry to tlie E. of 
 th(( Tigris. That portion (>f Mesopotamia .S. of 
 the city of Itaj^dad is now called Iruk-Aruhin. and 
 that to the N. of Bagdad, Ahieziruh, or the island. 
 The soil and appearance diHer widely in dill'erent 
 jiarts. At present its most fertile ])ortion is that 
 silnated between mount Zaj^ros and the Tifj;ris, N. 
 to Mosul. The tract lyiii^ botwen the two grent 
 rivers, one of the richest, best-cultivnted, and most 
 popidoiis rej;ions of the ancient worh' is now, in 
 most parts, an absolute desert, throufjh the mis- 
 pivernnient to which it has been subjected. ' The 
 uii;,dily cities of Nineveh, Babylon, Seleucia. and 
 < !tesiphon Imvc crumbled into dust: the humble 
 tent of the Arab now occnpie.s the spot formerly 
 adorned with the jtalaces of kin^fs; and his flocks 
 ]irocure but a scanty pittance of food, amidst t\\'.- 
 i'nllen frnj^ments of nncient maf^nilicence. The 
 banks of thci Kiiphrates and Tif^is, once soprolitic, 
 are, for the most part, covered with impenetrable 
 brushwood; and the interior of the jirov., whicii 
 was traversed and fertilised by innumerable canals, 
 is destitute of either inhabitai^ts or vefjetatioii.' 
 (Kinneir's Persian I'^mp., p. 2.')7.) The country W. 
 of the Kuphrates is but of limited cxtcn*^, and at a 
 short distimce from the river becomes an arid waste. 
 'J"he climate in the S. jmrts in June, July, and 
 Aufjnst, is excee<lin{jly lot during the day ; but 
 the ni^lits are always cool, and iires are absolutely 
 necessary in winter. Tht prevailiuf; wind is from 
 the XW. The Simoom (see Ahaiiia) is more com- 
 mon at lia^dad than in other [)arts of the prov.; 
 but, in fi-eneral, it is fatal only to stranj^ers, the 
 Arabs beinj;, in m.ist instmices, aware of iis i\\ - 
 proach. It would be easy, wore the {^overnmen., 
 not proverbial for imbecility and ij^norance, to re- 
 store some portion of the ancient prosperity of 
 Mesopotamia. Faw countries are bleat with a 
 finer soil, (tr arc capable of boinj? lultivated with 
 less labour. The iMiphrares and Tif^s, which are 
 seldom more than oO in. apart, approach in tlu; lati- 
 tu<le of IJat^d id to wii hin 20 in, of each other, and 
 nllbrdan inexhan.-iible snpplv of the linest water. 
 They rise twice a year (see EuriiiiATKs), and as 
 the water is then nearly on a level with the surface 
 of tlic (daiii, the irrij^ation, so indisjiensable to 
 countries like this, is effected with the utmost fa- 
 cility. But the insecurity of |>roperty rciidjrs these 
 Advantages of no avail. Under tl.tstupid despo- 
 
 BAODAD 
 
 tism of the Turku, the cultivators, linble nt „i) 
 tiiiKs to have their lields laid waste and ilnir 
 habitations pillaged liy the myrmidons of tlmsc ii 
 power, avoid, as r.iuch as possible, all Miri« ,,1 
 labour. Here, as in all similarly situated coiiniri(~. 
 the natives restrict their tilla^je to the inniicilim,' 
 vicinity of towns and vilhifjes; nnd it isonlvin 
 rare instances, and under peculiar cininnsiui'i,,,. 
 that cultivation is prosecuted on a lar^^i.^ sfiijc, aiiij 
 with anythin;^ like adequate vij{our. Tlie]irii(|ihi< 
 of this naturally fertile rej;ioii are alike variniis 
 and valnabU'. Excellent crops are raiscil uf 
 wheat, barley, rice, maiz>', and other f;raiii,H; ii, 
 bacco, hemp and llnx, cotton, itc, nre ciiliivaicij: 
 dates are an object of much attention, nrercckcincil 
 of a peciiliarlv f^ood (|unlity, and are alni(i>i i^ 
 niiicli prized here as in Ariibia. The nKniniiiiii. 
 in the E. and N. jmrts of the prov. are rcvcrcl 
 with vast forests, consisting priiici|)tdly of onks, 
 whi(,'li furnish the best pill nuts brou;;h't IVdiii tlii' 
 E. The horses of this prov. have been Idin.' rr- 
 nowned. They nre small, beiiif,' seldom niori' tliaii 
 II hands bifih, do(tile, never known to be viciini^, 
 and capable of underpiiiif; a vast deal of fnli;;ii(., 
 The camel, however, is at once the most ('111111111111 
 and most useful of the doinesti<'ated aiiiiiiMis 
 Mules and asses are both met with in coiisi(|ir,ilp!i' 
 numbers; buffaloes nre kept for the sake nf tiiiir 
 milk, and oxen for agricultural imriposes. Aiikhi;; 
 wild animals are lions, panthers, hyenas, jackals, 
 wolves, and wild boars. vVIl sorts of poultry are 
 bred except the turkey : ostriches are foiniil in i\w 
 deserts, and black partridp's nre common mi tiip 
 banks of rivers. There are no menus by wliicli id 
 form any accurate estimate of the imp. nf ihii 
 ]>achalik; but it probably exceeds l,;)(M),i|uii— a 
 number hardly, perhaiis, equal to the )iop. of citlur 
 Nineveh or Babyhni. The |)op. consists of Turks 
 Arabs, Kurds, Turkmans, Armenians, and ,Icws 
 The ))rov, is only partiallj' subject to the I'urii-, 
 The chiefs or sheiks of the Arabs and Knnls, wlm 
 are masters of the whole country beyond tlu' pro- 
 cincts of the towns, nre frequently nt open wnrwiili 
 each other. They are bound to furnish the imclui 
 with a certain number of troops and a certain 
 amount of tribute; but these coiitinp'iits are al- 
 ways very irref^ularly paid : and, in many iiistaiicf.-. 
 the chiefs acknowledge only a nominul depciKlciicc 
 on the I'orte. 
 
 IJa(ji)AI), a famous city of Asiatic Turkey, liJiy 
 the cap. of the caliphate, and now of the alidvi' 
 prov., on the Tigris, about I'JG m. in a direit liiii' 
 from the junction of the latter with the Eiipliriiti's. 
 Lat. 'A'A° VS 40" N., hmg. 41° 24' 4.")" E. I'up. 
 variously estimated, but may probably aiiioiuit to 
 about 90,000, principally Arabs and' Turks. It 
 stands on both banks of the river, whicli is liciv 
 about 620 feet across, but the larger portimi is cm 
 the E. side : thu communication between its nvn 
 divisions is maintained by means of a hriii;;!' vi 
 boats. It is of an oblong shape, is surrouiuiwl liy 
 a high wall of brick and mud, about 5 m. in ciri., 
 tlankcd at regular distances with towers, some nf 
 which, of an immense size, were built by the earlier 
 caliphs. There are 6 gates, 3 on each side tlif 
 river. The castle at the N. comer of the city 
 commands the passage of the Tigris, but is a plaoe 
 of no stren ,ctli. The town is meanly built ; streets 
 so narrow hat where two horseineii meet tliey eaii 
 hardly jia: s each other. The ba/ars, tlimi^'li ex- 
 tensive rod well supplied, are far from liaiiilsmm'. 
 Few o'' the ancient buildings remain ; Imt tlie-f 
 ■ ..- .!.• I'nr .superior in elegance and solidity I" the 
 more modem structures. Of the Conner, tlie iii"st 
 worthy of notice nre the gate of the 'rnli>iiinii; a 
 hifty minaret built in 7)^5; the loinb of Znl'eiil.i. 
 the most beloved of the wives of Ilarmm-al- 
 
rs, Vml)ln at nil 
 iVilHlc mill their 
 itlolis til' tliosc \>\ 
 
 Me, nil wirtH >A 
 iluiilt'iU'niiiitrii-. 
 I) (he iiiiiiii'iliiiii' 
 lUiil it is iiiily ill 
 iir circuinstaiiii., 
 I lurtjcr sciilc, mill 
 iiir. 'I'lif )iri"liiiis 
 ur« iilikc variiiiM 
 IS iin^ riiiw'il III' 
 other urains; In 
 I',, nri' cullivatcil; 
 ititm, nrc rcikmicil 
 111(1 lire ninitisi «> 
 I. 'I'lif niiiimliiiii- 
 prov. aro ciivircil 
 niu'ipnlly i>( miks. 
 t Imiii^lil t'mm ilie 
 mve Iktii Imii.' n- 
 ; seldom niurc tliiin 
 iiowii to lie viiiiiiis 
 list (leal of fali;;iii'. 
 1 tlie most ciiiiiniiiii 
 lestifiiled aiiiiniiU. 
 vitli ill eoiisiiliralili' 
 If the sake ol' tlicir 
 puqioses, Amiiii;; 
 ers, hyenas, jaikiils. 
 sorts of poultry nrc 
 lies are fouiul in tin- 
 ire common on tlip 
 moniis liy wlii'li I'l 
 of the pop. of llii* 
 cceeds 1 ,;J(iO,ilOii-a 
 to thejMip. ofiMtliir 
 ip. consists of 'I'urKs, 
 •meniaiis, and .lew-, 
 iiibject to the I'orti'. 
 •alts and Kurds, \\\m 
 iitry beyond the iw- 
 iitlv atlipenwarwiili 
 to 'furnish the imilw 
 ■ooiis and a ctrlaiii 
 
 contingents arc iil- 
 |d, ill many instanciN 
 
 nominaldeiieiukiicr 
 
 .Asiatic Turkey, kiiy 
 Id now of the aliovc 
 Vi m. in a dirett lim' 
 with the iMiiihraU'^. 
 [lo -it' 40" !•:. l''i|i. 
 probably amoimt m 
 [•abs and Turks, it 
 river, which is lii'i'i' 
 [, lar^;er (lortiim is "» 
 [ion l)etweeii its t\v» 
 lieans of a hriil;;*' "' 
 tpe, is surroiiiiilwl liy 
 [l, about i') m. in n^.. 
 Witli towers, soiiu' "l 
 Ire built by the eiirlior 
 
 3 on each side t"*' 
 I. corner of the niy 
 TiLTii*. hut is a iilaeT 
 nieaiilv built ;str€ds 
 ii.men' meet they can 
 ba/ars, thon;;li ex- 
 far from lianilsiiinc. 
 ts remain ; hm tln'-^ 
 "c and solidity t" m 
 "tlio former, tUc i"'"' 
 I of the Talisniii'V;' 
 be tomb of/..itici'i;i- 
 lives of Uaroinwi- 
 
 HAGNACAVALLO 
 
 llivcliid. Tlic famous Mndreimii Mtixtnn»iToi, or 
 (iilleije fi'iiii'l*"' '" ''-•*•' hv the caliph Mostnimer, 
 mill I'l'iK •''* '"'"^ attended and most ccdclirateil 
 .iiiiiiiary in the I'.., still exists; but ifimHtnin mii- 
 liitiis! It is converted into a klmn or earavansera. 
 anil its olil kitchen into the custoiii-hoiisi'! (Nie- 
 liiilir.) Nothinj^ remains of tlu^ far-famed piilace 
 iilllie oalijilis ; ftiain niinw /leriere ; anil the spot 
 wJiiTo it stood is not even Hs(;ertnined, Tlic only 
 ji.'iiiilsiiinc modern edilice is the tomli niid Mtnc- 
 iiiarv of a famous .Sooni doctor, the patron saint 
 iif till' town, who tloiirislied anno IIei;ira olif). 
 
 lliDidad was recently u jilace of jj;r('at trade, and 
 the resort of merchants from almost every (piarter 
 III' the K. It Hupjdied Asia Minor. Syria, and part 
 III' Kiimpe with Indian commodities, which were 
 iniiHirieil at liassora, brought in l)oats up the 
 'fi^rris.aiid then transported l)y caravans to Toctit, 
 I'liiistaiiliiiople, Aleppo, Damascus, and the W. 
 iiiiris of I'ersiiu The chief imports from India are 
 ;;iilil lirocade, cloths, siipir, pepper, tin, sniidal- 
 ttiKiil, iron, cliina-ware, spices, cutlery, arms, and 
 hrnad cloth ; in return for which they send bullion, 
 <ii|ilH'r, pill-nuts, tamarisk, leather, and olto of 
 fuses. From Aleppo are imported r.uro|)ean silk 
 sliilfs, broad cloth, steel, cochineal, pdd thread, 
 anil several other Kuropean articdes, brought in 
 (ireek vessels to Scand(Toon, The imports from 
 i'lTsia are shawls, carpets, silk, cotton, white cloth, 
 li'Silier, and satl'ron ; and those from Constanti- 
 iiiiple are bullion, furs, ^(dd and silver thread, 
 jewels, brocade, velvets, and otto <tf roses. The 
 liriiieipal manufacture i.s that of red and yeUow 
 ieaiher, which is much esteemed; but silk and 
 eniiiiii stull's are also pnHliiced. Of late years, 
 hiiwever, the trade of the city has a j^ood deal de- 
 1 'lined, in consetpience principally »( the inidiility 
 111' ilie pivernment to repress the attacks and ex- 
 aiiiims of the Arabs. 
 
 The climate, notwithstandinjj its fcrw»t heat, is 
 ailmitled to be very healthy; but the natives arc, 
 wiiliiiiit exceptiitn,"thc nfj;liest jieople in the Turkish 
 einiiire, and art! univcrhally subject to a cutaneous 
 illsiinler simihir to that wliich previiils in iVleppo 
 (wliieli see). In this city, though the former cap. 
 el' the scientilic world, readin;^ ami writiiif; are 
 rare acconiplishinents : and when Xiebuhr was 
 here, there wjls ntit a dealer in bt)tiks in the town, 
 imraiiy means of prticiiriiifr a siiij;le volume. 
 
 liagilad was founded by Al Munsour, second 
 (iilipii tif the Abassides, a.T). 7(!3, and is saitl to 
 liave been jirincipally ftirmcd out of the ruins t)f 
 ilie ancient city of Ctcsiphon. It was f^reat ly en- 
 lar;;cd and athirnetl by the f^rantlsoii tifit.-i fouiiilcr, 
 liie famous llaroun-al-l!aschitl. It ctintinued to 
 llourish, and to be the principal seat of learning; 
 aiiil the arts, till I'io'.), when it \»as taken and 
 ,-;iike(l liy llolakoo,f;raiidsont>f Genghis Khan. It 
 lias since uiiilerjjone various chaiif^cs, aiitl has suc- 
 cessively fallen into the hands of the Persians and 
 fiirks. The latter, however, have helil it since 
 ii'wM, when it surrendered, on capitulation, after a 
 iirave resistance. The term* of the capitulation 
 V ere, that the lives antl proper' v of the inhabitants 
 AmM he saved ; but the bh)otl -thirsty conqueror, 
 Amurath IV., rej^artlless of this convention, bar- 
 liunmsly massacred a larf^e jirtiptirtion of the in- 
 liahitants. It was iiiettectually besicfjed by Natlir 
 Miah. (Kinueir's Persia, pp. •24(;-2.J2 ; Niebuhr, 
 Veya^'C eu ^Vriibie, ii. jip, 2o!J-2i;7.) 
 
 liAtiXA-CAVALLO, a town tif Central Italy, 
 liMv. liavcnna, t)n the Siiiti, 12 m. W. Havenna. 
 l'"!). 13,527 in KStil. It has establisliments for 
 'lie spinniiiu; of silk ; aiul largo tiuautities of hemp 
 are enltivated in its environs, which arc also pro- 
 Jiictivc (if corn. itc. 
 IIAUNA LOUKA, or BANGALUKA, a town 
 
 BAGNKHES-EN-BIOORRE 
 
 32.'i 
 
 of Euro) lean Turkey, in Ihisiiia, on tho Verbas, 
 cap. sanjiak, :M m. 8. Gradiska; hit. 14° .W N., 
 long. 17'':r K. IN^i. estimated at 7,000. It stands 
 in a fertih^ valley, is deft>iitled by a castle, and was 
 for some time the cap. of a pachalik. It has nume- 
 rous mosrpies, two public liaths, a powder manu- 
 factory, whi(di furnishes the best in the country, 
 and various baxars. The inhabitantH art^ partly 
 Turks anil partly (ireeks antl Jews. .Splendid 
 h(irst>s are bretl in the environs of the town, and 
 thriiiighoiit the sanjiak. 
 
 H.UiNAKA, a town and castle of Central Italy, 
 prov. Ilaveniia, on the Santerno, 7 ra, NNVV. Fa- 
 eii/.a. Pop. l,74li in !«<!!. 
 
 llAONAiiA, a sea-port town of Southern Italv, 
 prov. h'eggio, It) m. NK. Heggio. Pop. «..'):17 in 
 iMiil. It has a considerable tra(h! in Muscat wine, 
 ]iro(hi('e(l ill the viidiiity, and in wood and tar. 
 IJagnara snIVered severely from an earthtpiake in 
 17Nlt. It is sup])osetl by some geograjdiers to be 
 the Portiis Orestis of tlit? ancients. 
 
 HAtiXAHICA, a town of Central Ttalv, prov. 
 Viterbo, Hi in. N. Viterbo. Pop. 2,H!I7 in l«i>l. 
 It is situated on a hill, and is the seat of a bi- 
 shopri(\ 
 
 l{A(;XI01{ES-I)l':-LUCIIOX,a town of France, 
 dep. Haute (iaronne, 24 SSW. .St.tiandcns. I'op. 
 ;{,;i7<i in IHtil. It is situated in the beautiful 
 valley of the Luchon, at the ftnit of the Pyrenees, 
 within nluiiit 5 m. of the Sjianish frontier. It is 
 celebrated for its mineral waters, wlii(di, as well 
 as those of Hagneres-en-Higorre, were known to 
 the Romans. The town is increasing and im- 
 proving, and possesses all the establishment.s ))e- 
 culiar to a wcll-fre(|uented watering jdace. The 
 II(")tcl des Thcrines is the principal e(lili(-'o. In 
 winter the climate is very .severe, and the town is 
 (h'serted not nierelv by visitors, but even by n 
 jiortion of its inhabitants. There are nine niiiicral 
 springs, all nf wliich issue from a rock at the foot 
 of the adjacent mountains; their tein|H'rature 
 varies from 2(1° to ri2° of Reaumur; they have a 
 fetid smell, and are said to he very elHcacioiis in 
 a variety of coinjilaiiits. More invalids resort io 
 Ihlgneres-de-Liichon than to either Bagiieres-en- 
 IJigorre or IJoiirges. The season lasts from M;iy 
 till October, and upwards of 1,500 strangers may 
 be accommodated. The avenues of trees leading 
 to the baths are as line as can be imagined. In 
 the neighbourhood of the town, among the- Py- 
 renees, is the wild s(ditarv lake of Seciilcgo. 
 
 I5AGN i:^ RKS-KX-iJlGOHRl':, a town of France, 
 dep. llautes I'yreiiees, can. arroiid., on the left 
 bank of the Adoiir, in a debghtful situation at the 
 entrance to the valley of Campan, and the foot of 
 a lliiely-wooded hill. 1;{ m. SSK. Tarbes. Po|). 
 il.tdit in lS(;i. liagncrcs is the Itath or Chelten- 
 ham of France, and is indebted for its celebrity 
 and importance to its lutt mineral si)rings, wbiidi 
 were known and resorted to by the Roniaii.s. The 
 waters have no peculiar taste, but are aperient and 
 tonic. During spring and autumn the town is 
 crowded with invalids and ]deasure-huiiters from 
 most parts of I'" ranee, aad by« many foreigners, 
 jtarticularly Russians and I'Jiglish. The town has 
 not been built on any regular i)ian, but has in- 
 creased according to the iiiliux of ctmipany. It 
 has stmie good streets, with very excelleiii bouses, 
 and good inns and hotels. Streets well jiaved, 
 clean, and well watered. The iiromenade, called 
 Cuimtoiis, ill the cciilre of the town, is ornaineiited 
 with a fountain ; there an; several delightful drives 
 and iironu.'iiades in the vhdiiity ; and it alsoall'ords 
 the liiiest excursions for i;he botanist, mineralogist, 
 and .be lovers of the picturesque, 'i'bere iire l>< 
 orlwcnls' baths: "I'^acli is under tlu! direction of ;i 
 nieelical inspector, who muiit be cun»iilted before 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 af 
 
C'-Tj 
 
 BAGNOLRS 
 
 iifl 
 
 iiiiv fiiip is prrmittod to rmiiloy ilio wntrrs, lie is 
 (laiil Ity f^ovcriiincnt, nnd thrrcfon' llH'coiisuUntioii 
 fd.Hls iKilliiii;;; niid tlut (>x|)<-nsR of the liiilli i.s not 
 more lliiin n fmiic' (Iiif^liH h Switzerland, |i. 2M.) 
 The |irinri|inl Imth, or tiiat eaUed JJii Salut, is 
 situated in a ravine about \ h-a(;)u^ from the town, 
 lta;^n^res lias n eourt of orif^inal jurisdiction, a 
 (■olle;^e, an h(m)iital, with a theatre, concert hall, 
 and numerous itlaces of entertuiimieiit. It liaM 
 also fabrics of banios (a kind of woollen stulf), 
 linen, ('famines, crajie, and |m|ier. On the road to 
 Tarbes is a moniunent in black ami white marble, 
 in honour of Count Se^ur, 
 
 IlAtiNOI.E!^, a Alla^e of France, d<<p. Onu', 
 iv> a solitary valley, lit m. K. by S. Donifront, 
 'i'his vilhifje, celebrated for its mineral sprinj^s, 
 was built in the I7tli century, tlu! spriiij^'s having 
 been discovered i,i tin? preceiliuf; century. During 
 (he last twenty vears it has been embellished with 
 some new and efepuit buildintfs, and in its envi- 
 rons are extensive plantations that att'ord line pro- 
 menades. In 1M22 an establishment for tin; use of 
 the military' was founded here, eai);d)le of accom- 
 modating; about 2(M) invalids, Tlu tem))erature 
 of the water is about 2t!° centijfrad.'. This is the 
 oidy mineral spring in the ci-devant prov. of Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 HAtiXOLI. a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Sannio. !) m. SW. Trivento, on the declivity of a 
 hill. ro|i. 'l,<!(l^S in iMttl. It has live churches, an 
 abbey, and an hospital. 
 
 liA(;N()L(), a town of Xortlieni Italy, « m. S. 
 Ilrescia, on tbc hi;„'li road from lirescia to Cre- 
 mona, i'op. '2,«!)1 in IHdl. 
 
 Ha(1N(il(), a town of Southern Italy, prov, Prin- 
 eipalo ritra, on the dcclivilv of ^lonte Calvello, 
 !) m, SW. St. An^^elo de Louibjirdi. l'o|). 4,Hl(i 
 in 18(il. It has ft tine collegiate church, and seve- 
 ral convents. 
 
 ISAtiNOLS, a town of France, d(>p. Gard. cap. 
 cant., near the Ceze, on a rock 2') m. NNIO. 
 Nismes. I'o)). ,5.()l!(l in 1K(>1. It is generally 
 
 ill-built, but has a g I s(piare, adorned with a 
 
 ]iuiili(^ fountain. It has a college, an hospital, 
 with (ilaturcs of silk, dye works, hat makers, and 
 tanners. 
 
 JiAGOLINO, a town of Xorthern Italy, jirov. 
 I'rescia, on the CaH'aro. 2 I m. N N I',. IJrescia. I'op. 
 ii.'.i'iO in 18(il. It has several forges for the maini- 
 f u'ture of iron and steel. 
 
 IJAGULCOT, a subdivision of (he district. Dar- 
 war, Kiudiistan, prov. liejapnor, presid. Hombay, 
 including the ])erguniiahs IJagulcotaiid IJadaumy, 
 Si;apo irregular; length M m., breadth 41 m, ; 
 arei! about 1,2:)<I sq. m, I'op, estimated at about 
 ](I0,0()(), It is bouniled N K. by the Krishna river, 
 but is badly watered, as well from the want of 
 rntnnng streams and largo wells, iis the general 
 dcHciency of rain, which in some years does not ex- 
 reed 2(i inches, aquantitj- surpassed in one month 
 of the SW. monsoon near the coast. Garden cul- 
 ture is conseciueutly very limited, and most of 
 the villages are on the banks of the larger rivers. 
 In 1820 these perginmahs contained ."ill) iMliabited 
 townships, including the towns of Hagnlcot, iia- 
 daimiy, Koroor, Senior, and I'erwalee. Under the 
 Mahriittas. who obtained them in 17o;), they were 
 the theatre of violence and rajune; but after their 
 transfer to the British gov. in 1818, a rajild and 
 complete cli.inge took place, and they soon became 
 singularly noted for the absence of crime. 
 
 i!Aoui.<X)T, a town of lliiidnstan, cap, of the 
 above district, and of a pergunnali. Top, estimated 
 nt about '.l,0()(». It is the residence of the princi[)al 
 merchants and bankers. 
 
 15AGIjH, an inland <livision of Ilindostan, aii- 
 cieiitiy described us a seiiarate, though minor 
 
 BAHAMAS (THR) 
 
 prov,, l)ut more recently attached to the pmv. 
 Malwa and Giijrat, In'tween which it lies, in alKnii 
 21° X. lat., and 74 K, long. It consists of n hillv 
 country, tlu^ several ranges of which run X, ami >., 
 decreasing in height from Malwa to Gujr.it. anii 
 mostly covered with thick low jungle t'orcsts mI' 
 teak, black-wood, Ac. It is iiidift'erently wntincl. 
 and the climate for a considerable jiart of iln. 
 year is rettkoned unhealthy. From the (Irst laiiM' 
 the ground is comparatively improdiictive; tlii' 
 digging of wells, &c.. is also attended with i;ri,ii 
 labour and expense, but reservoirs are sometiinis 
 eonstructed by throwing an cnibankmeiit acriM 
 the strcjim of a narrow valley. The |iop. coii:«i>is 
 chielly of HlieeLs and Meenas, under various iiciiv 
 chiefs : many vestiges of antiquity lie scnttcnil 
 over its surface ; but at present this divisiim inii- 
 tains no inhabited places of any importaiur. ex- 
 cept the towns of Doongurpooz, Uauswarra, aiul 
 Saiigwara. 
 
 HAMAJIAS (THE) consist of several hundmi 
 islands, of various magnitiules, extending in a 
 SK. and XW. dire(;tioii, between Hayti ami I'l.i. 
 rida, neailvtidll ni, from Turk's Island, in 2I°l',T, 
 to the Miintaiiilla h'eef, in 27° o(t' X, lat.. nii.l 
 from 70° .SO' to 7!l° .'>' W, long. They are iiiostK- 
 of coral-line formation, low, llat, and but siaiiiilv 
 covered with soil, and the greater number nt tin m 
 uniiihabite<l. They belong to great Itritiiin. si. 
 Salva(U)r, one of these islands, was the tirsi lainl 
 discovered by Columbus, on the 12th of Ort. 1 ,'s:. 
 Like the neighbouring islands, it was (IciimK 
 peo)iIed by Indians, who were harmless and iii- 
 ofFensive. The most important of the group, Iih»- 
 ever, from its harbour ani situation with ri'.<|iir| 
 to the Florida channel, is Xew Proviileiice; ninl, 
 as this is the residence of the governor, the seal "I 
 the legislature, and the head-quarters nf ilu' 
 troops, and as it differs from the oilier islaiil- 
 in no essential degree, we shall eonliiie oiir>cl\i- 
 to an outline of its geograjdiical features anl 
 general ajipearanee, deeming it inuieccssiirv li 
 dwell upon any of the others. It lies in lat. I'l- 
 2'.t' N.. and in long. 7()° .S4' ^\^, and exIciM-^ 
 about 21 ni. from K. to W.. and 7 from X, In S. 
 It is nearly covered with large trees and lirii-1.- 
 wood, and much intersected with tnarslics :«•[ 
 lagunes, A range of slightly elevated hills riiii< 
 .•iloiig a part of the island at a very short lii- 
 tance from the sea; and upon the face el' Ihi- 
 ridge stands Xassau, the capital, and the soat i! 
 government. Another range of bills runs paralli I 
 to the former, at the distance of about 2J in.; il"' 
 whole of the intervening sjtace Conns an exli'ii>i\i' 
 marsh. The total number of s(|, m, in tlio U.ilii- 
 mas, including all the islands from Xew I'ruvi- 
 deuce to Key Sal and Aiigiiilla, is, acciiriiin^' \'< 
 Porter's Tables, r),t24; but the ' Stali^ticalTllllIl^ 
 relating to the Colonial and other I'ossessidii-. 
 l)reseiited to Parliament in 18(')."), state thcarp.i.ii 
 only 2,!I21 l'",iigl. sq, miles. The pop., in I"'-. 
 was l,ti7 1 wliites, 4,<M)!t coloured and I'loe lila(k-. 
 nnd !t,7lio slaves. In 18.>7 the total pop. «> 
 l;),'.»l;!. Ill I8(;i the mnnber had risen to :!.VK. 
 of whom 211.287 coloured iiersons. The iiilial>il:ii!'- 
 are divided into the two classes of residents ,ii;l 
 UTtr/tfi-s. The latter are mostly employcil in 
 rescuing vessels, with their crews and carpn-. 
 shi|)wreeks being very frequent in these iiitriiaii. 
 shallow, and daiigeioiis seas. They sail in siiwil 
 tlat-bottomed sloops, admirably titled for lli'' 
 Wiiters they navigate. They are exc(41('nt sail"^; 
 are familiar with all tlie keys, shoals, .nil 
 breakers; and encounter danger with al.uriiy .wl 
 eoiiraire. Their gic;it jilaces of rendezvous an' 
 the Florida GulV. the Hole in the Wall. iii"i 
 the Hog-stics. Their vessels are very muneri'ii-. 
 
BAHAMAS (TIIH) 
 
 Tlicv arc lironnod l)y iho Rovcnior, ninl roooivc 
 M siilviijrc "M nil priiptTty rcxcncil I'mni llio waves. 
 i'li« climate viirit's very consiilcralily, liotli in 
 iiiii|>(Taniri' ami Haliilirity, ncciiriliiij; ti> tlio nt'n- 
 i,xi|ilii('al |iiisiti(iii ami local ]i(riiliarilicH <if the 
 i.liiiiili*. At New I'rovidoiicc flic wcaflicr. during; 
 till' coM season, wliicti extends from Nov. to 
 Mav. is extremely jileasaiit; the tlieniioineter in 
 ilic ^liade liciMf; nenerallv from (!(>° to T<l°, the 
 miil-'lay heat tem|(cn'd liy a constant hree/e; 
 :iiiil the evenings cool and aj,'reealile. From May 
 t(i N'liv. the heat increases or decreases, as the 
 •.111! ailvances or retires from the tropic ot'(.'aiuer, 
 1111(1 (liiriiin this iieriod the ran^e of the thernio- 
 ini'tcr is from 75° to 8;')°, seldom risinj; aliove 'J0°, 
 Tlic increase of temperature is ^^enerally nccom- 
 |iaiii('d hy sontlierly winds or <'ahiis. which are 
 ill srilied as heiun very opjiressive. A consideralile 
 i|iiiintiiy of rain i'alls during the vear, hut we pos- 
 M>s no exnci measurement, ol it. The spring 
 ruins connnciice ahout May, and continue for a 
 few weeks; those of autumn conmience in Sept., 
 ,111(1 ;;cnerally terminat(^ in Xov. or l)ec. Dunn^i; 
 ilic autumnal months i'n^n are very fre(|uent in 
 ilic niorniiifis inid eveidnf;s; hut from Dec. to 
 May the weather is i^eiu'rally line, clear, and dry. 
 h is iiiipossihie to ascertain the exact amomil of 
 ;i(T(s (iillivated, as owinj; to the rocky nature of 
 ilic islands, spots are generally selected to plant 
 ill, wiilidut any attention to the rcf^idariiy oli- 
 'fvi'il in more favoured soils; hut the ninnlicr 
 (.f pcisdus set down in the oflicial tallies as , ni- 
 pldvcd ill aj;riculture are l,"J.")(l. The chief articles 
 Mlprdduce are rice, cofl'ce, IndiaiianiKiiiinea com, 
 I'iinliies, yain.s, hean.s, peas, ])iiie-ap))les, cotton, 
 ("lircs, casada, ])uni|ikins, arrow-root, onions (nf 
 \\\\wU a f,Tcat quantity are raised), oran^res, limes. 
 ,111(1 lemons. There may he ahout 12,()0(( acres of 
 |i,isl«rii;;e, which ^ive supjiort to ),I!M) liorses, 
 -,7il.') Iioriied stock, 7,Hi)() sheeii and piats. and 
 :i.:l.JO , swine. The principal articles of <'xport, in 
 liic year IHlVi, were cotton and fruit, the value of 
 ihc {'(inner aniountiujj; to iitiH.til'.i/., and of the 
 l.illcr article to ;wr<,2l(!/. 'I'he total exjiorts in 
 ilio year I«(>2 were of the value of l,()(i7,77.j/. ; 
 ilic articles, inchulinfj coll'ec, to lh<! value of 
 ■-'-.iwT/. • C(ip|ier, to the value of l."),HO(l/.; spoiifre, 
 I" the value of 1:5,721/.; suj;ar, to the value of 
 IM.XV.; and silk, to the value of i<,S\)\l. The 
 i-ial imports in 1«(')2 amounted to 1.2."Hl,.'i22/., of 
 «!ii(li 21.'!.(i;i7/. for cotton. This shows that a 
 ;;T(ai part of the commercial activity was owinj:; 
 I" iiiterciiur.se with the so-called Confederate 
 Males (if America. The nuinher of tons of ]{ri- 
 ii>li shipping' em|iloyed inwards was h;5,i{54 in 
 I;^ii2. The total shipi>in}j, hoth liritish and 
 I '«!;,'», ainounted to lU7,4-it! ton.s. The j;oveni- 
 inciit ('(insists of a governor, a council of twelve, 
 Mi\ a house of assemhly of thirty menihers. 'J'lie 
 (ciirtsdf law are, the supreme court, which holds 
 iisi'Cssidiisiii terms of three weeks, with the powers 
 'I llio Cdmnum law at Westminster, and its jirac- 
 li'cniddelledon that of the Kiiij^'s Iteiich. The 
 riviime of tliesc islands fcr l.sil.'i was 7I.")1I/.. 
 ■iii'l llio expeiuliture 5;J. 10!)/. New I'rovideiice 
 i»as settled hi ICi2",» hy tiie Eiij^'lish, who kept 
 1"'-M'ssidn of it till KM I, when they were exiKdled 
 "V lliij Spaniards, who nuirdered the governor, and 
 "iiiiTiitted many acts of harharous cnudty. It was 
 I'viildiiiscd ill [i;M hy the Kii!,dish a seci'md lime; 
 "II they were anaiu' ex|ielleil hy the French and 
 ^I'aiiiards in 17(W, and from that" period it hecanie 
 ■ rdulczvdiis for pirates, till formally ceded to ihe 
 '•lylish in \7Ki, in whose |io.Nses.>-"ion. with the 
 "dicr islands, it has since reiiiaiiied. The pro|)()r- 
 a.iii di' tiie 20,(1(111.1)00/. of conipeiisation grained 
 y liriiaiii awarded to the inhahitaiils was 
 
 15AIIAR 
 
 827 
 
 128,310/. 7a. fi^f/;. while the relative vnliic of the 
 slaves was 2!IO,r)7.'l/. 1 'm. .'(■[(/. 
 
 'I'he )irincipal islands forniing the Hnhamn p"otip 
 are, New Providence, containing the capital, Nas- 
 sau ; Andros Island, tireen audi irassy Keys, (irand 
 llahama, and the Iterry Islands; (ireat and Little 
 Aliacoand Keys, llarhour Island, Kleuthera, h'oyal 
 Island anil Keys; .St. .Salvador and Little Island; 
 Watling's Island and l!um Kev ; <Jreat and Little 
 F.xunia and Keys; L'agged Island and Keys; 
 Long Island ; Crooked Island. Fortune Island, and 
 Aeklin's Island; (ireat and Litth^ lleneagua, 
 Mayagiiana; French and Attwood's Keys; tho 
 Caicoss Turk's Island, Kev Sal, aiul Anguilla, 
 
 HAIIAIt or ItKIIAK, tin inl. jiro. of llimlostan, 
 presid. Mengal, one of the largest and most im- 
 jiortant under the Hriti.sli dotninion. It lieschiellv 
 hetween 22° and 27° X. lat., and K)° and K7° l'. 
 long. ; Imving N. Ne])aul, \V. ( )ude, Allahahad, and 
 ])art of (iiindwana; S., the latter prov. : and K., 
 Ilengal : area, ."),'t,7l4 «q. m. Pop. CMlimated at 
 ahout !),U(l<MII>l>. 
 
 Th(! (ianges runs a course of 200 m. through this 
 jirov., W. to K., dividing it into two nearly eiinal 
 jiarts. The other chief rivers are the .Sone, (lun- 
 diick, I)iiniinodali, Caraninassii, and Dewah, all 
 trilmtaries of Ihe former: there are numherless 
 smaller streams, and Ihe (irov. generally is well 
 watered, especially its N. iiortion; in the S. irriga- 
 tion is artiliciiilly effected hy means of widls, dams, 
 ! and trenches. Ii may he descrihed under three 
 I divisions; one an iiiiiiiterruiit(^d tiat e\teii(liug for 
 70 111. N. of the (ianges, to the forests of .Nepaul 
 j and Moruiig, a second, or c('iitral div. exieiidiiig 
 I (iO m. S. from the (ianges, consisting only in part 
 of plains, hut yielding nearly two-thirds of Ihe 
 whole annual |iroducc of opium: and a third and 
 more elevated region, S. of the hitler, with an area 
 of l«,000 s(|. in., less fertile than ihe others, Iml 
 .siiid to contain diamond mines, and I hence calleil 
 Nagpoor. Climate teniperale. hut in the hot se;i- 
 sons parching winds from the W. often prevail 
 during the day. Frosts are rare. Imt during Ihe. 
 cold seasons the Ihermoineler oflcn ranges from 
 ■Jo^to 70° (Falir.) in the course of ihe (hiy. anioiig 
 the hills; and in this district 'he winds are very 
 hracing to Kuropean constitnlions. Xo diseases 
 are iieeiiliar to the prov., hut hroiichocele is very 
 prevalent on Ihe N.side of the (lange.*. Soil fertile, 
 and productive of the drier grains: it also produces 
 large (piantilies of nitre, with snliiliateand luiiriaUi 
 of soda, especiall}' N, of the (ianges, where nitre 
 is a gov. nioiiopoly. Agriculture, commerce, and 
 niaiuiliictnres have always heen in a compara- 
 tively tlourishing slate in this prov.; partly from 
 its central position, ea.sy internal communications, 
 and heiiig a thoroughfare for the trade of Ilengal 
 with the L'jiper I'rovinees; and partly from its 
 fruitfulness and natnnil litness for tillage. Here, 
 however, as well as in liengal, only ahout one-third 
 part is supposed to he under cultivation. (Ilamil- 
 ton's K, 1. <iaz., i. 177.) Opium, a stajile com- 
 modity of Ihe prov., is perhaps the liesf in India. 
 It is a gov. nioiidpoly, I'.ah.ir and ISciiares heiiig 
 the only provs. within the liengal jiresid. where it. 
 is allowed to he cultivated. For further particulars 
 see lllcNOAl.. 
 
 Indigo is vcrj' extensively grown in Tirhoot, 
 i where nuich forest land, ami land fonnerly used 
 j for grain, has heen .npiiropriated to its culture, 
 I and where the produce is also nianufaetured uiioii 
 ', a large .scale. The jilanters and cultivators are 
 now on good terms with each other; and since it 
 1 was agreed that mly one |ilaiiter should settle in 
 ! a village, quarrels among the latter h.ive also 
 1 ceased. The people in the indigo districis are 
 j said to he in a much heller condition than eLse- 
 
 
-1, It 
 
 828 BAHAR 
 
 wlicro. Siignr-cnnr, liotcl, tdlmoco, niul ^jrain of 
 nil kiiiils, iin; ciillivntcil Inr^'cly, niitl there ix n 
 ;;ii<iil Hlnck (if nitllc. MoHt pnrt of tlu; IiiiuIh in 
 Itiiliiir arc held in small lots liv cullivntors or ryiih, 
 who |iay a lanil tax of half tlic |)r<)(Uic(t: tho pt-r- 
 niaiicnt Neltloniont has hcc-n hy nonicniis so widely 
 cstalilishcil as in Ilfiij,'al ; Ja);hires nn; tlierc rare, 
 lint freiinent here; while, oil the other hand, there 
 are in Itahar hut three larjj^u zeniiiidaries, vi/, 
 those of Shahahad, Tirhoot, and Tiekary, This 
 arises from the eircnnistanee that the zemindars 
 of Dahar were always inferior in ]M»wer and in- 
 (IneiKM- to tlioHO of licnpil, and their zemindarics 
 ninch smaller; so that tliey were sooner and more 
 easily identified with the hody of cultivators. 
 
 The chief manufactures are, cotton cloths for 
 exportation, essences, and saltpetre, the manu- 
 facture of which scarcely passes the K. limits of 
 tli(^ ])rov. llahar is divided into ei^ht districts or 
 •■ollectorates, viz. Hahar, I)hau;^ailpore, Dhurruni- 
 pore, l{ani;,'ur, Shahahad, Sarini, Tirhoot, and 
 t'atntt. The chief city is I'atna. Tho natives 
 have a tiner physical appearance, hut are inferior 
 to their Ilen^ral nci;;liliours in cleanliness and do- 
 mestic economy. Jn the S. jmrts apiculture is 
 wholly carried on hy slaves ; and many of these 
 t'onsist of individuals who, hy a practice ]ieculiar 
 to this prov., mortya{,'e their lahour until aide to 
 redeem a debt : n third part of the poj). are iMo- 
 hainmedaiiR. This prov. anciently is su])poscd to 
 have fonned two indci)endcnt sovereif^ntios — that 
 of Mithila in the N., and Ma^adlm in the 8. ; and 
 distinct lftnguaf,'es still continue to be spoken in 
 them. It wius acqiiiretl from Cossim Ah by the 
 Itritish in ITtJij, since which it has enjoyed perfect 
 tran(|uillity. The city of Gaya was tlie birthplace 
 of Ihiddha, hut no Budilhists now remain in llahar. 
 
 liAiiAK (I)ISTK. or Zii.i.Aii t)K). occupies the 
 central jHirtion of the above prov. ; beiiif,' bounded 
 N. bj' the (Janges ; K. by the distr. of jthauf^ul- 
 pore ; S. by those of IJhaugulporc aiul l>anignr ; 
 and W. hy Shahahad: extreme length, E. to W., 
 l'2()m.; breadth, 80 m.; area, 0,235 sq. m. The jio- 
 ]iiilation is estimated at 3,0(10,00(1, of whom about 
 one-third are IMohammedans. Surface generally 
 level, especially in the N., where the banks of tiie 
 (ianges are highly cultivated : there are, however, 
 many scattered hills, and three princijjal ranges, hi 
 t he heart of the distr., of primitive formation, con- 
 taining granite, gneiss, mica, (puirtz, jasjier, honi- 
 slone, silica, &c. ; but, exce|)t toward the S. 
 boundary, none of them probably exceed 700 ft. 
 in height. Next to the Ganges, the chief river is 
 the Sone, its channel being sometimes nearly as 
 large as that of the former; its E. banks are ovtr- 
 whelmed with sand, blown uj) from its bed in the 
 dry season : 'here are no lakes, and few marshes 
 in this distr., although in the wet season much of 
 thi! coinitry is under water. There arc many hot 
 springs in various spots ; bituminou: and other 
 volcanic substances have been also met with, and 
 in one jilace an extinct crater is distinctly visible. 
 About 4!)0 sq. m. are covered with woods and 
 thickets, including the bamboo, palm, mango, tig, 
 ap))le, |)omegranate, &c., which are all cultivated 
 (tamarisk and zisypUus bushes in large quantity) ; 
 the stii/rhno.i, mix voiniva, soap-nut, and the sal/iar, 
 belii'vcd l)v Mr. Colebrook to be the tree yielding 
 gum olibanum. Tiie chief wild animals are a 
 large and I'unniilable black bear, the spotted tiger, 
 icluieunion ; a few monkeys, s(iuirrels, foxes, and 
 (liigs; many birds of prey; porpoises, and ;i ])ro- 
 fiision of (isli, arc found in the (iaiiges, as w."il as 
 alligators; but there arc no wild elephants, rhino- 
 ceroses, or bulVahies ; few tigers, and neither j)ar- 
 rtxpiets, &c.. nor singhig birds. The lands near 
 tlie river yield two crops in the year, but this is 
 
 not tho ctwc with more thnrt I-81I1 part of thn 
 arable land in the interior, liice is by far tin- 
 most inqiortant article of culture, but' the cnrn 
 only are reaped; the straw being abandoiKMl i,, 
 the cattle, or left uncut, till wanted for tliatch. 
 Cotton has been extensively grown siui'o ilu" 
 connt)en(!emeiit of the American civil war, ninj 
 the failure of thesu])idy from tho Mississippi cuttMii 
 regions. Wheat is next in importance; and wiili 
 it, or with niilse, barley is often sown; maize is 
 almost wholly confined to the banks of the (laiips 
 Cruciform jilanls, linseed, and sesanunn,are ciiiil- 
 vated for their oil; ginger, coriander, capsiciini, 
 the potato and other succulent vcgetalilcs, arc 
 likewise grown. The |)lough and cattle uswl arc 
 both wretched, though tlu^ latter are soniewlnii 
 belfer than those more to the E. ; the grain is 
 trodden out hy cattle, atui kept by the niore iipu- 
 lent proprietors in hovels of mud and iliaidi. 
 The anliraj\ or higher ranks, pay no reul tor laml 
 occupied by their himses, and no landlord uiav 
 refuse to grant them land for building; but Kuivi- 
 jieans, not being digiiilied with the title of aslinif. 
 find much ditlirulty in obtaining it. F< \<- ol' iln. 
 cultivators arc rich. A large portion 1,1 the land, 
 perhaps about a half, is exempted fmin the iaii'l 
 tax ; and yet it is atlirnied, and we believe Inilv. 
 that the taxed portions arc the best eultivainl 
 and most productive. Some of the reni-lrir 
 estates are still large, but, owing to the ndcs of in- 
 heritance, they are rapidly subdividing ; and nianv 
 of the zemindars are reduced to the condiiinu (if 
 lieasants, or are but little above beggary. JIany 
 occupiers are in the habit of receiving ailvaiUT< 
 from their landlords, to enable tiiem to carry (in 
 their business; while others borrow money for tlic 
 same purpose, at 2 per cent, per mo. interest ; au'l, 
 ruinous as such ]mymcnt may appear, the laiicr 
 are universally observed to he in tlie end the best 
 ott'. The cultivators are not subject tft the illi'pil 
 exactions that press on the tenantry in lk'n);al, 
 and are in consequence attached to their lam!- 
 lords, and ready to promote their intcrcst,s. lialiar 
 distr. is divided into twelve perguiniahs; it cmu- 
 tains a number of considerable towns, one (.f 
 which, (laya, the birth-place of ]Sud<llia, is cele- 
 brated as a place of i)ilgrimagc, aiul annually 
 visited by nearly 30,000 devotees: there area 
 great many small towns, of from 1(1(1 to iViil 
 houses. Cotton stuffs, blankets, and cari)Cls, are 
 luanufactureil; with paper, soaj), leather, bricks 
 &c. ; and there are extensive nitre factories and 
 sugar refineries. 
 
 Tradesmen have very little capital; general 
 dealers seldom more than 25 rupees, and many >i 
 the dealers in grain no more than 4()U ni]jee>. 
 The pei>plc are of a warlike disposition, passionate, 
 and jealous; the habits of the women proper- 
 tionally strict. The great sidxlivision of iiroperiy 
 has banished every tliuig like opulence; and mar- 
 riages and funerals, by the expenses they cause, 
 oft(^n bring families to povert}'. The houses are 
 neither so well built nor so clean as those nici 
 with in Uengal. Drinking to excess, betel chew- 
 ing, and smoking, arc not, however, pursued sd 
 far. Among other customs of this distr., girls arc 
 never married till puberty: the feet of dyii!;' 
 ])erso)is arc not ))ut into the Ganges; hul the 
 jiarcnts and (duldren, not of the vulgar, Ijut nf 
 ' men of rank and learning,' are turned out of ilow 
 when they are about to die, exposed to .ill iIk' 
 inclemency of the weather. This odious cnstein, 
 which would disgrace a nation of savages, li.h 
 been in numerous cases perverted to the most ni- 
 famous purposes. 
 
 Ha 11 At: \Vih(ir, a monastery of Huddliists), ,1 
 town in the above prov. and distr., in lat, ii'-' I'J 
 
 SI- 
 
Irv of 11ii<l(Uii''i;'1> » 
 
 TAIIAWULroOR 
 
 \., lonR. 85°;i5' K. ; ar> in. Hi:, rnlnn. It U n 
 iVrt'o, Hlrnj,vl'"K l>lni'<S (•'•ntniiiiiij^ nlKHit A.ddO 
 lidiwN. !»"l proliiilily, lliorcrorc, alioiit .'lil.oiio iii- 
 liiili. It '""* ^^'^^ '"' "" K"'"' flri't't.s; most (if its 
 iiisliii' liiiiltliiiK* <""c in n sliito of dci'iiy; mid it 
 liii.s a ruinous a|)iH>iirnnc'P. It is sii|)|ios(mI Io imve 
 liccu lit Honic remote U'rn tlic onp, of tlu- (irov. 
 'I he plain '>n wiiicli it stands is well watered, fer- 
 tile, iind well euUivaled, 
 
 ll.VHAWUI-l'OOl.'. or DAOm'OOTI} V, n tcr- 
 rit. (if llitiilostan, formerly lHdonf;in){ to Caiiliiil, 
 lull siilis('i|iientlv trilmtarv to the inaliarajali of the. 
 I'lmiaiili, between Int. 2H° a'ld.'JOO \., and' lon^. 70° 
 ,iii(|'T1° K. ; lent;th NK. to S\V. 'JHOm.; K'realest 
 jircadtli 120 m. ; haviiij; N. the I'liiijaiih; K. the 
 lliiiiiiere territ. (ltaj|iootana) ; S. an'd SW. .lay- 
 Milinere and Sinde. Its N\V. hoimdary is for tlie 
 niiist part lornied by the Sutleje, but for a eertain 
 iji-iaiice opposite the caj). it iiiehides both banks 
 dl' iliat river, as well as those of the C'biiianf. 
 The hanks of the rivers are everywhere fertih; ; 
 lull the rest of the country towards the K. is n 
 iiiiro desert. For 4 or h m, on either side the 
 Sullrje, the soil is formed by the slime deposited 
 liv liiat river, and is annually watered by its 
 imiiidations : some portions of it are hi(;hly eulti- 
 viitcil; others ar(' ciivered with a soft turf, and 
 ilic rest with jinifile and coppiee of low tamarisk 
 irics alioiindiiig with wild hogs, wild geese, game, 
 Ac. hut having interspersed many small hamlets. 
 Till' inliabs. an' eliielly Juts and llelooelies, Mo- 
 liMiiimedaiis, who eame thither from the district o 
 Sliilcarpore, where they were settled early in the 
 r( iu'ii of Aurung/.ebe. They are a fair and liand- 
 sdiiu' race, and ajiparcntly in a better condition 
 l|j;iii .soiiie of their neiglibonrs. Lieut. Conolly 
 siv.-. • -\s soon as we liad cro.^scd the frontier (from 
 Miikarpore) hito Jiahawal Klian's territory, we 
 were struck with the improved ajiiiearaiice of the 
 land; the ground was cleared, and cultivated with 
 the lietler sorts of grain ; the people, also, seemed 
 iiinre orderly and respectable.' The i)rincipal 
 towns a'c IJahawnlpoor, Ahmedpoor (the residence 
 (if the chief), Jiilaljioor, Seed|)oor, and Oocli. Dii-. 
 riiwiil, an ancient fort in the desert, is the only 
 |iliioe of strength in the country. The public 
 revenue is about 10 lacs nip. a year. Tiie khan 
 maintains an army of about 2,000 regular troops; 
 lii't in time of war he can raise more than ^O,*'*"* 
 men. The government is despotic; hut not a few 
 (if the khans have ruled mildly and paternally, 
 much beloved by their subjects. This territory 
 wiis taken from the Moguls by the Persians, 
 anil, after the death of Nadir Shah, belonged to 
 Caulml. to which kingdom it was tributary as 
 l"!!},' fts the monarchy lasted. The three last 
 rulers have been nearly independent ; liut the 
 |iulitical i)ower of the country has been broken 
 liy the Sikhs, and the rajah of the I'unjaiib only 
 sjiiirpd it on condition of pecuniary payments. 
 (I'.lphin.stone's Caulml ; Burn's Trav. ; llamil- 
 tiin's K. I. (ia/.ctteer.) 
 
 liAiiAwui.iMoii, the ancient cap. of the above 
 lerritcin-, near the S. bank of the Sutleje. '.VM 
 m. W'S'W'. Delhi, hit. 2!l° 21' N., long. 72° "lO' K.; 
 ai the point of junction of the road leading fnmi 
 liiiinljay and (Calcutta to Caubiil. It is about 4 
 ni.in circ, but includes gardens and mango groves. 
 It is surrounded with a thin wall of mud, the 
 liuu.ips iK'ing of I'libiirnt bricks, with mud terraces. 
 Tlie iiilmb. consist chielly of Hindoos, mostly oc- 
 niiiieil in the inanuiaciiire of the silken girdles 
 iuiil tine turbans for which ISah.iwulpoor is cele- 
 lirateil. The Hindoo traders aro distinguished by 
 tluirenleipri.se; they deal cxten.sively in h^iini- 
 |iia;i j;uods, which they receive by way of Uica- 
 iiew, and carry these and the prwUictionij of I ndia 
 
 BAIIIA 
 
 :vi9 
 
 to Unlkh nnd Hokhnra, and nomotimps to Astra- 
 khan. The .Sutleje is navigable, but not used in 
 the transport of mercbanilise, Notwithstaiidliig 
 the maiiiifaetures and trade of Itahawiilpoor, the 
 town shows many svmptoms of general decay. 
 (KI|diiiistone's ("luibui ; ("onidly's Journey, ii. 2 l:i.) 
 
 ll.MII.V, a inarit. jirov.of Itra/.il, on the [''..coa-i, 
 rxtending from about !t° to l.')° 'bj' S. lat. It 
 <'om|)rises, as at present dividi'd, nearly all the 
 territory iiiehided formerly under the ancient 
 captaincy of the same name, together with ii 
 jHirtion of that of llheos. It derives its name 
 from litthia df Tixios os Sitittos, and is bounded N, 
 by the provinces of Sergipe and I'ernainbiieo 
 (from the latter of which it is divided by the l>'iit 
 San Francisco); on the S. hv Porto Segiiro and 
 Miiias (icraes ; on the W. by i'ernambiico, though 
 still separatiMl by the K'io San Francisco, and on 
 the H. by the ocean. Its length is estimated at 
 about 4«0 in., and its breadth at from ir>il to 201). 
 The estimates of its area vary from ■')4,000 to 
 !)7,000Kq. in. The latter, we are inclined to think, 
 is nearest the mark. The accounts of the pop. 
 are also very various, no census having ever been 
 taken, the number is generally estimated at be- 
 tween 700,<I00 and 800,0!i(). The province is 
 subdivided into three comarcos, viz. Bahiii, Juco- 
 biiia, and llheos. 
 
 The province of Hahia is traversed from SW. to 
 NI']. by the SerraCincora, (iihoya, and Itabayaiia. 
 The Serra de Moiiteipievia forms the chief ridge, 
 in the interior. Hays and inlets abound along the 
 coitst, among which the most celebrated is All 
 Saints' Ihiy. Numerous rivers traverse tlu? jiro- 
 vince, and the Kio San Francisco, one of tlu* 
 largest of the lira/.iliaii rivers, tlows along its 
 NVV. frontier. 
 
 The cultivation of tobacco is peculiar to the pro- 
 vince, and it,s produce is much sought after, not 
 only for the market of Portugal, but ;ilso for Spain 
 aiul the whole of IJarbary. The .soil is admirably 
 ada))tcd to the cultivation of the sugar-cane; and 
 the sugar of Ihihia bears a high character for its 
 excellent quality, which is sliown by the fact, 
 that IJahia (exports more sugar than the whole of 
 the rest of Hrazil. The growth of cotton exhibils 
 an unusual increase, and liahia is already beconu! 
 a formi''al)le rival to i'eriiainbiico. The other 
 productions are, rice, of a superior (pialily ; eotVec, 
 much excelled however by that of llio de .laneiro; 
 and Hrazil-wood, equal to that of Pernambiico. 
 (l{e|)ort el' Mr. Consul Morgan on the Trade of 
 liahia for the Year l«(i4). 
 
 The province of liahia was one of the first peo- 
 pled by Europeans, and it is also one of those 
 ironi which they Iv.vv most elVecrtiially removed 
 all traces of the original inhabitants. 
 
 ll.MiiA.or S.\N Sai.vadoi!, the cap of the above 
 jirov., immediately within Cajie St. Antonio, wliich 
 i'o'ins the right or K. side of the noble bay of All 
 Saiiils {Uiihiii (If Todos os Santon), whence the 
 prov. and the city derive their names; lat. (of 
 lighthoii.se on Cajie St. Antonio) l;i° 0' ilO" S.. 
 linig. ;'^° 1)0' W. It was fouiuU'd about l.')|;», by 
 Thomas de Sou/.a. lirsi caplain-geiieral of lirazil, 
 and was, iiiuil 17ii;!, the capital of the colony. 
 I Since that period l!i.) has been acknowledged at 
 ! the capilal, and it also has lieei! the residence of 
 the C(iurt since its emigration Ui Jira/il. ISiii, 
 Ihongh r.ow inferior to its rival in pipulaliou ami 
 conimercui! ini|iorlance, Hahia is one of the hirgei-t 
 and most imporlant "ilies of S. .Vnurica. The 
 esliniates of the iHipiilatiuii vary IVoin lo(l,ni)0 to 
 180,000, of wliii'h a third arc sii|)|)ose(l lobe nhitcs, 
 a third mulattoes, and a third blacks. It is built 
 partly along the ridge, and partly on ibc dci'livily, 
 of a very high and steep hill fronting the entrance. 
 
 
 
 m^ 
 
 i*«: 
 
 m 
 
 ■k:^^ 
 
 wmM.. 
 
.■i;ii» 
 
 of I he \my, 
 InWII, IIk- 
 
 UAHIA 
 
 
 ^;''i 
 
 It cotiKi.MtH of nn iipjicr niul n lower 
 t'linncr iiicliiilin^ llu; HtiliiirliM of Itoin 
 l''iiii mill Vicloriii. 'J'lic iipiicr (own sIhikIh on tlic 
 riil^'c liclwccii III!' Mi'ii iiikI II liikc oil llii' N.. niiit 
 i'oiiiiiiiiM Hi'vcriil (iiip hircct.M, ill wliidi reside the 
 jiriii('i|ial iiiliiiliitiiiits oi' the city. 'I'lie lower (own 
 IS exireiiiely ilirty, illlil iiltlioli^h the Hlreels nre 
 very iiiirrow, il is no iineoininoii thiii^' to see them 
 oi'i'ii|iiei| liy nrlilirers, with their toolsaiul Iteiiehes. 
 The city is <lel'eiiile(l hy Fort do Miir, mikI moiik- 
 other I'orlilieiitioiis, litit iioiK^ of them nre of niiy 
 very ureiil slreiiKth. 'I'lie hn-ill revenue is derived 
 from diri'i't tuxes on hind mid |irovisioiis, excise 
 upon I'Npiirls iind iniporls, mid hiirlioiir-diies. Lmid 
 is siilijeri to (I lux of one-tenth of its |)roduee, mid, 
 ninee the revohilioii, ehiireh hinds have also iieen 
 rendered sniijeet to the saiiK^ impost, and the 
 ••ler^y are ])aid hy tin- j^overnmeiil. The taxes 
 on provisions, wliieli inclnde lieef, lisli, Hour, and 
 ve^etalilcs, are aiiiinally farmed out in separate 
 jiarishes. As respei^ts the iiiimher and heaiily 
 of its pul>li(^ liuildin^s, Ilaliia ranks lirst amoii;; 
 tlu; eilies of liraxil. In the upper town, amon;;sl 
 the chief may he enumerated the catluMlral (I'or- 
 liierly lliv chnrcli of 'lie .Jesuit-*), dediciited to San 
 Salvador, liiiilt of J'Jiro|iemi niarhie, and (Consi- 
 dered the handsomest, ecclesiastical hiiildin^ in 
 Ilra/il. The interior is very richly decorated, and 
 over the hij;li allar are two ]iori rails, one of Iffiia- 
 liiis Loyola an<l San Francois Xavier, jirohahly 
 the only reiiiarkahle ohjecis of art. which any of 
 the puliiic huildiiiLjs of Itahia have to oiler, (l)eiiis 
 llre/.il, p. 2.'>l.) 'J'he other puhlic huildiiifjs are, 
 the ancient collejje of the Jesuits, now converted 
 into II militury hospital and medical school; the 
 |iahices of the nrchliishop and the fjovernor; the 
 towii-hall (ca/.a de eamarca) ; the trihinial of 
 appeal (cazadc relacjo) ; the theatre, huilt upon a 
 rock ; several hospitals (part of the funds for siip- 
 portiiifj them are derived from lotteries); a ca/.a 
 lie misericordia, a bank, and other institutions. 
 
 Itahiit contains a j,'reut number of relij^ioiis 
 lioiises, all of them situated in the upjier town, 
 but they ort'er nothing worthy of observation. It 
 also contains between thirty mid forty churches, 
 scattered through the npiier and lower towns. The 
 (derj;y are very numerous, in consequence of its 
 beiiifjilie residence of the archbishop, who has the 
 control of the ecclesiastical alfairs of the emjiire. 
 
 In the lower town the exchange, a massive 
 building of modern date, is worthy of remark. It 
 is built in a |)eciiliar style, in -which it has hecii 
 atlempled to imitate the (irecian. The princi|i.ii 
 street is the I'ravfi, in whicli is situated thechurcli 
 of the Coiiceigao (coiice]itioii), remarkable on jic- 
 coiiiit of the stones with which it is built haviii;: 
 been prejiared and numhered in Europe, and 
 brou'iht thence in two fri^^ates; so that on their 
 ;irrival they had merely to be arraiij^ed in the 
 order ])reviously allotted to t.heni. (Denis lire/.il, 
 p. '1'A\.) The houses arc chietly constructed ol' 
 stone, and, contrary to the usual mode in S. 
 America, many consist of three, four, and even 
 live stories. In the upper town arc many liaiid- 
 sonie houses, constructed with balconies and bliiuls, 
 instead of windows. 
 
 The city of San Salvador is almost destitute of 
 inslitutions devoted to intellectnal improvement. 
 Anionnst the seminaries of education is one which 
 furnishes a large number of ecclesiastics. There 
 is a imblic library, willi fnmi tio.dOd to 7(U)(M> 
 voluines, among which are a few ancienl I'ortu- 
 guese works, and some MSS, The greater portion 
 of tiie good works are in French. 
 
 The vehicles generally used in li.ihia are called 
 cadeirfis, and are a kind of italanqiiin, supported 
 l>y negroes, »vlio mak(! a jiractice of clustering at 
 
 the comers of llic Htrccto, to bo hired for Hint pur- 
 I M ise. 
 
 The subjoined stntemont, eomjiiled from tli,. 
 oflicial returns of the director of cnsioins, givci n 
 view of the rise and growth of the foreign iiniuiri 
 trade of llahia from the opening of the pun-, (.f 
 llraxil to foreign nations, wlien Itoin .John VI., (,|' 
 Portugal, arrived in the city in |N(I«, and the m,),- 
 serjueiit importance given to commerce hy ii,,, 
 di.scoverv of the diainond mines in thi.s nroviiuu 
 in IKir.:"— 
 
 Jn IHIO Viihieor Iiniiorts was. . Uh. l.tflfl.onn 
 
 1^1" „ „ . . a,no(p,(i(Ki 
 
 1"-'') ., „ . . ;i,liO((,(riHI 
 
 IKL'I Indeprndenco of Itr.izll . 4,(Hi(i,i)ii,) 
 
 1H:1I AlMJicaliiiii iif Doiii I'lslro T. <i,|."il),oiio 
 
 1UII ( t'es.-'atioii of our Coiiinicrclal ) „ ... , 
 ^**'M Tivafy. NcwTariir \ »•'•«'•""" 
 
 IHI.'i DiHoovery or Diiimoiid Mine.'* in,s.',:t,nno 
 ^>*'''i „ „ . M,s.-,(i,(;.-,ii 
 
 l«"''i-'>7 „ „ . •J0,!l?ll,:i7:i 
 
 \h:,--W „ „ , 'Jl, 1117,1171 
 
 lK.-.s-.-,!l „ „ . ai.dls.icji) 
 
 l«-'!MiO „ „ . 17,ll(i,(;(;-.> 
 
 lw-l-'i» „ „ . l«,li)l',S7l 
 
 The Itrili.sli imports (tlmn- into the port of liaiiin 
 in twelve years, from IHlo to I KoT, increased li;;^ 
 per cent., showing a value in IH-ll of (ilil.Ti'T/., ji, 
 iHli") of 7(l.'),l.')l'i/, in \HM\~i}7 of l,.')!lM,(i;!l/, in 
 IH,")7-r.« of 1.2ll,7(;(;/., in lM,')H-5!)of '■'•J7.1II/ 
 in 1M,")!M1I) of it;i;f,2.W. (1,'eport of Mr. .Morgan, 
 Itrilish Consul, on the Trade of liahia.) 
 
 I'lie harbour of lialiiu is one of the very lic>t 
 that is anywhere to be met with. It may he en- 
 tered either by day or hy night, and nt any time 
 of the tide. The largest ships anchor cinse to, 
 and immediately abreast of, the town, in from -Ls 
 to .seven fathoms, N. and N\V. of the town ihc 
 hay expands into a noble ba.sin, studded wiili 
 islands, and affording safe anchorage for iiiminii- 
 rable ships. The traile of liahia is very extcii>ivi'. 
 The o.\)iort8 consist (irincipally of sugar, coiidii, 
 and collee; with tobuci'o, hi(U-s and horns, rirc, 
 dye and fancy wooiU, inits, bullion, anddi.'iiinnKl.s 
 The subjoined tabular stalenK^nl gives ili- vnlm: 
 of foreign imports into the port of liahia ilnrini; 
 the linaiichil year of l«,")iM;u. 
 
 From (Irent Britnin 
 
 , , 
 
 Rs. R.:n2.":;:i 
 
 Frnnco 
 
 . , 
 
 2-:;■'l7.^.■:•J 
 
 rnrtiiKid 
 
 . , 
 
 1.3!)::,4I7 
 
 Haiiseatio Towns 
 
 . , 
 
 -m.:m'.» 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 . , 
 
 li;.',ii77 
 
 Austria 
 
 . . 
 
 ."■.11,171 
 
 Uiiilcd Status 
 
 
 1,011.1711 
 
 River I'lato 
 
 . . 
 
 ti:i7.s|-| 
 
 Belgium 
 
 . . 
 
 U'Mll 
 
 Spain . 
 
 . , 
 
 :i7..-i7l 
 
 Hollnnd 
 
 . . 
 
 71,-.'7H 
 
 Swollen nnd Norway 
 
 . . 
 
 17,:lliil 
 
 Coa.-it of Africa . 
 
 , . 
 
 2.-.l,(i47 
 
 Foreign Ports from 
 Knipire . 
 
 Port of 
 
 • • 
 
 ],0;!II.S,si) 
 
 Total 
 
 Rs. 17.140,(iia 
 
 Exchange S.^Jd. per dollar 
 
 Total 
 
 . .-eLsynitKH) 
 
 Value of r.iitisli Imiiorts 
 
 . , 
 
 . .^;ii:l:!,:'-i.'i 
 
 The most iin))orlant articles of import arc cdiioM 
 maimfacliires, woollen and linen stulls. li^li, tliiir. 
 earthenware, wine. co]i|)er, and iron; The iiii|iiirt' 
 of cotton, woollen and liiieii niamilncliirc.'* Irum 
 (ireat llritaiii greatly declined in the Id vwrs 
 1 H,">r)-()l, having an. "oted to 2.'),1(I0 iiackiips in 
 1«.".,^), and to H>27 bales in 1H(14. (l!c]iort(il' .Mr. 
 Consul Morg.in.) 
 
 The nature of the exportn is shown in llie f^uli- 
 joined comparative table, which gives the v.iliii' 
 of agricultural jiroduce shipped to foreign couiitriis 
 from the port of Bahia. 
 
BAIILINGEN 
 
 llAUUKIX 
 
 :i;;i 
 
 r (lint piir- 
 
 from ilic 
 
 i^;ii iin|HMi 
 
 (iiiii VI.. i.r 
 
 ml ilu' siil.- 
 vc liy ilic 
 
 (. 1 . Kifi.nim 
 
 •J,'.l;i:i.:i:):l 
 ■J.IKIII.IHIII 
 
 ;i,(;im,iii«i 
 4,(1(111,1111.1 
 f),l.".(),()(«t 
 
 0,744,000 
 
 in,R.'):i.nnn 
 
 i.t,K.'i(i,(;.M> 
 
 •2ll,!l'J(i.:i";l 
 'J\.lli7,iin 
 •2l,(llH.lfiil 
 
 1(i,iiv.',h;i 
 
 lort (if Uiiliiii 
 lUTPiixi'd l(i7i 
 (■(;iil,7-2T/.,iii 
 
 i,,'>i>«,ii;ii/. ill 
 .f 1 •'•:7.ni/.. 
 
 ' Mr. Miirj;;m, 
 lilt.) 
 
 the very liol 
 It. miiy ill' (11- 
 l nt liny tiiiii' 
 iclior cl'wt' lo, 
 ;n, in I'rcm >ix 
 tiip town tlic 
 
 MllKlllcd Willi 
 
 ;c I'lir imuinn- 
 
 .vTv c'.\tcii>ivv. 
 
 j siit;ar, ('(iiiun. 
 
 1(1 luiriis, rill', 
 iinddiiiiiiiiiKl'- 
 ivi's lli- >idin' 
 liahia ilurini; 
 
 B?. R.TOS.'":'.:! 
 •I ■,.'i7.n:;-J 
 
 "!p!i.:iii'.i 
 
 lli-.'.liTT 
 
 .',11,171 
 1,(111.1711 
 
 (■.;i7.'<ll 
 
 U'MIl 
 
 :!7.-->71 
 
 71,'.'7« 
 
 17.;l'.i(l 
 
 251, (ill 
 
 1,03(I.SSI) 
 ns7Tu4ll,tii'''.' 
 
 . ~;ei,s;Jit,«i'» 
 
 iport iiri! c'lii"" 
 tulVs. li>li, tl""'-' 
 ,. The inii«irl- 
 iKl'iicHircs lV»iii 
 
 ,1 tlic !'• yw^ 
 0(1 ),iu'kn^'i'S ill 
 (ItqiortuI'Mr. 
 
 |n^vn in I lie «ili- 
 
 Trivl'S tllC Vlllllf 
 
 firoigiu'i-iu"'™- 
 
 
 intrti 
 
 1 r,'.) 
 
 Sinrni" 
 
 .Cil'.',:l:llt 
 
 £8»i'>.«7(> 
 
 Cuium . 
 
 7.'J(i(l 
 
 ii,(m;i) 
 
 I'off"! 
 
 1II7,|!I-J 
 
 l(ii,7i;i 
 
 CiMiia • 
 
 1(1, 10(1 
 
 l:i,'.'li(t 
 
 Iliill'X 
 
 71,1)10 
 
 tl.'i.lHl 
 
 Hum 
 
 Vd.'i'JO 
 
 H'.'.lilKI 
 
 'I'dbiircn . 
 
 ill). 1(10 
 
 a(17,:i7ft 
 
 ltii-rW(M)il 
 
 !I4,«00 
 
 •J1I,H(I() 
 
 
 JCI,:w.-..(iii!) 
 
 DInnionds 
 
 ■JIMl.OOO 
 
 C(1(1,1I(K» 
 
 
 .e!,iiu,:i!m 
 
 jei,94&,()09 
 
 Till' Iclnl !(hi|i])iiifj wliicli nitcrcd tlio |nirt of 
 llaliiii ill ''*''" i'ini'"'"*«'d I" !'•">'< vcs.s.ds ofaii iiKJirc- 
 ,,„t,. idiimiKc of 2-.'-.',liL'(i, iimiincd liy ii crew of 
 |.j,',i|"t. *'f lli*''«' vi'sscl.s KMi, of a lomia>;c of 
 (l:'!(lli'>. "I'll " '''■•^'*^ "' •'•''•'■'• wailed luidcr the 
 llViii^li lliiK. (lU'portofMr.Morpiiiillriti.iliCoii.siil 
 111 lliiliia.) 
 
 'l'li(. country roHiid nonrl.v I lie wlude Unv of 
 Itiiliiii, III •'"' I'Xti'i'' of from \'2 to 2(1 m. inland, is 
 kiiiiwii liy III'' iiani« "f 'ln' lit^concavo, and i.-* Hio 
 iiidsl f('rtil« and prodiu'tivc in tlio coniarca. lis 
 siiil, I'lilli'd liy tilt' inlialiitanls »i«.<«/y«', is Iilack, 
 liiiil' im fertility is iiroverliiai. In lids district is 
 siiiinled tilt' town of Caelioeirn or (^a.xoicra, wliicli 
 rank* next llaliin, as repirds extent, iiojinlation, 
 ami iiiiportaniH'. It carries on an cxleiiMvc trade 
 v.itli the interior of the iirovincc, and lias a i)o|m- 
 laiiiiii of aliont Ki.dOO inlialiitanls. The district 
 called the Keeone.ivo o(ini|irises several tloiirisli- 
 iiiu' villaf,""'* mid country towns, which o\v(> their 
 litrispcrity to the abundance of llieir Uffriciilliiral 
 |iriKliiclions. Amoufj th(!.se Taiiafiiiie, or No.ssu 
 .Sciiliera dc I'enha, may he distiiii,niislied on ae- 
 (diiiit (if its containing; the country resid-'iicc of 
 ijii' arclihisliop of the jirov. It ('ontains also a 
 iJcK'kyard, whence many well-lmill and sulistan- 
 lial vessels are constantly launched. 
 
 The i.sland of Itaparic.i, situated in the Hay of 
 llaliia, is the larjicst with which it is studded. It 
 is aliiiut 14 ni. in length and (! in its frreatest 
 wiillli. Fruit-trees are very extensively culti- 
 vated tlironghout the island. The industry con- 
 Msts cliielly of whale-tishiiif,', the distillation of 
 rum, and some roiie-makinn. Several towii'i in 
 llie llecdiicavo equip vessels for iirosecutiiij; the 
 wliali'-tisliery in tl^e ii.iy, which forins a lirancli 
 III' iiuliistry on this line of coast. 
 
 Ill the comarca of lllieos the chief town is San 
 ,liirf;e dos Illieos, which was formerly llourishiiin 
 mill ('(iinparatively opulent and extensive, luitlias 
 iiinv the appearance (>f heiiif; deserted. The ex- 
 imlsiiiii (if the Jesuits gave the (iiiishing blow to 
 its inipnrtance. 
 
 llAllldX(ii:X, a town of WUrtPmberfT, circ. 
 IlLiik Fiircst on the ICyacli, 14 m. XK. Ivotwcll. 
 I'll] I. •.'.•.'!»,■) in iMtil. It" has fabrics of cloth and 
 (viMilleii stuffs, tanneries, and numerous breweries 
 ,iiiil ilistilleries. There are mineral springs in the 
 \ii'iiiitv. 
 
 IIAI'IKKIX, or AVAL ISLANDS, a jp'oup con- 
 H-iiiii; of Due large and several smaller islands, in 
 ilic IVrsi.'iii (iiilf. .siiliject to the iniaiim of Aluscii. 
 iiialiaviiear the .\v,iliian shore, between lat. 2iP (.>' 
 and -Kfi Hi' N., and long. ."i()0 15' and 00° l'i)' W. 
 The largest island (liahrein) is about L'.") m. in 
 li iij,'ih, N. to S., by (! or 7 m. wide, and SO or '.)() ui. 
 ill cireiiit: a hilly tract occupies its centre ; 4-.")ths 
 111 its surface are wastes, but the remainder is 
 will watered, jiartiidly cultivated, and IbicUly 
 iiihahitcd. The iiii]). of the whole grou]i of islands 
 is, iicrliaps, (i(»,(IOO, and comjiosed of several dil- 
 fiTint tribes. The native Ilahreins niimber abuiit 
 liMlilOori'ilMlOO; they arc a mixed breed between 
 die Persians and Arabs, but possessing more of 
 
 the indolence and cuindiig of the former than of 
 the bold I'rankiiess of the latter. They are cliielly 
 cidlivators, merchants, ami llshenneii, and for I he 
 most part Miiboniniedniis, of the sect of Oiiiiir; 
 the rest of the iiihabiiaiils are mostly Arabs. 
 The pearl tisbery, fur which these islands are 
 cliielly noted, employs, during the sea.son, :lll,li(iO 
 men; and vi<lds pearls of the value of from 
 ;i( 1(1,(1(1(1/. to ■;{(;( MM Ml/, yearly. Most of the (Isliery 
 boats belong to uierchiiiits possessing considerabht 
 capital, but the largest proprielor in them is the 
 sheik liiuiself, who has upwards of '2.(10(1 boals, 
 each nianned, during the season, with eight or ten 
 men : he imposes also a small la.x on every other 
 boat. The lisbing season is from the liei;iniiiiig 
 of .lime till October. The diving is coinliicleii 
 |irett.v niiich in the same manner as in Ceyluu 
 (see Ckvi.on) ; but the divers attach llieir oysler- 
 nels to their waists, and are m the habit of alwavs 
 stulling llieir ears and nose with horn or oIIkt 
 substances: they can remain under water nearly 
 two minutes at a lime. They are oflen in the 
 most abject circumsiances, anil generally in debt 
 to the nierchanls, who obtain Ihe pearls at their 
 own price. Ilabrein has a considerable triitlic, and 
 might be rendered valuable under a good goviTii- 
 nieiit, and made the centre of all the conimerce 
 on this part of the Arabian coast. Although the 
 only cullivalion consists of dale plantations, aiiil 
 a few wheat, barley, and clover (itdds, at le i-t 
 one-foiirtli jiart of'the soil is very rich ; and by 
 irrigaliiin much of llu^ rest is capable of being 
 great l,v improved. I'omegranates. mulberries, tigs, 
 and melons are produced ; and cattle, ))oultry, and 
 I>leiity of vegetables are obtained from the neigh- 
 bouring coast. Numerous small villages and towns 
 are scattered over the cultivated jiarts of the 
 island; and at its X. portion there an; two towns. 
 Manama and Kuffar. Manama is the residence of 
 the ])riucipal merchants, and contains a fort ori- 
 ginally built by the rortiiguese; the remains of 
 several tine reservoirs and a(pieducts, coiisiriicted 
 by the same ))eo]ile, exist on this islimd. At the 
 >^. end are two harbours; that to the X\V. having 
 a deiitli of four to seven fall loins water near the 
 shore. The ])rin''ipal exjiorts are iiearls to Indiii, 
 Tersia, Arabia, and Itussorah; dry dates, torioise- 
 shell, canvas, and sharks' tins, to India; and 
 dates, canvas, mats, and coloured cloths, to tliii 
 other countries. The chief imports are rice trom 
 lleiigal and Uangalore; sugar, pejiper, blue and 
 white cloths, ))lanks, iron and other metals, cin- 
 namon, cam|ilior, drugs, luid indigo, from India; 
 coffee, drv fruits, and grain, from liussorah, I'ersia, 
 and Muscat. T'here are twenty merchant-vessels, 
 of 140 toiioO Ions, belonging to ilabrein, cliielly cin- 
 jiloyedin the India trade. The islands of Maharag, 
 Arad, and Tamahoy, lie NK. liahreiii. and con- 
 tain 7,500 inhabitants. Maliarag is the residenc(! 
 of the sheik, and has a town with a pop. of (i.Odil. 
 The sheik of Ilabrein keeps ii]) live amied vessels; 
 but, in time of war, can lit out tifteen or twenty. 
 One of his ships is ot' Ino tonsburden. and moniiis 
 twenty-two go :s. Uc also ni.iintains a body nl 
 iroo|)s, coiisisling <•!' a few biindred men; but the 
 besi defence of ISahi 'in is in the multitude of 
 reefs s((rrinin(ling it; a id live hundred deteriiiined 
 men might oppose the landing nf as many tlum- 
 sands. T'lie sheik's anibority I'Xli-nds over a li'W 
 places on the Ar,ibi;in coast. These islands were 
 known to the ancieiils by the name of Tyliis, and 
 are mentioned by Anlaii. The I'lirtngiiese esta- 
 blished a settlement brie .soon alter < )rinu7, bad 
 been taken by Albiiqiienpie ; but tliey were (,'X- 
 pelled by the Persians suliseipiently to the fall of 
 Orniiiz. For a long ]ieiiod the Persians and the 
 Alassar slujiks contested the possession of Uali- 
 
 It- 'J 
 
 ■M 
 
 ^ ■ \ 
 
 Jf 
 
 f.^< 
 
 ■'i 
 
 If^H 
 
 
 -41 
 
 
3H'2 
 
 tiat-t: 
 
 'B u 
 
 .' : I 
 
 '•V-.i- 
 
 3' ! 
 
 IJ-, 
 
 l:'*ll 
 
 rein; liiit Hiiirc IT'.IO il lini* liccn wliully HCiiarntcil 
 Iriirii the I'lT^iiiii (l<itiiiiiii)iiM, 
 
 IIALK. II CiiiinMiH iimriiir wntorin^'-pl.'co of nn- 
 c'itnl llitiv, till' llri;^litiiii of llic Itoiniin wirM, on 
 tlic \V. xlmn" c.r llic Kiiy of Nilplcs, H III. \V. of 
 
 Hull I'iiv, mill 'if) ni. N. ('ii|i<' Nli:«i'iiiini. Hiiin' 
 ^\HH iiiili'litcil for its ri^' ami I't'lclirily to u viirifty 
 iif rirciiiiijitiiiu'i's — to iIh^ Hoftiicss niiil Hcn-nity of 
 its eliiiiiitt', iIk' lujaiity of its Hitiiiilion, — 
 
 ' NiilliiH III orbu hIiuih IUiIIh privliicot nmn'nid,' — 
 
 the uliiinilaiK^o of its liot H|)riii);M, wliicli pivc to 
 tli(> Ifoiiiaiis, who were |)a.s»ioiiat<'lv foliil of the 
 li.'iili, till' o|i|iortiiiiiiy of iii<liil^in)r in llial luxury 
 ill ivcry form tlial was inosl a<'('i<|ital>li'. it hcciiis 
 to liavt' ('oiiit' into fasliioii pn'vioii.sly to, or almut, 
 llu! era of Ijii'iiIIms, who hail a H^ilcniliil villa 
 ciilicr in the town or iln iinini'iliatc m'i){lilioiirhooil, 
 )i> iinil al!4o Ca'sar, I'mniicy, ami Ani^UHiiis; ami il 
 (Mntiimnl to increase in |io|iiilarily, ami to he a 
 favourite re.sort of the eiii|MTorH ami of the allhieiil 
 volii|itiiarieH of Itoiiut till the irrn|itiiai of the 
 liarhariaiiM imiler 'I'lu'iiilorie the (jotli. The town 
 was liiiill iiri<;iiiiilly on the narrow slip of ^roiiml 
 Jielweeii Itii- hills ami the sea; hut as this space 
 was Iml 111' very limited diniensions, after Itaiiv 
 Ipccaiiie a liishionalile resort, the foumlatioiis of its 
 hi reels ami iiiilaces were projecteil into the hay 
 ilself! This is ulliiileil to hy'ilorace: — 
 
 'Marls(|iie IJaiis ol)Htrcix?ntIa urgca 
 Buiiuiiovero lltl^)ru, 
 
 Panlm lucuplus cunthtcntc ripA.' II. Od. 18. 
 
 No sooner, however, had opulence withdrawn 
 lier powerful hand, than the sea fjraduiilly re- 
 ^Mim^d its old domain; moles and liiittresses wiTe 
 torn asunder, washed away, or tiiinhled headlonj; 
 iiilo the deep, where, several feet hehiw the sur- 
 face, pavcnients of streets, foundations of houses, 
 and masses of walls, may still ho descried. Karth- 
 (pialvcs and other convulsions of nature have also 
 lar;i('ly contrihuted to the destruction of llaiic, of 
 which only a small portion of the ruins now 
 rcninin. 
 
 MAIHOUT, or BAIIJURDT, a to^vn of Asiatic 
 Turkey, iiacli. Erzeroiim, on the Tchorokhi. (12 in. 
 \V. hy N. Krzeronm. I'op. estimated at ahinit 4,()IHI. 
 It is a straf;t,dingill-hnilt town, supposed tooccniiy 
 the site of the ancient Variitlia, with a castle 
 which has some markH of antifpiity. Instead of 
 walls and hastions, it is defended hy portahle 
 towers made of h)j;s of wood. They are musket- 
 proof, of a triangular shape, and have raised tur- 
 rets at each aiij^le. If refjiiired in any distant iiarl 
 of the country, as not unlreqncntly hapi)eiis, they 
 may he taken to pieces, or, if the roads permit, 
 transiMirted on wheels. The accumulation of snow 
 in winter is here so ^reat as to cut off all coininu- 
 nication hetwcen ilaihout and the circumjacent 
 villages for four months in the year. Cow diiiif;' 
 liakcd HI the sun, and collected duriiifj; the summer 
 iniiiiths, is the only fuel the jxior can afford to jmr- 
 chase. The natives in this part of Armenia are 
 described as a short, stout, and active race of men ; 
 remarkalily dark in their complexions, brave and 
 hardy, jiassionaloly fond of hunting the slag, with 
 which their mountains abound, and invariably 
 civil. (Kilineir's Asia Minor, p. 3.>iJ.) 
 
 IIAIKAL (LAKK OF), sometimes called the 
 Sriatorc More, or Holy Sea, in Siberia, in the gov. 
 of Irkoutsk, between ol'' and5G°X. lat., and lu:\° 
 and 110=' E. long. Its greatest length in a NNl';. 
 and SSW. direction, is nearly 400 m, ; hut, where 
 greatest, its breadth does not exceed (!0 m., and is 
 in most parts mn-'' less. It is of very unequul 
 ile|illi, sand-banks and shallows occurring ahaig- 
 sido of all but unfathomable abysses. It is situ- 
 
 JUKV.W'VAJ, 
 
 aled in a iminniMinous nuinlrv, and rici'lv, i 
 sexeral considerable rivers, while lis Niirpliis wahr 
 is entirely cMrricd off by the Angara, a lar;if iiiiil 
 niiiid river, an alllneut of the .leiiissei. Th,. |j,|,. 
 eries of this bike are very valuable, (ireal innii 
 hers of seals, of a silvery colour, are captiiri'd, ilif 
 
 skins of which are sold to the Chinese. Stiir;;i , 
 
 to the extent of aliniil I.IMMI poods a year; saliiimi 
 are also taken ; but the grand object, of tin- lUhipy 
 islheo/MH/, a sort of herring (Salmi) iiiitiiinnuli],, 
 vrl miiiriiUiriiiii), taUen in vast numbers (ab.ini' 
 100,1)011 poods a year) in August and Septeinlut, 
 when it ascends the rivers. The most sin^riilur 
 llsli bidoiigiiig to the llaikal is \\w giilitmiiiikd [V„l^ 
 li/imniiits Huifiilf>isin), fripiii four to six indio in 
 length, HO very fat that il inells before the lire li|,|. 
 butter. The latter is never taken alive, bin |, 
 cast dead upon llie shore, somelimes in iiiiiiiniM' 
 (|iiaiilities, after siorms. Il yields an oil, suM tn 
 great advanlage to the Chinese. The siirfiiii' ,i|' 
 the lake is frozen over from November to t|ii> (.||,| 
 of April or the beginning of May. (Klii|iriii|| 
 Mi'inoires relatifs ii I'Asie, iii. H'j-lOM; Sturi'li' 
 Tableau lie la Kuxsio, ii. 112.) 
 
 ItAII.LKlIL, n town of Franro, d<<p. dii Xdnj, 
 cap. cant., on n hill near the Meterbeci|ue, p; m, 
 WNW. l.ille. on the railway from Lille tn Dim. 
 kenpie. l'o|). 10,102 in iHiil. The town is ii|ii.||, 
 iiiiii is generally well built ; it has various faliricNul' 
 (doth, cotton and lace, paper and hats, with a liir);i' 
 distillitry, oil-mills, tanneries, and poiieries. \ 
 species of cheese calhul Jiiiilk-iil, made in the envi- 
 rons, is highly esteemed. Ilailleiil is the naiiir 
 of several small towns in various parts of Fraiiiv, 
 but all too inconsiderable to deserve notice in iliit 
 place. 
 
 15AIX, a town of France, dep. Ille et A'ilnini', 
 ca)i. cant., IK m. S. I{ennes. I'op. ,'l,l!(0 in 1m;i. 
 It has manufactures of serges and woollen siiitVs. 
 
 IIAIS, a town of France, dep. and arroiid. Jlny- 
 eiine, cap. cant. I'op. .'KOffil in iMlil. Tins iiisii'is 
 the name of a town of about the same size, in the 
 (K'p. Ille et Vilaine, arrond. V'itre. 
 
 IIAJA, or MAS, a town of Ilungar*-, en. lines, 
 near the Danube, 20 m. N. bv W. Zom'bor, lat. I'P 
 10' 20" N., long. ;w° ;■)«' 17" !•:. I'op. lH,i;-.>l in 
 I MOO. It is the seat of the courts of justice fur the 
 CO., has a Catludic and a tireek church, a mm,!- 
 gogne, and a Catludic gymnasium. Tliirt' ari' 
 four great fairs annually. 
 
 llAKKWHLIi, a town of England, on. Dirliv. 
 himd. High I'eak, |)ar. liakewell, 22 ni. .NN\V. 
 Derby. I'oi>. 2,701 ni IHOl. Area of t(iwns|ii|i. 
 it.iWo" acres. The town is beautifully siliintiil mi 
 llie \V. bank of the Wye, 2 m. above its ciiiiiiin';i •• 
 with the DerNvent. The church, a spacious [Mw 
 structure, on an eminence, contains many iIih' 
 monuments. The Independents and We>i(y,iin 
 have each a chapel. There is a free-school, fniiiiiicil 
 in ItiiiO, with a small endowment, and an aliiis- 
 hoiise for six old men. Over a chalybiale s|iriii;' 
 (which had a high reputation in theSaxun limi«, 
 modern baths have, within a reccni pi^riml. Imh 
 formed; these are constantly su|)plied wiililVi-li 
 water, which, on its inllux, emits con,-.iilcr:ii'lt' 
 (liiaiililies of carbonic acid gas: its teiii|i. is ii"^ 
 Falir. Near the entrance to the town, fnnn A-li- 
 ford, is a cotton manufactory, built by Sir i;ifli;irl 
 Arkwright : it employs about ilOO haiids, Jhiiiy 
 of the other inhabitants are employed in tlii' iritl 
 mines and marble quarries of the iieiglilMiiirlii«iil. 
 The town has a station on the Alidlainl liaihvay. 
 The weekly niarl;et is held on Friday, bnl tlieic i- 
 Utile business of any kind transacted. Tlicri'ar' 
 annual fairs held, Easter Monday, Whit Mcimiay, 
 Aug. 21)1 h, Monday alter Oct. lo'ih, and Tiiiirsiiay 
 after Mov. 11th. The petty sessions for the liiui- 
 
', mill nrMVM 
 IH r<iir|ilii!< wiitir 
 urn, a liir^i' ami 
 JHHci. Till' li^li- 
 t<. (iri'iit iiiiiii 
 n* ('M|iiiir('il, ilii' 
 u'Hc, Sliir;,'fnii, 
 
 II yt'iir ; wiliiiuii 
 'I't t>f till' liilicry 
 ilinii iiiifiimmilif, 
 
 niMlllll'P* (itlnMll 
 
 I iind S«'|ilt'iiili(r, 
 ic iniwl i»iii),'iil;ir 
 J qohiiii/iikii [('ill- 
 
 III h'ix ilirlii'» ill 
 (■riirc III!' lire lilii' 
 ki'ii iilivi', lull is 
 ihnr^ ill iiiiiiii'iiM' 
 
 Ills Mil nil. NuM III 
 
 i. 'I'llC Klllllll'l' lit' 
 
 .•(•inlitT til I III- cihI 
 Miiv. (Kliiiiriiili, 
 , Hi)-U)«i Siiwli, 
 
 100, d«*p. ilii Niiril, 
 Icti'rlHM'iiiif, lii III. 
 rmn Lilli' t" Diiii- 
 Tlie tiiwii ii u|iiii, 
 i« viiriimt' I'll! irii's 111' 
 I hntH, witli a liircc 
 mill iiiiili'i-ics. \ 
 '. mnilein llioiiivi- 
 ll(\ul if till' iiaiiii' 
 iim jmrtH nl' KrainT, 
 .■serve notice in lliis 
 
 ET). lUn Pt, VilaiiiP, 
 I'oii. a.l'.MI ill iw'il. 
 jiul woollen stiitVs. 
 |). iiiiil iirriiiid. Miiy- 
 '. l«(!i. Tins alsiiit 
 lie same size, in tliu 
 
 tre. 
 Uunnnrv', CO. Itnrs. 
 
 W. Zoinlior, hit. I'i^ 
 K. ro\). l^/i-l 'I' 
 irtsof juslii'i' I'liriliv 
 eek elinreli. a syiiii 
 liiiisiuin. There aro 
 
 J'ji^laiiil, po, Dcriiy. 
 ewell, -ii m. NNW, 
 Area ol" tii\viislii|i. 
 luitil'nlly Mliiatiiliiii 
 lalmvc its ciiiillm;! •■ 
 }h, aspacious (luiliii' 
 Icontnins many I'liu' 
 Ints antl We>l>y:iin 
 \ I'ree-se.liool. t'niiiuli'il 
 [ineiit, ami an alub- 
 la elialyheaie siirnii,' 
 Vm the Saxon liim-. 
 recent iieiiml. ''-"i 
 sn|inlieil "i'h I'""'' 
 emits eoll^ill>■l':l''''•' 
 .as: its leiiip. isi'"^ 
 ftlio town, from A-b- 
 llniilt l)ySirKiili:irl 
 , itoil liamls. M;niy 
 ^nploye'l ill the li'ii'l 
 llienein-hhoiif'"""'' 
 je Midlaiiil l!:"'^'''^ 
 Friday. Iml thw '■ 
 .msacted. Tlicri'iif 
 lidav, Whit Mowlay. 
 KMli, aiidTliiirsilay 
 sessions lor the Iw"- 
 
 BAKTCillSKHAI 
 
 ilrcil lire held in the lnwii. It is the ehh f |vdlintr 
 liiwii for 'he ^' divi-iiiii nC the loiiiily. 'I'he lis iiiK 
 I, n viriiriih'e, in the pulrunil^'e ol' (lie dean and 
 (liniiiiT ol l.iihllehl. 
 
 riifie miles NK. ol' the liiwii is Chatsworili, the 
 ^iili'lliliil "<'l" "' ''"' 1*"'"' of Ifevollvhiri', nil a 
 Ji'iiili' rlM' near the liase ol' a liiiely wooded hill: 
 ihi' lliTWeiit, Hpaiined liy ft liaiid-uine stone hridn'e, 
 ijow^ piisl il>* priiieipal Iroiil, The inaiision rnrins 
 ft ■.iimire of I'.MI ri.,eiirliiMiii^ a spacious court, with 
 a rHiiiilaiii in the centre; it has n tial roof siir- 
 riiiiiiii'd hy lialnstrades, and is decorated wiili Imiic 
 iiiliiinns. " At the principal entrance, a Kfand tli;,'lit 
 „l slips leads to a terrace exleiiilinj; the h'lij^lh of 
 llir hiiililiii),', 'I'he water-Works (with the excep- i 
 limi III' those of Versailles) are considered the lincst 
 ill Kiiriipe, The present editice stands on the sile 
 „f ilie iiiansioii liuill hy Sir VVilliani Caveiidisli | 
 ill ilie Itiih century, iii which Mary, t^ieeii ol' j 
 S'lil^. was ini|irisoiied thirteen years. It wasimii- i 
 jili'ii'il ill ITiiti, lint a wiii^ and other addilions j 
 have lieen made to it liy the present duke, unit 
 iiiaiiv iinprovemenls are still in pm^jress. Allo- 
 L'cihir, it is one of llu" nolilest resiliences in the 
 l.iii.i-iliiiii, and contains a very large collect ion of 
 iiii ilircs, statues, and arlicles of vcrtii. Iladdon 
 Hall, the property of tlm Duke of Uiitland, the 
 iiiii>l perfect of the Hiicient liaronial mansions re- 
 inaiiiin;; in the kingdom, is alioiit 2 m, S. of the 
 iiiwii, on an eminence overlooking the line vale of 
 IJailileii, It wiif h'lilt "I dilVcreiit periods; the 
 niiiM aneieiit part in Kdw. 111,'s reign ; another, in 
 ihat iif lien. VI, ; and Ilie most modern, in the 
 fciiiii i4' Kliz, ; at which period it came into the 
 liiwH'ssion of the Manners family. 
 
 fill' present name of the town is n contrnetioii 
 iif ils nlil Saxon name, derived from the ehalylieate 
 siiHiig, The castle stooil on a knoll, on tlu' E, 
 Imiik iif the Wye. The parish in which this town- 
 >lii|i is situated is the largest in the co., its area 
 iK'iiig 4:1,(1211 acres; and it includes, liesides the 
 lowiis iif llakewell and Hnxtoii, eight clia|)elries, 
 tin townships, and four hamlets. The entire po- 
 |iiilatiiiii ill 1H31 wan iJ,5U3, oiid in 18G1 it had risen 
 Iiill.-.'.VI, 
 
 llAKI'tJlIISKKAI (palace of the gardens), a 
 
 tiiwii of Russia in Kurope, in the Crimea, of which, 
 
 while miller the Tartars, it was the capital and the 
 
 risiilt'iiee of the khan, 7 ni. SW, Simpheropol, 
 
 I'lip. estinii'ted at ahout 10,1)0(1, ' This,' says |)r. 
 
 Clarke, 'is one of the most remarkalile towns in 
 
 lliirii|ie; lirst, in the novelty of its manners and 
 
 iiistiinw; these are strictly' oriental, and betray 
 
 liiitliingof a Kuropeaii eharaotej:: seconilly, in the 
 
 hire of the town itself, oecni tying the craggy sides 
 
 111' a priiiligious natural fosse, between two high 
 
 innimtaiiis, somewhat like the appearance cxhi- 
 
 liiiiil hy Matlock in Deri lysli ire. The view breaks 
 
 nil at mice upon the traveller, exhibiting a variety 
 
 111' iilijects ill a most irregular and scattered iiiau- 
 
 niT; 'while bubbling fountains, running waters, 
 
 ;;arileiis, terraces, hanging vineyards, and groves 
 
 III' the black poplar, seem to soften the horror of 
 
 nicks and precipices, and even to make them 
 
 niipcar inviting.' (vol, ii, p. 170, «vo. ed.) lint, 
 
 iiiitwitlistandiiig this profusion of fountains and 
 
 waier, llaktcliiserai is not <listiiignished by its 
 
 olcaiiliness ; on the contrary, its streets are narrow, 
 
 wiiuliiig, and tiltliy. It siilfered a good deal after 
 
 its lirsitiiccupation by the Kussiaiis, but latterly it 
 
 has improved : it is entirely occupied by Tartars. 
 
 The ancient palace of the khans has been repaired, 
 
 ami is preserved in all its former magiiilicence. 
 
 (Scliiiitzler, La Kussie, p, 734 ; l-.\all's Travels, i. 
 
 iLl'I'd.) 
 
 IIAKU, or r>ADKU, a soa-port town of the 
 l!iis>ian doiniiiions, prov. Dagheutan, on the S. 
 
 15ALA 
 
 »:t:i 
 
 shorn or Dip ppiiinsnhi of Abs.hnron. on the W, 
 coasi of Ihe Caspiiin Sea, of which it is one of Iho 
 best and niosl I'rcipielileil ports; lal, lo*^ 'J'J' \,, 
 hnig, .'lO" In' •', rii|i. r.iiiiiuicd at abiiiil (1,000. 
 It is ilel'riided by a double wall and deep ditch, 
 conslriicli'd in the nign of I'l Irr theiircat. It han 
 sniiie mosi|nes and caritvaiiM'ras, but is iiieaiily 
 bnill : the hoiixes, which are flat roofed, are co- 
 vered with a coating of naphtha. Its excellent 
 barboiir, and its central and advanci'il posiiimi, 
 give il great advantages as a trading slatimi. The 
 value of the iinpnrts, ii«ii.-,isiiiig principally of raw 
 silk and colloii goods from Persia, ainoiinlid, in 
 l«(iO, to •.',000,000 roiildes. The exports eoii-ist 
 principally of naphlba, salVron, and oil. 
 
 The peninsula of Abirliaroii is fanmns for its 
 naphtha springs and niiiil volcanoei, and bel'ure 
 the Mohanimcihin coiiipiesi was a favourite ri"-orl 
 of the (ihebers, nr lire-worshippers, 'The (|ii;ill- 
 tity ofnaii'itha procured in the plain lo the SI'., of 
 the city is enormous. It is drawn from wells, 
 some III' which have been found to yiidd frniii 1,000 
 lo 1,000 lbs, a dav. These wells are, in a cerliiin 
 sense, inexhanstilile ; for lliey are iiosooiicreinptied 
 than they again begin to iill. the naphtha cmi- 
 tiiiiiing to iiurease till it has attained to its foriiicr 
 level. It is used by the natives as a sub titiite lor 
 lamp oil, and, when ignited, einiis a clear light 
 with iniich smoke, and a disagreeable smell, I'.. 
 of the naphtha springs the attention is arrested by 
 the .\la>h-Kiiilihi, or tirc-tcmple of Ihe (ihebers; 
 a remarkable spot, sonielhiiig less than a mile in 
 cire,, from the centre of which a bluish tiaiiie is 
 seen to arise. Here some small houses have been 
 erect(Ml; and the inhabitants, in order to sinoiber 
 the tiame, have covered the space encloM'd by the 
 wall with a thick loam of earth. When tire is, 
 therefore, reipiired for any culinary purpose, an 
 incision is made in the Hour, and on a light being 
 prodnced, the llaino inmiediately arises, and when 
 necessarv is again suppressed by dosing the aper- 
 ture ! With the lire a siillilinreous gas also arises; 
 and A strong current ol iiitlammable air, with 
 which leathern bottles are fretpiently lilled, inva- 
 riably eontinups after the llanie has been extin- 
 guished. The whole country, indeed, around llakii 
 has, at times, the appearance of being enveloped 
 in tlames. It often seems as if the tire rolled 
 down from the iiiountains in large masses, with 
 incredible velocity ; and during the clear moon- 
 shine nights of Xoveniber and I)eceinber, a bright 
 blue light is observed, at times, lo cover the wliolo 
 western range. This lire does not coiisiime ; and 
 if a person linds himself in the middle of it, be is 
 not sensible of any warmth.' (Kinneir's I'ersia, 
 j>. 'ii)[K) The mild volcanoes, in the vicinity ol' 
 the town, often throw up vast ipiantities of iiiiid. 
 llakii was acipiired by the Knssiaiis from the I'er- 
 siaiis, in IHOI, and along with Astrakhan caiTies 
 on the whole trade of the C'a.si)ian. (See Cahi'IAN 
 Ska.) 
 
 liAivU, or 15AKOWA, a town of Moldavi.i, on the 
 
 j liistrit/.. near its contluencc with the Seretli, hit. 
 
 I 'U)° 'M' S., long. M° 47' E. It is a poor, miserable, 
 
 lilthy place, but lias a considerable trade in cattle, 
 
 I corn, salt, and wood. It occu])ies the site of a 
 
 I city which was once the residence of a (.'atholic 
 
 ! bishop ; the ruins of the cathedral still exist. 
 
 j I5ALA, a township, market, and assize town of 
 
 I X, Wales, CO, ^lerioneth, huinl. PeiiUyn, 37 m. 
 
 ! NW. by W. Shrewsbury, at the W. end of the 
 
 ' largest of the Welsh lakes, in a wild and moiiii- 
 
 tainous district. I'op. of ]iar., t;,352 in liSdl. Tlu! 
 
 town, which consists of one wide street, with a 
 
 smaller one branching from it, has a neat and re- 
 
 speciable ap|iearaiice. It has a chapel of ca.se, and 
 
 two other chapels belonging to ludependenls and 
 
 
 f^'^^^ 
 
 

 ' 
 
 iint 
 
 ItALACIINA 
 
 
 ■^i 
 
 I u. I 
 
 If r \ 
 
 
 
 < ,'S 
 
 n 
 
 I 1 I ' H r " ? 
 
 'T. 
 
 CiilviniMtic Mt'lliiKliNtH; nii rmlowi'd k'""'"""'- 
 mIhmiI, riiiiiiilnl ill 171'J, uhcn- lliirty Imivk iiri' 
 fhillinl allil riliKiilril carli I'lir I'lMir Vi-afH ; it ImioU 
 Mii'H'iy, «'»tiil(li"liiM| ill IM-.'H; ami a (umii liall. i<> 
 wlilrli iiiic lit' l|ii> CO. Iiriili-Mi'lls Ih alliiclii'il, 'I lie 
 lii.'irlicl is licjii III! SuliirilayN, ami is well iitlrndi'il. 
 'I'lirri' ari' llvi' lair'*, rliiclly I'nr lli«' kiiIc nC livi- 
 Hi licit, (III tlicSaiiinliiy licl'iirc Slim^ciiilc, May I tlli. 
 .Inly Mull (a lar^c liiiiili lain, Oct, -.'lili.aiiil Nov. 
 Hill. Iliila ii|i|M'iirN III liavc Ixtii aiiciciiilv iiicur- 
 iinralcil, lull ai |ircMciii is iiicri ly a iiuiiiiiial liiiriiiii;li 
 III llic jiiriKiliciiiiii of (III- I'd, iiiaKi-<lratc.i. The 
 Njiriii^ a.-iNi/i'M, ilu^ NiinitiiiT ami » inter (|iiartcr 
 HiUNiiins I'lir llic CO., arc lidit licrc, ami n en. cmnl 
 I'lir ilclils miller lllx. every oilier iiioiitli; all tlic 
 cuiirlM lieiiiK alteriiulely lielil here ami a( l)ol 
 ),'elly. 'the loWll ami llei);'hlioiirlliiiiit have lieeil 
 rniiiiiiiH tViiiii II reimilc |ieriiiil I'nr the niaiiiil'acdire 
 orkiiiiicil siiicluii^rs ami ^liives, c-teciiicil I'nr their 
 yll'cli>;lh ami nnriiicMN of IcMiire; hut IIiIm Iiii.h oI' 
 laic yearn ilecliiieil coiiNiilcriiiily. Ahoiil fitl.tMHl 
 iln/.eii MtiickiM^n ami socks are nniiiiiilly inaile. 
 'I'hc town is coiiiiccleil with the KiiKlish railway 
 sysleni liy the Mala iiml l>iilj;elly line, aiithoriseil 
 ill \M->, of a Iciinlh of :i,\ miles.' At I he SI'., eiiil 
 of the town is a l;ir;;'c arlilicial inoiiml. siip|ioseil 
 to he of lioinaii consiriictioii, from the Mimniit of 
 which is a iiia>;iiiliceiit view, hiiviii;; the lofty 
 Arraiis on one side, ami Cailer lilris on the other. 
 The lake Itahl, 'l'e;;iil, or I'imlileinere, is ahoiit I in. 
 ill leii;;th liy I in wiillli; it ahoiimls with |iike. 
 pircli, iroiit, ami still nmre wilh the whitc-scalcil 
 nwyiiiail. The whole is the |irii|ierly of Sir W. W. 
 W'yiiii, who has a lisliin;;- scat on it. The l>ec 
 rises ill Arran I'enllyn, a iiioniiluiii at the licail of 
 the lake, ami eiiier;;es from it near Itala, where it 
 is s|iaiineil hy a liriil;;e, near which, on the I'',, hank. 
 II castl(> was erecteil in I'.'O'i, of which some traces 
 arc yet visihic. A hriiiii'li oft lo lionian Watliii;; 
 >St. passed tliroii^'h or very near the (iresi nt tuwii, 
 and at the head of the lake are the remains of u 
 li'oinan station. The arlilicial nioiiml aliove incii- 
 lioiicd was occupied hy the Welsh as one of a chain 
 of forts across this part of the principality, to pre- 
 vent the incursions of the l'ili;;lish lords marchers : 
 nt a siihseqiieiit period the place was a depemieiicy 
 of Harlech t'astle. ISula is n favourite resort of 
 (Sportsmen diiriii)^ the jfroiisc season, 
 
 It.VL.VCIINA, a town of Miiropean linssiii. j^ov. 
 ><ijiii Novj,'orod, on the NVoljiU. I'o)). estimated 
 at I.IKM), Theru arc saline sprin).fs in tlie- iieigh- 
 lioiirhooil, 
 
 llAL.V(iAXSKOI,n town of Asiatic I{iissin,K'>v. 
 Jrkontsk, !M» m. N\V. Irkmitsk, on the Aii;,'ara, 
 
 ItALAdl'KK (an. Jivri/iisiu), a town of Spain. 
 Catalonia, on the Se;;re, 14 m. NIC. r^erida. I'op. 
 [i,\'2H in IMoT. It is siliiated at tlu! foot of a steep 
 nioinitaiii in n fertile plain, and in defeiidud l>y u 
 
 lt.\'LAGIIAUT CKDKD DISTIMCTS, an inl. 
 
 jirov. of S. llindostan, presid. JMadras, hctween 
 j:i° l.V and 1(J° 20' N. hit., and 7iP lo' ami 71)° 20' 
 1\. \i»\^. ; consistiiij^ of jiart of tilt! rej;ioii called 
 ISalimhaiit, or ahove the (Ihants (which exlemls 
 IVoin the Krishna to the S. of Mysore, and formed 
 (li(! aiic. Hindoo oinp. of Karnata), liavin;^ N. 
 Kiirnool, and the territories of the Nizam ; K. (Jiin- 
 toor, Nelloro, and Arcot ; S.Mysore; and VV. 
 Dliarwar: leiif^fh ahout 200 m., hrendth various, 
 nre.'i, 2o,l.")(J s(|, in. Pop. about 2,500,000. it is 
 almost fiinally divided hetweeii the colleclorates 
 of Uellary and Ciiddapah. It consists mostly of 
 flevated tahle-Iiinds stretcliini; out into extensive 
 ]ilaiiis ; hilt larj^e tracts are rii;rjj;c(l, and there is a 
 j:;rcat deliciencv of wood. There are no lar;io 
 rivers: thi! 'i'oombnddra forms part of its N. 
 Lutindnry, and lillti some watt'i'eoiirses aljoul l»i- 
 
 llALAMIJANOAM 
 
 Janairnr, the anc, liindoo capital; hot i>l-«H|uti' 
 irrii;alion is Hcarce, and ilroiif^'lit frei|iiciiily i,f,, 
 \iiils. The fioil is in iniii-t p.iits eillur hlnck i.r 
 red mould : the I'urmer i> mosi conimni In ilii<\v 
 district", where it forms nil extensive iilain; it |^ 
 ilei'ii, without ve^cl/ililc remains ; ami whrriclinhsl. 
 hrokcii lip, and properly pulverised, j< fnunil i, i, 
 exceedingly fertile, and is aflerwardi mtv la. i 
 cultivated, lint lliis liriii);in^ in of the hlmk m.i| 
 is II very e\|iiii«ive process j and, in ciinseiiiu ii,i., 
 ihoiiKh the red soil lie Ic* fertile, yet, us it ihh,, 
 easily liroii^'lil iiii . a productive state, the iiiH.rn 
 clilssi •< are freiicnilly settled upon it. hrill Im 
 liandry is imiMTsal, li'/tiii is uncertain ; ainl il ,i 
 fail in >liim'. the whole crop is in daiu cr of liiinr 
 lost. The (//-//ciiliivalion is almost miner-al : tln' 
 «v< not U'in;; supposed to exceed 7 |s'r ••ciu,,,! 
 the whole, riaiilnlions of iiiili;;'o, liriel. Hii^ur. 
 cane, red pepper, luliacco, Her., are jircllv cMin. 
 sively SI illcred lAirtlie coiintrv. I'lii iciii|,(.rii 
 tiire is much ciiolcr thiiii in the siirriiiiinliii;; mni 
 less elevated disirictH, .ManiifaetiireH iiaoiiniilir- 
 ahle. 
 
 The land has iihvayslioen regarded as hehin^jiinj 
 to government, and the metayer system was pri' 
 valeiit under hoth tin- native and Miihaniiniiliiii 
 dynasties. Iletweeii ihe com|ucst of the lailir 
 and the rei.t;n of .\nriinu/.elie, the class ol /«i/i(/.(m, 
 who were ori^'inally either mere colleciin ,,f iii,, 
 revenue or heads of villa^res. Iinviii;; nii ,ilv in- 
 creased in miinhers and inlliieiice, withhelii ihi' 
 revenues, set up for pi'lty chiets, and Iuin in;; i>iii 
 hli^-hed a kind of feudal system, desolaieil ilu 
 country hy their inntnal wars, and reiluccd it tun 
 state of anarchy and of the utmost iniMTy. Wliiii 
 it came into the iiosscssion of the llritish in Isim, 
 its iiihali. jjeneraily were the poorest in our ilimii- 
 nioiis: 'they were seldom even lixed as tcMiiiii>. 
 hut mi^'rated from farm to farm, and from villiii.'i' 
 to villa^fe, where they clnhhed together to caiTv 
 on their cultivation.' The jiidieions ailiiiiiiiMlni- 
 tioii of Sir T. (theiiCol.) Mnnro.who wasappeiiiinl 
 principal collector, not only averted a faniiiii', in 
 coiiseipieiice of drought, in IMIKI, hut in sivin 
 years raised the revenue, without hiirdeniiif; ilic 
 cultivators, from t million to l,|| million pa;,'ii(la>. 
 The average total revenue iiaid hy each inlmli. nl 
 Kellary is 2 nip. H an. H pic.; and thai paiil liv 
 each inliah. of rmldapah, 2 nip. The villa;;i' mi- 
 tli'inent is predominant in this prov., espei'i,'iily in 
 ('nddapah. The inliah. are more lahorioiis. Imrlv, 
 and ma ily, and their food, dress, and weiipoih 
 ruder tliiiii those of the jieople lielow the (diant<; 
 they Were never tliorciigldy snhdued hy the .Mu- 
 hammedaiiH, who settled in this prov. at a ri'ni- 
 pariilively late ]ieriod, and do not now exciul 
 l-ITith part of the pop. Kalaghniit forined piiri "f 
 the last Hindoo empire of Itijaiiagiir: alter tlu' 
 fall of the Delhi dynasty, it hecame separatnl inl" 
 several indei). stales, was compiereil hy llyilcr 
 hefore 17H0 ; and after 17!I2 helongedto heN'iz.iin. 
 hv whom, in INOO, it was ceded to the l!rili-li. 
 (l''or further particulars sei; Maiikas; Jliiiiiiliiiir< 
 K. I. (iazetteer; Madras Almanac.) 
 
 KALAKLAV'A, u small sea-jiort town of Kn- 
 ropean l{ussia,at the SW'.extremitvof theCriiiirii; 
 lat. 11° 21t' N., long. JiiJ" iil' 40" K. J'np. 2,(i7!t in 
 IMoH. A great hattle was fought here Oit. I'l!, 
 IH.VI, hptween the Kiissian and the allied .\ii;,'l»- 
 Frencli troops. 'I'hn town has a small hut txivl- 
 leiil harlioiir, land-locked, and with water .MiHi- 
 cient to float the Jargest ships. It has no triiilc. 
 and is resorted to onlv liv coasters. 
 
 UALAiVlHANtiAN, aii isl. of the K. Arcliip., Iili 
 division, Iving off the N. extremity of liiiniin: 
 lat. 7° I.VN., hdig. 1 17° ij' !■:.; 15 ni. Imig and :l 
 broad, but uniiihubiled. It lum a rich snil. and 
 
I t'lllKT l-liirk nr 
 
 itiiniMi ill ilii' \V. 
 \f\\r 11I11.111 : it I1 
 illld wiirT«i'lnin>.l, 
 '(I, i I rnimcl lii ''I 
 ivunW vcrv r'n»iiv 
 I III' I lie lilacW Mill 
 
 I, ill CiillMCiiMrllrc, 
 
 , yd, n* it isiiii 
 
 Wllitt', I 111' lumrn 
 
 III il. hrili liii 
 I'lTtiiin ; mill il II 
 I (lull; >r "if litiiii; 
 list iiiiivrr-ill ; llii' 
 •••(l 7 i«'r '•(•III, III' 
 
 li|4;(i, lii'Icl, "liyiir 
 
 an- iirciiy <si(ii- 
 ■\ , rill- ii'iii|K'rn 
 
 urilcd i\H licliiiiKiiik' 
 •r Hy^^l^•tn \\n* \itv- 
 iiiiii Miiliiiniiiii'ilini 
 |iu'st III' tlic laiiir 
 III' ('Inss III jioliiinrt, 
 ic iiilli'iiiii 111' till' 
 linviiin Kri :>ily in- 
 cliri', willilii'lil till' 
 's, mill Imviii^' rM:i- 
 tcin, (lr:<iilali'il llii' 
 mill rnlui'i il it tn a 
 iiiht iiiiMTV. Wliiii 
 llic liriti>h ill iKiiii. 
 iiiiiri'^il ill iiiir lii'iiii 
 i>n lixcil 111 liiiaiiiv 
 111, anil t'n'Mi villnuf 
 il tiinotlHT til I'liiry 
 iiliciiiiin ailiiiiiiisiru- 
 i,wliowrtsai.i"iiiiiiil 
 ivcrti'il a raiiiiiii'. in 
 iHOIt, lillt ill wvi'il 
 liiiiil Imnli'iiinn il"' 
 llJl niiHiiiii iiaiTi'ilii-. 
 il liy fiirll iuliali. "I' 
 aiid lliat naiil liv 
 hi. Till" viliairi' >ii- 
 |iri>v., i's|ic(iall.v in 
 II' laliiiriiiiis. Iiar.ly, 
 ili'i'ss, ami wi'iiiii'ii" 
 lu'liiw till' (iliaiiiv, 
 iiIiiIiiimI liy till' M"- 
 |lii« priiv. at a ("i"- 
 jlo not IIIIW cxiwl 
 |;lmiit riiriiit'il i>iiri nf 
 iiJHiiiifiiif ■• altiT llii' 
 I'liiiu' Mi'iiaratnl iiii" 
 iiiiliicroil l>y llyiiir 
 i.ii},'P(lto lii'Niz.i"i. 
 (It'll to till' liriii-li. 
 ADiiAs; llaiiiiltiiii'* 
 
 |i"'"'-) . ,. 
 
 ii-liiirt liwn III !•"- 
 
 initviil'llii'''''""'''' 
 
 |o" K. I'l'p- ■-."^'•' '" 
 
 aitjlit liiTi' di't.'-"' 
 
 1(1 ili« allii'il Aii;,'!"- 
 
 a small Imt i'>"''|- 
 
 111 villi water Mi'li- 
 
 It has no trmli'. 
 
 alters. 
 
 ,1'tlH! K. An-hip.. Itli 
 
 Itrcniity nl' liiin"'"; 
 
 lu in. Iiiii^.' ami •• 
 
 US a rich snil. wn' 
 
 ll.M.AHOUK 
 
 fwi. liarli'iiir* nlKiiiiuliiiK In llili. A soltlomcnt, 
 |,,rnii'il ill \'i^^' '•>' '*'" ''"• '• <'"in|>»ny. \mii xikiM 
 liif ,|,,.triiMil liy till' Sniiliiiw, mill a niili'>ri|iii'iii 
 .iiilriiiciii |ilitniril ill lr<iM \\\\* HliirNNunU uluiii 
 
 ll\i,AMO|{l'' (ViilitiiHini), n nra imrt town of 
 lliiiiliihtaii. i'ri»lil. IU'ii).'nl. |iriiv. OriMa, ilii.ir.Ciit- 
 n,k,(il' «•>"'''' '• " ''"' ''lii'l i«irt : hit. Jl^ ll'i' N., 
 j.iiii;' Hii" fitl' K. : I '-'•'» "'• '"^^V. ( 'ali'iitia. I'lip. i-.i i - 
 iii,.,i,,| U'twi'i'ii lii.imo uii'l I--MMHI. h i^ a laruc 
 «iri 'l'i'~ lili"'''- "" •'"' i^' '"'III* "I till' lli'iiri- 
 Hal.mi;. »'i'' I'l'"''' ' '''''II 'ill'. Kiirnnil) it wa-* 11 
 ll,,i,fi,|riltc timii, Willi rurtiiniii'si', iMllrli, iillil 
 Ij lii-li I'artiirii^. It Ii.ih ilrv ilurkn, liiit is at 
 iii'M'iil tri'Hiii'iiti'il "Illy liy AfaliTiM' m'««i'Ih. nail 
 Lulls, 11 i'l "tiuritniall iTat't : itHi'.\|iiiriM arr ihirtly 
 riiviiit'aiiiii I inwiiiiir. 
 
 ilAI.ATON ^lAKK OF), hi Hungary. Sic 
 I'l.MTi-.N Si;k. 
 
 |l,\l,lll!l(i(iAX, a ni.irif. Inwn of Inliniil, I'li. 
 jiiililiii, |iriiv. I.ciiiMii'r, iirar tlir iiiiuiili i>l' Ihr 
 Miiiill riMf l>rlvan, riirniiii^' the I'li. Iiiiiiinliiry to 
 iln' N,. IT '"• ^- '•>' ''■• "' I'lil'liii. Il"' '"■"' 'il 
 till' inwii riiiiiaiiis IMO Ktatiiti' arrci, Ari'uriliii;;' tu 
 ihi' ri'iisiis (if l«i'il, tlicri' wi'Tc 2,"J."iM iiilmliitaiil-. 
 1,1 wlniiii l.tl'l'- iii''il''H and l.'.Mii fi'iiialcH. 'I'lii' 
 liilal iiiiiiili'T (if hiiiiM'n was M't, nf which 171' iii- 
 b.il'ili'd. 'I'hc jilari' was Ihr sitiic of a Naii>,'iiiiiary 
 I,:ihIi', ill l''l'>"''< lii'twci'ii Ihf lii-sl I'jirl of l.iiiilh 
 mill siinii' of the Kilfflish srltlrrs, who iliMpiiti'd 
 ilii' I'laiin III Ihf |ialatini' dignity of tlir ciuiniy, 
 lull wcri' drl'iilrd. William III. I'licamiu'd hcrt' 
 III! Ills iiiai'i'li to Diililiii, after the lialllc of tlii' 
 lliivnr. 'I'he town is tint lii'iid-i|iiarl<'rs of the 
 (n. I'liiixtahiilary, and nrar it is a niarti'lio Iowit. 
 wiili a ('(iast-K""rd station. 'I'hcri' arr two coitoii 
 iiiilN lii'rc, ^ivin^ work to ahoiit 100 |irrsons, 'I'lic 
 ci'ii"!!^ ri'tiirns slate tiiat l'>7 families are ein|itoye(l 
 ill a^'rii'iilt lire, 17'.' in mainifaetiires and trade, and 
 '.>,'i:l ill iiilier |iiirsiiils. litM maU's and IIH females 
 arc ri'tiinied as memhers of the I'lstalitished ( 'liiireli, 
 anil 87',' Males and l,ll.'i:i females as Itoinan I'alho- 
 liis. 'I'lu' iiiililic markets are held on Mondays, 
 ill a market house erected i)i IS||, Thu fairs are 
 I'll llie 'JIUli April and 2!llh Seplemlier. 
 
 flic liarhoiir, which is nalurally small and nuieh 
 ixiHiM'd, was coiisideralily iniiiroved hy a pier 
 built alHiiit I7iii'>, 'I'lie (|ii>iy, wliicli is imw tiOli ft. 
 iiiiit;. with a linhthonse at the extremity, is fre- 
 i|iiciilly lilU'd with craft. At the pier head there 
 i« U ft, water at liiKh siirin>{ tides, hut the harlmur 
 liricH at low water. (The CunsiiH of Ireland for 
 l.'<ill : I'riv. Infonnation.) 
 
 IIAI.KAKIC ISLiV^'DS. See Majohca and 
 
 MlNOIlCA. 
 
 IIAI.FHOX, a village of Scotland, in the \V. 
 jiari (if Stirlingshire, in the )iarish of the same 
 iiiinii', lit ni. N. (Jlasjfow, and lit m. \V. Stirling,'. 
 I'll]), hililll in IKi')!, of whom !):{'2 males and I'i'iH 
 Irmalcs. lu iKtil the population had fallen to 
 l.'ilT, of whom (>!>!) males and HIM females. The 
 iiihaliitaiits are principally eniphiyed as weavers 
 liir the Glasf{i)w manufacturers, and in the lialliii- 
 (lalli"'li ('(itton mills in immediate vicinity. 
 
 KALFKOOSIl, a town of Persia, prov. INIa/un- 
 ilcraii, nil tlic llawool, ahout 1'2 m. I'mm the S. 
 slinri' nf the CiLspian Sea; lat. 'MP ;J7' X., lon>;, 
 iff 12' F. This is a larj^e llourishiiif^ city. There 
 are, llo^^■ever, no accurate details with respect to 
 iisiiii|ailaliim; the estimates vary from I'JO.IIOII to 
 :!uii.iM)(). It is situated in a low, swampy, hut rich 
 i'iiiiiitr\-, and stands literally in t\w. middle of a 
 forc.Ht, it beiiij; surrounded and intersiiersed with 
 line tri'c». It has an extensive trade, to he ac- 
 I'l'imtcd fur principally hy the coniimrative immii- 
 iii'y it has enjoyed frmn opprcssi\ e imposts, as I lie 
 riLiils Icailing to it are bad, and its port, 1'2 m, off, 
 
 HALKH .IX-i 
 
 little lirttor lliati an opin madsienil. It U, or at 
 least was, when \|,<ilii| liy ,Mr, Kraser. eiilinly 
 pi'iipled hy nirnlianlK, iiu'ihaiiio. and their de- 
 pi'iid)'iil->, and learned iiiiii ; and witn pruNpeniiH 
 and happy, far lieyniid anv I'lher place he had 
 seen ill I'ersia, sireeis hriifld and siraiifhi, Imi 
 uiipa\ed; hiiii:<eN niiiNlly coliMtriicted iif lirickx, ill 
 ^^iiiiil repair, and ronled isiih til •», It has im imli' 
 lie liiiililiii^M iif aiiv ci'liNi'ipielii'i' ; the only pliii 1 s 
 if t.iiy interi il heiiii; the lia/.aarx, whidi eMeinl 
 for a lull mile in len^'th, and cniixiii of -iiliKtun- 
 liallx liiiill rail;;eH nf hlmps comtciI frniii the <iiiii 
 mid weather hy a ronliiii; nf wiumI and tiles, kept, 
 in excellent repair, Tlii're are aliiiiii ten principal 
 earax/insi-ras, several of which are aliached in ilio 
 lia/aars, and are parcelled out niioclinniliers I'nr ihe 
 mercliaiils, and waiehniHes r>ir their ^nmls. All 
 the lia/aars and eitiax'iiiNeras ;ire well tilled with 
 various cninniniliilis, and present a hciiic nf liie-ili' 
 
 mid linsiiicss, yet nl ri't;iilarily, very inicnin 1 
 
 in this cniintry, and therefnH' the iimrt' ^n'lililyin^, 
 riiei'e are lielweeii twenty and thirty niedrasMes 
 nr cnlli'p'S, llallrnni.|i III iii^ 111 ai 111 ir.llicli cell'- 
 liraled Inr the niiinli<'r and ' iiiii iiti'-e ■ t its moo- 
 lahs, nr leurned iiicn, as I'm lis cntTimerce, Tlie 
 river is cmsMed hy a hridjic ..(' nine .llehis. (Fra- 
 ■'ii's Travels almin' tie.- Caspian Sea, pp. NJ-l''.i.) 
 
 MALI, liA.'XV, nr l.ll'TLi; .lAVA, an islaml 
 nf the F, ,\rihipehmn, W. nr ls| ilivisinii, liilweeii 
 n° II' and H'^ fill S. hit., and 1 11° In' and I I.V-' I'.'' 
 F. Inii^ ; 7(1 III. Innt; hy ;i,-) m, a\eraKi' lireadih. 
 I'np. e.-itiinaled al frn.n iillil,IMMl in 71111,0110, Cnai-l 
 riiii'^i'd and withmil liarhniirs ; Mirfjice rising; ;;ra- 
 diially to the centre, where a cli.iiii of inininlains 
 stretches \V. and F. aci'nss the island, termiiialiii;^ 
 in the peak nf llali, which is vnlcanic: ;,'l'lllll^y 
 the same in nt her respects as that nf ,lina. The 
 land is prndnclive where well walered. as arnimd 
 Ihe cnasts, hy numerniis streams, and elsewliere 
 hy artilicial means. Irri^^atinn is sn necesMiry 
 that the snverei>;ns nf Itali impnse a tax imt mi 
 the land, hut nil the water hy which il is h'rtiliM'd. 
 In the lower tracts rice is iniicli enhivatcd ; inai/c 
 and sweet potatoes in the upper lands. In addi- 
 linn tn lliese articles, llie llalese, lhnlij;h ninstly 
 llindnns, eat jiniillry, Im^^s' llesli, and even lieii', 
 wilhonl scru]iii', excepting; the sacerdolal class. 
 
 The chief exports are ri;e, coarse cloths itnii 
 
 yarn, hides, salted iXH'- hirds' nests, nil, iHmiiHini 
 (dried llesli). ////m/i/cr (catechu), Ac: the inipnris, 
 oiiiiiin, hetel, pild, silver, and ivory. The natives 
 heiiij; superior to the Malays and .lavanese in si/c. 
 streii;,;lh, and intelligence, are preferred hy the 
 Chinese as slaves. Itali was divided, in |H|,"), inin 
 eif;hl independent slates, piverned hy despniic. 
 chiefs: the villa>,'e system prevails here as in 
 .lava. There are hut few Hiiddhists nr Mnliani- 
 inediiiis; hilt Ilindnnism prevails in llali only, of 
 all the islands of this archiiielap). 'I'he mass of 
 the |M'o|ile, however, worship the elements, and 
 the tutelary ({ihIs of rivers, forests, innimtaiiis, <^c. 
 There are nn reli^iniis mendicants, hut suttees and 
 imninlatinns are cnKilucted on a much more a^irra- 
 vated scale than in India. The Sanscrit <iiii;;ne 
 niav he distinctlv traced in the language of Itali. 
 
 IIAFIZF. See IlosDUitAs. 
 
 ItALKII, or Itl'LKII (a\\. Baitrn), a prov. of 
 Cenlial Asia, now siihordinate to the khaiiat of 
 llokhara, chielly hetween lat. ;i,")° and ,'t7° N., and 
 long. Ii;!° and (!il° l<. ; ^.'iving N. the Oxus. V.. 
 liiiduk-shini, S. the Hindoo Kniwh, and I'ampa- 
 niisan mountains, and W. the desert. Length, V., 
 to \V., ahout •.',")(' m. ; breadth l(M» to I'.'Oin. ; area 
 itO.OOO sq. ni. I'op. about l,0(iO,(iiio. (Klphiii- 
 stone, ii. lit.").) The .''« part i.i full of stony hills, 
 lint has many good and well walered valleys; the 
 E. is mouiitaiiiuus, and mure valuable than the 
 
 *'ttf 
 
 fi^X 
 
 r%*^^ii 
 

 ^ 
 
 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 A 
 
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 ^ 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 IS|21 125 
 ^ lii 122 
 
 2.0 
 
 u& 
 
 
 lii MJ4 iJ4 
 
 
 < 
 
 6" 
 
 ^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 VJ 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 7w 
 w 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Hiotogpaphic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WIST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM 
 
 (716)872-4503 
 
 '^."^^ 
 
330 
 
 BALKH 
 
 W., vliich, ns well n.s tlic N., is sniidy nml Imrron. 
 It (iirmcrly ciitnitriscd Hcveral (iistrirls wlii(tli ikiw 
 licliiu;; to rtcpiinifo fjovcnirtu'iits, ns Kluiol'ioni, 
 K(Hiii<l(M)/,( and otlierx to t)ic E. ItH cHpitiil, uiid 
 tlic territory siihordiimto to it, hnvo. since the full 
 of tiie Doorniiiiee moinroliy in Cuuhul, to wliich 
 state it lormerly Itelonf^ed, been tukcn possession 
 of by tlie klmn of llokjuira, 
 
 Kalkii (tlie/f(fjri«»//« and 7?(irfra of the Greeks), 
 ft decayed city of Central Asia, <'a|), prov. l)elon<;- 
 iii;; to tlie klianatof Hokliara, lint jjoverned l)y its 
 own chief, who receives tlu; wlioleof its revennes; 
 on tlie riffht bank of the Adirsiali or Halkh river, 
 in a ])lnin (J m. NVV., a ran^e of (he I'aropaniisan 
 nionntains, IH m. S. the Oxus, and 2/jO SI'-. Hok- 
 liara; lat. iUP IH' N., loiif,'. ()7° IH' K. Pop. esti- 
 mated at about (i,(IO(l. The ruins of IJalkh ovciipy 
 a circuit of "20 ni. : they consist chietly of f.illeii 
 mosipies and decayed tombs, none of an a;;e jirior 
 to that of Mobamined. The city, like l!al)yl(in, 
 has become to the surrounding country an all but 
 iiicxhatistiblc mine of bricks. There are niauj- 
 iiie(]iiaiities on the surface of the jjlain, probal)ly 
 proceediu},' from buried ruins, and cliim])s of trees 
 III many directions. IJalkh seems to have enclosed 
 many <'.xteiisive gardens, but these are now neg- 
 lected and overgrown with weeds. The aque- 
 ducts, of which there are said to be eighteen, arc 
 drie<l up or choked, and overflow after rains, 
 leaving standing jiools, which make the place 
 very unhealthy, though Ilalkh is not naturally in 
 a marshy position, but on a gentle slope towards 
 the Oxus, about 1,«00 ft. above the level of the 
 sea. A mud wall, of late construction, surrounds 
 a portion of the present town, excluding the ruins 
 oil every side for about 2 m. 'J'he town contains 
 three large colleges, but empty and decaying; and 
 at its N. side is the citadel, a solid building, but 
 not strong as a fort ; it contains a stone of white 
 marble, pointed out as the throne of ' Cyrus ' ! 
 The country round is flat, fertile, and well culti- 
 vated, said to contain 3()0 villages, and is watered 
 by eighteen canals, drawn from a celebrated reser- 
 voir in the Paropamisan mountains. Its wheat 
 and apricots are remarkablj' fine, lialkh is said 
 to have been built by Kyamoors, the founder of 
 the Persian monarchy, and is called by the na- 
 tives Omm-d-Biildun, 'mother of cities.' After 
 its conquest by Alexander the Great, it flourished 
 as the capital of a Grecian kingilom. In the fifth 
 century before the t'hristian era, Artaxerxes held 
 an assembly at Balkh for the recognition of his au- 
 thority. The Magi were expelled by the Caliphs: 
 ( Jenghis, Timour, Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, and the 
 Att'ghans, successively possessed it. Within the 
 last twelve years it has belonged, with its terri- 
 torv, to the khan of Lokhara. (Burn's Travels, 
 ii. 204, 207.) 
 
 BALKHAN. See Turkey. 
 
 BALLENSTEDT, a town of the duchy of An- 
 halt, on the Getel, 15 m. SE. Halberstadt. Pop. 
 4,408 in 1861. The town is situated at the 
 foot of a hill, and consists of an Old mid a New 
 town, the former ill-built. In its environs is a 
 castle, the residence of the duke, wliich commands 
 a line view, and has line gardens. It has fabrics 
 of linen, dyeworks, and an hospital. 
 
 BALLINA,-an inland town of Ireland, co. Mayo, 
 prov. Connaught, on the Moy, 12G m. WNWi 
 Dublin. Its foiTner name was Belleek, ' the ford 
 of flags.' The pop., including that of Aj(hiaree, a 
 village on the Sligo side of the IMoy, connected 
 with it by a bridge, and which may be regarded 
 as a suburb of Ballina, numbered 6,419 persons in 
 18(11. In Ballina alone there were, according to 
 the return of 18(!1, males 2,081, and females 2,318; 
 total 4,39!) inhabitants. Tlie total number of 
 
 ILVLLINASLOE 
 
 houses was 810, of wliich 782 inhabited. Of the 
 841 families living at Ballina (exclusive of Anl- 
 naree) 80 wiire employed in agriculture, '.'(7 in 
 trades and manufactures, and 514 in other imr- 
 siiits; 194 males and 20(1 females belongi'd tntlio 
 Established Church, and 1,796 males and l.liiw 
 females were Boman Catholics. The town, wliich 
 occupies a pleasing and healthy position, cniitaiiis 
 several good streets and houses. The parish cliurt'li 
 is a plain building; the lioman Catholii; clia|i('i 
 which is considered as the cathedral of the Itinnaii 
 Catholic bishop of Killala, is a large and very 
 ornamental edifice ; there are also (ilaces of wnf. 
 ship for Ba]ilists and Methodists. The town cnii- 
 taiiis eight iiublic schools, in which, and in si^vcml 
 jirivate seminaries, about 800 children receive in- 
 strnclion. Here is also a dispensary. liaccs arc 
 held in Slay, on a fine course in the iieighbourhdcnl. 
 General sessions of the peace arc lii4d in July, and 
 petty sessions every Tuesday in the court-lidiisc, a 
 near modern building. Here is a stati<iii of the con- 
 stabulary, and a barrack. The market is held m 
 Mondays; fairs on Pith IMay and 12tli August. 
 There are two ale and porter breweries, and twd 
 large (lour mills. A tobacco and siiufrinantifacturv 
 has been carried on since 1801, and coarse linen is 
 woven, but not to any extent. Within the last f'e.v 
 years the ])rovision trade has been introduced, anil 
 IS now very flourishing; large quantities of pork and 
 bacon being cured, cliietly for the London market. 
 In the neiglibourhood is a verj' productive salnidii 
 fishery, rented at 1,500/. per annum: the tish is 
 packed in ice, and ex])orte<l to London. ICels are 
 also taken in large quantities from September to 
 the beginning of November; the fiy is sold ai 
 '1(1. per quart. A branch of the Provincial ISank 
 was opened here in 1828, of the Agricultural in 
 1835, and of the National in 1837. The cdinmii- 
 nication with the interior is kept up by the mail 
 road between Castlebar and Sligo, which jyasscs 
 through the town : a new line is also opened I'ruiu 
 Swinford and Foxford to Killala. The Moy is 
 navigable for vessels drawing 1 1 ft. of watiT fur 
 5 m. from the sea, but the further passage is 
 checked by a bar 1^ m. below the town. (Census 
 of Ireland, 18G1.) 
 
 BALLINA8L0E, an inl. town of Ireland, po, 
 Galway and Koscommon, prov. Connaught, on 
 the Suck, 78 m. W. by S. Dublin. It owes lis 
 origin to a castle (now fitted up as a private resi- 
 dence) on the Koscommon side of the river, loii;,' 
 consi(iered as one of the strongest forts in the 
 prov. The battle of Aughrim, in 1691, in wliieli 
 the array of William III., under Ginkell, after- 
 wards Earl of Athlone, completely defeated that 
 of James II., under St. Ruth, who was killed in 
 the action, was fought in its neighbourhood. Pop. 
 3,733 ill 1861, of whom 1,731 males and 2,(W2 
 females. This does not include the jiortion situ- 
 ated m the CO. of Koscommon, with which together 
 there are a total of 3,911 inhabitants. The two 
 portions into which the town is divided by the 
 river are connected by a line of road, ooiisistiii}; 
 of a causeway and two bridges between the banks. 
 and an island that intercepts its course, haviiii,' 
 together sixteen arches ; the whole line is about 
 600 yards in length. The private buildings have 
 increased rapidly both in number and respecta- 
 bility, nearly a half having been erected within 
 the last twelve years. The i)arish church is a 
 plain building, with ;\n octagonal spire sprinjjint; 
 from scrolls, that give it a very singular api)ear- 
 ance; the Bom. Cath. chapel is ilso a neat iiii- 
 omamented structure. The Methodists have two 
 places of worship. The census returns of l**')! 
 showed 200 males and 236 females beloiigiiif;'" 
 the Established Church, and 1,184: males and KW 
 
;hn1)ito(l. Of thp 
 i'xchisivp <il' Anl- 
 ^riculturc. I'l" in 
 il t ill other |mr- 
 [■M l)('lim^<'(l 111 the 
 
 nink's mill l.'.i'.w 
 
 The town, whiili 
 
 position, contniiM 
 The piirisli churi'li 
 II Catholiit ('lia|i('l, 
 (Irtil of the liiiniau 
 a lar;j;i' ami very 
 ilrto jihu'i's of W(ir- 
 H. Tho town ciiii- 
 iiich.aiulin several 
 lildrcii receive iii- 
 [•iisary. Kaees iirc 
 the iieif^hhonrlKiiiil. 
 V. hehl in July, aiiil 
 I tlie coiirt-lioiise, ,i 
 a station of the ciiii- 
 
 ■ market is held on 
 and I'ith Auffust. 
 breweries, aiul two 
 
 d snuff inanufaetery 
 . and coarse linen is 
 Within the last l'e.v 
 leen introdneed. ami 
 uaiititiesofiiorkami 
 tlic I^ondon inaiki't. 
 y productive salniim 
 annum : the tisli is 
 J Loudon. Kels are 
 I from Septeniher to 
 ; the fry is sol'l at 
 the Proviiieial Hank 
 
 ■ the Afjricultural in 
 1837. The eoiiimu- 
 kept up by tlie mail 
 
 Sligo, wliidi piissos 
 
 le is also opened fruni 
 
 Lillala. The M^y i" 
 
 ig 11 ft. of water fur 
 
 further passaf,'e is 
 
 the town. (Census 
 
 , town of Ireland, cc 
 irov. Connaiinht. "» 
 Dublin. It owes ils 
 upa» a private resi- 
 lide of the river, h'K 
 Itrongest forts in tlic 
 [m, in It!!)!, i" >*l''^'l' 
 lunder Ginkell, aftei- 
 Ipletelv defeated tliat 
 \\, who was killed in 
 |iieifi;hbourhood. l'"|'- 
 [■31 males and tWi 
 liide the portion situ- 
 •i, with which ti^ctiicr 
 
 ihabitants. The two 
 Lrii is divided by die 
 le of road, oonsistnii,' 
 Is. between the bunks. 
 Its its course, bavnv 
 ' whole line is abmi 
 rivate buildings have 
 [umber anil rcsiicrta- 
 ' been erected witlnn 
 B parish chureli is a 
 tonal spire sprins^ini,' 
 Verv suiiiubT meit- 
 2\ is vlso a neat un- 
 I Methodists have two 
 
 isua returns ot I'"'' 
 
 females belon^'ii>H"' 
 
 ,■184 males au,l l.'"' 
 
 BALLINROBE 
 
 frmalM who were Koman Catholics. The district 
 lunatic asylum for tlie province Htands on tho 
 Itoscommon side of the river. It is built in the 
 fi'nn of a cross, with accommoihitioiis for 214 
 Mtients, and is surroiiiided by an enclosed area of 
 I'linlen and airiiiff k""""' <•♦ fourteen acres. Tlic_ 
 liital exiiense of tlie land and buildiiif;H was iip- 
 wnnls 0/ 27,0(H)/. Of tho H23 families of the chief 
 part of the town, on tho (Jalway side, 171 were 
 'iiL'accd, in 18<il, in apriciilture, 31 in trades and 
 maunfacturcs, and the rest in other pursuits. The 
 town covers an area of 140 Htatiite acres, and is a 
 LTvat thoMUfjlifare, a main division of the roads 
 leading into Galwav and Mavo branching oft" from 
 it. The railway from Dublin to Galwav has a 
 fitation here, f assengers are also conveyed by 
 the Orand Canal from Dublin, by boats fitted up 
 fur their accommodation. Tlie town is well kept; 
 miH^h attention is paid to cxtenial cleanliness. 
 
 U.VLLIXHOHE, an inl. town of Ireland, co. 
 Mavo. prov. Connaught, on the IJobe, '25 m. WW. 
 (ialwnv. Pop. 2,50(i in 18(11. of whom 1,172 males 
 anil l.itH4 females. The returns of 18(il showed 
 72 families engaged in afjriciilture, 119 in trades 
 ami manufactures, and 345 in other pursuits. 
 Tliere were 70 males and 57 females belonging to 
 tlip Established Church, and 1,099 males and 
 1,2(!9 females who declared themselves Koman 
 Ciitliolics. The town consists of a main street and 
 two branches of well-built houses. Near it is a 
 turlogh or winter lake, called Lough Shy, which, 
 iliiiH{;h HcxKled to 'a consideralde extent in winter, 
 (Inps in the summer months, and aftbrds pasturage 
 for sheep. Lough Mask, into which the Kobe dis- 
 charges itself, lies about 3 m. W. of the town. A 
 dispensary is maintained here. Barracks of con- 
 siderable ilimensions, both for cavalry and infantry, 
 arc now unoccupied. A brisk trade in com an(l 
 tifltatoes is carried on, for which a Monday market 
 IS held. Fairs are held on Whit-Tuesday and 6th 
 Dec. General sessions of the peace take place in 
 June and December, and petty sessions are held 
 on Mondays in the court-house, which is also used 
 as a market-house. Though the town does not 
 lie on any of the great lines of internal communi- 
 calioii, it" is in a state of progressive improvement, 
 attributable chiefly to the increased attention to 
 aj,Ticultiire in the district. 
 
 BALLON, a town of France, di'p. Sarthe, cap. 
 cant., on the Ome, 14 m. NN E. Le Mans. I'op. 
 1,939 in 1861. It has manufactures of course 
 linens, and some trade in corn. 
 
 BALLYCASTLE, a marit. town of Ireland, N. 
 coast CO. Antrim, prov. Ulster, on a bay to which 
 it gives name, 42 m. N. by W. Belfast. It origi- 
 nated in a castle built here by the Earl of Antrim 
 in the early part of the reign of James I., but was 
 not remarkable as a town until about 1770, when 
 large pari, grants were voted to aid the working of 
 the collieries in its neighbourhood. Pop. 1,626 in 
 1861, of whom 684 males and 942 females : that 
 of the parish of Kamoan, in which it is situated, 
 was 2,104 in 1861. Of the 421 families living in 
 the town, 65 were returned in 1861 as engaged in 
 agriculture, 134 in trades audmanufactures, and 222 
 in other pursuits. There were 224 males and 280 
 females registered as belonging to the Established 
 Church; 361 males and 523 females who declared 
 themselves Roman Catholics ; and 82 males and 
 110 females who were Presbyterians. The town 
 lies in a beautiful valley in the inner extremity of 
 the bay, and consists of" two detached portions, the 
 upper and lower towns, connected by an avenue 
 bordered by forest trees. The houses are mostly 
 respectable, all slated, and kept with much neat- 
 ness. The church is a handsome building ; the Rom. 
 Cath. chapel is small ; the Presbyterians and Me- 
 Voi. I. 
 
 BALLYMEXA 
 
 337 
 
 thodists liave each a place of worship. Ballycastlo 
 was formerly a place of considerable business, 
 having in it a brewery, glass-hoiisf-, andsalt-works.^ 
 all of which have declined since the stopjMige of 
 the mines ; and it is now little more than a tisliin({ 
 village, and a summer watering-place. The c(d- 
 lieries, from which it derived its temporary pros- 
 perity, lie on each side the promontory of Fair 
 Head ; and the discovery of ohl workings and rude 
 implements, in a jiart of the cliff i)reviously unex- 
 plored, shows that they had been ojiened at a very 
 remote yu'riod. The s«'am of coal, which shows 
 itself in the face of the cliff at a considerable 
 height above the sea, forms, in one part, a single 
 beM 4^ft. thick ; at another, it appears in six strata, 
 from 1 to 24 ft. each, four of which are of Haniing, 
 and tlie two others of bituminous or blind coal. 
 The workings, after haviu)^ been carried on for a 
 number of years to a considerable extent, have 
 been relinquished, partly on account of the diili- 
 culty of penetrating to the dip of the old excava- 
 tions, and partly from the want of a safe harbour 
 for slii])piiig. 'I'lie only existing manufacture is 
 that of linen, carried on in the houses of a few 
 cottiers. The fi.sherj' of salmon, taken from Feb- 
 ruary to Seiitember, appears, from the olhcial 
 retuni of 1836, to employ 9 boats and 27 men. The 
 markets are held on 'l\iesdays, that of the first 
 Tuesday in everj* month being so numerously at- 
 ten<led as to resemble a fair. The regular fairs are 
 held on Easter Tuesday, the last Tuesdays in May, 
 July and Aug.; and on 25th Oct., and 22iid Xov. 
 Large numbers of a very small breed of horses, 
 called Raghery ponies, are brought for sale I'rom 
 the island of Rathlin or Riighery. This island, 
 which lies about 5 m. oft' the main land, is remark- 
 able both for the singularity of its geological 
 formation, and for having nft'ordcd shelter to Robert 
 Bruce when forced to fly from Scotland. The town 
 is on the exteme N. point of the line of road leading 
 round the const of Antrim from Belfast to Cole- 
 raine, and out of the direction of any great channel 
 of trade. The liarbour, which was originally cajia- 
 ble of admitting vessels of large draught, was un- 
 safe from the heavy seas thrown in from the ocean 
 by the northerly gales; but, after upwards of 
 150,000/. of the public money had been expended 
 in attempting to remedy this defect by the erection 
 of a pier, the harbour was filled u]) with sand, and 
 the pier having been neglected, has gone to ruin. 
 In consequence of this, and of the sto|)page of the 
 collieries, the trade of the place is almost extin- 
 guished. 
 
 BALLYMEXA, an inl. Ioatti of Ireland, co. 
 Antrim, 23 m. NNW. Belfast, on the Braid, an 
 affluent of the Maine, which Hows into Lough 
 Neagh. The town was taken by assault by the in- 
 surgents in 1798, after a sharp engagement, but 
 was immediately after evacuated. Po]). 5,600 in 
 1861, exclusive of a suburb of the town call<'(l 
 Harryville, with which together there are (5,774 
 inhabitants. The census returns of 1861 give 94 
 families as engaged in agriculture, 569 in trades 
 and manufactures, and 493 in other pursuits. There 
 were 686 males and 654 females returned as be- 
 longing to the Established Church ; (532 males and 
 789 females as Roman Catholics, and 1,177 males 
 and 1,372 females as Presbyterians. The town 
 stands in the midst of an extensive plain of unin- 
 viting appearance, though pretty well cultivated, 
 and interspersed with low hills, marsh, and bog 
 The river is crossed by a large stone bridge ; many 
 of the houses are antique, with gabled fronts, but 
 those of modern erection are generally of respect- 
 able appearance. The ecclesiastical buildings con- 
 sist of the par. church, a K. Cath. chapel, two 
 places of worship for PreabvtcrianSj one for Sece- 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 %^ 
 
888 
 
 IJALLYMONEY 
 
 
 j! tJif wr 
 
 
 (Irrs nnil one for ]tI('tli(H)istH. The diorpsan whool 
 of Connor w«h removed here from CnrrickfcTpin in 
 ]H'2!>, and Inrge ficlioolH for hoyn nnd prlw are 
 maintaine<l on an endowment by John Uiiy. 
 (!oiirtM U'vX and baron are liohl aiuniallv; a manor 
 eourt monthly, for the recovery of small debts ; the 
 general sessionH in January and June, olteniately 
 with liallymoney ; and |M>tty sessionHon altc^ninte 
 TueHdays: there is a well-arranjfed bridewell, and 
 a |ioli<'(! constabidary station. Tiie town owes its 
 prosperity chielly to the linen trode; the lirown 
 linen sales average 70,()(MI/, annually ; and ujiwards 
 of 14,000 jiieceH are blcaehed yearly in II bleneh- 
 ing-grounds in the iieighbou'rhoo<i. There is a 
 mill for spinninfT linen yam. The market for 
 linens is held on Saturdays; there are also two 
 other markets in the week for grain and pn. visions, 
 )irineipally pork, large (|uantities of which are sent 
 to Itelfost. The mark<!t-hou8e is a well-built edilice 
 in the middle of the town. The fairs are held on 
 the 2oth July and 21st (Vt. A branch of the 
 Provincial Hank was (>])etied here in I H'M : of the 
 lielfimt and Northern Ilanks, in 1K;I4; aiul of the 
 Agricultural Hank, in IH.'IO, The town lies on the 
 mail-coach road from Belfast to Londonderry, and 
 has also a station on the ' lielfast and Northern 
 (Jounties' line of railway, from which jimctions 
 run to liallymoney, L'olefaine, and I'ortnish. The 
 line to lielfast was oi)encd April 11, 1848, and has 
 proved the commencement of a new era of pros- 
 j)erity for the town. 
 
 BAI.LYMONKV, an inl. town of Ireland, co. 
 Antrim, prov. Ulster, on a small branch of the 
 I^ower Bann, 8 m. SK. Coleraine. Pop. 2,000 in 
 1861, of whom 1,213 males, and 1,387 females. The 
 census returns showed 53 families engaged in 
 agriculture, 225 in trades and manufactures, and 
 258 in other pursuits. There were 234 males and 
 2t>l females returned as members of the Kstablished 
 Church, 380 males and 414 fenudes as Konmn Ca- 
 tholics, and 627 males and (542 fetnales as Presby- 
 terians. The town is irregularly built on an 
 eminence, about 9 m. E. of the liann. Its places 
 of worshij) are, the par. church, a Horn. Oath, 
 chajiel, and houses for Presbyterians, Uemon- 
 strants, Scceders, and Covenanters. A school, on 
 the foimdation of Erasmus Smith, is established, 
 and several others on private endowments, in 
 ■which, including private seminaries, about 700 
 children are instructed. There is a dispensary, and 
 a mendicity association. A steeple chase in De- 
 cember, for a gold cu]), has been substituted for 
 races, which had been a favourite sport. A manor 
 court is held on the first Friday of every month ; 
 general sessions of the peace in January and .lune, 
 alteniately with Ballymena ; and jjetty sessions on 
 alternate Tuesdays. The court-house is jn the 
 centre of the town, and there is a well-arranged 
 bridewell: a chief constabulary station is fixed 
 here. The trade is principally in tine linens, a 
 species of which, called Coleraines, is in great de- 
 mand: there are two markets for coarse linens. 
 An extensive tnide is also carried on in graui, 
 butter, and provisiims, which has much increased 
 suice the opening of a lino of railway in November, 
 1855, connecting the town with the system of the 
 ' Belfast and Northern Counties ' railway. The 
 regular market days are Tluirs<lays; fairs are held 
 on (jth May, 10th July, and 10th Oct. A branch 
 of the Belfast Bank was ojiened in 1834, and of 
 the Ulster Bank in 1836. The town lies on the 
 railway from Belfast to Londonderrj*. 
 
 BALLYSHANNON, a maritime town of Ire- 
 land, CO. l)onegal, prov. Ulster, on the Erne, 
 where it discharges itself into Ballyshainion Ba}', 
 108 ra, N\V. Dublin. It consists of three very 
 steep and inegular streets on one side of the 
 
 BALTIC SEA 
 
 river, and a poor suburb, called tlio Part, on ili(i 
 other: the communication between them is l)v „ 
 bridge of 14 arches. The parish church stHndsnii 
 the summit of the hill on which the town is Imili - 
 there are two Bomaii Catholic cha|)els, twopla,,,^ 
 of w(»rshii) for Methodists, and one for I'rciiiiv. 
 terians. The population was 3,197 in iNdl.'nf 
 whom 1,408 males and 1,789 females. Of tli(.7ii( 
 families, 76 were engaged in agriculture, i.V.) ;„ 
 trades and manufactures, and 376 in other imr- 
 suits. The returns showtul 200 males ami '>n-i 
 females Inilonging to the Established Clmrcl]" 
 1,141 males and 1,433 females who were Kiimaii 
 (\itholics, and 50 males and 39 females who were 
 Presbyterians. An artillery barrack adioinH tho 
 iilace, and it is a chief constalndarv statu m. Tlic 
 iior. was ineoqMirated by James I., in l(il3, aiirlro- 
 tumed two members to the Irish II. of C. till tlio 
 Union, when it was disfranchised. A manor I'lmrt 
 for pleas to the amount of 21. is held every tlirce 
 weeks, (letty sessions once a fortnight. The fmirt 
 
 sits in an ui>per apartment of the markct-l >|., 
 
 which is also used as an assemblv-rooni. In thj 
 immediate vicinity of the town Is a magiiiiiccni 
 cascade fonned by the Erne,liere 150 yards limad, 
 throwing its waters over a ridge of rock Id ft] 
 high, with a noise audible for several miles, Sal- 
 mon and eels are caught in great mnnbers; tlie 
 former chiefly for the British markets : the niiiiual 
 jiroduce is u|)war(ls of fifty tons. There are no 
 manufactures of any consequence, and the trwle U 
 confined chiefly to retail dealings, owing to the 
 badness of the harbour, which Ls impracticahlo for 
 vessels of any draught. A branch of the I'rn- 
 vineial Bank was ojjencd in 1835. Blarkets arc 
 held on Tuesdays and Saturdays ; fairs on the l>ii\\ 
 of Sept., and on the 2nd of every other moiitli, A 
 mail-coach plies between Enniskillen and this 
 town every day in the week, putting it in cmn- 
 munication with the railway system of Ireland. 
 
 BALTA, a town of European Kussin, ftciv, 
 Podolia, on the Kadynia, 160 m. SE. Knmemiz, 
 Pop. 14,036 in 1858. Its suburb, on the S, side (if 
 the river, now in the gov. of Kherson, was f(ir- 
 merly in Tiu"key, while the bulk of the town, nr 
 the portion on the N. side of the river, was iu 
 Poland. The latter is eomi)aratively well i)uilt. 
 and industrious. A very extensive commcne is 
 carried on in grain and other produce of the 
 countrj'. 
 
 BALTIC SEA, an internal or meditcrranpaii 
 sea, in the NVV. part of Europe, surrounded and 
 very nearly enclosed by Sweden, Finland, Russia, 
 Pnissia, (icrmany, and Denmark. It is iLsiially 
 understood to commence S. of the Danish Islamis 
 (Funen, Zealand, and Laland), and thus limited. 
 it is the most isolated of any similar body of water 
 in the world. But N. of these islands the Katte- 
 gat and the Skager Kack can be regarded oidy ns 
 parts of the Baltic, which may therefore be de- 
 scribed as commencing at the Naze of Nnrw.iv, 
 in long. 7° E., and extending to St, Petersburg' 
 tm the Gulf of Finland, in long, 30° 28' 4,V' L 
 Its extreme points in lat. are Wismar, in Meek- 
 lenburg, 5.3° 50' N., and Tomea, on the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, 65° 51' N. These jioints mark also 
 its greatest length, which is consetpiontly alxuit 
 840 m. ; its width varies from 75 to l.")Oni., and 
 its area is estimated at 155,000 sq. m,, withdut 
 including the Kattegat and Skager Kack, fur 
 which an addition of 18,000 or 19,000 sq, m. may 
 be made. (Catteau, Tableau de la Mcr Halliquc, 
 i. 2-37 ; Thomson's Travels in Sweden, 381.) 
 
 The direction in which the Baltic penetrates 
 the land Ls extremely tortuous. The Skager Kacl, 
 the first great gulf of the North Sea, runs XE, 
 between the shores of Jutland and Norway, lur 
 
L 
 
 il the Purt, nn the 
 wpcii them is tiy ii 
 ih cliuri'h HtiimU (in 
 I) the town Is Imili ; 
 
 chapt'lH, two (iln(C!( 
 
 11(1 one for I'rci'liv- 
 
 3,197 hi IHCil.'iif 
 
 emiilcH. Of the 711 1 
 
 nKri«iihuri>, 'i'l'l ill 
 
 I a7ti in otlicr (mr- 
 200 itiftlcH and 'ix:' 
 •>taWi!»he<l Cliiircli, 
 CH who wtTC Itiimau 
 3!t femulcH wlm vm 
 
 bftirack adjoiiiH tlic 
 ihuhiPif Htntum. Tire 
 IPS 1., in HUH, ami ro- 
 IriHh 11. of C. till tlio 
 liscil. A manor cmirt 
 /, in lield cvt'ry tliri'c 
 fortnii^ht, Tlie »mn 
 of the marki't-liiiihc, 
 temblv-rooni. In llm 
 own IH a mimiiilicciii 
 ,\ierc lot) yards limad, 
 riti^e of rock Hi ft. 
 )r several tnilc.x. Siil- 
 
 II ureat nunilifrs; ilie 
 11 markets : the ftiimml 
 y tons. There nri' no 
 inencc, and the tradi' is 
 lealinKs, owiiif? to tlic 
 ich is impracticalilo fur 
 A branch of the I'ro- 
 in 1835. Markets aw 
 rdays ; fairs on tlic iHtli 
 ' every other niontli. A 
 
 Enniskillen and this 
 sck, putting it in corn- 
 ay system of Irelnml. 
 European Kussia, cm, 
 
 160 m. SE. KnmPiiHz. 
 niburb, on the S. side (if 
 f. of Kherson, waa I'or- 
 ic bulk of the town, ot 
 lie of the river, wa.< in 
 mparatively well Imilt. 
 
 extensive commcnr is 
 
 other produce of tk' 
 
 emal or mcditcrmnwn 
 liurope, surrounded ami 
 wedcn, Fuiland, Russu, 
 enmark. It is usually 
 S of the Danish Islamls 
 aiul), and thus limited, 
 iiy similar body of water 
 itiiese islands the Katte- 
 can be regarded only as 
 "h may therefore be de- 
 It the Naze of Norway, 
 idhig to St. Petei>l;;iJ^ 
 
 are Wismar, in Meck- 
 . Tomea, on the Uull 
 friiese points mark also 
 I is consequently alwi 
 from 7.5 tolf)Om..aiu 
 1,5.'>,000 sq. m.,with(|iit 
 and SkagCT Kack, f»t 
 00 or 10.000 sq. m. may 
 [eau <le la ^Icrllaluque, 
 'Is in Sweden, 384.) 
 Ji the Unltic pcneiratw 
 luous. TheSkagerKa;;, 
 le North Sea, rinis >■■ 
 litlaud aiul Non»«y.tot 
 
 lULTIC SEA 
 
 3:i9 
 
 Id 
 
 rflthoT more than 150 m., to the W. coast of 
 Sweden ; and the Kattegat, from the Hkaw (the 
 \'K. iKiiii' of .Tutlanii), has a liireclion almost due 
 s lietwcen Jutland and Swi-dcn for about 120 m. 
 Vliearerrt?* width of these gulls is nearly equal 
 i7i)m.) ; hut •'"" f'""""''" '" niu(!li the most uniform, 
 the Kattegat being narrowest at its N. end, be- 
 iwecn the Skaw an<l (lottcnlmrg, and widening 
 ciiiKiderably towards the S. From I.aholm Hay 
 totlie opixlsite Panish coast is full 100 m. The 
 iwo Helts and the Sound are the three straits 
 wliicli connect the Kattegat with the IJnltic, pro- 
 iicrlv so called ; and their direction is the same 
 IS tlmt of the gulf in which they terminate, 
 iiainelv S. This sea has been so long known to 
 |'.iirii|i'eans, that its jiectdiar entrance has <'eased 
 excite attention ; yet there is not one, per- 
 liiiiis, where navigation is so intricat(>. The direct 
 ilisliincp between the Kattegat and the open sea of 
 llif linltic, is less than llOm. ; that between the 
 slKires of .Jutland and Sweden is no where more 
 t laii 130 m.; and in this spai^e, which would not 
 l„. (iccduntcd large, even were it clear, are crowded 
 lictwpen sixty and 70 islands, with shoals and sand 
 liiiiiks innumerable. Two of these islands, Funen 
 1111(1 Zealand, may bo called large, and some of the 
 (iilicrs, as Alten,'Langland, lialaml, Falster, and 
 Mceii, of resjiectable size, their situation in a 
 close sea being considered. It is the two large 
 islands which, with the Danish and Swedish 
 coasts, form the three straits; the smaller isles 
 ami sand banks ser\-ing to break up their chan- 
 nels, which would otherwise be sutliciently direct, 
 into many small and variable currents. The 
 Little Belt (the strait lietween Jutland and Fu- 
 mn) is, at its N. end, less than if m. in width. 
 It expands, however, immediately, and between 
 AmH!s»n(l and Assens is 8 m. broad. Still further 
 S. the continent recedes into a great bay ; and 
 the island becoming broken up into several 
 Hiiidler islets, the greatest width of the Little 
 lielt is, perhaps, not less than 45 m. Its most 
 i^. clinnnel contracts again to about 8 m., be- 
 tween the islands of Altcn and ^Kroe, The Great 
 lielt (between Fuiien an<l Zealand) is more uni- 
 f(irra in its width, which averages about 20 m. 
 Towards the S., however, this strait also stretches 
 out W. into a large bay, fonned by the islands of 
 Zealand and Laland, and at its S. termination it 
 is di\ndcd into two channels by the island of 
 Lan!,dand, of which the widest or most E., be- 
 tween Langland and Laland, is about 8 m. across, 
 the other not more than 4 m. The Sound, at its 
 entrance between Elsinore in Zealand and Ilel- 
 sinjjburg on the coast of Sweden, is about 4 m. 
 wide; but it spreads into a succession of bays 
 upon the Swedish shore, and towards its S. end, 
 into one of con.siderable size (Kidge Bay) on that 
 of Zealand. It is here about 28 m. across, but the 
 return of the land contracts its final outlet to 
 about half that amount. (Catteau, i. 2-2fi; 
 Thomson, 385 ; Carr., Northern Summer, 27, 30, 
 102, Ac.) 
 
 The direction of the sea from these straits is 
 titst E. to Memel (about HOO m.), and then N. as 
 far as the lat. of Stockholm, 59° 21', a distance of 
 3oOm. It is to these portions that the term 
 Baltic Sea, in its limited sense, is restricted, for 
 at this jioint it separates into two great gulfs ; of 
 which one, the Gulf of Finland, runs nearly due 
 E, between the Kussian territories of Finland and 
 Revel ; the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, a little E. 
 I'f N., between 1' inland and Sweden, 'fhe Gulf of 
 Finland is 200 m. in length, with a mean breadth 
 of tiO or 70 m. ; that of Bothnia is about 400 m. 
 long, and 120 m. in avurage width, but at its nar- 
 rowest part, the Quarken, opposite Umea, it does 
 
 not much exceed 10 m. The Gulf of IJign, or 
 Livonia, S, of that of Finland, is also an im- 
 portant inlet, stretching into the countries from 
 which it is named, about H3 m. from K. to \V.,.'nid 
 about 00 m. from N. to S. (Catteau, i. 27-111; 
 Thomson, 320.) Beyond the Danish islands the 
 Baltic is a tolerably clear sea, except on the coasts, 
 where alluvial islands are continually fonning. In 
 the main stream theonly interruptidns to the con- 
 tinuity of water are foimd in Hugen (which is, 
 however, close to the I'omeranian shore) ; Itorn- 
 holm, between the coasts of Prussia and Sweden, 
 but much nearer to the latter than the fonner; 
 (ieland, on the SE. of Sweden ; (iothland, N'F. of 
 Oeland; Oesel, Dago, and several smaller islands 
 bctwcf-n the (Julfs of lliga and Finland; and the 
 Aland archipelago at the mouth of the (iulf td" 
 Bothnia. Opjiosite to these last the S\V. coast of 
 Finlaiul is crowded with an innumerable (piantily 
 of islets, which seem as though the nuiin shore 
 were advancing by rajiid stri(U's to j(dn the larger 
 islands of Aland, as a stage in its progress towards 
 a JuiHttion with the opposite Swedish shore. (.See 
 Aland, Bohniku.m, Gotiii.anh.) 
 
 The Baltic is not, like other (dose seas, the 
 IMediterranean, IUmI Sea, tfrc, shut in by rocks and 
 high mountains. On the N\V. and "X., indeed, 
 the mountains of Sweden and Norway form a 
 sufflcientlj' <lefinite bouiidnry; but, towanls \\w. 
 y.., SK., S., and even SVV., its borders stretch away 
 in plains occn|iying miudi more than half Kurope. 
 On the S. tlu nearest high lainls are the llartz, 
 the IhdieniiMii mountains, and the ('ar]mtbians; 
 S\V. lie the Hat lands of Jutland. II<dstein, and 
 Holland; 8F. the ]dain is mibroken to the shores 
 of the Black Sea and Caspian ; and E. there are 
 no bills except the insignilicant elevations of 
 V'aldai, between the Baltic and the Oural moun- 
 tains. The basin of this sea is, therefore, by no 
 means well deiined, exce))t towards the N. ami 
 NW. In every other direction it has to be deter- 
 mined by the direction of the running water only, 
 and that on land so level that the basin of the 
 Baltic is constantly combining with those of other 
 seas; with that of the White Sea, through the 
 lakes of liussian Lapland; with that of the Ca.s- 
 l)iaii, by the close approach of many of the 
 afHuents of the W(dga to Lakes Onega and 
 Ladoga; and with that of the Black Sea, among 
 the innumerable streams of Litbuiniia and Ptdand. 
 Thus the limits of the basin are in lat. 40° and Ii0° 
 N., in long. 7° 40' E. (Arrowsmith's Atlas ; Von 
 Buch's Travels, 337 ; C'atteau, ii. 44, Ac.) With 
 the exccpti(m of some portions of America, there 
 is no part of the world more abundantly watered 
 than tins district : U))wards of 240 rivers'lind their 
 way to the Baltic ; tlie lakes in its neighbourhood 
 are all but innumerable, and altogether this sea 
 drains more than a fifth part of the wludc surface 
 of Kurope. The rivers which flow from the S. 
 and SE. run the longest courses, varying from 330 
 to 7.50 m. (SeeOi)KK, Vistula, NiKMKX, Dwixa, 
 &Q.) Some of those from the E. aiijiear at first to 
 be much shorter, as the Neva, which from Lake 
 Ladoga does not exceed 45 m. : but as this lake 
 is connected with that of Onega by the Svix, and 
 as Onega receives the Volla, a stream rising close 
 to the 40th meridi.an, the wh(de of this water 
 course is not less than 400 m. in length. The 
 other Finnish livers are not long ; but W. of the 
 Gulf of Bothnia the rivers of Sweden vary from 
 200 to 300 miles. The most peculiar part of this 
 basin is the SVV. comer, where, though the nearest 
 mountains are those of the Hartz, the ba.sin itself 
 does not exceed 20 or 25 m. in width. The Elbe, 
 which runs within .50 m. .',f the Baltic, and the 
 Eyder, which rises close to its shores, fall into the 
 
 z 2 
 
I' 1 
 
 I i;:, 
 
 iff" I r '»*! ?-, 
 
 ■r 
 
 ip.' 
 
 310 
 
 UALTIC SKA 
 
 North Sen, nnd llicir nflliirntR Wlon^ of coiimo. to 
 tlmt Hyxtrin ; but hucIi ih the ttntiiexH of the 
 country in this pnrt of (lorninny, timt tlie ditTcrrnt 
 wntrrH are coiistnntly iniitiii)^, and a canal of Ichh 
 tliiin (I ni. liiiN f4er\'e<l to I'oiinrct the JIaUic will) 
 tln' Klhe hy joining the rivers 'i'riive anil StricU- 
 nit/, helow I^ulH'ck. A niniilar jinu^lion has hceii 
 etli'cti'd iKftween the Uallic and the Kvdcr, a litlh! 
 to the N. of Kiel, Since tlic cession ot'the Scldes- 
 wi^-IIidstein |i(!ninsula hy Denmark, t)u> Prussian 
 government lias un<lertaken to coiniect the llaltic 
 wilti tlic North Sea, by means of a Inrj^e canal, 
 deep enough for sea-goinf^ vessels. The canal, 
 wliich crosses the southern part of Schleswiff, 
 where the i>cninsula iH narrowest, was commenced 
 in 1 «»).'), 
 
 The Baltic is extremely shallow, being not 
 more in its W. part, between Kiel and ("open- 
 hagen, than 1(! fathoms der]i, and most commonly 
 not more il an K or 10 (Von Ituch, 10) ; but far- 
 ther K. it deepens considerably, and midway be- 
 tween Memel and Oeland it is from (10 to 100 fa- 
 thoms. This is, however, its greatest depth, for 
 the (inlf of Finland suddenly shallows from oO 
 or 00 fathoms to 10 fathoms, 4 fathoms, and, in 
 the Hay of Cronstadt, to even less than this. The 
 average tlepth of the (inlf of ISothnia is not 
 greater than that of the rest of the sea, but it is 
 less encumbered with sand banks, nnd its hnr- 
 bours arc more convenient : none of those S. and 
 E. of the tiidf of Finland have more than 20 ft. 
 water, and but few have as much as 10. (Cat- 
 teau, i. 3!)- 1 14.) 
 
 The lialtic, being a close sen, with its entrance 
 from the apjiroach of the tidal wave, is, of course, 
 not subject to the phenomena of tides. These, so 
 very powerful in the Gennan Ocean, are found to 
 decrease sensibly in the Skager Hack and Kattegat, 
 to be barely perceptible in the entrance of the 
 straits, and entirely to vanish S. of the Danish 
 Islands. (Cnttcau, i. 11.5-118.) But though tides 
 be wanting, a variation in height cipial, fre- 
 quently, to four feet is observed, at irregidnr in- 
 tervals, in the waters of this sea. This ])henome- 
 non occurs at all seasons, but chiefly in the autumn 
 or winter, or at the time of heavy rains, or when 
 the atmosphere is chnrged with clouds, though 
 unattende<l by falling weather. The water main- 
 tains its height frequently for several days, some- 
 times even for weeks, produces considerable agi- 
 tation in the gulfs and straits, and, except in 
 winter, when its power is restrained by the accu- 
 mulated snow nnd ice, inundates the low wastes 
 to a considerable extent. Prevalent winds, flood- 
 ing rains, melting snows, and many other causes, 
 have been a^isigned for this very remarkable i)he- 
 nomenon, which continued, however, to occur 
 under circumstances totally incompatible with 
 any or all of these; but ni 1804 Schultens, a 
 Swedish physician, after collecting all the observa- 
 tions thnt hnd been mnde, found thnt the greatest 
 height of the water corresponded to the greatest 
 depression of the barometrical column and con- 
 versely. The extreme variation of the latter 
 amounts in N. Europe to 2^ in., equivalent to 
 nearly 34 in. of water : nnd combining this with 
 the fact, tliat the movement of tiie water always 
 preceded, by a little, that of the mercury, he con- 
 cluded that the former was owing to the unetpial 
 pressure of the atmosphere upon different parts of 
 the surface; the extreme height sometimes at- 
 tained being dependent upon local and accidental 
 circumstances. The almost total absence of oceanic 
 action in this sea leaves tlie cause, thus assigned, 
 to operate with full power ; and if Schultens' hy- 
 pothesis be confirmed, it will serve to explain 
 similar phenomena, observed in other close waters; 
 
 as the Caspian, T.nke Bniknl, and the Lake nf 
 (Joneva, to the similar variations in which -Sai,,. 
 sure has assigned n cause analogous to thai ofTiri'il 
 by Schullens in the case of the Baltic. (Mini. 
 Acad. Stock. 1804 ; Saussure's Voyage iluiw Icj 
 Allies, i. 1.").) 
 
 i'he currents of the Baltic de|)end, in a grpnt 
 degree, upon its rivers ; and as these exist in the 
 greatest number towards the N. and F,. pHrts, 11,^ 
 general direction of the water is from XNK. in 
 SSW., as far, at least, as the latitude of Kmiijr,. 
 berg. The imiiulse from the S. Iiere given hv iho 
 great rivers of I'russia aids the resistance of the 
 land to turn the current VV., towards the DaniKh 
 islands, among which it of course l>econie8 brnkeu 
 into many parts, nil combining nt last in n gt>i>-Tal 
 N. direction through the Kattegat, and tliintfi 
 S\V. through the Skager Rack into the X. Swu 
 The currents of the Baltic are, therefore, outwanU; 
 and when a W. wind forces the water of the (wim 
 into its gulfs, these currents, nlwnys intricate, lic- 
 come extremely complicated, nnd even dniiKerouH, 
 (Cattean, i. l25-liJ2.) This general dircctidii (,( 
 the water, together with the number of rivers 
 which flow into the Baltic, account for the vcrv 
 slight degree of saltness whicdi it is found lii 
 possess, it is well known that the ocean Imlds 
 ni solution salt, muriate of magnesia, sul|iliiiic i,|' 
 lime, and sulphate of soda, to the amoiuit (if alioiit 
 l-27th of its own weight; but at Copenliaj^cii, 
 Von Ihich found this pro))ortion reduced tu nm- 
 siderably less than 1-lOOth; nnd Thomson, at 
 Tunnberg, S. of Stockholm, fi)und it less thmi 
 l-210ths — a quantity so slight as scarcely to iifl'di 
 the palate; and it is said that farther to the X, 
 and E. the sailors commonly use the water nf the 
 Baltic for their fiwd. The following is the relative 
 gravity of the waters of the Ocean and of the 
 Baltic, under various circumstances ; for, it in to 
 be observed that the latter becomes much salter, 
 under a W. wind, whbn tlie water of the ocean is 
 forced into it, and that this cil'ect is perceptible 
 for a considerable distance : — 
 
 Open sea at Heli- 
 goland . . 
 Frith of Forth . 
 
 8p.Gr. 
 
 1-0321 
 1-021)0 
 
 Sp.(;r. 
 
 Baltic at the Soaw I'Dim:) 
 Sound . 1'0047 to l-(Hi!H 
 Tunaberg . . l-iKili 
 
 In a NW. wind the gravity at Copenhagen ruse 
 to 1*0189; and near Stockholm the followin;' 
 changes were obser\'ed, under the various circiiin- 
 staiices : — 
 
 
 Sp.Or. 1 
 
 Sp.Cr. 
 
 Wind K. . 
 
 . ]M)039 ! Storm at W. 
 
 . I'OIIS 
 
 Wind W. . 
 
 . 1-0007 1 Wind NW. . 
 
 . I'lXW 
 
 Lastly, the quantity of salt procured from I.OOi) 
 grains of water, from the following places, was m 
 under : — 
 
 Frith of Forth 
 Scaw 
 
 On. 
 
 3(f6 
 32-0 
 
 Gr.. 
 
 If:' 
 
 ;t 
 
 Sound . 
 Tunabcrg . 
 
 When it is considered that all these experimont,! 
 were made S. of the lat. of Stockholm (6!)° 21), 
 and that an immense number of rivers flow into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, it seems reasonable to cwi- 
 clude that the N. part of that gulf should be siiii 
 less salt, if, indeed, it be not free from any saline 
 mixture whatever. (Von Buch, 10; Tlumison, 
 .S8(i-390.) The experiments of Von Ihich and 
 Thomson, conducted independently, and with 
 every possible care, must be received as satis- 
 factory ; but it is, perhaps, necessary to obsene 
 that Catteau gives the amount of salt held in 
 solution by the Baltic, generally at l-30tli to 
 l-40th of the water, (i. 142.) It is not, however, 
 possible to reconcile this statement with others by 
 the same author: such as, that in many bays the 
 water is used for cooking; that in «(;«»ifr tlie 
 
I the I-ttkc nf 
 
 H to that (ifTcrcl 
 Uiiltu'. (Mtm. 
 ()yutj;u iluuH \n 
 
 end, in a Rronl 
 
 'HV CX'lHt ill \\w 
 
 nd K. \)nt\», tin- 
 1 from NNK. td 
 tiulp of KoninH- 
 ure j;ivcn by ilit- 
 rtitintunce of thn 
 anlH tlie Duniiili 
 5 l)econic» broken 
 , laHt in n^^'i'-ral 
 •jrat, anil Ibtiicc 
 into tlie N. Swi. 
 prcfore, outwards ; 
 vnter of tlic (K'cim 
 rays intriciitf, lic- 
 (l cvpn <laii!,'er(ius. 
 lucral (lircctiiin (li 
 uumbt-r of rivers 
 lount for tbf vitv 
 ;h it is <"">""' '" 
 \t tbc ocean \mW 
 
 ic amount ofalmia 
 lit at Coiien\ii\«Hi, 
 )n rcdui'cil to imii- 
 
 anil 'I'liomson, at 
 found it U'ss ttw" 
 a8 scarcely to afl'trt 
 It fartiier to the N. 
 ise tl»c water of the 
 (wing i» the relative 
 
 Ocean and of the 
 (tances ; for, it i» to 
 Bcomcs much salter, 
 (vater of the ocean « 
 effect is perceptible 
 
 !ip.C,r. 
 
 ic at the Scaw VOJ'5 
 
 1-00-n to vm 
 
 ttlx-rg . . 1'>W' 
 
 at Copenhagen ro« 
 
 holm the followiii!; 
 
 the various circura- 
 
 Sp.Cr. 
 
 BmatW, 
 
 d NW. . 
 
 procured from \M') 
 ■owing places, was as 
 
 nd 
 
 Or.. 
 
 ■A 
 
 labcrg . 
 ill these experimcim 
 Stockholm (50° 21), 
 •r of rivers tlow into 
 reasonable to coii- 
 iculf shoidd be still 
 Ifree from any saline 
 Uich, U); TUoni* 
 of Von Ihich and 
 pndently, and wiiti 
 [e received as satis- 
 Lcessary to observe 
 aunt of salt hcH m 
 ""rally at l-30th to 
 I It is not, bovvevrt, 
 pmentwithotheisby 
 fat in many bays 
 that in mmmf^ tue 
 
 Ciilf of Bothnia yiold« only 1 ton of unit from .'«)() 
 .'„>H of water, and timt the Hiwcilic fjn'vity vnricH 
 Clecn 1-oriti, 1-0(II7, l-00d,au.l l.tHCIH. (i. I »•».) 
 Neither is thix (piantity of salt consistent witli the 
 j„|ii.wiii(,' Uible of the relative amount in !1 ll>s. 
 Kurman) of water taken from the N. S»'a and 
 Hi'illic ; wliich is given l)y Catteuu, on the autho- 
 rity ofllalcm anil Vogel (i. 1 13.) : — 
 
 - 
 
 N. Dm 
 
 BtlHo 
 
 Or. 
 
 •2IU 
 
 111 
 
 l-i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Muriate of Soda . 
 
 MntfneHla 
 
 Sulphate of Mmo . 
 
 Soda . 
 
 Roiicluum 
 
 Or. 
 
 Mm \ 
 n 
 
 1 l-3d 
 
 u 
 
 746 l-3d 
 
 Total 
 
 .188 
 
 The German pound is a variable weijjht, but it 
 i^ no where lighter than the Knglish, and in most 
 nldces on the Baltic it is front 4tM) to TiOO gr. 
 hoavicr; taking, however, the Knglish pound of 
 7 (IIHI jjrains, the above resultsgivc less than l'.")th, 
 nlul not l-40th, far less I'JKIth, as the proportion 
 of salt to the water of the Haltic. The proportion 
 , if the N. Sea is alwut I -28th, dill'ering very little 
 ftoin that assigned above. 
 
 This freshness of the water combines with its 
 >liaUownes8 and contlned situation to render it 
 iiiculiarly liable to congelation; in fn(;t, it is 
 (vcrv year encumbered with ice, and it^t straits 
 nfc usually impassable from December to April. 
 Severe frosts made the sea passable in its widest 
 l«irts, between Prussia and Denmark, in 1333, 
 lijli!), 1423, and 1429. The climate, like that of 
 nil Europe, and more especially of Germany, has 
 ijecome more mild under the effects of better 
 drainage and cultivation ; but, even within recent 
 limes, Charles XII. marched across the Souiul 
 
 ami th^ two Holts to the attack of Denmark, and 
 Ml late as 1809 a Russian army crossed the (Julf 
 if liotlmia on the ice. (Catteau, i. HO-l.W; 
 Thiimson, 130, 138.) The temperature in the 
 neighbourhood of this sea does not appear to dimi- 
 nish with increase of lat. so much as might be 
 cxiiected: at Tornea, nearly GG° N., Von Uuch 
 aliirras that the season does not differ from that of 
 N, Germany by more than a month ; and that 
 the polar winter docs not set in till the end of 
 November. 
 
 The productions, animal and vegetable, of the 
 surrounding countries are somewhat modified by 
 tlie presence of this considerable body of intenwd 
 water. (See Sweden, Denmahk, Puussia, Fin- 
 land, (te.) The sea itself is extremely rich in 
 lishofmany varieties; the taking of which forms 
 an imiwrtant branch of industry in all the neigh- 
 liiiuriug countries. The larger amphibia — morses, 
 laiiiantins, &c., are absent; but seals are very 
 lilentiful, not only in the sea, but in the neigh- 
 Imuring lakes of Ladoga, Onega, <tc. ; they do 
 nut I'onn a ])art of human food, as in other less 
 fertile countries of the North, but are chased with 
 iireat avidity for their oil and skins. Whales are 
 stated to be sometimes of enonnous dimensions, 
 liiit are very rarely found : one was seen in the 
 i Ihilf of Bothnia, in July 1811; but this, like 
 every other appearance of the animal, was re- 
 pnled by the inhabitants as an evil omen. Of 
 I uther and smaller cetacea, the marsouin {Delph'mus 
 Phnccma of Linnteus) is common enough in the 
 1 Baltic. (Catteau, i. 199-251.) 
 
 Of the often asserted important fact that the 
 lialtic is decreasing, there can be little reasonable 
 ilmibt, the nature of the surrounding coim tries and 
 recent observations being taken into consideration. 
 
 BALTIC SEA 341 
 
 The innumeraldo lakes that lie between it and the 
 White Sea are nothing l)ut the last remains of ft 
 once contiiuioiis sea; which may 1)0 considered m 
 proved by the appearan<'e of similar animals in 
 tliese waters, tlioiigli now fresh, and the broad 
 l)and of tertiary strata wliich extends throughout 
 the whole space. (Lyell, I'rin. (ieol., i. 209.) On 
 the S., even within the |H'riod of modem history, 
 great changes have taken plm-e. LnU'ck, which 
 when lirst built was undoiditedly a s«'a-port, is 
 now 12 ni. from the shore, and incessant pains are 
 reipiisite to preserve itsconnnunication with it by 
 the channel of the Trave. The numerous lakes of 
 N. (iermany, like those of Finland, are but the 
 last remnants of the sea, which once and lately lay 
 upon the soil, as is incontestably proved by the 
 contiiuuil choking up of some, and the constant 
 detaching of others, from the main body of water 
 bv the deposits brought down by the rivers. The 
 llaffs of Prussia are now (pdte detached ; the Isle 
 of Uugen is all but joiiuul to the (Jerman conti- 
 nent ; while its former division into several sepa- 
 rate islands is attested by tlie ditTercnt names 
 bestowed upon its ditlercnt parts; of whicli Jiui/im 
 Aiisich, in the language of the country, means 
 Uugen I'roper. Similar instances might bo accu- 
 mulated all along this coast, all parts of which are 
 full of evidences of the same gradual and rajiid 
 changes. (De Luc, 200, 23(1, 243, 247, 27ti, et pass,) ; 
 and were other proof wanting, it would be found 
 in the extensive mosses aboiniding in marine 
 plants, which constitute so great a part of N. 
 (iermany. (Von Uuch, 2; De Luc, 192, ef pusn.) 
 In the N'., on the Gulf of liothnia, the same de- 
 crease is going on with eqiuil, if not greater, ra- 
 pidity (Von Much, 380) ; and though it is certain 
 that the surface of the sea cnnmit sinky this the 
 laws of eipiilibrium would prevent; yet, from 
 every observation, it is no less evident that its bed 
 is tilling up, ami that the surrounding land is 
 slowly (perhaps not very slowly) rising. Olaf 
 i>alin, a Swedish mathematician of the last cen- 
 tury, calculated the change at I inch ptsr annum ; 
 ami judging by the very evident alterations in 
 many parts, this is not probably too high, though 
 the hypothesis was held in scorn when lirst 
 broached. (Algarotti's Letters, 80.) As the same 
 operation may lie traced on the shores of the 
 Caspian and Ulack Seas (see Caspian and Ulack 
 Sea), there can be little doubt but that these are 
 the last drainings of the European plain towards 
 the SE., as the Baltic is towards the N W., or that 
 these waters were once in connection ; the very 
 triHing elevation between their basins serving to 
 determine the tlirection of the rivers, and the con 
 sequent deposit of new land. (See Lyell's Geol. 
 Map of Europe, i. 209.) One of the most jieculiar 
 appearances on the shores of the Baltic consists of 
 the immense number of granite blocks, bouhlers, 
 as they are called, with whicli the alluvial soil is 
 everywhere covered : after all that has been said 
 upon this subject, the appearance of these anoma- 
 lous masses continues a mystery. The opinion of 
 De Luc, that they were forced by explosion through 
 the superstrata, is perhaps the least objectionable ; 
 at all events, it is less violent than the supposition 
 that they were floated from a distance uiion water 
 or ice. (Geol. Trav., 59-70, et pass.) 
 
 Commerce. — The Oder, Vistula, and other great 
 rivers that have their embouchures in the Baltic, 
 and the many large cities that are built on or near 
 its shores, have made it the theatre of a very ex- 
 tensive commerce. In this respect its importance 
 wjvs much increased by the foundation of Peters- 
 burg, the trade of which is now of great extent 
 and value. Haw jiroducts, including com, timber, 
 
 Ti'*. 
 
 hemp and tlax, tallow, hides, linseed, bristles. 
 
Hi 
 
 IIALTIMOUE 
 
 '! ? 
 
 ii» t^f.'l 
 
 B\ 
 
 i'.i»m 
 
 il'V^'t 
 
 Wool, Ac, coMMtiliito tlip priii<'i|inl nrticlcM of vx- 
 ]iort rroni tli<< Itallic porlx; colniiiiil iinxliit'tN, iiiii- 
 niit'iirliin'd ^ronilx, ilrv xliitt''*, wiiicN, niiU, coal, ((■<■„ 
 lii'in^ ainoiifr ilif |iriii('i|ial iirticicN of iiii|Mirt. 'Die 
 Icfi'liiifr |ior(H, Hi'ttiii); oiil rnnii llit^ Soiinil, arc Co- 
 iii'tiliiiKi'ii, iJllicck, Wi^niar, ItuMlock, Swiiit'tnuiuti', 
 l>aiilzic (wliicli, iic.xl to Odi'sxa, ih IIic |iriiu'i|ial 
 ))orl, not ill Kuni)i(' onlv l)iit in the world, fur ttic 
 xhiliincnt of wlicnl), Ivfininnlti'rK, Mcini'l, Ifi/^a, 
 I't'lcrsliiiri;. and Stockliolin. 'rii<> IJ. Kin^'doni 
 has liy far the lar^OHt portion of |Im> forcif^n trade 
 of tlu! haltic. 'I'lio vast iniportanoo of the coin- 
 incrt'c in wlirat nlone it* nIiowii in tlio Niilijoinod 
 Htiiti'ini'iit, wliit^li nWi'H t\w value of llic iiiiportM of 
 lliis article! from the varioin portu of the llallic 
 into Ihc llnitc<l Kingdom during each uf the three 
 yeiirw IHti"-', lmi:J, and iHtil :— 
 
 lni|Kirii of Wheat 
 
 1863 
 
 IHI)5 
 
 IHIII 1 
 
 £ 
 
 2,ir)2.201 
 
 2,407,017 
 
 4:11.782 
 
 l''rotn HiifHla . . 
 ,, I'niHsla 
 „ Dciinmi'k . 
 „ Mcekluiibiirff 
 
 !),128,0(!0 
 4,014,047 
 
 ;i7:.,4.vi 
 
 202,472 
 
 C 
 
 2,0'1!>,281 
 
 2,.'iil 1,00(1 
 
 27-1, MIS 
 
 211,702 
 
 The vast eonimorcial intercoiirso of the ports of 
 the liiiltitr with tJreat Hritaiii is liirtht^r shown liy 
 the niivi^ntioii reliirns, which state that in t\w. 
 year I«(i4 there arrived H,tl2 vessels, of an ajrf^re- 
 pit.e hiirthen of 77(!,<>-l(> tons, from the northern 
 )iorls of K'n.ssia; 2,714 vessels, of .")il'J,<i!i(! Ions 
 from I'rnssia; l,t'>S(l vessels, of l!t|,!(tl7 tons from 
 Denmark; and l,2(lt> vessels, of IHl,;{!i;{ tons from 
 Sleek lenljiir;; and the Duchies. 'I'liis (rives a total 
 of nearly 10,000 vessels sailing; anmially from the 
 ]taltic into ])orts of the I'liited Kinplom, 
 
 The ancients were hnt very slijjhtly ac(piainted 
 with the Haltic: it is mentioned by them under 
 tlie title ot' Sinus Coilaniis ((iiilf of the (Joth Dane) ; 
 but it was the tlieatre of those marvels which, in 
 ancient >;eo(;raphy, always mark imperfect kiiow- 
 ledf^e. Its shores j^ave forth, however, the warriors 
 wlio overthrew the Homan empire, and hiid the 
 foundations of modern Kiiropean Bociety. In 
 modern times its straits are more crowded with 
 Rliijis of all nations than those of any other inland 
 sea. Large quantities of amber are collected on 
 its shores, especially those of Prussia, and the isle 
 of Kiiffen. ((Jatteau, i, I8'J-25I.) The ori(,'in of 
 tlie name IJaltic has divided etymologists. Some 
 derive it from the Danish Ihit (a girdle), and 
 others from the word Bulla, which, in the Li- 
 thuanian tongue, signifies While. The great 
 quantity of snow which annually falls in its neigli- 
 bonrhodd, renders this last derivatiim far from im- 
 probable, though the former be evidently not less 
 applicable; at all (events, the name has existed 
 from very early times, though at present the 
 general designation, used by the inhabitants of its 
 shores, is Ost-see (I'jistern Sea), as serving to dis- 
 tinguish it from the Atljintic. or IVestern Ocean. 
 
 HALTIMOHE, a marit. eityof N.America, the 
 third in point of .size and importance in tlie United 
 States, and the princiiial city, though not the cap. 
 of the state of Maryland, on the N. side of I'a- 
 tapsco IJny, 14 m. above its entrance into the 
 Chesapeake, .^7 m. Nlii. Washington, and 100 m. 
 SW. I'hiladelphin, on the Baltimore and Ohio 
 rjiilwav. Pop. in IHOO, 23,971; in 1«,30, G2,78«; 
 in IH40, 1.^4,37!); in 1850, lt!9,054; and in 18(iO, 
 212,418. The tdwn is pleasantly situated, on 
 slightly undulating ground, and is built round 
 a basin or inner harbour, which affords a spacious, 
 secure, and commodious harbour for vessels of 
 200 tons, quite close up to the town. The prin- 
 cii>al part of the city is divided from the por- 
 tions styled OldTownand Fell's Point, by u small 
 
 riv<r called .Jones's Kails, overwhi<'h are precircl 
 three handsome stone bridges and four wuihI,.,, 
 OIK <. Ill the onler hiirboiir, near KiU's p,,,,,, 
 ves«(4s of r)00 or 000 tons li<! in pcrfcn Kudu' 
 Till' entrance to the harbour is narrow, iiml en,,.' 
 
 tnally ( imandiMl and defended by Kurt M'llvurt, 
 
 The city is regularly laid out and well Imili 
 streets generally spacious and will piivnl, an.i 
 homes neat and commodious. The priiniial 
 pul.li(! buildings are the exchange, coiirl~li„ii.,. 
 college, and university halls; threi' lioKjiitiiN, '\ 
 jH'ilitentiary, gaol, circus, two theatres, six miir. 
 ket -houses, and lifty-six places of worship. The 
 exchange is a large and iiandsome edilice, :!i;i; ||, 
 by 140; the Koinaii (.'atholic cathedral is pcrliuM 
 the linest church in the country, and concilin 
 some good paintings; the rnitafian churcli, m. 
 Paul's church, thi^ eoiirt-honse, I'luon Itank, inni 
 several other of the public buildings, arc Ik>i|| 
 spacious and elegant, St. Marv's Colligi. ^ ., 
 ('atholi(- institution, and has a liiirary cuiitiiiulrv 
 ilO,(IOO vols. The me<lical ccdlege, now the imf. 
 versity. received that title with a new cluiriirin 
 I812: the city contains, besides, a nuiseum miil 
 a gallery of painlings. The houses are niosilv 4 
 brick; the principal street, about 1 in, loiij; 'ini,| 
 80 ft. wi<l(!, runs parallel to the water. On mi 
 elevation, above the compact part of the city, ;» 
 the Washington monument, u Doric coltanii uf 
 white marble, 140 ft. in height, and 20 ft. in iliu- 
 meter, standing upon a base .'iO ft, square, anil it ii, 
 high ; containing a circular staircase, by wliicli 
 visitors ascend to the summit, on which acdluvnl 
 statue of Washington is |)laced. It is by far tlie 
 most splendid structure of its kind in tlie Ijiimi, 
 The liattle inoiiumeiit, an elegant marble ()licli<K, I 
 it.> ft. high, is erected to the memory of fhn.se wli,, 
 fell in the defence of the city and Fort M'llciirv, iii 
 1814, and is inscril)e(l with their iiaines. Tlicciiv 
 is supplied with excellent water from four liiun- 
 tains, which are also ornamental structures. Hal- 
 timore is admirably situated for commerce, nml i< 
 a place of considerable wealth and trade; it cii- 
 grosses most part of the trade of Marylaiiil, t»- 
 getlier with half that of Pennsylvania," and pan 
 of that of W. Virginia and the Western states. It* 
 inland communication has been much cxtciiilhl 
 and facilitated by the construction of caiialu, ami 
 of the Haltimore and Ohio railway. 
 
 The subjoined statement, drawn up from oflioial 
 returns, gives the exports of Haltimore, in the t«o 
 years 1803 and 18G4 :— 
 
 EXPOIITS OP Bai.timoiie. 
 
 Artlcln 
 
 
 18M 
 
 1863 
 
 Bread . 
 
 packages 
 
 25,876 
 
 i9,rw 
 
 Beef . 
 
 . tierces 
 
 l,:ilii 
 
 l,l!« 
 
 ,, . . . 
 
 . barrels 
 
 l,7(i!) 
 
 ;i:i 
 
 Bnt;on . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 6.')7,08,') 
 
 4,74f',:i«i 
 
 Butter 
 
 • )» 
 
 i;i9,7(J« 
 
 2il.),iini 
 
 Cheese . . 
 
 • »* 
 
 222,1(19 
 
 Id.'j.iimi 
 
 Com . 
 
 , bushels 
 
 101,r,44 
 
 271,iilu 
 
 Cnmllos . . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 601,4(18 
 
 m;m 
 
 Copper 
 
 • »» 
 
 422,180 
 
 ; 
 
 Flour, Wheat 
 
 . barrels 
 
 ;t:i:i,042 
 
 3:'(l,J."^i 
 
 Lumber 
 
 . dollars 
 
 212,467 
 
 I.III.IW 
 
 Lard . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,500,564 
 
 3,5(i:,:ii«i 
 
 Pork . 
 
 . barrels 
 
 6,803 
 
 (1,1 M 
 
 Uye, Ont?, &c. . 
 
 . bushels 
 
 20,000 
 
 2i,(W 
 
 Sliooks and Heads 
 
 packages 
 
 1 25,1)70 
 
 — 
 
 Sugar, retiiiwl . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 4;<»,:186 
 
 — 
 
 „ raw 
 
 . „ 
 
 i»72,00l» 
 
 — 
 
 Tobacco, Leaf . 
 
 hogshead 
 
 45,252 
 
 37.!l)3 
 
 „ manufactured lbs. 
 
 03,827 
 
 !«M«>| 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 bushels 
 
 6(;,0!)2 
 
 W.SU 
 
 The following table shows the value of tlie im- 
 ports and exports of IJaltimore for ten years :- 
 
BALTLHOUE 
 
 r whi<'1i nrn <>rprtp<l 
 
 •H mill I'olir WiiikIi'ii 
 
 , lu'iir VAV* I'l.iiii, 
 id in |icrl'cci Kiiliiy, 
 iit iinvriiw, mill ttli, . 
 (•aiiy Fort M'lliiin, 
 iiiit 'mill well liiiili ; 
 ml wi'll (iiivt'il, iiikI 
 lUM. Tlic |iriinii.;il 
 I'liuiijj*', ciiiiri-liiiu-c, 
 <; tlircc lioi.|pitaU, ii 
 ^(1 llifiitrw, »ix iimr- 
 •CM of wnrHliip. Till' 
 lilsnllU' riliticr, :itili ||. 
 ; culllPilrill in |ht1iii14 
 oiiiitry, mill I'linlalm 
 ,!iii(iifimi ftiurrli, St. 
 ISC, rniiin Kaiik, aii>l 
 ; lmilllill^;N, iirc Imili 
 Miirv'i* CiiUi'Ki' i^ ;i 
 iH H libriiry t'luiliiinin;; 
 cdUcuP, iiiiw till' imi- 
 A'itU II iiuw cliartct in 
 L'wiili'H, a imist'iiiii iiml 
 hoiiMi's arc mn.Htly df 
 , nlxiut I m, liinn "ni 
 to tlu". water. (Hi an 
 ict part of tlieciiy,.< 
 it, ii Doric coliiiiiii "( 
 inlit, ami •^11 ft. ill ilia- 
 >r>(>ft. s(iimrc,ttml'.!:)l'i. 
 ar Htaircasc, by wliirli 
 nit, on which a cnluviil 
 laccil. It ii< hy fur tlif 
 its kinil ill the liii"ii, 
 elegant marlilc ubcli-k, 
 le memory of tlm-* win 
 V and Fort M'Ufiiirj.in 
 i' tlicir iiaincM. The ciiy 
 ; water from four fimii- 
 (iieiital structures. Hal- 
 •il for commerce, miil i» 
 L'ahh ami trmle; it on- 
 trade of Maryland, t* 
 I'eiinsylvaiiin, and jiart 
 the VV csteni states. Ii- 
 s been much cxtciulcl 
 itriictiou of caiialu, ami 
 4) railway. . 
 
 It, drawn up from uttioiiil 
 lof liultimorc, in tlic m 
 
 1AI,TIM0UE. 
 
 1804 
 
 Ids 
 lbs. 
 
 •jr),876 
 
 l,:tlii 
 
 l,7(i9 
 
 5.')7,<I85 
 
 lili),7«8 
 
 101,1)44 
 
 6«l,4ti8 
 
 42'.',18(l 
 
 ;!M;i,(l42 
 
 212,467 
 
 2,500,5(i4 
 
 5,803 
 
 20,000 
 
 12-'>,!I70 
 
 4»0,:18« 
 
 972,(M)« 
 
 4.1,252 
 
 Ca,827 
 
 tiO,0i»2 
 
 1863 1 
 
 i(i,;i«'' 
 
 i,i;i-; 
 
 4,74«,li«i 
 2!l.i,iK"i 
 
 ]ii;j,iit»' 
 
 •iTl.iili' 
 62;!,*»i 
 
 l.lll,"*' 
 
 3,.w;,ii'«l 
 
 2J («»i 
 
 jdl.TOI 
 
 T«n 
 
 Iraiwrta 
 
 Kiporii 
 
 _^. — 
 
 — — — 
 
 - - 
 
 
 I>i>n*ri 
 
 l><>lliir< 
 
 IN.Vl 
 
 7,772,f.!»l 
 
 1l,il7.''.0!)tl 
 
 IKMl 
 
 10,Mii,h:ih 
 
 l;l,:H12.2-i2 
 
 |H.-,7 
 
 ll.ii.V»,tl7il 
 
 ll,:iOH,!MO 
 
 IH.'iH 
 
 7,!I.VI,422 
 
 10,2'l'>,M!)ll 
 
 IH.'ill 
 
 ll),|(m,!M):| 
 
 8,724,201 
 
 |H<iO 
 
 l»,:t7IM21 
 
 10,ltl;l,lil» 
 
 imll 
 
 R,r,:n.4 II 
 
 11.471,7110 
 
 18112 
 
 .1,tllll,4.-iM 
 
 lo,:i4ii,ii;4 
 
 I8i;:l 
 
 fi,:mil,7m 
 
 l),007,0i):l 
 
 18(14 
 
 ll,07ll,2VI) 
 
 12,:itl2,44H 
 
 vs the value of the im- 
 Qorc for ten year? ••- 
 
 The lliicliiations visilile in tlie above talile mark 
 iluM'ivil war in the United .Stales, which Kfeatly 
 iilVirliil the trade of llaltiniorc. (h'eport by Mr. 
 I'niisiil Iteriial on the Trade of Italliniore in IHDI, 
 iiil'iijisiilar l{e|Mirls.) 
 
 fliert^ arc in the vicinity numerous cotton mn- 
 iiiil'iii'ti'ries, and llniir and other mills in npcra- 
 Mnii. A part of the city is low, and wiw formerly 
 KirKiiiiteii iiiiiicalthy ; but this lias been obviated 
 liv the lilliii); up of the marshy grounds. To the 
 N', and K. the land rises to a coiisidcriible cleva- 
 liim, and affords a beautiful pros^M'ct of the cit^' 
 mill Morrouniliu)^' conntry. The citi/.eiis jf llalti- 
 iiinrc are (lislin(;iiisbed as well for bold and perse- 
 vrriii^ eiiter|irisc, as for hospitality and aKreeabU^ 
 niiiinuTs. llaltiniorc has had a remarkably rapid 
 j;ri<\vtli. It was tirst laid out as a town in 172'.); 
 in ITliJ it contained only about tifly houses; it was 
 lirst erected into ucity in 17!I7. A formidable but 
 iiiiMia'cssful attack was niaile on it in 1814, by a 
 liriiiah force under General Ho.ss. 
 
 lUi.TiMouK, a niarit. town of Ireland, co. Cork, 
 |iriiv.'Minister, on a bay of (he same name, near 
 (iilK'Clear Island; 4lim. WSW. Cork. The pop. 
 nliicli, in IKil, was4t'><J, had sunk, in iMIil, lo i4.j. 
 Ill n|ipcaraiice and accommodation it is merely a 
 villaf;c, and claims rank as a town only from 
 iiiiviiif; been incorporated, and beinj; a jiort. The 
 liiiiines, tweiity-si.\ in number, are built round the 
 rcmniiis of the old castle. lialtimure wa^s incur- 
 imruteil by James I., in iGl.4, and sent two niem- 
 Ihtk to tlic Irish II. of C till the Union, when it 
 ii'iised to be represented, and its other privileges 
 It'll into disuse. The jurisdictiim of the port e.\- 
 ii'iids from Mill Cove to (lalley Head, inulmling 
 liie creeks of Berelmven, Uantry, Uoss, CJlcndore, 
 uiid Castle lownshend. 
 
 liALTINtlLASS, a par. and town of Ireland, 
 I'd. Wicklow. The town is sitnated on the S. side 
 iif the Slanev, 34 m. SVV. Dublin. Pop. of par., 
 in 18C1, 2,ti4!t ; of town, 1,304, The latter is re- 
 markable onlv from a parliament having been 
 mice held ui it, and from it« having fonnerly re- 
 turned two members to the Irish II. of C. 
 
 IIASIHAHI.'A, a considerable country of inte- 
 riiir Africa, the precise position of which is far 
 fnim being accurately ascertained. On Kennell's 
 map to Park's lirst exjiedition, its lat. is given 
 Irora 12° to 15° 22' X.; its long, from 15' E. to 
 ii' 20' W. The map to the last journal of Park 
 makes the lat. extend from 1 1° 16' to l(>o 20' N. ; 
 tlic long, from 1° 36' E. to 4° 52 VV, (See also, 
 .Vdvertisemcnt, Park's Second Journal.) And, 
 laitly, Caillie appears to place it between !l° 20' 
 and 14° N. lat,, and between 4° 40' and l)° 20' 
 W. long. (Travels, 2nd Map, i. 304, et sen.) A 
 mean among these different statements will give 
 alxiut 400 m. for its greatest length, from N W. t(» 
 SK., and about 300 m, for its greatest breadth, in 
 the direction of the meridian. Upon Park's map, 
 the area is about 60,000 sq, m. ; but of course little 
 reliance can be placed upon the accuracy of these 
 results. The names of the surrounding coinitrios 
 are known with more certauity ; they arc, on the 
 
 llAMIIAHKA n»3 
 
 K., rtottii, llardoo, and Miiniaiia: on the S., the 
 Mmidingo country and ili'»irict of Kong; on the 
 \V, Kaarta; and on the N. and XK., Heeroo and 
 the tributary kingdom of Masina. (Park, pp. 02, 
 I 1(1, 2l(i, kV-c., and Map.) Itainbarra is, for the 
 
 most part, a plain cunnirv, with a gi ral incliiin- 
 
 fion to the N. and K. '('he W. portion is, how- 
 ever, niountaiiioMs, or rather billy, and foriiis the 
 K. lenninatiiiu of the high lands of Kaarta, Man- 
 ding, d-i'. These mountains are of granite and 
 other old fonnalions, but of no great height; and 
 the soil, Istth on their sides and on the plains, 
 though in the iminetliate neighbourhood of the 
 
 Sahara, is generally g I. The Niger. Joliba or 
 
 Qiiorra, has its rise about l.'iO in. S\V. from the 
 frontiers of Itainbarra, and flows through the 
 whole jength of that county from S\V. to NK. It 
 is an iinportiint stream at this early part of its 
 course, but by no means so gigantic as it after- 
 wards becomes. At Sego, the Itainbarra capital, 
 it is idioitt the size of the 'i'liames at Westminster, 
 (Park, p. 104.) There is no other river of im- 
 porlanee in the eoiintrv, but the smaller water- 
 courses are innumerable; lliej' all overllow during 
 the rainy season, wliiiOi lasts full 5^ months, so 
 that tlu- moisture is fully siillicient to render 
 the land in a very high degree prmliuttive. The 
 climate is one of intense Ileal, es|K-cially in the 
 N., where the land bonh-rs u|Hin the desert; but, 
 upon the whole, the temperature is more endurable 
 in Itainbarra than in some of the neighlHiiiriiig 
 countries; and in the S. |iarls it is cidd enough in 
 the rainy season to render a tire desirable, (Caillie, 
 i. 327.) The rainy season extends t'rom .luiu' to 
 November, and is ushenMl in by violent tornadoes. 
 Its termination is usually marked by the dry NK. 
 wind called llarmattan (see Asiiantkk), which 
 is here, however, not cohl. as on the coast of 
 (fuinea,aiid, so far from being dreaded, is accounted 
 salubrious, particularly to Furopeans, fnmi the 
 rajiidity with which it" absorbs the superabundant 
 moisture of the air. 
 
 The mountains arc said to he rich in gold, but 
 less so than in Jallonkadoo and other count ric8 
 further \V. They also produce iron, and therecaii 
 belittle doubt but that a well-direct(!d industry 
 wouhl turn their mineral treasures to account. 
 Vegetation is varied and abundant ; of trees there 
 are the immense baobab, the boinbax (silk cotton), 
 oil pidtns, dates, tamarind, and a great variety of 
 forest trees. The earth produces, with little lalxair, 
 yams, cassava, maize, small millet, foigne, rice, 
 Ac, many of which yiehl two crops a year; and 
 the lotus (r/iamnus lotus of Liiir s) is an imisir- 
 tant article of food. The trc ■ i' fruits, so cinn- 
 mon in (Jninea, are, howevei, ■ > • scarce here ; 
 Park (p, 200) did not meet wii .;he pine-apple, 
 orange, or banana, excejit near the mouth of the 
 Gambia; and though Caillie' (i, 181) mentions 
 them, their locality is fixed by him also near the 
 coa.st, and consequently at a considerable distance 
 from Itambnrriu The most remarkable production 
 of this country is the shea, or butter-tree, a ))lant 
 about the size and appearance of the American 
 oak, the oleaginous fruit of which answers every 
 purpose of butter made from cow's milk, combined 
 with the advantage of preserving its firmness and 
 sweetness for the wiude year without salt. This 
 last, is an article peculiarly deficient in llambarra 
 and the neighbouring countries ; bo much so as to 
 be a valuable article of foreign commerce, and 
 bought at a high rate with the com and ^old dust 
 of the district. Tobacco is cultivated m many 
 jiarts with great success. The animals, except 
 monkeys, which are strangers, arc the same as 
 those of tropical Africa generally ; lions, tigers, 
 wolves, piuuhcrs, ekphants, camels, giraffes, and 
 
 m\ 
 
 ¥;:■?'».: 
 
 'i<:. i 
 
 ^,;i*''»*i. 
 
 #1 
 
 !:*>■;', 
 
!'» •' 
 
 I I 
 
 1 '!!., - 
 
 \r^ 
 
 5^1 
 
 .'Jll nAMIJAUUA 
 
 iiiiii'l()|i('i), CiiltU^ iiri* nut uliiiiiilani, iicltlipr <lii 
 kIii'i'I) iir hoKNii|i|i<'nr to Ih' itlt'iilil'iil, Iml ^oiitfi niul 
 iliPK'< iirt- very luimiToiiit, 'I liiTc nrc liinlt of iniin.v 
 N|M'l'il'^<, iitiil a ^rcitt viiriciy of ri>|iiil<'r<, nnmii^ 
 wliirli iiri' criinMlilcM, in tlit' rivrr, Itnl thi'HiMlii not 
 ii|i|i<'Mr (ri Ih' iinrlicnlarly (liin^cniHH ; iIh' IiiinIh of 
 Ipowrrfnl mill vmonioiiH him't-lH art' rf^ariU'il with 
 It nnii'li Kri'alcr ilc^rcr nf apiirclionHion. 
 
 'I'iif nativcH of Itaniliarra arc a iiart of tln> ntvat 
 l^Ianilin){o family, wliicli cxicnilH from tlu! VV. 
 (■oani to the riviT Nin<'r (h»'1' Mani>in«ii>) ; they 
 i*|i('al( tli(> Naini' lan^iiai;<', tlion);li with a |H>('nliar 
 iliali'ct ; am! (heir halntM, npiicarant't', ami ^fucral 
 attaiiunrntH an; the Hanic. 'l'\w townw nnil vil- 
 lik),'<'s ar<! very popnlonN, mmw of them (MtntainiiiK 
 nn inanv iim !lll,lllllt inhaltitaiitM; lint, on the other 
 hand, till' open conntry in nftcrly ilcMPrifil i for 
 which, two rcammH mav h(> asMi^Micil, vi/. tho con- 
 Htant ilaiiKcr from wilil liraNts, anil tin- conMtuiit 
 wars hctwccn tin- (lilfcrcnt nlatcn ami prim't-n. 
 From rarkV at'connt of the pop.of Scpi, SanHaml- 
 in)^r, Wapola, and other towns, comliincil with the 
 iinnihcr of niii'Ii towns whii'h apiicar on his map, it 
 niav perhaps lie inferreil, that llnmharra eontains 
 (iltiV'elher between ■J,*M)l),llll(l ami »,ll(HI,lllll) ; of 
 whom ■'l-'ltlis at least are slaves. In cnstoms they 
 do not materially dilTer from other neKroes ; they 
 are toleralile agrii'ultnrists, work in piht and iron, 
 and tun, dress, and niunufacluru leather. Thesv 
 are the oidy arts wiiich are held in esteem, as dis- 
 liiu't eallin^rs; lint spinning, weaving, and dyeing 
 are very dili/rently performed hy the women, and 
 the Ituinliarrun I'loth, though itoarse, is soil and 
 dnrahle, and (generally of a rich, lasting, lilne 
 eolonr. A jiretty extensive^ trade is (larrieil on with 
 llie Moors of the desert, the more rumote kinj;- 
 doms of 'rimUietoo and lionssii, the territory of 
 Kon^f, and even with Ashanteo and .Senepmiliiu. 
 Their exports are iron, eloth, ivory, nud slaves; 
 their imports consist of ttalt, with ii few Man- 
 ehostcr piods, s(imo hardware, and anns. In skill, 
 relinement, and eleanlinoHS they are far below the 
 nem'roes of the (iold Coast ; bnt in moral feeling 
 they appear tu be above them; their slaves, who 
 are of two kinds, native born aii<l foreipiers, either 
 purchased or ca]itnred in war, are iisnally treated 
 ■with kindness; tlie dis^nstin^ crueltieH which 
 mark the festivals of the Ciuincn Nejp'oes (sec 
 AsiiANTEK) arc unknown anions them; and they 
 are said to be anxious (especially the women) to 
 assist, to tho utmost of their power, the sick and 
 Miilortunatc. The fijovcrnment is rather oli<;ar- 
 t'liical thai) monarchical ; the kiii^ is nominally 
 the head of the state, but he ap|iears to have 
 little more power than to recommend certain lines 
 of conduct to the (/notiei (ffovernors) of towns, 
 wliich recomniendatiiiii is not always attended to. 
 'I'he Moors of N. Africa lonjj since introduced Mo- 
 hammedanism ainonjr the tribes S. of the desert ; 
 the great majority of these retain, however, their 
 old faith, which, in IJanibarrt., seems to extend no 
 farther than a (general acknowlcdfrnient of a su- 
 preme being and a future state, with a periodical 
 assembling for Avor.thip, onlv at the time of the 
 full moon. The only religions buildings are the 
 mosques, the ministers of which are also school- 
 iniixtttrn ; for instruction, to some small extent, is 
 given to the young Negroes, but it is in Arabic, or 
 perhaps, in some cases, in the native language, 
 \vritten in the Arabic character, there being no 
 Negro tongue which pfisscsses an al|)habct. The 
 Moslem ISamljarruus are called Jiushruiis, the 
 I'aguns, Kafirs or inlidels. P<ilvgamy is common 
 with both sects; and among their marriage laws is 
 one which in rather peculiar — a woman may refuse 
 to become a wife, but should she, after that, con- 
 tract marriage with another, the tint suitor has 
 
 iiAMiiouorr.ri 
 
 the power ofsei/.ing her as a slave. The duini'Mio 
 relations are, howcMT, generally mnintaiiii'il wiili 
 great kindneHN, and tiie atTectioii of chililri'ti u 
 their mothers is touching and pecnliar, I'ln' |i„„| 
 is usually vcgi'table ; tlie amuseiiu'lits, iiii|.|,', 
 dancing, and singing; and the etVcct of i<iiii|,i|. 
 diet, and cheerful or rather ll-oiighllrss iliipi,.;. 
 tion, is evinced by the fact, that thiii>gh lln' i Ij. 
 mate breeds fevers, fluxes, yaw; , el»'plumti«»i., 
 leprosy, and guinea-worm, the Itambarraiiit, hh n 
 people, innst In; described as healthy, tlmugli tint 
 do not iisnallv attain to any very great a;;", 
 (Park's Traveli, pp. IRVUl'H; Caillie. '. ■l'I-IT.m 
 
 KAMIil'.ltti, a town of llavaria. cire. ('|i|i<r 
 Mayiie, on a piece of uneven ground on thelmiiki 
 of the Kegnitz, about ■! m. abovn its eonlliit'iiiv 
 with the Mitvne, 'AW m, N. NureinlHTg, on tlii>riiil- 
 way from Nuremberg to the north of tieriniiiiy. 
 I'oji. 'IWM'i in iMl'il, The Kegnitz divides it luin 
 three parts, the comnninicati'in U'tween thciii 
 being maintained by two bridg< •*. It is well Iniili, 
 paved, and lighted, and is partially surroundi'il \\y 
 ramparts and fosses. Among the public biiililiii!,M 
 is the cathedral, a noble structure in the Ityxantiiii' 
 style, foundeil in l(M)l, and llnished, after Uiii;; 
 partially burnt down, in 1 1 HI. It (Miutaiiis inmlii 
 of its tiiunder, the emperor Henry II„ anil <il' liii 
 s|ioiise, the empress Onniguuda, with that of 1'ii|h> 
 Clement II., \c, St. Marlins church, erirtcd In 
 the ilesuits, is a line building. The chiirrli inul 
 old convent of St. Michael occupy a height ailjuin- 
 ing that on which the cathedral stands. TlD-i'im- 
 vent has been converted into a poor-house. TliiTf 
 is also a nrhloHK, or palace, formerly the reHidiinn 
 of the bishops, or |)rinces of Hamberg, a iiluiii 
 building of considerable extent, with a gallcrv nl' 
 bad pictures; a towii-bonse, and theatre, lliim- 
 berg is the resid(!nce of an orchbisho)i, and liin 
 numerous literary and charitable institutions. At 
 the head of the former may be plaecil the lywiim 
 and gymnasium, that have replaced the old uni- 
 versity, sniipressed in IMt), and which furnish a 
 very complete course of instruction for betwrni 
 7((0 and MO(t pupils: it has also a seminar}- fur the 
 instruction of schoolmasters, a school for mccim- 
 nics, a museum of natural history, a royal library 
 with nearly «(»,I)(I0 volumes, and numeroiis literary 
 societies and private collections of books and pir- 
 tures. The intirmary has surgical, anutomii'iil, 
 and 'ithcr medical schools attached to it, and iilx'- 
 tanical garden. Large quantities of lieer, in miuh 
 repute in the surrounding country, are pniiliucii 
 here; and there are also manufactures of jjIovpn 
 jewellery, wax, tobacco, iiorcelain, &c. A i^cM 
 deal of liquorice is raised in the environs ; ami in 
 preparation forms a considerable branch of liu<i- 
 iiess. (iarden seeds are also largely prudui'eii. 
 It has two annual fairs, and is the centre of a om- 
 siderable commerce wliich has greatly extcmlcil 
 since the opening of two lines of railway wliiili 
 place it into direct communication with Frankfori, 
 Merlin, Munich, and uU the important towns' "{ 
 (iermany. Ijamt)erg was formerly the capital "I 
 an independent bishopric, secularised in 1801, ami 
 assigned in 18I)H to Havaria. 
 
 HAMI10K0U(JH, a small t«wn of England. 
 on the coast of Northumberlaml, nearly ojiposiie 
 to the Fern Islands, and 17 m. SK. Uerwick-on- 
 Tweed. Though once considerable, it had wily 
 4(t3 inhabitants at the census of 18«1, and woiiM 
 be scarcely worth notice were it not for its "lii 
 castle. The latter, which is very extensise, ami 
 in good preservation, is built on a basaltic rink, 
 150 ft. above the level of the sea, from which it w 
 a most conspicuous object. The castle and some 
 other |)roperty having lieen jmrcliaseil h^ hi'f' 
 Crewe, bishop of Durham, he bequeathed it, in 172f, 
 
in 
 
 nvi'. 'I'lio (li)mntin 
 y nminlaiiiril wlili 
 iiiii iif rliililri'ii III 
 ,H'i'iilinr. rill' IiimI 
 
 IIIIKI'IIK'lllH, lllll'-ii, 
 
 lie rIVi'i't (if i>iin|i'i' 
 
 |-()linlltlt'!<!t llit|»lM 
 
 lint thoii^h till' ili 
 'HW: , i'li'|iluiiitia<i<, 
 ii> lluiiiliarriiiiH, ii* ii 
 I'lilthy, iliiiiiuli \\\i\ 
 ly very Krriii iiu'". 
 ■('aillii', '. • 21-lT.M 
 luviiriii, Kirc. l'|i|«r 
 ^ro'iiul on the liniik* 
 ilmvn itH I'milliii'iiiv 
 iri'iiilHTH, on till' rail- 
 • imrtli of (iiTiiiiiny. 
 i-k(iiitz iliviilt's il iiiid 
 
 it l III llctWI'l'Il tllCIII 
 l)r(^. It IH Wl^l'l llllilt, 
 
 rtially mirrminili'd \>}' 
 ; tlu'';iulilirlmililiiiii< 
 un^ ill tlic Hy/,i»iilim' 
 tlui^<lu'||, ntd't Ihiii;; 
 ), It rontuiiiH tiiinU 
 Icnry II., and nl \\\* 
 ila, with tliut 111' l'ii|»' 
 i'h fliiiri'h, orcctcil liy 
 \ff, Tliv cliiirili mill 
 rupy n lR'i>,'iit mljui"- 
 Irnl wtnndH. 'I'lii' I'mi- 
 > II poiir-limwe. i'liiri' 
 mnnrly the ro^iiUmi' 
 of Hiinilicrj;, a jiluin 
 cut, with a pillery if 
 !, and Uicntre. Itiuii- 
 1 nrchhishoii, and Inn 
 table institulionH. At 
 be placed the lyowim 
 ) replaced the old uiii- 
 L and which furni^li :i 
 striictimi for k'twwi 
 dno a neminnn- for tlie 
 1, ft Hchool for meiliii- 
 listory, a royal libniry 
 and iunncroiw litoniry 
 ions of bookn and jiii- 
 mirjrical, anatontiiiil, 
 tachedtoit, andalx'- 
 titiesoflwcr, inmiuli 
 ■onntrj', are priMliuni 
 janvifactures of ^hw>- 
 ircclain, &c. A gtm 
 the environH ; ami "* 
 ■arable branch of lm'<i- 
 Iso largely pnKliu'eil. 
 is the centre of a wm- 
 has frreatly extciulcil 
 ines of railway wliuli 
 cation with Frankfort. 
 e important towns nl 
 jrinerlv the capital "I 
 culariscd in 1801, ami 
 
 in Umn of Englnii'l. 
 rlmul, nearly oj.|p'W'e 
 7 m. SK. llerwick-on- 
 iidorable, it haii <'« )" 
 IS of l«ttl, and woiiW 
 ere it not for its M 
 |s very extensive, m\ 
 lilt on a ba.'^aUic rock. 
 le sea, from wlucluti* 
 1 The ca.stle and *« 
 L purchased by l^'^ 
 lbe(iueathcdit,uiliiC. 
 
 fir chanlnblo piirposcK, In piirsiinni'iHif the Iicih'- 
 Mili'iil iiilciilioiii of the fiiiiiiili'r, llie caxtli' Iiiik 
 Ih'i'ii partially renovaicd and rrpairnl, Walrli is 
 ,.„iiHiiiiitly ki'pl, and ni^'iials niailc frmn the tower 
 ill liii/v ncathcr, to wurii ships of their apprnach 
 III ihii' lUnp'roiis i'oa'<l ; a life-boat is a' kept in 
 ri'ikiliiii'SH, and the ino-.t elllcieiit measures ailoptt'd, 
 iiiii iiii'ri'lv for the prevention of shipwreck, but 
 |,ir the relief of those who have nnder^one that 
 nij>l'iirtiine. A school on the Mililras system is 
 
 RVMHork' 31/j 
 
 prnlilU* countries in the world. The few steriUi 
 sjHiis are on the smnmits of the highest nioiintaiiis, 
 where, deiiiiiled of soil, the bare granite nl'iisi"*, 
 of ciiiirse, to iioiirisb ve^'etaliie life, but in nil 
 other situations the vef^'ctalion is rich and \'arie<l, 
 almost beyond example. .Viiioiik trees, there are 
 the tniijcstic baobab, the banyan, calabash, tamu- 
 rind, everv s|M'cies of palm, and a j^rent variety of 
 acacias. The vine jjrows wild and in jfreat liix- 
 iiriance, but its fruit, like that of all the other' 
 
 iMalilislied in the castle, in which there are also a i trees, is e\tremely acid, thoii;;li eaten with htk'ixI 
 
 a\iility by the natives. \n in other coiintrii's N. 
 of the Kon^ nmnntains (see IIamiiakka), the 
 rich fruits of (iiiiiiea are absent; but the earth 
 produces in ^reat abundani'e, iiiid alniost without 
 culture, maize, two sorts of millet, maiiiiH', water 
 mehiim, and in^arly everv species of le^ruminoiiH 
 plants. Tin; low lands, also, subject to inundation, 
 are covered with rice of an extremely tine kind, 
 and which ^rows to the heif^ht of H ft, ^I'he (iuinca 
 fCrass is abnndaiit, which, with n ^reat variety 
 of other rich (taslure, serves to feed innumerablo 
 herds of cattle, ((iolberry, i. lOl-HI ; Voy. an 
 Pays Mambonc, p. Ul-I.').)' This extn^ine fertility 
 is straiiKel.v contrasted with th(> account f^iven by 
 the Abbe' I'taynal (K. and VV. ind., iii. Ilto), on the 
 ., authority of a iiatnehMs traveller, that the soil was 
 Liibat, Nouvede Kelation du I'Afrlipie ! an irredeemable desert, (iroducitiK nothing; but 
 
 inetals, and wliidly unlit for the residence of man ! 
 The traveller referred to was probably Coinpa^non, 
 who, according to the author of Voy. an I'avs llani- 
 bouc, was never iti the country, but had published /«■« 
 imiH>»tnrv» lenplns iilisunlet et lea /tlH»/iiiniH»ul>le», by 
 eonlbuiidin^ soils, |H'ople, (;ov(Tnments, and muit- 
 ners, the most opposed to each otli'.-r. (pp. 2, (!.) 
 
 The animals of Hambouk are those of tropical 
 Africa ^^enerally, and all in f^reat abundance. The 
 number of cattle has already U'cn alluded to; the 
 other domi^stic animals are horses, sheep, ^oats, 
 and camels. The lion is not found n|Hin the 
 mountains, but is very numerous in the plains, 
 
 liiiiil are scattered amoii); these mountains, and I where also wander immense herds of elephants. 
 
 tiioy ore skirted by plains of some considerable , The rivers teem with life, and, amon}r other inha- 
 bitants, an^ infested with very powerful crocodiles, 
 iiirds of all kinds arc numerous, and insects ix.-; 
 
 SiMil'jfal formiiif; the N K. boundary, and two larffc i prolilic as in other equinoctial rej^ions; bees, in 
 
 aliliiimts of that river, the Fa-leinc and the liar- 1 particular, arc so ]ilentiliil, that the manufacture 
 
 lilirarv and a dispensary. The po|iiilation of the 
 cattle is K'^'*''* '" ''■*' census returns of IHtil at 'M, 
 
 IIAMHOI'K, ft country in the interior of W, 
 Alrii'ii. in about from 1'}^° to 11^° N. lut,, and 
 irmi I '4° to \'i\° VV. 1(111^. In form it is nearly 
 a iiaralli'lo^rani, 1 10 m, in length, and Hit) in 
 wiiltli, and containing apparently about I4,IIIMI sq. 
 III. ill area; but, as the travellers in the country 
 had l're(piently no better means of deterniiniu^ 
 iHisllioiis than by estiuiatinK distances and niark- 
 iiiK ciiiirses, the accuracy of these observations 
 caiiiiiit bennich relied on. The surrounding coiiu- 
 irli'!4 are KaiaiiKa, or (iaiani, and Kassoii on the 
 S\V. and I^.; Itrooko and Kooladisi on the K, ; 
 Wiirada on the S. ; and Dentilla and liondoii on 
 till' \V. (Vcyiif^e an I'ays de Itainboui;, Paris, 
 I7K1M). 1 " 
 
 (»(('i., iv. I ; (iolberry, Voy, en Afriipie, i. ii«(»; 
 I'ark, 1st .Joiirn., |). (Ill, — •2nd .loiirn,, p. 51 ; 
 lloiiKliton, Afric, Assoc., cap. xiii, 11, Ac.) 
 
 liambonk is a mountain eonntry, most \mt- 
 liahly a table-l/ui;l, near the centre of the S<'ne;;al 
 KVHti'in, with a );eiieral inclination towards the 
 ,S. and XVV. In some places it is very rni;(;ed, 
 tliiiiiK'h the peaks do not ai>|M>ar any where to 
 attain a ^'reat elevation : the ni^hest are not more 
 than •mo It., and those- in the S, rarely exceed 
 .'Iiiii ft. above the general level of the laud, which, 
 however, must itself be considerably hi^^her than 
 the sciu (liens and valleys of the most romantic 
 •e scattered a 
 
 plains 
 oxtent, (Park, 2n(l Voy., p)), (50, (i,"i, A-c. ; (tol 
 iK'rry, i. 412, &c.) Water is very abundant, the 
 
 liii);, constituting the \V. and K. frontiers of the 
 I'iMiiitry, Park considers the latter to be the main 
 stream of the Senegal (1st Jonrn., p, 3.')t;) ; and it 
 h certainly much larger than the branuh which 
 meets it at the NK, corner of liamlHiuk, though 
 the direction of the latter be the same as the after 
 eoiirse of the river, liesides these, there are 
 a great abundance of rivulets, more cs|)ecially 
 towards the VV, ; and there is one other stream, 
 the Sanon ( 'olez, or (iolilen Kiver, which is of cim- 
 siilerablc size. It rises near the capitfti, and, after 
 traverHing the whole country with a NVV. course, 
 is received into the Fa-lcme, (Labat, iv. 20, tfcc. ; 
 (iolhenry, i. 3HI, 412, A'c) The climate is ex- 
 tremely hot, and (iolberry remarks (i. 412), that 
 ilie heat of the interior, which is screened from 
 every wind except that of the desert, is quite in- 
 siipimrtable. Towards the ,S,, however, cool days 
 are experienced, and the grass is fresh and ver- 
 ilaiit throughout the year. The rainy season 
 tommcnces about July or August, and lasts four 
 niuiitha: during this period the low country is 
 tlooiled, the whole rendered frightfully unhealthy 
 l«r Europeans, and probab' not very salubrimis 
 to the natives, since their l.iiiours seem to be cim- 
 lineil to the eight dry months. (Voy, au Pays 
 Hambouc, p, 37, &c, ; Labat, iv. 4, Ac, '; (iolberry, 
 i'lU;Park, 2nd Jouni,, p. 62, &c.) Hut the 
 t'll'ect of the heat, combined with this abundant 
 niuisturc, is to render Bambouk one of the most 
 
 of mead is, next to mining and dairy work, the 
 most common occupation of the ]ieople. This 
 fact alone is a sullicient proof that Hambouk must 
 abound in trees and plants of the richest kind, 
 ((iolberry, pp, 405, 40«; Labat, iv, pp. 92-Ul>; 
 lloughton's Af, Assoc., xiii. pp. 10, 14.) 
 
 Hut that which has rendered Hambouk a sub- 
 ject of interest for many generations is its reputed 
 riches in gold and other metals. From the lirst 
 settlement of Kuropeans on the const of Sene- 
 gambia, now five centuries ago, they heard of an 
 interior country, the centre of all the auriferous 
 moimtains in that part of Africa; and, unlike 
 most tales of wonder, the facts seem to have veri- 
 fied all that was related. 8o abundant indeed is 
 the ore, and so numerous are the mines, that 
 curiosity, even when prompted by interest, seems 
 to have palled, and become insulKcicnt to indui;c 
 a traveller to ilelay his journey for the purpose of 
 inspecting a greater ninnlMir. (David's Jouni, in 
 (ioldljerry, i, p, 476,) There are four priticipal 
 mining, or rather gold-producing districts; but 
 the Avholc soil abounds with gold, which can be 
 collected with very little labour and hardly any 
 skill; it lies so near the surface, that merely 
 scraping up and washing the earth serves, in many 
 cases, to separate the metal in a pure state ; and 
 the more elaborate attempts at artilicial operation 
 consist in sinking a few pits, and breaking up the 
 ore, which usually parts from its matrix in such a 
 
 
 TVi 
 
/no 
 
 IIAMIIOIK 
 
 't V 
 
 ItSjIr 
 
 
 hiiih' ilml wnxliiiii; iiiilv U iH'c-ri'iiry to rriuliT ii ' 
 
 til lor tlif iiiMi'ki'l, li II iNinrri'ly Ih' ri'iiuirkrcl, 
 
 lliiil, ill Niii'h II niiiiiirv, ilii' rivrrn liirriill\' run 
 i>\rr Knlili'ii Hiiinl'* ; ami kIhhiIiI Kkillnl liilnmr lie 
 •'\ rr liroii^lil III lii'iir ii|i4iii lln' liiml, llii'ic ritii lif 
 liiilc iliiiilil liiil iliiii iiK iri'ii'Mirr'4 uri' itit'\liiiii'< 
 lililr. Al |irt'«i'iii, liiiMi'MT, III)' iirl III' Miiiiiiit;, 
 |il'M|ii'rl\ Hii riilli'il, In ijiiili' lilikllnwil hi lllc Mil 
 liM'.H, llr-<liii'H ^i;i>lil, t'\li'iiKi\i' \ritiH iil' iriiii rxUl 
 ill lliiniliiiiik ; mill il Im I'xlmiii'ly |iriiliiilil<' lliiil 
 iiiimI III' llif (illicr inrtiilx wmilil lii' rmiiiil it hiiii;;IiI 
 lor. (tiollii'rry, i. |i. i;il-lHn ; Vnv. an I'liyx Main., 
 |i. 'Jl-.'lii; Lnliiii, iv, |i. J'll-M; I'urk'M 'Jiiil Juiirii,, 
 
 |l. .'l."!-.'!'.!.) 
 
 'I'lii' |Mi|iiilntiiiii (if llninliiiiik ii« iIi'Imc, 'I'Iii' 
 |ii'ii|ili' rnriii a |iiirt nl' llir Kri'iil MaiiiliiiK" liiinily, 
 ji'iiiii t\liirli lliry ilii mil ilitVcr in any rrN|ii'i'i mIiIi 
 rt'K'iril III a|i|ii'araiiri'. rrlif^'inii, nr j^rmral iiiaiincrK, 
 (Sec MaMHNiiii.) 'I'Iii' KiiVrrnilirlil, lliiiii),'ll llll- 
 tier a kiliK> an lii'iiil, a|i|irMrM in lie iili);arrliii'al ; 
 llii' rarliiiN, (ir cliii I'n, I'MTrinlii^^ aliiUHl nnliiiiih'il 
 anlliiiriiN , t'luli in liin own ilinirirl, Iml afkimw 
 li'il^iii^ a p'lirral ilr|icii(U'iirf (|i('rlia|m Iil lie iiiiirc) 
 ii|iiiii tilt' Miivrri'i^n. 
 
 'I'lit' Itaiiiliiiiikiann arc iMfiTinr in activity anil 
 imiunlry In tlic otlicr iMaiiiliii;;ii('r<, iiml iliry liavr 
 ainii ('iirrii|iti'il ilirir lan^n^i^:!' Iiy a larp' nii\luri' 
 III' •laloiil', l''iiiilali, ami Mnnrinli tiTiiin. 'I'lirir iiriH 
 art' cxlrriiii'ly lew, Iml tlicir wiiiili* nlill li'wcr; 
 lor tliiiii^'li llicy inaiiiirachiri' imlliin^ Init mmir 
 I'liilc tiiiiln anil iirnaiiK'iitM, their mily iiniiurin Mcrni 
 III lie I'litliin t'lnlli, tiriiaiiiciitn I'nr llit'ir woiiicn, 
 anil nail, of wliirli iii'ti's.nary arlicli', natiiliniik, 
 liki' HO tiiiiiiv iitlirr Arrii'iin I'lniiiirirH, in intally 
 ilrntitiiic. I'nr tlit'xt' tlii'y I'ri'i'ly L'iM' tlii'ir ^iilil 
 in i'\rliaiiKi'> iukI iIi>' I'ninim'ri'i! is one of ^^rvnl 
 lirnlil III ilii'ir Aral) iici^'liliunrn. ((tullicrrv, i. |i|i. 
 :1H|, :in;1-IIH; Voy.an I'ayM Ham., pp. lii-tiH ; l,a- 
 lial. iv. pp. -J-l', Al.) 
 
 Ilnricil ill tlii' iiitcrinr of a lairiiin^ cnnlinont, 
 ami niirronmU'd liy imniiitains nl' tlilliciilt piiHHaps 
 llanilionk rciiiaiiictl Imi^ liitallv iinkmiwii t<i tlif 
 ri'Mt III' tlif world. Ill till' lil'lci'iilii cciitiiry tlic I'ur- 
 tmjiwsv inaili- llu'iiinolvt's inaNiiTs of tlic country, 
 ami rctaini'd it lor moiiic <'oiiniilcralilc tinu'. All 
 I'ortii^nii'nr aiilliors arc nilcnl mi llic Hiilijcct, Imt 
 llic nativcM allirin tliat llic\ acted very lyraiiiii- 
 cally, lint tliat liccniiiiii;;' rc>>iiced in iiiinilicrn liv 
 llie iinlicaltliy nature of the climate and their 
 <i\vii delmiicherien. the reninaiit were net upon and 
 destroyed in a single day. 'i'his niory is coii- 
 liniied', not only Irmn the fact of many riiiiions 
 forts and Iioiiscm of rortii^Miese coiistrnctioii >iill 
 cxistuif;, lint I'mdi the km»wled;:;c which the llaiii- 
 lionkians have that hiicIi a people as the I'ortu- 
 ^'uese live at a ^rent distance ; from the decp- 
 hcttled liate with which tliev rcpird their iinine ; 
 from the terror which they fe«'l lest their former 
 conquerors should return to lake vengeance on 
 them; ai'-l from the lar^e mixture of Portuguese 
 wiirds ill iheir lauf^ua^e. The expulsion of the 
 Maraliouts or Mohiiinmednii priests from their 
 country is another singular event in liainboukiaii 
 history. 
 
 Willi the exceittion of tlie Portinjuosp, who 
 have left no reconls of their oliservations, the lirst 
 ■''.nropeaii who reached llamliouk was an Kii^lish 
 otlicer named (Jasclie, who, ascending; the (iam- 
 liia. contrived to reach the Damlioukian capital in 
 Itiilll. His stay was short, and his oliserv.-itions 
 merely j;eneral and incidental. Compaj^non's re- 
 ported visit was ill ITlli. Soon after this. AI. 
 Itriie. a director of the French African Company, 
 formed the project <if sulidiiin^' Itamhoiik, and se- 
 curiiif; its mines of pild. To olit.iin the necessary 
 information us to the practicaliility of his project, 
 he attempted to enter the country from Kaju'nga, 
 
 IJANAdlir.R 
 
 "II the \.; Iiiit il does mil appear thai he rim,|„ 
 any great proKrens in tlu' interior. Mix iinpr,. 
 "ion. liii\«i'M'r, \\t\». llwit with a force of I, '.'on 1,1,1, 
 III-- plan could lie 1 nrrieil into exicniion, ii„,| ||„, 
 inimn nei'iiii'd to r'.iiriipcan iiidiiNirv. Il in iiiilcKJ 
 more than pmlialile ihiil a Ion I'nrce iiu^lii .,„ 
 Cecil in elVei'lIn^ li fimt coiiipieni ; Iml the I'uti. , |' 
 the I'ortuKiicne, and the cxircine uuhi'Mllliine.n it 
 the I'liiniile, miike it also certain ihiil tliiirpim.i. 
 hion coidd lie retained only liy a l'rit;htliil niiiriii.r 
 of life, and the nioni inininiltiiig watclitiiii,,,, 
 llelweeii I Till* and 1711 lunch tvan done tniDi, ' 
 It lietter knouleilne of thin country hy MiK'.r',, 
 I.eveiin, l>aviil. I'ilay, and I. errand : IhetwniirM 
 )<ii\crmirn, the olhem iinployen of the I'tiiu li 
 Afrii'Mii conipiiny al Sciie^'nl, liollierry npinU, 
 iilmi, in high lerniH of an I'.iiKlinh jonriiiil liiili' 
 linlicd in 1 7N..' ; Iml thin Work caiinoi nii\i lii> 
 found, Muiigo I'ark, in his llrst Journey oiiiuiirij, 
 readied the \\ . and N. I'roiiiii'rM of llamliouk 
 I lloniloii and KaJaaKa); and on hin return, iih al«i 
 in his mifiirluiiale Hccoml Joiiriiev, he iraverM'il a 
 coiisideralile pari of its ,S. divinioii: Iml the ira 
 velli'r from whom the iiionI perfect iiil'iirMiiiiinii 
 iniKlit have licen oliiaiiied was Major llnii^diiMi,, 
 who not oulv traversed the interior iif theruiinirt, 
 Imt lehided in it a consideralile lime niiilir iiriiii 
 of ihe clonesl friendship with the king. The miiiiII 
 remnants of hin papers are the immt vahialili' ijii. 
 cnineiitn which exist renpecting namhonk. 
 
 IIAMI'dOlkA, an iiil. town of llindosiaii, |irn\-, 
 Malwah. on the llewa river, l,:)ll ft, aliovr iln' 
 level of the sea; hit. 'Jl'^ III' N., long. 7,'i°,Vi'|:. 
 Ill IK'.'O, il contained I.IIIM) houses: it ponse^cH im 
 nntinished fort, with wcll-lmilt walls, inclimlii;; a 
 palace also nntinished, Imt containing a wliiir 
 marlile statue of .leswiint liow llolkar, hy wIum' 
 order the luiilding was construeted, Tlie iimii 
 and its territory formerly lieloiiged to Ilolkur'H ilu- 
 miuions, 
 
 MAMITON with n'liilil, n parish ami town if 
 Kngland, co. Oxford, hiiiid. Ilampion, IM ni. WNW , 
 Loudon. Area, H.T.^O acres. I'op. of par,, in iMtll, 
 •.',Hli;i ; of which Ihe town Hli."i. The latter in liiiilt 
 ill a level tract of eoiinlry near the Inis, lis 
 church is an ancient and very tine structure; ihc 
 living annexed to which is apportioned aiiiiiii;{.'-i 
 three vicars. There is an endowed free hcIhh'!, 
 founded in III,').''), and a national school fur Kn 
 children. The chief trade of the town in I'l'li- 
 inoiigering, which was once eousiderahle, hiii if 
 late yi'ars has greatly declined; its ancient iiiiirkii 
 has also fallen into disuse, Imt an annual linrM' I'liir 
 is still held, Aug. *2ii. I'liillips, author nf iIh 
 .Splendid .Shilling, was a native of Itamptnii, 
 
 llAMi'TdN, a town and par. of Knglaiiil. r". 
 Devon, liund. of same name, on the coMliiic^ "f 
 Somersetshire. Area f.lJlO acres; poj). of par. i;i 
 IMHI, l,!mi, and in l^lil, 1,',)7I. The timii i< 
 situated on tlie small river Mai hern, an allliieiitnf 
 the Kxe, 17 m. \V. Taunton. It is Imilt in ;i 
 straggling maimer; and wils fonnerly ofnuwini- 
 iiortaiice than at present, having sent meinn. tuilir 
 II. of (.'. It has a weekly market on .Sitiinhy, 
 and fairs for cattle and sheep, which are well ,11- 
 li'iided, on U'hit-Tuesday and the last Thiirwlay 
 of Octolier. 
 
 HAN or HANOVICS. a town of llimgnr*-, Ifini. 
 SK. Treiiczeii, on a hill near an alllueiit efilu' 
 Nentra; hit. -IN° 1:1' 20" N., hmg. i*<^ .V ,"m " i:. 
 l'o|). •J.llM.") in \XM. It has a considerable tnultin 
 cattle, wood, and iron. 
 
 IJANAIillKI!, an inl. town of rrelaiul. KiiK; 
 CO., ]irov. Leinsler, on the Shannon, lift m, \\'>^>. 
 PuMiii. The river is here crossed hy a ljriil}:i''i 
 111 arches. Hill ft. long ami I,") wide, gimrilt'iM'y 
 Imttcrics on each side, this being coiisitlt'iii! .1 
 
nir I lull III' niH'lo 
 riiir, lli"« iiniin • 
 I'liri'i' III l.'iiHi nil II 
 I'xri'iiiiiiti. mill iIk' 
 iNlry. 1 1 i'< iiiili'i'l 
 
 I I'liri'i' iiii^lil Kill' 
 
 il ; lull till' I'llli' 1 1' 
 
 H' iiiilii'iililiiiii'»i< il' 
 
 II tliiil (III Ir piwos 
 
 II Iriulilliil Hiiirlini' 
 
 linn Wlllrllllllllr", 
 WIIH dlPIH' III irtri . 
 
 'imiili'y liy Miiir-. 
 ;riiiiil : till' l^^ii ll'^i 
 •OH III' IIk' Kriniii 
 tliillMTry "iii'iil\«, 
 d^I'ihIi jiiiiriiiil I'lili 
 irk cikiiiiiil iiiitv III' 
 rnl jiiiinii'y nuhMinl, 
 
 lllli'rM III' llllinliiillk 
 
 III liis ri'liirii, II* iiliii 
 riu'V, lit" iriiMFMil II 
 ivlshiii : lull llii' ir:! 
 
 |icrl°ri'l iiiriiniiiiiinii 
 iiH Miijiir IIiiiikIiIiiii. 
 Icriiir III' tlii'i'iiiiiiin, 
 ill' liiiif uiiiltr Irriiit 
 llic kiiin. 'I'lii' -mull 
 lie iiiiiHl vnliiiilili' ilii- 
 
 iin MiiiiiiMiiik. 
 
 I of lliiiiliwliiii, prnv. 
 
 ■, i,:in I'l. iiitiivf iiii' 
 
 N., lotiK'. 7iiO M 1.. 
 
 lOIIKI'M : il |MI>l!<l'l««l'H IIII 
 
 lill wiillf*. imlimiiiu' II 
 (•iiiitiiiiiiiin II wliiii' 
 (iw lltilUiir. Iiy «liiiw 
 iHlriit'lt'il. 'I'lif iiiwii 
 luum'il to Ilulkar'n ilii- 
 
 a jiivriuli mill lown iT 
 luiii|iiiiii.<il"''^VN\V. 
 
 I'lip. of iiiir., ill I'llli. 
 10. 'riit' liittiT iiliiiili 
 [V lu'ar till' 111". Il* 
 TV line Miriirtim': iln' 
 
 ii)iliiirlitiiu'il aiimn^^i 
 
 t'liilowi'd IVi'c mliiHjl, 
 iitioniil wlmiil fiif li" 
 
 of llif town U Mi- 
 le ooiisiihTiiliU'. lull il 
 |ii'il ; ilH luuii'iil iiiiifl^ii 
 
 lul lUi aiinuul Imrsi' Imr 
 (liillil)H. iiiilliiT 111' ilii 
 
 ilivi'. of llaiiiptiin. 
 liar, of Kiinlmiil- ''"•. 
 
 liu', on till' I'onliiiiv. il 
 
 acrt's; P'lp- •'' I''""''." 
 . 1,1171. 'I'll*' 1""" '*. 
 inulluTn, mi iillliii'"'"'' 
 ton. It il* liiiil' '" " 
 Is fonniTly of iimri' im- 
 Ivinn wont ini'iiu'.li'''"' 
 iiuirkot oil SiitunUy, 
 .'(•n, whifli arc will ai- 
 \mA the lust ThiiMlay 
 
 lown of Him^nfy' ""","• 
 Icar an allliioin ul ili;' 
 
 p., loiif,'. i^'^ '>' •'•' !■■• 
 
 a cousiilf nilile tnuU' "' 
 
 l.wn of Irelaml, Ki";; 
 limnion. i'i>*ni. \\>"'. 
 .Toshoilliy iiliriilr'' 
 
 ki i:. Willi', KiiM'!""'' 
 
 lia buiiit; t'lHiMik'ivil ■' 
 
 lUNAI.IMI'/Mt 
 iiiililnry |iA'*i* of HiiMif iiii|i<irlitiii')', l'ii|t. of lowii, 
 
 ii.ii;lii Mill, mill of |iiiri'<ii, :i,iii;i. or ili<> :(.*•• 
 
 liiiiiilii'K ill '111' iiivMi.il'l Mi'h' ri'liirni'il UN i'iii|iliiyi I 
 in inrrii'iill !■*'''• llMiii irailrx iiml itiiiiiiifititiiri'i, iiml 
 i;,( ill iiilirr |iiirKiiilN, TIuti' wirr rrliinnil ii» 
 l^|,,ii|{iii({lii till' I'lxliilili'^lii'il Cliiiri'li, I'.i:) iMr^iitiN; 
 ilic ri'Ki vvcri' Itiiiiiiiii I 'iiilioliiri. 'I'lii' iiivvii HiitmU 
 1,11 iliii Hiili' of n liill ovrrliiokintf llii' Sluiiiiinti, ami 
 i'iiii»i'<lN of mil' liiiitf Hirri'l of well liiiilt limiiri. 
 rill' I'liiiri'li iiiiil Koiii. Calti. t'lia|H'l art' iiinili'm. 
 \riir ilii' lii«*ii Ih a m'liool nf royal loiiiiilalioii, rii 
 ijiiHi'il Willi '170 arri'N of laiiil; in lliii Imvii it a 
 nil iiiiial Ki'liiiol ami a ilin|i<'iinury. An iiifaiilry 
 I irriii'k Hiaiiili iii'iir iliii liriil^fc, uiiil llii> couiilalin- 
 hrv Ink'" a slalimi lirro. 
 
 till' Imr. was iiiror|iorai('il liy Cliarli'i* I, in Ki.'H, 
 ami M'lii '.' nii'Ui. I*i lli>' Iriiili 11. of ('. liil (lie 
 (lliiiM, wlii'll il wan ilinlVillirliiNril. A i niM'l of 
 iMiiv »!'*■ ■ ■>" i** lii'l'l *"i allcniali' iMnmlayn. Il 
 li'ii II ilinlillrry, liri'Wi'ry, ami Hiuiit' laii yarilH. Ii 
 in wi'll Hiiiiaii'il, liaviiiK a Kri'iil riitiiiiiitml of iiiliiml 
 ninlKiiliiiii. 'MarkrlM, uril Hii|i|ilii'il wiili cnni.ari' 
 lii'lil on KriiliiVN, ami I'airH on .May I, Si'|il. I''i, 
 KJiirli ruiiiiiiiii' for lour ilayx ; '^'Htli Oil., ami Mih 
 N'liv. 'I'lial of Si'jil. is for livi' nlork, in wliirli il 
 riiiiks lU'.vl III llairiiia.sloi>. 
 
 IIANALIiri'AU, a lown of S|iaiii, Majori'ii, III 
 in. N\V. Talma. I'op. alimit '.'.iioil. II. m Hiliiatnl 
 I'll a iiioiiiilaiii I'liliivali'il wiili llii' ki'i''|I<''''I I'aii'; 
 ilii';;riiiiiiil lH'iiiKKii|i|ioriril on icrriiri's, ami |ilaiili'il 
 wiili viiu's, olivi'N, An', 'I'lii'i'i' is in ilH ('iiviroiiM a 
 i|iiiirrv of siaiiii'il niarlilo. 
 
 jIANItlMI'liK, an iiil. town of Irclaml, I'o. 
 jhiuii, jirov. risli'r, on tlm Kanii, 211 in, SW. Itrl- 
 lii>l. I'll)!, ill ll^.'l, 1,71.'); in iHill, 'J, Hill ; in Imi'iI, 
 l.n.'t.i, of wlioni l,!l|il mail's ami 'J.l'i.'t foinali's. 
 Tlii'ri'M^iis ri'l urns ilt'Ni'rilio till fainilii's nn ciiKaKi'il 
 ill tiKrii'iiliiiral |iiirsuits, 1,'M in iraili's ami niaiiii- 
 firiiiri's, ami I'loo nllicrwiM' i'ni|iliiyi'il or not cin- 
 |iliivi'il. To tliti l')Ntalilii*lii'il ( 'liiirrli U'loni^i'il .^itl 
 iiiiili'H niiil li.ll ft'inali'.i ; lo iIk; Itoinan ('atliolir 
 I'liilli, INO niuli'xmiil ri:iM fi'iiiali's; anil lo tlm I'ros- 
 liyli'rian I 'liuri'li, IHii niairs ami MoK fi'malt's. 'I'lui 
 liiwii is liiiilt oil the Miinniil ami siiliis of a liill of 
 Miinii lu'i^'lii, ami no sli'i'p as inati'ri.illy to iin|ii'ili' 
 till! prii^jri'SM of licavy-loaili'il carriages. To rc- 
 mnly this ini'onvcnii'iii')', tlm ronlro of llui road 
 wuHi'iit down for a IciikIIi of 'JilO yds., lo lim di'|illi 
 III' h'l fl, in the niiddio part of llm sorlioii, so an lo 
 fiiriii a i'arria>;c-way noarly level, while the f;reat 
 liri'uillli of Ihe street slill ailniilled carriage-ways 
 III! cai'li side on Ihe oriKinul level, u eoininnnii'a- 
 liiiii lieiii^ inaintained lietweeii Ihe houses on the 
 ii|i|iiiiiiti' sides of Ihe streeln hy a lirid^e or viaduct 
 mrii.Hs the centre of tlieciit. 'I'liisin a neat lliriviii^; 
 liiwii. A handsonio church ha.s lieeii eret'led, 
 imrily hv volnnlary suhscri|itio!i ; there are al»o 
 |ilaci's ot worship for I'reHhyterians, Keinonsiraiits, 
 mill two for MelhodislH; a pnlilic schoo!, and a 
 iHilK'ii.snry. Petty sesMions are held every fort- 
 n:);ht, and a jiarty of the conNlahuhiry is slaliiiiieil 
 liiTe. This town and nei^tiliourhood is one of tlie 
 liriiioiiml seat.s of tlie linen niaiinfacture. Tlie 
 uri'uf I'lininiand of water in tlic viciinif^e adajits it 
 |ii'inliarly for hlearliiii};, and there are larj;e iiia- 
 iiiiriii'tiirie.s of union uloth and thread, and che- 
 niical works for the use of the bleachers. The 
 niiirkctH are held on MondayH, in u spacious new 
 liiiiiiliiijjf : there is also a separate market iilace for 
 inoal and );rain, and u hrown linen hall. Fairs 
 ari' held im Ihe lirst iMoiiday in every month, and 
 I'll 12 Jan., lirst Sat. in March,!! Jniie, 2i! Aiif,'., 
 anil hi Nov. ; the last is a fp-cat horse-fair, 
 liraiK'hes of tlie Trovincial and Ulster hanks were 
 iijiciicrt liere in 18a;i and IWiti. The trade of the 
 liiwii is promoted hy lines of railway which con- 
 iiuct il with llelliist,* Dublin, and all ihe iuiiiortant 
 
 MANIII UV 3ir 
 
 towim iif Inlmid. Tlie llaiiliriil»re Jiini'iioii raiU 
 way, tlf HI. loiitf, Mhiih falls iiiin Ihe Ihihlin. 
 Ilcllaxl lliii', Hiis opi'iii'd III April, M.i'.i, Its ma- 
 niiCiirtiiri'N liaxi' imnaicd ulili a rapidily i-rlduiii 
 cxpi'tli'iiri'il, lie I'sliriiiil appi'iiriiiice of llie 
 pliiie, and ihe liiiliiis ami iminm'rH of iis inliiili,, 
 
 '■orresp I \^M\\ iliis iifiiuriis. Ihe wealiliiir 
 
 I'lasNi's hve in renpei'iiilile imli'|M'ndi'nri' ; and 
 Mipialid poverlv is mil piriiptilde cmii aiiioii^ llm 
 liiwi'sl. The liinhly iiilliwilid stale of Ihe Mir- 
 roiimliiiK I'oiiiiiry, and the nilni Uaiilies of iu 
 sieiiery. lend niinh m hei^lilen Ihe pleasing; iin- 
 pressiiPiis exciled hy Ihe lonliinphilion of siirli ii 
 picinri' of proHperniis indiisiry. 
 
 MANIII ItV, a III r., par., liml town of MnKlaml, 
 CO. Oxfiird, hiiml. Iliinliiiry.illl in. N\V. I.Mndiin l>y 
 road; 7H in. Iiy l.omlun and North 'Wesiern, iiinl 
 K>'< III. by (inai Weiierii railway. J'im. in IHiil, 
 of boriiiinh, l.o.'iii, nf parish, 11, l'|i». The lown U 
 hitiialed ill a fiTlile vale, on the hanks nf ilie 
 t'lierwi'll ; is ri'inarkalily I'h'an and well bnlli ; 
 iiml is paved and liKhleil by ^as. The chnrili, a 
 spacious sirm'liire, uashiiili in I71MI. The Frieinls, 
 Indepeiidi'iils, I'ri'sbyieriaiiH, \Vi"»li'yans, llapti-ii, 
 I nil/i.'imiH l/iiakers, and Koniaii lalholics have 
 clia|iels. Thi're is a blue coal ncIiooI, fniiniled in 
 I7ili>, and indnwed with NO/, a vear; which was 
 iiiciirponiled with a nalioiial seliool in |N|7, A 
 fi'ci'Kl'iiminiir m lioni, nmc in liiub reinile, Iiiin Ih-cii 
 jiiveii up fnr many years. The niarkel is held mi 
 rhnrsilay, ihe aiiiuiiil fairs nn .Ian. ■.'2, March ."i, 
 April II, May ■.'«. ■Iiiiie |K, .Inly li, Aiiuiisl l;i, Sep- 
 tcniber 10, Oclolier h and ;I0, and heceinber 17, 
 The place is in a tloiirishiii^ stale, from its niiiin'- 
 roiis lairs and larn'c weekly markels. all very well 
 allemted, a.id causing an exleiisive relail Irade, 
 ^really increiiNed by two lines of railway which 
 place II in conncclliiii with Lomlnn, Tlu'OxInnl 
 and lliriiiili);'liani Canal passes clnse In ihe town, 
 and K'vcs it also a considerable carryiii;; Inidc. 
 Cheese of a siiiH'rior .|iialily is made in' Ihe nei;;h • 
 bonrbood; ami Ihe lown has lon|{ been not ci I for 
 a sort of cake that bears its name. 
 
 Siibs<'i|iient to the Municipal Itefonn Act llin 
 limits of ihe bor. have been exlended, for the pur- 
 poses of liM'al Ko^'i'rnmcnt, so as to include ilio 
 whole town of Itanbiiry, and llii' suburbs of Nciib- 
 ro|i, (!althor|ie, and SVaierloo, which are coiili- 
 iniatioiis of It; the former at Ihe .N\V. end; ibe 
 latteron the opposite bank of Ibe river, which Hows 
 N. and ^. alon;; Ihe K. side of Ihe town, wilh the 
 canal ruiiiiliif^ nearly parallel to it. It was origi- 
 nally iiicorporali'il under a charier in 1st of Mary, 
 granted expressly fur Ihe whole parish; but, ihe 
 bor. came subsei|ueiitly to be ii-<lricled to a part 
 only of the town. Another cluuler was obtaiiicil 
 ill lilh .lames I. ; and a third, in lib (ieo. I., which 
 was the ppverniiiK charter: under it, the corpora- 
 lion consisted of n innvor, twelve aldermen, six 
 capital biirp'sses, and liiirty assistants. It was a 
 close, self-elective body, with no freemen, and 
 lllled uyt vacancies for life, cither from residents or 
 non-residents. They possessed the exclusive pri- 
 vilej^e of returnintjC one mem. to the II. of (!. ; but 
 of this they were, deprived by the lieform ,\ct, 
 which opened the franchise to 10/, householderH 
 resident wilhiii the limits of the par., wliicli con- 
 taiiiH !<,lo0 acres. The ixipiilatioii of the i)arlia- 
 mentary horoiif^h was 10,2i(i in IKIil; re>;isleri'il 
 electors .581, Acourtof sessions is hehl twice a year. 
 There is also a court of record, wliich had fallen 
 into disuse, but has recently been revived and niado 
 ell'ective. The lighting, paving, and police are 
 managed by commissioner.s, of whom the corpora- 
 tion form a portion. Amount assessed to property 
 tax Ul,;iUH in iMIil. Banbury is the central town 
 of a union of tliirty-cight parishes, and has u 
 
 M 
 
 '!2*-^ 
 
lil 
 
 f utli 
 
 il 
 
 lEil 
 
 -348 
 
 BANCA 
 
 !'! f 
 
 Iii''t 
 
 t* r *\**i* 
 
 :ii 
 
 iiiiinu workliouHC. There m a (^lialybcntn spriiiK 
 nenrtlic town; nnd oiii.'roiicli Hill, 1 m. W. of it, 
 is a circular piitrcnclinu-iit, the Hite of an ciicamp- 
 in>:iit of the ])arliaincnt.ary army in IG'15, undur 
 (Sir William Waller, 
 
 HANHLV, an island of the K. or Tndinn Archi- 
 liclap), (irst or W. division, lyinj; tdf the NIC. 
 «'(iast of Sumatrn, between Int. 1°J{0' and '.i° H' S., 
 liinfr l(l.")0;r, l()(;ool' K.-, IcnfrthXW. to SK. i;i5 
 ni., averane breadth 35 m, I'oj), ir),tiO;j in 18tH. 
 Its most remarkable feature is its mines of tin, a 
 mineral found in its c<mnnon state of oxi(L>, in 
 the alluvial soil between the primary granitic 
 mountains and a range of red inmstone, of infe- 
 rior elevation, in its NW. quarter, hut which is 
 also prevalent in other parts. About 4,(100 tons 
 • «if tin are annually exported, mainly to China and 
 Java. The inhabit'jnts are principally of two 
 races, one residing on the shores, the other in the 
 interior, with Malays and Chinese: the latter are 
 the workers of the mines. I'renously to J812 
 this ishnul belonged to the sultan of I'alembang, 
 in Sumatra; it was then ceded to the K. I. Com- 
 pany; and in 181G was transferred to the Dutch. 
 HAXCALF.AN, a town H the W. end of the 
 island of Madura, 10. archipelago; lat. 7° 2' S., 
 long. 112° 15' K. It is large and populous, con- 
 tains the residence of the sultan of the island, 
 and a fort close to the palace. Its environs are 
 ])Ieasanl, having good roads, interspersed with 
 country seats and pleasure grounds. 
 
 IJANDA, an inland town of Ilindostan, prov. 
 Allahabad, cap. of the distr. of S. Uundlccund, on 
 the right bank of the Cane river, 80 m. W. Alla- 
 luibad; lat. 25° oO' N., long. 80° 20' E. A few 
 years ago it was a njere village, but lias now be- 
 come a considerable town ; its cotton has of late 
 Years obtained a superiority over that of Joloun 
 in the European market. 
 
 Banua or Nutmeg Isi.^vnds, a group of 12 
 Hmall islands, Iielonging to the third or E. division 
 <(f the E. Archipelago (see the art.), belonging to 
 the Dutch ; the principal, Banda Neira, lying in 
 40 30' S. lat., and 130° E. h)ng., 120 m. ESE. Am- 
 hoyna. LantoiT; the largest of the islands, is onlj' 
 S m. long, and 5 broad. Pop. of the whole group 
 estimated at 110,000, rriost of whom are slaves. 
 The isles are all high, and of volcanic origin ; one 
 of them, Goonung Api, contains a volcano, 2,000 
 ft. above the sea, wliich is continually emitting 
 Hmoke, and sometimes dame. Climate injtirious to 
 Htrangers : the W. monsoon brings rain and storms 
 in December, and earthquakes occur from October 
 to April. The soil is chietly a rich black mould. 
 Four of the larger and central islands are almost 
 entirely app'opriated to the growth of nutmegs, 
 their growth in the other islands being prohibited. 
 The nutmeg-tree grows to the size of the pear- 
 tree; it yields fruit from the 12th U> the 20th year, 
 and perishes at 24 years old. About two-thirds of 
 the trees planted are -barren ; the produce of the 
 rest is said to be about 10 lbs. each annually. The 
 l)roduce may be about 100,000 lbs. of nutmegs, and 
 30,000 lbs. mace. These islands are divided into a 
 number of parks or plantations, each with a certain 
 number of slaves. The people consist mostly of 
 Papuan negroes, Chinese, and Dutch. Sago forms 
 the chief vegetable food, but the cocoa also con- 
 tributes a part : the seas abound with tish. The 
 imports are various provisions for the Europeans, 
 piece-goods, cutlery, and iron, from fiatavia ; sago, 
 salted deer, &c., from Ceram ; pearls, bird's nests, 
 tortoiseshell, and slaves, for the Chinese and Dutch 
 merchants from Arooe. The chief export is nut- 
 megs. The seat of government is at Banda Neira, 
 which is fortified, and has a good harbour. A 
 Portuguese, named Autonio Abrcus, discovered 
 
 BANDON' 
 
 these Wands in 1512. In 1524 the Portugucnc in 
 15i»'J the Dutch, and in 1810 the English, suc- 
 cessively possessed themselves of them. In \H\i 
 they returned under the dominion of the Diiidi. 
 
 BA.dDON, a river of Ireland, anciently enlhd 
 (llasheen, has its source in the Carberry" nitmn- 
 tnins, or 10 m. W. Bantry. From Duumanwiiv, 
 Avhere its main branches uiiite, it Hows nearly \\', 
 to Bandon; it then winds NE. to Inuis-Shaminii, 
 whence it pursues a .SIC. course to the sea, witii 
 which it unites a little below Kinsale, built on its 
 estuary. Its course is wludly in the co. Cork. It 
 is described by .Spencer, as 
 
 ' The pleasant Bandon crown'd by many a wood.' 
 
 But most part of the timber that ornamented tlie 
 country in the days of IClizabcHi has been cut 
 down, and its |)lacc is but very indift"erently »iii>- 
 plied by modern plantations, 
 
 Bandon, or Banuonukidoe, an inl. town of 
 Ireland, ro. Cork, prov. Munster, <m th" 'London, 
 14 m. .SVy. Cork. It was foinidecl in the . egiiHiin;; 
 of the reign of James I., and having (jbtaiiiwl h 
 charter from that monarch, conferring several 
 valuable privileges, it increased so rapidly ji- 
 jiopulation and wealth, that, on the breaking om 
 of the war of 1041, it maintained four companies 
 of foot and a corps of volunteers; and was the 
 principal garrison of the English in these parts. 
 On Cromwell's approach, in 1040, it declared lor 
 the j)arl., and in the war of 1688 the inliah. ex- 
 pelled the troops of James II., and declared for the 
 Prince <)f Orange. Pop. 6,243 in 18G1, the great 
 majority of them Koman Catholics. The town Ls 
 situate(l on the declivities of the hills on each 
 side the river, which blend into a richly woddcd 
 valley, and consists of three partfl, ilLstingnished 
 by the estates on which they are built ; the old 
 town being on that of the Duke of Devonshire, the 
 Irish town on that of the Earl of Shannon, and the 
 western jiortion on those of the Earls of Ikndon 
 and Cork. It is watched, and lighted with gas, 
 under the General Municipal Police Act. I' has 
 two parish churches, two Kom. Cath. chapels, a 
 convent, a meeting-house for Presbyterians, and 
 two for Methodists ; a classical school, endowed by 
 the Duke of Devonshire ; a school for general in- 
 struction, on the foundation of Erasmus Smith, 
 and several others maintained by private contri- 
 butions or by religious associations. It has also an 
 intirmary, fever hospital, and dispensary j three 
 public libraries, and twt) reading-rooms, .isscra- 
 blies and concerts are held in a suite of apartments 
 attached to one of the hotels. Large barracks are 
 built on the hill over the town, and the constabu- 
 lary have here a station. 
 
 By charter, dated in 1614, the municipal govern- 
 ment is vested in a provost, 12 burgesses, and 
 an unlimited number of freemen, elected at the 
 hundred conrt by the general body of frccnien. 
 who also elect a common council of 12 out of their 
 own body for life. The nicome of the borough, in 
 1863, was 1,193/., and the property and income- 
 tax, for the year ended 5th April, 1863, amounted 
 to 866/, The bor. sent two mem. to the Irish H. 
 of C, and now sends one to the imperial H. of C. 
 The franchise is vested in const. 10/. householders, 
 and 8/. rated occupiers ; registered electors 216 in 
 18(!4. General sessions of the peace for the W. 
 riding of the co. are held here in October in tlic 
 court-house, a neat building, with a well-arranpal 
 bridewell. Petty sessions take place on Monday?, 
 at which, through the courtesy of the corporation, 
 the CO. magistrates sit with the provost. Courts, 
 holding pleas under 2/., are held every three weeks 
 for the manors of the Duke of Devonsliire, the 
 Earl of Bandon, and the Earl of Shannon. 
 
Portiijjiifnp, in 
 ; iCngUwli, siic- 
 tliom. In IMH 
 of the Dm eh. 
 Hickntly callcil 
 yurberry iiidun- 
 m DuiiiTiiinwiiv, 
 rtowK nearly \V. 
 
 Inius-Slmnniiii, 
 M the Hca, with 
 sale, built on its 
 he CO. Corlt. It 
 
 many a woo<l.' 
 
 , ornamented thn 
 th has been cut 
 luUft'erently 8iip- 
 
 an inl. town uf 
 on th'' '^anilon, 
 1 in the . ej:;illllill^' 
 avinR obtained ii 
 mferring tievcral 
 1(1 so rapidly ir 
 tiie breaking out 
 d four companies 
 !r8*, and was the 
 ■th in these parts. 
 49, it declared fur 
 88 the inhali. ex- 
 id declared for the 
 in 18G1, the great 
 lies. The town w 
 the hills on each 
 
 a richly woodcil 
 art«, distinguished 
 are built ; the old 
 of Devonshire, the 
 
 f Shannon, and the 
 ,e Earls of liandon 
 
 1 lighted with gas, 
 L»olice Act. I' has 
 
 . Cath. chapels, a 
 i'resbyterians, and 
 school, endowed hy 
 lool for general in- 
 )f Erasmus Sniilli, 
 
 by private contri- 
 ons. It has also an 
 
 dispensary i three 
 .g-rooms. .issem- 
 suite of apartments 
 Large barraclts are 
 
 and the constabu- 
 
 • municipal govem- 
 12 burgesses, and 
 len, elected at tiic 
 body of freemen, 
 jilof 12 out of (heir 
 ■ of the borough, in 
 iperty and income- 
 ril, 18t)3) amounted 
 sm. to the Irish H. 
 e imperial H. of-'. 
 t. 10/. householders, 
 ired electors 216 m 
 
 peace 
 
 for the W. 
 
 ~ in October in the 
 
 ith a well-arraiip«l 
 
 ; place on Mondays, 
 
 of the corporation, 
 
 . provost. Courts, 
 
 ■I every three weeks 
 
 lof Devonsliire, tlie 
 
 If Shannon. 
 
 BANEllKS 
 
 The woollen manufacture was carried on hero to I 
 a considerable extent, and was siu'ceoded by tliat 
 of cotton : both are nearly extinct; but a nianu- 
 fai'ture of tino stuffs has been lately undertaken. 
 Here are several distilleries, breweries, and tan- 
 vards, and large tlour-raills. Tlio connnercial and 
 trading activity of the town has greatly increased 
 since the opening of the Cork and nand(m Huilway, 
 wliich places the town in direct communication 
 with the whole system »>f Irish railwavs. The tirst 
 nirtion (if this line, from liandon to liallinhassig, 
 9J mile.s was opened in August, 18-10, and the re- 
 mainder in December, 1851. The Haiulon is 
 navigal)le for small craft to Collier's (juay, within 
 4 ro. of the town, by which grain, Hour, and other 
 produ(!c, is sent out, and timl)er, coal, wine, and 
 irroccries, received in return; but the domestic 
 consumption is chiefly supplied from Cork, to whi(d» 
 mucli oj the agricultural produce of the neighbour- 
 h(«Hl is sent by railway. Markets are lield on 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays ; and fairs on May 6, 
 the Thursday before l-^aster-day, Oct. 2i», and 
 Xov. 8. A branch of the Provincial bank was 
 (i|)cncd in 1834, and the Bank of Ireland has also 
 a branch. The town is on the mail-coach road 
 from Cork to Hantry, but the coaches have ceased 
 running since the opening of the railway. 
 
 IJANHKES, a town of Spain, in Valencia, 28 
 m. NNVV. Alicant. Fop. 2,1!)() in 18.57. It has 
 tilatures of wool, distilleries, and paper mills. 
 
 IJAXFF, a mar. co. of Scotland, having N. the 
 Moray Frith, S. and E. the county of Aberdeen, 
 and W. Elgin and Inverness. Its length, from 
 lien Macdhu to Portsoy, is about 5C m., but its 
 average breadth does not exceed 12 m. Area ()8G 
 sq. m., or 430,219 acres. Along the coast the sur- 
 face is pretty level, and the soil, consisting of a 
 sandy loara,'i8 in many places well cultivateil, and 
 produces early and excellent crop.s. But, with 
 this exception, the surface is mostly nigged and 
 mountainous, with a few valleys interspersed. 
 Oatd is the principal crop ; but the main (le|ien- 
 dence of tlie farmers is on their cattle, sheep being, 
 in this county, comparatively scarce. Property in 
 a very few hands ; tillage farms mostly small ; 
 and agriculture, thougli in parts much improved, 
 ^fencrally backward. There are some thriving 
 plantations, particularly in the vicinity of Gor- 
 don Castle, the most magnificent seat in the N. of 
 Scotland. It is partly separated from Elgin by 
 the Spey, on which there are several productive 
 salmon fisheries. (See Si'EY.) Minerals of little 
 importance; but the crystals and topazes, com- 
 monly called cairngorms, are found in the moun- 
 tains. Manufactures inconsiderable. Banff con- 
 tains 24 parishes, and had, in 1861, a population of 
 <59,2ld, in 11,091 inhabited houses. It returns one 
 member to the H. of C. for the co. ; and the burghs 
 of Banff and CuUen unite with Elgin and others 
 in returning a member. The jmrl. constituency 
 in 1864 was 1,062. The old valued rent was 
 e,600/.; the new valuation for 1864-5 was 182,885/. 
 
 Banff (commonly pronounced, and sometimes 
 written Bamff), a royal burgh of Scotland, cap. of 
 the above co., on the W. bank of the Doveron, 
 near the entrance of that river into the Moray 
 Frith. Pop. 6,781 in 1861, with 1,181 inhabited 
 houses. The town may be said to consist of two 
 parts, completely separated ; of which the one is 
 inland, and lies on a plain on the river side ; the 
 other (called the sea-town) stands on an elevation 
 which terminates abniptly near the sea, by which 
 it is bounded. The castle of Banff stands on a 
 piece of table-land between these two places. The 
 name of the town, which is found to have assumed 
 different forms at different times — Baineffe, Boi- 
 neffe, Bainffe, &c. — is supposed to have been de- 
 
 BANFF 
 
 319 
 
 rived from the word Boyno, tho namo of the 
 district in which Banff is sifiuited. A stream 
 named B<)yn(! trnvrrscs the district, and the parisji 
 of Biivndie is contiguous. The privileges of a 
 royal iiurgli were conferred on Hanff by KolM>rt II. 
 in 1372, and were afterwards successively conlirmed 
 by James VI. and Charles II. The streets, tho,igh 
 com|)o.sed of hou.ses of unei|ual size, are generally 
 straight, and not deficient in width. Witiiin tlio 
 last few years, many of the (ddor liou.ses have born 
 ])ulled down and replaced by others, so that there 
 18 scarcely a building now remaining to indicate 
 the nnti(piity of the town. The str«icts were paved 
 so early as 1551. The Carmelites (an order of 
 friars, so called from Mount Carmel in Syria), or 
 White Friars, had a convent in Banff, but at wliat 
 precise period it was instituted cannot be ascer- 
 tained. (S|H)ttiswood's Heligiotis IIouse.s, p. 16.) 
 Of the building no vestiges can now be traced, 
 with the exception of some scattered arches niicl 
 vaults ; nor is its original extent, or exact po.sition, 
 known. Of the castle of Bantl', alluded to above, 
 nothing remains but the out(^r wall and the fos.se. 
 It was a constabulary, or lodging for the king when 
 visiting this part of his (himinions; and, in his 
 abseiux', it was inhabited by the thane or con- 
 stable who administered justice in his name. It 
 was essentially royal property, and continued so 
 till the middle of the fifteenth century, when .James 
 Stuart, Earl of Buchan, brother of James II., was 
 created heritable thane, the castle of Banff' being 
 at the same time bestowed on him, as the otiieial 
 messuage of his family. Banff' gave the title of 
 peer to a branch of the family of Ogilvie, which 
 became extinct in 1803, on the death of the eighth 
 Lord Baiiff witi;out male issue. BantT does not 
 make a great figure in history. The Duke of 
 Montrose plundered it in 1645, • no merchant's 
 goods or gear,' accord'ng to S|)alding, ' being left.' 
 The Duke of Cumberl.Mul's troops passed through 
 the town in 1746, on their way to Culloden. They 
 destroyed the episcopal chapel, and hanged a man, 
 erroneously thinking hin; a spy. The names of 
 two persoiLS, eminent in very different walks of 
 life, are connected with Banff. The famous James 
 Sharji, who was originally a keen supporter of 
 presbytery, and who, having betrayef' that faith, 
 rose to the archiepiscopal see of St. Andrew's, was 
 a native of Banff, his father being sheriff-clerk of 
 the county. He was assas,sinated on Magus Muir, 
 near St. Andrews, in 1679. James Macpherson, 
 having followed the lawless and predatory life of 
 a gipsy, was apprehended (1700), tried, and con- 
 demned to be hanged at Banff. While he was a 
 votary of the Muses, he was a proficient as a player 
 on the violin ; and when brought to the place of 
 execution, he carried his instrument along with 
 him, and played his own march, which had been 
 comiM)sed by himself while in prison. This com- 
 position was published after his death, and has 
 ever since been a favourite in Scotland. Bums 
 wrote a new and im proved version of the song, 
 which is known under the name of Macphersori's 
 Lament, or Macpherson'a Farewell, 
 
 The trade of Banff is not very considerable. Its 
 harbour, though it can boast of a low-water pier, 
 constructed in 1816, is not so ample, so convenient, 
 or secure, as that of Macduff, a borough of barony 
 situated on the opposite side of the Doveron, at 
 the distance of about a mile. The entries of ship- 
 ping into the port consisted, in the year 1863, of 
 394 British vessels, of an aggregate burden of 
 23,849 tons, and 85 foreign vessels, of 5,538 tons 
 burden. The exports consist chiefly of grain, 
 cattle, salmon, herring, and cured pork. They 
 are mostly sent to London, and annually amount 
 to a considerable sum. The herring fishery on the 
 
350 
 
 HANG 
 
 ii > lit r 
 
 vnnot hns not of Into yearn Ix^cn so pnidiictivp ns 
 forniprly. A (ircnilaiul wlinlc lislicn- co., formod 
 in IH1!I, and a (lircnd and stockini^ maniifactorv, 
 «>staliliHlu'd tit'ty years a),'o, have hvvu discoiitiniicd, 
 Haiift' lias no niannfacturrs, ('xcc'])t a lirt'wcry, an 
 iron-foiindr\', a distillery, and a small niannfactorj' 
 of ropes and sails. There are font branch hanking 
 estahlislimonts, with numerous insnrimce otliees. 
 The annual value of real property, m IHtU-r), 
 amounted to H,()(i(>/. A weekly market is held on 
 J'Viilay. and there are four annual fairs. 
 
 The public buildings are the town-house, built 
 in I79H, with a spire 100 ft. hi^'h, the jail, the 
 parish-church and the Kelief, Free, K))isr<ipal, and 
 Independent churclu'S. The Wesleyan Metho- 
 dists have also a small chapel, (ias was intro- 
 <lu('e<l in IH.'tl. A prammar-school was founded 
 in JJanft" so early as the year IM-i, It has, also, 
 an aeadcmv, founded in l7St>, at which nU the 
 branches ol* a learned and liberal education are 
 taught; a commercial school, and a charity school 
 founded by funds lefY. (in I HOI) by Alexander 
 I'irie, merchant in Hantt". TIutc are several semi- 
 naries for younfj ladies, and an educational insti- 
 tution, foiuided by a le^'acy left by the late .Tnnies 
 Wilson, of the islaiul of (in>nada. Several libraries 
 of considerable extent and value belonj; to dif- 
 ferent societies. Various sums have been left in 
 mortmain for charitable ])urposes; and a legal 
 assessment for the jioor is unknown. 
 
 Itnntf unites with KIpn, Cullen, Invemry, Kin- 
 tore, and Peterhead, in sending a member to the 
 House of Commons. Macduff, which is rapidly 
 rising to im])ortance, chietly owing to the excel- 
 lence of its harbour, has, since the ])assing of the 
 ]{eform Hill, been united to Hanff in forming one 
 ]iarliamentary burgh, the joint constituency in 
 1H(>4, being 2.11, of which the municipal 138. 
 There is a splendid bridge of seven arches over 
 I )overon, which connects the two towns in ques- 
 tion. It is governed by a provost, two bailies, 
 and nine councillors, Tiic corporation revenue in 
 lX(;;j_4 was 1,110. 
 
 ILVNO, an inl. town of Hiiulostan, prov. Mal- 
 wah, dom. of Scindia; at the contluence of two 
 tributaries of the Ncrbudda river, on the chief 
 road through (Jiijerat and Malwah ; 82 m. 8\V. 
 Oozcin, and 115 m. NK. Surat. Iron ore is fused 
 here, and before the present century the town 
 contained 2,000 houses ; at present this number is 
 much reduced. Bang is noted for some remark- 
 able cave temples of linddhic origin, excavated in 
 a range of low sandstone and claystone hills, about 
 '6\ m. S. of the town. Four caves exist ; the most 
 northerly of which is the most perfect, and is 
 reached by a flight of seventy rudely formed stone 
 steps, terminating in a platform overhung by the 
 hill, which hns once evidently been formed into a 
 regular verandah supjiorted by columns; and at 
 either end of which there is a small apartment, 
 containing some ill-car\-ed figures of modem work- 
 manship, and one of them a bad representation of 
 the Hindoo Ganesa. The cave within this vesti- 
 bule is entered by a rectangulnr doorwny in a 
 plastered and ornamented wall, and is a grand 
 and gloomy apartment 84 ft. square and 14^ ft. in 
 height ; the roof, which ij flat, and has been once 
 ornamented with paintings; is supported by four 
 ranges of massy columns. Around this apartment, 
 1)11 three sides, are a number of small cells, 9 ft. in 
 depth, as well as several niches, in which have 
 been carved, in bold relief, some draped male and 
 female figures : from one of the cells on the left 
 hand yoii enter, through narrow excavations, five 
 other similar cells, ench in a plnne elevated nbove 
 the former, ascending through the hill. At the 
 farther end of the principal cave is an oblong 
 
 IJANO-KOK 
 
 recess supported by two hexagonal cohimii'), 
 through the centre of which a small tloonvny loniN 
 to an inner apartment, where the tlni/op, or ' clMini,' 
 supposed to contain a ISuddhic relic, is s(>(>ii, ciu 
 out of the rock, with the jilain dome forniiii|f; it.i 
 summit, reaching nearly to the roof, to whicli it Is 
 joined by n small square ornament. The scciiml 
 and fourth caves of Hang contain little wcirtli 
 notice; but the third is nearly as Inrge, ami lias 
 been somewhat similar in its arrangement to tlii> 
 first. The whole of the walls, roof, and cnliimiH 
 have been covered with a fine stucco, nnd unm- 
 mentcd with paintings in disteinner of consiilcr- 
 nblc taste and elegance. It contains the <lu<ioji in 
 its inner apartment ; but wants the recess, ami 
 carved scidptures mentioned in the first cave, Ii 
 is considerably dilapidated, and a fifth cave is sn 
 much so at its entrance as to be at jircseiit inac- 
 cessible. (iJangerlleldin Bombav Trans., ii. I'Jl- 
 201.) 
 
 HANOAI.ORE, an iidnnd fortified town ofUlv- 
 sore, S. Hindustan; Int. 12° ")"' N., long. 77° .'is' 
 K.. (iOm. NK. Scringapatam. I'op. estiniatcil al 
 about 70,(tOO. The town is built on a table-lniul, 
 neiirly '$,000 feet above the sea, and is so salu- 
 brious that Europeans often resort thither for tin- 
 benefit of their health. The thermometer seldinn 
 rises above 82°, or sinks below HCfl Falir. Tlic 
 monsoons have their force broken by the (Jhaiili; 
 but this table-land is constantly reft-eshed by gcni.il 
 showers. The vine and Cyprus grow luxuriaiitlv, 
 nnd apples, peaches, and strawberries are raised in 
 the gardens. The town is enclosed with (iimlilc 
 walls ; but the chief fortress, which contained tlio 
 palace of Tippoo Saib, is quite detached from the 
 other, and is built in a solid manner, with a (lo('|i 
 ditch and spacious glacis. The palace, though df 
 mud, built in the Saracenic style, is still a striking' 
 building, and is used by the present rajah forpuMi.' 
 entertainments. There are good barracks, nsspni- 
 bly and reading-rooms, I'^uropcan shops, A-c. TIki 
 houses are large, some being of two stories, built of 
 red earth, and roofed with tiles ; the chief ba/aar is 
 wide, regular, and ornamented with rows of oncda- 
 nut trees. Most of the inhabitants are Iliiuldns. 
 Silk and cotton are the chief manufactures; tlu' 
 former, which is very strong, is made from raw 
 silk imported, none being produced in the noi^'li- 
 bourhood. Bangalore was founded by llydor Ali, 
 on the site of a small village ; and under liim it 
 became a place of much importance. It was taken 
 by Lord Comwnllis in 1701. 
 
 BAN(;-KOK, or BANKOK, a city of Siani, 
 hnving been the cnp. of the kingdom, the resi- 
 dence of the sovereign, and setu of government 
 since the destniction of Yuthin by the Rumipsc in 
 17*i(>. It stands on a swampy tract on both sides cf 
 the Menam, lat. 13° 40' N., long. 101° 10' K., loni. 
 N. from the Gulf of Siam. Pop. estimated at tVoni 
 200,000 to .800,000. The :Mennm is here -J m. wi.le. 
 exchisive of the large space on each side, oorn- 
 pied by floating houses, and from 5 to 10 fatlKmis 
 deep : there is a bar of soft mud at its mouth, luit 
 vessels of from 200 to 250 tons burden may always 
 rench Bang-kok without difficulty. The tratlic 
 nbove this city is trifling, though, from the want 
 of roads, all the intercourse is by water. l!iin;'- 
 kok consists of three parts ; the palace, the tdwii, 
 and the floating town. The first, built on an 
 island, is of nn oblong shape, surrounded by :i 
 brick wall of considerable height in some parts, 
 nnd furnished with some indifferent bastions and 
 many gates ; it contains, besides the residences nf 
 the king and his chief officers, many tc'ni|)ies, 
 gardens, inferior shops, nnd much waste <;nwml. 
 The town without stretches for some distance 
 along the banks of the river, but a very little way 
 
DANOOR 
 
 3.)l 
 
 iRonnl poliimni!. 
 nil (Ifwinviiy loniW 
 liKjop, iiv ' clmrn.' 
 rrlic, is "cell, cut 
 (lonip fomiiiif; its 
 nof, tt) whii'li it \* 
 I'lit. Tlifi scciniil 
 tain little wurtli 
 n« Inrijp, niid lias 
 riMifjf'tni'iit to tlic 
 ■oot', nnd ctiliimiH 
 stiuTo, mill (inia- 
 iniuT iif ftmsiilcr- 
 tiuiis the r/(/;/()// in 
 t) tlip recess, ami 
 the first enve. It 
 1 a lit'th enve is s(i 
 ic nt (ireseiit iiinc- 
 lay Trans., ii. I'.U- 
 
 rtified town of Mv- 
 r' N., lonK. 77° W 
 
 Pop. estiiniiti'il 111 
 ilt on n tnlile-lanil, 
 ea, and is so salii- 
 sort thither for ttio 
 iiemiojneter selilmii 
 )W r)Ci° Fnhr. '\\w 
 [en hy the (lhaiit<; 
 iT refreshed I (Viieiiial 
 IS prow luxiiriaiitlv, 
 ■berries are raiscil m 
 icloscd with (Imilile 
 which contained the 
 • detached from tlip 
 nanner, with a deep 
 lie palace, thouiili of 
 vie, is still a strikiii;; 
 'csentrajnhforiiulili.' 
 ood barracks, asscni- 
 iiean shops, ic. Tin' 
 f two stories, built of 
 Is ; the chief bazaar is 
 
 I with rows of cncna- 
 [bitants are llindons. 
 
 i mannfactiires; tlii' 
 is made from raw 
 
 fodnced in the nei^'li- 
 
 luuded by llyder All 
 and under him it 
 
 irtancc. It was taken 
 
 )K, a city of Siam, 
 kinsdom, the resi- 
 seat of governraeiit 
 lia bv the Burmese in 
 I tract on both sidpsuf 
 Ing. 101° 10' E., loni, 
 lop. estimated at fnini 
 lam is here \ m. wiilc 
 b on each side, occu- 
 Srom .5 to 10 fatlmni' 
 iind at its mouth, lim 
 lis burden may alwavs 
 Itticultv. The tratlic 
 loufjh. from the want 
 lis by water, lian;.'- 
 Ithe palace, the tdwn, 
 lie first, built m an 
 Ipe, suiToiinded liy a 
 leisht in some part:". 
 lifferent bastions and 
 lides thcrpsidfncos"f 
 leers, many tomplf^. 
 Imuch w.istc f:r<'"wi- 
 Is for some di>tamc 
 Ibut a very little wy 
 
 inland. The houses, most of which are of wood, 
 (If mere huts of palm leaf, are built on ^xmis 
 driven info the mud, being emli providid with a 
 liciat. Tiie llonting town consists of a number of 
 liftmi««> '■«•''•''• •>eHring rows of eight or ten houses, 
 with a plntl'orm in front, on which the wares for 
 sale are ex|H>sed ; and most of the trade is thus 
 nmchicted on tlic river, where it. is believed that 
 half tlie )>oii. reside. There are mnny temples, all 
 iifwhicii are built in a pyramidal form, with much 
 L'ildiiig and paltry decorations: each contains n 
 ci>|>>s.sid gilded metal statue of Kiiddha, and a 
 varietv of others in clay or wood. The chief tem- 
 pi,., (ir Ka-cheli-tap-pou, which is '200 ft. in height, 
 iniitnins as many as l,.")00 of these images. The 
 iiahu'c possesses a really hnudsome andience-hnll, 
 XII It. long hy '0 ft, broad, and 30 ft. in height, 
 iiaiiited and gilded, and furnished with English 
 ciit-glass lustres: it is surrounded by three difter- 
 ciit walls, and is built of brick ; of which, or of 
 mild, the palaces, temples, and a few of the chief 
 n'sidences only are constructed. Hang-kok has 
 iMiiiinfactnres of tin and iron articles, and leather 
 I'lir matfrasses. Its trade is ])robal)ly more ex- 
 tensive than that of any other emporium in the 
 I!,. Canton excepted, not occupied by Euro|)enns. 
 'file shipping of Hang-kok consisted, in IHtKt, of 
 i-ixlv-four vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 
 •J l,.'il".t tons, nearly the whole of them built within 
 the two years I«o8-C0. Twelve of them are royal 
 ]irii|)crty", the rest belong to C'hinese merchant,s. 
 Ciimincrcial intercourse is principally carried on 
 with China and the Malay nrchi|>elago, but mostly 
 with the former. The great articles of export are 
 siifjar (from 10,000 to 12,000 tons), black pepper 
 (4.0(10 to 5,000 tons), stick-lac, ivory, sapan wood, 
 iindhides. The trade with China employs alxmt i;JO 
 Chinese junks yearly, some of 1,000 tons burden. 
 The imports are porcelain, tea, quicksilver, lack- 
 soy, dried fruits, silks, fans, and other native 
 miumfactures from China ; with camphor, edible 
 Inrda' iiest.s, and other articles for the Chinese 
 market from the Malay archipelago ; and British 
 and Indian piece goods, opium, and British wool- 
 lens, and glass from India. Half the pop. consists 
 (if Chiiie.se; and besides them there arc numerous 
 Rirmnu, Pegiian, Laoan, Cambojnn, Tavoyan, and 
 llalay foreigners ; some Christians of Portuguese 
 descent ; and a few Brahmins, who are supported 
 by the king, and have a small temple of their own. 
 (Crawfurd's Embassy to iSiam ; Finlayson's INIis- 
 siiiii; Report bv Mr. Knox, Acting Consul at 
 l)ang-kok, 18(i00 
 
 B.\NGOK, a citj', sea-port and par. N. Wales, 
 en. Camnr\'on, hund. Isgorvac, on the Holyhead 
 rnad, at the head of Beaumaris Bay, about 2 m. 
 from the Menai Bridge, and 2il8 m. XW. London, 
 by the London and North-Western railway. It 
 consists chiefly of one principal street, stretching 
 E. and W. through a romantic vale, bounded on 
 the S. by high precipitous rocks, on the N. by a 
 more gradual acclivity, and opening on the E. 
 over a splendid and extensive prospect, including 
 the rockv shores of Anglesea and the town of 
 llcaiiniaris. It has been mostly rebuilt, and other- 
 wise very much improved, within the last few 
 yeiirs. Pop. of pari. Iwrough, 6,738 in 18(il ; of 
 liarish 10,662. The population, which amounted 
 to 6,338 in IS.'il, is but slightly increasing. The 
 number of inhabited houses within the borough 
 was 1,336 in 1861, and 1,228 in 1851. The cathe- 
 dral is an embattled cruciform structure, having a 
 low massive tower crowned with pinnacles. It 
 stands in a spacious area, with a line avenue, and 
 has a verj' pleasing effect, from its situation and 
 the just proportion and simiilicity of its architec- 
 ture ; near it ore .some old endowed almhouses for 
 
 6 poor persons, and an endowed (tpp school for 100 
 Intys, built in recent times on the site of an ancient 
 friary; it was founded in Eli/.alx'th's reign, audits 
 revenue is upwards of 2.">0/. a year. There are also 
 4 national .scho(ds in the parish; 2 in the town 
 for 8(10 boys and girls ; 1 at Vaeiud for 7."), and I 
 at Pentir for )!(l. The Baptists, Independents, 
 Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists have each ii 
 chapel; there is a town-hall and shambles in the 
 centre of the town, and near it, on the Lomlon 
 road, is the Carnarvon and Anglesea tlispensary. 
 The market is held on Fridays : during the sum- 
 mer on Tuesdays also. There are -t fairs, April 5, 
 .lime 2.5, Sept. 16, Oct. 28; besides which 4 large 
 fiyrs for cattle (called ' booth fairs') arc held at 
 the Meiini Bridge (which is in this parish, and 
 about 2 m. S\V. Bangor), Aug. 26, Sept. 26. Oct, 
 24, Nov. 14. They arc the most frequented of 
 any in N. Wales. It is accessible to vessels of 
 2(t() to 3(t0 tons, which may enter the buy nt any 
 time of the tide ; the trade, however, is compara- 
 tively insignilicant, and is confined to the import 
 of coals and other necessaries. By the lieforni 
 Act, Bangor was c<»nstituted one of six contri- 
 butory boroughs, which conjointly send one mem. 
 to the II. of C. ; the Imilitls of Carnarvon being 
 returning officers. There are in Bangor about I1I.5 
 houses of 10/. and upwards. It has been the seat 
 of a bishoi)ric from the remotest period. The s(!o 
 comprises the cos. of Anglesea and Carnarvon 
 (except four parishes), about half Merioneth, one 
 deanery in Denbigh, and .seven parishes in Mont- 
 gomery : in all 17!) par. The income of the bishop 
 averages 4,000/. per annum. The church is used 
 both for cathedral and parish services ; the former 
 in English, the latter in Welsh. The living is 
 a cons(didated vicarage belonging to the vicars 
 choral, the church of the township of Pentir being 
 annexed to it as a chapel of ease. There is an 
 episcopal residence and a deanery. The famous 
 controversy lietween Drs. Hoadley and Sherlock 
 took its name from this see ; the former being its 
 bishop from a.d. 1715 to 1721, when, on being 
 translated to Salisbury, the latter succeeded him. 
 The neighbourhood is for the most part unen- 
 closed, and everywhere jiresents scenery of sur- 
 ])assing interest, having the Snowdou range on 
 the S., and Penmanmaur on the E., and the Menai 
 Strait and bridges immediately contiguous to the 
 town. The ojiening of an important line of rail- 
 way, and the construction of the Menai Bridge, 
 have rendered Bangor a great thoroughfare, ami 
 made it be resorted to in summer by crowds of 
 visitors. When Dr. Johnson visited the city in 
 1774, with Mr. and Mrs. Thralc, he complained 
 that they found ' a very mean inn, and had some 
 difliculty of obtaining lodging. I lay in a room 
 where the other bed had two men.' But modern 
 travellers need fear no such difficulties since the 
 opening of the railway. The line from Bangor to 
 Carnarvon, 7 J miles long, forms ])art of the Chester 
 and Holyhead railway, and was amalgamated with 
 the 'Londcm and North- Western ' railway in 
 March, 1859. 
 
 Bangoh, a marit. town of Ireland, co. Down, 
 prov. Ulster, on the S. shore of (Jarrickfergus Bav, 
 12 m. ENE. Belfast. Pop. in 1821, 2,1)43 ; in 1831, 
 2,741; in 1861, 2,525, of whom 1,012 males and 
 1,513 females. The returns of 1861 showed 677 
 of the inhabitants belonging to the Established 
 Church; 149 Roman Catholics, and 1,566 Presby- 
 terians. The town took the name of Bangor, 
 Beanehoir, or ' the White Choir,' from a celebrated 
 moiuistery which, about the year 820, was de- 
 stroyed by the Danes, when upwards of 900 
 monks are said to have been massacred. It is 
 much frequented as a sea-bathing place. The 
 
 '^^ 
 
352 
 
 JIANO-PA-SOE 
 
 
 \M 
 
 |iiil)lio liuil(liii>;H MO a vhurvh, two Prosbytorian, 
 niid two MclluNlist mFPtinK-l>«i>H('H, nnil a inarkpl- 
 lidiisc: llipro iH aim) a (liniM'tmarv, niciidicity in- 
 nliliilioii, Kaviii^M' hank, and puliiic liltrarv. It in 
 a conHtnliuIary and coaKt-f^nard Hiation. 'riio por- 
 IHiration, lUKlcr tlip eharlpr of Ktl.M, (UMiHislH of a 
 {inivoHt and twplvp frpp I)ui>jp(<»ph. It rptunipd two 
 inpmlKTM to tliP Irinh Il.of ('. till tlip I'nion, whpii 
 it waN (liMfranpliiHcd. A pourt Ippt iH lipid oiipc a 
 ypar, and a manor court, with jiiri.sdi(!tion to tlip 
 amount of 20/., pvprj- tlin'c wppks, and pptty hph- 
 MouH every fortnight. There arc two cotton fae- 
 toriPH; linen ii* alxo made for home eonHumption. 
 The linhpry Ih carried on to xomo extent, and in 
 the neif^hbonring villngo of Gn>om(tp«irt, where 
 the Duke of Schorobcr^'s army landed in ItiHO, 
 larfTC oystcrH are taken in abundance. Marketti 
 are, held on Tucwiays; fairs on Jan. 12, May 1, 
 Au^, I, and Nov. 22. 
 
 HAN'G-I'A-SOK, a considerable town of Siam, 
 cap. of a distr. on the left bimk of the Banfi-im- 
 kun^ river, near its mouth, .'(!) m. ESK. Ilanj^kok; 
 lat. 13° 30' N„ h.nR. 101° 11' K. It is iiopul.nm. 
 has a wooden stockade, and is considered by the 
 Siamese imjiortant as a plai-e of defence against 
 the encroachments of the Anamese. The llauf^- 
 pa-kuuf; river is here little inferior in size to the 
 Meiuun ; it has the same depth of water on its 
 bar, and within it from 2i to 3 fathoms. There is 
 said to be a ({ood earria^p road from this town to 
 Tuufj-yai, a distance of uparly 20(» m. The distr. 
 of Ilan'g-pa-soi' is an alluvial flat, very fertile in 
 rice and suf;ar-cane. (Crawfurd's ^lission to 
 Siam, p. 41 1, 112.) 
 
 HANJAIJMASSIN, or HANDKHMASSIN, a 
 town and distr, on the SE. coast of Ilorneo; the 
 town is built on the river of the same name, in lat. 
 3° S., long. 114° 65' E. The district, inhabited 
 by a ))0|)ulation estimated at 2,000,000, is under a 
 native chief, but tributary to the Dutch. The 
 river has a shallow bar at its cntnnice, over which 
 even a light boat cannot float till after the lirst 
 quarter's tlood. Notwithstanding this, the town 
 enjoys a considerable trade, especially with China ; 
 many Chinese being settled in and near it. There 
 is some trade with Singapore, but it is discouraged 
 by the Dutch, who have a factory, forts, and go- 
 vernment buildings in Itanjarmassin. The im- 
 ports consist of opium, piece goods, coarse cutlery, 
 gunpowder, and fire arms. The exports are chierfy 
 gold, diamonds, and pcpjier ; rattans to Java, cam- 
 ]ihor, wax, birds' nests, tripnng, spices, and steel, 
 of superior quality. (Earl, Eastern Seas, p. 33G- 
 338.) 
 
 lUNN, UPPER and LOWER, two rivers in 
 the N. of Ireland : the first, or Upper Ilann, rises 
 in the plain called the Deers or King's Meadow, in 
 the N. part of the Moume mountains, in Down. 
 I ts course, at first, is winding : but its general di- 
 rection is NVV. After passing Gilford and Porta- 
 down, it falls into Lough Neagh at Banfoot Ferry. 
 Near Portadoivn it is joined by the Newry Canal ; 
 and is thence navigable by barges to the lake. 
 
 The Lower Pann issues from Lough Beg, con- 
 nected on the NW. with Lough Neagh, and flow- 
 ing N. with a little inclination to the VV., falls 
 into the sea 5 m, below Coleraine. The current of 
 the Lower Banu is rapid ; and in some places it 
 is precipitated over lalges of rock. The salmon 
 and eel fisheries on this river are important and 
 valuable. It is navigable bj' boats as far as Cole- 
 raine, but only with difficulty. 
 
 BAN N ALEC, a town of trance, d^p. Finisterre, 
 cap. caut., 9 m. NW. Quimperle. Pop. 4,425 in 
 1861. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, a town of Scotland, co. 
 Stirling, par. St. Ninian's, 3 m. SSE. Stirling, on 
 
 BAXHWARA 
 
 both sides of the small river Bannock, wliicli, afipj. 
 a c<iurse of a few miles, falls into the I'rjtii „( 
 Forth, pop. 2,t;27 in IN.')I, and '2,'2iiH h, \w,\ 
 Number of luhabitpil houses 277 in l«l>l ; o( fumi- 
 lies, f>3!». The nanu- of this |)lace is inippri^luilily 
 associatpd with one of the most nipmoralile evontit 
 in British history. In its immediate vicinity, (m 
 the 24th of June, 1314, was fought thegrent liimlc 
 between the English under Edward II., mikI tli« 
 Scotch under Bobert Bruce, which fprminalcd in 
 the total defeat of the former. The loss of tlid 
 English, in the battle and ))ursuit, is esliniHtcij hv 
 the best infomu'd historians at 30,000 miih, in'. 
 chuling a great number of nobles, and persons (if 
 distinction. The loss, on the nart of the Scotch, 
 whose army was very inferior in respe(;t of niiin- 
 bers to that of the I'.nglish, di<l not pn)l)al)|y full 
 short of K,(KI(). This decisive victory secured tlm 
 permanent indeiiendenco of Scotland, and esta- 
 blished the family of the con(juen>r on its tlirono. 
 
 About 1 m. W. from the village, at Sniicliifi 
 Burn, .lames III. was defeated in 1488 by liis rc- 
 bpllious subjects and his son, James IV.; niid, 
 after being wounded in the engagement, Avas 
 assassinated at a mill in the vicinity. 
 
 In more recent and tranquil time's Bannockhum 
 has been distinguished in a verj' diflerciit di'imrt- 
 nient — that of manufactures. 'Various fnhrips of 
 wo(dlen, particularly tartans, are suct^essfuliy car- 
 ried on in it; and it has |iriNliiced all the iartnn 
 worn by the llighhind n>gimeiits in the Itritisli 
 army for upwards of half a century jinst, Tlu> 
 manufacture of tartan shawls, so generally Wdni 
 by females in the middle and lower ranks in .Scot- 
 land, was long confined to it, and they are lifiicc 
 known by the name of Bannockbimi shawls, (.'iir- 
 jiets, particularly Brussels, and heartli-nigs, arc 
 produced here to a considerable extent; and of all 
 these no small portion is sent to the English mar- 
 ket. The manufacture of Tweedn, or coarse An\»\ 
 woollen cloth for trowsers and plaids, such m that 
 for which Galashiels and Hawick are eminent, lia,s 
 l)een introduced into Baniiockbum, but is nut car- 
 ried to any great extent. Tanning is also a tm- 
 siderablc branch of trade. The portion of the 
 (larish of St. Ninian's in which this villnxc in 
 situated has recently been erected into a se])anite 
 parish, under the name of Bannockbum; and a 
 handsome parochial church has been built. It has 
 also a dissenting church, an excellent scIkhiI, a 
 subscription library, and an annual fair for hoiscs 
 and cattle on the second Tuesday of June, old 
 St vie. 
 
 "BANSTEAD DOWNS, in England, co. Surrey, 
 1st div. of Copthome hund., par. Banstead ; a tract 
 of land remarkable for its verdure and excellent 
 sheep pasturage, 12 m. S. by W. London by road. 
 and 12 m. by London, Brighton, and South Coa'^t 
 railway, on which it is a station. The Banstead 
 Downs are 376 ft. above the sea level. The parish 
 had 1,4(>1 inhabitants in 18G1. The Epsom Downs 
 are a continuation of these on the W. : their 
 geological position is between the London clay 
 on the N. and the chalk formation on the S. The 
 Brighton line of railway from the metropolis wa^ 
 opened in June 1865. It ends at Epsum race- 
 course. 
 
 BANSWARA, an inland town of Hindostari, 
 prov. Gujerat, and cap. of a small rajpoot princi- 
 pality under British protection ; 80 m. E. Ahraed- 
 nuggur ; lat. 230 3l' N., long. 74° 32' E. It is a 
 handsome place for this part of India, and its walls 
 include a large circuit ; though much of the space 
 is occupied by gartlens. There are some handsome 
 temples, and a tolerable bazaar : at some distance 
 is a pool of water with a stately flight of steps, 
 overhung by palms, pcepuls, and tamarind-trees; 
 
nok,wliii'1i,nflor 
 ito the Kritli nt' 
 (I 2,'2r»H in m\\. 
 II INtil ; of lunii- 
 \ it) inqirrisliiilily 
 u'nniriil)U' I'Vditu 
 lintc vii-inity, <m 
 It the Rrcnt rialilc 
 vi\n\ II., anil tlw 
 ch tormiimtcd in 
 
 'rh« 1«WK of tllM 
 
 t, iH I'stiniiitcd l)y 
 t il(),(l<)0 nu'ii, ill- 
 PS, nn<l porHons of 
 jrt of the Scotch, 
 1 roHiieiit of miin- 
 
 iH>t i)nilml)ly full 
 iotorv wcurcd tli« 
 •otluiul, iinil «'»ta- 
 :Ti)r on ilH tliroiip, 
 iiln(j;(', nt Smicliifi 
 in MHH liy his rc- 
 
 Jnmi-H IV.; and, 
 
 :iiiity. 
 
 [inn!» Unnnoi'kbum 
 •y (lifTi-rcnt dopart- 
 'Variinis fntiries of 
 ire succcsftfnlly car- 
 lU'cd nil tlic tartan 
 Jilts in tlic Uritisli 
 century v"'''- 1'"' 
 »o generally woni 
 lower ranks in Scot- 
 and they are hciicc 
 ;kbum shawls. Car- 
 ntl hearth-nius, arc 
 e extent; and of all 
 to the KngUsh inar- 
 ;«{/«, or coarse strijieil 
 1 plaids, siieh as tliat 
 ,ick are eminent, lia't 
 bum, but is not car- 
 inning is also a con- 
 The portion of the 
 liich this villa{,'e in 
 BCtcd into a seiianitc 
 iannockbum; and a 
 »8 been built. It has 
 excellent school, a 
 mnual fair for \wtxn 
 iesday of June, old 
 
 England, co. Surrey, 
 ir.Uanstead; a trait 
 irdure and excellent 
 W. London by road, 
 on, and South Coast 
 ion. The Bansiead 
 ea level. The parish 
 The Epsom Downs 
 : on the W.: their 
 n the London clay 
 ationonthcS. The 
 I the metropolis wa^ 
 ud8 at Epsom raw- 
 
 town of Hindostan, 
 nnall rnjpoot princi- 
 ■- ; 80 m. E. Ahmcd- 
 
 K.740 32'E. It is; 
 Ef India, and its waUs 
 
 Lh much of the space 
 |e are some handsome 
 |ar • at son\e distance 
 Tatelv fligl't of steps, 
 [aiid tamarind-trees; 
 
 BANTAM 
 
 nnd l)PVond it, on the crown of a woody liill, (ho 
 tiiwers of ft largo <'<"*tl(', fonnprly llu? imlace of 
 llaiiswarn. In IW-", there were 1,000 rainilici of 
 llraliiniiis, ami a coiisidcridde iiiinilMr of MiihnuI- 
 iiiaiiM ill the (own: in the wilder dislric^ts of itH 
 nrritory, the iiiluibitaiitu are ohielly ttheelH. The 
 raiali i-i a '•""'«•' of the family ot the OdeyiMior 
 Hiivcn-igii, and hohlH (lie higheHt Juilieial authority 
 in his own linndH. In IH2I) Ik^ had a kind of feudal 
 iiiiliility of thirty-two siiliordiimte raj|KH»t cliitds, 
 who cilcli fiiniished his (|iioln of lighting men. In 
 the "am"' y'"' ''"' ""i"*wiira lerrilory yielded a 
 ri'vciiiie of '20.7H(!/., but it was then only recov* r- 
 iii"' from a stale of great lU'soliilioii and misery, 
 frnin whicli it had been relieved by the Ilrilish. 
 
 IIAXTAM, a det-ayed lown of Java belonging 
 III the Diiteli, once cap. of a distr., but now of no 
 irreater importance than the smallest residence on 
 tlic coast. Its bay, formerly u gn^ut rendeisvous of 
 Kiiro|i('an shipping, is choki>d up by coral reefs, 
 anil islands formed by the soil washed down into 
 it friini the mountains. The Dutch abandoned it 
 ill \xU for the more elevated stutioii of Sirang or 
 L'erani, 7 in. inland. 
 
 I!AN THY, a marit. town of Ireland, co. Cork, 
 |irov. Minister, at the bottom of ISantry IJuy, dU m. 
 W. I>y S. Cork. Pop. 2,141 in IHtil, of whom 
 LKilnialcs and 1,2H0 females. The census re- 
 liinis give 107 iiersons as belonging to the Ksta- 
 hlishcd, and 2,20il to the Homan Catholic church. 
 The town is ill-built: it has a church, a Homan 
 ('atholic chapel, Methodist meeting-house, and a 
 neat court-house, with a bridewell, (leneral ses- 
 sidiis arc held in February, and petty sessions on 
 ahcrnale Fridays. A jiarty of the constabulary is 
 stationed here. Manufactures confined to that of 
 llimr; and there is a small porter brewery. The 
 (islicr)' of lumngs and sprats has l)cen unpro- 
 ductive since 1W2M : pilchards were oiicenbniidant, 
 hut have deserted the coast since 1823. The trade 
 of the i)ort, which was once very considerable, is 
 now conlined to the ex)>ort of grain. 
 
 liANTiiY Hay, an inlet of the sea, in the SW. 
 extremity of Ireland, co. Cork, between Crow 
 Point on the N. and Sheep's Head on the S. This 
 is 011(1 of the (inest and most caimcious harbours in 
 Kiinijic. It stretches inwanls in a NK. direction 
 alnivc 25 m., with a breadth varying from 4 to G 
 ni. Near the entrance of the bay, on its HW. 
 side, is Itear Island, st^paratcd from the main land 
 hy a crooked strait obout a mile broad, having 
 fnim 1(> to ito or 40 fathoms water, and attbriling a 
 safe retreat for the largest vessels. Farther uji the 
 hay is VVhiddy Island, on the S. side of which, 
 nearly opposite to llantry town, there is an ad- 
 niiralilc roadstead, where ships lie Kind-locked in 
 from 24 to 40 ft. water. Hear Island forms, as it 
 were, a natural breakwater, protecting the bay 
 from the SVV. winds. There is close to both its 
 shores a considerable deiith of water ; it is not cn- 
 nimlicred by any shoals or rocks that may not be 
 easily avoided, even at night ; and the anchoring 
 (Triiuiid being everywhere good, it furnishes, 
 tliMiifihoiit its whole expanse, convenient shelter 
 and accommodation for the largest ships. 
 
 Having no considerable town on its shores, 
 which arc wild and rugged, nor any communica- 
 tion «nth the interior, this noble bay is but little 
 frequented bj' shi])))ing. Occasionally, however, it 
 lias hccn resorted to by large fleets, and has been 
 tlie theatre of naval warfare ; an indecisive action 
 I liiivin;; been fought in it on April !H», l(i80, be- 
 tween a portion of the French Heet that conveyed 
 Kinf! James to Kinsalc, and the English licet 
 under Admiral Herbert, afterwards Earl of Tor- 
 '"ijjton. It was in it, also, that the French fleet, 
 I Midi (ienerol Uocho on board, luichorcd m 17UG. 
 Vol. I, 
 
 BAUBADO.«l .iri.l 
 
 BAPAIIMR, a town of France, di<p. Pas do 
 Calais, caji. cant., I.") m. SSK. Arras. Pop. 8,149 
 ill 1801. This town was originally fortified ny 
 ("barles V., but having Incn ceded to Franco in 
 l()j'»!», its fortillcatioiis were enlarged and com- 
 pleted 1)^ Vauban. It is neat, well laid out, and 
 W(41 biiilt. The parish church and the hospital 
 are worth notice. There are manufactures ol 
 wiKdlens, cali«MK's, and other cotton stuffs, and of 
 the fine thread used in the manufacture of a N|H<ciei4 
 of la<-e carried fo flie markets of Lille and Amiens. 
 Ill IheneigblioiirlHKid are several beetroot factories, 
 lleing situated in a dry country, llapaiiine liiboiircd, 
 for a leiigtiiciicil period, iiiuler a delicicncy of 
 water, but in I72.'t nil Artesian well having liccii 
 sunk in the vicinity, furnished an abundance of 
 excellent water, wliicli, being conveyed into the 
 town, supplies a handsome Ibunfain. 
 
 HAl{, a town of Kiiropean Itiissia. gov. Podolin, 
 on the How, 48 m. N. Moghilef. Poj.. 7,8(i() in 
 18.')8. The town has various manufactories. It 
 is defended by a citadel built on a rock. If was 
 called How, from the river on which it stands, till 
 the reign of Sigisinund I., who gave it to bis wife, 
 by whom it was called liar, in boiioiir of her 
 native country, Hari. It is famous in Polish 
 history, from th(! coiifederaf ion established in it in 
 1708, by the Piilawski uiid other Polish nidde.s 
 hostile to Hussia. 
 
 Uak, a fortified town of France, d('i). Ila.s-l!hin, 
 cap. cant,, 1!) m. SW. Strasburg. It is situated 
 at the foot of the Vosges, surroundcil by bills 
 l>lanted with vineyards. Pop. I, (Klo in 1801. An 
 explosion of the arsenal, in 1704, destroyeil most 
 part of the houses, so that it is now almost new. 
 It has some manufactures, and a considerable trade 
 ill wine, spirits, corn, and cattle. 
 
 Hau, an inland town, of considerable extent 
 and trade, in Hindostan, prov. Italiar, on the S. 
 bank of the (Janges, 18 m. IS'E. liahar; lat. '2iP 
 28' N., long. 86° 40' E. 
 
 BAHAIIAT, an inl, town of N. Hindostan, cap. 
 rajah of (jiirwal, but some years since a most 
 wretched and paltry place, 48 m. VVXW. Serinagur. 
 
 IJAHAITCIIE, an inland town and district of 
 Hindostan, prov, Onde; the district divided be- 
 tween the King of Oiidc and the Itritish; the 
 town belonging to the former, and picasantiv 
 situated ."JO m. NE. Liicknow; lat. 27° iia' N., 
 hnig. 81° 30' E. The N, tracts of the district aru 
 elevated and covered with forests; the more S. 
 jtarts open, fertile, and tolerably well cultivated. 
 Many of the old Patau race inhabit the Baraitcho 
 ilistnct. 
 
 lUHRApOS, the most easterly of the Caribbco 
 islands ; it is 21 m. in length, and 14 in breadth, 
 and contains 100,470 acres, of which it is supposed 
 about 90,000 are in cultivation, and that the re- 
 mainder, 10,470, are occupic<l by roads, buildings, 
 &c. Uridgetown, the capital, is in lat. 13° 5' N^ 
 long. 69° 41' W., situated in the parish of St. 
 Michael, the principal of eleven parishes into 
 which the island was divided at a verj' early date. 
 The time of its discovery is not distinctly known, 
 but the first permanent settlement on it was made 
 by the English in 1<>2.'), and it has remuuicd iu 
 their possession ever since. 
 
 The island, viewed from the sea, ha.s nothing 
 interesting in its ap|)carance, and the land, as 
 compared with the adjoining colonies, is low, not 
 lieing discernible maiiy miles from the shore. 
 The siirl'ace is very irregular : on the J*'., S., and 
 \V. sides the land is h>\v towards the sea, and 
 rises abruptly by [)recipitous acclivities iu terraces 
 of greater and less extent, to the jioiiit of highest 
 elevation, <Jn the E. side it rises almost perpen- 
 dicularly from the sea to a height of 50 and 80 ft. 
 
 A A 
 
srA 
 
 UAKBADOS 
 
 hi.' 
 
 li 
 
 Oil the windward, or XK. nido, there i« a ledfje of 
 rockn, c»llcd the Colihlers, nt a Hliort dist-Rnre i'rom 
 the Hliore, which renders (lie npproacli to llie islimd 
 dnnp^rouH in the extreme, and Ims donhtlexH cim- 
 trilnited fjrently to nroteet it from hontiie attueka 
 in tiio worn iu wliiuh (ircat llrituin hiu been 
 enfroi^ed. 
 
 It in highly cultivated : Hcnrccly an acre upon 
 it, on wliicli a blade of (,'raN(i ean fjrow, remains 
 iiii]>r<Khictive ; and a IwtterHVHteni ofafrrieiiltiire is 
 jiurHiied than that followed in tlu^ other eoloiiicH, 
 The base of the island is caleanioiis, eonsistin^ of 
 the s|K)ils of zoophytes, of which there are several 
 species. These are so ceineiited top^ther, as in 
 some places to form a hard compact limestone, 
 which is (piarried, and very extensively used for 
 building; and in other phhtes they exist as a dry 
 soft marl, on which are found a great variety of 
 shells, many of them in ])erfect preservation. 
 U])on this formation there is a deposit of a strong 
 HtitV clay, in some jdaces of considerable depth, 
 which constitutes the soil of the most fertile dis- 
 tricts. On the S. and W. sides, adjoining the sea, 
 the soil is sandy and light ; but in other places it 
 is strong, and admirably adapted to the growth of 
 the cane. In one district, on the XK. side, called 
 Scotland, the scenery and s(jil are strangely con- 
 trasted with the Hat and shelving tabU^-land of 
 the other parts. The scenery there is wihl, irre- 
 gular, and picturesque, and the soil composed of 
 mineral substances belonging to the clay genuH, 
 particiilarlv loam, i)otters' clay, and slate clay, 
 lleds of bituminous shale are likewise fre(|uent, 
 and petroleum, or mineral oil, more or less abounds 
 in this district. There are some remarkable in- 
 stances of the soil in this district becoming de- 
 tached from its original lied, and slij)piiig down 
 from a considerable elevation, carrying with it 
 whole fields of canes to a position below; in which 
 extraordinary migrations rows of cocoa-nut trees 
 have accompanied the moving masses. The 
 highest point of land in the island is !Mount Ilil- 
 laby, which rises 1,1-17 ft. above the level of Car- 
 lisle Bay, 
 
 The climate is very healthy. Except the bilious 
 remittent fever, common to all the West India 
 colonies, there is no malignant (lisease peculiar to 
 it ; and the island is free trom any venomous 
 reptile. The average quantity of rain amounts to 
 58 in. The range of the thermoineter, on an 
 average of live years, was, — max, 87, med. 81, 
 inin, 75. Owing to the tlutness of the island, and 
 it»s being open in almost every part to the sea 
 breezes, the heat is not so opjiressive as the maxi- 
 mum range of the thermometer would seem to 
 indicate. The prevailing wind is the Xli. trade. 
 It begins generally about 10 o'clock a.m., and 
 continues till sunset, but it is very feeble during 
 the night. In Jan., Feb., ^lar., Ajiril, and May, 
 it is strong and regular, and the climate, in these 
 months, is peculiarly agreeable. In June the 
 rains set in, and from August to October, which is 
 called the hurricane season, and during the month 
 of Xov., the heat is verv oppressive. The cane is 
 the chief article of cultivation, but a considerable 
 quantity of corn, arrowroot, cotton, ginger, and 
 aloes is also raised, and exported. 
 
 Barbados has been frequently visited by hurri- 
 canes, of which those of Aug, 10, 1(!74, Oct. 10, 
 1780, and Aug. 11, 1831, have been the most de- 
 structive iu their efl'ects. In that of 1674, 300 
 houses, 8 ships, and most of the sugar-works, were 
 destroyed, and 200 persons killed : in that of 1780 
 the loss in human life was reckoned between 4,000 
 and 5,000, and the whole amount of damage, in 
 buildings, cattle, and stock, was estimated at up- 
 wanls of a million sterling: but the fury and 
 
 violence of the last hurricane far exceeded that (f 
 either of the foniier: in it '2,.'»00 persons wcri' 
 killed, and considerably more than that nuniUT 
 wouiiih-d, and the loss in iiropertv aiiKiiiiutMl tn 
 two millioim and a half sterling, '^hc iiniiiitljenci' 
 of parliament, and the iiidtiHtry of the inlmhitantu 
 have, however, enabled the plaiiterM to ncovtr 
 from these heavy losses; and, except the nli'Kiiofi 
 of trees, which gives a bare and naked ap|Kwiiiuv 
 ti> the country, the eHects of this severe visituiidu 
 can iitiw be traced only with didiculty. flu. 
 island contains, besides the ]iriiiciiial town, a 
 smaller town to leeward, (railed Speights Town 
 and two other towns, which are scarcely tn I,,,' 
 descril)ed as such ; ( >istins, or Charlestowii. Snini 
 James, or the Iloletown, the spot lirst scttli'il. 
 llridgetown with a population, in 18(11, of Ih.ii,,;] 
 extends along the sliore of Carlisle Hay, mid, pn! 
 vioiisly to the hurricane, being skirtctd with a ImIi 
 of cocoa-nut trees, it presented a very prottv tiii.l 
 interesting appearance to the stranger. Tlic iki. 
 |iulution of the island in 1851 amounted to l;i,'),'.i:!:i 
 and although the cludcra of 1854 carried uff sonn' 
 20,000 people, the census of 18t!l showed a totiil 
 of 152,727 inhabitants, of whom 10,51M white, aii'l 
 the remainder coloured and black. The harrin ks 
 at St, Peter's, about 2 m. to the S. of Hri(l),'otii\ni 
 are spacious and airy, liaving been all rulmilt 
 since the last hurricane ; they will contain cuni- 
 fortably 1,200 men. There is "an excellent pnriuk. 
 ground, a brigade of gun'*, and a very c(jiii|ileti.' 
 establishment for warlike purposes. The govcni- 
 ment-house is about 1 ni. from the town, hitiuitt' 
 on some rising ground, and commands a hfuiitil'ul 
 view of the town and bay. The market in l!ri(i;;c- 
 town is well sujiplied with poultry, niiittim, iiinl 
 pork, of excellent quality, quite eri'ual, if ii(itsu|K- 
 rior, to the corresixmding productions of Kii;,'lfiiii;. 
 Veal is good, but not in very great plenty, liirf 
 is but indift'erent. Many of the esuiilunt vc;'t- 
 tables of Europe are common. The (piantitv nf 
 tropical fruits grown in the island is sniHll.'hui 
 the quality excellent. The supply of tisli is in 
 general abundant. One descriptiiin, the tlyiii;'- 
 lish, about the size of miihlling herrings, Imt li'rinw, 
 and not so fat, are sometimes so ph>nlif'ul astuliJ 
 undervalued by the opulent, and within the rcacli 
 of the ]u>orest inhabitants. 
 
 The population, as in the adjoining islands, may 
 properly be divided uito four classes : Crenlc ilr 
 native whites ; European whites; Creoles of nii.wl 
 blood ; native blacks. Previously to the abiilitimi 
 of slavery, the population wasestimated at Ilt',."i2i: 
 viz. whites, 12,797, c(doiired, 0,584, and sLivcn 
 83,140. Formerly the cultivation of siif,'ar ivi< 
 almost the only thing attended to, and the iidpii- 
 lation dei)eiidcd, in great measure, on imixirttil 
 l)ri)visions. Hut, for years past, this system Iim 
 been materially modified. Large supplies uf pw- 
 visions, though still far beloAv the <leniaml, are 
 now raised at home, and a rotation of cmps lias 
 been introduced into agriculture. Here, as even- 
 where else in the West Indies, the blacks are ex- 
 tremely desirous to acquire slips of land. Generally 
 they are not well oil'; and from their LiP„'e iiiini- 
 bers sup])lies of labour may usually be obtaiiinl. 
 
 Ilarbadoes is the residence of the bishop of liar- 1 
 bados and the Leewanl Islands, and of one of the i 
 archdeacons. The clerical establishment is li.xed 
 upon a very liberal and effective scale. In l)^i(if,'^ [ 
 town, besides the cathedral and parish eliurcli, 
 tlicre is St. Mary's Church, and in the neiglilx'Ut- 
 hood three other chapels of ease, with a miuutei I 
 appointed to each, and paid by the British govern- j 
 mentand the Christian Knowledge Soeiety. There j 
 are two VVesleyan chapels, and two Moniv»| 
 chapels. 
 
cxoowloil that if 
 
 00 iM>rt<(>ns wtTi' 
 linn tlial numlHr 
 rtv uuKunitcd t.i 
 
 'the nnuiitis'cni-i' 
 if the iiilmliitantu, 
 mitertt to rvcovtr 
 KM'\tt the al)'«'ii('(i 
 naked a|i|K'arHiii'i' 
 ix wvere vi.titiilinii 
 
 1 dittieiilty. '[\u' 
 i)riiici^)ul town, a 
 [I Siieinhts Town, 
 irc scarcely to 1ki 
 LJharlestowii, Sniut 
 
 siiot limt scttli'd. 
 in IWil.ol' WXu. 
 lisle Hay, and, im- 
 skirted witl\ a Ink 
 I a very jiretty niul 
 »t runner. T'he iki- 
 inounteil to i;i'),W.i. 
 iiA cnrrieil ort' winu' 
 8til showed a tutal 
 m lC,u!t I white, aiM 
 luck. The Ijarriicks 
 ic S. of Hridjjctiiwn 
 nf; l)een all relmilt 
 
 V will contain cimi- 
 "un excellent pnrmk- 
 md a very coiniili'ti: 
 poses. The fjuvcrii- 
 ini the town, hituiiti' 
 ommnnds a licautiful 
 he market in liriib- 
 poultry, nintton. uivl 
 lite equal, if notsuiK- 
 )ductioiis of Kngliiiii'i, 
 
 V threat plenty. IWcf 
 )f the esuulciit vf;;c- 
 ,on. The (luantity ni 
 B island is sinuU. tmi 
 
 sinndy of lisli is ill 
 
 ascription, the tlyiii;'- 
 
 \H lierriiiKs. hut linnor, 
 
 I so ph'ntifulastdlii' 
 
 and within the rcadi 
 
 -idjoiningishtnils.may 
 lur classes ; Creole ut 
 lites; Creoles of niixt.1 
 ■iouslv to the abolitimi 
 sestirnatedatin2,.V21; 
 ed, «,r)8-l, and slaves, 
 tivation of sufjiir \w 
 ided to, and the n^- 
 measure, on imiwrml 
 past, this system 1im 
 Lar^e supplies of (iru- 
 dow the demand, .ire 
 rotation of crops liM 
 Iture. Here, as evtn- 
 iies, the hlacksare«- 
 lips of land. Generally 
 ' from their lar^'e niini- 
 usuttllv be obtaine. . j 
 •e of the bishop ot iw- 1 
 mds, anduf oneoltlie 
 . estabUshmentislwl 
 ctive scale. Inlindcf; ! 
 
 al and pari^'^*";;' 
 
 and in the neigW* • 
 
 f ease, with a mnitM 
 
 ' by the ISritish govern- 
 
 .wledge Society. Tliw 
 and two Morav* 
 
 BAKBADOS 
 
 Tlicre are several public establishments for the 
 ,,,li„.„tii)n of the voiilh of thclslainl :— Codrin^jtoii 
 ('iilli"'e, Coih'iiiKtoM Fcinnilation Scbool, lliirrisim's 
 !■>(>(■ Si'liool, and I he Ceniral School ; theiwo laller 
 nre in llridKetown. (Jodrin^ton Cidlep^ is situated 
 I,') or II »>• I"" "' Hrhll^etowii, and was fouiiih-d 
 |,v Colonel (Jodrin^ton, a native of the island, who 
 (I'ifil in ITI'l. Tho object of the founder was the 
 (dinalioM of a certain number of wliit(! youths, 
 anil the reiiK>ous instruction of the blacks; for 
 ffliifh pnrposes he be(|ueatlied landed property, 
 (inialilc of clearinj; il.OlM)/. sterling a year, to the 
 Siii'it'ty lor I'ropajiatiut; the (iospel in Knrcij;!! 
 Parts. This establislnneul is under the snperin- 
 tiiiilenre of the bishop of the dioccMe, who is vi- 
 sitor, a |iriucipal, ami two tutors. It is open to 
 all vountf nun. for whatever profession inlended, 
 lliriiiwliont the West India colnuies. There are 
 twelve theolonicnl exhibitions. T'he college ex- 
 iK'iisc to each connnoner is about 'Ml. sterling per 
 ininnm. The course of study endiraces theolofiv, 
 the classics, Io(;ic, luid nuithematics. All cinidi- 
 (jates are required to be at least seventeen yeai's 
 (il'a''e at the time of admission. 
 
 .U tlie Centriil Schoid about Itll* white children 
 ariM'ilni'ated, upon the phm of the national schools 
 ill |jif;liii>'h AH the (children are fed, and (he 
 major part clothed. From this class of boys, 
 master tradesmen, mechanics, and overseers are 
 supplied. A f^irls' school has also been i'ounded 
 umler the auspices of the ladies of Karliados. 
 
 The trade of the island has varied very much 
 at dill'erenf periods, owin;^ to the uncertainly of 
 the iwps, occasioned by hurricaiu's and bad seasons. 
 The imports amounted to 1,0-111, "Jlhi/. in 18;>!»; to 
 '.•41,7(11/. in IHliO; to !t2;l,«l7/. in IKtIl ; and to 
 '.M.'!,lt"' i" '^''-i showing a ^;radual decline within 
 these four year.s. The exports likewise declin(Ml 
 ilurinc the same period, fallinj^ from l,2-J.'»,.')7l/. in 
 ls:il),tol,07r),:i7l/. in IMOI.and l,0tl7.til-.'/. in I«ti2. 
 The r. States have, next to the IJ. Kingdom, tin; 
 jl^atest share of th(( trade of the colony. The 
 ini|iorts I'roin the V. Kinplom consist princi|)ally 
 of ei'ttiais, linens, wocdiens, and other manul'ac- 
 tureil ;;ooils, hidierdashery and millinery, hardware 
 1111(1 out lery, ajiparel, h'ather floods, ciml, and salt. 
 The imports from the U. Slates consist principally 
 of tloiir, meal, Indian corn, rice, timber, aiul 
 sl[iii(,'los. L.'UTj,'© (juantities of cod, dry and wet, 
 nre brought from the British N.American cidonies. 
 The U. Kingdom sup)>lies about two-lifths of the 
 iiii|Hirt.s. 
 
 The government of the island is administered 
 by a governor, who is also ^ov.-f;en. of the islands 
 oi' Grenada, St. Vincent, T'obaj^o, Trinidad, St. 
 Lueia, and their respective dependencies. There 
 is a legislative council, consistiuf; of twelve mem- 
 Ix'rs, and a reprcscntjitivc assembly, constitutctl 
 by a return of two members from each of the ]ia- 
 rishes— making twenty-two nu'mbc^rs. The dura- 
 tiim of the assembly is twelve months. If there 
 k'less than seven members of council resident in 
 the island, the goveriuir may fill up the mnnber 
 toseven for the despatch of business. The governor 
 is chancellor, but he sits in chancery with the 
 aumeil, who act as judges both in the court of 
 cmirand in equity. TTierc is a court of common 
 pleas held for each district, monthly, during eight 
 raonths of the year, hut no court of king's bench. 
 k ftcneral sessions of the peace is held twice a year. 
 The revenue of the island, previously tt) the abo- 
 lition of slavery, was raised by a poll-tax upon 
 slaves, and by duties on sj)irituous liquors an(i li- 
 censes; but it is now derived principally from 
 diiiiea on imports and exports, on the tonnage of 
 silip, on spirituous liquors, and several minor 
 anidcs. The revenue for the year 18(>2 umoutited 
 
 IJ.MUtAUY 
 
 ;i.'i.'» 
 
 to On,(',K-.>/., and the expenditure to 0.1,4«l/, ; for 
 the year IMC,;), the nveiiiie was |0-.'..">7".'/,. and the 
 expenditure H) l,7'.t.'i/. Iloth revciuie and expelidi- 
 ({irv doubled in the ten years lH."p.'t-(i;l. 
 
 The proporthin of the '20,0(11 t.OOO/. voted by par- 
 lianuMit for the abolition of slavery paid to the 
 colony was l,72l,;i 1.")/. I!t.«, "(/. T'he value of the 
 slaves was est inwited at .'l.Kl)7.27(l/. I'.'x. ; and the 
 average valiu- of a slave, from I.H22 lo IKIO, was 
 •17/. 1.1. •.\h,l. 
 
 HAK HANT.WK, a town of France, dcp.l'ouihes 
 du Ifhone, near the conlhience of the Dnnnice ami 
 the Khone, I in. .S\V. Avignon. Pop. :l.O.'i(t in 
 iHCil. T'he railway from Lyons to Marseilhs luw 
 a station here. The environs produce excellent 
 wine. 
 
 ILMi'IlAIiY, the name usually given in niodeni 
 times to that portion of N. Arrlcii which coirqiriscs 
 th(! various countries between the W. frontier of 
 Fgypt and the Atlantic on the one hand, mid the 
 N. frontier ol the Sahara, or (ireal Desert, and this 
 Mediterranean on the olher; or between 2.')° F,. 
 and 10° \V. long., and :I0° (o :17^ N. hit. 1( con- 
 setpu'iitly includes within its limits the empire of 
 .Morocco and Fez, with the regeoiies of Algiers, 
 T'linis, and T'ripoli, iiichidiiig llarca. I'nder the 
 IJonian dominion, il was divided into Miiiiritiiniii 
 Tliiiiiltiiiii, ciirrespondiiig to Morocco and Fez; 
 Miiiirifuniii <i/w(;'/c«.s/«, to Algiers; Afriiii I'rapriti, 
 to T'lniis; and Ci/iTiinirti and the lU'ijiu Si/rlii'ti, to 
 T'ripoli. Its extent may be taken at from (>.')(>,0()(> 
 to TOO.OOO sq. m. ; and its popnl.'ition has been va- 
 riously estimated al from 10,000,000 to ll.doo.ooo. 
 
 T'he. name Ihirbary has not, as has sonu'tiines 
 been su])posed. been given to this portion of Al'ricii 
 because it is occupied by a barbarous and ignorant 
 jieo])le. It is di'rived from tlm name of its tmcient 
 nihabitants, usually styled licrlwrii or Kiilii//i:i, 
 and should therefore, in strictness, \m called l>er- 
 bery. The Arabians call k Mnjihirh, or tlu! region 
 of the W. ; but though this name correctly points 
 out its situation in ndation to Arabia, it would b(! 
 iiu'orrcct if used by iMmijieans. If a new nanu! 
 were now to be adopted, it might be called the 
 Jii'f/ion of Atlas, inasmuch as it includes the whole 
 of that great mountain chain, with its numerous 
 rainitications. This designation has, in fact, been 
 given to it by .some g<!ographer.s. 
 
 In anticpiity, this i)art of Africa was distin- 
 guished as being the seat of (,'artliage — that great 
 connnercial rejnddic, that waged a lengtheiu'd. 
 doubtful, and (les|ierato contest with Iiome her.-Milf 
 for the empire of the world. After the fall of 
 Cartilage, it formed an important part of the 
 Konnin emiure. It bad many large and tlonri.sh- 
 ing cities, ami was long regarded as the princi)ial 
 granary of Ucnne. After being overrun by the N. 
 barbarians, it was subdued by the Saracens; and 
 imder their sway accpiired a lustre and reputation 
 scarcely inferior to that of the most brilliant period 
 of its ancient history. IJut the Saracenic govern- 
 ments in IJurbary, like tho.se in other countries, 
 gradually lost their vigour, and became a prey to 
 every sort of disorder; and this great country ulti- 
 mately sunk into the lowest state of barbarism 
 and degradation. A handful of Turks and rene- 
 gades acquired the government of its linest pro- 
 vinces, and subjected them to the most brutal and 
 rev(dting despotism. Heing unalilc to contend 
 with the liuropean powers in regular war, they 
 had recourse to a system of piracy ami marauding ; 
 which, though often partially abated, was not en- 
 tirely siq)])ressed till the conquest of Algiers by 
 the French. 
 
 liarbary has far more of a European than of an 
 African character. Owing to its being pervaded 
 by tlie great chain of Atlu.s, it has every diversity 
 
 A A 2 
 
:\M 
 
 HAIIHAHTEH 
 
 !'»•'•'' 
 
 1 1t 
 
 mm 
 
 of siirfnco, nni! is rrmnrknlily well wntoroil. Tlio 
 I'limiilo Ih pxcclliMit ; nml it nriHliicrx all llii>fn'<i>i<>* 
 mill I'riiiu of S, Kiiro|M>, in tlu^ ^TviitcHt |H'rf('<ai<>n. 
 Ill iiiicit'iil tiiiK't ilH Ivrlilily wim muuIi um lu Us 
 ulinuttt iirovcrliiul: 
 
 ' Fruinontl (|uantum mntit Africa.' 
 
 Jlor. Hat., lib. 11. rat. H. 
 
 and notwitliMlniiilin^^ tlio wrctohod trontmcMit to 
 •wlilcli it M now siilijcrt, tho fertility of tho Hoil 
 continiu'H iinimpikircd, anil with no ninniirc, cxrcpt 
 )HTiiHioiinlly liurniii^ wtt'iU and hIuIiI>Ic, it pro- 
 (liici'H the niimt liixiirinnt oropH. Tho site of the 
 fiiniiMis pinleiiH of the lIcsperideH whh orif^iniillv 
 plneecl in llnrcn; but they were e/irrieil farther W. 
 as lliii (iri'i'kn lieeanie lietter neqiiainteil with the 
 const, mill with t)ie rii'hi'x anil capaliilifieH of the 
 eonntry. (For a full aeeouiit of thiH iiiterestini; 
 re;;ioii, llu^ reailer is referred to the nrtielcMon the 
 dilien'iit eoiinlries eompriMed within itH liinitM and 
 to those on Ati.ah, (.'onhtantink, Ac.) 
 
 IJAKHASTKS, or MAItHASTKO, a town of 
 SfMiiii, .Ara^xon, near the Cinea, 28 in. SK. IIiieNca. 
 i'op. T.fioO in IHo". It is siirroiinded hy wails, in 
 the scat of a liisliopric, and has some taiinerics, 
 
 HAKIIK/IKIIX, a lown of France, (ic|. Cha- 
 ronte, cap. arroiid., on tho road from Anp)iileinc 
 to Itorileanx, 21 in. SW. Anpnilcino. l'o[i. 'A,H7H 
 in IHtil. It is a(lvnntnpH)nsly sitnated on the de- 
 clivity of a hill, at the extremity of an extensive 
 and fertile plain. It is well linilt; has a court of 
 orij^'inal jurisdiction, a linen maMiifactnro.and some 
 trade in' wine, corn, cattle, and especially rxinl- 
 try. Tho chaixms truff'da of liarbeziuiix are highly 
 esteemed 
 
 IJAKIJUDA, one of the W. Indian islands bo- 
 lonf^iiiff to ({rent liritain, 27 m. N. Antigua, 15 m. 
 in length by H m. in breadth, Totjjl area, accord- 
 ing to odicial measurement, 75 square miles. The 
 census of IHtll showed a pop. of 71.'}, of whom only 
 4 white. There were 318 males and .'Ut') females. 
 The island is tlat and fertile. It is a projyrietary 
 of government, and belongs to the CiMlrington 
 family. Com, cotton, pepjier, tobacco, are pro- 
 duced in abundance, but no sugar. It has no har- 
 bour, but a roadstead on its AV. side. 
 
 IIAIMJY, a town of I'riissian Saxonv, on the 
 Kibe, 14 m. SK. Magdeburg. Top. 4,(!!»7 in IHfil. 
 It is well built him an old castle, two Lutheran, 
 and one ("nlvinist church, with fabrics of cloth, 
 cotton, and llax, auai)-w()rk8, breweries, anil dis- 
 tilleries. 
 
 IJAHCA (nop;»i)), n district of N. Africa, forming 
 tho l-;. portion of Tripoli, extending from 2f!4° to 
 nearly 33° N. lut., and from VJ° to 2540 E. long. 
 Tlie limits are, however, very uncertain towards 
 the S. and K., the countrj', in the former direction, 
 terminating in the Libyan Desert, and l)eing, in 
 the latter, divided from Egypt by wandering 
 tribes of Bedouins, who acknowledge no authority 
 in any settled goveniment. On the N. Harca is 
 bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the VV. 
 by the Gulf of Sidra (the Si/rti» Magna of tlie an- 
 cients), and the goveniment of Sert or Sort. 
 (Ilccchy, 210; Pacho, 11); Hecchy and Pacho's 
 Slaps.) It extends 500 m. from N. to S., but the 
 cultivated and inhabited portion terminates at 
 about the Slat parallel, 01 40 m. only from the 
 farthest N. ]>oint of the coast. The greatest width 
 from E. to W. is abwit 300 m., and the area may 
 be estimated at about 78,000 sq. m. (Heechy and 
 Pacho's Maps.) 
 
 A mountain range, at a short distance inland, 
 fronts the whole extent of coast line: this range 
 apiiears to have its greatest ehivation near the 22nd 
 ineriilian (at the town of Cyrene), and to decline 
 1-Jicnte both towards the E, and W., terminating, 
 
 UATICA 
 
 in tho former diroctinn, in the plain of I»wr>r 
 KgypI; in the latter being coiitinuiMl rniiiul ili.' 
 gulf I ill it vanishes in a low swainpS. of M)'xiirnt;i. 
 The leoxt elevation of these inoiintaiiis iscHiiniati'i 
 at 400 or 500 tt., and the greatest at l,Hii.-, ft, i, 
 is iipim tint siden and HiininiitM of these hilN that 
 the only impiilation and |>riNluction is fiiiind, 
 though the great plain towunls the S. is pnilinlilv 
 preserved from some of the wnmt features of |||',, 
 desert by a range of sand hills extending frumttjv 
 oasis of Ammon to that of Maradeh, which mint 
 <if necoHHity form «*»»« jirotection from the nHin, 
 of the sirocco. (Ileechv, 107, 21(1, 252, 4;)l, &(•• 
 Pacho, 57, 83, VM. 'il'i, <tc.) 
 
 There ore no rivers, but innumerable moimtnin 
 torrents, and wells are also tolerably aliiiiujaiii, 
 though many of them contain only salt or Imicki.'i 
 water. On the whide, however, the »iiim/i/(i/h Iimri 
 is not very Imdly irrigated. Home years since, tlii> 
 Americans made a temporary Kettleini^nt at lli'mn, 
 where, taking advantage of the many IIih>i|(>.| 
 ravines, thev built a water-mill of very sinipli' inn- 
 struction, w)iich, by a little skill in dnniniini; iiji 
 the stream, works nearly all the year. (Paclm, '.i'.m 
 The ancient sacreil fountain of (Tyrone is |M'miii- 
 iieiit (Meoi^hy, 424.),an(l (irobably the only wtrwini 
 in llarca that is so, with the e\ce|itiiin of nmV 
 terranean rivulet, near Henga/i, which isHiip|Hw>| 
 by lleechy (320), on goiwl grounds, to Ik; tlii! I,a- 
 tl'ion or Lethe of Ptolemy (iv. 4), Pliny (v. 5), aihl 
 Htrabo (xvii. 83(5), and the Erceus of Srvlax, 
 (Perip. 1 11.) Though stretching as far as \VS° N„ 
 liarca has an equinoctial climate. The rniiiy 
 season appears to commence sometimes as early m 
 November, and at others to delay its violence till 
 the end of Dccemlier, or even till Jaiutar)' : iluriii'; 
 such delay, however, the intermediate sensun i< 
 showery, and when the rains descend in thiir 
 strength, the mountain roods become nearly, if'ina 
 quite, impassable. The ravines pour down lor- 
 rents, which, in their progress, carry with tliciii 
 earth, trees, and stimes of enormous size; andtmi- 
 vert the narrow belt of flat land between the 
 mountains and the sea into enormous nnimliix. 
 The temperature is, of course, generally hi(.'ii, Imt 
 the powerful evaporatiim makes that ofwintir 
 something lower than might be onticiimted, mul 
 absolutely cold nights are not unknown. The wri 
 season, as in other countries, is iishcrwl in liv 
 storms. (Heechy, 41 , 59, 247, 281, 347, Ac.) 
 
 Notwithstanding the celebrity of this coiinln- 
 in ancient times, it is only within the last furiy 
 years that any thing accurato has been kanml 
 concerning it. Its very outline was erroncmijly 
 marked in every map and chart previously id 
 1828 (see Syiitis) ; and every account of itosdil, 
 climate, and fertility was nearly the direct revcr* 
 of what experience has shown to he the tniili. 
 The ancients, with the single exception of Hwi- 
 dotus, have combined to represent the coasts uf | 
 the Svrtis as an irredeemable desert. At Iwt 
 such IS the impression given by Strabo, Pliny. ' 
 Scylax, and others of all the country W. of Ilfrf- 
 nice (Hcngozi) ; while the modems, followinf; l.w I 
 Africanns and the Arab histxirians, have cxiemliil 
 the same description to all the land l)olwefii 
 Tripoli and Alexandria, till the term Barca Ix'rame 1 
 synonymous in European language wth barren- 
 ness. (Strabo, xvii. 838 ; Pliny, v. 4, &f.; | 
 Scylax, Perip. 113, &c.: Leo Afric. v. 72, 4c.) , 
 But, to say nothing of the gardens of the Ilosr^ 
 rides, situated on this coast, it b irapo.ssililc f 
 reconcile this idea of utter barrenness with tlic 
 pastoral life said by Herodotus to be led I'y'liM 
 aborigines (Melp. 'l8()), or with the snlw«iiifiit 
 coloni.sation of the country by thc<}rocks. N'iill»'f I 
 is it likely that Ilerodotiis, who so aceiuratcly Ji- 1 
 
\\n\n of I,owir 
 
 IUImI Mlltul til" 
 
 S, of McMiroiii. 
 
 illH i^CKliniltlrA 
 
 III i,H(t:.fi. It 
 tlu'Hu \\\\U that 
 ;tl(in in found, 
 ic S. in priilmlily 
 fciitiircK tif till' 
 ;cn(UiiK friimtlu! 
 W\\, wliirh mu»t 
 from thi^ «ft'i'(it 
 J, 252, 431, «ct.; 
 
 lornliW". motintn'm 
 ■raliU' nliiiiiilaiit, 
 ly unit iir liriicki.'i 
 I'liv moiintiiin liiul 
 fii' yciirrt Kiiici', till' 
 tlt'infiitnt Itiriiii, 
 lie mmiy lliMulcil 
 if very H'iin|ili' I'mi- 
 U in timimiinK' w\ 
 yciir. (radio, li'.i.) 
 "Uyrrne in (KTma- 
 ly tlic only Ntrciiiii 
 Ki'i'iition of II xiil>- 
 , wliioli Ik miii|Hwi I 
 intlH, to Im; till- 1.11- 
 ), I'liny (v. r)),«n'l 
 Erci'UH of Scylax, 
 iig OH far iwlW°N„ 
 iinato. Tlic rainy 
 inctimcH bh onrly m 
 lav its violciiw till 
 iUJnnuBf)': iluriiv; 
 Brmcdiatc (tonsmi \* 
 A descend in ttnir 
 »ecomo nearly, if ml 
 nes pour down lnr- 
 »8, carrv witli tliMii 
 •monsiiize; ami con- 
 land bctwoi-ii ilio 
 enormous mnrslic, 
 nonerally liit-'li. ''"i 
 akes that ofwinta 
 lie antifiliatPd, nii'l 
 miknown. Tlu' wii 
 St, is ushered in liy 
 ,2Kl,»47,&c.) 
 irity of this cimiitn- 
 ithin the last forty 
 f.Q has been kanuil 
 fine was cnoncmisly 
 chart previniialy iji 
 ir account of it» ^< 
 •ly the direct revcr* 
 ■n to Ihj the tniili. 
 u exception of HcDi- 
 present the coasts "f 
 lie desert. At W 
 II by Straho. Pli")' 
 country W.-'fl^i^ 
 .dems, folliwinc 1;^; 
 ians, have exieiuidl 
 I the land bot««n 
 ctermBa/-calH«»i« 
 nffuage with bamn- 
 Plinv, V. 4, w.; 
 ,oAMc.v.7;W 
 irdens of the 1 f P 
 , it is impo&* '" 
 barrenness with m 
 'us tobclclhyrt 
 
 vith the sult^pff" 
 tho.drocks. N[itW| 
 •ho so accuracy 
 
 IIAUCA 
 
 nirilien the ' rmt mtmlif ilrtfrt ' in the interior 
 |Mi'l|>- ''*l)> "Ik'hI*' ^>nvt'. omitted nil nii'iitimi of 
 liii' tiart'ticd and barren soil, liiiil any Much existed 
 or. liie hi^l' '"■■'I'* ■"'"'' ''■<' coast. In fuel, the 
 iiri'vuli'iit dns«;riptions of Harcn have Imm-ii, for 
 \rnn«, li'll" f""^' ''"*" f'lbles; the S\V. ciiriur, in- 
 ilcct (Jiiiiiinjfon the desert), seems fully to justify 
 tl„i iiiriiiintH of utter desolation Kiveii of ii ; but 
 1.. anil N. '•'" coinilry rapidly improves, ami pre- 
 ^,.iii-i extensive crops of corn ami lar^e fields of 
 lAiriU'iit paslnraKi*. 'I'he inoiinlain sides are in 
 iiiiiil ciises thickly wooded, and I'overed with an 
 , NCtlU'iit soil i and CAen the sami itself (on the 
 ..jjcirc) is niaile, by little labour, liixuriaully pm- 
 (liiclive diiriut,' the rainy season. The trees consist 
 dl' iiiiies, olives, laurels, with a ^reat variety of 
 ijiiwcriii),' slirid)s and climbers; such ns roses, 
 iiiiiri'-'tiiias, liom^ysm'kles, an<l myrth's; but the 
 inr^ iniisl in esteem here, ns in ev<'ry other Mo- 
 liiiinmedan country, are the varicais species of 
 (liili'!<, palms, and lijrs, which (lourish in threat va- 
 riety and abunilance. The corn which this country 
 {iroiliiees is chietly barhiy, or dlioiirra, and oats, 
 laptain lleechy saw, in the nei;;libourhood of 
 |i'iij;azi, larjje (|uautities of oats, which he con- 
 fiilirwl to he the K/Hmtani'oiiM |iro<lucti(in of the soil. 
 I heir situation was, however, in open tracts amoii); 
 fircsts, apparently deserted cultivations (i>. lill), 
 mill the ^rain wan therefore, pmbiddy, tlie pro- 
 iluit of the last iieKlected crops. It is' a singular, 
 liiit, except in n few nccidcnini instances like the 
 1 resent, a universal fact, that the bread corns are n«> 
 wiiiiitK INDIOKNOUH. The fruit — p"apes, melons, 
 |nini|ikiiis, inelonrani (or ep^; plants), cmunubers, 
 iiniltiimatas: n peculiar plant, called linuria, is also 
 raisoil, though not in ;;rcnt nbitndancc; tine nrti- 
 eliiikes, and >;rceii and red pepper, are also very 
 |iltntifid. lint the idant for which this country Is 
 ihi'iiiost reimirkablu is the 8il|ihium, an iimbel- 
 liffriitis perennial reHembliuj^ the hemlock or wild 
 larrot, uf which the most mnrvellons talcs are re- 
 l.itt'il liy tlio aucic'iits. Its origin was said to be 
 iiiimculous ; it perished under cultivation, but 
 ihriivc ill the most savage and neglected deserts. 
 A li(|iii(r produced from it wtts esteemed nn almost 
 uiiiversnl remedy for inward ailments ; and various 
 (iintments, compimiuled of the stalk, leaves, and 
 nKit,wcre hehl to be equally efHcaciuus in outward 
 afiplications. The silphium was an object of pidj- 
 lic, almost of divine, lioiU)ur; it was an ottering 
 to the (Icitied king of the country, and its tignre was 
 .stamped upon the coins of Cyrene. (I'liny, xix. H ; 
 x.xii. 22; fheophrastus, iv.'jJ; Aman, Iliat. Ind. 
 xliiL; Ex)). Alex. iii. 2H, ifec.) It docs not, how- 
 ever, appear to ditfer essentially from other sopo- 
 riiic plants of the same family. (IJcechy, 40!)-420 ; 
 I'acho, 247-26.5.) Thus, though not very varied, 
 llic |inxhictions of Barca are siitBciently abundant, 
 and nothuig hut industry seems reqi'iisite to re- 
 store this country to the state in which Herodotus 
 k'liekl it, when three successive harvests, on the 
 loast, on the sides, and on the summits of the 
 moiuitaiiis, occupied by the (Jreek inhabitiuits 
 tii;ht months in every year, (lleechy, 2til, 331). 
 at?, etp<m.; Pacho, 51), 9<J, 163, 235, et pass.; 
 Hero.1. Slelp. 199.) 
 
 The domestic animals, camels, horses, oxen, 
 a.<.*8, sheep, and goats, arc extremely numerous, 
 iiiul form the riches of the present wandering, as 
 if the ancient settled imitutation. The hog, for- 
 lidilcn by the Jlohammediin law to the faithful, 
 is found only in his savage state ; but in this 
 Mate he exists in great numbers, maintaining his 
 gmmid against the jackals, hyanias, and other 
 wastjiof prey that infest the same locality. In- 
 >«ta are exccetlingly numerous ; anil even the 
 locust, which is a frequent visitor, is scarcely more 
 
 ;j.)7 
 
 terrilile (to straiignrs nt least) than (he myriads of 
 llies, iM'ctles, liens, and other noxious vermin, 
 wliieli the heat of the climate and the llllliy lieg- 
 
 ligen if the inhabitants preserve in cnnsiant 
 
 strength and aciivilv. (I'aelu), ill -til, 235-2 Hi, 
 *c. i lleeehy, lit?, 211, '2Hi\, 301, rl imiiiii.) 
 
 The iidialiitants ariM'xelusively lleilnuin Arabs, 
 with the exeeption of a few Jews in ilielown.s. 
 The Aralisdill'er in nothing from tlieir"ountryini'U 
 ill other jiarts, except in being dirtier, less active, 
 and exhibiting the worst parts of their national 
 cbarai'ler in a nmre exaggerated form, The eonn- 
 Iry is governed by a bev, snlijeet to the pacha of 
 Tripoli; and the |H>))iilation, notwilbstinnling the 
 resources of the country, is thin. Its aiiioinit pro- 
 bably does not exceed l,l)iMi,(H»t». (Ueechy anil 
 I'aeho, /msiilm,) 
 
 The original inhabitantMof this district are called 
 by Herodotus (Mff/xim, /hihii.) Africans (Ai/Suuir), 
 a term which he seems always to distingiiiih 
 carefully from I'.gyplians (.ViyuirrKui'), but whieli 
 certainly did not mean n black race of nu'ii. Ac- 
 cording to Slrabo, it would a|>pearthat, even from 
 the earliest times, thev were Arabs following Ihu 
 wainlering pastoral life, whieb prevails among 
 them to the present day. (xvii. M35.) The I'lue- 
 niciaiis appear to have traded with them at a very 
 early period ; and from their deseriptiou of the 
 country probably arose the tirst fani'iliil idea of thu 
 Hesperian (lardeiis, which, as already ob.served, 
 weri^ supposed to have llieir seat in this eonntry. 
 It is proliable that the report of this luxuriain'i' of 
 the district was one inducement to the (ireck 
 settlement in Cyrene; but the iininedialc cause 
 seems to have been the. pressure of piipiihitioii in 
 Lacedainon, consequent to the cxiiiilsion of the 
 descendants of the Argonauts from Leinnos by tlin 
 I'ela.-gian population of Attica. After a troubled 
 residence of some years, these exiles threw olV ii 
 large body of emigrants, who, under the coiriniand 
 of Itatlus, and \>y order of the Delphic oracle, esta- 
 blished the tirst tireek colony in Africa of which 
 there is any nu'ord. The pressure of population 
 continuing in Lacediemon, and the oracle urging 
 the Grci^ks to foHow their contitrymen, a geiicrul 
 propensity to emigrate was nt last excited ; and, 
 about sixty years after the tinit adventurers bad 
 landed, a movement that might almost be called 
 imtional, was made toward the African shores. 
 The natives anil the Egyptians seem to have b(!en 
 equally alarmed at this irruption ; they combined 
 to expel the intruders, but received so decisive a 
 defeat that few of the Egj'ptians returned to their 
 own country. In the succeeding generation the 
 town of Harca, which subsequently gave name to 
 the whole conntrA-, was built. This once famous 
 city has now vanislic<l, and even its site is a matter 
 of dispute. For a generation or two, there were 
 now two (Jreek kingdoms in Africa, that of Cyrene 
 and that of Ifania; l)iitli. however, shared the fate 
 of their Egyptian neighbour, and, under (Jambyscs, 
 became a part ol' the Persian empire, and so re- 
 mained, till the contpiests of Alexander changed 
 the aspect of Eastern attairs. Under his successors 
 they formed a part of the (Jreco- Egyptian king- 
 dom; but before its fall they passed into tlie, 
 hands of liimic. With the iiTuption of the northern 
 nations, Africa fell for a while Ix'ncath the])ower 
 of the Vandals; but the rapid conquests of the 
 early Mohammedans quickly added this country 
 to their (Unninions. This wiis the inst important 
 revolution. Durbig the many centuries that the 
 Ureek and Koman ruled in Itarca, civilisation, 
 arts, and sciences flourished ; the remains of aque- 
 ducts, temples, and other mighty works, suHiciently 
 attest this fact ; but the relincmcnt was entirely 
 foreign, and vanished with the exotic impulutiou 
 
il.'iH 
 
 IJAHCI 
 
 I 
 
 f* 'i.rf'1 
 
 
 wliii'li iiitrrxliunt it. TIip Anil) Im ii^rnin llii> xolo 
 
 |H»Hc«H(ir (iC iIk- (Miil j iiiiiI tlic il('Nrri|ili<>ii nl" the 
 kIii'IiIktcI, u'Iiii Iii'IiI il lii'luri' (lir llni'k iirriM'il, 
 voiilil ill rvrrv iiii|iiirtaiil |>Mrliriilnr ;i|<|ilv In liiiii 
 
 III llii'diiv. I'Ik' I'ilii'N III' iliin iiilrv, I'"!!! riiillv 
 
 I liii><r nC llirt'iiiri' (/'»■»"/'//('), Ar-iiiiir, Itiinii, A|i>i( 
 Iniiiii, mill Cvri'iir, M'liii'li ){iivi' iiiiiiii' III till' ili'<trirl 
 
 rulli'il l'l'lllll|iiillM (llii'TairoAK), nrv \rr\' IiiMiiiUn 
 
 ill iiiitii|iiily. 'I'licw towiiH, liiiwi'vrr, lVti|iiriill\ 
 I'liiiiiKi'il tlit'ir iiiiiiii'M, mi lliiil it ift NiiiiK'tiiiii'H ilir 
 lii'iilt III riilliiw till' aiii'it'iit writers, 'I'Im- iiiiiih' 
 Iturrii liii>, llll^vt'^')'r, iiiiili'rKoiii' im rli;iii^)Miiii| I lie 
 \V. ilivi«iiiii III' llif (•iiiiiitrv it siill Dillcil Cvrt'- 
 iiitira, 'I'lic ]']. |iorliiiii \n riilicij Miiriiiorica, wjiiili 
 iNllIwi MM illiriclit ilriioilliniltioll. 
 
 IIAIiCI'ilil )NA, a city ami Hca-|iiirl nf S|iiiiii, iiii 
 till' Mi'iliti'miiiraii, I'lip. |iriiv. ( 'iitiiloiiia, on ilic 
 iiiiir;;iii III' a I'riiitriil |iluiii. Iiclwccii Ilic tImtm llt'siiN 
 ami l.liilinv'iil) at llu' funl nf Muiiiniiii'li tMium 
 ./i,t<iH),:i\r, III. km:. Matlriii. I!M in. N K. Valcmia, 
 I'liiini'cli'il liv railway willi Imlli tlu'sc ritii-s I'lip. 
 Kili.ill l.aiiit iiu'lmliiiK the niiliiirliN |H:(,7H7,ai'i'iiril- 
 ill^; III lli(> cciiMiiH III' l^.')7. 'I'Ih^ town Im Nirminly 
 rnrtillcil, lii'iii)r KiirriiiiMilril with Hlroii;i; walh.ro^Nc.H, 
 and liattcrii"*. 'I'lic- citailcl to Ilic N K. of ilu- rity 
 Im a r(';,'iilMr oi'tiiKiiii mi llu- Nystcni of V'aiilian, 
 witli arriiniiniiilatiiiti for T.oiiil incn. 'I'lic I'itailcl 
 coiniiiiiiiii'Mtcs with tlic furl of San CarloMoii tlic 
 wii, hy a iloiililc I'livcriMl way, wliicli KiirrimiKlM tlu^ 
 city as liir IIS liarn'loiirita. Tlic fnrircss of iVfoii- 
 Jiiiiicli. on the iiioiiiittiiii of that iitiitic, is luokcil 
 n|ioii, if jiriijKTly f,'ariisiim(l, as iiii)ircgnalilf; il 
 ciiiiiiiiamis the town mi the S\V. 
 
 The I'itv is (livideil liy I he |iriiinpiiad(>, cnlled La 
 Itainlila, into two nearly eijiial jiarts: that to the 
 N'W. Iiein;; called the new, and that to the M'",. 
 tli(^ olil ciiy. The ^trl•ets in the latter iirc^ nar- 
 rower and more crooked than in the fonner. 'I'lie 
 houses, which are inoslly of lirick, are j^eiieruily 
 from four to live stories lii;L;h, with nniiieroiis win- 
 dows ami lialconies. The old Itoinaii town may 
 ftill lie distinctly traceil, oecni>yiiiff a small enii- 
 iience in the centre of the city, with one of its 
 gates and some of its towers well |)r('served. Willi 
 the (•xeeption of the cathedral and cnstom-lioiise, 
 ami the old pahicc of tlii^ kiiif,'s of Arnpni, lew ol' 
 the pulilic liiiililiiiffs are worth any special not ice. 
 The cathedral is a nohle strneliire. in iIk^ later 
 (iothie style, with tinely paintiMl windows, and a 
 choir of n'ood workmanship and siiif^nlar delicacy. 
 With the exception of that of the Dominicans, 
 tlie convents are destitute of any nitractions; and 
 the records and pictures of the heretics who had 
 snlfered in the city from llx!> to I72ti, descrilied by 
 Mr. Towiiseiid as existuij^ in the latter, are no 
 lon;;er to he met with. 
 
 linrcelona has a myal junta of frovcniment, and 
 is the s<'ttt of the jmivincial authorities. A Junta 
 dc Coiiiercio, or hoard of trade, supports piihlic 
 professorships of iiavipition, architecture, iiaint- 
 inj;. sculpture, jierspective landscape, and orna- 
 mental llower-drawiiif^, ent^raviiif^, chemistry, 
 ex)ierimental philosophy, agriculture, and botany ; 
 hhort-haiid writing;, coinintTce, and accounts; me- 
 chanics, and the Kn^lisli, French, and Italian lan- 
 ^ua<;es. It has a larjjje cabinet of coins, and awards 
 ]>ensionH and rewards for stijierior attainments and 
 useful inventions. It also maintains some of its 
 ^'tudellts in forei^jn parts, U> jierfect themselves in 
 their studies ; and has expended Itiry^c. sums in 
 drawing iihiiis and takiiij; levels of the f^ronnd for 
 canals and other public works in the iiroviiico. It 
 lias also four public libraries, an ecclesiastical semi- 
 uarv, cifflit collej;(^s, a collcjre of surj^emis, and 
 ])roi'essorship of jiractical medicine, a collej^e of 
 phanriacy, academies of arts and sciences, and of 
 he/ks lettres, u school for (leaf and dumb, house of 
 
 ;l()na 
 
 industry (Unil Cam tlr Caruliiif), luimpruiin hn<. 
 pilals, a fmindliiig iiintltnlion, mid sevi-riil niinr 
 cliarilii'M. The general hospital is a well iiiaiiiip,| 
 iiistiliiliiiii. The piipulation of the city Imn n,,, 
 ail cxrlii'-ively Spanish iippi'iiraiice. Spii'ii^li Inn, 
 MIC scarcely lo lie seen, and the manlillii j. |„,| 
 indispensable. The features of the l'i'niiili> up. 
 more n^'iilar, their forms Hli^liier, ilicir i.,iii 
 pleximis clearer, and their hair lens cmirM' ilnm 
 llial of the Andiihisian ladies; biil their eyei' luu,. 
 less exprcsKion. The dress of the jieiiKaiilrv in i,, 
 ciiliar, their red caps haiiuin^ n fool iIohii tlmr 
 backs ; crimson (girdles, and ^aiidy cnloiiri'il |iliii.|., 
 I^ive iheiii a liiKhly Krolesi|ue appearaiiri'. bur 
 celoiia has some line public walks; the UnmUi 
 already rch'rred to, is always crowdnl, unil i,' 
 hardly inferior to the Itoiilevards of I'aris, 'linn 
 is also Ik cliarinlii); walk round the ramparH, \ui|| 
 delii^'hiful views, parliciilarlv towards tlie wh. 
 
 Tlieo|H'ra hereenjoys a coiisiileralde repiiinilun; 
 the interior of the theatre is laru;e and haiiilMiinii 
 There are several valuable libraries and ciilliTiiiin, 
 ofMSS. ; especially the royal archives of iln' kiin;. 
 dom of AniKiiii, containing 2ii,iliiii Iohmi. ,Ms>^ 
 H,iHill in folio volumes, and IKMI papal bulls Ilir 
 jirincipal maiiiifaciiires are those of Nilk, Ir^iilur, 
 lace. Wind, and cotton, but noiu! of tliein ariMviv 
 lloiirishiii^'. 
 
 The trade of llarcelonn has declined Hiiiic tho 
 emancipation of Spanish America; but it is >ii|| 
 far frmii iiicmisidirable. The subjiiincil <.i,'ii,'. 
 meiit. compiled from ollicial returns, ^Ivcs Uw 
 nuinlier of yi/'(7/V/ vessids which entured the |H]ri 
 of itarcelmia dnriiijj; llu; live vears UllKMll, (i,. 
 f;elher w ilh the aninnnt of their toima^'e, niui tliv 
 total value of cargoes: — 
 
 Venn 
 
 VrlKli 
 
 Tom 
 
 Value of CargoM i 
 
 lHi;i) 
 
 170 
 
 ;17,7!I.'1 
 
 
 isi;i 
 
 i:t:i 
 
 .•||.7H,'i 
 
 ;ins,i;ii5 
 
 lH(i-2 
 
 l.'iO 
 
 4(I.!I!I2 
 
 !)il,7'J0 
 
 iHii:i 
 
 IS.', 
 
 4ll.l!iO 
 
 KiT.lll.'i 
 
 1M(14 
 
 104 
 
 •J7,<ll'> 
 
 s:i,H70 
 
 The principal imports arc cotton, siijrnr, tj.li, 
 llidl^s, ('ocoa, iron boojis, cinnamon, dye-wiMiils iii. 
 digo, staves, clieeso, bees' wax, ciill'ee, hnrii-, mil 
 specie, mostly from America. Cuba, ami I'lirti 
 Itico. Th(( exports consist of wron;;lit silks. mi;i|i, 
 lirearms, pajier. hats, laces, ribands and steel. 'Ihc 
 j harbour is formed by a mole running to a run- 
 I siderable distance in a H. direction, having n li;.'lii- 
 lionse and haltery at its extnanity. Tlie il(|iili 
 of water within the mole is from IH to 20 ft; bin 
 there is a bar outside, which has fre(|iiciit!y imi 
 more than 10 ft. water. When in the liarliuiir. 
 vessels are jiretty well protected; they arc, linw- 
 ever, exjiosed to the S. winds, and great ilonw^'e 
 was done hy a dreadful storm in 1><2I. Lir;;i' 
 vessels are obliged to anchor outside tho inuli'. 
 The Commercial activity of the city li.^s gnailv 
 iiii]iroved since the oi)eiiing of the lines of railway 
 which connect it with the capital ami tlio iiiii>i 
 important towns of Spain. A railway acrii.*^ ilic 
 I'yrenecs to I'crpignan completes the dircd in- 
 terconrso with the iiort hern .states of Eiirn|K'. Tiic 
 line from Itarcelmia to Saragossa was chiefly cmi- 
 striicted with the aid of French capital. 
 
 Itarcelona is supposed to have been foiimirl 
 about 2(1(1 years before the (.'liristian era, an(l>'i 
 after the establishment of the Cartluigiiiiaiis in 
 Spain, and to have been named after its InuiiiliT, 
 Ilamilirar Harciuo. After the Koniniis ami tjie 
 <ioths, it was subjugated hy the Aralis, iiiiii'' 
 beginning of the eighth ce'ntiirv; ami ww n- j 
 coiKiuered from them by the Cataimii«iis,iiiik(ll';' 
 
Valumf (•rgowi 
 
 HAHCKLONA (NKW) 
 
 Clmrli'inW" •»'"' I-uiliiviro I'Id, hi H(t|. \t whm 
 III! II ((iivi'riK'il liy I'liiiiitN, uliii \M'ri- iiiili'|H'iiil>'iit 
 ».Mnwii'<. ••" •'"' ''•"' "' •'••' twiinii rciitiiry. 
 wlii'ii it »ii» ••<''l<'<l. Iiy iiiiirriiiKi'. t" ll"' <ri»vii «( 
 \ii\H'iii- lliiri'i'loiiit Ih ilifiliiiuiii.ilii'cl ill lilt' liisinry 
 
 ,,| llll' lllilMIl' l>K>''* '■>'' III*' ''-''■■If Xl^ill' llllll KII<'<'<"<H 
 
 ulih uliii'li her rili/.i'iiN iironfi'iilcil ciiiniiu'ri'iiil 
 iiinlrriukiii^'H. Ml*- HJii^'ly riviilli'il llii> iiiiiritliiii' 
 ti,\\\[!i III' linly ill till' n>iiiiiirrrc III' till' l.i'Miiii; 
 llllll MMH mil' III' till' lirxl III r.'4liilili?«li riiii'iiK iiiiil 
 lai'iiirii"* ill ili'*iHiil I'oiiiitrii'H, I'nr thr iirulntiiiii 
 ,111,1 Ki>i'iirily III' Irailu. ISIiii wuiilil Ht'i'iii ai^n l<> In' 
 iiiiitli'il til ilx^ liiitiiiur III' liiiviiif; ('oiii|iili'il iiiul 
 pruiiiik'itli'il ll *^ liiiniiiiH I'liilr iil' iiiuritiiiii' liiw, 
 known liy llic iiimu' III' till' Ciiiiiiitlulit lUI Miirf t 
 ■M,\t\\>< I'lirlicHt itiillit'iilir iiolirt'H nf tlit> |iru<'llrr 
 nl iiiiiriiiciiiHiiniiu'ii, llllll ul' llii' iii'^ntiiitiiin ul' IiIIIh 
 „l i'.xrliiiiiK*'i uri' I" I'*' loiiiiil ill ln'r aiinali*. S\\v 
 liiuH Ik'i'ii >■>•'■'•' I'l^lcliriiti'il iiM a I'liiiiiniTrial tliaii an 
 
 II iiiuiiiit'ii'liiriiiK town; IIiiiiikIi ill lliiK, uliiii, licr 
 i,rii„'rt"<H liHH lit'cii vory rcNiicfialiU'. 
 
 llurci'liiiwi liiiH mi.'«laiii('il hcvcii rrKiilar hicuch 
 Miui' ill* ri'i'iivcry I'min I he Aralw. DiiriiiK lli*' 
 (jriiitt'r ["'ft "•' liK' war of tin- Siu'ri'(t»iiiii, it, ail- 
 hiTiil liriiily til till' parly of C'lmrlci; Imt. al'liir a 
 ili^lK'riilc ri'siHiani'c, it wtxn taken, in 1711, liy I lie 
 larri'H III' I'liiliji V., rniiinianiU'il liy llu! Ihir ilc 
 llirwirk. The Frnicli pit jinHMi'MKiiin of it in 
 jMM, anil licpt it all tlirmif^h tliv I'ciiiiiMiilar War, 
 
 III JH'JI it was attarkcil liv iHh' vi'llow I'l-vcr, wliirli 
 l-Miiiil til have earrieil olf a lil'tfi jinrt of the jinpii- 
 liiiiiiii. Thirteen eoinieil.H have lieen helil here, 
 mill alHive tweiitv-foiir asHenililieM ol' ilie ( orteH, 
 iImwii III the liwt, III I70)i, It ha.M hail, mImi, many 
 vi>iiM friini the iSpanixh niniiareliN, uh iliey were 
 iilill^'cd liy the law.s of (Jataloiiia to appear here 
 ill ihtkiiii to Ih! erowiieil anil taki; the oatliM an 
 Nivt'rei){iiH (if this prineipalily unil of Arapin : 
 MJiii'li cereniDiiv was oliservetl down to the lime of 
 riiilip \'. (Miiiaiio, Uieeimiario (ieoKralieo, ii, 
 ;;:iii-;)'.)(), and Siippl., art, ' Ihireelona ;' Keport of 
 Mr, (.'iiiisiil llaker on the Trailu uf Itarcelmm for 
 iMil, ill 'Ciiiisnlur Iteports.') 
 
 IIaik.'Ki.ona (Xkw), a town of Coloinliin, cap. 
 prov., nil the left bank of the Neveri, alioiit ii m. 
 friim the sea, and 10 in. .S\V. Cuinana; hit, ltl° Ii' 
 M " N.; Iiiiif;. M° 47' VV. Kstimated puii. KMKMI ; 
 nliiiut half of whdin are Avhite!*. At the lieK'iimiiifr 
 111' till' present century, it had a eonsideralile trade 
 with the W. india islands. It is still a plaee of sonic 
 iiiiiinicrcc, heiiiff well situated for tlie exportutiun 
 III' the cuttle and other prodiicit of the liuiwn to the 
 W. India islaiiils. Speaking neuerally, it is badly 
 Imiit; the houses beiiif^ of iiind and ill furnished, 
 'i'lic streets are unpaved, which makes them lillhv 
 iliiriii;; the ruins, while in dry weather the dust is 
 inliilernble. It is said to be one of the most iin- 
 licalthy places in ,S. America. It was founded in 
 WU\ previously to which, the cap. of the distr. 
 wiiH Ciimnnn^oto, two leagues hi^rher up the river. 
 
 ItAlJCKLOXICTA, a siilmrb of ISareidoiia, on 
 tlicSE.hiileof the river, often considered as a sepa- 
 rate town. It was built in 1754, on a uniform 
 |ilim, under the direction of Marquis Miiiu: the 
 iioiiscsare all of red brick. 
 
 liAKCELONl'yi'Ti-:, a town of France, de'p. 
 liasses Alpes, cu)). arroiid. on the L'bave, ilO m. N K. 
 IliKiic. Pop. 2,42t) in 1«C1. It is beautifully 
 >itimted in a tine valley at the foot of the Alps, 
 iiUiw i),800 ft. above the level of the sea, 1 1 
 imisiiits principally of two main streets, which in- 
 tersect each other at rif^lit uncles ; the houses are 
 neat and good ; and, altogether, this is perhaps the 
 liiuiilsDmcst town of the French Alps. It has u court 
 •if i)rif;inal jurisdiction, a college, a iirimarv luir- 
 miii school, and an ji^riciiltural socmty. Above 
 20U silk looms have recently been established here, 
 
 UAKKIIA' 
 
 a.so 
 
 and it has also Home manufacture* of cloth, ami 
 fulliii){ mills, 
 
 lluri'i'liiiiette ii believed to orciipy thfl ^ite of 
 a Kiiiiiiiii iiiwii. Ili'in({ on the Iroiiiier of two 
 states freiiiM'iiilv al war, it lias beiii re|M'al«'dly 
 liikeii and reliikm : but was ilelliiilively cedrd 
 III Friiiici' by the Irialy of Itiecht. It was the 
 native plar'e of Maniiel, the lllieral deputy, In 
 wliiisi' mi'iniirv a nioniiiiK'nt has been cniisirui ted 
 in the priiK'ipal sipiare. It <'iin->isis of a fountain, 
 Niiriniiiinii'd by a fiineriil urn, and haviii){ on one 
 nf its siiles a bust of Maiiiiel, with the insrriptioii, 
 tiikeii from lleran(rer, ' Uras, lete el cu'ur, tout 
 I'lail |M'iiple en liii.' 
 
 IIAlit I'lLoS, or HAHCFI.LOS, a town of I'or- 
 tiipil, pMv. Minbo, on the Caviido, I'm in. N. 
 Opiiriii. I'lip. i'l.'.'oii in iH.'iM. It is surniiindi'd 
 by walls Hanked with towers: Klreets broad and 
 HtraiKht, hniises well built : it has a line bridge 
 over the river, ii griimiiiar-schoiil. a hoHpiliil, and 
 a Workhouse, The town is verv ancient. 
 
 IIAIIDSICV, a small island of N. Wales, in Ihn 
 Irish Sea, near the N. point of Cardigan Hav, 
 CO. Caernarvoii; hit. fi'J° l.j' N., loiif;. i*^ 111' \\ . 
 l.t'tiKlh about 'J III.; breadth I in. The pop. in 
 IN.'II was HI, but had decreased in IHlil toNI. The 
 island contains ;i7(> acres, one-eighth of which is 
 a inoiiiitaiii ridj^e, feeditit; n few shee|iiinil rabbits; 
 the rest a tolerably fertile clay f dl, Krowiiin piod 
 wheat and biirli'y. Its rciiliil dues not <'\>"ed 
 KtO/. a year, in three distinct holdili;{s. It in ac- 
 cessible only on the SI'',, side, where there is il 
 small well-sheltered harbour for vessels of ihirty 
 or forty Inns. On the N. and SV.. it is sheltered 
 by till' proiniiiiliiry of llraich-y-l'wll, 'i^ m. distant. 
 In the chtinnel between them is a very rapid cur- 
 rent, rendering it unsafe, exceiit to experienced 
 bands. The perpeniliciihir ami [inijectinK dill's 
 are a great resort of |iuliins and other migratory 
 birds in tin- breeding season, and their eggs form 
 a considerable trade, being gathered by men siis- 
 iw'iideil from the Hiiimnits oi'tlie pronioiilory. There 
 IS a lighthouse on the island (with lixed and re- 
 volving liglils), established in IH'II, under tliu 
 Trinity House, having the lantern eli^vated 141 ft. 
 above the sen. It is said to owe i's iireseiit naiiiu 
 to its forming a refuge for the last Welsh banls. 
 It had an ancient and celebrated abbey, the nniiual 
 revenue of which, at the general suppression, was 
 •Hi/. \s. 4,Jrf. The site is traceable only from nu- 
 merous walled graves, and a building called the 
 Abbot's Lodge. In a ruined antiipie oralory, with 
 an insulated stone altar at the F. end, the cluin'h 
 service is reail on Sundays by one of the iiihab. 
 to the rest, when the weather does not permit them 
 to resort to the parish church of Aberdavon, on 
 the promontory. 
 
 IIAHFILV, an inl. distr. of Ilindostan, prov. 
 Delhi, mostly between 2«° and 2!)° N. lat. ; having 
 N. the distr. of I'illibheet, F. and SF. Sliahje- 
 han])orc, and VV. and S\V, Saiswan and l^Ioraila- 
 bttd: area t!,i)llO so. m. ; surfuce generally level 
 and well cultivated: the Ganges bounds it VV., 
 and the liamgnnga and many small streams inter- 
 sect it. In summer the heat is intense, but during 
 winter, with N. winds, the thermometer fallH 
 below iJU° Fahr., anil water freezes in the tents. 
 A few years ago there were said to be 4,4,")«,il80 
 kucha begas of hind in cultivation, assessed with 
 a land-tax of 2,2(i(),2S() nijiees, or a little more than 
 H annas per bega. jNIost of this is realised, though 
 the gov. not resorting to sales of land for arrears 
 of taxation, as in the lower provinces the land-tax 
 has always been diflicult to collect, and much 
 depends upon the decision and judgment of the col- 
 lector. 3,31)2,022 begiis are lit for culture, but not 
 in actual tillage ; and 3,558.{jU<J bcgas are reported 
 
 I 
 
.'»(I0 
 
 IIAUKILY 
 
 I't <■ 
 
 , i 
 
 [0 
 
 h' 
 
 'I 'l^ 
 
 
 (W wMtc, To the N. lluni U tniirh JiinKli', nml 
 lirluri'ii lliiri'ily rltv HH'I Ain>|i''ln'r I'Hifiinlvi' 
 Miifli'N jiri'Viiil, niiiKlHlliii; III' IhiiiIh mIiIiIi vivtv 
 (iiriMi'rly riilliMilnl, liiil lire imw rnviTcil with 
 UiKKtftn^f, wliii'li iniri'lii'M mill iiilliiiiii't In niiiiiiiii'r, 
 mill ntMiniit* Miili liixi'M, Jiirkiilx, liii^M, Mini ^iiint', 
 lli'<liii|i IIi'Imt Kiiyx, lliiil till' Hull iihil I liniiili'Ki'iK' 
 riillv iiri' very liiii'; in miunI |iikrlH ilnii |ialiiin iiml 
 |ilaiilitiiii4 nrv ('iiiiitnnii, hm will mm wmImiii, ii|>|ilr, 
 uiiil pnir iriTFt, xiiii'H, Af. 'I'IiIh i|i«ir. U imiril li.r 
 a lliii' N|K'i'ii'N iilriif riillril /'i/iim«/(' (|irri^'iiiiiil with 
 iHrl'iMiir), Hii|i<'riiir tn the ImhI nl' riiiii.i, IIiik 
 liiiiiilry, III Ki'iii'ritI, in Miiiirrinr In llml nl' (hnlr, 
 iiMil llii' iirlii'h'N iiriiiliirril nl' ii lu'iirr i|iiiililv : Ihi' 
 "iiK'ir, rii'f, niiil cnlinii iirc Ihc hi^'InKl jiri'ri'il in 
 liiiliii. Till' nuiilH Mini liriiiui'M iirc lii'ilir lliaii in 
 innxt piirlH III' till' |lrili'<li jirnvincrN; iiinl ilu'riirl 
 t'niiiiiiiinlv ill MM' in n liiru'<'r luiii innri' cniivi'iiiriil 
 vi'liirh' lliiin iliiit III' ili'iii^iil, l''iirinrrly n utt'nt 
 iIi'mI III' will, rillli'il hiiniih mill, wum inililr Cnllali' 
 rnlly with iiitri', in lliiN ilitir., ami cNjinrlcil in 
 hir^)' i|iiiiniilii'M, 'rhr iin|>nriN I'min Ihc Inwir 
 liriiv.ariM'liiclly ('liint/.i'H,nni|jiii'!<,Hiilt,i'iiiir"«'Hni:nr, 
 mill I'lith'rv, t'litiiiiiM, rhciii) triiil\i'lH, I'nriil, IicuiIn, 
 mill MJiivc-^irlH: arlii'li's Iniiii (he lull ri'^inii, ami 
 <'\'i'n I'mni 'I'hiliri, wcrr rnrincrly iniiinrli'il lliilhcr 
 nil I III' liai'liH III' ^nalN, 'I'lic iiilial). m\' pri'lly 
 ri|iially iliviilcil iiiin lliniliin.miinl Mnhainnicilaiis : 
 lliii Irilic III' lliiiijari'cM (rarricrn lunl Imllnrk 
 iliiviTM), cxlinialctl iil I I.IHhi, liavt' hi'i'ii all cnii- 
 sii'lril rrmn lh<- rnrinir In the Inttrr I'ailli. Not 
 Iniil,' Minn' llarrily ilistr, was nvcrrini liv (.'Imi.t nl' 
 Miihainnicilan warriors, nr ratlu'r liainliiti, rriiily 
 III Join any h'ailt'r who chuNt' lo hire tlu'in, anil 
 many ihnnsanilH of whniii Ncrvcil iiiiiIit llnlKar, 
 •It'swiitit Wow, <kc, : llii'v Wen- lii-iatVri'tril In llii' 
 llrilish pivt'riiiiK'iil, ami for many years iliHiiirlicil 
 Ihc i-oiiniry hy rolilicricH ami other eriineH : lliey 
 have at lennth iinmlly either itisjierHed or nettleil 
 liowii into iiion* <|niel. livcN: lint Itureily is still 
 a ilistr. froiii which Jiiilieiala|i|icalH to theHn|irenie 
 eoiirls art! very l're((neiit. There are 1(18 I'erNian 
 ami lllo Hindoo sclionls in thiH ilistr,, eiilirely 
 siipiiorted hy the jinpils. Ilimlnns ami Miissiil- 
 iiians have no Nerii|ileM as to mi.\iii(( to^i-ther in 
 these estahlislitnents: reading, writiii)^', aril liinetii', 
 and I'erHian eoiiHliliite the |irinei|ial hranclies of 
 tuition, 'I'lie original Sanscrit name of this terri- 
 tory was Knttair, till incoriiorated with Uohilcnnil ; 
 with which it was cimIciI, in 177-1, lo the nalinii nj' 
 Omlo: since IKDI it IntH been under the Itritish 
 ]iri sill, of Iteiifrnl, 
 
 llAitKii.Y, a city of Ilindostnn, cap. of the above 
 district, seat of a court of circuit and nppeal, bead 
 of a judicial division, and one of the six chief pro- 
 vincial cities in the lleiipil presidem;y ; on the 
 banks of the united .lo.inh and Sniikrah ;"lat. 2H° -''X 
 N., loii^r. 7!lo Hi' K. ; 42 ni. N\V. of tlie Oaiif^es, 
 and 7(10 in. t/jVV. (Calcutta. Total area 2,!i;t7 sij. 
 III.; pop. l,37«,2(iM in isiil. The principal street 
 is nearly 2 in. loiif;, and tnleralily well built, but 
 I be hniises are only one story bij,'h. Then! are 
 several inos(|ues, and an old fort ernniblin^ lo 
 ruin, 'i'be Itritish civil station and (tantouiiu'iils, 
 coiisis(iii)^ of a quadraii^^nlar citadel, Hurroundeil 
 by a ditch, stand S. of the town. 
 
 The chief manufactures are brazen water-pots, 
 decorated with varnish and a remarkable iinitatimi 
 nffjilding; other household articles; witbMiiddlery, 
 cutlery, carpets, embroidery, and hookahs. Tlierc 
 are till rersian and Hindoo schools in Hareiiy, 
 ;)(•() seminaries, attemUtd by alioiit .S,((()0 puiiils, 
 and an established Eiifrlisli coIU'ku with (JD stii- 
 <leiitM; II persons teacli Arabic, and 2 others me- 
 dicine, and in the vicinity there are 9 liindoo and 
 13 Persian schools. In IS 1(5 an alariniiifr insur- 
 rectiuii broke out in tlila eity, occattioncd by an 
 
 IIA1U<>I>< 
 
 nllempt to Impose n |Miliii< \nx, whirh wv n.it 
 ijni'lliil willmnl limcb dilllciilly and lili>ii,|,|„,,| 
 'I'be lanil.-t In the vlrinily are but k ii, iil„,t,, ,)„', 
 watern III the KaniKiinKn, utid are uiimialj^ in,,,, 
 
 duled. 
 
 IIA l{ I'.NTt tN. n town iif I'rniice, d.fp. r,« Miiiii I,,., 
 cap. cant., 7 iii. Mi. .Mnrlalx. I'np. 2,Ii|m In |mi:i] 
 
 IIA lil''l,l'',l'lt, a x'li jinrl iii«\ii nf Kritiii'i', i|,,,[ 
 I. a Maiirhe, III m, i;. ( 'hill Hiir^. I'np, |;iii| j,| 
 iMill. Its harliniir, whiih tMM otien cniiaiitirulili' 
 \» nntv choki'd lip with siiiiil. 
 
 II.MKiA, H fnwn nf t'eiitral Italy, iimv, l.iiivn, 
 
 near the .Serrbin, It! Ml. .N. Lllri'll. I'np, III' ,11,' 
 
 (riit 7,7!Mi in iMiil. There are tine Jns|K'ri|iinrrii» 
 ill its eii\ irnim, 
 
 llAiHiA, a tnwii nf Nnrllieni flalv, priiv, Ciiiij 
 •in III. SSW. I'urin. I'np, .'I.'.khi in' ixiii. |, j^ 
 
 nillialeil at the I'nnl of the Alps, lieiir the jil't |,|,„|, 
 
 nf the (Hiitidnii. It has a maiml'ai'tury nl' iiriiK, 
 and a pnlly active cniiimene. 'I'lieru am njut,' 
 ipiarricH in its vicinity. 
 
 llAlttiKMOM', atnwii nf France, dep. Vnr, ; 
 III. NM'l. Iira^ui^min. I'lip, I,n7ii in Iniii, |, 
 siimds nil a hill cnvered with vines and iiliMH,i)ih| 
 shellered bv mniinlaius. Mnreri, tlie aiitlmr ,,r 
 till' fainoiis bistiirical ami bin;^ni|ihii'iil ilirtjiiiuirv 
 (I.e (iraiiil Itiriiuiiiiuire lli.siorii|iii'), was ii,,/;, 
 here in Ml ill. 
 
 IIA III (an. HiirlMin), a Dcn-pnrt and riiy n| 
 Soiilhern Italy, cip. prnv. nf Himie ii/mii', mi il,, 
 Ailrialic, .Oil in. NNW. 'i'areiitiim ; lal. IP 7',','' 
 N., liiiiK. M° '■>;»' 2" i;. I'np. ill,;i27 ill l>*i;i. Tl,,. 
 Inw'ii oci'iuiies a toiif^iie of laud of a triiiii;;iii,ir 
 form, and is defeiided by dmil'le walls aiiij a lil.i 
 del. The views from the ramparl alinve ilie li,',r- 
 biiiir lire «'Xtreiiiely line. Streets iiarrnw, iTnnki'l, 
 and liltliy; bniiscH ninstly mean; water lirmki-li 
 and bad. rrimipnl public buildings, — ivitliiilriil, 
 with a steeple 2li:l ft. lliiil; the old iirinry of Si, 
 Nichnlas, founded in 10^7, resorted to hy iIIhiixhikIs 
 nf pilgrims; the college, fminded In iHI7 fur il,,; 
 education of nobles; the lyceimi, the new thi'iitrc, 
 and lite vai^t building of the ilinceNan seiiiiimr\, 
 which admits 120 sclmlars fmm fniir priiviiKVN 
 who are fed, lodged, dnilied, and iiistriii'ti'il I'.r 
 ei;,;ht iliicatH u month each. It is the seat ul' im 
 ari'hiiishnpric, and of a civil and criiniiiiil loiiri, 
 Ite.sides t he eat hedral it has several parish cliiinhi <, 
 and cnnveiits for both sexes, an nrplian n-yliini, 
 two hospitals, and a lar^e arsenal, iiu liuiiiiK wiiliiii 
 it enrii ina^'a/.ineM and a monl tk pii'li. It Ii;i4 
 fabrics nf cottnn, doth, silk, hats, snap. (,diiss, \i\ 
 The iiviiiia stomufliiiii, a liijiior made of licrli.'* mil 
 spices, and used all over Naples as rlinnne ciijj' . it 
 iirepared here in (;reat perfection. The jmrl.wliiili 
 IS encumbered with sand, only admits siniill vrit- 
 stds ; but in the roads there is i^ood aiirlinrn^'c in 
 from 1(! (o IK fathoms. Nearer the shore, in CrMiii 
 Id to 12 fathoms, the ground is foul ami riKiy, 
 A railway, opened in \Mi), eoiiiiecls the town «iili 
 Traiii and Aiicoua, and ma,v possibly cniitrilmli' in 
 raise tli<! fallen fortunes of the place. Itiirii-ii 
 very ancient city. 1 1 is referred to by 1 birace, Hmi 
 iiiiiiiiii /lisroHi. (Sat. i. T).) In mor(' nuideni tiiius 
 it fell successively into the possession of tlic Sara- 
 cens and Noriiiaiis. It has been three times nearly 
 destroved, and as often rebuilt on the same |iia<'<'. 
 
 liAiilLK, a town of Southern Italv, prnv. 1'"- 
 tenza, 4 in. SSK. AlelH. Pop. 4,272 in W<\. h 
 stands on a hill, and has three elmrches. It wm 
 founded by a (Ireek colony of the Lower Kmpirc. 
 
 IJAIMAO, a town of France, dep. (iarii, cii|'. 
 cant., Ill tn. K. Alais. Pop. 2,523 in IHlil. 
 
 HAli.IOLS, a town of France, dep. V«r, cup. 
 cant., 12 in. NNW. HriKnolles. Pop. 3,43.hii 
 l«(!l. It has a lilatiirc of silk, with fnliriis "I 
 paper anil earthenware, distilleries, and laiiniric. 
 
•n-|i()rt iiinl <iiy "( 
 
 ' Hlltnc llllllll', (Ml \\u 
 
 turn; Im. IP 7' .VJ' 
 H,;l'J7 in iwil. 'Ilir 
 laliil iif II lriiiii;;iil:ir 
 iIiIm Willis ami II liia 
 Huirl iiliiivc ilii' liiir- 
 I'l'lH iiarniw. cninki'l, 
 I'liii ; wilier liriicl.i-li 
 iilililinHC— <'fill»'ilr;il. 
 llu- olil iiriiiry "f Si, 
 iiirU'd t(ilivlli"ii«nM.U 
 imlcil ill JHWIiTili.^ 
 iiin, (lie new lliciun, 
 • iliipi't'Him (ifiniimry, 
 I'miii I'mir |iri.viii.i-. 
 jl, and iiiHlriirti.l f.r 
 ll in I lie will "f m 
 anil criiiiiiiiil ri'»ri. 
 vcriil \mrisli eliiiriln ', 
 , an orpliiin ii--yluMi, 
 nal.iiu lulling wiiliiii 
 \oiit ill- piiti- I' !'■'■' 
 lirtts, sdap. kIiiss, h: 
 ir iiiiiiU' (if hcrlpi* "11 1 
 lies iw i7i"»fi«' <"J)' ., i^ 
 iim. TliciMirt.wirnli 
 iilv ailinil!! HiniiU vc*- 
 |i«'pK«l niicliiirivi; i" 
 iriT the A\uxv, in rp'ra 
 1(1 JH foul luul riHy. 
 miurlslhclDWinviiH 
 ii(.ssil)lv iiiiilritiuli'i'i 
 till' iiliiri'. Hiifii-'l 
 0(1 to liy ni>riu'f, /I'l'i 
 n inoro iniMlcni liim* 
 (Msos.«ioii of the Sara- 
 ten tlirec times mnrly 
 lit. oil tlifi xamc plai'. 
 [hern Italy, iimv. 1'"- 
 :.,,. l.'iT'i in l«f-l. it 
 Irec churclie». It wm 
 If the I^owcr l•:ml)i^. 
 
 jiiee, iltV- •■""'' ^'''''' 
 2,r)-23 in lXt'>l. 
 •aiicc, lU'p. V«r, onp. 
 
 lUcs. I'op. '^<^^' ";. 
 
 silk, with f«l>nis,"' 
 illcries, iiiul tiiiuHTi'-. 
 
 TIAHKINO 
 
 f),, ^iilttrrrnnonn rhii|M'l of tlin riihvttnl vt\n\M\\ 
 ,,l lilt' iMiri'fiHileil (.'aritii'lili-H \\t\n Noiint very tiirioim 
 
 jIllllM'lil''"' 
 
 |IAKKIN<i> A lowii nnil (mr. of Kiit^liinil, eo. 
 
 \:.«\, llllllll. Ik'Hi'iinlril, on llie UiHJiii;;, M III, I'',, 
 {.iiihlmi, I'll" |>o|iiiliilliiii, wliirli Mitit :{, till in 
 
 IH.II, llllil ri^ell III ,°i,ii7il in iHlil, 'I'lic wluile \M 
 rl<li liil>l n I Hip. of IM.tllHl in IMIII. Till' Inwil IH 
 Miiiiilnl itl till' III''*'! "f Harking {'tt<i\ las tlui |{it- 
 ilnu, U'lotv I III' loMii, i!< nxniilly <iille,|. ' liere il 
 HJilrli* «"'• r<'eelve» llio liile of llie 'I'liniii. ;. i in. 
 iiIhivi' ill illllnx illlii lIlill river, 'I'lie ItiHllllKCoK 
 irinliMiiii'li illlineiliiili'ly iiIkivi' till! t<i\wi, ImiI Iiiw 
 Iniii itiinle niivi^iilile for niiiiiII eriil't li> tiforij. 
 'riiccliiirili w«» fiirinerly altiielieil (otlu-rnleUNIf-''! 
 iiMxy, i»iiil lii»« iniHiy eiirionn inoinif||enti«. 'I'lif 
 li.iiiit in II vii'iiriine, with two elmpeU \^,/*v at II- 
 Tiril, llie oilier III Kpjiin^ h'orein iinnextiji it \* 
 ,11 ilie piitroiiiiKe ol Ail Souls Coll., {txti^\, 
 ihiri' is a free wlnml niiil market ImiiHe, A courl 
 j. Ill III liy tin lonl of llie liwillur every lliinl week, 
 wlirn' I'lllisen of IrespitHS, anil of ilelilM iimler l*k 
 ;irr irii'il. 'I'lli^ inllilliilillltf* ar(> ellielly tislierinell, 
 i.r i'ii|{iweil iiH liiirKenien ami market carriers to 
 
 1,1,11(1 '{'lie parish coiitainM 10,1 70 acres, nliont 
 
 |,.'iilM(if nliicli are occnpieil Itv llie fori'sl of lliii- 
 iiiiiili, Mliere is the fanioiiN kiiirlop Oiik. rontnl 
 hIiIiIi an iinininl fair Ih held on Ihe lirsl I'Viilay in 
 .liilv. .\nollicr portion, calleil the Level, is sn low 
 ihiii liif;li tides art' only kept out liy an emliank- 
 iii('iit; and it has lieeii Hitliject in foriiier times to 
 rri'i|iii'nt inniidiilidiis. The last HcrioiiM one oc- 
 curred ill 170", when I,000 acres of rich land were 
 lii't, mid Ik Hnndhank fonned at. Ihe lireach, I m. 
 Iiiiit,', Niretchiii>{ half across the. river. After an 
 iiiiiiiccessfiil attempt liy the propriittorM, parlia- 
 nicnl look it u|i as a national (uinceni, and a fresh 
 ('Miliiuikmeiil. was made, which cost. 10,000/. This 
 liim Ih'i'Ii since kept in repair niider commissioners 
 ii|i|i(iiiited for the i>iir|Misi'. The hank is from M to 
 II ft, lii^h, and lias a pathway on its sitmmit. 
 (In'at ipiiiiilities of vcftetahles arc siipiiliud from 
 iIiIa parish to the London markets, heiii^ I'or- 
 wiinlcil tlnelly hy railway. Under the I'oor Law 
 .\mi'ii(lineiit Act, tlio whidc parish is pineal in the 
 liiiMifiird iniioii, and has v'n!,\\\ Kiiardinns. 
 
 Tli(< ahlH^y waH onu of the richest nnil most 
 nnciinliii thu kingdom; it was founded alioiit Ii77, 
 I'liriiinisuf tlui nenedictinc order, and several of 
 lis ubls-s.ses were canonised. In K70, it was de- 
 ^l^lly(<l liy thu Danes, and in the lOth century 
 riliiiilt and restored to its former Hpleiidour hy 
 I'Mpir, Snlisc(|iient tu the Conquest, its piveni- 
 niciit was frennently assumed by thu Kii^lish 
 iiucciis. Its abbesH was oik! of the four who held 
 Urmiinl rank, and lived in ^xvnt state. At the 
 )!i'ii(<ral HiippreHsion, its annual revciuie was, ac- 
 mriliiin to .Speed, 1,0H|/. (in, -lht.\ according; to 
 l)u;;ilnle, H(i2/. I"2.<. itj*/. The alilx'.ss and thirty 
 mills were |M'ii.siiincd oil". There is scarcely a trace 
 lift of the liiiildin}^. 
 
 lt.U!-LK-l)L'C, or HAIl-SlIU-OI{NAIN,ntown 
 111' Fmiia', cap. de'p. Meiise, on the Ornain, 1 J,S m. 
 !'., I'liris, (111 the I'aris-Strasbourj; railway. I'op. 
 Il,!)'.'2 in 1«(U. It stands jiartly on the summit 
 anil declivity, and jtartly at the foot of a hill. Its 
 riiitle, nf which only the ruins now remain, was 
 liiirnt ilmvii in KJi!), and its fortiflcaticms were dis- 
 raiiiiileil in l(i70. The lower town, traversed by 
 the Oniiiin, over which there are three stone 
 Iiriil),'e8, is the best built, ami is the seat of manii- 
 ladiircs and trade. Anions the public buildings 
 arc the hotel of tbe itrcfect, the town-house, col- 
 li'SP, ami theatre. In one of the churches is the 
 rclclirated moiiumeiit of IJenc' ilc Chalons, I'rincc 
 of Orange, hy Kiehier, [lupil of Michael Anfjelo. 
 Dwides the college, the town has n nunnery, a 
 
 lU'lMOl'TH 
 
 301 
 
 norntnl M'h(Hi), n siH'iety of ii^ricultiire nnd of 
 arts, ami a public librikry ; It i« also the seal of 
 tribunals of original Jiiriidiciinii and ci>minerci>, 
 and of aciilincil of /irw>/>K himimr*. The eslabli^h- 
 iiii'iilM f(ir s|iinniiit( coiidii priNlnce annually abdiii 
 ,'(00,000 kiliiKs, yarn J and there are fabrics of 
 ciitiiiii Mliill's, handkeri'hiefs, hoKJery, hats, and 
 JeWidlerv.Milh lanneries, works fdr dyeing Turkey- 
 
 red. riii< railwav, iks wdl as the river Orintin, 
 which is iiaviKHble fniiii the town, furnish threat 
 facilities fur fnrwardiiiK tiiii'ier, vine, and oiber 
 arliiles, fur the supply of Taris. Its ntn/iluriM ilii 
 ii' '' ire highly esfeeined. 
 
 I r.V, a sea |«irt town of Honthern 
 liiilN, [,1 ,, I ,i-irta, on Ihe Adriatic. Ill m. NNV. 
 JJiirti hit. U" I'.l' -JH" N„ hiiiK. \{fl IS' 10" K. 
 
 l'i,p, m.V-l in iMtll. It is ei ipassiil by walls, 
 
 and defeiideil fiy a citadtd ; streets wide anil widl 
 piiveil, l)ut slipi"iery ; l|iiu«',s lar^e and Infly, bilill 
 »vith hewn stone, which, (i,,iH .tge, has acii'iiind a 
 piilidi liltle inferior to that ut' inarliif, I'riiirlpal 
 pnblitr liiiililiiii;— tli(> catlu'driil, a linthic -ilriic- 
 tiire, reniiirkalilr I'ur its hi^ii steeple, (■|e;^iiut e\- 
 leriiir, and the aiillipic ^'lanili' cnlmnns in lis 
 interior : ihere are also several other chiireliiM and 
 eoiivenls fur both seses; ail orphan asyhiin; a 
 ciille^r,,, |°,„, ,,,!,,, I |,y |<',.rdiniinil IV.; and'a haud- 
 siiine ihiMtri'. ,\riir the cbiirch of St, Siepheii, in 
 one of the principal streets, is a eolos.sal bron/.e 
 statue, 17 ft. .'I in. bi^h, npretcntiiij,', as is siip- 
 piisi'd, the jjiiperor lleraclius. Ilailetta is the 
 resiih'uce of a siib-inlcudaut, and an in«peciiir- 
 ^eiieral of Ihe adjoining salt-works. \ inap:iiilicent 
 Kiilewav coiiimiinicales from the luwn to the Imr- 
 boiir. riiis is formed by n mole runniii;; out from 
 the shore with a breakwater lyinn beliire it. On 
 Ihe latter is a low li^dit-house.' The harbour only 
 admits small vessels; but there is jjood anchorage 
 in the roads, with oil-shore winds, at from I to 
 .1 m. N. by \Y. of the li;,'lit-honse, in from H to l.'l 
 fathoms, soft mnddv Isiltom. It carries on a con- 
 siderable trade Willi other ports of the Adriatic, 
 and the Ionian Islands, I'rincipiil exports — wine, 
 oil, salt, corn, wool, lamb and kid skin.., alnionds, 
 and liipiorice. Mr. Keppid Craven says that llar- 
 letta a|ipeared to him intlnitely superior to most 
 N'i'apolitan towns. In winter the climate is e\- 
 ceedin;;ly mild; but iliirin;; (lart of the hot months, 
 it is unliealthv. Ther(( are very productive salt 
 springs about t m. N. from the town, manajfcd on 
 account of f^ovcniment. (('raven'H Naples, p. «li.) 
 n.VI!,MlCN. See l'',I,liKltKKI,I»T. 
 
 lUKMOirni.or AllKKMAU'.fttownmidsi.a- 
 jiort of N. Wales, CO, Merioneth, hund. Kdoriiion, 
 liar. Corwen, ;■),■> m. W. Shrewsbury; lat. f>2° l.'J' 
 N., loiif,'. 4<' 2' W. I'op. of re>{istrar's district, 
 7,lil.'lin IHlil. The town issiluatedon tlieN.side 
 the entrance of the Maw, in Cardi^'an liay, where 
 that riicr opens to an estuary (of about 1 m. in 
 breadth at hi^jih water), whiidi forms its harbour. 
 The hoii.ses are built in siure.ssive ranges up the 
 steep acclivity of a bare rocky mountain, from the 
 bii.-^e III about the sumniit, and are shidtered on the 
 N. and K. by other mountaiiiH. The wlnde has ti 
 sinf,'ularly ronumtic appeariinco. There are seve- 
 ral churches of the established worship, and the 
 Independent.s, (Jalvinist.s, and VVesleyans have 
 chapel.s. ISarinouth ranks hi^'h, as a favi'iiirite pliici! 
 of resort, anioiif^ the waterinj; towns of this coast. 
 There are excellent hotels, with .sen-water balhs, 
 billiard and nssembly-room.s, and numerous re- 
 spei^table h)(l^;inf;-house.s. The entrance to the 
 harbour is partially dosed by the small island of 
 Yn.s-y-Hriiwil, or f'riar'H Island, and by a fjravel 
 bench, on the S. There are shift inj; .sands, called 
 the N. and S. bars, which make the entrance dilli- 
 cult ; and it hs acccssiblo only to veu^cL) of any 
 
362 
 
 HAKNARD CASTLE 
 
 Uront burden at BpriiifX titles. In 1K0"2 it wan im- 
 ]irovGd by buildin|; a Htnnll pier, on wliich tlierc in 
 u Iwacon, There are weekly markets fMi Tiiewlays 
 and FridayH, and four fairs, held on Sbrove-Tues- 
 (iav, Whit-Monday, Oct. 7th, Nov. 2I.st. Miiif)- 
 biiilding and tanninp: arc earried on to some ex- 
 tent in the \\art. Previously to the last Freiieh 
 >var, it traded with Ireland and the Mediterranean, 
 but the eoasting trade is now the only one. It 
 exports timl>er, bark, cop|M>r, lead, and inan^'anese 
 ores, and slates ; and imports eorn and Hour, coals, 
 limestone, hides, and groeeries. The ri\'cr is navi- 
 gable for biirjjes of 20 tons to within 2 m. of J)ol- 
 jjelly. Then' is a larnc turbary in the vicinity, 
 throtifjh which a walled canal is formed, and by it 
 and the Maw fuel is conveyed to both towns. Har- 
 mouth is a creek of the port of Aberystwith : 
 Ahermaw is the Welsh name, indicative of its 
 localiiy : the Knjflisb one was adopted at a meet- 
 ing of'nnisters of vessels, in 17(W. From the har- 
 bour to where the Astro joins the sea, there is a 
 smooth sandy Iwach, the view from which is mafj- 
 nilicent. On the W. are tlie opposite shores of 
 (,'aernarvon ; on the \. hi^'h mountains protrude 
 into the sea; above which, in the distance. Snow- 
 don may l>e seen in clear weather. The line of 
 road to l)olp'lly, 1(1 m. K. of Harmoutii, comi)rises, 
 jierhnps, the most maK'nilicent scenervin Wales. 
 
 HAKNAIM) CASTLK, a mark.-t-to. of i:nj;- 
 land, CO. Durhnni, on the Tecs, 227 m. NNW. 
 London, and 2 m. SW. Durliam. I'op. 4,177 in 
 IKiJl. It derives its name from its founder, Har- 
 nard, an ancestor of John ISaliol, and a native of 
 the place, who erected a stron;; castle, which after- 
 wards iMjcame the property of Kich. III. wlien 1 )nke 
 of (Uoucester. in right of liis wife, Anne Neville. 
 During a rebellion in the time of Elizabeth it was 
 taken by the insurgents, after a stuliborn defence. 
 The town, situated on a stee]> : < ;iivity over the 
 Tees, consists principally of one street, nearly a 
 mile long, well paved, and supplied with water, 
 and of a very cheerful ajipcarance, from the houses 
 being built of a white freestone. St. ]Marj''s church 
 is an ancient structure, with a square eml)attled 
 tower. The Wesleyan and Primitive Methodists 
 and the Independents havt i)laces of worship. It 
 has, also, a national school, formed and supimricd 
 by voluntary subscriptions ; an hospital for widows, 
 foimded by John lialiol ; and a mechanics' insti- 
 tute, with a library. A jury, chosen at the court 
 banm, of Darlingt<m manor, which has jurisdiction 
 for del)ts under Wn., together with the" steward of 
 the manor, have the government of the town. It 
 is a station for receiving votes at elections for 
 members for the 8. division of the co. The manu- 
 lacture of Scotch camlets, which was carried on to 
 n considerable extent, has lately declined ; but the 
 maiuifacturo of carpets, hats, and thread, for spin- 
 ning which there are several mills on the river, is 
 in a thriving state. N. of the town was iMarwood, 
 once a considerable town, and giving name to an 
 extensive tract of country, but now to be traced 
 «mly in the ruins of the church, which is converted 
 into a bam. About 2 m. dLstant there is a chaly- 
 beate spring. The corn market, which is one of 
 the largest in the N. of England, is held on Wed- 
 nesdays, that for cattle on alternate Wednesdays ; 
 fairs on the Wednesdays in Easter and Wliitsim 
 Avceks, and on St. Magdalen's day. 
 
 BARNAUL, a mining town of Siberia, gov. 
 Tobolsk, circ. Tomsk, on the river Obi, near the 
 Altai Mountains, lat. 5;;° 20' N., long. H'd° 2G' E. 
 I'op. 11,635 in 1S6H. The town is the seat of a 
 board for the administration of the mines, and large 
 f|uautities of gold and silver ore are melted here. 
 Considerable quantities of gold are obtained from 
 the latter. 
 
 BARNSTArLE 
 
 llAUNET (CHIl'I'ING), a i)ar. and town nf 
 England, co. Hertford, bund. Coshio, 11 m NNW, 
 London. I'o]). of parish, 2,!)K0 in IHtU. It rniwin 
 n hill on the line of the great N. road from the 
 metro|Milis; and, Iwing n considerable thorDu^li. 
 fare, and having a station on the (treat Nortliorii 
 railway, has usually a bustling a|>pearance. The 
 cliurcb is ancient, with an cnd)attled tower, lliere 
 is also an inde])endent cha[K'l ; n free grnmtnar- 
 school, founded by Eli/.abetb ; another free sciiiMil, 
 foimded 172,') ; and two sets of almshouses, each for 
 six iM)or women. A weekly market on Moii(l«v 
 and fairs April 8 and September 4: the latter 
 being one of tlic principal cattle fairs in the kiii^;- 
 dom. It is the central town of a poor law uniun 
 of nine parishes. 
 
 (Jn the 1 1th April, 1471, the decisive battle took 
 ])lace between Edward IV. and the Earl of War- 
 wick, on (iladsmuir Heath, in the vicinity of tliU 
 town ; when the latter, at the head of the Lantw- 
 trian forces, was totally defeated and .-ilaiii. An 
 obelisk was erected in 1740, in commcmorntion nf 
 the event. 
 
 HAHXSLEY, a market-to. of England, W. rid- 
 ing CO. York, on the Dearne, 155 m. NW. l>y\ 
 London, iil m. SW. York, and 9 m. S. Wakeli'eM, 
 on the (ireat Northern railway. The popnlatidii. 
 which was H,2H4 in 1H21, and 12,310 hi 1«4I, hnil 
 risen to I7,K1I0 in IHtll. The to. (in Doinesduv 
 Hook culled Berneslei/e) is situated on the side of 
 a hill. Streets generally narrow, and houses old. 
 but latterly it lias been much improved, niid is 
 paved, liglited with gas, and well supplied wth 
 water. It has two episcojjal i)laces of worsliip, 
 with a Hoin. Cath. and several dissenting cliapcls 
 A free grnmmar-school was founded in \iVii>, it 
 has also national and other schools, a siibsiTiption 
 library, and a scientific institution. A court baron 
 is held annually, under the Duke of Leeds, luni of 
 the manor •, a court leet, for the honour of I'mitc- 
 fract, with jurisdiction to the amount of .')/,, every 
 third Saturday; and petty sessions on Wednesday. 
 The meetings are held in the new town-hall. Tlii? 
 is one of the places f(jr receiving votes at general 
 elections for the riding. Linen is extensively 
 manufactured, as is also steel wire for needles. 
 There are three foundries, in which steam cnxiiici 
 are made, and bleaching and dyeing are carried on. 
 The place is surrotiiuled witli coal-pits, a gre,it 
 ])ortioii of the produce of which is sent by rail to 
 the metropolis. M arkcts on Wednesday and Satur- 
 day ; fairs on the last AV'ednesday in Feb., l:!lli 
 May, and 1 1 th Oct. A canal, connecting tlie(,'aldiT 
 and Don, passes by the to^vii. 
 
 i>jVi..''iSTABLE, a sea-port town of the Unitotl 
 States, Massachussetts, cap. co. same name, on the 
 narrow isthmus bounding Cape Cod Uav, to the 
 S., 63 m. SE. Boston. Pop. 5,590 in imi It 
 has harbours on both sides the isthmus ; that on 
 the St. side, called Ilyannes Harbour, is pni- 
 tected by a breakwater, formed at the expense of 
 the general government. There are extensive suit 
 marshes in the neighbourhood, whence lar^'B 
 quantities of salt are obtained, and the inhabii- 
 ants are largely engaged in the fishery and coiu-it- 
 iiig trades. The jiort has about 80^000 tons I'f 
 shipping, one-half of which is employed in liis 
 coasting trade and in the cod and mackerel fish- 
 eries. 
 
 liAHNSTAPLE, a port of entry, bor.,and tmii 
 of England, co. Devon, bund. Braunton, on the K. 
 bank of the Taw, where it is joined by the Yen, 
 and at the jwint where it begins to expand intn 
 an estuary, 172 m. W. by S. London, by road, ami 
 233 m. by (Jreat Western Kailway. The j)«pii- 
 lation, which ainoinited to 11,371 in 1 .Sol, hail 
 fallen to 10,738 in 18G1. There were 2,116 iiiha- 
 
iPd town nf 
 11 m NSW. 
 
 . It criiwiH 
 lail from the 
 le t)ii)r()U){li. 
 •at Ndrtlicrii 
 irance. The 
 Dwer. llierc 
 ec urommiT- 
 T free Hcliiinl, 
 luses, each f(ir 
 un Mdiiilny, 
 I: th« latter 
 I in tlic kii\(;- 
 9ur law uuiun 
 
 vo, battle took 
 Karl of Wnr- 
 icinily of tliLs 
 of the Lantw- 
 ivl .-tlain. An 
 mcmuration of 
 
 Uland, W. rid- 
 in. X\V.l>vN' 
 
 . 8. Waketielil, 
 lie populntiini, 
 10 in 1841, hmi 
 (in Doinesdiiy 
 on the niiU' nf 
 mil lu)une« i)hl, 
 Hiroved, anil is 
 1 ttiipplieil wlh 
 t-es of worxhip, 
 suntint; ehaiitls, 
 (led in HJli-'). it 
 *, a subsoription 
 
 A court liarun 
 of Leeds, hird of 
 lonour of I'oiite- 
 unt of f')/., cvcrv- 
 s on Weilnesdny. 
 town-liall. This 
 ^otcs at <^mm\ 
 
 is extciij-ively 
 ire for ncedUs, 
 :h steam eiifjiius 
 iji are carried on, 
 |Oiil-viit8, a great 
 lis sent by rail to 
 icsdavnndSatiir- 
 av ill Feb., loth 
 ecting tlictaldcr 
 
 Ivn of the Unitfd 
 \me name, on the 
 [Cod 15av, to tlie 
 boo in Wfi- It 
 Isthniiis; that mi 
 jiarbonr, is pro- 
 tt the expense ot 
 ^re extensive sih 
 
 , whence laivc 
 .md the iiihahii- 
 ishery and coibt- 
 It 8tl,000 tons "f 
 lemploycd in the 
 
 id mackerel fisli- 
 
 W, bor.,andtnwi 
 tiinton. on the K. 
 lined by the Yeis 
 L to expand into 
 flon, bv road, ami 
 Iway. "The imp 
 b7l in 1«J1. I*' 
 Iwcrc 2,116 mha- 
 
 BARNSTAPL?: 
 
 bited houses in 1851, and 2,187 in 18(11. Tlic 
 town is situated in a vale, sheltered on the 1%. hy 
 a (Hwicirde of hills, and eoiitainH many good 
 (irion streets and well-built houses; it is adeciuately 
 siippliwl with water, and jiaved and lighted under 
 n hical act. The comniunication with the oppo- 
 sltc side the river is kept up by means of an 
 an<'ieiit bridge of l(i arches. Ucsides the estab. 
 clinreli (a spacious old structure with a spire), the 
 IJuptistti, lnilei)cndents, and MetluHlistH have each 
 n ehapeL The guildhall is a handsoine modern 
 huildiiiKi the under part of which is occupied as a 
 niiirkt't-place. There is a pood theatre and bil- 
 iiiird and assembly-rooms ; a tree grammar-school 
 endiiwcd in lt!4!), in which the poet (iay, a native 
 (if the vicinity, and some other distiiif^uisbed in- 
 diviiliials, have been educated; two other en- 
 (hiwed charity-schools : in one 60 lioys and 2(( girls 
 lire c'litlicd and instructed, in the other 20 girls 
 are tnuftlit to read and knit ; with national aiul 
 (itlier schools supported by sid)scription. There 
 lire three sets of almshouses in the town for aged 
 |K«ir: I'aige's, founded in IfwiJ; LitchtUm's, in 
 1(W4; and Horn wood's : they provide for about tiO 
 individuals. 'JTie N. Devon intirmary is near 
 ItaniHtaple : it is an extensive establishment, siii>- 
 portcd by sid)M'ripli()U, for the medical relief of 
 the district. The town has a weekly market on 
 Friday; monthly cattle-markets on the same day, 
 wiiil'li are numcroiislyattended; two great mnrUots 
 im the Friday im-ccding April 21st, and the si>- 
 I'ond Friday in Uecembcr; and a large anniuil 
 fair for horses, cattle, and sheep, held on the l!)th 
 Sept. and two fidlowing days. In the to>vn are 
 manufactories of serge, inferior broail cloths, and 
 laie; and in the immediate vicinity, six or seven 
 laii-yards, a i)aper-mill, and an iron-foundry: 
 considerable quantities of earthenware, tiles, and 
 hrieks, are also made in the neighbourhood. The 
 quay is only approachable by the smaller classes 
 of vessels ; and the only deep water within the 
 l«ir, for vessels to ride in, is at the Pool of Ap))le- 
 dore. This bar, which is at the outer entrance to 
 the estuary of the Taw (7^ m. VV. of llnrnstaplo), 
 has, at low water springs, not above 2 ft. ; at high 
 water ditto, 27 ft, ; and at high water neaps, about 
 It ft. The shipping, on Jan. 1, 1«(>1, comprised 
 l.oiil sailing vessels, of 42,058 tons, and 210 
 steamers, of 17,405 tons, which entered the har- 
 hoiir. The clearances, in 18(i;{, amounted to a 
 total of 407 vessels, of 23,047 tons, inclusive of 
 207 steamers, of 10,508 tons. The imports of the 
 town consist chietly of timber and deals from 
 Canada and the Baltic, coals and culm from Wales 
 and Ilristol, and groceries. The exjjorts consist 
 of the manufactured and agricultural produce of 
 tiie town and district. The town is connected 
 hy railway with Exeter and other towns in the 
 west of I'^ngland. The new pari, borough com- 
 prises the par. of nornstaplc, and portions of that 
 of I'ilton, on the N., and Jlishop's Tawton, on the 
 S.: it is divided into two wards, and governed by 
 a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors. 
 Courts of pleas, and sessions, are held quarterly, 
 in the guildhall ; and a county court is cstablisheil 
 here. Bamsta])le has returned two mem. to the 
 H. of C. suice the 23rd of Edward I., the right of 
 flection being in the remaining old freemen and 
 10/, householders. Kegiat. electors, 7!t3 in 1864. 
 
 Barnstaple is of great antiquity, having been a 
 liHr;,'h in the reign of Athelstan. " It had a castle, 
 Imilt in the reign of William I. : at the Domesday 
 survey there were forty burgesses within, and 
 nine ivitliout, the borough. It furnished three 
 ships against the Spanish armada, and, in the latter 
 part of Elizabeth's reign, it is mentioned as a 
 considerable depot for wool, and as trading largely 
 
 BARODA 
 
 303 
 
 with France and Spain. It had a monastery of 
 (Hiiniac monks, founded soon after the Conquest, 
 which continued till the general suppression. 
 
 IJAKOACII or UKOACH (Hurigoshu), a marit. 
 Itritish district of Hin(h)stan, prov. (Jujerat, pres. 
 Hombay, chiefly between lat. 21° 25' and 22° 2(»' 
 N., and hing. 72° 50' and 73° 2.3' E. ; having N. 
 Kairah distr., E. Karoda, 8. Surnt, and VV. the 
 (julf of Canibay : area 1,000 sq. m. I'op. esti- 
 mated at 260,0(")0. It is one of the Iwst cidf ivated 
 and most popuhuis tracts in the VV. of India; its 
 aspect is however rendered rather uufdeasant from 
 the absence of trees, and the ill-built villages of 
 unbunit bricks. Cotton is one of its chief pro- 
 duces. Three-fourths of the |)op. are Hindoos; 
 the rest MohammeiUuis. It has formed since 18((3 
 part of the liritish d(miini()ns. 
 
 liAKOACii (an. Barygaza, tratvr ofweiilfh), cap. 
 of the above district, on the N. bank of the Ner- 
 budda, 25 m. from its mouth ; lat, 21° 40' N., hnig. 
 73° 14' E. Pop. estimated at 30.000 in 1«20, and 
 at 20,000 in 1858. Town poor and mean; streets 
 narrow and dirty; climate hot, and considered un- 
 healthy. The Ncrbudda is here two m. across, is 
 very shallow, and aboinids with carp and other 
 iish. Uaroacli maintains a considerable trade in 
 cotton, grain, and seeds, with iSondiay and Surat, 
 Two-thirds of the inhabitants are iIiti(Uios. The 
 Itrahmins have a hospital for sick au(' iulinn ani- 
 mals, siqtported by V(duiitarv gifts, taxes on mar- 
 riages, (fee. The vicinity of linroach is very fertile. 
 It was taken by storm i)v the Hriiish in 1772. 
 
 BAIIODA, or UKtJDEHA, an inland district of 
 Hindostan, prov. (Jujerat, between lat. 21° 23' and 
 22° 40' N., and long. 73° 12' aiul 74° 8' E. : area 
 about 12,000 sq. m. ; estimated pop. 140,000. Mr. 
 Forbes (djserves, 'If I were to decide upon the 
 most delightful part of that jirovince (Gujerat), I 
 shouUi witlKuit hesitation prefer the pergunnahs 
 of Brodera and Neriad.' It is fertile, generally 
 well cultivated, and, down to 1821, was decidedly 
 (jne of the most flourishing tracts in India. ' The 
 crops in other districts,' says Mr. Forbes, ' may be 
 equal hi variety and abundance; but the number 
 of trees whiidi iuU)ni the roads, the richness of the 
 mango-topes roimd the vilhiges, the size and ver- 
 dure of the tamarind trees, clothe the country with 
 uncommon beauty.' The sugar-cane, tobacco, in- 
 digo, com, oil, jiulse, opium, flax, hemp, and cotton 
 are grown ; the latter being the staple commodity. 
 Provisions are abundant aiul cheap; deer, hares, 
 l)artridges, quails, and water-fowl extremelj' chc^ap 
 and ])lentiful. 'I'lie fields are divided by high 
 green hedges. Tlie numerous villages look more 
 HI the European than the Indian style; and large 
 stacks of hay are jiiled up and thatched ; a cus- 
 tom which increases a resemblance to European 
 scenery, and is not found in E. India. 
 
 More than half the inhab. are Coolies; the 
 wilder tracts are i)eopled by Bheels : the remainder 
 of the popidatioii are a race of HaJ))()ots, Hindoo 
 Banyans, and a few Mohammedans around liaroda 
 city. Agriiudture is the prevailing occupation, 
 especially of the Coolies ; who, though a turbulent 
 race, ranging themselves under dill'erent chiefs, 
 yet, when ])roperly restrained, are not bad tenants. 
 They wear a petticoat, like the Bheels, round the 
 waist, a cotton cloth round the head and shoulders, 
 and a quilted kirtel, or lebada, which they cover 
 with a shirt of mail ; they are anned with sword, 
 buckler, bow and arrows, and the lorsemen with a 
 spear and battle-axe : they often undertake secret 
 nv)ctunial marauding expeditions. They are but 
 little subject to the laws ; and the magistrates are 
 obliged to oppose force to force, by maintaining 
 large bodies of armed men in their employ. The 
 local administration of justice, and the collcctiuu 
 
 m 
 
^ 
 
 m 
 
 2 n-t ■ 
 
 i 
 
 lit 
 
 '<! 
 
 304 BARODA 
 
 of the revenue in liiirnda arc in the handH of 
 wamlHtdur», or hcad-rarmcrH, Hul)ject to the con- 
 trol of the prince or hin ministcrH. Uolh iHsnton 
 and pniperty are more secure, nnd the cultivation 
 in a iMittcr Htnte, in the adjacent districtH, which 
 liave l>cen ceded to tlie ItritiHh. Of late yenrs the 
 produce of this district has K'patly diiiiiniKhed, 
 the land lost a third part of its former value, anil 
 the revenues l»cen considerably depressed, throufjli 
 the misRovernment and rapacity of the reigninj; 
 jirince, Syajeo Kow Guicowar. In 1«02 the tur- 
 bulence of the Arab soldierj', and the involved 
 state of the finances, induced Anund How to beg 
 the assistance of the Krirish government of Horn- 
 bay. It contimied under Kritish protection, and 
 in a comparatively flourishing state, till 1820, 
 when Syajee ascended the throne. 
 
 IUkoda, an inl. city of Hindostan, cap. of the 
 above district, and of the (iuicowar dominions, 
 and the seat of a Kritish resident, with a bo<ly of 
 froons; hit. 220 21' N., Icmg. 730 23' E. ; 46 m. 
 NNVV. Ilaroach, and 230 m. Uombav. The pop., 
 in 1H1«, was estimated at 100,((00 it stands in a 
 marshy situation, on the left bank of tlie Vis- 
 wamitra river, and is surrounded (says TiefTen- 
 tlialer, who calls it a handsome city) by a double 
 wall, the inner existing under the Mogul dynasty, 
 the outer built by the Maharattas, wheii they 
 took the city, in '1725. The walla are low, of 
 mud, have round towers at iaitervals, and several 
 double gates. It is divided into four eqiml parts, 
 by two spacious streets, which, intersecting it at 
 right angles, meet in the centre, in the market- 
 ]ilace, wliich contains a square pavilion, with three 
 ar(;he8 on each side, and a flat roof, adorned with 
 scats and fountains. This is a ISIogul buihling, 
 and, like some othei-s of that kind, not devoid of 
 beauty ; but the Maharatta structures are all very 
 poor. In the reign of Aurungzebe this was a 
 inrge and wealthy city, and still enjoys a consi- 
 derable trade. In its vicinity arc many gardens 
 and groves, the latter adorned with the remains 
 of Alohammedan mosques and tombs. In the 
 vicinity is a stone bridge over the Viswamitra, 
 remarkable as being the imly one in Gujerat ; and 
 some celebrated wells, with hiuidsome iiiglits of 
 sie|is and balustrades in the environs ; the largest 
 of these, Soliman's well, is famed for the purity 
 of its water, though that obtained within the city 
 is said to be unfit for use. 
 
 15AR(iUESnMET0, an inl. town of Venezuela, 
 South America, at the extremity of a table-land 
 enclosed by still higher eminences, 92 m. VVSW. 
 Valencia, and 90 m. NE. TruxiUo ; lat. 9° 5.?' N., 
 long. 69° 25' W. In 1807 it contained 16,00() 
 jicrsons ; but it suffered severely from the tenible 
 earthquake of 1812, which scarcely left a house 
 entire, and buried 1,500 individuals in the ruins. 
 The jjop. of the town and its environs is now 
 l)erhaps 10,000 or 12,000. 
 
 liAIillA, an island of Scotland, one of the 
 Hebrides, being the most S. of the Outer Hebrides, 
 or group forming what is called the Long Island. 
 1*0]). 1,669 in 1801. (See Hkbuides.) 
 
 JiAHKA, a village of Southern Italy, 3 m. from 
 the city of Naples. Pop. 8,170 in 1801. It has 
 many country houses belonging to inhabitants of 
 Naples. 
 
 BAKRACKPOOR, a seat of the British gov. 
 gen. of India, and a military cantonment, in a 
 beautiful and healthy siRit, on the E. bank of the 
 Ilooghly river, KJ m'. N. Calcutta. IJishop Heber 
 ol)serves, ' It has what is here unexampled, a park 
 of about 250 acres of fine turf, with spreading 
 scattered trees, of a character so European, that if 
 I had not been on an elephant, and had not from 
 time to time seen a great cocoa-tree towering 
 
 LAUIIOWS STRAITS 
 
 above all the rest, I coidd have fancied myself on 
 the banks of the Thames instead of tiiu fianLri,.' 
 
 The park grounds are four miles in circunit'creiiiv 
 contain an aviary and menagerie. The cuiium- 
 nient is a large military village, with suiieriur 
 bungaliiws for the otlicers. 
 
 KAKRAMAIIL, a sulwliv. of the prov. of Salun, 
 Hindostan, presid. of iMadras. (See Samcm.) 
 
 KAItREAH, an inl. towi of Hindostan, pmv. 
 (Juierat, cap. of a small indep. principalitv, 7;') m 
 KNK. Cambay; lat. 220-14' N., h.iig. 74° K. [', 
 stiuids near the right bank of a tributary of tlw 
 Maye, and is neatly built; many house's arc of 
 brick. Its territory is wild, covered with jiinnli. 
 and inhabited l)y only a few wandering andiircdn' 
 tory ISheels : the revenues of the rajah are almost 
 entirely <lerived from compensations from liLs 
 neighbours to abstain from plundering, togetlicr 
 with certain moderate duties on trade. 
 
 IJARREHiES,or BAUREMiES LES BAIN'S.n 
 watering-place in France, dcp. Haiitcs Pyniurd, 
 12 m. SSW. Bagnf-res-de-Migorre. It is "tiituntdi 
 in the narrow valley of the Bastiui, in the cwiirc 
 of the Pyrenees, about 4,200 ft. above tlie level df 
 the sea. The valley is gloomy and desolate, bcinf; 
 anmially devastated by the torrent, or (inve of 
 Bastim, which frequently threatens destnictimi to 
 the town. It is frequented on account of its liot 
 baths, the most celebrated in Europt? for the ciin' 
 of scrofula, gout, rheumatism, and the eflkt oi' 
 wounds. In consequence of this latter pnipcriv, 
 Barreges is much resorted to by the militiiry, luid 
 an hos()ital is provided for their use ca|)iilil(! of 
 accommoilating 500 ofHcers and men. Tiie Imllis 
 did not attain to celebrity till the reign of Lmiis 
 XIV., when they were visited by Madame dc 
 Maintcnon and the Due de Maine. Tlie spriiij;:!, 
 like those in the other Pyrenean de'ps., arc iiinlir 
 the control of government. The sujiply of waiir 
 being sometimes insufticicnt for the demand, it h 
 distributed with the strictej^t impartiality. Tlic 
 temj)eraturc of the water reaches 10° Rwuimiir; 
 it has a disagreeable smell and taste. The seiuson 
 begins at tlie end of May, and ends at the be- 
 ginning of October. The' town is then entirely, 
 or all but entirelj', deserted. (Joveriuuent incurs 
 a considerable expense in the annual repaint uf 
 the roads and baths 
 
 BARROW, a river of Ireland, l)eing, next to 
 the Shannon, the most important in that iijlnniL 
 It rises in the Sliebhbloom mountains, baruny of 
 Tinnehinch, Queen's co. : its course is first XF, 
 to Portarlington, then E. to Jlonastereven, nnd 
 thence nearly due S., past Athy, Carlow, (Jraifr, 
 and New-Ross; about 8 m. below which it tlilLs 
 into the estuary of Waterford harbour, of wliich 
 it forms the right arm. Considering its miidtriitc 
 magnitude, the Barrow is navigable to a fjreat 
 distance ; large ships ascending it as far as >iew- 
 Ross, which is its port, and barges as far as Aihy 
 (above (iO m. in a direct line from the sea), wIhtc 
 it is joined by a branch from tlie (iraiul Ciuiiil. 
 This length of navigation has been partly I'tVcdnl 
 by artificial means, that is, by removing obstruc- 
 tions and deepening the bed of the river : iiikI 
 notwithstanding it is occasionally liable to im- 
 pediment, It has been of singular advantajje in 
 Kildiu'c, (Queen's co., Carlow, and Kilkenny, liv 
 giving them access not only to the iinporlaiii 
 markets of New-Ross and Waterford, but also to 
 those of Dublin. 
 
 BAiaiOW'S STRAITS, in NW. Amciiea, tlic 
 Sir Jamks Lancastku's Sound of Butiiii, is the 
 connecting channel between Baffin's Bay, on ilie 
 E., and the Polar Sea, on the W. It lies, iii a 
 direction parallel to the equator, between the lat.*. 
 of 730 45 and 74° 40' N., and is considered by 
 
\ 
 
 I'll mywlf on 
 tlie iianj^ts,' 
 irMtinl'en'nci', 
 Tlic I'lmuui- 
 vith suiit'riut 
 
 rnv.of Siikm, 
 Sai.km.) 
 kUisUiii, iiniY, 
 ^ipalitv, 7.') m. 
 IK. 71° K. li 
 iliiitnry of the 
 lumwH lire of 
 I with jiiiink', 
 \\\fi unil))ri'ila- 
 jiih lire uliniMt 
 I Ills t'roiii \m 
 ;riiig, togothcr 
 kdu. 
 
 LKS l}AISS,a 
 ,utc» I'yri'iiW'ii, 
 
 It 1H Hitlllltlti 
 
 1, in tlic ccmrc 
 )ve the level uf 
 desolate, beiiii; 
 mt, or (lave uf 
 » (U-Htniutidii til 
 l!OUllt of its Iwit 
 'ojie for the cuw 
 id the ell'ect (if 
 latter pniiierly, 
 iie military, 1111(1 
 r use c!nmlil(! "f 
 neii. The liatlii 
 B reign of Lmili 
 by Madame dc 
 ,e. The »iiriiit;s, 
 deps., are uudir 
 suiiply of waiiT 
 ihe demaiul, it is 
 Hmrliality. The 
 1 10° Iteaumur; 
 »te. The soiusdii 
 ends at the be- 
 18 then entirely, 
 ivcriunent incurs 
 unual repairs uf 
 
 1, Ixjing, next to 
 -it in that island, 
 iitiuns, l)ar(inv(if 
 urac is lirst NK. 
 lonastereven, and 
 r, Carlow, tJraic, 
 fVf whieh it falls 
 [arbour, of wliich 
 ring its raflderiile 
 gable to a poat 
 it as far as Ntw- 
 ■8 as far as Aihy 
 ... the sea), where 
 he (irand Canal, 
 en partly etVcctid 
 lemoving obstriu- 
 if the river : and 
 Jly liable to im- 
 [lar advantage I'l 
 lid Kilkenny, liy 
 ;o the inipiitlaiit 
 •rford, but also to 
 
 I W. America, tlic 
 t, of l$atliu,istlic 
 lffin'8 Bay, "" '''« 
 Iw. It li«». '" ' 
 1 between the Wn 
 ' is considered by 
 
 BARSAC 
 
 r«rry to tcrminnte nt Wellington Channel, in 
 liinj;. 91° 47' W., the mouth, in llntHn'8 Huy k-ing 
 ncnrlv on the HOtli meridian. It m therefore ubuiit 
 2(«i IT), in length from K. to W., and lictween »>(» 
 and 70 m. in average width. IJoth Hhores (ire 
 hnikon by a great number of inlctx, and that of 
 the I'riiiec Uegent, on tlie 8., is of very conHider- 
 olile extent. It wan found by Kosh to terminate 
 ill n great gulf, called by him litrathia. Welling- 
 tiin Channel ia even wider at its mouth than 
 i'rincc Itegent's Inlet. It divides a large tract of 
 land (North Devon), the VV. continuation of 
 (iroenland, from Cnrnwallis Island, the first of a 
 MKU-essiiin of islaiuls terminating at Melville Island. 
 The coasts ore generally niggetl, consisting of 
 lii^'li mountains and sometimes table-lands, with 
 Ihi1(I bluff headlands, but in all cases extremely 
 sterile. Ttie stratiHcation is horizontal : thccom- 
 |)(isili(in generally limestone, but mixed with older 
 fdrmations, as dayalate, hornblende, and granite. 
 Th« water of this* strait is exceedingly deep, the 
 sdiindings frequently giving upwards of 2()0 fa- 
 thoms, and very often no bottom can be found. 
 Tlie tide ujion the shore rises about 3 or 4 ft,, but 
 of current there is very little appearance in any 
 (liri'clion, and what there is does not seem to l)e 
 nnifdmi in its t,et. Perhaps the most remarkable 
 circumstance connected with this strait is, the 
 slu;;f;ishne8S of the compass in its waters. This 
 is su great, that after advancing a short distance 
 \V., no alteration of course produces a change of 
 more than three or four points in the direction of 
 the needle; a fact the observation of which led 
 first to the ctniclusion that the magnetic pole 
 would be ibund in its neighbourhood. Whales 
 and other natives of the northern seas ore very 
 abiimlant ; but in this respect, and also in general 
 productions, the strait docs not differ from BatHn's 
 Itav, which see. (I'arry's First Voy., 29-52, 
 2ti4-2t>9; Purchos's Pilgrims, iii. 847.) 
 
 ItARSAC, a village of France, de'p. Girondc, on 
 the (ioronne, 21 m. SE. ISordeaux. Pop. 2,959 in 
 IHfil. It is famous for its white wines : they are 
 of the same class, and sell for about the same 
 price, as those of Sauteme. ' lis en different,' 
 says Jiillien (Topographie de Vignobles), * par iiii 
 iicii moins dc finesse, de seve, et dc bouquet ; mais 
 lis sunt filus spiritueux.' 
 
 UAK-SUK-AUBE, a town of Franco, ddp. Aube, 
 cap. arrond., on the right bank of the Aube, 28 m. 
 v.. Troyes. The pop. numberetl 4,727 in 1801. A 
 line of railway connects the town with Paris and 
 with the eastern de'ps. of France. It is agreeably 
 situated at the foot of a fountain, in a tine valley ; 
 hut is generally ill laid out and ill built. It was 
 fiinnerly much more considerable than at present, 
 as is e\'inced by the numerous remains of thick 
 walls, and fosses not yet entirely filled up. There 
 is a fine promenade along the river. It has a tri- 
 liunal of original juristUction; manufactures of 
 cotton, cotton hosiery, and serges; with nail- 
 works, tanneries, and distilleries. The vineyards 
 in its neighbourhood produce white and red wines 
 in considerable estimation. An obstinate conflict 
 took place here on the 24th May, 1814, between 
 ilie French, under Mortier, and the allied forces 
 under Prince Schwartzenberg, when the latter 
 were repulsed. 
 
 BAR-SUK-SEINE, a town of Frwice, ddp. 
 Aube, cap. arrond., on the Seine, 19 m. SE. Troyes. 
 I'op. 2,770 in 1801. The town has a station on 
 (he railway from Paris to Mitlhouse. It is situated 
 in tlie middle of rich vineyardsi, .it the extremity 
 •if a narrow valley; is well built and well laid 
 (IIII ; and has some line promenailcs on the banks 
 'd the Seine, which is here crossed by a handsome 
 "lone bridge. It has a court of original jiaisdiction; 
 
 BARTIN 
 
 365 
 
 and has fabrics of paper, cotton, hosiery, cutlery, 
 and tanncri(!s. Its ])nncipal trade consists in the 
 corn and wine of the neiglilMinrlKHxl. 
 
 This town was formerly fortified, antl was, in 
 coiisetiuence, re|M!atedly taken and retaken in tho 
 Hurgundian wars. In 1590 the inhabitiiiits de- 
 stroyed the fortifications, and it has since enjoyed 
 comparative tranquillity. 
 
 MARTEN, a town of Prussia, prov. E. Prussia, 
 10 m. N. Kastenburg. Pop. 1,085 in 1801. It ia 
 well built, and is defended by a fort. 
 
 UAltTENHTEIN, a town of Prussia, prov. E. 
 Prussia, on the AUc, 34 m. S^]. KonigslKirg. Pop. 
 4,*i95 in 1801. It is the seat of a court of justico 
 and of domains, and of an ecclesiastical inspection ; 
 has three churches, a c(dlege, an hospital, tanneries, 
 and faljrics of cloth, linen, and (Mttery^. 
 
 UAUTFA, or UAKTFELO, a free town of 
 Hungary, co. Sarosch, on the Tope, at the foot of 
 the Caqiathian Mountains; 15 m. NNE. Zelien; 
 lat. 49° lt>' 10" N., long. 21° 18' 51" E. Pop. 5,300 
 in 1857. It is well built, has several Catludio' 
 churches, and tho Lutherans have a church and a 
 school. It formerly enjoyed considerable distinc- 
 tion as a seat of learning ; and in the Kith century 
 several esteemed works proceeded from its presses. 
 It has a valuable collection of ohl records, and is 
 tho residence of several noble families. It has 
 some trade in wine, linen, and woollen yam. In 
 its vicinity arc two chalybeate sjirings much n;- 
 sorted to, and the waters of wliich ore carried to 
 other parts, like those of Seltz. 
 
 IJAItTH, a sea-port town of Prussia, prov. Po- 
 merania, reg. Stralsund, on the Binnen-Xec, which 
 communicates with the Baltic, 17 m. WN W. Stral- 
 sund. Pop. 5,757 in 1801. It has a chapter for 
 ladies, founded in 1733, and three hospitals. It 
 carries on some trade in corn, wool, and in ship- 
 building. 
 
 BAUTHELEMY DE GRONIN (ST.), a village 
 of France, ddp. Isere, 15 m. SSW. Grenoble. I'ltp. 
 750 in 1801. Near this is tho ' burning founttiin,' 
 one of the seven wonders of tho ci-devant Dau- 
 phine. It is a spring issuing from a calcareous 
 plateau, about 8 ft. long by 4 in breadth. Tho 
 water, though at the temperature of the atmo- 
 sphere, is always bubbling and iKiiling ; and when 
 it is stirred, or a burning body is approached to it, 
 it takes tire, as it sometimes does s|Hmtaneously 
 after summer rains. This phenomenon is sup- 
 posed to be produced by the escape of hydrogen 
 gas, generated by the decomposition of iron. The 
 gas is easily collected, and is at lirst verv inflam- 
 mable, but speedily h>8es this quality. There are 
 no volcanic phenomena in the vicinity. Of late 
 years spontaneous combustions are said to be rarer 
 than formerly. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW (ST.), one of the lesser N. 
 Caribbee islands, belonging to Sweden, 30 m. N. 
 St. Christojiher's ; lat. 17° 65' 35" N., long. 02° 60' 
 W. It is of an oblong shape, its greatest length 
 being from E. to W., and contains about 26 s({. m. 
 Estimated pop. 10,000, of whom two-thirds are 
 blacks. It IS abundantly fertile, producing sugar, 
 tobacco, cotton, and indigo ; but it has no springs 
 nor fresh water of any sort, except such as is suj)- 
 plied by the rain. Being surrounded by rocks 
 and shoals, it is difficult of access ; but its harbour, 
 Lc Carenage, on the W. side of the island, is safe 
 and commodious. Contiguous to the harbour is 
 the principal towrn, Gustavia. This island was 
 settled by the French in 1048, and was ceded by 
 them to the Swedes in 1784. 
 
 BAK'riJM, or PAUTH IN E,a town of Asiatic Tur- 
 key, Anatolia, near the muittii of the river of the 
 same name (the an. Parthenius), in the Black Sea; 
 lat. 410 33' 52" N., long. 32° 14' E. Estimated 
 
 \i 
 
Mi 
 
 360 BAKTOLOMEO IN OALDO (ST.) 
 
 pop. 11,500. It iH Hurnmixlcd by a riiinnuH wall, 
 hns twelve mosqitust, livu kliui)!*, aiul tour baths, 
 Tlipro i« (Ifi'i) water in the bay at tlie rivcr'M 
 mouth ; but there bein^ no mure than 7 ft. water 
 over the bur, small vchhcIh only can cume up to 
 the town : thexc load with timber, truit, c^^f^H, &c., 
 for ConHtantinoplc. The principal import in ttult. 
 
 IJAKTOLOMi:() IN GALDO (SI.), a town of 
 Soiitiicrn Italy, prov. Foj?Kii»! '^7 m. WS\V. Vohki», 
 I'op. 7,it'J7 in IHtil. It IS Nituated on an elevated 
 hill to the E, of the Fotoro ; hit/* a coUej^iate and 
 some other churclieH, and a diocesan seminarv. 
 
 HAHTON-ON IlUiMHICK, a markel-towu of 
 ICnulund, co. Lincoln, N. div. wap. t»f Ya^borouKh, 
 on the 8. side of the Ilumbcr. It include!) the 
 parishes of St. I'eter onil St. Mary: area, li,710 
 aciis. Toj). J),7'.»7 in l«t)l. The main body of the 
 town is about 1 m. from tlie river, but a portion 
 called ' liarton water-side,' is (pute contiguous to 
 it. Formerly it was a place ol' very consiilenible 
 importance, and was surrounded by a rampart and 
 fo8.se ; but at present it is j)rincipally known by 
 the well-fre(|uented ferry on one of the great N. 
 roads, leading hence across the 1 lumber to Hull. 
 There is a branch line of railway to New llolhuul, 
 which places the town in comnuinication with the 
 eastern counties railway sy.stem. It has some 
 jtretty good streets and inns, and two churches, 
 St. l'etei''s and St. Mary's; the former being very 
 ancient. It has some trade in corn, and a con- 
 siderable portion of the inhabitants are engaged 
 in the making of bricks and tiles, ropes and sack- 
 ing. The weekly market is held on Monday, and 
 another for cattle is held <mce a fortnight. 
 
 BAUWALDl':, or UAUENVVALD (that is, 
 • Forest of tl le Bears ') , a town of Prussia, prov. Bran- 
 denburg, on a lake, 32 m. N. Frankfort, on the 
 Oder. Pop. 4,015 in 1801. (Justc.vus Adolphus 
 signed here, in l(i31, a secret treaty with France. 
 
 ilASELlCK, a town of Southern lUd}', jirov. 
 Benevento, cup. cant., 21 m. SE. Campobasso. 
 Pop. 4,508 in 18(il. The town i.s situated on the 
 declivity of a mountain, has an hospital, and two 
 mo7its lie piiti; established to portion and marry 
 poor girls. 
 
 BAS-EX-BASSET, a town of France, dcp. 
 Haute Loire, cap. cant., on the Loire, 12 m. N. 
 Issengaux. Pop. 3,181) in 1801. It has manufac- 
 tures of blond lace, ribbons, and earthenware. 
 
 BASIIEE ISLANDS, a cluster belonging to the 
 E. Archipelago, 5tli divisiem {Craivjurd), lying 
 due N. of Luzon (Philippines), between lat. 20° 
 and 21° N. They are rocky, and live in number, 
 with tour .smaller islets. Dampier visited them, 
 and called the largest Grafton Isle ; it is about 13 
 leagues in circuit, and has good anchorage on the 
 W. side. It produces line yams, sugar-cane, plan- 
 tains, and vegetables, besides hogs and goats in 
 plenty. Good water close to the Ijeach is found 
 in abundance. Gold in considerable quantities is 
 washed down by the torrents in the Bashee Island, 
 which the inhabitants work into a thick wire, and 
 wear as an ornament : iron is the favourite metlium 
 of exchange. The natives are civil, inofl'eusive, 
 and social. These islands belong to Spain; the 
 governor resides on Grafton Island, with about 
 100 soldiers, some artillery, and a few priests, 
 
 BASEL, or BASLE, a canton in the NW. of 
 Switzerland, the 1 1th m the Confederation, between 
 47.° 25' and 47° 37' N. lat. ; having N. FVance and 
 the g. d. of Baden, \V. France and Solothurn, S. 
 the latter canton and Berne, and E. Argovia : 
 shape very irregular ; the greatest length is 24 m., 
 and the greatest breadth from 13 to 17 m. : area 
 8 G., or l(jt)"ti E., sq. m. The Jura chain runs 
 through the country, its surface displaying, of 
 course, mountains and valleys, with a level tract 
 
 BASEL 
 
 in the vicinity of the city of Basel, The miinn. 
 tains reach an elevation of from 2,000 (n :i,(hhii> 
 obove the level of the sea. The most elcNati'il li 
 the ilauenstein, over which there is a miicli iVc- 
 (luented excellent new road, leading from Hnxul to 
 Aarau and Zurich, The Rhine tlows tliroii);h tlic 
 N. part of the canton, separating a small dlxtrii 
 from it** main body. Near the city of lluscl tl,,. 
 IJirse, which rises in the canton of Ilerne, lulls Jni,, 
 the Bhine : it is not navigable, but teems with 
 tish. Besides this, there are various rivulets dc- 
 scending from the Jura chain to the Ithitie. Cli- 
 mate niihl. Since 1831, when the country |mi|>ii. 
 lation revolted successfully against the aristucniii ■ 
 rule of the^city, the cant, has been divideil intn 
 Basel city and liiisel country. Pop., cant, of Iksci 
 city, 42,251, in I8ti0, and of Bast'l country r)l,77:i 
 at the same census. The territory of the I'drmcr 
 comprises, besides the city of l!a>el, that piiriidii nf 
 the canton lying on the right bank of the Ulijn.., 
 The valleys and the plain near the city are wili 
 cultivated, and the country produces corn eii(iii;;|| 
 for its consumptitm. There are 32,.')()0 acres of 
 arable land, l(i,817 ditto meadows, 3,410 ditto viiK - 
 yarils, and l.'),520 ditto of wood. Wine is niaile ul' 
 pretty good ipiality, the best being that of St, 
 .lacob, called SchweitzerliliU (Swiss blood). JIii- 
 nufactures form the principal employment (if tliii 
 people, Bibbon mulung had, so early as tlie coiii- 
 inencement of the 17 th century, become an iin- 
 |M)rtant business in Basel. After the revoeatiim 
 of the edict of Nantes, great numbers of Freiuli 
 emigrants settled in the town, who gave a t'resli 
 impulse to the manutacture. In 1840, there were 
 3,550 ribbon lixmis, 2,050 of which were in liiiscl 
 town and liOO hi Ba.sel country. In iHOil, the 
 number of looms had increased to 4,500, There 
 were 78 great manid'acturers in 18C3, employing,' 
 about 12,000 hands. In addition to the ribluiii 
 manufacture, silk thread, tatletas, with sntiii.s ami 
 cotton ribboiLs, are made on a small scale, Pai- 
 teriis were li)rmerly introduced from France, hut 
 now 14 or 15 i)attem-drawers are kept to pniviije 
 designs for the manufacturers. The value of the 
 ex])ort8 of ribbons amoimts to about l!(J0,0(Hj/., 
 nearly half of which goes to the IJ. States, aiul 
 the other half to Germany, F'rance, Ilollaiul, Den- 
 mark, and Sweden, Salt-springs were discovered 
 in 1838 in Basel country, and salt-works citlicr 
 have been, or are to be, established. Each of the 
 two ilivisions of the canton has half a vote in the 
 Swiss diet ; and each has its independent govern- 
 ment, consiiiting in both of a grand coiuieil and a 
 petty council, the former with a president, and the 
 latter, in Basel city, with a burgoma.ster, aiul in 
 Basel country, with a president, at the lieaii. 
 About D-lOths of the uihab. are Prot., and !-l(itli 
 C'atli. Primary and secondarj^ schools have been 
 generally established. I'reviously to 1832, tjie 
 only university of Switzerland was in Basel, It 
 was founded in 1459 by Pope Pius 11. ; but at 
 present it has no great reputation. The revenue 
 of Basel town for 1803 amounted to l,'2;iD,l(iJ 
 francs, or 4!),578/,, about one-eighth of wliicli was 
 derived from excise duties, including tax for sale 
 of beasts. The public debt amounts to !t.'),070/. 
 The canton contributes 22,950 fir. to the treasury 
 of the confederacy, and furnishes 918 men to the 
 federal army. The communes are obliged to pM- 
 vide for those poor persons who have the right ol 
 citizenship; but, as charitable institutions and 
 private subscriptions commfinly suffice for this 
 purpose, a poor-rate is seldom necessary. The iu- 
 hab, of Basel city are aristocratical, and attached 
 to their ancient laws, customs, and manners ; those 
 of Basel country, on the other hand, have demo- 
 cratical tendencies, and instead of being averse 
 
riio miiun- 
 tii ;i.oiH( It, 
 I'Icsntf'l i-, 
 
 I iiimli frc 
 iin Itiwel til 
 J)roii);h till' 
 lull (tistrii, 
 it' Uiiwl till' 
 ic, I'ulU illlu 
 
 tOCUKt Willi 
 
 rivulets (Ic- 
 H\\\\w. (.'li- 
 untry |iii|iu- 
 .! iiristticniii' 
 lUvidiul iiiiii 
 lint. Ill' Itii.x'l 
 iintry ril,77;i 
 t' tlio i'dimiT 
 lilt )Kirtiiiii III' 
 )t' till! Uliiiii', 
 city art' will 
 
 (.■urn eiiiiii^li 
 ,iM) iicri's (jf 
 10 ditto viuc- 
 ue is niiule of 
 ; tlmt lit' St, 
 blood). Mii- 
 yinwit of the 
 [y as till! colii- 
 ;ci)mc nil im- 
 lie rcvoentiDH 
 ers of Frpiii'li 
 ) gnve a fresh 
 4(i, tliiTe were 
 were in liiiscl 
 
 111 IWii!. the 
 4,500, 'I'here 
 Ca, employiii}; 
 to tlio riljliim 
 vith siitius ami 
 
 II scale. Piit- 
 
 BASEL 
 
 from, ore prone to, IniiovntionH; violont nnimosi- 
 ti('nlittvi' oxistfd lifitwctiii tlui two ilivi>ioiis. 
 
 The I'oiiiitry wliich forms tlio caiifoii of riasol 
 iK'hniL'cd, in the times of tliu lioinuiiH, to the tvrri- 
 tory of il'c Bauraei. In tlie niiitillc iitjes it formed 
 part of the Burfcundiiin empire, till lO'.'G, when it 
 lame into the p<tHse»8ion of the Gemiaii emperor 
 (Vnrad II. Hn^el wns siilisequently povcrned l)y 
 an iin|H'rial luiilitV; Imt the liishoj) of llasel shared 
 with till' eiti/eiis in the povenimeut, Hy decrees 
 the I'itv ni'iiiiireil the same iiiiniiinilii's as a free 
 (ilvdf the empire. Basel assisted the Swiss in 
 till' Itiiriiiindian war, and was ailinitted u memher 
 of the confederiu'y in ITiOl, (Dr, Howriiin's Ke- 
 ■Kirt on the Mamiliietures of Switzerland ; Iteport 
 hv Mr. Ihirnley, Secretary of Legation, lUited 
 June 2!», IHtiH.) 
 
 lUsKii (city of), one of the principal in Swit/.er- 
 Inml, Clip- «'f f''p ahovo canton; lat. 47° iio' it(l" 
 X., 1(111^. 7° Jl'' K. i ■'•> m- NNW. Heme; on both 
 jii'les the Khine, where its course turns N., near 
 the French frontier. The portion on the S. side 
 the river is called (Ireat, and that on the N, Little 
 jtascl, the conimunication Iwtween them heinp 
 kept 11]) by a bridge liOtt ft, long. Poji. of city 
 ;i;,!ll8 in IMtiO. This is the jiopulation of the city 
 jmipcr; that of the canton, going by the name of 
 lia-tel-city, being 42,251. The city presents to the 
 vi.iit(ir a jieculiar mixture of the gaiety of a French, 
 with the sombre CJothic air of a ( lermaii town ; 
 ' It looks,' says Dr, Ueattie, • like a stranger lately 
 arrived in a new colony, who, although he may 
 have copied the drcsH and manner of those with 
 wlimn he has come to reside, wears still too much 
 (if his old costume to pass for a native, and too 
 little to be received as a stranger.' It is sur- 
 runnded hy some unimportant fortilications, and is 
 tolerably well built. The cathedral, built IJU!), 
 on the spot where the Uoman emperor Valentiniiin 
 orijjinally erected the strong fortress called Btmlia, 
 contains" the tombs of (Ecolampadius, Erasmus, 
 and the Empress Anne, consort of Kodoliih of 
 Hapsburg. The other public buildings are, the 
 arsenal, the town-house, with some tine stained 
 ulass windows, and the hall where the Council of 
 liasel was held. Tliere is a university (sec pre- 
 ceding article), a gymnasium, and numen)us other 
 public schools ; a public library, with .53,000 
 printed vols, and many valuable MSS., medals, 
 ami paintings by Holbein; a botanic garden; 
 museums of natural history and anatomy; literary 
 and philanthropic societies, &c. Basel is the rich- 
 est town in Switzerland ; its inhabitants are in- 
 diistrioas and well instructed. About one-fifth 
 part of the state revenues are applied to public 
 ediiciition. Its trade is flourishing : manufactures 
 consist chiefly of ribbons and other silks ; those of 
 leather, paper, gloves, and stockings, are compani- 
 tively inconsiderable. Basel was a distinguished 
 city throughout the middle ages ; near it, in 1414, 
 a few hundred Swiss made an heroic resistance to 
 an army of 40,000 French, It was the birth-place 
 of Holficin, Erasmus, and Bernouilli. 
 
 BASILICATA, a prov. of Southern Italy, in 
 the farmer kingdom of Naples. Pop. 520,789 in 
 l>t()l. In the reorganisation of the kingdom, in 
 IMS, it was named Potenza. 
 
 BASINGSTOKE, a par., bor., and town of 
 England, co. Hants, div. and hund. Basingstoke, 
 45 m. WSW. London. Area 3,970 acres. Pop. 
 4,263 in 1851, and 4,(it!4 in 18C1. The number of 
 inhabited lioiiscs in 1851 wab 892, and rose to 938 
 in 18G1. It is a neat, respectable town, in the 
 midst of a fertile, well wooded district, at the 
 junction of five roads, one of which is the gTcat 
 W. line from the metropolis. The line of the 
 London and Southampton railway also posses 
 
 BASS 
 
 367 
 
 close to the N. of the town, and has a station 
 tliere; so that it iisiiiilly wears the npiioarHiice of 
 much bustle and activity. It is well paved and 
 lighliil, and has had many new houses added to it 
 within tlie laxt few years. A stream, called the 
 Town-brook, Hows past it to join the Loddon, of 
 wl)i(;li it is a principal branch ; a canal, fonned in 
 179(1, at an expense of 180,000/., exteiiilH from tho 
 town to the \Vey, which river coinniiniiciites with 
 the Thames, and so completes the water-line be- 
 twixt Hasingstoke and London. The church is a 
 siiacioiiH structure of thereigii of Henry VIII. The 
 triciids. Independents, VVi'sleyans. and followers 
 of Whitllehl, have cha))els in the town. There i* 
 a free grammar-schoid, in which 12 boys are edu- 
 cated; a l)lue-coat school for the same number, 
 supported by the Skinners' (^mi|iaiiy. of London ; 
 and a national school, for20li boysaiid girls; thern 
 are idso almshouses for 1 1 (Kior iHiople, and several 
 charitable benefactions, the principal being an 
 estate left liy Sir James Lancaster, the annual 
 proceeds of which aiiioiiiit to 250/. a year. Near 
 the town is a tract of 108 acres, on which every 
 houseludder has a right of jmstiire, from May to 
 (:hristinas. There is a good town-hall, Imirt in 
 1829; at which period the niarket-idace was en- 
 larged. The weekly tniirket is held on Wediies- 
 dav, and four annual fairs on Easter Tuesdav, 
 Whit Wednesilay, 23rd Sept., and lOth Oct., 
 chielly for cattle. On the first introduction of tlio 
 woollen trade into the kingdom, this town obtaiiii d 
 a good share of it, and was for a hnig jieriod notcil 
 for ilriiggets and shalloons ; but at present there 
 are no manufactures. The malting and com trades 
 constitute its chief business; and, being the centre 
 of a rich agricultural district, its markets are vi^ry 
 well attended, and its retail trade considerable. 
 Under the Municipal Reform Act there are four 
 ahlennen and twelve councillors; and the bouii- 
 dnries of the borough, which were previously co- 
 extensive with the )iarish, arc restricted to the 
 area on which the town stands. It was incorporated 
 by a charter in the 20th James L, cimlirmed by 
 another in 17th Charles I. Courts of iietty and of 
 quarter sessions for the bor. are held, and there in 
 a court of pleas, which has now scarcely any busi- 
 ness. T^be revenues of the corjioratioii are derived 
 from lands and tenements in the parish, and ave- 
 rage above 1,000/. a year. Under a local assess- 
 ment for paving, lighting, &c,, about 350/. are 
 annually cidlected. It is the central town of a 
 poor law union of 87 parishes, and a pidling town 
 for the northern division of Hampshire. 
 
 The town is mentioned in Domesday as having 
 a market. From 23 Edward I. to 4 Edward II. it 
 sent two members to the II. of C, but thenceforth 
 the privilege ceased to be exercised. John do 
 Basingstoke, a distinguLshed scholar of the 13th 
 century; Sir James Lancaster, the navigator; and 
 Joseph and Thomas Warton, were bom in the 
 town. 
 
 BASQUEVILLE, a town of France, dep Seine 
 Inferieiire, on tlie Vieiine ; 10 m. SSVV. l)ieppe. 
 Pop. 2,974 in 1861. It has fabrics of linen and 
 serge, 
 BASRAH. See Bussora. 
 BASS, a rocky islet of Scotland, frith of Forth, 
 about 3 m, from Tantallon castle, coast of Had- 
 dingtonshire. It is of a circular form, about 300 
 ft. in diameter, and nearly 400 ft. high. Some 
 parts, not less than from 200 to 300 ft, in height, 
 project in lofty terrific precipices over the sea. 
 The summit resembles an obtuse cone. The con- 
 tinual beating of the waves has opened vast exca- 
 vations all round the lower sides. The sea is of 
 great depth on the N., E., and W., but shallow on 
 the S. ; towards which also the rock declines, and 
 
808 
 
 BASS' STRAITS 
 
 in acccHHiblc in calm wcatlior. It is perforated hv 
 a ravcni, running N\V. and SK. ; it iH quite dark 
 in the centre, wliero tliere iH a deep |M)t)l of water, 
 W'henre it widcnM towardH lH)tli apertiircH ; that to 
 the SK. iK-inft the hifrlieHt. There in a Bpring of 
 water near tlie centre, ninli on tlie roclt, and grasH 
 for a few slieep iiept on iu Various corallines and 
 fiii'i arc produced in the surrounding sea. VaMt 
 quantities of solan geese resort to the liass in 
 Alarch, for the purpdse of breeding, and depart 
 in fSeptcnilwr. There was here formerly a castle, 
 afterwards converted into a state prison, where 
 various individuals have lieen confined. After the 
 Kc'volution, a i)arty of the adherents of .lames 
 VII. hiiving obtained possession of the castle, held 
 out after the rest of the kingdom had s\irrendered. 
 Hut their boats being at length seized or lost, and 
 not receiving any sunply of [)rovisions, they were 
 compelled to capitulate, when the fortitlcations 
 were destroyed. This islet is a very conspicuous 
 object, and is visible from a considerable distance. 
 
 UASS' STHAITS, the name givcsn to the strait 
 «ei)arating New Holland from Van Dicmcn's Laud. 
 It is so colled from Mr. Hans, a surgeon, by whom 
 it was explored in 1798, while on a sealing voyage 
 from I'ort Jackson in an open boat. Where nar- 
 rowest it is about lOo m. across, luid is much en- 
 cumbered yvitli islands and coral reel's, so that its 
 navigation requires great attention. The prevail- 
 ing wiiuls are from the W. The tide rises from 8 
 to 12 ft,, running at from IJ m. to 3J m. an hour. 
 
 HASSAIN, a marit. town of the Ilirman em- 
 pire, caj). of a prov,, and residence of its governor; 
 on the left bank of the Birman river (the right 
 branch of the Irrawadi) ; lat. 10° 49' N., long. 
 J)40 45' E.; 100 m. W. Rangoon, and 300 m. SSVV. 
 Ava. I'op. estimated at 6,000. It is one of the 
 three principal [wrts of the Birman empire. 
 
 BASSANO, a town of Austrian Italy, prov. 
 Vicenza, on the left bank of the Brenta, 17 m. 
 NNE. Vicenza, 21 m. N. by W. Padua. Pop. 
 13,100 hi 1857. It is situated in a salubrious hilly 
 country, suitable for the culture of the vine and 
 tlie olive ; is surrounded by walls, and well built 
 of stone. It is joined to a suburb on the opposite 
 Hide of the river by a fine bridge, 180 ft. in length. 
 Some of its churches are handsome, and adorned 
 with pictures by Giacomo da Ponti and his son, 
 natives of the town. There are here four con- 
 vents for nuns, a hospital, a mont de picte, and 
 barracks. The mineralogical cabinet and botanical 
 gardeR of M. Parolini deserve the traveller's atten- 
 tion. Bassano has manufactures of cloth, straw 
 hats, and copper utensils, with extensive silk fila- 
 tures and tanneries. But the printing establish- 
 ment of Kemondini is not merely the most im- 
 portant work in the town, but is one of the most 
 extensive establishments of the kind in Northern 
 Italy. It emjjloys 60 presses and about 1,000 
 hands, and has attached to it paper mills and 
 an engraving department, which has produced 
 Vol|)Rto and other distinguished artists. The town 
 carries on an extensive trade in silk, the produce 
 of its territory, cloth, wood, iron, com, wuie, and 
 rattle. A great deal of charcoal is sliipped here 
 for Venice. 
 
 BASSE'E (LA), a town of France, ddp. du Nord, 
 cap. cant., 14 m. W. Lille, on the canal of the same 
 name. Pop. 2,985 in 1861. It has establishments 
 for spinning cotton, combing wool, with soap- 
 works, distilleries, and potteries. Owing to its 
 position, it is the entrepot of the arroiidissements 
 of Bethunc and St, Pol, and has, in Cf)nHequence, a 
 considerable trade. It was formerly fortified ; but 
 Louis XIV. having taken it from the Spaniards, 
 uiadc the works be dismantled. 
 
 BASSEIN, a luarit, town of Iliudostan, prov. 
 
 BATAVIA 
 
 Aiiningabad, ilistr. N. (.'oncan; separated fr„in 
 Halsette by a narrow channel, and about 20 m \ 
 Bombay ; lat. 19° 20' N., long. 72° 5(i' E. It Viw 
 taken [xmsessioii of by the Portuguese in l.Mi 
 who fortitlcd it with ramparts and bastions, nii<i 
 Bujiplied it with no fewer than seven churclivM, ]t 
 was captured by the Mahrattas in 17j)(); m'„| ;, 
 was here that the peace with the peisliwn, wlii,|, 
 annihilated their federal empire, was signed l)(v 
 81st, 1802, since which it has belonged to the 
 British. 
 
 BAHTIA.a sea-port town of Co^Hi<•a,cap.arrnnlI. 
 on its E. coast, within 23 m. of its N E, extrcinifv"' 
 lat. 420 43' N., huig. 9° 2(i' K P..p, li),;!oi in' 
 I8tn. This town, which was formerly the can. df 
 the island, is built amphitheatre-wise on a risiiiL' 
 ground, and has a fine appearance from tlic .hch. 
 But on entering, it is found to lie ill-bniit, niui 
 the streets narrow and crooked. It is defended |jv 
 a citadel, and by walls and bastions ; but these 
 are of no use, except for the defence of the port, 
 being commanded by the heights, at the font „f 
 which the town is built. The Iwirbour, fonned Ijv 
 a mole, is fit only for small vessels; its entrance is 
 narrow and difHcult, and vessels are ex|M>seil to 
 the land winds, which sometimes blow viulemlv 
 from the N\V'. There is anchorage out.side the 
 mole in 10 or 11 fathoms. It is the seat ofarnvul 
 court for the island, and of tribunals of commerce 
 and of primary jurisiliction ; and has a commminl 
 college, a model school, a society of public instruc- 
 tion, and a theatre. It protluces soap, Icatlur, 
 liqueurs, and wax ; and exports oil, wine, pont- 
 skins, coral, wood, and hides. It was taken liv 
 the English in 1794, but was soon after recovered 
 b^ the French, in whose possession it has ever 
 smce rcmahied. At the entrance to the port m an 
 insulated rock, called Jl Leone, from the strikiuj; 
 resemblance it bears to a lion cmtchant. 
 
 BATAVIA, a sea-port and city of Java, cap, of 
 that island : seat of the gov. of the Dutch posses- 
 sions in the E., and the principal emporium of tlie 
 E. Archipelago, on an extensive bay on the NW. 
 coast of the isl. ; lat. 6° 8' S., long. 106° 50' E. 
 According to an enumeration made in 1861, the 
 town had 136,000 inhabitants, of whom abnut 
 80,000 natives and 27,000 Chinese. Batavia is 
 built in a marshy situation, at the mouth of the 
 Jaccatra river ; several of its streets being inter- 
 sected by canals, crossed by numerous bridges, ami 
 their banks lined with trees in the Dutch fashion. 
 But these canals, being receptacles for the tilth of 
 the city, contributed, together with the nature of 
 the ground, to render it very unhealthy. In this 
 respect, however, it has been materially improved 
 since 1816, partly by building a new town on the 
 heights, a little more inland, where the govern- 
 ment functionaries and principal merchants have 
 their residences ; and partly by the demolition of 
 useless fortifications, the filling up of some of the 
 canals, and the cleaning of others, and the widening' 
 of several of the old streets. The older pans of 
 the town are now, in fact, principally occupied 
 by Chinese and natives, and though iutcrmiltent 
 fevers are still said to be prevalent, we doubt whe- 
 ther it be much more unhealthy than most otiicr 
 places on the island. The existing fortificatiom 
 consist only of a few small batteries and redoubts 
 in and about the city. The houses, of brick and 
 stuccoed, are spacious and neat; the ground tinors 
 in the principal houses are f :"'\ of marble tlag-s 
 the chief street lies alon{, ! lii)'. sides of the river, 
 and consists of the office-': and warehouses of the 
 [iiincipal merchants, none of wlunn, as already 
 stated, imssthe night in Batavia, The Stadthaiis, 
 in wliicli the coiurts of law are held, is on the S. 
 side of the city ; at the opposite quarter is the 
 
»,cnp,nrmnil., 
 '«extn'iiiitv; 
 111). l'.),i!Ol "ill 
 ■ly the oni). of 
 Hc on n risiii;; 
 from the sea. 
 ill-l)iiilt, and 
 in defended liy 
 His; but these 
 ce of the port, 
 at the fiMit nf 
 our, funned liv 
 its eiitrnnce i* 
 ire cximsed tn 
 blow violently 
 ^e outside the 
 ; seftt (if aroynl 
 Is of commerce 
 las n communal 
 ' public iiiKlnio- 
 9 soap, leather, 
 oil, wine, n'Wt- 
 t wns taken hy 
 I after recovered 
 ion it has ever 
 to the port in an 
 ora the 8trikiii|; 
 hunt. 
 
 of Java, cap. »( 
 le Dutch posses- 
 emporium of the 
 bay on the N\V, 
 mg. 106° 50' E. 
 ftile in 1861, the 
 [of ■whom about 
 |ese. llatavia u 
 le mouth of the 
 jets beint; uitcr- 
 frouB bridges, and 
 |e Dutch fashiim. 
 >s for the filth of 
 ith the nature of 
 lealtliy. In this 
 terially improved 
 lew town on the 
 lere the govcm- 
 merchant8 have 
 [he (lemolitio.1 of 
 1 of some of the 
 ind the widening; 
 he older parts nf I 
 cipally occupied 
 igh iiucnnittont 
 t, we douht \^h^ 
 than most other 
 |,ing fortificatiom 
 ies and raloubu 
 lujes, of brick mill 
 prhe ground tiftors 
 h of marble llai.'.s 
 iides of the river, 
 areliouses of the 
 
 liDin. lis aire*')' 
 TheSladthaus 
 
 hclil, is oil ^hei'. 
 ,e (luarlei is inf 
 
 lUTAVIA 
 
 riiadel, a snunrc fortn-sn with a bnnfion at cncli 
 aii'le, coiitaiuiug the rcKideiicc of tb<' gov. aiiil 
 «iim«iiri'liou.H«>.s: there arc tlircc churcbos. mid a 
 tlicatre. Till' Jaccatra is nnvigablt' fur 2 lu. iuhind 
 for vessels of 'III tons buntcii; tlu> barliour, or 
 niilier road, which is very cxlciisivt', is protectcil 
 liv n range of sinall islands, and all'ords gond 
 (liiilioriige for shins of from .'KHI to 50(1 tons, about 
 I A in. from the shore. Itatavia is llut depot fur 
 tiie iiroiliiee of all the Dutch possessions in the !•'. 
 nr(lii|K'liigii; inc. spices from the Moliieeu islands ; 
 (iilVee aiul jM'pper from Celebes and .Siiinntra; 
 I'ldd-ilust and diamonds from Korneo; tin from 
 llaneu; tortoise-shell, bees' wax, and dye-woods 
 ffdiii Timof "'"' ' '""'"'^^"' Originally no Dutch 
 ytiin was suffered to proceP<l homeward witlionf 
 li^t touching here. ]Many Junks from I'hiiia and 
 Slain fomicrly traded thither; but since the estu- 
 iilislinieiit of the Ilritisli at Singapore, their trade 
 with Ilalavia has greatly ih'crease(L Th(^ mimii- 
 fiii'tiires, inc. those of leather, lime, earthenware, 
 Mipir, ami arrack, are mostly in the ban<ls of the 
 (liiiiese; their c«/h;>«h//, or |K'culiar quarter, is the 
 chief seat of bustle, and activity; and tlu^ trade of 
 ilie town, except in the articles inono|Milised by F,u- 
 ni|Raiis. is wholly in their hands. Alany of them 
 are wealthy ; they are governe<l by tbeir own laws 
 imd magistrates." The llritisb, according to Mr. 
 Kiirl. form an important body of merchants here, 
 and possess about '2,000 s(|. m. of land on the 
 Wand, much of which is cultivated with sugar : 
 iliere are said to be about 200 Knglisb subjects in 
 Itatavia, including those serving in the Dutch 
 mcreantile navy. (Temminck, Snr Ies I'osscs- 
 Moiis Xeerlandiiisca dans I'lnde Arcliipelagitiue, 
 
 1, m.) 
 
 l'erlm])s no colony in the world, not even cx- 
 oc|itiiig Cuba, has made so rapid a progress as 
 Java during the last twenty years, in the prodiic- 
 timiof all the great c(donial staples, but especially 
 in those of cnflec, sugar, and imligo. The trade of 
 liatavia has, in consequence, been very greatly 
 imreased; but the recent statements of the im- 
 i^irts and exports that wp have seen refer to the 
 i<l,iiid generally, and we have no means of spo- 
 (ityiiig exactly how much behnigs to Itatavia. 
 Tile total exports of Java during the year 1 >H\i 
 ainnmitedto 105,923,884 florins, of which 4r),;)2!l.ill 1 
 tiiiriiisfor account of private trailers, aiul .")7,i5!tl,.")4;i 
 lldrins for the Dutch government. The imports for 
 the same period were of the value of (i;i,(>24,o()l) 
 tiorins, two-fifths of which for government account. 
 The far greatest portion of this extensive conmierce 
 passes tliruugh liatavia. 
 
 Mr. Earl gives the following account of the 
 manners and habits of the Dutch : — ' The mtKle of 
 life pursued by the European residents at liatavia 
 u rather monotonous, but is ea.sily 8upj)orted by 
 those who have great pecuniary advantages in 
 view. Early rising is generally practised, the 
 Diiinihig being b)' far the most agreeable part of 
 tile day. The time before breakfast is spent in 
 riiliiij,' or gardening, according to the taste of the 
 individual : and after a substantial meal at eight 
 "Vloek, thev repair to their town oflices. At 
 the eonchision of the business of the day, they 
 retire to their country houses to a live o'clock 
 Jiiiiier; and a drive roinul the suburbs occupies 
 the interval between that repast and the cUising in 
 j tifinght; when they cither return home, or pro- 
 eeed tu ?pcnd the evening at the llarmonie, an 
 I e>taljlishr,!eiit formed upon the same ])rinciple as 
 i tjie larg;- clubs of London, the majority of the 
 I liiropean residents, Dutch and foreign, being 
 1 memlwrs. The regulations arc particniarly fa- 
 viiurnlile to strangers ; a resident, who is not a 
 nieinlier, cannot be admitted : but a visitor, after 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 UATII 
 
 860 
 
 Wing Intnxluced by a member, may resort to it 
 whenever he pleases diiriii|{ bis stay at Itatavia. 
 The evenings at the llarmonie are spent in con- 
 versation, or in playing at cards luid billiards, and 
 it is perhaps the more fretpiented by thegi'iitle- 
 luen from their having little intellectual liinuse- 
 luent at liome. The greater number of the Duicb 
 females have been born on the island, and are 
 rather dellcieiit in (Hiiiit of education, 'i'hey ari^ 
 often remarkably tiiir, owing to tbeir being seldum 
 exposed to the weather; the heat of the cllniate 
 renders them extremely listless, and they somi 
 attain that eiiibon|H>iiit which we are apt to asso- 
 ciate with the iileii of Dutch beauty. 'T'liereare 
 few public aniuseineiits. On Sunday evenings a 
 military band performs on the Koning's I'lain, 
 which attracts the residents, who attend in car- 
 riages or on horseback; and tlu^ coniinunity is 
 occasionally enlivened by an aiiinteiir play, or ti 
 grand ball given by one of the iiublic functionaries. 
 The anmial races, which are always well attemled, 
 were established and ant |irincipally supported by 
 the Knglish. Some very good half-bred .Arabs aro 
 occasionally run ; but the race betwi'cn the coun- 
 try horses, riihlen by native Jockeys, is by far I ho 
 most amiishig, and the riders Jockey and aro 
 out-jockeyed in a style that wonhl not disgrace 
 Newmarket.' (I'jistern .Seas.) 
 
 Itatavia was built by the Dutch, in KilO; in 
 IHIt it was taken by Sir S. Aucbinuty, and be- 
 longed to t\w British till ISK!, when it was re- 
 stored to its former possi'ssors. 
 
 ItATAViA, a town (d' the C States, New York, 
 (ienesee co., 4(1 m. NK. Itulliilo. I'op. r>.27tl in 
 IMiin. This tlonrishiiig ttiwn was laid out in ison. 
 It has a court-house, gaol, and other public build- 
 ings, and considerable trade in agricultural pro- 
 duce. 
 
 IIATK ISLE, an island belonging to Ilindostan, 
 prov. (iiijerat, and off its \V. extremity; hit. 22° 
 •_'"' N., long. l>l)0 19' E. It has a good barlxnir, and 
 contains al)out 2,000 houses; but is cbielly noted 
 for a celebrated temide dedicateil to the god l»un- 
 chor, and much frequented by |(ilgrh.'.v 
 
 llATII, a city id' I'.ngland, NK. jiarl ,■ ■. Somer- 
 set, 102 m. W. by S. London by road, and UMi m. 
 by tireat Western railway. The city stands on the 
 Avon,ahmg which its buihliiigs extend for upwards 
 of 2 m., ascending the acclivities, and crowning 
 some (d'tlic summits of the adjoining range of hills. 
 Pop., in ISOl, Jtit.loO; in 1S4I, u2,;tl(l; and in 
 lHi")l, M,'iAO. The pop., after this perhxl, began 
 slightly to decline, aiul the census of IHCil showed 
 but f)2,i)2« inhabitants. There were 7,744 inhnb. 
 houses in 1851, and «,021 in 1801. Hath is dis- 
 tinguished for its architectural elegance, and tbo 
 lM?auty and extent of its public )iromenadcs. The 
 fineness of the freestone, of which its edifices aro 
 mostly built, and the noble scale and symmetrical 
 arrangement of the ground plans, fully equal the 
 taste dis]daycd in their elevations. Amongst the 
 most prominent places are the Circus, in which 
 the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders arc com- 
 bined, and from whence three spacious streets, of 
 corresponding character, diverge ; the N. and S. 
 parades, which have noble terraces, raised on 
 arches, and commanding extensive views; King- 
 ston Square, and the new streets and line espLmado 
 formed along the river side, beneath the terraces 
 last named ; Queen Square, of the Corinthian order, 
 with an obelisk in the centre ; the Koyal Crescent, 
 with Ionic columns springing from a rustic base- 
 ment, and crowned by a rich entablatiu-e ; with 
 LansdowQ and Cavendish crescents; Belle Vue, 
 Portlan'l, and two or three other places; Paragcn 
 buildings, llelvedere and Jlarlborough buildings ; 
 ill the level plain, extcudiiig ou the NK. si<le, ara 
 
 BU 
 
 
370 
 
 BATH 
 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 mm 
 
 m 
 
 the flnp rnnRPn of KcnxinRton, Oronvonor Placo, 
 and Wftlcot 'IVrmco; Inntlv, tlio HtriictiircH in the 
 new town, <»n thi' rivpr. 'tUv liilfi-r, wliiili wimlM 
 tliriiii);li, nnd iiiIdH K^'Ully to tlii! U'lUity ol' tlii> 
 rily,ii4croNHv<l livnint! bridKcN, throPHiiHiNMiHidniiiid 
 two railway hridKCH; the moHt r<'nmrK»ir>p lM>in){ 
 rull(tn«y liridKP, <>■■ thrra an'hoH; Hiitiiwicli iMii 
 hridui;; Norlli l'nnidf> hrid^e. Klf) I). Hpnn, nnd ihv. 
 Old l)rid|L;c, Tli(> rivor \n iinvi^iilitp to llriNlnl.iind 
 communicnlc'H with lh«> TlmnicH, iit Kciidin);, liy 
 the Kcniict nnd Avon cunnl. 
 
 'I'hi- I'mnoiiM Ihcminl Hiirin^H of Dnth riMO in tlio 
 niidNt ot'lhit limited plain Hkirtcd on tlif K. nnd S, 
 hy the Avon, from Ihrci- diNiiiict HoiirccK. nl nNninll 
 iliHtnnco from ench otlu-r. The wntcrw of cncli nrt- 
 r<'(u>ivfd into four extensive renervoirM, to which 
 Knitahje ImiiIim nre attm-lied : Ihiil eiilled the KinK's 
 Until in the principal, nnd in xiiiiplied liy n sprinj^ 
 
 ri^in^nl • lod ft.SW.of thenhltey. Thef^ieen'H 
 
 linth, which \n nnich Nninller, ndjoins this, luid is 
 Huppiied from the nnine source. ' Tiie Cross Kiilh 
 is supplied from n distinct sprin^^ rising nt n short 
 <listnnce NW. of the former; and th<< Hot Hath 
 from another, l"2(» ft. further on, in the snnu> direc- 
 tion. The nriuu\ punip-rooni, connected with the 
 Kiuff's Hath, a verv handsome huildin^- erected in 
 17!t7, Conns the prmeipal centre of attraction dur- 
 ing the fiishionnhle seas<m : it has nn orchestrn, nnd 
 a line stnluo of Nnsh. Like the Kin^^'s, the Hot 
 linth hns n |uimp-ro(im, on n smaller Rcnle, nnd 
 ench hns n |)id)lic pump connected with its spring;, 
 of which the gratuitous use is allowed during the 
 dnv. lU'sides the pnhlic halhs (which are princi- 
 pally used hy the hospital jiatients nnd the poorer 
 einss of invniids), there are jjrivnte bnths, iM'lon^j- 
 iun to the corporation, and others, called the Aliln-y 
 Jinths, U'longin^ to Knrl Mnnvers : these arc 
 fhietly resorted to hy the wenlthier elnsses, nnd 
 are amply provided with Rudatorios, and every 
 accommodation. The medicinal waters of tln'se 
 HprinfTs, when fresh drawn, are quite transparent 
 nnd destitute of e(donr nnd smell, the temperatures 
 iK'inn— <(f the Kin^^'s Hath, I ll>°; of the Cross Hath, 
 1 12° ; of the Hot Hath, 1 17° Fnhr. They contain 
 carbonic ncid and nitrop^cn gases, sulphate and 
 muriate of sodn, sulphntc nnd cnrl)onnt« of lime, 
 and siliceous cnrth, with a miiuite portion of oxide 
 of iron. l{es]>eeting both the gross amount and 
 relative quantities of these there is much dis- 
 crepancy in the numerous treatises on the subject, 
 by which occasional variation may be inferred: 
 the impregnation, both clmlvbcatc and saline, is 
 greatest in those of the King's and the Hot Hath ; 
 the water of the Cross Hath hoH most earthy con- 
 tents. Large quantities of gas pass up with the 
 water, in bubbles of considernble size. Tnken in- 
 ternally, the woters act as stimulants, raising the 
 pulse considerably, and exciting the nervous sys- 
 tem : they are considered peculiarly efficacious in 
 cases of gout and of biliary obstructions ; as baths, 
 they are used for various chronic and cutaneous 
 disorders; their topical ap])Iication, by forcing a 
 stream on the diseased part (called dri* pumping), 
 is also much in request. The morning is the usual 
 time both for drinking and bathing. The reser- 
 voirs ore discharged, at regular intervals, through 
 channels connected with the Avon. 
 
 The principal buildings devoted to religious 
 purposes are, — the abbey church, 210 ft. long, 
 lighted by fifty-two windows, a beautiful structure, 
 once called, from the lai^gc size and number of its 
 windows, the lantern of England ; it was founded 
 on the site of a more ancient church, A.n. 1495, 
 nnd was completed in 1I506 ; its tower is 162 ft. in 
 lieight: St. Michael's Church, a Gothic structure, 
 with a handsome spire, erected in 1836 ; St. James's 
 Church, rebuilt in 1708 ; that of Walcot, a very 
 
 HiMirlnuH building, with free slltingR for the ponr; 
 thrist Church, n fliu! stnicture, erected by nnIi' 
 wriplion in I7!)H; with other churches nnd i'IhiikU 
 connected with the ('Htnltllshed church, and nKmilv 
 rnised within the last centurv. The Jdnnaii 
 (!ath<dicM, Mornvinns, Kriends, f{Aiitisi.<<, Imlctit'ii. 
 dents, Methodists, nnd IJnitariniis, have uImi |t|iuv, 
 of worship. Of the establishments devotnj t„ 
 chnritnble purposes, thi* iirincipnl nn%— llntli \\m- 
 pitnl (completed in 1712), for the nx-eption nf niik 
 |Mior from nil |>nrts of the kingdom (except ilic 
 city itself), who come for the iH'nellt of the wiitcN; 
 it IS incorporated by n chnrter, nnd HMpiHirtiil |jv 
 doiuilions and snbsi'riptions : the Itntli riiiicil 
 Hospital, coiidiining the same objects nn the im.. 
 villus dispensary anil those of n casualty iiiliniwn ; 
 it is supported' like the last. Itellntt's lliiM|iiiii|' 
 endowed in the reign of .las. H., for the saim |i{ir. 
 ])ose as the linth Hospital, but for men (jiiIv; ii 
 provides lodging and bathing for alioiit eij^'liiiTn; 
 lllack Alms, endowed by Kdw. VI., for the sii|i|i(irt 
 of ten poor i>ersons of the plactM St. .Icilm's, wi- 
 dowed in Hen. II. 's reign, for the snp|Hirt i>( *\x 
 jMtor men nnd ns nnmy women : I'artis's Cnllcp. i;, 
 large (pnidrangulnr rnnge on the upper romi to llri^- 
 tol), for the support of thirty (UTayedgentlewdiiicn, 
 ten of whom must be widows of clergymen; ciiili 
 has a house, garden, nnd bnntlsome nnnnitv. 'I'lic 
 chief estnblislmumts for educntion nnd litemiiirc 
 nro, — a free grmnmar-school, endowed by Kchv. VI,: 
 its mastership (which carries with it the rect(ir\-iif 
 Chnrh'ombe) is in the gift of the coq)orati(iii:'ilio 
 nine Coat chnrity scIkhiI, founded a.u, 171 1, fur 
 clothing, nnd teiiching fifty boys and fifty prN 
 reading, writing, and nrithnietic; two (itli'er free 
 schocds for girls only; one for the instnicfjim nf 
 poor children of Hntli nnd Hnth-foriim; n nntidiial 
 s<'ho(d; theCntlndic nnd theMeth(Mlist free scIkkiN, 
 Th(! Hath nnd West of Knglnnd Societv,estnl)li.'(li(tl 
 in 1777 for the encourngement of ngricidtiirp, nns. 
 mnnufnctures, nnd commerce, has devoted iiscli' 
 chiefly to the first of these objects, and palili.iluil 
 several volumes of trnnsncf ions : the Hat h Fiitf .n- 
 and l'hih)so|)hical Institution, established in IK:<ii; 
 it is a handsome Doric building (occupviii); the 
 site of the Lower Assembly I{(M)ms, wlilcli were 
 then burnt down), and comprises a liiirory, mu- 
 seum, laboratory, and lecture-room : the I'uUic 
 Subscription Library, established in 18(10, lias an 
 extensive collection of books ; and there arc many 
 circulating librnrics. A mechanics' institute km 
 estnblislie(t in 1828. The public buildings oppn>- 
 priated to business or amusement are,— the rmilil- 
 hall, the seat of the quarter sessions and the Cdurtj 
 of record and request ; the two first named by tlie 
 corporation, the last by commissioners appointwi 
 under an act of 45th Geo. Ill,, for recovery A 
 debts under 10/. ; its juris<liction extends over the 
 city, and several parishes in the hundreds ofltath- 
 forum and VVellow : this court, which sits even- 
 Wednesday, has nearly absorbed the business if 
 the court of record. 'Hie prison is a spacious irailJ- 
 ing in Hathwick, chiefly occupied by debtors, and 
 by delinquent* previously to their being fully 
 committed. Commercial r(M)ms were establisliell 
 in 1839. The market-house is an extensive niiif.-e 
 of buildings behind the Guildhall; market iUv.4 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays. The theatre, in the 
 Grecian style, finished in 1806, towers over the 
 surrounding structures, in the central part of llie I 
 city; thp Freemasons' Lodge (built in 181') tf I 
 also consjiicuous. The Subscription Club House, f 
 and the Hath and West of England Siibscriptinn I 
 Rooms, are establishments similar to the Ix)iiili'ii| 
 club houses. The Upiwr Assembly RooDisare«l 
 superb suite of apartments, in which tlicsiibscnp-l 
 tion balls and concerts of the season oiv Wr 
 
HATH 
 
 m 
 
 for thf poor; 
 flctl \iy will- 
 ■N itnil cliniii'U 
 
 ll, Itllll iniMlly 
 
 Tlio Itiiniiiii 
 intjt, IikIi'JK'ii- 
 »vc ulroi \\W\» 
 
 IH (IfVdtl'cl til 
 
 1% — Until lliM- 
 n>l)liiin of »iik 
 
 III (CXCCJlt till' 
 
 (>l'lh('^vllt('^•, 
 I muHMirtiil liy 
 
 Itnlli I'liitcil 
 H'tf* III* till' |iri- 
 iilty iiitlnnnry; 
 Intt'i* ll<i^'|iil'al. 
 r tin' Hiimi' |mr- 
 r men nnly ; it 
 iltmit cii^lilci'ii ; 
 , for till' siiiniiirt 
 ; St. Jiiliii'n. 111- 
 I suinmrt III' "JK 
 iirti«'!*('<illi'p'i;i 
 )|U'rriiailtiillri«- 
 ('(lUcntlcwiiiiicM, 
 •Icrnymcii ; fiii li 
 icftnimiiv, Tho 
 HI niitl litcmliiri' 
 iWdlliyKilw.Vi.; 
 I it the m"tiir\'iif 
 
 conx"""''""' ''"■ 
 led A.i). 1711, U 
 ys ami lifiy prl< 
 f! ; two olluT I'rir 
 the hiHtrui'tiim 4 
 •forum ; a imtimwl 
 
 lUMl'lHt Irw Sl'lllml*. 
 <Ol'U'tV,t'>ltl|l)li«lKHl 
 
 if ft>j;rii'ultiiro. arts, 
 ilinH ileviilt'd ilscK 
 >ctt«, mill imlilii'liiil 
 ; the Hatli Lite r; 
 rttnbliolu'dinlWi; 
 \^r (occuiwiiii; III* 
 
 OOltlS, wllicll VfWC 
 
 scH a lilirary. mu- 
 ■room : the 'I'uUic 
 !(l in IWIO, hw an 
 md there arc many 
 inics' institute w,« 
 c buildinRs nri»i- 
 iit are,— the GuilJ- 
 ions and tho cwim 
 tirst named liv llie , 
 issioncrs aiipoinlod 
 ',, for rcfovcrj- I'f 
 I extends over the 
 hundreds of liath- 
 _, which sits even- 
 jcd the business"! 
 isaspaciousliuiU-l 
 ed by debtors, and 
 their being Wlv 
 ,3 were establisliw 
 I an extensive rot-e 
 
 Ihall; market (lavs 
 The theatre, in tilt 
 )5, towers over the 
 central part of iH 
 (built in 18b) B| 
 intion Club Hoiise.j 
 .gland Subscnptwl 
 ilnrto thcUmkiiij 
 embly Booms area I 
 IwhichthcsubscnH 
 c season arc heWJ 
 
 n 
 
 nnilef tho dirrrtlon of fho Tnn»tor of the rrromo- 
 iiii'n. The city nxHomblicM nro oi'ciiNionally held in 
 Ihi'lNiiiqiii'tlnK room of tlic (tiiildlmll. TIionc 
 riiiiei'rts and nsm-niblicH <-oiih||(mIi> the chief amiiM'- 
 nii'iitstif tho pbi't'; iM-nidcn wliiidi, howovi-r, then- 
 nre two s))A(!ioni« riiliiiK-Hi'hiMilH, for oxcrciNtt in 
 liml weather: when tine, l^iinHdown ntnl Chiverlnti 
 piiwn are tho favourite oi|iieMtrinii resortf*. There 
 nri' annual rneeH on tlip fomier, the week Hulwe- 
 iiiieMt to those of AHOot, nixl a Npriii^ ineetiiii^ in 
 April for half-bred ninreK, llesnU'M the varioim 
 jiriimriiadcs, and the Siiliu-y (lardeiiH previously 
 ini'iitiiiMed, leu acres of the lliith eoininoii huve 
 In'i'ii Inid out ill iiulilic wiilks anil pleasure ^^roiiiids, 
 niimiil the l{oyal Victoria I'ark. 
 
 Itnili no louder bonsts its ancient )iro-emiiienee 
 ill till' ;:ay world as a rasliintialile resnrl. it is 
 iiiiw ^iir|iasscil by llri;;btou, ami, |ierlia|iH, also, by 
 Clirllciiliain, wllicll altracls a lar^e portion of the 
 
 iiiii|iniiv 
 
 bv which it used foruierlv to be visited. 
 
 ll \i still, however, iiiucb resorted to during its 
 w.,.<iin. It is faviiiirably situated for trade, the 
 (Imil Western railway bavins a station here, oil 
 till' main lino to llrislol.ainl (be Avon beiii^; iiavi- 
 pililc to llristol oil one side, and the Avon and 
 KriiiH't Canal on the other. Two lirancbeH of this 
 niinl extend from llatb into tlu- coal district SVV. 
 iif the citv. Hut business and ]deasiire do not 
 iifii'ii ninaij;amate; and the oiilv manufacture is 
 thiM'imrne woollen cloth called flath coiitiii;;, and 
 kiwytnere, made in the immediate ii('i;;;bbour- 
 liiniil.' There are two fairs, one held on the lllh 
 Fill., the other July l()th, but they have lost most 
 (if tlieir ancient consequence, which was mainly 
 ntiriliiitablc to the woollen mnnufncture, (Irst iii- 
 triMliiced here, under the aiispiceH of the monks, 
 ill the reif,m of Kdw. T., who (rrnnted the char- 
 ters liy which the fairs are held. Until stands on 
 till' liiis and (xdite fomintions; in the latter (which 
 ImiiiiiiIs it on the NK. and a inirtion of the S.) the 
 nnlile freestone (inarrics <H'cur whence its building 
 niati rials are iK'rived ; both formations also afl'onl 
 lime and fuller's earth, and nlioiind in fossil re- 
 mains, lis well a« in line sjirinns, which rise to 
 williin 40 or 50 ft. of the summits of tho siir- 
 rdiiiulinK hills, and funiish an amnio supply <if 
 Mater to every part of the city, conducted thither 
 friim various reservoirs, by piiios, the greater part 
 (if which have been laid by the corporation, llath 
 claims to l)e a borough by prescription, contimnul 
 liy cliarter : it is now divided into seven wards, 
 aiiil (jnvemed by a mayor, fourteen aldermen, and 
 fiiriy-two councillors, under the Municipal Keform 
 Act! It has sent two members to the II. of C. 
 since the reign of Edward I. Tlie constituency is 
 fiirmed by 10/. householders; there were ii,\Hii re- 
 pstered electors in 1804. Previously to the Kc- 
 fiinn Act, the elective franchise was exclusively 
 vested in the mayor, aldermen, and commim 
 eiimicil, who were also self-elected. Conjointly 
 ifitli VVcUs, Hath gives name to a (licwese, co- 
 extensive (excluding Hedminster) with the co. of 
 Siimersct, The sec was fixed at the latter a.d, 
 Wi.i. and has since been transferred, successividy, 
 III Hath and to (ilastoiibiiry, and again restored to 
 Wells, whose dean ami chapter now elect (nomi- 
 nallv) the bishop, (( libsoii s ed, Camden's IJrit. 
 pp. 186, 187; 6 & 7 W. 4, c, 77.) The bishop's 
 revenues amount to about 5,000/, per annum. 
 
 The present city may almost be called a crca- 
 tiiin of the last century ; for previously it was 
 j comprised in an area of about 50 acres (on the 
 limited plain amidst which the hot springs rise), 
 •ml siimninded by walls in the fonn of an irrc- 
 pilar pentagon, its suburbs consisting then merely 
 I if a few detached cottages; so that the parishes 
 now forming its most important portii,us ha<l, at 
 
 the close of the 17th rcntnri', urnrrrly nn Inha- 
 bitant; whilst the three sin'nll ones within tho 
 walls (judging from the cbiirch n-gisters) could 
 not have contained a foiirib parr of their present 
 numlH'rs. Its rapid extension, celebrity, ami 
 former miiguilicence were due mainly to two in- 
 dividuals: one, the clever person known as lieaii 
 Nash; the other, Mr. WoimI the architect. The 
 former was elected master of the cerenionies in 
 1711), and theri>at\er ruled as arhilrr rlriiiinlinriim 
 for uiiwanls of .''lO years (the most tlonrishing 
 |H'rio(l of its fasbioiiable annals); using the iu- 
 lliience bis peculiar talents gave biiii iu the pro- 
 motiiiii of objects of pcrmaneiit iinporlain'c to the 
 city. Till' other coninienceil bis an liiti'ciiirnl 
 labours with (Queen's Si|uari', tlic fiiiiiidiilioiis of 
 wllicll were laid iu I72!t. Ibis, and llie streets 
 ilivergiiig from it, as well as the N. and .S, pa- 
 rades, be lived to tiiiisli. and al'o to plan and 
 coinmeiice tint Circus. All these remain asnioiiu- 
 mentsof bis genius, unexcelled by any sulmeipiont 
 aidiievenit'utfi. 
 
 Itatb was founded, and its first walls built, by 
 th<> h'omans, in the reign nf Clauiliiis: tliey 
 named it Aipuf Sul'm, and netaiiied the place be- 
 tween three and four (centuries. The walls ami 
 gates (which remained till the Iwth century) 
 were built during \\w later .Snxoii period, on liiii 
 Itoinau fiiiiiKlatious, nm*. partly from \\w ruins of 
 tlu'ir temples, arches, &c.. Camden gives iiiaiiy 
 inscri|itions from fraginenls thus imbedded (Itrit. 
 pp. 1HH, 18!)); and, ill Warner's History of Hath 
 (|ip, 2.'l, '.>!), il'i), the remains of Itomaii temples, 
 baths, coins, d-c, that have been discovered at 
 various times many feet beneath the present 
 Murfiice, are tigiired and described. lland-milU 
 of stone, Ac, relics of the llritisli ; and codiiis, 
 coins, il'c, of the Saxon period, are also given by 
 these authors. Its tirst chartc r, making it a frt^o 
 iMirough, was granted by Iticbtinl I, 'V\w. inaiiii- 
 facturo called Hath iK'iivcr had nttained miiidi 
 repute at the close of the 15tli century, at which 
 time three guilds of artiticers — weavers, tailors, 
 and shoemakers — existed, to whom Math owed 
 its then importanceo, (Leland's lliii. ii. 07.) It 
 was tirst made a corporate city by a charter id" 
 32n(l of Kliz, This and the charters of !»th and 
 H4th Geo. III., extending the limits of its jnris- 
 dicti(ni, were the governing ones, jirevionsly to 
 the late municipal act. The gross revenue of 
 the corporation, in 1848, amounted to 10,057/., 
 chiefly derived from the rents and renewals of 
 their estates, water-rents, market-dues, nnd prolits 
 of the baths, (Miinicipnl Conimiss, IJoport, 18;t5, 
 App, pt, ii. p, IIO'.I, ctxef/,) The immense tliick- 
 iH'ss of its walls must have made it a strongboht 
 in the earlier period of its history; but in later 
 times it has never been a statiim of anv military 
 importance. It was fortified and held for tlu! 
 king at the outbreak of tho civil wars ; and after 
 lieiiig taken and retaken several times, was ulti- 
 mately ceded to the jiarliament in 104.'), ('hris- 
 tojdier An.stey, author of the New Hath (Jiiide, 
 and John I'almer, author of tho plan for convey- 
 ing mails by coaches, with other distingiiisheil 
 jicrsons, were natives of Hath, (Sidiniis, Polyhist, 
 c, 22; lien, of }Iuntiiigd<m, lib, ii. ; (iildas, caj), 
 nit. ; Leland's Coll, v. 2 ; Dugdale's Koiias. tome i, ; 
 Maddox's Hist. I'^xchcq, c, 13, may be referred to 
 for the earlier history and trade of the i)lacc. 
 The Fourth lieport, pp, 309, et seq.; and the 
 Eighth, pp, 507, et sea,, of Commiss, on Charities, 
 contain an account ol those of Hath,) 
 
 Uatii, a town and port of the U. States, Maine, 
 CO. Linc(dn,on tho W. side of the Kennebec, about 
 10 m, from the sea, lat, 43° 55' N,, long. 0!»o 49''- 
 W. Pop. 4,700 in 1 800. It is pleasantly situated, 
 
 » u 2 
 
 m 
 
X, 
 
 372 HATIIOATK 
 
 nn<l iit Olio (if tlin rmmt cDiiinn'rcinl towim in Itio 
 Mt/irr. Tlir rivir, wliicli in wldom tnwn over, 
 niliiiitN vchxcIm of c-diiHiilrralili' hiinlt'ii, lliilli in 
 tlH> iiniiii' of M-vfriii oilit-r lowiii«, aiul ulmi of 
 Mwcriil I'uuiitii'N in tlii! IJ. SIiiIcn, 
 
 ItATIKiATI'., A town nnd |inr, nf Sfotlnnil, <'c>. 
 LinlitliKow. rii|). t.N'J? in IMtt|, nl' wlii>ni 2,.'il!) 
 mitlcM mill '.',27H IVnmii'N. 'I'ln' nunilxT ul' inlin- 
 liilcil iiiMiNt'N unKMiiili'il to 7'IH in I hi; I, wliilc 
 lliiTt' went i.ori m'pnriitt' fainilli'M, 'I'lic town iM 
 nilnnti'ii on tli<< niiililli' rout! Ix'twccn iMliiilHirKli 
 mill (iliiHpiw, IH ni. WSW. the 'orniir, iiiiil It ni. 
 N. Liiilllli^'ow. It NtmiilN on tin- ;H. ili-clivity of ii 
 riilK*' •'•' liilln «'xtrii(rnin hitomh tin- on., ninl i-om- 
 prini'M nil olil mill n iii'W portion; tin* lonin'r coii- 
 hIhI iii^ ol'iiiimiw crookcil Iiiiicm, on ii Htccp ilccli vity, 
 mill till! ititli-r of nion^ inoilt'rn nml iH-ttcr hiiill. 
 lioiiNi'H, on niori< Icvi'l f^rnniiil. 'I'lic MircctN nm 
 well piiviMl uiiil ligliti'il, mill it ix Hl>iinilniitly xiip- 
 itlicd with ^riHitl water, liroiif;lit from a ilixiaiirc, 
 rite chiiri'li, a cliinisy eililifi', wai* cri-rti'il in 
 !7<'l!), aiiil tliere arclliree orfoiir ilixMeiitiMgnici'tiii); 
 hiiiiHOM, Itatliptto wiirt eri'iitcil a free liiirf;li of 
 linriniy in IN'21. Tlic inliali. arc jiriiicipally eni- 
 ploytMl in the wcaviiiK of eottonx tor the (ilaxpiw 
 niannfaetiirerM, anil in the niljaeent coal ami lime 
 workH, It has an excellent academy, liherally 
 endowed l>y a native of the town, who ai'<|iiired a 
 fortune in the \V. Indies, which furniHlieN ediica- 
 tioii, of the iH'Ht flort, ^ratix, to all nativex of the 
 liar. It liiiH Hix annual fairx, two of which, at 
 Whilmintiiie and MMrtinniiiM, nreof ver\'(:oiiNid»'r- 
 alile iiii|H)rtance, as cattle fairs. A weekly market 
 Ih held on Wednesday. The par. in generally in 
 n hi;;li xtate of cultivation. 
 
 MATIIUItsr TOWN, a town of W. Africa, on 
 till! S. Hide of the month uf tlio river (iainliia; 
 cap. lit the KritiHli |iosHexHiiiiiH on that river, and 
 Heatof acivillientenant-Kovernor; hit. \H° 2H' N., 
 li.iitr. It>° !»2' VV. It HtniiilH on the K. end of St. 
 Mary'n Island, a fertile, hut low and swampy 
 H|Mit, alMint 4 in. in len^'lh, and ii m. in hreadth. 
 Top. (of the town and island) (>,\W, of whom I'.M 
 (inly arc Kiiropemis; the rest being lilierated 
 At'ricnns, Mnndingoes, •lidofs, &v. Of the I!) I 
 uhile inhaliitants, there are 177 males ami M 
 fi'inales; the coloured population comprises :i,K(M 
 males and 2,!M() feinalcH. The main street facing 
 th<^ river is iHTii|)ied with Kiiropean warehoiiseM 
 nnd private dwellings; the iitlu'r streets are laid 
 out ill straight lines, hut nnpavcd, and are lined 
 mostly with African huts, inclosed within small 
 gardens. The (Joveriiment-hoiise, like the other 
 Kiiropenn liiiildings, consists of one tliior, raised 
 upon brick ]iillars, fiiriiisheil with veranilaiis, nnd 
 approached by a long llight of steps. There is u 
 Hpacioiis liDspitiil for lilierated Africans near the 
 Idwn; there are three Wesleyan ehajwls and a 
 missionary school. Most of the Kiiropean settlers 
 arc merchants, trading chietly in giim Senegal, 
 luW wax, hides, ivory and gold ; the otlier prin- 
 cipal exports are tortoise-shell, . rice, cotton, 
 African teak, camwood, palm-oil, cmmtry oloths, 
 «tc. The imports ninounted to 7.'(,I.'W/. in JHtiO; 
 to 10!t,r)81/. in IHOI ; and to !)!),H2.')/. in lH<i2; 
 wliile the exjiorts were of the value of I0!t,i;{7/. 
 in IWiO; of i;i<;,«8«/. in IKtil ; nnd of ir)l,4l;{/. 
 in 1H()2. There entered the river 157 vessels, of 
 !<(!,.'<:{!) tons, in 18G2; of these, 75 vessels of 2I,:)32 
 tons wore Hritish, nnd 7;i vessels with lil,<)!)5 tons 
 were French. The settlement was estahlisheil in 
 IHIti ; it was several years ago threatened by the 
 iieighlioiiring Itarra, chieftain, but friendly re- 
 lations have since been entered into with that 
 nation. (Alexander's Voyage to the Coloiii(;s of 
 *VV. Africa, in I«;i5, |ip. 05-72); Martin's History 
 8iul Statistics of the (Joloiiies. 
 
 IIATTMUHKA 
 
 liATINDAII, A large inland town of nin,|.,. 
 Stan, prov. |{a||HMilaiia ; lat ;iil° |-.'' N., Ioiik, ;p 
 IM' \'„ Its vii'iiiitp lilts iM'eii ccli-hraleil fur w, 
 breed of horses. 
 
 HATI.ICV, a town and par. ot Kiigland, \\. )[ 
 CO. York. The par. contains It.lltM) acri'H, u|||, ^ 
 iMip. of 25,278 ill IHill. It is priiicipnlly in ||„. 
 \Va|M'iilake of Aggbrig, lint partly also in ||,„| „f 
 IMiirley : the town, wliicli has 7,2illi inlmli,, j, ;„ 
 the former. 'I he |mi|i., IhiiIi in the town n\\.\ [\„. 
 colli igiioiiM district, is iirincipally eiigageil h, |{„. 
 woollen trade, especially in the niiiiiiilnriiiri' u\ 
 what is called white dolli. The cliiinli, Imili |„ 
 the reign of Henry VI., has several uioniiiiiviii, 
 of the Kit/william, Saville, and other priiiciiiii 
 fiiinilies in the vicinity. There is here also uuill 
 endowed free hcIiooI, founded in the rciun „|' 
 James I. 
 
 HATOHM, a seA-iiurt town of Turkey in \m. 
 'iiv. Trebi/,iiiiil, neikr the Itiissinn frontier, mi \C 
 
 K. shore of the lllack Sea. 4 in. N. I'rimi ilir 
 nioiithof theTcliorok, lat.4l°:m' II" N., Inn^', ip 
 !I8' 55" K. It is built in a straggliiig iniiiiinr, 
 and is not fortilled. The harlHiiir, which U i,{kii 
 to the KNK. and N., is defended on the W, hy ,i 
 jirojecting tongue of land, and has deep wnhr 
 large hIiIim michoring within a few fiet ul th.' 
 shore. '1 he coiitigiioiis coniitrv is fertile in fmit., 
 corn, mid rice ; but ithas very little triiile. (Kluii^ 
 roth. Tableau dii Caiicase, p. Iti2,) 
 
 llATTA(iI-IA. a villageof Austrian Itnly.pn.v, 
 I'adiia, on the canal of Monselice, 10 ni. S, liv \\', 
 I'adiia. Top. 2,151 in 1857. It has Imt-wiuir 
 baths, which, with ciimmodious biiililint;s imi 
 agreeable iiroincnaihm along 'lie uuiinl, uttnui a 
 uoiisiih-rabi(> iiitliix of compaiw', 
 
 MATTALAM (!'«/«/«), ,% Ifli re town iiflliiKlo. 
 Stan, prov. Lahore, considired I .; healiliiist |il,iri' 
 in IIk* I'liiijab; in an i,,> >i plain, 21! in. NF 
 Uniritsir; hit. ;il° 48' N., long. 7'|0 ti' M. 
 
 MATTWOIJ.AII (Bitmiila, the nniiid (owiil, 
 a maritime town of some size in Iliinlostaii, |iniv, 
 Canara ; lat, \n° 5tl' N., hing. 74° ;i7' K. 
 
 HATTKIkSKA, a par. of Knglaiid, liiiiiil. llrix- 
 toii, CO. Siirrev, 4 in. SW. St. Paul's. I'np,, M, 
 4.!>!»2; 1831, '5,540; I8(il, 24,til5. Area :1,m:'ii 
 acres, Tl • pMrish coniprises n low level tnici mi 
 
 the S. ba li. <>f the Thames, and I'liniis m I' 
 
 the siiiiiirb" to the metropolis; a winHleii lirlili;i' 
 connects it with Chelsea, and a siispeiisinii lirii|;'i. 
 erected in 1857, with I'inilico and the wi'siini 
 parts of the metropolis. A park, called UniKMa 
 park, was formed in l855-!t on some low irrmiikl 
 near the river. It contains many ri's|ii'(talil(' 
 houses anil detached villas. The parish rliiir.li 
 is a modem brick building, with tower ami f\i\ti; 
 iK'side the river; another has been erected Ipv ilir 
 commissioners aiipointed for such piir|MiseH. tliin' 
 is a fre*' school (or 20 boys, and a nationnl Mml 
 for 150 boys and girls. The parish is iiitcrwriiHl 
 by railways in all directions; the I.iiikIuii aii<l 
 South Western line jiassing through its wlmli' 
 length, and the London, Chathani, and Dover. t 
 London, Itrighton, nnd South Coast, ami nilnr | 
 railways crossing and re-crossing it fnim iidrlliin 
 south. A portion of the ]inrish, which, linwrwr, 
 is y(>arly getting more restricted by the liiiililiiii; j 
 of new houses and * villas,' is still liiiil »iii ia 
 market-gardens, for the supply of vegctalili's in 
 the metropolis, for which the parish is luilfij: 
 esjiecially asparagus, said to have been lirst ciilli- 
 vated here. The place is called I'atriiw in I 
 Domesday, and the manor was given tn lluMMify ; 
 of Westminster, in exchange for that ul' Winil- 
 sor, by William I.; lie.nce the )ircseiit imnir, It [ 
 was granted by the crown, in Iil27. to I lie St, 
 John family, mid the celebrated Lord llniiiigliriJ^i; I 
 
 »/i< l«im 
 
 Ill.Hflll, I 
 
 IIAilL 
 
 Sii«TX, rii| 
 
 l.iilKJcill, ni; 
 nlili'li liai I 
 IM.I. The 
 MlNHJV kiiiil 
 iiiiii liii'liise 
 M.I, III llaxi 
 
 ill Irlltflll) in 
 
 H.'iy ipf the 
 
 iiiihIitii slrii 
 
 liiiihi"! are Ml 
 
 rlilirrli, jKirl 
 
 liiilliir Ktyle, 
 
 Kla« I if il« w 
 
 (iir .10 girls ai 
 
 I'liyx, siippoi 
 
 iiiiirki't is he 
 
 till' wiMie day 
 
 Wliii .Miiiida; 
 
 iiiily iiiaiiiifai 
 
 lAli'MHJVe lull 
 
 >iirj iLisi'il only 
 i« the central 
 |i,iriilics. 'I'ht 
 l.'|>it<iii; its pi 
 (,'niit liiitlle I 
 .VMriiiiiiKJy, in 
 III the fiilldwin 
 iiMht, ill coiiin 
 i<l'»hii'li still K 
 iiiliiTiice. On 
 ili{><iiiiiei| ill ji I 
 III' III! the leaili 
 llii- ex|M>i|iiion 
 Mill extant, ilm 
 iK'iiik' iiiterpiiln 
 iiiiiiikH fnun \<i 
 tlii'ir iiIiInii was 
 Mil' alils'v wns 
 li"'l>iii),'« due e 
 ivai cililiiwed w 
 timml, liesides 
 "tliiT ciiiiiities. 
 I'rivaic iliiiialiiiii 
 il'iwiiH'iit, and 1 
 "iTc placed on 
 Christ t'liiircli, ( 
 wrillll. leave w 
 At the general 
 "as acciinliiig , 
 il'ih' mokes it 881 
 |irll'<iiill«l oft". T 
 iifs Inige qundri 
 ilaJd'i iMonas. ; p< 
 ISii*«'x.) 
 
 liATUinV, a 
 vimnifliit of Tuh< 
 ''if f^im, an atll 
 nwied at 5,500. 
 fa>tlc in its vicin 
 miifiiki, who has e 
 iiimi(ift'liithaii(l 
 , ''•U?GK',atowi 
 ! "p. immd., on tli. 
 f-M'.. Angers. J', 
 ^yrcwibly situated 
 m hmises, but it 
 P'l'irity. It has n 
 Mcifcc, or high 
 ™'h ami coarse I ill 
 M"; 'iik(,,if(,'h,rei 
 
 I '"'WilHiiirlioud (If tl 
 •illc'd, 
 
 •^■«i fur from Lmi 
 
l'\irUcV ill c\-l;l, 
 rnmiicr, mi iln' 
 1. N. In mi I lie 
 U"N..l"nk'. IIJ 
 HHliiiH iimiinir, 
 , wliicli it 111" II 
 
 IMI lllf W. liv ;l 
 liilM ilt't'l' wiitir 
 I'cw fi'i'l "I ill' 
 i fcrtili' ill iVuii-, 
 If, triuli'. (Kliiiv 
 
 itriiin Itiilv,]*.!, 
 ., |(»i«. S. liyW. 
 It lu»M tiiit-wiilir 
 IH lluil(lill^"* mil 
 ) uaiml, utinu'i a 
 
 :c town of Uinilii- 
 .•lH'ulMiirst|iliiii' 
 
 (liiin, '.'f, m. NK, 
 
 7r,o «' K. 
 
 I t1i« nmucl tiiwnl, 
 IlindoKtaii, |>ri>v, 
 
 \° ;»7' K. 
 
 ^liiiid, liiiiitl. llfi^- 
 
 lull's. Top., INJI. 
 
 11 15. Area ll.'i'^i' 
 iiw Irvcl trad "ii 
 1111(1 I'liriiis III"' "I 
 
 n wDoilcii hnh' 
 xiispcii^iiiii I'fi'l-'' 
 
 mill till' wi'siirii 
 
 , I'lllU-ll lllllllM.1 
 
 Kimif low 1!""""' 
 tniuiv rcupwtiilili' 
 l'iu< piiriitli <'l"ir.li 
 li tower ami hI'IH'. 
 p('i\ crectcil liv iln' 
 
 1 a imtimiftl m'lii«'l 
 nrisli is iiiHTsn'ii''l 
 tin- l.i)iiil*"i »'"' 
 hrmiuli its wlii'li' 
 un. iiiiil Diivi'Mlii' 
 
 Const, Mill iillnt 
 
 <r it I'riim iiiirilii" 
 " wliirli. liiiwi'v ■'■ 
 ,1 l.y tlip Iwil'l"'- 
 , Bti'U liiiil ""' '■' 1 
 of VPK'""*'''" '" 
 . parish is wM'V. 
 [vc bopii lirst I'll'"- 
 illpil riitriiH'r;- in I 
 i;iveiitotlic:il'l''y 
 for tlintiin^ii'-, 
 ..rcsciit uiiiiif- 11 
 h 1I1-27. totkSi. 
 
 li hi.rti iJoiiii;;'"'*'' 
 
 IIATTI-K 
 
 wivi Nini nm! ilit'il in iliiir niniision (kiiirc ro- 
 iii.iMil). It is iKiw ilii> |irii|ii'riy of I'.arl S|m'iu'it, 
 HAT I'M'). Ik pnr. ami lowii of I'ji^'lniiil, I'o. 
 Sii»<'x, ni|H' llanliiiKN, liiiinl. Ilaitli', Ti'.' in. St''.. 
 I.oiicliiii, mill "" '"• ''.V Soiiili I'laslrni railwav, 
 uliK'li lias a statioti Iiitc. I'op. of oarlili, :i,'J',t:l iti 
 |Mil. i'liv town is plcasaiiily siiualcil aiiiMsi 
 mikhIv Ittiolis, wliicli liniiMil it oh the ,S. ami SI'',., 
 ami i'ihIosi- it in n vail' wlilrli wimis on to tin- 
 m;i, lit lliksliiiKM. 'I'lii' priiiriiiiil slrrt't (alioiit ^ in. 
 ill li'Uk'tli) is li'nninalt'il liy tin- niH^'iiillri'iii nMv 
 
 Hiiv of till' old nlilx-y. 'I'lifri' an- n ft'w n I 
 
 niiMli'ni Hiriicliiri'H, Iml tlii' jxrcalcr part of the 
 liMiiM's arc aiiricnt, ami of iiu-aii aptiraranrr. Tin- 
 I'liiinlii |>arlly in tin- |{oinan ami partly in tlu' 
 iMiiliir Ktylc' lias niaiiv aiitiipic ili'vit'os on llic 
 I'lii's iif itii wimlowN, 'hii-ro is an cmlowi'il school 
 I'or Ito ^'irls ami hoys, ami a charity mcIhhiI for In 
 l«ivK, Hiipportcil hy siiltscription. A weekly 
 iiw'irki't is liclil on 'I'lii'silay ; a nionlhly one on 
 ihi' sHinc ilay, for cuttle; and two aiiiiiial fairs on 
 Whit .Miiiidiiy, and Nov. "J'J. (iniipowder is the 
 iiiilv niaiiiifiii'tiire, for which there are several 
 (Ati'iitive mills in the vicinity ; its excellence is 
 Miri iisM'd only hy that niinle at Harifonl. Itattle 
 I* till' ceiitriil town of a pour law union of I I 
 |iarithi's. 'I'liv ancient iiaine of the town was 
 |'.{iiliin ; its present, name is derived from the 
 l,'ri'iil hiitlle helween Harold and William of 
 Niiriimiiily, in HttJii, of which it was the arena. 
 Ill llir l'iilli»viiii( year the Compieror founded the 
 ahU'v, ill conimeinoralion of his viclory, the ruins 
 III' »iiii'li still siillicieiitly attest its ancient nia^'- 
 iiilii'i'iu'e. On (lie eoniplclion of its church, lie 
 i|i{iiiiilti'd ill il (he fanioiis roll in which the names 
 III' nil tlie leaders who had accoiniiaiiicd him on 
 llii' cxpedilioii were inscrihed. ( opies of it are 
 siill extant, though not free from the suspicion of 
 U'iii;; interpolated and falsitied, Iteiiedictinu 
 iiiHiikH from Normandy were its first occupants ; 
 ilii'irnlilNit was mitred, and a jieer of jiarliament. 
 Till' iililwy was hiiilt on a gentle acclivity, over- 
 liii'Mii); aline e.\teiit of woodh and meadows, and 
 \\i\n ciiiliiwed with all the lands for a leiipie 
 niiinil, Upsides wkriotis manors and eliiirclies in 
 other ciiiinties. Many siihMcipieiit. royal and 
 |iriviilc donations were added to the ori;.':iiial en- 
 iliiwiiiciil, and its prerof^atives and iminunities 
 were jilnced on the same fnotin;; as those of 
 (liri.itCliiirch, Cantorhnry. In the reiiin of Kd- 
 wiirillll. leave was ohtained to fortify the ahU-y. 
 M tlic (general suppression its annual re.veiiuc 
 \w, ai'c'iiriliiif; to Speed, !IH7/. ttn, lltjf/. : Duj;- 
 il.'iK' iniiki's it K80/. lU. ij^d. Si.xty monks were 
 iHiiKiiiiH'd off. The remains occiiny three sides 
 iif II liir};e quiulran^le. ^Oamdens llrit.; Dii^- 
 ilalc's .Monos. ; I'cimant'a Tiuir; (Silpin's Cuoat of 
 SunHi'x.) 
 
 H.VTUinX, a town of I'liropean Itit^sin, p»- 
 vcniniciit of Tuhcrni^iitt", lieautifnlly situated on 
 tlic Scim, an aflluent of the Desna. I'op. esti- 
 niiiliMl at 5,5110. It is ehiotly remnrkalile for the 
 ca.»llc in it« vicinity helonpnn to Count h'ason- 
 innfuki, who has established maiuifaeturcs in the 
 tiiwiiiif cloth and wax candles. 
 
 M.VUGl'V, a town of Franco, de'p. Maine et I.nire, 
 np, arrond., on the (!ouanon, or Conernon, '2i{ m. 
 KXl'l. Anf;crs. I'op. a,5Ki in ISIil. The town is 
 ii;'ri'('iibly situated in a line valley, and has some 
 pKiiihmiscs, i)iit it is Imilt with the fjreate.st irre- 
 iniliirity. It has a trihiinal of ori;;inal jurisdiction, 
 a ciillc){c, or lii^h 8(dio(d, and maniifaetures of 
 I'liilli and coarse linen. The Kiij^lish forces, under 
 till' Duke of (:;iarciice, were totally deh'iiled in the 
 I i"'i;;1ilHiiirlioud of this town in 1121, and the duUc 
 ' Mlli'il. 
 .Not fur fnira Dau.i^c is the village of Bange-lt- 
 
 373 
 lie iliat formerly 
 
 I of I iiiiIomIiik. 
 the r .nil trn 
 
 ''iliioad, 1 1 ■» 
 I tilde, ami is . :U 
 
 Villi, with the ruins of an < 
 liclmi^i'd to the dukes i<( .V,, 
 
 IIAn.l'.AM, an iiilniid i. 
 prnv, Helical ; on the N. slili 
 of the t.anjti's. •io 111. \K. M,„ 
 liirp', popiiliiii'., lias ciiiisii|rralil> 
 scat ol a ciiimncrcial resident on the part of liio 
 K. I. Ciiiiipaiiv. 
 
 MAC.MAN.'^llllllM'".. a reld.raicd cavern in 
 the duchy of llriniswick, mar lllaiikcnlnir^', It 
 ahoniids with stiilactilcs, and is iiitcrcsiinK to the 
 p'ol(ij{is| from the variety of fossil Ihhics fnuiid in 
 it ; aiiioiiu which are Ihiwe of the ;;ri'al cine hear, 
 now e.xtinct. The cavern was naiiicd iifier » 
 miner, who discovered it in IHtlO. 
 
 II.U'Mr.KAN.orHArMIAN.ali.wnofCanhiil, 
 
 the Thelx's of the K iintry of the lla/iiiircliN, 
 
 on the facu of the Koh-i-lliilia raii),'e of nioiiii' 
 tains; lat. .'II'' ill' N., Ioiik. <>«" «' I'.., 5'' m. 
 \VN\V. Caiihul. The valley, un one dedivitv of 
 which it sliinds, contains many caves, dii;; In a 
 soil of indurated clay and pcltldcs, and in which 
 riiif^s and relics, coins, Ac, hearing' Ciilic insci-jp- 
 tions, are found; hut llaiiineean is chiclly cclc- 
 hratcd for I wo i;i^'iiiilic male and female ti|;'uri's, 
 cut in iilti) rrlirro, on the fai'e of the nioiintaiii. 
 The male tigtire is the lar^fest, and ahoiit r.;n tl. 
 high; il is without much symmetry or eli';,'ancc, 
 and is considcrahly mutilated, the Moliamnu'diins 
 that pass that way nlwavs tiring a shot or two at 
 it. The lips are lar;;e, tlie cars long and pciidiiiil, 
 and there iippeiirs to have heeii tlie resinihlanco 
 of a tiara on the head; the Imdv Is covered liy 
 the remains of a mantle, which lias hecn foriiu'd 
 of a kind of plaster, and lixed on with woodcii 
 )iiii.s. The female ligiire is more ]icrl'ect than tlio 
 other, and has heeii dressed in the mime manner: 
 it is alsiiit half the si/.e, and cut in the same hill, 
 21)11 yards from the former. The niches in which 
 liotli are situated have heen at one lime plastered 
 and ornamented with paintings of hiinian liKurcs, 
 hilt these have nearlv di.sap)ieared. These images 
 arc supposed to he lhidillii<% Mr A. nnmes .says 
 the head of the lari;e one is not unlike that of tiie 
 great trifaceil idol of Klephantii, and near the 
 cclehrated tope of Manikyala (I'lnijah) he found 
 an antii|uc exactly resemhling this head. Another 
 anliipiary, from an inscription iiltove the head of 
 oiu^ of them, has Ixdieved them to have heen cut 
 about the ilrd century of our era, while the Sa.ssii- 
 iiide.s tilled the throne of Persia. They are not 
 mentioned hy any of the historians of Alexander 
 the (ireat; but both the idols and excavations of 
 Hanmeean nrc referred to by those uf Tiinour or 
 Tamerlane. 
 
 HAUMK-LES-DAMKS, a town of France, dip. 
 Doiibs, cap. nrroiid., on the Donh.s, IN m. NK, 
 Mcsan9on. I'op. 2,577 in iMtil. It is a liandsome 
 little town, tinely situated in a basin formed by 
 liills planted with vines; has a court of original 
 jurisdiction, n college, and a small public library, 
 with paper-mills and tanneries. It derivt's its 
 name from u rich and celebrated convent for nniis, 
 founded in it during the 5th century, .iiid <le- 
 stroyed at the Kevolntion. 
 
 IIAUTZKN, n town of Saxony, can. I'pper 
 Lnsatia, on a height at the foot of which is the 
 Spree, H'.i m. KNK. Dresden; on the railway from 
 Dresden to Lobau. I'op. 1 1,237 in 18(11. The town 
 is surrounded by walls, except one of its suburbs 
 on the left of the Spree, and is well built, with 
 straight, broad, and well-paved streets. Its ca- 
 thedral, dedicated to St, I'eter, founded in !I27 by 
 the Kaiser Henry II,, has u lower .'i(lO ft. high. 
 I The Oili'i/liiiri/, formerly a royal piihice, is now 
 ii.-<('d for public ollices; il has also a line town- 
 hall, a luiidhiiuscr or house »»f assembly I'or the 
 
 f. 
 
371 
 
 1IAUX 
 
 iRi 
 
 ?f 
 
 |l 
 
 •inU'*, All nrphnn ■nyliiin, and roiiroihrr liim|iiinlii, 
 H lioiiMti iif t'urn'ciiiiii, ilicalrc, Ac, with n ttviimn- 
 hIuiii, a cniliiilir clwtpli'r liuuitr, n mirinnl hcIkniI, n 
 iiifrhniilt'M' mi'IkhiI, •ml olIitT ('••lnlili'<liMiriilH I'lir 
 llii- |iiir)Mmi' iil't'iliit'iilloti, mill two |iiililli- llliriirii'N. 
 'I'licri' iiri' ('iiiinliltTiililii iiinniil'iu'tiiri'N uf wiinlli'ti, 
 
 liiirii, mill I'liUiiii Mlutl'n, liiliii ), Yiiw, |in|M'r, iitul 
 
 IiiihIitv ; a lir/iKH wurk, with lirfwvricH mul ili»- 
 lilli'rii'N, mill tmiiirrli'it. Tim town In tli(< criitrn 
 • ilH iiiiiHiiliriililtM'oriiriM'rvr, iHirtii'ulurly in wiMillcn 
 itiiil lliii'ii nrtii'li'N. 
 
 Near Itmil/cn.iin th«i 'Jillli mul 'iUt Miiy, IHI.'I, 
 will* I'imikIiI till* lialtic wlili'h iHarH Uk nmnc, Ixi 
 twiM'n the hVi-nch nmiy nmlrr Naiiolcnii, ami llii' 
 ciiinliini'il fiirrcN ul' ItiiKNiii ami l'ruN><ia,lMi,(MH) ini'ii 
 Htriin){, and ninininmli'il by lln* inniiarilm in pir- 
 luin. 'I'lu' Frrnrh wi-rc victoriiaiM; tlio cnruimv 
 on lioih KiilcN wiiN ^rial, ami IIm> allii'N cni-clcil 
 llicir ri'trinl in K'xhI I'nli'r. Dnmc, tin' intiuiatn 
 I'riciiil lit' Na|Mili'iiM, waH killcil liy liin mIiIi' in iIiIh 
 «iiK«K<'ini'nt. y\lMnit 7 ni, K. Iiy S, from Kaiit/.in, 
 \h lliirlikircli, llic Hntit' of iinii iif tlui greut liutth'it 
 111' I lie Siivcn Vfars' War. 
 
 IIAlIX,n Hniall town of Franco, ili'p. Uiinclii'H 
 
 ilii 1(1 «', 10 ni. M-:. Arli'H. I'lip. lili) in Imil. 
 
 1 1 HiamlM on llm Ninninh nf a nIi>i'|i hill, ami Ih rn- 
 niarkalilc for tlio rniim of iIm caHtli', fonmrly tlic 
 ri'Niili'iiri- of tlui conntM of Ituiix, wlm conti'Hli'il 
 tlid Hovor<'ij;nly of I'rovciirc witli tlm countn of 
 lliircrloiia. 
 
 KAVAIMA ((iinn. liujifrn; Vt. Ihirirn'), n 
 I'oiiiitry in the S\V. of (icrmany, aiuii'iitly a 
 tlurliy, aficnvanlM an rlrrioratc, ami now raiMcil 
 Id IIu' rank of a kitiKiloni, licin^ oim of the iiriii- 
 cipiil of llm Hcciimlary Kiiropcan HlalcM, ami llio 
 tliiril in nink of llii> Htulcs coinpriMiii); (lie (icnnan 
 confi'iliTalion. Itavaria \n coniiKiHiMl of two iIIn- 
 (inrt piirtfi, cominonlv ilcHifriiatcd lliti ''IVrrilory 
 of llin DanulM^ and ^failH',' and the ''IVrritory of 
 llm Kliine.' The fornnr, which conipristM ahont 
 7-Mtlm of the monun'hv, i^xtt-mU from 47° lit' 
 »(i 00° 'ir N, hit., ami from HO ftl' to i:J° 11' K. 
 ion^;., ami Im iMiundcd N. hy tliu kingdom of 
 Saxony, the principiiliticH of Kciihh, mid thv 
 (Inchit'd of Snxo-C'olmrn-dothft and Siixe-Mi'in- 
 in^rcn; K. and S. hy tin! HtatcH of tln' Au»lrian 
 4'mpiri'i and W. hy the torritorit-H of Klwtonil 
 ilcsM-, llcNHc-DarniMtadt, lladi'ii, and the kingdom 
 of Wllrtrnilitrt?. Tim Kliiiic territory lien on the 
 \V. Hidn of that river, hv which it Im |iartly 
 iHMindcd, and m completely NCparated from the 
 rcHt of the Kavurian chiminionH hy the inter|)o- 
 tiition of the territorieH of Uudon and lleKMC- 
 Darintttadl. The kingdom extends from IM^ r»7' 
 to WP bO' N. lat., and from 7° G' to «" 31' K. 
 
 lollf,'. 
 
 Area and PoimUitUm. — The total area of the 
 kingdom amountH to 1,;WI (ierman, or '2!t,()l7 
 Kii^'.K(|.m., wit ha population, in 18(11, of ■1,GH'J,837 
 iiihahilanls, or \i)H on the square mile. 
 
 The kinploni is divided, lor administrative piir- 
 jioHes, into ei^lit Kreisc, or circles, of thc! foUowiiifi 
 extent and population, according to the census of 
 Uccemher 18(il : — 
 
 ririloi 
 
 Upper Ttiivnrirt 
 Lower linvmiii 
 1'nliUiiiiitu 
 KpiHT I'lilntiiinto 
 lIpiHT rriuicoTiiii 
 Middle I'Vancoiiiii 
 Lower I'l'uiicoiiia 
 i;tmblu 
 
 Arr 1 in Rnirllih 
 
 Popwlnllon 
 
 Squart* Mill's 
 
 ill IHIil 
 
 (;,(it4 
 
 77N,r)r,i) 
 
 4,1 i:i 
 
 r>7r.,;i:is 
 
 «,-.'0(i 
 
 OIIK.IMi!) 
 
 4.1!»8 
 
 4Hri,S!t.'i 
 
 a,'.'-.'ti 
 
 Mf;,7i:i 
 
 a.7!IH 
 
 Mri.'JSfi 
 
 ;i,);ii4 
 
 «10,7:,H 
 
 3,S.1« 
 
 r.7K,l!IO 
 
 Total 
 
 29,017 
 
 4,C8!),8«7 
 
 Tlic census of December 1801 stated the ex- 
 iiitenuc uf 1,131,0.31 runiilicM, su lliut each family 
 
 HAVAUIA 
 
 ronxiNteil, on the ■vernKC, of Utile rmirr than fnur 
 heitilit. 
 
 SHrJ'llrr.—^flt^4ntlliH$. — ^^n\■(kx\^ hiw on Hi,. 
 
 whole n miiiintalnoiii« chnracler, \w\\\\i imi ,,„{y 
 
 walled in liy lolly moiiiitainM on the N, imd >, 
 
 hut liaviiiif exietiNivechaimt running llin>iit(li ii^ 
 
 inli'rior. 'I'lie loftiest nioiiniaimt are the N„fi,. 
 
 Al|w on the H., whieh NC|iiirute it from llie Tvnil 
 
 their lllimt elevated |M)iiltM are llii> '/,n\i»\;\iil 
 
 circle of l«»r, ll.tWIt ft,, mid the Wetterxclin.ir.n' 
 
 1),1<H7, The AllKnii AljM), in theimiv. of Ihi I'liiNr 
 
 naiiiilM', extend from Kemiiteii, in a NK. ilireriinii, 
 
 to iiearMindelheim. The NiK'JivoKel in tliinrnii^'ii 
 
 ix H,|7ii, iiml the TeufelfCsltsH, in the Kniiii' iiriv 
 
 |i..'n:I ft. The hi^h lumlH on the N. iti<|e i,i ii,i! 
 
 I >aiiiilN< contikiii the tiiicly-wiMNled chain nl' tin. 
 
 NiH'NHarl, which cotnini'ticeN on the Maine, m ih,. 
 
 place where that river sepuralen it from tint , luiln 
 
 of the Odeiiwald, and IritverMeN the prov, of l.ciwir 
 
 Maine from N. to .H., eovi-rliij^ an ana nf 1 17 m, 
 
 m. The InfiieHt mimmitN of this raii){e, niiih ^ 
 
 the KnxelNlierg and thi^ (ieyerslN-rK. rine to tin' 
 
 height of alHiiit 2,000 ft. The miwi iumttioii 
 
 riH'ks in the S|M'HHarl are Kfanite, Knein.N, wyeniii., 
 
 and poqihvry, which Hcrvii as a support frjr "hihi! 
 
 stone, M\t\\ and calcareous rocks, M, of i he .Muiiic, 
 
 and ailing the frontiers of the Lower .tiid I'liint 
 
 Maine, and the Itezikt, is the miiKe of the V>Uxvt- 
 
 W'alil, which reaclii'N nearly to the cliajn nf h,,. 
 
 Spessart, ikiid is onlv separated from it hy iIm. 
 
 course of the Maine, 'I'he l{|iieni'-lti'l>ir^'e, aliliuk 
 
 and desolate chain of imiimtains in ihe circli' uf 
 
 Lower Franconia, unite on the W. wiili tliecliaiu 
 
 ofihe Von<'lslierj{, and on the K, with IheTliii- 
 
 rinni^r-VVald : they art' more extensive liiid mnn' 
 
 elevated tlian the range of the Spcssiirt, mul art' 
 
 covered half the year *vith snow. The Kirhiil- 
 
 (ii'liirg«% which connect the Hhniie miiiininiiii 
 
 with the Itiehmer-Wahl, lie in the XK, part nf ilic 
 
 lJp|H'r Maine. Tliey consist i'hicflv of ^Tiiiiiii'. 
 
 gneiss, quart/, and elayslate. The )iigliesi |H'iiit 
 
 in tli(^ range is the summit of the ()cliseiikii|i|'iir 
 
 Ox's Head (r),2N0 ft.). The chain of the Ituhtnir- 
 
 VVald, whi(;h commences at the sonrceM nf tlu' 
 
 Kger, and running along the i']. cuiiIIiipn of ll:i- 
 
 varia, terminates at tlic Moravian indiiiitnins 
 
 throwing out several hranches into the circlisuf 
 
 the Lower Ditiiiihe and Itegen, may Im' nlHuit I'mi 
 
 m. in length. The most elevated ^'unlmitHlln■lll(■ 
 
 Asher, 4,821 ft. ; the Ifocher, 4,720 ft. ; aiM ilic 
 
 Dnigell, l,or»4 ft. The Havariim minmtaiii.i nri'iii 
 
 general well wooded. In I lie Hat country iiliii;' 
 
 the DaniilK- there are some very extensive I'na^ll(■<. 
 
 River*. — liavaria is watei-ed hy the laigcut riven 
 
 of (iemiany. The most considerahle of tlutn'lj 
 
 the Daniihe, which, on entering Kavarin fnmi iIk 
 
 Wllrtcniherg dominions, is of siillicieiit xi/.n to Ik' 
 
 navigahle, and aftcrwanls Hows through tliu liiari 
 
 of tlic kingdom, making, with its wiiuliii;;'', n 
 
 course of about 270 K-njir. m. In its course tliriiii;'li 
 
 the Itavartan territory, it flows pa.st tlic tiiwii<"i' 
 
 (iilnsburg, IIiecliHliiilt, Donaiiwierth, Neiilmr:,', 
 
 Ingolstadt, liatishon. Straiibing, Vilshiifcii, iiiil 
 
 I'assau, and receives no fewer than 38 rivers; llie 
 
 chief of these, on the right hank, are the IIItT, llie 
 
 Lech, the Isar, and the Inn, all having tlieirsiiiire 
 
 among the Alps. The lUer, before its |iiiirii"ii 
 
 With tlie Danube, receives the Illeilmeli; the i>ar 
 
 is joined by the Loisach, Ainper, and VVilmi, mil 
 
 fails into the Danube below Deggendorr: the in'i. 
 
 which rises in Switzerland, (lows lhr(iiif;li il«' 
 
 Tyrol, and is niivigable before it enters Itaviiri.i: 
 
 it receives th(! Alz, the large river Sal/.n, *i'., aivl 
 
 joins the Dannbc near I'assau. The streiims mi ilif 
 
 left or Franconiaii side, which arc by iiomPiw**' 
 
 large as those mi the opposite bank, are tiic Mur- 
 
 iiitz, the Allmiihl, which has Its simrcc w\it\ 
 
TIAVAUIA 
 
 .17A 
 
 Siri|{<'r WmM ikii*! M\» iiniii till' DiiiiiiImi iit'iir 
 Ki'hli'iiii t l'><^ liohrlMti'li, urnr llitlM'tilu'lin i tlm 
 NmU wli'<''* •I'^M'riiilH rmiii lliit Fii'lilrl (i<<liirKi>, 
 ,,„| ilimliAr^i'" iUt'ir iiil>' ilii> DiiiiiiIm' aImivc 
 liiiiinlmti : MMil tli« Iti'Ki'ii., I 'int lliiWN friiin llio 
 |lii'limi'r-\Vi>l>l<tti)<l< lrnvi>i"<iii.; ihi< rirclo Id which 
 jiifivi'Dimrni', JoiiiH iIm' Piuin <• ii|)|MHtlii> ItaiinlMMi, 
 
 rill' iiiiW I'liimlilfruhlii rlvir In th« N, |Mirt of 
 lUviiriit in ll>*' MaiiK*, riimii')! hv llio JiinctiiMi of 
 ihi' H<'<1 xikI Wliilit Mniiii^, Ihx fiinnrr oriKliintiiiK 
 iMihi'vii'iiiliy iif Noiitinii. hikI thi<lntri'ril('Nn>ii<tiiiK 
 Iroiii Ih'lim'iikitiif, part iif 1 1 FI('lit«'l-4i<'liirK«s ill 
 iiiiM'iri'lt' of llu> rpiMT haiiiiiK', TIm^m* iiiiiiv iiriir 
 
 HiIiiiInwIi. hikI trnvcnto Km )iiiii in a W. iliri'i'- 
 
 iiMii, n'i-('iviti»{ in thi'ir iimKri'M Ihn KimIiu'Ii, tlii> 
 l.itin, mill llx' Frniu'onian Mnnl<>, wliifli Mow I'mui 
 ilii< |(liii'iii'-< it'ltiruo, till' tli'i lit/., mill many nniullir 
 ■in'iiiii^ 'III*' liniiin funi tlui K. iNiiinilary nf 
 till' Ikivariikii pMviiice wlii lM>nrM ItH iiiinio, 
 
 l^ikef,— '\'Uo luki>N nn< iiinicMiiH, anil itoinit of 
 ilii'iii lurKc Ih'niilt'N lhi> liikt* iif CoiiNinnt'i', only 
 viii/iii |K>riioii iif wliii'li Ih Hiiuutt'il in liavarin, tliu 
 itiiixl fxli'imivt' nr«' till' Ainnii'r, nlMiut \'i ni. imiK 
 uiiil '.'7 ill I'irciiil ; tlii^ Wiinn, 11 ni. in ion^ili aii<l 
 liiiliri'iiililii mill III)' Cliifin, niHiiit !>/> ni. in cir- 
 iiiil. Till" SliirtVii or Stulli'l, tlu\ Wiili'lii'ii, tlm 
 K'hIii'I, mill III)' KiiiK'i or llartliiiloiniiMiH lakcM, nro 
 
 ||l«l of I'OIIHilUTullltl I'Xtl'llt. MllHt Uf tllCNO Itlki'M 
 
 iiUiiinit ill IIhIi, niul M>v(>rul vahinbUt tlNliurii-H liiivc 
 Iktii I'nlnlilixlii'il nil llifin, 
 
 It/ivariii iHiHMi'HMi'H Diiiiii'riiiiK cnnnlH, A cnnnl vriu 
 tniuli'iii IH(I7 iK'twiM-n Kn.'M'nlu'iin, T.IIKI I'l. liiii>t 
 niiil.'lli n. Iirnail. Aniillu'r raiial wun liiiiMlicil in 
 |N|M Ijc'lwt'i'ii WOrtli anil KniliiiiKc-n, HMl-.'t n. 
 Inii^'uiiil li'J ft. Iiriiuil. 'riii^ru In a canal in lliii \V, 
 pnrtiif lliiu-iri'li' «( tlio Inar Kl.lliMi ft, in length, 
 Hliich HMvcH a iliHtancu of ti in., iiriil avuIilM tliu 
 iliini^'roiiH navijriition of the Ainiiu>r Lako. A 
 ^Tiiiiil canal, callcil tlu; I.tiilwi^'H Canal, after the 
 lull' kiiiKi^vli it'll JoiiiM the Duniilie with the Uhiiie, 
 wih ciiiiipletoil in IMtiO, It cxtenilM from Diet- 
 fiirtli.im tlie AllmUhl, a navi^alile utHuent of the 
 HiiiiuIk', til Hainlier^ on the Maine, a iliMlance of 
 '.':i||iti'riiiiiii, or alMint ll'2 Kii^r, m. It m on a 
 hri^i'M'nlv, mill Iiiim iH'.en conHtrncleil ut an expciiHe 
 I'f almve a inillion Hterliii^. This ina^nilicunt nii- 
 ilirtiikiii);, wliieh luw eoine to realise lliu project of 
 Cliarkiniii^'iiu for Joining; the lilack Sen to the 
 iKTirmn Ueeuii, wuh earrieil out at the iimti^atimi 
 mill Willi the aHNiHtnnee of the llavnrian govern- 
 ment. It is liferent iin|H)ftaiiee to liavarin. 
 
 (YtnMfc— The cliniatc of liavariu is in (general 
 U'm|K'rato iiiul saliilirions, hnt the teiii|H>rature is 
 I'liiiKiiicralily mollified liy local diflereiuuts in the 
 I'li'vatiuii III the soil. In the iniiiintaiiions regions 
 it LH colli mill hleak,biit inililer in the low country : 
 ill till! jiluiiis and valleys tlio Huiuiner heats uru 
 wimi'linifM oimressive. 
 
 Aiirfd/s.— 1 he Hnvarian forests nro very ex- 
 ifiwivc and vahmlile; a considerahle portion of 
 ihr kin^filiiin heiiif; still covered with natural 
 »i"kK The most coniiiniii trees are oak aiidlieecli 
 ill liiv plains, and pine imd tir on tint niiiiintaiiis. 
 i'lic iiiiiHt extensive furots are .sitnated on the 
 SjH'sunrt and h'hiene nuniiituiiis, and in the nei^h- 
 l«iuriiiK«l ipf Keinpteii, where they cover a surface 
 if '.'.i.'ljl 1.1 acres. The annual priidiict of the Ha- 
 \iiniin forests is estimated at •2,;i7tt,00() klafters; 
 aiiii timlMT is one of thi' most important art ides of 
 i\|Kirt, However, in recent years, the trade in 
 this iirtii'te Ims rather fallen oil", owiiij; to the 
 I'lcarinj^iif ttu' forests in the more fertile provinces 
 "f thi' kiiiplom, especially those in the territory 
 iif Ihc llhiiie. The greater f|iiniitity of the. exports 
 "fiimlioris now derived Irom tlie mountainoiis 
 4i»lriti!i, I'riini which the niimcroiis rivera and 
 I'TOiUH carry it down in rafts. 
 
 The fiillowliiK Inhle exhlhils nil approxiinati) 
 view of the extent, in acres, of the fnreals in the 
 ililTerent circleo, dislrihuted oinoiiK the ehuMui lu 
 which they livlmiK i— 
 
 1 r.fnia 
 CIniM lM.l..i.|(lii« 
 1" in« 
 MUM 
 
 T" T..»i.., 
 Iliirirh,, 
 «lll««,-. 
 
 a >"i 
 
 tll.'iia 
 
 T.I liMU Th«I 
 «f Ai-rwt 
 
 lunr . . , A-il,A(lil 
 Iti'tren . . ■/^M,ll|ll 
 
 , Lower Iiiiniilm I7:l,.vi:l 
 l'|i|H'r liiiniilHi •JM.ml 
 
 1 Lower Miiliio . vaa.iill 
 '■ PINT .Maine . tlil.MA 
 ICi'Xilt . . ■i-iA,:iNtl 
 tllihio . . :iiMI,tNl7 
 
 Total . , 'J,l\i;mi 
 
 IIII.OINI 
 
 lyii.imi 
 7m;i 
 ino.iiim 
 'M7,r>n 
 |iNl.:l|'i 
 lAI.-iilt 
 ■iHH.AAII 
 
 I,'./|I1,H1IH 
 
 MLI/iA.'l 1,|:lli,'i<l1l 
 
 4ll.7a;| 7mi,|o.t 
 iH\:ir,.\ «.•„•,, .-.(lU 
 ;i7i,Mm 7.vi.i7.% 
 
 ll»o.A7tI 7lll,7ll| 
 Ill7,ftil» 711,7111 
 lll.^.o«t7 Ati.iiiNi 
 7o,NHI» 7iH,7o« 
 
 J,7oi,tmiii,.'Mi:i,M7ri 
 
 The KroMN anniinl value of the wimmU and fon>sta 
 lielonuiiiK to the slate anioiints lo nearly ll.'iO.oiiii/.; 
 hut. III coiiHeipience of the heavy ex|M'nNes at- 
 tending; their inaiia^emenl, the net produce re- 
 ceived iiv the stall! aniiMiiitH only to little moru 
 than haff that sum. 
 
 Minrrith. — The mineral priMliiets of llavaria aro 
 ini|Hirtaiit and valiiahle; lint iiotwithslandin^ the 
 eneonra^einent held out liy pivernment, Ihey liavo 
 hitherto lieen coinparalively neglected. The prin- 
 cipal products are sail, coal, and iron. Salt is a 
 royal monopoly, and produces a considerahle reve- 
 nue. There are a coiisideriilile mimlH'r of iron- 
 works and eoal-miiies in operation; they helon^ 
 partly to the crown, and partly to private indi- 
 viduals, lilack lead is ohtained in some places ; and 
 small ipianlilies of copper and ipiicksilver are also 
 iiriMluved. There are an immense variety of inar- 
 iiles. The porcidain clay of ituvaria is pmhahly 
 the tliiest in Kuroiie. 
 
 AgrivultitrK. — llie soil of nnvnria, where it in 
 not covered hy nmra.sses or miiiintiiins, is f;ene- 
 rally ^oimI; and in the plains and valleys it Im 
 deeji, fertile, and capahle of producing' all kinds of 
 crops. A ^nreat deal of waste land has recentlv 
 Ih'cii rechumed ; and an improved system of cnf- 
 tivation has lH<eii inlrodiiced into various districts, 
 and is (litriisiii^ itself over the whole country, 
 (loveniment hiw i:eulou.sly exerted itself to pni- 
 inote improvement, not merely liy the refonns it has 
 etl'ected in the svstems of administration and edu- 
 cation, hnt hv tfie draintiKi! of extensive marshes, 
 and by itH clTorts to improve the breed of sheep. 
 There went, in IHtil, according to ollicial esti- 
 mates, l,!i:i(i,l)OII shee)), !I70,I)(MI horses, :i,2:{li,ll()U 
 horneil cattle, r>Wl,i>l)*> piK'!*< »>i*l l<)''>><>i><) Koats. 
 
 Agriculture is most inniroved in the valley of 
 the I)annlK>, the circles of Ke/.at, and of the I'pper 
 and Lower Maine. The plain lyiiiK t<> I be S. of 
 Munich has, on account of itspriiiliictivene.M,H, iM^eii 
 styled the f^ranary of ticnnany. Principal cro|is 
 — rve, wheat, oats, and liarh-y; but rice, niai/.e, 
 anil buckwheat are also partially cultivated. No 
 accurate estimate can be fonnedof the productive- 
 ness of the crops, varying?, as they niiist necessarily 
 do, not only accordin){ to the iiiialily of \\w soil, 
 but also accordiuf^ to the skill with which it is 
 (Miltivated, and the nature of the st^asons. Kiit 
 Kn^lishmen who have been in llavaria state, that 
 under |iro|ier culture, the produce of corn and 
 turnips is eipial to what it is in the best cultivated 
 districts of Kn^land; and notwithstanding the 
 vast consnnijition of corn in the breweries, llavaria 
 has invariably a lar^^e surplus for exfiortation. 
 
 From ollicial returns for the year lK(i2, it apjienrs 
 that the land under crop tlurunghout the kingdom 
 was as t'ulluws : — 
 
370 
 
 UAVARIA 
 
 Cra|M 
 
 Niinitipr of Aercf 
 
 UlhllT <'rn|i- 
 
 Bavurtan ' Mt -Rrn ' 
 
 Amount of Produce 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 Uyu . 
 
 Unrlcy 
 
 OntH mid Millet . 
 
 PotlltOOH , 
 
 ],4.1(),0'J9 
 2,;W(t,:i74 
 i,i'j.'>,(in9 
 l,H7tl,(l.'i4 
 013,H27 
 
 12,4IiM2H 
 14,707,'JIO 
 
 8,l.!ll.4lH) 
 K),17l,:i7.') 
 6o,7;U»,(M7 
 
 Tlic nvcrnfjo prwlnce of v'>fint, per Unvnrinn 
 arrc, is !) Hclu'tlul ; of rye, 6 Hclieflt-l ; of ImrUiy, 7 ; 
 of oats and millet, HjL ; and of potatocH, 55 HfliefVcl. 
 The Uavnrinn acre is equal to ()'(ir> Kng. acre, and 
 the selu'ffel e(ninl to 7(il imp. quart. 
 
 The hop-j)lant is cultivated to a coriHidcraMe 
 extent, particularly in the circles of He/.at and the 
 Upper Danuhe: the qu-uititv raised varies from 
 51((,0(>() to 4(),(»()() cwt, a year, of which ahout a half 
 is exported. The culture of the vine is well un- 
 derstood in Havaria, The best vineyards are in 
 the circles of the liower Alainc and the Kliine. 
 The former jiroduccs the wines of Franconia, known 
 by the luimes of the Maine, Were, Saale, and 
 'I'auh.'r wines. The famous Stoinwcin and F^ics- 
 tenwein are jiroduced on the banks of the Loiste, 
 not far from Steinberg, in the mark of WUrzburg. 
 The best wines in the circle of the Hhinc are those 
 produced near Deidesheim and VVachenheim. The 
 average yearly produce is estimated at about 
 XdO.dOO eimers. Jlemp and tlax are grown in 
 some districts, but the sujiply is not sulHcient for 
 home consumi)tion. Madder and liquorice arc 
 very extensively produced, and form considerable 
 articles of export. The culture of the potato has 
 rapidly increased during Inte vears, particularly in 
 the N. ))rovince8. Beetroot is raised in consider- 
 able quantities, and there are several factories for 
 its conversion into sugar. Tobacco is grown in 
 considerable quantities in the circles of Kezat and 
 llhine. Silk has been raised of late years, but not 
 to any great extent. Considerable portions of 
 ground have l>een laid out in nurseries and llower- 
 gardciis, and large quantities of fruit are exported 
 from the territories of jNlaine and the lihiiic. 
 
 It is estimated that the produce of hojis in 1801 
 amounted to 224,000 Zollvcrcin cwt., representing 
 a value of ll,0tlO,(J0O tlorins; of these G0,000werc 
 consumed by the Havariun breweries, and 144,0(10 
 cwt, exported abroad, valued at 7,770,000 Horins. 
 The i)roduce in barley for the same period was 
 ctpial to 9,500,000 cwt., of which 5,600,000 were 
 devoted at home to the fabrication of beer. The 
 beer of Havaria therefore (estimated for ISfil at 
 8,500,000 eimers, with GO measures to the eimer) 
 costs annually circa 19,000,000 florins, paying 
 (),000,000 florins malt tax to the state, and further 
 2,000,000 florins for municipal excise, showing a 
 total cost of 27,000,000 florins. 
 
 From the 5th of August, 1801, to the 9th of 
 May, 1802, 185,208 schettelof malt were emphiyed 
 in the breweries of IMunich alone; one single 
 brewer having paid 300,0(H) florins (25,000/.) malt 
 t<ax in the course of the year 1801-2. The con- 
 sumption of beer per head of the population 
 is reckoned at 2^ cimer yearly in Franconia, 
 the Palatinate, and Lower liavaria; at li^ eimer 
 in Upper IJavaria; and at 4^ eimer jier head of 
 the populatiim in the capital, (h'eport of Mr. 
 Consul IJonar, dated Munich, July 15, 1805.) 
 
 The immense quantity of beer consumed in 
 Munich ah i ?, is forcibly illustrated as foHows by 
 a journal of that city of Juno 180.-! : — 
 
 'According to the most authentic returns, the 
 brewers of Atunich alone have now laid in a stock 
 amounting to no less than 082,754 eimer, or 01,900 
 more than iii 1802 ; each eimer cunUiiniiig 00 
 
 measures (each mensure being equal to between 
 4 and 5 pints English). 
 
 ' A tlowing spring, yielding two measures per 
 minute, wouhl recpiiro to flow unintcmiiiieillv 
 during the s)iace of thirty-six years and a liiilf i'u 
 order t«> produce the above quantity, 
 
 'That amount of beer would till to the lirim n 
 pond or small lake, of a surface equal tn |ii.i. 
 Itavarian acres, and 4 ft. in depth ; or, ngniii it 
 would form a river of 32 ft. wide, 4 ft. avcrii(;e 
 depth, and 2A m. hmg. 
 
 ' The barrels required to contain it, and such n^ 
 are commonly in use in this country, if laid liesiilc 
 one another, would occupy a space of 12 J leufjues 
 in length (or nearly 32 English ni.),aiid siipiidsinj; 
 the al)ove-said amount of beer to cover the ex- 
 pected demand during the coming siiinmcr (wliiclj, 
 liowever, is seriously called in doubt), it wmilil 
 average IJ measure per head of the whole p(i|iu. 
 lation of Munich irresi)cctive of age or sex. In 
 Munich alone 212,308 schettel of malt have Ik'cm 
 emjiloyed in the manufacture of beer from AiiL'tw 
 1802 to May 1803.' 
 
 Hut some portion of this large stock in hnnd U 
 consumed out of the ca])ital, for the Miniieh beer 
 is largely exported to the most distant markets. 
 Austria and France consume it in considerable 
 quantities, and it tinds its way across the Atliiiitii; 
 to the Hrazils, and traverses the Atlantic and In- 
 dian Dceans to Java, Borneo, and other coiiiiiries. 
 I'rofessor Biirckhardt has declared that whil.st in 
 1859 Itavaria produced <mly 72,000 cwt. ofiinps, 
 the yield in 1802 amounted to no less than ir)0,(NNi 
 cwt., whilst others compute it even at 1 80,0(10 cwt. 
 As in Kngland, however, so also in liavaria, 
 there is a notable dittereiice us to quality in the 
 produce of the various soils. Among the best 
 m Bavaria are the districts of Spalt and Hetx- 
 bnick : the former having produced, in IXii:', 
 11,108 cwt, 13 lbs., yielding 1,119,347 florins; tlie 
 latter, 27,409 cwt., fetching upwards of 3,00(i,(H)u 
 florins. 
 
 The above statistics, then, show the vast imimrt- 
 anco to Bavaria of this branch of lier agricultnriil 
 jjroduce, and of her commerce in hops, of wiiicli 
 Xurnberg is the chief emporium. The totjd har- 
 vest of hops in Bavaria during the four vears 
 1858, 1859, 18G0, and 1801, amounted to 2ri,(Wi; 
 cwt. 53 lbs., sold at 22,453,398 florins. (Kcpurt 
 of Mr. Consul Bonar, dated July 15, 1863.) 'The 
 establishment of llcrr Pschorr, at Munich,' says 
 a traveller, ' almost rivals the works of our' liar- 
 clay and I'erkins'. In every comer of the eilv 
 you And beer-houses ; and when you sec a Wavari,.,. 
 peasant not working, you are sure to find him with 
 a can of beer in his hand.' (Germany in 1831,11. 
 377.) It may be supposed, perhaps, that this 
 enormous consuin])tion of beer must be injiirimu 
 to the labouring population; but this d(ies nut 
 seem to be the case. The desire to ])ossess this 
 luxury stimulates their industry; and notwirh- 
 standing their indulgence in it, they tae well 
 clothed and well fed ; there is no apjiearanee of 
 abject poverty amongst them, and beggars arc 
 never see ,i. 
 
 Next to beer, the staple products of manufac- 
 turing industry are coarse linens, woollens, coilniis. 
 leather, paper, gl!».ss, earthenw.are, jewellery, irini- 
 ware, basket-ware, and wooden articles, (.'eiir-i' 
 linens are manufactured to a considerable cxtoni ; 
 l*it the supply of woollen stuffs, worsted hose, ami 
 cotton goods, is inadequate to the consimipticm. 
 The leather manufacture is extensive and ini|Hir- 
 tant, and leather is largely exp<irted. There are 
 above lilO paper-mills, about 50 glass-houses, i'lC' 
 saw-mills, many establishments for the nianulV- 
 turc of wuudcii'clocks, and toys, and of purcelaiii 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 377 
 
 unl to between 
 
 :> mcnmirc!! jkt 
 iiiiintcmiplcdly 
 ,rH luiil u liiiir ill 
 
 V. 
 
 rt to tlie liriin n 
 c eq\ial to liil 
 h ; or, n;;iun, ii 
 le, 4 ft. iivtrimi; 
 
 I it, nnd meh a* 
 try, it'laid licnidc 
 
 C of \'i\i It'llUHCS 
 
 ,),nii(l Kiniiiipsiii); 
 ;o cover the px- 
 siimmcr (wliicli, 
 il(ml>t), It wiMiliI 
 the whole puim- 
 Ufro or sex, hi 
 r innlt hnve liwii 
 jeer from Au(;ii>t 
 
 ! stock in hnnd h 
 tlie Munich Ik'it 
 (listnnt mnrkcts. 
 it in cousideriilili; 
 cross the Athiiitie 
 I Atlantic and hi- 
 1(1 other coiiiiirii's, 
 rod tiiat whilst in 
 >,0()0 cwt. of lm|is, 
 
 less than li'iO.tKiii 
 xnat 1X0,000 wvt. 
 
 also in Havftria, 
 
 1 to quality in the 
 Araonf; the lifst 
 
 f Spalt and Ilers- 
 iroduced, in W>i, 
 .19,347 tlorins; the 
 ,)war(l8 of 3,000,000 
 
 )w the vast impurt- 
 of her iit;ricult\iriil 
 in liops, of wlikh 
 The toUil liar- 
 ii<; the four ycaw 
 .unted to 211,ti'.W 
 Horins. (KcpiTt 
 Iv 15, 18G3.) 'The 
 •," at Munich,' cays 
 works of our' liar- 
 comer of the litv 
 you see a Havari,... 
 ire to lind him with 
 ermany in l»Sl,ii. 
 perhaps, that tliis 
 must be injurimis 
 but this dues nut 
 ;sire to jwsscss this 
 itry; and nt)twi;h- 
 it, they are well 
 no appearaiu'c nf 
 and beggars are 
 
 oducts of maniifai'- 
 s, woollens, eottuiis. 
 are, jewellery, ircn- 
 n articles. C(iar>e 
 onsiderahlc extoiit : 
 worsted host', i""' 
 the consimiiitii'". 
 aensive and imi»'r- 
 <norted. There are 
 »};lass-houscs,-.'.iiii'i 
 s for the niiimihu- 
 and of piircelaiii 
 
 inA partlicnwarc. But Homo of thcuc trades ore 
 on the decline, and, to judfje from the census rc- 
 liirns it would a]i])enr that the industrial popiila- 
 ticii) in (tcneral has l)cen decren»in>j between the 
 vciirs I><10 and 1W>1 very nearly nine ju-r cent. 
 'fills is ascribed to the system of industrial pro- 
 trctlon prcvnilinj^ to the jiresent day, nearly all 
 trades beiiiK united in guilds, possessing great 
 privileges and monopolies. 
 
 The occu|iations of the people were, according 
 to the census, in every thousand inhabitants, 
 duriiii,' two periods :— 
 
 1810 1861 
 
 Atrriciiltiiro .... CM C79 
 
 Industry and Commerce . 2')7 '227 
 
 Civil Service, Finid-holdors, &c. fi4 RH 
 
 Military Service ... 14 19 
 
 I'lUiiKirs, on Public Charity . 18 20 
 
 Certain industrial occiii)ation», however, are, 
 iiotwithstainling the system of protection, in a 
 liighly llonrishing state'. Ironware, especially nails 
 nnd needles, is extensively manufactured, and the 
 exports are considerable. The optical, mathe- 
 matical, surgical, and musical instruments, made 
 lit Munich, arc highly prized cm the Continent, 
 os|M.'cially the telescopes of Frallenhofer, which 
 arc suijc'rior to those made anywhere else. There 
 arc also foinulrics for cannon, and manufactories 
 ol' muskets and other small arms, &c. ; and con- 
 stderui)le quantities of jewellery are exported to 
 most iMiropean market.t. Tlie princi]ial maiui- 
 facturiiig towns arc Augsburg, Nuremberg, Forth, 
 ijeliwabach, Ilof, and Hayreuth. 
 
 Commerce, — The <;cntral situation of liavaria 
 renders her well suited ^or the transit and carrying 
 trade; and to this Augsburg, Nuremberg, 15a- 
 tisbon, and Spires, owed the greater part of their 
 wealth and celebrity during the middle ages. But 
 in modem times the means of profiting by the 
 natural advantages of the country in this way 
 have been comparatively neglected. Within 
 recent years, however, they have begun to attract 
 the attention they so justly deserve. Besides 
 the great canal uniting the Danube with the 
 Kliine, a joint stock company established in 
 IK38 a regular steam communication between 
 Katishon and Linz, in Austria, which was ex- 
 tended in 1839 to Donauwerth and Ulm. The 
 lirst railroad with locomotives introduced u])oii 
 the Continent was that between Nuremberg and 
 Fiirth, ojiencd in 183,5. Bavaria has a great re- 
 source for commercial undertakings, in the credit 
 enjoyed by the bankers of Augsburg, which is 
 still one of the princiiial places of the Continent 
 liir the tiegotiation of bills. 
 
 The ex])ort8 consist chiefly of com, timber, 
 wine, cattle, sheep, and hogs, butter, salt, iron, 
 leather, glass, hops, fruit, Ijcer, wool, optical and 
 mathematical instruments, wooden toys, jewellery, 
 maps, and artistic objects, of an average annual 
 value of 14,000,000 ti., or 1,225,000/. The quan- 
 tities of the pruicipal articles exported arc at an 
 average : — 
 
 Homed Cattle 
 
 
 190,000 to 200,000 head 
 
 Horses . 
 
 
 1'. 
 
 ,000 13,000 — 
 
 Sheep . 
 
 
 
 22.'i,000 — 
 
 Hogg 
 
 
 
 6(i5.000 — 
 
 Clicusc and Butter . 
 
 
 
 100,000 cwts. 
 
 Wool . 
 
 
 
 l!t,000 — 
 
 Hops 
 
 
 
 22.O00 — 
 
 Dried Fruit . 
 
 
 
 3:1,000 — 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 
 
 200,000 qrs. 
 
 Wine (value) . 
 
 
 
 . l,'.»ri0,0O0 fl. 
 
 Timber (value) 
 
 
 
 . 2,500,000 — 
 
 of cattle arc also extensive, and those of horses 
 exceed the exiMtrts. FiirtluT details as to Ibo 
 commerce of Havana arc given in the statistical 
 returns of the trade of the ZoUvcrein, or Gennaii 
 customs' league, of which it forms a part. Its 
 proportion of the joint revenue of the league is 
 l(i"!t4, or 17 iier cent. (See Zollvkuisin ; also 
 Prussia.) 
 
 Until the formation of the league, which has 
 oix-ned a vast extent of country to the products 
 of liavaria, its natural facilities for commercial 
 intercourse were defeated by its own prohibitory 
 regulations, and those of most of its neighbours. 
 Sounder and more enlightened views, as to com- 
 merce, are now, however, l>eginning to prevail all 
 over (Jermany ; and it is but justice to add, that 
 the Bavarian government has given a powerful 
 impulse to industry by establishing mechanics* 
 scboids, annual exhibitions, and prizes; and still 
 more bj' the abolition of the jiemicious privileges 
 of guilds and cor|>orations. But a vast deal still 
 remains to be elfected before industry can niako 
 any real progress in this and most other (iennaii 
 states. Numerous p<dice regulations still interfere 
 with the free exercise of industrial pursuits, and a 
 great manv things which ought to be left to the 
 working of" the great laws of demand and supfdy, 
 such as the number of labourers permitted to re- 
 side in towns, the number and distribution of 
 trades, the prices of bread and meat, and even 
 the introduction of new machinery, arc all deter- 
 mined by artificial arrangements, dc|)en<lent on 
 the calculations and estimates of the minister of 
 the interior. The wonder is not, where such re- 
 gulations prevail, that industry should be in a dc- 
 ]ircssed condition, but that it should exist at all. 
 And, in point of fact, the progress it has made is 
 principally ascribable to the fact of Bavaria having 
 within her limits Augsburg. Nuremberg, nnd other 
 towns that, l)eing formerly free imperial cities, 
 have been but little injured by these preposterous 
 regulations. 
 
 Money and Measures. — The Bavarian florin, di- 
 vided into 00 kreutzer. is equivalent to 21</. ster- 
 ling ; the eimer, or measure of wine, to 9^ gallons ; 
 and the schetfel, or measure of corn, to '761 imp. 
 quart. 
 
 Population. — Considering the lengthened period 
 of tranquillity that Bavaria has enjoyed, and the 
 stimulus given to industry by the secularisation 
 of the property of the monasteries, and the aboli- 
 tion of guilds and corporations, the progress of 
 population has been slower than might have been 
 expected. This slow progress would seem to be, 
 in part at least, accounted for by the law which 
 enacts, that 'no marriage bettveen people without 
 capital shall be allowed without the previous per- 
 mission of the poor institutions ;' that is, of the 
 principal persons in each provincial district elected 
 to superintend the management of the poor, v Wo 
 are boimd to refuse such permission, unless they 
 see a reasonable pros|)ect of the parties being able 
 to provide ft>r the children that may be expected 
 to spring from the proposed union. To insure 
 their vigilance, it is enacted, that the members 
 of poor institutions neglecting to enforce this 
 law ' are to answer for the maintenance of the siiid 
 families, should they not be able to maintain 
 themselves.' Undoubtedly, a biw of this sort 
 must tend powerfully to prevent improvident 
 unions ; and it is stated that it has retarded the 
 increase of population, and had likewise a cer- 
 tain ett'ect in averting extreme poverty and con- 
 sequent misery. (Sec Apjicndix I . to Poor Inquiry 
 Ketiims, p. 22.) The siilyoincd table shows the 
 slow progress of po|iulation.in the course of very 
 noarlv half a conlurv: — 
 
 
 'I 
 .^1 
 
378 
 
 BAVARIA 
 
 Clnln 
 
 1818 
 
 Popultlion 
 
 1855 
 
 744,161 
 664,013 
 687,334 
 471,»(H) 
 4n!),UI3 
 633,687 
 680,070 
 601,670 
 
 1861 
 
 Upper Bavaria . 
 Lower navaria . 
 PalatlimU! . . , 
 Up))cr I'alatlimto 
 UpiKT Frnnconia 
 Mldille Fmnconla 
 Lower Franoonia 
 Suabla .... 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 68.'i,4«7 
 46(t,H!)6 
 
 4tt;,i)m 
 
 403,481 
 3!M.!».14 
 437,838 
 601 ,21 a 
 487,U61 
 
 778,659 
 675,338 
 0()H,(HI9 
 486,896 
 610,748 
 645.^88 
 001,758 
 678,190 
 
 4,089,837 
 
 8,707,906 
 
 4,541,460 
 
 The soil of the kiiifrdom is divided amon^ 
 947,010 proprietors: the division hi-mg greatest 
 in the Palatniate, namely 228,976, and smnllcsl in 
 Up|)er Bavaria, viz. 109, 195. (Hermann, Dr. Von, 
 IJcitrlltfe zur Statistik von Bayem, 1«G3.) 
 
 In Bavaria all destitute iHirsons have a legal 
 claim to relief; and no doubt it vim, the wish to 
 ])revent the abuse of this right that led to the 
 institution of the law above cited. That it has 
 been effectual to this end, is universally ad- 
 mitted; but difliirent opinions are entertained ns 
 to its iuHuencc on public morals. We are not 
 sure, however, that it can be successfully im- 
 ])cauhed on this ground. At Munich, indeed, half 
 the births are illegitimate ; but the residence of 
 the court, and of a numerous garrison, and the 
 great intiux of strangers, seem sufficiently to ac- 
 count for this. In the countrj', we believe, the 
 morals of the Bavarians are, in this respect, (|uite 
 on a level with those of the other Gennan states. 
 The proportion of illegitimate to legitimate births 
 is, however, very high, being as 1 to 4'4. 
 
 Character and Manners. — The Bavarians, though 
 all Germans, differ essentially in character, accord- 
 ing to their descent from the different tribes of 
 that people, and the different circumstances under 
 which they have been placed. The inhab. of the 
 Khcnish prov. are the most lively, active, gay, and 
 enterprising. The Swabians are remarkable for a 
 certain good-natured indolence, which has exiiosed 
 them to much undeserved ridicule. The Fran- 
 conians are diligent, intelligent, and steady, but 
 vary in their social habits according to the influ- 
 ence which Protestantism has exercised upon the 
 inhab. of the Upper Maine, or the dominion which 
 the Catholic prelates of the empire have had upon 
 their brethren in the fertile valley of the lower 
 ]iortion of that river. The population of the provs. 
 S. of the Daimbe retain more characteristic pecu- 
 liarities ; and the Bavarians, though equally brave 
 and well disposed with the rest, are heavier, more 
 superstitious, and less active, though not less in- 
 <lustriou8. In the valleys of the Alps, the dress 
 and manners of the Bavarians and Swabians bear 
 a great resemblance to those of the Tyrolese ; and 
 the climate inclines them to prefer ]>asture to ara- 
 ble husbandry. The women are here more in the 
 lields, and partake more of the out-door labour of 
 the men than is the case in the N. provs. They 
 drive the cattle up to the hills in summer ; and 
 their robust health manifests itsell'in the zeal with 
 which they johi in the waltz, and hi their peculiar 
 manner of singing, called ' lodvlii.' The character 
 of their songs is not unfrcqucntly rather free ; but 
 the indispensable requisites of "a I'avoured lover, 
 according to the ' ScfmafJcrkvpfel,' are superior 
 agility and skill as a sportsman and wrestler, 
 which must be proved by tlie [mssossion ol" sundry 
 trophies of tlie chase, such as chamois beards or 
 feathers of the rarer birds, which, when worn on 
 his pointed hat, ft)rm a challenge to rival heroes, 
 who not unfrequently attcnijit to wrest them from 
 their owner by force, according to the hiws of vil- 
 
 lage chivalry. The wealth of the largo towns on 
 the iiavigublo rivers in the middle ages, and the 
 expensive habits which it producetl, may yet ho 
 traced in the costumes of the wives and (laughtcrg 
 of tlic burghers. The hmxl of rich gold lace, and 
 the bodice ornamented with gold or silver chains 
 from which a numl)er of medals hang, form tlie 
 common dress of the richer portion of this clntia 
 and arc ambitiously displayed by servants and the 
 poorer trades-people on Sundays and holidays. 
 
 Roads and Bailways, — Bavaria has excellent 
 roads, and 250 (ierman m. of railways, of which 1«2 
 belong to and are managed by the state ; together 
 with the iK)8t-office, telegraph, the Danube and 
 Maine Canal, and the Danube Steam Navigation. 
 The revenue of these public undertakings, hi the 
 year 1S62, was as follows : — 
 
 
 RccelpU 
 
 Eipenici 
 
 Not Rwninr 
 Flnrini 
 
 
 FInrlni 
 
 Florlni 
 
 Railways . . . 
 
 11,003,680 
 
 7,067,604 
 
 4,000,1116 
 
 Post Offlce . . , 
 
 2,691,109 
 
 2,076,763 
 
 615,;j,',6 
 
 Telegraph . 
 
 180,806 
 
 174,743 
 
 6,0«!i 
 
 Danube and Maine 
 
 
 
 
 Canal 
 
 100,080 
 
 127,629 
 
 62,457 
 
 DanulMi Steam Navi- 
 
 
 
 
 gation . . . 
 Total . . . 
 
 383,061 
 
 302,800 
 
 20,185 
 
 14,408,631 
 
 9,798,555 
 
 4,610,076 
 
 The 162 German m. of railway belonging to tlie 
 state were constructed at a cost of 1 •20,000,000 
 florins, while the 94 German m. of private lines were 
 made for about 86,000,000 florins. Of ths jtrivnte 
 lines, the Eastern railwa}', jbining Alunich, Kntis- 
 bon, and Nuremberg, is the most important. Tlie 
 state railways, in 1862, carried above 4,000,000 of 
 passengers, and 21,631,000 cwt. of goods ; but pni- 
 duced only a net return of four ond a half per cent. 
 on the capital disbursed, while the private lines, un 
 the other hand, paid a dividend of from five to 
 six per cent. But these luies are ncitlier so well 
 managed, nor so free from accidents, as those under 
 state control. 
 
 Constitution and Government, — The present con- 
 stitution of the kingdom was promulgated May 25, 
 1818, but underwent various moditications, in a 
 democratic sense, in 1848 and 1849. According to 
 this charter, Bavaria is declared an integral part 
 of the Germanic confederation ; the domains of tlic 
 state inalienable, and the crown hereditary'. The 
 executive power is in the hands of the king, wIkksc 
 person is inviolable ; but his ministers are re.siMiii- 
 sible for nil his acts. The legislative finictiouH are 
 exercised jointly by the king and parliament, the 
 latter consisting of an upper and a lower lioiisc 
 The npjier house— chambier of reichsrathe, or coun- 
 sellors of the realm — is formed of the princes of tlic 
 royal family, the crown dignitaries, the arcliliisho|i.<, 
 and the heads of certain old noble families, all 
 these being hereditary members; to which are 
 added a Homan Catholic bishop and a Protestant 
 clergyman nominated by the king, and an un- 
 limited mimberof othermcmbcrsnpiioinleil by ilic 
 crown. The lower house, or chamber of rcprcscn- 
 tnl ives, consists of deputies of towns and univer- 
 sities, and \'arious religious corporations. To k' a 
 deputy, it is necessary to be past thirty, and to W 
 in jiossession of an assured income, from fiiiidsa 
 trade, or profession ; to be on the electoral lists, it 
 is re((uire(l to be twenty-live years of age, and i" 
 be rated at a minimum of ten florins, or His. >*'/. 
 per annum. The representation of the country i» 
 calculated at the rate of one deputy to 7,U00 fami- 
 lies, or about 35,000 souls, of the whole ]iopulatiiiii. 
 
 The members are chosen every six years, tiiibs 
 the king dissolves the chambers in the interim. 
 
BAVARIA 
 
 370 
 
 I Net Revenue 
 
 Thev are generally convened once a year, and 
 must be asHcmblcd at least once in three yean. 
 The session usually lasts two months, but it may 
 be extended or adjourned. In case of a dissolu- 
 tidii, a new election must take |)laco within three 
 moiitlis. No taxes can be levied or aiiffmented, 
 iukI no law be passed or repealed, without the 
 junction of the legislature. 
 
 The cabinet is composed of seven members — the 
 pn!!>iilcnt8 of the departments of foreign affairs, 
 justice, home affairs, finance, army, public educa- 
 tion, and commerce. The ministers are not ne- 
 crj<sarily members of the chambers, but they have 
 g rifrht to be present at their deliberations. At 
 the commencement of each session, they must lay 
 bcfiire parliament an accotuit of the appropriation 
 of the public revenue; and the national debt 
 cinitot ue increased without its consent. The 
 privy council which is at the head of public affairs, 
 consiatii of the king, certain princes of the royal 
 family, tlie ministers of state, the field marshal, 
 ami SIX counsellors appointed by the king. The 
 kin^ has power, to grant pardons and mitigate 
 imnishmcnts, but in no case to stop the progress 
 of a civil suit or criminal inquiry. The code Na- 
 poh'on is in force in Klicnish Bavaria; but m 
 other parts of the kingdom there is an extreme 
 ililt'crcncc in the procedure as to civil matters; 
 mill a new, improved, and uniform code is much 
 wanted. The jienal code, introduced in 1813, 
 nii);ht be much improved both in itj< regulations 
 and in the form of its procedure. There is a high 
 court of appeal and cassation at Munich; and in 
 each of the provs. an inferior tribunal, to which an 
 appeal lies from the coiirts of primary jurisdiction 
 ui the towns, and the scignorial and cantonal 
 courts of the country districts. A law has been 
 poiucd providing for the purchase of the scignorial 
 junMlictiona on paying an equivalent to their 
 proprietors. 
 
 Each of the eight circles into which Bavaria is 
 divided is under the superintendence of two pro- 
 vincial boards ; one for the management of the 
 |)<>lice, schools, &c. ; the other takes charge of al 
 linanciol matters. Each circle is subdivided into 
 districts, which have assemblies, whose duties are 
 to decide all local questions respecting public 
 burdens and district rates. 
 
 According to the fundamental principles of the 
 constitution, all citizens are eligible to th* different 
 oHices of the state, \vithout any regard i .> birth or 
 rank in society ; all are liable to personal service 
 in the national defence ; religious liberty and free- 
 dom uf opinion are practically granted to all ; and 
 no one can be imprisoned or coinlemned but by 
 the sentence of a judge. All religious and cha- 
 ritable endowments are placed luider the superin- 
 tendence of the state. 
 
 Religion, — Kathnr more than two-thirds of the 
 population of Bavaria arc Boman Catholics. In 
 tlie census of 18G1, as well as the preceding owe of 
 1^68, the religious ])ersuasion of the inhabitants is 
 not stated ; and in the lost in wiiich this has been 
 tlie case, that of 1852, the numbers stand as fol- 
 lows:— Catholics, 3,176,338 ; Protestants, 1,233,8!)4 
 — subdi\ided into Lutherans, 90(5,38() ; Oalvinists, 
 '2.131; and Unitarians, 325,(177 — Mennoiiitcs avid 
 (ircek Catholics, 5,5(iO ; and Jews, 6(5,033. The 
 kingdom is divided into 2 Boman Catholic arch- 
 liishoprics, those of Municli and Bamberg ; (i 
 liishoprics; 171 deaneries, and 2,756 parishes. 
 Tlic administration of the Proti-stant Cluindi is 
 under a General Consistory — Ober-cousistorium — 
 and four provincial consistories. Of the three uni- 
 versities of the kingdom, two, at IMunich and 
 WilrzbiirK, ore Boman Cath(dic, and one, at !•>- 
 liiiigen, Protestant. Among tlie Boman Catholics 
 
 there is one clei^gyman to 404 bouIs; among the 
 Protestants, one to 1,013. The Boman Catholic 
 Church is richly endowed, poHscssing, according 
 to semi-official statements, profierty amounting to 
 above 100,000,000 florins, or 8,500,000/. A largo 
 pro))ortion of this wealth consists oi" landed estate.t, 
 winch are annually increasing in value. Thus, 
 the property was stated to l)e worth 7!),000,000 
 florins in 1838, and 92,000,000 in 1851. The state, 
 besides, pays 1,502,000 florins, or 130,000/., annually 
 to the clergy. The archbishop of Munich has a 
 government salary of 20,000 florins, or l,(i(i7/., 
 and the archbishop of WUnburg, 15,000 florins, or 
 1,260/. Three of the bishops have an allowance 
 of 10,000 florins, and the other three of 8,000, ex- 
 clusive of episcopal residences. The constitution 
 guarantees complete religious liberty to all inha- 
 bitants of the state, and Protestants as well ait 
 other dissenters enjoy unrestricted freedom of wor- 
 ship, and are eligible to all civil offices and military 
 appointments. (Hermann, BcitrUge zur Statist ik 
 v«>n Bayem.) In the Palatinate, wliich was left 
 in possession of many valuable ])rivileges at tho 
 jxjace, the I'rotestant church is a completely orga- 
 nised body with Presbyteries and Synods as in 
 Scotland. 
 
 Education. — Of late years the Bavarian goveni- 
 me"t has made the most priuscworthy effort* X» 
 diffuse knowledge among the mass of the ]ie«])le. 
 The system pursued is similar to that of Prussia. 
 A schtKd is established in every parish, under tlio 
 superintendence of the ministers and ciders. Over 
 these are the inspectors of district schools, who 
 are subordinate to the chambers of the interior, in 
 the several (irovincial governments. The superin- 
 tendence of all the educational institutions in the 
 kingdom is committed to a boanl entitled ♦ Tho 
 Su^Hirior Board of Education and Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs.' Attendance at school is im]M!rative on 
 all children who have not received {lermission to 
 be instructed by private tutors. Bavaria has one ly- 
 ceum, twenty-tive gymnasiums, thirty-four gram- 
 mar schools, seven seminaries for tlie education 
 of teachers, thirty-one local school commissions, 
 and about 5,000 primary schotds. There are nine 
 seminaries for educating Catliolics for the minis- 
 try. In the year 1861 there were in the kingdom 
 7,126 schools, with 8,205 teachers. Elementary 
 schools — Volhs-schulen — exist in all parishes, and 
 attendance on them is compulsory for all cluldren 
 till the age of fourteen. 
 
 Bavaria has three universities — those of Mu- 
 nich, VVUrzburg, and Erlangen: the two former 
 are Roman Catholic, the latter Protestant. Tho 
 university of Munich is attended by above 1,300 
 students, the others, respectively, by about 400 
 and 300 each. In 1828 a new and improved sys- 
 tem or study was adopted in the Bavarian uni- 
 versities, and a number of injurious regulations 
 were supjiresscd. Besides these seminaries, there 
 are in Munich numerous literary associations: 
 such us the Boyal Institute ; an academy of arts 
 and sciences ; another of the tine arts ; an agri- 
 cultural society ; a military and veterinary scbii(d, 
 Ac. ; and there are a number of literary and scicn- 
 tilio institutions in Wilrzburg, Erlangen, Xurem- 
 lierg, KatLsbon, Augsburg, &c. The National 
 Library in Munich, formed chiefly of those be- 
 longing to the suppressed monastic establishments, 
 contains 510,000 volumes, including an extensive 
 collection of curious manuscripts, pamphlets, 
 itc. ; and the university library contains 160,000 
 volumes. In this city there is also an extensive 
 Sunday school, in which there are upwards of 
 1,600 scholars, with sixteen masters, who tench 
 their pupils morals, the principles of physics, gco- 
 gvaiihy, natural history, chemistry, and geometry. 
 
 i 
 
 ''I 
 
aso WW 
 
 'I'lioKuiu votoil l>y \\w HnviiriMn li'irixliinin't'itr ili(< 
 Kii|<|M>rl <>r I'lliii'iiliiiii ill t)ii< l>iiil|;'i<i lor INi>l'-V 
 uiiiKiiiii.4 III l.l.'iil.or.'l iloiiiii, or !)i!.os<.i/, 
 
 /Vt.<ii>M iVwd/im.— riii'HVHiiMii iHiiNin'il ill llu< jiri 
 Kiiii of Miiiiicli in (ii'i'iiliiirlv wortliv ol' iilli>iilii>ii, 
 'I'lio |iriiioi)'li' ol llii' ^•^'< liriKliiiii'iil JM llml i'\rr\ 
 «iiii< ill iii'i.Moii hIiiiII riii|i|iorl liiiii.'i'ir. |'',\ orv |iri 
 soiirr, lli<'n<ron<, in oliii);iMl lo Hork ill \\U own 
 lriiili>; mill |Iiohi< wIio Iiii\i< nol 1i>iinil ii iriiili< in-" 
 |H<niiilloil III iiiiiko i<lioii-i< of Olio, \vliii'li in Itiii^lii 
 lo llii'in, Wlmli'vrr llio criiiiiniil riini!* Iiy lii.s 
 liilioiir nioiv iliitn iNxiilllrii'iil lor liix iimiiili>iiiini'i<, 
 IN Ki<|)i mil it tlio li'i'ni of liix iin|iriMiiiiiii>iil <>\ 
 pirx'x, mill is llioii f^ivrii lo liiiii, (li'iliicliiur ii i|iioiii 
 for ili«< <<N)ioiiNi>.s of llii> i>Mtiilili.'<liiiii'iil. I'lii> Niir 
 \>\»* llnis nn'MTVi'il for llii> Ih-iioIIi of iIio (irixonorN 
 
 lIll'IIINI'lvi'M, llOcr I III' l'\)l|'II.M<'M of III!' CSlllllliNll 
 
 iiii'iit tiitvo lioon ili<l'riivi>il, iiNniilly miionnl.i to 
 Hourly Mi.iHHi iloriiix ^l.i'iri)/.) por miniiiii. In 
 ."imu'oi* liiivo Ih>i'Ii Kiio^mi of |>^>l■^^olls m ilio i'X|iiry 
 of tlii'ir li'ini of iniiii.Hliiiii'iil n-coivinn; no Ii>s,m 
 lli.'in MOO lloriiiH ^^■0/.) upon Iriiving' llio prison. 
 'I lio iiniiilior of persons roniinod in ilio prison is 
 (Voiu'iiillv liolwi'i'iM'iOO mill 700, li isK'rtilifyin): lo 
 Inirn lliikl ilio sysioiii liiisiiroiliii'i'il llio iiiosi smis 
 fjii'lorv n'Mili.s, In Iml low oiisos mi' olloiiiloi-s 
 iMniniilloil II soooiiil linio, ami llioso wlio liiivo 
 lioon ilisinissoil with tlio Imp'si sinus liiivo in no 
 iM>(,nioo ii'liirnoil. Mmiyof ilio yoiiiiij, «lio liiivo 
 li'on liiiij;lil Iriiilos in Ilio prison, li.ivo nflorwrnds 
 Ihh'oiiio rospooliililo liiiiiiliviiiflsinon mnl Irmios 
 iiii'ii: mill oriiiii' is yonrly on llio (loori'.iso. 'I'lio 
 pixporiioii of oiipiliil |iiiiiisliiiionlN in l!a\iiria is as 
 I lo "JO.OOO poi-soiis, 
 
 /I'li'iHMi' iiHil /■'.ii>rniiilnir, — Al llio ooni'liision 
 
 iif llio wjir in I St,') llio linanoiiil iilVaiiN of Itaxaria 
 
 ^M'lv in H vory oinlmrrassod slalo; Iml lliroii^li 
 
 tlio Jiiilioioiis ivoiiomy miiiI uioHsiin>s of llio sovo- 
 
 n'itii mill llio logislaimv, llioy iin> now groally 
 
 inipiMvoil, In IJSI!', llio i xoosx of tlio o\poniliinii> 
 
 ovor llio iiiooiiio was •J,ii07,,'<00 llorins; Iml in 
 
 IN.'il-^'t'J. llio rovoinio aiiionnloil lo 'J1V.M7,00!» 
 
 llorins, wliilo llio o\)>«'iiiliiim« was only '.'7.0!t,i,,'<,'^;i 
 
 llorins. Tho Iiinlp-IN of ilio kiiiu'doiii mv voiod 
 
 liy llio olianiluTs for llio loiifjilionod torni of six 
 
 yojirs, wliioli oouins as a liiiaiioial jn'riod. Tlio 
 
 jiToss annual rovoinio for llio poriod, fiMiii IM('>1 lo 
 
 ISii7, was oali'ul.iiod al l(!,7'Ji>,.Mi7 florins, or 
 
 .■l,s;»;t/>!>7/., and ilio oNpondiiuro al llio sjiiiio sinii, 
 
 'llio national dol>t, niiioniiiinu' lo KICOOO.OOO 
 
 llorins, iiu-liidos tlio loans lakon up for llio ooii- 
 
 >(riu'tion of llio sl«io niilways. In llio liiidp>t for 
 
 IStil-7, llio proo«><>ds fi-(>in din'ot laxos mv osli- 
 
 niaioil at i>.;»;t;l,o;i7 llorins. and llioso from indiroot 
 
 t.-ixalioii Hi IS.'JtiO.;M;l llorins. Tlio dinvt Inxos 
 
 aio lovi»><l as follows;— For llio land lax, ostalo.s 
 
 .•iiv soKvIihI for V!iliiation in ovory distriol liy 
 
 rovjil oonmiissioiiors mid l.ix assossors, naniod liy 
 
 llio distriol it.solf, Tlio ostiilos tlnis olioson an' 
 
 Mippo!*«>«l lo ri'pr^'sonl tho fMomiof tlio siirMundiiijx 
 
 lands, and aooontiu>r to tlioir pntdiioo tlio tax is 
 
 loviiMl. I.mid of all kinds is dividod into olassos. 
 
 ilitloriiiji fniin oaoli otiior, in tlioir asoortaiiiod (iro- 
 
 diiolioii, l>y almut ono Imsliol )ht aon>, and oiio- 
 
 lliinl iH'iiijf dodiiotod for fallow, a rato oallod a 
 
 simf>l>ini, of 1 kriMit/.or in llio tlorin. or li( por 
 
 oont.. is oaloiilaloil on tlio romaiiidor. h'onls.ront- 
 
 olijirgvs sorviiH's, iiiu' liilios, arc oonsidorod as 
 
 p;vri of tlio priHlnoool tlio land, and tlio ralo is ap- 
 
 portionod iH'twiH'ii tliolmhlorsof tliosooliarp's and \ 
 
 llio onltivalor of tlio land, who pays a sinallor 
 
 Kliari'. ill proiHirtioii to ilioltoaviiiossof liis Imrdons. 
 
 Tho valiio of lioiisos is ostinialod aooordii'ij to ox- 
 
 i^liiijl ooiiiraots of iviii : wlioro no siioli ooiitracls 
 
 o\i>t. tho valiio of a 1ioiim> is foiiiul liy .•ippr.'iiso- 
 
 Jlioiil. in tho s;vnio way ;is ilio laiid. Tlic lol;il 
 
 RUo al pivsont loviod on l.iiid and hoiisos is ■') 
 
 AKI.\ 
 
 )•»'(»/>/«;, or 8 I oili por ooiit. on ilio pMdmv, Tln> 
 family, or ratlior oapllalion tax. Is paid iiy ii,]. 
 wliolo pop. in I'.' olassos. 'I'lio llrst olass I'lul'irm , I 
 llio widows of lalioiii'orH living on llicir julmnf' 
 who an' ralod al lo kr., or almiil \,t, aiimwilh ! 
 lalioin-orH pa\ iii({ Kil.\ llio IukIiohI oImsh |„|,, i/ 
 |ior aiinnni. Tho imhistry lax Is paid liv ivirv 
 individual or oonipmiy oarryiii); on iradi' or \m\\i\ 
 faolnn's, aooordiiirt In llvo oIiishos. oaoli with lij,, 
 I snliilivisioiis, Tho olassos iw llxod aoonnliiii} |„ 
 j llio nmiihor of inliah. in llio plaoo wlion' ilu- iniii,. 
 I IS oarriod on. I'lio lowosi ralo is l.«. iior Himmn 
 I lor ooimiion lahonr in \ illiip'K ; llio hi^lioxt ix |,'i/ 
 I por amiiiin, paid hy liatikors, nion-hants, » lioloi.iii,i 
 doalors, and innkoopors. in iftwiis ooniiniiin^ iii,in< 
 than VMlOO fainilios. Tho din'ot laxos aro Ir^ 
 lioavy in (lavaria than in most of tlio otlii<r ii,t 
 man stalos. Tho htrjjco inooiiio of Iho snvori'iKin 
 of llavaria, ftinii privalo domainH, miil nilur 
 soiin'os, has Im'oii oxtoiisivoly om'lailod of Juic 
 iindor Iho oonsiiiiiiional pivonimoiit. 'I'hr ,>ivj| 
 list of tho kin>{ and Iho ollior iiionihors of i||,< 
 myid family amoimls at pn'soiit. to 'Jl!>,i;,'i;i/„ ,„„| 
 siriol snporvision is oxon-isod liy Iho olinnilHT i.f 
 ropn'soiilalixos that this amoinil ho tiol oMTrdiil. 
 In IMlJl, it WHS disoovon'd llial ox Kiiin Lnilwij- 
 had lakon .miiiiis amoimliii)!: to l,;'i'..'<),ooii llorins, lir 
 
 I '27, loo/., fnun tho pnhlio oxohoiiiior Miilioiii «,• 
 ooimiiii^ for llioiii; wlion'iipon tho oliaiiilur ili' 
 inandod llio ro>litnlion of tho nionoy, wliicli \[\^ 
 majosly was fon'od lo j;ivo from his privalo |iiin., 
 ^Kolh, llandliiioh dor vornloiolioiidoii iS|alii.iik 
 l.oip/i^v, i.si;-.*. p, •.••j;i,) 
 
 .Imi/.— Tho arniod I'on'o of Iho kiiijiilom cnni 
 prisos Iho pormanoiil armv, Iho army of rcMTvc, 
 and Iho landwolir, or militia. All iiion, iVniii iho 
 an'o of twoiily-otio, iiro liahlo In sorvo, wjili ili,. 
 oxooptioii of Iho nppor iiohilitv— /lo/ic (i,/,/_iv||„ 
 an' oniin'ly Ih'o fmm ooiisoriplion; wliilo tho suns 
 of llio lowor noliility ami siiporior omplovos in [U 
 sorvioo of tho slalo liavo tho privilo^o ol' niii'iin:; 
 tho military soliool of oadols. The poriml nf m 
 viooissix yoars. 'I'lio pm'ohaso of siilisliir.icsis 
 pormiltod liy law. and lakos plaoo vory oxlcii 
 sivoly. Pnriiifj; tho yoars lH."il-(!l, tho tnufsi'i' 
 Iho kiii|vdoin miionniod to Iho lixod niiiiilH'r ><l' 
 MI.70,Smon,of whom ril.rid'.l won' in Iho pi'iiiinnciii 
 army, and 2.'I,I',MI moii in Iho army of ivsitvo, 
 This niniilior was lai^oly iiioroasod'in Isill ; the 
 ohamliors, aAor loii^ and sloriny dohalcs, Imviii;; 
 ^raiitod funds for tho maiiiloiianoo of |ii,'i,7,'i; 
 tniops, miinoly, Kl,;t;i7 for Iho pormaiU'iit iiniiv, 
 and 'J l.l'JO for llio army of n'sorvo. Iloslilos ilir 
 |H>rniaiiont army, tlioro is a n'sorvo ilosliin'il in 
 n'infon'o it. Tlioro is also tho AiHi/icc/ir, or niilili.i, 
 oomjio. oil of all Itavarians (oxooptiiifj imlilcnu'ii 
 and olor^rymoiil, hotwoon flio ajjos of l!t mnl (*\ 
 who liavo mil lioon dralU'd into tho army or iiil" 
 Iho rosorvo. In oasos of omor>?oiiov. Ilioy iiiiiy In' 
 oallod upon lo roinforoo Iho anny, \n\t iiiily in llu' 
 iiilorior. Thoiv is a corps of p'lis d'aiiiics, I'l'iii- 
 posod of iiino oompanios, making; in nil iiIkiiI 
 1.700 moll. Not nion" than a thinl piirt of llio 
 tniops aro poniianoiitly omiiodiod, tlio rest boiii; 
 dishaiidod aftor tho drills in spring, roliini liomo 
 to tlioir fainilios. Tho pay of a oavalry soldiori* 
 10.^ kr.. alioiit Ul, a day. with rations; iliiil of an 
 iiil'aniry soldior is !>J kr.. also with nilioiis, rriii- 
 oipal fortrossos: Landau, oin'lo of Iho liliino: 
 I'assan, on tho Danulio; Wllr/.luir;;. with iln' 
 I'iladol of Marii'iiliorfj; ; and Iiip;oNtadl, ill llu'cmi- 
 tlnonoo of tho Sohilllor and Iho Daniiho. 
 
 J/isiori/. — Tho oarlii'st inhaliitaiits of llaviiri:i of 
 whom liadilion has prosorvod any aocoiiiil «oio 
 llio lloii, a Irilio of Collio on;j,'iii : fnnii lliciiii.s 
 old l.aliii namo liiiiuia, and Iho (hiinim ":""'' 
 Itaioni, aro dorivod. Alionl tho loi^u iir.Viii,ii.-li:' 
 
i> iinny of n'stivi', 
 All www, IVkiu ihc 
 III wrvc, Willi llii' 
 
 • — ^|((/((' (l(/(/— Wllil 
 
 III) ; \vl\ilo Ilii' sons 
 or «>n»iiUivo(i in iln' 
 iviloffo ol ctiii'tiii;; 
 
 |'riu> )«'l'ioil nf MT 
 
 I" siiliMid.lt'n is 
 
 iliuv very I'Xion 
 
 -I'll. I ho troopsii'l' 
 
 llxoil mmilu'r of 
 
 ill llii'iH'rnmiii'iii 
 
 miwy of loMTvc, 
 
 iiisotlin l!*<''l : til'' 
 
 (li'lmti'H. Imviiii 
 
 'iimico of lii.">.T.i" 
 
 jicniiniu'iil iiniiv, 
 
 TV«>. llosiilos till' 
 
 .'servo (li'Klii'cil in 
 
 Hi/ici'/ir. orniilili.i, 
 vltlinn iiolili'iiicn 
 
 ip<s of ll> mill liii, 
 tbo iirmy or iiit" 
 
 H'liov. llit'v imiy'"' 
 y,^»il ""ly '•"'"' 
 
 ;oiiM <riirii>0K, I'l'iii- 
 
 'Uinn ill "11 "'"''' 
 (liirtl imrt of iIh' 
 
 iod, tlio rost I'l'iii^' 
 iriiiK- rolurn lu'im' 
 . oiiviilr\- soUliiT is 
 •i»t\or,s;'lliiitol'aii 
 ilU riitioiis, Trill- 
 .. of tlio liliii"'! 
 tlr/.liiirt;. willi ''"' 
 oNtiitll, lit till" foil- 
 
 Uiiiiiilio. 
 (iiiilsof Uiiviiniiof 
 
 Huv ai'i'oiuit "'."' 
 
 t;iii : from IIh'ik '•* 
 
 tin- (ioiniiiii ":""'■ 
 
 voi-iiofAupi^l':^ 
 
 liAVAY 
 
 ii wAi* niiInIiioiI liy (lio KniiiiniH, niiil InniiiMl |iiirt 
 „l wliiit tlioy loriiii'il Itliifliii. Viiiilolioiii, inul 
 ^orioiMii. AHor llio ilowntiill of lli(< Koinini 
 I'liiiiiro, llio UiiviiriiiiiM foil iiiulor llio iloiniiiioii of 
 llioOMro^olliM niiil (''riiiikM, ninl iiflor u |iroli'iioloil 
 n'^iitaiii'is il iioKiiowlodnoil I ho Novoioignly of 
 I'liitrloiniiKi**'- Allor Iho iloMth of Ihitt inoiinrcli, 
 llii< kinK" >'• <'"' l'"i"i>i'k^ »i»l Ooniiiiirs ^{ovonioil 
 Hiiviiriii l>y Ihoir lioiiloniinlM, who lioro lhi< lilloof 
 iiuiruritvo. till "•''■-'''• whoii tho ruling niiM'Kriivo wiim 
 niixoil to I ho I il lo of iliiko. II Im niii'oo?v4oi'h ooiiI iinioil 
 In JH'iir Ihi^ tillo till lii'.'M, whoii Ihoy woro riiiMoil 
 III llio olocloriil ili^lDily. Ill 1070 lliivnriil lniNinl 
 iiilii llio |>oM!*OHNioii of Iho finiillv of Iho <)iiol|ili-<, 
 mill ill 11''^" it ^^''1^ triiii.Ml'oi'roil liv iiiiporitil Kiiiiil 
 liilMllo, I'oillll of W'iltoUliiu'h, wlioNo iIonooiiiIiiiiIm 
 liriiiu'lioil oiil iiilo lu'o fiiiiiilioM, tho l'iilitlir.i< or 
 i;o(liil|iliiiio, iiiitl Iho Itiiviiriiin oi l.iiilovioiiiii ; Iho 
 I'.irnior iiihoi'iliiif( Iho |iiihtliiio of tlio Ithliio, tho 
 hitler llio iliii'hy of lliiviiriii. IliiKo i\lH\iiiiiliiiii I, 
 uih oloviiloil to Iho riiiiK of oloi'lor ill Iho 'I'liirly 
 VoMP<' Wiir, ill roooiii|ioiiNo for hix o|i|ioNiliiiii to 
 I'l'iiloxtiiiitiMiii, l>iiriii|i; llio >vMr of llio Siuiiiith 
 MiivosNioii, lliiviirin milVorod Hovoroiy from lnllnw 
 iii(; llio nilvorso forliino.-* of Kriiiioo; lull it roooivoil 
 
 II ^'.n'lit tioi'o^»ioii ill 1777, wlioii, upon iho o\ 
 liiii'tiiHl of Iho yoiiii)!;o|- lino of WiltolNliiioh, (lio 
 |iiiliiliiiiilo, iiflor II short foiilost with Aiistriii, wns 
 iiiiili'ii til llii< lliiviiriiin lorriiory. Purine tlio Into 
 »nr with l''riiiio(<, Miiviiriii, lioiiiK loiiK tho linn 
 ,illy of Nii|ioU'oii, WHS rowurdoil with liirno iw- 
 I'i'-isioiiH of lorritorv l^imi tho mihiIIh of AiiNiriii itiid 
 I'niKsiii; iitid Iho )liiviiriiiii iiioiiiiroh hiiviii^c omi 
 irivoil to ohiliiKo sIdoH iil it orllii'ill ilioiiioiil, ulioii 
 tlio furl iMioM of Ntipolooii u'oro slill doiiliifiil, wan 
 nnillniiod ill IiIn oxIoiimIvo iu'i|iiisilioiis liy tho 
 In'iiliosnf JHI I mid IHUi; for though Aiislriii ro 
 I'livon'il lior iinoioiit iioN.soNsions in llio Tyrol iiiid 
 till' liiHtriotx of tho liiM mid lliiimriiok, lliiviiriii 
 nvoivoil oiiiiivtUoiils in Kriinooniii mid Iho vicinity 
 of llio Kliino, Mloolor Miixiniilimi .loMoph wmm 
 raisoil III Iho rmiU of kiii^; liy Niipoloon I., in 
 ISO,'), mill tho now tillo iiinl dif;iiity wiis rooo^nisod 
 liv all llio l''.iiro]ioikn powors uf llio ('oii){rosH of 
 \ ioiiiia, 
 
 UAVAY (mi, Ihiijiu'iim), u town of l-'riinoo, ilop, 
 ilii Noril, Clip, oiint,, l.'i in. I'',SI'',. Viilonoionnos. 
 I'liji, l,iUl! in ISdI. 'I'lio stroolM itro iioitl mid 
 I'ioiin; and it Iiiim fiihrios of iron plntos, njrrionl 
 luriil iniploinonlM, with tminorios, 'riiis is ii vory 
 aiii'ii'iil town, liiivin^; Ik'oii inado Iho oiip. of a 
 jiniv. hy Aiifiiislns, and dostroyod liv tho linns in 
 ;is"i, it was forinorly siirroninlod liv walls; mid 
 ill Ijui iiiiildio of tho niarkot'iilaoo is an oliidisk 
 niiji w'von t'aoos, iiidioatiii)( tlio diroclion of Iho 
 llomaii rimils that loriniiialod at this point. This 
 olK'li.tli is iiiodorii, lint it roplat'osa Konian oolninn, 
 v.liii-li in said to liavo oxislod in llio t7lh oonliirv. 
 Tlii< n>ii)aiiiH of A ciruuH and an u(|uodiiot nro still 
 ilisi'iivorahlo. 
 
 ItAWTKY. m> inland town of I'liiKland. W. U. 
 on, York, on tlio liordor of NiilliiiKhioii.shiro, !l in. 
 Sl'„ Doiioaslor. Pop. 1,011 in ISi'il. It issitnalod 
 
 III Aijcolivity, slopiiii; to tho Idio, whioli is navi- 
 Ciililo for Imr^fos, and is Iravorsoil liy llioKroal .N. 
 Mild from Iiondon to York, II. has a national 
 si'limil. Tho (Jroiit Norlliorn railway has a sln- 
 lioii horc. Markot day, 'I'linrsday. 
 
 IIAVAZID, a oify of Arinonia, ca)). sanjiaok, 
 fi.Mii. NNK. Van, mid W'l in. SSW. Mount Ararat ; 
 liil.llllO'il' N., loiiK'. It" •-'<)' K. It stands on Iho 
 iMivily (if a liiKh hill, at tlio top of which is Iho 
 riinilol, ooiilainin^ a wolUlinilt nio.s(pio, and tho 
 |':iliic(> of tho paolia. It is siirronndod l>y a wall 
 ■I'lil riimimrls; and, liosidos lliroo nio.s(|nosmid two 
 I'^ri'lios, lins tho nioiiastorv of Kiirii Kiloosoa, 
 ivlilmiioil for the liomity ofilw iircliilci-turo, an- 
 
 IIAYLKN .IHl 
 
 liipilty, nnil«raiidoiir. Mossrs.Sniitliand DwIkIiI, 
 Iho Aniorioan inissionarios. liy wlmni II wnsvlsitoil 
 in I Mil;!, roprosoni tho town as lioiiift in a inisorMlily 
 rninoiis siulo, and w ilhoiil ono doconl honso o\oo|it 
 llio pacha's. ' Most of ihoni worn const mclod liko 
 Iho iindorM;roiind cahins of Iho vilhiM^os ; ih« strocM 
 
 wori> olisirncloil hy every s| ics of llith; and 
 
 Hourly all ihoNliopsin llio lMi/,ar, ori|{iiiallv very 
 few, weio desorletl,' (ii, lli'i,) Kiiineir oNliinalos 
 Iho po|i. nl !Ut,000 (Mem. I'ors. Kinpiro, p. !l?i), 
 lull this, diiillitlosN, is now K*^''itlv lieyond llio 
 mark. The missionaries provinnsly referred In 
 eslimale Iho Moslem inliali, al UOO or 100 lumilies, 
 and Iho Armoniansal 100 fmnilios; nml if so, Iho 
 pop. ninsi lio coiiHideralily under •'i.OOll, l.ar^'o 
 nnmliers of tlii< Arinenimis have enii|(ralod to llio 
 lerriiiirios now occupied hv Itiissia, 
 
 IIAVI',l{S|l(U{|'', a lowiiof Havana, circ. Uo/al, 
 near tho IJe^rnit/., I I m, N. Nnromliern:, on tho 
 niilway from Itainliortv in Niiremlieri';. I'op, l,0',i.'> 
 
 in IHOI. The l.nihvi)^ canal iinei^'iinK iho 
 
 Uhino with Iho llminlir (see IIavaiiia), piiHHcs 
 near the town. It is well linill. In its vicinity 
 are coiisidoralilo copper works. 
 
 nAVI''.U\, a town of France, dt'p. Calvados, 
 cap. arrond.. 17 in. \V. liv N. Citeii; lal. lit" 17' 
 N,. lonn;. O'J I r \V. I'op.O.lN',! in IHOI, llayenx 
 is a Very ancient city, and, with the excoptiini of 
 the principal street. Is meanly Imilt, with iiiirrnw 
 and crooked streets. The fortillciitiiins hy which 
 il was formerly siirronnded have almost eiiiirely 
 disiipiieared ; and it has lieeii enlarged liy the 
 iiiiiction of several siiliiirhs. I'riiieipal piihlio 
 liiiildiii^; — the calhodral, a hii'i^o and veiieralilo 
 (iolliic edillce, in the fnrni of a cross, In tho 
 /mcieiil episcopal palace, now Iho lirnel do Villo, 
 is proMorved the famous tn/iiHHfrif ilr llni/fiu; rv ■ 
 pre.soiitin^ the principal incidents in the hislnry 
 of Iho coiiipiesi of l',iif{laiid l>y William the I 'mi 
 ipieror. Il is Hllpposoii to have Itoeli executed hy 
 Nliitilda, the ('onipieror's wife, or liy Ihe empnvi.-i 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I. It Consisls of ii 
 linen well 21 1 ft. in loii^rih mid '.!<) in. Iimad ; and 
 is divided into 7'J eiim|iiirtnienls, each having an 
 inscription indicating its sniijecl. The ll^iires iiro 
 all execiilod liy tho noedio ; and it is valiialdo 
 alike as a work of art of |lii> iieriod referred lo, 
 and as correctly reiiresentin); tlio coslnmeof llin 
 lime. This remarKalilo monnmonl imrrowly os- 
 capod doslrncliiin (hiring the freii/,y of the I'fovo- 
 Inlion. (See an i^xcellent article on Iho llayenx 
 Tapeslry in the Penny Cyclopiodia.) llayenx is 
 the seat of aliishopric, and has I rilmnalH of original 
 Jurisdiction and (Mimnu-rco, a collof,(e, and a pnlilie. 
 lilirary coiitainini,; 7,1100 volumes. Tho lace ma- 
 iiiifai'lnres in the town and noi^'lihoiirlioiHl eiiiploy 
 H lar^o nnmlior of femalos ; and lliero are also 
 iiimiiii'netnreH of talile linen, calicoes, siT^es, hats, 
 oartlieinvnre, ^c, with eslalilislmieniM for eoltoii 
 spintiiiiK, It has n station on tho railway from 
 I'aris to ('herlionrf;. The (Minntry round is nndn- 
 laliiif(, and alVords ^ood pasture. I.ar^xe <|naiitiiics 
 of ex(;elleiit hntler an- made in the vieinilv, sent 
 partly to Paris, and partly shipped for tlio I'Vencli 
 colonics, 
 
 llayenx existed previously to tho invasion of 
 (iaiil \>y,' the Komans. Under their sway it was 
 successively called Anriiriiiiii, Iftijoni, and ('irilnH 
 lliijocnmum^ whence, its modern name. It l>i- 
 lon)i;ed for u e<iiisideralil(> period to the l'',n;;lisli, 
 and was \\\'\n\ linriiiMl down in the contests of tlu! 
 laller with tli(> hVeiudi : it. alHo snit'erod severely 
 during the reli)j;ions war.-i. 
 
 MAVLKN, or IJAILMN, n town of Spain, pr«v. 
 .laeii, at the foot of the .Sierra Moreiia, 2'2 in. 
 N'. .laen. I*<ii. T.K.'II in |s;>7. It is siirroiindeii 
 liy ulil walls ; coniniuiiilx I liu road leudini^ I'rotii 
 
S82 
 
 BAYONNE 
 
 Ciwtilo into Andaluitia; hnn a parish church, n 
 palace lMiloiif(in)t to Count liaylon, an<l a hoftpitAl. 
 It han alxo numnrouM oil millx, with manufactureH 
 of coane cloth, k'mh, Itrii^kM, niid mmp. 
 
 Ilaylen derive* ittt princl[ial uonity, and which 
 event* which tcMik place in itx vicinity, and which 
 led to the catiitulatum of Baijlen, nx^wA the 20th 
 ,lune, 1808, by which (jlencral Uupont, and almut 
 lfi,000 French tr(M>pfi under \m conimnnd, Hurren- 
 dered to the Spnniardit on condition of their l>einK 
 conveyed to France l)y the Spanixh p<)vemnient ; 
 but the latter part of the capitulation watt not 
 carried into cBt'ct, The inciiimcity of Diipont wah 
 mninly iimtrnnuMitnl in briiifriiif; about tluH remilt, 
 which inspired the Spanianlx with conlidence, and 
 waH always ro);arded bv Na|Ni1eon aH the princiiuil 
 source of bis disnxterH in the I'eninsuln. 
 
 HAYONNK, a scn-iMirt town and fortrow) of 
 Franco, dop. JinHHCH I'yroiu'es, cn|). nrrond., at 
 the continence of the Neve with the Adour, 
 about 4 m. from the cmboncburo of the latter, 
 and 58 in. WNVV Pan. Top. ->r),(Hl in 18(tl. 
 liayonnc has a ntation on the yreat lino of rail- 
 way, opened in 18(M, which leads from France 
 acroHS tbo Pyrenees into Spain, Tlio town is di- 
 vided into tiirce nearly ecpial parts, which com- 
 municate by brid(joH. On the left bank of the 
 Neve is Great Mavonne; on the rijcbt bank of 
 that river, and the left bank of the Adour, is I^ittlo 
 Hnyonnc ; and on the ri);bt bank of the Adour, 
 in the ddp. Landes, is the suburb of St. Ksjmt, 
 joined by a long wooden drawbridge to the rest of 
 the town. Bayonne is a flrst-clasa fortress; the 
 citadel, one of the finest works of Vauban, in the 
 suburb of St. Esprit, commands the town and 
 )uirl)our; and recently the fortifications have been 
 still further augmented and strengthened. It is 
 well built ; the streets, without being regular, are 
 broad, and set off with good houses. There are 
 some fine public places, of which that called dc 
 Grammont is the best. Ita quays are superb, and 
 though a little interrupted in parts by the new 
 frirtiflcations, afford fine promenades. Princijial 
 public buihlings— cathedral and mint. Bayonne 
 IB the seat of a bishopric, of tribunals of original 
 jurisdiction and of commerce ; it has also a chamber 
 of commerce, a diocesan seminary, schools of na- 
 vigation and design, a public library, and theatre. 
 A mint is established here, the coins issued from 
 which arc marked L. : attjiched to the mint is an 
 assay office. About two-thirds of the population 
 of the suburb of St. Esprit consist of Jews, most 
 of whose ancestors had been, at different times, 
 expelled from Spain. They have three syna- 
 gogues, and there is one in the body of the town. 
 There are here yards for the building of ships of 
 war and merchantmen, with distilleries, sugar re- 
 fineries, glass works, and fabrics of cream of tar- 
 tar, chocolate, and liqueurs. Exclusive of these 
 articles, the Adour brings down supplies of timber, 
 masts, pitch and tar, cork, and other articles, from 
 the Pyrenees, many of which are largely exported. 
 The haras of Bayonne have long enjoyed a high 
 celebrity, and its wines and brandies are also much 
 esteemed. It used formerly to fit out a consider- 
 able number of ships for the cod and whale fish- 
 cries, but this trade, though not abandoned, has 
 latterly fallen off. It is the seat of an extensive 
 contraband trade with Spain. 
 
 The river is rather dangerous, at least in rough 
 weather, or when there is a strong current of fresh 
 water. It can only be entered at high water, 
 when there is from 13 to 15 ft. over the bar at 
 springs, and from 9 to 1 1 at iieajis. The sea with- 
 out is usualljy^ rough ; and as the bar is liable to 
 shift, a jnlot is always required. 
 
 The military weapon called the bayonet takes 
 
 BAZA 
 
 its name from this city, where It is Mid to linv(> 
 Itcen first invented and brought into uhc iluririL' 
 the siege of 1523. Though often besioged, Hn- 
 yonnc has never lieen taken ; and hence the motto 
 nunitunm piiHutu. It was invcste<l by the Hrili.sh' 
 in 1814; who sustained considerable loss fnrm n 
 Hortie made by the garrison. At the cnntlc i,( 
 Merac, in the vicinity, the transactions took jilncc 
 lietween Napoleon and Charles IV. and Fcnliimml 
 VII. of S|Miin, that led to the invasion of tlii> 
 Peninsula by the latter. Mr. Inglis was liiclilv 
 ])loased with Dayonne, which, ho wiys, ho kIuhiIiI 
 l)re('Hr as a roMideiice to almost any place in the 
 south of Krnnco. 
 
 BAVPOOK (Vai^Mxn-n), a maritime town (if 
 Ilindostan, prov. Malabar, 7 ra. M. ('nlicntj im 
 11° 10' N.. long. 7ifi t,-J>' K. Trak shipH „( .{m 
 tons are built lu-re. 
 
 BAYHiaiTII, or BAIREUTII, a to^vn of !)„- 
 vnria, cap. circ. lIpiK-r Mavuo. on tbo Hoil-Mayiic 
 2f! m. E. Bamberg; lat. 4!)* 57' N., long. I |o .nV | ] 
 Pop, 18,2H0 in 1801. It is jiartially surrminddl 
 by old walls, and has six gates and two Imdncs; 
 is well built, with broad well-paved stroctH, fipiin- 
 tains, and promenades; but it has notwithstandin;; 
 a (!heorlos.s, deserted character, the absence of tlic 
 court, on which it formerly «le|)ondod, not Uw^ 
 sufficiently compensated by mnnufacturos orconi- 
 merce. It has two palaces ; the oldest, burnt doHii 
 in 1 75.1, but again rebuilt, is now convorttd into 
 public offices : the new jjalace, a handsome cdilicc, 
 the residence at times of members of the roval 
 family, has a gallery of indifferent pictures :' ir. 
 the s<iuare before it is an equestrian statue of thi- 
 Margrave Christian Ernest, and iKshind it is ii 
 public gar<len. Among the other public biiildinpi 
 18 the opera house, the manege, or riding school, 
 the gymnasium, founded in lfi(i4, Ac, It has 
 several churches, and a synagogue ; with a iiid)lic 
 librar)', hospitals, a hinatic asylum, dc. In its 
 suburb, called the Georgam Sec, now a dried Inko, 
 is a penitentiary, where a great variety of mnrlilos 
 from the Fichtelgebitge are polished and wrought 
 up. Besides being the scat of the administmtion, 
 and tribunals for the circ, it has a Protestniit con- 
 sistory. The geological cabinet and collection nf 
 fossils, belonging to the family of Count Minister, 
 is one of the finest in (Jermany. There is here an 
 extensive manufactory of porcelain, and ti)l)Becn- 
 pipe heads; parchment, linen, cottons, d-c. ore 
 also produced, and there are breweries and tan- 
 neries. About 2 m. to the E. is the Hermitage, a 
 fanciful building erected in the early part of last 
 century, at an immense cost, with gardens con- 
 taining temples, terraces, statues, and fountains; 
 and a fine park, now much out of order. The 
 Margravine, sister to Frederick the Great, wrote 
 her celebrated memoirs, so often mentioned in 
 Mr. Carlvle's history of the Prussian hcro-kinj;, 
 in the rfermitage. 
 
 Bayreuth formerly constituted the cap, of an 
 independent principality — the marpfravint of Itay- 
 reiith. On the death of the last margrave without 
 issue, in 1791, his possessions devolved on the Kini,' 
 of Prussia, who ceded them to France in 1807. In 
 1810, Napoleon transferred them to Bavaria; ami 
 their possessicm has been confirmed by subsequent 
 treaties. (Carlyle's History of Frederick II. of 
 Prussia, called Frederick the Great, 18(!3-,5, which 
 contains some interesting notices about Bayreuth.) 
 
 BAZA, a town of Spain, Granada, near the 
 Guadalquiton, in an extensive, well watered, and 
 fertile volley, 54 m. E. by N. Granada ; lat, 37" 30' 
 N„ long. 2° 60' W. Pop. 7,276 in 1857, including 
 2 cants, in its jurisdiction. (Minano.) It has 
 a cathedral, .S parish churches, 6 convents, an "'- 
 clcsiastical seminary, and a hospital. The '^''- 
 
BAZAS 
 
 are Mitifpiv dependent on ni^citUure. nnzn if* 
 citlifron the nile of thn Bimti of the Homnnt*, or 
 yets nrar it-, and vOHeii and other intoreHtinK Ko- 
 iii«ii n'mniiiH ar«> dii^ up in itM vicinity. It wim 
 ukini from the Mmtnt nttcr a lon^ Hiege, in 14H!), 
 
 HA/AS, a town of France, den. (linintle, cap. 
 tm>n(i.i on a roclc 83 m. SSIC. lionloaux. I'op. 
 4,ri4lll in 1801. It iH old and ill-built. It was for- 
 incrlv the scat of a blxhopric; and the ancient 
 catlietlrnl. now the ])ariHh church, though not 
 lar);i!, ik n reinarkaldn monument of (iothiu archi- 
 t(>t'ture. It hat* a court of ori^final juriHdiction, 
 niiilniinffriculturnl Hocietv ; with a roynl miltpetre 
 nmiiiiruclory, a ({lnHM-work, and launt^rioH. Huzum Ih 
 vcrv niu'icn't. It is tho country of the piK't Au- 
 Hiiniui*. who ilouriHhed in the -tth century, and waH 
 nisi), f(ir a lon>^thened jteriod, the residence of the 
 dukes (if (iaseony. Tlic country round was lonj; 
 kiitiwn iw tlie BazndoiH, 
 
 |1AZ(M'I1KS-G0N KT, a villnjce of France, di<|). 
 Kiirc et Loire, 16 m. SSK. No{^ent-le-l>otrou. I'op. 
 'LWi in IHtil. Hn/.oches iH tho name of several 
 (itlicr sinidl towns in France. 
 
 IIA/ZANO, a town of Central Italy, prov, 
 Kinilia, ir> m. VV. liologiia, on the ISuinmof^Kia. 
 INni. 1,'.)7.'> in IHtJl. 
 
 IlKACHY HKAD, a conspicuous bold promon- 
 tory on the S. coast of Kn(>;land, co. Sussex; 
 lat. /iOO 44' 24" N., loiiff. 0<9 18' E. It is formeil of 
 flmlky white cliffs, that project jM!r|)ciidicularly 
 (ivcr the lieach, whence it derives \H name, to the 
 heiffht of 504 ft. A lighthouse of the first class 
 was erccte<l, in 1828, on the summit of the second 
 cliff to the VV. of the head, 2«5 ft. alwve the level 
 of the sea, and caverns have been cut in the cliffs, 
 Ictwecn the Heiwl and Cuckmore Haven, in the 
 view nf affording places of refuge tu mariners 
 wwckwl on this dangerous coast. 
 
 IJEACONSFIELI), a market town and par. of 
 EiiL'laml, CO, Buckingham, hund. liurnham. Area 
 of the \M. 3,7 1 acres. Pop. 1 ,«()2 in 1 «(i 1 . The 
 town is situated on an eminence, on the high road 
 from London to Oxford, being 24 m. W. by N. of 
 the former. It consists of four streets, arranged in 
 the form of a cross, and its houses are mostlv con- 
 etnicted of a mixture of Hint and brick, 'f he re- 
 mains of Edmund Burke are deposited in the 
 church, formerly a part of the monasterv of Bum- 
 ham; and the church-yard has a marble monu- 
 ment in honour of the poet Waller, to whom the 
 manor belonged. Builstrode, formerly a celebrated 
 scat of the Portland family, is withm a short dis- 
 tance of IJeaconsfleld. Market-day, Wednesday. 
 It has fairs for the sale of cattle, on Feb. 13, and 
 iloly Thursday, at which a good deal of business 
 ia (lone. 
 
 BEAMINSTER, a par. and town of England, 
 CO. Dorset, hund. Beam inster- Forum, div. Brid- 
 port, on the Birt, 123 m. WSW. London. Area of 
 par. 4,350 acres. Pop. of par. 2,014 in 1801. The 
 town is surrounded by hills, whence the springs, 
 forming the river, issue. It has a clean respectable 
 appearance, and is paved, and lighted by gas. The 
 church is a large stnicture, on an eminence on the 
 N, side, being a chapel of ease to that of Nether- 
 bury, A free school founded in 1084, educates 
 100 irays: the ann. amount of its endowment is 
 1601 a vear. There are almshouses for six poor 
 women. 'The weekly market on Thursday, and ann. 
 fairs Apr. 14, Sep. 10, and Oct. 9. 'There is a 
 manufactory of sail cloth, and tin and copper wares 
 ue made in the town. It is the centre of a union 
 nf 26 parishes. Beaminster is a town of consider- 
 aUc antiquity; but it has been several times 
 ■'holly or partly destroyed by fire, to which its 
 moiVrn appearance is attributable. 
 
 BEAU LAKE (GKEAT), a very in«gularly- 
 
 BEAUFORT 
 
 88t 
 
 shaped and extensive sheet of fresh water, In the 
 NW. part of N. America; lietweeii about ti'»o and 
 07° N. lat., and under the i2()th deg. of W. long. 
 The WvM Lake river Hows from it to the Mackenzie 
 river. lu waters arc very pure, and it is said to 
 be well supplied with tish. 
 
 BEAT (ST.), a town of France, ddp. Haute 
 (•aronne, on the (iaronne, 13 m. 8. St. < iaudens. 
 Pop. l,Htm in IHOl. Tho town is entirely built of 
 marble furnished by the neighbouring quarries; 
 but l)eing situated in a nam)W valley, l)etween 
 mountains which conceal the sun for a part of tho 
 dry, it is nt^vcrtheless very gloomy. It is tho 
 eutrv/tot of tho contiguous valloy of Arran, in 
 Spain. 
 
 BEAIJCAIHE (an. fTV/emwrn), a town of France, 
 dep (iard, cap. cant., m the right bunk of thu 
 Khone, opposite to Tarascon, 1-! m. E. Ninies; hit. 
 43° 48' 32'' N., long. 4° 3H' 50" E. Pop. 9,544 in 
 IMOl. As n town, Benucnire is not remarkable, and 
 has no jiublic building wortii notice; liiit it.s com- 
 mand of internal comnnniication, AtlitnUMl by tho 
 railway from Lyons to Marseilles, with the branch 
 line to Otte, as well as the navigiilion by tho 
 Hhone and the canal of Itenucaire, which unites 
 with tho canal du Midi, make it fitvourably situ- 
 ated for an entrejiot Its chief consequence and 
 celebrity is derived from its fair, which commeneen 
 on the 22nd, and tinishes on the 2Kth Julv. This 
 was formerly the greatest of European fairs, and 
 though much fallen off, it is still attended by a 
 vast concourse of people, not from France only, t)ut 
 also from (Jermany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and 
 the Levant. Almost every sort of article, whether 
 of convenience or luxury,' is then to be met with 
 in the town. It is said that the influx of visitors 
 still amounts to nearly 100,000, and that tho 
 business done exceeds 150 millions of francs; but 
 both these estimates are probably exaggerated. 
 The accommodations in the town and at Tarascon, 
 not iKiing nearly sufficient for the great and sudden 
 influx of strangers to the fair, large numbers of 
 them arc lodged in tents and other tem|)orury 
 erections in the meadow where the fair is held, 
 rlong the Khone. All bills due at this fair arc 
 presented on the 27th, and protested on the 28th. 
 A tribunal, instituted for the puqmse, takes cog- 
 nisance of, and immediately (settles, all dispatea 
 that grow out of transactions at the fair. De- 
 tachments from the garrisons of Nimes and Ta- 
 rascon assist in keeping order, and everj'tbing is 
 conducted with the greatest regularity. The j)rc- 
 fect of the dep. is always present, and entertains 
 the leading merchants. 
 
 The communication between Beaucairo and Ta- 
 rascon used to be kept up by a bridge of boats, but 
 this has been replaced by a suspension bridge of a 
 total length of 441 metres, or nearly a mile. Tho 
 bridge is alike substantial and handsome. Thcro 
 is at Beaucaire a public library, of 14,000 volumes. 
 
 BEAUFORT, or BEAUFOUT-EN-VALLE'E, 
 a town of France, d<$p Maine et Loire, near tho 
 Couesnon, 10 m. E. Angers. Pop. 6,200 in 1801. 
 It has a college, or high school, two w^orkhouses, a 
 large market-place, and manufactures of canvas 
 and coarse linen. 
 
 Bkaufokt, a small sea-port town of the U. 
 States, S. Carolina, on Port Royal Island, 75 m. 
 S. Charleston, and 58 m. N. Savannah ; lat. 32° 25' 
 N., long. 80° 32' W. Pop. 2,500 in 1800. It has 
 a deep and spacious, but little frequented, harbour. 
 This also is the name of an inconsiderable sea-port 
 town of N. Carolina, on Gore SouncL Its harbour 
 admits vessels drawing 12 ft. water. 
 
 Beaufort, a town of France, ddp. Savoy, near 
 the Doron, 30 m. ENE. Chambery. Pop. 2,750 in 
 1861, In the neighbourhood arc extensive mines 
 
 IS 
 
 \p^\ 
 
 I 
 
 ■-'■ 1 
 "i 1 
 
 'a I 
 
384 
 
 UEAUOENCY 
 
 BEAUMONT-LE-VICOMTK 
 
 of coal, cop|)cr, ami lead, tlio latter contniiiiiiff 
 «ilvi>r. 
 
 HKAUGKNCIY, a town of Franro, <l«<p. Loirrt. 
 cap. cant., on tliti ri^lit bank of ihc Loire, Hi ni. 
 H\V. Orleanii, on the railwoy from I'orii* to ToiirN. 
 I'op. fi,(»iV2 ill IWiI. TliiH in a very aiieieiit town, 
 ana occnpiex a eoiiNpieuoiiM place in the history of 
 tlie foreign, civil, and reliKioim wan* of France. 
 It fell HUt'ceMHively into the IuiikIh of the IIiiiih, 
 iSaxonH, Nonnans, and Kii^liNh ; but it mitlered 
 nioMt from the reli^ioiiN warn of the Itilli ceiilurk'. 
 It waH Hurrounded by walln, tianked with towcVit 
 and boMtioiiH, part of which are Ntill Klundin^, IIk^ 
 rent having been pulled down, and converted into 
 promenades. It waH almi defended by a castle, of 
 which nothing; now remaiim bnt a nuiHHive tower, 
 115 ft. hif;h. It haH a bri<l(;e over the Loire of 
 22arche>*; with fubricit of cloth, diHtilleriei*, and 
 taiinerieH, and a considerable trade in wine, cum, 
 aiuf wool. 
 
 UKAUJKU, a town of France, di'p. Rhone, coi). 
 cniit., on the Ardiere, JIO ni. NNW. Lyoiw. I'op. 
 8,\m in iMtil. It in Hituatcd it the toot of a hill, 
 on the top of which arc the ruiiii, 'if an ol<l citMtle. 
 It ha!* mannfactnrea of cawkH and lanli>ni)*, and in 
 the eiitre|iot of all the ])ro(luct8 exchanged be- 
 tween the Saonc and the i^oirct. 
 
 BICAULIKU, a town of France, <h'p. Corrcze, 
 rap. cant., on the Dordopie, '2'i m. S. 'riillc. I'o]). 
 "iJW) in 18)11. It hat) some trade in wine. Ilean- 
 lieii in the name of 24 other i*mall townH in France. 
 
 UKAULY, a sen-port and village of Scotland, 
 CO. InvenicHf*, on the N. side of the Ueauly Water, 
 -where it falls into the bottom of the Ueauly Frith, 
 9 in. \V. Inverness. I'op. 1)17 in IHtJl, of whom 
 4.'I4 males and 483 females. The |)lacc is tinely 
 situated. The Ueauly is here crossed by a bridge 
 of live arches, and the village has some trade. 
 
 I1KAUMAHI8, a bor. and sea-jMirt town of N. 
 "Wales, CO. Anglesey, hiind. Dendaethwy, near the 
 H, entrance to the Menai Strait, in lieaumaris 
 Hay, 4 m. NNK. the Menai bridge; lat, bii° 17' 
 N., l..ng. 4° 6' W. Pop. of bonnigh, 2,668 in 18(11. 
 It is tinely situated near the etlgc of the bay, in n 
 low level tract, which, however, commands some 
 of the lincst views in Wales. It is neatly built. 
 The castle, erected by Edward I., though ui atli- 
 lapidated state, is a tine ruin : it is surrounded by 
 n fosse, tianked by twelve circular bastions. The 
 building is nearly quadrangular, wivh a roiiiul 
 tower at each an(^lc. The par. church is at Llan- 
 defan, but there is a cha|)el of ease in the town, 
 in which service is performed in English and 
 Welsh. There are four chapels, belonging to Cal- 
 vin ists, Independents, Baptists, and Wesley aiis, all 
 well attended; a free grammar-school, well en- 
 dowed, the head master of which must be of the 
 I'^stablished Church and M.A. ; a national school, 
 for 240 boys and girls, in the town, and another 
 in Llandagvan (endowed by the late Duchess of 
 Kent), for GO scholars : each of the religious sects 
 have also large Sunday schools ; and in all the 
 English language is now taught. The town-hall 
 is a commodious modern structure, with rooms 
 for the bor. business, courts of justice, and a spa- 
 cious ball-room. There are also a co. hall, a co. 
 Ijrison, and a custom-house. The weekly markets 
 are held on Sat. and Wed. : annual fairs on Feb. 
 13, Holy Thurs., Sei)t. 19, Dec. 19, all for cattle. 
 No particular manufacture or trade is carried on 
 in the town. There is good anchorage in the bay, 
 opposite the town, in 7 fathoms stitt' clay; or ves- 
 sels may be grounded near it on soft rtiud. The 
 W. passage may be entered at any time of tide. 
 Vessels often resort thither for security in hard 
 gales ; and occasionally some are repaired on the 
 beach. In the year 1803, there eutcicd 2,220 
 
 .•cssels, of 2!U,(tlft tons, and there clenrfd (!•.'« 
 vcsmpIh, of 136,99.'! tons. AlMtut one-half of t|",, 
 shipping coiiHJNted of stcanicrH. Itfaiiiiiiirix in Hi,. 
 chief port of the island ainl of llie Mt'iiiii Siraii 
 and compris(>s in its jiirisdiclion those of Conwnv' 
 Amlwch, Ilolyheail, Twlhely, HarniiMilh. mni 
 (.'aeniar>'on. What trade the town ititclf poHMsxi:, 
 is chii'tly coastwise. There is a stcani-pai'kct (•(^ni- 
 niiinii'ation between lU'aiiinuris, LivcrpiHjj, aiul 
 Dublin, but the latter has almost ceascil Hini'(> iiu' 
 erection of the great Menai britlge, and ilu' vmuU. 
 lishineni of a more direct mail coinniiinli'ntliin via 
 Ilolyheail. The pier, (piays, and wariJiouxcMir.' 
 protected by extensive sea walls. The p|;u'i> d,.- 
 rivcs considerable advantage from visitorH Innu 
 l.iverpotd.^i'ho resort to it for sea-bathing, in w||j,.|| 
 resp«'ct it can sc/ircely be surpassed, 'riicrc an' 
 many bathing machines, and the tine linn samls 
 of the l>each form a <lelightfiil promciiailc, Iruni 
 whence, as well as from the green, a nint^niiiccni 
 (•rosiM'ct presents itself. Haron llill, the scut nl' 
 the llulkeley family, is on an eminence iiciir ilu' 
 town, and its tine grounds sIo|K! towards it : iIk re 
 are several other gotsl mansions in the iioiglilKiur- 
 hood. The hotels and inns in the town arc ex- 
 cellent. There is a tine road from the town in 
 the Menai bridge (4^ m.), which also ciinmiunds 
 splendid views. 
 
 Since the Municipal Reform Act, the limils nf 
 the boi. have iM.en restricted so as to comprise oiilv 
 the town and its immetliate neighlMiiirhdiHl. Tim 
 ancient bounds included its own parish, and |iarii< 
 of six others, for an extent of upwards of |(i ni. ; 
 it has now four aldermen and twelve councilldrs. 
 Its governing charter, jireviously, was granted in 
 the 4th of Eliz. ; this quotes, by ins/;ej'/»iiM, ten 
 others, the earliest l)eiiig in 24 Ldw. I. The an- 
 vernment was vested in a self-elective bmiy, wm- 
 sisting of a mayor, 2 bailitfs, and 21 biiigesses, who 
 ho'' the privilege of returning 1 mem. to the II, df 
 C. The Reform Act divested them of this privi- 
 lege, and made Beaumaris the principal of 5 von- 
 tnbntory iMtrs., which jointly return 1 mem. in 
 the II. of C. The Ueaumaris district, coni]iriMn;' 
 Amlwch, Ilolvhead, and Llangefni had 617 n'nu- 
 tered electors in 18G4, the constituency luinnfiiniKil 
 by a few members of the old coqM)ratiiin niid l(i/. 
 householders. The ' influence ' is tliviiled hetwecu 
 the Alnrquis of Anglesey and the Stanley ami 
 Bulkelcy families, fhe coqioration revenues are 
 derived frf)m rents of lands, tenements, oyster- 
 beds, and harbour dues : they average about ajiii 
 The town derives its origin from Edw. 1., who, 
 after founding the castles of Caernarvon and C'uu- 
 way, built that of lieaumaris, in 1295. 
 
 BEAUMONT- DE-LOMAGNE, a town of 
 France, ddp. Tarn ct Garonne, cap. cant., on tlic 
 Gimone, 21m. SW^. Montauban. Pop. 4,670 iu 
 1801. This little town is alike remarkable by the 
 regularity of its plan, the neatness of its hunsnt, 
 and the beauty and fertility of its territory. It u 
 built round a spacious square, and its streets, which 
 are broad and straight, intersect each otlier at 
 right angles. It has fabrics of coarse cloth, Imta 
 and tanneries. 
 
 BEAUMONT-LE-VICOMTE, or IlEAU- 
 MONT-SUR-SARTHE, a town of France, dep. 
 Sarthe, cap. cant., on the Sarthc, 17 m. X. Mans. 
 Pop. 2,184 in 1861. It has manufactures of dnif;- 
 gets and other descriptions of woollen cloth ; and 
 has a considerable trade in com and fat f;w* 
 The town has a station on the line of railway fnim 
 Mans to Caen and Cherbourg. There is a line 
 promenatle on an adjoining hill. Beaumont, cither 
 singly or with some addition, is the name of ava.'^ 
 iuunl)cr of small towns in France. The mosf""'- 
 bidcrable is Beaumont suu Oisk, dqi. •*'"' '' 
 
K 
 
 cnrcd flW 
 init' III' till- 
 iiirin in tlu' 
 imi Striiii, 
 f ('iinwny, 
 ii>ul)i, mill 
 
 ni'kct t'tim- 
 'r|HHi|, unci 
 'd itiiU'c till' 
 I till' I'Htali- 
 iiit'iiliiiii viii 
 I'liiiiiiti's, nw 
 {> ))lari' (l- 
 ihitorn IVdin 
 \\\i, ill wllirli 
 'I'ticrc iiri' 
 ! firm ("imiln 
 icimilc. Irmii 
 iiiiiKiiili<'''iii 
 I tin- scat of 
 nci' iHMir tlic 
 nlH it : tlicri! 
 c iU'i;,'tilMiiir- 
 :iiwn nro ex- 
 ilic IllWIl Id 
 
 10 comnuiiids 
 
 thp limits of 
 i;(iiiHirisL' imly 
 iiriiiiiHl. Tilt,' 
 ixli, 1111(1 iiarii* 
 inlHiif 10 ni.: 
 re cimiicilliirm 
 ras urmitcil in 
 mpeximiiH, h'W 
 V. I. TliP !!"- 
 ivc ImhIv, wm- 
 biirncsscs, who 
 m, to till! ll.'if 
 1 (if tliis vrivi- 
 cipnl tif .") t'on- 
 ini I mi'iii. 1" 
 ict, coniiirisin;,' 
 liiul 517 ri'cis- 
 jylK'innftiniK'il 
 •ration tiiiil !*>'• 
 ivitli'il lietwecu 
 B Stniili'V and 
 n nivemit's atB 
 meiits, (lysti't- 
 ipc about iM 
 Eilw. I., wli'i. 
 irvon ami t'oii- 
 :'J6. 
 
 ;, a town ot 
 p. cant., on tlic 
 Pop. 4,.")70 in 
 larkable by tl.c 
 of its hottsw, 
 ^crritorj'. It w 
 [9 strct'tn, wliitli 
 each otlicr at 
 le clotli, liats 
 
 or BEAU- 
 Lf Trance, tliT- 
 ^7 m. N. Mans. 
 
 icturcsofilni!,'- 
 ilen cloth; ai'*' 
 land fat gM*«' 
 lof railway fwni 
 Irhcrc is a tine 
 leaumont,cithM 
 
 ■ name of a va?" 
 
 J The most"'"; 
 
 Ldqi. >-'«'"«" 
 
 T1K.\UNE 
 OW. 2! m. ^'- Purix, 011 tlio Nortbrrii of Krniiro 
 niilMiiv. I'op- -<'■'" '■■ i>**>\. It Miiiuli on It lilll, 
 and liiM );lai4M-wiirkM, itml 11 iiuiiiufm'lory of hiiIi- 
 
 KlIAI'Nl''. a town of I'Viiiirp. di'p, Coti^ d'Or, 
 1,111. lirnmil., in an aKri'i'iiliio country, at tlio fnul 
 (,( I'l hill wlih'li prodiu't'H oxi't'lli'iit wiiio, on tho 
 Miiaii rivii Hoiii^colsc, 'i(» ni. SS\V. Diioii. I'op. 
 Id.TI'.i ill l**''!' 'nn'fi' i'* a Mtiitioii on tli<> riiilway 
 iriiiii llijon to I.yon. Tim town is well liiiill ; 
 strrcti I'lroail. Nlriiljflit, and watornl liy llic I'oiiii- 
 nin ill- F.liii'tc, Tlif I'liiircli of Notre l)iiiiit' is 
 liiiidsomc: lint Ilic tincsl linildiiiK in the tmvn is 
 ilic in,'i;:iiill('<'nt hospital, funiidcd in I II I, and 
 (iidiirtidliy Nifliolas Itollin, cliaiit'cllor lo I'hilip 
 liukr of liiirtiondy. Iloniiiif is tin- scat of Iri- 
 liiii.iU of coiiiiiicn'o ami priiiiiiry iiirisdii'tion ; Idis 
 a ciiiiiniiiial college, ami n piildio lilir;irv uilli 
 alidve 1(1.11(1(1 volnnu'S. Its raiiipiirts, wliii'h arc 
 pliiiilfd. iilhird lim'lironioniidcs; and it lias an c\- 
 i,.ii,jv(' piililic pirdcn, pnliiic liivtlis. and a theatre. 
 It iiriiiliiei''* clotli. cutlery, leather, vim'f;ar, casks; 
 iiiid Ims dye-works and hiri^c nurseries of fruit 
 tnis. lint the principal cclelirily of ISeanne is 
 .irivdl friitn its liein;; the centric of ijie tradi' in 
 ihc wine that hears its name; that is, in the best 
 oi'ilu' second (growths of IhirKnndy. 
 
 jll'Al'NIvNA-KOLAN'DK. a town of Frnncp, 
 (li'|i. i.iiiret, cap. cant., Hi in. W. by N. Moiitaif^is. 
 I'np. ■.',M!l,"( in IHtil. 
 
 liKArrKI'-AlJ, a town of Franco, (h'p, JFaine 
 ft Leirc, cap. arroml., on the Kvrc, W ni. S\V. 
 Aii;.'('rs. I'op. .'l,Wt in IHtil. It has a court of 
 iiri'diuil jurisdiction, with dye-works and tanneries. 
 IiiIT!)') the Veiideans obtained, in the vicinity of 
 this town, a conijilete victory over the ropulilicaiis 
 under (ieiieral F.i^'onnior. 
 
 lil';\l'SSI'"T, a town of France, de'p. Vnr, can. 
 rant., !) m. N\V. Tonlon. I'op. ■>,'.)'.)■> in l«(ll. It 
 lias lid irics of hats and tiles, with tanneries, nj-chiss- 
 work, nnd a considerable trade in oil, wine, spirit.s, 
 juaji, mill coarse cbith and linen. 
 
 IIKAI'VAIS, a town of Franco, rap. (h'p. Oisc, 
 (in tlic Tlicrain, where it is joined by the Aveloii, 
 iiiavailov surrounded by wooded hills, i'i m. X. 
 liy W. I'afis ; hit, 4!»° 20' 7" N., loiiK. 'i" .V K., on a 
 liraiu'li line of the railway from Paris to lloiilo^nc. 
 rii|i, l.'v'Kil in IWil. This is a very luicicnt city, 
 andlms underf;oiie many vicissitudes. So late an 
 isn;) it was Hiirronmled by rani))art.4 and foss-'s, 
 but tliesc have been since partly levelled, ami <•. li- 
 vened into a^'reeable promeiiadv-s. It is ill built, 
 lliL' liiiiises consisting;, for the most jiart, of wood, 
 fkv, and mortar : the streets arc not narrow, nor 
 dirty, but they arc badly planned. Had the ca- 
 'k'liml been liiiished on it,s ori^final jilan, it wiaild 
 have been the linost (iothic cditicc in France, but 
 ihi' duiir (inly is complete. It coiitnins a tine nio- 
 minicnt of Cardinal de.lanson, bishop of IJeauvais. 
 Tlu' church of St. Ste|ihcn, erected in 5197, is cele- 
 hratpil fur its fine painted glass windows. The 
 (■|iisc'(ipal ])aliice, now the lifitel dc prefet, is very 
 lar^'ii ami ancient, and has the appearance of a 
 llidiii' castle. Previously to the licvolutioii there 
 niTc ill Heauviiis, besides the cathedral, (5 ccdlc- 
 fiiiic cliurchcs, 12 parish ditto, with (! convents 
 k men and 2 for women. Now, however, the 
 ciiiiveiits have ceased to exist ; and nil the churches, 
 savi! two, and two chapels of ease, have either 
 Iwn inilled down or applied to other purposes. 
 TliiMither public builiUngs are the college, theatre, 
 liiitd dc Diet!, with 40 beds, and an Imperial ma- 
 nufiu-tnry of tapestry. It is the seat of a bishopric, 
 ^f I'durts of prcmiire instance, and, besides the 
 i tiilli;;e lias u diocesan .seminary, witli 145 iiupils, 
 I pratnitdus courses of geometry and niccliaiiics aji- 
 \M to the arts, and a public library with 7,500 
 Vm,. I. 
 
 nncci.F..** 
 
 38A 
 
 vidnnios. ricnuvaii Iuh con^idorablo advantnges, 
 in the command of water-power, and in the cheap- 
 ness of turf fuel for the prosecution of niannfac- 
 liires; but Ihiiiigli those carried on in the town Ih> 
 considerable, they are not llourishing. The prin- 
 cipal is that of a sort of tlaiincl (molhtim) ; at 
 present, however, it is said to Im! in a retrograde 
 condition, owing to tlie want of capital and eiiter- 
 iirise in those engnged in it. A good deal of cloth 
 IS iiiadi^ of a medium (pialily. There is iiNo u 
 royal iiiannfaclory of tapestry, established in Hit'il; 
 but these cslablishinents are of little or no use, 
 except as works of art, their prodiiels being loo 
 dear to culm! into general deinaiid. 'I'lie fabrics 
 of printed cuttiiiis are innch fallen olf; but the art 
 
 of dyeing is still sii ssl'ully iiracii^ed, and there 
 
 aw extensive lilcai'b-tields. with llonr-niill'i, and 
 tanneries, T'he triiiU' of Ucanvais is e\teii>ive. 
 Large rpiantities of corn, and of linen, called ih'ini 
 lloll,iiiili\ inaniiliiclnred in its vicinity, aro dis- 
 posed of in its markets. 
 
 lieaiivais existed under the I'omans, and hiiH 
 since been held by the Noruiaus nnd \\w I'.nglish, 
 from the hitter of whom It was wrested in the l.'itb 
 cenlnry. In I 177 it was besieged by Charles llio 
 Ilidd, duke of Ihirgnndv, and thongli wilhont a 
 garrison, tlie citizens, led on by the famous heroine, 
 .leaniK! lliichette, repelled I luM'tiemy. An annual 
 festival is still cehdirated in hiinonr of this event. 
 
 HKAl VOIK, or ItKAl'VOl.S-SlIK-MKK, a 
 town of France, d('i). Vemh'c, cap. cant., opposite to 
 the Island of N'oirinulier, about .'( m. from the sea, 
 with which it is united bv a canal. Pop. 2,titti in 
 IMtil. Vessels of from sixty to eighty tons come 
 up to the town, to load with corn and salt, iiro- 
 diiced in the salt marshes in the vicinity, I'ho 
 sea, in ancient limes, came u|) to the walls of the 
 town. It was foniierlv fortitied, and had a castle, 
 which was besieged liy Henry IV. in l.'iHH, who 
 having fallen into an ambuscade, was involved in 
 the great(!st danger. 
 
 lil'X't'LKS, a bor., par., and town of Eiiglnnd, 
 NK. border, co, SntTolk, on the VVaveiiey, '.ti') m. 
 \K. London, 13 m. SK. Varinoiith, on the (ireat 
 Eastern railway, fonnerlv the I'^astern Ciamties. 
 Pop. 3,403 in i«2l; 4,(mi) in 1«41 ; nnd 4,220 in 
 IHtil. The towii is well built on the S. side of tlio 
 river, and consists of several streets, diverging 
 from n central area where the market is held. 
 The church, with a modern detached steeple, is 
 an ancient structure on the edge of u cliff, over- 
 looking the level pastures through which tho 
 Wavency flows. There are two dissenting chapels; 
 a free school, founded under .lames I., for 100 
 boys; a grammar-school, endowed in 1713, which 
 ha.s ten cxhib. to I'^mauiud (Ml., ("ambr. ; a na- 
 tional school; a new town-hall, theatre, and as- 
 sembly-rooms. The weekly-market is on Satur- 
 day, Annual fairs are held on Whit-Mondav, 
 .June 2'J, and Oct. 2; tho last being n horse fair. 
 There are no manufactures, but malting is carried 
 on to a considerable extent. The town has been 
 rendered accessible to vessels of 100 tons burden, 
 jiartly by deepening the river Wuvcney, anil 
 partly by tho aid of the NorAvich aud Lowestoft 
 navigation. It has, in consequence, some coasting 
 trade, in the importation of <Mials, timlicr, i^iic., ami 
 in the exportation of com and other pnxluce. Tho 
 shipping belonging to the trade is inconsiderable, 
 and IS includeil in that of Yarmouth, of which it 
 is reckoned an out-port. The railway from Ilcci'len 
 to llungay, opened March 2, 1803, has given in- 
 creased facilities of commercial intercourse. 
 
 Since the Municipal Reform Act tho limits of 
 the bor. have been contracted so as to include 
 only the part on which the town stands, an arcn 
 of 350 acres. It was previously co-cxtcnsivc with 
 
 #1 
 
 
nsn 
 
 nKDALR 
 
 the imriHil, iiml whh llrNt iiitoriMirnlcil in :Vt Ilcnry 
 
 VIII., when llci'clfM Km iiNiHiiiiK ol" l.|(Mi(i('ri'.>< 
 
 III' |iiiHiiirr, w;iM f^ritiilcil. Thi' mivcriiiiiic cliiirlfr 
 >viiH ^Tiinlt'it ill -J .liiiiii'M I, Tilt' priNiliv.'!' iif ilr- 
 |iM.''liiriii^ HliH'k im llic It'll I'xti'iiilN tucvfrv limim'- 
 lioldi'r; mill, til' Hki tiri^niuil K'"'!'' I"*' lU'riN ri'- 
 iiiiiiii iiimlit'iiiili'tl, 'I'liii oiriitirHliiiii iiInii iitmm'KK 
 nil I'Htnti', t'liiitMl till' lliiN|iiinl Hill, niid ii Ii'iihc hI' 
 the IiiIIh tif innrki'lH and I'liirit, in;; making; llif 
 nvcrnKo nmtuiiit nl' ilii-ir annual n'v*'iim> u|iwnriN 
 tif l,H(Mi/, Tlii'irliUNini'NM in trniiNiu'lt'tl in llii'lnwn- 
 liiill, wlicrn (|iinrtt'rly HCHHitniM fur tint iii'i{;hl)tiur- 
 liiHiil arc niKii licld Ity lli<> t'ii-niii;;iHtmti'M, 
 
 Ml'! DAM''., n nuirkt'l lnwn and piir. id' l''n;;liiiiil. 
 N. I{., t'ti. \'iirk, nil an alllni'iil of the Swalf, III ni. 
 N.NW. Viirk. Art-a III' |inr. 7,(170 atTi'M. I'ii|», id' 
 liiir, '2,Xi'M in IHiil ; til'tnwn, I,l.'i7. 'I'Iip Inun in 
 M't'll liiiilt, and tlii'clinrrli \h n lari^caiul lianditmnt' 
 I'dilii'c, t'liiiNtriii'li'il in llii- rfi^n nl' I'.ilward III. 
 'I'lit' livintf, wliirli in a ri'rlnry, is mu^ td' tin' lii'.tt 
 in llif I'liiinty, liaviii^ lii'i'ii wtirtli, at an avi'raM:i' 
 III' lilt' ilirt'o vj'arH I'lidiiiK willi IHitI, '.»,(mmi/. a ynir. 
 It liUH a ^'niininar-m'liiinl.and hoiiii' rliaritii'N. 'I'ln^ 
 t'tinnlry roinid in very I'ertilo, mid it htm u widl- 
 iiii|i|ilii'd niiirkct. 
 
 HKDAUIllL'X, ntiiwniif rrnncc, di<|). IFi'ranU, 
 lap. cant., nn tliu Orl), '.'(I ni. N. lU'/.itrs. I'mi. 
 !l,l)H7 in IHliI, It iH neat, and well linilt, and ih 
 imo III" llm must inilnxtrinns Iiiwiih ni' itn si/.ii in 
 1'Viini'i>, It IniH niannrai'tiiroH of lino and I'narsc 
 I'ltilli, III' Htnlt'N, III' Hilk anil wind, wtiollcn mid ont- 
 tiiii Hlti('kin(;.H, liatw, nil, jiapfr, anil Hna|i, with ilyct- 
 works and tminiTii'H. It liiui a utatinn nn tlio 
 liranrh linn nf railway rrnmCirniitHCHHao to lli'v.it'rH, 
 wliii'h I'liiinct^tHitwitli the gcnoral railway oystoni 
 of till' wnntry. 
 
 ItKDFOIil), an inland <>o. of Kn^land, having 
 N. and NW., Ilnntinplnn anil Niirthani]itiinsliir('M; 
 K., Iliintinf;iliin and Cmnhrid^'c ; S., llurtfnrd; 
 mill W., nnrkin^hain and Nnrlhainptnn. Ar.'n, 
 'i'.HiJ'H'i aiTCH, of which altniit 2."i<l,0(H) arc nnp- 
 ptiHi'd tn he arahlo, nicadiiw and piiMtnrc. Surface 
 divcrsilii'd with Inw liillsi, vallcyst, and cxtt'ii.sivc! 
 k'Vi'l traclH. On the S., the Chiltcm hills rise Iti 
 a coiisiili'ralilc elevnlioii. I'rincipal rivers, Oiise 
 mid Ivell. It has every variety nf snil, fmni the 
 utirt'i'st flay to the lif^htest sand. In the vale nf 
 Ucdl'iird, the snil is clayey ; the sandy snil is well 
 Hiiited fnr the tnmip hiislmnilry mul garden cul- 
 ture; mid, on the whole, the co. may lie said to he 
 nf aliiint an average degree nf fertility. It is 
 chietly under tillage, which is in a medium state 
 of iniiiroveincnt — iint so far advanced as in some 
 comities, nor so backward as in others. Wheat 
 mill heans arc the principal prndiice of the clays, 
 and tnriiips and Imrley of the saiitly soils. Large 
 qnaiitities of vegetables arc raised in various 
 places, for the supply of the markets of London 
 and Cambridge. Cuttle of a mixed breed. Stock 
 of sheep estimoteil at about 20(»,00(l. There are 
 some large estates ; but property is notwithstand- 
 ing a good deal HnbtUvidcd. Average size of farms, 
 150 acres ; average rent of land, in 1842-43, 
 '2.5/1 SjiJ. nn acre. I'lillers' earth is dug up in con- 
 Hiderable quantities in the vicinity of VVobuni. 
 Excellent straw platt for ladies' hats is made at 
 Dunstable: the manufacture of pillow lace, once 
 widely diffused through the country, has much 
 lU'clined, and there is no other mmiul'aeturc of any 
 impor'ai'ee. I'rincijial towns, Uedford, Higgles- 
 ■wade, Leighton-lUizzartl, and Luton. Bedford- 
 shire contains hundreds, and I'iit parishes ; and in 
 1H41 had 21,23.5 inliab. houses, and 107,930 inhabs. 
 The census returns of 1801 showed a moderate 
 increase of population, there being 27,41!) iiihab. 
 houses, and a jiop. of 135,2(15, of whom (i3,780 
 males and 71,485 females. The co. returns two 
 
 UKDFORD 
 
 momliers to the II, oti'. The cnniitilmiirv c,,,) 
 Misted, in 18)15, of I, "01 regisleri'd I li'ilnrt." ||,.,{ 
 I'linlMliiri' WHS part nf llie Siimhi kiii|.'diiin „( Mipi.) 
 Walling iSini't may be Iriii'i'd in tin' iliri'i'iimi ,1 
 the riiiili' I'mni l>ntl^lalllt' In Stratrunl. 
 
 Ili'iirtiiiii, a Imr. mid Inwii of I'.ngiiiiiil, rn|i. 1,,, 
 lli'dliird, nn ihi'diiM', 45 m. NNW, I.i>iiiIoii,imii|ii 
 Midland raihvuv. I'op. 5,|(i(i in |K'.'|; '(.ithjii 
 I8lt ; ll.litKI 111*1851 ; and I3,4l2in I8i;t. N,„„. 
 berof inhabitttl hnuses 2,:i07 in I85|,aiii| '.>,7,',| |„ 
 I8t'i|. The town is siliiati'd in a pleasinit vali'. en 
 iMith Hides the river, which is Mpanni'd liy n lijin,|. 
 snine llve-iirchi'd stone liridge, built in iMjo, || 
 foiiHists chit'lly of a wide strt'el, iM'twi'fii | mul •> 
 in. long, inlersei'led by several sinalliT sirii'i. »i 
 right angles. The hniises on the S. nIiIc i,f iI,,. 
 river are handsonie niodern Ntriii'tiiri's; ihv ri".i, 
 an inlerinixtitre of ancient and innderii, Imt ninsilv 
 well built and neat; the wlinit' is paved, li^'litdl 
 by gas, anil anijily siipiiried with wairr. 'TIkiv 
 are live churi'lii's : St. I'eter's, the niimt iiiKiint, 
 has a Nnrinan porch and a line tower; Si. .IhIhm, 
 St. Mary's, and St. I'anl's, are all in the t^iihi,. 
 style, with good towers. The lliiptists, Iiiili'|iiii- 
 denls, Wesleyans, .lews, and Mnravian-i, liavcini h 
 places of worshiii ; the last have also a rcni'ili' 
 eslablishinent. Then' is a lloiirisliing graiimnir- 
 schonl, I'onnded in 1551!, which edncatt's lii'hvdn 
 70 and 80 of the town boys Iree; and alHuil tln' 
 same number who board with tin? Iicul niii;-tir. 
 and jiay : it has 8 exiiib., of 80/. a year carli, h\ 
 Oxfonl, Cambridge, and Dublin: nimllu'r (nv 
 school, founded in 1727, for 10 boys and IllprU; 
 and a bine-coat school, founded in I7ii0, fnrclinli- 
 ing and educating 25 boys: this last is now iiiiiicl 
 with the national sidiiml, but the einliminciii in 
 kept distinct. The charitii's, cnnipareil wiili ilu' 
 si/.e of the town, exceed in nmoiint tlidse nf iiny 
 other in the kingdom. The prini'i|Hil oliiiritycmi- 
 sists of iiroperty in Itedford and Lniiiliiii, li'I't liy 
 Sir William llnrpiir, who was born in llie liiniuT, 
 and became lord mayor of the latter. Tlio Irii*- 
 teesare — the Inrd-lieiit. ; the ineniliers fur llu' ru. 
 mid the bur. ; the lirst and second niiisters nf the 
 graminar-school ; eighteen jiersnns elmseii by ilu' 
 inhahilants of liedfnrd; and the ciir|iiiriitinn; llic 
 last being, hi fact, virtually its niaiiaj;iTs. Tim 
 revenue is distriliuted amongst the free graniniiir, 
 Knglish, national, and conimereinl sclmnls ; .'iS 
 almshouses; and in marriage porliniis, a|i|iri'iitiri' 
 fees, ])remiunis, and donations anmngst tlii' |<ii<ir, 
 Besides this, the |irinci|ial charity, there istliclui!'- 
 pital of St. Jtdin, founded in the reign of Kilwarl 
 IL, for n master and 10 poor brethren ; anil n 
 nlnishonses, endowed in lfi71t, for ilecayoil siii^'li' 
 folks of eitlier sex. There is a sessicnis-liniiM', a 
 theatre, and a imblic hlirary ; reading, Icitiin', 
 billiard, mid asseinbly-rooins, all in one liaiulsuiiit 
 structure, recently built. There is also 11 new 
 building in the 'J'udor style, erected by tiie trus- 
 tees of the Hedford chaiity, with niiinis t'nr the 
 Knglish and national schools. The co. gnnl nml 
 house of correction are at the N. entraiu'c tn iln' 
 town. The co. lunatic asylum, and tlic en. iinir- 1 
 mary, are also near the town, on the Amptliill 
 road : the infirmary, a large line biiildiiif,', «:w | 
 erected ui 1833, chi'eflv from funds hoqiicatlicil liy 
 the late Samuel Whitbrcad, Ksq. ; hut tlic Mar- 
 quis of Tavistock subscribed 2,000/. townnls iis I 
 completion. The penitentiary (a large cstnli.) mi I 
 the Kettering road. The chii'f market is lidil "" 
 Saturday : the weekly sale of wheat averages almiii 
 (iOO quarters. There is a smaller ninrket nn JI""- 1 
 day, chiellv for pigs. Annual fairs arc lidil lir-t j 
 Tuesday in Lent, April 21, July 5, Aug. '21. 'W; I 
 12, Nov. 17, and Dec. 19. That in (Vt. iMal •! 
 the statute fair, ami is the most iuiiMirtJiiit : ilitl 
 
IIKDI'OIM) \.\:\'V.\. 
 
 S87 
 
 mil, rn|i. ru. 
 
 iiiliiii.iniilii 
 .'I: '.MThiii 
 H'.l. Niim 
 mill '.*,7.°il in 
 tant \:ili'. nn 
 
 I liv II limiil 
 in'lHjit. It 
 
 W'I't'M I »l|i| i 
 ilcr It reel -i ill 
 "<, hiilr iif llif 
 res; I lie rr>t, 
 11. Iiiit niii>tlv 
 
 lllVCll, li^'lltl'.l 
 
 ^viilcr. 'I'liiri' 
 liiiist Hiiiii'iil, 
 ■r ; Si. .Iiilin's 
 
 III the dnllii,'. 
 
 tUts. liiili'imi- 
 illii", Imvri'iirh 
 iiIhii II I'i'iii.'ilr 
 iiiK i;riiinin;ir- 
 
 liUltt'S lii'twirll 
 
 mill iiliiiiit till' 
 I' Ih'iiiI inii-lir, 
 
 II yt'iir fiii'li. t'l 
 ; 'miiitluT trir 
 ,-n mill l(it;irl»: 
 
 17(10, fur I'liiili- 
 St is iiiiw unitiil 
 ;! i'iiili>\viiii'iil ii 
 iimrcti witli till- 
 lit tlmsc 111' iiiiy 
 i|Hil cliiirity cim- 
 LiihiIdii. li'lt liy 
 •11 ill till' fiinuir, 
 ittor. Till' iru"- 
 
 iilicru fur 111'' 
 
 .(I iiinstcrs of llii' 
 
 [is I'lioscn liy till' 
 
 Icdiiioraliim; llif 
 
 iimiiaj^i'r^. 'll«' 
 
 |i(" IVci^ (,'riinimiir, 
 
 rial .st'lmiili* '• ;'''* 
 
 ■tiiiiiH, aiiiiri'iitiii' 
 
 lUdiiH^I till' l"«'r. 
 
 tlii'rt'isllii'li'"- 
 
 ri'iniidf Kilwiif'l 
 
 lircthri'ii •, mill * 
 
 [t lU'i'iiyeil siii«li' 
 
 si'ssiiais-liiiii>i'>'' 
 
 reaiUnn. ''''''""'' 
 
 |iu oiu' liaiulsi'iiii' 
 
 is also n •"* 
 
 Iteil Ity tlietnis- 
 
 h riio'ms lor ilif 
 
 "he I'o. Ri*"' "'"' 
 .. entraiu'PtdilicI 
 
 ind the en. inW; ' 
 (in tlie Anil'ilii" 
 ic ImililiiiK. ^'"* I 
 Is lionueatliiil I'V 
 1. ; Imt tlic Miir- 
 
 100/. towaril* iis 
 
 , larpo cstftli.) I'll 
 iiarkctislioM"" 
 
 at avi'riiKWi*""' I 
 \ niarUi't on M""" 
 
 lirs arelieW'f' 
 
 .^, Alls. .21. ';^': 
 
 ,in Oi't.i^'*' 
 t iiniHTtnni'''"' 
 
 i,tlii'r« nro ralili' fairH. TIicOiiko Isiimn 1),'iiIiI(' frntii ' 
 l„,„'i' til I. Mill Itrui^- oiiil <i niii^iilcr'ilili' irallli' is i 
 i.irri'il "I' )>*'l^vri'li tlic Utn Iiinmii«. cliiilly In iiiiill, I 
 ivils liiiilx'r. ami iron. I.ticr niakiiiK' loi'iin'rlv 
 ,,„|,|,,\('il a UTiiit iiiaiiv i<( llic wiiiiii'ii iiml rliil ^ 
 iln II, niiil «<>^>' Mlra\v-|iliilliti^. 'I'licrt' iiri' im olln'r 
 iii.iiiiifaitiiri"*. Till' li'wii has Kf'*' I'iK'ililii''' fur 
 iMilf. '»'">{ "'" ''"' <'r<'SHiiij{ iif iwii frrnit liiii'suf 
 nilniiv, till' Miillaiiil, ami ii liraiii'li iif tlii' ^rrat ; 
 |,,,iii|(iii ami Nnrlli Wcslrrii liiir, Tlir Imr. is 
 (iii\lrii''ivi' with lln' live iiarir-lii's nf Sts. I'drr. 
 I'liiil, Ciii'iln'rl, iMiiry, ami .lolin; tlic ana nf tlio 
 vhiili' i* ■' "' ' in'ri's, (111' Inwii ln'iii;i in ilir iiiii|>l, 
 >tiili a fi'iiili' I'll' "I laiiil all t'liiiml. It is ili\ iilcil 
 liiid two warils, ami pivmii'il liy ii mayor, six 
 iiMiniii'ii. ikkI >'i;;liii'i'ii coiim'iMoi's. Tli<< aiiiiiial 
 rivi'iiiii' of llx' *'i'rp<<r'iiii>ii, ilrrlvi'il from lainlsaml j 
 
 h.iiiTi in tli<' lior.,aiMoiiiits lo al ( l,,'i(io/. a yi'ar. 
 
 Tliiro arc local I'oiirls of (icily ami i|uiirlir sessions, 
 ,111,1 of picas. The I'D. Hcssioiis ami ussi/.cs arc also | 
 ii,il ill (he town. 
 
 liiilcrilic I'oor I,nw Ainciultncnt .\ct llcilford 
 i< till' union town for 11 ii,'iri>lics. It is rc|in'- 
 M'liii'il in llic union liy six ^'iiiiiiliaiis. The liur. 
 Ii:i<ri'liirnci| two incnilicrs lo ilie II. of ('.since (he 
 '.':> r.ilw. I. I'rcvionsly to the llefurm Act lliev 
 «Yiv ciccleil hv the liiir(,'csses ami frccincn, liotii 
 liiiiiii's ciilisistniK of an imiellnite iiimilier. Ill 
 |f*i'i|, the coiistitnem y eonsisicil of '.IM('> ri'Kislereil 
 I'li'i'tors, of whom IH remaining 'olil freemen,' 
 mill '.'10 'iMit-walhi|i('rs.' Iteilford is also tin; 
 |iriiiriiinl iMiIlinf; town of the co. A strong; cnstle 
 »ni liiiilt here soon after the ('oiu|iiest, which in 
 siiliwqiieiit reijrim eiidiireil many Hie;;es; [mrt of 
 its ('iitreiichmeiits may still he traced, •lohii 
 liiinynn was im|irisoiicd in lledford f^nol from 
 |i;riii till KiT'i; and in it he wrote the lirst |iortioii 
 (if till' I'iltjrim'H y'm/rci.v. lie siiliseimelilly coii- 
 liiiiii'il, for the most part, to reside in the town 
 till Ills demise in IIISW. The K'lissell family 
 iliiivc tlii'ir title of duke from the town. 
 
 Ili;i)I''Ol{|) I-KVI'.L, a distr. on the K, coast of 
 
 Kii^'liiiiil. comiirisin^ the ^{renter jtortion of a Hat 
 
 miirsliy tract, called the Fens, which (extends into 
 
 MXi'iiiintii's, and is huiinded on the NK. hy that 
 
 ;wit iiili't of thetiennaii Ocean, known as the 
 
 Wash; niid in all other directions hy ranges of 
 
 iiillslliat enclose it in the form of an ellipse. It 
 
 iiuliiili's alioiit -liVVlOO acres of this fen country, 
 
 niiii I'xteiuls N, and S., from Tydd .St. (iiles to 
 
 Miltim, ;!il ni. ; and from l'eterlioroiif;li to nrandoii, 
 
 ill nil v.. and W. direction, '10 m. Its houndaries 
 
 an'ifft'Kiilar; hut, conimenein;; from l'eterl)oroii;;h 
 
 iinrtiiiTly, the line extends hy I'eakirk, (.'rowlaiid, 
 
 \Vliii|iliiile I )rove, I'arsoii Drove, (iiiyhirii, .Salter's 
 
 LkIi'. anil Methwold, to Hranilon ; and thence, on 
 
 llii'S, side, hy Mildenhall, Milton, l'',arith, K'am- 
 
 siy, Wmid VValtoii, and Va.xley, to I'eterhoroiigh, 
 
 This com|irises the whole Isle of Kly (the N. 
 
 liiv, of Cainhridfjesliire), and n few parishes in 
 
 the S, ilivisioii of that coiiiitv; ilO,(H)() acres of 
 
 Siitfolk; G;t,000 of Norfolk; i")'7,000 of lliintiiif,'- 
 
 il"ii; between 7,000 and 8,0110 of Norlhamptoii- 
 
 >!iiri'; anil the 8K. )iortion of Lincolnshire. 
 
 'ihc wliiile tract aiipears to have heen gra- 
 
 iblly formed, hy .sedimentary de])ositioiis, in 
 
 an iiili'l of the ocean, brought thither by the 
 
 tiihl I'lirronts, from the dthria of the coast, and 
 
 I'v torrents from the surrounding ii]ilan(ls. I'Mglit 
 
 jiriiuiiinl rivers, or drains, originally traversed the 
 
 Wl, three of which had their outfalls in tliS 
 
 w; the Welland, in Foss Uyke Wash; the 
 
 W. in the Sutton Wash Way'; and the Oiise, 
 
 «i Lyiiii iJegis : of the rest, the (Men joined the 
 
 Wiiliiiiil, near its (uilfall; the Wislieiich was a 
 
 Iwmh of the Nciie ; the Cam, the Larke, and 
 
 il'tlilllo OiiHe, fell into the tJreat Ouse on its K. 
 
 side. The Uotnnns ap|M>ar to have Iweii Ilie tlrst 
 who formed sea ciiiliaiiUnii'iiis, and shut out the 
 liile: Kiili^cipieiitly to wlilili, \'«r a prolonged 
 jMriod, it was a >cry fertile and po|iiiliius iriici. 
 The outfalls of the streams, and the depths of 
 their chiniiieN, ri'inained ailei|iiale to carry oD' 
 the sii|H'rthioiis water, iiml elVeci a pro|H'r drainage, 
 allhoiigh it is a well ascertained lact lliat the 
 average lc\el of the surface was fonnerly M'\eral 
 feel lower than at present (at Spalding liiid Wis- 
 lieacli not less iliaii lo l'l„ ami at rctcrhorougli 
 .") (t,). The mots of large trees, grass lying ill 
 swathes, as when tlrnt inoweij, hoals, and shoes of 
 a palleni wiirii in Iticlianl II. 's nigii, have been 
 discovered in \iirioiis places al the depth of several 
 feet iiuiler silt or peal. Al the M tting down of 
 Skirbeck sluice, near llosloii, a blacksniilirs shop 
 was fiiiind nmler 10 ft. of silt. These changes, 
 iherct'ore, were occiniolied by the continued 
 operalion of the siinie causes to which the for- 
 mation of the district is originally allribniable, 
 and which are still in ccmsiIcss action on the 
 coast, liy shntliiig out the tide also, its seoiiriiig 
 actiiiii would be greatly limited; and, eoiise- 
 ipiinlly, the channels and outfalls of ilie streams 
 would silt up and eonirael more rapidly, iinlesH 
 prevented by some artilicial means. 'I'his pro- 
 cess, however. Would be gradual; and. down ti» 
 the time of .Stephen, we Iiml the district round 
 'i'horney described bv Henry of llinitingiloii as 
 most hcaiilifiil and lertile; whilst at the period 
 when Francis, I'.arl of lledford, and his coadjutors, 
 undertook the drainage of the great level that 
 is named from him, (his tract, comprising |N,l)ilO 
 acres, was an iniindaled morass, with the e.xce|)- 
 tioii of a small hillock on which the abbey stood. 
 As early, however, as the reigii of I-'.dward 1., the 
 silling up of the rivers, and the want of tiilei|iiate 
 drainage, had become an evil of great magiiitiiite ; 
 and as a large projiortiou of the fens ilieii be- 
 longed to rich religious establishments.they made 
 many vigorous etforls to obviate the increasing 
 evil. Hilt it was not till the era of Fli/.abetli 
 that the drainage of the fens was viewed in its 
 true light, that of an important national eoncern ; 
 and an act was passed for elVecting it in the I Itli 
 of her reign. In conse(|ueiieeof Iheiiueen's death, 
 nothing was attempted till Kill t, when a charter 
 was granted by Charles I. to Francis, l'!.arl of lled- 
 ford (who had succeeded to the propiTty of T'horiiey 
 Abbey), and III other adventurers, who iiiiderlook 
 to drain the level, on condition of being allowed 
 l).1,000 acres of the reclaimed land: this was par- 
 tially accomplished within three years, at the 
 cost of 100,000/. T"he ]trineipal cuts then made 
 were, the Old lledford Ifiver, (1 in. long, ao ft. 
 wide: .Sam's (.Jut, of the same length and size; 
 Itevil's Loam, 10 in. hiiig, and '10 ft, wide; and 
 I'eakirk I)raiii, of the same length, mid 17 ft. 
 wide. The old drains were also rejiaircd anil 
 enlarged, and four sluices fonneil to keep out the 
 tide : two at Tidd, one at Wisbeaeh, and one at 
 Salter's Lode. After all these works had U'cii 
 accomplished, at so great a cost, by the eor|)ora- 
 tion, the contract was set asule, at the instiga- 
 tion of government, under the pk'a of the drains 
 being inadequate. An offer was then made by 
 the king to undertake the drainage of the fens, 
 on being allowed ir)2,000 aeres, which was 57,000 
 more than were to have been allotted to the cor- 
 poration for ett'ecting it. This disgraceful attempt 
 to swindle the latter out of the advantjiges likely 
 to resnlt from their outlay and exertions was, 
 however, defeated by the national disturbances 
 that .shortly after broke out. Hut the neglect 
 conseipient on the distracted state of the country 
 rendered what had been effected in a great measure 
 
 c c 2 
 
 -J 3 
 
nAR 
 
 UEOFonr) T,Evr:L 
 
 iixi'lcKH, »<) llial till- ilUtrit't rrtiiiiiiinl n wnxtc, till 
 Hilt), wlii'ii Willliiiii, r.iirl i>( llnll'oni, Imil all 
 hin riilhrr't ri^'hlN rc-lori'il liy tlir ('niivi'iiiiini 
 
 iiiirliiiliiriil : iiiiolln'r rO'iirl miik lliril iniuli', iimlir 
 iIh illrnlioii-, iMiil at llii< rii«t nl' .100,000/. tlit' 
 ■■rJKitiiil iiilvciiiiiriTK wcrf cniililt'il to I'liiini tlirlr 
 !).'>,ooo lurrH, 'till' |>riiic'i|>iil <iit liinl iiiinli' miik 
 that of till- Ni'w Ili'ilt'onI rivrr, joo it, \tii|f, n 
 hlmrt tllManro IVntn, ami niiiiiinK nearly purallt'l 
 Willi, till' old mil'. Ill lllliH n ('orpiiriilioti was 
 « "faliliHliccI liy an lU-t (I'l ('. II. <•. I"), tn prnviilr 
 lor till' iiiiiiiiti'iiani'i' ami rcoair nt' the worlvM, ami 
 to levy iiNM'Hnim'iitH III! lilt' |iri)|irii'tiir>< tor llic 
 MiiU'< iii'ct'HMiry lo (IcCriiy llir <'X|irii'>("<. 'I'lu' vnt- 
 |i<iriiiiiiii I'diixiMtHiil' M «ii\('riiiir, tJ ImiliirK, '.'0 cnMHcr- 
 \aliirH, mill ii I'liiiiiiiniiiilly, t'iiii«i>liii^ nl' all who 
 piwwMH loo ami wjlliiii llir li'M'l, Till' rmiHir 
 valiirs arc ri'i|iilr('il to liitvc '.'oo, tlic liullilVM ami 
 HoMTiiiir loo each; the (illlrrri arc eleili'd 
 nuiiiially. Several KiiliMei|m'lit ails havi- lieeii 
 |la^.■<ell to explain, alter, ami aiiienil llie iiri(;liial 
 one; hill ilM main lUilliiieH have lieeii |iri .•,i'r\ei|, 
 nml I'onliiiiie In ruriil llie liaMiM nl' the piverilllielit 
 III' llie Ken, III lli!)7 the level >va-< iliviileil illtii 
 three parlM — the N., Miilille, ami S. leveli*; the 
 tlr>t I'liinpriseM the lamU helweeii the WellamI 
 ami the Nene; the xeeiiinl, those lielweeii the 
 Ni'lie ami Ohl lleiU'ord rivent; the lliiril exleiuls 
 Ironi Oil! Iteill'iiril river to the Noiitherii liniilH, 
 
 in IT'.l.'i, an ael piihxeil fur iin|iriiviii^ the oiitrall 
 of the Oiise, anil for niiikin^' a eiil I'miii I'.aiiliriiik 
 tn l.yilli ; iIiIh was not ell'eeleil till IN-JO, ami Iuim 
 proveil lil|{hly lienelieial. To eninnerale the 
 variiiiiN K'lils ami ilraiiiH that have heeii inaile al 
 varinlix times wmilil he teilimis nml iiseleN'', The 
 water, ill the rivers ami f;reut iirlilirial enis, is 
 imislly ahovo the level nt' the laiiils lliey piiss 
 thi'niiK'h, ami is ennliiieil hv eiiihankim'iits ; the 
 valer, Ihereliire, enlleeleil in llie similler laml- 
 tlraiiis anil ililehes, has to he lifleil into these 
 main ehannels hv |iiiinps, whicli are mnslly 
 wnrkeil liy wimlnnlls, lint in a few instaiires hy 
 hleain-en>,'iiU's. The must n cent, nml by far the 
 innst ellii'ieiit, iniprnvcnient llinl has heen iimile 
 in the ilrninn^e ami iiavif;iilinn nt' the Fens, has 
 lieeii ueeninplished under nets )inssei| in \H->7 nml 
 IH"J!I, M'nr improving the niitCnIl nf the Nene; 
 fnr draining the lands whieli diMclinr^e tlieir 
 wnters into the VVisheach river ; and for ini)iri)vin)r 
 the navinntion of tliut river, from Kimlerslcv cut 
 to the sea; nml einlinnkin^ the snlt innrshes. A 
 new tidal ehnniipl was eul for the disi'harjjo of 
 the Nene: this hejjinsahoni 11 m. helnw VVisheneli, 
 mill extends to Craliholo (l!^ ni.) ; thenee the 
 river has shuped fnr itself a natural ehnnnel (I A m. 
 in leii^;lli) to the Wash. The surface width of 
 the new eul varies frnm '200 to IlOO ft.; ils dejith, 
 from the surfnce nf the ndineeiit hind to tlio hed 
 of the stream, is '2-1 ft. tliroU(;hnut : the spriiiir 
 tides rise about 2'2 ft. nt the end nearest the sea, 
 and IH ft. where it joins Kindersley cut. A 
 liriilfie lins heen thrown over this channel at Sut- 
 ton Wnsli, H in, below Wishcach, and an cmbunk- 
 nient made across the snnds, fonniii}; a new nnd 
 safe line of road between Xorfolk nnd Lincoln- 
 shire. ]?et.wccn 7,000 nnd K,()00 ncres of mursli 
 have been reclnimcd from the sea, and broufjht 
 to n eiillivnted stnte by these ojierations. An un- 
 iiitemiittfd commiiniention with the sea from 
 ■\Visheneli (the emporium of n larj^e ilistrict) has 
 been ett'ccted for small vessels at all times of 
 tide, and in nnv weather; and at springs, fur 
 large vessels; where, previously, those drawing 
 G ft. cnuld only rencli with a spring tide nnd 
 favourable wind. IJut the most important result 
 is the improved drainage that has been etTected, 
 Jii this new channel the tide ebbs nearly 10 ft. 
 
 UHEDKU 
 
 lower than in the old one, lininedin'ely npfWMii^ 
 llie S. Ilolbiml and N. Level nIiiIii n, hIii.Ii „,, 
 
 ll iiiIi'Im fnr ihe water of iiIhmiI Ioo.oimi „,,.,, , j- 
 
 I'eii laiiil. A new loitiii drain ami aluire hiii> lu,|, 
 funned, lo take till' priijH'r advaiila^i- nl'ilil.; „,, | 
 alMo several loimir driiios. The Ni lU' lutlali ^.,, 
 
 llniHhed ill \h:\:>, a! a iukI nf -JIMSOIHI/, Tlir.lriili, 
 agi- of the N. Level, iimler an lul nhlnim,! m 
 |n:II), eiml l.'iO.OIlO/. Knlhiwiiig Ihe exaiii|i|,' „| 1 1, 
 aneeNlnrs, ihe lliiki' nf lledfiird liiis I,,, n |i., 
 chief Hiippnrler nf hiith lliiiHe iiiiili'rlakiii|{<., wlil, h 
 have ri oilerid piiioplog, liihir by wind nr ttiiini, 
 iiiiiieri'Nsnry in Ihe N. I.evil; and priivcil, ii,,! 
 hy due skill ami exerliiiii, all Ihe wnliTs i.f ||, 
 iio|Mirtiiiil tract niiglil have an ad<'i|iitiii' im 
 
 ; full crcali'd fnr Ihi'lll, The wale nf tin' |i,rin> 
 
 I liii';d prndme nf Ihe di.'<lrii'l bus lucn , ■ 
 
 ! ftlcililall'd bv III)' enllslrilclinu nf si'Virii! in. i 
 
 i riiihvay. Tlie Iniigcht nf ihise, llir Ii,„ i,-,,,,, 
 
 j l'elirbnriill(;ll lo Iln>tn|l, vvllli a lirailrll In S|.iu,|. 
 
 iiig. was made by llic Ureal Nnrilirrii I'luiij ,,,,, 
 ai'iiiig under parlianuniary powers niiiiniii'il In 
 |N|M. A new line nf railway, right a('ri«i \\„. 
 Itidfnrd Level, fmin I'elrrbnrniigh I I riiDrihv, 
 \\'islii'acli and Siillnii, was niiemd in IMII,'), 
 
 ltl'!l>NOltl''., a tnw'ii nf llimliistiiii, cnii, nf n 
 iliBtricl of Mysnre. lat. 1:1° nO' N. ; Iniig. -:fity |- . 
 loO m. SW'. .Seringiipaiam, IH'iO in. \VN\V. Mn 
 dras. It is siliialeil nil niie nf the IickI mai^ in 
 the \Y, (iliaiits, which leads finiii Miiii;.'ii|..r.., 
 When llyder Ali Innk it in I'l'^I, it w i" »iilil i,i 
 be H III. in eire. : it ntVnnled him ciiiii.iiiiti.'Ii|i' 
 pinmler. In \~M it was taken by tlie l'.ii;;li<|i; 
 iiiit in Ihe fnllnwiog vear the trmips in |Kih!<i'>'M»M 
 were eilher ilolmyeil or dislodgid by Tippno. .\i, 
 bis death it had but l.oOO hiiii>ics; hiiiiii' nildiiii.ni 
 have, however, been made to it since. lt,s trmlu 
 is increasing, but it has no maiiufactnrcs, 
 
 IIKDWIN (lilti;AT),a b.,r. and par. of !■ i:;'- 
 land, CO. Wilts, liiiml. Kimhvardstniii', iM m. W 
 bv S. Lniidnii. Area nf par. I0,l'2(l acrcH. I'u],. 
 par. •2,l'.l| in \K\\, and •2,'2(;;t in IWil. Tlio {m , 
 which is <dd, stands nil an elevati'd site, mi a 
 chalky wiil. Its church exhibits spci iimns di 
 the style nf variniis eras (frnin Ihe Nnriniiii tn 
 Henry \'lll.),aml is a erucifnrm structiiri', i\lilia 
 liiU! embattled tnwer riHing from the iiitirsi'iiimi, 
 The market-place is in the principal slrecl ; liiit llic 
 market litis long been disused. Fairs arc licli!, 
 April '2!l, and July '2(i. The place is in the jiiri>- 
 diction of Ihe county niagistrntes, heiii:,' merely ;i 
 nominal Imrongli, with a portreeve, luiilitlii, Ac, 
 elected at the manor court leet. It sent Iwu iiniii, 
 to the imrliainents of Kdwnrd L; Ihcnei', wiili 
 some interruptinns. to nine Henry V., and tlii'iiii', 
 cniitinuniisly, till ihe li'efnnn Ai-I, liy wiiiili It 
 was disfranchised. There is a lliw^ relic nf Siivmi 
 earth-wnrk, called Chisbiry CaMle, iiliimt n iiillo 
 N !•;. nf f he tnwii ; it encloi es an area nfaliiuil lirtcm 
 ncres. Snme Komnn remains l-.ave also lici'ii fmiDil 
 abnut half u mile SW. of the li>wii. Dcilwiii Imsa 
 station on the Hnngerford hrjiii. Ii of the (iruit 
 Western railway, nnd the Kennel and Avmi t'lui.il 
 pnsses through the ]iurish, and furnislii's oitil.-. 
 riie living is n vicnrnge, wiili the cliapel uf I'-i-t | 
 Grafton annexed. 
 
 liKKDKIi, a considerable prov. of Himlnstan; | 
 pnrt of the Deccan ; chielK between lat. l'°iiiiil 
 20° N., having N. AurungaOnd nnd lieriir; K. Ily- 
 dernbad and Gundwana ; S. Ilyderalmd, and W. 
 Hejapnor and Aurungal d: it is incliiilcil inilit| 
 nizum's doinin., and di\ .;!ed into sevwi ili.«trirt;; 
 viz. Calberga, Naldn-ig, Akulcnttn, ('alli.niy, 
 lleeder, Nuiidere. nnd I'atiec. It is hillv liiitH'i I 
 mountainous, nnd watered by many riven, "f I 
 which the Manjern .'nid Godnvery are the clii 
 nnd is genernlly fcrtl.L'. It is but thinly inlmbiicil. j 
 
 III' IlimliHM I 
 
 (..Hill'.' Iii'lnr 
 
 ,. iii|i.iriinM'b 
 iWiiuii, ,Maf 
 iliK |>r<iv.,nm 
 I, liiTi' ill llic I 
 i:,.'.lir. The 
 
 ;,II.T III!' .Mllhl 
 luri' xiiImi'iiiii 
 
 lixi'il ill Ik'i'di' 
 .(iiiri'il it at tl 
 I idy ill tliu 
 i',l»iiy» hw'ii II 
 liillc'r, 
 
 Ilm OKii, A r 
 irnv., Ill lat. I 
 MV. l/yderabi 
 Miiiln ill an o| 
 
 ; ri<lc nil grnll 
 
 liy a niipiii' wal 
 
 lire iliii'li ; has 
 
 mill WHS frirnicrl 
 
 IIKI'lf AI,.S| 
 
 lllinl. Itiilinrnllg 
 I.iOhIkII, I'np, 
 
 XxM iii'ri'H. Tl 
 liivyiiiid Taniai 
 N'lil (iiir (graiili 
 
 Kihlllllll'll. Silv 
 rri,'ll nf Kllw. I 
 
 I'Hr,-. wlini jrnpn 
 liny are imw ills 
 |in<iri|Kinn, hut 
 r.lill llie reign 
 ttiri' rcgiilarlv i 
 I.VIunn Act, fiy 
 ilii' iiiii'ii'iit chi'in 
 I'fllipnjil tiiinilie: 
 llliKKIIIIIlO.^ 
 I.linliif liernes), a 
 rliiellvliclwceii l/i 
 i">^ u'imI hho |.;. ; 
 |"iri'; K. iMnnrshe 
 iiii'l the Jungle A 
 ''."ril (<f|. tn. I'll 
 .Miu'hiifit is hill, 
 iiiliiiliited ; there'. 
 illljH'lll'H its ciilti\ 
 
 mill liridgi's r.re k 
 '■|||ivii'is,andiis 
 •li««l dial und !r 
 ""rki'il ia niitncn 
 M I'riitn exteiisi 
 |>irt,iiit prndncisni 
 't'jeiiiio in the , 
 liif,'liway ilepredal 
 ''('■["'".vliillehii 
 "'' llic judicial es 
 I'llitrtliit'f inwtiH 
 |>ir,'. 
 
 "I'^KIM.'Klif.S, 
 
 ni'irliet town nf 
 
 Miiii' ii.'llnc. I'np 
 
 [M. The Inwi ' 
 
 I'l'lil'i', 7 in. XW 
 
 '■'""■''It, with some 
 
 Wi| on \ViMiilhiirv 
 
 !"«iii>fi|ays, ii.ioirt 
 
 I'li'iL'"'". fnr the SI 
 
 tiill very CDiisidera 
 
 l!i;i';S (,ST.) Ill 
 
 iwniiBit weslerh 
 
 'il»'iit 3 in. S\V. \V 
 
 l""K' 30 37' 21" \\ 
 
 j"«li, rocky din's; , 
 
 ''""*• oxiiihiiin.r, I 
 
 Mvaied m ft. nbo 
 
 ke 
 
 \ 
 
 si 
 
 1 
 
 p 
 
IMIII H,Tl. ,( 
 I'C llUi> Ih'i II 
 lll'tllia', nil I 
 
 liiiHall v«i\i> 
 
 'riii'ilnuii 
 
 iililiilni'il III 
 
 :iiiii|ili' ot'liii 
 
 ll» Ix'UI llr 
 
 Uinux, wilt, h 
 illil nr itli'iiiii, 
 |iriiV('ll, lli:ii 
 
 uitrrs i.r III 
 llt'lllllltl- <lll, 
 I lie Hi^rlni.- 
 Iici'li ;i;ri'illl,' 
 
 rviriil liin-« "( 
 lit' lUio Ifiim 
 null til S|>nU- 
 urn nun) 1,1., 
 rn Kiiliiiiii'il hi 
 ;lil iicn** till' 
 I I I I'lKiriuy, 
 ill l^t'i'i. 
 ■iliiii, I'nii. iif II 
 l..ii(.'.7:.«>r. T..; 
 11. WNW. Ml 
 
 !• llCht rillllU il! 
 
 Hill Miin;.'iil"r". 
 ,, it w >' mill I'l 
 
 lIU ('dllMlHTillili' 
 
 ly till! Kii;ili-li ; 
 
 I'm ill iiiifM'^oi"!! 
 
 Iiy 'l"niiiiiii. At. 
 
 ; HIlllU' llllllilii'lH 
 
 *iiu'i'. Itn triulii 
 
 iictiirc^. 
 
 11(1 luii'- "f '•'•'• 
 
 intiiiif, I'll 111. ^^ 
 
 IllTl'M. I'll]'. 
 Mill. TIlclMW , 
 Hti'il fill', I'll i 
 its s\ic(iim'iH I'l 
 the Ntiriiiii" ti' 
 striu'tiiri', Willi II 
 tin- iiitiwiiiiiii. 
 lalhtrci't; biitilii' 
 Fiiint lire iifj'!. 
 It! iH in till' jiiri^ 
 |(<, lii'iiii,' iiK'f'l*' •' 
 I'Vi", liailiffK, Si'., 
 lit hi'iit two num. 
 I.; thcnci'. Willi 
 •V v., mill tlii'iW' 
 .Vt, liv wliiili it 
 i- ri'lfi! of J*"'*;"' 
 lo, iilimit ft iiiil^' 
 i.ii ot'aliiiiit tilti'" 
 ■(. also lii't'ii f'liii"' 
 hi. liodwiiilii":' 
 I. U of the (ir.at 
 t ami Avon I'luml 
 I furnislii'.'* i'i«l'' 
 |ie clmiii'l uf 1*"' I 
 
 „. of Himl"'''™', 
 Li'Oii lilt. 17° a'"l 
 l„l Hcrur; K. Hj; 
 Idi'ratiad.ai"! V' 
 is iiidiiileil ill 'I'l' 
 I) seven (li^triot'il 
 llctta, ('iilfei'J' 
 It is hlU.v li""'"' I 
 many rivi'r-. ';!^ 
 l.rv ari! tlu' '-I'l' • 
 1 tliiiily iiilmlii"^^''' 
 
 ItKKDKIl 
 
 iti. Ilimloo* U'in^ III llio Miiliniiiiiii'ilaDii a* ihrvp 
 
 I I iii'liiri' tl iiiii|iuil liy iIh' laltrr it y\m 
 
 ,,„i|hiriiiiM'lv |Hi|iiiliiiii<, Tliri'i' likiiK'ii'tK''"! Ill*' 
 I', llii;.'ii. Miilii>r>klln. nnil < 'iiiiiiri"«', nrr xiHiki'ii in 
 ilii< priis., mill llM'ir iiiiiliial |Hiiiii iiriiinli {.oti'iiii' 
 V. iii'D' ill till' ii<'i»{lil><i<irli<Hiil III' till' |iriii<'i|>iil tiiwii, 
 
 |:,,.i|ir. 'I'Ik' llliailli'liri' ilyiuinly rri'^'lli'il liM'r 
 
 uiiirtlii' M"li't»i iii|ii>'xl, mill III her Hinall ntali'i 
 
 n,.ri' i<iiliNi'i|iii'iilly I'liiiiiili'il, mil' nl' wliicli >vik'< 
 lixi'il ill lli'i'ili'r IIH III!' I'lipiial. Till' Mii(;iiIn run 
 .iiii'ri'il it lit ill*' •'>■•) <>l' tin' I'tlii '»i<l till' iii/.Min 
 , irlv ill tin- l^'li •'■'iiliirvi Niiiro wliirli it liiix 
 iilwiiv* bci'ii in'cupicil l>y tliu Nuri't'iitiirH of tlu- 
 liitlr'r. 
 
 |li.;i';iiKit, n rllv of lllmloMtnti, cup. of ilip nlmvo 
 ,,r„v., in Int. \'^ lH' N.. \>>»K. 77° HI' K. ; 7:i in. 
 \\V. Ilyili'raliiiil, ninl .'I'.'.'i in, KM!'',. Iliniiliiiy. It 
 1,'tiiili* ill ikii ii|M>ii plain, I'xri'pt. til the \'„, wlicri' 
 II ri'ii«ii>» Kf'""*'! li't^'iiiR n (Icrlivity ; \n I'nrlilli'il 
 |,v a KtiiiK' Willi, with many niiiiiil Ihwitm, ami a 
 lirv iliii'li; lio'* ri'iiiaiiiN of miuiii' ^ihhI Imililin^"*, 
 aiiil nii^ I'linin'rly tinnniiH fur it'* liiti'iia){ii(< ware. 
 
 Ill';i',lt ALSTON, 11 liiir. iif Miij^liunl, n>. |)i'Viin, 
 IiiikI. liiilHiniiiKli, par. JlciT Kcrrix, 211 in. \VS\V. 
 
 I lull. I'liji. iif till' par. '2,H\7 in iNi'il ; arra, 
 
 .'i.K.Vi iii'ri'K. Till' villa^i' i.>i sitiialcil liolwi'i'ti tlio 
 liivvniiil 'raiiiiir. I in, rrmii tli<< latter: itH inarkct 
 iiiiiltiiir (^raiili'il in l'.",l.'i) have Im-i'ii Imi^ ili^<> 
 iniiiiiiiK'il. Silvitr-lciul niiiicN wcm opi'iicil in I lie 
 rii.'ii iif l''.ilw. I. ciiiitiijiioim to the pliicc, wliii'li 
 iiwi',-. wlint iinpiirtaiicc it pusMcs.'^'il to tlioiii ; lint 
 liiiv lire now ilii*('iiiitiinii'il. 'I'lic lior. rliiiiiicil liy 
 {,riM'ri|iliiiii, lait iliil imt return niein. to the II. of 
 (Mill llu' rein" of Kliz,, fmni uliiili period two 
 wifi' rc^iiilarly eleeteil. till the pa«.'<iii;; of tin- 
 ilifunn Act, liy wliieli it was ilisfranclii.seil. In 
 till' iiiii'ii'nt I'liiiri'li are some ciirioiis nioiiiiineiits 
 iif Ihc iilil I'aiiiilies of Cliainperiiowiie anil Ferri'r.-i. 
 
 JII'.KIIIIIIUOM, or IIIKIKID.M ( |'imM»fn/, the 
 liinliil'lieriK's), niiistr. of lliiulostaii, prov. IteiiKiil, 
 iliii liy lictween hit. '2:1° •-'.')', ami "2 1° '.'iVN., ami loii;;. 
 Ml-' u'liil W>|° \'..\ haviiij,' N. the ilistr. Illiaii)^'iil- 
 ;>iri". K. Miiorsheilaliail niid Niiddca; S. Ilurdwan 
 mill till' Jiiii){le MelialH; and W. Ilam^iir. Area, 
 :i.»rtl s(|. m. I'op. csliniated at ahoiit l,00(i,(l(M». 
 Miii'ii of it Ih hilly, covcri'd with jnn^'le, niiil thini v 
 iiilialiiteil ; there' are no iiavivcalile streams, wliif)i 
 iiiilH'ilcs itH rnltivation and trade; Imt the road.H 
 ami liriil),'es r.re kept in (^ood order liy government 
 niiivicts, mill its |iop, and prosperity are increasiiijjf. 
 IIiiihI ciial and iron ore are found; the latter is 
 wiirkcil ui iiiimerons native forf^es, supplied with 
 fiiil I'riiin exteiixive forests. 'l"he other most iin- 
 l«irt,aiit prudiiets are rice, siipir. and silk. The land 
 t'wmie in the year IN2'.t-;iO was tilil,H7)i nip. 
 iii;'liway ilepredatioiis are freipienf, esjieeially liy 
 ilu'|K'tty hill chiefs in the W. ; the head-quarters 
 if ilie jiiiliciiil esialilishmeiit are at Soory ; the 
 I'llunliicf towiiH are Naj^ore, Nooiiy, and iScram- 
 
 IIK.KlMJKiaS, or HKlMvlJKOIS, n par. and 
 
 market town of l''.ii>;laiid, ro. Dorset, liiiiid. of 
 mine iianic, l'o]i. of par. I,(i2l in IHlil ; of town, 
 1,1.111. The town is siliialed on an atlliient of the 
 i'iilille, 7 in. N\V. Wiireliinii. It has a ^cooil 
 I'lmri'li, with some nioniinients. Its annual fair, 
 lull! oil WiHiilhiiry Hill, INIh Sep. and three fol- 
 li'iviiiijilays, n,«'d to lie one of the most important 
 ill the CO. fur the sale of cattle und horses, and is 
 siill very coiisideralile. 
 
 ilKKS (ST.) III'LM), a rapr, of luifjland. Iicins 
 till' niiLit wt'slprlv point of the eo, of Cumlierliiinl, 
 alKiiit » in. S\V. "Whilt'liaveii ; Int. 5 1° .'III' .'lo" N., 
 U\g. 3° 37' '21" VV. It is composed of aliriipt, 
 lii^li, rocky clifls; and is snrnioiiiited liy a lif;lit- 
 lupiLse, exliihilinfi a tixed lifjhl, having; the luiucrn 
 citvateil 333 ft. above high waler mark. 
 
 nKliniNd'H .STllAIT 
 
 .181) 
 
 lU'.l'.SKDW, a town of rrnisla. prm. nrindin- 
 liiirw:. on the Spne, IH m. S\V. Kraiikfurl on tho 
 O'lir. Top, 1,277 in Mtll. The town ix the nrnl 
 of a court of Jii'tlce, and Iwii* nmnnla'tiironf di'i'i 
 ami linen, Mitli lircwericN, inimerii'K, and Uine- 
 kiliH. 
 
 lir,l''01{T, or ni'.l.KoHT, ft town of Fram-e, 
 di'p, lliiiit Itliiii, Clip, arruml., on the Saviiiiri'if«e, 
 !W m, SSW, t'nlmar on the railwav fnun Mul- 
 hoiise to lli'«am;oii, I'np. H.inl in iMi;|, Winn 
 tliii town was cided hy .\iintria to Kraiiie, in 
 lillN, it was not fiiriitli'ii; Imt the iiiipnrtiini'i' of 
 
 its piisiiiiiii fur the ili'fen f tile plain to the V., 
 
 of the VoNHi's Ih'Iiih olivioiis, works ^^^re coii- 
 siriicteil on a new iirinciple, liy Vaiilnin, which 
 niaile it a forireis ol the scioml difs. It coii',i«ti4 
 of two parts — the Iliiii and low town; is well 
 liiiili ; has lur^'c liarracks, a haiidsunie I'luirch, ii 
 collej,'!', a piililic liliriiry,ciiiitiiiiiiii>f 211,'iiiKviiliiines. 
 and a triliiinal <lf fimiiiiri- iimliiiiir, llell'orl lia-* 
 iron-loinidrii's, wiili fahrics of iron wire, printed 
 caliciH's, hills, iiaper; and is the entrepot of it 
 ^'reat part of tlie iradi' of I'Vance with Alsace, 
 I.iirriiiiie, lieriiiaiiv, iiml Swit/eriaml. 
 
 IIKti (LOI'lill'), asmall lake of lr"1anil, Mlioiit 
 2 in. Irom the NW. corm'r of l.mc'li .Neimli, with 
 which it ii« coniiected liy the rivir llaiin. (Sen 
 I.OIIIIII Nl'AllM.) 
 
 lll''.ti.Mtl>, a town of Kraiice, dep. Cotes ilit 
 Noril, cap. cant,, :i iii. NW. (iiiiii^iiiinp. Top. 
 
 I,|H2 ill iMtil. 
 
 IIHII.MIAN, a town of Persia, prov. Pars, on 
 an e.vti'iisive and fruitful plain, alioiit :i in. I''., 
 from the ruins of the am leiii citv of .Xra^nan, iind 
 130 in. WNW. Shiriiz. .Mr. Kiiineir says timt 
 the Willis are alioiit 3 m. in eirciiiiifcrcnce, and 
 that he was iiil'orincd liy the pivernnr that llm 
 pop. iiinoiiiiteil to alioiit" Kl.iMMI. It is till resi- 
 dence of a IIi'kIi rliei;, (Kiiincir's I'er-in, p. 72.) 
 
 ItKlllilNli'.S SriJAll", the channel which se- 
 
 piiratcs the NK rner of Asia from the NW. 
 
 eonier of America, ami which eoiiiiects ilu> N. 
 I'acilic with the .\rctic Ocean. It is formed, in 
 its narrowest part, liy two reinirkaMe lieadlanils, 
 the extreme )iiiiiils I-'., and W. of the cuiitiiieiits 
 to wliieli lliey lieloii^; (,'aiie I'rince of Wah-s, on 
 the American coast, in lat. (i.')° 'Hi' N., loiif;. 
 l(i«o l.'t' W.; and P'.ast Cape, on the shore of Asia, 
 in lat. li(i° Ii' N., loiij,'. Kill-' 3m' \V. The distaiico 
 lietween these points is alioiit 3li m. ; Imt N. and 
 S. of them, the land on liotli sides rapi'.lly recedes, 
 and, on the N. especially, it trends so sharply 
 that the name of strait is not very ii|>plicalil(! to 
 any part lieyoiid the capes in thai direction. It 
 is usual, however, to re;^ard it in I'Xlendiii;,' aloiij^ 
 Asia from Tchiikotskoi Noss, in (il° 13' to Serdw 
 Kiiinen in (i7° 3' N., which ^jives it a len;;tli of 
 •ion m. : its width lietween Tchiikotskoi Niis.s 
 (173° 21' W.) and Caiie Uodiiey, on the o|iposito 
 .shore of America (l(!(i° 3' W.), is alioiit 2.")0 m. 
 
 The land on lioih sides is coiisidoralily indenled, 
 tho Asiatic shore especially exhiliilin^; several ex- 
 teii.sive and commodious Imys. as St, Lawrence, 
 Metchickina, and others; Imt the coiiiilry is not 
 of a kind to tempt iiavi;;atiirs to its coasts, which 
 
 are p'lierally steep and rocky, very liarc of w I, 
 
 and not at all nimiidaiit in other vejjelat ion. Tho 
 water has an equal Imt not ^i-cat depth. Cook 
 remarks, that on both sides of the slr.iil the 
 soiimlin;{s are the same, at the saiiie distance Ir.nti 
 the shore; that near land, be never louiid mure 
 than 2;i fathoms ; and by bis chart it appi'iirs that 
 bo iimrlivre found more th.-in 3(1. Shoal water 
 appears to be principally confined to the bay.s 
 and inlets on the Ainencaii side. There are a 
 few small islands scattered here and there aloii;^ 
 the strait; und one of soiue size, >St. Lavvreiico 
 
300 
 
 BEIIRING'S ISLAND 
 
 
 <ir Clerkc's ImIiiikI, Hoh at a sliort (lintancc S. frnm 
 itrt I'litmiico. Tlio tciiipcratiiro w low ; by iIh> end 
 ofAii^iiHl Iho thcnmniu'tiT Hiiiks to the fm/iiin 
 ])oiiit, ami N. of tli«> two <'n|io» tlicrc ih alw.iys a 
 Htorn of ice which the lieat. of Niiinnicr is (|uite 
 ))owcrlcHH to tliMiitTttc. Tlie strait is frozen over 
 every winter. l'oj;» and hazy wcallier arc very 
 eonunon, almost iierpetual; for thoti^^h the Hum- 
 mer snii is above the horizon for a very coii- 
 KiiU^rahle time, yet lie seliioni shines for more 
 than a few hours, and often is not seen for 
 Feveral days in succession. The animals on both 
 sides the strait are similar; they consist of tlie 
 connnon fur-bearinj; tribes and biirds of the arctic 
 regions, but not in f^reat numbers. A corresiwnd- 
 inf? similarity does not exist in the human race 
 on each side of the channel; the 'rdiutski 
 (Asiatics) are loiifj-faccd, stout, and well nuule; 
 Avhil'" the Americans are of low stature, with 
 round cludil)y faces, ami hi^h cheek bones. The 
 Asiatics, also, appear to possess more arts, to be 
 more refined — in short, to be of a superior race. On 
 both shores, the ]irinci]>al occupations are limiting 
 and lislduK, for tiie latter of which the waters are 
 well titled, l)eing much more aixiiulant in life than 
 the barren land. Whales freciucnt the strait, and 
 the walrus (morse) seems to be more abundant 
 here than in any other i>art of the world. The 
 Hesh of the latter creature is (it for food (Cook's 
 Third Voyajfo, ii. |). 1.')"), and it api)ears i)robal)le 
 that the natives of the coasts feed also upon the 
 wiiale. 
 
 ill 1728, Titus Uehrinj^r, a German in the ser- 
 vice of the Empress Catherine, sailed from Kam- 
 tschatka, in the view of discoveriuj;' whether Asia 
 were or were not terminated by tlie sea towards 
 the NK. He reached the Serdre Kuinen, and laid 
 down the Asiatic coast in a manner to call forth 
 the iinqualitied approbation of Cook. In a second 
 vo}'afi;e to explore the American shore, he unfortu- 
 nately perished under circumstances of threat 
 misery, liehrlng; may be considered as haviiij^ 
 settled the fact of the existence of this strait, and 
 therefore it is most pro) lerly called by his name; 
 but the complete discovery was reserved for Cook, 
 who in 1788 surveyed the whole leiij^th of both 
 coasts, with a jirecision and accuracy which left 
 iiothin;^ for after voyagers to jierfonn, and which 
 has made the ffeoj^rapliy (jf this remote and bar- 
 barous region as jirecise as that of our own coun- 
 try. It may, perhaps, be interesting to know, that 
 a very old Japanese map of the world, now in the 
 liritish Aluseum, lays down the leading features 
 of this strait with suqirising accuracy. (Hiissian 
 Voyages and Discoveries, p. 48; Cook's Third 
 Voyage, p. 4H8, 4li7— 175, &c. ; iii. p. 242.) 
 
 UEIIKING'S ISLAND, a small island in the 
 Pacilic ; lat. 55° N., long. 1G5J° E., the most W. 
 of the Aleutian chaui. It is rocky iuul desolate, 
 without inhabitants, and only remarkable as the 
 place where the great navigator, whose name it 
 liears, breathed his last. After suffering great 
 liardships in his attempt to explore the coast of 
 America {see hat article), the scur\'y broke out 
 among his men, and in the attempt to return to 
 Kanit'-chatka, he was wrecked on this barren rock, 
 where was neither food, except marine animals, 
 nor covering, excejit line sand, in whicli the cap- 
 tain and crew attemiiteil to screen themselves from 
 the effect of a Northern winter, and ui which the 
 former died worn out by disease and (lisjip])oint- 
 ment, Dec. 8, 1741. (IJussiau Voy. and Discov. 
 p. 97.) 
 
 IJEILA, or BEL A, an inland town of Beloo- 
 cbistan, cap. jirov. Liis, on an elevated rock on 
 the N. bank of the Poorally, lat. 2<)° 11' X., haig. 
 00° 3()' E., and 5U m. >.'. of the Indian Ocean. It 
 
 ' BEJAl'OOR 
 
 contains alioiit 2,000 houses, UOO of which Ijclonr 
 to Hindoos. Tiie streets arc iiiin-ow, hut d," 
 ba/ar is neat, anil the town generally cleim an,! 
 tidy: on the X\V. it is protected by'a tiilcralijv 
 good niuil wall; elsewhere it has no exleriml dii- 
 fence. (I'oltiiiger's Travids, p. lit.) 
 
 IIEILAN, a town of Svria, near tho sea, !)ni 
 SE. Iskenderoon ; lat. 'M'P 2!)' ao" X., long. ;i(;o i;'- 
 E. Pop. estimated at 5,000. The houoes uri' (jf 
 stone, with Hat rotifs, occupy Iwitli sides <,f n monn. 
 tain gorge, and are so disposed that the terriui's i,f 
 the lower buildings serve as streets to those aliuvc. 
 A large stream rushes through the middle nf n,,! 
 town, and in winter (lascaih's j)our down on cvitv 
 side. A consideralde number of acpiediicts, s(inie 
 of them very ancient, conduct this 'ibinuliint 
 supply of water to the houses of the iiiiial/i. 
 tants. 
 
 Itcilan gives name to the mountains nnidii" 
 which it stands (an. Aiiiaiius), the S\V. tcnnimi" 
 ti(Hi of the Taurus. The summits of these nmuii- 
 tains are usually snow-topped ; hence the winiir 
 cohl is very severe, but the summer climate d,.- 
 lightful, and, at all times, the atmosphere is |iurc 
 and salubrious. 
 
 The town was formerly much frequented bv tln' 
 inhabitants (especially Europeans) of Aleppo and 
 Iskenderoon, as a refuge from the burning lioais 
 and iinwludesome va]iours of the jdaiiis duriii^'ilie 
 summer. Tlie deeUnc of these places has allVi led 
 Ileilan, but its natural advantages have drawn in 
 it a great many wealthy Turks, who lind a fiiriliir 
 inducement to reside here, in the fact, that, tli(iii;'li 
 nominally a part of the jiachalic of Aleppd, thi; 
 town is really governed by a sheikh, electcil liv 
 the inhabitants from among themselves. In \Kii 
 licilan was the scene of a ilecisive battle betwcm 
 Ibrahim and Hussein, )>achas. (Volney, ii. lij.V 
 I3li ; Uobinson, ii. 27'.I-28I.) 
 
 IlEJA (an. Fcuv Julia), a town of Pnrtiij;al, 
 prov. Alentejo, cap. Comarca, 85 m. SK. Lisliiiii. 
 Pop. G,275 in 1858. The town is surroiiiuicd liv 
 walls, flanked with 40 towers, and defended liyk 
 castle. It has a cathedral, a rich hospital, n Latin 
 school, a fabric of earthenware and taniierios. 
 
 PEJAPOOK, a large prov. of the Deccan, lliii- 
 dostan, comprised partly in the British dom. mid 
 jiartly in those of the rajah of Sattarah and the 
 Nizam, and containing the Portuguese torrit. nf 
 Goa. it extends from 15° to 18° X. lat.. and \k- 
 twecn 7it° and 78° E. long., having X. jiriv. 
 Aurungabad ; E. the same prov. and that of Hy- 
 derabad ; S. the Toombuddra and VViirda rivers, 
 and distr. of Canara; and \V. the Indian Ocean; 
 length 320 m., by 200 in. average bn^adth. 
 
 Its VV. districts are very mountainous, being 
 intersected by the W. Ghauts ; and there are nu- 
 merous strong hill positions on isolated eiiiineiiees, 
 with perpendicular sides, often crowned by tk- 
 tresses. The principal rivers are the Krisiiiia ur 
 Kistnah, Toombuddra, and Beema. The Krislnu 
 is remarkable as forming the boundary between 
 two regions in which distinct languages iiiul 
 species of building jirevail ; N. of that strriini 
 tlie Maharatta tongue is spoken, and the riMifs I'f 
 the ordinary houses are pitched and thatclied: >. 
 of its banks the Canara language prevails, iiiid 
 the houses arc llat-roofed, and covered with iiiiiil 
 and clay. The Pamooses, a tribe reseinbliiii,' ilie 
 lower castes of the Maharattas, with the tliievyi 
 habits of the Uheels, but more subdued and ei\i- 
 liscd, inhabit the hills joining the Ghauts in .Sit- 
 tarah, b(!tween Poonah on the X., Cohipuur >., 
 and Bejapoor E. They are robbers by triide, 
 plundering the country when not kept in siilmrii- 
 nalioii ; addicted to hunting, and neither tilliii,' 
 the grountl, nor disiiosed to any lixcd or laburiew 
 
BEJAPOOR 
 
 employ""'"'" They do not cat beef, but arc with- 
 out I'WtC. 
 
 \fitr the (lifsolution of tlie Bhnmencc empire of 
 lliu Di'ccaii, in IIM!), Adil Shnli estAliliNlieil a 
 ,lji,„.,ty in IJcJapoor, wliifh lasted till 1 (WD, and 
 wiij HiiiK"!"' '" conierriiif; Hindoo titlen of diH- 
 liiictiiiii, which, amon^ other Mohammedan ^o- 
 vfriimcnU, were alwayH Arabic. It next l)ccnme 
 „i,„iiiially suhjeot to Aurun^zebe; then really 
 Milpji'ct to the iMfihnrattas: after Hufl'eriii^ all the 
 evils of anarchy from 1«04 to 1818, most part of 
 it liecamc, in the latter year, Hubjeot to tlie 
 llritiKh ; hut portionn of it have Hince that period 
 Ik'1'11 iHtai" eiitruHtcd to the rule of subsidiary na- 
 livi> princes. 
 
 1!k.ia1'oor {Vijayapura, the impregnnhh cUi/), 
 llic aiic. cap. of the above prov. under the Adil 
 >liiili (lynnsty, stands near the right bank of a 
 iriliutarv of tiie Krishna, 115 m. SK Sattarah, hit. 
 ](fl Hi' S'., long. 75° 47' E. In 'hy b •.'....iiif,' of 
 the 17th century it was a city ot ^- ".1 . i.ie and 
 jirciiKtl' ; '^"* "* present it consists merely of an 
 iiiimeiiso number of mosques and other public 
 liiiililiiigH, many of which are in a state of partial 
 (liciiy; anda scanty populati<m scattered among 
 iliiif niins, and occupying miserable huts. ' As 
 ilii' traveller approaches the city from the N., the 
 jTiiit dome of Mahomed Shah's tt)mb is discerned 
 Irmii the village of Kunnoor, 14 m. distant. A 
 iitiiriT view gives the idea of a splendid and po|)U- 
 Iciiis metropolis, from the inmimerable domes and 
 v|iiri's and buildings which meet the eye.' ' On en- 
 loriiif;, the illusion vanishes; jungle has shot up 
 ill the partly obliterated streets, anil the visitor 
 iiiav now lose himself in the s(ditude of ruins, 
 hIiItc crowds were formerly the only impediments 
 III a free passage.' It comprises an outer fort, or 
 iilil city, and an inner fort or citadel, partly en- 
 closed by, and lying E. of, the former : the space 
 Iftween'the walls of these two is said to have 
 lurii sufficient for the encampment, in 1089, of 
 l.i.iiiK) of Aurungzebe's cavabrj'. The walls (if the 
 iiuier fort are 8 m. in circ, and but little dilapi- 
 (lateil, though the outworks be in great part de- 
 simyed; the inner fort, on the contrary, is fast 
 onaiibling away. The olil city (besides a stone 
 tear, its only frequented spot) c(«itains the 
 ninusoloum and mosque of Ibrahim Adil Shah, 
 liiiilt on a basement 130 yds. long, by 52 yds. 
 liroail, covered by an immense dome raised (m 
 arelies, and so elegant as to bear a favourable com- 
 |iiiri»un with the most celebrated Mogul sepul- 
 tlirts of Upper Hindostan. This structure, as 
 well as others in IJejapoor, is distinguished by 
 rich overlapping cornices, and small minarets pe- 
 culiar to this place, and terminating in a gh)be or 
 liiiinacle, instead of the open square turrets com- 
 iiiim in the N. of India. The inner fort, the S. 
 imlLs of which bound IJejapoor in that direction, 
 iiicliises the ruins of the palace, the great mosque, 
 an imposing edifice in good re|)air, the celebrated 
 inausuleuni of Mahomed Shah, and a multitude 
 of uther tombs and mosques. Sir James Mackin- 
 tosh, who visited this city, says, that the elaborate 
 stonework in some of these is exquisite, and not 
 siiqiasscd by that of any cathedral he had ever 
 sci'ii. Here, also, is a low Hindoo temple, the only 
 huilding of the kind in or about Bejapoor , it is in 
 tlie earliest and rudest style of art, and popularly 
 lliouj;ht to have been raised by the Pundms (a 
 inytlidldgical race) : the militiiry Khajoos {treu- 
 mi/) has massive stone chains cut out of solid 
 Uocks 8HSi)endcd from its angles. Excepting the 
 palace, little wood having been used in tlic con- 
 structiou of the public buildings, they arc in tole- 
 rable preserwUion. Two))arallel streets (one nearly 
 3 m, long and 50 ft. wide, paved throughout and 
 
 BEiin 
 
 391 
 
 regularly built), intersect the inner city, the most 
 nopulotiH |)art of which adjoins the great moscpic. 
 Miul hovels are stuck up here and there among 
 the ruins, but the space within the walls is mostly 
 a wilderness covered with grass and shrubs. Thero 
 are here some enormous l)rass guns, formerly be- 
 hinging to the fort, one of which would re(juire a 
 ball weighing •2,(>4t> lbs. For 5 m. W. of the fort 
 the country is stuihled with ruins, chiefly Moham- 
 medan tombs. (Mackintosh's Memoirs, 2nd edit, 
 i. 4(i;i.) 
 
 IJliJAIl, a fortified town of Spain, prov. Sala- 
 manca, 18 m. S. Salamanca. Pop. 1(>.()8;1 in 1857. 
 The town is distinguished by its woollen niaini- 
 factures, which have been much improved and ex- 
 tended since 1824. It is also famous, throughout 
 Spain, for its hams. There are mineral waters in 
 the neighbourhood. A lnrg<! fair is lu !d here oa 
 the 25tli Sept. and the two following days. 
 
 BEJETSK,a town of Russia in Europe, gov. 
 Twer, cap. district, on a lake near the Mologa, <12 
 ni. NNE. Twer. Top. 3;2!>0 in 1858. It is an old 
 town, of sombre aspect, with thirteen churches and 
 two convents. 
 
 BKIIiA, a prov. of Portugal, which see. 
 BKIT-EL-FAKIH (vulg. Beetkfackie), a town 
 of Arabia, cap. of, and giving name to, one of the 
 six depts. of the Tehama of Yemen Proper, about 
 100 m. ESE. Loheia, ami i)0 m. N. Mocha; lat. 
 14° ar N., hnig. 4;to 23' K. A large and strong 
 citadel (the residence of the dola), and a mosqvu', 
 arc the only public buiUliugs, A few of the houses 
 are of stone ; but the majority are mere huts of 
 wicker-work or clay. It is unwalled. There is 
 no account of the pop. ; but it may, perhaps, bo 
 estimated at from 7,000 to 8,000. It Is the groat 
 centre of the cotTee trade of Yemen; the berries 
 are brought from the neiglibouring mountains half 
 a day's journey distant ; the best in May, but tho 
 general supjdy is almost constant throughout the 
 year. The ports of Loheia. llodeida, and Mocha 
 are supplied from hence (the last taking annually 
 about 22,000 tons) ; in addition to which, caravans 
 from El-Hedjaz, Oman, Persia, Syria, Egypt, 
 &c., resort to the town, in which merchants of 
 almost every trading nation are settled. All pur- 
 chases are made for ready money. 
 
 Beit-el-Fakih (that is) honse of a saint), derives 
 its origin and name from a famous sheikh, whose 
 tomb in this neighbourhood became an objeei, of 
 veneration ; and to whose memory an annual fes- 
 tival of three days is observed, during which mi- 
 racles are sometimes said to be performed. The 
 town, which rose in consequence of pilgrimages to 
 the tomb, gradually drew to itself the collee trade, 
 which before had centred in Zebid, a town about 
 20 m. to the S. (Xiebuhr, Descr. de I'Ar. 107, 
 198 ; Voy. en Ar. i. 253-25(!.) 
 
 BEiril, a town of Scotland, in the co. of Ayr, 
 !) m. SVV. Paisley. Pop. 3,420 in ISOl, of whom 
 1,051 males and 1,769 females. The town is plea- 
 santly situated on a rising ground ; and has grown 
 into importance since the early part of last century. 
 It was at one time famous for its maiuifacture of 
 linen ; it was afterwards no less eminent in the 
 department of silk gauze ; but cotton has of late 
 constituted its staple manufacture. It has also 
 two Hax and three com mills. A great nund)er of 
 the female inhab. are engaged in tambouring and 
 flowering muslin for the markets of Paisley and 
 Glasgow. The line of thetilasgow. Paisley, Kil- 
 marnock, and Ayr railway passes through the town. 
 In the neighbourhood are (puuTies and mines of 
 limestone, freestone, ironstone, and coal. 
 
 The parish of Bcith, which borders on that of 
 Dunlop, is famous for its dairies; and the one 
 parish produces as much of what is called UtiiiLip 
 
302 
 
 LEKES 
 
 diccHO 08 llio other. Ik'ilh ImHa town lioiisc, liiiilt 
 l)y siib.scription, a parish churcli, niul two disHeiit- 
 iti^ chnpelH, two branch haiikH, ami a uubMcription 
 lihrnry. 
 
 nKKKS, a town of Hungary, cap. of an oxton- 
 Bive CO. of ihn Knmc name, at tlic coiilhii'ncc of thn 
 IMack and White Konw, 40ni. SW. Grosuwunlein ; 
 lat 'Kio 4()' Ui"N., hms.'iio 7' iU" K. I'oi). ^((.l.W 
 in IH57. The town has tlirce cluircliPH, and at'on- 
 8idcrul>Ic trade in cattle, corn, ond wine, the ])ro- 
 •luce of the surroiniding country. TIutc im, cIohc 
 to the town, a Htntion on the railway from I'chth 
 to Arad. The jjhicc was formerly forthied. 
 
 nKLAT.CAZAU, a town of Spain, prov. Cor- 
 dova, 4H m. NNW. Cordova. Pop. 4,420 in IMfi". 
 
 HKLASl'OOH, on inl. town «if N. lliiidostan. 
 rap. of the Caldorc rajah, on the left bank of the 
 Siitlejo, 1,4(55 ft, above the level of the wa ; ISOni. 
 N. Delhi, 300 m. NXVV. Agra; hit, 31° 19' N., 
 long. 7(i°45' K. The town has about i?,0(l() houses : 
 it is rcgnlarly built ; the houses of stone, cemented 
 with morlAr, and the strcc-l.s roughly j)pved. 'I'he 
 Sutlejc is here about 100 yards broad, when its 
 waters arc low(!st. In 1H22, this town, with the 
 rest of the Caldore territory, devolved to the 
 liritish government, on the ilcath of its previous 
 Bovereign. 
 
 IlKLIJKIS, a town of Lower Kgyi)t, on the most 
 AV. arm of the Nile, 2'J m. N K.Cairo. It was 
 occupied in 1798 bv Nap(deon, wlui repaired its 
 fortilicationa; but tfiey are now of little impor- 
 tance, the walls consisting chielly of mud. It is 
 ill built, has several nioscpics, and its pop. has been 
 estimated at 6,000. It is sujtposed by D'Anville 
 to occupy the site of the ancient Pharbmtus ; but 
 the preferable opinion seems to be that the si'c of 
 Pharbu'tus is identical with Ilorbegt. IJeUwis is a 
 place of considerable importonce, from its situation 
 on the road to Sj'rio. 
 
 IJELCASTKO, a town of Southern Italy, jffov. 
 Catanzaro, 15 m. NK. Catanzaro. Pop. !J,9-I2 in 
 lUtJl. The town is situated on a rock, is the sent 
 <tf a bishopric, has a cathedral, a diocesan senii- 
 narj', and a mont tie pii'-ti: Large quantities of 
 cattle are bred in its vicinity. 
 
 lU'vLIi^M, a suburb of Lisbon, which see. 
 
 HKLFAST, a sea-port town and pari. bor. of 
 Ireland, cos. Antrim and Down, prov. Ulster, at 
 the confluence of the Lagan with Carrickfergus 
 IJay; 102 m. N. Dublin, and 78 m. SK. Lon- 
 donderry. At a very early period Belfast was 
 known as a fortified station, and on the aiTival 
 of the English it was further secured by the erec- 
 tion of a castle, of which, however, no trace now 
 exists. It owes its present importance to its com- 
 merce and manufactures, which have raised it to 
 Ihe first rank among the great marts of Ireland. 
 The town comprises an area of 5,<J87 stat. acres, 
 whereof 4,i{ IS are in Antrim, and 1,HI9 in Down. 
 The population has very rapidly increased in the 
 course of half a centurv. It aniounte<l to 37,277 
 in 1821 ; to 58,287 in 1831 ; to 75.308 in 1811 ; to 
 100,301 in 1851 : and to 121, 1)02 in 18()1. The 
 census of 18(!1 showed 55.842 males and (!5,7(!0 
 females. The same returns stflted the total num- 
 ber of families to ix; 24,981 , of whom only 308 were 
 engaged in iigriculiure, while 10,951 were eni- 
 ]i!oyed in trailcs and mauufactiu-cs, and 13,722 hi 
 otl)i'r |)ursuits. 
 
 'I'hough lying low, a great portion of the town 
 not being more than I't. abovi' high water mark, ' 
 it is very healtliy. The town is about 12 m. from 
 the sea, at (he inouth of the IjMgan, which bounds 
 it on the SK., and Hows innnecliately into Holliist 
 Lough, which is 12 m. in length, and 5 in lireadtli 
 at the entrance, gradually inirrowing as it aji- 
 proaclics the town. The river Lagan, which scjia- 
 
 BELEAST 
 
 rates the COS. of Antrim and Down, is crossed liv 
 three briilges and two boat ferries; the t^iicon's 
 bridge, built of granite, on the site of the (dii 
 long bridge, which h-ul twenty-one arclio», is „ 
 sphtudid structure ; ;(1 Ormeau bridge, nf f,,iir 
 arches, opened in 18((3, at a cost of 17,()()0/., j, ^ 
 magnificent work. The houses, mostly of nimli.ni 
 constructi<m, are of brick; the streets arc wid,. 
 airy, well paved ami tlagged, clean, and lii'luci 
 with gas. I'nucipul ecclesiastical buililiiij;s tiii' 
 parochi'il church, wiih a tower of the Ionic order- 
 St, (leorge's Church, or chapel of ease, with a vcn" 
 line portico, and Christ Church : it 1ms in all |'| 
 places of worship for the adherents of the K,<ii|. 
 hlished Church ; 1 Homan Catholic clmpols; ji 
 Presbyterian places of worship, one of very elcj^ani 
 arc4iitecture ; 3 meeting-houses for Unitariiiiis ; :j 
 for Covenanters ; 1'2 for Methodists; 2 for linic. 
 l)eudents ; and 1 for (Juakcrs. The inhahitnniM m 
 very nearly e<|iuilly divided between the time 
 forms of worship jirevalent in Ireland — the Ksta- 
 blished, the I{oman Catholic, and the Preslivtcriau 
 ('hurch. According to the (census of ISti}, tlicri' 
 were 14,151 males and 15,929 females Ixdon.'iij.r 
 to the Established Church; 18,285 males "nnd 
 23,121 females adhering to the Roman Catiiidii- 
 faith; and 19,859 males with 22,745 females re- 
 turned as Presbyterians. There were, Iwsidis, 
 4,94(i Methodists'; 323 Independents; 230 Ita]^ 
 lists; 202 (Juakers; and 1,800 ))ersonsadiierln{,' In 
 other forms of religion. Only 1 1 individuals, |o 
 males and I female, were returned as Jews. 
 
 Of the educational establishments, the ])riiiH|i,il 
 is (Queen's College, foimded mider the 8 it !l \w\, 
 c. fit), and oj)ened in 1M49. It is divided into Fa- 
 culties of Arts, Medicine, and Law, and has a 
 president, vice-i)resi(lent, and 20 jirol'essors. I'li- 
 pils of all religious denominations are admitted. 
 It has 30 junior suholarships of 21/. each, ainl 10 
 seniok do. of 40/. each. Professors' fees vary friDii 
 50s. to 30». for each class for the season." The 
 building, in the Tudor style, comiirising a niiisiuui 
 and library, is outside the town, adjacetit to tlm 
 Botanic Gardens. The Koval Acadeinica! Instim- 
 tion originated in a subscription of the inlmliilanis 
 in 1807, by whom a fund of above 25,0l)(i/. was 
 raised for the erection of the biuldings, and \\k 
 endowment of professors and teachers. It was 
 aftcnvards incor|H)rated by act of parliament, ainl 
 receives an anmml parliamentar}' grant of l.lliHi/. 
 It consists of a cidlegiate or higher, and of a mli- 
 ordinate or elementary department. In the lir^t, 
 the professors of natural philosojihy, moral pliilu- 
 sopliy, logic and belles-lettres, anatomy and pliysi- 
 fdogy, mathematics, church history, Ileiinnv, anil 
 (Jreek and Latin, receive animal salaries of l.jn/,, 
 besides students' fees ; two professors of diviiiiiy 
 receive 100/. each, wth fees; while the prcd'c.-snrs 
 of chemistry, midwifery, materia mcdica, siir^jirv, 
 botany, and biblical criticism, are left to (!o]i(ii I 
 on fees only : in the school depnrt..icnt. tlierc are 
 classes for Latin and Greek, mathematics, Knirlish, 
 .ind French. The number of ])iipils in both divi- 
 sions amounts to about 400. The Helfast aciidcinv, 
 founded in 178(!, co)n)>rises an assemblage (d' hij,'ldy 
 
 etlicient classical, mathematical, and otiicrsci k 
 
 There is also an extensive Lancastrian sclii«'!. 
 Among other literary and scientilic institiitiurs, 
 supported by the contributions of the monilurs, 
 are the Society for Promoting Knowledge, I'duii'lil 
 in 17.S8, with"a library of about lO.fMlli v(ds.: \h<- 
 Literary Society, for the discussioiKd' suhjccisnf 
 general literature, science, and art, founded in 
 1801 ; and the Natural History Society, foiimii'l 
 in 1821 : the meetings of this institution are Ik!! 
 in a handsome building, erected at the cost uf ilie 
 yubscribers, who have also fornicil a large hi'iaui,' 
 
BELFAST 
 
 393 
 
 ciirilcn near tlic town, Deirnst hns four puljlic 
 ncws-nKmiH, ftiid tea iie\VH|iuj^ m, wmie of which 
 lire iilily c(imliii:t«l. The {general state of cihica- 
 tidii (W nhowii ill the cciihuh returiiH of 1«(»1, is 
 iK'Vcrthelesi* not very fuvournble. JCnunii-ralinj,' 
 nil tliB intliviilimlH live years olil and npwanls, tlie 
 nlurns nivf- H'2,v!l2 males ami '2H,H77 females as 
 UiiiL' able botli to read and wTite ; wliile there 
 wire f*.'!"-' niiiles and l«,.')03 females aide to read 
 „iilv and ",lit'-' males with 11,231 fenialca who 
 tiiu'li'l neither read nor write. 
 
 Tlic iMxT honse, for the Tcception of aged and 
 iiilinn i)ani)ers and destilute ehihlren, a larj^e 
 l,iiil,|iiijr, ill nn elevated situation at the N. cx- 
 ,„,n,i(y(if tlie town, niain<ains ahout 700 inmates, 
 (if wliiim those capable ol work are employed in 
 uscl'iil manufactures, or tu its domestic arrniifjfe- 
 iiiriitH. Attached to it are useful medical and 
 Hip'ii'ftl hospitals. The house of industry is now 
 jmiKPcdetl l)y the nnion workhouse, esiablished 
 unilcr the new poor law'. The fever hospital, 
 with II ilisjiensary attached to it, has acconnnoda- 
 limi Ibr !i"iO patients, and an annual income of 
 alnmt l.(MM)/. A lying-in hospital is maintained 
 liv pill ilic subscription. The district lunatic asylum, 
 |'('ir the COS. of Antrim and Down, and the town of 
 Ciirrickferfr»is, situate about 1 m. from the town, 
 ill nil enclosed area of 33 acres, has uccommoda- 
 liiiii for 250 inmates. The new deaf and dumb 
 ii.*vliiiii is an elegant building. There are also 
 m female penitentiaries. The only jdaces of 
 nnmsemcut are a theatre, occasionally oi>ened for 
 ilriimiitic j)erformancos, and u suite of rooms in the 
 Idiiimerciftl Uuildings for balls, assemblies, and 
 CHiiccrts. The excliange, erected by one of the 
 Jliirqiiiscs of Donegal, is now used only for the 
 clcctiiui of magistrates, and other corjiorate jiitf- 
 ]Kiscs. Adjoining the town arc barracks for iu- 
 fiuitry and artillery. 
 
 llclfiist was incorporated bj' James I. in 1613. 
 Uiiiler the late act, it is governed by a mayor, ten 
 iillermeii, and thirty councillors. The borough 
 rfliiriicil two members to the Irish jiarliament : at 
 tlic Union it obtained leave to send one member 
 to the H. of C, and in 1H32 the Heform Actagahi 
 I'oiifcrred on it the privilege of returning two 
 members. The right of election, which had been 
 |ircviou8ly conlined to the memlK'rs of the corpora- 
 turn, was'at the same time given to the 1 ()/. house- 
 liiilders, and, later, to HI. rated occupiers ; and a 
 ni'W anil somewhat more extended boundary was 
 liiiil down for elective purposes. The pari, con- 
 fiituency, in DSCl, consisted of 8,503 registered 
 (lectors, (ieneral sessions for the co. arc held 
 liwe four times a year : there is also a court of 
 rcciird fiiv pleas of debt to the amount of 20/. ; a 
 niiiiior court, a court leet, and a lietty scifsions 
 cmirt twice a week. The town is a constabulary 
 stiHiiin, and is the residence of the stipendiary 
 ma!,nstrate for the county. The properly and iii- 
 fiiiiie tax for the year ended otb April, IH(>3, 
 aniouiiteil to 3r),741/. The valuation of property 
 ill IStIO was 270,!)30/., and in 18()3, 2iK),H3;i/. Tlie 
 jHilice and borough rates in 18(13 amounted to 
 aliout 32,(M)0/. The assizes are held here; also 
 iliiarter sessions, and daily petty s(}ssions, at 
 wliieh the mayor presides. The jwiving, lighting, 
 mill cleansing are vested in a |)olice conmiittee, 
 I'liiiseii by the town comicil. 
 
 l!ell'a.st is the nucleus of the Irisli linen mauu- 
 fiii'tiire, and the country spinners iind manufiic- 
 tiircrs meet those of the town on Friday in the 
 ('"imncrcial liuildings, which is the public ex- 
 clmnjjc. This trade is now in a liourishing coii- 
 (litirni, and r;ipidly increasing. The other cliief 
 liraiiehcs of industry are linen and cotton weaving, 
 iron tbuiiding on nn extensive scale, and blench- 
 
 ing. Tliore are also print works, (Itnir mills, rhe- 
 micftl works, oil mills, alabaster and barilla mills, 
 saw mills, breweries, distilleries, several tan-yards, 
 patent felt manufactories, tlax-steeping work's, K(!., 
 five large ship-yards, with two patent slips, niui 
 yards for manufacturing ropes and sail-cloth. 
 There is nn iron-ship building yard on (jiu'cn's 
 Island, employing 1,200 hands, "from which has 
 been launched sonic of the linest ships alloat. 
 Markets on Friday, besides daily markets for do- 
 mestic purposes. 
 
 The incroasc of trade and commerce has kpi>t 
 pace with that of manufactures. The situation of 
 the town — nt the bottom of (Jarrii-kfergns Hny — 
 has made it the chief mart for the circulation of 
 foreign prodin^e through the most ))opulons ami 
 wealthy portion of Ulster. To improve this ail- 
 vant;ige, a line of inhiiid navigation was eoni- 
 menced in 1 7«7, to connect the town with Lough 
 Xengh, partly by still water and partly in the bed 
 of the river; but the unavoidable casualties at- 
 tending this latter mode of conveyance have so 
 retarded the progress of the vessels employed in 
 it as to render it comjHirativcly useless, and tlie 
 inland trade has in recent times been nujstly car- 
 ried on by railway. 
 
 The lirst line of railway from the town, the 
 Belfast and Bullymena, now called the IJelfast 
 and Northern Counties railwav, was opened on 
 the 11th of Ajiril, 181H. The ISelliist and (.'ouiity 
 Down line was o)iened, in its lirst |)ortii>ii, to 
 ll(dywood, on the 2nd of August, IS 18, and in its 
 completed state, on the 3rd of June, 1«()1. The 
 llelfast, llolywood, and Uniigor railway w;is 
 opened in February, 18i!5 ; and the IJelfast (Vntriil, 
 incorjiorated July 21, 18(>1, and intended to 
 connect all the other lines, is to be opened in 18li!>. 
 All these raihvays, together with regular steam- 
 boat communicatiun with (Jlasgow and Liv(;r- 
 pool, have greatlv contributed to raise the trade 
 of Helfast, 
 
 Previously to 1037 Belfast was a creek of the 
 port of Carrickfergus ; but the privileges of the 
 latter having been,i)urchased in that year by the 
 crown, the custom-house was transferred to Bel- 
 fast. The bay is |)eculiarly favourable to the 
 jiurposes of commerce, being safe and easy of 
 access. Large vessels formerly lay at the pool 
 of Garmoyle, about 4 m. from the town. But the 
 channel thence was so much deepened and im- 
 jiroved in 1810, that vessels drawing 10 ft. water 
 reach the quays at neaps, and those drawing 
 18 ft. at springs. The superintendence of the 
 harbour is vested in the Ballast Corporation, es- 
 tal)lishe(l under an act jiassed in 1831, which 
 gives it large powers towards the improvement 
 of the quays and harbour. 
 
 The commerce of Belfast is extensive ; in 1 8(J I 
 the im])orts weren]>wards of 10,000,000/., and the 
 exjiorts alnmt 8,000,000/. The number of vessels 
 entered inwards from foreign parts in 1803 was 318 
 — tonnage, 87.10 1 ; and cleared outwards 100 — 
 tonimge, .30,320. In 180-1 there entered the port 
 from foreign coimtries 130 British vessels, of a 
 total bunien of 24,390 tons ; and 1 95 foreign 
 ves.sels, of an .aggregate burden of 34.020 tons. 
 There cleared outwards, in the same yeiir, 21 
 Hritish .ind 21 foreign vessels, the I'oinier of a 
 total burden of 3,958, and the latter of 7,5'.l.'>, 
 tons. On the 1st of January, 1805, there be- 
 longed to the jKirt of Belfast 153 sailing vessels 
 under 50, and 320 sailing ves.sels above 50, tons; 
 besides 11 steamers, of an aggregate tonnage of 
 1,305. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of 
 llie |>riiicipal imports and exports for 1802 anil 
 1803:— 
 
304 
 
 BELl'AST 
 
 
 linimrK 
 
 K>|M>rla 1 
 
 ArtUlM 
 
 1809 
 
 I80S 
 
 1861 
 
 18)13 
 
 Alt! iiml I'lir- 1 
 
 7a!1.17(! 
 
 7.10,182 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 lllicnii , owtH. 
 
 h:i,h.|| 
 
 l.'i2,00!t 
 
 88,271) 
 
 H(i,000 
 
 Hurley , toim 
 
 1,(17.'. 
 
 1,8.'. 1 
 
 .'.I 
 
 10 
 
 lli'iiiiM . tniiH 
 
 
 
 428 
 
 401' 
 
 Href . fwtH. 
 
 1 ,:.7!t 
 
 2.000 
 
 M),iM\ 
 
 .10,7110 
 
 llriiiidy . Ki'll"- 
 
 lll.liUI 
 
 I8,!)H8 
 
 
 -- 1 
 
 llutlrr .cwtH. 
 
 
 
 
 120.20'i 
 
 117.04:1 
 
 t'littlu . Ili'iul 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 80,!t00 
 
 7.'.,li:lO 
 
 CdlU . tllllM 
 
 4;iH,:l!):i 
 
 441,442 
 
 — 
 
 „ 1 
 
 ('(illDHS mull 
 
 MllHllllH.llkH. ( 
 
 1H,7(;!» 
 
 1(!,.'.24 
 
 14, CM 
 
 1!),4!)4 
 
 CottollWlH'lllw 
 
 1)00.141 
 
 08:1, l:i(! 
 
 — 
 
 - 1 
 
 l''llt . tllllH 
 
 " 
 
 _.- 
 
 II.IIIO 
 
 11.817 
 
 KIlIX . tilHH 
 
 io,miri 
 
 (1,200 
 
 ;.,1I7 
 
 0,084 
 
 KluXtK'Pll tiPllH 
 
 :il!i 
 
 2(i.'> 
 
 V,:, 
 
 (120 
 
 Kloiir . tons 
 
 in,.s(io 
 
 (1,210 
 
 1,402 
 
 1,018 
 
 lluaiiu . tons 
 
 l,n|<i 
 
 1,740 
 
 
 — \ 
 
 llimm . c'wis. 
 
 •2.i,\r,:\ 
 
 ri;i,82l 
 
 »;i,04.'i 
 
 120,7(18 
 
 llcrriuHH lirls. 
 
 I7.'.>0I 
 
 l(i.:i(i:l 
 
 — 
 
 -- 1 
 
 lliiU'.'* IiiiikIIcs 
 
 l»,-jv.t 
 
 18,l.'.(; 
 
 20,1)48 
 
 21),!)0(i 
 
 ImlluuCorn ' 
 Urns. 
 
 41,017 
 
 42,(i.'.0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Iron . tons 
 
 l!),71i> 
 
 l(i,!);i8 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ore tons 
 
 
 
 11.202 
 
 !».2o:i 
 
 l.anl , c'wts. 
 
 ;i'.'..M 1 
 
 41,(181 
 
 21,8;17 
 
 2.1, .'.1(1 
 
 1,1'jillicr liiilcs 
 
 4.I1!!.-. 
 
 4,017 
 
 - 
 
 - ■ 
 
 Mncn . yils. 
 
 :i,7i! 1,(1110 
 
 4,018,000 
 
 (1.1,08(1,000 
 
 7a,47.'..ooO; 
 
 Miu'liincry tns 
 
 !l|4 
 
 1,2114 
 
 1,214 
 
 1.48:i! 
 
 Oiitnu'iil tons 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2,471 
 
 2,100' 
 
 ():itM . tons 
 
 
 — 
 
 2,2r.8 
 
 1 ,420 
 
 Oil , ei'ii". 
 
 '.'!)!»,!)8() 
 
 32(l,(lilO 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 IMk's 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 10.114 
 
 U>,7fl(l 
 
 I'ork . owls. 
 
 
 — 
 
 2:1,8(10 
 
 ]8,:i(lir 
 
 Potiitors tons 
 
 7(iJ 
 
 801 
 
 4.(17(1 
 
 1 ,0-'(li 
 
 UiiV's . tons 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1,8110 
 
 1,(102 
 
 Ivuni , (Tiills, 
 
 •.'0,:ilin 
 
 24,:illO 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Suit . tons 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 87.''. 
 
 30(1 
 
 Sodii , tons 
 
 4,f.(iH 
 
 0,8.-,0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Stanch . cwts. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ;i0,220 
 
 41,380 
 
 Snuiir . owts. 
 
 2(11,(110 
 
 27.'.. no 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Tiillow . c\vt.s. 
 
 fi'.',4!l!» 
 
 /..'..llll 
 
 ■ ' 
 
 — 
 
 •Pi'ii . lbs. 
 
 •-•,(101, .Ml) 
 
 2,800,7 i:l 
 
 41,808 
 
 4.'.,87(1 
 
 'riiroivl . lbs. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1,128,900 
 
 l,183,.'il« 
 
 ■riMibor . loiuls 
 
 l(i.:!(12 
 
 Id. .107 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 'robiicco lbs. 
 
 »'.'4,8!lti 
 
 920,080 
 
 , — 
 
 — 
 
 'I'ow . tons 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1.100 
 
 8.1:1 
 
 Wlii'iit . tons 
 
 r.4,42fl 
 
 4:i,!)7.'> 
 
 7,;io;! 
 
 3,811 
 
 Whisky khIIs. 
 
 ;i.l'.>,:i:i:) 
 
 r.2ll.410 
 
 147,0(11 
 
 201,1.12 
 
 Wino . Kails. 
 
 l(>.'.,(i48 
 
 lf>!),8:.2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Wool . lbs. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 177,120 
 
 18.1,280 
 
 Yam, Linen „ 
 
 (!,4'.>0,400 
 
 .'1.787,(100 
 
 1. I ,(1,8.1 .(100 
 
 20,(i22,.1(iO 
 
 Cotton „ 
 
 2.417,250 
 
 2,170,0.00 
 
 f);j:i,(i40 
 
 (11)0,4.10 
 
 Til tlia nppoar.inpc of the town, nml in the 
 Iniliits of the iH'ojile, the character of IJeH'a.st is 
 jiinio.st exclusively I'onnncrciulaiid inaunfuetnrinf;, 
 Tlierc are in it few of tlie liiiidetl arisiocracy; it.s 
 hijfher ehisses arc formed ehielly of those who 
 liave attained an elevated |iositi<.n in society by 
 their jiersonal exertions, or llio.se of their iiiinie- 
 diate ])ronenitor.s. There, is, therefore, little of 
 external show, but nnich of intenial comfort, in 
 their d(>niestie arrangements. The middling 
 classes enjoy all the comforts, and many of the 
 luxuries of civilisalion ; the workinj^ classes have 
 siitVered less from the iiressure of distress, arisiiifj 
 from temporary stoppafAcs of trade, or manufac- 
 tiiriii}; employment, than those of most of the 
 other ureat towns similarly circumstanced: on 
 the whole, there is to be seen here little of the 
 aspect of destitution which marks the suburbs of 
 most other Irish toAvns. The otlicial and other 
 documents, which h.ave sui)plied the data alreaily 
 given, slu.w, by a review of it.s condition at dif- 
 ferent jieriods, that it is stciulily and rapidly ad- 
 vniicin;;' in nianul'acturini,'', commercial, and 
 literary improvenu'iil. 
 
 lti.;i,FAsr, « sea-jiort town of the U. States, 
 Maiiie, on the IsW. angle of I'eiiobscot Day, 
 
 UKLOIUM (KINOBOM OF) 
 
 221 ni. NH. UoHton. Top. 7,0,V2 in IHC.l), It 1,11, 
 tin excellent harbour, ami is a thriviiif; town. 
 
 l(l',l.l''C)|{l), 11 market town and par. of V,])f(. 
 land, CO. Northumberland, llandiorouf{li wiml. 
 The par. I'oiitaiiiH '.),.'IH() acres, and liiul |,72| 
 inhab. in INtil, and (he town, l,()(>7. The lattir 
 is linely Hilnaleil on the ni'cKt •'"•ad from Vurk in 
 Kdinbnr^h, and has a siatioii on the Newiustlv 
 and Iterwick railway. 
 
 III'lLtiAlil), a town of rrn8sia,i)niv. ronicrnnia, 
 cap. circU', l(i in. SSW. Coeslin. Pop. l.ll.VJ in 
 \H{\i, 'I'he town is situated at the coutliu-nciMir 
 the I.eitnit/, with the I'ersante, and is ahnost en- 
 tirely surronmled by water. It has an old cibtlc 
 .'I churches, 2 hospitals, and fabrics of clotli, 
 
 liKKtiAUiM, an iiil. town of lliudostiui, |iri,v, 
 llejaiioor, presid, lloinbav, dislr. Darwar, in hsiiiiiII 
 subdivision of which il is the capital, 10,') m, 
 S\V. Ilejapoor, a,j in. N\V. Darwar; lat. I.")°rj2' N.j 
 h.iij;. "1° 12' I'".. Po^i. estimated at K,(loo. || i, 
 str(Oif;ly fortilied. with nia.ssive and solid walls, 
 ram|iarls Hanked by bastions, a broad ami dci'ii 
 ditch, and is surrounded by an esplanade. Its 
 interior is extensive, but covered with niiiis uf 
 native buildings, anion;{st which are two aiu'icnt 
 temples. This town is w(dl siiiiplied witli whIit, 
 and held out aj^^aiiist the Itritisli hxi^er than anv 
 other fjarrisoiied by the peishwa's forces; it was 
 however, taken in IHI.S. Th(> subdivision nl' 
 llelKiinm has a healthy (dimale; but idl eMenial 
 tnule is stopped for six months a year liy tlic 
 violence of the rains. A third jiart of the inlial.. 
 are Maharallas. and about one-sixth Molianoia.- 
 dans, one-eighth Jains, and one-niiilli Itraloiiins. 
 
 ItKI.tiKliN, a town of l'riis.-<ia. prov. Saxdiiy. 
 on the l'".lbe, 7 ni. SK. Torf;au, 011 the railway 
 from llerlin to Dresden. I'op. ;i,2li2 in iS'ii. 
 The (own is very nncient, has a hospital, ami a 
 town-house, before which is a trium|ilial coluinii. 
 It has some trade in corn. 
 
 JJKLOIOJO.SO, a town of Northern Italy, 
 prov. I'avia, ca]!. distr., '.) ni. E. I'avia, and il 
 111. SSK. Milan. Pop. il,(ili» in 18(!2. The b.wu 
 is situated in u fruitful plain, between the I'liaiid 
 the Ohaia; it is well built, has a innnmlici.iit 
 atpiednct, and a line, castle, in which Francis I. 
 spent the night subseipient to (he battle of I'avia. 
 
 IlKI.tUr.M (KlNtiDOAl OF) is situated k- 
 twcen F' ranee and Holland, and has been esia- 
 blished since the separation of its provinces from 
 (hose of Holland by the revtdiilion of l.^liO. is 
 territory is small as compared with the p-cat 
 European states, being only about one-ei^'liili el' 
 that of (ireat ISritain, while its ]iopulati(.n is 
 not nearly live millions. However, the iin)i(iri- 
 ant posi(i<.n which (his country has oeciipied in 
 the political, military, conmu'rcial, and ft,i;riciil- 
 tural history of Europe — its former celeliriiy in 
 inamifact ures and the line arts — and its present 
 rapid progress in every industrious jmrsuii ami 
 social imiirovenient, give it a iiecnliar interest. 
 
 Edtcitt. — Boundurivs. — Arm. — ludgiuni ex- 
 tends from 4i)0 27' to h\° Hi' Js'. lat. and I'n.in -P WT 
 to (i° E. long. On the N. the boundary line is 
 formed by Holland, along a line of .'iH(),(IO0 metres; 
 on the E. by Prussia, J{77,(I00 metres; ontlieS.liy 
 France, .^)!)iy(IO() metres; and on the E. by the 
 North Sea, tID.OOO mede.s. 
 
 The general outline of the lerritorj' forms a tri- 
 angular ligure, of which the longest side extcnth 
 on the frontier of F'rance, from a point midway 
 between F'urnes and Dunkirk to one t) 111. SL el" 
 Arlon, or b V.. from Loiigwy. 'J'he greatest leni;iii 
 of the territory t.f lielgiuni from N\V. to ISK. is 
 (!t leagues, of ■'),0I)0 metres, about ISI.'i Enj,'lisli 
 miles ; and the grciitest breadth from NK. to SW. 
 is 12 leagues, or about 127 miles. The whole area 
 
fwitnins 11,313 Engl. sq. m. 
 
 BKLGIUM (KINODOM OF) 
 or 7,3(Ja,U«2 KiikI. 
 
 lUTW. 
 
 riio kiiifftlotn con.slMts of nine proviiuws — Aiit- 
 Bcni ii» till' N., KnNt niid WcHt Fliiiulem nii<! Ilai- 
 iiHiilt ill till- \\'., Mrulmiit in lliu (■(intri', Liinbiir^ 
 aiiil I<i<%'v '" ''"' ''"• ^'"■■■»*' ■<> ('■<' •^•1 'tii'l I'Ux- 
 ,mliiir>f '11 '1'" '^''^ 'I'l"'''*' fomn-rly roiiHtiliitud 
 the iliicliv of llrnlmiit, tlin iniir((iusul(Mif Aiilwcr)), 
 tlicpriii('i|)ulitvof Liryi', llu!HiMf;iU'uri(!of Mffliliii, 
 ihr iioinU'!* of* l''laii(l(TH, Ilniimiilt, Loiivniu, and 
 Niinnir, and tin: dncliics of hindiurg and Lnxcni- 
 Imii. At the tinn'. of the Itiflgio revolnlioii, in 
 \KW, tliK nine provineeM of Kel^iuni f'tirnied, in 
 tciiiiuiK'tlon with tlioHo of Holland, the kingdom 
 (if I'lic Netherlands, which hy that, event was dis- 
 yiilvcil into the present kingdoniH of llolluiid und 
 D('l|,'iiini. 
 
 llninNclH is the capital, and seat of government, 
 fdf tiic nilniinistralion of which the kingdom is 
 iliviilc'il into the SI provinces ahove ennnieritled, 11 
 iirrdiiiiinsi'menlH, 98 towns, and 2,(ill) rural ciim- 
 iiiiiiics. For military pnrjioses it is divided into !( 
 (■iiiiiiimndcres, corresponduig to the 1) jmivinces: 
 ,iiul, liistly, for judicial imiccediiigs, it is divided 
 iutii '-'!' iirrnndisseineuts, and '2.'(7 (lantoiis. 
 
 Gtinriil Aniurt of the Coiinln/. — The north and 
 wpst prcivinccs of V.elgi.oii, in their tialness, fcr- 
 lilitv, ilyUcH, and canals, may be regarded as a 
 ('iiiiiiiiiiiitiiin of Holland, This portion of the 
 liiiyil'ini is HO densely peoph^d, that it jirescnts lo 
 Ik iraveller the a|)peHran<:e of one vast coiitinii- 
 (1118 village. The south and cast |)roviiu^es have 
 III! opiMisite character: they are geni^rally more 
 iliiiilv peopled, and less cultivated, and exhiliit a 
 inost'irrognlar, mountainous surface, with tracts of 
 marshy land, and extensive forests. With the 
 rxcrprion of these hilly districts in the south and 
 oiisljllie whole territory ))resents ii series of nearly 
 lovi'l plains, traversed hy numerous streams, de- 
 li;'litfiilly diversilied by woods, arable lauds, aiul 
 iiiiwlows of brilliant verdure, enirlosed by hedgc- 
 riiw trees, and thickly studded throughout with 
 itmnis ami -villages. 
 
 Ill surveying the general face of the country, and 
 [irwccding from W. to JC, we observe that the 
 I'liiKt is uniformly tlat, and fonncd «)f line loose 
 xiiiil, which, by the fretpicnt action of the sea 
 wiiiils, is raised inln gcntlj* undnhiting downs, or 
 rfiiMM. These banks of sand extend, nearly with- 
 out interruption, from Dunkirk, along the entire 
 cii;ists (if iJelgium and Holland. In breadth they 
 vary fnim one to three miles, and rise in the 
 lii;,'hpst parts to 40 or ftO feet. They are formed 
 oiiiircly l»y the operation of the sen winds, in elc- 
 Talinj;'tlic deep sands of the shore ; and since they 
 »r\'e as a natural barrier to the encroachments of 
 llic ocean, it is an object of great importance to 
 ilu'ck their constant tendency to advance inland. 
 Fur the purpose, therefore, of rendering the sand 
 ounipact and stationary, the dunes arc sown with 
 a jpocics of reed, arundii arenaria, until a sutHcieut 
 stratum of vegetable mould is collected to snjiport 
 lilantation's of iirs (Pinus iiiaritimiis), with which 
 mdst of the Hclgic dunes are thickly covered. 
 
 Though no part of the surface of Hclgium be 
 actually below the sea level, like that of Holland, 
 yet, in common with the latter, its shore, in some 
 larls, is defendecl from the encroachments of the 
 sialiy bioad and elevated dykes; and whole dis- 
 tricts, which formerly were alluvial moriusses, have 
 been ilrained and embanked, or have been gained 
 fiitirely from the bed of the ocean. Theemlianked 
 enclosures of this descri|)tion are called polders. On 
 ilicsca coast, and along the lower baidvs of the 
 Scliddt, they arc very numerous, anil some con- 
 win above 1,1)00 acres of rich alluvial soil, which 
 is appropriated with great advantage to the pur- 
 
 395 
 
 bu 
 
 jiosea of ngricuUurp, innler which liea<l will 
 found some further iicconni of thi^m. 
 
 To the SI'",, of the dimes the provinces of West 
 and I'last Flanders, and llninault, fnrni a far- 
 stretching plain, of which the luxuriant vegctii- 
 liiiii indicates the indcrutigiilde care and labuiir 
 bestowed upon its ciiltivatiiin ; for the natural soil 
 consists almost wholly nf barren saiol, and its great 
 fertility is entirely "the result of very skilful 
 management, and judicious ap|ilicatioii of varioiiB 
 mamires. 
 
 The nndiilatio'is in the surface of tin? northern 
 districts are so slight that, from the lofty top nf 
 the cathedral of Antwerp, the view, on aclearday, 
 exti'iids on every side over a radius of nearly M 
 miles, including, on the, !•',., the city of Tiiruhiuit; 
 on the W. that of (ilieiit; and on tin; S. the city 
 of Mechlin ; the whole panorama towards the W. 
 and S. displaying a beantil'iil succession of vividly 
 verdant (ields, varied by masses of wood, streams, 
 and pietiiresone villages. Around the cities of 
 Antwerp and ivlechlin are great nuinbers of elegant 
 and highly oniainented country mansions, lielniig- 
 ing to the wealthy classes. The northern parts 
 of the provinces of Antwerp and liimbiirg ari^ h'ss 
 varied and fertile! than any others. Tlie soil is 
 for the most jiart composed of pure sand, very 
 partially mixed with argillaceous earth. The 
 largest unbroken plain in the kingdom is called 
 (.'anipine, and comprises the NK. jiortion of Ant- 
 werp, and the NW. of Limbiirg. It consists of 
 marslies, desolate moors, pi^it bo^s, and extensive 
 tracts of sand, covered with heath, broom, and 
 stiintiMl Iirs, Some jiarls, however, contain nntiir.il 
 nrairies, and serve lor pasturage to herds of excel- 
 lent horses; and the portion of I/nnliiirg, near tin; 
 •maks of the iMeiise, is fertile and can^l'nlly culti- 
 vated. The scenic character of ISrabaut resembles 
 that of Flanders, with respect to its bimiitifiil 
 fields, and gardens, and luxuriant trees; but lliu 
 surface is more varii'd by hills and valleys. In tho 
 province of Liege the \. bank of the Mouse over- 
 looks a fertile plain, ]irodiicing all kinds of grain 
 and vegetables, and allording excellent pasturjigo 
 for cattle, and for ihiiry husbandry; but tin; 
 country on the S. bank of the river belongs to tb'j 
 mountainous district which constitutes the pro- 
 vinces of Luxemburg and Namnr. A part of this 
 comparatively wild and rugged region is covered 
 with dense forests, which still furnish an asyliiiii 
 for the wild boar, the roc-buck, the bear, and tie,! 
 wolf. 'I'hc surface is very irregularly varied, in 
 some jiarts by large tracts of barren heath and 
 marshy lands, ami in others by ridges of hills, 
 mantled on the sIoihw and summits with masses of 
 dark woods, and by precipitous rocks, whose bare, 
 escarpments form a striking contrast with tho 
 brilliant verdure of tho well-cultivated valleys 
 they enchise. The hills are often intersected in 
 dillereiit directions by deep ravines and rapid 
 streams; and the romantic beauty of the scenery 
 is much heightened by numerous ruins of old 
 feudal castles. The course of the Meuse, from 
 Dinant to Maestricht, olFers some very pietiiresqiiis 
 combinations of landscape and rock scenery. The. 
 river is closely shut in by h)fty dill's of various 
 hues, some of which are snrmoiinteil by ruins of 
 modern villas. Here they overhang the river and 
 are beautifully shrouded with bushes of box, wild 
 myrtle ami ivy; there they slope away to its 
 margin, or verticiilly are cleft asunder, and jireseiil, 
 through the chasm a delightful view of highly 
 cultivated farms and villages half hidden by trees 
 in the distant uplands. T'lie wild state of nature 
 ill iS'amiir, Liege, and Luxemburg; the various 
 fossil and mineral products; and the charms of the 
 scenery, have long made this piut of the country 
 
 
 
III:L0IUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 •MO 
 
 a lavourilo rcMirt <if tliti nntiinilist, llic jfOdloKUt, 
 tiiiil tint naiiitcr. All nniiiiiil llit- city of liicKc, ninl 
 till! (■i'icl)riilc(l HpniigN (if S|iH, (iriwiiiiciiliil villitH of 
 tlui rii^li nri> thickly Hlationcd, wlicrc vincyiinlM 
 «i(Tii|iy the tIcclivitii'M of tlio hillK,uii(l liop-^ttriluiiH 
 lloiirHli ill lliu viillcyH. 
 
 < 'li unite, — MftmroliMiif, — 'riu'Vlimnto of nclKiiiin 
 iM Ifss t'liilly iiiul (liini|i, mill nmro l<'ni|)*'rat(> and 
 faviiiiraliUt to health, liiaii tiial of lloliniul; Imw- 
 Hvcr, it in certainly hiiniiil, eoin|iarei| with l'"raiice 
 mill (iemiaiiy, ami may he eniisiilereil aM very 
 Hiiiiiiar to I'jiKlanil, except that it is Ntill nmre 
 Hiilijccl to freciiieiit varialimiN, with a teinieiicv to 
 tiXi'esM. 'I'lie jirovinces ililVer coiisiileralily in the 
 fliaracler of tlieir ainiospliere. In ^a-netal, the 
 nir in the mont elevated ceiitiiil and Sl'^. dislricls 
 is clear, fresli, and HaliiliriiuiH ; lull in the low 
 N\V. ]ilainH it is damp and ha/.y. In the Pro- 
 vinces of rianders and Antwerp llie N\V. winds 
 I'niin the sea produce a cold and nnp'iiial tenipera- 
 lin'e Ihroufrhont iIk; M'inler, which is loni; and 
 ol'leii wet ; and their iiilliionco npnii the currents 
 «if the rivers, which are wholly nnslieltcrcd hy 
 liills, renders tlu- adjacont eonuiry liahle to dis- 
 astrous inundalions. The ^'reat ntmospherical 
 luimiilily produced l>y fogs from the sea, and the 
 iinwholesonie miasmata exhaled from exteiisivo 
 tracts of low marshy and alluvial hinds, enclosed 
 bydvkesinid dili'hes, and from almost stagnant 
 ••anals, occasion aininal visiialions of daugeroin 
 fevers. The neighliourliood of Fumes, in West 
 J'Manders, is rendered especially sickly by the 
 malaria from these sources. The )>rovinces of 
 liainaiilt, Namiir, and Luxemliurg are accounlcd 
 most worthy of iireferencc, with regard to healthi- 
 ness; and the two Flanders, though tirst in culli- 
 \alion, must, in point of saluhrity, he placed last. 
 'I'Ik^ air of the ladders is generally mihcaltliy, and 
 all'ecis those not inured to it with fever and ague. 
 Sjieaking of the whole kingdom, it may be stated 
 that the winter, or rather the rainy season, iifteii 
 comes on ])recocionsly and coiilinues late ; and 
 that the summers are either very hot and <lry, or 
 ••xtreuiely wet. November and April arc nearly 
 always rainy ; the transitions of temperature are 
 frequent and sudden, so that in the same day arc 
 ('xperieiiccd o]iprcssivc "xtremes of heat and tiold. 
 The most violent winds are from the SW., ami 
 the most frequent from the X.aiid the W. A W. 
 •wind most freipiently, and F.. wind most rarely, 
 brings on rain. From observations made at Hrns- 
 sels (luring three successive years, the medium 
 height of rain which fell in one year was (ililJ 
 millimetres; the extremes were 7(!I and .'ill. 
 The number of rainy days averages 170. The 
 medium temperature of the year is lO'iVi centi- 
 grammes, and it is well represented by that of 
 October and Ajiril. The temperature of the 
 lioitest month is HP 'M', and of the coldest 0° 
 JS.V; dilference, 10° .M'. 
 
 Jtloiivluiiis. — No elevation in Ik'igium is pro- 
 perlv entitled to the appellalion of mountain. A 
 nnnitieation of the chain of the Ardennes ex- 
 tends in a Nl']. direction through Luxemburg, 
 Naimir, and Liege, and forms a mountainous 
 «rcst, which separates the waters of the Meusc 
 from those of the Moselle, towarils each of which 
 it gradually descends. Another oli'shoot of the 
 Ardennes rises parallel with this, on the N. banks 
 of the Sombre and Meuse, between Slons and 
 SLiestricht. The highest iioints of elevation are 
 about 'i.'idd ft. above the sea; and one of these is 
 the hill which overlooks the celebrated springs 
 
 the eoMimoii trees of F.iiropc nro nhnndaiit; aiih,. 
 oak, poplar, pine, llr, larch, ash, beech, h,,,.,!,. 
 aspen, plane, linden or lime, eheslinil, hirrli, d,,,' 
 alder, and numerous others. I'hmlalioiis li>rli(i||] 
 poles, oak bark, and lirewood, occur fri'iiiKntiv 
 throiighont tlu; western provinces, liainaiilt lui, 
 several !'orests of line oaks; but by far tlii> im,,! 
 thickly wooded provinces are N'amiir and l.iixiin- 
 biirg ill many parts of whii'h the soil is Ic^ fcr- 
 lile, and bi'lier adapted for the growth of limiH,. 
 trees than for the cull ival ion of corn anil gra,-M«, 
 The forests belonging to the stale, to thr niin- 
 innnes, and public iiiHiitutions, occupy |<t|,iiiii| 
 hectares, and are siibmitted to an e'siaMi>|i(.,| 
 svsiem of public management. From ihc n.ii; 
 liliiberof the forests of Luxemburg are ileriviil 
 iiinneiise supplies of charcoal for the irnii-wurki 
 ill that part of the country. The bark fdrim a 
 eonsiderabli! branch of commerce, and is priiici- 
 pally exported to l'',nglanil. 
 
 The forest of Soignies, iM-tweeii Ilriisscls nnd 
 Waterloo, so interestingly associated with tlic n,,.. 
 morable battle in that locality, is !l m. in li ii<;i|| 
 hy H ill breadth, and contains II,!IH:I hi'ctiiri's%r 
 2!>,l>l I acres. The timber is valuable for iMiiUln.', 
 and n thousand acres of it are ]iossessi'il hv thi' 
 family of the Puke of A\'ellington, granicil in ih,. 
 late duke in connection with his tide of I'rim'oof 
 Waterloo. The forests in the )irovinces nf Nuiniir, 
 Liege, and Luxemburg, are remains ot llic m'. 
 liiense aiieieiit forest of Ardennes, which cnvcn',! 
 a vast extent of the country between Ituini mi'l 
 IJheims, aswe learn from the great Itomaii iiiiilidr, 
 'Sylva Ariluemia, ([iiie ingenti magniiiiilinc ii 
 Ihnuine Kheiio ad initinm Iihemoruin |ii'riiiii'i.' 
 (Cies. (."oiii. V. it.) The romantic forest of St. Hu- 
 bert, on the W. side of the province of Liixcm!iiir„', 
 between Marche and Nenlchateaii, is the scene (.f 
 Shaks])eare's ' Forest of Ardcn.' A general wikmIv 
 appearnnce is given to even the most ciiliiv.itcil 
 parts of lielginm, by the custom of philitiii;; lrii< 
 in the hedge enclosures of the tlelils; the prinii|iiil 
 roads are also lined by double rows of iniije>tii' 
 lindens, and the canals are usually sliadeilliy"riiw< 
 of ])oplars, beeches, and willims. The liel;,'i,iii 
 liroprietors of land derive a large and seeiiu' in- 
 come from the produce of timber anil iuiiler>\(n»l, 
 independent ol rent ; and ]dantiiig is, tlieret'nrc 
 sometimes prosecuted to a greater extent by ilie 
 landlords than is consistent with the ciiiivenienii' 
 and advantage of the occupiers of furnis. Tho 
 latter, however, are re:nuneratcil by the use of a 
 certain share of the wood. 
 
 F.xtciisive arlilicial woods of Scolch piiip .in' 
 created by sowing about six jioniids of sceil in.iii 
 acre, generally on the ))oorest soil, which is pre- 
 pared by burning the heathy surface, and sciiiiir- 
 mg tlie ashes. ]n six years many barron tnun 
 are coiivcrled, in this way, to tloiirishiug |i1iiiim- 
 tions of lirs, from 5 to !) ft. in height. Tlie pri- 
 scrval ion of trees is very strictlv eiij' liiicil, not i.iily 
 by ]OMin-ieti)rs, but by the goverinneiit. Kviry 
 farmer is compelled t\> destroy caterpillars, mil 
 remove every other cause of injury to tliclreesin 
 his ))rcinises. All the trees on tlie piiblif roads. 
 besides those of the numerous royal forcsls. IhImi',' 
 to the govctninent, and the laws fur their iii.-iniiu'i- 
 ment are enforced with great vigilance liy in- 
 spectors appointed for that purpose. 
 
 Jiircrs. — nelgium is one of the most eflioieiilly 
 watered countries in F.nrope. All its .•ftrcaiiH 1k- 
 long to the North Sea. The Scheldt, in tlieW., 
 ami the lleiise, in tJic F., can alone lie |irii|pi'riy 
 denominated rivers. They traverse the kinploni j 
 goner.illv in a direction from N. to S. Tliero m \ 
 
 and town of Spa. 
 
 lort-sts and lyimh. — A space of nearly f>,")0,OnO 
 hectares, or one fifth tif the whole .surface of the ' about forty rivers ami rivulet.s, which fnnii l!:i 
 kingdom, is covered with forests and woods. All j lateral branches of these two principal streains 
 
Innt i t» till. 
 
 I, l)irrli, , lin, 
 idiis fur li(i|i. 
 r t'rc(|iii'iitly 
 liiiiiimlt \uU 
 I'lir llic iii.i-i 
 anil l.uxciii. 
 lil is li'>s I'cr- 
 ili III' rnnl»r 
 
 ami j,'ra>«(«, 
 
 Ik llii' I'din- 
 •upy I'.il.nou 
 1 «'stalili>ticil 
 "rum ilic iiali 
 ; arc ilcriviil 
 u^ irciii-wiirU 
 liark fnriii'* ,i 
 mil is |iriiiii- 
 
 HrnHsrls and 
 I wiili tlic nii'- 
 .) ni. ill li'iiKth 
 
 <'.\ Ill'l'tlirt'S, nf 
 
 If lor Imililiii;,', 
 MscsM'il by till' 
 (^raiilril III llii' 
 U'. Ill' I'riiii'c 111' 
 ii'os 111' Niiiiuir, 
 ins 111 till' ini- 
 wliirli riiviTr.l 
 ci'n lliiMii uu<l 
 INiinan iiutlmr, 
 niaK'nlluiHiic ii 
 oruni iHTiiiici.' 
 iri'st 111' Si. llu- 
 ol' Lnxiailmr^', 
 is I he sci'iii'iif 
 V jicncral womly 
 must I'lillivatcl 
 if iilniitinj; Inv. 
 s; the imm'i]i;il 
 )ws of iniiji'stii' 
 lailwl liy rim< 
 'I'lie lii'lt;iiiii 
 
 anil si'ciin' iu- 
 iiiiil lln^U'r^VlHlll, 
 i-i, tlifri'l'iirc. 
 
 c'Xtoiil liy ilie 
 convi'iiifiirf 
 farms. Tin' 
 
 ly tlie use III 11 
 
 I'otrli iiiup an' 
 of si'i'd til ail 
 wliii'li is jTc- 
 iT, ami soalKT- 
 liiuTon Irarn 
 -liii'.^' iilimia- 
 {llit. Till' pn- 
 linril.iioti'iily 
 lUKMit. Kviry 
 atcrjiillars, mil 
 to the trees I'll 
 imlilio ruails, 
 1 fori'sts.lieliini 
 r tlit'ir iMiiiiiip- 
 p-ilaucc by in- 
 most nliolenlly 
 its streams i*- 
 jildt, in theW.. 
 Ine lie iif"!"'")' i 
 lie the liin.u'doni I 
 1) S. Tliere arc | 
 \]\\v\\ fimii I'lo 
 icipal stream'; 
 
 BELOIUM (K 
 
 Imt ihotiK'i •'>*'••■ "lility, in ftTlilisinj; the noil liy 
 irriptii""' "ii<l '"^ lt'<'il<TH of cMnals, is liiKlily im- 
 
 if,„„i, tiny <'aii lianlly l>o cutit It'll in s|icri/il 
 iiiilii'i' ill )> ji*'"*''''^ uccoimt of iliu iiliyHical I'l'aluri's 
 „f the territory. 
 
 The Sehclilt risps In Frnnro; Hows tlir.Mi|;li 
 t'liialiniv, N'ali'iieifiines, unit CoiiiUi; ami eiiliTs 
 llcJL'iuiii on it« eontliicnee with the Scariie, n (v\\ 
 niili'sS, of 'loum.'iy ; tlirouKh which town i( imssi's, 
 anil imfsneH a iinrtherlv eiinrso to (Ihi-nt, where it 
 p.,i'ivi's the l.yi*. 'rfienee it Hows torlnonsly In 
 '|',,|.,iii,nil(', wheiiee, Inrninj; nnrthwanl, it is aiii,'- 
 „ii,iii(.(| liy lar^cc Iriluilary slri'anis on faeh siilc, 
 jii,| ln'iiimes, lii'fore the walls of Aniwi'r|i, a nia- 
 ji.|ie river. i."i"> I'l. in width, anil iia\ lj;alili' for 
 'llirlsijf llielai^resl shi|is. Till' IciiKth of its cunr-ii' i 
 ill lli'l^;iiim is "Ji".'.'!!'!) nictri's, anil the npiicr lialf, 
 ;iiiil seviral of its allhients, arc iiavi;,Mli'il liy lioais [ 
 III •jiiil lulls. The Mi'iiso also rists in France, ami i 
 (iitirs lli'li;iiini on I he S. of l>inant, thriMi;;'li whiili ! 
 tiwii it ijiiws III Nainnr, wlu're it rccci\t's ihc | 
 ..iiilire; then lurninjjcastwanl it passes Anileniif 
 iiml Iliiy. Ill Ihe eily of Lici^i': there rcsiiininjj; its ; 
 iiiirllieriy eonrse, it eotitiniii'.s through Maeslricht, j 
 aiiilwiiiil^ across the N\V. of Liniliiir^^ into llol- ' 
 land iiial f'e Nurth Sea. 'ITie len^lh of its course , 
 ill |li'l},'iiim is almiit lili.OlM) metres. It is iiavi- j 
 1,'ateil liy lar^'e stroiij,' Imats, from 100 to 150 Ions. 
 Ffiiiii llie^'e to Venlno the lnlvi^^■ltilln is parlicn- ! 
 |;iri\ililUeiilt. The allhients of the Meiise at hicfre j 
 licOTiiil in some iiarts of iheir courses at an aii^ile | 
 (,l 'liio, anil Ihe loiiK narrow lioats, which shoot 
 lUii with the velocity of an arrow, are ilrawii «|i 
 l,vrii|ieH anil pulleys. The |irineipal iitlliients of 
 till' Sehelilt, on the K., are Ihe l)enilr<>, and the 
 S'liMo, Dyle, Geete, Donior, and Net he, which 
 miiie lieliiw Mechlin, and How into the Scheldt, 
 inlheeliannelof the linpel. On the W. it receives 
 tlie Lys and Dunne, mid cointiuinicateH with .se- 
 veral canals. 
 
 (If these rivers, lieliinRinfc to the liasiii of the 
 Silu'lilt, the followiii}; are each navi^^ublu to the 
 fxteat expressed in metres: — ' 
 
 Tlii'Domcr, In LimlmrR and Uniliant . , 31,000 
 
 Jii'iiilrC', „ Hulnaiilt ami East I'Manders . «7,tir)i> 
 
 Dunuo, „ West rianilurs .... a'J.'JOO 
 
 Dyle, „ Brttliant nml Antwerp . . 22.20(» 
 
 Seholdt, „ Ilainanlt, K. Klaiiil. & Antwerp 21'.',ooo 
 
 Lys, „ West iiiul East FIiiiulerB . . 'JO.OOO 
 
 Nctiie, „ Limbnrg and Antwerp . . 1!I,(M)0 
 
 Riipcl, „ Antwerp 12,000 
 
 Tlio Mouse on the E. is joined by the Semoy, 
 Lf<sp, Ourthe, Amlileve, Vesdre, and K'uer, ami 
 im the W. by the Sanibre, Jaar, and several 
 smaller streams. 
 
 Tlie rivers beloiif^ing to tlic basiii of the Mcuse 
 are navigable as follows : — 
 
 Tlie Mcuse, in Namnr, LieRC, and Limbnrg . 12(>,000 
 
 Ourthe, „ Luxcnibiirtr mid l.ii'Ko . . 102,000 
 
 Snmbro, „ Hiiimiult and Uamur . . !M,:i--)ii 
 
 Veslre, „ I.ieKO HO,OIIO 
 
 Ambleve„Lieb'o 10,000 
 
 Tlie Our, Sure, and Azelte, in Luxembiirfi;, flow 
 into the Moselle, near the town of Treves, and 
 kloiig to the basin of the IJhine. The Sure is 
 iiavi;;iible in Hcl^inin 52,000 metres, the JMoselle 
 ;i:.ii(ll). and the Yser 41,510. The total length of 
 naviftiihlc rivers is !)02,7'l(i nit^trcs. 
 
 Gtihyy.— Mineral Froducts. — West nnd F.ast 
 Flanders are composed of horizontal strata of 
 ivliite, yellow, and prey sand, and olay, separate, 
 Mil mixed in different proportions. >Vheii the 
 siratum of sand forms the surface, the soil is arid, 
 ami of lUIHcult cultivation ; and it is rich and 
 firiile in proportion to the depth at which the 
 FamI lies helow the vegetable deposit. N unionms 
 tills of turf prove the liucicut existence of marshes. 
 
 INdDOM OF) 807 
 
 The only minrrnl product of these pn>vinren In 
 clay, for Ihe manufai'lnre of tiles, bricks, |Miltery, 
 and pipes. In some localities it contains oxide of 
 iron. The sand Ml rat iim, in \V. and K. Flanders, 
 is dee|i, and constitutes one fourth of the area. In 
 deep wells, desccudiug to the priiuilive granite, 
 allcrnnle bi^ds of sand and clay are foiiiKl mixed 
 with nnirine shidls, which are evidently deposits 
 of ih)> iH'can, and prove that, in remote ages, (bin 
 whole region was submerged under its waters. 
 Four or eight feet below the surface, where it i^ 
 of clay, are the beds of neat or turf, varying in 
 
 depth from T to 12 ft, I'o the i rer classes it 
 
 supplies a chcaji fuel, and its ashes, mixed witli 
 sami, are much used as a very siiii'i'^sfnl in; niiri! 
 for I'luvcr and grains. Turf is also produced |)|imi- 
 tifiilly in the proviiici; of i.uxciiiliiirg, and ill 
 several other parts of the Uiiigdoin. Silicioiis 
 pi'bblis, agates, chalceiliins, and red enrnelians, are 
 foniid in the snihI and clay of F. FlamU'i's, and 
 many vegetable and animal pitrifii'tinns. .\nmng 
 the lallir arc large anileis of deer, and horns of 
 oxen ; with bones of tlic horse, ox, dog, and wolf. 
 Vi'gi'tablc fossils, consisting of various pro(|uctions 
 of the soil, are frcipiently olilained by the pcjiiantH 
 for fuel. They include iiumerous trunks of the 
 oak and ash, which are hard, black, and polisbable, 
 and yield red ashes in combustion. The geolo- 
 gical character of the ]irovince of Antwerp and of 
 the N. part of Itrabant, is similar to that of tin) 
 western region; and the ocean apparcntlv onco 
 covered the whole northern half of the kingdom, a'l 
 well as the jilains of the W., for the hill on which 
 Urnsscls is liuilt contains many marine remains. 
 
 The rock strata of Ilainault exhibit three suc- 
 cessive formations : the tirst, or lowest, is com- 
 posed of por|diyry and quart/, ; thi! seioiid of 
 calrareous earths, coal, and schist i ; and the third 
 comprehends argillaceous earth, with deep dcpuf'itH 
 of sand, and various liebris. 
 
 Ill the high soulh-eastern disfrii'ts strata of red 
 sandstone and limestone, containing organic re- 
 mains, are incumbent u|ioii rocks of granite, ipiartx, 
 and slaty scliisti. which have generally an incli- 
 nation or dip from NF. to S\V,' Descending 
 thence towards the NW,, the rocks of samhtonc, 
 limestoiio, qiinrtz, nnd schisli, containing vast 
 beds of unthraeite, form a basin extending about. 
 40 m, around tiie city of Namur, The strata of 
 these rocks are often nearly vertical, so that tins 
 large coal pits in the vicinity of Namur and SIoiis 
 require to be worked by shafts resembling welis. 
 Namur produces, besides coal, abundance of car- 
 bonated lime, silex, excellent clays for the maiiii- 
 factiire of imrcelain, comnion pottery, and pipes, 
 and n sand from which crystal is obtained. Pebbles 
 susceptible of a beautiful polish are found about 
 Fleurus, The S. and 1''. portions of Helgium, 
 coinpreheuding Ilainault, Namur, Luxemburg, 
 and Liege, arc cs]iecially interesting to the mine- 
 ralogist, as containing almost every article in the 
 geological inventory, especially iron, coal, marble, 
 various kinds of stone nnd slate, copper, lead, zinc, 
 manganese, calamine, sulphur, alum, »S,'c. Curious 
 animal fossils are found in the province of Liege, 
 where mimeroiis caverns in the hills furnish bones 
 of the hear, hyiena, elephant, rhinoceros, nnd frag- 
 ments of the human skeleton. Near Maestricht 
 is a subterranean labj'rinth, extending several 
 miles in length and breadth, in rocks of soft 
 yellow stone under the hill of St. Peter, where arc 
 foimd the shells of large crabs and turtles, and 
 the bones of gigantic lizards above 20 ft. in length. 
 The numerous rocky valleys, by which the south- 
 eastern half of the territory is intersected, have 
 apparently been formed, not by the coiTosivo 
 action of water, but disruption of rocks, which 
 
308 HKLOIUM (K 
 
 Hiiliwqiirntly nn'iirilrtl clmnDoU for tlio prcMcnt 
 rivcrH iiiiil KimiiiiN, At lhi> villiif^o nf linn, mi llj<> 
 rivtT Lc^Nr (llaiiHiir-l.cM.Hc). in llif SI'l. nC Nunnir, 
 iin iinnicnM' nivcin cxIcikIn nearly ii niili' ilirniiuli 
 the liint'HtiiHo rock, anti lornis ilii> hiililcrrani'ous 
 clianncl of the hextc, 'I'lut nMnicroim anil N|itii'ionrt 
 <-oni|iartni('ntM of this rcinarkai)lt> eavern are nalu- 
 rally ornamented with chixters of ^'listenint; Hta- 
 hii'tileH, mill otter eoinliiiiiitionH of the )^'riite.x(|ue 
 anil wonilerfiil that reinimt the H|ieelatiir of the 
 ri'Irliraleil i;rotto of Antl|iaroH, Seieiitilii' lie- 
 Ki'ri|iliiiiis of it have heeii ^rivvn hy (^uetelet, Kikx, 
 anil Vanilennaeleii, 
 
 The wiirkin^j of minex eoiisiitnteH n most ini|ior- 
 tant |iiirl of llie nalioiiul iiuhislry of ItelKinni. 
 The ininiii;; ilistricts fiirni Ihrer (livi^<i()nH of the 
 terrilory. 'I'he llr^l is in the |iniviiice uf llainanlt; 
 the seconil, in the iirovinics of Nainiir anil Lnx- 
 (iiilinr^; anil the liiinl, in the ]iro\ine('.s of Me^e 
 iinil Liniliiir/^r, The total nnnilier of inineM, in the 
 year iMti'.', anionnteil to I,,'in;|, of uhicli iiniiiher 
 I'.li'i weri' eoal inineH, 'I'hey eoveran area of lll..'iHI 
 lieetareH, and n'lw. oei'n|ialioii Id 77. ".".'.'t workers, 
 iiu'lndiii),' lv!,720 voiiien. In estiinalinj; the rela- 
 tive value of the mineral iiroihicls of Itel^rinm.eoal 
 nnisl lie eonsidereil lirst in order, and of the lii^hest 
 iiuliunal im|ii>rlani'e, as fnrnishin^ the greatest 
 amiiMiit of ailvantap'stotlu'i'onntiy, Thishranch 
 of indnsiry is in full |iros|ierity, and its immense 
 ]irodni'e ani|ily sniiiilies the maniifaetnrin;; and 
 duniestio eonsiiinpliiin of Ilie kingdom, and is 
 Jarp'ly exiiorted to Franee. The anniiul (iiiantit^' 
 extracted from the eoal tielilH of llainanlt alone im 
 ]ar;;er tlinn tlic whole ])roiluce of Franee. The 
 three ;;reat centres of the coal mines, wliich are at 
 ]Miins, Charleroi, and the city of Liege, iiroduce 
 annnally ahove '1,()II(I,(|(||| tons. 
 
 Snhjoined is u comparative statement of IIk; 
 f|nantity and value of the mineral and iniiicralnr- 
 f^icjiliirodnceof liel^inin during the year IJSli'i, The 
 (|ii.'intity is given in 'metrical' tons, each weighing 
 tliirly-six ponnils loss than an I'jiglisli ton : — 
 
 I'ruUuGO 
 
 Coal . . . 
 Iron Ore, wnslicd 
 Pyrites . 
 Blende . . 
 Calamine , . 
 Galcno.LcailOro 
 
 I tons . 
 1 francs . 
 
 J tOI18 
 
 ( francs . 
 ( tons 
 t francs . 
 J til • . 
 ( francs . 
 ( tons 
 ( franc 
 J toil 
 tfra 
 
 rancs , 
 ' tons 
 raiica , 
 
 Total Value of Minerals 
 
 Tax on Mines 
 
 Iron, Cast and 
 Wrought 
 
 Steel . . . 
 
 Lead . . . 
 
 Copper . < 
 
 Zinc . I • 
 
 Alum . 
 Glass 
 
 Total Mineralur- 
 gical l^roduco 
 
 J tons . 
 ( francs . 
 ( tons . 
 I francs . 
 ( tons . 
 
 francs . 
 
 tons . 
 aiics . 
 ( tons . 
 1 francs . 
 J tons 
 1 francs . 
 
 francs. 
 
 ■ tons 
 
 (to 
 tfv 
 
 Jlincral & Jfinoral- 1 - 
 nr-iculTi)tal Value, ™"^ 
 
 Year IHU2 
 
 0,(!I0,8!tr, 
 
 107,1-.'7,L'82 
 
 «ll!t,17(! 
 
 7,74H.(i:):l 
 
 4-.V.I:t 
 
 l,-jr>:l,10!) 
 
 17, 284 
 
 8:i4,-J(i;J 
 
 4H.857 
 
 2,i'.M,m!i) 
 
 !»,!t.HO 
 l,B0(i,2L'8 
 
 l'.'(),(l!J3,484 
 
 495,844 
 
 r.!)l.(i:i;i 
 
 81,ll7a,8(i7 
 
 ;!,17-i 
 
 84!»,(HK) 
 
 4, 1 OK 
 
 1,801,!)87 
 
 1 ,004 
 
 2,n94,:j80 
 
 4r),4.'>7 
 
 24,5:i4,(i7a 
 
 1,172 
 
 2:i3,20(i 
 
 18,ril2,0IH) 
 
 12!),C!)9,n3 
 
 2.'',0,292,:.97 
 
 I NO DOM OF) 
 
 MincH of iron are nnmerniis, rf>p<<rin1lv in tih- 
 district Ix'tweeii the .Saiiihre nnd the Miiih'; m,,! 
 many are worked in the |iriivinccs of l.uMiniinr' 
 l.iige, and l.imlmrg. In (|nalily the iiuiaj nwm 
 hies that of France, lint the price is lower, Cniiur 
 is found in the (irovineeM of llainanlt ami Lie,.,, . 
 and lead in I, lege, Naiiinr, and I.nxeinhiir;;. T||,, 
 lead mine of l.ongvilly, in Liixeuihurg, i^ |||,. 
 largest in the kingdom. Zinc is olitaineil i,, 
 Namiiranil llainanlt; manganese in l.iigr; aii'l 
 liyriles. calamine, milphur, and ahiin, in .Namui 
 and liiege. 
 
 The region inehideil botwoon tlio fViintlir i,f 
 France and a line drawn from Ostein! to Arlmi, jn 
 the ,S. of I.nxeinlinrg. alioimds in exiclleiu inji- 
 tcrials for Imilding — freestone, liinesione, graiiii,., 
 paving slalis, slates, A-e. : there are also niiiiiv 
 iinarries of excellent marlile of various kiii,|i.. 
 The lilack marlile of Diiiant is highly valind, himJ 
 a species called /hYiVc (/niiilti; in \vhicli arc tniiini 
 many mariiu' organic remains. .Snperinr lar .• 
 slates ari' (piarried in the provinces of Nainnranil 
 Liixemlinrg. At llerliemont, a little to tlie\V,i,|' 
 Dinant, is the most important slate (pairry in ili>' 
 kingdom, prodncing annually ahove 8,01111,111111 
 slates. Sandstone is quarried in I. lege ami Ijni- 
 hnrg, hill chielly in llainanlt. Ample siippliisni' 
 excellent millstones, grindstones, and wlicisinnis 
 are furnished from the stone quarries of l.iep. and 
 Lnxemliiirg: nnd the hones from the quarries ni.;ir 
 .S]ia are not exceeded in (juality hy any in Kiiriiiic, 
 to all parts of which tliey are exported. 
 
 Atinvrul WaterH, — Itelgiiiin possesses wvpral 
 springs of niedicinnl mineral waters. TIiom' of 
 Spu on the ^SVV. of the city of Liege, are cclp- 
 lirated tlirongliont Kurope. They issue fmni seven 
 dill'erent sources, of which the one iinmeil ilm 
 I'onlion is the principal. The water is pcrt'eelly 
 clear, hut gives, after standing, a slight deposit nf 
 ochre. It has un acid, ferruginous taste, and Imli- 
 hles of gas continually escape at the siirliice. Tln' 
 qinintilies of iron and carhonic acid which it Imlils 
 in solution are greater than in any orhcr known 
 mineral water. Its tcmiierature is.'joo Fnlir., nml 
 the sjiccilic wi^ight l-OOdilH. Niimennis maliiiliei 
 are believed to lie removed by using it for drink- 
 ing and bathing. About a thousand hottlesnf it nn^ 
 daily sent to foreign parts, nnd the anmial nnnilKT 
 of visitants at the spring amounts to hetweeii two 
 and three thousand. The establishments for tluir 
 accommodnt ion are coiivciiieiit and elegant; ami 
 the Hcenery of the vicinity affords ample aiiinsc- 
 nient for the admirers of the picturesiiue ; Imt as 
 Spa is the favourite resort of speculating ami 
 reckless votaries of fashion, it is too true tliat tlic 
 aiithorised system of gambling produces a great 
 amount of evil to op|)ose to the good tll'ecteil Uy 
 the virtues of the water. 
 
 The hot sjirings of t'haudfontainc, in the same 
 locality, but nearer to Liege, are also much visileil, 
 and others at Alorimont, near Nannir. At the 
 ancient town of Tongres, near Maestriclit, is a 
 mineral fmintnin of a temperature almnt (io°. 
 riiny thus describes it, and it still retains iti 
 ancient properties : — ' Tinigri, civitas tiailiiv, 
 fontem hnbet insigncm, ])lunlius hullis stillHiilem, 
 ferruginei saporis quod ipsum iion nisi in line 
 ]iotiis intelligitiir. I'urgat hie corpora, tcrtianiij 
 iebres discutit, calculorumque vitia.' 
 
 Animal Prvdurtitms. — All the domestic animnl! 
 of the other countries of luirojje arc found in I'el- 
 giiim. Among the wild animals are a few Imars, 
 roebucks, bears, and wolves, which still find refu^'e 
 in the immense forests of Liixeinburg. Foxes are 
 not numerous, but all the common kinds of pinu'. 
 quadrupeds, .ind birds, are ])lentiful in the wihkIv 
 parts oi" the country ; especially in JJamur, Lux- 
 
'inlly in tli.' 
 
 I-iiMrii!iiirL'. 
 iii'iiil ri'iicni 
 
 iVIT. rnl,i»r 
 
 t mill l.icp ■, 
 iil'iirn. Till' 
 il'iirtc, U 111,. 
 tilitaiiicil ill 
 l'i<W : iiivl 
 I) ill Niiimir 
 
 > friiiiliir (if 
 I In Arliiii. ill 
 .sTcllcnt 111,1- 
 liiiic, uraiiiii', 
 ' iilsii iniiiiy 
 iiriiiiH kiii(|«. 
 k' viiliK'iJ, niid 
 iiii iii'c t'liiiihl 
 ii|«'ri(ir lar^;.' 
 il' Niiniiir ami 
 
 !■ Ic. IllcW.hf 
 
 (|mirry in tin. 
 
 iVl^ X',(HIII,IIIII| 
 
 I'K*' iiii'i l.ini- 
 
 |ll(' Sll|l|llil'S (if 
 111 \vllClSllp|||,< 
 
 i u( Licp' ami 
 [• (iimrriis ni'ar 
 mv in Kumin', 
 •tod. 
 
 iHcsHoa wvor.il 
 i'W. TIkisc (if 
 ,it'f;o, MV ci'le- 
 siic from seven 
 lu- iiiinu'il till! 
 cr ift iicrfeeily 
 ijilht (U'|iiisii iif 
 lastp, anil luili- 
 ic siiriiii't'. The 
 wliicli it lidliU 
 iirher kiiuwii 
 fjOO l''nlir., nml 
 rinis mnliiilii.s 
 1}; it fur ilrink- 
 liottlfsiifitnn' 
 iinuial niinilKT 
 o lift ween twn 
 incuts fur their 
 (•li'j;aiit ; nml 
 ini|il« amiise- 
 ircsiiiie ; but iw 
 it'i'iilntiiij,' ami 
 |o true llialtlie 
 (iilut't'« a great 
 mil ctl'ectcil by 
 
 |c, in tlip .«,imc 
 iiuiidivisiieil, 
 Imiiir. At the 
 laosiriclit, is a 
 Ve aliDiit liii°, 
 iill rctaiiw tU 
 nvitas tiallia', 
 llUs stillanU'in, 
 li nisi in line 
 jpora, tertiaiub 
 J ) 
 
 Incstic animala 
 ■ t'liund in liel- 
 Iro a f(W liiiiir*. 
 Itilllinilrcfiyi' 
 nrj!;. Foxes are 
 Ikiuilsof^'aiiii'. 
 Il in the woikIv 
 iKamur, bix- 
 
 BELOItTM (K 
 
 i.mhnrc, M''?*'. i""' I.iiiiliiirir. 'Vht' ln'iittiM of 
 ViTviiTi. in II"' priivinii' nf I/k'j;p, art! liclirvnl to 
 li,, the iiulv "I"'! !'■ I'°<iir>i|ii- wlii'rc iIk' ^'riiil. Iii'iitli 
 nick, V"'"' ''"'/ ''•' /"'",'/' '"'i "'"11 l'<' r<Miiiil. 
 
 H„'r»e*. — {''liiiiilcr.-* lias Imi;; liccii rainoiis tor its 
 lirei'il III' ivork-lioi'st's, ami liy llirir l'r('i|iii'iit ini- 
 i«irliiliiiii ill*"' KiiK'l"ii'l. "i" l'".iiH;lisli ilraiinlit lioi'si' 
 iree'l 111!'* '"^'''" ii>ii"'li iiii|iriiv('il. 'I'liii SiitVolk 
 .,iiii,.li.|iiirs(i very lU'arls' rcsciiilih'M tlif siicrirs 
 „„i,t I'liuinioii ill FlaiiiliTs, 'I'lu* colour of llic 
 Kieinisli lior-ics p'lii'rally Im clM'stiiiil, in nil its 
 shiiih's, ami roan. 'I'lirv ani of ilic triii' working- 
 rliiiraiii'r. ninarkalily ilncilr, iiiiil iinsscssfd of ,su- 
 prriiir Imilv mill slrciiKtli. 'I'lic cliicr ilclcrt ih'cu- 
 .ii.iMillv iil)si'r\al>lt' ill llii'ir I'nnii i.s ii wiiiil ul' 
 iliiiih'in till' K'irlli. and a ilip lii'iiind llu' withers, 
 liiit in all iitluT rt's|M'i'lH tiny nrc llni'ly (*lia|i('il. 
 A -mall lii'iid and |irii'ki'il ear, rising' ||,,,,k and 
 ,.r,,sl. slmrt liiirk and roiiplrs, uri-al stri'injtli ovrr 
 Ihi'h'liis, riniiid liips and li'iij;lliy i|nartrrs. opin 
 ehe-t, a Kiind arm, slmrt li';^s ol' powrrl'iil ,siii('W, 
 .h,,rt jiasti'ms, si'niii'irriilar liool's, with a niiiiul 
 frii^' anil iipi'ii li"'''l — tlu'sc points, coniprisi'il in a 
 I'liiiiii.'U't riiriii, with a h<'i<:'lit of ahont I,') liaiuls, 
 (•iiiistiliitc a work-liorsi' of firi'.'it iiu'rit, wliii'h, 
 vlien llirri! ypai's old, can lie piircliascd at "-'It or 
 ;;ii/, Tliey arc kcji' in cxcclli'iit coiidition, and 
 are shiiil with so ninch care that ii defective fool 
 iirhnnt' horse is never to he seen. A dii'tarv sys- 
 tiiiiisnliservcd with ;:reaf precision and r ;;ularity. 
 ('Iiii|i|i"'il straw iH iiivarialiiy ^iveii with oats, and 
 the water is always well whili'iied with meal of 
 •ve, outs, or harley. ( 'lover i.s the cimiinoii foddc^r 
 ill siiinnier, and carrots in winter, never omitting; 
 the ehi II iped straw and meal water. Of late the 
 jlelnic horses have heen materially improved hy 
 |iniliiij,'atinf,' 'f""" .select lireeds, and jiidicions cross- 
 111),'. Kvery farmer in Flanders hrecds his own 
 wiirk-liorses ; Imt the Inisiness of lircedin;; is only 
 nsiilKinliuatc and acces.sory liranch of linshandry. 
 The piiklers and jirairies of Antwerp alVord pa.s- 
 liinifie to nuineroiis Flemish liorses; and there 
 are in K. and W. F'landers a (,'reat many fairs, at 
 B'hieh tlicy are .sold for e.\|Hirtali"ai t"> France and 
 Kn;;laiid. Jtel^cinm prodnce.s .several other va- 
 rieiie.sof the horse, nmon^ which the Lnxemhiir^; 
 t"hin 11 valiiahle lireed, and ha.s heen imported 
 iiitii Kn;,'lnnd for its ex(!ellent ((iialities, as ii very 
 oiimpact and iiowerfiil little horse, .short-lefif^ed, 
 well-lMiued, aliout li{ or 14 hanil.s in heij^ht, and 
 (i|iial to carrying tht; licavieist rider, as well as lit 
 fur linril work in harness. The llelgio k"'^'''''"- 
 mint, with the view of improving the native 
 hreeils of horses by erossiuf; them with those of 
 Kn;;lan(l, has formed, at TcrvuiTen, a beautiful 
 Miiiliif about 10 stallions, and npixiinted stations 
 fiirthemin all the proviiutes. The beneficial re- 
 sult uf this expedient, which has been in oiterution 
 hinee IKIU, is a]>parent in the production of a very 
 siilU'riiir race of liorses. The f^ovcrnnient al.so 
 awanls premiums to the proprietors of winuinjj 
 horses at the public races. 
 
 In Flanders, the ea>;er thriftiness of the farmer 
 iniliices liiin to put his colts to hard work often at 
 lliea),'e of eighteen months, which is hnifj before 
 the requisite stren};;th is acquired ; and the con- 
 soqiienep is very injiirions. llor.ses are employed 
 f'lr all kinds of work in harness ; but the peasantry 
 ciinimonly prefer making use of as.sos tor riding, 
 tsiwially in the sandy di.stricts along the sea 
 hill ire, 
 
 llorned Cuttle. — The breeding and management 
 I'fall kinds of live stock in IJelgiiim arc much less 
 cxemphiry than the culture of the soil. The cattle 
 .TO the sliort-horned Dutch breed, but they are not 
 ill !;ener<il so well fonned as in lliilland. Indeed, 
 l''ii little attcutiun apiiear.'i to have been devoted 
 
 INODOM OF) 800 
 
 lo the niceties of breeding, and the ndvnnlAge^ of 
 seleclioii. The colour is. I'nr the iiiohI pari, black, 
 and lih'irK ami white. Flaiidirx. \V. and F., con- 
 liiiii inure ihan •.",iii,immi, niaiiy of which are fal- 
 teiied and sold. The oxen are larger Uiiiii the 
 ci.ws. and weigh, when falleiii d, from d to M cwt. ; 
 but the same eagerness fur gain which occii-ioiis 
 the loo early working of the horses, induces the 
 farmer to hurry bis oxen to market at about two 
 vears of age, befon- fbiv are perfcclly falleued, 
 ITie .same penurious spirit is appareiii in the prac- 
 tice of lia\ ing, in general, only I bull In l.'iii cows; 
 and in some loialiiies to upwards of 'joo. Nu- 
 merous herds of caille are reared on ihe wild 
 herbage of llie large forests m llie central. .S., and 
 I''., pans of the kingiliiii). and aie ibially latteiied 
 on oil-cake, at a very small expeii.ie. No pan of 
 Ili'Igiiim priidiiees better oxen and calves than lliii 
 prairies of the great ('am|iine plain, between -Viil- 
 werp and Maesiricht. t'ows are kept in great 
 niiinliers on tli"' pa>lnres aboiil l''uriies and |)ix- 
 niude, ill W. I'Taiiilers. and a large ipiantily of 
 butler is made for exporlatiiin. In ilieir 
 stables, the Flemish farmi rs preserve the tem- 
 perature of the month of May; indeed, so much 
 altentiun is paid lo ihe stale of these places, that 
 Air. liatclilt', in his Aiiriciiltiinil Sum// uf I'lun- 
 i/i-rs, speaks of having taken eoll'ee in one of Ihein, 
 with llie proiirieliir, in the middle of winter, wiili- 
 oiil having been in the least incoininoded by cold, 
 dirt, or ollciisiv*' odour. Fur Ihe preservation »[' 
 cleanliness, they adopl an odd expedient, which is 
 very common in llolland, keeping the cows' tails 
 erei't. by means of a cord wliiidi passes over ii 
 )iiilley ill th(> roof. The usual food in summer is 
 cliielly clover; and in winter, turnips, which are 
 rather poor and small, with carrots, potatoes, a 
 very little bay and straw, and the while soup 
 which isgiveii lo horses; consisting of tepid water, 
 thickened with oat, rye, or barley meal, and a 
 small portion of oil-cake. Ilowi'ver, not only the 
 breid, but the treatment of cows in Flimders is 
 regarded, by Fnglish writers, as very inferior. 
 They are constantly conlined to the stalls; innl 
 as the clover luid otiier forage- crops tire there (ton- 
 sinned in Iheir green slate in the summer, a d(!- 
 licieney of roots in the winter reduces their diet to 
 dry straw, so that, as M, Vandermatden remarks, 
 they are often so emaciated in the month of May 
 as barely to be able to walk ; and Mr. I'ry.se (lor- 
 (hin, in his work on Itelgium, states, that their 
 wretched state in the sjiring is almost incredible ; 
 that they resemble those of .Shetland, which, in 
 scanty seasons of the year, are fed on dried stoek- 
 lish ; or the cows of the X. ('a])c, which are occa- 
 sionally keiit alive on pickled salmon ! In the 
 forest of Soignies, and other parts of lirabant, the 
 cattle are large and coarse. Flic Belgians, in fact, 
 do not yet appear to be generally aware that ani- 
 mals ol a moderate size are more nrolitable tlniii 
 those of largi^r dimensiims; that light, comiiact, 
 mill short-legged horses are most enduring for 
 work requiring not strength alone, but activity ; 
 and that small and slight-framed cows, such as 
 the Aldcrney, Sull'olk,aii(l Ayrshire breeds, pro- 
 duce more and richer milk than many larger 
 kiiid.s. 
 
 The llelgic government has, for some years, 
 tak<tn much ])ains to introduce suijcrior breeds of 
 cattle ; and the iiroprietors are gradually becoming 
 convinced of their interest in elfecling a change 
 in their kinds of stock, though the characteristic 
 tenacity with which they cling to old-established 
 notions, still greatly retards the benelicial accom- 
 plishment of the government plans of improvement. 
 
 On an avenige of the hist fourteen years, the, 
 aniuiul produce of cattle ia the whole kingdom 
 
•loo 
 
 wiiH H1iH,07(t ; mill, (III till" nniiip iivoriiK"', ••"'«' wrri- 
 111 I'lU'li |iri>viiu'(! Iliti t'lillowiii^ iiiiiiilicrN :— 
 
 Aiil\nr|) . . HH,l|-i l.li'ifi' . . HM.nTtl 
 
 llriilMiiil . . nH.'j.ll l.liiiliiiiK . , liil,:uo 
 
 W, I liiiKlrn* , l;i'j.ii!MI l.iixi'iiiliiirK . IV<i,:iiiii 
 
 v.. I'liiiiili'i'M , I'.'ii.;ll7 Nuiiiiir . . tiH.Ail 
 
 llaliiiiiilt . . U'.MIl 
 
 III IHti'i ili<< iiiiiiiImt of ilriiiif;lit oxrii I'lniiloyi^d 
 ill /if^rii'iilliiriil liilHiiir wiin .'llillT'i. 
 
 SliiT/i. — (III ilu> riiriim III' Iti'l^iiim, the hIii'c|i 
 
 hliH'k JH p'licrully a m inlnrv olijcri <if iiiii'iiiinii, 
 
 'riicrt' art' tun |iriii('i|ial iiulit^riiiiiH lircnlK, llir 
 l''l<'ini>li ami I lie Anli'iiiit', 'I'lic iiiili^i'iioiiN I'lr- 
 iiiinli ^li('<'|i ii* u lali, lliiii, liiii^'-cari'il aiilinal, I'lir 
 iii.->liiiipt a ruaiNr Imi^; wcml, illiil (lie wi>r-t Uiiul ii 
 iiiiilliiii. Till' Ai'ilciiiii' liiiTil i.H ."iniilitr, ami, IVoiii 
 r.ili;;itl;X "ViT lilt' swcfl wild ln'lliii;;i' til' llic liilU 
 t>r \,'\fiiv ami l.iixt'iiiliiiu;, lilt' iiiiiiioii ai't|iiirt'n an 
 I'M'flltiii llaviiiir, Iml ilu' wiml is imt nf Nii|it'i'i(>r 
 i|ujlil,v. 'lilt' iiiiiilc III' lirilin^' hlii'i'|i ill !''lMmlrr.<< 
 at niiiiils I'lir mm li nl' tlicir liail i|iialiiii'.-> : tln'v art' 
 l.iiii'cil al iii;',lit, ami iliiriii);' tlii' ilay art' I'lillnwi'il 
 liy lliii ^lii'plii'ril ami liin iIukh, aloii;; llit> laiit'H, 
 
 {lalliwiivs.aiiil inarniiin iit'araMc llilil^, wluri' llit'v 
 lari'lv pirk a siilisisifiift', ami iifVfr t'lijny llif 
 raii^i' III' a Hwct't ami wlnilr^nim' |iaMliirt', hi 
 MiiiitT tlii'y art' It't mit, for u hlmrl I lint', Imt tiiii'c 
 a ilav, ami art' I't'tl ii|iiiii ryt', .sliaw, ami hay ; anil 
 tliiiii);li lliri't' or liiiir yfart wniiM lie riiiiiircil In 
 I'mii'ii iliiiii, llit'y art' ilaujjlitcnil al niic ycarnlil, 
 III a I'liiiilitiiin, says Mr. |{alriiir, vi'ry nearly llial 
 (if carriiiii. Tlif iilit'cp wliicli an' I'fil mi llic 
 (iraiiics III' tilt! ('ain|iiiu' plain priiiliit't; tlif lic^t 
 wiiiil III' lilt' kin^iliiiii ; ami lliat tit' llu> Anlt'iiiU' 
 liri'fil i.i iifxt ill ipialily. 'I'lu* wiml ami inutlmi 
 of I 111' (liH'ks til'Nainiirarct'iinsiili'rcilt'iiinparalivi'ly 
 friiiiil. Siiiiit' lint! hpt'cinu'iis t<r tlu' l.t'it'csti'v ami 
 ('titswnlil liri't'ils, wliii'li liavt! rt'fcnlly lii'fii iin- 
 pi.rlril rrniii KiiKlaiiil, nrv ('xpcclcil In prniliifc u 
 niui'li inipriivril rat'c, that will Mii|it'rsi'tli' tin- prc- 
 Hciit liil'iTinr kiiiils, 'i'lif tiital niiinln'r tif .slit'i'ii in 
 tilt' kiiiploin is aliiivt' l,(H)l),0(l(); iiIhuiI mit'-liair 
 111' ilitiii aiv ill llic priiviiici's of Lii'K''. I/miliiiix, 
 !,llXl'nlllllr^^ anil Naiiinr. 'I'lu' iimviiifi's uf I'.ast 
 anil West I'lainltTs liavc oai'li almiit •lo.OtHt slit't'p. 
 
 Sirim; — The Ik'lixic swine are similar to llii»s«' 
 tif Kraiu'o. ami have niiire rcscinlilaiK'o to tlui 
 ({rt'yiitiiiiuls than the liti^H ot' KiiKland. Their 
 IniiJ^' ami thin iKidioH are nxMiiitotl u|H)n Heel ami 
 U'liylhy It'ffs, and the ri(lt,'e tif their backs deserilies 
 (he arc of a circle. Herds of these animals are 
 tiinit'tl into Ihe forests, where they I'ceil almndantly 
 npoii Ihe licccli mast nnti acorns that strew the 
 ^^roiiml. They make very piod pork ami hacon 
 after having hccii loii^ ""d well fed; but this 
 kimi of meat is the tU'iirest in tlie market. liettcr 
 breeds have been imimrted from Kii^'laiul; and, 
 from the ])roi<tic nature of the animal, they will 
 ]irobably soon li-yoine iiiiineroiis ami benetieial. A 
 few iiin's arc reareil by every farmer in Flanders 
 for tltiiiieslic siiiiply of pork, which is the common 
 animal food of the workin>; cl,is.'-?»; but the mar- 
 kets are sti|iplicil by tlistillers ami iiiillers, who 
 have firoiU facilities "for feeding with the refuse of 
 their estaMislinieiits. 
 
 /■/,s7(. — Fresh-water fish nbonnd in most of the 
 Inr^cer streams. Those of the lincst quality are foiintl 
 in the S. iiarls of the kingdom. The principal 
 kinds are \)iko, trout, carp, perch, tench, eel, 1am- 
 prev, stur};;con, salmon, barbel, shati, gml^'eon, 
 whitebait, anchovy, and ecrevisse, or I'resh-watcr 
 hibster. 
 
 In the fishery off the sea-coast, and in the mouth 
 (if the Scheldt, arc taken skate, jilaicc, bret, soles, 
 tiirbot, dab, aii;;els, whiting;, smelts, lobsters, crabs, 
 pilclinrdsaml sliriin|is; and from the deep .'..i (isli- 
 ery are supplietl cud, herrings, oysters, and muscle;:*. 
 
 llKLdlUM (KINonOM OF) 
 
 "" Wllrli 
 
 I he doK-lMi (rhirn ih mrr) rommifn „.. „,„„ 
 
 injury to the llHliery of the .Scli.lilt, i|,„i ||,„ ', 
 
 veriimeiit Kives n reward for IIh deHiriietiiiii \r 
 ,11111 1.....*^ ..« I I 1.. .1 . ' ''ii'ii 
 
 •Jiio boals are eniplu.M'il in iIh' end hihI hrrtin . 
 
 Ils|ierie», the prtHliit f wlileli |i,m aUiiv.l,,?! 
 
 the Niibjecl of u eoiihiilrralile eiiiiiimni'.. n,, 
 nalioiiui linhery U rapidly inerea.sin^f, ,ni,'| ,,^/ 
 iiiiuniH, imionnlin^' lo lii.rMMl francs, art- niiiiii',|i. 
 
 nwardid by Ihe Koveriimeiil for its proninii 
 
 _ Aiiriiulhirr, — In eoiiNeipii'ii f d,,. ||,,,y' ,„, 
 
 litieiil system adiipteil in MilKiiiiii >,iih'r ||„, |i,,[,'' 
 liitioii of IMIIO, every br.iiieh of in lu.in Iiiih'ik,,J 
 
 Hreally iiiiprnved and exieiuleil. Tl in-tnin 
 
 of niiiiierons roads, railways, and e.'iiialK, Ihh ..r,,' 
 
 iluei'd an eminiiiiiis imrease in the \,il )■ i^i^ j 
 
 and liiiildinins. aimiiiiitiii):, in hcm ml nlinli. ,|i . 
 Iriels, to iim'-fnnrlh of fnrmer esiiimitis; nmi d,,, 
 piveriiiiient has e.ilablislied an evp.Tiai tiniinil 
 ehaitcedwilh the care of ascerlaiiiiiij; ihr iiiriiii,,| 
 jiroimiiiii;;the inlercNts of aKrieiiliiin'. .\t |lni«<,i 
 nils been fiii'inetl a veterinary and ii^riiiiliiu ,| 
 colicp' on a lar^e and liberal' seali'. Hlijili.i.,,.,. 
 peetetl to elVect many beiielieial iiii|ircivt'iiiin|l 
 es|ieciiilly in the breeds of live sliiek, Tlie iiiiinnil 
 soil of Itelj^iiiin is compo.sed of mere saiiiliiiiilrlin, 
 coinliined in various proportions. The dav ni,',,,,! 
 contains the nutritive properlies re(|iiirei|'|i,ri|„, 
 support of venelalinn, but without a tiiit' uiiini\. 
 lure iif sand, to render it pormis and I'rialili', it i, 
 perfectly sterile, from its too >;reat iullie»iviiu>., 
 retention of water, ami liabililv to benmie liiil:i,| 
 by the sun. The artilicial soil, in Kiainlio iiinl 
 many other hiKhly enllivated parts of the nMintrv. 
 is rich, black, anil loamy, and possesseil nf i^riiit 
 ferlilitv, tliroiijj;li the vast t|iiaiitilii's of inaimro, 
 veKelalile ami animal, which for af,'es luivt' \m\\ 
 eoistanlly inlermixeil with Hit! natural sand ami 
 clay. Althoii^li in r.el;,'iiiiii the ciillivatimi i.|' 
 the earth is carrietl to n jjreat exti nl, almiit nni'- 
 twelfth part of Ihe whole surface riniaius still im- 
 eiiltivatetl; oiie-ei|;litli consists of f;niss-laiiils, tin' 
 best of which are in Hit! two Flam'.er-ii luid tin' 
 arable Iniitis occupy oiie-lialf. The best are in tlii> 
 two Flaiitlers, Ilai'naiill, and Krabant. In tlicsc 
 jirovinces no waste land whatever is to he wen; 
 l)ut in Antweqi, Limbnrf;, ami I.iixeiuliiirj;, ii 
 covers a coiisitlerable extent of country. Assmia- 
 tions have recently been formed for "tlic purjniM' 
 of eiiltivatinj; the waste lantis of the ureat ('aiii|iiiii' 
 plain in l.iniburf;, and fur ulearin}^ duiiio uf tliu 
 forests of hiixembnrfr. 
 
 Ai/riniltnre of Ihe PoUlvra. — The iinme pnMi'Pi 
 is (;iveii to trat'ts of hiw alluvial soil, iirtiiicially 
 gained from the sea or the Scheldt, by Inl'ty ciii- 
 baiikments, and tirained by numerinis iiitei'Hciiiii^' 
 ditches, fmm which, in some instaiiees, the m\M- 
 lliions water is continually piiinpc d by the iim'iiev 
 of windnulls. These embanked eiielnsari's aro 
 hifflily eiiltivalcd, and form an extensive eliaiiiiif 
 s(|u»rc iiKvn ishintis nhnv^ the muddy liniiks uf 
 the Scheldt and its atllneut Ihe 1,'iipel, in tli(!|irii- 
 vinces of Antwerp ami K. Ffanilei's, and im the 
 santis of the sea-shore. Twice a day tlit; tiilw 
 reach the broad and liijfh tlijiues or eniliaiikiiiiiiis 
 which bound, on each side of the Selieldt. a widi' 
 extent of alluvial j^nnind, and ]iroteet Ihcailjaiciit 
 country from inundation; anil while llic walcrs 
 remain upon this surface they tleposit a liiienru'il- 
 laccuus and calcareous mud, the dchrU of varimis 
 vcfjctablc and animal substances, collt'otpil in 
 their tlrain.ij.je of the loose and rich soils of Flan- 
 ders, and broiij;lit from the ocean. Those alluvia! 
 accretions, when tirst enchised by dykes, bccnnK! 
 naturally covered by a fine tender jiriiss, niul aw 
 called ill Flemish Hrliorn, They .ire iil'st suwii 
 with co/rd ; that is, olea;,'inous colcwirt, //mMivi 
 ulcracca arvviiiiiii, not the Britssiru Xiiimn I'l' 
 
UKI/ITl'M (K 
 
 IJnniPii'- '"'' ''"' Tlrumlrn iinn/iriittiii nf |>i> ('mi 
 ili.lli', il"' •T"!"' "•' 'I'i" V('i;ftiil(lr nil llif imliltTN 
 ah' iilwiltii vrrv lllillllililllt, W'hi'iillii'Si' I'lirliii^iiri'H 
 
 lin,. Ik'iii <'iiiii|ilrii'ly liroiiKlii iiiin cull i\ III iiiii, 
 vilijrli ri'iiiiirr^ ffVfriil yi'iirx, llicy i-iiiisi.'.i |iiiril\ 
 „i iiiiiiiriil iiiciitliiw, iilVnriliiii^ I'M'i'lli'iii |iiiHiiiriiKi' 
 l„rimiiii'ri'ii^ IhtiIn ureal lie. iiinl jiitrllv nC uriilili' 
 l,,ii.ls oil wliirli lire riiisnl ilii> lliicNt I'MjiM ol' all 
 kiiiil<"f uriiiii! I'cix'i'ially liiirli'v, H or lo i|iiarl<'i'M 
 .,,,11,11', mill '•III'* Ml (ir I'.' i|iiarli'rs iKTiii'ri', 'I'wn 
 ,rii|i<4 ill ill'' y>'i*f '"■'' <'iiiii>; .iiily nlilaiiii'il ; no 
 ri|»«i' in ^'ivi'ii to flu* »<oll, ami ii iici'ilt iii> nui 
 niiriii^; l»>' ■■) I'"' ''oiirsc of iiiii(> ii Im'i'oiiii»< too 
 ,Miii|iint mill M<lli''-ivf, ami jjrnitlv ilriri'iinrft in 
 liftililv, if not ri'miviitcil liy arlilii'iiii ii.->!<i!,|am'i<, 
 nitliiii till' olilrr laiiiN of this ilcMiiiiiinii arc I'al 
 |„«,'i| iiiiri' ill '•ix yi'iiix, ami tlir nitalinn is winter 
 Uirli'V. iH'mi". wheal. Iliix, elnvrr, ami |Mi|iiiiie». 
 Iliiciiiiiir of the soiJH, in their |irliiiiti\'i> Mlale, !•* 
 jhliii'li irri'v, wliiih is owini,' 'i' '•"' i>reHeiiee of a 
 (iiii>i<li'riilile i|iiaiiiily of the o\iile of iron. The 
 riiiliiiiikllieiits are Miaile ill mimr iiiMlaiiees hy the 
 pitirilllli'llt, i>l olliern, liy eoiii|iailies, or iliilivi- 
 iliiiiN. iimier II ^'raiit ami leiinre of the eiieiosureM, 
 Iriiiii ;{iiviTiiiiieiit, for alioiit twenty years, either 
 Mil friT.or for hiiiiiII atiniial |iayiiu iii.s. Il is eal- 
 ciiLiliil lliiil "hoiit l-"ttlix of the Niirfaee whieli, 
 ill ilii' sixteenth eentiiry, wiw Niihinerp'il hy the 
 Slicliit ami the Hca, now proilneeM au:rieiil'tiiral 
 cri>|M, mill i'* Htiitlileil with iniiiieroiiM I'lirin eNliih- 
 li.iiiiirnlii. The area of eaeli pohler, the eheniieal 
 iniilysiHof their Noil.M, mill various other imrtienlarH, 
 wjlivi'ii ill M. Vamlerinaeleirs (ieoj;. |)iet. of the 
 rn'viiici'H of llel^iiuin. Tliev vary I'roiii 'Jtl, fid, 
 111(1 IIMI iieres, li|i to l,<H»0, 'I'lie polder of Sniiers- 
 liirkiiii llie .s'a-eoiist,iiear()steml,eoiiiaiiiM l.lliMl 
 mnMliviileil hy ditelies into reetiiii;;iilar lleliJM of 
 |:; luri'.s earli. The hank or dike is I.") ft. hi^'li, 
 liiill, ill lireailth at the liase, and 111 ft. at the lop. 
 The I'litiil ilevastntions whieli have heeii oeeasioiu'd 
 livtiii' t'liiii'iirreiiee of hifrh winds and tides in rii|)- 
 liiriii;; till' dikes that are reared as harriers to the 
 rivcMiiiil the sea, render it an olijeet of (,'reiit iin- 
 {»niim'v with the piveriiineiit to superintend the 
 niiiiiiti'imiice of their ellieieney, A systein of 
 |iiililii' ri'Kiilalii'ns lortliiK purpose is therefore eii- 
 lunril with ^reat vi^ilanee and proiii|ititiide, 
 
 Aijrkuhurr of the BriiyvreH, — 'I'lie sterile heaths 
 «liirli I'xtcnd over the NK. parts of the ]ii'oviiiees 
 if Antwerp, and the N\V. of l/mihiirK, as well as 
 (iviT iimiiy s(|. m. of i\w surface of the SIC. iiortimi 
 iiftk'iiiiiKilom, arc called hniiiircH, from the fact 
 (iftlu'iri'liii'tly prodneiii^ the heath-phiiit, hriiyen<, 
 AViiri Brabiiiilica, It ^;rows spontaneously and 
 ilKiiiilantly in the inoHt arid sands, as well as in 
 hiimiil miirslies ; and it naturally poss<\sset4 so iniieli 
 viialiiy mill prolilieiiess that its complete erailii u- 
 li'iiu'iuiiiiitlK'etleeteihvitliontconsiderahletronhle. 
 In Miiiiincr its profusion of llowen* very ajtreeahly 
 virii's tlie (Irciiry aspect of the level wastes on 
 wliiili it tlimrishes : mid they also afford plenty of 
 f'<«l lor the Ih'c ; hnt the honey it ])ro(hices is not 
 (fapiiMl (loseription. The ]>lant is hrowsed by 
 ^rp; tfiitlii'i-ed for litleriii;^ cattle; used in taii- 
 niiii,': anil aiiplied to several other useful purposes. 
 Ttif ^rout ohstade to the cultivation of the heath 
 lanils or bniyerps, is the frequent occurrence of 
 W* »f fi'rni(,'inous turf and stiff clay near the 
 Niriaa'; linwever, many extensive tracts have 
 Wii briniRlit into prolitahlc cultivation hy the 
 j'lfiiliful application of rich mnniin'K, and the la- 
 Wious attention and niaiia};enicnt for wlii,.li tht 
 IWjnchusbaiKlnian isso proverhiallydistii-.f^uislied. 
 The siirt'uec iin which lie lie^ins "to vipcrate is a 
 W- thill external coat of black mo'.ild, coiisistiiifr 
 <'v(-„'('talilc putrefactions. This, in some parts, is 
 sffiwnt ly ileep to rccouipcnsc the liibour of phjui'li- 
 
 Vui. i. 
 
 INdDOM OF) 
 
 401 
 
 inuit into tin 'iibjaceiil snnil, wllli eopioiiit ipiaiiti- 
 ties of dunghill manure; and from tliiicoiiihinalioii 
 are ohtailird iTops .if polutoe^, Imrley, oals, clover, 
 and liiickw heal. .Shci'p are reimirkaldy fond of the 
 scattered hhides of natural ^rii'vt on the briiycn's, 
 and cattle are fed in i^ri'ikt iiumlH'rN on those part <« 
 of ilicin which arc laid out in pasture, coii'<isiin»; 
 for I he most part ofspurry, S/ierijiilitiirrvHiiix, which 
 is their favourite I'otHl. 
 
 AijrivHlliintl I'niilurr and I'nirlirr, — Com, llax, 
 hemp, and timlN'r, constitntn the nio-i| important 
 matcriiils of the auriciiltural wealth o| Itcli^'liim. 
 'I'lie soil, artillcially enriched, produces coiniiioiily 
 morethiin doii!de the ipianlilv of corn reipiircil lor 
 the cniisiiiiipiioii of its Inhaliitants, which is com- 
 puted at ti.iiiHi.iMin hectolitres per annum. The 
 average produce of the sidl in the various provinces 
 is shown in the suhjoined table, which ({Ives the 
 results of |H(U — It niediiim year in every respect. 
 
 rriitliii'i't 
 
 Antwerp . 
 Ilriiliuiit 
 KliiiiilcrH, West 
 l''lti<Mlci°s, Kast 
 
 llllMIUllIt . 
 
 I. live . . 
 MiiiliiirK 
 biixiiiilmri; 
 fiiuiiur , 
 
 Avernffo 
 
 Wheat 
 
 AiiiiMint ftf 
 
 l*r<iilllri' INT 
 
 Ili.'Urn 
 
 n>'<'lnl. 
 
 IS-.'l.') 
 
 17 •.Ml 
 
 a I'll J 
 
 •i-i 
 
 1!) 
 
 Ill 
 
 l.-.-l)9 
 
 ID 
 
 IM 
 
 18-IH 
 
 ll;n 
 
 lUrlijp 
 
 Amottni iif 
 
 AniiMiiit „r 
 
 rrHilui-,. p.-r 
 
 I'rixliwc |i«.r 
 
 11,'I-IUM' 
 
 n..i«r.. 
 
 lli'i'iiil. 
 
 lllH't.ll. 
 
 I!IH 
 
 Vli-U 
 
 lit- fi 
 
 111 
 
 •J;i-7U 
 
 :i7 
 
 •J.-i 
 
 •M 
 
 '.(II'HO 
 
 :m 
 
 IH 
 
 •Ji 
 
 lll-tl.'i 
 
 a.'i 
 
 IM 
 
 'ii 
 
 \T00 
 
 w 
 
 1II-HH 
 
 »9'7U 1 
 
 Protlnc*! 
 
 Alnotiiit itf 
 
 rulMon 
 
 Aiiiiiuiil ,tf 
 
 rimi 
 
 Aiitniint Itf 
 
 
 l'r<>«lit.-i- 1I4T 
 
 I'rtMltu'i' |N-r 
 
 I'I'IhIiII'I' |M»r 
 
 
 Hi-vttiru 
 
 lli'vlitru 
 
 lli-ctHru 
 Kllix. 
 
 
 llralnt. 
 
 Kilol. 
 
 Antwerp . . 
 
 :ili'HU 
 
 H.HMO 
 
 :m:i 
 
 Ilriiliaiit . , 
 
 42 
 
 7,'Ji,l 
 
 A ill 
 
 Fliiiiilcrs, West . 
 
 -fj'lli 
 
 7,liL':l 
 
 ;ii)» 
 
 I'liiiiilcrs, Kiist . 
 
 ■lit 
 
 N, IIIII 
 
 fillO 
 
 Ilaiiiiiiilt . 
 
 Ml 
 
 ri,|:lii 
 
 47r) 
 
 l.lcKe . 
 
 m 
 
 11,110(1 
 
 -- 
 
 l.iiiihiirK . 
 
 :i4 
 
 T.WIIl 
 
 Ulil 
 
 Liixciiiliurg 
 
 ill 
 
 (1,'.':17 
 
 — 
 
 Nuiiiur . . 
 
 :i(t 
 
 7,.'>».'» 
 
 
 Averoffo . 
 
 ilUs'iS 
 
 1,7-J(l 
 
 40:) 
 
 Tim hectare is eiiiilvnlciit tt) 'i'l71 1 till Kiii,'llsli acres ; 
 tlic hectolitre to •.'■7.''il'.'iix.'> KiikHhIi hiislids ; luiil tliu 
 kiUiKruniiiie to 2'2(llli'JIU Kngllsli lbs. avuirUupols. 
 
 The nverat;e, prices, for the whole of llelf^iiim, 
 of the ahove-inentioneil kinds of corn and potatoes, 
 diiriii;; the nine nioiitliM ending .September lit), listjl, 
 were as follows : — 
 
 
 
 Fr. 
 
 «. 
 
 AVhcat, pcrlOO kilogrommca . 
 
 
 :i'.' 
 
 84 
 
 llye » 
 
 
 •Jl 
 
 1) 
 
 Hurley „ . 
 
 
 'JO 
 
 H7 
 
 OlltH „ . 
 
 
 r.i 
 
 77 
 
 rotatocs „ 
 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 (IJeiKirt of Mr. Tlerrien, Tier Majesty's Secret.nry 
 of Legation, dated Ilruss<ds, Ma'rtdi 1H(!2.) Tin; 
 kinds of ngricnlturnl produce in Iklgiuni are very 
 numerous, including the foUowing gmin.^ niid 
 plants, all of which are cultivattnl in Flanders: — 
 Wheat (white and red), rye, barley, oats, col/n, 
 buckwheat, hemp, flax, potatoes, tobacco, hops, 
 turnips, red carrots, {larsnips, jH>as, beans, clover, 
 spiirry, lucerne, madder, saiutfoin, chicory, beet, 
 wo.-id, and )H)ppies. 
 The central part of the kingdom, contained 
 
 I)U 
 
 :'I\^ 
 
 Ii 
 
4{Yi nv.i/ni vr (KI 
 
 wlililn n liitc pnxKin^ ihriHiKli Miiliix'i), '!'< nnmiil, 
 'INitirniiy, Moiim, Nitintir, nml l.oiiviiiii, iiilinlt'ii 
 inili'll III' till* rirlli'nl |ii rliiiii iiC llir M4ii| ; liii. it iliK'N 
 
 iiol, iiti ilic wliiilc, i'si'i'imI iIii> iiM'rii((i' I' riili(> ol' 
 ttir ililiiiiili'DiiiilU'Miit' |'jikI/4IiiI, mill liitial Ici'lilcilly 
 Ih> riiintiilcrt'il iiilrrlor In tlii' ricli itlliiviitl Mill* ilf 
 niiriiiniilcil llit< riirM'H, In Mniilainl, 'Dn' liiinl in 
 ifi'nt'riil N nnl wt nr.-tilv tillcil iim in (In- U'mI V.uu- 
 liMli nifrii'ulliiriil c" intli-x. 'I'lii' linxliuMiiry <>l° tlir 
 n'litriil itnriM dillirit <'iinHiili>riil<ly |p<itn tliiil »( 
 KliniiliTN. 'I'll!' t'imim itrc litr^rr, iiml \vnn ciirct'iilly 
 
 cnltivilliil. Till* N|iiiili> In Ii'sm iisnl in tint llrliU, 
 anil llii'y linvr I'lHiwiiiu'iilly not llir xiinii' rcHi'in 
 lilaiii't' III ^ar<ll'llH. In llaiiiaiill Mini Antwrrp tin- 
 riiltlvniiiiii III' lilt X anil Iiimii|i in iH'coniin^ aiiriiiiary 
 i>li|i'i't; Iml Itit'rn' valiiiililii iThih iiri< |iriHliif<'il to 
 liir KTf'ntfr rxtnit in lln- twn rlanili'!"*, tin- airn- 
 cniliiri' of wliit'li In mi lii)^lily ri'|<iili<l ii^ to ri'i|iiir)> 
 a m'|iiiiati' i'i>iii'<'i wliicli lirrriit'tiT Im ^'ivcn. In 
 tin- rirliiT iiiirtM ul' Itraliaiit, llii\, lii'iiip, ami nii/a 
 art' t'Xti'iiMivcly ciiltiviitcil, mIiIi iniirli nianiiriiiK. 
 anil a Mnrt'CNniiin of wheat. Kyc, in lliii* provinrr, 
 iH nlwayi* n lar^n I'Mp, tor lirniii iinil iliNtillaiioii, 
 'I'lii* iilraK'iii'iiiM planlH lloiiriHh in all Ilir provinn-N, 
 anil till' ciiltnrr III' hiaiM iw vrry Niiit'CHNl'iil in llra- 
 liant, Fliinili-rN, ainl alon^r tin* vaMry of IIk' iMriiMc, 
 in the pruvini'i' of Mi'gi', Mai/c Imn licrii imrtiaily 
 inl roiliw-cil, anil t'ontnl In •-iifi'iicij, Mmlilrt \* ({fowti 
 rliii'My in KlaniliTx anil ilii' pniviiit'e ol Antwerp 
 MiMt ol' tlie prilii'ipal laniis tlirnilKlioiit the kiiiK- 
 <iii poMxesii i|istilierii>, anil the ntalleil eattli^ are 
 It'll upon Ihe ret'iiNe wiiNh, Willi the exeeptioli of 
 l''liiniU'rN, no pariinilar nitatioiiM of eroiw are ail- 
 
 hereil to. The lieliN are eroppeil a riling' to Ihe 
 
 wiinlNof the fanner ami tlie Ntutc of tlie lanil. An 
 aliiinilitiK'e of niannre allows of rapiil retnrtiN of 
 white Kiraw eropx. All the elover, ami nlherforuKe 
 crop'*, iiri^ nseil ^reen, in the nIiiIIi ami ntaliles, mh 
 foiHl for I'liltle ami horses. Utile hay in innih>, in 
 )ii'opi>rtion to the iniinlM'r of entile kepi Ihriiii^hoiit 
 Ihe winter; no that, on tiie failure of <{reen fooil, 
 tli(> eliii'f reeunrNe In to roolN, namely, tnrniim, 
 earrols, ami iHilatoes. TheNlall-feil rattle fiiniisli 
 ample snpplieN of manure, the liiiiiiil part of whieli 
 is eollei'teil in lar^e lailkn of liriekwork, nnd in 
 either earrieil out and poured over the land, or is 
 us<'d to nioiNten and accelerate the ferineiitalion 
 of the dry dnnn-lii'iipN nml cinnpoNtN, 
 
 t'lvmiuli /limhtiiiiln/. — FlaiiderH, in conNOfpienee, 
 of ilH (freat conniiercial prosperity , whm reinarkalile 
 fur the advanced Ntnte of it> a^'riciillnn' lon^ liefore 
 iniproveinent in IIiIn important art waH ohservalile 
 in any coiiiitry N, of the Alps and Pyrenees, 
 ltrnKc*-< mid (ilient were important commercial 
 towns in the lllh century, and mipplied the va- 
 rious courts of Kiiro|K! with the rich silks and ta- 
 ])estrieswhich then were their chief luxuries. The 
 c'liininerce nnd aKrlcnltnro of KlamlerN ^rew to- 
 fjether; nnd in oriler In nccmnit for the remnrkniilu 
 excellence of tlie Flemish hnsliamlry, which has 
 lieen cidehratcd for upwards of tilMI years, it is 
 necessary to keep in view the close connection 
 which in that country exists between the farmer, 
 the ninniifacturer, nnd the Tncrchnnt; nnd the 
 etTorts of n contiiiuully incrcnsiiit^ ]i<>pulution, in 
 8litiiid:i' tifi the exertions of those who provide the 
 ii(;>i .iiH'soflife. In FInnders, as in every country 
 densely populated, where Ihe villntres are thickly 
 scattered, nnd where, by means of water cnm\)<;i'. 
 on rivers and canals, maimre can be transported 
 to the la :d at n trilin;; expense, fallowin;i; and 
 layin;^ down to pasture arc nei'cssarilv superseded 
 by increased tillnK(' nnd manuring, it is remark- 
 able that, in (jliina, where n similar density of 
 ]iopulation exists, there jtrevails the same anxiety 
 ns in Flanders to colhtct every sidwtaiicc uml liipiid 
 that can {xisMibly serve to increase the fertilising 
 
 N(H»OM OF) 
 
 power" ol the wiil ! and thni In IhiIIi iheto nmiiifi,,, 
 onlnre i i all Nurls Ix carefully ciilli'ciiil, m,\,\ „,',, 
 inimt viitiialde arlicle of I'limnierii', nml ii|i|,ii,i| n. 
 the Ih'liU and ({iirilen'<aN the «c <</«« «/^<ii,i .ij,,,,, 
 latliitf manure. Were the wlmli' ,<( Hmuiir, Ijn i 
 ■lilt III \nrnv farms, and a third or tmittli imri |,||. 
 lowed every year, or a half lefi ni tiiiinrul ,;t,i., 
 Ilii' |Ni|iiilation could not Im' frd; ami IikIi'h,! ..f 
 exporting iiKriciillnral priNliice, im nt |ir.H,.|it. ', 
 Kri'iil importation would Im- ri'i|iiliiti', ti, .in.Uv 
 the ilemand of inleriial connumpti'iii. ll,..),!, . 
 the piHir Koili of Flamlers I'uiilii niMr L' ri'i'miini 
 bv such a coiiise. Without ri'|M'alr'l iniiiiiiriii > 
 
 ifier iild be no viuiirniis ve((i'iiitioii; ainl ||",! 
 
 land left to niitiiri' would ri'liirn In iti 'irik'in.il 
 state of heath. The nei'e»Nity of iiroviiliin{ riprmii 
 slanlly increasiiiK numbers of mhnli. |irin|iin.,| i|„ 
 iiKriciillnral |H'rfectioii for which Klnnilcrslmsjiiii^; 
 been renowned; inid Ihe demainls ni niiiiiiiiri'' 
 Mild manufactnri's have so miiliiplinl tin. niiji.,|, 
 of ciillivation, that llax, lii'inp, tin' iilci^lnnn, 
 seeds, and various oilier pliiiils ri'i|iiiri'i| l'i,r i||,. 
 arts, verv orten proiliu e a nfc'ilcr prnllt tn iii,, 
 farmer than the l'ariiiai'i'iiii-< uriiii-'. lln' vrs 
 liir^it priNliice oblaiiu'd bv tlic l''lriiiiH|| rarimrif 
 solely attributable to imieliitl^'iilili' imliiHtrv, lur 
 th(^ Noil In nntiirally poor, ami tlic climati' IaIiviim 
 means es|M'i'ially I'ihmiumIiIi', the wiiitiTi lii'in;; 
 longer nml more ncmti' iIimm in l'',ii){liuiil. Thnr 
 or four (iloii^hinus, and two or tlirei' linmin'iM;;>, 
 are ciimnioiily Ik'sIowciI iipnii each crii|i. '|h,. 
 collection and npplicaiion of inaniiri' is itlsn u ^rim 
 principle of Flemish husbandry. In KIiiihIi'in n,, 
 thin;; can lieelt'ectcd williniil abimilaiici'iiriiiatiuri': 
 and, coiisi'ipiently, the greatest cure is lakiii Ih 
 procure it. The maxim is, no fnriiu;!' iin raiili'i 
 wilhonl cattle no inamire; and witliinit iii;iiMir" 
 no crops. The stall-fed cattle arc the |>riiiri|al 
 source of supply; but every expcdii'iit ii rv^nriiil 
 to, in order to increase Ihe (|Uinitity nml ini|irnvi' 
 the ipiiiliiy. All kinds of aniiiial ainl vi';;i'iiili|.' 
 matters are carefully collected in pits walliil wiih 
 brickwork, where they nnilcr^'o the |jiilriliirtivi' 
 process, by beiiif; mixed with substiiiu'cs ainiuly 
 partially ilecomiHised. Amither inili-|ii'iiMilili';iii<l i 
 universal auxiliary of the Flcniisli linm r, i> ih'' 
 tank of liipiid manure, eollecleil from iln' ilniin 
 in^s of the stableN, cow stalls, and iliiM;;liill>, nml { 
 from Noiirces which in F.n^land till llic i'i's^ihh.I 
 (rii/tiiijif). In lilient, the sum reccivi'il liy hmi-c 
 servants, for liqnidH collected for niaiinri', uliiul 
 nmonnts lo ns much as their wa^cs, Tlic lii{iiii|j 
 manure is carried to the tield in waiir r.irts. uinl | 
 carefully dislributed over the siirfaci' nf the Ininl 
 shortly previous to the sowing' of sicil, i -iiciial 
 that of llnx. Fvery fnrin-yard po»cs.s('s niu' ' l'| 
 these tanks, which are commniily of lnr);c ili- 
 mensions — about -Kl ft, in length, by It in liwiiiili,! 
 and >* in depth; and usually coiistriictcil ln'iicntlil 
 the stalls for cows. An acre of land ile^liiiiHll'iifl 
 llax receives verv coiunninly 2,")0(i ;,'alliiiis of 1I1I4I 
 animal liiinid snWipient to an abunilant u|i|<lii'a-l 
 tion of solid manure, which is deejily |i1iiiikIhiI iii'"l 
 the soil. The elHcacy of the liijinil is nftcii liii|,'lil-| 
 ened for flax, bv dis.-'olvinf;- in it lar^'c i|imiiiiiii* 
 of ra|(e cake, I'^very distillery of inmlcratc I'xliiilij 
 has lifty or sixty head of cattle constantly Miiiliil. 
 and fed' upon the grains nnd refuse wash, lli 
 establishments were formerly \ery niinu'rous: hiin 
 the duty on spirits, and the iiilcrl'iri'iicc ul' 1 
 fjovcrnn'ient, have much rciliiced tiu'ir niiiiibi'rj 
 and consetpiently occasioned a (lelicieiiryiitiiiaiiurr 
 and of cro|)s; as it is estimated that fwry IickI 
 produces annually ten or twelve tons nl'suliil. iinil 
 twenty-six hojrstieails of liipiid niiimirc. Liir-i 
 (|uantities of peat ashes, imported I'limi I lnH'ii"'! 
 are used as u dressing; for clover; ami liiiu', i**'^ 
 
, »ilc| l(> It 
 
 ii|>|'lii'il III 
 
 lol «liillll 
 lIlili'N likl I 
 
 It (uirt l.il 
 iirul ^'tii<-, 
 
 lii<ti'ii.| „1 
 
 |iri"<i>iii, ii 
 , til »iiii|iK 
 . Il<'.|,|... 
 U' mTiiiii.l 
 
 llllllllirill;,', 
 
 III', ami [\w 
 ill <irii,'iii.il 
 liii(( I'lirinn 
 
 irinllli'l'il llii 
 
 IcrslmHlnii).' 
 il I'liiniiiini' 
 
 ll till' iilljirl, 
 
 I' iilfiluitli'ili 
 
 iiircil fur till' 
 
 prnllt III till' 
 
 . Till' virv 
 lUh liirmcr m 
 iiiiliiAtrv, lur 
 iiiair i* liy iiii 
 vintrr'< liciii^ 
 ;laiMl. 'I'lirn 
 «' liiirriiwin:-, 
 
 ll (Tiili. 'Ill' 
 
 In iilHiiui;ri'iii 
 
 I KlamltTH u>i 
 iii'i'iirinitiiiiri': 
 ri' il* taken hi 
 aiii' im I'iilil''; 
 itliiiiit niiiimr" 
 I' llic liril\iil':il 
 
 liciit is rt'^nrinl 
 y iinil imiinivi' 
 " ami vi'P'tiiMi' 
 its walli'<l Willi 
 lie |iulr('l'iii'ti\i' 
 ,luii('i''< alri'iiily 
 ili-li('iit>alili':iii'l 
 
 II riiriiiir, i-ih< 
 Iriiiii iIh' ili^iiii 
 
 ilimnliills. mill I 
 
 11 lllC 1'I'>>1«'"1 I 
 
 ■civi'il liy lii'iiM' 
 iiiaimrc, "ii'H | 
 
 [CS. Till' liiiuiil 
 
 ■atiT curl!', mill I 
 
 IH'C 111' I 111' liiii'll 
 (iccil, ('sirt'ciiillvi 
 
 wscKSC!* mil' '''1 
 Iv (if larnt' ll 
 Iv 11 in liri'iulilij 
 
 riii'tcil ln'111'iiil'l 
 iml (li'slini'il I'lirl 
 (rnlliiiiMif ilml 
 
 iimlaiit ii\iiiliiii-r 
 
 [vplminlwl""". 
 
 ■isiift('iilH''J.'',"l 
 arp' niiniiii'''' 
 
 IlllullTlltC l'Xll"1 
 
 iislaiitly Miillf 
 wasli. Till' 
 I miim'nms; 1'"^ 
 I'rlVrciK'e "f I'l^ 
 their nuinU'rl 
 |ij.,„yiifni!iiiiin 
 Ihat every lifii*! 
 
 Ills iifsiirui. I'll'! 
 
 Vamire. ^■•"^ 
 I iViiiu ili'll'iii''! 
 [anil liii'^'i 1"*1 
 
 IIKI.dllM (Kl 
 
 1^,1 Imne", trtiirl, ninl llm iIiiiik of |ilj<i'iiim, «rt> 
 „,,liaii«riiiiil"r ili'lrirtn. 
 |li,< Kiiiiili' il "iii^ III' lli<< iniiKt iiiiiHirtiiiU ill! 
 I,.„„,iil, III I'lriiiinli iiKririilliirc, ami is uinl in a 
 Ll' ll icri'O'i'' *'''(l*'iit ''■'II* '■* '*">' i'IIk'!" I'Kiinlry. 
 |{„.iri'iieliiii^ "P'kIi' '* I'liiixtaiiilv I'tiiiiliivcil nii all 
 ilii' liiilit laii'l"' "I"' ""' '■I'xl*' III' III)' Vli'iiiixli liiH', 
 ,„i,,Kt I'tlliii'iii iiiNtriiiiit'iii, rrNi-iiilili'N ami ii|H'raii's 
 ,„;i.iili"ii(iil<' '"■' ''■'*' "' !'■'' Kjxxli'. Iiiili'i'il. till- 
 .i„/,n ||||4 I'viili'iillv lii't'ii tin- iiri^'iiial iiiimIi'I t>l' 
 ill,. Kleiiil"'' raniiw, ainl llinsc oCl'iirtv or lll'lyaiTi's 
 „,ii.i niill l»' ri'pinli'il n* I'lilaruni ^arilrii'*. In 
 mmi'iiriiik' ili''*'"'''^''"'"" "I'I'iikI '■> I'laiiilcrH uitli 
 iliai I't Kii|:l'>mli ^1' '''III "iilv ailiiiii'i' llir lar^r 
 .fipli'iiA ill till' ii<'i»{lil>i>Hrlii><ii) of Ltmlmi, wlicn- 
 ll,,. ,111111111111 KimU III' vi'Ki'talilrit arti raiscil I'nr 
 ,i,.,,,lyiiixtlii' iiiarki'is; wliiTi' ^ri'i'ii rrmw an' fiii 
 mrh I'lir Imrsi''* anil niwH lii'|ii in l.iiiiilnn, ami 
 «|ii'n< the siiil ix I'liiiliiiiially I'liriclit'il witli llii' 
 g^miiini |,iiiii|iiii Nii|i|ilii'K. Ily till' iiniN'riiiliiii of 
 •laili' liiisliHiiilry, an iiiilusiiiiniH Mfininj,', with 
 tiilnii luri's III' uiiml Iik'iI laiiil, liriii;;!< ii|i IiIn 
 i„„j|v ill ili'i'i'iil iiiili'|i<'iiili'iiri', anil in llii' cuiirsf 
 „l lij'n life ni'riiiiiiilaK'M Miilliciinl inraiiM lo |iiit 
 ,l„„, ill |Missi'>Hiiiii III' ll liltli' rami «( their own. 
 I'liiTi' nre iiiiiiiy hiiiiiII |irii|iri('tiirs wlm liavi- risen 
 ,|„«|v liy ilic llllllllirill' llieiriiwn liaiiils; ami llieir 
 li;iiiiiiiliiiiis sliiKv, liy llie (freiit care ami iieiilnesH 
 .jiM'rviil iiii'very partii'iilar, tlial an luniesi priile 
 i) ii'li ill piisHi'ssin^ thin rewanl ul' iiiiliisiriniiM 
 ,^irtiiin, liii'esHanl liibmir til'llu> Imily, ami iiceii- 
 <iiiiiiii iif tlio iiiimi, arv imt reKanleil liy the 
 Hiiiiiuli iH'iisaiil uilh tlisiiiiileiil, I'nr to the one 
 ilii'i are I'liiiiiil ti< Hci'iiru i;iiiiil heultli, ami to the 
 iiiliiririiiii|iiilliiy. 
 
 [he fiiriiis III the I'ayn <lo Waen, lM'twe( ii (ilutil 
 mil ,\iitwer|i, are eiillivali'il with aMioiilMhini^ 
 iui'iIiikI ami iiinliieHM, ami alloril the nmst pcrl'd't 
 firiinii'iia III' lii'lil enlliire on the |>riiu'i|ileH nf 
 tufliiiiiit;. T'lie soil i^^ artilieial, ami the result of 
 rHiiiirii'siit'systeiiialii' inaiiiiriii^', whii-li has eon- 
 vrriiil a liarri'ii naiiil into a rieli hliiek loamy 
 nimilil. Till' lii'lilM, as in all |inrt.i of I'Tamlers. are 
 MiiliiM'il hy Iii'iIk^'") iiii'l tiit'.v an' remarkalily 
 mill-friiin liall'an acre loan aere; every part ol' 
 iliiiii is kept perfectly tree from weeiU, and they 
 uii'levuleil ill the <'eiitre, ho iih to have a gently 
 iiiliiiiil nIiiiki towards the tixtreinities, where 
 iliiiliis earry oft' oxcessive rain, and prevent in- 
 jiir)' mill rciliii'lioii of the noil. Nearly similar 
 firi'.iiiil lU'eciseiiess arc olisorvalile in the whole 
 ill W. 1111(1 K. Klnmlers; Imt, while the Flemish 
 fimii'M are uri'atly sniiorinr to tlio I'Jit^lish, in 
 niniiti' Alteiitiiin to the (plaliti(^s of the soil and 
 iiiiinumstuiitial particulars of cnltivntion, in the 
 Mmntie ecoiiomy of land and the Judi('i(ais 
 HiOTn^iiiniiferopH, they are much inferiorin aiiioiint 
 I'lcajiilal, in varied and improved impleinentH of 
 I iilLi;'i'. aii(lcs|K>eially iu tlto chuico and breeding 
 iiffiittle ami slieei). 
 
 Win ertent off a niiH in Flanders, and tliroiighoiit 
 
 I Cili.'iiini, very rarely exceeds 100 acres. The 
 
 tiiniU'r eontniiiiiig fifty acres is not great, Imt 
 
 I ihiM' of twenty, tiftet'ii, ten, and live acres, es- 
 
 I'ially lietwecii ten and live, are very iiiimeroiis. 
 
 ikc fxtenaive ninniifact tires which formerly 
 
 I iwheil in llelgiuiii collected a dense population 
 
 I «f artisans in tlie neighhoiirliood of the great 
 
 liwiis; liat when the Imsy si^^iie of maniifaet tiring 
 
 iiiliisiry was transferred to other countries, this 
 
 I |>i|iiilati(m was deprived of its means of handicralt 
 
 I wiiliiynicnt, nnd w^as oljlig(!d to resort to the ciil- 
 
 I livatiiiii nf the soil for subsistence. Such npjiears 
 
 I ll have liecn the chief, though possibly not the 
 
 li»Kiirij;in of the still prevalent system of small 
 
 I Ims.wliioh nre generally cultivated by the holder 
 
 I iiiii Ills family without any other assistance. 
 
 N(UM>M OF) 
 
 <'n>i» in /'AiNfArn,— (irciit nitrntlon U tM'stiiwril 
 li|Hin the prepiinilinn of the soil, so as to M'riirit 
 the iiiost alMiiidaiit crop Irmn the niniilleit ipiaii - 
 lily of need. Alinlll olie third h'ls \h M'^fii ill 
 
 i'liiiiiU'rM, for briiadciisl, than In Knglaml lor 
 drilling. 
 
 Hifr is a very liixiiriaiit, and a prliu'lpal crop, a* 
 it forms an iniiiorlaiit article of ciiii>-iiniptliiii fur 
 bread among ilie working cliisKes. The cmpH of 
 wheat are iiiiiti>niity line, and free frotn smut ami 
 mildew, whii'li are elfeciiially preventrd by care- 
 fully selecting the seed, by changing it every 
 second year, and by Nteeping it in a nnliitinn nf 
 blue vitriol, or eiiiiper (Hiilpliaie of I'lippcri -, four 
 ounces in four gallmis of water, fur three lniHlieU 
 of grain. Alter tliorniighly stirring, skinimiiig 
 oD' the light grains, and reimiiniiig half an Imnr, 
 the grain is slraiiii'd otf in baskets, wiisheil ill liiiro 
 water, .ind when dried, is ready lor sowing. It is 
 steeped by snine in brine, and dried by silling limit 
 U|Hin it. < Hie bushel of seed wlieill pl'oiliiees abiivo 
 twenty bushels, llarley is a ri'o|i of niiii'li iiiipor- 
 taili'e, nilllt liipior being the couimoll beverage of 
 all chisM's of the |iiipnlatiiin. The winlt-i barley, 
 or snerion, is the liiMnirite kind. It is sown in 
 autumn and reaped in .Inly, Oats thrive well, 
 with little manure, in alinost everv soil of l''laii- 
 ders. Ituckwheal is niiseil chiilly as foiiil for 
 poultry and pigs, and fur distillation. I'eas, bciins, 
 ami tares, are ciiiiiimuily nilliMiled as fodder for 
 cattle. Clover is the glory of I'leinisli binning, 
 and in no ciiiintry is it finiiid in such perfect 
 luxuriance. l>'i'|H'ated ploiigliings, rich manuring, 
 and a vigilant prevention of weeds, serve to pro- 
 duce a vigour and weight of proiliiee whieli Is 
 surprising. I 'eat ashes fn mi llnlliiMil, about hirty 
 bushels per acre, are invariably used as a dressing 
 for clover. From Flanders this vahrible grass was 
 lli'si introduced into Fnglaint, ll is a cropof great 
 value, and indispensable to the Flemisli biriner, 
 who ploughs all his land, and feeds his cnws and 
 horses on green food brought to I he stall. The 
 coinnion red species is more eultivaleil in Flanders 
 than the other varietits. The liijiiid inamire from 
 t\w tank is believed to produce a strong tiist(>, 
 with which the cattle are disgusted. The potato 
 crop, nt the season of its full growth, also exhibits 
 n remarkable luxuriance. The stalks exceed n 
 yard in height, and their tops lonn a surfaei^ as 
 level as the land from which they rise. Tlu' pro- 
 duce is often ten tons iier acre, and it constitutes 
 one of the principal artich's of food of all classes of 
 the poimlation, and of the farmer's live stock, 
 esjiecially cows and horses. This useful root was 
 introduced into Flanders from l'',iiglaml at the end 
 of the sixteenth centnrv, and it has long appeared 
 in each rotation of the Flemish crops, Turni|is 
 and carrots are extensively cultivated for stall-fed 
 cattle, after rye and barley. The turnips, in size 
 and weight, are much inferior to those of .Norfolk, 
 and the carrots also yield a comparatively noor 
 return. The cultivation of the white and yellow 
 beet, for the extraction of sugar, is continually 
 becimiing more extensive, and several large fac- 
 tories have been established for the manufacture of 
 this im|)ortant article of commerce. The chicory- 
 plant, of which the root, %vhen pro|>erly torrilied, 
 IS a very good substitute for cott'ee, is raised in 
 large rpiantitics in Flanders, where establishments 
 nre formed for its preparation. The tlax crop is 
 nn object of the greatest care nnd exertion. Its 
 cultivation is thoroughly understood, as well as 
 every jirocess of its preparatiim for the loom; and 
 the land w liich ))roduces this idant exhibits nil the 
 neatness nnd iirecision of a carefully maimged 
 garden. FTux is n staple commodity in Flanders, 
 it serves to employ a great portion of the pojm- 
 
 i> ij 2 
 
 t 
 
 
 ^:y\ 
 
EELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 404 
 
 Intinn, nnd It is Inrpely exported. Tlic finest 
 (Uwcriptidii i» rnined in tlicncijflilMnirhoodof (Joiir- 
 triiy. CropH of tliix |)r(Hliiwd I'rom nntive wed are 
 found to be HUperior in (|Miiiility, lint inferior in 
 cpiality, to tlinsu ))rodiK'ed from the Heed of llipt, 
 wliieli i>i tlierefore procured by the KlemiMb farinern 
 every year. Hemp in enltivated witli f^reat care, 
 but not to the Hanie extent aH tiax. Colza (liriis- 
 aica cumpestrh) and a Hpecies of poppy, the uiktte 
 
 iPiijuwtr somntf'enim), are extensively enltivated 
 or the oil contained in their Heedn. VVoad is raised 
 for its dye of blue, wehl for yellow, and madder for 
 red. The two Flanders, and the provinee of Ant- 
 werp, prodnee a eonsideralile quantity of nuidder, 
 but the wliide annual prodnee of the kinj^dom is 
 insutlieient to supply u fourth of the quantity eon- 
 pumed at one of the larf^c factories of cotton and 
 woollen : those of Ghent alone make use of madder 
 to the value of six millions of francs per annum. 
 W'oad thrives best on gravelly and sandy soils; 
 but madder requires land of the best descriiition, 
 and abundance of mainire. llic cultivation of 
 tobacco was common several years ago in nearly 
 all the provinces, but at present it is eonlined to 
 Flanders; and the produce now is reduced to about 
 one-tenth of its fonner amount. 'J'he best tobacco 
 is raised and prepared at Werwick, in the neigii- 
 bourhood of Ypres. An acre produces about 4,(11)0 
 lbs. The culture of this plant requires a great 
 amount of labour, attention, exjiense, and manure. 
 Hops are grown in small patches on almost every 
 farm in Flanders. Pastures of grass are scarcely 
 to be met with, except in the polders, and the vi- 
 cinity of Dixmunde and Furncs, where they are 
 most luxuriant, and atiord grazing for numerous 
 cows ; 8tall-fee(ling, however, is iniiversally i)rac- 
 tised. One beast for every three acres of arable 
 land is a common proportion, and where s|)nde 
 luisbnndry prevails, a larger number are found. 
 (3ho))ped turnips, carrots, and potatoes, boiled up 
 with the meal of beans, rye, or buckwheat, consti- 
 tute the usual food of cattle, and it is called bmssiu. 
 Large quantities of good butter for home consum])- 
 tion and exportation are produced from the milk 
 of cows thus fed, with the addition, in summer, of 
 clover and other green fodder, cut and brought to 
 the stalls. The churns are ingeniously worked by 
 a horse. Cheese rarely is made in Flanders, almost 
 all the demand for it being supplied by impor- 
 tation from Holland. 
 
 Tlie land in Flanders is generally freehold, or 
 the jffoperty of civil or religious corporations. The 
 estates are small, and if not cultivated by the pro- 
 prietor himself, which is more frequently the case, 
 they arc let on leases generally of 7, 14, or 21 
 years' duration. The occupier is bound to live on 
 the j)remises, pay taxes, etfect repairs, preserve 
 timber, not sub-let without a written agreement, 
 and to give certain usual accommodations to the 
 next tenant at the end of the lease. The farm 
 establishments are always convenient, and gene- 
 rally more amj)le, in proportiitn to the extent of 
 the land, than in England and Scothmd. In ad- 
 dition to the usual accommodations, the larger 
 farms are commonly provided with a distillery, a 
 crushing-mill for the preparation of oil from the 
 colza and poppy, and sometimes a mill for grinding 
 corn. 
 
 Peasant Farmers. — The small farms, between 
 5 and 10 acres, wliich abound in many parts of 
 Helgiiim, have much resemblance to the s^all 
 holdings in Ireland ; but while the Irish cultivator 
 exists in a state of miserable privation of the com- 
 mon conveniences of civilised life, the Belgian 
 peasant farmer enjoys, comparatively, a great de- 
 gree of comfort. His cottige is built substantiallv, 
 with an upper tloor for sleei>ing, and is kept in 
 
 good repair : it has always a Rmnll colInrnRc f^r 
 the dairy, a store-room for the grain, an (ly,,,^ 
 an outhoustt for potatoes, a roomy caltlc-stnll, ,i 
 piggery, and a lofl for the poultry. The I'liriiiii'ir!: 
 IS (lecent, the bedding amply siilliciciil, aiid aii air 
 of comfort an<l propri(!ty jjcrvades tlie wlmli: 
 establishment. 'I'hc cows are supjilied with simw 
 to lie upon ; the dung and its drainiiigs arc rari'- 
 fuUy collected in the tank ; and a coinpi.Mt licaii is 
 accumulated from every possible source, 'fhc 
 l)remises are kept extremely neat, with a euTistant 
 observance of the most rigid ecououiy, indiistrv, 
 and regularity. No member of the fninily is cvir 
 seen raggt^l or slovenly; but all are iltronilv 
 clothed, though it be with the coarsest matcriali. 
 The men nniv(!rsally work in linen canvas frmis, 
 and b(»th women and men wear wooden A\w\ 
 Kye bread and milk often conNtiinte tliuir dii;, 
 though recent lywheateu bread has beconKMinioiv 
 geiu'ral an icle of consumption. The great mi|ic. 
 riority of the Belgian over the Irish i)ea.saiit farim r 
 is owing not to any advantages of soil orclitnati', 
 but to a better system of cidtivation, andos|](Tially 
 to established habits of sobriety, foretliounlit. anil 
 priulent economy. The points of his su|icri(irilv 
 consist — 1st, in his keeping as many staij-l.il 
 cattle as possible, to secure a sup]>ly of maniin ; 
 2n(l, in carefully collecting, and skilfully apiilyiii;', 
 manure ; 3rd, in adhenng to an advanta>;idii.s ri- 
 tation of 6 or 7 crops, by which is obtained ilic 
 utmost amount of produce without any fallciwiii- 
 On farms of 6 acres are found no horse, pliiiii;li, 
 nor cart : the only agricultural implement, hcsiilis 
 a spade, fork, and wheelbarrow, is a liglit wnodiii 
 harrow, drawn by hand. The whole of the laiiil i< 
 dug and deeply trenched with the sjiadc, and the 
 whole farm work is carried on without any a>.si.-t- 
 ance beyond that of the family. The live stml; 
 commonly consists of two cows, a calf or two. mn- 
 or two ])igs, a goat or two, and some jHiullry. All 
 the different kinds of crojjs which have alrcaily 
 been noticed, are cultivated upon tlipsc sniiill 
 establishments with the same care and sucwss m 
 on the tinest farms in the kingdom. (Mr. Xichulis 
 Keport on Holland and Belgium, ;>«.ssfHi.) 
 
 Hortkulture. — Numerous and extensive fjardcin 
 are cultivated in various parts of the kingdum Ux 
 the supply of the town markets with culiiiiiry 
 vegetables, and the common tardy fruits, wliirli I 
 are produced in great abuiulance and excelicnci;. 
 The annual value of this kind of iiroduuc is isti- j 
 mated at a million sterling. Apples and clicrrii i | 
 are especially good and plentiful, and arc fouiiil ii 
 every farm-house garden in the kingdom. Tin 
 culture of the vine is attended with consideralile j 
 success in several elevated localities on the banks | 
 of the Meuse ; and some of the wine there prodaccl 
 is far above mediocrity. From Belgium Eiiftiaiul 
 obtaine<l the cabbage, lettuce, and goosiel)erry. 
 
 Floriculture. — In Belgium the culture of tiimw | 
 is an object of as much gratitication as in Ilollaii i 
 and the climate is far more genial for briii;;iii.; 
 forth the beauty of these amiable ornaments nl j 
 civilised life. The last cLvsilication of tlie IWpc 1 
 population in 18.50 shows that, in the whole km^'- j 
 dom, there were then 113 professional florists, .1 j 
 whom two-thirds were in E. Flanders and linilBiiii. I 
 The tulip, carnation, and wall-tlower,werebr()ugiiU 
 into England from Belgium. 
 
 Manufactures.— Wool, in Belgium, is tlie oli|fctl 
 of an immense industry. The manufactures ct allj 
 kinds employ a qnaiititv of foreign wool, tlif "i- 
 port of which, in 1862. amounted to lH.OUtoiiS" I 
 the value of 66,259,000 francs ; in 1863, to UM\ 
 tons, valued at 43,70.5,000 francs: an<l in 1»;^|;'"J 
 21,586 tons, valued at 66,8<J2,0()0 francs. 1 to| 
 the average annual value of the ivoci iinporicJ i 
 
collttrnftfi fi,r 
 lin. nil ovdi. 
 (•altli'-stiill. u 
 Tlic I'liniiuiri: 
 III, aiiilun air 
 
 'M lllC Wlliilc 
 
 I'll with siriiw 
 iiiiH« (ire I'liri'- 
 )iniM.nt hciiii is 
 sdiirec. 'i'iic 
 •itii a I'imslaiit 
 liny, iiidiistry, 
 I'ninily in cvir 
 MV (Iccciiily 
 wcKt maicriiik 
 caiivnti IVuclis, 
 wimhIcii s1iiic>, 
 uti' tlioir ilic;, 
 lit'ciime aniuri' 
 'lie Kfi' ^ii|ic- 
 (icasuiit rHniii r 
 .soil or cliiiiaii', 
 i,niiil('siiwiiilly 
 ii'ctlioiiKlit. lui.l 
 liis su|icriiirily 
 many si.ill li'l 
 ])ly of mamiri ; 
 ilfiilly aiipiyiiiu. 
 ilvnntaj;cmi,s 1 1- 
 i» obtaiiu'il ilio 
 t nny fallniviii;'. 
 () horsp, )ilnu;;li, 
 plemcnt, Iw^idi > 
 1 II lifjlit W(khI(1i 
 Ac of tiic lanil i* 
 e sjindc, ami tin' 
 hoiit any awist- 
 Tlio live stml; 
 , calf or two, mif 
 (tic iiiiullrv. All 
 h have alromly 
 on tliost' .sniiill 
 e anil hiu'('P.«< in 
 (Mr. Nichuli's 
 sim,) 
 tensive g.irdciH 
 ic kiiigdiim i"r 
 with culiiiiiry 
 fruits, wldcli 
 and excellfinv, 
 |iroduec isi-ti- 
 ■s and cliiTrin 1 
 (I are fomul in I 
 iii^diim. 'flit 
 ith considcralile 
 ics on the lumk* \ 
 there produc(-4 I 
 Igiiim Eiii;!:"!'! 
 gooseberry, 
 ultnreof tliiww] 
 matiinllollaiiU 
 ial for briii,u'in;'l 
 ornanuMits of I 
 onofthclUi'i':] 
 the whidckin;;-! 
 ional florists, il [ 
 ersandliriibaiii. 
 er.werebruui'litj 
 
 ,m,istlieobiort| 
 nHfacture.stit»ll| 
 ,1 vm\, the iiii-l 
 o lS,(;i4ton-,"lj 
 18G3, to 1 l.:i'*i| 
 anil in WM. t')| 
 francs. 'llii|*l 
 ,v„(.) iiniiortcd \i\ 
 
 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 (tvivc two millioiiR Btcrlinp. Ft in inrtported from 
 Siixoiiy, I'riiKsia, SilcKia, I'olnnd, Holicrniii, Iliin- 
 L'lirv, Moravia, and th« soiithorii i)riiviiicc.<» of 
 Ji'iissiii. The annual prodiicfiou of the imiigcnous 
 KiMil. of pure and mixed breeds, Hcarcely ainuiints 
 in value to '20t»,f)00 francs. 
 
 U'liollcn cloths form one of the mn.st important 
 kiiiiehcH of manufacturing industry, and they arc 
 triiitly superior in quality to tliose produced in 
 France. 'I ho dye ol the black dotlis, which arc 
 niiide in larfje quantities, is considered to lie more 
 l>niiniient, deep, and beautiful, than that of the 
 iitst KiiKl'^h cloths. The casimirs of the Heinle 
 Iniiiiis are also as excellent as t hose of France. The 
 ihitf scats of the woollen manufacture are at 
 Vmiers, Liege, Dolhaira, Limburg, Ilodimont, 
 Stavelot, Tluiin, Yprcs, and I'operingbe. The 
 wiH.iitn mamifactures of Ver\'icr8 and its environs 
 (■!ii|iloy alone a population of 6(),()(l() oiKjratives, 
 Hiiiiiiel, coverlets, serge, Iwlting-chttli, camlet, *c., 
 life made in all the provinces of the kingdom, but 
 irimipally in Antwerp and Ilainault. The caqiet 
 naiiiifactory of Messrs. Schimiacher and Co. at 
 liiimiay is the most extensive and important in 
 Kiiriiiie! It priMluces all kinds of what arc called 
 iJroiBf/s carpets, from those which adorn the sum|)- 
 iiiiius palaces of kings, to such as are used for the 
 iliiiirof the cottage. Besides the principal manu- 
 laciiire at Toiiriiay, there are several others of 
 >.Tiindary rank in the same town ; in Brussels, 
 Aiitiverp', (jlient, Bruges, and Coiirtray. 
 
 jlil|,'iuTn jiroduccs a large quantity of flax. The 
 vnrioiis manipulations to whicii this product of tlie 
 Mil is subinitteil form one of the, most ancient and 
 iiii|Hirtant sources of the manufacturing wealth (if 
 tlic kingdom. The mode of culture, tlie order of 
 (Tiilis. the preparation of the soil, the system of 
 iiiamiriiig, the careful cultivation of the plant, and 
 ilic |Toces3 of steeping, are so well understood in 
 ll('l;;iuin, that its flax is always in great demand 
 tlirnigliout I'hirope. Fngland and France buy 
 marly all the flax which is produced in the pro- 
 vini'Wdf Ilainault, Brabant, and Xamur. The two 
 FLnnilers supply a very large quantity to the Eng- 
 lish market. 
 
 Linen manufactures have been long extensively 
 I rrii'd on in Belgium, and their products have 
 
 iH deservedly celebrated for their excellence. Of 
 liif years, however, they have been, for the most 
 |art, far from flourishing. The Imsinosses were 
 (iiffiisal over the country, particularly over East 
 ami We.st Flanders, and were carried on in the 
 oitliisos of the peasantry much in the same way 
 as the Irish linen trade was formerly diHiised over 
 ll-ter, and the lace trade over parts of England. 
 Hut since the successful ap)>lication of steam to the 
 s|iinning and weaving of flax anil the jiroduction 
 iif lace, the foreign demand for the linens and laces 
 iif Flanders has greatly declined; and the popu- 
 kidn deiieiiding on these branches of industry has 
 Iwii exposed to the greatest privations. In l8ti4, 
 tliiTewere no fewer tlinn 12(),(H)0 female spinners 
 ill K. Flanders, and 'J.0,OO() ditto in W. Flanders, 
 exclusive of a large number of weavers, all of whom 
 «iTt! in a very depressed an<l impoverished con- 
 iliiiim. There can be no doultt, that here as else- 
 »liw, the old domestic manufacture of lini'iis and 
 kfcswill Ijc extinguished; and that the manii- 
 
 405 
 
 II 
 
 fii'.'iure, if oanied on at all, will have to be carried 
 wi ill factories. 
 The productiim and manufacture of silk has 
 iwiitly become an imjiortant source of lUdgic 
 iinlustry. The breeding of the silkworm was 
 i!iin«liiced into Itelgium in I82t!, and this (lc]i!irt- 
 ffl'iilol' business is continually increasing under 
 fc tWtering care of the government. The mul- 
 Irrry nnpoofs to thrive in the soil of the couiUry, 
 
 and the number of young plantH now cullivaled 
 exceeds two millions. In the opinion of the best 
 judges, the Belgic silk is niiite as boaiitifiil and 
 valiialilo as the ciioicest kind produced in tho 
 French provinces of Piedmont and I>auphin«>, 
 which, ill fact, is tlic finest in the worhl. Tho 
 most extensive establishments for rearing the silk- 
 worm arc at Meslik rEveqiie, near Ath, and at 
 llccic, near Brussels. Antwerp, which is tho 
 principal centre of the manufacture, contaiim 
 establishments for the production of various kiiuls 
 of silk fabrics. Velvets, satins, gros do Naples, 
 and other stuffs, obtained formerly from Naples, 
 arc made with a l)eautv of tissue and tints that 
 cannot be surjiassed. 'I'hc silk factor^' at I'ccle is 
 remarkable for excellent dyed and printed fabrhis. 
 
 ' Briisscds lace,' the thread of which is mnile of 
 the finest Hax of the country, is superior to every 
 other ticscription made in iielgiiini or in foreign 
 countries. Its peculiar (pialities arc delicate line- 
 ness, and a great elegance and variety of design. 
 The |)atterns are all worked sejiarate, and are 
 stitched on. The flax employed grows near llai, 
 and the best at liebecquc. The finest ilescription 
 costs from 3,000 to 4,000 francs a ])ound, and is worth 
 its weight in gold. The spinning is performed in 
 darkened rooms, with a beam -.if light admitted 
 only upon the work, through a snuill a|icrturc. 
 The lace of Malines is second in rank, with res|)ect 
 to richness and elegance. It is made also at 
 Antwerp, Lierre, and Turnhuut. The cities of 
 Bruges, Menin, Ypres, Courtray, (Ihent, Alost, and 
 ,St. Nicolas, employ a great luimber of hands in 
 the manufacture of Valencien point. Jlons con- 
 tains a school for special instruction in the art of 
 making the fiiur kinds of lace. 
 
 The i.rincipal tnanul'actiires of tiillv are at (ihent, 
 Tennonde, Aleidilin. Itrussels, and Bouillon. The 
 excellence of the Belgic enibroiilery on tulle is 
 universally acknowledged, and a great number of 
 females are em|)loved in this department, tho 
 earnings of each being about .OO cents a day. 
 
 The manufacture of gold and sileer lace, was 
 fonnerly a considerable source of wealth, but it is 
 now much reduced bv foreign competition. How- 
 ever, the (pialities of' this article still produced in 
 Brussels arc fully e(|iial to those of the best tlc- 
 scription manufactured in Paris. 
 
 Hililmns of every sjiecies are made principally 
 at Aiitwer]), Toiirnay, and Vpros. This branch of 
 industry formerly emidoycd 1,000 looms and 
 12,000 persons, and produced annually about three 
 thousand million j^ards of ribbon; but the muiiii- 
 facture, in conse(iiience of largo importations of 
 cheaper kinds from France and Gcrmanj', has very 
 considerably decreased. 
 
 The manufacture of hosier)/ emjiloys about 
 fiO,000 jjcrsons. Its principal centre is in the 
 arrondissement of Toiirnay, where 2,.")00 looms an; 
 kept in activity. About the same number are 
 found in other parts of the kingdom. The coarser 
 articles are more succes>fiil, and are partly ex- 
 ])orte(l. Finer kinds arc imported chietly from 
 Saxony. At Arciidonck, in the province of Ant- 
 werp, about 220,000 pairs of woollen hose are 
 annually mamifactured, and the most beautiful 
 articles of knitting and netting are produced at 
 Brussels and Tournay. 
 
 JJats of felt, or beaver, are made sufficiently 
 good to meet the (.'oinpetition of foreign maiiu- 
 fKjtiirers, — and those of silk are of very superior 
 ([Utility. The latter kind are made in nearly 
 every city in the king(b>ni, .so that the manufacture 
 of beaver hats has consequently much dccrea.sed. 
 Straw hats are abundantly made in Brussels. 
 Ghent, and Antwerp. 
 
 The prci);ir?.t ?.<•!! <\iv\ various manufactures of 
 
400 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 loiither arc rnrricd on with iindimiiiiKliPil succpsr. 
 The |iriii(^i|ial tnnnorics (ire nl Sliivclot hikI l/icfje; 
 tluTe are aUo mnny at nnisneln, Nniiiur, Aiitweq), 
 (ilicnt, Vjires, and Touniay. 
 
 I'ltper factDries cxint in every province, and tlie 
 nwmufaetnrc of tliis iini)ortant article is prof^res- 
 HJvely improvinf.', and in recent vearH nnicli has 
 lieen'cxported to Kn^laiid. It wan stated, in \HM, 
 tliat a jiortion of tlie large stip))l.v reipnn^d for the 
 ' TinieH* newspaper was made in Heljfinni. 
 
 J'rintitiji is carried on extensively, formin^j an 
 imi)ortaiit tlepartinent of national industry. The 
 ))rinting of llelginni is in no respect inferior to 
 that of Paris, in heauty and neatness of execution, 
 or correct nes.( of text, ()iu!]irintiuf;estal)lislinieiit 
 at Hrussels now produi-es more than all the presses 
 of the country in the time of its suhjection to the 
 French (iovernment. Tins remarkable increase 
 arises from the reprehensilile system of pirating 
 the hest works of I'aris, which immediately apjiear 
 in Itelgiinn commoidy at ahout half the origiinil 
 price. Thev can he sold at this reduced rate, the 
 ]ia|ier used in their manid'acture being nsiially in- 
 ferior, and the publishers having no (lopyright to 
 jiay. It need scarcely l)e said that the system is. 
 notwithstanding, most injurious to the interests of 
 literature, and Ls discreditable in the extreme to 
 the Helgians. 
 
 /,/7/i(«/w/;/iy liaa attained a high degree of ex- 
 eel Icnce, and some of t he productions of Brussels 
 will bear a comparison with the finest specunens of 
 Gennan artists. 
 
 Ciihiiiet-ma/iim; is a source of employment to 
 numerous skilful oi)eratives. Hrussels is its jirin- 
 ei|)al seat; and it exports various articles to (jcr- 
 many and America. 
 
 The oidy establishment for the manufactnrc of 
 cloclm is at (Jhenee, near Lii^ge. The machinery 
 is moved by steam. Hut all kinds of tiine-iiieces 
 are supplied chiefly from France and Switzerland. 
 With the view of promoting the home jmidnction 
 of these useful instruments, the government an- 
 nually awards premiums and nic(lals for the most 
 perfect specimens produced by native artists. 
 
 Mehilliirgy. — The al>undance of metals and com- 
 Imstibles in IJelgium has occasioned the establish- 
 ment of several extensive forges for the melt iiig 
 and manufacture of iron, copper, and tin. There 
 are three principal groups of forges, — 1. On the 
 l)anks of the Meuse, extending from its entrance 
 into Ilelgiuin to the limits of Nainur and Liege ; 
 2. ISetwecn the Meuse and the Sambre ; and a. At 
 (Tiarleroy. Hesides these principal groups, there 
 arc ninnerous forges, foini<lries, and tin-works 
 along the banks of the Hoyoux, theOiirtc, and its 
 ulHuents. All the mines, tpuirries, steam-engines, 
 and metallurgical establishments of Uelgiuin are 
 under the supervision of an insi)ector-genenil and 
 eight insjiectors, all subordhiafc to the ' Dirccteur- 
 Gene'ral des I'onts et Chausst'cs et des Mines' in 
 the Ministry of I'ublic Works. They are divided 
 into two directions and eiyht arronilisscments, as 
 follows : — 
 
 liherafive atfribntions, esiwcially referring to mn- 
 cessions and extensions of mines. The ornniiisntinii 
 and taxation of mines is maiidy regnlaicil |,v tin. 
 laws of the 21 St April, IMlO, aiid 'iiid May 'ls;i7 
 All mhihig operafioim must be previouMly mulm' 
 rised by a Koyal Act of ( 'oncession, wliich confcM 
 periM'ti'ial property in all (ieposits of any Kpeoitiiil 
 miiH>ral within a certain delined area on tju. imy. 
 ment of certain dues to the owner of the laml 'h, 
 well as to the Treasury. Tlu^ concessiim in alwnv« 
 refused if the existeiuie of the mineral is luit iirnvlil 
 to the satisfaction of the ('oinicil of MIuch. If, in 
 the process of working, anoiher miiu'ral sliinilii !,(, 
 discoven^d, a fresh concession must be a|i|iii(M| U\t. 
 This is generally, hut not necessarily, granted iii 
 the sanui ' concessionnaire.' The tax on niincn i>, 
 ilivideil info the ' redevance fixe ' and the • rcdc- 
 vance proportioinielle,' the former ainoinitiiig td In 
 centimes ))er hectare (217 acres), the latter to i.i, 
 per cent, of the net produce. IJoth of these (;lii!r«c'i 
 go t(( the Treasury. There are besides two »iniiiiir 
 charges which vary in ditl'erent concessions, pnv- 
 ableto the owners of the surface: a lixed cliar^'c 
 g(!iu'rally amounting to I franc per hectare, and a 
 graduated rate of from 1 to 3 per cent, of the iitt 
 produce. 
 
 The importance of the metallurgical indiisirv 
 of Ilelgiuin is shown by the subjoiiied statcimiii, 
 which gives the (dlicial of the several branclici 
 during tlic years iHiil) aim IHUO. 
 
 Dirwtliiiu 
 
 ArrondliBcniciita 
 
 1. Hainault . . 
 
 2. The otlicr eight pro- 
 
 vinces . 
 
 ( 1. Mens and Toumay 
 
 ; 2. Cliarleroy 
 
 '3. Nninur, piovincc of 
 
 4. Luxenihurjr. province 
 
 5. I.iego, left l)ank 
 
 • (). liiej?e, right l)ank 
 
 7. Huy 
 
 8. Tlie five Korthem pro- 
 
 vinces 
 
 There is, moreover, a body of live members, called 
 ' Conseil nes Mines,' invested with certain de- 
 
 JletalUc Ores . 
 Coal , . , . 
 JlctiUs, Glass, & Alnm 
 Slm'ldes, .Stones, and 
 Slates . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Total in & sterling 
 
 Frnnc« 
 
 14, ()(!!, 707 
 
 104,('.im,'.'01 
 
 121,'J07,878 
 
 15,070,444 
 
 1860 I 
 
 Frnnci j 
 
 l!!,W(l.l'02 ! 
 
 in7,lL'7.:'S-j i 
 
 l'.'ll,ti!W,ll« I 
 
 17,a!)3,.'.74 I 
 
 •J.'>4,346,2<!0 
 10,173,848 
 
 •ifi7,71)li.l7l 
 
 10,711,844 
 
 The royal cannon foundry at T^ioge has tlic 
 recpiisite api)aratu8 for manufacturing the laru'fit 
 pieces of artillery in iron and bronze, wliicli it 
 l)ro(luces of the hest quality. Kstaldisliici'iits 
 for the constructiim of steam-engines are priiici- 
 jially at Mege, ISrussels, Cliarleroy, Tilleniont, ami 
 Ijruges. 
 
 Na'd-nmking is an important branch of mctal- 
 lurg,y at Liege and Cliarleroy, In the liiiicr 
 l)lace, aliout j"),j')(H) hands are employed in this 
 Imsiness throughout the winter. Liege is .iImi 
 the centre of a inanufacfure of Jire-iiriiis, tlic pm- 
 duce of which and of various other facturics i^ 
 exported to America, l'^g.\'pt, Turkey, (iormuiiy, 
 Italy, and Spain. The principal kinds niaiiii- 
 factiirod are,— I. Single and double barrt'lKil 
 guns for sporting; 2. Jluskcts for military iw; 
 3. Common guns for various purposes; 4. Pisinls 
 which, as well as the liest description of guns, are 
 made and finished with great care uiul tikill. 
 
 The wages of pitmen in Ilelgiuin average ftl2 
 francs per annum, or 3 francs 4 centimes per day, 
 reckoning 300 working days in the year. In 
 liainault a collier cams an average of 1)1!!! I'r.ains 
 j)er annum, or 3 francs 23 centimes per day. Tlif 
 average earnings of all ages and sexes enipldycpl 
 ill and about the mines amounted in 18(!0 tn 7iwl 
 francs, or 2 J francs per working day. Diiriiii,' 
 the same year the operatives jiaid on im averii::!' 
 .5 francs per head to the ' caisses de prcVoyaiur.' i 
 and 11 francs 48 centimes to the 'caisses lif 
 secoiirs;' total, 1(! francs 48 centimes, or '.'i jht | 
 cent, of their earnings. 
 
 Ample provision seems to be made fur tlic j 
 
IIKLGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 407 
 
 la- 
 
 matirinl wcUaro of tliu iniiicr. 0{ all tlic K!t,87« 
 ii.ririM'K t'WKwl >" ''''" i»<l"8lry, H(»,7h;«, or 
 '' iie-tiiitli'', lire iilHlintetl to the 'cniKHCs «lo 
 ,„iirK ' Biiil to tlie ' caisscH dc prt'voyaiice.' The 
 Lmr arc iiiiulH ostaldislied at every mine for tlie 
 ' .„,rftn' relief of wounded and sick miners; the 
 hti'r «rc fnndft created by tlie assoeiation of all 
 ,1, „,o,,t i>( the mines belont^inK to each of the 
 >ix LTiiiiP^ ''"»'■ '•>** purj)"!*'' <i'' K«vin(^ oermancnt 
 Mill til (li-ahled miners, or to the widows of those 
 l^ilkil l)V ai'fidents, and temporary relief to their 
 AMren. Alliliatiou to these latter 'eaisses' is 
 niaili' 11 condition of all concessions ^jranted since 
 
 'I'li,. pDworful Society of ' La Vieillc Monta^nc' 
 nc.s.if.'Mt iiumerons cdiieessions of calamine, lead, 
 ivrili'K, and coal in ditferent parts of Helnium, 
 |'riis4ii, France, and Swe<lcn. it employed in 
 istlii. ."),t'p27 o|)erativcs, representing', witii their 
 lamiiicn, 17,00(1 individual", of whom ll,7r)(! live 
 ill lli'L'ium or Moresnet. The wa^es paid liy the 
 i„^.i,.iv in the same year were ;{,(i.JH,«!tG francs. 
 >i(, .*K'ii>tv has made greater (^ll'ortii to amtdiorate 
 ilic niDriii and material condition of its servants, 
 it ha." a(lii|ited the plan of encouruj-nnf; their zeal 
 liv I'liMiriiiH to each one, in a<!dition to his fixed 
 Mii'cs, ail eventual share in tlm result of his own 
 lahmir, calculated on the task-woric jffinciple, 
 aiiiiliid cither individually, or to the squiul of 
 iiHiiiL" attiii'hed to each furnace or workshop. It 
 fiiuiKied a 'caissc de secours,' a 'caisse de 
 |,[tv»yaiu'e,' and asnvint;s bank, for the exclusive 
 lnMolit <pf its own operatives; built dwelliu};- 
 hdusi's, churches, schools, butcherh' and bakers' 
 slidiw; off^anised choral unions, archers' and ritle 
 c'.iiii|«iiiies, and tm annuid festival. 1 ts production 
 if raw zinc anionnteu in IMtiO to the enormous 
 aniiiiiiit iif •iH,'J2.') tons, principally maiud'actured 
 at AiiKli'iir and Tilif, near I.iese. The net 
 hfotiis (if the society, notwithstandiuf,' tiie con- 
 >iiint fall in the price of zinc, were in 18(i0, 
 ;;,lix,132 francs, allowiufj a dividend •*' 25 per 
 Ml nil the paid-up capital of !),000,(IOO francs. 
 k'sides liberal allowances to the directors. Their 
 ziiic-wdfks at Ant;leur are the larfrest factory in 
 tlie kiiipUiin, and a model of order, (lie)iort of 
 Mr. iiarion, Her Majesty's Secretary of Legation, 
 (iaiwl llnissels, April 15, 18()2.) 
 
 in (irdor to encoura{,ie and facilitate imi>rove- 
 incut in manufactures and industrial pursuits, the 
 giivemmcut has instituted i>uhlic exhibitions 
 wiipre only the products of the country and its 
 inhaliilaiits arc admitted. 
 
 A very considerable part of the revenue of 
 Ikl},'iuni is derived from a tax on jiateuts, no one 
 Iwiig alKiwed to exercise any trade or profession 
 withiiut a patent, the price of which depends upon 
 tlie amduiit of profit obtained, lieports of income 
 are required from each individual en>,'aj,a>d in 
 liusiiiess, antl the ftovernment assessors exercise 
 in(|ui.iiuirial jxiwer in assigning the citizens to 
 iliiiscs (if (lifterent degrees. 
 
 Trade and Commerce. — The commerce of Hel- 
 puni extends its relations to most parts of the 
 iviirld, and includes every species of indigenous 
 ami foreign production, its average annual value 
 niayliccsthnatedat/l millions sterling, of which 
 ;!!i millions imports, and 35 millions exports. In 
 Will, the total imports, including transit, were of 
 the value of ;W,!)52,«10/.; in l.S(i2, of the value of 
 ^l.lM,771/.;inidinl8<i3,ofthevalueof42,7.-i7,l«'.>/. 
 TIk! total exports, including tnuisit, amounted to 
 :ill«2,;)51/. in IHGl: to 37,51)4, 1 lo'- i» l*^""-^; '">'l 
 i'i31Mifi7,70l/. in 18(53. The foUowiiig table gives 
 till: total real value of the imports and export." 
 H'xdiisive (if specie) of ISelgiuin, in I8G0 and 1801, 
 iliidi were, in many respects, average j-ears : — 
 
 iMroiiTH. 
 
 
 1860 
 
 271),8<)'i,8fi7 
 U,ll».'i,71/) 
 
 (iim,ii(iri,0)i8 
 a4,iir.8,uao 
 
 H8H,8n8,r.:t;. 
 ;).'i,.'i54,:J4l 
 
 i'in,s7-.>.inn 
 
 4,8'i-.'.M8K 
 
 !il!»,.'-.:i!»,4»i;i 
 
 ia,781,&78 
 
 440,11 1,(!(!-2 
 17,(i04,4li(i 
 
 4f)1,(l.')(i,78r, 
 18,U4J,271 
 
 n:)fl,ii«i,iin 
 
 l;i,4.'i4.44« 
 
 r)87,4.'i!i,nio 
 
 2U,4!l8,a(ilI 
 
 [)T\,n-2i),-i:o 
 
 !((!,'J.M',810 
 
 'J'otul Iinimrts (lucluiliiig 
 transit) : — 
 
 llySea . . { *'™"\? 
 „ Land & River |^^'^»"^^r 
 
 Total. . {^"^''^ 
 
 In Trnnslt : — 
 
 DySoa . . { ^'•""^^ 
 
 „Lana&nivcr ^^^""""^ 
 
 _ . , J Francs 
 Total , . -1 ^ 
 
 Entered for lloiiio j Franc^ 
 Consumption t X, 
 
 llfi,871,1(i:i 
 
 4,(174,8 H! 
 
 •2<.>■2A•2'■K•2•■'^ 
 
 11,(11)7,172 
 
 4(MI,:llHl,4(i>l 
 l(i,:>7J,(ll8 
 
 r>l(i,(i8ll,ri{l4 
 •20,(1(17,4(14 
 
 EXl'OUTB. 
 
 Total Kx|H)rt8 (including 
 transit) :— 
 
 By Sea . . { ^'''•'""'^ 
 „ Land & River | ^'■'*"^| 
 
 1800 
 
 IHfll 
 
 '.'or.,2ns,!)7:i 
 11, 8 11, !»:.!» 
 
 .■i8i.'.'."i:t,8ii4 
 
 '2-i,:i7»,-i»2 
 
 87i» ,.'1.18,777 
 ;).'i,182,:l.'il 
 
 4(>!>,:i(»0,4(10 
 l(l,37i,018 
 
 470.'.>.-,S,:il7 
 18,810,:j:l-J 
 
 •2ir,,nr,(\,4r,H 
 
 ll,04-i,(iriS 
 
 .■i77,:!"L'.4.'.7 
 
 •j:j,0!ll,8!»8 
 
 Total (Francs 8.-i:t,4:!S,!i|.^ 
 lotal. . j j^ ;i4,l;i7,r..-.(i 
 
 T,„„ u (Francs 440,1 11, (Kl-i 
 Transit . | ^ I7,(104,4(i« 
 
 .Belgian Produce \ j^, i«,r,aa,ouo 
 
 The commercial intercourse of Ilelgium with 
 other states is exhibited in the following state- 
 ment, showing the value of imports and exports 
 from and to the seven principal countries in the 
 vear 18(i3:— 
 
 Germany — ZoUvurcln 
 
 FrniK'o . . 
 
 Netherlands . 
 Great Britain 
 
 Russia . . . 
 
 United States . 
 Brazil 
 
 Imports 
 
 Franc* 
 
 204,7o:i,ono 
 
 •i(IO,.1-i8,()()0 
 
 17.'i,(K»8,O00 
 
 140,8(13,000 
 
 40,ti!)l,000 
 
 40,070,000 
 
 1(1,003,000 
 
 Exporti 
 
 Franci 
 (iL»,4l7,O00 
 !17.3-.'!t,nO0 
 1 14,4,19,000 
 <)l, 3211,0(10 
 3.1,343,(MIO 
 'J(1,!)!)(1,000 
 10,(177,000 
 
 The articles which Belgium suiiplies to England 
 are bark, flax, cattle, madder, clover-sexjd, linen, 
 spelter, books, and sheeji's wool ; in return for 
 which England sends various kinds of East and 
 West India iirodnce, with cotton fabrics ami yarn, 
 earthemvare, salt, and coal, A portion of the 
 cotton yarn, cotton cloths, and hu;e which are 
 exjiorted from lingland to Helgiiim, are smuggled 
 across the'French frontier. The commercial and 
 manufacturing cities of Belgium are, Brussels, 
 tJhent, Liege, Namnr, Touriiay, Ypres, Mons, 
 Louvain, Verviers. Mechlin ; to which arc to bt; 
 added the maritime cities of Antweqt, Ostcnd, 
 Nicnport, and Bruges. Some notice of the great 
 extent oi' the Belgic commerce in the middle ages 
 is given under the head of History ; but for more 
 particular accounts of its astonishing jirosperity 
 at that remote period, reference must be made to 
 the articles ANTWKitr, (iiiKNT, and BitutJKs. 
 
 Shipping. — Belgium communicates with the sea 
 by Ostcnd, by Antwerp, by Nicnport, by the canal 
 oi' Bruges to Oostburg, liy the canal of Dunkirk 
 
 *f] 
 
 
 
408 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 1o KiimuH, by the caiwl <>f Glicnt to TcmciiHcn, liy | of Urnhnnt is wortli 1 frnnc fll contimos, and it in 
 the cimiil of Tcrmondt to IIiilNt, by the Hohchtt | dividi'd into 20 huus, cuuh mtu l)ciiig n^aiu iliviilui 
 from FlesHiiiKiie to Antwerp, by the Hciieldt and " ' '•' ■ -■= - 
 t\w oannl of VVillebrocl< from Ilriissclx to Antwurj), 
 
 
 
 A'ld by the eanal of Louvuin and tliu Sulieldt from 
 Louvaiu to Antwerp. 
 
 Tlie princi|ial |M>rts are Antwerp an<l Ostend. 
 Tlie former is one of the finest in I'jirope, and 
 nH'ords reception to vessels of tlie lar>;est toniia;;e. 
 The situation of Antwerj), between the X. and S. 
 coinitries of Kurojic, and tlie establishment of a 
 railroad commnnicati<m thenco to Cologne, make 
 it a |H>rt of ^reat importance. 
 
 The number of merchant vessels bclonfiiiif; to 
 the ]M)rt.s of Jielpum, cxcludiiif^ those in the 
 fisheries, is but tritling. And this, notwithstand- 
 ing premiums arc ((iven by {government for the 
 eonstniction of ships for sea navigation. 
 
 Steam-boats are cstnblislied on al) the nrineipal 
 lines of commnnication by water, as well within 
 the country as to foreign iM)rts. Jtv far the largest 
 ])roiH>rtitm of the foreign trade of Jlelgium centres 
 in Antwerji. The annexed statement shows the 
 amount of shipping frequenting that port. 
 
 NallunaUty 
 
 18(12 
 
 083 
 
 18(55 
 784 
 
 Great Britnhi 
 
 Franco 
 
 120 
 
 112 
 
 America .... 
 
 85 
 
 110 
 
 lirazils 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 Metliterrancan 
 
 !»7 
 
 87 
 
 iSpiiiii 
 
 155 
 
 178 
 
 luilin 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 Cuba 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 8t. Dominpro 
 
 37 
 
 ■30 
 
 Hio lie la IMnta . 
 
 128 
 
 123 
 
 Turkey and Ulack Sea 
 
 105 
 
 113 
 
 raciflc Ocean 
 
 35 
 
 63 
 
 DEl'AUTrUKS. 
 
 Yiari 
 
 Wllh Cargoci 
 
 1,091 
 1,752 
 
 In Uatla^t 
 
 Total 
 
 2,309 
 2,571 
 
 1802 
 1803 
 
 018 
 819 
 
 BlUTISII. 
 
 Ycari 
 
 1802 
 1863 
 
 With Cargoci 
 
 657 
 759 
 
 lu Dallait 
 
 Total 
 
 103 
 149 
 
 702 
 908 
 
 The following was the number and tonnage of 
 merchant vessels of the kingdom at the close of 
 l«(i2 :— 
 
 Dec. 31, 
 
 1802 
 
 Sailing vessels . 
 Steam „ 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Number 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 39,279 
 6,771 
 
 138 
 7 
 
 146 
 
 45,050 
 
 The number of vessels belonging to the Helgian 
 mcn^hant service, at the close of 18(il, was 111. 
 At the end of 18(>() it was 120. 
 
 {.)steiid is principally a packet station ; and 
 Bruges, which in the iiii(klle ages was one of the 
 greatest emporiums in the N. of Europe, is now 
 of very inferior commercial importanuc as com- 
 pared with Antwerp. 
 
 Mmiey. — The franc is the monetary unit of Bel- 
 gium, and its divisions are made according to the 
 <lccinial system. There arc eleven different Belgic 
 coins ; namely, two of gold, — the piece of 40 francs, 
 and the piece of 20 francs; live of silver, — pieces 
 of b francs, 2 francs, 1 franc, half a franc, and a 
 qiifUter of a franc ; four of copper,— i)ieces of 10 
 centimes, of 5, of 2, and of 1 ccutimc. The lloriii 
 
 into 12 deniers. 
 
 The value of the Knglish sovereign in Ilel'lc 
 money is 25 francs 20 centimes ; and the KiwIUi, 
 shilling, 1 franc KS centimes. 
 
 Banks ami Commirfinl Snrii'fieii, — IlclL'iinn 
 possesses several large financial estalilislniKiin 
 devoted to industrial and commercial openuiinis' 
 which render an immense service to tli(> miniu- 
 facturcs and comineive of the c(Huitry. At Itriis- 
 sc'ls an association was formed, by royal aiithnritv 
 on the 2«tli of August, IH22, with a clinrtcr fi,r 
 27 years. It is entitled the Socii'ti- (Inuralt mur 
 fitmiriier PJnihiHirk, and its object is to devi'liMic 
 the resources, and ]iromote the prosperity (if nuri- 
 ciilture, commerce, and manufactures. Its caiiiiiil 
 consists, 1st, of .^O.OIH^OOO fiorins (I O;),820,(i(Mi fr.'), 
 of whicii 20,000,000 a* vested in real iimtnTtv' 
 and ;10,(I00,000 in 00,000 .■ bares, each of :m Wmnl 
 at an interest of 5 ])er cent. , 2ii(l, of a rescrvcil 
 fund, formed of a third of the dividends. It 'w^wtx^ 
 notes to the :ini()uut of •10,()()0,000 francs, fiirsnnH 
 of oO, 100, .')00, and 1,000 francs; and its j;pn(r,il 
 operations consist of the discounting of cdninn'rcinl 
 bills, receiving deposits, making loans and aii- 
 vaiices, and in various ways affording ncwimnni- 
 dation to facilitate commercial transactidiis. 'flu; 
 administrative body is formed of a govoriuir, wlm 
 is nominated by the king, six directors, ascerctarv, 
 and a treasurer. 
 
 The Bank of Bvhjitim, at Bnis.sol», was institntpil 
 by a royal decree of the Pith of Feb., I«;i,'). with 
 a charter for 25 years. Its ca)iital is 20,iHi(),ii(n) 
 francs, in 20,000 shares, each of 1,000 rrancs. 'i'lio 
 rate of interest is 5 |(er cent. It operates «t mn 
 as a bank of deposits, of circulation, of discdinn. 
 and of accommodation to the commercial I'lasws 
 similar to that ii Horded by the society just de- 
 scribed. A director and four aduiinisiratiirs ure 
 nominated by (he king, and the ac(;ounts arc an- 
 nually audited by a general assembly of tlic 
 holders of ten shares. 
 
 Among the dependencies of the Soc'u'ti] Gi'nhnk 
 are the Sockti/ of Copitulistn, with a capital iil' 
 50,000,000 francs; the Socit'ti/ of Commem; n- 
 pital 10,000,000; and the NatioiuU Sodeti/, mih 
 a capital of 1.5,000,000 francs. 
 
 Tlie liank of Belgium lias formed a Stm-htii nf 
 United Shares, with a caiiital of 40,000,0(10 fraiK-. 
 Under the same patronage was established, iii 
 1835, the Ba7ik of Liege, for 40 years; it lias a 
 fund of 4,000.000' francs, in shares, each ef I.mihi 
 francs. In IK."}?, a great financial society was 
 fouudcd, under the title of the Cummerviul Bank 
 of Aiitwerf) ; its term is for 25 years, niid its ca- 
 pital 25,000,000 francs, in shares, each of l,(iiiii 
 francs. Numerous other institutions of this nature 
 exist in difl'erent )iarts of the kingdom. The 
 amount of capital possessed by anonymdiis sci- 
 cieties authorised by the goveniment cxci'eils 
 100,000,000 francs, or 4,000,000/. The condili»iis 
 ()'' success to these societies are that they ciiiiliae 
 their competition to such industrial operalimbas 
 the manufa jturc of the metals and other siibsiiuiow 
 of intrinsic and i)erinaiieiit value. 
 
 tyeit/hts and Measures. — lielgium has ado|it(il 
 the weights and measures of the French tnolriial 
 system ; the fundamental i)riuciple of which is the 
 measure of length, its unity, the metre, is ili'' 
 ten-millionth jiart of a quadrant of the mc^ridiuii.il 
 circle of the earth. The length of the metre is 
 neiirly an inch less than an I'JiiglLsh yard ami half 
 a quarter; that is, i}'2«lil)i)2 ft. The unit (if su- 
 perficial measure, the are, is a square, of wliicli tlie 
 side is 10 metres. The unit of the measure of ca- 
 pacity, the litre, is a cube, of which the side is ihe 
 
HELOIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 . and it in 
 ill (UviiM 
 
 in \H^K 
 11! Kn(^li,U 
 
 - Ili'Icium 
 ilisliincnn, 
 ii|i('ruiiiiib, 
 tliv niuiiii- 
 At ilriis- 
 l aiitliiirity, 
 I'liiirtcr lur 
 iiiriilt jtmir 
 
 to (\fiVl'lll|lC 
 
 ■ity tif ncri- 
 Itscaiiilal 
 H-2(l,(HHirr.l, 
 111 iimiK'rtv, 
 I'.jdtllliiriiU 
 f a ri'scrvcil 
 Is. It issues 
 ii's, tnr Slims 
 . its ^'fiiiriil 
 ' oomniitciiil 
 ins niiit nil- 
 (i ncconiniii- 
 ctions. Tlu; 
 Dvcrntir, wlui 
 i, a secretary, 
 
 ras instil utpil 
 )., is;ij. Willi 
 is 211,111111,111111 
 I Iriim's, Tlic 
 ■rati'.H at kawk 
 , ()f (liscduni. 
 crcial I'lasMS 
 icty just ilc- 
 iiistriitiirs ur(! 
 imntH arc an- 
 inlily of tlic 
 
 Vii'ti' Gi'ni'rak 
 tt cajiital 111' 
 'ommem; ca- 
 Sucieti/, willi 
 
 h a Siieiilij iif 
 
 |00,(l()() franc'-. 
 
 itablislii'il, ill 
 
 |ar.s; it lias a 
 
 kacli of im 
 
 society was 
 
 \mvrci(il Blink 
 
 rs, ami its I'li- 
 
 [acli of l,ii(«) 
 
 of tliis iiamrc 
 
 igdom. 'flic 
 
 loiiymous sii- 
 
 lu'iit exci'i'iU 
 
 \\\v. coiiditiiiiis 
 
 tliey conline 
 
 lojicralioiis as 
 
 ler siibstaiicfs 
 
 I has a(lo]ii(il 
 Inch meiriial 
 r which is tlic 
 liR'tre, is il"' 
 lie meriiliii";;! 
 Itlie mtVrc is 
 i-iird and half 
 unit (if sii- 
 I of which llic 
 leasurc uf i"i- 
 lie side is il'>= 
 
 fmth part of a mMn\ The ntfre Ih a cuhic mM re. 
 The unit •''' '''" """"""O "f woinht is a cvntimPtre 
 rulie of dislilled water; that is, n cube of which 
 II side in tlic hundredth part of a nietre. The 
 itincrnrv m(?nHures are the iteramitre, kihmvtrr, 
 mill ,«ynVi«ii''r« ; that i«, measures coutuiuiiiK xe- 
 vcndlv ll>, I.O'MN and 10,0(10 metres. Measiireji of 
 i,,„jjth arc the iiu'trK, or lineal unity, the flvci metre, 
 irnlimelre, and millimftre; whi(;h seveniily repre- 
 sent the tenth, huiulredth, and thousandth partH 
 of a metre. Land is measured by the hrctare, 
 oinlainiiiK 10.000 Hqiiaro m6tres; the are, con- 
 laiiiinf,' l"0 square metres ; and the ceutiare, which 
 is I square metre. For liquid and dry measure are 
 used tiio litre, which, as aln^ady described, is a 
 nilie of which the side is the tenth part of a 
 mi'irc; anil the decalitre, hectidilre, and kilolitre, 
 ilrtiniat multiples of the litre, or 10, 100, and 
 l.iiiHI litres. The di'calitre is a tenth part of the 
 litre. For s(did measure are used the sterc niiil 
 (lirislere; that is, a cubic metre and its tenth part. 
 Fur liie measure of wt^ijjht are used the yramme, 
 already explaiiHMl ; X\w.dt'<aujramme,i^x I Of;rainmcs ; 
 lli('*i7i*;n""""'' or l,<KMt grammes; and tUi' (jiiiiital, 
 fif IIH) kiloj^rammes. The di'rayramme is a tenth 
 iiart of tlie (jramme. It may lie useful to add the 
 ciirri'sivindent value of a few of these inea^iures 
 with those of England. 
 
 BelRlo 
 Ilcctaro 
 Litre 
 UC'ciilltro 
 
 lliM'tolitro 
 Qriiiiimo 
 
 1l<'l|!ic 
 
 Mirre = 
 
 JlilliniMro = 
 (.'.iiiliiii'trc = 
 liwiiiicHre = 
 MyriiHiiMre = 
 .Mitre carr6 = 
 .Ire = 
 
 F.nKlUh 
 
 OMi:il) Inch. 
 (f;l!t:l inch. 
 i)-t):17 incli. 
 (i"2IHniil. 
 l-liitiwi.yd. 
 O'OIIH rood. 
 
 F.nKlliill 
 2' t7;l acres 
 1-7III) iiliit 
 a-^'oi {.'111. 
 
 2'.''0II!» pil. 
 
 l.'.-l ISj,'. tr. 
 
 ,.., ( iMJSOlhs.t. 
 
 Kilograminp= j :... 
 
 2l).')lbs.n. 
 
 Tlie ancient provincial measures, which are still 
 pariially used, arc too numerous for explanation. 
 
 TliHuU and Railifays. — Noada of the first cla-ss, 
 jiaveil or macadninised, and numerous otliers of 
 HCiiiuliiry character, intersect the IJelj^ic iirovinces 
 in every direction. After 1<^ngland, IJelfiiuni, \n 
 fact, is the next country of Kurope in which lines 
 (if road e.xist in the greatest number, and are k(!pt 
 ill the iKist wnidition. The.v are broader and more 
 Vi^nkt tliau thohC of England, and are better 
 niaiiafted than the roads of Eranco : they are al.so 
 cajmhle of sustaining the greatest extremes and 
 (■lian},'(>s of weather, without undergoing any in- 
 jury worthy of notite. The highways of the 
 state, of tiie first class, have a Midth of 11) metres 
 ."ill I'piitinietres ; those of the second cla.ss arc made 
 i;! metres (id centimetres in width, if ihey traverse 
 viidds and thickets; if not, 11 metres 70 centi- 
 nii'ires. Provincial roads have a width of metres 
 ?."i cpiitimetrcs. In these dimensions the lateral 
 iiaiiks or ditches arc not included. The whole 
 surface occuiiied by the roads of llelgium is esti- 
 iiialed at 7(),(l()0 hectares, or 210,000 Englisli acres. 
 Tliiise of the first and secoiul class arc made and 
 niiiiiitained by the state ; the jirovincial roads arc 
 tlie affair of the provinces ; and the smaller by- 
 ways li(dong to the communes. It i.s cah;ulnlc.d 
 iliiil.in Helgiiim, a league of road, or 3 m. English, 
 f"-ts in c(jnstruction 150,0(10 francs. IJesidcs se- 
 veral new state roads in course of execution, alioiit 
 .'ill new provincial roads have been ]ilann(>d and 
 iiiiilertaken ; and a company has been formed for 
 llie oi)cning of .300 m. of roads and canals, on the 
 jiian uf the Campine. 
 
 lielffium is the lirst state in Europe in which a 
 Ccneral system, of raihcays has been planned and 
 fxeeuted by the government at the ))iiblic cost, 
 Tlie uiideniiking was first imijectcd in 1K1;{, and 
 (iliject proposed was to unite the ]irincipal 
 
 llir 
 
 I'limniercial towns on one side with the. sea, and 
 n the other with the frontiers of Friince and 
 I'nissia. hi this respect Belgium is most I'avour- 
 
 •109 
 
 ably situated for n general system of railroads. It 
 is C(>m]iact in fonn, of moderate extent, is sur- 
 rounded on three of its sides by active conimercial 
 nations, and on tlie fourth liy the sea, by which it 
 is separated by onlv a few hours' voyage from 
 England. On'the W. side are the two' large and 
 commodious ports of Antwer)) and Osleiid, and its 
 E. fn-iitier is distant only a few leagiuw from the 
 Itliine, which atl'ords a connection with the nations 
 of central and S. Europe. It is therefore in pos- 
 session of convenient markets tor its productions, 
 and of great facilities for an extensive transit 
 trade. The physical nature of the country is als(» 
 most favourable, being for the most part ilat, and 
 retpiiring but few of those costly works of levelling, 
 tunnelling, and embankment, wlii(di servi; to in- 
 creasi! so enormously the expense of similar und(!r- 
 takings in England. The government lirst em- 
 phiyiHl skilful engineers to survey the kingdom, 
 and to determine the main lines, with regard not 
 only to the i)liysi(!al circumstances of the surface, 
 Imt to the interests of the large towns and their 
 various relations, internal aiul foreign. In May, 
 IM.'U, a, law was passed for the iirosecution of I bo 
 jdan iirojKJsed, and the city of Mechlin was made 
 the centre of the system, with four principal bran- 
 ches extending, N. to Antwerp; E. to Louvain, 
 Liege, Verviers, and the frontiers of Prussia, to bo 
 contiimed by a private compau}'- to Cologne; S. 
 through I{rus,s(ds and the province of ilainault, to 
 the Erench frontier lu'ar Valenciennes; and \V. 
 by Denderinond, (jlieut, and IJruges, to ().st(-nd. 
 l{ya(h)pting the lines that concentrate at Meclilin, 
 a larger ninnber of towns are passed than by 
 tjiking Brussels for the central station, and tlio 
 distance from Antwerp to the E. frontier is con- 
 siderably less. The subjoined table gives a view 
 of the railway system of Belgium as existing in 
 the year 1H()1, distinguishing between lines built 
 by the state and by private companies : — 
 
 Llnoi of RaUway 
 
 l.onfftI) of 
 Lines 
 
 BV THK STATK.— NollTll. 
 llriissels to Miilines 
 Maliiies to Antwerp 
 Branch Line of Lierre . 
 
 Total 
 
 12 
 
 Mrtros . 
 iiglLsh Miles 
 
 West. 
 
 Malines to Tertnondo . 
 
 Ternionde to (ilient . 
 
 Olieiit to Uriipes . . . 
 
 Urngcs to (Jj-tend . . 
 
 Branch Linn towards LlUo 
 
 and Tonrnay. 
 Olient to I)e.vn/.e-retef?hem 
 Deynze-I'eteglK.'iii to Courtrai 
 Coiutrai to the French | 
 liYontier ... J 
 Mouscron to Tournay . 
 
 JlCitres 
 
 •ii>,!iS2 
 
 2(l,:i:'i) 
 
 (i,17.5 
 
 Ji;l,177 
 
 Total 
 
 ( Metres . 
 
 t English Miles 
 
 K.\frr. 
 
 Malinos to Louvain . 
 
 Louvain to Tirlemont . 
 I Tirlemont to Waremmo 
 j Wiirciiune to Ans 
 
 Ans to Meuso . . 
 
 Pont du Val-Itenoit 
 I Meiiso to the Prussian 
 j Frontier . 
 i Landeu to Saint-Trend 
 
 Total 
 
 f S[(^tres . 
 
 1 English Blilcs 
 
 2(!,2-'il 
 SI.SSS 
 4-1 ..".••,8 
 24,G72 
 
 43,060 
 
 1. '5,002 
 ]0,l:i'i 
 
 Co«t of 
 Conntructloii 
 
 Franca 
 ;i,(nil,.VH 
 4,yi2,7!U 
 3Sl.H(i4 
 
 8,8r)0.2ll2 
 £ ;iii-l,:!(i!) 
 
 3,402,4.'iO 
 .'>,2!)l,.'i8!) 
 .'),!181,!»:t8 
 
 3,82a,(ioa 
 
 5,240,474 
 
 3,3-'>(i,-"i:i") 
 ;!,127,0'.'() 
 
 20.5,220 I :iO,2r)0,(l-.'!) 
 
 PJ8 
 
 23,.583 
 10,071 
 27,024 
 18,09(1 
 
 6,G10 
 
 30,.').S0 
 10,220 
 
 145,084 
 90 
 
 £i,2io,;i(;i 
 
 4,300, |:!7 
 (i,07').(;:!-.' 
 .'),():!9,:i)r, 
 3,184,9:13 
 
 7,00], .0.50 
 
 23,C7.5,7.-.fi 
 1,228,80.') 
 
 .50,80(1.708 
 £ 2,03.5,808 
 
 '.:::m 
 
410 
 
 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OV) 
 
 Llnot of Hlllwajr 
 
 llY TllK Htatk.— Soi-rii. 
 llnisst'lH t4> Tiihlso 
 'I'llliis*' Ut Holtfliloa , 
 
 Sniniilcw t(l MiillH . 
 
 Moim to tlio Kit'iicli Frontier 
 llritiK'li Liiii> to llriiKMt'ls 
 l!riiiii('-li!-('oiiit(!ti) l,'liurU;roy 
 Churluroy to Niiuuir . 
 
 l.llii'i I roiiilrni'llnii 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 Ik 
 
 Matron . 
 
 f JIcMros . 
 
 1 UiiKllHli Mllcg 
 
 Tin'Ai, Ots-r : ■Iiiclmliiiff ) 
 BiilUUiit;8& otliur K\i>uiiHV!t j 
 
 llY riUll.K; COMI'ANIKH. 
 
 I.liTrc to Tiiniliout 
 Kiist ll('l).'i!iii . . . 
 
 AluimK'c to Wavro 
 WcNtiTii I'liiiidcrs . . 
 Mclitcrvi'ldi' to I'liniOH 
 Ktitri' Smnliro mid Mcu^n . 
 Niimnr to l.icfrc and Cliiir- ) 
 
 liToy to KniiU'liniius J 
 IVpiiistcr to Spa . 
 I laiiiaiilt and I'latidc^rn 
 AtitwiT)) to Uottt'vdaiii 
 Antwerp to (ilii'iit 
 Dendrt-UMil-WaeM and I 
 
 Jlru.sjiels lowanlH flhent i 
 Tonrimy to Jnrliisu and) 
 
 Laiiden to Hiusselt . J 
 T.anden to Aix-la-Cliniiello . 
 Carrieivs ile tjiieiimvMt . 
 lipiH'rand I.owcr Tlenu 
 Alons to llautnunt and St. ) 
 
 (Ihislalu . . . / 
 Chiniay .... 
 
 Centre 
 
 tirand IiUxein1)ourg and ) 
 
 Ourtliu Canal . . j 
 
 WetreH 
 ID.MO 
 I7.iih;i 
 '2i,r,x\ 
 111,-. I.'. 
 •J,7H-J 
 4l,t)(Kt 
 
 ;w,iHi 
 
 l''raneH 
 
 4,!):n,IMI 
 ri,:i(i:|,ll<ll 
 4,7f.','J7:t 
 
 l(i,;i!Mi,4;|(i 
 7.H7.'i,t)l8 
 
 l(i:i,-.'.'|.t I :i!),Miri,i!)!i 
 101 i.C I,r.!i'j,ti(i7 
 
 fiC7,0'.>t 1 |-.'l»,N.!il,|:i!» 
 
 ;).V2 ,£ r),i»;i,2o-i 
 
 1!lit,7H'.',n:l4 
 ,C 7,(;:ll.:ll7 
 
 Totol 
 
 ( Jl^trpst . 
 
 t KngllBh Miles 
 
 Totalbytlie State 
 anil by rulilic 
 Companies 
 
 MMroH 
 Eiig. Miles 
 
 !17,:17:) 
 !lli,(l(l.'> 
 41,11111 
 
 :i:l.si7 
 l(i.s->ll 
 
 y!»,!M4 
 
 V.MI!) 
 V.'o,ii7l' 
 llll,V!l(! 
 
 4!I,IIIM| 
 
 1(17,111) 
 
 !);i,((io 
 
 7, .Mill 
 (iil,7l>ll 
 
 /■.•j,4(;i 
 3ii,4-.'(; 
 
 i)/i,7i7 
 207,11 a 
 
 l,.''AI(i.'ill!t 
 !»3U 
 
 a,07;i,'.'.'i:t 
 
 1,2M8 
 
 4,:im»,n{m 
 
 'Jll,H!l|,77.') 
 !t,.''iH7,fillO 
 
 11,ll'.''l,2fU 
 .'> ,111 !,•.'(! 1 1 
 
 •-(7,:i(i:i,lH7 
 
 48,H(I1,U)6 
 
 '.',777,:i(il 
 Iii.ll7'i,-Jlll) 
 M.!l'.'7,7-Jll 
 
 4,!litl,2(l4 
 
 aa,O0(),0()0 
 
 l:i.74n,'.'(),') 
 
 LMI,7!N!,-'iS0 
 
 ;i(l:|,S.-|.'. 
 
 4,f.4ii,'i7:t 
 
 17,a.VI,oi:! 
 
 'i,!in!(.:i.-i'.> 
 10,!»NH,l.s:) 
 
 (l(!,(n4,a.W 
 
 ;i'i:l,S(l.'-,,77!l 
 .<il'i,il.')2,'Wl 
 
 .'>14,.'iSS,7i;i 
 
 i:'jo,.w;i,c4S 
 
 It is worth V of remark, that tho netual cost 
 incurred in Helf^iuni has exeeeded the estinintc of 
 the eiif^fiiieers l)y only 10 per cent.; while in Kiifj;- 
 laiid (lie estimates, for instance, of thi; London 
 and lSirmin;.;ham, and t(f the (treat Western rail- 
 ways, were exce.e(Utd in the cost l>y more than 
 1(11) per cent. In cheapness of fare.s, the liel^'iaii 
 railroads far snrpass tho.sc of lui^land. The len}j;th 
 ol' the line between Antwerj) and IJrussels is 27J ni.; 
 the fare, in a first chi.ss carrin};e, 'i.<i. (!rf. ; while a 
 nearly similar distance in England, from Liver|iool 
 to jManchester, is 5s. i'xl. In Uelfiiiim there an- 
 lonr kinds of railway carrijifjes ; — the IScrlin, ilili- 
 j;ence, char-a-hanc, and waj^on. The charf^c in 
 the two first is at the rate of \M. a mile, and they 
 answer to the Knulish mail and coach, for which 
 the rate of cliarj^e per mile is nearly doidile. The 
 chars-ii-hanc, which are used by jjreat numbers of 
 the poorer class, are but three farthings a mile, 
 and the wagons are only one halfpeimy. 
 
 The gross receipts of the 352 m. of railway ad- 
 ministered by the state amounted in lH(i2 to 
 <1.'J, 178 francs jier kilometre, or '2,K(!2/, jier mile, of 
 which sum aliout 57 per cent, was ])ro(hi<'ed by 
 the goods trallic, and ilH jier cent, liy jiassengers. 
 It is mentioned, to tlu; credit of the State Kaihvay, 
 that not one jiassengcr was killed in 18(il or 
 l»(j2; and tlml of l(lb,(JO(t,(IOO passengers carried 
 
 since Ik;15, onlvsix were killed bv neriikins f^ 
 suiting from tlie service. The net rev..|iii,. |J 
 doubled williiii the last tell years, and has nim 
 risen to H sum ecpial to l,5(»K/. per mile. N,.„f|,. 
 all the lines conceded by I'.ie (loveriuneui w,,;. 
 constructed between |H|(I and 185(), l,v Kn^ij,!, 
 compaiiicH. I'rivute lines that compete in n,,, 
 slightest degree with that of the Hiaif nre »ul,. 
 jected to very onerous teniis. 'I'hev are li.r the 
 most part branch lines, and allhoiigii eosiiinr i,.., 
 than the Stale K'ailway, which includes the 11^1/ 
 cipal Iriiiik lines of the country, they proihin. a 
 much smaller net n'vemie. The law" nlili;;(., Hi,. 
 Slate Railway to redeem itself with i?» i,,,,, 
 capital; in other words, to purchase ilscllwith its 
 own surplus revenue. The year 1n(11 was i|„. 
 first year which showed an actual protit uii the 
 whole operations from the coinineneemcnt, irre- 
 spectively of the charge for the reileinptimi „|' n,,, 
 debt. It is expected that the State liailwiivwijl 
 have iMMight itself up in the year 1881, l,y \vhiili 
 lime it is calculated the net revenue wiiriniininit 
 to 2-I,()(I(I,()()(» francs, ov <.»(i(i,(KI(l/, per aninim. or 
 enough to pay the then reduced— thnniKh tlic 
 sinking fund— interest of the national deht. As 
 each conceded railway lapses gratuitously ((j the 
 state in ninety years from the ]period of'ii.siuii- 
 struelion, the entire system will, by the ctllux uf 
 
 ime, become national property. 
 Caiittln. — The length ol the ci 
 
 „ iiiiiils in licljrium 
 
 amiMints to 1(1(1,220 metres, and that of the imvl- 
 gable rivers to 1H;2.7I(1 metres. Hence the tmal 
 extent of inland navigation is I,I22.1M>(; mitre*, 
 or 854 Kiiglish miles. The facilities thus ail'nnlcii 
 for the transport of heavy merchandise anil lyri- 
 cultural jiroiluce between the principal phicis^in 
 the kingdom is a great advantage to the pmswii- 
 tion of all industrial and commercial luisiness. 
 
 Popiihitioii. — The population of llelgiiiiii, hy 
 the census of Oct. 15,185(1, amounted to 4,.V.".),,j(;i'i, 
 divided as follows over the nine provuices. 
 
 Prorlncot 
 
 Antwerp 
 lirabant 
 
 Flanders 
 
 Ilainaiill 
 l.iiV'e . 
 Liiiibiirg . 
 Luxemburg 
 Niuiiur 
 
 Total . 
 
 ( West 
 
 Area 
 
 Hrctnnt 
 •JS:l,:llO 
 
 ;!-i:l.4in 
 
 l'll!l,7S7 
 
 ;i7'.','.'ii(i 
 
 •.'S!»,:U!» 
 «41.:;i.'i 
 441,7(14 
 o(>(>,l,Sl 
 
 'J,!)45,.'->!);t 
 
 En^;. Acres. 
 
 7,H(i:;,!)S2 
 
 Po)iiilatlon 
 
 IMll 
 4:14,1s:. 
 
 7-IN,S4ll 
 (i-.'l,!M-.' 
 77ii,lii;ii 
 7ii!l,iiil.'i 
 .'iiKl.w;:' 
 1111, 711s 
 l!l:l,7:.:i 
 
 •j.si;,];,-! 
 
 4,n2!l,ai0 
 
 More recent calculations, made on the Imsisul' 
 the I'fiit-cii'il, or registry of births and dcatlis 
 state the numbers of the population on the Isi (f 
 January, 18(14, at 4,8!)1,(I71. This gives Mil suuls 
 to the .sq, m., jiroving llelgiimi to be the dmsot 
 iidiahited country in Europe, About two iiiul a 
 half millions of the inhabitants arc Flemish, tlio 
 rest Walloon and French. The Flemings, ivlm 
 speak in general a dialect of the Dutch hiiipiaps 
 form the po|)ulation of the aiTondisseinfiiis I'f 
 Jlrussels and Loiivain in ISrabant, and that of tlir 
 ])rovinces of Antwcq), the two F'landers, ami iln' 
 greatest portion of the ]irovince of Linilmrf,'. Tln' 
 Germans occui»y a jiart of the jiroviiu'es nl 
 Luxemburg and Limburg. The WalliKiiis, iilm 
 .xpeak a dialect of the ancient French, inhahit the 
 jirovinces of Liege. Niiinur, llainault, the arriii- 
 dissemeiit of Nivelles, in Hrahanl, and a part uf 
 the province of Luxemburg. 
 
 Tlie French 
 
 anil hy all tli 
 
 Aiiiiiiix the t' 
 
 iii'iirlv all speni 
 
 ii. the (Htpilhl 
 
 iliriiii){liiMit the 
 
 rirhi'sl and licsl 
 
 l>rii|iiirtiiiii to ii 
 
 IKTMiiin. The d 
 
 1,'n'Ot IIS that ii 
 
 finater than Iha 
 
 l.uxi'iiihiirg, T 
 
 ili».<i'iiieiit of Te 
 
 Ciiiirtray, eontai 
 
 III' round ill any | 
 
 111' surface. 
 
 The |H)piilatioi 
 (•trwiily since llu 
 |i«.)ii. Tiie follow 
 I'l' ihe pi>|iiilatioii 
 ilicliirlhs and di 
 ik'iisiiy uf popiilai 
 
 Tfir 
 
 ;^'5, Poimlitlon 
 
 I 
 
 \m 
 
 isll 
 I |S.'« 
 
 ls:l:l 
 ; li«4 
 ' |s.i:j 
 I ls:l(l 
 1 1S:I7 
 
 |s:il) 
 I«lil 
 IS) I 
 
 \W> 
 
 I im:l 
 
 I 1^4 
 
 1 1*1.'. 
 
 IIKlli 
 
 4,(i(i-«,;i;i,'i 
 
 I 4,llSH,(i;>o 
 
 I 4,lii;i,.'.tii 
 
 I 4, 1. 'II, RSI 
 4,l(i.".,!».').J 
 4,:'(iH,si4 
 
 4,1^7.1, 1 7« 
 4,.'1I7,!)44 
 4,iliH,(l77 
 4,II7.'!,IC2 
 4,I.W,:i82 
 4,I7-.',7(I(! 
 4,2i;i,«(i;i 
 4,M8,4iO 
 4,'.'!IS,n(i2 
 4,:);l7,048 
 
 h 
 
 The decrease of ] 
 fiillmviii)? years wan 
 iif iiiie-half of the | 
 lliinl of the provin 
 piiin, and the aiine 
 .V'lherlamls. The 
 piiiM anioHiited to !) 
 iiiik place ill coiifor 
 'i"", signed April 1! 
 I''l'"«iiig, which (U 
 ilie kingdom. 
 
 The tendency vi> 
 'f«'S of an agglom, 
 laf;'fr tim-ns, in als. 
 Iliii linissels is the n 
 We, ill im), only 
 ';'ivii, and I().l2!lin t 
 tiic iiiimher at theei 
 
 ■''.'"^ i; the suhjoi,, 
 
 "I |«'|)ulatioii in tlie 
 .vear mo :— 
 
 I'fjr Dm. 51 
 
 j 18:10 
 I 1810 
 I8.',0 
 I 18(10 
 I 18(13 
 
 Tota 
 
 08,27 
 1(1(1,14 
 142,i8 
 17r>,H-2 
 l8o,»8 
 
 .feiilca Bni.ssel3, tli 
 Piim, with a ),o,,ulat 
 i'l,'"", namely, (Jhent, 
 '•'•'b'e, 1*7,5-14; Hruge 
 
Fo|iulallon 
 
 1X5(1 
 
 4:U,IM 
 
 74H,Wil 
 tl'JI.!M-J 
 J"(1,1P(10 
 
 7ii!),(ii;.'i 
 Mi'.i,i;i;'i 
 liii.iiw 
 l!i;;.7.-.;i 
 
 i,r<i»Jii» 
 
 \\ the liiisisiif 
 
 1111(1 <li'iitlis 
 
 I (111 llic U "( 
 
 livi'S Mil so"l* 
 
 ^ the (U'lisc.-i 
 
 lilt two 1111(1 il 
 
 Ik'niiii}.'!'. wli" 
 Ttfh liiiifliiai.''''. 
 Ilissciiieiil!' (il 
 1(1 that (if tlr 
 Idei's. iiml i'"' 
 liinhiirt;. 'I'li'', 
 |l>rovim'L's I'l 
 
 I'lllldllUS, Willi 
 
 Ji, hihabit tlic 
 lit, the iirr 'II- 
 [,,1(1 a imtt (if 
 
 Till' Frcnrli lmi;;iin)xn U umciI in piililii; afFnirs 
 mill hy all thu t(liii'ali'<l ami wi'iilihy (■)»'<.>«•«. 
 Aiiioii*; ili*< FIciniMli and (icHiiaii inlial>itatits, 
 miirlv all »iK'ak Kri'iu;li, or at loa.xt coinpn-ln'iiil 
 it. I'Ik' |«>P»l«t'"H Im vory iiiu'ihimIIv iliwlrilmtrd 
 ilirdiiKlioiit tlio li'rritory." Ka^t FlaiidiTs, tlu- 
 ridiist niid lie.st ciiltlvalVd ]iriivin<'c, coiitaiim, in 
 |irii|«irtiiiii to itM extent, tlui f^reatcsl nuinltcr of 
 icrwiiin. 'I'lin ili'iiHity of itM |Mipiilalion i.s twice an 
 ^wit iiK llii't of Antwerp or Lie^e, four tiineH 
 ifniiltT than that of Namnr, and si.x times that of 
 Liixiiiihiirn. 'I'Iki I'ay* !«' Waes, in the arron- 
 ilk*iiu'Ht of Terniondo, in tlie iiei^lilioiirhood of 
 (diirtray, containH more '.nlialiilaniN than are to 
 lie Idiiiid in any part of Furope on the name extent 
 (itKiirtiu'e. 
 
 Till! |M)piilation of HelKiniti ha.s inerensed very 
 .Iciidilv xince the c.stnhli.simient of the kin;;diiin in 
 |k:|ii. The foUowing taltle hIiowm the aiinnal Htale 
 i.| the population on Deeeinher ;H, tonelher with 
 llii'iiirtli.i and deaths diiriiij!; the year, and the 
 (Idisiiv of population per sipiare kilomeire: — 
 
 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 W}i 
 
 IKillt 
 
 ! ivii 
 
 I is:l2 
 j in:;:) 
 . In:I4 
 
 1 \m 
 
 I l»:Mi 
 1 1S:I7 
 IK:iX 
 |s:;il 
 isjil 
 ISII 
 
 ! \>m 
 
 1 l.*J:l 
 MlU4 
 
 j \m:> 
 
 
 Drniltjr of 
 
 It.. 
 
 Dio. 31 
 
 
 Drnilly of 
 
 Po|iulatlon 
 
 Poll. i.cr . 
 »|. kllu. 
 
 Poimlatlon 
 
 I'lip per 
 •i|. kilo. 
 
 4.0l!-t,2lt5 
 
 118 
 
 1847 
 
 4,:t;!8,447 
 
 147 
 
 4,IIS!l,(12» 
 
 11!) 
 
 1848 
 
 4.:i5!l,ll!HI 
 
 148 
 
 4,llia,.'>(il 
 
 120 
 
 1841) 
 
 4,;).HI),2:i;t 
 
 14!) 
 
 4,|;il,HSl 
 
 120 
 
 IM.M) 
 
 4,|-Jli,2l)2 
 
 l.'.O 
 
 4,l(l."«,!t.''.a 
 
 121 
 
 18.-. 1 
 
 4,47:!. Iti5 
 
 151 
 
 4,2IW.NI4 
 
 12:1 
 
 18.VJ 
 
 4,5lti,:l(il 
 
 15:1 
 
 4,242,fil»8 
 
 124 
 
 18.'>:i 
 
 4,548, .'>07 
 
 154 
 
 4,'i7:l,17(; 
 
 125 
 
 18.Vt 
 
 4,5.S4,822 
 
 Lit! 
 
 4,:U7,!II4 
 
 120 
 
 185.'> 
 
 4,(ill7,IM>(l 
 
 157 
 
 4,il-.'8,ll77 
 
 i:m 
 
 i8.-i(; 
 
 4,.52!I,.|(1I 
 
 154 
 
 4,"7:l,l(i2 
 
 138 
 
 1857 
 
 4,577,2:l(i 
 
 155 
 
 4,l:lS,:l82 
 
 140 
 
 I8.-.8 
 
 4,(i2:l,l!»7 
 
 157 
 
 4,17-.',7(l(! 
 
 141 
 
 1851( 
 
 4,ti71,22(i 
 
 15!) 
 
 4,2i;t,N«:l 
 
 14!) 
 
 18tll> 
 
 4.7:ll,»57 
 
 Kit 
 
 4,W8,l2(i 
 
 144 
 
 I81;! 
 
 4,.-8J,25(! 
 
 l(i> 
 
 4,'.'IIS,.')()2 
 
 141! 
 
 18(;2 
 
 4,S:I(i,.'i(H: 
 
 Hit 
 
 4,:l;!7,048 
 
 147 
 
 18U-J 
 
 4,8!) 1,071 
 
 Kiti 
 
 h The ilecrcasc of population shown in 183!) and 
 fiillmviii)* years was oceasioned hy the separation 
 iif (iiie-haif of the province of Linibiirf^, and onc- 
 lliird of the province of Liixenil)iir>; from Hel- 
 piim, and the anncxntion of this territory to the 
 .Ndlierliiiids. The population thus lost to lUd- 
 (.'ium iimmiuted to a.JD.oOO souls. The seiiaration 
 liKjJi iiliice ill conformity with the treaty of Lon- 
 ilMi, signed Aiiril lit, l«3!t, and ralilied on .June « 
 I'niiowiiif;, which detinitely settled the lliiiits of 
 iliu kiiij;dom. 
 
 The tendency visihle in most Kuro|iean coun- 
 Irics, (if an .i};i,'lomeratuiii n.' the pe</)ile in the 
 l!ir;'ir towns, is also aiiiiareiit in l!etjj;iiiin. ^ Of 
 this linissels is the most slrikiii^^ example. There 
 we, in ISdO, only t)(i,2!'7 inhahitants in the 
 i.iwii, and l(l,|-2!tiii the sniuirhs of Hriissels, while 
 till' imiiiher at the end of IHlii} timouiitcd to above 
 ;i"ii,(Hlii; the subjoined table shows the increase 
 III' |Ki|iiilatioii in the town and suburbs since the 
 vcar 1831) :— 
 
 Tw !>(«!. 51 
 
 Total 
 
 Suburb! 
 
 Total Pop. of 
 Bruiti'li 
 
 120,081 
 144, 021 
 222,424 
 27:f,!)48 
 ;iOO,:J41 
 
 1S:10 
 1»4() 
 IB.W 
 ISliO 
 18G3 
 
 ns,27!) 
 
 in(i,i4a 
 
 142.280 
 175,82!) 
 185,i)82 
 
 2-?,702 
 
 88,478 
 8i),i:i5 
 
 !)!).! 19 
 114,357 
 
 Ile8i(le.s Brussels, there arc eleven towns in Uel- 
 piiim, with a populatitm of above 'id,!)!)!) inhabi- 
 laiiis, iiamelv,(iheiit, 12(),i;M ; Antwerp, J It.dC.!); 
 Liege, |J7,5M; Hruges, 6(1,280; Maliues, 33,«o5 ; 
 
 411 
 
 F,onvain, .'12.ii2ti; Toiiriiav. .Tl,17'i; Verviers, 
 28,(il)| ; Mons. 2i;.7'.il); Kaninr, 2.V.)K!t ; ami 
 ('(inrlrav, 2:i,22H inhabilants. In the eoiinlry 
 |Hipiilali(in, till! two sexes are very nearly e(|ual 
 in iiiinilier; in the towns, there is a iiniforni ex- 
 cess of feiiiales. The ]iri>p<irlioii of the married to 
 the whole iiopnlalion is as I to 2. The pruportinii 
 of iinniarried to married, in an equal number of 
 each, is conipiiratively Krealest anions iniiles in 
 the eoinitrv. The nnniber of widows is Uoiibli! 
 that of the widowers ; and this excess is much 
 lar^'er in the town than in the country popiila- 
 lions. In III*) hoii.ses in the couutry there are |ii*i 
 families. In the towns there are tliii pcrsuns |i> 
 100 families, or something above ij to each 
 family; in the counlry, f'lli.'l jiersoiis to 1 1)1) fami- 
 lies, or III each family. The births to the whidii 
 iiopulatioii are, in the country, as I to 2'.)'!); and 
 111 the towns, 1 to 27'7. 'I'lie (h'jilhs to the wliolii 
 population are, ill the country, I toll'-'l; and in 
 the towns, I to .'ll'!). The total marria^;es to the 
 total ]io|iulati(iii areas 1 to l.'ll-',); the number di- 
 vorced, as 1 to 2H2'M. The proporiioii of the 
 |i(>pulatiiiii <if towns to that of the counlry is ax 
 1 lo il'22. The niarriajAcs in the towns arc, to 
 tho,se in tlii' couiilry.as .'ll to lOO. or 1 loll: whi(di 
 proportion is idenlical with that betweon the two 
 idiids of population. The averaf^e ]iroportioii of 
 births to marria^^es, in the whole population, is as 
 d'ti to I ; and of deaths lo births, 1 to l'|8 in the 
 country, and 1 to l'2(i in the towns. The ille^ili- 
 mate births are to the le^^itiinate as I to 12 in 
 I'jist Flanders, the richest |irovince; and I lo .'III 
 in Luxeinbur^, the poorest province in the kinj;- 
 doin: the j;eneral avenine is 1 to 21. The iinmbcr 
 of paupers (Ics iiulit/intii) conslitute tl'H per • "lit., 
 or I in 7 of the whole ]iopiilatioii ; and it is re- 
 markable that in those provinces where industry 
 and commeniial enterprise have produced thu 
 f,'reatest wealth and improvement, the proportion 
 of paupers exceeds 21 jiercent.; while in Lnxeni- 
 biir;;, the poorest province of the kiiiphmi, it is 
 only 0*7, or less than 1 percent. The operative 
 classes form tliree-fonrtlisof the whole populatinii. 
 The numlicrof insanc'persons, of whom more than 
 one-half are paupers, arc us I to l,<)00of the whole 
 population. 
 
 The jfovernmeiit census of the ]iopiilatioii of 
 ]Jel;;nmi is conducted with the most exemplary 
 attention to systematic method. All the iisel'iil 
 jioints of iiKpiiry are included, so that the results 
 exhibit a most valuable asscmblafre of scienlilic 
 data, which in satisfact^iry completeness and iire- 
 ei.sion are not siirpa.s.sed l>y similar documenls of 
 any other country. A |iarticular of j^reat iniporl- 
 aiice in the calculations of life insuraiicc — the 
 aj;es of the liviiij,' and dyiuf; — which in niaiiy 
 enumerations of the iiiluibitunts of other count ries 
 has been omitted, is ascertained with great care in 
 the population impiiries of Itelgium. 
 
 Manners and Ciistoinn. — The Jtel^jians have been 
 successively subjected to the intiueiiee of so many 
 ditt'ereiitudvernments — French, Austrian, Simiiish, 
 Diitcli — that they po.s.sess no distinctive and jiecu- 
 liar national character. The apathy and in-rse- 
 veriiiK industry of the Dutch is blended with ihe 
 vivacity and self-assurance of the French, without 
 |iro(lnciiig an af;reeable compound. The ditVerciil, 
 provinces exhibit some variety of characler and 
 inanners. On the borders of Ibdlnnd the people 
 are generally similar to the Dutch, and adopt, 
 their customs, amusements, and dress; but in the 
 southern districts they dill'er but little from the 
 French in ap|iearaiicc, habits, costume, and lan- 
 guage. The Helgiau burghers have always dis- 
 )ilayed a iiassioiiale foiidiie.ss for social liberty — 
 an impatience of control that embroiled llieni 
 
412 HKLOIUM (KINO pom OF) 
 
 Willi their riiloni, mill iiivolvcil llit'tii in riiiiioiiH | mul llic iriMpliiy (T miiHicnl il^ill Ik qnltn dMinni^li 
 (li'^UNitTN iliiriiiK HiK'ccMMivn t'i'iiiiirlcH. WrilcrM of ! iii(,'. TIu-m' coiiii-HtN (-Xfito tlii> ^rcnli'M. iniin'it 
 III! iiKi'N liitvc iif^rccil ill ilrxcrililiiK llicin tut ri'MllrHN in ilic lociililii'M of tin- ilitVcrcnt <'iini|H-iiiiirii, wlii 
 mill iiiiriilv ; hIwiivm treat iiif; llieir lier>t riilerH the j lire a('i'oiii|iiinieil to the plneeM of iin'ciiiiir |,v 
 vorsi, while the Itiul overaweil them. Ill the IiIh- i proci-HitiiiiiN. Miixie, in faet, in ho (■onininiilv iiiul 
 tory of no other couiilry <lo >ve liiiil no much j enrel'iilly learnt, even liy the laliniiriu); ,.|"„. 
 lilierly with mo (XTrat a iliHiioHiliini to itn ahiise, *' ' '' ' '' "' • •• • 
 
 'I'litiy no Hooiier eiiiani'ipnteil tlieiiiMelve.M from tin 
 (IrMpotiitui of their femlal loriJH, iluin jealousy of 
 eacii otlierV power eii^'ap'd them in fri'(|iieiit anil 
 fatal hoMtiiiliex; ho that * liherty never wore a 
 more iiiiamialile eoiiuteiianre than anion;; the^ie 
 liiir;;hi'ri', who aliufeil the rttreiiKlh nhe pive thrin 
 liy eriielty ami in.'<olem'e.' (llallam'H iMiilille 
 Aki'") i. l-~i eil. IMIlt.) They i-tmlirmeil every 
 riiiiipaet with eeremonioiiM oiiIIik, ami hroke thein 
 tiniler the iiretenee of enerimelimeiitH heiiij; miiile 
 upon their liliertieH; ami it is allcp'il that their 
 
 tli'scenilantN are Ntill rjitherilelirieiit in ); I faith, 
 
 ' A fai'ility for making proniiMen anil hreiikiiiK 
 them is saiil to mil throii;;!) tiie Itcl^^iaii people, 
 ill all the channels of llllsine^s, wholesale or retail, 
 of the hiireaii or in the workshop.' Ihit it is at the 
 t«aiiie time saiillhat ' this general want of veracity 
 lilies not extend tu great milimial trunsuctioiis, 
 imr to the itriieeeiUngs of iliplomacv.' The most 
 olivions iieiHiliarity hy which the Kelgians are now 
 tlistingiiished is their devout ohservaiicc of ndi- 
 gioiiH rites and cereinonieN. Long and imposing 
 jirocessions of the iiriesthoml in their sacerdotal 
 dresses are freipieiitly parading the streets of the 
 ]ii'incipMl towns; and it is eviilent in the whole 
 conduct and customs of the llclgians, ns descrilied 
 liy writers of every jiarty, that tlus higher classes 
 iii'e greatly inthu'iiced by higolry, and the lower 
 classes hy superstition. In the rural districts the 
 t^lcrgy are regarded with great veneration, and 
 they* exercise, and endeavour to maintain, a 
 jiiiwcrfiil doniiiiioii over the great mass of work- 
 men and peasants. The churches are opened at 
 live or six o'clock every morniiig, when every 
 guild Catholic attends to repeat his prayers hefure 
 eiilering upon the business or pleasure of the day ; 
 but the afternoon and evening of every Sunday 
 lire enlivened by the enteriaiimieiit.s of tavern 
 gardens, grounds for shooting with the cross-bow, 
 ball-riKinis, theatres, and other |iublic places of 
 iimnsement. Another remarkable trait in thi^ 
 Jielgic character is a pertinacious adherence to 
 long-established mil ions, habits, and customs, with 
 an aversion to proposed improvements, howevia' 
 Worthy of consideration and adoption. This, how- 
 over, is more especially true of the rural popula- 
 tion; for the miiUlle classes of the towns are dis- 
 tinguished by a spirit of enterprise, and reudiness 
 to act upon every suggestion of advantage, in the 
 iiroseciition of industrial and coinnicrcial business, 
 Jli-nce, while the ajiathy of the former, and their 
 |ircl'ereiicc for what has been established, are fa- 
 \iiiirable to the cause of order and of public tran- 
 (piiliity, the entfrjirise and iugeiiuity of the latter 
 I'liuspiire to develojie the national resources, and 
 eiiiible Itelgium to maintain her position iii the 
 Kitropean commonwealth. The wealthy inhabi- 
 tants of the cities have very generally adopted the 
 language, fashions, dress, maimers, mid amuse- 
 ments of the l'"rciich, so that Jlrussols may be re- 
 garded as Paris in miniature — with much of the 
 (liilness of a mere jirovincial town. 
 
 ^lusic and dancing arc very favourite amuse- 
 ments, especially with the middle and hiwcT 
 classes. On every line sii iiner evc^iiiug, balls 
 are given in the tavern g .nleiis, which arc iiu- 
 nicnius in the outskir' of every large town. 
 Musical festivals are anniKiily celebrated at 
 Jiriiges, Ghent, and Antwerp, by amateur per- 
 ibrmers. I'rizcd arc given u;i these occasions; 
 
 that till! harmony of the airs which are Kimir |,y 
 groups of iieasantH while at work, is ultcii il,:. 
 liglithil to the moMt cultivated nnisiiid mr 
 The national taste for imisie is fiirtl<i'i' mani! 
 I'ested ill the nuiueroiis uiid singularly exrclli'iit 
 ehiineN of M) or IIHI bells, called riir/Mmx, which 
 are placed in the chitrcli steeples and toworsut'ihi- 
 town-halls. 'I'hime in the large cities are iii,i 
 always iilayed by nieaiiH of a revolving harnl 
 worked liy machinery, but by keys, Niinilar id 
 those of an organ, though cf far greater iliiiiiii. 
 sioiis, 'I'lie perfonners are paid a cinisiihralili. 
 salary for aniiising the citizens, during an Imur 
 or two everv day, with the finest nnisiiul (nni. 
 iHisitions, riieir hands are cased with ihjrk 
 leather, and the physical force reniiireil in nh 
 severe as to exhaust the strength ol a pnvirriil 
 man in u quarter of an hour. In some Incaliiiis 
 the iliH'erent chimes are ho iiieoiiveuientlv iiimn-' 
 roiis, ax scarcely to leave an interval ol' sikiKi, 
 dav or night. 
 
 In general the Ijiliouring classes in nelgiuin nri- 
 ruder and Icsm instructed than in Ilollaiiil, Imi in- 
 diislriouH and provident habits are observalih' iii 
 every part of the kingdom, especially in l''laiiihTs. 
 
 SficHiTH anil yi lis, — Since the provinces ol' liil- 
 gitim have fornuMl an iiidc|ie.iiileiit nntinii, a ^ipirii 
 of emulation and desire of impriivenu'iit liiivi- 
 arisen among all classes of the popidalinii. Tli« 
 government eiicouragcH the progress of seiciiii', 
 learning, the line arts, and literary tiuste: |iensioii.H 
 are given to vouiig men of talent to eiialile ihcm 
 to develope tlio powers of their genius in furci^'u 
 countries, by studying the works of tlu> fjnal 
 masters; and a national exhibitimi is opciKd 
 every year, in which are displayed the |i«iiitlii;:-, 
 sculptures, engraviiigs, and designs of the l«>t 
 artists. It is alternately held at llnisscis, Ani- 
 werp, and (ilieiit, so that each of these cities lic- 
 coines a centre of attraction to the hivers of art 
 every third year. 
 
 ArrhitvftiirK has been carried to a high de- 
 gree of jierfectiou in the coustrinMiciii ef die 
 cathedrals and town halls of lielgiiiiu, which 
 display the tinest specimens of the iiriianicnial 
 Gothic style of the middle ages. The cailicilnils 
 of Aiitwer|), (iheiit, and Meehlin, are iiiaciiiii- 
 ceut (iothic structures. The open work tirair 
 of me latter is of the 12tli centiirv, ami though 
 imlinished, it is higher than the diuiie (jf M, 
 I'liul's. In JCnglaiid, Gi.thio archilivliire is 
 cliielly coiilincd to churches, but in licigiinii it 
 has been successfully apjilied to civic uliiiccs 
 and jirivate houses. Fronts richly liccnratril 
 with quaint and fanta.stiu sculptures 'nl'ty sl(i|i- 
 ing roofs, full of windows, ]iointed giil.ics. i-.v- 
 tellaled towers, battlements, and prnjcciiiig '.in- 
 dows, combine to produce a general clfccl, wliicii, 
 from ils grandeur and intricacy. (Ieli;;lits iiii'l 
 amuses the spectator. The town halls, or railnr 
 municipal ]ialaees of Brussels, Louvaiii, (ihciit, 
 Yjires, and ilruges, are unequalled in inagiiiiink' 
 and elaborate ornament by any similar ediliocs in 
 Kiirope, 
 
 llelgium possesses several public ///(rHr/ej!, cim- 
 taiuing rich collections ; and the gdvcriinunt 
 exerts the greatest care to increase and prcMrvo 
 them. At Jlrussels, the library of limir^'n;;!!!', 
 foimiled about lulit), consists exclusively nt acul- 
 huition of l,i)UO AISS, 'J'lie Koval Lihrarv li:i< 
 2U0,UU0 printed ami 18,000 MSS, vols. The "iuiwi 
 
iii;i,r:iuM (K 
 
 I.ilimrv if nriiKO'' lins 10,000 voN. At l.iiiivuin, 
 iiic I'liivt'r-'ily l.ilirury liiis |(i,'i,(i(iO |iriiil<'il volt. ; 
 ,11,1 tliiH I'l' il"' .It'Kliiirt 'J-iJIOO vi.ls. At l.ii-r. 
 ihi' liliriiry «( tin- univir->il y Ii.\h To.imii) |iriiih'cl 
 vmIhiih"'. it"'"l ■••''^ MSS. Till' I'liiviTMity l.ilmiry 
 ,1 (;ii('iit liiiH tio.itiio (iriiitfil tiiiil •'t.'iti MS. viiU. 
 'I'll,. I'lililir l.iliriiry in llic litwuliniiMc nl' Aiil 
 mrji fiiiiiAiiir> ;tii,tii)0 vi>luiiit>M. At Toiirimy, ilic 
 liiHii l.iliniry, o))»'n<'(l to ilu! piililii' in |h|h, (mhi- 
 i„ins i7,<Mi(r|irintt'(l voliinicri, unit i>H A(SS, 'I'iic 
 
 ,(;,((. iiIm) lHlHH«'MHt'M Ht'Vcral Vllllllllllo (l('|lot.S of 
 
 nriliivw. I'liiit nl l,it';,'i- ini'Inilcs tin- iircliivis ol' 
 ilir iim'icMl i)rinci|iniily <>r l/u'^'c, wliicli urc very 
 iiiiiiii'niii-< tinil intiTi'Miin;;, in ilic ili'|i<'it nf Mouh 
 ;iri' till' iircliivi's III' tlii^ siivtTcl^'n cunri ul' lliiinault, 
 gild iiiliiT rtiriouH anlii|nMriitn ilni'iinicnlM, 
 
 l.ciinit'il micit'lii's lU'viili'il Id ncnrriil or parli- 
 riiliir iilijci'lH nti' very nuniiTiius, 'I'lic innsl ini- 
 {>>riniit, Ul* wi'll IIS llic most anrioni, is i!'o 
 ,\iiiili'my 111" Scii'lircs nnil licilcs i.cllrcs ol' llrus- 
 iM'h, tli(!° iipiTatiiiiiN ol' wliiuii coniiuunccil in liic 
 rii:,'M iil'.Marii! 'I'lii'ivsc. 
 
 t'lililic limlrmliim. — llcl^nnm possesses founinl- 
 vi'i'sitii's ili'Voteii to tlie liij;lier ran;,'e of seieiitilie 
 mill liti'rary stiiiiii's; Iwo lieionnin;^ to tlie state, 
 at lilii'iit anil hio^c; tliu Catliolie university of 
 j^iiiviiiii, liiiindeil liy flie clerfjv ; anil tlie free 
 iiiiiviT^ity ol' Hrussels, t'oninleil liy assiieiMlioii. 
 Ill till' llltli century tlii! uiiiversiiy of l/mvain 
 wns tiiv lii'st in l'airii|M; as a, seliool of Catliolie 
 tlii'iiln>;y, ami was atlenileil hy (l.oito sliiileiits. 
 ili'.«iil('.s the tisiial faculties of law, iiieilieine, 
 mii'iu'c, ])liili>sopliy nnil literature, tlu^ university 
 III' Lic^P eiinlains a seiiool for teaeliin;; the u-iiful 
 nrts, niaiiiifHet\ires and mining. That of (ilieiii 
 jjjvi'H 11 I'liiirse of eivil t!nKiui!erin;^ ; anil the nni- 
 virsity of liOiivain a eoiirse of tlieii|ii;,'y. I'Jieli 
 III' the universities possesses ii cheniieal laltorii- 
 tiiry, I'illiiliets of iiliysieal scieiii- , of iiiiiieiiilo};v, 
 ziiiilii;,'y, ami comparative anatomy, a thealre of 
 uiiaiiiiiiy, liotaiiii; pirilen, ami cliaiiiliers liir cliiii- 
 imI liriu'tii'C. The liuiiilier of stiiilents who atteiiil 
 tlio I'lillcfiiate courses at Lie;;e is usually alioiil 
 fiiiii, At (ilii'iit .'too, anil at Itrussels aliout toil. The 
 Inrfjcst classes are those of law and medicine. 
 AlHiiit -t'.'!) students of divinity aMund the (.'atholic 
 university of himvain, which is upitused to the 
 liJH'ral university of Itnissids, 
 
 Tlicrc are two do,i;rees in oacli dopartniont of 
 iiii(iwlc'ilf,'e — fuiiditliite, or t;raduato, and tlovtor, 
 wliii'li is nmierstood and ap)ilied Niniply in it.s 
 (irit;in»l and nlistract si<{iiitication of n person 
 ciimjietcnt to tiNich ; tliat is, learned. The class 
 III' moral and mental |iliilosophy, and that of polite 
 liioraturc, have each a jury appropriated to ex- 
 amine and confer defjrees, as havo also those of 
 Iwaiid medicine. The meniliers of the examining 
 ImiIv arc ap|Kiintcd for one year : two of each jury 
 are nnminatcd hy the ehainher of representatives, 
 tiiii by the senate, and three by the ministers of 
 the government. In the liudj;et of IMtJI, the sum 
 set down for public education amounted to 
 ■l,.^ilil,il(l() franca, or 1MO,000/. It M-as placed to the 
 crwlit of the minister of the interior. 
 
 A military sriinol at Brussels annually fniniislics 
 wll-iiistructed olli(i;rs to the army ; and the K"- 
 veniiiieiit has taken nieasures for the re-ort,'anisa- 
 timi of tins establishment, in order to form it into 
 a polytechnic academy. 
 
 Tiicre are two velcrinart M:lumh, one at nnissels, 
 tlie other at Ijiej^e. That at Hrussels beloiif^s to 
 the ({ovcrnment ; and although it is designated a 
 veieriiiary school, its arranjAcments aHord the 
 ineaiis of cumplete instruction, not only in that 
 ili'liartment of science, but in all the din'ereiit 
 liraiiclics of agricultural knowledge, thcoa-lical 
 and practical. 
 
 INODOM OF) 41S 
 
 Itesiiles these oslnblishmrntx, which nro Hiip- 
 porti'd liv the state, or by the commiiueN, some of 
 the proMiices liave I'nllhiir nilliiiis, which, as well 
 as the iiiiiver'<ily of l.oiivaiii, arc iiiiilir tlic direc- 
 liiili of the clir^'y. I'mir of tliese eiidesiiisllial 
 iiistitulioiis ari^ posscsscil liy the ciirporalioii of 
 .lisiiiis; naniely, one al ilrusscls, one at Namiir, 
 one at .Most, and oii(> al lihiiit. There is also a 
 theolii^rical seniinarv in ihe ilincoeofi'iicli ( 'atholli! 
 bishop; that is, at Slechliii, Ih'iij^'i's, lilient, Ijc^ic, 
 
 Naniiir, and Tnurnay ; and smaller scl Is of the 
 
 same natiiri! in each diocese; at .\b<rhliii, Itonlers, 
 .SI, Nicolas, Koliinc, ItiiliiiC' Mspiriince, llaslo^ue, 
 and I'liirelVe, llel;,num may. theri'l'iirc, be con»i- 
 ileri'd as amply provided with Ihe means of main- 
 taiiiiiiK and propa/^'atiii); ecclesiastical doctrines, 
 
 Iiiitiistriiil unit iDiitiiiiiriiil m liiHil.i are cslablishi'il 
 at Itrussels. and al Vcrvicis, w here cour.scs of in- 
 .structioii are i^iven in niathematics, mechanical 
 science, cheiiii^ny, (^eoi^raphy, book-kci piim; in 
 Short, in every di |iartmciit. of science and practical 
 kiiiiwlcil)^'e that is or may be siibser\icnt to Ihn 
 jMirposes of commerce and the niainial arts. At 
 roiirnay, a school has been especially forinnl for 
 teaching the most useful arts ami trades; and In 
 the ciiies of Mons and Nainiir, schools are oiiciieil 
 for Ki^'oi).? iuslriictions in the various operations 
 aii|iertainiii;; to miiiiiij^. The line arts are slill an 
 object of much emulation in llel^^iuni, and acaile- 
 mies of paintini; are very numerously atU'iideil in 
 llriissels, Antwerp, Liege, (ilient, j.oiivain, and 
 To 1 1 may. 
 
 The iioyal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp 
 is the priiici)ial school nf paiiiliiii^s and it proiluces 
 every ye;ir sevi:ral artists of the lii;;liesl ilislinc- 
 tioii. It is snpipurted by the public, and is usually 
 attended by at least a tlioiiMiiid stiidints. 
 
 Itcli;'iiim is remarkalili' for its lar>;e ami nume- 
 rous schools of music, called lou.^ci nilnins. Tlii> 
 most im|Hirtant is that of Itrussels, which is com- 
 mniily alteiiileil by 100 pupils; and the most 
 aiiciiiit is at Licfic, with "JOO pupils. The, (ihent 
 Ciiiiscrvatory of .Sliisic, tlioii;,di a \ery receiit csta- 
 blishiiieiil, contains above KiO |.;i|iiis. 'i'liere ari! 
 several others, numerously alteiiileil, at Moiis, 
 Louvain, and Namiir. The (irand Harmonic So- 
 ciety of llrii.ssel.s, which is accounted the tirsi of 
 the kind in existence, includes amoiit,' its best 
 performers many who were taught in tlie Itru.sseln 
 conservatory. 
 
 J'riiiiun/ iiistrmtion in Itel;;inm has made no 
 lierceptible progress since the revolution by whi(;li 
 the Itelgic provinces became independent of the 
 Dutch government, an event which, however be- 
 iielicial and desirable for other national objects, 
 has donlitle.ss been greatly injurious to the cause of 
 national edncntion. The coin/tiils<iri/ and iionitul 
 .system of Holland was then rejected by the Itelgic 
 authorities, who.-idopted, in its stead, the volimtarii 
 principle; but this has not secured either the com- 
 petency of teachers or the attendance of scholars; 
 so that general eonfiision and iKiiorancc have suc- 
 ceeded to that order and intelligence which was 
 steadily extending under the (hnninion of the 
 Dutch. The Catholic clergy and monastic orders 
 have made energetic and very successful exertions 
 to pos.se.ss the ground which the Itelgic government 
 left unoccupied, especially the brotherhood of the 
 Christian Doctrine. 
 
 I'ublic instruction in the Belgic provinces, down 
 to the time of their union with those of Holland in 
 IKIT), was in a very backward and depressed state. 
 Triraary education had been systematically and 
 very successfully established in Holland since 1«0,'), 
 and it is due to the government of that couiKrv to 
 acknowledge that its anxious attention wa.s at 
 once bestowed upon the great deliciencies and 
 
 
 'j ■ 
 
 ^lll 
 
•Ill 
 
 iiImim'k of ilio M'iKMtl NViitrtn III' lk'l(;iiiin, (Ml ilx 
 iiniiiii ullli lliilliuiil. Ill |H|7, llic Ihilcli iiiiriiinl 
 (iMil rii||i|>iil-iirv h_\kI4'|ii IIi'nI Iii'uiiii In ii|ii'nili' 
 
 ^'1 nrrtilly lliriiii^liiiiii ilii' HniiiJH'rii |>rii\ iiifcn nl' ilir 
 
 killKiliilll of itir NcllKrllllliU, lliiw riillnlillllillK ll«'l 
 
 f;iiiiii ; Hiiil iliirin^ llii' Iwi-Ui' vimifh Irum ilml liiiii' 
 III iMi'll, ili(> |iri>Kr<'N'«aiiil viiliii' nl' |iriiiiiiry iiiNiriit' 
 liiiii wuM fiir ^rt'iitcr than at aiiv |M'riii<l lict'iiri' nr 
 hiiirc, WrII arraMK''<l Kt'lmiilM, ami alilc Irarlicrx, 
 ^viTc I'MtHlilinliril ill aliiiimt every einniiiiine, mil 
 iiii|iriiveiiieiil waH ra|ilill.v nml iiiiiverNally exieiiil 
 iiiu:. ,Viitii|iialeil anil awkward rmiliiie waMre|ilaee<l 
 liy iimre ralimial anil ailvaiilii^''eiiiiN iiiethiiiJH nf 
 leaeliin^' ; iiiiiriiriuily win* nliNerveij in the ii^e nC 
 clasi IiiiiiUm ; niirinal ni'IiuoI.'* were i)|ieneil fur I he 
 inNiriii'liiiii ami Irainiii^' of iiiaNterN; eonpies of 
 lei'lnri'M were (.'iven in (he |iriiiriiial tnwiiN mi the 
 ■ e(|iilreii i|iialilii'aitiin^* ami iIiiIuk of leueherH; 
 fiimlH were sii)ijilieil ill ailvanee fur tlie eoiiNlriie- 
 (iiitl of Hehiiol-hiiiiMeH ; Hoeietien of iiia»ters were 
 foriiieil for eireiilatiii); iiKefiil liiiokHainl tirnfesNidnal 
 kiiiiwleilp'. Nntw ilhslamnn^' the oliMniis ailvan- 
 lai^'t'M of til!'* n'Htein, a Hjiiril of oiiiiiif-ilinii lie^'an In 
 he ^jeneraliy inanifesteij in iH'JH. ami it appears 
 to have lieeii mainly attrihiitahle to cecleMiaitieal 
 pMrtiHansliip. The people anil iiftltutiiiiiM of llol- 
 hunt are ihlelly I'rolentaiit, while tlioxe of llel- 
 (.'iiiin, with little exeept ion, are Catholic. The 
 ltel;,niiMs are, niorenver, most ri;^'ii| adherentM tn 
 the ri^^litM ami i|np;nias of the Cliiireh of lioine, 
 anil are reinarUahly Miilijeet In the inllnenee nf 
 their ■■pirilual paHlnrn. They i'onNi'i|iieiitly never 
 lieartilv enneiirreil in the extiililiNliineiit of the 
 eilneatinnal Nvstein intrnihu'eil liy the Piiteh, ami 
 eventually tiiey ehllr^;el| it with lieiii;; inslrii- 
 ineiital in propattatin^ I'mlestaiit i|oetrine.<<, at 
 varimiee wltli those of Ihi- Catholie elnireli. The 
 refusal of several ('athnlit'ennnre<,'at inns In stilmiit 
 In (he rules res|ieclin>; exaniinaliniis ami eer- 
 tiliinles, whirh led to their proseriptinii liy the 
 piverinnent ; the relielilons disposition nf teachers, 
 who would not, nr cnnld mil, nnder^'n the re(|nired 
 proof of their (inalilications, ami the olVeiice often 
 iinavoiihlhly ;;iveii hv the district inspectors in the 
 i'xecntion (if their liniclions, served at Icn^ctli to 
 i'reate an aimiunt. of nppnsitioii and periilexily 
 that induced the );;nverniiieiit tn prnpnse, in IM2!>. 
 Iiefnre the revnlntinii, a return tn the principh^ nf 
 * freedom of teachiii),'.' Since IH.'tO the ailnptinn 
 <if that principle, ■whatever may he its ultimate 
 eU'ect, has lieeii prodnelive of fjreat inimediate 
 injury to the primary sehnols, n larjje iiumlier nf 
 ■wiiicii have fallen hack to the ustt nf had old 
 methods and the emjiloymcnt nf misernlily incnni- 
 jieteut teachers. A few jirimarj' schnols receive 
 snlisidies frnm the ])resent ptvernment, hut most 
 of the excellent societies which arose iiiidor the 
 iiornial system for the encnnraf,'ement nf pind 
 teacluTs, the use nf siiperinr hnnks, and the ndop- 
 I ion of improved methods, have ilisappeared, and 
 the pivernmcnt neither exercises any siiperiii- 
 teiidence, nor makes any insiiecdnn, even nf the 
 mode nf niiiirnprialinfj the insntlicient simis -which 
 are voted liy the lenislaliire for the schools still 
 ile])endent upon the iiatinnnl funds. There is hut 
 little ednciitional iirni^ress visihle, and the nnmher 
 nf schnols and scholars was scarcely hir^jcer in 
 ]X(11 than in iX'.W, In IH.")I, there "were .ViiO 
 schools with 511, ()',>(■. |)Upils ; and l^tll, the niimher 
 of schools was .'vilit with oitH.T.'il jmiiils. 
 
 The nuniher of scholars is far frmii heiiif; equal 
 tn that nf the individuals requiriuf:; elementary 
 education: with reicard tn which tlu^ ])n])ulatioii 
 may he divided into fourparts. The. first consists 
 of children under the a^^e of 2 years, who form 
 nhoiit ««('-c//;/i/('<7///i of the whole |io|iulation. and 
 whose education Ls merely maternal. The second 
 
 IlKI.tiM'.M (KlNOItO.M or) 
 
 connlHiH of chililn'ti U'twern llie n^ro* nf •> .^,1 
 
 tl years who lorm al».iit „„.(„; l/l/, ,,««, ,u„| wi,„ 
 nii>{lit In he lor the iiiimi part innniniicd |„ ,t 
 
 ^'iiardiaii or asyhim mcI I., i,, |„, |,r,.i„„|.,| ." 
 
 receive iiiHlructioii. St] U "I' this ,|,.I.,.ri„,;, !,' 
 
 are III present eslahlished onlv in -MMiie i,l tl ' 
 larKe lowiiH, and the Intal inim)H>r of cliililr,,, \" 
 lonKili^ In them does not exceed .'l.lion, wliiil, i, 
 scarcely ii Inimlredth part nf the reqiuMie niinMiiii' 
 The thiril part cmisiHls of chihlrep iietwi i u i; i,,,,! 
 IT), who form ahoni nnr niith of ihr ,vlii,|(. ih,,, 
 and shoidd nil receive the iiiMiru.iinn wliiij, i'^ 
 allordeil ill primary scIiooIm, hut it appears tint 
 only ahoiii one-half of this class have ihnl ,i,U„J|. 
 UiKi'. 'I'he f'oiirlh and last part compri»i.. n|| 
 ahove the a^e of I,'). In iH.'Hi, more tlimi |,„|| 
 the youiiK' men who were enlisted for ihr i,ii|i,|,, 
 ill the melropolitan province of Krahaiit wcrl) 
 entirely iinahle to read. 
 
 Of the yoiiii^' men drawn for i •.criptinii in 
 
 the three perioiU IM.jI, Ih;.!!, and iM.V.t, i||,,r,. 
 were :— 
 
 In |H,M In inr.fl 
 
 Not alile to renil nor write . I4,'j:i;l l;i,:ii:i 
 
 Alile only to read , . 4,'.'l:l ;|,7"M 
 
 Alile to rend and write . Il.sl;) ll,7|n 
 
 or nnperinrednriltliili . , |0,li,'i:| 1'J,!MI| 
 
 In IH.Vi 
 la,!i:;:| 
 II,'.' II 
 II, Ml 
 11,11)7 
 
 In iKtn 
 
 In !«■,! 
 
 :,;.() 
 
 Ttiiii 
 
 mr, 
 
 '.>i;:| 
 
 l:iil 
 
 l.'.7 
 
 IH 
 
 II 
 
 Of every Ihoiisaml convicts who (•ntereil tli<. 
 prisons in IM,">0 and IM,'),'), there were: 
 
 Not nlile to rend nor write , 
 
 AMe only to rem! . . . 
 
 Alile to reiul aiiil write . , 
 or Hii|HTlor eiliicatlun , 
 
 It appears that the tolnl mass of iiidiviiJimlH 
 desiilute nf iirimary instruction, eonsi,-.iiii;; nf 
 adults and children idiove two years of a;;c, Ts i,, 
 the whole pop, as M In llill, or more than niu'- 
 half, Tlii^ instruction >;iven to children i^ t';u- 
 from hein^; adei|uale to llieir wanis; it is limiii.i 
 lorcadiiiir, wriliii);, and a very little nriiritlMiaii', 
 The scholars are nl'len merely kept in cliarnr, arnl 
 learn nnlhin^; and, cnnnnnnly, in the cuiinirv 
 districts, the attendancu nf more than oiie.|i;|{|' 
 is diseonliinied throughout the siiniiuer. in unlcr 
 that something may he eariu'd hy their sirvins 
 in the lields, 'J'lie editealioii of (;irls is mnri' 
 ne;;lected than that of hoys, and hoili sexes an> 
 generally tniiKht lo(.'ether on the same IiciicIks 
 
 hy male teachers. Two-thirds of all the sd I- 
 
 masters in the kiiifriloni are self-appointcil, ami 
 unwarranted hy any certilieate of conipeteiicv. 
 
 I'atholie vSiinday schools for religious iusiriiViidii 
 an? very numerniisly attended in the provincis 
 of Flanders and Antwerp. Kveniiif; sclinols \'<,r 
 the wnrkiiif^ classes are estahlished in sc^vcral nl' 
 the princi)ial tnwns; and also some excellent ia- 
 stitutioiis for instructing the deaf anil dinnli. 
 
 J'lililic Clidritivs itml J'lni/M'iisiii. — licluiiini 
 possesses ii jfrcat nnmher of charitahle iiistitii- 
 tioiis, eiinsistinj; nf richly-endowed hospitals anil 
 almshouses, for the relief nf every kind of ini<- 
 fortiine, misery, nnd want, and for iiidiviiluuLs ul' 
 all aj^es, 
 
 Kach enmmiine has its hureau of clmrity fur 
 the (listrihution nf mnney, food, nr dotliiii;:. |ii'r- 
 manently, to the sick poor, and occasionally lo 
 those in health. Private cstahlishnients arc 
 fonned at I'.russels, Verviers, and Mcfie, I'nr the 
 employment nf indij,'ent artisans, AUliin tlf 
 Cliariti'; at Antwer)), (ihent, and other oiiii's 
 afford work and maintenance to imincroiis ilisii- 
 tute nperatives. 'J"he one at (ihent cunstaiilly 
 contains, nii an average, 4r)0 inmates, 
 
 Numernus hospitals and asylums for liiiintiM 
 are estahlished in the ]iriiieipal cities of the kini:- 
 doiii ; and in general the arrungemciitii and tlii' 
 
nKLOlI'M (KINODOM OF) 
 
 11.^ 
 
 In li.M) 
 l:i,!t.i;l 
 
 ll.'.MI 
 
 1 1 .'Ji:il 
 11.1117 
 
 JO In If,.! 
 
 .'iilil 
 
 •Jii.l 
 1 I -.7 
 
 I II 
 
 iiidlviiliiaU 
 
 ll^i.-.lill;; cil' 
 
 r iip', is 111 
 
 tliiiii liiii'- 
 
 ilrcii U liir 
 
 il \x lilnilril 
 
 nriiliiniii'. 
 liiir^;r, ami 
 fijiiiurv 
 iiiic-lialf 
 ill nnlir 
 r si'nicis 
 is iiinri' 
 Hcxcs arc 
 
 liclli'llis 
 
 • SclllMll- 
 
 iiU'il, iinil 
 U'licy. 
 iiistnirlioii 
 iriivinci's 
 M'lnHils fur 
 srvcral 111' 
 client iii- 
 iinili. 
 l!clf;iiim 
 instilii- 
 lilnis n>iii 
 ml of iiii'i- 
 liviiUiult uf 
 
 ['linrity I'^r 
 lliiii}:, !«'r- 
 sidiially lo 
 mciits (ire 
 ■;(', lilt till' 
 4t,lien ilf 
 ihcr dlios 
 Irons (it'sii- 
 1 coiistaiiily 
 
 lir liiiiiitios 
 If till' kiii^'- 
 Its aiui till' 
 
 lie 
 
 iBitmciit, pliy<irnl nnd mnrnl. nrr viry jiiiliriinm 
 
 ,1 rolllliK'Militlili', 'I'lirrc iiri'si'MTiil inirii'iil 
 ^"ijiiHiil liiKiiliiii""" •ill" iIk' iniiiiiii'iimirf uf 
 !'ri,liiiii»; •>!"• '" ^'i^wirp, Kliniiliri, Itrnlpmii, 
 
 ,1 lliiiiiiiiilt. nri' HcMTiil I'liimilliiiK liiis|iitjils, 
 "' llcluiiii'i li«s live ,'ri'iit wiirkluiiisi' i'<l(ililiKlilii('iilM 
 
 , till' riri'tiiioii, ('iiiilliii<tiii-iil, iiiiil inniiiti-iiiiii I' 
 
 i|„. iMNir. Tl'<"> "»'•' Hitiiiilt'il lit la Ciniiliri', lU'iir 
 llf,i,.M.l<, fur tin- |>ri(vin((' of llriiliiiiil ; lit Uriip'*, 
 l,,, III,, nvi) I'IuiiiIitm; iit llon>;MiriH'lcn, l'i>r t'lc |ir>i 
 viiiiicif .\iiiwti|i; lit Minis, liir llniiiMiill, Niiimir, 
 iiiilLiixi'iiit'iii'tli ••""' '" l>i'i<'l<lu'iiii, for thi- prii- 
 (iiiiTii 111' l-ii'C'' •""• I.iiiiliiir^; hihI llicy arc iml 
 „iilv nsvliiin* for Imlijii'iii |i< r^nis ritlnT siiU ur In 
 liilili, lull iirisi'iiN '"!■ I'liiiili'iniH'il >iiniiliiiiiiU riiil 
 ll'.'Mr's. It !■ "-tutcil liy .Mr. Nirliiills, in his 
 
 "ri nil tliiMuiiilitiiiii i>t° I III* |iiiiir ill lloliiiiut iiinl 
 
 "linp, ri'l'iTi .ry, iini!_ ilomiltnfv. Tlic lnnmii'i 
 
 mIi'i'Ii ill llilliirili" ki<, mill lire rlinl III a vrrv riwirxK 
 iiiiilnnii. Tlii'v liiliiMir wiili iIk- >|i.'iilr In llii' tlrlil-', 
 iir ill iiiiikiiiir lirirkn, nr ai iiiaiiiilariiir<"< in tlii< 
 liiiiisi', iiiiiliT till' sii|H'riiiii'iii|('iii'i< uf III) ill^tll riiir. 
 Ml iiariiriil ''s ri'KiH'i'tiiiL; tli<> wnrk, I'miil, iluilii"*, 
 
 anil fxiM'iiwn ofiiiii'li iiiiliviiliial arc I'littTi'il ilaily, 
 ill iHiiikn kept In till' military tiiaiiiii'i'. iMhiiiiIimI 
 
 i;iiiiriU pairiil tli<> iHiiimlarii'M of llii Imiy , In prc- 
 
 vriil llir rsnipc uf lii'-MTtiTM, iiinl ri'warih ari' >,'iv«'il 
 fur lirill;;ill^ liiirk lfiiMi< wlio siirrri'ij in ^I'lllii^ 
 auay, lur carli N i'iiiii|ii'llnl In ri'inaiii at li'ii«t ihh' 
 \riir. 'I'lirt' riniiripiis nirnsnrrs fur llic sii|i|in'!»!.iuii 
 lA' niriiiliriilii'y liiivr lii'rii ailupti'il in tin' alisi'iii'i> 
 uf any arkiiuwIi'ii^iiK'iit of a rij;!il lu rrliif. ami 
 iiotwitlistMiiiliii^' Unit a lar^'i> portion of tlii' nlicl' 
 111 liiiilly iiilniinUtrri'il arist's I'roin i'IhIuh nniits niiil 
 Miliiiiliiry roiilriliiilioiis, Nu rii^'lil to rclirf i'\i-U 
 1 iilirr in llullaiiil or lli'liiiiiin, 
 
 A( nliiij,' 111 an ullli'ial Klati'nii'iit innilc in IH."i7, 
 
 lliiTi' wire at that linit< !MlM,llllO raiiiilirs in lld- 
 ^iiiiii, of which N'.t.il.'lii wiTf in nuoil liriiinisiniiri'^i, 
 ;t7.'l,iiiHi in straiti'iM'il (/n nihil] roiiilitiiui, ami 
 llii.oiiil fiiniilii'M III iiuvcriy. Stati'il in pirrrntii),'!', 
 (his ^ivrs !) Ill llii> lirst, I'j to ihi> si>roiiil. ami I'.i In 
 the lliinl rIasN. Tlii'Nuciiii runililiuii uf thi' pioplr is 
 fiirllifr (Icsrriliril liy ii rrtiirn of Ort, I, IMli, 
 whirh Mtali'M tilt" iiiiiiiliiT uf 'known hi'^i^ars' in 
 ainoiiiit liixs,ii|<.lini|i\iiiiiiils, uf whirh iM.nll wcri 
 of the male M'X. Of the lixii inilliuii iiilialiilaiiU 
 111' Itt'li^'iiim, iihuiil line million ami a half li\r 
 in xil lowiiH, mill tlircii inilliuns ami a liiilf in 
 •J, I l.'i I'oiintry parishrH. 
 
 I'risoii.i mill CriiiiiiiiilH. — In llclijiiim, lilt' piinixh- 
 nu'iiiH uf lii'iith. ami uf liramliiii;, allhiiii>;li siill 
 writti'ii ill till) laws, iin- priu'lii'iilly iiliuli-hcii. 
 Criminals ari' pltiri'il in i'uiir ri'iiiral prison.-; 
 naiiii'ly, III < ilii'iii, for iIiomc conilfmiii'il to tiirrril 
 liilioiir; at Xilvonli', solrly for ronlinrini'iit ; at St, 
 Itoriiiinl, near Aiitwi'rp, Cur rurri'rtion ; ami at 
 .Most, for iiiilit.'irv olVcni't's, 'I'lu'rc is ;ilsu in Iho 
 I'hirf town of carli prov. Iiaviiij,' a ruiirt of aMsizi", 
 ami of I'.'irli arruiiil., a pri.suii for prrsoiis arrrstnl, 
 or romlcmni'il lu Irsn than nix niunths' ninliiu'- 
 nu'iil, ami tor ilclitors, A scparali" ]ii'iiiti'iiliiiry for 
 I'cniali! criininals is cstalilislu'il at Namiir, 'I'lin 
 Hiipcrinti'iiili'iu-canil instruction of I'l'inalc pi-isuiicrs 
 arc cunliilcil In Ihi' rrligiou.s (inlcr of tlii' .sisters of 
 I'ruviilcncc. 
 
 In jjciiiTiil, lliorc is in Hclfxiiiin, 1 por.'«)n nrrtiHcil 
 ofcriinc ninon^' 'i,IIOII inliahilaiit.s, aiiit I of mis- 
 ilcincanoiir ainoii^ 170, In lllll acciiscil of criino 
 nj;aiiist llm person, 20 nre acipiitteil; ami of the 
 same niiniliiruccnseil of crime ii;;aiiist proiierly, l."» 
 are aeiiiiitti d. The nniiilicr of crimes ULcmnst pro- 
 perty IS three times j^reater than thai of crimen 
 af^ainst persun.s, Frum the ri'iiurts i<{' the central 
 pri.suiis in the years isrill ami Wth, it appears that, 
 in ItiO imli\ iilii;ils there contiiieil, i^Mvere iillerly 
 ignorant of readin;^ and writing;, 2'.> conlil read 
 unly, lint were otherwise extremely ij,nior:int, 
 ami III could read and write with .some de;i;ree of 
 facility, 
 
 llovvrnmvnt. — llelf^inm is governed liy a eoii- 
 stitiitiuniil inunarchy — niider a dynasty elected liy 
 the constituents uf tin? nation. Its independcnc'n 
 was lirst ]iruclainied, in an alisulnle, nimiiier, hy a 
 lirovi.siunal f,'oveniinent, on the Itli of Oct,, IMiid, 
 and on the IHlli of the following; Nov, it was attain 
 pruclaimod liy the national coii^i'ress, liv tlu! 
 lermsof the treaty of the loth of Nov,, IM.!!', Itel- 
 ninni furtns a state iierpetnally mntcr with rc^'iird 
 to all other stales. The Hi lj;ian cunsliliilioii, 
 decreed liy the national congress on the 7lh of 
 Kel)., IM.'il, places all j;"Verimieiital powerinthe 
 ttiirkslKips, stores, and macliinery for spinnin^^and j nation, oiicraliiij^ hy means of tin- representative 
 "ciiviii;;. Oiiu ward is iisud ill cumniun as work- .system. It u.stabli.slios individual lilierly, the 
 
 llil-iiiiii. that, under the prcse'il ri^iilations, these 
 ,,r.i"nniid wiirklionses. or ili/tiil* ilf miiulii ilr, are 
 lirvileleitive ills! il illiulis, — lliirsiries of idleness 
 .,iii| iiniiiiolers of paiipcri-'tn ; and llial heceeihe 
 iiiiwitv aruse fur ri"<"i'tiii(; to niurc i\._;uruiis 
 i,i,,i.uri's. which ended in the cstaliliihmeiit of the 
 ,,„r iiikiiiies, to which all persons finind he^iudn;,' 
 Iri' •I'lit, if aiile to work, and are eoinpclled to la- 
 l„iir fiir Hiihsislciice, under strict discipline and 
 1„»' ilii't. lie remarks that, had the old work- 
 liiiiiii's Ih'cii reildcre.l ellicient liy the introdiictiun 
 „l n'u'uliiliiiiis calculated lo make tliein tests fur 
 ilhiiliHilishillU iM'lweell fHii'vrtii and ilistitiitinii — 
 |,riiviiliiit: iiiily for the latter — there would have 
 Ini II" iiee»'''sity for the pour eiiluiiies, where the 
 ii'.i of litrict discipline, hard lalimir, and scanty 
 ,:i,.|, is sii applied as fii lie ludd in the H''<'a»<'st 
 ilnail liv the vagrant diLsses, AH lie^Kars arc 
 ;i|,|iri'lii'iiileil l>y the |Hilice. If aide to wurk. they 
 iiri'M'iit to the penal ciiluny ; if aned ur inlirin, ur 
 iiiialile to |H'rl'uriii ont-dnor work, I hey are sent to 
 ilii' Hiirklmiises; and alllioii;,di the discipline of 
 ihc liiller is defective, and llieir malla^'^nlent in 
 many riMpects faiilly in principle, they serve, with 
 ihi'iiiilof the coercive colonics, to secure lliere- 
 |,ri'»>ioM of piihlic invndicity. The esial'lishincnl 
 HI la Canihre', near Ilriis,sels, is superior, in its 
 inlitiwil nrran}:einent.s, to the i,'reat workhouse at 
 Anblcriliini, pariiciilarly in the .separate classilica- 
 tliiuiif the a^^eil, the children, and adults, and also 
 in till' piod arrall^'emelll and cleanliness of the 
 i.|(i'|iiii^'-roiiiiis. The sexes are strictly Keparatcd 
 ill all the Ik'lpc iii.-titiitions of this nature. My the 
 |«nal whIo, a incmli(^ant once condemned to the 
 Hiirkliiiiise fur pnlilie lie^j,'in^; may he kejit there 
 iliiriii;; the rcnminder nl' his life; Imt in practice 
 111' i^ allowed tu leave it whenever the eommission 
 lifiiilieriiitelidenee are .satistied that he is dispo.sed 
 mill alile to liihonr for his subsistence without 
 nsuitiiiK iijjaiii •<> inendicancy,_ 
 
 Tlie imiipcr colony of I!el),diini is near lloo;;- 
 jiriu'lcii, ill llie N, extremity of the ]irovince of 
 Anlwer]!; it was <'stali!isheil in l«2;!, liy a ehari- 
 tiililc siciety, which entered into a contract with 
 ilu' (.'iiveriimcnt at that time, to provide for 1,000 
 iiiiiiilii'iiiits, on receiving for each d,") liorins per 
 iiiinum, or 2/. 1!>.h, The tract of hrnyere, or ]ioor 
 linitliy land, which the society ))iircliased to form 
 till' coloiiy, extends to alimit l,H00 acres in the 
 ciimmiiiics of Merxjilas and Itykevorsel. 
 
 The cultivation of this land is carried on hy the 
 IMuiKTs, and its croiis of ]iotaloes and other vegi^- 
 talili' iiriiduce are f;cnerally as aliiindaiit as those of 
 the nurrmmdiiij; conimniie.s. The liiiildin>;s are 
 .■■liacimis and well ventilated, and the arranj,'einciits 
 mill iliseipline nre, such as to .secure the jj;encral 
 k'iiltliiness of (he inmates. There is a .•school for 
 iVnicniary instruction, an inlirinary, with varioii 
 
 ■■Nr 
 
 f1 
 
41« 
 
 iii:r,<mrM (KIN(iih)M ok) 
 
 iiiviolnltillty of pvpry mmrH hoiDut niul iiriiiirrly, 
 
 llli> (MTli'i't IIImTIV NIIiI il|i|i'|H'lli|i>llr<> III' rrlluioili 
 
 wiir^liiii mill ii|iiiiii>iii, lli>' riK'lit nl' iii-iriiililiiiuiniil 
 n'<v>riuliiit{, llir ijIpiTty 111' till' I'rrii, ihr liU'rlv nf 
 li'iii'liilii;, liiiiiixli'rial ri'-<|Hiiiniliility, iiiul llii> linlf 
 
 JM'Mili'iit'ii III' ilii' jiiillrlal |iiiMi'r, Nil nliiif cliiin-li 
 I* ri'i'iiKiii«i>i|, Hint iMi mil' fiiii U' <-iiiii|ii'||i'i| lu fun 
 ftinii ill iitiy way wliiiii'vcr In tlu> i'linni* ami t't'ri'- 
 niiiiiii'it III' any I'rili'Niaxtii'al nyHitMU, 'I'lii' nIhIii 
 liait no riulil fo inlrrliTii in llic iiiiniinallnn or 
 ii|i|iiiinlnii'iit III' llii' nilniilt'rx nl' any rrli^ioiii ili> 
 liiiniinaliiiii, imr In jiri'vi'iil llii' |iiilil(ritliiiii nl' llii'lr 
 lU'tt, 'I'liii I'linn lit' iniirrinKi', at a rivll riiiii|iiii'i, 
 U ri'i|iiiri'i| III |iri>i'i'i|i' ilii' ncl nl' ri'liKiniH lirni'ijii'' 
 
 linn. llrl;{lllll-< luiM' llic li^lll In ll'iHrniliir jK'Hrr- 
 
 ntily ami iiiiarnii'ij ; Imi anHcnililaKrN In llic n|ii'n 
 
 nir arr niiIiJi'i'I In Ihr |a«Vi hI'IIm' |Hillri', All linuir 
 
 t'liiiiniilrM li'iini llii' iii'ii{ili-, ami niiiii Ih- fxiri'Linl 
 ill ilii' inainii'r I'ltaliliilnil liy llii' I'luiNiiiiKinii, 
 'I'lli' IrK'^I'l'IVi' llnwrr Ih I'MTrJii'il nilliTlivcly 
 
 liv llii' Mn^, llic rliiinilii'r nl' rc|iri'Hi'iiiativi"<, iiimI 
 
 llli' M'liati', I'JIrll lirillirll pnKNi'N'M'H ||ii> |iiiVM'r III' 
 
 llr'l niiiviiii; llii' aitii|illiin nl' lawt; Imt mii'li at 
 
 ri'lali' III ilii'Hitaii' i'\|M'nsi's ami n i|iiM ihumI Im' 
 
 lirit Milnl liy llic cliaiiilicrnl' rc|ii'c.«ciilativcM, 'llic 
 iiil('r|ircialiiiii nl' llic lawH, wild rcr^iii'i't In aiillin- 
 rily, ImIiiii^^s only in llic lc)iiilaliirc. The cxicii- 
 livc piiwcr in cxiTciwil liy tlic kiiij,', an dircclcil liy 
 the I'liiiNiitnlinn, ami llic |iiilii'iary |inwcr liy Ihc 
 cniiriH ami IrilmnalN. All iIcci-ccn ami Jml^tnciit.H 
 ni'c cxci'iitcil in the name nl' llie kin^, l^iicxIinnM 
 ri'latiii;{ exclusively In |irnvincial and enniiniinal 
 mat tern arc ileieriniiieil liy thu cniinciU of the 
 limvinicH ami cniiiiinincH, 
 
 The iiienilK'rn nl' the Iwn chanilierM re|ireNent the 
 iiatinii, ami mil merely the |irnvineeiirniiliiliviMinn 
 (if a |irnvim'(! hv which they are niMninateil. The 
 KiltinK^nrilie elianihcrs are |iulilic,liiil each cliani- 
 licr can I'lirin itself inin a Hccrct cniiiiiiittcenn the 
 tieiiianil nf iiH |iresiitenl ami ten mcniliers, Alein- 
 liers nf either ehamlicr cannot receive any (icnsion, 
 or linlil any paiil nliici- iimlcr the ^nvcniincnl, 
 ami iliirin^ the NCHsimi ihey caniint lie arrested nr 
 detained, except for any Ihi^'rant inisdcineannur. 
 The chamher of rc|ircsentativeK i.s cninpnscd nf 
 deputies chnseii directly iiy citizens whn pay taxes 
 tn the ainnniit nf at least 'JO llorins, ahmit :i:i sliil- 
 
 nnniinatf hi* mieresiior, with ilir nxDrnl nf n,, 
 
 Iwn ehaniliers, and if im nniiiinaiinn U. , |, n^ 
 
 llirnlie In >acaill. The ihtwiIi nf ||||. Ijiii^, ,,' 
 \inlalile, lll'< ininixlcrs almie arc ri'i|Hii|iij|,|,., \, 
 act nf the kin^ is valid illdens ciiiiii|eriii|{iiii|'|,t 
 lllilliNter, Willi llicnliv liccnnieH re«|iii||,i|,|,,_ 'Ji], 
 
 kiiiK II ilialis ami di-inisHeN his iiiiiii,i',„ ,1, 
 
 will, cniilcrs >{radaliniiH nf rank in Ihc iinnv, iii„| 
 aplMiinlM all |Mrsiimt einplnMil In tlie uin. rnl imI 
 iiiinisiratinii, with sniiii' except iuiiM, inilii'itii.,| |,v 
 the law, lie siinciinim Ihc laws, ami in.iii'i ii,,, 
 ordeiN and decries I'nr their exeiiiilMii, wiili,,,,! 
 imsMssillK any pnwcr cither nf siixpemliii;; Hic \n\\ , 
 tlli'inselvcs, nr of dispensing; with thiireMuMlinii 
 
 He cnmmaiids the land and sea fnrres, di'iliirii 
 war, ncniiiiates ircalies of peace, of aiiiiinir, imi 
 of cniniiici'i'c ; lull treaties III' cuiiiniifie, iiinl,, III, f, 
 illMilvill^ illlpnrtant cnll-^cipicncen. are nf iiii III,, , 
 willmnt the «aiictlnii of ihc cliaiiosrs. Tin. |,j,, , 
 may especially coiivnkc nr adJiMiiM ami ili«(,lJ, 
 Ihc chanilM'rs, ami he can inilin;ale or ninii ih,. 
 seiilenccs of piinisliinent prniiniiiiced liy Ilie iml,', , 
 He can alsn innfer lilies nf linliililv, liiil lie'liii, n,, 
 piiwci- III attach to them any pri\ile),'e« vvIpmIi vt, 
 all llelKiaiis heiiiix alwolntely eiiiiul in tliiM'M'.i 
 the law. The iioliilily enjoy niilva |i4T!.iiiiiirtil|, 
 williiiiil cniisiiiiitin;{ a sni'ial orilir, Nd imniliir 
 
 of llic royal family can lie a minister, ami ii> 
 
 who is lint a IJelKian hy liirlh or iialMriiliMii..M. 
 Ministers have no dcliherativc voii'c in ilii'i|||||,|! 
 hers itiih'ss ihey are ineinlH'rs. 'I'In'y can ciiicr. 
 Iin\\e\fr, and deniainl a heariii;; ; ami ilie rlianii 
 hers can demand their preseiici> when ri'(|iiirii|. 
 'Ihey arc lijilile to he accused liy the climiihirol 
 representalivcs, who can hrin^'tliein iM'llirc ih,' 
 cniiri nf cassat inn, which ainne is eiiiiinwiriil |.> 
 jiid|j;e them. The kiiii; eaiinot wiilidniw a mj- 
 iiisicr frnin respniisiliilily, iinr pardon him \t||,ii 
 cnndemned, withniit a deiiiand I'nr panliiii Irnniniii' 
 nf the chaiiiliers. There are live iniiiisiirs; imimlv, 
 a minister of justice, of ihe inicrior, of I'diiiju 
 alfairs, nf pulilic wnrks, of war, and of linaii',.. 
 The kiiif; is dcclarcil of a;,'c at ci;,'li(e(ii _viiir«, 
 llel'nre he can «'xercise the fnncliniis nCroviiliy, lu' 
 must take the fnllnwin^ natli in the ]ircMiiiT (.1 
 the two legislative chamliers: — ' I swear tn i.l). 
 serve Ihe constitiilinii and the laws ol'ihe lli'l;.'iaii 
 
 liiiKH, The niimher iifde]iiitics caniint exceed Ihe pcniilc ; to maintain tlii^ iiidcpcihiciiic ut' ili 
 
 "■ * '" '' ' ' ■' '" ' nation, ami the intct^rity nf its territory.' .Iiiilyci 
 
 receive their appointments directly I'loni tlic kin;', 
 and hold them for life, so that tiiey (.'aiiimt \k 
 superseded hnt hy their own cnnseiit,or liy a jiul;'- 
 menl and for reasons pronounced in (iiicii cuiiri. 
 Th« trial hy jury is eslahliHlied for all critiiiiiiil 
 and political cliar;^'es. and I'nr nIVciiccs of tlir |lrl'^^ 
 No extranrdinary Judicial comiiiission, or Iriliuanl, 
 can he created under any deuoiniiiatinii wliatcvrr. 
 No taxes can h(^ levied liy the .stale imiiMnr- 
 dained hy a law nf the Icffislative chiniiliiTs; ainl 
 all taxes, as well as the extent of tlic army, tiiiih 
 he vnted anminlly. The civil list is lixcii I'iprthe 
 
 duration of each rei^jn. For tliatof UiiiK I jmld II. 
 
 it was lixed at ■^,7r)l,;i-_>;i francs, or lUMilii/., 
 hesides the appropriation of the royal eiiiliccs .'iinl 
 court oxpensos, raising it, tof;ethcr witliallnwiiiirrH 
 to tho inenilM'rs nl the royal family, to l,'.'!!!,;!!'" 
 francs, or l<in,0.')(i/. 
 
 Ill each iiroviuco a governor is n|i|i<'iiit('il. ili- 
 rcctlv aincualilc to the tiiinister of th« iiitcrii"', 
 for tfiR pur|i(isv of superintending and securing' tin' 
 due, execution of the laws, and each fiiliiiiiii>tra- 
 tive arrniidissemeiit is superintended hy n onm- 
 niis.sary, under the prnvincial gnvernor. Tlic ex- 
 clusive interests nf each |irnvince arc wimiiiiiii'l 
 to n provincial council, elected hy the cilizi'iH, 
 who elect the national representalivcs. The iium- 
 her of ouuiiL'illors in each province i.s frmu liliy tn 
 
 prnpnrl'iiin of I to'll),l'lltl i ihaliilanls. To liccmm 
 n deputy, it is necessary In he ii itclgian liy hirth 
 or hy naluralisatinii ; to lie in pnssoision of the 
 civil' and |iiilitical riglits nf the kingdom ; tn have 
 nttained the age of 2.'); and to he resident in llel- 
 giiini. No other condition nf eligihility can he 
 rcijuired. The representatives are elected for four 
 years, and one half of the whole are renewed every 
 two y<'ars. On a dissnlutinn, the whole cliamlier 
 is renewed. Hacli representative, except tliosi! 
 Avlin live in Urusscls, receives 2(M) florins (l(i 
 guineas) each month of the session, as imlemnity 
 of expenses. The seiuiti! is cninpoHcil nf half as 
 many mi'inhers as the chamher of representatives, 
 ami they are elected hy the same cili/uns for eight 
 years. Half are renewed every four years, and 
 the whole on a dissolution, 'i'lic (^iialilications 
 are the same as for the representatives, except 
 that the age must he at least forty years, and the 
 amount paid in direct taxes must he at least 1,1)00 
 florins (N I/.) The senators receive no payment, 
 on ac(uinnt of indemnity of expenses. The session 
 <if the chamlM'rs must last at least forty days. The 
 iiumherof represi'iitatives is 102, and of senators 
 fll. The cniistitiitiniial powers of the king are 
 licrcdiiary in a direct male line, natural and le- 
 |ritimatc, in the order of iiriinogeniture, to the 
 ]ierpotnal exclusion of females ami their (U'scend- 
 iints. Jii default ui' mule i.'jsuc, the king may 
 
the n*m\t „( i),f. 
 iiiliiii lii> tiiniii., ||„ 
 III' llii> kliii; l« ill. 
 irr ri<|Miii'.il(||., \,, 
 riiiitili'rMiu;iiii| t.\ .1 
 
 * ri'«|«iii«ililc, ii„ 
 H liii niiii^uri III 
 k ill III!' iinii\, iiihi 
 I ill III)' iri'iiiriil n<\ 
 |ilii>liM, iiKliinli'il l.v 
 iiWK, mill tKKiii'i ili.> 
 
 t-xriillioll, will t 
 
 Hlisiirmlill;;!!!!' Iim, 
 villi lllfir I'MMMlll.ill. 
 
 m'U Inn T", ili'ilariH 
 lire, III' llliiillli'i', nil. I 
 iillllllirri', iiintiilli. r. 
 iii'is, iiri- III' 111! ill. II 
 limiiU'lM. 'Ilir kill.' 
 iiliniiiii mill il|..>iihr 
 iliKitif 'ir niiiii i!m 
 iiiiirtil liy till' jiul;,'!.. 
 
 • IlililV, lull III' lllln III 
 
 |iri\ il«'K'''> wliiiirvT, 
 I'imiil ill III)' I'Vi' ' i 
 iiiilv II |H'r''iiiiiil ilili 
 oriii'r. Nil iiii'iiiliir 
 miiii^tcr, timl im hh' 
 'til nr iiiitiiriilixiiinii, 
 ■(' viiicr ill till' rimin- 
 ■rn, 'I'licy cmi i'iUit. 
 riii;{ ; iiml iIk' iliiini- 
 iclli't' when ri'i|uiri'il, 
 'il liy till' t'liiiin'K'ri.l 
 rill); tlii'in U'liiri' ilu' 
 liiiu' i^ i'iii|Hiwi'ri'il t'l 
 limit williili'iiw II mi- 
 imr piirilnii liiiii ^^lll'll 
 iiill'iir |iiirii<iii Inuiiiiiii' 
 ilvi'iiiiiii^urmiiiiiiiily, 
 I' iiitiriur, ol' I'mci^ii 
 war, mill m' lliiiiini'. 
 at cifiliiccii yi'iir', 
 I'tiiiiiM 111' riiviiliy, III' 
 ill till' iircM'iiii' 111' 
 ; — ' 1 '4\vi'ar 111 nil- 
 laws 111' till' lll'l^'iiUl 
 uli'|ii'll'l('liri' 'il' II"' 
 
 s icrriKiry.' .Imlu'i" 
 rci'tly rriiiii the kin;'. 
 Iiat tlicy eiiiiiiiil Ik' 
 
 iiisciii.i'irliy ajiiil;'- 
 lll'l'll ill "l"'!! '■"""• 
 lii'd I'lir all iriiiiiiiiil 
 . otVoiii'i'M 111' till' ll^•^s 
 iiiiiii^'sioiii IT Iriliiiii'ili 
 ininiiiialiuii wliiiU'vir. 
 
 tlu; stall' iiiili'>^ 111'- 
 
 liitivc cliaiiiliiTs; mi'l 
 
 lit III' tlu'iiriny. iii">i 
 
 il list is lixi'iil'iirilii' 
 
 liatof kiii^'I-i'iijiiiMll' 
 
 friiiH's, nr 1111,111"'.. 
 till- royal cililii'ti. mul 
 -■('tlu'r'witliulliiwiiiiiH 
 
 "l I'aiuily, tu .l,-.'iil,:W" 
 
 Tiior is niiix'iii'i'ili'l'- 
 iiistcr of till! ill"'"'"'' 
 uliiiH anil si'ciiriii;; Ik' 
 mill each iiihiiiiiii'ira- 
 rintctuli'il by ft t'""'- 
 il fTovoriior. 'I'll*' '•"• 
 oviiK't' arc wmiiiiiiU'l 
 [•('tcil liv the •■it"-i'"^ 
 scntiitivcs. 'riicniini- 
 Vovincc is i'miu HHy '" 
 
 IlKLdll'M (KIN«U)(tM OK) 
 
 linx llNii 111 riiiiiii'jl ( 
 
 417 
 
 .fiiif 
 
 H'll-H 
 
 »«r.nh'. Vi^''" •'"nimiimi iinn (U'o iin rniim 
 
 «.««){'■ ''"' '<•'"''''' *'''■''' ln'lolIK <'Xi'lllnlVclv lo 
 
 ,, iiiluliiluiilK, Till' inrinlK'rK ari' cli'rifil iiKiiiiwo 
 ^ihr iiTiiNiiK'i'kl i'oiiik'iIk. ill till' |irii|iiiriliiii urniif, 
 m 111 nviTiit.'''. •'• I'*'' ItilialiilaiilK. Karli I'liiii. 
 niiiir hitK Iroiii two lo lour liiiilltt'K, aiiil it lnirKo- 
 i,.i.ii'r, wli" i" •''•* |'riiii'l|ia! Imal oilli'iT for llir 
 
 i,„„|,iriitiiiii of Jiinlli'i', mill iIki iliri'i'lioii of 
 ,,.li,i' urt'iiirs. 
 
 Jmliii"! •>',v»''''". — •* trifi'ioiil ill" fotii' !•• ••m'M I'n'i- 
 i.n » Iriliiiiiiit *''■ /'rrmiiry innlniur in riii II nr 
 fi;,l|,M.iiiiiil, ami lliri'f loiirln of it|i|ii'iil, — iil 
 
 |;r,,.,|., (ilirlll. mi'l l.ii'W;''. — f""" •'" ll'^rtTX 
 
 „i,imI liiriHlii'lioii. Misilciiicai r» Ih'Ioii^miiix lo 
 
 III,. ,i,rrr''ll"i"'l |iollr«. an- jmln'il I'V a mTiioii ol' 
 ih, iriliKiuil ill' /irfiiiiirr iiiiiliiini>\ rrillK'M iniil 
 iiiiKili'inraiioiirH, |ioliiii'al olli'm't'M, ami 
 iif till' iiri'sH, iini Jiiil^'i'il liy n coiirt of 
 i,.i/i.. Ill I'Hili iirovinn', with a jury of riii/.ciis 
 ...MM'liiit I'lTiaiii i|iialillratiiiiiH iiiiliralt'il liy tlio 
 
 ijw. 
 
 \ TiiMr lie VimiMtllim, or aiiiiiiliiii'ilt, at llnii*- 
 iils iji'i'iilrii iijHiii ili'iiintiil.'i a^aiii.'^t Jiiil);iiit'iiiH 
 iriiiiiiiiiii'il ill llx' oilur niiiriK ami triluiiiulH, 
 I iiiiiiirrini all'air» art' jmlKi'il 'ly tliirtrrii trilui- 
 ii. lit iMiiiiiirrri', in III*' |iriiiri|iiil riiiiimcri'ial 
 >iiii., .Miliiary Iuwn arc ailiiiiiiiiti'ri'il liy I'ouii- 
 ril<.il'nur. mill liy n liii;li rourl ut llrtiHMclM for 
 
 ill.llllCI'i'illllH. 
 
 Ilii'i'iiiirt iif CnHxntion prottouiicoH only ii|ioii 
 ilii. valiiliiy iil'l<'K''>l forms, ami tlu'ri'lorc rclVrs all 
 iyi« iif vinlalioii or niir<a|i|iliratiiiii of ilic luw 
 i.i:iii'itlii'r triliiiiial. 'I'lir foiiris of aiijical ilcriilf 
 uioii n|i|M'nls ri'K|i<'i'linK iIk' ,iii<lK'ii<'»l'* li'iuli'rt'il 
 llii' iriliiiiials »/r firimiirv itialuiiie in fivil 
 I Miiim, anil ulValrx of i:oiniiiL'rri' iiiiil I'orrcctiiiiml 
 
 I i»'ii'i'. 
 
 Till' iriliiiMHiK f/c ttrrniirri! inntnnrr n;i vo ilollnil ivo 
 I il;iiii'iit.t iijiiiii all t'ivil atl'airs invnlviii;; hiiiiin 
 
 iiiirr n tliiiiisaiiil francN ; ami (lie IrilanniN >/•' 
 I «!> hlimiiiu' raHCM t'Xicmliii); to hi) fr, or to 
 I l«i fr. KJili ii|i|K>al lo hU|H'riiir coiirtH, 'I'lio tri- 
 ItoiU lit' iniiiiirijiul pnlii'ii arc* ('oiiiimisciI of n 
 I jiHJiv iif jM'iK'f, a coiniiiinxarv of iioln'c, ami of 
 litii'liiir^'iiniiiKtcr or liailiU'of tlii< foiutiiiino, 'I'lui 
 hyliH ilcjiri't' of jmlii'ial proccciliiins is <>x(>rriH('il 
 Uy ilu' iiiiirtH of asxizc, wliicli, in llic ritii'H of 
 
 to'sK (ilii'iit, and \Ae\H', ar« <'oni|i<isinl of n 
 I jd'-iili'iit mill I'liiir nH.soHHors, cliimun from tliv uuiiii- 
 |(ill.iMif tlic oiiiirtN of ajijical. 
 
 iliti iitlier rliii'f iirovincinl citioM llipso coiirlx 
 lin. I.imied of four jiiilj;t'« ile jtri'inii'-n iiiHliiiuT, 
 litla riiiiiicilliir of tlu! courlM of n|i|ii'al lis iirc- 
 lii'lfiit, Twelve jiiryiiii'ii urc i'Iio.m'ii for oarli 
 Ills' liy I ml lot, from iiiialilU'il citizens, unil deeiile 
 |ii»ii iliii i|ii('.stiiin ol ^iiilt ; and then, aeeordin;; 
 ll'iilii'irdi'i'i.siiiii, tlu; eoiirt a('i|iii(s or applies tlie 
 
 mi'limeiil u'liicli (lie luw declares. It is culcii- 
 
 »'! that till' liiisiness of the eiuirts reciuires an- 
 liiillythe sicrvices of 2,1(10 jiiryineii, and that the 
 liiii).'ili<ni riiiitiiiiis 2li,!i5!l citizens (|ualilii'il as the 
 ll» ili'inamla fur thu perronnuneu uf (hut inipur- 
 
 |llilt llllilO. 
 
 iimiiifi.—'l'he pnhlic ineomn and expenditure 
 |i(IW;;iuin lias averaned fur the last few years 
 llWMiinnl' 15(1,(1011,(10(1 francs, or C,000,(lOO/.'ster- 
 WH' Tlie revenue for (he vi'iir IKOI nmoiinted to 
 |lWil),lli(l francs, or r),!li:)",l(i7/., mid the expeii- 
 'im' fur tlic same vear to l-ll,77(l,'l«7 francs, or 
 >'M%; (lie revenue for INOi' was l."):i,2ll.4!IO 
 Ihii's (ir (i,|-2K,r)7!l/., and the exiieiiilitnre 
 |li.i;i;,;}lH( fram-s, or .''),807,0."i.")/. ; niid the revenue 
 I' iw;:) was 1;W,2I1,I'.)0 francs, or 0.1 l4,:iX0/.. 
 Kilellifcxpeiiiliture animnitedto but I1,'),I70.:I',M) 
 Til'*, or .'i,«05,-J,>S!t/. The following were the chief 
 fniMif the revt'uue uiul expenditure of the year 
 
 |n';|;— 
 Vol I. 
 
 Ill \ I M i: ii»' INlin, 
 
 I Kriini'" 
 
 1.iin<f Tn< . , . , ' iM.HMii.'jiNi 
 
 llll'ollll' 'I'lK , , , |ll,/'lll.^,INNI 
 
 'lax on Iriule MtxinrM . 4,i)IA,uki 
 
 rilalillllll .... M,:l7'^,IIINI 
 
 K<rlM. Until'* , . . ■,fil.7A.'i,iMK) 
 
 ' Kiiri'trlitniiu'iit' il ('Ini'N ilii,.l'./(i,iiiMi 
 
 1 1)1111111114 , , , . 4,.|>lll,ll<KI 
 
 l'o»liillleii . . . '^.mio.iMMi 
 
 llulUll)* .... yil,.1N.'k,IHMI 
 
 Hlalii|M. iiV, . . . IO,7liM,.'iill) 
 
 MlM'i'lliMiti<ni>i ItPin* . I Uii.iiH) 
 
 I 
 
 Total liiciimii . . IMI,';il,4lHi 
 
 Kxi'KMini'iii': oil' iMii;i. 
 
 C 
 
 7.-.-.,l.'.'i 
 
 4-J0.'./IN> 
 ||<II,'.^MI 
 
 f.77,;'N» 
 
 l,ii7ii,Joo 
 
 l,if;,wiii 
 1711,700 
 
 IIH.llHI 
 
 I,Im:|.|in) 
 4'.(H,:l|ii 
 
 './l,IIM 
 
 11,11 l,:iMil 
 
 I'lilille Di'lit . 
 Civil 1,1st iiiul Crown 
 
 Dotiitloiis , , 
 Ministry ut \''iri\un AlTitlrs 
 „ till' liilerlur 
 
 „ KIlllllHI'H 
 
 ,, >l list leu , 
 
 „ I'liliile Work* 
 
 War 
 MlMCvllaneutiH It<'int , 
 
 Total Kxix'iiilltnru , 
 
 Kriiiii'K 
 
 « 
 
 •HMJ-.'.ojO 
 
 I.IIIII.MNII 
 
 4,'J0< ,.'IIHI 
 
 KlH.II.Ml 
 
 ll,:i.MI.Hii'.J 
 
 1.1 1. '.'Ill 
 
 IMN'i.N.m) 
 
 il7ll,:ll.'« 
 
 l'./,77.-.,ii.M> 
 
 fit 1,110a 
 
 i;i,':mii,ii7 
 
 Aai.'jo.-i 
 
 ■J.*.,7.M»,Mil!l 
 
 1 ,ii:iu,;lll'.' 
 
 HA,WJ,\.i'J 
 
 l,:i:ll,iiH.-i 
 
 •i,lllMI,';iM» 
 
 |lli,-(HI» 
 
 Ii.'i.i7ii.:m(i 
 
 fi,HII.'i,'JW» 
 
 The Itelfrjan huilf^et is nl lirst si^^hl calcnlaled 
 to appear larger than it is in reality, all the ^rnss 
 receipts of the post-ollice, the riiihMiy, and the 
 l('le^r|.,||,||M lii'in); recorded as reveiiiii'. while the 
 workiii;; expenses of those estalilisliiiiiiils are in 
 scrihed in the IiiiiIkcI of jinlilic works, and swell 
 the apparent ainoiint ol expenditiire. (If Iho 
 whole revenue reeonleil for \Ht'<:\, alimit 'lt),(l(l(l,0(IO 
 francs are derived frmn siimlry and patrinionial 
 sunrces, and 1 12,000,000 rraiics frmn taxation. 
 
 The national deht of lielgiuin wot uh foUowH in 
 the vear lUliU ;— 
 
 DtMrliillon of D«bt 
 
 Part of Dutch Debt . 
 
 CiuiiilB, HouiIh, niiil UnlUvnys 
 llalhviivs, Orltfliiul 
 
 Aiiiouiit. . r,ii,s,-,n,Kiio 
 War Imleiiinltv, Orl- 
 
 kIiiiiI Aiiiiiiint 7,(i-Jl,(tOl) 
 Town of llni.-i.<els 
 Ciiiiversliiiior.'i "'„of IH.l'Jniul 
 
 Treasury Iluiiils . 
 Ueiiiiliurseiiieiit to Ilollanil 
 
 of u iiiiiiiiiinl CHpital uf 
 
 lil!»,:l 1 2,11110 lit 'Ji "/„ . 
 Conversion of the •'> "'.1 Loiilis 
 
 of IHIO, IHI'i, ISIS, uiid of 
 
 Treasury lionils . 
 Conversion of .'i "'0 r.nnn of 
 
 IS.'ii.niul i.ssiieot ■l.'i.llllll.dllU 
 
 fr. Loiui for i'libllo Works 
 
 Total 
 
 Nnmln*( 
 Cupltkl 
 
 llati'i uf 
 lnlrrt.li 
 
 Kraiici 
 ll!,li:ll,-.'(in 
 
 Pur ffiit. 
 
 2'.'il,lll.-i,i;:l'.' 
 |l!,lllti,IIIIO 
 
 4 
 
 ;io,77ri,:i:i3 
 
 il 
 
 fi,(IIIO,IIOO 
 
 :) 
 r, 
 
 7l,7ti7,(lH2 
 
 4i 
 
 7-l,5-7,ri00 
 
 -14 
 
 l.'iO,4.13,70O 
 
 ^ 
 
 08,879,000 
 
 4i 
 
 (I.').'),4«(!.()'I7 
 £-Jll,-Jltl,442 
 
 The debt is paid ofl' fjradimlly by tlie surplus of 
 iiiconie over expenditure, and the operation of the 
 sinkini; fund, or ntisse il'iimortissemmt. ()i\ ^•ep- 
 teniher 1, lH(il, the total debts had been reduced 
 to (;;{!M10(),0()0 francs, or 2;"),,")(!0,U(I0/. It is calcu- 
 lated that, in the year 1HK4, the net income of the 
 s(«te railways will be sullicient to pay the entire 
 interest of the debt. 
 
 Army and Navy. — 'I'lie quota of the Belff'c 
 anriy is determined every year by a law. 'I'lic 
 
 
 1* 
 
 .:;. lit 
 
41S 
 
 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 oxponsos of the war <lcp(irimpnt in 18.10-!!! wcro 
 «(i,ti4i»,27") franc«. In ]h;<H it, lind fiillcn to 
 42,07h,7H(i frnnr.t, or Iphh lliiin half; iind it coii- 
 tinut'dtodccrcasc till, in IK'17, it ninoiititnl to only 
 ti7,482,()07 frnncH ; hut in conspqiicnccMit' Iho revo- 
 lution in France, and thccominotiimH in the other 
 l)artH of the Continent, hy which the trantiuiility 
 of Dclpuin was seriouslv threatened, the wnr ex- 
 penditure for ISIH rone t"o ahout 3H,0(MI.0(MI friincs. 
 It was grafhially reduced, however, and in I lie 
 year IHtJJl amounted to hut iW,"J'J2, 1 1!'-' francs, or 
 ],i}3l,r.«.')/. 
 
 Accordinj; to the law of June 8, \H'>ii, the stand- 
 ing anny of Itel^iuni is to consist of KlO.ddOmen, 
 distrihuted over Hixleen rcf^iments of infantry, 
 seven refjiments of cavalry, and four re^'itnents of 
 artillery. The actual nnniher of sfddiern nndei 
 arms, at the end of W',->, amounted to 7i},7l8 
 rank and file, comprisiiiK ."»'',•')•'><' infantry, S,2(I2 
 cavalry, (i,700 artillery, l,()'.l(l eiijiineers, and o7() 
 train. The artillery wius possessed of IViiiieccs 
 of ordnance. 
 
 The anny is formed hy conscription, to which 
 ever}' ahle man who has completeil his ninetcnth 
 year is liahle. Suhstitution is pennitted. The 
 le«al period of scTvice is cij,dit years, of which, 
 howe^-cr, one-half is allowed, as a rule, on fur- 
 lou(;h. A comparatively l.-ir;;e nnniher of men 
 are on service in the eleven fm-tresses of the kinj;- 
 dorn, Antwcrji, Mons, Charh'roy, I'liilippevilie, 
 Tirlemont, Ash, Touniay, Menin, Ypres, Ghent, 
 and Namur. 
 
 The navy of IJelKium consists of seven vessels, 
 namely, a hrig of twenty guns, a sloop of twelve, 
 and two gunboats of five guns each, with three 
 transport steamers. Itelgium,on herseiinrationfiom 
 Holland, was left entirely without an .'xrined navy. 
 
 History, — In the ages immediately preceding 
 and suhsequent to the Christian era, much of the 
 great jilain which now comprises the provinces of 
 W. and K. Flanders and Antwer]), was partially 
 overflowed hy the ocean. The soil was so marshy 
 that an inundation or a temjiest threw down 
 whole forests, such as arc still discovered helow 
 the surface. The sea and .ivers had no limits, 
 and the earth no solidity. Many of the inhalii- 
 tants of this low plain li^ed in huts placed ii]ion 
 the mounds of sand, or elevated above the reach 
 of the tides upon stakes. They had lish for food, 
 rain water for drink, and peat for fuel. (Pliny's 
 Nat. Ilisi. lib. l(i.) The higher S. and K. parts, 
 forming at present the AValloon country, were 
 covered hy the immense forest of the Ardennes, 
 which extended from the IJhine to the Scheldt, 
 and afforded shelter to numerous tribes of the 
 German race (Ca's. lib. ii. 4.) who lived by hunt- 
 ing, and by rudely ciilti -aling the earth. They 
 formed a part of the third ;livision of (iaul, which 
 by the Romans was called iJelgia, Belgium, or 
 (iallia Belgica, and were the least civilised and 
 most courageous of all the (iaiiic nations. (Ci.'^-. 
 lib. i. 1.) They had cities, surroinuled by loft/ 
 stone walls and fortified gates, requiring "the use 
 of the Roman battering-rams and moving towers. 
 Their armies contained troops of cavalry; the 
 country produced sujiplies of corn, and abundant 
 herds of cattle. The peojile consisted of two 
 classes, chiefs and slaves ; and Druidisin from 
 Britain was universally predominant. 
 
 In the ilrd, 4th, and oth centuries, the charactei' 
 of the Belgic pojuilation was greatly changed by 
 successive invasions of Salian Franks from the 
 north, whose progress westward terminated in the 
 establishment of the Frankish or French emjiire 
 in (iaul, and under whose dominion t'.ie ancient 
 inhabitants of the Ardennes were either destroyed 
 or reduced to slavery. Christianity was intro- 
 
 fliiced, and monasteries were founded in the jm. 
 mense forests and solituiles of the liiglirr coiinirv 
 In the time of Charienuigne. a.d. 8(Mi, i||,.]i|)v,j/i 
 slate of the country had become uun'h irniirnviil 
 In the W. embankments were raisil ii;,'iiiii.| ii,,. 
 encroachmenls of the sea, and in tlie K. lare 
 tracts of forest were cleared ; but the ticriv u,„| 
 valiant warriors who fonnerly ocni|iic'il tlic ^n 
 wen! succeeded by an abject" race of serfs win, 
 cultivated the domains of' haughty I'TiIs an'i i.,,. 
 ]ierious priests. The clergy enjliyed innticn,,. 
 possessions : 14,000 families of vassals l)cli,iii;t,||„ 
 the single Abbey of Niv(41e, and the intiuiic i.f 
 th(' Abbev of Alne exceeded l,:!ll(l,(lli(i ,|„i|,,r,^ 
 The Flemings I'onned iLssociations called V,tlih 
 (the Knglish guilds) for protection iifrajnst ili» 
 desjHitic viidcnce of the Franks, as well a* U 
 sociiil assistance. These were the (iri;;iii cif i\ 
 the ancient nnniici|ial (corporations, and within;! 
 century after the tune of Charleniagiic. Flanl(r* 
 was covered with corporjtte towns. At ilicciKlif 
 the 11th century, when all the stales (Siiii 
 Fhniders were reductid, by the lierce (piaiTiN i,f 
 the feudal lords and prince bishops, to a climlK* 
 waste of bondage, the finuitical |ilireiisy nf the 
 crusades induced many of th(! noliles to [lari wiili 
 lands, and to grant great jirivileges ami imiiiicii 
 jMiwers, in order to obtain the means of (■(jiij|,|,iii;j 
 annies to fight the Saracens, Tlieir \\m\\\,\ 
 vassals, the Flemish burghers, were tlins (imlW 
 to purchase independence, and a jiirisilictimi dfj 
 their own. They consequently formed tlienistlvN 
 into communes, electe<l bailiffs, directed tlicin.ini 
 affairs, and biiilf magnificent town-halls witli iin.e 
 belfries, as temples and trophies of their iiUTtiisj 
 Tlie peojde, conscious of their jiower, (.Tailiiallri 
 extorted from their rulers .so many cDiice-MMiiJ 
 that the provinces formed, in reality, a (IciiKimJ 
 and were only nominally subject to tiio iii(iii,m'li| 
 of France and his nobles. When the rc-t 
 Kurope was subject to desjiotism, and iiivdlvtdii 
 conqiarative ignorance and barliarisiii, tiu' oiii 
 of the counts of Flanders was the chosen re-iihiii 
 of lii)erty, civilistition, and nsel'iil kiuiMlnl^'f 
 and when tin; ships of other nations scarcely wii 
 turcd beyond the sight of land, those of the I'lcnii' 
 merchants traversed the ocean, and lini<,'c.> iii 
 Antwerp jiossessed all the comnierccc and wialii 
 of the north of Kurope. In this state tlic i* 
 vinces long continued, until they caiiie iiniliriii 
 dominion of the Duke of Burgiiiniy, aljuiit 
 mi(Ullc of the lolh century, rrevieiis t» tl; 
 event, we hnd only nncoiiiiected duchiis, cnuiiiki 
 lordshipr, towns, with iiinumerahle ri;,'ht.<. claiiTi 
 and ])rivilegcs, advnnccd and enfinTed imw 
 subjects ami vassals against each other .ir ii;.',iiii; 
 their birds; and now by lords and vassals &im 
 the monarch, without the exiiressioii nf an; r 
 lective idea of Belgium as a nation, Uiul.ril 
 Biirgtindian dynasty the commercial and niiiti 
 faclii'.'ing towns of the low country enjuyoil a 
 markable ])rosperity. The famous order iJ il 
 Golden Fleece was instituted in I-I.'IO; aiuiiiff" 
 the end of the 15th century the city nf YpnTii 
 4,000 looms, and the city oitilient oi;i,(IU(l wcm 
 Bruges and Antwerp were the great niiirla "HI 
 connnerciai world, and contained cacii A 
 200,000 in ,ial). In the 1' lemisli court of the Hal 
 of Burgui ilv, named I'hilip the (iooil, almui 11 
 Inxiirioir. livhig was carried to a viiidii* 
 foolish jxcess. The wealthy were clad \\\¥."K< 
 '■Lets, satins, and Jewellery, .and their li.iinii' 
 were gi\(.'n with almost incredible sploiidmir. 
 This luxury jiroduced depravity and friine 
 such ail extent, that in one year 1.4ih' niiin' 
 were committed in (ihent, in the ganililin^'-li"i 
 and other resorts of dcbauchcrv, Tlieari.-w 
 
fimndod in tl\c im- 
 iil' tlu' lii^liiT ('(lunuv, 
 '. A.I>. HIMMlic|ih\>i/,;l 
 I'oint^ iimrli iiii|iriivi.l. 
 crt' rni-i'il ii^jaiiM ihc 
 , and ill llii^ 1'.. lart« 
 .(I ; Imt tlic tierce ai,4 
 urly (MTiiiiii'il till' <.,il 
 |c<'t race uf serfs \hm 
 lumnlity I'nls tmiWw- 
 
 yay *'iij"y''ii iiimiiii-o 
 
 >s ("if vassals licliiiineiliii 
 ■lie, and tlic imome i.( 
 i.ili'd l,:i(l(l.("lll (liilliir.. 
 iH'iatioiis called (iiWn 
 |irot<'cti(iii afiain-t ilie 
 Franks, as well iis fnf 
 were tlic origin iif all 
 riKiratiiiiis, and \vitluii;\ I 
 i CliarUnia^'iie. Fliinl(r< 
 te towns. Attlieeiul"( 
 » all tlie stales exKH 
 l)y tlie licrcc (|imrrel< i.f | 
 ;e l»islio\is, to a clieetli> 
 fanatical )direiisy of ti; 
 )f tlu! noliU's tiiiuirtwiilil 
 t iirivil('H'''< "'"' V"li'i"i| 
 11 till! means of e(|iiiiiiiiii,'j 
 iiraccns. 'I'lii'ir weahl.y 
 rglicrs, were thus eiial*! 
 ICO, and a jiirisilieti.iu ■■ 
 incntly furmod tlienwlvH 
 bailitl's. directed tlieiriM 
 icent town-liallswitliiiiul 
 tropliies '<( tlieir liUrik 
 of their (I'^ver, ^,^illlu;lilv; 
 ilprs so many cimee.M'ii-,] 
 ,c(l, in reality, iulemmriiy, 
 .Iv siiliject to the iiuhimA 
 .bles. When the ka 'f 
 .despotism, and iuvolnHlii 
 and liarlmrism, tluMiut 
 rrs was the chosen re>iili«" 
 1, and nscfiil Uno«lfVf: 
 lotlier nations scarwlyvdi 
 jfland, those of the riinif 
 |lie ocean, and llni;:i- » 
 the commerce ami wi« 
 ,e In this state tlic vm 
 until theveameiiiiiliTM 
 |c of IhirKundy, ali""' 'l 
 ■cntnrv. Trevioiis t» tl: 
 .uneeted diichii s, cnimiw 
 liiimimeralde rit;his, dav 
 ifcd mill enforceil »<* 
 gainst each other ..r ajinm 
 ,v lords and vassals ns:* 
 'the exiiression ft «")•'■• 
 n as a nation. LmUii 
 ■ he commercial ami ^rx 
 [ low country ciijiiyoil a 1 
 'J'he famous order i^l |1 
 .itutedin 14:50; iiiulLj 
 
 nturv thccityof M'"-"' 
 ,tvoHihentM).tW"««mi 
 
 verc the ureal nwrt* > " 
 l„d contained eai'l. 
 , riemish court of till- M] 
 'hilili the (iood, iil""'"^' 
 earned to a vui»u^ » 
 ,althv were clad uipT^v' 
 kcdlerv, and their l^'lf 
 It incredihle splenil-u'- 
 •od depravity m\ "im 
 in one year 1.41"' 7; 
 .e.,t.inthe!;nn.hl"V-l" 
 ichauchcry. 'H''^ ""'^" 
 
 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF) 
 
 raliiv.itod with lircnt Nnceess. Van I'.yck iii- 
 
 y,,iic(' the henutifiil oil colours fur which the 
 
 niiiii'li school is renowned. Paintinic on jjlass. 
 
 i.ilivjiiii;: diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes 
 
 Inre iilsi) invented in llel^'imn, at, this period. 
 
 Mirf of the tnanniliceiit cathedrals and town-halls 
 
 ill ilic ccniiitrv were hnilt in the i:ttli and I Itli 
 
 itiiiiiries. iiistory, poetry, ami learninj,' were 
 
 iiiiicli cultivated ; and the university of I.ouvain 
 
 lu* die luii'^t eelehrated in Kiirupe. In I 177 
 
 jM^ium jiassed under tluf dynasty of the empire 
 
 i.|' Austria ; and after many vears of contest he- 
 
 iKira the despotic .Maxiniiiian and the deino- 
 
 [ critic Fleming's, the noveniment, in l.')l!l, de- 
 
 5,yii,|eil to his grandson, Charles Y., Kin;; of 
 
 I ^miii anil Kniperor of (HTinaiiy. In his rei;j;n the 
 
 jifliKiK'o of tlie Flemish hiirKliers attained its 
 
 liL'lit^t point. The city of (iliciit, contained 
 
 i;.,.(iiiii inliahitants, of whom KlO.diM) were ein- 
 
 iji.vcii in weaving and other industrial arts. 
 
 I |;rii,vs annually exported stntl's of l.iiglish and 
 
 k.flilMi wool to the value of )^,(MI(l,ii(Ml tloriiis. j 
 
 Iflio S<liehlt at Antwerji often contained 2,.")tM> \ 
 
 v,>*ls waiting their turn to come to the wharl's : i 
 
 liit;;ales were daily eiitereil hy olH I loaded waggi nis ; 
 
 Isiiil licf exchange was attended, twice tx day, l>y ■ 
 
 I'lil merchants, who expended 1:1(1,001) gcdden 
 |cr"\vns in a single hampiet given to I'hilip, the 
 liiin 111' Charles V. The value of the wool an- 
 Imallviiniinrtcd from Kngland and Sjiain exceeded 
 lii»«i,iH)0 ))ieces of gold. This amazing pros|)erity 
 |(!;|it'rienec<l a rapid and fatal deidine under the 
 Itraiiiiv and higotry of I'hilip II., son of Charles V. 
 Iflie iliietrincs of the protestant reformation had 
 Itaiil immerons adherents in lielginm. Lnther- 
 liniMii was preached with great zeal hy several 
 itl'iimicni, who drew anmiid tliem crowds amount- 
 to 111,111111 or lo.i.'OO. I'arties of iconoclasts 
 1 a|iiH'areil, and demolished the ornamental pro- 
 ^«!v III' 4(10 churches. I'rotestant pers"cntion hy 
 ibeii;(|uisitioii had heen commenced liy Charles V.; 
 «ii liy I'hilip II. it was cstahlished in its most 
 JiilNilical extravagance. He tilled the country 
 iS]ianish soldiers, and commissioned the Duke 
 f Alva to extirpate, without mercy, every jiro- 
 isiant heretic in Iklgium. Knin and dread of 
 Ml in its most liideous forms drove thousands 
 ifanwins to Kngland, where tliey introduced the 
 ^aiiiilactiiring skill of IJrnges and (ilient. Com- 
 wpaml trade in Flanders dwindled away, many 
 (ilie rich merchants were reduced to lieg for 
 lisiil, the great cities were half deserted, and 
 liMit wolves often devoured the scattered inha- 
 |uut$ of desolated villages. iJelgium remained 
 k Spanish dominion until the tnernoraljlu vic- 
 /iif Kamillies, in I7U(i, after which it was sidi- 
 |n again to Austria; and having been several 
 Hits cimqnered by, and reconipiered from, the 
 luii'li, it was incorporated, in 17;i5, with the 
 Imiili repnhlic, and divided into departments. 
 lythis union, lielginm secured a suppression of 
 lihiolil feudal ]irivileges, exemption from ter- 
 k'lrial cimtrihutions, the abolition of tithes, a 
 He extensive division of real jiroperty, ". repeal 
 ilie;,'ainc laws, an admirable registry law, a 
 [ta|i system of tax collection, the advancement 
 eilucation in central schools and lycennis, a 
 pm »y.stem of legislation by the creation of 
 imblicity of judicial proceedings, trial by 
 .ami the general use of the French langn.age. 
 f ilio eonjiress of Vienna, the ]irovince» of liel- 
 iwre annexed to those of Holland, to form 
 |( tiii^'i'iim of the Netherlands, which existed 
 (til ilic revolution in IH'M), wlu'ii lielginm be- 
 an inilepeiident nation. Her union with 
 iii'l was oiiu of convenience on the part of 
 • liywhoin it was negotiated, and not altri- 
 
 EELORADE 
 
 410 
 
 luitable to any congeniality of tlio people joined 
 together, who differ in national character, in re- 
 ligion, and, to some extent, in language. The 
 Itelgians complained of being f.irced into a imion 
 which they would not havc^ sought, and that its 
 terms were uneipial. The French revolution of 
 ls;l(l excited the predisposition to insiirrectiimary 
 movement, and the result was ik deelaralioii, 
 and, linally, a general recognition, of independence, 
 leading to the election of I'rince Leopuld of .Saxi'- 
 Cohnrg-tJotha as lirst King of the ISelgians. 
 
 Aiitl(iuitii-s.— }\u\)i\rt of I'.nropecontMiiis, within 
 the same extent of area, so many object-, and fur- 
 nishes so many associations, to interest the aiiti- 
 (piarian, the iiolitical, ecclesiastical, or military 
 historian, the artist, and the poet. Numerous 
 ancient cities and towns, some of which existed 
 long before the (Christian era, still are ailoriied 
 with magnilicent (iotliic strtietiires of the miildle 
 ages, that recall to the iinngination the gorgeous 
 jiageantry ol' the days of chivalry; and on many 
 alone hill, and forest solitude, stand the ruins of 
 castles, abbeys, and chateaux, whose lordly ov.uers 
 have been the heroes of roinantie legends. In the 
 S. and K. provinces ;ire foiiiid litlmi, tumuli, and 
 other remains of the Celtic Druids, to whom is 
 attribntid the excavation of lunnerous apartments 
 and passages in several subterranean caverns, 
 particularly that of the hill of St. I'eter, near 
 Alaestricht, which contains above 100,000 ditl'erent 
 avenues, 12 ft. in width, and from ("> to 21 in height. 
 Nnmerons coins and medals of tlu; Komaiis have 
 been tbnnd on the sites of their <'aiii]is and roads; 
 and lioman masonry, containing inscriptions in 
 honour of the JMenaiiiau diviiiities, has been dis- 
 covered among the relics of amdent towns, in 
 places imwoverHowed by the sea. NearCharleroy, 
 m the midst of beautiful scenery, an^ the ruins ol 
 the celebrated Abbey of AIne, the cloisters of wliich 
 were formed by ;>Oo" columns of the finest marble. 
 The old castli^s of the loth centnry, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Liege, are described in Sir Walter 
 Scott's novel of C^uentin Durward. 
 
 'J'he number of eminent and remarkable indivi- 
 duals who were born in lielginm is very great. 
 Ihdgium is the country of birth of tlie Finperor 
 Charles v., of Scaliger, Lipsins.and \'an llelmont; 
 of the geographers Ortelins and ilercator; of 
 John of (lannt, or (ihent; of I'erkin W'arbeck 
 who was the son of a Jew of Touriiay; of the 
 painters Van Kyck, (.hientin jMatsys, I.'nhens, A'an- 
 dyke, Teniers, .Jordaens, Snydcrs, and many other 
 painters of the Flemish school. 
 
 I'.KLtiKADF (an. Sim/iiiunKin), a fortified town 
 of the principality of Servia, on the right bank of 
 the Danidje, at the point where it is joined bv the 
 Save; lat. 44° 47' 4(i" N., long. 20° 'oil' K. "Pop. 
 estimated about ;!0,0(l(). From its jiosition, on tlu; 
 limits of the Austrian and Turkish empir»', at the 
 continence of two great rivers, its great strength, 
 and the nnmerons sieges it iias sustained, nitnh 
 interest has long been attached to Ucdgrade. its 
 citadel, on a steep hill, 1()0 ft. high, near the centre 
 of the town, occupies n most t'ormidable position. 
 It has been very strongly fortified; and if it were, 
 l)ro])erly repaired and garrisoned, with the forti- 
 fications on the low groniul at the junction of the 
 rivers sweeping as they do every Jipproacli by land 
 and water, it would be all but impregnable. Lat- 
 terly, however, its works liave been neglected, 
 and they are now going fast to ruin. Witliin the 
 citadel are the arsenal and magazines, the jirin- 
 cipal mosque, and the palace of the jiacha ; the 
 latter constructed of wood aiul mud ! The town 
 lies principally to the W. and SVV. id' the fortress, 
 partly along tlie Save.and partly on higher ground, 
 and is siirrunnded by walls and jialisaiU's, gene- 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 It. t I 
 
 :. i 
 
 I:' 
 
 
 ■ ;iii. 
 
 " ill I ■ 
 
 ...:.J.»- 
 
420 
 
 BELIDA 
 
 rally in a niinouH stnto. Tlie nituntion of the town 
 in no b(;ttcr than that of the citadel. I^lany of itn 
 houws are in ruins ; most of them are. of the moanost 
 posnililc (IcHpription, Mvotnc evni tliaii (lie cahiiiH 
 of the Irish ; ' anil tlic sftrects are ilis-^ust inul y lilthy, 
 and inf'^Hted with herds of half-starved d<i|js. The 
 bazar consists of oevcral rows of miserable wixKlen 
 booths, entirely open towards the street: their as- 
 Hortment of goods corresponds with their ajjpear- 
 ance. The reifpiing Prince of JServia formerly re- 
 sided at Krapigewatz, but he has built here a 
 liandHomc house m the upper part of the town, a 
 (ireck church, and barracks. The manufactures 
 are inconsiderable, consisting principally of carjiets, 
 Hilk goods, some descriptions of hardware and <-ut- 
 If.v, with saddlerj', Ac. It has a goo<l port on 
 the Danube, and it is admirably situated for trade, 
 of which, in consequence, it still preserves some 
 small share. 
 
 The Turks, under Sol\-man the 'Rlngnilieent, 
 took Uelgrade in l/)-22, and held it till 1(;«8, when 
 it was taken by the Imperialists. Two vears after, 
 it again fell into the bands of the iSirks; and 
 though it has since been repeatedly t iken by the 
 Imperialists, they have, in most instances, soon 
 after restored it to its Ottoman masters, of whose 
 miserable government its present al)ject and de- 
 graded condition is a striking, thougli, unliappily, 
 not a rare example. It was taken, in 1807, by 
 the Servian insiu-gents, who, on being obliged 
 to abandon it in 1KI3, burnt the suburbs, and 
 [tartly destroyed the fortifications. The town was 
 ])laccd, in 1 H 1 .5, along with Sorvia, under the sove- 
 reignty of I'rince Miloseh ; but its citadel, nerording 
 to treaty, is still occupied by a Turkish garrison. 
 
 UKLIUA, an inland town of the regency of 
 Algiers, prov. Titteri, at the foot of the Lesser 
 Atlas, near the plain of I\re.tidjah ; 25 ni. S. Algiers, 
 and 10 m. XE. ftledeali; lat. ijlio IH' N., long. 2° 
 45' E. It is surround((i bj- a wall 12 to Iti ft. 
 high, which has four gates, one at eacii of the 
 cardinal points. Its streets are wider and more 
 agreeable than those of Algiers : tlie town is well 
 suitplied witii water, and contains many gardens. 
 It suffered mucli from the violent earthquake of 
 1825, since which the houses have bevn with only 
 a ground-floor, lielida hass<pnie trade in grocery, 
 spices, and other natural produce; its vicinity is 
 fertile and pictures(|ue. In July, 18.'J0, the in- 
 habitants invited the French to defend them 
 against the Kabyles ; but after their arrival the 
 Bedouins couipelied the citizens to take up arms 
 i.gainst tlieni. Next year, however, the Erench 
 took Helida. 
 
 liELlNZOXA, or HELLEXZ, a town of Swit- 
 zerland, cant. Ticlno, of which it is the cap., in a 
 deep valley on the banks of the Ticino, 5 m. above 
 where it falls into the Lago IVhiggiorc, and 15 m. N. 
 Lugano; lat. 4(1° 10' 35" N., long. 8° 55' 3(1" E. 
 I'op. 2,ll)G in 18(i0. heing situated near the S. 
 extremity ol' the great road from Italy tfi Switzer- 
 land, by the St. (iothard puss, it is a depot for the 
 merchandise passing between them. It has a 
 handsome church, and a bridge over the Ticino, 
 714 ft. hing, and 24 ft. wide. 
 
 BELITZ, or MELZKi, a town of Prussia, prov. 
 IJrandenburg, 12 ni. S. by W. Potsdam. Pop. 
 2,(!74 in 18()l. It is sun-oniKk'd by old walls and 
 fosses; and is the seat of a iioard of ecclesiastical 
 inspection. Flax is grown extensively in its 
 vicinity, and it has manulactures of linen and two 
 paper-mills. 
 
 15ELL V, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Po- 
 teiiza, cap. cant., 15 ni. S. by W. IMelti. Pop. 
 5,4*)0 in 18('il. It is situatid on a hill; has a col- 
 legiate and one other ehmxh, a hospital and three 
 cliuritable foundations. 
 
 BELLEVILLE-SUR-SAONR 
 
 BELLAC, n t(.wn of France, dep. Ilnnto Vicni.- 
 cap. arrond., on the declivity of a steep liJH ii,,,,' 
 the conlhience of the Viiicou and flio (iiirttmr'. 
 24 m. NNW. Limoges. Pop. .S,(i;!,i ji, jhci u'; 
 town has n tribunal of original jiirisdiitiiiii hJ 
 agricultural society, with various nianiilaitiiri , 
 and a (considerable trade in cattle, oak tiniljiT.aiiil 
 chestnuts, 
 
 IIICLLARY (r«/«/irtrO. a distr. or oollwtorntc „f I 
 Ilindostan, presid. Aladms, jmrt of the IWayhaut 
 ceded ilistr, (See IlALAfiiiAiiT.) 
 
 \U:i.i AUY, the cap. of the above colloctorato, an,] 
 the head-(iuarters of a civil estah. and a niilitan- 
 division, 280 m. NE. Madras; lat. I.")0 ,v \' I 
 htiig. 7(i° 51t' E. It consists of a »(niare fnrttM 
 on an isolated rock, with a pettah or small Um-n 
 below it, containing the best military- hazar Id I 
 India. Tliis also is the name of a ruiiiVd town (f| 
 Allahabad, f,>nnerly of groat extent, iiiul liavhi' 
 some line Hindoo temples in its viciiiitv. ", 
 
 BELLE-FONTAINE, a village of K rnnro, .lii, | 
 Vosges, 7 m. W. Heniiremont. Pop. 2,.")(;(; iii'lMiil 
 There are manufactures of cotton guuds aii'l" 
 cutler)-. 
 
 BELLE(JA1!I)E, a fortress of France, d™. I'v., 
 re'nirs Orientales, on the S|ianisli rrmitifr. is in.! 
 S. Peri>ignan, close to the railway from l'(T|ii;'ii;ra| 
 to Barcelona, across the Pyrenees. It is a lni"ri,«J 
 of the first class, constructed in tlie reign u( ij,iiij| 
 XIV., to command the pass of Pertlins. It «,i 
 taken in 17!t;i by the Spaniards, aiiil retaktii 
 following year by the French. liellci;arclo is ,i,.„ 
 the name of .several small towns in (iitVercnt iwrta 
 of I' ranee. 
 
 1{|';LLEISLE, an island at the X. eiitramc t(i 
 the straits of the same name, between tlie cuuiit 
 of the Esquimaux, or New ISritaiii. and tlu' N.ini 
 <>[ Newfoundland. It is 21 m. in eirciiii. ami Mi 
 from the coast of Labrador. On the N\V. -i(|.' i| 
 has a harbour for tishing vessels or small iraft 
 
 PELLE-ISLE-EX-MEK, an islaml ..nVn'iioel 
 
 in the Atlantic. 8 ni. S. of (Jniljeroii I'niiii, I 
 
 include<l in the di'p. Jlorbihan. It is aliiKisr cvirvl 
 where surrounded by high si ee[) rocks. IlsN\\'J 
 end is in lat. 17° 32' N., and its S. jiart in lat. W 
 It!' N. It is about 11 m. in length, its };rra!isl 
 breadth being about (! m. It is accessilile imlvsl 
 three havens or ports, all of which arc dry at In 
 water. Of these Pahus, on the K. coast, is 
 principal, as well as the cajiital. Pop. ;i.li:ll 
 181(1. The haven here is formed liy a stimc|iifi 
 200 ft. in length, .'nid is |iroteeteil liy a siren 
 citadel. It has only 5 ft. at liigli water, liiii til 
 road is generally sale. The two oilier arris-ilil 
 points, Sauzon and Loc Alaria, are also liotlillii 
 tided. The island is fertile, proiliiciiij; excilklj 
 wheat and horses. The inhaliifiiiils arc 'xti'il 
 sively engaged in the sardine fishery, ami inalq 
 excellent |)ilots. 
 
 This island was purchased in lt'5S hy I'diiqiia 
 intendant of finance to Louis XIV., iiiidwas oj 
 changed hi 1718 by his descendant fur llii' d'li 
 oftJisors. In 171!) it was taken by the Kii;,'li 
 but was restored to I'' ranee in 17ii:i, 
 
 BELLESME, or lil'.LLKMK, atimn ef Trand 
 dc'p. Oriie, cjip. cant., on a hill wliieli eimiiiiaiij 
 the environs, near the forest cf the same iiaii 
 22 m. F;SE. Alcn^oii. Pop. .3,15(1 in Isdl. 
 houses are well built: streets sliai;,'lit, mat. 
 well iiaved. Tlie w.'iiil ofrnnning water is -uiii 
 by wells. It has fU'iries of coarse linens aii.l oillcf 
 and a considerable trade in wood anil ImrM'''. 
 
 B1;LLEVILLE-SI;1!-SA0NF. a Knvi.nfl'nn 
 d('p. lihone, caji. cant., on the lilimie. si iii. 
 Villefranche. Pop. 3,052 in IWll. H liii-:' "W 
 factiire of stufts, called cutim liniflu'i', anil mill 
 A good wine is made in the neighl)i.inili"i"L 
 
SAONE 
 
 rp. llniiloVicnip, 
 n sttccp hill, i|(;ir 
 1(1 tlio (iiirtnin-. 
 \Y.\^ in Ixiil. Till' 
 111 jurisdii'tinii, ail 
 ims niaiiiifacturc., 
 le, oiik timbor.nml 
 
 r, (ir (•olli'ctiirntf of i 
 of the lJala);lKmt 
 
 v« t'dlloctoratc, nml 
 lit. nml ft niilitiin- 
 f, lat, l^o ,V N„| 
 f ft >»\\\UK fortrij* 
 ttiib or Hinatl toun I 
 
 military tiazar in I 
 i)f ft ruiiH'd town if | 
 extpiit. ami liiivin;; 
 ts vicinity. 
 llnf;i! (if Kranoo, il(|i, 
 
 I'd]). 'IfiWi in iMll. 
 
 cotton goods anilj 
 
 of rranco, dcp. I'y-I 
 niisli rronticr. 1h ni.l 
 way from lVriii;;ii;in| 
 IOCS. It is a fiiiJnsil 
 in tlip rcinii nl biiii.^ 
 (if IVrtlins. It win 
 nis. and ivtakin 
 . lii'llc^,'arde is al-( 
 ms ill different parta] 
 
 t the X. entraiii'i' ti 
 lictwecli tiie ciiuiit 
 ritain. and tlic N.iiu 
 
 I. in rircnii. nmlM 
 On tiic NW. >iil.'il 
 
 scls or small craft, 
 an island I'f I'raii 
 Inilicron I'liiut, l-nni 
 
 II. It is almost cvii-yl 
 •j> rocU IisN^'Vj 
 s S. part in !at. 4i 
 IciiKtli, it^ '^m'A 
 
 IS aivcssilile iiu'ys^ 
 lioli are dry at 1 
 
 tlic K. coast, is t!ij 
 
 1. Top. ;i.'.':!l 
 ncd liy a stiim'|iie| 
 ilcctwi liy a •■■ii'i'i' 
 liiiili water, Imt ill 
 wo otluT acivvilil 
 I, arc also \iiM\ik 
 prodncini; cxnlltll 
 ahitiinls arc ''Ni'' 
 
 lie lishcry, ami mal 
 
 in IdriS by ruiiqiia 
 
 XI v., mid was 01 
 ndant for tlie o'lnl 
 
 iMi by tlie KngliiT 
 
 1 Tl'io. 
 MK. atowni'f I'raiil 
 lill which niiwiiiHl 
 t cf tiic sami' iianl 
 
 i,15l! hi lf<i'il. 
 ts strai.u'ht, nMt. 
 mini; water is-iiii' 
 
 rsciiiiciis:"'''*'"'''"! 
 vood and hnrM'-. 
 INK. a town "fl'""^ 
 the lihiioc, >'\^M 
 IhCl. llha-am:iH 
 hivch'i; .'111(1 1""-' 
 iicitcbhoiivli'""'' 
 
 lit 
 
 l\^ 
 
 BELLLY 
 
 HELLEY, a town <)f France, dcp. Ain, cnn. nr- 
 fiiiil,, lietweuii two hills, within 4 m. of the Kliono, 
 ji III K. I-vonH on the railway from Lj-ono to 
 l,,n(.va. iMt. 4tfi W 29" N., l.mf,'. o" 41' 1!)" K. 
 |',.n, l.'Kt! in IH(il, It i.i tiio Hcnt of 11 liishiip; htiM 
 jinliiiiiiil o' '•'■"'^ instnniT, a dircctur of customs, 
 j,,iiindar}' fcdcsiHstical school, a piililic library, 
 iml a niiisciim of aiiti(|iiiti(?M. The ('pi.scopal palace, 
 ;ai-lic'l only a few years licfon? the Itevohition, 
 j.oiuMif the "most reniarkaltle edilices in the dcpart- 
 niiit. The bishopric was founded in -11 2. 
 
 1IKM.IN'>1IASI, a market town of Knf;Iand, co. 
 Niirtliumberlaiid, on the Tvne, 22 ni. W. Morpeth, 
 inil iX in. WNVV. Newcastle. J'op., in IH2r , 4(tl ; 
 lKil,4ii4; in IWtil, 8<)G. The parish, in IHtll, luul 
 i|iiiliuli»tioii of l,(!(i2. The town is supposed to 
 „vii|iy the site of a Honinn station, aiul several 
 lifiular intrciichmeiit.s of the fortilied villages of 
 ilif liritnns are in the iK^ifriibourliood, The entire 
 Kiridi lii'lont,"'(l t" 'he Karl of Derwontwater, and 
 \in<;;iven to (.ireeiiwich Hospital, with tlu; other 
 piaiis ol thftt nobleman, on his attainder in ITIo, 
 Tin iliurch, dedicated to Si. Ciithbert. is small 
 niMiiM. There are places of worship for Seceders 
 ,i,,,l l,'(iman I'atholics; a free school, ]ioiirly eii- 
 ijiwiii; and ftlioyk chil), formed in l«tll>. It is a 
 -ifliiijifiir rcpeiviiijLC votes at elections for members 
 ir die S. (liv. of the co. Blarkets an' held on 
 ^lill^llays; fairs on the first Sntiinlay after l.'itb 
 N'|ii.. ami till! Wednesday before (iood Friday: 
 ,;!■.'• Iiiriiifjs' for servants on llie Saturdays licfnrc 
 i.'iii .May imd I'itli Nov. (An interestiii','' iiceouiil 
 ,1 ihc piirisli of Ikllin^'liani was read by .Mr. Win. 
 111. Cliarlton, of Uesley.side, before the i>rili>li 
 .Wiicialion. at Newcastlt^, Auj;ust 1m;;!. The 
 liiicnviwpnlilisbed in the ' Joiiriial of the Slatis- 
 liral Siiciety,' Dec. lK(;;t.) 
 
 lii;i,I/-l!()t'K, a (lanjienms ledj^e of rocks, off 
 
 Ik'i'nast (if Scotland, ill the (Jernian Ocean. dp- 
 
 I'lHlc to the Frith of Tay, 12 in. E. liiittomiess 
 
 IViiit. The l(ul{;e is about .s,")(l yards in lciij,'tli, 
 
 h ,iliiuit llii in breadth. At low water, some of 
 
 i-'iminiits appear from 4 to S ft. aiiove the level 
 
 lithe sea, but at high water they are always 
 
 ii.vcri'il. Many vessels have been lost on this 
 
 r "k. (ivor wiiich the sea breaks wit ii tnniieinUnis 
 
 III}. Ti) lessen the chance of siicli disasters, a 
 
 niMii icent li;ihtlioiise, constnicted on the model 
 
 "(•!ii' Kildystonc, was erect(Ml, on one of its ]ioiiit.s, 
 
 inlmw-IU." The total hei.ijlit of the Imildiiiff, iii- 
 
 diiiliui; the li!,dit-rooiii, is 1 1 .') ft., the lantern liein;f 
 
 tkvaU'il 911 ft, aliove tiie sea at liifrli-water mark. 
 
 T!!oli;,'iit is revolviiif;', the flashes succeediiifj each 
 
 I'llior every two minutes. Lat. of lij;hthouse 
 
 •lifi if) X., Ion;;. 2^ 2:J' W. 1 )iirin_i; logf^y weather. 
 
 Wis arc tolled every half minute. 
 
 iilll.l'XO (an. JMIiiiiiiiii), a city of Northern 
 
 !ia!v, ciip. prov. .same name, in tlu; valley, and on 
 
 iheS. hank of the I'iave, at the place where it is 
 
 I jiiii'.'illiy the Ordo, on the f^reat road comiectiiif; 
 
 Vieaiia with Venice, 4H m. N. of the latter; lat. 
 
 I*? 7' 4«" X., hms;. 12° i;r.')l"K. Top. l;J,ti(M) 
 
 I ialW. The town is surrounded by an old wall ; 
 
 i-will hiiilt; has a cathedral, desi';iied by I'al- 
 
 I biii. and several chiiivhes and convents; a rich 
 
 Wfiial, a frymiiasiiim, with various other ediici- 
 
 iMi.ilcstalilisliineiits. and a valuable jniblic library. 
 
 I ^Utor L« conveyed into the town from a distance 
 
 halhic iuiucdnct. It is the .se;it of the provincial 
 
 lAiwriaiii authorities, ,'iiid h,as fabrics of silk, wax, 
 
 I lAr.iiats, and earthenware; with a considerable 
 
 ll"J'lc ill timber, and large fairs in February and 
 
 ■^iTil Napuleon conferred on Marshal Victor tiie 
 
 |lillo"fl)iikeof ISelluilo. 
 
 iil'.LMON T. a town of France, de'p. Loire, cap. 
 I mt.. Ill m. NL. lioaiine. Top. ,V>'.i t in \M\. 
 iil^UIONTE, a town of Sjuthern Italy, prov. 
 
 LELOCCIIISTAN 
 
 431 
 
 Cofipnza, nn n mountain not far from tho Mediter- 
 ranean, 14 m. W.S\V. Cosenzn. I'op. 4,142 in 
 lH,'i!), Tho town hofl a castle, four churclica, and 
 some trade in silk. 
 
 H i; L0( )VU I STAN (an. Gedronia, and the, coun- 
 Iries of the Ichthyophagi, (^riUv, Arabitie, tS'c., 
 Arrinii), i\ country of ,S. Asia, lying between 
 24° ,■).")' and .')()° 15' N. lat., and .")7° .^O'and (i!>° I.V 
 K. long.; having N. Afghanistan, Seistan, and 
 the sandv desert of Caulml; K. Upper and Lower 
 Sinde; \V. I'ersia; and S. the Indian Ocean: 
 length, K. to VV., 7(K) miles; lireadth, on either 
 side, !<,'>l> in., and 11)0 in the centre: area 2(((),(t(l() 
 Fnglish sq. m. Pop. has Ikm'u estimated at 
 .'i,(Ml(),tll)0: this, noiUinlit, is far beyond the mark; 
 probably, l,lll)l),lll)() woiihl he nearer the truth. 
 
 IVIr. i'ottinger describes the country under tho 
 following divisions : — 
 
 
 
 
 Ch. T. No.oflnliab 
 
 1. Prov. 
 
 of .Sarawan . 
 
 • • 
 
 Kolat ao.ooo 
 
 — 
 
 Jlialawnn . 
 
 , , 
 
 /ilhi-eo 2,000 
 
 2. — 
 
 Miikrau . 
 
 , , 
 
 Keiljo 
 
 — 
 
 Lns 
 
 , , 
 
 Helii 2,nno 
 
 ;i. — 
 
 C'ntch ()iiniln\ 
 
 a 
 
 CimulavB (Hur- 
 
 
 (and ilni-ru 
 
 III Daju 
 
 rund) 
 
 •1. K<dii.- 
 
 tan 
 
 • • 
 
 Pulira, Snrliud 
 
 'i. 'I'lie Ucsert. 
 
 
 
 ti. ."-^inde 
 
 
 
 
 The first four divisions only will be noticed in 
 Ibis article; tht^ ."ith belongs properly to Caubul, 
 and the (illi will lie Heated of .separ.itely. 
 
 By far the greater part of I'.eloocbistiiii is moiin- 
 laiiioiis, and especially its F. and W. divisi iiis, 
 which consist of two table-lands; (buseof Kelat 
 and Kohistan (///c hind of inonii/<iiii.i), wliosc 
 ranges run mostly X. ;iiid .S., and commiihicate 
 with each other by several other extensive ranges 
 rinmiug E. and VV. across the ccuiral prov. of 
 Mnkraii. Those in the I'',., whicii separate lie- 
 loochistan fr( ni Sinde, and bound Ciilch (jiiiidava 
 \V., are -i lateral bniiich from the llindoo-Koosli, 
 by whicli the country is so intersected in various 
 directions 'as to resemble a )iiece of network:' it 
 varies greatly in width; in lat. 'MP lieiiig 27.') in., 
 but jitCape llonze, which is foriiu'd by it, it is 
 only 4(1 m. across: the licight of the range has not 
 been measured; hut Kelat, the most elevated 
 jioint, is thought bv I'ottinger to be f<,(M)0 ft., ainl 
 liy lieil (Xotes on Hidlin's Anc. Hist.) to b(^ 1(1,(100 
 ft. above the level of the sea. These ' Hrahooic 
 mountains ' terminate SVV. in a remarkable r,iiig(! 
 rumiiiig XVV. toabiait 2H° X. lat., where it divides; 
 out! arm iiassing XE. toward the Algh.an hills, the 
 other, the Wusbat(?e, or Much mountains, direct 
 W. for two degnH'.s, li(ninding the dc'sert .S., and 
 then uniting with the W. table-land, or that ol 
 K'lhistiin. Tills latter communicates X., by a 
 long chain, with the I'aropamisan inoiintains W. 
 of Herat, and after cnchising the deserts of Ihiii- 
 poor and Hiishkurd by anotlicr chain, VV., with 
 tlio.se of Kermaii (I'ersia). A consideralile range 
 passes in a waving manner E., to meet the Hra- 
 iiooic mountains, varying in its distance from the 
 sea from 25 to 10(1 m., and dividing Miikraii into 
 two parts, the coast and tho interior. The ludgbt 
 of the W. is S(nnewhat inferior to that of the E. 
 mountains. 
 
 Excejiting those of Lns and (""iiteli (Jiindava, 
 which jiriivs. aie entirely flat, and that of Wiidd. 
 ill ilhalawau, liiere are but few plains of any fer- 
 tility. The coast divisitm of Sliikran is covered 
 by Hat lianx'ii sands destitute of water, and, ex- 
 cepting date trees, of all vegetation, 'i'he desert 
 of llunpoor, a sandy waste, I,");") m. long by W ni. 
 broad, is a continuation of the deserts which pre- 
 vail in th(! mid lie of I'ersia and tlie SW^. of 
 Afglianisi.au. It was tliroiigli the i>lains of Muk- 
 rau and the succeediiig desert of IJunpoor that 
 
 1 .. 
 
 ■I' 
 
 i 
 
 v4M 
 
 i:fj 
 
 -1- ,3 
 
422 
 
 BELO0CHI8TAN 
 
 Alcxniidrr llic (Irrnt led lii» nrtny into Porwin, 
 (liiriii^r ^vliicli ninri'h ho iiuii-h wan Riirt'crod from 
 tljinst iiiid t'lirninc. I( is not, now liolicvi'd tlint 
 lu.s loss of men wiis so f^rciit iw lins been rciiro- 
 fpntcd. Iiiit tlio troops kcjit loo nonr tlic liills; imd 
 tlicy hccn cIos(> to the sliorc tlicy woidd tinvc. 
 fi>uiu\ fh'nh wiitcr <in di^^ginf^ a foot or two bidow 
 tlio surface. 
 
 ('utcli (iiindava. intprspctod by some of tlip W. 
 triliiitarii's of tlip Indus, is tlio only wcll-walcrpd 
 |irovinc(.. Tilt' rpinaindcr of Hploocliisuni siilfcrs 
 from want of water, exeeptint;, jHTliaps, a few 
 rii'p ;;rounds in the jirov. of Ijis. 'I'liero is not a 
 rivulet in the N., and only a few alon^ the coast. 
 which, althouj^h sometimes swidhn in a few 
 niiinites to torrents, hy jirofnse niins, are fur the 
 most part of tlie year nearly dry. The ]irincipal 
 stream is the l>ust or jMoolecdanee (prohahly the 
 Iloodoiir (jf the desert, and, if so, rising; N. of the 
 Wnshatee mountains, and rnnniiif; a t'ourse of 
 l.tHIO ni. Iielure reaehiuH' the sea, in t>l° IT)' !•;. 
 half,'.) ; the I'oorally (an. Anthh), (lie second in 
 .-•i/.e, rises in Lus, N. of Itela, anci falls into the 
 liay of Somneany : for 2.") in. this siream is navi- 
 j;alile for small lioats. (l'oltinf;er, ji. •_'!•".) 
 
 The f^eidof^y of this re^vion is nearly unknown : 
 the rocks in the mountainous |)arts are f^rcy or 
 lilack ; tli(^ soil is <'oinmoiily stony, Imt consisiinj,' 
 mostly of a lilack loam in the valleys; in Rohislaii 
 some of (he. lofly hill tracts are covered hy a 
 vep'tahle mould. Former volcanic action is evi- 
 <lent in this ]irovince. which yields most of the 
 minerals fduiid in Iteloochistan, viz., sal am- 
 moniac, hrimstone, alum, nitre, rock-salt, lead, 
 iron, copper, tin, naphtha, itc. (I'ottinpT, p|). Wi'i, 
 iV'c.) (hild and silver are foiiml only in Jlialawan, 
 l.'iil m. SSW. of Kelal ; antimony in vast (|uan- 
 lily S. of Kelat, sulphur, alum, and a red ai>erienl 
 salt in the nills hetwcen Kelat and ("iitch Gim- 
 dava ; white and j;rey iiiarhle near Xooshky on 
 the horders of the desert ; salt in etUorL'SCCiice on 
 the plains of Liis. 
 
 Tlie climate is healthy except in '^rnkran. In 
 the inoiintninous provinces there are fimrdifl'erent ' parts of Sarawan and.lhalawan the I'unniTi' 
 
 Lionn mid tijjprs nrc rare, but both ore Uvm 
 on tlie K. border; liyenas, wolves, and jmkai) 
 jirpvail over the whole country, and wiM ,|,' ,' 
 whi(^h bunt in packH of twenty or tliirtv. |,,J 
 pards, wild eats, and otlier uppcies of tdg f,i| 
 tribe, infest the jnnjjles; and wild as.>.M, n.||,,. 
 lopes, elks, red ami moose deer, hares, in,,,,. 
 ^rooses, and nKumtain piats, arc conniinn; (,n,|,., 
 kites, nniKpiPH, are found rotmd Kelat; wmit! 
 fowl, herons, (lamiii>;oes, bustards, pnrlrii|;;fs 
 lapwiiif;s, and snipes, are natives: ilsh j,||,,||||j 
 on the coasts; where they form the :liict' fmi,! ,f 
 both man and beast, but not in the rivers; ('/„. 
 Iiiiiiii and 'J'fstiirrK are also abundaiil ; vcriniii,|i|,| 
 venoniipiis animals are by no means so ('(imnicnaj 
 in Hiiidoslan. (i'ottinf^er, pp. iV.'H, :l'_'il.) 
 
 Pasture beiii},' considerably more nliiiiiilniii tl,,!,, 
 arable land, end the population I'oiisistiii^ iij,|!,. 
 of wandering' shepherd tribes, the iiiinilicr iit(iii;;|. I 
 is considerable. The slice]) are of the tiii-iuij,.! j 
 kind; the ),'oals have i-oufih and hhick liuir: il,. j 
 larf,'e cattle are mostly of the hlncl. Iinv,|. ,, 
 bull'aloes. The horses of Cutch (inn lavii.aiiil;!, 
 coiintrv S. <if Kelat, which are those cliicllv si,[ 
 to liidi/i, are larj^'e, stroii-;, and bony, hut viii,ii,' 
 tlios(! of iMukran anil Lus are small iiii(ln]iiriili..' 
 there are mules and asses; but camels luiilur,,. 
 medaries are preferred as beasts oflainlin. (';iii;il. 
 urass and straw arc (he chief food of llii. caiili.; 
 in the S. of Mukran and Lus there are tvnirHiiil 
 of the former yearly, owiiifi to the (wowct .<(,imiii., 
 
 I'lxceptiii); in Cutch (iundava, wliicli is fiTiilc, 
 well cnltivaled, and said to be capable (ifpniiliiiinj 
 enoiif^h of ^rain for all the inhabitants ul' h],,'. 
 chistan, not a hundredth part of the (■(nmm is 
 cultivated; the table-lands yield only tlKMv.iMr 
 |iroiluce of Al]nhanistan. All the kiiuls nf ijaiii 
 known in India are, liowcvci, f;ro\vii ; viz., riir.in 
 the marshes on the coast (but it will nut tlirive 
 in Cutcli (iundava, though it he. aljiiiiilaiiiiv 
 moist), wheat, barley, llolvim .tpicatitaww^XfmiiU?, 
 mai/.e, sesanmm, ttc. The wheat ami Iwriiv <\« 
 not ripen so .soon a.s in Hritaiii ; in tlic a;i|.r 
 
 seasons ill the year, as in Europe; the sprint; from 
 the middle of February to the middle of April : 
 the summer thenceforward to the beijiiinin;; of 
 Auj,^nst, the beats of wliiidi are intense only to- 
 wards the latter end; the autumn lasts till the 
 October snows; and the winter, which is very 
 severe, for the rest of the year. In the spring;- 
 there are snow, li;iil, and viident winds, and the 
 weather is fpiite as tluctiiatins generally as in 
 Enivland. In iNIukran and Liis there are four se;i- 
 sons; two w"t, and a cold and a hot ; the cold om- 
 is miiidi milder on the coast; the hot one lasts 
 from March to October. In Koliistan the .Inne 
 rains are often very jiarlial, and a fai ■iiic not tin- 
 freipiently ensues from droiif^lit. (Jutcli (iundava 
 piijoys a much milder cliniatc than any other 
 |)rovince, and is re-sorted to in the winter by many 
 iieii^libourint; chieflaiiis. 
 
 Tlii^ best timber is that of the Zhtjphiisjiijiihn, 
 which is similar to teak ; the palm tree (,'rows in 
 the W, ; the tamarind, iieem, peepul {l-'iciis re- 
 lifliosd), sissoo, chinar (J^l)it(iniisorienlafi.i), mantfo, 
 walnut, and sycamore, j^row in this and other 
 li.'iris of the cnuniry. Fruits of almost all kinds 
 known in iMir.ipe, as apples, pear.-t, apricots, 
 peaches, pistachio, nuts, mulberries, pomegra- 
 nates, with the plantain, ^iiava, A'c, ari^ iMnimon 
 in many districts. Jliikniii is famous for its dates. 
 ^ hich are e.x]iorteil in 'lar^n' quantities: N. of 
 Kelat the alnmnds are so line that they may Ik^ 
 blanched with a dry cloth; ami melons often 
 ffrow so lari^e tinit a man is scarcely able to lift 
 tliem. (T'ol linger, pp. .'i-7, ■>->•'.) 
 
 m .\iij;iist and iSepteniber, and reaped in .)i!i:> 
 barley sown a month later conies id iiiiiiurini 
 in aliout eij^lit months; maize, in wmii aiilf 
 sheltered jilaccs, in three or four niiPiillis, ln| 
 Ciilch (iundava, Lus, and a jiart of MiitoiiJ 
 wheat ripens in six months, barley in live iiiiiiiil^l 
 and oriental jjraiii in from two to live mimtli-T 
 Cotton, indigo, and madder, are grown, but iliii»-| 
 digo (hies not thrive : all the jiiilse and v('(,'ct;iliin| 
 common 'with us are grown near Kehif. 
 linger, pp. it'Jl-iVil! ; Klphinstone, C'aiiliiil. |i.Mj 
 
 Alanufacltires are very few and ruilc; raii!^ 
 the articles, beyond what an? absolutely nn'iwir^ 
 to the support of life, being imported inun iiibii-j 
 bonring countries, in exchange for the fewiiimira' 
 products. Sugar is iirejiareil near Hela, tlu'imifjl 
 lieing jiressed in a mill, the juice hiiili'il in I 
 copper jians, and the article aftenvanls luiikcilii 
 bags of palmyra-leaf, and ex])orted : tlicspiliiiwii 
 is used for manure, (ium assafietida is I'.Mr.ntif 
 from the stalk of the Fenilii ussnf., hy iiuiii* 
 near the root, which i)crmit the escape lifthJ 
 Juice ; about 1 lb. is obtained from each I'lanJ 
 The gold and silver ores are never workeil. i<(j 
 pass into the hands of the Iliiuloo trmkrs i 
 their rough state. At Kelat there is an ariiiiniil 
 belonging to the khan, for .swords, spcani. ai,^ 
 mati'lilocks; but their workmanship is veis 
 clumsy and inferior. (I'ottinger, pp. itJ-Hl'AI 
 
 Till! jirincipal e.\|i(a'ts are horsi's, ami "ilijl 
 cattle, skins, dates, grain, some rice, coltdii, mb 
 oil, indigo, salt, borax, nitre, itc; from l,ii,».!.™| 
 felt, and coiirse cariieis, are sent into Miikniiunj 
 
BKLOOCIIISTAN 
 
 423 
 
 \Mliin. From tlio liitfrr country iiIiiioikIm nnit 
 ( iiil'n' .hIiivi'h nro imitortcil, tlic (Jail ri-H liciiiK (Iccnii'd 
 vcrvvnliiiililc; froiti Iiidiii, iron, tin, Ittad, Htvtd, 
 ,,.|i|ii'r, iiiilijio. Itt'tol-iiut, c()<-liin(<nl, nn^ar, sjiiwH, 
 mIU ({old-clotlis cliintZPH, and coarso woollunM ; 
 miiii Cniil'i'l '""' Khoruxsan, stocl and i-oppor; 
 Iriiiii S('Ltlai)i white cloliis, loonf^irx, tnrltans; troin 
 .><iiiil('i Sliikanioor, iSic, porcelain, loliaeeo, coU'ec, 
 jiiiiliiimiin. Kniad eioth, Scotcli pinid.x, and otiivr 
 'i;iini|H'aii niannt'aetnres are lii;,'lily prized. 
 
 rill' peiipie are nearly erpiallv divided lietween 
 iKiiilisiint't nationM. the Itelooelie.s oeenpyiii;; the 
 W., ami tlie llraliooes. inhaliitin^ tlu! I'!, division 
 i,i' |||(> oiinitry. The I'ornu'r art^ desirons to lie 
 iliMiiKlif ileseendants ot" the Arahs, l)ut are not 
 |,|i\>iciilly like them, and are eonsidered Ity I'ot- 
 liiiViT til have lieen originally Seljnke.s, They are 
 l:ilUnn),'l'aceil, hut with not unpleasant features, 
 im,l liiivc j;euerally stronff, aetive, and athletic 
 Iriini's. They are sulidivided into tlirei^ trihes; 
 till Slmrnoes who live VV. of the (!reat liesert, 
 ;r,ii| l!iiiil-< and Mn^hsees, in Cuteh (iinidava, and 
 iii.ir till' l>e>ert of Kelat. 'I'hey are hrave, ini- 
 |i,liiiiiis, inured to fntiii^ue, Ireelii inters, ahhorrinj; 
 iiilv lliet'ts, hut ai>pl;m(linn wlioloale plinider; 
 iliiii wastin^c <"id deslroyinii' whole distriels, yet 
 iiiriiiusly hlendinjf an ' inf;einious hospitality with 
 this |iri'iliilory IVroelly.' Jiike all pastoral nations, 
 liuv liave no permanent residence, hut live in 
 tleiln, .r societies of (our or live tents, moving 
 ;i!,iiiil as pastun^ is found suitalih; for their (locks 
 iiid liiTds. Their fond consists of wheatcn and 
 l.irii'V cakes, rice, dates, cheese, sweet and sour 
 milk, l('f,'iuiie soup, (/.lions, ijarlic, assadetiila, red 
 iriiiiir, ami occasionally (lesh. All the Hclooches 
 ,iri' Mii»;idnians of tlu^ sci't of Omar, and their 
 I hliiiiis are those of other Mohannnedans, niixcil 
 witliHiMie plainly derived from the ancii'Ut Jews. 
 I'iil\','aiiiy is allowed, hut they treat their women 
 uiiii roi'i'ct and attention; they have often nn- 
 iiiiriMis slaves, and in many respects liehave to 
 lln'iii wilii ureat (iindness. They are aruu'd with 
 a inati'liliick, sword, spear, dau'^^er, and shield, 
 «'iiili (licy connnoidy i.erive from foreiuii traders. 
 lin'V an' V'ood nnirksmen. invariahly liitdn;^ a 
 tau'it II inches s(piare, while on horseliack. at full 
 ..;'.M|i. A jiopular s]iort with Ihem is to renmve 
 ami carry away on the lop of a spear, while at full 
 ;'allii|i. li stake <lriveii dee|) into the ti'niuiid; .'in 
 i'|iwaliiiii which reipiircs much dexterity, (.'iidj^cl 
 I'laviiii;, wri'stliii;,', warlike exerciM's, and iield- 
 >l«irt.<, form the rest of tlu^ir annisements. The 
 lirss (if the men is a white or hlue calico shirt, 
 laitluued louni! the neck, and reachiii;^ lielow the 
 kiitrs; triiwsers of the same, ])uckered round the 
 ankles; slippers; a close quilted cotton cap or 
 liirliaii,anil scarf. The women wear loiifj; pirments 
 iilmldr brown cotton, reaehini.'; to tlu! aidvles, hut 
 ii|«'ii ill friiiit from the liosom downwards; very 
 wiik' tniwsors of silk; and the hair either parted 
 ill Mjiaratc locks in front, and then tied up together 
 iiiiikiKit (in the crown of the head, or covered liy 
 a liaiiilkcrchief. The lanj;na,uc of the Jfelooches 
 i* ii ilialect of the I'ersian, corruptly pronounced, 
 Ijiitfriim which toiifiui^ half the wordsare horrowed. 
 lI'iittiiiijiT, pp. oi'i-liT, "270; Klphinstone, p. I'.lo.) 
 
 The liralioiies are inferior in heij^ht to the He- 
 1'«kIii's, have short thijA'h-hones, a round face, (hit 
 I I'laliires, and often lirown hair and lieards. Their 
 iialiils are still more nnsettled than those of the 
 lloliiiiciii's, hut they are not so predatory, ra|iaci(iiis, 
 avariiidus, roveii),'efiil, fir crnol. I'ottinfier ]ire((Ts 
 Nmi' neiieiiil character very imndi to tliat of the 
 I'uniicr. iiml re|iresents them as active, industrious, 
 lil«iriiiiis, quiet, hospitahle, faithful, iind more 
 
 ninl arc ndmitt<><l by tlio Ilnloochi's to ho. Iwttcr 
 marksnu'ii than themselvoH. 'I'hey live «'ither ill 
 tentM, HlMiut 12 ynrdd loiij; t)y an tnnny feet wide, 
 hiiilt of NtickM, and covered with coarse blankets, 
 or ill hon.s<.!H, which in the towns, nx well as tho 
 open conntry, nre built of tamarisk or other wooden 
 framework. Hanked with innd, <ir hriekx of iinbiiriit 
 clay, and ill-thatched with fjrass. The men arc 
 iM'cnpied in thu outdoor and the women in tlin 
 indoor employments, but the latter are not kept 
 secluded, and all mix and eat tof^ether. Their 
 reli>:;i(in is Mohammedan; their dress very similar 
 to that of the Helooches, except that felt for caps, 
 and pirments of felt, are often worn by llii^ men. 
 Their lan^rnaKe is like the llinduo uf the I'nnjali. 
 (l'ottiii>,a'r, pp. I'.'-.') I, 70-71'..) 
 
 A race called Uewahrs inliahit diO'ercnt parts of 
 the country, who are pndiably descendants of the 
 (liiehres, driven from I'ersia by the Arabs in tho 
 .'iHth yearof the IleKira; they are below themiihllo 
 hei;iht, with blunt features and hi^jh cheek-bones; 
 are civil and obli^inf^c, though not hospitable ; 
 beiiij^ faithful and trustworthy, the f^nard of tho 
 palace of the khan of Kelat is entirely composed 
 of them. Their Ian};na4;e is jmre I'ersian; their 
 Ireatmeiit of females lietterthan that uf any other 
 Jloslem peo|)le. (lliid. pp. f(l)-274.) 
 
 Hindoos are tolerateil. and niono])(dise most of 
 the tradi! in Kelat and the neif;hbonrinji provinces, 
 but they are not allowed to settle in lieloochistan 
 with their wives and families. There is a con- 
 siderabU^ infusion of Hindoo blood and mannerH 
 amoii^ the inhabitants of C'utch (iundava and 
 Lns, when; the peoph^ arc imhiK'iit in their liabils, 
 and incessantly smokinu;. In Miikran the ]ieo|ih! 
 are larger bnilt and darker in colour, from inter- 
 iiiarria'4-es with Cad're slaves; the women in this 
 pi'ov. are ill-favoured, and none of (hem long-lived. 
 (Ibid. pp. ll_;in, 7.s-;ni.) 
 
 The liovcrnmeiit is nominally under the khan 
 of Kelat, but chielly in the bands of tiie sirdars of 
 each individual tribe. The khan, however, can 
 oblige each sirdar or cliief lo furnish him with a 
 colli iiif;'eiit of troops in case of need. The public 
 revenues are jierhaps about ;!.')n,(ioO rupees a year 
 (;iri,()Ol)/.), a larjre jiart of which is paid in produce, 
 which the kb,-.' afterwards disposes of to thu 
 Hindoo nierchaiits. The taxes are moderate; 
 l-"_'Oth of tli(! jirodiice is paid for lands reiinirinj^ 
 irri;;'al ion and much labour; from l-llith to l-ll)th 
 for other lands ; the respective sirdars stoji a part 
 of this, in payment of collection. Five rupees is 
 paid for a camel-load of f;oodscnteriu|.c Kelat, and 
 \h jier cent, on ^fooils sold, "xceptiiiff cattle. The 
 khan generally sits in judj^'.'.ent in cases of murder. 
 This crime may sonielimes be compromised with 
 the friends of tlie (h'ceased, but in the event of tho 
 murder of a foreigner, inimediato execution waits 
 upon the crimiii.'il. Ailiiltcry may be punished by 
 the death of both, by (he hand of the oll'endeil 
 [larty. nurf;lary and iiiulit robbery are capital 
 crimes. L'etty dilVci'eiices are iidjusted or disposed 
 of by the sirdars, and minor otlcnccs are ]innislied 
 by (lo,L;;;iiii;and iiiiprisiniiiicnt. (Ibid.pp. "if^il-'iltl.) 
 
 Almosi all the iiihaliitaiits of Hcloochistan arc 
 nearly barbarous and uncivilised: ncilher the He- 
 loocheekce nor Hr.iboiK kee arc wriltcii toiij^nes, 
 and he is j^rcatly bmuiuicd, and called • nioollee,' 
 who can read the Koran. They are ((iiilc i;;no- 
 rant of all the coiiiilries in their neiglilioiirbood, 
 and fancy (lu; Uriiish I",. I. ('(iiiijiany (of which 
 llii'V have heard from the Hindoos) to be •an old 
 woman with jilenlv of money.' MediciiU! they 
 
 ;ii"e totally imacipiainlcd with ; and to cure a i'f\ cr 
 they will shampoc or tiinmi) the body all over. 
 
 nii'lprliiiiciimnd of their chiefs. They live chielly I (Ibid. jip. "JlJ-l 10, itc.) 
 
 DU animiii food, of which they aro very voraci"ns, This country was (juitc unknown to Kiiropcans 
 
421 TIKI,!' 
 
 iiiilil tlic time iif Al(>xiiiiili'r tlio (tn^at: t\w liills 
 Vii'W llicii inhal>itril liy a racti of huvh^cn, tlic 
 ulinrc liy iiiMipIc who (*iilisislt'i\ a« nt nrcxfiit on tlnli, 
 lliciicc called l)y tlu- (In-i-kn li'liUiiiophiiiji, For 
 iKMrly Ifii I'cntiiricN ul'trrwanlH IIutc arc no rcconln 
 III' ItclocM'lii^'inii. A caliph ol' lln^ilail, in Ihc year 
 ti'_' of the llc;;ira, led an army lhriii^;li it to Siiide ; 
 it uas al'tcrwanlH taken poMHCHxlon of liy Miisiiiirl, 
 H<in of the l''.ni|i, Mahniood, and reniaineil governed 
 liy his dynanly till I7lt'», when Nadir .ihidi havni^ 
 (■oni|nerc(l it, licMlowed it, with tlie title of he;,ler- 
 licft, on an ancestor of the present Khan of Kelat. 
 I'ntil IT.JH it WM>' trilinlary to the khan of <',inl)ul. 
 
 1!I'',I<1', avillaj^v- of Swii/.erland, caiii. -.'rue, on 
 the (iiirlien, at the foot of the Itelper;;, near die 
 S. liMiik of llu! Aai, 5 ni. SK. Iteruc, Top. l,Hti7 
 in \MW. 
 
 IIICM'KCII, a town of Kran(H>, dcp. \Mde,cap. 
 cant., at the continence ol'tht; Lersand thi^ Vixie(,'c, 
 I.", ni. SW. Casteliiiiiidary. 1 'op. 2,482 ill iMlil. 
 Th« re is a nianiiiaclory of cloth. 
 
 It|'',LI*KI>. a market town and ctiapelry of Knfj- 
 land. CO. Derhy, jiar. l)ullield, and hnnd. Applelree, 
 H m. N. Derhy, ol m. SI'l. Manche.iter, and l.'tl m. 
 N\V. London. It has a station on thenorth hrunch 
 of the Midland railway. I'op. \>,HH:t in IH-II, and 
 !t,.'i(i!( in IHOl. 'I'Ih) town is situated in a valley, 
 throuf^h which the Derwent Hows. This river is 
 crossed, at the N. end of the town, by a stone 
 lirid^f(^ of three arches. The town, llionnh irre- 
 (,'iilar, is well Imill. The market-place, in an (de- 
 villed situation, is siirroutided hy liandsoMU! simps. 
 Courts leet an^ held here at I'.aster and Michael- 
 mas, when the ollii'crs of the town, comprisinji; a 
 conslaiile, and other piihlic olHccrs, are elected and 
 sworn. Helper is one of (lie jilaces for takin;.; vi.tes 
 lit the election of M.I', for the S. division of (he 
 CO. The livinji is a curacy, in the arclideaconrj' 
 of Derliy, diocese- of Lichtield and C'lvt'iitry: |ia- 
 tron, vicar of Dullielil. There are pljices of worship 
 for (lisseiilers, and also Sunday and infant schools, 
 and almshouses. There are some cotton works, 
 fjivinj,' employment, to 2,0(10 people. The. manu- 
 lacturc! of silk and cotton hosiery in the town and 
 neit,'hl»iurhoo(l is very extensive. There an- also 
 ill t he neifi'iliourhooil. pott cries, hleacliinn-f{roiini Is, 
 and coal-works, Tlu^tlroinford Canal jiasses within 
 2 m. of the town ; hat its iiuist important channel 
 of co'mnnmication is the North Midland K'ailway. 
 The smrouiulinjjf scenery is very hcantifui and jiic- 
 lure.sipie. 
 
 JiKl/r ((il{KAT AND UTTLK), tw., of the 
 entrances into th( Itallie, which see. 
 
 Itl'W/l'LTilM'yr, a town of Ireland, oo. Cavan, 
 on the Krne, (il m. NW. liy W. Dniilin, O.H ni. \. 
 hy \V. (,'avaii. I'o]!. l,7!^!i in iMtil, ahout one- 
 third of whom are rrolestants. it is il (Mirporiite 
 town, has a piod market-house, and a spacious 
 i'hnrch ; but it has no staphMnanufaclnre or trade, 
 and is not incrcisin^. 'J'liere is i\ considi'ral;U' 
 distillery within the limits of tlu! Iior. It iclunicd 
 '2 mem. to the Irish II, of ('., but was dislVan- 
 chised at the I'liion. Its trade is injured l\nm 
 then' bein^ a rajiid or fall in the river on its one 
 siile, and a shallow on the other. 
 
 HKLVKDKl.'K, a town of Sonllicrn Italy, prov. 
 (!osenza, on a hill washeil h\ tluv Mcdilcrraiieui, 
 ytim. NNW. Cosei-.za I'op.'iViOO in 1.H(;2. It has 
 ,i fort, several churches andconveiils, and .'t iiiuiiln- 
 ilv-pirtv, the reveinies of which arc iip|iriiiirialed 
 to ;lie iMiltioniiif; of ]ioor f;irls on their .iiarria^c. 
 Its wine and raisins arc in cousiileralile rc]iiite. 
 
 Ill'^LVKS, a town of France, di'p. I)onlo;a;n(', 
 cap. cant., 14 m. S\V. Sarlat. I'op. 2,.")(t(! in Ixill. 
 It has mills for extractiii','' oil rroni nuts; and its 
 iairs aii'l markets arc well frequented, 
 
 BELVOIH, an extra-parochial district of I"ng- 
 
 BKNATIE-S 
 
 land, partly In co, F^eicester, partly in that of 
 Lincoln, in Inind. Kramland of the funncr, anr| 
 soke of (irantham of tln^ latter; i»H ni. N. iiy \y 
 Loiuhm. I'liii. lori in IHIll, and 171 in lH(!i,|,f,,.| 
 170 acres. The inhahitantH are coinici'tiil k;i|, 
 the establishment at llelvoir Castle, the i«|i||.||,||4 
 seat of the Duke of lEutland, which iruwn, ii,,, 
 summit of an eminence overlooking ihe U'limiiui 
 vale whence its name is deriveil. The »\w «,„ 
 first occinaed by Kobert (h? Tod('iii, Niiiii,lar,i. 
 bearer of William the Conijueriir, ami rcmaiiH,! 
 with his lineal descendants till tllerei^;ll nl'llinfj- 
 III., when it passed, by marria;;e, to ihe Miuini.r, 
 family, in whose possession it has since rcniiiiiic.i, 
 The structure, which had been destroyed in ili,. 
 wars of the lioses, was rebuilt by the lirst l;,,,! 
 of l.'nil.md, whose title dates 12 lien. Vljl. I,, 
 Ihe I'lst civil war it wasaUernalely jjarrisdiicil |,v 
 the royal and parliamentary forces, and wii.-. nnuii 
 injured: after the licstoratiin it was «};niii n- 
 paired hy the lirst Duke of llnllaiul. (Irt'ni iu,. 
 provenients and additions were niiiili' tci tni, 
 mi<,!^'iiilicent )iile by the fifth duke, iiiiilcr ilic 
 direction of Wyatt, Whilst they were in pnicrix 
 a tire nearly destroyed tlu! whole : the irn'|iiiniliif 
 injury was the destruction of the rinc |ii,iurf 
 gallery, in whicdi were several of Sir ,1. lIcyiinlcK, 
 paintin^^s; and amon>;.st others that of ilic X,,. 
 tivity. '\'\w castle is now restored to ninrc ihan 
 its former imi^;iii(icence, still preserving tliu hvIc 
 of an ancient baronial residence. 
 
 HKNAliKS, .\ pr<iv. of llindoslan, formerly in- 
 
 clnded in that of' Allahabad, presid. nf runpil; 
 
 coiilainiiij:; the districts of llenares, iMir/ii{HTi. 
 
 (ihay,epore. and .hianpore; chiellv hetwccii in:, 
 
 2|0 and 2tl° N., and hmf,'. H2° aiid W|o :W j,; 
 
 haviii^j N. <loruek|ior(! ; K. Ihihar; S. tlm ilinr 
 
 ceded distr. ; and W. the territory of ilic Hajih 
 
 of l.'ewah, and the districts of Allnlml«il m\ 
 
 .Inanporc. Area H,i!70 n|. m. i'op. <'siii!i;ii(.,l a; 
 
 alioni .'1,000,000. It <oii>ists, lor the inost |i:in, 
 
 of a cultivated flat, on Imih sides of the tiaii^c 
 
 and is, besides, well matcrcd by the (iiminin, l 
 
 Sone, Caramuassa, &c. It chielly priHlunr.- ri,o 
 
 drier f{riiin.s, as wheal and liarley, leuinuts. tLi\, 
 
 itc., iiiditfo, suj^ar, and lai|;e f[nanti(ieMil (i|iniii, 
 
 The latter is ;i fjfoNcrnmenl monopoly, .'iriiil iJniiur 
 
 and Henares are Ihe only provinces in (lin- .lVu:,','ii | 
 
 ]iresid. in which itis )icrniilted to beijriiwii. Tins 
 
 |irov, is amon^'st the most tlourisliiii;,' in In.li.i, 
 
 and increasing; j^reatly in trad(? and prii>|vn:y, 
 
 )iarli('ularly since the estalilishineiit nf riiilwai I 
 
 i coinniunication, ina'i^;iirated by .!ie (ipt'iiiii:; >f ) 
 
 j the f;reat I'Jist Inrian line, from ('al<'ii(lii I" llit I 
 
 inciitliern province.- Muslins, gauzes, liriKsiliN I 
 
 ' and some salt of an inlerior kiial, are miikhii; ilip | 
 
 inannfarinres. l-lOih of the pop. in flic ciiii., 
 
 and I-2(iih iu the rest of tli,; prov., are Muljaimin-j 
 
 : <laiis; the judicial and otherre^nlationsnf lit.. 
 
 i extend to this jirov. liefore 1775 lU'imrcs I 
 
 loiipd to tlu^ nabob of (Jude, who, ia tliatyiar, | 
 ; ceiled it to Ihe llrilish. 
 
 liKNAKKs ( VaraiKixhi, Sanscr., or A'lwi, ilie j 
 .■Iileiidiil), a larj;e and celebrated cily nf lliml'i- 1 
 I Stan, jircsid. lienpil, c,-.;,. prov. and disir. »! iliej 
 I same name, seat of a court of circiiil ami a|i|K,il.[ 
 ; and one of the six chief jirovincial dries in ii» 
 presiil. at the head of a judicial 'livi.^inii. U'^ 
 2o" ;iO' N., lonfj. KP r !•;.■; on the XW. Iiaiik .t| 
 ; the tianws, about i^'" '"ct nbove the level »!' it 
 i sea ; i;.")Vn. H. Allahabad, and 400 in NW.Cil 
 I ciiita, on the H.-ist linlia-.i raihvav, tVniii l'nlriii;a| 
 ' li- Dclh; I'op. eslimated at (KMyilKi. It i> It 
 • nios* Holy' city of the Hindoos; tlieecck'.MiMMll 
 '..(Ctropcdis, in fact, of Iiidi:i, and is reserteil t"lyl 
 '■ pilgrims from all (|uarlers, esji.^'cially iVum m 
 I Maiiaralla countries, and Irom even Tibet aiiJ 
 
ly in tlmt of 
 ■ fiiniicr, ainl 
 111, N. I)y \\, 
 ill iw;i',i,r,,;, 
 iniicctinl v\iili 
 , lllf Klllrllilil 
 I'll ITilWIl^ III.. 
 
 ; \hv iK'iimiiiil 
 
 'I'lu' !<iic win 
 m\, Kiiiiiiliirl 
 mill ri'iiiiiiiii.i 
 rt'i;;ii nl' lliurv 
 :o llic MiiiniiTi 
 iiiu'c rinuiiiiiM, 
 'striiycci ill ilii. 
 • •111- liM \'m\ 
 Icii. yill. li, 
 .' ^jarriwiiicd l.y 
 , mill wib nuii'li 
 
 was iinniii ri- 
 iitl. <lri'iu iiii- 
 
 limili' tn tiii< 
 
 iilu'. iiiidcr ilii' 
 were in prdcr-i 
 : I lie irrc|iariili!f 
 I)h' liiii' jiiiiiiri' 
 ••ii" .1, II('yii(il{K> 
 tlmt 111' ilip Na- 
 mI III iiiiirc tliaii 
 icrviii^' llie Myk' 
 
 nil, fiirinprly in- 
 ■(•sill, (pf l'i('iii;:il; 
 iiiri'h. MiRn]ii'ri, 
 tlv Ik'Iwi'cii la;, 
 
 aiiii Hio ;;ir i:.; 
 
 iir ; S. till', llcrar 
 iry (if till! Ilajali 
 r Allalialud mil 
 I'oli. I'sliliwtnl a'. ! 
 ir till' Mill"! jiai!, 
 I'S (iC till' tlill;:'!-. 
 till' (iiii'ir,|iy, 
 
 ly |iri«lll.r,- I,,.' 
 
 l(';;i.iL—. '.IN. I 
 iitilii'i- lit ii]'i':iii. 
 liiily, iitwl iituiiar I 
 's ill !li«- lV':;al I 
 lit'i;rii\vii. 
 rir^liiii;; ill I'i'i* I 
 anil |.rii>|vn:y. 
 iiiii'iil. (if riiilway I 
 ,!n' diioniit' "(I 
 ('al''iiltii I" iliel 
 ji'auzcs, Imica.l 
 !ir(! aiiiiiii,^' I 
 ill till' eitir-. 1 
 .", ari! Miilwiiimi- 
 atioiisi'fl!i;.::il 
 TT.J lii'iiiin's U- 
 rlid, in t!iat ycir, j 
 
 r.. or A'dsi. ilif| 
 •t( city III' lliiiil" 
 and ilisir. »li!ie| 
 rciiil. aiiilii|'|«jl'| 
 icial cilii's in '" 
 
 liviMiia. U'.j 
 ho X\V. lniik"1 
 
 IC Icvol III' At 
 
 100 III XW.Cal- 
 
 |iv, I'niiii l'iilnii:i| 
 
 iiymii. Ithili'T 
 
 the ('cilcfiiMi'"'! 
 
 is rosiirti'il i" 
 
 laiaally I'rum 'i''| 
 
 even' Tibet and I 
 
 i.p. 
 
 IIKNAKES 
 
 ]',irmi»h. A'-ciiriUiiK •<> Ili^li"!! llclior, ii ' i^ i-or- 
 i.iiiilv ''"" fi'''"'"'! "" wi'll "ill* iiroliiililv till' iiiipst 
 ' pu'lmi-i, city in llu- iicniiiHiilii. Iin lir.it vit'W in 
 'xirriiK'lv lint- ; it t'Xii'iiilH ulHnit 'I in, iilniif; the 
 liiiik lit 'li'" fiver, wliicli i.H ('iiii.Hlilcriiliiv fli'viiifil, 
 iiliil iiil'irni'il Willi larKe Ki'iuits, or liiiuliiiK-iilm'es, 
 villi l"ii^' '""' liiinilmnii' llii^hlx ol' Mlejis, 'lis 
 |iiiMiii(i^> wliii'h lire I'mwilcd, liiiilt nl' .■^lonn or 
 luiii, ami iinii|iii'ly Inl'ly; licru uiul lluri' the 
 >iul|iiiireil |iyraini(lal tii|iH of hiiiiiII |iiik<iiIm.s; and 
 till' K't'i''!' iniix(|iii' III' Aui'iiii){/.i'li<<, with its gilded 
 ,l,,,ii,. ^'litteriii^ in tli<> sniilicain, mid I w<i niinari'ts 
 i..»i'riii){ oix' iiliovc the oilier, t'onii a ^raiid iiiid 
 iniiiiisiiiK '■""/''''"' ''•' '"'•' "'reels are extreniely 
 iiiirriiw, and the (iii|i(iHii(' sides a|i|iriiaeli in Home 
 .,;irt,4 so near eaeli other as to lie niiiled liy k"'- 
 liric.i; the only o|it'ii spaei^ is the iiiarket-iiliiee, 
 (i.ihtriii'led hy the iircsenl j;ov.. Inir the eily is 
 will drained and healthy. In IHOl there were 
 iiiiwiirilK of rj,000 lioiisch, from one to six stories 
 liHi, laiill of hrii'k or stone, nnd Ki.dOd more of 
 iiiml, with 'il«''l roofs. The former li)dj;e, at an 
 nvvriif,'!', alioiit I.") |iersons on a lloor; those of .-ix 
 mimics iil'ten eontiiiiiiii^ from l.'il) to I'dO indivi- 
 iliiiils eai'li : they are linilt round a eourl -yard, and 
 liiivc Miiall windows, many \erandalis, ;;all('ries, 
 (n:\ iiiiieh |lainlill^^ earviii^'. aiulelahoi'aleslone- 
 \viir!<; and are 'ol'leii not unlike those re|ireseiiled 
 iul'iinaletli's " N'iewsof N'enii'c,"' The eaiiseways 
 i.rc imu'li lower than the lower lloors of the. 
 JHiiisc.i, wliii'li have mostly arehed rows in front, 
 villi link' sliojis liehiiid Iheiii: eaeh slieel, or 
 liii/ii:ir, is devoted to a separate trade. The priii- 
 liiinl |iiil>lie linildiii^ is the iiiosi|iie, hiiill liy 
 Aiinaig/ti'he, on the hi^liest point, and in the 
 (Tiilrctil the eily, wliieh it eoniplelely overloo'is. 
 A lliiiili") leniple was destroyed to make room 
 j'lir it. Many other mos(|iu's, wliieh reniain, are, 
 liiiilt 1)11 equally holy spots, iniuh to the aii- 
 liiivaliee of the Hindoo |io|iiilalioii. Then.' are 
 imincriiiis Hindoo temples; and fakirs' houses, 
 iis llicy are ealU'd, adorned with idols, occur at 
 (■very iiirii. Ilenares is erowdetl with mendicant 
 |irii"-ts; there arc .said to lie M,(l()() honsi^s occupied 
 liv IJraiiniins, who live upon the alms and oll'er- 
 iii^'sdf llie pil;;riiiis ; only l-lOlli of the |iop, are 
 .MiiiiiiiiiiiK'iians ; anil i'lnropcans, wlio are few in 
 uuiiiliir, reside not in the city, 1ml at Sendi, a 
 liillc way oil', 'I'nrks, l'ei-,-.iMiis, Ariiieiiiaiis, 
 iailais, iVc, are settled in lieiiarcs. Its irade is 
 (iiii-idiTalile in shawls, diamonds of r>iiiiilleciiiid, 
 iNiiia and other innslins; in silks, (Mtlons, ami 
 line ivniilk'iis of its own niaiiiii'actnre, and in I'^ii- 
 iii;k'iiii arlides. The Hindoo Sanscrit colle>^e of 
 iliis city is the chief .seat of iialive learnin^c in 
 liiiHa. It is attended, on- ilie average, hy ;iO0 
 jiiiiiiis: .ill Kiit',lisli ijoUejj;!', eslahlished in lM;i2, 
 lin> I'riiiii 110 to l.'iO pupil.-. Nnmeniiis Christian 
 ini.>siiiiis have heeii estahlislied here, and there 
 ari' |irivate teachers of lioih the iMohamniedan 
 end Uiiiiliio law. O le of the tjreatesl ciiriosilies 
 ai Ufiiares is an niiciviit oliservatorv, linili hel'ore 
 iSt .Mussulman coiuiiiest, liy Iheet'lehraled Ifajah 
 .lili-.Miigli. It is of stone, and contains a Ian;*' 
 Mj'iare liiwer, in which are preserveil iiuiny iiistrn- 
 iiHiii.-i, cliietly of sione, some of tluin having- lireii 
 iviili'iitly used for judicial astroioj^y : a lew miles 
 liillie I'l. there is a solid stone ruin, similar in ap- 
 l«aiaiu'(' to the J-itddliist temnles in the \V. of 
 l:iilia, called the .Saranatli. The coiiiiiry aroiiiul 
 I'siiares is fertile and ".veil cultivated, Inii hare of 
 inKid: fuel is, therefore, very dear, and sntlirs, in 
 tiiibc(|iicnce of this scarcity, arc said to have hei n 
 Ic-sc'iimmoii than in many par's of India. 'I'hc 
 limit! of this city has much imreascd since llie 
 ojwiiiiH of a line of railway to Calculla, wliii-li 
 twk place on December 22, 1802. This city is 
 
 iniN'MVKNTO 
 
 4SA 
 
 iMdicveil liy the niiidoo.s to form no piirt of (lie 
 terrestrial glohe, hut to rest upon the point of 
 Sivii's trident: lience, they say, no carthiinakti 
 ever all'ectH It, In HUT ii was taken hy Sullaii 
 Mahmoud, and from ll'.lll followed the forliines 
 of the Delhi sovereigns : since l77o it has eiijoyed 
 tr.'iDipiillity niider (he Itritish, interrinited only on 
 one occasiiHi liy n religions conllict iietweeii tlio 
 Hindoos and ,'Vlussnlinaiis, on the latter lireakiii^ 
 down a |iillar, called 'Siva's walking-stick,' 'I'ho 
 rajah of Ileiiares.is a pensioner on I'ji^lish honiily, 
 and without anv poliiii-al power, 
 
 ilKNCOUI.l'i.N, a niarit, town of Siimalrii (M. 
 archipelapi), and the principal settlement of lliit 
 Diilcli, as I'orinerly of the Itritish, on thai island. 
 It stands on the .S\V, coast, in hit, ;i° I'.i' N.. loiij,'. 
 10-2° Hi' K, The town, which is small and wi'll 
 liiiill, is said to he unhealthy; hut l<'ort Marl- 
 horonj.;li, orif^'inally coiistriicleil hy the llritish, in 
 IM't, slaiids a little farther, inland, in a healthier 
 sitiiatioii. Till! pop, is composed of Dutch anil 
 other I'iuropeans, or their descendants, Ooloos, 
 Chinese, llarniese, and INIalays, The trade ol' 
 Iteucooleii had^'reatly (U'clined )irevionsly to the 
 cession made hy (ireat llritain in IM2.'). Tim 
 imports consist chielly of cloths, rice and salt, 
 toliacco, sii^ar, liandkerchiel's, iVc, from Italuvia; 
 opiiini and various fahries from lten;;iil and tlio 
 Coioniaiidel coast; iirinlcd cottons, cutlery, and 
 mclallii! arlides, from l'',iirope; and salted lisli, 
 rocs, e;;,t(s, poiiliry, oil, and timher, from ollu-r 
 parts of the island. The l''.ii)^'lisli endeavoured to 
 ciillivali! the clove and niilnie^ here, hut the. 
 produce was very infiriorlo that of ,\nilioyiia and 
 till! Itaiida Islands, Ilencoolcn was always an 
 miprolitahle seltleiiu'lil to llu! llritish, tin; ex- 
 penses of its piveriinielit liaviii;;- uiiifnrmly ex- 
 ceeded its revemic. Diirinj,' the live years prc- 
 cedin;; its cession to the Dutch, the exi'css of 
 expendiliire over revenue aniouiited to iihont 
 «.").(I(HI/. a year. It was ceded in |M2.") to Ihe. 
 Dutch, ill |iiirt exi'haii;;!' for the town and fortress 
 of .Malacca and other settlements. 
 
 r.KNDi'lli, a town of l-.m-opean Itiissia, prov. 
 Ucssariihia, on the Dnicsler. ahoiit oM m. from Iho 
 lllai-k Sea. I'op. IH.IiMl in l.^.'i.s. The town i.4 
 fortilied hy a wall anil ditch, and has a citadel on 
 an emiiiciicc. In 1771), the Kiissiaiis took this town 
 hy storm, and reduced it to aslie-i. They a;;-ain 
 took it in ll'iO!!, and it was linally ceded to thi-iii, 
 with the prov. of llessarahia, liy (he treaty of 
 liiichorcst in IM12. It was formerly a place of 
 much ,t;realer consequence than at present; and i.s 
 said, previous to its capture in 1770, to have had 
 .'iO,OliO inluiliitaiits. In its vii-inity is Varnil/.a, lli» 
 retreat of CMiailes Ml. after the "battle of Tollava. 
 
 ItKXK, a town if Northern Italy, prov. ,Moii- 
 dovi, on a hill hctween the Stiira anil Taiiaro, Hi in. 
 NK. Colli. Top. (1,127 in l.SC-i. It is defended by 
 an old castle; has a collegiate church, and a 
 hospital. 
 
 I!1':NI';VKNT0 (an. liinrvenhim), a city of 
 Soiilhern Italy. cap. i-f province of (he saini! name, 
 '•!i ihe declivily of a i;ill helweeii and near Ihe 
 cii'.ilhieiice of the Calori! 'ind Siibato, ;12 m. N f,. 
 Naples; on the railway fiom Naples to Ko;;i,qa. 
 I'oii. lH,H.s-_'in lS(i2. ll'iss irriiiindedl'v wall.s,aiid 
 dcfendeil by acaslle. The modern town occupies 
 the site of the aiicienl one, i iid is almost entirely 
 constructed oul of the ruins if the latter. In fad, 
 with the exception of liiin.e, hardly any (taliaii 
 town c;ui boast of so many leinaiiis of aniiipiily as 
 Bi'iievcnto. Of these the most perfect, and by far 
 (be most worlhy of iiolice, is the arch of Ti-.-ij.iii, 
 now the f'intii Anna, erected in honour of Ihe 
 j;|-eal emperor wlmse n.-iinc i( bears, .iboiii a.<'. I II, 
 'i'his siiiLiiilarlv bciuiiiful s(nictui-c is of white 
 
 :ii 
 
 \V 
 
 I,- 
 
 k« 
 
 
 I- ' u 
 
 5 .'!||J 
 
xit' 
 
 •I'-'fJ 
 
 tiiiirlilo, of tliP ronipoMito nnlrr, nn<l ctmHiHtM of a 
 hin^lc iiirli, ItH tottil Iic'ikIiI ih ^>-' I'r., t\u' iiitt'N 
 t'liliiriiniiitionN nml frifZcM hciii^f fovcrcil witlilnwini- 
 rclii'voN, ri'iircHcntin^ the liitlili>N aixl iriiiiiipliH of 
 llin Daciiiii wiir, 'I'Iicno, wliicli iin\ of tlu^ most 
 <'.\f|uiNi((' workiniiti.slii|), artt nK<>iiil<l<'itl iniitilati'd; 
 Imr odicrwisc this iiolilc falirii^ w iirarly ciitiri'. 
 'I'lic (•alln'<lral in a cliiinny ('(liiicc, in ilic walls of 
 tvliicli Ihu lliKNt rcniaiiiH of aMti(|iiity an; liiultllcil 
 toKcilicr witlioiit any rcKuril i<> order. 'I'lu' i'ii|ii)la 
 of ilie (rliiirch of Sl.'Sojiliia tvmh oii a circular I'o- 
 loiiiiade of aiiti(|iu' mai'lilc ; ami .scarcely a wall U 
 lnli(> Nccii thai is no) lillcduitli fraKinciilH of altars, 
 
 nKNOAL (PRESIDENCY OF) 
 
 OlMrtaU 
 
 .MiiiiKliyr 
 
 I'nonirllh 
 
 'I'lrlidot 
 
 I !• .• I II- Miililuli . 
 
 foiiilis, coliiiiiiis, and otiicr rclicn ol ilits old city. I ciiitack 
 
 lU'ii(!V('iilo is the scat of an archliish(i[iri(', anil has 
 
 n line jtiiliizzi> puhlkii, or lowii-hall, a sciniiiarv 
 
 villi a ^;(i(mI lihrary, a collc>{0, an or|ihaii hoHpilal, 
 
 tlircc iiilicr hospitals, and two iminliili phln. Coii- 
 
 hiihraldc fairs arc lu'ld at dill'crcnl ncriods of the 
 
 year. It siitVered severely from the plague in 1()6(!, 
 
 and from an carllapiaki^ in IllNH, 
 
 Kcncvciilo is verv ancient, its ori;,'in lieiiif; as- 
 <'vilpcdto |)iomcil. It was lirst called .Slalcveiitnm; 
 litir, on lii'in^' taken and eidonised hy the Itoinans, 
 it wascalled I'.cneventnm. In its vicinity, in I'Jflti, 
 was loiinht the f^rcat hallle hctwccn Charles of 
 Aiijoii and his rival .Manfred, in which the latter 
 vas killed, and his army totally defeated. Diirin;,- 
 the ascenilaney of Napoleon, iieiievcnto was furmed 
 into a principality, conferred on M.de Talleyrand; 
 hut, on th(^ downfall of Napoleon, it aHain reverted 
 to the pope, till, in l«(iO, it was alnu^vcd, toj^ether 
 Avith Naples, to the kingdom of ftalv. 
 
 lH:N(iAL (I'ltKSIDKNCV Ol")", atrnitory of 
 Asia, the most important and extensive of the 
 nine ;;reat provinces into which the Itriiish do- 
 niinious in the Kast are divi(U'd. 'Iho presidency 
 extcntis helween lat. 20° and ;il° N., and haij,'. 
 71° to !ll° !•;., having; N. Itootan, Xepaul, and the 
 iniliis; W. the tatter, the territories of the .Sikhs 
 and Ifajpootana ; S. the territories of Ilerar, the 
 SI adras presidency, and the May of Jlenj^al; and 
 I',, the IJirnu'se dominions. The total area of the 
 J!en;,fal presiiU'iiey amounts to 'JCil, •'!«(> luij,'. scp 
 III., iiiliahited, according,' to relurns of the year 
 Jnii-.', hy a population of .l(),l(i(!,ti'.l(l souls. (Sta- 
 tistical'l'ahles relatiiif;- to the ('<doiiial and other 
 J'ossessioiis. I'art ix.) The troops staticaied in 
 r.eii,i;al on the IMIth April, 1802, numbered 87,122, 
 divided as fidlows: — 
 
 ■leiworp .... 
 Twenty- Four rerf(uilliuhil 
 llarilwari . , . 
 llooKlily . . . 
 NiiildiMi. . . . 
 lliincoorHll . . , 
 lluraxct .... 
 llliuiiKul|Hiro , . 
 lihiajiMiru . , . 
 
 SUitTniid StiifTCoriJS . 
 
 Miit-'iiiccrs, .^iiiiiK'i-s, and 
 .Miners. 
 
 llor.-o and Foot Artil- 
 lery . , . . 
 
 Ciiviilry 
 
 liifiiiitry 
 
 liivaliila and Veterans . 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 5* 
 
 ■£. 
 
 -■9 - 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 i = " 
 
 
 O 
 
 ■?... 
 
 |.isg 
 
 
 1 
 
 i.\ 
 
 i-5? 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .S-3 
 
 
 H 
 
 i. 
 1 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 cc 
 
 73 
 
 — 
 
 lao 
 
 i l(i 
 
 171 
 
 090 
 
 877 
 
 ;;o7 
 
 (!,48(» 
 
 88 
 
 0,87:) 
 
 :«. 
 
 4,0(!t 
 
 l),:!8-.> |:),7(I7 
 
 l,.|:il 
 
 :U,7!ai 
 
 l'!»,0.')0 {;."),'.>77 
 
 4:i 
 
 144 
 
 — 1 187, 
 
 2,184 
 
 lo,728 
 
 39,210 87,122! 
 
 1 
 
 Tlie presidency is divided into the Upper or 
 AVestern, the Ceiit".il, and the Lower provinces; 
 the former including Delhi; the Central, Allalia- 
 l),id, IJehar, and othc" • and the Lower prov., 
 Iienj;al. and the rest still farther E. These jirovs. 
 are divided into lil'ty districts, of the Ibllowiii;^ 
 area and poimlation : — 
 
 Too nil 
 
 llalasoio 
 
 .Miiliiii|Hjro and llidgelleo 
 
 Koonlah . , . 
 
 .M(i<irslieilab(Ul , . 
 
 lliiKoorah , , . 
 
 ItiniKpoi'u 
 
 Itujslmyu . , , . 
 
 I'aiiiia 
 
 IScirliliuoin . . , . 
 
 lau'ca 
 
 I'lnrecdporo niul Dcccan 1 
 
 .l('liil|ioru ... I 
 Myniiiiiiiiff . . . . 
 Sylliet, inclailiii^' .Fyiitea . 
 l!aki'rKniij.'e, iiiilMillii({ I 
 
 Dcccan rihaljaziwro J 
 
 Slialjaliiul .... 
 
 I'lilua 
 
 IMiar 
 
 Sunni, wit^li C'huniparaii 
 L'lilttaKont; . . . . 
 
 Tipperali and Oulluah . 
 
 The Suiiilerhuiula . . 
 (,'ossya Hills .... 
 
 Cacliar 
 
 Lower ( ';'">-■'•""? • • 
 
 -^'""" (I'uiranK. 
 
 I'Diier ( J""'''""^ (Seebpoor) 
 .''„,„ I lau^kiiuiiour . 
 As-iun ^ Hud^n^ j,,^. jintniek 
 
 (ioalpara .... 
 Arracaii .... 
 TcMiis-erim Provinces . 
 Suiiilailporo .... 
 llaniRurli or Ifazareclmh 
 Loliur- ( C'liotta Nagjjoro 
 du|.','ja ( I'aluiiiow . 
 Kiii^liljouiii .... 
 
 ( Biu-bliooni 
 
 Itq. Mlll't 
 
 ii.flia 
 
 l.tmi 
 2,224 
 2,081) 
 2,lt42 
 1,47)1 
 1,424 
 
 n,8iiii 
 n.82(t 
 2..V18 
 r..8(8 
 7,402 
 1,11011 
 il.util I 
 1.7(18) 
 1,87(1 
 r),il2!l 
 ll:ll) 
 l,8.'.(l 
 2,1(111 
 4,|:ia 
 2,084 
 2,(10(1 
 4,7:111 
 1,9(111 
 
 2,(l.V.' 
 
 4,712 
 8,421 
 
 il,794 
 
 :!,721 
 1 ,S'J8 
 /•>,(!!( I 
 
 2,.'i(;o 
 2,.'aio 
 
 4,8.-.0 I 
 
 729 
 
 4,01111 
 2.7SS 
 4,1(111 
 2,1 "10 
 2,l'(l'> 
 2.9:,ll 
 (1.942 
 
 11, -'.(Id 
 ir,,iii.i 
 
 29.1(18 
 4,(19:1 
 8,.V.'4 
 ri,:i08 1 
 H,l(i8 ) 
 2.914 
 4,792 1 
 8(11) )" 
 
 F"|iul4Ui)ii 
 
 ••IN 1, 744 
 
 2MH,IN|(| 
 1,8.V|,|,-,J 
 
 I I'i'Jii.Mn 
 2!iN,;:i(i 
 
 4)4(I,IMKI 
 
 '>22,(l(Nt 
 
 2,a(>i>,iHiii 
 
 1,2(III,IHNI 
 
 SIWI.IHHI 
 
 l,(lllll,IHIII 
 
 2,41111,111111 
 
 4:11, IMH) 
 
 1,(MIII,IH|I| 
 
 )l(l(i,:|;>il 
 •>'i\.\m 
 
 9IKI,1||||| 
 
 2,'i.vi.iiiin 
 
 (171,. Ill 
 
 (illll,|IIHI 
 
 l,(Mii.»;ii 
 
 (l(MI,(ll)i) 
 8.V>,I|(((J 
 
 1, is; .{Hill 
 ;i»(i),(Mio 
 
 7:1:1,8110 
 
 l.Cllll.lliill 
 
 l,:'i»i,iiiiii 
 
 2.,"iiwi,l«iil 
 
 i,rii(i,iiiiii 
 
 1,(1110,111111 
 
 8(I(1,!(.V) 
 
 (>U(l,ll(IO 
 
 1,(1(111,01111 
 
 lll,!l:i:, 
 
 (111,111 III 
 
 ;iiHi,iiiiii 
 70,01111 
 
 8(1,0(111 
 
 200,111111 
 
 iJO.IIIllI 
 
 :io,iiiiii 
 400,111111 
 :i-.'i,r.j'j 
 li:.,i:;i 
 
 SIIO,( 
 
 ;i72,:'iii 
 
 4S:',!IIW 
 
 2(io,oi»i 
 77;',:)li) 
 
 The principal cities are Calcutta, the PriiiOi 
 cap. of India; |)(dlii, the Mohamiiicihiii c(i{iii;il; 
 with licnares, l^loorshedahad, Dacca, IJeliur, I'aliui, 
 .Ulahaliad, Af;ra, and Lahore. 
 
 Th(^ s.irlaee of this vast territor\' has, in dilTcr- 
 ont )iarts, every variety of elevation ami ;is|iiri. 
 Hut hy far the larger portion c.aisists, iioiwiili- 
 slan(iiiif.j, of immense ]ilains, iiichidiiif; lliiw if 
 the (iaiigcs and ISrahmaputra. Mxcl.isivc ol' iln' 
 Himalaya and (iarrows mountains, wliicl. Imiiiiil 
 it iN. and K., it lias no mountains of any im|ion- 
 aiice, with the exception of the Vimlhyaa r:iii;,'i', 
 iS. of the (iange.s. 
 
 J'/ii/sical Fiuturcn. — No part of India is an ivoll 
 watered, or lias so many great rivers. The (iiinu'i< 
 llows in a SK. direction tliroitgh the whole cxuiit 
 of the iiresideiicy, being joined in its |ir(ifrrr>>lA' 
 numerous tributaries, some of them, as the •hiniiia, 
 Cliumbiil,< iogra, (JiinducU, and Sone, of great iiw;'- 
 nitudeaiid importance. It is also traversed in its H, 
 parts by the I'ralimapiitra, which, as well as tin' 
 (iaiiges, falls into the N. part of the liay of ISciipil. 
 near each other, lioth of them, but especially ik' 
 (Janges, divide into iKinieroiis arms heliircriailiii:;' 
 the sea ; and their united deltas form a tract of iillii- 
 
csf 
 )■.' I 
 
 (HI )" 
 
 P«t>uUUM [ 
 
 'il«N,llll(l 
 l,M,|,Vi : 
 1 ,'Viii,s4ii i 
 
 4>lii,(Ki(i 
 
 r)W,iiiiii 1 
 
 l.'JIHI.IMHI 
 
 1,11110,1111(1 : 
 ■,<,4IXI,II(MI I 
 
 mm 
 
 1,<HIII,IMI*I I 
 
 ri.'iil,:ili:, I 
 iit;i;,:i'js ' 
 
 >'>;i,|r,(i I 
 
 1,IU'..IHHI 
 
 tlllll.{|M(l I 
 •.',.*i."i!l.(HKl I 
 
 (i71,.iii i 
 
 tiOII,(«H) I 
 
 l,(Mii,«7il 1 
 UOII,IKII| 
 
 l,4H7.(Kin 
 
 awi,iHiu 
 7:i:i,(iiw 
 
 1,01111,11(1(1 
 1 .'.M1(I,(H(0 
 •J..'i( 111,11(10 
 1,711(1,(1(10 
 l,(((i(i,((((i) ! 
 
 WI(1,H.V) 
 (■|ll(l,(l(M) 
 
 l,(i(i(i,(»iii 
 l(i,!i;;.'i 
 
 CiD.ddd 
 
 ;i(»i,i>(i(i i 
 
 7l(,(KM) 
 HU,(MHI ' 
 2(III,(I(NI 
 li(l,(HI(| 
 
 :i(i,()tii( 
 4(1(1,(11111 
 
 li:.,li;i 
 
 Sll(l,((iiil 
 
 ;i7-.','.'l(j 
 
 2(KI,M(III 
 77l',310 
 
 till, the WmA\ 
 iincit.'iii a\\M\\ 
 , iichar, Taiiu. 
 
 rv lias, in dilTcr- 
 tum and iih|ici'I, 
 insists, iKiiwiili- 
 •liidiii;; lliii^i' ' i 
 ;x(dusivo ill' ilii' 
 wliicli liiiiiii'l 
 (d' any iinin'i"- 
 ,'iiulliyaii riuiy. 
 
 India is so wdl 
 ■rs. The <liiiir'i' 
 lie whdie exii'iit 
 1 its iirivrf>>l'y 
 u, nstlii'.liiiii":!. 
 ne.ol'^'reatma;;- 
 raviTscd in its I.. 
 , US well as llio 
 [> liny ol ll<'ii^':il. 
 Jut csiiccially the 
 
 licl'dn'ri'iu'lii"- 
 Imu tract ul'ii'.lii- 
 
 IJKNGAL (I'liKSIDKNCY OF) 
 
 vIaI iMi'l "f hIh>v(i .'KMXIO ^q. m. in extent, and 
 I'n'iit natiiriil fcrtiiiiy, liiit nioNil' iivi'rrun witi 
 iiitiirlc, 'I'licro ar<« no laki'N NJnillur to IIiomk Ii 
 
 JdMK 
 
 »'27 
 
 NliiilldW iilliivinin in tlio dclla of ItiMif^al. In lli>- 
 
 liar, and clufwluin', it alVurdrt (•lllori'HCfnci'.iol' niini 
 
 and niiiriatc ol' hoiIm, In ininiciiMi' i|iiitnlili(>ft; thii 
 
 IIIn'I, or otiu'r |iarlM of .\Hia: lint many cxti'UMivt' I former in i^rvnU't aliiiiidiiiii'e than in any other 
 
 |;ii;iiiiei*. or^i'''/*, eH|HM:ially in the lower |irov., and I part of the world. The annual exjiorl of niln! 
 
 uIhiVc all ill lli<^ distriel.H of llaeen and Ifiijeshiiye. I from Caleiitla has, of lute yearn, Iteen ahoilt 
 
 Kvcry kind of Mcenery is met with in this |irei|- ! •Jo(l,lilin \tnnn\ senl ehiellv to (ireat llritain, China, 
 
 ili'iK y. ' KimiMoii, the most N. |iart, is a ' vast and I America, and !<' ranee, 'i'lie niaiiufaetnre of salt in 
 
 iiiiiiiilliioiii* ocean of mountains,' elevated in sue- | a ^niv, monopoly, within the provs. of llen;{iil mid 
 
 lleliar, and the district of Ciittack. 'I'lu- upper 
 provs. are supplied with suit, partly from the lower 
 ones, and piirily from salt tniiies in the \V, of 
 India. Diamonds are found in Ihindhicnnd, llm 
 matrix Udnu u eoiiKlomeriite hed, with (iiiari/osn 
 peMiles; silver, anil Hold dust, in manv rivers. 
 
 '/'/ic Cliiiiitli; in MO wide an extent of eoiintry, is, 
 of course, very varied ; at Ciileiitta, tlu^ aiiunal 
 menu temp, was found, hy three years' oliserva- 
 tioii", to lie TH° ;t!l' I''.; at llciiiires," for two years, 
 77°HI'; and at Sahariinpore (Kelhi), 7.'l«' .')': ihn 
 liarometer, at each of these places, for like p(>rio(ls, 
 lliinduli and part of Kalpe(> districts, jimidlecuiid ! avei'a;;('d rcspcciivtdy •-".••"til, 'JK-ltll, and '.iM'Ttili 
 ami llie ceiled districts on the Nerhudda form |iiirt of j inches, .luiic. is tli(Mlampest, .laniiary tint driest 
 tliclii;ili central talile-landof India; they aliound in | moiitli; dronnht is often experience(l in the upper 
 ilccp ravines, fertile valleys, and extensive tiirests; i prov., where the depression of the moistened tlier- 
 liiit lire in many parts sterile, as are also some of I mometer sometimes exceeds :i.'i°; Imt at ('a.cntta 
 ihcdi'tr. even in the neinhlionrliood of the (inn- | the iivera;j;e fall of rain for three ri'cent years was 
 ^'('S 'I'lic ceiiiral provs, are iindnlalinj,', (ith'ii w(dl . "lilt's;! inches. Ileii^al prov, is snliject ti> foK>*i 
 (iiliivated, intersected liy rivers, and iidoriie(l in I from these 'ririioot (llehar) is free, and t(>m|iei'nti>, 
 iiiiniy parts hy htovcs and forests. lUdiar, N. the | prodnciiij; nlmost every l''.ur(i]iean t'riiit anil vejje- 
 lliiiiijcs, is Hat and waste; hut is very fcrlile on'Inlilc; tiie upper provinces are also temperati', 
 lilt' S. side of that river; its lieijflit also increases ' exceptiii;; in the hottest season, when liiirnin<j; 
 iisii iidvaiicos more to tlie S., so that in liani);liur winds prevail, occa-'ioiially (ildij;inj; the inliali. to 
 wi'liiid a mounlainous and riiid<y country two- resort to iiniler;;roiiiid liahilnlions. In Kiimaoii 
 
 the surface is wholly covered with snow from Sep- 
 temlier to April. allh(iu|;h, during llic rest of tlm 
 year, the tliermom. in thu siiii often rises to llO" 
 
 ,'i'..>ive ri(lKi'>* to 7,11110 ft, in heiixlit, hacked hy the 
 .iiiiwy rlilK*' of the Himalaya, and covered in 
 (;ri>,it jiart with an nninterrnpteil forest of hoth 
 ,\,iiilic and Mnropeiin vegetation. The \V. parts 
 iil'llcllii trench on the Indian des(>rt, and have an 
 urid Idiik, and thirsty soil; other portions of this 
 iiriiv, an' also tint, Imt fertile and liiKliiy cultivated, 
 I'lic |)(iah is tint, and ahonnds in lon;r urnss, hut 
 ii ^iiiKidarly delieient in tiniher. Allahahad is 
 iiiiiiiiij.'st the most productive provs. in lliiidostan; 
 it, •dirl'iice is nneipial, the S. part ri^iit;,' pro- 
 ^n^i^lvely into a hill tract, wdiieli extends tlirou^h 
 
 tliirils waste, parlicipatiii<; in the lialural features 
 i.f tliii (inndwanah districts, jidnin^c those on the 
 Ncrliiidda. Orissa, near the sea coast, is low and 
 <wani|iy; hut its interior contains cultivated plains 
 mill (leiise juii);les, hacked W. hy a nKuniliiiudUs 
 I'arcst region, which desrends gradually through 
 tiii'.hin^de .Meh:ils and neerhhooin, into the low- 
 l;(Mils (if lieiif^'al. 'I'lii! latter are enclosed, lioili 
 Inward the sea and the N. horder, hy immense 
 lulls (if jungle, and have K. the nolde valley of 
 ilic Ih'alimaputra, wliiili constitutes the jirov. of 
 A-siin. Fi'din Sylliet to Araean the interinr is ex- 
 iniiuly hilly, the coast swamiiy, hut tint surface 
 iliiii very fertile and well cultivated: the other 
 mlcd liinnese ]irovinces have dense forests and 
 jimudcs, rice-plains, and a rocky const, preceded hy 
 Iiiw i.-lands. 
 
 Ciintiiijij and Jifhiernh. — The Himalaya, in Kii- 
 nwdii, is cdiiiposeil of ;iranite, j,'neiss, p(ir|ihyrv, 
 i|ii;irtz, mica, and hornhlcnde ; and its lower 
 Riiiircs ciintain sandstone, lirecciated limestone, 
 ("lijicr, and iron ores. The Vindhyau mounfaiiis 
 liclray a V(deani(r elinracter throu^choiit, and the 
 (iiimiwsmiiuntains, on theop|iosite side (if thedi Ita 
 (if the (iaiiffcs, exhihit a similar structure. Ter- 
 tiary lii'ds are met with in Sylhet and where the 
 liniliinaiiutra issues from the Assam valley, coii- 
 tiiinin;; drf,'anic remains of crocodiles, '/'< .si'i/civ/. itc. 
 The Itliiui^jtilpore distr. is ]ieculiarly ri(li in 
 inm, and considerahlo mines have fdrmcrly hecu 
 wnrkcd; the ore is nodular, and yields 'JO to l'o per 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 Vvijvtiililc J'rof/iirts. — Teak, Haul, sissoo, hanyan, 
 ehony* rattans, hiimhoos, and n lar;;'e nninher of 
 trees, yieldiufx material for cordage; oaks and 
 pines in the hill forests; and along the coasts of 
 the Itay of IJcngiil, cocoa, areca, and other palms, 
 are met with in profusion. (.See IliMxisrAN.) 
 The lower iirovinces nrv highly favonrahh? to the. 
 production of rice, t!ie stapit! article of food, and 
 eonsc(iucntly of production ; tht^ central and upper 
 provs. to that of the drier grains; I'luropean pro- 
 ducts, and those )ieciiliar to the tropics, being 
 raised in alternate seasons, (irain forms a valtialile 
 export from li"iigiil. Indigo is cultivated from 
 l)acca to Delhi, and occupies nion- than l,no(l,i)(M) 
 statute acres; its animal produce hcing worth from 
 :! to 4 mill, sterl., half of which is expended in its 
 production. There are !)(H) indigo factories in the 
 presid., and the exjiorts to Europe of the article 
 amounts, in smne years, to !»,IIIMt,ltOI) Ih.s. The cul- 
 ture of o]iium is moii(i|i(ilise(l hy the governiiicnt, 
 and is carried on only in pjirts of ISeharand llenares. 
 Tlie opium grown in these provs. is considered hy 
 the Chinese, liy whom it is mostly all made use of, 
 to he lunch superior in flavour to the opium of Mal- 
 wali. The average annual produce of the I'afna 
 and (iha/eepoiv, or llenares (State opium maiiufac- 
 
 lories, is iri.ddi) chests, e.icli sold at 1211/. The 
 (lit. metal. In the Sylhet hills there is a line! produce is siillicieiit to liiir competition in China, 
 (;Taimlar iron ; and in K'ainghur, on the lianks of and the price iiroportionatc to the lioniliay 
 ihc .linniia, and in the Iliiiial.iya, ore is found i drug, which pays till/, duty. On an avera;;i' of 
 jii'hliiig ill) to 111) (ler cent. Coal, in coiij unction i years, Itengal has never sent less than live iiiil- 
 
 v.itli ii-dii. is found ill consideralde (luaiitity hoth 
 ill liitrdwan and Sylhet; that of the former 
 lii^tr. is preferred, and is largely consumed at Cal- 
 I'lilta; sdine has receiitlv heen discovered in the 
 
 lions sterling worth of (>piiim to China. Cotton 
 also is largely grown, and the cultivation has in- 
 creased imineiisidy since IHlil, owing to the dearth 
 occasioned hy the civil war in the United .States. 
 Saii;,'(ir distr., on tlu> Neriiiidda, which .showed near i Th« soil of lienarcs is especially adapted to tliu 
 the . surface. The upper soil is dry, light, and | sugar-cane, and sugar might, pcrhap.s, he produced, 
 sillily, in tlieNW.: clayey in the i)(i;il) and its j were siiHicieiit care taken in its luaiiufMclure, ot' as 
 iiiigliljunrlioud ; !<aii(ly again in Allahabad ; and a I good (urilily a- tli:;t of the W. Indies. Coll'ce, 
 
42H nilNdAL (PnESIDKNCY OP) 
 
 |ii'|i|n'r, anil loharro, tlio Intfrr rlii> (ly in Hhininiil- ! of ('alrnttii (lo wlinfii tlic 'illicr l>iilio)ii jii |n,fi|, 
 
 imrt' (iiiil Itiinillci'iiiiil, nri' N(a|ili' cxiMirit; thi- riirc 
 'jiici'tt <>r till* v., nri'lii|M-lnK<i liuv(> U-cn iiiitiiriiliwil 
 III (iili'iittn, mill n niiililiiuli' »( tirv*. fniits (iml 
 iitluT vt'ficta'ilcfi lit' Cliiiia, Cauliul, I'.iiripiii', iiml 
 Aiin'rii'ii, arr Kfiiwii in ilill'iTi'iil |iiirts(it' itu' |irr^<iil. 
 
 Aiiiiniih. — AlliKHti'tH aliiiiiiiil :ii llii' <Jaii;.';i'< aiiit 
 ltniliiiiM|iUlra ; iIki'Ii iiiri.'<l llu' |iiiiK'i<'M: aihl we 
 iiH'cl wirli will! t'li'|iliaiilK, rliiiim rnwc!*, li'iipanlM, 
 wiilvcH, liciirH, jarkaN. a j,'ri'al varii'ty nf lariln, a 
 iiriil'iihiiin III' li-'li, anil illlVirinl H|ii'rii'^ ol' ■criii'iilK, 
 IiipIIi inniiri'iil and iiiisiniiM, (Sit IIimiu^tan.) 
 ,Silk is |iriii'urn| I'l'iini liiitli llir iialivr ami llu-l'lii- 
 lU'Nc iir iiiniiilar woriii ; llu' niiilliiTrv ami i-a--tiir 
 oil jiIantH li'liif^ I'liltivatnl I'lir tin' |iiir|MiHi>. 'I'lu' 
 |iriiilnro in, |ii'riia|if<, iiirrrior li> that nf Italy, 
 tliiiiif;li till* lii'Ht Inilian MV f'l'tclicM a vi-ry liiuli 
 iprirc: llii-NJIk ili:<lr'<. lie rliii'lK between 'i'iP iiud 
 l!r," i»t.,aml«(;Oanii 1)"'^ ImiK. " 
 
 Itncfx iif Mm. — A niiiniiiT of uiilrly ilKTcmn, 
 Iriiii'M inliiiliil till' ti-rril. iiiiilcr this jirc^iil. : lliii- 
 iliHis, ililli'riii^' in jiliyiiral ami ini'iital i|iiaii(ii'!4 in 
 aliniwt cvi'ry iiniv. ; llii^ liiil-|M'ii|ili^ in Itliaiinnl- 
 )Miri', anil tiniuls in (iuinhvaiiali, of wliiili irarU 
 tliiy arc liiliivfil to lie the almri^cincx ; .MaliratlaK, 
 MiiKiiU, Scikd, l>aj|iinils, ('siK'i'ialiy in i)i'llii, llnn- 
 lilcriind, anil Omlf; (IimisIich, KhyciiH, (Jarrov.s, 
 Ciiiisyalis, and iMn>ili»*. nlira (tan;,'i'iii' natiniis, all 
 a|i|ia"ri'nlly iit'a ilitVcrcnt family rr^in llu- Ilindi'iiH, 
 niili iinit'c ilill'tTent uHaKco uiul rclif^im. (Soo. 
 
 IXKIA.) 
 
 I'lililiv Hirfnm: — Tlio total rcvi'inu^ nf tlic prr- 
 sidriii'y, ill till' llircc yiars IHIiO-Ol', as well as llif 
 (■\|i('iiiliiiirc diii'iiijr llui HaiiK! iicrind, is f^ivfii in 
 tliu sniijiiiin'd utali'nii'iit : — 
 
 ycnrii ctnltiig 
 April .'<il 
 
 18(!0 
 
 n«rpnuu 
 
 l'.',Hii:l,'.'U 
 ll,M!IS.iiJ.l 
 l;i,"ti(l,(lll7 
 
 FxtiTDitltura 
 
 4,l!lii,a:U 
 4,^!ll,IHl 
 4,H;i(I,li7H 
 
 'I'lic rcvt'iini'of llic iiri'sidcncy is cliii'lly dcrivrd 
 frimi liiri'c f;rcat Himrci's. iianndy, the land-liix, 
 iiislonis, ami the iniaii)|ii)ly ol' iipiiiin. 'I'lii' land- 
 tax, inclndiiiK <'Xi'is(', 'Sayrr' (variahlc iniimsls, 
 hiirli a,s town diitirs. lulls, and lici'iuu's), and 'Mo- 
 liir;ilui' (tax on Ikhiscs, shops, and trades), was 
 lirodnrtive ol' a rnvcniii! of ;i,«;.'iMI«(i/. in i.Si;(); 
 of :i,'.)0(i,:t'.m/. in l.siil ; and of l.;!|-.Mll'.l/. in 
 \Ht\-2. Till! customs iirodnccd 2,(»i;'.,0tt;»/. in 1N(!(>: 
 l'.--'(i(>,2l-/. ill 1*^''' ; "'"' I,".i77,!iiiii/. in 1«(ii'. 
 I'iiiallv, o|iiinn was iirodiiclivc of a net rcveiino of 
 !l,li:;ivi.');U. in IK<;i); of :<,:'■ 1(!,(; lit/, in iKCil; and of 
 l,(;();t,70."i/. ill 1«()2. It will 1)1! seen that the latter 
 iniiiortant soiirci! of revenue .sull'ered ii ureal de- 
 cline. Of the minor items of revenue, stamps 
 ]a-odnccd (i;!7,7H'.l/. ; salt, l,l!0.'i,70;)/. ; income and 
 a-scssed taxes. iJ7(i,.'l('iN/. ; and llii! post-olHce, mint, 
 mill miscellaneoiia items, 105,101/. in thu year 
 
 Jtvllffion, — The Hindoo and Molinmnicdan are 
 tlic priivailiiij; religions. In tlic |irov, Heiiffal, 
 the Moliamniedans constitute about one-scventli 
 of the pop., but their disiribniion is remarluible, 
 as in the \V. of that jirov. (and in JJaliur; they 
 are to the former but as I to 4, while tliey equal 
 their numbers in tlie K., althouj;li more distant 
 from the original scat of Mohammedan iiower. 
 The Mussulmans live mostly in the cities and 
 towns, where they sometimes even outnumlier the 
 Jlindoos. liiiddhism is conlined to Aracan and 
 the Hirniese provs. There arc niiwards of i'»0,(l(lO 
 native Chrisiians, attemliiif; the ditrerent I'm- 
 teslant cluirches staiioned in the iircsid. The 
 church eHtablishment. con.^ists of the Lord Bishop 
 
 are Nubordiiiale), an arclideacon, and 'IT riinnliMii*. 
 There is alxi a siiwill public CHtablishiiii'iit ii| tin' 
 Scotch kirk. The limnan ('aibolic eniali. riiTui^ 
 the coiinleiiauce and support of ^ov. ; ili inrmlitr* 
 are Hiibordinale to a vicar apostolic at Aj;ra, wiih 
 direct anthorily rniiii the pope; ami a Ii'kdIi' in 
 ('ah'Ulln, under Ibe auihoriiy of the I!. C. Iiis||,,|, 
 of Madras. < 'hristliiiiiy is said to be iii('ri'ii'<|ii , 
 
 Itililliuii/t, — There are three ({real lines nf mil. 
 way in the pre-'idincy, chIIimI, respeclivi ly, ihc 
 KasI Indian, the l-'.asiirn IIciivmI, and Ihei .iii'Miiii 
 and Sonlli I'.asii'rn, Of the iHirlion ol iIki |',;i„| 
 Indian, siinatcd in ibc lleiiKal division, i;7t niiloi 
 were ojien in iMiil, The i;a»lerii Iteiiniil, incMr|».. 
 rated Ann, -•"'> l*^''", consists of a line I'min In., 
 ciilta lo I la I'll, I'iti riibiia, with ii braii' li tu 
 •lessorc ; toi.il iiiij^'lb, ll'l miles. The rnlwav 
 was opened I briMi'liont No\. !.">. IH(;2, 'I'liiMal. 
 cnlla and Sniiili I, astern, mniiporaled ,liily ;|, 
 |H,"i7, iind opcncii .Ian. 22, lNii:i, consists uf (ijiii,. 
 from liitally lo the .Miilla, 2h^ inilis Iciii;^. .\ll 
 these lilies were conslrmli d bv I'ln^lish eii^tinnr-, 
 and with I'liii^lish capil.il. 'i'be l''.aslerii lleii'.'.il 
 railway was made al a cn-i of l,r,ii,21f.7,, ami iho 
 t'alciilla and the ('alciitla and Soiiih lia'-lerii :.: i\ 
 cost of oiai.iion/. The land reipiired for Ihi! Jaii r 
 line was f^iven by tlii! Inilian (;ovcriiim'iit, 
 
 ll'mtori/. — Xw 1707, Calciilla. which liiul pn'- 
 viously been snburdiiiale to Mailras, was inaili' .i 
 separate prcsid.i and in 1721', a ibiirleruii-i),'riiiiii'il 
 to the couip. eniiblin^ llieiii to csliilijish :i pim;! 
 coiirl there, as well as al the other pre-^id. la I'lln, 
 by a treaty willi Meer ('o>ini, Ine sniilialiilar i.f 
 lii'ii^Cal, the reveinies of liiirdw/m, Mii|ii.i|iiirr, 
 and t'llilla;J;onJ.^ were assi;;ned lo ihe K, I, ('iini|i., 
 and in I7ii,i an imperial ^raiil from Shah AIImi', 
 to the l",ii(.jllsh to receive the revenues of Hic (!■. 
 waniiv of llen^j^al, Itahar, and Orissa, pive tlinn 
 the virtual soverei^jnty of those provinres, wliirli 
 ihey aciiially assiimed in 1772. in 177;! ii j,'iivir 
 niir-!.;-eiieral was appointed lo reside in r.enf,'al, to 
 wliich pr. sill. Ibe I wool hers were made Miliiiriliiiatc, 
 and a .•-iiprenie court of judicature e-.l:ibii-lieil. with 
 Jiiil^;es appointed by the crown; in 177.') the i'eiii|i, 
 becauie possessed of IJciiarcs and its lerriliiry. in 
 17'.i;i, nniler the adminisl ration of Lord CiiriiwiilliN 
 the I'erperial Seltk'iiicnt was inlioduid iiiii 
 Itenjiiil ; prov. courts of apjical were at llii'sanii) 
 timei'slablished in Calcutta, I'atna, Mnursheiliiliad 
 and I)aica, with the courts of siidilir ilcwanny, 
 and ni/imut ada-.vliit ; in 171IH. the i;ii;;rHli i(«ii; 
 possession of .Mlahabiid; in iMill, the MnilialiilMnl' 
 ( >iiile relinquished nohilciind, (■ornckpiMir, ami llii' 
 Doab, lo the lirilish; and in 1MU2, the iialiulnit' 
 Furriickabad ceded bis territory ou r.i'eipt. nf il 
 pension. In l^'i;'), the empire of Delhi liiially t'dl 
 iiefore the ]!ritisli arms. Kiiiikioii was ol'iuiiii'il 
 from Nepaiil in 1«15: Saiigor and Ihe terntnriis 
 on the N'erlindda were ceded in IHbS; in isjl, 
 Siiif^apore and MahuV'a. Ibe latter ceiled by tin' 
 Diilcli, were aeqiiired ; and in IM2I>, liir;;e ilistr, in 
 (rumlwauali were ceded by the rajah of licrar; 
 Aracan, Martaban, Ve, Tavoy, and .Mirt,'iii, wir>' 
 ceded also in lH2li by the Hirmese, as will as nil 
 dominion over Assam. The capital nf lleiipil 
 has always been the scat of the Itritisli fjnviTii 
 ment in India. The governors-yencral, siiicclTJl*, 
 have b(!eii as follows : — 
 
 17.^.8 Col, n. Olivo. 
 17(ii) ,1. L. llolwell, Esq. 
 I7IIII ]1. Vansittart, Ksq. 
 I Till ,1. ''Spencer, Esq. 
 l"ii') l.oni Ulive. 
 I7II7 Harry X'i'ivlst, Esq. 
 17i;!» .1. t'iu;ii!r, i:;-i|. 
 ITTl' War. Jlasthiiis, Esq. 
 
 178.") .=iir J. Macpliorson. 
 l7S(i Marq. CiirnHallis. 
 I7!l:l Lord Tiii|.'iiiMiiiitli. 
 I7!I,S itiirii. Welh'.-lcy. 
 ISa.'i Marc|. Cnrnwnlli'. 
 l.so.") Sir (r. liiiiiow. 
 18.17 Earl of Miiito. 
 IBia AIurciuisofllUjtiiiE* 
 
BF.N(U/,Y 
 
 I i')in|>Um-. 
 iii'iit III ilii' 
 nil. riTcvvi'i 
 
 ittllll IllllCft 
 
 A^'rii, nllli 
 
 a li'unti' III 
 !. <'. lii-li'S- 
 
 iiiiri'a«iii„. 
 inr< 111' riiii- 
 I'livrly, ihc 
 llifi ali'iitlii 
 (it llii^ Y.M 
 n, <i7J niiiVs 
 
 ,'nl, iliriiri" ■ 
 ic rnuii ( ;i ■ 
 I liraii> ii til 
 riic rilS»:lV 
 I. 'I'll.' ('ill. 
 itcil .liilv ;i, 
 i.stn ur II liiii' 
 It Inn;.;, All 
 >li l■ll^;im•l'r•, 
 ♦lirii llriii:;il 
 If.'/,, ami 111.. 
 
 I'.ii>ii'rii . I 
 ur tlio liii. r 
 ni'iit, 
 
 ell liiiil |iri'- 
 , wii^ luaili' a 
 rwiiinniiiii'il 
 ilili.-.li a I'lii;:! 
 iT'iil. liiKii'i, 
 H.Miliiilnlar I'l' 
 I, Miiliia|iiiri', 
 ■ r„ l.t'iimi'., 
 
 Shall .Mini'. 
 
 Ill's III' till' il' • 
 
 '!i, (iavc limn 
 iv'mrrH, wliii'li 
 177:1 !i ;,'iivrr 
 
 ill rirlijiill, III 
 
 I'Miliiinliiiatc, 
 
 |iilili-lit'il, willi 
 
 r7."i lilt' i'iiiii|i, 
 
 lorriliiry. In 
 
 nU'iirinvalli-, 
 
 iti'iiiliii'il iiii'i 
 
 , at till' i'aiuii 
 
 iliiiirshcilaliail 
 
 |iUr ilcwaniiy, 
 
 l''.iij,'li^li iiiiiii 
 
 -uiilialiilMrir 
 
 k|;iiiii', ami till' 
 
 Ihc mil 11 ill 111' 
 
 r,'i'('i|it, (if II 
 
 llhi tiiiallyriU 
 
 IwilS nl'Mliili'il 
 
 Itlic ti'rritiirii"i 
 
 <1,S; ill \!^-il 
 
 li'i'ili'il hy till' 
 lliir^cili'-iriii 
 Ijah iif HiTiir; 
 
 .MlTjJlli, WlT'' 
 
 las wi'll ii.'^i'" 
 111 111' lleiipil 
 Iritisli (,'iiviTii 
 fal, siiicc 17.J!<, 
 
 I l\Iacplinr«)n. 
 
 J ('(iniwiiliis. 
 irci^'iiiiiiiiitli- 
 Wi'ili'^icy. 
 , ('(iniwalli-'- 
 
 lliirlow. 
 lit Miiito. 
 tiisol'llU't>"S^ 
 
 IS 17 Mlll-|. I)nl1inll-ll>, 
 
 |M.^.^ |,iir.| riiiiiiliitc. 
 
 INti'j L.iril I'.luli . 
 
 lmi:i Hir Jxliii Lnwrrmic. 
 
 1«)1 l.i.ril Amti»'i'"t. 
 \Ktn Ijifil W. Ilfiiiliii'k. 
 l>n l.nnl AiK'KliiMil, 
 Hij liinl Klli'i|li.iiiiii(;»i. 
 i<ll .--ir lliuiry llin'illiu'i', 
 
 (Kiir fiirtliiT (It tiiil.t r(•^,'l»rllin^; the |iri'nl(|pnoy t>f 
 llciiKal. "••<• In'i>i.\.) 
 11KN<'A/V (nil. Hiitivriii mill Hfrrniri-), n 
 
 •i.jrit, tiiMii (•!' N. Al'ric.'i di-dricl llarcii. r<'«. 'I'ri- 
 j,i,|' (III tlu' I'".. <'<iii«f (if llio (iiilf ill' .Sidrii (Mil, 
 S<^ti> Miijiyr) ; ImI, ;IJ0 7 ;i'l" N,. I..ii>,'. W '-'' K. 
 K.stiriiairil |)"|>, il.ixio. It ih lltii'lv Niiiialcd (ni tlii' 
 „|.,fjtiiHif an cxtt'iisivc mill very Icriilc |iliiiii, Imi is 
 niiwrulily liiii'n, I'l'hy In thi' fxtrcinc, ami iii('i"<tiil 
 In nil aliniist iiiliili ralili> fxlclit >vl(li llli's. I'lic 
 lijirlKinr. wliicli hcciii- to liavf I'liriiirrly liad il<'('|> 
 water, is lllliil ii|i, sii ilial it raiiiiiil imw linfiitcrcd 
 liv vessels draw iii;fiii(ir('tliaii 'i (ir H It. wiilci'; and 
 ijiat iiiily ill iiMiilcriitf wi'iillu'r. At tlit- ciiiriiiict' 
 til the piirt Is a rasllc, the residence (if the liey, liiit 
 Knrllilcss as a means uf dereiicc. Niilwillislaiidiiii; 
 ii» |i(iverty, and llic iiidnleiici' tiC its .\riili iiilialii- 
 i.iiits ll('ii|,'a/y lia.sHiiiiie trade, |iriii('i|ially carried 
 nil liy .lews. The value nl' the f,\|i(irlH, cnnsislliij; 
 |irlii('i|iallv (it'wiidl, dxeii, and hIii'I'|i, salted liiitter 
 .mill ciiriii aiiKiiinis, (Hi the average, to ahniii 
 I'i.iiiHi/. |icr anniini. Tlip trade is niosilv carried 
 iiinvitli the iiilier Itarliary slates and Maila, 
 
 It is helii'veil that Kennii/.y (ic('ii|iii's tlie site 
 nl'ilie ancient Itereiiice, which liad the gardens nt' 
 till' lli'H|i<'riiles in its vicinity. It is sinf^nilar, that j 
 iliiiii^;li its walls were cniiiiilctcly rcjuiired iinder ; 
 .liiKliiiiaii, hardly a trace (if tlieiii is imw to he j 
 nicl with. In fact, scarce a veslinc of the old city I 
 istii he I'liiiiid nliove the surface of the jilaiii ; hut 
 viTV extensive remains are found tin di^'f^iiij; a 
 I'lMit iir two helow the surface. 
 
 UMNtiOlfl'', IIKAI). a |ironiontory of Ireland, 
 \. t'liiist, CO. Antriin, adjninin^c the ( iiant's < 'ausc- 
 w«v: lat. f)i")° 111' H>"'N., lonj;. i'fi t.V '.Ml" \V. 
 This reniarUalile iiniinoiiiory is made np of n 
 luiiiilicr (if capes. Of these the most perfect and 
 MrikiiiK is I'leaskin. 'lis sniniiiit,' to use the 
 wiinls of the Kev. Mr. Ilaiiiiltoii. 'is covered with 
 niliiii );ras.sy sod, under which lies ihi^ iiiitiiral 
 ruk, having,' generally a iinil'orin hai'd surface, 
 Niiiicwliat cracked and shivereil. At the dejith of 
 liiiir 1'.' ft. from \\w simiinit, this rock lie-ins In 
 aNiiime a oolninnar tendency, and fnriiis a raiiKe 
 (if mas.sy jiillars of lia.salt, which stmid pcrpeii- 
 iliciiliir to the horizon, presenting;, in the sliarji 
 fiu'ii (if the ]irimioiitory, the appearance of a nian- 
 nitiiTiit ^jallcry or colonnade, of upwards of (it) ft. 
 ill licijiht. This colonnade is supported on a solid 
 l.n>c (if coarse hlack, irrej^ular rock, nearly (10 ft. 
 ihii'k, alioiiiidiiiii; in lilclisorair-lioles; hut tlioiiKit 
 cninparalively irrej^nlar, it may Ik? evidently oh- 
 N'ncil til affect a iH'culiiirli;;nn', tendiiif;, in many 
 places, to run into rej^ular forms, re.seinhliiij,' the 
 sliiHitiiifC of salt, and many other Mulwtunws, 
 iliiriii;,' a hasty crystallisation. 
 
 'Under tliisf,'rent hed of stone stands n second 
 raii^'o iif pillars, hetween 40 niid ."id ft. in lieij,flit, 
 lif^s p'dss and more .slinrply delined than those of 
 I 111' upper story ; many of them, tin a close view. 
 cnmlatinj; even the neatness of the colunins in the 
 liiinit's Caii.seway. This lower raiii^e is lioriie on 
 a layer of red oclirc-stone, which serve.s iw a relief 
 III simw it to /.Teat advantdf^e. 
 
 'These two admiralilc natural fcnll<'rie«, topetlier 
 with the interjacent ma.ss of irrcH'iilar rock, form a 
 licilK'Hiliciilar' licMnlit of 170 ft.; from the haseof 
 ^^lik'li, the promontory, covered with rock and 
 ^TU-'is, sliipes down to tlie .sea for the space of "JtM) 
 fi.miire, niakini;. in all, a mass of near llio ft. in 
 |i''if;lit, which, in beauty and variety of colonriiif;, 
 ii' elegniico and novelty of arrangement, and in 
 
 IlKNdl KI.A 490 
 
 ll,e rxir.iordinary niiiKiiltudc of its oliJivtH, enniiof 
 re.'idily Ih> rivalhil \>\ niiMliiii)X of the kind at 
 pn'st'iil known,' (LeliiTN mi X\w i't»»\ of Antrim, 
 ll'nio, ed, n. HI.) 
 
 IlKNt.l I'.I.A.acountry if \V. Afri.n, the rnnil<< 
 of which are nsiially considered In he ihc Cnawr'i 
 riM'r on Ihc N,, the Ciiincne river en the I'!,, the 
 iiioiintains liehind Capi^ .Nei^l'o on the S,, and the 
 sill re from Ihiil cape to the nioulli of the I'oawr.'t 
 
 on the \V. .\( rdin^ to this onlliiie, il exleuds 
 
 from H'-" to ltl<J N. hit., and from \'.ou> 17'^ K. 
 loll;;., Iiil\ inp; a mean leii^'lh of I'll) m., a hreadtli 
 of '.'70 111., and an area of cotisiili riililv nior(> than 
 1,11110.1111(1 Mil, III. (I.ahat, Ilt'hil. Ilisi.'de ri'.thiop. 
 Or., i. 117; lilirliol. Voyage lot'oiino Hiver, p. ffOl.) 
 
 t'licv Iff t/iv Citinilrii. — ilen^iiela appears to lie 
 liioiinlainoUH lliroii|;hoiit its whole exlciit; the 
 land rising someliines so high tli.'il, if ii do not 
 adiially reach the snowline, a very ureal dej^ret! 
 of cold is experienced. (Iliil (el, I'lirci i^' I'll^jriiiis, 
 li. -'i.i ; liowditch's riirtU(;iit's(i |»isci. , . ries, p. (ij,) 
 Tlie.se mountaiiis conic dnwii t., live sea, are in 
 ^'I'lieral very dilllciill of iwisHat;i', Iml, like other 
 Al'riian elevations, ri.se in luasses ntilicr than 
 jieak'', and alionnd in i erraces, talile-lainls, and 
 valleys, to their very Miminils. The rivers are 
 iiiimeroiis and iniporianl, and as the direction .if 
 the moiiiitaiiis i^ from N I'l. to S\\'., the chief of 
 them run a NW. course to the .Vlhintic. This is 
 the case with the lar;;e river, withuiit a iianie, 
 which falls into the ocean at ('ape Nc'iro. an. I 
 with the Colial, Coporiio, Catiiinliela, and ('iivo. 
 Ilcsides these, which are very larj^e. there arc an 
 iiiiinense niiinlier of small sireains rnnniii;; ^liorl 
 and alinosi sirai>;lit acmss fimn the W. Ilanks of 
 llie nioiintains, and the various allliienlM of the 
 principal rivers are alinost. iiiniiiiicrahle ; in addi- 
 tioii to which. spriii;,'s of swcc: Wilier are SI) aliiiii- 
 dant, thai in iilinost every part of llie (diinlry, 
 lliey may la- found hy (li;.';;ill^,' In llie depth of two 
 feet. The natural conseipicncc of this aliiind.'int. 
 iiioisliire in tro|ii('al countries is oli<erved in lieii- 
 giiela, and nowhere is vej/ctation more aliiiinlaiif 
 or more varieil. Kense forcsis of cedari. palms, 
 liooliash, date-trees, latnarinds, with every oilier 
 tropical tree — and some tli:.i lielmie; t,> mure leni- 
 |ierale cliiiiates, clothe the sides and lops of llin 
 monniains, iiitcnnixed with vines, lianaii.'is, 
 ananas, and all the linest species of tropical fruit. 
 I j(>ns, ti;;ers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, 
 and other lai^e animal.s, are extremely nnmeroiis ; 
 ill addition to which, the zehra is verv cdiiiinoiily 
 met with, and, in short, every wihi animal fiir 
 which Africa is noted is found within the liiiiiisof 
 l!eii;.''iiela. The elk (whicli is also a native iicre) 
 is iiarticularly ))ri/.ed. from its heiii^; supposed that, 
 one of his hoofs has power to cure the epileps)- ; 
 (leer aiKl antelopes, of course, are ahundant. 
 ("altle, sheep, and K""*"! •i"' verv nnmeroiis. The 
 ostrich is al.so found here, wild all the reptiles, 
 daiif^eroiis and harmless, for which this part of 
 Africa is so much reputed; crocodiles lieinj; e..|ie- 
 cially iiiimcrous and jiowerful. The monntain.'i 
 are known to yield copper, sulphur, ]ietroleiim, 
 and crystals; and are Hup]iose(l to possess jfold ami 
 silver. Some of tht; rivers iinipiestionalily hrin;.; 
 down the former, bur pr.ibnhly in small fpiaiitilies, 
 which the iiative.s work ini./ the liaiidle.s of their 
 halcliet.s. 
 
 The rainy season is accounted, in BeiiKiiela, to 
 last thiiinKli Jlay and June; hut it is extremely 
 irret;iilar, and .sometime.-i no rain falls for the spac(> 
 of three years. (Howditc'i, vol. ii.) The coast is, 
 hy all aceoniits, excessively unhealthy; hut the 
 interior is .saliilirioiis, and a]>pareiitly well lilted 
 for cultivation of all kinds; every dejfree of tem- 
 perature seems to be experienced at dilfereiit 
 
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 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
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 ■4^ 
 
430 
 
 BKNGUELA VELIIA 
 
 
 clpvntions, niid it priilmlily is not ox|miso(1 to tho 
 iinccrtftinly of ruin, wliicli exists on llic coiist. Miil- 
 t<'l, wiio r('siil('<i ill (lill'crciil parls of llic iiitcriur 
 for a t'oiisidcraliU lime, never, uiiioiigst all liis 
 miseries, <'oni|)laiiiH of the cliinate. 
 
 ISeiigiiela IS inlialiiteil liv a iimnlier of jiotty 
 trilies of iii(le]i('iiilent liarliannns, wliose lialiitsaiid 
 manners do not dill'er from liiose of other negroes, 
 ■\vitli tlie exee|itioii of one — \\n'. (Jagas, or (iigas, 
 n wandering herd of roM)ers, wliieh appear lo ap- 
 ))roxiinate, nearer to jierfeft l>arl>arisni than any 
 otlier, even of (lie African races. Tiiey are of no 
 trilie nor nation, destroy all their own children, 
 nnd keep up their strength and innnliers hy steal- 
 ing those of twelve or thirteen years of age from 
 the countries which they oveiTiin, They are hold 
 lliid skilful soldiers, hut ruthless caiinihals,willioiil 
 the slightest idea of art or industry, so that 
 vherever they encamp, they destroy all around, 
 lind then depart, to iiillict the same desolation on 
 iumw. other district. They appear freriiieiilly to 
 «;aiis(! a famine, where such a calaniKy would 
 otherwisi! seem to he impossihle, verifying the 
 iinimated descri))tion of tlu^ locust : — ' Itefore ihein 
 is a garden, heliind them a harrcii desert.' Itattid, 
 who was their jirisoner for more than two years, 
 lias left a full and curious account of these sa- 
 vages, which carries the inijin'ss of iriilli on every 
 line, lieiigiiehi was formerly suliject to Angola, 
 lit least nominally, and was accounted one of the 
 M^venteeii provinces of thai kingdom. Tii(^ Portu- 
 guese have hmg had s(!ttlenients on the coast and 
 the interior, but their jiower does not, seem to ex- 
 tend far beyond their forts. See An<i<»i.A. (liat- 
 tel's I'urciins, ii. 974-1177; liarhol, p. oOI; Me- 
 rolhi, pp. ()(Mi8; Labat, i. G(i-70; ISowditcli, 
 ]»]). 2G-C4 ; Cnjit. Owen's Nur, of Yoy., ii. 271- 
 
 27r).) 
 
 Isr.NOTTF.LA VELIIA (Old Bengmla), the 
 native capital of the country above described, lat. 
 10° Ah' S., long. 15° 5' K. "it is well situated on 
 the coast, between the rivers Cnve and Loiija, in 
 a very fniitful champaign country, and about 
 SI m. to the S. is a convenient harbour, called by 
 the sailors Hen's I5ay, from the number of do- 
 mestic fowl which are collected about it. There 
 are no aceoimts jn-eserved of the poji. or other sta- 
 tistics of Old IJeiignela; its trade, if it ever had 
 imv, having long since be?n transferred to 
 
 liKNtiL'KLA (ST. I'TLU'l'E 1)E), the Por- 
 tuguese caiiital of the same country, lat. 12° \t' 
 S.j hing. 15 E°., about 100 m. S. of the old town. 
 I'op. aliout ;!,(I00, the greater ))ortion being free 
 Llat^ks or slaves. It is a wretched place, built of 
 lialf-baked bricks, and so slightly that no tene- 
 inen«s are ever reiiaired, but as soon as thej- begin 
 to decay, others are built by their sides. It stands 
 on an o])eii bay, and is watered bj* a tolerable 
 stream, formed' by the junction of two small 
 rivers. lt,s site is a marsh, full of stagnant pools, 
 and so extremely unhealthy, that the Portuguese 
 adirm none of their countrywomen could entlnre 
 it three months. It was once nearly destroyed by 
 nn invasion of elephants, a mimber of them having 
 entered it in search of water during the dry sea- 
 non ; and danger always threatens the inhabitants 
 from the alligators and hippopotami in the river. 
 
 UENICAKLO, a marit. town of Spain, in Va- 
 Icncni, on the Mediterranean, 25 m. S. Tortosa. 
 Pop. (;,i)50 ill 1857, The town is defeniled by 
 walls, a ditch, and an old castle. Streets narro^v 
 nnd dirt}', and the houses mean. The surrounding 
 territory is very fruitful, ptirticularly in wine ; 
 large qnantilies of which, of a dark red colour, 
 considerable strength and flavour, are shipped from 
 this town, whence it has its name, i)rincipally for 
 Cetle. It is thence conveyed to Bordeaux, where 
 
 BENIN 
 
 it is rmploj-ed to give body and colour to tl;,-. 
 clarets, especially to those exported to tjic i;,,,,. 
 lisli markets, (jleiiderson on \Vines, p, |ii|,| 
 
 l!l''.MN, a <'ouiitrv of Africa, near the IC, ly. 
 tremitv of the (iiilf of (iiiiiiea, between P ami ip 
 \. lat"., and 1° and H},° E. long. It has S. tii,. 
 tiiilf, W. Dahomey, NW. ^'arriba, and Nl'.. and i;. 
 the lower Niger, whi<'li separates it from the statis 
 of NytVe, .lacoba, Fiiiida, and Calabar. It Ims a 
 triangular form, is about :M0 m. in lengili, |,v ;;ii i 
 III. ill extreme width, and coiitains probalily ii,,| 
 less than 50,(100 s(|. m. (Adams' lleiiwirk> h;i 
 Coast from K, Palmas to X. Congo, pp. I(i;i-|j.s; 
 Clapperton's Second Exped.. ])p. 1-;17 ; Lainlcrs 
 Travels, p|). <i;t2-01tl.) On the coast, tlu' coiinirv 
 is level, but it rises gradually, till, in the rciitr.il 
 parts, the continuation of the Korg nmiintiiins 
 attains an elevation of 2,500 ft. It is well walcriil. 
 for the delta of the Niger coni))rises nKirclliiin 
 l-IO m., that is, more than 7-loilis of the whulc 
 sea-board. The \V. braiu'h of this delta is iju. 
 stream which has alwavs been called the river i.r 
 lleiiin ; the farthest 1'^. is tln^ main liinb, funnerK 
 called the Nini ; but demonstrateil by l.iuKlcrtu 
 be the Niger. (See Ni(ii;i;.) Itesides (Ikvc, tlnro 
 are several other streams upon the coast, iinrcan 
 there be jiny doubt but that the nioiiiitaiiis i;ivc 
 forth many allliieiits to the great river in tin. 
 interior. (Smith's \%)yage to (iniiiea, |i. 227; 
 Lander, \). 4i<7 et .lerj. ; Adams, |)|i. lO'.l. Il!l, ii',) 
 Under the intliience of abundant irrigation, ami a 
 tropical sun, the productions of the (arili arc vcrv 
 numerous. They do not, however, did'er frui'n 
 those of other jiarts of the same coast, except tliat 
 wood is rather more abundant. (Adams, p. Ill, i 
 The hippopotamus is morc: common than in ntlur 
 countries of (tiiinea (Lander, p. (i;t'.»),in projuirliuii 
 to the more magnilicent scale of the liydrogr.'i|iliy: 
 but in other resjH'c^ts, the animals of Itciiiii are 
 also describe^l in those of Guinea generally ; aiul 
 the same remark will apply to the habits aiid cus- 
 toms of the natives: the same arts, with tlio 
 exception of gold working, for gold is not fMundiii 
 IJenin (A(hims, )). 170) ; the same goveriiinciit; 
 the same religion (Eeticism) ; the same festivals, 
 marked by the same disgusting cruelties, arc nh- 
 served here as iii Ashaiitee (see Asiiantick). wiili 
 one additional aggravation, namely, the aiiiinal 
 sacrifice of human victims to the powerof tlic sea, 
 (Adams, p. 115.) Pt'iiin is well jieopled ; the 
 capital contains 15,000 inliab., and tlie town (jf 
 W'arre 5,000. (Adams, iii. 12;>.) Claiipeitoii alsu 
 found the N. frontier, on the Akinga river, very 
 poimlous, as did Lauder that of the E., upon tlio 
 banks of the Xiger. Previously to the nominal 
 aUditioii of the slave-trade, this country was the 
 great theatre of that trallic. An amiiial fair is 
 hehl at Honnv, on the coast, iit which nut f'cwtr 
 than 20,000 slaves are S(dd, of whom it is allc.i,'!'! 
 10,000 are brought from the single district of 
 Heebe or Eboe, a port of Ilenin, on the right liank 
 of the Niger. Some few of these are sohl lo 
 native masters, as the kings of New and Old 
 (.'a^abar, but the vast majorit.v are disposed of to 
 foreign traders, and are shipped principally fur 
 Itrazil and Cuba. (Adams,]). 121) ; l{uxtoii,/K;.«iw. 
 &c.) A more harmless trade, and to a considcrahle 
 ext(!nt, is carried on in salt, palm oil, and blue 
 coral. 
 
 Benin, a large town of Africa, cap. of thealmve 
 kingdom; lat. 'oo lo' N., long. 5° 5;{' E. Top, 
 estimated about lt!,O0O. It stands on the ri},dit 
 bank of a large stream, hitherto called the river 
 of Benin, but now known to be one of the .iiime- 
 rous mouths of the Is'iger; it is built without any 
 order, t he houses being detached from each other, 
 and consequently occupying agreatdealofgroiiiul. 
 
BENIN (inOTIT OF) 
 
 Thcv nrc hxr^c, cinistriictc'd oC clay, nivl ncnlly 
 tli.iti'lK'il Willi rcc(ls, ^traw, or leaves. 'I'liere is iiii 
 iilniii.'*! ciiiilimial iiiarkel I'nr catlle, sliee|), j;iials, 
 !,j;^fs. piiiillry, yams, (•(iiimi. ivory, ami |jir(i|ieaii 
 liaris; it""'* "1^" f'uriiierly (lie ^reat eiii|)oriiiiii 
 l',,r sliives ; lait the river not Iteiiij,' imvi^jaUle fur 
 lar'c sliipH liij(lier tliau 40 in. Ix-low lleiiiii, this 
 inMKi' if 'X'W enrried on nearer the coast, and 
 iliiclly at Hrass, tlie outlet of the nniiii hrancli of' 
 ilii' Si^'cr, IJcnin lias a system of municipal 
 .'iiviriinieiit resemhlinf; (hat of more civilised 
 riiiiimiiiilies. (iatto, or Apitton, is the port ol' 
 lliiiiii; it lies about Id ni. down the river, or 
 ,;iiliir oil a lar;;e creek which the I'ornier ^ives 
 lilt Iriiiii its haiilv, and is aci'cssihle to craft of the 
 liiinli'ii "flit* tons. It is said to he larj;er and more 
 l„i]iiil"iis than Heniii itself. The surrounding;' couii- 
 irv is well wooded, fertile; hut low, thit. swampy. 
 ai'i,l very imheallhy. It was hen? that llel/oiii 
 iliiil ef liyseiitery in IH-Jlt. on his road to lloiissa 
 iii;! Tiinhiictoo. (Smith's Voyaij;e to (ininea, 
 u.'l'M: Adams's Ifcnnirks on the ("oiintry from 
 (';i|ic rnhnas. p. 1 1 1, &c, ; Nouvelles Aniialis des 
 Viiyii^'cs. xxii. ll'J.) 
 
 liKNiN (liuiiiT oi'). The coast of IJenin is so 
 mIIciI. It is a coii.siderahle indcnitation of the 
 (liiir iif (iiiiiica, extendiiifj from the Akin;,'a to 
 till' Nifjcr. It is an iron-lxaind coast, ofi'eriiif^ no 
 (■iiiranic to vessels, except at the mouths of rivers, 
 •111(1 scnrcely there, if the vessels be of much 
 Uir.lcn. 
 
 1)|;nin' (liivKi! ok), called also the Foioiosa), 
 fulls into the tinlf of (ininea, aliout 181) m. below 
 lliiiin, ill hit. f>° 10' X., Ion;;. l>° K. It is a deltoid 
 liniiiili of tlie Nij;er, commciicinfi at Kirrce, about 
 liiii 111. above Heiiin, and its whole course, in- 
 clusive of windings, may be about 210 m. (See 
 
 ,\'|(1|-,1!.) 
 
 liKNlSUKFF, a town of K^ypt, cap. prov. same 
 niiinc. 1)11 the W. bank of the Nile, (!1 m. S. Ciiiro. 
 I'lip. estimated at 7,000. It has a line of railway 
 t(i Cairn, which places it in direct communication 
 ivitli Alexandria and the ^lediterranean. IJeiii- 
 suctf isa pretty, well built, im)iortaiit town, beinj^ 
 tlu' entrepot for all the jirodiice of the fertile 
 valley of Kayoum. It has a cotton-mill, and 
 Mvcral other manufactures, and is well su|iplie(l 
 ivitli provisions of all .sort.s. (Quarries of nliibaster 
 liii\e hcen discovered in its vichiity. (Scott's 
 li'V|)t ,111(1 Candia.ip. 2(1.5.) 
 
 I'.KXXia'KKXSTElX, or BKNKEXSTFIX, 
 atiiwiiof I'russia, prov. Saxony, reg. Krfurth, on 
 llic Kaphode, at the foot of the llarz, in an enr/nre 
 i-itiiatod in the duchy of Ilrunswick, 1;) ni. XNW. 
 N'lirilliausen, Pop. 4,22;) in 18(;i. The town has 
 an iron-foundry, u nail-work, a brewery, and a 
 iiiaimfactory of baskets. 
 
 liKX NKVIS, a mountain of Scotland, in Dnni- 
 liartiin.shire, the -second, in pohit of altitude, of the 
 liriiish mount.iin.s. It lies immediately to the E. 
 Ill Fort William, being separated from the Gram- 
 jiiaii.s hy the desolate tract called the JMoor of 
 iiaiiiuich. It rises 4,370 ft. above the level of the 
 sfa; licing only 20 ft, lower than Hen Macdliu, 
 tlip hijjliest mountain in Scotland, while it is 70!) 
 11. higher tliiiu Snowdon, the most elevated of the 
 Wdsli mountains. Its circumference at the base 
 (xcecds 24 m. Its oulline all round is well de- 
 linwl. Its N, front consists of two grand ascents 
 <ir terraces ; the level top of the lowest of which, 
 at ail elevation of about 1,700 ft., contains a wihl 
 luni or mountain lake. ' The outer acclivities of 
 tills, the lower jiart of the mountain, are very steep, 
 tliiiiiftli covered with a short grassy swanl, inter- 
 niixwl with heath; but at the lake, this general 
 vctfolalilc chithing ceases. The surface of the 
 upper and higher part of the mountain, where 
 
 r.KRAR 
 
 431 
 
 not absolutely precipitous, is sfrowod with miRular 
 fragmen(s of stone, of \(irious siz<'S, wedged toge- 
 ther, and forming a siiii;ulfirly rugged cuveriiig, 
 ammig which we look in \aiii fir any symptoin of 
 vegetable life. On the NM. :dde, a broad, lerrilic, 
 and tremendous precipice, comnieiiciiig at the 
 summit, reaches down to a depth of not less than 
 I,,"i00ft. The furrows and chasms in the black 
 beetling rocks of this preci,iice are constantly lilh'd 
 with snow, and (he brow of the mountain is al>o 
 encircled with an icy diadem. From (he summit, 
 the view is remarkably grand and sublime: it 
 commands most of the W. islands, from the I'ass 
 of ,lura to Cuchnllin, in Skye ; ami on the I'!., the. 
 view extends to Schiehallioii, (.'airugorm and IJeii 
 ^laiMlhii.' (.Anderson's llighhinds, |i. •M't.) 
 
 lien being a term used in tbetiaelic to sigiiifv.a 
 high summit, is applied to several of the Scoicli 
 mountains, as lien Eonioml, on the li. side of Loch 
 Loiiioml, ,'),l',l."i f(. idnivc the level of llinsea, and 
 the best known of all the iligblaml mnuiilaiiis ; 
 lien Maidlui, on the cuntincs of riaiilV, Inverness, 
 and Aberdeen, l,;!',»0 ft. jibove the sea, being, as 
 already stated, 20 ft. higher than Hen Nevis; 
 lien Sawyers, lien (iloe, lien Wyvis, &c, (Sec 
 Scotland.) 
 
 liENttlT (ST.), a town of the Isle de lionrboii, 
 on the I',, coast of the island, at the mouth of (h(t 
 -Marsouiiis. Estiiii. jiop. 4.000. The products of 
 (he district are slii[(ped in small vessids at (hi! 
 creek, or bay, for St. Denis, (he cap. of th;; 
 islaml. 
 
 lilOXSITEIM, a town of the grand duchy of 
 llcsse Darmstadt, !;"> m. S. Darmstadt. I'op. 
 4,177 in lM(il. The town has ft church, a c(dlege, 
 and an hospital. 
 
 liKliAH, an old province of the Dcccaii, India, 
 comprising Nagpoor, and a considerable porlioii 
 of (iuiidwanah ; between hit, 17° IS' ami 22° l.'i' 
 N., long. 78° 20' to 80° 48' E. : greatest leiigdi, 
 N. to S., ;i;iO m.; breadth oOO m. ; area ;")(!. 72.'i s(|, 
 m. (('apt. Sutherland.) Pop. about 2..")00.000. 
 In the X. its boiim'.iry is a high table-liind : its 
 SW. limit is for ti;-' most ))art identical with the 
 course of the Wurda. The other chief rivers arc. 
 the Piiiii-tinnga, its tributary the Khahan, and 
 the .Midianuddy. The land is fertile in dry grains; 
 peas, vetches, llax, sugar, betel, and tob.-icco, are. 
 also raised ; and, since the outbreak of the Ameri- 
 can civil war, it has become a gr(\'it lield i'or cot- 
 ton. The Nagpoor wheat is n^ckoned tlu' most 
 nutritions in India; it comes to ))erfi!cliiai in three 
 months, and with mai/.e, which is sown after it aM 
 a second crop, forms the chief subsistence of tli(> 
 inhab. A large jiroiiortion of the land has been 
 brought into cultivation since the IJritish have 
 had the government of this eountrv; the capital 
 of the culliv.'itors generally has increiised, and 
 irrigation and the state of (he wells are better 
 attended to. Sugar, betel, an<l tobacco are largely 
 manured, but not with cow dung, which is used 
 by the Hindoos for the floors of houses, and f<ir 
 fuel, though plenty of wood suitable for the latter 
 jiurpose is scattered over the country. Indigo 
 grows wild, but is not cultivated to any extent, 
 and opium very little. A great portion of the 
 country belongs to zemindars, who pay nothing 
 but a quit-rent to goveniment, and are in other 
 res])Octs independent of any .superior authority; 
 but the.se are less numerous in the central districts. 
 
 The revenue is collected under the village set- 
 tlement ; the chief farmer of (he village being 
 the jMitail, responsible for the payment of the ryots 
 under him ; receiving their rents ; advancing them 
 money when necessary, and receiving for his own 
 remuneration one-sixth part of the wlude sum 
 collected. CoAvbi, or agreements between the 
 
 i.M 
 
 I 
 
 r> 
 
 
433 
 
 T5ERAR 
 
 f;ovprninpnt nml llin ixitail, nr liofwcon tho, potail 
 mid llic rvot, tliat only »o iniicli hIiiiII lie i;olli'ct(Ml 
 from tlic linid in n certain term (Kfiu'riilly live or 
 pcvfii yt'iirs), uw very coinnioii, and were iniro- 
 diii(Ml "liy the MnliruttaH wliiii tlu-y cdiKpuTC'd 
 tills tcrritivry, in order to itroniote cnltivarioii, 
 wliicli at tliat liinc! lia<l been greatly nenlecK-d. 
 The system is said to he advantageous; and if 
 the, as'sessaiit were iiio<lerale, and the Icriii of 
 n^reement extended, and the eonditions aliiihd 
 liv, it perhaps wonld he ns j^ood a system as the 
 liriiieiple on whieh it is hottoined will admit of. 
 
 The otlieeof i>olail is nsnally eonsidered heredi- 
 tary, hut is dependent on the pleasure of the i;o- 
 veriiment. The revenue is ahont -1(1 or 17 lacs, 
 mill the eivil exiienditure seven or eifiht hies ru- 
 jiees a vear. The aseeiidiiif,' ranks of judicial 
 niilhorities are the iiotail, the native iierKunnah 
 collector, the souhahdar of tlie district, and the 
 rajah himself, who holds all the souhahdar jiiris- 
 diclion round tl'c capital. The /imirliiii/ct, a hody 
 of live jiul^jes, two of whom are chosen hy each 
 of the coiiteiiiliiiK iiarties, and the tilth hy the 
 jiotail, decides most civil suits, and its decision is 
 tiiial. This system is said to work well, exce))t 
 near Xa.upoor", where corruption is common, it is 
 alwavs, however, resorted to ; for, wlu'U the rajah 
 decides, he exacts ^ of the sum in dispute as a 
 line from the loser, and another ^ as a comjiensa- 
 tioii for the decision from the winner. There are 
 no statute laws: succession to iirojierty is com- 
 monlv determined hy the Hindoo code, and there 
 are a'few iiii^n of leaVniiif; in the caj). versed in 
 this ; hnt where one of these is not called in, most 
 matters are determined hy the piiiiclidi/et. I'Jluca- 
 tion is not much countenanced; it is mostly cmi- 
 liiied to the chihlren of the IJrahmins, and mer- 
 cantile classes, and amoiHist these extends little 
 bevoiid readiuf,', writinj;, and accounts. All other 
 clar<sesare very illiterate, and it is rare that a cul- 
 tivator can write his own name. Previous to the 
 introduction of railroads, there was little com- 
 mercial intercourse; the puhlie roads were lew; 
 there were no canals; and communication was very 
 tritlinir generally. The opeiiin^r of the railway 
 from Nafjfpoor to'lJomhay, aloii},' the valley of the 
 Ta)>tee, yavc an enormous impulse to trade, par- 
 ticnlarlvas furnisliuif^ the necessary means of 
 conveyance to the sea of the produce of the cotton 
 districts. 
 
 After the fall of the SIoRul empire, the ^Falirattas 
 overran this coiuitry, and under the second ^!ah- 
 ratta rajah, Jeniec,'who lived about, the middle of 
 last century, it is said to have been in a more tlou- 
 rishiiiK condition than at any other period. The 
 rajah of Najjpoor, however, at the hej;iniiin<r of 
 the present century, having become hostile to the 
 Urit ish, was deprived of the prov. of Cuttack, which 
 had previously belonged to him, and some terri- 
 tories adjoining Hvderabad, which were given to 
 the nizam. In IH17 the rajah was again in arms 
 against the English, who then took upon them- 
 selves the administratiim of his territory. This 
 continued for Hi years, during which time much 
 imiirovcment, to the general satisfaction of the 
 people, was etiectcd. The annual revenue hi\'\ 
 risen from 37 to 47 lacs of rupees, when the central 
 parts were delivered up to the voung rajah Bajee 
 Ifao r>ooslah, on his majority m l«-2(i, at which 
 time he ceded to us a territory on both banks of 
 the Nerbudda, and parts of Gundwanah, together 
 vith im annual tribute of H lacs; the whole of our 
 acquisition by this treaty being estimated at i!() 
 lacs nip. a year. In 1 .si!) the rajah was put in 
 po.ssession <it' the rest of his prov., with an agree- 
 ment that histead of a force of ii.ODO hor.se and 
 2,<)0(» foot, he should, for the juture, maintain a 
 
 BHRDIANSK 
 
 standing army of l.tiOO Imrse only. This nffrco- 
 ment remained in lone till the year lN.'):i, wIk.,," 
 on the death of the- rajah (Dec. II), hi^ |(.|Vit,,rii.< 
 were added to the Mrilish piisses.»ions in hulji 
 (Hamilton's K. I. (la/., i. 2I7--J-JI ; l!i.|,„rtH on th,' 
 All'airs of the K. F. Comii., Kvid. of Air. Jeiikiiiv 
 p]). I lO-l'iO; Appenil., vi. UVX) 
 
 IIKKAT, a town of J'urkc'y in Europe, in tho \ 
 liart of Albania, on the Tiiherafhi (an Apmiin. '.'s 
 111. XE. Aiilona; hit. 'UP ■)«' \.. Inn;;. |<|0 -,._)' f,. 
 It (consists of an acropolis or citadel, on iht sinmiiii 
 of a pretty high hill, and of a lower town. Tin- 
 former, which was repaired and strengthcni'd liv 
 Ali I'acha, is very extc'iisive. and cuntinn.s witlii'n 
 it the iialace of liie \ izier, several (ircck clinrfliis, 
 and about 'IM houses. Ileing connnainleil hv the 
 neighbouring heights, and without either s|lrin"s 
 or cisterns (Pouijueville), it could oppose im cflir 
 tual resistance to an invading anny imipcrly hiu- 
 |)lied with artillery, or strong enough ell'irtnallv 
 to blockade it. The lower town, at tlu' fiiipt nfiliV 
 acrojiolis, is intersected by tlic^ river, over wliidi 
 there is a good bridge of eight arches. It ]»■, 
 numerous mo.sipies, and a large and liaiiilsiniic 
 bazaar. Merchants import llritish aiidotlu.r tiirci"!! 
 goods through the jiort of Aiilona. Sciiiiilirl«" 
 failed in an attempt to take this town, wliicli lias 
 always been regarded as an important post, aiiij 
 the key, in fact, of this part of the conntrv. (pnu- 
 ipievilie. Voyage de la (Jrcce, i. oOl, c'd, Ih'.'ii; 
 Hughes' Albania, ii. 'AHiy.) 
 
 If Mli'AUN, a walled town of TJohemin, rap. circ. 
 .sami- name, on the Herauii, 20 m. \VS\V. I'ra.'m.] 
 on the railway from Prague to Pilsen. Pup. Ijilil 
 in isr)7. It has fabrics of earthenware ami ilrc- 
 arms; and in its neighbourhood ari' {(iiarrics of 
 marble and coal mines. In the vicinity ol' this 
 town, the Aiistrians, in 1750, gained "a .si^mil 
 victory over the Prussians. 
 
 IJEHHEHA, a sea-port town of Africa, in tlio 
 country of the Smnanlis, on the Sea of liali-cl- 
 Maiideb, at the bottom of a narrow and dcepliav 
 hit. l(|0 -Jt' X., long, -lao H' K. It is rather an <ii' 
 camiiment than a town, the inhab. dwelling mustlv 
 in tents or lints constructed of a few sticks, aiiil 
 covered with skins. It has few )>ennaiieiit roi- 
 dents; but from September to A]iril, during wliicli 
 ]ierioil a great annual fair is held, there is a larj;(' 
 concourse of visitors, sometimes to the ainiuinl of 
 7,0110 or 1 (>,('••**■ 'I"he Somaulis bring with liiciii, 
 from the interior, ghee or butter, colfee, slieo)!, va- 
 rious descriptions of gums, myrrh, ostrich feathers, 
 gold dust, hides, and slaves of both sexes, which 
 they exchange for iron, load, cotton, elotli, rice, 
 ami dhonrrah, brought irom the Arabian purtsnf 
 Mocha, Ilodeida, and Makullah. The trade U 
 almost wholly in the hands of Hanian nMrchants, 
 who are said to realise large prolits. (Wellsted's 
 Arabia, ii. 3(i0, &c.) 
 
 P.EinUCE. SecfiuiANA. 
 
 Bkiida, a small river in South Kussia, gov. Tau- 
 riila, falling into the sea of Azof. It is not luivi- 
 gable, and very often, during the sumiiHr nmnths, 
 partiall.v dry. On the eastern banks of this river 
 stands the little town of I'etrofsky, the princiiial 
 station of the Azof Cossacks. 
 
 Hkudiansk, a rising maritime town of South 
 Hussia, gov. Taurida, at the mouth of the river 
 Herda, on the N. shore of sea of Azof, 1.^0 ni. NL 
 Simferopol. Pop._0,-l!l8 in 1849, and ll.;)."il in 
 1H(J4. The town is built upon a low samly jilaiii 
 of one mile wide and several miles in length, iiii- 
 mcdiately underneath an accli\ity which rises ali- 
 rnjith' to the steppe, (iO ft. high. P is a steren- 
 t.vped edition of all Ifussian towns— the .streets 
 running at right angles to one another, 'fiie 
 houses, 1,424 in number, are generally of one stun- 
 
 ll„.'hiiiiscs are v 
 
"••Vt, wIkmi, 
 i tcminriii 
 ' ill liidiii, 
 iiriN on ilic 
 r. J('iikii'.>, 
 
 ', ill the N. 
 ApmiH}, 'IH 
 
 . 111° :>•>' v.. 
 
 ilie siiniinit 
 <iwii. Till' 
 
 illlCllcd liy 
 
 ains wiiliiii 
 U ctmrflK-. 
 icU'il lpy ilic 
 llicr K|)riii;;s 
 ISC no cIVcc- 
 rnpcrly mi|i- 
 1 cITccHmlly 
 
 I' flKlt lll'lll'l' 
 
 over whicli 
 hcs. It lias 
 il Imiiilsdiiii' 
 itluT t'lirci;.'!! 
 
 ScaiKlcrlii'i; 
 I, wliii'h lias 
 lilt iKist, anil 
 iiitrv. (I'liii- 
 l, ('.1. iM'.'li; 
 
 nin, cap. circ. 
 S\V. l'ra!,'uc. 
 ,. I'd]!, i.mii 
 are anil I'lrc- 
 •(' (jiiarrics i.l' 
 ■iinty III' tliis 
 iK'il a Mi;,'iiMl 
 
 \frica. in tlio 
 •a III' I!ali-(1- 
 iiul (UH'iiliiiy; 
 rather an cii- 
 i-('irnif,'niiislly 
 w siicUs, aii.l 
 rniancnt roi- 
 (liirin;; wliiili 
 ore is a lar^'c 
 ic ainiiinil I'f 
 |if; with them, 
 '(■(', sliocp, va- 
 ricli fwitliors. 
 si'xcs, wliiili 
 1, chilli, rii'i', 
 liliiaii jiortsiil' 
 riio traile is 
 in nicrcliaiits, 
 (WcUsted's 
 
 lsia,,£;ov.T.iu- 
 jt is lit it niivi- 
 linicr miintlis. 
 this river 
 I th.c princiiuil 
 
 Iwn of South 
 of the rivir 
 If, irjdni. Ml. 
 liul ll.o.il in 
 Iv saiiily lilaiii 
 In lrn};"t!i, ini- 
 Ihioh rises iiIh 
 w is a stovi'ii- 
 1— the streets 
 liother. Tlie 
 [vof one slut)' 
 
 hkli. anil priiiciiiiiliy imilt »( liricks; some nrr 
 ,vii.|'riii't<''l with a soft sort of Htoiir hroiij^lit froiii 
 r ,f,i.|i, wlicrc if is foil III I in iiiiincnsc (|iiaiiliiii's. 
 n,i, kiii'l "f stone, owinj; to its iiiiii-'niliirahiiity, 
 j, V rv iiiisiiiialile for Imihiiiif; piirjioses; iiever- 
 ll„|,.,'s, nil at'rouiit of the ^reiit faeilily in worldii;; 
 il iiitii ilithrent shajies, wliieh liiissiaii inasons (hi 
 (j.ijv with tiieir axes, it has heeii hirjfely em- 
 iiliivi'il ill '■''<' soiitli jmrt of Itiissia, The walls of 
 Iheliiiiises are very thickly hiiilt, to eiialile them 
 li, mist fill' Hivere colil. Ihsiiles the fore;;oiiij{ 
 iinnilicr of houses, there are IK'.I ^rraiii iiia^;aziiies, 
 iihii'li are eapalile of holding; alioiit t'lO.OdO ((iiarfers. 
 Ihc liiiaiility of wheal exported from this port in 
 ll;i. vear I'^ti;! amoiiiiteil to l;!7,.'!.'i') (piarters. The 
 (V'lrt-' W'l'e hir;?('st in I Hill, when they rose to 
 ;,| ii,'i7 ipiarlers. (I.'eporl of ( 'oiisnl \V!ifj;stnlf on 
 iktrmle ol' Iteriliansk, daleil .Inly II, IHCt.) 
 
 I'.r.lIlM'rCMKI'". a town of Itnssia in I'limpp, 
 ,,,v. Vnlliyiiia. on its SI'), eontines. '2.') m. S. Jito- 
 mir, if i^ liirty iinil ill Imilf, and is iiriiieipally 
 iiihaliileil hy Jews. It is, however, tlii^ centre of 
 ;i (iiibicleraiile trade. Its fair, called UmmJ'iiiJ' 
 (rirfskii'i'i. is iiiiieh freqnenleil. 
 ' liKi!K/lNA, a river of Knssia in Europe: il 
 ij-cMii tli(' district of Dissna. jljov. ^linsk, which 
 il traverses from N. to S. : after reccivinj; various 
 jllliieiils, and heiiij,' Jniiied hy a canal with the 
 [liiu, il falls into 'hi' I'nieper a Utile lielow 
 lliiil.itzn. This river has hecoine celehrated from 
 tlieilillieiiltiis and liisaslcrs attendiii^; fh<' passaj;e 
 Dvr It of till' army under Napoleon, when re- 
 IMliii;; from Moscow in ISl'J. The nliove river 
 iiii-t iiiif he eoiifoniided with another and smaller 
 river of the same name, which also rises in the 
 I'l.v. Minsk, and which, haviiij:' divided, duriiij^ a 
 |.;irliit'its course, the j^ovls. of (Jrodno and Wiliia, 
 lai'sintii the Niemeti. at Nikolaef. 
 
 i!i',i;(;AiM(), a town of Northcrii Italy, cap. 
 ir.iv, and distr. same name, on low hills hetween 
 the Serin and the Ilreniho, '21) ni. N 1",. Milan, on 
 liie railway from Milan to Venice. Top. .'i.").'.'!!!) 
 ill iKiy. The town is surrounded hy walls, and 
 li;is (in old eastlc; but these are useless as means 
 nl'ilefencc. It is Well built; has n massive eathe- 
 ilral. 14 cliiirches, 12 monasteries, 10 nunneries, a 
 l;ir;e lii)s|iital. a immt-iU'-]iiiti'; an orphan asylum, 
 :i;ii ether charitable iiistilutions, a lycenm, and a 
 miiimrio; the Carrarese school, founded by Count 
 larrara, where griitnititus instriiction is };iven in 
 mii-ie, iiaintiii;;. and arehiteetnre ; a )inl)lic library, 
 \tiili (iii.Odii vols., and two theatres. There are 
 (Mi'ibive estahlishinents for the sjiinniiii; and 
 wiviii;; of silk, f,'reat quantifies of which are 
 irmlueed in the vicinity, with woollen and eottoii 
 falirics. and iron-foundries. The trade of the town 
 las iiiucli increased since the ojieiiiny of the rail- 
 way to Milan; it is now a chief station on I he 
 liiir Irom Milan to Venice. A is;nmt fair is aii- 
 iiially lield on the 22n(l of Aujiust, and fourteen 
 t !l"»|ji},' (lays, in a larj;e qiiailiaiif;iilar lmildiii<;, 
 nlleil i\\c fitni, containiiiff TjIO booths or shops. 
 Al! ilie |iro"diicts of Loiiibardy are exposed to sale 
 at this fair; but silk is the staple article, and next 
 iiit iron and wine. It has also a considerable 
 iriile in grhidstones, quarried in the neij^hhoiir- 
 
 1 1 Tlie value of the floods disposed of at the 
 
 fir is said sometimes to amount to l,2(IO,()ll()/. 
 it lias also other, but less considerable, fairs, 
 sail lattle-niarkets. It is the seat of a bislioiiric, 
 •if the iiroviiicial assembly, and of a judicial tri- 
 kiiiil, 
 
 i'er(;anio is very ancient, having existC'l under 
 tl.i' Unmans. In 1-12.S, the iiihab. placed thein- 
 !ilves under the protection of the republic of 
 ^iiiieo. of whicli it continued to form an iiifef;Tal 
 l<mtill the subinersion of the latter in ITDCi. with 
 Vol., I, 
 
 BERGEN 
 
 433 
 
 the oxceptioii of about seven years after tlir battle 
 of A);'nadello, in l,")()!t, when il was taken bv 
 I.oiiis .Ml. |)uriii;; the French ascendancy, it 
 was the cap. of the i|e|). of Serin. The town fell 
 to Austria in iHir>; but, in conseiiucnce of the 
 events «.f 18(10. wiw iiicoqiorated with the new 
 kinplotn of Italy. 
 
 IJerpimo has j^iveii birth to some very rmi- 
 nent men, amon;c "Ihers, to Iternardo Tasso, the 
 father of Torqnato (a colossal statue has been 
 erected in the I'i4i:z)i (Irnnilv, in honour of the 
 hitler) ; Tiraboschi, the author of the learned, 
 elaborate, and valuable work on the history of 
 Italian literature {Stunn dvlhi I.ctliniliiiu Iln- 
 litiiiii); and to the .Mibe'Seras>i, author of the Life 
 of Tasso. The l!er;;amesqiie dialed is peculiar, 
 and one of the most corrupted forms of the lan- 
 j;ua<te spoken in Italv. 
 
 liKIMM'.DOIM'". a'towii of the distr. or ter. of 
 IIanlbnr^^ at llu! contlnciice of the Itille with n 
 canal that joins the Mlbe, !) m. SIC. Ilambiir)^. 
 
 !.")l ill iMdl, Il is connected by railway 
 
 with Ilambiir^^ 
 
 lll',li'<;K\,a town and sea-iiort of Norway, caj). 
 of the diocese of S. rier;;cn-^hnus, al the boltoni of 
 a deep bay. If!.') m. WNW. Clirisliania ; hit. <iO° 
 21' N., lonV. .")0 20' K. Pop. 2il,.") Ill in 18(10. The 
 town is built on a )iromoiilory, and surrounded on 
 every side by water, excc]il NI'".., where i; is en- 
 dowed by inouiitaiiis cniisiilcnibly above 2,00(1 t't. 
 ill beijilit : and is )irolei ted, besides, by lofly walls, 
 and several forts, nioir ;iim in all about lull ji;iin.s. 
 The harbour is safe ^md couiniodious, and the 
 water deep; but the bay all rotmd is so beset with 
 rocks as to render its iiavi;ration dan^'crous with- 
 out a )iilot. licr^cn is f^enerally well built, thoiif^li 
 some of its streets be narrow and crooked; viewed 
 from the st'a, it ajipcars remarkably |iictiiresqiie, 
 beiiijf buill aiii|ihitheatrewise round the harbour. 
 It cont.'iius a cathedral and four other chnrche.s, 
 three hospitals, a prison, a house of correction, six 
 establishments for the jioor, a national mn.senm, 
 live |iublic libraries, a naval ai'ademy, a superior 
 collcf^'c. established by lii^lio)) l'oiito|ipidaii in 
 17i")(i, and v.-irious schools. It is the seat of a tri- 
 bunal of sei'ondary jurisdiction, the residence of 
 the Iiitii slierilV and bishop of the diocese. Ono 
 of the fhre(! ]iublic treasuries of the kin^'ihun, and 
 a division of the National liank, are established 
 at lierj^en. It has a i;overnor, and a Kfiffison ot 
 iJOO men ; and a s(|uadron of the ii.'ivy is .stationed 
 here. There are manufactories of tobacco and 
 porcelain, many distilleries, and some rope-yards. 
 The lishery is the principal business carried on 
 here; but both the internal and forei<;n trade are 
 considerable. The imports from the N. provinces 
 consist of codlish, rocs, lish-oil, tallow, skins, anil 
 feathers, which are brought by a fleet of above 
 100 small vessels, twice a year during the snin- 
 mer; and which tiike back in return the other 
 necessaries and some of the luxuries of life. The 
 articles brought from the other parts of Norway 
 are less important : they consist chiefly of iron 
 manufactures, gla.ss, tiles, millstones, and lir tim- 
 ber; but the )ilaiiks and deals of IJergen are not 
 equal hi quality to those of Christiania. The 
 foreign trade is chielly -with the Ualtic, Denmark, 
 Sweden, Holland, Ilambnrg, England, France, 
 and the Mediterranean. The imjiorts from llam- 
 ' burg far exceed the exjuirt-s thence from Ilergcn, 
 and consist of fabrics iiiid colonial goods of ever)' 
 description. I'^ngland stqiiilies her manufactures 
 and colonial i>rodncts; but the trade with thi.s 
 ' country has much decreased. France sends thither 
 ' salt, wine, and brandy; and receives most of the 
 I salted fi.'ih rocs. The dried cod, oi sto'jkfish, a 
 I .stajile commodity of the place, is sent to most 
 
 !<■$'. f 
 
 
 M iiji 
 
484 
 
 BERGEN 
 
 ^1 
 
 iVb 
 
 (^atholic countrips. The dhipplnff of the port of 
 Hereon in considcrntjle. There entered, in the 
 yciir IHCil, iK'fdrilinK to ofliriiil returns. .'Ml Nor- 
 wi'niiin ve.KHeltt, of 1M,'!()7 tuns, nnd -I^M foreign 
 vesnelH, (if 14,-IH7 tonn. all with ciirpt. litiKideH 
 tliew, there cnmc 10 N'onvepiin nnd Hit forciftn 
 vessels in liallnst, ftivin^ n total of 8(i"» vesseln, of 
 nn iif,'nref;nte burden of ii(!,55'l tons. The cleiir- 
 nnces, during the snnic year, consisted of Htl 
 vessels, of 34/) I !{ tons; a rather lar>;e in'rcentiiye 
 t>f them in hullnst, nanielv, (i4 Xorwej^inn vessels, 
 orH,l44 tons, and 47 foreign vessels, of il,M!> tons. 
 The nierehant nnvy helon^in^ to ller^'cn con- 
 sisted, nt the end of imil, of tlit'2 vessels, of ii 
 burden of l(!,r)H(l tons, miunied l>y a erew of .'1,1(12 
 men. During; the yeiir IMOI, there were 41 vessels, 
 of 1,001 tons, newly built. 
 
 The iuhidt. of llerffen are industrious, and seve- 
 ral of the mercantile houses are believed to be 
 wealthy. The modern town was founded by one 
 of the kiufjs of Norway in the llth eeutiin,'. In 
 the i;ilh, traders from ttu- Ilanse towns bc;;an to 
 sellle; and, in the succecdiiif; centuries, ac(iuired 
 an almost soverei;,'n sujiremacv in llerp-n, until 
 checked by an act of the l>anish ffovernnient in 
 l.'JtJO. The principal part of the trade is now in 
 the hands of natives. (Hoard of Trade I'apers, 
 and Report by Mr. Hamilton, llritish Secretary 
 of IvCf^ation, dated Stockholm, Aug. 31, IHO.'t.) 
 
 Hkkokn, o town of I'russia, Ctt|i. island of 
 Huffen, li) m. Nl'". Strulsund. I'op. 3,tli5(» in l«(il. 
 It stands almost in the centre of the island ; has 
 a court of justice, a castle, and a convent of noble 
 ladies. 
 
 BKUGEN-OP-ZOOM, a strongly fortified town 
 of the king, of llollanil, prov. lirabant, 23 m. 
 WSW. Hreda, near the left bank of the E. Scheldt, 
 ■with which it communicates by a canal, and on the 
 railway from Antwerj) to Uotterdam Pop. 8,890 
 in 1H(!1. Besides its fortifications, which are ex- 
 ceedingly strong, it is surrounded by marshes that 
 render the access to it very difficult. It has a 
 grammar-school, and a school of design nnd archi- 
 tecture, with numerous fabrics of earthenware. 
 Its ancliovies, taken in the river, arc in consider- 
 able demand. 
 
 This was one of the first towns occupied by the 
 States General. In 1(122 it stood a memorable 
 siege by the Spaniards, who were compelled to 
 retire, after losing 10,000 men. In 1747 it was 
 taken by the French by stratngem. In 1814 it 
 was nearly taken by the British by a coup de 
 main; but they were finally repulsed with con- 
 siderable loss. 
 
 BEKGKHAC, a town of France, dt'p. Dordogne, 
 cap. arrond., in an extensive and fertile plain, on 
 the Dordogne, 27 m. SSVV. rerigueux. Pop. 
 12,110 in 18(il. The town is neat, well laid out, 
 generally well built, and thriving. It has a mag- 
 nificent bridge of five arches over the Dordogne, 
 a theatre, and some fine ])romenades. The fortifi- 
 cations by which it was once surrounded were 
 demolished bv order of Louis XIII., in 1621. It 
 has a court of original jurisdiction, a college, and 
 a secondary ecclesiastical school. Excellent paper 
 is made here ; and there are manufactures of dif- 
 ferent sorts of iron and co[)pcr goods, serges, 
 hosiery, hats, and earthenware; with tanneries, 
 distilleries, and iron-foundries. It maintains an 
 intercourse with Bordeaux and Liboume, and is 
 the principal entrepot for the trade of the dep. A 
 branch line of railway places the town in com- 
 munication with the Paris-Bordeaux railway. 
 15ergerac sufl'ercd much from the religious wars, 
 and still more from the revocation of the edict of 
 Kantcs. 
 
 BEKGUES, a town of France, d(<p. du Nord, 
 
 BERKIIAMSTEAD (GREAT) 
 onp.cnnt., at the foot of a hill, on the (■..imr r « 
 S><E. Dunkirk. Pop. 0,022 in 18(11. 'tCuli, 
 strongly fortified \>y Vaiibnn, and Ikim H,,. ,„„„, 
 of Inynig the adjoinmg plain under waiir. T1i„|,m, 
 old. It is pretty well built. In one .,f it, „,,|| 
 are two high towers, the remains of two nmi.ni 
 churches destroyed during the rcvohitiun. jt ),., 
 a communal college, a hospital, and n. »inill 
 public library. It has distilleries, refincriiM .,f .lilt 
 and sugar, with jMitteries, and fabri<H of soap „ii,| 
 tobacco. A canal, 8,701 metres lon^., odilncru 
 Hergues with the |>ort of Diuikirk. ami it 
 
 likewise a station on the railway from Dunkirk i.i 
 Paris. Owing to its favourabh' situation, it i« tlii' 
 entrepot of (he corn, cheese, and lace, pMilun,! in 
 the adjoining country. 
 
 BERKELEY, a bor. and par. of Kn^flan,!. m 
 Gloucester, hiind. Berkeley. Area of par. 1|,i;hiI 
 acres. The pop, of the parish was :i,s!)i) i'„ ix;j| 
 and 4,310 in 1801 ; the |mi](, of the lHir(iii(;li.„rtli,'. 
 'Old Borough,' as it is termed in llie diisimn- 
 f urns, was 1,011 in 1801, The town is situainl 
 amidst rich )iasturc lands, in the vale of licrkiliv 
 on the Avon (which joins the Severn H in. ImIhwiI 
 l((l ni, W. by N. London. It con.sists ni(istlvi.|' 
 four streets," diverging from the inarket-|,|;i,|.; 
 hmises but inditterent. The cliurcli is a liir-,i 
 handsome building, in the pointed style, wiiha 
 modern tower at some distance from it,' Tlnrc i* 
 also a chapel of ease at Stone ; four disswitiii" 
 chapels in the town, and two in the tiihiiif;. 'fliirii 
 is a free grammar-s(!hool, endowed with nhual In/. 
 a year, in which 20 boys are educated. The tmn'. 
 hall (a handsome structure built in I82">) is nnw 
 used as a chajtel by the Inde|)endents; tlieniarkot 
 house is beneath it. The market is held on Tiicsdav, 
 and two annual fairs on May 14 and Dec, 1 : ihw 
 are also cattle markets on the first Tuesday in S(|ir, 
 and in Nov. The < Jloucester and Bcrkeiey (.'anal 
 (navigable for vessels of 000 tons) has its tiitraini? 
 24 m. from Berkeley, but the place can (uily !« 
 considered as a large agricultural village, Tlio 
 corporation exists bv prescription only ; tliprp are 
 no charters, nor has it now any duties'tii ]iorl'nmi. 
 
 Berkeley Castle, on an eminence SK, (if tlii; 
 town, is amongst the most perfect sjiccimons uf its 
 kind remaining in the kingdom, being in ('(im)ili'ti' 
 repair, and occupied : it is an irregular jiile. with 
 a keep and many castellated buildings, cnclosiiif; 
 a spacious court. There is a fine baronial hall, a 
 cha])el, and a dungeon chamber 28 ft, deep, The 1 
 other apartments are numerous and gloomy ; in 
 one of these Edward II. is supposed to havt been i 
 murdered, in 1327 : this castle is nearlv surroiimlid 
 by a fine terrace. The date of its fcunilalimi is 
 uncertain, but it was granted, in 1150, by llenrjll. 
 to Bobert Fitzharding ; and in the last civil war it [ 
 was garrisoned for the king, and for a time awn! 
 the surrounding district ; it was subsequently i 
 surrendered to the parliamentary army, after a I 
 nine davs' siege. 
 
 BERKIIAMSTEAD (GREAT), a par. and town I 
 of England,' CO. Hertford, bund. Dacurum, 2ti ni, I 
 NW. London. Area of par. 4,250 acres. I'up. I'fj 
 par. 2,309 in 1831, and 3,585 in ISfil. TlietomiJ 
 IS in a deep vale, on the S W. side <if the liullwm I 
 and the Grand Junction Canal, which here nin in j 
 a line together, parallel with the high road, which! 
 passes through the town. The London and Xnrtli j 
 VVestern railway also has a station here. Thej 
 principal street is about half a mile in lenjjlh; aj 
 smaller street branches from the church in liiej 
 middle of the town, towards the old castle. Hoiisf?,! 
 irregular brick buildings, but many of them very I 
 respectable. The church is a Gothic crucifurmj 
 structure, with a tower, and several small chan- 
 tries, and curious monuments. There h a free 
 
(GREAT) 
 
 on thcCiilmo, r)m. 
 IHCil. Tlif tiiwn iit 
 mill \\n* till' mi'Diii 
 
 lllllTWallT. 'nillllt'll 
 
 II iiiii^ iif its ii(|ii;irii 
 laiiiH of two iiiiiiihi 
 I' rcviilutiiiu. It has 
 |iilnl, mil) a xiuall 
 •ricM, rcliiu'rics iil'silt 
 \ fiiliru'K iif Nim|i Hiiil 
 li'trt's liiiij{, (•oimi'cts 
 )unkirk. ami it Iwii 
 wny t'rnm Dunkirk tn 
 Jilc situatiiin.il \* tin' 
 mill luce, jiMiUiii'il ill 
 
 par. of r.nftliuiil. in. 
 Area of jiar. 1 I.i'.mi 
 ish was ;i,s'.i'.t in iKii, 
 , of tlif linriinnli.nrtlii' 
 iicil ill tilt' niiMK ri- 
 'I'lio town is sitMiiii'l 
 1 tlu' valr of llrrkiliv, 
 ic Severn I, J, in.lii'liiwi. 
 It eiiiihists ninslly uf 
 m till' inarki't-|ilaiT; 
 'ho eliiirch is a liir^'i? 
 ; pointi'il style, with a 
 nice from it. Tliiri' i< 
 SloiH' ; fiiur ilisseiitiii;; 
 :o in tlie tilliinn. 'I'liir^ 
 ludoweil with nlMuil I"/. 
 re piliieatoil. The tnwii- 
 B built in IH2i"i) isimw 
 idpppiuU'uts ; theniiirkit 
 iirket is helil on 'I'lii'siliiy, 
 [ay 14 anil Dee. 1; iluro 
 ;he first, TiU'silay in Sipl. 
 stcr ami Berkeley Caiiiil 
 00 tons) has its eiitraiio' 
 t the place can (inly l.i! 
 icuUural villa);''- '■"' 
 icription only ; there are 
 |v any duties to iierfnrm. | 
 
 oinincncc SK, of tlii! 
 
 , perfect sjicciineiis nf in 
 
 igdoiTi, heiiiK in eomiilcte 
 
 [» an irrofjular pile, with 
 
 ited buihlinK», enclesiiiu 
 
 is a fine Imronial hall, a 
 
 lamber 28 ft, deep. The 
 
 |mcri)U8 and gloomy : iii 
 
 is supposed to have liocii 
 
 istle 18 nearly summiulnl 
 
 ilate of its foundalieii n 
 
 .cd,inll50,l)ynenrjll. 
 
 id in the last civil war it 
 
 dng, and for a time iwi4 
 
 It; it was suhscqiieiiily 
 
 lanientary army, uftet a 
 
 iiRE AT) , a par. ami tomi 
 H, hund. Daeuriira, '2t! Ul- 
 nar. 4,250 acres. Pup- "' 
 fans in \m. Tlicti« 
 [SW. side of the liullKfli 
 lUanal, whiehherenmral 
 Uh the hish road wiiKhl 
 
 The London anil >i>rth I 
 has a station here. The! 
 I half a mile ill le"!!"'','' I 
 I from the church m m 
 Ids the old castle, lhwsf',1 
 I but many of thoni vcrvl 
 I is a Gothic crHoinrml 
 land several smnUchm-l 
 
 Qcnts. There 13 a free! 
 
 PERKSIIIKE 
 
 ,)„«,1. pstalilisheil ill the rciyn of Henrv Vlfl. ; 
 
 ■nil, mil"""' "*" •'** revenue, <l;il/. ; but it haw loii),' 
 l„.ii iiiinviiiliilile to the town. All .Souls ('iille)j;e 
 lii< llie |>atriinaKe. Aiiotlier school, fiuiinied in j 
 1 ;■.'", till'' an ann, revenue of 27!t/. : in it '20 hovs ] 
 .1^1 1(1 L'irls areelollieil am! ediicatcil. The castle, 
 „ii nil emiiii'"''*' 1''-"' ""' 'own, eni'liiscil a spm-c ol , 
 lliirn's and was very stroll)^. It ori);iiiateil in ' 
 i!icSiixiin period; was strenf^'lhcneil in the rci^ii 
 ,l^\',„. |„ and reliiiilt in that of Henry II., who i 
 ,1 „iii' time held his court in it, and cmirerreil 
 miiiiv JirivileKes on the town. ('ow|ier. the poet, i 
 ,;is'lK)rn liero, lii« lutliur lieiiifj rector of the 
 
 Kiri-h. 
 
 ' iii.liKS, or TlKIiKSlIIltK, an iiilniid eo. of 
 
 fii^'laiiii. liaviiif; N. (txford and Bucks, from 
 
 wliiiliit is separnleil by the Tliaines, K, Surrey, 
 
 ■i, llaiiipsliire, and W. Wiltshire, and a jiart of 
 
 (lliuiri'^tershire. It is very irregularly shaped, and 
 
 o.iiiaiiis l'>l,-'10stMtiit(' acres, nlmut twn-thinls of 
 
 iiliiih lire under tilla;fe. Nearly ■ii'i.OOO acres, iii- 
 
 (Imliii;; part of Kn^^sliot llentli, arc ivaste lauds. 
 
 \'f!i* i* a ^''ry beautiful co. ; has every variety of 
 
 (iiiliinil siirlace, and is well stocked with timber, 
 
 |i,,riiiiilarly oak and beech. I'^xclusive of the 
 
 i'liaims it is watered by the Keiinet, I.oililon, Ock, 
 
 mill (itlier rivers. It is about eipially divided be- 
 
 iwifii tillage and stock and dairy husbandry. 
 
 Tlip Ikrksliire breed of iiijj;s is much celebrated. 
 
 A^riiiiltiire is in a rather Imckward state; four or 
 
 livi Imrses are;;enerally yoked tothe plough ; and, 
 
 frm the want of proper covenants in 'eases, land 
 
 biififii left in a bad and exhausted state at their 
 
 ifmiiimtiiiii. I'ro|K'rty much divided ; a third jiart 
 
 ffilieco. is supimseil to be occupied by small jiro- 
 
 iriciors. Farms of all si/.es, under 1,200 or 1,400 
 
 jiTts; but few above .')00 acres, or under .50/. a 
 
 vcar. Averajje rent of land 30.i. an acre. Windsor 
 
 ii-tlp. the ancient and maf;ni(iceiit residence of 
 
 llii' Kii({lish sovereiji;ns, is in this co. This was 
 
 fi'traiTly one of the ]>rinciiial seats of the woollen 
 
 iMiiiiradure ; but it has entirely disapiieared, and 
 
 tlieniaiiiifnctures now carried on are but of triHing 
 
 iin|Hirtancc. Principal towns, ]{eading, Windsor, 
 
 siiil Abingdon, IJerkshire is divided into 2() 
 
 knikami li'il para. The census of 18()l stated the 
 
 [.i|i, at 176,2.')("), of whom Sti.STo males, and «!),;}« 1 
 
 (email's. The number of tamilies, at tlic same 
 
 fctiml, wa.s 40,()5.5, and the number of inhabited 
 
 house* 35,"()I. The county returns three members 
 
 to ilic House of Commons. The constituency 
 
 Msisted, in 1804, of 4,847 registered electors. 
 
 BEKLEBUHfi, a town of the l^ussian States, 
 
 pw, Westphalia, cap. circ. Wittgenstein, 27 m. 
 
 SSE. Amstierg. Pop. 2,0()0 in 18(11. The town is 
 
 the rosiilcnce of the I'rince of Wittgenstein. It 
 
 [ b a castle, a haras, and some forges. 
 
 lIKllLlL'HINtJKN, a village of Wirtemberg, on 
 1 thclaxt, 9 m. WNW. Kunzelsau. Pop. 1,407 in 
 V''<\. It has a castle, a Catholic church, and a 
 I !yna;;npue. 
 
 DKIiLIN, the capital of the Prussian States, and 
 
 I ihoiirilinary residence of the monarch, on the Spree, 
 
 I ti'(\, above the level of the sea, in the miiUlle mark 
 
 »f liraiulcnbiirg, and on the line of railway from 
 
 Paris to St. Petersburg. .Streets broad and 
 
 straight, some of them ornamented with rows of 
 
 tms; squares regular and spacious; houses all of 
 
 [iinck, and mostly stuccoed over; ])ublic buildings 
 
 I Hii raomimcnts numerou.s and magnificent ; so 
 
 ikat, notwithstanding its sameness, the want of 
 
 ' Icaiiil liveliness, and the poverty of its en- 
 
 Ijin'ns. Berlin is one of the finest cities of Europe. 
 
 'uasfoiinilcd about the middle of the 12th cen- 
 
 lini)'. I11IG88 the population was about 18,000; 
 
 ImllOOitwas 29,000; in 177.5 it had increased 
 
 IdISmOO; in 1810 it was 182,387; in 1838 it 
 
 herlis 
 
 486 
 
 t 
 
 amounted to20ft,7!t7; in I8|(i to 408.,')02; and in 
 |8('(l to rtl7.-">7l. 'I'll!' latter ligiirc is exclusive of 
 the military pop., iiuinbcring '.''.'.)'i2)i in IHtiJ. 'riii> 
 pop. was calculated, from the returns of liirths and 
 deallis, to amount to ri.V.'.O'JOou the 1st ol .laniiarv, 
 
 1 HO I. T'he town is siirroiinilcd by a wall, nearly 
 circular, 7 F.iigl. in. long, opcucd by 17 large and 
 
 2 small gates — the largest of them being the 
 celebrated Itraudenburg gate, surinoiinted by 11 
 gigantic car of victory. T'he wall and ramparts 
 serve only for purposes of police and revenue, and 
 are useless as mcMlis of ilel'ciicc. 
 
 Iterliii owes much to the taste and munilicenco 
 of its sovereigns. The i|uarler called the new 
 town (Ncustaili) was built by the gn-iit elector, 
 Frederick William (lOlti-IOHM). who also planiicil 
 I the UnUrden l/imliii street, and oiherwisc greatly 
 enlaigcil ami licaiitilieil the city. The siiceeediiig 
 inoimrchs, especially I'Vcilerick I.. I'reilcrick the 
 (ireat, and Frederick Williiim III., aildcil many 
 new streets, sipi.-ires, and suburbs, and ciiilicHislu-il 
 the city with many splendid liiiildiiigs ami niniiii- 
 meiits. Among the iirlucipal of these is llie royal 
 palace, imposing by its miigniiude, having almiit 
 tioo saloons and cbambres. It is smiipliiously 
 furiiisbed ; one of the saloons (the White Hall), 
 was litted up at a cost of I20.(HH)/. The muscuni, 
 begun in l«2.'tand tinishcd in IH.'IO, is one of tho 
 finest buildings in the city. It is in the I'oriu of 11 
 parallelogram, 2H0 ft. in length, by 1X2 ft. in 
 width. It has some noble apartmeiits, and very 
 exti'iisive cillections of iiicturcs, vases, statues, 
 coins, and other works of art. Opposite the grand 
 entrance is an immense granite vase, or basin, 
 22 ft. in diameter. It was fonned out of a huge 
 boulder, or isolated block, found about .')0 m. from 
 the city, to Avliich it was conveyed by the Spree, 
 The ojiera-house, burnt down in 18l;i, has since 
 been rebuilt ; and there are .several other line 
 theatres. The Koyal Library is a large heavy- 
 looking building. The colh^ction of books com- 
 prises about .')00,000 printed and 5.000 MS. vols., 
 many of the former, including Luther's Hebrew 
 Hible, being both scarce and valuable. This 
 library is entitled to a cojiy of every work juib- 
 lished in the Prussian states. The arsenal, one of 
 the greatest in Europe, forms a square, each side 
 of which is 208 ft. m length. It was formerly 
 reckoned the finest buihling in the city, and con- 
 tained, previously to the revidutionary disturb- 
 ances, in 1848, a very large sttKik of all sorts of 
 warlike implements. It was then, however, taken 
 possession of by the mob, who carried off largo 
 quantities of the fire-arms and military stores with 
 which it was furnished. Among the other public 
 buildings may be specified the Hoyal Academy ; 
 the ' Konigswaehe,' built after the model of 11 
 Koman castrum; the university; the old jialace, 
 formerly belonging to the Knights of St. ,lohn; 
 and the palace of IVIonbijou, occupied by Peter tho 
 Great when he visited the city. The lirandenburg 
 gate, already mentioned, one of the most colossal 
 structures of the kind in Europe, was erected in 
 1790, after the Propyhciim at Athens, but on a 
 much larger scale. It is surmounted by a statue of 
 Victor}', in a chariot drawn by four horses. It was 
 carried away by the French in 1807, and brought 
 back in triumph in 1814. The monument to the 
 brave men who fell in the campaigns of 1813, 1814, 
 181.5, is immediately outside the Halle gate. ( )iipo- 
 sitc the guard-house arc the statues of Scharnhorst, 
 lUilow, and Marshal IJlHcher. A monument erected 
 in honour of Frederick the Great, consisting of an 
 equestrian statue in bronze, by liauch, stands at 
 a conspicuous place, at the Unter den Linden 
 street, opposite to the University. It is one of the 
 grandest monuments of its kind in Europe. The 
 
 1' I- 2 
 
 I!' 
 
 it 
 
 I 
 
 \l-^ 
 
 . Ui,ii 
 
 ! y 1 
 
 ': i^^'S 
 
 : l! 1 1 
 
 ' ': \'J 
 
 
iW 
 
 IlKKLIN 
 
 liorHP, 1(1 ft. hi^li, NiniiilH on n pofU'Htnl, atnl nt omli 
 of itn roriKTH is nil «-<|ii<>»triiiii Hliitiic nf oiif of 
 Froili'rick'H ^rt'iicritlH. I'lic cliiiri'lit'.M, mImcIi nrc 
 vrrv iiiiiii)'niui«, nrv p'litTiillv infrriur; tin' priii- 
 <i|iMl iiri' I III' ciitluMlriil; St, MiirvV. wiili a si((|ilc 
 21)2 ft, ill lit'iKlit ; tilt! cliiircli of St. NirlioiiiM, coii- 
 M'cnitt'il in t22''l; the ctiiiri'li of the ^riirrif<oii ; uiiil 
 tli« cliiiri'li of St. Ilt'ilwi^,'!'. Tlif Spree, wliii'li iii- 
 |cr««'t'tM l)i(> city, niiil iiiNiiiiitcs one of iln (|iinrti-rH, 
 in croHNcil l»y nlioiit 111 liritl^cs, |iriii('i|ialiy of Mtoiic, 
 liiit partly ti\ni> of iron. Some of tlieiii arc liaiul- 
 Hoini! NtructiircH, 'I'lic ' Loii),' llri(l),'c,' of Htoiic, 
 lias a line ci|iicstrian Hiatiie of tlii^ Mlrcat lOlector,' 
 The UiitvrilvH IJiiiliH Ntrcet is tlic (inc>i in llcriin. 
 and one of tlie linest in Kiiropc, It is •{ in. in 
 leiiKtIi, from the ltnni<ienliiir^' K"'*' to the royal 
 palace; the live avenues in tiitt centre lieiii); coiii- 
 poseil of chestnuts, iiiKlen, aspcii, acacia, anil 
 plantain, whose varicil foliage contrasis lieantifiilly 
 with the nnineroiis elepint pahu'cs anil pnlilic 
 liiiildiiif^s that liiHM'ach side of the street. It is 
 the corso of Iterlin ; for here the fashionalile and 
 the wealthy exhihit theinselv<'s and their cipii- 
 ItiiKf". Mere are several palaces ; the seminaries 
 «if the artillery and enjiineers, theAciidemy of the 
 l<'iii(^ Arts, (he opera-honse, the arsenal, and the 
 kind's palace. Another splendid thoriin;,'hl'!ire, 
 Frederick Street, is aliont 2 in, in leiijrth. The 
 SchlosH I'latz, or sipiarc of the piilace, the (ieiis- 
 d'ariiH-s-market, Willielin I'lat;^. the most fiishioii- 
 ahle s(|uare in tlu^ city; the sipiare of J,n JMIv 
 AUiinin; and a iminhcr of other piililic places, are 
 Avell huilt, and most, of them hij;hly ornameiiteil. 
 lint few of them are jilanted inside, and conse- 
 qiiontly, notwithstaniliiiK the linenes.s of the 
 biiildin','s, have not half the effect they would 
 have were they properly laid out, 
 
 Hcsides its military and judicial estahlishments, 
 Herlin has to Imast of many celehrated literary 
 institutions. The university, estahlislied in |H(I!I, 
 enjovs a liij;h de>,Tce of reputation, especially its 
 medical school. It has niaiiv dislin^uii^lieil ]iro- 
 fessors and teachers; and is atteuilcd, on the 
 nverafje, hy nhout 2,(ill<) students. The lihrary 
 has above (i(ltl,OI)0 vols. There are also seven 
 royal fjj'iniiasinms or hifih schools, with ininiy 
 inferior academies and (nililic schools, amounting' 
 to 51! alto^;ether. The niilitarv seminary has 
 above JiOO |)uiiils. The hospitals and other 
 charitable institutions are numerous ami well 
 conducted. The orphan nsyluni supports about 
 400 children in the house, exclu.-ivc of about 
 700 boarded out of (hiors. 
 
 Iterlin may be ref^arded as the ])olilical and 
 literary metrojKdis of N. (lerniany ; and is dis- 
 tinguished alike for the number and celebrity 
 of her statesmen, jihilosopbers, scholars, and 
 artists. Her press is very active and annually 
 {jives birth to a great many books, scicntilic and 
 literary journals, newspapers, and mafjfazines. 
 About 3,000 i)ersons are eiijtaf.^'d in literature, 
 niul the various trades connected therewith, .such 
 as printers, paper-makers, and bookbinders, 
 
 lierlin is one of the principal mnnufacturing 
 cities of (iermany, Amoiifj other branches are 
 included the manufacture of steam cnfjines, 
 ■woollens, silk stnlfs and riband.s, cottons, jiorce- 
 lain, cast-iron floods, )iaper, coaches and light car- 
 riages, jewellery, watches and clocks, hat.s, snutV, 
 and tobacco, relined .sugar and sjiirits. The 
 great steam-engine factory of Messrs. Borsig, 
 one of the largest on the continent, furnishes 
 locomotives for nearly all the Gennaii railways. 
 The cast-iron goods, manufactured at the fouiulry 
 outside the Oranienbiirg gate, comi)rise all sorts 
 of articles, from colossal pillars and statues, down 
 to the minute furniture of a lady'a toilet. In 
 
 delicacy of impression they arc 
 those made in aiu' other i 
 
 lliiriirliiri.,| 
 
 llhl^l l\. 
 
 bus II |;ir^.,. 
 lilill;,' III ||„. 
 
 iiii''1imllr,| I 
 I'liumrv. 'I'll,. , ,, , . 
 relief of some of I be lini-t pictures mv „;,r,i,, 
 larly admired, i he porcdaiu is ,,c n,,, 
 ipialily. Part of it is ibe iiroducc i,f 
 mainifactory ; biil the best kind i. ma 
 at a private c^labli.shiiii'ui in ihe \.„||,|i 
 Moabit, Then; are numerous ci,ii..n-«„i,„'ii '! 
 establishmenis in the cii v, ' '• 
 
 All the great roads of the kingdom n,itr.. i,, 
 Merlin, I here are live great lines „(• r,|ii„,,' 
 with their chief slatimis. The lirsi runs i„ rii 
 ward, towards Stettin and the Itahic : ih,. .„,,,, 'i 
 goes, bv way of rranklori-on-llie-OijiT. i,, K„iiiV, 
 berg, Wilna, -lud St, I'eicrsbiirg. wiib lir;inilM..rr 
 Warsaw and Cracow ; the third runs ilinn .„i,ii,' 
 
 to Dresden, Prague, and Vienna. ihruMi, ,y 
 
 arms towards Havana, WllrtemlHrg, jimi ^i,,.! 
 (ierman slates: the fourth line sirehlics wiMw.r,! 
 towards .Magdeburg and Cologne, n,iuieciiiii;ii;,.if 
 with the llelgian and French railwav svHiinr 
 and, linally, the lifth line runs in a imrili w,,i, rlv 
 direct ion towards Hamburg, with pml 
 into .Scldeswig-Holstcin, iicsidcs ihj 
 tensive network of iron roads, llrrlin 
 
 cominaud of inland ii.ivigati e\i|.| 
 
 Fliie and Hamburg on the \V.. to .Sicni,, ,,„ | 
 .Swincmunde on the \„ and to the Visiula ,„ 
 the v.. 
 
 Owing to the llaluess of the ground i.im|,i |, 
 it is built, the ilrainiige of ilic ciiy was iMrin.riv 
 very imperfect ; and, instead of niiuiiii;,' ntV, ij;',. 
 water in the streets, in wet wealiicr. sli.p|iii| aiul 
 stagnateil on the surface, lint this iliUvi |,;;, 
 been remedied in recent times, bv the cstuhlj.ij, 
 ment of a system of draiiiiige. T'Iiitc arc iiimr- 
 rolls hackney coaches and other slncl larriii v. 
 placed iiniler jiii'.iciousregulatiou.s. Ail tiicsirirK 
 are lighted with git-i. 
 
 There are numerous )ihices of amiisiimiK i„ 
 and near lierlin. The largest audniost rilil,r;i:i,| 
 is Kroll's (lai'deii, ne.'ir the r.iiuiileiilnir;,' ■su,'. 
 capabh- of ai'commodaling o.dmi pirsiiii\ ili,' 
 theatres, dedicated to the drama and ii|iir.i. ,iiv 
 generally well attended. With the exopiinn „i' 
 Vienna, there is no city where iinisic is niurc uni- 
 versally patronised, or' wiicre the ii|iera is Inthr 
 lierformed or more heartily aiiprcciatcil. tli.iii in 
 Iterlin. The t'o/if/zYorc/c/j iire iiiiuli fii(|iii'iii(i|ln 
 the ui)]ier classes. They resemiik' our idnrir- 
 tioners' shops ; but are far nmre spaiimis. nii.l 
 
 litted up with greater attention t nilnri wvA 
 
 elegance. Itcsides refnwbmeiiis of all suris. ilnv 
 are well su]iplleil with ihnnestic and forci;;!! inw-- 
 papers and literary and scicntilic jimriiiiis IVa 
 and cofl'ee constitute the favourite beviTaiieif tlm 
 higher classes ; and the latter is pii|)iilar wiili all 
 rank.s. Chicory and roasted acorns are imt im- 
 frequcntly used as substitutes for colliM'anidii;'!!!' 
 jioorest classes. The taverns of lierlin aiv imiili 
 frequented by the middle classes, 'flic I'avnuriic 
 beverage is a thin kind (d' ale. cuntainiii^r Inn a 
 very small |)erccntage of alcohol, caliiil -wii"- 
 bief,' or white beer. It is drank out of tunililin 
 of iininen.se size, and being very watiTy, a ^'n.ui 
 quantity of it may bo consumed with iinpuiiiiy. 
 The custom of smoking prevails among all da.-*|i 
 and the coiisunqition of tobacco is imiiiciiM'. 
 
 Jterliii is the seat of an extensive ciiiiiiuoot, 
 and the centre of the pecuniary traiisaciiniis ( 
 the miniarchy. The IJoyal liank was tiiiiiuli' 
 in 1705, Hiion the model of that of llaiiiluiri 
 and so it existed until 1810, when it \vii< rr 
 organised undiir a new charter, by >vhicli nmrccX' 
 tension was given to its o]ieiatiims. liiamirilam 
 with this new con.stitutioii, the i.ssue nf ll»tl■^ll3i 
 been raised since 1850, to 21,000,000 tlialci 
 
TIEUMRO 
 
 (\ ihiiVr Ix'iii;; equal to -'.t. Iil^i/. 'I'lic rn[)itnl 
 , iiii' liank it iilwiiys to lie, in |)rii|i(irti<iii to 
 , . n"ii" ><> •'irciiliitioii, '.* (iilis ill ^ilvl'r, :i titliN 
 i, i,jll, (liii'oiiiiicil, mill till- rcMt ill liiiiiis on hc- 
 
 iniii*. Ill*' liiliik iiolcM arr I'mm •-'.'» to oil 
 ,; ,l,rs nii'li. 'I'Ik' .Hliarc of the ki'V'T'i""'"' 'I' 
 r|ii liiiiik iiiiioiints, lit iiio^t, to 'iiiii.oni) tliiiliTN. 
 IV oli.'iri'liolili'rs arc ciilitli'il to mi aiiniial iii- 
 . ^,,,t ,,t' ;l,^ jicr ('('lit. ii|ioii till- ('a|iiial, ami. al'tcr 
 l„]ii,.ii,iii III' ilic Kiiiii si'i apart lor ilic rcMTvc or 
 f,.t. wlii'li ''• ""' '" <'M'i«'il ;ii( per ri'iil. Ill' till' 
 ,;i|,iiiil. I'IK' iiioifly i)( tlif iiiir|ilus iirolitN is a|i- 
 liirtiiiiii'il til tlii'iii ill nililitioii, miil tlif otliiT i;o<'k 
 i,i ihc tri'nHiiry. Tlic liaiik liii.s liraiii'licn ni a 
 rial niinilicr of I'itit'K, an hrt'slau, Kiiiiiuslicru, 
 ihuiizii'. Stettin, Ma^ilclmrn, MuiiHtiT. ('olojxiic. 
 Vimil. r'wi'. Stolpc, KIIktI'i'IiI, 'rrfvcs, Aix- 
 i.|.( li;i|ii'li(', Uiissclilorf, Colilciitsf, Miiiili'ii, l'!r- 
 liifi, Frunkrort-sur-Oilcr, St^uI^ullll. Ko^tiii, \.\i'H- 
 iji2. mill (l|i|i)'lii, ami thus ruriiis avast iicluork 
 
 f linniiiial ii|i<'ratioiis tlinui^'li all tli(> kiiiKiloiii. 
 Ilrfi. iil^"- >'* ll>*' ^''''i' "' l'"' associiitioii for iiiari- 
 ..,;(. I'liiiinicrcc, calliMl tli(> ' Scclimiillnii;;,' ami of 
 jiiii.TiMis insurmii'c ami other olliees. 'I'he town 
 r,niui(saiiiiiiinleil, in the year IHli-J, to 2,HH-J. ||0 
 i:,;iliT4, lull the cxiiemlitiire was iiiiieh greater, 
 living' rearhed the sum of .'I,r);|-J,:il4 thaler.s. 
 Ill, ilclirit WHS niaile up liy loans ami inereaseil 
 l.al laxalioii. At the enil of IHII-J, the iiuldie 
 
 1,1 if tilt city amounted to nearly t),0(M),(lOll 
 
 lIlllllT'f. 
 
 diiisiile the town, altout J m. from the Hnlle- 
 
 .aii, nil a liiw sumlhill. whieli. however, is almost 
 I , i.iilv eiiiiiieiiee near llerlin, is the • Natioiial- 
 iiskin/il,' People's Moinmieiit. it eonsists of a 
 i,,lliii' criiss, do fl. Iii;;h, ererted to coiiiiiiemorate 
 l^,■l•x|^ll^ilm of tUi' Kreiieh, and the recovery of 
 : .!■ iiHiinnal indepemlence. It is of east-iroii froiii 
 t:,.' rival fimmlry, and was designed hy Schinkel. 
 Ih, ■^lilllu•s in the niches are tlu- work of iJaiich 
 ,vi,l Tiirk. (Keller, Der I'rciissiM'lie Sta"" ; l!it- 
 iir.lii'i),trra|iliiscli-Stalistisclies Lexicon, I mi!!.) 
 
 lil'.liMKO, a sea-port town of Spain, on its \. 
 
 ii-t. jifiiv. lliscav, on a ruthersliallow liav, Itini. 
 
 M;. UillMia, I'o'p. iJ.!»i:i in Im:>7. The" inhah, 
 
 ij' |iriiiripally dependent on the lisherv, which 
 
 iL'Aiiirry onto acoiisiderahle extent. This town 
 
 :\n liirtli to the disliii>;iiislieil epic jioet Don 
 
 AiniizoirKrcilla, the author of the Aiaiii-unu, who 
 
 mUm here in li)L'H, 
 
 i;i:KMri)AS(TIIi:),orS()MKI{;SISF-AXI)S. 
 
 nTiiiip iif Mnall islands, alioiit :i(lll in iinmher, in 
 
 r.,p X, Atlantic Ocean, lieh)ii;>;in^t to (ireat Itri- 
 
 ijin, stri'tohinj; XK. hy K, and SW. hy W. ahoiit 
 
 ;" 111., the lifjlit house on (Jihh's Hill liein^' in 
 
 l.it.;i2« ir 54" N., hmfi;. 1)1° iVJ' W,, ahout ooOm. 
 
 >F., Iiy K. Cape Hatteras, They arc estimated 
 
 iiicniiiiii ahimt JiO s(|, m. The census of ISt'il 
 
 :avi' ilie pop, at 1 1,451 against 1(>,!I«2 in 1M51 
 
 A!<iiit iwii-lifihs of the ])op. of the islands are 
 
 »liii('s, When viewed from the sea, their eleva- 
 
 li ill is iritliiif;, the hif^hest land scarce altainiiii,' 
 
 1 1 II licifjht (if "iOO feet. Their general aspect is 
 
 >i!iiiliir Id the West Indian islands, except that 
 
 iliiy remind the voyager (from their proximity, 
 
 iin! tilt sea Howiiig hetween them) of the lake 
 
 "t.Kry (if Kuropeaii climates. They are almost 
 
 I'Tiwiicrc surrounded by extensive coral reefs, 
 
 il.,- diiiniu'ls llirongh which are extremely intri- 
 
 fiic. aiiil can only be sal'ely navigated bv native 
 
 lijils. 
 
 Ihe princip.-il islands are those of Bermuda, St. 
 
 '*'r!;e, Ireland, and Somerset. The protection 
 
 sSiiriliil to shipping by their numerous bays, their 
 
 I'Hiiiiii ill the track of the homeward-bound W. 
 
 iMiii'liips, and in the most advantageous locality 
 
 t'lMluiiij; the ships of war employed in the \Y 
 
 ItllKMl'DAS (TIIM) 437 
 
 Iiidinn and American xeas, have led to the con- 
 virsioii of the llcrmiidiis into a principal maritime 
 station. The liarboiir of St, (ieorge's i-iland, oiii^ 
 of the inowt easterlv of the group, has water 
 enough to tloat, ami sjiacc to accommodate, thu 
 whole llritish navy, toruirrly, its eiitrmice was 
 so narrow and euciiinbered with reel's that it was 
 rendered ill a coiiNideralile degree useless; but by 
 
 the expi'iiditiire of largi; sums and n certain 
 miiount ofciHivii't labour, the channel leading to 
 St. (Icorge's harhoiir has been greatly improved; 
 a dockyard, with a breakwater for its protr'clioii, 
 have been ironHtructed on Ihe I'., siile of Irelmid 
 island; and nome very strong fort itieat ions have 
 been erected oil it and St, (icorge's, for the 
 security of the islands mid of the shipping, 
 
 neriiiiida, the principal island (or main land, as 
 it is called), is about l*im, in length, hit it rar<4y 
 exceeds I .^ III, ill wiillh. In the centre of Ibis 
 island, and on the N, side of a beautiful bay, is 
 the town of llmnilton. now the seat of govern- 
 ineiit. The town of St, (Jeorge's, on the island of 
 that name, is. liowe\-er, the largest on the gronj), 
 l.'epre-.ciitative government was introduced in 
 the Ilermmhis as early as irr.'il. In Ili'JI tlu^ 
 llerinuda t'ompany of.Iiomloii issued a sort of 
 charier to the colony, the liberal nature of which, 
 together with the favourable reports of climate 
 and soil, attracted a considerable number of 
 llritish emigrants, Itiit the charter, nevertheless, 
 met with op|iosilioii, and was aiinnlled by thu 
 home goveriiineiit in ir)M5, Siiuie then, the go- 
 vernors have been app.ointed by the crnwn, ami 
 laws for the' colony enacted by a local legislature, 
 in concert with the executive. 
 
 'i'he legislature is composed of 10 nipmbefs of 
 council, limned by the crown, and .'It! (d' assembly : 
 each parish, of which there arc nine, returns four 
 of the latter, who are idected every seven years, 
 or whenever a new sovereign ascends the throne. 
 
 There are numerous churches and chaiiels. The 
 Admiralty have established a school on Ireland 
 island, and there are various (irivate schools. The 
 niinilier of piiblii^ schools, or ' free schools,' 
 amounted to IM in IKIiO, with 021 pupils, :),)7 
 male and 'ill 1 female. 
 
 The cultivation carried on in the islands is 
 rather horticultural than .-igricultural. Most sorts 
 of fruits and vegetables may be raised. The 
 arrow--oot grown here is said to be superior to 
 tli;it of any other place, and large tpiantilies of it 
 are exported. The oranges ar(! also very line; 
 and sweet potatoes, onions, and other articles are 
 exported. They derive! their siipplie:! . ;'our, 
 rice, Indian corn, &v., from the L'. Stat . • d of 
 manufactured goods from the II, K. i. • ..cas 
 around the islands abound in lish, and the i.'iabs, 
 are expert lishemien. They possess about I HO 
 sail of vesscds, of from 100 to 1,")0 tons burden. 
 All inc(aisiderable whalc-tishery employs a few 
 boats and their crews three months in the year: 
 the nnniber of whales stddom excee(ls 20 in the 
 season, yielding abdiil 1.00(1 barrids of oil. The 
 islands abound in )ioultry of the best kind, liecf 
 and mutton may generally be procured, but the 
 only meat that is )ileiiiiful is veal. The climate 
 almost realises the idea of a pejietual spring. 
 The islands are celebrated alike for their salubrity, 
 and for the beauty and richness of their vege- 
 table products. The air, however, is extremely 
 (hiin]i, especially during SW. winds, which are 
 the most common. i)uriiig the winter seaium, 
 which commences in Xovemhcr and tenniiiates 
 in April, the islau'ls are subject to strong gales 
 from the XW., which often do great damage to 
 the .shipiiing in these .seas. The total value of 
 the imports in 18U0, amounted to 152,888/. ; 
 
 ■ f I"" 
 
 ■1 ^^''i 
 
 u 
 
 \ 
 
 M li 
 
 lU, 
 
 i ' I 
 
 il' 
 
 ■ ' H\ ill 
 
.13H 
 
 IIKUN (CANTON OK) 
 
 «'\|MirtH, ■.';i, lt!7/, Tliprpvfinip in IHiidwim l.'i.Cild/., | nwuli' in tliit ciiiit. in, ncxi to ilim ,,f |.,.j| 
 
 mill till' i'\|M'i<i|iliiri', I7,l0(i/. 'I'lic liifKi-t itrm llic IichI in Stvil/crlinul ; (hi' iiMni'c iif,,,!.,', ,'^'' 
 
 ■^ 
 
 iii ilic cNiicncliinrc, t,-"^"'/.. wmm t'i>r 
 j;civiriiiir mill |irhiri|iiil ntlirciM.' 'I'lic IrnMliitiin-H 
 111' tlii'Mp i«l;iiiils mill Anli^^im wire ilir mily ni- 
 liiniii! Ii'irinliiiivf liiiilli'H lliat iiIhiII'<Iii'i| Mliivi-ry 
 nilliiiiit tlx' iiilcrvi'iiliiin nt' ii|i|irciilir<'s|ii|i, 'I'lir 
 |in>|ii>rlii>n ol ilif 2l),<Miii,noo/, voIimI liy |wirliiinn'nl 
 I'lir i'iiiii|><'iwiiliiin, rci't'ivcil liv ISmnnilii, uiin 
 fiii.;.«|/.. Iicinn. Ii>r (.•.Mi.l «lii\i'!»,'.'7/. U. 1 1(/. imli. 
 lli:ifN O'ANroN Ol'), till' liir^ixl mill ili.- 
 
 ^ III! in rmik in tlir S\vi«N ('unrriliriiliiin. in the 
 
 ci'iilriil ;iiiil \V. ji.'irl nf Swil/crhiiiil, hrlwci'ii 
 Im. lil'J lit' mill \:° ;lo' N., \„\\^;. r.o .'.n' mnl n° -Jx' 
 !•'... Iiiiviiij; N\V. Kraiiff; N. mnl Nl''.. I he rmil. 
 i>( IliiscI, Siiimri-, mill Aiir^jmi ; K. l.ui'iTiii', 
 riilrrwiiliirii, mill I'ri; S. the N'liinis; S\V. 
 \'mii|; mill \V. Krihiiiir^ mill N'ciil'i'hiiti'l ; h'li^rlh, 
 N\V. Ill Sr,., K> m. ; Krciilc^l hmiillli iil Us S. 
 jiiirl i'rJt ni. ; iirni •_','iti'.' w|. ni. Thi' |ii>|i., m ril- 
 ing' III the ccnNnft nf iHtiii, wa.s •|(i«.."(l('p, ur I7N to 
 lilt' Ni|, ni., In'iiin .snnicwhal iilmvc the iivcrii^i' 
 ilcnsiiy (if |iii|i, in Swil/.crlmiii, wliii'h is \it7 iii- 
 hiiliilmils per hi|. in. 'I'lu'scxcMiin' nciirly ('i|iiiiliy 
 liiviili'ii in Ihc rmiliiii, Ihcrc hcin^ mily .'!n°.' nmri! 
 iniih'M Ihmi rciniilcH, 'I'lic^rri'iil iniijnriiy ol' Ihc iii- 
 hiihilmils. nmiicly, |l),°i,.'i'.)',i, lire I'roicHlmit.M, Must 
 |iiirl iil'lhi.s mill, isiniinnuiinnns, ('spcriiiliy tlii'S,, 
 which i.s iiiicrscclcil hy the Mcrncsc AI|im, to 
 which hciiiii^' the l''insleriiiirlii>rn, Miincli, Aiwu- 
 IVan. Schrccklinrn, Ac, hihiio ol' the lii;;liest siiin- 
 iiiils in Swil/.eriaiiil : in the N. the raii^'es lieluiiK 
 to liie .(nra. mnl are consiileralily lower. The 
 re>;iiin hetween tliese two nionnlain systems con- 
 tains the valley iil' tiie Aar, the Knnnentlial, and 
 other I'ertile valleys, hnt in no part presents nny- 
 lliin^ like mi extensive |ilaiii. S. of the lakes of 
 Tlinn mill llrien/, lie^rjns what is caileil tiie licr- 
 iiese Olierlanil, a nionntainons re^'imi, iiiclnilin^ 
 the t'onr celeliralcd vallevs of the Siinnien, 
 l.mit('ri)rnnnen, (irindclwalil, mnl llasli. The 
 chief rivers are the Aar and its trihutaries, |)irs(\ 
 and Donlis: tiio lakes those of Tliiin, Itrienz, and 
 nieniie; hetween tlie two former of these is tiie 
 small hnt hij^'lily ciiltivatt'd plain of Inlerlachen. 
 'I'lie elinnile varies with the elevation, and is, 
 liesides, snhject to sudden <'haiif;es of teiiiperiitnre : 
 even in thi' Interlachen, where it is tlu^ mildest 
 after a warm day, very severe- frosts often 
 occur at ni;;ht. Ilaiiis and fo^jsare frcipient ; lint 
 the CMiilon, as a whole, is j;enerally healthy. It 
 is divided into 'J^ prefectnres, nnder four principal 
 <livisiiin.'t; viz., tint Olierland, country of Item, 
 Kininenlhal, and the old hishopric <if l!asel. Iron 
 ore is found in arvnt abundance in the Jura moun- 
 tains; pdd dust is met with in the sands of t)u< 
 Aar and the Kniinen, and crystals in the (iriinsel 
 rocks; and there are many niiuerul sprin^js, some 
 used as liaths. and miu'h froipiented. The soil is 
 ill jiTv.it jiart stony and barren, and the arable 
 land occupies but a snnill ]iroporlion of the whole 
 surface, and, though well cultivated, the |iriidncc 
 of corn is insullicient for the sn))i)ly <if the inhab., 
 and larf^e (|nantilie.s are iiniiorted. There are in 
 ))arts |ilantatiiiiis of fruit-trees ; white mulberry, 
 
 ilaries III I estimalci 
 
 r.ninicnihal intn iHrMimc 
 
 at Nii.oiin cwt. 
 
 "••'I' •f'"" III' -.cnnmiv inl 
 
 Italy. Thi' hoii'^es in the Olicrliiiid ari' uhmt.'iIK 
 of wood, but in the .liira, and ro'iml i^f,, , ■■ 
 stone: the IJcrnese arc, for ihc iiinii nan, 1,11 
 loil|^r,.,|. 'I'll,' eslale of a father is evirnil„r,. 
 iliyided into cipial shares aniuii^' UU I'liiMr,,, 
 without re-iiecl to sex or scniorilv, exii'|it ji, ii,,, 
 
 Knimeiilhal, where, hv a | iiiiar law, |aii,|,,'| 
 
 |iroperly descends to the yonnKcsl »ii,i. ' ||,.||,, 
 III the K'realer part of the caniiiii, laii<| i,, v,,J 
 much snlidividcd, and .he iioldcrs in |„„,r, i|,„in,j| 
 not depressed circumstance, . 'rhcrc are imi v, r/ 
 few estates that reach to I.Vl acres, iiii|i!.i. il,,,;- 
 lieloii^r (,, villa),'!' or town I'omnniiiitic..,: j,,,, i],;, 
 jiosscssions of the latter are frei|llelitly "iilliciiiii'y 
 larp' not only to defray the ainn'ial i'\|,..h„.( 
 of the coimnnnity, iiicliidin;; the rili. f uf (i,,, 
 poor, but sometimes to yield a snriiliis ri'Miin 
 after all oui;{oiii),'s are dedncled, which i.., ,|ivi,i,,| 
 
 ainonjfst the citizens. I'.acl niiiiiini' i»iilili-,,| 
 
 to support its own | r, who do iml iMrnmc 
 
 charp-able upon other coinniiiiies, or ii|hiii ih,. 
 slate; they yienerally receive out-dnnr reliil. Inn 
 if siibseipiently prosperous, are lioinnl tn niiirii 
 what they have received. Maiiiifactiins m[ 
 trade are of con>ideralile importaiici' ; lini'n uii | 
 wiiollen cloths are made in the Kiiimi'iiiliah 
 jiaper around Hern ; watclies, jewellery, iiml tin- 
 arnis are made in Kern and I'orciilriii Mhreail aihl 
 printed calico, near Iliemie; silk, c>|ii'riall\ f.r 
 nnibrellas, and leather, in the fornnr liisliii|.rii' „f 
 lliiscl. There is also an extensive inaiiiirHcl'irvni' 
 aKricnltnral inipleiiieiits at llofwyl. 'I'lie ix|M'ri^ 
 consist chielly of (tattle, cheese, inid lunicr; inpii 
 from the .Jura, and a few maiiiifacuiriil •,'i««|.; 
 tli(| imports are corn, salt, i-oloiiial priMlmi', aii-l 
 articles of luxury. The revenue, in Im;-.', 
 amounted to 4,7(11,178 francs, and the expcmli- 
 ture to •l.!t7l,«:il frain's. 
 
 The pivennnent of the canton is entribtid t" a 
 (,'rand and an executive council: the furimr i"ii- 
 sists of 1 10 members, chosen by the pcuplc in lli' 
 primitive assemblies of the •27'piefectiiri'Mini|iH 
 presided over by the lanilamann, wliii is tin' liw 
 inaj;istrate of the cant. It nn'ets unce a iii"iiil„ 
 if necessary, but detcnnines on nolhiiif; willmiit 
 the co-operation of the executive cipuiicil, wliiili j 
 consists of !l members, chosen frmn iiiiiniy i1m 
 former for the term of four years. Meniliersuriln' | 
 ^'rmiil council must be 2'.t years ulij, ami liavc 
 landed property to the valne,'at least, of .i.iiini Ir., 
 or 2<ll»/., execptinj; professors of the iiiiivir.-iiv, I 
 advocates, and physicians, of whom siu'li qidi- 
 licatiiin is not required. The salary nf tlic iaii- 
 dam;inii is IjlHIO fr. ; that of a ineniiier cif lli" 
 executive eomicil ."sdllO fr. a ,vear; meiuluTsnl'ilii' 
 f^rand comicil are allowed •_',j fr. a day liiiriii:; llu 
 lime they are assembled. Every male frnm U' hi\ 
 ."id years of aj^e is liable to serve in tlie army. 
 eontin^rent of troops furnished to the ciiiirtdt'r.iiyl 
 is '1,108 nien. There is n Judicial tribiniiil in f.uiij 
 distr,, and a court of appeal in lierii; the laiiir j 
 consistilif? of II nienib., witli n president, Siiviiu-'l 
 
 chestnut, jieach, and lij;, and a few vines are raised 
 
 on the shores of Lakes Thnn and Hienne, hut mit i banks are f^eneriil, and education well attondoil 1 '. 
 
 to anv considerable extent : in the Lanterbrnnnen, I At the city of Mem there is a university, in-iii'S 
 
 wheat is treated as an exotic, cultivated in small 
 beds, and trained on sticks. Cattle of a superior 
 breed form the chief wealth of the canton, and 
 breedin},', urazinjj, and (lairyinj; are the priiu-ipal 
 branches of industry. The |)!istnres in the Olier- 
 land .ind Knnnentlial are excellent, and produce 
 the linest cattle; the latter valley hasalsoa stroiij,' 
 and active breed of horses, exported to Kranee for 
 draught and heavy-armed cavalry. The cheese 
 
 two upper schools, and a school of iiuliistrv. :ia'l| 
 ' f^ymnasia,' or npjier schools, arc alsn at iliil 
 Thnn, Neucnstadt, I'rnntrul, and DcIsIkT);. fi"-'! 
 university has faculties of theolof^'v, jiiri!i|iniili'iui 
 medicine, aiul phihisophy, each haviiii,' tlirccunli-j 
 miry, ai\d from two to live extranriliiiary jinil 
 sors ; the salary of the former is frnm •.Mimii)! 
 ;!,(HI0 francs, and of the latter from l,-.'(MH,i l.l'»l| 
 do. There is also a vetcrinarv scluml, ami * ol 
 
UKUN 
 
 ^,.tlii(f)il«ho(l privntii iMliirntiimdl pNtnMiMlimrntK, 
 ,.i<'iiiillv il"»t <••' M- Vim KrllcnlH'rn, at llnl'uyl. 
 
 |<|il>'llliiil> Ih lllliviTHIll ; ill iHI'iO, tlirn- Wlinllnl ii||)> 
 
 ,„liiil>ir;int, iintivi! ol' tlif ciiiitnii, iinnlil<' to rcml 
 ,ii<|Hritt'. I''.\r<>|it iilHiiit ri(i,(Mio iiiiliviiliukU (>r 
 )p,.iiili cxtriirliiMi, ill ilio aiit'iciit liiMli<i|irii' oi 
 IbiM'l, till' iiiiiiili. ar«> lit' (ii'rniaii Mtm'k ; nml (icr- 
 „,,„|, llif |irt'vnii'iil laii^'iiii^'t', 'I'lir tii'miaii part 
 i,l till' |Mi|). arc K«'"«'raliy iiiiirli f<ii|H'riiiriii ilifirjiliy- 
 •i.!il ii|i|«nriiiii'<' III the l''rt'iii'li iinriinii, i'»|M'ri«liy 
 il„»i' III ill*' OU'rlaiiil. Till' IdTiii'Mi' ikrc liravf, 
 h..{iii»l>li'i iiiililic-Kliiriti'il, ami rrally ^immI tcni- 
 i,ri>l. iii>l>viiliKtaiiiliiiK llicy aro Niiliiri't tn liti* of 
 i,ii.riiiii, wliii'li Hiiiiii'tiiiii'H ii<'<'a'*iiiii llio I'ti'iihion iif 
 lil.aal, CatliiilirH arc U'l^s iiuliiHtriiiiiM tliaii tin* 
 I'n.ti'stftiii^. T'li'* t'aiil, ciili'ri'il ilic Swiss Coii- 
 lolcTiiiiiiii ill I •'*'••'' ! "• "fl •'>* ti'rriliiry wan very 
 liiiiiii'il, hut al'lfrwarilfi, liy ('iiii(|iii'>it ami piiri'luiNi', 
 iiii'Uiiiri'il iK'arly llii' wlmli' nt' the now existing 
 ,,,111, III' Vaiiil ami Aar^'aii, which, in aihlitimi to 
 ii, yrvM'Wl cxtt'iit. it liclil till I7'.)H, when it was 
 ukrii liv the Kri'iii'li. In |N| 'i, in imlcninitiralion 
 „i Vuuil mill Aarpiii, tim ( 'on^frcss of Vienna 
 j,Mi'il 10 its (loin, tlio town of niciini' with its 
 irrriiiiry, nml the greater part ol' thii ancii'iit 
 lij.|iii|irii'iir lias('l,otlu'rwisv luititled the liaillia^cs 
 1,1' ilii' Jura. 
 
 llKKN. n town of Switzorlaiid, rap. of the alMive 
 (]ii;„ mill, allcmatclv with /iiricli ami Liiccnu*, of 
 ilii' Swi.iH ('oiil'i!iU'ratioii,(iii tlu' Aar, i>2 in. .S. llasd, 
 ainKiOin. SW. Zurich, on the railway from Ziirich 
 i.ii;t'iipva. I'liiuilation 'J!),OHi in IMiiii. TIki town 
 ,.iaiiil:< l,70H ft. ahovc tlm level of tlu* sea, on a 
 liill, which, except un the W., is snrroiimh'il on all 
 .iibliy the Aar. A stone liriil^je 'itid ft. loiiff, is 
 inricif over the river, ami three nates leail to the 
 iiiiiriiirof the town. The furtitications, liy which 
 ii vm formerly siirrininilcd, were! ileinolislieil in 
 l»;;.'i, Three principal streets extend in a parallel 
 line fmm K. to W., and are intersected hy a niini- 
 Ur iif lateral streets. The houses are massive 
 Finii'tiirc.H of freestone. I'ia/i!aH run aloii^ the 
 Ikhwh on hoth sides the principal street.s, which 
 iri'iilso adorned with liamlsomu fountains. I'rin- 
 ii|inl|iul)lic edifices : — The cathedral, a line (iothic 
 Mnicturc, founded in 1421, and liiiished in l.")(t2, 
 lilii ft. loiij;, and «(• ft. broad ; the steeple, tlnnifih 
 iiiiliiii.'iheil, is l',)0 ft. lii^li. It has soiiie line ^liiss 
 {aiiitinps, and various trophies and nioniimeiits. 
 Ilic church of the Holy Ghost, founded in 1722, 
 biilso a line structure, as well as the mint, liiiilt 
 ill IT'JO ; the fjeneral biirgvmpital (liosiiital of the 
 ciiizdis), liuiltfrom 17*10 to 1710; another inaf?ni- 
 liif lit liiispilal, called the Iimd (island), founded in 
 i'lK, (ircuiiyiiiK one whole street, and aH'ordin^ a 
 j|ili'iiili(l prospect from the Aar; the s'tate-liousc 
 Hi' Ilic avoyer, previously to IHJll the residence of, 
 anil now partly occupied hy, the Krencli embassy ; 
 ilic house of correction, the largest building of the 
 kiiiii ill Switzerland, and one of the best contrived 
 in KiimiM', tinished in IKW, at an expense of 
 i. Jill 1,1 II lu fr. ; the corn ma^a/.iiie, a lar^c and 
 massive editice, having on the floor an (extensive 
 "|i(ii hall, with forty-three iiillars, in which the 
 wni market is held" twice a week. Hem has also 
 an iirseiml and a larije town-hall, iMitli old cditices. 
 Tin' charitable institutions are, — two large hospi- 
 tals; two orphan houses, one for boys and another 
 I'lrjjirLi; a fund for the support of poor students ; 
 a lunatic asylum, situated about- tn. from Hem; 
 ami an asylum for old poor person The univcr- 
 >ii.v and gymnasium, noticed iu the preceding 
 article, arc situated iu the town. There are also 
 a Swiss economical and n kSwiss historical society ; 
 »ith switties of natural history, medicine, and 
 arts ; a botanic garden ; a public library, with 
 valuable MSS. relating to tiwiss history, and a 
 
 IlKUNAItl) (ORKAT ST.) -JSO 
 
 rollection of Itoinan, <ireek, (iolliii', and Swi»it 
 incilals, Itoinnii aiitiipiities and portraitH of tlio 
 llernese nvoyers, Ac. There is also a niiiseiim of 
 natural history, with bas reliefs of the ilenieso 
 Olivrlitiul, of tde cantons of Vaud ami Valais, ami 
 •if St. lioihard; and many jirivate si ieiil ilic col- 
 lections wi'll Worth notice. I'lie trade of the town 
 is of Home iinportance. Two fairs arc annually 
 held; oiu' after I'.itster, and another in N'ovi'iiilier, 
 There are miiiiiifiiclories of oilks, straw lull'-, wmil- 
 leii chith, and Nlockings, and aNo laiinerics ami 
 breweries. Almiit 2 in. from Mem there is a gun- 
 powder mill, the jHiwder made in it being forinerly 
 reckoned the best in Murope. The corporate pro- 
 perty of the I'itixiiis is large, amounting to abovu 
 :ill,llilO,IIIIO fr. ; and the revenue, bi sides delraviiig 
 the municipal expeiulitiir.'. supplies every riti/.en, 
 gratis, with fuel, and leaves, over and above all 
 this, a surplus sum, which is annually disirilmti'il 
 among the citizens. 'I'he inliab. are serious ami 
 reserved, and ]iroiii| of ihe ancient glmy of their 
 citv. The aristocracy, or the ' patrician.-,' as the 
 old families are called', liveseclmled from the other 
 classes. Item is the birth-place of llaller; it has 
 not, however, to boast of so many distinguished 
 men ils /urich, llasel, and (ieneva. The town 
 has Is'ars for its arms; ami some of these aiiiinals 
 are maintained in a place <'alleil llHrrmjruhni 
 (bear's ditch), on funds apiiropriated to that special 
 pur|iose. 
 
 Item WAS founded in tlDl, by the Duke ller- 
 thold V. of /aehriiigen. Its history is the saniu 
 as that of the canton. The environs are beautil'ul, 
 atl'ording the most splendid views of the Aljis, on 
 one hand, and the .lurii on the other. There are 
 many tine public walks; amongst which are I ho 
 filnttform, a terrace near the cathedral, IKO ft. 
 above the Aar ; and the h'lii/i, a magniticent walk, 
 atl'ording a tine |irosi>ect over the river, the, city, 
 and the lower mountains, to the high Alps, llof- 
 wyl (which see) is alMiiit l m. from Item. There 
 are also several mineral baths in the vicinity, such 
 as Itlumenstein and Ciiirnigel. 
 
 Mr. Inglis s|)eaks very favourably of the advan- 
 tages of Item as a place of residence. ' it is,' says 
 he, ' greatly sujierior to Hasel, Lucerne, ortJem-va. 
 It is a pleasant thing to walk in wide airy streets, 
 and at the same time to have the advantage of 
 shade, if required. Where there are arcades ono 
 may always choose between bustle and qiiii^t — 
 bustle under the arcades — quiet in the centre of 
 the streets; and in the wjninentx k\( a city, Item 
 has decidedly the advantage of its rivals. It 
 possesses all those public establislmients which 
 make a place agreeable as a n'sideiice. It has 
 excellent libraries, excellent academies, delightthl 
 promenades, convenient and well onh'red baths; a 
 theatre ; concerts and balls during winter; clever 
 lecturers upon most of the sciences ; eloi|ueiit and 
 pious clergymen of almost every deiioniiiiatioii ; 
 and to this list may be added abundance of shops, 
 where all that contributes either to comfort or 
 luxury may be found.' (History of Hern, by 
 Staiifer, late Minister of the Helvetic Itepublic ; 
 Inglis's Switzerland.) 
 
 HKKNAKI) (GKKAT ST.), the name given to 
 a famous pass of the Pennine Alps, leading over 
 the mountains from Martigiiy to Aosta. In its 
 highest part it attains to an elevation of above 
 «,(IOO ft., being almost impassable in winter, and 
 very dangerous in spring, from the avalanches. 
 Very near the summit of the |mss, and on the edge 
 of a small lake ; is the famous hospice founded in 
 !)(i2, by St. Hernard, and occupied by brethren of 
 the order of St. Augustine, whose especial duty it 
 is to assist and relieve travellers crossing the moun- 
 tain. In scardiiiig for travellers who have lust 
 
 M 
 
 "'I 
 
 , 'I 
 
 iti 
 
 •*'' L 
 
 •f*iil 
 
rvv 
 
 no iti;i{N\r 
 
 llirir \Miv, or lircil Imriiil in llif hii<i\v, iIu'V iixiiil 
 llltlll->«'hiN n| llir ll-»i-lllllr«' «( M |i<rillll(' lifrril iif 
 iliipx III' I'MriiiiriliiiMrv ^i/4• innl »iij;m il v, Tlit' 
 
 liM'lliri'll llll\l> tllltlirilllv lli'o lllll'ui'il llli' tirillliilln 
 illltirn illl|Hi>.i'il mi lllrin, mill liavi' tr<i'llri| llllll 
 
 limit III iriiM'lli'rM Iriiiii a iiniiiiiiiiri' ilitiili. Tlii' 
 tiiixpii'i' '\- a iiiii'«'<iM' i-liiiii' liiiililiii^ ; il iiii-Hi'B-i'K 
 hiiiiir. lull Mill iinirli, iiiilr|H'Mili'iil |irii|ii'rl V, iiiiil !'< 
 |irliii'i|iall\ ili'|ii'nilriil mi riillri'tiiiii'< iiimlr In llir 
 ^«i-<^ 1 iiiiliiii'. aiiil "(lirr wlalr-<. ami nii ilmiiilimi'< 
 I'liiiii ill)' rii liir i'Imh,'* III' inivi'llrr'*. In iMio, tshmi 
 llii' rmiil \\i\H iioi iii'arl> mi );im>iI iih il Iim'< r-imi' 
 llllll iiiailr, \a|iiili'mi l<'<l an iirni\ nl :iii,iiiiii inin, 
 ultli In ailillrrv iiml iiiMilrv, inin Italv \>\ tlii» 
 |ia'<«. I 111' railuav at |iri-.rnl cslrinl- In Slnrlii^'My, 
 ai llii' I'lKil III' llir (ileal SI. Ilrrnanl, ami, mi llic 
 llalian niili', In llirlla, hh iliat llir niiiiinlain in 
 ra>ilv rri<'<'<ril, Tlir liiMiiiii' rniilaiiiK a inmnnnrlil. 
 (■nihil li\ nnlir nl Naimliiin, In Inimiiir nl' l>i—<iii\, 
 uliii It'll al llii' li.'illlr III ,Maii'ii)4ii. (Itriirknlmi'rt 
 
 |'a,«M'S v( till' ,\I|1S,) 
 
 ItJ'.liNAI', a iiiwii III' I'ni'-xia, |<rii\. Ilnimli'n 
 linr^r. mi llu' I'aiikn, l.'i in. Nl'.. Itrrlin. I'liii. 
 .i.iUO in iMil. Il in in |i.'irl t'lirillii'il. am! has 
 I'alirirN nl' >ill>, mKi'I, raliriir^>, ami limn, \\illi 
 nninrrmis miiiI rrlrliriiliil Iniwi'iirM. In llirrlnirrli 
 anillnwn limi''r arc Ii'IiIk, Iiiiwh, mitiiwn, tit*., tnkrn 
 tmni till' llii-.-iii"<, 
 
 |l|'JiNAV,a in«n nl' I''rnni'i', ilnp, I'.iiri'. i'a|i. 
 iirrmiil,, mi iln'Cli.iniilmim', 'Jil in, W \ W. I'.\ ri'n\. 
 I'n|i. 7,.'iiiii in iHiil. 'I'liis Im a lliri\iii;,' tn\Mi, 
 mill lia.1 lallrrlv Ihtii a pnml ilral iin|>rnM'il, li 
 lias a rmirl nl' |iriniar\ jiirlMliriinn, a rninniiTiial 
 liiliinwil, a I'nninninai rnlji';;-!', uiili niannrarinri's 
 III' tMinllcn ^'iiiiils, linrii-i, rnilmi yarn, |ia|irr, Nva\, 
 t\r,. Mini lilrarli licliU ami imimrio. 'I'lirir is a 
 slaiinii lirri', on ilin niiluaN I'rmii I'liris turinr- 
 linni';,', ami a liraiu'li liiii' rnns Irmn llirnay lo 
 {.IImii'IiI' ami lioni'li. 'I'lin (;'n'alr>l il'llii' I'ltiirli 
 lairs I'nr limsi's is In M lu'ii' nil llii' WoiliirMlay nl' 
 llii' lilili Mri'lv III' l.cni. Il is ^,'|il| to III' aili'iiili'il 
 hy I'mm liMioii to .■|ii.iiii(i jnclM'ys, ainali'iirs, ami 
 nllirr imli\ iilnals, smnc nl tlnin Irmn f.:iral ilis- 
 tmii'i's, Tlu'it' is an iinnii'iisi' slinw nl' Nnrinamly 
 
 linlM'S. 
 
 i 1 1, 1! N III '!>'(!, a ln»n nl' (ii'rniany, in tlir ihicliy 
 nl' Anliall, nn tiic rivir Saiili', liy >\liirli il i- 
 iiilrr-i'i'inl, iM 111, S, .Maj^iii'lini;;. I'np. 7, '.'Oil in 
 iMiil. 'I'lic town I'oiisisls nl' llircr )',irls, i\mi mi 
 the Irl'l, ami llii' oilier on a liill mi llie riulil liaiiU 
 nl' till' river, uliiell is here crnssed liy a liriil;;i'. 
 The lirsl iwn |i,'irls iire surrmniileil liy walls; llie 
 other, or till- Mminl tnwn, has ,'i e,'istie mi its 
 siiniliiil, ami is o|ieii. .\ hr.'ineli line nl' railway 
 ennneet.s the town with Ciillieii, ,'iml the railway 
 Irmn llerlin In Keip/.i;;, rieriilmrj^' is well Imill, 
 well imviil, ami ehjiii. It is the siat nl' the ilni'.il 
 lu'nvi'rniiienl, ami has several literary ami eh.'iri- 
 tahle institutions, wilii koiuc niiumraelnrcs and 
 trade. 
 
 liKIJNCASl'KI,. a tnwn nf the rrns-i.in 
 Stalls. |'rn\. j.nwir Ii'hine, mi the Aloselh', lM hi. 
 M".. Treves. I'np. ^.'IXi ill iMll. 
 
 HKKN'STAUr. a mwn of rriissia.)iinv. Silesia, 
 n;:. I'lreslaiunli the W ilia, '.'I 111. !■;. riieshlli. roji. 
 ;t.7;tli ill li^iil. It lijis an old castle, two ehiirelies, 
 11 hos|iilal. and iiiaiiiiraitiires nt'clnlh ,'iml linen. 
 
 lM'J\lil'', II tnwn of l''r,'iiice. dep. llmielies dii 
 lihoiie, <'ap. cant,, on the I', side of I he laiifinic 
 of the same name, lii in, N\\', M.'irseilles. Top. 
 •J.uiM in IMiil. It is ajLcreeahiy siinaled. and 
 is regularly hiiilt, Inil the vieiiiily of the lajiiiiie 
 makes it nnheallliy. It was I'Dimerly fnrtilied. and 
 its ramparts still exist. 
 
 liKKTIIori). or Hri;(;i)(li;F, a town of 
 Swit/.orland, cant, lieriic, on a hill on the hank of I 
 tlicKmmen, 1.'! in, NK. lieriic. <.ii llic railway from ! 
 
 r.i.uwirK 
 
 Hi rill' to Aarnii, j'np, l.'j.Mi i„ |nc,((. 'i'i,^,,. . 
 iiiililii' hl.rary ami a caMle. In w|,i,|, p,,„„|, , 
 llllll the Imimlatimiit of hi* rslali||.|iiii,.||| ii 
 loiiniiereiiil linsim« „f iiie plaii' i, r„i|,'..r j„" 
 
 pnrtmil, it l.eill« III,, ilepnl |.„ ,|,„ |,„„|.. ,„|,„1 
 rllle-e, 
 
 lli;ifll\(ii:it, M town of Cenlnil tl.ilv. ,,r„v 
 I oili.nii a inniiiilain ha\iii r the linnni m i(, i,,,,' 
 
 7 III, SI'., I'nrli the railway Irmn II..I ,/,' 
 
 Anemiii, I'np, 11,01 I in IniI.'. || j, n,;, ., ^, 
 nl a hishopric; has a lailnilral, ami fmr |„iri.| 
 
 ehlinlli's, Ihe wille-1 priidni'i'd 111 il, eiiMiuiH 
 
 ha\e a lonsiderahlc repntniinn. 
 
 lll.lfVIK, nrlNV|.li|ll.l;\Tl..arm,i||,„r.,„,| 
 Kcii purl nl'Sinilniiil, CO, Kineardini', nil iIm,,,.,,! 
 mail Irmn liinidcc to .Mienleen, mi llie ,s. |„||||( .f 
 the small river llirvie. where ii |i<iiis'ilir ., i 
 
 I'np, li.'iJ in l.-^i'il : inhaliiii'd h vn, \h\, |, „„; 
 
 cie.iied a mval liiirirh in Lli;-.' hy haviil ||,, u|„, 
 aller haviiij; iiairnw ly escaped shipvvre.k im i|;, 
 co.'i-.t, and haviiiij heeii kindly tnali'd liy llir ni 
 lialiilMliI I nf this Miiall tlshin;;' v illat;e, ti'stiliiil j,,, 
 ;rialllliili' hy cniif, rrili;;- nn it the linlhiiir in <|iii . 
 linn. The inhaliitaiits have linni llie r.irli. .i 
 perind lieill elllplnv id ihirtly as ll,|iers, Tlnv 
 eiijiituc not only in the salinmi and vvliale ti-liin ', 
 
 in ihi' n ih ol the river and mi the cii,'i„t, Inn j',, 
 
 the herriiiL; li>heiy mi the \, shuns nf S.iitlnii.l 
 Mainil'aeliires, aUo, have heeii iiitrndiii'i'il iniu il,," 
 liiir;;li : namely, the duck and dowlas IIiumi \\,:\\ 
 iiiK. This epiplovmcnt is I'lirni-hi'd liy iiiiiinii',,,. 
 tnrers nf Mmitrnsi', .Vrhrn.iih, and .Minti m. In 
 addilimi to periodical markels, there is a ^.Taiii 
 market, which is well allciided, Tlie ipuiniiiv „|' 
 ^'rain annnally pnrcha--ed Inii' is nlmiii |ii,iiiiii,|r,„ 
 of which nearly the whole is shipped at llminlMi. 
 a port iilimil I m, S, of the town, vvluie tlniv.nn 
 
 lar^e ^riinaries. The harl rat the iiiniiili ei'ij,,. 
 
 Ilervie is very inferior to th.it at <iouri|nii. iiml n.i 
 mils only small vessels .'iml Imais, Th,. ,.|,.,|,||. 
 hnsiness nf this latter place, hnvvever, is liKkiii- 
 Ml rvie Jnins wiili Mmiirose, .\rl m.'iili, l''iirl'iir, wM 
 Itiechin, in scmliii;^- a mem. In the ll.i fC. \U<:\,. 
 tei'ed electors, oii in iMi'il. Ainiiial value i.f ival 
 properly, l,7'>/. in iNCi-;, ; eorporalimi ri'vi'iiiii', 
 1(17/. 
 
 l>l'.li\VI( 'K, a m.'iril. co, of S('ml;ind, liavin'.; N, 
 and SW. I'!ast l.othian and the (ienn.'in (i,v;iii, 
 and nn the Shi., S., ami \\'.. part of I'.ii-lanil, iiiid 
 the ens, nf li'o.slinn.li and .Mid-Lniliiiiii, Arii, 
 ;iO',l.,'!7.'t acres, of which alinni mie Imlf is ar:ilili', 
 The N, parts nf the CO. are occnpieil hy thr mill, 
 lile.'ik, miprnilnciive ran;;i' of the I„iiiiiiiernii«ir 
 hills; hill the Merse. m level porlimi, l\ in;; ImUvuii 
 the l.aniim rinoor hills and the Tweed, hy wlilih 
 the en, is separated from l'.ii;;l,ind, is mii' nf llic 
 most fertile and hcsi cnliivaicd ilistrids in the 
 ( inpire. The farms in the Merse are l,ir;;i', ll:o 
 farnu'i-s opnlenl and ililelliLCeiil, ami tlie Inii'l 
 cultivated accnnlinu; III the innsl apprnviil priiii i- 
 pies nf modern hnshandry. Wheal ami iiinii|'< 
 are here the ;;'re,'it nhjecls nf allcnlinii ; lint linrliy 
 and ii.ils are also r;ii'-i d in cmisiilei'.ilile i|ii.inlilii's. 
 Steam povveris employed in sever.il tlir.i'^liiii;;-niills 
 ill this CO. Few sin.'ill, hnl no very larj^e e>t,'ilr\ 
 The old valued rent was I I, sill/. ; ihe nvw viilii.i- 
 lioii I'nr IMI l-.'i was, cxchisiv e of r.'iilwfiys. ;i'jll.'.'n.;/, 
 The I.atiiinermoiir hills are principally ili'iuisiiiriil 
 hy sheep of the Cheviot hreed. Tlie en, is rallur 
 sc'intily supplied with wood, hiit smiu' pni|iriiliir-i 
 have made cmisiderahle plantatiniis. Maiiiuiu'- 
 Inresand minerals, of no impnrlatiee, rriiiiii'.il 
 rivers, Tweed, Whit I adder, UlackaildeMiiKli.i'iiili r. 
 l!crwicksliire cniitaiiis ;>;{ pars. ; aiul liail liil.iH i 
 i'lhahitaiits in lM(!l,willi i'<.:Wi) inhah. liiiiisci. flic 
 CO. rctiirii.s one ini'iii. to the il. of t'. He(;i.sli'riil 
 electors, 1,1'I8 ill l.stil. (Jreeiiliiw is the w. tovm. 
 
.aiiiiniTiniiiT 
 
 It' i|ii;inlilU' 
 
 new v;\iu:i- 
 
 ni;uwirK-ri'r>Nvnvi;i:i) 
 
 lillJUK'K I I'itN 'rWr.l'.M. II turdil.d l.l^v^ 
 I .i;i|"'rl III' r.iitrliiinl, M'.. I'slriiiiilv nl' llir 
 
 .,|,,l|l, nil llll' N. Illlllk 111' Ihf Twiril, mill clii r 
 
 iilmi li\ riMiil, 
 
 IIIMnviriC (NOUTH) 
 
 in 
 
 mill. :ill)l III. N. Iiv \\ . 
 
 ftiitn Niirwiiv mill ilii- lliilili 
 
 .r 
 
 Mini iir ijriM'iririi 
 
 I r-iK 
 
 1*1' •(Iilwiii'! llll- ('\|iiirl'. Ill' xilllilnll, niril, Wiiiij, 
 
 Mini niln r ii|,'rli'iilliiriil |iri>i|iii'l'<, ikhU Iu Lninliiii 
 MMil II li'w iitliir ji'iris rmi.lHiit', In ihr \nir 
 ill:' III. Ii> <lii'iil Nnriliirii riiil\Mi\. I''i|i. hI i IniI t ilu ri' I'lilirr.l llir |iiiri llo m-ukcIi, nl' •.M,iMli» 
 li, |:l,'.'iiri III iMi'il, llrruli'k i< liiiill nil llll' lull'' liiinli'ii, iiMil llll ri' I'lriiml '.'imim'kii'U. nl' 1 1,1! Ml 
 
 \ mill lllll Kiiiiiiiill III' Mil I'lrviltinll ri-illu' liillt. 'llll' mIiiiIi' III' llii'iii wrri' Niiitjiitr M'NHi'l^, 
 i\\ Irniii llll" riliiMiv III' llll' rnrri iiimiiv i'I' willi Ilir i'Mi'|iiiiiii nl' luii Hiiiall '«li'Miiii'r", nl :ll 
 irrrl" iiri' iiiirriiw Mini Irn'KiilMr. Iml lln' jiriii { Imi'', wliiili iiiIitiiI lln- |i'irl, lit ii IpmIv iH'hvrrii 
 
 I nlll' i« N|iMriiill-', \M'II jiUMil. Mini liulllril >v illl {'.ilxMllll \l. ,llli| .Miirv II, nl' Si'iilliill'l. Iti'r\tiik 
 : mill, nil llll' wllnll'. Illr liiWIlllMMI l'i'-<|ii'i'(Mlilr U Mi IIIMiJl' M I'l'i'i' InWII, illil<'|ii'n< tl'lll nl Imlll Uill^'< 
 
 mill rniil'iiiiH iiiMii> ^M'II liiiill limii 
 
 llir h 
 
 i|nin'<; lllll. Iiv llir Miiiii' ipiil It'i Inriii Ail. Il In 
 
 111.' I'lll'll 
 
 riur; m 
 
 ml In lirrt'rrn^^<ril liy iliri'i' liriiUri"< : iiii nlil rmi-tilnliil iiii l'',nL,'li-'li rn. I'nr nil |inr|inMi'i, i'\i'(i|i| 
 r 1,'Miri'lirN, Imlll ill llll' ri'i|;ii III I luirli'i 1 1.: i |iMrlimiii'iiiMrv rli >'tilm■^, |t< iiri'smi iiiiniii'iniil 
 
 nil Sllilll'll-inll liliilui', hiillll' lllilli III) till' ! liniili riini|i|l-i' llilll liiirlinll nl llll' liMI'. nil « lllrll 
 
 It 
 
 11 
 
 III Iiv .S|i'|ilii'iiNim''< IIiiMil llni'ilir railwiiy tin' Inuii nlmnls mnl tiin F<iilinrli-< nl' Twi'i'ilinniilli 
 'JN iirrlii'H. I'Jil I'I. lii;^Hi, mill '.'.Mill II. I MiMJ S|iitiiil. rNi'linliii',' nil llll' ii;;rii iilliir.'il |inriinii 
 
 II' HiiiiiiriM 
 
 rtM'i'illlliiiilll Mini SiiIiImI. Ii i'< ili\ iilril iiiln 11 waril', Mini luii M rniiiii'lllnrn. 
 
 llll' S. !-iili' III llll' rlsrr, Mfi' ini'Miily Imill \il 
 
 Tl 
 
 II' li'M'iiiir III lln 
 
 ir|inr,iiiiiii Is iji'riM'il rmiii 
 
 , llll' iiiliiili. Iii'iii;^' alinn'-l u Imlly i iii|ilii\ I'll In { tnwii mnl li.irliniir iIihn ; riiiliil nl' Ilii' llNlnrii'^, 
 ..lirrii'i^. nr llir lMi^>ini"'>''<i'N rnniii'iiril » Il II ! (I'liriiniiN, mnl liilii'i III lliTwirk; Imnli nil llic 
 
 llll III. 
 
 S|iillMl. llnvVi'ViT, \H nriM.ili lllilli V ri'mllril . W. -iili' nl' lln' rivrr, liml a llll 
 
 mIIi'iI Mi'miIi 
 
 lln vi"iinri Inr -I'li ImlliiiiK, mnl il Iiiim ii I'rw ri' mnl Siinis, 'lln' inni lii ■< in'iir llin Inwii, mnl «mh 
 
 ii.'ilil 
 
 Inillilli;; IniiiMi"* 
 
 Til 
 
 il' 1 1 
 
 li'ii' Kl'aill''il In III r|iiil'illiiil 
 
 Iiv .III 
 
 I. hi" ili 
 
 .il.iirlii nil' illi'linlril ill llln |iMI'l. Iml'. 'I'lli' iiM \iilril illln Iliri'i' |in|iiiiii : llii' llr^l ii Irl ill I'tll'l 
 
 I MHii'lllinll'* nl' I ll'IW irk « ITl' lll'lll'il ill I III' l'l'i;',ll ' Mllil Mil' tl'lll ll|i|i|ii|il illl li| III lli'lrilN llll' Hl'llrUll 
 
 ,1 |Ji/;ilii III. Mini mIiiiiiI I -f III. ill riri'.. rnriiiiiii.',' mi I i'\|irn>i'^i III' llll' rnr|>iii''ilinii ; tlm hi ml i-i kiiIi- 
 
 •,ri,iil,ir |iriitMi;iiii : ii IimIIitv nl' ■.'-' hiiiim nun I ilivi'li'il in |i,'iiri'K nl l\ In l'^ iirii ■<, « Inwi' \Mlni' 
 
 niiiiliiijr III'' I'^iiuli-'li ^iiln. Mini M Iniir mnl nIn ixuw \ Mniri rrnin I/. I l.i. In li/. : llimr urn '.'.il nl' iIu'mi'. 
 
 |,:iiiiTV ilrriinliii:,' llir I'lilrmii'i' nl' llin liiirlmnr. ' imIIi'iI iiiimiIiun-i ; llir lliiril i-* imrii'il in iMniH nl' 
 
 |iiii!iiii|iiirls Inrni Mil Mf;Tri'iili|i' jirninriunli'. 'lln' iilimil Ml iirri's iinli, llm riiils nl' wliiili mn imiI: 
 
 i-i iiiivI^'mIiIi' mm far tis ilin nU l>riilL;i', lii'- | ili\iilril in II nr '_''.' i'i|iim1 jimi' 
 liirli llll' liili' llnws mIhhiI 7 111. Till' linrliniir , llniHi'. lln n 
 
 illi'il >tiiii' 
 
 .1' 
 
 .'Mil, TIk'M' ini'Mi|in\N mill .••iIiiIh 
 iliinlril Iiv 11 iiiiT hull' a niiln in li'iiyili, wiili [ iiin iillniinl in tlm Iiiii';;i'-.m's I'nr lilr, Willi rrinnin- 
 
 iliiiiiM' at llll' lii'Mil, |irnjri'iiii<; in a M',. | ilir in llirlr w iilnws; a:iil. as wiriinii'-i nmir, m 
 
 11 lull 
 
 ilinrlinll I'l'nlll till' 
 
 I'Mnniilv III' till' I'ivi'r's mIIhIIi'iI In nilinrs i 
 
 ill! 
 
 miliinil |iiililli' iiiri'lin^s Ii 
 
 rn 
 III 
 
 iiiiilli. lllll iinlwillislainliiiK llll' |iriili'rliiin at'- | I'nr llm |inr|insi', mnl ralli'ij ' ini'.'iilnw mnl slinl. 
 
 lufliil Iiv lliis liiirrirr. Mini lliniin'li llnri' Im IH I'l. i ,','iiililM 
 
 I'll 
 
 il rivriini' nl' llll' linrnii:;li, in 
 
 »,llrr IIVIT 
 
 oriii'.'s 
 >iiiiiii' 
 
 llll' I 
 
 lar at n 
 
 riiinnrv li.l"-i, mnl ','ii ill ! I^'l'>l, iiiiinniili'il In lii.i;;!:!/. 
 
 ^rnsM Minn iihsi >si 
 
 .1 II 
 
 till' liiirliiinr is vrry iinlilViri'iil. 'I'ln' ' | r rah', II,1»1h;/,; nnl riilriilili' viiliii', I I.Jil.'i/. 
 
 I i: 
 
 s vrrv liminw 
 
 iMimi nt' llir I ;iiiniiinl ms'^i'hsiiI in |irn|ii'rly lax, .'Hl.HHi'V, 'I'hr 
 liiirliiiiir, jmriiiiilarly mi llin llnwifk siiln. ilrii's al j lirsi l';ii;;li-*li rliarlrr nt' jlirwiik was in .'liiili |'',il\ 
 I'lU' wiili'r. mill is rni'ky mnl inrMjiiilili' nl' liin^j; 
 
 I., I< 
 
 \ wliirli it was iiiMili' a I'ri'i' lii.rnii;;li. willi a 
 
 I'lrr lii'.'ivv rains llin fhslirn run nuirkcl mnl Tair: nllni's, in .'lillli i'iilw. III. ami 
 
 iiiiwilli ;j:ri'iil xinli'iii'i'. 'I'lii' rliirl' |iiiMn' strnr- 
 Mri'^iiri'. Ilniy 'I'riniiy ami .S|, ,Mary rliiin'lii's; a 
 niiilirr lit' ili.'-si'nlinfj; cliMpi'ls; a I'ri'i' uriininar 
 ..,lii«il! liml si\ nllnr I'p'I'm'IhihI.s, hii| jMirli'il liy 
 l!ii'i'iir|iiii'iilinii, anil riliiralin:;' in all iiliniit I'mi 
 
 I -r 
 
 '.'nil I'.ihv, I \'.. I'niilinn tlic laws mnl |irivili';;i's 
 
 nri;;iliall\ I'lljny I'll illiili'f Ali'.Mlinlrr I. nl' Srnllmnl. 
 Till' Mnvrniiiin rliMrlir, |iri'\inii>ly In tin- Miinirl- 
 |imI li'riiirni All, was ;.:raiilri| in 'Jinl .lainis I, 
 I'lnlir llll' I' 
 
 I, 
 
 ,\ini inliiii'iil Alt, li'rwirk is 
 
 liililri'ii. 
 
 Ollmr lliil.'llili' lillililill;iS mi' I lu' Inwn- I llm ri'lllnil tnwil nl I illiinn 111' 
 
 tail, ill llll' ri'lillc nl' llic lii;;li sll'i'i'l. willl 11 spil'i' : Inwil has ri'lnnil'il l\ 
 
 Illln 
 
 jiar 
 
 'I'll 
 
 IS III llll' II. nl' (' 
 
 ,iii4 rill 
 
 III' lulls; tlici'nril lll.'irki'l, lillill ill \K.'i 
 
 mIiii'i' llll' ri'i'^n lit' Marv. Trrx imislv In llic li 
 
 ilic iMihii'-liall : a paiiiar liinaiii' a:\lniii; a ilis i liirni Ail, llir |iri\ iln;,'!' >vm- n >lriil .il witliin ilm 
 
 llimn^li wliii'li iiiciliriil ri'lii'l' 'n all'nrili'il limits nl' il 
 
 I" ihi 
 
 nr rrsiiiciil williin 1.* ni. 
 
 hli.' lilir.irv : mnl iissi'iiililv mnins. 
 
 Ilnali'i' ; a 
 'I'liiri' arc 
 
 imiiial rail's in .Inly, the cnni'M' liriin;' al {.ainlii r- 
 111, .1 iii,ilisliilil. I'lici'i' is a pinil sii|i|ily nl' xvjilir, 
 lfi''i;;lil rnuii a spriiii; \S in, nil'. In llic .scMrnl 
 iniilii'i'iiiiiliiits. Al the NW. I'liil nl' llic ln\Mi arc 
 iiilliiiii'vli.'irrarks. 'I lie lislicrics rnriii ilii'iiriiiiijial 
 
 I'l-llll'.-.S 111 
 
 TlM'l'il 
 
 I llll' 
 1 
 
 Tl 
 
 l.'IVC IiiIIl; IiccII milnll' 
 
 111' sal 
 ^t tl 
 
 ninll III I ill' 
 
 ic niiisl 
 
 lr,iiril anil 
 IjiUitIv, llll 
 
 lililU''ll siil 
 
 iilllrii 
 
 vc 111 any i 
 
 II tl 
 
 IC ciii|iiri'. 
 
 liiii'L 
 if 71 
 
 ■I'I 
 
 iciM linmii'^li, mill In ilic Inc 
 
 IC l'niis|||||rili'\'. II. 
 
 I Kill, 
 
 ^islcil 
 
 ) re 
 
 islcrcil cli'i'lnrs, i,( wliiuii "JM" nlil I'rcc 
 
 ri'il, linlli liicir iii'iiiliicc mill rciilal, mic nf the I'linr rnyal 
 
 linn, ami ilic nsi In/. Iiniischnlilcrs. 
 
 The lirst unlhenlii' iinlicc nf l!i'rw'ii'k nceiirs in 
 I he early luirl nf the Il'IIi I'diliiiy, when it lic- 
 Iniin'i'il III Scntliiml. ami was the chief Inwii nf 
 l.iiihiaii. Muring' the reigns nf .\Iex. I., |)aviil I., 
 ami iMali'iilin l\'., il hiiil a lasllc ami .several 
 cliiinlics ami nlipiiniis csliililishimni.'i. Ii was al, 
 that )icrinil the chief M'a-|inrl nf .Scntlaml, ami 
 
 Imr;: 
 
 II 
 
 verv ('nnsiilcra'ile, 
 
 have 
 
 inliieil In l''.n;.^laml in 1171, nin 
 
 s casi Ic was siir- 
 ler a Irc.uv fur 
 
 il.i' |iriin'i|)al lislieries arc \viliiiii a .slinrt ilisiancc i the ransniii nf Win. the Limi; snliseiineiiiiy to 
 
 il IVrwick : ami the lish, cNceplin;; a siniill |iiiriiiiii ; which il 
 
 . ri'peiileillv taken ami rclaken, heiii: 
 
 MaliiciH'iir Iniineeniisiiinpliiin. isall packeil in ice, ! I'mni ils fmiilier siliiatimi, alinnst invariably llic 
 aiiil sliippcil I'nr llio inctrnpnlis. (Sec T\vI';ki>.) : lirst olijeel nf altaek at every renewal of linsli- 
 T.Miil mill wliiliiiif also ahniiiiil in the Twcei I. i lilies, till nii the lU'cessimi nf .I;unes VI. of .Senl- 
 llu' M'a fishery of llic hay eniisists ehielly nf coil, j lainl In the. Kiij^lish thrniie, its iinportance in this 
 Imlilmt, liadilnek, ami vvhilinj;; crahs anil , re.-peet eeaseil. |)iiriiit; the last civil war it wa.s 
 
 i-iirsaUii ahniiinl, ami tl 
 
 List are fnrwanieil , pirrisniieil liy the p.'irlianicnlary I'nrces. 
 
 M till' hiimliin niarkel. Iicrwick has ship-yanls. j liKUWK.'K (NOIM'II). a royal lmr;;li, par., 
 
 Wil 
 
 I p 11 111 eoastiii;^ trailc. Tiic import 
 
 sist land sea-pnri nf Scollaml, co. Ilaililin^flnn, ai tin 
 
 tliiilly of tiiuher. slaves, iron, limp, ami t.illoxv, S. eiiir.iiiee to thu Frii'i of Forlli, ".'_' in. E, 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 ' 
 
 ii«,':i"^"'""" 
 
 ■h r 
 
 1| 
 
 
442 
 
 BESANCON 
 
 J",ilinlnirf,'h. It was crcnlcd n l>llr^,'h hy .TamrH VI. 
 l'i>ti. of liiir){)i 1,1U4 ill IHCl ; inliabitt'd Ikuinoh 
 170. Tlic InirKli consiHtH of two main stroctH, one 
 nnming E. nnU W., tlie otlu-r leading N. U) the 
 liarlxiiir. It in a place of little or no trade, and 
 linH no maiiiiractiireM. It^ ]>ier is good; but itH 
 liarliour, which in dry at low water, i.s difHcult of 
 iiccpitH. A branch line conncctH the port with the 
 KdinlmrRh-Henvick railway. From its being in 
 the n('igld)ourhood of one of the best corn-growing 
 district* of Scotland, grain in a considerable article 
 of export. It is a good deal fre(|uented in sum- 
 mer as a bathing-place. It Joins with Hadding- 
 ton, Dunbar, I.audcr, and Je<lburgh, in sending a 
 inemlter to the 11. of C IJegistered electors, «7 
 in lM(i5. Corporation revenue, JIW)/. About 2 m. 
 to the E. of the burgh stands the famous castle of 
 Tantnllan, one of the strongholds of the Douglas 
 family, 
 
 1J1'!SANC0N, a town of France, cap. dj<p. Doubs, 
 on the river of that name, by which it is inter- 
 sected, 47 m. E, Dijon, on tiic railway from Stras- 
 bourg to Lyon. Po)). 4(),7Hti in l«(il. The town is 
 very strongly fortified, and is one of the bulwarks 
 of I'Vauce on the side of Switzerland. The works 
 were improved by Vauban ; but they have been 
 since much extended and strengtheneiL Exclu- 
 sive of the fortilications round the city, it has an 
 extremelj" strong citadel, on an almost inaccessible 
 rock, and outworks on some of the adjoining 
 lieighls. The town is generally well built; but 
 its streets are narrow and gloomy. The part 
 called the city is almost surrounded by the Doubs; 
 the communication with the suburb on the o\)po- 
 site bank, called Arenes, being kept up by a 
 bridge. There is a station on the railway from 
 Midbousc to Lv(m. Princijial buildings, the ca- 
 thedral, hotel oi the ])refect, hall of the courts of 
 justice, the royal college, erected in 1607, the 
 arsenal, hotel de ville, barracks, theatre, public 
 library, containmg 64,000 volumes, exclusive of 
 manu'scrii)ts, and several tine public fountains. 
 The hospital of St. Jacques is a vast establLsli- 
 ment, with oOO beds, and is said to be extremely 
 •well managed. A Koman triumphal arch, though 
 a good deal mutilated, still exists, and serves as a 
 sort of portico to the cathedral. lJesan9on is the 
 sent of an archbishopric, of a royal court for the 
 deps. of Doubs, Jura, and Haute Saoue, with tri- 
 buiuils of primary jurisdiction and commerce. The 
 university, which existed ])reviously to the revo- 
 lution, has been replaced by an acadvmie univer- 
 sitaire, or/avnltii ties kttrea; and it has also a royal 
 college of'fhe second class, with about 'liM pu]iils; 
 a diocesan seminary, a secondary medical school, 
 ft primary model school, two schools for the in- 
 struction of deal and dumb, a royal academy of 
 science and belles-lettres, a lyccum, a society of 
 agriculture and arts, a nmscum of antiquities, and 
 a free school of design and sculpture for 120 
 jiupils. There is, adjoining to the town, a house 
 t)f correction and refuge. VVatch-making, intro- 
 duced from Switzerland at the beginning of the 
 iiresent century, is the most important branch of 
 mdustry carried on here. It em|)loys above 2,000 
 hands, who annually furnish some 80,000 watclies. 
 About 200 work-people are employed in the carpet 
 manufacture, and there are besides fabrics of jewel- 
 lery, hosierj', hats, hardware, including coach and 
 carriage s])rings, and gloves. Its breweries and 
 tanneries are both on an extensive scale ; the ale 
 of Itesamjon is noted all over France. Among 
 .other articles, it annually furnishes about 000,000 
 bottles of Seltzer water : it is also the seat of a 
 considerable and growing commerce. 
 
 llcsanfon is very ancient. It was laid waste by 
 Attila; and has since undergone many vicissi- 
 
 llETHLEHEM 
 
 tudes. Tt came, along with Frnncho Comto' im,, 
 the possession of France in 1(>7I. ' 
 
 UESSAISAHIA, or EASTEUN MOLI)\vi\ 
 the most south-westerly prov. of KuKsiu ii, Knr,, ,;, 
 having E. t)-.e Dniester, S. the Uln.k Sen n'lid tl„'. 
 Danube, W. the I'nitli, an.l N.Cialli.ia. 'IV ' 1 
 is estimated at «:»« geojf. sq. miles, while tl,,. „,„ 
 am(.unted to 702,000 m IMtd, and to 91<i 107 ,i 
 l«ri8. Exclusive of the greot rivers by wiii,!, if 
 IS neariy surrounded, it is intersected "in- scvcnl 
 considerable stream.*, most of which, lidwcvir 
 are either wholly dried up or greallv (limiiiisl,,,! 
 during the heals of summer. Tlie S'VV. |ii>rti<iii 
 contiguous to Gallicia, is hilly, or rather moim- 
 tainous, and is (»cciipied by extensive forests • Imt 
 elsewhere the surface is neariy flat. Snil nimii- 
 dantly fertile, and, with the exception of the trmi 
 along the Danub?, which is marshy and cik imi- 
 bered with lakes, it is suitable for most iif;riiiil- 
 tural puri)08cs. ' No trees, a few shrubs oiilv arc 
 ohser\'ed near the rivers ; the lakes, or slairii • 
 waters, are covered with reeds; and in the ola, s 
 between the marshes, the ox, Imfl'alo, and l,i.s.,i, 
 wander among pastures where tlie herbage risi s id 
 the height of their horns. In the ciiltiviitpd Iiiiul 
 millet yields KM), and barley (JO fold. Tlie Imrsc 
 and the sheep exist in a willl state.' (Multo-ltnin 
 vi. 370, Eng. trans.) Hut these returiis seem ex- 
 aggerated. Wheat, barley, and millet are liic 
 only species of com that are raised. Accnnlin' 
 to official accounts, 130,141 chetwerts iffdiluotd ii 
 return of 6.51,820 chetwert-s, that is, of ahdiit i ti> 
 1. Hemp, Hax, and tobacco are produced in con- 
 siderable quantities. The breeding of tattle is 
 the principal business of the inhabitants; and tlicv 
 are largely exjiorted, with hides and tallow. A\iiii 
 the exception of tanneries, distilleries, and tallim 
 and soap works, there are either no manui'actnriii;; 
 establisliments in the country, or none worth no- 
 tice. Large (]|uantitics of salt are produced frmn 
 the lakes contiguous to Akerman (which see). A 
 good deal of inferior wme is made. Education is 
 not much attended to, though great proirrcss in 
 this respect has been made in recent years, par- 
 ticularly since the accession of Alexander II. tu 
 the throne of Kussia. 
 
 BESSE, a town of France, de'p. Tiiy de Duino, 
 cap. cant., 20 m. SSW. Clermont. I'oj). l.iibl in 
 1«61. The town is built of basalt, in tlie iniddk' 4 
 a volcanic country ; and the eiiviroiig offer several 
 natural curiosities. It has some trade in cattle 
 and cheese. 
 
 liESSINES, a town of Franco, de'p. llaule 
 Vienne, cap. cant., on the (iartenipe, 10 ni, li. 
 Hellac. Pop. 'i,.50O in 18t!l. The place has some 
 trade in cattle and agricultural produce. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, (Beit - el - Lehw, Ilnune of 
 Bread,) a famous town of Palestine, ti ni. S. Jeru- 
 salem : lat. 31° 44' K., long. 35° UY E. I'lip, 
 from 3,000 to 4,000, of whom by far the jirciiiir 
 part arc Catholic, Greek, and Annriiiaii (,'hristians 
 A sidendid church, erected by the enijircss llcli'ni, 
 stands over a grotto or cave, said to be the birth- 
 place of Christ. Connected with the churi'h an' 
 convents for the three sects of Christians noticel 
 above, of which that belonging to the Latins is a 
 line building ; but more resembling, oxtemally. a 
 fortress than a religious establishment. Sonic re- 
 mains of an old aqueduct, fonnerly K! or 1>< in. 
 in length, exist on the \V'. side of the town; but 
 the chief buildings consist of chapels, and otliir 
 memorials of holy persons, and of the events fur , 
 which the place and neighbourhood are celebrateil 
 in sacred history. The houses of the iiiliabitanis 
 arc mean in the extreme. 
 
 The country round Bethlehem is extremely 
 fruitful, yielding figs, grapes, olives, ami sesamuiu 
 
BETHUNE 
 
 BEVERLEY 
 
 443 
 
 CTfBt nhundnnoo; lint licro, ns in otlior parts masques, three baths. ei!,'ht Arnioninn chiirclies, 
 
 „f this neglected luiiil, cultivation is wantinj?, 
 TluTP is "" <ii'll<'i»'ii<!y of water ; tliree extensive 
 ffvirviiiri*, called the pools of Solimion (Kocles. ii. 
 I'll mill ft opious fountain, said to lie the ',<«'«/(•(/ 
 /;,»ii/(iiii ' of •''« *"•""' prince (Sol. Son^r, iv. 12), 
 Ii,, ,111 the S. ; on the NW. is n larp- cistern of 
 rain water, said to he the 'well liy the pite,' 
 whence David's mighty men drew water, while 
 ihe pliice was in the hands of the I'hilistines 
 (jSmn. xxiii. !*>) ; and the whole neif^hbourhood 
 aUimlH in siirin^'s and rills. 
 
 The tract lietweeii Hethlehem and .leru.salem is 
 thcviiUcy of Hephaiin ((liant's Valley, .losh. xv. 
 1*1, tlic si'euc of many condiats between the Jews 
 aiiill'hilistincs. ('iSam. v. 1«, ft «/.) Here are 
 .Ii,nvii many jtreteiuhKl relics of the Hcriiitiiral 
 ]f.if, as the hou.se of Simeon, the tJinib of Haebel, 
 tile villai^e of Uama, the cave of Kngadi, the well 
 ill wliii'h was seen the star of the Messiah, and 
 inaiiv (ithers. The original name of IJethlehem 
 M." kplirath (tien. xxxv. I!t) : a term which, like 
 ii,4 present designation, referred to the fertility of 
 it,<siiil. It was never very considerable in respect 
 of size (Micah v. 2), Imt seems to have been 
 always regarded as important; and being the 
 H'onc (if the pastoral tale of Kuth, and the liirth- 
 plHoe of I)avid and Jesu.s Christ, it has acquired a 
 trli'lirity hardly surpassed even by that of .Jeru- 
 nkm. ' It was fortiHed by Rehoboam (2 Chron. 
 xi. t'l). and, in a subsequent age, the -imperor Ila- 
 ilriaii is said to have built a temple het-^ to Adonis. 
 Ofihi.i, however, no vestige remains. Ti:c present 
 iiihiib. enjoy a considerable share of liberty : they 
 an.' liiiltl and hardy, and succcssfidly re.siHt every 
 aiiciiipt at opjiression by their governors. They 
 are cnnsequcntly stigmatised, liy tlic Turks, as of 
 a rt'kllious spirit. There was formerly another 
 iWthlchcm, more to the N., belonging to the trilie 
 (.fZabulon (Josh. xix. 15). (Maundrell, 110-123; 
 Vohicv. ii. 270, 271.) 
 
 liETHUNK, a town of France, dc'p. Pas dc 
 falais, cap. arrond., on a rock, at the foot of which 
 i.«tlic Krctte, 1« m. NNW. Arras, on the railway 
 fnnn Paris to €alai,s. Pop. 8,2(>4 in 18t!l. The 
 idwii is well forlilied, by works jiartly constructed 
 liv Vauban. Its plan is that of an irregular 
 irian};lc; the citadel, which is isolated, occupying 
 iiw iif the angles. It has a tribunal of iminary 
 jiirisilii'tidn. a communal college, two hospitals, 
 raamifactiires of linen and cloth, breweries, and a 
 (iiiisiilerable trade in linen, cheese, and rajie oil, 
 ilie canal of the Lave, which unites with the Lys, 
 ib well as the railway, greatly fjicilitating its 
 ■r.ido. It was taken by the allies in 1710; but 
 WHS restored to France by the treatv of Utrecht. 
 
 ISKTLIS, or HIT LIS, a town (if Turki.sh Ar- 
 nn'iiia, W m. VV. from the W. extremity of Lake 
 Van, and about 13«) m. E. by N. Diarbekr, hit. 
 ;>" 115' N., hmg. 42° 50' E. It stands in a wide 
 ravine, open to the E., but closed by high moun- 
 laiiis to the W. ; the houses being dispensed over 
 ilic-'teepbaiiksof a stream which runs through it, 
 ami (in several of the neighbouring hills ; it is, 
 lIuTcforc, most irregidar. 'I'lie houses are built of 
 reil stone, and are generally of two stories, with 
 patcd windows to the streets, the latter being 
 Iflvpil with round stones. The houses being much 
 scattered and intermingled with gardeius, the 
 imvii covers a large extent o{ ground : it is not 
 cuclu.sed by a wall, and this is hardly necessary ; 
 each house being, in fact, a pretty strong fortress. 
 It is said to contain 1,500 houses, of which 500 
 Won); to Armenians; and if so, its pop. may 
 aiDiiunt to about 9,000. IJy some, the pop. is 
 estimated at 15,000. The' town contains four 
 caravanscra-s, three large and twelve small 
 
 and iiue Ncstorian. Tht^ most remarkable object 
 ill the town is the old castle, in its centre, on a 
 rock 30 ft. in height, and built up with thick walln 
 to an elevation of 100 ft. There are n consider- 
 able number of butchers, bakers, gunsmiths, and 
 silversmiths; but the principal manufacture con- 
 sists of coarse cotton cloth, and tobacco. Tho 
 territory iirodiices fruits and vegetablt« in |icr- 
 fection. The army of the Turkish sultan, Soly- 
 maii the ^lagiiiliceiit.siistaineil a signal defeat by 
 the Persians, near Hetli.s, in 1554. 
 
 Ul'U'TllKN, a town of Prussia, prov. Silesia, 
 reg. Oppeln. cap. circ, 35 m. NIC. Ifatilior. Pop. 
 4,004 u\ IHtil. It has three Catholic churches, 
 thnu! convents, with fabrics of coarse chitli, pot- 
 tery, zinc, and calamine, and breweries. There is 
 another town of the same name in Silesia, reg. 
 Liegnitz, on the Oder, 12 m. W. by N. (Ihigaii, 
 on tlie railway from Kreslau to Posen, The latter 
 place, with a population of 2,M5(t, is commonly 
 distinguished as Alt-Beuthtn, It has fabrics of 
 cloth, earthenware, and straw hats, and some boat 
 bnihling. Its environs are verv fertile. 
 
 HEVEHKN, a town of IJelgium. prov. K. Flan- 
 ders, (( m. W. Antwerp. ]'op. 0,000 in iMtVt. It 
 stands on the road from Antwerp to tlheut, is well 
 built, and has a tine ehiirch, with a lofty spire. 
 About 2,01)0 women are employed in the lace 
 miniufacture, and there are several breweries, tan- 
 neries, and distilleries. 
 
 PlCVEULl'^Y, a pari. bor. and market town of 
 England, E. riding co. York, of which it is the 
 cap., near the Hull river, to which it is united by 
 a canal, 157 m. N. Loudon, 2« m. ESK. York, and 
 9 m. NWV. Hull, on tli,! railway from Hull to 
 Sciirborough. Pop, of municipal borough 'J,(!54, 
 and of pari, borough 10,8()f< i'l IHOl. The town in 
 believed to owe its o.-igin to ai' ancient monjjsterv, 
 which, after having been sacked by the Danes in 
 8(»7, wa.s restored by Athelstan, who granted tho 
 place several privileges, and made the monastery 
 a sanctuary for criminals. It is a ^'ell built, hand- 
 some town. The great glory of iJeverley is tho 
 minster, or collegiate church of .St. ,Iohn, which, 
 in size and beauty of architecture, is far superior 
 to many catbeilrals. This splendid structure, 
 which has been erected at diHerent period.^ in 
 what are called the decorated and perpendicular 
 English styles, is 334 ft. from E. to W. ; the 
 length of the great cross aisle is 107 ft., and the 
 two towers at the W. end arc each 200 ft. in 
 height. Near the altar is the seat of refuge, with 
 an inscription assuring criminals of their safety 
 wlule there, and a tablet with etfigics of St. John 
 of lleverley and Athelstan. The ])arishcs of St. 
 John and St. Martin have the minster as a church 
 common to both. It is kept in excellent repair by 
 the rent of estates appro]iriated to that purpose 
 by (Jnecn Elizabeth and Sir Michael Warton. St. 
 Mary's church is also a magnificent structure in 
 the old Norman style ; and lands n'-.hicingalxive 
 8(H)/. a year have been left for its support. The 
 Primitive and Wesleyan Methodists, Indepen- 
 dents, liaptists, Koman Catholics, and Society of 
 Friends, have chapels here. The sessions-house, 
 and house of correction for the E. riding, are 
 situated in the immediate vicinity of the town : 
 the latter, which is a very large establishment, 
 and constructed on the most ajjproved principles, 
 cost above 40,000/. Here also is the Kegister- 
 ofBce for the E. riding. The endowed schools are, 
 a grammar-school, of great antiquity, to which is 
 attached two fellowsliips, six scholarships, and 
 three exhibitions to St, John's, Candjridge; a 
 Hlue-coat School, founded in 170!); (Jraves's 
 School, founded in 1804 ; and schools on the sys- 
 
 
 K »■ 
 
 i r 
 
 :lf: 
 
 !■■■■'<■,.- 
 AH 
 
 
 
 < ■ t: 
 
411 JJKWDLKY 
 
 (cms of Lnnrnstcr nnd llcll. TIutp nrp nlwi rovc- 
 riii iiliiinli(niy('M, (111 liiis|iiliil,<Ii.s|)('iiHiiry, nu'cliniiics' 
 iislituto, iml)lii^ r<'iiiliiif,'-riMinis, a savings' hank, u 
 llicatrc, tipcii <)(•(•a^^icp|llllly, and asM'tiilily-riMPins. 
 l.'ai'cs arn liclil near llic town cN'cry tlnnc. Tlie 
 ('iir|ii>ratiiiii of llcvcrlcy cniKiisIs ()f a mayor, rc- 
 <'(ir<li'r, six aMcniicn. and ciLclitccii councillors, 
 «'li'i'lcd by the lnirf,'i'sscs and iVci'incn, 'i'lio lior. 
 receipts anioiinl to al)out ■J,(MI0/. per anniini. The 
 corporation liold n criininal conrt, willi power of 
 life and dealli, wiru'li. liowe\ cr. is never exercised ; 
 a court of session, called t'le I'rovost's Courl, lor 
 all ideas to any anionnt, except those for landed 
 property; and a court of recpiests for (lel)ts under 
 W. The piililic^ Imsiness is Iransacled in tlio llall- 
 H-arth or (inildhall, where the (jiiarter sessions for 
 the riding arc held. The elective franchise, 
 frianted liy I'.dw. I., was not exercised till the l)e- 
 ^iiining of l''.liz., since which time the horonf^li 
 has coiitiiuied to return two nieinliers to tlie II. of 
 ('., the rin'lit of tdection. previously to the lieliprm 
 Act, heiii;;- vested in the freemen, win ther nsi 
 • lent or not. 'I'iu' electoral houndaries comprise 
 the ])arishes of St. Mary, St. Martin, ami St. Ni- 
 cholas, and the jiart of St. .lohn's within the lihcr- 
 ties. Tlie constituency, in IHtil. eoiisisled of 1,"JI.'( 
 rcfiistered electors, of whom (il:> old freemen, and 
 the rest 1(1/. householders, 'i'lie election for the 
 meiiibcrs of the !•',. ridini; is luld here. The town 
 is situated in a fertile country, and has an exten- 
 sive retail trade ; tanning is also extensively car- 
 ried on. Near the town is a larj;'e factory for 
 liaints. cement, and J'aris white, whicli last is 
 made from the clilf-stoiie raised at (^hieen's (late, 
 and found to he peculiarly adapted to the jpurpose: 
 there are also iactories for patent wroiii;hl-iron 
 wheels, nnd for fancy ironwork and aiiriciiltural 
 imiilements of all descriptions. A hrisk corn trade 
 is carried on, Markets for {,'<'"''''"1 purposes on 
 Saturdays, and for cattle on alternate \\'ednes- 
 days, held in an enclosed area <if four acres, orna- 
 mented hy a stately cross resting' on eif;lit columns. 
 There are here eif^ht great cattle fairs. Two ])ri- 
 ^ale haiiking-houses. a liraneh of the Hull 15ank- 
 iug Co., and n savings' hank, have been oiieiied 
 liere. Fisher, bishop of Ifochester, who sutVeri'd 
 martyrdom under Henry VHI., was a native of 
 the town. 
 
 UKWDLEY, nil unoicnt market town, bor., nnd 
 ehajielry of Kiiglaiid, co. Worcester, 14 ni. NNW. 
 AVorccster, 111 m. S\\'. ISirmingham. KIH m. NW. 
 London, on a branch of the < ireat Western railway. 
 iNiji. of municipal bor. '2,'.Wi), and of pari. bor. 
 T,iil^4, in iMlil. The town is locally in the hinid. 
 of Doddiugtree, hut has separate jurisdiction. It 
 is built on the descent of a hill, on the W. bank of 
 the Severn, over whicli tliere is a line stone bridge. 
 The more ancient part of the town was built at 
 some distance from the river. It had formerly 4 
 gates, 2 of which were standing in 1811, but 
 they have been since pulled down: the jirincipal 
 street is well built and paved. The town-hall is a 
 iiue modern building, erected on 3 arches, with 
 handsome iron gates leading to the market-place. 
 The church is a neat stone edilice, with a tower. 
 A charter was granted by Kdward IV., hut the go- 
 verning charter was given bj' .lames I., and con- 
 lirmed by Anne. The corporation hold a court of 
 .session annually, and a court of record for all 
 ])'i'as, and for the recovery of debts not exceeding 
 JOIl/. The lord of the manor holds an nnnual 
 court leet, at which constables and other oiKcers 
 are appointed. In the reign of Henry VI., liewd- 
 ley enjoyed ninny ]irivileges; among them, that of 
 being a sanctuary for persons who had shed blood. 
 This town has sent 1 member to the H. of C. 
 since 3 James 1., who, previously to the Keforni 
 
 BKYROUT 
 
 Act, wnH retiinicd hy the corporation „ „,r 
 elected body. The new boiindarv act ,|,!|„|,,, . 
 limits of the bor. to be the p„r. .,t' |;ihlH.s|„nl ai.'l 
 the hamlets of Wribbenhall, Iloarstdiic. |(i.„a 
 stone, Netherton. and Lower Mittoii. wii'i, |'j,V 
 hill, which together had a constituency of .;7i') r,, 
 gistered electors in I XII I. There ar.' icvcriii \u'\'\ 
 endowed charities. 'I'lie maiuifactiire of WHrJIiii 
 caps, called Dutch caps, formerly tl(Miri>li,.,| i|,,r,. 
 but has many years since disappi'aicd. Tlic hrin' 
 cipal trades and manufactures now existing; |,rc in 
 malt, tanning and currying leather, and makin' 
 combs: besides which there are some nip(.-«„rli^ 
 and a brass- foundry. There is also a eoiisidcralili. 
 carrying-truile, connected with (he Severn; ii,..|r 
 the town is a mineral spring. Alarket-day, Siiiir 
 day. Fairs, I'ltrd April, -.'Ith .luly, and I'lili l)(v 
 for catth; and pedlary. '' 
 
 lll'.X, a town of "Switzerland, cant. Vaiid, cm, 
 circ, in the fertile plain of the Ifhoue.oii the Avci'i 
 9011, "iO m. SI';. Lausanne, on the railway fn.m 
 Lausanne to.Martiguy. roji. iM:,;i in \xai. 'ri„. 
 town is chielly celebrated for the salt spriii's ami 
 salt mines in its vicinitv. 
 
 UKVliOl'T, or HKlIiOUT (an. lim/t,,,, 
 nripuTO!), a sea-port town of Syria, on the S,'>i,|c 
 of an extensive hay open to the N., Is n,. ssW. 
 'I'ripcdi. l!l m. XNW. Siihm, and about ;; m. |;[ 
 from (,'a))e Hevront. the latter being in hit Vr^ 
 4!t'4-)" N., loiig. .-'.oo -27' .'i4" K. l'„p. |-.MMi(i'„r 
 iri.dOO. There are here no public Ipnildiiijrs „|' 
 any beautv or ini|iortan(x>, nor are many rtinaiiis 
 of anticinity to be met with; for tliHiioh tlir 
 modern town occupies the site of the jiiuieni oin', 
 the latter was long since destroyed hy re|i(aliii 
 earlhipiakes, and tlie modern builijings areereciiil 
 over the ruins of the ancient ediliccs. .\l(in^' ilic 
 shore, however, and in part under tlie water, m.- 
 some mosaic pavements, IViigaieiits of coliiniu-. 
 and (W. of the town) a thick wall, stipiiiiscd in 
 he of the time of Herod tlie (Ireal. 'I'lie hnzaars 
 are large an.l well fre(|uented ; but there .seems in 
 be a deticieuey of jirivate shops, and tliesliceisaiv, 
 in general, narrow and crooked. A |i!eMiiriil sup- 
 ]ily of water from a tolerably lar-c river (.\iilir 
 Jhi/roiif), and n great number of wells. iniidilV, 
 in some degree, the heat of the atmnspiicre, ai'ul 
 render the town much cleaner than tliegciicialilv 
 of those in the F. The walls (of a soft saiidstomj 
 are about it m. in circ, ami tlie sulnulis are ]i(r- 
 liajjs equal in extent to the town itself. Tlic 
 neighbourhood is very fertile, )irodueiiig all kiiuls 
 of fruit; but the chief arlii'le of cullivaiiun Is ihc 
 mulbeiTV tree, an extensive and iniporlaiit niiiwi- 
 facturc being earned on here of silk gomls, csiii-- 
 cially of sashes. Jteyrout had formerly a small 
 port, formed by a strong mole, hut its prisinr 
 m(de or jetty is of very inferior diiiieiisiuiis. ami 
 is scarcely suflicieut to shelter boats, 'flitvc i>, 
 however, good anchorage j^ m. from the tnwii. in 
 six or seven fathoms; and large ships inayanclur 
 a little farther out in 10 or 11 faihoiiis. Alirr 
 centuries of neglect, it has in recent times a:::iiii 
 become a place of some imitortanee. Tliice liiiis 
 of steamers French. Austrian, and liiissiaii.cumml 
 Ueyroiit with the chief ports of the Mediterranean. 
 while there is a good carriage-road, conipldcd in 
 IHlii"), to Damascus, and a line of telejjraidi i" 
 the same jilace. The imiiorts and ex|Kiiis, ,is 
 well as the shijiping, in the tive years lM,"iii-('ii). 
 are shown in the subjoined statement. Tlic srcat 
 decrease of the exports in I «,")!!, and, mere still, in 
 lK(iO, was owing to the failure of the cmps in many 
 parts of Syria, which entailed great privati(iii.< 
 n))on the inlial>itaiits, (l{e|)ort by Mr. Moure, 
 ISritish ConsuKieneral at Bevrout, in ' Consular 
 Keports,' 18U2.) 
 
 
 Niiiitbr 
 
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 02 
 
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 (III 
 
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 7:1 
 
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BR2IERS 
 
 li.:.7 
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 ISIill 
 
 NumblT nf 
 
 
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 viiiiiiM.r 
 
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 lin|iitvt* 
 
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 c 
 
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 nr.,nn;i 
 
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 7:1 
 
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 The fXimrlH <'liicHv ciiiiHi.st of giillx, iiiiulilcr, | 
 mm*. "'"* C"^*' '""' wroiifilil), wiiK! iiiid oil. ■ 
 III,, imports arc — niiisliii.x, cuifoiis, tin, liardwiirc, 
 ildili!., mid Wfsl India iinidiu'c. 
 
 Iltrviii^ wi>« » viTv iincii'iit town of tin- I'lin'- ] 
 „|,.iiiiis, (ItTiviii); ilH iiaini', nciMirdin;,' lit Stcplifii ' 
 i,l |:vzimliiiiii (art. HijpuTo?). from the nimiluT of , 
 ji, w'cll^, till' prdix hcrr siniiiryin^ a ircll in tin; j 
 liii;r|iiifr(. of iIk! fiiiiiitry. I'lidcr tlu^ lionians it 
 r,..o li^Kf'"' cniincnri'. noiwitlisiandin^ it liad ' 
 Uciifiitircly dcslroyrd in tlii^ war.n of Alexander's 
 ,ii,w->iirs. iilioiit Ni) years liefore the, l.'oinan eon- j 
 ,|iii.st 111' Syria. An;iiistns planted in it M eoloiiy, | 
 ^'hvc it lii'* daiifilitcr's name, willi tlie addition of 
 ill,, opitlii't Felix (Ikri/tiis Coloniii Julia Fflix). 1 
 I riiii. V. ■-''•.) A seliocd of law, eslalilislied lieri^ I 
 iiiilic lieiiiiiniii;;- of the third <^enliiry (prohalily ; 
 liv Alexander Severns). eonlinned for iJIKI years, : 
 iiMill ll"' lown was overwhelmed hy an eiirlh- j 
 (iiiakc ill ''"'I. to lie the most eeleliraled institution 
 „l till' idiiil ill the empire, (tiilihon. eap. 17.) iiiil ! 
 lln. Iiiwii iiKaiii revivecl ; and, under the Saraeens, ; 
 jilaiiK'd to consideriihle imporlanee. It was fre,- 
 (iiiiiitly caiiliired and recaptured durln,!f the Crii- 
 siKat wliii^h jieriod the mole, forminj,' its jiort, 1 
 \v,is (lestroyiid. In the sevenleeiith eeiitiiry it 1 
 was. fur a short while, the eapital of the famous j 
 llrii.se Kinir, Fakr-ed-Din, and latterly it fell into j 
 ilic liiiiids of Djezzar, pasha of Aere, who laiilt^ 
 iisiiri'si'iit walls, cut a (s'ln.'tl from tlie river to tin 
 iiiwii, creeted several foimlaiiis, and otherwise im- 
 iifivid and heanlilied the |iliiee. At jiresent. it is 
 ihc lapilal of a small paslialie, the |)aslia liein^ a 
 Frnuli r('iii';;aile, formerly a colonel in Napoleon'.s 
 army. The. I'h(eiiieiaii deity llaal-Iteeritli (Lord 
 iilU'ells) is said to have heeii iiamed'frotn, or to 
 have j;iven name to, this place, which is also 
 faiiiiius in Christian lej;'ends as the scene of St. 
 tiinr„'i''.f victory over tlii^ drafi;on. 
 
 liKZIKIfS, a city of France, di'p. llernnlt, eap. 
 amiiiil., a;;Teealily situated on 11 fertile liill, in a 
 rioli country, at' the jniiction of the Vaitul da 
 .Vii/i Willi the (.)rl>, and of the railways from 
 I'ttto to Toulouse, and from Xarl)oim« to C'arcas- 
 s.iim', oH ni. S\V. iMoiitpolier, and •!() m. K. 
 Tiiulmisc. Pop. 'Jfi-iTlt in IMOl. At a distance 
 the city has a line apiiearance, but on entering; 
 the illii.-iiiii vanishes. The lumses are mean, anil 
 the siri'cts narrow and crooked. Its citadel has 
 hwii ili'molishod ; Init it is still surrounded hy oUl 
 Mils, llaiiked with towers, round which is a newly- 
 jikitcil iironicnadc. The cathedral, a (lothie 
 liiiiWiii};, has a nolile interior, and its shaqi towers 
 ami castellated walls give it at a distance the ap- 
 liiariiiice of a superb Gothic mansion, T'he view 
 inmi its terrace is extensive ami delightful. The 
 aiuieiit episcojial iialace is the seat of the courts 
 ami (government olliees. Its convents have all 
 Kill abolished. IJeziers has tribun.-ds of jirimary 
 jiirisilietion and commerce, a communal collef;e, 
 an ii(;ricultural society, a i)nl)lic library with 5,01)0 
 viilumi's, and a theatre. It ]>roduce.s silk stock- 
 ays, diniities, parchment, verdif^ris, starcli, {i'l'ves, 
 t;lass, and liif,dily-estccmed .sweetmeats; but it is 
 imnciimlly distinf;'uished by its distilleries, which 
 arc extensive, and jiroduce brandy, little, if at all, 
 iiiltrior tu that of L'offnac. Its siluatiuii makes it 
 ilie centre of a considerable trade. 
 
 lUIAUaULPORE 445 
 
 lle/ier'* is very ancient; and tlip remains of 
 an amphithealre, and of cisierns and other Ko- 
 nian works, may still be recoj^nised. In l'.;0!i, 
 diiriii)^ tin; first crusade apiinst the Albiirenses, 
 l(e/.iers liavin;,; alVordeil protection to numbers 
 of the fugitives, was besiep'd by the Cathidii! 
 army, wlio, having carried it by assault, com- 
 mitted, at the instigation of the impe's legate, 
 an indiscriminate massacre of those found within 
 its walls, whether heretics or not. It alsosnil'ereti 
 severely during the religious wars of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Harbeyrac, tli<* learned translator and annotator 
 of (irotius and I'lilfeiidorf, and K'iipiet, the en- 
 gineer of the Canal du Midi, were both natives of 
 Ite/ier.s, 
 
 IIIIADI.'INATII (Vtidarinat/„i). a small to, in 
 \. Hiiidoslan. prov. Kumanii, in a valley of tin; 
 llimalava, mo m. N. Alinorah, and lo,-_".l| fi.abovit 
 the level of the sea; hit. '.UP V.V N., long. 7!P liW 
 \'.. It is remarkable for a temple, much veiierat(Ml 
 by the Hindoos; and visited iiiiniially by oO.OOO 
 pilgrims from all parts of India. It has warm, 
 siilplmreoiis, and cold springs. 
 
 lillA.MO, or IIAN.MO. one of the chief towns 
 in the liirmiin emp., ca|i. of a Shan iiriiicipality, 
 and chief seat of the ('hiiies(> trade with itirmah; 
 on an elevaleil bank of the Irrawadi, 170 in. NN'I",. 
 
 Ava, and :'0 m. W. the Chinese I (h'r; lat.-JP 10' 
 
 N.. long. Wfl M>' 1'",. Next to Ava ami llaiignon it, 
 is the largest place in the empire, and contains 
 2,000 houses, inhabited mostly liy Chiuese ; is sur- 
 rounded by numerous well-peopled villages, and 
 del'eiided by a wooden stockade. T'he houses in 
 llhanio ami its dislri<'t iin; better tlijin tliosi; in 
 most |iarts of the liirman doiiiiiiioiis; those of the 
 Chinese are built of brick, ■■iiid t\u.M' of the natives, 
 of reeds, thiiiclieil with grass,aiid separately railed 
 in: there is a good ba/ur. The tradi- in woollins, 
 col Ions, and silks is wholly in the lianils of the 
 Chinese, who moslly arrive here in caravans in 
 December and .l;iiiiiary, but .'(00 of them live con- 
 staiilly in the town, as well as many other fo- 
 reigners. 
 
 T'he Shans, Singplios, and otbers, piircbasp salt, 
 pmi/iir (dried lisli;, ami rice, in large qiiaiitilies, 
 especially salt, which fetches a very high ]irice. 
 The people appear opulent ; have adopted in great 
 part the Chinese costume; and wear more orna- 
 ments than in any town in liirmab. The revenue 
 of the distriet, which is of no great extent, is said 
 to amount toJJ lacs of rujiees a year. Old I'diamo, 
 tli(! original Shan town, is situated two day.s' 
 journey up the T'ajjan, the nearest tributary of 1 he 
 Irrawadi. (Crawfnrd's Embassy; Asiat. journal, 
 Calcutta, No. Ixiv.) 
 
 lUIAT'(i()N(i, a city of N. Ilindost.tn (N'cpmd), 
 said formerly to contain l-2,ooo houses; once the 
 .scat of an inde]i. chief, and though much ilccayed, 
 still the favourite residence of the Nepaiile.se Hrali- 
 miiis; H m. KSIC. Catinandoo; hit. 27° 'Kl' X., 
 long. H^P «' K. The palace and other buildings 
 have a striking apjiearance, owing to the excellent 
 ([iiality of the bricks and tiles. 
 
 HllATNElilJ, a to. of IIindostan,prov. Kajiwo- 
 ; tana, the mod. eap. of the IJhatty country, and tlii; 
 j most !•;. town ill the presid. liengal, 1'.).") in. \VS\V. 
 ; l)(dhi; lat. 2!l° 3(;' iN., long. 71° 12' K. It was 
 : taken and destroyed by Timour, in 1;{'.)M, and again 
 taken by the rajah of IJicanere in 1807, who re- 
 tained possession of it for .several vear.s. 
 
 ItllAlKUJLl'OlM:, or HOtiLrroOK, a distr. 
 of IliiKhistan, iirineipally in prov. liahar, but the 
 E. portion (liajemahal) in ISeugal, between lat. 
 23° 4' and 2;")° ■4!l' N., and long. «G° 1 ;"/ and 87° 81' 
 K., having N. 'Tirhoot and I'urneali distr.; E. the 
 latter and Moorshcdabad ; S. that of IJeerbhoom 
 
 'f< ll 
 
 I ' 
 
 t •" 
 
 'I'll 
 
 'K :■! 
 
410 
 
 iniAUaULPORE 
 
 BlIOOJ 
 
 nnd W. Hfthnr nnd ISnniKliiir: ItiiKth, NW. toSK., 
 I.'t;( in. ; Itrcnillli, 8(1 rn.; nrcn, H/J-i;") nq. ni. I'op. 
 '2,<t-.MMH)(). It (MmipriNCM a territory on Im'IIi huIvh 
 lli(< (ianfrcH, IH divided into '22 tharnniliM, and 
 conlainH (lie (owns oi' Alini^uer, Kajeinalial, and 
 Itlianf^nlpore. S. of the (iani^'cx it iH Idily, and its 
 lulls are conneeted with tlu^ V'indhyan chain ; they 
 are in tw<i Hei>arat(( clnsterH, one in tho K., the 
 other in the \\ ., and eonnected hy n third lateral 
 ran^e : the K. hills a|i|>roaeh iieanT than any other 
 to the (ian^es. Ilesides this river, whieli runs 
 through Khani^idpore lor (id m., Ih(> ehiet' rivers 
 are the (iii(;),'ree and (iandahi. To the S. of the 
 (Jaiif,'es the streains are nient hill torrents, which, 
 tlion^'h wide, are usnally fordahle. 'l'\u' jliirls, or 
 marshes, are ncidier lar^^t- nor iiiunerons. In the 
 dry season their heds ar*^ often partly over^jrown 
 >vilh the wild rose, a si^n of the fertility of the 
 soil, which is. however, not nniversal, innch of 
 Illi.'iii};'Mlpore. even in the plains, liein^ stony and 
 liarc. Tlie climate is warmer than in I'nrneah. 
 the hills hotter than the plains. K, and \V. winds 
 are the most prevalent: in^'lit frosts with the latter 
 often occur to the S. of the. (ianges; hnt, for a 
 ■warm climate, the \V. part is reinarkalily healthy, 
 mid levers are common only in the K. Vej;etaliim 
 very similar to that alioiit Calcutta. There are a 
 few wild ele))liants on the I). Iiills, hiit the most 
 reniarkalile (luadruped is the llanmnan ape. which 
 nhoimds in nnniensc numbers. (Some tribes of 
 jieopli^ inhabit the K. hills, dirt'erini^ f;reatly from 
 the rest of the population, and thouj^ht to be de- 
 ticendants of the aborifiincs. In person they re- 
 hendile tlu'other tribes oi'tlieVindhyan inhabitants; 
 their faces are oval, bnt not lozeiifjje-shaped, as in 
 the Chinese; eyes similar to those of Kuro))eans; 
 noses obtuse, seldom arched, but not flat ; lips full, 
 but not like the nefjro's. They call themselves 
 Mulir,ai\i\ number about .')8,00(); divided into two 
 «eetions, called the N. and S. mountaineers, who 
 differ materially in many of their manners and 
 customs, and do not intermarry. They are jjood- 
 natured, bnt not hospitable; less civilised, but in 
 quite as comfortable a condition as the inhabitants 
 t)f the h)w country; their houses are neater, and 
 the ornaments of their women more rnmerous and 
 valuable. Their chiefs were formerly much ad- 
 dicted to predatory descents, but have been pcn- 
 (iioned by the government to refrain from them. 
 They respect Urahmins, although of a different 
 religion : their own deities have neither images 
 nor temples. Another rude tribe, called Maiyas, 
 of about 100 families, live on the W. hills, and 
 subsist by felling and selling timber. The land 
 in the E. parts of this district is more fertile than 
 that in the VV^ : rice, wheat, garden jirodiice, at 
 IMungger; legumes, ricinns, cotton, and sugar- 
 cane, are the chief objects of cidture; about 3,000 
 sq. m. are under tillage. The high rice-lands are 
 niaiuired, and tlrill husbandry practised ; and some 
 of the implements of agriculture are a ilccided im- 
 provement upon those of liengal. The farms are 
 small, and sometimes cultivated by several farmers 
 clubbing together : most of the zeniitidar:) cultivate 
 their own estates, employing their poorer relatives 
 in the ojierative duties. 234,000 begas were once 
 purchased by government, to afford a land settle- 
 ment to veteran and invalid soldiers ; but the plan 
 was not found to answer, and has been given up. 
 Cottons, mixed cloth (silk and cotton), sugar, fire- 
 arms, and metallic and domestic articles, are the 
 ])rincipal manufactures. The establishment of the 
 line of railway from Calcutta to the northern and 
 north-western provinces, which runs in part through 
 IJhangnlporc, has given a great impulse to com- 
 mercial transactions. 
 Portions of the four ancient countries of Augga, 
 
 (Smir, Rlithila.nnd Magadlm, are rntnnriKod in ti i 
 district, which contains many Hiiddhic. Itml, , 
 
 JUS 
 
 cal, and Mohammedan antiquities.' In [ii,!"JImi 
 century \V. Ilhaiigulpore was seiz,.,! hv tlif M, 
 ems and the K. by the Hengahsc, and .Imv,', ,",", 
 the time of Uritish supremacy both were in ,, .,„ 
 of constant anarchy. Cossini All iiitreiul,,.,! him' 
 sell in this district; but after bis works wcro , 
 stroyed, in ITtlil, the Uritish don.ini,,,. w«h „ „; 
 H" 1 !'>'',„')' (M«'-<">'« Hist, of K. I,„ii," 
 
 IJiiAUOui.roiii.: (the nho,h of nf, „„,.,), vixu ,.r 
 the al.ov(. distr., seat of a gov. nsidc'nt and ,',,'nr. 
 ol circuit; beautifully situated, •> ni 
 (iaiiges; 11(1 m. N\V. Sloorshednbad : -J 
 Calcutta, with a station on the I'a 
 
 30,(1(10, chietly IVIohamniedans. Tlie <ii\ nivcrs 
 a great extent of ground, but is nieiinlv Im'ili nm 
 sisting of scattered market-places, hnd'ly Mi|,'|,li,,| 
 and inconveniently placed on decliviiics ((,' 
 greatest ornanieiits are the lluropemi and mVsI,,,, 
 idaces of worship; the hitler are of l.ri.k, ami 
 amongst the handsomest in the prov., aid' 
 small and some of them niinoiis: the 
 
 Miirl 
 S. .it 11,,, 
 -lOiii. N\v. 
 ■■*! Indian niii- 
 
 ;;» 
 
 nioninnciit 
 
 of lloseyn Khan, a sqiiaa' hnilding with live nnt 
 domes, is worth notice. There are a. gaol and 
 hosiiital, a Mohammedan Arabic college, and an 
 English sehoid. The Homan Catholics, |)artlvdc- 
 si'cndants of the Portuguese and partly niitivn 
 Hindoos, have a small church. A nioiuiincnl in 
 the memory of Mr. Cleveland, by the couinil i,|' 
 liengal and the iiihab. of iJliaugulpore, has Ihch 
 erected about 1 m. from the town. A little t(i tlu' 
 NW. are two remarkable round towers, respcciini' 
 which no tradition exists, but they continue in he 
 visited by the Jahi sect. Uhaiigidpore is cnilHH 
 somed in groves of palmyra, tamarind, and niaiifin; 
 its vicinity abounds with swelling hills, and is ix- 
 treniely fertile, well cultivated, and healthy. Its 
 trade has much increased since the o)icniiig (jf tho 
 line of railway which connects it with Calcutta, 
 which took place Nov. 1, 18(!1. 
 
 lUIOOJ, a city of llindostan, prov. Ciitoli, of 
 which it is the modem cap.; built about two cen- 
 turies ago, in a jilain S\V. of a hill called HlKiojan, 
 60 m. NE. the Indian Ocean ; lat. 2;$° liV N.,liin" 
 G1)0 o2' E. Pop. about 20,000. From the N. the 
 city has an imjmsing ap|)carance ; its white build- 
 ings, mosques, and pagodas being intennixcd with 
 plantaticms of date-trees ; but the interior has a 
 very different appearance. It is surrounded by n 
 liigh, thick, and ^vell built stone wall, Haiikcil wth 
 round and square towers, mounted with artillen-, 
 Streets narrow and dirty, and turning at shiirp 
 angles : houses generally within strong walled en- 
 closures, provided with loopholes, and each form- 
 ing in itself a complete fort. The ]ialace is a well- 
 built castle, adorned with sevenil cupcilas, and 
 domes covered with enamel in the Chinese style; 
 temples numerous, many of them large, and present- 
 ing a multitude of elaborate decorations. Kvcry- 
 wliere are seen memorials of suttee and (itiier 
 immolations : the mausoleum of l{ow Laeka, 
 grandfather of the present niler, and of a lady who 
 ascended his funeral pile, is the most remarkable, 
 and would be considered a beautiful ornament in 
 any I'^uropean city. Some others are in Mixirish 
 architecture, worked up with stucco to resemble 
 marble. The hill Bhoojan is surmounted by ex- 
 tensive but ill built fortilications, which are no 
 protection to the town; they enclose a temple de- 
 dicated to the Nag, or cobra-de-capello. This fdrt 
 was taken by escalade by the Uritish, in 1819. 
 W. of the city, and close to the walls, there is a 
 large tank or pool ci^ntaining an elevated terrace, 
 formerly a place of recreation for the chiefs; but 
 
BlIOPAUL 
 
 ihobHililinK* "''*' ""^ '" "''""• B'looj is cclcbrntcil 
 (,, ii.H ^r(,l(| and Hilvcr workH. 
 
 llllOl'AL'I,, a Htnt« of IlimlnHtan, trihiilnry to 
 ,h» |(ritiHl>> |>rov. Mnlwn niiil (iiiiiilwAiiikh ; Ih>- 
 ,,,*ii lft«. 'i'^ a"' »•'"• '^'^° ■*"' N., and limfj. 7(10 
 411'Hml "It" '"'M JiBviiiK N, mill W. Sfiiidia's dum, ; 
 1' ami S. tliiwe of tlie |)rcsid. of Itcn^nl ami tlic 
 \Vrliiiil'l« river, wlii<'li furms ilM piitirc S. Ixmn- 
 JirM lt:n(,'th, K. to VV., 145 m., f^'rontcut brciidlh 
 iiiin.i »ri'i», (),772 Hq. m. The country is full <if 
 jiiiij;],.!!, and imeveii ; the chief rniine of the Viii- 
 JliviUi iiioiintftiiiHiiiterMcct>iits S. portion ; but the 
 Miil is ncncriiUy ftirtile, cspeeiiiUy in the viillcys, 
 aid watered liy nnmcroim HtreiiiiiH. The rulinfj 
 Niiiilc lire I'litunH, e.stiihliHlied here hy Aiirunnzelte 
 laflv in the IHth centiirj', luid of course Mahoni- 
 iniiiiiiH. In \M2, the vizier Mnhotned made a 
 vi;'iircpun ilel'ence iiKainst Sciiidia, the rnjah of 
 Itor, and the I'iinlarrieH; hut on his death, in 
 l.sli;, llie Uritish interfered to protect his doni., 
 aiiil iIk' Marquis of Hastings conferred on his suc- 
 ii.^,iir, Nussecr AFahonied, in 1H17, a coiisideralile 
 |,art lit' the jireseut territory in reward for his 
 li,.;iflv co-operation with the Itritish. It was then 
 iiliiiiatcd that in live years the revenue of the 
 fiiah would increase to nearly iJO lacs a year. 
 
 lliiimiml continues in a tranquil, and evidently 
 
 BICANERE 
 
 447 
 
 |,t,i.i)('roiis condition, 
 
 Diioi'AiJi., the cap. of the above state, placed on 
 the Ijtunulary between Malwa and (iiindwanah, 
 lai. 2:|0 17' N., Ion;,'. 77° ;}()' K. ; 1 10 in. K. Oojein ; 
 3111 m. t<W. Allahabad. It is surrounded by a 
 >iiinc wall, but is in a dilapidated state, as well as 
 usiilmrb, and a Hindoo fortress at its SVV, ex- 
 iKiiiitv. There are two considerable tanks im- 
 mediately adjoining it, from which two rivers 
 tale tlicir rise. 
 
 lillUKTl'ORE, a small territory of Ilindostan, 
 pifiv. Affra, including the small |>er^unnah Tanna ; 
 shape somewhat triangular, having NE, the Uritish 
 (Imn.; SK, those of .Scindia; and W, the raJptKtt 
 ftateof Macherry: area, 1,!»4G sq. m. It is ndia- 
 hiiwl by Jauts, who migrated from the banks of 
 the Iiuiiis, ami settled here alnnit 1700, and \vho 
 have assumed to themselves the title of the mili- 
 tarr caate, and their chief that of rajah. The soil 
 (if lilmrtpore is light, but well watered and culti- 
 vated: cotton, corn, and sugar, are the chief agri- 
 fiiliural products. Wood is very scarce and dear ; 
 ihehduscs are all of red sandstone, and the villages 
 in good condition and repair. Wells are nume- 
 twis, and constructed by building the masonry 
 first, wliich is afterwards undermined and sunk. 
 The (icacock is an object of veneration. The chief 
 towns are lihnrtpore and Deeg. Large quantities 
 iifsalt are produced from brine springs atCombher, 
 liilTliK this territory was at its greatest extent; 
 arotching along the course of the Jumna river, 
 friim near Delhi to Etawah ; but the greater por- 
 tiuii was soon after conquered by Nudjiff Khan, 
 In 182(), having been usurped from its riglUful 
 sivcreigii, the British interfered and took the 
 capital, since which it has been under their pro- 
 te('ti(in. 
 
 BiiuitTPORE, the cap. of the above territoiy. and 
 seat of its rajah, 31 m, NW, Agra ; lat. 27° 17' N., 
 1 ng, 77" 23 E. It is about 8 m. in circum., and 
 w formerly surrounded by a mud wall (!0 ft. 
 thick. Hanked by many bastions, and defended by 
 a stmii),' fort ; but the.se fortifications have been 
 mostly blowni up and demolished. This city was 
 Ut with part of the spoil pillaged by the Jauts 
 trim the baggage of Aumngzebe's army during 
 iitlast march to the Doccan, and l)ecame after- 
 wards a celebrated mart for military stores. It 
 resisted with great vigour the forces of Lord Lake, 
 vhulost, in 1805, 3,100 men under its walla ; but 
 
 it nt lost capitulated to him. In 182r> it was 
 stormed aixl taken by Lord Coinbennere from thn 
 usurper l)tH)rjun Sfil, wlit-ii the fircscnt rajah Mul- 
 wtnit Sing, was establislied in its jMmsession. 
 (lleber's Narrative, ii. ;jr)7-;j(>0,) 
 
 HiAtiGIO (ST,), a ti>wii of Southern Italy, 
 l)rov, (iirgenti, 3 m. W, Xicustro, I'op, 2,107 !ii 
 1802, Its situation is insalubrious, ami it sutTcrcit 
 severely from an earthquake in 1783, Its terri- 
 tory produces good wine, and has some mineral 
 springs, 
 
 IMALYSTOCK (Huss, Bji'huUwk), a circle, or 
 administrative! division of Russia in Kurojte, form- 
 ing part of the goverutniii toft irodno. Area, ',\,VM\ 
 s(i. m. Top. about 2i>0,ll(l0. Surface! Hat, with 
 some slight undulations; soil gciuTally sandv, 
 but fertile. It is bounded on the S, by the \V. 
 Hug, a navigable althient of the Vistula", which is 
 its principal chauiu'l of comiuiuiication. Forests 
 extensive and valuable, but much dilaipiclatcd, 
 through want of proper regulations as to their iiia- 
 liagcineiit. Agriculture is almost the only employ- 
 nu'iit; and considerabh! i|uaiitities of corn, espe- 
 cially rye and wheat, with linseed, hops, ami 
 timber, are sent to Uanlzic and I'llliiiig, 'I'liit 
 nobles are very numerous, being estimated to 
 amount to 0,000 families, or nearly .50,000 indi- 
 viduals ; but the great bulk of them are steeped 
 in jHtvert}-, many being compelled to cultivate 
 their little patches of land with their own hands, 
 or hire themselves to others. Manufacturing in- 
 dustry is all but unknown, and only th(! most 
 common and indispensable trades are carried on. 
 (Schnit/.ler, La Uussie, p, r).'»7,) 
 
 IJiAi.YSTocK, a town of Russia in Europe, cap. 
 prov, same name; lat, W.]P 7' 35" N., long. 23° 18' 
 E. I'op. 13,)!30 in 1858. It is a handsome town ; 
 houses of brick, with the gables to the streets, 
 which are straight and well jiaved. The castle of 
 Count ISranicki is the distinguishing feature of 
 the town. 
 
 lUAXA, a to. of Ilindostan. prov, Agra, territ. 
 Hhurtpore, 50 m, WSW, Agra, lat, 25° 57' N., 
 hmg, 77° 8' E, It stands at the foot of a hill, the 
 ridge of which is covered with the remains of 
 buildings, including a fort and a high pillar, con- 
 spicuous at a great distance. The town is large, 
 contains many stone liouses, and a good bazar. 
 It preceded Agra as the cap. of the prov. and is 
 often mentioned in the memoirs of the Em p. 
 Baber. 
 
 BIBERACn, a town of Wllrtcmberg, circ. 
 Danube, cap. bailiwick, in a fertile valley, on the 
 Kies, 22 m. SSW. Ulm, on the railway Irom Ultn 
 to the lake of Cemstance. I'op. 5,720 in 18(!1. 
 The town is encircled by walls flanked with 
 towers, and has four churches, among them the 
 parish church of St. Martin, with some fine fresco 
 paintings, a college, three schools, and a well 
 endowed hospital. Some branches of the linen 
 and woollen manufactiu-es are carried on, and 
 there are numerous tanneries and breweries, and a 
 bell-foundry. The mineral waters of Jordansbad 
 are at a short distance from the town. It is the 
 birthplace of Wieland; and in 17!)(j the French, 
 under Moreau, defeated the Austrians in its vici- 
 nity. 
 
 BICANERE, or BICKANEER, a territ. of 
 Hindostan, prov. Rajpootana, divis. Marw.-ir, 
 chiefly between lat. 27° and 29° N. ; having N. 
 the Bhatty country ; S. the Jondpoor and Seypoor 
 dom. ; E. Hurriana and the Shehawutty country, 
 and W. Jesselmerc and the great desert, of which 
 it forms a part : area, 18,000 sq. m. The surface 
 is elevated, but fiat, sandy, and destitute of water 
 where not irrigated by wells,which are from 100 to 
 200 feet deep. The crops are very precarious, 
 
 ij I 
 ; i' 
 
 
 
 
 ! 1 A\ 
 
 
 
449 
 
 UICANMKK 
 
 mill ^'rrillly ilrpi'llilrlll till lllf lirrioilii'iil niillM ; 
 mill wnltT is riircriilly |irisrrvrii in ci-. 
 
 II 
 
 iliiiith iiml nlllrr lllil 
 Iv lll'lii'lrs I'liitMl, till 
 
 mil |iiii'<i' nil' iiiiiiiiN 
 
 I III 
 
 11 r IK crNxjirirs 111 iiiir siiii 
 
 lllillilil'iirliir\ , iillil 
 
 \\llirll llir NlllilllrrrliisM nf \ 
 
 I'liril I'i'Kiii I III' roiili^iiinis |>riiv. ('I'lir-'i' iiiiil liiir 
 
 riri' lire iiii|ini'|('il rrniii IjiIiihi' ; wliriil rrniii Jcy 
 
 piicir; Hiill rinni ( 'onililirr; HpiiTM, rii|i|>i'i', iiml 
 
 I'lMii'Mt' I'Intli t'riiin •li'.'-Nrliiii'ri'. 'I'Im' ullirr iiii|ii>rl'4 ! '•iiijili' luir (nit IIaksstai'm' 
 
 ilri'H. mill a mi'IiumI Hii|i|iiirli'i| liv u,,, ,| 
 Am i'iiiIiiwmI liiiM|iiiiil iiiiiiiiliiiiiN kimii 
 l<i>|M's, NiiiJH, mill M niiiNiili riilil 
 
 '""I'llllTM, 
 
 "k'lil 
 <• i|iiiiiilii\ (,(' 
 
 I r, 
 
 null <'iirlliiii\Miri', lire iiimiiiriKiMri'il ; ij | 
 
 I'l.Hl'ls 
 
 Iiiiili 
 
 111" III-, 
 
 \ iiiiiilv Mil' lull yiirils. 'I'll.. |,nrt i, widij,', |, 
 
 ii(;"f. "I'"""' "'"' ''"'"K" • liiTNi'smiil IiiiII(ii'Km I lur m'xm'N uI' 'Joii Ihhh hm |„r 
 
 Mil' 
 
 oC mi inrcrinr lirrril mr iiriirh llir snli- <'\|Mirl 
 
 I, mill is 
 
 II n I 
 in'ri's-ilil,. 
 
 ml 'J,\ 111. iiliiiM' wliii'li ||||. 'I 
 
 lis III,. |,r|,|. 
 
 lliiiiiu'ii' mill ('Imnri) me llir rliii llnw lis. Ill l.'^IH nil Ill's uitli III). riviT, Ships ,\f lar 
 llii. riijiili Mils iiiliiiitlnl iiiiiirr Iti'ilisli |iriilri'liiiti, i til Applriliirr. lis priiiripul iinpuii 
 
 nrriiiH 
 
 KIT 
 
 Inn ( 
 
 l,'i' ; 
 :immI 
 
 l/i' lllll<>:i,| 
 
 llu.VM.Ili:, llii' I 
 
 III' llir illiiiM' ilol 
 
 il ; tiiiilirr. I'l'iiiii I III' II, 
 
 rrsiilniiT III' its riijtili, in llif linlitni iIi'sitI ; °J|i) ' tVniii llrislul nml W'nl 
 
 Hill' mill Irmii ('.'iimii 
 
 mill 
 
 misi-i ,,r 
 .'111-. 
 
 Illl. 
 
 W.'sW. Ui'llii, mill I l.'i Ml. NNW. Ajliinr; , rulmiiiil piuiliirc. rinm llrislul uiiil nil 
 
 UniriTlis iiliil i.ili, 
 
 N., 1.1 
 
 ;(0 
 
 II r iiiirt^. 
 
 !■',. Il is I'liriilinl liy II I iliirf I'xpnrls mi. snils, tiirilii';!.. mul uriirl 
 Niroii;; Willi slii'ii^;llii'iii'il « illl iiiiiiiv r.iiiiiil lii«rrs, ).;(iii'iiil supply, Inr Ilii' Nrwrniiiiilliiinl ii.,||, 
 mill r.iiilriisis iiiip.isiiiM|y wiih ili.. ilrs.iliilinii luiU luiiK, In Iri'liiii.l ; I'liiilii'Mwnr... i.. \\' 
 
 mil il. \\ lli.'ll is IIS ^iTiil lis lliiil .if Illl' \\ ililrsi I'ni'ti mill llnnr, in Itnslnl, '11 
 
 iili'> 
 
 IS |i| 
 
 illhl 
 
 Ir.'icl 111' .VfJilii.l. I'M'i'pl nil ils N. siili', wlnlr lliiTi' ' purl, ill |Hli;i, iiniiiil 
 is II WiHi.lr.l \;illr\-. IM.isI nl' llii- ilwillili^'s ill lli< 
 
 ili;^ 
 
 I'I'I' I'llll'IVll III 
 
 Inwii III'.' III. '11' iiiiiil lulls piiiiih'.l r.'il : iIiiti' mi' 
 mhih' l.illv «liilr liniisi's nil. I l.'iiipl.s ; nml nl niir 
 t'lirili'l' 11 .illlil.'l lllinill \ III. s(|.. |.||.'(i||ipils-.(.i| liy II 
 
 >Mll 
 I'lls. 
 
 ;i(i r. 
 
 Il{;ll, till. I II |..,. 
 
 il .In ilil.'li, ti ('.Hi- 
 ll' I nw CIS III 1. 1 li.llll.'llirllls. n\. r 
 Inpp.il liy .rnW.I.'.l lliill :.'s. Ils In si si'Clirily is 
 
 ill III! 
 
 silir.ilv 111 \Mllrl' III I lie .•nilllll\ lirnlllli 
 
 IIU'I'.S ri'.li, ti pnr. till. I liivMi 111' i'luvlninl, 
 
 ()\liiril. Iiiiiiil. I'l.iii^.,lil.'y. 
 
 NW. Il 
 
 Knililii 
 uiiy. 
 ill l.'^ll 
 
 nil iIh' 1,1111. Inn nil. I N.iilli W'.'sl.'i'ii iiiil 
 
 Mss.'ls .il' (I l.ilnl 
 
 l<> nlli.'inl nlii 
 
 riis 
 
 loiiliilKr II 
 
 r ;;."..i;i;! 
 
 I linn wiTc ".111 sl.'iiin.'rs. .il' li.r, l-j 
 
 \lllU||;, 
 
 I'Mii'il, ill lilt' siiini' ycnr, •..'•Jl v.'sscis, .if {•_>( 
 
 Inns lllir.l.'ll. Illl'lll.llll;^ 
 
 sli'iinii'i's. 
 
 III.' 
 
 Il 
 
 liirllnn.l 
 
 I.' 
 
 •mill' iiiiiiiliir i,f 
 
 piii'l iiprnis III. IS.' .i|' (I,, 
 
 ill ils jiiris.li.'ii.in. jis 
 
 tilVtiiis nr.. iiitiiiiij;iil I'V ii intivnr. Ilii. 
 
 IMIll IWcUt' .'.llllll illnl'- 
 
 IV 
 
 iiiiiiii.i|i,'il 
 I' iililiriiii II, 
 
 i'\ inllslv In II 
 
 ripnl II. 'I (."i iV (1 W. IN'. «'. Til), il wn's 
 
 II' iiiiiiii 
 
 liiirl.r .i| 
 
 Hi .III 
 
 I. 
 
 r'liilinnin^j iin.l ,.m 
 
 Ar.'ii 111' pnr. 
 t ; 111' liiwn. 
 
 Jilni'i'i's. 
 
 'I' pnr. II.OP.l 
 
 II pri'viniiM mil' (III I'ili/nlii'lli). 'I'Ik 
 
 \ 'I'll.' low II is will liiilll 
 
 on ji siiitillslntiin. llinl j.iiiis lli.. ('linrwrll nl Islip. 
 
 ii'i'h. Iiiiill ill i It'll, nil Illl' sill' nl' nil ol.l.r 
 
 'I 
 
 mil'. I'niilniiis iiiniiv muiriil iiiniiiini.nis. mul Inis 
 
 I.' 
 
 Ill 
 
 ri'M'iin.' .Incs n.il I'x.'i'ci 
 
 r.o/. 
 
 inillll'.; 
 
 iir|iiirjiii..n 
 
 ti ycnr. ilrnvcil ( 
 
 l.'ii.iiuiils ill 111.' Ii.irnnuli : Hi.. ,|nny ilii.s li.l 
 111 I lie I.inl nl'ilii' iiiminr. nml nr.' r('j;iiliii..(| \v 
 II. I pnssi'.l in \X->H. Ititl.l'.iril issl\l..|| nl 
 
 r.'iM 
 
 ill I III' SlIMHI ll'.'nfll 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 Inl'lv (iiwcr, 'I'licri' i 
 
 S 11 . 
 
 Iinril\ 
 
 ,'li< 
 
 , wll.'ll 
 
 s.iil in.'iiili.'i's 
 
 ',\0 li.iys nr.' .'I.illir.l nml r.ln.nli'il : iiinl nnnllirr 
 I'nr till' insiiiirii.ni nf I'.O uirls, 'I'll.' w.'iKlv innrki'i 
 
 I'l.l 
 
 I' 
 
 w. nml iinnnnl I'nirs mi hinslcr 
 
 Triilny, I si I'riilny in .Inn. 
 III. I iMii'lini'lnins. tin. I 'J Inlli 
 
 ;•. ."i. I''ri.ltiy iil'lrr 
 i''riilti\s. mill Illl' 
 
 Isi |''riilin' ill Di.'. : llirv iirc I'nr .'tillli'. mul Imlli 
 
 I'liirs till. I intiiKi'l tiri' wril till..|iil.'.l 
 
 h-^ 
 
 >rn\llllll V 
 
 IIS 111), rnilwtn . 
 
 ;i\ (' 
 
 to (III' ONl'.ini ('mini, ns wi 
 il s.'iiii' liiisini'ss ; lull iin pnrii.'iiltir inminl'n.'lnrcs 
 lire cnrri.'.l on. I'xi'.'pl lliiil nl' limii' Itici' liy ii I'l'w 
 I'l'iiinli's. mill Illl' liri'wiiii; nl' iilc iinlc.l l.ir ils cx- 
 ci'll.'ii.'i'. Till' |>tir. is (Ihi.l.'.l inln l«.i Inwnsliips, 
 Kind's Mini, nml MiirKtl I'.ii.l. In lln' liillcr lln- 
 town is silnnl.'.l. 
 
 lUOAt'll I'.. 11 liiwii nf l''rmi.'<'. (Ii'p. Ilnsscs Pyre' 
 
 II. .il'C. iliiriiii;- 111.' r.'i;;ns nl' I'Mwiml I. 
 lilll f;rili|i;ill;,^ llin I'Np.'l 
 
 iiir.iii^li 
 
 1 llir 
 
 tlllll II., 
 
 I"-!' Wllli'll tills (il.';|,.i,, 
 
 il ji'il nlii'vctl rrmii wlinl wns linn d 
 lii'iivv liiiiili'ii, nil. I litis 111'. 11 (li.l'ni 
 
 crllii'ij II 
 
 III l'J7l il nliliiin.'il 11 innrl 
 'Xpi'.liii.iiis iimlcr l.'nliirli nml i; 
 
 I mill liiir, 
 
 riivilli' 
 
 'I'l 
 
 Ctirnliiiti, iipp.'iir I.I litivi' .iriL^iiinlnl ils|',.ivi- 
 
 .•.iinnii'ii'.', SilU wctivii'^ «tis iiili-.i.iiiiril in \i 
 
 mi. I in l('i.s,'> tiimiv rrciu'li ri'l'i 
 
 mill in.'rctisi'il iis trtul.' 
 
 A I 
 
 Ifi'i'i's s.'lllri 
 
 II.' .'IllM' 
 
 III'I'S, Ctl) 
 
 r ^ 
 
 g'.iiul .|iiiirrii'? 
 
 . .'tinl., nil Illl' 11 
 
 i/c, \S III. I'",. Hiivmint'. 
 
 idti in l.'^dl. In ilio lu'iiililiniirli.i.i.l 
 
 iiri' 
 
 Iill)i;i"Oi;|). II son-pnii. linr.. 
 
 Imiil, 
 
 IV 
 
 li 
 
 in. I )iiir. n 
 
 r I'.iiij 
 
 (■.'iiliirv ils Ncxvrnini.llmi.l Innli' Iiml In 
 l..|isi\('; iiii.l I'.ir Illl' lirsl li.iH'nriln' iNlli .'.iiinrv 
 ils illlpnrls 111' Inlini'.'n wire Hilly I'X.'.'iijcil liv 
 tlinsi'nr |,.in<l<iii, |>r, Sln'lili.'jirc. nrpniiiplil.ic.r. 
 iii^V iinlnri.'U-, AMIS n iinli\.' .if |ii.|i('nii|, 
 
 llll)S('IIO\\',,irllll)/n\V, nl.mii.il'li.ili.ini;,, 
 cup. rirc. mi (lir ('/i.llinn, II! in. W. K.iiii;:r.ilz, 
 r.ip. .''i.rj.'l in \H:u. .\ vmicly ..l' pr^■^■i.l|ls^lllll(S 
 nr.' t'.iiiii.l ill Illl' iii'i'^liliniirliii.iil. 
 
 IHKLKK, n lown nf liii-jsin in V. 
 
 Slii'lilii'tirc. mi III.' 'I'nr- 'rmilti. .in I he Okn. .M! in. S\V. Tmi 
 
 ridp', iilinnl 1,^ 111. iilinvi" wlicrc il iiiiiics wiili ilu' 
 j'sinnry of llio '\':\\\ : \Xi^ in. \V. liy S. Lmi.l.in. mi 
 «i lirtuuli nf ill.' Tiiw \'nli' niihMiy. Pup. ;"),7I'! in 
 
 I.'<i'il, n^niusi .VJI 1 in l.*<ll. 
 
 I'll: 
 
 rri'tili'r imrl nl 
 
 the lown Sinn. Is mi nn ncclivily on llic W. of llic 
 riviT, mill is f.iniu'ilo.l willi ils K. .li vision liy n 
 ^lono liri.lm" .if 'J I nrclii's. liiiilt in tin' lllli ccn- 
 tnrv. 
 
 Il 
 
 lllO 111 
 
 iiisisi.s cliiclly of two spncioiis sircils: 
 llionjili iinprnvcil, nrc. for llu' ninsi 
 
 jinrt, lint iinlilVi'rcnt slriu'inrcs. Iti'si.K's ilv 
 cliiircli (in llio I'lirlicr (inlliic slylc'l. tli(> lltiplisl? 
 
 Iii.li 
 
 <'|ll'Illl01IIS, 
 
 (I W'l'slovmis, litivo cliinK'Is. 
 
 'riu'iv is a 11. 'Ill t.iwii-liiill, nil. I minllior litill. wiili 
 a si'liool. is nltnclu'.l. lu'lmif;inj; to llio trnsicos of 
 lilt' llriilf^o I'sinlc. Hciii^' a plnco of frctpii'iil iv- 
 ssiirt frniii Ilic lU'iulilioiirinj; ■\vaU'riiij;-ln\vn of 
 AppU'ilnro. it litis juilili.^ assciiilily-rootiis. 'I'lic 
 river is i)wcd liy a line iiiiny. I.L'IIU t'l. in li'iif;lli, 
 lirna.l mill (■.mvcnicni. ll lins an iiiuii'iil cmlowi-.l 
 grannntir-si'lionl, ii national si'lmol for ;((J(I cliil- 
 
 W 
 
 in l.'s.i.'^. This nm'i.'iit l.iwii is, iifi.'r 'rniilii. ilu 
 
 most iinporltiiil in tl 
 
 11' pivcriiini'iii. 
 
 Tl 
 
 cnrrv nn n .'onsiilcrnhlc ('niiiniiii'i'. 
 
 I!'IK1J';I'"I':I,|). n town nf Prnssimi Wi'..<l]iliiili,i, 
 cup. lire, ll.s 111, I'",. Miiiisi.'r mi 111.' itiihvtiy rrmii 
 Dilssi'l.l.iif to llmiovcrmi.l llnnihnn^ l'ii|i. hi.sjil 
 in iJ^iil, cxi'liisivo of n ^'inisnii nf ii'27, 'I'lic imvii 
 is mn< nf tlio inost lliri\iii,i; in NVcsi.'rn l'ni»i;i, 
 hin iii^' more than ilmililcl its p.i|iiiliiliiiii in tin' 
 cniirsc of I wciily yciirs. It litis cxcclU'iil lilcniliiii;' 
 jrrniin.lsmiil oxii'tisivi' iiimnifncliir.'s .if Iliri'iiiliin4 
 linen. It is ilef.'mle.l liy a rninpnrt nii.l ilili- 
 liii.l, liesi.U'sC'nlhnlie anil Prnleslniil elniri'lics, li;is j 
 a syntipifitii' anil mi orplinii tisyliiiii. Ilisiili'- 
 lirnleil for its tohneeo iiijies nin.li' ..f (■.•irliiiitiin 
 ninj;nesiM. and known in e.iiniiierec hy llii' ii:iiiio 
 of iriiiiiv lie iiiir. nr mivrsvluiiim, 
 
 lill'.l,<i(,)|{()l) (Hiiss. Iij,hiori)il), 11 liiMii iif 
 I'".iirn|H'nii linssia. ^jov. Koiirsk, cap, .lisiricl, mi 
 the D.iiiitz. m 111. f>. Koiirsk. Pop. f<,l'JUiii 1K>. 
 
 It inn«i^tK of mi 
 .,',iirl>K, linns.. H 
 Whilr tiiirn, is ilcr 
 
 i:,i lil«ilirllii.lll, 
 
 iiii:i,ri'/, II loM 
 
 .sili'.iii, Illl llio Kiiili 
 ,.,;ioiii iM^i?. 'I'll! 
 u'li I'f n PnilcNliiiii 
 II. iiirixilii'liiiii Alorii 
 |III:M,A, n (own 
 Mill iiiiiiiil,, on llir 
 mi,! |iiirtly mi (lir il 
 \i;, Ivrril, nil (I liril 
 liiriiilii Milmi. Pi 
 j, ||||. ni'tll nf 11 liiNiin 
 lnHliiH|iiliils, mill a 
 ,>ill,Mlliil pnper, 
 
 lilKl.n (»/l',i:o. 
 |;ii--i.'i in Miirnpi', f> 
 i:. I'iIiisIiiiikIi. 1 1 
 
 ^T'lil'"! Il'll,l,'lll lleill; 
 lifl'lllllll '.'11 III. lis I 
 
 f|;n, wliii'li. ihiriiiy; 
 niiiiiii';ili"< ils I'niniir 
 ji". In iiiiiim' is ilm- 
 mimII 'iv.'i's ; ils Miirp 
 llirCllrXIIII, till iilllni 
 
 illl! p'tiiTiillv liiiipi. 
 i'li. 
 
 lliliUt/MI.'SK.n 
 piv, Xiivpirnil, S, sii 
 laii.'ilHliicli, liy iiK'iin 
 slili'>ltiiti, iiiiiii's till' 
 l'.|i. I,:i;il ill lNr)7. 
 Iinml. in liirlilicd, ami 
 
 IIIKOK, a town i 
 
 llillvslnk, 70 111, S,S1 
 
 I>'i7, 'I'lic (own is w( 
 fmv riisliiiii-limisi', i 
 HiLiliiitili' of Iticlsk, o 
 no, 'fills is mi)> of 
 an i'\riiiili.i|, 
 lill^NNI':, or IIIKI 
 m\. liiriii', ill n ferlih 
 
 liii'.'iiM, iirnr llii. lake 
 «a> lr„iii N'(.||fe|„|(,,| (, 
 
 ir, 'I'lic .Siizi' llowHilii 
 «<WI). 'J'lic railway 
 iliciiiijiiirltiiii lowiiN("if 
 cininiisjiiiii, with six 
 likirv, H-liicli was pi I 
 r.'iiiiiin,^ III pri'scMl, on 
 i'lvry iiiii'ii'iii : prcvii 
 mill iiiil(.|ii'Mi||.n( ciiv ; 
 uiiiii'il til Kniiicc, aiiii 
 Unii', 
 Illl' Itikc of Iliniii,. 
 
 fluill; ll('i||>r iiIhuiI, I 
 
 '"■■"Illl. It is mil, pi 
 XI "cry, tlllll owes ils i 
 l*"if:wiiliiai( tin) i^i 
 
 "I l.'"ll>.S('tl||, 
 
 ""■•iAIt, a villa^r, 
 '; I". .SW. Kilinliiir^li. 
 wliHii (1117 iiitili's ami ; 
 '■nii;:i;,.ir, in whieh |h( 
 "rri'iiiiiri|.s li(.,.|| (ii( , 
 f"niiirly I'jirls of WjJi 
 mn piiri, „f it, .stiif 
 
 >W.Mlii..||y „(• ,„„, „.i,|, 
 « I'llipliiyiiiciif nf III 
 
 "■'■iviiif; llir 111,. (;|,,SK. 
 jl'i'^'li is ft vonoral,!,. 
 ''''!'• lliiTciirc also (1 
 'f'W' bank, ami || 
 
 lilUil.KSWADi.; a 
 
 Vni.. I. 
 
 'l' 
 
IIIKMTZ 
 
 {I ctiii"!^!''* "f in cilil iimt iH'W louii mill lliri'o 
 ,,!iiirl«. lliiiiHcM iiimhiIv 111' uimhI, Ii-* iimiih', 
 ]l hill III"'" > ^^ iltrivnl trniii 11 t'liiilk liill in (lir 
 
 |„|_|||Hll|flll"lll. 
 
 IHI'.I.IT/. '• •""■'• "'" •'"' AiiMlriini SliitrM, in 
 y,;,<l;i. III! lli*< Kiiilii, hi Ml. I''.\l''.. 'ri'Tlii'n. I'oii. 
 .,:ii)in l^''>7. 'I'l«' town i.s well Imill, luul U I lie 
 „.ii il n IViiIohIimiI I'lMiHiNliirv, wliirli Iiiim iiiiiIit 
 :i. iiirisilii'lion Miiritvi/i iiinl Ansiritin Sili'Miii, 
 
 IIIKM'A, iHiiwn of Niirdirrn lliilv, ritp. priiv. 
 luiil iniiiiil.. on llir Crrvo, juirlly mi llii' Hiiiniiiii 
 111,1 {iiirtly I'll (Ik' ilcrlivilv nl' ii ninnnliiiii, 12 in. 
 M. jvrrli.iin a liramli line nf ilir riiilwin' t'lniii 
 liniilii Miliin. I'i.|i. ".i.mihi in \h:,h. Wn'. town 
 i. ilii' .ii'iil III' II liiHliii|iric ; liiiN I'lMir iiiiriMJi rlinrrlicH, 
 !»., |iM«|iiliilH, Mild a <'<ill('|{)'; anil iirmlncrH linciiH, 
 .ilk-, mill piii'iT. 
 
 Illjl.O (i/i;i!(>, iir Wlirri'', I.AKI',. h IuKi- of 
 |;ii..|ii ill l'!iir(i|M'. C'V. N<i\j;iiriiil, iiImhiI 210 m. 
 {. IMiT'-liiir^'.ll. Il i^ <>r (III rlli|ilii';il .sli,'i|ir, il-i 
 r,,!'-! Ii'ii;;lli liriii;j liriirly 'Ml, iiliil i(M );ri iilrsl 
 limiillli '.'I' ni. llH liiitliiin cun.-iHl.M nC ii wliiliMli 
 
 ol;n, wliiili. iluriiiy; (i'Iiiih'mI s wiiiIIht, rum 
 
 ii;iiiiii';il('s ilsriiliilir to llir wiiirr, ulii'iicr, ilmilil 
 li... ih iiiiiiii' is ilnivi'd, 1 1 n riivcs iiiiiiirrniis 
 Miiill 'ivci-' ; ils MiiriiliiH wiiIith iiri' nirrinl nil' liy 
 ihi'l'lii'Miii. ini iillliii'iil III' llii' \\'uli;ii. It is il('i|i, 
 )iii| p'liiTtillv liin|iiil, ami is avcII sliirKnl with 
 
 li.h. 
 
 jliKLdZI'.Ii'SK, a town of l.nssia in iMiriiiic, 
 tiiV, Siivpiroil, S, sidi' nl' tlic nlmvc lake, iiii a 
 i;iii,il»liicli, liy iiit'iiiiN of till' rivers Knwska and 
 slili'sknn, unites the llallic Uliil tlie <'Ms|iiiiii Sea. 
 |V|i. I.lilll in iHi"!?. 'I'lie town liMs a ensile, or 
 Lri'iiil, is I'urtilied, and lias snine trade. 
 
 jllKI.SK, a town of iMiropeaii IJiissia, )irov. 
 Hi;ilysliik. 7(1 III. SSW. (Iroilno, rop. .'(,177 in 
 1m;. 'i'lie linvii is well linilt. paved, has a hand 
 yiiii' rilsldin-honse, and ^'ave its iiaiiie lo llie 
 
 {«li!iii!ili' III' Itielsk, ol' wliieli il wnsti ap. till 
 
 i;:Ci, 'i'liis is OIK- of the towns rnun wliiih ,le\vs 
 an r\('iiiil('il, 
 
 jlir.NNK, or llll'.l,. a (own of Swil/erland, 
 i^iil, Itiriir, in a t'erlile little plain at the I'!. I'liot ol' 
 llii' .liini, near the lake of ISieiine, and on the rail- 
 «;iylriiiii N'ciifehalel lo Heme, It! in. W.of tiie lut- 
 I r, Till' Siize Hows throu^li the town. I'op. .''i,',»7;( 
 in ji'iid. 'I'lie railway eoiiiieets the place with all 
 ilii'im|iorl,'iiil towns of 8wit7.erlaiid. It has a K'x'd 
 LMiiiiibiiiin, with six |)rofessors. The pnlilie 
 lilirnry, wliirli was plundered in t1i<^ revolution, 
 Mihiiiis lit present, only 2,.''i(IO voliiines. Ilieniu' 
 i-viry iiiu'ieiit : previously to \7',)H, it was a free 
 iiiil liiili'|H'iiileiil city; lint in that year it was 
 liiiiii'il Id France, and, in iMiri, to ihe cant, of 
 jlnic. 
 
 Till' Like of Itiennc extends aloni; (lui Jura 
 (liiiiii: liciii^r iiIniiiI. Ill ni. in len;;th liy ',i in 
 kaiilli. It is not. pre-einiiieiit for lieaiily of 
 Nvmry, 1111(1 owes its cclclirily |iriiicipally to its 
 liaviii^rwiiliiu it the isle of !St". I'cter, the' retreat 
 111 lliiiisscmi. 
 
 llllKIAIi, n villajje of Scotland, co. Lanark, 
 'J: 111, SW. Milinhiirgh. I'op. 1,118 in isill, of 
 »liiiii Ilil7 mules and 7Ml leinah's. 'I'lie haroiiy 
 "f ill,i,%'iir. ill whicli the villaf^e is sitnaled, has 
 Ir iriiiiiries hecii the property of the l''leniiii/.,'s, 
 ("niiirly Marls of \Vi.i,'loii, to' which family the 
 (.TiMlM part (if it. slili l)elon(,'s. 'riic, iilace! coii- 
 *t,< I'liicliy (if one wide and spacious street. The 
 iliifl' ('iiiiikiynicnt of the iiilialiilant.s is cotton 
 »favlii),' I'lir the (Jlasj^ow market. Tlie parish 
 iliimh is a veiiprahle (iothic edilice, hiiiU, in 
 Ui\, Tlicre are also two dissent iii^ cliapels, a 
 !jviii|,'s' bank, niul three puhlic; Mul)scri[)tion 
 
 rarii'^. 
 
 lil'itil.KSWADi;. a par. and town of Kiiglnnd, 
 \(ii,. I. 
 
 lUJANAnru 
 
 440 
 
 CO. Medl'onl, hiitid. Ilip;leswade, Il "1. NNNV. 
 I.oiidiiii on the lirial Nnrtliirii railway. Area 
 111 par. I. ■.'■.'(! aires; pup. of par, \X>'-'>\, of Inwii 
 l.oj; in \Hi;\, Thr town is sitiiali d mi the ixrvnl 
 North mad, hy the Ivel, over which there is li 
 stmie lirid;^;e. IIoiim's chielly hriik, Mild have n 
 neat, niodern aiipearaiice. The ehiirch isa<iollii<! 
 liitildiii);, loiiiiiicd in I'illo, and extensively re- 
 paired in IH.'I'J. There are two free h.'IiooIs, oiin 
 
 for twelve, tl thi'r for cinlit hoys: a elmrily, 
 
 prodnciii^r .'Iliii/. a year, supports them, and is ap- 
 plied also in viirimis other specilied inodi's. The 
 river is imvi^alile to the town, liy which means, iiiid 
 the railway, it is siipplinl with coals, tinilier, and 
 corn. The weekly market, mi Wednesday, is oik^ 
 of Ihe lar^',csl in" l'',iif;laiid for corn. There urn 
 live aiiiiiial fairs; l''eli. II, .Saturday in l'iii-<ter 
 week, Whit IMmiday, Am,'. '_', ami Nov, K. Tliire 
 is a .>-mall maiiiil'.ii'liiri' of thriiid lace, enipliiyiii;^ 
 sonic fciiiali's, and a Mt(aiii llmir mill. A petty 
 se.'^siolls fur I lie three iiei^;lilioiiriii^' hiimlreils m 
 held ill the liiwii. 
 
 III.I.W.Mil'li (rijiii/iiiiiifiiini, Ihe <'ily of 
 Iriiiiiiphi, ,\nn \i!ii(iM>Y (I 'anarc-'e), or Ai.I'a I'NA, 
 an aiie. and cileli. city of I liiiilnsiaii. jirnv. Ilcja- 
 
 piinr, iiCcilpN ill;;' liiilll liailksiif t he Tiinlli' ''ililltl ; 
 that part of il mi tlieS.I',. Iiaiik only liciii;^ prn- 
 pcrly called llijaiianiir, and li(l(iii^,'iii(C to the lliit- 
 i.-^li (Imn., iircsid. ,^lallras; 117 in. SSI''.. Ilejiipimr, 
 27 III. NW, Itellary; lal. I.V^ I I' N., ImiK.^t'.'^ 117' 
 v.. It wiis forinerly the inetropolis of It kiii|;'diim, 
 which, in li'ilj, comprised the two ('anilities, 
 aliove and liclow the (ihaiits, and is said to have 
 then lieeii 21 III, ill circ, : this portion of the tMiii- 
 Joiiicd cities IS now alimit K in, in circ, nearly iiil- 
 inhaliiled, and in ruins; these, however, are all of 
 K'l'aiiile, and fan xccl in exiciil and grandeur I lio.se 
 of any other Hindoo city, llijana^iir has a iiiost. 
 rcniarkalile site, 'It is Imill,' says llainilton, 
 'in a plain, enclosed hy and enciiniliered with 
 stiipeiKlmis nia.s.'ies of ^^raiiite, wliicli, in hoiih^ 
 places, swell np frmii the surface to the form iiiid 
 ni.'i;;'iiitiide ol'hills,and in others present detached 
 liliicks of various forin.s, piled over oik! another in 
 all sorts of fantastical cmnliinations ; occaNimially 
 siirrmiiidiiif^ little isolated valleys, and elsewheni 
 olisiriiclin;; all iiassap^ except through the narrow 
 windinvc deliles which s(>parate thefraj^ments, Th(> 
 coninninications from street to street, and in smiie. 
 cases the streets also, follow the ma/.es of tlie.sn 
 ehasnis,and in oneipiarter the principal I horonj^h-' 
 fare is under a naturally covered passage! formed 
 hy the rocks; tlie ancient hatUeuieiils, turrets, and 
 Haleways are still in a U\jj;\t slate of preservation : 
 the main streets paved with iniim^nsi^ lla^s of 
 granite, are intersected at intervals hy aipieilncts; 
 and tiniks and wells are excavalcd in Ihe rock. 
 Temples, elioiiltries (hotels), and niuiiy other edi- 
 lices, piililic and private, of the jinrest style of 
 llinilooarcliil<'ctiire andKi'cat dimenstons, are seen 
 perched on the most, ciinspicumis eminences of the 
 naked rock,or raiip'd in hm^ lines on the plain. . , . 
 There is a continued sneeession of (laved streel.s, 
 now nearly uiiinhaliited, for threes miles, from the 
 Tomiihiiddra ferry to llumpa, at IIh^ W.t'Xiremily ; 
 and the appearance of the ruins alimit (Janilapoor, 
 on the S\V., indicate that they also were oiici^ in- 
 cluded within Ihe city limiiidaries. . . . The. walls, 
 pillars, arches, and i!ven tliu Hat. roofs and heams 
 ofall these structnrtw an; composed of f^ninite. . . . 
 Some lilocks are from 12 to lij fi^ctliroad, and thick 
 ill iiroportion ; and thon^li of uneniial hulk and 
 various shapes, are universally well cut, lilted to 
 each other with the greatest nicely, and display al 
 this day iiii exterior lustre Hur|iassiiif,' that of most 
 buildings of 20 years' standing,' The TiMtmlinddrii 
 is ahmit one-third of a mile broad, but at the uinicr 
 
 (; (i 
 
 
 ft 
 
 I; 
 
 - ii 
 
 
 ,r 'ill 
 
 
 •.:<'-1i 
 
4M lUJNEE 
 
 part of flip oiJy ronfrnetH KrciUlv, nnd horo Hioro 
 wftM once* a Hloiip l)ri(lf(i> : itn bed in r'ld^KiMl liy <li'- 
 tnrlipdKrniiifP ■■•"•l<'<, wliirti rinp oImivp Iih HiirCiicp. 
 mill nr" RPiirrally Miirinoiinfpd l>v mmip rplijfiium 
 t'dillcp. It fornin" tlic N. and !•",. luiiiiKliirv (if tlif 
 rity, whicli in pia-limpd S. and I''.. |mrily Ity its 
 iwitiiral l)arriprn, partly liy utroiijx Htnnp walln. Tlic 
 ••liit'f cdiliccM arc — Hio t('iii|ilp olWiltuba (nii in- 
 rarnafion (if Vinlinii), nearly in iIip ccntrp (if the 
 city, which conniHts of oiip central and I'mir unlior- 
 dinatp linildinp<, siinroinidcd Ity ncvcral stnalh'r 
 pa(f(MlaH and niimprnnn cells, nnd dcciipyinn an 
 urea KXt ft. lonfjhv'JO wide; thin lcni|)lc cnntainH 
 n chariot cut entirefy out ofuranitc. on which the 
 iniaj^'pof thepid iHex|M)Hed on liolidayH : the tcin|ilc 
 of Mahadeva, at llunijin, with ii jtyranudicnl por- 
 tico of 10 stories, and 1(10 ft. hiiih, well endowed 
 nnd attended hy many llrahinins, faces a (ine 
 Hireet !tO ft. wide, lined with hinidsonin stone 
 l)nildin;;s decorated with scnliitiires, runnin^Miearly 
 par'illel to the Tooinlmddra, from which it is yeiia- 
 rated hy rows of trees, ami Iciidin;; to another 
 teirT'-" where there is an iinii^;eof Iheliull Nundy. 
 12 ijrh. carvccl out of tlu' >^i<Vu\ mcU. Itelwci'U 
 
 11- a nnd Cnndapoor the roi'ks are studded with 
 1 „ i.iax, the )irincipal of which are the jrri'at 
 teini)le of Krishna, and a smaller oiu- dedicated to 
 (ianesa, Iml which contiilus also a colossal fxranite 
 ima/^c of the fonner. Mi ft. hinh hy 10 ft. hroail. 
 The inner city near this is the residence of the 
 rajah, and contains the remains of four iliHercnt 
 pidaces. Ilijana^rnr has a temph^ of llama, with 
 pillars ofhhiek hornlileiule, and amon;^st a ffroup 
 c>f temples near the ferry is a ^ipintic li/^ure of 
 Huniinan, carved in has-relief. This city was 
 built hy two hrofliers, hetween A.i>. Ili.'Ki and 
 lilllt : in 1.')(>4 it was taken nnd completely sacked 
 bv the Mohammedans. 
 
 ■ ni.lNKi;, or KIHNTAOIIArT. a territory of 
 British Iiulia. prov. Menttnl. It lies on hoth sides 
 the Itrahmnputra, extendm>^ S. as far as the ({ar- 
 rows moinitains, nnd consists eliielly of a level 
 country, well fitted for the produce! ion of rice, esiie- 
 cially that i)ortion S. of the l<rahmn|iutrn, which 
 is the most valuahle, nnd besides wheat, jiroduces 
 barley, mustard, pulse. Iictel, suf^ar-cane, and mul- 
 berry-trees. The villaf,'es are {^eiu'rjilly neater 
 than those in Ik-n^al, nnd have su^ar-cane niul 
 l)etel iilantatinns. For a considerable period 
 llijnpc w.as not known to be included in the I)e- 
 wanny territories, but was considered to belonj; to 
 liootnn; ])resents of elephants Avere, however, 
 made yearly to both the Deb. rajah and the ISrit- 
 ish pivernment, and a kind of depenclence on 
 either or both oftheni, ncknowledf;ed by the I5ijnee 
 rajah. In 178.') the payment in plephants was 
 comnnited by the Hritish pivernment into a tri- 
 bute of S.OOO rupees. The ]ieopleare divided into 
 two sections, the ISliakat, or worshippers of Krishna 
 and the Gornmi, who eat pork and other meats, 
 aiid drink liquors. 
 
 Ut.jnkk, a town of Hindostan, cap. of the above 
 rajahship, 23 m. N. (Jonlpara ; lat. 20° 20', lonjx. 
 90° 47' E. It contains a fort dcfeiuled by a brick 
 ■wall, the residence of the rajah, some small brick 
 tem)des, and about 100 thatched huts. 
 
 IJILHAO, a sea-port town of Sprin, the ancient 
 cap. of IJiscay, in a fine plain, on *he Xcrvion or 
 Ibaizabal, about 10 m. above its conriuence with 
 the sea at Portugalete, nnd 45 m. W. of St. Se- 
 bastian. Pop. 17,649 in 1857. It is the ter- 
 minus of two lines of railway, from Madrid, and 
 from the French frontier. The town is said to be 
 healthy, notwithstanding the climate is remark- 
 able for humiditj'. Houses loft\% uniform, and 
 well built, with projecting roofs, that afford shelter 
 from the sun and rain. Streets well paved and 
 
 UHJUO 
 
 IpvpI; (.pvprnl of them may be wnMiod nt t.U.Mm 
 with water ..onyeyed by an aqueduc f.," 1',^ 
 lain a league distant. No wli..elc,| cirrj ' 
 allowed to pnss aloiiK tb.' sire.t,, h,,, „|i ," " ," 
 are carried in panniers on nudes, „r in hIi i" ' 
 
 ">h llicv ,.,,||. 
 
 which have a trivaiice bv wl 
 
 stautly moisten their path with water Ch 
 a line pniinenade hv the river's nLIc. „v,.r wl.i i " 
 suspension-brhlge is thrown in Ii,.,, „| n,,. ,'f 
 wooden one that lonnerl v existe.l. T|„,r,, j^ , ' " 
 stone bridge of three arches, nn.l a hni„ls.,nM.,-,.,i','," 
 WoiJi"""!';'' ''•'' ""' '•"n""-ation. at nn exp.,,.,. „r 
 .10,000/. ( onveiits anil monasteries are her,, v, rv 
 
 < s|iicuous. They arc iinineiise piles .,r i;,,! 
 
 ar<4iilectiiral beauty, having strong graihii;. In ,,ii 
 the windows. Some of theni are verv ri.li ■ „', 
 a nun must take nliout .'Io.imh) reals ckmi/ I'ji,,' 
 the convent (.n adinissioii. The «//«,//,„>, '„' 
 slaughter houses, in the Tiiscnn sivie, in ijieri'mr,. 
 
 of the town, are well ilrived, "well veiiii||i,,i 
 
 anil copiously supplied with fresh wiiii r 'n,,! 
 
 corjioralioii is extreinelv rich. ( hi ll e,ii,i„„ ,'( 
 
 the visit of Ferdinand Vll.no less ijian u.in,,,!!,,,, 
 reals, or about 20,0(111/.. were expeinleil ii, i,..,., 
 ilecoralions, and bull lights. Their funds aris." 
 from oclrois. or tolls, upon the varimis iieeessnrii^ 
 imported by sea or land, and the riioiiupnlv „| ||, , 
 supply of beef, wllieli is fiuined li> llie Ip'ut, j,, f. 
 They maintain an eleuieiiliiry sclio.,) fur te,iilij|i^ 
 reading, writing, and Latin', by an iiiipnM „] "i 
 
 Ideals |ier ton on foreign vessels" entering the i,,,!-; 
 
 ''••■■inierfo, >ii|i 
 
 The ('onsulado, or Tribunal of I'imui. 
 |H>rtsschoi>ls of drawing, architecture, inalluinaiir 
 and the French and Kiiglish languages, U ti, 
 children of I li(^ town and neigliliourliijiiij, Tim 
 is a hospital calculated to accipiiuniiilaii. -.'.ji | 
 patients, 'i'lie bank of llillmii. Inuinled in Is;,: 
 with a capital of 10(I,(M(0/., does a very exliUMvi' 
 business, and circulates notes to tlieaiiiiiunt nfl 
 treble its capiliil. The mamifaclures e.iii>i.t „f, 
 various descriptions of hardware, auclmrs, leailiir, 
 paper, hilts, toiiacco, and earthenware, 'i'licro in' 
 several docks for building nicrcliiuit vcsmIs, iin.i I 
 two large rope manufactories. I.illiau is ilii. |iri!i- 
 cipal port for the N. of Spain. The cximrls priii- 1 
 ci|i.illy consist of iron and steel, wnol, li^ll, iVuii., 
 and sometimes largo quantities of corn Criiiii ilm 
 interior; but the trade of the jiort has ilcclincil 
 ever since Saxon wools began to he iirdirriill 
 to those of Spain in foreign luarkels. The slii|i-l 
 I ling ill the two years 1859-GO is reprcsciittil in the | 
 following tigiires : — 
 
 Year 
 
 Entered 
 
 (■Ifurcrt 
 
 ]fi.',n 
 
 18(i(» 
 
 Shipi 
 
 4(ir> 
 M-2 
 
 Tont 
 
 .siiliM 1 Tom 
 
 ii:),:U7 4:u; ilMl 
 47 ,.^"0 623 4.'i,a.i» 
 
 The \alue of the exports in the two years 1859-(!0| 
 was as follow.s : — 
 
 Year 
 
 ISliO 
 
 Wheat iinil Flour i Gt-iieral Rx]H>rti 
 
 £ 
 r>,K:19 
 123,403 
 
 £ 
 21,(i.V.> 
 fi3,7SS 
 
 The total value of the imports in KifiOnmoiiiitcil 
 to 8;!9,747/., divided between the following' iimii-j 
 tries : — 
 
 & 
 
 Great Britain SW.IM 
 
 Norway TifiJ^HI 
 
 France Uo.slf! 
 
 Venezuela liiii.ni:' 
 
 Cuba and United States . . , Sf^.M 
 Holland, Belgium, and Germany . W-''i 
 
 mi, 
 
 ri;p imfiorls eoiisi 
 
 «.. 11,11 f/ilprics, n 
 
 ifsNiiMially stop 
 
 .iilii'riM'r. or at ( 
 
 1 nil. .'««priiig ti,|i 
 
 i;i»iiih''iilvaiitage o 
 
 liinliii iiccasi,,nall\ 
 
 >i.;ini I'liiiitriiinicatii 
 
 l.dnrii the port niii 
 
 <..|, ll,'ir,-el,ina, ]ln\ 
 
 jlill'ii,, was liiiindi' 
 
 I IipI iif lliscay, in 
 ..I'liii;,' s,i\ereigns, i 
 IV riiiMilaiio of III 
 
 II ilii'i'iiil uf I lie I, "it 
 ,Mii,niiTs,il'ciiniineri 
 ,Y:iiii, (in,| r,'garilei| 
 
 ll 'III. ll has bcei 
 (liifiTi'iit viciiirioiis I 
 
 Ihinnl illll a I'l (h'i 
 
 i)lr. Viiiiiii:, lliiiishi 
 l,V|-rH, INC:.',) 
 
 iiii.i:i>n.(;i:i.'in. 
 
 .ill' iitrihiry of Ai'n 
 iiiii;.' JHtwei'ii the .S. 
 >:il,:ir;i, nr (iivat l»ese 
 
 iti'K., .'iinl C'lpe .N'liu. 
 ll miwtly ciiii>|.i|s (iC 
 lililrrrmn the (J real I 
 iiiiii'il. In |i;irts. Imw 
 
 I Hi<'ii>ivi'|ihiiiialionso 
 *..iri<lii'.s III gn.jii luxi 
 >ai.| li.v siiin,. tluit its 
 iJiiii iiilry of the 
 
 ' ini"ii:,Mvlii,iii In .Sjijnv, 
 
 I Miiiiw dry or parched 
 f.1. Iliici.) 
 
 IIIU-Kli'lCAV, nch, 
 
 i»'l Ilssex, Imiiu 
 
 foMiiiii, L'l ni. i:.\|.;. 
 I"'l. The li.'iiiilet is (» 
 I riili viilc, ,'uiil cnnr 
 ^'& liriiiil and hic-s ni 
 iiiilllii'siMiriMleciiiiiiig. 
 III-., mill fairs. Aug. 
 ll"' I'lirisli eliurch is „|, 
 l":l iliirc is an episcopi 
 IV l.iHii, mill three dis 
 I i!-M Miiall school, Jjii 
 »!a|"»,runiiiii of l»(! p,jp 
 iM"fI.Vi;il iiihab. A 
 
 »• ccnnli- works, cii 
 
 i' iii.iii nnuiins Imve bee 
 
 I 'pTON.arockvst 
 •UlJ„.|ajr„, i„.,„.^.,,„'».||| 
 
 J'l'iiiniilarforin. about 
 IkM. The populntion 
 I 111- X'll to exceed 2.000, 
 Plr-liicaleeniitries is iisi 
 iBiwialmiiihnice, and . 
 I«i;>.iiilt,.beiifexce!l(.|i 
 I';n,'cisnotsn)licient eve 
 \'^\y. The Dutch ma 
 p*l, ami some cruisers , 
 
 I m iilKo. The interior 
 
 '■'^ "'[vover. believed to 
 
 WU.OJI, a town of Fr 
 
 l«pwnt..onahilI. 14 m 
 
 ■™n,lK«,. This is,. 
 
 |,^","' -^'ivfrgne. The 
 
 P'riy surriMuiileil. !,,.,, 
 
 |-"«'!i^i''iiiros nnd commei 
 
 t.l,o.,esni^,b,:.L 
 
 III 
 
Tiinl 
 
 ^•ciirs 
 
 \m-m 
 
 Tutal 
 
 e 
 
 loo amnunt((U 
 lluwiiij; C"U«^ 
 
 £ 
 34r,,lW 
 
 •J'Jil,.',!!' 
 
 lio.sic 
 
 lilil.'.il2 
 1U,S»T 
 
 mT.FDrLnKini) 
 
 T^iP imfxif*" cniiNiwi |iriii('i|iiilly nf ruttfin mid 
 ,,.i|l>ii liiliri<''*i '"III riiliiiiiiil |iri'iliii'iH. I.nr^'c 
 ii.M'liiiMiiilly hIiii) III I'lirdiKitli'lc, Mt'iir ilir iiicmili 
 .nlii' rivi't' 'T »l < *liiviii;;ii, mIhuiI I in. Iicldw the 
 I 111, S|irin« tiili's ri-f iilniiif l.'l I'l.; iiinl liv 
 .i!,iin;iiilviiiil'in(' <i( them, vcssclx nrfipii^iilcralilc 
 liifliii nci'iiNimiiilly rcmti ilic tnwii. 'I'Iutc in 
 ,i,:iiii (•iiiiiimitiii'iif'mii, liy r<>;iilar liiii'Mofstcnincrs, 
 i.tivi'cn till' port iiikI I<iiiiiIi>ii, AtiiHifnliini, Mvor- 
 ... 1, lliiri'('l<>iiii< llayiiiiiic, Srvillc. mihI Saiiliiii(l<'r. 
 ' Hilliiiii war* roiiMilcil iiiiilcr II I'liiiricr ^'nniit'il liy 
 J |,.rl 111' lti-<ciiy, ill Moo; Irmn wliuni, nml »iir- 
 
 i lilH; KiiViTciniH. U iililllilliMl SCMTill |iri\ ilry:('S, 
 
 IV ( (jiisnliiil" "I' MiirKii'' "M" lniii'<ri'm'il tliiilicr 
 ,1 ihi't'iiil III' llii' l'>lli rt'iiliiry; iiiiil itn il('i'i>iiiiis 
 jiiimitiTsiil I'liiiii'ii'i'i'i' wci'i' rcCcrrril in lliriMi^liniil 
 > liii, mill rrtriiriliil at nl' llir liij;li("-l iiiillinrily 
 
 iiMlit, II li'iK '>•'*'>■ alliTiiali'ly iii'rii|ii('il liy tlif 
 ,{iif,rriil vii'tiiriiiiis |inrtii'H in llir laic cixil war. 
 Iiiiripiliiri'iiiii a In ( ii'iii^ralia ilc la M^^iinfia; IJi'imrt 
 I Mr. ViiiiMu', llritiNliI jiiisiilat liilluin, in Cunsiilar 
 i;,|.TH. r-^i'.'-M 
 
 IHi.Klil l''<l'"l«"*' I'l'' iiinn(';;ivi'n In an cxlcn- 
 
 ,!'.! irrriinry nl' Ai'rii'a, rmlirMiiii;:: 'li< iiiilrv 
 
 ;,lii.' Iiitwcrii till' S. (I('('li\ily 111' Alias lunl llic 
 vil,:ir,i, iir (iii'at I'cscrt; iinil liilwcni I'tz/annn 
 ill' r.., iiiiil ('a|ii' Null, on I lie At lain ii-, on I lie \V, 
 li iiiii«tly niii^ists III' vast (Ic-irls. ililViTiii;,' Imt 
 iii:!c Ifiiiii till' (ircal PcsitI. with wliirli il is cnn- 
 tiiiiil. In piirts. Iiiiwcvi'i*. w liiTc tlicrc is water, 
 f^Mi-ivc |ilaiiliUions ol' the (luH'-|ialin. \\ liicli licrt' 
 itiiri-lii's 111 ;;i'i'at Inxiiriaiirc. art' met with. It is 
 lail liy siiinr thai its real iiaiiic. Illaiil-il-Jvr'ul, 
 11,111- ciiiiiitry 111' the (lati'-|ialiii ; while ntlicrs, 
 inii'ii;; will nil is Shaw, iiilfrpnt Itlniil-vl-Jiiiil as 
 {[■■:iniii;,'ilrviir|iari'li('(l I'Diniiry. (Shaw's 'I'ravcls, 
 
 f,l,lliiriL) 
 
 lilLLKlMCAY, a cliniiclry and Imtnlct of F.n;;- 
 kil, I'll. I'.sscx, hintd. liariislalilc. par. (Iicirt 
 lliiMiail, -J I ni. KM'",, l.iinilini. I'liji. l.-'ilHl in 
 lUil. Tlic lianilct is im an (iniiicncc ovcrlnnkini^ 
 I riili vale, aiiil ('niiiinaniliii;; extensive views. 
 i !>i!k l<riiiil and laies are the mily niaiinraelures, 
 ui'lllii'sonri'ilei'liiiiiij;. 'I'licre is a weekly market, 
 Tir-., mill lairs. Auj,'. 2 and Oct. !•. I'or cattle. 
 liii'l'arisli cliiirch is alioiit 'J in. fnmi IJillericay, 
 k tlii'tc is an episcopal cliapol in the centre ol' 
 ilie limii, anil three dissenting cliaiitds; there is 
 1 iI-iiaMiiall school. Jtillericay is the central town 
 i'ia|iiiiiriiniiiii of •_'(! pars., and of a rej^islrar's dis- 
 iriitiif iri.tlol iiilial), Alioiit I in. from tlio clinrch 
 1 iTsiniei'arlli- works, called Hhint's Walls, where 
 li'icaii remains have lieen dn^ ii)i. 
 
 r.ll.LrroN. a mcky sterile island of the Kastom 
 
 Ar.liili('lii),'i), between Sninatra and Itiirnco. It is 
 
 jiiaririularl'orin, alxmt Tid in. in leiifflli and t.") in 
 
 If ailtli. Tlie |iopulati(iii is very scanty, not lieiii;; 
 
 si|i|r-cil to exceed 'i.OlU) (ir;!,lH)it. Iron ore, which 
 
 lir.irii|iiial ciniiitries is usually scarce, is found here 
 
 liiiTiat almndaiice, and the metal jirodiiced from 
 
 |iIi-^aill III be of excellent quality. Tlic^ produce 
 
 lifriic is mil siillicieiit even for the consumption of 
 
 Ii!k:|»i|), The. Diitdi maintain a jfarrisoii in tlic 
 
 Iwil. anil some cruisers on the siirruundinj; seas, 
 
 Iinlii'i'k the jiiracy in which the iiiitivcsare nroiie 
 
 It'iiiilulfje. The interior has not hecn explored. 
 
 likliimover, believed to contain mines of tin. 
 
 iill.LOM, a town of France, dep. I'uy de Dome, 
 |Hr.cant.. (Ill ahill, 14 m. KSK. Clerniont. Top. 
 It'i'Hi in IHOi, This is one of the most ancient 
 li'iis ill Aiivcri;iie. Tlic walls, by wliiMi it was 
 ll'ani'rly surrounded, liave disai)peared, and its 
 Itaiiiiiai'tiires and commerce have also declined. 
 lAtiiivowty, fimiided here in M.").'), continued to 
 iMiriih till \hi)b, at which epoch it was made 
 Iwiiitlio.lcsuits, by whom it was administered 
 |i the suppression id" I heir order, when it also 
 
 niLSTON 
 
 tol 
 
 coaxed tn exist. At present the town liax n 
 dcparlnienlal colle;;c, DnriiiL; the period of tlui 
 League, llilloin was a priiii'i|>al fuciis of the dis- 
 orders thai agitated Aiiver;,'ne. Stnriiis are very 
 
 frci|uent in Ibis di^triil; and, in conseipien if 
 
 the prevah'lice of rainy wciillier, the lowii has 
 sonielinies been called fn/iiiiti/ild Hiin.Hr Aiivinim; 
 IIII.SA, u lown of llindostaii, prov, Malwa. 
 lieliin).Mn;; to Scindia, on the \'.. side of the lletwa, 
 near its conllnencc with the Ifiiss, IIJ m, NK. 
 llho|iaiil. It is surrounded by a slmie wall, and 
 had, in IM".M», o.iMin hcuises. T'lie <'oiiii^tiiiiusiouiiiry 
 
 is celebrated for the excellence of its lobar 
 
 lilLsl'iS, a town of lli'l<:iuiii, prov. I.inibur^', 
 cap, cant., on the I >enier, 7 iii, \V. .Mactrichi. mi 
 Ihe railway from .Macsirichl lo lla:.<ili. ro|i. 
 :i,.'iiMl in IH,')!;, It produces eartlieiiwan^ and 
 cutlery. 
 
 HII.STOX, a iiiMrket town and chapcdry of 
 l'!nt,'hiuil, CO. Stalliinl, N. div.. bund, Sei-doii, p.ir. 
 \Viilverb:iiiiptiiii, '1\ m. Si',. Widverliiiinptnn, 1 1 in. 
 N'W, Itirniiiinhiini, iiiid In? in, S W. I,iiiii|i>ii, T'liti 
 |Mi|iiilatiou aiiiiiuntcd to '.'ii,|s| in iMlKand bad 
 ri>eii to °_M,,'iiil in b'^i'il. The town stands on 
 ri-iiii; ground, and is very ini';;ularly built, Tim 
 |iiiiiri|ial streets contain Mune siib^tinilial and 
 iianilsiinie biiusc'i, and. wiibiii the lii^i b'w years, 
 its appearance bus been iiiiiih iiiiproved ; lliiiii;;h, 
 from the luiinbir of fiir;;('s and cnllieries, it li.is a 
 .Minilire aspect. On this account the cniintry all 
 ariiiind is ii>ually de>ii;iiati'il the • liliick Coiintry.' 
 The )irincipal buildings are — the pari.^h eliurch ; 
 St. .Mary's, a line slrncliire, built in the liothic 
 style of archil I'ct lire, in isiiii; niul the lium. I'alli. 
 chapel, a handsouie structure in the same style, 
 erected in IH;;,t. The ]nov. nf the town is vested 
 in twocniislablcs, ;i|i|iiiiiiled annually at llu^ court 
 leet held by the lord of the uiaiior. I'lider the 
 Kefnrin Act, IJilstnn fnrnis |i;ni of the boroujih of 
 Wolverhampton, with which il is iiiliinalely cmi- 
 necteil ; but for all pai'oeliial purposes, it is inde- 
 pendent. I'clty sessions are held on T'uesday ill 
 each week; and a court of reipiests. for the 
 recovery of debls not <'xccediii;j ,")/.. is held every 
 second month, alternately with Willenball. Tli(! 
 living' is a curacy, within the Jurisdielioii of the 
 dean of Wolverhaniptoii ; the patroiia;;e is in the 
 iiiliab. iit lariu'c, every hoiisehoblcr, wliether male 
 or female, beiiij; enlilled to vote at Ihe election of 
 the minister. There are places of worship for 
 Indeiiendents, ISaptists, rriinilivc and Wesleyaii 
 Mclhodisls, and llonian Catholics. There is a 
 blue-coat school, founded and endowed by Iliim- 
 jihrcy I'erry, l'',s(i., of StalVord. for cloiliiny; and 
 ediicatiuii six boys ; since extendeil lo tlu^ admis- 
 sion of two or three more, by additional small 
 heipiests; two schools under the liritishornatioiial 
 system; and an 'Orphan Cholera .School,' erected 
 and endowed in l«;i;!, for the instruction of 'I.")!) 
 orphans, left destitute by the cholera, which pre- 
 vailed in the iircvioiis yetir. This disease ra;jed 
 here with such de.solatiiifj; elfect as nearly to clear 
 entire streets of their inhabitants, and to obliicc- 
 many larj^e manufactories to stop workinj; from I he 
 number of hands that fell victims to its violence. 
 
 Jtilstoii, which, down to a com|)aratively recent 
 jicriod, was Imt an inconsiderable jihicc, is wholly 
 iiidehtcd for its growth and iirniortance to the iron 
 trade carried on in it and its immediate vicinity. 
 Its advantnf^es in this respect are not surpassed by 
 those of any other place. Koiiiid the town are iill 
 but inexhaustible mines of coal and ironstone, the 
 main bed of coal bein^ ;!0 ft. thick, with strata of 
 ironstone both above and below ; and larf^e sup- 
 plies of the tiiiest sand used in the casting of 
 metals, are also found in the vicinity. Dilston h;is 
 the farther advantage of being connected, by 
 
 O G 2 
 
 f ■• 
 
 v#:^ 
 
 \ \ 
 
 \i 'i 
 
 
 
4li2 
 
 luxrirK 
 
 iiMinorniiH rnimU nml rivrr imvl»jnfinn, nn well n« 
 liy Ncvcriil liiicH of niilwiiv, with Loiuldii, Liver- 
 iiiHil, ItriHiiil, Hull, nijil (lii> rlilcf Inniis nf (iniit 
 llriiiiiii, 'I'lir liii|iiirtmi<'<'iil' ilirro' iiii|iriiM'il iiii-aii.i 
 ot'ciiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiidii limy Ix' Jiiilp'il III' Iriiiii tln' I'lu'l 
 Ihflt, |irrviiiiiMly r<i the ii|>i'tiiiiK nrtlif llrf«t ciiliill ill 
 I77'J, tlicrit wiiH iitilvfinr IiIiimI riirimt*' Inr miiicIiImk 
 iriiii at ItilNioii, 'I lii'ir niiIih<>i|iii-iiI iiicrciiiu* Iiiim 
 Im'i'ii i|iiii«> i-xiraorilliiarv \ aiitl tlirri' an' imw irrcat 
 iiiiiiilHirM of riiniact'N, lori^cH, rolliii); ami Hlitliii)r 
 III. IN, wliii'li, Willi till comI trail)', t'lirniMli )'iii|iliiy- 
 nii'iit to a lar^'c |iii|iiilatioii. 'I'lu' iiuiiiiit'acliirc of 
 Ja|iaiiiii'il ami riianii'llril piodM in vory fxlciiHivi'ly 
 r/irrii'il on in the town, of wliirli il ii'iay lio niiiil to 
 III* till' htiijili' Iraili'. In tlic iici^lilioiirliooil i^ ii 
 rciiiarluililf ipiarry, llu' hIoiu's in wliifli \'h' ii|ioii 
 t'lH'li otliiT in rj iliMtiiirt ItiyrrM, iiuTi'iisiiitj in 
 tliii'kni'HM from tlir Niirriut', ilii' Iowi'.hI, licin^^ alioiii 
 ;i It, thick. 'riiisNtoiif is iixcil for various |piir|Mi.-*i'H, 
 mill in foriiinl inio ^riml.-'liinc.i, wlii'i.->loiii.-i, mill- 
 hlonr.-i, MMil lii-lmis. At llrMcllry, iiMinail ailjoiniiit; 
 villa^i' (ill I he W. div. olCiitili-it.Mc liiiml!).a lire 
 ri^'N from a htraliiin of coal almiit I ft. l!iick iiml 
 !lll fl. ilccp, wliicli lias liccii liiiriiiii^ for aliovc lialf 
 II ci'iitiiry, anil linn rnliici'il xcvcrai acres of laud 
 to a calx or cinder, used ill the niakiiij,' of roads. 
 This place formerly lieloU','ed to the |iortioiiists or 
 jireliendaricH uf \Volverliain|iton, and in their 
 rliarter was called llilsreton. It was a royal 
 ileniesiie at llie time of the ('on(|uest ; and in the 
 reiyn of |'',dward III., under the naiiR' of ' llilles- 
 tiiiie,' was cerlilied to Ir' free of toll. In \H->\, an 
 j\cl of I'arliament was olitaiiied for a market, now 
 ]ield on I he Monday and Sal unlay of each week, 
 indc|i('mlently of the toll-lree markets, or fairs for 
 catlle, which an' held on Whit-Monday and the 
 Monday next befon' Michaelmas-day. 
 
 ItlNCilK, a town of IS('l;;iinii. imiv. Ilainault, 
 cap. cant., on the Ilaine, 1) in. I'lSK. Aloiis. Pop. 
 (!,/)(l() in iH'iC). It produces earthenware and cutler%-, 
 nml has tanneries, nUiss-works. and tile-works, 
 with neonsideraliie trade in lace, iiaper, ami uiarble 
 and coal iirociired in the vieinitv. 
 
 lilNDltAlllNI), a town of' llindostan, prov. 
 A;;ni, on the Jimina, .'lo m, NNW. A^ra. The 
 jilacc is famous in the liistory of Krishna, to whom 
 iiiany tenmles are dedicated. ' The principal patcoda 
 JK one of tile most elaliorate and inawive works of 
 Jiraliminieal an'liiteetnre. There are also nnmenm.s 
 t<acnd pools, where iiil^rinis jierforin ali'ntioii. 
 
 IMN(iKN, a town nt the uraiid duchy of Ilesse 
 Darmstiidt, pmv. liliine, cap. cant., at the coii- 
 lluence of the Xalic with the IJhiiic, 14 in. W. 
 !Menl/, Oil the railway from Meiit/, orMayence, to 
 Coh^ne I'op. (i,(»2() in IW!1. The town has some 
 iiinnufactiires, and a consiiU'rahle trade in (uirn anil 
 wine. Near it is the liin^fcrloch, a rapid in the 
 liliine, which is ilan^enius when the water is low, 
 mid on the removal of which larfjc sums have been 
 flt ditlercnt times expended. Iliii^en is very ancient, 
 liaviiiff exi.sted under the liomans. 
 
 lUNMJLKY, a market town of England. VV. K. 
 CO. York, 178 m. NW. by N, London, ;(2 m. W. by 
 »S. York, near the Aire, on a branch line of the 
 f Jreat Nortliern railway. Pop. .5,'28« in 1H(!1. The 
 town consists chiefly of one lonj^ street, tolerably 
 built, and well Kiiiijilied with water. All Saints 
 (^hnn'h is a neat edilitc, in the later Kiiglish style ; 
 the liaptists, Independents, and Methodists, have 
 plfu-es of worsliip, A free ^anniiar seliool was 
 endowed by Henry A'lIL; there is also a national 
 tichool and some alinshoiises. The worsti^d, cotton, 
 and paper manufactures are carried on, and there 
 is some trade in malt, which is conveyed to other 
 ]iarts by rail, as well as by the Leeds and I.iver- 
 jjool canal, tliat passes bv the town. 
 
 Jill;, or BKKIJ {an, iirtha), a to^vn of Asiatic 
 
 nruMAii 
 
 Turkey, on the declivity of n ntopp hill, m, n,,. p 
 
 bank of the I'.iipbraieH. 7A m. NK. Ak'i ,,1.1 '\h 
 
 ni. WSW. tiria ; lai. :ii;'^ :,!•' N., loi,-, ,;mo ;■ Vy. 
 
 i:. Pop. cMinniledal .'..oiMi. |ii.. ^irr i,.,|,',' 
 
 the land side liy a Wi'll-biiili wall. Wiiliiii ||„. 
 town, on a ulecp mck, in the eiimlrl ..r ni,il,., imw 
 ill a Htate of dilapldaiion. It has wvirul ini.riniu. 
 uiHiblic bath, and a earavaiisera. The riPik, , ,1 
 wliicli the town is Imili couNist of elwill, ; ,„|,| ||,,. 
 houses lM'in>; also formed of this material, ii« wliit,'^ 
 ness. ihiriiiK sunshine, powerfully atl'cei, the .viV 
 which an' also injured by the iliist ilim i. Mmh,,' 
 alMint. Itir is the iHiini at .which trav(||ir» an. I 
 caniMiiiM between Aleppo, on the .me niilr, j||„| 
 <»rfa, Kiarbekr, ^le., on the other, iisimily'cr,,., 
 the I'.nphrales, which they do in boaisoiii p,.,,,. 
 liar description. It is also the neansi poim ,.i| 
 the Kuplinites to Iskeiideiuiin, ami Ims lutnrlv 
 tu'ipiind coiiKideralile ccli'iirily I'roiii w* In im; ||„, 
 jioillt at which Cnlolielt'licMiey ban |iri'|ius",| |„ 
 
 ipcuiii and lerniiuale tlie iiavi^jaiiipii of iln. j;,,. 
 plir.ilcH by sicani. {See I'.l'rilli.vn.s.) 
 
 l!li;KKNIII'.Alt. a sea port (own i,f Knylnml, j 
 CO. Cbcsler, bund. Wiirall, on the \V. slmri' nl'i!,,. 
 Mersey, lo in. K. of ('heeler, and lll'.t m. \\\\\ 
 London by nuid. or llili,|, m. by Loniloiiaml Nmi'I 
 Western railwav, of wliicli it is a lenninal ^lal;.|^ 
 The pop., wliicli was but 11(1 in iHOl, imtiihul i„ j 
 2..")(ilt in 1H;1I ; to «.-.'L';i in 1nI1; to ■.\-;.:,\:; i„ j 
 1H,")| ; and to .")l,(ilil in lHi;i. This i'Xlraoriliii,ir\ 
 incn'ase has taken place partly from ilie »iii|,Iih 
 pop. of Liverpool coming; here to reside, iuiil|iarily 
 iVoni till' coiisiruclion of ducks for the airiiiniiiM-j 
 ilalion of Ibe shippinj,' freipicntiiiK ilie .Mcr-n, I 
 The Itirkcnhead docks were lirsl projccteil, in |> 
 
 by the late Mr. Win. Laird. 'Ihe eiii|Hiratl I'l 
 
 liivcriMiol, ill IH-.'H, purchased the ueceKsarv l.iii.|| 
 to prevent the selieme ; iiotwithstaiuliiif; \vlii,|i.i| 
 bill was carried I liniii^jh )iarliameiit. in lull, an. 
 tborisiiif; the scheme, and by another act, iiii",|| 
 in |xr)7, the docks on both sides of the Mnivf 
 were placed under the mamifrenient of mic in;. 
 called the Mersey Docks and llarlmiir I'Mianl. Isl 
 liirkeuhead docks alto},'ether consist of liiHihrnl 
 of water sjiace, including; the (ireal I'luat 
 acres, with a niinimnni depth of water ur.':' lij 
 The total cost of these works has been u|iwar(i< 
 ;{,(l(i(),()()(l/. Then" an! several larf;e inaiiuraci.rirj 
 on the niarj^in of the (ireat Float, iiicliuliiii,' il 
 (.'anada Works ofMe.ssrs. Peto and (Jo., nml M-'fi 
 Lo^an and Todd Xaylor and Co's extciiMvc urn 
 crusliiiif,' works; and frontiiij.? the river, ilisiiyf 
 adjoining; the docks, are ten private KravinKil" 
 four in the o('cu|)ation of Messrs. .loliii Lainl. S'lJ 
 and Co., and six in that of Me.ssrs. Clnvi r ,ii;J 
 L'oyle, and the V\^^odside (Jraviiij; l)iKkt'iiiii|iiiiiyJ 
 Two of the docks at Messrs. fjiirds' works an !ar,'4 
 enoiijjh to take in men-of-war of the liw nk-i^ 
 and at this establislmieiit are emjilnyod heiwni 
 2,<M)(I andft,0()(l nu^ii, in ship-l)uildiii(;,cii;;in«Tiii;^ 
 and boiU^r makin^r, 'I'he coininuiiiwitiini iKtwcn 
 Liverpool and Itirkenhead. by means of steam IVm'J 
 boats, is extensive ; so imich so that, in fact.it im| 
 be considered as but a suburb of LiveqKinJ. 
 keiihead returns one member to the 11. oft'.j 
 ref?istered electors i!,r)8'J in 18Go. (Fur I'urtkr li" 
 tails see Liviinrooi..) 
 
 HIKMAH, or THK BlUMAX OPII;!:.! 
 extensive country of India beyoiiil tiic liaiii'i 
 formerly the most powerful state of that pcnill^lll^ 
 and considerablv larf,'er than at ]ir('seiit; f.xifiiJ 
 iiif; between the lat. of 1)° and il° \., ui>w,inls/ 
 1,(100 m. in leiif;th, and nearly (itiO m. in ImJiT 
 At present it com|)risos the territnrv betiveiiil 
 150 45' and 27° 2-2' iJO" N., mid loii'. Hi'Oii'siJ 
 !)!)° K. ; haviiif,' W. the liritish i)niv. uf .Ar:M 
 Chittagong, and Pegu ; N. rpptr AsM 
 
 ril*i j ¥.. tho c 
 iiic r"iiiitry of III 
 V.irliiliiia Im'Ioii^' 
 uii.'iliilii of Siaii 
 jvji, Area, abou 
 
 ,1 jilllll.llOO. 
 
 }lii«Hltiiii» unit I 
 inil \S. liy Hvo pi 
 'j\n rliaiii : ill 1 1 
 , iiiiiry lliiTcan' ii 
 nnci'S miming iin 
 I.I ilii'Mi dccreasi 
 ii.S. Frnin hit. 
 
 l;,cAMil[il'Cllinioo, I 
 •liiiite (lie VV. boil 
 
 :ii. iliit ran>{e is 2ii 
 
 |.i,i««M't. ill hei^; 
 I ji-iilenilily Kn'ale 
 iluiiiii's, uiid the II 
 n.ii, in I r° lat.. it 
 in.iai leniiiiiates in 
 M;, till' Hay of lleiii 
 
 iiiM iif niiitfes, 
 
 •lilijirleil tribes, stre 
 I. ilirCliiiiese Iroiiti 
 I'l |»>iiil iif Ihe sou 
 mmre tliaii .'1,000 | 
 I It k'tweeii lat. I«> 
 i.i.'air, and in the 
 i^'valiiin, ilie I'linn.j^ 
 N., iiMil l»70 LV \'„ 
 .iivrnl Willi perjieti 
 Kil»i, till- iMiiriiiw: ra 
 a; i Miiiiiiee|ioor ten 
 . lilraiiKPs extend in 
 ii!nrS., enclosing' tl 
 Kliyi'iiilH-eii, Moo, ai 
 nniiint; K. and W. ar 
 J :'"" X. lat., about 
 -inallrdiiKe, the (tail 
 .v.. Iiiiiiniiiiij,' \, tin, J, 
 llirreare many phj 
 oxi.ibive. 'I'liu'larj,' 
 ill i.'ii' .v., ."lO ni. loiij,^ 
 ttiiilireaiiihi bouiuU 
 I'fi'I'alily. like that . 
 finiKil iIk' bed of an . 
 Lvoc|itiiij; these, then 
 !'iiiinimcn)iis valleys 
 i«iiiy, a.s Kiibo, '.. 
 rivif*: these are chietl 
 "I 'lie ciiuiitry ; in t 
 Aiili'.<,(ir narrow st('|, I 
 llif jirincipal rivers 
 »illi its ndliieiiis, ih, 
 liiiwii; and (ho 'J'hai 
 Irawiii, an Asiatic ri^ 
 lilut, and nnis ;,reiii,ri 
 "I 'III: liirinaii empire 
 ""ra-iiilothesea, I 
 i«ilii.'liriti.sli province 
 "f fiiiiihieii, is also a ri 
 r.'MnTilit'i.bevoiid t 
 If 'li-<'eii(ls in li near 
 "■mint all its course, bi 
 I ;••■«'(! falls into the 
 I ■'l;|iilniciii ill Siam. 
 . lie .Si-taiiir rises froi 
 '»k2U0 2(fN.,runs^ 
 >f"iiiiiciit about 200 I 
 ffl.v usele.s,s as a h.' 
 I«iaii.^e bliicked lip by 
 ^''.'iisshiiuls, with no 
 ■«"'« the ediux of tl 
 7 'iiiv .vessels draw!,, 
 ^iinNmeates by ,..,,,,, 
 ™va(hmidTlian-lwei 
 
nn till- I". 
 iM, itihl .;> 
 K^i 7' i;,' 
 
 iniinlnliMi 
 ^'illiin tl.i' 
 IlKllr, lli.w 
 
 1 iiiHKiino, 
 11' rmU-. I II 
 
 '. : mill till! 
 1, ill* wliiii-- 
 
 !■« till' ryi'<, 
 
 at i< liliiwii 
 vt'lliTu nii'l 
 
 I' l>ill(', lllhl 
 
 Miiilly I T'l-^ 
 
 In 111' II )»rl|- 
 '>! |inllll nil 
 
 liiiK liillrrly 
 lis liiiii'^ till- 
 
 liri'iiii'i'l 111 
 
 111' till' llll- 
 
 .) 
 
 Ill' r.ii-iiiiiii, 
 
 . i.liiiri' 111' till' 
 I'.i'.im. N\V. 
 
 iiiiiiiMil Nnri'i 
 n'liiul >iat'i<>ii. 
 
 I, illlTI'IMll li 
 
 In ;'>7.'il:! ill 
 i'Xlriiiiriliii:iry 
 m llir siiriihh I 
 iilc, i\iiil;iurlly 
 till' iii'i'iiiiini'i- 
 ^; llii' M«T»iy, 
 ji'i'U'il, iiil>.:7, 
 
 ('iir|iiirit'iiiii i>f I 
 iu'i'('>snry i.iiiill 
 miliii}; wliiili .tl 
 lit. in liMI,; 
 llirr net. im- 
 i I if I lie Mu-iyl 
 jut 111' mil' tru-i 
 
 iiir I'liiiiril. 11 111 
 lint III' Iti" ill'' 
 
 lilt I'llUlt nl' !jl|] 
 
 water iif il I1.J 
 
 IKMl \l|lWliril* 
 
 ;f muniil'iii'inriii 
 ., iiii'liiiliii',' il'9l 
 l(j)., aiiilMivr*^ 
 's cxU'iisivi' iirej 
 river, eli'si ill 
 le |;TavinK il'-t^ 
 (ilm La'ml.S' 
 JMsrs. Cliivir :\i:il 
 Diiekl'iiiniianyl 
 i'\Yiirksari lariT 
 
 tlie, liP-t o'a 
 hliliiyeil liftvii 
 fmH.oiifniiwri'ia 
 hicatimi Wwwi 
 [nsiifntcamlirryl 
 at.infai't."iyia]f 
 Liveniiiiil 
 tlie ll.ofC. 
 (ForfurthiTilei 
 
 Ix EMriiir.. ! 
 
 l,ml tlie tiiiiir'' 
 liif tlintiieni"'"'J 
 fiireseiit : M'""! 
 l70N.,uii«'H 
 loo m. ill If^''" 
 Itnrv lielKiHii 
 |loii'.l''-'0 4;l'aK 
 
 Ipriiv. Ill •"'""'' 
 Biicr Asiiiiii 
 
 filifi ; I'". •''•■ fliiiirKo prov. of Yiiii-nnn, Laim, 
 III, I'liiiiitry i>r lliii iiiili>|i. SliiiiiH, anil ilio (irov. of 
 M.irUliioi 'lx'l"i'K>i>>{ to ')«' llrilUli, uiiil S, tlir 
 >,ii.'(l>iiii III' Niiini ami Ilic llrlti?<li |irii\liirt< til' 
 ivji, Ana, alxiiit 'JiMi,ii))i) mj, in, I'liji, cniiiiialcil 
 
 ,,"',11(111,11110, 
 
 ]l„MHUt'm»iinil Itivfr*. — Kiniiah \* I'licliiHod K, 
 mil \V, liy iwi> iirinriiial iill';<t'ts rmm ilic lliina- 
 uiii rlinl'ii : ii> I'x' N- <i»<l I'l'iitrai |>artN ul' ilic 
 /iiiiirv llii'rt'ari' aNn iiiaiiv Hiilii>riliiia(i' iiiniinlaiii 
 r.iiii:i'N riiNiiiiiK ■iiiixlly iiaralld In tin: rnriiiiT, ami 
 j.Mhcin ilerri'it^iiiK Kro'loxHv in lu'iKlit lnwanl 
 ,.,>, Krnm lal. Iil° ;('a|ic S'i'),'rais) to -.MO .N„ 
 i;„. ,ViiiM><'i'i*»i>i>*>i "C \ ixaiiailiiiiK iniaiMlaiiiK cnii- 
 ,:,iiiii. itic W, iMiiinilary. At llm laticr |Hiiiii nf 
 ,1. ihii tmm' ix ''^11*1 »i, i>> l)r(>ailili,aiiil rnun °J,o(mi 
 j„;i,iii>o ft, ill liiM^lit : ill lal. i\° tlu< t'lrvaiinii i-* 
 „.ii.i.|eriilily ),'ri'ati'r, Imt tln'iirrlnrwanl it rapiilly 
 jM'liiH'*, III"' ''"' liri'iiiltli liiMMinu'j^ HO niiu'li Ickh 
 ii.iii. ill l^° '"*•• '• Hcarrcly oxccciIh •-'(> in, ; llii.s 
 riiiiiii teniiiiuitt'M in a rocky |iriiiiiontory. Iiniiiuliii;; 
 »i;,ilie Itay of lU'iipil, On tlu' V.. linnUT a kih-- 
 
 i„a III' raiiK<'^< inlialiiti'il liy wilil iiml liall'- 
 
 .uiiji'i'ieil trilii'M, stri'Icli I'roiii tlicliiiH' of iMarlaliiui 
 i.il'lii'tJIiim'st' frontier. Xiniii/rt-Tlioicn;/, tlic lii;;li- 
 i.i imiiit iif till' Willi lu'rnino.it of iliesi' ranj;es, Ih 
 ;,! mure than •ItOllll It, aliovc tlui level of the nea ; 
 litlK'twceii lat. IH'3 mill l'^*^ N. they tImi iiiiieli 
 i.i.'liir, anil in the N, attain a very conHiilerahle 
 ti'i.iiiim, the I'liniiicaii iiioiiiitaiii in alioiil 27° la' 
 N„ ami 117° liV K,, liein^,' 12,171 It, liiKh, anil 
 ,„vi'riil with perpetiiMl i<nii\v. W, of Ihi; vale of 
 Kilm. llie Muring raiine "ow homnl.H the llirinese 
 iilMiiinieejioor terriiorie^ ; ami K, of these, four 
 l;ili-raii(,'es extenil in iiaiallel liiien, fur a lnn^fdis- 
 WKi' S., t'lielii.-'iii;; three extensive valleys of the 
 Klivwiiiwuii, Miio, ami Irrawaili rivers. Kaii^cs 
 Miiiiiiil! K, anil W, are iinfrei|iieiit, hut there is one 
 jiJiio.N', lat„ ahoiit i")0 in. Sh',. of Ava ; ami a 
 .iciill ran);c, the (ialhiil/.d hills, in alioiil IH° 20' 
 NJimimliiif; N. the ^,'roat phiiii of re^jii. 
 
 IJii'ru art' many jihiins, lnit none of them very 
 osliibive. The largest is the valley of Jliikoiii,'. 
 iiiilie X,, •")<• 111. long, ami varying from ir)lol,") 
 m.iii lirwiilth ; hoiimledon all sides liy hills, which 
 |ifiilialily, like that, of Munneepoor, at one period 
 (iraiiilthi' lied of an alpine lake. (Asiat. Joiirn.) 
 txiTiiiiiif,' these, there are few plains of any size; 
 !iutniimeniiis valleys, of the highest fertility and 
 Itaiiiy, an Kuho, I'l.umo, and those of the larger 
 livi'M these are chietly in the Is, and central jiarts 
 iUlic couiitiy ; ill the N, they uro mostly rocky 
 iJdiKdr narrow stcppen, 
 
 llii'liruicipal rivers are Ihc Trrawadi (I^rlwalc), 
 »itli \U allliiciits, tlio Ningihee, Moo, and Liing- 
 ii'iiuiMi; and tho 'I'haii-hvcng, and Si-tang. 'I'lie 
 liTiWiuli, an Asiatic river of the liist class, rises in 
 IiIk/I, and runs generally S. through a gic.it part 
 ul till; liirinau finpirc, falling, aficr a course of 
 w»ini.,iiilii the sea, hy a great iiiiiiilier of inuulhs 
 iiilho liritish jirovince of regii. 'I'he 'I'han-Uveiig, 
 «r ;^alllm'n, is also a river of the lirsi tdass, and 
 li.'MuTilif I, beyond the sources of the Irrawadi: 
 1! iksoeiuls in a nearly iiniforni S. direi'tion in 
 I ilniiist all its course, bounding tliu riirniaii itnipiru 
 L anil falls into the sua bclwuon Murtuhau and 
 Miiihncin ui Siam. 
 
 The Si-tiuig rises from the Lake of fluanngrue, 
 
 j iu lat. 2(1° 20 N,, runs S., and disgorges itself, after 
 
 Kiiursc iif about 200 ni., by a large inoutli, but 
 
 I iwriy useless as a harbour, or for navigation, 
 
 Waiise bliioked np by an island and many dan- 
 
 t'tiiiis shiials, with no more than a fallioiii water 
 
 'iiriii;; the ellliix of the tides, and not iivailable 
 
 I'll any vessels drawing tJ ft. water. This river 
 
 h'wnunii'ates by cross braiicbcs with bolli the 
 
 lirarali and Thiin-lweiig. The >;ingthi;c rises in 
 
 UlUMAir 4M 
 
 the raiko! chain, on Ihr iMffder* of Ai«snm ; ami 
 riiiining in a .S\V, direction, lalU into the Irra- 
 wadi, oppowitc Yaiidabo, in 21" I"' N, Int.. under 
 the name of Ihc Khviii dwcn. It is navigable for 
 Ihc largett class ol' boalH as far as Kingiwio, in 
 2;i-' I')' N, lat.; almost all the streaiim which fall 
 into ii on the K. side are auriferous, 
 
 T'he largest lake is that of Kaiidangyec, or thii 
 (iriat l.'oyal Lake, 2.1 m, N. Ava, which is ;io m. 
 long, M i.r'.t III. broad, and iravcrxed by the .Mon 
 river, a tnbittarvol the Irrauadi. 
 
 Miiiiiii/.i.— ['\\f N. proviiiiTs are the richest in 
 valuable minerals, llcsides line marble, scri«'ii- 
 tiiie, and nepbritc, and ainlMr mines arc worked 
 by the t'bimsi.. Aniliir is fmiiid in large ipiim • 
 lilies in the vallev of lliikong; gold to the value 
 of 1110,0011/., and' silver to that of I20,ooti/. |ier 
 aiiUiiin; all the varielies of the sapphire, wilh 
 spinelle rubies, ari' found in great abnmliinci' at 
 
 al I live days' journey I'.Si;, from the capital, 
 
 and arc an imporiani article of csporl ; to|ia/cs, 
 a few cni'eralds and diamomls. though of an in- 
 ferior ipialilv ; iron, cupper, tin, lead, anlimoiiy, 
 arsenic, vitriol, sulphur, and iiilre arc found. I'e- 
 trolciim is obtained in largi ipiantitics on tho 
 irrawaili, above I'mme, near the frontier of the 
 llritish inoviiice of Tcgii, The wells, about 2 in.^ 
 from the river, iiroduce each a daily average of 
 l.'iO gallons, winch sells on the spot for about 
 U. Hil. per <'wt. The gross aiiiiual prnduce is about 
 NO.OOO.OOO lbs. It is used for lights and pav iug_ 
 boats, and is said to have the vahiiildc properi' of 
 securing wood from the attacks of iiiM'i'ts, t'oal 
 is iiicl with in various spots, T'he govcrniucnt 
 has ainiiiiopoK iif gold, silver, and prrcious stones. 
 (Crawhird's .ri.urii.. pp. III, 112; IVtiibi rton, pl>. 
 Ill, l;!;i-ll2; .MaliMiliii's'l'ravels, i, ICi'.i.) 
 
 Till- Climiitr is generally healthy, especially ill 
 the hilly tracts. The extremes of beat and cnlil 
 are seliluni experienced, exce|it bcfurc the perio- 
 dical rains. From I'minc to lat. 'ICP i>r27'^ N., 
 there are iliree seasons ; a cold, lasting from Nov. 
 to rd). ; a hot, from March to .liiii"; and rain 
 falling iLiring the rcniaiiiing iiiouths. Ilcavy 
 mists occur in Nov. and Dec, but no snow hill>;^ 
 and oniv a little liail in April or the beginning of 
 iMay. i'^arthipiakcs are not unl'rci|uent, and ol'icii 
 usher in and eoiicludc the wet season. The tran- 
 sitions of the sc.'isoiis are exlreincly siiddi'ii ; ihu 
 greatest heats arc in March and April; the trccH 
 shed their leaves in May, but only to be inime- 
 dialely clothed with new ones. In .Innc. .Iiily, 
 and August, the innndalioiis froni the mountains 
 raise the river at A\a to ;t2 ft. above its lowest 
 level (Feb.); but all the waters are drained olV 
 again liy Oct. (Sangcrmauo's Descr., pji. Kil, Hi.*; 
 I'emberton's IJeport.) 
 
 I'lyifiililr I'niihiilK. — Sixteen tlKinsaiid dilVerclit 
 species of plants, iialivcsnf the liirincsedoiuiniou-, 
 were collected by Dr. Wallicli, when he visited 
 the empiie in 1n2i'i: .■inioiigst Ihcin were the leak. 
 
 s.iiil. 7 kinds of oak. 2 kinds of walnut, .'! spniis 
 of willow, a ruse; the alniosl unique AiiiIhik'hii 
 mitiilis, a maguiliccnt species of Lninmiiiomi, 20 II. 
 high, handfiils of who.sc tine deep scarlet llowcr;( 
 are olVcrcd by the natives before the images of 
 IJoodh; the JJiliiiviis Liiullfi; many new genera 
 of Orehidea', Scitaminea", and l-iliaceie. (Wal- 
 lich's I'lantie liariores.) The teak-tree abounds in 
 forests along the hills skirling the Irrawaili, and 
 ill the N. provinces, both lai hills and in valleys; 
 ill lat. 2;{° iiU' it aiiproaches closely to the banks 
 of the river. T'he most eoiiveuieiit and accessible 
 forest in the eonntry is that of S;iraw,idi, whicli 
 riirnishcs nearly the whole of what is exported to 
 loi-cign I'oiintries. The li'ak of Ava is said lo be 
 le.3S durable thuii that ut° the cikiijI of Malabar, but 
 
 I 
 
 !♦ 
 
 ■•^^tf^'-' 
 
 
 
 i^> W'-K 
 
4ul 
 
 llll»M.\ll 
 
 il liili lii'i'ii am'irlililli'rl liy i'N|H'rillirill til In' 
 plrniiu'iT limn llir IukI, iiihI tliirrlnrc lilirr liir 
 iiiiirliiiirrv. In till' Mill' III' Kiiliii till' fiiiil mill 
 \;irni'<li irri' iiri' niii^l iilrniiliil ; luinil ^rii\\-< In 
 
 ihi' rirrilliilrrrliri' III '.'I in. ill llli' jlllU.'li'N, mIiIi'Ii 
 
 • iiiiliiiii »liiili'\rr iiilirr iinilrrwiiiiil't iiri' |iri'\ii 
 Irlil in lliiliii. Tlir mimiixi iiiliihii, Mn^'aC riilii'. 
 imli^ii, iiiiil I'liltnii |iliinl, lire rninniiiii ; iiinI 
 llii' (I'll |iliuil. III It K*'i>i<>>ii' <'liiiriirii'r, l>i"<ii|i'H 
 inlrriiir '•iiri'*, lliinri'<lii'N nn ilir liciuliU ol' tin' N. 
 mill rriiiriil |irii\ iiiri'i, Mmtv ninnlli |iriiiliM'i"< 
 Munt' rri"<li Iriiil : tlir limimiii, riirmi, |>iilni, piiii' 
 ii|i|ili', i;;iiii\ii. jmiiliii, mill niiiii'^n iiri' iil>nnil;iiil, l>nl 
 rilriPH", |iiiinrnrmmtr:', mill iirmu,'i'<, arr llii' miK 
 iriiii Nliarril in rnnininn uilli I'.mi'ii|ii', I'lil'r ul'iill 
 Uiiiil:', wlii'ai, niai/r, niilli'l, rlrr, ami niiiny |m>I 
 IutIm, iiir ii-'iial ariirli's nl" cnlliiri'. l''irH an' nirr, 
 lull |iMii|M'ri, rliKiliiilrnilriin, ami hIIht l'',iirii|iran 
 |ilaiil'<, ^Tiiw III! I III' n|i|H'r ri'^'inn nl' Muiint I'liiiyt'ii 
 ami III her ninNlilrralili' liri^lit't in llir N, 
 
 . lMi'iiiii/fi,--l',li'l>lianN III' iliri't' ililVrrriii \ iirirlii"*, 
 llic nini^'lr liiiriiril I'liinui'i'rn'*, uiiil liiiar, liuiT- 
 li'iiparil, tVr„ iiili.'iliil ilir Jnii^'li'K; liniralin"<, imr- 
 rii|iiiii'.'<, rivi'l ami uilil raN, ami ^Tral iiiinilirri nl' 
 api'M, ilrrr, anil aiiirlii|ii"« an' liiiinil. < )i'i'a-iiiiiallv 
 a «\liili' rlrjilianl i^ nirl \Nitli, wliirli is innrli 
 |iri/ri|, anil lUii' ii alwavx ki'jil n> |>ai'l ul'ilii' nival 
 ("tialili.ilinirnt al Ami, wlirn' lie is Uralt'il uilli 
 (in'nl lan' aiiii atlrniiiin. 'I'lirh' an' no jai'l»aN nr 
 I'liM's, lint iIiik;'^ mi' iinnu'i'iiii't. (ianii' is mil nh 
 alinmlMiil MM in IliiiiliHtan ; ilii'n'i'^a Nniall "]»• 
 <'ii"< III' lian', lint mtv inl'i'iiiir, anil rniinii milv in 
 I III' hiu'li lamls, Sni{ii"', iinail", |ii:;riiii'<, nnr 
 ciiiiinioii tiiwl ill llii' wild niali', ilin'r '^prriri* of 
 lii'al'uwl, with niic r<|irrii"- iif |ilii'a.-<aiit, an' I'linml : 
 |iarn>l.'<. ami nllur Innls nlrirli |iliinia;;;r, an' jilrii- 
 lil'iil; Mil' ),'a\ial. in llii' Irrawaili, cliaiiii'liKii. 
 many li/.anis ami r<>i'Miiilalili' si'r|ii'iii.s, an tlic 
 intuit ill -I ii/ii 11:1, idlirn II rim; liirlniM'M, tlir iiiailpi- 
 linli, Halilc. mill many oiIk'I'n; Mi'iirpiniis, >|iii|ri''<. 
 ami rriiliiirilr". Ii'i'i'lu'i, w liii'li alinnml in ilan^cmiiM 
 iminliiT'i in llic iiiar>lir», mnsiiiiiincH, ami a vrry 
 Niinii'inii?* am, ili'Hirni li\i' in Imiisc I'liniiinn', ari' 
 amnnj; the aniinalH. (('r.iul'nnl, |i|i. I."il-|."i7.) 
 
 I'lii/ili: — Several ili>iinil Irilies iiilialiil llie liir- 
 man lerritnriis; vi/. I. Ilie Miuiimn (lliriri.in^i, 
 lielwei'ii I'.t^^aml •-'1'^ N. lal. ; •-', Tulnhi. Iielwirn 
 llie Than iwi'iif,^ ri\er ami llie ( iallaii/el ami Aiin- 
 |ii'rliiiiiiin liills; II, Slums, vvilli mnn' alliliily In 
 till' SiameM' I hail nllicr raees, ami ••pnailin^ hmt 
 llie 11. ami N. |irn\ inres; I. Cussuj/rrs, chielly in 
 llic eapil.'!! ; .">, Klii/nis, a mile |ii'n|ile, jrailireil 
 miinii!;; liie nthir pn|iiilalinii, liiit lixiii;;' In ihe 
 milili'si |iariHnrihe eiimitry ; (i, the I'li. pmhalily 
 a < 'hille^^e Irllie whn ha\ i' aijopleii liinm se I'li^lniii'', 
 n'^iilillf,HieI\M'eii the latter anil the liravvaili; 7, 
 Kiiii/iiin, inlialiitiiij;' an e\ten>ive liilK trael lie- 
 lwei'ii tlie'riiaii-l\veiiy;aiiilSi-tiiii;;.t;iHiil . nllivaliirs 
 liiit iiii>nliieeteil. miil heariii;,' ;rieal eiiiniiy tn the 
 Uiniiese; l\w Xiihulinis. 'ra.iii.u-Mii ; the Khaniti, 
 Siiiu'plins, ;iml niher rihetan nr Tarlar trihes in 
 the N. Mii.it nrihcMe ii.'itiniis. Iliniif,'h ilitVeriiij; in 
 ]aii;,'nat;e ami manners, an' of Ihe physii'al type 
 eiiimiKin tn all thnse .--ilnateil lietweeii Imlia ami 
 ("liilia. They ilill'er Inmi the iialiniisnr Imlh these 
 ri'Lciniis ill eertain partieiilar.i, anil resemlile iiinri' 
 Ihe Malays. The Itirmeseare shnrt ami sinut. Imt 
 well prnpnrtiniU'il. with I'liarse lank lilaek liair.and 
 an nlivo enniplexinn; the wnmeii are fairer than 
 tlie men, whn have iimri' lieani ^'eiierally than tiie 
 Siamese; the |)liysinf;iinmy of lintii sexes is open, 
 I'heerlul. ami iKit mipleasinj;. ami Very few nf 
 them lire in iiiiy way (lel'iirmeil. They are nilnisi. 
 aelive, itninisitivc tint detieieiit in emirate, and 
 fiirm a tntal eniitrast tn their ii('i;;:hhonrs nf lien^al 
 ill liahits ami disposiiioii. They are lively and 
 impatiunt ; uiiieli aiKlieted to theft and iyin^. 
 
 deiilihil. Mfiile, and prniidi Imii at llii. .niho 
 lime eiinrliiiii'«, liem'Vnlint, and n li^jimi,. ii 
 fiiriiniii'r'* I'liiisixt nf aliniii iri.niMisi, .!■ iim,.,', 
 
 l.niMI All.imexe, lleil'l'llilanls i>| •'Une wi,,, ^ ', 
 
 fiirnnrly in a -late nf ulavery ; nl i ;i.iiiiii||^, 
 
 iirie, iliiiil\ I'rnin ^ imiian. •litlnj ni llie i,.«ii, ,„ 
 unrkin^ the miiie'< ; inaiiv llnidni's rrmn llm,,,;. 
 Miilimiinii'ilaiis, and a few Ijiri'Muiix, I'Ihui .ij 
 fund 111' npn-e, whin an iiidiiieiin'iii In i.\i.rii,,|, 
 nllir'<, Ihe llirmi-ei'xiiillit mil mily ^riiil Mriiimi, 
 lint eniiravci' ami pi r-t \eram e, and iilien ii,,,,,,,' 
 
 pli-li what we shnidd think miihi'In i ji,!,, 
 
 Ilnl the mildness nl the rliinale, the I'lTliljIv nj 
 llie SI li I, and the liadm ■.snf the unviTtlliuiil. riii.|, r 
 these valnahle i|iialilirs nf liitle avail, hi i,,ini 
 tries like llirinah, the eii-tninary Ktaiii|;iri| i,| 
 eniilpeleliee is easily altailied, The pniin^i cla.... 
 iilitaiii Ihe nil I'ssarii's whieli they n'i|iijri> mil, 
 i'nniparaliM'l\ lillle lahmir; iiid thn'-e ulm dimilii 
 ^n further, and aiiiiiipi in innki' a ili'>plii\, i>r in 
 impnive llieir lands and hniisrs, wniild i'Xihi.i. 
 iheinsehes 111 esiiirtinii, and perhaps in |ll■^l,l|,■|| 
 
 danger. Slnth i^, in enllseipienee, the niIii f 
 
 the pnnr, and the priliripal ellJiiMiii'lll nf tlii'rii'li. 
 
 (Crawfiinl, pp, ;17I.:17J, Itlii-I.i), A'l',; Miiloilni 
 i. •j--'ii. A>:) 
 
 .liliiiiill>iir.— \'.\rr\i\\U]S near the InuiiH, ii|,,.i 
 nf the I iiid is wii'te and miapprnpii.itnl, iml, ,, 
 nieasintially hy wamlirin^; Irihes, whn raiiii i ri ih 
 with little laliiitir nn the vii|>in snil, Tlii'nilti 
 \ated land- an' assigned, with their iiihaliil.ini-, 
 hy the sii\eni(;ii, ill larue di->lrirls In Ins viiri"ih 
 lavnnriles, whn an' iinl iinapily einiiliil ihiir 
 'eaters,' and whn irriiid dnwii the inhiv :iliir. Ii\- 
 the inn-l oppn's-ivi' e\aetiniis. The I'ariiis ^'|.||,'. 
 rally <■llllsi^t nf mily a few iien's i aeli : iiinl ,i;;rl- 
 I enltiin', exeept, perhaps, ammi:,' the Karyrih, ii | 
 ' ill its rmli'-t and mll^l imperl'eit -tale, Itire i» i|ii> 
 I chief artii'le nf pnidine. and fnriiis the iiiaiii |'<n.,| 
 nf the people ; it is iiin-lly tcniwn in the S,. Mliirc, 
 alllinn^h the plnnM'h is -eldnin used, ami tlir 
 niilv tniililen hy eatlle, a siiit;le ernp is siilr| |,i { 
 I yield .'itl nr t'lO fold. Ill the N. piuviin es « |iiii||M 
 similar In that of India, is used, and the m\ U\ 
 iil'lerwanls pulverised hy means nf a wmiileii niiii- 
 der, and a rnii;;h liarmw dra;j:i,'ed ever il ; '.'nr :l { 
 imps a vt'ar are here nhtaiiied. hiii liny are imi .i 
 ' pniilneliveas the sinj^leenip nf ilie lower |lrll\ill^l•^ 
 I'liNe nf vai'inns kinds, Indian iiiillel aiul iiiai/i, 
 an' irniwii in the N. pniv,, the latter yiililiii;; il.iitl 
 siieh stateinriils an' aliiin.-t always >'\a;;;,'i'riitrMi f 
 Inn I'lild. timid wheat is ^niwii in the iiei^liliMir- 
 hnnd of the eapilal, hut il is lillle Used I'nr l>ri;i.|, | 
 1 Sisiiiiiiiiii is universally enllivaied I'nr its nil aiii 
 ! nil eake, wliiih is ;^i\cn to the eatlle. l'iilinii| 
 ((iiissi/iiiiim livrl.,iniiiii, W'allieh) ol a llna iiiii 
 silky lextiin', hut of short slajile, is f;i'iiwi; iiij 
 \ every part of Ihe empire and of its depeiiiliini'N 
 . Imt jirineipally in Ihe upper provineis, liiiiipil^ 
 
 also o(.|ierally uniwii, ami is iialnr.illy nf ;; I 
 
 ipiality ; hiil the inltiire and iiiaimliiii.iiv el ik' 
 plant "are Imlh so very rude, its to n'lnler llii' pni- 
 ihiee wholly mitit lor exporlatioii. 'Hit' |i"liil'i 
 i and pot-lierhs of I'ainiiic an' iinile iiiikiiowh; Imt j 
 I vams. and a species ol sweet pntiilo, art', ;i> «(!' 
 I lis tnliai'eo, vei'y p'lienil arlieies of ciilliiri' in tin 
 ' N. There are mi melons, eiii'iiiiihers. nr r:;- 
 plaiili'; hilt the hanaiia .'ind tiiiiiinind iiri' I'Mm- 1 
 sively ;;niwn ; and in some iraels the iiiinii'iri'l'f 
 fruit trees forms the hasis of taxation, 'flu ^"-;i' 
 : cane is enllivaied, and the stalk eaten wlmi n|" 
 i llie. maiinfaelnre nf su^'ar, except a very ri'.iN'j 
 i sort, heiii^- iinknnwii. An inl'erinr kind ol I'.i.I 
 with a lar^re leaf, is ^niwn nn the hills, ami wii ii f 
 ; liv the iiative.s with y,;irlic and oniiiiis. wliiili 'i^'- 
 I also pnidiieed there. Capsieiiin, lu'Xl I" "ail.: 
 ' forms the eliicf coiidiiiit'iit ; fmin the higliwt tul 
 
 llir liiwrnt, nil M'n 
 mil ii« niiisninpiini 
 inti«r/ii»i'd lor lioii 
 l.lillirillllvaleil III 
 III iMlililinll III rlie, 
 mill nil riiin|Hw)< (I 
 iiiutli'i' i^ made III I 
 .[•'illlili'd inln II I 
 1^ iMil III lii'inine I 
 III rijinimrie hy Ihe 
 |>«d lu'liiir pmlliliilei 
 mini ((iiierally ear 
 nliii II have died a n 
 mill ik'naiias, hy tin 
 -nil' iinlividiialN pi 
 inl«'< i|n lint, liiiwevi 
 kill liiilliicks and iitl 
 till' In till ir ileilii'N: 
 numw nr ntlier, evail 
 Miaul nf aiiiiiials, or 
 niKii iH'VeraK'' of the 
 tliiiiii;li iiriiliiliiied, II 
 ri.r, iifiil tiiildy IS II 
 ,^illiivril, dale, nr enei 
 l'ii»«, liiill'aloes, ffi 
 ifi' lti'|il ; hill lieilh 
 iiMM are used mil) 
 iiiii'ily ill the upper 
 
 liii'ti' ('iillllllnll ill the 
 i. iimI iiiiiri' than lliirt 
 a mr, I'sleellied ill III 
 'ill' nailille. The eh 
 ii-il liir earria>;i'; il 
 li'iHii. Ilojfs an- pf 
 ii.k IM waveiijiers. 
 
 .[rin anil Miniiifiiil 
 
 «:iri| utilti'. l'loli;,'hili) 
 
 'niniiH.'. and dyein^', 
 
 I mil 1 1 liy Wnlllell nr 
 
 li-nliilike that nf Iti'i 
 
 :iri' Wnvi'ii, Ihe Uiyw^i. 
 
 Ilir ilir;.'!' low lis in il.s \ 
 
 I'llin'i'iif India and 
 
 'If, lliiiii;;|i eoiisiden 
 
 llimii'.ic, surpass them 
 
 I'l -ilk, mid pniihice si 
 
 imlimiilereil with ;;oli|. 
 
 Kliviii liiniiis can mil 
 
 iiliilv tliiise of the Itirii 
 
 l'i'»in wiilili, I'riniii 
 
 'ill ilyiiii^' with indie'i 
 
 aii'lllic niliiiirs of I hi 
 
 *liiiirn| tlir their hril 
 
 niiiriliiiint ii.sed. \,, |j 
 
 mill llriiish i;iiods nf a 
 
 iinji'irliil, and .snld eliea 
 
 ''"' iii'l'Vt's. .Some c,,,| 
 
 Willi Hie porcelain ii.s, 
 
 llii' llirmesi. east he||^ 
 
 ►"'M mill silver respeei 
 
 '' '"nrk Well in iiit 
 
 ■i"'l niiiK'liliK'ks arc inai. 
 ""iliii'tly liiiiijjlit from I 
 """' "'« l':n!,disli ; (ho 
 ■"«. Willi, while new II 
 
 '.m. 
 
 '■"ii'iili'rcil Worth 
 »'l Ih'IcI hi.xes is ainni 
 !""■•"' 'i'lieir paper i.s „C 
 '".'"'"1'' "f hainhoo lihr 
 "'iMiiri' nf charcoal and 
 '^1 "'111 n piece of sleati 
 ■^'■iflv nil their iiianiifa,. 
 "{''"W «'«r|K'iiters, si.iit 
 ►■"I'r", will, ,vork for t 
 l"'''l».lhc'reiiri,huf,few' 
 ['"'1'^ '"il.v ill the l,irK( 
 ("sisiremcrecaiiocs, do 
 
Ill II M Air 4Aft 
 
 ,i,r liiwfut. nil wn'oii tlicir t\i'c with flii< |iliiiil, i iiinl |iiirily i-nvmil in wilh mnl<, wllhoiir li«inlM«» 
 
 Inr II mil"! mill iitnillirr I'nr It viiril 
 
 1,^1 jl« niliniiiii|>lli>ii H * inrri'ililily umil ;' lirlil 
 ,1,1 i<rnl«i'il li>r lioiiu' i'iiti<<iMti|ii|iiM ; miil ihi' |>l|ii'r 
 l,,,|i,rnlliviilril Inrui'lx, Mini ul'rxri'lli'nl i|iiiilllv. 
 Ill :iiMllli>ll III rill', |illlll|iltiMN, llllil lillUi', i/HK/iri' 
 ,„,l oil iiiiii|"iM' till' iiiiilii IihkI 111' ilii' jH'iiJ-niilry. 
 iHiitj"''' ''' »■'"'*' "' |>rituiH, HlirinijM, nr iiiiy lyinip 
 i(,|i,{.>iiiiilril mill M r<iii»i'<li'ii( IIIIIM1, mill rri'i|iii iiilv 
 
 lllnVlril III l'i'< "><<■' luirlillllv |illlrii|. Il H kllMM 
 
 .niiiiiinii'i'i'i' I'.v <'»' iiiiiiii' 111' HoliulutHfi, AiiIiiidI 
 i,,.| Ik'iii;; |iriiliiliiii'il liy ilii- llinlilliiiiii iil ri'llKlnii. 
 
 , I (.'iMiriill.v riilrii, I'MTjiiiiiif ji'iiiliry iir li-li 
 
 tiii.li liiivi' ilii'il 11 iiiiliiriil ili'iiili, li/.iirilx, M(>r|ii'iit'<, 
 mill lu'iiiiiiii*. I'.v llii' liiwiT i'lii"'<i'Hi iir niiiiii' liv 
 Miiii' in<li\iiliiMl'* |irivtili>ly, Miiiiy nl' tli, liiil 
 
 ip|,4 ilii mil, IliiWi'Vrr, rrK'H'il lllf illjlini'linll, miif 
 
 kill liiilliii'Kn iiihI iitliiT I'Miili' I'lir I I, or in niu'ri 
 
 n,,. In llliir ilfitil'H; iniillV hIIhts iiInii, liy iiiif 
 nii'iuiA nr iitliiT, fviiili' llii' lii«v 111' iiiil i<|iilllii)r tlii' 
 M,».| III' aiiiiiiiil'i i>r ii|ii'iily lirriik il, Tin- rmii 
 iii.n lii'ViTiini' "I ll'i' pi'iiplr i« uiilrr; Iml w|iiriN, 
 
 il ;.'li iiriiliiliiii'il, itri' iiii|iiirli'il nr iliKillliil linni 
 
 [>,'. .'iiiil tiiilily IH tiiiiili' Imni |lii< jiiiii> nl' llu' 
 
 ;iliii\m, iliiii'. iir ciifnii iri'i'. 
 i.iw-, liulViiliH'M, ^iiali'. ikiiil II vrry I'rw .slii'i'|i, 
 
 iri JM'pl; ImiI iirilliiT I'nr tlirir IIimIi nr milk. 
 M\,n ari' ii!<ril niily I'nr ilriiii^vlil, Mini jirrMiil 
 ,'irily in till' U|i|irr I'lmiilry, liir Inill'iiln luiiij; 
 ii.ri' ininillnll ill lllf InWrr, 'I'llr llirillllll llnrni' 
 
 .iiui ninri> tliiiii lliirtirii liiniiU lii^li, Iml Nirmi^', 
 ;i mi'.i'nli'l'inril ill lllf rniiiitry, nilil ll^cil nlily i'nr 
 ill' rilililll', 'I'll!' I'li'|illlllll i'l linllli'^^di'Mtrii mill 
 
 ii,.il I'nr i'iirriii);i> ; Ilir riiiiii'l is iilin;:i'i|ii'r nil 
 
 I "»ll, lli>|;s an- lill'lltil'lll, Imt I'olllliiniily iixmI 
 
 ii,l\ w* w'iivi'iij;rrM. 
 Aria mill Miiiiii/'iiiiiiiTs iiri' in tin- iiinst Imrk- 
 
 n;ir I ^lllti', l'liiu;;liili^, rlrilliill^ I'lil lull, .s|ii||iiiiii.;, 
 «r;i\llii.', ailil ilyi'ill^, tirr nju rnliniiN liin-<|lv {irr- 
 I nmil liy wniiii'ii nr rii|ilivi' CiiNMiys: ihr Inniii 
 liHlJi liki> llllil III' jlril^lli. Silk llllil I'lillnii ;^r,„H|,s 
 jfp wiivrll, llii' runner rliirlly in I Iir i';i|iitiil iliiil 
 iiul.ir;,'!' Iii\vii> in il.1 viciniiy, Imt nri' \i'i\ inrrrinr 
 
 I'llic r liiiliii anil Cliiiia, 'I'lii' Kliyriis, Imu- 
 
 i.ir, llinii^'li rniiKiili'ralily li'.ss i'i\ilisi'il limn iln* 
 llimii:'!', »iir|iafis ilirni jfrially in tlii< iiwinnraflnri' 
 lif-ilk, ami |iriiilnri" koiih' Mipfrinr iTiniMin srarfs, 
 inilirniik'ri'il wilh pilil, anil niirmw nIiiiwN, '|'|ii< 
 Klivin Iniiiiis ran mily iiiiiki> Ihlirii'i iini> rnliil, 
 «liilr lliiisr 111' llii' liirini'.M' jirnilnrt' mhiii' Iwn rn- 
 liil in wiillli, I'riiiliii^r nil rnllnii is iinkiinwn; 
 I'll! ilyi'iii}; Willi inili;;n ami liirnnrii' is |irMi:li-<i'il; 
 ,11!'! llif riiliiiirM 111' llii' Itirnu'sii lalirii's arr niiirli 
 I'liiiiri'ii I'nr llicir lirilliaiu'y : ainiii \s llii> nnly 
 m<\;\m iiM'il, Nil Hill- lini'ii is inMiinrai'lnri'il'; 
 Mil liriiisli liiiijils 111' ail i|iiiiliiii's ari' I'uininnnly 
 ini|Kirliil, ami miIiI ciicaiH'r llimi iiiiy |iriiilni'i'il liy 
 ilii' iiiilivi's. .Siiiiii' fnarsc rartjii'iiwari' is inuilc"; 
 luiiill llii' piirrclain iisimI is iin|iiii-li'il rnnn Cliina. 
 ll«' IlirmcMi casl licils, anil cxcfiili' liliij;ri'c in 
 ;!(! mill kIIvit riw|K'i'ialily ; Imt nilicrwisi' lliry 
 'i'l mil work wi'll in metals, Snine mile cutlery 
 ainlniiitcliliKiks are inaileal Ava; Imt their swnnfs 
 «n rliiilly Imiifjlit rriini the ,Sh«ns. anil olil muskets 
 tnm thi' Kiif^lish ; the latter I'eleli frnni ;i7/i. In 
 "•.Willi, while new Jlinnese muskets are nnly 
 I'li-iiliTi'il wiirtli 'I'lu. Lai'i|iiereil ware I'nr lray"s 
 m4 IkIi'IIhixcs is anmn^fsl their lies! maniil'aV- 
 "inx. Their paper is nf three snrls, one of wliiih 
 !• niiidi' of hainliiio lilires, cnvereil over with ii 
 "lixiiirc III' I'liaiviial ami rieiswiiler, ami written 
 '* "illiapieee (if sieatite, as we do on u slate. 
 Ni-arly all their inannl'uctnres are iloniesiic, J-'.x- 
 "ji'iiil,' carpenters, smiths, inasmis, earvers, unil 
 inlWs, who work fnr the jialaee, temples, nnil 
 l-nMs, there are but few pnlilie jirtisans, ami tliese 
 Mc only ill the larger eitie.s. 'I'jie eommnn 
 Mis sre mere canoes, clcckcd with split bamboo, 
 
 f>Hi'lliiiii».—'\\\i> nrillnary linii«epi eniinUt wlmllv 
 of limiiliniiH mill nnitiiiiu, limlly (hiiiilieil with 
 h'liM's nr i^raxK, verv mmn liiiill nr niiiiiMil, iiinl 
 in the liiwif Niiiiiiilniis riilMi'il ,'i nr I It. Imm ihe 
 
 Umniiil nil wnnili'ii pnalH ; ihniie nf the jirieNtx liril 
 
 nf n "iiperinr kiml, ami snm"»hii( Kliiiiliir In ilin«<\ 
 
 •'( llie (liinexe, nf Ihnse nf the .SIiIIIIh III the N. 
 
 I fnvmee-, havin^t a Inii^; rnnf rniimled at the end", 
 
 llWlltifl^ WIiIIm, uml lieill;^' divided illln ■I'MTIll 
 c"iiilmHW''|iK 'I'll'' nrdinary linU nf the |M'n|ilii 
 iiHUki.tl of nm'fli -"inall mat laid nii the (,'rniiml, 
 Th«'' Miii|)les nn- ij .lilferenl i.tyle« in dillireiil 
 |ir(ivi«''<s Ht I'li^nn iImx are heavy, hrnad, and 
 Hiirmniiiiieil liy i» sni'ill spiri'; In the Mniiihern prn- 
 ill'-- jiyraiiiidal, ami ndnrmd with many llunri"* 
 lit ^MHIiix. --iihiiiM's, and >T..riM|il<s. 'I'liev are all 
 
 miieh if|i ' and ill rated, and nfi. I "I'.tniii \iry 
 
 snlid inaMiiiry : nimiy are, linwever, in riiiM->, i-inee 
 ninst nf theiii are Imilt and endnwed by ueiilthy 
 iiidi\ idiialn, and il is ili rimd iimre inerltnriimN to 
 liiiild a new than In repair mi i ! ' 'lie, 
 
 ('iiiiimiiii. -Ill the Inwer pmviines the Irallle it 
 alimisl w linlly by W liter iniiveymiee ; ill ntlier pmlH 
 
 Kiinils and piisseiip'rs travel by earls nr wiiy:nnnH 
 drawn by n\etl, nr mi the biliks 111' Ihrse miiiiials; 
 the upper ili-trii'ts send til the Inwer petrnlelini, 
 
 nitre, paper, laniiieied wiiri", ^ilks and cntinns, 
 iiillery and nirtal wares, paliii sii^car, unions, la- 
 inariml--, \i',, and reeeive frniii l>miK<>i>n, 'rnii'^lm, 
 and Itiisseiii, wliirh are the iliief Inidln;: phnes, 
 rii'e, salt, piikled iind dried li.«h, and lni'ri;;'ii enin- 
 nindilies, 'I'lie Sliaiis expnrl eiittnlis, silks, ivnry, 
 bees' was, sliik-lai', varnish. l:iri|ileleil wares, 
 swiinls, and nieliils. in Avii, and lake lunk xilt and 
 dried lish. The primipal fniei^ii trade is wilh 
 China, and its rhlef seat the Inwii nf llhaimi, 
 whither the I hiiiese earavans eniiie and meet t liii 
 llirniese and iMnlianiniedan inerehaiils ; and I'miii 
 l>ee. Ill April this tnwn presents a most aniinaled 
 seeiie nf ailive imlii^lry, and a greater viiiiitv of 
 tribes than is, perhaps, I'mind at any niher fair in 
 Asia. The principal artieles nf iiii|iiirl I'rnin Cliiint 
 are silk (in the ainniinl nf abnnt '.'7,tMMI bimdies, 
 wnrlli Ml.OIMI/. II year), enpper, carpets. I'nr Jackets, 
 nr|iinienl, ipiieksilver, vermilinii, verdigris, ilrii(;s, 
 lea. fresh and dried fruits. The expnris to ('biim 
 are cliiellv raw cut Inn (averii;^iii,LC I l,lMlll,(Mlt» lbs,, 
 and wnrtli •J'.'M.tMMi/, a year) ; feathers, ivnry, wax, 
 edible birds' nests, rhinncerns' and deer's linrns, 
 sa|i|iliircs,aml smne jtrilish imiiuifactni'es; ehielly 
 brntiil clntiis and carpets. The Intal value nf llin 
 trade with China is variously estimated at frnin 
 
 100,0011/. to 700.000/. 
 
 Mi'iimirfu mill Cniii. — The chief measure of »■«- 
 /iiirifi/ I'nr rice is the basket --i'lXij lbs. avninl, ; nf 
 Iniiltli. thv tin<,M'r-breadtli,liaiid-breadtli.span, enbit 
 C2 spans, or I'.t'l I'.ii;;, inches), bainbno -'.'H cubits 
 (I 1.^ yds.), Iaiiij,' = 7,000 cubits (2m. 1 furl., nearly) ; 
 the chief weiijIilH, the lical (nearly J oz. avninl.), 
 viss -; loo ticals, or .'I catties (H lb. 2 oz.). 
 
 Then! is no coined inoiiey, exce|itin;,' some of 
 very base quality, and of lead, struck at Amara- 
 piirn; k<>I*I '»iiI silver ingots, of a tieal wei);ht,aiiil 
 various de^trees of purity, form the rest of the cnr- 
 n'licy. (iold is valued at about seventeen times 
 the worth of silver, a lical of which latter, nearly 
 pure, is worth 2.s. M.'y. 
 
 Jirirniii- iiiiil Tii.viitiim. — Ono-tontli part of tho 
 jirodiiets of the ciiltiviitor, which is often taken in 
 kind, and 10 ]ier cent, on all imports, o per cent, 
 on exports and on the petnileimi collected; tho 
 innnopoly of marble, amJier, the precious metals, 
 and xems abnve a iHTlain size, of wrecks, nnd the 
 pniperty of certain fnreij;ners dying in the country, 
 all belong to the king. Tlicre is no direct laiiii- 
 
 1" • 
 
 '1! 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^^.. iVK ■ I 
 
 ' .. .: I 
 
466 
 
 BIRMAH 
 
 tflx, l)Ut the people arc nHHOHsed in proportion to 
 thrir siipposril mean!*. Most of the provinws arc 
 cnnMldcred I ho property of the royiil family or prin- 
 ripal roiirf favoiiritcH ; the kiii^; assesxe.s eneli of 
 hi« vicerovH in a certain Hiini ; these assess their 
 Hiihordinnte distriet pivemorsfora larj^j'r sum, and 
 these apiin foree still more out of the nnliappy 
 peasantry, who p'ni'rally are made to pay donhle 
 the sum originally demanded hy the kin^. The 
 f{old antl silver that thus reaches the royal treasury 
 is never, except on urf,'ent occasions, dishnrsed 
 iipiin ; the only channels of its (■xptMiditure are in 
 presents to favourites, ^ildin^ lempleH (for which 
 most of the pdd in the coinilry is used), and 
 making ornnmentH. The olili;;ation to make [ire- 
 sents to olilain favour or Justice prevails univer- 
 Hally, and from the to)) to thc^ hottoin of the Hocinl 
 scale, there is one nnifonn system of extortion and 
 rapacity, which has so completely crushed the 
 sjiirit of the ))oo|)le. that. altliou/.;h lew arc in ItOf;- 
 f;ary,all fear to he rich, lest they slioidd he marked 
 out and impoverished hy the harfiies of the Htate. 
 ((.'rawfurd's Journ., pp. Ho—lili.) 
 
 The Gtwernmrnt is an hereditary and ahsolnte 
 desjMitism, the sovereitjn i)(iiif; 'lord of life and 
 limli ' over his suhjects, who style hitn 'fjolden ; ' 
 speak of informing' the 'f,ndden ear,' throwing 
 tliemselvcs at the 'p)lden feet.' They approach 
 him with their hands joined ahovc their heads, 
 inid even nnikc ohcisancc to the jtalaoe walls, 
 liel'ore which all musk dismount and take oD' their 
 shoes. The soveri'i|(n is assisted hy 1 woonjjees, 
 or chief |)uhlic ministers; ■! atween-woons, or pri- 
 vate counsellors; 4 woon-docks, ministers of the 
 interior; •) state secretaries ; l reporters ; 4 otlicers, 
 til rc^idat« ceremonies, and 9 to read petitions. 
 Their several ranks are determined hy their dresses, 
 coronets, and number <if pdd chains: t>iemonar<;li 
 himself only heiuf,' privilepul to Vicar 24. The 
 whole nation is divided into the royal liimily, 
 nobles, and commonalty, and none dare assume 
 the dress of a superior gTade. The ISinnese have 
 no farther distinctions of caste, as in India, nor 
 any hereditary dir.tinctinn.s; although, in other 
 respects, a kind of feudal s -stem jirevails ; and 
 the king can command the appearance of lii- 
 iiohles in the (ield, with their quota of va.ss;il>. 
 (Hamilton's IJa/.., i>p. ln-,'j(); Saugermano, p. it^ ; 
 Wilson's Docuni., A))i)end., p. i!8; Crawfurd, p. 
 41)1 ; 'J'rant, pp. 247-2(;h.) 
 
 Armed Force. — The iSirmeaearcnot, as a nation, 
 n niilitarv people, but would make f;ood soldiers 
 under able otlicers. There is no regular system of 
 eonscripiion ; every man is liable to serve; hut 
 nil large force is e\er disiiosahle ; and it is believed 
 thai tlie whole levies riiised to o|)])ose the British 
 troops in the war of IX.'il*. iliil not amount to more 
 than r)(»,(in(l men. ICxcepting a small oody of 
 (_';issay horse, and one of ariiilerj', all are iid'antry. 
 and aimed with long spears, two-handed swords, old 
 nniskets, and the jinjal. a kind of (carbine, carrying 
 large halls, which, as they are good marksmen, is 
 a fonuidable weajion, excojit in close combat. 
 They arc adepts at raising stockades, which they 
 do wherever they take up a position; hut these 
 are not generally defended with nnicli vigonr. 
 However, the great stockade of h'angoon, erected 
 by the Birmesc in January, ]8;V2, withstood the 
 operations of the llritish troops for nearly three 
 months, and wfis captured with some loss on the 
 Mill of April of the same year. 
 
 Jiirlspriidenve. — Each large city has its judicial 
 tribunal, and townships {myu) have each a gover- 
 nor, called myo-sn-yi, who is assisted by iidcrior 
 |)olice oilicers, placed over the several wjirds : 
 from the decisions of the Wfyo-.sw-///, there is appeal 
 to the provincial governors, and from the latter in 
 
 a higher law officer in the cajiital. The ooi|i nf 
 laws is derived from the * Innlitutes of Mcmi,' nini 
 contaiiiH many salutary regidations; hut ilirniidi 
 a most corrupt administration, the aims nf ju^d,.,, 
 are frequently nervertcd, ond the greatest, tyraimv 
 is exeniised. The slavery of a debtor, or li'is , liil- 
 dren, in discharge of a debt, is comnimi ; nn'l 
 females, in such a case, may \k\ used as coiuiiImik., 
 Trial by ordeal often takes place, and in eriminii 
 cases the punishments are marked hy the jrrciihH 
 ernelty. The Ilirmese seem to have taxi'il i||,.jr 
 ingeniiity to invent territic ami revolting; niiKiM 
 of death. These they bear with an intn'pidiiv or 
 indill'erence cuinmon to all Asiatics: hut mvii,' 
 to the extreme corruption of the llinnesc ofHcirr 
 there are very few otteni^es that may nut he cx^ 
 liiated, or their punishment materially allcviiui,!, 
 by a pecMiniary sacrilice. (Crawfurd, "pii.li;!, i;i|' 
 Ac. ; Hangermano, jip. 05-70 ; Wilson's Mmm', 
 Append., p. 44.) 
 
 lieliyiim is Ihiddhism, believed to have lifpn 
 introduced by Gaudma, the chief deity, hiiiiscll, in 
 the (5tli century n.c. This faith is iniivcr<al \ivw 
 except among foreigners ; individuals wlio have 
 been C(mvcrted to Christianity ; a few 7m\\, 
 believed by Wangermano to be Jews ; mid mm. 
 hill trilies, as the Khveiis, Karyens, and (;hs>;iv.! 
 in the lowest stage ot idolatry. Tlu! priests, caiii.! 
 Hhahaans, are much respected; they arc lircd ni 
 like monks to their calling from an early iifjo, aiM 
 observe celibacy, but may at any time rciiuuiKv 
 their vows and maiTy. They 'are vuliintariK 
 maintained by the population, and not suH'iml in 
 engage in manual labour, their chief nceupatidii 
 being the instruction of youth. All fondiiiuTs an; 
 allowed the fullest exercise of their rclij;iiui, ^in.j 
 may build places of worship anywhere, iind liaw 
 their )inbliu festivals and ]iriicessiiins wiiliuiit 
 molestation. Hut, though thus tolerant to straiigir-, 
 tlu'v are most intiderant to their own people. \,> 
 Iiirman dare join any of these religions, undir tlic 
 severest iienalties ; and the most rigorous incaMir' i 
 are ailopted for suppressing all religious iiiiuiva- 
 tions. 
 
 Education is so far diffused that almost even- 
 male Hirman can read and write; and this is \U 
 case with many of the females. The Khycnslia'M 
 no knowledge of books or reading, and Imld iiinii- 
 cine in contempt ; the iiirmans tlu'uis('lvc< ;ir' 
 grossly ignorant of physic, and whether fur IVht i 
 or rheumatism, theyshamiioo the iiaticut, trcadiii;' 
 him till he is in a ])rofiise perspiration: anviiie 
 may practise this profession. Diseases of tlii' di;'(s- 
 tiv". r;'; -'s, anil of the skin, cholera, and li'iirii>v, j 
 are the most fre(|uent; intlamniatimis arc ii't 
 generally acute, and wounds of a very stwre | 
 character are said to heal with singidar ra|iiili;y. 
 
 The liinnese are possessed of some kniwleii'.'i'if I 
 the heavenly bodies, and the signs of tlieir z<«Ii:ii.' 
 are the same as ours: their year cmisisis of iiJI | 
 days, the errors in which computation they par- 
 tially rectify every third year. Tliuy liavc I:' 
 months, of 2i) and 30 days alternately, and Jilavji 
 in the week, named from the phiiiets, in the imt 
 order as ours. There are 70 hours between mib- 
 rise and sun-set, calculated at the cajiital hy ili- j 
 successive tilling of cups by dropping water: Imt I 
 as the length of the days changes, these cniisiiiii-; 
 of course, be also continually changed. Tlnirj 
 (•ommon epoch begins from the year .\.d. (io\ I 
 making our year 1)S.'?9 the liirniese year 1201, I 
 
 Lanyiniye, — The language spoken liytiicWs| 
 of the 1 ieo])le is the Jiirmese. IJesides tills, \\m '■■ 
 the Pali, or sacred language, which liasadi-lii: 'j 
 written character. In the coinnion Jiirmese. vx 
 lettersare formed of circles and segnieiilsiit'tir;!'-- 
 [ii-ubalily derived from the I'uli iilpliakt. H''l 
 
 simctiirc of t 
 Tlierc is no in 
 tloii, innnher, 
 |iri'li\ing or ii 
 liilliiw each oti 
 iiiiiil iiiiiispei 
 (iriiiieial. ((,'r 
 J)rnis mid f 
 (•(pveriiig from 
 llie leg; over 
 all the WHY to 
 liaiidkerclnef c 
 lira turban of I 
 «ear a soinewl 
 ihat ijf the met 
 tr.iiit, pennits i 
 liny wear no h* 
 is wiirii long, ai 
 lii'ad; the men 
 |iniLliee of hlac 
 it Hits formerly, 
 iiaiiiiiis; sanda 
 .■.tiifkings, are w 
 nioslly black ; i 
 iiseil l»y the pri 
 jacket is some 
 Chinese costum 
 ilie niiliilily is h 
 III' iJDwerwl satin 
 iiiili an open col 
 with gidd circlet 
 (hewing betel 
 sal, even with cl 
 iIjiv, viz. early in 
 iliiir food is sttrv 
 |j|ates and small 
 iiiiieli as lingers ; 
 ilio peojde are 
 .Mars, (iclieve in f 
 mans, and practi 
 liieir small comi 
 clianre to die, tli 
 lic'ti taken posses.- 
 .silllemeiir, and 
 when aa earthqu! 
 liuiises, to expel t 
 Shivery, and es 
 general; po]yg„in 
 a mere civil coiitr 
 llii; .sovereign him 
 jiareiu a married 
 i'lirly ciannion. 
 lilierty, usually, a^ 
 wrt.s cd' drudgerv 
 iiiiiilellty ainimg" t 
 iii"n;;li clm.stity at 
 jraciised or appret 
 liie seizure of the 
 .■"line beauty, the 
 •iistoni of tattooin 
 lii;' of their bodies 
 vails amongst tlu 
 liiirned or buried; 
 "lit ill state; am 
 C'lniiulence and pr 
 vivurs of decea.sed 
 '0 play before the 
 fondueted with as n 
 m afford. The fu 
 'i*als, and many a 
 Mil other heavy bi 
 on those occasions, 
 fceted; the Kliy 
 w imhhc rejoicing 
 ■•"""iiKst the Uirmc 
 '^wonc 1ms to t 
 «™teverrank,durit 
 
RIRMAII 
 
 457 
 
 stnioHirc or tlin lan^tujiRC is cxccodinRly simiile, 
 Tlii'tc it 110 iiillecluiii (tf iiny part of Hpfecli. Hda- 
 tinii, mimhcr, nnxle, and time arc all iiidicatctl liy 
 iirilixiiiK or alHxiiiK wrtain artiidcH, 'I'lic words 
 I'l.lliiw I'acli other in their natural order, nn arraii;;i'- 
 iiHiit iiidiflieiii'ahly iicoessary to a dialect ho iii- 
 nriiiiiial. ^Oawl'iird's .loiirii., p. itHT.) 
 
 Jjnmi itiid StM-ial IlabilH. — That of I lie men ia a 
 civi'tiiiK Ifom the loins rcaeliiiif^ luill'-way down 
 ilicU'Ki over this a I'rock with wide sleeves, lied 
 all the wav to the knee; on the head, a sipiare 
 liiiiidkorcliief of Knj,'lish or Alailras nianul'acture, 
 i>r ii turhaii of Kn^lish hook mnslin. The women 
 w(':ir a somewhat similar dress, hut shorter than 
 iliiit (if the men ; antl the petticoat, liein;^ open in 
 ffiuit, iiermits the tliijjh to he seen at every step; 
 ihcv wear no head-dress. The hair of hoth sexes 
 iswcirn loll};, and tied in a knot on the to|) of the 
 lii'iul; the men plnck out their heard; hut the 
 iiniilit'e of hiackening the teeth is not foUowt^d as 
 it WHS lorinerly, and still is, hy some nei},dihourinj; 
 iiaiiiiiis; sandals, but neither hoots, shoes, nor 
 >tiH.'liiii},'s, are worn. The dress of the peasaiiiry is 
 niiisily hlack; yellow is a sacred colour, and only 
 iiseil iiy the priests and upper classc^s ; a (piilied I 
 iacki'tis sometimes worn, and in the NK. the 
 (hiiH'^o costume is adopted. The court-dress i>f 
 the iiiihilily is handsome, consistiiif^of a hnij; rohe 
 (if lliiwereil satin or velvet, reacliiiif; to the aiiides, 
 with an open collar and loose sleeves, velvet ca|i:i 
 witli fC'>ld circlets, and many ornaments. 
 
 I'liewing hetel is common, and suiokin^; univer- 
 fiil, even with children. The Hirmese eat twice a 
 iliv, viz. early in the niorniii};; and in the eveniuf^ ; 
 ihiir food is served up on trays, in red lac(|uere(l 
 pliitcs and small cups ; spoons are used, hut not so 
 much as liuf^ers ; knives and forks are unkuowu. 
 Till! people are very superslitioiis, consult the 
 >tar.s, believe in fortunate or evil times, wear talis- 
 mans, and practise alchemy. If any meinher of 
 their small communities of four or live houses 
 dwiioi' to die, the Khyens helieve the evil spirit 
 liits taken possession of tiie place, break up their 
 soilk'moiit, and remove to another s])ot ; and, 
 wlu!ii an earthquake happens, shout and beat their 
 liuiiscs, to expel the liend. 
 
 Slavery, and especially the selliiifr of women, is 
 (leiieral; polyj;'ainy is allowed; marriage, althouf;h 
 11 mere civil contract, is universally respected, and 
 llii; sovereitcn himself has no rif^ht to seize for his 
 luirein a married woman. Divorc;es tire exceiid- 
 iiyly common. Females arc allowed as imieh 
 liliirty, usually, as males ; they are ciij^aiced in all 
 Mirt.s (if (Irudjfcry and cinitinual occupation, yet 
 iiiiidelity among those who are inanied is rare, 
 lliiiii;;h chastity among the others is a virtue little 
 I'racliseil or ai)preciateil. To uvoiil, it is jiretended, 
 tile seizure of their females, who have naturally 
 smie beauty, the Khyens have long adopted the 
 nistomof tattooing their countenances ; a tattoo- 
 ing of their bodies in all kinds of tigures also pre- 
 vails amongst the ISirinese. Corpses are either 
 biinu'd or buried; persons of rank are i)ublicly laid 
 nut ill state ; and amongst all classes visits of 
 Condolence and presents are received by the sur- 
 vivors of deceased persons, and musicians attend 
 to play before the body till the funeral, which is 
 conducted with as much mtigniHcence as the friends 
 can afford. The funerals of priests are public fes- 
 tivals, and many accidents are caused by timber, 
 and other heavy bodies that are fired np in the air 
 on those occasions, falling on the crowd that has 
 ciiik'ted; the Khyens also treat deaths as matters 
 of imblic rejoicuig. Many curious customs prevail 
 amongst the Birmcse, si'ich as the i)ri\ilege that 
 wyonc has to throw water over any others, of 
 ivluteverrank, during the last three daysof tlu- year. 
 
 lloxing, cockfighting, foot-ball, throwing a quoit 
 of bamboo, tt few games of chance, chess, and 
 dancing, are among the chief recreiilions. The 
 llirnu'seare good mimics, and very fond of acting ; 
 their drama is by far the best aiiioug tlii! liuio- 
 I'hiiiese nations. Their ininic possesses decided 
 melody ; they are much attached to it, and nsinilly 
 sing at their work. Their |)riiicipal iusirumeuts 
 are, a drum of bamboo or cane, covered with skin, 
 a kind of hurdy-gurdy, oboe, ami liile. In their 
 dances they exhibit many contortions of tln^ body. 
 'I'he.y have several epic and religious poems, be- 
 sides some other literary productions. 
 
 llistori/. — The earliest records go back to tlin 
 year n.c. i)l;i. The first kings are said to have 
 come from lialiar, and fixed the seat of govern- 
 ment at I'roine, where it continued for iloii years. 
 In A.i>. 1117 it was removcid to I'ugau (I'agahni 
 Mew), where it remained for \i centuries, and 
 where are still to be seen extensive ruins, iiiclud- 
 iiig many temples, and some relics of Hindoo wor- 
 ship. In |.">2-', the court was removed to Sa-kaing ; 
 in i;'>(il,to Ava ; in IToi', Alompra transferred it to 
 his native place, Mouchobo ; oiieof his sous carried 
 it back to Ava; another to Amarapura : from lHi2 
 to 1«;>7, Ava again became the capital, when thii 
 revolution that i)laced the Trinceof Sarawadi on 
 the throne, restored tluit honour to Jlouchobo. 
 
 In the iHth century the, liirmese bee, me flie 
 most powerful nation of the K. peninsula of Asia. 
 Ava had been governed by the King of I'egu for 
 some time previous to 17.');i, when Alompra, the 
 founder of the ])resenf dyn.isty, e:<pclled the I'e- 
 giians from Ava and I'rome, and in l7o(! ellected 
 the coiii|iiest of I'egu. The Shan ccamtry was 
 conquered by his son in 17(W; Cassay in 1771; 
 Aracan in M^'A; in 171H), theTenasserim jirovinceH 
 taken from the Siamese; and Assam coiupiered in 
 lM"2ii. Emboldened by these successiw, the court 
 of Ava entertained <lesigns on the neiglibonriiig 
 Ikitish territories; our frontiers were subject to 
 continual irruptions, and our ambassadors to all 
 kinds of coutemi)t and insolence; until, after ii 
 hostile invasion of Caehar, a state with which wo 
 were alliiMl, and reni^wed outrages on our posses- 
 sions in Chittagong, Sir A. (,'ainpbell was sent with 
 an army up the Irrawadi. After a vanely of en- 
 gagenieiits, in which the Ihitish were always suc- 
 cessful, a treaty was concluded Feb. il, lH-_'ii. at 
 Vandalxi, ;J() m. from the capital, by which the 
 ))rovinpes of Aracan, Ye, Tavoy, ^lergul, and i>art 
 of iMartaban, were ciided to tlie Kriiish, together 
 wiih ij,()l)().i)(l(t rii|)ees to defray the (^x|icnses of 
 tli(! war; aiid the King of Ava ceased to have do- 
 minion over Assam, .lyiitea, t'atdiar, and Cassay. 
 In April', lfi.'!7, the I'rince of Sarawadi. brother to 
 the former king, seized the throne; jiut to death 
 or otherwise disposed of the courtiers who had 
 been opposed to him; aiul remove<l the seal of 
 governuieiil from Ava to Mouchobo. 
 
 Another dispute between the Ih'ilish govern- 
 ment in India and tlu! ruler of liinnali hioki; out 
 towards the end of the year |.s.")l. On tli('-_".i|li 
 of October, a ]>ritish naval force, arrivi^d belore 
 llangoon, and, after some delay, broke through llie 
 stockades, ami forced the passage of the river Irra- 
 wadi. Martaban was stormed on the iitli of April, 
 lH,j2, and thecity of Uangoonon the 1 !th of April. 
 On the 4th of .lune foUowing, I'egu was captured, 
 and on the 9th of July, I'nmie; and iboiigli both 
 had to be evaciuited soon after, they .vere recaji- 
 ture.d in October and Xovember. Finally, on the 
 2ltth of December, M'ri, by a iiroclamatioii ol' the 
 (iovernor-General of India, the province of I'egu, 
 Avhicli formed iiarl, of tlic Hirman enipin', was 
 annexed to the liritisli jtossessions. The icnniiia- 
 tioiiof the war with Hirinah wasiiroclaimed on llio 
 
 >?. 
 
468 lUUMAll (HIJITISII) 
 
 2(»th of June, 1863, by the Governor-General of 
 Indin. 
 
 IIII.'MAII (inMTFSll). SoelNi.iA. 
 
 ItlliMINGIiAM, n purl, bor,, nnil tlic principal 
 linnlwan; niuiiuractiiriii^; town of I'ji^land, co. 
 W'lir^vick, nt the NW. cxtrcniity of (lie co., mid 
 nearly in tliewntrc of tlie kingdom IH miles NW. 
 Covi'iitry; 57 NXW. Oxford; (I!) SSI'-. Mnn- 
 «lu'Nl('r;'l(l2 \W. London liy road, or 1124 "'• ''.V 
 Jjindoii and North WcHtcrn railway, of wliich it is 
 a principal stalion, 'i'lie pari. Iior., wlddi includes 
 till' contiguous townships of Aston and Kd^liaston, 
 extends over an area of IS.TWI acres, and had in 
 jKdl a jiop. of 7:i,('i7() ; in IKil, of 1 HMiHti; in IHII. 
 of iH2,!»2-'; in 1S51, of •_>a2,Hll ; and in IMCI, of 
 2!)ti,07(), iiilialiilin^ &!),(m;() houses, liinnin^hani 
 stands on midnlatin^ ground slopiiij; down to the 
 river Uca. The older jioriion of the town, in a low 
 situation, exhibits some curious sjieciinens of an- 
 cient domestic architecture. Ihit the more modern 
 ])art,oii hifjfhertfroinid, esjiecially the ceiitn; of the 
 town, contains nwniy mannilicent and costly build- 
 inj;s, a j^reat nnndier of spacious and well laiit out 
 streets, with houses, priiicipuUy of brick, though 
 many of tlmsc! more recently erected have sloin; 
 fronts. At a distance fheiipi)earau('e of iiirmin^- 
 luun is not )ire)iosse.'sinj,', from the immense num- 
 ber of tall chinnu'ys beloii;;iiij; to its various fac- 
 tories, the smoke with which tlu; atmosjdiere is 
 loaded, and the dirty blackened colour of the 
 buildings. 
 
 Amoiij;' the public l)uildiiif;s may be specilied 
 the town-hall, modelletl on IIk; temple of Jupiter 
 Stator at liome. It consists of a rustic basement 
 about 20 ft. in beij^ht, on which is raised a second 
 fitory havinj^ V.i Corinthian colunnis on each side, 
 and « in the principal front. It is built of brick 
 facc'd with Anj;;lesea marble, the cobtnnis bciiiK' 
 of the latter; len^jth externally, lit.) ft., width 
 1(12 ft., and height M.'> ft.: the j^rainl saloon, in 
 vbicli the musical festivals are lield, is a noble 
 apartment 110 ft. in leii;,^th, (io ft. in width, and 
 <!.> fi. in lieijj;ht, with a very powerful orj;an, and 
 sitliiif; room for about 4,0()O visitors. The market 
 liall is one of the tinest of its kind in the U. Kiu)^- 
 dom. Leiif^th 2(iO fi., breadth lOH ft., heij,rht GO 
 ft. The i'ree (irammar Scluxd referred to below 
 is amonj^st the finest jiuldic buildings in liirming- 
 liam ; and the i)ublic prison, the luiiiitic iisylum, 
 ticiiool of design, and general hospital, are all 
 worthy of notice. The churches and chapels are 
 ]inrticularly handsome; that of St. I'liilip, on the 
 nummit of tiie highest eminence in tint town, is 
 admired for its arcthilectural beauty; the church 
 of St. George, in the early English decorated style, 
 lias 1,100 free sittings; other notable churches are, 
 St. .Mary's, built in l^\7 ; the Holy Trinity, 15or- 
 ilesley, and St. I'eter's, nearly destroyed by lire in 
 l^;il,'lmt since restore(l. The barracks, erected in 
 17!);!, at the XK. extremity of the town, cost 
 1 ;!,000/. The theatre, on the site of similar fabrics, 
 burnt down in 1791 and 1820. isaliandsoinc build- 
 ing, well suited to its purjioses. The buildhigs 
 connected with the railway station cover and en- 
 close 20 acres of ground. There iire some very 
 tiujierior hotels and shops. A bronze statue of 
 Nelson, by Westmaeott, staiuls nearly opjiosite 
 the market-hall. 
 
 liirmingliam is but newly incorporated, and)iro- 
 viously to 1(J7() it was not even ii market town. 
 It was formerly governed by two cjnislables, a 
 liead-borough, a high and low baililf, with other 
 inferici officers chosen annually at the court leet 
 of t he lord of the manor. Under its present charter 
 of incorporation, granted in iM^nS, it is divided into 
 i;i wards, and is governed by a mayor, a recorder, 
 1() aldermen, and 48 eommon-couiii'ilnien. The 
 
 UIR.MINGIIAM 
 
 charter constitutes the corporate body n rmirt f 
 record for the borough, to !«■ hel.l (,u"\\V,ln,>,|.!v 
 lor the recovery of debts mider 20/. A n„iri r 
 (piarter sessions is, also, helil in it; and ii js ti',',, 
 seat of a CO. court. There is » board „( ,,111,,,,. 
 under a hical act. for tlui administraticpii of rcli,.| 1' 
 the poor. The streets are all paved, draincl, auii 
 lighted with gas. ' 
 
 Trior to J7.M. Itirmingham formed only nne 
 parish, and lor all civil puqioses is still n'. con 
 sidercd. In that year, however, a iiortioii of tlm 
 parish of St. .Martin was formed into that of st 
 riiilip; and in l82!t two other parishes wir." 
 formed, viz. St. (ieorge and St. Thdiiia!-. Tlic 
 census returns of I8(il enumerate fourteen ("mtIcm 
 astical divisions, the largest of which, St. rii,„n,i/ 
 had 27,1 17 inhabitants, and the smallest, St. [\u.r 
 4.;i.")(;. A number of district and other cliiinlics 
 have been built by the parliameiitarv eoiiuni^l 
 sinners with several <:hapels of ease. "Tlnrc arc 
 many jilaces of worship for Protestant dixMiii,r/ 
 Itonian Catholics, Swedenborgians, rre.-.liyti.|i,iii<' 
 rnitariiuis, and other dissenting bodiis. 'li,,! 
 Ivoman Catliolie cathedral, built by I'lmiii, and 
 consecrated in 18;i8, is a very large edilile.'wiil, 
 jialace and nnnnery attached. 'There are iniiMcnm-, 
 charitable institutions, both medical and ednni 
 tioiial. The (ieiieral Hospital, (Queen's lbis|,ii,'i|, 
 andtieneral Dispensary are Mi|iported liv volun- 
 lary contributions, legacies, and other dmiiitioiis. 
 The cost of erecting the General llos|iiiai ex- 
 ceeded 10,000/. It was begun iii 177(1, ami idin- 
 pleted in 1778; but in 17!ll it was eidar;;ec|ln- 
 the addition of wings : it is divided iiilo 11 wnnK 
 and h.Ms 105 beds, thieen's Hospital, (oinulcil iii 
 1840, was completed in 1817 at a cost of s.Tn;/. 
 The (ieneral Dispensary, instituted lor the im-' 
 dical assistance of poor, sick, and inidHiiiic 
 patients, at their own houses, was estalili^nd iii 
 17111. Itesides these benevident estaMi^llnl(■nl-. 
 there is an institution for the relief ol' IjudiK- 
 <lefoniiily, an inlirniary for diseases (d' fiu'eve.a 
 iMagcljilcii asylum and several sets uf aliiisliiiii.i<, 
 founded by W. Lencli in the reign of Henry Vlil. 
 
 The schools of ISirniingham are exceediiiLrK- 
 numerous. The twentieth report of the cliiniiv 
 commissioners contiiins 114 closely printed I'.ilio 
 pages, s<d(dy u|ion Ihecdiarities of the town. Tlic 
 graiiimar-scho(d was founded in l.'i.yj, -t'lir llm 
 education, in>titutioii, and instruction of luiysaml 
 youths in grainnijir,' and cnidowed with tlic nvi- 
 iiiies (if the ancient guild of the Ibdy t'rii»; 
 which, with those arising from other sciirio, 
 amount to from 8,00(1/. to'lO,000/. a year. It liiis 
 tell exhibitions of oO/. a year each. Tlicy iiiv 
 given i'or four years to the most (listiiij,'iii>l!..l 
 sch(dars, and are open to any college in ciilicr 
 university. The building attached t<i the sclmipl 
 having become nnseemly and dilapidatcij, tlic 
 governors were empowered by an act i<( IS.il in 
 ex]iend iJO,000/. upon a new and suitable scluml- 
 hoiise. Uixler the powers so given, Jlr. Itarry, tlio 
 architect of the new houses of i)arliaiiient, oriricil 
 one of the most complete and extensive strui'tiircs 
 of its kind in the United King<loni. The eliisi-ical 
 school is attended by about 240, and tlie cmiiiiuT- 
 cial by about 300 boys. It has also live liiaiiclicr 
 subsidiary schools to which girls as well as licys 
 are admitted. In the Wue-coat school (I'diiiiilcl 
 in the early part of the last century, and sM|i]ioriiil 
 by voluntary contributions, rents of liinds, iiiiil 
 I'linded stock), about oOO children of botli mm < 
 are taught writing, reading, sewing, and otlur 
 useful arts. The other principal schools are— the 
 Birmingham and Kdgbaston I'ro)irietary Scliccl ; 
 various National Schools; the I'rotestant l)i>sin- 
 ters' Girls' Charity-school, the Koyal Laucastriaii, 
 
15IIIMINGIIAM 
 
 4.yj 
 
 the Ft'ni.'ilo Lnncastrinn, niul Mailrn.<* Srlidol, on I licnvy iron f;iiiiil.><, nluTni.t tlio ))riiici|ml cxi.siing 
 tin- |iriiii'i|ilpH of Dr. Hell's systt'in.nnd St. I'liitip'M umnutiictiiri' of ltirriiiii};'li!iin is Imnlwiirc. The 
 liidiisiriiil School. Tlu-re iire iil.-^o infant, rii;,',i,'i'il, ; ^tFi'jit ;;rowlli of this iraiU' innv hn <l(it<'(l fnun 
 ■iikI Siinilav schools ; n school for deaf and dunih; j al»mt. 17l'i, at which I'lKich llic quantity <if |iin 
 iii'iilli';;i' for the education of yoiiii^; men, esta- iron made in i'.nnland ami Wales amounted to 
 |ill.>lieit hy till! Iiide|ienilents; a phitosojihical imly alioiit 17,(10(1 tons, whereas it has since in- 
 iii^titiitioii ; an athenu'inn, for the diU'usioii of , creased to at least l,'J(M).(MIO tons. The j^^rowtli 
 liuriilurt^ and science, ; ji society of arts ; and a ! of itirmin^^ham to its present hei;rht of opidi'iice, 
 iiiii'lianios' inslitnle. An important institution, felehrity and niMKnitiide, is principally ascrilndili! 
 calli'il f^icu's CoUetie, estalilished by suhscrip- | to the invaluahle resources of inm, stoiie, and coal, 
 ii,in,«'as incorporated hy royal charter in INII!, Iwilh which the district ahounds, aided hy the 
 
 improvements which have prof^ressivelv' heeii 
 etl'i'cted in the means of irausii, and in sonic 
 ile;,'ree also hy its freedom from corporation 
 re-.iraints. The manuliu'ture of the l;n-;;cr de- 
 scription of articles is carried on with iucreasinj; 
 vi^dur and elliciency. Most sorts of cast-iron 
 articles are nuide; and the lart;est manufactory 
 for steam eii;,'ines in tlu; world was otahlisheil 
 at Stdui, ill the immediate viiiuily of the town, 
 thou;;h in the co. of StalVord, liv lioulton, tli(! 
 partner ol'.iauu's Watt, the ^reat nnpri.ver of the. 
 slenm eM,i;iue, Tlie>e works consist of I Mpiares, 
 wiiii conuecliu'j; liulis of shops. 'I'hev are no!, 
 however, reslrictcd to the inaiud'aclnre of those 
 j;i;;inilic •stciim-lahourirs,' hut tilso ]iro(luce im- 
 mense (pumtilies of vases, candelahras, and other 
 descriptions of j,'oods in hron/.e. and or-niolu, of 
 excpusite workmanship, with articles of )ilale and 
 llirmin^hain wan; generally. At tliese works, 
 too, the principal l)ail of the copper C(>inai;<' of 
 the coinilry was wont to he executed. There are 
 many iron and hrass foundries in the neij;hl»our- 
 hood, and thi^re are metallic hot-house inamd'ac- 
 tories, Caslin;,', niodellin^^, (lic-sinkiuLj, en^iia- 
 vinj;, stainini^C and cuttin;;; ^lass, and many other 
 branches of manufaeiure, liave heen hroujihl to 
 j;reat ])erfeclion. 'J'liere are no means <if statin;^ 
 the total value of the articles produced, inasmuch 
 as I he manufacture of plated floods, which is carried 
 on in Shellield and l>inninj.;-ham, is one of those 
 branches of industry the iiroyress of which wo 
 have no means of ascortainin^j;. It appears, how- 
 ever, that the exports of hardware from Kn;;land, 
 principally from these two towns, have risen I'mni 
 less than a million to close upon four millions 
 sterliuf; in the course of "Jd years. The returns of 
 the Hoard of Trade j;ive tlu! exports specilied as 
 
 value of 
 ii.H(l!i,-_'.V)/. in 1X;V.»; of ;>.77(),(i(Ml/. in l^(l(); 
 ;J,l-'.),(il()/. in lUtil ; 9,;il(l,;;i2/. in l,s(12; and 
 of the value of ;!..s,i;i,|.|li/. in lt<(i;f. The value 
 of llie material, it is to be observed, in most of the 
 I!innin,i;ham floods, hears a viTV suiidl proportion 
 to that of the labour ex)icnded upon tliem ; as, Inr 
 
 tiirnislies complete courses of academical in 
 Mriiciion in laii^Mia^^'s ; natural, moral, and poli- 
 tiiiil philosophy : nu'dicine; civil-eii.i;nieerini; ; 
 l.iw, nnd theology. It occupies a handsome build- 
 in:,' (ippiisite the town-hall ; and has accommoda- 
 lidii liir seventy resident students, with nnisenms, 
 1111(1 libraries. liinninj^ham has two public libra- 
 ries, The old library, a neat structure, has about 
 ;m(| subscribers ; and u etdlection of books com- 
 iiri-iii},' upwards of ;!.j,()()(l volumes. The new 
 liliniry is a smaller buildin;,', containing about 
 lii.iiiii'i volumes. 
 
 Tliiiiif,'!' so distiiijLCuished by its population, iii- 
 (hislry, auil wealth, Ifirnrni;;li;nn did not, till after 
 llic piissilif; of the Keform Act, enjoy th(? jirivilen-e 
 III' st'iidinj;' re|ireseiitatives to the II. of (,". Hut 
 the siiilMte referred to put an end to this an<imaly, 
 iiiuU'iiiiti'rred on it the rij;ht to send '2 mems. to 
 |i:irliiini('nt. The ])arl. bor. coinprisi^s a coiisider- 
 iihliM'Xteiit of country, including' thg jiarishes of 
 IlirminKbaoi <»id I'-d^'baston, with the lutndels of 
 Ihritciid and llordesley and Dnddeslon cum 
 Nirliills. Pari, const, iii 1 1, :{:>(» in l«(il, bein;,'all 
 III/, householders. Animal value of jiroperly 
 a-.-('ssc(l to the poor rate, !).s,«,rj(;3/. in l«(;i. The 
 ammiiit assessed to property tax aveniyes l,;i(l(t,()(ll)/. 
 Tlii'^'ross annual value of real propertv, imdudiiij; 
 railways and canals, assessed to mcorue tax 
 miller Schedule (A) amounted to l,lOM,Gii-l/. in 
 1SJ7, and to 1, 2711,7^7/. in lS(l-.>. 
 
 Miinufaitiires. — As a )ilace of innnufacture P.ir- 
 niin^'liani has loni^ held an important ))osition, 
 ami lias never been snrpassed in the production 
 iil'iirtick's of in{,'ennity and utility: most articles 
 in ^iild, silver, iron, eo])per, br.iss, steel, mixed 
 incliils, and jjhiss, are )iroduced here, from the 
 iiiii.it tritiiiif; trinket to the most jiondenais and 
 
 I'liwxrfiil machine. Of the early history of its I ' hardw;ires and cutlery,' as of tlu 
 iiiaiiiifiicl ures we know nolhin;^' certain. It is 
 >ii|i]ii«'d, and with j^reat probabiliiy, to have 
 liirii the jilace where the arms with which the 
 larlv iiiliabitants defended their shores IVom the 
 iiivaikrs under Julius Ca'sar were mamifactiired: 
 a MipiHisilioii favoured by the I'aci of moulds i'or 
 >|iar, arrow, and axe heads luniii;^ been found i example, in ;be ariidi! of walch-spriiij^s, where 
 
 citliiT hi the neijihboiirhood, or at no ^reat 
 ili-tjiiice from it, added to the proof allorded by 
 ihc I'iKinnous mountain of calx or cinder which 
 l«irikTs on the parish of Aston, and with re|,,^'ird 
 1" wliich lliitton (Hist. Hiniiiiif;ham) remarks, 
 'i'riim an attentive survey the observer woiilil 
 MililiDse so prodigious a heap could not accimm- 
 laie in a liiiiidred generations ; however, it shows 
 110 iKTccptible addition in the age of man.' So 
 larbackas the 12th century it was noted for the 
 I'.iiiiiiig of leather; but "this branch of trade 
 l,Tailuully subsided, luitil at length it became all 
 I'ut extinct under the advance of other and more 
 ixtfiisive enterprises, so that in 17'.).'> there was 
 liiit one person who followed that ancient occiipa- 
 tiiin. Leiaiid, hi his ' Itinerary' (lo 1(1), describes 
 ilii' town as a jdace inhabited by ' smithes that 
 u.<wlto make knives and all manners of culling 
 iKilis, lorimers that make bitles, and a great 
 many nailours.' Previously to the revolution 
 ijtiliii) the articles chiefly niannl'actured were 
 
 the value of the raw material is not, a 
 ■.>(i(»,b(l(ltli jiart of the value id' the tinished article. 
 It is from tlie extreme subdivision of employnicut 
 that the superior skill of the workmen and the 
 excellenc(! of the manufacture is mainly deiliicible. 
 Of the pres<!nt manufactures, thai of muskets is the 
 most ancient, having been introduced in the reign 
 of William ill. Since that epoch this branch has 
 been gradually, but greatly, augmenting; and of 
 late years the m.Miufacture of fowling-iiieees has 
 been aiUled to it. Until the close of the gre;it 
 war with France, the government contract for 
 muskets extended, upon an average, to o(t,()()() per 
 month. On the cessation of hostilities, this de- 
 partment seriously declined; but it is still of 
 great value and importance. In 1)SI3 an act of 
 parliament was passed, re([iiiring the giin-makerH 
 to raise a proof-house ; in which, under a heavy 
 penalty, all lire-arms, after being subjected to a 
 severe test, are stamped by the masters and 
 wardens, luider whose inspection the business is 
 
400 
 
 BIRMINGHAM 
 
 comluotcd. SwonlH nlso nrc n iiriiicipnl nrlido of 
 inaiiiiCautiirn. In tlio aliovo HlfttiHticH of ox^HtrU 
 of ' liitriiwnrcH niut cutlery,' arniH niul ntniniiiiition 
 itru not inclii(l(Ml. Tliu value of llicsu cxixirts in 
 aliove two niillionH stcrliiij; per niiniini. '1 he ex- 
 ports of ' nmall lire-anns ' were of the value of 
 IM,->'.)71. in IM.-)1I; i(,JM,«l7/. ill IKiiO; 5l").;j(;i/. 
 in l«til; l,.')7;J,7tMi/. in IMi;-.'; and H.'>(i,(l()!»/. in 
 IMOJJ. It will he neon that the foreiijn tlenuinil 
 for these nrtiele.s is very tluctuntinf,'. 'I'lie metal 
 liutton anil buckle traiU^s were iutrmlueed into 
 ISinninf;liain shortly after the revolution, and con- 
 tinued to llourish for nearly a century, llut 
 these trades have heen f^n^atly iniiiaired ; ]>artly in 
 conseiinenee of the emij,'ration of arli/ans to tlu^ 
 (Jontinenl, who carried with llicni a kuowledj^'e of 
 the art, and pnrtiv, and principally, from changes 
 of fashion. The luilton mauiii'acture is still, how- 
 ever, extensive. The mainifacture of Florentine 
 buttons lias also been introduced, and is now ex- 
 tensively carried on. The decline of the buckle 
 nuunifa(.'ture may be dated from 17MI, at which 
 period shoe-ties bepm f;en('rally to be worn; and 
 niptwitlistandiii^ the ellorts of (icMirj^e IV'., when 
 I'rincc of Wales, to stem the tide of fashion, it 
 proved too St roiif; for him, and the manufacture 
 was (gradually, but completely, destroyed. The 
 iile-trade, which at one time flourished in JSir- 
 min^hnin, has nearly all t;one to Slietiield, in con- 
 sequence of the superior advaiita!,'e.-i jiossesscd by 
 the latter for that manufacture ; ■while, on the 
 other hand, and from a similar cause, nnich of the 
 lilatcd trade of Shetlield has mi^riited to iJinniuj,'- 
 liam. The making of silver pencil-cases is carried 
 on to a j^reat extent, and the innnbcr proiluccMl is 
 increasing every yvixr. The manufacture (pf pxiils 
 in brass, or brass-fouudin)^, introduced about 17-IH, 
 lias been (greatly extended and improved within 
 the jiresent century, and comprises a large number 
 of articles, both useful and ornamental ; including, 
 among others, lamps, chandeliers, candlesticks, 
 vases, fenders, lire-screens, handles for locks, doors, 
 knockers, and many other articles. It may, per- 
 haps, be now reckoned the stajile tradeof the town. 
 Of hmijis and chandeliers, liirminghiim has almost 
 the exclusive maiuifiictiire. In 1772, in conse- 
 (pience of the great ninouiit of her plated manii- 
 iactures, an act of parliament was passed, aiiiioint- 
 iiig wardens and an assay ma?ter. The tiuaiitity 
 of silver plate made is comparatively small. Like 
 silver, gohl is extensively used in gilding the 
 various articles before cniimeraled. Indeed, to 
 such a pitch had the art of gilding been carried 
 as early as the year 1818, that, according to liut- 
 ton, three iiennyworth of gold was sutlicaent to 
 cover a gross of buttons. There is a considerable 
 trade, too, in the manufacture of pins, and a still 
 larger one in the maiuifacture of steel pens. The 
 exact period when jiens made of steel began to be 
 Kiilistituted for quills is not known ; but down to 
 isiH, the manul'acture was coniined within very 
 narrow limits. Shice tjien, however, the quality 
 of the pens has been vastly inqiroved, and their 
 price very greatly reduced, and the demand has 
 in consequence been extended in a (k^gree not 
 easily to be imagined. It is stated that above 
 .')()tt,(JOO,()(JO pens are annually manufactured in 
 liimiingham. The art of making nails by hand 
 will keeps its ground; those so made beuig con- 
 sidered siqierior to those made by steam power. 
 Japanned articles, of great beauty and variety, 
 arc cxtens-ivcly manufactured. The best trays, 
 baskets, and other articles of similar descrii)tion, 
 are made of pupicr muchc, the manufacture of 
 which is very largely carried on. The glass trade 
 is also very extensive. 
 
 Mr. Burke said that liirmingham was the ' tov- 
 
 shoft of Knrope,' and the statement seems to lie 
 perlectly well founded. An immense (|iiuiuiiv „f 
 very beautiful articles, as seals, brooehes, cii^sp, 
 and other trinkets, are made of gold, silvor, r-iii 
 and plated metal, and polished steel. This \xl\,\^. 
 which has not existed more than liflv nr sixtv 
 years, has greatly increased within tlie'last iliin'v 
 years. The toy and trinket trade is astoiiisliiiii;|V 
 gniat ; and the transactions are often imineiisv in 
 articles of (Munparalive iiisignilicance. 
 
 The mannfactnring district, of which HimMn"- 
 liam is the centre, includes a considerable trmt ^i 
 the N\V, of the town, embracing the Hdiiilicru 
 jiart of Slatforilshire, with the extreme norilKrn 
 border of Worcestershire and a detached part of 
 Salop. Within this district are the pnpuldm 
 towns of iJiidley, Wolverhampton, IJilston, Wal- 
 sail, Wedneslniry, and JStiairbridgc. liKleinn. 
 (U'litly of the jirodiiction of the crude material, in 
 which most of these towns arc cxteiisivelv en- 
 gaged, ditlerent branches of the hardware liiami- 
 faclure arc carried on in them, an the nail ainl 
 japan-ware trade, bridles, and stirru)) iilatiin;, 
 coach and harness urnamcnt making, ami saij- 
 dlers' ironmongery. The japan-ware is movih- 
 confined to Ililston and Widverhampton, as is tlm 
 lock trade to the latter, and the muMUts' imi:- 
 mongery to Walsall, Wolverhampton, and Wivi- 
 ncsbiiry. Ihit all these dc)iartinents are carricil 
 on in Itinniiigham, though ntit to so great an ex- 
 tent a.s in these separate placcH, The iiiliabiiaiiis 
 arc distinguished by industry, ingenuity, and in- 
 vention. The mode of conducting l)iisiiics.H in 
 Jiirmingham has undergone a considerable cliaiyn 
 I'rom wlijit it formerly Wiis. There arc now Ijui 
 few large capitalists. With the exception of tin,. 
 Soho works, and a few other large mamifactDriu^, 
 the business is conducted on a small scale ui in- 
 numerable divisions. The system generally ai'tnl 
 upon is as foHows : — The workmen, each iii tlni,- 
 particular line, undertake to execute the (inicrs 
 received by the merchants and agents settled in 
 the town, which they accomplish by the followiii;' 
 means : A building, containing a great nunilKt 
 of rooms of diftcrent sizes, is furnished with ii 
 steam-engine. These rooms or shops being al! 
 su])|ilied with siiafts, lathes, benches, and such 
 other necessary conveniences as are requisite f.r 
 the work to be done ; and when an order is jfivcii 
 to one of these workmen to execute, lie hires 
 such one or more of these rooms as the occasion 
 requires, and stipulates for a certain amount nf 
 steam-iiowcr, an<l continues the occiqinnt of this 
 aiiartment till the order be (inished. (Porter, in 
 the Progress of the Nation.) h\ 17Hli there was 
 only one steam-engine at work, wliirli was if 
 2o horse-power, anil was used for griiiiliiis tioiir. 
 In 1803, there were ten engines, prmlucin^' Ii7'.i 
 iKprse-jiower, of which '2(50 horse-power was nsnl 
 ill manufactures. In 182;{, the number of eiijriiioi 
 was (It), the horse-power 1,222. In 1h;1,j, the iiuni- 
 bor of engines was Kit), and the horsc-imwir 
 2,7(10; of which 275 were used in griniiiii;' 
 tlour, 1,770 in working metals, 27!l in piim|>iii„' 
 water, 87 in glass grinding, 97 in workiiif; wi»«l. 
 4-1 in pajier-making, 37 in grinding chiy, lil 
 in grinding colours, and 50 in sundry other occu- 
 ]iations. In 184!t, the steam power empkiveil iu 
 the town was estimated as equiil to o,l()0 Iwrsis. 
 and, in 18tio, equal to 11,500 horses. Women aa- 
 extensively emidoyed in polishing the gimiis :" 
 the glass toy branch, and in all jiartsof the iiii'.iiu- 
 factures of the town except brass-foiiiuliiif,', 1«';' 
 are principally engaged by the out-wnrkmeii iiiul 
 unjerlakers, as apiirentices ; and receive a ]*- 
 gressivc ainouiit of wages, varying from iis,to !".'■ 
 jicr week, according to their ages and occllllatiou^; 
 
 they get their 
 
 wi>rk ill the h 
 
 small niaiiiifai 
 
 tiiiu'.". The CI 
 
 whiili', favour 
 
 average of the 
 
 are HIP very vi 
 
 el' Ipiittons, a f. 
 
 —as, the piei 
 
 \i\Wr, and th 
 
 lireiit wages; i 
 
 The town p(i 
 
 niih iiiiiiieroiis 
 
 iiiite.i of the lia 
 
 hi till' town. 
 
 liiniiiugham 
 ilay-liiMik, in \ 
 niitite if the pi 
 liistiirv, ])reviii 
 extreiiicly nbsi 
 Cliarles l'„ lit til 
 H'iiiii'ly any : 
 niiiiiari'ii it tool 
 warmly defeiidc 
 nrlCCii, the jilji 
 III 17!ll, high , 
 liiivo been \-fcry 
 iirisoii out of a'l 
 i'lviiili revoliiiic 
 iiii'iuiiiiigthelioi 
 hat then obiiox 
 liutton, (he hist 
 aniuiiiiiing to (Jo, 
 llie slitl'erers bv 
 of prosperity oi" t 
 years ago, with i 
 nilway sysfc'in. 
 l.'aiiway, now oik 
 the kiiigiiiiin, m-,%s 
 ill lN)i). It was ( 
 The next line con 
 Ji'iiiiway, meeting 
 ai\\'arriiigt()ii, ,if 
 miiisjlinm to Mai 
 htter was ojiene 
 iJinningliani is no 
 way travelling. I 
 ixiiis hy the (Jrea 
 ti> -(J hours, and 
 liOniik's— in abo 
 Huliliii ill from 1 
 Wffh and Glu.sg 
 Jliirkets on Mmuh 
 ami fairs on the '1 
 "II the TJnirsday r 
 Mttle, sheep, i,oi 
 ->"lwitlistaiiding 
 furnaces and forge; 
 til the drv sandy s 
 nciitly s.alubrious. 
 tile nimilior of the 
 i'ivcqiDol or Mane 
 in the vicinity, su 
 fwerasjiace of 14 
 Mill out. Themes 
 ■Ife Hagley, the se 
 '!ist.iiit; Enville, t; 
 '«;aiKltIieLcasoA 
 " miles distant. 
 
 lilSACCIA, a zi 
 •^vellino, on a hill, 
 '•'Wi. rop.'i,540ii: 
 f "'••>" '"'-^Pital, an. 
 01 the ancient Ifon 
 •^•- rap. 17). The! 
 frnicrly the seat, 1 
 •"«c4o de' Lo.-nbart 
 
H1.«^ACCIA 
 
 ihfV fTf t llifir fooil nt linmo, nml in Homn iiii-l.'inoPH 
 wiirk ill llii' Ik'II'O''* "I" III* ir li'irciits. .Sonic nl' tlic 
 jiiiiill niiiiiiifiul livers liiivc lu'ciiiiiiiliitcil ]i\rj;c lor- 
 tuiii'.". "»' I'omlili'ii' "I 'li*' wiirk|iniiilc is, on tin' 
 whuli", )'iivouriil)li'. It. in ini|io.Msil>le lo pvu iiii 
 aviriW*' <il'f''<' wa^^i'n (luid in (lillVTciit tradcM, tlu'V 
 ye Hovcry viirious; for iiiMtancc, in the mnkiiiK 
 (if liiittoim, n ifTviit nninlKTot' liiimls nr« cmiiloyi'tl 
 —a.", tiic iiicrcer, the cutter, the stiinnifr, tlu' 
 I'ililcr, aiul tti(! Inirnislii-r — who nil rccoive (lil- 
 tVrciit wa;,'i'.s ; ami so also in the other (Icpartinfiits. 
 Tlie '""n )(oss('ssc's live larK<'.i'>iiit-.-<t<i<'k banks, 
 villi iiiMiioroiis IxMlifs of |iro|iri('tors. They issiit- 
 null's (if thu IJaniv of England, which has a brancli 
 ill ilic town. . . , ^ 
 
 r.inniii^'lmni IS of };rcat nntuiuit}'. In Donios- 
 iliiv-lioiik, in which occurs tlio lirst aiithcniic 
 iiiilicc if the jilacc, it is s|iclt l>crnicii)icliani. Its 
 lisldi'V, itrcvioiisly to tlic Norniiin coinincst, is 
 fxtrciiu'ly oliscnrc. Inilccd, iiiilil the liiiio cf 
 Cliiirli's i.. little is rccoideil of it, and lliat litll" of 
 fiMivily any interest. In thi^ reit;ii of tliiil 
 miiii.irili it toiik the siiU; of tlur I'ailiaincnt, and 
 iviirnily defended the cause it e,-|ioiiseil. In ICiil.") 
 i,r ICiliii, llu^ jiliiiCiie coininitted frifililfiil ravaijes. 
 In 171H, hi^c'i church and Tory |ioIitics sccin to 
 liave lieeii very iirevaleiit; and a riot havinj; 
 iiriM'n imt nf a festival in coniinemoratioii of tlio 
 Faiu'li rcvohitioii, nnidi iiro|irrty was dcsiroycd, 
 iii/liiiliiif; tlie houses and lilirarii's of (hecelclirated, 
 lull llicn obnoxious, Dr. I'riestley, and of Mr. 
 llutteii. the historiiui. 'Die loss on this occasion, 
 animiiitinf; to (!(!,( 101 >/., was partially made j^ood to 
 the sulVerers by Act of J'arl. The threat increase 
 of )ir(is|ierit3' of the town commenced, about forty 
 vwirs Dpi, with the estaljlishnient of the modern 
 railway systi^ni. The London and Jiinninjiltam 
 lliiihvuy, "now one of the most imporlant lines in 
 till' kiiij^doni, was built by a company incorporated 
 in \K>ii. It was opened throughout Sept. 2n, Ifi.'ifS. 
 Tlip next line constructed was the tJrand Junction 
 Hallway, niectiiif; the Liverpool-Manchfster line 
 at Warriiifiton, after which the railway from I'.ir- 
 iniiii;liam to IMauchester came to be built. The 
 latter was ojieneil throughout in Aui^'ust, 1HI"2. 
 llinniiiftham is now become a gr.ind centre of rail- 
 way travelliiifi;. It communicates with the metro- 
 [Hilis by the Great North-Western line in from 3 
 to 4^ hours, and by the Great ■\Vestcrn — distance 
 120 miles — in about the same time ; as also with 
 Dulilin in from lOJ to 13 hours, and with Edin- 
 liiirgh ami Glasjrow in from 9 to 10^ hours. 
 Markets on Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, 
 ami fairs on the Tliursdav in VVhitsun-wcek, and 
 on the Thursday next before iMichaclmas-day, for 
 cattle, slioo]), horses, and liardwarc (:;cne"rally, 
 Xoiwithstaiidinj; the smoke of its innumerable 
 furnaces and forfjes, liirmingham, owinj;, [icrbajis, 
 til the <lry sandy soil on which it stands, is emi- 
 nently salubrious. The deaths, in jirop.ortion to 
 the immlier of the inhabitants, are fewer than in 
 Liveqiool or Manchester. The botanical gardens 
 in the vicinity, supported by public subscription, 
 C'lvcr a sjuice of 14 acres, and are extremely well 
 lalil out. The most celebrated seats in the vicinity 
 are Hagley, the .«eat of Lord Lyttleton, 12 miles 
 ilistant ; Enville, the seat of the' Earl of Stamford, 
 If ; and the Lcasowes, the creation of Sheustone, 
 6 miles distant. 
 
 lilSACCIA, a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Avdlino, on a hill, 12 m. XE. St. Angelo dc' Lom- 
 I'arui. Pop. (i,o40in 18(il. It has several churches 
 and an hospital, and is supposed to occupy the site 
 •if the ancient Komnlea, mentioned by Livy (lib. 
 X. cap. 17). The bishojiric, of which IJisjiccia was 
 fmierly the seat, has been united to that of St. 
 Aiiyclo de' Lo.'nbnrdi. 
 
 r.ISCAY 
 
 461 
 
 lUSrAHI, n town of Soiilhont Italy, island of 
 Sicily. )irov. Syracuse, 10 m. N'W. Modica. 'I'he 
 iiopnlalioii is declining. There were about ll.noii 
 niliabilanis at the bet^Miinin^ of llu^ century; 2,117 
 in 1h;1I, and l,'.il.j in l.s,')7. The town is of mo- 
 dern date, hnviufrbeen founded in the l.jthcenlury. 
 
 mSCAY, a district in the N. of Spain, coin- 
 jirisin^ Itiscay I'roper, (iuipuzcoa, and Alava, the 
 three Ilasipie provinces, called by the Spaniards 
 Pais Vasconpidas, bein^ jiurt of the Human jirovs. 
 of Vascumin and l.'antabria. These provs. extend 
 from 1° W to 3° 20' W. loiif,'.. and from 12° 2o' lo 
 '1.')° 27' N. lat,, having; E. France and Navarre ; \V. 
 and S. Itur^jos, and other parts of Old Castile; and 
 on tlie N. the Hay of Uiscay, Their mean length 
 is alioiit till III., and their breadth about r>0 in. 
 Area. 2,',t7l \'.»ii\. s(|. m. The country may be 
 considered as a ]iroloiif;ation of tli(^ declivity of thi! 
 ryrenees to the boundaries of Castile, It is broken 
 into highly pictun >ipie );lcns ami valleys, inter- 
 spersed with siiiiie I'eriile plains. The ilistriel has 
 marble of various colours, lime and sandsioiie, a 
 ]inifiisi"ii of iron ore, and some copper and jiypsiini 
 of ^cihmI (pialiiy, as well as salt-mines, ami saline 
 and siilpliiiroiis coM and hot springs. 
 
 The subjoined table shows the area of each of 
 the three prii\inees, loj;etlier with the iio|iulation, 
 according lo the census of IBlt), and of May 
 1«57 :— 
 
 Prorlncoi 
 
 Ana III til. m. 
 
 1.(182 
 1,'.'(I7 
 
 an 
 
 Pop. 1840 
 
 07,523 
 
 llM:m 
 
 I(»J,1!I1 
 
 Pop. 1857 
 
 Kill,.'-.-!* 
 lW,VJ:i 
 
 313,470 
 
 Alva , . 
 IJIscay . . 
 Ciiiiinisuoa 
 
 Total 
 
 2,071 
 
 283,450 
 
 The largest of these three provinces, Biscay 
 Proper, or the lordslii]> of liiscay, has on the X, 
 the ocean; on the E. Cinipu/.coa ; on the S. Alava 
 and Old Castile; and on the W. also Old Castile, 
 l/niler the new division of Spain, made by the 
 Cortes in 1822, it forms jiart of the province of 
 IJilbao. The city and territory of Ordiifia, which 
 are insulated by Alava and Old Clastile, belDiig to 
 it. Bilbao is the seat of government; and tlierc 
 are also iJurango, Gnernica, Halma-seda, and a few 
 other small towns. Some of the mountains look 
 as if they consisted of a congeries of hills heaped 
 on e.icli other, (iorvega is of this description : it 
 has, on its summit, a considerable extent of h;vel 
 land. Principal rivers, Xcrva, Ansa or Ibaizabal, 
 Ciidagna, Mundaca, and Lequeitio. The coast is 
 abrupt, and (lee|i]y indented bj' bays formed bv 
 the months of the rivers, and by a number of small 
 harbours. The iron mines, which arc frecpient, 
 and jmiduce some of the best metal hi Europe, |iar- 
 ticnlarly that at Somorrostro, the ore of which 
 yields above a third part of iron. According to 
 Antillon, the annual produce of this mine used to 
 be MM),t)(l() (|uintals. Climate humid, but not in- 
 sa'nbriou.s. Houses good, and conveniently built; 
 the upjier parts, wiiich were anciently of wood, are 
 now of stone. There arc many very ancient cha- 
 teaux, mostly flanked with strong towers, that 
 behnig to the heads of families. With the excep- 
 tion of the towns named above, and a few others, 
 the inhab. live dispersed in cascrios of live or si.-c 
 houses each, wit h lands attached, which are mostly 
 cultivated by the owners, in whose families they 
 have remained for centuries, it being reckoned dis- 
 creditable to jiart with the paternal propertv. 
 AN'here land is hired, the rent, which is paiil in 
 money, nsnall}' amounts to about a third part of 
 the value of the produce. The soil is mostly a 
 stilV clay, and would produce little but pa.stnrago 
 I or wood, were it not for the patient iiidusiry of the 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
4fl2 
 
 IJISCAY 
 
 inlmliitnntH, wlio hronk it ii]i with a PiirioiiMly 
 t*liii|)0(l iiii|i1(')n('iit cnllcd a /«//"; Itiit in liKlitcr 
 HolN. wlicrc wliciit only is (imwii, llii'v iimc n ulriiiifi- 
 |ili)ii'(l). Ax iinililt' iiniil ix Hcarci', tlii>v lirciik ii|i 
 |)iilrlics KM the mI()|i<'s ol'tlic iiiimiilniii'*, wlicri' tlic 
 j,'i'()uii(l, not hi-'uni (lc('|) (>ni)ii;;li for I lie f^rowlli uf 
 liirfif trt'cs, i.s cdvcrcil wilii lliick HJiruliH. TIicmi' 
 tlicy f;nili ii)) niiil liiini, and spri'iulin^r out tlic 
 nHlicM, fTi't fertile crDps of wlie/it llic (Irsl tiirc(^ 
 yenrs; Imrli-y.dr rve, lliefiiiirt)i; tlax, llie(it\1i; and 
 Ki"'<l |ia>^liira^'(' till tlie fiminid Itc a;;Hiii overf,'rciwn 
 liy liraiiililcH, They do imt. however, iiotwitlintaiiil- 
 iiij; llieir industry, reap jrraiii eii(>ii;;h for their coii- 
 siini|itioii, Imt .supply the dedeieiiey liy iiuporta- 
 lioiiN t'roiii Alava, Next to aKrieiiltiire", tlu^ chief 
 cniployineiit of the peasuiilry is in the making; of 
 charcoal for the iron foinidries, from the wood cut 
 ill the forests, with which the sides of the inouii- 
 
 (Jnipiizcon yirldH to no part of Spnin in tli 
 mnK"'lii'''"''<' "•' its ecclesiastical and other liiiil,r 
 iiiKs. The roads are wcdl paved, ami kepi {„ „,„ ,, 
 repair; the inns coniniodions, and well eoii,|i|^|,,,'| 
 Cliinale soft and temperate; hut. like the etliir 
 provs., it is suhject to heavy rains and violiin 
 storms, hoth in summer and winter. The i.mv 
 produces most kinds of grain and oiIut nen.J 
 sarics, hut not in nearly suHicieiit f|imnilties f,,, 
 tlie supiiort of its iuhah. Fruits and other imtiird 
 products nearly the same as in Hiscav. The ij.ii 
 includiiif; salmon, are exc<dleiit; and" tiiiinv. mvs' 
 and sardines, are snp|ilieil to the iiei:ri,i„',|irj|„; 
 provs. The nr'MX'*' though iiidilVerent, hirnisil 
 the lij;ht wine called rli)ir<iH, A ti<««\ ijeid ,,|' 
 cider is also produced. The f;rowih of liinlier in 
 the woods and plantations is not ecpial to i|ie ,.,„, 
 sum|iliou of the iron works. A{,'riciilture iiearlv 
 till' saiiK^ as in liiscav. 
 
 tains are covered. These contain plantations o 
 ex((dlent white oak. and in the jjrieiis and valle>s I [ron may he hail in any quant itv. Aecdrilin- 
 are numerous groves of giafled chesliiiils, which ' to Alitilloii (( Je'ographie I'hysi(pu'. ]i. 8,")), 1110,11110 
 furnish a I'onsiih'rahle an icliMifexport. Tliegnipes I ipiiiitals used to he aimiially wrought up inii, 
 are not good: there is a great iirofii^ioii of apples. | hinges, nails, horse-shoes, hollers, kilejicn inen^ij, 
 with pears, cherries, tigs. itc. Caltle siiiall and ' arms, anchors, working tools, A'c. Tliev inukc 
 liiirdy: shee|) dilliciilt to rear, fi'oui Iheir getting ; also, lishing tackle, riggiiirr. laiiiied leallier.cd.ir-i' 
 nitaiigKil in the hniinhles ; the wilil hoar is occa- : clodis of goafs' hair, coarse liiieu and Miil-iliii|. 
 
 Ship-liiiilding has lost itsadivity. hiil some vom'K 
 are (Itted out for the cod and whale llsheries. 
 
 (luipiizcoa imjiorts what grain it wniiis Irem 
 Alava; wine, from N'avarre and IJioja; soap, ejl. 
 flax, itc, from Castile ami An.lalusia. wooHins! 
 cottons, cloths, silks, jewellery, and articles el' 
 
 sioiially seen, as are wolves iuid hears: tie nigh 
 hotli are very rare, especially the last. I'ish iiiuin- 
 daiit and exeellenf. 
 
 The staple hiisiiiess of niscay Projier, and the 
 other two provs., is tlie maiinlacl lire of iron, which 
 is made into a great varietv of tools and imiile- 
 
 inents; hut owing to the suspension of work in j fashion, from Ijigland, Hollamj, and iMvince. |i 
 the royal arsenals, the loss of the Aniencan colo- exports little native produce hut iron, lianlwarc. 
 liies. and the inlrodiiclioii of foreign iron, as well as I and IVnifs; Imt wool, and somefiines eorii. ^irc 
 the long wars of which this coiiiitrv has lieen tlu^ ! Iiroiighf from the interior to its port for sliipiiuiii, 
 theatre, this iinportanf hraiich of iiidiistrv has ' P'orinerlv, it had a considernhle coasting trade ti> 
 greatl.v fallen oil'. The S|);inish Acadeinv of Ilis- | tlie shores of the llediterraneaii. ami a large slmre 
 toiy say that, in 1H02, when their ai'coiint of i of the whale lishery ami the cod li.-hery at Xcw- 
 lliscay was compiled, there were |si) iron works, [ foiindland. The faimais Caracas Coiiipiiny eri::!- 
 
 iiafcd here. Its commerci! has falleii nil' mikv 
 IHOi). Jieiug a frontier jirov.. it admits the mviil 
 troops to garrison its strong posts. (Diceioiriri.i 
 jior la Acadeniia, i. JJ'Jl ; Miiiaiio, iv. ; Aiifillon, 
 p. H5.) 
 
 The third and smallest of the three province?, 
 
 jiroiiiicing anmiallv KO.IKIO ipiintals of iron, of 
 1.").") Ilis. each, which, when Minaiio wrote (If*!'!!"), 
 ■were reduced to 117 works, yielding only I"),n0() 
 qiiiiifals. Cop)ier hollers were also made at I'al- 
 maseda. and factories for cordage and rigging, 
 made of hemp hrought from Aragon and N'avarre, 
 
 were estahlished in various jiarts; and tanneries I Alava, has the seigiiory of Hiscav and (!iiipiizi'<i;i 
 at I?almaseda and Bilhao; hut tliesp, also, arc ' on the X.; Xavarrc on the K. ; ami Old Castilo, 
 much fallen off. The other manufactures are those I from which it is divided hy the Khro, on tlic S. 
 of coarse porcelain, table and other household linen, : and W. It now forms a principal part of tlm 
 line and coarse liats, hrazierv, carpentry anil I ]>rov. of Vittoria, the name of its chief t'lwn. The 
 joiners' and cahinet work, straw and rush chairs, ■ other towns are Salvatierr.i, Lecpiiana. and (liim- 
 tallow candles, A-c. The yieoide near the coast ; boa. It is snrroimded and intersected hy meiiii- 
 occiijiv themselves a good deal in fishing, and the i tains, similar to those in the other Itascpio prnvs., 
 exports of dried lisli are sometimes verv consider- ! and afi'ording the same pro(lnct,s of iron,hlaek am 
 able, (l)iccioiiario ])or la Keal Academia, ii. 487 ; 
 Mifiano. x. -ll-M.) 
 
 The secmid largest of the three llasnne pro- 
 vince's, (.luipiizcoa, has the seigiiory of 15isca,v on 
 the \V. ; Alava on the S. ; Navarre and the lii- 
 
 (lassoa, which separates it from Fra'U'e, on the K. ; fogs, and mists ; but it is healthy, and the inliali. 
 
 and the liav of ]}iscay on the N. Since 1&22 it 
 has been called the prov. of St. Sebastian, The 
 country is rough and mountainous. The highest 
 tnmnitain on the frontiers of Alava rises 1,K(I() ft. 
 above the sea, and contains some salt mines and 
 saline si^rings. The prov. is watered h.v the Dcva, 
 Urola, Oria, Ac, and the IJidassoa, which all run 
 N. into the liay of IJisca,v. The coast is rocky, 
 and the ports insecure, with bars at their entrances, 
 except I'as.nges, which has deep water, and is 
 spacious and well fortified. At Mondragon, on 
 tlie iJeva, is a celebrated iron mine; the ore yields 
 no less than 40 per cent, of metal. At Yergara is 
 a cidlege, where the young nobility arc edncateil, 
 and other useful institutions. On the N. of this, 
 at riaccncin, is a royal manufactory of lire-arms. 
 
 red marble, g,v))sum, &c. They are covered with 
 oaks, wihl apple trees, thorns, box, yews, limes, 
 hollies, Sic, 'ihe crops of grain exceed tliiMleni.wd 
 of the iiiliab. Climate cold and (laniji, with hm^' 
 winters, frcfpient and bcavy rains, snow, fmsis, 
 
 strong and long-lived. Agriculture is the chief 
 pursuit. In some parts they plough with oxen, 
 as in Navarre ; and in others, use the Iw/a, as in 
 ISiscay and (iiiipuzcoa, weeding the ground re- 
 peatedly till it looks like a garden. The irmi' 
 works are greatly reduced in consequence of the 
 destruction of the forests which supplied them 
 with fuel, and of the weight of the duties jiaiil mi 
 iron taken into Castile. Themanufactoricr ,.f hatN 
 shoes, boxes, &c., are also in a stn*e . i -y; hul 
 agoodmany handsare oecupiedin . '.. ir.raiufaefiirc 
 of table linen and coarse cloths. Tliey also make a 
 good deal of salt. (Uiccionario por la Acadeniia. 
 i. 13; Jlinano, i. .54; Antillon, p. 92; Juiimal nf 
 the Hritish Legion by a Staff (MHcer, p. 155.) 
 The Basques have a peculiar langiingc, wliicli 
 
niHOAY 
 
 AM 
 
 |nr/,i'n;i 
 
 tlic S. 
 (if till' 
 
 Ci 
 
 rn. 
 
 Tlie 
 il (iam- 
 iii<mii- 
 lircivs,, 
 iliu'k and 
 rwl with 
 linv'S. 
 (U'nianil 
 itli \'<K 
 w frnsis. 
 e inlial>. 
 lie c'liii'f 
 h oxen, 
 i/a, US in 
 iiiin\ rc- 
 he irmi- 
 
 C (if till' 
 1(1 tllCIll 
 
 paiil I'll 
 sfliatN 
 -y ; bill 
 u'factiirc 
 1) niaki' a 
 adcniia. 
 unial of 
 
 1"5.) . , 
 [0, whu'li 
 
 rxlrn tnxps imponoil diirinR thn Fronrli invn- 
 ^\in\ were Miv^ riTiimli'il lo tlio rimiriliiitnrH. 
 Fi)r('i;,'ii('rs, imt of tlic Cailiolif ri'lii;ii)n, caminr 
 fsiiilili'li itii'iiiM'lM's ill niiy line <it' husiiicss in 
 tlic llisciy |pr(pviii('cs, (liiccinimriii ticdjjniliin 
 |iiir III Itt'iil Aciulcinin dc la llisdiria, Muilriil, 
 jMi).!, ii. ISH-MO; i:i iMicn. |'rivilc!,'i<w. Ar., iln 
 Vizcaya, Mciliim ili'l ('ain|)(i, li')7.">; Spain, I'a'-t 
 and I 'resent, Monthly Clironiele, NViVcinber, 18;]is, 
 |..lli>.) 
 
 'Pile Hisenynns hoincc devoted to n(,'rlpuUiire, 
 navipition, and CDinmerce, and linvin^' little in- 
 eiliiality of (•oiidiliiui. posseHs those virtues that aro 
 seMoin found nnited with ease and riches ac- 
 (piired nitlioiit toil. 'I'liey are hoiioiirahle, hrave, 
 elicerful, and courteous, without lieiii}; mean. 
 They are also docile, when well treate(l; hiil. if 
 rouse(| hy ill-usa<j;e. are sliilihorii and inllcxilile. 
 Ill ireueral. they retain the dress, customs, and 
 Niinplicity of luaiiiiirs, as well as the insiiiiilioin 
 of the l:Uh ceuliiry; and jiriile themselves on 
 their independence, and the nntiipiity of tin ir 
 liiiea;;('. 'Hie women, who are rohust, assist tlm 
 men in their severe-l lahonrs. Not only the in- 
 door, hut the oui-door. Work of (he house is donci 
 liy female servants; and even seuoras, delicately 
 hroujrht up. may lie '^(•(■n in llieir walks clinihiiii; 
 the riM'ks with no other pro(cc!ioii than a jiarasoj. 
 (I)iccionario por la lieal Acadcmia, ii. iKt; Mi- 
 Tinno, i. ."i".'<I.) 
 
 Thev are vcrv fond of dancin;r. and assenddc 
 every Sunday atleruoou to enjoy that amusement. 
 Sonic of their dances are of a j^rave, majestic, and 
 eeremouioiis characler; other-', j^ay and lively. 
 They also dclii;lii in hull-li;;hts. and |ilay nuich at, 
 a LfaiiK^ with a l)all, calle(l pc/dtn, lor which ituhlii; 
 s. to vote the supplies, and to determine the j siles arc everywhere ajiproprialed. At their wed- 
 
 i, uniloii'if f 'llv orjrrent nntiquity. T^'clusp, in liis 
 
 'ilranittiaire (lasipie,' endeavours to trace it to the 
 
 llilircw, ns ft dialect of the I'lni'iiieiiin. hrouy;ht to 
 
 I'liflliaite. mid thence lo Spain; and attempts liy 
 
 it< nieini'* •" interpret the speech of llainio in 
 
 I'lautiis! From the supposed prevaleuc(>of llasqiie 
 
 iwnit's "f mountains, plains, forests, rivers, iiihI 
 
 i„\viis ill every part of Spain and rorlii^al, it has 
 
 l,.,ii coiicUideil that the Hus(nies once jiervaded 
 
 till' hIii'N' peiiiiiMiilft. They have no alphahet of 
 
 tlii'irewii, hnt learned men write the laiitiiiaKe 
 
 wiili lldinan letters. Its chief characteristics are 
 
 In :.iniilarity to the Ilunptrian and Turkish, in 
 
 il* inversion' of the; order of its particles, and its 
 
 iiiinaralleled variety of verhal inllcclions. 'I'heir 
 
 „iilv iMioks are the New Testament, printed at 
 
 liiiilicile in li')71, some devotional tracts, cate- 
 
 diisms, national poetry, dictionaries, and vocalm- 
 
 liirirK, They count hy twenties up to a hundred. 
 
 aiiil!<pcni oriniually to have had hut three days in 
 
 tliiir wi'ck. there not hein;; ancient niniies for 
 
 niiiri', I'cw natives, exci pt I he ;;eutry, know any 
 
 liUt'iiiifte other than the liaM|Ue. Il is also 
 
 >l,iik(ii. with some variation, in ]iart of NaNarre, 
 
 a* well as iiv the French Ihixpics, (hcclii-^e. 
 
 'uramniairc liasfpie, p. •>. :i, II. --Ml, ■_•«, -Ji;); W. 
 
 llMinlieldl. I'rllfiinn- der L'ntersnchun^^iii ilher die 
 
 Irlicwdlmcr llispaiiiens.) 
 
 Tilt' p)vernnient of these |irovincps has had. 
 frmii the earliest limes, a rcpnhliean form. 'I'lie 
 ]iiii|il(M'lioos(' the memhers of the iii/initaiiiiviitus, 
 nr umnieipiil corporations, who. a^'aiii, (deet the 
 ilcliiities to the iiroviiicial assemhlies, which meet 
 (viTvtwo years in lliscay, once a year in (iiiipu/.- 
 f(i;i. ami twice n year in Alava, to provide for the 
 iiitcriiir ndminisiration of their respective jiro 
 TiiicO; 
 
 a|i|irii|iriation of the money ji'ranted. F.ach as- 
 smililv chdospH ft maijistraie, in whose hinids the 
 fxnutivc jioworis placed when t\\i' juntas are not 
 Miiiu^', and who tre.ats on e(iuftl terms -vviih the 
 wm/iV/orcs, <)r amliussadors, apjioiiiled hy the 
 kiii;;iif Simin to reside in each jirov., hut win 
 
 (liii;;s they dis(har;;'c j;uns and pistols, on entering 
 aiiii ([uilliuu' the church. Some villa;;('s distrihiite 
 hn ail and cheese, wine and waluuls. at their I'nuc- 
 rals ; some hep,' money for masses for the soul of 
 the deceased. They arc sober, hut are fond of 
 f^ood liviiii;'. They dress with a hlue cap, ri'd sash, 
 nius^t not," on any ncc'ount, he natives of these I and til/iiiniatr.i, or hempen sandals, tieil < • with 
 ITiivinccs, nor exercise any authority in them. | hlne or red rih.'iuds; and in wet wcnither, c.t//,. "//o.v, 
 Tlic peiiple (ilioose, alsii, the tax-collectors, and | or hrof^iies of hide. The women dress as in Cas- 
 |i;iv tlioir civil ollieers moderate salaries for their tile ; tluMnarricid wear a thin muslin hftndkerchicf, 
 
 tied on the head, like the Irish ; the girls wear 
 their hair hraided down their hacks. There are, 
 theatres at Uilhao ftiid Vittoria, where plays and 
 operas are performed ; and the ujiper classes follow 
 the fashions of France and the rest of ICurope, 
 (I)iccionurio por la Keal Acadeinia dc la llistoria, 
 i. i>'i(!; Bowles, p. 80(1; lIcMining.son's Campaign 
 
 mmccs. Their taxes nre light, and levied ac- 
 (Mriliiif,' to a valuation, which is frc(|nently modi- 
 tinl. Their ancient privileges, or fiieros, order 
 ihat tlicy shall not be taxeil hy the Spani.di go- 
 ummoiit. except in a small sum. paid by <ini- 
 fiuzcoR aiul Alava, continuing at about 51(1/. ster- 
 ling', the amount jiaid in the Mtb century. Hut 
 lii<cay is free from this, and l)ays a larger sum 
 every four or live years under the name of ^/ohu- 
 (Iro, (ir gift. They have no monoixdies nor ciis- 
 tura-luiuscs, every article being imported duty 
 free. They are also free from the conscription and 
 imiircssmciit, to which every other part of Spain 
 i>sal>i(?ci; hut, in case of foreign invasion, they 
 ate lidund to defend tlieir frontiers without the 
 king's troops. Another of their important )irivi- 
 k'h'cs is that of being exempted from torture, or 
 ilireat of torture, direct or indirect, on any ]>rc- 
 wice whatever, within Bisciy or out of it. (Fuero 
 ^it. Ley, xii.) On the other hand, they have 
 always been prohibited from trading directly with 
 llio Spanish colonies, and are shut out from a free 
 trade with the rest of Spain, by heavy duties and 
 a line of custom-houses all along the Khro ; and 
 arc also obligee' to resort to the court of chancery 
 at Valladolid, i'or the decision of their lawsuits. 
 Tlieir financial system seems to have been well 
 managed, shice the jjriee of the Alava il per cent. 
 ilflit, Wfore the breaking out of the iires-eut civil 
 wr, was 93 ; and in Biscay and Guipuzcoa, the 
 
 in Xavarre ami the IJasque Provinces, j). 72.) 
 
 Little is known of the early history of the 
 Basques before the time of the Ifonians, or during 
 the ascendancy of the ( ioths ami Saracens ; by all 
 of whom the country was partially ovenain. The 
 Spanish Academy of History say.s, there is no 
 reascm to suppose that .any family ever had that 
 absolute sovereignty over it that has been suj)- 
 posed, but that its rulers were subject to the 
 Spanish kings of Asturias, Navarre, and Castile, 
 like the rest of the principal sefiors of the kingdimi, 
 with the exception of that difference which arose 
 from the great power of the family of Ilaro, who 
 helfc the lordship for many years. In l.'i:i2, the 
 deputies of the three jirovinces offered the dignity 
 to Alphonso XL, king of Castile, who accepted the 
 hirdship; but before the grant wa.s executed, the 
 most formal reserves were made of their franchises 
 and privileges, and the king was obliged to sign a 
 treaty, one of the articles of which was, that the 
 Castilian monarch should never possess any vil- 
 lage, fortress, or house, on the Basque territory. 
 Their country has been the scene of frequent and 
 
464 
 
 ll|S('i;(iLIA 
 
 loii^f-coiiliiiiu'd wiirs Willi l'iirci(;n nniiniix, aiul Im 
 liiiw llic |>riiii'i|i.'il lliciiln' ol' ti ilr^tnirlivr i'i\'il 
 fonllu'l, riiiiii!;li rr|>iililiriiii ill nil llnir iii-lilii- 
 tiiiii-i, tlicy iirn iiiurii aliaclicil in llic ^|lMlli'^ll 
 (|i<iiiiiiiiiii, 
 
 lllSCI'.lil.lA, n Hill iHift town of Siiiiilicni 
 Iliily, |iri>v. Iliiri, on a nx'ky |iroiiioiilory, on 
 (lirAilriiiiic. I.' inili'H I'.M'.. Ilarlclia, anil I.'lniili-N 
 SK. 'I'raiii. l'ii|i. Il(,7iri in iMi"-'. A railway con- 
 nt't'in llisct'^lia willi llic (iiill'or 'raranio, on ilu* 
 one liaiiil, anil Aiu'oiih ami llii' I'cniral anil nnrlli 
 Italian linrx on IIiimiiIiit. 'I'liclown in KiirronniU'il 
 tiy lolly i«loni' walls, anil Ih ill linill : it is tlii' nrat 
 III' a liislio|iri('. lias a I'allirilral. two colli'i^iiiti- ami 
 Hoini' oilier I'liiiri'lirs, ronvt'iilH lor liolli srxrs, n 
 (lulilii' sriiool, a liospiial, a iiitinl-i/f/iii li\ ami a 
 iiiii' llirairi'. Its port ailniils only .miimII vi'sm'Is, 
 mill il lia-^lilllo liaili'. ll lias iiimuToin rrsrrvoiis 
 anil I'isirrnsriil in Ilii' solid locU, ami arilinl omi", 
 for llir c.'llrriiii- ami |nr>rr\ aiinii ol ilio rain 
 vaiiT. I 111' |ilai't' liriiif,' I'liiiic'ly di'si iiiiii'ol' ;.|iriiiir'-. 
 It is r.ii|iii(.M'd liy Hoiiii' III In' 111!' .Xiilidtiiiii of l!n' 
 Ti'iiliii^'i riiiii lal'lrs, Iml oiIht criliis h'IiIcmiI iIimI 
 its aiiiiiiu iiiiiiu' was ]'i(iiliii; Sw ImImmih' says 
 thai il is dcsiiiiili' of any riinaiiis of aiilii|iiiiy. 
 (Swiiiliurm''.s I'wo ^i^■ili^•s, i. I'v'i. Ilo. rd. ; I'raM'ii's 
 Kiildis.)!, '.i;! : hii'l. «ii'o^'ra|diii|iu', i\i'.) 
 
 LlMlKil'Sril'liti. a vill;i,mor I'nissia, jirov. 
 I''.. I'rii'-sia, on tin' Piinimr, l.i ni. NSW, l.'osscl. 
 l'o|i. ;!.|.'s;i ill If^iil. 'I'lii'iv arc laitorii's of liiu'ii 
 and llii'i'^ul. 
 
 I'.lSCIloKSTKlN. or lUSCIIS'rKIX.n town of 
 I'mssia, |irov. !■'.. I'liissia, r.j;-. Kijiiitr-lirr^', on a 
 marshy laUr, I" m. S. Iiy I'). Kiiiiif.;slni>v. l'o|i. 
 i(.'-'7l ill IM'il. 'I'lirlown has l\Mp( nlliolii'ilmr>'h(s, 
 n lii;,'h school, thhrics of cloth and siuilviii^s, with 
 «li''tillcrics and hrcwcrics, 
 
 lilSt'llWll.l.KK', a town of France. di''|i. Has 
 li'hiii. call. *"""•• on the Moder. l."> ni. N. Siias- 
 liiirj;. on ilic railway IVcni Slrasliiirj; to Mayciice. 
 ro|i. S.TMl in IMil. " 'I'lie town was once fortiticd ; 
 liiit the worlds were destroyed liy the linperialisls 
 in 17(1(1. It nianiifacturi's coarse woollen and linen 
 ••lot lis. woollen gloves. iiottery. tiles. and hricks, ami 
 has woollen mills, madder mills, .•iml tanneries. 
 
 lilSKN'l'O, Il town of Soiitlurn Italy, prov. 
 Teranio, cap. cant., in a valley, 10 ni. NW. ("ivila- 
 «li-i'eniK>. I'op. i»..")i;t in iMtl'J. The town has 
 HcMral clinrches, ii dyework for cloth, luiil fairs on 
 Alav Iti and 17. 
 
 l!lSlI()l>S-Ar(M\LAXI>. a markct-towni and 
 township of Kiinland, co. Durham, NW. div., Dar- 
 liii;;ton ward, par. St. Andrew Auckland. Id ni. 
 SW. Durham, on the South Durham and Lanca- 
 hhire rnioii Itrauch railway. I'o)). (l.lMd in \M\, 
 'i'he town, which is well liiiilt, stands on an cmi- 
 lunce, haviiif,' the Wear on the N., and the (iaiin- 
 h'.ss on the SH. The par. church is ahoiit 1 ni. 
 «listaiit. Imt there is a eliaiiel of ease in the town, 
 and the Methodists, Independciit.s, (^)uakers, Ac, 
 liave also chapels. There is a Hrainmar-school 
 founded hy .lames I., and farther endowed hy 
 several ]irel«tes: a school on the Madras system 
 for "JOO hovs, and a school for prls, holh founded 
 l)v 15isho|i" liarrint;ton. The town, owinj; to ^;reat 
 facilities of railway communication, is lloiirishinfj. 
 and the population on the increase; hut the place 
 owes its iniiiortance. to its havinj; at its NK..^id 
 the mapiiticent eastle or episcopal palace of the 
 liishoi) of Durham. The Iniildint,' is of great 
 extent, has a line chajiel Imilt hy ISisho)) Cosiiis, 
 and some j;ood pictures. The park includes about 
 81 Ml acres. 
 
 lilSlIor'S CASTT.E, a par., hor., and town of 
 r.imlaiid, CO. Salop, hnnd. raislow, Illm. NW. 
 hy'W. London. Area. (;,(M10 acres. I'op. of jiar., 
 1^21. l,-'<70; IUJI, 2,007; aiur2,083 hi ISOI. The 
 
 lURinXANo 
 
 (own stands on the slope of a hill, nrar n ,ni.ill 
 
 hninchof ihe nare. 'I'lurc are ^,,iiie;; | i,,,,,,, 
 
 ill ditached siliialioiis; Imt the Knaiir pnri >,U\'. 
 town is irregularly and im aiil\ ImiIIi of umIm.,/,, 
 stone. The cliiirch (rriKiiiallv a line Hirihiur,. „r 
 Ihe Norman pi'riod) was iiarily di«ir.,y,.(| ii, n,,. 
 civil war, ami »iilisei|iienily restorcil. Tlu.r,, J,, 
 Hcveral dissenting piaceH iif worship, nii<| n fr... 
 school, ediicatinj,' fiO lioys and ^'irls. Tin. tdwn- 
 hall, liuilt ill I7.III. coniains prisouN f,,r (rimin.iU 
 and delitors. A weekly market is held <>ii Iriiliu 
 and annual fairs, l-'eh". i;i, Fridav hiinre t;,,,'.! 
 Friday, Friday after Mav 1, .Inly .'i, Scpi. ;i, |„„| 
 Nov. I.'l. That in May Is a pleasure, Hiidtliiii In 
 .liily a wool fair; the rest are fcircaiile. Ailmriir 
 of the 2(illi of Fli/alieih conferred mi tin. ccirin.rii 
 li<iii the privih'jre of retiirniii;; two imni. h. il,,. |'i 
 of ('..which it exenised lill llie pn-.-iii;,' „f ||„'. 
 Iii'foriii Act. when it was di>riiiiirhise(|. "lu |,ici| 
 liniils were e\lrll>ive, h'lviii^,' a rir.'. of l,"i 111, II, 
 name is derived IVoiu an amlriil ca.slle nf i),,, 
 hishops of Hereford, whii'li has liein loie,' dcniu 
 li>h( ll ; ihe site of il, hiiueMv, niiix siilj lii'iric,,| 
 
 ItlSllOl-'S STOIMHUII), a par. .'iiiil t„H,i „r 
 l'.ii^;laiid, CO. Men ford, hiiml. liraii'iluii. en ii,,, 
 Slorl. '.'ll 111. NNI'',. I.omlon on tlntireal I'.iisicni 
 railway. Aicii, il.OMii acres. I'op. of pur., ri,;;:!!!- ,,|- 
 town. I,ri7;t in iMi'd. The jrrealer part nC tin. 
 town slaiiils on the slope of a hill, mi iln' \\\ ^j,|,, 
 of the river, and cmisisls of two lines of >irrii, in- 
 tcrsectiiif^ each other at rif,dil aii^des, and feniiiii' 
 a cross. It is, on the whole, well imiii. Tli" 
 church stands on an einiiience. and lias n lin,. 
 lower. There is a national school for "iiiiicliildnii, 
 ami a piihlic lihrary. It has an excellent iiiiiiliii- 
 house ^hiiill at Ihe intersectimi of the slri(l,<, in 
 IM'JH, with an Ionic tnnit), which contains n liir(,'o 
 hall, used as a corn-exeliaii^;e, over wliiih an' 
 asM'inhly and niagistrales' rooms. 'I'lie wriklv 
 market is on Thursday, and three aiiinud fiiiis urc 
 held on Holy Thursday, 'i'liiirsday after 'friniiv 
 Siimlay. and 1 0th Oetohcr. 'I'lie nialiiii;riiiiiliii;ii 
 trades constilnle the chief hiisiness of llie inwn, 
 for which there arc convenient wharfs alimi; tlic 
 river and the I'linal (holh of which are ciiiiii;;iiiiiij 
 to il) ; and lieiiig in the centre of a t^oinlcnni iji'.- 
 trict. the trade is considerahle. Tliere is alsn a 
 silk-niill. which employs many hands, I'ihIitiIh' 
 I'oor Law Amendment Act it is the iiiiinii tnwii 
 for 20 jiars. ; its own rates averaue l.'.'IU/. Is. 
 I'l'ttv sessions are held every fortnight hy llie cm, 
 mafjistrates; it is also a poUiiij; to>\ii for Herts. 
 
 IIISUOl-'S WAI.THAM. a imr. and t.ma if 
 F.ngland, <'o. Soutliam))loii, div. I'ortsilnwii. Iiuiid. 
 of llishop's Waltham, ('.2 m. SW. hy W. Luiiilnii, 
 on the liondon and South We.-icrn raihvav. I'up. 
 of parish, 2.2(i7 in IHdl. The town is sitiiali'il liy 
 the Hamhle (a srjall stream risiiij; 1 in. fnim ilio 
 town) in (he vicinity of Waltham Forest. It lias 
 a jfood church, an endowed eharity selionl fur iitl 
 hoys, and a national schoid for li!0 hoys iiiul ),'irl.s. 
 It has a weeklv market on Friday, and iiiiiiiiid 
 fairs on .second Friday in M.ay, July .'!(l, and Friday 
 followiii),' Old Michaelmas-day. Leallicr-dn'.ssin^' 
 is the chief trade of the town, which is iiinslly 
 disposed of at ils own fairs, and those nftlit'iu'l^di- 
 hoiirhood. There is also some mailing; liusiiu'ss 
 carried on. It is a polling town for (he iiortliini 
 division of (he coun(y. The ivy-covcrod niiiisin 
 a line old e.istle are in the immediate vicinity. Il 
 orifjinated in (he reign of S(eplien. hut nwi'd iis 
 subseijiient magnitieence to William of Wykcliam. 
 The eastle was demolished by the imrliiimeiitary 
 annv in the last civil war. 
 
 lilS1101'-WKAl{Mt)UTII. (Sec Slxdep.- 
 
 I.AN'D.) 
 
 lUSlGN ANO (an. Susidiw), a town ef Soiithcni 
 
insHAOoa 
 
 ill |<)1). 'i'lx' town ix ilcroriiliMl liy It I'lkxlli' xilii- 
 ,l(i|iiii t\»' liiulii'Hl iif I III' m'vcii IiIIIn \>y wliicli it 
 i, •iirniiiiiili'il; iMllii'Nt'iil ofiiltiNlmitric; liii)* » liiu' 
 ,'jilu'ilriil. tiiinicriiiiH cliiiri'lK'K, a iiiiniu'rv, m'vtTiil 
 iviivcntH, lwi> lioNpilnlM, niiil n lioiiw uf rrl'ii^'i', 
 Un;)' ((iiiinlilU'M of Hilk-wnriiiN nni ri'ttri'il in iIk> 
 wiiiiilv. 
 
 |l|SSA<i<>S, n K'''»'p <M Hmnll vohrniilf iHl/iiitlH, 
 on lilt' VV. I'l'iiNt of Africa, o|i|ioNii(< ilic I'liilHiiicliiirt' 
 „l'ilii' liio (iraiiili', Ih'Iwi'cii III'^ ami l'J° N. iai., 
 iiiil I'i4° '""' "'4" ^^- '""W- '''"' litiRi'Nl i'* aliiiiif 
 I'liii.iii lt-ii);ili,aiiil NiiiniMif (limi art' iiiiiiilialiilrd. 
 I'lii' iuliiili.. wli» nro ilrNi'rilM'il an hravt- Itiil Irca- 
 rhiriius nuKt' hoidc niai/t', luil aro iiriiii'i|ialiy di'- 
 iriiilciit nil tlit'ir caltli', ^oatM, ami liHlicrv. 
 
 jllS/rifl T/ (Sla\ . //«•((i^ ; ic l'i,l,/t<),'n lowii of 
 Tn»i'«vlvitiiia, AiiMlria, i-aii. iliMlrift, in a liiii' viilii-v, 
 „i,ilii.' Ilis/.iritz ; laf. 17° ,7 IC." N., loiij;. '-' P ;i-.'' I«" 
 H ro|i, (i.NlId in IK"i7. Till' town is fori ilicd, lias 
 ip'tiiiiAiiiiiiOi two hcIiimiIk, mill two lio.spiiaU, with 
 1 ii'iiiMilornlilc Iradi- in calilc. 
 
 itjTClll''., a town and forlrcMH of Kraiiro, lU'p. 
 ]t|iM'lli<, cap. canl,, at lliv foot of ilu; Vort^^cH, 15 in, 
 KSK. Snr^'iii'iniiit'H, I'op, •i.iMij") in INtil, Tlu' 
 l«i|iuUtiipii ii« dofliniiij;. 'I'lic forlrc.is or ciladrl 
 Miiilx oiiaii nlniosi iiiacci's.sililo ro<-k risiiif; from 
 iho miildli' of •''«' town, Tlui interior of (Iw roi'k 
 111 vaiilti'il ikMil oast'inatcd ; tlui fort, mounts HO 
 jiJivcHiif I'liiinoii, may lio ^arrisoiit'd liy 1,01)11 men, 
 'tnt'll siip|ilii'd with water, and is looked u|Hin lis 
 iioxt 10 iiiiprepialile. The town, formerly railed 
 Kiilii'uliiiii'M'ii, is liiiilt at the foot of the rock, 
 siimiiiiiiiti'il hy the citadel, near n lar^e shallow 
 liko or mere, where the Home has it.s source. 
 Ii |iriiiliicos (lilVereiit. sorts of tiiio |iotlery, 
 Tlu* (jliLSM-works of Miinsthal, in the vicinity, 
 funmli tliiit (iflutis uf thu value uf OOD.OUU fr.'u 
 viar. 
 
 ' lUrKTTO, ft town of Soiitheni Italy, prov. 
 Trrra di Hari, in n fertile plain on the Adriatic, 
 1" m. S\V, IJari. Top. . '),««.") in l«:>!». Thu town 
 b till' scut of u liishoprii; ; has ti cathedral, reiiinrk- 
 ilile for it« pictures and uiarhlus, and ouveral 
 
 OHlVflltH. 
 
 lU'l'ONTO (an.Biitunfum), a town of Southern 
 lialy, |iniv. Terra <li Hari, ca|). cant,, in a thic 
 |iUiii, 10 m, \V!S\V. Unri, on the railway from 
 llari to Turiiito. I'op. 2'l,'i2l in IH5!). lUtoiitoisa 
 tine town, mid the inhahitantti ore said to Ih; much 
 ei<ii'rin their fortunes, and more polished and im- 
 l>rivc<lin tlieir iniinners, than those that dwell in 
 the cities alon^ the coiLst. It is the seat of a 
 liMiiipric; has a tine cathedral, twelve parish 
 churdies, convents for both sexes, a iiospital, and 
 I nunncr}'. The environs prodiico a wine called 
 tfrnllu, Mtid to bo excellent, and in which the 
 tdwu trades extensively. In ITiM the Spaniards, 
 iinilcr tlie Count dc Mortcmar, gained, in the vi- 
 cinity of this town, on important vict*)ry over the 
 AnstriaiiK. 
 
 RITKITTO, a town of Southern Italy, prov. 
 Ttrra di Uari, 7 m, 8. Hari, on the railway from 
 Bari to Tanuito. Pop. 3,771 in 18r)9. It has a 
 iiieiollo|,'iatc church, and its territory is celebrated 
 (or ii.< wines and almonds. 
 
 IllTTllUlitJ, a town of Prussia, prov. Lower 
 Rliiiie, cap, circle, 18 ni. NNW. Treves. Pon. 
 iii'i ill 18«1. The town has a castle, two Catholic 
 ctiiirchcs, and gome trade in corn and cattle. 
 
 lilTTEKFEL D, o ! own of Prussia, prov. Saxony, 
 tec. Mersebour};, cap. circle, 1(> m. S. Dessau, iit 
 thejuiiition of the rtiilwoys from Uerlin to Halle, 
 wdfrum Dessau to Leipzijjf. Pop, 4,'J«4 in 1«G1. 
 The toOTi, which is in a flourishing condition, was 
 louiiilwl by a colony of F 1cm iiifpi, whose dcscend- 
 >iiu iiold their proiierty in common, oiid ore go- 
 
 Voi,. I, 
 
 llLACKIJirRN 
 
 4fl/S 
 
 vemcd by peculiar laws. It lian fabrict nf cloth 
 ami cartlii'iiware, 
 
 n!/i;i!TA. or lir,N/A!:'l' (an. //(/ym Di.irr- 
 hi/hiH, or /.iirihini), iisca port town of 'I'liiiis, at the 
 holloinof a deep ^lilf or bay (Siitun llii>/MiHiiinh), 
 on a rliaiiiii'l iiiiiiiii); the ^iilf with aiiinlrrnal lake 
 or hiKooii, 10 III. N\V, Tunis; hit, .17° 17' io" N,. 
 loii>{, \P Till' iliV K. I'op. variously esliinalid at 
 from H.OOO III 11,000, It is abou'i t m, in circ, 
 and is dcfi'tidi'd by walls, and two castles; but as 
 the latter are coiiitniiiidi'd by a height witliiii n 
 short dislaiii'c, it could oppose no I'tii'ciii.il rcsi^t- 
 aiice to an army atlackin^r ji hy laud. Thiiii),'li It 
 has a piisl appearance at a •li.-<lance, it is, liko 
 most other Tiirkisli towns, r«'ally niraii iiiid dirty. 
 Its |Hirt, which now only adinils small vessels, was 
 formerly one of t lie best in the McililcrraiieaiMiud 
 ini^dit easily be rrslorcd, in Ibis ri'specl, to its 
 aiicieiil pre einiiiciice. The cliaiiiiel on which the 
 town is built has in parts live and six fatlioms 
 waliT, and it iiii^dil, with iiof^real liiboiir, be cvrry- 
 where deepened to that CNleiil. The hike, or inner 
 harbour, is of ^reat extent, with a depth of water 
 varying; from ten to lil'ty fathoins, and is lapiiblii 
 of iiccoinniiidatiiiK the largest navies. The coiitilry 
 rniiiid is also exceedingly fertile; so min'h so 
 that, notwithstanding its neglected stale, large 
 ipiantilies of corn aro occasionally exported from 
 llixerta, 
 
 lUiACKHUKN, a market town and pari, bor.of 
 Kngland, co. Lancaster, bund, and par. of Itlack- 
 burn, on an allhient of the liibble; Ik;{ hi. NW.by 
 N. London, ;il m. NK. Liverjiool, '21 in. N\V. by 
 N. Manchester, \'2 m. N. by W. Kolton, and !• in. 
 K. by S. Preston, at the junction of the railways 
 from Preston to Murnley, and from Itidlon to (Jhal- 
 bnrn. lllackbiirn isoiie of the great manufactur- 
 ing centres of {''.iigland which have had an extra- 
 ordinarv development in the course of half a c«'U- 
 tiirv. 'riie population of the bor. nunibered b'l.OH;) 
 in ixil ; rose to 2I,<M0 in IN-21 ; to .'III,)'.-.".) in IHll, 
 and to Ii.'l,l2)! in IHill. The parish, which had 
 ;)*,),K!)!) inhabitants in ISII, counted no h-ss than 
 !10,H'I',) in iHCil. The town, situated on a rivulet, 
 called in Domesday Hook • Hhickebiirne,' was, 
 with the snrrounding district, a manor during tho 
 reign of William the Coiupieror, who granted it to 
 ibiiert de Lacy. A castle, of which no tra<:e exists 
 at present, is said by Whitaker to have been a sta- 
 tion of thu Homaiis, and of the Saxons. Camden 
 and Hlomu both notice it as a thriving market- 
 town in their days. The eminences in the vi(;inity 
 are naked, and in winter the jilace has n dn'ary 
 aspe<;t. It is irregularly built, owing partly to its 
 anti(piity, and partly to the intermixture of glebe 
 and other lands, the tenures of which interfered 
 with a liettor arrangement of the avenues. Tho 
 parish church of St. iMary, originally' built before 
 the Conquest, was rebuilt on a new site in IHI'.I, at 
 an expense of '2<i,0()0/. ; it is in the (iothic style, 
 contains 2,000 sittings, of which 700 are free; and 
 in boldness, symmetry, and correctness of design, 
 is said to be suqiassed by but few ecclesiastical 
 structures. It sustained some injury, which was 
 soon after n^paired, from a lire in IttiU. There are 
 ten other epiacoixil churches in the town and 21 in 
 the )>arish. The Methodists, Haptlsts, Independ- 
 ents, liomnn Catholics, Swedenborgians and So- 
 ciety tif Friends have all one or several places of 
 woriNhip. The educational establishments com- 
 prise a grammar school founded and endowed 
 temp. I'Mi/.abeth ; Leyland's school for the eihica- 
 tioii of girls ; with National, Hritish and Foreign, 
 and other schools. The ])ublic buildings, with tho 
 exception of those applied to theological puriwses, 
 are few in nninbcr, and consist principally of a 
 small nvnt theatre, and a cloth-hall. It lias a 
 
 nil 
 
 
400 nUCKMKATII 
 
 • liHIM-nnnry nml n lyinj^-iii iimtiliiliim, a horllnil- 
 liinil Mdcici y, mill two wt-ckly iwiiiith. 
 
 'I'lir Hcl'i.mi Act coiiffrri'il uii liliu-kliiim Iho iiri 
 vilijrf iif rrtiiriiiiiK "2 nu'iii. to tlu- II. oCC. 'i'lu' 
 l»'r,, whiih In iilmticiil with Iho tdwimhip, roni- 
 priNCH .'l.tiMiuiri'Hiiiiiil linil \,~M rcKl". •'I<il"n« in 
 \xi'>l, l)<iiij{ all ii('t'ii|iicrM of Id/. lioiim'M. 'I'lic no- 
 vcrmiiciu of III)' lowii ix vcmIciI in (■oinini'<Nioii(TH ; 
 iiiul llio iiiMKiHirnlt'N of the liiiiulml liolil iicily nch- 
 HioMs ill it. A cniiiity roiirt in i'Mlalili«lu'il "litrf. 
 'I'tic iiHNCHsniciil for nil' rt'liif of Ihc poor in Itlaik- 
 liiirii I'nioiiaiiioiinicd in iMtll lo |2<i,:<7:i/. ; ami the 
 (niioiini aNMCNNcil lo properly Inx to I7H,!MIH/. 
 
 The nianiifai'tiirc of n 'kind of cloih inailc of 
 linen warp ami eoiioii woof, eaeh partly of ilyeii 
 llirend, K'viiiK tlie well n i'he(|iiered appearanee, 
 mid Iheiiee called lllat'klMirii ehetpie, was earrieil 
 on here in Iliad. || was aflerwardn NiiiierNeded liy 
 thai of lllueklMirn Kr''.'*'!*, eonMislinj; aUo of linen 
 and coitoii, NO called from their hein^ printed in an 
 iinlileached .stale. .lanieN llar;ireave!<, a working 
 carpenter, the inventor of the Npinniii^jenny, lln' 
 lirsi jfreat step in that woiiderfnl carei'r of inven- 
 tion and discovery that has raised Iho cotton 
 iiianiifactiire to its |)rcse!it unexampled state of 
 jirosperily, was a native of llhukliiirii. In I7<i7 
 lie produced the Jenny; liiit instead of meeting' 
 with the coiiiilenance and support due to his sin- 
 Unlar deserts, he was driven out of the town, and 
 event iially out of the county ; and it was iiol till 
 alioiii MJdiir IM|-.> that the people of illacklairn 
 lie;;an largely tnoinliark in th<> cotton traile, ami 
 lo avail themselves of the discoveries that had 
 originated in their town. Now, however, spinnin^r 
 of the coarser kind of calicoes, and their weaving 
 l>y the power-loom, <;onstitul(> the staple trade uf 
 the place. 
 
 TIk^ ahnndanceofciml rniNoil from tho coal field 
 a few m. to the S. has larj^elv eontriliuted to the 
 pr<i(,'ress of mtiniifactures. Tliev have also been 
 iiincli facilitated hy the Livcr|ioof and Leeds Canal, 
 which passes elost^ to the town, mid hy the opening 
 of railways. Markets are hehl on Wednesdays aiul 
 Saturdays, in an inconvenient place; fairs for cloth, 
 in the cloth-hall, on Kaster-Slondny, llth, I'Jtli 
 Hay, and I7tli Oct.; and for cattle," on the alter- 
 nate Weilnesdays from the ln-^rinnin^ of Fehriiary 
 to Michaelmas. The hanking estahlishmenis are 
 hraiiches of the Manchester and County Hank, of 
 the Manchester and Liverpool District Itank, and 
 n private baiikiii;;-h(uisc, called the Old Itank. 
 
 ' in the early stafj;es of the cotton niminfactnro,' 
 says Mr. Dailies, ' the inhahitants, in general, were 
 indigent, and scantily provided (und this is still 
 the case so far as tlie hand-loom weavers are con- 
 cerned) ; l)ut decisive proofs of wealth now a[)i)ear 
 in this place on every hand; liandsomc new erec- 
 ti(aisarti continually rising up; pnliliu institutions 
 for the improvement of the mind, and tlie exten- 
 sion of human happiness, are rapidly in(!reasin):f ; 
 and this place, at one time proverbial for its rude- 
 ness and want ofcivilisalion, may now fairly rank, 
 in point of oj)ulencc aiul intellijcence, with many 
 of the )irincipal towns in the kinplom.' 
 
 IJLACKHEATII, an elevated moory tract, in 
 the vicinity and fonning a suburb of the Uritish 
 mctro|)olis, which ^ivcs name to the bund, in 
 which it is situated, in the latti of Sutton-at 
 Holme, CO. Kent. The gicater portion of the hun- 
 dred of Hlacklieath is in the ]iarisli of (jreenwich, 
 but it also extends into those of Charlton, Lcwis- 
 liam, and Lee, and is IJ in. in an K. and W. di- 
 rection, and about half that X. and S. ; from St. 
 I'aul's to the nearest part is about 5 m. SIC. The 
 ]iopuhition, according to the census of 18GI, 
 amounted to 10,473. The district is intersected 
 by the youth Eastern and Korth Kent railwuj'. 
 
 HLACK SKA 
 
 It romninndf* many line pros|iect^ and lmi» mini" 
 rous elepint villas. There are scv. ral diurd,,., 
 and chapels, and a ureal iiiimlsT nfprivntc -kIi,„,| 
 On the K. sidi' is Mordcn College a iiiimlriiii,'„l„r 
 Hinicture, founded in I7(»H, for decayed nicnlmt,!.. 
 its revenue is alHint .'(.ddd/. a year, in ih,. imufi^ 
 of seven iniHtees, who iioiniMiilc the |«n»i.Mi, r.^ 
 and apixiini the IrcaMurer and iliMplain : tlicn i,r"' 
 about id Niipporled, each of wlinni rcreivcit .")/'■, 
 month, and has a separate apiirtiiiiMt ; Inn iii,.v 
 eal at a coinmon luMc: none arc admi^Milil,. nn,!,,,. 
 Till years of ap'. A Itoinan road (\\ iiliiii^;SinTii 
 from London to l)ov<'r, IravcMes ihc licaih, ncurlv 
 in the dirrciion of Ili)> modern line: tliirc iir<' 
 some lar;;i> ancient liiniiili on it. In ||„, ||,|, 
 ccnlnry thellMlies (whose licet lay olMireriiwicIn 
 were eiicainped on the heath soiiie'iiiiiiulis, wImim,. 
 they made many excnrsions; in one nl' «|ii|.|| 
 Cant<'rbury was sacked, and the arc'!ilii.||i,i, ,.„f. 
 ricd off, anil afterwards killed. Wal Tylir, iiiiil 
 subseipicntly .lack Cade, tonk U|> poKiijoiHwitli 
 their followers on it; as did the ('iiriii>li nliil-, 
 under Lord Andley, ilefcated with ureal nlmiyliiir 
 by Henry VII. 'I'hil her also, in fipriiieniiiiis, ih,. 
 lord mayor and corporation, and occasiniiiillv iIh' 
 kiiiK a*id his (Miiirt. were woiil to ^o, when iilih- 
 trii'us personages were to be \ elooined to the I'lihi- 
 tiil. (Ilastcd's Kent.) 
 
 ULACK SKA (the Knxine. or Iloirot r.u,f,„«, 
 of the (ireeks and Kiiirians), a lar^c iiileniiil m;i 
 lyin^ l«'twei'ii the S\V. provinres of l!iH,ia j,, 
 I'Mirope mid Asia Minor, exlcndiii); frnin |ii'^ jii' |,, 
 ■Itjo I.V N. hit., and from 27° -J.V lo Ufi W i;. ji.n... 
 It is boniided on the N. and N\V. by the l>ii>.i;m 
 provinces of Taiirida, Khcrsou, an' Ites-iarulii.i; 
 on the NE. and V], hy the Caiica iaii (■iiiiiiiii-i 
 Circassia, Min^^rclia, and Iineriti'\, >ii tlu: si.. 
 and S. by Arinenia and Asia Mi.mr. .i ,il mi ilic 
 W. by the Turkish pivernineiu.-. ..i iiiiniclia u:'!! 
 Miilfraria. Its extrenu! len;;th from V., tn \V. U 
 upwards of 7dl» m. ; its (^realesi width, mi lliciiUi 
 meridian, -IdO m. : E. from this it narrows hy iIr' 
 projiH-lion of the Crimea, and the advance (il'ilic 
 opposite shore uf Asia Minor, to l.'il in.; nnim k 
 widens to 2tir» m. between the Strait of Voiiikiili' 
 and the (iiilf of Sainsun, lint from tiie lii^t imint 
 it constanlly and ri|)idly diminishes, till its !'.. 
 coast (running di \ N. and S.) does not exiToil (lo 
 in. in width. Its surface is estlnialed at jiIniiii 
 100,000 sq. m., and its coast line, iiichiiliii;; lis 
 sinuosities, considerably exceeds 'i.OdO tn. (Ciu- 
 valicr, Voy. dc la I'ropon. et dii I'ont. Kiix. p, 
 .'{20; Jones's Travels, ii. 383; lienncU's t'iiiii|i. 
 Geog, of W. Asia, ii. 277.) 
 
 The lilack Sea is connected with the Soa of 
 Axoph by the Strait t)f Yenikale (an. Bonitlwrm 
 Cimmeriiiii), and with the Sea of Mannara, iiy tlif 
 Cbaniud of (Constantinople (an. Boitphoriis Tlirn- 
 eius). With these exceptions it is wholly i.^uliitci, 
 It is also much more compact in forin timn nm^i 
 other large bodies of water; giving offnoKn'iit 
 limbs, like the Haltic, Mediterranean, ic, n:'il 
 having very few even moderately-si/eil pill-. 
 The most important, that of Kirkinit (tiie Cmri- 
 tiitua Sinus of the ancients) lies Ixitweeii tlii' NW. 
 shore of the Crimea and the op))osite slmrcot'S. 
 Kussia, extending as far E. as the Fstlimiis nf j 
 Perekon. The coast of the sea is, however, liy i 
 means iron-bound ; small bays and hnrbmirs iiiiiii- | 
 merable occur at short distances, thnuijrli all ''■* , 
 circuit, but none of them is in the least coin|Kiralil', 
 as to size, with the Gulf of Kirkinit, unless, in- 
 deed, the Sea of Azoph and the Sea of Manrnirii l«' j 
 reckoned gulfs of the Itlack Sea. The sirniis it f 
 the lilack Sea are very remarkable; tliey si-arccly 
 break the continuity of the hniil, for nt tlicir ii^ir- 
 rowest part, that of Yenikale, is not niuro tliaa 
 
 Im. (icMM, nnd 
 I) ni. (I 'a lias's 
 I lii'tnlier, p. M.) 
 Ill liiwaiid swamp 
 
 1,11, tlii'i^realesl 
 iimIv, in aliiiiii 
 lliriii'iaa llospjui 
 Iriiu'tliiif alioiil 17 
 iHi'i'ii niiiiiiitaiiioi 
 ,1 wiilth of more t 
 ■IIM 
 
 Ihe ileplli of wa 
 till' vnrialiiiiiM api 
 i!i|ii'iiiliiig general 
 M: HI) iniich no, 
 
 I'll llll' llllllllllS of 
 
 .li<tain'e of the Nlior 
 ffiiiii the siinndiiigi 
 ilii llliii'k .S'a, p. (I.) 
 <!{>ili, in its shalli 
 II It., nor in its i|e 
 I'lii imsHJiig iIiIn III 
 ii't'lilHiiirliiiod of I 
 '!i|'ili of ■» falhoiii 
 LitliiiniH or more; 
 iiiliiiiiiH are foiiinl ai 
 li'-l'liiiriiH; an cipia 
 IV. KJiiire, at a Huh, 
 ,^' till' inmiiliH of ii, 
 sa liilucen the It, 
 ilii' ( riiiiea, no bolioi 
 iiiiij liio faihiiiiiN, 'I 
 fri'iii ('i)iiHtaniinopl,) 
 ("Imilily ileej); thein 
 mly Hint vessels of 
 ii< waters; and the > 
 I'liiHis mill Kuban, n 
 tiiiiivn III Eiiro|s'ans. 
 ti'i'j.'. Journal, i. p 
 Diiralty Charts, sect, i 
 ilie Kiixiiie is eiic 
 MV. hy high moiinit 
 '" it.s margin ; even i 
 aiiprnai'li its .shores to 
 ilic .\'\V. and x\., it , 
 ."viutlicrn Enrojie. \, 
 M ill the,se (lirectioi 
 111 the S. of tlie t.'rinie, 
 liieliasin of the Ei 
 'liwtinii, from about 
 •* in. ill width ; hut i 
 IW.II1 niininlain, it siii 
 till' .sea receiving, thri 
 111'' water that Hows j 
 'ai'i''isii8, and hv varioi 
 jiH.v the larger part of 
 '* mill sHamjiy land 
 '■*?'.Ax Ska.) On i, 
 iw'iivps the waters of n 
 Nil rivers from a (lis 
 fl'*'*. (i^vo Don, Dnii 
 "j'lfi'il, (alls into the s 
 j'li.ysieallv considered 
 •"'I.V with which it is CI 
 !ii'«i remarkable ])art ol 
 I* that towards the A 
 
 f'Wcli, in this direction, 
 |;>rt(btanceofit8.sho 
 'H the Danube, aftt 
 ""iiiitains at Orsova, rei 
 Yl ?'.' «'« H"n)lU8' W 
 «)ntie8oftheAlp.s,tl 
 
 Wiv'ticsofthcCaUtl 
 f^'>lcteH,„„dthcX. 
 ;'er words, the whol 
 "* Austrian empire, w 
 wiaaiulLombardy. i 
 
m.XCK HV.X 
 
 '.>m. RcritMi, nnil ilmt i>rroni4tnntln<i)il(< Iinm limn 
 it ni. (I'lillni*'*) 'rriivcU in S. KiiMHin, ii. 'JnN: 
 
 t lii'Mili<r, |>. It.) 'I'lit< ConniT, liuli'i-il, Npri'iiilit out 
 ,1, liiwunil itwnn)|iy K^iMinilN into nkiml tit'niiirHliy 
 l.'i\. ilii't,'ri''il<-Ml wiilili nl'wliirh, nii'iiMiri'il trim-* 
 t,r«lv, U iiliniil III ni. (I'ikllikH, ii. .liMii; Imi the 
 rhriK'iiiii lliiM|ili(iruH lliiwH ilirmiuli iix wlinjii 
 li'iiL'tli I'l'iili'iiii 17 in., lilic It niiiKnillccnl river, Ix'- 
 iwii'ii niKiinliiinniH liiml^s iinil in im juirt iitrniiiH 
 ] wlilili "f iiiiirv ilian '2 m. or 1'^ ni, (.lomvi, ii. 
 
 ■IIM 
 
 |lii< ilfplliiif wntcr in tliin hoii 1^4 vnriiilili', liul 
 tlii< vnritiiiimH ii|i|M>nr Id I)<> cxlri'ini'ly ri'^'iilar, | uurlil in tin 
 ili'iH'iiiliii^' ^'I'luTitlly n|iiin ihc |iriixiiuily nC ilir 
 |,n,l: Ml niiu'li nu, inilcfil, llmt in nitiiiy jiliu't's 
 i„l1 ilii' iiioiitli.H III' ihi' liiiiiiilii' in pariiciiliir) tlii< 
 
 ,|,.iiini r till' Nliiin* niiiy lir known wltliin ^ in, 
 
 Ipiin till' Honnilin^H only, (Mioii, Ccuniui'rri' of 
 ilii'lllai'kSi'ii, |i.ii.) In llii'.Strait of Vi'iiikiili', llii> 
 ,{.{illi, ill ill* nIiiiIIowi'nI litirl, ilm's iiol rNcrril 
 II |'i„ imr in itn iIccim'nI ih it niori' lliiin '.'■-' ft,; 
 I.III luiKdiii^ lliix IIk^ mi'h itscir in loniiil, in llii' 
 iiii;;lilHiiirliiHiil of ihc Htniit, lo liiivi' a p'tiiTiil 
 ,l,.|iili III' 4 rallioniM, ili'i'iH'tiiii;; ra|iiilly lo '_'o 
 liihiiniH or niori>; wliilf, in llic S, |iartM, •!« 
 i.iiliiiiiis art' I'oniiil at the I'litranrr of the 'I'lirai'lan 
 {'■'•|iliiirii-i; an r<|iial or ^rratrr ilfitli nlon;; ilic 
 
 W. »li<iri', at a lit I If ilintai rroin tiir laiul, m* far 
 
 ;i« till' iniiiilliK of tlic l>aniili(>; ami in tlii' main 
 m;u lii'lwi'*'!! tlic lloH|iliiirii» anil Si'lmsiopol, in 
 ilu'Criini'ii. no liiilloni in foiiiiil al HID, l'J*l, III), 
 mill H'lO fatlioinx. 'I'lii' xca n|ion Ilii' S, coaMl, 
 fruni ('iinstjintino)ilii to Sinoini (loii^, '.\'fi), is 
 iiijiriilily iti'r|>; tlii'iii'i'lollie K, coasi, it iskiiown 
 iiiiv lliiit vessels of any (lraiit;lil iiiaj' navi(,'ale 
 ill waters; anil the NI",. slmre, lielwei'ii llie rivers 
 \'\\M* mill Kiilian, may lie repinleil as yet iin- 
 liiuiwii III Kuro|K'nns. (Vov.of the llliinile, IN-.'ll; 
 lii'ii^'. Jiiiirnal, i. lOli; t'',loii, |i)i. 7-tf>; Ait- 
 niiniliy Cliaris, mh'I, iv, jil. ";i.) 
 
 Till' EiiNiiie is encloseil on the NK., KS,, nnil 
 SW. Iiy lii),'li nionnlaiiis, wliieli run ilown elose 
 III itn inarf^iii ; even on Ilie \\'„ the ("ar|iatliians 
 a{i|iriini'li its shores to .tithiii 170 m. ; but towarils 
 
 4(17 
 
 , W. I III! 
 
 tnore iinii 
 n| I heir 
 
 liii'n'<ii'iii, 
 mlili'il the 
 
 of llial of SoiiMieni (termniiy, if*,— - 
 
 'I'hesi Iinlries exletlil aliove 1,110' 
 
 the Itlai'lt Hea ; Iheirsiirfare iMei|iiiii 
 l-lllli |iarl of Ilie wliiili' of I'Inri'iM 
 riiiniin^Mviiler loalniiisi l-Nili|iari. (I 
 ('iisiinn,'. i. .'I'J'^ ff lu-ii.) When lo ihix i 
 sii|i|ily friiiii the N I'., ami S., it will In eviilent 
 that the luisin of the l''.ii\ini' is of \ery ^real 
 extent. The miii'h larixer |iortiiin lielmi'^'s to 
 l''.iirii|ie, of whirli it ilriiins alimiNi |-,'lri| part ; 
 ami the iimiiiint of uater rreeiM'il hy the mii is 
 eijiial to that ^'iM'ii frmn the kmiih' ili\i-liin of the 
 Mi'iliterraiiean {i/imt) ami llaltii! 
 
 Ill^,'|'lher, I' is iiiil I hy far the larf,'est of Ilie 
 
 European hasins, imr is there anywhere ii siinilar 
 Irai't ofi'oiintry no ahiiiiilaiilly irri„'Mteil, 
 
 'there are no liijis in this eliisi' <<i'a, hut fi'oiii 
 
 the X\V. ami N., it opens on tho t^Totit )ilaiii of 
 Nuitlii'm Kiirojic. Not n moniilain rises near its 
 M ill these ilircctioiis, except the uniuU raiif^c 
 ill the S. of the Crimea. 
 
 The basin of the l'',nxine expands, in a westerly 
 
 iliru'lion, from ahiait '10 m. to nearly or ipiiti; 
 
 'JiiiMn. ill wiiltli ; but imineiliately N. of the Caii- 
 
 iiH'iii niiiiintnin, it smlilenly streielies K, it'.M) m., 
 
 till' si'ii rei'eivinjj;, throii^^h the Knbnii, nearlv all 
 
 ilio water that tlows from the NK, face ot* the 
 
 (ai'i'a.sii9,anil hy various other cliannels, coiisider- 
 
 alily the larj;er part of all the drainage from the 
 
 l'« and swampy lands W. of the C'tispian. (See 
 
 Caspian Ska.) On it.s N. eonst, the lUaek Sea 
 
 reciivcs the waters of some of the first class I'',uro- 
 
 jKaii rivers from a distance of 7l)(t m. from it.s 
 
 f\m% (S<>c Don, Dnikstis, I)Mi'".rif.) The Don, 
 
 iiiiW, fulls into the sea of Azopli ; but this is, 
 
 I'liysii'allv considered, only ii part of the larger 
 
 Iwlywitfi which it is coniiei-leil. Hiil by far the 
 
 niiisi remarkable ]>art of the basin of the Knxiiie 
 
 i* tliat towards the W. The Can>uthiaiiH a))- 
 
 Iinia(li,in this direction, to within a comparatively 
 
 >liiirt distance of its shores ; but, notwithstaiidiii;^ 
 
 iliis, the Danube, after breaking through the 
 
 mmintains at Orsova, reaches the Eiixine charfjeil 
 
 »iih all the suqiliis waters of the E. and XE. 
 
 telinties of the Alps, the S. and jmrt of the NE. 
 
 diclivitie.s of the Carpathians, the S, declivities of 
 
 ihcSudetes, and the N. declivities of the Halkhan; 
 
 in iithcr words, the whole water of N. Turkey, of 
 
 llie AuBtrian empire, with the exception ol' l)o- 
 
 biia anil Lombardy ; together with a great part 
 
 the vit'it iiiiantity of wiilir rereiveihthe eiirrents are 
 very marked, powerful, and regular: a little \aria- 
 limi is caused by w iiids, ami '<omi' iritlingciiiiiph'X- 
 ilv near the iiioiilhs of ri\ers ; Iml in gitwral llio 
 direeiion is from all points inwards the Channel 
 of Conslanliiiople, Ihrongh which a very cniistant 
 llow is kepi up to the sea of iMiirniara. Within 
 this strait, however, the enrrents lienmie rather 
 more variable, being llirnwn from siile In side by 
 the ineiinalities of the ciia.sts, ami the iiarrnwne^s 
 of the elwuiliel. (< 'hevaliei', p. I'l; .lone-i, ii. Il'.l I, 
 •117; I'lillas, ii. 2««; (ieog. .Imini. i. lo7, Ac.) 
 'I'he water of the IllaeU Sea appears to contain 
 more sail than could have been e.Npecled, under 
 existing eireiinislances. It liaM been observed, 
 of the constant aelion of the St, Lawreme mi llie 
 N, Aineriean lakes, that it has been eontimied 
 long enough to make them sweet and clear, e\'i il 
 had they originally been tilled with ink. Itnl an 
 operation, not less powerful, has been at work 
 fully as long upon these walers; and llimigh the 
 Sea of Azopli has become potable, except when a 
 SW. wind prevails, the lllack Sea itself is said lo 
 be onlv about l-7lh part less salt than the Atlan- 
 tic, ami fully 1-ll)lh salter than the Itallii-. 
 (Cliardin, )), l.'i.'i; .Jones, ii. I l.'t, ite.) 'i'his is, 
 in all probability, attributable to the saline nature 
 of the sea-bed. The N. coasi is iilinost one cnii- 
 tiiiued plain of salt, and the numerous lakes, with 
 which these steppes ahoiiml, are, by the action 
 of the summer sun, covered with a thick white 
 crust of the siune mineral, perfectly crystallised, 
 and having the appearance, and ahiiosl the con- 
 sistency, of ice. (I'alhn, ii, ■lii(i-177; Mrs. 
 (iiilhrie's Tour through the Taiirida, pp. o.')-."!'.!, 
 &c.) It is very improbable that this peculiarity 
 of soil should be continued to the very edge of 
 the sea, and then suddenly cease ; and on lluj 
 other hand, if it be farther coiitiiiiied to any 
 distance, it will necessarily countervail in a great 
 degree the inlhience of the immense sujiply of 
 fri'sh water. The fact is, however, that but very 
 little is known, with anything like certainty, of 
 the chemical composition of the Black Sea. Tho 
 Kiissiaii observations are limited to the N. shores ; 
 the few French and I'^iiglish travellers who have 
 traversed its surface, have done so only jiartially 
 and hurriedly : among trading navigators there 
 has been no Jonas Ilanway; ami the statements 
 of the Turks exhibit nothing but igiinrance and 
 niisrcprcsentation. However, many old prejudices 
 with respect to it arc fast vanishing ; and tho 
 Ei'xine is no longer regarded as a dark and deso- 
 late region of storms, danger, and shipwreck. 
 That such an opinion should have ever ]irevailed, 
 is not a little remarkable ; but it did prevail in 
 ancient, anil in modern times till a comparatively 
 late period. Tournefort was the lirst who at- 
 tempted to disjiel the ])rejudices and misrepresen- 
 tations referred to ; and who ventured to represent 
 
 II II 2 
 
im 
 
 AirlN iM h«< fiiimil Ihrm, an<l not m Ihoy hnil Imm-ii 
 iliKKuiM'il liy the |HH'lM of niilii|iilly, nml liy liliml 
 niitl ii^'iioriiiil. i'lirkinh imviK'tiorK. ('riiiiriii'l'urt, 
 ii. 1)1 1.) 
 
 Tilt' |ir<'viiiliiii( wiml in ilii* iMixiiic 'in fruin llir 
 Nl'!., iitiil III* it liliiWN iiMT n K"'"l •'Xlt'iil III' Mill 
 mill NWiiiiiity I'liiiiilry, il Ih liitlrii vviili iniiiKtiiri>; 
 mill Im'Iii^ riiillilli'tl liy tlic lii);li liiiiil mi llir I''.., 
 S., mill SW„ lirnvy fnu* nrv iHTiiMloiially iiro^ 
 iliH'cil. I>r. Cliirkc itrati'N iliul, 'in wiiiiir tliixi' 
 fii^N, mill ilii< t'allint^ hiiow, riitiiti> Niinit'linicN ii 
 liarliiii'NM Nil Ki'<''>li tl>'*) niiiriiii'rH arr iiiialili' li> 
 ili^iri'rn iilijci'lM at ilir iliNtaini' nl' a rahli-'N IciikiIi 
 I'rntn llirir vcnncIm.' ('rriivclN, i. It 1 1.) lint iIun 
 iiiciiiivciiii'iirc iiiviilvi'N Ni'ari't'ly any lui/anl, t'nr 
 till' ili'|iili III' watiT In alwavN Niillirii'iit to allnw of 
 lyiii^' III wiiliiiiii ilaiipT ul' ilririiii^ iiimii iiaiul or 
 riit'k ; mill witli tlit> IciimI lirrak in llic wrallicr, 
 lanilniarkN lit' llii> very \n-M kiiiil I'lunti iiiln view, 
 wliicli inav Im> Nffii at W, niiil olU'ii lio ui. iliMlnnci'. 
 (Kiiin, |.|..H, It,) 
 
 Kriiin till" riiiiliMcil I'xiciif of the wntiT, a Nliort 
 ami iroiililcNoiiic m'a In raiiNi'il liy anylliiiiK lik(> a 
 Kali* ; liiit it Ih lint ilaiiKiToiiN ; anil NtiiniiH, to 
 which the Klack Sea In nut niortt Niilijuct than 
 ulhi-r Nt'aN, ari' rarely of Ioiik iliiration. (Ktmi, 
 II. t!.) While tliry IiinI, the eloNt' (K'tit up water 
 lieiii); (greatly a^ilateil, aeriilentN, of eiiiirm', Hiniie- 
 tiiiieN iici'iir; liiit il wuiilil, perlia|iN, he rather 
 (litlii'iiU to iMiiiit out any M-a of liiiiileil iiiiiieiM<iiiiiM 
 where, iiiiiler Hiieli eirenni^latieeH, they ilo nut 
 oeeiir, 'riiii N\V. Nlmre ii* low ami wimly: a 
 mimlhaiik ■') in. In extent lie.s near the entriiiire of 
 the Channel of C'oiiNtaiitinople; ami on ihc couNt 
 of Crimea two rockM lie eloM^ in Nliore. 
 
 There Ih alno an o|)eiiiiif;, caUeil yalnn Bokiir 
 (fnW month), a little to the N. of the Cliunnel of 
 CoiiNtantinople. aiiil verv I'oiiNiileralily re.xeinlilin^ 
 it, though eiiNily eiioii{rfi iliNliiifriiiNheil when the 
 ImiilinarkM are vinilile. Ignorant iiilots freipienlly 
 comliii't their Hhiim into tUia inoiitn ; miilaM it riiiiH 
 n|Nin a low ami daiiKerouM Nliore, the eoiiNeqiieiieeei 
 are niontly fatal. TlieNe are the only known mil 
 <laiiK<'>''* of tliiH Hen. (Kton, p. 4-!); .JoneN, ii. 
 iJ«7-H'J7.) On the other hand, the Kiixine is deep, 
 and Hin^iilarly free from rock.H and HlmalN : there 
 are but two iNlnmlH in its whole nren; the iNle of 
 iSerpentN, uff tliu mouth of the Daiiiihe, and Kerpo, 
 or Car|iali,on the shore of Ama Minor, The iiavi- 
 (ratiiiii M therefore of the opcncst kind, and even in 
 the worst of Htornm there is no want of sea room. 
 The larp'st ships may sail close to its hi^fh Nhores; 
 the anuhorap' (rrouiulH arc ynH»\, and hold well ; and 
 nian^ of it8 ports ant excellent. In tine, the 
 Kiixinc may be descrilK-d as a clear open sea, 
 whose navigation is as easy ns possilde to skilful 
 mariners, the bad character which it has so loiiy 
 undeservedly borne lieiiig wholly ascribable to the 
 bail eonstriiction of the vessels, their wont of 
 charts and compasses, and the utter iiica]>acity 
 of the sAilurs by whom, till recently, it has been 
 navifjated. From the ir)th to the latter part of 
 the iMth century, the Turks excluded every other 
 nation from its waters. At Iciif^th the Russians 
 fuii^ht their way to its shores, and in 17<J9 it was 
 partially opened to Krilish and otiier Kiiropean 
 traders. Conventions to the same effect were made 
 with the Turkish Roveniment bytiiieen Klizabeth, 
 James T., and Charles i., &c. (Treoty of Adria- 
 nople, Sept. 1675), but they seem to have Imjcii 
 without any effect ; and it is only, therefore, since 
 the latter date, or from the beginning of the present 
 century, that the Ulack Sea has become known to, 
 and been justly appreciated by, navigators. 
 
 The climate of the Black Sea and its neigh- 
 bouring countries is subject to great extremes, but 
 at an average ia lower than would be supposed from 
 
 iii.ACK mx 
 
 llji Iftlilnde. T1»U would ii«>i«in (o Iw iMc»|»i«l,ir 
 primipnlly to its want of nhelter on ilir N.. n,,. 
 
 IiiiIn from the |Milnr ri'irinim renrhitiK il.ci.H.V , 
 binning oxer its "iirlare, iiiimiiiuiiii'il i-n,,, 
 iierii 
 
 U'imls I'rmn ibe M, 
 ihime from the N., mill having I" elimli ||„, ,„„„^ 
 
 wIiiiIn from the |Milnr rritinim remhing il»ii.ii.i,g,„| 
 the temiierillnre iif the pliiin lilliil iiviT whii l' ||„'| 
 
 pass, NViiiils I'riim ilir M. are U-h* (r,n»,u, nj,,, 
 
 .... ' ''"' ' 
 
 heighlN of till- liiiiruN U'l'iire lliey nm li i|„' ,,,„,| 
 
 Ihev arrive llnre materially rhilli.l. [..y,,,, „„ j,^ 
 S.HliiireN. the N. wind Hiiini'l lines iireventmniviHin,' 
 even in the mmith of .May. ('Ii«iiriulciri, iij. i\- . 
 Its N. niill« ami ba> s ari' in certain ki'iiaiiuh in,/.!',, 
 hard en. High to open a passage I'nr trnii|m; imii it 
 is recnr.led by Stralin (lib. vii.) that tlie i.iii,||,.r, „f 
 Milhri.laleN eiigiip'il tliiiNe of the Taiiri.' (In ^„. 
 nesiiN (Crimea) in the winter, on a pari nt ii,,. 
 llimphnriiN where, in I lie preceding Nimiiiii'r.iiiinvj,! 
 actinii bad been fought. In |ii<i,'i, the wiilih c,| Hi,, 
 strait was iiieasiired on the ice ( I'lillax, ii. Illlii) ; m, 
 eipiiil degree of cold has been expiriiiiiid in 
 several winters williin the present cciiiurv; iin.l 
 
 altliniigh Niich extreme inclemency In iint vi'rvi i'. 
 
 moil, naxigalinii is always siisjirnilid wiilu'Virx' 
 return of winter in the sea of Aasnpli, ainl in...i 
 
 * slisjieliili'il y, 
 
 ea of Aasiipli, 
 whole N. Hliiire 
 
 eiimmonly along tiie wiinie N. HJinre i>r n,, 
 Kiixine. On the oilier hand, the HinniiurK w. 
 iiNiially hot, the tliennonieter in the NJiaili' („■. 
 (pieiitly standing lit !IH°, 1(10°, and even Hr.'o l-niir, 
 It often, however, varies in the same iliiy |r„iii' 
 •-'•JO to 27°, lintli in winter and summer, itihl° in ii,,. 
 former the barnmeter partakes of the irn'Kularii\, 
 but is subject to fewer changes in tin. i,,!!,;,.] 
 Thiiiiiler storms are rare, but treniciiilniiH hIhu 
 they do occur, Is'iiig frcipiently acciiiii|iiiiiii.|| liy 
 destructive hailstones and wate'r-spnuls, riic ill- 
 mate is accounted healthy, except in the aiiiuinii. 
 when bilious fevers are prevalent. The ^<l'll|lr);|.(>|' 
 Mohammedan countries, the plague, is mure iirli^ 
 common all round the I'nasi, but this |.. ii njnM. 
 ipieiice of the tilth of the inhahitants. and imi ..I' 
 the climate. (I'allas, ii. a7l!-;(«(); Mrs. (Julliric, 
 pp. :i:t, .'i.'i, ^c. ; Toiirnel'ort, iii. Iii, il'o.) 
 
 The Kiixine teems with seals, pnrpniitON, ntiir- 
 goons, dolphins, mackerel, miillel, lirenni, aii'l 
 other lisli, mostly of the same kind as tliiiHeemi^lii 
 in the Caspian and Sea of Aral (see ( 'asi-lvn Ska : 
 there are, however, few lisheries oLililislieil nldn^' 
 its shores, though, where tliev do exist, they nn' 
 extremely iirodiictive. (I'lillas, ii. .M, I, '(•.'," :'n;i, 
 l()l-'lti;i ;"( )livier, Voyoge dans I'llinpire Otlioiuaii, 
 i. I.Sf), Ac.) 
 
 There are many conflicting o]ii!uiinfi i» in 
 whether the Kuxinc be or be not of iHTninitfiit 
 magnitude. It was a commonly received (i|iiiiiMii 
 among the ancients, that it was formerly sciinrainl 
 from the Mediterranean, and that the 'fiiraiiaii 
 liosphorns was burst through by a coiiviiImihi nf 
 nature, or by the deluge of Deucnlinii; and Ariv 
 totlc even believes that this event did not Ion;' 
 precede the time of Homer, (.loseplius, Aiitiq, i, 
 il ; Diod. Sic. v. 3 ; Aristotle de Met. xiv, ; I'linv, 
 vi. 1, &c.) Without supposing any great (le),T\t of 
 physical knowledge on the part of the Grwks, it 
 may be supposed that the iiiliab. of the cdiiiitriivi 
 bordering on the Euxine would have a vivid n- 
 colle(;tion of such a catastro|)lie, had it ncciimil, 
 and that, consequently, it would scarcely have bcm 
 an invention or hypothesis of the writers. Add i" 
 this, that geological appearances strongly cmiiinii 
 the supposition ; and the fact, thougli sneond at 
 by some, will appcor not a little pndialilc, (Pallns 
 i. 8(), «3 ; Touniefort, ii. 84()-3it(); Olivier, i, 1:':'; 
 Diireau, de la Malle, Geo. Phys. do la Mir Xoire, 
 pp. 19(>-225.) It will be observed, that anmnjillie 
 ancients only historians and naturalists have l«u 
 cited, but it may be added, that the same revolu- 
 tion is dwelt upon by their iwets and fabulisu. 
 
W.KVK SKA 
 
 (v<> in pnriiciilnr l.ucnn, vl. (>.) Il wiw, in n wonl, 
 ilii' iiriivi'rxAl lM>lii>r iif nil rniil< mul nnliTM. Itiii 
 ,l'thi»i»'ii wcnM'viT iliiiN i'iinilii4 (I, iiN mirl'iiri' inimt 
 {,„vi> Inm'II coiiitlili'rnlily liitthiT ll iii nt |in'Mi'iit ; 
 jii.l tlii« nlto ii|>|H'»rM III Ini till' I'i'i, rriiiii Ihc itf 
 iiiiniilatioii of mill liikcM mul iimii Ih'k in llii> plain 
 
 loiiiitry i>r ill N. iMinliTN, |i i-* cvlilfiii, iml I, 
 
 ilml A ri>*** "C '<'*v liiinilri'it I'lTt in ili« Nnrtiirr 
 
 itiiulil In> qiiil*' NMllli'lcnt III lliMitl tli(> f(ri'iil('r part 
 
 ,.i «.iitlii'ni Kniwiit, till' wliitli> iif^^ liirli, i'\fi>pt till' 
 
 iiiMdiitiiiii'* ••f III*' Crinii'ii, lii'iir tiili'iii iiiurkx nl' 
 
 |i:iviiiK In'I'M Iniil liiirit at n •'•iii>|iitnilivi'ly ri'iriit 
 
 i.riiHl (^alla^ /nmii'm) ; niul tlir wliiili<Hi)|H'ariiiii'i' 
 
 ..I'll* S. "Iior*'!* i* lliut III' a •liininiNlii'il In'iI, I'n- 
 
 hliliiA KiipiHim'K till' Kiixiiii' III III) Krnilnally ilr 
 
 ,fiw\nn ', mill ll*' hiiN iittt'ri'il rt'i <ini<, in Niip|Hiri ul' 
 
 ililHiipiiiliiiif fiinnt'tl on nmnt Hit prt'Miiiw'H than 
 
 iiii'li'iit writiTN iil'it'n ilt'jM'ml >ii (iv. f>). In 
 
 tlii«, liiiwcviT, III' ap|M'arN in h t\< In'«mi niiHtakcii, 
 
 I'lH' I'liMiuc in I'Xti'iit, it' any cvi-r iliil takr plnrc, 
 
 lucmitliiliaviiiK'i'urrt'il nt ntin' with tlm miliMiilcnrt' 
 
 „f till' wnliTH, hy the iipi-iiiiiK ••>' Ihu 'riiriirian 
 
 ||iM|iliiinin. Siiirit lh« a^c ni' I'niyliiiiN no chan^i' 
 
 Hriiitlo have lakdii plarr in ihu fi/v of thi^ Nca; 
 
 liiiiilintit hiiM iM'ciinx' cli'iircr, in cviili'iil I'min twn 
 
 l',ii'tH; lint, that n lmiik,riillril liv I'lilvliinx Strfln- 
 
 |!ri|*i|)i forincil at the iiHMitliit ttt thi' l>aniilH', ami 
 
 miiri' than liiO in. in Ii'm^iIi, lia^ wholly dinaii- 
 
 jHiiri'il i ami that tht' ('yiiiicaii InIi'n, at the inmith 
 
 ..f thi' lliMphiiriii*, MO ('I'lt'liratcil in llic vnyaKi' nt 
 
 III!' ArKiinaiitM, arc now rciliii'i'il to low anil iiini^- 
 
 iiiiii'Aiit prohin^aiionH ot ihii two dpiioniii' HliorcH, 
 
 lUcd, .liiiirii. i. Ill/) ; .Iciiii'N, ii. lit ; OliviiT, i. I'J2.) 
 
 NiitwitliHtHndiii); tlu' horror cntcrlaiiicil liy thi' 
 
 llrfiki, or rathitr tlu; (iruck pociH, of thi.i H<'a, iiH 
 
 tliiiri'iarcfninunx in Iheirlriic ami I'aliiiloiM liiHlury, 
 
 I'lilriii^, thu Tcmiild of tlu' Sun, anil m't'iii' of the 
 
 Art'iinniific (!.\|K!(litioii, were on itM K. coast; the 
 
 I iiuim'riHii Iniiil of ('vcrlaHtin^ (larkiu'SH wiih ori^'i- 
 
 ii.illy lixcd npiiii iti* N. Nhori'; and in iiinrc hi.t- 
 
 wtnl tiini'.'*, tho Lydiaii, I'l'mian, and llv/antiim 
 
 |i<iHW,uiiil iht! cxphiitH of MilhriilalcK, illiiil rated 
 
 III S. and S\V. horderN. At an early period many 
 
 (in'ck coloiiieH were planted on its Mhor's. Itt 
 
 comnii'ri'e wax aim) reekoned of llrxt-rute iiniiort- 
 
 mii'i'. Athenn drew from it her iirineipal supplies of 
 
 iiirii nnil naval stores; and it tnrnished the favmi- 
 
 riti' slaves to the markets of Oreeee and Koine, 
 
 <i\iil iliiMt ill exile somewhere on its Imrders, lint 
 
 uliiilicr on the Daiuihe or l)niestr is disputed. 
 
 ('riiiiith(> time oftNinstaiitinu till the ITilli eentury 
 
 it I'linni'd tlie eeiiln' of the Itoman world, and 
 
 iliiriii); this period, a jiart, at least, of the Indian 
 
 iniik' wa» earricd on lhrou){h it: the Venetians 
 
 will Genoese were the coiKluctors of this tratlie, 
 
 Skiii after the fall of (Jonstaiiiinople in I't.'i.'t, all 
 
 Imt Tiirkisli vessels were excluiU'il from the 
 
 Kiixiiie; and it was not till after the treaty of 
 
 Kiiinarilji, in 1771, that the Kiissian ea^lc was 
 
 ilijpiayi'd on its waters. I'.ver siiieo that time, 
 
 ihiTii has Ik'SIi n powerful Russian tleet of war 
 
 M.iiinneil in the IJlaek Sea. In conse(|nence of 
 
 ilio war iH't ween Htissin and Turkey, the latter as- 
 
 si'iwl by Kn^'land and l<"raiiec, the Czar bound 
 
 hiniKolf, hy the treaty of peace concluded in iNJli, 
 
 III limit Ills tleet of war on the Kiixine to ' six steam 
 
 vessels, measuring 160 metres at their wat«'r-liiie, 
 
 «ik1 four other lijjcht Hailing vessels, not nliove two 
 
 liiimlrpil tons each.' Kiit it is helieved that this 
 
 limiiatiiiii is not strictly adhered to by the liiissian 
 
 piivcnimoiit. 
 
 flic iianie of this sen, Eiwine, is only a mo- 
 ili'niiseil form of the orif^inal (Ircek word afn'o? 
 (iiiliiispitahle), bestowed upon it for the imiiffinnry 
 nasfliw previously nllnded to. It apjiears, liow- 
 'W, that subsequently, the (ireeks imbibed a 
 xmewhat better opinion of it, and changed its 
 
 ULANDFOItr) FOIM'M 
 
 4(19 
 
 denii^nntlim to v,v(„yn% (hiMpiiablc) ; il wn* Mime- 
 tiini's hIno I'nili'd simply iioyro^ (the sea), 't'lin 
 'I'lirklsh nnme is I'aca l>i'iii»i, and the Itusninn 
 t'/orno More, IkiiIi U'Iuk literally trnnslnled in llm 
 term I Hack .Sea. 
 
 ill,.\«'K\VAI,l„ a hninh'i of Knulnnd, co. Mid- 
 dlesex, par. Stepney, nl the conlliii'iu'i' of the l,e« 
 with the 'riinnies. .'i ni. K. St. Paul's, Is'liitt in 
 fact a suburb iif I.ondnn. Here are the I',, and 
 W. Iiidiu Docks for an account of Mbich see 
 
 I.ONIillN. 
 
 lil.AIN.alowu of France, d)ip. Loire Inferii'iire, 
 can. caul., near the rit{bt bank of the Nac, 'J'J tii. 
 NNW. Nantes, on ibc railway fmm Nantes to 
 l.'Orii'iit. Top. tl,7H| in lm;i. The caMlc, of 
 which only a smnll piirt now remains, was fnrmcrly 
 one of the Klrontti'si in llreta^ne. It was partly 
 demolished in lll'it), (.,'alviuisni was early intro- 
 duced into this town, n synml having U'en held 
 here in l.jiio, nt which there were reckoned above 
 1,21)0 I'rolesianis. 
 
 III.AMON r, a town of France, di'p- •!<' I'l 
 Meurlbe, cap. cant., on Ihe Ve/.ouse. I'on, '.*,MO(l 
 in iNiil, The town was burnt down in l.i°.'7 and 
 |ii:iii. It produces yarn for hosiery, mid Iion con- 
 siderable tanneries. 
 
 MI.ANC (I. I',), a town of France, di<p.Indre, 
 cap. armnd., on the Crensi', in a pleasant situaiinn, 
 !t;i m. \VS\V. Chateauroiix, on the railway froiii 
 I'aris to llordeaiix. I'op. .'lMMJ in IHill'. Tlio 
 town is diviiled by the river into two parts, called 
 the liiKh and low towns: ImiiIi arc ill built, piir- 
 licularly the former, the streets of which, besiilcs 
 beiiiK narrow ami crooked, are also precipitous. 
 It is the seal of a tribunal of orii^rinal iiirisiliciiiin. 
 Tben^ now remain but few traces ol its ancient 
 fort iticat ions, which, however, were once slron^; 
 anoii^h to resist several sie>;es. This is a very 
 ancient iilace, aiul was often frciinenied by the 
 lioman legions. The road from I.e Klanc to St, 
 Savin is still called Ihe Lrrrn //»• (Vsiir. 
 
 1ILAN(;(> (CAI'K), a celebrated cape on Ihe 
 W. coast of Africa; lat. 20° Hi' -2(1" N, loiii;. 
 1 7° 4' 10" \V. This cape, which was discovered 
 by the I'ortupiese in MM, forms the exiremitv of 
 a rocky ridjje, called the (Jeb-el-reid, or Wiiile 
 Mountain, proJectin(( into the sea in a S. direction. 
 Inside the cape is n spacious bay, which has on 
 ilM SI''., side the bank and town ol Ar^iiin. 
 
 MLANDFOltl) I<'0I{(;M, a par., Imr., ami town 
 of I'ji^'land, CO. Dorset, bund. Coomirs Ditch, 
 Itlandford (orN.) div., IW m. S\V. I.omloii, on the 
 London and South Western railway. I'op. of 
 parish :<,.'{ ID in Mil, and :i,!M)0 in iHi'.l. It is a 
 neat litlK'town; is situated on a bend of the Slmii', 
 amidst mu^ of the linesl tracts of sheep pasture in 
 in the kingdom; n six-arched liriil;;e crosses the, 
 stream, and there are two others to facilitate the 
 communications of the town during occasional 
 Hoods. The houses are uniform brick structures, 
 arraiifted in reKnlarly-formed, and well paved anil 
 li;;;hted streets. The church is a modern biiililin;^ 
 in the (ireeian style, with n tower and spire. 
 Tli(\re are also nn Independent ehaix'l, a free gram- 
 mar school, and a blue-coat mdiool, each with 
 small endowments; almshouses, supporting ten old 
 people ; a charity jiroducing 120/. a year, for a|)- 
 prenticing poor boys; and another, now producing 
 HOO/. a year, originally left for the pnrposi' of edu- 
 cating V'lur poor children. There is a liaiidsnmo 
 town-hall, and a neat theatre ; and on a tine down, 
 near the town, annual races arc held in AugiiMt. 
 The weekly market is liehl on Saturday, and tlirec 
 annual fairs on March 7, July 10, Nov. «: tlicy 
 are for horses, cattle, and cheese. A manufacture 
 of sbirt-bnitons employs many women and idiil- 
 dreii of the town and iicighboiirhuod, but it is 
 
 \ 
 
 ll 
 
 111 
 
470 IJLANKENHURO 
 
 imirli IcHs Pxtoiinivo limn fomiorly. The Imron^h 
 wiis in('nr]iiiriilc(l l)y clmrtcr of ilrd of .InmoH I., 
 vliiiii nisii frrnntcil tlin iimnor. I'liilor the; Miini- 
 cilKiI I!(.'fctrtn Act llicrc are f.)iir nldornion nnd 
 hvclvocdiiiiciliorM, and llic limilHul'llu'. iKiroiif^liarc 
 rcslrirlcd to t\w town, wlicn- !l!t of every 1(10 of tlie 
 |M)|i. of the par. r<^side, The revenue of tlie coriiorn- 
 lion in derived from lolls of tlie niarkct and fairs, 
 lands, nnd <|nitreiits, and nvernp's about 'J'J.V. a 
 year: tliey li<ild a eourt leet annually. A court 
 of record was granted Uy tlie tir>; charli'r, which 
 has lonj^ lieen disused, Petty sessions for the 
 lllandford div. are held in the town, hy the co, 
 ina>;istrates; and numlhly courts of the hishop 
 and archdeacons of the dioeesn. It is also a poll- 
 in^ town for the count}', nnd the centrnl town of 
 n union of It.'l jiarishes, under the Poor Law Act : 
 it has three );uardiaiis. Its rutes amount to l,il.")()/. 
 Archhishop Wake was n native of the town ; and 
 it f^ives the title of marquis to the Marlhorouj^h 
 faniilv. 
 
 miAN'KK.XniTljr., a town of the Duchy of 
 Ilnmswick. cap. distr., nnd formerly of the pnnci- 
 jiidity of Klankenliurj;, on a rivulet of the same 
 name, .'17 ni. SSK. Ilrunswick. Pop. ;!.!»«(» in IHIil. 
 The town is surrounded Ity widls, has some piod 
 liuiidin^s, in(dudin;; a j^ymnasiimi nnd n school of 
 industry. On n hill inimediatelv adjoininjj; the 
 town is a large heavy-lookiufj palaci^ of the duke 
 of Urunswick : it had n fjood collection of pictures, 
 hut the hestof them have been removed. On the 
 summit of the Hejjenstein, also at a short distance 
 from the town, are the remains of a larf^e castle, 
 ciiustructed liy Henry the Fowler, in !Ui), con- 
 sist inj; of chnrnb(Ts cut out of the rock. 
 
 nr^ANTVKK, n parish of Scotland, (!o. Lanark, 
 in which manutactnres have made fjreat progress. 
 The Itlantyre mills, in the village of lUantyre, on 
 the Clyde, 3 m. W. Hamilton, and 8 m. SK. (ilas- 
 gow, were erccte<l in 178o, for the s|)inning of 
 water twist. In 17',)1, another mill was built for 
 mule twist, both moved by water power. In IHJil, 
 a cotton-weaving factory was established, which 
 employed soon after nearly .ODO hands, the moving 
 power being |)artly water nnd partly steam. The 
 dyeing of Adrianople or Turkey red on cotton 
 yarn has lieen carried on here from the year IHOO. 
 The total number of hands em])l(>yed in these va- 
 rious works, exclusive of the hand-loom weavers, 
 is about 1, <)()(), of whom considerably more than a 
 half are females. There is a scliixd connected 
 with the mills. There is .ilso a library for the 
 use of the workmen, a funeral society, and a so- 
 ciety for religions pur[30ses, all established by the 
 workmen. 
 
 HLAYJ'], a sen-por! and fortidod to'wn of France, 
 (li'p. (iironde, cap. arrond., on the right bank of 
 the (iironde, 34 m. NNW. Uordeaux; lat. -l')" 7' 
 N., h)ng. 0° •!(>' \V. Pop. 4,972 in IKOl. A rail- 
 way, which has its terminus on the op|)ositc bank 
 of the river, connects lUaye with Bordeaux. The 
 jtort is divided into the high and h)w towns ; the 
 i'ormer, however, is merely the castle or citadel, 
 built <m a rock commanding the (Iironde. The 
 river is here about 2,J m. wide; and for its defence 
 Fort Pate has been constructed on an island in its 
 channel, about 1,000 yards from lUaye, and Fort 
 jMedoc on the opposite siilc of the river. All ves- 
 .sels inwnjd bound are required to anchor in the 
 ))ort or road of Blaye, and deliver a manifest of 
 their cargo, and many of the outward-bound ships 
 call here to tnk m board provisions, and complete 
 I heir cargoes. The town has also a considerable 
 tlircct tra<le, exporting -wine, brandy, com, oil, 
 soap, timber, ap])!es. &c. Many of the pilots, so 
 indispensable to slii])s navigating the (jironde, re- 
 side in Dlayc. It has tribunals of original juris- 
 
 ItLKNIIEIM PARK 
 
 diction nnd of commerce, nn ngrieulturnl wicipiv 
 n theatre, «S'c. In the centre of the town is a linn 
 jiublic fountain. Ulaye is very ancient. In i:,i;»( 
 it was taken by the Protestants, and more rwcntlv 
 by (he Leaguers. The extensive marshes by wliich 
 it was formerly surrounded having been (lrnini(| 
 by Henry IV., have become very friiitfal uf inni 
 and other pnxliicts. In IH32, the Duchess nf ilcrri 
 when contined in the castle of Uluyc, was hrnufjla 
 to bed of A daughter. 
 
 HLI;K;HKI{0DK, a town of Prussia, pr„v. 
 Saxony, reg. Kri'urth, between the IJode and tlid 
 Wijiper, 10 m. SW. Nordhuiiscn. Poj). 2,«;)(i in 
 l«(il. The town has some oil-mills and fiilirics u( 
 serges and other descriptions of woollen clntii 
 
 HLHNHi:iM,or IJLINDHKIM ((ienn. 'Home 
 of the lilind'), n small villngo of Havnriii, circ. 
 ITpiKT Dnniibe, on the Danube, near Mi'Mlisicdi] 
 Pop. 7*2.5 in l«(il. This village is famouK in imJ 
 dern history as being the scene of the great Imtilo, 
 fought Aug. 13. 1704, betwc'cn the Fiiglisli ninl 
 Imperialists, under the Duke of Marlhiiriiiifjli nnd 
 PriiK-e Eugene, and the French and liavariim^, 
 tiiuler Marslials Tallnrd and Marsin nnd the F.loi;. 
 tor of Itavaria. Kach army consisted of noarlv 
 «0,000 men. The Kiiglish nnd their allies j;«iiicil 
 n <'om|)letc and decisive victory. Their eiicmiis 
 left above 10,000 men killed nnd wounded on ihc 
 Held ; a vast number more were drowned in ilio 
 Danube, nnd nluive 13,0(Mt were made prisdiiors ; 
 among the latter were Marshal Tallard (whiisc smi 
 was killed) and mnny other otWcers of distiiiclinn. 
 All the artillery, baggage. Sec. of the Frencdi niul 
 Uavarians fell into the hands of the cniiqtiordK 
 The loss of the latter, though severe, wns imt 
 greater than might have been cxi)eeted, tiiiviiii; 
 amoiint<Ml to about 5,000 killed and H.dOO wnundcd. 
 
 IILKXHFIM PARK, an extra-parochial dis- 
 trict of I'^.ngland, co. and liberty of Oxford, (10 m. 
 VVNVV. London. Area 2,700 acres, being thedi'- 
 mesne attached to lilenheim House, an edilicfi 
 erected in the reign of Anne, as a token of ilio 
 national gratitude for the public ser\'iccs rendered 
 by the first Duke of Marlborough : for which piir- 
 |)ose .')00,000/, was voted by parliament, nnd the 
 queen added the honour of Woodstock (an ancient 
 ]>roperty of the crown) to the grant. It was caliod 
 lilenheim from the great b.ittle noticed nlmve. 
 The usual entrance to this sidendid domain is 
 from the Woodstock side, under n triumpliiil anli- 
 way of the Corinthian order, erected by the lipt 
 duchess. Fronting the palace is n fine sheet if 
 water, partaking of the character both of a hiko 
 nnd river, and winding away through a deep vale; 
 this is spanned by a magnificent bridge, nnd mi 
 nn eminence beyond the bridge, in the midst uf a 
 fine lawn, is a fluted Corinthian pillar, 130 ft. lii!;li, 
 surmounted by a statue of the duke in a Hwiwii 
 dress ; on one side the iiedestul is an inscriiitimi 
 (writ ten by Lord 15<dingbrokc) reciting his piililic 
 services ; on the others, the acts of parliament 
 declaratory of his services, and abstracts of tlie 
 entail of his estates nnd honours. The mnnsien 
 occupies three sides of n |)arallelogram. the jiriii- 
 cipnl front ''eing X., nnd the K. and \V. siib 
 forming wings for the domestic offices, stables, &(■.; 
 a terrace with several flights of steps gives (Iiid 
 eflcct to the elevations. The north or priiit'i|«i 
 front extends 348 ft. from wing to wing ; it Im 
 five compartments, nnd is highly enriched, es- 
 pecially the central one, which has a Coriiitliiiui 
 portico and fine pediment at the height of twn 
 floors ; over which is nn attic storj'. The south 
 or garden fnmt is of a plainer character ; but its 
 compartments corresporul with the other, and a 
 flight of steps leads to n portico, over the enta- 
 blature of which is a colossal bust of Louis Xl\., 
 
lakpn from the patowny i>( Tournny. Tlio info- 
 rior is inaKiiilitMMitly tiiUMlKMl, niid CDiitaiii.s ii liiu> 
 (nllo('tii)ii of wiilptnrcs, |)iiiiitiii;,rs, and tap<'Htry. 
 A wcll-l«iH>wii Hntiriciil ci)ii|il('t raiscit n iirujiiilicii 
 .i::;iiiisl tlii" iiiil>le pilf, wliicli prcvcMitcMl, fur n 
 iHiflthi'iu'il ]K'rio(l, a fair estiiiuite Ih'Iiik fortnc'd of 
 in merits. The delaiis liavc^ liccii wviToIy criti- 
 ciM'd; and wnno of tlicm may l)« open to wiKturu. 
 Hut whatever may he the defeetM of particuhtr 
 |.;irts, tliev are hist in the tout vnseinhle. 'J'he 
 :;i'iu'ral erteet. of the hiiiliiiii^ in excelU'iit; it.s 
 iiarii* seem to l>e admirahly eomhiiied, and it lia.s 
 ■\ must ma(;nilieent Appearanec. It is now, indeed, 
 ailinitted hy genera! eonsent to he a noble proof 
 III' the jjenius of it.s nn^hileet, Sir J, Vanhiir^'h, as 
 well lis an ' illnstrions monument of Marlburougli's 
 itlnry, ami of Hritain's gratitude.' 
 
 ItLKKIv, a town of Frnnee, <lep. Indro et Loire, 
 cap. cant., on tlic (3her, 17 m. KSIC. Tours, near 
 the railway from Tours to lJonr>;es, Pop. 3,477 in 
 is(il. The castle of Chenoneeanx, onee the 
 iinipcrty and residenec of the celebrated Diana of 
 riiiiiers, is situated in tlie immediate vicinity of 
 llliie. Diana, haviiifj hwn (lispossessed of the 
 (iisile hy her rival. Catherine de Medici, the latter 
 siirrmiiiiled it with n sniierh park. After many 
 vioi.isitiides, it was accpiired, in 17!i'(, hy M. Dupin, 
 a dcntleinan distin^^tiished by his wealth and 
 |pamin{,', hut more by the wit and beauty of his 
 wifp. Under it.s new master Chenoneeanx be- 
 came the resort of some of the most illustrious 
 |Hrsniiaf;es of the IHth century, incrlndin;;, anionic 
 iiilicrs, Voltaire, Montesquieu, liutfon, I<'ontenelle, 
 anil lltilingbrokc. Housseau wrote several piecc-s 
 fiiflhe theatre of Chenoneeanx, and it was here 
 iliftt the Devin de Vitlfit)e first a]i]iean'd. Chenon- 
 ccaux escaped the revolutionary frenzy, and con- 
 liiiiics to be one of the most interestiiif^ objects in 
 tills part of France. 
 
 IlLKTCllINGLY, a par. and town of England, 
 cii, Surrey, hnnd. Taiiri(l;ie, 1(! m. S. of London, 
 (III tlic South- Ka.stern railway. I'oj). of ])arish 
 !,01 in IHt)l. The town is situated near the end 
 of t';e chalk raufje that traverses the Co., and com- 
 mands extensive views. The church is n line 
 spfcimcu of the earlier (lotliic! style : there is ail 
 ciulDWcd school for 20 hoys, 1 1 almshouses, and 
 N'Vtml small (charitable (lonations. There are '2 
 annual fairs, held June 2'2, and Nov. 2; the hitter 
 is for liorse.s, pij^s, and lean cattle. Its ancient 
 weekly market lias been hinj; di.scontiniied. The 
 iiiiuil). are chielly eiiga{;e<l iii agriculture : the 
 upper part of the ^lar. (in wliich the town is 
 (•iiiiiituil) is a sandy and clialkj' soil, the lower part 
 ilay, HIetchingly returned 2 mem. to the 1 1, of 
 ('.from the 23d of Edw. I. till the iiassing of the 
 llefiinn Act, by which it was disfranchised ; the 
 n;'lit (if election was in the IkiIiKts of burgage 
 Ivmires, amounting to 130. A castle, built .soon 
 aflor the Conquest, formerly stood on the brow of 
 a liill at the W. end <if the town. There are some 
 vostigcs in this parish of the rcsideiuse of Earl 
 (iiiihvin, who retreated hither when his Kentish 
 ('>latcs were inundated : the railway passes through 
 it. nil the N. side. 
 
 liLOIS, a town of France, cap. dep. Loir et 
 I'lior, on the acclivity of a hill on the right bank 
 I'f the Loire, 35 m.'SSW. Orleans, on the rail- 
 My from Paris to Ilordeaux. I'op. 20,231 in 
 Wlil. IJloi.s is neither a large, a well-built, nor a 
 iMilsome town; on the contrary, many of its 
 liimsea are mean and its streets narrow, crooked, 
 ami sumetimes not accessible to carriages; but it 
 i> remarkable from the beauty of its situation, its 
 mitiiiuity, its monuments, and the historical events 
 "iwiiidiit has been the theatre. At one cxtre- 
 niiiyufthe town is the castle, and at the other 
 
 nOTlROV 
 
 •171 
 
 the rntlirdrnl. The former is an immense pile, 
 built at ditVerent epochs and in diU'crent styles of 
 architecture. Louis XII. was born in this castle; 
 and in it also Margaret of Anjou was married ti> 
 the Due d'Aleii(;on, and Margaret of Vulois to 
 Henry IV. lint it (h^rives its principal interest 
 from events of a very dill'erent character. Here, 
 in December, loHS, the Due de (iiiise, and his 
 brother the Cardinal, were basely murdered by the 
 onU-r, and almost in the presence, of Henry 111. 
 This also was the sct-ne of the imprisonment of 
 Mary, and of the death <if Catherine de Medici. 
 The last rays of glory fell on this casih; in IKM, 
 when Maria Louisa held her court in it at\er the 
 capitulation of Paris. It is now occii|iitMl as a 
 barrack. The cathedral is a handsome edifice; 
 but the tiiiest building in the town is the hotel of 
 the prefecture, formerly the epi.scopal palace. The 
 view from its gardens is extensive and line. In 
 the church of St. Vincent are line monument.s to 
 (iaston, Due d'Orleans, and a daughter of that 
 jirince. A suburb on the opposite side of the river 
 IS c<iiinected with the town by ii handsome bridge; 
 of 1 1 arches, begun in 1717. The most ancient 
 inoiiument in the town is a su]icrli a(|iiediict, as- 
 <-rilied to the L'omans, cut in the solid rock. It is 
 in excellent preservation, and conveys the waters 
 of s(!veral spring.s, a distance of about half a mile, 
 toareservoirclo.se to the town, whence they an; 
 distributed among |iulilie fountains disper.se<l in 
 different parts of the city. lUois is the .s«cat of a 
 bishopric, a court of original jurisdiction, a ile- 
 partmental college, a diocesan seminary, and a 
 secondarj" ecclesiastical school; a botanical garden, 
 founded by Henry IV^. ; a public library, with 
 I !(,000 volumes ; a myal society of agriculture; a 
 departmental nursery, &e. It has also a port, well 
 frequented by the craft navigating the Loire; ii 
 theatre, an abattoire, and a Ui'/i6t d'i'fal(ni.i. It 
 |iroduces .serges, hosiery, and gloves, cutlery and 
 hardware, and leather, and lias a eonsi(U-rabh- 
 trade in wines, spirit.s, vinegar, lirewood, and 
 staves, liquorice, and other articles. IJernier, tin; 
 celebrated Eastern traveller, wjis a native of 
 l(hii.s. 
 
 IJLYTIIE (S.) or BLYTII NOOK, a sea-port 
 town of England, co. Northumbitrland, on the 
 IJlytli, 12 m. N'E. Iiv N. Newca.Mle-on-Tvne. and 
 « m. 8E. by E. Jloriietli. Pop. in 1«0I, l',2W! ; in 
 1H31, L'.lll"; and 1,!».)3 in l«(il. It will be seen 
 that the pop. is almost on a standstill. The town 
 is situate on the S. side of the river, where it dis- 
 charges itself into the (iermaii Ocean, and con- 
 sisted till lately of a few narrow ill-laid-out streets; 
 but mo(hTn inqirovenieiits an; giving it a new 
 aspect. Its church is a chapel of ease to the 
 pari.sh church of Iv'irsdon ; Methodists, Presby- 
 terians, and other di.ssenters have ]ilaces of worship. 
 The coal trade is «'arried on to a considerable ex- 
 tent, and iron from the nedlington works is largely 
 exported. The harbour is excellent for ships of 
 small burden, affording free entrance and safe 
 aucliorage in all seasons; and the coa.st for some 
 miles is peculiarly adapted for bathing. There is 
 here a dry (hick, a custom-hou.se d(!pend(!nt on 
 that of Newcastle, a lighthouse, and a beacon- 
 light. 
 
 liOAVISTA, the most easterly of the Cape de 
 Verde islands, whi(;h se(!. 
 
 HOBIJIO, a town of Northern Italy, prov. 
 ( Jenoa, on the Trebbia, 34 m. NE. Genoa. I'op. 
 4,.')30 in 185K. The town is surrounded by walls, 
 and is the seat of a bishopric, and of a tribunal of 
 original juri.s(Hcti(m. It was ceded to Sardinia in 
 1743, by Austria. 
 
 IM^HROV, a town of Knssia in Europe, gov. 
 Voroiiege, on the Uitioug, 52 m. SE. Vorouege ; 
 
 I' 
 
 11 
 
 l»l 
 
472 
 
 BOBRUISK 
 
 lat. 50° 5' N., lonp. 40O 10' E. Pop. 3,502 in IflSfl. 
 Tim town has two churctics, nnd incliulcs a larRC 
 npare laid ont in (cnrdcnR. It derives its name 
 from the niimljcr of l)eaver8 {hobry) fomicrly found 
 in its vicinity. 
 
 HOHHUI.SK, or BOniMSK, a town of Knssia 
 in Europe, (jov. Minsl<, on the llol)ruia, where it 
 (nils into the Here/.ina, cap. dist. 00 m. SE. Minsk. 
 I'op. 22,055 in 1H58. The town was strongly for- 
 tified in IHIO and IK 1*2, and was ineffectually 
 attacked bv the French during the last of those 
 years. It has four churches nnd a gymnasium. 
 
 HOCHNIA, a town of (Jalicia, cap. circ, near 
 the Haha, 25 miles ESE. Cracow, on the railway 
 from Oracow to Vienna. I'op. 5,500 in 1H57. The 
 town has a gymnasium, and a Imard for the ad- 
 ministration of mines and salt-works. For an 
 account of the latter, which are very extensive, 
 see VViEijcZKA. 
 
 IlOClKJI.l), or noCKHOLT, a to^vn of Prussia, 
 prov. Westphalia, reg. Munster, on the Ahe', 15 m. 
 ENE. Cleves. Pop. b,\m in IHfil. There are 
 rich iron-mines in its vicinity; audit has some 
 trade, in corn and spirits, with manufactures of 
 cotton and silk. 
 
 ]K)CHUM, a town of Prussia, prov. West- 
 phalia, reg. Anisherg, cap. circ, 25 m. NE. I>ils- 
 seldorf, on the railway from DUssoldorf to Milnster. 
 I'oj). 9,855 in 18(il. The town has three churches 
 nnd a college, and manufactures of cloth, steel, 
 iron, and jewellery. 
 
 UOCKlX(i, a par. and village of England, co. 
 Essex, liund. Ilinckford: area of par. 3,800 acres. 
 Pop. 8,555 in J8(il. The village, almost con- 
 tiguous to Hraintree, nnd 31 m. E. by N. London, 
 consists principally of a single street, extending 
 along the high road from Ix)ndon to the E. coun- 
 ties. There are 8(!vcral com and fulling mills on 
 the river Drain. It has a free school, endowed by 
 Dr. (iauden, bishop of Worcester, for the education 
 of 30 boys ; an almshouse, founcled in the reign of 
 Henry VI. ; and some other charities. (See 
 Bkaintree.) 
 
 HODMIN, a bor. and town of England, co. 
 Cornwall, bund, Trigg, 25 m. W. by N. Plymouth 
 on the (ireat Western railway. Bodmin is nearly 
 in the centre of the county, is built on a gradual 
 acclivity, between two hills, and consists chiefly 
 of one main street nearly a mile in length. The 
 houses are an intermixture of low irregular 
 ancient structures, nnd neatly built modem ones. 
 The chiu'ch (rebuilt about a.d. 1472) is a spacious 
 structure in the later (lothic style, situated in the 
 vale of the E. end, whence the town gradually 
 ascends. The Calvinists, Wesleyans, and Brj'an- 
 ites have each cliapels. There is an endowed 
 grammar-school, founded by Elizabeth, and a 
 national girls' school. The town-hall was origi- 
 nally the refectorj' of St. Austin's Priory ; each of 
 its ends are fitted as courts of justice, and the in- 
 termediate area used as a corn-market ; over the 
 whole are grand jury and public assembly-rooms. 
 The population of the municipal borough was 
 4,4()6, and of the pari, borough 6,381 in 1861. The 
 pari, boundaries comprise the entire parish, and 
 als the adjoining parishes of Hclland, Lanivet, 
 anu Lanhj'clrock, in all an area of 16,300 acres. It 
 has returned 2 mem. to the H. of C. since the 23d 
 of Edw. I. ; the right of election having been 
 vested, previously to the Reform Act, in tlie cor- 
 poration. In 1864 thv>re were 408 registered 
 electors. The market is held on Saturday, and it 
 has several fairs. The chief manufacture is shoes, 
 of which a considerable number are made, and 
 sold at the different markets and fairs of the 
 county. A brunch railroad, commencing at Wade 
 bridge (at the head of I'udstow harbour), about 
 
 BOGNOR 
 
 (> m. in a NW. direction, tcrminntrs nt the hack of 
 the town, by which coals and other artiolcn are 
 brought to it, as well as lime and sen snnil to tlic 
 agricultural district through which itpasws. lt(H| 
 mill is governed by a mayor, 3 aldermen, mu| \'> 
 councillors. It is a stannary town, and Imil at nil 
 early period the privilege of stamping tin. The 
 summer assizes, 3 of the general (lunrtor sessldns 
 nnd the electitm courts for the E. division of Corn- 
 wall, are held here. 
 
 BCEOTIA, a famous region of ancient, nnd now 
 of indep. Greece, prov. E. Hellas, nnd fnrniinL' the 
 N. part of the monarchy of Attica antl Iki'ciiii 
 between lat. 38° 9' and 38° 44' N., long. 22° ;,';(' 
 nnd 23* 49' E. ; shape triangular, having X\v 
 Phocis, N. the Opuntian Locris, NE. the clmiinclil 
 of Talanda and Egripo, and S. Attica and the 
 Corinthinn Gulf; length E. to W. about 42 m.- 
 greatest breadth 27 m. ' ' 
 
 Its mountains, the most celebrated of wliirh Ls 
 Zagora (an. Heliam) mostly surround or divide it 
 into two principal basins, those of the (lepliisus 
 and Thebes. Its chief rivers arc the tiavrins 
 (Cejihisim) and the Asopo (Agopun). It oontainn 
 three lakes, those of Ttpolias (Copaui), Sarzina 
 (Hi/lira), and Paralimni; the first the largest iii 
 Greece. It is a high, but well-watered region ; 
 and as many of the streams find their wav, nnd 
 the lakes a vent to the sea, only by menus Iif siih- 
 terrancous courses, marshes abound; nnd tjic 
 atmosphere is damp, foggy, oppressive, nnd un- 
 healthy in some places, as at Livadia, whore inter- 
 mittent fevers are prevalent. The fertility of 
 B(eotia is, however, such, that it has alwayi, nn 
 abundant crop, though elsewiiere famine sIkhiM 
 prevail. The land is well cultivated, es|)e<iailv 
 with wheat, rice, madder, cotton, maize, hemp, and 
 tobacco. Helicon is clothed in its lower parts with 
 evergreens ; above these there is a forest of pines, 
 and its top is often capped with snow ; kermes oak 
 grows abundantly, and 6,000 okes (258,00(1 lbs.) of 
 gall-nuts are collected yearly. Tlie lake Topolias 
 still produces the reeds anciently so celebrated for 
 rustic Hutes, and Boeotian pipers are still in hidli 
 repute. Most of the cottnges in the neighiwnrlKKid 
 are built of these reeds. Flocks of bustards inhabit 
 the banks of Topolias ; and its large eels, dried and 
 salted, form a considerable article of trade. Many 
 spots in BoMitia present striking scenery. It forms 
 two eparchies, those of Thebes ( TTiiva) and Livadia, 
 which are its two principal towns. 
 
 BOGENDOKF, a village of Prussia, prov. 
 Silesia, reg. Liegnitz, 18 m. WSW. Sngan. Pop. 
 1 ,750 in 1861 . The village has in its vicinity 
 mines of the precious metuls, and of copiw and 
 lead. 
 BOGLIPOOR. See Bhaugui.pore. 
 BOGNOK, a marit. town and chapelry of Eng- 
 land, CO. Sussex, rape Chichester, hund. Aldwick, 
 par. S. Bersted, 56 m. SW. by S. London, at the 
 terminus of a branch line of the London, Brighton, 
 and South Coast railway. Pop. 2.523 in IXtil. 
 The town is situated on the coast between Selsey 
 Bill and Worthing, amidst rocks that extend in a 
 curving direction 2 or 3 m. into the sea, and make 
 it inaccessible except to the smaller class of coasting' 
 vessels ; there is a good beach, and evcrj' accom- 
 modation for bathing. Previously to 1780 it was 
 a small fishing village, and this is still the occupa- 
 tion of its resident population, who send tlicir 
 produce to the London market. In the above 
 year Sir K. Hotham commenced building a villa 
 and some good lodging-houses, since wliich this 
 watering-jilacc has continued to enlarge, and forms 
 a favourite resort for those who seek retirenicnl, 
 rather than gaiety, in occasional change of scene. 
 It is sheltered on the N. by the South Down hill-, 
 
BOGODOUKHOF 
 
 n ranpe extending from P<irUtl(iwn to Dover. The 
 l>(irti<mouth and Arundel C'annl pasMeH within 3 in. 
 There arc Episcopal, Iiidc|)cndcnt, and WcHlcyan 
 chaiiel^i <( school, in which 20 ^irls are clothed 
 ind educated ; another ^founded hy the late I'rin- 
 ccds Charlotte) for 50 fjirls ; and pwid hotels and 
 liHli^n^-houHes for the accommodation of visitors. 
 The regulation of the town is placed under com- 
 niuwiuncrs (by an Act of Parliament), who meet 
 monthly, and levy a duty of '2s. a chaldron on 
 (■(paK to defray the exjienses of re|>airing roads, 
 lie. Weekly markets are held, in a spacious modem 
 iiiarkcl^phice, on Thurs<lay and Soturday, and on 
 aninial fair on the ftth and fith of Julv. 
 
 ltOG()UOUKIIOF,orlK)(iODUCtlOVV,atown 
 of Kussia in £uropc, gov. Kharkof, ca)). distr., on 
 ihe Slerlo. 60 m. NE. Poltava ; lat. 50° 2' N., long. 
 3,^0 50' E. Pop. 10,000 in J 858. The town is 
 mirrouiuled by a rampart and a tlitch. The in- 
 habitants arc principally employed in tanning and 
 (Ircs.'tin); leather, and making it up into boots and 
 nhijes ; they also carry on a considerable tratlo in 
 cattle and hides. 
 
 ItOtiOKODlTSK, a town of Russia in Europe, 
 gov. Tula, cap. distr., at the conHuence of the 
 licmioi-t Mipert and the Viarkova, -JO ni. SSE, Tula. 
 I'op. 4,51)4 in 1858, The town has an Imperial 
 castle and four churches. The country round is 
 iinHJuctive of corn, hemp, flax, and honey, which 
 furm the principal obiects of the trade of the town, 
 llOGOTA (fonnerly Santa Fe de Bogota), a city 
 of Colombia, of which it is the cap. aiul the seat of 
 the government, on an elevated plateau at the foot 
 of Mount Chingasa, 8,615 ft. above the level of the 
 m; 225 ni. E. the Pacitic Ocean, 50 m. E. the 
 river Magdalena, C5 m. SE. Hondo, and 131 m. 
 NE. Xeyva; lut., 4° 37' N„ long. 74° 10' W. 
 Pop, from 30,000 to 40,000. Owing to its elevo- 
 lion, the city enjoys o line and equable tempera- 
 ture; tiie climate, however, is exceedingly humid, 
 though not unhealthv. The first a[)i)earttncc of 
 the towi from the J^W. is very imposing: being 
 huilt on rising ground, it forms a sort of amphi- 
 theatre, and the white towers of the cathedral and 
 the monasteries of Montscrrot and Guadalupe are 
 mn seated on lofty peoks behind it. Streets gene- 
 rallv narrow, but regular, intersecting each other 
 at nght angles, and some having a stream of water 
 constantly tlowing down the middle ; oil of them 
 are paved, ond the principal ones hove footp* ihs. 
 The cliicf street, or Calle Real, has at its extrei^iity 
 the plofa mayor, or principal square, where the 
 market is held ; it is formed by the cathedral, the 
 palace of the president, and the custom-house, 
 Ikiguta being subject to frequent earthquakes, the 
 houses are low, with thick walls, elegance being 
 commonly sacrificed to solidity. Nearly half the 
 area of the city is occupied by religious structures ; 
 there are 26 churches, besides the cathedral, 9 
 munasteries, and 3 nunneries ; ond four-sixths of 
 tlie houses in Bogota ore said to belong to them. 
 The cathedral, built in 1814, ond distinguished by 
 the simplicity of its interior, wos destroyed by an 
 earthquake in 1827. Most of the other churches 
 are more remarkoble for gorgeousness and gilding 
 than for taste ; gems ore lavished in profusion upon 
 the statues. The palace of the former viceroys of 
 New Granada, now occupied by the president of 
 the republic, can boast no architectural beauty. 
 The mint is a large plain building. There are 
 three sets of barracks, two quarteh, and an artillery 
 ilriwt, where all military equipments are made, and 
 itticles of European monufacture repaired ; some 
 •if tlic convents luive hospitals attaclieil, but they 
 are wretcliedlj' conducted, and very dirty. It has 
 a imivercity and three colleges, the principal of 
 «liidi belongs to the Jesuits ; a school of chemistry 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 473 
 
 and mineralogy; a Lancastrian school on the most 
 liberal principles ; a national academy ; and a 
 public library, 'fhero is a theatre, a well-con- 
 structed building, and well attended ; but the per- 
 formances ore bod. The private houses in liogota 
 ore constructed of sun-dried brick, wnitewashed, 
 and tile<l ; latterly their style has been considerably 
 im])rovcd. licams are now concealed by a ceiling ; 
 glass has been introduced into, and barricades re- 
 moved from, the windows; the street doors ore 
 better painted, and light balconies have liegun to 
 supersede enormous and heavy galleries. In gene- 
 ral, the houses ore built with o court in the centre, 
 round which nnis a gallery or a covcreil terrace. 
 The furniture is simple, but European carpets ami 
 other manufactures ore now in verv geiU'rul use. 
 There are no chimneys, stoves only being used. 
 In the principal streets, the ground floors are 
 occupied by shops ; these arc, however, dirty and 
 dark, and the only admission for daylight is by 
 the door. Almost every inhobitiuit, not in the 
 employ of government, in the church, or in the 
 umiv, is o shopkeeper. ' Seated upon his counter, 
 smoking incessantly, and giving laconic answers 
 to his customers, the Colombian merchant in many 
 respects resembles those of Smyrna or Alejjpo.' 
 The city is very badly lighted; tliere ore no com- 
 m<m Sf'vers; and the filth being cast into the 
 streams that nm through the streets renders them 
 hifectious. Owing to tlic scantiness of the popula- 
 tion, and the want of carriages, some of the streets 
 ore overgrown with grass. 'I'he market is well and 
 cheaply supplied with provisions; but European 
 manufactures are said to be extravagantly dear. 
 There are no carts or vehicles of any description, 
 traffic being carried on exclusively bv m»des. The 
 environs of Bogota are agreeable, but little fre- 
 (juented, the favourite promenade being the 
 alameda, or public walk, at one of the entrances 
 to the town. The costume of the females is pecu- 
 liar. Rich and poor dress alike otit of doors : the 
 mantilla is worn ; a piece of blue cloth envelopes 
 the head, and covers all the features excepting the 
 eyes, reaching to the waist; aiul the whole is 
 crowned by a broad-brimmed beaver hat. The 
 women of Bogota are generally acknowledged to 
 be handsome ; their comj>lcxions are fair and 
 clear; their physiognomy is S]>anish. Visiting, 
 evening parties, balls, masquerades, and religious 
 processions are their chief amusements; as bull- 
 fights, cock-fights, the theatre, and gombling are 
 those of the men. 
 
 BogotA was founded by Gonzolo Ximencs de 
 Quesada, who built twelve huts here in 1538 ; in 
 1548 it was created a city, and made the seat of a 
 roj'al audiencia; and in 1.5()1 advanced to the ho- 
 nours of a metropolitan see. It was the capital 
 of New Granada, while a colony of Spain ; a dis- 
 tinction which, since the war of liberation^ it has 
 changed for the greater one it at present enjoys, 
 as the head city of o free state. 
 
 BOGWANGOLA, on inl, town of Hindostan, 
 prttv. Bengal, 8 ra, NE. Moorshedabad ; lat, 
 24° 21' N., long, 880 29' E. It is built entirely of 
 bamboo, mats, and thatch ; but is a place of con- 
 siderable trade, and from hence the cap. of the 
 district is chiefly supplied with grain. 
 
 BOHAIN, a town of France, de'p. Aisne, cap. 
 canton, 16 m. NNE. St. Quentin, on a bran<!h line 
 of the Northern of France railwoy. Pop, 5,051 in 
 1861. It has a fabric of Germanclocks a carillon, 
 and produces shawls and gauzes. 
 
 BOHEMIA (German Bohmen, Boh. Czech) 
 (Kingdom of), an inland country, occupying the 
 centre of Euroiie, and forming an important por- 
 tion of the Austrian empire, between lat, 48° 31' 
 and 510 3' N., and long. 12° 5' and 16° 46' E., 
 
 ;i:<i 
 
471 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 Imviiif^ NE. rnisKUin Silrsin, X. nml WV. Snxony, 
 iS\V. llnvnrin, nn<l 8. niid SK. tho nrclidiirliy of 
 Aiistrin and Mornvia. Sliapo. nil irregular riiom- 
 Ixiid ; Kri-fttcHt Ini^'lh, E. niid VV., '2<l(> in. ; j^rrntcst 
 brcnilth, N. tc H., 170 m. Tho total area of tlic 
 kiiiplom amountH to SI02'85 ^ ixtrinn, or '20,2wr) 
 Kii^HhIi Hqiiar(> milrH. The po|iulation luimborod 
 i!,H->H,749 ill 1881, and had iiUTcascd, at the fjcnc- 
 ral census of Oct. 31, 1857, to 4,705,525. Aliout 
 two-thirds of the number hi)fak th<! Slavonic, and 
 the rest the Cierman lanf^iwif^c. liolieniia is more 
 densely po])ulatcd than any other part of the 
 Austrian empire. 
 
 Mountuinx and B'wem, — Hohemia ia a 1)anin, 
 surrounded on every side by nioiintain-raiiK't's, 
 which in some parts rise to upwards of 5,000 ft. in 
 height. l"'r(iin the I"'ichtelnel)irne (pine mountains), 
 noiir the W. extremity, the chain called the Erz^e- 
 hirge (ore mountains) runs NE., forminp the 
 liiiiindary between liohemia and Saxony, as far as 
 the exit of the Elbe from the first-mentioiu'd 
 eountrj'. The highest point of this range is the 
 Schwa'rzwald, about 4,000 ft. above the sea; 
 ]iarallel to it is the Jlittelgcbirge (midland moun- 
 tains), which runs as far as tlie 1. Iinnk of the 
 Elbe. From the r. bank of the Elbe, E. and SE., 
 forming in part the frontier against I'russia, run a 
 scries of chains entitled successively the Lannit/er, 
 Iser, Kiesen (giant), and Sudetengebirgc, the 
 loftiest point of which, the Snow-cap, is from 5,200 
 to 6,400 ft. in height. The SW. border is formed 
 by the Uiihmerwald, or lloheniian forest moun- 
 tains, included in the llercynian forest of tiie 
 ancients, and a branch from the Fichtelgebirge: 
 tiicy are wild and precipitous, and contrast re- 
 markably with the Moravian chain in the SE., 
 which is of gentle ascent, varying from 2,000 to 
 H,{(00 ft, in height, and separating the atlluents of 
 the Elbe from those of the Danube. Within these 
 boundaries, Uohcniin presents an undulating sur- 
 face, with an inclination for the most part towards 
 tlie N. ; its hills are sonxiiines steep, and even 
 ])rccipitous, but rising generally no liigher than 
 aimiit 600 or (i()0 ft. al)ove the level of tlie sea. 
 
 ISohcmia forms, in fact, an elevated plateau, 
 sloping towards the N., and drained by the Elbe, 
 which traverses two-thirds of its breadtli, aiul 
 receives the numerous brooks and streams that 
 descend from its lofty barriers. The sources of 
 this great river are in the Uiesengebirge moun- 
 tains, whence it descends, in a S. direction, to 
 I'nrdubitz, and thence W. as far as IMelnik, where, 
 after receiving the jMoldaii, it becomes navigable. 
 In its course to tlie frontier of Saxony, it is joined 
 besides by the Adler, at Kiinigiiigratz, the Iser, 
 and the Eger ; the Wattawa, Sa>!awa, J{eramika, 
 and LuHchnilz fall into the IMoldau before its 
 junction with the Elbe. Tho Moldau is navigable 
 from Budweis, and a railway between that town 
 and Linz, on the Danube, completed as early as 
 1824, forms a connecting link of communication 
 between the German Ocean and the lilack Sea. 
 This lUidweis-Linz railroad was one of the lirst in 
 J'',urope ; but being only adapted to carriages drawn 
 by horses, and having to pass over considerable 
 lieights, which occasion much difficulty and ex- 
 j)cnse in transporting goods, tiie atlvantages it 
 ntl'orded were insuilicient to divert the course of 
 trade into this new channel. 
 
 Minerals. — The mineral riches of Bohemia are 
 of considerable importJince and value. From the 
 liUh to the J 7th centuries, considerable quantities 
 of gold and silver were obtained ; the first is now, 
 however, no longer met with, except occasionally 
 in small quantities, in the beds of some of the 
 streams ; but above 20,000 marks of silver are still 
 obtained annually from the lead mines. The latter 
 
 produce about fi0,00n cwts. n year of load nn i 
 litharge. Iron is found in most jiarfH of the kit" 
 <iom, but the prodiu't is but trilling, not eMvoilim, 
 from 15.000 to 20,000 tons a vear. There ar( nU^ 
 tin mines fthe only ones in the Austrian (l(,mi' 
 nions), with mines of copper, zinc, f.i„„„| " 
 arsenic, cobalt, *c. Coal is prettv nbundanf i.nr 
 ticula ly in the N. parts of the kingdom- niiil il,c 
 prodi'.co, which has increased verv rapiiDv nf lit.. 
 yean:, is above 100,000 tons a vear. TliVre arc a 
 great variety of mineral springs, those of Tiipii,^ 
 Carlsba(i, and Seidlitz having a Eiironcaii rfimii' 
 tioii. Aliout 800,000 bottles of water from tl','',' 
 springs are annually exported. All the salt iiw.l 
 in Bolemia is imported. The Mdrking of ih,. 
 mines is superintended by two mining commix- 
 sions, at .loachimsthal and rrzibratn, Indcr tlu i' 
 are 23 inferior mining courts and Imuiches liu. 
 miners having their own codes of law and onikt: li 
 courts of justice ; the whole is controlled hv n de- 
 partment of the niinistrk- of liiiance at Viciiiia. 
 
 Climate ycry healthy, but, from the elevation of 
 the country, it is, on the whole, rather cold, in 
 the mountainous regions, the snow, whicli often 
 lies 12 ft. deep, does not disapjiear until A|iril- 
 the mildest climate is that of the valley of ilu' 
 Elbe. At Prague, the mean temperature of tho 
 year is about 47° Fahr. The prevalent winds iire 
 M'esterly. 
 
 SoU and ApriruUnre. — The soil of Bolicniia rnn- 
 sists iirincipally of a clayey loam, but in i)nrls 
 sandy loams and sand jiredoniinate. In sonic of 
 the mountainous circles there is a good deal of 
 waste land ; but, speaking generally, the vailcvs 
 are vcrj- fertile. The finest land is in the eirclcnf 
 Saaz. Of the total area of the kingdom, amoiintin-' 
 to 20,285 Eng. sq. m., or 12,!»«2,0O0 Eng. aires, ft 
 is estimated that 1 l,050,(i73 acres are iinilcr culture 
 or other^vise productive, being distributed as fol- 
 lows : — Arable lands, 5,5;i2,5(/9 acres ; comniiiii 
 pasture lands, 8G!»,()(i2 acres; woods, 3,H!t;i,2l.') 
 acres ; vineyards, fi,357 acres ; meadows and pnr- 
 deiis, 338,1)30 acres; the rest being Imrren mdiiii- 
 tniiis, water, roads, and other uiicultivalile lands 
 Here, as in all the rest of tiermaiiy, rje forms tlic 
 ((rincipal crop, and next to it is'oats, and then 
 barley and wheat. Potatoes are now very (Xteii- 
 sivelv cultivated, particularly in the niou'ntainouj 
 distncts, where they fonn the greater ]iart of ilie 
 food of the people. Flax and liemp arc |)riiiii|iid 
 (dijects of attention, and supply the materia! U 
 the staple industry of the coiintr>'. Hops, which 
 are excellent, arc raised in considerable (|tiantitiis, 
 about 12,000 cwti being annually exported tn 
 Bavaria only. The culture of beet-root, with a 
 view to the manufacture of sugar, has of late years 
 increased very rapidly; there were, in ISd.'), almvc 
 100 factories in operation. Some wine is made, 
 but the quality is very inferior, and beer If tlio 
 national beverage. Until recently, hut little 
 attention has been paid to stock lui>l),'in(irv: 
 latterly, however, considerable ellorts have Ikim 
 made to improve the breed.*, and these have lutii 
 very successful, jiarticularly in the ease of the 
 sheep. The siqiply of cattle is iiiade(|niite for (lie 
 consiimiition, and there is annually a large imiier- 
 tatioii from Poland and Hungarj'. 
 
 On the whole, agriculture in Bohemia, tlinu;,'h a 
 good deal improved, is still in a very baciiwatil 
 state. This, no doubt, is ascribable to a variety df 
 causes ; but principally, perhajis, to the dciin-.-id 
 state of the peasantry, anil the want of lcii.«es 
 Most of the land is parcelled out into iinniiii>e 
 estates; and these are cultivated, either liy |di- 
 sants employed by, and working on account of. the 
 landlord, or by petty occupiers, paying a laln'W 
 rent for their land. Mr. Gleig has given siiuc 
 
UOHEMIA 
 
 175 
 
 airiniis details in rcrcronrc to thi.-* Milijcrt in )iis 
 TriivclH ill (icrinnny, lltilicinin, Ao. ' ( )l" larj^c 
 iirtvns,' he says, * tlifre hpi'iiis to Iip, in lioiicniia, 
 vpn' few ; but every valo and strulli is cniwilctl 
 f)it)i human dwullinf^H ; village suctrcfdinn villas*', 
 and hnnilct trending on liainlct, witli tin; most 
 nmarkaMe fecundity. On tlu; otlicT hand, you 
 niiiy strain your eyes in vain in scarcii of those 
 M«i('» of haltitations which pve to our Knfrlish 
 Liiiil-cniicH their peculiar chanii. There is no such 
 iliint; '" "" Uoheniia — I tiuestion whether there he 
 ill all Germany — as a jmrk ; antl as to detached 
 l';imi-liniises, they arc totally unknown. The nobi- 
 litv inlialiit what they term 8chh)sses, tliat is to 
 •av, eactles or palaces, which arc invariably planti'd 
 iliiVn cither in the very heart of a town or large 
 \illas,'e, or at most a gun-shot removed from it. 
 Xiixwccping meadows surroun<l them with their 
 iihtoful swells, their umhrageous covers, and lordly 
 ;ivonue8 ; no deer troop from glade to glade, or 
 rliislcr in groups round the stem of some giant oak, 
 ilu'ir favourite haunt for ages. But up to the 
 viTj- linll door, or at least to the foundations of 
 ilic wall which ginlles in the court-yard, perhaps 
 {•> cif 2tl ft. wide, the ]>lough regularly passi's. A 
 fwkn, the graf generally possesses, and his taste 
 in tiiiwprs is good ; but it almost always happens 
 ilia' liis very garden affords no privacy, and that 
 his tlowors are huddled together within some 
 namiw space, perhaps in the verj' court-yard of 
 Kliicli I have already spoken as alone dividing his 
 niiinsinn from the ojien and cidtivated lields. With 
 Kfffvt, again, to the condition of the cultivators, 
 that i», in all respects, so dilTerent from the state 
 iifoiir agricultural gentlemen at home, that, even 
 ai the hazard of saying over again wliat has been 
 stated a thousand times already, I must describe 
 it at length. In the lirst jjlace, then, there is no 
 class (if persons in ISohemia corresponding to our 
 Kiifjlish I'armcr. Nobody hires, land in order to 
 tiiake a firotit out of it, at least nobody for such a 
 |iuq)ose hires a large tract of land ; but each indi- 
 viihial cultivates his own estate, whether it be of 
 \ri(le or of narrow extent. Thus the graf, or 
 iiriiioe, though he be the owner of an entire circle, 
 IS yet the only farmer within that circle. He docs 
 not let an acre of ground to a tenant; but haWng 
 liuiltwhathe conceives to be an adequate number 
 if buucrin-houses, he plants in each of these a 
 hiiiifT-inan, and pays hmi for tilling the ground. 
 Iliese buucrin-houses, again, are all clustered toge- 
 ihtr into villages, so that the bouer-man is never 
 witliout an abunclant society adapted to his tastes; 
 ami very happily, albeit very rudely, his days and 
 lights a|)pear to be speirt. 
 
 ' Tiiclaud in liohemia docs not, however, belong 
 exclusively to any order in the community. Many 
 biiiier-men are owners of their farms, some of them 
 ti; the extent of 100 acres and more ; while almost 
 even- township has its territories, which, like the 
 ooble'a estate, are cultivated for the benetit of the 
 Inirjj'h. Hut in all cases it is the owner, and not 
 the cultivator, to whom the proceeds of the har\'est 
 Woiif;. These are, indeed, gathered in and housed 
 fur him by his representatives, who, in addition to 
 ioine tixcd money payments, for the most part 
 mjoy the pri\-ilege of keeping a cow or two on 
 tk' wastes belonging to the manor ; but all the 
 n>k and trouble of converting his grain into money 
 attaches to the proprietor of the soil.' (ii. 19.) 
 
 Hut though by far the larger jjortion of the land 
 rnultivated in "the way described, by hired labour, 
 siill it is certain that a good deal is let in Bo- 
 liHiiia, as in all similarly situated countries, not 
 iiirmuney or a quantity of produce, but for a cer- 
 tain amount of labour to be performed on the estate 
 it the lord, which amount is regulated by a law 
 
 called the Ii<>hoth-))ritrnt. IMr.IiOPve. in his Sketches 
 of Itobeniia, has the fnllnwiiig ..Udiinent as to the 
 relation subsisting between the lords and those 
 o(!cupying their esuitcs, under this system : — 
 
 * The subjects, as they are termed, are all regis- 
 tered in the books of the "states ; the h>rd collects 
 the king's taxes, iM'sides his own dues, ami seiuls 
 an aninuil su))ply of recruits to the iuip«>'rial army, 
 lie has the power of ex|)elling nits<lemeanaul8 
 from his estate, and ho exercises a certain con- 
 trol over his subjects ; but the peasants are by no 
 means attached to the soil ; and they niav alwaya 
 appeal to the courts of justice against tiicir lord, 
 with a proverbial certainty (such is the jxdicy of 
 the government) of gaining their cause. On'tho 
 other hand, the h)rd re|)resents the goverinnent to 
 !iis peasants, and the peasants to the govennnent ; 
 and whilst he is accountable to the justice of thu 
 country, he has it in his jwwcr to exercise a bene- 
 ficent nitluence over the lower orders, lie provider 
 for their instnuUion ; he introduces improvemc^nts, 
 and encourages trade ; he increases their commer- 
 cial relations; he arbitrates in their disputes; aiul 
 in pro])ortion to his fullihnent or neglect of theso 
 functions, the estate is prosperous or poor. It often 
 ha|i|)eiis that the iiobdity and gentry have ac- 
 quired a purely (ii'nnan character, in accordance 
 with that of the Austrinn government, but very 
 much opposed to the national spirit and national 
 wants of the Bohemian jjeople. All the ancient 
 seignorial rights which were not legalised and 
 regulated by Joseph II., as the Kobotti dues, &e., 
 were abolished by that monarch. But the tradi- 
 tion of feudal attachment and of feudal obedience 
 still exists amongst the jieople : thus, although 
 the consent of the lord is not legally required to a 
 marriage between his peasants, it is generally 
 asked, and considered indispensable. The jiosses- 
 sious of some of the Bohemian noblesarc immense ; 
 Prince Schwartzenberg owns one-eighth of tlie 
 country ; and the estates once held by the great 
 Wallenstein were so vast as to have formetl the 
 ap])anage of six great families after his death and 
 attainder.' (Metropiditan Mag., April 1837.) This 
 state of things still exists in part, although modern 
 political and social reforms, originating in the revo- 
 lution of IS-iH, and the subsequent introduction of 
 constitutional government, have brought about a 
 great change, particularly as relates to the Koboth 
 system. 
 
 Here, as in most other countries, industrv flou- 
 rishes most where it has to contend with the 
 greatest difficulties. The rich level lands of Bo- 
 hemia, histcad of being the best, are the worst 
 cultivated. The occupiers »>f the mountainous and 
 jioorer districts display, speaking generally, not 
 only the greatest industry, but the greatest skill, 
 and the most improved methods of cultivation. 
 
 The forests, as alreaily seen, are very extensive ; 
 they are mostly situated in the W. parts of the 
 kingdom, and especially in the lUstrictof I'rachin. 
 They are estimated to yield annually above 
 2,000,000 cubic fathoms of wood. 
 
 Maniifucturtts. — With the exception, perhaps, 
 of Moravia, Bohemia has long been the most cele- 
 brated of all the Austrian states for its manu- 
 factures. It long produced the finest linens and 
 linen yam of any country in Europe. 8piniiing 
 is the universal and favourite emph>ymeut of the 
 women ; and no fewer than 500,000 females arc said 
 to iirosccute it as a subsidiary business. About 
 55,000 hands are supposed to be still employed in 
 hand-loom linen weaving; and the total annual 
 value of the produce of this branch of industry, 
 including that of lace, may be estimated at about 
 1,200,000/. a year. ■ 'fhis branch of industry is 
 said, however, to be on the decline, in consequence 
 
 .1, 
 
 I . 'I,U 
 
 
 ■Xkt 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
47rt 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 of tlio prowth of tho cotton mnnufiirturc. Tlirrc 
 nr(! about ftOO blcncliiiiK CMtnbli.HliiiK'iitM in full 
 work, and the. manufnoturn of potaNli is vory con- 
 didcrablc. The woollen mannfnrturc in vtTy ex- 
 fcnHivo : in 8(iinnin)(, only h.'>,iM{i IiupiIh aw miid 
 Id l»c cn^OKi^d ; and in wpavinj;, from 15.0(10 to 
 It't.OOO: tlic weaving of woollen Htookingx i-uiiilovH 
 from 2,0()() to 8,000 hands. The hat-mitkorN, fur- 
 ricrx, dbc, arc cHtimatod at alH>ut 1,200, and the 
 leather mannfacturerx at 4,000. There are nhoiit 
 1 00 papcr-millH ; and the imperial tohaeco manu- 
 factory at Seidlitz supjdicH tho wh(do country 
 with that orticlc, through tho agency of obove 
 7,000 retail Nhopx. The nianufaclurc of nietaln 
 and minerals and of bcct-root sugar, huH already 
 been alluded to. 
 
 Hut of all the nohemian manufactures none is 
 nearly so well known in foreign countries as that 
 of glass. Itohemian glass is not so pure as that of 
 ICnglan<l or France ; but the art of staining, paint- 
 ing, and gilding glass, is much hotter untlcrstood 
 hero th)m in other countries, and articles of Bo- 
 hemian manufacture ore unequalled in point of 
 lightness and richness of appearance. Altogether, 
 from l-Ath to l-4th part of the inhab. of Hohomia 
 are engaged in manufactures. But nearly all the 
 liand-spinners and weavers combine with their 
 business that of cultivators of potches oi' land, and 
 other employments. 
 
 Owing to the want of capital, many of the great 
 landed proprietors are obliged to engage in manu- 
 factures. Thus, Prince Kinsky, ancl Counts llor- 
 raeh and llucquoy, are the greatest glass manu- 
 facturers ; Prince Auersberg manufactures sulphur, 
 vitriol, and colours; Count Urbna and Prince 
 Windizhgratz, tin plates ; Count Thun, porcelain ; 
 Prince Lobkowitz, earthenware ; Prince Wallen- 
 stein and others, beet-root sugar, and so forth. 
 
 Jiacea of People.— Of the 4,700,000 i)eople in 
 Kohemia, about 3,000,000 are Czeches, of .Slavonic 
 origin, and the rest Germans and Jews. The 
 (Jermans, to the amount of 900,000, principallv in- 
 habit the capital and tJie circles of Klbogen, Aaaz, 
 Leitmeritz, Bidschow, and Kttnigratz. In these 
 circles German is the more prevalent huiguage, 
 though even in them Bohemian is often the ver- 
 naiHilar tongue of the lower classes, as it is that of 
 the middle classes, and even of the higher ranks 
 in other parts. Tlie German pop. is more indus- 
 trious, intelligent, and enten^rising than the Sla- 
 vonic. The Jews have been settled in Bohemia 
 from a very remote epoch. Here, as in other 
 coinitries, they are mostly engaged in mercantile 
 and pecuniary transactions ; and they are also ex- 
 tensively engagetl in the business of distilling and 
 brewing. 
 
 Heligion. — Notwithstanding Bohemia may be 
 truly said to be the cradle of the Reformation, and 
 the determined and long-continued stand her 
 inhabitants made in defence of the doctrines pro- 
 mulgated by Huss and his followers, she is now 
 become one of the princijial strongholds of Catho- 
 licism. The spirit of tiie ancient Bohemians has 
 been entirely subdued; and they have become 
 amongst the most bigoted and superstitious ad- 
 licrents of a faith imposed on them by the sword 
 of the conqueror and the rack and gibbet of the 
 inquisitor. The church hierarchy consists of an 
 archbishop (of Prague), 3 bishops, 7 deans of chap- 
 ters, with numerous canons, 1 1 archdeacons, i;-53 
 deocons, 1,107 parish and 505 minor cures. Though 
 the monastic institutions were much diminished 
 by the vigorous and salutarj' reforms effected by 
 Joseph II., there are still no fewer than 75 monas- 
 teries and 7 convents, comprising about 1,0"20 
 monks and 150 nuns ; these are, however, obliged 
 to do the duty of parish clergy, or to cn)ploy them- 
 
 selves in education, or In tho care of the hnspitnlH 
 Jos«'ph n. granted full toleration to nil mIrtM nf 
 religions. The Lutherans and (Jalviiiists toL'otlu.p 
 amoimt to from (i(»,000 t.) 70,000. The 1^7 
 amounting to nearly 70,000, are under (he Ltaml 
 rabbi at Prague. ^ ' ' 
 
 AV/Mcah'o/i.— Hohcmia has a great number of 
 cduimtionol establishments. The institutidiis o„|, 
 sist of a university at Prague; a iM)lytec-hiiic 
 scho(d; 20 gymnasiums; 3 philosopliical Kcmi 
 iwirics ; 8 theologicial seminaries ; 1 military n.ii 
 demy ; 3 convents for female education ; 1 Jcwinh 
 cidlege; 40 grammar schools; 2,500 Catholi,. ;it! 
 Protestant, and 20 Jewish, schools; ami therc'iire 
 alst* schools for music and drawing, un ob!ier\at()r\- 
 and numerous libraries and cabinets of nnturiii 
 history, arts, and sciences. The Academy of I'raL'iio 
 though not long established, enjoys considfimlile 
 celebrity. But notwithstanding this iniposinir 
 number of educational establishments, the wliun- 
 ti(m of the people is, in reality, at a very lowcMi. 
 There are detailed oflicial returns on the siilmci 
 but the general state of education in llohcmm iniiy 
 bo measured by the fact that, at the cdiwcriptidii 
 
 of 
 rcftd 
 
 of 1857, it was found that in the arciiduthy 
 Austria, of 2,f)4'J recruits, 2,323 were able to re 
 and write, while in Bohemia there were, ani( .. 
 11,213 recruits, only G,597, or scarcely onc-haif, 
 able to read and write. 
 
 During the reign of Joseph II. the use of the 
 Bohemian language was forbidden, not only in tho 
 courts of justice, but also in tho colleges and liij;hir 
 academies. But, instead of suppressing tlie lun- 
 guago of the people, this seems to have occasKJiud 
 a reaction in its favour; and during the prpsent 
 century Bohemian literature has been a godil deal 
 attended to, and made considerable progress. 
 
 Poor. — The number of hospitals and cliaritalilo 
 institutions in the capital and principal towns in 
 very considerable, and in the towns the poor are 
 carefully provi<led for. No regular poor-rates arc, 
 however, collected ; where the foundation tnmU 
 and voluntary subscriptions do not suffice, the de- 
 ficiency is made up by government. But the cmi- 
 tributions of the latter are atforded very sparingly, 
 and begging is, after all, the great resounc of the 
 Bohemian poor, as it must bo of the poor of every 
 country where a compulsf.ry provision is not es- 
 tablished. It is here, in fact, universal ; and all 
 travellers arc disgusted with the numbers and im- 
 portunity of tho mendicants. 
 
 Manners and Customs. — The Bohemians are pas- 
 sionately fond of music and dancing, and have 
 attained to great proficiency in both. The iiatiniial 
 airs are nearly the same with those of the Slowaks 
 of the NVV. part of Hungary, and are generally 
 plaintive. The waltz is the favourite dance: and 
 two of its most fastiionable varieties, the Hedouvk 
 and the Galoppe, have been borrowed from the 
 Bohemian peasimts. The men are generally rohiiiit 
 and well proportioned ; and the women are cele- 
 brated for their beauty. The dispositions of llie 
 people are more mercurial, and their manners ni(ire 
 gay, frank, and open, than those of their Saxna 
 neighbours. How much soever the objects of their 
 veneration may be changed, tiiey are still, as in 
 the days of Huas and Jerome oi*^ Prague, zealmu 
 defenders of what they believe to be right and 
 proper. There is a nearly total want of a middle 
 class — an intermediate rank between the lords ami 
 their vassals. With the exception of Prague, there 
 are no great towns, none of those ybci wheaee 
 intelligence and civilisation are diflfused over a 
 country. But, however ignorant and prejudiccil, 
 the character of the Bohemian peasant is most re- 
 spectable. In point of morals, he is quite on ii 
 level with the peasantry of other nations. Crimes 
 
aiis nrc pas- 
 , ami have 
 "he until mal 
 he Slowaks 
 e generally 
 itaiicc; and 
 _ Htdimik 
 A from the 
 rally rotmst 
 ■n arc celc- 
 ions of tlic 
 jnncrsnwre 
 ;hcir Saxmi 
 ccts of their 
 still, as in 
 ;ue, zealiius 
 ' right and 
 of a miiWIe 
 he lords ami 
 raj^iie, there 
 foci wheiioe 
 isod over a 
 " d, 
 is most re- 
 quite on a 
 Crimes 
 
 BOHEMIA 
 
 of vinlenco nro of rare ocrurrcnro. The proportion 
 (,f lllc^'itimiitn to l<>^it!mntc liirthH iit nM 1 to H ; 
 but in the cnpitnl it Ih an hi^h nH I to '2. 
 
 Oiirrrnmeiit, — lip to the year IHt'.t, tlio cliicf 
 politii'nl iM>wcr in KoliciiiiH wan in the IuuiiIh of 
 the niiiiilitv, Honiit 'i.'JtiO in niiinlicr, inclmlin^ 14 
 prince!!, 17^ conntH, KO ImronH, anil more tlian lot) 
 liereilitnry tini^litH nit IicuiIm of fimiilicM. Tho total 
 n'Vt'iuu'M of the iioliilitv worn i^Hiiniatcd llftv vvar» 
 a;;,, at |KO,()(M>,n()(» ofltoriiiH, or lH,(Mi(i,()(lo/. 
 
 The yt'ar iXH), which pivv a consliiiiiion to the 
 Austrian emiiirc, ilcHtroyod to a ^^T^'at extent the 
 iiitliu'iire of the noliility, by Kivin^; to Itohemia, 
 a.4well ai* to the other iirovineesof the monarchy, 
 i^ii-ealleil Provincial DietH. All thcxe DietH are 
 fiirmeil in the name manner, only ditlerin^ in the 
 numlior of tiepntie.s, Kaeli conHistN of only one 
 nisenilily, eonipoHed, Ixt, of the arehliishop and 
 lii.ho|M'of the Itoman Catholic and Oriental 
 (Ireeii Church and the chanceUorH of iniiversitics ; 
 'ind.of the reprewentativeH of j^reat estates, electeil 
 liv all landowners paying not less than KKMIoriiis, 
 iir 10/., taxes; ijrd, of the representatives of towns, 
 fleeU'il by those (titi/enA who possess municipal 
 ri;;hts; 4th, of the representatives of boards of 
 fiiinmerce and trade-iniions, chosen by the re- 
 »l«'ctive members; and 6tli, of the reprcsenta- 
 lives of rural communes, elected by such inha- 
 liitants as pay a small amount of direct taxation. 
 Ilie rn)vincial Diets are eonii»etent to make laws 
 (dua'niinf; h)cal administration, |)articularly those 
 all'ectiiifj county taxation, the cultivation of the 
 jtiil, educational, church, and charitable institu- 
 ti(ins, and public works executed at the public 
 exjicnsc. The executive is directed by the dif- 
 ferent sections of the ministry at Vienna ; the 
 |irini'ii)al <)f which is the im])erial united chancery, 
 under which is the Gubemium at Prague. The 
 C(iurt of appeals at Prague is under the mii.istry 
 of justice at Vienna ; the receiver of taxes is under 
 ihe linance minister at Vienna. To these central 
 authorities the various branches in every circle 
 arc subject ; the courts of justice of the circle 
 liein)( at the same time courts of appeal from the 
 manor courts of the nobles, who exercise judicial 
 authority over their estates. The city and town 
 magistrates hove their ovm civil and criminal 
 courts, from which appeal lies to the court of 
 appeals at Prague. Tlie military have a peculiar 
 jurisdiction. Indepem'nnt of all authorities, judi- 
 cial or administrative, the police forms a branch 
 anart, being in the towns confided to es|)ecial 
 cimiraisitaries, and in the country to the captain 
 oftlie circle, in whom the three functions, judi- 
 cial, administrative, and those of police, ore 
 united. 
 
 History. — After innumerable mutations, Bo- 
 hemia, with Hungary ond Transylvania, fell, in 
 15?6, under the dominion of Ferdinand of Austria, 
 brother of Charles V., who had married the sister 
 and heiress of Louis, king of Bohemia and Hun- 
 1,'ary, killed at the battle of Mohacz. Bohemia 
 vas at this epoch in the enjoyment of a com- 
 paratively free constitution, and three fourths of 
 the population were attached to the reformed 
 futh. The attempts of the Austrian sovereigns 
 to undermine the free institutions of the country, 
 ud to lay restraints on the exercise of the Pro- 
 testant worship, provoked a desperate contest, 
 which continued till l(i20, when the Austrian 
 troops totally defeated the Bohemians at the 
 hattle of Weissenberg, near Prague. The i^erse- 
 cution which followed has seldom or never been 
 equalled for atrocity. Many of the best and 
 noblest Bohemian citizens lost their lives on the 
 scaffold, and thousands upon thousands were 
 •Iriven into exile, and had their estates and pro- 
 
 BOKIIARA 
 
 477 
 
 porties confiscated. The free constitution of the 
 kingdom was entirely annihilated; the Protestant 
 r<-liglon all but extiqiated ; and such was Iheroni- 
 bineil inlluence of massacre and exile, that in 
 lt;:(7 Ihe pop. did not exceed 7H(),(H)<). Subs«>- 
 ipicntly the govemnutnt gave every encourage- 
 ment to the M(>ttlement of (icrman cohmisls in 
 the country: and in the reign of Maria Theresa 
 and Joseph II. a new era U-gan; and Ihe mililer 
 and more lil>eral system of government which they 
 introduced has since Iteen followtul up. 
 
 IK)lS-LIvl)|JC, or H KK km; KNHOSCU. a for- 
 tified town of Holland, cap, prov, N. Itrabant, in 
 a morass, at the confluence of the Doinmel and 
 An, '27 m. 8. bv K. Utrecht. Pop. 'i,'),:)!)!! in IW.I. 
 Th(( town is about 6 ni. in circ,, is defended by a 
 citadel and two forts, and in case of need tbu 
 environs may be laid under water. It is a wcdl- 
 bnilt handsome town, and is intersected by several 
 cainils, over which there are a great manv bridges. 
 It is the seat of a vicur-general and trii)uiukls of 
 original jurisdiction aiul commerce, and has a 
 fine town-hall, on the model of the Stadt-houso 
 at Amsterdam; six churches, of which the cathe- 
 dral church, or that of St. John, built in the end 
 of the tilth and the beginning of the 14th cen- 
 tury', is one of the finest in Holland ; a grammar- 
 school, in which ICra-smus was partly educate<l ; 
 an academy of painting, sculpture, and archi- 
 tecture ; two hospitals, an oryduui asylum, and a 
 house of correctiim. Its manufactures, which are 
 considerable, cinisist of linen and thread, needles 
 and |)ins, cutlery, &v., with distilleries, glass- 
 works, d'c. It is well situated for, and has, a 
 considerable trade. 
 
 Bois-le-l)uc was founded, in 1184, by Godfrey 
 III., duke of Brabant. In lO'iO it was taken by 
 the Dutch, after a lengthened siege. It was 
 held by the French from 1794 to 1K14, when it 
 surrendered to the Prussians, by whom it was 
 again made over to its old masters. 
 
 IMJJADOK (CAPE), a celebrated promontory 
 of the W. coast of Africa, desert of Sahara ; lat. 
 26° 7' 10" N., long. 140 2!*' 5" W. This headland 
 fom.s the W. extremity of a rocky ridge, called 
 the Geb-cl-klml, or Black Mountoins. It was 
 long the limit of navigation towards the S., and 
 was first passed by the Portuguese in 1433. 
 
 BOJANO (an. Boviuntim), a town of Southern 
 Italy, in the former kingdom of Naples, prov. 
 Sannio, cap. canton, on the Bifemo, in a deep 
 gorge, at the foot of Mount Matcse, 16 m. £SK. 
 Isernia. Pop. 5,249 in 1862. This town has suf- 
 fere<l severely from earthquakes, the last calamity 
 of this sort having occurred in 1805. It is the 
 seat of a bishopric, and has, or had before the 
 earthquake, a cathedral, with several churches and 
 convents, and an hospital. During the early 
 period of Koman history, Bovianum was a very 
 important place. In the Social war it was one 
 of the strongest holds of the confederates. It 
 was taken by Sylla, and afterwards retaken by 
 the Marsi. Under C»!sar it became a military 
 ctdony. Strabo says that in his time it was 
 ruinous and deserted. 
 
 BOJANOWA, a town of Prussia, prov. and 
 reg. Posen, 9 m. NW. Rawiez. Pop. 2,367 in 
 1861. It is divided into the Old and New towns ; 
 most part of the houses are of wood ; it has a 
 large to^vn-house, and fabrics of coarse cloth. 
 
 BOKHARA or UZBEKISTAN, a country of 
 Central Asia, comprising considerable portions of 
 the anc. Sogdiana or Transoxiana, and Bactria, 
 forming the most powerful state of what la 
 named by the modems Independent Tartary, or 
 Turkestan. It lies between the 37th and 43rd 
 degrees of north latitude, and the 80th and 88tb 
 
 
 7;| ■ 
 
 ; ( 
 
 'f;!,i>l,*'i. 
 
 ■■■' > 
 ■ r 
 
 v:*' t^ 
 
 \¥ 
 
 iT-i 
 
478 
 
 BOKHARA 
 
 (Ic^rccM of OMt InnKitudn, )mvlnf( N. tho ilcHcrt 
 and tho ktmnat of Kokan; K. tho moiinlainoun 
 rei;iiinM nf HiMKiir niul Knoniloo/, ; S. CiiiiImiI ; and 
 \V. tho klmnat of Khiva or Khoroain. Arua,i)ri)- 
 bahly niNtut '2Hr),(MH) w]. m. l'o|i. CHtimntod nt 
 2,(l(M(.(MM). Only oiip-lcnlh of flip Ic'rritory in 
 iiilinl>il(Hl hy a Htntioimry poptiliitioii; tho r»- 
 muinih'r coiiHiHtH of Ht<'|i)io or iloNi^rt, on wliicih 
 ihv. wandcrint; trilicx piti^h (heir nioviihle dwol- 
 lin^H, and t(>n<l llicir tlixkN of horNCH nnd Mlii>c-p. 
 
 J'hy»kal A»fK:ft, — Itokhnrn w niountalnouH only 
 in the K,, wluTt! itM tnonnlainM ant norlhcni Hpurit 
 from thp Hindoo Kocmh, and on ilH H. frontior, 
 ■whore they »w,m to ladon^ to the (Ihoor or I'aro- 
 ])nniiHan ranfje, cxwpt a few low-lyinj; hilln abont 
 t^huhr-Nubz, iSainarrand, and Hokharn. The ht^i^lit 
 of the fonner rnn^'t', in about lat. i<!)°, ix HoppoNed 
 to be at leaHt Ih,imM) ft. The plain region which 
 comjiriKeH all the rest of Hokbara, is notbinfj but 
 n Handy desert, with a few (hisvh, slretchiiif; for a 
 few miles on either side tho banks of rivers ; in 
 which arc planted the chief cities and towns; and 
 which constitute tho only cullivu'>lo lands, and 
 are densely peopled. The rivers areof tli , iiij^hest 
 im]iortance : there are live, viz. the Jihon or 
 Anioo (Oxns), Kohik or /er-afclimi, Kiirshee or 
 Karclii, /ourhab, and Italkb, Tiio Oxus inter- 
 nci'ts till' coinitry SK. to N\V., dividing it into 
 two unccpuil portions, and varying in width from 
 JlOl) to upwards of WHO yards. Tiie course of the 
 Zer-afcban (river of fjokl) is entirely within this 
 fountry; it rises in the hi^^hlands K. of Samar- 
 cand, runs N. this city nnd Jtokbara, nnd afli^r a 
 course of about 450 m,, chietly K. to W., falls 
 into the lake Den^'hiz. The Kursliec rises in 
 the same highlands as the Kohik, nnis NK. to 
 SVV., by Shulir-Subz niul Kursbee, and is lost in 
 the desert. Tho Zourhat runs from N. to S., nnd 
 is similarly lost. The Kalkh river rises SW, the 
 Ilnidoo Koosh, nnd runs N. to llnlkh, where its 
 waters are distributed all over the surroinuUng 
 country by means of canals. The lake Dengbiz, 
 or ' the sea,' is liO m. NSW. Rokhara, surroundccl 
 on all sides by sand bills; 25 m. long, and very 
 dec)) : its water is salt, and it appenrs neither to 
 increase nor decrease at any season of the year. 
 
 The fertility of the country is said to have been 
 anciently much gronter than at present; the valley 
 of Sogdiann has been spoken of ns a paradise by 
 l)oth (ireek and Arabian WTiters; but it is mostly 
 destitute of large trees, and the banks of the 
 Kurshee entirely so. The desert is varied only 
 by sand hills, 16 or 20 ft. h'.gh, raised by the 
 ■wind ; of a horse-shoe shape, the bow towards the 
 K,, and always resting on a base of hardened claj'. 
 Some stiuited herbage, low brushwood, aiul the 
 camel-thom, are the only signs of vegetation ; and 
 a few rats, lizards, beetles, nnd solitary birds, the 
 only permanent inhabitants. 8. of the Oxus, 
 however, it is not quite so bare as elsewhere. 
 Curtius 1ms well described the present state of the 
 region round Balkh, in bis glowing description of 
 anc. liactriana. (See IJumcs, ii. 211.) Many re- 
 mains of former splendour, aqueducts, temples, 
 Ac, are to be met with in various spots, as be- 
 tween Khooloom and Maznr ; the ruins of Bykund, 
 20 m. WSW., and of Khojouban, 25 m. NW. 
 Bokhara, &c. 
 
 Geology and Mineralogy — N. of the Oxus, nnd 
 from the bnse of the mountnins to Bokhnrn, there 
 is a succession of ranges of limestone, oolite, and 
 gravel, altemating with vast and hardened plains 
 of argillaceous clay of qnartzose sand : the pebbles 
 in Aliankal are sharp and angular, and look very 
 unlike having ever been subjected to the action of 
 ■water. There is more gold in the sand of the 
 Oxus than in any other river rising in the Hindoo 
 
 Koosh; Imt other motnlii nre not found in nnv 
 quantity in Ibis country; silver, iron, and r.mi-.r 
 are all im|K)rted from ItusNln. .Snl-nmmi.nili • i^ 
 native near Juzzuh, and tliere is n k-d » ni I. 
 circ. of dnrk-eolonred, inifwrfectlv cr^■Htftlli., ,1 
 salt, near Cluirjooee, 5<M) lbs. of wliiili hViI r„r ;, 
 in Bokhara city. Tho water in the wells (,|' t'l'i,! 
 desert is 'd'ten f(umil brackish nnd unlit to .irini, 
 especially S. of the ( )xuh ; iK-twe.-n that river inM 
 Uokhara tho wnt('r is good, and exudes thrmiiri, 
 the sand. ^ 
 
 tVi/««<<'.— Tlio I'limato of the elevated K. fn.nti. r 
 is very different from that of the rest of the vunu 
 try. In the plains it is generally dry nnd wilii- 
 brious; in the winter sometimes so ei.ld that ilu' 
 Oxus is frozen over, and the snow lies fur i|,r,,. 
 months at Bokhara: in the desert in sinmi.r 
 tho heat exceeds 100° Falir. The hcnsdus iirc 
 very regular; nt tho begiiming of M„r,|i ||||. 
 spnng opens, the hcut soon increases to nil iphpns- 
 sivo degree, being seldom relreslied l.v sli«,H.r* 
 and for lour months tho bed of the Ko'liik is drv 
 at the city of Bokhara, and tho country mWm 
 from drought. The summer lasts till Ocinbcr 
 when a fortnight or three weeks' ruin sets iii| 
 siKJceeded by frosts, nnd these again bv rniiis Irmil 
 the middle to tho end of Feb.. wbi("li iir« hIkh 
 very heavy, but evaporation is rapid. Violent 
 tornadoes someiimes arise, blowing from tlic 
 XW.; but n steady wind from the N. IjlowsncmsM 
 the desert in the hot season : the atmosplicri! is 
 remarkably clear and cloudless at Itokimrn, mil 
 meteoi-s are frc(piently seen in considernlilfl miin- 
 bers at night. At Uiilkli the summer heat is vcrv 
 o|ipressivc, nnd tho climnte unhealthy. I.'liciiiiia- 
 tism is a fretpient disease there ; and ojilitlmlrniii 
 and blindness are the scourges of the ilcnrt; 
 fevers are rare, but leprosy is common. 
 
 Vegetable Products. — There is but little Inrpo 
 timbci-: willow nnd poplnr. arc the princiiml trees 
 HI the i)laiiis, and the latter is used for ium:.o- 
 bnilding: tamarisks and legimiinons plants are 
 the most frecpient shnibs. A bastard inili;,'» 
 flourishes jirofusely on tho banks of the Oxus, 
 but neither the true jjlant nor the siigar-cnno 
 grow wild. 8ome Boraghieo' and Crurif'cr(r are 
 found universally ; lilies, asphodels, and euphor- 
 bias less commonly. The Gakniu aj'rimm, the 
 favourite food of the cnmel, covers many parts of 
 the desert: rhubarb grows in Kurshee; hut tlic 
 gigantic Ferula perxica (which produces assafd'- 
 tida) is the sole member of the umbellil'oroiis 
 family. Bokhara is celebrated for its frtuts; it 
 is believed to be the native countrj- of the melon, 
 which grows here to more perfection than any- 
 where else ; and most of the fruits familiar to us 
 grow there in great perfection. 
 
 Animals. — Wild animnls nrc few: the lion is 
 not now found, though Alexander killed one in 
 Transoxiana. Diminutive tigers on the banks 
 of the Oxus, ■wild hogs, nnd asses, deer, antelopes, 
 bears in the E., wolves, foxes, jackals, cats, mar- 
 tens, rats, and marmots, are the chief JI/n»im«/iM; 
 ostriches in the S., eagles, hawks, owls, crows, 
 storks, pigeons, plovers, and water-fowl, are 
 common ; but there are no singing birds ; and all 
 kinds of game are scarce. Tortoises anil lizanls 
 are found in the desert; but there are neither 
 alligators, nor mnny snakes. The fish in the 
 Lake Karakool are good : those of the Oxus are 
 the same as in other Asiatic rivers ; a large do;;- 
 flsh is caught there often of 600 lbs. weiplit. 
 There are few insects ; locusts sometimes infest 
 the neighbourhood of Balkh; the scoriiion is 
 common, but not dangerous ; a kind of cochineal 
 insect lives on the bastard-indigo, but the dye it 
 produces is very inferior, and the proper m^dc of 
 
liOKIIAKA 
 
 trMlinn it i" unknown. The nilkwortn in almn- 
 ilnntiiiitlif iMiiikHofthuOxuM, where iIip miillicrTy 
 i,|iUiite<l for it in gretxt qimnlity ; nnd the Turk- 
 nitniti" tliu ituinnivr inontim nru ncnrly nil iicuu- 
 ninl in the pru<liiction of Hilk. Thf minllt>[ of 
 thi'wntcr, or Honin other caiiM! in Hokliiini eily, 
 NnxluiTS the rinlitn or (iiiiiieii wurui, iiiiil \ \mrl 
 „l'ihu|M>|iulnlii>n are siiiil to healtnckcil annually 
 will) n iminfiil (lineaxe, owin^r to the t'nrination or 
 ,-niwtli of thcMe wnnns liencalh the nkin. When 
 i,lwcrvi'(l, they areextriicted liy means of nec'dlcM ; 
 nil ii|iiriition in which the iloklmresc uro very 
 
 tx|n'rt. 
 
 Iliur»i>f Mi'ii, — Ihiron Meyemlorff eMtiinatesMie 
 Nip, mill tiie (lirt'erent riiee.s of which if. is made 
 up, III iilMive 2,0(MMM(0, reckoning the Uzlieks at 
 ijiitl.iMHI, the Tadjiks at r)()(l,<ltM), aiideninneralin^; 
 a'llozi'M hnialler trilies, of a few thousand souls 
 fiulj. Humes, on the other Imiid, eslinuiles the 
 iiitiil ))<)|i. at nu more than aniillion, halfof whom 
 111' tliiiiks arc wamleriiifi trihes. The Uzln'ks, 
 llipM race whocomiuereii this country, say they 
 iirviiially came from the neinhliourhood of As- 
 imkhiin,'nnd are divided into a numherof trilx's, 
 i,f vliicli that of Mauptut is the principal, and 
 tlii'kliiui always helmiKs to it. In their physical 
 a|i|K'iiriui('e they resendile a mixture of 'I'artar 
 ami Kalmuck, hut those of tlu- caiiital are scarcely 
 
 ,1 lip reconuised as helon;;in(; to either of tliest- 
 luniliw, from their fjreat intermixture with I'er- 
 MH liliiod. The Uzheks are ehietly cstahlished 
 In till' jirincipal towns, and in the valley of the 
 Zcr-nfi'liau : the> arc all warriors, and the govern- 
 ini'iit iitlices are for thcs most |)art tilled by them. 
 Muiiy are employed in trade ; they are avaricious, 
 ami iniicli ad<lict"ed to de(H'it. They are naturally 
 piiil, and have n f^reat contempt for the other 
 rate*, csiMicially the Tadjiks; but are also said 
 to lie often well-disposed, and are sinii)le, and 
 tasilv suliject to imposition. 
 
 The Tadjiks are regarded ns the aborigines, and 
 (liMiiidants of the ancient SoKdians. They are 
 similar to Euro|)can raccH in both features and 
 wmplcxion, the latter beiiifj much less brown than 
 that (if the Persians ; their hair is black ; thev 
 are active, laborious, and intellif^ent, but pusil- 
 laiiiraoiis, and never take arms : they therefore 
 iliffor in numerous particulars from the Uzbeks. 
 They do not lead a wandering life, but are iMilti- 
 vaiors, artisans, and merchants ; in the latte 
 capacity, like the Uzbeks, they are greedy aim 
 «variciou8. Most of them know how to read and 
 mtc; and, excepting the clergy, they are the 
 most civilised j)eoplc of the country. Their 
 physiogiiomy expresses mildness and tranquillity ; 
 iiiit they are deceitful, and unfeeling towarils 
 Ihfir slaves. 
 
 There are about 20,000 Kalmucks in the coiin- 
 trj'i a large portion of them descendants of the 
 honlesof Jenghiz-khan; the remainder are Tor- 
 Cout Kalmucks, who in 1770 abandoned the banks 
 iifthe Wolga, to return to their original seat. 
 Tlie former are- to be recognised only by their 
 Vtiysical appearance ; they liavc almost forgotten 
 their original tongue, and have adopted the cus- 
 ttms of the Uzheks, amongst whom they live, in 
 villages of their own. 
 
 Another tribe, the Turkmans, or Toorkmuns, in- 
 Writ chiefly the region S. of the Oxus (which 
 forms part of Turkestan, or Toorkmania) ; they 
 Wong to the great Tartar family, and differ from 
 tlic Uzbeks in being exclusively a wandering tribe, 
 jiaving the face larger, and the figure more stptat ; 
 in these particulars resembling the Kalmucks. 
 They cultivate rice on the banks of the Amoo, but 
 lave many herds, and live much on their milk 
 •nil flesh. Their horses are excellent, and have 
 
 470 
 
 lM<«>n ('clehrat«d since the time of Alrxanilon Tho 
 TnrkmnnN are by profession dealers in Mhives ; they 
 have chiefs of their own, named lM>gK, but all pay 
 tribute to the khan of Itokharu. 
 
 The ArabH, numlM'ring pnibnbly almut 50,000, 
 have been established here ever since the age of 
 the caliphs. They are immediately recognised, by 
 their swarthy complexion. Some lire wandering, 
 and others deini-nomadic triU's; a third section 
 live in villages, some of which u.i near Itnkhara; 
 others are cultivators, and possess llocks in tho 
 step|)es: it is chielly the latter who furnish the 
 lamli-skins, in such general deiimnd. The I'ersiain* 
 Mi' mostly slaves, who have been ca|itured by the 
 Turkmans; and a pro|Hirtiiin of eight individuals 
 in every village of twenty houses is perhaps a fair 
 averagi* tliroiighoul the country, (lUtrnes,) 'I'ho 
 Kirghiz are a small wandering horde, found espe- 
 cially N. the vallev of the /er-afchan. Some of 
 the Afghans ami kirghiz are descendants of tho 
 hostages retained by Timour : there are soiiin 
 Chinese who have a similar origin. The Hohe- 
 mians, or /ingenues, here called iMazane, are of 
 unknown extraction, and live in dill'ereiit I'oni- 
 paiiies ill every part of the country; they tell for- 
 tunes, and have all the of her occupations of gipsies. 
 The .lews live almost entirely in Itnkhara city; 
 where there are also ItOO llindoi's, who are not al- 
 lowed to build temples, have idols, walk in pro- 
 cessions, bring their families beyond the Oxus, or 
 jiurchase female slaves, and are pri'scrilied a par- 
 ticular dress. They coine chiefly from Siiide; are 
 very sober and onlerly, industrious and devoted 
 to trade, in which they often amass considerable 
 wealth. 
 
 Ai/rifidture. — This is the principal source of tho 
 imtiiinal wealth; rice, wheat, barley. Jowaree, se- 
 samum, maize, moong, melons, and beans, are the 
 chief objects of culture. S. of the Oxus the wheat 
 tiehls, when sown, yield crops for three successive 
 years. When the first harvest is finished, the 
 cattle are turned in upon the stubble fiidds ; and 
 next season the stalks grow up mid ear; and ii 
 third but scanty crop is veajied in the same way. 
 At Karakool, in Bokhara Proper, the return is said 
 to he sevenfold; at lialkh the wheat ripens in a 
 month ; the crops are very good, and the stalk as 
 high as ill Kngland. AVheat is usually sown in 
 autumn, ind rca|)ed in July ; and the fields are 
 after^vards phnighed for peas, which arc gaflienul 
 in the same year, llarley is sown early in March, 
 and reaped before wheat : it comes in the place of 
 oats, which are not used in Itokliarn. Jowareo 
 {Holciis mccharatim), which, with wheat and me- 
 lons, occupies most of the surface, comes to matu- 
 rity in nearly the same period as i)arley : it grows 
 to five feet in height, and aft'ords both grain for tho 
 poor, and, by its leaves, good forage for the cattle. 
 It is commonly surrounded by to««6sof hemp ami 
 cotton, from the seeds of which oil is extracted. 
 A considerable quantity of cotton is grown ami 
 exported, both raw and manufactured, the greater 
 part of it being sent to Russia. Trefoil is cut 
 seven or eight times a year; ma(hler is grown, 
 and tobacco ; the best of which is from Kurshee. 
 Beet-root, turnips, carrots, abound. Kurshee is a 
 ' sheet ' of gardens and orchards, but most of tho 
 stone fruit is inferior to that of Persia. There aro 
 many kinds of gr.iiies, and the raisins prepared 
 from those of Bokhara are unrivalled for size and 
 flavour, and beautifully transparent. The mul- 
 berry is largely grown for rearing silkworms, and 
 much attention is hestowed upon them. The vines 
 are not jiruned, as in Europe. The wines have 
 little flavour, and will not keep long. The most 
 celebrated fniit is tho melon, which is of several 
 Idnds ; one ia oval, with a green or yellow skin, 
 
 II 
 
4 so 
 
 UOKHAUA 
 
 BomrtlniM 4 ft. in Hrrtimfrrrnrp, and of a mont 
 tli'licioim flavour. VVinrcr rnclniiN iin^ Diiiil to xiir- 
 pitxN nil till' othtTN. Cnt'iinilM-ri almi iitlain ^(rfut 
 NJ/t' iiikI i'M'c]|('|ii-i>. 'I'Iio iriH, timv, HHlcr, ami 
 HiiiiHowiT, Mil ciillivntcil a ntvnl doal in lliit Kur- 
 ili'im, wliit'li art! vi'ry larp' and niiincroiix. Tin- 
 IIi'IiIh art! |>artcil into tanub*, each of wliii'h coiii- 
 |iriiM>M n Nurfacv (ir:i,(i(H) hciiiart! ynnlH ; tlu>ir liinitH 
 art! fomicil liy ilitrlicN for irriKniion. 'V\w want of 
 Milter in tlut ^rcat liindrani't' to ili« pni^TcHH of 
 nKric'iilturo, aw, whcrcvi'r llicre an- lu'ithcr rivcrH 
 nor canalN, the Kroiiml is inK'tiltivatcil. Property 
 in lanil ix of live kiniN : Int, The Ktatc iiroperty, 
 wliich Im the most conMiileralilc. 'Jmllv, I'lie hha- 
 rtiilj, tlie ri^lit to wliieli wiih formerly doulilfiil 
 between tlie ^ovcrnnienl anil rertain |'iro|irii'tors, 
 and lias lieen ceiled to tlie hitler, on payment of a 
 lij^ht tax. ilrdly, V'uU, hextowed lor niililary mt- 
 viei'd. -Itlily, I'ropertiri* of iiidivIdiialH. 'And, 
 /ithly, I.eixacieM for relii^ioiiM piirpnseH, The Htate 
 territory, uh well an other projieriy, is let ; K"verii- 
 nieiil receiving as rent two-llfths'of its ]iriidiioe. 
 
 Viittli; — itokliiirn is rich in cattle; the sheep 
 and ^oats claim the lirHt notice, since the one yields 
 the celeliralod skins ami the otiu'r a wool, only 
 inferior for shawls to that of CaMlimere. Tlu'sc 
 tioeks j;ra/c on furze and dry (,'rass, and their tiesh 
 is sweet and well-tlavoured. All the sheep arc of 
 the variety with lar^o tails, some of which yield 
 us much an ir> Ihs. tnllow. The description of 
 whcep which pnidiices the jet black curly llecce, 
 made into caps in I'ersia, and so much esteemeil 
 everywhere, is jieculiar to Karakool, a small can- 
 ton between Bokhara and tlie Oxuh. The animal 
 will thrive nowhere else, and has liecn transported 
 t«i I'ersia and otiicr countries without success: 
 wlicn removed it loses the jicculinrity in its fleece, 
 and liccomes like other sheep. The annual export 
 of skiiiH amountH to about 20<),(l(l(), the liest of 
 which arc sent to Constantinople. The ^oats 
 yield the shawl wool, and arc about the common 
 size, of a dark colour ; and many belong; to the 
 wandering Kii^hiz tribes. The oxen arc neither 
 large nor strong, and beef is eaten only by the 
 poor : mutton is tlic food for which there is the 
 greatest market. The horses of Toorkmaiiia are 
 large and bony, and more remarkable for strength 
 and bottom tlian symmetry or beauty. The Uzbek 
 tribe, of Kurubeer, possess the most matchless 
 horses in the Kast : the breed was introduced by 
 Tamerlane, or Timour, into the country round 
 Saniarcand and Shuhr-Subz. All the tratHc of 
 liokhara, however, is carried on by means of 
 camels : these have a sleek coat, as fine as that of 
 a horse, and sheil their hair in summer, from which 
 a tine waterproof cloth, of close and heavy texture, 
 ia manufactured. The liactrian camel, with two 
 humps, and tufts of black hair on the neck and 
 thighs, abounds S. of the Oxiis, and can carry a 
 burden of G cwt. ; the dromedary is common in 
 liokhara ; the asses are large, sturdy, and much 
 used : there are no mules. 
 
 No considerable manufacture is found in Bok- 
 hara; none employing more than four or five 
 workmen at a time. Cotton thread, silk stiiifs of 
 diiTerent colours, leather, excellent sliagrccn, good 
 sabres, knives, and other steel articles, locks, hard- 
 ware, gold and silver mountings for knives and 
 sabres, rings and other jewellery.articles of turnery, 
 and tire-arr.is. are amongst the chief productions. 
 Women are often employed in embroidery, and 
 especially in divesting the cotton of its seeds, 
 wiilch occupies many hands. No further use is 
 made of hemp than to procure an intoxicating 
 drug ; sugar and confectionery are made from the 
 tnanna found on the camel-thorn. The Jews and 
 others excel in the art of dyeing, but leather is 
 
 generally bad, and the rut1er\- inferior fn i|,«i „t 
 i-ersia. The canals are large ; nii.l all the vi||,.,,. 
 are situated on the banks either of a river or .nn. I 
 and consist generally of about a liumlrcl |,„„, I 
 limit ol earth, Hometiines walled ruimd, aihI int.r 
 seeled liy |Mil)lic ways not so iinrrnw im i|i.,hi' , f 
 the towns: in their centre it couiiiiomIv a i.ul.li . 
 fountain, or Hiiiall rewrvoir. There are very 1. 
 towns; they are all built on rivers, Hii.|Hi,mmi„|,,i 
 by cultivated fhdds: Hokliarn, HainHriaii.j Kiir 
 slue, Karakool, and Itaikh are the nriiicinal' ti, 
 rest are but large villages. ' '"'""' ""' 
 
 ('.i«i/H»Tcc.— liokhara, though poliiicullv (,f ,,, 
 eondary importance, liolds a pretty liini,',„„i,|' 
 in the coniuiercial worid. l-'ruiilul in ih,. |,r,„|,„, 
 tioiisof the earth, where all aroiiiul is i|.s(,liiii,,ii 
 it is u central mart, where the ci,iiiii„„|it„,, „|' 
 Kiirope, t'hiiia, I'ersia, India, and (aiiliiil. nniv Ir 
 exchanged with advanUige. IVlcr the (ina't „i 
 Kussia wished to open a commiiiilcaiiiiii hciwiru 
 the Caspian and the banks of the (»xiis ; he xn, 
 leeded in opening mads from the S. of Aiiiiii,' 
 Kiissia to the K. of the Aral Sea ; and fur mun- 
 than a century they have been aiimiallv triivillnl 
 by the caravans of Itokharn, wliich briiig lunk tin. 
 mannfactiiresof Kiissia. The tirst caraviiii Icuvcs 
 the city of Mokhara about the venial eiiiiiimx. Tlie 
 river Sir is crossed when -frozen. This cariiMin 
 reaches Troitska (lat. M° N., long. (!|o -Jo' |;,) i„ 
 alxiiit (15 days. The second starts a month later 
 but does not reach the Sir till May, the nierelimiu 
 Joining it in the interim. Its destination is (in n- 
 burg. The third and largest leaves aJHint tlic 
 middle c»f May, and reaches the Itiissinii fnmlier 
 at Novo lietsk in 45 or 6(1 days. Its eimrMc Ih hv 
 the NK. extremity of the 8ea of Aral, and over tli'u 
 Miigajar mountains to the sources of the Ilek. 
 
 The cara\ ans from Russia set ofl'from the miililln 
 of SeiitemlMir to the miihllc of Novemlter. Tli.u 
 from Troitska, with ironware bought in the pp- 
 vernment of Orenburg, is the eariiest. Jlrreliniils 
 who have attended the fair at Xijiii-.NovniiMij 
 send their goods by the great caravans wliicli Unve 
 Orenburg and Orsk in the tirst half of Novcmbir. 
 The want of fuel obliges them to scatter in the 
 Hiissian steppes, but elsewhere the saksaiil (jmws 
 abundantly. The Kirgiiiz are the princi|ml ear- 
 riers. There is a caravan route from liokhara to 
 I'etropavalosk, or Kizziljar (lat. 54° 30' N., Ion;,'. 
 Hip E.) on the Issim, by Tiwlikaiid. This ia"a 
 journey of 90 days. Kussian iron is bmught by 
 this route, and is sent to Iliasar, KadakliKhnii, 
 Khulm, and Maimanna. Two caravans arrive 
 yearly from Khokand with Chinese giMKl», ami 
 three from Mashhad. (Mr. Davics's Kcport mi 
 the Trade of Central Asia, published by order of 
 thell. ofC, ofFel). 11, l«t)4.) 
 
 The exports from liussia comprise silk, cotton, 
 wool, coarse chintzes, cotton-thread (which is iii 
 much request), lamb-skins, and others. The re- 
 turns are paid in Dutch crowns and ducats, .Span- 
 isli piastres, and Russian silver roubles. The total 
 exports to Russia are valued at 3'2(),000/, Silk 
 and cotton are sent in large quantities to Caubiil, 
 and even into India; and wool as well, wliii'li 
 fetches from 6 J to 8 tillas (4/. to 6/. 7s.) per2oti lbs 
 Eng. The lamb-skins of Karakool are i aid for in 
 ready money by foreign merchants. 
 
 The imports fnira India arc the same as those 
 into Caubul ; a half of the 2,000 camel-loacU that 
 reach the latter country yearly from India |wss on 
 into Turkestan. Muslins, Benares brocade (about 
 500 pieces),white cloth from the I'unjabfur turbans, 
 sugar, and shawls, which pass through to Kussiii, 
 are the chief imports. Till within the last 5« 
 years the trade in European fabrics was with Ku.<- 
 sia only, through Orenburg and Troitska ; but it is 
 
 Bdw carried on m 
 in.l I'aiiliiil, Till 
 .ImiIi. iiiiisIIiin, cfi 
 |;ii«i<iiiHiiil Kn^li' 
 
 I Hi II I'iiIIkIi or (ie 
 
 Miiki'cii, jfolil ihr 
 ruillery, leather, 
 •ii.'iir, Ike, Not les 
 ili'lriiiii Kiissin ( 
 iniiiri'. Itritish c(i 
 •" jNTcenl., and I 
 Hriii'li inaiiiil'iiciiii 
 '■iM'niiliiil and Ik 
 lii-'m, 
 
 llic miites to Ci 
 iLiiiiir (ire hy the 
 I'awi'n, which unit,! 
 inw, The distaiici 
 l:'i mibs) to Caul,! 
 I" xtl miles) to III 
 l<iii^' li» ilnys' jdiirii 
 «li;iii IVi is th'rce d 
 fnin lliikhara to K 
 iliiiiri' til Kashgar li 
 Klivliiir I'ass is gen, 
 Till' ACriiJis even wh 
 frill pliiiiiler, and tin 
 iririieiilly ilisciniiji 
 pitiitheiii; otherwi 
 M-ii'l route. The ( 
 )l"iiiiinil ehief of I.hI| 
 llii<riilii|i||(,li ; at th 
 li'Niiieii and foot i 
 ffliiiniir to Caubul j 
 iihl |)(i.i.<esses the gre 
 nV.ilili' thriiiighoiit th 
 mvi'l ill the months 
 HnivmiCaiihiil and 1 
 llijW«l«(ll.7(»0 ft.), 1 
 ill traversing tlu-se, i 
 lliis imrtion of the Hi 
 lulc of trees ; camels ; 
 Nimmcri Imt the form 
 be only come into u.- 
 "I" this naite caravai 
 ««'"'>'. (Mr. Dttvief 
 (iiirral Asia, 18(14.) ' 
 luliwts little; and if] 
 llritaiii fimiinands the 
 ikfliniiKes and the I 
 [lifCliiiicso territ. ofC 
 « derives coarse imii 
 'L't; raw and manuliu 
 
 »|«'l. The Persian tra< 
 mil sliawls, sugar, and 
 Ks: the latter is re-t 
 Mm are received w 
 'W'Ictlmnthoseof It 
 mlinor quality. The < 
 Mi'l'o employ a,000cai 
 ";mnes as many more 
 'ite merchants an3 p, 
 «r frequent and sever 
 
 I ikf wamloriiig tribes. 
 i'mi-y.-Weiyhts.—l 
 i^'i'l, worth lH8.Ad.; t 
 
 h'l tlie ;»«/ (copper) = .; 
 *«=1.SM04 kilV (2 
 
 * duties on European 
 
 H"»'ly2i per cent?; 
 
 w. pay 20, and a llin 
 «,ons are derived 
 ^"".""^^"'•^"fcsstri 
 '"'•'•mlasthepeoDle 
 
 JP^innoMldir™ 
 I *h safety and frcedon 
 
 or 
 
li Ifiive 
 ovcmbcr, 
 ill tim 
 lUll K"'*'' 
 ipal wir- 
 kiklmra tu 
 N., Inn;;. 
 'riiiit is a 
 irouftht liy 
 ilakhshiui, 
 uiH arrive 
 mkIs, awl 
 .{cptirt 1111 
 )y order of 
 
 ilk, cotttm, 
 ■hidi is 111 
 The K- 
 ;at8, Span- 
 Thc Uital 
 )00/. Silk 
 ._ Caulnil, 
 ell, wliiA 
 )cr25611»'. 
 jaid fur ill 
 
 |c 88 those 
 l-loadt that 
 Idia pass on 
 Tade (about 
 |for turban*, 
 ^ to Kusaiii, 
 Ihe last 5U 
 1 with Ku.f- 
 [a; but it is 
 
 jfiw ("orrloil on nmro oxfoiixlvi'ly iJinniKh Imlifi 
 iii.U'aiiliiil. 'I'll)' iin|iiirlH rmiii IIiiH->iii iir<< wliiir 
 .ImiIi. niiixliii'*, I'liiiil/i'M, mill lirunilclnlli, Ixilli of 
 |;ii<«iiiiiaiiil I'Iiii^IInIi niiiiiiiriii'tiiri', iiiiilllif i'IiIiiI/ch, 
 ,.iirii I'iiHhIi or (iiTiiiiiii, iiiiittitioii lirni'inlc, vclvri, 
 iijiiki'i'ii, ti"\i\ llirnid, liiirilwnri', iiii'IiiIh, ciilltTV, 
 .wi'lliTv, li'iillicr, |ia|i<'r, Kiniii/. ilvf, rrilnt'il 
 ,ii.qir, <l(i'. Not U'HH tlitiii llin't'-liuirtliH nl' (lie iirli- 
 ,1,'. Irnni ItiixMiii anil liuliii iiri' of MritiMli nmiiii- 
 fiaiin'. I(riti-<li i-lilnl/rx, wliirli ri'iili^<<' Niniicliiiii'M 
 ii ur i'ihIm Hiiil itniuilrlolli iiri', liki' iiionI oilier 
 llfiiWi iimiiiif">'l"rrH, viilin'il liy the fi'inali'M of 
 '.diCiiiiliiil aii<l Itukliara (frcally uIhivk liiimi! o( 
 Ilii-Mii. 
 
 riio riMitcH to CaiilHil nml llokliarn from I't'- 
 ■iiwiiriiri' liy Itu- Klivliiir, 'rairii, ami Alikiiaiia 
 Y-fM'*, wliicli iiiiili' at Dakka in lliclalalaliail ilis- 
 m<i. Ihe ili.»taiiri< \h alioiit I ICi kns (i'(|iial to 
 l;<.! iniii'H) loCaiilinl; ami in all t'.l'-' kos (I'ljiial 
 i„ x'.",) niilcH) to lliikliara liy I lie llaniiaii nuiii', 
 l.iim' III iliivd' Jonnii'y, 'I'lic nnili' liy tlie Kmi- 
 (liiiii I'll."''* i* tlircf ilayNNliorter, lint more ilillli'iilt. 
 lY,m lloklwira to Kluikaiiil is 15 ilayn' jnnrni'v, 
 iliiniT til KaxliK'H" "^. "III' '"1 •"• Yarkiinil T), 'I'lic 
 Klivliiir Tass iw >;riu'rally aNoidfil liv raravann. 
 Till' Afriilif even wlien siiliMJili/nl will not ri'I'rain 
 f^l^l |>liiii<lrr, ami the Aniirof Caiilinl lias tliere- 
 tonn'O'iitly ili'41'oniiinii'il the allowaiu'i'M liitlierto 
 jijil III tlii'iii; otherwise the Kliyliiir ih Ity far the 
 ij.'u^l rmite. The olherH are |iriiteeteil liy the 
 m.iiiiiiiid I'liief of Lalpoora, wliii IioIiIh his lands on 
 iliioniiditiiiii ; at the passes tolls are levieil on 
 linNiiii'ii anil t'oot iiassen^ers. The roinl from 
 Ffjliiiwurtii Canlail is lit for eaniels throiiKhoiit, 
 mil inisswsos the ^rent ailvantii^e of lieiii^; iirar- 
 lidili' thniii^hout the year; lint kalilas seliloni 
 invi'l ill the months o! .Inniiary anil Fehrunry. 
 IViivi'i'iiraiihiil anil Khnlin thO highest )iassrH are 
 iliijipik (11,700 ft.), Kalii, ami Unnilan Shikaii; 
 in iriivcrxiii^ these, provisions nnist he earrieil, 
 'lliis|Mirlioiiof the lliniln Khnsh is entirely ilesii- 
 luic of tn'os ; eamels and ponies are nseil in the 
 wimir; Imt the former, accunlin^ to Khanikotf, 
 bu only Clime into use duriii({ the last -fU years, 
 (m (his route caravans enjoy a lair dep-ee of 
 Mrurity. (Mr. Davies's lte|Mjrt on the Trade of 
 I'ciiiral Asia, 18(!4.) The trans]iiirt through (!au- 
 Wi'iists little; and if Russia navitrate the \Volf;a, 
 Britiiiiu'imnnands thetwo^^eat thoroughfares of 
 ife(iaiit,'ps and the Indus. Hy the trade with 
 ihdiiMioso territ. of ("ashlar and Turkund, Ilok- 
 liira ili'rivcs coarse ]Miri'eliiii), miisk, hullion, ten, 
 >&» raw and manufactured, rhuhurb, and Tibet 
 wimi. The Persian trade is inconsiderable ; Kir- 
 nan shawls, sii^nr, and (i]!ium, arc the cliief im- 
 ("ifts: the latter is nvexported to China. From 
 Ki'kim are received white cottons, silks, more 
 ilnniliic thnn those of liokhara, and a raw silk of 
 iiilirior (|iinlity. The commerce with liussia is 
 wiiltcicm]ihiy 3,000 camels ; that with all other 
 piuntries as many more: but it is said that none 
 i^he merchants are possessed of 40,000/., from 
 ikeir freqiiPiit nnd severe losses by the pillaj^u of 
 ilif Kaiulcriiif; tribes. 
 
 ilimrj/.— fVeiijhta, — The coins in use are the tillii 
 !«iiM), worth Vis. 4il. ; the trnga ^silver) = /'(If/. ; 
 mil the poll/ (copper) = "iTtW. Weifjhts : the Init- 
 Mn=l»P104 kUog. (291 lbs.); seer (3.5§ lbs.) 
 Tic duties on European jjoods arc very moderate, 
 Wng only 2J per cent.; a Christian must, how- 
 I TO, pay 20, and a Hindoo 10 per cent. These 
 mjiuictiims are derived from the Koran ; but as 
 'lit Koran inculcates strict protection to the mer- 
 tli»nt, and as the peojile are strict observers of its 
 piwpts, in no Mohammedan country is there so 
 iiioh safety and frceilom from exaction for the 
 taller, 
 Vui.,I, 
 
 IIOKITAIIA '181 
 
 Thf Piifillf Itfi'rniie is profennedly dpont in tho 
 siip|H>ri of niiiKipies and innidlaliM, but the pri'M'iii 
 khan is HiippiMed to ii-<e a t'lHiHidrralih' imrtion in 
 nialnlnin Wu armed fiirce, TlieKe revenues are de- 
 rived ehii'lly I'riiiii hind, which in TiirkeNtan lit 
 valued ai-i'o'rdiii^ to the water whirl) feriiliHCM it I 
 the tiiiiil anioiint is eHliinated bv .MeyemlorlV at 
 alMiiit 100,0011/, (by lliirni's, at :ii'>!i,:i.'iO/,') ; but h.ilf 
 the land is enjoyed bv the ehnrrli. Other taxes 
 lire llione on n'lerrliamlise, wliii'li III Ihe late khan's 
 reiKii were lint levied until the pMiiU were Hold; 
 taxes on the fanners' priidni'e,iiii Kiinlriis, ori'lianls, 
 and melon beils; on ilrii'd friiils, iiiiiiina, amlskiiiK; 
 enstiiins on ^'uods entering' the capiial ; a eapiia- 
 lioii'iax on all the inliabilanls of the roiintry not 
 iMohainmeilans, ami in lime of war a tux on each 
 honseholiler. The land reveiim's are received by 
 the hiikimii, or pivernors of di^iricls, who pay the 
 vrnpliii/i* and troops eantoned in their prov, liil'nre 
 HirwardiiiK the collertinns to Ihe roviil Irea^nry; 
 
 the adiniiiislriiriiin of Ihe lliiai ?< is entirely in 
 
 the hands of the khan himself mid his vi/ier, 
 
 7Vii- (iorrrumviit is a eoinbiiied monari'hy and 
 hierarchy: the kliaii is de^polii': but ilnes iiiiiliiii>{ 
 without the advice and aulhorily of the inoolltilis, 
 or priests. This arises from no iiiabilily on hin 
 part to assert his power; but from the cmisiiiiiiioii 
 of the nionarchy, which is exclusively based on 
 the laws of the Knraii, here more sirii'tly enforced, 
 iH'rliiips, than in any other Mohainmeilan country, 
 riie order of succession to Ihe throne formerly re- 
 (piired only that the khan should \h\ of the family 
 of .leiifrhix, whether by the male or female line ; 
 but that family is not now on the throne. I In 
 takes the title of uiiivit mtl tiittomiiHcvii, or 'com- 
 mander of the faithful,' and looks upon himself as 
 one of the heads of the Mohammedan r*di;;iiin, 
 paying, however, a respect to the sultan of Con- 
 slantiiiople, of whom he calls himself 'the bow- 
 bearer.' The hiimh hryn; or vizier, has fjreat ill- 
 
 tlueiice, and his lii^h oilice has latlerly \n nui 
 
 hereditary in his family: all the local p>vernmenls 
 are tilled by his dependants or nominees. Kvery 
 town or village is ruled by moollahs, the descen- 
 dants of the first caliphs, and, excepting; the khan, 
 the vizier, and priesthood, there is lui other body 
 hnvin^r any weight in the country: there are no 
 subordinate khans, nobles, or rajahs, as in India; 
 nothin;r, in .short, In-arinj^ any seii'iblance of a feudal 
 aristocracy. The court disjilays no maniiilicence: 
 the same system of (^ovcinnient has existed in 
 liokhara from the earliest ages of Mohammedanism. 
 The tiimans, or districts, are fjovemed by hakims, 
 who are in direct communication with the khan; 
 each is assisted by three functionaries, viz. a super- 
 intendent of j)<)lice, a receiver of imposts, and a 
 secretary. All the chief towns have a fufli, or 
 judKc; the smaller ones only n commissary of 
 IMilice : the cadi is aasisted by a mufti, and in the 
 capital by two : the police is strict and ellicicnt, 
 and the roads in the interior are free from robbers. 
 Justice is summary and severe ; (guided wholly 
 bv the Koran, and often capricious and contra- 
 dictory; but nowhere in Asia is there so miicli 
 protection attbrdcd to all classes. The most trivial 
 oH'enccs are punished with death ; fines, imiirison- 
 ment in dungeons, an<l blows, are also employed. 
 
 The Anneii ^'orre consists of about 20,000 horso 
 and 4,000 foot, levied from the <litt'erent provs,, 
 but without discipline; independent of a militia 
 of 50,000 horse, 10,000 of which arc from llalkh 
 and the countries S. the Oxus; and which are 
 seldom called on to ser\'e, and when embodied n;- 
 ceive no pay. The regulars are paid in grain, each 
 soldier rec-eiving 8 maunds of 26G lbs. yearly; their 
 chiefs have assignments of land. The regnfar force 
 consists wholly of Uzbeks, who, though not good 
 
 II 
 
 
 %-'iv:'U 
 
4 Hi 
 
 IIOKIIAUA 
 
 (•olilicw, «r«' KUjM'rior, am Irrotfiilnr rnvnlry. 
 witli ctirviMl 
 
 Tli.-y 
 nri' nnni'il with I'lirvi'il Miilircn, \ituu kriivi'M, nml 
 lii'iixv M|iriir'< 'J*l 11. Ill IfiiKlli, wllli It Nlmrt liliiilt' : 
 iHiiiii* wi'iir II Nliorl riiiii III' iiiiill, II lii'liiii't III' Iriiii, 
 or II nuiiiil hIiIi'' I of IiiiHiiIh IiIiIi> ; III!' iiit'iiiilry 
 riirry iiiiili'liliH'kN, liiil uk<> tlii'in very iiiillDrrinlly. 
 'I'lii'ri' iin< III) niilivi' iirlllK'ryini'ii ; tlii' iiriillrry 
 iMilliiHlit lit' II lii'lil jili'iTH, Mliii'll lii> llr((lrrti'i| ill 
 till' I'lliiili'l III lliikliiirii, Vvw iriHi|M lire ilruwii 
 fViiin llic S. Ill' lliii (Kiiit; llit< AraliN nrc ^ihhI 
 MililiiTN, liiit I III' 'riirkliiitiiM raMiiol Im' i'imti'iiI. 
 
 Itrliiliim, — Tilt' |M'ii|il(' iiri' nil .SiMiiiilc Miilioiii 
 iiii'iIiiiin; their rrliKinii Iihm ^mit iiilhii'iir<> nvrr nil 
 tlii'ir iinii){i'fi ; mill till' ititiili'riiiirc III' llii'lr wrt 
 rmiNi'N iiii'i'MMiiiil liiilrt'il liiMiinlH tlii'ir Shiitc iii'l^'h- 
 iMiiirM, the I'i'rMiiiiiM, liitnlrriiiiri' iiiul hiijittry lire 
 IIIIIiiiiKhI till' liiiiMl |iri'Viili'lil iiiltlniiill virnt, iiiiil 
 III) ri'li^rimi ittlirr tliiiii llic tiiitiuiiiil inii' iiiiiy he 
 piihliriv |iriiri'NNi'il ; iIiimikIi IIic .Ii'\vi4 IIiiiI iiii'iiiih 
 to iivolil Ihf iiijiiiirtiiiii. Diiily inililic iirayiT in 
 «'iijiiiiii'il, »ii<l in till' I'lijiiliil iinthiiit; ■'^ ulliiui'il In 
 Ih' noIiI iliiriii); tho liiiiir mo i'iii|iliiyi'i| ; iiiiil IIh' 
 iHilit'c oDIccrM i'X|H'l with uliiiM |i('r'<oiM Ihrii ex- 
 lioniiiu tlii'ir tiii'rt'hiiiiiliM' in liii- niiirki>lH. Thfi-c 
 nrc I'liiit'i^rt'M Hi lliikhiirii, luii ihniloKy iilniu' in 
 Nliiilii'il, anil |iroNi'lytisni iK^rnitly riirniira^t'il hy 
 tli<^ pivrniiiK'nt. ANtroloKy ix hoiioiiri'il hi;;lilv, 
 Air miiHTstitiiiii ix very |iri'vaioiil ; iiiiiirii' \n liriniy 
 bt'licvi'il in, anil ilN origin rt't'crn')! to liiilia. 
 
 l:'ihiriiliiin iiml StH-iiif Lifi: — Kiikhnrii itwll" for 
 n lull;; pcriiMl wan ronsiilcn'il a Icnriii'il ax wri! ax 
 n holy jilai'i'; 'riinonr aiitl IhiU'r I'liconrairt'tl liic- 
 ratiiri'; which Iuih, Ikiwcvit, ^really ilccliiii'il Hiiicc 
 Ihi' I'/ht'k i'oii(|ii('xt. NotwitliNtiiniliii^' a htvhI 
 nniiilit'r of collt'^cx in the caiiilal, ami hcIiooIx in 
 the country, iiioxt of the imi|i. know neither how 
 to rciitl or write. The chihlren of the Tiuyikx 
 aci|nire tliexe hranehex, ami xonie knowieil^rt! of 
 lifjiirex, to xerve I hem ax iiierchanlx. xince they are 
 very rarely ineinlierx of the chief cler>;y : the xoiix 
 of ilie iiioxl o|)iileiit |H>rxoiix /jeiierallv learn only 
 to read, write, ami ^et the Ki>ran hv heart. Still 
 n rexpeet for knowledf,'!' anil iti pmlexxorx ix jtene- 
 rally prevah'iil : to foiinil xchmiix ix an act of piety, 
 ax Well nx to feeil poor xi'huhirx; ami Ihexe often 
 «-iitiie iiniiiviteil ami unknown to the mi'uaiivs of 
 the rich, mill receive money, (ieojjraphy, axtro- 
 iioniy, liixtory, mid inediciiiu arc neverl IicIchm in a 
 very low xtnte. 
 
 'I'ho diet of the p<>o|)lc ix very simple: rftcr 
 mnmin^r prayerx, they lake tea, mixed with milk, 
 wilt, and oily Huimtancex, of which mixture they 
 are very fond. At four or live o'oUick they dine 
 on rice,*camit8, tuniipx, &c., with mutton, or other 
 meat. The Uzliekx HometinicH eat horxetlcxh, hut 
 it ix cx)ienxive; rheoxe, milk, and fat are much 
 iixed ; a xlieep ix killed, and the entire tail, how- 
 ever larjjc or fat, ix melted up with the meat, and 
 cooked ill a xiiif^le Ijoiler. Immediately after dinner 
 they take tea, prepared ax in Kiiropc; coffee ix not 
 iixed. They eat with their lin^erx, kiiivex and 
 forkx Ih^ii^; unknown. Drunkennexx, if piihlic, 
 would be ])erhapx |iunixlied even with (lealh. 
 
 The drexH of the men coiixixtiii in one or two 
 lonfT robex of cotton cloth ; the under loiif^er than 
 the uii|)er ; and a white cotton turban ; or, amoiiKs*t 
 the llzbekx, a cap of red cloth, bordered with 
 martenx' xknix : here, as well a» at Conxtanti- 
 nojilc, the form of the head-covering indicatex the 
 dixtinctiona of rank. All M'cnr large white trow- 
 sers, ami close short drawers: the ridi public 
 t'unctiouariex are often habited in Caxhniere shawls, 
 and cloth of gold. The dress of the women differs 
 little from that of the men; they wear the same 
 ])eli8xex, but the xleeves are tucked together, and 
 tied behind; riclilv (h'coriiteil liootx; and have 
 always a black veil uvcr the face : Uie Turkman 
 
 women are, however, not vrilrd. n.,||, ,m«xo, ,f, 
 ilnin the nnilx red with heiinn, mul il„. p,.,', ' 
 
 llxe Ihix herb to d>e their U'linl..; ||„. ^," 
 
 braid their hair mid blink,,, ili.ir ..v.lM, ,„';; 
 eyebniwx with pliiMibiigo. The laiiKiim;,., |,, , 
 are the IVr.iaii and riirknmn ; tin Imtrr i, ,,.,1, '' 
 by the L'/.lxkx and wandiriiii; trilxH s It ii 
 KxiiM, and ix remarkable for iix riidi m,,,. " 
 iirticlex of luxury in iixe are very I'lw; 
 and borxex conxiiiinc neiirlv nllthe iHrmnml ,,,, 
 perty of the people; their hoiixex are 
 niniimt dcxiiiiite of fiirniliire : they Imve mill,,., 
 |iliite, ghiHx, nor chM'kx. and very Hi'lilnm ,1 w,„,,|, 
 I'he rich haye many xlayex,whi'. ar,. liMiiyhi ir,,' 
 ( (rKiinje', am! are niimlly I'erximix, mldum lti|..iii,s 
 ortbiiiene, 
 
 //I'Wori/.— Alexander |icnetrntrd Inln Ik>iI 
 Iriaiia and TranHoxiaiin, which wire nii,, 
 
 ileiith rilled by hix hiii xxorx, Tlie AriilH 
 
 i|iicreil thix country at tl ml ,if Hi,. 711, , 
 
 the early part of the Ntli, mid .l.nghi/, Kliiin , 
 yiixlated it in the l.'llh century : it wiih ilic 
 
 country of the next great eiixteri iiniiiTHr, ji 
 
 liioiir, wlioxe xiicccxxorx were ili.i|HiNHeK'.,'i|^ 
 I'/.bckx, in the iM'giiiniinf of the |i;t)i < 
 
 ■||„. 
 Ilifir l|rl^■. 
 1 |.rn- 
 liiiilt, 
 
 III,,, 
 
 ,1, . 
 ' iiJilivi- 
 
 ll.V III,. 
 
 I'liiiirv, 
 
 Nadir .Shah, early in the IMih century, ti»,k ||„i, 
 liara; but the gnyernineiit moimi nli'ir liil ,^.M|,| 
 into the haiidx of the I'zUkx mid of the .Iimih. 
 ilantxof .lenglii/, : tlim family hax, iMiwivir,,,.,,.,,,! 
 to reign xince iMdO. I'he laic khiiii ileyoi.,) lil,,,. 
 X4'lf wholly to religion, and died in Ih.Vi, .. 
 a kingdom that had Hiiffcred iiixultNnmlciiir,in,li. 
 nientx on every xide, from hix own want nt luin,. 
 lion to temporal cnncernx. The prcHcni wivir, ifn, 
 hix xon, ix oil ainicable tennx with the iii'i(;lil,iiiir! 
 ing statex of Khiva mid Caiibiil. and the inipinn | 
 of China and Turkey: with the IVmidiiH 
 I'/.tickx hold no communication; and in Kukaii ' 
 the inlhience of liiixxia |ireili,iniiintcx. (Iliirii, 
 Travelx in llokhara in IM.'I'.'-IM.'tl, ;( y„is, »n ,, ^ 
 INJIi'i; Meyemlorff, Voyage d'OrenlMnirg li ll,,,,!,' ! 
 Iiiirii, I'arix Is-Jii; Khanikotl', UeiKcii in jtuk-j 
 liiira, iHiilt; Vainlx-'ry, Travels in Centrul A^i.i, 
 Loud, |N(!.'); D.iviex'x Ifeport ,111 the 'I'raiic' ,,|'| 
 ('eiitral Asia; and oilicial paper>,.) 
 
 IhiKIIAHA (Ihf trmmri/ 0/ lu-iriiirii), ftpolclir.ii,! I 
 city of Central Asia; clip, of the above Mujm/.J 
 ami xeat of the khan ; on the left hank, ami «lil 
 in ** or 7 ni. of the Zer-afchan, at the \V. ciiil „l iii| 
 valley; llo m. WSW. Sainarcaml, niiii i,")!) in.l 
 NVV. Ualkh; lat.8!»0 4«' N.,loiig. (i|0 2(;' K. l'„|,,| 
 cxtimated at from l(H),l)IIO to I.'ill,l)(l0. 'riii> t,i«n| 
 ix M m. in circ. ; of a triangular xhapc, mul m-[ 
 rounded by a wall of earth alxiiit 2i) ft. hi^'h,! 
 flanked by rouinl towerx and baxtiotix, niid iiiinnll 
 by t>yelvo gates, with brick miixiJiiry. Ittikluinil 
 ix surrounded by a tiat but riirh <'iiiiiitrt-, aii,l iJ 
 quite emboMomed in trees, giviiii; it a lK'iiuiiliil| 
 ap|iearancc at a distance, which however viiiii<l 
 on entering it. The streets are «> iiumiw thai 1 
 laden camel tills nji even the LarKcxi, and in I 
 smaller ones two |M>rxonx have ililli, iilty in|ia.',siii|> 
 each other: they are also extremely diriy, anil 
 always crowded with camels, horses, anil an'f, 
 The liouses are mostly small, and of imp Hturvj 
 the common ones built of Nuii-dried bricks on 1 
 frame-work of wood ; others of a superior kiiul 
 |iaintcd and stuccoed, witl. .Saracenic iir piiinlid 
 arches set off with lapis Uizuli and giiiliii);; thi 
 roofs of all are flat; and they have bat a ' 
 wall without windows t .ing the public ivayd 
 except in one building, there is no glass wlmteveu 
 About 100 ponds and tountaiiis, constnioted 1 
 squared stone, furnish the jjopulation witliivaierl 
 the city is also interse<cted by canals .•dialled bjl 
 mulberry-trees, which firing water from the Zej 
 afchan ;' the main can..! from which is (>\m\d cvfrj 
 
 ilftf<in (liv«. Til 
 im: tn^iiiiid wiihii 
 hi< wiiy iniioiii^ li 
 111,1 M'l-K each I nil 
 ,iiv ; here the chii 
 III' »rillile t||||.d 
 1 1, n where he tt 
 l.,iiMiii|.'*, I'olle^en 
 llie |irillci|Hll Mil 
 
 piUir, nearly in 1 
 n^liirol eh'yalion 
 •iinniiiniled by a br 
 iiiirniii'i' of brick if 
 ii'li'. Tliix I'ortreHr 
 •luri'igii. hix hiirei 
 l.v ,1 ({iirilen, loget 
 
 iMir, mid hix publ 
 
 lumii'k*, lire.; thej 
 
 (III , niter city, are « 
 
 (\im\ niiiiiiited. Ti 
 
 • li.N.lii And collegeM 
 
 il>,.,i ;iiMi iiioollaliH, 
 
 l<'ih nligion and ed 
 
 I'Vinilhe til lex of In 
 
 ii.liidlegcM are gei 
 
 ,ifirr, mill have a f 
 
 inliiliTtiire: ilml of 
 
 I'll' |>riiici|Md inoMipie 
 
 U'lhanA eii|Nila ri.xi 
 
 ill,! (iivired with hj 
 
 iliiM' hiiililingx an> 
 
 "nii'imvedwith mIoii 
 
 ill lliikhiira ix a colle^ 
 
 I'''". «liicli hax a I 
 
 ImiiiICuI enamel, ami 
 
 the JarKcxt college hi 
 
 'Umm roiibi,.„ i„ 
 
 nne /I. "f Ihixxia. A 
 i<.il)riik tower, or ni 
 Iimiiiir, ill jr,„H| pp,,j 
 I'wdiii iiigenioiiH pat 
 ifl-irvtttioii. Oiniii 
 i"«i/; bill, excepting 
 ixviids it but the liij. 
 I'lrayerx; and he oiil 
 l'«'li.H iniixt of the pi-iv, 
 iliemiiHt scrupulous ei 
 flmle the women in 
 wr)' (traiigcr. W 
 »m, the .Segixtaii, 
 WiliiiKX, collegex, sho 
 fftliecity CDiixixtxof i 
 jfWeUery and cutlery 01 
 ife »W of India, tl 
 •'«»l» of Caxhmere, a 
 wroniament, mayb, 
 Benhaiiis remain iiiifl 
 
 , ^ntfiio other habitat 
 Myo|M.n everyday,! 
 pni«,iuid other Mich 
 tat twice a week, Thei 
 7< which is proiMirti 
 Ijereaatem ci'ty,' am 
 Wto treated here than 
 «wntined to a rexid 
 
 I "WW, are subject to h 
 I ""«l to build a new sy 
 
 * the crowd which a 
 •"giioLse, andone is 
 ir .1 I'""""' bein.rs. 
 
 J«of,,hefruite 
 p*S melons, apricot.s 
 
1U)K 
 
 ilftH'ti il«.v«. Tlirrr In urnro-ly n (rnnlm nr Imrv 
 
 ^^> )(r<>iiii<l willilii iliii whIIh ; ' ilii> irnvi'llrr wimU 
 
 hi) WAV HiiiiiMK liilly mill nri'lii'cl liii/nri* •>)' lirii-k, 
 
 1,1,1 M'l'N riii'li lrnili> ill liM iu'|Htrnii> i|iiiirii>r of ilii' 
 
 riiv : tii'n* llii< I'liiiitz-Ht'llrrM, tlitTc llic HhiH'iiiukrrN ; 
 
 inr tri'iiili' lllli'il with KilkN, niiiitlirr wllh rlolli. 
 
 fvi'nwlii'n* >i)< iiit'clii wild iMiiiili'miix ninl iiiiiMxy 
 
 liiililintcs <'<ill<'K<''*i nii)m|iii>M, mill loflv iniiiart'ix.' 
 
 ]]\f |iriiii'i|Mtl Hlnirluri< ii« thr Arri, or kliiin'M 
 
 mIaii-, iinirly in llii> iM'iiirr nf llii> riiv, liiiilt iiii n 
 
 n^mrul I'IcvHiioii iH'iwi-t'ii 'i.'iO mill .liM) fr. Iii^li, 
 
 lurMiimli'il l>y n l>rirk wnll Tii It. \\\k\\, with ii lnl'iy 
 
 (iiiroiK'i' >>t lirii'k ili'i'nriiti'il liy ii iiiiiiiiri'i mi I'iilicr 
 
 mil', Tlii" t'lirtri'HM cdiiIiiIiin tin- rciiili'iio' nC the 
 
 •i\iri'i){ii. Iii'* liiirciii, mill ii iiiiihi|iii>, nil riicircicil 
 
 U » );iirili'ii. Iiit(i'llii'r with tlic ri'Niilfiicn ol' ilii> 
 
 vi.'iir. mill hii« (iiililii' ruiirlM nl' mitlii'iiri> ; MtalilcH, 
 
 Urrilii". il'<'-: ihr^alcN, hotliot'llii- |Mlhl<'<> hiiiI nl' 
 
 !li,' diili'r city, nri> kIiiiI Ht twiliKhl, iiml a ilmilili* 
 
 pmti\ niiMiiili'il. 'i'h<>ri< an' iltiO iiiiini|iii<m, ami ,'lilii 
 
 nliiailKnnil I'lilIrK''" ill Ikikhnra, Hii|M'ritili'i)il<Ml hy 
 
 il.i„t :iiHl iiiiHilliths who iiiiiliTliikc llii> I'liar^i* nl 
 
 l»<ili ri'llKii'ii 1111*1 *'<liii'iitiiiii ; Idikhara alwavH ni- 
 
 i„\n| ilir tilh'M III' holy mill Icanii'il, 'I'hi' iiiom|iii's 
 
 j'ul I'lilli'^i'H nri< Ki'iii'i'iilly HitiiaU'il ll|l|Ml^it<' I'arli 
 
 .iliir, mill liavo a Htrikiii^ n-Huiiililaiiri' in llnir 
 
 inliilcrliiri' : (hal oniii' lomuT in the niuNt varii'il ; 
 
 ihf |irim'i|)al nioHi|iit' rovrrH a H|>nri' llOOj't. Hi|iiiiri', 
 
 inilliiin A (^ii|Hila rising III unit- tliinl that hfi^hl, 
 
 tiiil (iiM'ri'il with lilii(> t'lianielli'il tiloN : iiiimt of 
 
 ihiM' liiiililiiiKi* nrn of lirii'k, ninl IIip cmirtH of 
 
 iinHMiiivi'ilwitli Htoiu>, Thi^ hniiilsonicNt Nlnii'tiiro 
 
 inllokliikra \n a i'iilli>f;i> of Kiii^ Ahiloolla, liiiilt in 
 
 lil'jii, wliii'li liiiK a lofty nrrlu'il I'ntraiifc, .sonir 
 
 Iniiiil'iil I'liaincl, ami a whitit inarlilo |iavi'niciit : 
 
 iW ktin'M ('olli>jt«i liiTo wuj* linilt at an cxiu'iimc 
 
 ,.f4ii.iM)0 roiihU'N ill n|i('('ii', ilcfrayfil hy Calhi'- 
 
 liiic II. (if ItiiHHia. Atlachcil to tlio ^rc"' iiiosijiio 
 
 t<.i lirii'k tower, or minaret, 21*) ft. hif;li, hiiilt hy 
 
 Tiinniir, in K'^xI |iro|HirtioiiN; the niiileriiils iliii- 
 
 [•iM'iliii iii^eiiioiiH iiatteriiH, anil the whole inpiml 
 
 {'H'M'rviilioii, ('riniinalH are thrown from this 
 
 timir; lint, exee|itin^r on theMc oiraHioiiM, no one 
 
 myiiiIk it hut the lii^h-prieNt, to vail the |ieo|ile 
 
 In iiraycm ; and lie only on FriilavH, wince it over- 
 
 Imlu 'mmtt of the |irivatu ^'inh-iiH in the city, anil 
 
 tlirmiiiit Dcnipulous cniicavourH are maile to nc- 
 
 (luile the women in liokhara from the ^azo of 
 
 tvm' ttran^^er. W. of the |>alacc u a Hmatl 
 
 Hftm, the S<>)i;iHtan, surrounded with maxxive 
 
 MiliiiKS vollegeH, hIio|i8, and stalls; a third part 
 
 ifiliFcity conNiMts of shops and hotels; and the 
 
 jfWtUcry and cutlery of Europe, the tea of China, 
 
 ibe sii^'or of India, the spiecA of Munilla, tlie 
 
 ihwis of Co/ihmere, and every other article of 
 
 Moriinioment, may be purchased. Many of the 
 
 nenhaiits remain ni^ht and day in their shops, 
 
 bivini; no other hahitation ; the bazars are uene- 
 
 ally oiicn every day, excejit inn those for smves, 
 
 pnm, and other such luxuries, which arc open 
 
 1 W twice a week. There are 4,(HI0 Jews in Uok- 
 
 Wi, which is proportionally more than in any 
 
 «her easteni city, and they contend they are 
 
 l«tier treated here than elsewhere, though they 
 
 » tuntincd to a residence in three particular 
 
 nKlii, are subject to hi);h impo8t«, anil not (n^r- 
 
 •ilted to build a new synogogue. Sir A. Humes 
 
 TO a graphic description of the daily scene in 
 
 Mhara (Travels, ii. 237-239) :—' From morn to 
 
 lishl the crowd which assembles raises the hum- 
 
 «iiig noise, and one is stunned at the moving 
 
 MM of human bein^js. In the middle of the 
 
 I Jtt. the fruits of the season are sold under the 
 
 Wile of a square piece of mat, snpiiorted by a 
 
 i^At pole. One woiulers at the never endiiif:; 
 
 J nplinincnt of the fruiterers, in dealin}; out their 
 
 mx'S tnclons, apricots, apples, i>caclics, pears, 
 
 IIAUA 
 
 mill plums, to n rontlniird KiinTxsion of piirrhnspn). 
 Il In witti dilllriilly Ihiit n iHimnKi' cnn Ih> fnri'rd 
 thmtiuh the Niri'i'tM, ninl it is only done nt tlii> 
 nionii'iiiary rUk of lM'iii({ ridden over by minie oiui 
 on a horiti' or donkey. The latter aniiiinl' are ex- 
 
 < liiiKly line, and nnilile nloii^ nl a ipiirk iinee 
 
 with their ridim am' ImnleiiH. CnriN of a li({lit 
 romilrui'tion ar« aUo driving up niid ilnwii, Hlme 
 the MireetN are not Iimi nitrniw lo ndiiiil of whi'i'led 
 rarrinues. In every iinrt of tlie bn/nr there nre 
 |M'iiple making lea, wliirh U done in lnru;i< Kiiro- 
 liemi iiriiH, iiisti'iiil iif li'ii|iotN, mill kept hot by i\ 
 iiii'tnl IiiIh'. The li>\e i>f ilir Itiikliuri'Ki' for leu i>, 
 I U'lii've, withiiiil parnllel; for they drink it nl nil 
 tiini'M nnd plnreN, ninl in hnlf a ilo/m wsvm : with 
 and without tumnr; with nnd witlioiil milk : with 
 Krenite; with sail, Ike, The dny is inhered in 
 with ^u/ielinK and lea-drinking, nnd hiiiulreiU of 
 Isiys and donkevs, laden with milk, linNlen lo the 
 busy Ihriiii)^. The milk is hoIiI in Niiinll IiowIm, 
 over which the eri'ain tlnats: a bid will bring 
 twenty or thirty of these to ninrket in kIhIms 
 siip|Mirteil and siiNpelided by a stirk over bis 
 shoiililer. Whatever nuniber may be broiiubl, 
 speedily disiipjienr milling the tenilrinking pnpii- 
 Intion of this great city. Next to the vi'iiilers of 
 this hot beverage, one niny piirelinse " nilnit ijnii," 
 or" the delight of life," grnpe Jelly, or syriip mixed 
 up with chop|M'd ice. 'I'his nbuiulniire in ice is 
 one of the greatest luxuries in Itokhnrn, and it 
 may Imi had till the cold weather makes it un- 
 necessary.' Another and more recent traveller, 
 Armenius VamU'ry, a llungarinn, who visited 
 the city of Itokhn'ra in \H(V,\, dem'ribes a seeiie, 
 to which he was led by a native, as I'oIIowh: — 
 * lie condui'ted me through the Tiinlche Tchny 
 Fnrushi (Tea lla/.ar) to the renowned place I.ebi 
 Mail/. Divanbeghi (bank of the reser\-oir of the 
 llivanbeghi). For Itokhara I found this a most 
 attractive N|Mit. It is almost a perfect sipiare, 
 having in the centre a deep reservoir, 10(1 ft. long 
 and K(l broad ; the sides an; of square stones, with 
 eight steps leading lo the siirl'nce of the water. 
 About the nmrgin stand a few tine elm trees, and 
 in their shade the inevitable leu booth, nnd the 
 Samovars (tea-kettle) looking like a cidossnl cask 
 of beer. It is manufactured in Kussia expressly 
 for liokhara, and invites every one to a cup of 
 green tea. On the other three sides, bri^ad, fruit, 
 confectiimery, aiul meals warm and cold are ex- 
 iiosed fur sale on stands shaded by cane mats. 
 The hundreds of shops improvised for the occasion, 
 around which crowds of longing mouths or hungry 
 customers hum like bees, present us with a very 
 characteristic s|)ectaele. (jn the fourth side, that 
 to the west, which is in the form of a terrace, wo 
 find tho mosque Mesdjidi DivanlM'gbi. At its 
 front there are also u few trees, where Dervishes 
 and Meddtth (public reciters) recount in verse ond 
 prose, and actors represent simultaneously, tho 
 iieroic actions of famous warriors and prophets, to 
 which performances there are never wanting crowds 
 of curious listeners and siicctators,' (Vamls-rv, 
 Travels in Central Asia, Lond. IHtif).) At liok- 
 hara, the htanicd, or would-be-learneii, arc seen 
 poring over the tattered poges of Toorkee or I'er- 
 sian hire, at book-stalls, aiul at the doors of the 
 colleges the students are often seen lounging after 
 the labours of the day ; ' not, however, so gay, or 
 so young, as the tyros of a Euro|)can univenity, 
 but many of them grave and demure old men, 
 with more hypocrisy, but by no means less vice, 
 than the youths in other quarters of the world.' 
 Each of these resident students has a fixed allow- 
 ance, as well as the professors; the colleges are 
 well endowed, and possess many of the surround- 
 ing lauds, which have bccu purchased by piuua 
 
 I I 2 
 
4R4 
 
 BOLBEC 
 
 indtvidunlH for tlmt purpose, ns well a8 tlic wlmlo 
 of the Imznrs ami l)atliN. The hathR, of wliiili 
 tliere arc eighteen, ran accommoilatc 27(>.iiiH> 
 people yearly, anil brinj; an annual rcveniu^ of 
 1,H(MI/. : Nome are vcrj' large. The colleges are 
 Hinit for Hix months in the year, when the students 
 work in the lields for a su'lisistence; their course 
 of stuily generally lasts seven or eight years : 
 they come from all the nciglilxiuring countries 
 exce|)t I'ersia. 'With the twilight, the l)usy s<;enc 
 in ISokhara closes, the king's tlnim lieats, it is re- 
 echoc<l hy otiiers in every part of the city, and at 
 a certain hour no one is permitted to move out 
 without a lantern. From these arrangements, the 
 jiolice of the city is excellent; and large hales of 
 chith are left on tlie stalls at night with perfect 
 safely. All is silence until morning.' 
 
 The origin of liokhara is uncertain, hut it is 
 believed lo have heen at first but a collection of 
 <lsli(!rmeii's huts, its site having ahounded with 
 small lakes. It is sup]iosed to be at no great 
 distance from the ancient Tn/hni-tm, but which 
 I'tolemy i)laces on the o|)posite side the Zer- 
 afchaii, or river of Sogdiana. In a.d. 70.") it was 
 taken l)y the Arabs, and between «!!(! and !)!1H w.-is 
 very llourishiiig, and the seat of the Sainanide 
 dynasty. Jenghiz Khan Immt it in I21'.>, audit 
 was not rebuilt till near the end of his life : it 
 was threatened, but saved, by his grandson. Un- 
 der Timoiir it lloiirished anew ; but since the rule 
 of the Uzbeks has rather declined, though it be 
 still the most renowned city in Central Asia. 
 (IJurnes's Travels, ii. 22!t-2(!l ; Meyendorff, Voy. 
 ])p. 104-188; Vamhery, Travels in Central Asia, 
 18(15.) 
 
 liOLBEC, a town of France, dep. Seine Infe- 
 rieure, cap. cant., at the foot and on the declivity 
 of a hill washed by the Bolbec, 18 m. ENK. Havre, 
 near the railway from Koiicn to Havre. I'op. 
 !),.')74 in 1801. 'fhis is a handsome thriving town. 
 ]Ia\ang been almost entirely burnt down in 170.^, 
 it was rebuilt on a regular plan. Houses partly 
 of brick, and parti j' of hewn stone ; streets wide 
 and well laid out, the principal being ornamented 
 with two fountains surmounted by statues in mar- 
 ble. In the environs are a number of country 
 houses. It has a chamber of commerce, and a 
 council of prud'-hommes ; and was early, and is 
 now, very extensively engaged in the spinning 
 and manufacture of cotton. 'Bolbec,' says M. 
 Dupin, 'is advant.ageously situated for commerce, 
 bringing raw cotton from Havre, and coal from 
 Fecamp and Ilarfleur, while she sends her products 
 to Itouen — the great mart for all sorts of cotton 
 goods. The manufacturers of Uolbec unite a spirit 
 of order and economy to activity and entcqirise: 
 their establishments are on a level with the pro- 
 gress of industry. The workmen are not all con- 
 centred in the town ; many of them live in the 
 adjoining country; they are in comfortable cir- 
 cumstances and happy.' There are in the district 
 of which IJolbec is the capital, above 20,000 work- 
 people employed in the spinning and weaving of 
 cotton, producing goods of the annual value of 
 above 25,000,000 fr., or 1,000,000/. sterling. Ex- 
 clusive of cotton, it also produces various descrip- 
 tions of woollen and linen goods, and baa tanneries 
 and dye-works. There is here no local tax or oc- 
 troi on the goods imported into the town. 
 
 BOLGAKV, or OUSPENSKOI, a village of 
 Russia in Europe, gov. Kaaan, on the right bank 
 of the Wolga, 10 m. SVV. Spask. Pop. 900 in 
 1858. In the vicinity are the ruins of the ancient 
 city of Boulghar, the capital of the Bulgarians. 
 It was visited by Peter the Great in his expedition 
 against the Persians in 1722, and has since been 
 visited and describctl by Erdniaiin and others. 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 BOLT, A city of Asiatic Turkey, in Xntolin rnn 
 sanjiak, 8.5 m. NAV. Angora ; hit. 4()0 ;i,V \ V,,,"' 
 31° 1!)' E. Estimated pop. 10,000. h i., sii,|.,tHi 
 on an eminence, at the W. extrcinitv oT « ri, li 
 and fertile plain, on or near the site i.f tlie aiK i,.|it 
 city known to the Komans by the name of //„,/ 
 rinnn]M)lk. The ruins of a castle stand on Hn' 
 summit of a small hill. It is a lioor place, (on 
 sisting of about l,0(tO houses, principaliv iiihiiliit,.,^ 
 by Turks, with a few Armenians, but" ii<, (Invk- 
 It has twelve mosques, a sipiare or market iila.c" 
 a public bath ; is the residence of a pacha of t\n, 
 tails, and. as it lies on the direct road from !>/.,.. 
 roum to Constantinople, is a considerable tlinriiii.li. 
 fare for caravans. There are niinend baths within 
 about 4 m. of the town, to which the Turks rt^,rt 
 in great numbers. 
 
 IIOLIVIA, a republican state of S. Amcrici 
 coinprise<l between hit. 8° ;{(»' and 25° 10' S nini 
 hiiig. .080 and 7io\v.; having N. mid N\V. ||„, 
 states of N. and S. I'eni, E. Itrazil .•mil l'araf;iiiii 
 S. La Plata and Chili, and \\. the I'ariii,. o,,,;,,/ 
 Extreme length, X. to S., above l.liMini.; din,] 
 breadth, above 750 m. ; area. 47:i.2!iH En^r. s(, |||_ 
 Pop. l,()87,a.V2 in 185H. Included in flie p(i|inla- 
 tion returns are 245,000 Indians. The re|iiilplii' U 
 divided into nine provinces, as shown in the miK- 
 joiiied table : — 
 
 ProTlncr* 
 
 Inhahltmu 
 
 La Paz 
 
 -IT.l.Tja 
 
 Coolinbomba . 
 
 ai!l,S!»2 
 
 Potest 
 
 'JSl/Ji!) 
 
 Ciniqiiisaca 
 
 a-.'.i.fids 
 
 Oniro 
 
 ll(i,!i:il 
 
 Santa Cruz . 
 
 \W.\,Wi 
 
 Tarija 
 
 KH.IUIO 
 
 Venl . 
 
 0:!,!I7:1 
 
 Atacnma . 
 
 r^-m 
 
 Aborigines 
 
 245,000 
 
 Total . 
 
 1,987,352 
 
 The capital of the republic is Cliuqiiisiifa. in I 
 the prov. of the same name, with l!t,7()U iniialii- 
 tants. But there are three larger towns, iiaimlv, j 
 La i'az, with 70,372, Cochabanibn, with 411.(17% 
 and I'otosi, with 22,850 inhabitaiit.s, all aecuniiii;' I 
 to the cen.sius of 1858. There is only one (Hiiidf j 
 any importance, Cobija, on the SouthPncilic, \s\\\\\ 
 a population of 2,380. 
 
 Stirface, — Mountains. — The country present,', in I 
 its various divisions, very dift'ereiit conilitioin nfl 
 surface, elevation, and climate. On the W. itijj 
 traversed by lofty mountains, while on the K. it| 
 stretches out into immense plains. The Aiuio 
 which enter Bolivia at its S. extremity, ^wn ntlj 
 near lat. 24°, a lateral E. range of no great elevii-f 
 tion, which forms the boundary for a considcralilej 
 distance between Boli\'ia and La Plata. AluintJ 
 lat. 20° the Andes divide into two great eliaiiis,! 
 which run parallel to each other to between liit.f 
 14° and 1.5° S., where they again unite. I'liol 
 farthest W. of these chains is called the Cnrdillcra] 
 of the Coast, or of the Andes ; and the fartiio*! 
 E., the Cordillera Real: including the intemiediatel 
 country, they occujiv a breadth of more tii.in 2K|j 
 m. N. of lat. 18°, and S. of that parallel d i 
 wards of 300 m. ; and cover at least lOO.O'W-i 
 m. of surface, which, however, is partly in I'eniJ 
 Many lateral ridges, sent off by the Cunlilkr 
 lieal, cover the deps. of Cochabaiiiba and Clmquij 
 saca, together with a part of those of P»tosi aiif 
 St. Cruz de la Sierra : the priiici|)iil of tlicsc traiisj 
 verse ridges branches off from the Cordillera al*'iil 
 lat. 17° 10', and running N. pa.^t the citycf t'"*j 
 bamba, terminates within a few lea^nics nf ilij 
 town of St. Cruz de la Sierra. The siuuuniM 
 
BOLIVIA 
 
 •185 
 
 (ho \V, CdriHlIrm RPiiprally nppcar in tlio form ' Hnjnmilpro, 13,000 ft. bImivp tlip IpvpI of thp spa, it 
 
 is Uni)H'nitP, mill hikiw TiiUm in Nov. niiil April, nt 
 tlip bpf^iiinin^ nnil piiil of lliu Mumnipr hpiixoii. 
 Tlip wiiitpr, from Mny to Nov., in the Dpsnpin- 
 (Icro vnllcy, i.s pxtrenioly dry, and alllioiigli tlic 
 ni;;lifs are ctdd, the HJiv is rn'rene and cloiidlcxH. 
 Tremendons hail and thinidpr-HtorniH arp freqiipnt 
 on the niountainH, and earthqiiakcH on the coast. 
 The reflection of the 8un on the Nnow pr<ldll(■(>^4, 
 in the higher regions in winter, a temporary 
 hIindnpKH : few remarks aH toconij)arativp Halnhrity 
 have met our eve ; Init the banks of the Heni have 
 been partipnlarwed as remarkably healtliy. 
 
 Mineruh. — (Jold is found in many (iIhcps, cspc- 
 cinlly on tlio E. declivity of the K, Cordiib'ra, and 
 in the sands of all the rivers wliich fall from that 
 ranf,'e into the IJeni or its branches. Kvery one 
 haM heard of the riches of tlie silver-mines of 
 I'otosi ; but it is supposed that they are nearly 
 exhanstp<l, and at all events they are now 
 eomiiarativcly npjjlpctcd. (See I'otosi.) Co|))ier 
 abounds at (^irucuero, itc. : ores of lead an<l tin, 
 
 Ifv the Heni, Maniore, Ubahy, I'ilcomayo, anil j salt, brimstone, nitre, and other volcanic products, 
 
 citlicrnf a tnmca*ed cone, or of a dome, ami nr* 
 iiltHi volcanic: those of the K. Cordillera, as seen 
 Irmii the VV., otler a sticcpssion of sharp rii^'f,'cd 
 |,;ikH and sprrated ridjjcs, and are not volcanic, 
 l.iit in many partH highly mctalli't-rous. The de- 
 clivity of the Kolivian Cordillera is rapid on either 
 i.i(lo, but particularly »o on the K. : the prini^ipal 
 (Ifvntions of both (>irdilleras are alniut lat. 1«° to 
 U" S., where that of the \\. chain is 22,3r)(» ft. 
 iSnIiiima) ; of the K. 2l,'JH(i ft. above the level of 
 lilt; spa. Many of the passes across both chains 
 awlKtween 15,000 and l(i,000 ft. in elevation, or 
 iii.arthe limit, in this rpf^ion, of peri)etual snow; 
 Millie bpiU'Hth the peaks of the Illimani there is a 
 t'(in.'e, or valley, pprhai)S |H,000 ft. below the iiei^jh- 
 iKiiirinj; sumrriit, probably the (greatest ditl'erence 
 III (Icvntion that has ever yet been bserved be- 
 iwci'ii any two similarly contiguouf (>c»l\ . (See 
 
 AMlKS.) 
 
 Ill the E. the cotmtry, which is, in many parts, 
 vprv little above the level of the sea, is watered 
 
 .I'llicr eonsidprable rivers ; a few isolated ranges of 
 liilN nre scattered over it, and if its S. part is the 
 watershed between the sources of the Amazon and 
 l.;i Plata rivers, both of which receive considerable 
 aiHiioiits from Holivia; but neither this last-named 
 ;r;id, nor the isolated hills previously mentioned, 
 ;!ii|H'nr to rise to any great height above the sea. 
 I'lir whole region is extremely fertile; but it is 
 nciirly in a state of nature, and covcTed with vast 
 ITOiicval forests. The desert of Atacania occupies 
 ilii' nmiitry betwcpn the Andes and the I'acilic : it 
 Mtoiiils for about 2i')0 m. along the coast, having 
 avariahle breadth of from iiO to GO m. It is never 
 nfri'slied by rain, and is almost as sterile and 
 mirililww as the Sahara. The surface, which is 
 iiiululHtiiig, and in parts hilly, is covered with 
 I.K1SC sand ; the only habitable )iarts being the 
 narrow strips along the banks of the rivers. 
 
 Tlicre are numerous valleys in the Andes ; the 
 [iriiuiiml is the great valley of Desagiiadero, be- 
 iwci'ii the two Cordilleras, extending from hit, UP 
 Id l!to 30' S., having an area (including the Lake 
 olTilicaca in its N. jmrt) of 18,500 scp m. 
 
 Kiirrs. — Lakes. — The princijial rivers are the 
 liciii, Mnniore, and the others which unite to form 
 liic Miulpira, the largest aflluent of the Amazon, 
 .wilwhicli run mostly in a X. direction ; and the 
 I'ik'iiniayo, one of the chief branches of the Plata, 
 «hich waters the S. part of the country, llowing 
 iii^ilym an E. direction, liolivia includes the K. 
 and S. shores of the largest accumulation of fresh 
 vaieriin the S. American continent — the lake Ti- 
 linii'a. which occujiies an area of 4,000 s'p ni. at 
 ilieliei^'ht of 12,847 ft. above the ocean, an cleva- 
 liiin siiju'rior to that of the highest summits of the 
 i'ya'iices. (See Titioaca.) It contains nume- 
 rous .-mall islands, from one of which, celebrated 
 I'l s(imc Peruvian ruins, it derives its name: the 
 "Illy outlet for its waters is the river 1 )esogua<lero, 
 niiMiiiiftfrom its SVV. extremity through the valley 
 Id ihe small lake of AuUagas; which latter, having 
 ii'ii>utli;t,is kept at the same level by spontaneous 
 tva|iiiniti()ii. In the E., lakes are numerous, and 
 ''lucof them, as those of Ubahy ami Grande, 50 
 TiiOm. in length; but they have been little ex- 
 ll'ifcil by Euroiicans. 
 
 C/i'mnif. — IJiiin, as already stated, never, or but 
 «T\- rarely, falls on the coast ; in the plains to 
 il* K. (if the Andes, the rainy season, which is 
 ikiilical with summer, lasts from October to Aiiril, 
 i.iiriiij; which the rains are almost continuous, jiud 
 i1k' rivers inundate the country to a great extent. 
 In tlie plains, the climate is excessively hot, and 
 lai from healthy ; but in the valley of the De- 
 
 are also found. 
 
 Vfiietahlen. — The mighty forests which cover 
 the banks of the E. rivers abound in the liiiest 
 timber, tit for every piirjioseof shii>-liuilding, car- 
 jientrv, &c. The cocoa of A]iotol)anilm, Jloxos, 
 &c„ IS infinitel}' superior to that of (iiiyacpiil 
 (I'U'iiador) : it is used by all classes, and is cele- 
 l)rateil for its nutritious and restorative (pialities. 
 Tamarinds, the chirimoya, oranges, lemons, tigs, 
 sugar-cane, pine-apples, ))lantaiiis, &c., llourish in 
 profusion on the banks of the Heni. 
 
 Cascarilla, indigo, cotton, rice, cotfee, grain, cin- 
 chona, co])aiba, sarsaparilla, and other valuable 
 drugs : gum-elastic, vanilla, dye-woods, tobacco, 
 and canes of various kinds, are all iirodiiced in 
 an extraordhiary abundance E. of the Andes, 
 Amongst other products, there is a s]iecies of 
 cinnamon, called vnneladc vhwo, said to ditt'eronly 
 in the greater thickness of its bark, and darker 
 c(dour, from the true cinnamon. The vegetation 
 of the Uesagiiadero valley is peculiar: it has no 
 trees ; but the Uiwer districts, if uncultivated, are 
 coveretl with a very tine turf. There are liere 
 extensive plantations of quinoa (Chenopoi/inm 
 ijvlnua, Linn.) and of potatoes, which are found 
 wild on the adjacent hills ; but it (U>es not ripen 
 the drier Euro)iean grains, nor are there any jiccn- 
 liar seasons for sowing or lian'csting. both tlu^sci 
 operations being carried on consentaiieoiisly. In 
 the narrow strips of land along the rivers that run 
 through the desert of Atacania, maize is riiis<'(l, 
 with excellent fruits, cotton, sugar-canes, and the 
 plant called Anniilo ili)iiiir. 
 
 Animals. — The tapir, jaguar, leopard, and six or 
 seven sorts of monkeys, inhabit the banks of the 
 ISeiii ; giianacos, alpacos, a kind of hare, and a 
 small .Hiiinial of the family of Uot/i'iitia, whose 
 burrowing often renders travelling on horsebjick 
 unsafe, are found in the l)csnguader(> valley. J'ar- 
 rots, a bird of bcautil'ul plumage, as well as a 
 multitude of singing birds, including the tli/nsh 
 and whistler ; several k'luls of turkeys, itc. ; se\ eral 
 species of Amphiliia, and an abundance of line river 
 lisli, are met with in IJolivia: the \L. plains are 
 infested with myriads of annoying reptiles and 
 insects. Vast herds of horned cattle feed on tlu; 
 banks of the rivers ; horses, asses, and mules, are, 
 the other domestic animals: the climate of the 
 ])lains is too hot for sheep. 
 
 rmrfde. — The inhabitants of Bolivia arc of mixed 
 race, with, on the whole, more European than 
 American blood in their veins. Only about one- 
 seventh of the population are aborigines, or, as 
 they are commonly called, * Indians.' The latter 
 
 
 
486 
 
 BOLIVIA 
 
 nri! divided into a ffTPn* varioty of trilics, prcRcnt- 
 iiifj conxidcrablc differoncos in thoir physical and 
 mental endowment*!, disposition, and progress in 
 civilisation. Some, on the Dcni, are wild and 
 warlike, and go naked, even the women wearing 
 nothing hut a few leaves tied round the waist ; 
 another trihc, the Maropns, in the immediate vici- 
 nity of the former, altliough also a warlike and 
 proud race, evince considerable ingenuity and apt- 
 ness for many sorts of work : they manufacture 
 iH'autiful cloths ; are pretty good carpenters ; and 
 are said to show a marked tiiste for music and 
 painting, in which they were initiated by the 
 Ji'suits, The Indians are excellent sailors on their 
 own rivers, and very dexterous in the manage- 
 ment of their canoes, which are often 60 or (>(» ft. 
 in length, and of considerable burden; in these 
 tliey frequently make long inland voyages, sub- 
 sisting wholly on the wild animals and vegetables 
 they may happen to meet with. Some of the 
 Alosctenc tribes on the Heni display a remarkal)le 
 acquaintance with the medicinal qualities of plants, 
 which they administer in cases of sickness, fhese, 
 as well as some other tribes, are peaceable, friendly 
 to strangc^rs, and free from stiperstition. Not a 
 few Indians, especially in the Desaguadero valley, 
 and on the coast, where the (Juichua language is 
 spoken, have been converted to the Catholic faith : 
 such as have embraced Christianity, instead of 
 going naked, or leading a roving life, wear a light 
 dross of cotton, have fixed dwelling-places, and 
 ai)ply themselves to agricultural pursuitfl, though 
 in these they are said to make but little progress. 
 The foreign settlers are mostly of Spanish descent 
 in the mining districts, and the valleys of ''o- 
 chabamba an(l Cachy I'ilco : those of the pure 
 African race are few ; but those of mixed blood 
 arc numerons on the coast. 
 
 Maniifactures chicHy consist of cottons, the best 
 of which are made at Oropesa, almost exclusively 
 l)v women ; woollens, of the hair of the llamas and 
 aipacos, the best at La Paz ; hats, of the wool of 
 the vicuna, at St. Francisco de Atacama ; glass at 
 Oropesa ; vessels of silver wire in the mining dis- 
 tricts ; fans, parasols, and plumes of the feathers 
 of the American ostrich, by the Indians. 
 
 Commerce. — The commerce of Bolivia is at pre- 
 sent not very considerable. This does not arise so 
 much from the low state of industry, or the apathy 
 of the people, as from the difficulties they have to 
 encounter in bringing their produce to market. 
 They have not yet learned to avail themselves of 
 tlie means afforded by the great rivers of S. Ame- 
 rica, for ojiening an intercourse with the ports on 
 its E. shore. At present, nearly all the commodi- 
 ties brought from Holivia to Europe come through 
 the ports on the Pacific, to reach which they have 
 to be conveyed first by toilsome passages against 
 the currents of the rivers to the foot of the Cor- 
 dillera, so fatal by its rigorous climate to the 
 Indians of the plains ; and then across the Andes, 
 the passage of which has been considered by Con- 
 damme as equivalent to 1,000 leagues of transport 
 by sea. The country W. of the Andes, besides 
 being a desert, has no really good harbours, and is 
 traversed by but one road, that from Oruro to 
 ("obija (the only Bolivian port), and that is prac- 
 ticat)le only for mules and Hamas. Cobija, though 
 it has been made a free port, is, owing to these dis- 
 advantages, little frequented. The arrivals, in the 
 year 1863, amounted to 126 vessels, of 20,745 tons 
 burden. The total value of the imports was 
 3.861,!193 piastres, and of the exports 2,500,000 
 piastres. The exports to the United Kingdom, in 
 the year 1863, were of the total value of '^59,196/. 
 They consisted of copper ore, 108,147/. ; regidus, 
 62,024/. ; copper lunvrought and part wrought, 
 
 BOLOGNA 
 8,524/. ; guano, 76,784/. ; tin, 2,7.16/. ; and other 
 articles to the value of 981/. The imporU from 
 the United Kingdom into Bolivia are altoLrothor 
 insignificant, not am. ■ iting, on the avcraL'i- to 
 l.tMlO/. per annum. " ' 
 
 The E. and most fertile portion of nolivin is 
 traversed by the Madeira, and other navJL'nl.lp 
 affluents of the Amazon, on the one hniul, and liv 
 the Pilcomayo, and other affluents of the Para- 
 guay, on the other ; so that, if the extraordiiinn- 
 facilities which these great rivers aflurd for iwno 
 trating into the interior of S. America be ever 
 made use of, the pro<liicts of Bolivia will moot 
 with a ready and advantageous outlet ; ami |,or 
 all but boundless capacities of prmluction, wliiih 
 at present, can hardly be said to be in any donroc 
 availed of, will receive a stimulus, of the inHuence 
 of which we can form no adequate idea. 
 
 Within the Brazilian dominions, not verv far 
 from the Bolivian frontier, a short break, of a m 
 only, separates a tributary of the Amazon fmnl 
 one of the Plata river : were these streams con- 
 nected by a canal, there would be a continiions 
 water communication, for the most part navi^ahlo 
 through the heart of S. America, fnm Hiioiios 
 Ayres, in lat. 35° S.. to the mouth of the Orinoid, 
 in neariy 9° N. The Bolivian govenmicnl is 
 endeavouring to promote internal traffic, by offor- 
 ing grants of land to persons settling, ami con- 
 siderable premiums for the establishment of atcam 
 navigation on the S. affiiient of the Amazon. 
 
 The public revenue in 1862 amounted to 1 ,<)7fi.n0(l 
 piastres ; the public expenditure to 1,739,(100 y,ia>i- 
 tres. The public debt in the same year was only 
 about 1,500,000 piastres, inclusive of a 'war loan ' 
 of 1,000,000 piastres raised in the year 1857. 
 
 The standing armed force is limited to 2,000 
 men, and there is a navj' of three small vessels 
 with 24 guns. 
 
 History ami Government,— TioXma., under the 
 name of Upper Peru, formed, previously to tlie 
 battle of Ayacucho in 1824, a part of the Spanish 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. The republicans, 
 under General Sucre, having then defeated the 
 royalista, the independence of the countrj' was 
 secured. Its present name was given to it in lUi.i, 
 in honour of the liberator Bolivar, who, on living 
 requested, drew up a constitution, which was 
 adopted in the year following. This constitntion, 
 which w-as exceedingly complicated, vested the 
 executive power in a president for life, with the 
 privilege of naming his successor ; and the Icjris- 
 lative functions in three bodies, a senate, tribunos, 
 and censors. The code and constitution of Holivar 
 were soon after abandoned ; but the Icffislative 
 powers are still, nominally at least, vested in the 
 three bodies above named ; and the cxpputive 
 power is in the hands of a president elected for 
 life. 
 
 BOLKHOF, or BOLCHOW, a tov . of Russia 
 in Europe, gov. Orel, c;.p. distr., on the Xongra. 
 36 m. N. Orel. Pop. 19,400 in 1858. It is well 
 built of wood, has numerous churches, with manu- 
 factures of hats, gloves, and stockings, and a cnn- 
 siderable trade in hemp, linseed oil, tallow, ami 
 hides. , 
 
 BOLLENE, a town of France, d^p. Vauoliise, | 
 cap. cant., 24 m. N. Avignon, on the nulwav fmm j 
 Lyons to Marseilles. Pop. 5,007 in 1801. The 
 town stands on the declivity of a hill, and has 
 filatures of silk and dye-works. Various reniaiiis | 
 of antiquity have been found in the vicinity, 
 
 BOLOtiXA (an. Bononia), a city of N. Italy,! 
 cap. of the province of the same name, k'twopii j 
 the rivers Keno and Savena, on the verge of the 
 valley of the Po, at the foot of the liills forming' 
 the commencement of the Apennine chain; ainlj 
 
and ntlipr 
 
 iportfl friim 
 
 altonrthpf 
 
 average, to 
 
 f Bolivia is 
 r navinahlc 
 and, ami liy 
 tyf the Parii- 
 xtradrdiiiarj' 
 )rd for )M'm'- 
 rica be ever 
 la will Dieel 
 let. ; and licr 
 etion, wliii'li, 
 11 any denrce 
 tlic intiuuncc 
 Da. 
 
 not ver>' far 
 ircak, of 3 m. 
 \inazon from 
 streams ooii- 
 
 a cnntiniinus 
 art navi);al)lo, 
 
 from liueiios 
 if the Orinoco, 
 ;nveniment is 
 ratfic, by offcr- 
 inj?, and ooii- 
 ment of steam 
 Amazon. 
 ;edtol,!)7G.nno 
 l,7it9,(l<IOj,iaf<- 
 year was only 
 )f a ' war loan ' 
 ear 18.i7. 
 [iiited to '2,0(10 
 e small vessels 
 
 via, under the 
 
 dously to tlie 
 
 of the Spanish 
 
 lie republieaiis, 
 
 defeated tlic 
 
 countrj' was 
 
 toit inl»-.'o, 
 
 who, onlieing 
 
 which vrna 
 
 is constitutiim, 
 
 vested the 
 
 life, with the 
 
 and the l('f.'is- 
 
 eiiate, tribunes, 
 
 ition of lWi\ ar 
 
 the leRislativo 
 
 vested in the 
 
 the executive 
 
 ent cleeted lur 
 
 tov . of Russia 
 in the Noupra. 
 58. It is will 
 ies,withmanu- 
 ngs, and a om- 
 )il, tallow, ami 
 
 dep. Vauchise, | 
 
 le railwav fmm : 
 
 .. 18«l. The 
 
 hill, and has 
 
 arious remains [ 
 
 ^ vicinitv. 
 
 itv of X. Italy. 
 
 name, lietwfi'n 
 
 le verge of tlif 
 
 „ hills formiii;' ] 
 
 ine chain; ami 
 
 in 
 
 BOLOONA 
 
 on the railway from Milan to An^onn, 22J m. HK, 
 MiHleiia, 2.') m. SW. Ferrarn, aim iVMh, above the 
 level (if the Adriatic. It is nearly \^ m. in length 
 bv !;( m. in breadth, and 4 m. in ciro. ; is walled, 
 jiiil divided into fmir quarters. I'op. !)(i,(><;0 in 
 lUili. Kxcept one Kqiiare, it is iniliU'erentlv built; 
 sirefts crooked and narrow; houses mostly three 
 .oinrics hi){h, in a palace style of architecture, 
 ihietly of brick fronted with stucco, with deep 
 linijectiiiK roofs, and generally surrounded with 
 arcades. Tlie Puitza Mitggiore, or principal 
 wjiiare, boasts of many (ine buildings; amongst 
 ihi'in are the PuUizzo I'ubiko, the seat of the 
 ciiurtsof justice ; in the ccitre of the square is a 
 fduntain, adorned with t. statue of Neptune, 
 wkoiied one of the best niodem statues in Italy, 
 the work of (iiovaiini di 'tohigna. In the middle 
 (if the city stand the two leaning towers, inclining 
 ill dilfereiit directions: that of Asinelli, 320 ft. 
 hitrh, inclines about !U ft.; Garisenda, 145 ft. in 
 lieiglit, 8 ft. It is said that from the top of the 
 I'litmer 103 cities may be seen. Hidogna has 74 
 cliurehes, 35 convents for monks, and 38 for nuns. 
 Ihit many of the convents have recently iK^en 
 ciiiscd, and the inmates dispersed. Tlie cathedral, 
 built A. I). 432, has the nieridiiui line by Cossini 
 traced on it>' floor, and posse-'ses the Annunciation 
 iihe last work of Lodovico Caracci), and other 
 tine paintings. The church of Madonna di San 
 i.iica, 3 m. distant, has a covered walk to it the 
 iiliiile way from the city. The universitj', one of 
 ihc oldest and most celebratetl in Italy, owes its 
 iiri;,'in to the Emperor Theodosius, A. ij. 425, mid 
 was restored by Cliarleniagne ; it has a library of 
 'JiHl,000 vols., and was formerly attended by many 
 thousand students: but it has declined in cele- 
 brity, and at present is not attended by above 
 1,(100. There is another public library, the legacy 
 (if a clergyman, containing 83,000 vols, and 4,000 
 MSS. : there are also cabinets of mineralogy, na- 
 tural history, and other physical objects ; acade- 
 mics of .sculpture, science; music, and the fine 
 arts: the whole city abounds in pictures, statues, 
 and other works of native artists. There is a pub- 
 lic 8clio(d for the poorer classes, where the nidi- 
 nients of education, with Latin, arithmetic, sing- 
 iiiS and drawing, are taught gratuitously; nine 
 iuispitals; a monte dipicta; and many other be- 
 nevolent institutions. The manufacture of crape, 
 fur which the city has been long famous, and 
 wliicli was at one time very extensive, has de- 
 diued within the liist thirty years. There are 
 nianiifacturcs of silk, glass, sul|iliuric acid, nitric 
 ditto, kid gloves, wax caiullcs, musical instru- 
 ments, paper, cartls, mortudvlh sausages, cele- 
 brated all over Eurojie, exclusive of preparations 
 dl wine, oil, hemp, flax, and other natural jiro- 
 (luce. it(dogna is an archbishop's see, and has 
 liccn so since the 4th centurj', ami the court of ap- 
 ]ieal for the four provinces of ISologna, Ferrara, 
 liavenna, and Forli, sits here, and consists of six 
 judges. The Bolognese are courteous and aft'able^ 
 independent, and remarkable for their love of 
 lilierty; industrious, quick, ingenious; ardent 
 alike m their friendships and enmities ; the women 
 liamlsome. The middle classes are well infonned; 
 tliey are fond of the casinos, or reading-rooms, 
 conversazioni, and theatres, of which there are 
 three. The higher classes are wealthy ; the lower 
 Wld, turbulent, and noisy. The prevailing dia- 
 Ifrt is not in use elsewhere ; there is a tendency 
 III proiioimce words with masculine terminations, 
 and ill other resjiccts it is the coarsest in Italy. 
 The proi)()rti(m of illegitimate births is as one to 
 seven. No Italian city, Florence excepted, has 
 iroduced so many celebrated men in science and 
 tlie line arts. Bologna always assumed the title 
 
 BOLSENA 
 
 487 
 
 of 'learned,' and had the motto //()««««< iIdcH »n. 
 its money and public buildings, as well as the 
 word lihirtfiK. It lia'^ given birth to eight iii>|m'8 
 (including Ilcnedict XIV.), nearly 200 cardinals, 
 and to more than 1,000 literary and scieiitilio 
 men and artists; amongst them, the naturalists 
 (iaivani and Aldrovandi; tho anatomists Mondino 
 andMalpighi; the astronomer Marsigli; the ma- 
 thematicians Manfredi and (.'aiitcr/.ani; the bro- 
 thers /aiiotti, (fhedini, and (iiiercino; and tho 
 painters Francia, (tuido, Albiuio, Karhieri, Dn- 
 menichino, the three Caracci, /amlnrcari, ami 
 /. Iiliiii. The air of lUdogaa is pure, but subject to 
 siuhlen changes, which produce frequent inflam- 
 matory diseases. Its enviMiis, both on the hillit 
 and in the plain, are studded with a number of 
 country residences in a richly productive sidl. 
 
 This city, originally built by the Ktrusrans, was 
 anciently calleii Felnina; it w'as subsequently oc- 
 cupied by a (Jallic tribe, the Boii, who designated 
 it Bommia, It received a Itoman cidony A. u. o. 
 (i53. A ('hristian church was built here so early 
 as the 3nl century. Alaric besieged, but did not 
 take it : it escaped Attila, and formed a portion of 
 the exarchate of liavenna. Pepin gave it to tho 
 Holy See, to which it belonged during the Carlo- 
 viiigian tlynasty; after whicli it was governed by 
 its own magistrates; it was next governed by 
 feudal nobles ; but these having abandoned their 
 pretensions, and been admitted as private citizens, 
 it became a republic, extending its rule over all 
 Hom.igna as far as iiimini. In the 13th century 
 it fidl again under the H(dy See, to which it was 
 tinally annexed in 1500. In 17!Mi it was taken by 
 the French, but restored to the Popedom in 1815. 
 'I'he city and provinces remained under Papal go- 
 vernment till the year 1 hOO, when it was annexed 
 to the new kingdom of Italy. 
 
 HOLOTAN'A, a town of the island of Sardinia, 
 Ital\', prov. Alghcro, 10 m. W. Ilosa, near tho 
 centre of the island. Pop. 2,822 in 1858. Tho 
 town is situated on a hill, and the air is said to bo 
 good. The contiguous country is productive of 
 corn and pasture. 
 
 BOLSKNA (an. Vuhinium), a town of central 
 Italy, prov. Viterbo, 11 m. VVSW. Orvieto. I'op. 
 2,170 in 1858. The town stands near the N. shore 
 of the lake, to which it gives its name. It is sur- 
 nmnded by a high wall, flanked with towers and 
 a deep ditch ; but is remarkable only for the ruins, 
 in or near it, of the temjde of the Etruscan god- 
 dess Nortia, a granite sarcophagus, ornamented 
 with bas-reliefs, and other remains of i\iiti(|iiiiy. 
 This was anciently a idacc of great wealth and 
 luxury. I'linj' says (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv. § 7) 
 that when taken by the liomans, anno 20(i ii. c, 
 it contained no fewer than 2,000 statues. Having 
 been destroyed by the conquerors and rebuilt, it 
 was noted at a later period as the birth-place of 
 Sejamis, the minister of Tiberius. 
 
 The lake of Bolsena continues, as of old, to be 
 surrounded by finely-wooded hillf*— 
 
 Aut positls ncmorosa inter jupa Volsiniis. 
 
 ■inv. Sat. iii. 1!)1. 
 
 It is of an elliptical shape, about 12 m. long, by 
 8 m. in breadth; its depth is various, but near the 
 banks it is generally shallow ; it is well stocked 
 with fish. It has two islands, which, in Pliny's 
 daj's, were believed to be floating. Its superfluous 
 waters are carried oft' by the river Marta, to 
 which it gives birth. The country round this lake 
 is now become exceedingly unhealthy ; a circum- 
 stance which ha.s most probably occasioned the 
 decay of Dolscna, as well as the total ruin of seve- 
 ral other cities, tliat once gave life and animation 
 to its banks. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, i. 221 ; 
 Couder's Italj', iii. 84.) 
 
.|8S HOI 
 
 IM)I,T()N',.)rlM)M'()M Lr.-MOOIiS.nlli.nriHh 
 
 in;; l)iir. ami tiiiiiniriK'liiriii)^ town ul' Miif^liiinl, t'n, 
 l/iniMHicr, liiMiil, Siiirnnl, luir. Hnllnii, on tli« 
 ('riMilt', an allliiciil of ilit> Irwcll; 170 in, N\V. I>v 
 N, Lonilun, ill in, KNI''.. l<ivi>r|)ool, ami III in, N\V. 
 Manclii'stcr, im llu' London an<l Norili-NVfsliTii 
 lailwav, 'I'lif pop, of the iMiroiiKli wum IH,.'iH:I in 
 IHiil ;'il hail risen to i<2,'.)7a in IH2I ; to ri-2,;i!)l) in 
 IHII; and to To.ilti.'i in ISill. Tlir pop. ol' tli« 
 iiarish wti.'* •>\K»>i\ in IHOI ; r)ll,l!)7 in \Hil ; 7:i,<.)ari 
 in ISII ; and !I7,-.M:> in \M\. 
 
 'Tin' np|H<aniiuTor the town xoarwly rom'mxmdx 
 >villi ilN real oimlcnco and iniportanct^ a coiiHitlt'r- 
 alilc portion ot tlu> honsoH Itriiif^ rrowdi'd in iiar- 
 rnw irn'^nlar lancH, wliifh art* but iiiiiilVrrcnllv 
 paved and Ncwercd, Morn n't'ciillv >;rcal iinprovc- 
 iiicnls have licen elleetedj lla^'p'*' lootnatlm have 
 lieeii loriiied in inoHl of the Ntreetx, ami the wliide 
 town haH been eoinpletely li^lited with k<>>*< 
 varioiiM new sipiiires have heen forined; and a 
 eonsideralih^ nninlier of handxoiiu^ houses and 
 villas have lieen ereeted, mostly near the S, eii- 
 Iraiiee. It is well Nii|iplied with exeellent water, 
 from a reservoir eoveriiij; an area of \h aeres, 
 plaeed al siieli an elevation as admits of this in- 
 ilispensalile lliiid lieiii); eonveyed into the upper 
 iMoms of every house in town. This iin|iortanl. 
 improvement was etVeeled hv a eompaiiy, under 
 an aet obtained in IH-.>|. at a "eost of KMHill/. The 
 parish ebnrehof.St. I'eier's, on aneinineiiee at the 
 l''„ end of llollon, is n plain aneient sirneliire with 
 a low tower, built of the tiark reil s.'iiidstoiie of the 
 district. There are, besides, ei>;ht other ehnrehes, 
 and the Aletbodisls, Itaplisls, liide))endents, I'lii- 
 l.'irians, ("alholies, Friends, and Swedenbor;;iaiis 
 have all t>iie or more plaees of worship. The free 
 graminar-sehoid, founded in l<!'ll,lias an animal 
 revenne of about IH.V. : Ainsworth and liemprii're, 
 eompilers of the well-known dictionaries which 
 bear their names, were masters of this school. 
 Mere, also, are National and liritisli and Forei;^ii 
 scluuds, and Sunday S4'liools. Anioni; either en- 
 dowed charities are — (iosiiel's, whiiOi consists of 
 lands proihu'iii}; NO/, a year, two-thirds of which 
 i^{ appropriated to a elmrch lecturer, one-si \tli to 
 ilie fjranimar-sebool, Ihti rest, to the poor; lliil- 
 tim's, lands and houses producing 277/. a year, for 
 a church lecl\irer,appr<'iitieinj; poor boys, and pro- 
 viding a classical teacher; and donations left by 
 Mr. l'op|)lewell, who died in \H'2'.\ and bis sisters, 
 amounting to ■.'7.7tHl/, ',1 percent, consols, for the 
 promotion of relij;'ioii, learning, and ehariiable 
 purposes. 
 
 Iiiiltou has an exchange, a town-hall, twocloth- 
 lialls, a theatre, asst'inlily and concert -rooms, a 
 dispensary, estnlilishcd in lS-_'o, and three public 
 libraries, all well-built modern struct urcs. 
 
 The jirogrcss of Kollon has been greatly pro- 
 moted by its im|>roved comniuiiiealions. The 
 Itolton ("anal extends to Manchester (12 m.). and 
 a branch from it to llury; a railway from llolton 
 III 1-eigh (S m.), and thence to Keuyon, where it 
 jonis the Liverpool and ALauclicslcr Itailway, was 
 'opened in IM.'U. .V niilway along the canal banks. 
 rill llury, to Manchester, was opened as «'arly as 
 \KV,\. Since then the great London and North- 
 western line, with all its branches, have come to 
 form a network of railways in .•uid around tlie town. 
 <'.onnectiug it in live dilVerent directions, with all 
 the centres of industry in Lancashire, as well as 
 tlironghoiit Kngland. 
 
 The entire consequence of Itoltoii is derived 
 from its manufactures, which were carried on at a 
 very remole iierioil. As early as lUlSr, some 
 FU'inish clothiers established tlieinselves in the 
 town; and in the reign of Henry VIII. it was 
 famous for its cottons, that is, fur a jH'culiar ilc- 
 
 -TON 
 
 Hcripliou of «v»(i//('/i goods that went by that nnino 
 t'ollon piodsjhowever, began to be "priHlurnliii 
 Itolton, in considerable ipianlilics, alniui ihe niiiMle 
 of llie last century. Hut the real proHperiiv nl' i||i> 
 town dates from 1 77(1- 1 7H0, when tlii> wmiili rfnl 
 inventions of Arkwright, himself n naiivc „( 
 llollon, iM'gaii to come into operatinn. Krcmi tlmt 
 epoch its progress has U'eii rapid in Ihe eMreini" 
 and it is now ii principal seat, ot the eolion iiinini- 
 faelnre. The iirticles cliietly prodiiecil are— nms- 
 lins, siiperllne |>rinting calicoes, iiuiliiiij^s mid 
 eoiinlerpanes, dimities, salteens, jeans, cniioii 
 shawls, ilo. The principal inamilaiiiirers luivi^ 
 warehouses in Manchester, where iliey gciierallv 
 attend on the Tuesday, to elVect the sale of llu ir 
 goods; but sales are also elleeted on oilier ilavs. 
 though not to Ihe same extent. The cuitoii I'lif- 
 torics are on H very large scale. There are ii|nvaiils 
 of 70 mills, which employed, in iHiil, mIiom' IT.iiimi 
 workers. There are also exli'iisive lileacliiiij; 
 gronnils, besides ^mper mills, inaehiiie works, and 
 large iron-l'onndries, where sleain-eiigiiies, mills, 
 and machines of various sorts are ciiiisinicii'il, A 
 great many coal mines have been opeiied in dilVcr- 
 ent )iarts Iif the par,; and iheprosperiiy of llollon, 
 like that of the rest, of the disliici in wliiili ii in 
 sitiialed, may be said to have originated in, aiitlio 
 deiM'iid upon, its su)iply of coal. 
 
 There is a joint stock banking ccnii|miiy jit 
 Midloii ; a )irival(> banking company, ami lirainlies 
 of some other banks. The savings bank liiKJ, uii 
 the 201 h Nov. \HiH, !)|,(!;U1/, of deposits. 
 
 ■Sir l{. Arkwright, Ihe inveiilor, or al all evciii,', 
 the introducer, of the spinning frame, wasa iialivt: 
 of Itolton. lie was the yonngesl of a niiiiiiTniis 
 family, and wiis brought np to tlie hunilileiii'('ii{ia- 
 tion of a barber, itolton, also, was the birili |>la(T, 
 of Samuel ('roni|iton, the inventor of llie nnilc- 
 jeiiny, and one of tlm founders of the niiinii 
 manufacture. .\ broii/.e statue to his ineiiuiry was 
 erected in IM('i2 by the inhabitants, at u ciist nf 
 2,0111)/. 
 
 The licfomi Act conferred upon llollon the pri- 
 vilege of reluming two mem. to the II. of ('. rii(> 
 limits of the parliamentary bor. and iiuiiii('i{>al 
 bor. coincide, the pop. of boih, in IHt'd, hiinu' 
 70..'lil.'>. The <"onstiluency, in IHiil. cmisislcil ul' 
 2,l;>l registered tdeclors, all III/, hniiselnililers. 
 
 The bor<>ugh is governed bv a mayor, 12 iililcr- 
 men, and ;il> councillors, assisted by a recurilit 
 The mayor is chosen by the aldermen ; tlicse, liy 
 the councillors; and the councillors by siicli nlllic 
 burgesses as are ipialilied to vole for meiiilHTs nl' 
 parliament, IVtly sessions for the bor. are luM 
 every Monday ami Thursday, llnlicm is ilu'scal 
 of a count V court, and the centre of a union iiiulcr 
 the Poor Ijaw .\mendment Act, which cnnijirlMs 
 2t! oilier townships and chapelries. The rcMialav 
 sessed to poor r.'ite amounted to 12(').."i7;)/. in iMll, 
 and the capital assessed to properly tax lo 17S.li|W/. 
 The jiarisb within which Ihe bordiigli iscoiii- 
 priseil extends over .'tl,:lllO acres, and ImcIikIis HI 
 other townships, chaiielries, and lianiU'ls: llie en- 
 tire iiopulal ion, in 18(11, being '.17,2 1. 'i. Tiie|iari>li 
 is geologically situated in a large coal forniatioii, 
 and its surface is for the most part of a iicaiy 
 nature. It contains numerous quarries, seme ul" 
 excellent tlagstones, a few of rooling slaii' m\ 
 veins of leatl; but of these none are at iinsciii 
 wnnight. Three small streams (the Tdiige, Iruiili', 
 and llradslniw) take their rise in the liills iliiii 
 overlook the town. It contair.s a few h(11-w<iiiiIii1 
 and romantic valleys, but its general as|urt is 
 barren and cheerless, with scarcely a Irce vi.-ilili'. 
 About one-fourth part is under the plough: olllu' 
 rest no iuconsidenible imrtion cinisisis nl iniri'- 
 claimcd mosses ; and thougli Ihe land inmascs in 
 
nOMUA 
 
 vnliio ncnr tlic tnwn, Niirh U not tho cnno in its 
 iiiirllit'rii towMxIiiii, Ittillon is ii |ilii('c orciiiisiilfr- 
 i,li|i> liiMlorii'iil iiitcri'Ni : iu iiiliiiliiliint.M I'min n 
 rciiiiitf iM'riiiil were iliMtiii|riiiHlii<il I'lir lliflr iirchcry, 
 nliii'li U Nlill I'onliiini'il iih a N|iiirt, llii<ri> liriii^ ii 
 tiirjjcf ),'roiiii<l near tim V.. <-nlranc(t of the town, 
 I'lirllir iiw '••' ft Noficty of arclitTM, who xlioot Cor 
 |iri/,i>H iliiriiiK till* Niiiniiu'r. Thi* lal>oiiriiiK 4-lasH<>H 
 were lorinfrly acciiNloiiKMl to Hctllf llicir <|iiarrclM 
 liv sin^U' coiiiIniI, or liy wliiil \h fallt>(l an ' n|> nnil 
 (liiwii ' tl^lit. Ihtalli oftvn followttd from tlu>M! Iirulul 
 omli'Kl.t. 
 
 At tlm (MiinnicncmiKMit of tlio i-ivil war, tlio in- 
 liiiliiliuilM took i\w. iiarliMnicntarv xiilf, ami liclil 
 mil till KIM. when, al'Icr a t|cs|M'ral(^ Hl^n^,'^;lt! ami 
 w'viral n-pnUcM, tho town was at li'njjth taken l>y 
 till' Karl of lU'rIty, who hclil il till al'lt-r lh<^ lialtiV 
 III' Wiiro'Hlcr. III! wax Nul)H('i|ut'nlly taken anti 
 liiliiwlcd h('r«\ 
 
 jt'tMKA, ft villaj^o of Son thorn Italy. |irov. 
 Cliirti, <'a|). (Mint., on the IVIont*^ rallano, walcrcil 
 In llie Sanjjro, IH ni. WSW. VaNio, l'o|(, il,l7'.> 
 ill JSi'il. I'Ik; parish chnn^li is one of the liaml- 
 ■LiinwM. in tlio province. On thi! inonnlain on 
 whirl) lliinilia is xilnalcil arc^ the niinn of wallH, 
 p[W», and towers, on li.e most, frifrantie scale. 
 Tlicy are formed of enormous bloeks of stomi, 
 iiiiikMlwilhont cement, after the lOlrnscaii fa.><liion. 
 I.;ir;;(' caverns have also heen excavaleil in the 
 rmk, nnd coins of the most renowned cities of 
 Mii^'iiii (inecia have Immmi fomid amon^ the ruins. 
 Niilliin)^Mnithenli(; is known with respect to the 
 lii^tiirv of these extraordinary ruins. (Del K(! 
 Ih'ii'ri/ione de rAhni/./o. ii. p. I-JI.) 
 
 ItOMIlAY (I'UKSIhKNCY Oh'), tho sec.md 
 liir'cst in extent of tho nine j^reat provs. of Uritish 
 liulia; hetweon lat, 11° l«' and 2S0 m' N., and 
 Imm;'. 07° and 7t!° 'JiV K. ; havinj; VV. tho Indian 
 iVcmi, and lleloochistan ; N. (inndava and the 
 i'linjiilt; K. tho Nizam's dom.; and S. Mysore. imd 
 the Madras presid. ; area ir2,(ll.'l s(|. tn. ; pop. 
 r.',Sll2.;VI I in IM'2. (Statistical 'raldes relating,' to 
 ilii' I'liliinial and other possessions of tho ('nited 
 Kiiipiiini, Part ix., jiresonted to Ixvlh lionses of 
 Parliament, lM(il.) 'I he presidency is divided, fur 
 nilministralive pnqioses, into fonr f^reat territorial 
 illvisiiins, exclusive of ilondiay Island, whicli is 
 iiiiiliT llie direct control of the (Jovernor. Tlu'. 
 ilivisiims are : 
 
 1. rooiiah, romprisiiifj; tho <'ollectorates of 
 Taiina, also called Northern Konkaii, Satara, 
 Aiimcilnufr^jar, and (^andeish. 
 
 •.', Tlio N. divisiini, including tlio eollectoratos 
 nl'Siirat, Haroach, Ahmedahad, and Kaira, andthe 
 prnviiiccs of (injrat and Kattywar. 
 
 ;!, The Siiidh division, in which aro tlioc(dlecto- 
 riU's of KiirriK'hee. Ilydrahad, anti Sliikarpur, tho 
 I'Mvincp of t'utch, and the territory of Khairpiir. 
 
 I. The S. division, comprising tho ct)llccloralcs 
 111" i!iitii!ij(herry, also called Scnithcrn Konkaii, 
 i"I„'imm, Shtil'ipore, and Dlmrwar, and the pro- 
 viiii'o (if Kolapore. 
 
 I'lii/xiral Asiwcf. — 'I'ho N\V, parts of tho |)resid. 
 nri' more level than the S. and K. : Ahmcdaliad, 
 Kiiini, and Haroach aro well watered, and sonu^ 
 |wt.s amoiijj;st the best cultivated and ])e(>|iled 
 iaiiils ill India; Snrat is moro nndulatin^^ its K. 
 I'.irt hilly and jnnf^ly, and mn(;h of it waste; Caii- 
 i!i'i-ili is interspersetl with low Imrrcn hills ; some 
 s;«il3arc in notxl cnltivation, Imt much is covered 
 with juiif^Ic ; Alm»edmi};f;aral)onndsin rocks, hills, 
 ami waters; I'oonah is irrcHular and nionntniiious, 
 t'lit with many fertile valleys; Darwar is an oU'- 
 vaii'd table-land ; nnd tho Konkan a lonj; narrow 
 inct .strctchinfj for "li't ni. alonj; the soa-coa.st, 
 Iwinj,' K. a chain of rocky hills, formerly crowiicd 
 !')■ a number of fortresses, and \V. a low, strai^h; 
 
 I'.OMMAY (I'KKSIDKNCY OF) ist) 
 
 Hhoro, broken into numerous bays and harbours, 
 till lately alVordinj^ a resort to pirates, by whom il 
 hail loii^ bei^n inlested. 
 
 Tho mountain ranges in tho S. boloni; to tho 
 VV. (ihants; in Candeish to theSydaree (a con- 
 tinuation of tho former) and Santpoora ranges; 
 mill N. tho Nerbudila— they are branches from the 
 Vindhyan ehaiii. The principal rivers are tin' Ner- 
 bndda, Taptoo, Mhyo, and SanU'rinntlee, falling; 
 intothe Oiilf of <!aml)ay, in tho N.; in tho central 
 parts, tho earlier branches oft hot iiHlavory and Itee- 
 niah ; nnd in tho S. tho Kislnah and Toombuddra. 
 
 I'orphyrilic trap forms the inliuid hill raii(;es; 
 sandstone, with many shells, itnd con^loinerales 
 
 containing fossils, nti mnion in N. Koncan and 
 
 the N. parts of tho presid. A priinitivi^ ran^e of 
 red sandstone fonnalion, extending from |)elhi, 
 terminates at the head of tho (iidf of Cambay. 
 Tho f^reat basalt ii^ district of India, which cmn- 
 inences at Na^poor, occnjiies tho whole coast from 
 between tioit and llomiiay' to the head of the 
 Cambay Knlf; which coast has been llie theatre of 
 volcanic phenomena, earthiinakes, and trenicudiiiis 
 whirlwinds, even within the last few centuries. 
 Itasalt and amygdaloid, yellowish porphyry, and 
 f^rcen daystono, aro found at Salsctte and l'',l(!- 
 phanta. and near Kattanpoor an aiiundance of cor- 
 nelian stones, embedded in red gravel. A blink 
 soil, well suited to th(^ cidturi^ of cotton, is widely 
 dill'nsed tlironj^bont thccentre of this presidency. 
 
 The mean temp, at llombav, about tin-, centro 
 of the pros, is between 81° imd HIP Kahr. lint 
 Ihoufrb Itombay Ix^ ratluT unlieallhy, the Koiicaii 
 and Malabar coast p'nerally is by no means so, ex- 
 <'opt in thi^ marshes below the (ihants. Tlie<'liniato 
 of the N. distr. is reckoned amon^'st the worst in 
 India: t\w tlu^rmoin. in tho hot season cises soino- 
 tiines to 1 1<!° Kahr.; and iMinmeans are all'ecied 
 with fever, a^no, and other tropical complaints. 
 
 Vfijv.ldhit' I'rtxliiftH Itnd AnimitlH. — Teak ol verv 
 plod (pialily ^rows on tln^ (ihauts and lower hili- 
 ranp's, and in some parts |ioon is plentiful; \\w. 
 district of Snrat abounds with tin; wild date and 
 
 bal 1. (locoa ]ialms cover an iinmens(> (riict of 
 
 sandy land, bordering tho coast of the Koncan; 
 and various other trees of tlic^ same family aru 
 abundant. Tin; N. part of this presitleiicy is rc- 
 murUablo fortlu^^xn'H' varii-ty of fruits il produces; 
 the district of Ahmedabad, in particular, is iinled 
 for tho size of its manpi-trees, and their Iriiil. 
 I'ice, cotton, and the other chit^f articles ofciillurc, 
 will W\ mentioned jircsently. 
 
 Wild oleplmnts an^ met with in the (Ihants, 
 that is, in the woody chain of mountains ruiiiiiii;^ 
 alonj^ tho VV. side of Southern fiidia; and tip'rs, 
 pant luTs, leopards, and hyienas, iiri' nuiiierous in 
 tli(^ Jungles ami wooded parts; bntraioes, wild 
 boars, deer, antelopes, jackals, j;eiiei'ally so, and in 
 the N. the llyiuj; macanco is found. Ilirds in f^rear. 
 variety inhabit this part of India. 
 
 1\(>/)I(: — IJesides Hindoos, Alahoinmodans, I'iir- 
 sees, .lews, and Kuropoans. many distinct tribes, 
 some of whom aro supposed to be alM)ri;;iiial, in- 
 habit this ]iresiden(!y. Hhcols live K. of the 
 (ihants, from the hills near I'oonah to the banks 
 of the Nerbud<la and Taptoo ; the K'ainooses meet 
 those S.oJ' I'oonah : \V. of the (ihauts, and around 
 tho (iiilf (d' t^'ainbay, Koolies, a very barbunms 
 tribe, rt'sido ; (Jalties, Aheors, and Halirceas. are 
 found in Kattywar; Dhooblas nnd Kooinbies in 
 (injrat. The .Iain sect is very nunieroiis in tli(! 
 (injrat districts: and nearly all the I'arsees in 
 India have settled wilbin tho limits of the lioiiibay 
 presidency. A tribe, called Moras, resides in the 
 district of Snrat and its neijjhbourhood; these 
 ]ieople aro Maboinmodans as to reli^^ion; but in 
 all (ither respects are similar to Jews. 
 
 ■Ml 
 
 i^iii'Wv. 
 
 
 i 
 
490 
 
 Aeirindture and Cattle. — Rice anil cotton arc 
 till' cliiitfarticlcH of culture; ciimpnrcil with tiiexo, 
 tho other ^rcitt !)tii|il(>sof Indian produce nre ^rown 
 only in inNiKiiiticunt <|iun)titicN, liice w lar^fcly 
 urown in the central partx of the oreNJdency ; mid 
 in 8. Koncttii it conHtitutex 4-r>th!) of the wliole 
 crops. Tho culture of cotton in extonnivo, and tlie 
 priHluco M nil ini|K)rtnnt article of export. 'I'lic 
 cotton of this Hide of India is decidedly H\ip':ri'>r 
 to that of tho other; that j^rown in liroacli Im |)ar- 
 ticulurly good. Kupir anil indigo are cultivated 
 in CandeiHh, where the tirst occu))ict4 a conxideralile 
 extent of country, and where late reports sijcak of 
 an intention on the part of government to erect 
 Hu^ar-inills. Tho indigo of Candeish has l>een 
 siud to be as tine as that of Bengal, hut wanting 
 in depth of colour. The mullierry-tree );rowH in 
 Rome parts with immense rapidity, and great ex- 
 ertions are being made by various private in- 
 dividuals to introduce the culture of silk, and to 
 render it important as an article of trade. Wool 
 has lately been imported in considerable quantities 
 from Bombay, and efforts aro making by the 
 government to improve the breed of sheep, bv 
 miporting stocks into the presidency from C^aiibul, 
 iSindc, and C'utch, and crossing them with Merino 
 and Saxon breeds from the Cape of (iood ]lo|)0. 
 U'lie cattle of (iujrat arc of a remarkably large 
 sixe, and in great request throughout India; at 
 tSiirat there is a diminutive species of ox, 2 ft. only 
 in height. S. of Surat the ox supersedes the horse 
 for both draught and carriage: IhjIow the(ihauts, 
 the only other domestic animal is the buflalo. 
 Poultry are not generally kept by the natives. 
 
 Public Revenue. — The total revenue and ex- 
 pi'iiiliturc of the presidency in the three years, 
 1«00-1«G2, was as follows : — 
 
 BOMBAY (PRESIDKNCY OF) 
 
 Yean cn<|pd 
 50ih April 
 
 RrTcnuo 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 18(i0 
 IKIil 
 1802 
 
 & 
 7,277,6(14 
 8,407,lli7 
 8,612,633 
 
 & 
 O.fiO'J.fiU 
 7,712,041 
 «,30(i,542 
 
 The revenue is derived cliicfly from three great 
 sources, vi/. the land-tax, opium, and customs. 
 The land-tax, including excise, and Sayer and 
 Moturpha — Sayer being variable imposts such as 
 town duties, and Moturpha taxes on houses and 
 trades — brought a revenue of 2,«"2,7-l()/. in 1 «(!(); 
 of 2,970,8(14/. in 18(!1 : and of 3,(182,918/. in 181)2. 
 Opium realised 1,633,325/. in 186(1; 2,441,(i79/. in 
 18(;i; and 2,438,458/. in 1802. Finally, the cus- 
 toms were productive of 1,0(>0,2(!1/. in 18()(); of 
 1.034,701/. in I8(;i; and of 920,732/. in 1802. 
 It will be seen that while both the land-tax and 
 opium increased during the triennial period, the 
 customs decreased in productiveness. Ik-sides 
 these three great branches of revenue, there are 
 several minor ones, such as stamps, income and 
 assessed taxes, post-office and mint profits, imposts 
 on salt, and tributes from native states. JStamjis 
 jjroduced 281,517/. in 18t!2; income and assessed 
 taxes, 407,28(i/.; post-otEce, &c., 480,781/.; salt, 
 340,802/. ; and the tributes and contributions from 
 native states, 101,390/. By far the largest item 
 of expenditure is that for military charges, w^hich 
 amounted to 5,399,581/. in !8()0;'to 3,313,024/. in 
 1801, and to 2,372,431/. in 1802. The extra- 
 ordinary decline of this military expenditure, in 
 the short space of three years, is a very remarkable 
 fact. 
 
 Trade and Roads. — This presid. is much less 
 favourably situated than that of Bengal for com- 
 merce and internal communication. It has no 
 large navigable river, like the Ganges, intersecting 
 
 itfi richest provinces; tho utronmn of the DecoRti 
 are too impetuous for navigation, and the intenial 
 trade is thus whollv depeiiileiit on land cnrrini-c 
 Until within the last ten years, the iminirv 
 suffered greatly for want of goiKl roads; hm \\^\^L 
 now being remedied bv the estabiiHliniii.t of n 
 complete network of railwavH, The chief line in 
 the presidency is the Bombay, Baroda,anil('iMitr,il 
 India railway, which connects the capital wjili 
 Agra and Central India, by way of Siirut, Har.Hli, 
 and Neemiich, and the valleys of the Mhve and 
 the Chumiiiil, and throws off branchcM fnun Siirat 
 along the valley of the Taptee, into the unat 
 cotton districts of Candeish and Ilcrar, ami tlic 
 coal and mineral districts of the Nerlxulda. Most 
 of the ordinary roads arc impassable for curriiiL'is 
 and merchandise has therefore to bo coiivivi i 
 chiefly by pack-hullocks ; indeed, the only g'lKKl 
 line of rood is from I'anwell to Ahmcdniilfi^nr, a 
 distance of 105 m. ; and it is Ijoth unioniacicil 
 with the S. of India, and at a distance uimvuilulilo 
 for tho produce of Candeish and Berar. 
 
 For an account of the foreign trade of the prcsi- 
 dcncy, see Bomhay (City). 
 
 llutoiy, — In l(il7, Bombay was created a re- 
 gency, and made supreme over all the coin|ian_v s 
 establishments in India; but in 1707 Calcutta wnJi 
 declared indenendent of it. In 172(i a charlcrcd 
 court for penal causes was established: anil in 1775 
 Salsette, Ilassein, and the revenues of l!ari)Mili,nni| 
 other places, were acquired by treatv with a 
 Mahratta chief. In 1780 Dobhoy and Aiinudnlinii 
 were taken, but restored to tho Mahrnttas in 17Kj. 
 In 18(13 Baroach and Ahmcdnuggur liistriits wire 
 acquired, and the latter, with J'oonah and Alimc- 
 dabad, were formally ceded in 1817. Koinnii, 
 Marwar, Candeish, and the remainder of the ex- 
 l)eishwa's dom., fell to the British in 1818. Tlie 
 seat of gov. was transferred from the city of Sunit 
 to that of Bombay in 1080. (For further particu- 
 lars as to the historj', government, army ami nan-, 
 trade and commerce, Ac, of the presidency iif 
 Bombay, see India, and also the following art.) 
 
 Bombay {Bumi Jiuhia, Portuguese, a i/ood 
 harbour), a marit. city of liindostan, prov. Aunin- 
 gabad, cap. of the above presiilencj', and, after 
 Calcutta and Canton, the greatest ein|)iiriuni of tiio 
 East. It is built at the SE. extremity of tlic 
 small island of the same name, contiguous to the 
 Koncan coast, 050 m. NW. Madras, l,Or)0 m. S\V. 
 Calcutta, and 150 m. S. Siirat; lat. 180 flti' X., 
 long. 72° 57' E. Pop. 500,119 in 1801. Bmiibny 
 Island belongs to agroup, iiU'luiUng Sal«tto, idincil 
 to it by a causeway, Caranja, Elephanta, Crlalilin, 
 Butcher, Woody, and Cross L<lanils, wliicli. In iiij,' 
 disposed in a crescent manner, enclose ils liarlionr. 
 The island itself is of an oblong slia])c, 8 ni. in 
 length, N. to S., by about 2 or 3 ni. wide ; it is tiir 
 the most part low, swampy, and barren, and wns 
 formerly very unhealthy ; but in this resiKJct it lias 
 been much Improved, by means of drainage ami 
 embankments. The city consists of two portions: 
 the old town, or fort, and the new town, or Dun- 
 garee. The fort stands on the SE. extremity nf 
 the island, on a narrow nock of land imraeiliateiy 
 over the harbour; it is surrounded by extensive 
 fortifications, which, however, are somewhat iifj;- 
 lected, and would, probably, be of little use in war. 
 The old castle stands about the centre of the fiirii- 
 fications, on the sea side ; while a long semi-circu- 
 lar line of ramparts stretches along the land siilc. 
 Tho Portuguese began to build the town witiiin 
 the walls in the same style that has ever since 
 been followed : the verandahs of the houses arc 
 supported on wooden pillars, and shut up witli 
 Venetian blinds ; the upper storeys project Leyond 
 the lower, and the roofs are sloped and tiled. 
 
nOMRAY 
 
 491 
 
 Rombnv l)oar« no <>xtrmal rMcmblnnco tn f'nl- 
 riitta or Al:i<lrnn, nnd its Wni ntrectn urnwcW fqunl 
 Ihfir Kiilnirbfl. There ih no Astatic nin;;iiitliTiico: 
 evprythiiiK liait an air or a^;^ and t'cononiy, MioiikIi 
 the ithopH and warclioiimm arc luiilt on an cxtoiiHiN « 
 wale. 'I'lie new novemment-houHP, a lar^p ntnic- 
 tiirc, Boniewhat like a {Jemian fn-p-city Ktadthiiu», 
 in little nwd cxwnt for holding rouncilH, and other 
 |iiil)lic buHinesn; tliero Ih a cantle, now occn]ticd m 
 an awcnal, and near it am the oaiiaoious doek«. 
 nipnhle of acconinnMlatinK Hhips of any mze. These 
 o»tal)linhments to^etlier witli tiie harracUnand the 
 (itlipr huildinpH within the fort, have cost very 
 lar^e siinw. Tlie dupreme iudieiul court, or milder 
 atUiwlut; the cathedral; the Elphinntone institu- 
 li(in and great medical coHcRe; the town-hall, 
 il«ii(fnetl i»y Colonel (."owper, and Iruilt at an ex- 
 pense of 60,000/. ; and the office of the gov. aecre- 
 tjiry, on the green, an open irregular area, are 
 amongfit the chief edittccs ; there are many I'ortu- 
 pnese and Armenian churches, hoth within and 
 without the wallH, some synagogues, and a vast 
 niimlKir of mosques and temples. The new town 
 of Unnibay is larger than that within the fort, and 
 ill a low, wet, unwholesome situation, N. of the 
 latter, and separated from it by tlic esplanade ; it 
 extends in one part from the harbour, on its K,, 
 quite across the neck of land to Rack Hay, For 
 wvcn or eight months of the year the inhab. suffer 
 fnim inundation, or its effects, few of the ground- 
 tioors of the houses being above high-water mark. 
 Tlic most remarkable structure in tlie new town is 
 a pag<Hla, the largest in Uoml)ay, (Udlicatcd to the 
 worship of Mrnnhii Devi. Substantial buildings 
 now extend to 8 m. from the fort, outside of which 
 most of the jioorer classes live in huts of clay, 
 nmfed with mats of palmyra leaf. (J round ni 
 the city is very valuable, especially within the 
 fortress. Most part of the island belongs to 
 I'arsees, who form a wealthy and intiuencing part 
 of the population, and are comparatively more 
 mimerous than in any other large town in India, 
 Tliey are the descendants of the Gbebers, driven 
 out of Persia by Shah Abbas: a comely, tall, 
 athletic, active race, fairer than the other natives ; 
 mild in their manners ; bold, enterprising, intelli- 
 gent, persevering, successful in the pursuit of 
 wealth, and contributing greatly to the prosperity 
 of the place. 
 
 It is said that there is not a European house of 
 trade in llombay in which one of them has not a 
 share; and generally it is the Parsee that pro- 
 (hices the larger part of the capital. In every 
 department connected with shiinbuilding and the 
 docks, the Parsees have the chief interest; the 
 whole N. quarter of the fort is occupied by them ; 
 their country houses are furnished with European 
 decorations; and they make no scruple to eat, 
 drink, and hold constant communication with 
 Europeans. They have many temples for the 
 adoration of Fire, and moniing and evening all the 
 males repair to the esplanade, and prostrate them- 
 selves in worship to the sun ; the females do not 
 join in these devotions, but of whatever rank, con- 
 tinue, as in patriarchal times, to fetch water from 
 tlie wells. The Parsees are firmly attached to 
 their original customs, amongst which is that of 
 exposing their dead to be devoured by vultures, in 
 buildings open at the top for the purpose. They 
 are dirty m their persons, but their women, 
 although enjoying more liberty than any others 
 in India, are certainly the chastest. The Parsees 
 provide for their own poor, and not a single cour- 
 tesan of their sect is to be found. Of the rest of 
 the population, about two-thirds are Hindoos, one- 
 fifth part Mohammedans, and one-thirteenth part 
 Christians. The floating pop., besides the native 
 
 and Uritish Kpamon, consists of AralM, Persians, 
 (Joa- Portuguese, Parsers, and the crews of vessels 
 brUmging to most otlier nations (mpn-nting the 
 iMirt. The harbour of lloml)ay is one of the 
 largest, safest, and most commiMlious in India; it 
 is H m. in diarn,, nnd affords good anchorage and 
 shelter for tieets of siiijis of the largest burden. It 
 is also the only great nilet in India wliere the rise 
 of the tides is sutlicicnt to |H'rmit the construction 
 of wet-d(H-kH on a large scale, the spring tides 
 ordinarily rising M, and occasionally 17 ft. 
 Frigates and ships of the line may Ih; built at 
 Ilombay in a very durable manner. Prt^viously to 
 IMl!», a considerable fleet of small armeit vcascls 
 was kept at liombay, to check the piracy which 
 had ])revailed on the Malabar coast ever suico the 
 time of Alexander the (ireat; but at this e|M>cli 
 the nuisance was finally abated, by the capture of 
 the strongholds of the pirates in the Arabian and 
 Persian gulfs. 
 
 Hombay has a more extensive trade with China 
 than either of the other presidencies ; tlie rest of 
 its commerce is chiefly with (Iri^at Itritain, the 
 Arabian and Persian gulfs, Calcutta, Cutch, 
 Sinde, and the I\lalal)ar coast. The imports from 
 China consist principally of raw silk, sugar, and 
 sugar-candy, silk piece-goods, treasiurc, Ac. The 
 principal articles of cxiM)rt to China are, raw 
 cottim, opium, principally from Malwn, pearls, 
 sharks' fins, fisli maws, sandal-wood, Ac. The ex- 
 ports to China being much larger than the imports, 
 the returns for several years past have been ma<lo 
 to a largo extent by bills on London, drawn by 
 American and other houses in China, and in bills 
 on the Indian government, drawn by the agents of 
 the E. I. Company in China. Tlic trade with tlio 
 United Kingdom has been regularly increasing 
 since the abolition of the restrictive system. The 
 chief articles of import thence are, cotton and 
 woollen stuffs, cotton yarn, harilware, copper, iron, 
 lead, glass, apparel, fur, stationery, wine, and somo 
 minor aiticles. The total value of these imports 
 — exvbiitive of treasure, which is very large, 
 amounting to from 7 to 9 millions \v>t annum — 
 was as follows in the years 1861 and 1802 : — 
 
 
 MercliandtM 
 
 Importi from 
 
 
 
 
 1801 
 
 18C2 
 X, 
 
 
 £ 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 7,3.17,434 
 
 7,380,879 
 
 Aduii .... 
 
 11.1,072 
 
 1.50,976 
 
 Africa, Const of 
 
 13:1,337 
 
 191,223 
 
 America, North 
 
 43,212 
 
 43,698 
 
 Arahinn and Persian Gulfs 
 
 41'.),«()3 
 
 490,189 
 
 Batavia nnd Java . 
 
 3,188 
 
 — 
 
 lielgiuni .... 
 
 38,(i.'>0 
 
 18,916 
 
 Cn|)0 of Good IIoiic . 
 
 528 
 
 1,070 
 
 Ceylon .... 
 
 7,032 
 
 3,976 
 
 China .... 
 
 919,2(i7 
 
 821,760 
 
 France .... 
 
 74,12(i 
 
 78,500 
 
 Gcrninny .... 
 
 3,22() 
 
 11,305 
 
 Gibrnltnr .... 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Manilla .... 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Mauritius nnd Bourbon . 
 
 4,613 
 
 14,491 
 
 Mcditorrnnean Ports 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 New South Wales . 
 
 64,071 
 
 42,851 
 
 New Zenlnnd . 
 
 1,139 
 
 117 
 
 Penang, Singapore, and ) 
 Malacca . . ) 
 
 161,719 
 
 97,.'i98 
 
 Saint Helena . 
 
 29,862 
 
 3,926 
 
 Siam and Burinah . 
 
 s.s.ii; 
 
 43,(i41 
 
 Sonineanee and Mcckran 
 
 l«,2-.'l 
 
 16,249 
 
 Suez .... 
 
 54,014 
 
 43,989 
 
 Sweden .... 
 Total 
 
 13,336 
 
 13,605 
 
 9,448,210 
 
 9,468,965 
 
 t!"/i:ibl'^ 
 
 r-r^" 1 
 
 wr 
 
 
 The principal exports to Britain are, raw cotton, 
 
402 UOMllAY 
 
 raw nilk from China mid IVrsin, Ivnn', iic|)p<'r nnd 
 ^|li(•('H, iiircc-pMMN, colTi'i', anil wixil. 'I'Ik^ Jofnl 
 valiui of tlii'Nc <>\|HirlM, ill tlitt two year!* IHtil ami 
 IMi, In mIiowii ill tliu .'tiiltjoiiicil lulilo: — 
 
 Riporti to 
 
 IHOl 
 
 met 
 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 TTnltol Kingdom . 
 
 n,'JIH,747 
 
 !n,;)lM),«:i.t 
 
 Aili'ii .... 
 
 i IIII,:I7'I 
 
 |:i.'i,tioo 
 
 Al'rloo, Count of 
 
 ' (l<J,:|(ll) 
 
 W.\,iir>r, 
 
 A-ri-ia : : 
 
 I 1I0,;|.'.() 
 
 M.ur. 
 
 Arnliliin ftinl I'lTxInn OiilN 
 
 H0H,.'W7 
 
 841/.7H 
 
 .\imtrnlln. New .S. Wulo;* . 
 
 IJ7 
 
 li'i-i 
 
 Ilntnvin ninl Juvu , , 
 
 n,:i.-i(i 
 
 4.iim 1 
 
 IVvlon .... 
 
 l(l,ll:ll 
 
 l:i,ill!l 
 
 Cliiiiik .... 
 
 8,ll!IS,;i!(l 
 
 0,(11 o,7.'.H 
 
 l''runuo .... 
 
 •J»7,:m 
 
 I71,l-il 
 
 ni.many | other I'oru . 
 
 1 ;i7,«»7 
 
 — 
 
 (liliriiltnr. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ilollimd .... 
 
 17,7:in 
 
 — 
 
 SIiiiirltliiH and Hoiirtmn . 
 
 H'j,rm 
 
 fill.H'JS 
 
 MtKlitt'rraiiran I'urtH 
 
 — 
 
 17,MI4 
 
 New Zealand . 
 
 (W) 
 
 — 
 
 Nor^vay .... 
 
 7,h:)i) 
 
 14,4(IH 
 
 renaiiK, HiiiBaimro, and 1 
 Malacca . . [ 
 
 lf»«,!».'.2 
 
 ns.n?-') 
 
 Slam 
 
 1 1 ,.'iH2 
 
 4'2.mi) 
 
 Sdimicanco and Meckraii . 
 
 •JI,I77 
 
 1I,HS7 
 
 SlH'i! 
 
 l'J.-.,HMH 
 
 (14,l.'.» 
 
 Swaloix .... 
 
 ■n 
 
 1H,«2-J,4fl2 
 
 Total 
 
 17,K)0,843 
 
 Tlipre entered, at the port of Itomlmy, 8,l(iiJ 
 vc.HfU'lH, of .1 total biinlen of l"0,«(!il toiitt, in tlio 
 vcnr (ondinj^ iJOtli April) l«t!l ; and 2.MI4 vt-sfscls, 
 of l(!!t,r>J(5 toiiH, ill lH(!-.>. Tlicre cleared 3,;i!l() 
 vesMcld, of l.Oi.ltiJ!) tons, in IHOl ; and 3,U52 vchhcIm, 
 of ir>(!,4-t!) tons, in m>2. 
 
 At liombay, wn^cH are hif^lier than in Beiipal ; 
 ' .It provisionH ore also dearer. The markets are 
 not e(pial to tlioHe of Calcutta, but superior to thoxe 
 td" Madras. Tlicre are fewer ICiiropcaiis at Hombay 
 tlian at the other presida., neither are their salaries 
 8o high. The Hombay Native Education Society 
 have their central schools here, whitdi ore well 
 attended by native pupils. Several literary socie- 
 ties, nnd many charitable and religious institu- 
 tions, have been establisiied. lionibay is the seat 
 of a Protestant bishoi). Komnn Catholics are 
 numerous; one of tiie four vica. -apostolic of Fiidia, 
 •with direct authority from the I'ope, resides at 
 jiombay, where tlie ("atholic bishop has five dilfe- 
 reiit churches, all of which, except one at Ccdabba 
 Island, are endowed. Tlie jurisdiction of the 
 sii|)reme court is contiiied to the island of Hombay, 
 and to Euro|)eaiis in the rest of the presid. ; the 
 <'ivil and criminal laws are those of Englaml, but 
 this court is not one of ai)])eal from jmivincial 
 courts, like the suddc.r aduwliit at Calcutta. The 
 j;arrison consists of about 4,000 troops, one-fourth 
 of whom are luiropcaiis. 
 
 IJonibay is, next to Madras, the oldest of our 
 jiosscssions in the I'jist; it was founded soon after 
 the cession of the isl. to the I'ortuj^uese, and wjis 
 ceded to Charles II. as part of (iueen Catherine's 
 dowry, in l(i(!l ; but the l'ortu>;uese j^overnor re- 
 fused to deliver it up, and it was not until 1()(!4 
 that it came into our hands. In l(J(i8 the city nnd 
 island were transl'erred, by royal letters jiatent, to 
 the E. I. Company. The seat of j^overnmcnt was 
 removed thither from Surat in 1(!«(>, and two years 
 after llombav was besiej^ed by the Mojifiils. These 
 ■were ordered to withdraw by Auriiii;fzel)e, which 
 they did in the siicceedin}^ year ; but pla^^'iie, 
 piracy, and rebellion continued for many years to 
 devastate and disturb this coloiiv. The first line 
 of railway in India was opened in 18ri3, between 
 
 HONIFACf'IO 
 
 n<mibaynnd Tnimah, '.'<» m. NN'R. At prr«>n» 
 Hombay rules the whole N\V. eoa„t of |,„|i„ „|,,| 
 Its iiilliieiice is felt aloiiK the shores of IVr^ii m,, 
 Arabia. 
 
 IJONA (an. A/>/)riu/iniiiiii), rnlird hvjho nntiv... 
 AiihiiImiIi, I.e. place of jiijiilies, a nuirit. ejiv „(• \ 
 Africa, n-K. Algiers, jmiv. Consianiina. oiia'tciiKue 
 of land project iiifx into a spaeimiH bav (tiull „r 
 Hona), near the mouth of the Selli..Ms."ii. „ n„i,|,. 
 •vhat unhealthy country ; hit. :W0 M' ;i()" \ |,„. " 
 7O|H'-20"E. Vop.ab.mt 12,0(10. ItiHHumM.n.M 
 with walls ;I0 ft. ill heiiLcht, and nearlv 2 ni jn 
 circ, with four pites. The town and hiirlMiiir" are 
 commanded by the citadel (AW«/), on n hill i„ 
 the N. of the city, havinj,' thick walls and a cirniii 
 of about n quarter of a mile. The citadel was 
 much injured in l«;t7 by an acriilental explcsi,,,, 
 of >ruiii)owder; but it has since hi>en renaired. hihI 
 made stronger than ever. Hona has Immm nnieli 
 impn)ved since its occupaticm by thi^ Ereiicli, fi,,. 
 streets arc narrow nnd crooked,"hiit there are h(\(iJ 
 ral K'xxl houses, a jjood market, with shops, rcinj. 
 iii>;-rooms, c(dfee-liouses, and even a theaire. '\%, 
 road of Hona is far from beiiifj sale, the N I',, and i;. 
 winds throwinjr in a heavy sen. The Seiboiis was 
 iiavij,'able when the Homans possessed Hona, and 
 it mi^'ht he rendered so a^ain by clearing' awav a 
 bar which has accumulated at its mouth, wlicrn 
 there are but .S or 4 ft., whereas, within this, tlierc 
 are IH ft. water. Kona is the seat of a Frcndi 
 judicial court ; has manufactures of lienidiiH and 
 other >,'arments, tapestry, and saddles; experts 
 corn, wool, ox-hides, and wax. It was forincrlv 
 the ceiitn! of the French trade on this coast, and 
 is at jiresent the principal seat of tin- coral lislierv. 
 (See Amiikhs.) The Kasha was taken March ■>:!, 
 |H!t2, bv a few French soldiers and sail(lr^ tlu' 
 Turks left in it, heiiiK <lissatislled with their 
 leaders, having o|,ene(l the gates to them. Ileim 
 was afterwards pillaf,'ed nnd burnt by the Aralis, 
 but the French, havinjr received reinforcenienl!*, 
 took jjossesidon of it. nnd captured ll;1 iiiecesuf 
 cannon. About a mile to the S. are therenmiiis 
 of llipjjo I'cfrins, once n residence of the Xinniiliim 
 kings, nntl aftenvards the e])iscopal see of St. 
 Augustine. It was situated between the rivers 
 Hoojermah and Seihous, being about 2 ni. in eire. 
 Its chief relics are some large (isterns and part (jf 
 the Hcmian walls, A swampy lra<'t extends 
 between it and Hona, probably its ancient haven. 
 Ilip|>o was taken by the (Jot lis, and rniallydestriiyiil 
 by Otliman, the third ealijdi. Its niatcri«l.sser\i;d 
 to build the moilcrii town. 
 
 H( )N A VISTA, one of the Cni)C de Verde islands, 
 which see, 
 
 UON'DENO (an. PatUnum), n town of ceiilral 
 Italy, prov. Ferrara. at. the eonlliiencc! nf ili(> 
 I'anaro and I'o d'Argento. Pop. 2,072 in isili, 
 The town lies at the mouth of a delile which leads 
 across the A])eiiniiies. 
 
 HON'EFl.'O, a town of Southern Italy, in tlic 
 former kingdom of Na' los, prov. Sannin, caii. 
 cant., on the declivity in a moniilain, t! ni. SSi;. 
 Lariiio. Po]). 4,7t)!t in lM(i2. It has a line jialine 
 and a magnilicciit parish church, with fourlimws 
 of refuge. 
 
 HONIKACCTO, atown and sea-port of the island 
 of Corsica, cap, cant., on a small ))eiiinsnla at ilio 
 S. extremity of the islaml, on the silrait wl.iili 
 bears its name, 45 m. SSE. Ajaccio; lat, 41° ■-'■>' 
 11" N., long, flo 9' 1(3" li. Pop. ;U .",,•{ in lw!l. 
 The town is well built and fortilied, but imt, 
 strongly. Its port, which lies between tlie penin- 
 sula on which the town is built and the main- 
 land, stretches nearly I m. inwards, hasdeepwarcr 
 throughout, and is one of the best in the Medilir- 
 ranean. Its entrance, however, is not more than 
 
 from «0 to 9(1 
 little dilllciilt < 
 IIOMFATI 
 Ciioi'iiza, 4 III. ; 
 The town has 
 A great iiuiiiIh 
 ciiviroiiH. 
 
 iioNhon, f 
 
 must others in 
 linil its astroiioi 
 On lieiiiKdl's r 
 jijiieed between 
 jjchveeii long, 
 nm|i to Park's 
 niiailered, but t 
 III the N„ with 
 in order to ma 
 iilwervaiiiiiiN wli 
 aiiiiiiig its barl 
 state. III 'I exce 
 r** in., nor in wi 
 ever, very cnnip 
 l>aldy not less 
 
 lllllillMII til I,. Mill 
 
 K. Iiy Hamboiik 
 Mniliaiii Wilderi 
 ilie same wildi'i 
 'liiria; and on 
 lulenihly elevate 
 III' iniiiintains, ai 
 iiiliieiinsiderabU 
 the \, and VV,, ii 
 rivers, the Fo-le 
 .S'liegal, and the 
 'flic snb-tributari 
 nms, that thmigl 
 (Senegal and (. 
 there are few dis 
 ivaterwi. As a 
 '\* III' a most vigf 
 with thick woods 
 i-i mil siirjiasscd 
 ilnclioiis are the 
 liiiuriiig (Miuiitrit 
 Ac) ; but a wiiit( 
 mil q lite peculiai 
 remarkable to ati 
 The corn, called 
 Irmn the dependi 
 aliont November, 
 DecenilKT, and i 
 Jamiary, It is e 
 til hear a strong ri 
 mh. In climate 
 agrees also with t 
 appcnrs to possess 
 healthy, and seen 
 firocitms animals, 
 tiaily in comple: 
 immediate neighbi 
 fiiiilah familv, ne: 
 cenoiilcrable of all 
 liave tawny or .., 
 features, and soft 
 npf,'riies to be the 
 "'f different races, 
 nfttc people. Tlu 
 distinctive marks 
 many of them spc 
 twigue hears no r 
 nnr have they any 
 farther IC, than F\) 
 »f theFoulahs'), r 
 III iiidiistry, eiierg 
 pcrior to their negro 
 pxl agriculturists, 
 '" gr.'uiiig and dt 
 
 r 
 
IJONIFATI 
 
 fmrn HO 1" 00 ynnlM Itroad, wliioh romlrn it n 
 litilr ilidlt'iilt ot'iii'ciMM. 
 
 IIONIKATI, n town of H.oiitltom Italv, prov. 
 ('(iM'iua, t III. SK. lU'lviili rr. I'liji. .'I,:i'.",i'iii iNti.'. 
 'I'lio town linw M'vcriil rliiiri'licH, ami a ronvt'iit ; 
 a ^Tfat niiinlHir of Milk-woniii aru rairti'il in itH 
 cnviriiii". 
 
 lloN'IXHr, a cdiintry of \V. Africa, wliicli, like 
 niiixi otiu'rs ill till' Mann- part of ilic wuriil, Iuim not 
 hiicl il^ aslroiininii'al |i<Miiiciii |iri'<'iNi'lva-<<'i-rlaiiuMi, 
 (III lli'iini'irx ina|) to I'ark'rt I'MrNt .^niinicy, it in 
 |i|iii'('<l liotwiTii tlic lals. ol \:\h° ami I l,^° N., ami 
 IkIwc'ii Inii^r. 1(|0 |i)' ami I'l" '.'0' \V. <»ii Ihf 
 Miii|i to I'ark's Hccoiiil .loiirncy flic Ioiik. remains 
 iiiiiilicrcil, but the lal. is rciiiovcil one dc^^rcc iiion^ 
 1(1 the N., with the whole of the Iravcllcr'M route, 
 in (inlcr lo make tlial route a^rce with the few 
 (ilwcrvalioiiN which were taken. 'I'liou^di powerful 
 aiiKin;; its liarliaroiiH nciKhlxiurx, it is a Hiiiall 
 ftiiti-, ml pxcec(liii;{ in len;,'lh, from !•',. to \\'., 
 7S in., nor in wiillh. i'miii X. to S., 7((; it i-*, how- 
 ever, very c<iiii|i.ict in form, ami its area u ]iro- 
 lialilv not lesi than a.iioo sq. m. Its |iii|i. may 
 iiinninit to l.rillil.lllMI or -.'.IllHl.lilill. It is hoiimlc'd 
 L liy llamliouk; SIC. and S. hy Temla and ili<^ 
 Siniiiaiii W'ilderne.s.s (wooded, not desert) ; S\V. hy 
 ilic same wiltlerncHM and Woolli ; \V. hy Foota 
 'liiria; ami <ai the N, hy Kiijaiif^a. Ilondon is 
 Idlindily elevated amon^ th(! Senepiiohian Hystem 
 III' iiiiiuiitains, and mime parts of its surface rise 
 iiitii considerahle |ieaks. The land slopes towarils 
 till' \. and \V., as is shown hy tlit^ direction of the 
 rivers, the Fo-le-ine hoUliii;; n N. course to the 
 St'iii'j;al, and the Nerico a S\V. one to the Citmihia. 
 The siih-trihiitaries of these allliirnts are so niiine- 
 niiis, that thou^'h neither of the tirst-class rivers 
 iSciu'pil and (ianihia) |iass tlinm^h Ilondoii, 
 tliiTc are few districts lietler or more ahundantly 
 wiilcreil. As a iintural consecinenee, ve|,'etation 
 is iif a most vipiroiis kind ; the hills are covered 
 with thick woods, ar.d in native fertility the soil 
 i< iiiit siiqiassed liy any in the world. The jiro- 
 iliutiiuis are the same with those of the neif{li- 
 lioiiriiif; eiumtries (see ItAMnAitiiA, Kamhouk, 
 Ac.) ; hut a winter or dry season harvest, thou^rh 
 imt i| lite peculiar to this country, is suiliciently 
 rcinnrkahlc to attract the attention of travellers. 
 TliP com, called hy hotanists, Jfolnis rorniiiis, 
 IVdin the (le)iendin^ position of its ear, is sowed 
 nlioiit Novemher, is in full vi^^oiir by the end of 
 DcccnilKT, and is reaped in tlic early i)art of 
 Jiiiuiary. It is exceedingly prolilic, and appears 
 til bear a strong; resemblance to the Arabic dhoiir- 
 rali, III climate and division of seasons, Itonduii 
 ajjreps also with the surrounding countries, but it 
 iqipenrs to possess the advantage of being more 
 healthy, and seems to be rather less inlcsted by 
 ftnioions animals. The inhabitants differ essen- 
 tially in complexion and manners from their 
 imniciliatc neighbours. They belong to the great 
 Fiiuliih family, next to tlie jSIandiiigoes the most 
 ciin.,i(lcrahlc of all the W. African nations. '1 hey 
 have tawny or rather yellow skins, with small 
 features, and soft silky hair. They hold the 
 noj,T(ios to be their inferiors ; and, when talking 
 iif (lill'erent races, always class themselves among 
 u'hite people. They have, indeed, most of the 
 ilistinctive marks of an Arab race; but though 
 many of them speak a little Arabic, their native 
 tiiiijjue bears no resemblance to that language, 
 nor have they any legends that trace their origin 
 farther K. thixn Fooladoo (literally, ' the country 
 of tiie Foulalis'), near the sources of the Senegal. 
 In iuiliistry, energy, and resources they are su- 
 perior to their negro neighbours; they are tolerably 
 (.'(hmI ngricultnrists, and are said to be well versed 
 in grazing and dairy luisbaiub-y, though they 
 
 nONN 40.1 
 
 make no cheene. Cattle is their chief wealth, and 
 they posMois also a hainlMimc breed of horse-i. 
 'I here an', indeed, hut few African countrien wheni 
 so many of the iiecesiiaries, and even conveniences, 
 of life are enjoyed, and that not by the rich only, 
 but by the greater pari of the popiilalioii. 
 
 Centrally hitiiaied between the Senegal and 
 (iaiiiliia, lloiidou has bei'inne a high road for 
 tralllc; the slave dealers from the coast usually 
 )iass Ihroiigli it, and by their means a consider- 
 able commerce is carried on with the neigliboiir- 
 ingand even distant eoinilries. The nali\e exports 
 consist of <Mim, cotton cloths, some sweet-smelling 
 gums, and probably sometimes cattle. I'he transit, 
 trade consists of slaves, sidt, iron. Shea butter, 
 and gold-dust. The government is inonarchical, 
 and the king is often ut war with his Maiidingou 
 neighbours. 
 
 The Mohammedan religion is very generally 
 |iri>fi"'sed, but not e\('lii-i\ riy ; the king hiinseif 
 IS a k.ilir (inlidel),iiiid it iloes not appear that any 
 intolcr.iiice is pniciised by either se(;t ; •■ ' 'ho 
 nia.xinis of l.-^limii-ni seem to liii\ehiid s,...., iii- 
 lliii lice over the Itondoii Foiiliihs, wlm are less 
 liiis|iiiahlu than the poorer or more ignorant 
 negroes. 
 
 Si hools are established in the different towns, 
 where children of all persuasions are taught ii» 
 read and write. The character used is Arabic, 
 and the instructors the Mohammedan priests; 
 by this means Mohamniedanisiii possesses a strong 
 hold over the people. 
 
 Customs and duties on travellers are extremely 
 high. An ass load of goods pays a bar (two 
 shilling.s) at all places; and at ^''atheonda (the 
 royal residence) a musket and si.\ bottles of 
 gunpowder, or the value of them, are exacted aH 
 the common tribute; besides which, neither lliu 
 king nor any of his chief ollicers are delicate in 
 recpiesting presents, which reipiest.s, under tho 
 circumstances, arc, in fact, demands which cannot 
 be evaded. 
 
 IIONN, a very ancient handsome town <if 
 Frii.ssia, cap. circ, jiruv. Khiiic, on the left bank 
 of that river, about 16 m. S. Cologne, on the 
 railway from Cologne to Mayeiice. I'op. 20,«,")7 
 in IMtil. The ])rincipal celebrity of Ilonn is de- 
 rived from its university, founded in IKIM, niiil 
 intended to replace that of Cologne, suppre.s.sed 
 by the French. Nicbuhr, tho historian of Home, 
 was one of its jirofessors; and it has still to boast 
 of some very distinguLshed names. There are, on 
 the average, some COO students. The electors of 
 Cologne formerly resided here ; and their castle, a 
 building of immense extent, is now the university. 
 The library that behiiiged to the university of 
 Cologne, comprising from 80,000 to 100,000 vols., 
 has been wmoved thither. In the museum of 
 Hhenish aiiti(|iiitics, in tho university, is an 
 ancient monument, inscribed iJea: Victoria; Sa- 
 crnm, supposed by some to be the identical Ara 
 Uhiorum mentioned by Tacitus. (Annal. lib. i. 
 § 39.) This, however, is doubtful. The cathe- 
 dral, or metropolitan church, in the older (Jothic 
 style, with a high tower, has a statue of tho 
 Kmpress Helena, and is said to be built on tho 
 site of a church she had founded. There is also 
 a good town-hall, theatre, &e. A fine avenue of 
 chestnuts conducts to the Castle of Popfielsdorl^', 
 a])pro])riatcd to the use of the university, con- 
 taining the museum of natural history, and 
 having attached to it a spacious and well-kept 
 hotanieal garden. The situation of Honii is de- 
 lightful. It is one of the most agreeable towns 
 on the Uliiiie as a place of residence. IJeethoven, 
 the musician, was bom here on the 17th De- 
 cember, 1770. 
 
 
 
 
 iff>. Iif*., 
 
404 
 
 BONNAT 
 
 IIONXAT, n town of FrniuT, difn. rmiw, rnp. 
 rniil.,<>iin hill iioi f/ir IVntn t)ii' llllli>rri'iiNi>. I'lip. 
 *J,7l'Jiti iNtit. Tlir ^ilncti Ih iliittiiit;iiiHlivil liy tliv 
 olil caxlli' of lli'miviiiN, 
 
 llONNKT-LlvCllATKAlJ (ST.), n town of 
 Frnncc, ili'p. f^oire, ont). emit., 17 in. M. MtnilliriMon. 
 Vt>y. '2,'ilW ill iHiil. TIiIh Im a |ilii<'t' or^riiit iiiill- 
 i|iiily ; it in Hitiiatt'ilon a Konniii ronti, coiiNiriictfil 
 liy AKri|i|Mi, uml iK'ciiiiifH n |iirtiin'M|iu! |Hmiliiiii 
 on tint Niirniiiit of n hill, Niimionnli'il \>y a forin'HH, 
 Haiti to Ih> of the i^v of th(^ KoiiiaiiH, I'art of tint 
 nii<;ii'iil waIIh and Iowith, liy which tho town wiim 
 foniu'riy NiirroiiiidtMl, hIIII ixiitl. It han a liaiid- 
 Koint^ (iolhic uhiiri'h. LocUh of viirioim HortH an; 
 niadi' htTc, and Nonic lace; and lli<> placo liaH n 
 ('oiiNJdcraldo trade in liinlHT, fonvardvd tu the 
 |jiiildiii((-yardH at St, ItanilxTt, 
 
 IIONNKTAHI,!',, n town of l-'ranrc, di-'p. Sartho, 
 rnji. cant,, on the Divi', 111 ni. NIC. iMaiis, near the 
 railway from I'arix to MaiiH. l'(i|i. 't,!)i'iii in iHlil. 
 It hax a ciinlUs conHtriu'ti'd in Ihtt ir>tli ccntiini', 
 '\'\u' iiihaliitaiitH are princiiially ciipigcd In the 
 (Milton inaiiiil'iictiiri'. 
 
 IIONNKVAL, a town of I'Vanco, <lt'p. Kiiro ct 
 Loiriu <>a|i. cant., on tlie Loire, in u fertile valley, 
 
 roll. it,t 
 It. it wa 
 
 lirimd and well laid out. it wax formerly forlitied, 
 and had an ahhey. The rhiireh in Hiirmoiinled hy 
 a very hi^'h st('e|ik>. It Iuih a cotton mill, with 
 niMiiiifactiireH of calicoex, caqielH, coverleto, 4e., 
 niid Home coiiMiderahle lannerieM. 
 
 nONOKVA, a town of the isdand of Sanlinia, 
 jirov. SasHari, IH m. KNK. Unm, in a healthy 
 hiliiation, on the declivity of a mountain. Top. 
 A,H7\t in 1 858. The town haM two convents, one 
 of them for .fcRiiitM. AharaH, or dijiot U'iIuIohk, 
 •WiiH estahlished here in ISttJJ, 
 
 MOODIiOOM, or HODKUN, a son-port town 
 of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, coast of the Archi- 
 iielapi, op]iosite the iHland of Coh, llH) in. S. 
 Jiniyrna; Int. iJ7° 1' 21" N., lonj,'. 27° 2.V 18" K. 
 I'oji. estimated to he 12,(H)(). The town is heanli- 
 fullv mid conveniently situated on a rising; ground, 
 at llie bottom of a deep hay, commanding a view 
 of the is!a:it1 of Cos, mid the siaithern shore of the 
 Cerauiiic f^uW, as far ns Cn])e Krio. It has n small 
 but well-sheltered harbour, with from two to three 
 futhoms water, resorted to by Turkish cruisers, and 
 having generally a ship of war on the stocks. In 
 the hay outside the harbour there arc from 10 to 
 2U fathoms. Houses of stone, and irregularly 
 scattered along the shore of the bnv, being inter- 
 spersed with gardens, tombs, and cultivated tields. 
 Streets narrow and dirty, and the bazars ■\\Tctclied. 
 The castle or I'ortress, situated on a projecting 
 rock on the K. side tlie harbour, was liuilt by the 
 Knights of iiluK.es in 1402: it is still in tolerably 
 good repair, and mounts 50 jneces of cannon. The 
 serai, or ]ialaccof the nioosellim ir governor, and 
 some small mosques, stand along the western mar- 
 gin of the harbour. 
 
 It is supposed that IJoodroom occupies the site 
 of the ancient Uulwarnussux, the country of Hero- 
 dotus, and of Dionysius the historian. Above the 
 town are the remains of a theatre, 280 ft. in dia- 
 meter, and which seems to have had 3G rows of 
 marble scats. Old walls, exquisite sculptures, 
 fragments of columns, and other relics, evincing 
 its ancient splendour and importance, abound in 
 the town and its vicinity. (Beaufort's Karamania, 
 p. 96 : Turner's Tour in the Levant.) 
 
 BOON DEE (Bundl), arajahship of Hindostan, 
 prov. Kajpootana, distr. Ilarnotee, under protec- 
 tion of the British ; estimat. area, 2,291 sq. m. It 
 was formerly much more extensive, but Kotah mid 
 its territory have been separated from it; in 1817 
 more than half the revenues were usurped by 
 
 BOOUO 
 
 Keindla and llolknr, and tlui iiennantrv, impovrr 
 ished liy endless exactions ; but in ININ tlu- rai„|! 
 received a coiiHiderable nccesslnn of doniiiil.iii niu\ 
 the town of ratlin, from the hiiniN of ||„. Urifj,!, 
 Although small, this state is im|Hiriaiit, as i( ,.,m' 
 tniiiN the principal pasMs from the S. into ||„K.r 
 Ilindiwtmi. The natives art- of the llara triL 
 which has produced many celebrated men, nn.i 
 amongNt others one of Aiirting/.elH'',( hest rfriiCriil. 
 
 IkNiMiKK, n town of IlindoNtan, prov. llnjiH,,,' 
 tana, cap. of the alsive ri^aliNliiii, and reMideiirc ,,| 
 its NOV., on the.H. ileeliviiv of a long ranue of hilN 
 90 ni. SK. Aiineer, 200 in". SW. Agra ; hit. •J.-.o ..^^ 
 N., long, 7.j° iJO' !•;. h is divided into New „^„| 
 (tid Boondee: the foniier is Hiirroiiinleil by « hi^i, 
 stone wall, which extends up the acclivity to mmw 
 fort ilicat ions which crown the hill; the lidUMeN iirc 
 most I V of stone, and two stories high. The pnliKi' 
 is half-way up the hill, and is a very strikiii' 
 stone editlce, sii[i|H)rl«d partly by a periieiKlJcuhrr 
 rock IIMI ft. higli, hut principally by solid picnt i,| 
 masonry. This city is also reii'ihied picHircmniif 
 hy its numerous temples, niagnitireiii fdiiniain... 
 and spacious nniin street opening to the pidiici, m 
 the lower extremity of which stands a (;n,u 
 temple, dedii'/iletl to Krishna, with many grtPupH 
 in bas-relief, ami other sculptures. Old It^KMnlii' 
 is \V. of the Conner, covers a considerable siirl'in c, 
 and contains some line fountains and piigiuliiN, Imt 
 is in a stale of general decay. The pHs«e^ N. ,if 
 Boondee are strongly defeniled, and nlioiiiiil in 
 natural beauties, in royal and religious edlliccH, 
 and oilier works. 
 
 BOOIMIANI'OOU (/?«r/.«n/M/ra),n towniifili,. 
 l)ec<'aii India, ]irov. Cmideish, of which it was Ilii< 
 ancient cap. ; built in a plain, on the NW. Iiaiiknr 
 the Tiiiitee, l!l.") in. SSE. Oojeiii, and 'Hit m, i;. 
 Hiirati Int. 21° 19' N., hing. 7ti° 18' K. This is 
 one of the largest and best built cities in ilut 
 Deccnn, though, as a whole, devoid of nnliiicciiirul 
 beauty. Most of the houses are of hrii'k, inaiiv 
 three stories high, with neat fagndes, trained in 
 wo<i(l, as at Oojein, and universally niofed uiili 
 tiles ; but the fort and palace of its ancient xnw- 
 reigns, and many Mohammedan mosques, eliapels, 
 and tombs, are tiea]is of ruins. Home of tlie strcctx 
 are wide, regular, and paved with stone; mid tluru 
 is a square of considerable extent: the liiicxt, 
 building is a mosque, called •lumma Musjud, a pilu 
 of grey-stone, with a handsome facade, uiul otia- 
 gonal minarets, but destitute of a cupola, the usual 
 appendage to Alohammedan structures. Tiiv l\n>- 
 tcc is a clear and beautiful stream, hut here of nu 
 great breadth, and easily fordable in the dry sensoii. 
 Boorhanp(Kir is supplied with water hy niiucdiicls, 
 which bring it a distance of 4 m., and di.striliule it 
 through every street below the pavement, whciu'c 
 it is drawn up by Icatheni buckets. 6(10 (if th'; 
 best houses arc occupied by Bokrnhs, a Mnliani- 
 medan sect, who arc the great merchants in tliis 
 ])nrt of Hindostan, wear the Arabian costume, and 
 call themselves Arabs by descent. This city was 
 conquered by the Mahrattas in 1700, since wliicli 
 it has jmigressively decaye<l. It was captured hv 
 the British in 18U3. Ihe grapes grown in it^ 
 vicinity are said to be the best in IiKlia. 
 
 BOOBO, an island of the E. Archipelago, in the 
 so-called 4th divis., between lat. 3° and 4° S. and 
 long. 12G0 and 127° E., 50 m.W. Ceram ; length, V.. 
 to W., 76 m,, breadth 38 m. Bice, sago, a pnit'u- 
 sion of aromatic mid other woods, tropical fniits, 
 and the best cnjcput oil, are found here ; tlic intt- 
 ri.ir is peopled by Horafooras, who subsist on sag(i 
 and the chase. Some of the other inhnliitauts aa- 
 Mohammedans. Chinese junks mid S. Sea whalers 
 visit it, and the Dutch have a settlement on the 
 island. 
 
nooRooniRi) 
 
 nOOItOOOIHl), Rlownof IVr^ia, prov. Frnk- 
 KrmiNiiNlmw, nin. ^ovcnit, in n lini' niul rniltt'iil 
 vnlloy, lt)i) III, NW, lN|uiluin. I'.Mtiiiiiitcil |iii|). 
 I'.'.IMHI, It liiiN a tine I'ikHili' aiiil (u'vinil iniifii|iirH. 
 The town and <liNl. ntlnclit'il lo ii Im'Ihii^ to ilif 
 trilH> of Lurk, who do imt wmiilcr I'lir from th<> 
 ii|Hiti« to whii'li tlii'v nri> luirtiiil, Imt wltU' in vil 
 hmi'H, iiikI i>in|il(iy i Iu'iiincIvcm in tliu iiii|irovviii<'ii( 
 i,rtlii'ir cKtatt'M, 
 
 IIOOTAN, or miOTAX. an iniltp. ntnto of N. 
 IliiiiloHtnn, iN-twi'cn Int. 'JH'^ III)' iiml -.'mo ;ii)' N., 
 niid lont^. HMO ;i(»' uiiil !l|u K., hiiviiiK N. the 
 llitiiitliiyn, which iliviilcNil rroiii TiU't ; [•'.. iinil S. 
 .V<i*iiin mill lU-iiK'il; niul W. the river Ticstii, 
 wliii'li Mt'parntvH it I'roin .sikkiin : Iciitfth, K. to VV., 
 itliiiiit llftti m., hy I'roin '.Hi to KiO in wiillli; hut ilN 
 liiiiilN woiilil (frcatly I'Xi'oi'il iluM cNliinatt' were it 
 ili'M'rilicil UN ('oin|iriHin^ all Iho c'oiiiitry iiiiinc- 
 illiili'iy ailjoiniii^ the lliinaliiya on holli niiU'it, 
 fruiii ('itMliincrit lo China, which In tcniu'd liy ilic 
 IIIikIooi* lihote, and itM inhaliitanl!* Jlluitj/iin. 
 A.srtiiiiiiiiK it lo inciiidc. the dlHtriclH now referred 
 III, ill* urea haM liceii estimated at ahoiit iM.'iiMi 
 M|. ni., and its |io)). at l,allO,OlM), Th(> exicriial 
 ii|i|«'iirniice of llootan is the very reverse of tliiil 
 III' 'fillet, which is a level talile-land, whereaM it is 
 iiJiiiiist entirely niountainons or hillv. 
 
 MoutiliiitiH. — Its N. |>ortion, which is the S. ile- 
 I'liv'ilv of the Himalaya, consiitiiles an almost iin- 
 |iii>niil)U', frontii-r, roiisistiii); of lofty nioinitaiiis, 
 rilher covered with snow, or lihickand ih'stitnte of 
 nil verdure oxceptinj; towards their base, where 
 !<li(irt and acanty herlia^e, a few hushes of ludly, 
 ami occasionally a stunted pine, arc all the signs 
 til've){etation existing; in this region, 
 
 AlsMit II) in. from this lioundary the aspect of 
 the ciiinitry changes, hecomiiig, although still 
 IhiIiI and lofty, more |iictnresque and smiling; the 
 liills lire cultivated to a consiih'ralile hei<;ht, or 
 ciivcrcil with verdure often to I heir sununils, hav- 
 iii); (in their slopes luxuriant forests. The valli'vs 
 nrc iiii're wedge-shaped intervals, or waler-ct)iir>es, 
 iH'twcc'ii th(! hills, and their vegetation is similar 
 III llint of the temperate parts of ICurope. The 
 ciiiintry continues of this character for nhout 
 fill ID. from X. to H., gradually hecoming less 
 Mrikingin itsfeatures as it opproa<'hes the trrriauo, 
 wliicli divides it from Itengal. This is a tract of 
 marsli-lnnd, 2!i m, in width, and covered with 
 jiin);lo, being the only plain belonging tu liuutun : 
 itH uliinatc iH moHt pestilential. 
 
 Tlic principal river is the Tchinchicn, whic'h in- 
 tfrscct« the country N. to S., passing througli the 
 vallcv of ToHHisui'on, receiving the waters of the 
 I'atciiicn and llafchien, and after a turbulent 
 course of about liA) m., during which it forms 
 several cataracts, and rushes over vast masses of 
 riick, fulls into the lirahnmputra, n few miles be- 
 liiw Hangamutty, where it is called the (iadawlmr. 
 'ITiere are several rivers of less consideration, siii)- 
 I«isod tributaries of the lirahmaputrn ; but the vio- 
 lence of their course prevents the simplest form of 
 narigntion being practicable. 
 
 The primary rocks in the mountains are chiefly 
 Rranite and on imperfect quartz, having the aji- 
 [learance of marble, but employed in the manufac- 
 ture of a s[iecies of porcelain ; good limestone is 
 abundant, but not used either for agricultural or 
 other purposes. It is conjectured that tlie moun- 
 tain ranges contain much mineral wea'.tii, but they 
 remain almost wholly unexplored. Iron and cop|ier 
 are the only metals liithcrto discovered, aiul the 
 fonptr alone is applied to aiiy purpose by the 
 natives. 
 
 The climate exhibits every variety, according 
 ^ elevation, and summer heats and Winter ccild 
 "* ""cverally felt iu places tvithin sight of each 
 
 HOOTAN 
 
 40tf 
 
 I otiior, In tlic mountainous rrglonx it U not itn- 
 healthy, and rcsemldeM the climatic of tho S. of 
 Kiiro|t.% not iM'ing mibjected either to ijie liiirnin;^ 
 HuiiH or |i»ri«slicrtl rains of lUngal. Snow prcvaiU 
 ilt4rinf{ a greul part of the winter, except in sonm 
 few districts; nhowerM an- frequent in iiummer, and 
 III consequence of the exhulal ions arising from iho 
 numerous springs and cataracts, a certain hiimidiiy 
 IMTVudcH the nlinosphen-, even at this seas.in. I'tU 
 iiiikkn, although but a few niilen distant from 
 Tassisuiloii, has a climate so much milder than 
 the latter, that it has U'cn chosen as the winter 
 reiidence of the sovereign, 
 
 'I'he nioiinlain forests alsfuiid with iH'ech, ash, 
 maple, birch, vew, pine, llr and cypress, but contain 
 no oaks. Numerous fruits cominon to Kuropo 
 nourish; as apples, is-urs, apricots, (H-acheH. wal- 
 nuts, melons, mulberries, strawberries, raspbcrrieii 
 (the two latter fruits growing wild), oranges, and 
 
 !«> granates, which are excellent. In the cidder 
 
 districts, the cinnamon-tree, and u sjH'cies of rhu- 
 barb, are found. 
 
 Tho marshes of the S. abound with elephants, 
 riiinoceroses, tigers, Imll'aliK's, and other furinidablit 
 wild animals; but, excepting in these parts, iliey 
 are not abundant. Captain Turner sjx'uks only id 
 a kind of monkey, which inhabits its vicinity, iimi 
 the yuik, or grunting ox, which is fouiiij liminig 
 the inimntaiiiH of the N. boundary, but descends 
 into the lower country- for pasture during Iho 
 winter months. The 'langun horse, a species p«!- 
 eiiliur to llootan, almut 1:1 hands high, well-fornicd, 
 short-bodied, dean-limited, deep in the chest, ex- 
 tremely active, and well suited to mountainoim 
 connlries, is an object of considerable trallic with 
 Ilengal. These have a tendency to becoiiK? pie- 
 bald ; thus*' of one colour amongst them, althongli 
 rare, mid less vaba^il by tlu; natives, are much moro 
 esiceincd ity the Hrilisli merchants. 
 
 I'lii/il)-.— Ill |)hysi<al fonnalinii tlioiieo|)lc ditfer 
 greatly from the Itengalese, being hardy, robust, 
 strong, and occasionally, in the mountaindislricts, 
 attaining a height of more than ti ft. Their skins 
 
 are sii th.and often not darkerthan those of thn 
 
 iiihub. of the S. of luiroiH? ; faces broad, andcheck- 
 Inmes high, from which point the face rapidly 
 narrows downwards ; the eye is small and black, 
 with long pointed corners, looking as if extendetl 
 in width by artiflcial means ; they have scurccdy 
 any eye-lashes, licard, or whiskers. They are ofteii 
 greatly attlicted with goitre, espe<iially those who 
 live near rivers subject to inundation. Though 
 not deflcient in courage, they arc ix-aceably inclined 
 and inexpert in the arts of war: the Ikiw and 
 arrow (in the use of which they are skilful), sw^ord, 
 and falchion, are their chief weapons. No mili- 
 tary discipline whatever is maintained, and ambush 
 is more tire(|ueiitly resorted to than open contlict. 
 They dress in woollen chith ; use animal food and 
 spirits. Tea is the usual beverage, but so prepareil 
 as to suit few palates but their own. Their dwell- 
 ings seldom exceed one story in height ; the palace 
 of the rajah, at Tassisuihm, consists of several, and 
 is magniticeiit, as compared with the other edilices. 
 Much ingenuity is displayed in the construction 
 of their bridges, wliich are composed cither of 
 timber or chains of iron : there is one of the latter 
 kind across the Tchinchicn, at Chuka, deserving 
 of admiration ; the founder of which is unknown. 
 Their aqueducts are formed of the trunks of trees 
 hollowed for the purpose. Uoth polygamy and 
 polyandry are in practice ; marriage is not ratified 
 by any religious form, and it fretjiiently happens 
 that one female becomes the joint |)roi)crty of 
 several members of a family; the dead are burnt, 
 and their asht^ plunged into a river, on which 
 occasiou certain ceremonies are performed by the 
 
 
 
 
am 
 
 HOOT AN 
 
 UyVmfpi, h niiniiTiiiii* ncri of rvrUiiten, who niii|ily 
 tlu'liim'lvi'NcxrIiiNivcly lnndiiiiiiiiilrriiiu tlii> iliificN 
 ol' ri'li^'iiiii, 'I'lirri' iin' iwn iiiiiiiiiil It'NiivnlH ; iiii«> 
 
 ill III)' Hlirilltr.l'lll It'll iIk' /|<i<>//, t'llllnlnljll^ llf ilin'cri'iil 
 KIMirlM, HI wllii'll lllimi> !•( nil rillikH, xt-X, llltil il^r, 
 
 mix with iiiiri'HiriiiiK')! I' loin; ninl nii aiitiiiniiitl 
 
 ft'Hiiviil, I'lilli'il miilhium . (nilirmiii^ ii iiiiiIIiIuiIk of 
 IliiiiliMi iillt'^nrirH, 
 
 .li/riiiittiirr.— lu t\u> ciilliiro of thi> liiiul till' iin- 
 livcN tliHjiliiy iiiiliiNiry ninl rari', Kiiv, Mlinit, 
 liiirlcy. mill ii njM'i'irM of iriiiii^iil/tr timI l«'iiriii){ iiii 
 lllllliily III III!' |Milypinuiii of l.iiiiiit'ilN,iiri' tlii' rliirf 
 a^ririiiliiritl |iriiiliir|M, 'I'lir viillfv of I'tiKniniiilnii, 
 mill '•iiiiM' of I III- luiiili Mkirilii^ I III' ri\«'r, yirlil i wn 
 
 rro|m llllllUlllly : llir ^'rnuilil oil Ihi* ■•lolN'H of llli> 
 liilU JH ii '^ 'llni l>\ riillin^ ll iiilo hIii'Ivi'h, Iiii>iiiiIiIi> 
 it to III' iri'iL;<il('il l>\ ilii' iiiiiiiiiiiiiM >lri'iiiiiM, 'I'lio 
 lliiixl liilioriiiiiH iillii'i"! of liiislimiilry I'mII Io ilir Inl 
 of till' fi'liiiili'i, .\i>l\villi>laiiiliii^ llii' rliiiiali' 
 ntforilN ({ri'iil ailvaiitiiKi'" f<>r llir |iruiliii'iii>ii of nili- 
 li.'iiy vrp'laiilri, llir liiriii|) in llir only olii' riilli- 
 V;ilril willi iiliii'li Hiircrsi ; riiiiiriiliri>, ►'IiiiIIoIm, 
 Mi'loiiM, Ar., uri' jrrowii ! Iml iMiiaim'-^ havi' laili'il, i 
 ami arr imu loially lii').'li'i'lril. 
 
 Till' traili' »ilii llir Niirroiiiulin); cviutitrlcK is ii 
 fnoiiii|iiily ill III!' Iiaiiij,'* of ilic ;,'iivi'riiiiii'iit, CoarM' 
 wiMilJiii liiii ill, linrsi's, wax, ivory, gi>lil-iliiM|, hIIvit 
 iiip'' ■, iiiii.ik, llii' \ariiiii» I'niil-i of llooiaii, ami 
 Cliii .I'M' Miaiiiifai'tiiri'M, forrii tlii' rliirf ai'tirli'.i of 
 i>N|'-<>rl to |ti'ii;;'al; aiiil tlio Haiiii' artii'li'M, willi llic 
 nil' illoii of roi'k'Hall, Icallicr, loliari'o, pajn'r, riri', 
 til I'ilirt. All aiiiiiuil caravan is si'iit liy llii' ilrlt- 
 rajali into tlu' lti'ii;;al jiri'Miil., wliirli rrliirn- l,'i>lrii 
 >vitli iiiilipi (i'oiii|ioMiii^ half Ihc i'arf^'ii), l.n^^lish 
 wooliciis, linen riotlis, rot tons, Maiiilal-wiiiiii,K|iii'('x, 
 nhHiilii'tiila, Nlii'i't-('oii|ii'r, tin, ^iin|io\vilrr, oitiT- 
 HUins, horiiM, IuiIcm, tlic wlioli' UHiially aiiioiuilin^ 
 ill valtKi to alioiit .'111,(11111 rii|i('('i. A Hiiiall trallir 
 witli llic I'!, iliviHion of tlii' l!iin^'|ioiir ilistrirt is 
 hImi iiiainlaiiiril, A liasc niUcr I'oin, worth alioiit 
 l<i(/.,slriu'k iiiCoorh Ilahar, Ih ciirri'iit tliroii^hniit 
 Iloiitaii, wliiTi' tlicri' is no nihit. 
 
 MduHf'iiitiiirK, — 'I'lii' |iriiiri|ial i« impor, tniiilp 
 from t III' hark of a tree, from wliich matrrial a kiiiil 
 of silk ami satin is also inailo. I'am is the only 
 market in Itootaii, ami here are niaiiufaetureil idols, 
 nwonls, iliif^f^ers, ami the harlisol arrows ; the latter 
 are i!i|i|ieil in a )ioisiiii iiroeiind from n tree iiii- 
 knowii to Kiiriipeans, which, lutwever, 8cl<tom 
 |iri)ves mortal. 
 
 JMIt/lon, — niiililhism, of the Lnma noct, is the 
 jireviiU'iit reli>;ioii ; hut n (iitt'ereiice of o|iiiiiiiii 
 exists on certain points, one sect pemiittiii|; the 
 use of fooil eiiiisiilereil impure hy tlie Drahiniiis. 
 No intemnitiiiii whatever, of a iU]ili>mntic or other 
 t'hnracter, is alloweilto interfere (luring the)ierii>(l 
 (if the ceiehration of sacred rites: there arc many 
 Himihirities in reli^ioiiH custom« here with thone 
 ofTihet. 
 
 (ioviTiiiiicnt. — Tlic sovereifin power, though 
 vested in t)ic hands of the dliarmn-rajah, who is 
 ren'arded as possessing divine attrihiites, is exer- 
 cised only I'v (lie deh-rajah, who resides at Tas- 
 Kisiidoii. ,n' several )msses into the country are 
 under the Jurisdiction of otlicer-i called nuhii/is, who 
 usually iiihahit the fortresses of their pevniiar dis- 
 trict.s, except in winter, when they visit the hiwer 
 conntr}', to escnjH! from the rigour of the season, 
 nnd for the ptiqiosc of estalilishing their autliority, 
 which is uncertain in its extent. 
 
 The interior and S. fiarts of the country are di- 
 vi'leil into ditl'ercnt domains, each controlled liy a 
 resident functionary, whoso duty consists in the 
 exaction of the gov. dues, and general administra- 
 tion of his distr. The most suhordinatc of the 
 puhlic oflicers are called moohceit, which situation, 
 however, afiurds an opportunity fur considerable 
 
 noKDRArx 
 
 prefenm lit. The n'veiiiii'K of ihr Mjnh urn imi I 
 niiwlly in nMlilex of proilnce ninl men liiinilj,, 
 TawiHiHlon, \Vaiiili|MMir, rnniinikka, <ihn»n, nni 
 .Miirii'hoin, are the chief Iowiin ; hm, niih llii. , ^ 
 ci'piioii of the ilrst two, they are no U'tter tlum 
 Niiiall villagi'H. 
 
 ///W/i/y.-Of IhiN inlry.rnlled hy the aiiiliMt 
 
 llraliiniiii Madra, no early record liax U'ln inm, 
 milled, nor was pnlilic I'liiintioii muih diriri.4 
 towards it until the di h nijali's iiivai.inn ,,f ih, 
 
 "eighl ring territory of t'l.ocli llaliar, in 177' 
 
 which the llriiish governniiiit i.|i|K.i.e.| ; i.m' 
 iliroiigh the liiii rveiilinn of i!ii' limia i,| TiUi, .J 
 peace was ell'iited : the disputed distriil U'lul: 
 awarded to the lliiotaiii'se. 
 
 It is extremely ilillirnlt, and in some parti im 
 
 |Missilile, to iletirmine the exact I iidarv ol tln' 
 
 coiiiiiry; a renular system of eniroarlinien't mi ||,|. 
 siirroiimliiig stalls having liein long practi.eil I.., 
 the lloolanese, who have at ditVerciit |>eriiii|i nil. 
 hropriated to themselves coiisidiTalile pos..i ..,i„i„ 
 ipeloiigiiig to lleiiiral and Aisain. dnat alami 
 was created in iMlli hy a sii|i|ioNed tlireatilleil III 
 vasiiHi of the Chinese, who had enlerni \i|niiil; 
 and the deli-rajali was excited hy his (ears to i|. ' 
 chire himself amicalily towards the llriiisli, in (li,. 
 ho|,c of gaining assistanre, if nipiireil. lint a vi rv 
 serious ilispnie iM'tweeii Itootan and the guviiii- 
 iiieiit of Calcutta limke out in the autumn of Ixill. 
 An Kiiglish envoy having lieeii insulted, ami -.'iti- ! 
 fail ion and redress heing refused, a force iiini|i.i>|.,i 
 of H.iMinmen.all natives of India, exceni l'ii llriii>li 
 artillery men with two guns, were sent niio Itoi.iiin, 
 They took several fortilied places, hut were at- 
 tacked at Kewangire on the ;trd of Kehriiary, Isilj, 
 and driven hack to Koomrchatta, the Ileiignl na- 
 tive regiments living in utter coiifiisioii. On ihr 
 news of I his disaster iH'coiniiig known, the (invirnnr 
 (ieneral at once despatched a siiHiiient innnliirnl' 
 Kiiropean troops, who took possession of the U^i 
 ground. 'l\w low country of llootan at the siniie 
 time was declared annexed to the Itritish ims- 
 ses-ions in India. 
 
 UOOTOX, an isl. of the K. Ardiipcla-.i. '.'inl 
 division ; lying off the .SK, extremity of ('ilcln.; 
 length, N. to S., N.5 m. ; average hreadth iilinut Jh 
 m. ; hetween hit. 'l°and (1° .S., long. |'j;i<J K. h 
 is high and woody, hiit well cultivated, yiililiiii,' 
 rice, irui/.e, an ahundance of tropical fruits, |iiiiilliy, 
 Ac. The Duti'h had formerly a settleiiK nt lure, 
 and sent an olllcer annually tu destroy all ilic I'luvit 
 trees on the island. 
 
 UOrrAUT (an. Biimlnliriga), a town nl' ilu' 
 Prussian States, prov. IMiiiie on the lel'i Imnk nl' 
 that river, !> m, S. Cobleiitz, on the railway rnmi 
 Cologne to Mayence. I'op. 4,102 in istH." 'I'liis 
 is a verj' ancient town, its walls appearing to lio 
 hiiilt on the fonndationH of a fort constriicii'il liy 
 Drusiis. In the middle ages it was an imperial 
 city, and several cmmcils have heen held in ii. 
 The lioiiscH arc mostly of wood and plaster, wiili 
 projecting U|)|)er stories; and the streets are nar- 
 row and ill-paved. The large convent of iMuiicii- 
 hnrg, founded in ll'iii, and some similar esialilisli- 
 nieiits, have heen converted into cotton factiirirs. 
 The parish church and the old church of ilie Oir- 
 raelites are worth notice. 
 
 JtOKDKAUX (an. liurdifiahi), an imiiortnnt 
 commercial city and sea-port of France ; cap, (li'ji. 
 Ciironde, in the centre of an extensive plain, mi 
 the left or \V. hank of the (iaroinie, bh in. .SK. 
 from its embouchure, 102 m. NNE. Ilayoimo. uinl 
 iJ07 m. S\V. I'aris, on the railway from I'liris to 
 Madrid. Pop. 1(!2,750 in 18G1. Tiic (inruiiiie 
 here describes a semicircle, along the outer side 
 of which the city extends for about 'J.J ni.. wilii ■< 
 breadih of about 1 in. in its greatest iliain^'if' 
 
 < ■' I III 11. 
 
 h\ti\\A\ nielro|iii|i.H.' 
 "'I llie oiiposite si'di 
 "iiliiirl) iif |,a it„„,j,' 
 i»i'in the ciiv and 
 il'H'anioiis hri'dgi. of 
 "I I'lWili (or iL'tU \ 
 
 lliil-c), by .[H it,' 
 l*r« lieing of Ntoiie, 
 ;J>i""eaiid partiv of 
 '" ''^1"' 'llM ennn,),. 
 -"^'MiiH'/. Owing |„ 
 .'■■''"■rent, it was a 1 
 ""' l"il>lie hiiildiiiirs 
 ""■ willieilral, the cl 
 ],""v. .St. .Senrin, I'ai 
 ^^■^;(l;.xc!iaMge),('n 
 I "■'""' -bisiice, I'al.ti.s 
 f ;.'"<'. and iHihlii; bath 
 """iliiiisheil, (;„„,ic 
 ""1- .«'"! continued, I 
 '•['•"'lliat am! the 1 
 «lii,li circmnsiaii,',., „| 
 " l"""'^, 'mrniony and 
 '«l««th; the height 
 l™';l.thecrossi,rwl 
 
 '"" '• "> height. At 
 
 ■tol.s the annent bi'llr 
 
 r, ''""'"' it is m 
 
 l^d,»rdn,r.st.AIi,.hd 
 
 >'isma,m,re,ierfec 
 
 J'^ fatiiclnil; but lik, 
 
 S'lVr'"^'^'^""'' 
 
roKDKArx 
 
 107 
 
 Pii- I'iiy i" iliviilcil iiiti) 1 1 Ill mill iir\> i|niirti'r'<; 
 
 ilii' I'liriiKr, nr niiiiiIk'hi |Hiriiiiii, mIiIiIi iiu'liiiliH 
 till' iiiii'iciil liiitniin tnuii, riiiiliiiiiH iiiiiv iiiirrow, 
 ,riH>knl. mill tlirly hiri'ct', wiili III Imili nIoiic 
 lii'iiM'it; nliili'tlii' Itillcr, t'iiiii|iri>in^' IIh' \, |>itrl 
 ,|'llii' I'iiy, li;iM iiio'^ilv riH4'ii ii|i xini'i' 171.1, wlicii 
 ilii' Intriiiliuit M, lie 'riiiiriiy t'oiinin'iiri'il Iih 
 iiili^'liii'iiol iiiliiiliii^lritlliiii, li U I'NirriMi'lv 
 li,lllil'«'ll>i', mill <li'Hi'r\i'i||y rt'li'Li'iilril. 'I'lic wiilr 
 |;iii' (III Cliiiix'Hii Kiiii);i', uliirli, Nviili its iiiiiiiiiii 
 ,iiiiiii*, iliviili'M llir city into two Mi'.'irly i'<|iiiil 
 |iirl<, liil'< iMUllv rli'^itiil nliii|iN, mill Hiiiiic iiiilili' 
 iiiiilr<"<. iix iIk' lloiirMi', mill Urmiil 'riiriitri', 'I'lii' 
 Alli'iK mill Ciiiiri ill' 'i'liiiriiv, I In- ('mirs ilii 
 .l.inliii I'lililir, till* CiiiirH irAiliri'l, mul Hrvrral 
 iihir ^ln ri» mill Miiiiirrn, iin- rriiiiirUiilili' I'nr lli. ir 
 l.iuiiy nr hIzc. rill' Kuiiliiiiirt,' ilrs ('luiririiii«, 
 nhii'li niiililiim till' .liirijiii riililir, tviii N|iiiki'ii uC 
 .1. {<i'rliii|ii till' llni'ii -iiliiirli in l'',urii|ii', till ilir 
 i\ii'ii.'>inii III' liiiiliiiii^' iiitiili' it |iiirl III' till' rilv. 
 liii' iipiiriiiirli til llnrili'iuix liy wiiirr U vrry Mirili- 
 i.i,', 'llii' riMT, ill itM imrriiwi'Ht |i(irl, ii|i|ni:«iti' 
 ihc rimi' iiiiyiilt', in "•.'O yiirilt iutu^i, wiili a 
 .!.{iili III' lit I'l. Ill Inw, mill iii'iirly •'> riitlunii-i nl 
 Ii„li ttiiiir; till' li'ii;;tli of till' I'liri, rrmii mii' cinl 
 1,1 ilii' iilliiTiif tlic city, iM rrrkiiiuil ul ii|i\vnrilN 
 
 ill ;l lrii;:lli' ; it i.1 i'lk|i!llili' III' III inilliiililtili;^' 1,'Jllll 
 
 .Iii|i4 ; mill Miii'li iiM ill) Hill I'xi'l'i'il ,'i(iil or lion loiiM 
 IIIIIV I'litir il lit nil liiiics iirtlic tiili'. 'i'lir (ianiiiiii' 
 i. Airiril iiliiii^; till' rily liy ii Miii'icssinii iil'.HU|ii'rli 
 ijiuiyK, wliirll ili'.icrllil, li\ iip'lilli' ilirlillill inn, In 
 ilic Hiiirr's i'iIhi". iinil iirsiiU'M ilmir ntiliiy, hit 
 
 11 ii^'<t till! |iriiii'i|ial uriiaiiiciilM nl' tin' Inwii, 
 
 Mm; liiii'il with liandHniiii' luiililiiiK^, wIium' 
 
 fiiiiiilivi Iwivi! an ini|HiNin;r clVri'l. ' < hi vii'wiii^,' 
 
 •:i\ii Mr. Itif^iin, 'tlii.s ina;;iiilii'i'iit ircsi'i'iil rrniii 
 
 :iiiy ii|i{.ii.iitii |iiiiiil I'l'iiin wliii'li Ihc im' iiiiiy ciii- 
 
 It;ii'i' ilM wliuiii extent, one eaiiiint lii'Mitate in 
 
 nvriliiiin to it a (leriilei|Mii|ii'riiirity nvermiy niii/i- 
 
 liiiil prcM'tili'il til 11.1 either in the French nr the 
 
 Iji^'ii'li iiielriiiinlis.' (Swil/.erl.'iiiil, iVe„ )i, .'ll.j.) 
 
 Oil tilt' iiii|iii!<iie mIiIii III' the river there is the 
 
 'iiliiirli III' j.a llii>-liile, 'I'Ik^ eniniiiiinii'alinii he- 
 
 iwi't'ii the city anil ilH Hiihiirl) it* inaiiitaineil Itv 
 
 ill' raiimiis hriil;,'!' nl" lliinleaiix. It is iVi'ii yanls 
 
 ill li'ii^'ili (nr I'JO.^ yiinls lnn;;cr lliaii Wiiterliio 
 
 lliiili,'!'), hy -iH it. Iirniid; has 17 arches, the 
 
 |iiirs lieiiit; 111' stniie, aiiil the ii|i|ier parts partly 
 
 i'i'«liiiii' ami partly nl' hrick. It \mis cnninieiiciMl 
 
 ill l'<10, aiiil cnnipleteil in 1 1^2 1, al a cost i.f 
 
 :":iMl(Mi/. Owini; lu the ileplh ami streii;illi of 
 
 tlri'urri'iit, it was a iimst lalmriniis iinilertaUin^. 
 
 'I'Ik' |inhlic liiiililiii^^s must wnrihy nf noticit an^ 
 
 ii«' I'lilliedral, the churches nl' .St. Michel, St. 
 
 In/ix, St. Seiirin, I'aiil, llriinii, ami nlliers; the 
 
 ll'iirM'(Kxchaiijf('),('ii.-itniii Ilniise,(iraiiil 'I'heatre, 
 
 Hall III' .liisiice, rahiis Ifnyal, Fort ile lla, syiiii- 
 
 ;';'iii', ami piihlic hatlis. 'I'hc! catheilral is aline, 
 
 Im unliiiisheil, (tnthic eililii'e, coninienceil in the 
 
 llili, ami cniiliiiiieil, hy several ilitVereiit arehi- 
 
 !• Is in that ami the siicceedinj; centuries, I'nini 
 
 I «liirli I'irciiiiistaiice, altlioii^h licaiitil'iil in jiarls, 
 
 ii wiiiils liarimiiiy and rej,Milarity. It is ll.'lil't. 
 
 iiik'iiKth; the liei},'ht, of its nave is Hr> I't.; that 
 
 I inn 111' the cross in which its grand entrance is 
 
 liiui'il is ndnriied with two spires, each nearly 
 
 1 1*' It. in liei;j;ht. At a short distance from it 
 
 'laiiilsihe ancient liellry, formerly nearly ."i'-'O ft. 
 
 I'i'li; liiit having been much dilapidated during 
 
 |ilic lU'Viihition, it is now reduced to little more 
 
 iliaii liio ft. hiirh, and serves as a shot tower. 
 
 IV dmrch of St. Michel, Imilt in the l'2th ceii- 
 
 I'Jry, isiii a more perfect arcliitecliiral .style than 
 
 Ike liith&hal; hut, like other ehiirchcs in Hor- 
 
 faiix, it is dark and gloomv. It also lias an 
 
 h-ibicil helfry, which was iil'O ft. high until 
 
 "iiiiilati'il, anil in part iluslrovud, hv a" tempest 
 
 nil.. I. 
 
 ■ i-iiiiiri', i> II o II ^|Mi-iiiii<i ^uiirrie'e, 
 ci'lllri'. IIH.^ II. ill h i|m||i. hy li/il 
 
 I'll liy a large gla/.i'd itniiie, 7x1 
 lonieil uiih a gallery Mip|H>rteil 
 
 In \'M, lU'iientli il is n cnvini In wliich deail 
 iHNlii'M liiive hi'i-ii pri'Ki'rxeil for a lengthi'lietl 
 pirinil. The rhlircll nf .M. Crnix i< the llioit 
 
 Miii'iriil nf all. having hciii Imilt liifnrc the niiildle 
 111 the 7lh ii'iitiiry, and ri'-lnriil hy t 'harh'iiiauiie. 
 'Ihc chiinhi's nf .Notre lliiiile. St. I'aiil. mid lhi> 
 I'nlli'gi' li'iiyal, are nf iiiinh hitenlale. 'I'hoyiia- 
 
 gii'.MIi' is a li!|l|i|sn|iie lillihlillg, eri'i'tcil ill the liiili> 
 
 nf Napoli'i.ii. 'I'here are iwn i'mlr-liiiii chiirihi'*, 
 hill Ihiy prci'iil iinthiiig nnrihy nfniiiMrk. 'Ihii 
 llnur-<e il a large ediiiie, with a Npli'iiiliij ^lairi'iixe, 
 mill a hall in its ci'iiirc, W), fi. in 
 I'l. Iirnail, liglitei 
 I'l. high, anil luli 
 
 hy i» ilniilile rmik of arcades. In the npiier part 
 nl'ilii' hiiildiiig are IheCiiiiiiciU hmiiher, 'i'riliiiiial 
 nf ( oinnierce, ami rniiins used fur other piihlic 
 purposes. 'I'he ('nstoiii l|iiii'''e, hiiill on tliii 
 cnrropnlldillg side nf ihe riare Itnyale, is, ex- 
 lernally, like the llniirse, 'riii'tirmnl 'I'lieatre, 
 lillill in the reign of l.nllis W'l., at mi expelive nf 
 170,111111/,, \\\\\ acininiiinilale I, lino | crinns, ami 
 has a line cniicerl rniiiii, a i-paiimis hall, calii, 
 and nihiT apiirtiiH'iiis, 'rhirf arc t'cveral niher 
 iheains, Iml iiniie pariii'iiliirly di'^iiiigiiisheil. Thu 
 riilais, or Chmeaii li'oyal, Iniili in 177'^, ami 
 fornicrly the resilience nf the ari'hhi<hnp, is mi 
 cMi'iisive mill line striii'tun', wilh a large i|miilri- 
 lalcral court in its centre. Najmli'nn |, made it 
 ail iiimiTial palnic. The I'alai-i dc .lii-tii'i', Ihe 
 seal III the myal cniirl, ami civil Irihinial, has ii 
 mariile statue nf .Miillti'M|uli il, 'I'lu' lllnilcril InWII - 
 hall is III (inlhic archil eel lire ; nf Ihe aili'iclll line, 
 Imilt in the l.'lih eeiiliiry, iiolliiiig at present 
 ri'iiiaiiis Iml an nval lower, Niiriiioiinieil hy a dniiie, 
 llaiiked hy two I iirrels, called Ihe 'I'lmnlv I' //iirlni/i; 
 llni'ilcanx was fur a Imig pcriml furl Hied; hut 
 the streets planned hy ,M. ile rniirny I'nr tlie must 
 part occiijiy the sites of the former works; thii 
 Furl tie lla, coiisiructed hy Charles VII., is now 
 coiiverleil iiilii Ihe prison : the ( 'hiileaii 'rroiiipetli', 
 hiiilt hy Ihe same Sovereign in I l.'^i.'l, was de- 
 molished in 1^*17; mid its site, which now forms 
 till! IMiice i.oiiis I'hilippe, l.'iidoiil asa proiiienaile, 
 and |ilmileil with trees. 'I'here are sniiie nniaiiis 
 of antiipiiiy in Itorileaux ; the principal is what is 
 ealleil Ihe ' I 'a lace of (iallieiins,' a vii^t aiiiphi- 
 theatre nf lirick and stone, helieved to have heeii 
 erected alioiit ,\.ii. '.'lio, Iml now niiich ilihipidatcil. 
 It stands ill the .\. half nf the city, ahniit •{ m. 
 from the ancient liiniiaii town. Jt appears to 
 have heeii of all elliptic form. II I \ yards Imig, hy 
 nearly liriyards wide, and eapalile of accnmino- 
 datiiig l."),(iili) sjiectators; it hiiU'ered greatly dur- 
 ing the revolutionary phreiisy in I7'.Il' (when tlio 
 I'alais d'Oniliriere, or Caslriim rnihrariu', another 
 Ihinian edilice, was alMt. for the most part, de- 
 stroyed) ; hut its two jiriiiciiial entrances, 'JM^ ft. 
 high, hy 1!) 1-tItli ft. wide, and a part of its cir- 
 cumference, are still nearly perfect. Jlost other 
 relics of the Itoinan dominion have disappeared. 
 The Temjile of Tutvlli; supposed t« have heen 
 dedicated to the tnUdary divinity of the place, 
 and to have heen erected early in the first century, 
 was HS I't. in length un each side, and containeil 
 ■Jl enormous eolnmns, 17 of which were standing 
 towards the end of the 17lli century. It was 
 much mutilated in llM',), and totally deinolisheil 
 under Louis \1V., in 11)77, to make room for thu 
 glacis, constructed hy Vauhan, rouiiii the I'hnleaii 
 'J'rompette. No trace is found of the Temple of 
 Diana and Fonntain of Divona; and the stream 
 Dk-itia, now La Devise, niuiitioned hy Aiisoiiius 
 (t'lanii L'rhe-s, xiv. 15.), 
 
 I'or iiioiliiiniiino v.rbls foiitniii fliiminls nlvciim : 
 Qiiom pater Occnims retliio eiini imiileverit leolu, 
 Adlubi tutum spcotubis claiisibu.^ icqiiur— 
 
 Iv Iv 
 
 
 •/*■■. iftf ' 
 
408 IJORbUAUX 
 
 iii.stcftd (if siipporlinfc floctH, \a now ftrcluid ovor, 
 niid 111) vr.Htii,'<'M arc oxtaiit of its dock. 
 
 Itordcaux liiw iimny strinhircs devoted to trade, 
 nrls. and iiiaiiiiltu'tiireH. 'I'liere iw. M'\'eral Imild- 
 iii^-doeki4, ill wiiieli l)ri>,'H, frinales, and even siiips 
 of the line may Im' eonstnii'tcMl, lint wliieli are 
 ordiiiarilv ('inployed only foreoinniereial iinriiose.M, 
 tSliip-liiiildin^' isearriedon exien.sively ; tiieininilier 
 of Nailing vessels constnieted in (lio year IH(i;i 
 aiiioiinted to l"i, of a total tonnage of l(i,()2r), Ije- 
 hides 'J steaiiKTs of o(ll) tons. 
 
 Oil the .'tlstof Deeeniher, IHIi.'!, lluMinniher and 
 lonnap! of vessels heloiifiing to the. port of Uor- 
 dcAUx were as f(dlows : — 
 
 y.Mi.ixd Vi;ssKi.s. 
 
 Tnni 
 
 8 of 800 tons and uImivc, mcnsuring 1(l,|!iri 
 
 1 from 7fio to Mini 
 
 II 
 
 ^j 
 
 (lllll to 7110 
 
 
 •JH 
 
 jj 
 
 CilHI to (IIHI 
 
 
 tlH 
 
 »i 
 
 <IIMI to .'Oil 
 
 )i 
 
 7:1 
 
 t» 
 
 :i(ii) to nil) 
 
 >> 
 
 Kia 
 
 »» 
 
 '.'1)11 to ;i()i) 
 
 11 11 
 
 (11 
 
 i» 
 
 llll) to •.'()!) 
 
 >i 11 
 
 41 
 
 ,» 
 
 (io to 100 
 
 
 87 
 
 ,, 
 
 :i()to (io 
 
 ■1 
 
 G 
 
 i» 
 
 •JO to ;i() 
 
 »» i» 
 
 44a vessels, measuring 
 
 
 
 
 Sri;A\ri;its. 
 
 
 
 1 yso horse-power 
 
 
 
 1 U21) 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 
 ] 1 8.iO 
 
 «i 
 
 .'i.ciir. 
 
 7,l'2.'-. 
 iri.oj!) 
 ;t(),-.'lti 
 •J.^,(l7l 
 ^■■..7JH 
 
 !M •-'.". 
 
 :i.i7i) 
 
 1 /uii 
 li;:i 
 
 laa.i'Jii 
 
 tugs mid river pas- 
 
 sengurs' boats. 
 
 Vessels . l;{ l,o50 „ 
 
 Hoaidcs its mnritimc industry, Hordenux has 
 many other important niannfactiirrs. There are 
 iiniiierous hrandy <listilleries, siij^ar retineries, 
 vinepir, frhiss-hoitle, shot, and cordaj^e faetories, 
 iron ami steel forf,'es, potteries, and tanneries, 
 vitli manufaetiires of cottons, woollens, kid gloves, 
 honnets, corks, playinj^-cards, litpieurs, musical 
 instruments, barrels, turpentine, and other druj^s, 
 soda, alum, vitriol, mineral waters and other 
 chemical preparations; and in the neighbourhood 
 of Itordeanx some j^nniiowder fabrics. 
 
 The trade of the port is considerable in tlie jiro- 
 duce of these manufactures, and in K"""'") <'iittl<'» 
 and timber; but the chief articles of export are 
 the famous red wines of the (iironde and brandy. 
 A lartce jiortiou of the inliab. of the (Juartier de 
 Chartroiis arc wine merchants, and a great jiart 
 also of that (jiiarter is occupied with cellars, some 
 of wliich arc cajiable of (Mintaining 1,000 tons of 
 wine. The quantity of wine exjiorted to the united 
 kingdom from Bordeaux has been jirogressively 
 increasing, ever since the conclusioii of the treaty 
 of commerce between France and (ireat ISritain, 
 in lISGO. Subjoined is a statement of the quantity 
 exported in the two years IKli'i and 18(53 to the 
 United Kingdom aiul colonics: — 
 
 Quantity exported in 18(i2 
 „ „ 18(i3 
 
 Increase in 1803 . . 
 
 2,n71,()n;3 gallons. 
 481, '.'CO „ 
 
 Besides wines and brandies, which are furnished 
 to every country with which Itordeaiix has any 
 trade, the chief exjiorts are liqueurs, walnuts, 
 chestnuts, dried fruits, vinegar, tartar, skins, flour, 
 cork, ami various drugs to England, Spirit of 
 wine, tartar, molasses, and colonial produce to 
 the X, <if Euro])C; fruits, verdigris, aud a few 
 manufactured articles to the U, States ; to Spanish 
 America and the W. India colonies of France, 
 French manufactures, furniture,cattle, and flour; to 
 the S. Seas, the E, Indies, and China, all sorts 
 of manufactures, (urniture, silver, &c, Uordeanx 
 ila the chief port of Southern France for colonial 
 
 produce; it receives from Anuricn, Iii.lin. nn,| 
 Africa, colfee, sugar, pepper, cigars, caiiclla l.nrk, 
 indigo, (piinqnina, tea, rice, coina. hIuiis. ijvc- 
 woods, Ac; iron, lead, and other nielals are im- 
 ported, especially from KiiKland ; fish, glue, ,iiiil 
 tallow from Kiissia; timber from the Itjdiic; 
 metals, oil, liquorice, sMU'ron, iVc fnini S|,;iiii' 
 zinc and steel from (iermany; cheese and stniK- 
 lish from Holland; linens frinn I'jiudaiid ami ilie 
 two last-named countries, 'I'lierci arrived, in n,,, 
 year I.S(;:{, in the port of Bordeaux :i.:!,si vcsmIs, 
 of ;"iOS,r)l4 Ions burden, while the deparliircs cuii- 
 sisted of '.\.:>7\ vessels, of o-il,?'.';") Inns. 'flu. 
 inimber of Itrilish ships which enlered ilie pnrt 
 in iKIi.'l amounted to II 1, of I'JO.'.iT.'i Inns luiiilcn 
 while the departures were .'iii."!, of lld.i'iil tmis! 
 (K'epoit of Mr. Consul S<'(itt on the trade of IJor- 
 deanx for the year IWll;").) 
 
 '['hf trade of Itordeaiix with the iiitirinr is 
 greatly facilitated by llm three lines ol' riiilwnv 
 from I'aris, from Madrid, and from M.ir-iilli'<,' 
 wliich converge at tln^ city, as well as liy iln' 
 chief water communication of the Canal dii .Midi 
 (See Fhaxck,) 
 
 Kordeanx |)ossesses several diaritahle insiitM- 
 tions. ''I'hoNew Hospital, erected Io rcplac;' that 
 <if St. Andre (built in I.'J'.IO). is,' says Mr. lii;;!!- 
 ' upon a scale of magnilicenee and coiiifnrt Iic\"iiii| 
 what is to be found in any other (own in Mn'ruiii'. 
 r d(>dicatcd tlu! second of my days at linnlciux 
 to a visit to this hospital, and was ei|iiallv sur- 
 prised at its extent, and delighted willi the ail- 
 inirable arrangements that pervade every part i.r 
 it. There is nothing that tliis hospital dues in ( 
 contain. It includes 710 beds for sick persdih, 
 and IK chambers for the accommodaliniuif |icrsiiiis 
 who jiay ttir the attentions they reicive. It inn- 
 tains baths, bakehouses, courts, an apolliecarv's 
 shop, water-reservoirs, gardens, and aicoiiiiuiKlii- 
 tion for medical men. There are also in tin. 
 hospital iM reservoirs for water, as a prnvisinii 
 against (ire, containing 1,-110 hhds. I neeilscarcily 
 adil, that, in the I'leaniincss of (!verv (lepiiriiiiciii, 
 the hospital is ))erfect ; and that in the siiialli>t 
 minutiiv, everything is found that can cdiitrilmtf 
 either to health or to comfort. The lioidclais arc 
 Justly ))roud of this noble institution,' (Swiizcr- 
 iaiid, ic, p. iWH.) There are, also, hospitals fur 
 aliens, foundlings, the aged, insane, itc, Imrrmu- 
 de chariti', a </('p6t ile vwiiiHviti'\ and other similar 
 establishments. There are two buildings iicarilic 
 river, each .'it! yards square, devoted to piihlic liaili<; 
 their exterior is crowned with an agreeable Icrraiv, 
 and the interior of both is fltled up with all tlii- 
 various kinds of baths, medicinal and nthcnvl-t'. 
 The vineyard of the former monastery of the Car- 
 thusians is now converted into a public ccinotcry: 
 there are three others iu liordeaii-x, two licluiii;in^' 
 to the I'rotestants, and one to the Jews. 
 
 Bordeaux is the seat of an archliisliopric, nf a j 
 royal court and court of assize, and trihiiiials "I' | 
 jirimary jurisdiction and of coniinerco. It lias 
 numerous scientitic and scholastic iiistiiiitiuii*. 
 The Museum occiqiies a large extent of firmiml, 
 and comprises the public library, cabinet »f naiiiral j 
 history and antiques, a picture-gallery, scIkhiIsi!' 
 design and painting, and an oliservatory. Tin' 
 public library contains 110,000 vols., amount 1 
 which are some rare works, and several valiiaMc | 
 MSS. ; the other departments are not very ritli 
 the iiicture-gallery, however, boasts of some ;;iii«i 
 paintings of the' French, Italian, ami FlomiAj 
 schools. There is a botanic garden, at wliiili al 
 conr.sc of lectures, recognised by the I'liiviT-iiy "fp 
 France, is annually delivered; a uiiiver-ity aoa-i 
 demy, royal academy of arts, sciences, iiiiil IhIi 
 Icttres, a royal college, a faculty of tlicolii|j:y,i>i'l'j 
 
 "-;..■ 01 a Day o 
 
 ut. Helsingfors; 1 
 
 ;• J'"!>- 2,78!) in ^ 
 
 , l''^'i"l>ri«, ami has i 
 
 [■"iiiijlcrent, and it 
 
 I » that the emper 
 
 I '^l" "<• fidelity ten ' 
 
 f'nilCl|l!llily. 
 
 liOitGO-JIANERC 
 Pi^v^ .Noyara, cap. ai 
 , ■'■^». Auv.ira. l>oi 
 ^'""'fcd by avails, a 
 
 I fro, several conv 
 "'■yi'/c. 
 
 I ';W;<iO-SA\-DO 
 ™M»tlie former 
 « ilie Siirune. 2-> m 
 
 'N 
 
1 JO ur. I. V 
 
 jclinols of iinvi^nlioii inn I iiKMlirinc. n iinniml 
 .,'|i<jiil, H MiHiiiol I'lir deal' anil iliiiiili ; an Adicnii'mn; 
 l.liiiuwin, |iliili>nia(lii(', and nifdii'n-cliinir^ical sn- 
 liilii'.-'. a royal Kociety of nictlicinc, a sucicly of 
 (Hinincrrial ciniilatioM, A'c. In llx^ vii'lnily of llic 
 iliv is an ('X|H'riiii<^ntal farm, and a ract'-coni'M' or 
 hi|i{iii(lniin(' : tlu> counlry round is cirully a|i|iro- 
 iriatcd to llio cultiiri! of till' villi's; hut, from its 
 ilaiiicss, is devoid of nmi'h |iii'tiir('si|iu' licanly. 
 Since |m2"), tliis eity has been li;;liled with f,'as. 
 Till' iiihaliilants an^ p'nerally o|iiileiit, and live in 
 II slyU^ sMjierior to that coiinnoii in any other 
 Prciiili <'ity, I'aris excepled. 'l'h<! Jnrisdielioii 
 i.f the royal court of liordeaux extends over 
 ilii' iti'ps. (iironde, Cliarente, and Dordo^iie : its 
 arililiislioprie, which orii,'iiial('il in tlie third ren- 
 lury. has for sutVraj^ans the bishops of A^jen, An- 
 i;(m!i'iiie, I'oictiers, I'erigiieiix, l^a Uochelle, and 
 
 l.iiV"ii. 
 
 llistori/. — The epoch of the foundation of lior- 
 ilwiux is unknown. It was liie capital of the 
 Riltir'KjiK Vivkri, a Celtic nation of (iaiil, anda 
 (lUliriited conniiercial city in the lime of Siraho, 
 It was taken hy the Itonians in the rei;,'ii of 
 Aiinusliis: and lladnaii made it the metropolis of 
 ihc sci'diid A(|uitaine. In tin- rei;;n of (iallienns, 
 [iirii'iis, the governor of this prov., one of the so- 
 died thirty tyrants, assumed the ptirpU^ here, and 
 ii is must i>rol)al)lc (Ilnn'o) that it was he who 
 liiiiit tliecelehrated amphilheatre. In '117 the \'i- 
 ;i;,Mliis, in ij(t!( Clovis, and in 72!) the Saracens, 
 |.i>f('ssi'd themselves of it; under ('harlcnia};'ne. 
 It was jjoverned hy a coniit of its own ; in the 
 iiiiitli century it was mined hy tlie Xornians. It 
 siliscqiiPiitly became the caj). of (Jiiieniie, and fill 
 with the rest of that duchy uniler the kings of 
 Kiinhiiid, to whom it almost uninterrniiledly be- 
 liii;'i'il till the Knglish were hnally expelled from 
 France in the reign of Henry VI. (ieiierally s|ieak- 
 iiw, this city has in later limes been attached tu 
 lilt interests of the liourlion family ; but in l«:!(l, 
 I'll tiie ])ul)lication of the ordouiutiwc.i of t;harles 
 X., the standard of revolt was hoisted here before 
 news arrived of the same occurrence in I'aris. l!or- 
 ili'mix anil its vicinity have, in all ages, prodnceil 
 nliliratcil men : amongst others, Montesipiieii and 
 M'l.taigiie; the Latin poet Ausonius, in the I'onrtli 
 nnmry; Chaptal de iJuch, I'^ilward the IJlack 
 rriiiie. Jay, Deseze, &c. ; Pope Clement V'., and 
 Hiiliard II. of England, were also utitives o*" this 
 city. 
 
 iiOIJGIA, a town of Southern Italy, i)rov. Ca- 
 taiizarii, cap. cant., in a plain (! m. \V. Catanzaro. 
 I'lip, 4,8.')() in 185!). Having been almost totally 
 dtstniycd by an (;arth(}uake in 17M."!, it was rebuilt 
 k I'l'idinand IV., King of Naples. Its environs 
 |iri«lu«! highly-esteemed wiues, and large quaii- 
 tiiits iif silk-worms, 
 llOKCiO, or IJOHfiA, a sea-port town of Russia 
 in Kurope, prineip. Finland, gov. Nvhmd, at the 
 liiitom of a bay of the (iuif of Finlanil, iJa m. 
 KXL Hclsingfors ; lat. 00° 22' N., hmg. 2,")° -liV 
 I I'o]). 2,78!) in 1858, It is the seat of a 
 lifhdpric, and has a gymnasium. 'I'he harbour 
 I i-' inilitlerent, and it has but little trade. It was 
 tero that the emperor Alexander I. received the 
 wth iif fidelity teiidereil by the states of the 
 Iirinciiiality. 
 
 liOKfiO-JIANERO, a town of Northern Italy, 
 
 I l*iv. Xovara, cap, aiTond., on the (iogiia, 18 m. 
 
 pxw. Xovara. Pop. 7,81)5 in 1m12. It is sur- 
 
 iimuled hy walls, and is well built ; has a line 
 
 siiuaie, several convents, a hosiiital. and a iiiont- 
 
 liUi;(iO-SAN-DONINO, a town of Northern 
 
 Wy, ill tlie former iluchv of Parma, cap. distr., 
 
 |« the Stirone, 22 ni, SK.' Placentia. I'op. i),!li)2 
 
 IJOHNEO 
 
 4!)9 
 
 in ISCr.'. It is surrounded by walls, has a (lalace, 
 a caiheilral, four parish cbiirclies, a cullege, a semi- 
 nary, a worklionse, and some fabrics nf silk and 
 linen, It owes its name to ,St. |)iiiiino, who was 
 beheaded here in 'MH. 
 
 Ilorgo is prelixed to the name of various small 
 towns in diirereiit parts nf Italy. 
 
 HOliMSSOF, a town of lliissia in l''.urope, gov. 
 Minsk, on the left b.ink of the lle'n'/.ina. I.'i in. 
 NI'). Minsk. Pop. 5.n_'5 in I.h.')8. ISori^sof has 
 acquired celebrity from the disastrous passag(M)f 
 the liere/ina, ell'eiled near it. by the remains of 
 the French army under Napolenii. nii its nlri'it 
 from .Moscow, on the Itlthand I7lli .\o\., |kI2. 
 
 ItOl.'ISSOtiLKltSK.atownot I'.uiMpeaii l.'ussia, 
 gov. .laroshif, on the riglit bank of the Wolga, 
 opposite to Itonianof. Pop, tl.CiOl) in iM.'iH. The 
 town is picturexpiely sitiiiiteil on a hill declining 
 towards the Wolga, and siirronnded willi dense 
 forests. It is also the name of anotlicr 1,'us- 
 sian town, gov, 'I'anibof, on the left bank of tlie 
 Voroiia. 
 
 HOKKHUM, a small island in tlii^ North Sea, 
 belonging to Hanover, olf t!ie mouth of the I'.nis, 
 aitoiit !) III. from the nearest point of the niaiiiiaiid. 
 Pop. 1x5 in I8(!l. 'I'he isliind is iiicluded in 
 the bailiwick of Pewsiiin, and is so low that 
 at high water it is di\ided by tlie sea into two 
 pretty eipial parts. The iiihabilants are mostly 
 seanieii, several of tbeiii being employed as liar- 
 ])ooiiers in the ships engaged in the iiorlherii 
 whale-lishery. They also raise corn, fruits, and 
 cattle. It is an established cnstoiii, that a third 
 part of all articles saved from shipwreck goes to 
 the indi.'idual on whose land the disaster took 
 |ila<H!. liiirkhum is a |iar., with a church and a 
 school. The spire of the clinrch serves also as a 
 lighthouse. The lantern, which is furnished with 
 rellecting lamps, is 150 ft. above the level of the 
 sea, and is in lat. 5.')° ;!5' 2i)" N.. h)ng. (1° 10' 2il" 
 E. (Coulier, sur les Phares. 2ndedit. p. til.) 
 
 POIIMIO, a town of Northern Italy, prov. 
 Soiidrio, at the eonlluence of the Fredosso with 
 the Adda, ;i() m. NK. Sondiio. Pop. l.tWl in 
 I8li2. A large cattle fair is aniinally held here, 
 from the 22iid to the 25lli of October; and in its 
 vicinity, on the declivity of ^Mouiit liraglio, are 
 celebrated mineral springs, niiich freipiented by 
 ))atieuts from the N'aileliiie and the (Jrisons. This 
 town was formerly much more considerable ; but 
 being sacked, burnt, and its iniiab. )iiit. to the 
 sword, in ltJ21, it has never recovered from the 
 disaster. 
 
 POHNEO (called by the natives Tmimi K/e- 
 mimUin), the largest island in the world, Australia 
 being reckoned a eoiitiiient, occupying nearly the 
 centre of the E. Archiiielago ; between lat. -1° 10' 
 S., and 7° N., and hmg. 1011° and 1111° 20' K. ; 
 having N. and W. the China Sea ; E. the Celebes 
 Sea and Straits of Macassar; and S. the Sea of 
 .lava : form compact ; length. NK. to S\V., 750 in., 
 breadth ;!50 m. ; area 2(iO,OilO stj. m. Estimated 
 pop. ;!,000,()0(). The coasts are less indented by 
 deej) bays, or creeks, than those of most islands of 
 the Archi]). ; notwithstanding which, it has seve- 
 ral tine and spacious harbours. The shores consist 
 usually of mud liauks, with numbers of minute 
 and rocky islets around them; the land for several 
 miles towards the interior conthiuing marshy and 
 a'luvial, interspersed with gentle acclivities, co- 
 vered with underwood. In the niajis a chain of 
 mountains, running NE. to S\V., were long re- 
 ))resentc(l as passing through the centre of the 
 island; but Mr. Farl. who visited the interior in 
 I8;i I, saw no traces of these, nor does he believe 
 in their existence. I'^xcepting the volcanic chain 
 of mountains passing through Java, and the S. 
 
 K Iv 2 
 
600 
 
 IMirls of tho ardii|ic'laf;o, to the E., nil tlic liill 
 run^cH (if tlioHC LsIiukIh run N\V. and SI''., and 
 8ccni to Ih> continnntioiis nf (lio (;r(<at raiip's wliicli 
 nni in that dircrliun throiifrU tho ullra-danp'tif 
 poninsiila, and of which I he rocky ishind I'ido 
 Condor and the Natnnas seem to lie connecting; 
 links. They arc all of the nanii' KcoloHical cha- 
 racter — granitic; and in Itorneo |iriitiaJily ternii- 
 iiate in a range which line« the SK. whore for 
 i)U m., called tint Ilniidred Moinitains. There are 
 ninny isolated hills in Itorneo, and a range stretch- 
 ing 'nh)ng the N\V. const, of ahont it.OOO J't. in 
 height. (Sec Karl's Ma]), &c.) There are ninne- 
 rons and extensive ]ilains, cs|K>cially in the N. ; 
 but the most important yet known to Europeans 
 is that of MontraiUik, near the W. coast. There 
 arc sai<l to lie u|iwards of 100 rivers, many being 
 iinvigalile, and some of considerable size. The 
 ]irincipal is the Hanjarniassin, which has a S. 
 course nearly throngl'iout the whole island, and 
 falls into the sea not far from the town of the 
 same name on the S. coast. The I'assir, Coti, 
 and many others, are met with on the K. coast ; 
 on the W. the Sambas, I'ontiana, Landak, Snc- 
 cailan, are the ])rincipal ; the lirst is I m. wide at 
 its month, and nnich more a little farther inland. 
 ]t has been ascended in snuill vessels l)y the 
 l)ut(;h for 80 m., and beyond that is said to lie 
 available for canoes to within two days' walk of 
 liornco Proper. The larger ri\-i'rs, which come 
 fmm the centre of the island, apjiear not to have 
 tlieir origin in any mountainous region, as they 
 rise no liigher during the rainy season: they sel- 
 dom contain any saixlbanks or rapids. 
 
 Ntithing satisfactory has been c<immunicate(l 
 respecting the geohigy of Borneo, except the gra- 
 nitic character of its primary mountains; its soil, 
 in the neighbourhood of the European settlements, 
 vies in richness with that of any other island <if 
 the Archip, In the NE. it is said to be superior 
 to all other parts. Itorneo is rich in valuable 
 minerals : it is the only island of the Archip. 
 where diamonds are found ; the chief of whi<'h 
 are from Landak, in the Chinese territory : one in 
 the rough state weighing JJOT carats, and worth, 
 according to the common but absurd method of 
 estimating such articles, ■2t'i!),i}7H/., has been Ibund 
 there, an<l was, in IHIT), the projK'rty of a jietty 
 chief. Diamonds are most numerous in the allu- 
 vial soils, in which gold is also found ; and are of 
 go<id water, though usually small. The plain of 
 Alontradok is said to have f<irmerly yielded HH,l!(i2 
 o/., annually of pure metal (Hamilton); the soil 
 in which it is found is still", and the veins lie from 
 « to 1.") ft. below the surface. It is met with chiefly 
 in small jiartides, nearly as tine as sand, although 
 sometimes in irregular jiieces of the size of a six- 
 pence. There are inexhanstibh; mines of ore of 
 antinumy of very superior quality at Serawak ; 
 I,-100 tons of which, at ICis. to Ws. jier ton, are 
 annually exported to Singa|iore; tin is plentiful 
 in some parts, and a little iron is procured from 
 the interior. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the N. is similar to 
 that of Ceylon, and not subject to the hot land 
 winds that prevail on the coast of Coromandcl , 
 the W. coast has no rainy season in particular, 
 but is refreshed bj' showers all the year roun<l. 
 Europeans have had but little intercourse with 
 the eastern parts, and little respecting them is 
 known. 
 
 Borneo is generally very fertile ; but, except in 
 Borneo Projier, the grain jiroducedis not sutHcient 
 for home consumption. Timber is often very 
 large ; but not generally of the kinds suited for 
 fihip-building. No teak has been yet discovered : 
 ^langrove and rattans are plentiful on the banks 
 
 I50RNE0 
 
 of (h( 
 
 rivers : iron-wood, ebony, cani]iliiir. il;ii;|. 
 mer, and tiiithdnwin trees (from ihe latter of wliici, 
 wood-oil is obtained), cocoa-|iMhu, lieid, ciMiia- 
 mon, sago, in:, are amongst the |irin.i|ial inrs. 
 The <-aniphor-tree grows to 1,5 or li; fr. In ,ir('. 
 and proportionally high : it is cut down, split liui'i 
 jiieces, and the jiroduce (whi(!h is pmlmlily the 
 iM'st) found in tlu! tissures : none of cither tin; 
 Borneo or Sumatra c.unphor is importeil intn I'.ii;;- 
 land, which is supplied with that nrtidc friim 
 China only. Hice is excellent; but the Dutili 
 are very jeahais of its exportation, except tliroii;;li 
 themselves. Maize and the sugar-cane are ciihi- 
 vated, as well as the plantain and many titlicr 
 tropical fruits. 
 
 AnimitlH, — The elephant, rhinoceros, and Icd- 
 pard, arc contlned to the NE, corner of the i^l, ; 
 the ox and wild hog are natives of the l(iri'>|.i'; 
 and the jungles furnish an endless variety of tin; 
 ape and monkey tribes; amongst whii'li'are ilic 
 orang-ontnug, and a s)iecies of balmoii, tlionglii li\- 
 Mr. I'jirl to be hitherto undescrilied, ;) It. In 
 height, tailless, with short, glossy, brown hair, iiiiil 
 an tupiiline nos(> projecting lA in. from the I'acc, 
 The tapir, numbers of deer, and small bears, nii 
 larger than badgers, but with shaggy hair, iii'c.aliji 
 Borneo, The Sooloo Sea is much frei|iientei| liv 
 English whalers for the spermaceti whale. 'I'll,; 
 seas abound with turtle, and plenty of lish, oysters, 
 and other tvstavi-ii, 
 
 Ffo/ile. — The interior and part oftheXW. cunst 
 are peopled by Dynks, and by a race with w<iiill\- 
 hair, like the Papuan negroes; the W. cciasi liV 
 Malays, (Jhinese, luid Dutch c(donists; tlic NW. 
 by half-caste descendants of the Moors of W. liiii- 
 dostan; the N. by Anamese; 'SI], bySiduks: ['„ 
 and S. coasts by Bugis, of Celebes, liesiiles tlicM', 
 three tribes live in small craft, in a wainliriii^' 
 manner, about the shores; viz., the I.ainnis, frniii 
 Magindanoa; the Orang-Badju, and Oraiig-ii- 
 dong ; som-cc unknown. 
 
 The Dyaks (Orang Itenua), a savage race. Iip- 
 lieved to be the aborigines, an! scattered all nvrr 
 the island in dill'erciit small tribes. They are nl' 
 a mi(hlle size, and, except when cramped up liy 
 being constantly in a canoe, are invariably straiu'lil- 
 limbed and well-fonned, muscular, lliimgli iiileriMr 
 to the Chinese in ability to carry linrdciis; I'lit 
 short and broad ; toes turned rather iinvanN; 
 cheek-bones high ; forehead broad and tiat ; eyes 
 rather long, and the outer higher than the iiiiiii' 
 angle ; faces prominent, with a jileasaiit ex|ir(>ssiiiii, 
 and more like that of tho Anamese than etlur 
 Asiatic nations ; hair straight and black ; iin licanl. 
 The women are interesting, often goinl-liKikiiiLr, 
 and sometimes even fair; many are married i" 
 Chinese, and make, it is said, good wives ami 
 mothers. Their manners are mild and |ire|iiissesy 
 ing, but as they dread the ^lalays. IVmn wIkhii 
 tbey have sutt'ercd formerly, they cdniiiumly 
 avoid strangers. 
 
 In the NE., and near Banjartnassln, tlieir cmi- 
 dition is the most ameliorated. At the latter iiliur. | 
 and on the S. co.ast, they are said tn jiesscss a 
 written character. Bice is their chief fnii<i, wiiii I 
 pork, fish, deer, and other wild animals, wliicli 
 they shoot by means of arrows blown tlirmiirhaj 
 tube. This is their general weapon, Imt tiny 
 sometimes use crooked bows and arrows, tin 
 latter of which are dipped in jioison. Tlioy spciiill 
 much time in shalhiw canoes, about Id ft. ImiL' 
 and made bv hollowing out a single tree: hiitmij 
 shore inhabit thatched bamboo himses. elevatol 
 on jiosts, and entered by a Ladder, whicli is abviiy^j 
 drawn up at night : these habiuitiaiis are I'ltiuj 
 collected in small villages, ami del'emliil by sti«li-| 
 adcs. The men wear but Utile cluiliin;;; 
 
r>OIlNKO 
 
 /iOl 
 
 lor. iliir.i- 
 (ifwllirli 
 
 ■1. fiimii- 
 
 . ill lire, 
 , s)ilit iniii 
 
 Imlily 111'' 
 I'illiiT till' 
 iiilii I'.iii;- 
 liclc Irmii 
 Ihc Diitili 
 (it lliroiij,'li 
 (' lire nilti- 
 lauy tiilicr 
 
 s, nnd lc(i- 
 of till' i>l. ; 
 till' r(ir<'>t.-'; 
 rifty lit' till! 
 licli lire till' 
 , tliiiuyilit liy 
 I'll, ;i It. in 
 wii liiiir, mill 
 III) till' tail'. 
 nil lii'iirn, iiii 
 liair. iui'.,iliii 
 ■l'i|Ui'lltril liy 
 wliiilr. 'I'lu; 
 riisli,iiystir>, 
 
 huNW.riiast 
 e with wii.iUv 
 W. I'liasi liy 
 sts; till' N\V. 
 irsiit'W. lliii- 
 ly SuliiU^ : 1" 
 
 iil'Silll'S tlllM'. 
 
 11 wiiiiili'riii;^ 
 ■ Lrtuiin;', ftiMii 
 nil Oraiit;-ri- 
 
 :ivaf;o rai'p. tio- 
 
 Itti'i'i'il all iivi'V 
 
 'I'lioy ari' "I' 
 
 raniiii'il iip ''>' 
 
 |vialilystrai;;lil- 
 
 liim^rli iiifrriiT 
 
 liiirilriis; iVit 
 
 tliir iiiwariU; 
 
 ami tlat ; I'Vi's 
 
 tliaii the iiiii'f 
 
 jUiit exiirossimi. 
 
 li'se than otlur 
 
 ,larU;iiiihf;if'l' 
 
 jriHid-liiiiUinL'. 
 
 fnri' iiiarrii'il t" 
 
 till ill wivi"* nii'l 
 
 anil iiri'ims*''^^- 
 
 ... IViim wliii'i' 
 
 liey coraiuoiily 
 
 Jissin, tlifir cmi- 
 Ithe latter I'laii'' 
 liil til lii's^t'^^ ;' 
 Thief ti"«l. ^"''' 
 laiiimals, wlml" 
 lown thrim.s-'li :i 
 ipi.n, hut llii'V 
 liil arriiw?. tin' 
 |i. Thov sjii'ii'l 
 lout 111 i't. 1"";-'' 
 Trie tree: 1)"""' 
 Jioiises. elevatc'l 
 Iwhi.'li is ahviiv'" 
 litioiis are nlli'ii 
 leiiileil hy >t'«'l<- 
 clulliiie': tlic| 
 
 ivnmeii miirli morn, nnd nro liii'lifiil niul iiunli'st; 
 l.i'lli M'xcs liivii (liiiTv, <'s|ii'('ially IicmiIm niiil fea- 
 iliir,'!. Tattiioiiig is iii iimc mnuiig some (if I lie 
 
 irilii'.''. 
 
 |'|iiin tlip Imnks of the larger rivcM mniiy f rilios 
 il'ii'ii unite tngctlicr, iiiiiler the rule of niiestrniiLcer 
 ili;iii the rest ; liiit ill the fnrests tliey keep si'iui- 
 r;it'', mill H|ieak ilinleels »i) ilill'ereiit as to lie nl'teii 
 iiiiiiitellijjilile tii eaeh utlier. The mure eivilised 
 liiive ailiipteil Miiliaininetlaiiisiti ; cithers less eivi- 
 ll.t'il lielieve in n Supreme Iteiiif^ iiiiil n future 
 •liili", hut suppose that, in the latter, the owner of 
 II human heml will have the former wearer of it as 
 Ills slave, u lielief wliieh has naturally led to n 
 uiili'ly-exlended system of hiiniaii saeriliee. No 
 iinpi'iui marry without the head of some one liav- 
 i;i,'lieeii lirst ohiaineil liy himself or liis friends; 
 ami at the funerals of persons of eiinsei|iience, or 
 iriiiiii's of peiii'e lietween chiefs, slaves or prisoners 
 jri'ili'i'apitated toolitain these trophies: the heads 
 ;iri' ilrieil and liuiif; up in the houses; and pirati- 
 cal exjieilil ions are ofini iiiidertuken with no other 
 niiii'it than toolitain them. "^ "•■■' — ■■ 
 
 ihji'i 
 
 lietter river, liiit ronliiiii.i is the lirlter town. 15e- 
 Iwet'ii t4ielwi>are the Chinese si'ltlemeiits of Mon- 
 tradok and Landak. The gold mines near Iho 
 former plaee are fjenerally worked liy ('ompanies 
 of nieri-hiiiits eluliliiii^ toj;i'ther. Spailes ami mat- 
 loi'ks are the only ininiiii:; instrumeiils in use. 
 The ore is liroughl up in liiiskets, then washed 
 (fur the Chinese have no other method of freatin;; 
 it), nnd the gold-dust mtvde into little paekets, 
 eaeh weighing two Spanish dollars. Aliout il.SOd 
 oz. troy « year are sent to Singaiiore, wliieli may 
 he nlioiit one-tenth of the )ireseiit (irodnee of the 
 island. The Chinese ajipear to lie of iielass like tho 
 lowest atCanton. Previously to the Dutch settle- 
 ment here in 18-J,'J, Il.dOl) of them arrived annuully 
 as settlers; hut emigration has now ceased, owing to 
 the treatment they have received from the Dutch. 
 In IH.'M. the tlhinese expressed a great desire to 
 trade with the Krilisliat Singapore, hut the Dutch 
 interdicted all communication between them and 
 foreign nations, except through the medium of 
 SamliiLs and I'ontiana; nnd, being in ]iossession 
 of the west coast, they were enabled to prevent it. 
 The iiorlh-east coast, liowtn-(T, siioii rose into a 
 far more llonrishing condition, chiefly Ihruugh the 
 exertions of Sir James Hrooke, who established 
 himself as ruler here, under the title of Hajah of 
 Sarawak. The W. co.ist was ceded to the hutch 
 by the King of Kaiituin in 17M(t; but the cession, 
 for some time afterwards, was resisted by the Sul- 
 tan of Siiccailan. In l«2:t, the Dutch" settled at 
 lin'iii the most valuable of all articles, (.'liinii jars ' I'ontiaiia, and (lurchased the monopoly of some 
 ari' valued, and from some superstitious motives , diamond mines from the JIalay sultan. Finding 
 an' Ml highly ]irii!cd that they have been kwown | these nnprulitalile, thev endeavoured next to tJiko 
 tnlVteli 2(t(»(. or mure. A curimis circumstance, forcible possession of the (Miincse mines, but being 
 >inti'il liy Mr. J'^nrl, is, that if any <ine drink tho i repulsed, they blockaded the (,'liinese between 
 -iiiiillostqiiaiitity of the blood of a Jioniese in a i their two settlements, obliging them to trade by 
 oii]i of water, he, by doing so, binds him by ties ; their ports, and guarding the coast by several ves- 
 (Lwrtliiiii those of consanguinity. The liMiiuiis ; sels. The Dutch revenues are chielly derived from 
 art a piriitieal people, who infest the NW. coast -monoijoliesof salt and o)iiiim, the furnier of which 
 U'MM ni., and cruise in other jiarts of the Arclii- ! is imported from Java and other colonies in vessels 
 |iil;ii,'ii, iilmideriiig villages, and often "irryiiigofi': chartered by government, and sold at seven times 
 ihirwliiile population into slavery. Sometimes ■ the import price, the interior being entirely de- 
 ilic |)yaks join with thcni ill these predatory ex- pendent on the coast for its supply. Other re- 
 |r>litiiiiis, iind bring away the iron and human sources are from capitation taxes on the Chinese, 
 Iniils, while the Lannns aiiiiropriate the rest of the and imposts on their entering or leaving the I »ntcli 
 The Oraiig-liailju are a kind of sea gipsies, ' settlement. The pop. of the Chiiiesu and Dutcli 
 
 territories arc estimated as follows: — 
 Chinese 
 
 Some Dyaks arc oc- 
 (iiiiu'il in washing gold, and ilis|iose of the gold- 
 ilii.t til the Malays fur red and blue cotton cloths. 
 l„.:iils, lira^s wire, salt, and other necessaries of life, 
 ami tiiliaeeo, of which they are extravagantly 
 f.inil. Til avoid more intercourse than necessary 
 iiilli the Malays, they oblige them always to dis- 
 ],,s(' of their merchandise at ihe nearest Dyak 
 iiiwii. Next to hiimnn heads, which ajipear to 
 
 iiilnTsim like theMahiys; living at the mouths 
 iifmiist rivers on the E. border, in families of about 
 ailiizi'n or fifteen, in boats of from eight to ten tons 
 tai'li. covered, when in harbour, with a roof of 
 i.iattiiif;. They arc emidoycd chiefly in fishing, 
 iikiii;,' tripling, and making salt from burnt sea- 
 i.ifil, They are generally JMohammedans, but lij' 
 iH means rigid in their tenets. The Orang-Tidong 
 live til the N. of the latter, and cruise among the 
 l'liili|i)iiiH'8 and Sooliio Isles, where they dispose 
 i'l'.>.ij;ii, oil which they chiefly subsist. They are 
 a harily race, aiid arc saiit to be occasionally 
 (nniillials, 
 
 Tiie Dutch liavc two small stations on the W. 
 fM,ist, ^illnlllas and rontiana, about !K) m. apart. 
 The town iif Sambas is meanly built, and contains 
 ciilialiitatiiin of stone, or other substantial mate- 
 rial; the liimses of the government ollices arc low, 
 wiKiili'H, tliafchci". buildings ; the huts of the na- 
 livcs are eliieily raised on iiusts, ascended by lad- 
 liirs. but many are built on tluats un the river, as 
 iiSiain. The Chinese caiiipoiiti is the only street ; 
 ini' I'lirt is a mere enibankment, siirnninded by a 
 iin'kaile of pules, anil mounled with a few iiiiie- 
 'nuult'is; it cuiilains the barracks, with agarrismi 
 I l.rty men, half uf whom iire Kiiroiieans. Jle- 
 f'liii' Diiti'li settled here, the |ilai'e was a nest 
 lliirali's, dislruyeil by the JJritisli in I.SI2; the 
 liiiiiiue is nut unhcaltliy, tliimgh the coast is cu- 
 itMl with sv.amps and jungle. Sambas has the 
 
 i.'.n.nno 
 rid.duo 
 
 10,11011 
 4111) 
 
 ].-,o 
 
 80 
 
 Jfalays 
 
 IJiiKis 
 
 Ariilis 
 
 Javanese nnd AmboyiiL'sc soldiers 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Uyaks 2'i0,n(i() 
 
 Total . , . 4<>n,(J30 
 
 Exports. — The principal exports of the 'SV, coast 
 are gold, diamonds, antimony, cam|ili(ir, bees' wax, 
 deer's horns, tUtmrner, ebony, wood oil, rattans, 
 pepper, bezoar-stones, and iron, to Java, (iir the 
 manufacture of krises. The iron of the interior is 
 cither exceedingly good, or the Dyaks are able to 
 temper it astonishingly well; for their steel scimi- 
 tars are capable of cutling throiigh an iron nail or 
 wire without ditficiilty. The total exports I'rom 
 niirnco to the United Kingdom, in the year US(>:>, 
 were of the value of X'i^iw^l. Tliey mclinled .'ill 
 tons of ore of anlimuny, value ;i,4ri4/. ; l.H.Vl cwts. 
 of giitta-iiercha, value "iO,?*!.")/. ; '2 1, (Hi.') cwts. of 
 sago, value ir),.")S8/. ; and 1,218 luads of lii^wn 
 wood, v;ilue 5,i);}2/. The exports from lioriieu to 
 the IJiiileil Kingdom (prulriipled fi-um l.s."*!) to 
 IMIiu, having been lint of the value of ll,2l.s/. in 
 the iirst-numed year. 
 
 liouNKo rKiu'Ki!. The stale next in impurf- 
 aiice to the culunies is Hunieii IVuper, a Jlalay 
 suvereiguty in the N W., probably the mo.^t ancient 
 
 ili^i' 
 
M2 BORNEO 
 
 of nil in the i.Mlnnd, nml from wliifh llio Inftcr hns 
 (It'rivi'd its imino : it is IioiiikIi'iI N'K. l)y tlit^ Soii- 
 liMi, ami S\V. Iiy the Dutch territory, iiml i'Xtcnds 
 from Mil) to l.'i('l 111. inliiiKl. 'I'hi- Maliiys here arc 
 (listiii^fiiisluMl for tlicir haii$;htiii(>ss and iiidcdcm'c; 
 aii<l lh(! Nidtini, who I'lijoys u lii;,di voiifration. 
 maintains more state and diKnily than most Ma- 
 lay princes. 'I'iie chief town has heeii nmch re- 
 duced hv piracy and intestine cominotion, wliicii 
 lia\e driven away foreign settlers : it is on a river, 
 mid in appt'aruncc liki- other Malay towns, hut 
 not so lari;(! us eitlier of the Dutch settlements: 
 tlu^ inhahiiiints an^ chie.tly Mohaniinedans, The 
 i'.\|iorts are cainplior, sca-slu^c, tortoise-shell, liirds' 
 nests, clov(!-b«rk, pepper, fjold-diist. sandalwoocl, 
 raid rattans. There is iiiu(;li line tiniher on tlu^ 
 hanks of the rivers. There was fonnerly an ex- 
 tensive trade hetween liorneo l'ro|)er and l.'hina, 
 as well as soiiK! commerce with the Kiif^lish in 
 piece-;;oods. Since the estahli.shment of the Sin;;a- 
 jiore colony the IJrilish trade has reconiinenced. 
 The Malays are not destitute of sonic arts, ainon^ 
 ■which is that of castiiijj; cannon, in which they 
 mv very skilful. 
 
 I'appal, Malliida, Sfaiifiedura, Pnitnn, nnd Ti- 
 riiii, in tlie Ml., are mostly Siiliik settlements. 
 The country here nliounds in forests of lofty 
 trees; extensive plains, covered with herds of lar^'c 
 cattle, from hreeds introduced hy the Spaniards 
 two centuries aj;-o; many rivers, and much miiii'- 
 ral wealth, (jold and diamonds are collected with 
 little troiihle; tin-ore is Konietiincs jiicked upon 
 the surface. Sap), rice, hetel-niit, cocoa-nut oil, 
 camjihor. wax, a little pepper and cinnamon, 
 pearls, rattans, dovi'-hnrk, and fj;rain, in Malluda; 
 hirds's nests, lacka-wood, and tortoiseshell, in 
 iMan;;edara; tinilu^r, limestone. eaf,'lcwoud, and 
 sea-sluff, in I'ailan, arc the chief products. Tirun 
 yields more hinls' nests than any other rcf^ion of 
 "the K. ; its coast is f;-enertilly il low swamp over- 
 f;rown with ii;anf;roves; its rivers are numerous, 
 larjje, anil often navi.ital)lo ; itn interior is covered 
 with sa^o-trees, which fonii the chief suhsistence of 
 the jicople, ami yiu ids besides, canes, rattans, wax, 
 lioney,lje/.oar, lupoid, and, it is said, saltpetre. Many 
 Anainesc have settled on the Nl'« Coast; emi;;ra- 
 tion from Cochin China, in consequence of na- 
 tional (listurhances. haviuj;- prevailed lately to a 
 ffreat exlent, \'oyiij;es hence, to and from Anain, 
 may he made at any time of the year. 
 
 'i'he chiel' slate on the K. coast is that of Coti, 
 or Coti-Lama. heloiifjinjr to ISiif^is, from Celehes. 
 Coti town stands .'lU m. up the river of that name, 
 the hani>- of which are inhahitcd hy nearly 300,000 
 people. It is the chief ]ilace on this coast: its 
 people are commercial, and many annually visit 
 Sinfj;apore in their /;/■«/(«» or trading-vessels. I'as- 
 sir stands on a lar^^e fiver a little S. of the former: 
 it is a den of pirates, lianjarmassin, on the hanks 
 of the river of that name, is surrounded hy a terri- 
 tory iiroduciuf^ rattans of the host description in 
 aliundance, as well as pdd, diamonds, and iiejipcr. 
 Th(! ])op. are mostly lluj^is, who occupy nearly 
 every river and creek on the K. and S. coasts. 
 They have had some trade with Sinpipore, hut 
 which is discountenanced hy the Dutch authori- 
 ties; all the .S. coast hiung claimed hy the latter, 
 who, ill 1717, established a factory at lianjarmas- 
 sin. On this coast there exist the remains 
 of temples, iniaf;es, and other relics of a more 
 civilised peojile fonnerly iiihahitinij; it; hut no 
 detailed history of these has been f;ivcn. (^Iv'irl's 
 Eastern Seas, in liS;!2-.'i— 1, pp. 2r)-2-312; Leyden's 
 Sketch of Honieo; Crawfurd's Jiid. Ai-chiixdapi ; 
 I'rivatc Letters of Sir ,)ames lirooke, l>f.");l ; 
 Annual Stalement of Trade and Navi^^ilion for 
 18(i;3.) 
 
 I50RX0U 
 
 noUXIIOLAF. an island belonftiiiL' to nonnnrl 
 i" Hie llallic. about 21 m. K. by S. IVou, themi 
 
 iir- 
 ll 
 
 est point ol Sweih'ii, and !l(» K. fr„ni Zealan,! 
 is ol a rhomboidal shape, beint,' about 20 in i,, 
 length hy 14 in breaihh. I'op. 2N,!HI() ji, is,;,, 
 Itornholm ditferH considerably from the (,t|i,r 
 Danish islands: it rises IukIi above the level ,,f 
 the sea. Its shores are formed for the niosi pari 
 of strep h)fty rocks, surrounded bv reel's. wiii,.|, 
 render their a|)iiroach not a little 'dan^jeroiis |i 
 is welt supplied with freestone, which is laiveh 
 exported to Copenhagen and other places- and 
 with limestone, blue marble, various siieciVs <,f 
 clay, ochres, and coal. Thc! clay is suitiibl.. |i,r 
 the making of coarsc! and tine pot'len-, and Is iMd 
 in the china-factory at Copenh(i;cen. Cliniaii. 
 drier and more sahibrious than that of Zcaliiiid 
 The (!entre of the island is occupied by an eMeiii 
 sive heath; hut elsewhere the soil is'niodcraiclv 
 fertile, produciiif; all sorts of (jraiii, but espeiian'v 
 oats, with llax and hemp. Cattle inferior to thnsV 
 of the other Danish islands, but the horses iiro 
 stroiiff and active. Timber is scarce; lar(,'e trcis 
 being, however, fieqiiently found in a statenf pcr- 
 fect preservation imbedded in moss. There are ;i 
 great many rivulets well stocked with lisli, wliieii 
 are al.<o very abunilant round the coast. Kxdii- 
 sive of agriculture and lishing, brewing aiiii ^\\<. 
 tillation, tile nnd brick-making, the mni.iifiioliiio 
 of coarse and line earthenware and of clucks arc 
 carried on to a considerable extent. An iiigcirhnis 
 niitive of the island having accidentally taken li. 
 jiieces a wooden clock imported from abmad, iiH.k 
 it for a model, nnd set about making aiioilicr. 
 His example was followed by others; and smli 
 was their .success, that wooden docks soon hoj.'an, 
 and .still continue, to he a principal article ol'^ex- 
 port. Linens, siniii and prepared in the Inmses nf 
 the jieasantry, are also exjiortcd. Coffee, sn:;iir, 
 tobacco, and si)i<'es are th<! ])rincipal artiilcs c.f 
 import. IJoenne, the capital, and the reside, no nf 
 the governor, is situated at its S\V. angle. It is 
 defended by batteries, has a considerable trade, 
 and a number of vessels and boats engaged in tlw 
 lishing; but its harbour is shallow, having only li 
 or 7 ft. water, Ni'xa'. on the SK. shore, i.s lamiiiis 
 for its beer, A lighthouse, having the laiiteni 
 elevate<l 272 it. above the level of the sea, liiis 
 been erected on Cape Ilammerseii, the nioM N. 
 j)oiiit in this island. The feudal system nevir 
 obtained any fooling in ISornhohii. "l'e^s"n^ .'n- 
 oiised of ])oliiical offences used to be hanislieil 
 thither, but this has now ceased. 
 
 IlOIiXOU, a kingdom of Central Africa, in frmn 
 lOO to 15° N, lat., and from 12° to l«o K. lenf;.; 
 it is hiuinded on the N. by Kanein and the Mv. 
 corner of the desert; on the E, by Heghiirnii: on 
 the S. by Mandara ; and on the \V. by \i\nm 
 small tribes extending to Iloussa and the Felhta 
 country, liornoii appears to have been fiirnierly 
 more extensive, both hi lat. and long.; at presiiit 
 i^ may, perhap.s, he about 400 ni. in leiigtli. Irmn 
 h. to W., the .same in extreme width, fnmi X. lo 
 S., and its area is probably not less than P.'O.imil 
 si|. m., of which, however, more than 2it.iiiM iiro 
 covered by the waters of Lake Tchad. (Deidiom 
 and Clai)|)erton, j). iU4; Lucas, Afric. Assoc, i. Kll.) 
 The surface of Honioii is an inimense plain, ilie 
 greater |)orlion of which is subject to annnalnvir- 
 llow, from which circumstance, joined to tlu'i;ri:if. 
 heat of the climate, the soil has every capaMliy 
 of abundant jiroductioii ; owing, however, pariiy 
 to the want of industry in the people, and p.irily 
 to the slate of warfare in which the iiiuriMl 
 countries of Africa sei'ui constantly to live, liiilc 
 ailvanlage is taken <d' Ibis favoiiralile stale 
 tliing.s, and the inhabitants are nut nuicli suin'iii'tl 
 
 '■"Wing. I'elic;ini 
 'II"*-- g<'ese. and, 
 «iilerlow|,ai-eabuii( 
 'I"- (islrich traver.s( 
 
BOKNOU 
 
 AOS 
 
 A4 ajiridilturists to otlior iio;,'r(ic.s. Clnijiiorton 
 i.liiiiriKtv Ironi Koiikii to Siikkiitud, p, I'.i) liniinl 
 ihi! iiativi's of il(iii!<sii riii.siiiir n si'coiiil tTop of 
 nliC'it, liy irri^taliciii ; Imt .micIi iii^tiuicrH, while 
 ihcy provo till! imtiiral li rtility of the land, arc 
 (xtri''U''ly riiri! in Kornoii. Tlio |irinci|ial rivers 
 ;ir.' tlie Miary and the Veoii; the lomier a|i|i(i- 
 iviitiy ri-'in^ in thi^ mountains of Mandara, tliu 
 liitiT ill those of Ilonssa, 'I'he smaller streams 
 ;irc verv iiuinerous, but all are reeeived into Lake 
 T.liiid.' 
 
 ■fill' climate of Uonum is one of very ^jrcat hut 
 iKitiiiiiroini heat. In t^ummer, that is from March 
 IdJuih', the thermometer stands at lti."»° to 107° 
 III iiiHin, and even at iii;,dit is rarely lower than 
 |ihP, except before sunrise, when it sinks to «(1° 
 iifHH'^. 'I'he winter temperature is, however, lower 
 ilmii the lat. would warrant the expectation of — 
 riircly higher than 74° or 70°: it fre(|ueiitly falls 
 inn iniiniinf; as low as .5H° or tiO°. Tlii^ N W. wind 
 i, rnld. the S. and SK. hot and sntVocatiiiK; which, 
 iMiisiiieriiif; that the lirst Mows over the Sahara, 
 aiul till! others over the hif;h mountains of Koiii;, 
 i^a reniarkalilu fact, which seems to reipiire ex- 
 |,l:iimtion. 'I'he seasons may he divided into irct 
 anil drv, hilt the (irst can scarcely he denominated 
 riiiiii/, ill a tropical sense. Ahoiit April or May, 
 iiiili'cd. a short jieriod, varyiii;,' from three to nine 
 il;i\>, is marked by violent tempests, rniii, thunder, 
 lii;litniii(r. iiikI wind; but the remainder of this 
 wet period, exteiidiiif; to C)cfober, by no means 
 iiitcrt'cres with outdoor labour, except in June, 
 ivlii'ii there is another burst of fallinj; weather, at- 
 iiiiiii'd with a most op|)ressively siiltrj' utmo- 
 ,.|ilirro. At this time it is that the lakes and rivers 
 i.vitHow their banks, tloodin^ the laud in their 
 mi;;lilioiirhood for many miles. The dry and cold 
 HiiMPii iistiallv coniineiices in October. (I>eiiham, 
 |,|., Isl-.'-i."), ;j|-l ; Lucas. ]>. l.Hl.) 
 
 Ill a iiiiintry devoid of inoiiiitaiiis there arc, of 
 ciiiirM', no minerals. Iron is procured from the 
 iiii;;lili(mriii;? state of Alandara, in the hills of 
 whifli it is ver}' abiindaiu , and }^old-diist is a jirin- 
 liiml article in JJornoiiese trade ; lint whether the 
 I;i.«t be broiif.cht down by tlie rivers, or jirocured 
 Ir iiii a distance, does not ajipear. (l)enhani, jip. 
 11(1, id 7; Lucas p. 155.) 'J'rces are extremely 
 Kiirce tliroiif.fhout the country, except here and 
 iliiTi' upon the banks of rivers; though the iieiyli- 
 li piiriiif; states of Kanem, Maudara, lloussa, &l\ a\>- 
 |i(iir to be well-wooded. The soil, which is chietly 
 alluvial, is liifjhly productive, but its |iroductioiis 
 an' by no means varied, eonsistiiif; chietly of 
 millet, barley, beans, Indian-corn, cotton, and in- 
 (lii,'o. The Hooded lands on the shores of liake 
 Tdiad are peculiarly well adapted for the growth 
 III' rice, hilt none is cultivated; and there is no 
 imiiical country nor desert so destitute of fruits 
 mill edible root.s. (Lucas, p. 134; Dciiham, pp. 50, 
 111'.', iilt'i, ttc. ; Clappcrton, p]). (i, 15, &c.) 
 
 Tlie wild animals of Tropical Africa are all com- 
 iiiiin in liornou ; and the ferocious kinds, lions, 
 |i;iiitherfi, and Jackals, which in the wet season ap- 
 priiadi the walls of the towns, are particularly 
 (l™;,'(!ri)iis. The buffalo, giraffe, elephant, liippo- 
 |Kiiaiiiiis, and crocodile are animals of chase; the 
 llcsli of all of them is eaten, and that of the last 
 ilirce accounted a great (h!licacy. The civet-cat 
 \i ennmiou, and the animal itself, as well as its 
 MiTctioii, is an important article of trade. Of do- 
 lui'sticaiiinials the iiuniber is immense: cattle ami 
 Imr-cs arc of line breeds, and iilentifiil ; camels are 
 rail', iiiid slieep hfive a hairy instead ofawimlly 
 iMvcriii);'. I'dicans, spoonbills, cranes, siiiiics, 
 liiii'ks. i^ccse. and, in short, almost every species of 
 iviui'iluwl, are abundant in the extensive maislies: 
 ilif iistricli traverses the plains, and partridge.*, 
 
 grouse, giiinenfowl, and other game nre also very 
 iinmeroiis — as are the domestic fowls, which con- 
 stitute the cheapest kind of animal food that can 
 be jiiirclmsed. lieptiles are niimeroiis, consisting, 
 besides crocoililes, of scorpions, centipedes, enor- 
 mous toads, and many varieties of serpents; one of, 
 which, measuring 1 l" or 111 ft. in hiigili, though 
 said lo be harmless, is jirobably of the boa or py- 
 thon species. In such a climate insect life "is 
 naturally abundant ; bees are so numerous, that 
 Lucas (p. i;t«) allirins the wax is often thrown 
 away, as an article of novaliu! in the market; ami 
 Denliam remarks (p. .'li'd) that the honey is only 
 partially cidlected. The curse of tropical coiiniries, 
 the locust, is a frequent visitor; and. though a fa- 
 vourite article of food, is regarded with dread, since 
 desolation always follows in its train. The rivers 
 and lakes abound in lish, of many dilVcreiit species, 
 most of them peculiar. (Lucas, p. 1;J7; Denliam, 
 pp.2-21t, -iM.:!!!*, ;t21,«;c.) 
 
 The inhabitants of Hornoii eoiiNist of two classes, 
 — the Shoiias, desceud.-ints of Arab settlers from 
 tlieN. ; and Kaiiowry, or Kaiiiiri, as the native 
 race is called, who arc true negroes. The former 
 are the dominant people; they have line, open, 
 aquiline eounteiiaiices. large eyes, a light copper 
 complexion, and bear a siroiig personal resem- 
 blance t) the best specimens of Knglish gipsies. 
 They an; divided into tribes, and still beiir the 
 names of some of the most iiowerful liedouiii 
 hordes. Their language is Arabic, and to them is 
 owing the iiilroiluclion of the arts ol wriiing aiid 
 reading. They are shrewd, active, and courageous, 
 but these are almost the only good trails in their 
 character. Deceitful, arrogant, cunning, and dis- 
 hoiiesl, their superior attainments are used bv 
 them only as a means to rob and oppress their 
 black neighbours. These last ]inseut, in their 
 ]iliysical appearance, all the usual negro pecu- 
 liarities — Hat noses, large mouths, and inexpressive 
 countenances. They are peaceable and orderly, 
 but destitute of energy, and appear to regard the 
 Shoiias as a superior race of beings. At least leu 
 different langiuiges or dialects are spoken in 
 itornou. No estimate can be made of the popula- 
 tion of this kingdom ; but as towns possessiiigi!0,OU() 
 inhabitants are met with, and markets are said 
 to be sometimes atteniled by ^i(l,(MlO or lod.ooo 
 persons, and the Shoiiah po|iulation aloni'caii raise 
 an army of 15,000 men, the number id' inhabi- 
 tants must be ven,- considerable. (Denliam. ]<\i. 71i, 
 KO, ;{2'.), &c.) The religion of the court is Ala- 
 homnieilanism ; but no disabilities appear to 
 aUend the professiim of feticism, which is tho 
 faith of the bulk of the negroes. The government 
 is absolute, and till lately was elective. The laws 
 arc arbitrary, and punishments summary, but 
 usually administered with justice; and there is a 
 kind of insolvent act, whicli relieves a man from 
 his debts on jiroof of his p ivcrty, leaviiig any 
 future property he may acquire at the nicny of 
 his creditor, without furl her jiroccss. In other 
 respects the IJoriiouese resemble the negroes 
 generally; their arts are few, and apparently in- 
 troduced, in most cases, by the Arabs. ISiit the 
 Arabs also introduced the slave-trade, which was 
 unknown before their arrival, mid is said to bo 
 reluctantly submitted to. The floors of liarb.'iry, 
 however, prefer slaves to anything else; and 
 as ISoniou is dependent upon tliciii for all the 
 comforts and many of the neccssaiies of life, the 
 slave-trade is carried en to a great extent. It is 
 siiidthat the luitives are very anxious lor a direct, 
 trade willi lliigland; but considering thai lluir 
 country is situated full (itiO m. from tlic coast, ;iiid 
 in a climate destrnclivc to Kiiropcaiis, we conlV.-s 
 we are not of the number of tliotc who entertain a 
 
 
 M0 
 
 fiAji;!| 
 
 'fit 
 
 ii 
 
 
 i\i 
 
S04 
 
 ISOKODINO 
 
 HiuiKiii>"'''-'<P^''l"l'"" '!"»• iiiiy HiK'li lr.i:l(Mvill cvrr 
 l)c carrii'd oil to niiy cxlt'iit or toiiiiy (irolit, (l>cii- 
 liiim,|i|». .'l"i I -'J- '>,<•</«;.«». ; l.iicn.i, |i|i. I lli-lolt, tSic.) 
 The tiiiiiK^ Hornoii Im Ariiliic. If in lilcriillv Uurr- 
 AiMt, ' tlir I.iinilof Noali,' the- AriiliM lidifviii^; tlmt 
 til)! nioiiiitiiiiiN in its iit'i;;lil>oiirliiioil ri't'civi'i! tlic 
 nrk lifter the (Ic1ii),'p, ami tliat liic imlriiircli lir>l 
 o.>4tiililiF<lii'illiiiii.-4('iriii ilsi'xtciisivd |iliiiiis. (Ijicai, 
 )i, l.'ll,) Tlu! iicf^ro iiiuiu' ii|i|i('arf* to lie Kaiuiri. 
 (I>r. ISartli, ill .loiiriiai of tiie lioyal (uMij^ra|iiii<'al 
 tsoi'ii'tv, \cil. xxx, IMCid.) 
 
 JiOllOhlNO, a vilia^'o of Itii^sia in rnropc. 
 pov. Moscow on tlio KoloffM, Id III. W. MoJaiMk. 
 Tliis vilia),'i! will lie for c^vcr nii'iiioralili', from its 
 lu'iii^ llio scciH! of one of tlic iiioh, niiii),'iiiiiary 
 roiiliicts that lias taken plaec in modern tiiius. 
 On the Till S('|it, IHI2, llii! Freiidi army, iiiidcr 
 Ts'aiioleoii, in its advance iipoii Mo.-eow, ill tucked 
 (It this )>oiiit tlie eiitrencliments of the ^rand 
 It'iissiaii army, I'_'(i,(l(i0 stroii;;, under KiitoiisolT. 
 The Itnssiaiis iiiaile a des|K'rat(! resistance, lint in 
 llie end their position was I'lirried, The slaiij,diler 
 ■was iminense: tiii' IJiissians haviiifi lost nliovi! 
 '|n,(IOi) men, killed and wounded, and the Freiieh 
 nearly ;!(),(MMI. Few iirisoners were iiiade on either 
 hide. 
 
 liOK'OFSK, or IU)1!()VVSK, n town of Iliissia 
 ill Ihirope, piv. I\)ili>iij;a. cap. disir., on the I'rorva. 
 r,:> ni. SW. Moscow; lal. .")."»° Id' DO" N.. h.ii^c. .'liio 
 :;•.'' l.V H. I'op. il.KIll ill \x^>X. It is an old 
 Inwn. celeljrated in 1,'iissiaii liislury for its defence 
 liy rrince \'olkoiiski, in Mild, against, the pre- 
 tender Diniilri. ll has 1 elinrelies, a inaiiiifacliirc 
 of sailcloth, and its environs prodiicu excellent 
 onions and pirlic. At a short disiance is the con- 
 vent I'a'siiontief-Iiarofski, founded in Mil, coii- 
 tainiii;,' .') eliiirchcs and a considerahle treasure. 
 
 lt()i;< )!■(.; I! nil IDCi;, a hor.. nuirUet-town, and 
 township of Kiif;laiiil. \\. It.co. York, Claro wapen- 
 take, par. Alillioroiif;Ii, on the S. hank of the I're, 
 J 7 in. SIC. York, on a branch-line of the York 
 and Newcastle, railway. Pop. !ld!t in IHCl. The 
 town has sonic good lioiises. Imt is decayinj^; its 
 fornier iniportnnec, that < f lieing on the posting- 
 road from London and York to iMrnilnirgh, having 
 lieeii lost, liy the iiilnidnclioii of railways. The 
 town enjoyed the |irivilege of seiicling 2 mem. to 
 the II. of C. from loriiJ down to the passing of the 
 Iteforin Act, liy which it was disfranchised. It 
 lias several fairs; oflliesu the most imporlaut is 
 held ill .luiie, for the sale of liardware. JMaiiy re- 
 mains (if Mrilish and h'onian anti(|iiilies arc found 
 ill this t'wn and ils immediate vicinity. Of these, 
 the most eelelirated are the ohelisks, called the 
 Arrows, ahoiit, ^ ni. S. from the town. A heaiitifnl 
 tesselated iiavenieiit was iliscovcred in iMoIja little 
 to the \V. of the town. At this town, on tlie KUli 
 of March l.'5:22, the army of the rehelharons, under 
 the Karl of Lancaster, was defeated hy the troops 
 of Kdward IL, in an attempt to cross the river; 
 and their le;ider, heing taken prisoner, was iui- 
 medialelv beheaded. 
 
 J{Oi;()A'lT(TIl, a town of Ivussia in Knroiie, 
 gov. Novgorod, eai). distr., on the Msta, 10(1 m. 
 l-;,S|';. Novgorod; lat. o«° K!' N., long. ;i:i° .jd' K. 
 I'op. .S,727 in 1H5H. The town lias 4 churches, a 
 convent, and a good deal of trade. In the iieigh- 
 lionrbood are cataracts, that iiiternii)t the course of 
 the river; hut the obstacles to its navigation, 
 thence arising, have been successfully obviated by 
 w<>rks undertaken for that purpose. 
 
 HOKIfOMKAN ISLANDS, a group of sm.nll 
 islands in the Lago JMaggimv, Norlhern llaly, 
 in the former kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 liOUnoWSTONNKSS, or ISO'XKSS, a biirgli 
 of barony, and seaport of .Scotland, co. Liiilidigow, 
 on the .s'. side of the L'ritli of Forili, 17 m. \\. by 
 
 UOSNA-SKUA'i 
 N. r.dinbnigh. Top. of Iiiirgh, iiielndinK Cur- 
 bichall, ;i.Hi I in iMdI. of whom I.KM'.i malis /m,! 
 1. !>:'.') females. Morrowstonness is one of the oM(..i 
 Scottish seajiort towns, and its iiaiii(> ipfii n ,,(TiirH 
 ill history. The harbour is safe iiiid eiiiiiiiinrli,,,,^. 
 but the reveime which it yields is iiisuili.i.iu ,,| 
 keep it in repair, even though an imposi of j,/. 
 (Scotch) has been levied for the imrpose for in arlv ;i 
 century (17 (Jeo. II,) on every Scoii'h pint of ale 
 or beer brought into the town. IIo'iu-h carries imi 
 shipbuilding to n small extent, and has soim. 
 liltle trade with the Ilaltic, It en;;,,^.,,^ priiiv 
 (•xiensividy in the lierring-lishery, and has imi mj. 
 freipunlly of late years sent one, two, or iii'ire 
 vessels to the N, wliale-tishery. The town is Un, 
 seal of the most extensive saltworks on the Triili 
 of Forth, and it exports ab<'Ut ;id,(Mi(i biisluls cf 
 salt a year. Here are two distilleries, an earilicn- 
 wari! inanufaclory, and vitriol ami soap-wnrks. 
 rrodnctive collieries abonn<l in the innii('(li;ii(' 
 iieigliboiirhiMid, and have been wrought for cin- 
 tiiries. The mines extiiiid nearly a mile In l„\v 
 the bed of the I'Vith, so as alinosi "to mcit ilio-c of 
 Ciilross on the opposiie side, which run in a S, 
 direction to the disiance of 2 iii. Near Mo'iics, \l 
 Kinneil House, a seat of the Diike of Hamiltdn 
 ami long the residenci! of Dugald Stewart. 
 
 liOSA. a seaport town on tlieW. coa.>l of Ujn 
 island of Sardinia, prov. C'agliari, div. Sa-suri, 
 near the mouth of the Termo: imiiiKliaii'ly o|i|iii- 
 sile to the latter is the islet of Uosa, lal. Ili'J p;' 
 •I0"N., long. H° 2.V ;U" L,, between wliidi ami ilii. 
 shoresman vessels lie in tolerable srciiritv. Wit,, 
 i>,2'M in lK(i2. The town is beaiililiilly"siiiiat((i 
 in a line valley between two bills, is tolenililv 
 clean, and has scvctjiI jiaved st reels; but in Mim". 
 incr it is ill-supplied with water, ."iiid is then alsi 
 very unbeiilthy. It is a bishop's see; li;is ;i 
 churches, a convent of Capuchins and one of t'ar- 
 melites, willi a seminary for the sliidy of pliiln- 
 sophy and iheidogy. On a hill iminediniely iiiruvp 
 till! town are llie reniaiiis of a casth! or a("ro|i(ili<, 
 where the principal families used foriiiiriy In n- 
 side. The natives are very active, carrying tiicir 
 |irodiice all over the island ; and most jiiiri al.-u (,f 
 the I ravelling pedlars belong to the town. 
 
 I!OS('( )-TI! F-l 'ASI';, a village of Souiherii Italy, 
 jirov. .Naples, at ihej'ootof Vesuvius, 12 ni. I'.Si':. 
 Naples. I'op. '.i,ll« in \M-2. It is one of fmr 
 villages situated at a little distance from caili 
 ollu'r, I'oniprised under the general term Jiniiu; 
 has several churehes and convents, a royal niaiiii- 
 faclory of arms, a powdermill, and airexteibivc 
 fitbric i\f jx'ite tf lliilic, 
 
 liOSIlAM, a small village and parish of Ijii;- 
 laiid, CO. Sussex, Jt^ m. \\'.s\Y. Chichester, eii liio 
 London, lirighton, and S(ailh Coast raiiwav. I'liii. 
 of par. IjloS ill iMiil. The village is of histdrital 
 interest. It was a place of some iniporiaiicc in 
 the earliest times of which we have reconl, and is 
 more than once mentioned in the old Saxdii 
 chronicles. The Saxon kings lived here, ami t\n'. 
 remains of an old forest still jiasses hy the name 
 of Old I'ark. (.'aniite's daughter was biiricil in 
 Jiosh.'im ehiirch; audit is more pmhalile tli.ii if 
 the story of (,'aniite's lecturing his cunriiiis mi 
 the seashore be true, the incident took pl.'icc luro 
 rather than at Sontbiimplon. This was i lie lir>t 
 |ilace upon tlu; Sussex coast in which Chrisliaiiily 
 was langlit ; i'or when Wilfrid lauded at Sciscv, 
 aiiout llie year Osd, he found a ))oor momisiiTy 
 already existing at JSosham. ]t was from iliis 
 place that Harold started when he visitcii Xm- 
 maiidy, and lioshani cliurcb makes a coMs|iiiii"ii< 
 fe;il lire near the commencement of the liayiaiix 
 tapestrv. 
 
 liOSNA-SFl.'AI, or SKHAJKVO (an. Tlhmu- 
 
IIOSNIA 
 
 nJi:i), n rlly of TiirUry in I'lirnpi-, r;ii). ("""V. I 
 llci.llill, on llic N. Iilltik of till' Mi;:liil/./.;l, 'J It) III. ! 
 
 ><. I'liiiln, and <ui') ni. NW. rmisiiiiiliiioiil.' ; lat, 
 i;;o !i\' N., li>ii^'. IH'^ •.'•;' K. Kyiiiimlcd \v<\>. 
 rn.iiiii), 'I'lu' (own \n wi'll-liiiiil, anil liiis an 
 ii.i-ir'a!ilo ii|i|i('nraiiri', owiiii,' to llic iiimilicr of 
 iiiiimri'ts, towers, inul ^rariii'iix wIi'hOi ii ciicluscf*. 
 ji I'liiilains a.«r"», or |i»lat'('. Iiiiill liy Miiliniini I!., 
 i,i wiiicli tlu' <'ity owes its name; alioiit lOil 
 ii:ii-i|iH'r'. soiiii' of wliicli iiri' ('li';;Miit slrnctnrrs; 
 -('Viral (ircck ami lloniaii Cutliolic clinri'lii'^i. \\illi 
 ,c.11i'l;c.i anil lia/.arM. MosI of llic lioiiscs arc of 
 wiiiiil; III!' MiKliaz/n is licri' (TomsciI liy a niassivc 
 'lull' liriil),'!'. I'lii' cily 'vas foniu'rly ciiroiniiaiMcil 
 \ iili walls, lint llicsc ar" now ilccayi'il.Minl lis only 
 iM'ciu'n foiisists in a l.irp- I'itailcl. laiilt on u nn'ky 
 lii,'lit at its !•;. cxlri'inity, and iiKiiinlin;; h(l 
 riiniiiiii. The inlialiitants ar(! iiiiinstrioiis, and ciii- 
 lliiyrd ill tli(^ niainifactiiro of arms, iron, and 
 i,ili|icr arlii'lt's, Imrscliair lin;;s, nionn'i'o and 
 iiliir kinds nf Icatlicr, and colton and ivonllcii 
 Miitl's. Near liosiia-Scrai arc (In' |irin(i|ial inm- 
 niiiii'sin Itosnia. it is tlu^ cliicf mart in llic jimv., 
 (hi' renin' ol' tin- I'liinnicrcial rclalinns liriwi'i'ii 
 Tiiri\('y and Diilmatia, Croalia and S. OcrniMiiy, 
 Slid lliis (!oiisiil('nil)l(! Inidc willi the cities of 
 Niliuiiki and \'iiiiiiia. 'llic most wealthy liiinilies 
 ill Imi-iiIii nsidc in tliis city ; two-tliinls of the |i(i|). 
 I ri' said to lie Turks, lint tlic Jews nioiioiiolise the 
 cliicf piirt of the trade. 
 
 iJOsriroTius 005 
 
 mill foxes. Iliey Iiavi' every facility fur rarryiiiL' it 
 on. The iiihali, eiinsi.>.t of sc\cral races, disiiilmieil 
 as follows : — 
 
 iUl ] |iaii •■. .... .....1. . 
 
 li()>NlA. or li()SN.\, tlio most westerly piielia- 
 
 ii' iir eyalet of 'J'lirkey in Mnroiie. eoni|irisin^' 
 
 HiMiia Troiier, Turkish Croatia, and ller/.c^oviiin. 
 
 Ii lies hctweeii lat. -12° .'JO' and 1.')° I.V N., aiul 
 
 l,ii^'. |,")0 III' and •>\<^-r K.; liavin;,' NW. mid N. 
 
 ilio Austrian jiniv. of Croatia mid Slavunin. I'^. 
 
 Sitvia, and S. and \V, Alliania and Austrian Dal- 
 
 inatiii. the latter sciiaratiiif:; it froni the Adriatic. 
 
 Ar«i varimislv estimated at from lO.iKMl to •J-_'.IMI0 
 
 -.;, III. Toil.' from WMi.i'o?) („ i.imo.doii. it, is 
 
 iiliuiisi entirely occn|i';(l hy the Dinarii aiid.liilian 
 
 All^ which, wirli their oli'sets, scii.irate it iiUo 
 
 ■ivcr.d wi li-marked divisions. l'riiici|ial rivvrihe 
 
 >:iv(', fiirniini,' the X. Iionndary of llnsnia, with its 
 
 nilini'iits the I'lina, which in iiartsep.arates Turkish 
 
 fmiii Aiistrinn Croatia — X'erhaz, |)rin, and liiar 
 
 fi'niiin^c its i-;. Iioiindaries. 'I'he lin.-na traverses 
 
 l!iMiiii I'loper, the .Sauna, Croatia, ai:d the Xarciit.i, 
 
 llirzcf^iivina. It lias nnmeroiis fertile valley. , Iml 
 
 roLiki's of iiiiporlanee, and only one jilaiii of any 
 
 <iT, that of I.ivno in ller/.e^'ovina. Tliisennntiy 
 
 i-sii]iiiiised to lie rich in minerals, lint only the 
 
 iri'ii-miiies and u few lead-inines are wronnlit. (Jold 
 
 .Till silver exist in various |ilaces,and mines of the 
 
 liMiif these metals were wori.ed under the liom.nis; 
 
 mii<t nf the laru;e aliliients o/ the Save liriir;- down 
 
 ;iM-iliist. (^lieksilver is also found, and there 
 
 ari' i|iiarries of niillstone, freestone, alaliastcr, and 
 
 iiisrlile, coiil-niines, and mimerons minenil s]irinus, 
 
 M^ic (if which furnish salt, tlionj;h not in snilicieiit 
 
 iiiniitity for the sii|i|i!y of the eonntry. The 
 
 iliimite is f;enerally cold, but not nnhealihy ; the 
 
 Viinter snows lie on the ground for a loiiu; time. 
 
 ai.iltlie spring' is .short. In tlic S. violent winds 
 
 iri'vail ill winter, and the summer is extremely 
 
 li"t. The moiintain-ehains, esju'cially in the N., 
 
 wiM'iivored with dense forests of ])iiie, oak, heech, 
 
 liiiikii, cliestnnt, ite. ; hut the S. liranclies of the 
 
 l)iiiiiric Al[is ]irosent a reinarkalde delicieiicy of 
 
 I'lTtation. The greatest elevations are the Kain, 
 
 \i"iMt., and the Dormitor, 7,li.S() ft. high. The 
 
 I'st siiil ill the valleys is devoted to |iH,stnre, and 
 
 r»'>iiia is generally lietter adapted for the Icediiig 
 
 'liaitlc than for agriculture. The liosniaks, liow- 
 
 ivir. seem to jircfer the ehase to more settled |ias- 
 
 ("Kil iiociipatioiis ; and as the woods alioiind wiili 
 
 «iKl aiiimals, iis deer, wikl-buars, boars, w uhes, 
 
 NaiI.., 
 
 
 j Bi'll)tl"ii 
 
 Turks . . . 
 
 •jKi.onn 
 
 Moliniimiediin 
 
 j'n.nnn 
 
 liosiiliiks . . 
 
 .i.'iii.iiiiii 
 
 (ircck (.liiircli 
 
 ■i:iii,>Mi() 
 
 Scrviiiiis . . 
 
 IJII.IIIHI 
 
 
 
 Morlai'lilaiis . 
 
 7. ■.."Mill 
 
 Itolll. Ciitliollos 
 
 l.'.l.imii 
 
 Clnllls . . . 
 
 411.111111 
 
 
 
 lilpsieH . . . 
 
 iri.iiiiii 
 
 (llpsles , . 
 
 IC.IMIO 
 
 .lews . . . 
 
 •J ,11011 
 
 .lews . . . 
 
 •J.IMIII 
 
 Ariiiuniiiiis , 
 
 1,111 III 
 
 Arnicntiuig . 
 
 1,111111 
 
 Total . . 
 
 8.".(),(I00 
 
 Total . . 
 
 M.''ll,llllll 
 
 It is only in the valleys that any enltivation in 
 carried on. Wheat, barley, mal/c. and legnnics 
 are grown in snUicient ipi;iiilily for home cmi- 
 sinnption. iiiid llax and tiili.'iccn near /vornili ami 
 Novilia/ai. A great variety of fruit is niel with. 
 A li|nenr is niMile froio plums, and a sweet drink 
 called pi'/iiiiis from pears. The olive and vine ,'ire 
 both eiiltivalcil; the wines an? stn.ng and licry. 
 I'.oMiia has a breed of strong horses, but it is iniicli 
 lieglecled, except by the Turks; there are largo 
 herds of line cattle, and Hocks of sheep, the wnol 
 of which is greatly esteenied in the markets of tho 
 Levant. <!oats, liogs. and poultry arc everywhero 
 plentiful, iind in CruMtia many bees are k"pt, 
 which yield good hiiiiey. but iiifcriur wax. Tho 
 manufactures of liosiiia are limiled to iron articles 
 ol'commoii use. leather, coarse woollen stiill's, sall- 
 |ielre at .Iiiic/.a, cainion-ball-i at Kaiiicii;;rad, gini- 
 powder.lirearins. and other weapons, 'i'he principal 
 eypiirts are li'alher, bides, wind, go.iis' liiiir hoiiev, 
 cattle, dried lisli, timber, and minei',il waters; the 
 chief imports, linens, woollens, silks, lace, glass, 
 and metallic wares — jiaper. eolnnial produce, salt, 
 oil, drieil fruits, iind silver coin from Dalmaii.i. 
 'I'he transit trade in Levant produce is not incon- 
 siderable; (he chief seals ol' coiniiu'rce nw tho 
 towns of I'osna-Sera'i', Xovibazar, Zvoriiik, l!agn;i 
 Loiika. Mostar, and (Jradiska. 'I'lie mjids mio 
 generally very bad, and iiupracticable for whcel- 
 c;irri,'igcs. The total go\erimieiit revenue deiivcil 
 from Ibis |iroviiu'e is estimated tit about a million 
 sterling a year. 
 
 liosnia is under tho government of n ])aclia of 
 three tails; it isdividcd intosix sanjiaks or eirch's, 
 and again into forty-eight subdivisions, each of 
 wbi'.'h is snboniiiiate to a milii;iry governor ;ind 11 
 rnili. or judicial ollicer. liosna-.Scr.ii is the capital 
 of the jirov., but Trawnik is the residence of the 
 liacha. This (>Hicer is changed generally- every 
 three years; he has under his orders a niilitarV 
 force of from ;>,l)ilil to I.ddd men. The liosniaks 
 iire of Slavonic origin, though mostly .Mohaminc- 
 il.Tiis. They dillcr from the Turks in many usages, 
 and are not addicted to ]iiilyganiy. 
 
 liosnia w.'is anciently included in Lower I'an- 
 lionia. In tlu^ middle ages it lirst belonged to the, 
 I'^astern Kmpire, and afterwards became <i separ.iie 
 kiugiloin, dependent iiiion liiingary. The Turks 
 eonipu red it in 1 ISO, after a war of 17 year.;; biiL 
 it was not till l.V_'-J tliat Solynian the Magnilicriit 
 tiiially annexed it to the Turkish diiminion-!. 
 (Cannabich, Lehrlmch der Ceog., )ip. JliJ, 71(i; 
 Von Zedlit/, Hrief Siirvev of iioMiia.) 
 
 r.()Sl>Il()i;rS (more proiierlv iiOSrOliUS) 
 OK ■nil!ACl';,orClIAXXi:L OF CON.STAXTI- 
 XOI'LIC, the strait wdiicli eoimects the lilack Sea 
 with the Sea nf Mannara, and separates the V.. 
 corner of Thrace from Asia .Elinor. The length of 
 this remarkable ehaimel is about 17 ni., its width 
 Viiryiiig from A m. to 2 m. ; its course slightly 
 winding; its direction very little W. of S., and its 
 
 I 
 
 fWI 
 
 
5(10 Tiosi'iiours 
 
 ('iii)iiiii('litiro ill lliu Men (if Marniara Ih in '11° N, 
 Int.. -.".lo K. Iiiiij,'. 
 
 A riirrcnt xctM nmstniitly from flic Illnr'k Sen 
 (liniii;,'li tln' IliiMiilinrii?*, Iiiit. lliimu'li trt'iicnilly very 
 ^l^llll^;■, il is Miliji rl tci ri'ii-iilrriililc riiiiililli.iliciii-; 
 u i(iii^,'('iiiiliiiiicii wiiiil (Vciiii tlic .s\\', ninlcrH it 
 Miini'liincs uImiiikI ini|H'ri'r|itili|<' ; wiiili', mi tlic 
 oilier liiiiiil, n lircrzc rripiii ilic N !■'.. so iicicU to lis 
 lorcr tliiil it is aliiioNt iiii|iossil>lc lur a vessel, iiinler 
 Hlirli rireiiiiistaiiei'S, to make lieail apiiliHl it, 'I'lie 
 iiiei|iialil ies nf ciiast cause sex era] eliaM;,'es ot'ilirec- 
 lioii ill tlie set, as the water is liirowii from side to 
 Mile iiy the iiiiiiieroiiH Ixilil promontories lliat |iro- 
 jeet from liotli sliores ; lint lliese iln not atfeet the 
 fjeiierai course, exeejil liy making it mor<^ tortuous; 
 that course temliiif,' constantly towards the S. and 
 • he Sea of Marmara. Tlu^ depth of water is coii- 
 Hideralile: there is hut one hank in the channel ; 
 conse(|nently there is no danpT in its navigation, 
 nor any diiliculty, except in an upward passa^'c 
 apiinst its current; this is, however, siilliciently 
 halllin^ to the uiiNkilled Orientals. At ils N, 
 month, oil tlie Itlack Sea, are two groups of islets, 
 one. on tin; ICiiropean, liie otiier on the Asiatic 
 hhore ; these are the famous ('yaneiin Isles or 
 SynipU'pides of the ancients, which it was once 
 lielieved no vessel ever jiassed in safely, except hy 
 miracle. (Apoll. l.'hoil. ii. v. Wit, *c.) 'I'liey are 
 now quite liariiilesH, heiiiK, in fact, iiothiii^^ hut low 
 K'ontinnations of the respective nhores; they are 
 in a continual state of decay, and nii;;ht easily he 
 overlooked, did not their ancient celchrily induce 
 the modern navigator to search for them. In its 
 freedom Crom all danf:;er, its narrow channel, the 
 sireiifjih and constant set of its current, and, in 
 .'ihort, ill most of its characterislics, the liosphoriis 
 ri:-eml)les a maifiiilicent river morc^ than an arm of 
 the sea; and this resemlilance is hy no means ini- 
 jiaired hy the hraiich which it fjives olf at its S. 
 end, and which, enclosing; ("onstaiitiiiopl(! on the 
 N„ forms what is called the (ioldeii Horn, one of 
 the tine.st harhours in tlw. world. The coiinlry 
 Ihroiifih which the I!os|)liorus Hows is unrivalled 
 forheaiity; animals and vejxetahles <if almost every 
 variety ahound, and the f,'eol(ijfy is )K'ciiliarly int(;- 
 reslinj,', from the unequivocal evidences il exhihits 
 of iKiHtoiis action. The cliffs, which arc. stately 
 and ahriijit, consist of jasper, ajjate, comaline, cal- 
 eedoiiie, porphyry, trap, and calcareous spatli, in 
 very fireat hut jiicturesque ronfiision. They are 
 nil more or less in u state of deconiiiosition. and 
 traces of metals are seen in the colouriiifi; of the 
 v.'irious stones. Appearances seem to warrant the 
 conclusion that this strait was opened hy a con- 
 vulsion of nature, and this helief was very f^ene- 
 rally entertained hy the ancients (Sec Iti.Aciv 
 Ska.) At ahout half-way hetweeii the two seas, 
 or rather nearer to that of ISIaniiara, at the nar- 
 rov est part of the channel, stand two castles, one 
 on each hank, named, from the Turkish provinces, 
 Anadoli and liumeli (Asia Minor and Tiirace). 
 They form almost the only defence to Constan- 
 tinople on the \., and, if well manned, would he 
 very dillicult to pass. These appear to he almost 
 the only puhl'tc htiildiiif;s. hut private houses and 
 {gardens extend alon^ lu^arly the whole leiif^th of 
 the strait, csjwcially on the ICiiropean side. (Che- 
 valier, V'oy. de la Prop. y\\ ■\^^~\\) ; Olivier, Voy. 
 duns TEmpire Otli. i, 120-121 ; Jones's Trav. 
 ii. H-l-lol.) 
 
 The name Hosporus (Bd<r»ro >?), ■which has hccii 
 improperly comi]ited hy mr .lerii orthoij^raiihy to 
 llosphorns (Biiai/iopos), is i' '.cative of llu' narrow- 
 ness of this channel, and comes from H'";, an ox, 
 and Topot, a ford. The j)assaj;c across it of I'Ji- 
 ropa, home hy Jupiter in the fonii of a hull, is a 
 well-known Greek legend, and thence the ancients 
 
 IIOHTON 
 
 called Ihcodiannels Ihwpi.ri, which wire nnrr..w 
 eiioinjli to allow of kiln swimniiin,' niri»s ih,,,,, 
 Two especially were so di.sliiiKiii-h.d, imimlv, i),,", 
 sirail now iind>r idusiderninn, and llic finiiii.'riiin 
 
 ilospuriis (Sirait of \ ciiicidci, Kruv( n,,, i.-jij^j,,,. 
 
 and the I'aliis .M(c.ilis. Ovr the Tliriiciaii |i,,s 
 poms, Darius llystiispcs threw a hiiil^;,. ,,f \«,n\\ 
 when he passed from Asia to his disii.Mri.iis «i,r 
 wilh the Scythians; and the pillars of marMc 
 which he erecti'd to comnieniorale ilmt evnii ,irc 
 siipposeil, with ureal reas i<> Imve si I n, 
 
 the spots now occilpicil hy tlic Tiirki-li ras||(> 
 (Herodotus Melponi. pp. K'i-^n ; Stralm, vii ,)•>()) 
 I'lolemv, iii. II ; I'liiiv. vi. I.) ' ' ' 
 
 iiossiNi;v-\vrrir-Ti;i:vi:\A,ni„,r.„fK„,;. 
 
 land, CO. Cornwall, hnnd. l-esiiewlh. par. 'i'iiiia'ej 
 
 20« m, W. hy S. I don. Its area is ido urr'is' 
 
 its pop. is reiiirned with that of the pa., wliidi. in' 
 IKll, was I.imk;, hut ill iNt'.l only lion. |t j, ,,"„ ,, 
 
 riinK<'d exposed part of the N.i'oast of tin nv, 
 
 ami consists of two small villnj;es \ ni, aiiaii' 
 
 There is a town-hall now iipicd us a cluiniv 
 
 school: an annual fair is held the liisi Muihl.i'v 
 after llHh Oct. It claimed to he a lior. |,y prr. 
 Hcriplioii, and returned two mcmhers to the ||. ,,f 
 (;., under a charter of 7 i'.dw. VI., tilldisCraiirliisci 
 hy the liefonii Act: the elective riglii was in 
 hiirfjesses holdinj; freehold properly in the Imr. ; 
 of whom there were 21. The area of ih.' wlicikl 
 ))arish is it. '.Mid acres. The remains of Kin;: Ar- 
 thur's cisile are on the tahle simnnit of a^lm-c 
 ro<'k, ))rotriiding into the sea, and coniK'ci.'d, liv"v 
 narrow isthmus, with the rest of the parish. 
 
 KOSTAN (KL) (an. r(;m«/i«),alo\vn ofTmkcy 
 in Asia, Natidia, pach. Marasch, at the N. foot of 
 Mount Taurus, in a line plain, on the Sylioiiii (an. 
 Siiiiih), no 111. N. from the hottoni of ili(> hav nf 
 Iskenderoon, and 1 15 m. S. hy W. Sivas. lat. ilso 
 N.. hni),'. .'tlio 2tl' ]']. l'o|i. h",ii(MI or K.iiim. ,Mr. 
 Hriice (Appendix to Kinneir's Travels, p. .'iCii) say,< 
 of I'A Itostan that 'it has forty dependent vil!at;(s 
 in the adjacent jilaiii, surroiiniled with line trits 
 and cultivated fields and meadows. Kiw spots 
 ill Asia Jlinor offer n si^^ht more jii^ireeaMc. 'I'licro 
 is a ^Tcat trade in wheat, sold to llie Tnrkinaii-, 
 who carry it even as far as Ale|)|)o. When fcarli;! 
 of heiiif; attacked, the inhahitants lay ilic envi- 
 rons of the town under water. It lias fmir 
 mosques, one of which is siqiposed to he vcrv 
 ancient.' 
 
 In antiqnitj- Comann was famous forthe wor.^liip 
 of Ma, the Cajipadocian Itelloiia. The popiilaiinn 
 consisted, in a ^Tcat de;;ree, ofsoollisaycrs, )iri(si.<, 
 and . ...ves helon;;'in;; to the hi;;li-|iricst. and i-ni- 
 iiloyed in the service of the temple. The laiiir, 
 in the time of Straho, are said to have excccilid 
 (),(H)() of liotn sexes. It received a lloinan cdlLny 
 in the reij^n of Antoniiis I'iiis, and, jierhaps. al-n, 
 in that of Caracalla. ((,'ranier's Asia Minor, ii, 
 i;5!).) 
 
 HOSTOX, a sea-port, m. town, ami i nr. "f 
 I",nf;land, CO. Lincoln, on the Witliani, 102 in .v, 
 London hy road, 2M m. SI".. Lincoln, and Iii7^ in. 
 from London hy (ireat Northern r.'iihvav. on wliirh 
 it is a station'. I'oi)., 18(11, ."),!l2tl : i^'.ll, ll.-JIH; 
 LSI), 12,!tl2, and IHCl, 11.712. The town is sii|h 
 posed hy some, from antiquities found in its in i;;li- 
 lioiirhood, to have been a lloinan station. !niil in 
 have taken its name from a monastery liiiilt \iv 
 St. IJotolph, A.l). (i.")l, destroyed hy the Daius iii 
 870. That it hecame a place of coiisidorahlc nur- 
 cantile importance, after the Norman ('onf|iic.i. 
 appears fnmi the. fact that, in 12(1 1, ils as.sc-.-nii iil 
 towards a tax of a liftcciith, impo.-^ed on the ]<"<"■■•. 
 amounted to 78(1/., -while that of F^omlnn. llic "iily 
 jiort taxed hiji'lur than it. was hut KKI. In l-"^! 
 it suH'ered hy fire, and iu 1281! hy an inuiiilalii'ii. 
 
 I'liiler nn net ol 
 
 l<ir Hool, woolfr 
 
 Miini' tiiiK- iiH 
 
 iiK ica.sed hy m-\ 
 
 in il, who, how 
 
 jitiir, in consei|ii 
 
 iiii'ii, which tei 
 
 the iiiteniiediali 
 
 'idrralile thai it 
 
 t»Hiirds an arinii 
 
 ;iiiil ranked the 
 
 aiiiiiii^' tlie 82 I 
 
 111 I off rapidly i 
 
 vatic inercliantH 
 
 icrics hy Men. 
 
 (iini|iciisatioii, in 
 
 ii^raiit of 511 IU 
 
 iiliiTwards siillen 
 
 ilalioii.s, to which 
 
 lialile. During 
 
 liiiii' the head-qii 
 
 The town, siti 
 
 I.cliind the Ijm/ 
 
 imil divided hy it 
 
 iiirti'd toj,'etlier h 
 
 111' n sinj^lc arch 
 
 rcill.si'ts of two II 
 
 .•.tniiiii, from each 
 
 will hiiilt, eoiitai 
 
 nnilshops, and oxt 
 
 Tlio l)oroiij,rh is wi 
 
 |iriivisions of n ],| 
 
 with water. Its i 
 
 jiiiri.sli clnirdi of .'■ 
 
 i^tliclar^'ostchiin 
 
 UiiiK .'182 ft. hy !»^ 
 
 cilllcd ' Itosfoir Sti 
 
 Kiiiii' plan as that 
 
 (it'tii;,'oiial traiispai 
 
 t"ii.''lriiction, and 
 
 on this low coast, 
 
 Ailiiipel of ease v 
 
 trjiccs of St. ,hihii 
 
 tivii centuries a^^o, 
 
 ii^i'il as a place o 
 
 iviir.~liip are those 
 
 New Connexion, ai 
 
 wl and I'articnlai 
 
 IIiiMniii Catholics. 
 
 ('iiinilcii in l,"cM ; ] 
 
 Iriiaii'ii, in 170"; i 
 
 ■ill Imys and 2o jrirl 
 
 Iiiliint school, tof^e 
 
 I'il^ 'if hoth sexes 
 
 iiiiii a very handsor 
 
 'iiiiiiin' under the 
 
 jiiililiciiIaccsarelJie 
 
 'lirce suhscription 
 
 thwitro. and a pii 
 
 'iiiriluiis. Since tl 
 
 li'eliirm Act the toi 
 
 wards, and is Roveri 
 
 mill 18 councillors. 
 
 '" tlic IL of C. sir 
 
 I'rcvinnsly to the J 
 
 "i^li'il ill the mcmh 
 
 till! freemen who res 
 
 111 the honaifrh. Ti 
 
 parishes of Uoston a 
 
 ?i"l fen allotment < 
 
 'I'K ill nil over 7 !!•' 
 
 rT."fl7,8!l;!. 1,'ei.- 
 
 "I which 174 rem; 
 
 l'"'liiif,'-place for the 
 
 PiiMs, both relifrioii,. 
 
 *" into desiieiu,; 
 
 "itssed Virgin Murv 
 
IJOHTON 
 
 .V.7 
 
 •I'W s] II lis 
 
 rUcn; 
 
 rkMi;iii-, 
 
 11 1'ciirlV.l 
 
 ciivi- 
 
 iiis I'liiir 
 
 lu very 
 
 ■ wdrsliip 
 i>|iiilatii>ii 
 
 mill I'lii- 
 
 !»' lillUT, 
 
 l'X<'l'('ill'ii 
 
 lilll cnliiliy 
 
 hiilis. iiImi, 
 Miimr, ii. 
 
 ill i or. i>f 
 102 111 .<'. 
 
 1 liiT^ 111. 
 
 (Ill wliiili 
 !1,U.-M"-. 
 wu is >\\\>- 
 1 its w ii:li- 
 iiiii. mill I" 
 •V built \>\- 
 '■ Dams in 
 Till lie ""■r- 
 I <Minqiifsi. 
 
 l^^(-^ll»nl 
 
 I till' j»'i>, 
 111. Ilic "•ily 
 
 |/. Ill i:>i 
 
 miiulaiii'ii. 
 
 riiilor nil nrt of 'J7 I'.ilw. II[, it liccmnp n Hin|ilc 
 {„)' uiiol, wiMill't'lU, lent licr, mill Iciul. Almiit (lie 
 >aiiii' time iIh iiicroiiililc |>ri>y|M'rity wiih iiiiii'h 
 iiiri'i'a.''<'<l l>y Hi'viTiil lluiiHciitii' iiii'ri'liMiiiH ^<('tllill^ 
 in il, will), liiiwcviT, riiiiKniti'ii al>iiiit ii (•ciilnry 
 aliir. in t'iiiiM('i|ii<'tii'(i of n (iiiiirrcl with llir luwiis- 
 
 iiicii, which trniiiiiiitcil ni lil l--li('il. I>iiriii^ 
 
 ill!' iiitcniu'flialt' iicriinl its ,H|ii|)|iiii^' wiih wi nui- 
 .jilrritlili' that it riiniiMlicil 17 xliijis, iiml :i<il) iiicii, 
 iiAvaril.x i>ii ariiiiiiiii'iit tor the iiivasii'ii of llritiany, 
 mill raiikt'il Ihii Iwt'll'th, iim to iiiiiiiliiTor vchm'Is, 
 auiiiiitr lh(^ H"2 ports which were hmschsciI; liiit it 
 I'i'll nil' rik|>iilly lifter the ili-|iarliiri> of the lliiii- 
 .1','iiic incrchitiils, 'I'lic dissohitioii of the iiioiias- 
 iiriis hy llcii. VIII. iiijiircd the town, though 
 iiiiii|iciisiitioii, ill Noiiii> ilc^rroc, was made to it hv 
 II i;riiiil of Till acroH of tliii sciinL'stcrcd lands, (t 
 aliiTwards siillVrcd hy the pliiKue, and hy iiiu'i- 
 ilatiiiiis, to which this Hat country was |inriiciilarly 
 liable. Duriiifj tlm civil wars, it was for some 
 liiiii' the head-quarters of Croniwell's army. 
 
 'file town, situate on the Witliam, called hy 
 I.claiid the LiiitHs, ahout Ii ni, from its mouth, 
 ami divided hy it into two nrnrly eijual jiarts, con- 
 iii'i tcil together hy an iron hrid^e, hiiilt hy Iteiinie, 
 III' 11 siii^jle arch of MliJ ft. spun, openeif in \K\7, 
 i'i>iisi>ts of two loii^ strei^ts, one on each side the 
 Mrcaiii, from each of which others diverf^e. It is 
 will built, contains many nood dwelling-houses 
 auilsliops, and extensive f,'ranaries and warehouses, 
 llic boroiifjli is well paved and li/^hteil under the 
 |irnvisioiis of a local act, anil also well supplied 
 Willi water. Its most remarkable hiiildin^; is the 
 parish church of St. Uotolph, erected in i;ti)!». It 
 is the larj,'est church without aisles in the kin.i>;dom, 
 JKiiif,' i!><"-i I't. hy !'« ft. within the walls. Its lower, 
 laili'il ' Iloston Stump,' 2li.') ft. hi;;'h, built on the 
 Hiiiic plan as that of Antwerp, i^ cap]ied with an 
 iiotii^'iiiial transparent lantern, oi' lery beautiful 
 I'liiisiniclioii, and forms a remarkabh; laiulniarU 
 nil this low coast, heinji visible at Id m. distance. 
 A (Impel of ease was erected in 1K'.'2. The only 
 iraics of St. .John's Church, taken down about 
 Iwii centuries ap>, are found in il.s cemetery, still 
 ii-('i| ns a place of burial. The other places of 
 wiirsliip are those of the Unitarians, Weslcyan 
 Niw CiPiinexion, and Primitive Methodists, (ieiie- 
 ral iiiul I'articiilar liaptists. Independents, and 
 iliiiiiiiii Catholics. A free f;ramniar-scli(iol was 
 I'lUiiiiled in 1.>H; Lniinhton's, for the sons of poor 
 liwiiuii, in 1707; n bliie-iuiat sclioid in 17i;t, for 
 ill) liiiys and '2<> ^irls ; and a national liritish and 
 liilaiit school, tof^elhcr educatintc about MH) ])u- 
 ]iils iif both sexes ; there is also a disjiensary 
 ami ft very handsome Union house, this liein^ a 
 •iiiiiini' under the new I'oor Law, The other 
 luililie places are the com exchange and athenu'iim, 
 ilirce subscription libraries, assembly-rooms, a 
 iln'iitrp, and a public promenade at Vauxhall 
 (Jiink'iis. Since the passiiiji; of the Municipal 
 IWiirm Act the town has been divided into two 
 Miirils. and is f^overned by a mayor, six aldermen, 
 ami 18 councillors. It lias returned two members 
 t" the II. of C. since the rei;,'n of Edward VI. 
 Previously to the Jteform Act the franchise was 
 vested ill the members of the corporation, and in 
 liic treemen who resided in aiul paid scot and litt 
 in the hormif^h. The purl, horouffli includes the 
 ]iarislie» of Boston and S.i.heck, aiul the hamlet 
 ami fell allotment of Skirbeck quarter, extend- 
 ing ill nil over 7.!t2;! acres, and had in l«(il a 
 imp. (if 17,H!i:!. l.'egistered electors, l,illl» in l,S(i4, 
 I'f which 174 remainiiifir old freemen. It is a 
 l«illiii),'-place for the county. There were several 
 piilds, both reliffioiis and civil, all of which have 
 lallen into desuetude; the hall of that of the 
 liltssed Virgin Mary, which was one of the most 
 
 important, is n»eil hy the corporation for their 
 
 lllllllliipill niectint^'s, I'llly Ho.ioiis arc held oil 
 Friday. A court hci fnrihc ImroUKh sits annually : 
 its principal duly is lo pnxiit iiiiisiinccs, A court 
 of record, which decides pleas in all actions, real, 
 mi\i'(t, and pcrsiinal, sits on Wciliicsiiitys aiul 
 Saturdays. It is also the scat of a county cnurf. 
 The K'oss estinialed rental a-scssed to poor rati) 
 was ■M,ll7<>/. in I Hill, mid the anioiiiit iissessed tn 
 proiierty-tax 7It,7i;i/. 
 
 'I he maiiufacliiri'sof Iloston are mostly conlineil 
 lo sailcloth, cainiis and sackint;; Ihirc are iwo 
 iron and brass fnundries, iiiid three ship-yards, 
 with patent slips, where vessels of -'IMI inns are 
 built. .Markets are held on Wednesdays and 
 Suiurdays; fairs for cattle and sheep arc on May 
 I and .''i; for fat cattle on Aiijr. II; for liorsen 
 about Nov. IH and ;> days al'ier; and lor horned 
 I'atlle only on l>ec. II. Iniinense numbers of 
 il.e tliiest cattle and sheep are sidd at these fairs, 
 the town heinj; in the centre of one of the richest 
 Kra/.in)r districts in the kin^'dom. The haiiUin;^ 
 establishments are — the Nalional and rro\iiiciiil 
 Hank of I'Ji^Mand ; a branch of the Slainford, 
 Spalding' and Iloston Itiiiik ; with two privatn 
 banking; houses. The principal dniiiia^^'cs in the 
 vicinity are those of the llidlaiid fens niaih' by a 
 cut of 12 III. from the town to I(o;;ilyke, n'ear 
 Tattersall, by which 22, 'Mid acres were reclaimed j 
 and the Wildmore fens, ll.iMiii acres, drained in n 
 similar manner. ( iwiiiff to the nenlccl of keepiiij^ 
 the river clear, the trade fell otf soas to be almost 
 extinct. In 1721, vessels of 2.'iil tons could dis- 
 charjjeat the town ; in 17.')l. sloops of (1 ft.draiinht 
 coiihl not come up, except al spring's. 'I'he driiii;- 
 a^jes, already mentioned, reviveil attenlion to llio 
 state of the river, and under special acts of [lariia- 
 meiit, have improved it so far ibal \-essels of 120 
 Inns come up lo town, whence the navigation is 
 continued to Liiicidn by small st(ainers and 
 barges. A sluice was also erccteil to retain the 
 water abovc^ the town. The navipitioii to Lincoln 
 is extended by the Fossdyke Canal to the Trent, 
 at Torksev, and thence, either by still water or 
 river naviffation, to (iaiiisboroii;cii, Nottinnhani, 
 and Derliy, thus openinj; a vent for the export of 
 the mainifactnres of the miillaiid coiiiilies. Tho 
 forci;,ni trade is chiclly conliiied to the importa- 
 tion from the llaltic of timber, hemp, tar. iiitcli, 
 and iron. The coastiiij;' trade is eliidly in the 
 export of corn, woid, and other ai;riciiltiiral pro- 
 duce, the return carp;oes consisting' of coal and 
 nianufactured j;oods. The sbiiipiiii,% in the year 
 iMdl!, consisted of (!()(! vessels, of 2H,71li tons 
 burden, which entered tlu^ port, and.'! 17 vessels, 
 of l'J,',)2il tons, which ch-ared. The f.creater mini- 
 ber of these were sailiii;^ vessels. Of steaint'i-s, 
 there entered 4.'J, of ;1,-II0 tons, and there cleareil 
 ;W, of iJ,OlO tons. There is a j^ood ciisloni-house, 
 and a pilot establishment of a master and 12 
 pilots. Kxtensive powers are vested in tho mayor 
 and Imr^fcsses by two local acts for iiiqirovin^,' the 
 portaiul harbour, iiiiderwliich they are empowered 
 lo colle('t tonnage, wharfaf^e, and lastap'. from 
 vessels that enter; the receipts to be applied to 
 its improvement. They are also cmjiowered to 
 make bye-laws, to which all vessels are to bo 
 subject. I'art of the jiort dues are eidlected at 
 Spaldiiifj and at Waintleet, to each of which llu; 
 jurisdiction of the corporation extends. On the 
 ;>Ist December, IHti.H. there heloii<;-ed to the porl. 
 of Iloston. iS2 sailing; vessels of and under 50 tons, 
 the whole of 2,1)20 tons burden, and -17 sailiiiii 
 vessels above M) tons, of a total burden of ;t,;f,")(i 
 tons. There were, besides, 2 small steamers, of 
 ii.'> tons hiiriU^n. (I>iii;(lale's Hist, of I'jiibaiikiii;; 
 and Draining; Koble's (iaiscttecr of Lincidn ; 
 
 .1 ¥,H 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
Alts 
 
 IIOHTON 
 
 'riiiitiiiiKoii'H IliNii TV (>r Itimioti ! nnniiiil Hinlt'iiu'iit 
 
 III irmli' mill iiiin i^iiiiuM fur tin- vriir IhiS:),) 
 
 l!ii>|iiN, II iniii'ir. rity of lln' I'lillril StntcK, 
 Die j>rili>'i|>ill pliirr III NrW I'.ii^^liiliil, illl'l lll(<i'il|i. 
 <<r ^l.l''-ll^ll'l'•t'tl'* ; oil M ^mimII |ii'iiiii'<ii!,i III the 
 
 Inilh 
 
 .Ml 
 l.v 
 
 [|rllll-rlt< Il.iN . cciilIKi 
 
 \Mlll llli' 
 
 IIMII'iiW iilliiillls, I'lillril llii.ll 
 .N'rt'k, '.'lir III. N r; NlwVnrk; lill. nl li);lltlliill''«, 
 
 •|-.i" I'j' •II" .v., li.HK. 7(|0 .1:1' 1:1" W, .ViriinliiiK' 
 III Mil' <'i'ii'<u~iit I'^iio. IliiHtiiii \\i\s till' I'l III rill liirur.-t 
 
 iiiiiinr iiHriiiTM. mill llio pxntniii.itliiii of 
 
 I'lilir;; 
 
 I'l ; 11.1 wr 
 
 MM II iiiiiiiii'||inl luiirr, lirjii I 
 
 niniiifil 
 
 kIii>;Ii'JiiiIui', wIiIi Jiiri iliiiimi In nil 1 riiiiimil 
 iiiii r.'i|>iliil. Till' iiiiiiiiiil I'vin'iiiliiuri' III' tl 
 iiiiiiiiiiii.t III uliiiiii mill, nun ildllnrx, 
 
 llii-tiiii it riiiiiii'iifl with fill' inti'riiir Imtl 
 riiiiiil'', niiiwMVM, mill rivir iiu\ i;;'iilinn ; umi | 
 
 > 'I 
 
 I'llll.rH 
 
 H'CIIV 
 
 viTv r\ti'ii^.|M' Iniiii' liiiili Willi I'ciri 
 
 I liy 
 III' II 
 
 I'ilV III llll' 
 
 I'liiti 
 
 Sliili 
 
 mi iiUo with till' S. htiili'H III' ihr Ti 
 liiWII in W'linlly illilrliti'ij In till' lllltrr, 
 
 I i;,'ii riiiiiiirj,. 
 'Ill 
 
 iliili. 
 
 hiili'l|iliiii, mill Knlliiiiiiri' liiiviii;; 11 liir;;rr |ii>|iii- 
 
 iHily N"W VnrK, I'iii I ri|iiilly In Nrw Vmk, .M;ir> Jmiil.mnl I'iiiuhvI 
 
 Inlinii. 
 
 'I'lirri' wiri' I77,N|-' iiiliiilutniiu in iMiin 
 
 ii;;aiiiHl i:u;,Hh| in IH,")!!. 
 
 'I'lic liii\', whii'li Im nitv cxlciiMivc, 
 
 Nllllllll'll 
 
 I'nr hii|i|ilii'N III' lliinr mul w lii'.it, mul I'nr I 
 tilii'M of iiniK, rye, Imrli'v. iiinl nllii't ;,'riiii 
 
 priii- 
 viiiiia. 
 
 (IS I'nr rntlnli. liiliiii , iut, nIiim'n, mill null 
 
 ri'lnrii-* iiri' iiiinli' |i,irlly in niiti\(' mw |iriiilii 
 
 I'M'' i|llllli- 
 I I lln Wi'll 
 
 Till 
 
 Willi iiiiiiu riiiiH Kiiiiill iMliinil><, wliii'h |iriitrrl Ihr licrr, |iiirU, liinl, iVr. ; piirlly in tlii' iiriKlin'i- 1,1 
 
 liiirliniir I'rKiii lln- wiiiil.'<, mul iilliiril rnnvi'iiiiiil ; iiiiiiiiil,'ii'inrin;r iiiihi.''try, in' whirli Slii\'<iii'|iii'.. , 
 
 ^ilnlltill|lM I'l-r I'lirlM rnliinimiiliii;; llic ii|i|iiiiiii'lii"< tn ' in ilcridcilly Hil|H'riiir In I'Ncry nthiT ntiili' in ||i, 
 
 iJK'iily liy wiitrr. 'I'lir liiirlHiiir i^ t'Xi'i'lliiit, liiiii;,' ^ rnimi ; mul |iiirlly in llu' iimilnri' nl' li»liirii'N mul 
 
 Hit 
 Ml-CtI* 
 
 nl' ^Ti'iit j<i/i', w'uli watrr Milliiiini in lulinii ilic ' riiri'i(iii triiili'. Hit I'NjKirH 
 
 ri>rii;;il Miih'M i(,||. 
 
 l.'ir;;r»l chlpH, .liul nii <'niii|ilr(i'ly liiiiil Ini'lvcil, that [ r-'iM |iiiiiri|iiilly nl' thi' kiiiiic arlirli'n ^•hl' ni'IhU i,, 
 Ihc M'Ms)'!,' ill it iiri' hIiihinI mm ^-('^■nl■|' as i|' tiny i ihc .S. htntrs; Imt nln- iiImo ri- cxiMirtH a lure 
 uirc in ilnrli. At tin' niitrr t'litrmiri' tn llin hay mnniinl nl' ihc liiriij;ii |iriiiliiri> hIic |iiii| iircviniisiv 
 i* a liirhlhiiiiHi' ri.'i It. Iii;,'h. with a rrvnh inn li^iht. iiii|Hirii'i|. H'T iin|iiirl.i rrniii I'nri'i :n riuiiiiriis 
 'Ihc liriiln'i'M, Minic nl' whiiliiili' nl' ;;rriit li'iijjl h, | rnlisiil |i|iiiri|iiiily nl ri'ltnii, wniillni, ninl ^j||. 
 
 cniinrrtiiifi till' lily villi its iiiljiu'riil siiliiirlM mid ' ^cniiils ; liiirilwaii'; Mi;.;iir, ti'ii, cull 
 
 llic cniitininl, arc all nl' wiMiil ; Imt it i-^ jninril hy 1 hraiuly, inili^n, ami iiilicr ilvc htnll' 
 
 cc, Willi"' mill 
 
 p N Ar 
 
 ii-i'\Miy 111' I'll rill tn llrniiklyii. mill the W. The Hiihjnincil htntmirnl hIihwh the ininiluT uf 
 
 j\vi'inic, IIS it U I'lillcil, liMiiiii;;' aiTiws the hay In' m'mscIs, w illi Iniinaj;!', wliirli ciitcr'il i| 
 
 h'nxliiirv, i.s al.sn iif iiu'th, Imt in partiv niilv arti- 
 
 iK'ia 
 
 I'in;; I'l'iircil nii iiii'li niilc hv ua 
 
 lis III' 
 
 Hi I inc. 
 
 This avi'iiiu^ serves the ilmililc pnr|in>e nl'a l<riii;;e 
 mul a ilaiii, mul, wiih the lulililiiin nl' a cinss ilani 
 I la similar cniisiriii'tiun. hiriiis iwn iar;;'*' liasins ; 
 (llic nl' which lieiii^' llili'il w iili every Ihiml, ami (he 
 niiiir eiiiptieil with every chit tide, a perintiial 
 current I'nr llic use nl' mills. Ac, is c.siahlidied. 
 The wlmrl's arc very cxliii.-.ivc : the l,nn;.f Wh.'irt' 
 is I.d.'ll I'l. in Ieii;;tli. liy L'lllU't. wide, niul ciiiit'iins 
 iieveiily-six hirp' waieluiii-cs ; the Central Wluirt" 
 is I.^J.iDl't. 1iiIi;a', I'.V l.'ilM'l. wide; mid there are 
 rllicrs iiciirly as exteiisi\e. The wliarCs, as wi'll 
 lis iiKiny nther parts nl the city, have liceii Imilt mi 
 hilcs I'uriiu'il liv laisi:/;; urniiiul nri.cinally co\'ered 
 liy the tide. ^Inst nl' the streets nn.' iiarmw and 
 ci'niiked ; Imt the liniises, which arc j;cm'nilly nl' 
 hriik, lhn!it;li inmiy nl' ri.eiii arc nf grjiiiilc and 
 hicnitc, arc larine and well Imilt. 'I'iic jirincipal 
 
 Itnsliiii ill the I'niir vears lMi;ii to lKi;:l:— 
 
 iirt III' 
 
 IHliO, 
 
 Imildi 
 
 the sfatc-liiiiis 
 
 en, eiiiirt- 
 
 tlic Faiieiiil-hall. in which piiMic incctiiiLfs 
 
 |iiililic a- 
 
 ililiesarc held; the iMassaclinsctts 
 
 (iciieral llnsiiital ; and the inarkct-hniise. 'ihc 
 Hlatc-luinse, a hricU Imildin^':, I'nints the coniinnn, 
 a line park nl' 7.") acres, and the princip.'il piililic 
 npiarc in the city, nf which it neciipies the must 
 <'lcvatcil part, loil It. alinvc tlicliav. The rnarket- 
 liiinse is a lianilsninc j;ranitc cdilicc, two sinries 
 lii'li, i'l 10 ft, ill leiii;tli, and nO ft. wide ; the cniirt- ! 
 
 Anicrlcnn 
 
 J'lirclKli 
 
 Xutul 
 
 Anicrlcnn 
 Ton It;! I 
 
 Total 
 
 Amrrii'au 
 i'urclKii 
 
 TutuI 
 
 A Illl'l lean 
 I'melKii 
 
 Total 
 
 V('«iirU 
 
 KIH 
 'J,IIHI 
 
 'J,!l|!l 
 
 IMd. 
 
 if.'i; 
 
 Mill) 
 
 :i,iiii 
 
 isi;:'. 
 
 7h:j 
 3,-j:il 
 
 ;i,iiii 
 
 ]sr,: 
 
 1',II.SH 
 .■1,1171 
 
 Tiiiii 
 
 lllJ.ll;':! 
 
 ."II, I'M 
 :i71.:lliil 
 
 '.'17,11111 
 ;iNil,lil:l 
 
 »i:l:l,li;7 
 
 1 1 ,H-.'S 
 !I,|I17 
 
 The value nf In. Ill im|inrls and cxpnrls, in iIk 
 Iwn years iMi-iaiid \W.\ w,'is as I'nliiiws :— 
 
 lmns(' is alsn nf f,'raiiiU', 171) ft. Initjir, n? It. hi^;li, : d,,. | 
 iiml M ft. wide, adnriied with massive Dnric pnr- '■ Impori 
 
 Auprrpratc 
 iiijr .'-|ic( 
 ' xpui 
 
 liens. The W'licral hospital is a handsnnic ji'ranit 
 
 el 
 
 mill ISiil 
 
 
 18«S let' 
 
 ^of Tniimrts.incliul- ) 
 •Ic and Uiilliciii . ) 
 rts, liiclmllii|»(lo. 
 •xelusivo of Sjiccio 1 
 linn . . . / 
 xcIiikIvo of du, , . 
 
 Dulliir> 1 Dull 
 •.'•'M:ifi,Sii:; •.'7,'.'-.' 
 1Ii,:M4,:|ii:. 17,17( 
 '.'i),301,(illi 27,(1!)! 
 l«,8fl«,7fl«| H,m 
 
 i,iit;; 
 (;,i:ii; 
 
 ,«lii 
 
 laiildiiijr. siirrnnndcd liy n)ien '^rninids nf I'niir acres j j Kxports, 
 
 ill extent. Treniniil-hnnse, tlic fmiit nf which is 
 
 Imilt nfj^rcy sicnite, in the Unric nrdcr, and several I Uostnn is the sent of the Aincricnii ice Ira 
 
 ninpanies en;;-,'i};('il in till 
 
 (if the 1)1 
 
 linildiiiLrs. arc rendered <lcscr\iii;r nf ! and llierc are niiniemns c 
 
 Iintice hy tlicir arcliitecliirc. 'I'liere are ahnve sixty i Imsincss of shipping,' ice for the suntlicrii piirls nl' 
 (•hnrclics, two theatres, an ndcnii, Ac. ; an eye and ' tlic I'liion, the llavannali, &c. Jtostuii ice is 
 c.'ir iiilinnary ; with liniises nf industry, refnrnia- I fniind in every part nf tlie wnrld, iinineiise quaM- 
 tinii, and cnrrcctimi ; fi cmiiiiy t;anl, Ac. Itnstnn, I lilies liciiifj; slii))pL'd fnr S. America, the K. tiiul \V. 
 ■willi llic small tnwn nf Chelsea, cnnsljfutes tlie j Indies, and (!liina. It is nmstly called • W'eiiliain 
 cniiiity nf 8iitfolk, which is reiirescnied in the I Lake," lint, in reality, only a very nindcralo quaii- 
 .seii.'ilc nf llie state hv six senators. The city is | tity is cut iiii that pond. It is so much an ariiiic 
 divided into twelve wards ; ihe niiniieipal ^nvern- | nf neccssily with nil Americans that iiniliiiii,' siir- 
 nu'iit is vested in a maynr. cif^hl aldermen, and a ' prises /mdannnys them mnrc on their travels tlia'i 
 cniiimnn cniincil nf forly-ei^ht memhers, all nf the par.iinnniniis iis(' of it in Kiirnpc. Tliey In'- 
 whnin are chnsen annn;illy hy the ciii/ens. There (inently s.'iy that the lirst rin^; nf it au'ainst tlii' 
 is u police court of three justices, fnr the trial of! tumbler on their return is like a sweetest, ami 
 
 iiiii»t liomc like 
 iiuTi'a'in^, and ' 
 
 Til Ciiliiitl/i 
 „ llmitf K 
 
 ,, lliilllliay 
 ., Mum us' 
 
 ,, I'UIN' III' 
 
 ., Muiit'iili 
 „ Kliii{ntiii 
 ,, iliirliii'liM 
 >, lluviiiini 
 .. >-t. TliMii 
 „ All otiiei 
 
 TotiU 
 
 (lii'imrt hy Mr. f 
 ('iiiniiierce of .Mni 
 lliiston liasiilwa 
 liv licr allcntinii 1 
 .S'lirlli Ainerican I 
 iiri' jiiililislicd he 
 lilhlii'd aliniii ;t n 
 iiKiiii'ilical depart 
 
 lli;,'ll M'hnnI ; mill 
 ill;;!<i'liniils, ill wl 
 lii'lnry arc tini;,'lil 
 Al'rii'ini schnol ; a! 
 liiiiiiif n school col 
 .ililiriiieii, and iw 
 iiiiiilly. 'i'liere is a 
 1.1 ItM.'iiiHi vols., a I 
 I'm' li'itiires. The 
 liliiiil, I'oiindcd ill 
 iii'll iiiiina^ed, T 
 mill .Sciences, the 
 Mii'ii'tics, arc ainoi 
 iiiis alsn a Iniinaii 
 
 IlllMliTiills nllier I'll 
 iifiliiilv, tri-wcckli 
 iwriiiilicaljniirnals," 
 There arc a vast 
 mi'iils at llnslon, 
 wliii'li is shown in 
 I'nr.N'iiv. ;io, i«i;;ii. 
 
 j IIULlllll 
 
 Caiiifnl .'^tnck 
 I'ii'ciilallim 
 llrpii-lls , 
 One to oilier Ba 
 
 Total Llaliili 
 
 N'otps and Bills ] 
 
 S)HH'il'. 
 
 iJiie from other 1 
 Total Ilosoiin 
 
 Ilimtoii was found 
 llwtiiHii in Kn}i;lan 
 iiwiiyof its inhahitti 
 iiiit tlie whole perini 
 ilis|ilaycil ffreat cnei 
 Mill took the lead in 
 .\nioricaii colonies ii 
 ciiiiwiliicnce of wlii 
 I'liw'il, hy an act of | 
 piiTisiiii was also si 
 lisii'^Td hy the An 
 lirilisli were jit last . 
 i* tlip hirthplace of 
 Imni here on Hie (111 
 I'iipers, pnlilislied li\ 
 '"'■iiiae, l«i;4; I!ep,,'r 
 'I'l' Trade of Mussae 
 
 \m.) 
 
nosToy 
 
 m(i"f tiomc liki' uri'ciiiitr. 'I'lip r>\|><irt In ntcnillly 
 
 iioTinvKF.r, 
 
 AOO 
 
 
 
 
 Tint* 
 
 Til Ciili'iitti* , , 
 
 
 
 7,17 J 
 
 ,, IliiiJtt KuiiK , , 
 
 
 
 •J/Wl 
 
 „ lliitiiliuy . . . 
 
 
 
 il.i'i.'i 
 
 ,, MlKlllls . . , 
 
 
 
 l,.'H.-t 
 
 ,, <'ii|H' iif tiixiil IIdihi 
 
 
 
 :|iiii 
 
 „ Mllllt'ltilM 
 
 
 
 l.:i-.o 
 
 „ Klim^liiii, Jiilimlrik 
 
 
 
 a.'.'.rj 
 
 ,, lllll'lllMllH'it , , 
 
 
 
 l,;uii) 
 
 ,, lljiviiiitiah 
 
 
 
 H.l.ll 
 
 ,, >^l. 'I'l Ills , . 
 
 
 
 \:j»i 
 
 „ All lithcr |<i'itd , 
 
 
 
 7.-i.l:l7 
 
 Tot 111 
 
 
 INIII . 
 
 lHit:l . 
 
 lii|,:IAll 
 71, 'J in 
 
 llli'|ii>rt liy Mr. CdnHtil I.oiihiiiIii on tlic 'rriiilc iiiul 
 ('iiiiiim'n'c 111' MiiMHiii'linHfttN Curl III' yi-iir Ihi". 1.) 
 
 IkiKtiiii liiiHiilwiiys Ihm'II lavoiiriilily iliHliii;^ni<<lii'il, 
 liv her titti'iitiiiii III I'ljiiratiiiii <iiiil lilcriiiiii' . 'I'Ik' 
 
 N'nrdl Alliri'ii'llll lii'\it'W llll.i hIIut VhIiimIiIi' Wnl'kH 
 
 iiri' |iiiliiiiliril Ihtc. lliirviM'il I'liivrr-ity is est n- 
 lilhlii'il aliiiiit I't III. I'riiiii till' city, wliirli riniiaiiiH 
 itiini'ilical ili'iiartiiit'iil, ll liasiilsua Latin ami ii 
 Iii;;li M'liiiiil; niiiiiiTiiii.i piiliiii' f^Taiiiinar aiiil wril- 
 iii;; M'liiiiiN, ill u'liii'li arillinii'tir, Krii,';i'a|iliy, ami 
 lii^inry arr tiMi;^lit ; many |<riinary st'linnli, ami an 
 Alrii-aii Hrliiiiil; all nl' wliiili arc ninlcr tln' iliri'i'- 
 ijiiiiiira Hi'hiiiii ciiininitlrc, t'iinsixtiii<;'iil' tlii' iiiayur, 
 .■ililitiiicn, anil fwi'lvc utlicr niiMnhrr-*, I'lrih'il aii- 
 iiiiiiily. 'I'lu'i'i* is al*"!) an Alluiia'iiin, with a iilirarv 
 iil'.Mi.'iiiM) voIh., II |iii'tiiri' ^^ailt'ry, anil a iiiililic liail 
 flu' li'i'lnrcM. The ncliiiiil fur llii' insinicliKn nf tlir 
 liliiiil, I'liiiiiili'il in iHil.'l, iM Miiil to III' I'Nlri'iiii'ly 
 wi'li initnaKt'tl. 'I'lic Anicriran Arailriiiy of Arts 
 ami Si'ii'iii't'H, till- IliHtiirical ami Natural II istnrv 
 Mii'ictii'^, arc aiiion^^st its Icarni'il aMMiiiaiioiis: it 
 liii'i iilsii 11 Ininiiiiic siii'ii'ly, orplian asyliuni, anil 
 iiiiniiriMis otlirr rliarilalili* I'stalili^linicnli, A Im.st 
 iililiiilv, tri-wi'i'kly, ucrldy, inuntlily, ami otlior 
 |K'riiiiliraljiiiirnal.s, arc |inlilislicil. 
 
 'I'luTc arc a vast iminlicr ul" liaiii.iii}^ cstaMisli- 
 nii'iits lit lliistiin, the I'linililiiiii tiinl activity nl' 
 whicli in sliown in tlic sniijoiiicd HtUtullU'llt. it is 
 furXiiv. ;ii», lH(i;i:— 
 
 II01.I011 Uaiikt 
 
 Caiiltnl Stock . 
 Ciri'iilalliiii . 
 
 |ii'|iiisir.i .... 
 Uiiu to olliur Bniika . 
 
 Total I.laliilitios . 
 
 Kiitps ami Bills Diticomiti'il 
 S|iccii' 
 
 Uuu rrom utlior Banka 
 Total nesourcpfl . 
 
 Uiillari 
 
 :!8.0:ll, 7(1(1 
 !»,7l"i,ii!)t 
 
 I ;)'j,:)i;i;,'.',s7 
 ll,.-i77,(ill 
 
 OI,7a(l,72.-) 
 
 i.l.CV.'.lKl:! 
 
 7,7'.'!l,7lW 
 
 ll,!l|."i,lil;t 
 
 9.'i,'.'S7,(:S4 
 
 liiistoii wns foiindcil in Ki.lO, anil so iianicil fnirn 
 liietiiwii ill I'^iif^lanil jircviunsly ilcscrilicl, wlicncc 
 inanyiif its inliiiliitaiits liiul cini^^ralcii. 'I'liroiij;!!- 
 imt tlir whole period nl' its liistory, its iiihali. have 
 ilis|ilayc(l {jreat ciiert,'y in asserting; popular rights, 
 miittiiiik the lend in opposing' the taxation of tiie 
 Amoricnn colonies in the rci>;ii of (icor^-c IH. ; in 
 ciiiisi'i|iieiue of which, the ji.irt of l{ii>t(iii was 
 I'libwl, liy an net of piirliainent, in 1771. A llritisii 
 purisiiii was also statinned in the city, luit liciii^^ 
 iKsii'fied by the American army in 177.")-7(!, the 
 iiritisli were at last ohlij;('il to e\;icuatc it. Iio.-.fiiii 
 i-i tlio hirthplace of Dr. lienj, Kranklin, who was 
 l«ini here on the (!th of .lannary, I7(ii>. (Ollicial 
 I'apers, |inlilished liy ContiTcss; 'I'lic Natinnal Al- 
 iiiaiiac, iKiil; Kepurts of Mr. ("oiisiil Lonsada on 
 ilu^ Truile of Massachusetts, in Cunsiilnr Heports, 
 18G4.) 
 
 TIOsWuliTll (M \|;KI r>, n p.ir, nml f.ittii nf 
 
 I'JIKkniil, CO. j.iin.iir, liiiiii'. .S|iarkciiliiie. ,\rril 
 of par. 7,'Ji'i> aires. I'np. ..1 par. ■.',.i;l'.i in |H||,aii I 
 •.'..'ini ill iNi I : imp. i.f tiiuii 1,1.1,, in l« 1 1, mill ',•'.•(• 
 in l.'^iil. It will In' M'ciiiliiit tlu'piip. isiliiicinin^f. 
 
 It is a mat little tnwi an .ininiiiir, in tlic 
 
 centre of a Iciiilc district. It lia- a will iiidnweil 
 
 Kraiiiinar M'hool, ill which Dr. .Iiiliiisnii was o 
 
 an iislicr; lint its pi.iperty, al"ive 7n(»/. a year, has 
 liciii the -nlijert of u Imi.; ihaiiiery suit! It has 
 •J l'cllii\\..liipsanil I Kihiilai-ship-. in I'.iiianinK 'ainlir. 
 'I'liirc ate •.'cattle liirs held aninially. May H nml 
 .Inly Ml. The Ashliy Canal pii>si'.<i within' a mile, 
 and ciiiiveys coals. Ac It is the ci ntral town of 
 Ik poor law iiniiiii of -.'s parishes ; h.iH •.» ;.nnrdiaiis, 
 and its uveraKc anniial imut rates arc 7ii,"i/. 
 
 The decisive liattle lietwcen llichard III. and 
 the I'.nrl of iJichimiiid. aftciwards llniiv VII.. in 
 whicli the I'liiiner In-t his iiuwii ami his life, and 
 which terininalcd the Imi- cuntinned st^ll^'^;lll 
 lietwecn the Iioiim's of Vnrk and l.amnsicr, lakes 
 its name Irnin this luwii, in tlic viciiniv iif which 
 it took place, on the -.'Jiiil of An-ii't," 1 l^.'i. In 
 the lialllc-lield is a well, iiaiiied fmiii lliihnrd III., 
 with an iiiMripii.in Sy the late Dr. I'arr; and an 
 elevation, called Cinwii Mill, where Lord St iiiley 
 is >.aiii to ha\e placid l.'icharir.scriiw n nil the I'.arl 
 
 of liiilini I's head. (Nichol's l.ciccsti r-h. ; llnt- 
 
 tlill's IloMVell riild.) 
 
 I10S/|;A, a town of Syria, ririnerly the cap, nf 
 the .Vinaiiiies; ."ill 111. .S. Dania-ciis." Ml m. Nl''.. 
 .lenisalcni; lat.:i-."-' Id' N., ion^'. ;iii'';tn' K. Thiinj;h 
 iiiiw almost ileserled, the ruins are e.Mciisive and 
 majiiiilici nt : the principal of the:.e, oral lia-t the 
 most ^acrcl|, in Miihaiiimedan e>iiiiiaiiiiii, is the 
 Deir-llohaira (llimse of IJuhaira), so called from 
 lieiii;i coiiseir.'iti'd to a inoiik of I hilt name, who is 
 said to iiave proclainied the sacred 1 liaiactcr nf 
 Mohaninicd, when the prophet, in his |;;ih Near, 
 visited Syria with his mude. 'j'hi' ^^reat imi'Mpie, 
 u viTy aiicicnt temple, a triumphal arch, a cii-tle 
 of ^^reat streii'.;th, rcinnanls of the city walls, mid 
 a reservoir ."lOn ft. Ion;;-, ;io(i wide, nnd'i'ii deep, nre 
 niiioiifi; the remains of ancient ;;rani!eiir; in niidl- 
 lion to which the whole tow n and iis environs an- 
 covered with pillars and other ruins of the liiiest 
 workmanship, lioszra is very ancient : it is meii- 
 tioiied in the Sacri'd \\'ritiii;;"s as one of the cilic.'i 
 which the half tribe of .Manas.seh, heyoiid .lordan, 
 Knve tothe l.evites. (.losh. xxi. •J7,) At this time, 
 and for ii;;'es snbscipiently, it was cclehraled for its 
 vineyards, whicli are coiiimemoralcd on the (mccI; 
 nu'dals III KoAorm Hoar,,!)?, but of I he.se no vesliL((' 
 now remains. After the establislnnent of Chiis- 
 tianily, it was an anhliishop's see. wiili 111 bishop- 
 rics under its jm-i.-dictioii. Its stroni,^ castle was 
 built by the Sarncens. between whom and the 
 Latin kinj;s of .lenis.ilein it several times changed 
 masters, and under Italdwin IV., .\.i>. I l.sii, it wiis 
 entirely rniind nml depnpiilated. (Abnl-Kcda, Vil. 
 •Mali, c.l; Tab. ,Syr. pp. ;".!, !lll ; Adrichoiiiiiis, 
 Ter. Sane. 71», «(); Ihirekhurdt, Trnv. Svr. pp. •_".' 1- 
 •2-M.) 
 
 liOTANV HAY. Sec Au.stk.m i.v and Ni:w 
 Smirii \V.\i.i:,s. 
 
 I!<»TIINIA (fiULF OF), the X, arm of the 
 llaltic, wliich see, 
 
 IIOTIIWIILL, a par. ami vi!la;rf of Scntjaml, 
 county Lanark, on the N. side of the ( 'l\-.|c. The 
 villa^^e lies on the ro.-id from (ilas^ow to Ilaiiiillon, 
 K 111. I'l. of the former, and ;i NW. of the latter, 
 near llio K(!inburf;li-(;ias^iiw railwjiv. Pop. l.(l,V,' 
 in l«lil, of whom l.iit males and (ilM females. 
 About a mile from the villaice, towards the .S]']., 
 the road to Hamilton is carried ovi r the Clyde by 
 Jlothwell-brid;,'!', the scene of one of the most 
 nicnuirablc events in Scottish liistorv. The 
 
 6 
 
AlO 
 
 llOT/KN 
 
 I 
 
 rovrimnli'rH.hiihi' iiiiiiilH'ri>r l.iMiOnrrt.doo, ImviiiK 
 l,iki II |Hii<»i^<liiii III' III!' Iirnl^i', ilii'ii iniirli iiitrriiHrr 
 lliiiii III jiri'xi'iii, wiTi' iiiiii'ltt'ij, nil ilii< '.'.'nil III' 
 •liiiii', liii'.i, till' liriil^i' riirritl, iiinl ilirir arniv In 
 lallv rmili'il liy llic rnVlll I'nri'cn, lltlili'r till' hllkr 
 til' Mniiiiiniilli, (l,ulii;('i« St'iiilaiiil, Iv, III I.) Near 
 
 till- villllKi' in llit> llliltfllillirilt mill III' hnllnvrli 
 < 'ii'-lli', mill' nil iiiilinriiiiit St'ii|ii>|i I'nrlri'HM, 'i'lic 
 
 |llir, ii« Wt'll Hnilill'll mill Ui'll niltivillril, 
 
 II0T/|;N, iir ll(l|,/A.\0 (nil. /'<//M IhuMi), ii 
 Inwii n|' lliK Aii^lriiiii Ntnii'M, 'ryrni, vn\t„ rirr. in ii 
 
 |ili'llf>aill Wi-ll xliclltTcil vallrv, III ll inilllli'llri' 
 
 nl'ilii' I'.iMirli aiiil 'riill'iT,a litiiii alinvi'wlii'rr llii'ir 
 iiiiiii'il waiiTs I'all iiitii IJM' Aili^t', :iti m, NNJ';. 
 'rniii. I'liji. H.-.'iMi III |h;)7. Ii Im a ihriviiin wi'll 
 
 lillih Inwil, III llif llilliail nI yl)'; Iuim 11 ranlir, ni'Vi'l'ii! 
 rnliM'lIti, a riiil<';^i', and niillli' lliaillll'lli'tliri"* nl'^ilk 
 
 ulnrkiii^M A xirniiLf ilykf "I niainiiry, iirarly "J 
 III. ill li'iiutli, aiiil in |Mirlr4 '.'I I'r. iliirk, liii.i Ihtii 
 
 Cnllnlrilrlril III llrl'lllil I lie tiiNMI rinlll llll' irril|lt inllM 
 
 III' a iii'i;<lilinnriiiK' iiniiiiilain Inrrriil. Ilciii^ iii- 
 liTi^ri'ii'il liy lii^li I'niuli li'iiilinu III Swil/rrlaiiil, 
 Aii-<iria, ami llal'>, >viili a Ntnlinii nti tlic railway 
 nVrr till' AI|iK, I'loMi llill'iliriirk III N'rriilia, llnt/rn 
 
 liiiM an I'sii'iivis'i- traiinii iniili'. It in iiNn vf\v- 
 lirati i| Inr iu fairs rntiiiiii'iii'iii;; tin' I'^ili .Maii li, 
 
 lilli .ll , lull N'liii'iiilicr, aiiil UOili NiiNi'iiiliir, 
 
 rniiliiniiii;;' ra'li rnnrliin liav, wliiili art' atlriiilnt 
 liy a K'i'<'»' I'nnrniir.it' nl' I'irnrli, tii-rinair", anil 
 llaliaiH. Till' I'niiiilry nuitiil iii'ihIiu'I'm cxri'lliiit 
 uiiii', anil I'niils in aliiiiiilaiu'r. Itnt/i'ii in >n\\i- 
 
 |iii-.i'il In nri'iniy lilll HitU ol' tllO Ullcitlllt Itolliail 
 lilaili'l, J'liiiH hnmi. 
 
 llonilAIN, a rnitili(>i| inwn nl' FraiK')', ilc'^i. 
 till Nnnl, rap, cant., nil llic .Si'liclilt, liy wliii'li it H 
 iiiti'rxi'i'tcil, IL' III, SK. jlnnai, nii the railway Irmii 
 huiiai to Ciiiiiliray. I'lip. I,.")!)! in INi;i, 'I he I'nr- 
 iilicaliiiiii arc nl' very cnii.siilcralilc rtlrciiKlli, aiul 
 the iiiljaccnt cniintry may In* laiil umlcr water, 
 'llic liiike nl' Marllinrnii^'l'i tnnk it in I'll, alter ii 
 liieninralile ."ie;;!'; lint, lieiii^ retaken liy MarMJial 
 Villars in the rnllnwin;;' year, il was linally ccileil 
 t<i Krance at the treaty nl' I'lreclil, It wan niic of 
 the frniiiier fnrt ressci* ucciipiud by the allit'H after 
 
 llic |ieaee nf \H\,'i, 
 
 llOl'CllKS-Dl'-lMIONr., a niaril. dep, S, nf 
 I''ranee, Kilnaleil,aM ilM iiaiiie iiMiilles, nl the iiiiiiiIIin 
 of llie lilin.ic. It is liiiiinileil I'., liv the (lep, nf the 
 Var; N. and \V, liy the hiir.ince, lilimie, and the 
 \V. arm of the latter, wliicli separate it I'miii the 
 tli'pts. nf Vaiicliise and (iiird; and S. liy the Me- 
 diterranean. Area, tiOl,!M;(( hectares, or 'j,.'i:i I Km;;. 
 Hi|. III. ]'np. •'107,1 12 ill lisiil. Snil and snrliui- 
 variniis, liiil the former f;ciiei'ally inferior. The 
 last oH'sets fmm the marilinic Alps oeenpy the 1^ 
 piirlH of the dep., but they are not remarkable 
 either for their hci;;iit or appearance. The hifrhest 
 (luiiimit, that of St. Victnire, is I,()1'2 metres (!l,l2il 
 ft.) above the sea. The plain of Le (jran and the 
 isle of (.'iimar^nes occupy a lar>{e imrtioii of the 
 surface. The lirst is of Hreat extent, stretchiuj^ 
 I'rniii Aries to the laKmni nf llcrrc. It has very 
 little ve;{etable iiiniild, and is fnrmed principally 
 (if Hints anil ntlicr small .stniies; diiriii;r winter it 
 furnishes pasture to \nv^c tincks of sheep and 
 ffoats; the former beiiij; driven in siiminer, when 
 it is arid and waste, to tin- mountains. It is sii])- 
 ]insed by many that this plain was fnrmerly a nii'A' 
 <if tlu! sea, and varinus circumstances cimspire to 
 htreii;,'tlien the snppositinn. The island of Ca- 
 inarf;ues is the delta or alluvial land lyiuji between 
 the K, and W, arms of the Itlinue, and is partly 
 cultivated and m jiasture, and partly nccu|iied by 
 marshes and la;;'nons. 'I'lie latter, indeed, make 
 due of the |iriiicipal features of the ile'p. The priii- 
 »'ipal are the la{;ooii of N'ulcarris, in thn island of 
 Camarj^ues, uiid that of Bcrre or Jlarthii, 12 111. 
 
 N'W. MnrwIlleN. Tluv ami ilu iiminii<m«rHtin 
 
 occupy a Kfciil exleiit of latid, and in »mi,i„, r 
 are very iinliealili> . Principal riviri, liliuni iii„| 
 I'liraiice; the latter rii»lies iilniiK with j;riiit \i,! 
 Iciice, freipinilly iiverlliiwiiiK its banks, iiii,| iiih-Ihi, 
 ureal daiilllKe. 'I'licre are also »nnie «iiiiil|,.r tWvtH, 
 and ibedcparlnielll in inliTnecleil bvneviriil I'lm,,!.' 
 
 t'liiiiati' generally Iml and dry, iiml ihc muiiirx ni 
 niinimer liana barren parrhed appeariiine, .\uri 
 culture bad, a cuiiseipience ascribiiblc, parilv Intli,. 
 minute ili\ Isinii nf property, iiihI the altarliin, m 
 
 nf llic little prnprictiirn to routine |irartiri'i. III, I 
 
 more, pi'rbapn, to the nnbivnurable nature i>|' i|„. 
 nnil iiiid cliniatc. In the iiiiiuniaiunus |iari< in i|ii' 
 
 !•'., and NM. there in a k I dial of >paili' Im.. 
 
 baiiilry: in the S. and N \\'., niiilin are ciii|i|iim,| 
 ill lleld-labiiur, and bor<es in the W. imd llie i',|i|,ii| 
 nf ('.'imar;;iien. 'I'lie prnihiie of corn i-i ilHiilllrii'iil 
 for I be collnlimplion ; bill the prnijii, e nf w inr |, 
 
 eniiniati'il at al I H2",imi(( heel nlii res, h ii\ Iu^; k 
 
 larne niirpllln Inr expnrt.'llinn. The priiiluce iiffill, 
 is estimalcd at iibniil ;i;ili,(MMI kiln^'. (Hivin ari' 
 largely ciiliivaled; and the nallicriiin nl kirims 
 Clint illiles to be a ^'ooil deal nllelidcd In, '|||,, 
 dried fruits nf the dep, are iiincli enleciiicil, jlm.,^ 
 
 and cattle are few in number, and imi nf ^ | 
 
 ipialiiy. The ureal weallli nf the ilc'p, ciiii>i~t<i in 
 its sheep, nf which it pnsM'-'Hen abniit Mlll,iii|ii 
 
 I'min Hiii.iimt to .Vhi.imhi nf tliese ,h|i,.|.|, „r,. ,,1,! 
 niiallN driven, iibniil the bi'^iuuiuK of >|iriiiu^. in 
 the iiiniintiiiiis nf the Driime, tlie Itirre, aihl ilu' 
 hiuli and low Alps, where they are ili|i,i.iiir,.|| 
 during the suinmer. When ilieperiuii I'nr Mitin;; 
 nut arrives, several pmpricinrs jnin their llncU 
 tn^ether, to the iinmiier sonieiinies nf •.',",,111111. 
 Previously tn the llevolutioii, the iui(rralnrv llnii^ 
 enjoyed privilep's Komewhat similar to iliii>r (,|' 
 the Mvnta ill Spain, but they were then iibnli>||n|, 
 'I'be la^oonN are resorted In in winter by iiivriiiils 
 nf aipialic fnwl, which, when the lrn>t sits in nri' 
 taken in vast nniiibers. Mineral-i, nl little ini|inr 
 lance, 'I'here are brine springs, and Mill l> iii.iili' 
 in several places. This is mme nf a ciiniiin'iri;i| 
 than of a iiiaiuil'actiirinK dep, With theexci'iiiimi, 
 indeed, of fabrics of soap and ntnii/r finiin; hii>i(r\ , 
 siiunr rellnerii's, some eslablisbnieiils for ilie inii- 
 nufaclure of cutlery, coral-wnrks, oil-iuill-, timl 
 silk lilatnres, with ilistilleries, tainicries, A'c., immuh. 
 
 faciiires are of litth^ importance. Tin iiuiiiri'i' 
 
 of the dep, is, however, very extensive. MaiMillis 
 luivin^ been for several years past at the licailiif 
 t he coiiimcriial cities of France, (See M.viisi:ii.i,i;s.) 
 'I'lie berriiif^ and anchovy lishcriesare e.\ieii>iv(ly 
 carried on. I'rincipal towns, Marseilles, .\rlcs 
 Aix, Tarrascnn, and Aubaj;iio, The dep, is ilividi'd 
 into three arronds,, namely, IMar.seilles, Aix, iiiul 
 Arles-snr-Klioiie, 
 
 ItOL'IN, an island on the mast of France, lio- 
 tweeii the de'pts. of Loire Infcricure ami l,ii \'eni|ir, 
 belnii};iu^ to the latter, from which it is si'|>ai'iiiii| 
 by a narrow channel. It is nf a triaii;;iilar sli;i|ir, 
 low and marshy. Area, .'t s(|, leamies. l'u|i. •.',s|| 
 in IHCl, It prnduecs corn and cattle, but cspccinllv 
 salt, obtained in lar^^e ipiantities fmin llic silt 
 marshes that surround the vill.'i^e of lloniii, in tliu 
 centre of the island. Accnrdin^ tn sninc liishiriiiiis 
 it was here, in H20, that the Nnrmans luado their 
 lirst descent on the coast of France. 
 
 liOl.'LOtiNIC, or, as it is snmetiinos callcil. 
 
 HOL'LOCiNK-SL'K-AIKI.', a seaport tew 
 
 France, dep. Fiw dii Calais, cap. arrmui.. mi tin' 
 l,.iaiie, near where it falls into the l''ii;;'li!'li Cliaiinil, 
 20 m. SSW. Calais, and i;t!» m. NNW. I'iiri>, hy 
 the Nnrllurn railwjiy, l*np, .'>(!, 2(i.''i in iKiii. Ilmi- 
 Inj^ne is divided into the upper and lower lnwiis. 
 'J'iie former is pretty well-built, but 'n irrei;nl:iily 
 laid out. It iios two squares, ornaiueiital with 
 
UDl'LOONK 
 
 |',iiilllliill'<; Mini rolililili't I III' riitlii'ilrill, tlic lllirli'lll 
 i{ii<ri>|>al |ialuri', till' Imlrl ilr mIIc, Mini llir rniiru 
 ,,|' jii-liir. It iiUo nililiiiiit llir liiiiiNi' wlii'ri' I.I' 
 llii' itiilliur of till ltlii>, li\ri| mill ilii'il. Till' 
 liv \sliirli till' ii|i|ii'r liiwii wiiM lor 
 
 I niii 
 
 til .•iii(iii'«, liv uliii'li till- ii|i|irr liiwii wiiH lor- 
 « ill li iiili'il, liiivf lii'i'ii iiiiiaiIv ili'iimlUlii'il, llir 
 
 ,4i| i'ii'<lli' mill llii' >\ulU i>iily n iiiiiIiiIiik. 'llir 
 i:iiii|iiii'i-< liiiM' III > II |>liiiiiril »iili Iri'i's mill iilViiril 
 iiili'liuliiriil iiriiiiii'iiiiili-, riiiiitiimiiliii){ It virw lliiit 
 , \li liil:« III tllii ri>il'<t-> III' i'JiixliilliI, \\llirll liri* ili-< 
 
 mil liv N i'ilili'. Till' liiurr i>r ih'W Ihwii ii Hiimiiiil 
 „i llir liiiiii'iii III' till' liill,miil U iiiirr'<ri'ii'il liy tlii' 
 
 l.iiliir : il IH till' llliist |ii>|illl<>llN, IlliiMl rnlilllirrrial, 
 mill lir't liiiill. It il rrKuliii'l.v liilil mil, iiikI liii''< | 
 .I'Viriil |>iililii' liiilliliii^'M, miinii^ wlilrli tuny In' 
 .prilli'il Mil' lillllis. till' p'llrral lliiH|iital (rnllllili'il ! 
 
 ill li'i'.!..'), till' lim'riirk-4, li jiulilii' lilirary ruiilainlii^ 
 ;iii.iiiiii MiliiiiirM, ami a lliiairi'. A iiiai^'iillli'i'iil 
 iiiliiliill. ili'ilii'illril liy llir i^Tallil liriiiv rulli'ili'il 
 liiri' ill l^"'' to NM|iiilriiii, liiil iiiil lliii^lii'il till 
 h.'l, '•iiiiiiU nil a hill iirarly it iiiili' Irmii Ilii- tnwii : 
 II jxruwiiril liy a K'lillrry NiiriiiininU'il liy a ilniiii'i 
 mill il Mil II. Iii;j;li. Till' liarlmiir, wliii'li was Im- 
 imily ilry at lii\v->\alrr, anil iii'iirly nIiiiI ii|i liy I lie 
 |>,iriii I III' rivrr'n iiiiniili, lian lii'iii viiMlly iiii|irii\i'il, 
 iIiiiiil;Ii il Nlill laliiiiir^ iiinli'i a ilrllrii'iii'y nl'walrr, 
 Il il I'liriiii'il III' iNVii lMr;;i' liaMiiih, rniiiii rlril liy a 
 i|ii;iy. Slii|isiiiay aiirliiir at li'inii h In ■{ iii. ulVilir 
 liiirliiiiir. ill Iriiiii li In H l'allllllll^«, IIiiiiIukiii' is llii' 
 Mill <>r iriliiiiiaiN III' |iiiiiiai'y jiii'isilirliiiii ami rntii- 
 imrrr, ami has smii'lii's iiC aKriiiiiliiri', I'lHiiiiirrri', 
 iirt". ami Nrii'iii'i's ; a iniisi'iiiii nf aiiliiiiiilii's aiul 
 iiiiiiiral liistiiry ; a I'ri'c si'liiinl I'ur iiavi;;nliiiii, Ar. ; 
 nilli niiiiuirarliirrii nl ruarsii wiiullrii hi nil's, sait- 
 ili rili.i'iirlliriiwai'i', ami lioiili'-^'lass; iiiul lannrrii'x, 
 rii|ir'WiirKs, aiiil lili'-uiii'ks. A pmil ilral nl'IraiU' 
 ii'il on rriiiii lhi> Inwii, ami llir hrrriii] 
 
 ■aiTii 
 
 „ si'iil III Paris, th 
 is aluavs ulitiiiilaiit. aiul 
 
 ' ■' •' ...i, .... 1^, 
 
 imu'kirri, ami mil li^lirrii's all \ i;,'i)riiii>ly iirnsr- 
 niiril. Niitwilhslamliii^ Ihi' lar^i* <{iimiiiiii's nf 
 liOiiliul iiri' t'liiislaiilly lii'iii;; 
 ..ii|i|ily ill llir tiiwi 
 
 ilii':l|i. 
 
 Iliiiiliii;m' has ri'i'i'iilly lircii lum'li rcsiirtcil In liy 
 l'.ii^r|i>li visilnrs anil riiiiiiliis, ami many nl' Ihi' 
 liiiiir liavf inaili' il a |iiTiiiani'iit ri'siili'mr, par- 
 timlarly sinri' llir ii|iriiiiiK nf llir railway In I'aris. 
 .Vi'iiiislanI rnniinniiiralinn is kr|il iipwilli l.niiiliiii 
 mill FiilUi'slnlir, liy lliraiis nrsirainlinals; ailil llir 
 riiiii' Iniin Lnmlnii In I'aris liy Itniiln^^nr is nnw 
 Irniiii'iillv prrlrrri'il tn ;lial liv Calais. In rniisr- 
 i|iii'iiri< III this inlinx nf Mn^lisli visiinrs and rrsi- 
 lii'iils, llir |iii|iiilaliiiii III' Ihr town has innrr than 
 ilmilili'il ^iiii'r IHIa, and it liasiinw innrh nl'tlir a|i- 
 |iamiu'i'iit'an l''.iiKli^h tnwii, Nimii'mns Imarilin^c- 
 mI.iihIs liavr lirrii iipi'iiril, ami hails, hmsr-rarrs, 
 mill liazaiirs havr hern olahlishnl fur the instriic- 
 lidiutnil aiiiiisriiirnt (if Ihr Kn;;lisli. 
 
 Iiiiiilii;;iiu is a iilarr nl'ffrrat aiitii|nity'. Dttriiifj 
 till' iliiininiiin III" thr Itiiniaiis it linrr sticrrs-ivrly 
 llii' iiaiiu's of CvHoritirum Niiiutli; ami Jlomiiilii, 
 Mlii'iireit-i iniidrrn iiaiiir is drrivril. Dnriii;; llir 
 iiiiilillc ii^^'s, and in nmrr mndrrn tiinrs, it has 
 iiiiili'r;;iiiir iniiny virLssitiidi's, having lirrii frr- 
 i|iuiiily hrsirp'ii and lakrn. In the rarly part nf 
 iliis iiiitiirv it rnse iiitn j^rrat rrlrlirity, fniin Na- 
 {iiik'im having I'ollrrtrd a lar^^r llntilla in its pnrt, 
 mill niaile it the headqiiarlrrs of the army avowedly 
 iiiU'iiilcil to invade i''.n^daml, 
 
 IliiL'i.iiuNK, u vil, of Kranre. dr'p. Srine, hotwrrn 
 till' Seine and the wimd of I5oulof;nr, I in. \V. 
 riiri.i, and fiirniinj; a snlmrl) of thr Kronrli nir- 
 Iruiiiilis, hy ini'iuis nf thr I'hrinin-dr-frrdi'reintiirr, 
 T 'pnlle railwav.' I'op. (i,(tli; in l.sil, ami 
 I'ii'.'il in |H(!1. 'I'hr iiirrrasr of |inpiilati(m has 
 kill entirely ii\vin;Lj to thr intliix of rrsidriils from 
 I'urls. l!iiiilii;;'iic is handsninr : thr ailjniiiin<r 
 ivuixlis, ill the line season, the favourite promenade 
 
 of the I'ari-'iiiii l'a'<liiiinalilrs. 'I'hr ('/nUitin r/i* 
 Miii/riil, ill this wnod, liiiili hy rrainit I., wasilr- 
 iiinlislii'd III till' niuii nf l.oiiji W'l.; and only it 
 sinall part imw riiiiaiiis nf ihr ('lnUniii ilv la 
 ^/wi'f/c, Noiiut time iicriipiril hy LiiiiiM .\V, (Srr 
 r.VlilM.l 
 
 IIUI JMKIN (ISI.K OF), also lalli'd iSl.r. IH'". 
 I, A l!l'!l MoN, an islaml In Innj^'iiiK In I'Vanrr, 
 ill llir imliaii < li'ian, hriwi'iii lai. '.'ii"^ 'in', and 
 •IV J I' S., hriiitj '.Ml ni. W'nW, thr inland nf .Mau- 
 ritius, ami till III. I';, Madauasi'iir. Shapr n\al; 
 uri'iiii'si li'iiHlh, NW. In Si'",., 10 III.! nrraii'Ht 
 lirriidih, '27 III.: arm 'ill'.'.nnii ht'i'larrs, or iinirly 
 liiiii j'.n^. Ml. III. Mstiniali'd pnp. iHii.iioii, of uhnni 
 
 alinill nlir llllll whiles, mid llir ri'sl llrprni's and 
 
 innlii's. 'I'hr island is m'nioyiially foriiiid li\ two 
 sysli'ins nf vnli'aiiir nioiiiilaiiis, oiir at rilhrr I'X- 
 Inniily: Ihr nnlral point of ihr iiio^i iiorihrrlv 
 
 syslini, thr /'l'/(iM »/(■< .Xiii/is, thr hi;,'lir«l sliliinill 
 
 in ihr island, is:i,|,'iii niiins, nr |ii,.'l.i.'i II., iilinvr 
 Ihr Irvil nf llir sra ; Ihr hi;;'llist poiiil nf thr 
 sniilhrrly syshni is ihr I'itim ilf I'liiiniiiiiir, ail 
 arlivr Milriinn, 7,-lH fl. ill liiit;hl, 'riu"-r two 
 Mihaiiir I'l'iilrrs arr roninilrd liy a rliaiii nf 
 niniiiilaiiis riiiiniii!.c N. and .S., wliirh divides the 
 island iiiln twn parts — that mi thr !■;. sidr Iniiu; 
 rallrd Ihr wimhMird, and lliiii nii ihr W. Ihr Ire- 
 ward divi-inn (I'lirtiiH ilii I ■(/(/and Smis Ir I'liit), 
 in i'oiisi'(|iii'iirr III the privailiii^' winds in lloiirlmii 
 hriiiK fioin I'".. In S. 'I'lirrr are im plains nf any 
 si/.r: allliiiii;;'li thr island is walrnd hy many 
 sniall rivers, iinnr nf whirli arr iiav ipilili' ; llin'r 
 aresrveial lakrs, niir iirrnpyiii),' an rxlriit nfalmiit 
 ■III ai'l'i's. 'I'hr shnri's arr mil j^iMi rally hi;,di; hnl. 
 thr island has nn safr rnads, iior any harlmiir — 
 cirriiinstanri'H wliiih havr always hrrn frit an 
 serimis drawhai'ks. 'I'hr rlimalr is healthy and 
 ilKrrrahlr, espeeially that nf Ihr V.. pari : llir air is 
 purr, Ihr sky elrar, thnnuli this Irampiillil v he 
 Mimeliiiies hrnkni hy vinleiit hnrriiaiir.^. frniu 
 Der. In May is Ihr hut and rainy wjison, when this 
 mean Irniprralnrr is i^W^ Falir". ; diiiiii;^ thr rr- 
 iiiainin^ or trniprralr inmilhs, thr iinaii is 7ifi 
 Falir. 'I'hr soil is vrry frrlilr, p.irliciihirly in Ihr 
 vii'inily of iIk; shorrs, wlierr tlirrr arr e\lrn-ivr 
 alluvial ilr|insits, wliirh, like Ihr snils in nihrrparls 
 nf Ihr island, eniisisi hir;,'i'ly nf vnlranir niallirs. 
 Thr siirfarr is disirihiitrd as fnllnws : rnltivalrd 
 lands, ri.">.702 herlarrs; pastnrapr, 11,0 10 dilln; 
 woods and forests, u."),'.»2l ditto ; waste lands, !),'i,m,s7 
 hectares. 
 
 Thr eiiltiyated lands fnnn a n'mUf round Hie 
 island, and in Hoinr parts asernd Ihr inmiiil.'iin- 
 slnjirs In emisidrrahly nmrr than ;t,000 I'l. almvu 
 thr Irvrl of thr ocraii. They are estimated to ho 
 divided as follows : — 
 
 Arilt'lci of 
 Culture 
 
 Ilrrtnri'ii In 
 CiiUiiru 
 
 I'ruilucI 
 
 Sugarcane 
 
 Pnirre . . 
 t'invrs . . 
 Cariio . . 
 'I'oliiu'eo 
 (iruiii.itc. . 
 
 14,. 1:10 
 4,17D 
 
 ii.ilHO 
 
 m 
 
 471 
 
 4:1,014 
 
 i 
 
 Raw ."^iipar •.':l,:iHI,I HI kilns. 
 
 .MlllllSSL'S.io. 1 ,l|.'iM,H III 
 
 llinii . . ,',;|.-,,,s I'j litres. 
 Coffeo . . il-.'s.'jiiiikllofe'. 
 rioves . . lii:i,.-||i( 
 Ciieao . . jii.iiiio 
 Tobarro . H-J.liilll 
 Oraiii(valiie)2,i;.-((;,!M7 fr. 
 
 Total . 
 
 nr,,H)2 heet. 
 
 The ,siif,'areaiie is mostly of the Hatavian va- 
 riety ; it was iioi very exirnsively riiltivalnl 
 liefore 18 1«, lint, is now larn'rly grown, esprciallv 
 iii the r;. division of the island, where it has jij- 
 iiiost entirely superseded eolfee. The i;olU'e-|ilaiil. 
 was iiitrndiieed from jMoclia in 1717, and was 
 snhseqiienlly mneli cultivated ; Imt having hern 
 found to sillier severelv from luirrieanes ami in- 
 
 111 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 ii.-| 
 
 t- 
 
i| i: 
 
 r)i2 nouiniox (ISLE ok) 
 
 HPcts, its cull lire- lins liccii in f^rciit part discdii- 
 tiiiiicil: llic licst I'lill'ci' is |iri)<liici'(l nil llic lcc>v;ii'il 
 i.iilc 111' llic islaiiil. 'I'iic cloves arc chiclly -ciil In 
 liiilia, where llicy arc (•xcliaii;;cil lor rice: (he 
 liiliacco oliiaiiicil is mil ciiimi^Ii lor lioiiu! coii- 
 suiii|iliiiii ; mill llic wlical, rice, iiiaixc, ami oilier 
 ^raiii raised in llie islami, iloes not cxcccil oiic- 
 liiiirlli ]iart. of ilu! rci|iiircil sii|i|ily, I'otalocs, 
 licaiis, and otiicr lc;;iii)iinoiis planls, a gi'cal va- 
 rici y of friiils, At:, succeed reiiiarkalily well. The 
 eulliire (if collon has lieeii all lull aliandoneil; 
 uianiiic, iiilroilnced into the island liy llie cele- 
 liruted M. de la I'loiirdoniiais, forms ilio slaplc 
 food of the blacks, I'astnra^c lieini; deiicieiit, 
 oxen are iin|iorlcd from Maihif^ascar : n ^reat 
 iminli(:r <if the calllc! are fed f.ir six months of 
 the year upon the leaves of the siij;iir-cane. At 
 the period at which liourhon was lirst occupied 
 liy the Frencli, the sides of llie inoiintaiiis were 
 eovercd with I'oresls, which reai'hcd even to the 
 idiores; th(^ \vhole of ihe lower lands have licen 
 cleared, hut (lie ccnireof Ihe i.-land is slill covered 
 ■with its primitive veicetation. wliii-h all'ords fnrly- 
 one dilfcrent species ol' woods serviceable for arts 
 and mannfaclnres. The coasts abound wilh tish 
 and lar^i'c tiiri les, and rurnisli also coral and ainbcr- 
 f;ris. The tisiuries occupy aliimt Idil individuals, 
 who take alioiil I. 'ill, 01 II I kilo;;', of lisli aiinnally, two- 
 liflhs of wiiicli are coiisnined by theniselvcs and 
 lliiir families, and ihe olhcr Ihrce-lifliis sold in 
 the islami, realising- about ;!iin,(ll)l) francs a year. 
 The island is dixided iiilo Iwo arrondissenieiits, 
 eallcd ' i)u \ent,' ami ' Sons le N'ent,' ;-ix canlons, 
 and Ihirteeil coiHiniiiiev. ; and coiilaiiis Iwo towns, 
 those of .St. DiMiis and St. I'aiil, Therc^ are eiijlit 
 market-towns, heads of (aiitons, most of which 
 arc built (111 the coasl. The chief manufacturing; 
 establishmenls arc brick and limekilns, tanneries, 
 funics ami foumlries, I iii-xvan- factories, a brew(M'v, 
 and nianufm i iries of ba^J^ (if palm-leaf {sacs <fc 
 v(iioiin). Nearly all the exports no to, and nearly 
 all Ihe ini]iorts come from, France. The conniierce 
 wilhtircat [Irifaiii is iiisiunilicant. The total ex- 
 )iorts to llic I'liitcd Kingdom direct .'iimiuiitcd, in 
 the year l^ifll. lo U,U\\\I., represeiuin;; ()."-'7I cwts. 
 (if unrcliiu'd sii'^ar. In ]N,")!(, jis well as in 1^(12 
 and l.-ti;!, Ihe commerce \vilh Vircnt Ihilain was 
 nil. The (•liief imports I'nini France are rice, 
 wheat, oil, Aviiies, callle, timber, salt, ^;'lass, porce- 
 lain. &.C., wilh coltons and olher ma'mfactnreil 
 l^iiods. The total ini|iorts from France, in I.Sli.i. 
 ■were of the value of oIM;.") l.lxi; fr., or l..").si;,|C7/. ; 
 and llie total exports to France ammmted to 
 'JS.IT^.I.V) fr., or ],I.'JS.N1'!^/. The pi\enimeiit is 
 similar lo that of Ihe other Fri..'li colonies, and 
 is administered by a ^covernor. and a council of 
 thirty members, electcil by llie don. iciliated French 
 folonists iiayinj;; a direct coiitribulii.:' of •JOO I'r. 
 annually, 'i here is a royal court, wilh two courts 
 of assize, two Iribiinals (.f primary J- risdiction, 
 and a justice of the peace in each canloii. 
 
 liourbon contains a colle.i;e and numerous schools, 
 .sixteen churches, two liosiiitals, I wo establislimeiils 
 for the relief of llie ]ioor, and Iwo jirisons. Four 
 newspapers are published in it. and Ibere is a jinb- 
 lic library at St. Denis. The island was di 'oxcred 
 ill l.ila by M.'iscarciilias, a I'oriiijjiiese navigator, 
 ■\vhos(! name it bore, ♦ill the French took possession 
 of it in the next cent iry. The I'jifilisli look it in 
 ]HII); but it was restored to France in 'Slo. 'Ihe 
 ]iriiK'ipal towns are St. Denis, St. Paul, and St. 
 Jienoit. St. Denis, Ihe caj)., is situated on a pla- 
 teau on tlu! X. coast of the island, at the mo'ith 
 of the river of the same name; hit. '20° ."jI' ;!0" 
 S., loii^-. .V)0 .'111' F. It lias about Il'.OOO iiiliab. 
 It is mostly of wood, the Hold <lu iliiufi'niciiient 
 Lcint; the (July luiblic bui'diny of any importance. 
 
 I]OURr,ONNIvLHS.p,.\T\,^ 
 
 Ft is tlu! sear of a royal court, and of a c rt , f 
 
 primary jurisdi.lion. and bas a colle^r with alii.ui 
 I till pupils, a hospital, at. arsenal, and a ,(1,. 
 bralcd lioianiciil -ardeii. Si. I'muI, the .s,,,,,,,! 
 town 111 the island, on its W. coa.-t, has Ki.iiiiii i,, 
 habilaiil.s, wilh a tine church, a nilmiiid of I'lH.'in ij 
 jurisdiction, and a lios|iiial. Neither St. Dcii^ 
 nor St. t'ani have liarbours, but onlv open iiii,| 
 exposed roadsteads, (Notices Stalistiiiucs sur h , 
 Colonies Fram;ai.ses. p. 1-1 |0; KtuU do la l'„im- 
 lalion lies Colonies Iraiicaises.) 
 
 Il()l-|!I{()N-I-.\NCV,'a town of Fr,,,,.,., ,|,:,, 
 Saoiie et F.oire, cap. cant., on the dcdiviiv of j 
 hill near the Loire, 27 ni. WNW. Cliarnlle.s' I'„i, 
 •2.S1 t in |H(il, It is (iommaiided bv an oldciwl" 
 (Ml iIk! summit of a sleep rock. Tin's town is cele- 
 brated for its mineral siiriiiirs, of which ilnr.' 
 are se\en, six cold ami one hot. Tjicv m-,, 
 employed ill nervous atl'ections and rheiiina'tisins. 
 The.-e spriii'^s weiU' known to the K'omaiis l,v tl,,' 
 name of Atjiuf Xisiiwi \ and remains of th,. ||.,|||, 
 tlicy had erected are .said slill to e.\isl, while ik,, 
 meroiis Itonian medals and an entire and hiaiiiiriil 
 st.'ttiie have been dn;; up. The present baths w,]-,. 
 be^;un by Henry HI, and linislicd by Ihnrv 1\'. 
 and Louis .MIL 
 
 r.()ri;i!ON-L'Al{CIL\MI5Ari). a biwii ,:!■ 
 l''rance, d('p, .Mlier, cap. cant., l.'i in. W . Miuiiin-, 
 I'op. ;i,2.');i ill isiil. The town is siluaicil ill III.' 
 bottom of a valley, in a rich •iin! tiiiely variiuim.l 
 country. The lowers are all that now icin.iiii nt 
 the famous Chateau de liourbon, rebuih in ilu. 
 Ihirleenth century. 'J'he Holy Chapel, eicctcil in 
 the lifteenth cenliiry, by Anne of Frai .'c, ainl sn 
 much admired, was destroyed at the Ii'iviiliiiii.n. 
 The town is now celebrated only for its iiiiinr.ii 
 s)iriiij;s and baths, known to the aiicieiil h'diiiiins, 
 and said to hv. of ^Tcat ellicacy in cases of ]ianilv- 
 sis, rheumatism, and ^;un-s!iot wounds. 'I'Ikv arc 
 l're(piented from May to Seplciiiher. Tin Vc i.< 
 ^^(lod accommodation for visitors, and a lidspital 
 for the iiidi;;eiit. 
 
 This town had for a lengthened )ieriod lunls nf 
 its own, who bore the title of barons. Aiiiiar, 
 who lived in !I21, in the reij;n of Charles ilic 
 Simple, was the lirst of these baroiis of whiim 
 there is any authentic account, llaviii:; liuii 
 succeeded by his third son Arcliambaud, his nauui 
 became that of all his successors in the sciL,'iiiiiv. 
 Archanibaiid IX., the hist of the name, liaviiii,' 
 accom|ianied St. Louis to the Fast, died in Cypnis. 
 licatrixof liiirniim'y, his f;rand-dam.'htcr, iiiairiiil 
 liobert of France, Count of Clermont, one of ilii' 
 sons of St. Louis, briii^in^' to him in doniv the 
 lordships of Jionrbon, Charolai.s, and St. .Iii,-t, iu 
 Cham|ianiK'. 'J'lieir posterity, ;iccoi\liii^- tn tlic 
 (Mistom of the bouse, took the si.rname of limir- 
 boii ; andsubse(|ueiitly iilled the Ihrones of France, 
 Spain, Xaples, and Lucca. 
 
 I'Ol'LliOXNIvLFS-nAIXS.atowiuifFrniirc. 
 d('p. \laute Marne, cap. cant., at the cdiilhiciuci I' 
 the liorne and the Apaiice, 21 in. l^NF. Lanpi-. 
 I'iip. •l.(|^il) ill iKCil. The town is a^'ivealily silii- 
 ati'd on the iilatean and acclivity of a hill: auil 
 havini;' been nearly burnt down in 1717, lias liccn 
 rebnill on a rc;;nla' jilaii, and has sonic liiii' |im- 
 ! menades and foil ilaiii.s. It owes its celclirily I" 
 its hot b'lths. wh; 'li occu]iv the site of a lliciini;! 
 eslabli -Ip lent of I iie liomaiis. The nicidcrii ImiIW- 
 iiiLts comiected ".illi Ihe baths, inclndiii^' llit' Ihiiil 
 de \'ille, a re. cut erection, most |)arl ol' wliioli i-^ 
 appropr...'' •' ... 'he use of the company usiiii; tho 
 waters, arc aiming- the liiiest of the kind in Fiaiui'. 
 A lios|iital, fonniied here iu 17.'J2, fur tlic ii.<cii' 
 the military attending; I Ik; baths, has ban niiuh 
 enlav;;ed since 1^■|^), and is now capable of amim- 
 niodatiii;' oOO sokliors and 100 oliiccrs. Tbe lieai 
 
tt poiirt c r 
 williiiliuiii 
 ml a rclr- 
 
 tllC MTIilnl 
 
 ' iH.iMtll iii- 
 
 i ol'iirijiiiiMl 
 • St. Dei, is 
 i' iipfii nn.l 
 HUcs siir li , 
 lie 1:1 I'dim- 
 
 'r.'iiicc, (li'ii, 
 ■divily (if 11 
 riiUcs. l'ii|i. 
 Ill iilil casllc, 
 iiwii is cclc- 
 wliii'li thcri' 
 'I'licy 111',' 
 lii'iiiimlisiiis. 
 iniiiis liv llh' 
 (if tile Ii;iiIh 
 ;|. wliilc ii'.i- 
 lUlil li(':liltir>il 
 lit lllltlis Wi'H' 
 
 ly llcury IV. 
 
 , a tiiWM I'i 
 \V. ^l.Milin.-. 
 iluali'il lit llh' 
 'ly v;irii"4iiii',l 
 iiiw remain >'l 
 •(■l)uiU ill llii' 
 |)('l, erected in 
 
 i"'l'al ee, 1111(1 Ml 
 
 le Ui'Viilinii.ii. 
 iir its mliii'Viil 
 eieiit lldiiiiiiis. 
 asiis lit' imraly- 
 iils. Tlii'y arc 
 KT. Tlicrc is 
 iiul a lidsiiiiiil 
 
 lu'vidd Idfdsdf 
 rolls. Aiiiiiir, 
 if Charles ilic 
 li'diis (if wliiiiil 
 
 Having Ikcii 
 lauil, liis uaiiu^ 
 
 tlic seiiiiKiry. 
 
 iiaiiio, liavin;,' 
 
 lied iuCyirnis. 
 
 |i:.';liter, liiaiTicil 
 
 [lilt, (iiie df llie 
 
 ill (Idxvry tlu; 
 
 1(1 St. .Inst, ill 
 ir.liii,i;' td lli(! 
 
 Iiiaiuo (if I'ldiir- 
 
 •iiii(!S()fi''raiK'(', 
 
 (iwiidf l'"raiifi'' 
 Ic cdiilliu'iicci'l 
 \'.S\L l-aii-ivs. 
 |at;ivi'alily situ- 
 
 I'lf a liill : aii'l 
 llTlT. liasliccn 
 
 I siiiiu' line lif"- 
 jitH c-eU'livity In 
 l(> (if a tlierini;! 
 
 tiiidilcrii linild- 
 
 ldill^-tll(.'il(Vdi 
 
 lart df wliU'li '^ 
 liaiiy iisin.;; tlie 
 dii("l ill France. 
 f(ir till' n^'' ' ' 
 lias liucii "hhIi 
 lalilc (if aiviiin- 
 lerii. Tbu lieiii 
 
 110ITR150N-VENI)KE 
 
 of tlic water vnrii'M frmn -UP to .')2° llcmiiniir, or | 
 fr„in alxiiit 12U° to l.'iCi" Falireiilicit. 'I'lii'v arc' 
 |,riiici|iHlly ciniiloyi-'il iir t'u.scN nf paralysiti uiid ' 
 rhciiniiitisni. 
 
 H(»ri!IU)\-VKNI)i:'K, or NAror.K'OX- 
 VKNI>K'I'^ » town (if France, i\t'\}. A'ciidc'c, <if 
 whic'ii it i-** t1i(! cupital, on llu; ri^'iit bunk of I lie 
 Villi, nearly in llie centre of llie dcp., -Id ni. S. 
 Niiiites, with wliich it is connected Ity railway. 
 i'di), .<.".".IH in l«(ll. This town occii|iies the site 
 III Koclie-siir-Yon, ii stronj; feudal castle, haviiifr 
 iicir it n niiseralilc little town. The castle, after 
 iiiiiierKoinf,' many vicissitudes, was dismantled 
 |iv I.diiis XIII. .'and linally destroyed in 1711.'!. 
 After the estahlishmeiit of the imperial ^'ovcrii- 
 nu'iit. and the jxicilicalion of Vendee, it liecanu^ 
 necessary to select a place for its capital, and 
 llidie-siir-Von was tixed iiiion. Napoleon k'.'ivc 
 the tdwn, which had to la^ entirely created, his 
 dim name, which it bore till iM."), when, with 
 the restoration of the lloiirhon, it recovered its old 
 niiiiu'. Ihit the accession of Napoleon III. once 
 miire hronf,'ht back the imperial prelix, by which 
 the lilac.e is still ollicially known ; thoiij;h the 
 l^npie mostly adhere to tlic^ orijiinal name. The 
 1,1,1 tdwii occupies the ravine helweeii the barracks 
 ,ii;il the new town. The town has a tribunal of 
 iiriiiinry jurisdiction, a departmental c(illej;e, a so- 
 ,iiiy (if aj;riculture, sciences, and arts, a luiblic 
 liliriiry with .5,000 volumes, n hospital, and a 
 theatre. 
 
 IIOL'HIJOUIJG, a town of France, de'p. dii Xord, 
 cap. cant., on the canal of Colme, comniunicatin;^ 
 with Uunkirk, !) m. S\V. Dunkirk. J'op. •J.tilT in 
 iwil. Its name is derived from the miry nature 
 ill' the soil (bonrbeux) on which it is built. It has 
 fiihrics (if tobacco, potteries, and tile-works. I'm- 
 viiiiisly to the rcvolf.tion there was here an abbacy 
 f„r iKi'lile ladies, of which the unfortunate Marie 
 Aiitiiiiu'tfe was patroness. 
 
 ISOUK*;, or 150L'I!G-i:X-l!l!ESSH, a town of 
 France, dep. Aiu, of which it is the caj)., on the 
 fovssinise, 21 m. ESE, Macon; on the railway 
 friiin Macon to Chambery. Pop. 14,052 in l«(ii. 
 Situation pleasant; streets narrow and crooked: 
 fiimicrly almost all the houses were built of wood, 
 jnd many of them are sc still, but within the 
 last liftlf-century the use of stone has become morc! 
 fineral. It is traversed by the little rivulet Cone, 
 mill 1ms several tine fountains. The ditches by 
 which it was surrounded were dried in 1771, and 
 iiavc lioen converted into {f.irdens. Principal imb- 
 fc huihliiiRs — the cathedral or hif?h church, the 
 klle-aii-ble or grenette, theatre, Hotel de Ville, 
 prefecture and a monument in honour of (ien. 
 Jmiliert. It has a court of primary juris-liction, a 
 i!(|)artmental collcf;c, a jirimary normal school, a 
 fiiWic library witli 18,1100 volumes, a society of 
 Hniilatidii and agriculture, a departmental mu- 
 mim, a botanical ;;arden, and several f^ratuitous 
 ftiurses of instruction in difi'erent departments of 
 kifiice and art. Six hif;li roads meet here, besides 
 f railway, which on this place rnuH a branch line 
 til iiesan<;(m. The celebrated astronoiiyr Lalande 
 «ii<aaative of Uoiirf;. Adjoining Hourg is the 
 ekrch of IJrou, a vast edifice, begun in loll, and 
 cnntaininft some tine tombs. There is attached to 
 I it a (liiicesan seminary, with 1 10 scholars. Itourg 
 is very ancient, being supjiosed bv l)e Thon to 
 wciipy the site of the Forum .Segusianoruni of the 
 iKiiiiiiins; but according to D'Anville, Feiirs on 
 ilie Loire is identical \vith the Forimi .Scgusia- 
 1 H'lnim. After being long .subject to the liouse of 
 I Siviiy, IJdurg was united to F" ranee in 1(501. 
 
 lioUKO, or HoUHC.-SUIl-tilKONDK, a town of 
 I France. (l('ii. (Jironde, cap. cant., on tbe Uor- 
 k'lie.iioar its contlucnce with the (iiironnc, 15 m. 
 V(ii,. I. 
 
 roUROES f.l3 
 
 X. Ilordeanx. Po)!. •.'.7h1 in IHCI. IthasasmalJ 
 port, where the corn, « ine, and other imiducts of 
 the environs, are shipped, 
 
 ItOl'IMiANKl'F. a town of Franco, ih-p. rreuse, 
 ca)). arrond,. agreeably situated on the Tliorion. 
 l« m. SSW. (luerct. "pop. :).■.'•_'•; in \Hi\l, It has 
 two porcelain-Works, and ii pujier manufactory. 
 This town was, for a coiisiderable period, tli- resii- 
 deuce of /ixiin. or Djcin, the ydunger brother of 
 Itava/.id II.,eniperorof the Turks, win i was conlined 
 in It and other places in France, in consciiueiici! of 
 adishonourable treaty negotiated in IIM-J between 
 Itaya/.id and Pierre (I' Aiihiisson. grand master of 
 the Knights of St. .lohn. lord of liourganeiif, who 
 had given /i/iin a safe coiidiict. \ large tower, 
 in which the latter is said to have been coiiliiied, 
 still exists. Having been liberated from his im- 
 prisonment ill this place, the iiiifortuiiale prince 
 was carried to Italy in 11x7. where he is said to 
 hav(^ been poisoned in I 1115. by an agent of his 
 brother and the infamous Pope Alexander \T. 
 
 i;(»I'I!(iAS, or I!(H'l!(iIIA.S. a sea-port town 
 of Turkey in Iliirope, I>(iiimelia,on the ISlack Se.-i, 
 at the bottom of the gulf of the same name. 7o m. 
 NE. Adrianople; hit. 12° 2!!' 20-' X.. long. 27° 2«' 
 I',. Pop. (i.diio. It is built on a iiromontory of ;i 
 moderate height, and has a neat clean apiiearaiice. 
 Its foriress is in ruins. It has a I'elebrated nianii- 
 faetory of pottery. 'A tine clay is found in the, 
 neighbourhood, which is formed into pipe bowls, 
 cups, and other utensils. These are nngla/.ed. but 
 highly jndished, and ornamented with gilding. 
 In this state they are exposed I'orsale in the shops 
 of the bazar, which forms the principal street of 
 the town ; and as these shops are matted, and kejit 
 clean and nciii, the whole has a rich iind showy 
 apiiearance. They pridi' themselves on this little 
 nianiifacture, ami sell it proportionally dear.' 
 (Walsh's .Journey, \). 120. -1th ed.) The town has 
 also some trade in corn, wine, butter, cheese, iron, 
 and other productions of the contiguous country. 
 The Gulf of liourgas is open to tiie E. : the aii- 
 clioragc is to the S. of the town, and has a dejith 
 of from 12 to 5 fathoms. 
 
 l!OUUG-DE-PE'A(ii:, a town of France, de'p. 
 Drome, caj). cant., on the Isi-re, 10 ni. X E. Valence, 
 Pop. 4,2G4 in iKtil. The river sejiarates it from 
 IJomans, of which it is jiroperly a suburb. It is 
 neat and well built ; and has manufactures of hats 
 and coarse silk, with dye-works, rope-works, and 
 tanneries. (See K'omans.) 
 
 liOLTftJ-D'OVSANS, a toivn of Fr.ince, dep. 
 Isere, cap. cant., on the Hive, near where it falls 
 into the liomanche, in a (k'e|( valley at the bottom 
 of a steep hill, 1« m. SE. (irenoble. Pop. 2.71MJ 
 in ifitil. The town jirinciiially consists of two 
 long streets, with ill-built luuises. many of which 
 have their windows fitted up with oiled p.iper in- 
 stead of glass. The valley in which tiR town in 
 situated .seems to be on all sides enclosed by 
 mountains, and was for a while completely sub- 
 merged and formed into a deep extensive lake. 
 This inundation was occasioned by the course of 
 the Pomanche having been obstructed, in the 1 1th 
 century, at the jioir.t where it escapes thim tlio 
 valley, by rubbish brought down from the adjoin- 
 ing mountains. This natural mound, having "been 
 gradually undermined, at length gave way, and 
 the waters of the lake made their escajie on the 
 15th Seiit., 121!), sweeiiing all before them as far 
 as (irenoble, which was laid under water. 
 
 POl'KGKS (an. Avarkvin),a, city of France, 
 de'p. Cher, of wliich it is the cap., in an extensive 
 idain at the coniluence of the Aiiron and the Evre, 
 124 m. S. Paris, on the railway from Orleans to 
 Lyons. I'op. 2iS,004 in IKtil. The town is agree- 
 ably situated on the dcelivitv of a hill, and is 
 
 E L 
 
 
 iliP 
 
 !!"i; 
 
611 
 
 IJOURGNEUF 
 
 Hurroiindpd hv ft thick wall tinnkcd nt rcRiilnr 
 (li.slimci's with lofty towers; lint the housps are 
 incaii-lookiii^^ liciiif^ low iiinl liavin|{ their pihlcs 
 to the streelH, hiir^'o traclH, occiipieil hy (gardens, 
 niirserie.i, and iironieiiaiU's, are emdosed within 
 tiu! walls, HO tiiat llie striiet.s have a deserted as- 
 pect, though less HO at present than formerly, the 
 iiopulation having; increase<l rapidly during tiie 
 last ten years. Honrges containH Home line old 
 pnhlic buildingH. At the head of these is the 
 cathedral, one of the nohlcst (iothic edifices in 
 France, Ix-gun in (Slo, but not linishcd for some 
 centuries afterwards. It is .'IIS ft. in length, by 
 12;{ in breadth, and has several towers, thehigliest 
 of wl'icli has an elevation of 221 ft. The palace 
 of the archbisho)) is also a line edilice; its garden, 
 laid out by F.e Notre, has an obelisk in honour of 
 the Due <le (Jharost. The Hotel de Ville, built by 
 Jactines C(enr, fanu)us alike for his skill and suc- 
 cess as a merchant and tinancier, his immense 
 wealth, and the injustice of which he was the 
 victim, is a splendid (tothic mansior., that cost a 
 vast sum. liesidcs the mayoralty, it furnishes 
 accommodation for the courts of law. Tiie ]irisons 
 are Itidlton the ruins of the ancient palace of the 
 <lucs de Herri ; and the remains of the old tower 
 that fonnerly commanded the town, and which 
 was demolished in Idol, serve to enclose the 
 courts of the prison. There are also the Hotel de 
 ■prefecture, formerly the Hotel de I'lntcndance, 
 barracks, a small but elegant theatre, a college, 
 two large hos])itals, and a public; library with 
 l;5,(i(i() volumes. Itourgcs is the seat of an arch- 
 bisho])ric, of tribunals of ])rimarj' jurisdiction and 
 conmierce, of a royal college with about 210 
 ])upils, a ))riniary normal school, a diocesan semi- 
 nary with above 10(1 pupils, and a secondary 
 ecclesiastical school; it has also a society of agri- 
 culture, connnerce, and arts; a course of geometry 
 ami mi'chauiis applied to tlu' arts, and a school of 
 midwifery. It has inaiiufactures of line and coarse 
 cloths, and hosiery, and its cutlery has been long 
 in high estimation. There are in the town two 
 mineral springs. 
 
 liourges was formerly the seat of a celebrated 
 university established by Louis XI. in 14(1.'!; but 
 this having been sujipressed at the Revolulion, its 
 ])lace has been sniiplied by the royal college already 
 alluded to. Louis XL was born in this town; and 
 it is also the birthplace of the celeliratcd jireacher 
 l!ourdaloue,Jiic(HiesCieur, and other distinguished 
 persons. 
 
 To mark his respect for his native place, Louis 
 XL not only gave it a university, but, also con- 
 ferred on its mayiirs and magistrates the ]nivil<'ge 
 of nobility. Tiiis, however, was anything but an 
 advantage, inasmuch as it served only to liU the 
 town with poor gentlemen, .and to discourage 
 manufactures and commerce. The clergy were 
 also exceedingly numerous. Ihit most of the 
 religious establishments were su])pressed at the 
 reviilulion, when the jtrivileges and distinctions of 
 t\w. nobility and gentry were also abolished. 
 
 Hourges is one of the most ancient cities of 
 Prance. It was taken by Ciesar, amio .52 u.c, 
 anil was for 47.") years the capital of Aquitaine. 
 It has sntl'ered much at dift'erent periods from war, 
 tire, and pestilence. Several coimcils have been 
 held in it; anil here, in 148*!, the ecclesiastical 
 constitution, denominated the Pragmatic Sauc- 
 ti( n, was ai'ceiited by the French clergy. 
 
 UOUHtiNKUF, a sea-port town of France, de'p. 
 Loire Infi'rieure, ca)). cant., 23 m. SW. Nantes. 
 I'o)). 2,H'.>.'i in IHdI. The port dries at low water; 
 and the bay, which is extensive, is gradually lill- 
 ing up witii sand. A branch line of railway con- 
 nects the town with >,'aiitcs and Ijourboii-V'endcc. 
 
 BOURN 
 
 There were formerly in the vicinity very extm. 
 sive Halt marshes, the |)roduce of which wr.s 
 largely exported; but these, though still virv 
 consitierable, are now materially dinnnislieil. 
 There are on the coast large bc^ds of oysters. 
 
 HOI'RdOlN (an. Iirrguniiim), atownof Francp. 
 de'p. Isi-re, cap. cant,, on the Hourbre, in a line 
 situation, surroiuuled by beautifid hills, () m, \V, 
 La Tour-dii-I'in. Pop."4,«')l in lHt;i. The timii 
 is neat and well built; has a tribimal of origiiml 
 jurisdictiiin, and manufactures of calicoes, wiiii 
 puper-mills aiul tloiir-mills. It is favoMraliK- 
 situated for commerce, being traversed by tljo 
 railwav from (irenoble to Lvons. 
 
 l!()i:i;(;-.ST.-ANl)i:()L,a town of France, dci,, 
 Ardeche, in an agreeable situation on the Illiiiuc, 
 !> m. S. Viviers. I'oji. 4.(1:17 in IH(11. The timn 
 has several good buildings, and neat well-kc|it 
 streets; a <piav along the river, and a haiKisniin' 
 suspension bridge over it, with some trade in 
 corn, wine, and silk. It is named from St. 
 Anilc(d, who sntl'ered martynUim in the Viviirais, 
 in the beginning of the .'ird century. Within a 
 short distance of the town is a remarkalde mimii- 
 ment of anti(piity, Hcul|itured on the fac(; uf a 
 rock, but now a good deal defaced. It has lucn 
 very variously inter|ireted ; some anti(|iiariH 
 having sitpjiosed it to be Diana in chase ol' a 
 slag, and others that it represents a sacriliee in 
 honour of the god Mithras. 
 
 liOUIKU.'KlL, a town of France, de'p. Iinlrc-ri- 
 Loire, ca|). cant., in a line valley on the Doi^'t, 
 !) m, NNW. Chinon. Pop. 3,41'! in iKdl. It 
 has a connnunal c(dlege, and is surrcauided iv 
 fruitful gardens, where anise, coriander, liiiimrin', 
 and other plants, are cultivated to such an cxtiiii 
 as to siii)ply nuiterials for a pretty extensive 
 trade. Its vicinifv also jiroduces tine red wine. 
 ^ IIOUIJLOS, or P.t )0I;L()S, a lake or lagium „f 
 Kgyjit, between the Damiettaand Koseita branch^ 
 of the Nile, parallel to the Mediterrauc'Ui, frma 
 which it is everywhere separated by a iiarrnw 
 neck of laiul, excejit at one i)oint where it cuni- 
 niunicates with the sea by a narrow chamiel, an- 
 ciently the Sibbenitic mouth of the Nile. It is 
 about 88 m. in length, and 17 m. in its grcaii-i 
 breadth. It is connected with the Nile liy scvcimI 
 canals ; and is mostly shallow and marshy, kin;,' 
 navigai)le only ahmg its N. .shore. 
 
 I!()UKN, a par. and town of England. O", 
 Lincoln, |)arts of Keste\en, wapentake Avclaml. 
 91 m. N. Linidon, Area, H.HIO acres, rup. .t' 
 par., 1H21, 2,242; b'^.'il, 2,589 ; 18(11, i),7;!0. \\>. 
 of town, i5,0(i() in 18(11. I!oum is situated in a 
 level district adjacent to the fens, the town imi- 
 sisting chiefly of one long street of wcU-lmiii 
 modern houses : the clnu'ch is the remaiiiiiy 
 jiortion of a much larger structure, hi the Noniiaa 
 style with 2 towers. There are liaptist and W- 
 leyan chapels; an endowed free school for :W 
 chihlren ; 2 almshouses, one supporting (i iM 
 men, the other (J women ; and a town liall. a I 
 bandsoine modem edilice, on the site id' imc Imilt 
 by Lord Hurleigh in the reign of ICli/aljetii; it 
 has a m.irket-idace under. The weekly niarkit 
 is ((11 Saturday. Annual fairs arc held April " 
 May 7, and Oct. 29. A navigable canal cxtiiil 
 from the town to Spalding and Boston, by wliiihl 
 coal, timber, and other commijdities are supplicl 
 The Great Northern railway also hiv< a ."tatiuii I 
 here. The chief trade of the plac;;- is in leailicT 
 and wool. There tire several large tan-yariis. 
 Petty sessions for the [larts of Kes'eveii arc :il-i> 
 held in the town, tnid it is a jiolling place liir ili it 1 
 district and Iloliand. The name is deriveiilr"'ii | 
 a small stream of remarkably pure water, wliiili 
 gushes from a source near IJouni, Kuiuaii cuii.s | 
 
:y vpry oxton- 
 
 )f which \K» 
 
 ii);l> still virv 
 
 V (liniiiiishi'il. 
 
 ftpysitcrM. 
 
 [own of Franco. 
 
 ritrc, ill n tin.' 
 
 lii\ls, 9 m, W, 
 
 <til. The town 
 
 mill 111' iirit;iiiiil 
 
 cnlii'iicM. wiih 
 
 is favonriilily 
 
 ivcTMcd by tlic 
 
 I of Frnncr. (W|i. 
 
 1 oil till* lillnlii', 
 
 ■iCil, The tdwii 
 
 IK'llt W('ll-k('|it 
 
 111(1 a hnnilsdiiii' 
 some tradi' in 
 nmcd friitn St. 
 in till! Vivnrais, 
 (ury. Within » 
 mnrkahle mmm- 
 III the laic 111' II 
 >il. It has liii'ii 
 mio niitifiiiiiriis 
 a in chase nf a 
 Its a sacfilicc in 
 
 cc. (U'fi. Iiiilri'-it- 
 ■y on the Doi;:!, 
 ,41(i in l'<('il, i! 
 s surronnilcil I'V 
 riandcr, liiimiriiT, 
 to such an cxiiiit 
 jirctty cxlcnsivi,' 
 s line reil wine. 
 lake or lapmii I'f 
 1 Itoscilalirauclii- 
 ■ilitcrraiic:ni, frmii 
 Itcil liy a iiarnw 
 lit where it om- 
 'ow channel iin- 
 thp Nile. It i> 
 in its fjrciiii-i 
 Nilehy sevcml 
 1(1 marshy, Iteiit' 
 
 f Eiifiland. C", 
 eiitake Avcliiiul. 
 acres. INiii. "f 
 St; I, ",,TMK l'",'. 
 is situated in :i 
 , the town o'li- 
 cl of well-lmiii 
 
 the rcmainiu; 
 re, in the Nunniiii 
 l!;i)itist and W- 
 c school fur •)'' 
 uiiportiii^' ti i!'l 
 
 a town hnll. ii j 
 site of one Imilt j 
 of Kli/.aheth; is 
 le weekly nmrkc't 
 lire h(dd" April . 
 U: canal cxt>ii'l' 
 Boston, by wliiiii I 
 ities are su|i|ilii''l. 
 Iso has a flam j 
 acr is ill leatiiit | 
 liirf^'e tan-y,ink 
 Kest.eveii are a!-" I 
 liiii;- place fur ito 
 le is dcriveil iP'iii I 
 urc water, wliitli 
 n, Koiiiaii cuii^s | 
 
 IS 
 
 r.OURTANr, 
 
 and tessclntod iinvenioiits have Ix'PU found on the 
 site; ireiichi'S uiid nionnds of n Siixoii ciislh' iirc 
 iracealilc : ii priory of Aii^'iisliiie monks was 
 fiiuiideilin Will. II. 's rci^'ii, whose revenue, ill the 
 (.'(■iierul siipiiressioii, was )i»7/. \7s. iul, Wm. 
 Cicil, Lord nurleif^h (Kli/.iilietli's minister), was 
 liiifii in thin town in ITi^O. Dr. Dodd, oiic(! cele- 
 lifiited us a popiilnr preiiclier. Imt now principally 
 
 ihcred liy ■ " " 
 tiiitive of Honrii. 
 
 I50VA 
 
 rAo 
 
 fHiicnihcred liy his disgruccful death, wiis also a 
 
 ■in, 
 a Is 
 
 liOlJUTANli, n fortilird villnnje of the Netlior- 
 inails, ])rov. (lronin(,'en, in the extensive morass 
 iif tlie same nnme, JM in. KSK. Groninj^eii. The 
 iiiiiriLss, though it increases its streii^jth, renders 
 it unhealthy. I'o)). .'ICO in l«(!l. The |ilacc was 
 taken hy thd Spniiiard.s in 15!);i, and by the 
 Fronidi in 17itr>. 
 
 ItOirsSA, a city of Interior Africa, and rap. 
 iif ft prov. of the same name, on an isl. of the 
 Xi^'cr; lat. 10° M' N., loii>,'. (1° II' K. roj). iic- 
 (iinliiiK to Olapjierton, |(),0'l<> or |-2,(I(MI; hut, 
 acinrdiiif; to Lander, l(i,(>"(l or IH,t)(i(). Thecoiin- 
 tr}' in i\w neif^hbonrliooil isbold iiiid rocky, wliiidi 
 n'mlers Itonssa a place of considerable strenf;tli. 
 fur its w.ills (which are tolerably well built, and 
 ki'|it ill fiood repair) extend to, and are united 
 uilii, llie two extremities of a nxdiv precipice 
 whicli skirts the W. branch of the enclo>iiii;' river, 
 i'lip liiiiisesnrc, however, built in detacheil p.it(dies, 
 ami (111 not occupy more than a tenth part of the 
 nailed area, iiresentiiifi the appearance of several 
 >mall villages, rather than of one coiiliniious 
 luwii. The prov. of Houssa extends about oO m. 
 N. Iif the river, and is about the same length from 
 X. til S., the city lying about 1.') m. from its S. 
 ixtreniity. The soil is very fertile, especially 
 that iif the isl., producing corn, yams, cotton, rice, 
 tiiiilier trees, and other African vegctiition, in 
 '.Tiat abundance: it also abounds in i\w. usual 
 .African animals; ele]diants, hippopotami, lions, 
 and tigers. Ilonssa is considered, politically, as 
 ]iart of the great kingdom of Horgoo ; but it 
 a|i]iC'ars as if the ditl'erent states were ]ierfeclly 
 iiiiii|ien(leiit of each other, though all speaking 
 • 'same language: at all events, the coininuni- 
 caiii. IS of the Sultan of Hoiissa with Clapperton 
 anil liaiider seem to have had no reference to 
 aiv ciiiitrolling jiower. Of the liorgoo states, 
 I'onssa is, if not the largest, the most populous 
 am! most iiowerful. ((.'laiiperton's 2nd I'^xped. 
 I'll. ".KUlOCi ; Lander's liecords, i. It 1-1 lo.) 
 
 liiiiissa )toss('sses a inelaiudioly interest from its 
 luiii;,' the s))ot where the enlerprising Miiiigo 
 i'ark met his death. After his first successful 
 (xin'dition ill the service of the African Associa- 
 limi. that adventurous traveller was employed by 
 pivernmeiit to complete his own partial discovery 
 I'f the course id' the Niger. This commission he 
 iliil nut live to cH'ect ; after traversing a far larger 
 I'lirtion of Africa than had before been traversed 
 iiy I'.ny Kuropeaii, his boat was attiud^ed by a 
 native army at this place, where the river is shut in 
 livtwii high ro(dis, leaving barely iiassageroom for 
 till' current, «,s- tliroiu/li ii tliior. (Ailami Falouma's 
 'J'inriial. p. •211.) Assailed from the top of these 
 Ticks, Park (Ud'eiuled hiiiis(df for a long while. 
 iliniwing all his jirovisions overboard to lighten 
 liis Unit; till, finding all bojie of successful re- 
 *tancR at an end, he, with his remaining cnm- 
 I'lmions, leaped into the water, in a last attempt 
 1 1" escape by swiniming. and was drowned, or, as 
 [ is more probable, dashed to jiicces by the mis>iles 
 krk'd down upon him. The boat snbse(|uently 
 iWrtcil (111 a reef of sunken niidis, not half a stoii(,''s 
 tliriiw from lloussa ; and a slave of Park, the only 
 living; renmant of his unfortunate expedition, was 
 niaile jirisoner. The cause of this murderous 
 
 attack IS reiirosented by Isa.iccn and Adnml 
 Fatouma, Turk's native fricndi. to have been 
 owing to the knavery (d' a chief, who. secreting 
 the |ireseiits entrusted lo hitn bv Tark for the 
 king, excited the indignation of' the latter, bv 
 telling jiim, ' the white men hal left nothing fcir 
 him.' The cxplanatioii given to Lander on the 
 spot, twenty years later, however, was, ihat flio 
 natives took the ad\-enlurers for a partv of Fella- 
 talis, which iiatimi had Just llieii comnienced that 
 series of usurpations which thev have since carried 
 j to an exlieme height. He this as it mav. the 
 destruction of the traveller was signalisi'd bv 
 feastings and rejoicings ; but before the revelri('S 
 were ended, it so ehanced that an infections dis- 
 order broke out among the Moussians, swcepiii;' 
 ort'the sultan and a great number id' his subjects^ 
 among whom, it is reported, the murderers of the 
 jiarty were included. The ell'ect of this u|ion a 
 superstitious people may be conceived; pravers 
 and sacrifiix's were ofre'red to the white nian'.s 
 god, and an expression grew into use am 'iig the 
 surrounding nations, of wliii'li subse(|ueiit travid- 
 lers have felt the full beiielit, ' I)i> mil hurl the 
 white men, iiiilesn i/tm u-oiihl perish lihe the /tni/i/e 
 of lioiifixu.' 'i'lie Moussians thems( Ives share f'ullv 
 in thisfeiding; they are ovenvlKdnied with shain'e 
 at a reciirreiKe to the subject, and plead their 
 youth at the time, or their pcrsdii.il innocence, 
 wifliiuf allemiititig the ■.lightest exculpation of 
 their fathers. (I'ark's Journal ; Lander's Jiecords, 
 i. I ll-!l.) ' 
 
 liOI'SSAC, a town of France, de'p. ('reuse, cap. 
 arroiiil., on a step lo.'k, near the conlluence of the 
 Veroii. and the Little ( 'iciise, 21 m. NF. (iiieret, 
 on the railway from Aloulius to Limoges. Pop. i),i.'J 
 in iMlll. ItoiissMc contains fewer iiihaliitanis than 
 the capital i.faiiy other arron li-em lit in r'tiiiice. 
 It Stan is on a rock, and is alnio-il inaccessible td 
 carriages; surroimded with walls Ij.inked with 
 bastions, coinmaiiiled hy an old einliallled castle, 
 from which the view exteiids along a (h'lile formed 
 by arid and wild inouiitains. The town is as 
 gloomy a residence as can well be imagined 
 
 l!()L'XWILLFI!. or I'dSt 11 WKl i.Ki;,a town 
 of France, lU'p. lias l.'bin, cap. cam., near the 
 Moder, snrroiinded by mouiitaiiis and forests, -JO iii. 
 NW. Strasbnrg. I'op. .'(.Ml'.'. in ISCI. It is coin- 
 maiided by a fine (dd (hitliic castle, and has ma- 
 iiufactures of cotton, linen, arms, and braziers' 
 ware, with bieweries and bleachllelds. 
 
 IJOVA, an inland town of Soiilhern Italv. prov. 
 l.'eggio, cap. (;aiit., on a niountaiii. 17 ni. KSl], 
 Itcggio. I'o).. -I,(I20 in lm->. This town sufl'ered 
 severely from an earthipiake in 17«;i, but was re- 
 built in better taste under the patronage of FYt- 
 dinaiid IV. U is the seat of a bishopric; has a 
 cathedral, and several ehiirches, a .semiuarv a 
 hospital, and 2 moiits-de-pii'ti': 
 
 This, as well as several other towns in the Nea- 
 politan states, is b(dieved to have been founded, 
 or at all events to have been occupied, by fugitives 
 living from Kpinis and the .Alorea to escape tlio 
 eniidty of the Turks. The I'oiiiiilatioii of jiova is 
 ascribed to the great imniigralioii whiidi took 
 idace ill 1 177. when .John Castriot. son of the 
 famous (ieorge Castriot. or Scanderbeg, was ex- 
 pelled from his hereditary dominions by the Turk- 
 ish coiuiueror, IMahoniet Ii. At later periods 
 similar immigrations took jdace from Corona and 
 Maiiia. The immigrants and their desceiidaiits 
 have continued to be a distinct race, and have 
 preserved the language and dress, flioiigh not the 
 religion, of their forefathers. Tli(>y occupy several 
 towns and villages in dilfcrent jiarts of the king- 
 dom, their total number being at [iresent supposed 
 to amount to about .02,000. 
 
 1. 1. 2 
 
 
 ' «i^fiii;^i'3.4i 
 
 .1? 
 
 
fil6 
 
 HOVEY TKACEY 
 
 ; 
 
 HOVKV TIJACI'.V. (I imr. and town of TuiRlnnd, 
 rii. |)('Viin, liiinil. 'I'riKnl'ridfic, I 'Hi ni. SW. Iiy W. 
 J.Diidon. Area f.. |H(l lu-rvn. I'cp. nf par., |H2I, 
 J,(iH,"); IH.'il, I.C.'.i;, and •_*,fiH(l ill IMII. The lnwn 
 Htan<l^ on llic .slope ot' a liill, at I lie liaw of wliicli 
 tlic liovcy llows, ami is tTosscd by an anricnt I 
 lirid^fc ol' llircc arclics, 'I'licn' is one main strci't. | 
 ■\vliicli lirani'lu'H oil' at tin- ancirni niarkci-piarc 
 like a V, one |iart <'ontiinnn},' up the nscrni, tiic , 
 otlK.T extending; to tlic liridni'. 'I'IkH' arc a ti'w | 
 respcctaliic modern lionses, lint the ^rrealir |)arl i 
 nre aneieni, and nn'anly Imilt. Tlie clmnli is a 
 (iolliic stnu^lnre, Willi a K"'"! tower, at the I",, end 
 of the town ; there are also Itaiitist ami Wesleyan 
 rlia|iels, and an endowed tree hchool for twenty- 
 four eliildreii. Annual eallle fairs are held on 
 J'lasler Mon., Holy 'I'lnirs., 1st 'I'lnirs. .Inly, 1st 
 'i'lnirs. Nov. The" :narket (^'ranted in I'.'.V.O has 
 lieen disc<iiitiMneil wilhin the present ecnlnry. 
 There are two |iotleries. whieli employ many of 
 tlie iiiliahitants : the reniainder are en^'a^ied in | 
 n;;rienltnre ; ser^^e wea\ iiij;' and wool eoinhin^ j 
 were once carried on to a considerahlc extent, anil 
 liave hccome extinct only wilhin a reeeiit period. 
 A jiort reeve and liaililf arc annually ap|)oiiiteil at 
 u court Icet held hy the lord of the manor. 
 
 'I'lic liovcy hcathlield, cxtendiiif; at the liase of 
 the town, is a low nioory tract, hel ween 7 and >< m. 
 in eirc.. snrronndcd hy hills which open to tli.' SI''., 
 in which direction ihe Teif;n flows after hein^' 
 joined hy the I'.ovey. The (granite hills on llu^ 
 oiitskirls' of l)arlinoor rise on the W. side, and 
 the f^rei'ii sand ran^;(^ of llaldon on the K. The 
 ]5ovey coal and tday formations traverse this 
 ]i1ain in a SI'-, direi'lioii, their outcrop heinj; at 
 the foot of the hill on which the town stands. 
 Tlicrt! are seven heds of li;;iiite, in all forming 
 coiiiiiiuons strata of ah<iiit 70 ft. in thickness, 
 and ilippiii,^ at an alible of -''.i ft. at the part 
 ■where they ari' worked for the use of the pot- 
 tery, which stands on the spot, and which is 
 almost the tally i)nr|H)se to which the fuel is a))- 
 propriated, the imperfect eomhustion and lari^e 
 jiroportion of ashes reiideriiif; it nnavailahlc for 
 f^enerid pnr])oses, tlioujj;h oecasitamllv nsed in the 
 cottaj^os of the neif;hhourinfj poor. 'I'lic clay heds 
 overlie the lignite: there are live in all, runninff 
 jiurallel with eat^h other, and alternatiiiff with 
 beds of sand and f^ravel ; the four western beds 
 are plotter's clay : the other pijje clay: .shafts are 
 Hunk on and throui^h them, at intervals, for (1 or 
 7 m. along their course, at such parts as are fcamd 
 siilliciently pure for the market; they vary in 
 depth froin -10 to !M) ft., the lignite being always 
 arrived at in sir'ving through the four western 
 beds, and a tine sand under the eastern one. From 
 .On.ddli to GD.tlDO tons of this clay arc shipped 
 aimually at the port of Teignmouth for t'i.e Staf- 
 fordshire ]iottcrics, the greater portion of which is 
 excavated in the parish of Kmgsteinton, and con- 
 veyed thither by the Stover Canal, formed through 
 this inland basin, and locking into the Teign, 
 about ii m. above the place of sliiiiment. This 
 canal ellectually drained the greater part of what 
 had previously been an unhealthy mor.i.ss, and 
 lilted it for cull ivation ; a railway from the llaytor 
 granite quarries traverses the hcathlield, and ter- 
 minates at the heail of it : both were creations of 
 the Templar family, >vhosc mansion and property 
 have since been irausferred to the Duke of Somerset. 
 1!(>\TN<) (an. Vihinnm), a town of Southern 
 Italy, )>rov. Foggia, (_!apitanata, ca]). distr.. on 
 the declivity of a mountain, watereil by the Cer- 
 varo, 111 in," SSW. Foggia. I'op. <;.7!m'i in 1m;2. 
 It is fiirtilicd. is the scat of a bishopric, and the 
 residence ol a judge of jiriniary jnrisdiclion; it 
 lias a cathedral, two parish churcheH, and several 
 
 BHA 
 
 ronvpnfs. A battle took plnco near this (own in 
 I7.'lt, between the Spaniards ami the Inipcriali>i^, 
 in which the former were defeated. 
 
 ItO.XTI'.L, a village of Ihe Netherlands, |ir„v. 
 Hrabant, on the Donimel, 7 in, S. liois lc-|»iii', 
 I'op. ■1.211.') in IHIil. Here was fought, u\\ il,,. 
 Mill Aug., I7!ll, an obstiiiale action hchMin 
 the French anil tlu! allied Uritish ami Uiit.i, 
 troops, nnder the command of the !)uUc uf Vurk, 
 The latter were defeated with coiisiilciaiilc io>>, 
 and obliged to retire behind the M;iese. 
 
 li()\I,l';, an iiil, town of Ireland, co, ll.iscuni- 
 nioii, prov, ('iinnaught, on the Itoyle, il I iii, WNW. 
 Iliililiu, on the Midland (Ireat U'cstcrn raiUv;i'-. 
 I'op. :!,l;i;! in l)<;!l,aml ;i,li'.IM in UsCil. Tlic icn'-i'is 
 of iHlll gave IIKI males and 'Jill fciiiiilcs as ire. 
 longing to the Fslablishcd ('liiirclsaud I.'-'iIkmim!!' 
 with I,lt7,'i female b'oiii.'in Catliolics; the p-t 
 Presbyterians ami Mclhodisls, lioylc isiiivi.|i-| 
 by the river into two portions, whiili arc cm:. 
 nccted by a line nioilcrii bridge; and tlicrc ;ii 
 two other bridges near the town. The pulilir 
 buildings are the parish ihiirili. two Ii'oui, Ciiiji. 
 chapels, and llaplisi and Jlclhoilist iiKiliiii;- 
 lionscs; n new in.'irUcl-housc. a lictiire-ri.iiiu, ii:i,| 
 large barracks. Il is a constabiiliiiy slalimi; ninl 
 has a dispensary, bridewell, .savings' bank, iiml 
 loan fund. The chief articles of trade, wliiili ]-. 
 wholly carried on by land carriage, are ;ii;iiii, 
 biitli r, and llax : some coarse woollens arc iiiiiini- 
 fiiciurcd. The butter-market is on Moinlays, Imt 
 tlie jiriucipal market-day is Saturday: I'.iirs mi 
 March (1, .\pril ;i, May !l and oO, July D ami 'i.'j, 
 Aug, 1(), Oct. 1, and Nov. '25. 
 
 The corporation, under a eli.irter graiitwl liv 
 .Tames I., in Kilo, consists of the borotigli-iM.'isiir. 
 twelve burgesses, and an imleliiiite iiiiiiilnr n|' 
 freemen. It returned two mem, to llic jri-h 
 II. of (J. until the I'liion, when it wa'^ iliM'riiii- 
 chised. (ieneral ses,-.ions are held every nine 
 monilis, and jietty sessions on Moiidiiys. A scni'- 
 schal's court in the town has jurisdietiou in scvcnil 
 niljoining baronies, but none in the liiiriiii;;li. 
 nranche.s of the Belfast and Agrieultiirnl banks 
 were oiiened here in 1«;5.') and !«;{(;. 
 
 HOYNI'v, a river of Ireland, which linsitssnnrfc 
 in the bog of Allen, near Carlierry, in Kililari', 
 22.') ft. above the level of the sea. ItllnwsNi;. 
 by Trim, JCavan, and Slanc, to Tullnglialliii. 
 wlienec it follow.s <in ]•>. course to Driif^luila. 
 uniting with the .sea about 2 m. lower down. Tin' 
 bar at its month has only 2 ft. water at low spriii;;- 
 ebbs, and fn/in i) to Itl ft. at high water: luiin' 
 only the smaller class of vessels can eoino iipi'i 
 Drogheda. It h.as been rendered uuvigable I'nr 
 barges as far as Navaii. 
 
 The ]5oyne will be ever memorable in ]iriti>li 
 history for the important victory gained ini ii< 
 banks, about 3 m. above Drogheda, on the Islif 
 July, 1()',)0, by the forces under the eoniniaivl nl' 
 Wiiliam III., overtho.se of James II. This vii'- 
 tory, by securing the triumph of the liberal iiriii- 
 eiples of government established at the lievnlii- 
 tioii, may be said to have been one of the caiisi'.- if | 
 the subse(pient progress of the liritisli ciniiiri' in j 
 wealth, power, and population. In 1 7dli, an clu'li 
 loO ft. in height, was erected in coninu'innrati'iii j 
 of this great event, on the point facing the funl 'it 
 Olilbridge, 2 m. W. Drogheda, whore Kiii^' Wil- 
 li.im was wounded in the arm on the eveniugiirc- 
 vious to the battle. 
 
 I11;A, a town of Xorthern Italy, prov. Ciinc". 
 call, niand., near the N. bank of the Stiirii, :'2iii. 
 N. Mondovi. I'op. 12.1ll(i in l«(;2. It lias time 
 parish churches, a hospital, willi fabric.'' of .•^iIk 
 and linen, and a eonsiderab'e triide in rum ami | 
 cotton. It is reckoned particularly licallby. 
 
1JRA15ANT 
 
 RK.UIAXT, \. iiiiit S.. j.rov'.irfs r>f tlic low 
 (■imiilrics, tlK! (irsl iimkiii;,' purt oltlic Uiiinilcmi of 
 the NctlioiluiidM, and tlio latter of timtof Ui'lgiiini, 
 
 which ^('c. 
 
 III;A(;('IAN'(>, a town Om. S<i/,„/r) anil Like 
 (nil. IjiiriiH fiii/iiitliiiis) (if ('cntr.il Iialv, -J.", ni. N. 
 Kdiiic. I'op. '.'..'idO ill |Mtl2. 'I'lic t.iwi'i is sitiiiiliil 
 luitlic W. nidf of ilic l;il<(., JM \vi.ll luiili, lias a 
 llijiiri'iliin^' paper maiiiifiictory, and an appearance 
 (irijnisperity. It has a ina^iiiiliceiit feudal castle 
 iH'l.iiiKiiiK' to the Torlonia family, now diikcs of 
 liracciano. 
 
 'flic lake is nearly circular; its rircnmfereiicc, 
 ivitlieiit lollowiiij,' ail the windings ol the shore, 
 b.'iiw aliHiit 2(1 111. It is not ^;enerallv deep, Imt is 
 Htll stocked with lish. The .Moiit'e lloeca l!o- 
 iiiiiiia, covered with wood, rises on (he Nf;. sideof 
 the lake, and it is in most parts Imrdered hy hills. 
 l)("<itlc.-< Mracciaiio, it has on its margin 'Vrivi^'- 
 iiaii'i (an. Trihoninmim), Anj,'nillara (an. Amju- 
 km), \'icarello (an. Vifiis ^Liiri'lii), San .Stefano, 
 iipiir which arc the ruins of several IJianan villas. 
 Ac. ll i;'ives rise to the river Anaie (an. Am), 
 ivliicli falls into the sea alioiit M m. \. fnan the 
 niiiiith of the Tlhcr. 'I'he scenery rcaiiid the lake 
 isdt'lhc most pleasiiii; and sylvan kind. 
 
 liKACKLKV, ;i Ixir. and "town of l",iii;lar.d. eo. 
 Ndrtliainptoii, hniid. Kinir's Siittun, oil m. N\V. 
 I.tiiiiioii (Ml the London and Norlh Western rail- 
 wiiv. I'op. 2,2;!'.l in l«i;i. The town stands on a 
 vl(i|i<', (ai the N. hank of the On-^e, which is here 
 cnKserl hy u two-arched liriil;;'e. lloiises mostly 
 iiC unhewn stone. There are two churches of 
 (.TPitt aiili(|nity ; a national school; ■ilinshoiises 
 I'liiiiiilwl in Hill;!; anil a ;;'ooil town-hall. A weekly 
 market is lield on U'cdnesday, and an aniinal fair 
 nil St. Andrew's day. I'mlcra charter of •_' .lames 
 II. it had a mayor, seven aldernieii, and 21! capital 
 liiir;;i'sses ; and these, until the |)assini^ of the 
 kVtnrm Act, when it was disfraneliiscd, had the 
 cxclusivo jirivilej^e of reliirniiii; two inein. to the 
 11. nfC. Tlie charter aiithin-ised conns iif record 
 ami iifipiarter sessions, hill they have Ion;;' heeii 
 iliriiscl. The iiorontili coiiiprises two distinct 
 [lari-^lics, lady ecclesiastically nnitiil, lirackley St. 
 .Ian'"s, and IJrai-kley .St. I'cter. It is the niiiiai 
 timn of M(l parishes. 
 
 HH.VDFOIJI), n par., market town, and pari. 
 anil municipal bor. of Hiij;land, W. ridinj^ co. 
 Viirk. 31 m. VV. by S. York, and Xh m. W. Leeds, 
 I":! in. NNVV. London by roail, IIX! ni. by 
 Ureal Northern railway, and 'l\ih in. by the .Mid- 
 iaiiil railway. The iiar. contains .■>;(." in acres, 
 mill hail, in 1S41, l(l."),-2.")7 inhai)., and !.")(). O.'i.'! in 
 iJ'iil. The township ot Hrailford had. in IMOl, a 
 |iH|). of (!,;!!>3; in I«-2I, of LJ.OtM; in \H\\, of 
 ;ll,.)(;0; and 1801, of -lf<.(il(i. lUil in aihliiion to 
 tlif tiiwnshii) of IJradford, the townships of Man- 
 uiii;jhain. Howling and Ilorton. inclndini,' the 
 llaiiilotsdf Great and Little liorton, are ineliidcd 
 ill tlie jiarl. and munieipal bor., which had, in IfSlI, 
 aiiiip. of (;(!,.")(IK; and in l«lil, of l(lt;,-JlS. 
 
 llriiilford is situated on an allliient of the Aire, 
 at tlic junction of three e.\tensiv(! valleys. Tboimii 
 till' streets in the older ]iarts be in {general narniw, 
 !li«so of a more recent date, wliicli are by far the 
 must extensive, are sntlicieiitly broad, and they 
 are all Well jiaved and li^^iited. The town is well 
 Mi|i|ilieit with w.ater, broni,dit from a distance! of 
 U|i\varils (if 20 miles. Houses wholly of stoiii'. and 
 "I'll supplied witli water. The town has a iliri\- 
 iii;.' apiu'aranee, iiidicati\e of its hi'.;bly lioiirisli- 
 iii;;' ciiiKlition. Tlie )iarisli church of St. I'etcr is 
 a >tructiiie in the ]i(iiiiteil style of archilecliire. 
 liiiilt ill tliereii^n of Henry \\.: there are I7('!hcr 
 iliiirelics. The Wesleyan and I'rimilive Mclho- 
 ilijij, L'iiit;u-iaiis, Independents, JJapti.sts, rre;by- 
 
 JJKADI'OKI) 
 
 ■'>\7 
 
 ' l(-rians. Iloman Catholics, and Society of Kricnds, 
 have all places of worsliip. A free j;raininar- 
 Hchool, fiiiindcd in ihe ri;;n of Ivlward \l., and 
 eharlered and, in part, endowed bv Charles II., 
 was rebuilt in iH.'ln. It is open to all boys belon;,'- 
 1 iii^C to the parish, who may bccdiiie candidales fur 
 i exhiliilions to (Queen's (folic;;!', Oxford, Here, 
 also, art! national schools, with Lanca^irian schnols, 
 schoolsof industry, and infant schools. The Map- 
 lists and Independents have eacli a colle;;-e or aca- 
 demical institnlion within ,^ m. of the town lor 
 the preparation of candidates for their respective 
 ministries; and the .Mitliodisls have a school for 
 the sons of their preacliers at W'oodlioiise (irove, 
 •I III, distant, 'I'he l'',\chaii;;'e, a handsome biiild- 
 inj;, ill which assemblies are sometimes held, has 
 attached to it a library and news-room, A me- 
 chanics' institute, founded in |M.')2, Inis a library, 
 readiii;^ rooms, and leclnre rooms, .\niiiiii; the 
 other notable biiildiii;?s are — Ihe Coiirt-honsc, 
 bnilt in l.s:i|, where the sessions are held; Tiece 
 Hall, III ft, limjj;, for the saht of alpaca and oiher 
 sdilfs; and St, (icor^c's .Music Hall, in the Italian 
 style, with a hall e.ipable of accommod.-iiiii;^ ;;„'i;,() 
 persons. Thcrt! is also a line park, called I'eel 
 i'ark. for |inblie use. A 'lispcnsary is lilievallv 
 snpporled; and there are numerons other cliiirl- 
 lable iiislilulions. The lirst leinperance society in 
 I'ji^iland was cstablislied here. 
 
 'I'he town was iiiciirp(irate(l in |S|7, and divided 
 into h wards, ;;-overiieii by ii mayor. It ald"rnieii, 
 and 12c(iiiiicilliirs. 'J'he parliamciii.'iry and muni- 
 cipal bounds are co-exteiisive. The boroiijudi iii- 
 eonie was !»,()liiS/. in |(Sll|. The ainonnt ;issessed 
 to propertv tax, in ISiil, was l.s(l,(i21/., ■•ind the 
 net r.ateabli! value 21MI,l)lil/, The l.'eform Act 
 made liradford a |i,irl. bur., and conferred on il for 
 Ihe lirsl (ime the priviK;^!' of reluniiii;;- Iwo inein, 
 to the H, of C, The nuinber of re;;ist» red electors, 
 in ISdl, was ;!,,s,s(i. I'.radfud is also a poliin-- 
 jilace for the West liidin;;' of ^drkshire. 
 
 The present iinportain-c and rapid ;;towi1i of 
 Lradford are wholly ouiiit; to tiie spirit and suc- 
 cess wilh which the inhabs, have eni;ai;cd in 
 inannfacliirin;;' iiiduslrv. The pro(hiclioii of 
 worsted yarn ami stiill'scniistilntcs the sljipie busi- 
 ness ofilie town, Norwich was formerly the ;;rcal. 
 .seat of the worsted inannfactnre, which, iiidee(l, is 
 supjiosed to hiive derived its iiainc Irom the par. 
 of 'iV(n-ste(l in Norfolk, into which it li.ad been 
 early introdnced, Itnt the superior facilities for 
 the proseciilion of tiie mannfaclnre eiijoved b\' 
 ISradlbrd, chielly in conseipicncc of the iiiilimiled 
 coniinand of coal, lia\c }. neil il, in this respect, a 
 decided advanla;;e over .Norwich, 
 
 'i'here were in the par, of Bradford, and princi- 
 pally in Ihe town, in bsill, I. "ill worsted, woollen, 
 and coltiiii mills, Lar^c iron foundries ;ire esla- 
 blished at liowliiii; and Low .Moor, At Saliaire, 
 on tlie Aire, is Ihe exicnsive factory of Messrs, 
 Salt, ill which aliiive l.oiii) bands ;uv. employed. 
 The enlirc par. of liradford is very densely jieo- 
 pled, ;iiid aloii;,' all the principal roads there is an 
 •alniosi iininlernipled succession of towns and vil- 
 la^^'cs. licsiiles the Worsted and uooljen trades, 
 whii'li are ihe principal employmeuls, ;iiid others 
 inon! receully iiilr.idiiced. the iron Irade has ex- 
 isted from lime iinnieniorial. as is proxcd by the 
 discovery of a number of lloniiin coins, in the 
 midst of a mass of scoria', the refuse o| an ancient 
 bloomery in the iieiijhbourliood of ihe low i. The 
 supply of ore is aiiiiiiil;iiit : but the works, tliou;.;li 
 coiisiderable, are not so extensive as iiii;;lil. per- 
 haps, have been anticipated. The cnmnianil of 
 nnliniiled supplies of co.ii has, .-is slated above, 
 liei'ii one of (lie |iriiicipal causes of (he rapid pro- 
 greb.s of the niaunlactuics of the town. 'I'liii 
 
 ]m. 
 
 m 
 
! 
 
 (■/: 
 
 fil8 IMJADFOIU) (OICKAT) 
 
 |>r(>;;rr«!4 lins, nlso, Ix'cti urciiily promoird Ity tlir 
 I'liciliiy of ('iiiiiiiiiinicaliiHi willi iIk' iinrts nii tlic IC. 
 mill \V, ciiiiNtM 111' iliii kiiiKdom, liy tlic |jvcr|iiHil 
 mill Lt'cilMcmial, a liraiicli I'nini wliicli i.s cMrricil into 
 (111' liiwii ; ami liy Mio iictwiirk of railwavM, which 
 I'oiiiH'ci llraiU'oril wiili all parts of the coiiiilry. 
 
 _A fi'silvul iiiiiiicroii.sly altcmlcil, ami ci'lclirati'il 
 with iniii'li piicty, is hcliliit It/ailfonl cvcrv .seventh 
 year, in lnuioiir of llisliop ltliii<(', said to lie llieiii- 
 vi'iitor of wool-coniliiii;^. Markets are held on 
 'I'hiirsdays ; fairs on Mareli Itnl, Itli, .liilv 17th. 
 iHth, l<)|h. mid Dec. mil, Kilh. Ilth; the liist is a 
 >,'reat mart for pi^;s. The hanks are the lira.lfonl 
 llankiii;,' Conipany, llradford District Hank, Krad- 
 hiril Coniniercial Hanking' Conipany, hranclies of 
 the Leeds and W. I>'idiii;c and of the Yorkshire 
 hanks, a jirivati^ hankiii;; house, and a niiviiij,'s' 
 hank. A cnstoiii-honse and inland hondiiiK wor^'- 
 lioiise have heen estahlished here under the pro- 
 visions of the Ciistoins Act of iMild. The eiistonis 
 revenue, in |M(1-.', amounted to ."l-J,?!"/. 
 
 IIUAI>KOItl> ((iUKAT), or I!llAI)Koi;i>-()N-AVON, 
 
 a par. and town of l''.ii;;lanil. co. Wilts, hnnil. 
 llradford. on the Avon, ',>;> in. \V. hy S. London hy 
 road, and lO'.i m. hy (Jrcit Western railway and 
 lirancli line. Pop. of town ■l,2',il, and of jiarish 
 >*, (•;!•_' in M(!l. The river divides the town into 2 
 parts (called the Xew, and Old towns), and is 
 crossed hy •_' hriiii;!"^. iin(^ ancient, with It arches; 
 the other modern, witii 1. The old town ronsists 
 i'hielly of ."{ streets, eacli aliove the other, on tli(( 
 HJope and hrow of a hill, risiii}; ahruptly from the 
 N. hank; most of the streets are very narrow, hut 
 in this res)iect many iniprovemeiits have heen 
 made within a recent jieriod. The houses are all 
 of stone, nnd many of them very '.espectahle 
 Htriictnres, Tlu? church is an niicieiit huildin;.c 'd 
 the foot of the hill. .Six of the iirincipal sects of 
 dissenters have pljices of worship in the town ; 
 there is a charity school for (10 hoys, founded in 
 J7I2, and 2 sets of almshouses, one for men, one 
 for women. A weekly market is held on Saturday, 
 and an amiuiil fair on Trinity Monday, There is 
 also a ciittli' fair at l!raiil'ordleij;li, a hamlet in 
 the par., the day following;- that of St. ISartholomew. 
 'I'he chief mamifactiires of Hradfonl are tine hroad- 
 dotli.s and kerseymeres — t<)r these it has heen noted 
 for a very lonj,' period. The stone quarries in Wins- 
 ley titliiiif^ employ ahove lUil men. It enjoys an 
 extensive water communication with the towns to 
 the K. and VV.. hy means of the Avon and Keiinet 
 (Jaiial. A court of reciii— ts for dehts under u/. is 
 held every third I'liesday : its jurisdiction com- 
 prises ;> adjoining; hundntds, and it is held on the 
 intermediate Tuesdays, at Trowliridfic and iMcdk- 
 sliam. IJr.'idtiinl is a union town, under the I'oor 
 J<aw Act. The area of the whole piirish, 11.74(1 
 a(^res, comprisinj;, heside the town, I cliapehies 
 and 1 tithing. There is miich picturesque scenery 
 alonj; the winilinj,'s of the river and the dells of its 
 wooded hills, and many line old mansions. The 
 town must have heen of some consecpieiice in the 
 Saxon Jieriod. for St. Dunstan was elected hisliop 
 of Worcester at a synod held in it. llradford sent 
 members to one parliament in KdwiU'd i.'s reif^n, 
 but never since; nor is there any record of its 
 liaviiij; ever heen incorporated. 
 
 lil'ADlNG. a par. an<l niarit. hnr. town of 
 Knfilaiid, CO. Hants, div. Isle of WikIu, liberty K. 
 Medina, 7;> m. SAV. London. Top. of parish ;!,7i ill 
 in ISlil. The town is situated at the head of 
 llrjiilin^ Haven, at the K. extremity of the island, 
 and consists of one loiiH' street of irrciiular Ijuild- 
 iiigs. The ciiiirch is said to have been built in 
 701, hut it must h;ive iiiiiteri;one exteii-ive altera- 
 tions and repairs. Theri! arc; also two dissent inj;' 
 chapels, a luitioual school fur litj children, and a 
 
 IJRAOANZA 
 
 small town-hall, under which is a market-iiluii, 
 hut the market has ceased to he held. Tliere an' 
 still annual fairs, May I, St'ptember 21. TluTe \^ 
 
 a ipiay for the lu nimodation of siiiall vcsmU 
 
 the place heiii;; approachable by such at lii >|'| 
 water; but the tract which forms the csiiin^y 
 (about !)tHi acres) is imcoveri'd at every tide. .\ii 
 attempt to embank it, and shut out the sea. wns 
 made by Sir JL Middlelon (the projector of i||,. 
 .New liiver), but unsuccessfully. Tlie town ^m 
 iucorponited, and a market and fair i^^ranteil in || 
 I'.dw. I.; tlieri' was another in (! Mdw. VI., uiiilir 
 which the town was piverned by two baililfs ainl 
 two ma^istrales, thi! former elected aiiniiailv' tlic 
 latter were the bailill's of the preceding,' year. 
 
 lUiADXINCH, a par and hor, of Ln),'laiiil, id. 
 Devon, hund. Ilayridf^e; l.')(( m. W. by S. LmiiiIuii'. 
 Pop. of parish l,'7!t() in lM(il ; area LliiO hiti<. 
 The town is pleasantly situated on im eiiiinciui'' 
 surrounded by higher hills, except on the ,s„ uikJ 
 consists, for the most part, of a collection of neat 
 thatched cottaj^es. The church is an aiiiiint. 
 structure; and there is a guildhall, with a f,'a(il 
 under, built siibseiiueiitly to a lire that nearlv de- 
 stroyed the |ilace a few years since. It mice liail ii 
 considerable woollen trade, but this has ccasnl 
 and its ancient weekly market has been ilivcim.' 
 liiiiied. 'I'liere arc still two annual fairs lielij. 
 May (■> and Oct. 2. It had a charter of iiicer|iiira- 
 tioii, f^ranted by Ife^inald, Karl of Cornwall, wliicli 
 was renewed and extended by •lames Land .lainis 
 II. ; under it wen; a|ipointed u mayor, reciipliT, 12 
 masters, 2-1 inferior biir;?esses, A;c. ; and cmiris of 
 (piarter sessions and record were held, wliiili have 
 been abolished by the Municipal IJeforiii Ait. || 
 ri'tiirned 2 mem. to the 11. of (j. from I lip rei^'ii nf 
 Kdw. II. to that of Henry VII., when iiialiility to 
 jiay their waj^es was pleaile<l, and adniittecl, on 
 paying " 'i>i»-' of o marks, 
 
 I!K*A(;A (an. Aiij/ustu Brartira), a city of I'ur- 
 tu^'al. ca|i. prov. Kiitre Doiiro e Miidio, iindnf tliu 
 eomarca of the same name, od a hill in the iiili|ill(' 
 of a larj;'e and fertile ]ilaiii, bclweeii the ('avail' 
 aud the Dieste, .'V2 m. NNK. Oporto, lat. 41° 4r' 
 N., loiifj. «o 20' W. Pop. I7.l,r2 in lHi)H. IV 
 city isilefeiided by a citadel, and is siirroinulcill v 
 walls Hanked with towers. The streets are rariiir 
 narrow, and the houses old : it is the scat nf ,iii 
 archbishopric, and has a larf;;e cathedral, several 
 parish churches and conveiiis, an arcliic]ii>(ii|ial 
 IMilace and seminaries, and seventy-ei;,dit linni- 
 taiiis, some of which are hitchly oruaineiitcil. k 
 has f;;reat numbers of silversmiths, harness-niakirs. 
 and hatters, who supply with their wares all tlh^ 
 fairs in the adjoiniiij,' Portii;,'uese districts, as well 
 as most of those in (iailicia in .S]iaiii. 
 
 i!rat;a is a very ancient city, its finmilatinn 
 beinn' ascribed to the Cartha^'iiiians. Duwntua 
 recent perioil it had the ruins of a lioiiiiui a.n|ilii- 
 theatre and aqueduct, but thest^ are now nearly 
 obliterated, and it possesses few nieinorials nl' its 
 ancient jj;raiideiir, exce|)t some coins, fmiiiil in llii' 
 vicinity, and some Roman millstones. .Vlxiiit |i 
 m. K. from the city, on a hill, is the rcimwiKd 
 sanctuary do Sentior Jesus do Monte, annually 
 resorted to by crowds of piljirims. 
 
 Hl.'.\(JA>iZA, a town of Portugal, ])rov. Tras- 
 os-Montes, caj). eomarca, in a fertile plain, nii tlie 
 Ferrenza, 'A,'} m. NW'. Alirandella. Poji. 5.2.ji' in 
 iMi'iH. The town is partially fortilied, has a s'liml 
 citadel, is the seat of a bishopric, has two cliualii >, 
 a colle^fc, and some maiiiifactiircs of silk aiiil 
 velvet. It was erected into a duchy in 111".': ami 
 in Kilo, .lohii 11., ■'^ih duke of Ihauaiizii. aMciiilfi 
 the Portii;;iiese throne under the title of .hiljii i\, 
 His descciidanls continue to enjoy the iriiwii ut' ] 
 Portugal, and have also aeiiuiii.:! thai of Brazil, 
 
|k('t-|ila(c, 
 'I'Ihti' lire 
 
 TliiTc is 
 11 Vcsm'Ih, 
 ll lit lii-li 
 It' I'sliiiirv 
 liilf. Ail 
 K' sea. Wiis 
 •liir 111' llir 
 
 tllWII WiH 
 
 lined ill II 
 VI., miiliT 
 lailill's mill 
 iiiiilly; tlif 
 year. 
 
 iiiKliiii'l, ('II. 
 ■ S. Liiiiiluii. 
 I,;V2(I aiTcs 
 I t'liiiiiciii-i', 
 tin; >., aiiil 
 inn (il'ni'at, 
 all aiii'iint. 
 witli a piiil 
 t nearly ilc- 
 l iiiu'i' liail a 
 liiw ccasnl, 
 Ipccii (liM'uii- 
 I'airn hi'M, 
 )!' iiiriTiiiira- 
 iiwall. wliidi 
 l.iiiiil .lainis 
 , rei'iiriliT, 1.; 
 mil cimris nf 
 , wliirli liavi' 
 uriii Ai'i. It 
 1 llip rci^'ii of 
 
 I iiiiiliilliy til 
 lulniitled, mi 
 
 1 city (if I'or- 
 
 iii), and III' tlie 
 
 II till' iiiii|ill« 
 the ('a\ail' 
 
 .lat. 41° 4- 
 
 IHitH. Ihr 
 
 iirrmiiidcil ! y 
 ots are riitLir 
 lie seat nf ;i?i 
 edral. several 
 ireliieiiiscniial 
 -eiiilit tiiiiii- 
 lameiitcd. it 
 Inu'ss-niakers. 
 waves all tln' 
 triets, as well 
 
 ('iiiindittioii 
 
 l)uWll Illil 
 
 |(iiiiiui aiUiilii- 
 niiw nearly 
 
 liiKirials III its 
 I'lMind ill till' 
 s. Alxiiit U 
 
 Itlie reiiiiwnril 
 
 lute, amiualiy 
 
 [l, prnv. Tras- 
 |)laiii, "II ilic 
 
 I'OJ). .'K^jlt ill 
 
 I'd, has a s'"'"l 
 
 Itwii elnil'i-l" ■^ 
 
 III' silk ami 
 
 ill lll-J:iiiia 
 
 lii/.ii. (isi'ciiilf4 
 
 Ic (il'.Iiiliii IV. 
 
 the cMWii iif 
 
 Ll ut' Brazil. 
 
 IIU.MIILOW 
 
 llltAfllLOW, lll{AII,()l'r, (ir Iin?AIL;\. n 
 
 liiHii (if Turkey in Kiiriipc, in Walliichia, on the 
 lilt hank (it'flK^ DiiMiiltf, I '2 in. .S.SW. (JaliKZ. iiiid 
 iiIkiiii III."> ni. Ity wiilcr fnini liic Itlnek Sen, I'liji. 
 (..iJiiialeil at !),IMMI. llriiihilV niav he nniil In he 
 the si'a-|i<irt (if Waliai'hiii, mill in it all the furcii^'ii 
 iiaile (if the province eentreM. All vcmncIm caiiahlc 
 ,.| I'litei'ili^ the l>aiiiilH! may am'eiiil to Ihaildtf; 
 ;iiiil its jinrt, (in one of the amiH of the ri\'('r, heiii^ 
 iVIeiKled liy a mimll iiland from Ihi" drift ice car- 
 nal down iiy till! I'lirrent in the Npriii;;, ships may 
 winter here in perfect Mnfely. lIoiiseM ri'j,'nhirly 
 l,iiilt, principally from the ruin.-* of the ca-dle, 
 wliii'li has lieeii ilemolislipil ; ami the imiiortance 
 i,| the town linvin;; increased with the nidepen- 
 ilciice of the jiroviiice, and the iiicri'asiii(i com- 
 iiicne and iiavi>;alion of the I )aiiiihe. neveral haiid- 
 -niiie new KireelH and editici'!* hav- heen recently 
 iri'ded. The warelionse.s are capalile of coiitainiii).; 
 iiliiive ;!()(),()(M( ehetwert.s of com. The threat, arli- 
 iles (if export arc the raw|irodncts of the country ; 
 iiiiliiiliiiK wheat, mai/e, and liarley, with tallow, 
 liiili's, hei'f, wool, timber, tobacco, and yellow- 
 lnTries. These exports, especially corn, have lately 
 iiiiii'li increaMed. The ((iiality as well as theipian- 
 tiiy (if the wheat shipped from this port, and from 
 (iaiacz, has almi greatly improved. It was for- 
 miTly, for the most part, damp, with an earthy 
 t,i<le iiiid .smell, ori^malin^r in its beiiijr nsiiallv 
 k('|it in holes in the ground; but this practice is 
 ii»\v very p'lierally aban(hined, and the j.'raiii is 
 ,.lii|ipi,l in comparatively jjood order. Tallow, 
 wliii'li is an im)ioriaiit arlicle, is .livided into 
 talliiw and chervice : the latter, consistiiif,' of the 
 l:it nf the carcass and marrow boiled t(i;;('tlier, is 
 ill much reipiest at Constantinojile. 'I'lic trade 
 Muuetiine since was principally iiiana^ed by (ireck 
 liniises ; hilt merchants from Mii^liiiid and other 
 liTcij;!! countries have now estiililished themselves 
 lure and at, (ialac/. (Sec the art.s. IJa.nuiiI';, 
 (Iai.ac'Z, and VVAi.r.AciiiA.) 
 
 llh'AllMAPUTHA (Hif son of nnihmu), \u]t:. 
 lliUKAMfoOTKit, one of the lar>;est rivers of .\sia, 
 I'Tiiiiii^tthe proper K. iKamdary of llinilostan ; the 
 IKiiiiisiila beyond which should, therefore, rather 
 I*' called ' India beyond tlic ISrahmapiitra,' than 
 'lii'voiid the (iuiiges,' .-incc the former separates 
 two repoii.s, for the most jmrt unlike, not only in 
 tlicir tiipo^jraphical features, but also singularly so 
 ill the races of |)eo))le who inhabit them, their re- 
 li;'iiiii, customs, &c. The Hr<'ihma])iitr!i has three 
 M'jiarate sources, viz. the Dilioiig, Diboiig, and 
 l.iiliit rivers, which unite in I'pper Assam ; the 
 lirst has been traced by Cajits. Hcdl'ord and Wilcox, 
 .iiiil Lieut. Ihirlton, tlirongli the Himalaya chain 
 111 lat. ix° 1,5' N., and hmg. '.l.')"^ !(>' K,, lind is in 
 all jirnliahility a continuation of the great Saii-po 
 
 f'liliet. (ScoSan-I'o.) The Dilinng, at thi'iHiint 
 III which Lieut s. Wilcox and Hnrltoii penetrated, 
 was .'idli ft. wide, had co isiderable dejith, and coii- 
 laiiii'il many raiiid.s ; one of wiiich being found 
 iiiiliassahle, and the adjacent country wild and ilif- 
 liniit in the extreme, prevented the future jiro.sc- 
 (iitiiiii of the survey: the Dihoiig carries twice as 
 iimcli water a.s the Loliit into the ltrahma|iutra. 
 Till' bilxing is the central and .smallest of the three 
 rivers: it rises X. the Himalaya, near lat. 'iH^ 10' 
 N.,aiul long. !)7°, and p<is.scs through the nuniiitains 
 into Assam, near lat. 28° 15', and long. !M;o. The 
 Liiliit, called by the Assamese ' holy stream,' and 
 ^"n^i(lered by the llrahmius as more especially the 
 uriljiii (if the Hrahmapiitra. is fnrnicd by the iiiiinii 
 'I till' Taluka and Taliiding, two streams rising in 
 ilio liijr' ni(iiintain region of Tiber, between lat. 
 '^' ami -i'lo X.. and long. !t7° and W° V... wliicli 
 i'sviiii; juincd, the river thence resulting tiikes a 
 I'W, I'liiirse. penetrating the Lang-tam chain of 
 
 JIHAINTUKK J19 
 
 moimlains (a continnalion of the IlimalayiO. and 
 passing ihrough a remarkable basin of rocky hilU, 
 a place of pilgrimage often freipieiited by Krah- 
 niiiis, ill which it is aiigincnled by the waters of 
 
 the Itrahmakund, a Imly | I fabled tn owe it.s 
 
 origin to an intrigue between Itrahuia and the wife 
 ofasautmi. .At its exit from this basin the river 
 receives the name ol llrahmapiiira, and is '.'nil ft, 
 broad: hir the next (Ut m. its course is mostly W, ; 
 I.") m, below Siiddva, ill lat. about I'T" oo' N.. ami 
 long. It.j'^ ;tl»' V... at a height of l,l."iil (Paris) ft. 
 alxive (he level ot the sea, the streams of the hiliong 
 and Diboiig join it. It now tlows in a SW. di- 
 rection through the centre of Assam, with a very 
 variable widtli, since its channel is continually 
 subdividing to enclose a prodigious nimibcr of 
 islands, the largest of which, that of .Miijiili, in 
 central Assam, is nearly 70 m, long, and In m. in 
 its greatest breadth. While in .Vssiiin the Hrah- 
 mapiitra is said to receive as many as sixty tri- 
 butary rivers. It enters Iteiigal in the liiingporii 
 distr., and soon after changes its directioii, tlowiiig 
 at first .S. and SI'',., encircling the W. extreinily of 
 the (iarrow moiintains, and tinally, SSW., to fall 
 into the Itav of Itengal by a mouth .'i m. wide, in 
 lat. -'-'o r)l)'"X., hdig, !it)°' III' K.. in conjiiiiction 
 with the largest branch of the (laiiges. The chief 
 tributary streams it receives in lleiigal .'ire, the 
 .Soormali, llarak,and (ioomty, on the left, and the 
 (iadada. Neelcomer, 'I'eesta, and Mcgiia, on the 
 right hand; the latter of which rivers, though not 
 oiie-tenth part its size, ciimiiiiiiiicat( s iis own nanm 
 to the Itrahiiiapiilra after their Jiinction. The af- 
 tliients of the ISrahniajiutra bringing down vast 
 ipiantities of iniid, its waters are usually extreiiiely 
 
 thick and dirty, and its surface, during the ll Is, 
 
 is covered with foam, intermixed with logs of wood, 
 large masses of reeds, and carcasses of men and 
 cattle. Its rise ciiinmonly begins in April; it 
 attains its greatest elevation at the begiimiug of 
 August, towards the end of which moiilli its in- 
 nndatioii subsides. Some rise, but no overlhiw, iH 
 experienced in Septoinber and (Jctobcr. In l!('iigiil 
 it IS not fordabic at any seasoii, but it is by no 
 means so readily navigiited as the (ianges; the 
 direction of the wind, which blows for so many 
 months contrary to the course of the latter river, 
 is commonly coincident with the direction of the 
 Itralimapntra, and adverse to all progress upwards. 
 Its banks are mostly covered with Jungle or marsh- 
 land, iind in many places quite destitute of tracks; 
 and its current is so strong, that I in. a day against 
 the stream is, for a canoe, considered a tolerable 
 advance. (Ifitter's Mrdknnde von Asieii, vid. iii. ; 
 Hamilton's K. I. (iai;. i. --'HC-^W.) 
 
 HI.'AINTIH'",!''., a par. and town of l''iiglaii(l, co. 
 I'^ssex, liiiiid. Hinkford. lit! m.'Nl'i. London by road, 
 and \\h m. by the (irjal Kastern railway, on which 
 it is n station. Area 2,000 acres. I'op. ol' par. 
 ■1,|120, and of town I,;!!!."* in IKIII. The town is 
 built on an eminence, .'iiid consists of several narrow 
 irregiilar streets, in which a few good houses, of 
 niiideri' date, arc dispci-scd. but tlic greater part 
 jir- ancient mean Imildingy maiiv of them wood: 
 the ^■illage of liocking, in tin parish of that name, 
 is a continiiation of this town on its N. side, ami 
 consists of one long street, in which arc many well- 
 built houses. IJocking parish I'ldudes ,'),«(M) acres, 
 and had a ]iop. of ll,.')'!;") in IMIil. ISraintrcecbnrcli 
 is a s|iacioiis (iotliic stnicture with a tower and 
 spire, on the elevated site of ii still older encamp- 
 ment. There are several diseining chapels; an 
 endowed school for 10 boys (in which L'ay, the 
 naturalist, was eilnc.ited) ; iiikI several charities: 
 the priiici|ial one |iriiiluces .'!.")0/. a year, which is 
 shared by the poor of this and two aiijuiiiiiig pa- 
 rishes. A weekly market is held on Wediiesilav ; 
 
 mm 
 
 M\ 
 
 W$\M 
 
r,-H) 
 
 ItUAKKF, 
 
 ll 
 
 niid two niiiMuil liiir-i, cin'li ln-'liii;; tlirr'c diiv.'*, 
 wliii'll I'litiiillt'lirc .M;iv 7 mill Orliilicr 2. Tilt' III- 
 liiiliiimit.H wi'rc ruriiiiTiy t'ii;;(i;,'ri| in Wdullcii iiiniiii- 
 f'licliiri', ImiI iliis liMs iMiw Ikc'iiiih' i|iiiti' rxiiiiit, 
 ririiiiiiri'i' JH iiiriiliiiiii'il in liniiii'siJiiyliiMik iiiidrr 
 llir iiiiini's III' li'Miiii'4 iiiiil Itrtinrhi'tri'ii. \t is a 
 
 liiilliny; tiiWII I'lir till' N. ilivifinll nl' I'iMHi'X, 
 
 ItliAK l'!l<, II tiiwn III' I'riiMxiii, jiriiv, \V('si|i|iiiliii, 
 ri';;, Minilcii, <'M|i, riri'li', mi llii^ ItriU'lit, iirnr ilH 
 riiiidiiciii'i' Willi till' Ni'ltc, ;i'J 111. NNW. ('••issi'l. 
 I'ii|i. '.',7ol ill lH(i|, 'I'Im^ Iiiwii tins a ('iitliiiiic 
 jiiirith I'liiiri'li, a Im^iiital, a wiirkliiius(>, and 
 i'lilirii'M III' lini'ii, luluH'ro, iind a ^JM^i^-wiirk, 
 
 llliA.MIti'ilt', a par. and Imr. nl' l'°.n^'laiiil, en. 
 SiiMsi'.N, hniid. Slcviiinj,', oil tlir Adnr, wliirli in 
 navi;^oililf I'tir sniail vi'mncIs I.') ni. S. Iiy W. Lmi- 
 iliiii liy mad, and .'i.'l in. Iiy Liiiidnii, llri;r|itiiii, and 
 Siiiiili ('nasi niilvvay. on wliirli it is a .staiinii. 
 I'lip. lit) ill IKiil, llraiiilicr riaiiiis lo lie a Imr. 
 Iiy iircMTiiiliiin, and was nl' siilliriciit iiiiportniiri- 
 to ti'wv its naini! lo llic rape, in wliirli it is siiii- 
 atcd. It sent 2 incni. to tlio II. of ('.from tlic 
 2.'l I'ldw. I., witli iircasinnal oinissions liclwccn 
 that diiic and 7 I'jIw. IV.; and siiliscniicntly, 
 vitliont inti'rrii|itiiin. till it wiis dislrancliiscd Iiy 
 the licliirni Art ; tin' rinlit nt'clcctinn was in linr- 
 ^'afic tcmirc voters payiii;; scot and lot, of wliicli 
 tlicre wcri' iiliimt 2ii. 
 
 llliAMl'TON, a parish and market town of 
 l'°.n;{lanil, CO. ('innlicrliiiid. I'',skilal(! Ward, on the 
 Ncwcasllt' and Tarlislc r/iilway. Area of par. 
 Hi, '.1711 acres. Pop. of par. .'I,.")H."(, and of town 
 2,;!7!l in \Ht;\. The town is situated 10 in. NK. 
 i'arlisle, in a deep narrow vnllev. It lias a towii- 
 lnill,liiiilt Iiy the I'.arl of Carlisle in |MI7, in which 
 coiirts are lield for tlie lianuiy of (iilslaiid. The 
 )iMr. chnrcli, now in rnins, is at the viihif^e of 
 Irthin^rtoii, alioiit I ,[: in. distant ; hut it has a |ta- 
 rochial chapel, linil'l in \7W, and repaired and 
 enlMr;ied in IH27 : it has also I dissentiii;; chajiels, 
 a f;raniinur-sch(iiil, a national school, erected Iiy 
 the I'.arl of Carlisle, an infant school, and 12 
 ahnshoiises for (i old men and as many women. 
 At the !■',. end 111' the town is the moat, a conical 
 moiinl, rising' .'(till ft. ahove the level of the streels. 
 The weavini; of checks. >,'in;,'haiiis. and other de- 
 scnplions of cotton ;;ii(ids, on account of tli<' 
 Carlisle niamifactnres, is carried on to some extent. 
 ni!AN'l)r.N'lil'l!(;.Mn iniporlant prov. of I'rns- 
 sia, consistiiif^ principally of th(! ancient mark 
 or iiiar(|uisale of lirandeiilmr'', haviii;^ N. Aleck- 
 Iciiliiirj^ and I'omerania, K. tin- provs. of I'rnssia 
 niid I'oscn, S. Silesia ami the kinploin of Saxony, 
 and W. rriissian Saxonv, Anhalt, and Hanover; 
 lielween i>\° I"' and r);io;i7'N'. hit., ami ll°|;i' 
 and l(i° 12' K. loiiff. Area lo,.')!!.') .sq, miles; pop. 
 2.l(;;),.')l;') in lxi;i, of whom 2,niH,l(M) civil inhahi- 
 tants, and ."iri.tl") military. The iiMvince is di- 
 videil into two rcj^encies and I! I circles. l'rinci]ial 
 towns, I'.erlin, I'otsdam. Frankfort. iSraiiflenlinr:;, 
 and Spandan, The province consisis principally 
 of an imnieiise sandy plain, watered Iiy the Oder, 
 Spree. Ilavel, Warta, Net/., and other rivers, and 
 liy mimeiiius lakes. Soil generally ]Mior: in many 
 jiiirts indeed, it consists of vast tracts of liarren 
 sand, diveisitieii with extensive heaths and moors: 
 Imt in other]iarts. particularly alon^ the rivers and 
 lakes, there is a ^ood deal of meadow, marsh, and 
 other ciimpiiratively rich land. Forests very exten- 
 sive. Ivstimatinj,' th" whole extentof the; prov. at j 
 iri,.s(ii),(li)Omori:en, or Cierinan acres, it is supposed I 
 to he distrilmteil as follows: — water, ;)(I(),()(MI mor- 
 
 p.n; w Is, ;i,.')(IO,0OI) lo. ; aralile lands, (•|,7(m,IMlO 
 
 (III.; Kiirdens, (i,j,(MIO do.; waste lands. ii,2.jll,0(H) 
 do.: Iiiiildiiif^s, roads, Ac. ri.Vl,(li)(l do. Corn of all 
 sorts is raised. TiucUwiieat, however, succeeds 
 lietter than any other sort of j;T,iin on the .siiiiily 
 
 T.IlAN'Do.V 
 
 soils, and next (o it rye, I'otatoeM are now vfr\' 
 e\len:<ively cnllivateil. The other principal iim. 
 ducts lire Wool, hemp, and llax, toliacco, tinilicr 
 and hops, Aj,'riciilture, thou^^di liiickwanl, hi,,' 
 made ureat ad\aiices siiH'e IXI.'i. The linedi i,| 
 horses and sheep have lieeii materially iiiiprnvid ■ 
 particular attention is paid to the raixin^ nrwiinl 
 which has liecome u most important prniliiii! 
 Itrandeiiliur^, in fact, produces mori' wool tiiaiuinv 
 other iiroviiice of till kiii>;doiii. With lliecMiii. 
 tion III lime and gypsum, the minerals are nl mm jm. 
 portance. Manufactures were iiilrodiiceil liv iIm' 
 rel'u;;ees frniii France, sulisei|nently to the reviKii- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes, and are very exti'M«ivi'. 
 They are principally carried on at IJerlin (wlii.h 
 see, and I'lit'H.Hi \). There are mamifaciiiriM nf 
 steaiii-eii)^nnes and iHfricultiiral implcnieiii.H, i,i' 
 woollen, silk, and cotton stnlVs, of optiial iiini 
 matheinatical instruments, and of chenhcnl iirn- 
 diice, liesides numerous lireweries, diNlilleries,H],i«s- 
 works, lirick-kiliis, tanneries, potash, charcnal, aiirj 
 lime inannfactories. The internal trade nl' ijk. 
 prov. is very eoiisiderahle, and is much lacilitaiiil 
 hy railways, rivers and iwtvi;;alile canals, 'jh,. 
 railways centre in llerliii, eoniieetin;; every im- 
 portant town of the province. The sy>ti'iii nf 
 water communication likewise is very eomplcii.; ji 
 owes its ori;;inchielly to Fleetor Frederick Willijiiii, 
 snrnamed the (ireat ICIeetor, The iirnvinci' nl' 
 ltranileiiliur<4 formed the miclens of all the siaii", 
 now united in the I'riissian inniiarcliy. It uiis 
 fiiveii in 14111 liy Kaiser Si^^ismnnd tn" Frcdcriik 
 VI., Count of llolien/ollerii and nur;.'raveiif Nllrii- 
 lier^', anceslnr nf the present kiiif,'s nf I'russiu. 
 
 Itii.vMiKNiii^iiii, 11 tnwii nf Prussia, priiv. Niiiii! 
 name, re;;'. Potsdam, ea|i. eirc. \V. llavcilaiid, liii 
 the Ilavel, ;i,') m. WSW. Merlin, and IlM ni. Nl:, 
 Ma:,nU'liur^s lat. r>i° 27' N., Illn^^ 12°;12' K. l'i,|,, 
 2o.H0tl in INtil. The town has a station eii the 
 railway from Merlin to iMay;ilel)ur;,'. 'I'lie rivir 
 divides it into thre(^ p;irts ; the old town mi ilii' 
 ri;;ht, and the new on the left, hank; wliile im mi 
 island hetweeii them isliuilt the ' Cathedral Thhii,' 
 which, from standing; on pile's, is also (hIIi.I 
 ' Venice.' Streets of the old town narrow iiinl 
 crooked; lint those of the new town are ennipMrii- 
 tively liroad and slrai^^ht ; liotli arc walieil iiiiil 
 connected liy a hrid;;e. On the island is tliiT,i- 
 thedral, a structure of the 1 Itli century, the cd-ilc, 
 and an eipiestri.-in academy. It has ei;;ht chiinlu-, 
 li'.o hospitals, a (•oiiin;il-hiiiise, with n imMii; 
 lilirary, a f^ynmasiiim, a citi/.eiis' school (Bvrijn- 
 sr/iiiln}, II superior female school, witii iumiiitipik 
 elementary and charity schools; a workliuuM'. ,i 
 theatre, and three piihlic sipiares, in one nf wliiili 
 stands the Itolandsai'ile, a column liewii mit nf 
 a sin;;l(^ Ithick of stone. The font and nuimiiniiits 
 in St. C'atlierine's elmrch ariMvorfhy of iiniiic, ,h 
 are also the works of art in the cathedral. I'lufi' 
 are inannfaclures of woollens, fu^tiiuis, liinii-, 
 stockin;;s, paper, itc. ; with iiuinemiis lnowcrii-. 
 distilleries, tanneries, and some hoat-liiiildiii::; nu<[ 
 it has a liri.-.k trade hoth liy land and water. Ii 
 has heen several times hesie^^ed — liy Henry llio 
 Fowler, Allirc'cht the Hear, and (Jiistaviis Ailnl- 
 plins. It was the l)irth)itace of .Julius von Vciss, 
 
 MnANDKNiiintu (Ni;\v), a town nf the f:r;iii4 
 duchy of IMecklenhiir;,' Strelitz, on a rivulet wliiili 
 falls into the lake Tolleii, 17 in. N. Iiv E. Ni"' 
 Slrelitz. Po)). ."),!ir)(l ill l,st;i. U is wiille.l. am! 
 well liiiilt; has a casfle,n ;;ramiiiar sclinel,s(lii"il> 
 for the sons and dan;;liters of townspeiipie.inviirli- 
 honse, and some woollen and cotton tiilirics; Imi 
 the hnsiiiess of distillation is the must iiniinrlaiit 
 carried on in the town. 
 
 Pili'AXDON, a i)ar. and town of Kiiirlaini, r". 
 Sull'nlk, Imiid. LacUford; 7;> m. NNK. l/iiiil'Hi I'V 
 
IlItANTo.MK 
 
 rn.'iil, ninl HH 111. Ity <irt'itt I'.HHlirr. failwMv, on 
 ttliii'li It liiM II Hlaliitii. I'll)), of pariili '.'.JlH, iiinl 
 „l'liiwii, -'.'.'((.'I ill |H»;i ; iircii (if piirisli, ,"),.">70 utrct. 
 Iti.H nil tlic S. Ititiik 1)1' till' l.iiilc ()iis(<, or llraiKliiii 
 river, whii'li I'liriim tlir N. Iiminilarv iil'tlit' (Mninty, 
 mill i.-i luTf criiH?*!'!! Iiy a neat stimc liriilKc (iiiii- 
 iliiilH art' iiiailc in tlic town ami Nciit to variniis 
 |iiirt^ III' till' kiti^iloiii ; tlii'V arc iiniiliiccd iilioiii a 
 mil;' \V. iiril, rriiiii linl.t lrav('r.■«ill^,' a rliiilk Hiratiiiii, 
 mill alirrnaliiiK with otlirrs of |ii|ic-clay : many 
 lalHiiiriTM ari^ I'lnitloycil In quarrying' tlit'xc llinis, 
 llicrc i* nUi> Hoiiic trallic carried on in rorn, malt, 
 I'uiii?!, anil liiiiliiT. Ill till' iii'i^hlioiirliooit an* t'x- 
 iniiivc raliliit warrciit. Fairn lire Hiill Iclil, Kcl). 
 ||,,liini> II, Nov. II; lait llu' market has lieeii 
 iliM-iiiiliniied. 'I'liere is an ciuloweil frei! mcIiooI. 
 llmiiilDii ('atTi|i, a si|. eartlnvork in the vicinity, is 
 «ii|ilMiM'(l to III! tlie Jirnriiiiiiin of the ItoiiianH. The 
 jiiikc of llaniilloii and llrandoii durivuH Iiih Kii^- 
 li.>li title from thiH town. 
 
 KliANTt t.Ml';, a town of Krancp, de'p. Dordi^iic, 
 lap, cant, on the Droiiic, near itx conlhiencc with 
 ilicCollo, 12 in. N\V. IVri(,'iu'iix. I'oii. •_',.")« I in 
 IMill. Ilrantome is a^reealily Niliiated, and is a 
 iii'iil lian(l.'<iim(' town. 'I'lie walls and ditches hy 
 wliii'h it was formerly siirronnded have heeil dc- 
 niiili.-heil. It has some fahrics of woollen stntls, 
 iiii.iicry, and coitini. Near the town is an aliliey 
 nrtlie Iteiiedicliiu's, the foundation of which is as- 
 irilii'il hy soiiK! to ('harlema;;ne, and hy others to 
 ].iiiii'»-le-l)e'hoiiiiaire. This ahhey was held in 
 rmmniddin hy the liislorian Ilrantome, who re- 
 liri'il thitlier after the liattle of .larnac, and eoin- 
 imM'il in this retreat a imrt of his works. 
 
 llliAUNSHKIiti, n town of I'rnssia, prov. K. 
 I'riissia, cap. circ. on the rassarjfc, almnt .'1 in. 
 almvc where it falls into the I'Visclie. Halt'. Pop. 
 tii.Hil in IHtil. TIk' town is very thriving;, and 
 li;w a station on the railway from llcrliii to Kii- 
 iii^jslier;,'. The river is navij^ahle as far as the 
 liiHii hy vessels of small hunleli, and it has some 
 siii|i|iiiiK, and exports corn and tinihcr. It is the 
 ri'.-iiiciice of the liishop of Ilrnielaiid. the seat of a 
 fiiyal court of jnstice, and has several chnrches, a 
 inmiaslery, a normal school, and four hospitals. 
 Until derives its )irin(;ipal claim to notice from its 
 s'lniiiary, the Li/vviim llimatiiim, for tin; ediica- 
 liHii »f Catholic clerjj;ymen. It is so called from 
 its liavinj; Uieii founded and endowed hy the 
 liariieil Stanislaus llosins, hisliop of Krmeland. 
 it has six jirofessors, and ahoiit .'iti students. 
 
 ItKAV, ii township of Kiif^land, co. lU-rks, liund, 
 llrav. Top. 2,'.>;t(i in 1H(!|. The town has acqnireil 
 Mime celehrity in connection with the well-known 
 'Vicar of llray.' It appears that the person who 
 licjil the livinj,', a vicara^^e, in the reif^ns of lleiirv 
 VIII., I'ldward VI., Jlary, and Klizaheth, was 
 jjiltcilwith a most accMimmodatinji conscience. lie 
 I'liiinu'iiceda Papist, then heciiine J'rotcstunt. next 
 I'ajiist a^ain, and then Protestant a^ain. (Jn hein^^ 
 taxcilwilh inconsistency, he defended himself by 
 suing that he had always adhered to one ]irin- 
 ri|iii', which was ' to live and die Vicar of liiay ! ' 
 rile well-known sonj; repri'sents this worthy vicar 
 as liviiif^ in the rei^n of Charles II. and his snc- 
 ('(•ssiirs ; hilt the ahove is Fuller's account of the 
 imiilcr (vol. i. Tit, ed. l«n). 
 
 lliiAV, a niarit. town of Irelanil, cos. Wicklow 
 anil Diihliii. prov. I,einster, on the Hray or Darjrle, 
 I'.' 111. SK. hv S. Dublin, on the railway from 
 liiililiii to Wicklow. I'oi). 4.IK2 in M\\. The 
 iiiwii, which takes its name from Itre, or Hrcc^, a 
 lii'(iillaii(t at the foot of which it stands, is divided 
 iiitiitwii portions by the river, which also separates 
 tlie ciiiiiuies of Wicklow and Dublin. The part 
 I'lillieX., or Dublin side, is called Little l!ray:| 
 tl"! cuiiiiiiiiiKcatioii between the t^vo ilivisioua is 1 
 
 \\\{.V/.U, 
 
 wn 
 
 keiit lip by an old briil;,'c. It lias a pariih church, 
 a lar^'c and elegant I'onian Catholic chapel, it 
 I'l'i'sbyterian ineetin;; hniisc, and several sciiooU, 
 one of which, an inl'ani mIiouI, is a spiicioiis 
 building; it has also u saving's' bunk, a loan fund, 
 an hospital, Mild a dispensary. An old castle in 
 Liltle llray has been converted into a barrack. A 
 constabulary and a coast unanl force are nln 
 lioiied here, and near the (own is a martellu 
 tower. The town is neatly built, and is iH'coine a 
 fashionable watering -plare. It was formerly in- 
 corporated, and lilirliikinenis were held here, but 
 its chartered privile<;es ha\ e fallen into desuetude. 
 A manorial court is held inoiithly, and ju'lty ses- 
 sions on nltcrnale Mondays. It inamifactnreH 
 small (piantiiies of linen and coarse woollens. 
 iMarkeis are held on Tuesdavs and Salunlays; 
 fairs for friezes on ,lan. 12, Slay I, .\ii^;. '>, and 
 Nov. 12; and for cattle on March I, May I, 
 .July I, Alt;;. I'l, Set). 20, and Dec. It. The hnr- 
 boiir is barred by a lied of shingle, which >;reatly 
 obstructs the iiavif^ration. A considerable lishery 
 of cod, haddock, and herring was formerly carried 
 on, which has been completely annihiliited, Tlui 
 salmon lishery has also declined, 
 
 lilt A/I I., an empire of S. Aiiiericn, nnil one of 
 the lar^jest states in the world — very nearly the 
 size of the whoh; of Kurope — stretches almi),' twi> 
 thirds of the I'',, coast of that continent, while itM 
 snpertlcial area occupies nearly half its whole ex- 
 tent. It lies between 1° 1 7' >i. and .•12° WW S. lat., 
 and Wifi and 71)° W. hm^;. The leii;;th, from X. 
 to S., is between 2,t'iiM» and 2,7lHt m., and its 
 breiidth, from K. to \\'„ between 2,tMl(i and 2,.'tO(» 
 m. Its extent of coast alon^' the Atlanlii' Ocean 
 exceeds 'l.tMIO m. ; its area has been esliiiwited at. 
 from 2,r)i)li,lKMI to :t,ili)ll,tlllil SI), ni. It is bounded, 
 S, and V.., by the Atlantic' Ocean ; N. by the At- 
 lantic Ocean, French, Dutch, and llriiish (Iiiiana, 
 and the repiililic of \'eneziiela, and W. by the re- 
 publics of I'^ciiador, Peru, Itolivia, and Piira;;iiay. 
 
 A liir;;e proportion of lirazil consists of hin'h 
 land and mountains, and the extent of cultivated 
 land bears but a very small proportion to (hat of 
 the whole country. The subioined table jjives the 
 area and )iopiilation of the twenty |ir<>vinces 
 into which the empire is divided, accordiiifj; to a 
 snpertlcial enumeration, or rather estimate, of the 
 year I Not! : — 
 
 Provlnci'l 
 
 Area 
 OuuK. Sq, Milci 
 
 Piipulalion 
 
 
 
 Minns Oernos . . ■ 
 
 11,11') 
 
 l,'jiiii,no() 
 
 Uio .raiiLiru .... 
 
 Still 
 
 l,'.'OII,(l(M» 
 
 ' Daliiii 
 
 (i.Ofll 
 
 1,11111,1111(1 
 
 1 I'erimiiiljiico . . . 
 
 •J.IKIH 
 
 !l.-iO,(liiO 
 
 ,^an I'aiilu .... 
 
 H.D.'ill 
 
 .'illll,IMI() 
 
 Cenru 
 
 l,7:il) 
 
 :is."i,:mi) 
 
 Maninlino .... 
 
 (;,7.-.!> 
 
 liliO.IMH) 
 
 I'liniliyliii .... 
 
 1,1 :)H 
 
 •Jii!),:li»i> 
 
 I'an'i 
 
 5-1,0117 
 
 •J07,lili) 
 
 Alii(,'(ins 
 
 ■i.'IO 
 
 am, ■-'110 
 
 Itio (Iranileilo Sul . 
 
 4,o.-,!» 
 
 'Jill,:llH) 
 
 Itio (iiiiliile ilo Norte 
 
 Wi 
 
 l!lll,lllll) 
 
 Sii-^'ipu 
 
 .''•-'S 
 
 lS::.(i(MI 
 
 tioyn/', 
 
 1 :),:.!»! 
 
 1S0,{HII) 
 
 I'iiiiiliy 
 
 4,f!»7 
 
 I'lO.tOd 
 
 .^aiitnCntlmriiia . . 
 
 li!»4 
 
 lll.'.,IPIHI 
 
 JIntto (li'osso . . . 
 
 28,711! 
 
 n.'>,(m(t 
 
 Parana 
 
 — 
 
 7-J,ll)(» 
 
 Kspiritii Santo . . . 
 
 (i43 
 
 ril,:|ii(l 
 
 Amu/.uiins .... 
 Total .... 
 
 — 
 
 42,(j(l0 
 
 147,(I-.>1 
 
 7,li77,8"0 
 
 or ... 
 
 3,l<Hi,l(ll Enf 
 
 'lisli sij. miles 
 
 - --- . .- 
 
 
 
 Hff!! 
 
 il'^ 
 
 '■r,:ii 
 
 According to these returns, the density of po]i. 
 is less than three per square mile, on the averaf^e. 
 Other estimates, more recent (Almanak Admiiiis- 
 trativti par liSlJ.' jtute the imniber of the popuiu- 
 
 m^\ 
 
 m 
 
1,12 
 
 IJHAZII, 
 
 liiiii lit mIhiV(> H,0(M),000, rnni|i(n)'i| i,(' rn"rt< lliiiii 
 ri.niio.oiiii Iririiicn, ■J„'iiiii,imm) hluvcH, tiiid iiliniii 
 riiMi.iioii nf iiiitivi> liiiliuiiM. I.ur;^i> triii'U iif hrit/il 
 lire iiniiilmliilril, nr |ii'ii|ilnl only liy a xt'iitli'ml 
 |iii|iiitali<>ii, iiiiil (III' iiiunNi-i III' iiiliiiliiiiiiitN ciiii^ii 
 
 ^ali' iirar llii ast, aiiil arniiinl iln' rliirl' McaimriM. 
 
 All tlic |)riiii'i|ial cilii"* arc mi llir riiii«t. 'I'ln' 
 liarliiiiirH an^ aiiintif; iln' tini'Ml in the wnrlil : ami 
 miiiic III' iIk'Iii ari' I'liiinrrti'il wiili llic iiiii'rinr liv 
 lar^'l• rlMTH, iia\ l^'alilc lur ii nrvtO way liilitinl. 
 
 'I'lic |iriiii'i|ial rivrrn nrv. — tlii" Aiiia/<'ii, (Xiin'- 
 nilly niiiNiiliTfit ilir larKi'it rivrr in tlir wurlil, 
 Inrnicil liy tin' jiinrlinii nl' llii' iiiiiiliTii ManiMiiii 
 (TimniiranMM) with tin- I'rayali', iir aiiricnl .Ma- 
 raiKiii. It tiiiii'hi's Itra/.il mi ilir N.al its Jinn timi 
 with lilt' Mailrira in alimit .V.)*^ W. Imi^'., ainl nitiT-i 
 it at aliiiiil tlu' i'lTlli (III. ; ami ihcii tlnwiii^' ilirniiKli 
 till' )iriiv. 1)1 I'araaiiil ruriniiif; lui iiiiiin'ii-ii' I'stuaiy, 
 it iliNrliar^'i'M iiHt'ir intu tlir Atlaiitir Oiraii iiinlt'r 
 Mil' t'i|iiatiir in almiil .'id" W. Imi^. Il rcrcivi'K in 
 its ciiiirst' tliriiii^li lli.'i/il I'min the S. .iniiic nl' its 
 |irini'i|ial Irihutarii'M, iiirlinliii^ Ihi' Mailcira, tin' 
 liirKi'Mi iit'lhciii all, wliirli liirniH a iMirtiiiiiur lint W. 
 liiiinnlary of tin' riDpirc, with l\w. rajiaJiH, ami lli<> 
 \inL>'n : Ilic atllui'iilH ol' llic Aniii/nu t'rnin tini N, 
 ill ils ('iiiir.'>i' llirmijrli llra/il an; cnniiiiirativt'ly iiii- 
 ini|iiirtaiit. Ol' the other rivcrx the |irirn'i|ial arc 
 tlu' 'riiraiitiint nr I'ara, an iiinnriisi' xtrrani I'lirnii i| 
 liy the Jniii'tinii nl' tlui Ariif;iiiiy (llii> |iriin'i|ial 
 liraiicli) ami 'rnraiitiiiM iimptTly mi calli'il : it has 
 its Nonri'CM in the S, \mrtrt nf the iirnvH, nl' Mattn 
 <il'os^«l ami (inyax, ami llnwiii^ S'NW. lulls iiitn 
 Ihc Atlantio inaliiml 1° S. lat. ami INO \V. Iniiy;. 
 At tin' inniith of the I'ara, the |ilii'ininn'iinii nl'thi' 
 liiirc, to wliicli the linliniis liavi' ^ivcii the nanicnr 
 jmrtiriuii. niaiiilr-'ts itself in a very Ntrikin^r nninmr. 
 I'lircc (lays prcvinn.slv tn the ii".v or I'lill iinmn, 
 when till' tiilcs an- iii^^licst, an ininiciisc wave, 
 u|iw'ari|s ol' I.') ft, ill iicrpi'miicniar ln'i;;'lil, riislics 
 I'riiin slinrc tn Nliorc with a trcnicinlnns inii.sc, ami 
 is siu't'ccili'il ininirdiati'ly liy a si'i'innl ami a Ihinl. 
 ami snnu'tiini'H liy a rmirih. 'I'lic tiilc, iiiMtcad nl' 
 o('cii|iyiiiK six hours to llnw, attains its ^^rcatcst 
 ln'ij;lit ill a I'i'W niimitcs, 'I'lic rn.irinjfol' the pnro- 
 mca is heard at a distanee nl' nearlv two leagues, 
 (Denis, IJresil, p. l'!):!, Paris, Ih;17.)' The llio San 
 Francisco, one of tlui largest, of tlio lira/.ilian 
 rivers, rises in tlio S. part of the prov. nf Minas 
 (icraes, near the sources nf the I'arana. It is the 
 only river of iinpnrtaiiec lietween llaliia and I'cr- 
 nainlmco, lint its navipition is interrupted hy the 
 caNcade of I'anio AtVoiiso, The l{io (Iraiide do 
 Sul, in the jirnv. of San I'edro, is anolhcr larKc 
 river, as is the I'arana, of La I'lata, separating; 
 Jlrazil from l'ara;;iiay and the slates of I,a I'lata, 
 and fnrmiiifi alsn the li(niiidarv-line iK'twcen the 
 prnvs. of San I'aiil, Matio (i rosso, and (inyaz: 
 the l{io I'ardo, the Ivuliy, and the Jgimzu empty 
 themselves into it. 
 
 In addition to the aliove, wc may snccinetlv 
 ('iiunicrate the I'arahylia, separating the prnvs. nf 
 Alaraiihain and I'ianhy; the Itapicarii; the Itin 
 (irandc do Itelnionte ; the llio Doec, ami ii host of 
 (illicrs. Many of the riviTs of JSra/.il, especially 
 the Mnraiion, overtlow their hanks, and snhject 
 tlio country to extensive inundations. The na- 
 vijjation of some of the lnr>;cr rivers is intomipted 
 by falls and rapids, and the mouthsof some ol the 
 smaller rivers are suliject to winds and currents, 
 ■which render their imvi^ration dillicult. 
 
 The lake, or rather limooii, Lnyou doa Patos, in 
 the ])rov. of IMo (irandc do Sul, is the niost exten- 
 sive ill Uruzil. It stretches N. from Kio (Jrande, 
 at its S. extremity, where it communicates with 
 the sea, to I'nrto Ale^re, a distance of abnve 1 15 
 111., Iieiiifj ill parts ahoiit 40 m. in breadth. Thniif^h j 
 tncunibert'il with shoals, it is navigable by vessels 
 
 nf cniinlilcrnlile liiirdiii. ft rrccive* nrrrral I ,r^»|, 
 
 rivers, Ml that its waiern in llie N. parl», .r il 
 
 lartliesi IrnMi the sea, are lint sliuhlly l>ra> ki>li. 
 There are aunni inaiix nilier laUcs iiidilTi'rciii (lori, 
 of the 4'mpiri', but innic nl llntii are very i \ti nnivc. 
 Tliry lire inoKi niiiin'roiiN in the prov. of I'urii, 
 /'////>..(// Jn/M./.— The f"nn of Ilra7.il niiiy U 
 
 said alninsl in li'^crnble til. It of a heart, of Mill, Il 
 the urculesl diilinelci iVntii I,, to W., in a »lriii.;lii 
 line I'rniii < llimla in the territnrii's claiimd hy I', ru, 
 may be alidiil ;iO decrees. The V,. sident llrii/jln 
 liaMTseil, Irniii N, III .S., at iimre nr les~ di'-limri' 
 Iniin the rnasi, by a ninuillaiilnlis ran^i, n|' hIiJi || 
 the avera;;!' Iniulil i« ahniit ;t,IIIMI ft,, kimMn |,y 
 the name nf .Serra <\'t Mar, its j^rcalcst Iiik^'Ji'i 
 liciii'C l.tHHM't, This \:\\\\n> serves In iii\ii|i' in. 
 enust lainl t'l'nn llic liiu'h land, cniisi>iin^ i.| ( ;,,||. 
 
 pi'«, nr trails deslilnli' of w I, the :ueril>.'i 111 iylit 
 
 of whiiii is aliniii '.',.'iOO I'l. It i^radiiallv I'immih^ 
 
 InWer ill the dilii inn nf I'm i^fnay, linid it is |u.| 
 ill iIk! Iiiw and nmslly iiiar.-hy plains iiilialiiini 
 by llie ImliMii iiilii' of (iiiiiyciiriis. Many l''"- 
 ^raphers lia\c fallen iiitn the error nf siippuMn^r 
 I hat the pro\. of Mattn I ii"^>o contains the lii^hi.t 
 inoiintaiiis, and ihni llir\ I'nrni a Jiiiictlnii witliilii] 
 Cnrdiilcras nf rem and Chili. Mill Kscliw.;'!-, 
 wlin resided in the cniiniry fnr ten years, (jiir-njj 
 which pcrind he visited the ^'realcr part nl ii, 
 cniil'ntes this siipposilinii in his llra/.iliin die lU'iii! 
 Well (vnl. i, p. |i;."i, llraiinsch. 1«.'1((). Me hI.mtvis 
 thai bmad ami extensive plains lie beiwciii. ainj 
 that the sources nf the Mad'ira, which tlnw,, m n 
 iinrtherly dircciinii tnwaids the Aimi/mi, ninl i.r 
 the I'lirn^iiay, takiii){ a sniithcrly cniir^e tiiHanli 
 the l,a I'lata, are Imth within a few miles of cinli 
 niher, and that their elevation is iiicniisiijcralili'. 
 The hiuhesl raii^e of the lira/ilian nniinitaiii'> is 
 that which traxcrses the ceiitre nf the cdiiniiy, 
 and ils (greatest altitude is abniit I'i,immm'I, TIh' 
 nininitiiins nf I'lra/.il may be subdivided into tlinr 
 dill'erciit raii;;es : I, The cnasi raii;,'e, nr .Serra iln 
 .Mar, abn\e niciitinned, 'I'his is by far the iii">l 
 piclnresipie nf the Itra/.iliMil chains, and in skiih' 
 parts approaches within Hi or \H in. of llie mji. 
 while in others it sweeps inwards to a disiaiirci.f 
 from I'JII to I III m. At a distaiiec, and in tlii' 
 vicinity of the mountains, are fuiiiid ancient tiiri'M'i 
 (matto virj^ci.i), whose ^jiant trees and cmiiiilr-s 
 plants and sh.'ubs, nf Inxuriant ^^owtli, so tliiiMy 
 interwoven as almost to defy the attempts nf iiiiiii 
 lo force a pass,;;,'!', siillicienily attest the oxcil- 
 lenee of the soil on which they >;rnw. On ('riis>iii;' 
 the Serrn do Mar, we meet with a barren talilr- 
 laiid. called t'ainpns (icraes, with lew tnicc.'Mf 
 cullivation. In the valleys, ^old and ilianniiuls 
 are fre(|iicntly discovered. The Scrra lin .Miir 
 chain commences in the Campns de N'acaria, >iiik'' 
 abruptly in the direction nf the Hin Doec, ami Ihms 
 itself cnmplelely at Italiia. The cclebrateii .Umili' 
 rasenal, which was seen by the early iiavi};ali^, 
 fnniis a part of the Serr.'i do Mar. It is knnwii liv 
 various names in the districts tlimii^li wliiili ii 
 runs. On the I'}, side it is styled .Serra dos Ayiiim-o, 
 while ill the neighbourhood of Uio it is sty Icil .'si rra 
 dos ( )rf;o('s. It is worthy of remark, that tlic |ilaiiH 
 growing in the CumiMis are altogether distinct frmii 
 those on the other side the Scrra do Mar ; niid llw 
 zoologist may discover quite a new ract! of uiiimal-. 
 as well as birds, in this region. '2. The central cliiiiii, 
 called in some parts Scrra do iMantegneira, ainliii 
 others Scrra do Kspinhaco, is more extensivi'liuin 
 the fnnner, and compri.ses the highest pdiiits i)i 
 Hraxil : viz. the Itacoliimi, near Villaricii : tlu' 
 Serra do C'arassa, lU'ar Callas Alias ; ami tin' 
 Itanibe, near Villa do I'rincipe. This raii;,'i' 
 traverses 'he prov. of Minas (icraes, rniiiiiiif:. in 
 its uorthtrly course, through liuliia and rtriwui- 
 
Iiiicii, iiml ill ilr4 Moiitht'iiv I'liiir^i', tliriMiKli Sitti 
 I'lnilci unit Hill (tr.'iinli'. b U iidI imly nniiirlt 
 iiMi' iiM <'iiiiiiirif<iii^ ilii> jiiulimt iiiiiiiiH ill ilii< 
 (■iii)iir<'. I'nt IH lii^iily iiiti'rr-.iiiin In n (.'cn^jtuK 
 lii'iil, iNitiiiiiriil, mill /.iiiiliiuiral |i<iinl nf vii'W. In 
 MtT'iTi'iil |>iirlN, it lii'iirH llii> MiriiiiiN int'iil iiaiiicH 
 1 Mrrii ili> l.ii|ii, Srrrii Snliiulo, Scrra dr Snu 
 (Mf.iliiii. Nirni iliH i;«iii(r:il'l(i«, nml nniiiy utjnrs, 
 I, (111' Sirrii ilii't N'crli'iili^. or llii' W'ltirr Hr|ia- 
 riiiini.' Mi'imiuin, (<"> calli'il I ■ rauMi' li iIin iili'n ihr 
 I, iril itiirioH ,>t' ilir ri'tfH Aiii'i/."n iiml bi I'lalu 
 Iriin 111'' vucrSan l''iiinri'<<'i>, riii.Hrliain inmiiiK'- 
 liiij' • luUfil tlu' llra/iliaii l'.vr('iii'i'<<, lis lnHii-nt 
 , i must rrliiark.il'l'- lioiiit^ iin- IIupmi' nC Srrril ilu 
 
 I tiiiistra ami .Mali<> i ."nla, Hlirrc, mi mir -tiilc. ilir 
 Kin Sun l''raii<'i'<rii, ainl >ii the ntlitT, llir inoMt iin- 
 |Hirliint triliiiiarii'H i>r till' Kin (iriiiulc, tak)' tluir 
 ri.i'iiiinl ill'' I'yriiii'ips, ill till' |iriivliii'(' of (iiiyii/, 
 uliiri' iIk' Iriliiitarii'M nl' llic I'liraila iirr rmiiiil, 
 
 I'.xi'lusivi' III' iiH iiiiiiiiilaiiiiiii'tatiil hilly ili.-irii'tM, 
 iiiiil III' itP4 talili'-laiiilH. I III' |ilaiii<« of Itra/il arc nl' 
 \i<t I'xtriit ; till' )iri>N. Ill' I'lini, iiit'lmliii^Mi |iiirliiiii 
 .<! till' I'liiili^iiiiiis |iriiv. Ill' Matin (iroMHii, ci mi priors, 
 
 II fart, the wlliilc nl'tlic liiwcf iillil lilnsl level |Hir- 
 iiMii III' the ^'ipinlie jilaiii nt' the Aiiia/,iin. I Miring 
 ihi' iiiiMiilatiiiii.'*, Iiir^e Iraetn ul'thiH iiluiii are niiIi- 
 iiirfKeil. llH Hiiil in Niil't, alluvial, ami nf ilie ^reni- 
 i.i I'ertilitv. It is imistly I'nvereil liy iinineiiNe 
 |rliii:i'val liiresls. There are al»i> sniiie very e\- 
 ti'ihiveiilaiiiH ill Maraiihaii ami nlher jiiirtM ul'ilie 
 iiii|>ire. 'riiat whii'li im'luile!< the hn^iia dos I'atiis 
 rxtriiiW I'lir aliiive "JJOni. ailing the slmre. 
 
 Soil. — The soil of llra/il is nt' viirinii.s (leserip- 
 
 liuiiN. It is cif ureal fertility in some pMrls. hut hy 
 
 in means thniii^'hoiit, ami llieol'ten re|iiiilei| story 
 
 111' the sii|peraliiimlaiit wealth of the soil in every 
 
 I'lirt III' the eiiimre iw ileeiileilly erroneous. Mr. 
 
 ( MiiMil ('o\v|)er, 111 one of his re|iorts to the llritish 
 
 (iipvcriiiiient, alliules to this in saving; : — ' I believe 
 
 till' fertility of the soil of llra/.il to he iihsiirilly 
 
 i'V;i^;;,'erateil. I have lieanl iniieh hill seen little 
 
 I'I'its I'xtraoriliniiry jiowers of|iro(liietioii, I have 
 
 Iriivi'ileil a ^reiit ileal in this eiii|iire, ami as a 
 
 1,'riitiiil rule lia\e foiniil aloiiK the coast ii samly 
 
 iiii|iri)iUictive soil ('overeil with eoeoanut trees ami 
 
 niiiiitiriives, vuri<'(l oceasioiially, near theenihoiich- 
 
 iiri'rtiif rivers, hy alluvial (le|)osits, liaril us a rock 
 
 ill »iinnner ami iin|iassalile nnid in the winter; 
 
 liirtlicr iiiliiml, umlraineil valleys, formin(,' niiiilily 
 
 iiikrs ill winter, ami very iireearidiis eaiie tiehls in 
 
 Mimiiu'r; the|iro(hiee of the hills, in coininoii with 
 
 Iliat nf the whole poimtry, lieiiij; a jirey to timt 
 
 ^Tiiil ilestroyer, Ihn ' Fonni),'(i ile IJnea,' or 'red 
 
 ;iiii ;' and in the very interior sterile inoiintains 
 
 iiiiilvasl iiastnrt' lands, hiit so snhjeet tndroiii^hls, 
 
 lliiit imt only cattle, hut hundreds of the |io|iiila- 
 
 limi fall victims to them.' Senlior Liii/. ("arvalho, 
 
 Ailing; Insiiector of Customs nt I'ernainhiico. in a 
 
 |iaiii|iiilet imlilished with u view to the reconi- 
 
 iiii'iiilrttiipii of certain nieiisures for the henetit of 
 
 till' afjriciilt lire ami trade of the province, siiys: — 
 
 'I'liinpnreil with the vastness of territory, ni its 
 
 ^Tiatest |)iirt uncnltivnted, our |)o|uilutioii is in- 
 
 liiiiii'iiiinal (diininiitissinia). Its slow natural iii- 
 
 cTcasc, jieriodicully checked hy the visitation of 
 
 MdiirKos, droii;;lits, yellow fever, and cholera, cer- 
 
 liiiiily does not satisfy either the necessities of the 
 
 liriiwnt or the. aspirations of the future.' The 
 
 Nunc cniisos, in fact, which rcndereil iinpossihlc 
 
 ilie foundation in lira/il of a civilisation nnahi- 
 
 t;iiii» to that which was established in Me.vico, 
 
 ''intral America, and I'crii, a^cs before the dis- 
 
 iiivory of this continent by I'^uropeaiis, are still in 
 
 flrtioii ti)-da\', and in iimliiniiiished force. Not- 
 
 wiilistaiidiiiK, '• would be; impossi'tle to overrate 
 
 llItAZIfi ASS 
 
 Hill lie .lain Iro ill the •lonlh, A reretil writer mIi- 
 mtm's will) iiiiirh iriiili, tliiil ill estiinatin^ the 
 phyii'al comliiioiis whii'li ilitirniiiie ri\ ilixation, 
 we have to look tint nierily at the exiilieraiice, 
 but tilsti at what may Ih' riillnl the niaiin^eiibllit V 
 nf i.iallire. All the o|H'riklii>ii< of iiature proieed 
 here, how, 'ver, on the jframleit ■•lale, Swaniisof 
 
 insects dispute with the lllbnurer the po>se'<s|o|| 
 of llistleld. l>roii);;llts ale Irnpient mill III liilli; 
 
 rniitimiiime. I'loiiils ill winter i»erruii coiiNide.r- 
 alile tiai'ts of country. Latterly epiiliiiiies have 
 swept otV larue iiuiiilHrs o, the inhaliitaiils, All 
 these things naturally conspire to elieek tlii' I'lVorlN 
 of llie ciilii\alor, iiiiii the dniiht is NiF:;L;e^leil t" the 
 niimi of nil observer whether any ri .il pro;;ri -h i« 
 actually bein^; inade. iltcport by ,Nlr. Consul 
 l.eiinoii Hunt nil thcTrailc of i'ernainbiico for the 
 Year b'^ll;!. Ill '('oiisiitar lb ports.') 
 
 Cliiiiiih, — The Krertl extent nl llrii/il will, of 
 course, aiconiit for a consiihr »li|e vari.iiinn of<'li- 
 lliate. Aloll^ the eousl, the ordilWHA I' n|iierni|lirt> 
 is from 111'^ to ■Jii'^ lieaiiiiinr, with -um,,. rnmluieu- 
 tioii>, according' to the ImalilicM. Ihiis, while tlit> 
 therinoiiieter seliloiii rises alwive '.*<ij|" lit Ituliia, It 
 
 siiiiietj s stands us lii;;li as '.'li'^ and 27'^ at b'in 
 
 rlamiro. Winter is severe in the S. pro\iiices, iiiid 
 it even free/.es at llioliraiid de San redro ami 
 San Catharimi. The climate in the vicinity of 
 Sim raulo is usually accoiiiiteil the most a^rec- 
 iihle, and the teiiiperaliire |ieriiiilH the ;;'rowtli of 
 I'inropcan fruits. The west wind, in (lie interior 
 of lira/.il, is uiiwliolesoine, as it passes over vast 
 marshy forests. The sea coast, Iroiii I'ara to 
 < Hiiida, appears to possess a similar climaii' to 
 (iiiiaiia. Nolw ilhsttiMilin;^' the po>ilioii of llr.i/.il 
 between the eipiator and the tropics, the air, ow jii;^ 
 to the lieiM;|it of the ^;reater port loll of the country, 
 is in general temperate rather thiiii hot. I'er- 
 nanibiico and a few of the other provs, sutler occa- 
 sionally friiiii driiuf,'ht, to which, however, tlio 
 coast laiiils are .seldom subject. 
 
 The seasons may be properly reiluced to two, 
 the rainy ami the dry, altlioii;;'h some diside them 
 into four ; vi/,. thi; spriiitc. coiiiinencin',' in Sept.; 
 the summer, in Dee. ; the autumn, in NIareli ; jiiid 
 the winter, in .June. The '"liiiy season usually 
 sets in abimtOct. or Nov., an. I is preceded in some 
 parts by f.i;{s, thick groups of clouds, ami siiddeii 
 Unsts of wind, as well as by occasional showers, 
 and the temperature is also extremely variable. 
 This season freiierally lasts till March. The period 
 of its eonnnencement and teriniiiation varies ac- 
 cording to latitude and natural position. 
 
 Prince Maximilian observes (Iteisnach Hrasi- 
 lieii, ii. Itil), that in the region of Campos (ieraes, 
 Feb., Murch, April, and May are usually the 
 rainy inoiitlis; ,June, .Inly, Aii^c., and Sept. an; 
 called the cold season; ami that during Oct., 
 Nov., Dec., und .Ian. the f^reatest heal jirevails, 
 
 M. Von LantrsilortV, formerly 1,'ussian consul at 
 Itio, makes the followin<; remark upon the seasons 
 in Itrazil, ilia letter to a friend, given in Kschwent 's 
 .lournal (ii. Ititi) : — 'Winter, in this country, re- 
 sembles Hiiniinerin the N. of Kiirope; summer a|i- 
 jiears one contiiimais spriiif^; while spring; and 
 aulunin uru unconsciously lost in winter and 
 summer.' 
 
 Proilurts.— The most ccle^irnted, thniiRh far 
 from the most iinfiortant, of the natural pro- 
 ductions of Itrn/il, are diamonds. They have- 
 been found in Miiias (jeraes, i'uiyax, and Alatto 
 (irosso; but it is supposed that other provinces 
 nre furnished with these hij^hly prized f^ems. 
 Those of Minus (ieraes arc ('enerulb.' the lar;:('st. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 I' I 
 
 
 riie most celebrated mines arc thos(! of .Serr;i 
 INC extraordinary fertility of those vast tracts of I do Frio. These mines were not niaimlly dis- 
 Imd uf which I'liru is the capital in the north, aiul I covered until the tjovcriiiucnt of Don Lorcngo 
 
^, 
 
 
 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 11.25 
 
 lii|2£ |M 
 Ui l&i 12.2 
 
 :s lio 12.0 
 
 mi* 
 
 
 Photogra{iiic 
 
 Sdences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 4!^:^ 
 
 23 WiST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 
 
 (716)S72-4S03 
 
 '^ 
 
.V2I 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 <l'.\liiK'i(ln, nlthoiii^h dianiondH wcro kno^vn to 
 liiivc IxH'ii ill the iios.scssioii of tlio iio,rrors, wlio 
 iiit't with them nccidciitiilly while eni|)h(yc(l in 
 ^oihl-wnHhiiifT, and other imtsoils ipioriuit of tiieir 
 value, loiiK before that j>eriod. Tliey were lirst 
 lirouKlit from lirn/.il to I^islMui in 172H, l)y Iter- 
 iiardo da Silva l^oho. He showed them to the 
 Kiiteli resident consul, who reeofriiised them as 
 diamonds, and informed liini of his important dis- 
 t'overy. The mines of Serra do Frio are also 
 known by tlie name of the Arraynl Diamnntiiio, 
 or diamond distriet properly so called. This dis- 
 trict is surrounded liy almost inaccessible rocks, 
 and was formerly guarded with so much vigilance 
 that the governor of the province could not enter 
 it without the Hpcciul permission of the director of 
 the mines. 
 
 The diamonds are songlit by accnmulatiiif; the 
 cascalhao, a kind of ferruginous earth (in which 
 the diamonds are found mixed with tlints), and 
 washing it. The former o|)eration is generally 
 performed during the hot season, at a time when 
 the l)eds of the rivers and torrents are dry. and 
 the diamond-sand can be eaHily extracted. When 
 the wet season arrives, the operation of washing 
 commences. It is fwrformed in the o])en air, and 
 frequently under sheds, where the action of the 
 sun is least likely to injure the negroes. At the 
 bottom of the shed glides a small stream, which 
 occupies one of its sides. Seats, raised, and with- 
 out backs, are arranged along the shed, in sucli a 
 manner that the subaltern officers (feitores) are 
 enabled to watch the negroes at work. One 
 ofHcer superintends eight negroes. Each negro 
 works in a compartment of the shed, separated 
 or walled off, as it were, from the others. The 
 cascalhao to be examined is placed in troughs 
 <dose to the stream, and the negroes are intro- 
 duced entirely naked, excepting in times of ex- 
 treme cold, when they arc allowed a kind of 
 ■waistcoat, but without either ])0ckets or lining. 
 They are furnished with an alavanca, a kind of 
 liandspike, by means of which they separate the 
 earth ironi the Hint, and then, taking the largest 
 stones in their hands, they ])roceed to search for 
 the diamonds. Notwithstanding the precaution 
 of making the negroes work naked, robberies are 
 of frequent occurrence. When a negro discovers 
 a diamond, having first shown it to the ofticer, he 
 deposits it in a large wooden vessel suspended in 
 the middle of the shed. If any negro is fortunate 
 enough to discover a diamond weighing 17 carats, 
 lie is purchased by the government, and receives 
 his liberty. The discovery of a stone of less 
 weight also confers liberty upon the finder, but 
 with some restrictions. Various premiums are 
 distributed, according to the value of the stone, 
 even to a pinch of tobacco, (l)e'nis, Bresil, p. 
 345.) Notwithstanding every imaginable j)re- 
 caution, negroes find means to purloin diamonds, 
 which they sell to smugglers (contrabandistas) at 
 a very low price. The latter dispose of them 
 chieflv at Tijuco and Villa do Principe. Work in 
 the diamond mines is most unhealthy ; it is esti- 
 mated that the Brazilian mines have cost above 
 100,000 lives. (Kloden, Ilaudbuch der Erdkuiide. 
 18(>2. 111.(540.) 
 
 Diamonds difler greatly in size. There are some 
 so small that IC or 20 would scarcely make a carat. 
 It is rare that, in the course of a year, more than 
 two or three are found weighing from 17 to 20 
 carats; and two j'ears may ]ias8 without discover- 
 ing one of the weight of 30 carats. The largest 
 diamond of which we have any account was found 
 in the Kio Abacte in 1791 : it weighs 138^ carats. 
 The iidministration of the diamond mines is regu- 
 lated by a law of the 2nd Aug., 1771, entitled ' Kegi- 
 
 lal l';xtrae(;Ifo dos Diamaiitcs ,i„ 
 CO, do Serro do Frio,' <;onsisiinLM,l' 
 
 mento jmra a IJeal 
 
 Arrayyal, do Tijuco, ,.., ,iv.i., .■., nm, consist mirc.f 
 .tI ar^icl(^s. Down to the date of this law, Hi,. 
 right of working the diamond mines was fanned 
 <int ; but from that period the government have 
 taken it into their own hands, and they are alj 
 under the Huperintendence of a board. Junta liml 
 para a AiliiiinintrfU'fio lios Diamuntes. 
 
 Kschwege (Hrasilien die neue Welt, i. 120) gives 
 the following table of the weight of the diniii(iii(|< 
 extracted from the lirst discovery. As liitln is 
 known respecting the weight of those discdvcri'il 
 during the lirst ton years (from 1730 to 17401, he 
 commences with the latter year : — 
 
 Carsti 
 
 From 1740 to 1772 
 
 177-i — imm 
 
 In the years 1811, 1-i, Ifl, and Ifi 
 Durintf the 11 years of which tliero 
 are no stntiHtlcal accounts to 
 which he could pain access (i.e. 
 from IHIH! to ]82a,(l«lnctii)gtho 
 above), and during which tlio 
 ])r(Kliico reniarltably decreased, 
 it caniioi;, at an average, bo 
 cgtimutcd at more than . 
 
 I,fifi«,f)(i9 
 »IO,51lJ 
 74,147 
 
 |»T vwir 
 
 aii.Sili 
 18,M7 
 
 232,000 12,n00 
 
 Eschwege estimates the total value of these, nt 
 the rate of «,000 reis the carat, to be 23.8(lt».5;M,(Kii( 
 rcis = 69,673,«35 criizadoes = 39,7«2,5r)ti I'riissinu 
 (Udlars, or 3,475,537/. The estimate is, prolmbly, 
 rather above than under the truth. Accordiiif; iil 
 (Jastelnaii, whose statistics come down to 18511, the 
 productivity of the mines continued decrensiii" 
 enormously of late. 8o that it follows that the 
 total value of the diamond-washings, (lurinf; n 
 period of above 100 years, was hardly equal to in 
 months' export of sugar and coffee. 
 
 (iold is found in Brazil throughout the district 
 which extends from the neighbourhood of Sim 
 Paulo and Villarica, as far as the confines of the 
 river Ytenes. The most celebrated mine is that 
 of Congo Soco. in a beautiful valley, about 4i) 
 leagues from Villarica. It was begun to Ik> 
 wrought in 1740, the proprietor having in a short 
 time amassed a splendid fortune. In conscquencp, 
 however, of the want of care and activity on tiie 
 part of his descendants, the mines ceased to U 
 productive, and were disposed of, in 1825, to a 
 company of Englishmen, known as the ' Xwgh- 
 Brazilian Mining Company,' for 70,000/. stcrliiifr. 
 The operations of this company extend also to 
 other places. About Villarica gold is sometimes 
 found in the form of powder and fine dust, in 
 crystals, and sometimes, though rarely, in hini|is. 
 Spix and Martins (Eng. Trans, ii. 182), mciitioii 
 an instance of a massy piece weighing Iti lbs. 
 having been found. 
 
 The produce of the gold mines was most con- 
 siderable in the first half of last century. Towanls 
 its close, from 70 to 80 arrobas were ainiuiilly 
 smelted in Villarica; while, previously to the 
 arrival of the English company, the quantity liad 
 dwindled down to 40. The actual produce of the 
 entire gold and silver mines and washiiiffs in 
 Brazil is not supposed to exceed from 1,501I,U(I0 to 
 1,600,000 dol. a year, being little more tlian 
 adetpiate for the wants of the country. 
 
 Iron-ore is found in great abimdance in various 
 parts of Brazil. At Ypanema, in the prov. of llio 
 Grande do Sul, the ore is particularly rich, lint, 
 though known to exist, this mine was" not wrought 
 previously to 1810, when it was commenced, mi 
 account of government, by i party of Swedisii 
 miners. 'J he works have since been consideriihly 
 extended ; and, exchisive of the articles niaiiii- 
 factured for government, orders have latterly bocii 
 executed for private parties. But a work of this 
 kind, carried on at the expense of goverument, is 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 ff2.'i 
 
 )00 12,fi0fl 
 
 raroly Rurrpwfnl ; nnd mniiy privnto iron-works 
 liavi' siiK'c lu't'ii eMtalilislicd in dirt'croiit imrts of 
 ilie (>tn|iirR tlint tiro, of {L^rcatcr iiiiitorianir tliiiii 
 tliii-'u of \'|iaii('nia. It is jirobalih', indeed, that 
 pivcriirnont will, at no distant period, roasi- to 
 biinlcii itself with tlic oxpciise of tlic; latter, Not- 
 witlistaiidin)r the midtiplieation of iron foundries, 
 tlic fiuantity of iron produeed is still far lielow the 
 wniits of the eoiintry ; niul, alonj; with hardware, 
 it is larj^ely ini|)orted. 
 
 The workinj^ of iron mines was, for unknown, 
 Imt eertainly had reasons, lonj^ ))rohihit('d by 
 jjdvernment ; hut that |irohihition no loiifjer ex- 
 ist.-i, having; l)eeii n'peided soon after the arrival of 
 the cimrt in lirazil. As cvineiiiK the iniporlanee 
 iittaclietl hv the llra/.ilians to the openinjLC of the 
 iiiiiieH, a fjifjantic i)yraniid has been erected ujion 
 till' Mnnmit uf the Garasoava, in eoinnieinoraiion 
 (if the event. In sineltin-^ and other operations, 
 the Swedish method is jmietised. 
 
 Itdok-salt has not hitherto been discovered in 
 lirazil; but this deticiency is, in jiart at least, 
 supplied by the numerous .inll-lirku and salt- 
 sprin^is that arc found in ditt'erent parts of the 
 country. Salt steppes also arc haind, two of which 
 are very extensive : one of these is situated partly 
 in the prov. of I'ernainhueo, and jiartly ui that of 
 lijiliin, on both sides the San Franeiseo, the other 
 litiii;; near the W. boundary of the ein|)ire, in the 
 pruv. of Matto (Jrosso, The salt, which is found 
 (in the surface after the rains, is obtained by wasli- 
 mg the earth and leaving the water to evaporate. 
 .Salti)etre and alum are, also, met with in various 
 parts. 
 
 Among the other mineral produotiona of Brazil, 
 may he mentioned platina and eoi)i)er, found in 
 the prov. of Minus (Jeracs. Precious stones 
 al)i)iinil, especially topazes, of which there arc 
 many varieties. 
 
 Vegetable Products, — Among these are sugar, 
 coffee, cotton, cocoa, rice, tobacco, maize, wheat, 
 maiulioc, l^unanas, ipecacuanha, ginger, yams, 
 oranges, figs, and sarsajiarilla. Of these tlie most 
 important, in a commercial point of view, are 
 sugar, cotton, and coffee, wliich are now, in fact, 
 the staple jmiducts of the empire, and the culture 
 uf which is increased with almost unexampled 
 rapidity. Sugar is principally raised in the prov. 
 of Uah'ia, the soil of which is admirably suited to 
 its growth ; but it is also extensively produeed in 
 some of the other provs. The value of the sugar 
 exported from the different parts of the empire to 
 Great Britain amounted to 1,237,990/. in 18G2, 
 and to l,lC-2,779/. in 18()3. The culture of cot- 
 ton is of more recent growth, and its extension 
 owing in great part to the American civil war. 
 The exports to (Jreat Britain, in 18()2, were of 
 the value of l,67(i,741/.; and in 18G3, of the 
 value of 2,077,088/. The coffee of Brazil was 
 formerly not liked in Europe, owing to defects in 
 its treatment. The merit of having introduced a 
 ttettcr system is due to Dr. Lecesne, a planter 
 from St. Domingo, who, having established himself 
 in the vicinity of Bio, instructec' the cultivators 
 in the most approved methods of treating the plant. 
 The effects of this liberal conduct have been most 
 striking. Coffee is still piincii)ally produced in 
 the vicinity of Kio ; and so rapidly has its culti- 
 vation been extended, that while its produce in 
 1818 only amounted to 74,215 bags, it at present 
 averages' 2,000,000. The exports to Great Britain, 
 in 1862, amounted to 1.3,080,877 lbs., valued at 
 387,401/.; and in 1803 to 9,409.720 lbs., valued at 
 290.4.50/. 
 
 Tobacco is principally grown in the islands in 
 the bay of Kio Janeiro, and in that of Angra dos 
 I'cys. on the lowest coast-land ; it is inferior in 
 
 quality to that of the IT. States. The exports of 
 tobacco are very tluctiiating. Those to Great 
 Ihitain amounted to l.79;> lbs. in ISo'.t, to 9ii."),(li:» 
 lbs. in 18(12, and to 173,328 lbs. in |Ntl3. liice is 
 largely cultivated in some placets, and is exported; 
 but the principal de]iendence of the )io|iulation is 
 on the mandi.ic, nninioc, or cassava (.latropha 
 Mttnihot), regarded by the Indians as a beque.<t 
 from their pro]ihet Sinie, and which, on that 
 account, has sometimes been snppost^il not to be 
 indigenous. But, if connected at all with the 
 plant, the fimction of the prophet was most pro- 
 liahly conlined to instructing the Indians in the 
 mode of its use. And this, though a most essential 
 service, was by no means an obvious one; for, in 
 its natural state, the root of the plant, which is 
 the oidy part that is maih? use of, is extremely 
 dangerous, the juice being a deadly poison in 
 which the Indians were accustomed to dip their 
 arrows. When, h.owever. the latter is ex|)elled, 
 the residinnn, or farinaceous (lart, is perfectly 
 wholesome, and makes a highly nutritious and 
 excellent food. Long before the discovery of 
 America the Indians were in the habit of ex])elling 
 the juice, by first peeling and then beating the 
 roots into a coarse powder and subjecting the 
 latter to pressure and to the inilueiice of heat 
 ill bags made of rushes. On the estates of the 
 planters the roots are now ground in mills, pressed, 
 and the jierfect exjiulsion of the juice ell'ected by 
 heating the residuum in vessels placed over a brisk 
 tire. Manioc is found on every t.ible in Brazil, and 
 sujjplies a great number of excellent dishes. Tapi- 
 oca, so well known and extensively used in Kurojje, 
 is a iireparation of manioc, and is almost wholly 
 brought from Brazil. The imports of this article 
 into Great Itritain amounted to «,335 cwt., valued 
 at l:i,8;!8/. in 1802; and to 2,01)0 cwt., valued 
 at 4,193/., in 1803. The culture of the manioc is 
 said to be most unfavourable to the soil, exhausting 
 it in the < mirse of a few j'ears. This, however, is 
 of com], '.ratively little consequence in a country 
 where waste land is so abundant as in Brazil. A 
 sjiecies of sweet manioc (Munihot Assim) is also 
 found in Brazil. It is boiled and eaten in the 
 same manner as the potato ; but it is not service- 
 able in the manufacture of flour. 
 
 Notwithstanding her fertility and extent, Bra- 
 zil is indebted to foreign countries, and especially 
 to the U. States, for large supplies of wheat Hour. 
 This has been said to be a consequence of the nn- 
 suitableness of the soil for the culture of wheat ; 
 but this does not really appear to be the case, that 
 species of grain being found to succeed extremely 
 well in the southern provs. and on the tablc-luiuls 
 of the interior. The importati(m of llour is rathe 
 a consequence of the indolence of the natives. 
 The prov. of Para is particularly fitted for 
 the growth of rice, and might supply it in any 
 quantity. 
 
 The culture of the tea-plant has been tried in 
 Brazil, and the soil and climate have been found 
 suitable to its growth; but its culture has not 
 made, and could not rationally be expected to 
 make, much progress, inasmuch as it can only 
 be successfully carried on where lalKinr is abundant 
 and cheap ; whereas it is here both scarce and dear. 
 The forests of Brazil, -which are of vast extent 
 and luxuriance, furnish almost every variety of 
 useful and ornamental wood ; their products being 
 adajited alike to ship-building, carpenters' work, 
 cabinet work, dyeing, &c. The cocoa-tree is 
 plentiful in the sandy soils along the coast. It 
 is thicker and taller than in the E. Indies ; coC(ja 
 is in general use among all ranks, and forms one 
 of the chief articles of the internal trade, and also 
 supplies considerable quantities for exportation. 
 
f)26 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 y-A 
 
 ■:a\ 
 
 I 
 
 Tho cnrnHcnto, or cnstor-trco, is nn indlKcnous pro- 
 duction, niid is much cuUivatcd for the unkc of the 
 nil extracted from itHsccd, in jjcnornl use for himps 
 nnd otiier purposes. The jacnrniidu.or rose-wood, 
 is peculiarly valuable for caliinet work, and is 
 extensively exported. One of the most valuahl(^ 
 woods, the CicKalpinia Bratiletli), or Urazil-wood 
 (called Ihiripitanga hy the natives), prodncinfj 
 a heautiful red dye, has been already referred to. 
 It is found in the f^reatest abundance, and of the 
 best quality, in the prov. of iVrnambuco; but 
 bein^^ a government monopolj', it has been cut 
 down in so imjjrovident a manner, that it is now 
 seldom seen within several leagues of the coast, 
 There are also cedars, lofovootl and mahogany. 
 The forests of Itrnzil, particularly those in the 
 prov. of I'ara, along the Amazon, yield vast 
 quantities of caoutchouc or india-rid)ber, tbi! uses 
 of which have been bo very greatlv extended 
 during the last thirty or forty years, 'riie exports 
 ol caoutchouc to (Jreat Uritain are jjretty regular. 
 Thev amounted to i{(),i;2(5 cwt., valued at*272,;M!t/., 
 in l"wi2, and to iU.J^JVi cwt., valued at 2i)'.>,(i41/., 
 in 1H(!3. Nuts arc also extensively exported. 
 
 Animtih. — The Brazilian forests are full of rapa- 
 cious animals : among which are the tiger-cat, 
 the hyena, the saratu, an animal about tho size 
 of a htx, but far more ferocious, the jaguar, or 
 tiger of S. America, the sloth, and the porcupine. 
 The planters are much annoyed by ounces ; wild 
 bogs are common, and the singular animal called 
 the anta, or tapir: the latter rcscntblcs the hog 
 in shape, but is mucb larger; it is, in fact, the 
 largest of the native quadrupeds, is timid and 
 liannlcss, feeds like a horse, is amphibious, and 
 capable of remaining for a long time at the bottom 
 of lakes without coming up to respire. When 
 killed, its Hesh is generally eaten, and is said to 
 differ but little from that of the ox. 
 
 The useful animals, as the horse, ox, and sheep, 
 are all descended from the stocks brought from 
 Europe by the early settlers. Their increase, cs- 
 peciallj' that of cattle and horses, has been aston- 
 ishingh' great. Vast herds of wild cattle are met 
 with in all the open parts of the country, par- 
 ticularly in the llanos, or plains of the S. provinces. 
 Hides, tallow, jerked beef, horns, and bones, have 
 long formed, and still continue to form, leading 
 articles of export from lirazil. In 1HC2, the ex- 
 ports of hides to (ireat Uritain amounted to 
 i;{l,238 cwt., valued at 420,053/., and in 1803 to 
 127,192 cwt., valued at 347,523/. It is only in 
 particular situations that any use is made of the 
 beef, which mostly becomes the prey of vultures, 
 •wild dogs, and other ravenous animals. Sheep 
 being less able to defend themselves from attack, 
 and being probably, too, not so well suited to the 
 country, have not increased so rapidly as cattle 
 and horses. Horses are of middling size, strong, 
 active, and fleet. 
 
 The emu, or American ostrich, is found in the 
 Brazilian plains; and the forests swarm with 
 innumerable varieties of birds and monkeys. In 
 the marshy countries the boa attains to an enor- 
 mous size, and they arc also infested with the 
 corral snake, and other venomous reptiles. 
 
 Manufactures. — These, unless we call the pre- 
 paration of sugar a manufacture, can hardly be 
 said to exist in Urazil, and are restricted to the 
 production of the coarsest species of cotton cloths, 
 the tanning of leather, and a few of those that 
 are simplest and most necessary. In the interior, 
 as in the provs. of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, the 
 mechanical arts are in the most backward state 
 imaginable. 
 
 In the cities, however, a great number of trades 
 are necessarily carried on. 'The European 
 
 stranger in Rio,' says Dr. Von Si)ix, ' h ns- 
 tonislied at the number of gold and silversmitli.H 
 and jewellers, who, like the other tradesmen, livi. 
 together in one street, which calls to niinil tlH> 
 niagnilicent mas ile Guru and (h Pruta of MnIkiu. 
 The workmanship of these artisans is, iiidccil', 
 inferior to that of the Kuropean, but it is n»t 
 destitute of taste and s<didity. Many trades 
 which are very necessary in Kurope are, at present 
 almost superldious in the interior of tins coiinirv! 
 on account of the cir<'umscrilied wants of tlu' 
 inhab. In the ea|)ital, however, and the otlier 
 towns on the coast, joiners, whitesmiths, ainl 
 other artisans are mimerous; but tanners, (i(in)i- 
 boilers, and workers in steel are scarce. There is 
 a great demand for mechanics, to build siifpir .iikI 
 other mills, to construct machines for workin^' 
 the gold mines, &c. ; and very high wnges are 
 paid them. Hitherto no glass, china, clntli, ur 
 iiat manufactures have been establislied in the 
 caj)ital ; and their erection would not beiidvisalile 
 in a countrv which can obtain the pnxluclidiis (if 
 European industry on the lowest terms, in ex- 
 change for tho produce of its rich soil.' (Travels, 
 i. 198.) 
 
 Commerce. — The extremely circumscribed ox- 
 tent of her manufactured products, on tho mie 
 hand, and, on the other, the large amount of lier 
 coffee, sugar, cotton, and other tropical (jniduels, 
 give lirazil a powerful motive to engage in, and 
 the means of carrying on, an extensive comniera'. 
 Her commercial pcdicy has, also, been character- 
 ised by considerable liberality. The duties on 
 imijorts and exports have been mostly moderate; 
 and have been imposed more for the sake of re- 
 venue than of protection. Her imports com|)rise 
 most sorts of manufactured goods suitable for lier 
 population and climate, particularly cottons, linens, 
 woollens, and hardware, from Englamt; flour, 
 coarse cottcms, beef, pork, &c., from the U. States; 
 wine, silks, salt, brandy, olive oil, »tc., from France 
 and Portugal; linens, lace, pitch, itc, from Ham- 
 burgh. Great Uritain enjoys the largest share of 
 the trade of lirazil. The total value of imports 
 into lirazil from the United Kingdom amounted 
 to 3,840,904/. in 1859; to 4,571,308/. in 18t;(); to 
 4,690,875/. in 18G1 ; to 3,860,342/. in 1802; and to 
 4,082,641/.in 1803. Cotton manufactures fonn the 
 largest item of these imports. Tliej' arc of the 
 average value of 2,000,0t)0/. sterling ])er annnin ; 
 during the five years, 1859-()3,' thev fluctuated 
 bet^veen 1,70(1,000/. and 2,400,000/. Next to cotton, 
 but far below it in value, are the imports of Hritisli 
 woollens and linens, each class averaging aiiout 
 250,000/. per annum. The rest of liritish imports 
 consist of miscellaneous manufactures and co- 
 lonial produce. 
 
 The articles of export from Brazil have been 
 already enumerated in our account of the prodnc- 
 tions of the country. The principal are coffee, 
 sugar, and cotton : that of coftiee alone avcrafjin^' 
 more than one half of the total value of all exports, 
 and that of sugar nearly one-fifth. Next to tiiese 
 staple articles of export follow hides, bones, horse- 
 hair, caoutchouc, gold, diamonds, cabinet and dyo 
 woods, drugs, gums, nuts, and other agricultural 
 produce. The total value of the exports iu the 
 three years 1861-3 amounted to: — 
 
 Yean 
 
 Export! 
 
 1861 
 1802 
 1803 
 
 MllreU 
 
 90,199,735 
 
 100,782,222 
 
 112,950,011 
 
 10,822,470 
 12,013,000 
 12,700,876 
 
 The imports, during the same period, amounted 
 to:— 
 
BRAZIL 
 
 527 
 
 Tt»r« 
 
 lin|)orU 
 
 IHfil 
 lSti2 
 
 iHiia 
 
 Mllrcli X 
 no,:lti!,:.7.') 14,(ill(!,ni4 
 iy7,IHl,l!t:| 14,;iii7,MS4 
 lii,tW2,i;M4 Vi,r>r>i ,:,r,\ 
 
 The imports were tlivided as loUiuvs lu'twoni 
 the vnridiw couiitrieH in tiie two lu»t-nunic(.l 
 years : — 
 
 Importi from 
 
 isoa 
 
 1843 
 
 
 Mllri'li 
 
 Mllrcli 
 
 Gront Britain niiil British 1 
 
 P0l<l^C^«io^l8 . 
 
 C7,.'il)I,015 
 
 64,000,474 
 
 Franco iinil French Pos- 1 
 sessions ... 
 
 18,441, V74 
 
 19,353,461 
 
 Hniiso Towna . 
 
 6,f.90,910 
 
 3,828,250 
 
 rortuRnl iind Vortiigncso 1 
 1 Pt)ssc»nloiis . . ) 
 
 7,i4 1,070 
 
 0,957,494 
 
 8pain nnd Spanlsli Possus- ) 
 1 fiionH • . . 1 
 
 I,fi09,2.'i9 
 
 1,755,679 
 
 'Bplgium . . . . 
 
 l,94a,.').'i8 
 
 2,424,161 
 
 1 Sweden nnJ Norway 
 
 r)n;l.918 
 
 312,561 
 
 Italy 
 
 812,914 
 
 (i9(!,:i55 
 
 { United States . 
 
 l3,32H,:ioa 
 
 12,889,591 
 
 IChill 
 
 l)02,<Mi8 
 
 663,963 
 
 Jfpxico .... 
 
 2fl2 
 
 — 
 
 ' H(o do la Plata . 
 
 6,407,253 
 
 4,921,198 
 
 1 Uiiwiia . 1 . . 
 
 33,279 
 
 12,005 
 
 ! Austria . . . . 
 
 1,244, .'.2(1 
 
 1,484,867 
 
 Dmmnrk .... 
 
 44,r)09 
 
 77,082 
 
 Holland and Dutch Pos- ) 
 1 sessions ... 
 
 129,756 
 
 177,361 
 
 'Eqimdor . . . . 
 
 22,845 
 
 38 
 
 Ports of the Empire . 
 
 l,03(i,l.'ifi 
 
 645,540 
 
 „ not siiecifiwl . 
 
 61,9(!3 
 
 626,506 
 
 FisJiorica .... 
 
 5,990 
 
 6,470 
 
 Africa .... 
 Total . . 
 
 321,870 
 
 249,027 
 
 127,2(18,19(1 
 
 111,622,687 
 
 £14,317,072 
 
 £12,557,551 
 
 It will be seen from the above table that Great 
 Britain furnishes about one-half of the imports of 
 Itrn/.il. Of the exports of lirazil, (Jreat Uritain 
 lakes about onc-thurd, as shown in tlie statistics 
 kforc given. 
 
 Populuthn.—Oi th- 8,000,000 inhabitants of 
 Brazil, 5,000,000 are estimated to be freemen, 
 2,500,000 negro slaves, and about 500,000 native 
 Indians. As already stated, the masses of the in- 
 habitants congrefjate near the coast, and around 
 the chief sea-ports ; thus the district of the muni- 
 cipality of Kio de Janeiro comprises about 450,000 
 inhabitants, and the slaves in that district are 
 rather less than half of the number. In the pro- 
 viaee of Kio de Janeiro, the slaves exceed in number 
 the free population. Bahia contains but a small 
 proportion of whites, and the black inhabitants are 
 80 numerous that it resembles an African city. 
 Out of 125,000 inhabitants of Bahia, seven-eighths 
 are said to be blacks, and nearly all the negroes 
 ate slaves. Pemambuco has a population of about 
 *W,000, of whom one-third are estimated to be 
 skvea, one-third coloured free blacks, and remain- 
 ing one-third are Brazilians and foreigners. Wiiilst 
 Brazil remained a colony of Portugal, but few 
 women accompanied the emigrants to Soutli Ame- 
 rica. The earliest European settlers intermarried 
 and mixed with Indian women ; afterwards an ex- 
 tensive intermixture of race occurred with the 
 Africans who were bought for slavery. The mixed 
 population increases continually and rapidly in 
 Brazil. In the northern provinces the Indian ele- 
 ment prei)onderates. In South Brazil the negroes 
 are numerous. The greatei part of the population 
 of the Brazilian empire consists of mixed breeds, 
 each of which has a distingidshing name ; thus 
 Mulatto denotes the offspring of a white with a 
 ucgru; and Mameluco that of a white with an 
 
 Indian ; Cafii/o denotes the mixture of the Indian 
 and negro; Ciiriboco, tiie cross between tlie Cii- 
 fiixo and the Indian; Ailiiiro, that between the 
 Cafiizo and the negro, and ho forth. 
 
 The 2,500,000 of negro ulavos belong to about 
 40,000 proprietors. A law for the Hiipprrssion of 
 the trade in slaves was sanctioned liy the eniitemr 
 on June 5, 1«,"»4. The iinniigration of sfttiers 
 from Kurope, parliciilarly (ieruiansand Swiss, has 
 been greatly eiicourage<l by the (loveninient for a 
 number of years. According to an otlicial report 
 of the year IWtil, there existed in tlie empire 55 
 colonies of these settlers, inhabited by ;1H,!»70 
 foreigners. Tlu) nucleus of these settlements, re- 
 garded as an antidote to slavery, is in the province 
 of Kio (iraiide do Sul. 
 
 In lira/.il, unlike the Spanish and English co- 
 h)iiies, there is hardly any jiolitical division of 
 castes, and very few of those galling and degrading 
 distinctions which have been made by all other 
 nations in the management of their colonies. This 
 was not intended by the mother country, but has 
 arisen from the circumstances connected witii the 
 colonisation of this vast territory, wiiich rendered 
 intermarriage with the natives "inevitable. It is 
 true that, according to the old code, jieojile of 
 colour are not eligible to some of the chief odices 
 of government, nor can they Ix'come members of 
 the priesthood ; but, from the mildness of the laws, 
 the mixed classes have gained ground considerably, 
 and the regulations against them are evaded, or 
 rather ii;ive become obsolete. Marriages between 
 wiiito men and women of colour are by no 
 means rare; and the circumstance is scarcely olj- 
 served upon, unless the woman be decidedly of a 
 dark colour, for even a considerable tinge will pass 
 for white. 
 
 Tiie diseases and the vices introduced by Eu- 
 rojieans are said to produce a feart'ul mortality 
 amongst the natives. At the time when the 
 Jesuits, Anchieta and Nobrega, exerted themselves 
 to introduce Euro])ean civilisation, an ejiidemical 
 small-jiox suildenly carried off two-thirds of the 
 pop. (Southey's Brazil, i, 204.) 
 
 The Brazilerois, or native Brazilians, bom of 
 Portuguese parents in Brazil, inherit all the idle- 
 ness and inactivity of their European ancestors, 
 Weech remarks, ' that the very narrow comp.xss 
 in which the necessities of the poorer classes are 
 confined is almost incredible. A hut, constructed 
 of thin poles of wood, plastered together, as it 
 were, with earth, and covered with straw, is ample 
 security against the sun and rain ; a straw mat 
 serves them as a bed, seat, and table ; a dish and 
 pot complete the house and cooking apparatus; a 
 couple of cotton shirts, a pair of linen trousers, a 
 calico jacket, a pair of wooden shoes, and a coarse 
 straw hat, com^ilete a wardrobe that furnishes them 
 handsomely for a year ; and a kitchen garden, a 
 few fruit-trees, and a mandioc field, furnish them 
 with a plentiful subsistence. Give them but a 
 viola (a small guitar strung with metal strings), 
 and some tobacco to make their much-loved paper 
 cigars, and their dearest wishes are gratified. 
 Smoking the latter, and stmmming on the former, 
 they can beguile entire half-days in a state of 
 enviable forgetfuluess, vegetating like the plants. 
 A few fowls, sent to thecity from time to time, furnish 
 the necessary supplies ; and thus live thousands of 
 families, whose annual income does not exceed 20 
 milrcis, or about 4/. 10s.' 
 
 The number of negro slaves in Brazil is believed 
 to be on the decline, although the importation of 
 them from Africa has never entirely ceased. In 
 182G a treaty was made between Great Britain 
 and Brazil, providing i'lat at the expiration of 
 three years from the exchange of ratifications, the 
 
 I 
 
 W' 
 
 
fi28 
 
 BUAZIL 
 
 !!^' 
 
 ciirryirif^ on of the nlnvo tratlci l)y nny Rrnzilimi 
 Hul)J('ct hIioiiUI lip uiilnwriil, aixl hIiduIiI I><^ lU'cinnl 
 iiiiil irciittMl lu* iiii'Hcy. During tluwc tlircf ycai.-', 
 tcriiiiimtiii); in IHilO, a C(in!4i<l('ralil(> increase of thu 
 traili* ill Hlav(\s tin>k plao^; iniicli Ilrn/iliaii capihil 
 'wax cniharliod in tlicNlavn tratlic, anil the ^rpatcst. 
 iiiiMHil>l(> UNO of Jhat source of profit wa» nmtlc as 
 lon^ iiH it WMH |H>nnittt>(l, 
 
 In 1K2H the niiinlifr of slaves imported into 
 Itio amounted to A'iijt^to; and during tliu twelve 
 months eiidiiiK SiOtli .June, IK.'IO, llie same port 
 received .")t!,777 negroes, besides wliieli, there were 
 '21, />''>! imported into otiier parts of Itra/.il, making 
 u total, ill that year, of "X,;!;tl imported slaves. 
 
 For twenty years, after WW, tiie slave traile 
 continued without ahntement, and duriiifr that 
 period n million of slaves were ini|iorted into 
 Jlra/il. honl I lowdeii, minister at K'io de.lnneiro, 
 reported an importation of upwards of (il),(lill) 
 nejjroes in 1MI7. Shivers were sei/.ed in IH'jd hy 
 onlers of the Kritisli (iovernment in the Itra/.ilian 
 |iorts and rivers, and this decided measure led to 
 Hiich active efl'orts on the ]iart of the Kraxilian 
 (iovernment to sii|)])ress the slave trade, that, in 
 IMol, Sir James Iludson reported that only 4(iO 
 nlaves had hecn imported into lirazil during the 
 (irst quarter of that year. The slave trade; has 
 not been continued in lira/il since iHiil, liut there 
 iiH! upwards of three milliuna of slavca now in 
 that empire, 
 
 CoflCce plantations have been so profitable, that 
 they have much increased in nuinlicr, and many 
 Blaves have been liroufiht from the northern or 
 etiuatorial pi-ovinccs of Itra/.il to the cott'ee (grounds 
 of the more southerly provinces. ChieHj' on this 
 account an internal slave trade has been fccjit up, 
 involviiif; some of the worst cruelties of forced 
 remo\-al of slaves from homes and separation of 
 families. Mr. Westwood, the Consul at IJio de 
 tianciro, wrote to the Earl of Clarendon, 22nd 
 January, 1M,")7, ' Diirinfjthe last year, the value of 
 ulavcs nicreased so much in this province, that 
 large numbers were purchased in Bahia, I'ernam- 
 Liico, and other jiarts, by unfeeling speculators, 
 and brought to this city for sale. Many of these 
 unfortunate beings were brought from estates 
 •where they were bom, and torn away from rela- 
 tions and old associations in the most inhuman 
 and cruel manner jiossible,' ' Amongst the slaves 
 transported from the north,' said a Brazilian se- 
 nator in the senate, ' 1 have seen some in the 
 market of J{io de Janeiro, who are children of ton 
 and twelve years old, who have left their parents 
 in the north, and are sold here. A slave from the 
 north told mc that he was married in the province 
 where he was sold, and that his wife remained 
 there, and h« was sent here.' Mr. Scarlett, minister 
 at Kio de Janeiro, made a strong ajipeal to the 
 llrazilian Government to stop this tratHc in 18M, 
 but without effect. According to recent rejiorts 
 from Mr. Christie, about 6,000 slaves a year have 
 been imported in this way for sale into Kio de 
 Janeiro during the last twelve years. (Consular 
 Keports, 1864.) 
 
 'riie planters of Brazil are very similar to those 
 of other countries. The possession of an engenho 
 (sugar plantation and manufactory) establishes, 
 among the cultivators, a sort of nobility. A senhor 
 tTengenho is always spoken of with respect ; and to 
 attain this rank is the object of everj' one. When 
 the senhor is in the company of his inferiors, or 
 evjii of his eijuals, he is reserved, holds his head 
 high, and speaks in that loud and command- 
 ing tone, that betokens a man accustomed to be 
 obeyed. 
 
 The mulattoes (commonly called Pardos, signi- 
 fying of a brown colour, for the term mulatto is 
 
 regiinled as a reproach in Brazil) are the ofTspriiii; 
 of r,iiro()eaiis and iiegroeH. 'i'liey hImhv ,.,„|,i. 
 deralile ingeiiiiily and perseveraiiVi' in Hk. „„,, 
 clianical arts, and are said to display a tiudc |»r 
 |iaiiiting. 
 
 There can bo no doubt of the oft'ectiial inlluiiK > 
 of the niula|to in the political afl'airs of Hie iciim 
 try : a physical organisation essentially eiier^jctic 
 and which tits him to bear up against "the luat (,(' 
 the climate, his activity and his iiitelljp.iici' 
 point him out as a person likely to make a idii- 
 spicuoiis figure in a revolution, ii' not to orj,'aiiiM! a 
 movement. 
 
 The Oroides are those honi in Brazil of Afriiiin 
 jiarentN; the Mamhicos are the ott'spriiignf whit,., 
 and Indians; the Curibocos, of negroes iniij In. 
 ilians ; and the (,'ubros of miiliitto(>.s and nc^Tiics 
 The- African negroes form, as has been seen, » vcrv 
 large proportion of the ii(ij)nlatii)n. Their cipii- 
 ditioii, though not equal to that of the slaves In 
 Buenos Ayres and the adjacent countries, is hihiii 
 a far lietter footing than in many other c(il(ii,i(», 
 It varies, however, in the dilleren't provinces, nmi 
 is best in those situated in the interinr. In tin. 
 ])roviiices fonnorly inhabited by the less wnrlike 
 races among the' Indians, who formed enrlv al- 
 liances with lMiro|K!aiis, the introdiu^tion orne'^rrm,^ 
 has been less necessary. Such, forexainpl", is the 
 case with Ifio (Jrandeilo Sul, San I'aiild, ami the 
 countries traversed by the Amazon. The iicto 
 ]io])ulation is most numerous in the pruviiiecs 
 devoted to the raising of sugar and <'oll'ee,as liahia 
 and Itio Janeiro ; and in these probably they have 
 the greatest facilities for obtaining their liliertv, 
 The negroes brought to Brazil belong generallv to 
 Angola, Angiiiz, Bengiiela,Cabinda, Mo/.ainliir|iie. 
 and Congo. Since the attempts to rejiress the trade, 
 Koromantines, or negroes from the (jnld ('nasi, 
 who are thought to possess a greater degree of in- 
 telligence, are not so frequently met with. Tlicro 
 are three modes by which tlie negroes of Krazil 
 obtain their liberty : it may be granted ilicm hy 
 their master while living, or he may beiineatii 
 it to them by his will, or they may obtain it by 
 ransom. 
 
 The Brazilians divide the Indian races into 
 'Indios mansos,' civilised or converted Indians 
 speaking the Portuguese language, and Tai)iiiosur 
 Gcntios, nnciviliseil hordes. 
 
 The general opinion has boon that the whole 
 American race, from the polar regions to the Straits 
 of Magellan, ottered no distinctive traits, and that 
 it was almost impossible to subdivide it, Ijiit a 
 closer inspection has shown that there is as great 
 a ditterence amongst them as among any of the 
 other great varieties of the human race. 
 
 With few exceptions, the natives of Brazil ap- 
 pear to belong to the grpat family of the (Jiiaranis, 
 the diftcrences in the tribes resulting from ttie dit- 
 ferent situations in which they have been placed; 
 and originating partly in physical and partly in 
 moral and accidental circumstances, 
 
 Sjieaking generally, the natives of Brazil are ef 
 a bright yellow copper colour; short, robust and 
 well made ; hair black, lank, coarse, and dcticieiit 
 on the chin ; face round ; cheek bones not particu- 
 larly prominent ; skin soft and shining ; nose sliert, 
 nostrils narrow; mouth middle sized; lips thin; 
 eyes small, oblique, and elevated towards the ex- 
 terior angle, Tliey are in an extremely low state 
 of civilisation ; their industry being coiitiiied, in 
 addition to the arts of hunting and lisliiiig,an(l the 
 gathering of wild fruits, to the culture of manioc 
 and bananas. In some tribes clothes are wholly 
 or all but wholly unknown ; in others the women ^ 
 wear a scanty covering round their middle; and in 
 others both sexes are partially clothed. The prae- ^ 
 
TKAZIL 
 
 fi2f» 
 
 liop of pniiitii)^' flic hIciii in imivcrsftl; nii<l sntncnf 
 ilii'in wcri', mill, inclccil, xtill nrc, in rlir Iniliit nf 
 jiiiiTliiii,' "(inili'ii ring's liy way (irnriuiiin lit in ilii' 
 iiiiiirr li|i. AltiiiiNt ail till' li'ilir.s were uiillirii|iii- 
 |iliaKi"'''t "U'Viiiiriii^; ilic (•!i|iti\('H tliry hail liiKcii 
 liiwar; liiit lliiM Imrriil ciiMtinu, if ii iliii not t'li- 
 lirily ccaHc at tin- ciiiicli ol'tlit' ciiikiiichI, lias Hiiicr 
 fiilli'ii into (lisiiHr. 'I'licy arc in Ki'in'rul Kf"^''' '""I 
 imiiiiis; lint tliov ar<> notwitliMtainiiii^' rmiil »( 
 fi'M^ts anil paNliincs; anil, lil\c tlic otlicr IinliniiH, 
 nri' I'liiiil, til t'xi'css, iil'H|iii'itiiiiiis lii|iiiirH. In mhiii' 
 irihrH llii'V ailniil of a |iliirality of wives; ami tlir 
 nii'ii,i'ii;;''i^^<'<l ■>> I'liasc or in waf. i>r>iiiiU in :i|>alliy 
 luiil iilcncss, (lovolvi! on tlu'. woiiicii tlie iniiiripal 
 c'iri' of the ilonicstic conccriiH. It is ilmilitl'iil 
 wlii'iluT .•<iini(' of till! more liarliaroiis trilics liavc 
 aiiv iilca of 'I Suiircinc lU'in;;; Imt llicy mostly all 
 klicvo in the existfiifi) of niali^niant tlt'nions, 
 wliiiiii tlicy aro anxious to conciliatf. Amon;; f he 
 trilii'calK'il Tn|iiniiinl)as. the fliicf was at tlicsanu^ 
 linio (>lrctivi! anil liiTcditary ; tlial is, n iircfiTciu'c 
 iviis nciicrallv is'wvn to tlu? son as his fatlirr's siii-- 
 ri^Hiir, tlioii^li the custom dot's not apiicarto liav(; 
 Iktii iniinntalilo. ]Montai;:;ni<, on nicetiii;^ an In- 
 iliiin I'liicf at Havre, iiuinircit thron^li an inter- 
 liri'liT, what was his ri^^ht anion;; liis trilie; n|ion 
 whirli the latter rciiliecl, ' It is that of niarehiiif; 
 f.in'iiiiist to battle; nnil this iiii!;;ht lie said to ('x- 
 pri'ss sui'ciiictly theoxteiit of power assi^^ni'd to him 
 livliis people. TheTniiinaniliascliielly inhaliit the 
 (lastfrimi the river Cainaina to the San ['"raneiseo. 
 IIh' I'lirvados, fonnerly very nnmonms, are now 
 MJiio'il to ft nnmber I'lmijiaratively insi^^'iiiticant. 
 Tlii'V dwell eliiellyon the banks of the ItioXipoto, 
 in Minas (ieraes. They have one trait that ilis- 
 tiiifjiiislies them from most other Indian tribes, i.e. 
 thoy liiiry their dead. The Corvados, it appears, 
 have liwt mneh of their )iriinitive ferocity, and 
 nlili it also much of their furincr courage ami in- 
 toili^'ciice. 
 
 The Cafnzoa, a mixture of Indians and iicproes, 
 are a very singular raee. What f^ivcs them a jie- 
 ciiliarly .striking; appearance, is the excessively 
 liiii(,'hnir of the heud, which, especially at the end, 
 is half curled, and rises almost perpendicularly 
 fniin the forehead to the hcij^ht of a toot or a foot 
 and ft half; thus forming? a prodi^^ious and very 
 u;;lv kind of peruke. (Spix and Martins, i. iJ'Jl.) 
 
 the I'uris, at the commencement of the jiresent 
 CMitiiry, were very troublesome enemies to the 
 llrnzilians. A j^reat many fa/.endos have been 
 fnmi time to time destroyed by them. The L'io 
 Diii'o, the S. banks of the Paraliyba, San Fidelis, 
 and the country watered by the Uio Pomlia, in 
 Minas, are the chief points ex))0sed to their in- 
 cursions. This race is more implacable than any 
 of the Indian races of Brn/il. 
 
 Tiic Uotocudos, descended from the Aymores, 
 occupy at present the territory lying between the 
 lliu Diice and the Hio Pardo. They inhabit the 
 recesses of the forests ; are little addicted to agri- 
 cnlt'ire; and are exceedingly fierce. The name 
 given to them by the Portuguese is derived from 
 |Kitii(|iie or botoquc (literally the bimg of a cask), 
 fmiii the circular ornament tliey wear in their ears 
 and lips. 
 
 The estimates that have been formed of the 
 nniiilier of Indians in ISra/.il differ in the most 
 extraonliiiary maimer. Thus, thev were estimated 
 liy Humboldt to amount, in i«19, to 'ioOjlOO 
 (Voyage aux Regions I'^quinoxales, &c., ix. 179; 
 xi. Ilii) ; where.is thev have since been computed 
 k Veloso de Oliveira at «0(MtflO, and bv the 
 Visemint de Santarem at 1,500,()0(). (D'Orbigny, 
 L'llmnme Americain, ii. 291.) The latest, and, 
 in all prill lability, most trustworthy estimates, 
 give ilio lunnber'of Indians at half a million. 
 Vol. I. 
 
 I'lihlir Tiicomr iind E.rjwfullhiri: — ron.^idering 
 the small and mneh seattertd popnlatinn of the 
 empire, it has a eoiislileralile revi niie, but ft still 
 more euiisMeralile expeiiiliiiire. Tin' actual in- 
 eonie during the four tinaneial years IN.Vi-tiO was 
 as follows : — 
 
 The actual ex[)cnditure during the Bumo porioil 
 was as lolliiws : — 
 
 Yi«ri 
 
 F.xiM'nilllur* 
 
 lR.',(i-r,7 
 1h:i7-.'m 
 
 Is:.s-.19 
 
 lS.-.!»-tiO 
 
 Mllri'lfi 
 41,!l-.'il,7l9 
 W,ill'7,:i7!» 
 
 rM,l!i;!,4i-.' 
 
 r)4,lMI'i,'JS9 
 
 £ 
 4,71ll,7"i."> 
 <5,(l7M.liSlt 
 (!,-Jllll,ll9 
 t),ll7.''>,fi9.1 
 
 riut n very small portion of the revenue is de- 
 rived from taxation. The great bulk, amonnting 
 to iH'arly two-thirds, is derived from import duties. 
 Snlijoined is u statement of the revenue for two 
 
 periods; — 
 
 Itrtinc-liei of Kfvrnuo 
 
 Import DntlpR . . . 
 Slii|))iiii^ Diie^ . . . 
 Kxiiort Duties , . . 
 Iiiliiiiil 'faxes . . . 
 AIiiiiiri|iiil Taxes . . 
 Extraonliimry receipt.'' 
 
 Loans 
 
 Total 
 
 General Total 
 
 iHa»-.'>7 
 
 Milrrln 
 
 3'.>,wr,(i,'.>fi3 
 •J4!M4r. 
 
 (),!l 1(1,9119 
 
 7,iMi.'i,7:i7 
 
 l,.'i;tl,-.'i4 
 
 ri4-J,-il(l 
 
 49,lfill,414 
 3.r.99,«9,> 
 
 .VJ,7.1(!,1(I9 
 
 185»-t)0 
 
 MllrrU 
 27,24li.'.'9.'i 
 '.',sii,(i'j:l 
 r>,f..".!),(i73 
 H,18.'i,(l:)4 
 l,773,.'ilB 
 
 43,nii,.')n(t 
 
 3,4ri9,'28.'i 
 
 47,070,791 
 A:.0,'J9.-..4(i4 
 
 The expenditure during the same two years 
 was as follows : — 
 
 BraiichM of Kx|K>nitituro 
 
 1858-57 
 
 1850-00 
 
 Ministry of Interior . 
 „ Justice . . . 
 „ Foreinn Affairs 
 „ Marino . . . 
 „ War .... 
 „ I'lnauco . . . 
 
 Total . . . 
 Deposits i)aid off . . 
 
 General Total 1 
 
 Mllrols 
 
 fi,(i:.(i,a27 
 
 3.:i(i9,7:i3 
 
 0:19,374 
 
 0,r.lo,4r.7 
 
 10,041,708 
 
 1.1,010,403 
 
 40,373,903 
 l,5-)2,7.'>0 
 
 MllroU 
 y.H-.'O.'.'.'i.'i 
 4,:.17,7(l'2 
 
 8(;4,:!3-i 
 
 9,'.'17,4'il 
 1'2,0«7,047 
 14,7.'iO,043 
 
 01,293,400 
 2,711,889 
 
 41,9'.>0,719 
 .■C4,71(i,7o5 
 
 fi4,00r.,289 
 
 £r>,()'rj,r,'.)r> 
 
 The annual deficits in the budget, shown in the 
 above tables, were covered by loans, raised both 
 at home and abroad. The ]iublic dtfbt of Urazil 
 amounted, at the end of the year IHtU, to about 
 lH,(m(>,('*W/. sterling, of which 10,9(;."),0(tO/. consti- 
 tuted the foreign debt — chiefly held by nrilish 
 creditors — and tlie rest the funded internal debt. 
 Ihit besides this funded debt, there was, at the 
 same time, a floating debt, consisting of tnuisnry 
 bonds and government jiaper-money, to the 
 amount of 4,500,000/. sterling. The total amount 
 of paper currency in circulation throughout the em- 
 pire was estimated, in June, IHlU, at «(V)21, 950,000 
 milrcis. or rather more than 9,000,000/. sterling. 
 
 Railwni/s. — The; great want of internal comnui- 
 nicaliou within the immense area of the empire, 
 
 JI M 
 
/).')() 
 
 URAZIL 
 
 liHs licfM rcriicilir'd to Home extent, in reecnt yearn, 
 liv the esiiililiNlitnenl of niiUviivH. 'I'liey eon><i^l 
 ciiiclly of liiur lines eon-lruiled liy jiiiMile roin- 
 )iMnie.-<. unci, in llii' iniiin, wllli Itrilixli eii|>iliii, 
 )>nl uitli tile nil! mill Miliveiiiioii ol' ilie Itrii/ilian 
 pivernnient. The t'oiir lines are known as liie 
 l>iin I'eiiro II., tlie llaliia ami San Friineisni, 
 llif I'eriianiliiii'n. ami (lie San raiiln raiUvays. 
 The lir.st-naiiii'il is a main line, which is to esteinl 
 into the interior I'roni Itio ile .Ifiin-iro, and is in 
 tended to lie the (Inind TrnnU iVoin wliieli many 
 liranehes will raniilVon either side. The llrst sec- 
 tion (ahont Id ni. ni extent) was comnienccd in 
 |H."(7. 'I'he second section was ofVercd to con- 
 tractors in llie hitler part of tlie same year, since 
 which lime this section, 1 1 m. lon^, and contain- 
 in^^ the Innni'l of Meiidex has hceii linished. The 
 ■whole mnsi he comiileted hy 1st .lamiary, IHCH, 
 hilt it is likely to he o|ieneil from Santos to Jiiii- 
 (liaky two years hefore that dale. 
 
 The second line, the llahia and San Francisco, 
 77 III. Ion;;, \vas huill liy an I'ln^lish coni|iaiiy. 
 under the 'Limited Liaiiility' Act. and o|ieiied 
 Jan. ill, |H(;;t. The line tra\«'rses the snpir and 
 
 toliacco districts, ind o|ieiis n|i tin Hon field of 
 
 tlie iinportant |irovince of the llahia. It coni- 
 inenccs at San Salvador, the chief port of that 
 )iroviiice. and the second largest city in the empire, 
 and terminales at or near the town of .loa/.eiro, 
 on the ri;;lit hank nf the ^reat river San I'rancisco, 
 the iiavi;;'atioii of which is free and niiiMierrnpteil 
 from that town for l.oiMl m. into tlu; interior of 
 Ih-a/.il. This railivay cost l,K(Ml.(l(Mi/., on which 
 Slim an interest is ^niaranteed of seven percent., 
 namely, live per cent, by the l'>ra/ili:m govern- 
 ment, and two per cent, hy the provincial lej,'is- 
 latiire of Hahla. 
 
 The third line runs from the city and nort of 
 I'ermimliiico to the (own of Apia I'reta in the 
 interior, a distance of 7K m. It is intended to 
 iirolonj,' tliis railway nliimafely to the river San 
 i''raiicisco, at the jioiiil where its waters hecoine 
 iiuvi^rahle. ISolh this I'ernainhiico. line, and th(> 
 fourth llra/iiiaii railway, that of Huliia — a work of 
 extraordinary ditUciiUy — were constructed entindy 
 liy Kiit;lish entfineers, as well as with Kiij^lisli 
 capital, on wliicli, howev<'r, there is in every cjise a 
 f,niar!intee(l interest of seven percent. Hitherto, 
 neither of these lines have proved commercially 
 remunerative. lhoii;;h they liave been, unduubt- 
 cdly. of vast bciielit to the coiinlry. 
 
 Jielii/iim. — The established relif^ioii of Ura/il is 
 the lidinaii (.'atholic; but all other reli;;ioiis an^ 
 tolerated, and tliere is not now, wliiituver there 
 may have been formerly, much intolerance amoii^ 
 the Itrazilian ("ntholics, except nm(m>; the lowest 
 niul leant instructed classes. Iiidceil the others 
 are generally distinguished by ii want of zeal in 
 reli^fioiis matters; and arc more occupied with the 
 outward ceremonies of religion than with its spirit 
 <ir practical inthience. Some of the clerf,'y jiosscss 
 the virtues and acquirements that are suitable to 
 their station ; but, sucli is not {{("'"'''ally the case ; 
 the majority beiiiR {{'uurant, bigoted, and not un- 
 freqiiently immoral. 
 
 Kci'lesiastical ati'aira are under the direction of 
 an archbishop, at liahia (orifjinally a bishopric, 
 being the I irst founded in Brazil, in 1,~)2'2, an(i 
 raised to the archicpiscopal rank in l(!)i7), six 
 bishops, viz. at liio, Pernambuco, Maranhao, I'.afa, 
 Mariana, and San I'aulo; and two 'prelacias,' with 
 episcopal powers, tiz. Goyaz, and Ciiyaba. The 
 cliurch of Brazil has been for some time engaged 
 in a dispute with I'ome as to the a])pointinent of 
 the bishops, the pope claiming the sovereign right 
 of nomination, which the church rejects. 
 Monasteries and nunneries are, or rather were, 
 
 iiiiini rolls in many |iart< of Bni/il. The unints' 
 (lavs are saiil to be celehraled in a inanner in 
 siiiendid as at lioiiie. A rc.cnt writer iiliMrv.i 
 tiiai neither the carnival al N'eiiice, niir ihe dr. 
 cliiii'ig masi|neradi's of Paris, can cmivi y an cmk t 
 idea of the tiimnit and extreme ahiiirdiliis wliiili 
 prev/iil during the days of the ' iiilnnln,' iinjiriii 
 \'al, not only at Ilio, but throiighiiiil ihe riiirs ,,!' 
 Brazil. I'cccntly measures have been taken fr 
 lessening the number of monasteries ami mm. 
 iieries. The revenues of many of ihcin h.ne 
 reverted to the crown, and their huildings Imve 
 been applied to other purposes. 
 
 (inrrnmii'iil. — The coiislilnlion under wliirli t],r 
 empire is governed was I'rameil iininedialijy iil:. r 
 its separation from I'ortiigal, and hears date I )ii', 
 
 II, IK'J.'I. Il r guises four jiowits in the stall'] 
 
 namely, the legislative, Ihe execiiiivc, the jmliixil, 
 and the 'moderating' ]iower, or the royal iircmgii- 
 tive. Tlu^ legislative power is vested, fur the 
 aHairs of the empire, in a general legislative ai- 
 sembly. and for provincial alVairs in Ihe prnviiiiial 
 assemhlies. Thegeiienil legislative assenihly ((in- 
 sists of two lloiLses, the Senate and the Coiign-s 
 The members of both Houses are elected hv the 
 people, but under dillerent fonns. Senators are 
 chosen for life at electoral meetings e.\|ire.->lv 
 convened, each of which has to noniiiiale tlinc 
 candidates, leaving the choicer hetween ilieiii t(i 
 the sovereign or his ministers. A senator inibi 
 he forty years of age, a nativt'-honi liiay.iiian, iin<l 
 possessing a clear annual income of Kdii niilni-, 
 or about ltd/. A salary of .'l.lidd niilreis, or Inii/^, 
 for each session is paid lo every senator. 
 
 The members of the Hiaise of (,'(lngl•e^s arc 
 chosen bv indirect election, for the term of f.mr 
 years, lor this purpose, the country is diviilci! 
 into (dectoral districts, where every 'Jdll voler-i 
 ap|iiiint one (dector, and u number of Ihe lnlter, 
 varying according to population, noinimile ilie 
 deputy. The qiialilicatioii for a voter is an ,'mini,'il 
 income, of any .sort, of Idd milreis, or a lillle iiiere 
 than Id/. The electors must have an iiiconie nl' 
 2dO milreis, or a little more than 'id/, a yeiir, a^ a 
 qiialilicatioii; and the deputies must have nn in- 
 C(mie of 4dd milreis each, or about I.V. per ainniin. 
 All voters, inscribed on the lists, are hoinid to^'ive 
 their votes, under a jieiialty. Minors, nioiiks. nml 
 .servants are not allowed a vote ; and natiirjilixd 
 foreigners, as well as jiersons not |irofessing ilic 
 h'oman I'athtdic religion, are incajiahle of lieini;' 
 elected deputies. The latter receive a salary el' 
 '_',4()d milreis, or 270/., each session, besides travel- 
 ling (!xpen.ses. 
 
 TIk! annual session of the legislative as.spmhly 
 has to commence on Jlay .'{, and (irdinarily e.\tcnils 
 over four months. Each llouse nominates itsimii 
 odicers. The two Houses sit in general assemlily 
 at the opening and close of the session for the dc- 
 liberation of iinportant measures; and on these 
 occasions the president of the Senate takes tin- 
 chair, and the senators and deputies sit in iiiixcl 
 order. The two Houses sit ajiart during the rest 
 of the session, in the execution of the (inlinary 
 duties of legislation. The C'hainher of Deputies 
 has the initiative in the assessment of taxes, in 
 matters concerning the army and navy, and in tlio 
 choice of the sovereign of the realm, should tliu 
 latter act become necessary. The Senate hiis tlie 
 exclusive privilege of taking cognizance of (itfeiiocs 
 committed by members of the Imiierial fiiniily, 
 and by senators and deputies, if committed during 
 the si'ssion. It is also invested with the rii;lit el' 
 convoking the legislative assembly, slimiUl tlio 
 emi>eror fail to do so, within two mouths after the 
 period iixed by law. 
 The executive power is vested in the sovoroifrn, 
 
TUJAZir. 
 
 All 
 
 iv«i«lf(l liy his miuistcrs nnd n rdinicil of siittt', 
 rill' miiii-lciN lire rroiimwililc iWr trca.-i'ii, nirrii|i- 
 ijoii, iiliiisf III' |iii\vi-r. mill III! mcIh rniilrarv in the 
 iMii.'iiiiitiiiii, iir till' lilicrly, scriiriiv, iiinl |irii|H'riv 
 1,1' till' clli/.cii.s, Krniii (liH rojiiiii.xiliilily llu'V 
 i.iiiMiil )'Ni'iiii(' ii|i<>ii the |ili'ii III' iii'ilir-i rrmn I lit' 
 vivcrcitrn. riic fxcciilivr riiiirliniiM cnii-.isi in llic 
 ,iiiivi«'iitii>M ol'tlio iinlitiiirv iiii'ctinns ol'llif Icj^is- 
 liiiivi' iiHTiiilily ; III)' iiiiiiiiiiiiliiiM III' lii.-<liii|i-<, iii't'Ni- 
 (|,.iitn, anil jjiivcriiiirs ol' iiroviiircs; llm ilrfliiriiliiui 
 1,1' |ii'iici- or war; ami llio p'licral cxi't'iiliiiii ami 
 .ii{i<'riiiti'iiil<'iii'i' of all iiicasiircs vnlnl liy ilir 
 li'.'islaiiirc. 'I'lit' ' iMiHlcralin;; ' powiT, liki'\vi?<f 
 vi'^tcil ill tli(* r*iiv<>r('i^'ii, f^Nvt's liiiii llic aiiilmrily 
 III si'Iri't iniiiiitcr ami Hi'iiators; lit ti'iii|ioi'arily 
 ttitjiliiilil his Maiiflioii from lc;,'islativt' iiifaxiiri's, In 
 iMiiviikt' cxtraoriliiiary lt'^ci.-<lali\i' a.HMciiililics; tn 
 ,|issiilvi' tho Chainlti-r of l)('|iiitit'H ; niiil In ^rrallt 
 iiiiiiH'.slii's ami jianloiis. 
 
 Till' ministers arc assislpil liy a coiiiicil of NtatP, 
 oiii-iitiiiH (if Iwclvc oi'iliiuiry ami twelve extra- 
 i,ri|iiiiiry ineiiiliern. all iiatiieil liy the eiiijieror I'nr 
 
 lili'. The twelve onliiiary iiieiiiliers an iistaiilly 
 
 iKiisiilteil on matters of ailministnitnui ami iiiler- 
 n;itii>iial (jm'stions, ami I'nrm jiarl of the ^^nvcrii- 
 iiii'iil. The wholly Iweiily-fonr are emiveneil mi 
 .|i('i'iiil occasioiis, 'I'he eoniieillors of ritate, onli- 
 iiiiry anil exiraoriliiiary, are imistiy ex-ministers. 
 Ihi' heir to the throne, if uf iig(!, is liy right ii 
 imiiiriilnr of state. 
 
 At the heail of each provinep, is n iiresident ap- 
 {mintcil hy the central piveriinieiit ; ami in each 
 |iriiviiii'(^ there tire (list rid chamliers and a ;;eneral 
 (iiiiiiiil, called the Lcf^islative Assemlily of the 
 |iriiviiicc, the iiieiiihers of which are iinminateil liy 
 the saiiH! voters who elect the de|inties and se- 
 luliini. These voters likewise elect the justices of 
 ilii' pcacp for tim iininicipal disiricis. All these 
 |iroviiicial electinns are for fniir years. The l,e;;is- 
 klivft Assenihlies of the provinces exercise the 
 simo power within tluur disiritts us tliu Congress 
 fur liu! whole empire. 
 
 Aniii/ and Nari/. — The land forces nmiiiiiit no- 
 miiiully to from (i(l,(IOI) to (i."i,0()(( men; of whom 
 tlJM were iindor arms and n^'cived |uiy in IHIJ-I. 
 'ty retiiaiiider of the military force consists of 
 nirular nnd local militia: the former may he d(!- 
 fiuitciu'd on foreign service, while the latter do 
 nut leave the. place of their ahode. The local 
 militia, in which every man from sixteen to Mxty, 
 who is nut already enrolled in the regular militia 
 orilib ti'iio|is of the line, may lie called upon to 
 servo, coiistifntes an important defence, and is 
 iliii'lly eniphiycd in maintaining internal order. 
 iiiic (,'rpat use may he saiil to he that of keeping 
 ii|i n certain military order ainuiig the iHuiple. Its 
 iliiif iitlicers are the 'capitao mors,' or colonels. 
 
 The navy, in 18(i4, ntimbered 15 sailing vessels 
 and •>{ steamers. The former comprised 1 frigate, 
 li iiir\-ottes, and 5 brigs; while the latter were all 
 small vessels of from 121) to '2M horse-power. 
 
 Disruverij and llistoricid Sketch. — It is generally 
 I'licvwl that the lirst discovery of IJrazil was 
 Mile (in the 2()th of ,Janiiary, luOO, hy th(! Span- 
 iaril.1 under Vinw^ntc Yanez l'in(;on, a iiutivi! of 
 hliis, and one of the companions of (Johmibns, 
 lif issaid to have touched at Cape St. August in, 
 I sinllo have subseqneutly coasted along the shore 
 i< far as the river Amazon, and thence to the 
 I niiiuth of the Orinoco. His discovery does not 
 il'licar to have been attended by any important 
 i^ults, for he made no settlement, but merely 
 tlaiinwl the country for Siiaiii. 
 
 Ill tlic same year, I'edro Alvarez Cabral was 
 I '!il«iiiit('il admiral of a large lleet sent out by 
 I'liaiiiiel, king of Portugal, to follow up the suc- 
 I to-l'iil v<i\;ige of Vasco dc Gama in the east. 
 
 Adverse winds dnive the cxpcdiliHii sii far W . 
 that, nil till' J.'ith of April, Ciibriil fill in with tlic 
 I'lillst i<\' Itra/.il, wllii'h III' '<llppii'>nl at lil'^l In be 
 
 an idiiml; and nii (i | |''rida> Ihr Ihrl ca^l an 
 
 clior ill a (■oiiiinnilions Imrliniir, to which he ga\(i 
 the liaiili' III rorln Scgiii'ii. I lii\ iiig liikell piisM's- 
 siiiii of the country for the crnwn of I'lirtiigid, bv 
 erecting a cross, and giving it the naiiu' of Tiirra 
 de Saiila (rii/, Cabral pnicccili'd on his voyage, 
 taking care, hnwcvcr, in the lir-'t pliicc, to send 
 infnriiialinn of his di--i'nvcrv to iiis suvercign. 
 Sunn after Ibis iniilligi'ni'c rearhed I'lirliigal, 
 
 ' I'.llilllllli'l lle^'pall'h('ll a siiijill Mpi.'iill'iill til evplure 
 the country, under the ciiuiinaml of the fiiiioiis 
 Aiiiirigo Vespiii'ii. who bad lii'in invilcd Irnni 
 Seville for that piirposi', in l.'iti-J, and who made a 
 s mil voyage in a snbsi'ipieiii yenr. In l."i(M, he 
 
 I again relurned to I'^iinipe, bringing \\\\\\ liiin a 
 cargo of llra/il wood, Ac 
 
 It was not until l.'inH that a third voyage of 
 discovery was nnderiMkeii to IJra/il, as the adviiii- 
 tages which had accrued on the fmnier vovagcs 
 did not appear to have .'iiiswei'cd Ihe expcclaliuns 
 of the priijccliirs, Aincrign N'espncci was then 
 di'spalcbed by the king of Spain, to whose service 
 he had relumed, to take p.issi-'sion of the country. 
 Mnt this produi'i'd a rriimnslrMice frniii I'lirtii^ai ; 
 and a dispute having arisen ainongsi soiuc of I he 
 leaders of the expediliiui, it ri'lunicd In Spain 
 without elVectiiig anylliiiig of imporlance. In 
 lol.'i, another expedition was lilted oni frnin Spain, 
 the cnniniand of which was assigned to .liiaii l>ia/. 
 de Snlis, with the ostensible |iurpnse of linding a 
 jiassage to the great I'acilic ( (ccan. To this navi- 
 gator is supposed to belling Ihe bniiunr nf having 
 discnvercd the barlinnrnf itin .lamirn, on the 1st 
 of .Ian., li'iKi, though ihe |irinriiy, in ibis respect, 
 has been disputed by tiie I'nrl ngiii'sc admiral, 
 Martin Allinisn de Souxa. 4Mi the return of the 
 expedilioii to Spain, the I'nrl iigiicse gnveniniint 
 claimed the cargoes, and again renmnst rated mi 
 this interference on the pari of Spain. 
 
 Ill the reign of Joan 111., the coast was divided 
 into captaincies, many of which exlended Till 
 h'agiies. It is needless to I'ollnw step by step the 
 rising fortunes of the Mra/.iliaii Icrriimy, N'iiriniis 
 towns sprung up along the slini'c, whidi were sub- 
 ject to the vicissitudes tliat then usually jiwaileil 
 newly fonnded colonics. They were successively 
 taken and plundered by the I'reiich, Dutch, l'".ng- 
 lish, <"tc„ who, if lint expelled, usually contented 
 themselves with a short possession, anil abandniieil 
 lliein, after l'rc((ueiilly cum'" "Ming the most bar- 
 barous atrocities. NolwitI • .,'diiig these calami- 
 ties, the (tolony continiicd ^ase in prosperity 
 and importance under the si ■ -iutcMidence of the 
 Portuguese government. I!ut, it exiierienced a 
 severe check on the annexation of Portugal to the 
 crown of Spain in \MH. during tlie reign of Philip 
 II. As the mines that had been discovered, down 
 tn that period, yielded less weal'li than those of 
 the Spanish iiossessimis in S. America, Ih'azil did 
 not receiver much favour IVmu th.-it luoiiarch. The 
 Dutch took advantage of this indill'erence on the 
 part of S|iaiu; and it was not indeed until they 
 had made considerable inroads, that an expedition 
 was lilted nut, in Idllt, to expel them frnin the 
 territory. About this period, the house of lira- 
 gaiiza was restored to the throne of Pnrlngal. 
 After a Iniig and desperate struggle, the Dutch 
 were compelled to evacuate Itra/.il in Idol. Ilencc- 
 lorwnrd it continued in the iiossessimi of Portugal, 
 but the latter country being in a very abject im- 
 linverished state, instead of rendering assist.ince 
 to its colony, was compelled to rest its |irincipal 
 hopes of being able to maintain an independent 
 existence on the wealth and resources of Hra/.il, 
 
 -M M 2 
 
r,n 
 
 lUfAZZA 
 
 li 
 
 wU'ifh It HiilijiM'Icil to nil tlM'Kiillini^niul vcxfttioim 
 ri'iiniiiilt of tlii> (ilil ('iilniiiiil MVxtciii. 
 
 Ill iHim a iM'w ITU lM';,'iin in llni/.il, '''he Kri-nrh 
 
 Imviii;,' iiivitilril I'drlii'ciil in ll iir-c ..!' ilic pri'- 
 
 \ iiiiis year, llic iiiiiic'i' ri';;i'iit, •Inlm VI,, iiml liii» 
 niiirl, ti<'i'<iiii|iaiiii'i| \iy n liii^r ImkIn- nl' ciiil^jnilits 
 Hcl Miiil I'ur llia/.il. wImti' tlicy arrivccl mi llic -'•"iili 
 of .Inn., IHtiH. Mra/.il iiniiiiiliMti'iy rra-^cil to Ih> 
 trcal'il as a coliniy. In tint conrHf of tin- Hanic 
 year, her ports were Itirown o|(cii to all t'riciiilly 
 anil iii'iiiral nations; and Itv a iIimtim- ilati'il tlii' 
 loth of Nov., IHII, all natioiiN with allowcil to 
 ti-.idi' I'ri'ily with tlii'in. 
 
 Till' nviiliiiion in I'ortiij^al in IH'JO was vrry 
 n|i('i'ilily (ollowi'il liy a ri'voliilionarv inovi'ini'iit of 
 tilt' saini' ili"'(Ti|iti'iii in I'itiimiiiIiiu'o; ami to rc- 
 ^ton- tr,'ni(|nilliiy, ami aiilifi|iati> tlii' riirtluT pro- 
 Hrrss of ri'voliitioii, till' f;oviTnnii-iit, in IH'.'I, 
 proi'laliiinl till' ailoption of tlii^ I'iirtii;.:iu'si' ronsli- 
 tnlioii. Soon aflir this, tlir kiiij; liaviii;,' li'fl 
 Itra/.il for rorlii','iil, a strii;;i;l(' I'oiniiii'iiri'.l lictNM'rii 
 tile l'orlii;,'ili';<i', who wislinl to riM'o\i r llicir forilHT 
 nsi'i'mlancv o\i r hn/.il, am! tin' llra/iliaiis, who 
 W(Ti' ri'soKi'cl to pri'siTvi' llirir newly aripiin-il 
 liliiTlii's, wiiirli I'liili'it in Ihi' I'oniplrti' separation 
 of all i'oiiiiiTti<iii, other than that snhsisiiii',' hc- 
 Iweeii imlepeiiilent states, lietween the two eoiin- 
 tries. The pi\eriiiiieiit. of llra/.il linvin;,' heen 
 <'iilriisteil to the erowii priiiee, Don I'eiiro, he re- 
 fused to admit the troops .sent out liy I'lirtiijidl to 
 Hiipport her anthority, or to ohey the instriietions 
 of the kiiij^, his father. In the fcdlowiii;f year, 
 IHl'-', Itra/.il was deelared to he a free and inde- 
 pendent state, and Don I'eilro nssinned the title 
 i)f emperor. AftiT several stormy ileliales, the 
 project of (i eonstitntioii (see iiiiti'), siilmiitted 
 liy (111! empiTor, was neeepted; Imt the disputes 
 lietween the emperor and the ehamher of de]iiilios 
 liaviii'^eontiniied, the former ahilicated the throne 
 ill favour of his son, a minor, in \K\\, and, sin^'ular 
 as it may seem, the ri;;-hts of the latter have 
 hitherto heon preservcMl; and some attein|)ts at 
 insiirreefion Iiy the repiihliean party Imve lieeii 
 
 Mippressed will t miieli dillienlty, and internal 
 
 trampiillity has heen pretty well niaiiitaiiied. 
 
 t 'onsideriiifj; thi^ leii^'tlieiied piTiod during whieh 
 lirazil has heen eolonised; its vast cxti.'iit and 
 fertility; the variety of its iirodiiirtions, und its 
 thvoiirahle situation for comment', its jiroj^'ress in 
 the neeiiniiilation of |iopiilation and wealth has 
 lieen nxtroinely slow. This apparent anomnly 
 may, however, he easily explained. The .slow 
 j>rii;;.ess of lirazil, like that of the contifjiioiis ri- 
 ilfviint Spanish colonies, is cntindy owiiif; to the 
 vieions principles on whieh it was pov<Tneil by 
 the mother ('onntry; to the rij^id exclusion of 
 foreipiers from the country; the ojipressivc restric- 
 tions laid on the trade and industry of the colonists ; 
 and more than all the rest, to the if^norance of 
 the I'ortiiffiiesc, and their inferiority, in res|)ect of 
 science and art, to most other nations of Kurojie. 
 I'ortii^Cal could bequeath iiothinc; tn her colonics 
 but pride, superstition, and intolerance. But since 
 the downfall of the old colonial system, consequent 
 on the emigration of the court to Itra/.il, the foun- 
 dations of a new and lietter order of things have 
 lieen laid. The settlement of foreigners in Hrazil, 
 and the unfettered intercourse slie now carries on 
 •with all the most civili.sed countries of the world, 
 have already had the best effects. And though it 
 will require a lengthened periwl to counteract the 
 joint influence of ignorance, slavery, and a de- 
 nasing sujierstition, lirazil is rising, not merely in 
 the scale of wealth and population, but also in that 
 of civilisation. 
 
 HKAZZA, an island of the Adriatic Sea, near 
 the coast of Daliuatia, dependent on the circle of 
 
 UUKJ'IIIN 
 
 Spftlafro, It JM nboiit *2I ir». long, by ttnm ft to" 
 broad, and conlains a hinall markd town nihl ;>:| 
 villages, with (in IMtlil) |."),l'.ir iiihaliilaiii.-i. jt'i. 
 very inoinilaimHis anil nii'Uy : in thr iii<i-<l i'li'\:it,.,| 
 parts there arc large Irads ipiite Hinny.aml liurilU 
 jilt III bear the wildest plants, (irrai laliniir auij 
 expense are nrcesNiiry to bring the groiiinl tn a in 
 slate for tillage; vet the inhabiliiiits go mi |ir.i 
 gressively increasing their eiiltivaled hnul, ui|,| 
 coiiseiptenlly their vintage, and ilimini-<)iin^r ilu.jr 
 woods and catlle. Its wine is ni-iiiiinii'd llii' iii^t 
 ill Dalmatia; the other vegelabli' priidiictiun-i m-,, 
 nil, tigs, almonds, and satl'riin. The cnrii irimii 
 extreini'lv scanty, scarcely allordiiig sllll^is|(.l||■,. 
 to the iniialiitani" fur three moiitliH in tlii viiir: 
 hence they are obliged to import to a large i'Miih 
 from the inainland. The stony iiiitiire nl'ihc .nji, 
 and the scarcity of fresh watiT, subject the i«iiiii<| 
 to fi'i'ipieiit droughts, Hra/./a was famous in niicii.iH 
 times tbr its kids, which still enntiniie in i||,.i| 
 tbriner perfection. The pastures here give in ih,. 
 di'sh not only of kids, but of lambs, a ji.'ii'iinil n' 
 delicacy of taste; the milk loo of this islauil it \ny 
 superior to that of the mdghboiiring coiiiiiriis, >,> 
 that its cheese is in great repute in Dahmilia, mA 
 wherevtT it is known. Itees luid silk are ciiltiv,iir(| 
 with some success; and the berries of ilic Ii'mMnI, 
 furnish the |ieasaiits with oil during a scnnitv ni 
 olives. This island b(dongeil formerly In ||ii."r(. 
 public of Venice, and was ceded to Austria ut iIk.. 
 peace of Camjio Forinio. 
 
 Ill{ ICCI 1 1 N, a royal burgh of Scotland, en. Furfur. 
 on a sloiiing bank on the left siiU^ of the S, K-k, 
 "i m. \\ .from ilsjnnction with the sea at .Mimircw., 
 pop. 7,I7!» in iHiil ; inhabited houses 7«J. ih,. 
 main street, which runs nearly N. and S., is nliuut 
 a mile in length. Some porlions of the inwiuin' 
 very steep, particularly about the Cross. It wm 
 formerly walled, and was also a bishop's see: tlu' 
 bishopric was foiiniled by David I. about llii'iiiiililk' 
 of the 12th century; and the portion of tin: n- 
 ihedral which now forms the parish cliiircli .iiill 
 remains. It was originally n stately (lotliic struc- 
 ture, but its architectural beauty and syiiiinctrv 
 have been defaced by the bail taste displuyi'il iii 
 modern repairs. It is surmounted by a sijii iro 
 steeple 120 ft, high. In addition to the pari-li 
 church, which is collegiate, there are four I'n^liv- 
 teriaii dissenting chapels, one Kpiscopal ch,i|ii!. 
 and a plaice of worship in connection with thi'is- 
 tablished church. In the churchyard, iiciir li!' 
 cathedral, is one of those round towers, nfwliicli 
 there is only another in Scotland, at AIktiii'IIiv. 
 and which, it is supposed, wen; built by the I'icts 
 but for what purpose is unknown. It is I(W It. 
 high, is .surmounted by a conical roof of grey lilaic, 
 and has no staircase, either without or within. In 
 another jiart of the town is nil ancient liiis|iit;ii, j 
 called the Mamm Dieii, now used as a stable: imt ) 
 certain funds which belonged to it atl'oril WH'kly 
 allowances to jKior inhnb. being the widows nr | 
 chihlren of burgesses. The Ifcd Friars scorn to I 
 have had a monastery here, but all traces of it 
 have (lisajipeared. (kcith's Scot. Itisliops, edit. 
 1824, p. 3!>7.) Itrcchin is a busy maniifat'tiiriii;; 
 place. Its staple manufacture is linen, pnrtk j 
 bleached (hence the number of bleaching gniiiiuls I 
 in the immediate vicinity), and Osnabiirghs,.«k- 
 cloth, coffee and cotton bagging. There is niiiili I 
 commercial activity, greatly favoured by the Alter- 1 
 decn railway, witli which the town is cimnecKil 
 by a short branch line. The annual value iifnvilj 
 property nmnunted to 11,211/. in 18ti.4. lirtcliinj 
 unites with Montrose, Forfar, llervie, aiiilArimiatlij 
 in sending a mem. to the II. of (". lieiijistcri'll 
 electors, 27;J in 18(13. Of the eminent men ivliiclij 
 this place has produced, Ur. John (jillio.", auilmcj 
 
 country; and 
 
i/it Ili<tiiry of (irccci', n iriiiisliilidii oCtlir I'nIiliiN 
 ,.[ Ari'lolic, mill rnyal lii<<iiiriii^ni|ili('r lor Sciilliiinl, 
 ,1,^'rvi'H Npcriiil tiii'iiiimi, 
 
 llni'liin ('iinllr, wliirli lins I n I'nr iimiiy ••••ii- 
 
 i,irii''« till! n'Niili'iii-(> lit' ilii' Miiiiliw of riiiiiiiiiri>, 
 ■ .iil'l'< III! n |in'i'i|iiri' iiVi'i'liiiiUili;; tlir ^U, mill U 
 ., iiiirilfil Criiiii till' tii\Mi liy a iliiji niviin'. 'I'lii-i 
 , liili' wiiJt CiiriiuTly II liirlrr-1. In i;iii;i, it with 
 .ii»hI II lU'fH' III' lut'iitN ilii) M liv till' Kii^H.'^li iiiiilrr 
 Kilwiinl I.; miilHiirrriiili'ri'il iiiily ulit'ii Nir'l liiiiiiii.>t 
 Mull*', ilM liritvc 'iiiiiinmiili'r, was killi'd. 
 
 llltl'iCON, i>r ItUKCKNOCK, mi iiiliiml co. nf 
 
 S. Wiilt'i, liiivliiK N. till' ciis. (if CiiriliKmi iiiiil 
 
 K.'iiliKir; W.('iirili);mi miil ('iit'rniiirllK'ii; S, (iln- 
 
 iiiiirK'iiii niiit .Miiiiiniiiitli ; iiml M. the liitlrr ami 
 
 llcrcriiril. Ii Ih iilioMt ll.'i Ml, ill li'ii^'ili, liy iiliniit 
 
 :;iini. in lircaillli, mul ciiiiiaitis ItiiMi'iM urivH, It 
 
 j. iHTvaili'il liy two |iriii('i|iiil inoniitain clialiH, 
 
 ifliicli, with tlii'ir offm'ts, oi'iMijiy a liirni' |iiirlioii 
 
 ,1' the hiirfiifc. 'I'Im> liij_'ln'Kt Nntniiiits arc the 
 
 |«,'ii'iiiii« of ilrct'kiiock, ('aiK'Hantc, ami Criulli' 
 
 inoiiiitaiii; rt'fijK'iiivi'ly '2,sil_». •2,:W\, ami '_',.'il."i ft, 
 
 iilinvc lilt! It'vt'l of tlic Nca, 'I'liiTo arc, however, a 
 
 iiiiiiilN'r of hcanlifnl mill fertile va I leyN, 'I'lie U'vc 
 
 .ki'lH the CO, for a eonsiileniliie iliHimire on t)ie 
 
 N\V., niiil it in tnivcriseil liy the TnU, Tnaf, ami 
 
 nihiT leaser Nl reams. Cllinale rather heverc ami 
 
 liiiiiiiil. 'riiiiii^li a ^oiid (leal itii|iroveil, ai^rricnl- 
 
 iiiri' is still ill u liaekwanl stale; ami im iiniper 
 
 [iiiiiiiin of crops is oliscrveil. Oats ami liarley are 
 
 I'll' jiriliripal (ilijeels of alleiilioii, liiit a pmil deul 
 
 il wlieal is also raised. Turnips are more exteii- 
 
 >ivi'iy cultivated than formerly, mid iIk^ stock of 
 
 iMiile 1111(1 shecit is mIso improved. Farms inosttv 
 
 •iiiiill, and ^ri'iieratly oeeiipied liy teiimitH at will, 
 
 Till' principal 'iiaiiiifactnre is that of woollen eluih, 
 
 ilii'|ir(Hlii(H! ofdonicstii; industry, 'i'lierc are lar^jc 
 
 iMii wiirU.-<at Heniifort and Clydach, neur lh<' eoii- 
 
 iiiii'.i (if Moimioiillishire, 'I'lie priii('i|ial towns arc 
 
 jlri'i'iiii, C'rickhowell, and Itiiiltli. 'I'lie Welsh 
 
 'Miik'nii^c, thon^li Ntill spoken in dilfereiit |iarts of 
 
 llic I'll., is falling rapidly into disuse. ISrecoii is 
 
 iliviilcil into li liiiiid. and tit! par. In iHiil it had 
 
 LMHiliiihah. Iioiises, and tii,(i27 iiiliah. Il returns 
 
 '.'iiicni. to the II. of C, I for the co., and I for the 
 
 Imr, of Ilrecon. Ke>,'istercil eletrtors for co., 2,oO;i 
 
 ill l«ii.'), The ninoiiiit assessed to property tax 
 
 \y,'h 'W."),!)")'!/, in I ^<*) I, and the gross rental assessed 
 
 i.i|iiKirrnte, 2l)l,H,J!i/. 
 
 lliti'X'oN, or HisKCRNOCK, tt hor. and town of S. 
 Wall's, f«p. of the above eo., at the uoiilliieiiee of 
 Ik' lliiiiddil and Tarrel with the IJsk; 141 in. \V. 
 liV X. London. I'op, within the pari. Iioiinds 
 .'i,ii:l'.>, and within the miinieipal hounds 5,*J.'iri in 
 {''^ril, Ilrecon Ih an ancient, irregiilarlv Imill town, 
 Ml 11 very beautiful and picturesque site ; there are 
 llirce principal streets, which diverge from the 
 liyli street, and contain many well-built houses; 
 till.' mcuiiest buildings are towards the approaches, 
 I'lU'itlicr siilc; which, however, on the line of the 
 vliiil thoroughfare, have been much widened and 
 iiii|iriived within a recent jieriod ; it is paved, and 
 yiloil with gas. There are four churches — St. 
 J'lliu's, originally attached to the priory; St. 
 Jlnry'n, a chapel of ease (both (iotliic and nearly 
 niiiiilt in Henry VIII.'h reign) ; St. David's, built 
 ■i«iii after the concpiest, and one of the oldest in 
 ilic ciiuiitry; and Christ (.'liiirch, a collegiate 
 iliiiri'li. ostablished by Henry Yl 1 1.: it is extra- 
 I'iiriicliial, and has a graiiiniiir-school atlaebed toil. 
 iliiTc is an endowed fi scliool for fill boys, and 
 llircpnr four small charii ics (the principal of which 
 aiiiouiits to ;j(i/. n year, for apprenticing jioor 
 fliililri'ii), and a boroiigli and county hall, rebuilt 
 ill 177(1, a good spacious building, in the high 
 ^mt't. with the market place under it. There is 
 a iTiimoiiade along the L'sk, under the old town 
 
 i!i!i:i)i: (T,.\) 
 
 M.I 
 
 wall", whii'li coiiiinand-'a noble rmigcof moii.itMiii 
 Hcemry ; and a niiiri> retired one iliriiii;;li the priory 
 WiioiIk. The Ih'i'ckiiiick and .Miergavcniiy 4 'anal 
 (I'l.'t III. loii)^) eiiiiiiiienccs at I his town, ami Joiiis 
 the .MoiiiiiMiitli'-liirc (anal i In m, loou), wbicli last 
 joins till- Isk near Newport. Iicfcular imssage 
 and irmliiig Imai'i ply on llic canal. Weekly iiinr 
 kcts are held on Friday forciitle; Satiirdiiy iind 
 \\\iliieHihiy for general provi-ions ; and .'> miniiMl 
 fairs, for slock and auricnlliir.'il iiroduce (ciicli 
 prcceileil by a leather fair), I -t U'eilnesday in 
 Niarcli, Itli May, .'ith .Inly, tub Seiileinlier, and 
 Kith November: those of May and AoM'iiilier are 
 also statute fairs, for hiring servants. There aro 
 no inmiiifactures; and its tnide chielly ('oiisisl.<i 
 in the supply of articles of general consninptioii 
 
 to the neighbourb I, which comprises the greater 
 
 part of the CO, 'I'iie limits of the pari. Iioiongli 
 coinprisi! the par. of St. David's, St. .lobn's. Si. 
 Mary's; the Castle, and Chri-t Chiirch precincts, 
 and the ward of Trecasilc, which is III m. olf, and 
 only comiccled with it for election purposes. Its 
 pri'seni niiinieipal limits are resiriclcd to alionl 
 one-third of the former, am I comprise only the town 
 and some small portions immediately ciintignoii'<. 
 The town is governed by a mayor, I iililcrmeii, and 
 I'.' councillors, Aiiioiint assessed (o property tax 
 '.'ii,''^iii.'i/., and gross estimaled rental assessed to 
 poor rati! \H,~7iil. inlwiil. 'I'Ik' assi/esaml ipiaricr 
 sessions for th(! eo. are held in Ilrecon. Ilrecon bin 
 returned I mein. to the II. of ('. since the reign of 
 Mary. I'n^vionsly to the liclorni Act the privilign 
 vested in II burgesses. There were .'il.'^) rci;iitcrcd 
 electors ill IMtil.all III/, hoiiselioldcrs. Ilrecon is 
 the chief polling town of the tro. The castle of 
 Itrecon was built in lll'.M, from which period the 
 town also dales its origin ; many Nnrinmi fimiilies 
 llieii settled in the ito., whose descendants still re- 
 main. It was surrounded by strong walls: tlieso 
 and the castle were (U'stroyed in the last civil war, 
 by the inhabitants, to prevent a siege, or being 
 saddled with the maintenaiiee of a garrison. 
 
 Klfl'.DA, a fortitied town of ihe kingdoin of 
 Holland, prov. lirabaiit, can. arrond. and cant., on 
 the Merk, 21 m. WSW. i»ois-le-Dnc. and ;I0 m. 
 NNF,. .Vntwerj), (Ilia branch line of the railway 
 from Antwerp to Hotterdam. i'op. iri.Kloiu IHlii. 
 It is OIK' of the strongest places in the kingdoin, 
 being regularly fortitied and defended by a citadel 
 rebuilt by William HI., king of Knglai'id; its po- 
 sition, in the middle of a marsh that may be laid 
 under water, contributes materiiilly to itsstnngtli. 
 It is Well built, with broad and well-paved streets; 
 has 4 sipiares, a line ipiay, several canals, an 
 arsenal, town-hall, 2 I'mteslant and 4 Calholic 
 churches, an orphan hospital, tin;. The principal 
 Protestant church has a spire ;-lG2 ft. in height. 
 The ramparts arc planted with trees, and all'onl 
 line promenades. It is the seat of tribunals of 
 primary jurisdiction and of commerce; and Ini.s 
 some manufactures of woollen goods, linen, hats, 
 with breweries and tanneries. 
 
 Ureda was taken from the Siianiards by I'rinco 
 Maurice, in I.O'.IO, by means of a straiag'em sug- 
 gested by the master of a bojit who sometimcH 
 supplied the garrison with fuel. With singular 
 address, he contrived to intnidiice 70 cIiosihi sol- 
 diers into the town, iiinler a cargo of turf; who, 
 having attackt^d the garrison in the night, and 
 secured the gates, their comrades came to their 
 assistance, and gained possession of the town. It 
 was retaken by the Spaniards, under the M:ir((iiis 
 of Spiiiola, ill lli2.'i; lint w:is linally ceded tu 
 llidland by the treaty of Westplialia,"iii l(14K. 
 
 HKKDK (LA), a' town of France, di^p. (;i- 
 roiide, ca)!. cant., near llordeanx. I'op. I,(i21 in 
 ISOI. Ill the neighbouihoud of this town stands 
 
 
AS I 
 
 IIUKMKV 
 
 till' t'hi'tliiiil ilr lit lliiilf, Wllrro llli> itiliilriiilli 
 iMillmr III' till' Utiirit iliH /.III* wilt liiirii. Mini wlnri' 
 III' iiini|ii>>nl (III' KFiiiIrr |iiirtiiiii of liii iiiiiiinrlal 
 Wiirk^. It i< II liirKi' ^'I'liiiiiN liiiikinu; liiiijiiin^', in 
 
 till' llliililli' lit' l'\lr||r<i\r lilllill'* mill llll'lhliiMx, ,il|i| 
 
 !■« Hiirriiiiiiilnl liv 11 ili'i'|i ilili'li tillnl with uiiIit, 
 UNIT wliirli JH M ilrti»liri<lu'i'. In I lit' rluiniln'r iionl 
 liy .Miiiili'ni|iiii'ii, till' riiniitiiri' liiii liri'ii I'lii'il'iiliv 
 pri'MTvi'il ti!t ill lii'< liiiir: It i'iiii'<l'<t'< III' II pliiiii lull, 
 n I'rw rilHy rliitirt iil' II (iiilliif hIiii|ii', iiiiiI niiiiii' 
 liMiiily |ilrliin">: tin' iihhii In wiiiii-<i'i>iii'i|, imkI 
 
 iVillll till' uillllliW llllTI' \* a lllll' \ ll'W llMT ill)' 
 
 Kiirriiiiiiiliiiu; riuiiitry. Mi>titi"'i|iiii'ii \vii-< iiiiu'Ii 
 ailarlii'il III lliJM rriri'iil, '.li' |iiiin ilirr,' xayt Iii>, 
 'i|iir III Itri'ilr t'-l nil ili's llni\ iiiir<«l inifi'iililrs 
 ijii'll y nil I'll {''laiii'i' ; an rln'ilriiii |iri'?<, lii iialnrr 
 m'v Iriiiivi' I'll mill' lie I'lianilirc, t'l |Miiir iiiiiNi iliri- 
 
 III! li'N'rr illl lit.' 
 
 llltl',.MI'.N. mil' III' till- three Tree (ieriimii Han 
 Hi'aliii'itii''<,iiii till' Wi-er, liy «liiili il i> inier-iri'ti'il, 
 till III, SW. jlaniliiii'uli, ami almiil 'M in, ilireet 
 IViiiii jlri'llierliaN'i'll, lit I lie niiuilli III' I III' W'i'M'l' : nil 
 (lie raiUviiy I'roin llniinxi'r tn llnnifi'liaNeii, I'lip,, 
 in |M l!i, .'i:l,l7''^,anil, ai'i'iiriliii;^ III the lale"! reii'^nH, 
 ill iHi;-.', '.iK„"(7,'i. 'I'liei'ltv III' llnini'ii '{•' lli'ii'iii (n r 
 man iir aliiiiit 'Seventy {.imli'^li iiiile-i ilislaiit rnmi, 
 iinilaliniil tliiity (iit almvi'llie Nnitli Sen. 'I'lierivir 
 \\'e-er, >liiirlly lieliiri' it ii'ni'lii"< Itreineii. se|inniti"< 
 inlii two iliHrreiit iii'in-*, the lirnailir ul' wliiih i'* 
 ealleil the l.ni'ue Wiser, ami the iitlier Die l.itlle 
 Wi'icr; llie l,ai'(;i' W'e-er runs iliriiiii;h the tuwii 
 III' llrenieii, ili\iilini; it intn twn iiarl-i, whieli are 
 
 eiiilliei teil liV a ^Imie liriil^e. jieinw the town the 
 
 twn amis III' the river rennile.ami I'lirin the l.nwer 
 N\ eser, whieli at this |iiiiiil is mily ileep emiii;;h 
 I'nr vessels ilrawili;^ Iriini seven to ei;;lll lei'l water. 
 Sea-nniii^ ships are, theiel'iire, in ^teiieral nnalile tn 
 I'niiie n|i III the eily nl' Itreinen, anil lia\'<' In inilniiil 
 their ear^^oes at snliie piirt InWer liiiwil the river. 
 Ilirnre the vear IN'_'7 ninst vesselH iliseliarj;eil their 
 t-arirnes at ISraUe (in ( )|ileiilinrK'), at tliiit lime the 
 
 mily pnri nreDllseipieliee nil tile l.nWer Wiser; lint 
 
 ill that year llreiiien iinrehnseil t'rniii llamiverd'nr 
 I he siiiii of 77,'-'nii iluilnrs piM) a pieee nl' K'n'mnl 
 nn the ri^'hi lianknr llie mnnlh ni' the Weser, ami 
 I'linnileil thepnri III' riremerliaven. wliii'h Imis sinee 
 lieenine a llniirlshiii!;' tnwii nl' ahniit K,l)IMI inhalii- 
 Iniits. The lar;;er pnrlioii nf the eily, ealleil the 
 .(//s/ki//, iir lllll Inun, lies nn llie ri;L!;hl< iliiil the 
 Siiistiiilt. nr new tnwn, nii the lel't lialik III' the 
 river. The .streets in ihe latter are i'ninparati\i'ly 
 straight anil limail, Inil tlmse in the I'nrnier are 
 iiinsily narrow ami ei'iinkeil, ami the hniise.s heinic 
 hiiili. liiey have a i;Inniiiy iippearanee. An isiaiiii 
 
 in Ihe ri\er is iiielnileil within the eity; tlu m- 
 
 ninniealinn helweeli its twn ureal ilivisimis heiii;^ 
 kepi np liyil liriil;,'!', whii'li ernsses this islaml. The 
 ramparts hy whieh the tnwn was rnrmerly snr- 
 riiiinileil havelieeii leveileil. plaiiteil, amlcnnverteil 
 intn line j;arileiis ami pmmen.'ules. It has l.'l 
 einirehes, nl' which llie eatlieilral, linilt in I llil), i.s 
 Ihe prineipal: the I'hnreh oC .St. Ansirariiis Iiiih a 
 spire ll'in I'l. in heiejht. The new tnwii-hall. fnr- 
 inerly the ari'hiepisen|)al jialace. is a linililin;,' nf 
 Ihe same elaliiirate eliaraeter as the tnwii-halls 
 in linmes, ami nllier cities nf the .Vetherliimls. 
 Tiiere is alsn an nlil tnwn-hall, liiiilt in iKl.'i, he- 
 iie.'ilh which are the famnnsw iiie cellars, cnntainiiif;' 
 vats consiileralily mnrc than IhO years nlil. It has, 
 alsn. an exclian;;e, with I'lmcert. iiinl hall-rniims; 
 a iniiM'inn, hnih in IHiil, enntainini; a pnlilie 
 lilirary. lecliire unil reailiiin'-rnnins ; a iheatri': a 
 liiiililiniT called the Svhiitfiinj. or place ni mceliiij,^ 
 nf the elder inercliants (( V;(r<'«^'cM/"//i Sciiioritiii) ; 
 a wei;;hini;-hiiiise ; a /Kii/iiiiiii/iiim (fnr scienlitic 
 instrnclinii), ^ymnasinni, lii^h sehnnl, hiiIiuoI of 
 cuinmercc and ii.ivij^atinii, school of design, 2 I 
 
 I nrphaii msnIiiiii^, nml iniini runs other i'linriiiil|,> 
 
 iliitillllinlis, Itnlh xiili'M Ihe ri\'er are |||||>,| y)j,{, 
 
 hiimlsnine and cnnM'iiieiii ipiay*. 
 
 I The liiitlinl'iietlireN nf lln lliell are ei iie.il liriiMi'. 
 
 The primipal are tlmse fnr the prepiiriiijni, ,,| 
 sinilf and i'i;{iirs, which einplny a ureiit iniins 
 hands. There are nUn many ili»lil|irii'«; m, 
 nierniis faetnries fnr wia\ini,'. ami esinlili^lniii'iii, 
 
 fnr hh'iii'hill^' linen; uilh lliclnries fnr the »|iiiit|j,|^. 
 of cnllnli; nllKlir rclllleries; lailllerleM, nuil ,||,,| 
 
 eiin\an t'aclnrii'H! Miiap and candle dn. ; i'iiri|iii:i' 
 lln.: llil wnrks. A'c. A ennsiderahle iriide in uj,,, 
 carried mi in the Imildiii^ and lining niii nf vi'«»i'|,, 
 The siinalinii nf Itreinen at a iiii\ i^rahle ri\ir, 
 and cniinecti'd hy railway with all the iiii|n>ri.iMi 
 tiiwiisnf (iermaiiy, renders her the priiicip/il ,t„ 
 piirinm of lltiiinM'r, llrnnsuick, llose. hihI niiiir 
 ciiiinlries traversed hy the Wiser. Ill cnii«ei|iii.||,,., 
 she has an extensive and increasing irmle. siiji,. 
 nf lar(,'e si/,e Hliip at llreinerhaven; \eh,-ie|-,i|rii«|||_- 
 I'miii l.'l tn I I li. water ascend the river Its I'iir m 
 ^'e^csaek, l.'l III. Iii'lnw lln men : lllld vessels Mill 
 
 drawing iimre than 7 I'l. water cnnie up i,, ii,,. 
 ciiv. The ^^reat articles nf iinpnrt are liilmivH, 
 cnlVee, sn^ar, and nllier cnlniiial prndiiets: mIi;iIi 
 
 nil, enttnii, and enllnll yiiril, Ve^'clalile nil, cJiiini , 
 
 lllll ler, wine, tea, rice, irnii, Kpiees, and ilyi'-\\inii|.. 
 Of the arlicleHiif I'Xpnrt, linens ncciipy liy I'lr 
 the must prnmiiient place; and next In tliini m, 
 siiiill' and ci^'iirs, with hitniM and haenii, mik liiirL. 
 r.in's. Iiniies, ehienry, nil-fake, relllied mipir, i|iilll , 
 snap, lend, and \ ilrinl, 
 
 Ihe Inllnwill;; tlllile, cnlllpileil friiin iilliriiil ri 
 turns, shnws the irniiimeree of llreliieii willimlur 
 mil inns, ill the year IKH.'I ; — 
 
 iMI'OII'I'H I.N 1MI3. 
 
 From 
 
 
 Total liiiiHiru 
 
 
 Uiilil llollirt 
 
 The States nf the Oernmn Ciw- 
 
 , tnllis' rilinll . , , 
 
 1 
 
 'Jil.iiii'i.imi 
 
 (Mliir purls 111 Kiirnpe . 
 
 
 lfi,:i'/l,;W7 
 
 (Ireiiiliiiiil mill llrilUli N. Ainericii 
 
 Mll.iisi 
 
 I'liileil Stiitcs nf America 
 
 
 lo,!w!i,;iii 
 
 .\le\icn ml reiiti'iil Aiiierleii 
 
 
 :l!is,!ili7 
 
 Siiiilll Aliiericil . . . 
 
 
 !>,7ii'i,ll|ii 
 
 West 1 miles • ■ . . 
 
 
 4,71fi,i«il 
 
 Al'ricii 
 
 
 I77.7'.0 
 
 A>lii 
 
 
 4,:iJI,7sii 
 
 Samlwleh Islnnils . 
 
 
 AI7,II);> 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 . 
 
 07,145,141! 
 
 KXI'llllIM IN IHIi). 
 
 ro 
 
 TiiUl El|ioni 
 Cliili! l)i<ll»ri 
 
 
 Tlin .States of tho (lornion Cim- 
 
 3(l,l!li,liS0 
 
 tiiitis I'tiiiin 
 
 Other jiarts ol' Knrniio , 
 
 17,i!'J.''..n'j;i 
 
 j liritisli Nnrtli America . 
 
 ■i-2;m 
 
 1 United .states of America 
 
 8,iW:l,li|'.' 
 
 ' Mexico ami Central America . 
 
 TS'K'-2>> 
 
 Sniitli America .... 
 
 H7li,H:'(i 
 
 West Inilie.s 
 
 !M4,l7:i 
 
 Africa 
 
 •Jllll.l'.li 
 
 A^ia 
 
 •Jl!»,:lli;l 
 
 Aiistriiliuii nnil Snmhvich Isliiiiils . 
 
 34!),In:) 
 
 I'Vir tlie t'liiiipinoiit of ilercliiuit 1 
 t^hipd j 
 
 Total .... 
 
 7;}8,r>.w 
 
 liO,4«ti,li'Hi 
 
 I'reinen lias ii eoiisidcralile inipnrttnu'p ii» tin 
 chief purl nftierman emij^nilinii. The miinlitri'l'l 
 emi;;r;iiits which left (iermany fnr traiisiiiliiiiii';! 
 cnniitries, viiV Hremeii (Itrciiierhavctil, (iiiiniiiMiil j 
 ill the year IXM tn l«,175 ; their viirioii.s ile.itiiia- 1 
 tioiis were as follows : — 
 
ni?i:MKV 
 
 niJKNTI'oiM* 
 
 liM 
 
 llrtlliii>ll<iii 
 
 IJIII'Ik')! • • I • 
 
 New Ycirk . . . 
 
 Iiiiliiiiiiiru I . ■ 
 Mixli" .... 
 
 \rW liriXIIMllI . . 
 
 \l'lll'/lll'llk . . ■ 
 
 liriull . • . . 
 
 Hiicih'" AyrcK . . 
 
 Winl ItlllliX • . • 
 
 Wi'.t Cnin-l ipf Afrloa . 
 
 IVI"' !>' tllMill |||||H< , 
 
 llurniiili, I'liliiii, ulul Axln 
 
 Viialriillit . • . 
 
 Itiiiii<liil>l • • • 
 
 Tutikl 
 
 of Mil|ia 
 
 ■J 
 
 71 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 •J 
 
 ;i 
 t 
 k 
 
 11 
 ;i 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 ■J 
 
 I'il 
 
 r."j 
 
 l.iiilifr>iiit 
 
 KI.I.'M 
 
 I, till 
 
 1 
 
 'J 
 
 II 
 
 III) 
 
 7i 
 
 H 
 
 li 
 
 I 
 
 :i 
 
 III 
 
 IH.IT.'i 
 
 AivonlliiK t" their nnlliinitlity llio uIhivo nhipM 
 UlmiKfil Iti: — 
 
 Iln'inrii . 
 llrllUli . 
 Iliiliiivrriiill , 
 (llili'hliiii')f 
 IKIicr llrriimii , 
 Oilier CoiiiitrtitH 
 
 Ti>lul , 
 
 IIIH 
 
 :i 
 u 
 J 
 
 litl 
 
 
 'I'lii^ Ni)rlli-(icriMmi Muyil MicmiitTs cniivcycil 
 I'l,.';)! ('itiinrantM ; all the ri>l were »lii|i|inl In niiil- 
 jii;; vrH!4t'lM, ('iiiii|iart'il will) ilic iivcrap' iimiilit'r 
 i| ('ini);raiilM ciuivfvi'il rnmi itrt'iiit'ii iliiriii^ llic 
 liu'tlcii ynirn, llii> iiiiiiiIkt in l^^ii:! win* niiuiII. M 
 li iirixif III' tim ini|iorlanri> to tlii' llri'iiicii Hliiji- 
 iiHiH'rs and mcniliaiilH nl' making; llri'ini'ii a |iiirr 
 il ciiiliarkalliin I'nr ('ini;;'rantH, tlio cirriini^lancf 
 limy l)f iiii'iitiont'il, thai a (Micicly has rcfcnlly 
 liTii i'.Nlalilit«hril, ('lln^islinf; |iriiiri|ially of Nliip- 
 cwiicr^, for ciu'iiiiraKiiif; ciiii^ratiiin, ami Iiiih piir- 
 (liiiM'il an iininciiMf hiillilin^ at, ilrt'iiirrhavi'ii, 
 lar^'l' i'iiiiii;;h to alViiril shelter In ahove 'J.IMIO enii- 
 ;:riiiitM at a time, anil proviileil with a ('ha|iel, a 
 lii^piiiil, anil all olher rei|iii.site aeeonnniMlatlnn. 
 Aiv(iriliii;C tii an nnlinaiu'e issueil hy the Senate, 
 I'll March 'J.'ith, IKt'i.'), all eirii);raiilH nni^t lie eon- 
 viynl triiiii llremen to Ilreinerliaven nr (Jeesle- 
 iiilliiile, either hy railway nr hy .steaiiierH (which 
 ii 11 ^'reat iiiiprovenient nn the olil ciiKloin nf 
 Miiiliiif,' Iheni in Hiiiall boats ami liarf{es I'roin Itre- 
 iiii'ii to the out ports), ami other re;;'iilalioiis are 
 iiiiil iliiwii relative to the ((iialily of food to he 
 ^'ivcn to the eini);ruiits, and to their treatnieiit 
 iliiriiiff the voyit;;e, (lieport of Mr. Ward, Uritish 
 ("iisiil, on the Trade of llreinen, in Coininercial 
 Kcports received at the Foreinn Ollien, iHtij").) 
 
 Itrenien is possessed of a tract of territory lyin^ 
 rmmd the city, on both sides the Weser, coii- 
 liiiniiif; in all uhoiil 74 si(. ni., with a )iop.. exclii- 
 >ivu iif that of the city, of :!l,:!r>2, making the 
 Inlal pop. of the stale, aci,'ordiii>; to the census of 
 lNi2, DM,.')".'). The land, which is low ami marshy, 
 iiiliTsecled hy canals, and very fertile, is mostly 
 iil'liriipriated to pasture. The iiiliah. of the city 
 mill cimntry are all Protestants, with the excep- 
 lii'iiofa small mmilier of It. Catholics and .lews, 
 Tlie executive j,Mvernment is vested in a senati! 
 if II liiemhers elected for life, and the Icj^'islativi' 
 nuthurity is in the hands of the asseiuldy of liur- 
 IJi'ssos (liiiiii<-rsifiiij't), composed of l"J(l memlicrs, 
 diiiseii hy the nienihersof the I'J colle^jes or j^uilds 
 fil tile city. A committee of lil) hni;;i'sses, pre- 
 siiktl over by a cluiinnan electeil for two years. 
 
 hiiM ihi> ilnlv of repri'seiitiiit{ the nnsi'nihiv in llm 
 intervals o|' tlie ordinary sesKions, At I lie head 
 of the cMTiitive are two lMiruomaster'<, who hold 
 olliie for iwo years each ami retire In rotation. 
 
 'I'he piililic reM'iiiie lor the year iHi;.' anionnii'il 
 lo l,)il.',r<i:i thalrrs, or .' Hi, I'Jii/., iindihe expendi- 
 ture to l,i.ri,:.','il ihiih r<, or .'.iii.ilwr/. Very nearly 
 one half llie reM'iiiie is riiiseil liy imlireci ta\es( 
 while alMiiii the same amoiuit is expended lor in- 
 terest ami reihictioii of the public debt. The 
 lalterainouiited, in iMir.', to II. 7:1 1. Hi') I balers, or 
 l,7iiii,l '.'I/, This sum includes a railway loan of 
 
 1,11011,111111 tluilers, at Mi tier cent uolialed ill 
 
 iH.'i'i, \ peculiarity ol Itremeii Is the pa,\iiient 
 
 ot the llicouietax a'<se..sed al I per cent, ol lIlH 
 
 income on all properly above .'lUD I balers, or 71*)/. 
 per auuuiii. Only the lli>t lUe I balers, or l.i.t., am 
 paid publicly to the tax ^'atlierer; and wbaievef 
 sniii is due above this amount, the lax payer bai 
 to throw secretly into a clo'.e box with a ^lit on 
 the lop, in such a manner that it is impoHsible to 
 discover what each imiividiial has actiuiltv paid, 
 NotwithstamliuK ibis facility for fraud, it is foiiinl 
 that the Slims annually paid for iiicouie lax sur- 
 pass Considerably the ^overnnient estiuiates. 
 
 To the rrmy of the Coufederatioii Itremeii has 
 to contribute 7lHmen, if which |iil are cavalry 
 The whole of the troops of the iiil'aiiliy are en- 
 listed for a term of lUe years, at a bouiiiy of •.'ml 
 Ibalers, or :iii/„ wilb an aiiiiiial pay of In ibiilers, 
 or li/., be-'ides board. 'I'he cavalry is couiribiited, 
 according to the terms of a miliiary couveiilion, by 
 ( llileiibiii';;, which slate also furnishes imist of 
 the coiiimi-sioueil ollliers, 
 
 llremen is said to have been founded in ~^^K, 
 She was !on^ one ol'ibe leading towns of the llall- 
 seittic league. In llilo, she was summoned to tho 
 diet, and allowed a seal ami vole on the liheiii--h 
 bench, ill the eollep' of imperial cities. In HIIH, 
 at the treaty of VVestpbalia, the archbishopric to 
 which llremen had. ;{iveii name wiis .leculiirised in 
 favour of Sweden, who held il till 171.', u ben it 
 was taken possession of by lleiimark, by wlioin it. 
 was ceded to Hanover in I7.'ll. Ilremim ai iinired 
 
 I' . 
 Irom the electors of Hanover a full recofrnitioii ol 
 
 its indepcmleiici^ ami other prerogatives, which 
 had soiuetimes been disputed iiy the Swedes, In 
 iMiHi, it was taken hy the l''reuch ; anil from IMHI 
 to |M|:l, it was the cap, of the department of the 
 Mouths of the Weser. In \X\^> th>Mild repnblicaii 
 form ol'goveriimeut was restored liy the congres.s 
 of Vienna. 
 
 HiniNTI'l )l;l). a town of Kn-laiid, co. Middle- 
 sex, liiiml, ( l.ssulloii iiiid I'.ltliorne, at the juiiciioii 
 of the Hrelil wilbtheTliaiin -■>'ni. W. by S, London 
 by road, and 10^ in, by Soiuli Western railway. 
 I'op. '.l,iV.il ill iMiil. The town consists of one 
 long indill'erently-built street, on the great W. 
 road I'roin the metropolis; a modern stone bridge, 
 connects it with the .S. bank of the Thames, ami 
 another (built in IH'JI.on the site of one very an- 
 cient) spans the Hrent, which divides the town 
 into Old and New IJrentford; the former in the 
 parish of Haling, the latter a distinct pari.>h. The 
 clnirch at (lid lireiitford is dependent on that of 
 lulling; that of New llrentl'ord is a chapel of ease, 
 tollanwell: both are modern struct iire.s. There 
 are several dissenting chapels, tbrei^ endowed free 
 schools, and two national schools. A wi'ckly 
 market is held on Tuesdays, and annual fairs 17th 
 May and I2tli .September. There are llour-mills, 
 a distillery, and an iron foundry in tin; town; the 
 malting business is also carried on to some extent. 
 These employ many of the inhabitants; the mar- 
 ket gardens of Haling employ others; and tho 
 trallic arising from its thoronglifare is coiisiiU'rable, 
 and uccn[iiei» another portion, 'Ihc Grand .liinc- 
 
 
 
 iiii-it 
 
 
5;iG 
 
 ItlJKSCIA 
 
 
 I 
 
 «i<in rmiiil joins tlic Ilri'iit iili(tlel)rl()W llanwcll, 
 imkI i(H tMiniiiuinicatioti is nintitiiicil liy it to tlu; 
 'I'ImiiioH, till wliii'li tlicrt' arc Hi'vrral wliiirfx, lio- 
 twi'cii (ho town iiikI Kcw (iiinlciis. llnMiirunl is 
 usually fiiiisidcrcd tlui co. town, liiit il liax no 
 piililii! Iiall, nor separate jurisdiction. Tlicrc is a 
 court of rc((iicHts lor dclits under 'lo.t. held duriiif? 
 Ilie siiinnier half year in the, town; duriiiK tlie 
 oilier at llxhridf^e; its jurisdiction extends over 
 the hundreds of Klthorn'e and Siiellthorne. It is 
 the ehii'f (lolliiig town, wlierc the co. members 
 are iioiniiiated, 
 
 IIHKS(!IA (an. 7?/mVi),aeity of Northcni Italy, 
 raj), prov. same iiHine, oiitlie (iarza, and near tlie 
 left hank of the Mella, at the foot of the Alps, on 
 the ninrj^in of the f^reat plain of Lonibardy, TjI ni. 
 K. Milan, and M) m. NNK. Cremona, on the rail- 
 way from Milan to A^eniee. Pop. 34,!m2 in I«ti2. 
 The city is surrounded liy walls and ramparts, and 
 Jias a castle on a hill on an eininonee within the 
 walls : the streets are broad and straiKbt, and its 
 iiiimeroiis sipiares, |mblie buildings, palaces and 
 fountains, j^ive it an air of ;;randeur and mafjniti- 
 ecnce. It is the seat of abislio])ric; and ha.s aline 
 modem cathedral of white m.aihle, befjiin in l<!(t4, 
 and tinislied only in IH"2ji; an elepint modern 
 episno|)al jialace, and many churches and convents, 
 some of wlii(!h are ornamented with pictures by 
 the masters of the Venetian school. The ]'alace 
 olMustice {Palazzo PiMwo), built on the site of 
 an ancient temple, is curious, as exhibiting that 
 mixture of (lothie and (Jrecian architecture to be 
 found in so many of the edilices of Northern Italy. 
 \t has also a line museum of antiquities, a larj^e 
 theatre, amontc-ih-jtieta, a|)ublic library, lyceum, 
 gymnasium, an at lienieiim, or academy of science 
 and belles-lettres, with numerous hospitals and 
 eieemosynary establishnients, and no fewer than 
 72 imblic fountains. It is distiiifjuished by its in- 
 dustry ami trade. Nojir it are larjjje iron works, 
 and the arms and cutlery of JJrescia have been 
 louf,' reckoned the best in Italy; it has also fabrics 
 of silk, llax, paper, itc, -.vith numerous oil-mills j 
 and tanneries. A fair commences annually on the 
 tith of Au,','tist ; and a larjje buildinij is constructe<l 
 outside for the accommodation of those frequentinj^ 
 the fair. JJrescia has |)rodiiced many eminent 
 men, amonj^ whom may be speeilied Tartaglia, 
 Mazzuchelli, and A^joni. 
 
 This city is very ancient. It is supposed to 
 have been the cap. of the Cenomani, and it siihse- 
 qiieiitly became a Komaii colon}' an<l municipiiim. 
 Il was sacked by Attila. lieiiif; declared by Otlio 
 I. a free city, it was governed for nearly .SOO years 
 by its own consuls; but beiuff distracted by the 
 contests of the Guelphs and (Jhibellines, it ])laced 
 itself, in 142(i, under the Venetian government, 
 It was taken by tlic French during tlie League of 
 ('ambray, and having revolted, was retaken by 
 them by storm in lol2, wlien it w-as given up to 
 military execution. On this occasion, the (Jhe- 
 Niilier Bayard, the knight sans peur et sans re- 
 proc/ie, was severely wounded. It has also been 
 repeatedly laid waste by the plague and small- 
 pox ; and was in part destroyed, in 1 7(i!>, by the 
 cx))losion of a [lowdcr magazine. During the 
 asceiulancy of Napoleon, it was the cap. of the 
 dep. of Mella. The congress of Vienna restored 
 it, with the whole of Lombardy. to Austria ; but 
 the war of 1859, followed by the Treaty ofA'illa- 
 franca, united the city, with the surrounding i)ro- 
 vince, to the new kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The chief interest of iirescia is derived from its 
 a,ntiquiti(>s. During excavations, begun in 1K20 
 and continued till 182(!, there was discovered a 
 beautiful temple of white marble, fidonied with 
 columns of the Corinthian order : and under the 
 
 LKKSLAU 
 
 pavement wna found n bronze statue of Victi)r\- 
 iietween 5 anil (i ft. high, represented as a very 
 line specimen of art, 
 
 IJ!!l''.SLAlI, the second largest city of I'riissin, 
 cap. ]irov. Silesia, and of a regency' and cjrc. i,f 
 same miine, at th(^ eontlueiice of the small rivir 
 Olilaii with the Oder, iind on the railway I'roiii 
 Itcrlin to (Vacow. I'op. M5,ijH!» in iNCd, excli^ivc 
 of a garrison of (!,!»;!« men. The city of lircslim 
 comprises the old and new towns, with viiridiis 
 suburbs, some of them built on islands of tin; 
 Oder, and nnitcMl to the bodv of the town Ijv 
 numerous bridges. Streets in tlic old town iikwiIv 
 narrow; but tliose in the newer jmrts are hniaij 
 and the bouses good ; while the number and nia;;- 
 nilicence of the squares and public buildings (,'iv(! 
 it an air of splendour. Among the latter nmv 
 be speeilied the cathedral, founded in lll«; tliV 
 church of St. Klizabeth, with a spire SOt ft. in 
 height; and several other churches; timci-deeniit 
 convent of the Augustines; the ...ice, now tlin 
 governineiit-housf', built by Fredcrurk the (ircnt; 
 the archiepiscopal palace, town-house, mint, ('ji- 
 tholic gymnasium, theatre, Exchange Ihiililiii};s, 
 university, and barracks. A colossal statue in 
 cast-iron of Marshal Ulncher, by liaucli, was 
 erected opposite to the Exchange ISuililings in 
 1827, to coinmeinorafe the decisive and iniportaiit 
 victory gained by the Marshal and the I'riissiaii 
 landwehr under his command ovi^r the Frcnoli 
 under iMacdonald, on the Kalsbuch, in 1K13. Tin; 
 university was founded in 1702, and has, on the 
 average, from 700 to 800 students, lireslau is tlic 
 seat of government for the province, has a conrt 
 of apjieal for the latter and for the regency, a 
 supreme council of mines, and other admiiiistrii- 
 tive establishments. Besides the university, i», 
 has ft school of industry, of deaf and dunili, of 
 surgery, one Catholic, and three rrotestiiiil, gym- 
 nasiums, a seminary for the instruction of scIkioI- 
 masters, a school of architecture, a school of arts, 
 and an immense number of inferior scIkhiIs. TIu; 
 library of the university contains above 200.(1(111 
 volumes, and there are several smaller colleclinns 
 all open to the public. There are a great nuinlicr 
 of richly endowed hosjiitals and other cliiiriialile 
 institutions, among Avhich may be specified me. 
 for faithful servants. It has numerous breweries 
 and distilleries, with manufactures of linen, cotfiiii, 
 wool and silk, alum, soa|), jilate, jewellery, and is 
 the centre of a vcy extensive eommerco, being in 
 some measure the entrepot of the iiroviiice. Kx- 
 clusive of its own |!rodiicts, the greater jLirt of tlie 
 linens, cottons, and cloth manufactured in Silesia 
 are disposed of at its fair^. Metals from the 
 mines, and timber from the forests in the iijiper 
 jiart of the province, are also brought here in larije 
 (jiiantities, with Hax and hemp, madder, and oxen 
 from the Ukraine and Moldavia. Exclusive ef 
 its other fairs, two great fairs for the sale (if 
 wool are held annually in .June and Octelier. 
 The lirst of these is the greatest fair of its kiiul 
 in (iennany, the quantity sold being usually almut 
 (■>,000,000 lbs. During its continuance, the town, 
 owing to the number of persons in the Oriental 
 costume, has a good deal of the appearance of an 
 eastern city. 
 
 The fortilications with which TJreslau was fur- 
 merly surrounded were demolished by the Freiieh. 
 The ram]/arts have since been levelled, iilanteil. 
 and laid out in jmblie walks ; the bastions have 
 been converted into terraces ; and the difch iiiin 
 an ornamental sheet of water, to the great einlie!- 
 lishment of the city. 
 
 Hreslau is one of the most animated towns in 
 Trnssia. The inhabitants are evideiill}' wcaliliy; 
 and the increasing luunber of new buildiiiys 
 
r.RESSAY 
 
 nmnmcntcd villnH, and |)linsiirc-(jToiiinls in (lie 
 vicinity, 111 li'Ht itH ^rowiii^ |iri)s|H'rify, It is salu- 
 lirimis; (irovisiiinH iirc iilitnuliiiit iind t-lu'iip; pdii- 
 catiiin (■xccllont ; tho pi'iiple infi'lit^c'iit, trunk, 
 liiid Kocialilv; tiio litcriiry inslitntionH numoroiiH 
 and ('iiHily afcwsihlc ; nnd tlie I'ountry round 
 licinitit'id, nil! cimflittiiris, (ir CdrtV'o-lumsi'H, are 
 very Hplcndid. Dram-drinking is prvvnlcnt, and 
 (.piritM constitute tlio prin(-i|)al beveriii^e of the 
 Inv.cr classes, altlioui;li of lute tlie vonsuin])tion 
 (if malt li(|Uors, [larticnlarlv of llavarian Ix'cr, or 
 uliJit is known at) Inger-beer, has greatly in- 
 crciiM'd, 
 
 Itresinu was taken from Austria bv Frederick 
 tlie (ireat, in the course of the Seven Vears' VV'ar, 
 niid has over since formed part of the kingdom 
 ol' I'rnssia. 
 
 ISUIiSHAY, one of the Shetland islands, which 
 
 niiESSUIHK, n town of France, d(<p. Deux 
 Si'vres, caj). arrond., on n hill, at the foot of which 
 U the Doio ; 1!) m. N W. I'artenay. Top. 'i.lMi:! in 
 isdi. The town is the seat of a tribunal of i)ri- 
 nmry jurisdiction, and of an agricultural society, 
 il, w'.is formerly fortit'ed and defended i>y a castle, 
 liiit which was destroyed in ITJ'.i, when the town 
 ttiis burnt to the ground, with the exception of 
 the church and of a single house, 
 
 HlvKST, a strongly fortified marit. town of 
 France, dep. Finisterre, caji. arnuid. of the same 
 name, occupying the foot and declivity of a steep 
 liill, on the N. side of a spacious bay, near the 
 t'xtreinitv of the peninsula of Hrittanv; iJO m. 
 NW. (jumper, 1:12 m. WNW. Kcnnes,' and 314 
 in. WSW. I'nris by road, and 32.') m. by Western 
 niilway, of which it is the terminal station. I'oj). 
 ()7,y;l3 in IMGl. The town, inclusive of its suburb 
 Kecouvrance, from which it is 8eiiarate<l l)y the 
 river I'enfeld, is about 3 m. in circuit, and of a 
 triiiiigidar sh.ipe. llrest projier ^situated on the 
 K. as Hecouvnince is on the \V. sale of the river) 
 is naturally divided into the upper and lower 
 town: in the lirst, which is the most ancient j)or- 
 tiiin, though containing a considerable number of 
 gmi\ nioileni editices, the streets arc irregidar, 
 iriKjked, and narrow, and the houses so unevenly 
 placed, that the gardens of some arc on a level 
 with tlie tifth stories of adj.-xcent ones. In some 
 places the declivity is so ra|)id, that the road to 
 the lower town is formed by flights of steps. In 
 the lower town many of the streets near the port 
 arc well laid out, clean, and healthy ; elsewhere 
 (liey are quite the reverse, llccouvrance, although 
 improved latterly, offers but an unfavourable con- 
 trast to Brest. The ramparts which surround the 
 tdwn are planted with trees, and fonn a jileasant 
 ]ir(iinenade, with line views toward the harbour. 
 The port, or inner harbour, formed by the mouth 
 (if the I'enfehl, is lined by good quays adorned 
 with large ancl handsome stone buildings. It is 
 lanillockcd, capable of accommodating .')!) frigates 
 .111(1 other vessels, and is protected by formidable 
 hatterics, and by an ancient castle on a rock at its 
 entrance. A large portion of llrest is occupied by 
 marine establishments. It has a noble arsenal 
 ('stal)lished by Louis XIV., excellent docks for 
 l>;iil(ling and repairing ships, large rope walks, 
 and \arious magazines for the stores necessary to 
 the titling out of a nav}', with marine barracks 
 iinil a hospital. In the upper p.irt of the town 
 i.< the Baffiie, a buihling for the reception of con- 
 victs sentenced to the galleys ; and the largest 
 cililice of its kind in France. It is 277 yards in 
 li'ii;;th; its centre and extremities are occupied 
 by I lie various oflicers having charge vd" the con- 
 victs; the intermediate spaces are separated into 
 four divisions, each capable of loilging 500 men. 
 
 HRETir.NY 
 
 037 
 
 It comliinps sceurily with Miiubrity. Tint despite 
 the severe (liM'ipline enforced in this prison, it is 
 siud to be rather demoralising than rcl'onnalory. 
 Among other |(ublic buildings are the parish 
 church of St. Louis, with n handsome altar, the 
 town-hall, and the tlmatre. There are several 
 public fountains, one of which is ornamented with 
 a line statue, liresi is the seat of a tribunal of 
 original jurisdicrtion, and tlie residence of a siili- 
 
 iirefect, a maritime prefect, and other functionaries, 
 t contains two public libraries, a caliinet of na- 
 tural history, botanic garden, nnd observatory, 
 schools of naval artillery, navigation, medicine, 
 surgery, and pharmacy, societies of agriciilturu 
 and emulation, a tribunal of conmierce, and an 
 exchange. 
 
 The outer harbour or road of Brest is one of the 
 finest in the world. It is of great extent, being 
 capable of accommodating the larg(!st navies, anil 
 has deep water throughout. The channel. La 
 Gimlet, by which it communicates witli the ocean, 
 is only 1,H0.") yards across, defended on either side 
 by very strong batteries ; and it is further 
 strengthened by having a rock in its centre, 
 whicli obliges ships to pass close under the guns 
 of the batteries. Several small rivers discharge 
 themselves into the outer harbour, by one of 
 which, the Chateanlin, there is an inland coin- 
 nniiiication with Nantes, Brest has some tan- 
 neries and manufactures of gla/.ed hats; and ti 
 fleet of fishing boats for ]iilchards, cod, and 
 mackerel, It.s commerce is comparatively trilling, 
 and mostly conlined to supjilying provisions to 
 the marii>e : there is, however, some trade, in 
 grain, fish, ,'ind salt ; and a fair for cattle, leather 
 cloths, and similar articles, is held monthly. 
 
 This town is aftinned by some authorities to bo 
 the Brl-mte.1 Pwliis of the Bonians ; but of this 
 there is consideralde doidit. It was of little eoii- 
 se(iuence till it wiu>' fortified by a duke of Brittany 
 in the lltli century, It was assigned to the ICiig- 
 lish, in 1372, by John IV, duke of Brittany, and 
 was held by them till 1307, In 1189 it was'taken 
 by the French ; and was soon after permanently 
 united to the monarchy by the marriage of Charles 
 VI II, with Anne of Brittany, Cardinal Bichelieu, 
 being sensible of its great natur.^.i advantages for a 
 naval station, began, in Kiol, the construction of 
 the fortiiicatioiis and magazhies, which were coni- 
 jdeted by Vauban, in KWI). In 1094, an English 
 and Dutch force that had attacked Brest, was 
 defeated with great loss. The space included 
 witlun the fortification was considerably enlarge(l 
 in 1772. The Emperor Napoleon 111, visited Brest 
 in 1858, when orders were given for the construc- 
 tion of a new commercial harbour between the 
 Chateau and L'ance de Kerhuon, The new ]>ort — 
 intended to be an outer naval harbour in time of 
 war — was comjileted in 18()5, 
 
 BliETi;UIL, a town of France, de'p. Euro, cap. 
 cant., on the Iton, 1(! nv yW. Evreux, Pop. 2,108 
 in 1801, The country abounds in iron mines, 
 the working of which, and the smelting, itc, of 
 the ore, afford abundant employment for the 
 inhabitants, 
 
 Bki;ti;iiii>, a towni of France, de'p, Oiae, cap. 
 c.int,, at the source of the Annoy. 10 m. NE. of 
 Beaiivais. Po]>. 2,9(14 in 1801. The town is ill- 
 built, ill-paved, and dirty. There are manufac- 
 tures of woollen stufl's, paper, and shoes, for the 
 use of the troops and hosjiitals of Paris. It is 
 very ancient, and was once fortified and hail a 
 castle ; but few vestiges of the latter or of the 
 fortiticatiims now exi.-it. Its ancient abbey still 
 remains. There are some fine nurseries in the 
 environs. 
 
 BKETIGNY, a hamlet of France, de'p. Eure et 
 
o;;.s 
 
 ER12TTEX 
 
 
 I-<iir, (■> ni. SK. ClmrtrPH. It in roinnrkalilo lor n 
 trciily (if pciipp, ('(inrliKlod lictwccii l-'nuicc iiml 
 l*".ii);lnii<l ill l.'i'Kl, wliicli r<'>li)r(Ml .luliii, k\ujx «( 
 Fiiiiifc, to Inn IVccdoiii, lost nt the lialllc of I'cii- 
 ficrs, ill JUijti, wliuii lie was made prLsoiier liy the 
 
 UnK'ITi:X, or UlMrrilKIM, a town of the 
 j;r«iid diicliy ol' lladcii, ea]). Iiailiwick, l'_' tn. l'„ 
 (,'arl.sriilie, oil the railway I'roiii CarlsriilK^ lo Stiitt- 
 pirt, l*o|), 3,'2(Mi ill |N(!I, The town is n'liiark- 
 ahle nn liein^ the liirth-place ut' the learned and 
 aininble rel'ornier .Melancthoii. Tin? house where 
 lie was horn, in 141)7, is still to he seen in the 
 inarket-|ilai,'e, with n slatne and an inseriptioii 
 creeted to hisiiieniory in 17(15. This townsullered 
 mniOi (hirinjf the wars of lti;i2 and Iti.S',). 
 
 l!l{IANr()N,aNtroiit?ly I'ortilied town of Franro, 
 d('p. llaittes Alpes, cap. arrond., on the Durance. 
 .Mlm. KSK. (irenohle. I'o)). -l.oK) in IHtil. This 
 is the hif^hest town in France, lieiiif; 4,2M0 metres 
 ahovo the level of the sea. From its coniniandinjjc 
 n ]iraeticalilc dedle, leudiiifj from I'iednioiit into 
 Fiance, it has always heeii looked upon as one of 
 the keys of the kin;j;dom on the side of Italy. In 
 eonseqiieneo no expense has lieen spared on its 
 fiTi'lilications, which an; now deemed nil hut im- 
 ))refj;n(il)le. They consist ])rincipally of stroiij? forts 
 Ixiilt on the contif^uoiis heights, and whicrh t'oni- 
 niand all the approaches to the town. The two 
 ]irincipal forts, Tnih-Tvtvs and Hunduu'ilh't, com- 
 niniiicate with each other and with the town by a 
 l)rid};e of a sinj^le arch Hid fl. (Id metres) in spun, 
 thrown over a ilee)) ravine. With the exception 
 of a siiiffle street, the town is ill-hiiilt, jjloomy. and 
 dirty. It has a trihuiial of primary Jurisdiction, 
 and a departmental college; with fabrics of cotton 
 goods, hosiery, steel and cutlery. 
 
 I5KIANSK, ft town of Russia in Europe, gov. 
 Orel, cap. distr,, on the Desna, 6ft m. W. Orel; 
 Int. 5ao Ifi' N., long. 34° 24' F. Pop. 12,3!)lt in 
 \Hi}i<. The town is very prosperous, having doubled 
 its population hi the course of less than twenty 
 years. It has numerous churches, a fonndrv of 
 cannons, tanneries, and there is in the vicinity a 
 manufactory of arms. The neighbouring forests 
 supjily tine timber. 
 
 lUiIAKIC, a town of France, de'p. Loiret, ca]i. 
 cant., on the Loire, at the itoint where it is joined 
 by the canal of IJriare, 25 m, S. Jloiitargis on the 
 railway from I'aris to Lyons cid IJoaiine. Po)>. 
 i),!i27 in 18G1, The canal, to which the town is 
 indebted for its importance, is the oldest work of 
 the kind in France, having been begun in the 
 reign of Henry IV., though it was not. (inished 
 till i74(). It establishes, by means of its junction 
 A\ ith the canal of Loing at IMontargis, a commu- 
 nication between the Loire and the Seine; and 
 conveys the various products of the prov. watered 
 by the former to I'aris. 
 
 15KICQUEBEC, a town of France, de'p. La 
 IMaiiche, cap. cant., 8 m. WSW. A'alogues. Po]). 
 3,!)()!) in 18G1. It has in its environs a copper 
 mine. 
 
 UHlDGEXOliTII, a bor. and town of England, 
 CO. Salop, bund. Stottcsden, on the Severn, 125 m. 
 NW'. Londim by road, and 14!) J m. by (Jreat 
 Western and West 3Iidlaud railway. Pop. of 
 )iarl. bor. 7,(>!)!), and of municipal bor. 0,240 in 
 l.siJl. It is divided by the river into the upper 
 and lower towns ; the former is built u]) the accli- 
 vities and on the summit of a rock, rising abrii])tly 
 from the W. bank of the stream to tlie height of 
 I c'id ft. Kanges of detached houses, many of which 
 are handsome modern structures, are built each 
 over the other, so that the roofs tif one range are 
 lower than the foundations of the next above it, 
 Irom the base to the siunmit of the precipice ; with 
 
 nRIDGENOUTil 
 
 these arc intermixed other dwellings, excavatpil ni 
 the rock its(4f ; rude caverns, gardens, and trees, 
 Crowiiiiig the siiinmil, nt the S. end, is the Kiiiiiirii 
 ruined tower i>f the uncient castle, Ic^aniii]:,' nm- 
 siilcrablv from the |ierpeudi(Milar ; and the eluinli 
 of St. Alary Mag., a hamlsome structure, with n 
 lofty lower and cupola, built in I7!(2. At tlie N. 
 en<l is the ancient ehiircdi St. Leonard, with n 
 s(|uare iiinnacled tower, built in Ills. Iliil|-wav 
 between the two chiirclies is a reservoir, laiscil (ui 
 lofty brick columns, and looking nt a distance likit 
 a handsome portico: to this tank, water is loried 
 by machinery from the river, to supply the iijiiier 
 town. There are several good streets leading iVdin 
 the high street to the churches; and parall(4 over 
 these are others of a like character. A cnrriii(,'e 
 road winds round the rock, and several tiights (,f 
 almost perpeudicnlnr p(4)l)led ste))s, seiuired iiiirmi 
 framing, lead up through the rock into the inte- 
 rior of the town. The whole has a siiignjariv 
 pictiirescpie elVect, and from the palisaded wiiil 
 round the castle hill, extensive and diversiiieil 
 views are commanded over a fertile and rDinnnlii; 
 district. A handsome stone bridge of six aniies 
 connects the h)wer with the upjier town. Its 
 streets have an intermixture of ancient and mo- 
 dern houses. St. Leonard's cliundi is eiuluweil 
 with Odd/. ))rivate benefaction, and 1,100/. imhljc 
 grant. St. Mary's, formerly the castle chapel, ami 
 exempted by king John from nil ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction, is eiulowed with 200/. private, ami 
 l,5dO/. public grant: both nre curacies in private 
 patronage. The I'.aptists and liidependeiiis liavc 
 each a chapel. There is a free graniiniir-silnMil, 
 founded in 150;>, which educates 10 scholars, ami 
 has three exhib. to Christ C'hurch, Oxtord ; a liliie- 
 coat scho<d, in a building over one of the ancient 
 gateways, where 30 bo3-8 are clothed, educated, 
 and ajiprenticed ; and a national school, supjuirted 
 by siil)scriiition, for 200 boys and 150 girls. 'I'lio 
 hospital of St. Leonard supports 10 aged widows; 
 niid endowed almshouses, with 158/. a year, main- 
 tain 12 burgesses' widows. The town-hall, in iIk; 
 middle of the principal street, erected l(ll(>, is a 
 spacious old building of timber fraine-wdik ami 
 lilaster, raised on brick iiillars and arches: tlie 
 corporation meetings anil courts are hekl in it, 
 and the market in the covered area uiulerncaili. 
 There is a gaol, built by the coriioraticni in I82,'i. 
 A neat theatre, built about the same period, stands 
 in the castle moat, and there is also a public library, 
 with a good collection in general literature. The 
 weekly market is held on Saturday ; ami there arc 
 seven annual fairs. There is a carpet innniifactury, 
 and another for tobacco-piiics, in the town. Its 
 iron trade has declined, but nails are still made tn 
 some extent ; and vessels are also built for the 
 navigation of the Severn. The greater part of its 
 labouriug pop. are emph)yed ujion the river. It 
 has a spacious line of quay X. of the bridge, and 
 otl'ers every facility for the transit of goods, so that 
 large quantities of corn, malt, beans, itc, arc sent 
 thither from various parts of the country, and it 
 has become a thriving inland port : its retail tradu 
 is also very considerable. 
 
 I'reviously to the Municipal Iteform Act the 
 government was nominally vested in 2 baililVs. •>\ 
 aldermen, and the whole of the burgesses, whose 
 number (including the former) was (i.'i4 ; hut la 
 reality it was a self-electing body of 14. It is now 
 governed by a mayor, 4 aUlermen, and 12 coun- 
 cillors. Horongh income, ],!)!I5/. ill 1801. Amount 
 assessed to property tax i54,!)5 1/. ; gross rental 
 assesseil to poor rate, 32,.")(').';/. Petty sessions Inr 
 the bor. are held ever^' alternate jMoiiday, iind 
 general sessions once a year ; but no feliaiies are 
 tried. A court of record is held on the same da.vs 
 
ijRiDGEPoirr 
 
 an till) pi'tty sossions which takes (•((■jiii>imrf' (if I 
 lU'tioiiA to liny nriKiiiiit ; l)iil not more tliiiii thri'o 
 a yciir nrci'iitrrcd, 
 
 "Hricl>;o|iortli hiis rotiimcd two mem. to the II. of 
 ('. from the 'iilnl Kdwiinl I. Previously to the 
 Iteform Act the ch-etive franchise wiv* vested i:i 
 ilip coriioration iind freemen, of wiioin there were 
 (l.!l. Ill IMtil, the constitiieiiey consisted of (io(> 
 ri'^'istered ehu'tors, iiK^hidinj^ .'Hi.') old freemen. 
 
 Jlruyeii was the nncient name of the lionnij^h, 
 from a Saxim hridj^e over the Severn, whicli was 
 destroyed to prevent tlie incursions of the Panes. 
 A new hridfxe was snhseqiiently erected, 1^ in. N. 
 (if tlie old site ; and heix^e the jiresent nauu* ori- 
 ^'iimted. The Karl of Shrewshury imilt t!ie walls, 
 ill v/hich were six jjates, in the reif^n of Will. II. ; 
 the castle was Imilt in that of Hen. II., and it has 
 since nnderpine many sie^ces. Dr. Percy, bislioii 
 of Dromore, was horn here in 172M. 
 
 HI{ll)(;i;P01!T, a town and sea-port of the U. 
 States, Connecticut, on Lonjc Island Sound, at the 
 miiuth of the Pequanock, 17^ in. S\V. Xewhnven. 
 I'd)). 8,l(l."j in 18t)(». The town has a consider- 
 able trade. Amoiif; the principal hiiildinns is the 
 church of the Analiaptists, who are numerous here. 
 
 lilMUCJKTOVVM, the cap. of IJarbados, which 
 
 Sl'P. 
 
 llmnoKTOWN, or IlitinaKTuN, a town and «ea- 
 p(irt of the IJ. States, N. .lersey, on the C(dianzy, 
 2tl m. ahove its entraiure into the Delaware, and 'iCi 
 ni. S. Pliiladel|iliia. Po|). ;!.:;uit in IHf.O. The 
 tiiwn has a fjood trade, with a foundry, and nianu- 
 factnres of j^lass and eartlieinvare. 
 
 llIMDdEWATKK, a hor., par., and 8na-])()rt of 
 Kn};land, co. Somerset, liuiid. X. Petherlou, on 
 tlie I'arret, aliont 7 m. in n direct line, and 12 m. 
 hv water, S., from its emhoiicluire in lh-iil;;e\vater 
 liay, in the IJristol Channel, 28 m. SSW. Pristol ; 
 aiullolj in. W. London by (ireat M'estern rail- 
 way. Pop. of borough 11, .'320, and of parish 
 12,120 in 18(U. The town is situated in a fertile 
 Mi'll-wooded plain of cinisiderable extent, having 
 K. the Mendip, and W. the (iiiantock hills; it is 
 limit on both sides the stream, Imt ehielly on the 
 \V., the 2 parts being conneotiid by a handsome 
 inm bridge of 1 arch. That on the W. bank has 
 a reniarkalily neat ajipearance, the houses being 
 well and uniformly l.uilt, and the streets spacious, 
 clean, and well paved; the other (Kastover) is 
 iiiferior in these resjiects, but has also of late 
 years been niiieh improved : the whole is lighted 
 iiy gas, and well supplied with water from many 
 line springs. The church is an ancient (Jotbic 
 structure, with an embattled tower and lofty 
 spire; there are chapels for Baptists, Friends, In- 
 ilt'ixiidents, ^^'esleJ•alls, (Quakers, and Unitarians ; 
 a free grammar-school (founded by Elizabeth in 
 li"i(il), and two other endowed schools, each of 
 which educates about 30 children; almshouses, 
 with an endowment of about 18^. a year; and an 
 iiilimiani', established 1813, and suiijiorted by 
 siihscription. Tliejndge's mansion is a handsome 
 miiilcru edilice, in which the courts of justice are 
 held; the market-house is also a good recent 
 Imihling, with a dome ami Ionic portico. There 
 is a sjHicious quay, accessible to vess(ds of 200 
 tons ; but the entrance to the harbour is dilHciilt. 
 
 The tide in the river frequtnitly rises to a great 
 lioight, rushing forward with a pcriicndiciilar 
 trout ami with extiaordinary velocity, There 
 are 3 weekly markets : Tuesday, for vegetables ; 
 Thursday, corn and cattle ; Saturday, general 
 lirovisions. Fairs are annually held on the (irst 
 Monday in Lent, July 21, Oct. 2 (the priuci|ial 
 one), and Dec. 27 ; they are for linen and woollen 
 ),'0(k1s, ciittle, and general merchandise. The 
 imports from foreign parts consist chiclly of 
 
 P.KIDLIN'dToX 
 
 660 
 
 winrs, hemp, tnllow, and timber. The imports, 
 coastwise, enn.sist of groceries, general merchan- 
 dise, and coals ; the exports, of agricidliiral pro- 
 (liK'c. The shipping of the port, in 18(I;I, consisted 
 of3,')8!l vessels, of I(i2,(il() tons, which entered, 
 and 2,312 vessels, of (Hi,! 1(1 tons, which cleared. 
 .Among the vessels which entered were 213 
 steamers, of ;M,;18H tons, while the clearances 
 included 212 steamers, of 2l,2liti tons. Tlu; 
 ciisi.ims duties ill I8ti3 ainnunted to 7,7'.'!/. The 
 Taunton and Pridgewater Canal couiiects the two 
 places. Considerable quantities of Welsh coal 
 are conveyed by it inland, and the agrictultiiral 
 jirodiice of the fertile district round Ttumton, 
 iirougbt for shiiimeiit to ISristol and other port.<, 
 A great quantity of bricks are made in the 
 vicinity, both common and of a peculiar kind, 
 and large size, resembling Itatb-stone. The town 
 is divided into 2 wanls. and governed by a mayor, 
 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Courts of jileas 
 and of jtetty sessions are held every Monday, ami 
 of general sessions quarterly, for the bor. It is 
 the seat of a county court, before which 7.'i2 plaints 
 were entered in 1818. The general rpiarter 
 sessions for the co., in summer, and the co. 
 assizes, once in 2 yejirs, are also held in the 
 town : at such times its gaol is usually crowded, 
 otherwise it has few prisoners. It lias sent 2 
 mem. to the II. of C. since th(' 23 I'.dw. I.; tlu! 
 right of election, ]ireviously to the lieform Act, 
 being ill the iiihabitants paying scot and lot, 
 and having resided in the town for a c<'rtaiii 
 jieriod ; the eonstituency in I8l'il consisted of 
 i'lDl registered electors. The revenues of the 
 corponitioii are derived from market and fair 
 dues, tithes, and I'lits, and iiveragc ab'mt 2,00ii/. 
 a year. Tlu! living is a vicarage, united with tlm 
 rector}' of Chilton Trinity, anil in the gift of the 
 crown. Pridgewater is a polling place for the K, 
 division of Somerset, and the central town of ji 
 union under the Poor Law Amendment Act. The 
 net rental assessed to poor ral(! was 28,1 18/. in 
 ISCil, and the amount assessed to projierty tax 
 3!),!I31/. 
 
 The town derives its name from Walter do 
 Douay, to whom it was granted by William I., 
 and is sjielt ♦ Ihirg' and ' ISiugge' Walter, in tln! 
 (dd records. In the great civil war it sided witli 
 the king, and lieiiig well fortilied and provisioned, 
 was the depository of much valuable property, 
 sent thither for security; all of which, together 
 with 1,(100 prisoners, lell into the hands of Fairfax, 
 aft(!r an obstinate resistance. The ill-fated Duke 
 of Monmouth was )iroclaiiiied king at Pridgewater, 
 previously to his defeat and capture at the ISattle 
 of vSedgenioor. The famous Admiral IJlake, one 
 of the greatest of the naval heroes of F.ngland, 
 was a native of this town, having been bomi here 
 in ir)i»!>. 
 
 PPIDLINGTON, a market to. of England, K. 
 riding co. York, 37 ni. ENE York, 24 m. N. by I'".. 
 Hull, I'.Mi m. N. London by roiid, and 245 m. by 
 (ireat Northern railway. Pop. 5,775 in 18(ii. 
 The town, which is about a mile from the sea- 
 coast, consists of one long street, with some 
 smaHer streets narrow and irregularly built. A 
 priory, erected in the early part of the reign of 
 Henry I., at the E. end of the town, is, thinigli 
 much decayed, a venerable andmagniliccnt siicci- 
 men of the (dd English church archit('ctiire. It 
 was endowed with very large estates : its last 
 prior being cnnvicted of high treason, wasexecuted 
 in 1537. A part of it, used as the jiarisli church, 
 accommodates above I,ilOO persons. Tlu; other 
 lilaces of worship are those of the Wcsleyaii and 
 Primitive jMetlmdists, Paplists, Independents, 
 Presbyterians and <iuaUcrs. The schools arc, a free 
 
 K' 
 
£40 
 
 BRIDPORT 
 
 ^r'lnimnr-wlinnl, foiiiiiUMl in l(i.')7; two Inrpc nn- 
 liiiiml kcIiihiIh, an iiil'iints' hcIhioI, nnd » xcIhmiI of 
 iiiiliiMirvi t<iiiii(l('<l in I'M, to iuslnin ]iii()r (^liildrcu 
 in carding', knitting, iinil wool xpinninf^ A il(!- 
 Inclu-d hnildin^, wliii^li lonncd piirt of tlio ]iriory, 
 is iisvd for a town-liiill inid iiriNon, IScsidt's ii 
 Itrink rcUiil trade, an extensive corn Iriidt; is 
 <Nirrii'il on. Tiio hnsincss in traiisuctcd in tlii! 
 J'lxi'liang*^ a neat connnodions liiiiidin);. Hals 
 tin' also inaniifactured Iiiti', and in tlic n('ij{lil)our- 
 liood nre M'vcral wind and waitT mills, nnd a 
 hli'nm-niill for griiidinj^ l)oni>s, T)in malt trado, 
 wliiiili was forini'rly very extensive, is nuich 
 fallen ofl'. Aiarkets are held on Saturdays, and 
 n <uUtlc market every fortniKlit; fairs on tlic; 
 ^loiiduy before Whitsunday, and Oct. 21. Urid- 
 lington is ii station forreeeninf? votes at elections 
 i'or the E. Itidiufj;. Tlie banks are, a branch of 
 the York Union, and a |>rivate Imnkinf^ house. 
 Iiridlington (^uay is a lU'at vilhif,'e, aliont a mile 
 from llridlin^ton, and forms an eel. district, with 
 i\ |iop. in 1N(!I, of 2,077. Its principal street, 
 wliicii is very broad, leads directly to the harbour. 
 Aviiere there is excellent anchorage : it is defended 
 by two batti'ries. Here are hot and cold baths, 
 «nd a chalylwatc spring, whose medicinal pro- 
 jierties are highly esteemed. An ebbing and 
 flowing Hpring, discovered in 1811, supplies the 
 inhabitants with abundance of excellent water. 
 The port is a member of that of Hull, and has a 
 neat custom-house on the (puiy. It is mucii 
 frequented in sunnner by visitors for sea-bathing. 
 UlMUrOKT, a bor. and sea-port of England co. 
 J)orset, lumd. Bridport, 127 m, WlSVV. London 
 by road, and KiJJ m. bv (Jreat Western Kailway. 
 r'op. 7,719 in IMtil. ^riie town lies in a fertile 
 vale encircled by hills, between the IJrit and 
 Aslier, which arc crossed Iiy several bridges, and 
 nnite a short distance below the town. It eon- 
 nists chietiy of three main streets, well lighted 
 nnd paved, with many handsome modern houses 
 on either side. The church is a cruciform struc- 
 ture of the later Gothic, with an embattled and 
 ]iiunaclcd tower in the centre. The Eriends, In- 
 de|)endents, Wesleyans, nnd Unilarinns, have 
 tacli chapels. The town-hall where the council 
 meet, and the borough sessions are held, is a hand- 
 some muderu edifice in the centre of the place; 
 there is also an endowed free school, founded 
 17(t«, anil an almshouse, founded U't'Jii. The 
 jiier linrbuiir is about one m. S. of the towni, be- 
 tween Lyme and Portland, and is safe and com- 
 modious^ though rather shallow. An act, passed 
 in 1722 for restoring its piers, and forming a sluice, 
 ■was carried into ell'ect in 1742, the corporation 
 being trustee. In 1822 another act passed, by 
 •which several private persons were joined with 
 the corporation in the trust, nnd the harbour was 
 then materially improved and enlarged, at an 
 exijcnse of nearly 20,000/., and is now suitable 
 for vessels of 200 tons ; since which the increase 
 of its trade has been progressive. In 18:52 it was 
 made independent of Lyme, within whose juris- 
 diction it had previously h'.-cn, and established 
 as a bonding port. The customs' duties amounted 
 to 2,7o!)/. in IHtiiJ. The manufactures are — twine, 
 linos, anil lishing-nots, for the home aiul colonial 
 fisheries, and sail-cloth and shoe thread : these 
 employ several hundred jiersons. The cxiuirts 
 consist chieliy of those manufactures, and -of 
 butter and cheese, the jiroduce of the neighbour- 
 hood. The imports conii>rise hemj), liax, and 
 deals, from the ISallic; talhiw, skins, coal, culm, 
 t-l.ile, wines, s|iirits, and gripccries, coastwise, 
 'i'liere entered the port, in IHOii, 100 sailing 
 vessels, of 8,845 tons burden, and there quitieil 
 15 sailing vessels, of 075 tons. There are 2 
 
 URIEL 
 
 weekly markets (Wednesday and Satiinlay), ami 
 .'i fairs (April (1, Holy Tlilirsdaj-, and Oct. lii; 
 cliiflly for horses, c;dlle, and cheese). The Imr! 
 is divlili'd into 2 wards, inid governed by a niavnr, 
 IS aldeniu'n, and 18 coimcillors : the revenue 1. 1' 
 the corjioration derived from market iIuch and 
 rents ninnunted to 4'.I0/. in jHiil, l)rid|Hirt h.is 
 sent 2 nu'Ui. to Ihe House of Commons sinrc -j:) 
 l'".dw. I. Previously to the Keform Act the ri;;la 
 of election was vested in the householders |iMviii" 
 scot nnd lot, Ihe nnnd>er of voters iK'ing neiirlv 
 ilOO. In 18()5 it had 4lil regist. electors, inehidiii^; 
 111 Hcot nnd lot voters. Amount assessed to 
 property tax l!l,27iV, in 181)1. Uridport was n. 
 Iioroiigh during (he Saxon period : at the time of 
 the Domesday survey it had 100 houses, a mint, 
 and an ecclesiastical establishment. Its stiipli! 
 manufacture is of remote origin ; Camdeu not ires 
 n siiecial law of Henry the Eighth's reign, \>v 
 which the mivy was to be exclusively siipplicij 
 with cordage made at Uridport; and (iibson, in « 
 in)te on the imssage, speaks of the failure of ua 
 attempt in his day to form a harbour ((iihs. Kd, 
 Urit. 170.) It confers the title of viscount on the 
 Hood famil}'. 
 
 IllME-COMTE-KOISEirr, n town of Frame, 
 dep. Seine et Mariie, cap. cant., near the Yitcs, 
 10 m. NNW. aielun. Pop. 2,8,sl in Ihiil. Tiiu 
 town was built by I'obert of Erance, count nf 
 Dreiix, to whom his brother Louis VII. gave the 
 hirdship of Brie. Its old feudal castle has beeu 
 demolished. The |)arish church, founded in tlie 
 loth century, is remarkable for the heiglit of its 
 tower. The Hotel Dieu is nearly of the same age 
 (US the church. 
 
 lUilEtjl, a fortified town of Prussia, prov. Sile- 
 sia, cap. circ, on the Oder, about half wnv lif- 
 tweon lireslau and Opjieln, and on the railwiiv 
 from Hreslan to Vienna. Ptij). ]2,!)70 in Iw'ii. 
 The town is situated on an elevated bank of tlie 
 river, over which it hits a wooden bridge, and is 
 well built and thriving. Principal imblie Imilil- 
 ings, a gymnasium, fonnerly a nniversily, to wliiiii 
 is attached a good library, a luinitic asylum, wiili 
 several churches ami hospitals. It has extensive 
 manufactures of linens, woollens, and cottons, ami 
 carries on a considerable trade. 
 
 HKIEL or IllJlELLE, a fortified sea-port timii 
 of the Netherlands, prov. S. Holland, cap. ammil., 
 on the N. shore of the island of Voorn, near I lie 
 mouth of the Macse, 13 m. W. Kotlenlain ; lal. 
 51 o 54' 11" N., long. 4° 9' 51" E. Pop. 4,;i()4 in 
 18(!1. It is a handsome well-built town; is 
 strongly fortiiied; has a good harbour, a Irilmiial 
 of ])rimary jurisdiction, and sends a deimty to the 
 states of the province. 
 
 The Uriel is remarkable in Dutch history fur 
 being the place where the first foundation oi' the 
 re])ublic was laid. The exiles from the NetliiT- 
 lands, who had taken refuge in England frdin tlic 
 lierseeutions of the Duke of Alva, were onleroii In' 
 tineen Elizabeth, in coiiset|iience of the iir^'ciit 
 representations of Alva, to leave this kii)Kil"i". 
 Being thus driven to desimir, they asscmliled a 
 small licet at Dover, under the comnianil iil' M'il- 
 liam lie Lumey, Count de la Marck, and resolveil. 
 if jiossihle, to get |)ossession of some jilace nl' 
 strength in their native country. Their ori^'iiial 
 intention was to make an atteni|it on I'jR'liiiv.si'ii ; 
 but the wind being unfavourable, they cast aiii'lnr 
 before Uriel, of which they took possession on tlic 
 1st of April, 1572. Thus was struck Ilie first hhw 
 in tlnit apparently most unequal nnd iim;;-iiiii- 
 tinucil struggle between Holland and Spain, iliat 
 endeil in the independence of the former; astniiC- 
 gle rt'hich, whether we consider the sacrilices and 
 lierseverancc of the weaker party, or the benilicial 
 
BRIENXE 
 
 fonspqiioncps of thoir hupcpss, im. iirrhnpn, thr most 
 cxtriiiii'iliiiury iiml iiii|i()rtiitit of which liiNlnry hiiM 
 |iri"H'rviMi imy iicckiiiiI. (I''iir nil iiccnimt of ihv 
 ,ii|iliin' tif llrii'l, Ni'i! Wiitsou's I'liiliit II., i. p. 127, 
 
 «VI'. I'll.) 
 
 Itricl wa.i tho hirth-|)Iiu;o of tho heroin Aflmirnl 
 Vuii 'rromp, who iV-tl in iiti <Mi;^M;;('iiu'iit, with (ii(> 
 KiiLjli-'li. under liliiiio, oil' Uic Tuxcl, on llio «l.ii of 
 
 An';;.. I <!•">;». 
 
 ItlMICNNK, n t^wii of France, (U'p. Anlm, cnp. 
 rant,, on the f^reiit road from I'aris to Ciiiinincint, 
 Ifiin. N\V. itnr-snr-Aiihc. I'op. 2,(l.-)7 in IWll. 
 Till' town luiN u lino cuitle, cri'i'tcd u HJiort while 
 pri'Viously to the [{(evolution, hy the minister 
 hDUU'nie'dc Hrienne. it st.inds im nil nrlilie'iiil 
 |iliiieiiii. and eoniinunds an extensive view. Na- 
 |iip1(m>ii I. received the lirst rmliineiits of liis edii- 
 tiiliiiii in a military academy that formerly existed 
 ill this town, lint which was snppresseil in 17111); 
 mid here, in l«l I, in aii ent^aj^enient with the 
 Russians and I'ruHsinus, he wits ill imtiiinciit 
 (iniijtcr. 
 
 lllilHUC (ST.), a sen-port town of France, d(<p. 
 O'ltcs-dii-Nord, of which it is the capital, on the 
 (idiict, near its emhoncluirc in the May of St. 
 Itrifiii;, iW m. \VS\V. St. Malo, on tlie"^ railway 
 I'niiii Paris to llrest. Pop. ir>,:Ul in l«(!l. The 
 jxirt of St. JUieiio, nt the month of the river nt 
 till! vilhifje of J-iipmc, has a liandsome quay, and 
 a eomniodious harbour, accessible to vessels of HM 
 tmis. The town is ])rctty well built. The cathe- 
 <lriil, a tiothic cdilice, was bcj^un in 1220, and 
 liiiishcd in 1231 ; there are, also, a hotel dc ville, 
 nil liosiiital on a larf^e scale, a workhouse, and a 
 tliwitre. The bridj^e over the river is a handsome 
 ftoiie structure of three arches. There are some 
 piml s(pmres and line promenades, St. Hrienc is 
 tlioscat of a bishojiric, and of tribunals of primary 
 jurisdiction and commerce ; and it has a depart- 
 mental colle<;e, a diocesan seminary with 1(10 
 ]iii|iils, a school of arts, and a jmblic library with 
 24,000 volumes. There are in the town fabrics of 
 linen, serjje, flannel, and paper, with tanneries 
 nnd breweries. The inhabitants used to employ a 
 considerable number of ships in the whale and cod 
 lislieries, particularly the latter, but this industry 
 1ms ureatly declined of late years, chiefly, it is 
 stated, on account of the strict laws of maritime 
 ciinscription, which impresses the greater part of 
 the risiiifi generation for the Iinjierial navy. The 
 wiiist tishery, however, is still carried on to a con- 
 siderable extent. Horse races were established 
 here in 1H07, and are kept up with great sitirit. 
 
 HUKiHTON, formerly llKIGinTIKLiM- 
 STON K, a fashionable niarit, town and pari, bor, 
 of England, co, Sussex, rape Lewes, hiind. Welh- 
 btmnte, vulg, IFhaleshone, 47 ni, S. London by 
 road, and &0 m. bv London, Brighton and South 
 (Joast railway. Pop. 24,429 in 1821; 41,!)!)4 in 
 1831 ; 4C,(J0rm 1841 ; G<»,67JJ in 1851 ; nnd 87,317 
 ill 18H1, The latter is the pop. within the bounds 
 of the pari, borough; that of the niiiniciiial 
 iKirough was 77,693 in 180 1, Brighton— the mo- 
 dem IJaiic — is situated on the coast of the British 
 Channel, between Beachey Head and Selsey Bill, 
 It is of an irregular shape, being built along the 
 shore, and on the slopes of a gentle valley, the 
 centre of which, the Stei/ne, a long, narrow slip of 
 land, lying N, and S,, divides the town into the 
 E, and'W. portions. In this valley are the I'a- 
 vilion, and St, Peter's Church ; a statue of George 
 IV. by Chantrey, and a handsome fountain con- 
 structed in 1840. The town E. the Steyne, has 
 been wholly built within the last eighty years. 
 Aloii}; the clitfs, which in this part rise high above 
 the sea, has been formed a very beautiful marine 
 liromciiadc. A wall of iinmeuse thickness (at the 
 
 raiOIITON 611 
 
 foundation 30 ft. wide), and from CO to 70 ft. high, 
 formed of concri^te, jirotects a line pavement, and 
 a road upwards of l(M) fi. in width. From the 
 exircmc K. eiiirance of the town. Ibis miigiiiticenb 
 itromeiiade and drive is skirlctl to the Sleyiie liy 
 large mansions, nnd lodging-houses of the llrst 
 <lescription. Among others arc those of Kemp 
 Town, and its sipiares, a splendid range, forming 
 three siilcs of a (piadrangli!, and having a row of 
 houses, of similar architectural chariK-tcr, diverging 
 fnmi either extremity : the spacious area in front 
 is laid out in walks, and has an nrcluil passnge 
 commuiiicntiiig with the bench, the crescent, ami 
 various spacious streets, opening from the line of 
 dill" to the norihward. West of the Steyne is the 
 «dd town, consisting principally of old and irregu- 
 lar biiililiiigs. Many of these have, however, iM'en 
 inilled down, nnd on the sites of some of them, a 
 new market was constriicKul in 1H29, and a town- 
 hall in IM31; but the latter, though large, ami 
 making n good ajipearancc externally, is not well 
 adapted for public meetings. In every direction 
 round the old town new streets and s(|iiares have 
 been erected; particularly aUiiig the line of coast, 
 called the King's Road to Hove, where, facing tlio 
 sen, are some line ranges of mansions, including 
 Bedford Sipiare, liegeney Square, nrnnswick Ter- 
 race and S(iuare, Adelaide Terrace, l£oyal Crescent, 
 Palmo'ra Scpiare, and numerous others. The elitl's, 
 ah)iig this part of the coast, rise only a f(tw feet 
 above the highest part of the beach : iii their front 
 is a tine promenade, and, below this, a levtd space 
 of green sward reaching down to within a short dis- 
 tance of the water. On the Lewes road are I ianover 
 Crescent, Kichmond Terrace, the (irand I'arade, 
 and Park tJrescent, recently erected on thesiteof the 
 IJoyal Gardens and Cricket Ground. On the London 
 road are York and St. George's Places, and many 
 structures in the cottage style. The palace called 
 the Pavilion, was begun by George I V.when Prince 
 of Wales, in 17«4, and completed in 1827; it is 
 in the oriental stvlc, being copied from the Krem- 
 lin at Moscow ; its stone front extends 200 ft. ; it 
 has a circular building in the centre, surmounted 
 by a pillared dome. The Chapel Koyal is (m the 
 W., nnd l)ehind is a circular range of stables in 
 the Arabian style, lighted by a glass dome. The 
 palace is shut out from the view of the sea by the ' 
 Albion Hotel aiid other buildings ; and little can 
 be said in favour of the taste displayed in its 
 erection. This building and the ground attached 
 to it, eomjirising about seven acres, hnve Im'cii 
 purchnsed by the town, at a cost of 53,000/., and 
 the place has been converted into reading anil as- 
 sembly rooms, and a sort of refuge for miscella- 
 neous entcrtahiments. The old church of great 
 antiquitj', a mean fabric, partlv in the ornamented 
 and partly in the later Gothic style, has a low, 
 massive, square tower, which, as it stands on a 
 hill 150 ft, above the sea, serves as a landmark for 
 vessels, St, Peter's church, an elegant Gothic 
 structure, completed in 1827, at the public expense, 
 has upwards of 1,100 free sittings. Besides these, 
 there are 19 other churches, and 28 eliapels, for 
 Roman Catholics, Huntingdonians, Quakers, In- 
 dependents, Baptists, Scotch Seceders, and Wcs- 
 leyan and Whittield Methodists, There are 
 numerous free schools, partly supported by sub- 
 scriptions and partly endowed, with orphan, na- 
 tional, infant, and ragged scho(ds. Among the 
 other educational establishments are Brighton 
 College; the Diocesan Training College, on the 
 clirts; St, Jlary's Hall, for clergymen's daughters; 
 and the Dissenters' Proprietary College, The 
 County Hospital, in the neiglibourliood of the 
 college, is a large and well sn))ported establish- 
 ment. There arc baths of all kiiuls, constructed 
 
A 12 
 
 IMUOHTOX 
 
 ■with ovjTy rct^nnl to comfiirl and cnnvniiicnrc, ns 
 well as niitncriiiis Imtliiii;,' iiiiii-liiiic.i. 'I'lic (HTtiiiiii 
 N|iii, ill II vitlli'V riU'liii; ilic Kt'M, at the lunl nl' tin: 
 llipw Mill, \\t\x csliilplislicil ill |M-.'(!, I'cir the pri'- 
 |iiiriitii>n (if artilii'iiil iiiiiicriil walcrn, in iinitutioii 
 of tlio niitiiral HpriiigN nt Carlsbnil, Knis, Miirion- 
 bact, anil I'vriiKint. 
 
 All cla^ssfM of visitors tlnil miitnlilo nccomtnniln- 
 tion lii'iv, in fnrnislicil lii(lfrin;;M, inns, and IioIuIh ; 
 of all wliifh tlicrc is t^vcry variety, from I hose of 
 tlic most Hii|)('rii and <'X|it'n.siv(! cliaractor, to the 
 )ilaiiu'sl and inonl ('conoinical. On the Downs isa 
 v.cll ki'jit course, where races are lield the llrst 
 M-eck of Anfiiist, Tliere arc nniny llno|ironienadcs; 
 amongst tliein, a very favourite one is the sns- 
 j.ciision cliaiii-|)ier, constructed in IH2I, at an ex- 
 jH use of ;m,()(l(l/. : the pier head is CO ft. Iiy 20, and 
 has seats and nwniii^^s, with galleries and lli;chts 
 <if steps, to facilitate landing and emiiarkation at 
 dilferent sialics of the tiih' ; the \)U'r itself is l,".'00 
 it. in Ien;,'lh liy II ft. in wiillli ; and an esplanade 
 v( the same leii>;tli, -10 ft. wide, connects it witli 
 the .Steyiu;. Itri^htoii has no liarhonr, and no 
 iMaritiiiie traihs lint uhont l.'iO l)oats are employed . 
 ill lisliiii);. Mackerel, hcrriiijjs, tiirhot, soles, and I 
 skate arc caught in considerahle quantities, and in ' 
 ]iart supply tlu! liondon markets. Tlie intercourse f 
 •with tlu! metropolis, formerly rll'ecteil hy fast i 
 eoaclu'S has increased immensely since the oiienlni; j 
 of th(! railway, hy which frequently 20,(100 persons 
 iiri' carried down in u day, in so-called 'cxcnrHion' 
 trains. 
 
 The licform act conferred on Brif;htoii the jtri- 
 vilci^e of returninf^ two memhers to tint II. ofC 
 'I'he piirl. hor., inc. the parishes of l{rit;hton and 
 Hove, extends over 2,(520 acres. l!ef,'istered cou- 
 nt itnency, .">,()27 in iHO.j, J{y n cliarler dated 1st 
 April, lHh\, ihe municipal lioroii;^h is divided into 
 (> wards, and piverned hy a mayor, 12 aldermen, 
 and .'!ti councillors. Itoroii^Hi income, ri!l,)'.t|/. in 
 iHlil ; amount assessed tj property tax 5(11,20,")/. 
 
 llri^jhton has three Imnknig estahlishments, and 
 ft Savings' iiiink. The town supports seven news- 
 jiapers. 
 
 For some centuries Hrif^hton was n mere tisliing 
 villnfje, and was frequently attacked and )ilnndereil 
 liy the French; to iirevent which, Henry VIII. 
 erected some fortilicat'oiis. which were streii<;th- 
 ened and extended hy I'Aiz, I'ut it has suH'ered 
 more from the action of the sea undermining the 
 dill's, than from anything else. ' In tlic reign of 
 lllizaheth the town of Hrighton was situated on 
 lliat tract where the chain-pier now extends into 
 the sea. In KKi.'), 22 tenements had lieen destroyed 
 Tinder the clitf. At that period there still remained 
 under the elift' 1 13 tenements, the whole of which 
 were overwhelmed in 170iJ and 1705. No traces 
 of the ancient town are now perceptible.' (Lyell's 
 (ieology, i. 413, ed. 1H35.) The great sea-wall, 
 noticed above, was constructed to prevent the en- 
 croachment of the sea on the eastern cliffs, on which 
 it was making the most serious inroads. 
 
 Brighton began to come into repute in the reign 
 of George II. as a watering and sea-bathing place, 
 jirincipally through the writings of Dr. Ivichard 
 Kussell, an eminent physician of that day. In 
 1700 the chalybeate sjiring was observed, which 
 tended to increase its growing j)opularity. Js'o 
 <louht, however, it was ))riiiclpally indebted for its 
 rapid rise, and for the high rank it has hnig con- 
 tinued to hold among watering and fashionable 
 places, to the zealous and continued patronage of 
 (ieorge IV. when Prince of Wales, and when re- 
 gent and sovereign. It has nearly quadrupled its 
 ]iiipulation in the course of lialf a century, as will 
 be seen from the census returns before given ; and 
 the advantages it enjoys in its situation, and in its 
 
 BRIOUDE 
 
 being the nenrest |)ort on the S. ponst to London 
 will probably insure its prosperity. 
 
 llliI<iNOlil''.S, a town of France, d«(p. Var, raii. 
 arrond.,on the Ciiraini, 22 in. NNI'",. Tiiiilnii.'j',, ,' 
 (i,ll3in IKOI. The town is neat and wcHbiiili. 
 and is finely sitiialed in a fertile basin, siirriiinidi I 
 
 Willi high w led hills. Its principal oniaiiii'iu h 
 
 its magnificent public fountain, in t|i(> M(|ii^ir>' 
 (!arami. It has a tribunal of primary jiirisdictiim, 
 a ]iriniary normal school, a secondary eccloiasiirai 
 sciiool, a public library, anil a society of ngriciii- 
 tnre, with liliitiires of silk, fabrics of wiiie.ciiiKllis 
 and tanneries. A considerabl(> trade is carricil dii 
 in olive-oil, wine, liqucuirs, brandy, and excellent 
 imines, known by the name of hrh/iiolli-n, 
 
 ItlMLLON, a town of Prussia, prov. West- 
 phalia, reg. Arnsberg, cap. circ. 24 in. SI',. Soc-t. 
 Pop. 4,;>00 in iNCil. The town has two (tluircli.i' 
 a cidlege, an hospital, and fabrics of linen (m,! 
 brass. In the environs arc mines of silver, lead, mid 
 ealaniine. 
 
 lilMNDISI (an. /?rMMf/«»iM»»), a sen-port nndcitv 
 of Southern Italy, prov. Lccce, cap. distr., at ilic 
 bottom of a bay between capes Cavallo nniKicilld, 
 and on the niilway from Traiii to I.ecce ami tlic 
 gulf of Taranto. Pop. H,«44 in ]H&>. In niili(|iiiiv 
 this was one of the most ini|)ortaiit cities of IinU', 
 and was the jiort whence the intercourse between 
 Italy and (irccce, and the I''ast, was usually carrieil 
 on. It owed this distinction as much to ilie ex- 
 cellence of its harbour as to its situation : but in 
 modem times it is sadly clianged for the worst. It 
 is still of great extent within the walls; but tlie 
 inhabited houses do not occupy above half the in- 
 closiire. The streets are crooked anrl nnigli, and 
 the houses ])oor and in disrepair. With the ex- 
 ce]ition of the citadel, a large heavy-looking ca- 
 thedral, and a few remains of antiipiity. there is 
 nothing in it that dci.erves attention. 'I'liis 
 melancholy change has been iirodiiced by tlin 
 nearly total loss of the inner harbour. Tliis, wliiiii 
 encompasses the city on two of its sides, and is 
 dee)) and capacious, was united to the outer har- 
 bour, or bay, by a narrow entrance, like thai 
 leading to Portsminith harbour or the Ilavaniiali. 
 Unfortunately, however, this entrance having been 
 nearly shut nji, the inner harbour was in conse- 
 (|iience rendered inaccessible to all but the snuillesl 
 vessels, and in summer became fetid and nii- 
 healtliy. Julius Ciesar, who attempted to bkuk 
 up Poinpey's fleet that had met in the inner har- 
 bour, by running mounds into its outlets, may \n\ 
 said to have commenced the ruin of ih'iiidisi, which 
 was completed in the 15th centurv by a iirinec of 
 Taranto, who sunk vessels filled with earth niul 
 stones in the passage left open by Civsar. The 
 destriietio.n that was thus brought on the town 
 and it.s oflsets roused at length the attention of the 
 Neapolitan gov., by whom a vigorous ett'orl was 
 made in 177<j to obviate the cause of the misi'liief, 
 by cutting a new channel between the two liiir- 
 bours. Ihit owing, as it would seem, to sumeile- 
 fect in the plan, the project has only piirtially 
 succeeded; tlie new channel soon lilled iip,aiultlie 
 entrance to the inner harbour became nearly ns 
 much encumbered as before. The canal is now, 
 however, kept open by dredging and otherwise tn 
 the de))th of 10 or 12 palini, .so that vessels of this 
 draught of water may enter the inner port. The 
 outer harbour, or hay, is deep and capiicions, and 
 has good anchoring ground. It is (lartially |irii- 
 tectod by an islanil, on which a fort is built ; hut 
 it is exposed to the easterly gales, which throw in 
 a heavy sea. A vast plan for the recoiistrnetinn of 
 the old harbour was approved of by the Italian 
 government in 18()5. 
 
 liKlOUDK, a town of France, di<p. Haute Loiro, 
 
 mill 15t,o<i:t ill l^ 
 
TiniSACH (NEW) 
 
 rap. nrroncl., in n vnut )iliiin Ticiir tlic AUicr. 30 in. 
 N.W. I'nv, nil tlic raihviiy (Vom ( 'liTininil to I'liy. 
 |'(i|>. I, !•■'•<) ill IHi'.l. 'I'll)' (own it old, ill limit, and 
 (liriv. liJ* iii'wt rciii.'irkiilplf cilil'ii'iM arc tlic cnjlcjjc, 
 Mliiiilcil on II hill, anil (■oinniiiiuliii;^ ii line view, 
 and llic (diiircli nf .St. .Iiiliaii, n vciicralde (iotliic 
 I'iiliric, fiiiinili'd in tlie !i|li century. Ilcsidcs the 
 (■(illcjic. It if* tlie Hcat (if a cnnrt ui' iiriiiiury jnris- 
 ilii'iinii, and Una a xniall |iiililic liliniry, iiiid ii mi- 
 lii'ty 111' ii;;riciili lire. Itricmde was the. Iiirtlijilace 
 III' llic Miir(|iiis de I.arayclle, who acted no con- 
 !.|iiriiciiiH a part in the Anierican and Frencti revo- 
 liiiiiiiis. At Old llrioiide, ahonl .'t in, SSI'), of 
 llrimide, in n hriilj^e over the Allier, hnill in IHl.'i, 
 inii-i><lin),' of a sini^le arch lH-i I'l. in Mpaii. 
 
 KIJISACII (N!;W). a furtilied town of France, 
 ijc'p, liaiit. lihin. ca|i. cant., near the left liiiiik of 
 the Ithiiie, (i|)|io4ite to old Itrisach, '.I in. SI'",, ("ol- 
 miir. l'o|i. Il.l.")!; in \H{\\, The town was liiiill in 
 jillMi hy I-oiiis XIV., and fortilied liy Vaiihan. It 
 is 11 rcjC'ilar ncla}j;oii, niid is rej^arded as one <if 
 the liiiest. works eoiistnicti'd hy that i'elelirated 
 fiiiiiiu'cr. 'I'he streets all terininate in a /»/«!•(' in 
 the centre, and iUv houses are all of the same 
 iu'i;,'lit. It is of no iiniiortancecxcept as a fortili- 
 ciiiiiiii. I'eiiif,' without trade or eoininerce. 
 
 ISlMS'I'OIi, a city, co.. pari., hor., and sea-jiort 
 (if Kii^daiid, at the coiilhieiice of the Avon and 
 Friiine, H in. SI'",, of the einhouchnre of the former, 
 in the jlristol ('haiinel, KIH m. W. Loiidun hy road, 
 anil IIH.i ni. hv (ireat \\'esterii raihvav. Top. 
 li.i.r^'iS in l«-'l ; 'iKMriM in ISll ; i:!7..'!2H"in 1K.")I ; 
 ami li")),(t'.»;i in iNiil. The city extends over 7 
 Mils mill their intermediate valleys, amidst a 
 ]iiiliirpsiiiie and fertile district. In the older por- 
 limi, nloiijj file river side, forniiiifj the inieleiis of 
 tlio modern city, the houses were ori;;iiiaily of 
 wiiiid uiid plaster, with njiper stories )irojectiii;,' 
 over narrow streets; Imt these are iiov/ greatly 
 (liniiiiislied. In the more inoiU'rii and elevaled 
 i.iirliiiiis of the town, the streets and sipiarcs are 
 i.]wiiitis. and the houses are mostly well hiiiK, and 
 Milistiiiitial, Those of Kiii^;sdowii, St. Miehaers, 
 aiiil Clifton liills on the X. and W., rise, with their 
 tcrraies nnd j;ardeiis each ahovfi the other, like an 
 nmpliithentrc. Iiedelille, on the S. has narrow 
 strw'ts and densely crowded houses, resenililiii,i; 
 Ihiisoiif the older part of llic city; lint the process 
 iif wideiiin^j; them has lieeii iiii(lertak(!n liy the 
 InipriivoTnont (,'ominilfee under Ji local ai:t of 
 jiariiaiiient, liediniiistiu" is mostly occupied hy 
 iniiiU Jiiodern tenements for the workin;;; classes, 
 and tiin-yards. The whole city is well jiaveil and 
 scwored, and is lit^lifed with coal tjns, supjdied hy 
 two public conipanios. Water is conducted by 
 |iip('s to several public conduits and public ]inn)))s, 
 and also by waterworks, estiiblishcd under an 
 ini'orporiited comjiany, which fetches its siijiplies 
 frmii springs risinpf in the Dnndry and IMcndip 
 Hills, The cathedral in CoUejje < Jrccn, of the iifjo 
 iif .Stephen, and anciently part of .St, Aiiu'iistine's 
 alikv, is a venerable edilice. It was orij;imilly in 
 the i'lirin of a cross, nnd dis)days the diti'erent 
 styles of English church arcliiieclure; length 17."i 
 frt't, breadth of transept MX, and of nave and 
 lisks 7i3 do., height of tower, I 10 do. The nave 
 Mas destroyed during the civil war in the reign of 
 (ImrlcH I. The Cliaiuer House vestibule is re- 
 markable for it.s simplicity and the beauty of its 
 ciimpnsifion. Among the other churches, belong- 
 in;' to the establishment, the prinidiial are St. 
 JIary's liedclilVe, crowning the summit of that 
 lii!l; St. Stephen's, with its richly decorated tower, 
 the beautiful ])innacles of which, being in a dilapi- 
 ilateil state, were removed some years since ; All- 
 Siiuts, which has a statue of (Jolston, by liysbrack ; 
 llic Mayor's Chapel, formerly culled tiaiint's 
 
 TIRI.STOL fin 
 
 ("linreh, and St, Michael's. The disnonters of 
 various di'iioiniMati.nis furiii n very numeriins and 
 iniportaiil part of the ciiniiminity, and Iiiim' a 
 priipoi'tioiial iiunibcr of places of worship. Thero 
 are about a do/en endowed charity schools. Tim 
 free grainmar-school, founded in r.'i:il'. has several 
 exhibilioiis, and two fellowships, each of ltd/, a year, 
 in .St. .lolin's, Oxford, The eiidowineiits of </neeil 
 Fli/.abelh's Hospital, founded by .John Carr in 
 loMti, produce about .1.(10(1/. a vear. They are 
 ein|loyeil to ediiciite, clothe, maintain, and after- 
 wards apjirenlice about 2(i(» boys, who are lodged 
 in It noble building lalciv erected in the I'.li/n- 
 bethail style on the XW', side of lirandon Hill. 
 Alderniiiii Wliitsiin's Ited Maids' school, foniideil 
 in Di'-M, bus an income of about l.iiliii/. a year; it 
 inainlaiiis, clothes, and educates 120 youiig girls, 
 daughters of freemen, from eight to eighteen years 
 of age, who are then phiccd in snitablt^ sitniitions ; 
 and, if they conduct tbcnisidves with propriety, 
 they lia\-e a small portion when they marry. This 
 school has also been re'.iiiill in the l'',li/.abethiin 
 style, and, with the preceding schools, is iiiider 
 the maiiageineiit of the Charily Trustees. There 
 are also, the li'edclitl'c freegrnminiir-scbool, founded 
 ill the llltli of l'',liz..and Ci "ston's. in I70H. f,,r the 
 inaiiitcnaiice, clothing, and ediicalioii of 1 00 boys. 
 Kesides these, there are many other schools, sup- 
 ported either wholly or iiarlially by beiiefailioin 
 and public subscriptions, in which ii|iwarils of 
 :).000 children are educated, and upwards of |ii,U00 
 reci'ive instruction in the Sunday schools of tlio 
 various sects. There? are '21 nlms-honses, which 
 receive in all 110 old men and '2.'i(! old women. 
 The other charitabli! inslitntions comprise the 
 Inlirinary, established in 17:!."), capable of accoin- 
 iir.idiiting 200 patients; it has an aiiii'iiil average 
 of l.iiOO ill and ."»,0()l) out jialienls, who are snp- 
 |iiiried )iiirlly by its own fuiidcd |iroiierty, and 
 parlly by subscriptions and doiialionH: the (ieiieial 
 Hospital, a smaller estiiblishment than the furmer, 
 and )iarily on a self-supiiorting iirincipU': the 
 Dispensary, which gives medical relief to I lie poor 
 at their ov.ii dwellings: asylums for the blind, the 
 deaf and diunb. and for orphan girls: a feniiik! 
 penitentiary, and between '10 and 50 other chari- 
 table societies, which distribute in various ways 
 very considerable sums. The poor are maintained 
 under a local Act. The gross sum assessed to poor 
 rate was .j;io.H7.")/, in IXCil. 
 
 'i'he iirinci|ml public bnihlings are, — the Guild- 
 hall, a modern structure in the florid (lothic style, 
 on the site of the old linilding: thet'oiincil Hoi'ise, 
 built in 1827, at a cost of about H,0()(i/.: the (iaol, 
 a large well-arranged structure, built in 1820: the 
 llridewell, rebuilt after the riots in 1881 : the J'^x- 
 changc, an extensive building of the Orinthiaii 
 order, was erected by the corporation in 17(iO, but 
 not being adojited by the merchants as a place of 
 meeting, the interior is (K-cupied as a corn market, 
 and its back forms part of the spacious qiiiidrangle 
 in which the principal market is held. The Com- 
 mercial Itooiiis, built in 1811, and used as an 
 exchange, have a handsome dome, an Ionic 
 portico, a large hall, reading room, and various 
 aiiartmcnts for the despatch of business. The 
 branch of the bank of Fnglaiid, a modern build- 
 ing, in the Grecian style, adjoins the (jiiildhall. 
 The IJristol Literary and I'hilosojihical Institu- 
 tion, a handsome edifice, opened m 182.'1, has ,i 
 reading-room, library, theatre, and museum : in 
 the latter are gooii collections both in natural 
 history and the fine arts, among them IJaily's 
 statue of 'Eve at the Fiuintain,' Courses of 
 lectures are given, philosojihical papers rend, 
 and it has occasional exhibitions of paintings. 
 The Mcch.inics' Institute, built in ]8;12, has a 
 
 m 
 
TlKISTOTi 
 Till- nrint"! F,iliriirv. 
 
 Alt 
 
 Iccliin' mill a rrniliii^'-room 
 fNtiililislicil ill I77'J, liiirt n I'lillcctiuii of iiImhii 
 r)i),(i(lo viiIh. ill f^^i'iicriil lili'i'tilun-. 'linn- arr iil.-oi 
 liiw mill iiiciliciil iilii'iirii'H ; ii iiicdii'iil mIumiI, ch- 
 tiiliii»lii'il ill INIII, ill wlilrli ciiinpli'tr ciiiirM'H ol' 
 Icctiii't'S lire jfivrii, the nTlltlnilcs oC ilN ijrol'chMorM 
 liriii^ ri'cii^iiiHt'il III A|i>iili('i'uri<'s' Hail; an cii- 
 (linvt'd ' AciKlriny for (lie lulvaiict'iiu'iil u( ilic Kim- 
 i\rls; ' ami an iii'iiili'iiiv fur the ('iliicatinn iil'yonn;.' 
 iiicii fur llic lla|lli^t niinisirv, In wliicli an cx- 
 ti'iinivc^ liltrary ami iiuimi'mmi arc attai'lii'd, 'I'lirrc 
 IM a liuMilsoiiii- ciiilicc III' llic ('iiriiilliiaii iinlcr in 
 I'rinci's Street, in ilie ki""'"' I'lmni ol'wliieli I'lnieerts, 
 li.'ill^t, ami other eMlertaiinnentN are NonietiiiieH 
 >;iveii. 'I'lic Vielorifi asseinlilv rooms liavc ii 
 saloon 117 I't. in length, liy !i,t lio, in widtli, and 
 4H do. ill lieiirlil-. 'I'lie theatre war* Miiid liy (iarrick 
 to lie one of the hest oC its si/c- in i'jirope. At 
 i'lil'ton are hatlis and dniii|i-rooins; and eoniieeted 
 Willi tlie hot wells in a haiidmaiii; ediliei! ul' the 
 'I'liseaii order. 
 
 The Itristol clinnnrl is celehrated for its liij^h 
 tides. 'I'hey rise at Kinroad, at the mouth ol' the 
 Avon, from IN to I'.l ft, at sjirinfrs, and '.M ft. at 
 neaps, while their rise at the entrance to the 
 lliiatiii).c harlHiur at It'owiihain, varies from .'III to 
 .'W ft. In eonNe(|iieiiee of this extriiordiniiry rise, 
 the Iar;;est ships come up to the city. The lidit 
 sets with fjreat rapidity in the river, csiieeially 
 between the precipitous rocks of < 'iiftoii and liciK'N 
 W'lii(!h seeiTi to Ik^ rent asunder to ailiiiit its 
 passa^fe; and to obviate the risk of daiiiap* to 
 Mhippin^' froiii this rapid How of iIk; tide, and from 
 fj:roniidiii)rat low water,a spacious lloatiii^^ harbour, 
 ('(|uivalent to a wet dock, has been constriieted. 
 This important work, be^iin in IK(M and completed 
 in IHOlt, was ert'ectCMl by chan^ciiiK the bed of the 
 river, lint the original entrance" to the harbour 
 iM'in;; too small to admit steam sliiiis of the lar- 
 f^est size, a new entrance of the reiinisitcdimensions 
 W!is made to it in \M\). The harbour extends 
 about ft mill's from the entrance loiik at Kownbain, 
 to the dam at T(^mple Meads, occii|iviii}; the old 
 bed of the Avon, and the bed of that brancli of 
 the Frome that lies between hit. Aiiffustine'n and 
 .St, Stephen's quays, and cost in all a very larj^'e 
 num. The quay is upwards of n mile in length, 
 and so constructed as to admit of any further ex- 
 tension that any increased trade may reipiire. 
 There arc two basins for the temporary accomo- 
 <lation of vessels entoriiifj or leavinj;; one at 
 Itownham for lar^e ships, the other below the 
 iron bridge at Uedinin.ster, for vessels under /j()(l 
 tons. There arc also several cajiacions f,'raviiif>;- 
 <locks, and ship-yards suitable for vessels of any 
 (iimensions, Tlic(Jroat Western and (Jreat Jtri- 
 tain steam-ships, with the Severn, the Avon, and 
 others of inferior size, were- built in the jiort. 
 
 Five brid}:;c8 connect the opposite sides of the 
 floating harbour and rivers, viz. Hristol Jiridf^c, of 
 <{ stone arches, built in 17()8, spanning the Avon, 
 jiiiil coiinectiiif; the central part of the city with 
 l{cd<ditle; 2 iron bridges, each with a sin{{le s]ian 
 of 100 ft., one on the Hath and Wells, the other 
 on the Kxeter line of road; a swivel iron bridge 
 (to admit the p.isstige of ships), connecting St. 
 Augustine's and Clifton with the rest of the city^, 
 and a fine suspension hndge, completed in l^!(ii, 
 and connecting (,'lifton ...th the co. of Somerset. 
 The latter fomiorly sjianned the Thames, and 
 was known as Ihmgerforil J fridge. Having been 
 ]\iirchased from the South I'.astern IJailway com- 
 jiiiny, the bridge was brought down here, and in 
 Its new situation forms one of the most picturesque 
 and striking works of its kind in the kingdom, 
 tli(! roadway being HoO ft. in length and '220 ft. 
 above high-Avutur mark, with precijiitous rocks at 
 
 both ends, on each of which a tower is orootrd 'n, , 
 
 Avon, above llris|..| llridge, is navigable l„ri,n,,,,'' 
 
 to llalh, whriice the <wiler4'omiiii,i,i,.„|i,„| j,|.^|| 
 
 tinned to l.oiiiloii bv the Avon and Knuiei ,.,||, i 
 
 and the Tha s. 'I hree railwavs, vi/. iIk. jiriMi i 
 
 and (iloucesier, (ireat Western, and the |iriM,!| 
 and Kxeter, have Icrinini in the citv, wliicli nui 
 seipieiilly, iiiis a rapid means of coininuiil.'mj, n 
 
 wilh the metropolis and all imrts of ih .iintr 
 
 Tin- Kxchange market, and llial of S(. .hn,,,., ,ir! 
 open daily for general provisions; thi^ clii,!' sii|',,,|v 
 being on Wednesdays and SaluidavN; curu iln,! 
 leather markets are liehl Tuesdays and Thiirs,l/n, 
 The I'attle-niarkei. is held on ThiirMlavs. in i, ,v,||i,,^j 
 area of l acres, outside the citv. at Temple M,.||,|, 
 
 at the junctii f the (ireat VVcMtern and l^u'r 
 
 railwavs. At the great market on the Tlin'r^in- 
 preceding Christmas, the show is nxiiallv vcrv 
 line. Two aiiuual fairs, coiiiineiicing Isi 'Mimi, 
 and 1st Sept., that were fornierlv resorted i,, |,v 
 clothii'i-s, hosiers, and cullers, fimn all imrts .'.f 
 Kiighiiiil, having fallen into desuetude, w< n- 
 abolished ill lis;i7; but fairs for entile, horses and 
 leather, are still hidd on the above davs. ' 
 
 liristol was, f.ir a lengthened period, Kcnpinl 
 only to l.oiiihai as a conimenial eniporiiiMi; Imii 
 though its comparative importance has, iii iiiis 
 respect, greatly dediiieil, it continues to he i),,. 
 seat of some imporlaiit niannlacliires and „( an 
 extensive and increasing triuh!. The piiuciiml 
 manufacliires are those of rellued sugar; hra^s 
 and copper wares, for the prodiicti.ai of'whiili 
 Hristol was formerly famous, and in vlii,.|i iju. 
 town still maintains her reputation ; soap. ^'Iii«s 
 bottles, crown and Hint glass, chain cables, ancliurs 
 steam-engines and other inachinerv. toliacc,,! 
 earthenware, floor cloth, brass wire, fiiiis, patiiit 
 shot, shevt lead, zinc, saltpetre, tin jiipcs, Imt^, 
 <lrugs, colours, dyes, starch, bricks, Hritish spiiiiH' 
 nialt liipiors; with extensive soda works, 'riicio 
 is also a cotton mill, which cmplovs about l,7(Hl 
 hands. Alany of the iron foundries arc mi a 
 large scale, and are increasing both in ihcir 
 number and the extent of their exports, fhc 
 establishments for glass, sugar, brass, thmr dniii, 
 and earthenware, are also on an extensive scale. 
 There were W,7H2,U()0 letters delivered in |si;i); 
 i),!)i};t,()00 in IHtil; and, lO,l«i),Oi)0 in 18(12. TIm; 
 jiostage collected amounted to ilL',.")!;;")/. in isdi); 
 it;t,8(io/. in IWil ; and, i{5,720/. hi istii. There is 
 a savings' bank, established in IKlii, and 7 othor 
 banking establishments, includhig the brunch of 
 the bank of Kngland. 
 
 Itristol early possessed, and continues fnpnii)v, 
 a large share of the trade with the West Imlics; 
 and among her foreign imports tlie most iin]mrlant, 
 are those of sugar, molasses, rum, tea, and cmoa ; 
 the next most imjiortant are those of tolmccd, 
 timber, wine, braiuly, tallow, fruits, wool, lump, 
 dye stutt's, oils, saltpetre, and hides. The t'xi«iris 
 consist principally of the produce of the varicuM j 
 manufactures of the city, with salt, iron, oials, | 
 and culm, in part the produce of the neiglilHuir- 
 hood ; and cotton, linen, and woollen goods. In tlifi 
 y(!ar l<S(i;i, the ]>riiicipal exports consisted of railmail 
 iron, valued at 10o,28()/, ; cotton maniifiuliirc-, 
 44,141/. ; wrought cop[)er, 17,227/. ; and iinwrniiirlit 
 copper, 13,4!)9/. The total value of the cxpints 
 in 18(jiJ was 341,074/. The customs' duties during' 
 the <<ame year amounted to l,l,")(),5y!»/., against 
 l,;tl7,:77/. in 18()2, and 1 ,;!3(),2.J3/. in IHid'. Tlic 
 shipping which entered the port in the year 18(1;!, 
 consisted of Dr)4 vessels, of 242,»79 tons. Of the.'*, j 
 .528 vessels, of 13'.t,()t!(i tons, were llritisli, and 4l'(j i 
 vessels, of 103,813 tons, foreign. The larf;('>t i 
 tonnage, .Ofi.'JHO, in 107 vessels, came fnmi tin 
 North Auicriuau colonics; the next largest, 2(vlll I 
 
 inns, in 52 vpmo 
 flie total niimli 
 
 \x>'<:i. was il.i'i.'i, 
 thi'iii I.'hOkIiiii, 
 litinilier of vessi 
 |iil.!il2 ton...; ai 
 :';'l,|ii;i tons bunl 
 III' Itristol, on the 
 viHM'ls and II nI 
 
 WK of .'),:ii;:i i,,i 
 
 mill 1!'7, ofi)|„'||>i 
 \K wi-ri' iniiler, an 
 riiniiiiuiiii'atiiiii b 
 tiHuli aiiil passenjj 
 larly as iN-.'ii, and 
 iraile with that pai 
 the lionoiir of bi.iii 
 ("fahlish a regular 
 till' I'. States. 'I 
 Western sieamshii 
 Tlie pari, and iim 
 Tlie horiMigh i.s dj 
 viriied by a iiiav( 
 I'ri'vioiisly to tiie 
 iriivennne'iit was vi 
 
 'llll'llllllllOII COIIIKM 
 
 aiilernian : they wei 
 
 ii|i their vacancies fi 
 
 Kirc.'t.lOll register! 
 
 (.Tinted in the 8th 
 
 mil of lien. If. A 
 
 livery (except for 
 
 (lliiiicesler), is heli 
 
 Till! tolzey, or she 
 
 aitiiuis in cases imd 
 
 at liristol for part 
 
 liristol has, also, a 
 
 mill a court of assiz 
 
 «('('k after the Sor 
 
 jiiib'oii the westeri 
 
 ilie county jiirisd 
 
 llic Avon, from 4 m. 
 
 Ill the steep and tli 
 
 MiiT-inark, on the 
 
 frmii Anst's Passage 
 
 limi are conservators 
 
 bve the [lower of 1 
 
 ciiiil'crred the excliis 
 
 vessels passing iqi o 
 
 Miiiul, except Irish 
 
 |«irtsof Itristid, New 
 
 oiirilie. iiiid llridgiuva 
 
 JNris<liction. A boarii 
 
 llierate-jmyers, hastl 
 
 jilting, and cieansi 
 
 iiiiiiiial assessment on 
 
 varying from 11,0(10/. 
 
 ^vwiiies, derived froii 
 
 ri'iits (if hoiisi's and I 
 
 I'l'iirhdiKl, as well a 
 
 *IM')I. ill |«(i|, „f w 
 
 rato. Hie Dock ('.., 
 
 siiactof-iatJeo. III.; 
 
 transferred from then 
 
 'lie rates have been 
 
 Miingemeiit of the p 
 
 Ilie city, was vested in 
 
 '&«VV.III.c. .■12.an< 
 
 >; 
 
 •I) 
 
 l«sscil regulating the 
 pianliaiis consist of tl 
 tlwtcd aiiiuially by tl 
 "«iil)iMly. the senior ch 
 jiifislies, the senior ove 
 Slid 48 other hihabitan 
 '» I«i"r rate was 035, 
 mieable value, 469,(io'J 
 my tax, 805,446/. 
 
 >0l., [, 
 
iiHiHTor, 
 
 31.-) 
 
 tons, ill 5*2 voftddM, ,nino from tlio I'liitiMl Stntrn, 
 I'll)' tiitiil iiiiintH'r ol' vi'KNi'ls >vliicli I'litcrnl, in 
 |Hti;i, wax <'>,r.)>'i, ol' Itl'l.Til I iiiiiM liiinlcii: niiioii;; 
 thi'iH I,7ho Hii'iiiiicrx, lit' :iii7,'i.'il tiuix. 'I'lii' lotnj 
 iiiiinlH'r III' vi'.swii* wliii'li ricnrni wiih 1/J."iL', nf 
 lill.'.M'i tiiiiH; iiiiiiiiig iIh'Iii 1,77°.* Nli'iiiiu'ri*, nl' 
 ■j;i|,|i':t tons Imnlcii. 'I'licri' liclniim'ii in ilii> iMirt 
 ,i|' llriMiil, on ilic.'tlst Di'iTtiilit'r, lm;;i. :iNii»iiiliii^r 
 vi'iscls mill II Hti'iiiiuTM. Ol'ilii' Miiiliii^ v<'»>i-l^, 
 \h:\, 111' ri,;Ui.'l iiitiM, wrn- iiihIit 'iO Iihh Imnlt'ri, 
 mill I!t7. iil'iil.IHIl tuns, iilmvc ."lO, orihfHii'iiiiH'rN. 
 |M wrrr iiiiiliT, mill '.';i nliiivi' T)!) tmiM Imnlrii. A 
 oiiiiiniiiiii'iitiiiii li\ Ntcmii I'ur tlii> rmivi'viinri' nl' 
 PhkIh mill |iii.sscii>,'iTs til iri'lmiil wit.sc.xliilili^ilu'il lis 
 iiirlyii^i iN'.'ii, 1111(1 Iiii,s It'll to II i^rcat iiicrciisciil' tlic 
 imili' willi tliiil |iiirl III' the ciiiiiirc. llriHtnl iil.in liail 
 Iht' liiiiiiitir of lit'inu; tlii' llrHi jiiirt in tin- ('iii|iii-(> to 
 I'-.tiililixli u ri'^iilar I'lnnniiiiiiratiiiii liy Htraiii with 
 ihi' r. Stiitt'H. 'I'lu- lirst viiya^'c Ity tim tirwit 
 Wi'sliTii »i('aiiiNlii|i was iicrrnriiii'il in Im;w. 
 
 Till' pari, anil iiiuiii('i|). liiniis nl' Itristol cnincitlc, 
 liii' liiiriiii;r|i is iliviiU'il into 12 wanU, ami is pi- 
 MiMi'il liy a niaviir, Ifi iilil,, ami IN iiinncilliirs. 
 I'ri'vloiisly to tii<> Miini('i|ial licrnrni Art, tin 
 
 Kriitol lidN NiMit '2 iiiiMU. to (lie IT. of {', Himo 
 |-.'Kl; pri'viiiimly to Hit- IM'nrin Art, tin- riulil ol 
 (•lection was in llir frrclmliliTs ami I'ri'riiini onh. 
 Uf^istcri'il I'liM'tors, i;i,;iii-.» in ixiil, inrliuliii;: I,. •(.'it 
 t'n'i'iiirii, anil 'J.OII srnt anil lot votn-i. llri'<lol 
 was niailc tlu> kiiiI nl' a liisliii|irii- in l.'ill. |i is 
 now, ill ronrorinity In the art <1 A 7 W. I\'. r. 77, 
 iiniti'il with (iloiiiTsifr, in a sn' i'iiiii|iri^iii^' llir 
 rily III' llristiil, tlir ilfanrrit's nl' t'rii-klaili' ami 
 Malinslinry, in Wills, ami tin- jirfvimis ilinccsi- of 
 
 (ilnllCI'slcr. 
 
 'I'lir llristni Imt-wi'll, uiiilcr tin- Clirion roi-ks, is 
 nincli ri'snrlcil to liy invaliils, its waters liein;;rnn- 
 siilereil elliraciniis in i'iinsiini|itive eases, '|'|u< 
 teiii|), ol' this saline H|iriii|;, wlien I'resli rmni the 
 |iiiin|i, is 71° Kalir,. anil ii tlien evnlves Tree ear- 
 liiinie aeiil. h issues rniin llie elilV, lielween the 
 liiuli ami low water-mark. Tlie lintwell Imnse is 
 liiielv sitiialeil liesiile ttie Avon! a earria^je mail 
 wimis I'riini it, lieliiml the rucks, tn Clil'ion |)nwii ; 
 n slmrter l'niit|iatli at the hack alsn leails to thai 
 siiliiirli, which is the rashioniilile pjirt nl' llrisinl : 
 the scenery, hy either line, is singularly inlerest 
 lUii. The acclivities are occiijiieil hy hamlsoine 
 
 ;;iivi'riinienl was vesteil in a mayor, l'2 alil., ami ! edillces in s(|iiai'es, terraces, ami ere.-'cenis, rorniin^c 
 iliiciimmnii ciiiiiK-illors, the recnnler liein^ seninr | line |ii-iiinenitiles ; the most niaKnilicent of tliesi 
 
 ranges are York Cresceiil, N'icloriiiS(|iinre, ami Cu 
 
 iililcriiian : they were a sell'-electeil hoily, ami tiUeil 
 up llii'ir vacancies frnni the I'reenien, ot'whoin there 
 wire ;l,l'i'.l registered. The piverniii^f charter was 
 i;niiiti'il in the Htlinf Anne; the earliest in the 
 '.i||i of Hen. II. A court n|' sessiniis, or jfanl de- 
 livery (except fnr cnpitiil cases, nnw tried at 
 (liiiiiVesler), is lield fiiiartcrly hy the recorder. 
 Tlif tiil/.ey, nr sheritl's cnnr'ts, for nil kinds of 
 ariiniis ill eases under M)», A cimnty court is held 
 at liristol for part nf the county of (ilmicester. 
 llristni has, also, a district court nf hankruplcy, 
 ami II court of assize lor nini />riiis eases, held the 
 «M'k after the Somerset a»si/es, by the senior 
 juil^ji' on the western circuit. 
 
 The county jurisdiction hy water, extends over 
 liic Avon, from I in. almve the city : and sea-ward, 
 til tiiu steep niid tint Ilolnies, and to the lii^li 
 mliT-inark, on tlie Kiif^lish side of the Severn. 
 frmn Aiist's rassa},'e to (!levedoii. The enr|iora- 
 liiiii are conservators of the ]iort and linrhoiir; and 
 h,iv(> the power nf licensing pilnts, on whom is 
 fiiiifi'rreil the exclusive privilege nf pilnting all 
 vessels piissin;^ up nr (Uiwn tn the K. of I.unily 
 Isluiul, except Irish and coasting traders: the 
 imrtiiiif liristol, Newport, Cardit!', Swansea, Ilfra- 
 ciiinlie. and llridgewnter are coin|irise(l within this 
 jiirisdictiiill. AlMiurii of cninitiissiniiers, elected hy 
 llie rate-imyers, has the exclusive power of paving', 
 linlitin);, iiiid cleansing the town ; they levy an 
 aiimial nssessnient on the iiiliah. fnr these purposes 
 varjiiif; frnni I l,(HIO/. to 12,000/. The enr|)oratinii 
 nwiuies, derived frnni towns and market dues and 
 niits (if hoiis<<s and lands in the city and iieigh- 
 Imiirliiiiiil, as well as from rates, amounted to 
 i<l,r)15/. in I «(i I, of which sum 2.'(,000/. was from 
 ratcii. llie Dock ('iiinpanv was incorporated hy 
 !!! act of -liJ (ieo. 11!.; Imt in !)•< IM, the docks were 
 
 transferred from tliem to the incorporation, and 
 tlic rates have been since greatly reduced. The 
 
 k'llniiia I'hice. Another spring higher up theclilV, 
 Imt proliiilily from the same source, has liaihs ami 
 a )iiinip-riioni attached to it. The geological fea- 
 tures nf the place may he thus hricliy dcsirihed : 
 — If the entire area he divided N.and S. iniothreo 
 unequal port inns, that on the I''., will fall wiihiii 
 till! limits of a coal formatinii, which exlcmls N. 
 and .S, of the city, hut chietly to the N., almiit Ito 
 III.: its heds are thin, as cnmpared with tlmse nf 
 ntlicr cnal-lielils. The central nr largest pnrtion 
 is chietly occupied hy the new red sand, in which 
 saurian remains occur; the western part is chietly 
 niniintain lime. Snine nf the summits in tli(> N. 
 and \V. parts nf the city are 2.')0 ft. almve the hcd 
 nf the Avon. In the mcks nf Clifton, and the 
 np|insite niies nf St. Vincent, quartz crystals of 
 great purity occur, known as Itristnl diainniids. 
 There are reinains of three liomaii encampinenis 
 at Clifinii, liiiwiiham, and Alihnts-heigh. 
 
 According to Camden ((Jihson's cd. of the Mril. 
 i. 71), liristol tirst rose into notice towards the 
 cliise nf the Saxnii dynasty. It is noticed hy 
 Willimn of iMalnishiiry as a place of great trade, 
 frequented hy ships from all parts nf luirnjie. It 
 had then, as nnw, an extensive intercnurse with 
 Ireland; hut xliivcn were a principal article nf ex- 
 pnrt to that (uiiintry. (Henry's (ireat llritain, vi. 
 2(IM.) Its castle was hiiilt, nr, at all events, en- 
 larged mid strengthened, hy the Karl nf (Jlonces- 
 tor, hmlher to the enqiress Matilda. During the 
 wars of the ISoses the town was comparatively 
 undisturhed and tloiirisliing ; but in the civil war 
 of the aeventeeiith century it sutl'ered severely. 
 At the eomtnencemeiit of hostilities it wos garri 
 soiled by the parliamentary army ; subsequently 
 it was stormed by the king's forces, and surren- 
 dered to Prince liupert. The fnllnwiiig 
 
 year 
 (during which it sutVered under the united evils 
 manflj^'omeiit nf the ]ioor, within the old limits of | of ])estileiicc and war) it was again stunned, and 
 ikcity,was vested hi a eorjiorate body by an act I retukeii by Cromwell, who subsequently demn- 
 i&H\V. Ill, c. ;(2, and siihse(|iieiit acts have lieen j lished its castle. In 1247 a great improvement 
 passed regulating their number and jinwcrs. The | in its jmrt, was completed, by cutting a new cliaii- 
 pianlians consist of the mayor and 12 members I nel for the river, and fonning a ilouhle line of 
 tlcctc'd annually by the town vnuncil out <if their quay between Bristol and Hedcliffe: a bridge, on 
 mnhody.theseniorchMrchwardensof thedifferent I the site nf the jwesent, was built at the same 
 
 period. Thence, to the sixteenth century, its fac- 
 tories siipiilicd a large portion of the kingdom with 
 wuulleii goods, soap, uud gloss. In the reign of 
 Edward III. it was made a staple of wool ; and it 
 then traded extensively with Ireland, France, and 
 
 N N 
 
 jiarislu's, the senior overseer nf the castle jirecincts, 
 and 48 other inhabitants. The gross sum assessed 
 to ))ii()r rate was 5iJ5,873/. m 1801, and the net 
 rateable value, 459,Gi)i)/. Amount assessed to pro- 
 perty tax, 805,445/. 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 !|l 
 
 
 \'"t 
 
 m 
 
ItiiKxIil. Ill llip Itinrniiy of llotoiirr nro ilftniU 
 
 of iH Irmlr /iiiil Nlii|i|iiiiix in tin- lll'l Iti niiliiry, 
 
 Wliiill lirii\r its I'Mi'Milirl rdiiiiiHTrc iiml t'l'i'iil 
 rnicriiri-i' ill llml iicrloil. Ncur ilir rlnsv ul' ilir 
 tll'lniiili I't'iitiiry, llciir.v VII. Kniiitnl iliiirtcr'* In 
 
 .Idllll I'lilml MMil llJM two xiitIN, wllicll ri'Niilli'il 
 
 hlmrtlv nt'tiT in tlii' ilificdviTv i>( Nctvl'iiunill/nhl, 
 mill II liir^'c (iiirl til' llif AiiH'rirun ciiiitiiiriit. In 
 Oc'iiiliiT, IH;tl, II iiiiitt ili^^'riii-i-l'nl rint iMTiirnMl 
 IliTi'; whii'li, iiwiii^ til II wiint iil' ilrciKiiiii mi the 
 jiiirt III' till- t'ix'il mill niililiirv tiiillinrilli"!, whn 
 iilliiwi'il til iiltiiiii III II iiiiMl iiliirininv; lii'i;;lit. 'I'lir 
 niMiiNiiiii liiiiiM'. I III' i'|iisi'ii|iiil |iiiliii'c, mill Hcxcml 
 priviiti' liiiiiMCM, wcri' liiinil iltiwii ; uihI a liirnf 
 iiiiiiiiiiil III' |irM|i('rty ili'-dniycil, 
 
 Aniiiji^ till' ili-tiiiifiiislinl iiiili\ i'liiiiis timl llri-«- 
 liii liiis |iriiiiiir)'il nil — W'illimn nf Wnrrolcr. tin- 
 t"|'ivrii|iliir ; Win. Cmmyn^'i'. Ilii' iiui'*! emiin'iit 
 ini'ri'limil iiml Nlii|i-iiwiii'r nf ln-< iliiy: .Sdiiistimi 
 <'iiliiii. till' iii-c(i\(.rrr 111' Nrwt'iiiiiiillmiil. Imrn iit 
 llri.iliii, III' \'i'ni'timi iiHri'iiU; l'',ilw. ('uImIiiii, a 
 iiii'ri'iimil raiiinim I'm- liis lu'iii'vnli'iii'i' miil liic I'X- 
 Iciit 1)1' h\» cliiiriiii's: .Sir Win. l>rii|M'r. ilistin- 
 ^niiMlii'il liy iiis ciiiitrnvi'rty with .liiniiis: ('liiittrr- 
 Inli, till' piii't, wliiwi' iinrli' WHS scxtiiM III' I'l'drliirt" 
 clnircli, wlitTi' till' Itiiwlcv iMSS. Were iillcni'il to 
 liaM' lifi'ii (lisi'iivcrcii ; Sontlii'v, tlic |iiit'l anil 
 littiriitriir \ .Sir 'I'liiiiiias Lawrciii'f, llu; ciniiii'iit 
 painliT: ami llm ii'v. Ilir Hriii|iiiir, 
 
 IIKITISII KMI'IlM". (TIIK). ..nr i.f tli.. inoHt 
 piiwcrl'iii ami ini|iiirlanl stairs of I'liirnpt', ciiiisistH 
 of till! isiiimls of (irciit Itritairi ami Irclaml, willi 
 till' Hiiiiilicr iHlmiils I'lintiK'iioiiN to liii'in. mul tlicir 
 lii'pcmlcnrics in various parts of tin- woriil, (ircat 
 Itrilaiii, liic lar;;i'sl. niiil liv far the richt'st ami 
 inosl |iopitliiiis of lilt' llrilisli Islamls, iiicliulcs what 
 vcri' fnrnicrly tin' iinii'pi'mli'iit kiii^iioiiis of Kii^- 
 laml ami Scotlaml; lhi> foriiii'r occiipyiii;; its S„ 
 most cxti'iisivc anil fi'rliic, ami tin' iattcr its \, 
 mill iiio.st liarr'.'ii portion. Tht'si' two iiiiifrijonis, 
 liavim; lii'cn nnitiMl, forni witli that of Iri'ianii, tlu< 
 IntiM KiiKliliiin of (iri'iit liritiihi iiiiil Irrliiml. 
 wllicll i-onstiliitcs not only tlii' iiiiricns ami ct'iitrc, 
 lint the main hoiiy ami Hcal of the wealth uiul 
 jiowcr of the cnipiri'. 
 
 Tile isiamis of (irrat llritain ami Irplniiil nrn 
 Kitnatcii in llm N. Atiantii; Occ.'iii, oil" the W. 
 shores of I'ontincntai Miiropc. opposite to the X. 
 parts of France, liie Nctlicrlamis. tin; pi'iiinsnia of 
 •Intiiniil, ami tlie S. parts of Sweilcn and Xorwnv, 
 Im'I ween ."ilP ami i>'.)° N. Int.. ami 2° K. ami 1 1° W. 
 lon^^ (ii'cat llrilaiii, wliicli, from its superior 
 m«j,niitn(le ami importance, {jives name to the 
 IJniteii Kiii;;'(loin ami the empire, is not only the 
 liirp'st of the l'',iiropeaii isiiimis, hiit one of the 
 larfjest in tiie world. It lies to the I'', of Ireland, 
 and approaches at its SI''., extremity at Dover to 
 witliin 21 111. of the oiiposite coast of France. Hut 
 lus the const of (Jreat Ilritain stretches XNW. 
 from Dover to Dnncanshy Head, the extreme NK. 
 ))oint of the island, while the opposite sliore of the 
 Ciaitineiit recedes in n XK. direction, the iiiter- 
 venin}^ space, called the Xortli Sea or (iermaii 
 Ocean, is of very considerahle diniensions. To 
 the S. of the Ilritish Islands we have the Kiifrlish 
 Channel, and W. and N. the broad expanse of the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 (ireat Uritain is very irrepilarly shaped, beinp 
 deeply indented liy mimerons fjiiHs and amis of 
 the sea, hut on tlie Avholo it approaches to the 
 lifTiire of a wed;,'e, lieiiifj narrowest at its N. and 
 broadest at its S. extremity. The loiifjest line not 
 intersected by any considerable arm of the sea 
 that can be drawn in (ireat Britain, extends from 
 Kye in Sussex (hit. 60° .57' 1"X., lonj;. 11° 44' K.), 
 to Cape Wrath in Sutherland (hit, r>HO 'M' N., 
 long. 40° &»' W.), a distance of about 580 m. ; and 
 
 imiTI'SH KMI'IUK 
 
 Ifn (patent breadth from the Lnmrx F.nd (Int 
 MP V H" N.. loiiK. :)° ir HI" \V.). to a point ifur 
 
 I.oweiiton'l, on the const of Norfolk (lal . ,i;."J .)^' 
 
 ;in'' N.. loiitr, I" til' i:.), Is about ;it;7 III. "ll'it, 
 owiiii; to the indentations already relcrri'il in, it^ 
 breadth In Moine places Is miieli Icsh, bi'iMi;lii'iui.,.|, 
 thetVithsof Forth amH'lyile iimlir In, ,iim| |„.. 
 tweeii the Moray Frilliaml the Miiich umiIit :iii|,i, 
 froiii slNire to Hhore. Its area is I'slinialiil at 
 
 N!»,ll.t.'( s(|. III,, of which F.iitclmid and Wiilis |. 
 
 tain '''iH,;i-.'<i,aml Scotlaml lincluNiveof iisi|i'i» inji i,i 
 islands) ;in,7l."i sip m. The area of ilie S,niil,|| 
 islands is roughly estimaicil at abniit l.diio '<ii. m, 
 
 Ireland lies to llie W. ofdrent llriljiiii, Im'- 
 tweeii the parnllelM of r.|o '.'.V and r,:P -'X \. i,,, 
 midofr.°aiid IP W. loiiK. lis lii^inv is rlhim' 
 boidal : and tliou^fli il has iiiaiiy niible iuivs tiinl 
 harbours, it is less indented by tcnll's ami nrm.' (,r 
 the sea, and is decidrdly niori' compact tlnin 
 (ireat Ilritain. It is i-very where surrniiiiiii'il l,v 
 the .Mlantic, except on its l''„ shores, whiili nrc 
 separated from (Jreat Hriliiin by St. (iror^c'sriniii- 
 nel, the Irish Sea, ami the North ( 'liainiel, l-'ruin 
 St. David's Head in Wales to Cariihore I'ciini, tin' 
 disiance across is about 47 in.; fnini Tori I'ntri'k 
 in the Kliynns of (ialloway to l)oiia;;lin<|i'i', tjn' 
 dislani'e is '.''i in. ; but from the Mull of Cniuiri' tn 
 Tor I'oint in Ireland, the distance is only |:|i, m. 
 The lonirest line that can be drawn in Iri'lainl. In 
 nbont the snme meriilian, extends from lln' llM 
 Head of Kiiisale in Cork to the Itlomly Karlaml 
 I'oint in I >oiieL;al, a distance of about 2.17 in.: ilic 
 longest line that can be drawn crosswiHc in |ri.- 
 laml, in nearly the same parallel of lat.. cxIi'ihL.! 
 from ICmlaHfli Hash, on the coast of .Mayu. tn 
 (jnintin I'oiiil.at the month of Loii;;li Siraii^'roni. 
 on the coast of Down, belli;; about IH-.> m, : Imt in 
 other (ilaces the breadth is a ;;i>od deal less. .Sn 
 ci|nveiiieiill,v is Irelami Hitiiiiteil in n'spcct i,f 
 water conimimication, that there is no part iiinri' 
 than '"lO or th> ni. distant from the sea, or I'miii mn' 
 of its arms. The uren of Ireliind is estiniuleil at 
 ii-2J>\'i si|. m. 
 
 l'ln)»kal Aiqx'ct. — Perhaps no eountrj'evor px- 
 isted mori' favourably situated, or placed iiinlcr 
 more ndvanta;;eoiis physical circumstanccH. tlmii 
 the United Kiiifftlom. It is suHiciently extensive 
 to be the centre of a mighty empire; ami lu sup- 
 port, independent of any extrinsic resdiiriTs, n 
 wry largo population, and, eonseipieiillv, piis- 
 sesses that native and inherent power tlint is iic- 
 cesHiirv to secure the lirst condition of pnliticnl 
 importance — national independence. Its insiiliir 
 situation is also of immense advantage; it nWiva 
 well-defended frontier, on Avhiidi there can lie no 
 encroachment, and about which there can lio mi 
 dispute; and M'hile it remains companitivi'iy w- 
 (^ure from hostile attacks, art'ords iineipniilcii fmi- 
 lities for commerce; everv iMirt of the frmitiiT 
 being, as it were, a terminus to the 'great \\\n\\- 
 way of nations.' The surface of the ciinnlry i" 
 ngreeabl.v diversified with hill and dale, innun- 
 tains and plains; and while the soil is not sii vm 
 fertile as to yielil crops with little lalimir, ami sn 
 to encourage sloth on tbejiart of the ciiltivitor, it 
 is in general siifficientl.v productive, ami yiilil* i 
 abundant returns to the laborious and skilful liiis- 
 bandmaii. It has been well obser\ed nf (irciit I 
 liritain, and the same is ecpiall.y true of Irelftinl, 
 that ' it is not fertile enough to make men iiiilii- 
 lent, nor barren to such n degree as to dciiygriitr- 1 
 fill, if not ample, returns to the industrious ciilii- 
 vator. In a word, it enjoys the fortunate iiuiliuni I 
 between fertility and barfemiess, orbetwwii onsy 
 uiul dilHciilt culture; inclining rather to the siilej 
 of (liiUculty, and affording opportunity siitticiinl | 
 for industry and improvement.' 
 
BIIITISII 
 
 All tin' niimf viiliialilo <4|irrir<* of ()ii' t'lmilln, ^ 
 
 II4 wlirilt. iiiiIh, Mini luirli'V, Hliri'i't'il ijllilc IIm ut'll i 
 
 III iIk' llrili-'li I'^liiiiil't MM ill liny nilirr loiiiiirv. 
 |'iiiiiiin"<. 111", ami It vii'<l N.irirly <•(' iiMrliil vi'Kc- I 
 U\h\f>* mill IriiiiM, lire riiiKiil in ilii> tfriwilc-it iiIhiihI | 
 llliri'. 0\vill|{ III llic |irrillilir ll|ilill|ili' III' III)' Mill ' 
 niMJ riiiniili', iiii t'lmniry run riiiii|iitri' wiili llir 
 I'liitril Kiii){iliiiii in llic liiMiriaiii'c nl il^ viTiliin' 
 iiiiil ili<' rirliiK'HH III its iiattiin"^. In riiiisciiiiini'i' 
 {iriniipally i>t' liiin t'irriiiiiMtiiiii'i>, Iml |iai'lly, uN<>, 
 i,f llii' ciiri' Ih"«Iii\\i'i| nil lli(> -tt'ln'tiiin iiriliiv liiiisl 
 iiii|>riiv('il ntiirk, till' Imr-o's, riiiili', mIii'i'|i. anil uiliir 
 ihil'iil aniiniils, arr all ri|iiai, il'iinl Kii|ii'riiir, Id the 
 liiii"-! IiM'iIh III \){\ riiniiil ill any titlicr |iart i>l' llic 
 wiirlil. 
 
 Till' llriliHli iNlanils ari' al.MiiMiii^'iilarlv riirtiiniilc 
 ill rr^pffl 111' I'liniMlc, 'I'IiiiiikIi rxpiixt'il tu hihIiIcii 
 i'hMn;.'i'x. it ix cxciiiiitiMl rrniii all vinlt'iii i'\lri'iin"i 
 III lirat anil I hIiI. 'riir ^rtwil ili'l't'cts in tlif rliinalc 
 ,'iri' llic |irr\ali'tir<> nl' I'niil lili^lilin^ I'', wiiiiln in 
 A|iril ami May; anil imt iiiilr('i|iifiiiiy, nl' rainy 
 MiMiiliir ill An^riiNl ami Si'iilcnilirr. Il Im lint 
 run Iv lliat frn|ii* miiII'it iVniii cxrcss nf ilrnn;;lil ; 
 lull they iK'ra-iuiially niiIIit rrmii liai'Uwanl .tiiiii- 
 mirx, anil aulnninal raiiM. On llic ulinlc, Imw- 
 I'vir, tlic cliiniilc of tlic llrilinli JMlitinis is, 
 iiiilwitlistaniliiiK ilM ilcl'cci.^, oiiu ut' lliu lit'st, if 
 nut tlic Very \\vM, in I'.iirniic, 
 
 Aiimnit llic oilier pliystical rlrciimslnncpM lliat 
 liavr prmiintcil, in nn nriliiiiiry ilc^rcc, the |m\vcr 
 ami |iriw|icrlty of the ciii|iirc, niay lie sjiccilitil llic 
 iiiMiilicr anil cxt'cllciicc nl' llic liarliniirM, ami the 
 iiiiiiilur nf rivcrx, llicir ilcpth, ami tlic luciliiicH 
 tlii'V alVnril to internal eninniniiicalinn. In this 
 ri"^|H'rl, tli(> iiliynicitl aspect nf (irciit llritain is 
 Mrikiiij^'ly ilillcrcnt I'rntii that nt'nthcr countries mi 
 till' I'ai'c of the ^'Inlie, lircat Itritain ami Irelaml 
 iMiijjislamlx, with no part very rcnintc rmni the 
 »i'a, it ini^rht lie Hiippnseil that their riverN woiilil 
 Ih' iil't'iiiiiparatlvely sinall ina^'iiitmle, ami of lint 
 liltlo use in navigation, Itiit the tact is ilistinctly 
 anil ciiinplelcly llie reverse, 'I'lic 'I'liaiiies, Trent, 
 anil Severn, in KiiKhiml, ami the Shannon, in Ire- 
 l.inil, an^ all navi^'iilile to a very j;rciit ilisiancc. 
 Tlio lirst, mitwithstamliii^ its liinitcil length ami 
 vdliiiiic of water, ranks, ns a imvif^ahle I'lianiiel, 
 iiiniin;,' th(^ lirst rivers of luiropc ; its mouth is iiii- 
 inciinilxTcil liy any har, ami it is navixateil rroiii 
 tlic sea to Lomlnii Itriil^rc, n distaiiee of li'i in,, 
 liv tlu^ very lar;;est ships, and to a much K'r<'<iter 
 ilkniice liy bargees. The Severn, 'i'rent, and 
 Slimiiiiin linvc liet-n rendered iiavii;alile tor hnrfjes 
 ami stcain-hoiitH lor the f^rcatcr jiart of their 
 murse; the latter, which Hows tlirnu>;h the inte- 
 rinriil" Irelaml, almost to its very source, 'I'lu! 
 niwiiis allorded liy the rivers for facilitating inter- 
 nal niinniiiniention, have licen vastly extended 
 liy the cniistruction of canals; and, with the 
 sin^'lv exceptiiai of ilolland, the I'nited Kingdom 
 has It jjreater t'Xtent of artificial navigation than 
 any other country. 
 
 'I'lic mineral riches of (ircat Itritain are n<it 
 merely ecpial to those of any other country, Inn 
 su|i*'ri(ir. Iron, the most useful of all the metals, 
 isfimnil in the greatest ahundance, and of an ex- 
 wilingly good (luality, in most |iarts oftheem- 
 |iire. The tin mines are the most ))roduetive of 
 any in Kuri)))c; and there arc also very productive 
 niiiica ofcopjier, lead, manganese, and other mine- 
 tnls. Salt springs and beds of fossil salt are alone 
 Mitlicicnt for the supply of the whole world. Jhit 
 (iiiil is hy far the most important and valuiihlc of 
 all tlie mineral treasures. It is hardly, indeed, 
 I«*sil)U' to overrate the advantages (irent Itritain 
 ilcrives from her vast, and, to all practical pur- 
 ptises, inexhaustible beds of coal. In the northern 
 tliiiios, fuel ranks uniung the principal necessaries 
 
 of life ; and If U to coni mincx that fJrpnt Itritain 
 owes aliMiiiliint iiiid cheap siipplii's of so imli'pcii- 
 salilc an iniiilc. Ilml iluy iml cnLii d, Mnnd imist 
 lia\e been Used as lllcl; and it is ipiile illlpos'<ibl(> 
 that any attention to the gmwlli i.f limlier cmild 
 have fnriiisheil a supply eipial In the wants nl the 
 
 present pnpnliiiinn of (ircat llriliiin. cmu tl gli 
 
 a large jimpnrliim nf the cnllivalol land had been 
 iipprnpriaicd to the riiising nf trees, jtiii, how- 
 ever grciii and signal, this is not the only iiiImiii- 
 tage derived I'ri'iii enal mines: they arc tlic princi- 
 pal snnrcc and I'niiniliiiinn nf the inaiinlaeiiiring 
 and coinniereiiil |.ros|Hrily nf (ircni Itriiaiii. Since 
 the invention nl the steam engine, cntil has be- 
 cnme nf the highest iinpnrtaiii'eas a ninving pn«er : 
 ami no nation, however favniirably sitnateil in 
 ntlier rcspeels, not pleiilililllv siipp'lieii with this 
 mineral, need hope to rival those that arc, in 
 ninsi branches of iimiinlailiiriiig imlusiry. To 
 wliiil isihc aslnnishiiig imrease nftiliisgnw, Man- 
 I'licstcr, llirininghain, Leeds, and Shellield, nml 
 the cniii|)iiraiively stalioniiry or declining tiuie nl 
 Canterbury, Wiiicliesier, Salisbury, ami ntber 
 towns in the smith nf I'.nglaml, in be n.-irilied V 
 It eaiiiiol be pi'elcmlcd that the inhiibilants of llic 
 fnrnicr are naturally innrc iiij;ciiimis, cnierprising, 
 or imhistriniis ihnn those of the latter. The abiin 
 dance nml cheapness of cmil in the nnrlli, ami ils 
 scareity, and cniiseipieni high price, in the smith, 
 is the real cause nf this striking discrep.iiicv. The 
 citizens of .Miinchcsier, (ilasgow, and niher bee- 
 hives of industry, are able, at a comparatively 
 Miiall expense, to put the most powerful and cniil- 
 plicaied machinery in inntinii, and in prndiicc re- 
 sults (|iiite bi'ymiil the reach nf those who have 
 not the same cmnmiiiid over coal, or, as it has 
 been happily deliiicd, hoarded labour. 
 
 The siibjoincd luble gives, al'li'r nllicial returns, 
 the ipiaiititics of enal ami other mincriils and 
 metals produced in the I'liited Kiiigdoin in the 
 year In*!:.', together with the I'stiniatcd valiii; at. 
 the |ilace of production : — 
 
 Mlncrali anil Mi'lnlt 
 
 Quantitlpt 
 
 Valus 
 
 
 Tnllil 
 
 4 
 
 Conl .... 
 
 8l,():W,;l:i8 
 
 ao,4(ii),ri84 
 
 CiipiMT, Vhio . 
 
 11, SIM 
 
 1.4!»:i,'.Ml 
 
 Ir I'in . 
 
 ;i,ll|:i,|lii» 
 
 !i,«.'.M.il7'.' 
 
 Lead, Metallic-. 
 
 i;ii,iii.i 
 
 I,|:lil,:|.|.-| 
 
 'Jill, Wliito 
 
 7,:i78 
 
 H7!l,il|H 
 
 Zinc .... 
 
 •.',ll,-.l 
 
 4S,I!I.S 
 
 Silver from Loiul 
 
 (iHii,l',j:t 
 
 IWI.Otl 
 
 (Idkl. 
 
 f>,-."Jl» 
 
 20,:i!l(l 
 
 Other Mutala . 
 Total of Metals 
 
 — 
 
 yfiu,tiuu 
 
 — 
 
 14,174,I);15 
 
 Total of Conl &MctnU 
 
 — 
 
 44,.'.84,r.lU 
 
 Of the SI.(;:tH,:i;iS tons of coal iirodiiced in iHtl-J 
 in the rnited Kingdom, (l-J.tl^ri,:!**;! tons were 
 raised in Kngland, W.KMVI.I.') in Wales, I l.(t7(!,lMMi 
 in Scotland, and l-_»7,i"i(K) in Ireland. (Miscel- 
 laneous Statistics of the United Kingdmit, 
 Part V.) 
 
 IttiifKofl'nijih: — At the earliest period to whirh 
 history ascends, the British islands were oc<'iipieil 
 by Celts or (iael, who, it is probable, had passed 
 over into Itritain from the (Mintigiions coasts of 
 riaiice, ami from liritaiii into Ireland. To the 
 (Celtic population of Itritain succeeded the (Jothic. 
 At a period long preceding the Christian era, tlm 
 (iotlis or Scythians, advaiu'ing from the east, had 
 occupied a large |)ortioii of the N. and N\V. parts 
 of Kuropo. Tlio Low Cotuitries and the N, pro- 
 
 N N 2 
 
 ■•'liiii 
 
 r;:'V,,'''lf 
 
AtH 
 
 it'MTisii KM run: 
 
 vini'o* III' Friiiii'i' were in ilic imv Mfl'ii'Mir ,m'ii|i|i'i| 
 liy (iiilliM, wliii hml iiri|iiirt'il llii- ilinlhirllM' n|i|><'l 
 liilioti III' llrli/ir; iiml i( n|i|><'iirt Inirii rii-piiir, I lint 
 liiiiX |>ri'\ ii>u->l\ III llii iiiMi.-iiiii III' llriliilii, niliiiiii'it 
 
 of llrlKilllln tlinl |iiii»in| iiViT into il, llllii tlli'll 
 
 iH'i'ii|ili'i| il . iiiiiriiiini' mill iiiuhi frriili' imrliiiiiK, 
 
 (l)i' Itrlli. liiilll.'.i, III,. V. li l-.'.i 'I'll!' Ilnllllllix, 
 
 iIiiiiikIi iIii'V "iiIiiIiii'iI (iri'iil llriliiiii, <lii| iiul Nilllf 
 III urnil iiuiiilii'r'< in II ; iiiiil llir ili'l^ir, liy wlimii 
 It llllil lirrn riiliihix'il ||| |||i< <'|iim'Ii iiI' llit'ir illMI- 
 
 xiiiii, limy III' ri'^iiriii'il nn ilii- |iriiii'i|iiil |irii|{i'iiiliir-t 
 of I III' l'!ii;;liKli iiiiiiiiti; I'lir, iliiiiiu:li till' variiiiiH 
 (iiilliir iiilii's uliii iiiinNi'il iixcr itiiii llriliiiii iit>i'r 
 llii' ili'|iarliiri' nl' liii' Iiuiiiuiih witc Hiitlli'ii'iidy 
 IHiucrl'iil lii^iiliiJiK' il, iiiiil mil' III' ilii'iii (ilic Aiujlrii) 
 Hllrri'i'ilc I ill Kivili;,' iu iiiillli' In llii' Kri'airr |iiirtii)ll 
 • >r Itrilllill, lliry wrrt' I'lir Inn I't'W III lliilillirr III IlllVi' 
 iiri'il|iii'ii il I'lilly, nr kIvi'II it il new liiiiK>l'l){r, lillii 
 tlit'ir own ijillirril iiiiiii'riiilly Iriiii iliiil |iri'\ iiiii«lv 
 ill iiM'. (I'iiiki'rtiin''* I it'll),',', tirt. I ji){liiiiit, iiiiil Iiim 
 DI^MTi. nil ilii' {'iiA\\n, f)iiii»iiii,) Hut iIm' Hinii'iif 
 
 llliil lIlc limri' rri'I'lll Slk\nll IIIhI llriliiiii fnlnlliHlM 
 
 liciii^ t'.-'^^•lllilllly till' Niiiiit' |n'ii|iii', rriiilily iiiiinl' 
 ptniMlt'il. 'I'll!' iiiviiilcr-t liiiviiiK <'\|ii'lli'il ill)' nri 
 Kiiiiil nr (I'liir iiiliMliitiiiiiH Irmii ilic Inwtr iiml 
 iiinrr I'l'iiiU'iil |iurtH 111' ihi' rnuuiry, the ImiIit wvtv 
 i'nill|ii'lli'il In ri Niirt In llic t°ll^<llll<Mhl'M nl' Wllli'H, till' 
 lli;;lllllllil.'< nf Scntlllint, llllil tllf rrlllntt- |itirtN ill' 
 
 |)i'Vnii iiiiii I 'iiriiwiill. Till' I'ariliiii'N «vliirli iIii'nc 
 cniiiiii'ii'H iiiVnnli'il I'lir ri'KiMiiiifr mnl cliiiiiii)^ iiii 
 iiiviiiliiijr I'nrcr. pri'vciiti'il iliciii liciii^ nvcrniii liy 
 
 till' (inlllH, Tlii'V WITI* Ili'Vcr riilliiillril liV lllf 
 
 Kiiiiwiii I('){1iiiin; mill at llii-< iimnii'iit we Iiml tliriii 
 a ili-'iiiii't rare, «|uakiii;; tiu! laiij,'imni' nl' tlicir 
 rt'iiinlt* aiii'CHtnrH. 
 
 Till' t<'iii|inrary rniiiiiicMt of Mii^rlaiiil liy tlic 
 DaiH'-', ami its hiiIihi'iiiuiii hiiliju;:ntinii l>y the 
 N'lii'inaiiM, linwi'vrr iiii|iiirlaiit in nilicr rrN|i<'rtM, 
 inaiii' Mil Hi'iisililc I'liiiii^i' ill tlii' nlnrk nl' llir iiilia- 
 liiiaiiis, 'I'lic NnrinaiiH, lliiiiif;li Imi;; Hctlli'il in 
 Fraiiri', wliiTc tiicy Iiml iu'(|iiircil llii< iisi> nl' tlic 
 Kri'iitii laii(;iia;;(', ni'i;;iiially t'lni^ratcil rrnni Nnr- 
 wiiy ; ami licinii^^L-d, uit wi'll mh the Daiii's, to tlin 
 (iniliir rainily. 
 
 'Ilic lliiinans iliil imt iiivnili' Irclanil ; ami tlu; 
 (intllH iln lint lllijii'ar In liavi' )iaxsi'(l over iiiln it, 
 lit Icasl in any t'lniMiilcralilc niinilii'i'H, llciicc its 
 |iii|iiilaiii>ii, in so far as it is iml iilinycil liy ciiii- 
 ^crtinls frnin Kii^iaml, siiin! Iliit invnsinii iiiiilcr 
 Henry 1 1, ami ilu'ir (icsi'cniliiiits, nuiy lie rcnarilcil 
 as nl' C'clliit nri^in. In fact, tlii' Irish laii);nii;;c, ii 
 (liiilcct III' llu< (iai'lii', is iil tiiis innincnt s|ink('ii to 
 tile aliiinst tntal cxciiisinti of l'',n(;lisli, in variniis 
 Ki'i'liiilcd ilistrii'ts nf Iri'lnnd; ami it is (rcncrally 
 cnn.-iilcn'il tliiit nearly twn-diinls nf the |ieniile nf 
 that islniul are desccmlcd I'rnin the aneiciit occu- 
 imiits of the eoiintry. 
 
 I'lipulutinn. — The |irof;rpss of popnlntioii iiinrent 
 llritaiii and Irelaiul was Inii^ very slow. Latterly, 
 hnwever, It has increased with extraordinarv ra- 
 pidity, chictiy in consecinciu'c of the wonderful 
 rise of nianufactiires niid cnniinercp. 
 
 The pniiidatinii of Kii^;hind and Scotland was, fnr 
 the lirst time, deterinined liy actual emiineral ion in 
 IHOl ; since which a census has lieen taken every 
 ten years. In Ireland, an incninnlele census was 
 taki'ii ill IHI.'t ; hut it was not till IM.'l that the j 
 pnpiihitinii of that jiart of the empire was exactly | 
 ascertained. The rcfjistratinn of hirtlis and deaths, ' 
 an almost iiidis|ieiisahle basis and accompaniment I 
 of the census retnriiH, was not introduced into j 
 Ireliiml till the year IKII 1, while in EiiKhinil it : 
 eonimenced ill IHilT, and in Scotland in IHi'w. j 
 
 'I he strikiiifif prof^ress of the population of the j 
 United Kinj^doin in the course <if a century and , 
 II half will be seen in the following coiulonsed 
 Statement : — 
 
 In 
 TMn 
 
 I7IMI 
 
 17 ''•11 
 
 INOI 
 INM 
 
 iNtll 
 
 Iml Hliig4ani 
 
 !*n|tHhlltrtll 
 T.'tAO.IKN) 
 
 |i,il7ii,iio<l 
 
 |A,HINI,INNI 
 
 i^7,7^.^,lMl» 
 
 !«»,:UI,';hH 
 
 In I'liKliind nml Wnlr^ diiriii;; ihU itrrlml, tlu' 
 
 pro^rea.l was as I'nllnWH ; — 
 
 I'.iiK •ihI aii.l WkiM 1 
 
 Tmm 
 
 
 1 IIIHI 
 I7III 
 I7:i0 
 17. Ml 
 17IIII 
 
 I7NII 
 INIII 
 MM 
 iNlil 
 
 A, I'll 111,111 III 
 n,IHIli,:|;l7 
 fi,(.H7,mi:l 
 tl,il:lll,tlNt 
 tl, 1711,7:10 
 7,Hll,sj7 
 1MN7,I7II 
 l7,lt'J7,iliHi 
 20,,/VN,lll7 
 
 III Scntliiiid, nM will Iw Necii rmni the Kiilijuini'ii 
 table, the ratio of increniiu was fur less sirikin^' :— 
 
 PMiiUnii 
 
 VMn 
 
 rn|Milalliin 
 
 1707 
 17fift 
 
 INOl 
 IN.M 
 iNlil 
 
 I,0.'i0,ll(l0 
 l,2tl''i,:IN0 
 l,filll»,ll.-iN 
 a,HNN,7 12 
 
 ii,oiiii,Nim 
 
 
 
 
 The increase of population in In liind, nml tlip 
 decrciiM' in llie last deceiiniul period, slinwit mihu: 
 notable fealiircM :— 
 
 
 IrtUnil 
 
 —^ — ^ - 
 
 
 
 Yftr* 
 
 l*i>l>ulatlon 
 
 III72 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 1712 
 
 2,0IH>,0!M 
 
 I7.V4 
 
 2,:l72,(l.l» 
 
 1777 
 
 2,(llMI,.'i.'ill 
 
 l7N.''i 
 
 2,H|.-i,l):l2 
 
 INII.'i 
 
 ri,:i!»''i.i;ii; 
 
 IH.M 
 
 ll,lilil,s:lO 
 
 iHtil 
 
 fi,N;iO,:i(i!» 
 
 Subjoined is a summnry of the censim retiinis nf 
 IKlit, tof^ether with Ihe proportion of |iii|iiil»tiiiii in 
 eitch uf tlic diviiiiuns of the United Kiiifrdmn :— 
 
 • 
 
 T.)l»l 
 Poiiulallon 
 
 Proimrtlon of ! 
 |iu|Julalioii 
 
 100-0 j 
 
 69-1 
 
 10','i 
 
 iD-n 
 
 •5 
 
 ! United KlnRdotn 
 
 Kn(f1nni1 ami Wales , 
 Si'iitliiml .... 
 Ireliiiiil .... 
 IslniulH in tho Itrltisli Seas 
 
 2U,U21,288 
 
 20,228.407 
 
 :l,ll!lli,SIIN 
 
 0,«.'iO.:|ill> 
 
 14.'i,(i74 
 
 It will he seen from the jirecediuff tabiilnrstate- 
 ments that the pop. of the United Kiiiplinii in- 
 creased by almiit thirteen and a half niillinns in 
 the course of the sixty years, from 1«(11 to IWil. 
 This increase, however, was not resnlar, fur wliili! 
 it amounted to full til'ty per cent, during' tlie limt 
 half of this |ieriod, it was not more than twi-aty in 
 the second half. This serious retardation in tlie 
 rate of (irogrcss has been ascribed, partly, to a 
 vastly aiigniente<l emigration, made possible by tlic 
 perfection of all the means of international com- 
 
 IK^lllllKllnll of Rilllum 
 
 InlttHl State* . 
 lirltUh North Anicri 
 Aiwtrftlian Colonies 
 ; Other I'lnccs 
 
 It will bo seen th 
 cmisidorahly more tin 
 >"liimary exiles who 
 'Iwriiited Kingdom, 
 'irimscr from certaii 
 Ifuni others. The g( 
 w tlic following tabic 
 
TiuiTiMn r.Mi'inK 
 
 A4f» 
 
 miinii'Alinn, nnil pnrtlv, miil to n xlill k'''''*'''' 
 ixii'iii, lo lilt' f'iK'i. (Ifiiiiiii'iriUnl l>.v I'XiM'rit'iiiv 
 ilml n* Koon no ilu* ili'tinltv <>(' |Mi|iiilnti<)ii rt'«>« l>) n 
 ccriiiiii |Hiiiit, ilif iiicrrii'M' III' |Hi|iiilittti)ii U'ciitiK'i* 
 );rii<liiiilly li'Mciii'il, 
 
 Ai'<'<)r>llll^ lo till' connllit III' INCil, tlll> lllllli' |HII). 
 
 (if till' I'liiti'il KiiiKiliMn, iiii'liiiliii;^ (III' ikliMi'iii Mil- 
 itirrx nixl KnllurM, wmm I l,;iMo,ii:i| ; tlir I'l'iinili' |<<>|i. 
 *H« I (,!••"' 1. I'll i Mir li'lilitli'x, lliiTrriirc, rxri'iMlnl 
 
 ihf iiiiilr" liy />7ll,ri.'Hl, (ind ilii^ ivvi i;'-<"l' mnri' ilinii 
 
 Imir II iiiillioii U liirKi'ly hirn iimit i cxi'luiliiiK 
 
 ihi' IIMMI NcrviliK iMit III' till' riilllilry. In H'vcf)' 
 
 imi iiiiili'M in ilii> llrili->li ix|iiiii|i« iImti' wi're )"*> 
 
 I'l'iimlrK. N'l ilmilit llir il^iirnimrl I'lii uf «lii' !«i>\e> 
 
 i'\i«li'il l"ii>f iH'I'iiri' it \vii» iiiinlc niijiarrri' liy tin- 
 
 llrnt rMilMiimliiill ill MOl, III ' "I lull' y«»r« if 
 
 liiw Ihm-ii itirrriixiiiKi >*» ll>«' fuliwwif^i; IlKuros will 
 
 fliiiw : — 
 
 V... I'r-ipif il'.n of ri>mi»««» *" ••"T '"O 
 
 1041 loi'll 
 
 IM.M lii^'l 
 
 INIIt Kill".* 
 
 Ill (iron! Uritnlii. of iliililrrii Itnrii nllvi>, lO.'i 
 Uivit iiri' liorn i<> I(mi ^irJH, ami tln' |ir<i|iiirtiiiii in 
 Kriiiirc U iicai'ly iIh* miiiih', 'I'Ik' imili't riniiitiiii' 
 1(1 |iri|Min<li'riiti' until tlif Hcvriiln'iilli yriir, wlini 
 ihi' iiiiiiiImt III' I he two hi'Xi's an- iirarly ri|iiiil ; at 
 nil milwi'iiui'iit ii^c'H I In- I'l'iiiait'M ari' iti cxri'Mi* ol' 
 ilii' iiialcH, till' I'liiiiik;!' ill lliii |iri>|HirtiiiiiM liriii^ 
 iimiiily iliii' to a ililViTi'iicc in lii'urri' of ilicilan- 
 j;ir« til wliii'li tlii'V art' rxposcil, to ii lowiT riitt' of 
 niiirtaiily ainoii(;.M I'rnmli'H I'roni ilisca-"!'!* an wi'li 
 lb I'rotii violent caiisi's ami to cniiKrHiion. Tlii' 
 ili*|mrity of tlie hcxi's Iwih al\vayn licrn ri';;iircl('il 
 li.iiniMif till' Irani Kiilixfactorv coniliiionx of tlii' 
 |i(i|iiilation of till! rnilcil KiiiKidmi, lint in ai:iiunlry 
 whi'D' nioru than tlirci* inillioiiN of luliilt wonii'ii 
 iiri' witliilrawii inori' or Ii'n.h from ilonicMtiiMlnticM 
 til fiiiiow ('inployniintA in tlui ilitVcri'iil tniinnftii'- 
 tiircH and tradi'H, tlio evil ii ii'>t witliinit hoiiic 
 inilination. At tlu! Hiiinc! liini", it innul not lie for- 
 piili'ii tliat in AiiMtraliit and other Hriti.sli colonii'M 
 ilii' |irii|Hirlion of the nexen Is reversed to hiicIi an 
 ixli'Ht an to render a well-orKimised MyMteni of 
 li'iimle eininration from the mother conntry liiKlily 
 iWruiili'. (.See AtJHri{Ai.A.-.i.\.) 
 
 Ktiiiiimtiim.—'VUv nnmlier of pomons who nn- 
 iMialiy'fjnit the IJnileil Kingdom to I'imnd a lionie 
 in iillier eonntrii'M is very eonHideralile. fSiiliJoined 
 i< a utatement of the e!ni(j;ratiiin for the three 
 vi'iint I«ti(l-ti2, with dent inulioii of the emigrants : — 
 
 porti of finltarkadon of tiuii{rntii<« in ihe year 
 
 iMIl'ii— 
 
 r ii<iiiii<iii . . t ( 
 
 l'l.\iiiiiiiMi , . , 
 In Knulnml , \ l,lvi<r|a>iil . , 
 
 H<iilllii|tii|iliili 
 
 I, oilier I'ortii . 
 
 til N<<ntlAnil I 
 
 111 Iri'Iniiil 
 
 Tolnl . 
 
 (llivirow iiml (irerniH'k 
 Oilier I'liru . 
 
 Tut III , , , 
 
 llplfimt , , . . 
 
 fork 
 
 l|f«4»-n!r . , . 
 
 1.1)11(1.11 Irrry 
 
 Ollivr I'orU . I • 
 
 I ' Tiilftl . 
 
 i Tiilul rroiit UiiIuhI Kliiudoni 
 
 t.TIT 
 
 M,iiU 
 
 MIA 
 
 •IM 
 
 0\,Wi 
 
 N.lMtl 
 |:l 
 
 Ill 
 
 lt,IM:| 
 
 |.-.:l 
 
 ft.OT'i 
 
 •Ni 
 
 lll,lltl:l 
 
 I3l,tfl4 
 
 'riie tolal niiinlier of ein!i;ranlH who Irft the 
 rnited Kingdom in the Mixiieii yeiirn, InI'.i lo 
 iHiil, aniiiiiiiteil III iieiirly four niilliniis, 'I'lie ri:«e 
 and fall of eiiii^niliiin diiriii;; tlie'<i' sixli'i'ii yearit 
 is coiii'isely shown in the Hniijoini'd liilde: — 
 
 
 NiitnltiT "f 
 
 Yfori 
 
 KiiilKiuiii* 
 
 IMII) 
 
 ^l)!l,'IIH 
 
 IH.MI 
 
 '.'NII.MIIt 
 
 |H-|| 
 
 :i:l'i,!iilil 
 
 IMW 
 
 illlH.Tlll 
 
 IMVI 
 
 :l'i!Mi:l7 
 
 IHAi 
 
 •.u\.r:\> 
 
 1H.V1 
 
 I7i;,.s(i7 
 
 IMOO 
 
 17I1,.'..V» 
 
 
 Nll'iilnT nl" 
 
 
 ^liiiiiiraiiu 
 
 |n:.7 
 
 ai'.'.M'.'i 
 
 IM.'.M 
 
 Ii:i,!i7-i 
 
 IH.-.II 
 
 I'JO.Il'.' 
 
 ISDil 
 
 I','M, 11,11 
 
 isill 
 
 III, 770 
 
 \Hi;-i 
 
 12I../II 
 
 jSlil 
 
 'rr<i,v>H 
 
 IMlll 
 
 
 tKilliimlaii of Riiilgriinlt 
 
 Viiltcd Stntcn . . ^ I 
 lirltiuli North Aiiiprlea ■ 
 I Aiutraltan Colonics . 
 
 Other rioccs 
 
 I 
 
 Total . 
 
 It will ho seen that the United States attract 
 cnnsitlcrahly more tlian one-half of the nnmher of 
 viiliintury exiles who fliinnally quit the shores of 
 tlie I'nitud Kingdom. The stream of enii}j;ration is 
 strnnjiicr from certain jiarts of the conntry than 
 Itiim others. The freiieral direction is exiiiiiited 
 w llic following lublc, which bhows the principal 
 
 Yfm 
 
 INIIO 
 IMlil 
 IHli'J 
 iNliO 
 IWil 
 IKIl'J 
 ISllll 
 ISIil 
 IHifJ 
 INIill 
 IHIil 
 l8Ui 
 
 NiimlxT— ! 
 I I'lilli'il KliiKilom 
 
 87,r>K) I 
 4lt,7(14 
 riH.7lMI ' 
 
 ll.7Hl> 
 1-J,707 
 l.-.,.V.'.i 
 «4,:liia 
 a:l,7:l8 
 41,H4:l 
 
 (i,8HI 
 
 r.,:piil 
 r,,u:i 
 
 Of the 22;i,7')8 omif^rants who left I he I'liilrd 
 Kingdom in the veiir IMI'.M, there wire— I'.imlisli. 
 (il.'.'l:!; S.'oteh. I.V-Mll; Irish. I lt;,:tl»l ; foiei'jiiers, 
 7,H;t,'t; not distiiiKiiisi-ed, '.'.'I.Olll. 
 
 In till' twenty-three yi'Mri ending; IHi;;i, tliere 
 were ■.'7ii,'<.'17 ihiiHTunls sent mil Id AM>lrari;i liy 
 the (iiivenimcnt Ijiii^ratinii Itmird; Il^i, I'.'O of 
 them Were iiomiiiMtcd in virliie of (umtriliiitioiis in 
 till' cuiiiiiy fi'iHii private soiirce-i, aniniiiiliii); to 
 Ki l.'-MM)/. "The tiitfil passaj,'e money was ;i,r.i;il,()HM/. 
 
 ll'riillh of thf I'ii/)iil(itii>n,~T\w assiiined value 
 of real |iroperly in the I'nited Kingdom i-i shown 
 in a I'ariiamentiiry return issued in the sessimi of 
 IXtil, The inforinatiiin. exteiidiiif; over the live 
 years, IH.')? to lHC,->, is Kntliered from Schedule A 
 of the income-tax returns. The ^mss animal 
 value in IH")7 of real pro)iertv in IJi^land w.ns 
 lo;t,l'.H!,-2,-i:i/. It had increased in iHi;2 to 
 iL'O.lHilV.ltilJ/. As respects Scotland the ti;,'nros 
 were, in IH.')7. 1 2,i-i«2.74".t/. ; and in I «t;2, 1 .'>, 1 •-'H,.V'W/.: 
 and lis re;;ards Ireland, in IH,J7, 1 l,!>l;),2H(l/. ; and 
 in |H!2, l.'l,lll(l,r)l(i/. 
 
 The followiii;^ return. piililiHiied in jnirsnance to 
 an order of the House of (.'oinmons of .Iiiiie 150. 
 IMIiiJ, shows the po]inlation, the f;ross receipt of 
 the revenue, after dediictin;^ repayments, allow- 
 ances, diseonnts, drawliacks, and lioiintics of the 
 nature of drawliacks, and exclndiiij^ therefrom mis- 
 eelhmeiitis receipts, and the rate per head of the 
 populalion of such revenue; also the aniounl of 
 property and pmlits assessed for the income tax. 
 the amount of iiicnine per head of the population, 
 and the potuidagc of said inxation on such income, 
 
 i 
 
 'hi 
 
 £,; 
 
 <: ';■ 
 
AfiO 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 for (iroat. nritniti and Ireliiml, in the year ending 
 the UlHt day ut' March, IK(i2 :— 
 
 
 Ore*! BrlUln 
 
 23,128,518 
 .£61,360,719 
 
 £2 \'.ii. 
 £301,380,730 
 
 Inlanil 
 
 5,798.967 
 .t:(i,792,606 
 
 £1 3«. M. 
 C2I,038,975 
 
 Popnlatlon 
 
 dross llevenno . 
 
 Amount of gross revenue 1 
 per head of |K>|)iilution j 
 
 Ainonnt of pro|MTty niiil ) 
 profits assi'ssed to In- r 
 eonie Tax . , ) 
 
 Amount of income jior | 
 lieml of iMipulation ) 
 
 Amount of revenue for ) 
 each X, of inooiiiu . / 
 
 JEISO*. 7irf- 
 4*. OJ,/. 
 
 £3 14ji. 7i</. 
 0*. 3|r/. 
 
 Anotlirr I'orlinmontnry return states tliat in 
 Great Itritnin the anniinl avcrnfje amount of pro- 
 jierty and income tax contributed per lieud of 
 population in tlic quinquennial period ending 
 March iJl, \MH, waK 10». 4Jfi., and in Ireland 
 '2». U)^rL The annual average in (Jreat liritain 
 in the quinquennial period ending March 'M, IKC,'), 
 Mvanlii. 1 \\f/., and in Ireland 2». 4)^(1. There is no 
 country which can hIiow Kiniilar rcHultH as regards 
 initionul wealth and individual pros])erity. 
 
 Agr'wultiirv. — Attempts have heen i.iade at va- 
 rious times, hoth by the govcniment ond private 
 persons, to get agricultural statistics for the United 
 Kingdom, hut tliesc attempts, from various causes, 
 liave always been unsuccessful. The general state 
 of agriculture can. therefore, be only estimated. 
 One of the best estimates, though many years old, 
 is that given in the subjoined table, giving the 
 extent of the cultivated (including meathiws and 
 arable pasture grounds) and uncultivated land in 
 th(! different divisions of the U. Kingdom. The 
 Htatisti(;s have been derive<l as follows ; viz. those 
 for Knghind and Wales, from aetateinent furnished 
 by Mr. Coiiling, land surveyor and civil engineer 
 to the Emigration Committee of 1827 ; those for 
 Scotland, from the General Report of Scotland 
 (III. ApjHind. p. .5) ; and those for Ireland, from 
 the statement furnished by Mr. GrifHth to the 
 Lords' Committee on Tithes : — 
 
 I <.'iittWalnl 
 
 UncultlTntcil 
 
 Total 
 
 Acres 
 
 32,217,680 
 
 4,752,000 
 
 18,944,000 
 
 19,944,209 
 
 1,119,159 
 
 England 
 
 Wales . 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland , 
 
 British Islands '\ 
 (Jersey, Guern- - 
 Fcy, and Sinn) j 
 
 Totals . 
 
 Acrcf 
 
 25,632,000 
 3,117,000 
 5,043,450 
 
 14,603,473 
 
 383,690 
 
 Acrpi 
 
 6,615,680 
 
 l,ti35,000 
 
 13,900,550 
 
 5,340,736 
 
 735,469 
 
 48,779,613 28,227,435 
 
 77,007,048 
 
 The figures for Ireland and Scotland, in the last 
 column of the olwve table, are exclusive of lakes. 
 
 These returns, even at the period when they 
 were framed, had no ])reten8ion8 to accuracy, and 
 could be considered merely as rough ajiproxima- 
 tions. And considering the lime that has since 
 elapsed, and the rapid spread of agricultural im- 
 jjrovcment, there can be no doubt that the pro- 
 jiortion of cultivated land has since been mate- 
 rially augmented. I n Scotland, only, this extension 
 has been supposed to amount to about a million 
 of acres ; while the immense number of acts passed 
 of late years for the inclosure and division of 
 wastes and commons in England and Wales, shows 
 that there, also, the extent of the cultivated land 
 must have been at least as widely extended. 
 
 At the close of the war in 1815, the produce of 
 wheat in England and' Wales did not amount to 
 iS quarters, or 24 bushels, an acre. Hut such and 
 so great has been the ))rogress of improvement in 
 (he interval, that its produce at present exceeds 
 
 34 quortent, or 2H Inishels, an acre. This, tnn. 
 iMising there are 3,(»0(),()0(» acres under whcnt in 
 England, makes an addition of 14,400,000 liuDhris 
 to the produce, exclusive of the farther quuiiiityiil' 
 other grain furnished by the greater breadth of 
 laud under tillage. And it is material to observe 
 that the ^)rogr«^s8 of ini))rovemeut has been even 
 inore rapid in other itarts of the U. Kingdom tluui 
 in England; the produce of all descriiitiniis el' 
 crops, and the land in cultivation, having keu 
 everywhere increased in a degree that could not 
 nrcviously have been anticipated. Accordiu),' to 
 l)r. (!olquboun, the consumption of corn in tliv 
 U. Kingdom, in 1814, amounted, ex. seed, to 
 3i'),l)00,0()0 quarters. And the annual average eon- 
 sumption may at present be estimated at aliuil 
 tiO,000,000 quarters, of which about u0,0U0,0U0 ire 
 of domestic growth. 
 
 It must be rejjeated that the above linuros nre 
 given only as the roughest apprii.viinatioiis, \n\\, 
 ilecidedly rather under than over the mark. The 
 only part of the United Kingdom where nuri- 
 cultural statistics worth relying on have been nil- 
 lectcd, is Ireland, and a few of these, i)r(?seiil((| 
 in the subjoined tables, may serve as useful com- 
 parison with the more or less unreliable estimntes 
 of Jiritish agricultural produce. 
 
 The produce of wheat in Ireland was as follows 
 in the vear 1802: — 
 
 FroTlncei 
 
 Total 
 Produue 
 
 Pruduce iwr 
 Avru 
 
 ItarrrU 
 9U Sluiia 
 3'3 
 3-0 
 3-5 
 3-0 
 
 3-2 
 
 Leinster . 
 Munster . 
 Ulster . 
 Counaught . 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 Qn. 
 
 252,021 
 
 248,881 
 
 147,041 
 
 35,105 
 
 683,048 
 
 The produce of oofa in 1802 was as follcws:— 
 
 1 Prorincei 
 
 Total 
 Produce 
 
 Produce \m 
 Acre 
 
 Leinster . 
 Jlunster . 
 Ulster . 
 Cunnaught . 
 
 Ireland • 
 
 Q". 
 
 1,825,245 
 1,400,527 
 3,016,8(!2 
 1,040,766 
 
 7,283,400 
 
 Barrcli 
 11 Stoiio 
 
 6-3 
 
 5-9 
 
 5-7 
 
 6-8 
 
 5-9 
 
 i 
 
 The produce of barley in 1802 was as follows ;— 
 
 Provincct 
 
 Total 
 Produce 
 
 Produce |*r 
 Aero 
 
 LcinFtcr . 
 Munster , 
 Ulster . 
 Counaught . 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 Qr». 
 
 420,509 
 
 168,729 
 
 41,295 
 
 31,300 
 
 661,833 
 
 Barri'li 
 
 10 Mnlio 
 
 ti-5 
 6'7 
 6'0 
 5-9 
 
 6-2 
 
 The produce otjMtatoes in the year 1802 wasas 
 follows : — 
 
 Provlnccf 
 
 Total 
 Produce 
 
 Itarrolfl 
 2U Stone 
 3,996,387 
 4,395,713 
 6,(i62,()97 
 3,132,418 
 
 Produce i«r 
 Acre 
 
 liarri'l) 
 
 20 .SKillO 
 
 20'a 
 
 17-3 
 15-8 
 14-7 
 
 Leinster . 
 Minister . 
 Ulster . 
 Cunnaught . 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 17,187,215 
 
 16'9 
 
 Based, to sor 
 
 af;rieidtural statii 
 an yet obtained i 
 nil estimate of th 
 Kingdom under tl 
 with the iiroduce 
 
 1 
 
 Cropi 
 
 
 ' /Wheat 
 
 
 Hnrley 
 
 
 Oats and 
 
 Ryo 
 
 ^ . lleniis and I'eas 
 
 a / I'ofatoes, 
 
 Tiir- 
 
 1^ nips, it 
 
 Itaixi 
 
 a Clover 
 
 , 
 
 Fill low 
 
 , 
 
 I Hups . 
 
 ^ 
 
 VOardens 
 
 • 
 
 /Wheat 
 
 • 
 
 
 Hnrley 
 
 
 
 Oats . 
 
 
 1 
 
 Ucnus and Teas 
 
 s ' Fallow 
 
 , 
 
 5 ) Totatoes 
 ^ Turnips 
 
 , 
 
 ^ 
 
 Clover 
 
 
 Flax . 
 
 
 Vuardcns 
 
 • 
 
 rWlieat 
 
 
 ■5 
 
 Barley 
 
 , , 
 
 Oats . 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ . 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 , 
 
 i 
 
 Fallow 
 
 , 
 
 ' ' 
 
 FIny , 
 
 
 
 .Gardens 
 
 
 Totolg , 
 
 • 
 
 The total net rer 
 in the United Kit 
 tiimiicittl year 1801 
 This amount does 1 
 land Imng the jiropc 
 nut assessed. l{y A 
 be raised in the U 
 :',03r,«27/. ds. ^d., w 
 
 England and Wah 
 8eutland 
 
 The total lantl taj 
 March, 1804, amoiin 
 
 Englniul ond Wait 
 Scotland 
 
 Total 
 
 A certain amount 
 (icomcd but not exi 
 la.\ is still charged 
 l*ing paid into the 
 person on whose bell 
 made. 
 
 Rent— The first 
 fettanl to the rent o 
 ubtauicd under the 1* 
 friim the returns mac 
 missioiiers, that the 
 Males amounted, in 
 iliat of Scotland to 
 rapid rise of prices, 
 subsequent to 1810, 
 and Wales had incre, 
 and that of Scotlam 
 no authentic inforn 
 i'he only approximat 
 
BRITISH 
 
 DiiHed, to Rome extent, upon the preceding 
 af;ri(.'iiltiirnl HtiitiHticH of Ireland, the moxt reliable 
 it yet obtained ih the following table, containing 
 an cHlimate of the extent of land in the United 
 Kingdom under the principal descriptions of crop.t, 
 witli the produce per acre : — 
 
 Crop* 
 
 , Wheat 
 
 (IJarley 
 
 OntH and Ryo . 
 ■3 UninH and I'l'iw . 
 a ) I'oiatoes, Tur- ) 
 u^ nipi4, ji Iliiix) ) 
 a I Clover 
 Knllow 
 
 I Hops. 
 ! VUurduna . 
 
 /Wlteat 
 Unrley 
 OntH . 
 ''3 Ucnns nnd Pens 
 
 AcrM In Crop 
 
 8,fion,ono 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 1,000,(100 
 
 50,000 
 250,000 
 
 -12,800,000 
 
 Fallow 
 rotntoes 
 Turnips 
 Clover 
 Vlivx . 
 VUardcns 
 
 nVTieat 
 Biirley 
 UatH . 
 I'otntoes 
 I'alluw 
 Klajc . 
 Gardens 
 
 Totola 
 
 350,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 50,000 
 100,000 
 200,000 
 450,000 
 450,000 
 5,000 
 
 35,000 
 
 3,290,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 320,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 4,875,000 
 
 20,965,000 
 
 Prot'uro p«r 
 Arre 
 
 Qnartm 
 
 i'l 
 
 5 
 
 11. ijer acre 
 
 1 5/, per acre 
 15/. poracre| 
 
 Qunrtcri 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 7/, per aero 
 
 15/. per acre 
 15/. per aero 
 
 Quarter* 
 3 
 
 3i 
 
 a 
 
 8/. per acre 
 
 i 
 
 15/. per nere 
 
 12/. per acre 
 
 The total net rental value at which tlio land 
 in the United King<lom was assessed in the 
 liiiaiicial year 18(51-02 amounted to 54,078,412/. 
 Tills amount does not include crown lands, nor 
 kiid l)eing the property of charities, all which are 
 nut assessed. By Act 38 Geo. 111., the land tax to 
 be raised in the United Kingdom was fixed at 
 2,037,(527/. 9». \d., which was apportioned thus :— 
 
 England and Wales 
 ^'otland 
 
 £1,989,073 7 lOJ 
 47,951 1 2 
 
 The total land tax redeemed up to the 25th of 
 March, 1804, amounted to^ 
 
 England and Wales 
 bvotluud . . 
 
 Total 
 
 £760,842 
 12,977 
 
 5 lOJ 
 
 6 8i 
 
 £779,819 12 7i 
 
 A certain amount of land tox has been ' re- 
 ilcimed but not exonerateil.' In this case, the 
 tax is still charged anil collected, bu( instead of 
 Wing paid uito the exchequer, is bonded to the 
 person on whoso beholf the redemption hos been 
 maile. 
 
 ifenf.— The first outhentic information in 
 regard to the rent of land in (;reat Britain was 
 obtained under the Property Tax Act. It appears 
 fnim the returns made bj' the i>roperty tax com- 
 missioners, that the total rental of England and 
 Wales amounted, in 1810, to 29,503,070/., and 
 that of Scotland to 4,851,404/. Owing to the 
 rapid rise of prices, in the years immediately 
 subsequent to 1810, the gross rental of England 
 anil VVales had increased, in 1815, to 34,330,402/., 
 and that of Scotland to 6,075,242/. Since then 
 no authentic information has been published. 
 The only approximative statistics ou the subject 
 
 EMPIRE 651 
 
 arc found in the official rotumn of the value of 
 the lands, houses, and other lixed property, as- 
 sesHcd to the existing property and income tax. 
 But this tax does not utfei't tiu)se holding lands 
 and houses whose gross incomes are under 100/. 
 a year ; and in consequence a considerable num- 
 ber of the snudler class of proprietors were not 
 assessed. As there is no accoimt of the precise 
 inmiber or value of the pro)K'rties thus excepted 
 from the assessment, there are no means of 
 arriving at the exact amount of the total gross 
 annual value of the land and other lixed pro- 
 perty. However, u sunnnary of the returns in 
 question nuiy not be without interest, as sliowiiig 
 the constant progress of the volue of real property. 
 The subjo.ined table exliibits the gross annual 
 value of real i)r()perty in buroughii, assessed to 
 income tax under Schedule (A), in the two years — 
 April 5 — 1802 and 1857. The striking increase 
 iu the value of jjroperty in England, and tiie very 
 slight increase in that of Ireland, is remarkable. 
 
 18(W I 1817 
 
 & 
 
 England . . 60,534,457 
 Sciitlund . . 5,854,474 
 Ireland . . 2,443,195 
 
 United Kingdom 68,832,126 
 
 X. 
 
 42,!»«2.193 
 
 4,569,744 
 
 2,089,191 
 
 49,621,128 
 
 The stdijoined table gives the gross annual 
 value of real jiroperty assessed under Schedule (A) 
 in aiuiitiea for the same |)criods : — 
 
 
 1803. 
 
 1857 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireliuid 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 & 
 
 69,535,500 
 
 9,274,064 
 
 10,957,351 
 
 
 
 89,706,921 
 
 60,534,060 
 8,013,005 
 9,826,095 
 
 78,373,160 
 
 Adding together boroughs and counties, the 
 summary will be us follows : — 
 
 
 1863 
 
 ;e 
 
 120,069,963 
 15,128,538 
 13,400,546 
 
 1H57 
 
 England 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland 
 
 & 
 
 103,41(6,253 
 
 I2,5.<2,749 
 
 11,915,286 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 148,590,047 
 
 127,994,288 
 
 1 
 
 Supply of Food. — Down to the jieace of Paris, 
 in 17(53, England was in the habit in ordinary 
 years of exporting large quantities of com. But 
 notwithstanding the astonishing improvements 
 made in agriculture, and the consequent increase 
 of {iroduce since that epocli, there is now, owing 
 to the still more rapid growth of our po|)ulation, 
 a necessity of importing supplies of all sorts of 
 grain. The imports depend, in a great degree, on 
 the produce of harvests; being comparativel.y 
 large in bad, and comparatively small in favour- 
 able seasons. The quantities of corn imported in 
 the United Kingdom in the two years 1802-3 is 
 given in the subjoined statement : — 
 
 Quantities Imported 
 
 Wheat .... Qrs. 
 Other kinds of Corn and i 
 
 Grain . . (,irs. I' 
 Whoatnipal & Flour l'\vt,«. 
 Other kinds of Meiil nnd ) 
 
 I'lonr . . Cwts. f 
 
 18U2 
 
 9,469,270 
 
 6,905,921 
 
 7,207,112 
 
 17,935 
 
 1803 
 
 5,022,501 
 
 8,234,898 
 
 5,218,976 
 
 14,812 
 
562 
 
 BRITISH KMI'IKK 
 
 The Slims paid for these mi])i)lies of food from 
 abroad in 18H2-3 were as folhuvN : — 
 
 Vtiiie of Imimru 
 
 « 
 
 2.'l,'Jit:),8(MI 
 
 9,172,(iao 
 H,«1»0 
 
 IMU.) j 
 
 Whent .... 
 Otlior kinds of Com mid 1 
 
 'Iriifii . . . / 
 Wliciitiiicul nnd I'lonr 
 Other kinds of Mcttl ond 1 
 
 Flour . . . ; 
 
 .€ i 
 li',nir,,n(ifi 
 
 10,411, 745 \ 
 .■),.VJ'.',i):ll 
 6,2.J7 
 
 of t)ie United KinRdoin, exported in IHG:' nm 
 186B, i» given in the following tabic : — 
 
 For her Hii|)plieHof uoni from abroad, tlie United 
 Kinj^doni is happily not dependent on any one 
 country, but relies upon a fjreat number. In the 
 two years l8(12-;{, the import* came from tlie fol- 
 lowiiiK countries : — 
 
 From 
 
 Rnssia, Nortliom Ports . 
 
 .Southern Ports . 
 
 Sweden . . . . 
 Donmiirk and the Diiuhicit 
 Prussia . . . . 
 Hanse Towns . 
 flerniaiiv (Other Parts) . 
 Holland . . . . 
 Franco . . . . 
 Spain . . . . 
 Italian Rtato<i . 
 Wallucliia and Moldavia . 
 Turkish Domiinons, not [ 
 otherwise specified ) 
 Egypt . . . . 
 British North America . 
 United States . 
 Other Countries 
 
 Total 
 
 18IM 
 
 On. 
 477,:W7 
 
 1 ,*i:v.',0(i4 
 .^7o,7■i!) 
 in:,,-2-2i 
 
 l,sr.4,.''.(il 
 
 4"!»,-MS 
 liM,8<i4 
 
 2ni,io.-> 
 
 787,142 
 
 74.101 
 
 2;«(.019 
 
 358,470 
 
 i,02.'),nn4 
 i.^oo.Hn-i 
 
 ],fi4(i,I46 
 
 e,SM,7l2 
 
 3.34,442 
 
 I8U3 
 
 Qri. 
 M t,228 
 
 l,l!».l,lfil 
 H.-|0,;i!l.-i 
 
 1,07<!,071 
 
 1,7 1,013 
 37!».8t5 
 20H,:||!t 
 lli-.',7:ll 
 
 1,0!(!»,7.". 
 
 2.llli0 
 
 144.007 
 
 437,(180 
 
 1,450.020 
 
 1,070,31 1 
 020,071 
 
 3,807,084 
 245,471 
 
 18,441,791 15,303,362 
 
 Down to a late period various restraints were 
 laid on the trade in corn ; the tendency of which 
 was to fetter importation, and artificially to elevate 
 the home prices. All these restraints were re- 
 pealed in 1«4(!, when Parliament decided that on 
 and after Feb. 1, 1840, only a nominal duty of 
 one shilling per quarter was to be levied on com. 
 Much of the actual prosjierity of the United 
 Ivingdom dates from this period. 
 
 Manufactures. — The manufactures of Great 
 Britain are more extensive and important thon 
 those of any other nation. The kingdom may, 
 indeed, be said to be purveyor of most descriptions 
 of manufactured articles for all the world ; and 
 there are but few nations, how remote or barbarous 
 soever, that are not indebted for some considerable 
 portion of their comforts, and sometimes even of 
 their necessaries, to the skill and ingenuity of 
 liritish artisans. A very large propf)rtion of the 
 j)eople are engaged in, and directly depend upon, 
 manufactures for their support ; and they supply 
 the materials of that commerce for which the 
 United Kingdom is so peculiarly distinguished ; 
 and which extends to, civilises, and enriches 
 almost every country of the globe. 
 
 There are no returns from which the actual 
 produce of the manufactures of the United 
 Kingdom can be ascertflined; but the magnitude 
 of this industrial activity maj' be measured, to 
 some degree, by the exports sent to foreign coun- 
 tries. These, in all probability, embrace not more 
 than half the actual i)roduce, the other half being 
 retained for home consumption. There are live 
 principal articles of export, namely, cotton manu- 
 factures ; woollen ditto ; metals, chiefly iron and 
 steel ; linen manufactures ; and haberdashery and 
 inillincrv. The total value of these manufactures 
 
 Arltctcri F.x|iortiKl 
 
 1. Cotton ninniifiicturns: 
 Piece KOdds, white or |)lnin . 
 Do. priiit(!d,elieeked,or(lyiHl 
 
 ! Do. of other kinds . 
 
 ( Cotton yam .... 
 
 I Total of cotton manufactures 
 
 I 2. Woo'len nnd worsted m;inn- 
 
 factiires : 
 ClntliH, coatiiiff.'i, &o., un- ) 
 
 nilxcil and iiiixe<l . f 
 Flnnncls, blankets, blanket- I 
 
 U\i!. and baizes . . ) 
 WorstiHl Ktuflfs, iiinnixcd and [ 
 
 mixed. ... J 
 Carpels mill drajfifets . 
 Of all other sorts . . . 
 
 Total of woollen and woryted ) 
 uianufuctures . . | 
 
 .3. Metals: 
 Iron, pip nnd puddled . 
 „ bar, aiiKle, bolt, and rod 
 „ railroad, of all sorts . 
 „ wire .... 
 „ cast .... 
 „ hoops, sheet and boiler I 
 plates . . J j 
 
 wroiiplit, of nil sorts . 
 „ old, for re-niaimfiicture 
 „ steel, iinwrouglit . 
 
 Total of iron and steel . 
 
 4. Linen maiinfnctures : 
 White or plain, damask, &c. 
 Printed, eliccked, or dyed 
 Sailcloth .... 
 Of other aorta 
 
 Total of linen manufactures 
 
 6. Haberdashery and millinery 
 
 ISC'} 
 
 1803 
 
 lfi,21(;,3!)!l W.'.MII.ISI 
 
 12,34(1,(1(171 14.-.':,ii,iKi| 
 
 I ,i»8(i,-.'(i:i I ,ss;/ .•,■>:, 
 
 (i,202,21() 8,ll|!);!).vi! 
 
 3«,7.'.0,971 
 
 47,44:),!l(it 
 
 4,425,1 -Ji; 4,nn«,()i2 
 
 1,388,5!)2: 1,411,W)' 
 
 0,881,780 8,3:';,7;':i 
 
 (!71,-.'15 8lo,:i|;i 
 781,71.1 !)(,;i,*.i 
 
 i 
 
 13,148,431 
 
 1,203,011 
 
 2,250,!ill I' 
 
 2,817,877 
 
 3l4,8!l.v' 
 
 074,142 
 
 1,318,917, 
 
 1,937,317^ 
 
 98,4(141 
 
 848,933' 
 
 l'>,51«,8|;>i 
 
 I,'.'!m;,:1(;i 
 
 2,"iiiii,-.':;;i 
 
 3,-.'llii,:i|l)' 
 
 3:iil,DS;i 
 
 7-ii',:''i:i 
 
 l,(182,tl8.V 
 
 2,171,111): 
 
 51.(114 
 
 935,U(M1 
 
 11,.3(15,150! 13,111,477 
 
 4,192,359 
 200.(1(15! 
 
 258,078: 
 482,834! 
 
 5,:i-.'!l,lii|' 
 •.'ill.-.'il'i 
 
 08s,iiilii 
 
 0,133,936 6,5U!»,'jro! 
 3,573,(122 4.3C-.>,:!l!l 
 
 The following estimates represent the approxi- 
 mate value of Hritish manufactures in 1840, m 
 drawn ftom property assessment and custoni-himsi; 
 returns : — 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Cotton . . . . 
 
 35,o(iii,nnr) 
 
 Woollen . . . . 
 
 2(1,000,(100 
 
 Iron nnd Hardware . 
 
 22,(W0,OOil 
 
 Watches, Jewellery, &o. . 
 
 . ' ;i,(ioo,oiio 
 
 Leather . . . . 
 
 13,<50ll,lllill 
 
 Linen 
 
 8,11011,0011 
 
 Silk 
 
 10,0110,1)00 
 
 (rlass and Earthenware 
 
 4,250,000 
 
 Paper 
 
 2.500,000 
 
 Hats 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Comparing these figures with the preecrtins' 
 table, and admitting the value of total export.s of 
 each article as amounting to about one-half the 
 actual prislnce, it will be found that the manu- 
 facturing industry of the United Kingdom has 
 progressed somewhat unequally in the course of ii 
 quarter of a century. While some brimclics nl" 
 industry, such as the making of cotton goods, hnvc 
 apparently more than doubled, others have grown 
 but little. However, the estimates of maiiiil'ac- 
 tnres in 1840 ore very vague, and may be wide ni' 
 the mark. But they exhibit, if nothing else, the viw 
 extent and importance of British manufacture.^. Ii 
 would be desirable, on many accounts, to he alilc 
 to separate the sums mentioned above as coiisti- 
 tutmg the gross annual value of the principal 
 manufactures into tlieir constituent parts, thai 
 is, to show how much of the total value ef any 
 
 branch of mam 
 (luce, or of the 
 manufacture en- 
 xists of th(! wii 
 eiice, and how i 
 tear of capital, 
 next to imjiossil 
 care and circut 
 falling into the 
 eessary also to i 
 always required 
 the gross value ( 
 the addition real 
 wealth of the 
 trross annual val 
 to be about iJ(),(l 
 into the greates 
 posed, as is comn 
 niial addition of t 
 of the couutrv, 
 nearly a half, 'or 
 of the value of t 
 liritish wo(d, whii 
 of the whole, beiii 
 mate of tlic aiiiiiu 
 be reckoned lwic( 
 the estinialc of tli 
 factiirc. The sat 
 almost every case 
 leiiiled to, 'none 
 fereiices iiucd he In 
 ('oinparingthetfl 
 one. giving the val 
 bread-stiiffjitwillb 
 manufactures alone 
 of food derived /ni 
 imports of corn int 
 year 1802, were of 
 the totiil exports of 
 to .S(i,7;JO,<>71/. T 
 year, there having 
 tlie next annual ]i 
 result, ill the vea 
 corn imports aniom 
 exports of cotton ma 
 The statistics of tli 
 whole, a fair avcnig 
 as sucii may be tak 
 filiations on the m 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 The progress mad 
 factures, since tlie in 
 quite unprecedented 
 "I irim produced ii 
 •""liposed to ha\-e e 
 wit the ap|)licatioii 
 "1 iron having soon 
 tlie maimfacturc bcfj 
 pnirtucein 1788 bein 
 l;!)ti at 125,000 t(,iis 
 Nnce this last ineiit 
 the iron trade has 
 plated, thei\! were in 
 iron produc(!d in the 
 MOW become of the V( 
 ■' employed with the 
 "iiys for which it w; 
 Wat all suitable, sue] 
 And it is to the ciic.i 
 supply „f ir„i,, -Ls n„i 
 'Ijefuperiorityofoiiri 
 "' most brai'iciies of 
 a-'criijcd. 
 
 Hut the progress o 
 factiire, since 17(10, 
 wtraonUnary pheiioi 
 ^"sfy. in 17(;4 ih^ 
 
a,-J!)ii,;ii!r 
 1i-i;2ra 
 
 /il.iiU 
 
 ) 5,3l>!l,llM' 
 i\ H'.'7,!i;s 
 
 jircccilin;; 
 
 exportmil' 
 lic-hair the 
 f the iiiaim- 
 lijTdom liiis 
 Icoiirse (if II 
 T)raiu;hes ul' 
 
 piive fjrowii 
 f niamilk- 
 I be wide nl' 
 Jl»e,tlicva.-t 
 Ifaotiirf!'. 1 1 
 \ to lie alile 
 as cnibti- 
 le |)riiicil«'l 
 I]iart8, tliiii 
 line t'f m>y 
 
 nRiTiyii 
 
 hriiiifli (if mnniil'iiotun! is made up of raw (mi- 
 (liicc, (ir of the vftliic of hoiiu! otli(^r lirniicli of 
 niniiiifai^tiiri* cnilxidicil in it, and liow iniich (.'(in- 
 difttx of tli(! wa^'cM of labour mid HUiHiriiitciid- 
 ciit'c, and )iow inucb of Ibc iirotits and wear and 
 tear of onjiita). lint to do tbis is, in many cascn, [ 
 ni'xt to irn|iimHible ; and in nil cascM, tbe f;rc'HtPMt, i 
 can^ and I'lri'innspcction ar« rc(inir('d to avoid | 
 falling into tlid must sorious errors. It is nc- | 
 ccssary also to obscrvo, tbat considcrabli! ttarti is 
 ftlways rc'(|nired in ilrawin^ fom-lnsions from 
 the j^ross valni' of any niannfacturo, in rc^^anl to 
 tliu addition really inad(! by it to tin- n^f,T('^rnto 
 woaltb of tliu country. 'I'lins, ass<iniini; tbn 
 (;mss aiuiual value of tlic woollen manufactiiru 
 til be about il(»,(l( 1(1,0(10/. ft year, wo slionld fall 
 into tbe (greatest inia^^inable error, if we snp- 
 IKisrd, ns is commonly done, tbat it made an an- 
 nual addition of tbat amount to tbe ^ross jiroduce 
 of tbe country. Of tbis sum of !((),( 100,000/., 
 nearly a balf, or about ir),()()(),00((/., may consist 
 (if tbe value of tbe wool ; and tlic value of tbe 
 ISritisb wool, wbicb is by far tbe lar;;est portion 
 iif tbe wliole, beini; already iiududed in tbe esti- 
 mate of tbe annual iiroduce of atjriciilture, would 
 1)0 reckoned twice over were it also incbided in 
 the estimate of tbe prodnce of tbe woollen mnnu- 
 tk^ture. Tbe same caution must be used in 
 nlmiist every case; and unless it be carefully at- 
 Iciuled to, none lint tbe must misleading in- 
 I'ereiices need be looked for. 
 
 (Joniparinp tbe table of exports witli tbe presoding 
 one. iiivinj; tbe value of tbe imports of corn anil 
 kcad-stntf,it will be seen tbat tbe exports of cotton 
 ninnufactiircs alone more tban pav for tbe supply 
 (if 1(10(1 derived frotn forei<;n nations. Tbe total 
 imports of corn into tbe United Kiuju^dom, in tbe 
 year 1H(J2, were of tbe value of ;J7,772,104/., wliile 
 the total exports of cotton manufactures amonntcd 
 to 3(i,7.jO,!»71/. Tbis wa« a very unfavourable 
 yoar, tliere liaving been a deficient harvest; niul 
 the next annual jieriod showed a very different 
 result. In tbe year 18G3, the total value of the 
 com imports amounted to '25,9,").'j,itH!)/,, while the 
 oxiKirts of cotton manufactures reached 47,443,'J(!t/, 
 The statistics of tbe latter year showed, on the 
 whole, a fair averajte of imports and exports, and 
 as such may be tnki'.n as a basis for further cal- 
 culations on tbe manufacturing industry of the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 The progress made by Great Britain in manu- 
 factures, since the niiiblle of last century, has been 
 (luite unprecedented. At that period the quantity 
 (if iron proihiced iiv iMigland and Wales is not 
 suiilMised to have exceeded 18,000 tons a year; 
 hilt the a])|ilicati(in of iiit-coal to the jffodiiction 
 (if iron having soon after become pretty general, 
 the maimfacturc began gradually to increase, tbe 
 ])ni(luce in 1788 being estimated at 08,000 tons, in 
 1790 at 12i),000 tons, and in 180() at 2r30,000 tons. 
 Since this last mentioned period, the progress of 
 the iron trade has been such th.at, as already 
 stilted, there were not less than iJ,'.t4;{,4()!* tons of 
 iron produced in the year I8(i"2. The business has 
 now become of the very highest importance. Iron 
 is employed with tbe greatest advaiitjige in many 
 ways for which it was formerly sii[iiiosed not to 
 lK;at all suitable, such as the construction of ships. 
 Ami it is to the cheapness and abundance of our 
 Mipply of iron, as miicb as to anything else, that 
 the superiority of our machinery, and consequently 
 iif most branches of our manufactures, is to be 
 ibcribed. 
 
 Hut tbe progress of tbe British cotton manii- 
 fiictiire, sHice 17liO, is iindoulitedly tbe most 
 ixtraonUnary phenomenon in the history of in- 
 dustry. Ill 17()4 the cdiisuinplioii of raw cotton 
 
 EMPIKK .V)3 
 
 did not amount to 4 million llw,, whereas the 
 iin|M»rts, in the year I8(»:t, reached i'i.078, |-.'2 cwl.. 
 valued at .■)(i,277,!).'»!t/. It is diHiciilt to give any 
 very satisfactory explanation of tbis asloiiishing 
 progress. Much, no doubt, must be ascribed to 
 the intlnence of tbe gcni-ral causes already speci- 
 lied, but much also has been owing to what may 
 \h' called accidental circiiinstiinces. The cotton 
 mannfucture may, in fact, be said to be wholly the 
 result of the inventions and discoveries of Ilar- 
 greaves, Arkwrigbt. Watt. Croinpton, and a few 
 other Kiiglislnnen which gave to tbe coiintry tbat 
 |)rior!ty and e.irly superiority in tbe mamifacture, 
 wbicb a favourable situation in other respects has 
 (>iiabled her to mniiitain. It is seldom an easy 
 inatler for new rivals lo come into snccessfiil 
 compeiition with those who have already attained 
 to coiisiih'rable iiroticieiicy in any art or manu- 
 facture ; ami they rarely succeed, unless tbey have 
 some very material advantage on their side. But 
 in this instance, besides having tbe start of 
 foreigners, tbe natural and moral circiimstaiK^es 
 iiii'ier which British niaiml'actiirers have been 
 iilaccd liiive given them advantages not enjoyed 
 in anythiiii,' like tlie same degree by the manni'ac- 
 tiirers of any other ciuiiitrv. Were niiv change or 
 revolution ellecfeil in inacliinery tbat slionld admit 
 of coal being advantageously {lis|)eiiseil with, it is 
 ditliciilt to say what etlcct it might have in the. 
 long run on British niannfactiires. While, bow- 
 ever, coal continues to be as indispensable in 
 industrious undertakings as at iireseiit, and while 
 the kingdom retains her free institutions, there is 
 but little ground for supposing that her maniifae- 
 tiiring prosperity will be impaired. On tbe contrary, 
 it is reasonable to cx|ieet, seeing the incn-asing 
 wealth of foreign customers, tbe greater competi- 
 tion at home and abroad, and tbe greater att ^ntiou 
 paid to scientific investigatitms, that it will go on 
 increasing, and that the discoveries and progress 
 to be made in the next age will surpass tliose 
 made in the present, wimdcrfnl as they bavel>eon. 
 
 Commerce. — Neither the comment! of Tyre or 
 Carthago in antiquity, nor that of Italy in the 
 middle ages, nor of Ilolland in the 17th century, 
 coubl compare, for tbe variety and value of the 
 products which it distributes, and the all but nii- 
 limited range which it embraces, to tbe existing 
 commerce of England. British jiroducts are found 
 in every country, and tbe British flag floats over 
 every sea. And as all commerce is based on a 
 principle of reciprocity, and is sure to stimiilatn 
 the industry and to add to the wealth of all who 
 engage in it, it m.iy safely be affirmed, that while 
 tbe people of Britain arc piirsning only their 
 own interests, tbey are contributing in tbe most, 
 effei^tnal manner to dill'iise the lilessings of civili- 
 sation, and a taste for luxury and refinement. It 
 is impossible, indeed, to overrate the beneficial 
 influence of that commerce of which the United 
 Kingdom is tbe (!entrc a'ld niaiiispring. No on;; 
 aware of its vast extent can have the smallest 
 doubt tbat it is by far the most important means 
 of civilisation aiKl improvement ever brought into 
 active operation. And it may be concluded, tbat 
 instead of liavhig ap|iroacbed its zenith, it will 
 CAiiitinue to increase with the increasing wealth, 
 and consiMpiently growing wants, of the various 
 nations it is now rousing to activity and eiiter- 
 iirise ; and that it will derive new vigour, and have 
 its foundations widened and consolilatod. byeverv' 
 circumstance cab'iilated to iironmte tbe industry 
 and to add to tbe riches of tbe nations of tbe earth. 
 
 I'bilosopbically sjieaking, iill organised society 
 resolves itself into a series of excbangt^s; every 
 individual is in some sort a merchant ; and tbe prin- 
 cipal business of life consists in the exchange of 
 
A.') t 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 one Wirt of wn-ico or nrliclo for nnoHior. IIpiu'c 
 ill nil coiintricH the merciiiitilv iransactionHciirrii'il 
 on nt lionic, or in the home tniile, intlnittily px- 
 (!c<>(l ill niiinlii'r and viiliiit tlioxn carried on with 
 lorci/iiiors, or in th« forfii/ii tradr, 'I'he latter, 
 however, is not on that aceoiiiit the less iin)iortMiit 
 or vuliinhle. lint, tor llu; intereoiirHe eiirried on 
 with loreiKiiers (Ireat Jtritain would Imi wliollv 
 destitute of nianv most desiral)k! prmlnets — siieh 
 n.H tea, colVee, wine, the preeioim metals, ite., as 
 well as of the raw material of many most impor- 
 taiit nmniifiictiires, inchidiiiK those of cotton and 
 silk. (Jeiierully, loo, nmniifaeliiresnre improved and 
 perfeeted aceordinj; to the sealti on whieh they are 
 earri(^d on ; so that an extensive eommereu is nt 
 once a (:oiisei|uenee and a eniise of maniil'aeliiriiif; 
 |>re-einiiienee. The cotton mills of Lancashire 
 and Lanarkshire could not have l>een constructed 
 had the demand for their imxliu'c lieen contiiied 
 to the em))ire only : they have not heen hiiilt to 
 sii|)ply the limitcil consumption of (ircat Hritain 
 and rrelaiul, but the unlimited consumption uf the 
 world. 
 
 It is impossible to form any estimate of the 
 extent of the home trade carried on in any ^ifreat 
 country, or of the exchaiif,'es efl'ccted amongst its 
 citizens. Kormerly, accurate accounts were kej)t 
 of the cross-channel trade between tireat Itritain 
 and Irelanil; but, with the excei>tion of corn, no 
 otticial account is now kept of the iiroducts con- 
 veyed from the one to the other. However, this is 
 not (he case with the trade with foreijjn countries. 
 Duties heiiif^ laid on most articles imported from 
 abroad, it is necessary for liscal purposes that their 
 umonntshuiild be ascertained with as much accuracy 
 as jiossible ; and it is believed that the ileclarations 
 of the real value of the exports made by the 
 exporters do not ditfcr materially from the truth. 
 
 The trade carried on witli coUmies, or the 
 colonial trade, thoiif^h conducted under diti'crent 
 regulations and duties, is substantially the same 
 •with the foreifjn trade; and may be, and indeed 
 generallv is, considered as a branch of the latter. 
 
 iSiibJoined are a few (j;eneral statements re- 
 gpectiiifr the jirineipal articles imported irom and 
 ex])orted to the c./iintries isitli which the United 
 Kiiij:;dom has the j^rcatest intercourse. 
 
 Hiissiii — Imports from : — Tallow, com, tlax and 
 hemp, tlax aJid linseed, timber, bristles, ashes, 
 liides, iron, and wax. Exports to: — t'otton twist, 
 woollen fabrics, salt, coal, hardware, colonial 
 products, Jl'C. 
 
 StfvdtH and Nortfmj — Imports from : — Timber, 
 iron and bark. Exports to: — Cottons and cotton 
 yam, woollens, earthenware, hardware, coftee, iu- 
 ilifjo, tobacco, siif^ar, iVc. 
 
 Denmark — Imports from :— Com and rape-seed, 
 butter, bristles, wool, hides, and bark. Exports 
 to: — Coal, salt, iron anil steel, earthenware, 
 machinery, cofl'ee, itidif:;o, &c, 
 
 rinssin — Imports from :— Com, oak and tir tim- 
 ber, bark, bristles, wool, spelter, Hax, Ac. Ex[iorts 
 to: — Itclined sugar, salt, cottons, hardware, earth- 
 enware, &c. t)ur trade with I'nissia is principally 
 carried on through Hamburgh. 
 
 Uennaiiy — Imports from : — Wool, com, wines, 
 butter, linens, hides, clover, raiic-seed, smalt/, 
 sjieltcr, zaftre, furs, wooden clocks, &c. Exports 
 to: — Cotton stiitls ami yam, woollens, relined 
 sugar, hardware, earthenware, iron and steel, coal, 
 salt, indigo, coifee, rum, tobacco, cotton wool, 
 spices, itc. A good deal of the im|iort8 from and 
 exports to Holland and lielgiuin arc on (jcrraan 
 account. 
 
 Netherlands — Im))orts from: — Butter, cheese, 
 corn, niadckr, g(!neva, tlax and tow, hides, linens, 
 seeds, toys, Ac. Exports to; — Cotton stutfs anil 
 
 yarn, woollenn, hnnlwaro, earthenware, Halt, cnal 
 and colonial produce. ' 
 
 I-'ritnee — Imporis from: — nrandy, wine, niik 
 (raw and manufactured), gloves, liiadder, e;;i;s 
 skins, and fruit, Ex|M>rts to: — VVoid, liiieiiN ami 
 linen yam, brans and copjK'r mamifaciures. nia- 
 chinery, coal, horses, Ac. Large qiiaiiliiieN of 
 Nottingham lace are smuggled into Kraiice, niul 
 brandy iiilo Kngland. 
 
 J'ortiii/at and S/ttiin — Imports from : — Port niid 
 sherry wines, barilla, wool, raisins, dried fmiis 
 lemons, oranges, olive oil, quicksilver, Ac, Ex- 
 ports to: — Cotton sliitTs, woollens, liiu'iis, liiinl- 
 ware and cutlery, iron and steel, soap, caiidles 
 leather, and cinnamon. 
 
 Itali/ — lm|iorts from : — Thrown silk, olive oil, 
 straw for plaiting, straw pliiit and hats, ciirraiils' 
 lemons, oranges, wine, liarilla, shiiniac, bark, 
 cheese, lamb-skins, liein|), *c. l^xporls to; — 
 Cotton sliiIVs and yarn, relined sugar, woollen 
 manufactures, hardware and cutlery, iron and 
 steel, coffee, indigo, tobacco, pimento', Ac, 
 
 Tiirkei/, Greece, if-e. — Imporis from: — Silk, 
 opium, madder, liga, raisins, vnlonca, oil, cotion, 
 currants, senna, Ac, Exports to: — Cotton maiiii- 
 factiires and twist, linens, hardware, iron and steel, 
 cordage, woollens, earthenware, indigo, and coffee. 
 
 Eijyjit and AJ'riea — Imports from : — Cotton wool, 
 flax) linseed, senna and other drugs. Exports 
 to: — Cotton manufactures, iron and steel, arms 
 and ammunition, and machinery. 
 
 FtrreUjn fFent Indies — Imports from: — Sugar, 
 coffee, cotton, cigars, Ac. Exports to: — Coitoii 
 manufactures, earthenware, linen nianiifaeliireii, 
 hardware, iron and steel, woollens, glass, maclii- 
 nerv, Ac. 
 
 United States — Imports from : — Cotton, tobacco, 
 wheat Hour, wheat, rice, maize, skins and fur<. 
 hides, staves, Ac. Exports to :— Cotton, linen, 
 and woollen magnfactiires, hardware, cutlery, 
 earthenware, salt, brass, and copper, apparel, books, 
 Ac. • 
 
 South American States — Imports from : — Cottnii 
 wool, sugar, coffee, bullion and precious stones, 
 cocoa, hides, fruits, bark, dye-woods, furs, &e. 
 Exports to: — Cotton, linen, and woollen inaim- 
 factiires, earthenware, hardware, soap, candles, &e. 
 
 African British Colonies — Imports from— Cajie 
 and Constantia wines, hides, ivory, skins, aliH'.s 
 palm-oil, teak, timber, wax, dye-woods, su^jar 
 from the Mauritius, Ac. Exjiorts to: — Cotton, 
 woollen, and linen manufactures, apparel, enrilicn- 
 ware, hardware, iron and steel, soap, candles, sta- 
 tionerj-, lire-arms, salt, machinen", Ac. 
 
 Asia and Australia — Imports iVom : — Tea, wool, 
 indigo, cotton, sugar, silk, coffee, ])epper,saltiictri', 
 piece-goods, rice, lac-dye, cinnamon, mace, dovps, 
 cocoa-nut-oil, whale-oil, ivorj', tin, and tlic pre- 
 cious metals. ExjMirts to: — Cotton stuffs niiil 
 yarn, woollens, linens, earthenware, cop|)er, linril- 
 ware, iron and steel, leather, glass, machinery, in: 
 
 American British Colonies — Imports from :— 
 Timber, furs, tish. corn, ashes, skins, tiirpenliiip, 
 &c. Exports to : — Woollens, cottons, linens, hard- 
 ware, iron and steel, soaj), cnndles, earthenware, 
 apparel, glass, cordage, coal, butter, cheese, A'c. 
 
 British West Indies — Imports from: — Siijjar, 
 coffee, rum, cotton, pimento, molasses, nialiogan,v, 
 logwood, fustic, cocoa, cochineal, ginger, liiili'.<, 
 Ac. Exports to : — Cotton stuffs, linens, woollens 
 apparel, soap, candles, hardware, iron ami steel, 
 lish, eartherware, cordage, beef and pork, arms 
 and ammunition. 
 
 The declared real value of the total imports ami 
 exports of merchandise into and from the L'liiteil 
 Kingdom for the years iS&l and l«ti3 is alwwii 
 in tile following tdllc • — 
 
 I 
 
 I Imports . , 
 
 I f Tlrltlsh 1 
 
 Exiwrts ] t'oreiKii 
 ( Coloiil 
 
 ! Total Kxport 
 
 Total of Imiwrl 
 ExiKirta . , 
 
 The various co 
 amoii^' them the i 
 (liiin III the follow 
 »ii<l mv.i. The \ 
 rciiirns of the Hon 
 are placed in the 
 liiirlaiicc in the yei 
 
 Vai 
 
 Ilritish rossossions : 
 
 India 
 
 Driiish North Ami 
 
 Australia 
 
 West liiiliii Islands 
 
 CV,vloii 
 
 Italiaiiins. , 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Ca)M! ami Xntal 
 
 Siii(faporo 
 
 Uritihli Oiiiniin 
 
 lloiiKkoii); 
 
 BeriiitiiliLS 
 
 Clianiicl Islaiuis 
 
 Deliiiu . 
 
 luiiiim iHlaiuls 
 
 Western Al'ricii 
 
 Malta . 
 , Oihraltnr 
 I Fulklaiid lalauds 
 I St. lluleiiu 
 j Aden 
 
 j Ueliguluiid 
 
 j Total of British I 
 
 ' France 
 
 i Vidtwl States . 
 
 Gerninny :— 
 i llauso Towns . 
 I Prussia . 
 ! Muoklciiburg . 
 ' Hanover 
 I Oldenburjf 
 
 ! Total of Gcmiaiiy 
 
 Cliiiia 
 
 Itiissiii 
 
 Ketliorlanda 
 
 'fiu'licy 
 
 lit'lgiuai . . [ 
 
 !<|)nin 
 
 FmijriiAVi.st Indies' 
 lirazil 
 
 ■Swwion and Norway' 
 Peru .... 
 Portugal . 
 D'uniiu-k . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Cliili . . . .' 
 
 ttCstcni Al'iica ! 
 
 I'liilippiuo Islands . 
 
 Jii|iau 
 
 Ar(,'entino Itcpu'hlic '. 
 
 I'nitfuay . 
 
 (irceco 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 r>u5 
 
 
 1803 
 
 t«as 
 « 
 
 24H,!)sn,D42 
 
 Iiii])<)rt8 . . 1 . 
 
 821,71(1,070 
 
 Tlrltlsli rrndiicu 
 
 ExiwrtH I'diTiKii iiiiU 1 
 
 ( Coloiiiiil • j 
 
 l-.';i,!M('.',-.'l!l 
 42,17.'i,S7U 
 
 i<in,iiiK,t;i4 
 
 aill,.S83,ltO 
 
 14(l,l.s!»,7liH 
 4»,4H,'i,U0:> 
 
 Total KxporU . 
 
 10«,O74,77i« 
 
 Total of ImiwrtH ami ) 
 i;xiM)rt» ... ) 
 
 444,lt.'ir.,7l.') 
 
 Till! vnrious countries of tlio world ilividcil 
 among tlioin tlio. iinport.s into tint United Kinf;- 
 iliiin ni tlie lollowing manner in the years \H{\-J> 
 and ind.'l. The vuhic j^iven is after I lit! ollieial 
 rci urns of the Konrd of Trade; but the eonntries 
 art> |iiue(!d in the order of their coninierciai iin- 
 l«irtance in the year 1H(!3. 
 
 Vai.uk ov Impouts. 
 
 
 18(1!) 
 
 1803 
 
 Ilritish rosscHsloiiB : — 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 India .... 
 
 JM.Kl.l/i-il 
 
 4S.4;14,.';i7 
 
 Ilriiish North America . 
 
 H,41l!l,:llt:l 
 
 s.iii.'i.ddo 
 
 Australia 
 
 7,I(I!I,NII!) 
 
 7,l(i(i,(i:lS 
 
 West liiiliu iHlands . 
 
 4,1S(),S70 
 
 !l,!l!IH,:iri4 
 
 t'oylon .... 
 
 2,1SH,-J(i2 
 
 ;i,7oo,,s(iii 
 
 Bidiamaa. 
 
 4<i:i,i»7-.> 
 
 2,2S2.7i:i 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 lMi7,714 
 
 l,!l.S(l,27(> 
 
 (,'ii|M! anil Nntal 
 
 1,.M7.,s.-,| 
 
 l.!M!»,H4:l 
 
 Siupiiioro 
 
 'i,;i7.1,SI:t 
 
 1,H:|(),;)22 
 
 Uritis-U (hilana 
 
 !,;.(> l.iV|:| 
 
 l,.'il(t,:,()0 
 
 llouKkonif 
 
 ir.4,7-.'l 
 
 l,2S«,!t(»7 
 
 Boriuudas 
 
 7H.li42 
 
 H2(l,:ll4 
 
 t'liftuuel Islands 
 
 (i4r>,.S()l 
 
 »i4H,ri(IS 
 
 Ik'lizu .... 
 
 2!»!»,74(i 
 
 2!W,017 
 
 1 Ionian Islands 
 
 H^K.'jril 
 
 l!t2,«7!) 
 
 i WystiTu Africa 
 
 2;l4,774 
 
 lit 1.207 
 
 ; Malta .... 
 
 lI(),Hl!t 
 
 ir.2.Wi2 
 
 1 Gibraltar 
 
 ill Mi 
 
 (l!»,i;)0 
 
 1 Falkland Islands . 
 
 2(l,l:il 
 
 17.114 
 
 1 St. Helena . 
 
 , 2,424 
 
 l(i,2ri.') 1 
 
 Allen .... 
 
 ;>;) 
 
 2,11«:) 1 
 
 Ai-conslon 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 Uoligolaiul 
 Total of British Toss. . 
 ! Franco .... 
 
 0G8 
 
 84,G9!),72() 
 
 fi.-),28:),2.n 
 
 21.(!7r.,.1I« 
 
 24.024,(iH) 1 
 
 i United States . 
 
 27,7ir>,iri7 
 
 l!t,-'i70,Sir, 
 
 ligjpt . . . . 
 
 I2,22r>,7«;t 
 
 l(i,4!t'>,r.;n 
 
 Gernmny :— 
 
 — - 
 
 — — 
 
 ; lliuisc Towns . 
 
 f>,!».'.7,2(in 
 
 (i,!llfi,213 
 
 j Prussia .... 
 
 7,.s;!:l,»27 
 
 «,2:il,717 
 
 Mecklenburg . 
 
 2II(»,!)77 
 
 2 lit, mis 
 
 ' lliniover . . 
 
 27(i,2:.3 
 
 18!t,(;4:l 
 
 OlUonbrng 
 1 Total of Germany 
 China . . . . 
 
 2(l,9i-i2 
 
 :M,«r.« 
 
 14,:14!»,:)(I!) 
 
 l:i,.'.91,734 
 
 11.1)S2.:174 
 
 12,nO(!.(!42 
 
 Uussia . . . ■ 
 
 K.,101. (».'.!) 
 
 12,41!t.!M() 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 7,Hli;l,0:ll 
 
 «,(!(iO,278 
 
 Turkey . . . ■. 
 
 ,'>,02U,474 
 
 ri,()2.'),ri4') 
 
 Uclgiuni .... 
 
 4,S7Ci,212 
 
 r>,17t,221 i 
 
 Spain .... 
 
 ;i,n:!i,i!n 
 
 r),070.8:)8 
 
 Foreign Vr est Indies 
 
 4,):!!>,rd(; 
 
 4..")S0,(;(i:) 
 
 Brazil .... 
 
 4.414, 1.S7 
 
 4,491, (ion 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 ;),,SUt.l,S!) 
 
 4,4(;:;,2I2 
 
 IVni 
 
 2,:i!t4,i)ll2 
 
 :i,-')(i">,:i28 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 2,4(14,212 
 
 2,(i72,7:l2 
 
 IXnnuirk .... 
 
 2,1 (!">,(> to 
 
 2,42(l,.M:l 
 
 Italy 
 
 2,r>l>7.:!.Vt 
 
 2,:i.->r.,r,H;( 
 
 Mexico .... 
 
 (illt.odS 
 
 2,294,:):17 
 
 Chili 
 
 2,,S(i:!,4:U 
 
 2,2S8,8(i:l 
 
 Wi'stcrn Afiica 
 
 1,7I!»,S(M 
 
 1,412,284 
 
 I'hilippiue Islands . 
 
 70S,,S(i(! 
 
 1,:192,19S 
 
 Jn|iim . . . . 
 
 fi!i|..ssr) 
 
 l,2S:!,(i;!l 
 
 Ai(;entiuc Ucpulilic . 
 
 i,r;:t,(i7i 
 
 l,2:i9,(i:.| 
 
 Cniguay . . . . 
 
 !l!l2,:i2S 
 
 1,220,(129 
 
 Cireece . . . . 
 
 7a7,&tiS 
 
 9811,4^9 
 
 VAt.uB or 
 
 iMPnllTH. 
 
 
 
 18(« 
 
 lK(n 
 
 Anstrian Territories 
 
 « 1,1 79,8 14 
 
 JEH79,4.'.7 
 
 New (iniMiida . 
 
 811,:104 
 
 771,111 
 
 ("eiitcal America . . 
 
 492.:UO 
 
 4s.-|,!'iM 
 
 Alnrtieeo .... 
 
 4:i 1,071 
 
 427,8;l4 
 
 Ilii\(i and Kan l)oniin(;o . 
 
 l.M,719 
 
 2711,010 
 
 Bolivia .... 
 
 :i 1 1 ,IIM2 
 
 2.'.9.1!I0 
 
 h'reneli I'osHc.aKlonH In India 
 
 Itl(;,l7(i 
 
 117,0110 
 
 Algeria .... 
 
 47,2(14 
 
 101,204 
 
 Northern Whale I'isliery . 
 
 102,(12:1 
 
 72,1198 
 
 r.cpnulor .... 
 
 9."i,02:l 
 
 (18,0(18 
 
 Ilorneo .... 
 
 112,212 
 
 4.'.,."p.').'> 
 
 KaMcrn Africa . 
 
 — 
 
 ;t4,|u.'i 
 
 rer-inn (lult . , 
 
 !ini 
 
 111,001 
 
 Venezuela .... 
 
 9,:!!t7 
 
 211,707 
 
 ■lava 
 
 l»(i,02ll 
 
 22,417 
 
 Siaiii 
 
 ;i7,N2t 
 
 20,710 
 
 rneiflc I.slands . 
 
 lil.d.'lil 
 
 19,907 
 
 Tunis .... 
 
 1 ..M^.' 
 
 10,1114 
 
 ralugoida. 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,2:. 1 
 
 I'ap.d Torts 
 
 9.-.7 
 
 1,099 
 
 Anil)ia .... 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 Tripoli 
 
 0,078 
 
 — 
 
 iVT.-ia .... 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 1 Total 
 
 22r,,71(l,P7« 
 
 248,980,942 
 
 The value of imports into tlie United Kiiiji^dom 
 inereii.sedfrom2l7,4H."),(l2l/.in l><til.to-24M,!t.s(),iM-.'/. 
 in l.s(i,'t, showini; a dilferenee of ."il. i'.i'),!'IH/. Tlie 
 whole of tiiis inereiwe was in Cidoniul prodiu'e, 
 the au^inentiUion of which in the two vcjirs was 
 ;(2,(II7,71(I/. First in tlie list of foreij^n importers, 
 in the jdaee formerly occupied hy the United 
 Slates, stands FrancH-, which, in the year isii;!, 
 fiannl in the people of (Jreat Jtritain custoiiu-rs for 
 the i)rodnets of her industry to tlieannuint of more, 
 thiin 2 l,OIMt,l)lM) sterlinj;, or aliont a tenlli part of 
 the entire total we take fron) all the countries of 
 the wtu'td. Next comes K;vypt, which in tho 
 course of a few years has douhiedher import trado 
 with the United Kingdom. Turkey, although 
 she is lower in the list, likewise continues to nnike 
 progress. From Japan the imixirts more than 
 douhled in iKtill, compared with the preceding 
 year. Among the remaining comitries, the (irin- 
 cipnl of I ho.se which present an increase are(.;hina, 
 the Netherlands, Uelginm, Sweden, Portuf^nl, 
 Denmark, the l'hili|)pine Islands, the Argentine 
 K'epuhlic, Uruguay, Greece, and llayti. Those 
 showing a decrea.sc are (iermnny, Kus.sin, Italj", 
 Western Africa, New Uranada, and IJolivia. 
 
 The exports of ISritish prodin-e during the years 
 18(i'2 and 18(13 were divided between the following; 
 IJritish po.ssessi(nis and foreif^n coimtries. The 
 returns arc those of the lioanl of Trad<! ; liut the 
 cmnitrics are arranged in the order of their im- 
 jiortancB as buyers of Britisli produce. 
 
 VALUR op EXPOIITS. 
 
 
 18G? 
 
 18(33 
 
 British Posses-^ions : — 
 
 e 
 
 A 
 
 India .... 
 
 14,017,07,1 
 
 19,99.-.,0.-.7 
 
 Anstr.alasia 
 
 1 1 ,944,.'->O0 
 
 12,f>00,illl4 
 
 Briti.-li North America . 
 
 Il,9'l|,010 
 
 4,819,0110 
 
 West Indies . 
 
 2.:!01,917 
 
 2,0110,104 
 
 ^;iiigni.oro 
 
 1,004,081 
 
 1,480,8111 
 
 llongkcjiig 
 
 1,1111,224 
 
 1,4711,4111 
 
 (iibriiltar 
 
 990,911! 
 
 1,207,911 
 
 Cape of Good lloiK! 
 
 I,(i.-.I,.'-.1U 
 
 1,2110,">18 
 
 Ceylon .... 
 
 .'i7H,9:t8 
 
 1,070,02.1 
 
 ("linnncl Islands 
 
 8r>l,.M8 
 
 800,210 
 
 Malta .... 
 
 4112,7111 
 
 0211,144 
 
 Heruuida 
 
 2l8,8.'i9 
 
 012,442 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 .M!).8(18 
 
 f)21,8;18 
 
 (iniiina .... 
 
 4 SI, 2:, I 
 
 ,';iit,:i.'i7 
 
 Ionian Lislnnds 
 
 282,1149 
 
 40.1,177 
 
 Western Africa 
 
 1149,01!» 
 
 ;i28,.'i.11! 
 
 Katal^ .... 
 
 240,202 
 
 281,982 
 
656 
 
 BRITISH liMl'IKE 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 MM 
 
 1863 
 
 Urltl"h I'oKii. continued;— 
 
 A 
 
 £ 
 
 lloiiiliiriM . . • 
 
 ]0H,V73 
 
 l)ltl,0(l2 
 
 ^ilcil .... 
 
 47,;oi 
 
 4.-.,ol7 
 
 Ht. llclpna 
 
 4II,M-J 
 
 aii,.'i4A ; 
 
 I'liirriiria 
 
 ai),A17 
 
 11,851 I 
 
 FalkliUKi iHlamU . . 
 
 1»,7HI 
 
 ii.aoa 
 
 AMI'llHiull 
 
 li,4ir> 
 
 7,03(1 
 
 Lnhimii .... 
 
 4,tll>4 
 
 1 
 
 llullguland . . ■ 
 
 Totttl of nrltUh I'OM. . 
 
 Uiilte.1 Stnteg . . ■ . 
 
 IIA 
 
 6o,oiD,aM : 
 
 4l,8Mft,1140 
 
 H,;W7,M7»» 
 
 iA,:i.'>l,ii2(( 
 
 (icriiiiuiy : - 
 
 — 
 
 
 llaiiHu Towns . 
 
 0,74n.!lim 
 
 10,OUA,012 
 
 I'nishia .... 
 
 !/,(t4.'.,()79 
 
 l,oio,))m) 
 
 lliiiiiivrr. 
 
 7.'.H,:iy4 
 
 6«8,4',»7 
 
 Mcokloiiburg . 
 
 H1,H4I 
 
 72,fil7 
 
 Uliifiiburi; . . 
 
 4I»,710 
 
 f)4,8i(8 
 
 Total of Germany . 
 
 vifiihflm 
 
 111,278,334 
 
 Franco . . . . 
 
 i),aoi),a(i7 
 
 8,fl(l7,l(l2 
 
 Ni'thorlaiuls 
 
 (l,lM(l,'.M-.> 
 
 6,317,545 
 
 Turkc'y .... 
 
 4,244 ,8«r. 
 
 «,88l,4:i8 
 
 Italy, uxclml. Human .StatoH 
 
 r.,iP.-.(i,lt2!» 
 
 5,003,233 
 
 KKypt . . . . 
 
 a,iiir,,i»H2 
 
 4,410,240 
 
 Jlra/.il . . . . 
 
 »,7iir>,7HI 
 
 3,004,557 
 
 Spain . . . . 
 
 a,OII(),IH)H 
 
 3,033,151 
 
 Fon-iKn West Indies 
 
 a,ll74,4-J« 
 
 2,057,704 , 
 
 Uiissia .... 
 
 a,ii78,«;w 
 
 2,701,040 
 
 I'liina .... 
 
 •J,(Ci4,118 
 
 2,412,058 
 
 Portugal .... 
 
 l,fi7(>,!»()4 
 
 2,382,043 i 
 
 lielgium .... 
 
 l,H-JH,(i2i 
 
 2,100,234 1 
 
 Mexico .... 
 
 7/17, H'^H 
 
 1,077,022 1 
 
 New Uranada . . .', 
 
 7Ka,10A 
 
 1,570,002 ' 
 
 Cliili 
 
 WAM'i 
 
 1,433,110 
 
 Argentine Republic . 
 
 8.'>4,*ii:i 
 
 1,331,138 
 
 I'eru 
 
 824,685 
 
 1,027,950 
 
 llcim\ark .... 
 
 1(41,771 
 
 1 ,(M)5,321 
 
 Austrian Territories. 
 
 787,0.58 
 
 1,002,307 
 
 Western Africa . 
 
 1»:)9,208 
 
 055,238 
 
 Java 
 
 77«,fi«4 
 
 052,029 
 
 Swollen .... 
 
 «o;),oi3 
 
 005,591 
 
 Norway .... 
 
 50ti,U&9 
 
 568,149 
 
 riiilippinc Islands . 
 
 4.'.8.404 
 
 550,803 
 
 UriiKuny .... 
 
 45a,7i)0 
 
 fi;i4,741 
 
 llayti and St. Domingo . 
 
 473,4(10 
 
 62H,9(»4 
 
 Venezuela .... 
 
 'in,mh 
 
 389,301 
 
 Greece .... 
 
 'H»,i-a 
 
 341,091 
 
 Morocco .... 
 
 )fl5,iafl 
 
 174,.'550 
 
 Islands in the raclflo 
 
 24,402 
 
 141,119 
 
 Central America 
 
 10U,a7(! 
 
 140,799 
 
 ■Tnpnn .... 
 
 21 
 
 108,807 
 
 Cocliin-China . 
 
 247 
 
 30,597 
 
 Papal Ports on Jleditcr. . 
 
 4B,!)»1 
 
 27,005 
 
 <lai)C Verde Islands . 
 
 18,487 
 
 20,522 
 
 Eastern Africa . 
 
 24,2a5 
 
 15,289 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 — 
 
 13,08>1 
 
 Siam 
 
 21,007 
 
 11.958 
 
 Algeria .... 
 
 4(i,2.')3 
 
 11,732 
 
 Kquador .... 
 
 1,076 
 
 9,878 
 
 Portuguese Poss. in India 
 
 — 
 
 7,211 
 
 Tunis .... 
 
 l,3.-.8 
 
 4,924 
 
 Arabia, Native Territories 
 
 — 
 
 1,189 
 
 Northern Whale Fishery . 
 
 IfiO 
 
 23 
 
 Persia .... 
 
 22,f.I7 
 
 — 
 
 Paraguay .... 
 
 l,7ti4 
 
 — 
 
 Bolivia .... 
 Total . 
 
 004 
 
 — 
 
 123,!)U2,2(>4 
 
 140,489,708 
 
 It will be seen from the preceding table that 
 the three best ciistomers of Grent liritain iu the 
 year 18(i3, were India, the' United States, and 
 (lennany. In the total exi)(irt8 of Hritish and 
 Irish produce there was an increase of 18 jierccnt. 
 in 18()3, compared with that of the preceding 
 year. The increase was chieHy due to the largely 
 niigmcnted shiiimenta to liritish possessions, 
 which took about 51,000,000 of goods, or con- 
 siderably more than one-third of the sum total of 
 all the exports. 
 
 Tlio Huljjoined tahlex exhibit the growtli cif 
 Dritish commerce in the couno of the century. Tin. 
 flgurcN given arc itfficial value, differing, as i» well 
 known, greallv from real or tierlarrtl value. The 
 tal)leH, compiled from ofHcinl returns, give the 
 value of the Uitnl import and export trnile nf 
 (ireat Hritain willi foreign countries ami llritisli 
 IHiHsessions abroad, arranged under triciniial 
 periods. 
 
 TrlcnnUI Periods 
 
 Yearn ending 5 Jannary 1799 
 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 
 ■} 
 
 Annual Average of the Trl 
 cindal P(a'i()d . 
 
 Years ending 5 Jannary 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 
 Annual Average of the Trl- 1 
 ennial Period . . J 
 
 Years ending 6 Jannary 1839 
 1810 
 1841 
 
 Annual Average of the Tri- ) 
 ounial Period . . / 
 
 Years cndingSl DceombcrlR58 
 1859 
 1800 
 
 TntAl ImiHirii Tiii«IKi|».rir 
 
 I 
 
 Official talui OIHcM nlm 
 
 25,122,203 27.317,0871 
 21,000,700 2'»,.'i.'ill,i;:l7 
 28,257,781 :i4,:iNI,iii7; 
 
 25,815,501; 30,418,1.171 
 
 .15,845,3 |fl' 52,:M,:iv,' 
 20,081,040 42,8(1J,|K-| 
 31,515.222 48,3 1.-),:)!!)! 
 
 32,.147,401| 48,001, w' 
 
 59,878,005 104.80.-.liHH. 
 00,;l40,(Mlli 10!t,7IH,l||l 
 (i5,873,411 ll(i,(i:lil,44.V 
 
 02,032,794 110,184,7ar 
 
 Annual Average of the Tri- 
 ennial Period . . 
 
 Years ending 31 December 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 
 1.32,033,799 3l)5,250,fifl:i; 
 140,229.7.'4 334,(i:ll,.Wi 
 158,452,924 3.'i8,8(i.'.,5Cfii 
 
 J ,143,772,159 332,713,94), 
 
 Annual Average of the Tri- 
 ennial I'eriod . . 
 
 103,904,004 339,253,7r.7 
 152,813,458 291, 3,!B,441 
 104,240,563 312,888,774 
 
 160,339,338 3I4,4S9,fi,'i7 
 
 I 
 
 The official values here given arc no more ap- 
 plicable to the present moment ; nevertheless, as 
 they constitute the old ollicial records, they alone 
 can serve for comparative purposes. The rates 
 by which the official values are estimated wcrp 
 fixed in 1696, and, owing to the increase of 
 manufactures and the cheapening of nearly nl! 
 goods, they now are much above the real value, 
 although they at first were as much below. 
 
 The subjoined two tables give the real or rfc- 
 clured value of the total import and export trade 
 of the United Kingdom with foreign countries ami 
 British jiossesaions abroad, in tltc two triennial 
 periods 1«58-G0, and 18(il-()3. 
 
 Triennial Prrlodi 
 
 Totallmportf TutsIKsj'orti 
 
 Itfal Vttluo 
 
 Heal Vtlur 
 
 '*''■ I : 178,870,950 152,919,i(i:. 
 
 £ I £ 
 Years ending31 December 18.-,8 159,351,301 ]39,4os,(;29 
 
 1859 173.852,015 I5:,,20l>,17": 
 18(!() 2(13,408,030 l«4,2;)(i,9S!l. 
 
 Arnunl Average of the Tri. 
 ennial Period 
 
 Years ending31 December IbOI 209,871,962 159,4(i2,10S 
 „ „ ,(-,2 217,773,030 l«5,95(U.i7 
 
 „ „ 1803 242,202,958 19fi,70!l,(« 
 
 Annual Avrrngo ci the Tri- ) '.,.,, .,„„ „r,n'i74 m-> 479 
 ennial Period . . \ ,iii,iS^fi->OUi,02.,hJ 
 
 The relative importance of the twelve princir.1l 
 ports of the United Kingdom in regard to tlio 
 
 value of ex|K)rtH 
 <li(>wn in the f 
 returns of the in 
 rx|K>rtM, made 01 
 imlJt. The llgun 
 Krilish and Irish 
 [Kirled Iroin the r 
 tries and liriiish j 
 18(12 and INU!) :— 
 
 Poru 
 
 Liver|)Ool , 
 I.oiiilun . 
 Hull . 
 
 OIllKgOW 
 
 Southampton 
 Nownast le . 
 Lcith . 
 (Iroenoek . 
 Bristol 
 Cork . 
 Dublin 
 liolfust 
 
 Total 
 
 It will l)e seen 
 Uritisli exports, Li 
 ill Ihc ports of tl 
 chandise passing tl 
 to tliat of all the 
 However, the relat 
 the quantity of i/ii^ 
 ijof of iiiward-bouii 
 iiifr, ill this respec 
 with that in the lo^ 
 of page 5.50. 
 
 RtHuta and railit 
 
 communicuiion in 
 
 superior to those e 
 
 The ordinary higli 
 
 half of last cent 
 
 hecn signally impi 
 
 American war ; and 
 
 of the practice of 
 
 contidentlv pronoui 
 
 Europe. \Vith the 
 
 liclgium, no couni 
 
 canals ; and by the* 
 
 by numerous liavigi 
 
 the bulkiest articles 
 
 and cheap. It is 
 
 railroads ore destii 
 
 methods of coiiveyai 
 
 transit of passengers 
 
 valuable species of 
 
 wonderful speed wit 
 
 canriages are impel 
 
 these roads, is ami 
 
 utonishing results 
 
 cover>', liy facilitat 
 
 m\A not, a few yer 
 
 possible; rendering 1 
 
 empire easily accessil 
 
 raotcst districts ; obli 
 
 customs ; reducing tl 
 
 mass; and producing 
 
 l«tion and competiti< 
 
 communication are e 
 
 most powerful kind, 
 
 highly appreciated. 
 
 Subjoined are some 
 the United Kingdom 
 'Hand 1862. 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 r>67 
 
 value of PX|)ortH or IlriliHh nnd Irii«h prmlucc l» 
 <hi)wn in tliu followiti); tahio, ouin)iilcil from 
 rftiinm of the lnn|ip<'tor-f{«mrrnl of itnportH niid 
 PXiHirtM, mndo on Jnnu W, IHti4, and in June 
 [m'tX Till) ti^iirt'H cxldliit tlio <lcvliin!d vtiltut of 
 llriti.'*)) mid lri»li {inMliiou nnd nmnnfuctiircs I'x- 
 imrlt'd from tim n'HiMrtivu portii to fori>i){n I'oun- 
 tricM nnd Itrilisli pottHVNMiunH ubruud, in the ycum 
 m;i iind iHOi) :— 
 
 Porn 
 
 Kiiwrla 
 
 
 
 
 IStlt 
 
 I88S 
 
 
 X. 
 
 A 
 
 I,lvor|)ool . , 
 
 r.n,9!»7,l:i5 
 
 flf.,lM,2M 
 
 Liiiiilun 
 
 •.\\,riT-\,n\-i 
 
 :i<i.'.'ll,.''ilo 
 
 Hull .... 
 
 ii,!tn;,;i7.'i 
 
 i:i,:).'ifi,'JM 
 
 (lliicfrow 
 
 f>,77(i,(Mm 
 
 (i,77(),;mH 
 
 Sniitlmniptun 
 
 3.:i7i».r.0!i 
 
 4,071,111)1 
 
 Newcastlo . 
 
 1,!HiH,ll8 
 
 1,WM,'J«1 
 
 Lcith .... 
 
 l,\.'!)S,(l!tl) 
 
 l,r.,V.>,K!»!) 
 
 (irccnock . 
 
 ;i'j()/i'j/i 
 
 4:..'.,o2l 
 
 Bristol 
 
 *J!»H,a»() 
 
 ;i41,«74 
 
 Cork .... 
 
 1:1'.M:!o 
 
 lim.io'j 
 
 Dublin 
 
 4H,777 
 
 ;18,I!H1 
 
 Belfast 
 
 Total . 
 
 4,1M8 
 
 12,1141 
 
 lilO, 1(1(1 ,A*>!) 
 
 It will be seen that as regards the ralne of 
 liritixh exports, Liverpool xtiinds at the head of 
 all the ports of the United Kinplom, the mer- 
 chandise ])aM8in(; thron^h it beinj; equal in amount 
 to that of all the other eleven ports totjother. 
 However, the relation is very diflerent as regards 
 th(! quantity of thijuinntj, and especiiillv the.inmi- 
 bcr of inward-bound vessels. It will be interest- 
 iii(t, in this respect, to compare the above table 
 witli that in the lower part of the second column 
 of pa^e 559. 
 
 Koad» and railways — The means of internal 
 mmmunicution in (.rent llritain are probably 
 superior to those enjoyed by any other country. 
 The ordinary high roads, which, during the liwt 
 half of last century, were execrable, have 
 been signally improved since the close of the 
 American war; and since the general introduction 
 of the practice of macadamising, they may be 
 contiilentlv nrononnced to be the vcrv best in 
 Kurope. \Vith the exception of Holland nnd 
 Belgium, no country is better supjilied with 
 canals ; and by these means, and the aid afforded 
 by numerous navigable rivers, the conveyance of 
 the bulkiest articles has been rendered both easy 
 and cheap. It is now, however, obvious that 
 railroads are destined to supersede the former 
 methods of conveyance, in so far at least as the 
 transit of passengers and of the lighter and more 
 valuable species of goods is concerned ; and the 
 vondcrfid s))eed with which lengthened trains of 
 canriages are impelled by steam-engines along 
 these roads, is among the most valuable and 
 astonishing results of mwlem science nnd dis- 
 cover)', lly facilitating travelling to a degree that 
 could not, a few years ngo, hnve been conceiveil 
 liossible; rendering all the great markets of the 
 empire easily accessible to the products of the re- 
 motest districts ; obliterating local prejudices and 
 customs ; reducing the country to a homogeneous 
 mass; and producing everywhere a spirit of emu- 
 lation and competition, these improved means of 
 communication are exercising an influence of the 
 most powerful kind, and which cannot be too 
 highly appreciated. 
 
 Subjoined are some statistics of the railways ia 
 the United Kingdom, in each of the years 1860, 
 1861, and 18G2. 
 
 Rcllwiyi 
 
 llnllril 
 
 Kliifldom 
 
 CAi'rrAl.. krt, Totnl Pnid up for linns 
 In ciirhdlvliilrin of tliu KiiiK<lijiu to 
 :ilHt Dt'ct'nilHT ill ciioli yuiir. 
 
 StmruH uiiii titock ;— 
 
 Onliimry . 
 
 rrcfcrenco 
 
 IHliO 
 ■ Mil 
 i IHtlU 
 IKllO 
 ISdl 
 
 inn 
 
 |!l:l 
 I If.' 
 »!7 
 
 7;i 
 
 H7 
 
 C 
 
 110, 
 
 ,'.i'l, 
 ,077, 
 ,H7:i, 
 ,7s». 
 ,7l»'i 
 
 ,S(I7 
 ,!'!»l 
 ,."iM!» 
 S|0 
 
 ,:i:i(! 
 ,1180 
 
 Total 
 
 (18(10 ' «"pS,(i(; 1,707 
 J. IMdl , •iii7,:l7(i,;l'J7 
 I 18(iJ •J84,HII!»,!)(1!) 
 
 Loans and Debenture Stock 
 
 18(10 8l»,t(i.|,4'.'0 
 IStil »t,!l-.l,(l|l 
 18(i« i IOO,:ll8,4(i!t 
 
 Total 
 
 (180(1 
 
 . \ 18(11 
 
 i 18U-i 
 
 800 I !llH,l:10.|-.>7 
 
 1 :i(:'J,:f.'7.;i:i8 
 
 1802 il8.'),'JI8,|:l8 
 
 Lknotii ok Lines :- 
 
 Totnl OpoiicHl f(.r trnfflo up 
 to yut Due. in eucii yuur 
 
 Total Passenoeiis Conveyed 
 
 OooDS Conveyed :— 
 
 General Mcrclmndiso 
 
 Minerals .... 
 
 Live Stock Conveved— 
 Cattle 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Figs .... 
 
 Total 
 
 Rbcfipts from Passenoeks. 
 ist Class : — 
 
 Total Receipts . 
 
 18(10 
 I Kill 
 18(i-i 
 
 1800 
 1801 
 180-.' 
 
 18(!() 
 18(;l 
 1802 
 IKOO 
 I SO I 
 1802 
 
 ( 1800 
 \ 1801 
 ( I8(i2 
 ( 180(1 
 J 1801 
 { 1802 
 I 1800 
 \ 1801 
 ( 1802 
 
 ( 1800 
 \ 1801 
 1 1802 
 
 ( 1800 
 \ 1801 
 (1802 
 
 Proportion from 1st Class (1800 
 to Totnl Ilcclpts from -^1801 
 Passengers . . . ( 1802 
 
 Average per Passenger 
 
 ( 1800 
 J iSOl 
 1 1802 
 
 (1860 
 
 Average per Mile of Menn J „",' 
 Length of ilailways . | JgJ:.^ 
 
 2nd Class :— 
 Total Receipts 
 
 (1800 
 \ 1801 
 (1862 
 
 Proportion from 2d Class ( 1800 
 to Total Receipts from \ 1801 
 Pasiiengers . . , ( 1802 
 
 Average per Passenger . 
 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 
 Average per Milo of Menn 
 Length of Railways 
 
 •(i 
 
 860 
 1801 
 1862 
 
 Miles 
 |o.i:t:l 
 10,80!) 
 11, Ml 
 
 lo;!,i8:i..-,72 
 17:1.77:1.218 
 I8II,I.S.'..727 
 
 Tons 
 2!l.l70,!i:ll 
 ;io.(i;i8,K!i:i 
 ;io,2:.o.i»i:i 
 0II,:18(1,7S8 
 (;;i,oo.»,|:;4 
 
 0:l,40.'<,8l!4 
 
 No. 
 2,OI(l,80.'i 
 2.!)2O.870 
 ;i,0!t4.183 
 
 7,:i.-.7,r.(M! 
 
 7.!»:i:i.!t01 
 7,80(l,!)28 
 2.I()!».1!I2 
 
 2.ni.-..8.-.2 
 
 l,y8'J,8«2 
 
 12.n8:i,.'.n3 
 12,870,08:1 
 12,88.'>,(IO:i 
 
 .1,170,0.3.') 
 3.14:l,2")0 
 
 8,:i:!2,:W0 
 
 Per <'ciit. 
 
 27-45 
 
 2(!-7.'> 
 
 27-10 
 
 ({. 
 
 so-s.i 
 
 34-42 
 
 34-72 
 £ 
 313 
 2!).") 
 288 
 
 3,044,713 
 3,!»:i:i,ll!) 
 4,018,2-.'l 
 Per C<iit. 
 
 ;u- 1 •■. 
 
 33-47 
 
 32-08 
 (/. 
 
 19-30 
 
 18-40 
 
 18-59 
 & 
 
 380 
 3(i8 
 348 
 
MS 
 
 Ruiiwiiri 
 
 
 I'nllMl 
 KliiKidiin 
 
 artl Cliuw niHl I'urllauuMitury : 
 
 
 ( IHOO 
 
 4,1«2,1«(r 
 
 Totul . . . . -^ IMiil 
 
 4,:iMii,7ii(i 
 
 I ISlii 
 
 4,(l.ltt,2.')0 
 
 
 I'lT Clllt. 
 
 rrnix)rtlnn from ;!niriiww ( lnti(l 
 
 iDl'dl 
 
 loToliil ItttvljiW from j ixiil 
 
 !l7-:i:i 
 
 I'liHi-uiiKLrb . . . I \M-2 
 
 a7-7il 
 il. 
 l(i-(l.') 
 
 I IWliO 
 
 Avcrngo per rnsscngor . J isdi 
 
 10' Id 
 
 llMti'.' 
 
 l(i-.")(l 
 
 
 £ 
 
 AvrrnfrcporMlli'of inciin .^,!'| 
 
 407 
 412 
 401 
 
 LoiigtU of JtullwuiH . 1 ,„,,,_, 
 
 IWll) 
 
 272,807 
 
 rcrlodlcol Tlckcte . . iwil 
 
 287.828 
 
 imi 
 
 aOfi,422 
 
 nm) 
 
 11. •'..■0,0 12 
 
 ToTAi.niJCEirTsfromrAsssoiifl. \ iHiil 
 
 11.7.'o,!io:l 
 
 llHti-J 
 
 12,20.'i,27!J 
 
 noLMNO Stock:— 
 
 N>.. 
 
 
 18(10 
 
 fi,80I 
 
 LocomotlvoB . • . • 
 
 lH(il 
 
 (1.1. '.(1 
 
 
 18(12 
 
 (1,I1!I8 
 
 Cnrrlnjro^ iwhJ for Convoy- 
 unco of riiKnoiife'L'rH only ' 
 
 18(i0 
 18(11 
 18(12 
 
 1.1,07(1 
 14,(10!) 
 1S,))(10 
 
 MiLEAdK TIIAVEI.I.KI) HY TtlAlXH .— 
 
 MIIm 
 
 
 i8no 
 
 ■12,8I(1,.170 
 
 By ruBsenRcr Trains . ■ 
 
 18(11 
 
 CI,0.'..1.I7(1 
 
 
 18(12 
 
 r)7,.142,8.'ll 
 
 
 18(10 
 
 4I>,427,113 
 
 By Goods Trnins . . • 
 
 18(11 
 
 Bl ,08.1,0(14 
 
 
 1802 
 
 60,518,0(1(1 
 
 18(10 
 
 102,24!l,f.n2 
 
 Total . . • l«(il 
 
 10.1.141.440 
 
 18(i2 
 NuJiiiEU OF Tpaish :— 
 
 10H,O«l,7!)7 
 
 No. 
 
 
 18(10 
 
 2..'lKi,S.18 
 
 rossengcr 
 
 18(11 
 
 2.:i.12,:till) 
 
 
 18(12 
 
 2,.ir,:{,!l!ia 
 
 
 18(10 
 
 1.. 140.402 
 
 Oooda . . . . ' 
 
 18(11 
 
 1 .r)2o.(i.ii 
 
 
 , 18U2 
 
 1 ,(100,7(14 
 
 (isnn 
 
 a.sod.odo 
 
 Total . . • JHiii 
 
 3,881. !)!)() 
 
 (1802 
 ACCIP1WT8— /"row all Cavset : 
 
 4,M4,7fi7 
 
 
 Persons Killed ; — 
 
 
 (IfifiO 
 
 2.S 
 
 Bassengcra . . . ' 18(i1 
 
 79 
 
 18(i2 
 
 3.1 
 
 IHdO 
 
 
 
 Servants of Companies.&c. • 1 sti 1 
 
 20.1 
 
 (1802 
 
 181 
 
 Persons Tnjnred ; — 
 
 
 1800 
 
 3.11 
 
 Passengers . . . ■ 18(!l 
 
 78!) 
 
 18(!2 
 
 r>8d 
 
 IHCO 
 
 aa 
 
 Servants of Companies.&c- l«(il 
 
 !)4 
 
 1 18(12 
 
 04 
 
 Jiy Arddenlf to Trains: (In 18fi2) 
 
 
 From Collisions be- ) Persons killed 
 twecn Trnins, &c. ) „ injured 
 
 2(1 
 
 421 
 
 From rnnninK off \ 
 
 
 proj)er Linos by Persons killed 
 
 1.1 
 
 Points being f „ injured 
 
 100 
 
 wrong, &c. . / 
 
 
 From Breaking o* ) persons killed 
 parts of Engines ■^''\„-^Zd 
 and Carriages. &c. " '"J""^"' 
 
 47 
 
 
 imiTISH EMI'IUE 
 
 tniiioit, JiulKinf; from the fnct tlint Knmc lines rlw\i';o 
 twice nr fvt'ii llirce liincN om niiicli ns nihcrs I'nr 
 I'linvt'vaiici*. Till* siihjuiiieil liihic mIkius i|ii. tivi'- 
 rii^o litres III! the principal rnilwiiys iit' the t'oiti,! 
 Kingdom, for each iit° the tlin^ UHiial clanxi's ui 
 IMWsenyen), in tlm yvai ivni'i : — 
 
 iind rionrrd nf port 
 lifteon jenrH iMl!) 
 
 The clicapnoss of the transport of both (foods 
 and pa.s8enpcr8 by railway has been one of the 
 main reasons of the enormous ])rogress of this new 
 means of locomotion. However, it is probable 
 that a minimum of cost has l.eDn by no means at- 
 
 F.iiKltnil itnil WiilM 
 
 r\nt 
 
 Cliu 
 
 rf. 
 
 Hpfninl 
 
 CIlIM 
 
 Tlilnl 
 
 (|<M| 
 
 
 llrl^<tol nnd E.xeter . , . 
 
 2-28 
 
 1-70 
 
 O'lin 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 2-di 
 
 1-77 
 
 (l'!l'.) 
 
 (irciit l''ii..'ti'rii .... 
 
 2-.10 
 
 2-00 
 
 l'(HI 
 
 (iri'iit Northern 
 
 2-1 a 
 
 l-(lo 
 
 (I'IPII 
 
 1 (hviit Western .... 
 
 2MI8 
 
 I'.V. 
 
 O'flll 
 
 l,iiiicanliln' iind Yorkshiro 
 
 DflO 
 
 l-:l.1 
 
 • l-Tll 
 
 I.oikIoii, llrlKhton, nnd S. Const 
 
 2'04 
 
 M7 
 
 (I'M!) 1 
 
 T.oniloii, Cliutlm.n, nnd Dover . 
 
 2-14 
 
 I-.Vi 
 
 !C!l:| 
 
 London nnd North Wentern 
 
 1-II7 
 
 1-1.1 
 
 (I'K.'i 
 
 London nnd .'^oiith Western 
 
 2'42 
 
 1-72 
 
 ll'IIM 
 
 Lonilon nnd UliK'kwnll 
 
 2M4 
 
 |-(l!l 
 
 (l-llll 
 
 London, Tlllinrv. nnd Honthend 
 
 i-oa 
 
 0-(lS 
 
 (I'TI 
 
 Manchester, .Shcllli'ld, Jk Lincoln 
 
 2Ma 
 
 1-80 
 
 (I'llH 1 
 
 Manchester, South Junction,! 
 nnd Altrlnchnm . . 
 
 D44 
 
 1-14 
 
 (I-7H 
 
 Midland 
 
 •i'Hl 
 
 1-72 
 
 O-DT 
 
 MonniouthHhIro llnllwny nnd 
 Canal .... 
 
 2-47 
 
 1-48 
 
 O'lM 
 
 1 North Limdon .... 
 
 0-71 
 
 0-12 
 
 (|.|5 
 
 North KaFtem .... 
 
 2-27 
 
 I-.17 
 
 O'NII 
 
 North .'^talTonlsldro . 
 
 2-00 
 
 1-.10 
 
 I'llO 
 
 Booth i:ii;<tcni (including Lon- ) 
 don anil (lr<.enwiclO . f 
 
 1'73 
 
 1-28 
 
 0-78 
 
 South Yiu-ksliiro Uaiiwuy nnd 
 Itlvcr Dun ... 
 
 l-8d 
 
 1-40 
 
 0-94 
 
 Stockton nnd Dnrlington . 
 
 2-2d 
 
 1-(I1 
 
 M7 
 
 South Devon .... 
 
 2'f.7 
 
 1-72 
 
 O'llf) 
 
 St. Helen's Cnnnl nnd Bailway 
 
 1-0.1 
 
 I-.1S 
 
 (i-!l:l 
 
 TnfT Vale Itnilwny . 
 
 2-0.1 
 
 1-.1-. 
 
 MKI 
 
 WestMldlnnd . . . . 
 
 2-73 
 
 1-77 
 
 0-1)9 
 
 Scotland and Ireland 
 
 Scotland. 
 Cnledoninn . . . . 
 
 Dw'sldo 
 
 Dundee. Perth, nnd Aberdeen 1 
 .Innetion ... J 
 Edinburgh nnd Olnspow . . 
 Cilnsgow nnd South Western . 
 Orent North of Seotlnnd . 
 Inverness &. Abenlecn Junction 
 North British . . . . 
 Scottish Central 
 Scottlsli North F.nRtern . 
 
 IltELANO. 
 
 Belfast nnd Northern Connties . 
 Belfast nnd County Down 
 Cork. Blnckrock. nnd Passage . 
 Dublin nnd Belfnst Junction . 
 Dublin nnd Droghedn 
 Dublin and Kingstown, and ) 
 Dablin, Wicklow. & Wexford J" 
 Orent Southern nnd Western . 
 Irish North W^estern . 
 Midlnnd Great Western of Irlnd, 
 
 Ulster 
 
 Waterford and Limerick . 
 
 FIril 
 CUm 
 
 rf. 
 
 1-20 
 1 43 
 
 2-00 
 
 1-00 
 1-70 
 1-7.1 
 2-00 
 
 1 •!)d 
 2-18 
 
 2 00 
 
 1-89 
 1-24 
 
 i-(ia 
 2-ao 
 
 l-«2 
 
 1-00 
 
 2-20 
 2-10 
 2-M 
 l'!)7 
 2-28 
 
 Scrnnd 
 
 Tlilril : 
 
 Clan 
 
 Clui 
 
 (/. 
 
 rf. 
 
 1-19 
 
 n-71 
 
 — 
 
 O'S!) 
 
 1-37 
 
 n-!)c 
 
 1-20 
 
 0-!)7 
 
 1-33 
 
 «•«!) 
 
 — 
 
 (l-llll 
 
 — 
 
 n-iw 
 
 l-.lfi 
 
 n-oD 
 
 1-.1.1 
 
 (l-!l() 
 
 1-uO 
 
 0-9I) 
 
 l-.Vi 
 
 fl-8l 
 
 n-fl7 
 
 (|.:i!i 
 
 1".'2 
 
 (I'S.I 
 
 1-72 
 
 (i-i« 
 
 1-21 
 
 0-78 
 
 1-.10 
 
 0-98 
 
 l-fi.1 
 
 n-!W 
 
 l-(!0 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-70 
 
 1-iin 
 
 1-48 
 
 n-wi 
 
 1-liC 
 
 1-00 
 
 The immen.se importance of railways, while it 
 haa induced many continental govemmoiits to 
 make them state institutions, like the PostOftk-o, 
 has also led the Parliament of the United Kiiii;- 
 dom to a distinct assertion of control. 
 
 Shimnng. — The mercantile marine of Orciit 
 Britain first began to attain to considernhle im- 
 portance uj the reign of Elizabeth ; and it liiw cini- 
 tinued progressively to increase with the incrpflsiii!,' 
 colonies and commerce of the country'. The siili- 
 joined tables give a view of its present maf;"itii'l''i 
 and of the navigation of the empire. Suhjoiiicilis 
 a statement of tlie total toimage of Uritisli ami 
 foreign vessels — sailing and steam — which cutcreii 
 
 Tmf* 
 
 1811) 
 18.10 
 18.11 
 18.12 
 18.13 
 18.11 
 18.1.1 
 18r,d 
 18.17 
 18.18 
 18.11) 
 18(10 
 18dl 
 I8d2 
 18(13 
 
 llrill 
 
 Toil 
 4,881, 
 4,700, 
 4,!l:l8, 
 4,1114, 
 fi.O.I.I, 
 1,371, 
 A,'270, 
 d,30ll, 
 (l,8.l:|,; 
 «,4:IH,'. 
 «,r,s.1 
 (l,88lt,i 
 7,721,1 
 7,8.id,ii 
 H,430,l 
 
 
 
 Teart 
 
 Brtllil 
 Ton« 
 
 
 1819 
 
 4,78.1,1 
 
 18.10 
 
 4.742,3 
 
 18.11 
 
 4,882,4! 
 
 18.12 
 
 6,0.1 l.K 
 
 18.13 
 
 n,2l'2,9) 
 
 18.14 
 
 1,370,2! 
 
 18.1/1 
 
 fi,d48,<) 
 
 I8.in 
 
 0,5.1.1,0.' 
 
 IS.17 
 
 fi,8IO,4( 
 
 18.18 
 
 fl,4.12,2f 
 
 18.19 
 
 «,7-2(!,7! 
 
 18(10 
 
 7,02.1,91 
 
 18dl 
 
 7,099,49 
 
 l«fi2 
 
 8,090,22 
 
 18(13 
 
 8,r)8'),2t 
 
 The subjoined tab 
 tonnage of registerei 
 p.xclusivc of river sti 
 (Intn, employed in th< 
 the nnmoef of men, i 
 
 Employed 
 
 Ib tke Itnme Trad* 
 1849 
 18.10 
 1851 
 18.12 
 18.13 
 18.14 
 1855 
 18.1B 
 18.17 
 18.18 
 18.19 
 18(10 
 ISdl 
 
 isn2 
 
 181)3 
 
 Pirtty In tlie Homo 
 and partly In ilia 
 Forelirn Trade 
 1849 
 18.10 
 1851 
 18.12 
 1853 
 18.14 
 18.15 
 18.10 
 18.17 
 18.18 
 18.19 
 1800 
 ISdl 
 1802 
 1863 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 fiOO 
 
 II' 
 
 7.;l 
 
 (I'NIt 
 
 !!• 
 
 i:| 
 
 (I' 
 
 i:i 
 
 II' 
 
 .IM 
 
 (1 
 
 III! 
 
 (1 
 
 it 
 
 ind donroil nt porU !ii the United Kint(il<im in the 
 tifU'Oii yenrn IhI'.i tn IH(i;J:— 
 
 T««« 
 
 nrltUh 
 
 Tnni 
 
 I'.niinil 
 
 
 rOfHfn 
 
 T.il»l 
 
 Tnni 
 
 Tom 
 
 IK II) 
 
 4.Hs.i.-iin 
 
 2,n:i:i,(iiii) 
 
 fi,!)|!t,!tlMt 
 
 IH.V) 
 
 4,7lMt.llH» 
 
 •J.I(Mi,'J77 
 
 7.100,1711 
 
 IH.'.l 
 
 4,|t:|H,asil 
 
 «,l):t:l,70H 
 
 7,H7V,0)ll 
 
 lS.Vi 
 
 4,1)1 1.N(i:l 
 
 V.IIVi.'iM i 
 
 7,HS7,447 
 
 IRM 
 
 r),().-..'i.:l4:t 
 
 ;i,HM7,7li:l 
 
 H,!l|:l,|0il 
 
 IH.M 
 
 r.,:l7l,'ifil 
 
 :i,7Hii,HI.'> 
 
 l),l(ll,:ilill 
 
 IH.W 
 
 r.,27(»,7lfJ 
 
 ;i,(IH0,ll7 
 
 H,l):il, •.':!!) 
 
 \HM 
 
 ll,:l!)0,7iri 
 
 4,lili.4l!) 
 
 lo..',.'i:i,|:H 
 
 IM.'iT 
 
 (l,H.'i:i,7ll.'i 
 
 4,tWl,4l)l 
 
 11, 47.'., 10!) 
 
 |m:>H 
 
 (l,4:ll),-Jill 
 
 4,V«,I!I1) 
 
 10,001,7(10 
 
 IX.'il) 
 
 (l/iW.lia 
 
 4,(!:lll.H|(l 
 
 \\,Ti\.W-J 
 
 IHliO 
 
 (I.HMII.IMM) 
 
 fi,2S:l,77il 
 
 yiMl,-nr, 
 
 l«(ll 
 
 7,7-il.(l:tn 
 
 r.,4riM,.'i:ii 
 
 i;i,17!t,.'.s!) 
 
 iwi-i 
 
 7,H.MI,li:l!) 
 
 f.,-J:U,4r>l 
 
 1:1,01)1,01)1) 
 
 1H03 
 
 8,4:10, 14« 
 
 4,H'J5,!»17 
 
 V,i,-j:M,m\.i 
 
 Tf»ri 
 
 ClmriHl 
 
 
 BrIlUli 
 
 Forrliin 
 
 ToMi 
 
 
 Tc.n« 
 
 Tnll" 
 
 Tnni 
 
 181!) 
 
 4.7H.-.,CJ8 
 
 2.2!l!),0(10 
 
 7,081,188 
 
 IS.W 
 
 4.74'i,:i4'. 
 
 2.11(12,24:1 
 
 7,40I,-W8 
 
 IHM 
 
 4,882,4110 
 
 a,22.-.,(114 
 
 8.108.101 
 
 IX.Vi 
 
 fi,0.'(l,l(m 
 
 3,ini,.W(l 
 
 8,212,702 
 
 IHM 
 
 />,2 12,080 
 
 4,2:14,121 
 
 0,147,10 t 
 
 1S.'.4 
 
 r>,1170,2l)H 
 
 4,1:17.42:1 
 
 O,r.o7,721 
 
 IH.'ift 
 
 r>,fi48,!)40 
 
 a.NS!),2!)l 
 
 I),.'.:l8,2:ll 
 
 IH.'irt 
 
 fi,f>r..'.,0.'.(l 
 
 4,480,8."iO 
 
 ll,o:ir.,01.'> 
 
 1H.'.7 
 
 (1,810,402 
 
 4,8(i:i,ini 
 
 ll,70:l..'.o:l 
 
 18.'p« 
 
 fi,4.'.2.201 
 
 4.8!)(1.077 
 
 11,:148,28I 
 
 is:.!) 
 
 fi,72tl,7:ll 
 
 4,o.'.r.,(imi 
 
 Il,(l82,:i:l7 
 
 INflO 
 
 7,02.'-.,!)l4 
 
 r.,4f)o,'i!):i 
 
 12,ril(i,ri07 
 
 18(11 
 
 7,<iO(),4l)7 
 
 B,71(l,M'> 
 
 1:1,41 fi,0.V2 
 
 18(12 
 
 8,000.22 1 
 
 r),:i.'.4,12« . 
 
 l:t,44t,:140 
 
 I8II:) 
 
 8,.'iH'),2l(l 
 
 4,K|):i,424 
 
 i;),482,fi70 
 
 The giibjoiiicd table fjivos the total mimlMT and 
 tonnaco of refn*<tered sailiiiff and steam vessels — 
 pxcUisive of river steamers — of the United Kiiifr- 
 (lom, employed in the home and foreign trade, with 
 the number of men, in the years lH49-t')3^— 
 
 Employrd 
 
 In tke Ilnme Trad* 
 1840 
 ]8r,0 
 18.11 
 18.V2 
 ]8fl3 
 18.'4 
 1855 
 1856 
 18.S7 
 1858 
 1859 
 18110 
 18fil 
 1802 
 18(13 
 
 PiTtly In tlio ITomo 
 und purtly in tdo 
 Fotelfrn Tnule 
 1849 
 IS-W 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 IS-U 
 1855 
 185rt 
 18.';7 
 IftliS 
 1859 
 1860 
 18(11 
 18(12 
 1863 
 
 Vciteli 
 
 Tom 
 
 Mon 
 F.miiliijri'd 
 
 (l'«t'lll«lTO 
 
 of MailiTi) 
 
 O.filO 
 
 0,150 
 
 9,2(10 
 
 0,134 
 
 8,851 
 
 8,778 
 
 8,590 
 
 0,707 
 
 10,0fi4 
 
 10,085 
 
 10,409 
 
 11,250 
 
 11, .508 
 
 10,915 
 
 11,133 
 
 1.917 
 1,507 
 1,507 
 1,105 
 098 
 1,211 
 1,281 
 1,012 
 1,1«4 
 059 
 007 
 1,440 
 1,308 
 1,572 
 1,810 
 
 710,815 
 721,153 
 7(i4,4«l 
 7(18,400 
 774,813 
 748,714 
 748,543 
 787,476 
 800,406 
 878,852 
 808,280 
 913,:t!13 
 935,500 
 875,.S46 
 859,592 
 
 287,490 
 227,(i:t9 
 247,582 
 1(W,111 
 104,050 
 221,259 
 222,070 
 178,.5!)0 
 182,971 
 159,:i03 
 1.53,801 
 256,359 
 244,446 
 275,942 
 317,960 
 
 44,650 
 43,018 
 42,054 
 40,075 
 42,740 
 88,3.50 
 35,470 
 88,665 
 43,600 
 44,186 
 41,022 
 45,579 
 40,0.50 
 43,400 
 43,815 
 
 12.977 
 10.087 
 8,8.-.2 
 7,819 
 7,694 
 9,427 
 
 9,:i2a 
 
 7,448 
 
 8,207 
 
 0,7:15 
 
 0,431 
 
 10,431 
 
 0,(198 
 
 11,0.52 
 
 12,524 
 
 
 
 
 Mm 
 
 F.m|»1i>7ril 
 
 VriMll 
 
 Tom 
 
 r.miilov***! 
 
 In Iha FoMgn Trwia 
 
 — - — — - 
 
 
 Ur MltiKTII 
 
 
 1810 
 
 0.00 ( 
 
 3,080,037 
 
 01,084 
 
 185(1 
 
 7,235 
 
 2,lHH.l'iO 
 
 97.725 
 
 1851 
 
 7,411 
 
 2,:I48.S!I./ 
 
 nil. 131 
 
 l8.Vi 
 
 7,580 
 
 2.IIO.;|(i4 
 
 110,709 
 
 1«.VI 
 
 K,;i57 
 
 2.791 .224 
 
 122.091 
 
 1851 
 
 7,118 
 
 2.7511, 1 •.'() 
 
 lll.(l:19 
 
 1855 
 
 7,957 
 
 :i,01H,li51 
 
 12:1,7:13 
 
 1850 
 
 8.551 
 
 :i, 190.011 
 
 127,8(5 
 
 1857 
 
 8,100 
 
 :i. 108. 105 
 
 121,5H() 
 
 1858 
 
 8,427 
 
 :1.2X7.087 
 
 12(!.!ill 
 
 18.50 
 
 8.25t 
 
 3,21(1,029 
 
 121.15:1 
 
 18(10 
 
 7.:123 
 
 3,08J,017 
 
 115.582 
 
 18(11 
 
 7,:170 
 
 3,170.(18:1 
 
 115.00!) 
 
 18.12 
 
 7.1105 
 
 :l,:i22,oo(l 
 
 110.105 
 
 1803 
 
 7,934 
 
 3,017,727 
 
 128,:1SH 
 
 1819 
 
 18,221 
 
 3,090,312 
 
 152 '111 
 
 18:,() 
 
 17.802 
 
 3.1:17.212 
 
 151, 1:10 
 
 1851 
 
 18,181 
 
 ;i.:l(10,9:l5 
 
 141.0:17 
 
 18.- 2 
 
 17,810 
 
 3,:18(I,KH| 
 
 l.-,9..',03 
 
 1853 
 
 18,200 
 
 3,7:10.(m7 
 
 172,525 
 
 1854 
 
 17,407 
 
 ;i,72ll,09;l 
 
 1(12,410 
 
 1855 
 
 17,828 
 
 3,990,170 
 
 108,5:17 
 
 1850 
 
 19,270 
 
 4.150,1177 
 
 173,918 
 
 1857 
 
 10,328 
 
 4.211,182 
 
 170,:i87 
 
 1858 
 
 20.071 
 
 4,:125.2I2 
 
 177,h:12 
 
 185!lf 
 
 10..57O 
 
 4.2(19.109 
 
 172,5110 
 
 1800 
 
 20.019 
 
 4,251,7:19 
 
 1 71. .5:12 
 
 ISCl 
 
 20.285 
 
 I,:i5!l,005 
 
 171.057 
 
 18i;2 
 
 20,002 
 
 4,47:1,291 
 
 17:l.H(!l 
 
 18(i:l 
 
 20,877 
 
 4,705,270 
 
 184,727 
 
 The relative importance of the twelve priiii;ipal 
 ports of the United Kingdom in regard to Hhi/i/iiHi/ 
 IS shown in the following table, which tjives the 
 number of vessels and toiinaj^e entered inwards and 
 cleared outwards from tliesc [>ort8 during the vcar 
 lHf.;i:— 
 
 
 Entorrd Inwards 
 
 Clvarcd Ontwardi 
 
 Porn 
 London . . 
 
 IsrtS 
 
 1U03 
 
 VcBWli 
 
 Tom 
 
 V.>ieli 
 8,167 
 
 Tons 
 
 11,008 
 
 3,441,-510 
 
 2,590.821 
 
 Ltvcriwiol , 
 
 4.082 
 
 2,058.732 
 
 4.004 
 
 2,(113,:i91 
 
 Nc\vca.stlo . 
 
 4.402 
 
 702.104 
 
 8,040 
 
 1,. 500,208 
 
 TIuU . . . 
 
 2.959 
 
 723,901 
 
 ■2,2;is 
 
 .591,:iol 
 
 Sontlmrapton 
 
 1 ,209 
 
 ,3.55.515 
 
 1,121 
 
 3)1,(107 
 
 ILoith . . . 
 
 1,091 
 
 291,721 
 
 .588 
 
 178,845 
 
 illristol . . 
 
 O.VI 
 
 242.879 
 
 203 
 
 84,910 
 
 |Glasffow . . 
 
 620 
 
 188.:103 
 
 928 
 
 317,128 
 
 lOreenock . 
 
 470 
 
 181,770 
 
 208 
 
 125,271 
 
 nnhlin . . 
 
 478 
 
 135,.500 
 
 19(1 
 
 72,084 
 
 Cork . . . 
 
 .375 
 
 ]15,o:i4 
 
 03 
 
 28,091 
 
 Belfast . . 
 Total . . 
 
 318 
 20,808 
 
 87,401 
 
 106 
 
 3(!,:l20 
 8,520,303 
 
 9,185,105 
 
 20,021 
 
 In the year ISfiS, there were huilt in the United 
 Kingdom 1,10.0 vessels, of 3(!0,!)87 tons. Of these 
 881 were sailing vessels, and 279 steamers. Of 
 the sailing vessels, 142 were built of iron, and of 
 the steamers 240. Ixmdon, Sunderland, Newcastle, 
 Liverpool Hull, Yannouth, and Bristol, are the 
 principal building ports. Ships built in London, 
 Liveri)ool, Bristol, and other western ports, are in 
 higher estimation than those built on the Tyno 
 and the Wear, at least for those branches of trade 
 where the best ships are required. Within the la.st 
 ten years the building of iron steamships has been 
 immensely extended on the Tyne and the Clyde. 
 
 Money. — The metallic money of the United 
 Kingdom consists partly of gold, and partly of 
 silver and copper, coins. The standard of gold 
 coin is 11 parts fine to 1 part alloy: a pound troy 
 of this standard gold is coined into 4(i sovereigns 
 and ^"ijths of a sovereign, or into 40/. 14». Grf. ; so 
 
 m 
 
 Is* II 
 
A0O 
 
 IJUITISII KMI'IIJK 
 
 tliiir IIh' HnviTcitfii coiitiiinM II.'I'IIOI ^riiiiiH .line, 
 niiil r.'.'(".'7 I ^rnliiM xiiiiiiliiril, ^nlil. 
 
 'I'lif ^liiJiiliinl 111' hiUcr niiii in 1 1 oz. 'J dwt. line 
 til |M (Iwl. iilliiv. Siiiri- Mir,, II |iiiiiiiil of lliin 
 Mtilllillllil xihir iiMM liri'll I'liiiicil illlii tin ,<lii||ili);H, 
 
 HO lliiit iiu'li ^^llillill;;■ riiiitiiiiis Hd'T'.'T ^'riiiiiH imrt' 
 xilviT, iiml H7"-'7 uniiiiM uliiiiilnril. Silver niiiit 
 roiiii Ik imri' Milixiilinry iiirrciu'y, ami art! Ic^al 
 It'iiilcr III llii* cxlciii only ol |i),4, 
 
 <'o|i|)i'r roiiis lire iMiii'li oMrMiliK'il in I'lirri'ncy, 
 niiil IIH' U'Kiil H'nilcr to ilu' cMcnt only of l». 
 
 I'm liy Cur ihc uniiti r piiri of ilic ciin.siili'rMlilc 
 trini'-iicii'onH In ihc rnirnl Kin^nloni liavin^ rc- 
 frrciirc 1(1 nmnry, lire jtIiIiiI liy llir inliTvcniion 
 (if pai'ir; llml i.-<. liy llii' Hf^cni'V of the notes of 
 till' ililVircnl litinluiiu; i'oin|iaiiii'i'. or of IiIIIm, In 
 Kii:;lanil anil Ircliniil, no liank note can lir i^>Nii('il 
 for li'>M tliaii a/., lint in Sroilaml they niny lio 
 i^>nl'll HO low iiM I/.; llii'V iiri' all nimli' pnyaliir to 
 lii'iirir on i|i'nianil,i-ltlirr in coin or ni notes of the 
 Hank of Imi^ImikI. 'I'lie latter, with llic lianki* of 
 iSciiiliniil anil Inlanil, arc the |irinci|ial liankiiif; 
 i'-lalili>lnnenlM, liillM vary in every |iossililc way, 
 ill re;;iiril to anmnnl, lime, and |ilace of )iayniciil. 
 
 ('niisllliitiiiii, — Fur full ilctiiil.H in re;,'aiil to tliis 
 iniiiiirlant lieail. the reader in relcncd to the 
 articles l'',N(iiAM), Si'oii.ANK, and Ii'.I'J.And. 
 It is here Kiillicinit to ohserve, that, the llrilish 
 eonHiilnlioii a|i|ieiirs to liave heeii at its outset 
 Hiilistantially the saiiK^ M'ilU llii^ coii.>litulion 
 oriKiiially I'stalilislied in iiiost of the other luirii- 
 )ieaii .tales foinied out of the ruins of the Koiiiiiii 
 <>in|iire. Ihil I'iii^daiid aloiu; has had the ^ood 
 fortune to |,res<'r\(( that dislrihiition of power 
 uinoii^ the dilfereiit orders of the eoinninnity 
 ■which at one time |ireviiiled anion^' the Kri'iich. 
 Spaniiirds, and other continental nations, 'I'lie 
 (roveniinenl. is mixed, liein^; iiartly monarchical, 
 partly arislocralical, and partly democrat ical. The 
 executive auihorily is vested in the Mivereif^n, or 
 rather in the ministers clmseii liv him, while the 
 h'^i.-lativo aiilhoiity is shared liy the sovereifxu 
 and liy the houses of Lords and Commnns. The 
 former of IIicm' houses coiisisls of the heads of the 
 cliiirch, and of uohles whose di;;iiity is hereditary, 
 and who are neiierally possessed of larne fortimes. 
 
 In 1K()5 it consisted, inc. minors, of — 
 
 rrrrs of the blood royiil ... 
 
 Aiclihihhoiis (1 Jii.sli leprcseiittUive) . '2 
 
 Dukes 'JO 
 
 Jliirqulses 1!) 
 
 Karls 11(1 
 
 Vhcoimti? '.'■.' 
 
 liiirons '.'Oil 
 
 Niitdi reiircfcntatlvc I'ccrg . . . Hi 
 
 JriMi (lillo 'JS 
 
 Kim'lish liisliups U 
 
 Jri.-li repiestmativc ditto ... 4 
 
 Total . . AM 
 
 The House of Commons — the prodonunatin^ 
 power in the state — consists of li.'iS represenla- 
 tivos chosen hy electors in the ditlerent comities 
 and represented towns ; tiiid thoup;li the Hovercif^n 
 lie not, his ministers are, respoiisihh^ to it and to 
 the H. of Lords for all acts done li.v them in their 
 piihlic capacity. Acconiiii}; to the theory of the 
 constitution, the H. of (.".is elioseii hy and repre- 
 sents the wishes, fceliiifjjs, and prejudices of the 
 liritish people. But if hy jieople lie meant the 
 fnll-tcrowii male pop. of the L'. Kiiif^dom, this 
 statement is nlto}?etlier erroneous. IJy far the 
 greater portion of tlie jiop. has not, and never had, 
 anythiiif; directly, and hut little indirectly, to do 
 •with the choice of the meiiihers of the H. of C. 
 Down to the passinj; of the IJeform Act in M.S'J, 
 the niemhers for counties in England were chosen 
 by persons having a freehold, or a life interest in 
 
 freehold properly, worth 111*, n year; mid in |iiw,h 
 the riKhl of idection was nsually'in llie corporiitliin 
 or in the corporalioii and freemen, Tlmi li<i<iiiiij 
 
 to the old system that pllM'd ihe wav fur thr It, 
 
 form Act uas not oci'ii-ioned ho much liy iIm' I'auli' 
 mode in which i'c|ircsentaliM's weie i liMni'n ji, 
 towns entitled to send them to till' II, off, „., 
 Iiv the decayed condition of niMliy of t|ii'«e tnwn, 
 
 'Ihe iiarl. lioroiiKhs had all I n hj i|||.,| .,,,.' 
 
 vionsly III the llevolnlinn i and no priivNiiin \v<i<i 
 
 made in tin iislitiilinn fur admilliii;; ri'iircM'ii- 
 
 talives for such new lioroiiKhs iih mi;.'lil iil'iiTwanl, 
 attain to importance, or for Ihe di-<fr,'nii'lii-i-Mii'iii 
 ofsnchiif the |iarl. lioron;,dis as miKhl liii|i|i('ii t,, 
 fall into iiisiunilicaiice. Ilince it cinne in i,j,,., 
 Ihal m.'iiiv connnircial and inai'iifaclnrini; inwna 
 such as Nliiiicliester, ltirinini;ham, I'nisk.v, Mini 
 others, which had attained to vast wealtli im,! 
 importance after the iiarl. horiuiKhs were sciei ti>i|, 
 wereexcliidcd from all share in the rijinsi'iiiiiiidn' 
 while, on ihe oilier hand, iiiaiiy lioroiiL;lis that lnhi 
 hei'ome ipiile nnimportant ciinlinned to eii{iiv iIik 
 valiiahle privile;,'e. A disiinciion of this Hnrrniiilil 
 
 not he lon;j; endured ; ami hut for th i^.th.^mh^' 
 
 excitement occasioued hy Ihe late Kmicli war! 
 it would, most likely, have hcen ohviatcil Munn' 
 twenty year* sooner. 'Ihe Itel'urm Act, liv ili . 
 Iriiuchisiiijr a piod many decayed imij rrilliii:,' 
 liorounhs, and enfranchising,' the |{reater om s, anri 
 uiviii); the riKht of volute at the elect ion iifiiuin- 
 liers to the holders of III/, hotiricH, rendered ilic II, 
 of ('. more democratical than fonnerly, ami, ((ni' 
 se(|uenlly, made it coircspond hetler wiili ihi' 
 theory of tlnr conHtiiii;ion. This teiiilenry Utn 
 also lieeii strentttheiied I y the changes tliat wire 
 at the same time \w,.iW in the comity rc|iri>ni. 
 talion. Till' total iniiii)<; ■• of 
 Ihe lloiise of Comino' s was 
 session of IMdli : — 
 
 fepreseuiaiiviM in 
 IIS follows, ill tin: 
 
 TlnRlnnd . 
 
 .^lotluilll . 
 
 Ireluiiil , 
 Total 
 
 Of (Niilntini 
 
 :ia 
 
 U4 
 
 '.'■ill 
 
 OfCllk. »,.,! 
 
 ll"rMii|.|,4 
 .■i:ls 
 
 41 
 
 T..U1 
 
 riiiii 
 
 .'i:| 
 
 111.', 
 
 (i.'iS 
 
 Thf: iiropcrlv qiialilicntion for iiiemliers was imt 
 distil.' 'leii hy l)ie Iicform Itill ; it amoiiiited tiiC.dii/, 
 for th .uiy;hts, and Itllll/. for the Inir^esscs; Imi It 
 has hc-«n aholislied hy 'J\ & '2'2 Vict. c. •.'(i, of .lime 
 •_'S, iHuX. The other ffroimds of excliisiim iiavc 
 remnined, and have even heeii partially iiicrciMil, 
 No one can sit or vote in parliament who liiis imt 
 attained the nffe of tweiil,v-one years. Nnexii-c, 
 custom, stamp, or other reveinie odiceris (■li;;ilili'. 
 Smce IH-lll, the Jiidjje of the Admiralty Cnii'l is 
 excluded from heiiiji' elected; the siiine hnlil.i^tdiHl 
 with resiiect to all the later judges. TlieniibliT 
 of the rolls nlone iselinihle. Jso I'jif^disli nrSciilrli 
 jieer can he elected to the lloiisi! of Coniinnns, liiit 
 an Irish peer may ; liiial'v, forei;;uers, even wluii 
 naturalised, unless the rij^ht he cniicedeil in c.n- 
 pre.ss terms, as well as persons who have 1h.tii 
 convicted of trea.s(iii or felony, are inelif,Mlili'. 
 
 To ])o.sses8 the franchise in a lioroiifjli, n iicr.'fiiii 
 ".niist occiip,v,as owner or tenant, a house of tlic flinr 
 yearly value of not less than III/. 'J'lie rifjlits nf 
 the old hiirffcsses or freemen to vote liave Iktii jiri- 
 served. All persons who as hurj.,'csses or as I'rcf- 
 men winild have heeii entitled to vote if tlio licfuriii 
 Hill had not heeii piwsed, arc still peniiittcil t" 
 exercise the francliise. If a person have |irii|ierty 
 which would qualify him as a horouj;h eltrtnr, lie 
 cannot, instead of heeoming a horoiigh cleitor, 
 choose in respect of that ]irojierty to fjualil'y ii" ii 
 comity elector. The fiualilyiii}; estate liir liie 
 county must he either — tirst, a freehold of inlie- 
 ritance of the clear yearly value of not kf^ tluiii 
 
 > 
 
 My iihillin((K i kp 
 <iiiiii' value, pmvii 
 
 tillf IH'CllpHlioll of 
 
 'hull have lN>eti a 
 
 .I'ltleinenl, deviNe, 
 
 iililre. If the free 
 
 iH'ciiiintion, or shall 
 
 wi'M' than ill the n 
 
 liiilil imist iN'of th 
 
 ihnii III/. |H>r aiiiiii 
 
 KJiii held freeholil 
 
 yiarlv value of fi 
 
 Villi' irrespective of 
 
 nnil wilhoiit Ihe iii 
 
 siii|iinlilled to vote 
 
 nri' Ntill |H'rmilled 
 
 liiii^' as they coniin 
 
 Thirilly, copyhold 
 
 liiilil tenure, provliN 
 
 any larger «'state of 
 
 li'w llian 111/. Foil 
 
 nurlv value of III/,, 
 
 ii'XH tliaii sixty year 
 
 111' .ill/, or iipwards, 
 
 Ipsii than twenty 
 
 iliiii of any lands' 
 
 iiimiit payH a vein 
 
 Thi'* latter (jiialitica 
 
 ralli'il ChaiidoH clan 
 
 iiicnts for electors hii 
 
 |*rsiiim under fweiii 
 
 siiiiiil iiiiiid, in recei 
 
 vlcled of iu-rtaiii olVe 
 
 No line can vote- who 
 
 111 liini merely for th 
 
 III vote. The .Indies, 
 
 Willi are eonce'medin 
 
 arc iiis(|iialilied. 
 
 I'll presm-c the iin 
 11. (if C, it was emu 
 it any memher shal 
 Iriiin the i-rowii, his i 
 new writ insue, hut 1 
 'llii« pro-ision has I 
 lii'viiiK a nieinlter froi 
 ri'siKii, hy his accep 
 Ihe Cliiltem Hundred 
 if the chancellor of t 
 IiKHIi only alMint th 
 liwii ({eiierally accpiie 
 III all jiarlies, thoiiffh 
 far the oflieo can no 
 the disqiialifyinp woi 
 in the construction ol 
 (iitice hos not been Iiel 
 «P|K)intment of a succ 
 "llice, no appointmcn 
 « seat. Further, tha 
 army or navy vacates 
 iiii.''»ion8 do not. 
 
 I'erliaps the groates 
 the free constitution ^ 
 iiiilircct rather than di 
 "li«t no other JCun)))! 
 fally free press. Ac 
 'rea.ied in wealth and 
 f'Tjijipulons places fou 
 imlilic opinion, it becti 
 I" have their sjieeches 
 [lie country. Hence, 
 kites be a breach of 
 l«tised, with the coii 
 «it*, in fact, speak less 
 mtters, and, throng 
 Mfi the censures and 
 «re accustomed to iiali 
 Jh apology for siniilui 
 Voul. 
 
TmiTISir'FMTMHE 
 
 Am 
 
 flirty uhlUltiKK ! dcrninlly, n frrohoM for lil'i- <iC iln> • 
 
 .iiMii' viilur, iiri>vi<li'(l h Im ill I lie nt'liml ami '><>/«! j 
 
 liilf iM'('U|)att)iti of ilii> pnrty cliiiiiiiiitf to voir, or I 
 
 '.Imll liiivi' Im'i'ii nfi|iiiri'il liy iiiarriiiK<'< niiirriii^i' | 
 
 .I'ttlriiii'iil, ili'ViNc, or proinotioii lo miy iH'iictiri'or 
 
 iitliiT, If lli«> frt'i'holiliT for life In noi in lu'tiinl ' 
 
 mrii|>nlioii,or nIiiiII liiivr nt'i|iiirnl liJNi'Nlnl)' oilirr- 
 
 »i^' iliiiii ill III*' inoilf aliovc iMi'iiijoiK'il, liiH free- 
 
 hiilil iiiti'*! iH'of tile rh'iir yrarly valiit'of not Icm 
 
 ilinii III'. (XT aMiiiiin. Itt'fori' llic Itrforiii Ad all 
 
 kIio Ik'IiI fri'cliolil proiMTlv for life of ilic cIcMr 
 
 viiirlv valiii' of forty xliilldi^N, were ml it led to 
 
 Villi' Irri'Mpt't'livc of ilir niaiiiu'r of \t» ai'i|iiiHitioii, 
 
 m\ willioiit lli<< iit'ccHNity of occiipatioii, PrrxoiiH 
 
 «ii|iialitli'il to vole at llii' linii' of (lie lii'forni Act 
 
 an' Hiill |N'niiitl('il lo t'xcrciNc llu* franclilMc so 
 
 liiiiL' iiM tlicy conliiiiu* Nci/cil of llicHaino fri'i'liolil, 
 
 Tlurilly, j'opyholil or ollii'r property not of IVcf- 
 
 liiilil ii'iiiir<>, jiroviilcil ilic intercut lie for lil'i', or for 
 
 iiiiy larger cHlaln of tlit> clear annual valine of not 
 
 li'iw llian 10/. Fonrtlily, IcaNcliolilH, of llif ilcar 
 
 vi'urlv valiHi of III/., if the irrin wiih ori^Hiially not 
 
 li'iiii lliaii Hixly ycafM, amlof llii< clear yearly value 
 
 III' .'ill/, or iipwurilH, if ilie term was originally not 
 
 IcsK llian twenty yearn. Kifllily, liy llie occiipa- 
 
 iliiii of any laiulN or leiicincnU for which the 
 
 ii'iiaiit payH n yearly rent of not Icxh than titU. 
 
 riiis liiller (pinlilicatioii was introiliiceil liy the ho- 
 
 riilli'il ClianiloH cItiiiNe. 'I'he oilier lepil reiiiiire- 
 
 iiii'iilM lor electors have contiiiiieil in force. Aliens, 
 
 [ii'Miiis miller twenty-one years of ap', or of uii- 
 
 .iiiinil mind, in receipt of jiarocliial relief, or coii- 
 
 vli'ti'il of certain olfences, an; ineapalile of volin^. 
 
 Nil line can vote who pos.scHseH a freehold conveyed 
 
 III liini merely for tlu> puqiose of enipowerini; liiiii 
 
 III vdtc. TlieJiidK<''<, constaliles, and many olllcers 
 
 wliii are concerned in tlio cnUuutioii uf the ruvenne, 
 
 arc ilis(|iialiliud. 
 
 'I'll preser^•c the indejiendencc of momliers of the 
 II. (if C, it was enacled, liy Htatnte l! Anne, that, 
 il' iiiiy meniliiT shall accept any oltico of protit 
 fmm tlio crown, his election hIwiII he void, and n 
 new writ insno, hut he Ih eli)rihle for re-election. 
 Thin pro'ittioii Iioh hern innilc the means of re- 
 lii'vinj; a nicinlicr from his trust, which he cannot 
 rf.«i|;n, liy his acceptance of the steward.'«hip of 
 llio Cliiltem Hundreds, a nominal ollice in the ^'ift 
 iif tlic chancellor of the exchequer. The prai^licc 
 U'i;nii only aliout the year I Toll, and has since 
 ii«'ii ^rpiierally ac(|uicsced in from itH uonvenience 
 tiiall ]iarlie.s, thoii(;li it is open to question how 
 far the otHco can now he 8tri(!tly deemed within 
 the disqualifying wonla of the statute of Anne. 
 Inlhc construction of this act the resi^pialion of 
 (lice has not been held to be complete until the 
 sp|iointnicnt of a successor, and the resumption of 
 iilhce, no appointment intervening, not to vacate 
 a licat. Further, that u first commission in tlie 
 army or navy vacates a scat ; but subsequent coin- 
 mmons do not. 
 
 I'erliaps the greatest advantage resulting from 
 the free constitution of the II. of C'. has been 
 iiuliruct rather than direct. The people owe to it 
 «lmt no other Kuni])eaii nation has enjoyed — a 
 really free press. According as the people in- 
 ireasod in wealth and intelligence, and memhers 
 f'lr ixipulous (ilaces found it necessary to conciliate 
 imblie opinion, it become of importance to them 
 lo have their sjiecches printed and circulated over 
 ihe tountrj'. Hence, though the reporting of de- 
 lates be a breach of privilege, it has long Iwen 
 wactised, with the consent of all parties. Mem- 
 KM, in fact, speak less to the house than to the 
 reporters, and, through them, to the country; 
 wd the censures ond comments in which they 
 >K accustomed to indulge become a warrant and 
 >ii apology for similur censures on the part of 
 Vou I. 
 
 e liceii wilivrrKlve of 
 punii-' ilie latter for 
 
 with iipiinii^ ' y llin 
 Omi .nlloti i really 
 
 1 hC \iresit^ll 
 il sMfi'uiiard 
 the Villi''*, II 
 
 is, for 
 riglilH 
 
 lo tllll 
 
 Jiiiinuilists, It woiil) ),., 
 
 every principle of Jiisiu 
 
 what had Iseii prorlaiu 
 
 former. Ileiue it In III, 
 
 indeliled fur the freedom < 
 
 the palladiiiin and only i 
 
 and liliertii'M — imi xn nnu'li 
 
 deliiiirs carried on in the II. of C. Frei'.l"iii of 
 
 di'liiile iiroiliieed (r loin of iirinting ; and, loti- 
 
 si'ipieiitly, gave llie only etl'ei'tiiiil security for 
 
 g I governnieiil, and the only real cheek u|hiii 
 
 iilm-te. It Is iioi too niiii'li tosay, that the iieople 
 of till* rniled Kiiigdiiin are mainly indeliled ti> 
 this free press for the high place iiinong tho 
 niiliiiiis of the earth, 
 
 Ne.Nt to the security alfiird<'d by the I'reednni 
 of the press, hint />// ,/"'.'/ has lieeii the griiiid 
 lilllwark of the liberlieM of the people of l'".ng- 
 land. This iiisiitiitioii is of very remote origin, 
 and, like representative assenililies, was at oiiii 
 time introdiii'ed into several Kiinipetin eoiinlries. 
 It is expressly laid down by the great charter, 
 that ' ««//mk iilwr homo aijiiiitiir, nl imiirisoii- 
 rtiir, mil rxiilrt, uiit iiliijiin olio vimlii ilexlnnliir, 
 nUi jnr Iri/itlr jm/iriiiiii /Miriiiin nwinnii, nl /ii-r 
 Ifijvm trrnv,' 'The founders of the l'',iiglisli laws,' 
 says Hlackstoiie, •have with excellent forecast 
 contrived that no man should be calli'd to 
 answer to llie king for any capital criiiie, iinli'ss 
 npiiii the preparatory aiTiisatiou of twelve nrnioro 
 of his fellow Niibjei'ts ({hv i/riiiiil jiiri/) ; and that 
 the truth of every ai'i'iisatimi, whether preferred in 
 the shape of indii'tinent, infiirinalinn, or appeal, 
 shoiild be afterwards ciinlirnied by the unanimous 
 snIVriiges of twelve of his equals and neighbours 
 (\\w iwtty jury), indilVereiitly chosen, and superior 
 lo suspicion. So that the liU'rlies of I'lnglund 
 cannot but subsist so long as this jiulliiiHiim re- 
 mains sacred and inviolale, not only I'nim all 
 o)ien attacks, which none will be so hardy as to 
 make, but also from all secret macliliialions, 
 which may sap and niiilenniiu; it, by iniroducing 
 new and arbitrary methods of trial, by Justices of 
 the jieace, commissioners of the revenue, and 
 courts of conscitaiee,' (Hook iv. cap. 27.) 
 
 With the exception of Kngland, trial by jury, 
 in most other countries, was not long in being 
 either suppressed or perverted ; that is, juries 
 were either entirely dis|iensod with, anil the 
 jiower to try prisoners entrusted to judges a|i- 
 iiointed by the diH'erent governments, or the 
 mslitntion was kept up in name only, its object 
 and spirit lieing totally changed. Instead of 
 Jurymen being ' indiffcreiitly cho.sen, and free from 
 suspicion,' which is of the very es.sence of jury 
 trial, they were not unfrequently selected by tho 
 crown, or its creatures. 
 
 In England, the selection of jurjmen having 
 been always, or at least very generally, made on 
 fair principles, jury trial has been deservedly in 
 the highest degree popular. The charge has to be 
 referred to twtdve inilividuals fairly selected from 
 among the freeholders of the neighbourhood; 
 and unless they are nnanimmisly of upinion that 
 the charge is well fourukd, the accusation falls to 
 the ground, and no farther legal proceedings can 
 be instituted against the accused. 
 
 The signal benetits derived from jury trial in 
 criminal cases, and in charges of trea.soii and 
 sedition; and the fact that, were it given u|i in 
 one class of cases, it might gradually fall into 
 disuse in others, seem to be the ])riiicipai causes 
 of its being continued as a means of trying all 
 descriptions of civil suits. The fair iiresumjii ion, 
 however, would seem to be, that a large class of 
 civil cases might be us well or better decided by a 
 judge or judges appointed for that purpo.se. 
 
 O O 
 
 ii4r ., 
 
A(12 
 
 lUMTISir KMI'IHK 
 
 Till- ptiwiTM iif iiiirlininriil nrv iinlilii'iilly ninnl 
 
 |Hili-lll Milliill llic I llili'il Killuiliilll mill ll'* riiliillirN 
 mill ilt'|ii>iii|riirit'i4, ll niii iiiiikt' iirsv Iiimm, iiihI 
 t'liliir^)', iiltrr, nr rrnriil lliii'<i' txUiliitt. Iin mi 
 
 tlmrilV I'Xtl'lliln III nil I'ri'li'Killnlli'ltl, ll'lll|liirikl, fix il, 
 
 nr iiiilitnrv iiiiittiTN, ami ilM ihiwi'M in iillrriiit; nr 
 
 <'hiiri({illt( lU nwtl I'lillitllllltinli, It Im III)' lii^lii'Mt 
 cniirl, iiMT >vll|rh nil nllirr lilIM llirltilirllnli. 
 
 'I'lic fiillnwiiitt \<* II liilili' III' ilic iliiriitiiiii of iMir- 
 
 lilltlli'lllt nl' tilt! L'llitol liillKiloKli Iron) llH' IXTiml 
 nl till' Iflllolll— 
 
 Rfliiti 
 
 I'urllii. 
 
 IIIMIlt 
 
 Whvii 
 
 inil 
 
 Wbaii ill.MiltiHl RiUtMl 
 
 Y. M. n. 
 
 
 
 
 (iMirKK III. 
 
 \»t 
 
 UT Hi'iit. 
 
 I7III1 
 
 •ill .run. iHii'ift II IM; 
 
 It 
 
 Villi 
 
 <ll Anu, 
 
 \H,I-J 
 
 ■H (lif. IHIHH 1 v.l 
 
 
 Jlril 
 
 l."i liii'. 
 
 INIIII 
 
 •2I> Apr. 1 HI 17 II ■» Ifl 
 
 II 
 
 till 
 
 TJ .hiiiti 
 
 IWI7 
 
 ■Jl Hipt. \H\jr, ;t 7 
 
 II 
 
 ruh 
 
 ■H Nov. 
 
 \H\J 
 
 lil.lniii' ININA )| III 
 
 
 titli 
 
 1 AiiK. 
 
 |M|N 
 
 •Jl» I'lll. IHJill II l/.l 
 
 QwirKu It. 
 
 7tli 
 
 ■J-i Apr. 
 
 iH'jii 'j.iiiiiK iMviiii t n{ 
 
 • 1 
 
 Nih 
 
 1 1 Ni.v. 
 
 IMJII 
 
 il .fiilv INDIUM H 10 1 
 
 Wllll.imlV 
 
 mil 
 
 •Jtl (»i't. 
 
 iM.'ln 
 
 •JJ Apr. Ik:I1 A -jui 
 
 ,, 
 
 mill 
 
 1 1 .tiinii 
 
 IMMI 
 
 ■\ I>I'<1. INM'i 1 ft •Jl>\ 
 
 ,, 
 
 iitii 
 
 Vii.liiii. 
 
 |M:|:| 
 
 ■W lire. IN:II 1 II 1 i 
 
 „ 
 
 I'jiii 
 
 Ill I'Vli, 
 
 |N.|:. 
 
 IM.Iiilv IH:)7'J ft 
 
 VIcturlii . 
 
 null 
 
 1» Nov. 
 
 |H:I7 
 
 '^;l.lniii' Mil :| 7 11 
 
 
 iitii 
 
 II Anif. 
 
 IHII 
 
 ■j;l,liily IMI7ft It •» 
 
 It 
 
 i:>tli 
 
 '.'1 Hi'iK. 
 
 IN 17 
 
 1 .llllv IHVJ J II 11 
 
 tt 
 
 imh 
 
 4 .\ov. 
 
 IN.VJiii Miir. IM.-I7 4 1 III 
 
 If 
 
 I7tli 
 
 .10 Apr. 
 
 |M.'.7i:l Apr. IH.-.II I 1 1 r.] 
 
 If 
 
 IHttl 
 
 :ll May 
 
 |m:,!i uJuly imi-Mi i u 
 
 fi 
 
 IDtll 1 
 
 <I I'lili. 
 
 IHIlll 
 
 1 
 
 'l'lii< iiiiinn of Iri'liinil with KiikIhikI wiin cnrrioil 
 iiilii ('lli'i'l .laiiiiiiry I, iHilll, /mil the iitirrniiiifiit 
 wliirli Hill tlif HitlMii liioiitli, ami wlilrli iiirlmlcil 
 llic ini'inlicrN rrniii iri'laml, is HiylttI tlic lir»t 
 lMi|ii'riiil I'arliaiiit'iit. 'I'tii' |iarliaiiu'iil wliirli an- 
 Hi'iiilili'd .liimiiiry -2!l, IMIli, U Mlylvil tlin lirxt 
 lit'liirim'il I'arliiiinciil. 
 
 Hflii/hiii. — 'I'Ih' imiKt iicrfci't toli'rnlinn ix jjivoii 
 In llic iirnfi'ssorM nl'ilill'cri'iif r('lii,'iiiim cri't'dM in the 
 I', Kinplnni. Iliit, I'rnni tlic Itcvnlntinll ilnwil In 
 |H-.''.I, Catlinlii's wi'ri' t'xclmlt'tl t'rniii iiarlianicnt, 
 anil were im'a|inlili> orimlilin^ iiioHt ntlircs nl' trust 
 ami cinnliiiiu'iil. 'I'litw! iiiijiiNt anil ilc^railln); ilis- 
 alilliticH were, hnwdver, rcinnvcd at the ('pnrli ri'- 
 fcrri'd to; and CallmlioH may now Itc clccttMl 
 nii'iiilicn* nl' tlin h'irislittnrc, and n\v flij^ililc to 
 almost all olHccs, Tlu^ rt'|i«'al ol'llio trst nml cnr- 
 )ioratinii acts, in I K'iM, rcinnvod sundry disiiliiiiticH 
 under whicii dissenters previniisly lalioiired. 
 
 The Hstahlislieil Church nt' I'ji^iaml lias retained 
 tile e|iisco|ial fonn of church pivernment. witli 
 its Nuiiordinatioii of ranks, and is a very riclilv- 
 endowed institution. Its tenets, which are jiartly 
 Lutheran and (lartly (.'alvinistic, are endindied in 
 the t'ainniiN 'M Articles. The Kirk, or ostahlishetl 
 church nt' Scntland, which is I'rcsliyferian in fnrni 
 and (!alviiiistii; in principle, is moderately well 
 endoweil. The f^reatest <'(piality sulisists amon); 
 its meniliers; and, on the wliolv, it may liu Haid to 
 be an essentially popular hndy. 
 
 The Church of Kn^^^land enjoys tlio conlldoncc 
 and support of the j^reut hulk of the people of 
 Kn;;'liind, and such also was the case with the 
 Church of Scotland previoitsly to the disruption, 
 in IM4;i, occasioned hy the, disiuite.s relatiu}; to 
 )iatrnnagc, which led to the formation of the Free 
 Church. Hut it has always been <piitc ntlierwi.se 
 with the Kstablislied (,'hnrch of Ireland, The 
 latter i.s identical with the Church of Knglaiid, 
 Inasmuch, however, a.s the doctrines of the He- 
 forinatinn never made any considerable progress 
 in Irehind, and as tlii; great bulk of its inhabitants 
 have always been Woman Catholics, the Estaln 
 li.slied Church has been thut of u small minority 
 
 I niil> , mill has never |HMseiw<i>i| the rii|i<«>ni of ||„. 
 
 I pie. Oil the ciiiilrurs, they lia\i' alwiivi ri 
 
 Kiinli'd il UN a iisiirpiilinii.as being nrluiiuillv r,,r, i,| 
 
 ll|iiill llielll by the iirmH. and llplield by llir |HiH,r 
 
 I of l''.Mglani|| ami as Udiig liiini'ile uliki' i.i \\„„ 
 
 I religiiiii mid Ihrir Mcriibir inti'ri"<ls. Mmli nl' i|„. 
 
 . iliHiurbaiice ami ilixaU'eciinu I hut always prevnil in 
 
 Ireland may Im' asirllH-d In ibis iiiiha|ipy i'iiii.,tj 
 
 tiilinii of the Ksiabllsheil Church, 'i'lie liiriii.<|iii,,, 
 
 of ri'ligiiiiiN iiiHiriH'liiiii to the bulk nf ilu' | |,|,^ 
 
 til tliiiMC ubii are Inn pnor In be able easily In liir' 
 lii'<li it fur Ibi'mselxes, has always Ih'cii liilil i,, |„. 
 a priiii'ipiil iili{i'cl of mi e^tablislu'il rhiirili. ,\ihl 
 it is ill triilli liltle bi'iler llimi a cniilnidii limi iiii,| 
 an aliNunlil)', In make the cbiircb nf a iiiuilj nii.| 
 opulent iiiimirily the miliniial cliurib. uikI in up 
 prnpriille In ils excliisixe use I'liiiils thai ini-hi 
 
 limply prn\ ide fur the religiniis iiiMtnicii i ^i,,. 
 
 wliiile pcnlile. It is nut to be sinipusi'd llmt III,. 
 malnrily sliniild tmnely ai'ipiicMc ni nihIi ji >i„|,, 
 nf tilings; they caiiiinl but ri'gnril il ii^ im iri,|,t( 
 In their religinii, and as an niitriigi' upon ihilr 
 sense nf justice, Coinilinn seii'-c wniijil Mi;;;ri.f, 
 either that llie Calbnlic sbiuild be iiiaile llic iki.iI, 
 limbed religion nf Iri'lnml. or II imt, iliat tlie I'n- 
 tlinlic clergy sliiiiild piirl icipiili , ill prii|iiiriiiiii i» 
 the iiimilier of their adberciils, m the eiiiliiwriiiiiN 
 now excltisivelv enjoyed hy tin,' clergyineii of iju' 
 Church nf I'lngland', 
 
 Hvmiiir iinil f:'.r/H-iiilihiri;—'\'\mt |Mirtlnii of the 
 natiniial revenue that is wlllulrawn frnin tlie imlilii' 
 by means nf taxes, and apprnpriated in tlic ii.cdi' 
 gnverninent, ainniinlN in minid nuiiibers in iiIiihii 
 7(t,<Ml(l.il(iii' sterling. The rev<<iiue inrn'iiNcil In 
 •i(l,(lim,(l(lll/„ nr forty percent., in the rniir-ie nl' u 
 (piarter of n I'entnry, It w.i-- aliniii .VI.oiiii.ihiii/, in 
 the vear |H|(i, and 'mse In .'r.'.imo.niMi/. in |N|;;,;iii,| 
 In .i;t.(Ml(l,(i(Mi/. in INI.-., rrnni iML-iiill IX.VJ. Ill, 
 revenue remiiined stalinmirv ; but in iH.'i.'l ii |i;i,| 
 risen too 1,000,11(1(1/., in \h:,\ in,')i;,oi)o,iHi(i/„iii |s.',., 
 
 tnti:),(l(MI,(IO(l/.,in IK.''ilito(;s,0(lll,OOII/.,iiliilili js.'i'.ihi 
 the 70,0(H(,()0(l/. where it now stiimis. This j, a very 
 hirgesiim; but it must not thence be iiil'i'iTiil ili.ii 
 tuxatinii is herecnmpariitively heavy, lis jirivun' 
 is nnt In be estimated by the acluill iiniiiiiiit nf Ilie 
 sum taken from the |iei>|>le and lodged in iln'inll'ir^ j 
 of the treasury; hut liv t lie inoili- in which laxcMirc 
 iinpnsed, and the ability nf the iienple to licartliini. 
 In snme cnuntries taxes are iinpnsed mi rirtiiin 
 classes only; and even where this gross iiii-i|ii,'ilitv 
 lines tint exist, they ar(> nl'ten imposed on crrniii'inh 
 )irinciples, and in a way that makes their asM'ss- 
 ment and colleclioii jieciiliarly dillieiill ainl iiijii- 
 rioiis, Ihit in the L, Kingdom taxaiinii pri'-MS I 
 
 eiiiiaily, or verv nearly s n all classes; iiml. 
 
 Without pretendnig to say that this s_\steiii of tax- 
 ation is perfect, or that it might nnt bo iiialiriiilly { 
 improved, it a|i|iears, speaking generally, lo Ik' 
 founded on sound principles, and is priii'lically iii 
 little injurious as il could well Ix- reiiiliTnl. riii: 
 intliience of taxation in (ireat Itritaiii ll.^<< imi | 
 been hostile to theincrea.se of public opiilciiiTaiiil 
 jirivate cnmfnrt. To the desire nf rising in iln' 
 world, the increasing pressure nf taxiilioii (liiriiy 
 times nf war superadded the fear of lieiiig liinnvii I 
 down to u hiwcr station; and the two tn^ccllMfj 
 ]iro(luced results nnt to be looked fur I'mni ili''[ 
 unassisted agency of either. Oppressive taxi-j 
 would have had an n|tposite etTect ; ami iiistculii'l 
 jirnducing new displays nf industry and (riiiiinn^. 
 would hav(! proihiced only despair and imtimial 
 impoverishment. 
 
 About two-thirds of the public rcvoimc aroilo-j 
 rived from duties of customs and excise; nml the j 
 rest from the property and income tax, tliediilirtj 
 on stamps, the a.sses.sed taxes, and the pust-dlliccj 
 
 The .subjoined statement is the ollicial awoimt I 
 
 (I llip griwi* piibH 
 ill iImi y«<ttri'iidei| 
 
 I'll 
 
 ('n«ioni« , , 
 
 K«rl»» . . 
 
 Hunilis 
 
 Tmi- ( I.«iii| mill Al 
 
 I'Mln 11 V Tim , 
 
 (•iLt I ifflii. 
 
 Crowii l.miils (Ndt) 
 
 Mi-ii 1 1 l.ANKnis ; . 
 
 rriHlnreiif Ilie Hiilr 
 i.r liM .Mfnres Mil, I 
 "lilt r. Military iiii.l 
 Niual I'xtru II.-. 
 
 ril|i|s . , , 
 
 ,\li.nuiil, riTeh«^| 
 frniii (lie Itevi'iiiinii 
 nl IimIIu nil Hii. 
 n.iiiitiif I lid \'',IT,,u 
 liii' anil Null. 
 itTii'tlve riiiirifca 
 "I lirltlxli TriMiiHt 
 -rvlii)/ In eiiiit 
 iiMiiilry (Iiii'IihI. 
 liil/:lii)i,NH(l/. |mj7,| 
 iirniir cliiirtfes) .J 
 Allnuaiice nnt nfi 
 I'mlllH of |;<Mio 
 nii'lviil frntti tlie ' 
 llniik nf Kliifliiliil, I 
 IktAcI'-'I Viet.c.lll 
 
 Ml-ri'llaii M He. \ 
 
 ii'lplH, liiiiiidlnul 
 
 Inijin'stiiiiil other [ 
 
 Mniieys , , f 
 
 ( liliiii War liiileni- 1 
 
 iiHy . . .; 
 
 Total nc 
 
 Tlin public expen 
 aci'iitiiry, has kept | 
 ew\i items nf cxpi 
 till' .Natinnal Debt, 
 ■iniiy inid navy, whii 
 mure than twn-thir 
 l>y tnxation, leavin>i 
 L'liii'riil gnvernment 
 ilii' otHcial nccnunt < 
 liin' nf the L'nited 1 
 lliL'3l)th June, JwtMi 
 
 rtmuc K 
 
 Inlermt nml ManaKcmc 
 
 niBtipiit Deljf, , 
 Ti'miliialiU. Annuities 
 Intercut of Kxi'lie(|iier I 
 ;ui(rci.t of KxclHHpier I 
 ChnrKCHon (.'oiinolli 
 'M\ blst , 
 
 AnniiltiuH nml Ponslons 
 Wiirtps mill Alldwaiicei 
 I'iplonmtic .Salaries and 
 ''"llfH of ,Iiistlop 
 ULicclliineoiis CliarKOH 
 fiupply Services :— 
 
 •^nvy , , , ' 
 'liwcllnnroiis Civil Serv 
 f»larliv., &c. of llevemK. 
 lai'kct .'^iTvIco . 
 Kfrt'li mill 'i'eniknlo Pri 
 SthclUt Toll Iloleinptlon 
 
 Total Expcn 
 
 Tlie following table 
 jf the actual revenue 
 liiiteil Kingdom dnri 
 1 accordance with tin 
 I talttct estimates have 
 IJ'nofI up tn the year 
 *pnl, and subscqiieiitlj 
 
imrTisir kmpthk 
 
 fin.i 
 
 (Yllio KriMM piiMli' imciinii' of llii< I'nltol Kiii^^ilnni 
 ill (III' >«ar t'lnlnl il !■ ;Uiili ility nlMiiin', IhiU; — 
 
 I'l'IIUH' (M'OMK, iNlli I. 
 
 IIIKI r 
 
 Ciiitnnm f • « ■ 
 K»i'l«i • • . • 
 Knniiti" . . . . 
 
 JhXi- I I.IIIkI IUhI AMM'MOtt) 
 
 l'rci|»it V Tux . . . 
 |'ii.t ( >m<i' , , , 
 
 I rimii l.tiiiclK (Nflt.) •, , 
 Ml* II l.ANKiiiK ; 
 |'ri«liii''<'f ttiii Hiil<' 
 
 i>r olil Htnri'M nil' I 
 
 nili. r Mllltiiry I 
 
 Niuiil I'Xtru 
 
 I'l'l|lli4 . 
 
 Aiii'PiiMt riT('l\>i| 
 fri'iii tlx' Ui'Vi'iiiii'it 
 
 (,l llllllll nil l»l- 
 
 (i.iiiitiif I ho I'.ITti' 
 live mill Nriii- 
 iiTc'i'tlvi- Cliiirui'M 
 ,1 llrltlnti Tri».|.-i 
 nrvliiK 111 Unit 
 i-ipiinlry (liirlml 
 Iiik;ii;!i,nhii/. ih,;,/ 
 iirniir i'liiir>fi'») , ) 
 MlnwiliU'c lint of 
 
 rrillllM <lf iMMItl 
 
 nii'lviil from I lie 
 llHiik of Kiitfliiiiil, 
 |rrArl'.'IVi<l.r.:l 
 
 Vi lllllll'llllH Ul'- 
 
 ii-lptH, liK'hiillntf 
 lni|>n'Htiiii<l (itlicr 
 
 MllllI'VH 
 
 (liliiii War liidem 
 iilty . 
 
 t. <l. 
 
 <M4,0IM I I 
 
 Vi,H7l,<"tO 
 
 iN.niiii.iNiii 
 
 il.VnO.IMMI 
 H.ll l"i,IIIN» 
 il.H'^II.IHNI 
 i|ll<'>,'i<HI 
 
 I,|II4,NHI( IH 7 
 
 ":} 
 
 ini,A7H 
 
 <l4R,ini 4 4 
 
 4:14, 747 n 
 
 ;i,(rj;i,.i(;n 4 
 
 Total Tlovrnnn . (I!i,!MI-.',!MI(I 4 l» 
 
 Tho piililic cxiK'ndiMirc, for the Inst qunrtiT of 
 ncciitiirv, liiiM k('|il iiiK'c with tlui rcvciiiii'. Tin- 
 jrn'dt items of i'X|i('ii(liiur(> nrc iIk- iiilircul of 
 the NatioiMil Dt'lit, iiml tli<> iilllinti'iiniu'c of llic 
 aniiy iiml iiiivy, wliicli tom'tluT lake coMsidiTnlily 
 nmri' th/ll) two-tliinlH of (In- wliolr niiiii riiiscd 
 liv tiixalioii, It'MviiiK li'Ns timn oiio-lliinl for llic 
 t'iiicriil (,'"V<'niniriit of tlu^ realm. Sulijoliied is 
 llic iillii'ial aceoiiiit of llie ^m,ss |iiililic exjiemli- 
 liiK of tho IJniteil Kingdom in the year iiiuloil 
 ilio 30th June, l«t;4:— 
 
 rimuc ExpENDrrunit, l8(>3-4. 
 
 £ t. <l. 
 Interwit mill MnnnKcmcnt of tlio Pcr- 
 
 mniioiil Debt S3,714.8in 11 7 
 
 TiTnilimlile AniiiiitloH . . , •i,174,:i.Mt !•,' 4 
 
 IntcTi'Ht of Kxeliecnier nniids . . \>>i,r,im 
 
 '.ntcrcxtof Kxeheqiier IlillH . . 3U./..'.H fi 10 
 ClmriffH on ('oiiwltdnted Funil :-- 
 
 rivlllM 4nf!,nir) 14 n 
 
 AnniiltiuH nnil PonRlons . . . i\T2,iM Jl 1) 
 
 ("alarios mill AUownnces . . . 17(l,y'>0 ft 1 
 
 Iiililnnmtic Sill nrlc's otid Pensions . 17ii,:i'.'7 'i 1 
 
 (Vrar'M)f Jnstlee .... OSd.iidl i:i 11 
 
 MUi-lliinooilMCliaWM . , . lKl,43;t l.') II 
 Supiily Scrvlci's : — 
 
 Army 14.(l.'in,lM fi 1 
 
 Xnvy 10,II0!I,(;0'.» 7 it 
 
 MlnccllnnPonH Civil HcrvlroH . . 7,:I(!ii,h:i:M!) 1 
 
 ."alarles, &r. of Ilevemie Depnrtmcntg 4,r.lH,HH;i 10 1 
 
 hi'kct Serviee »i71».:t!Mi IH -2 
 
 Kmrh mid Yeniknlo Prize Money . Hfi.nar, o n 
 
 Scheldt Toll Uedoinption . . . 174,.'.iiH 1« I 
 
 Total Expcndltnro 
 
 C(i,(i4;),o78 2 a 
 
 Tlie followinj; tnhlc cxhibitH the total nmonnt 
 <'[ the actual rovenuo and cxiieiulituro of the 
 United Kinplom during tlio 16 years 1850-04. 
 In accordiitu'c with the nystein upon which the 
 tiiiilcet estimatCH liave Ik>c>ii framed, the linancial 
 Kfiixlup to the year 1854 ended on tlu? M\ of 
 April, and subsequently on the last day of March. 
 
 'I'lie Hrt ninounlii of ri<vi<niH< nnd rx|M<Mditiiri> arc 
 
 kImii u|i Io It nd >i|' ilir iliinMriiil year |r>.h>-iHl, 
 
 and the ffnui» ntnonnlH nller Itwt |ichiMli— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mil *iniiuHU 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 C 
 
 April ft. 
 
 IHM) 
 
 ftj.niii.niii 
 
 «".:17M,417 
 
 1 II 
 
 IH.M 
 
 ft;i,»'.7,<i.'iJ 
 
 a\>.»»-j:wj 
 
 II 
 
 iN.Vi 
 
 Ai,4)tN,:i|l) 
 
 fto,V!>l.:iV:i 
 
 It 
 
 iHftJI 
 
 ft:i,'J|:l.';iH 
 
 M.T^JMi* 
 
 • • 
 
 IHM 
 
 AI,774.INiA 
 
 ri{.-iw,\ji\ 
 
 Mureh »l 
 
 iMftft 
 
 Ali,llMi,|:<l 
 
 ti;.,iiti.,>,iitij 
 
 i» 
 
 iMMi 
 
 IHftT 
 
 Uft,7il-t,4tM 
 
 NH,t'JH,tl4A 
 
 
 11M4,'i>nj 
 
 Tfl,r,HH,Hli' 
 
 
 IM.'iH , 
 
 HT,»l»l.ft|!l 
 
 tm.i'js.H.Mi 
 
 II 
 
 INftI) 
 
 llft,477,';H4 
 
 iM.tKl'I.NMi 
 
 II 
 
 1N«|I) , 
 
 7 1 ,)IN|),lltll) 
 
 •:ii,f.i»'J,7W> 
 
 II 
 
 IHfll 
 
 7».'iM:l.il74 
 
 TJ.7wj,M,\i 
 
 II 
 
 IMfi'i 
 
 rili,tl74,47I» 
 
 71,1 HI. I"'" 
 
 
 IMIIII 
 
 7n,tio:i,fttll 
 
 lili,:lii',j,lioN 
 
 II 
 
 IWM 
 
 70,'i0M,IHIt 
 
 (l7,llMI,'.'Ntl 
 
 Hulijoined is a slalcinent exhihiliii^' the ^riisM 
 revenue, after ilediieliii|{ reiiMyiiicnts, iiliuwiiiirrs, 
 diMi'ountH, (Iriiwliaeks, iiiid lioiiiities in tlir iintiire 
 of drawliaoks, for (ireat Itrllain and Irejnnil, for 
 eurh year from I8P.'-.'I to |8(I|-"J, enliiilated ill 
 iierioils of live years eaih. The re(ei|iis of the 
 rost-otilee, erown liimls, and of all otlur smirres 
 raised in Ireland towards the revenues of the 
 I'nited Kinplom, are included in the revenue of 
 Irelinid. 
 
 Tmt 
 
 UrMt Britain 
 
 IrrUnd 
 
 
 K 
 
 C 
 
 lH4•^-l^ 
 
 4<i,oii,!i;ii 
 
 4,'.'iiH,(;!H 
 
 1M:I-I4 
 
 ftl.l.'ill.Slll 
 
 4.IIH..IH7 
 
 lH4l-4ft 
 
 f.;i,'Ji!i.7i2 
 
 4,tiii>,'.>l8 
 
 |M4f, 1(1 
 
 :.! .:!•.' i,r,;,7 
 
 4,7ii.s,2ll| 
 
 lM-lt;-47 
 
 ft'i,:ia.'.,ri7H 
 
 4,».'.l»,013 
 
 
 •J.'.4 ,0112,737 
 
 22,48.1,700 
 
 1K47-4H 
 
 ni.4<in,r.4fl 
 
 4,4f.4,4ll7 
 
 IK|8-4!» 
 
 ft2.:iM ,»».'. 
 
 4,ft7l,ti!i;l 
 
 IS4!l-r.(» 
 
 ft'J.fi.'pH.H.II 
 
 4,:i:i.'i,207 
 
 IH.MI-:,! 
 
 M,4IH,ll!l 
 
 4,'.'(il,.',(ii 
 
 IMftl-M 
 
 ftl, SI 1,11111 
 
 4,:!'.'l,8(ift 
 
 
 2flo,ri00,i/in 
 
 ft'.',tOII,(l.'ijl 
 
 21,!)47,7(i:i 
 
 4,i(:fi,mi3 
 
 lHr.a-ft:i 
 
 1Hft:l-.'i4 
 
 (ir.,|(ni,(i.',s 
 
 ^>.»84,f.27 
 
 lMft4-.'.ft 
 
 ft7,4f.:i,2mi 
 
 ft.imii.THfi 
 
 18fif.-rifi 
 
 fi2,tUi:l.2(m 
 
 (!.71!t,:im( 
 
 186«-ft7 
 
 (14,721, 0811 
 
 fl,!t77.8:il) 
 
 
 802,044,801) 
 
 fin,n2;i,34!i 
 
 30,()ftfl,ft44 
 
 fi,7;i7.ifti 
 
 1(W.7-ftS 
 
 IHfiS-.'iO 
 
 ri(i.K|!l,!l77 
 
 0.|.'18,H70 
 
 IHftiMIO 
 
 (12,224,(i:i!t 
 
 7,07ii,7:i2 
 
 ISdO-fil 
 
 02,4!i:i,7|:i 
 
 ti,0'.".MI8 
 
 18«l-(ia 
 
 61 ,!i(;0,74» 
 
 o.'y.'.ciMi 
 
 
 302,822,461 
 
 83,«(17,607 
 
 A return moved for in (inrliament in tlio session 
 of I8(;H, shows that in 1801 the >;ross revenue col- 
 lected in (ireat liritain, excluding niiscellaneous 
 receipts, amounted to itr»,'J18..''i26/., and in Ireland 
 to'2,!)ll»,'JI7/. In the tinaiicial year 18)ll-(;2 the 
 amount, as seen in theahovc table, wasOl.iUlO,"!!)/. 
 rceeivecl of (ireat liritain, and {>,7*J'2fiOi>/. of Ire- 
 land. Therefore, in 1801 the gross revenue re- 
 ceived in Great Kritain amounted to .')/. ".«. per 
 head of population, and in Ireland, II.1. 2r/.; while, 
 
 o o 2 
 
Mi 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 ill \Hn\-n2, the nmo'int per honil wn» 2/. liJu. in 
 (Iridt Hritain, niul I/. ;U. M. in Ireland. 
 'I'll!! Hiilijdiiicd (alili! (>xliiliitH tlu; total nmouiit 
 
 iinkluced l»y ••ach hraiicli of the revenue, in (Jreat 
 Wtain and Ireland reHjiectively, after dednetinj^ 
 ri'ttaynn-iitH and drawbackH, tfec, for the year end- 
 inf,' iMarchai, l«tJ3:— 
 
 Customs : 
 
 (Iroat IlrltaiH 
 
 Irulund .... 
 
 Unital Kingdom . 
 
 Inland Uuvkni k : Excihk— 
 Orcat lUltaiu 
 Iroland. 
 
 ITnltoil Kingdom . . 
 
 Stamps— 
 
 ttrent Britain 
 
 Ircluiul .... 
 
 United Kingdom . 
 
 Incomk AM) PnoPEriTY Tax— 
 Urottt Britain 
 Ireland, 
 
 United Kingdom . 
 
 Assessed Taxes — 
 Urcat Britain . 
 
 Land Tax— 
 
 Grout Britain , 
 
 Total Ixland Uevenur— 
 Great Britain 
 Ireland . 
 
 United Kingdom . 
 
 Post Office— 
 
 Great Britain , 
 Ireland . 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 Woods, Fouests, and Land Revk 
 hues— 
 Great Britain • , 
 
 Miscellaneous — 
 Groat! Biitain 
 Ireland . 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 TOTAt— 
 
 Great Britain 
 Ireland . 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 A 
 
 2I,7HI»,HI« 
 
 2,'J.-.S,ii77 
 
 24,oija,H!»;i 
 
 ]4.4ni,n22 
 
 2,722,1161 
 17,174,28:1 
 
 8,418,971 
 557,768 
 
 8,976,739 
 
 9,808,299 
 674,289 
 
 10,482,588 
 
 2,038,981 
 1,100,354 
 
 85,824,520 
 8,954,419 
 
 39,778,945 
 
 3,423.254 
 271,950 
 
 3,695,210 
 
 432,048 
 
 2,717,782 
 35,779 
 
 2,753,661 
 
 64,178,426 
 6,520,231 
 
 70,698,657 
 
 Subjoined is the account of the total expendi- 
 ture, including charges of collection, of the United 
 Kingdom, for the year ending March 31, 1863 : — 
 
 CiiAnoEs AND Expenses op Collectino 
 TilE Re\'knue : 
 
 Customs 
 
 Inland Revenue .... 
 Woods, Forests, and Land Re- 
 venues 
 
 PostOfllce 
 
 Total 
 
 Public Deut : 
 
 Interest on Permanent Debt 
 Terminable Annuities 
 Management .... 
 Interest on Exchequer Bills 
 „ „ Bonds . 
 
 Total 
 
 £ 
 
 971,187 
 1,474,489 
 
 152,152 
 3,004,804 
 
 0,698,632 
 
 23,624,367 
 
 1,910,363 
 
 201,260 
 
 371,917 
 
 123,760 
 
 26,231,657 
 
 Civil Ooveii.vment : 
 
 Civil l.ixt and Allowanecu to 
 lluyul Kaniily , . . . 
 Civil Dopartmcnte ( Including 
 LonI Lieutenant of Ireland, 
 and hlH KHtablUhinont, and 
 Printing, Stutionory, and Post- 
 age for Public iJepurtiiieutH) . 
 All other AnnultieH, Peniilons, 
 and Buporannuation Allow- 
 ances separately provideil for . 
 Heueditakv Pensions formerly Paid 
 out of the Hovenuo from the Ex- 
 cise, Post Offlce, and Woods and 
 Forests, in Its Progress to the 
 Exclieciuor 
 
 Total 
 
 OtIIEB PEnMANENT AND TE.MPonAKV 
 Civil. SEIlVIt'ES : 
 
 Expense of Establishment for 
 administering the Poor Laws . 
 
 Secret Service .] porolgn" '. 
 
 Civil Government, Isle of Man . 
 
 General Superintendent of Turn- 
 pike Roads in Wales, Salaries 
 and Expenses . . . . 
 Miscellaneous Chakues . 
 
 Total 
 
 JUOTICE : 
 
 Courts of Justice 
 
 Police and Criminal Prosecu- 
 tions 
 
 Prisons and Convict Establish- 
 ments 
 
 Total 
 
 Diplomatic : 
 
 Ministers abroad, Salaries and 
 
 I'ensions 
 
 Consuls abroad. Salaries and 
 
 Pensions (including Services 
 
 in China, &c.) . . . . 
 Extraonlinary Expenses and 
 
 Outata 
 
 Total 
 
 FoncES : 
 
 Fortifications . . . 
 Army, including Ordnance 
 Navy 
 
 Total 
 
 Public Wouks t 
 
 Education : 
 
 Great Britain : Public Edncatton 
 „ Grants to Uni- 
 versities 
 
 Ireland: Public Education 
 
 „ Grants to Universities 
 and Colleges, &o. . 
 
 Schools of Design, Fublio Mu- 
 seums, iiC 
 
 Total 
 
 Colonial Charges : 
 
 Certain Civil Establishments 
 
 and Salaries, &c. . . . 
 
 M1SCELI4.VNEOUS 
 
 Total ExpENDmmB 
 
 .C 
 
 4H6,88:j 
 
 l,30,'),ll.', 
 20I,!I96 
 
 7,860 
 
 l,99!),3r,3 
 
 231,12;! 
 
 111,0(11) 
 30,HIII) 
 lU.S'JU 
 
 1,223 
 2I,U15 
 
 305,317 
 
 1,003,068 
 
 1 ,079,1)79 
 
 822,473 
 
 3,565,520 
 
 173,23(i 
 
 248,470 
 
 89,000 
 
 510,706 
 
 1,050,000 
 16,264,7110 
 11,370,588 
 
 28,685.378 
 844,222 
 
 782,119 
 
 27,563 
 33(i,281 
 
 58,430 
 
 1,204,393 
 
 227,219 
 
 l,431,oI2 
 
 213.993 
 1,077,679 
 
 70,464,069 
 
 The National Debt of Great Britain, the inten 
 on which consumes more than one-third of the r 
 venues of the United Kingdom, dates fromthJ 
 time of the Revolution, and from that pcriwl luT 
 been increasing in the following proportions :- 
 
 Debt at the rovol 
 
 in 1689 . 
 ExocMsnf dnbtcont 
 
 (luring the reh 
 
 William in. 
 
 debt paid off . 
 
 Debt at the access 
 
 j Quoen Anno, in I 
 
 Debt contracted d 
 
 Queen Anne's rei| 
 
 I Debt at the access! 
 I George I., in 1714 
 j Debt paid off durin 
 reign of Oeorgi 
 ! above debt contra 
 
 1 Debt at the accessir 
 
 ' George IL. In 172 
 
 Debt contracted fron 
 
 ncccRMlon of Goorg 
 
 till the peace of 1 
 
 in 1763, three j 
 
 after the ncccssioi 
 
 I George III. . 
 
 .Debt in 1763 . 
 Pair! during peace, f 
 1763 to 1775 . . . 
 
 Debt at the commei 
 ment of the Ameri 
 war, in 1775 . 
 
 Debt contracted dm 
 the American war 
 
 i Debt at the conclusini 
 j the American war 
 I 1784 
 
 i Paid during peace, f i 
 , 1784 to 1793 . 
 
 iDebt at the commer 
 I ment of the Froi 
 1 war, in 1793 . 
 jDebt contracted dur 
 the French war 
 
 Total funded and 
 ; funded debt on the 
 { ofFcb., 1817, when 
 I English and Irish 
 j chequers were consi 
 I dated . 
 
 I Debt cancelled from 
 
 IstofFeb., 1817,toi 
 I of January, 1836 
 
 Debt, and charge there 
 ! 5th of January, 18;J( 
 
 The stat« of the Nj 
 from 1«50 to 1864, ha 
 
 Financial Tcara 
 j ended 
 
 April 5, 
 
 1850 
 
 n 
 
 1851 
 
 » 
 
 1852 
 
 „ 
 
 1853 
 
 ft 
 
 1854 
 
 March 31 
 
 , 1855 
 
 )) 
 
 1856 
 
 )i 
 
 1857 
 
 » 
 
 1858 
 
 »» 
 
 1859 
 
 It 
 
 I860 
 
 )i 
 
 1861 
 
 'i 
 
 1862 
 
 If 
 
 1863 
 
 » 
 
 1864 
 
 Fund< 
 
 fi 
 
 773,16f 
 769,272 
 765,126 
 761,622 
 755,311 
 752,064 
 776,730 
 780,119 
 779,226 
 786,801 
 785,962 
 785,11!) 
 784,252 
 783,306 
 777,429, 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 66li 
 
 Debt (it the rovoliitlon, \ 
 in 1689 . . . f 
 
 Exfl''"* "f il"t't c()iitriu!t<Hl \ 
 (InrliiK tlio rulgn of | 
 William III. above r 
 (lubt paid off . . ) 
 
 Debt nt the ncceiwlnn of ) 
 I Qiiccn Anne, In 1702 ) 
 ' Debt contrnctc<l during ) 
 I Queen Anne's reign / 
 
 j Debt nt the accession of ) 
 j Ooorgol., in 1714 . I 
 I Debt pnid off during the ] 
 I reign of George I., [ 
 I above debt contracted ) 
 
 I Debt nt the accession of 
 George 11.. in 1727 
 
 Debtcontrnctc<l from tbe" 
 nccc«<ion of Oeorgo IT. 
 till the peace of Paris 
 in 1763, throe ycnrs 
 after the accession of 
 
 j George III. . . 
 
 Debt In 1763 . 
 j Paid during pence, from ) 
 j 1763 to 1776 ... j 
 
 I Debt at the commence- ^ 
 mcnt of the American \ 
 i wnr,Inl775 . . I 
 Debt contracted during) 
 I the American war ) 
 
 1 Debt at the conclusion of ) 
 the American war, in ^ 
 [ 1784 ... I 
 Paid during pence, from ) 
 , 1784 to 1793 . . J 
 
 Debt at the commence-' 
 j mcnt of the French 
 I war, in 1793 . 
 Debt contracted during 
 the French war . 
 
 Total funded and un- 
 funded debt on the 1st I 
 ofFeb., 1817,whcnthol 
 English and Irish ex- 
 chequers were consoli- | 
 dated 
 
 ' Debt cancelled from the ) 
 1 lBtofFeb.,1817,to6th ^ 
 I of January, 1836 . ) 
 
 Debt, and charge thereon ) 
 i 5th of January, 1836 j 
 
 Prinrlpal 
 fiinili'it ami 
 uiifuiuUtt 
 
 £ 
 
 664,863 
 
 16,730,439 
 
 liilrmt 
 
 aiitl MaiiiMfe. 
 
 mcnt 
 
 £ 
 
 »9,8S6 
 
 1,271,087 
 
 16,394,702 
 37,750,661 
 
 64,146,363 
 2,063,125 
 
 62,092,238 
 86,773,192 
 
 138,865,430 
 10,281,795 
 
 128,683,636 
 121,267,993 
 
 1,310,942 
 2,040,410 
 
 3,361,368 
 1,133,807 
 
 2,217,551 
 3,034,600 
 
 4,862,061 
 880,480 
 
 4,471,871 
 4,980,201 
 
 249,851 ,628 
 10,501,380 
 
 239,350,148 
 601,500,343 
 
 840,850,491 
 
 9,451,772 
 243,277 
 
 9,208,495 
 22,829,696 
 
 63,211,676 
 
 787,638,810 
 
 32,038,191 
 
 2,894,074 
 29,143,817 
 
 In lH(!t tho sum of fi.OOO.non/. of (ho uiirc- 
 ilcrmcd fiintled dclit was cniuu-llpd, nnd n tcmiin- 
 a1)le annuity created in lieu thereof, under the L'dlli 
 Vict. cap. 2"), sect. 2. 
 
 Under a ]ircviou» Act, 48 (Ico. I II., rap. 142, tho 
 conmiissioncrs for tho reduction of tho National 
 Debt wore etnpowcrod to convert consols into lifo 
 annuitioH. The coinmissionors have to presout 
 annual aocountH to parliament, in respect to idl 
 trunsautioiiH in connootioii with the public debt. 
 
 Tho balancoH in the oxchoquor at the end of 
 each liiiaiu:ial |K^riod, duriiij; the 10 yooru from 
 1841) to I8t)4, w(!re an follows : — 
 
 The stat« of the National Debt for the 15 years, 
 from 1850 to 1864, has been as follows : — 
 
 Financial Yean cnilnl 
 
 Amount 
 
 
 
 April 6, 
 
 1849 . 
 
 8,105,562 
 
 
 1850 . 
 
 9,748,540 
 
 
 1851 . 
 
 9,245,676 
 
 If 
 
 1852 . 
 
 8,381,637 
 
 It 
 
 1853 , 
 
 8,841,822 
 
 „ 
 
 1854 . 
 
 4,485,230 
 
 March 31 
 
 , 1855 . 
 
 3,!»49,775 
 
 fi 
 
 1856 . 
 
 5,600,621 
 
 ,1 
 
 1857 . 
 
 8,668,371 
 
 »» 
 
 1858 . 
 
 0,657,802 
 
 tt 
 
 1859 . 
 
 7,789,083 
 
 i» 
 
 18(i0 . 
 
 7,072,8(i4 
 
 
 1861 . 
 
 6,672,132 
 
 » 
 
 1802 . 
 
 6,288,676 
 
 
 1863 . 
 
 7,263.839 
 
 )t 
 
 1864 . 
 
 7,352,548 
 
 Financial Tcan 
 
 Detcrlrtion of Debt 1 
 
 ended 
 
 Funded 
 
 Unfunded 
 
 Total 
 
 April 5, 1850 
 
 i „ 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 „ 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1 March 31, 1855 
 
 „ 1856 
 1 „ 1857 
 i „ 1858 
 ! „ 1859 
 i „ 1860 
 i „ 1861 
 i „ 1862 
 
 „ 1863 
 
 „ 1804 
 
 £ 
 
 773,168,310 
 769,272.562 
 765,120,582 
 761,622,704 
 755,311.701 
 752,064,119 
 775,730,994 
 780,119,722 
 779,225,495 
 786,801,154 
 785,902,000 
 785,119,609 
 784,252,338 
 783,300,739 
 777,429,224 
 
 £ 
 
 17,758,700 
 17,756,600 
 17,742,800 
 17,742,500 
 16,024,100 
 23,151,400 
 28,182,700 
 27,989,000 
 25,911,000 
 18,277,400 
 16,228,300 
 16,689,000 
 16,517,900 
 16,495,400 
 13,130,000 
 
 £ 
 
 790,927,016 
 787,029,162 
 782,869,382 
 779,365,804 
 771,335,801 
 775,215.519 
 803,913,694 
 808,108,722 
 805,130,995 
 805,078,654 
 802,190,300 
 801,808,609 
 8(tO,770,238 
 799,802,139 
 790,665,224 
 
 In the financial year ending with March 1802, 
 the amount of property and profits assessed to iii- 
 corno tax in Great liritain was 301,a80.7i}0/., beiiiK 
 IH/. 0». 7Jrf. per head of the population, takiii}? 
 this at the same number enumerated at the cen- 
 sus in April 1861; in Ireland, 21,638,975/., or 
 3/. 14ji. 7irf. per head. The (ifross amount of the 
 public revenue, excluding miscellaneous receipts, 
 was in Great Hritain 2/. 13«. per head of tho popu- 
 lation, or is. (i^d. in the pound u{)on the inconio 
 assessed to income tax; in Ireland, 1/. 3s. M. per 
 head of the population, or 6«. 3,\(/. in the pound 
 upon the income assessed to income tax. 
 
 Army and Navy, — The formation of a standing 
 army being long regarded with extreme jealousy 
 and aversion, its establishment in Kngland is of 
 comparatively modem origin, not dating farther 
 back than the reign of Charles II. It is annually 
 provided for by a vote of the II. of C. ; so that it 
 IS always in the power of the latter at any time to 
 reduce, or, if it see cause, totally to disband, the 
 army. But the old jealousies of which it was the 
 object no longer exist ; and there can be no doubt 
 that the establishment of a properly trained regu- 
 lar military force is indis))cnsable to guarantee tho 
 natiimal indeiiendence from hostile attack. The 
 British army has been employed in every <;uarter 
 of the world, and has cv(!rywhere oxhiuited all 
 those qualities that go to form a perfect military 
 force — the most unflinching courage, combined 
 with the greatest patience and fortitude under pri- 
 vations and hordships, and the constant observ- 
 ance of the strictest discipline. 
 
 The British army is recruited by moans of 
 voluntary enlistment only ; and it is to 1)0 hoped 
 that all attempts to introduce the conscription 
 into this country may meet with no better success 
 in future than that -which has hitherto attended 
 them. If soldiers could not be procured by other 
 moans, necessity would form a valid oxciiso for 
 the introduction of a conscription. But no such 
 necessity has ever existed. No coimtry that 
 chooses to pay fair wages to its troops, and which 
 treats them as men employed in the service of 
 their country should be treated, can ever want for 
 
660 
 
 BRITISH EMTIRE 
 
 a supply of voluntary rocniits. The annual 
 Mutiny Act, and tho ArliclcH of War iwHucd l>y 
 the crown, und Hulijoincd to the Mutiny Act, con- 
 Htitut<> the code of martial law in force in the 
 British amiy. 
 
 According; to the army cstimatcH laid before the 
 H. of (!. ill ttie Hcssion of lK(i4, the total force of 
 the United Kinploni, during the year IHO-t-Ho, 
 consisted of IKi,7(!<5 men. This force was com- 
 posed of the following regiments, de|M)ts, and 
 training cstablishmentH : — 
 
 Tear 18C4-05 
 
 Olllcers on the Qeno- 1 
 rul ytiitr . . .J 
 
 REdl.MKNTS : — 
 Hoynl Horse /Vrtillery . 
 LifcGiinrdsaiullIortio | 
 
 Guards . . , i 
 Cnvnlry of tbo Lino 
 Itoyal Artillery , 
 liidinp Kstablishment . 
 Itoyal EiiKiiiecra . 
 Alilitary Train 
 Foot Guards 
 Infantry of the Lino . 
 Army Hospital Corps . 
 Coinmissariat Stuff ) 
 
 Corps . . / 
 West India Hoglments. 
 Colonial Corps 
 
 Total . 
 
 DepOts op Indian Re- 
 
 OlMKNTS :— 
 
 Royal Hoi'se Artillery . 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 lloyal Artillery . 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Totol . 
 
 REcnurrnJO and ornEii 
 
 EsTAnuSlIMENTS :— 
 Cavalry depfits . . 
 Infantry ilepiits . 
 Recruiting Establish- ) 
 aients . . ) 
 Instruction in Gunnery 
 „ Engineering 
 „ Musketry . 
 
 Total . 
 
 Tratnino Schools: — 
 Cadet Company, Wool- ) 
 
 wicU ... J 
 Royal Military Col- 1 
 
 lego, Sandhurst j 
 Regimental Schools 
 
 Total . 
 
 Recai'ituiation :— 
 Totol General Staff 
 „ Regiments . 
 , , Depots of Indian 
 
 Regiments 
 „ Recruiting and 
 other Esta- 
 blisliments 
 „ Training Schools 
 
 Offlcon 
 
 103 
 
 80 
 
 44 
 
 381 
 
 4.56 
 
 18 
 180 
 
 36 
 
 27 
 
 261 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 103 
 6,613 
 
 4S6 
 
 261 
 
 26 
 
 Total 
 
 Nnn-commii. 
 
 OIRcrra, 
 Truniivtcn, 
 
 and 
 Druiumeri 
 
 132 
 
 09 
 
 1!I2 
 
 r>7H 
 
 1,001 
 
 mr> 
 
 l,71i> 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 401 
 
 374 
 
 107 
 
 200 
 
 2.57 
 
 446 
 
 3,849 
 
 7,1.56 
 
 1 
 
 220 
 
 1 
 
 112 
 
 240 
 
 839 
 
 isr, 
 
 303 
 
 6,613 
 
 12,203 
 
 8 
 
 3.5 
 
 143 
 71 
 
 770 
 
 1,019 
 
 23 
 176 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 1,5 
 
 .55 
 
 3S3 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 215 
 
 271 
 
 12,203 
 1,019 
 
 353 
 271 
 
 7,459 13,846 
 
 Hank and 
 
 Filo 
 
 1,720 
 
 1,029 
 
 8,432 
 
 14,724 
 
 205 
 
 3,918 
 
 1,534 
 
 fi,(iOO 
 
 71,7,50 
 
 759 
 
 488 
 
 3,7.50 
 3,582 
 
 117,491 
 
 404 
 
 627 
 
 1,341 
 
 5,500 
 
 7,872 
 
 48 
 38 
 86 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 117,491 
 7,872 
 
 86 
 12 
 
 125,461 
 
 Subjoined is an account, taken from official docu- 
 ments, of the regular troops (exclusive of the ord- 
 nance) at home, in the colonies, and in foreign 
 
 countries, In 17fl2, 1815, ond 1853. The stntc- 
 inent may serve as a comparative table in regard 
 to the actual strength of the army :— . 
 
 
 1703 
 
 ISIS 
 
 18DJ 
 
 At Homo and In the Colonlei, 
 
 
 
 
 Hoiifx^liold Cavalry . 
 
 779 
 
 1,504 
 
 l.iUIS 
 
 Foot Ouanls . 
 
 3,766 
 
 9,612 
 
 •5,'^l|{| 
 
 Cavalry of tho Lino 
 
 3,409 
 
 16,477 
 
 7,'iS:| 
 
 Infantry of the Line 
 
 36,508 
 
 138,701 
 
 78,.>)ll 
 
 Garrison liattalion . 
 
 — 
 
 1,823 
 
 
 Veteran Ilattalions . 
 
 — 
 
 2,922 
 
 
 West India Hegiuients . 
 
 — 
 
 8,798 
 
 3,117 
 
 Colonial Corps 
 
 — 
 
 7,147 
 
 5,.574 
 
 Fcncibles 
 
 — 
 
 3,268 
 
 
 Foreign Corjis . 
 
 — 
 
 21,314 
 
 
 Augmentation in progress 
 India. 
 
 40,652 
 
 9,148 
 
 - 
 
 220,714 
 
 101,7^3 
 
 Cavalry of the Lino 
 
 512 
 
 5,565 
 
 3,1 (K 
 
 Infantry of the Line 
 
 10,188 
 
 24,045 
 
 27,144 
 
 Totals . 
 
 67,252 
 
 250,314 
 
 132,032 
 
 The British forces in India, exclusive of depots 
 in this countrj', comprise the following troops, 
 granted by parliament for the year I«(i4-(i5 :— 
 
 Royal Horso Artillery 
 Cavalry of the Line . 
 Royal Artillery . 
 Infantry of the Lino 
 
 Total . 
 
 Offlcert 
 
 202 
 
 352 
 
 C93 
 
 2,200 
 
 Nnn-commlfu 
 
 ■loncd Ofllfcra. 
 
 Truni|H.<ttTR, 
 
 and Drummon 
 
 3,445 
 
 244 
 
 674 
 
 874 
 
 3,825 
 
 6,617 
 
 Rank and 
 Fllo 
 
 2,fiHn 
 
 5,(IS2 
 
 9,'.'|l) . 
 
 4fi,7.')(l i 
 
 63,722 
 
 Tlie troops here enumerated do not constitute 
 the whole army of the United King(h>ni ; hut tlic 
 army estimates for 1804-().5, as well as tlie pre- 
 ceding years, contain votes of money for live 
 classes of auxiliary forces — namely, the militia, 
 the yeomanrj', the volunteers, the enrolled jieii- 
 sioners, and the army reserve force. The total 
 cost of the above forces amounted to 14,844,888/,, 
 which sum includes the charge for non-effect'm 
 services, that is, for half-pay and pensions to olll- 
 cers and men, which amounted during the year 
 to 2,100,157/. 
 
 The pay and other emoluments of the officers 
 and men depend partly on the length of tlieir 
 8e»",'ice and partly on the department of tiie ser- 
 vice to which they belong. In the household 
 troops, the pay of privates varies from Is. fljrf. to 
 2». OJrf. a (lay; in the cavalry of the line it is 
 Is. Ad. ; in the foot guards. Is. Id. ; and in the 
 infantry of the line, Is. \d. Soldiers, however, 
 are not entitled to receive the whole of this sum 
 in money ; when at home and in barracks, tiny 
 are supplied with certain rations, for which (Irf. ii 
 day is to l)e deducted from their pay. The greater 
 part of their clothes and accoutrements arc fur- 
 nished at the public expense ; but certam deiiuf- 
 tious are made from their pay on that account. 
 Pensions are panted for casualties in action, ami 
 to soldiers discharged after certain periods of 
 service. 
 
 The volunteer force, which, though of old date, 
 has been newly reconstructed, forms a very im- 
 portant body for the defence of the kingdom. Tlic 
 total force enrolled in the whole of Great Itritaiii 
 was 119,283 in April 1860, 161,400 in 1801, and 
 162,681 in 1864; this last number being composed 
 of 662 light horse, 23,363 artillery, 2,904 engineers, 
 6.")6 mounted rifles, and 134,096 rirtc volunteers. 
 There is no volunteer force in Ireland. 
 
 Rilled the Board of 
 
 fc, in fact, vested ii 
 
 has the supcrintcndc 
 
 ,ip|)ointnient,s of con 
 
 rant officers with s 
 
 linnoiirs, pensions ; 
 
 cvfiything relating t 
 
 Those who enter tl 
 
 tain commissions, b« 
 
 serve as midshipmen 
 
 cliarncter, and attain 
 
 ps» ail examination 
 
 the lowest commissic 
 
 ment of a commissioi 
 
 arc entirely at the 
 
 Certain advantages 
 
 have completed their 
 
 naval coUej .; of Por 
 
 tiie navy is maintaii 
 
 sot-s of parliament. 
 
 voluntary enlistment 
 
 they may be obtained 
 
 of the government to 
 
 is of such ancient dat 
 
 the common law. It 1 
 
 tion, though the prea 
 
 c, 4, by its recital oi 
 
 manners for the king' 
 
 at that time a well-kr 
 
 fiice has also been iiK 
 
 wal later statutes. 'J 
 
 tice lias been warrant 
 
 wvice, to enable tlu 
 
 ith speed on nn em 
 
 ^1rIlamellt in the coi 
 
 exercised in 1661, bv i 
 
 ll,. passed to regulate 
 
BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 hdl 
 
 1803 
 
 7K,r.m 
 
 6,f>74 : 
 
 101,7i3 
 
 :i,lfi.-. 
 
 27,1+1 , 
 
 
 Rank and 
 Ftio 
 
 nrt 
 
 
 
 U,fi8n 
 !»,-.>10 
 
 
 4(1,7111 
 
 
 63,72-2 
 
 
 
 \( old (lato, 
 
 very ini- 
 
 hlom." Tlie 
 
 lat Britain 
 
 1801, ami 
 
 ; compost'il 
 
 I'ciih'iiic*''''' 
 I'oluiitcerj. 
 
 From n return made to the IIoiiho of Cmnmoim 
 Bt till- pihI <if the ,MCs.Mi(iii of lH(i\, it npppnrs tlint, in 
 April IHCil, there wen- |01l,7(i(> iion-(M)niiniNsinnt'(l 
 dliiccrs and men in Her MiijcMty's innd fiirwH who 
 ili'clarfil thonisi'lves K|ii)«'o|iaiianN, '2(l."!t« I'rcrtliy- 
 icriiMi!*, ,5,2!M» other Protestants, anil M.hOH Itonian 
 ('atimlicH. 'I'he nnnilierof Kfnseopftlian.s is rather 
 ilccreasinj;. The K'omaii Catholic^s in tlic artillery 
 iiu'rcnse; in IHtll they wore hnt .'J..'M4, hnt hy 
 April l«(i4 they had increased to «,Hil. Ont of 
 ili(. :)H,!}OH Homan Catholics in the army, 4(i,;MH 
 were in the infantry; of tiie l.'lo.HlX I'rotestants, 
 (Piily H-J,.')|«. In the royal marines there were in 
 the lirsl quarter of ]«til, 12,:!!IH ICpiseopalians, 
 4I(; I'r('si)yterians, 2,.'l"t> otlier I'rotestants, and 
 1,1 IK lionian Catholics. 
 
 Ill round nnmhers, every soldier of the Hritish 
 nriny costs the country l()l>/. per annum. Ihit this 
 mill includes all extraneous military expenses, as 
 ivcll as the disbursement for the non-ellective 
 services. 
 
 The navy of the Unitc^d Kingdom is a perpetual 
 o.<tiil)lishnient, and the statutes and orders hy which 
 it is j;overned and its discipline niaintaiiied — un- 
 like tiie military laws, which the sovereij^ii has 
 alwilute power to frame under the authority of an 
 Ai't of rarliameut — have been pemianeiilly est..- 
 lilislieil and delinod with j^reat jirecision by the 
 lf;;islature. The distinction also prevails in the 
 mode of votiii}? the charge for these two forces. 
 F(ir the army, the tirst vote sanctions the nninher 
 of men to be maintained ; the second, the charge 
 f(ir their pay niid maintenance. For the navy, no 
 vote is taken for the mniiber of men ; the tirst. 
 vote is for the u'wji-s of the stated number of men 
 and liiiys to be maintained ; and though the result 
 may lie the same, this distinction exists both in 
 |iriictice and principle. 
 
 The navy is governed by the lord high admiral 
 for the time being, or by n body of conimissioners 
 Killed the Hoard ot Admiralty, of whi(!h the jiower 
 t. in fact, vested in tlie tirst lord. This board 
 lias thr superintendence of all naval matters ; all 
 apiwintnients of commissioned oflicers, and war- 
 rant officers with some exceptions; jtromotion, 
 linnours. pensions ; and the general control of 
 cvfiything relating to the discipline of the fleet. 
 
 Those who enter the service with a view to ob- 
 tain commissions, begin a.s volu eers, and then 
 serve as midshipmen ; after six years in the latter 
 ckracter, and attaining the iige of nineteen, they 
 fass an examination for the rank of lieutenant — 
 tlic lowest commissioned olficer. But the attain- 
 ment of a commission, and subsequent promotion, 
 arc entirely at the disposal of the admiralty. 
 Certain advantages are enjoyed by those who 
 have completed their education aa students at the 
 naval coUef ■•, of Portsmouth. The discipline of 
 tlie navy is maintained by articles embodied in 
 acts of parliament. Sailors enter the navy by 
 voluntary enlistment ; but in eases of emergency 
 they may be obtained by impressment. The power 
 of the government to impress seamen for the fleet 
 is of such ancient date that it is said to be part of 
 the common law. It has no direct statutory sanc- 
 tion, though the preamble of the stat. 2 Kich. II. 
 c. 4, by its recital of the arrest and retention of 
 mariners for the king's service, shows that it was 
 at that time a well-known practice, and its exist- 
 ence has also been incidentally^ recognised by se- 
 veral later statutes. The continuance of the prac- 
 tice has been warranted by the necessities of the 
 service, to enable the admiralty to man a Heet 
 irith speed on an emergency. The authority of 
 parliament in the control of the navy wits tirst 
 exercised in ItJGl, by an enactment of 13 Charles 
 II., passed to regulate the government of the fleet. 
 
 This act was repealed by the '22 CiPO. II. c. 2.'1, 
 which was explained and amemled by the lit CfCo. 
 III. c. 17. Tliese two latter statutes contain the 
 articles of war and the rules for iioldiug naval 
 courts martial, and form the permanent code under 
 which the navy is governed. The laws relating 
 to the pay of this navy were consolidated and 
 amended by stat. It (Jeo. IV. c. 20. 
 
 For a number of years the navy of the V. King- 
 dom has cost, on the average, about |(l,(lll(i,t)il()/. 
 per annum. The parliamentary grant for the na- 
 val force, for the financial vear IW(J4-i), amounted 
 to 1 It, 1 1 «,:(«(>/., divided as foUows :— 
 
 WiitfcH to Soniiien and Jfarines . . . .^E2,N7 t.flIT 
 Victuals anil Clottihig fur ditto . . . l,:illl,n!) 
 
 Ailmiralty Ollli'o Itis.uo:) 
 
 Const Ciimril .Service, Iloyal Naval Coast 
 
 Volunteers, anil lloyiil Naval lleservo . n(in,71S 
 
 ScientlHc llrniicli 7l,27(i 
 
 Her ila.iesty's Kstnlilishment at Homo . 1 !»'.',-')74 
 
 Her Majesty'K EHtalilishmeiits Atiroiid , ;i7,titi<i 
 
 Wascs to ArtificcrH, ice, einiiloyiil in Iter 
 
 Majesty's Kstal)lisliinents at Home . 1,275,.110 
 Wages to ArtlHcers, &c., emi)loyeil in Her 
 
 Majesty's Estat>lisliments A liroail . . G!),205 
 
 Naval Stores for tlie lluililinR, Repair, ami 
 
 Outfit of the Fleet ; Steam Machinery, 
 
 anil Sliips built l>y coiitrai't : — 
 Section I. Storekeeiier-Cleneral of tho 
 
 Navy I,l(!4,in0 
 
 Section II. Controller of the Navy . «(j2,21J 
 
 New Works, Improvements, ami llopalrs 
 
 in tho Yards. &c 449,2ns 
 
 MiHlioines ami Medical Stores . . . (i4,:i.")0 
 
 Miscolluucoua Services .... 102,^120 
 
 Total for tho EfTootivo Service ' . £8,73li,4()« 
 Half-pay, Ueserved llalf-])ay, and Itetir d 
 I'av to Oflicers of the Navy and Koyal 
 
 Sfarines 6!>7,7n() 
 
 Military Pensions and Allowances . . 4!»o,'201 
 
 Civil Pensions and Allowances . . . l!);i,98.1 
 
 Total for tho Naval Service 
 
 *10,118,:t80 
 
 The navy of Great ISritain, on January 1, 180.5, 
 numbered !)".") .ships of all classes, including 'non- 
 effective sailing .ships.' The list comprised 72 ves- 
 sels ranking as Ihie-of-battle ships, mounting from 
 74 to UU guns each; 3!) of from 60 guns to 72 
 guns each ; (i'.t frigates of from 24 guns to 4C guns 
 each, most of which were of a tonnage and horse- 
 power equal to a line-of-battle ship ; 30 screw cor- 
 vettes, each mounting 21 guns ; and U|)wards of 
 (iOO vessels of all classes mounting less than 20 
 guns. In addition to the above, there was a Heet 
 of 185 gunboats, each mounting two heavy Arm- 
 strong guns, and of 00 horse-power, besides a 
 numerous squadron of iron and wootlen mortar- 
 vessels, built during the Russian war, and laid up 
 at Chatham. The number of line-of-battle and 
 other steamers composing the squadron on the 
 North American and West Indian station was 2i). 
 The squadron in the Mediterranean numbered 28 
 vessels of all classes. The J'2ast India and China 
 sqnailrons consisted of 01 vessels, including gun- 
 boats. The number of ships stationed on the 
 west coast of Africa, for the suppression of the 
 slave trade, was 22. The Pacific squadron num- 
 bered 13 ships, and that on the south-east coa.st 
 of America 1 1 ships. There were 8 line-of-battle 
 and other ships stationed at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and 7 ships were attached to the Australian 
 station. The Channel squadron consisted of 5 
 shi])s, all iron-plated. 
 
 The iron-plated or armour-clad fleet, built or 
 biulding, consisted, according to a return ordered 
 by the House of Commons on May 3, 1804, of 27 
 shii>s and 7 floating batteries. 
 
 Cokmies and Dependencies. — The colonies and 
 dependencies of Great Britain embrace about one- 
 third of the surface of the globe, and nearly a 
 
«08 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE 
 
 fmirth of itfl popiilntion. The aron 
 
 !){ these pos- i 
 
 BPMsioiis covers 8,IUi»,(!4!) nquare niiloH, or nenrly 
 
 thirty times the extent of the United Kiiif^ilom. 
 
 KxuliiHive of India, liy far the most important of all 
 
 the lo.MHessionH (f Great Hritain, the colonies may 
 
 Ih) (I vided into tour principal f^roups, namely, those 
 
 in North America; m Central America 
 
 ,ortl,o West 
 
 Indi(ts ; in Australasia ; and in Africa. 
 
 At uresent, 
 
 the North American j;''""P takes iirecedeu'cu over 
 the others in rejrard to iM)pulation ; but there is little 
 
 doubt that, in the course of another Keneratioi', or 
 
 perhaps two, it« growth will be outstripped by 
 
 that of the much younger colonics of Australr.sia. 
 
 Official returns, calculatc<l for the year lH(i2, idate 
 
 the area and pupulatiuu of the British possessions 
 
 as follows : — 
 
 
 Pofifisioni 
 
 Area 
 
 PopulHtlon i 
 Numbrr 
 
 
 India 
 
 NOIITII Amkuica 
 
 033,722 
 
 135,034.244 
 
 
 
 ('nnoda .... 
 
 242,482 
 
 2,507,057 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 27,037 
 
 193,800 
 
 Novii Scotia 
 
 15,020 
 
 277,117 
 
 I'rince Edward Island 
 
 2,173 
 
 80,857 
 
 Newfoundland , 
 
 35,850 
 
 122,(!38 
 
 British Columbia . 
 
 Total of North Aincri- ) 
 can Colonics . j 
 
 Bermu'la . i . . 
 
 ilonduraa .... 
 
 West Indies : 
 
 200,000 
 
 No return 
 
 3,182,009 
 
 523,102 
 20 
 
 10,982 
 25,035 
 
 17,000 
 
 
 
 Bahamas .... 
 
 3,522 
 
 27,019 
 
 Turks Islands . 
 
 — 
 
 4,372 
 
 Jamaica .... 
 
 0,400 
 
 377,433 
 
 Virgin Islands . 
 
 94 
 
 0,051 
 
 St. Christopher 
 
 08 
 
 20,741 
 
 Nevis .... 
 
 20 
 
 9,822 
 
 Antigua .... 
 
 108 
 
 37,125 
 
 Montserrnt 
 
 47 
 
 7,053 
 
 Dominica .... 
 
 291 
 
 25,005 
 
 St. Lucia .... 
 
 300 
 
 27,141 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 131 
 
 31,755 
 
 Barbadocs 
 
 lOti 
 
 152,727 
 
 Grenada .... 
 
 133 
 
 31,900 
 
 Tobago .... 
 
 97 
 
 15,410 
 
 Trinidad .... 
 
 2,012 
 
 84,438 
 
 British Oinana 
 
 Total for West Indies . 
 Falkland Islands 
 AusrrnALASiA : 
 
 70,000 
 
 127,095 
 980,347 
 
 89,389 
 
 13,000 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 New South Wales . 
 
 478,801 
 
 348,546 
 
 Victoria .... 
 
 80,944 
 
 540,322 
 
 South Australia 
 
 300,000 
 
 120,830 
 
 Western Australia . 
 
 45,000 
 
 16,593 
 
 Tasmania .... 
 
 22,029 
 
 89,977 
 
 Now Zealand • 
 
 95,000 
 
 139,908 
 
 Queensland 
 Total for Australasia . 
 Hongkong .... 
 
 669,000 
 
 .30,116 
 
 1,687,434 
 
 1,291,351 
 
 29 
 
 94,917 
 
 Labuan .... 
 
 50 
 
 2,442 
 
 Ceylon .... 
 
 24,700 
 
 1,919,487 
 
 Mauritius .... 
 
 708 
 
 322,517 
 
 Natal 
 
 18,000 
 
 167 ,.183 
 
 Cape of Good Hope . 
 
 104,931 
 
 207,090 
 
 St. Helena .... 
 
 47 
 
 0,800 
 
 Gol(i Coast .... 
 
 0,000 
 
 151,340 
 
 .Sierra Leone 
 
 300 
 
 41 ,024 
 
 Gambia .... 
 
 — 
 
 0,939 
 
 Gibraltar .... 
 
 1« 
 
 17,047 
 
 Malta 
 
 General total . 
 
 115 
 
 147,083 
 144,499,701 
 
 3,319,0493 
 
 The prowtli of the British colonial 
 
 empire — re- 
 
 suit of three centuries — of peaceful am 
 
 l warlike en- 
 
 teqirise— is illustrated in th 
 
 c subjoine 
 
 l1 table :— 
 
 Colonlri and Driivnflvnelti 
 
 IHIoanilMoileorAciiulililon 1 
 
 ElIllOPF : 
 
 
 Gihrnltar . 
 
 Capture . . 1704 
 
 Hrlignland . 
 
 Cessicm . . iHii I 
 
 Alalta and Uozo . . 
 
 Capture . . isDii '• 
 
 Asia: 
 
 1 
 
 [ 
 
 Coylon .... 
 
 Capitulation . 1790 | 
 
 Ikngal. 
 
 Bombay 
 
 MailrnH 
 
 N. W. Provinces . 
 
 Tunjaid) 
 
 Settlement and con- 
 
 quest at various 
 periods from 
 
 1026 to 1 849 
 
 HouKkung . 
 
 Treaty . , isj;! 
 
 Labunn . 
 
 Cession . . isiii 
 
 Al'uu'A : 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Capitulation . I8iiii 
 
 Gambia 
 
 Settlement . lii:i| 
 
 Gold Coast . 
 
 „ . Kiill 
 
 Natal .... 
 
 „ . ls:ls 
 
 St. Helena . 
 
 . ici 1 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 17H7 
 
 Mauritius . 
 
 Capitulation . isio 
 
 Ameuica : 
 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Settlement . ICOS 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 ,, • — 
 
 Canada, Lower . ) 
 Canoila, U|)iH!r . ) 
 
 Capitulation and ( 17.'.!) 
 Cession . ( 17fiU 
 
 New Brunswick . 
 
 
 Newfoundland 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 Settlement . 1497 
 
 I'rlnce Edward Island j 
 
 
 (fuiana, British . 
 
 Capitulation . 180,1 
 
 Falkland Islands . 
 
 Cession . . 18;J7 
 
 Wiwr Indies: 
 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Settlement . \m-> 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 „ . ltffl» 
 
 Burbadoes . 
 
 . IWtt 
 
 Dominica . 
 
 Cession . . ITiiit 
 
 Grenada 
 
 . . 17(1;; 
 
 Honduras . 
 
 „ . . 1H70 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Capitulation . 1(!55 
 
 Montscrrat . 
 
 Settlement . WM 
 
 Nevis .... 
 
 . ltil'8 
 
 St. KitU 
 
 „ . 1023, 1«5I) 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 Capitidation . isn:) 
 
 St. Vincent . • . 
 
 Cession . . I7(i:l 
 
 Tobago . 
 
 . 17(i:i 
 
 Tortola, &c. 
 
 Settlement . Iiifi5 
 
 Trinidad . 
 
 Capitulation . 1797 
 
 Turks Island 
 
 Settlement . im 
 
 AUSTUAT.A8IA '. 
 
 
 Australia, South . 
 
 Settlement . 188r, 
 
 Australia, West . 
 
 . 18'J9 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 „ . 1787 
 
 Queensland . 
 
 . 1859 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 . 18i!9 
 
 Tasmania . 
 
 . ]8in 
 
 Victoria 
 
 . 18:)« 
 
 The total exports of British and Irish produce 
 and manufactures to the colonies and depcndciieic!! 
 of the kingdom were of the value of 42,246..'i77/. in 
 1801, of 41,895,349/. in 18(!2, and of 60,9iy,(iW/. 
 in 1863. (For further details see the names of tiic 
 various colonies and dependencies.) 
 
 History. — A sketch will be found in the article 
 England of the principal events in the history 
 of that most important part of the empire. The 
 leading epochs in the history of the latter arc;— 
 
 I. The invasion and establishment of the Eng- 
 lish power in Ireland during the reign of Hcnij- II. 
 
 II. The union of the crowns of England ami 
 Scotland in 1604, on the accession of James, kin/,' 
 of Scotland, to the tluone of England, vacant by 
 the death of Elizabeth. 
 
 III. The great civil war in the reign of Charles 
 I., followed by the execution of that monarch in 
 1649; the establishment of the Commonwealtli; 
 and the restoration of Charles II. ui 16C0. 
 
 IV. The Revolution of 1688, which expelled 
 the family of Stuart from the throne; ilclinai 
 and firmly established the principles of the consti- 
 tution : and introduced a liberal, tolerant, and 
 
 ronllv responsi 
 William III., 1 
 
 V. The cstal 
 of Knglaiul and 
 
 VI. The accei 
 
 VII. Ihe A.I 
 
 VIII. The wf 
 
 iKir>. 
 
 IX. The legii 
 land and .Scotln 
 
 A'. The pass! 
 
 X I. The ab(di 
 
 XII. Thotrai 
 
 to the Imperial 
 
 ItlMT'lANY, 
 
 considerable of 
 
 (Mcupying the 
 
 Atlantic. It is 
 
 of Loire Infer] 
 
 Morbihan, and ( 
 
 imiVE, or B 
 
 of France, dep. ( 
 
 niid fertile plain, 
 
 Pop. 9,8,54 in U 
 
 houses being all 
 
 slates. It has a 
 
 nuts, and cattle, 
 
 trulHcs and mluil 
 
 Dubois was a iial 
 
 UKIXHAM, a 
 
 Devon, hum!. J I 
 
 road, and 22,'j m. 
 
 of town 4,390 in 
 
 Pop. of par. 5,981 
 
 a narrow ravine ( 
 
 the din's im|)endi 
 
 divided into the \ 
 
 latter the buildin 
 
 irregular streets i 
 
 contains many f^ 
 
 an ancient structi 
 numents ; ui the 
 which has 300 fre( 
 affc in the gift of 
 and a VVesleyan cl 
 corporated with j 
 which educates al 
 w a pier harbour 
 consisting of an 
 communicate with 
 commodious. The 
 the pier-head. Th 
 connected with the 
 120 vessels, of 20 t. 
 are engaged; there 
 of tiO to 120 tons, 1 
 engaged in the c( 
 There are extensiv* 
 bourhood. The mt 
 connected with thii 
 landing of VVilliai.i 
 November, 1688. 
 . BROADSTAIKS 
 "ig-place of Englai 
 Tiianet, half-way 1 
 Kamsgate, 69 m. E 
 '1 m. by London, ( 
 Pop. ofeccl. distr. 1 
 ral good lodging-lu 
 hbraries, good hot 
 episcopal chapel, bu 
 pier (formed in the 
 H accessible for sm.T 
 BKODV, a town 
 part of Galicia, circ. 
 
ii|Ulilllan 
 
 IKll 1 
 IHIII) 
 
 17»G i 
 
 3on' 
 
 loUB 
 
 6 to 1S4!) 
 
 1K4;1 
 IHIO 
 
 \m i 
 iwii 1 
 ih:is 
 l(ir,i I 
 17«7 1 
 1810 
 
 1C09 1 
 
 and ( 17M 
 . \ 17fi;i 
 
 1497 
 
 1R03 
 18^7 
 
 . Ififfi 
 Kl'Jit 
 IWIS 
 17«:t 
 17(« 
 1870 
 lfi55 
 
 lfi;w 
 
 WIS 
 1623, 11)50 
 180;) 
 17«5 
 rt'.:i 
 li»i5 
 1797 
 10^9 
 
 18.1fl 
 IS'.'lt 
 17X7 
 185!) 
 1S:!;I 
 18ii:) 
 18:)« 
 
 rish produce 
 ilepcndcncicti 
 246.377/. ill 
 50,'.il9,<!a4'. 
 nanips'of the 
 
 the article ] 
 the history 
 mpire. Tiie 
 iter arc:— 
 of the Kn;;- 
 ofHcnr)lI. 
 England and 
 James, kiiy 
 d, vacant by 
 
 n of Charles 
 
 monarch in 
 
 imonwcalth; 
 
 GGO. 
 
 ich expelled 
 
 one; ilcliiK'l | 
 
 ,f the consti- 
 
 ,olcrant, aud 
 
 BRITTANY 
 
 really rpuponsililo HYstom of Kovcnimcnt, under 
 Willinin [II,, iVincc t>f ()rnn>;e. 
 
 V. The. cHtnMi.Hhineiit of tlii! Ic^inlntivc union 
 of Kn^lnnil and Scotliuul, 1707. 
 
 VI. Tlio nceetwionof tlie Houseof Hanover, 1714. 
 
 VII. 'liie American war, I77(!-I7X4. 
 
 VIII. The war with revolutionary Trance, 1793- 
 IHI.'). 
 
 IX. Tlic Icjjislntivc union of Ireland with Kng- 
 laiidand .Scotland, 17»!). 
 
 X. Tlic passinp of the Heform Act, l«a2. 
 
 XI. The abolition of slavery in the colonicH, 18.'J4. 
 MI. The trauHfer of the adminiMtrntion of India 
 
 to tlie Imperial government, 1858. 
 
 HlilT TANV, or nHKTACiNK, one of the most 
 considerable of the ancient provinces of FrainT, 
 (H'cupying the peninsula of that, name on the 
 Atlantic. It is now dihtribnted among the <Iepts. 
 of Loire Infe'rieure, lUc-i't-Vilaine, Finisterre, 
 Miirbihan, ond (^'otes-du-Nord. 
 
 lUJIVi:, or HHIVK-LA-GAILLAIJDK, a town 
 of France, dep. Corri'zc, cap. arrond., in a beautiful 
 and fertile plain, on the Corrb/e, If) m. SW. Tulle. 
 Pop. !>,8.54 in 18(il. The town is well built, the 
 hoiiHCit being all of hv.wn stone, and covered with 
 slates. It has a considerable trade in wine, chest- 
 nuts, and cattle, and is the centre of the trade in 
 triitilcs and volaileea truffeen. The famous Cardinal 
 Diilxds was a native of Brive. 
 
 IIHIXHAM, a sea-port and par. of Kngland,co. 
 Devon, hurul. Haytor, 18(! m. WSW. London by 
 road, and '2'25 m. by (ireat Western railway. I'op. 
 of town 4,!J!iO in l'8(U. Area of par. 5,?1() acres. 
 Po]). of par. 5,!»84 in 18G1. The town is built in 
 a narrow ravine opening towards the sea, and on 
 the clill's imiiending over it on either side, an<l is 
 divided into the upper and lower towns. In the 
 latter the buildings arc nuich crowded, in narrow 
 irregular streets aiul alleys; but the upper town 
 contains manv good houses, as does also the 
 immediate ncighbourliood, which is remarkably 
 picturesque. Tlie church in the upper town is 
 an ancient structure, with some interesting mo- 
 numents ; ill the lower town is a idiajjel of ease, 
 Avliich lias .400 free sittings , the living is a vicar- 
 age in the gift of the crown. It has also a I)a]>tist 
 and a VVesleyan chapel, and a national school, in- 
 corporated with an endowed one founded 1634, 
 which educates about 400 boys and girls. There 
 is a pier harbour at the end of the lower town, 
 consisting of an inner and outer basin, which 
 communicate with each other, and are safe and 
 comiuodious. The spring tide rises about 24 ft. at 
 the i)ier-head. The principal trade of the place is 
 connected with the lorbay fishery, in which about 
 120 vessels, of 20 to 4.5 tons, and 70 smaller boats, 
 arc engaged ; there arc also upwards of 120 vessels 
 of 60 to 120 tons, belonging to the place, chicHy 
 engaged in the coasting trade of the Chiiniicl. 
 There are extensive marble quarries in the neigh- 
 bourhood. The most remarkable historical event 
 connected with this place, or with Torbay, is the 
 landing of Williaia III. at its pier, on the 5th of 
 November, 1088. 
 
 BROAUSTAIRS, a small sea-port and water- 
 ing-place of England, co. Kent, E. coast. Isle of 
 Thanet, half-way between the N. Foreland and 
 Karasgate, 69 m. E. by S. London by road, and 
 77 m. by London, Chatham, and Dover railway. 
 Pop. of eccl. distr. 1,378 in 18()l. There are seve- 
 ral good lodging-houses, warm baths, two public 
 libraries, good hotels, assembly-room, and an 
 episcopal chapel, built in 1828. There is a wooden 
 pier (formed in the reign of Henry VIII.), which 
 is accessible for small vessels. 
 
 BKODY, a town of the Austrian States, NE. 
 part of tialicia, circ. Zloczow, near the coniincs of 
 
 BUOMLEY 
 
 AOO 
 
 Russia, 52 m. E. bv X. Leinlicrg; Int. ."lOO V N., 
 long. 25° 18' K. I'op, 1K,74I1 in l8,-)7, Nearl/ 
 one-half the inhabitants are .lews. The town m 
 situated in a marshy |)lain; and Iho houses being 
 mostly of wood, and the streets iinpnved and lilthy, 
 it is well entitled to the iiamo it bears — hrndij 
 meaning a dirty place. Hut, notwithslanding its 
 unimnnisiiig a|ipearaiice, it enjoys a very coii- 
 sideral)le trade. In 1779 it acquired the privilege 
 of a free commercial town; that is, a town into 
 which coininodities may be imported, and from 
 which they may be e.vjtorted free of duty. This 
 franchise has rendered it an important eniporiiiin ; 
 and its fairs are attended by dealers from the 
 Ukraine and Odessa, Moldavia and Wallachia, as 
 well as the conligiioiis Austrian and liiissian pro- 
 vinces. The ]iriiu'ipal articles brought from (he 
 S, are cattle, especially horses, with hides, tallow, 
 and wax, which ore exchanged for ctdonial jiro- 
 diice, manufactured goods, hardware, imrticiilarly 
 scythes, furs, and jewellery. There is a regular 
 exchange with Odessa. The greater part of this 
 important trade is in the hands of Jewish mer- 
 chants settled at Hrody, of whom many are very 
 opulent. The annual commerce of the place is 
 estimated of the valm of 30,000,000 ilorins, or 
 3,000,000/, llrody is the .seat of a mercanlile 
 tribunal ; has a Cathtdic and three < ireek churches ; 
 one large and two or three smalU'r synagogues; u 
 convent and hospital of the Sisters of Charity ; 
 grammar and commercial schools, with peculiar 
 schools for Christians and Jews; a theatre, in 
 which, during the fairs, jdays are alternately re- 
 presented in the (rcrman and Polish hmguages; 
 and a Jewish hospital. The town is on the estate 
 of Count I'otocki, who derives a princely revcnuo 
 from it, and has a large castle within its precincts. 
 
 IJROEK, tt village of Ihdland, C. m. NK. Am- 
 sterdam. Pop. 1,4(!6 ill 18(U. The village is 
 celebrated for the wealth of its inhab,, but more 
 for the extreme cleanliness of its houses and 
 streets, the attention to which has been carried to 
 an absurd and ridiculous excess. The entire jiop. 
 cim.sists of retired merchants and their families, 
 who amuse themselves in killing ilies, and keeping 
 their dwellings free from every speck of dust. 
 
 IU{t)MHliH(l, a town of I'russia, prov, Posen, 
 cap. circ. same name, on the Itraa, (i m, from it.s 
 contluencc with the Vistula, at the junction of the 
 railways from Uerlin to Warsaw, and from lierliii 
 to Kiinigsberg. I'op. 22,474 in 18(il; excl. 1,970 
 military. The town is one of the most thriving of 
 eastern I'riissia; it more than doubled its pojiula- 
 tion in the 20 years 1841-61. The canal joining 
 the Vistula with the Netz, an aflluo.nt of the Oder, 
 runs between this town and Nakel on the Netz. It 
 hius a court of a)>pcal for the circ, a gymnasium, 
 and other literary establishments, several distil- 
 leries and breweries, chicory and tobacco works, 
 and a considerable and increasing trade. 
 
 BROMLEY, a par, and town of England, co. 
 Kent, lath Sutton-at-Ilonc, liund. Bromley and 
 Beckenham, 10 m, !SE. London by road, and 12 m, 
 by South Eastern railway. Pop, of iiarish 5,505 in 
 1861 ; area 4,630 acres. The town is on the X. 
 bank of the Ravensbourne, and chieHy consists of 
 one street of neat respectable houses, extending 
 for some distance along the line of road from the 
 metropolis to Tunbridge, The church is a spaciou.s 
 structure, with an embattled tower; the Inde- 
 pendents and Wesleyans have each a chapel ; a 
 national school for both sexes is supported by 
 siibscr. ; there is an almshouse for old people, rent 
 free ; a charitable estab., called Bromley College, 
 founded in 1666, and enlarged and endowed by 
 many subsequent benefactors, supports 40 clergy- 
 men s widows, who each receives 38Z, a year, with 
 
:,Ht UUOMHOUOVE 
 
 ciimIm mill raiiillrM*. the rdilicc ptiirKmrH twoqimil- 
 raiiKnilar arciiM. mid Iihn ii (■liii|)cl : the i-hnritv ih 
 iiiiili'r the iliri'ction of 11 triiMti-oM. Thcro is a 
 wci'kly iiiiirkft on 'I'hiirHilny, a iiioiithly one for 
 (•III lie, every third ThiirMlay, and aim. fairH Keh. 
 1 I, All),'. -I, ehielly Cor live utock. It is the central 
 town (ifn (loiir law iiiiiuii of l(i parx. ; its own rateH 
 average l.'2ll<)/. The inliali. are ehielly engajxed 
 ill iit;rieiillure. From the M\ ceiitiiry the niaiior 
 haw vested, with little interruption, in the liishops 
 of Itocliester. Tlu! prefent palace was reiinilt on 
 an ancient site in 1777; it in a plain lirick Imild- 
 iiifT, on an eniinencc ^ m. from the town; an 
 ancient Hpring in its gardeiiH Iiiih medicinal pro- 
 jiertieN similar to those of Tiinhriilf^e : after lieiiiji 
 nej;lected two or three centuries, it was reopened 
 in I7.''iti, andeoiilinues to Iw nitich resorted to. Its 
 weekly market was ({ranted to the town in 1477. 
 nnOMSGirOVK, a i)ar. mid town of Kngland, 
 CO. Worcester, liunil. Ilalf-shire, KIH m. IS'VV. Lon- 
 don hy road, and 1'27^ m. by London and North 
 AVeslern railway vin IlinniiiKham. Po]). of town, 
 f),'.'<'.2, and of parish \{),H22 in IHfil. The town 
 is situated on the W. hank of the Salwarp, in a 
 fertile and well wooded vale, and chiefly c<insists 
 of one spacious street ahoiit a mile in len^rth. Its 
 church, on a Reiitle rise, has a tower mid s])ire, 
 tof^ether 18!» ft. in lieif^lit, and considered the liiicst 
 in the co. There are three dissenting chajiels; a 
 free (j^rammar-school, founded by Kdward VI. (in 
 which twelve hoys are clothed and educated, with 
 Bevi^n H(;holarshi|)s, and six fellowships in Worces- 
 ter Collef,'e, Oxford); and a town-hall, with a 
 market-place under it. The weekly market is on 
 Tuesday; two animal fairs arc held, June 24 and 
 Oct. 1. Nail-making is the chief business of the 
 place; there is also a large button manufactory. 
 In the adjoining ]iarish of Stoke Prim* there are 
 large salt mid alkali-works, in which some of the 
 inhab. of llromsgrove are employed: the linen 
 manufacture was formerly earned on, hut is now 
 extinct. The line of the Himiingliam and (llcm- 
 cester railway passes near the town. It is the 
 central town of a poor law union of nine parishes; 
 its own rates average 3,000/. : it has five guardians. 
 A court of requests for debts under 40». is held in 
 the town every third Wednesday, llromsgrove 
 Liekey, a lofty range, in which the Salwarp, liea, 
 and some other streams, have their source, lies on 
 the N. of the town. 
 
 UUOIMYAHD, a par. and towni of England, co. 
 Hereford, hiind. Uroxash, 110 m. NW. London. 
 I'op. of town IfSHo, and of parish 2,!)95 in IStil; 
 area, 9,i{10 acres. The town, situated near the 
 l''rome, in an orchard district, consists of several 
 irregular streets, which are paved and lighted; 
 many of its houses are of wood. There is a spacious 
 eliurch, in the Norman style; an Independent 
 chapel ; a free grammar-school founded by ICliza- 
 beth; a national school, for 1*20 children; and 
 almshouses for seven old women. The weekly 
 market is Monday; corn, cheese, and butler are 
 the chief articles. Petty sessions for the hund. are 
 held in the town. The par. comprises three town- 
 ships and one chapelrv. 
 
 hKONTE, or BKONTI, a town of Sicily, Val di 
 CatAnia, cap. cant., near the Giarettn at the W. 
 base of Mount ^tiia, 22 m. NN W. Catania. Pop. 
 11,(>29 in 1861. The town has several churches 
 and convents ; is healthy ; has manufactures of 
 woollens and paper; and the adjacent territory 
 produces com, wine, silk, pcstachio nuts, and 
 almonds. Lord Nelson was created Duke of Bronte 
 in 179!>, with an income of 6,000 oncie a year. 
 
 HKOOKLYN, a suburb of New York, on Long 
 Island. See New York. 
 HKOSELEY, a market town and par. of Eng- 
 
 nilUOKS 
 
 land, CO. Salop, hund. Weiilock, 127 m. NW. 
 London, on the Severn, by which it is separaicj 
 from Madeley. Area of par. I,r)."i0 acres j |ii]|,, 
 4,7"24 in I Kill. The town (Consists iirincijijilly nC 
 one long street, with smaller ones braiicliinn; oiv 
 to lh(! dilVereiit collieries and other works. Ii Jms 
 a parish church, and chapels for different deiiniiii- 
 nations of dissenters ; and then^ is a chapel i)f ease 
 at .lai^klield, within the parish. It is within tin. 
 jurisdiction of tlu^ hor. of Wenlock. Courts Icit, 
 for iIk! manor are held in the lowii-'aall in Aprij 
 and October, at the latter of which four consialijcs 
 are appointed; and a (^ourt of requests, fur |||(> 
 rec'overy of small debts, is held generally evcrv 
 alternate Wednesday. There are here exieiisivc 
 coal and iron niiiies, with large iron-foundries; aiiil 
 it is celelirated for its extensive mimufacliirc dI' 
 tobacco-pipes and garden-jiots. A burning sprinj; 
 or well was discovered here in 1711, which (Hm- 
 apjieared on the sinking of a coal niiiu' in IT.")'). 
 Owing to the depresHioii of the iron trade, iIk. 
 town declined considerably previously to the cciimis 
 of IHJtl, there having been a falling off in tin. 
 |)opiilalioii, since IKll, of nearly an eightii part; 
 the pop. at the latter period being 4,oN0; but in' 
 1841 it had nearly recovered its old level, and in 
 1861 showed a slight increase. 
 
 UKOUACK, a town and sea-port of Franco, 
 dep. Charonte Infe'rieurc, on the strait dividinj; 
 the- Island of Oleron from the mainland, H m. 
 SSW. Hochefort by railway. Pon. 1101 in ixill. 
 Its port admits only of vessels of small biinlcn. 
 Around the town are extensive salt marshes, fnini 
 which salt is obtained in great quantities, andOf mi 
 excellent quality. To facilitate its shipuu'nt, llic 
 marshes are traversed by a canal running from iIk 
 Charente above Kochefort to a littie below Itriniajic. 
 
 lUiUG ES, a city of Helgiiim, cap. W. Flainlcrs, 
 and of an arrond. and 5 cantons, in a vast U'vcl 
 plain of sandy soil at the junction of the cnnnls 
 from (iheiit, Ostend, and L'Kcliise, and at ilio 
 railway from Ostend to Aiitwer]); 7 m. from tin' 
 N. Sea, 12 m. E. Ostend. 24 m. WN W. Ghent, ainl 
 GO m. N W. Urussels. Ilriiges is the seat of an epi.ioii- 
 pal see under the archbislioi) of Mechlin ; the sout nf 
 a court of assixe, of a high court of justice, aii<l ol'a 
 court of commerce. Pop. in 1830,42,198; in \K',h. 
 44,374; and 4^,673 in ly.')!!. This last emumTa- 
 tion showed a decrease of 63.') in the prci'odinf; 
 decennial period, the pop. of 1846 having liccn 
 49,308. The city has a circ. of nearly 4^ ni., niiil 
 is entered by six gates. It has six large sqiia'cs. 
 in which are held weekly markets and niimial 
 fairs, and above 200 streets and lanes ; sonic are 
 wide and handsome, and all are generally clean. 
 Many large and noble ancient mansions, ami 
 spacious public cditices, present their ])()inte(l 
 gables to the streets, and atVord interesting spe<'i- 
 mciis of the ornamental Gothic architecture nfthc 
 middle ages, reminding the spectator of the f,'raii- 
 deur and opulence of Hruges in the days of cliivalrv, 
 when its gorgeous halls and courts were scenes nf 
 regal pomp and pageantry. Bruges, in common 
 with all the towns of W. Flanders, is destitute of 
 spring water, so that the inhabitants are oblifjeil, 
 as were their ancestors in the time of Pliny, to liave 
 recourse to supplies from the clouds. ' For tliis 
 purpose every house is provided with a cistern for 
 collecting rain from its roof; and that wliicli 
 gathers in the ditches of the ramparts is conveyed 
 by means of hydraulic machincrj' to public foun- 
 tains and tanks, whence it is distributed in jiipe^ 
 throughout the cit}\ There are 34 briilgcs uitoks 
 the numerous canals, by which the streets arc 
 intersected, of which 12 are of wood, and rotator}', 
 and 42 of stone or brick : hence the Flemish name 
 of the place, — Brilgge, that is, bridges ; in Freiith 
 
11UU0E.S 
 
 571 
 
 nniKPn. The OhJoikI rnnnl prosonfn an oxpaiiMc of 
 Hnrliicc timt rcHcmlilcH n stately rivtT, nnil in hiiIU- 
 cifiitly wiilo luiil (k'vy t<i niliiiil th*> |iii!4mii^«' of sliijM 
 III' m() toiiN from tlit> M'n, 'l'\w cmiiil to (Ihi'iit in 
 nlso navigable for lnrf,'c niul heavy vewseln. Its 
 /ri'^«<7iM''<i or |)aNsa^e-lioat,i.M a Iiiiko tloiUiii^ hotel, 
 itlVortUii^ overv uceiuninodatioit ; lint delicate 
 paM.Meiiffent are liable to iniieh aniioyuni'e from the 
 hiale of the nearly Nta^niant water, which often ix 
 nearly hiack with pntriilitv, and covered with dead 
 llsli, owiMKi it •'< ""id, to tiie extensive steeping; of 
 IIhx ill tlie, river I,ys, which joins the eainil at 
 (ilicni. The level character of the conntry is 
 hliown liy the fact, that between llruKesan<l(ihenl, 
 II distance of nearly llo m., this^reat canal has not 
 n sinj^le lock. The (H'litral basin or dock of llrnp's 
 is cajiable of eoiitainiliK above 100 vessels always 
 ntloat ; and thi^ convenient quays, stores, and spa- 
 cious warehouses by which it is siirroiiii(U'd, atl'ord 
 jtreat facilities for the des|iatcli of business, Tlu' 
 city is advantageously sitiialed for both maritime 
 mu'l inland commerce; and thoiifrh its commercial 
 triinsMclioiis are now inlinitoly inferior to those of 
 which it justly boasted in the loth century, they 
 nrc jierseverinnly carried on with most of the 
 jirincipal ports of France, Spain, Holland, Italy, 
 Kii^liwid, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Kiissia. 
 The leuiliiif; manufactures of llruK<!« consist of 
 Ince, linens, woollen and cotton goods, and of salt 
 and HU};ar retininf^. Breweries arc numerous ; and 
 several establishments are in operation for the 
 nmiiiifactiire of Hoa)>, (lottery, leather, tobacco, and 
 especially for bleaching, distilling, and dyeing. 
 The bine dyes of the st lifts of Uriiges are believed 
 to derive their peculiar excellence from the (pia- 
 lity of the canal water in which they are r.coured. 
 The lace manufacture is the most important. It 
 employs 7,4<IO persons, or more than one-sixth of 
 the whole populntion. Children are taught to 
 iniike lace in at least 200 schools established for 
 tliispiirpo.se. The exports comprise corn, cattle, 
 and other agricultural produce of the soil, and 
 the iirodiicts of the various manufactories. The 
 imports consist of wool, cotton, metals, dye-woods, 
 (lnigs,wines, and miscellaneous foreign productions. 
 Among the most remarkable public cdilices are 
 the cathedral of Notre Dame (Onser Vrouw), the 
 tower of which is so lofty, that when tho atmo- 
 sphere is particularly clear, it is visible from the 
 numth of 'he Thames. The interior contains an 
 exquisitely carved jjiilpit ; a marble statue of the 
 Vir;5in and (Jhild, attributed to Michael Angcio, 
 and for which Horace Wali)ole offered ;!0,0II0 
 rtdrius ; and two costly old monuments of (Charles 
 the Hold, Duke of liurguiidy, and his daughter, 
 the wife of the Emperor Maximilian, in richly 
 pidcd bronze and silver. The old (iothie hospital 
 of St. John, and the elegant cathedral of St. 
 Saviour, have several celebrated jtictiires by Hans 
 llemling. Van Dyke, and others. ' In the great 
 hall of the Hotel de Ville is the public lilirary, 
 containing many curious illuminated MSS., a 
 miiisal of the 14th century, and the scheme of a 
 lottery drawn at Bruges in 14-15. These, and 
 other Gothic buildings in the city, belong gene- 
 relly to thj 14th century, and are ornamented 
 with windows of rich coloured glass, sculptured 
 monuments, and. paintings by the old Flemish 
 masters. In the great square is a lofty Gothic 
 tower or belfry, the most beautiful in Europe, and 
 its chimes or carillons are esteemed the most com- 
 plete and harmonious in the Netherlands, where 
 only sujierior qualities are approved in this species 
 of musical instrument, or rather machine. In this 
 tower there are forty-eight bells, some weighing 
 six tons : they arc played upon every quarter of 
 an hour commonly by means uf an immense copper 
 
 cylinder cominiinicaliiig with the clm'k, and weigh- 
 ing about nine tons. Its surface is pierced by 
 :ill,.')00 s(piare holes, so that an infinite variety of 
 airs may he set upon it, by merely shifling lh(> 
 iron pegs that lift tin* hammers. On parliruhir 
 days a iiaid professor of music performs tlie liiiesl 
 
 Iiieces by striking with great elVort upon huge 
 ;eys with well-guarded lists, and upon pedals with 
 his feet, Watchmen are constantly posted at the 
 top of this tower to make alarm signals of tire, by 
 ringing a loud hell, ami exhibiting in the day, a 
 Hag, and in the night, a lantern, towards the |ioint 
 whither the engines are reipiireil to hasten, which 
 is furl her indicated by a speaking-trumpet, Tlie 
 city lire establishment consists of nine engines and 
 110 men. The ancient abliev of the Dunes is a 
 vntt and solid building, in vviiich is held the epis- 
 copal academv. The .leriisalcm church is a i'ac- 
 siuiile of the Jloly Tomb, There is a Iti-guiuage, 
 or convent of Ke'guin nuns, and also a convent of 
 English Augiistin nuns, possessing a richly orna- 
 mented church. The city is divided into seven 
 Catholic ))arishes, and contains one Protestant 
 church. Several other public editiciw are worthy 
 of notice, as well as ancient private mansions in- 
 tereslingly associated with important historical 
 events and personages. The counril chamber of 
 the I'alais de Justice ciintains an immense chim- 
 ney-piece of wood beautifully carveil. in I. ")•_",•, 
 with ligiires of (;harles V. and his liimilv as largi! 
 as life. There is a small theatre, a botanic garcU'ii, 
 a museum of natural history, several literary and 
 scii^ntilic societies, a well-attended athena'iiin or. 
 collegiate school for the higher degrees of edu- 
 cation ; a good surgical si'hool, alteiicled commonly 
 by fifty students ; and a very flourishing academy 
 of painting and sculpture, in which, besi(U's tlu; 
 student's course, gratuitous instruction is given to 
 others in architecture, design, and drawing. Its 
 gallery of paintings comprises several by the 
 celebrated Van Eyck. 
 
 Few cities are better provided with endowed cha- 
 rities and asylums for the destitute and alllicted, 
 and with schools for instructing the children of 
 the poor. The average number of persons in a 
 state of indigence witliin the city is estim.'ited at 
 ."),()00. The iioor-hoiise is a central establishment 
 for the two Flanders, and will contain o.'jd |iaiiiiers : 
 the number of inniates is generally about o(H). The 
 prison is kept remarkably clean, and the walls of 
 Its cells are rendered drv aiul secure by a casing <if 
 thick boards of oak. T^here is a mt>nt-(li^-jiii':ti'\ or 
 benevolent institution for lending money upon 
 ))ledges. The temperature of the atmosphere about 
 IJruges is subject to sudden and extreme tran- 
 sitions ; and opjires.sive heat of the mid-day sun 
 in summer is often succeeded by very chilling 
 eveiung damps. Health and hingevity aiipcjir, 
 however, to be kept up to the average points, ainl 
 those who jiossess the means of choosing their 
 |>lacc of residence often prefer this locality ; so that 
 the spacious mansions of the opulent burghers of 
 former times arc now tenanted by many of tlus 
 highest families of Flandei-s, and by retired inde- 
 pendent merchants, to whom this old city would 
 seem to have peculiar attractions. The adjacent 
 rural districts to the W. display the most exu- 
 berant specimens of the Flemish farmeries; and 
 orchards, which abound in every part of \V. Flan- 
 ders, are esjiecially numerous in the vicinity of 
 Bruges, protlucing excellent cherries, apples, pears, 
 walnuts, plums, and, less commonly, apricots and 
 peaches. 
 
 The history of Bruges commences at a very early 
 date. It was a prosperous seat of manufacturing 
 and commercial industry long before (ihent anil 
 Antwerp rose to the same distinction. In the 7 th 
 
 
r,Ti 
 
 imuoKs 
 
 <'ciitiirv it wn» rni)i(lly iic((MirinK itiiporlnnrc, mid 
 uiiilrri'lmrhiiiMKiK'. »> *!•« ••mlof tin- Nili (•cntiirv. 
 \\H wi'iiviTs wiTf highly (lii*liii);uiMhcil. Piiriiij,' 
 llir ),'ov('riiin('iit nf t\w rich nnd iMiworl'iil ('oiiiitMiir 
 KlimiltTH, wilt) rcNidcil nt llriiKcK Ironi ilic '.tili ti> 
 (111' ITitli cfiilurifH, ItM wdollfii niamifiuUiircH ^row 
 mid tloiirishfd to an aina/iiii^cxtc-iif, mo tluit IMiiliji 
 lit Itoii, ill I l!lt>, to coiiiincinoralt! itH ^riiit imi- 
 MiM'rity, iiiHlitiilcd tlu' cliivalrit; order (if ilicdoldt'ii 
 H('cc<>. At llu! FU'IIUhU court of tliisontciitatifnis 
 i)iik(' of HiirK'iiiidy, wluwe hypocrisy, and not hit 
 «'xciii|>tion from |>rid«'. and cruelty, procMin-d him 
 the cognomen of (iood, a auniptiioiw H|)leiidour of 
 papaiitry wan dinplayc(l, which no Kiiropcmi mo- 
 narch coidd imitate, and an alwcdiite |io\vcr was 
 exerciHcd, which none dared dispute. '1 he na'onlH 
 of liixiiriouH han(|uetM and appand at thix jieriod 
 are almost incredible. Not only the dresseM of 
 men and women, hut the hoiisnifrH of their horses, 
 were of velvet, satin, mitl ^old, profuscdy spaiiKJed 
 . with hrilliant iewels,— an extrava>,'aiice which 
 Charles V., in the foho-.-'Uifj; century, was obliged 
 to suppress by enacting siimnti'r.y laws. The 
 wealth and splendid attire of the citizens of llriiKes 
 had loiiK been subiccts of wonder ; for when the 
 (pieeii of Philip le llel, of France, visited this city 
 in liUlt), she is said to have exclaimed with aston- 
 ishment, ' I here see hiindre<ls who have more 
 the aiiiicarancc of queens than myself.' The imblic 
 and private lnlildin^,'•^ of the city were worthy to 
 disjilay such courtly magnificence ; so thatSouthey, 
 jndKiiiK from the existing architectural remains of 
 that ancient grandeur, says, in bin • I'ilgrimagc to 
 Waterloo,'— 
 
 • Wlion I may rcail of tilts In days of oM, 
 
 Of tourmiys graced l)y chieftains of renown, 
 Fair (Ininos, ({rave citizens, and warriors bold — 
 
 If fancy would pourtray some stately town 
 Which of such pomp fit theatre niifrht bo, 
 Fair liruges! I shall then remember thee,' 
 
 This noble city, throughout the 14th and loth 
 centuries, was the cential emjiorium of the whole 
 commercial world, ami had resident consuls and 
 ministers from every king<lom in Europe. In the 
 llanseatic l^eague,' or confederacy ot the great 
 I'iiiropean ports for the promotion of commerce, 
 Jlruges was the leading city, aad the grand depot 
 of naval stores. Her quays were crowded with 
 foreign ships and merchants, and her piles of mag- 
 nilicent warehouses were filled with the wool of 
 ICiigland, the linen of Flanders, and the silk of 
 I'ersia. Her weavers were celebrated for making 
 the most beautiful tlescriptiini of tapestry mf>re 
 than a century before the Gobelins manufacture 
 was commenced under the directitm of their dc- 
 scendiints. The wealth of the citizens of course 
 was enormous : a single merchant gave security 
 for the ransom of Jean sans I'cur, the last Count 
 of Flanders, to the amount of 400,000 crowns of 
 gold. The annual exports merely of stuffs manu- 
 factured from English and Spanish wool amounted 
 to H,000,000 tiorins, and the Horiii was then quad- 
 ruple its present value. This amazing prosjierity 
 continued undiminished during the dominion of 
 the dukes of Burgundy ; but under the Austrian 
 dynast}', at the close of the 15th century, the 
 rebellious conduct of its inhabitants, in forcibly 
 imprisoning the Archduke Maximilian, induced 
 his father, the Emperor of Germany, to visit the 
 city with such destructive vengeance that hence- 
 /"orth its greatness died away, its trade was trans- 
 ferred to Antwerp, and the religious persecution 
 and brutal ferocity of the Spanish under Philip II. 
 and the Duke of Alva completed the process of its 
 ruin, at the end of the 10th century, by compelling 
 its artizans to escape for their lives to England, 
 where they found a. hearty welcome from Quceii 
 
 mil} NX 
 
 Eli/abcfh, and bccaiiic the menus of oslnbli.<liiii(» 
 the woollen inaniifacturcN, for which thix ciiimtrv 
 has since become so diHiinguishcd. Tlii> hiiImi'- 
 (|Ui'iit history of llrugcs, under the doininicincirnii. 
 Siiiiiiish, Krench, and Austriaiis, iit comparative! v 
 of little interest. 
 
 liruges, during its gcdden age of coinnicrciul 
 iis<'en(laiicy in the middle ages, was the niilivi' 
 pbici> of numerous eininent scholastic and philn- 
 sopbi(^ aiitliors, classical commentators, nijitlicina- 
 tiv'ians, jurisconsults, theologians, physicians, and 
 paiiit(Ts. 
 
 llltiiGGEN. a town of Prussia, prov. Kliliic, 
 reg. IHlsscddiirf, on the St^hwalmcn, 10 in. ,S\V. 
 KempiMi. Pop, (i70 In IKtll. The town lias a IIik; 
 ('ath(dic,aiida('alvinisichundi,with linen fabrics, 
 bicach-liclds, oil-mills, and a tannerv. 
 
 IllflKilJifCIM;, or LA nHlKirihUE, a town 
 of France, de'p. Tarn, cap, cant., on the Tliore', I m, 
 S, Castles. Pop. ;»,(100 in iKiil. The town has 
 manufactures of flannels, coverlets, and other de- 
 scriptions of woolh'ii goods, 
 
 KUDllL, a town of Prussia, prov. Ithiiie, rcj,', 
 Cologne, 4 m. \V. the If bine, and m. S, ( !oinf;iic, 
 on the railway from Ccdogne to Honn. Po|). •J.ikIii 
 in IHtil. It is surrounded by walls, is well Imjli, 
 and has a seminary for the instruction of siluHil- 
 masters ; but it derives its principal conseiiiiencd 
 i'rom the magnificent castle in its vicinity, com- 
 menced in 1725 by the elector Clement Aiigusliis 
 of Itavaria, and finished by Maximilian Frederick. 
 It is splendidly lifted up, and has extensive 
 l»lcasiirc-grounds and gardens, 
 
 HHUMATII, or lUUJMPT, a town of Frniirp, 
 de'p, Ilas-lJhin, cap, cant., on the Zorn, 12 in, NNW, 
 Strasburg, I'op. 4,80;i in IHOl, The town is sii|i- 
 posed to occupy the site of the ancient SnmmuiguH; 
 and the medals, marbles, and urns, which have 
 liceii found here prove, at least, that it had been 
 inhabited bv the Itomans. Some hard tiglitiiifj 
 took nlaco in its vicinage, iii 171)3, between the 
 Frencli. and Austrians. 
 
 HKUNN, a town of the Austrian States, cap. 
 ISIoravia, at the confluence of the Schwarza and 
 Zwittawa, 70 m. NNE. Vienna, on the ruihvay 
 from Vienna to Prague. Poj). BUjOOO in 1857. The, 
 town is built on the declivity of a hill, having thd 
 cathedral on its summit, and the suburbs at lis 
 foot; is encircled by walls, bastions, and treiidn's, 
 and was formerly defended by the citadel of Spiel- 
 berg, on the liiil of that name to the \V. of flii^ 
 town ; but the defences of the latter having hccii 
 destroyed by the French, it was subseqiieiitly uswl 
 as a state prison, and has more recently been cmi- 
 verte<l into barracks. Silvio Pellico was shut up 
 ill the Sjiielberg for above eight years. Tlioiinh 
 narrow and crooked, the streets of the town arc 
 well paved, lighted, and provided with foot pnvo- 
 ments. Among the public buildings are,— the ca- 
 thedral, remarkable for the height of its nave ; St. 
 Jacob's church, built in 1315, with a tower 27(1 fi, 
 in height, a bell weighing 1 15 centners, and s(inie 
 monuments; the episcopal palace ; the /-«/wM««S 
 formerly a rich Augustine convent, now the re- 
 sidence" of the governor, and the place of mcetinj; 
 of the states of the prov. ; the town-house, a (Jothic 
 structure, built in 1511 ; the barracks, an eimnnous 
 pile, formerly the Jesuits' college, having seven 
 courts, a line church, and a riding-school; the tlica- , 
 tre,with its assembly-rooms ; and the Maria solinol j 
 for young ladies. Many of the nobility beloiijc- 
 ing to the prov. have here fine palaces, which give j 
 an air of grandeur to the town. The (piartercallcil j 
 the Fraiizensberg is very picturesque; in the f,'ar- 
 deus a marble monument was erected ui IS\><, m | 
 honour of the late emperor Francis I. The Aus- 
 garten, a nark laid out as a garde.\ was opened to I 
 
BRlfNSVVICK 
 
 tlip piiMic liv Jont'iili II. nrlliin im tln> ni'iit of » | 
 lii<iliii|irii' mill III' llir i^'umtiiimi'IiI nl' .Muriiviii ami ' 
 AiiHtriiiii SiU'sia.iit'a I'mlcHtaiil coiiHintiiry, u niiirt ' 
 iif a|i|i)'al, IiikIi criiiiiiml miuI military cniirlH, llu; 
 liimlrtTht, or iiiililcs' ciiiirt I'nr tlic priiv,, aiul ix llif 
 |ilm'c (if iiicclini; of the iiruviiicial cHiiitcn, ami llic 
 ri'Miilt'iifc (if ilicir i«tamliii(; ciiiiiiiiittcc. It liax a 
 |iliiliiHii|)lii('al iiiHtitiitc, a ^yniiiaHiiiin, a |iriiii'i|ial 
 iiiirinal xciiool; hcIkmiIm fur vmiii^ ladic", Irailc)*- 
 nicii, ami inccluinicN ; a llicolui^'ical Ncriiiiiary, niid 
 iiiiiiicroiiH pariKli ami infant hcIiiuiIm; an imperial 
 Hiicicty fur the onconraKcmciit of ii^ricuitnrc ami 
 of the natural liistory and p'o^craji'iy of Moravia, 
 to wliii'li is attai'licd a valiiiililc museum, a Imta- 
 iiical K»r(l<'>>i i>iid " pidilie lilirary. It luix p'lU'ral, 
 (ir|ilutn, and lyin^-iii hospitals; a lunatic asylum; 
 with mmieriius institutions for the relief of the 
 |iiiiir. 'I'lu^ inaiiufactiires of Hrtlim are of very eon- 
 fiilerahle vnliK^ and iinportaiu-e. Those of woollen 
 plods are the most extensive in the empire; and 
 the town has thence heen culled the Austrian 
 heeds. The woollen manufacture occuiiied |K,ll(l() 
 iiaiulsin lNi;i,and the annual value of tlie prmluce 
 is estiunited at >JI),)MI(MIII(I Horins, or '.>,00II,(IIHI/. 
 The cotton ntanid'acture has lieeu introduced, and 
 lifls made consideralile profrress; and silk, ^Mass, 
 winp, tol)ac(;o, and machinery, ar(( extensively jiro- 
 (laced. ItH trade is \ery extensive ; and has heen 
 much iiuTcased liy the opening of tlu; Kaiser Fer- 
 dinand railway, which connects it with N'iemui, 
 I'rafjue, Dresden, and all the important towns of 
 (icrinnnv. There are seven animal fairs. 
 
 lUM'S'SWICK (Oer. liruiiimhwiUi), TFIK 
 ni'CIlY OF, in (iermany, consists of live de- 
 tached portions of territory on the rivers Weser, 
 Seine, OcUer, aiul Aller, hetween lat. oP iW and 
 ,52° iV.)' N., and lon^. !»«> Itt' and ! 1° -li' K. It oc- 
 cupies part of the vast plain which stretches from 
 tlic foot of the liar/, mountains, and their coiiti- 
 iHiation (the Sollinf^) to the (iermnii Ocean ami 
 the Ualtic, with a portion of the rise of those chains 
 on the N, side. '1 he largest portion contaiiiH the 
 districts of Wolfeiiliilttel and Schiininfjen, in which 
 the cities of Itrunswick and WolfeiihlUtelf and the 
 tdwns of Konij^slintter and I lelnistadt, arc situated. 
 The district of VVolfenhUttel is traversed hy the 
 Ofker, whi(-h rises in tlie llarz mountains, and is 
 mit naviKahle. The Aller traverses the district of 
 Sclil}nin};;eii, hut is not iiavigahlc in that part of 
 its course; nor is the Seine navijjjabk, which tra- 
 vptwes the district of that name. The Weser, 
 which forms the houiidary of the duchy towards 
 Prussian VVestidmlia for a considerable distance, 
 att'orfls an excellent water communication with the 
 sea and the harbour of Bremen on the one side, 
 and with the states of Hesse and Thiiringia, in the 
 heart of Germany, on the other, by means of the 
 Wcrra and the Fulda, which unite near IMinden, 
 and thence take the name of Weser, This river, 
 uliich forms the main outlet for the waters falling 
 fnim the N. and W. sides of the llarz, and the 
 Thuringian forest, ultimately receives all tlie smaller 
 streams which previously unite with the Aller, ex- 
 cepting the Bode, which falls into the Saalc, a 
 trihiitarj' of the YAh2, and which traverses the third 
 and most southern detached portion of territory, 
 the district of Blankenbarg, Of the Harz moun- 
 tains, which, with the Thuringian i'orest, separate 
 the tributaries of the Elbe from those of the Weser, 
 a considerable portion, valuable for minerals and 
 fiirests of vast extent, belongs to Brunswick. The 
 mmmit of the Brocken, and the rude and almost 
 impassable Central Harz, in which granite, mica 
 slate, and primitive formations predominate, belong 
 to Hanover, while the I"], and W. falls of the range, 
 in which the transition and secondary formations 
 prevail, form part of the Duchy of Brunswick, A 
 
 (DITIIY OF) 
 
 r.73 
 
 portion (if this mountain chain lielongs Jointly to 
 the two ^iivcrnmcnls, ami is di^tiiignishcil by tht* 
 dcnomimitidii of I'ltmmiin'nm llitrz. The highest 
 summits within the Duchy are the Wurmlicrg, 
 2,NMll ft., and the Ackernianshiihc. 'J.TiMi ft. in 
 height. The next conHidcridilcimiuiitaiii, or. rather, 
 forest range, is the Snlliiig, which lies between tlie 
 rivers Seine and Weser, and is covered with ex- 
 tensive and valuable woods of nak and Ik h. The 
 
 summits of this chain are of no great elevation. 
 Iron is found, and sandstone, known umh'r \\w. 
 name of Sollingcr stuncs, is (|uarri('d in them. 
 The lOlin, a sliglit range of heights between the 
 Ocker and the Aller, is covered with womls of oak 
 and beech, and contains veins of irmi and beds of 
 coal, with occasional mineral springs. 
 
 Two small detached portions of territory, viz. 
 the circuit of Thedinghuuscn on the Weser, to the 
 NW. of llameln, and that of Kadcnburg. are en- 
 closed by the Hanoverian territory, and form pari, 
 the foriiler of the Weser district, the latter ot the 
 Seine district. Finallv, the detached circuit of 
 Kalvorde, inclosed within the I'riissian province 
 of Saxony, belongs to the district of ScliJHiingen, 
 
 The diichv lias an area of l.tVJti sijiian! miles, 
 with a )iiipiiIation of 'J><'J,I(H) inhabitants, accord- 
 ing to tlu! census of IKlil. The population num- 
 bered 2()!>,iV.'- in Ifllt; had risen to •>:>\\:1\V1 in 
 IKU; to 2li!),2-JM in IN 10; ond to 27;{..T.II in IHi'iH. 
 There are only two towns with a pop. of above 
 llt,(HH), namely, Wolfenbl\ttel, and Hrunswick, the 
 capital. The great majority of the inhabitants are 
 engaged in agricultural and mining (i|)(Tatioiis. 
 
 With the exception of 1,107 ("alvinists; 2, LOS 
 Homan Catholics, and l,l)7H.Fews — census of iKtil 
 — all the inhabitants adhere to the Lutheran faith. 
 The most perfect toleration and erpiality of civil 
 and religions rights are shared by all the Christian 
 persuasions. 
 
 The hilly parts of the duchy are covered with 
 forests of tir, oak, and beech ; about JHH>,l>ltl) acres 
 are arable and meadow land, 2!M,(l()t) a(Tes, forests, 
 and 22H,tHH) uncultivated moors, water, &c. The 
 plain at the N. fall of the Harz is mostly of a 
 limestone soil, alternating with beds of loam, ami 
 is fertile ; the districts along the Weser and Seine 
 are also fertile ; but the predominant feature is 
 sand in those jiarts. Towards the N. part of the 
 duchy, these fruitful ]ihiins merge into the arid 
 and unproductive sandy heaths of Dolgen and 
 LUneberg. The average produce of corn, of all 
 descrijitions, is estimated at about .'J75,(M(I) qrs. ; 
 oil from linseed, rape, and poppies at 1,2(10 tons, 
 flax 4,500 tons, besides tobacco, madder, and 
 hops, in each of which articles, the produce con- 
 siderably exceeds the consumption. Cattle breed- 
 ing is carried on successfully in the river districts; 
 and improved breeds of cattle and sheep are found 
 on all the larger estates. Hogs are very exten- 
 sively reared ; but the sausages and hams of 
 Brunswick enjoy so much reputation, that a large 
 importation of hogs takes jilace from the neigh- 
 bouring states, the produce of which is sent to all 
 parts of the Continent. Horses are not reared in 
 suiiicicnt numbers to supjdy the wants of the 
 duchy, and arc annually brought from Holstein 
 and Mccklenbui'g. 
 
 The extensive forests, which had suffered, from 
 many years of neglect and wasteful management, 
 have of late been improved under scientific direc- 
 tion, and are divided into four inspectorships 
 {Fortmeisterekn), and 61 foresters' districts. Tim- 
 ber, of valuable quality, is annually Hoated down 
 the Ocker, Seine, Inne'rste, and Weser, especially 
 from the Harz and the Soiling forests, and forms a 
 considerable object of export trade. The game 
 in these forests is not very abimdant, consisting of 
 
r.7i 
 
 llUUNSWirK (r)lTCHY OF) 
 
 ml (leer, riM'liiickH, linri'H, niiil rnliltilN, with orcn- 
 Hiiiiiiil wild IxiiirH, A H|H'i'ii'H of tliroittli' (Knimmlit- 
 riH/il) riiiiK'lil liy tliiiiixiiiiilN in tin' wilittT sriiKnii, 
 is I'Ntt'i iiii'il a uri'iit (It'lit'Hcv. V'Mt not \rry 
 iilmniliuit, nor ol' riirc mirtN, 'J'Im< iiiincral rii'licN 
 of the Mar/. niountaiiiH, altliouKli no lon^iT »o 
 lirolilic aM ri'p<irt('il in I'onncr litni'H, alt'onl t'lnploy- 
 incnt to nliont 7/il> |H'n|ili>, working in tliirtrfii 
 inini'M, or the latter, tlircc an- |irival(', ami tlu> 
 oiliiT ^ovt'rnini'iit inulfrtakiiiKM, nnnia^ctl partly 
 in ('oiijniM'liiin xvitli Hanover, and partly liy llrnn^^- 
 >vi<'k alone. Tlie l!aniineU iier^;, lu'iir liohjjir, of 
 vliii'li .'l-7tliN iH the nliari' of llrnnM>vi('k, and 
 'l-TlliH that of Hanover, in the inoNi ini|ioi'tant of 
 all the inineH, prodncin^ antimony, lend and 
 copper, together with hiumII tpiantilieM of pdd — 
 alioni a hundred oniu'es a year. Iron In the ehief 
 proihice of the ininen worked xeparately hy limns- 
 wifk in the three dinlrielM of the Harz, Wei«er, and 
 Itlankeidier^. Mont of lliein, as already stated, 
 are worked on pivennneiit aeeount, and as well 
 as the salt mines, stoin> enttiii^ mills, four ^dass 
 houses, and the poreelain inamd'aetory at Fllrslen- 
 lier;;, are under the direeiion of a mining' hoard itl 
 llruiiswiek. '[he salt wurksare very eonsiderahle ; 
 they are estahlished at Sal/dahhim and .Sid/lie- 
 lienliall, in the district of Wolfenhilttel, and at 
 Schihiiiip'ii, 'I'hat at Sal/.dahlnni has lieen worked 
 since tlii^ l!Uh century. 'I'lie liriiu' spriiifj at 
 Julinshall \n worked jointly with Hanover. In 
 tlic llrninieidiolx, near Helmstadt, there is a coal- 
 niiiu! with two slud'ls, and another near Walken- 
 ried, where alahaster and amines are foinid. 
 Mineral sprinf,'s occur in several piirts; lhos«" 
 near Helmstadt and Seesen are frei|uented hy 
 invalids. Aspliallum and other hituminous snh- 
 slances are foinul in many parts of the Harz 
 mountains, especially at the liaininels herg and 
 Iher^'. 
 
 licsidos the irfin-works, linen wrnvinp is the 
 i'hief article of mamd'actnre, which, however, has 
 (greatly di'clined of late years. Camlets are the 
 only description of woollens woven within the 
 <lnchy; « spimiiiif^-mill for woollen yarn has 
 been' estahlished at lievern ; aiul s)iiiniing is a 
 source of imlnstry amon^ many of the small 
 
 ix'nsnnt proprietors (llaiicrn) of the country. 
 JrewiuK is extensively carried on in nil the 
 I)rinci]inl towns, hut the heer is had, and does 
 not prevent the nniversal use of hrandy amoiifcst 
 the lower classes. 'I'he INInmme, a heavy dnuij^ht 
 extracted from malt, is now |iriiicipally used hy 
 (lersoiis ill delicate lionlth, and is exixirted for 
 that ])iirpose to all |)arts of (iermnny. Oil iiiid 
 pawing mills are fomid on nearly all the i)rin- 
 cipal streams, anil the preparation of the root of 
 chicory as a substitute for cotVee, which nttaineil 
 to a groat extent during the exclusion of colonial 
 produce luuler the continental system, is still 
 favoured by high duties on such [trodnuo within 
 the limits of the customs' league or Zollvorein, 
 Trade, especially the transit trade, is a great 
 source of emolument lM)tli to the town niul duchy 
 of IJninswick, and is principally transacted at its 
 ancient fair, which, in spite of railways, still keeps 
 lip its importance. The government wisely directs 
 its attention to the encouragement of the <litt'erent 
 industrial resources, and has preferred establishing 
 a li'jerally-eudowed and well-conducted system of 
 tdi'.cation to the imposition of protecting duties, 
 by which one class of the jteople is aided at the 
 cost of the others. The foundation of the ' Keal 
 Institute,' which unites witli ))ractical instruction 
 in agriculture and the management of forests the 
 scientitic information on which the higher branches 
 of these occu])Utions, as well as mining, and the 
 mechanical and chemical arts, ought to be founded, 
 
 marks an epoch, even in (Jermany, where Miniiuli 
 care is shown for Intellectiiiil imiiroveineiii, \,,r 
 are the higher hranrhe-* of knowledge iii'(;li'i'ii'i|. 
 The l.vceiiin, forinrrly the Caroline ('olli'^i'; \s\,', 
 normal schools for teachers ; and six gviiuiii-iii, 
 all'ord ample nieaiiN of cultivating them. Tin! 
 uniNcrsity fonnerly existing at llelnistadt, iii, 
 revenues and lilirarv of which were traii«firrii| 
 during the Westphalian regime to (iJittiiigen. inn 
 not been re-eslalilished, but (lUttingeii is reKnnlnl 
 as the uni\erHiiy of the duchy. Tliere uri' i;;t 
 burghers' schools, and .'t(i!t elementary mIiih,|<, 
 giving one to nearly every village. The re\eiMii.i 
 of nine secularised convents and religious fniiiiiln- 
 tions are applied to support a number of im- 
 
 married young women and other persons on iIm' 
 presentations of the patnun 
 foundations are o'J in niimher. 
 
 pen 
 'lie 
 
 cliariialili' 
 
 The inhabitants of the duchy are mostly i|(>. 
 scendanis of the ancient ' Hrokinaiiner,' a liraudi 
 of the Sasseii or .Saxons, and the l.ow-dcriimii 
 language is universal among the villa;,'crs, ex- 
 cept on the Har/., whose mining populiiiiim was 
 ilrawn from I'jiper (iermnny, and speaks lli;;lj. 
 (iernian. The names of some villages, as Wcinjfii, 
 are perhaps the side remains of the anrieiit Wi'ii 
 dish or Slavonian inhahitaiits of the nortli-easicrii 
 parts of the duchy. The higher classes of \\u- 
 towns speak High-(temian, which, ns all hvit 
 (iermany, is the language of public business anii 
 of the schools. 
 
 The constitution of Itrunswick bears date (Ic- 
 tolx'r 12, 1K,'I2, hut was modilied by the I'liinlii- 
 inental hiw of November 2'2, |H.')I. Tlie legisinlive 
 power is vested in one (,'hamber, consist in;; «( 
 forty-three members. Of these, nine are elected 
 by the highest-taxed landed proprietors; ten liy 
 the magistrates of the chief towns; three hy lliV 
 I'rotestant i ii-rgy ; ten l)y the iidiahiliiiils of 
 towns, and eleven by those of rural distriris. 
 The ('handier nu'cts every threi! years, and iln' 
 debilities hold their mandate for' two sessimis 
 With the exce))tion of the members of ihc 
 clergy,%which must be chosen, no distiiii'tiim i>f 
 rank or property inlluences or limits the iIkiIi'i' 
 of this last portion of the assembly. The nii'iii- 
 liers chosen for the towns and for the cmnitry 
 must, however, hehaig to that cla.ss of each wliii'h 
 pays the highest amount of taxes, and wliicli is 
 lixed to include one-tenth of the houses in town. 
 and one-fourth of the landed holdings, 'flio 
 budget is voted for three years, and the ChiiinlKr 
 has the right of controlling the ex|K'nses uf ilii' 
 state. The public revenue for the years IKdl-;! 
 was 4,9Hi»,()()() thalers, or 747,4.^(1/., iind the ix- 
 penditure of the same amount, giving an aiinnal 
 income and ex|ienilitiiro of 'i4!t, I ;')()/. Nut, in- 
 cluded in the budget is the very large revonui' 
 from the State domains, out of which the fivil 
 list of the Duke, and a variety of subventimis to 
 educational establishments, are paid. The snr|i!iis 
 of this fund only is paid into the geiieriil cx- 
 (Oieqiier, and set down at 432,01)0 thnlers. or 
 ti4,300/., for the peritxl 18<!l-(!;!. The Duke 
 further derives a revenue of 17(t,000 tlorins fnun 
 the duchy of Gels, in Silesia, and a ineiliatiscil 
 principality under the sovereignty of I'mssin, 
 which is an n])pannge of the second branrli nf tliu 
 House of BruiiKwiek. Finally, the estates of tlio 
 convents and religious foundations secularisoil at 
 the period of the reformation, and then destiiioil 
 to support the clergy and institutions of eiiiiia- 
 tion, fonn a separate fund, which does not enter 
 into the budget, yielding the sum of 340,ti0j 
 dollars annually. 
 
 The military organisation of the duchy is tm 
 the Prussian system of general liability to the 
 
 f 
 
 sen ice of flfins, 
 
 iiii'ii are raisi il I 
 
 IIS I'ontribiitioii I 
 
 Till' troops aiiim 
 
 niiiiibering ahoi 
 
 lilegnanls, sunn 
 
 ^'iiiieiit of light 
 
 lirigade of artill 
 
 I'liniier times 1 1 
 
 nmre numerous. 
 
 Itriiiiswick had 
 
 under anus. In 
 
 try raised above 
 
 The present I 
 
 desri'tidant of H 
 
 liiiiise of W'elf, \ 
 
 Itavnria ikiid Sax 
 
 Sniiliian house of 
 
 tiirv, the jiarly of 
 
 in Italy than in ( 
 
 taini'd of their 
 
 I'linsed all the pri 
 
 the Kinperor Fre 
 
 liicni. Henry the 
 
 (■ni|H'ror in his w 
 
 iiiiil the pope, wa 
 
 diet in 1 1 HI), of | 
 
 |Hissession of his 
 
 mill Mhiehiirg, wh 
 
 iniiiierous branchi 
 
 still reigning lim 
 
 and llruiiswiek, w 
 
 such, the crown 
 
 to this liii<>, win 
 
 ilangliter of Menr 
 
 lliiuse of Stuart, I 
 
 al'tiTwiirds (ieorge 
 
 iif Klizaheth, Coui 
 
 .lames I. of I'jiglai 
 
 yiMiiiger line. Tn 
 
 exist iM'tween the 
 
 wiek, and the siici 
 
 side when legitimn 
 
 mate family <;oiiiiei 
 
 suhsisted between t 
 
 rei),'iiiiig families i 
 
 engaged the priiici 
 
 niliaiices with thes 
 
 Friince, and occasio 
 
 nmiy, at the outset 
 
 ixtH'i, WHS comniai 
 
 William Ferdinand 
 
 Imttlc of .Jena. Al 
 
 liueliy neutral, anil 
 
 with the Prussian 
 
 mediately seized b 
 
 |iiiratcd "with the k 
 
 ycinngest son, Freih 
 
 iif liis eldest, and I 
 
 brother, the sole rei 
 
 lime ill the Priiss 
 
 Austrian army. In 
 
 raised a small corps, 
 
 tioii with the gram 
 
 ilivcrsion in the iioi 
 
 hi.i cause ruined hy 
 
 Wagrani, he crossei 
 
 tlift head of a small 
 
 men, and marched 
 
 to the sea coast ii 
 
 alternately tighting 
 
 ivliieh crossed his pi 
 
 lime and brovery, In 
 
 tnglaiul, where his 
 
 anny, with iiermissi 
 
 "•inn which their bra\ 
 
 aiiil served until 181 
 
lUtrNSWICK (DrcilY OF) 
 
 /I7rt 
 
 wnicc (if nmiH, I'mclii'iillv, liiovcvrr, im iiniri' 
 nii'ii (ire riiiKi'il liy ciiiiMiiiiiiiiii ihaii iir>' ri'i|iiiri'il 
 ti<< I'ltiilriliiilinii III till' iiriiiy nf iIm' ('iiiil'i'ilcriiliiiii, 
 Till' rriii>|m iiMioiiiil III mil' ri';;iiii<'iii nl' inriiiilrv, 
 iiiiMilM'riti)< itliiiiil 'J.iMio iiii'ii ; mil' lialdilimi nl' 
 liri'triiiirilM, Honii' Hivvi'ii liiiiiilri'il itrmii;; niic n*- 
 l^liiii'Ml III' li^lil ilriiKiiiiMM, III' I,'I7 iiirii i and (inc 
 hriKailt' III' iiriillcry, will) .'li)| niiik ainl lili'. In 
 liirnHT tiiiicM the army i>( tlic tlin'liy was Car 
 niiiri' nnnirrniiH, |)iirin^ llii> Si'Vi'n Vfarn' War, 
 ItriiMKuirk liail ni'ViT Ir^x lliiin r.'.niio mm 
 iimlrr ai'ins. In ilu' war ul' |n|:|-| I iln' cmin - 
 try ralHi'il almvi' In, nod iriHpjw. 
 
 Till' |iri'm>ii( l>iiki' III' ItriniHwii'k 'im IIu> jiiit'al 
 ili'Mi'i'iiilant III' lli'iiry llii' l.imi, llii' hiHl nl' tlir 
 
 liiillM' i>r Writ', Wllii lll'lil till' liniti'il lln^llit'^4 III' 
 
 Itavaria uml Saxmiv. In tlii'ir rivalry uilli llu' 
 
 Siialiian Iiiiiihi> of llnlit'iiHtaiil't'ii in tlit* I'.'tli ccn- 
 
 tiirv, till' imrly nl' llir iiowcrCnl WcII'm was ntn>nf,'i'r 
 
 ill Italy liiaii in (ItTinaiiy, ami llir jcaliuHy ciilcr- 
 
 iiiiiii'il III' llit'ir piiwcr in llic riirnicr rminlry, 
 
 i'aii«('<l III! till' |iriii('('s of till' i'iii|iir(' to unite willi 
 
 till' l'lin|ii'ri>r Frcili'rii'k llarliiiniHsa in lininlilin^ 
 
 ihi'iii. Ilciirv till' Lion having ri'l'iist-il In iiiil timt 
 
 i'iii|H'rnr in IiIm wars with llii< t'rcr Italian ritics 
 
 mill the iM)|i(', wiiM (li'|iriv('il, Ity a ilccrt'i' nl' the 
 
 ilii't ill llHO, of lintli (Ini'liii'M, anil niilv left, tlii' 
 
 IHiisi'ssinii nl' IliN alloilial (inniaiiiH of itninswick 
 
 mill Mln('l)iir^, which wen; Miihscniii'iilly Hplit into 
 
 iiiiiiK'rmi.H liraiii-lii'M, but nii'r;;i!<l liiiallv in tlio 
 
 htili rci^niiii); liiit'H of Khni'luirf; (or llaiiovt'r) 
 
 mill ItriiiiHwick, which Im th(> otilrr hranch. Ah 
 
 siirli, the crnwil nl' I'Jl^Iaiid wniil'l hlivc <l<>vnh'(<il 
 
 ti) this liiii-, which cltiini!* lU'sccnt from llio 
 
 iiaiif,'hti'r of lli'iirv II. nii tiio cxlini'tinii of the 
 
 llmise of Stiiarl, iiail not tlie Duke of MliielMirj^, 
 
 iiltcrwariLs (ieor;;-c I., by marrying the (lan^htcr 
 
 III' l'',lizalietli, Coinitcss I'alatlne, the ilaii^'hter of 
 
 .liiiiu's I. of Kii^'lanil, iirnciireil a |irinrclaiiii tn the 
 
 jniin^jer line. TrenlH's of inuliial inlieritiiiice 
 
 i'xist hctweeii t\w hnii.ses of Hanover ami Mriiiis- 
 
 wick, anil Ihi- sm-cessinii only |iasses to the female 
 
 MiU' when legitimate male heirs fail. Tlie ilili- 
 
 iiiiitn family eniinectioii which in the last ceiitiirv 
 
 .siili.sisted hetweeii the House of Hrnnswick and tlie 
 
 ri'i^'iiiii^ families of (ireal llritaiii and Prussia, 
 
 diUii^rc'd the princeH of llrimswiek in political 
 
 nlliaiict's with these two powers, in opposition to 
 
 Fraiu'e, and occasionally to Austria. The I'mssiaii 
 
 amiy, at the outset of the disastrouH eampaifrn of 
 
 isiii;, was commanded hy the Uiike (Iliarles 
 
 William Ferdinand of Urimswick, who fell in the 
 
 Iwttlu of .leiia. Althoiijjh he had declared his 
 
 (liioliy neutral, and no llrimswiek troops were 
 
 with the Prussian army, yet his lands were im- 
 
 nu'iliately seized l>y the coni-|iieror, and incnr- 
 
 |iiirat('d with the kiii^dnm of Westphalia. His 
 
 yiiiiiiyest son, Frederick William, after the death 
 
 III' his chlest, and the itlxlicatioii of his secnnd 
 
 Imitlier, the sole remaining heir, served for some 
 
 time in the I'riissian, nnd afterwards in the 
 
 Aiistriun army. In IKtlO, this adventurous prince 
 
 raised a small corjis, and attempted, in co-())ieni- 
 
 tiiiii with the (jfrand Austrian army, to excite a 
 
 diversion in the north of (Jermimy; hut lindinj; 
 
 his cause mined hy the victory of the French at 
 
 Wajjram, he crossed the whole of (Jermany, at 
 
 thfi liead of a Hinnll body, not cxcecdiiif; 2,1)00 
 
 men, and marched from the liohcmian frontier 
 
 til the sea coast near ISremcn. Kluding and 
 
 alternately fighting the various French cnri)s 
 
 viiicli crossed his ]>assagc with equal good for- 
 
 luiie and bravery, lie succeeded in embarking for 
 
 England, where his troops joined the Hritish 
 
 amiy, with iiermission to retain the black nni- 
 
 fiirm which their bravery had rendered celebrated, 
 
 aiul served until 1814 in the pcuinsula. Having 
 
 ri'gaiiii'il his dmiiiiiiniis, innlrr the Ntipiilalinim 
 nf the iri'Miy nf Vii'iiiiu, Fnilcrick Williuni fell 
 lit the hi'iiil nf his irniipM \Nhili> inaintaiiiiiig the 
 iHiiitinii of l^iialre Iti'iis, t»n days U'lnri' the 
 
 iialtle nf Watirlnn. His Hilirissnr, <'llarll'^ WON 
 
 driven away in |h;io, and ilie ihrniie made nver 
 to his brother William, the prest'iii duke, and tlm 
 last of the line. He iM'iiig withmit h'iritimiklii 
 heirs, the diii'hy at his iliaih will fall to Hanover, 
 in coiil'nrmily with ancient treaties. 
 
 MiiliNsWK'K, a I'ity nftienmiiiy, cap. of the above 
 iliii'by, nil the Oi'ker, H III. SI'',. HiiiiiiMr, mi Ihn 
 railway fmm Hanover tn llcrHii. Pnp. r.','.'0',l in 
 iNi'il, due llriino, who appears abmit the year 
 
 NI'J as |)||kl> nf ()-<tlillrll, is said tn liitM' llril lillilt 
 
 «valls miiml the little town nf Kriinswick, tn prn- 
 ted it I'rniii the iiiciirsimis nf till' Nnrniaiis. Henry 
 the I, inn, iMike nf Saxony and Havana, and the 
 graiiil champion of ChriMliaiiitv and tn'riiianic 
 civilisatinii against the Slavmifc nut inns nii the 
 Flbe and the llaltic Sea, Inwards the cinse nf the 
 twelllth century made llriiiiswick bis place nf re- 
 sidi'iice, and extended and ailnrneil the citv. lit) 
 linished the cathedral 4'liiircli nf St. Illai/.e, all 
 iiileresling inniiiiment nf the Ity/.antiiie (■ntlii(r 
 style, endnweil it with lands and relics bronght 
 from ('oiistaiitiiio|de and the Holy Land, and 
 erected a broii/.,' Ilgiire nf a linn, said tn liavo 
 been cast in the (ireek capital, ii|Hin a pedeslal ill 
 fmiit of bis palace, on the site nf which a barrack 
 nnw stands. Frmn this |M'rind llriiiiswick bccaiiiu 
 niie of the most important cities in N. (Jermany; 
 ami the wealth of its dukes, wlin were nwiiers nf 
 the exteiisivi- mines and salt wnrks in the Harx 
 mniintiiins, and in the vicinity, was jirincipally 
 expended in lli(> cities nf iJliU'lierganil llriinswick, 
 the seats of the chief lines nf the Welf family. 
 In the Ihirteenth century llrimswiek, which, nwiiig 
 tn these r(^snllrces, bad advunceil in cniiiiiicri'iiil 
 prnsperity, became a mi'inber nf the llanseiitit; 
 League, and tlourislied as one of the leading cities 
 of Lower (iermany. On tlu^ decline of the leagno 
 the increased power of the territorial )iriiices ex- 
 posed the city to the vicissitudes which their \h>- 
 iitical speculations drew upon thi^ country; and 
 llriinswurk sull'ered in cominnii with other N. ciiies 
 upon the advance nf the liii|ieriiil iinnies under 
 'I'illy and Wallenslein, in the thirty veai-s' war. 
 The division of thi^ reigning house into many 
 branidies was also, at that period, disadvanlageoiis 
 to Brunswick, which saw the rival cities of Wid- 
 fenbiittel, (!elle, Hnnover, and (liittingen spring 
 lip and prosper as so many diniiniitive capitals, 
 each the seat of a petty cniirt. The city was 
 further almost drained nf its small remains of 
 wealth during the French occupation; but thrmigli 
 the industry of its inhabitants, and the celebrity 
 of its fair, held in Feiiriiary and August, and fre- 
 quently visited by *J(t,000 strangers, it keeps up its 
 importance as a commercial city. The railway from 
 Itrimswit^k to the font of the Harz mountains, 
 opened in IH'M), is one of the oldest in Gennany. 
 The fort ilicat ions of the city have been levellecl 
 since the peace, and converted into agreeable plan- 
 tations, with walks and drives ; and the city, al- 
 though bearing rather an antiipiatod apiieafaiice, 
 has snme good streets, and abounds in interesting 
 remains of the middle ages. The cathedral, and 
 chu/ch of St. (Jiles, which has been fitted np os 
 a repository for works of art, the bronze lion 
 before mentioned, and the town house, with u 
 curious gallery adorned with the statues of many 
 of the (liikes in niches, and the bronze fountain 
 in its vicinity, are deserving of notice. A sjilcndid 
 new ducal palace, built at an enormous expense, 
 to replace the residence of Diike Charles, destroyed 
 by the mob iii 1830, was burnt down in 18G5. 'I'he 
 
 
A70 nUI'NSWiCK 
 
 rliiirfli "f Si. AnilfcwK, wlili Iih hIiu'IiIck, iiiii- of 
 >«liirli !■< ;ilM I'l. ill liii^lii ; mill tliiil <il SI, Cidlii' 
 riiH', will) iniiiiiiiiKit liy nii'lirii'li, iiihI xiaiiii'il 
 ^[\l\»l> wiiiiliiWH Iroiii ili'HJ^iiN liy i 'riiiiiirli mill liiircr, 
 iiH ut'l' MM till' I'liiirrli III' St, iMiirliii, III IIk' (Hiiiilfil 
 liiilliii' xlyli', iirr iiiliriHiiii^ III liivirN III' llii' IliK' 
 nriN. Ill ill)' iiniMt'iiin, mimiiK'*! 'i iiiiiiilM'r i>l' lu- 
 ll rinr |illillllllK!*< 'IC)' HiillK' of |||{;|| Vltllli' of llli' 
 
 I'lriiiixh mill Ihilt'li Ht'lioolii, hy Itt'iiiliriiiiilt, Jmi 
 Mi'i'iiM, N'miilyki', iiinl IIiiIh'iik, lo^^i'lliir v\illi a 
 |Mirtriill of ItiilViit'lIt', Hiiiil lo Ih> Ii\ IiIm own hmiil; 
 mill otlit't'M liv (iiiiilo, liiorKimii', Ifir, An !''.<'<'<' 
 Iloino, liy .MIktI DiiriT, u rriirilix, liy lli'iiM'inito 
 Ct'liitii, wlili a t'olli'i'iloii of miiii|iic nIiiIiii'n miil 
 roiiiH, iirr wortliy of iiihiit'clioii, 'I'lic I't'lcliriilctl 
 Onyx viiM>, |iiiri'liiiNt'il' iiv one of ilic tliiki't of 
 llriniHwIi'k, who m'cnri'il \t iis IiIh Hliiirc of liooly 
 wlirn Miinliiit wiiH mickril, in llic t'oiirHc of llic 
 lliirly vciirH' war, luKctlicr wiili Hcvcrul oilier oli- 
 JcclHol' value, were earrii'ij olV, and are hIIII re- 
 liiiiieil Iiv l>iike CharleH, 'I'lie <'aroliiie eolle^', 
 now iliviileil iiilii a iyceiini or elasHical eiilie);e, 
 Willi a f^yiinui.iinin or p;rainniar ncIiooI, anil a 'real 
 hcliiile,' <ir iiiei'limiirH' aiiil eoininereial inxlilnte, 
 witli a liraneli for at^rieiilliiriNls ami foreHterN, a 
 rollene for leaelierw, Neveral elenienlary hcIiooIh, 
 a Keiieral and a lyin(;-iii liosjiital, willi MelioolH of 
 Hiirt;ery, orplian and deaf and dunili aMylniiiN, an; 
 llie |ii'ililie iiiNlilnlionM for ednealion. Tlie lown 
 luiM aJHo nianiifat'tiireM nf linen and woollen hIiiIVh, 
 mid hardware; and luuni'rouH charitahle iiiNlitu- 
 tioiiH. 
 
 MiMtNMWicK, a town of Ihe l'. Slatcx of Anie- 
 riea, Maine, on llie Androm'o^tjjiii, '_'(> in. SW. An- 
 irnHla, anil ;tO in. NK. rorllmid; \at. W M' N., 
 Ii.n(,'. <!!»° ;"(.V \V. ro|i.(l.lltll in IWiO, Itin iiplaee 
 of eoiiHiderahle trade. On the o|(|io»tife fide of llie 
 river is 'ropHhain, with which town il isconneeted 
 iiy two liridK<'x. The falln of the, river afford a 
 convenient Niipply of water power, which in used 
 lo Home extent, l(> givi) motion lo corn inills, and 
 V'oolien and collon I'liclorieH, llowdoin College, 
 founded in 17*.)t, nwiiiiIh on an elevated plateau 
 near tiie town, li poNsesses a philoHophicnl mid 
 chemical apparatus hiboratory, eahinet of mine- 
 rals, pillery of paiuiin^H, and a lihrary containing 
 til,!»f)tt vol's. A medical Hchool, connected with 
 the colle^'e was estahlished in IWO. In l«(;2, the 
 colle^re had H professors, and <.)■'!!) sliidents. 
 
 IliiUNHWUJK (Ni;w), a city of >'ew .lersoy, in 
 the llnited Statesof America, jiartly in Middlesex 
 and partly in Somerset cos., on tlu! SW. side of 
 li'arilan river, '22 in. NK. Trenton. Top. 10,!(!tO in 
 jMliO. The town lies rather low; hut is considered 
 healthy, and Iuih a p>od deal of trade. Il luw a 
 <!onrt-houKO, jail, niarket-lioiise, two hanks, a theo- 
 lofjical seminary, and several places of worship. 
 l{ul;iers Collep', foundetl in 1770, under the nnnie 
 of (Queen's CoUc^^e, is a liandsonu! stone hnihlinj; 
 three stories h'mU, with lihrnries containing \i]>- 
 wards of I "2,000 vohmies. The h'aritan is navi- 
 jfahle as far as New Urunswick for aloops of 80 
 tons hnrden. 
 
 HuiJNswicK (Nkw), a territory helongin}? to 
 Kn>rland in N. America. See Nkw Hui'Nswhk. 
 
 HKL'SSKLS (I.at, Jinixelltc, Flem. JiriiHuvl, Fr. 
 JJnixelkn), cajiital of the kingdom of Itcl^nim], 
 and of the prov. of Itrabaiit, about M) m. li. hy S. 
 from the sea, <m the Senno, a small river, which, 
 rising: near So)K»ics in Ilainanlt, and tlowin^ X., 
 falls into the Schohlt, throufrh the Hupel. Pop. 
 177,Kr)4, aocordiiifj to the census of IMWi; and 
 })00,3-lI, according to an enumeration of Dec. fil, 
 IWCil. The latter number comprises the jiop. of 
 ci);ht surrounding parishes, not included m the 
 census returns. 'J he scenery of the adjacent coun- 
 try it) beautifully divcrsilied by sloping' heights, 
 
 nmssKi.s 
 
 and Krren valleyn refreshed liy Hie wntrm •>( ih# 
 
 Senile. A hir>{i' jiorli f tlie cily liiii;, |,|,||| 
 
 on the acclivily III a hill, Il prcNcnls,' win , .ii'n,.,| 
 fniiii the \V„ a pii'lnre>M|ueampliitlicalri<i>t hiMi.in; 
 and the ^real inci|nalily of the elcNaliiui i,( u„ 
 sill' has ofieii induced a coinpaiison willi Nuiilia 
 and lieima. The llt;ure dencrils'il by llii- imi|||,„i 
 of the Hiirroniidiii^' wall rescnibli's lluit of a iH'ar, 
 Ihe KinalleNt part poinliiiK SSW. 'I'lie L'niit,.,i 
 ixleiil of Ihe cliy, from N N K. to SS\V„ is iilmiit 
 It ni. ; and the extreme width, from N\V. In s\-,„ 
 iiboiii ".'J in. Itriissels, a ceiiiiirv aK". was inu,. 
 piclely surrounded by xirniiKly lorlili' I riiiii|ijiri«, 
 with salii'hl antics, and ditches or iihmi^, f<ii|i|>lin| 
 fr-iin the river Senile. 'I'liese fort illcai ions amniH 
 idiniisl wholly renuived, and ihijr «ile is I'lirini.l 
 into spai'iiiiiN boulevards, plant ni with rnw', ..f 
 stately linden trees, that encircb' Iwo-iliirilsiii i),,. 
 cily, on Ihe N., the I',., and the M. The city wnll 
 is overlooked by the l>iinlevards, w Mch ciiiunuiiiil 
 exlciisive views of llie coiiiiirx, and alVunJ mi 
 agreeable promenade, exlcinliii^ about .'i m, iri.-ii 
 the I'orl an liiv/ige on the N'„ lo Ihe I'lirlc iji' 
 Hal on the S, 'I'liere are uiiii< of these iinrlm'T 
 mural gates, several of which are line old niilii 
 
 leclnriil arches of great strength. Tli(\\ iiniiii 
 
 nicale with, and bear the names of, Ihe I'llgli r,<iuU 
 that traverse the kingiUmi and centre in ihc 
 ciiiiilal. 
 
 Ihe Senile enters Ihe city on the NW. side liy 
 two braiii'lics, and forms, within tlii> wiill.^, rmir 
 islands, ol which the iiriiici|ial are named St.liirv 
 and lion Seconrs, 'I'liis rivulet is oily almiit ;;o 
 ft. in width, and from I to il ft, in depii., ukI U 
 not na\ igable in any part of its eoiirsi>, JlriivM'l.*, 
 lioweviT, besides being in llu^ network of ilip 
 lleigian railway svslem, possesses the ailvjinliimi 
 of water commnnicaiion with Charleroy mi tln'S,, 
 and with Mechlin, Vntwerii, and the cceaii, mi lln' 
 X,, by means of two ca|iaciiins and Wi II apjiniiiti'il 
 canals. The width of tlu\ Antwerp > iiial is l.'i It, 
 Il was opened in l<*).'il, and cost nearly '2,<iimi,(I(iii 
 of llorins, or lt!(!,0(»0/. Five locks ovenniiii' ii 
 desi'cnt of TiO ft,, in n course of 17 m,, liet«ii'ii 
 llrusscls and the town of Iloom, where llic I'lmiil 
 Joins the 1,'upel, a large alllueiit of the Siliclilt, 
 The head of this canal, in the NVV. fpiartemf tiu' 
 city, is furnished with several commodious liii»in't 
 and ipiays, whence goods arc conveyed in liiri;o 
 barges to the Junction of the Hiipel. The Cliiirli- 
 roy canal cost •l,!l.')0,20ij florins, and was iiiiciiiil 
 in 1h;I0. It is carried along the W. boinularv of 
 the city, in the ancient ditches of the forlillcntiniH 
 to the I'ort ail Kivage, where it ctminuniii'iiiH 
 with the canal to Antwerp. Fifty-live luck,; iili- 
 viate n fall of 4;i2 ft., in its course of I.'* in, lo 
 llnissels. It passes through a tunnel of 1,17.") 
 yards, and is crossed by flt>y-flve aqueducts mi<l 
 I hirty-six bridges. Th»- soil of the elevated gniiiinl, 
 occupied by the S. and K. jiortions of the cily, is 
 sand, interspersed with fossils, marine substmici's 
 calcareous stones, aiul layers of ferruginous ciirlli; 
 and that of the lower N. and \V. section ci>n!'i,<i« 
 of a sandy marsh, mixed with marine stibsiniici's, 
 and covered with a deep bed of jn-at or turf. 
 The highest jiart. on the S. extremity, lictwciii 
 the ])ortcs uf Hal and Namiir, is about '220 II. 
 above the level of the sea. The upper town, kimwii 
 as the (jiiartier Leopold, contains the royal nmrt 
 and government ntlices. the jiark, the linest sqiiiircs 
 streets, and hoi l.s, ami the mansions of tlic lii^'lirr 
 classes. The <-cntral and lower town coniprisis 
 chieily the tr.uling and operative portion of tlic 
 ))upulation, aud has generally a more crowded ami 
 mean appearsuice, though it still abounds in tiiic 
 old ornameii-ed buildings, once occujiicd liy the 
 ancient nobics of lirabunt. The Rivaye, at the S. 
 
 rxireinity, U lr 
 
 irrscnls a ciiii»h 
 riii'iily isabnm 
 liv nieaiiKiif pljH 
 trniii ihri'i' Niibi 
 lii'inillfiil \il||i({). 
 iin> IsKides ii'ii 
 foiiMtains, and »! 
 iiiiiis are nrnatii 
 ):niii|iM of exi|iiiN 
 Till' liiiml reliiiirki 
 
 ill llic coiiri of 1 1 
 KikIs in while n 
 ilu' timtiiini> ilf , 
 
 Nllllllll, COIlKivlill 
 
 ill tUiiie marble, 
 .\ylc«biiry, in mii 
 liiiliiiants, after n 
 mill the Mitnitiki 
 
 ill tlu litre of 
 
 liriiii/.i> llgnre, nbi 
 
 l«iy who dischargi 
 
 iiiiniiicr. (ireal \ 
 
 llltarlied III Hum 
 
 liti/cim of llriisM 
 
 linr soljciliule as 
 
 llie ancient purl 
 
 iimiiv line s|M'<'inii 
 
 iirrliilecliire of ||i 
 
 niiKlcrn part exhi 
 
 iliX". erected abi 
 
 iii'wly-bnilt dwelli 
 
 iiiK'nnth form and 
 
 f/irli'ries, and are 
 
 inl'criiir bricks, nn 
 
 llie lofty lileil roi 
 
 IK'iirance too i.s 
 
 piiiiitiiig the front 
 
 liMirs, Hiich as ye 
 
 I'ltfii produce a gl 
 
 iiiiliilcd inns or fan 
 
 II metropolitan city 
 
 mill line Montagne 
 
 'liii|M, and these a 
 
 iniiNl frei|iienled nIi 
 
 IN'iiraiice and biisi 
 
 iiini|iared with I'ar 
 
 ni'M in general foni 
 
 iiiiiiiiig the French 
 
 lUjiital of Helgium. 
 
 Mirriuind the large | 
 
 iwinely, the Kiie l{o 
 
 iwrison with Mome 
 
 KiiniiM'an caiiiials ; 
 
 llie palace ot the I'l 
 
 coneert riMim ; the 1 
 
 kiiilf's pala«o ; and I 
 
 "f which is the pal 
 
 jwliament. The (. 
 
 I'l'iec, in the centre ( 
 
 iiiteresting square, 
 
 '"itliic llOtel de Vi 
 
 '"'Illy other tw\\ spi 
 
 "iHiial architecture. 
 
 mill lloriie were beh 
 
 ll'o Duke of Alva, 
 
 [I'm and death in 
 
 ilrusscLs. 'I'he PIm 
 
 Ijalaee, is perhups tl 
 
 I'lo houses around 
 
 jii'ilregulnr. The I 
 
 wuest square, ami it< 
 
 ll'W-'cde la Moiniai 
 
 l"»ittclied by several 
 
 ;j'>' theatre, the min 
 
 llie (iiiest cafe's in i 
 
 •Wielicl, better kiitwii 
 
 Vol. I. 
 
rxln<iiill,v, I* inhnlillPtI hy rii'li mcrrliitiil", iinil 
 rriKi'iilK II I'liiioiiiiii Mi'i'iii' III' I'liiiinicriiiil ii<'ii\ii\. 
 Mil' lily iit iiIiuiiiIiiiiiIn iiii|i|ilii'i| niili •|irlii({ miiIit. 
 
 ft77 
 
 liv iMi'Miix III' iiljH'N Mini luiwiTl'iil liyilniiilir I'liuini'N, 
 Iriiiii Ihn-r NiiliiiTriniriin ravt'x iil Iliii'rlH'rrk, n 
 lii'iiiilil'iil >illii({i' III till' Moiillit'rii vii'iiiily. 'I'liiTi' 
 iin' iHxiili'K till N|iriii){N uilhiii lli<> wiillx, lliirly 
 rniiiiliiiiiN, mill mIhiiiI iiiiii'ly |iiiMi|m, Si'Vfriil rniiii 
 tiiiiiN iiri' i>riuiiii>'iit<'il Wy I'lrumil nU'llnkN iiml 
 ^'riiii|M III' rxi|iiinili' liriiii/<- iiiiii iiiiirlili' i<riii|itiin'N, 
 'Ihi' iiiiinl rcllliirkillili' nri< /.m t'tmhiinr* i/m h'triiri», 
 ill till' riiiirl III' ilii< lli'ilcl ill' Villr, I'linni'il i>l' rivrr 
 I{ih|n in w'liilt> iiiiirlilf, mill iluljiliinN in linin/i' ; 
 rill' I'ltnUtiHr ilf MinriTf, In llir IMili'i' illl (irillnl 
 Sililiiti) i'iiiiKi'<tinK III' 'I li<*iiiiliriil Kriiii|i III' li^un'M 
 ill uliilc iiiiirltic, iTci'li'il in 1711, liy lli<> I'.iirl nl' 
 .\yli"<liiiry, in iiilcHlatinii nl' IiIm ri'ii|M't'l I'nr llii'in- 
 liiiliihinlN, nUvv rfniiliiit; mining llii'in I'lirty yciirM; 
 mill ilic Miitinikin l'i», nt'iir ilif lli'itrl lie Villi', 
 ill till' I'l'iilrc III' llio rily, 'I'liii is an t'Xi|inHltii 
 liriinxi' liK*)<'*'i nliiinl 'J I'i. in liciKlil. nf an iiri'liin 
 Ihiv wIiii ilim'linrKCH n Niri'iini nl' walcr in ii niitiinil 
 iiiiniiii'r, (irral viilui> anil liiNinrirtil inlcri'Ht arc 
 iiitiirlii'il Id lliiN aniii|ni' lililc IlKiirn liv llii' nlil 
 I'lii/i'iDi iif llriiMNciN, who ri'Karil it >Mtli iktii- 
 linr niilii'ilnili' ai* a kiinl nl' iniiniri|ial jiallailiiiin. 
 Till' ancient jiarl of llrnxHcN in iirnanicnti'il liv 
 niiiiiv line N|H'rinH'nM of llic llnriil mIvIc nl' <iiilliii' 
 ari'liiti't'tnrii nl' llii' Nixti'i'iitli century; anil llie 
 niiHlern jiart exIiiliilH niiincriiiiM excellent linilil- 
 iii^'H, crecleil alHiiit lil'iy yi'ars iipi ; Itnr tlie 
 iii'wiy-linilt ilweHin^-liiiiiHCN have cnintnnnly the 
 iiiii'iinth form ami raHliion of KtanarieN or inann- 
 fai'tnrieM, nnil are ol'teii eiiiiNtrncleil with very 
 iiifcriiir lirickn, ami with titnlierM tiHi Nlemler I'ur 
 till' liil'ty tiled riKirN, 'I'lieir iinirnniiity nl' ii|i- 
 {H'liriitice tiiii in ileittriiyeil liy the ciiKtmn nl 
 {iiiiiiiin^ thu frnntM with Mtrnnf;ly cniilraHteil co- 
 l>iiir!<, Hiich an yellnw, ^'reeii, anil white, which 
 ilti'ii iirniliicu a ({hiring etVect, more Niiilahle I'nr 
 i'liliiteil iiiiiit or fancy clltlll^e^* than the HtreetN nl' 
 iiitii'lro|Hililaii city. In the Hnii ile la Maileleine 
 mill Kiie iMnnt(i);ne tie la Cnnr are many elc^Miit 
 »liii|»4, anil Ihi'Ne are accnnnteil the livelicHt and 
 iiiii!it l'rei|nented nI recti* in ItriiHselH, though in iiji 
 {H'ariincc and liiiKineN.'* they arc eertainly dn ' 
 r>iin|iiireil with l*ariHnr liniidnli. Indeed, tiie ilnl- 
 ni'HK in f^eneral I'limiH a cnniiiinii xnliject nl' remark 
 iiiiintiK the Frenoh and Kn^lish residents in the 
 I'lipitui III' Itcl^inm. I'mir iinirnrmly-linilt HtreetN 
 Mirrniiiid the larp; |ialace f;ardeii called the I'ark, 
 iiatiu'Iy, the Itne Kiiyale, which will admit of cum- 
 {itirimiii with miine of the lincNt NtreetH of the 
 Kiirii|M>an caiiitals ; the Knc Dncale, in which are 
 ilii^ )ialace of the rrince of Orati^^c and the f;rand 
 roniH'rt room ; the lUic Hellevnc, enntniniii); the 
 kiiiK'x )ia)a<;u ; and the line Hralmnt, in tlie centre 
 of which w the palace of coii^rcHH, or houxeM of 
 imrliiimeiit. Thu (irandu I'laee, or ((rent market- 
 I'liioc, in the centre of the city, is a noble and very 
 iiitrrcMtiii^ minare, eontainin^ the pirp^eons old 
 liothiv Hotel de Ville, thu Maison dii Hoi, and 
 immy other rich 8|M'ciinens of the ancient oma- 
 nii'iitul architecture. Here, in tr>(>K, coiinttt Kuniont 
 ami lldrne were lieheaded liy the S|mniMli vicemy 
 the Uiiku of Alva, whoxe iieneciitioim broii^^ht 
 ruin and death into almoHt every hoiiHC in 
 lirusaelM, The lMac;e ]{nyak', near the kin^'H 
 I'lilace, w |>crha|m the lineHt nqiiaru in llriiHHels. 
 Tiie liiiiiHCH around it are reniarkahly lmiid«oine 
 amln-giihir. The IMacc du <irand .Sabloii is the 
 Inrufcst Hqiiare, and is used as a marKet-)ilace, 'I'he 
 I'iiicc lie la Mnniiuiu is also extensive, and ii|i- 
 jirnacliud by several spacious streets : it contains 
 Illl! theatre, the mint, the exchange, and some of 
 ilie tiiicHt cafe's in the city. The I'lacc dc St. 
 Midicl, better kntwii since the Kcvulutiun as tiie 
 Vol. I. 
 
 Ii; 
 
 I'liicc ili'i Miirtyrx, \» I'lnnled with rnw* nf linden 
 iri'i'", ami Kiirrinindi'd liv Mtiilnnn iiiid eli'unnt 
 bnililiiiKx nriuinii'iiti'd wiili hnrlc inliiniiiR, Tliiit 
 M|iiari' wan rliiMcn lor the xcpuliiiri' nf Ihiwc who 
 I'i'll in n|i|HiMiii^ (he royal lnri'i"< diiriti^ ihc rcvn- 
 hiiinnary HtriiKKle in Hi'pti'inlM'r Im.iii, There am 
 
 I I nthrr m|iiiirt'it nf lexx ilixlitirl inn, lull whh'll lit 
 nnce nrrve ihc |iiir)ioMcit nf hi'iillli iiiiil nrnameiil. 
 The park i* an n|M'ii nblniiK Npai'cnf niHiiit I I acrcM, 
 on the Iiiiil eanlcrn Hide nf the city. Ill NiirfiU'n 
 \» I'livrred with Ninnnth verdiiiil turf, and U Inf- 
 inally laidnnt in bmad Htriii^lit wiilkx and winding 
 iiatlin, which arc nvcrMliiidnwcd and nlii'licrcd by 
 Infly licci'h and cheHtniit Irecx and planiiiiinn<t of 
 acaciiiH, There arc several fniiiitainH, and tnany 
 exi'i'llcnl inarldc staincs, busts, vases; and KCniii'is 
 nf pcrsniH and persiiniilcaiiniis from classical 
 mylhnln^y and hislnry are dislriliiili'd alHiut thu 
 Kmnnils. The walks cominiind a ^rcal variety of 
 inlcresiinu scenery, inclndiiiK the old (inlhic edi- 
 llccM of the lower town and the snrrnundini< 
 cniintry, which is very iiictiiresiiiie. In Ihc NK. 
 corner of the park is 'Vanxhall,' cnniprisiiiff n 
 small theatre fur vaudevilles, and a liall-rnnni. 
 Alnn^ the banks nf the Antwerp Canal, issuing 
 fmm Ihc N, iioiut nf the citv, is the iK'Hiiiifid 
 pmmciiaile called the AlUv "I'rrtr, that is, llie 
 tireen AUcy. It is fnrmcd of a bmiul carria^e- 
 nuid, and nn each side a I'nnl way, divided by four 
 I iws nf nmbra;;ciius elms, cxleiidin)( alHiiit n mile 
 and a half. Mere the royal family, and mnltiludes 
 of all classes, arc seen every line evening cn|oyiiiK 
 the freshness of the ennnlry air, and the pl'easiii)^ 
 views nf nnmernus villas and rural scenery. In 
 fact, the environs of lirnsscls are in general so in- 
 teresting;, that thev form Ihc snliject nf a lar^'o 
 purl ion of every full description ot the eitv. I(e- 
 siiles the excursion to the hiittle-llcld of W'^atcrlon, 
 and its surronndin^ localities, still exciliii); to thu 
 cnriiiiis, about iiri villaf;es in the more immediate 
 vicinity of llriissels are well worth Ihc atlcntioiiof 
 slraiifrers, Amnn^ the objectN of interest are— the 
 splendid royal palaces nf Laecken and Tervnereii, 
 and Ihc ^reat worUhoiisc and penitentiary es- 
 tablishments of X'ilvorde and La Cambre. 
 
 The royal palace at the .S. extremity of the)iark, 
 prescnis 11 l'ai,'ade of I'JO yards in len){th, with a 
 central portico and arcades. The styh- of urchi- 
 tectnre is plain, and the general aspe<;t of thu 
 structure not at all remarkalile. The interior too 
 oilers little wnrthv of inspection beyond the usual 
 suites of rnyal salnnus and apartments, which aru 
 very superbly furnished, and cnvered with rich 
 velvet, satin, and ^ilt. The paint ilia's are neither 
 numerous nor very valuable, with the exception of 
 Vandyke's Chnjir'mi th Velimrt, The Palais du 
 Conjcrbs, at thcN.emrof the park, is umaKnilicent 
 bnildiiif;, oniamentcd with tinted Doric columnn 
 and appropriate sculptures. Marble stairs on each 
 side of a spacious hall ascend to the two chamlM>rH 
 of parliament, which are elc^aiilly tilted up for 
 the rece)ition of the members. The public are ad- 
 mitted into Inith chambers during; the debates, 
 females as well as males ; and for this accommo- 
 dation, the Chamber o' Deputies contains a capa- 
 cious gallery. C)n the K. side of the park is n 
 palace, which, before the revolution of 18,10, was 
 occiiiiied by the hereditary I'rincc of Oranj^c. It 
 was built in 1K'2(), The exterior is nobly siin[ile, 
 presenting a fayailc 230 ft. in length, with a hifty 
 central dome and cupola. The interior it) not sur- 
 passed by any Kuropean palace in sumptuous 
 t'liniiture and elegant decorations. The paintings 
 are not numerous, but of the Jiighcst order, com- 
 ]irising some of the most choice productions of the 
 Flemish and Italian schools. The Hotel do Ville, 
 in the tirandc Place, or great central market-place, 
 
 PP 
 
«78 
 
 mUISSELS 
 
 in (iiu! (if the larj^CHt nnd most roninrkMlil(> of »Ii<imii 
 civil' puliit'CM, ill till! tliiriil (iolliit; hIvI<', lliat lire to 
 Ik- s('«'|i ill |ii'rt'ci-tiiiii only in the Ncllii'rliiiiilM. It. 
 viiiH vTvvU'il ill I'HmI. The nrfliili-ciiiri' is l.,<>m- 
 l)iirilii-(i<illiii', with 11 ^rpiit |irorii>*i<iii of i|iiiiiiit 
 Hi'iil|itiin's, |Miii)tcil liirrctH, and oMic^r fHiicifiil niul 
 iiitricatn ornaincntH, In tli<^ front ant -10 windowH. 
 mid in the lofty Hlopiiif^ roof Ht) nion;. At a (loiiit 
 rcinarldiltly distant from llio ci'iitrt; of tlio front, 
 an dahorati'ly oriianicntrd pyraniidal tower, open 
 tliroii^lioiit to tlie siiniinit, rises to tlic liei^lit of 
 'Ki'l ft,, andeoniniands a iuw view of tliesiirronnd- 
 iii;; country, ineliidiiiir the battle-tiehl of Waterloo. 
 It is siimiouiited liv a eolossal eopper ffilt stiiliie, 
 17 ft. Iiif^h, of St. AJiehael enisliiM^adrapin, whieli 
 • tiiriisaliout toserveforaweather-eoci*. The interior 
 of the hiiildiiif; is entered Ity a N|iaeioiis tli);lit of 
 Ntep.M, and the lofty halls and saloons exhiliit many 
 eurioiiH <dd paintin;{H, lu'ilded enrvin^s, and Hiie(;i- 
 ineiis of tine tapestry. Opposite the town-hall is n 
 veneralile (iothic editiee, built about A.i>. KHH), 
 called the Ilrood Iliiys (bread house) or Maison 
 (III l{oi. The i'alais de Justice is a lar(;e building 
 containing the courts of law: its front displays a 
 noble portico, imitated from that of Agriiipa's 
 Temple at Kome. Tlu! I'alais dii ("oiiseil d'ktat, 
 the ll('ilel des Monnaies, and several other state 
 ollioes, are structures more or less elegant : also the 
 theatre, which was opened in IHIl), and cost 
 f)(!,(IOO/, Its interior displaj-s very commodious 
 arraiigenients and tasteful decorations. The stage 
 in front is of greater width than that of the (irand 
 Opera at Paris. Near the Place l»'oyale is the 
 large and handsome old Palace or Const, founded 
 ill I. '{()(), and rebuilt in I7'1(J. When this was the 
 residence of the Npaiiish and Austrian governors of 
 the Netherlands, it was one of the richest p:ilaces 
 in ICurope, It now contains the public librarj', 
 lecture-rooms, museums, and galleries of paintings 
 and !<ciil|itures. The Palace of Industry js a large 
 adjoining building for the exhibition of the manu- 
 factures of the kingdom, mechanical models, and 
 new inventions. 
 
 Itriissels contains several grand and venerable 
 cathedral churches, erected in the middle ago-. 
 I'oiir only of 1(! are considered |>rimary,and lielong 
 each to one of the 4 arrondissements into which 
 the city is divided : the others, although little in- 
 ferior in apjienrance, are st^coiulary in rank. The 
 cathedral of ISt. CJudule, the largest and tinest in 
 llriissels, was founded in 1010; and here the tirst 
 chapter of the cbivalric order of the Golden Fleece 
 was held by Philip le Hon, in 14i(.j. There is an 
 as|)ect of imposing grandeur in its spacious front, 
 surmounted by two large sijnare towers, from the 
 top of which Antwer]) is disliiictly visible at a dis- 
 tance of 27 miles, alid one coiitnins a bell that 
 weighs 14.500 lbs. Against the ])illars which di- 
 vide the lateral aisles from the nave, and sujiport 
 the lofty roof, are jdaced finely sculptured statues 
 of the twelve apostles, 10 ft. in height, at an ele- 
 vation of 25 ft. from the floor. 'I'he jailpit is 
 fonncd of wonderfully carved groHi)s of figures the 
 size of life, representing the expulsion of Adam 
 and Kv(! irom paradise. The glass of the jirincipal 
 window displays a magniliceiit representation of 
 the last Judgment, by the celebrated Flemish 
 painter, Francis Flors, and several other antiijuc 
 painted windows of this noble cathedral are ex- 
 ceedingly brilliant and beautiful. Its altars and 
 siimi)tuo'us mausoleums of sculptured marble, and 
 numerous line paintings, are objects worthy of 
 especial notice. 
 
 The cathedral of Notre Dame de la Chapelh is a 
 beautiful Gothic structure, founded in 1134, and 
 but little inferior in dimensions to that of St. 
 Giidule. It.s paiiitint^s and sepulchral monuments 
 
 are even more numerous. The interior (irnamciitH 
 of this tine cathedral consist of iiuinerous paini- 
 iiigs, statues, and monumental sciilpliires, by cini- 
 iieiit artists; and a very curious carved piil|ili, 
 representing F.lijahfeil by an angel iinderacaiiiHiv 
 of palms. The cliun^b of A'litre Ihiiiw ilin I'ii. 
 loirmia a profusely oriiameiit(>d (iothic slriiciurc 
 of the i:ttli century, displaying the iiiost cxnri 
 symmetry in its plan and proportions. It is orim- 
 meiited by niarbU^ statues and sculptured IihiiIm; 
 its windows are brilliantly painted ; and the imics 
 of its organ arc exceedingly grand and harninniiius. 
 Niitrc Itnme. ile Itim SiToiirs, built in the 17lh cen- 
 tury, is the iM'st attended cburcli in llrussels. Its 
 handsome front fa(;ade is siinnoiintcd by a Infh 
 dome, and the ornaments of tint interior arc cx- 
 liii)ited t(» great advantag(> by the fre(|iu'nt pcr- 
 fomiaiic(> of high mius with peculiar saccrdntal 
 pageantry. St. Catherine and St. Nicholiis iirc 
 verv irregular and uncouth Gothic edifices of tln' 
 I2tli century, adorned with numerous line ii|,| 
 )iaintiiigs. Tlu- chiirclies of (^aiidenburg, St. Aii- 
 gustiiu% and Notre Dame dc Finisterre, are Iwiini- 
 some specimens of the (irecian style, and were 
 erected in the 17th centurA-. A convent of l!c'j;iiiii 
 nuns, called Lc Grand Bi'ijiihuKje, built in lil."i7, 
 at an expense of ,'i;i2,000 llorin's, has a licjiiiiifiil 
 (diurcli, which contains many line paintings. 'I'liirc 
 were here formerly a thousand nuns: at prcscni 
 the number is greatly reduced. Then- are twit 
 other iiunneri(!s, the convent of Ilerlaiinont, nnd 
 that of Les Sa-urs A'oires — the Ulaek Sisters, 'flic 
 Church of Kngland service is performed in .several 
 Protestant chapels, for the acc(mimo(latiein of (Iw 
 numerous English residents; and the .lews, el' 
 whom there are 10,000 in the wbide kingdom. Iiavo 
 their general (Mnisistory in liriissels, and a liaml- 
 some synagogue; but the great mass of the |xi|iu- 
 lation arc zeahmsly attached to the riles and 
 doctrines of the church of Koine, while tlicir l,n- 
 tlieran king. Leo|)old, attends the Protesiaiu 
 service in his jirivate chapel. Previous tip llie 
 siip|iression i.f religious houses in lielgiiuii l)y llic 
 French republican goveriim(!nt, at the (rlose of llie 
 last century, Ilriiss(>lH contained .'SI nionasleiics, 
 2 convents of Itc'giiins, 2 of ICnglish nuns, ami IX 
 oratories; and during the middle ages, the extent 
 and magnificence of the monastic establislimentj 
 ill this locality were truly amazing. 
 
 The two |)riiicipal medical hospiliilsof St. Peter 
 and St, .lobii are admirably regulated. There is 
 also a well-managed lying-in hospital, and a mili- 
 tary hospital attached to the barracks. Xnlliin^; 
 can exceed the care and cleanliness observed in 
 every ])art of the hos|)itrtl of St. Peter; iiulceil in 
 this remarkable attention is attributed the fact 
 that, in the calamitous year of cludera, nut ime 
 case of that dreadful maladv occurred in the ■wanls 
 of this establishment, amongst a miscidlanenns 
 assemblage of (>00 patients. The hospital of Si. 
 .lohii contains between 200 and JlOO beds, and in- 
 cludes a conimunily of the Sisters of Cliaritv. 
 The earnest piety and genuine benevolence wliiili 
 induce these and other exemplary females of tin' 
 ( 'atholic religious onkTS to go about doiiif; nood, 
 by visiting the sick poor, esjiecially in the lius|ri- 
 tals, often excite the admiration of stranger wlm 
 justly appreciate virtue and goodness, aiKleoiivev 
 a tacit rejiroach to the pious Protestant ladies I'l 
 Kngland. There is an excellent society for j;ra- 
 tuitous vaccination, which is efKciently supported. 
 and is very bencticial to the poor. 
 
 The civil and military prison of Brussels i.' an 
 apiiropriate modem building, having !t or 10 open 
 courts. It is situated very healthily in the liif;li 
 SW. (|uarter of the city, and is under excelltnt 
 management. The ])art for civil offences will con- 
 
BRUSSKLS 
 
 679 
 
 will 500 priHoiiors. Tliorfl nrc tlirro iniMic ccim^- 
 U'TU'H iiiilMi<l(! tlio iKMileviiniN, ailjacciil to the pilcM 
 ol'tliR Hal, Loiivnin, aiitl FlandurH. Tjic KiikHxIi 
 n.'Niil(!ntH in ItriixsolH liuvcnlsotwo Ixirinl-KroiinilH 
 on tliftronilH to Ucclouiiil l^oiivniii. Tln! iiiarkoN 
 (if ItriiHHcJH nmoiiiit lo iiiont than 20, and arc all 
 wfll anil abnnilimlly Niippliotl. Tlie prini^ipal 
 (■orn-inarket. in I lie lowt^r N\V. cpiartcr, lonns 
 iiiiu of (ho tino.st mpiarcs in the city. It m Hnr- 
 riiiiMilcd hy liandMoniu Ikmihcs, and planted willi 
 ildiihid rowH of lol'ty tnu's, Adjoinnif; the lisli- 
 nmrkct, which is one of Ihc Ih'mI in the kingdom, 
 is till! market for poultry, in which are exhihited 
 Imskets full of the hinder lef,"*, or yUjofs, of larnc 
 l'ri)>,'M, neatlv twisted and skewereil up ready for 
 lircsHiiif^. 'i'heir appearance is brij^ht and plump, 
 iiiid hy no meanHso(li.sn"'rcealilcaH to increase the 
 iiiifavoiirahle prejudi.": o ;•. Knt;lish palate. 
 llriisselH is amply Hupi'!'' ' Ji culinary vcf^e- 
 tahles from market-fjardens. (Jainc in rather 
 |ili>ntifiil, and jionltry aliundant. Fresh-water 
 lisli are «;hcap, sea-tish rather dear. 
 
 The climate of ilrussels is tcin|)eratc, moist, and 
 pxtremcly variable. The inhabitants of the upper 
 town enjoy a warmer and drier atmosphere, and 
 ,1 greater exem|)t ion from diseases, than those of 
 the lower town, from which the epidemics that 
 occur most commonly arise. In (general the city 
 is healthy, and rarely visited by malignant or 
 |K-stil(Mitial fevers. The air is genial and mild, 
 iiril the sky often serenely blue, liefreshiiij; 
 lircozes blow from the sea, but fof^s not unfre- 
 qiu'iitly descend in the morning and evening. 
 Tlie temperature of Hrussels, compared with that 
 of Paris, is colder in winter, and less warm in 
 summer ; compared with London, it is also colder 
 ill winter, but warmer in summer. The dry nature 
 (if the soil in the higher jiart reflects the sun's 
 rays ill summer, so as to render the heat extremely 
 (ippressivc. In general, the weather is more damp 
 and variable than in Paris, and less so than in 
 London. 
 
 For the instruction of 3'onth of both sexes in 
 all departments of scholastic knowliulgc, and every 
 clonant nccomplishnieni, there are many excel- 
 lent academical institutions, public and private. 
 The modem collegiate establishment, called the 
 Free University of iirussels, offers every desirable 
 facility for prosecuting a complete course «)f study 
 ill science, language, anil literature. IJesides a 
 mn^'niticent library, it possesses a chemical labo- 
 ratory ; museums of natural history, mineralogy, 
 geology, comparative anatomy ; an anatomiital 
 ilicatre, and chambers for clinical ])racticc. The 
 lioynl Atheiueum is a highly useful and jirosper- 
 (iiis institution, established on liberal and rational 
 lirinciples, and kept in full operation by 1.5 jirofes- 
 sor» and masters. The attention formerly devoted 
 to the ancient languages, so as to engross exclu- 
 sively the whole jieriod of youth, is jiroperly di- 
 viilod between aiuuent literature and the more iin- 
 jmrtant modern experimental sciences and iiulus- 
 Irial arts. In the former deiiartment there are 
 usually from 150 to 200 ])upils, and in the latter 
 from ioO to 300. 'i'lie hall for lecturing will hold 
 1,"2()0 persons. There is a tine veterinary and 
 agricultural college, with 150 students, a military 
 si.hool, and a school for instructing boj's scientiti- 
 cally in the principlesof commerce, and the opera- 
 tinns of the mechanical arts. Several societies 
 anil ostablishinenta for the promotitm of science 
 and literature have a high and well merited repu- 
 tation. The Koyal Academy of IJrusscIs was 
 founded in 1709. The (ieographical Establish- 
 ment, in the Faubourg de Flandres, was founded 
 in IHitO, by M. Yaiuler IMaeleii, an atHiient and 
 latriotic gentleman. On the boulevards, at the 
 
 V„ allele of the city wall, is the Obsen-atory, a 
 iieatand appropriate edilice, with two lowers coin- 
 niaiiiling an ext^-nsive horizon. Its site is l!Ml ft. 
 alMivethe level of the North Sea. Thiseslablish- 
 meiit is fnmished with an apimratus of very supe- 
 rior phihisophical iiislrnmenls, and serves not only 
 for the prosecution of aslroiioinical and meteoro- 
 logical observal ions, but for the promotion of all 
 the kindred mathematical and ex|H-rinieiital 
 sciences, es|K'cially that of horology. Near the 
 (.Hiservatory, on the outer side of the city wall, is 
 the Itotanic (iardeii, which is generally allowed lo 
 Ik' one of the linesl in F-nrope. An iiislitiile of 
 line arts awards prizes to distinguisheil students 
 of painting, engraving, sculpture, and architecture, 
 and affords Ihem the means i.f professionally visit- 
 ing lionie, and the other celebrated schools and 
 repositories of art. Prizes ariMilso distributed by 
 an acad<^niy of ]iainting, sculpture, and architec- 
 ture, which is numerously attended by students, 
 whose productions form an animal exhibilion. 
 There is also a society of friends of the liiii? arts. 
 A royal conservatory of music Is attended by -100 
 pupils, many of whom iK-come eminent nerfonners ; 
 and iiilinn and aged musicians are assisted by an 
 institution called the Society of A{Mdlo. 
 
 For the promotion of mercantile and mechani- 
 cal knowledfte, there is a (Munniercial society, and 
 one for the encouragement of arts and industry. 
 Two nuMlical societies comprise very numerous 
 bodies of learned physicians, and other distin- 
 guished men of science. In the old court, or 
 Palace of the Fine Arts, is a musenni of natural 
 history, that siirjiasses in extent and value every 
 other in the kingdom. The departments of 
 zoidogy, ornithology, entoniohigy, and mineralogy, 
 arc especially rei)letewitli rare and jidmirable spe- 
 cimens, including animals from the Dutch Fast 
 Indian colonies, liiissian minerals, and all the vol- 
 canic products of ]\[oiint Vesuvius. Another |ior- 
 tion of the edilice (-ontains the great public liltrarv 
 of iieariy 150,1100 vols., and 15,0(10 historical IVISS. 
 and niinerals. The latter wen; collected at a very 
 early period, by the dukes of Hurguiidy, and are 
 of extreme value ; uiany being richly adorned wit h 
 miniature ]iaintiiigs of exquisite beauty, by tin; 
 early Flemish artists, and the greater part an; 
 splendidly bound in crimson Morocco. Abov<! 
 2,000 vols, of the books were printed in the I5th 
 centurj'. The third division of the jialace is occu- 
 pied by a collection of about 500 ]iaintings, by the 
 great Flemish masters from Van Kyck to Iviibens, 
 and his numerous ])upils. The library, museums, 
 and gallery, arc constantly ojien to' the jiiiblic. 
 This spacious building serves also for ])ubli(! lec- 
 tures, which are ilelivercd gratuitously every day, 
 by the most eminent jirofessors, on geidogy, bo- 
 tany, chemistrj', architecture, doctrine of chances, 
 idiilosophy of history, history of the sciences, his- 
 tory of lielgium, general literature, hygiene, indi- 
 vidual and public, and industrial mechanics. IJe- 
 side;! the great literary treasures in the old palace, 
 there is a national library possessing (!0,000 vols., 
 and 1,100 MSS. ; and several of the jmblic insti- 
 tutions have large and choice collections of scien- 
 tilic and literary works. 
 
 The manufactures of Brussels consist princijially 
 of its celebrated lace and tulle, and of carpets, line 
 linen, hosiery, jirinted cottons, hats, paper, soap, 
 candles, chemical pnKlnclioiis, painted iiorcelaiii, 
 leather, fabrics of horse-hair, and caoutchouc, arti- 
 cles of iron, brass, gold, silver, bronze, and cut 
 glass ; clocks, lam|>s, mathematical, o|)tical, and 
 surgical instruments. The eslablisliments are 
 numerous and of the highest description for brew- 
 ing beer, refining sugar and salt, cabinet-making, 
 carriage-building, lithography, type-founding, and 
 
 p !■ 2 
 
fiSO 
 
 BRUSSELS 
 
 priiitinpc and l)iiiiliii^ IkioUs. In ailditiim to the 
 commerce urisiii)^ from itx maniifuctiiroH, and tliv 
 (■oiiHiim|>lionl)y the inhaliitnutH, ISrusNulH (lOHHeHHcs 
 nil ini)Mirtniit transit trade, l)y meniiH of itH rail- 
 wnys and two ciiiiuIm, conHistiii^ of nil kiiuU (>f 
 ^rain, cohIh, timber, iron, stonen, lime, bric-itH, and 
 various otlier |)rodiicts of tlie soil, and of foreign 
 (umntricH. KHtablixhrncntH connoutud witli com- 
 mcreittl operatioiiH are — the ComniiKHioii Siiiic- 
 rieure d'Industriu ct de Commerce, Tnl)unnl tie 
 Commerce, Chambre de Commerce, Societe Gi'ne- 
 rule pour favoriser I'lndustrie, Societe' tlu Com- 
 merce de Bruxclles, six insurance companies, the 
 Kntre|)6t, Koyal Exchange, Custom House, and 
 very commodious public rooms called the llnissels 
 Lloyd's, where merchants meet for the transaction 
 of business and perusal of the daily |)apers. There 
 arc two large annual fairs for the sale of all kinds 
 of merchaiulise ; one of 12 days, commencing May 
 22d ; the other of 14 days, beginning the 18th Oct, 
 The munici])al authority tif Hrusscis is vested in 
 a burgomaster and four sheriffs. They constitute 
 the city regency, whose sancticm must be obtained 
 to all measures affecting the rights and interests 
 of the citizens. The supreme court of law, and 
 other national tribunals seated in the capital, arc 
 noticed in the article on Delgium. 
 
 Urussels is believed to have been founded in 
 fiOO, and to liuve been walled in 1044. A code of 
 municipal laws was formed in 1229, involving the 
 principle of trial by jury. About 1300, sixty 
 trades were incorporated in nine classes, to repre- 
 sent the citizens in all questions of taxation. 
 Lilieral notions of government continued to pre- 
 vail, and the population and extent of the city 
 were much increased. In the general persecution 
 of the Jews during 1370-71, hundreils of that 
 race were put to death in Brussels, and the 
 amount of their confiscated property in the pro- 
 vince of Brabant was nearly 13,000,000 tlorina. 
 Under the Dukes of Burgundj', at the commence- 
 ment of the 15th century, Brussels became a dis- 
 tinguished seat of leaniing and the arts, and was 
 the residence of a magnilicent court, which greatly 
 )m>motcd the progress of science, literature, com- 
 merce, and manufactures, especially the weaving 
 of linens and woollens, and beautiful tapestrj'. In 
 1481), during the dominion of the House of Austria, 
 the city was desolated by a dreadful i)lague, which 
 ilestroyed 30,000 inhab., and produce<l a famine, 
 whose effects lasted 4 years. Brussels was highly 
 prosperous under the emperor Charles V., who 
 often dwelt in its jialace, and made it the scene of 
 his final abdication in 1555. The intolerant and 
 oppressive proceedings of Philip II. kindled that 
 rebellion in the Low Countries which ended in the 
 establishment of the independence of the United 
 Province. In 1668, the martyrs of freedom, Counts 
 Egmont and Homo, were beheaded in the Grand 
 Place. Alva's violent exaction of exorbitant 
 taxes at length excited a general revolt of the 
 citizens, and after many changes and party con- 
 tentions, and the loss, in 1578, of 27,000 inhab. bj' 
 the plague, the Spanish governors, in 1698, gave 
 up the place to the Austrian dynasty, under which 
 the arts and sciences again revived and prospered. 
 Brussels, in 1695, was unsuccessfully besieged 
 and bombarded by the French, under Marshal 
 A'illeroy, when 14 churches and convents were 
 destroyed, with 4,000 houses. In 1706 the keys of 
 the city were delivered to the Duke of Marlborough, 
 and in' 1746 it was again attacked hy the French 
 under Marshal Saxe, to whom it capitulated after 
 a siege of three weeks. In 17'"4, after the storm 
 of the French revolution had burst upon it, and 
 Belgium was annexed to France, it became the 
 chief town of the department of the Dyle. In 
 
 BUCHAREST 
 
 1803 Napoleon entered the city with great pomp, 
 at the head of 10,000 troops, with a body giiiird „f 
 the citizen :n splendid uniform. Twelve yeiirs 
 aftenvards, on his return from I'.lba, llnissils win 
 the head-quarters of the British army, mid ncnt 
 forth the troops who, on the plains of Wuiorldd. 
 put an end to the amiiitious career of that exira- 
 ordinaiy individual. From that period Ilriisscls, 
 ponjointly with the Hague, was the capital of tin' 
 kingdom of the Netherlands until the Helgic ro- 
 voliitioii of Sept. 1830, which miule it the lapital 
 of llelgium, 
 
 BKU TON, a town of England, co, Somersei, 
 hund. and par. Bruton, on the IJrue, 24 ni. S. Iiv 
 E. Bristol, 120 m. W. London liy road mid iL'tln'i. 
 by Great Western railway. Pop. 2,232 in l«i;i. 
 'Ihe town is well built, consisting prineipnll'- i.f 
 three streets, havhig a common centre, witli a kihmI 
 market-house, where the sessions for the K, divi- 
 sion of the CO, arc sometimes held. Here is a 
 well-endowed hospital, founded by a native cif ihw 
 town, for the sui)port of jMior men and wtmin, 
 and tor the supjiort and education of a ccrtaiii 
 numlier of children. There are manufiictnns «{ 
 silk, which employ some hundred jieoplc, Mariitt, 
 Saturday ; fairs for cattle, 29th of April and I'Jtli 
 of Se])t. 
 
 BUCHAREST, or BUKOKEST, a city of Wnl- 
 lacliia, of which it is the cap,, being the residcint. 
 of the hosiiodai, and of a Greek arciibisiiop, m 
 the Damboritza, over which there is here a l)ridf,'f; 
 37 m. (direct dist.) from its contluencc with the 
 Danube, and 280 m. WNVV, Constaatin.)ple ; lat. 
 44° 26' 45" N.; long. 460 47' E. Pop. estimated 
 at 80,000. It is situated in a vast swampy ])lain, is 
 divided into above 60 quarters, and though of com- 
 paratively recent origin, is not built accordiiif; to 
 any regular plan, and presents a curious display ef 
 barbarism and civilization in its mu<l ealmis, 
 brick houses covered with shingles, and spaciuii.s 
 hotels ; and in the vulgar finery of the "joyars, er 
 nobles, and the rags and filth of the other Vlasse.s 
 It also presents a curious mixture of EiiroiK'.'iii 
 and Oriental habits and costume ; half tiie inliali, 
 wearing hats and coats, and half calpaes ami 
 pelisses. Some of the streets are paved; but lliey 
 are mostly boarded over, or rather covered wiiii 
 trunks of trees, or other large logs laid transversely. 
 instead of a pavement ; and, from the ilatiie.s.s iif 
 the ground, and the slovenliness of the inlialj.. all 
 the filth of the streets collects under this riule 
 fioor. The streets arc thence called punti, (ir 
 bridges, and, according to the testimony «( a 
 recent traveller, they 'are really bridges tldaiin;,' 
 on rivers of filth. In winter this is contiinially 
 splashing up through the interstices, and in sum- 
 mer it rises in clouds of black dust ; and at all 
 seasons is attended with a foul unwholesome odour, 
 generating putrid fevers : nd the plague,' Tlie 
 palace of the hospodar, or prince, an immense old 
 pile, and the metropolitan church, arc in tlio 
 largest square in the centre of the town, Near to 
 them is the fire tower, 60 lieet in height, wiieuce a 
 full view of the city is obtained. It has a vibi 
 mumber of churches, each with from 3 to (i spires. 
 or towers ! It has also about 20 monasteries ami 
 convents, and 30 khans, or Oriental inns, witli 
 several hospitals, one of which, for the military, 
 managed by German physicians, is said to be very 
 well conducted: another hospital, founded in 1(*3'), 
 by a bequest left by I'rinco Brankovnno, is also 
 stated to be worthy of notice. There is a wooden 
 theatre, where French plays and Italian operas 
 arc sometimes jierformed. The other prinei|Kil 
 buildings are a largo bazaar, and the Kisideiurs 
 of the consuls, or ambassadors of the diflereiit 
 European powers. Since 1834 improvements nl 
 
BUCKFASTLEIOH 
 
 oil kinds Imvfi Ik'kuii to lie wt on foot, nnd cfl'orts 
 Imvt! ;)0('ii made towupply nil cIhshch, cuiiccmlly in 
 till! capital, with tlio incanH of edunution. In this 
 view tlie college of St. Suiivoin haw been organiMcd, 
 which funiishes instruction to 600 piipilK. Tlie 
 Frenuh langua^^o has l)een adopted as the ImniH of 
 instruction, nnd the institution is under the direc- 
 (iiiii of Frenchmen. In addition to this, four other 
 Hchiiols have hecn opened in the city, where in- 
 htruvtion is afforded gratuitously to all who choose 
 to accept it. Theie is also a Ij-ceum for the (ireeks ; 
 «ml a public liornry, a socu^ty of belle, hittrcs, 
 and an agricultural society, h.ivc been established. 
 Formerly the boyars used to ride on horsebaiik ; 
 Ijiit about f>0 ynirs ago they adopted the practice 
 of rilling in crirriages, and now would hardly cross 
 to the opjKwite side of the street without using 
 one of them. The number of carriages is estimated 
 at-!,00l). Ihicluirest is principally ilistinguished 
 liy profligacy of manners. ( iambi iug-houses are 
 nmst abundant; and i)rostitutes are said to be 
 more numerous hi it than in any other European 
 fity of till! same size. 
 
 'i'he trade of the town is very considerable. 
 Till! cxjiorts consist of wool, butter, wheat, hides, 
 )cllow berries, tallow, honey, and wax, sent by the 
 Danube, or by Varna, to Odessa, ConsUmtinoiile, 
 ic. : they also export immense herds of liornetl 
 laitle nnd hogs to Gennany, whence they imjiort 
 almost everything they have, from the cheapest ne- 
 itssaries u)) to the most expensive luxuries. Then! 
 are considerable nundiers of German artizans, jjarti- 
 c'ularly of watchmakers and jewellers, in the town. 
 Uucharest was visited in 1H47 by a tremeiulous 
 fire, which destroyed several churches "and khans, 
 aiut a great muny privntc houses. It has since 
 ken rebuilt on an improved plan. 
 
 The old cap. of Wallachia was Tergovest ; but 
 in 1()98 the seat of government was transferred to 
 the jiresent city, then only a miserable village, 
 belonging to a boyar, calleil Buchor, from whom 
 it has taken its name. At the union of the two 
 jirovinces of Moldavia and Wallachia into the 
 semi-independent state — tributary to Turkey — of 
 lioumania, Hucliarest became the capital. 
 
 llLCKFASTLEKill, a par. and town of Eng- 
 land, CO. Devon, hund. Stamborough, 172 m. H\V. 
 liy W. London. Pop. of jiarish, 2,544 in IStil ; 
 area, 0,720 acres. It consists of one main street, 
 on the line of the great western road from London 
 to Plymouth ; and of another, branching I'rom it 
 on the VV. side down the incline, and called the 
 Lower Town. Generally speaking, the houses are 
 meanly built. The church is on an eminence 
 overlooking the Dart, on the N. of the town in the 
 meadows beneath which there are some remains of 
 an ancient Cistercian abbey. The inhabitants are 
 cliiclly cmi)loyed in wool-combing and weaving 
 serges, for which there arc three or four manufac- 
 toncs in the town. There is also a copper mine ia 
 the parish ; and limestone is (|uarried and burnt 
 in considerable (luantities, for maiuire to the sur- 
 rounding district. There are fairs held, for the 
 sale of live stock, the third Thursday in June, and 
 second Thursday in Sept. The weekly market 
 has been long discontumed. There are the remains 
 of an ancient encampment in the p.irish. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM, an inl. co. of England, having 
 X. Northami)tonshire, K. the cos. of liedford, Hert- 
 ford, and Middlesex, S. Berks, and W. Oxford. 
 Miape very irregular ; area 4G(j,932 acres, of which 
 about 440,000 are supposed to be arable, meadow, 
 and pasture. The vale of Aylesbury, one of the 
 richest tracts in the empire, occupies the middle of 
 the CO., and has, on either side, ranges of hills. It 
 U about equally divided between tillage and i)ns- 
 ture. The grass lauds arc partly used for the 
 
 BUCKINGHAM 
 
 581 
 
 dairy, nnd partly for fatting. Agriculture but 
 inditferetit : there is a great waste of horse jiower, 
 and a projjcr rot^ition is not always observed. 
 Sheep ore an im|H>rtnnt stock, and the average 
 weight of tlieir Hecco is Hui)|)o8ed to have Imjcu 
 increased, during the present ccnturv, from 3 to 5 
 lbs. ; many hogs are also kept; anil largo quan- 
 tities of ducks are raised at Aylesbury and other 
 places. There are some large estates! Farms of 
 a medium size average about IHO acres. Leases 
 pretty common ; but they are not granted for a 
 sulHcieiitly long term, and are defective in not 
 laying any restrictions on the tenant as to crin>- 
 ping. Cottages generally good, and most of them 
 have gardens. The manufacture of pillow laco 
 has greatly declined ; but a good deal of straw 
 idat is made in the jmrts of the county next to 
 Bedford. Minerals of no importance. The Thames 
 bounds the co. on the H., and the Oiise partiv 
 intersects it, and partly bounds it on the N. U. 
 contains 8 huiids., and 202 parishes. Pop. l('i7,S>tt;{ 
 in 1801, of whom 83,023 males, and 84 .f 70 females; 
 inhab. houses 34,!)01» in 18(11. It returns 11 mems. 
 to the II. of C, viz. 3 for the co., and 2 each for the 
 lioroughs of Aylesbury, Marlow, Buckingham, and 
 Wycombe; registered electors for co. r»,t)37 in IX^jf). 
 The gross estimated rental assessed to poor rate 
 was (i()r),!)02 in 18G2 ; the gross annual value of 
 real projjerty assessed to income tax amounted to 
 U(J7,410/. in 1857, and to 700,510/. in 1802. 
 
 BuoKiNGirAM, a pari, and municipal bor. of 
 Eng,, CO. Buckingham, hund. of same name, on 
 the Ouse, 50 m. Js'W. London by road, and 01 in. 
 by London and North Western railway. Pop. of 
 municipal bor. 3,84'J, and of pari. bor. 7,020 iu 
 1801. F^xcept on the N. side, the town is sur- 
 rounded by the t)use, over which there are three 
 stone bridges. It consists chiefly of one long street, 
 which is jiaved and lighted ; houses of brick, and 
 neatly built. The church, with a gowl tower and 
 spire, was built in 1 780, principally at the ex))cnse 
 of the Temple family. It has a free grammar and 
 green-cout school for 20 boys, and a national school 
 for 300 boys and girls; two ancient hospitals sup- 
 porting green-coat and 10 blue-coat pensioners; 
 and a few minor charitable benefactions. The 
 weekly market is on Saturday, and there are ten 
 annual fairs for cattle and sheep. A branch of the 
 Grand Junction Canal extends to the town. No 
 particular manufacture is carried on : in the neigh- 
 bourhood are ])aper and corn-mills, and a few lime 
 quarries. Under the Municipal Kefonn Act there 
 are four aldermen and twelve councillors, and the 
 limits of the borough, which were i^eviously co- 
 extensive with the par., are restricted to that por- 
 tion of it on which the town stands, and which 
 comprises about three-fourths of the pop. The 
 town was incoqiorated by a charter in 1st of Mary, 
 for services rendered by its inhab. in the Duke of 
 Northumberland's rebellion ; the corporation was 
 a self-elected body, consisting of a bailiff and 
 twelve chief burgesses, who, till the passing of 
 the Reform Act, returned two mem. to the U. of 
 C. The last-mentioned act not merely gave the 
 suffrage to the 10/. householders of the bor., but 
 included with them the 10/. householders of the 
 par., and those of several of the adjoining parishes. 
 Kegistered electors, 373 in 1801. There is a court 
 of gen. sessions for the bor. held twice a j^ear. It 
 is the seat of the summer assize for the co. The 
 gaol was built in 1768, by Lord Cobliam, through 
 whose influence the act for holding one of the 
 assizes here was procured ; both having previously 
 been held at Aylesbury. The revenue of the cor- 
 poration amounted to 972/. in 1801. Under the 
 Poor Law Amendment Act it is the central town 
 of a union of thirty parishes. Buckingham is a 
 
 Pii'i'" 
 
 I-'ii I 1 
 
M'2 
 
 IHIDA 
 
 polliiif^ town for the ro. Till witliiii a remit 
 iMTiixl, the miinuriu'tiin' of liu'c l»y liniid fiirniHlicd 
 (>iii|iliiynipiif to niniiv of llio women )"i<l children 
 'I'lie diiriil title of the Temple family is derived 
 from the town. 
 
 Hm>A {Slur. nUDIN ; Gi-rm. OFKN), aroynl 
 free eity of Hungary, of whit-li, in eonjnnction 
 with PeHtli, it \» the cnp. and sent of iroveniment, 
 on the TiiiUt hank of the Dimnhe, nnmediately 
 opposite to I'eHth, 111! m. W. Dehret/.in; lllft m. 
 KSK. Vienim l)y road, and Itil ni. hy Sonth Aus- 
 trian railway, I'op. ftaj^Kt in IMf)?. The pop. of 
 IVstli,at the same censns, was li)(>,r>(t(i; so that, if 
 we re^tarrl them as one eitv, its pop., exchisive of 
 the military, will he nhont l!)(V)*)0. Itnda is hiiilt 
 on and roiuid the last hill ol a ran^e whieh decreases 
 in height oh it approaches the Dannhe, and is 
 divided into six ((narters. The upper town, or 
 citadel, occu)iiesthe centre and hi)j;hestpart of the 
 city, the Schlossheri:; ; it is enclosed hy Imstioned 
 Avails, hnt is no !on;;fer of any importance as a 
 fortress. Althraigh the smallest division, it con- 
 tains most of the (inest hnildings. The royal castle, 
 or palace, he^mi in 1749, is a qiiadrangnlar stnu;- 
 tnre of j;reat extc^nt, containing 'JO.'I apartments, 
 xoine of which, as the throne-room, niidience-hall, 
 and drawing-rooms, are extremely magni(i(!ent. 
 Ill this hiiiiding are kejyt the regalia of the king- 
 dom, to which the Unngarinns attach an extra- 
 ordinary degree of importance. A large garden 
 Hurronnds the palace, and the view from one of its 
 halcoiiies, elevated on n rock ahove the Dannhe, is 
 very striking. The chnnJi of the Virgin's Ascen- 
 sion, and tlie garrison church, hoth (iolhic edi- 
 lices, the state's palace, high judicial chamher, 
 town-hall, residence of the commandant, arsenal, 
 jiost-ollice, and many other military and civil 
 ]iuhlic liiiildings, are situated in this quarter. To 
 the N., and at the hasc of the rock on which the 
 citailel stands, is the lower, or ' Water town,' 
 which in some |)arts vies with the former division 
 in elegance. It contains the church of St. Anne, 
 and several others. The Lamhtrasne, a well-hnilt 
 (piarter; the new town, a cheerlul siihurh toward 
 th<' K., reaching to the bank of the Danube ; the 
 Kaizeiistndt, or Tabim, to the S., (he most |io|iu- 
 loiis ((iiarter of all ; and the ' Christina town,' to 
 the !SW., extending into the rich and beautiful 
 Christina valley, are the other divisions of Ihida. 
 The chief remaining buildings deser\'iiig notiee 
 are the churches of the Ca|iucliins, the Elizabethan 
 nuns of 8t. Fhtrian, the CJreek cinireh, the syna- 
 gogue, several monasteries and convents, the palace 
 of the primate in the Landstrasse, with the palaces 
 of Counts Sandor, 'I'eleki, Knlticly, Zichy, I'echy, 
 Uatthyany, and other noblemen. A well appointcil 
 observalorj', attached to the University of I'esth, 
 stands on the Bhicksherg, an adjacent hill, to the 
 S., .'{00 ft. Jihove the level of the river. Copious 
 hot springs, strongly imiircgnatcd with sulphur, 
 issue from the sides of the hills on which Ihida is 
 parti}' built, and especially from the lUocksherg. 
 The succi'ssivo occuph-rs of the place, Itomans, 
 Turks, and Christians, have taken advantage of 
 these springs, and have converted them into com- 
 modious baths. Of those constructed by the Ho- 
 maiis, only broken fragnicnts now remain ; hut 
 the Turkish baths are in a perfect state of pre- 
 ser\-atioii, and the largest, appropriated to the use 
 of the town, is a tine specimen of Saracenic archi- 
 tecture. The finest of the modem baths, that of 
 the ' Emperor,' in the vicinity of the Landatrosse, 
 is surrounded by gardens and pleasure-grounds. 
 These numerous hot baths have jtrocured for the 
 city its Gcnnan name of Ofen, which is ' oven.' 
 Among the many establishments devoted to science 
 and education in Ihiila, are an archi-gymna»iuin 
 
 (high college), n high school in each of the dif- 
 ferent quarters of the city, a school of design. Illy. 
 rian female scluxds, a |iublic library, cahiiu'ts Hi' 
 mineralogy and (!oiich(dogy. Many oi° the noliilitv, 
 the Franciscan friars, and other iMtdies, pnsM^s 
 good libraries, to which lilieral access is jiemnt ted: 
 in the royal palace there is a gallery of paintin^rs. 
 There are various charitable institutions, includiiifj 
 four hospitals. 
 
 A magnilicent suspension bridge, three qiinrtcrs 
 of a mile in length, spans the Danube, coiiikmIiii;^' 
 Hilda with I'esth. It was built at a cost of 701 1,111111/^, 
 after the designs of an English architect, Mr. 
 Clark, and was opened in IHlH. The bridge, nin" 
 of the Ihiest of its kind in the world, has a I'lcnr 
 waterway of 1,200 t't., the centre span or opcniii" 
 being 070 ft. Tlu! height of the suspension timers 
 from the founilatioii is 'JOO ft., being founded in , 'id 
 ft. of water. The sectional area of the suspcinlin;; 
 chains is irH) sf|uare inches of wrought iron, juid 
 their total weight I,J10() tons. This is the lirst 
 pennanent bridge which has been erected over lljc 
 Danube, below V'ieima, siiure the time of Trajiui. 
 Its solidity was exjiosed to a severe trial very sum 
 after its completion ; for it was crossed on tiic ."iih 
 of .laniiary, IKIO, and the imniedial<dy foliowiij^; 
 days, by large divisions of Hungarian and Inipiriiil 
 troops. 
 
 The summit of the lUocksherg commands n (iiic 
 view of the snrrouixling country, and especially nt' 
 the river and the op|H>sife city. A recent travclliT 
 describes it as follows : — ' ( >ii this side is Itiiila, 
 full of architectural anomalies, yet, from that vcrv 
 circumstance, an object of peiuiliar interesi : nii 
 the other, I'esth, laid out in all the regularity ol 
 street, and s(piare, and mall, and public ganlcii. 
 There is not a greater contrast between tiic oM 
 and new towns of Edinburgh than between liiidii, 
 the ancient capital of the JIagyars, and rcstli, a 
 city of yesterilay's growth. The one wanders fnmi 
 terrace to terrace, in dark and dingy masses, (ir 
 stretches in a hing line wherever, between i\w 
 river and the basis of the hill, a space of level 
 ground can re«'eive it: the other, a series of streets 
 which cross each other at right angU's, shines in 
 all the spleiuUtur of a plan rigidly adiiered to, and 
 materials the best calculated to preserve an appear- 
 ance; of unilomiity, even in separate editices.' Adil 
 to this striking contrast the vastness of the river, 
 the passing of barges, ships, and sleiini-paekets, in 
 the very centre, as it were, of Eiu-ope, ami tlie 
 scene and the associations connected with it inusi 
 be admitted to be of no common kind. 
 
 Huda is the usual residence of the govenior- 
 general of the kingdom, the seat of the viee-re|,'al 
 council, and the highest administrative aiillupr- 
 ities. It has mutdi less of a bustling ami einn- 
 mercial character than Pesth. There are a lew 
 manufactures of linens, woollens, silks, vehci, 
 leather, gunpowder, earthenware, and a caniinn- 
 foundry; but its principal trade is in its line 
 wines, of which about "iilOjOOO einicrs are pru- 
 diiced annually from the vineyarils around llie 
 heights m its neighbourhood. 
 
 lUida is believed by some writers to be eillier 
 the Ciirta of I'tolemy, or the Aquinciim of llie 
 Itinerary of Antoninus. It was held by the 
 Komaiis till nearly the end of the 4th ceiitiirv. 
 Attila made it occasionally his resi<lence. Aqiail, 
 the Blagyar chief, made it his head quarters in 
 !)00; and" it then became the cradle of the Hun- 
 garian monarchy. It was enlarged and impmved 
 by succeeding Hungarian monarchs, and nnide a 
 free city by llcia IV., in 1245. It was taken liy 
 the Turks, under Scdymaii the Jlagnilicenl. in 
 l.')26; but was recaptured bj' Ferdinand \..,V\\\f 
 of Bohemia, brother of the emiicror Chwles V. 
 
UUDUKIISIIAN 
 
 in tlio followiiiR year. It was njjnin tnkon hv 
 Siilymnii hi t5'ii), uikI woh held l>y I lie Turk)* till 
 U'tM, wluMi it wiiM taken hv the Iiiii)crinli.sti', nftcr 
 II (Ifxperate resisiancc. ioMpph II. removed the 
 ^out of Ihe llun^ariaii piverniiieiit thither in 
 |7h:<. Ill IHH), liie 'ralinii quarter, ami a part of 
 the Water town, were dentniyed hv lire. The lity 
 siill'ereda jcreat deal in the revoiiitioiiary war of, 
 IKl'.l. A nionunient in honour of (ieneral Ileiitxi, 
 niid the troops under his eoiinnand, who fell in 
 this war, was erected in the 'llentzi-siiuare' in 
 IN')!. 
 
 lU'DlTKlISIIAN, n prov. of Central Asia, now 
 a dept'iideney of the khan of Khoondoo/,, ln'tween 
 lilt. ;i(i° and 3«o N., and lon^'. 70° .10' and T^ ilO' 
 K, ; having N. and NK. n ehain of mountains, in 
 
 BUENOS AYRKS 
 
 ff83 
 
 upwards of 2 ni., with a hreadtli in its eentre of 
 alMiut 1^ ni. It is Imtit on a uniform plan; tliu 
 streets, whieh are all Htrai^ht, intersect each other 
 at ri^ht anKU'8 at every 150 yards, dividing; it into 
 a nuiiiher of stpmres, each having an area of ahout 
 •I KiiK- acri's. The principal streets, which were 
 formerly all hut impassahle in wet weather, while 
 in the <lry Heasoii they were ohscured with clouds 
 of dust, are now tolerahly well paved, and provided 
 with foot|iaths on either side. The houses and 
 other huildiii)^s have also heen greatly improved 
 within the last few years, and their interior ren- 
 dered much more comfortahle ; upper stories are 
 now (generally a<lded to them ; chimneys, that were 
 formerly all hut unknown, are connnon; they are 
 supplie<l wil h Kn^lish ^fralcs, and with coals carried 
 
 liubited liy trihes clainiiiif^ a Macedonian ori^^in ; (ml from Liverpool as ballast. ISIost sorts of Kn- 
 
 SI'l. and S. the Itohir-Ta^h imainlains, aiul the 
 lii;;h eoinitry of the Oiudrs; and \V. the other 
 tcrrilorics of Kooiulooz. It consists of the valli'y 
 (if the Koocha, a irihiitary of the Oxus, which 
 rincs at its SK. corner, and soon heconu's a coii- 
 siilcralile river, imfordahle even at ISudukshaii 
 (Fy/ahail). The scenery of this country, and its 
 iia'lural productions, are spoken of in lii;;li terms 
 liv all who h. ,>! visited it; it contains ruliy mines, 
 iiiiil dill's of lapis lazuli. Near the (ixiis the 
 luriner are still worked hy the khan of Koondooz, 
 and the latter article, much of which was for- 
 merly scut into ('hina, is ohtained hy ti^'htin^ a 
 lire linder the clill's, and, when hot, dashing cold 
 water upon them, which causes them to fracture. 
 The ruby mines were well known to the emperors 
 iif llelhi, and at a much earlier period: they are 
 lit a i)lace called (iharan, (Mi the vcr]Lce of the 
 Oxus; are «luf; in low hills; and the ncms eni- 
 licdded in limestone like nanul pierces of pebble or 
 tliuts. The iidiabitants of Ihiilukhshan are Tad- 
 jiks; very social and hos|(itable; speakiiif; the 
 IVrsian lan^uaj^e, and retaiiihi); the inanners and 
 customs prevalent N. the Hindoo Koosh before 
 the Tartar invasion. Neither Uzbeks iiorToorkees 
 had settled in the country before the chief of 
 Koondooz overran it, by whom its own chief was 
 (Ictliroiied; since which its peasantry have been 
 driven out, and a rabble of lawless soldiery quar- 
 tered in their stead. The capital is also called 
 liialuklishan, or Fvzabad, and is near the K. bank 
 iif the Koocha, in"lat, 'Si'P 2«' N., lonj,'. 71° -'o' K. 
 It is said to have been i)eopled from lialkh, and 
 most of the inhabitants are of the Shiak sect. This 
 country suH'ered much from a territic eartlupuikc 
 in .lamiary 1«32, which appeared to exhibit its 
 ciiief violence in this valley, and destroyed many 
 roads and villages, and a great part of the pojju- 
 Intion. 
 
 bUDWEIS, a town of IJolicmia, cap. circle of 
 the same name, on the r. bank of the Jloldau, 75 
 m. fS. Trague by road, and 15!) m. NW. Vienna by 
 railway. Pop. i4,Mll in 1«57. The town is well 
 1111(1 regularly built, and partially fortilied. Con- 
 tiiiiis a cathedral, seven ciiurches, a court of jiiris- 
 iliction for the circle, gymnasium, phih)soidiical 
 academy, and diocesan seminary. Has manufae- 
 tories of wocdlen cloth, muslin, damask, saltpetre, 
 ami musical instruments ; and considerable trade 
 ill horses and com. 
 
 HUKNOS AYKKS (Goad Air), a marit. city of 
 S. America, cap. of the Argentine confederation, on 
 the SW. shore of the estuarj' of the great river 
 l.a Plata, 125 m. W. by N. Montevideo, and 90 m. 
 N\V. I'oint I'iedras ; lat. 31° 30' 2!)" S., long. 
 iJKO 23' 34" W. Pop. estimated at 100,000 ; from 
 15,0(10 to 20,000 of whom are foreigners, chiefly 
 English and French. The city is built upon a 
 liaiik, from 15 to 20 It. above the level of the river. 
 Including its suburbs, it extends N. and S. for 
 
 ropean furniture have found their way into the 
 residences of the upper classes. Almost, every 
 house in the principal streets has a garden both 
 before and behind it; and many have latticed 
 balconies in which (Hloril'inius shrubs anr reared. 
 Though on the edge of oiu' of the greatest rivers 
 in the world, water in nueiios jYyres is both scarce; 
 and dear. Thewcdls, though numerous, atl'oril no- 
 thing but hard, brackish water, iintit for culinary 
 jiurjioses. There are no public cisterns ; rain-water 
 IS, indeed, tarefully collected in a few jirivate 
 tanks; but I be mass of the people have to pay 
 liigh for their daily supply, which instead of being 
 raised from the river by lnachiner^', and conveyed 
 in conduits to public pumps, is carried about in 
 butts mounted on bullock-carts. The quarter of 
 the city inhabited by Mestizos and negroes is 
 wretched and lilthy in appearance, and strongly 
 contrasts with the opulence and taste dis|dayed in 
 the other jmrts. The I'lnza, or great square", con- 
 tains the cathedral, and the town-hall, a haiKlsniiie 
 stone edilice, built by the .Jesuits; and a whole 
 side of it is occupied by the Kvviivn, a range of 
 piazzas, 150 yards long," and above 20 in width, 
 enclosing a double range of shops. In the centre 
 of the sipiare is a small obelisk, erected to com- 
 memorate the declaration of independence. The 
 town-hall is chietiv used as a prison, but meetings 
 of the inunicipahtj' are sometimes held in the 
 upper rooms; and from the balcony the citizens 
 are harangued on public occasions. The cathe- 
 dral, a large handsome edilice, with a cupola and 
 porticos, has its interior profusely decorated with 
 carving and gilding, and its dome painted in com- 
 partments, representing the Acts of the Apostles. 
 The church of the Franciscans, and that of the 
 convent of Mercy, are next in rank, and have 
 steeples and cupolas ne.arly in the same style as 
 the cathedral. In the former there is a painting 
 of the Last Supjier, well executed by a native 
 Indian artist. There are many other Catholic 
 churches, several convents and nunneries, a Pro- 
 testant cliureh, Presbyterian cha|)el. Ac, a found- 
 ling hospital, orphan asylum, and ol her benevolent 
 institutions. These edilices are all built of tine 
 white stone, found in the plain not far from the 
 city. The fort, which ceaitains the residence of 
 the supreme director and the government oflices, 
 is a square brick and stone building, near the river. 
 The iiniv<!rsity, one of the most celebrated in S. 
 America, occupies a very extensive building, which 
 has been recently fitted up at a great expense : a 
 suite of six rooms in this building contains the 
 state lil)rary, a good collection of about 25,000 ^■ols. 
 The estuary of the Plata is ver}- broad, but is 
 also in most (larts shallow, encumbered with sand- 
 banks, and infested with sudden gusts of wind 
 called jMimperos. It,s navigation is consequently 
 attended with a gofnl deal of difticulty, and ships 
 bound fe)r liuenos Ayrcs generally- take piltits on 
 
 \\ 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
684 
 
 BUENOS AYRKS 
 
 mil'FALO 
 
 lN>ar(l. Thpit! Ih iio ImrlNUir, ami vi>HHoIfl drnwiiif; 
 1*1 or 17 ft. water niii^linr in th« (iiitt'r nmU, cnllcil 
 the Amamtdero, 7 or H in. from tlie Hhore, loading 
 and uidoadin^ by mcantt of li^litorH. ThiH, too, ii* 
 an_ o|K)ration l>y no niuanH free from daii^or, lioalh 
 \mn^ Homctimi'.s Hwumpcd in rroHHin^ tlin liar 
 lH!twvcn the ontor and inner roadn. From ilie 
 want of a iiior, and the hIuiIIowiicnh of the water 
 on the beai'li, even the Ixiatn arc not ahle to eome 
 eloHO to the Hhore, lint arc met at a little diNtan(;v 
 IroHi it by a rude nort of ox-cartH, into which they 
 dcpoHit their ^o'hIh, at no little risk, and HometimeH 
 much loH». TliCMt' unfavourable cireuniHtaneeH o|K!- 
 ratti as u drawback on the trade of the city, and 
 tend proportionally to augment that of Montevideo, 
 which in more easily accexHible. Hut notwith- 
 Ntandin); the competition of the latter, and the 
 ^rcat increaMc of itu trade of late yearn, liuenos 
 AyrcH in Ntill the |irincipal outlet for the ))ro(iuce 
 of the vast countricH travers«!d by the La JMata, 
 and cNpecially for the provinces Mituutcd un itH 
 ri^lit. bank. 
 
 Within the last few years the trade in wool, in 
 consequence of the great improvement etfected in 
 the breed of sheep, has Iwcome of considerable and 
 rapidly increasing import antte, the exports amount- 
 ing, on the average, to above a million sterling )ier 
 annum. The trade in hides, both dry iiisd salted, 
 is of equal importance, the exports iH'ing above a 
 million in value per ainnim. Subjoined is an ac- 
 count of the quantities of the principal articles of 
 produce cxporteil from the port of Ituenos Ayrcs 
 diuring the year ended the auth of June, 1SG2 : — 
 
 ValunI at 
 
 £ 
 
 454,303 snltjd ox liidcs 'ir>». ouch 
 
 6fi7.878 
 
 ],!il7,771 dry „ 'H)». „ 
 
 1,217,771 
 
 'JHr>,0'M salted horse hides Ki. „ 
 
 114,059 
 
 (10,048 dry .. r,s. „ 
 
 15,012 
 
 ] 1 ,f.»3 pipes of tallow £-jr> per pipe 
 
 2;Jl,8(iO 
 
 8,757 Ixjxes „ £l(iperl)ox 
 
 140,012 
 
 48,7ti8 bales of wool £-ir, per bale 
 
 1,21!»,I50 
 
 3,046 „ of horsehair £-.0 „ 
 
 15-J,300 
 
 8,»r.l „ of sheepskins £:w „ 
 
 21)8,530 
 
 49«,788 quintals of jerked beef 1U». per quint. 
 
 24»,8y4 
 
 £4,17«,44(i 
 The total value of the imports averages 
 2,r>00,000/., of which those furnished by (ireat 
 liritain amount to near a half. The importjs 
 chiefly consist of cotton, linen, woollen and silk 
 manufactures, hardware, cutlery, earthenware of 
 all sorts, glass, leather, and hats. France supplies 
 Uuenos Ayres with jewellerj-, perfumery, an<l 
 other articles of luxury; the imports from the 
 U. States consist chiefly of coarse unbleachetl 
 cloths, spirits, soap, sperm candles, dried and 
 salted jjrovisions, tobacco, furniture, and deals. 
 The Mediterranean trade is |)rincipally in Sicilian 
 and Spanish produce, jiarticularly cheap wines, 
 brandies, olive oil, mucearoni, tiried fruits, and 
 paper. Sjianish gooila are in little demand, 
 though some serges, velvet, sewing silk, and 
 snutt', are imported. The annual importation of 
 Spanish ond Sicilian wines is from 10,000 to 
 12,000 pipes, besides about 1,000 pipes of brandy. 
 The i/erha mate, or Paraguay tea, fonnerly an 
 export article of some consequence, has now been 
 nearly superseded, even in Buenos Ayres, by tea : 
 the other Chinese imports are silks, crapes, nan- 
 keens, porcelain, antl numerous minor articles. 
 The tratle with Chili and Peru is insignificant. 
 The markets of the city are well supplied with 
 butchers' meat and fish. Poultry is dear, a couple 
 of fowls selling for as much as an ox. Vegetables 
 and fruit generally are also dear ; milk in quality 
 ond price is much the same as in London, and ail 
 the butter used is imported. 
 The inhab. of Buenos Ayres are said to be ob- 
 
 Korvnnt, intelligent, and desirous tn impnivo, 
 Kducation receives a eoiisidi'rable share of alti'n. 
 tioii. lltmideM the university, a su|K'rioraca(lt'iiiv, 
 and a military college, there an; 10 public scIhhiIs' 
 for whose support the corporation contrilnitoH 
 
 alMiiit 7,000 dollant aimually, and A other scl U, 
 
 exclusively for the benellt of the poor, under tlic 
 charge of ditVerent monasteries, and supplied with 
 iMKiks and stationery at the public expense. || 
 is rare to meet with a boy 10 or 12 years of ii;;,. 
 in the city who cainuit niail and write. Tluri! 
 are several daily and weekly journals. 
 
 Mueiios Ayres wiu* founded by Don Pedro i|i> 
 Mendo/ii, in ITilM, but, in conse(|uence of tin. 
 opposition of the Indians to the setllemcnt, it 
 was obliged to be abandoned at two subsciiucnt 
 periods, ami was not permanently colonised ii|| 
 l<'i8(), after sonu! shar]i actions with the native.',. 
 In l(!20, the «;ity was erected into a bisli'iiiric, 
 and in 1700 contained lt!,000 inhabitant.. ,a 
 I77(i it became the seat of the vice-royallv of i,n 
 Plata; and in 177H, when the trade 'of liie rivtt 
 was thrown optm by Spain, its trade and con.',).. 
 queiice began rapidly to augment. In ,)uiie Isim; 
 it was talen by the British, but retaken by iliv 
 .Spanish in the same year. In IHIO the ri'vnlu- 
 tioiiary movements began that ended in tlic 
 emancipation of Buenos Ayres and the stiilcs of 
 La Plata, from Old Spain. The decliiratiiMi (,t 
 independence ajijieared on the !(th of ,Iidv, 1810, 
 and by the terms of it a confederate repuiilic wan 
 established iiiuler the name of ' the United I'm- 
 vinces of the Bio de la Plata.' In .lanuary l8,(|, 
 a constitution creating the ' Argentine CoutVilcr- 
 atioii,' was promulgated, but on various niodiii- 
 cutions, tending to greater union, being introduced 
 in it, the city and province of Buenos Ayres 
 seceded in 1854. However, it again joined' the 
 Argentine Confederation in 1800, thn oiipoiieiits 
 of the re-incorporation having been dcfcted in 
 the course of a short civil war. 
 
 BUFFALO, a city of the U. S, of Amprieii, 
 New York cap., co. krie, at the W. extremity of 
 Lake Erie, where it contracts into Niagara river, 
 203 m. NW. New York, and 22 ni. S. Ninniirii 
 falls. Pop. 2;),(ill in 1840, and 81,1;10 hi iKCii. 
 The town stands jiartly on a h)W nnirshy iraet. 
 intersected by Bntlalo creek, which fomis its 
 harbour, and partly on an elevated terrace, kfid- 
 iiig to a still higher plateau. The principal streets 
 descend from the high ground over tiie terrace 
 towanls the creek and harbour, and are crossed hy 
 the others generally at right angles. According 
 to Captain Marryiit (Diary in America, 18:tli), 
 ' Butlulo is one of the wonders of America. It is 
 hardly to be credited that such a beautit'iil city 
 should have risen up in the wilderness in so siiort 
 a period. In the year 1814 it was burnt dinvii, 
 being then only a village ; only one house was 
 left standing, and now it is a city with 2J,ii(iO 
 inhab. It is remarkably well built ; all the houses 
 in the principal streets are lofty and sulistaii- 
 tial, and are either of brick or granite. The main 
 street is wider, and die stores handsomer tiiaii the 
 mnjo'ity of those in New York. It has very 
 line churches (now 18 or 20), a handsome theatre, 
 town-hall, and market ; and 3 or 4 hotels, one uf 
 which is superior to most others in America; 
 and to these we must add a fine stone i)ier, with 
 a lighthouse, and a harbour full of shipping, and 
 magnificent steam boats. It is almost incom])rc- 
 hensible that all this should have been acccm- 
 plished since the year 1814. And what lias 
 occasioned this springing up of a city, in so short, 
 a time as to remind you of Aladdin's magic palace? 
 The opening of the Erie canal, from Lake Kric to 
 the Hmlson river and New York, passing through 
 
milTALO 
 
 tlifl iM'iitrc, of till) iiiodt, |Mi|Miloim aixl fcrJiln ntnlox.' 
 The cily now m not <U>|h>ii(I<'IiI for itH <'<iiiiiiii'rct^ 
 till iIk' nuinl, Imt is cihiiutIciI, liy HcvtTul linen ^>f 
 riiilway, wild nil iliit inori' ini|H>.iiuit Iowum of tlii! 
 I iiitiMl StuU>H, It uIho conliUHH » lilcrur^v aiul 
 Ht'ii'nlilic ucuilciny; n lyccuin, having n liliriiry 
 mill clu'niii'ul u|>|iiiratnH ; and ihu nnivcrsiiy of 
 \\. Nt'W York. 
 
 Iliiiralo iTcck, fornu'd liy tlin pontliu'iict' of 
 Hi'vcral Hniitll HtroninH, ix navipiliU< I'ur alioul H ni, 
 A Itar at its niunlh has iM'on i1Is|«tsc'iI, so as to 
 iiilinit vessels ilrawihf; H I't, water into the liar- 
 JHiiir; anil n pier, l,r(00 ft. in Ivnjrtli, with a li^'ht- 
 liiiiise upon it, has lieen carried out into the lut<e, 
 to t'aeililate their inf^ress and ejfress. Still, how- 
 vver, the harbour is not aecesMible at all seasons, 
 nil aecoiint of the aeeuiniilalioii of ice hroii^^ht 
 down liy the \V. winds, and a ship canal hiis 
 lii'cii cut from it to the lake W. of the town, 
 wliieh has (Uiiic a jrood deal to obviate this iii- 
 coiivenienee. From its )>ositiim on the best 
 ('liiinnel of interconrse between the W. rv'n'ions 
 1111(1 the Atluntie, an well as its being the only 
 jiiirt of entry for the Niagara district, lUill'alo is 
 n place of great and increasing trade. Subjoined 
 is an acct'iunt of the number of vcshcIs owned in 
 Jliill'alo, and their tonnage, in the year IMtib: — 
 
 HUIXJAUIA 
 
 A8A 
 
 Craft 
 
 Number 
 13 
 
 m 
 ia,5 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 3!l,-.'.'..'i 
 •J,774 
 4,m:)4 
 
 ;i:),47.') 
 
 Sti'iuiiors 
 
 I'wiK'Uurs 
 
 TiiKs .... 
 
 Ilaniuea .... 
 
 ]iii(,'s .... 
 
 Kchooiicra . 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 aiis 1 9o,if)« 
 
 The inimbcr of vessels engaged in the naviga- 
 tiiiii of the western lakes during tho year lUliU 
 was a» follows : — 
 
 Cr«lt 
 
 Number 
 
 li)8 
 I!»7 
 
 as 
 y74 
 
 Tonnage 
 til.-Vil) 
 
 a;),4i7 
 
 •.>:.,(( 17 
 
 ]ys,(i(ji 
 
 Stoamoi'H 
 I'miielliTs . 
 ISaniut'S .... 
 Uii(,'s .... 
 ScUuonera and Sloops 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 1,457 
 
 377,8-J5 
 
 The chief trade of liuftalu consists in shipments 
 of wheat and llonr. 
 
 Buffalo was an inconsiderable place previously 
 to 1812, in which year it was made a military 
 station. Its destruction in 1814 was (dJ'ccted by 
 B party of liritish and Indians; but in 1817, it 
 a(,'ain contained more than 100 houses, many of 
 iviiich were largo and elegant. In 18.'t2 it was 
 incorporated as the ' City of lluffalo,' divided into 
 live wards, and the government vested in a 
 mayor and common council chosen annually by 
 the citizens. 
 
 IIUFFON, a small vil. of France, dep. Cote 
 (I'Or, on the Arman9on, 12 m. N. Semur. This 
 village belonged to the illustrious author of the 
 HUtuire Naturelle, (ieorges Louis Lc-Clcrc, 
 created, by Louis XV., Count de IJuftbn, by which 
 name he has since been distinguished. 
 
 BU(l (an. HyiMiih or lio(/iis), a river of Euro- 
 lioan Kussia. It rises near iJlosysko, in the S\V. 
 tonicr of Volhynia, and pursues a SE. course psist 
 Hratzlatt", Oliviopol, Vosnesensk, and NicolaelT. 
 2.) ni. below which it falls into the testuary of the 
 Dniepr. It is navigable from Vosnesensk. The 
 tntraiice to the Bug is without the bar of the 
 Dniopr; happily, too, it has no bar of its own, 
 ami has deep water as far as >«icolaeft'. 
 
 lUMJIA or lUMJJr.lAII, n sea-jMirt town of 
 Africa, reg. Algiers, on the ih'cliviiy of a inoiin- 
 taiii, at the mouth of the Aduse, 122 in. K. 
 Algiers. The jnirt, which is large, is formed by ti 
 projecting ii(!ck of land, great iiart of which was 
 anciently faced with stone. There is goiHl aii- 
 cliorage olf the town in H or H) fathoms, but NK. 
 xviiids throw in a heavy sea. Treviously to the 
 French occupation, the town was protected liv 
 half ruinous walls, and by a casth^ on the Hiiminit 
 of a hill, which also commanded tlut roadstead. 
 The inhabs. nianiiliicture ploiighshiires, mattocks, 
 ^c. of the iron obtained frmn the iieighboi,i:iig 
 inoiintiiins, and great quantities of oil and \;n.: 
 are brought down to this place by the Kab\ les, 
 tor shipnieiit. The town is biiilt'of, and sl'iiids 
 upon, the ruins of a more considerable ancient 
 cily. It was bombarded by Sir lidward Spraggs, 
 in IU7I. 
 
 lil'tJl'K (LK), a town of France, de'p. l)or- 
 dogne, caj). cant., a little above the conlluence of 
 the Vezi-re with the Ifordogne, 1(1 ni. WNW. 
 Sarlat. I'op. 2,'.m;<» in IHOl. The town is ad- 
 vantageously situated, well built, and carries on 
 (lill'ereiit branches of the woollen nianiiliictiire. 
 It is also the eiitrejiot of the wines and other 
 |iroducis of the surrounding cantons, whiidi are 
 shipped thence to Ilordeaiix, and has a consider- 
 able trade in cattle and hogs. 
 
 JU'IS (LK), a town of France, den. Drome, 
 cap. cant., ,>ii the Oiiveze, 10 ni. SI';.*Nioiis. J'op. 
 2,:i70 in I8I'>1. The town is ill built, but has some 
 line ]iroinenades and a handsome square, siir- 
 ronniled by a double row of trees, it has some 
 trade in wool, cloth, hats, olive oil, and Jewtdlery. 
 
 lUJJALANCl';, a town of Spain, Aii(iu!-.:.,ia, 
 prov. Cordova, being 22 in. l\. from the city of 
 that name, and 7 m. from the (iuadahpiivir, on the 
 railway from Cordova to IMadrid. I'op. 8,!)17 in 
 1857. The town is well built, with broad streets, 
 has two cimvents for either sex, two hospitals, a 
 C(dlege, and a foumlling hospital. It has some 
 woollen fabrics, and a large fair which conunem-es 
 tin the 2<;tli of August. Though its modem iiamu 
 be of Arabic origin, it is believed that this town 
 occupies th(! site of the Oil/ivrniu of the Ifomans; 
 and il has various inscriptions, and other antiqui- 
 ties of lioman origin. 
 
 lUJKIIlJK, an island and fort in the Indus, 1C.5 
 m. N. Ilydrabad. The fort, which is constructed 
 of brick, is about -lOO yards from the left, and 3.jO 
 from the right bank of the Indus. Hut it has no 
 strength in its works, and is ibnnidable only from 
 its position. 
 
 HIJKOWINE, a ci-devant province of the Au- 
 strian empire, now included intiallicia, which see. 
 
 l?L'L(jiAKIA (an. JMw.iia Inferior), a large prov. 
 of Turkey in liurfipe, included' in the beglerbeglilc 
 of Houmelia ; lying between lat. 42° 8' and 41° 10' 
 X., and long. 22°' 14' and 2ito JIO' E.; hnviiig N. 
 Wallachia and Uessarabia, W. Servia, S. Houmelia, 
 and K. the lUack Sea. Length, N K. to S\V., about 
 .'{.'JO m. ; breadth varying from 40 to 100 ni. Area, 
 estimated, from 30,000 to 34,000 sq. m. Poji. 
 3,000,000. The country is for the most part 
 mountainous, and eminently so in the S., wlieio 
 the firincipal chain of the Ilalkhan mnts. fonns its 
 boundary: the Daimbe constitutes its N. limit; 
 but excepting that river, Bulgaria j)ossesses none of 
 any magnitude, although sufficiently watered by 
 small streams. Its climate is tcm|)erate, and ita 
 soil Icrtile and well adapted for the culture of corn, 
 vines, the mulberry, and other fruit trees, and 
 tobacco. There are but few marshes ; the pastur- 
 ages are extensive and rich, and feed numerous 
 herds of cattle i the higher lands are often covered 
 with forests of pine, oak, uud beech. The Bulga- 
 
rm mrNi)i,K(;uNl) 
 
 riiiiiH nr<> ilcmTiiilcd from n Slnvonic luirdr, 
 fiiniii'rly iiihiil>itiiiu the liiinkN ofllic VVolpi, wlio 
 iriMHi'il the DiiiiiiIk' iiiiiI t'NiiiUliHiicd lliftiiNclvcN in 
 iliis t'oMiitry in (lii^ 7tli I'cniiiry, mwl litivi* Hiiicc 
 )xriiiliially H|in'ti(l lll^ln^4*'lv<'H tivcr a liir^o part <>( 
 till' rcKiidi S. of tin- llalklian. The pri'Mi'iit raco 
 liavi' laid n»'u\t' the inililary <:liarncl('r of llicir 
 aiio'MlorN; llicy arc u paMloral |i«'<ipU', living in 
 ^<lnall lintnlt'tH of alNiut -10 or M Iiomhch cai'h, and 
 oci'npyin^ ihcinKclvt'M I'liirlly in afjricnltnr*' and 
 ('attl('-llr('t'din^^ with xoinc niannfachirrH, an iIiohc 
 of coarnf wotdU'n clolli, rillc-liarrclM, morocco 
 icatlicr, and altar of roncM, Larp' ^mrdciiH arc de- 
 voted to tlic cullnri' of roftcH; and wc arc indebted 
 to tlic Itulpn'ians for tlic tincxt and moNt. elegant 
 of pcrfunicH. 'riic people arc kind, lionpitalde, mid 
 lienevolcni. 'I'hc women, who mix freely with the 
 men, arc liandxonic, indnslrionr*, and drexH neatly: 
 all wear trinkctH; and llu^ ^'irls liavi^ their lieailH 
 nni'ovcred, ami their hair hraided and ornamented 
 with dilVerenl eoinn, hh amon^^nt the Allianianx, 
 The male peasantry drcNH in lirown xheep-Mkin 
 caps. Jaeketn of innlyed hrown wool, which their 
 wives spin and weave, white cloth trowscrs, and 
 handals of raw leather, and carry no weapons of 
 otfence. They live in houses of wickerwork 
 plastered, the interior licin^ clean and cond'ortalile. 
 'I'heir lanpia^e is a dialeel. of tlic Servian. i'Acr 
 since the Ittli eentiiry their religion has heen that 
 of I he tireck chiireli; hut they liav*' few places of 
 Worship, and in those they have the service is 
 performed in (Jrcek, a tongue which they do not 
 niidcrstand. Schools and hooks are equally rare 
 with churches, and except, the shop-keeper and 
 priest of a villaf^e, scarc(dy any one can read or 
 write; yet, notwithstanding this ^oss ipiorance, 
 crimes are siuffiilarly rare, and travellers in their 
 country are not secure <'iily) hut ex|ierience the 
 kindest treatment. Itulpir'ia is diviiied into four 
 saiidjaks. vi/. those of Silislria, Ituslchnk, Wulin, 
 and Sophia; its chief towns ar(^ Sophia the capital, 
 Shumla, Silistria, Kiistchuk, Nikopoli, Widin.aiul 
 Varna. 
 
 lUJ N I >LI''CUN1"), a lnr(;o division of Ilindostan, 
 prov. Allahahad, hetween hit. 21° ;!' and 'Jtio L'tl' 
 N., and long. 70° W and 81° .'i;i' K.; havinj; N. 
 the .lunula: S. Ilcrarand Malwah; K. Ito;irilennd; 
 and W. Scindia's jlom.: area 2I!,MI7 s(|. m. I'oj). 
 2,|(I0,(HI(). The country is moiintniiious, and im- 
 perfectly cultivaied; the mountains belong to the 
 Vindhyan chain, and run in parallel ranges through 
 the <listr., each successively buttressing a table- 
 land ; the country is nnturall)- very strong, every 
 hill bi'iug a natural fortress, and often crowiie<l by 
 an artiliciiil one; but the highest summit is no 
 iiiori^ than 2,(1(1(1 ft. above the level of the sea. The 
 Cane, iH'san, and Uctwah, are the chief rivers, but 
 none of them is of miidi importance; there are 
 several arliticial reservoirs or lakes, formed by 
 masonry, crcctetl across the currents <tf various 
 ^lrcalns for the pnqioscs of irrigation. The soil is of 
 cvt'ry variety, from the rich black loam to the nU\- 
 rile conkar; the valleys and lowlands arc generally 
 of the former, and, when properly watered, yield 
 abundant crops; the summits of the liills, although 
 mostly rockv, arc covered with small coppice- 
 wood: tlic lace of the countrj' often presents de- 
 tached pieces of Jungle, but there arc lu) forests, 
 and a few scattered and stunted teak-trees form 
 the only large timber. lUnidleciind is celebrated 
 for its diamond mines in the table-land of I'aimah, 
 where they are said to be found wherever the soil 
 is gravelly. This soil is from 2 to 8 cubit.s deep, 
 mostly very red, but elsewhere of a dark hrown ; 
 it contains many small pebbles, with which the 
 diamonds are found intermixed, but never adher- 
 Lig to any other stoue or [icbble. The workmen 
 
 nUNKKIVH im,L 
 
 lift nil the gravelly earth ; throw it into n shallow 
 pit tilled with water; anil, after washing out ilii> 
 earth, examine the pebbles on a JHiard. Much limi' 
 is frnitlcHsly lost, but a very few diamonds foiind in 
 the course of the year repay the workman, hiiiii' lie 
 ret'eives j, the value of those above the si/e uf u 
 lllbcrt. \ the value of those as large as a pea, Ar. 
 Very few are now found worth more llinii Km/., 
 and their protits are comparatively insigniticam. 
 The mines arc the exclusive property of the rajah 
 of I'annah ; thcv are supposed to be identical with 
 the I'anassa of I'tolemy. 
 
 liundlecnnd is now substantially Itrilish terri- 
 tory, though partly under native chiefs, who, 
 since IMn;i, have retained the internal adiiiiniM. 
 tralion of their doiii., on an ackiiowleilgnieni nf 
 allegiaiK'e. Hindoo usages have been less alVeiiiil 
 here by foreign rule than in most other paris i.l' 
 India; tli<! people generally are indiisirioiis, ami 
 obedient to tim constituted ailthoiities, Ihimuli 
 their chiefs are restless and turliiilenl. Their 
 language is n dialect of the Sanscrit. They arc 
 usually possessed of but lillle personal pmpVrlv; 
 there is litth^ trade or capital stirring, and llii'sc 
 circumstances, together with the bare and i<|ieii 
 character of thi! country, are probably the caiiMs 
 of (Iticoiti/ or gang-robbery being so inuisiial. 
 Atrocious crimes are rare; footpad robbery ami 
 vozziniliii, or robbery on horseback, are the enlv 
 serious oirenccs, and tbesi; arc most common mi the 
 skirts of Scindia's jirov., whence small parlies el' 
 I'indarries ixu'asioiially enter on ravaging excnr- 
 sioiis; burglary and theft arc not ('omindii, 'I'hi; 
 /.emindars consider it highly disreputablt! locnii- 
 nivc at such outrages, ami frc(|nenlly expel IVeiii 
 their villages or estates persons of siispecicil 
 character. The pnncliayet, or arbitration sysieiii, 
 in the settlement of disputes, has been idways very 
 much resort(Ml to here. 
 
 At tlu^ fall of the Delhi empire, the Mahrattns 
 under All itahander, possessed thunselves of |inrt 
 of this ])rov., hut were unable to eslablisli their 
 authority in the villages and hill fortresses. Itim- 
 dlecund was occnpieil by tlu! lirilish troiips in 
 IMOl, ami erected into a magistracy uiiiler ilio 
 Itenares court of circuit. In IKI7 that imrlieiKpt' 
 it now belonging to the Bengal presid. was tiiially 
 ceded by the IVishwa, to whom Ali llaliuuder hail 
 been nominally subordinate. 
 
 lUJLSAlIK, a scii-port town of llimlnslan. 
 presid. Ilombav, on the <iulph of Caniliiiv, 'hMii, 
 SW. Surat; lat. 2(P ;«;' N., long 7;!° ;"/ K. lis 
 trade is (lonsiderable, chielly in grain, Jaghirv, 
 and limber; its mannfaetiires are niosdy enarsi' 
 ginghams and other cloths. Hicc and siigiir-cniiu 
 are cultivated in its vicinity. 
 
 I51IN<JAY, a town of Kngland, N. border, en. 
 SuHolk, bund. Waveney, on the Wangforil, OS iii. 
 NK. London by road, and 1 12iJ m. by (ir. Kasterii 
 railway. Pop, ;!,M(l6 in IH(!I. The town iimsi.-t.s 
 of 2 par., having together an area of 2,(i!i(l arris. 
 JIaving I -eii almost whidly destroyed by tire in 
 1(!M8, it is comparatively new, well laid out, and 
 well built. The market-jilace, said to be the kst 
 in the co., has two line crosses; and the town lias 
 also a neat theatre, and assembl.v ronnis; : Crec 
 grammar-school, with two cxliih. to Knianiicl 
 (Jidlege, Cambridge, and several other si'luinls; 
 the remains of a Henedietine nunnery: wnne 
 manufactures of hemp; and a considerable tnulp 
 in malt, corn, coal, flour, and lime. Here is also ii 
 large printing establishment. The triide "f lln' 
 town is promoted by the Waveney, being navi- 
 gable thence to Yarmouth. Market, Tliiirnilay: 
 fairs, Mth Alav, and 2.0th Sep. 
 
 ISUNKKir.S HILL, a steep hill 110 li. in 
 height, Massachuseltu, U. Status, in the ccntri- ul 
 
IJl'NI»()()|l 
 
 llii> iMMiitiNiilii iin wliii-h till' town or <')inrli<i«lown 
 ii liiiill, mill iiIhiiiI I in. N, ItiiHiitn. Ilfre on ihc 
 ITlli •Inn*'. t77.'>, wiiH roii^lit one oC llic nirlicNt nnil 
 nioxt rciiiiirkMl)ln Italilt-N nl' ili<< Anu'riciin n^voln- 
 lioiiiiry wiir, 'I'lii' iirovinriul iroii|m Imviii^ (■■•inli- 
 II.sIk'iI llicinxclvi'i* on ii iiorliini ol' tliirt Iii'IkIiIi 
 iliirin^ till' iiiKlit< n llrili.'<li I'orrc lulvniiriMl In ilin- 
 |i>il);f ilii'iii; litil IIioiikIi iIic latter iillinialcly 
 ctlcctfil llicir |inr|ioN(<, llu> ri'Mistaiit'i- niailc liy the 
 AiiicricaiiM wan hiioIi, lliat the llritiMJi lost lO.VI 
 iiicii killed anil wonmlt'tl, while tlie Aineriran Kwm 
 wiis only IMI, killeil anil wonnili'il. In iH'.'-'t tlie 
 iTi'i'tion of a granite iil>rli.>il«, intenileil to lie 'J'JII (t, 
 lii^'li, was (■oinnieiu'i'il on the hill, in iiieiiiorv of 
 till- ai'tion; lint in ix'M't it wmh only onu tliinl 
 tiiiixlieil. 
 
 ItrNI'OOli, atown or village of IlclooehiMtan. 
 ('ii|i. prov. KohiNtan; 11 in. N'.tlie llnshknnl iniils.; 
 int. I'TO 17' N.. loiiK. tm° •.'<»' !•;. It irt Hiiiail. anil 
 ill-hnilt; at one lime it hail lieeii Hiirronnileil liy a 
 niiiil wall, lint the whole ix now ^oiie lo ilei'a\'. 
 'I'lie ijtailel of the eliief, Htroii^ enoiit^ii lo reniMl 
 iiiiy altai'kH troin the I'l'miaiiN, i» Imilt on the 
 Niinnnil of an eNlraonlinary inounil of earth, saiil 
 liy trailitioii to hav<- lieeii artilieially rai^eil liy an 
 imnieiise anny of (ilieliers, who at a remote |ierioil 
 iinsHeil this wav. The iK'i/^rhhoiirhooil of Ihiniioor 
 iH lie.solale ami impoverisheil, ileHtitnte of a^'ricnl- 
 liire, anil even of (late-treeH. The inhali. are IIk; 
 Itiikh.Hliaiiee Itelooches, the leailiiif; Irilie ainon^Ht 
 (lie Nharooe'H; tlu; laii]i;na^e Hpoken at liini|i<ior is 
 IVrfian and l(elooeheeke<- mixed, 
 
 IIIHtDVV'AN (I'lirtliiiiiiaii, |irodiietivo), a distr. 
 
 Ill' llinilostan, presid, and prov. IteiiK'il; hetween 
 
 lal.l''-'°aiiii 21° N., and hin^c.H70 20' and ««« '>ii'; 
 
 liavini; N. ll(>crhhoom, IC, Nnddoa, S. Iloonhly, 
 
 mill VV. the Jungle MelialH distr,; area, 2,IM)(l si|, 
 
 III. I'op. estimated at l,riliO,(Mll), It is one of 
 
 llii'inost productive territories of India, and lieiii^ 
 
 rnvironed liy jimmies N, and S„ appears like a 
 
 pirilen snrronnded liy a wilderness. The iinenl- 
 
 livated are lint l-Hlli part of the extent of llieenl- 
 
 liviited lands: the chief articles of proihici; are in- 
 
 liifjii, snpir, cotton, loliaeco, and mnlherry-lrecs, 
 
 A principal part of the wealth of Kiirdwan consists 
 
 in its coal mines: the (uial-lield appears to he very 
 
 extensive; the coal is of (rood (|nalily, and pre- 
 
 ' I'lTred to any other at (.talent la. .Several mines, 
 
 iiliiiiit lid) III. from that city, are worked liy an 
 
 l'ji){lisli company, which employ from 2,l)il() to 
 
 .'t.lllHI natives in mining, and illtO or ■Hill hoals in 
 
 I'diiveying the t;oal lo Calcutta, the mines heiiij^ 
 
 nil the hanks of a river connected with tlu; llouglily. 
 
 Fine iron-ore is found in the neif^lihonrhood oi'thu 
 
 (•mil, and a ^jreat deal of stone, IJnminerce has 
 
 ken jfrcatly facilitated liy the opening of the Kast 
 
 liiiliiin railway, the great iron highroad from VmI- 
 
 nilla to the Northern provinces, which runs right 
 
 tliriiiigh the district. There are, hesides, good 
 
 riiaiis to Ilooghly, Culna, and ('utwa; the zemin- 
 
 liiirs are oinilent, and many of them resiiU' in the 
 
 capital of the prosiil. The proportion of Moham- 
 
 iiK'ilaiis to Ilindoos is iilioiit one to live, Itiiril- 
 
 wan iK'camc snhject to the lirilish. with the rest 
 
 of lieiigal, in 171)0. 
 
 ItuiiKWAN, atown of Ilindostan, iirov. llengal, 
 cap. of ahove dislrict, and seat of a /.illali court; 
 •ill m. NNW. Calcntta, on the East Indian rail- 
 way, which has a station hero. Lat. 2.'}° lo' N.. 
 long. 87° .57' K. Pop, about .'Jl.OOO, 2-7ths of 
 wTiiim are Mohammedans. Tlu! Ihirdwan rajah 
 lia.s here a largo palace, an luiglisli siimnicr-liousc, 
 iiiiil spacious gardens. 
 
 IIUliFOKl), a par. and town of Kngland, co. 
 Oxford, luind. Hampton; i\'.\ m. WNW, London. 
 I'op. of town l,i;{5, and of ])arish t.dl!) in iHlil. 
 The town is |ilcas.iiitly situated by the small river 
 
 lUMMIOS AS7 
 
 W'indnish, lint is very iiiditVerentlv built. 'I'he 
 chiirch is fMirlly in the Norman, partly in the later 
 (iotliic style, and has u very line spire, surmount- 
 iiiga lower. The llapiisis, Krieiid.", and Wesley- 
 ans have chapels. There are aliiiNlioiises for l*> 
 poor widows; ii free school, with an endowment 
 producing Nl/, ayeiir, held in the lown-hall, where, 
 till |ti:ilt, the CO, assi/,i"4 were held. There is a 
 weekly market on Saturday, and fairs held the 
 last Saturday in April, and .Inly >'ith. for live stork 
 and cheese. Saddlery was otice a cniiniilerillile 
 branch of manufiiclure: there was also a large 
 trallie in wool and corn; bolli have greatly lie- 
 cliiied; and the properly of the town has been 
 sllll further depreciated by llie alleralion in llie 
 line of road froiii Oxford to ('liellciiliain, which 
 previously passed Ihrongh and now avoids it, 
 I'ldgehill, where Fairfax beat the rovalisis, ii in 
 the neighbourhood. The celcbraled \Viliniit, I'jirl 
 of liochesli'r, was educated in its school. It gives 
 the title of earMo the Duke of S* Mbans. 
 
 miMi, a town of I'msoia, I .Saxony, reg, 
 Magdeliiirg. on the Hie. I.'l m. NIC. Magiieburg, 
 on Iht! railway to Iterliu. I'op. I.''i,l20 in iMiil. 
 The town is walled, has three gales, four refuruicil 
 clinrclies, a grammar school, aii hospital, and ii 
 workhouse. It is also ilu> seat of a provincial 
 conucil, a board :if revenue, and a dislrict coiirl of 
 Justice. A very exleiisive woollen maunl'arinre 
 is c.'irricd on, and it has some dyeing establish- 
 ineiits and sniilVfaclories. 
 
 llUlktiOS, a city of Spain, cap. prov. same name, 
 on the Arlaiivon, at the foot of a inonnlain, i:i| 
 m. N. Madrid, ^!l in. SW. of Vittoria, on the rail- 
 way from Madrid, across the rvrencK's, to I'aris, 
 Pop. 2ti,<IMH in 1^07. The city is of an irregular 
 shape; streets clean, and handsome, particularly 
 that leading to the ealhedral. It has a inoderii 
 sipiare, surrounded with u port i(!o, supported by 
 large coluinns, with houses upon a unil'orm plan, 
 but small. There is a bron/.i! statue of Charles 
 III. The catlu'dral, a well-preserved chcf-irien vrii 
 of (iotliic elegance, is about itOO f|, in length, by 
 above 2.J0 in width. Its exterior is inferior to 
 noiu! ill Spain: bin the interior, though remark- 
 able for thelK'aiity of its workmanship, is inferior 
 to the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville. Having 
 been the cradle of the two most renowned captains 
 of Spain, Kerdiiiand (lon/.ales, and thi^CidCain- 
 peailor, liiirgos contains a triiiniplial arch in ine- 
 mory of the former, and a niouuuicut lo the latter. 
 There are three liiu' slone bridges over the Arliiii- 
 <;oii, in the s]iace of half a league. Two of tliciii 
 conimnnicate with the suburb of the citv, on tliu 
 opposite bank, called Vega, and the third, with 
 the royal hospital, remarkalile for its cleanliness 
 and salubrity. Tlieru are some line meadows on 
 the banks of the river, and there also is the famous 
 convent of Las llnelgas, whose abbess iiosscsscd 
 almost royal privileges. Close to llu! city is I ho 
 monastery of Mirallorcs, where .lolni II. and his 
 iiueeii have magnilicent tombs, and where also 
 there are some paintings reinarkable for thi'ir 
 colouring. There an; three military roads from 
 Ihirgos, one to (.)vicdo and (lijoii, another to Agre- 
 da, and n third to Saiitiiila. Tlu^ approaches to, 
 a.id promenades of, the town are well ornamented 
 with trees. l'"ornierly the greater ]iart of the wool 
 exported from Spain used to pass through liiirgos, 
 and it still hiis some mannfacliiros of leather, 
 woollens, and hats, and two lavaderuit, or Wiushiiig 
 pools for wool. 
 
 It is believed that Ihirgos did not exist in the 
 time of the lkomaiis,fi'om its not lieiiig iiieiilioneil 
 by Ptolemy nor any other ancient geographer; iis 
 wan.l of any ancient moniiTiients, ;inil its behig 
 insulated and out iif the line of the ancient inili- 
 
6M 
 
 mimjrNDY 
 
 tiiry mnil. I'riilinlilv, ilH riMiiuliiiioii cniinot Im^ 
 riirriril tiirtlKT liiick itinii ihi> rciKii of AI|iIiiiiihii I. ; 
 it Mils AI|ili<iMNi) III. mIio Drdcrctl llii< ciiMlh; ti> 
 Iw liiiill. It M'lut foriiicrly ili<> rcsiilriii'it nC ilu> 
 ciiinitM (il'Ciintilc, mill ninny of the CiiMlilinii kiii){N, 
 tiMil WHS tlii'ii I'clclinitnl fur itNwcnIlli ntiil primiH'- 
 rily, mill fur its wimiIIcii iiimiiifiu'liin'N niiil fairN. 
 Mure rcri'iitiy, tlic oin'iiiii^ of tlu> ^ri'iit lint! of 
 rnilway friiiii Miulriil to I'/irin — .liiiiiiiiry, IMtir)^iin 
 W'liirli llur^'iM IN II |iriiii'i|)iil Ntatimi, Iiiin nptiii 
 liriiii;,'lit n (iiir shiirt' nf priwiicrily to llii' rily. 
 
 HI'IMirNhV, iiii(> of till' olil I'Vi'iu'li priiviiiri'N, 
 now liiNtriltiiti'il niiioii^ llii> iIi'|iIn, of Coic-iror, 
 Saoiii' I't Lnire, Yoiiiie, Nicvri-, Aiiltc, Iluiitt! 
 Aliinii', mill Aiii. 
 
 HI IIIIAMI'OIM:. Sco lli)i)itiiA> on. 
 
 lll'l.'MN(iT()N. a town of tilt' U.S.of Aiiii'rira, 
 Vrriiiiiiit cap., CO. ('Iiittciiilcii.oiiiiliay of the Name 
 iiaiiic, a nliort ilintaiicc H. of tlic cii'traticd of the 
 Onion river into l.aUcClimiiiilaiii, iiti in. WNW. 
 AlontiH'lliir, ami KM) in. S. Alontrcal. Lat. 1 1<3 
 '.'N' N.; loiiK'. 7;io I.VW. I'op. T.'JIIO in |8(I0. 
 llnrliiiKton is tint chief cuniiiiercial Inwii of the 
 State, mill hiiH a coiiHiilerahU^ traile with N. Vork, 
 with which if is connected hy railway. It con- 
 t aiiiH a coiirt-house, Jail, hank, acaileiiiy, anil various 
 jilaces of piiltliit worship. The I'liiversity of \'er- 
 niDiit, estahlislieil in I7!)l, is ^itllatell on mi ele- 
 vatcil split ]',. of tlie town, anil I in. from the lake. 
 It WHS partly ileslroyeil l>y lire in IM'il; Imt has 
 heen rehiiilt, ami consisls of tliree hrick eilitices, 
 contuinin^' a chapel, -Ki romiis for the stiiih nis, a 
 liliiiiiHophical apparatiiH, ami a lihrary of aliove 
 I".',(I00 vols. Its fiinils aro cliietly tierivwl from 
 lanileil emlowments. 
 
 lU'lt'NIIAM, a par. nml vilhiffc of Knylaiid, co. 
 Ihicks, hiiiid. Itiirnham ; illl in. \\'. London. I'op, 
 of parinli, 2,2.'i;t in 18(11; area, 4,110 acres. The 
 villap! is u short distance from the Thames: its 
 church is an ancient Mtruetnre; and there is a na- 
 tional school. Fairs are held l<'eh. 'J.'l, May 1, 
 and Oct. 2. Its ancient market has been lon>^ 
 discontinued. ISurnliam is a jilace of Kf^'Ot anti- 
 (piity. The inoaled site of a palace of the kiiif^s 
 ofiMerciais still traceaiile. A nunnt'i'y, founded 
 lltiri, existed till the j;eiieral (»ui)pression. 
 
 liritNLl'^Y, a municipal horoii^ii of Kn^land, 
 Lancashire, huiid. Itlackhurn, i)ar. Whalley, on 
 the hum, 180 m. N W. hy N. London, JtO ni. SK. 
 liy S. Lancaster, mid 21 m. N. i\Imichester on the 
 Aliilland railway. I'op. (;,;{78 in 1821; 1(M;!I!i in 
 1841 ; and 28,700 in 18(11. Its name is derived 
 from the river Hum or Urun, on which it is sitii- 
 a'eil, which unites with the ('alder immediately 
 bel'iw the town. It stands in the middle of a 
 iiprr;'wvalley, and lias been f^reatlj- improved and 
 ciilarf,'ed within the last forty years. It is mostly 
 built of freestone, and is well paved, lij,'lited, and 
 ubniidantly supjiliid \vitli water. There nre four 
 churches, the oldest of them St. I'eter's, ii former 
 ]iari)cliial chni)el, built shortly after the (.Conquest, 
 lint reiilaccd by a more rcicent structure, of dif- 
 ferent periods. It has in it the burial-place of the 
 Towneley family, where, among other monuments, 
 one has been erected to the memory of Charles 
 Towneley, Ksq., whose collection of marbles is in 
 the Hritish Museum. The Independents, Ihiptists, 
 Weslevan and Primitive Methodists, and liijm. 
 Catholics have places of worship. A grammar- 
 school was founded in 157S, to which the sons of 
 tradesmen and others nre admitted on paying a 
 lee of 2/. 'In. a year, the fee paid by the sons of 
 the higher classes being SI, 3s. There are several 
 other schools, and numerous charitable eiidow- 
 nicnts and institutions. The borough is a station 
 lor receiving votes at the election of members for 
 the N. division of the co. The woollen nmnu- 
 
 UrHSA 
 
 factiiri', which vian once cnrrieil on i<xlriiiilvt>lv, 
 and which Mtill exists here, has U'en nearly Kii|H'r- 
 Hi-ded by that of cotton, which ix carried im ii|i,,|, 
 a great scnle in the town miiltieighbiiiirhiiiuj, T|,„ 
 artii'U'N produced are tirinclpally cominon priniiil 
 calicoeN, There nre nlso (•xteimive hlcai'hiiig aiul 
 printing works, with iron mid braits foiiiiilriis, 
 machine inamifactorieN, brewerieH, taniii'rii"<, miil 
 rope-walks. The town is mainly indehii'il I'nr Iih 
 rapid growth and progress In nimiufactiiri's in tin. 
 abundance and cheapncsH of the cotil foiitiil in ji^t 
 iminediate vicinitv, or rather direrlly helow ji; 
 for here, as at Whitehaven and sume other |iliiri'^, 
 parts of the town have sunk, from the roof uf iln. 
 coal iniiicM not being properly Hiipporli'd, It j^ 
 also Well supplied with freestone, slali', &i: |t 
 has an easy coininimication with the siirruiniilin;; 
 districts by means of seNcral lines of railwiiy, hi 
 wi4l as the Liverpool and Li-eds canal, hy whirli 
 it is nearly encircled. Markets are held lin Mdii. 
 day for corn, and on Salurday for geniTiil \i\\r- 
 puses : fairs on Mar<4i (>, I'lastiT eve. May H ainj 
 l.'l, ilnly 10, mid Oct. 1 1 ; ulsu for cattle mi hIiit- 
 iiate Miiiiilays, for woollens on the second Thnr>i lav 
 in •lulv, and for horses on the third I'lnirHilav iii 
 Oct. 
 
 lU'L'NTISLANI), n royal burgh mid HeM-|iiirt 
 town of Scotland, co, Kile, mi the N. shure nl' ilm 
 I'Vith of Forth, tt), m. N. (iranton on tlie I'.ilin. 
 burgh-l'erth railway. I'op. l,8iV.l in 18||, aiul 
 3,1 i;i ill 18(11. The town is clean and well-hull;, 
 having a main street running nearly al ri;;lit 
 angles with the harbour, and some Niilmnliiiali' 
 streets. It has a town-house, a parish cliiiri'li, a 
 Presbyterian dissenting chapel, and agoiulM'hiinl- 
 hoiise. Its harbour, though the iK'st on the N, 
 side of the Forth, nearly dries at low water; Imt 
 this serious defect lias been to a consiilerahle ex- 
 tent obviated by the extension of the piers iniuili'i'ii 
 water, so that railway passengers and others arrive 
 and depart at any time of the tide. The liarlmiir 
 revenue amounted to 1,127/. in 18()3-'l. Miiriiii.-- 
 land is much resorted to in summer by sea-lialliiT-i, 
 It has long fornu'd one of the principal HiaiiniH 
 for the landing and embarkation of |iassi'ii<;i>n 
 crossing the Frith of F'ortli. Itiinitislaiul iiniiis 
 with Kiiighom, Dysart, and Kirknldy, in siiiiiiii^' 
 a mem. to the 11. of C. ; pari, constituency Hi;! in 
 18(i3. Animal value of real property Ui.rii'ilt/. in 
 l8(')3-4. Corporation revenue r>78/. in lud;!-!, 
 The burgh is governed by a provost and twelve 
 councillors. 
 
 In ItJOl, the fJeneral Assembly met at liiiriit- 
 island, when .James V. renewed his vows as a 
 covenanlor. The existing quays were hiiilt liy 
 Cromwell. 
 
 ItUliSA, UnUSA, or I'UUSA (an. Pnim ml 
 0/i/mpuin), a city of Turkey in Asia, Xatolia. iiip. 
 Sanjiack, (12 m. S. CoiiHtantinopIe, lat. 4(1° !)' ."n" 
 N., long. 2!)0 4' 45" K. Pop. estimated at Cli.niiil. 
 It is beautifully situated, at the extremitv iil'a 
 fertile, well-watered and well-wooded |)laiii, mi 
 the Uiwer acclivities of IMoiint Olympus, Iii- 
 cliuling the suburbs, which are more extensive 
 than the city properly so called, it extends 2 ni. 
 from K. to \V. and ^ m. fnmi N. to S. It is imt 
 well built ; the houses being iirincipally of wiiml, 
 on the model of those of ConstantiiKipIe, ami. 
 therefore, very subject to fires ; and the strrcn 
 are, for the most part, narrow. However, it is 
 one of the cleanest of the cities of Tiirkoy; 
 for ft great number of streams that have tlicir 
 source in the upper parts of the mountain llnw 
 down several of the streets, and sujiply alniust 
 every house with a fountain. The casllc, on a 
 peqieiidicular rock near the centre of tlie tinvn, 
 most probably occuiiies the site of the atreiiiiliti uf 
 
uri{si,i;>r 
 
 tint mirlonl I'riiwi. Witliiii U* whUm It n mrmqiir, 
 InriiHTly n (irrck cliuri'li. In wliirli iiri' the loiiilit 
 III' Siilliiti Orclmn, IiIn wil'r, ninl rliililri'ii. 'I'lit' 
 i-liii't'iiriiiiiiM'iilM ot'lhc cliy art' ili« iiiiiHi|ii)'fi, wliicli 
 itH' ('\('('«'illii^ly niiiiU'riiiiH. 'I'lii' umiM iniit;iuliri'iil 
 nrt' lliiiHt* of till' KiillaiiM Achiiirt iiinl Ohuuiii, iiihI 
 till' Oiilitli, or ^Ti'iit iniMi|ii<', In llit> (■ciitri' nl' ilit> 
 I'iiy. Till- wariii InkIim nC ili'Mxa iirc ramonH all 
 iivtT till! I'iaMt : ili<> ])rinri|)al U thai nf Ka|iluli'lia 
 llairinuin, aliout 1^ in, NW. rroni llii> city. 'I'lii' 
 lii'al of tlin water, which U Hli^lilly iniiirc);nal<'il 
 with Niil|ilinr, tlucN imt cxcccil liio° I' all, 'I'lic 
 water in ri'ccivcil into a line Imililin^', where there 
 is every accnniinoilalioii for Imlher.t orimth nexes. 
 The ItrnrMtniH, a larpt liuililint; with Hhii|iM anil 
 warehonNex, niiil tht( ha/.aarn, which are i-xten^ive, 
 lire well Hiiiiplieil with iiierchandixe, |iiirticiilarly 
 with raw Hilk ami nilk i*tnl1''>. (ireal (iiiMiiliiies nl' 
 nilk are |iroi|iiceil In the ail|ac<'iit jiliiiiiH ; and very 
 t'M'ellenl nilk ami Hilk ami cottnii siiilt'sare inaiiii- 
 I'lii'liireil ill the city, ami riirniMh, with raw Nilk, 
 cnriielH, ami velvets, the |iriiiei|ial artielen of ex- 
 iHiri. The khaiiH ami colle^ex, or ineilresHe:*, of 
 ItriiMa are iiiiinerons; ami may vie with those of 
 any other city of the Ottoman (loininioiiM. Allo- 
 Ijeiher, voimiileriiii; the fertility of the Hiirroiimlini^ 
 I'liinilry, the heaiity of tho Hitnalioii, and it.-* <Mini- 
 liiinilive cleaiineMH, it u uno of the numt a);re(!al)ln 
 (if Turkish cities, 
 
 I'nisa waH founded hy I'rnsiax, the iirofeetor of 
 llaiiiiilial, and was Ion;; the cap. of llilhynia. 
 Little of it is kmiwii till after it eanie into the 
 )iiissession of llu; Itoinans, tliouj;li it was always 
 i'liinous for its haths, and admired for tluHieauly 
 III' its situation. It was one of the most eoiisider- 
 alile eitJis of tluHireek oin|)ire. It was taken 
 liy Orehnii, son of Othmaii, the founder of tlu^ 
 (itlimaii dynasty, in l.'ir)ti, and liecaine the seat of 
 tilt! Turkish power and the ordinary resiih'iiee of 
 the HullaiiH till Amurath romoved tho seat of 
 ^'overiinient to Adrianoplc. 
 
 IIUKSI.KM, n market town niid \mr, nf I'jig- 
 
 liiiid, CO. Stalt'ord, N. division of I'irehill hiiml, 2,^ 
 
 m. NW, Newcastle-uiider-hine, 1!( N. SlatVord, 
 
 iiiiil llio-f in. NW. liOiidon, hy London and North 
 
 W'psterii and Trent Vallev railway. l*<ip. f'f town 
 
 I7,.s-.M, and of parish ■>-I,:\27 hriMiil, Hursleni 
 
 sIiukIs on a gentle eininenco, near the Trent and 
 
 Mersey canal, and is the |)rincipnl town in that 
 
 iin|Hirtant district called the. I'otteries, the prin- 
 
 i'i|)iil seat of the earthenware manufacture. It 
 
 oiiitains many well arran^^ed maniifaolories, neat 
 
 and eimvcnient dwelliii^j-hoiises for the workmen 
 
 ami overlookers or su]ierintendant.s of works, and 
 
 Slime handsome, lionses for the proprietors. It.s 
 
 |iriiiciiml buildin;;s arc, a nent inarkct-honflc or 
 
 Uiwii-hall, an cdilicc of modern erection nearly in 
 
 the centre of the town : the old church, dedicated 
 
 1(1 "St, I'eter, built of brick, with a stone tower of 
 
 iniii'li greater antiquity than the body; and a 
 
 district church, erected in 1828. Hur'slcm was 
 
 orijjiiially a cliapelry in the parisli of .Stoke, but 
 
 was formed into a separate jiarish by act of jiar- 
 
 liamciit, in 1«07. It has a police force under the 
 
 pnivisions of a local act. There arc places of 
 
 wiirsliip for ISaptists, Inde])cn(lent.s, Primitive, 
 
 Wcsleyan, and New Connection Methodists, and 
 
 Itnmau CatholicH, all of which, aa well as the 
 
 churches, have Snndav-schools attached to them. 
 
 There is also a national school, ami a free ^p-ammar- 
 
 si'luHil. At a very early period Bursh^m ^^•as 
 
 ilistinguishcd for its clay, and for its tnannfacturc 
 
 "f earthenware and pottery, for which, in the 
 
 ITth century, it was the principal place iii the 
 
 kiiiRilom. The greater part of the inhabitants are 
 
 fiijjaged in the potteries, and in the earthenware 
 
 iiiamifaetiu:c, which has been brought to a high 
 
 nrin'sfiiKi!) «ro 
 
 state of beauty and eMTllrliee. In l'omi"«day 
 Itoiik llii" town IsHritii'ii llarcanleiilini, 
 
 liriM'oN (IN -I'lilA"!", a itmrUii town and 
 tiar. <if Knglaiiil, jiiirlly iti the N. ilivi-<ionof Olllow 
 liniid., CO., Siiilliiril, and parily in the bund, of 
 
 Kepton and (iiesley |)erby, •-'2 in. I''., Slalford, 
 
 and I2H in. NNW. London liy the Midliiiid rail- 
 way, I'op. of town 1:1,1171, and of parish |)>,h2I in 
 IHtil, The town is sitiiati'il in a fertile vale on ilui 
 N. bank of tlie Trent, uml eonslsls ciiielly of one 
 long street runiiing from thi< place where the alibev 
 stood to the bridge, and of another intersect itig it 
 at right angles. The town-hall, erei'ted al tho 
 expense of the Maripils of Angle.-tea (the loci of 
 the manor), who owns the greater part of ilio 
 nriitierty in the neighboiirhnil, is a handsome 
 building, and contains, in ailditioii to the usual 
 ollii'es tlir Iransai'ting public business, an elegant 
 snile of assembly-rooms. Tin- old church, dnli- 
 ealed to St. Marv and St, Modweii, fornn'rly con- 
 nected by a cloister, with the abbey founded ill 
 lillll, was rebuilt in 1722. The new church, erecteil 
 in |H2:i, in the liothic style, is a handsuiueedilice. 
 Hilt the most relebruted structure ol the town Im 
 the ancient bridge o\er the river, erecii'd prior to 
 llie eoiiiiiK'sl, and sultstantially repaired in the 
 reign of lleiiry li. It has 117 arches, and is \,,')\:t 
 fl, in length and was aliout llfly years ago con- 
 sidered i\w longest bridge in i'.nglaud. The 
 government of the town is vcsteil in a high and 
 low steward, and a baililV, a|ipointed by the lord of 
 the luaiior. The baililVis also Jiisl ice of peace and 
 coroner. The mhabitants, by virtue of tlie letters 
 patent granted in the I Itliol Henry Vlll., are ex- 
 ein|(t from serving the otlice of sherilV, and from 
 being suminom>d as jurors at the assi/.es and 
 sessions for the (!o. There are various places of 
 worship for Independents, Wesli'van Methodists, 
 and iteneral and Particular ISaptists, There arc, 
 also Sunday-schools, attached to the (Iil1'(>rent 
 churches and cli.'ipels; a iialional school, and 
 a free grammar-school, founded and endowed 
 in l.rJO by th(! then abbott, William Iteaiie, In 
 the tiiiK' of L<'laiid, Ihirton was famous for its ala- 
 baster work.s, but how long they were contiiiueil is 
 not known. The principal mauufacturiu'arrieiloii 
 at present is that of ilsjiistly famous ale, Coiilrary 
 to general usage, the brewers pret'er in its jiri^pa- 
 ratioii hard water to soft; and though the Trent 
 ruii.s close by, they u.se that water only which they 
 obtain from their pumps, Ihirton has also I'abricri 
 of hats, cotton, tammie.-', and light woollen stutls; 
 with iron fiiriUKU's and manufactories of tools; two 
 or three rope-walks, tanneries, and cotton mills. 
 The Trent and Mersey canal (or (iraud Trunk) 
 |)asscs Burton, and unites with the Trent about 
 1 m. lower down ; and the Trent itself, Avliich falls 
 into the Ilumber, is navigable for vessels of souk! 
 burden from (iainsbro' up to the town. The old 
 abbey, a once niagniliceut pile, of which now 
 scarcely a vestige rcmain.s, enjoyed many privi- 
 leges; the ablMits occasionally sat in |iariiaiueiit. 
 Ihirton sutleretl greatly during the civil ooinnio- 
 tioiis in the reign of Charles 1., and was several 
 times taken and retaken by the contending 
 parli(!s. 
 
 HUKTSCIIKID, or riOUCKTTK.a town of the 
 I'rus.sian states, prov. IJhine, reg. Aix-la-Clmpelle, 
 of which city it is almost a suburb. Pop. 7,i>01 in 
 18('>1, The town has broad streets, good houses 
 and promenades. There are important manufac- 
 tures of cloth: cassimeres, and needles. The last, 
 which i.s condu(;tc<l on a large scale, employing, 
 with the needle manufacture in Aix-la-Chapt lie, 
 nearly 1,000 workpeopU', is principally carried on 
 by Protestants driven from Aix-la-Chapelle. The 
 place has several hot springs ; they, however, dill'cr 
 
A9<) 
 
 lUIRV 
 
 iwnt-ntiiilly Ironi tlio Kiiriii^M ni' |Im> iiriKlilxMirlii^ 
 I'iM , mill n'Hi'inlili' lhi»)' nl' W^'nImuIi'ii. 
 
 lll'liV, II |iiir., |iiirl. In>r., iiimI Inwii «( I''.iiuIiimiI, 
 I'll, I. nil iiiliT, iliv, lliilliiii, tiiiinlH, Siilliiril mill 
 lllip'kliiirii, M III, NNW, IMiiiirliiniiT, mill Itxl m, 
 N N \\ . I 'iiiliiii, liy l^iiiiliiii mill Nnrili WrKiirn 
 nillwiiy. rii|i. Ill' |>arl, linriiiiKli :i7,.'iit;i, mi'l nl' 
 iiiiriMli, Mti./i.'iH ill iMtlj, lUirv U nilimhil mi ilii' 
 li'tl liillik III' llii' Irwi'll, '.' III. iiImivi' IIm t'lilllliK'liri' 
 ^Niili llii' liiirli. Till' u;i'iii'riil ii|i|i<'iir;iiin> III' III!' 
 Iiiwii lull liriii tcri'iiilv iiii|irii\i'il 111 lull' vriiri, liy 
 HHJi'iiiii)^ ilii' Hiri't'lt mill ii|i|ii'iiii<'lit'ii, mill ilir 
 fri'i'iliiii III' limiilniiiiii' >ii iili'rii Niritriiiri'H, 'I'lic 
 pmiili rliiirrli Ik n Im'tA'i' liiiiiiliiiinr Miriiriiiri', rr 
 iiiiih ill I77'l; llirrt' nrc I ullii-r rliiii'rIirN, mill 
 iklioiii 'JO ilitMi'Miiii^ )ilii)'i'H III wiirNliiii. A rrrc- 
 Mt'liiiiil. liiiiiuli'il ill ITji'i, liiw ',j t'xIiililiiiiiiM, I'lliicr 
 
 III SI. ,IiiI||i'm ( 'nil,, ( 'itlilliriilKi', nr l(ni/.i'lillnnt' I 'nil.. 
 Oslnnl, Allnllli'r K>'l I, rnuililci' ill I7M, I'nrMI) 
 
 Ihivh mill !l)i Ki*'!") Ixii* li<'''i) climiKi'il In ii iiiiiiniiiil 
 
 Hrllnill, mill II H|illi'inllM m'linni rnnlll llllH Ixi'll Imill 
 
 I'nr it. Ilcri' is, ul^n, n iliNiiriiMiry. ii jiiililic liliriiry, 
 M iiM'rIi/iiiii'H' iiisiiiiih', ~^'V('r.il imlilii' iicwNrnniiift, 
 mill II linrtlriillnrill Hill ii'ly, 'i'lir ucrkly iii.'irki't 
 in lii'lil nil Saliiriliiy; Mml lliri> I'liii'* nil Miirrli Ti, 
 Miiy II, Si'|ii, IM, Till iiimiiiliirliirr.'* iiri iiiiiiiiiilly 
 iiii'rt'iiiili); III aiiiniiiil mill viiliic. Till' |iriliri|iiil 
 lirmirlii'H i'iiii'.i»i III' I'litliiii mill wnnllcii N|iiiiiiiii^ 
 
 mill wravillU', Imlll liy llllinl linwrr-lnnlllM ; Willi 
 
 ('alit'ii'jiriiiiiii;;, lili'iirliiii^', mul iiiarliiiii'-iinikiii^'- 
 'i'liiTi' arc iilinvi' 10,1100 liaiiil-i i'iii|ilny('il ill llu'x 
 iiimiiirai'lnrirM, iiiili'iicinli'iilly nl' llnwc t'iii|>liiyririii 
 iillicr ncriijiiiliniis, aiiil ill t'linl iiiiiicM, wliirli lalli'i' 
 ^(\\■^< wnrk In iiliniil a llinllMaiiil llli'll. 'I'lll* ailiniiill 
 us^t'MNi'il tn |irii|ii'rly liix wiih I III. I;im/. in |K.'i7,iiiiil 
 1 11 1. '-'7'-'/. ill \Hi;\>. Kiiry t'niiiiiiiiniratcM Imlli liy 
 raiialH iiiiil rail>vu\>« witlLMmiclicstcr, Itnllmi, mid 
 nllicr InwiiH ill llii' vii'iiiity. Il in llic licail nt'ii 
 |iniir-law iiiiinii. <'niii|iri>iii|{ l'2 |iiiriHlii's ami Inwii- 
 (tlii|w. Tim urnsH hiiiii a.-tMi'.HMCil In |innr rate was 
 ll-J.HKI/. ill iHii'J, mill llic iH't ratcalilf valiii' 
 ill, '217/. Tlircc ciiirls-lrct I'nr liic iiiaiinr arc 
 jii'lil miiiiiaily, in Ajiril, WliiHiiiiliili', ami Oil.: 
 Ilicir jiiriMilii'iinii is rn-rxli'iihivc willi tlu^ jitirisli. 
 Tin- ({I't'nnii Ai'l riiiil'i'rri'il nn lliiry llif privili'^ii' 
 of ri'liiniiii); I iin'in. In ilic II. nt'O. Il liiul l.'.'tiO 
 r('(,'isi('rt'il L'U'elnr> in IMIlL', luiii},' all 10/. liniisL'- 
 
 llnlilt'rs. 
 
 Till' iiarisli cxliiiils nviT 'J'.'.iioo niTcs. I.,'siiU's 
 tlint nl lliiry, it cniiiiirirxs 1 InwnsliipM, ami ;i 
 rliaiH'lrics. 'i'lin^'rcatcr part is a siilVlnuni, varyiiij? 
 ill I'lTtilily; a siniill )iiirlinn nnlv is iiiiili'r tlu; 
 pliiii;{li. It cnntiiiiis ^jnnd (piamcs of linililing 
 stniH', anil llinai! nl" llnmclill' pmiliicc pxccllciit 
 lla;;s anil slates. There are u ilnzen enal-mines 
 wrniii^lit, sn llial till' raelnrics ami iiiliali. liiive an 
 aliiiiidaiil Niipply nl I'liel williin tlii^ liinilsnt' their 
 nwii (larisli. I'lie lirsL distinct iinl ice that ncciirs 
 nl'tlie inaiiiiraelnres nl" lliirv is in I.cland's Itine- 
 rary, in the rei^,'!! nl' Henry VIII.; they were then 
 e.\elnsively nf wnnlleii, which is slill carried nn tn 
 snine extent. In I7;IM, Jnliii Kiiy a native nf 
 lliiry (thniif;h at I he time residing in Cidchester) 
 invented the ..,-shultle; and in I7(>0, Itnhert, a 
 snii nfthc I'nrinJr, the drn|i-linx, by which iiatterns 
 of varinns cnlnnrs are wnven nearly with tlie same 
 facility as )ilaiii calico ; the settiiif; nf cards by 
 machinery also nrif^inated in the same family, nnd 
 ill Uury. In ITill, Henry Whitelieud, the post- 
 master" of IJiiry, siifj^esled the mode nf pieiinf; the 
 enilsnfbrnken yarns, in spinning', without stoppin;,' 
 the machinery, us had jireviously been ii(*cessary. 
 lint the circiimst.incu w hi(;h chielly contributed tn 
 brini; Jhiry into repute, as the seal of any peculiar 
 brunch of " the cotton inannfactiire was tliu estu- 
 lilishmont of lar^^e print-works by a tirm, of which 
 Sir I'obert IV'.' the tir^t bart., w^us at tlio head: 
 
 III RY HT. HUMIfNICS 
 
 the iH'rli'i'liiih In wliii'li caliin priiiiiii(( wai Oirp' 
 bniii^lil, mil niily eiiriiheil I he |N»rlli'N, lint aililnj 
 liirKi'ly III ilii' ui'itlih ami iiii|Hiriiiiici' nf ihe inwit. 
 TIiIh <'sialili"liiiii'iil, willi In iinniirniiN niirk>liiiii.' 
 uari'hniiii'H, mill ilwi'lliii|{ii, is slill in lull ai'ti\ii\ ; 
 as lire aUn Ihe htrite Mimiiifitcinrli's nl ihc ..im,' 
 I'oiiipiiny nn nllier ilri'iiinx, iinlwillisimiilin^' th,. 
 niiiiiy I'haiiKi's ihut have liikeii place In tlnir 
 
 n>Mierslii|i. Mr KiiIhTI I'i'i'I, the lelebraleil nliili'> 
 
 niiin,\Mi< liiini nl t'liainlier Hall, in Ihe iiiiiiiidiiui. 
 vicinity nf ihe Inuii ; II IdtKe slallie III lli< ini'iiii.rv 
 was el'ecleil in ihe iiiarkel place snnli iiI'liT lii« 
 death. 
 
 IIIIIJV ST. r.DMrNK'S. apar. Iinr. amliMHii 
 
 nf l''.IIKllilld, en. .SiiD'cilk, hiillil. ThillKne, Oil m, M;, 
 
 l.niiilnii by mad, mill Niij m, by liniil KiiMitii 
 railwity. I'n|i. I'.ViilN in iNll.mid I;i.;i|h in |m;|. 
 
 The tnwil is sillialeil nil II penile eininelici', nil Ihr 
 \V. side nf Ihe l.iirke, lllllidsl a richly eiilli\,'i(ri|, 
 diluvial dislricl. Sireels brniid, well imimiI. iniil 
 li<.;lili'i|; hniises innsily nnil'nnii and well Imili ; 
 Ihe wlinle tnwii lias II cheerful, Ileal a|i|ii'iiraiiri', 
 Si. Mary's cliiirch (llnished in I l;i:i) is a lim 
 (iiiibic hiriiclnre, with ii Inw Nnrnimi Inwer. ,si. 
 •lanies's chiii'ch, liniNhed after the Itcfnrniiitiiiii. i. 
 II haiidsnine biiildiiifx. lis iN'Ifrv, at smiii' liilji' 
 dislmice. was nriniiially Ihe uraml iiiir.iiiir iniu 
 Ihe burial ;;rniinil nf the nld liiniiaslcry : it il lit II 
 i|iiailritii^rolar shape, HO fi. in lieiKliI,' reiiinrkalili' 
 Inr slreii^rth and Minplieily, and I'nrnis niie nf tiir 
 lineal extant relics nf Siimiii ariliilccinrc. Tlun' 
 are twn Iiiili'|M'iideiil cIiii|n'Is ; and the ('alliiili>'!<. 
 Friends, Itiijilisls, Metlmdists. and rnilariiiiiM Iuim' 
 each a place nf wnrsliip. There is an aiirinit 
 Knildhall. in which the bnr. cniiris are lielihu 
 shire- hall I'nr Ihe assi/.e cnnrls; a cniinly ;;iiiil, mi 
 a rudialiiif; jilan, built in iMO.'i; and a briiliwill. 
 slia|ieil mil nf mi ancient Nnrinim bnildiii^', 'I'lii' 
 flee (j;ramiiiar-sclinol (founded by I'Mwanl VI, i 
 has six exhibilions r> either of Ihe niiiversiiii's 
 a sclinlarslii|i in Cnrpns Chrisli. and aimllirr in 
 •lesns Cnlle^^e, < itnbridt^e : il ediieutes Ion Ihi\>, 
 Il hasalsn a clmrily si'hnnl I'nr I'nrly buys; lun 
 nlliers where Till ^^irls are I'lnljied and inslriirli'il: 
 and Naliniial, I.miciiririan, and oilier si'liimU. 
 Tlieri^ are !tH almshouses, endnwed by varimis \«'- 
 iiefiK'inrs, and under the miina;;'enienl nf tnisliTN 
 wlin have tibnnt '2,000/, n year in llieir hiiiiils I'nr 
 varinns eharitabh^ piir|Hises. Clajiloirs Ilii>|iiiiil 
 supports six widowers and >i\ widows, ilei'iiynl 
 housekeepers; thetieiierul I Inspilal accoiiniiniliili'i 
 forty palteiils. Here is nlsn a lliealre, with ciiii- 
 eert, assembly, and billiiird mnms ; a ^'ihuI siilh 
 scriiilinn librnry, a iiii'i'liaiilcs' iiisliliite, ami Im- 
 tanical ptrdens, snp|inrled liy siibscriptinii. Week- 
 ly markels are lield, niie nn Wednesdays fur nini. 
 the nther nii Saturdays fnr ;;cneral prnvisimis 
 Annual fairs arc held nn I'.aster Tuesdiiy; Si. 
 Rlatlliew's day, a pleasure fair which iisciIIdIk' 
 attended by all tliu Hnrrnniidiii); nnbilily mul 
 gentry; u fair, Oct. I., fnr linrses, ealllc, InittiT, 
 andclieese; aKreat fair, comniemMii^ Oct. in, mul 
 last iiif; about three weeks ; nnd Dec. 1. Alimit ii 
 mile from the town the I.arke beeoines iiiivi^'iilili' 
 to Lvim for barges, whence coals and other cinii- 
 modities are bron^dit. Spinning yarn was fur- 
 
 iiierly a j^'reat source of employment to tlie | r 
 
 of the town, but at iirusent it has no luauuliic- 
 ture.s. 
 
 The bor. is co-oxtcnsive. with the two parisliw 
 of St. James and St. Mary, the area bciii^c .''.I'l" 
 acres; it is divided into two wards, and pivcnii'ii 
 by a mayor, six aldermen, and eif^htceii cmiiicil- 
 lors. Petty sessions fnr the bnr. are held every 
 Thursday; and enurts of jjcneral sessions thrice ii 
 year, in l''eb., .June, and Nov. The (luarter ses^illlli 
 and assizes for the cu. arc also held in the tuwii, 
 
\<llf' llliT' 
 
 lint ikI.IxI 
 
 ' III!' tciMM, 
 
 >M>rk>llii|.<, 
 
 I lirhMU ; 
 
 till' nilllll' 
 
 tliiliMt; till' 
 I' til llii'ir 
 
 ill'll nIiiIi" 
 illllllnlliiti 
 
 \in iiii'mnrv 
 I lll'tiT lii« 
 
 ', Mini lc>»l| 
 
 , t'lO Ml. NK, 
 at Kii^lirii 
 
 ilH ill iNlll, 
 •lirr, nil lllc 
 
 I'lillivali'il, 
 
 |lll\rl|. mill 
 Wi'll lillill ; 
 ii|>|i<'iiriiiii'i', 
 
 I) In a lillr 
 
 Iciwcr. Si. 
 iiriiiiili'iii. !• 
 
 Mllllll' llllll' 
 
 iiraiii'i' into 
 
 y : it i" iilii 
 
 ri'iiiarkalilr 
 
 IH llllC lit' till' 
 
 iirr. 'riiiri' 
 i(> ('alliiilii^. 
 ilai'iaiw lia\i' 
 at) aiH'irni 
 nri' liclil ; a 
 iil.v ;;ai>l. mi 
 1 a liridrwi'll, 
 ililiii^'. Till' 
 l'",(l\varil Vl.i 
 iiiiivrrsiiii's 
 I aiiiillii'r ill 
 
 t'H 1*111 lu>\\ 
 
 V Ikivh ; Iwii 
 iiisiriirli'il I 
 
 IT sl'llliliN. 
 
 variiuii I"'- 
 III' Iriisico, 
 haiiils liir 
 Ill's llosiiiiiil 
 
 H, (Ici'H.VliI 
 IllltllOllllll'S 
 
 Willi fiiii- 
 
 ^IBlll siili- 
 
 Ic, anil l»i- 
 1)11. Week- 
 ly s (lit eiirii, 
 jirovii'idii'i. 
 uusday ; Si. 
 iiseil I" lie 
 liiliiy mill 
 itllc, iilllter, 
 Oct, III. mill 
 Ali'iiii " 
 iiavi;,'alili' 
 I otlitr ciiiii- 
 urii was I'lir- 
 to tiie |"'i'f 
 no luaiiul'iK- 
 
 two pariilii"* 
 
 beiiiK •'.'"" 
 
 .11(1 p)venii'il 
 
 tecii coiiiieil- 
 
 held every 
 
 ,ioii» thrice !i 
 
 after ses^i"»s 
 
 ill the tuwii. 
 
 II 
 
 III) 
 
 rin' |irii|M'rly «( i(i<' <'<«r)>. riiii-Uiii nf lninN ainl 
 lii>iii<4-H III ilii> Ixir., llii> liviiiu-t mill liilii'H III' IhiiIi 
 iiarixhrM, luitl till' tiilla III' till' iimrki'l^ hikI I'liirx 1 
 iKiriiiiKli iiii'iitni', :i,;t',i'.'/. in tNilj. 'riii> niiiiiniii 
 iiNnrK'O'll III |irii|ii'rty laN wax 'I'.'.'ll/. in iMi'ij ; ami 
 ilir uTimn ri'tiial aNMi'-iNi'il i4i imnr rate. I'.), I7<°i/. 
 
 Till' JHir. liIlN rrtiiriicil Iwu IlieinlH'rH in (lie II. nf 
 1, kIiu'i' till' I'.'tli III' .laiiic'* I, I'ri'N iiiiixly In iIh' 
 Kil'iiriii Ai'l, llir ri^lil nl'i'li'i'tinii wa* in an iililrr 
 man anil lliirl> six lnir^i'N'H'K ; llii> rnriniT liinl a 
 ia<iin(. Mill', anil \siiit nlnriiiiiK <illl<rri it wa-<, in 
 liH'i, a iiiiiniiuitinii Imr., ill ilii< IimihIh nl' two iH'i'rx 
 
 iiri>|i|Kiiiii> iiiiliiii'iil |iriiirl|ili'?<. Till iiMtiini'iii'v 
 
 I'lillNiHli'il III 71'.* rr^ixterril vUi'litrH ill iHlil, tlliMlly 
 iiii'n|iii'ri4 III' jtt/. Iiiiiiwin, 
 
 A iiiiinaNi(>ry wan I'niniilril licrc In <i.'i:i, to wliirh, 
 III !Mi:i, iliii liiiily III' Si, {'.iliniiiiil, Ihc Saxi'n U'iwu, 
 wat Iraiinl'irri'il ; lieiii'i' llie iiaiin-. Caiinii' i'\- 
 {ii'lli'il till' 'ti'cniar inniikM, ami IraiiNl'i'rri'il iliillii<r 
 II I'liiivi'iil III' lli'iii'ilii'ilni>N, rriiiii Nnrl'iilk ; lii«, ami 
 iillier HnliH<'i|iii>nt cmlntvinriilN, tiiaiU' iIiIm alili<>.v 
 liireriiir only to that nl' (ilaNtniiliiiry : it ihixmi'nmi'iI 
 ilie rraiH'liiNeM III' iniiiiy NC|iarali' IiiiiiiIm,, ami tli<^ 
 riu'lil III' <'niiia^i' ; IIn alilNil huI in iiailiaiiii'iil, ami 
 hull iinwer In iiitlict rii|iilal |iiiniNliiiii'nt, ami ilc- 
 nrtiniif all civil MiilM within tlii' lili<'rly. 'I'lii' 
 ,'ililH-y ^'ali'H'uy iiinl liriil^r, ami |iiirtiiiiH nl' the 
 «iill^<. Hiill ri'iiiain. 'riicrc win' a I'rw other rsia- 
 lilixliiiieiilh, III' iiiinnr iiii|iiiriam'c, in the town 
 iire\iiiiiH It) the general HU|)|iri'ssiiin, Sir NichnJaH 
 liiiinn, liiMliii|M iianliner llllll I'retlvinaii, itml l>r. 
 Illiiliilielil (the late liiHlin|i nf l.iimiiill) were linrii 
 ill till' liiwii. It I'liiilerN the title nl' viNiniilll nil 
 llie Kejipel family, lekvnrtli. the iiinKnilii'eiit 
 »eiit nl' the tiiar(|uin III' llriHiiil, is within ;i in. nl' 
 
 llli' Inwil. 
 
 lirSACO, a eniivent nf I'nrlnpil, |irnv, lleira, 
 nil the riil^e nilleil the Sierra IliiHaen, l7 in. N. 
 Iiy 1'^. ('niinhru. Mere, mi llii! 'J7lli S('|ileiiilii'r 
 ji'lii, a Kreiu'h iiriiiy nl' tiri.imo men, iimler Mar- 
 ulial iMassena, were repulsed with ^'real hiss in an 
 altai'k nil the pnsitinll tweupieil liy the All^ln- 
 I'lirtiiKiiese ariiiy, ahmit KV*"'! slmii;;, iimler tlii^ 
 Ihike of Wellin^'tiili. Mill, thniiprli nnalile tn 
 liiree this pnsitinii, Masseiia sneeeeiK'il in tiiriiiii^ 
 ii. when IIk! iillit'M retreated iipmi thu liiius at 
 'I'lirres V'edras. 
 
 ItUSIIIIJK (innre properly AHOHSIIKIII!, or 
 AUI;SIIAIII{, Aral), tin. futlwr of vifivs), i\ m'h- 
 IHirl tnw'ii of Persia, prov. Fars, and, exeeplin^ 
 IliisNiirah. the principal port of the I'crsian liiilf, 
 on llie Nl'^ coast nf which it is hitimled; l'.2(l in. 
 \VS\V. Shira/., and'jrir) iii. S. hy W. Ispahan; hit. 
 ■i'fi N., lull},'. fidO IN' K. I'op. variniislv estimated 
 ni Iriiin K.IMIO to lo.llOI). It is bnill at' the N.cx- 
 Ireiiiity of n low sandy peninsula, nhont 1 1 in. in 
 li'ii;,'tli, hy 'I m. ill lireadth at its widest part, on 
 its K, side enclosiii^ a deep hay or harhnnr. The 
 iiiwii is thus siirronnded nii nil sides hy water, ex- 
 lept Inwards tlieS. where n mud wall ahniit ■} in. 
 in leii;;tli, has Ixieii hiiill acrnss the isthniiis he- 
 Iweeii the hay and the s<'a. Viewed I'min the sea. 
 ii lias rather a hundsonie appeurniuui. It is, how- 
 ever, a mean place, without innvoinentof any kind, 
 'lilt' liuuses are built chieliy of a friabk' stone, cnni- 
 imaed of sand and shells imbedded in ehi.v, and 
 the iK'st of tliein arc constructed of burnt bricks 
 'iriiiif,'ht from itiissorah ; but excnptiiif; the Indian 
 factory, tlie residence of the {{overnor, and a few 
 pK)d (hvelliiif{s of the merchants, there is scarcely 
 one e(inil'ort«l.ile, and certainly not one handsome 
 wlilice in the jilace. Sonic of the principal houses 
 Imvc buudyeera, that is, wind-catchers, or spires of 
 iDKinare form, ojieii at each side; and which, act- 
 ing lis a funnel, and admitting tlic air from every 
 <|Miirter, ventilate and cool the houses. The streets 
 are so luuiiy narrow uiipaved alleys, without order 
 
 ni'SIIIKK A9t 
 
 ornirnlnrilv, or snllh ii nl hi ikIiI of wait nmiiher 
 xide III Mlielttr Hie pasMcii^i'r frmii I he sun. The 
 innsipies are all npi'll bllildili^'*. ami ild'erinr III 
 Hume Mceii ill the snialli'sl \ illa|.;e« nf Aiilbia; then' 
 are bill I'i'W rnlli'i' bniixi'H, iiml the Military bath U 
 mmill, liltby, ami badly atti'iiili'd. W'liiir iiex- 
 t'oKively bad ; iIimI III I'nr driiikiiiu; ba\ iii^; In Im< 
 brniiKht in ^'nal skins a dlMtami' nf hi in. In dry 
 llllll windy Weather, the dust ami llies emi'-iitiilc 
 an alinnoi intnli'mbli' niiiiiime. On tbe S\N'. -idi' 
 • if the Inwil, filling; the outer mad. the beai'h, 
 which is level and sandy, is Ih'mI by an aliiiimi 
 CnliNlnill Slirl, tbiillKll nnt »>> vinlclllly as tn pre- 
 Vent the landing nf bnnis in nindiriile wentlier. 
 The Nl''.. side, fiiriiii; llie inner liarlHiiir, has a 
 wharf nrlwn fur lamlinu piod'<, ami isbi'ttcr sliel 
 teri'd. Owin^ In the iiiiinerniii sand liankN, Ihe 
 inner harlNinr is nnt always eiiMily iiiiissibli' even 
 fur bnals; lint it is always iii'i'l'i'rri'd lis the sah'st 
 and Ih'sI lamlin^ place. Ships nf iiinre than lloi) 
 Inns burden lie ill the niiler mads Ii III, frnin till' 
 town, where there is ^nod am'hiirili.>'i , Hllb|i'i't, 
 hnwi'ver. to all the fury of violent N\V. and S\V. 
 winds, which are very prevalent, nfleii obliKiiiiC 
 ships In part their cables. Ships nf :iimI tniis Imr 
 den niiiy anchor in the inner mads In ihi' N. nf 
 the Inwii, but still II III. distant. Hy reasiin nf a 
 bar, the inner liMrbniir is only aceeKMiblc at liii^li 
 water spriii;,'s. in ships draw iii>{ |H ft., and al oilier 
 times In vcsM'ls draw iii^; « nr !• ft. The wjiter iin 
 niediately tn the I'',, nf lliishire is deep; and it ap- 
 pears I'rniii thenlder desrriptintis nf the lilai'e, thai 
 cruisers were I'orinerly able to anchor clnsc up In 
 the NM. side nf the Inwn ; biil the channel leading; 
 lip tn this will iinw scarcely admit nf small dnws, 
 except they he li^fhli'lied, .Some i^l.'lllds in I he 
 Nl''„ part of Hie bay ^ive siillieieiit slielti r to 
 native bonis and other sniitll craft. 
 
 Iliixhirc is the principal ciitre|H'it for tile Hiipply 
 of Persia with Indian gnmls. It has a consiilir- 
 able IraiU* with llombay and Calciitia, i's|H'cially 
 lli(> fnrnier; and lhrnn;;h them receives iiio.'hI nf 
 the piods broiii^dit to it from Miinpe, China, and 
 Ihe K. Archi|H>higo. Few ships loiicli at Ihishirc 
 withonl also touching at Knssorah, and conversely. 
 The imports I'miii lieiigal are rice, sugar, iiidign. 
 pep|K'r, and s)iiees, with a small assortment nf 
 muslin and pieee-gnods. From llnmha.v are 
 brought iron, steel, I in, lead, woollen cloths, and 
 cutlery, with sugar, siigar-candv, preserved ginger, 
 porcelain, i(.-('., the prisluce of China, and casiia, 
 cloves, milmegs, and other prndncliniis of the K. 
 Archipelago. The deniiind for F.iiglish cotton 
 prints is saidtn be increasing in Persia, while llial 
 for tlii^ fabrics nf Itcrmany and Swit/.erland is 
 diininishiiig. ('nlVet; is siip|ilied from .Mocha ami 
 other Arabian ports, but to no great aniounl, as 
 itis not ill verv general use in IN-rsia. The returns 
 to India are mostly in horses for cavalry ser\ ice, 
 dales, and dritul fruits, assal'ietida, carpets. Casli- 
 mi're and Kerinan shawls, Kermaii wool, tobacco, 
 old eoiiper, tur((iiniscs, attar of roses, and rose- 
 water, liiit cliiell.v in inniiey. TIk^ other exports 
 of Hiishire are raw silk and silk goods, Shira/ wine, 
 grain, gall-iiuls, pearls. ycHow-d.ve berries, and 
 various drugs. The Kussiaii provinces on the 
 Casjiinn derive their supplies of indigo from Persia 
 b.V wa.v of Ilushire. The trade of the port is 
 crippled by the iiniHists laid on goods passing tn 
 the capital, and the unjust and injudicious iippro- 
 
 Iiriation of goods on the part of Ihe government, 
 •'ormerly it was much injured hy the jiiratcs : 
 hut. owing to Krilisli interference, these are now 
 all hut suppressed. 
 
 The merchants of rtushire arc about equally di- 
 vided between Persians and Armenians; the latter 
 are the more active, intelligent, and wealthy. 
 
 m\ 
 
 !« !l 
 
 
M> 
 
 IJUSSORAir 
 
 Tlicro ari" no .Ipw« of niiy note, n» at IhiHsornli ; 
 iKir llMiii.'in.s MS at Muscat. Tlii' |>ii|>. p-iirrally is 
 a iiiixliirc iiftlic I'lTsiuii iiml Arali racrs, 
 
 m :sS(»I!AII,.(iII(mI alsi. IJALSOlfA. HASI.'A. 
 nnd IU'SSKA (Aralt. « iiiiin/iii), u cily »( 'I'lirkcy 
 ill Asia, pasli. Ita^ilail, tlii^ must 10. place of note 
 in llic Tiirkisli iloin., ami llu; |iriiici|ial pnrt of liic 
 l*crsiaii (iiilf, on t\w. ri^lit or SU.Itank of ilic 
 I'liipliratcs, or, as it is here called, the Sliat-iil- 
 Arali {i-hvr of Ihf .trtilm), 7(1 in. from its inoiiili, 
 ami ')'> m. Iielow its jiiiiciion with (lie 'I'ii^'ris, 2711 
 in. SK. Ma^'ilail, ami" -22(1 ni. WNW. niisliire : lat. 
 ;ioo ■_'!>' ild" .\.. loiifi. ■17°;tr IT)" !",. l»o|(. estimated 
 at .OOjOdO, 'V\n' form of I he city is an irrc^'iilar 
 oliloi));, lyiiij; \',SK. to WS\S'., or at rij,'ht angles 
 with the, course of the river, from which it is a 
 few hundred yards distant. Length alioiit :i in., 
 Iireadlh opposite the river altoiil 1 in.; circuit esti- 
 mated at from 7 to it ni. The spacfMK'tually occii- 
 l)ied by linildiii^s does not, however, comprise 
 aliove a fourth part of this area, the rest lieiii^' laid 
 out in eoni-lields, rice-f^rouiids, date-f^roves, and 
 pirdeiis, intersected hy a iiumlier of iiilh? canals. 
 Itussorah is surrounded l)\' walls, hiiilt of sun-dried 
 lirieks, with a parapet at the top. Iiaviiij^ looi)holes 
 for musketry, and occasional ports for cannon, hiit 
 of these, very few are mounted: it has live nnles, 
 and is divided into 70 imilitilk; or ipiarlers. Two 
 canals, cut from the, river, surround the city on 
 cither side, within a few yards of the walls, and 
 unitin}r beyond the W. wall, form a complete ditch 
 to the forti'lii iitions. A third canal leaves the river 
 nearly midway between the other two, and is 
 carried through the whole lenj;tli of tlie city, 
 hervinj; at once to siiindy the iiihab. with water 
 for domestic purposes, to irri;;ate the fields and 
 gardens within the walls, and to admit of the 
 transportation of floods. These canals are tilled 
 by the tlood, which usually rises It ft., and left 
 nearly dry at ebb-tide. They are mere channels 
 duf; out of the soil, without beinj; line<l by ma- 
 sonry; and the few brick-built bridges thrown over 
 them in dilfereiit i)arts of the city are of the 
 meanest kind. ISussorah is wretchedly built ; the 
 streets are narrow and unpaved; and, notwith- 
 standing the facilities alVorded by the <'bl) and How 
 of the tide in the canals for tlu( removal of impu- 
 rities, it is most disgustingly lilthy. No stone of 
 any kind, and scarcely any wood, excepting that, 
 »)f "the date-tree, -which is verj- unlit for carpentry, 
 are found within many miles of the city, which is 
 mostly constructed of sun-dried bricks. The lOiig- 
 lish factory, the ncmi of the MuU'st'lUm (resideiu;e 
 of the governor), one or two of the |)riiicipal 
 nios(pies, and (lerhaps half a dozen mansions of 
 the richest iiihnb., are the only bnihlings of kiln- 
 dried bricks, and in fact, the only decent cdiliecs 
 in the place. There are about forty mosques, in- 
 numerable kluiHH and coft'ec-houses, and a wretched 
 bath: the ba/.aars, though stocked with the richest 
 merchandise, arc not arched, a.s in Hagdad and 
 other Persian cities; but are miserable structures, 
 covered only by mats laid on rafters of date-trees. 
 IJussorah is a place of considerable trade, being 
 the grand eniporinm of the Turkish empire for 
 Indian and otlier eastern ))ro(luce. Its situation 
 is, in this respect, so favourable, that notwithstand- 
 ing the ol)sta(des arising from bad government and 
 unsafe access, both by land and sea, it continues 
 to command a considerable trallic; almost every 
 inhab. being in some way or other concerned in 
 trade. At the mouth of the Shat-ul-Arab there is 
 a bar which has commonly only about 1 2 ft. water ; 
 but the ch.aniiel within is deep, and ships of MO 
 tons burden, jirovided they cross the bar at spring 
 tides, may, without dilUciilly, ascend the river as 
 far as the city. At an average, live or six British 
 
 nUSSOKAlt 
 
 ships arrive in the course of llu^ year from Iiidjii- 
 but the principal pari of th(> trade is carried on jn 
 Arabian boltoms, particularly in thost- beloii;,riii,r 
 to Muscat. The imports are muslins and picn - 
 goods, pepper, and other spices, drugs, rice, siij;iir, 
 indigo, silk, <'otloii yarn, iSiirat inanufacliiris, 
 shawls, ('hiiia-ware, and i>aper, dye-woods, eiill'ir, 
 lac, bead.s, sugar-candy, and other arlielcs, ih,. 
 produce of India ; with lead, iron, steel, liii,({iiii'k- 
 silver, cochineal, &e., exported to that coiinirv 
 from luirope. The returns to India are iiKistl'v 
 made in the |irecioiis metals, Arabian Imrsos 
 pearls, dales (a stajih^ prochict of Itussorah), cupper, 
 gall-nuts, raw silk, gold fringe, coral, giiin.s, rmv- 
 water, assafo'lida, .dmonds, dried fruits, itc. (if 
 these, gold and silver coin and horses coiisiiinii^ 
 th(( principal arli<'les. The avi'rage (-ost of t\w 
 hor.-ies sent to llengal is, on their arrival at Cnj- 
 eiitla, iiiclndiiig all expenses, about 2,001) riiiiccs, 
 or 200/.; that of those, sent to lloinbay is aliuiit 
 HOO rupees, or HO/, each. From Persia, lhi.<.s(iriili 
 imports shawls, assalietida, and fruits, and a I'fw 
 horses from Ihishire: coll'ee, dates, and gums, Irniii 
 Arabia; ))earls from Itahrein ; coral from the iMc- 
 dilerranean, by way of Aleppo. Amongst the re- 
 turns to Persia, through Ihishire, are n good iiiaiiv 
 Knglisli cotton prints, received at Hussorah frnin 
 the niack Sea, Smyrna, and Oonstantinoph-. 
 
 The trade with Aleppo and liagdad is coiuhictpil 
 by means of caravan.^. The naval force of llns- 
 sorah was once snlHciently powerful to coninimid 
 the wlnde of the Persian (iiilf, nnd to sui)pressili(! 
 maranding expeditions of the pirates who liavn 
 infested it. It has now, however, dwindled to 
 almost nothing. 
 
 The boats used upon the canals are of ninny 
 dirt'erent kinds, two of which may be worth iioticp. 
 The lirst is a light canoe, long, narrow, and drinv- 
 iiig only a few inches water, and impelled fdr- 
 wards by two boatmen, who stand at tlie licml 
 and stern, ami often use short paddles alteriiiitcly 
 from side to side. The second is a circular kind 
 of boat of basket-work covered with bitiiiiicii, df 
 shallow draught, capable of containing six nr 
 eight |)ersons, and which are paddled or spMii 
 along, making a circular motion. The elih liihs 
 occupying always twice as long a time as tin' 
 Ihxid, and the chief canal being miicli too .'^iiiiill 
 for the convenient passage of the vessels einplnycil 
 on it, great activity and corresponding eolll'll^i(;ll 
 takes place for a short period only, after wliiili 
 most of the craft arc grounded till next tide. 
 About half the iiihabilants are Arabs, oiie-fiMirlh 
 Persians, and the remainder a iriixlnre of Turks, 
 Anneiiians, Jews, C.-itludic Christians, and K(icir(l.<. 
 The Turks are few, perhaps not above .500 ; tlioy, 
 as well as the .\rabs, arc of the Suiiite sect, ex- 
 cepting a small body of Arab Christians, wliii call 
 themselves Subbees, or disci|)les of John llu^ 
 ISaplist, The Persians, who are of the scot <if 
 the Schiltcn, engross moat of the interniwiinle 
 stations in commerce, as those of clerks, slidp- 
 kee])crs, mechanics, and, while among the Aralis 
 a man is either in easy circumstances or a iiicr^ 
 labourer. The Armenians do not exceed iiH 
 families; they arc chietly, merchants and bnikers; 
 they have a small church, with two or tliroe 
 jiriests. The Jews iimount to about |O0fiiiiiilii'.<; 
 they arc similar to their tribe elsewhere. The 
 Catholic Christians are about 20 families; fimw 
 are natives of I$ussorali, others are recent settlers 
 from liagdad and Aleppo. The Subbeca are a 
 singular sect, scattered over the plain of the 
 
 Kuphrates, very limited in numbers, and < - 
 
 stantly intermarrying. They practise no fnsis. 
 but ba[itism is fretjtiently performed on the Mine 
 individual; their places of worship arc all tem- 
 
BUTE 
 
 |iiirnry; tlicy nrc v«>ry imrticnilnr ns to tlic (uirili- 
 I'liliiin (iftlK^ir Tood, miil nrr Htiid to )iol<l a lircacli 
 III' triiHt. ill iihliorroiu'c, TUi'.y aro niontly iik;- 
 I'liiiiiicH mill liaiidicraftMiioii, rspccially NiiiitliH 
 hihI workers in nictalrt. 'I'lic Iiiiliaim in IliiMHorali 
 nro cliipfiy Itaiiiniix ; and tlie w'poyH of tlu! liritish 
 fiictory giianl an; inoHtly Hindoos, Soiii« few 
 liavu tiioir wom<>ii willi tliitiii; altn^otlu'.r, tlit'v 
 may anumnt to 2(10. Tim few Koords arc iniwlly 
 ciipi^cd iiiidcr t\\v TiirkH in inferior ollircH of 
 IruMt, aii<l in the aniiy. HiisHorali formerly eoii- 
 Miliited a separate ])aNlialie ; lad its jjovernor lias 
 fur a liiii^ (leriiid been sent from Itagdad, tu the 
 imclia of wliicli li<^ is siiliordinate. 
 
 The eoiiiitry around ({iissorali lias no lieniitins 
 to rccoinmend' it. It is for the most part a dead 
 tint. < 'orii, dates, olives, ponie>;raiiates, and otiier 
 Iriiit, vej^etaliles, aiidpot-herhs, areirultivaled, and 
 lliere an* whole lields of roses };rown for the dis- 
 tillation of the attar, and rose-water. Wlu'rever 
 imrlionsof this plain are eiu'losed near the city 
 walls, and irri^jated for a few years froip tlureaiials, 
 line (garden ]ilots are soon iirodiu^ed ; and iiikUt a 
 jjniid >;overiimeiit the whole of it would no doiiht 
 ln'ciinie of the most exiiheraiit fertility. At pre- 
 spiit, however, few villa^ces or jieople are to Ixt 
 si'cn without tlie walls of the eity ; a monotonous 
 1111(1 filoomy silence |»revails ; and on the \V. and 
 S. iiothiiif; is seen hiit a dreary desert extending; 
 iw far as the eye can reach, with no ohjcct to break i 
 iliP line of the horixon but the tops of the houses | 
 iif Zobeir Just seen above it, and the ranf^e of 
 (icli-el Senam. For six months of the j'car Ilns- 
 wirnli is (piitc surrounded by water, like an island 
 in the midst, of a sea. Summer is extremely hot, 
 anil in autumn the cily is unhealthy. Wiiitc^r 
 and spriiif? are deli^'htfully (toid, refrcshiiijj;, and 
 yahihrions ; and Itnssorah is at these seasons 
 resorted to by invalids from India. 
 
 In the Eufjlisli factory, establisheil in 1(> 10, there 
 is an Kiifjlish resident ; but with this exception, 
 there are no iMimpeans in the place. The French 
 fiii'torj' has merely a nominal (!xistciice ; the otiiccr 
 uiiiler'wliom it is jdnced resides tit Hii^dad. 
 
 Hiissorah oripnated from a town now called 
 Zobeir, « m. to the SVV., founded by the caliph 
 Omar in (!35 or (lH(i, on a canal sn])poseil to be the 
 iincioiit Pallacopas. In a few years it became one 
 lit' the larjjest and most tlonrishiiif; cities of Arabia ; 
 liut the canal beinj^ neglected, and liecomin;? use- 
 less, the ancient site of the city was abandoned. 
 The present city \yas taken by the Turks in KKiS, 
 liy the Persians in 1777, and by the Montelik 
 Arabs in 17H7. A few months after the latter 
 iimcpiest it was retaken by the Turks, to whom it 
 lias ever since belonged. 
 
 lUJTE, a CO. of Scotland, consisting of the 
 islands of Untc, AiTan, the Ciinibraes, and Inch- 
 mamock, all in the Frith of (Hyde. Its total area 
 eomprises 171 sq. ni., or l()!),37r) acres, of which 
 about (iO.OOO are cultivated, 40,()()(» improvable, 
 and the rest nnimjirovable. It contained in 1M(!I 
 a pop, of 10,331, living in 2,!{'2"2 houses. The (dd 
 valued rent was 1,2,")3/. ; the new valuation for 
 IHIH-,"), exclusive of the burgh of Hotliesay, was 
 •10,128/. The county returns one mem. to the II. 
 iifC. ; registered electors, 513 in 1<S(>,5. 
 
 liuiK, the island whence the above co. takes its 
 name, in the Frith of ( !lyde : it is separated from 
 tlie district of C'owall in Argyleshire by a narrow 
 ending channel, called tlie Kyles o." ]?ute, is 
 almiit 5 ni. W. from the nearest ])oint of the Ayr- 
 shire coast, and is about 19 m, in length (NXK. 
 and SSW,). by about 4 in breadth. Pop. »>,"j03 in 
 imil, of wliicli 5,,'ji},") belonged to thebor. of Ifotlie- 
 say. Its N. extremity, towards Argyle, is bleak 
 and rugged, but its central and S. parts consist for 
 Vol. I. 
 
 nUXTON 
 
 MS 
 
 the most part of undulating grounds, with mode- 
 rately j^ood soil, tit either for tillage or pasturage. 
 Tlu? climate is riMiiarkable for mildness anil salii- 
 brily, but is jiarliciilarly humid, whii-h renders it 
 not so Miiiluble for agriculture as for the raising of 
 cattle. Agriculture has, however, been materially 
 
 improved of late years ; and a good deal has I n 
 
 done in the way of <'onsolidatiiig fanns, building 
 improved houses, opening new roads, Ac, The 
 town of Koihesay, on the K. coast, famous for its 
 old castle, once the residence of the Scottish innn- 
 archs, is now iK'come, in the summer seasons, a 
 favourite resort of the citizens of (Jhisgow. The 
 principal part of iIk^ island belongs to ilie Manpiis 
 of llute, whose seat, Moiinlstuart, on the K. side of 
 the island, a little to the S. of ISolliesay, is itschief 
 ornaiiieiit. Most part of tin- iiihab. speak (iaelic ; 
 but tli(^ use of F.nglish is daily iiecoming niore 
 prevalent. Keaii, th<^ eminent tragedian, had a 
 scat, ill a secluded situation, in thi^ interior of the 
 isliind. 
 
 Itl'XTON, a town and fashionable watering- 
 place of I'jigland, CO. I)erlty, hiinil. High Peak, 
 par. Ilakewell, I."i0 ni. XW. iiy N. London by road, 
 and l'.)3.^ m. bv London and North Western rail- 
 way. Pop. 1,211 in IKII, and l,H77 in l«til. 
 The town stands in a valley surrounded by hills 
 of considerable elevation, except at one narrow 
 opening, through which tlie Wye (lows. The idd 
 town stands on niiich higher ground than the 
 modern one, and consists of one wide street, in 
 which are a few respectable inns and lodging- 
 houses, but the greater niiiiiber are low aiutieiit 
 buildings : it has a market-place, with an old cross 
 in the ci^iiti'. The new jiart, commencing with 
 the (Jrescent, extends along the Hakewell road, 
 Tiiis is an elegant range, in the (in'ciiui style, 
 coiiiprising two hotels, a library, news and assem- 
 bly-rooms, baths, and some private houses; the 
 wiiole erected by the late Diiki- of Devonshire, in 
 l~Hi, at a cost of 120,l)(l(l/. The adjoining sipiarc 
 has ail arcade, continuing that of the Crescent, 
 and funning, with it, a covered ])romenade of con- 
 siderable exti'iit. ('oniiccted with the ninge of 
 stabling at the back, is a spacious covered ride ; 
 altogether, there is acconnnodation for about l..')0(( 
 visitors ; and (hiring its season (from June to Oct.) 
 from l2,(M)t» to l."),(l(M) nsnally resort to the town. 
 The church is an elegant nioilern structure, also 
 built by the late Duke of Devonshire. There are 
 several dissenting chapels ; an endowed school, on 
 Hell's phin ; and a ' IJath Charity,' supported by 
 siihscription, for poor invalids coming from any 
 part, with a jiroper testimonial from the minister 
 of their parish : they have the gratuitous use of a 
 bath, and maintenance for a month. From 1,I()I) 
 to 1,200 are thus annually relieved. At thr W. 
 end of the Crescent stands the old hall, built by 
 the Farl of Shrewsbury, in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 in whose custody llary Queen of Scots w;is jilaceil ; 
 who, being occasionally jiermitti^d to visit lUixton, 
 occupied apartments in it. It is now an inn. The 
 public and private baths are numerous, and fitted 
 u)) with every attention to comfort. St. Anne's 
 Well, wluire the waters are usually drunk, is a 
 handsome (ireek building: it sup])lies both hot 
 and cold water from springs that rise nt a short 
 distance from each other : the temperature of the 
 latter is W° Fahr. ; that of the Huxton hot waters 
 is, in all seasons, invariably 82° Fahr. liesides 
 these (which are properly the Buxton waters), 
 there is a chalybeate spring, issuing fmm a chalk 
 stratum behind the Crescent, which has a building 
 over it, and is occasionally drunk : when mixed 
 with that of the other springs, it forms a pur- 
 gative. These mineral waters rise on tlie western 
 edge of the limestone range which occupies that 
 
«»♦ nUZANCAIS 
 
 imrtionof IVrliyttliire chIUmI the Prnk Forost, px- 
 toiidiii^ friiin Ciu*tlflrin mmiliwardH, niiil (■(HiHixliiif; 
 of nitoriintc! ImuIh of liinvNioiie niid aiiiyKdiilniii 
 (road-Htont'), tlin fonncr nlxMiiidiri^iii )Mily|iif<'riiiiH 
 iind ollirr fossils. A lnr>;(' f'liult iravt'rsfs tlic 
 mIioIc, and in tliisdylic tiic llicnnal s|irin>;H, liotli 
 ofiMatloik and IJnx'lon, riso ; tlii' laltcr Ixinj,' at 
 tlie S. end of tlif out-('ro|i|iin)r of tlic lowest liinc- 
 hloni' l>cd. Itiixlon wnlcrH have liccn ci'lfbratcd 
 for tlicir iiicdicinal virtues from tlielioinnn piriod. 
 The water is hard, in eoiisei|uenee of the caleareoiis 
 matter, hut ))erfe('tly clear; nor does it heconie 
 ttirhid by any loiij^tli of exposure. It is iised as 
 baths, or topically, liv ]iMmpin^ on])articular parts 
 of the liody ; and isa'iso taken internally, in (pian- 
 tilies varying from J pint to IJ jiint. in' tlic! course 
 of a day : it is considered henelicial in dyspeptic 
 eases, and as a hath in cases of {{out aiid rheu- 
 matism. The chalylieate spriiij; lias A {irain car- 
 bonate of iron in 1 pdlon : it is very soft water. 
 
 There is a weekly market, on Saturday, and 
 annual fairs on Feb. ',\, April 1, May '.'.and S'e))t. « ; 
 this last is for cattle. The sale" of the nnnoral 
 ]iroduclions of the district, and the manufacture 
 of ornamental vases, from iluor ami alabaster, 
 occupies nuniy of the jieoiile. About half a mile 
 AV. of the town, lime is quarried aiul burnt to a 
 considerable extent, and conveyed along the Jligh 
 
 CACHAO 
 
 I'enk railway for some distance. Tlierc nre mnnv 
 |iublic walks laid out with great taste, and tlic 
 neighbourhood in all ilirections is most interesting 
 and rolmnlli(^ Near the lime quarries is l'(i(,|\l 
 Hole, an innnense natural cavern covered wii), 
 stalactites, which have a very brilliant appeiiraiici^ 
 when lighted by the guides who show tlu'cavc- 
 beyond this is the !>iamond Hill, so named frum 
 the profusion of well-iU'lined hexagonal crystiils 
 dispersed through the soil. Five miles in tjir. 
 direclioii of Oastleloii is a curious inlennittint 
 spring. Ihixlon was a Konwm station, and iwn 
 great military roads intersect near it : vesti^jcs i,( 
 a K'oinan bath, and many Koman coins, have Ucn 
 discovered. 
 
 MUZANTAIS, a town of France, d<<p. Imlrc, 
 cap. cant., partly on thc! hanks of the Indre, iniij 
 partly on islaiuls in its channel; the conneciicjn 
 between its different divisions being niaiiilaiiicil 
 by means of five bridges, 1 I m. XVV. Chafeaiiriiiix. 
 I'op. r>,()lt! in 18(11. Though the situation he ex- 
 ceedingly good, the town is very ill built, ami 
 presents a confusi^d nuiss of old houses, inUr- 
 sjiersed with luirrow, crooked, and gloomy ■iirecis, 
 There are in its environs some considerable I'miii- 
 dries. and some trade in wool is carried on by iliu 
 inhabilantH. 
 
 
 
 rjAlU'.S, or OAHES, a sea-port and city of Tlnr- 
 bary, reg. Tunis, at the bottom of llu! gulf of 
 the same name (Si/rtin Minor), near the foot of 
 ]\loiuit IIancara,on the right bank uf asmall river; 
 lat, a;!° .'J3' .55" N., long. HP 44' 1" K. Pop. 
 estimated at 20,000. The city is defended by a 
 castle, in )>retty good re|)air. Streets regular, but 
 narrow and filthy. Ownig to the gradual filling 
 lip of the bay, its port is now only accessible to 
 vessels of small burden. Thc chief article of ex- 
 port is a jiowder made of the odoriferous leaves of 
 a i)lant called lifiimtli, raised in the surrounding 
 gardens. Thin powder is used as a pigment by 
 the ladies of thc East, and is, consequently, in 
 great demand. 
 
 Cabes is said to be the Eji'iiiim of Scylax, and 
 thc Tacupi- of other ancient geographers. U'uins 
 of the ancient city, among which are several 
 Kipuire granite colunms, 12 ft. in length, are met 
 with on a rising groiuid, about h m. from the new 
 city. The lillle river which runs through the 
 city (the Triton of tlie ancients) is diverted into 
 a great number of chainiels, for the pin'posc of 
 watering the hennah gardens. 
 
 CA151XDA, a sea-port town of Lower (iuinen, 
 cap. En-(lovo, on the Atlantic, 50 m. N. from the 
 mouth of the Zaire, lat. 5° ;i;!' S., long. 15° 10' K. 
 It is distinguished by its beautiful situation, and 
 the fertility of its territory, whiiOi have obtained 
 for it the" title of the paradise of the coast. Its 
 Imrbour is safe and commodious. Theex)iorts are 
 slaves, ivory, honey, and wax. Th(> natives are 
 uncivilised." "ud ditlicidt to deal with. The Por- 
 tuguese have frequently attempted, but without 
 success, to get a footing in this jilace. 
 
 t'AIJK'A (an. u'l'ijiihrnm), a Xuw'n of Spain, prov. 
 Cordova, near the souhh! of the river of the same 
 nanu'. i)artly on two hills and partly in a \i\s\m 
 planted with vines and olives ; 2« m. SSK. Cor- 
 dova. I'o]). 11.071! in 1S57. Some of the streets 
 ore wide ami straight, with streams of water run- 
 ning through them, and good housc?( with magni- 
 ficent fronts. There is a large, but irregular 
 
 square ; many public and private fountains .-inil 
 promemides; some ancient nios(pies, and oiIut 
 ruins. Here is, also, a college, with classes for the 
 study of grammar, philosoi>liy, mathematics, ami 
 design. The town lias manufactures of tiles, bricks, 
 white soap, coarse linen and hempen ch)ths, wiiii 
 wines, bnmdy, vinegar, oil, and Hour. There m\ 
 nearly 400 gardens attached to the town, wliicli 
 sujiply most parts of the district with fruit ninl 
 vegetables. 'I'he neighbourhood produces Miariiip 
 of varimis kinds, gypsum, and clay for bricks and 
 pottery. The crater of an extinct volcano is 
 situated in the itrecincts of the town. It was a 
 l)lace of consideration among thc Komans, and 
 also with the Moors. 
 
 CAMREK'A, a small island of the l^leilitcrra- 
 neaii, belonging to Spain, 9 m. S. Cape Salina?, 
 Majorca. 
 
 (-ACCAIVIO, a town of Sicily, prov. Palennn, 
 caj), cant., 24 m. SE. Palermo. Pop. 7,211 in 
 1«(T2. 
 
 CACEKl'^S, a town of Spain, ]irov. Estrcmadnri;, 
 cap. district; 41 m. N. Jle.rida; on a niounlain 
 ridge, washed by three rivers, along one of wiiicli 
 there are nearlj' .'< miles of gardens; 24 mites \\. 
 Truxillo. Poj). 14,800 in 1857. The town lias 
 an episcojial palace, some good public biiildiiifjs, 
 with many good private houses. It lias, also, a 
 .lesuits' college, the most sumptuous in the pniv.: 
 a public school; a seminary, or college, with pm- 
 fessorshipsof gramnijir, and the Latin and Orioiilid 
 languages, i)liih(so])hy, divinity, medicine, ami 
 Jurisprudence ; a hospital for infirm porsinis, 
 widows, and orphans. Jt was formerly iiiiilcd in 
 Portugal, and was then of much more censidcra- 
 tion than at iircsent. It has some (loiir-niilK 
 fulling-mills, with tanneries, lavaderox for wasliiiij; 
 wool, dyeing-works, and manufactures of earllicii- 
 ware. Cacercs appears to have been a Itoniiiii 
 station, some magnificent ruins having l)e('ii dis- 
 covered in and within a short distance of llie 
 town. 
 
 CACIIAO, or KE-CIIO, often called by Hio 
 
CACHAR 
 
 natives Bak-thiin, tlie InrKcat city of the empire of 
 Aimm, cap. of its N. tliv. or Tonqiiin, on the rij{ht 
 hniik of the Tonqiiiii river, nhout 80 in. W. the 
 (iulf of Tonquin, and 325 m. NNW. Hue; hit. 21° 
 N.,hmfc. 10/)0 34' K. Top. cutimiited at !IO,()00. 
 The city is of f^reat extent, but defended only hy 
 a hai)d)oo stociiade. ('hief utreets wide, nndmoHlly 
 paved with brick or small Htonea ; the olhern 
 narrow and unpaved. Some lioiiseH, ehietly thoHe 
 liclonpn); to foreif^nerH, are built of briek ; but 
 llie greater number are of only mud and timber. 
 I'ldtlic edilice.s Hpacious, especially one royal palace, 
 nnil the ruins of another; the walls surrounding 
 each of which are reported to be of vast extent. 
 It has a considerable trade, and had formerly iHith 
 Knglish niul Dutch factories. The imports are 
 lung cloths, chintzes, and arms ; the exports, gold, 
 fine silk fabrics, and lacquered wares, the best of 
 the Kast. The N. brancli of the Toncpun river, 
 which once admitt(^d much larger shins, is said, in 
 consequence of the accumulation of sand at its 
 mouth, to be now impracticable for those above 
 '.'(10 tons burden. The city being composed to so 
 threat an extent of intlammable materials, is vcrv 
 subject to destructive tires : and a rigid ))olice is 
 always on the alert to prevent the use of those for 
 (liinu'.stic purposes for more than a few hours in the 
 (lay. It was nearly burnt to the ground by some 
 incendiaries in the course of the 17th century. 
 
 CACIIAK, or IIAIIIUMIR), a territ. of India 
 beyond the (ianges. formerly governed bv its own 
 rajah, but since 1H32 a IJritif.h gov., suhordhiate 
 to the presid. Bengal. It lies between lat. 21" and 
 27° N., and long. 92° an<l !I40 E. ; having N. 
 Assam ; E. Cassay ; S. Tipperah : and W. Sylhet 
 and .Jynteah ; length, N. to S., about 140 m. The 
 iirca embraces a territory of (i,500 scj. m., with an 
 estimated pop. of 70,000. Cachar is surrounded 
 on three sides by mountain chains: on the N. the 
 Naga mountains cut it oflT from the Dharmpoor 
 district and the valley of the Brahmaputra ; on 
 the W. the boundary is formed by the same chain, 
 whii:li, running S., forms the E. frontier of Cbit- 
 tagong and Aracan, and opposite Svlhetand Mune- 
 lM)or is from 2,000 to 4,000 ft. high : on the S. is 
 an elevated chain running E. anil W., and inha- 
 Ijjted by the Kookies. Another range runs parallel 
 to the latter, in about lat 25° 20' N., dividing 
 Southern from Central and Northern Cachar, and 
 from 4,000 to (>,000 ft. high ; all these ranges arc 
 covered from base to summit with vast forests. 
 The plains are mostly in S. Cachar, where their 
 height above the sea is about 200 ft. The chief 
 rivers are the Barak, Kapilee, Jumona, and Dhuu- 
 scrce. The lirst rises amongst the mountains be- 
 tween Cassay and Assam, in lat. 25° 30' X., and 
 long. 91° 20' E., and flows with a very tortuous 
 course for 180 m. through S. Cachar, which it 
 leaves at Banga (Sylhct). It varies considerably 
 ill width, but is sometimes 150 or 200 yils. across, 
 and is navigable for boats of some burden to 20 m. 
 above Bauskandee : during the rains it has 30 or 
 40 ft. depth of water, and the country through 
 which it Hows is inundated from June to Novem- 
 ber. The mountain-streams afford ready access to 
 the forests, and are of farther service in tloating 
 down timber, rattans, bamboos, A-c, from which 
 much revenue has been realised by the former 
 rajalia. No lakes have been enumerated. During 
 the S\V. monsoon there are frecpient and long- 
 continued falls of rain, beginning in February or 
 March, from which period vegetation proceeds with 
 fjreat rajiidity. The excessive moisture renders 
 the climate unhealthy ; and ague, dysentery, aiul 
 diarrluva, arc frequent : but it modities the heat 
 ill summer, reducing it ibur or live degrees below 
 the temp, of Calcutta. Iii the cold season tires, 
 
 CACHAR 
 
 595 
 
 morning and evening, are foiind ossential to com- 
 fort. 'I'he fertility of the soil is very great ; rice 
 and other grain, sugar-cane, and cotton, the latter 
 especially, \. of the central hills, grow luxuriantly. 
 Tindier is very abinidant in the mountain ranges, 
 and has always Iteeii an important source of wealth : 
 in other parts a tlense and lofty reed and grass 
 jungle rapi<lly springs up after the rains, affording 
 cover for vast numbers of wild ileer, buffaloes, ami 
 eU!|)hants. 
 
 S. ('nchar is a valuable addition to our eastern 
 jiossessions ; its fertile ])lains, which are eonUiiuous 
 on the W., with the well watered ones of Sylhel, 
 extend E. as far as the .leree river, a tributary of 
 the Barak. There are 1,850 sq. m. of surfact; S. 
 the Barak ; 1,700 of which are a fertile plain, now 
 almost wholly unwcupied, although the traces of 
 numerous villages abound on the banks of the 
 rivers. N. of the Barak there are 1,000 sq. m. of 
 surface, 480 of which are estimated to lie aralile 
 land of a very tine quality. This tract is daily 
 becoming better inhal)ited, and immediately ulipiig 
 the banks of the Barak there is a belt of rich cul- 
 tivation not sur|)assed in any part of Bengal, and 
 the tracts contiguous to it are in process of being 
 cleared : aconsideralde emigration appears to have 
 taken place thither from Bengal. The \w\\ of S. 
 (Jachar consists of three or four different classes, 
 viz. 1, Cacharees ; 2, Mussulman Bengalese, who 
 are the chief of the petty landholders; 3, Hindoo 
 Bengalese; and 4, mixed tribes, as Xagas, Koo- 
 kies, and Cassayers : the lirst two have long in- 
 habited the S. and E. hills, but tendered little 
 homage to the Cachar rajahs ; and the Cassayers 
 have been settled thereby the liritisli government, 
 antl, by their bold and military qualities, form a 
 valuable protection against the other hill tribes to 
 the inhabitants of the plains. 
 
 From the central ridge, looking N., is seen a 
 vast mass of dark and dense forest, bounded by the 
 Kopili, Jumona, and Dhunseree rivers ; extending 
 for about 70 m., and broken only by a few s))ecks 
 of cultivation, and the scattered lints of a few 
 Cacharees and Kookies, who earn a livelihood 
 (irincipally by the cultivation of cott(m, which 
 they barter for other jiroduce to the iidiabitants «if 
 Assam and Dhurrumpoor. About (>,OIIO of tho 
 pop. in Central Cachar arc probably aborigines ; 
 the remainder are Kookies and Loloongs, most 
 likely from the S. and SE. Emigration from 
 Sylhet into Cachar has been greatly encouraged 
 by the assignment of lands at the low rate of three 
 annius per bega, to be held rent free for 1,000 days, 
 at the end of which time the quantity of land 
 cleared was to be assesseil. The i)eople of the 
 central hills bring cotton, ivory, wax, iron-(<re, 
 and bamboos, into Central Cachar ; about 2,00() 
 jarool timbers are sontcbwn the Barak into Sylhet, 
 for building largi; chiuuim boats. The other exports 
 are salt, coarse silk, and limestone. 
 
 Three routes through Cachar into Cassay part 
 from Bauskandee near the E. extremity of the 
 cleared jilains : viz., those of Aquee, Kala Naga, 
 and Khongjnee. By the foi-mer, or most N., tlic 
 distance from Bauskandee to Jaeenngur, in the 
 Cassay central valley, is 80 m. ; the tirst 30 in. 
 of which iiass through a dense forest abounding 
 in swamps, and intersected with small streams, 
 which rapidly become impassable after rains. The 
 Kala Naga route is in all these resjiects jirefer- 
 able, anil also crosses the Jurec river 8 m. from 
 its conHuence with the Barak, up to which jioiiit 
 the latter is navigable for boats of 500 maunds. 
 The third route ])asses over the hilly country of 
 the Kookies, and is useless for militarj- puqioses. 
 (See Cassay.) Several roads toward the central 
 hiUs traverse S. Cachar, which all unite in one 
 
 ti ti 2 
 
 Wi 
 
 1*11 
 
/iOO 
 
 CADEROU.SSR 
 
 viilloy, find thciico run through tlic wntriil and 
 X, (liviHioiiH towiinl AxMniii, info wliiuli tUt'tv iirc 
 throo tM'pnnitc ronton tlirmi>;h Cndinrrnini Sylhot. 
 ('osp<H)r in flic nno. nipital, but Hilclmr, S. the 
 linrak, h the prcNcnt reNiilenvu of the chief au- 
 tlioriticN. The CacliareeH are Htron^;, roliust. 
 fairer tlian the HenKalexe, anil like the Chinese in 
 featiireH. The original Ilairunihian dialect is 
 (*ai(l to have hcen nion<wyllahi<-, hut is now nearly 
 extinct, the lan^na^e and written character of 
 Jten^al having' iisur])ed itH |)lace. The Kookiex, 
 who have lieen for years (fradnally advanc'lnj; it, 
 are siqiposed to l)e of IVIalay origin; ihey are 
 wldoni much more than .") ft. ni hei^jht ; their 
 complexions nearly as dark as those of the 
 llenjijaleHe; voices soft, andlan^nui^e harmonious. 
 Small parties, of from Id to ltd of them, formerly 
 made i'reipient secret incursions within our fron- 
 tiers, in search of hinnan heads, v/liich would 
 seem to lie necessary articles at the performance 
 of certain of their relif^ious ceremonies. 
 
 ('acliar was unknown to tht; liritish initil t'dll; 
 wdien ftlr. Verelst led a small force into it. In 
 1774 it was invaded hy the Hinnesi^ and some 
 time after rendered trihiitnry hy them. In IHId 
 they ]>laced the Kajah of Munepoor on the throne 
 of Cachar; and, from INIH to l«2.'l, a civil war 
 for su|)renift(!y hetween that chief and his two 
 lirotliers devastated the jtrov. IJy the treaty of 
 /andalioo, in IM2(i, Cachar was (ilaceil under 
 Itritish protection, and the rajah re-estahlishcd ; 
 hut ou his death in 1«H(), without any heir, it 
 became, in 1«;12, an integral part of tlie Itritish 
 territory. 
 
 CADKKOUSSR, a town of France, dep. Vau- 
 clnse, on the left bank of the Khone, which at 
 this jwint encloses a cinisiderable island, 3 m. 
 SVV. Oran^'c. Pop. .S,l<!d in 1«(!1. The town 
 has some silk filatures, and its territory is produc- 
 tive of corn, silk, and madder. 
 
 'lADIZ, a city and sea-port of Spain, in An- 
 dalusia, on the Atlantic, (iit m. S. Seville, and (iO 
 m. NW. Gibraltar, on the terminus of the South 
 Weste... railway from Madrid. Pop. 7d,Hll in 
 1857, The city occupies the rocky and elevated 
 extremity of a long, low, narrow tongue of land, 
 imijeuting about 5 m. NNW. from the Isle of 
 Leon, and enclosing betweeii it and the main-land 
 a sjjacious bay, which has everywhere good an- 
 chorage. The harbour is about !• m. long, from 
 Hota to Carr.^ca, and three miles broad, from 
 Cadiz to Port St, Mary's, or to Port K'oyal, The 
 ]iort of Cadiz is formed by a mole projecting from 
 the city into the bay ; but it is accessible only to 
 Hmall vessels, ships of large burden anchoring 
 ^ m. otf shore. The bay is divided into the inner 
 and outer bays by the |)romontory, having at its 
 extremity the fort of Matagorda, The isthmus 
 joining the city to the main-land is in ])arts not 
 more than from 200 to 300 yards across, and is 
 very stronglj' fortified: the access to the city 
 from the sea is in some jdaces rendered imprac- 
 ticable by the steepness of the rocks, the occur- 
 rence of sandbaidc and of sunken ledges; and 
 being everywhere defended by ramparts, bastions, 
 and detached forts, it would, were these kept in 
 projier repair and well garrisoned, be all but im- 
 jiregnable ; so that, as respects convenience and 
 security, Cidiz, with its bay and dependencies, 
 is probably unmatched, and certainly not aur- 
 jiassed, as a naval depot. Streets straight, and 
 though rather narrow, are remarkably well paved, 
 clean, and lighted with lamps. The houses, in 
 general loftj', have a court in the centre; they 
 are mostlj- built of white freestone, and some of 
 them are ornamented with painted balconies. 
 There are several squares; but, with the excep- 
 
 CADIZ 
 
 tion of that of San Antonio, in the centre nf ilm 
 city, they are all of very limited dinu'iiNions, 
 The ramparts atford the finest marine promenndi', 
 the view on the K. side extends across the bay to 
 St. Mary's and the other towns by which it Is 
 lined, and to the mountains in (he distance: i»\ 
 the W, the eye ranges over the iKiundless expaiiHu 
 of the Atlantic. 
 
 With the ex(!eptioii of the fortifications, Cadiz 
 has no public buildings of any importance. Th(> 
 most conspicuous is the lighthouse of San Sebas- 
 tian, on the bastion of that name, having tlie 
 lantern elevated 172 ft, above the level of tlu: 
 sea. There are two cathedrals — an old and a 
 new; but the latter is unfinished. There is u 
 custoni-hons<!, several hospitals, chundies mid 
 convents. The town labours under a great dc- 
 ticiencv of water, having none that is potalile bin, 
 what IS brought in vessels across the bav fnuii 
 St. Mary's, or what is collected in cisteriis. 
 Iteing almost surrouinU^d by the sea, the cliinaie 
 is comparatively temiierate; the summer licais 
 are less violent than in iMadrid, though it be mi 
 much farther south, while the c(dd of winter i^t 
 not nearly so severe. It is not unhealthy; but, 
 like most other tciwiis on the S. coast <if Spain, 
 is occasionally visited by ejiidemics. There is ii 
 tolerable theatre, where Italian operas are sonic- 
 times |ierf(irined ; but those who wish to cnjov 
 the national diversion of bull-tights must cruss 
 the bay to St. Mary's. Morals here arc said to 
 be, if possible, even at a lower ebb than ia 
 other Spanish cities. 
 
 The Caracfu, or royal dockyard, is situated at 
 the bottom of the inner bay, about (i m. from the 
 city, im the channel separating the isle of Ia'mx 
 from the main-land. This usecl formerly to lie a 
 verj' complete establishment; and as inanv as 
 6,0()0 men were kept constantly at work lu it. 
 Now, however, it ia all but deserted. 
 
 The commerce of Cadiz was formerly vorv 
 extensive. For a lengthened period the city 
 [lossessed a monopoly of the trade with the vast 
 possessions belonging to Spain in the New World 
 and notwithstanding the abidition of the mdiiii- 
 poly in 1778, she continued to engross by far the 
 larger portion of the trade with these countries 
 down to their emancipation. This event gave a 
 blow to the commercial importance of Cn<liz, 
 from which it has not recovered. Its intliieiii'e 
 might, no doubt, have been in a great mciiiiiin! 
 obviated, had the Spanish government adopted 
 a more liberal policy in relation to its intercmirse 
 with other countries. But oppressive duties and 
 restrictions went far to destroy the foreign trade 
 of Spain. To raise the commerce of Cadiz from 
 the depressed situation into which it had fallen, 
 government made it, in 1829, a free port, that is, 
 a port into which goods might be imported, and 
 from which they might lie exported, free of duty. 
 In consequen(;e of this privilege, it immediateiy 
 became a pnncipal depot for the foreign pniducts 
 destined for the Spanish market ; and the sinuf;- 
 gling carried on from the town was so great, that, 
 in 1832, government not choosing to reduce tiie 
 duties which occasioned it, and being unable 
 otherwise to rejiress the abuse, withdrew the 
 privilege, so that the trade again relapsed into 
 Its state previously to 1829. It has still, however. 
 a larger share than any other Spanish town nf 
 the trade with Cuba, Puerto Kico, and JIanilla, 
 the only remaining colonies of Spain ; and it, or 
 I rather its dependency, St. INIary's, is the centre 
 j of the sherry trade, all the wines of Xcros Mh<j 
 shipped either from the one or the other. 
 
 The principal articles of import are fabrics o/ 
 linen, wool, silk, and cotton, of which, however, 
 
I' 
 
 CAEN 
 
 a Inr^c proportion U dcHlincd for rp-i>xi)ortnfion; 
 HiiK'ir, (.'(Hioii (oC wliicli tlicrt! in n v»Ty urcut con- 
 Niiniption in Spain), (.■otl'ct-, ami otluT colonial 
 
 iroducc; tiniliur, tobact-o, liiiU-H, ami milled lisli. 
 
 iVino fornw l>y Car tin- principal article of export ; 
 the (|uantity Nliip|H;d from i'tuVu and the ditl'erent 
 jiortH round the Itny amounted, in l«tM, to (i7,U.")H 
 liiittH, of (!4(t ICnjfliHli bottlcH each, of a totn' ewti- 
 mnted value of 1 ,;J'2(i,724/, la IBti;! tlio shipmcntH 
 were (i(>,U2l huttH. 
 
 The shipping of the port of Cadiz i» shown in 
 the fidlowin^ table, enibracin|r the comnuTcu of 
 nine years, Ironi 185(5 to 1804:— 
 
 Vein 
 
 8|«nlib V«iMl> 
 
 Foreign VnwU 
 
 18fi6 . . . 
 
 it.osa 
 
 7fi9 
 
 ISAT . . . 
 
 3,770 
 
 All 
 
 IHftS . . . 
 
 ;i,71i) 
 
 Hli7 
 
 ]h:.» . . . 
 
 »,UIA 
 
 ni'i) 
 
 IH(il) . . , 
 
 4,():)(i 
 
 iM)2 
 
 ]«fil . . . 
 
 ;i,7(!« 
 
 1,11).'. 
 
 lHt!2 . . . 
 
 »,H(!1 
 
 1,015 
 
 iH«;i . . . 
 
 y,8:i:. 
 
 l,o:)4 
 
 18B4 . ." . 
 Total . . 
 
 3,7(i4 
 
 1,07« 
 8,«01 
 
 :i»,oi8 
 
 The foreign shipping of the year 18r>4 was di- 
 vided between the foUowing nationnlities : — 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 8hl|» 
 
 Crew 
 
 Tom 
 107,426 
 
 British .... 
 
 ;188 
 
 6,1 .'.5 
 
 FrciKili .... 
 
 'J 13 
 
 3,353 
 
 60,019 
 
 j Swe(li;'h and Norwegian 
 
 125 
 
 1,865 
 
 40,770 
 
 \ ItiissiiuiH 
 
 1)0 
 
 810 
 
 20,023 
 
 I'ortiiBueao . 
 
 f.!» 
 
 544 
 
 4,155 
 
 Dutch .... 
 
 55 
 
 686 
 
 3,.529 
 
 Itivliiin .... 
 
 48 
 
 571 
 
 10,957 
 
 Americans . 
 
 32 
 
 374 
 
 15,818 
 
 Hnnovcriiins . 
 
 1!) 
 
 1.57 
 
 2,705 
 
 Bremen .... 
 
 16 
 
 256 
 
 6,467 
 
 Vrus-iions 
 
 16 
 
 163 
 
 3,917 
 
 Divnish .... 
 
 10 
 
 ill 
 
 2,056 
 
 Mecklenburg . 
 
 9 
 
 107 
 
 2,845 
 
 Belgian .... 
 
 8 
 
 94 
 
 1,373 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 8 
 
 79 
 
 1,939 
 
 AuHtriau 
 
 7 
 
 88 
 
 3,0.')4 
 
 Orientals (Turkish) 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 902 
 
 Olilenlmrg . 
 
 '2 
 
 18 
 
 364 
 
 lUver Plato . 
 Total . 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 141 
 
 1,070 
 
 14,471 
 
 287,490 
 
 CAKULKON 
 
 ft97 
 
 There are several lines of steamers between 
 Cadiz and England, as well as to Gibraltar, Lisbon, 
 SInr.ieilles, Ilavrc, Amsterdam, and Hamburg. 
 The Spanish mail-steamers start from Cadiz for 
 Cuba, I'orto-Hico, and the ('anaries. 
 
 Cadiz is very ancient, having been founded by 
 the l'h(L'nicians. In 15'Jti it was taken and sacked 
 l)y the Knglish, by whom it was again itu'llectu- 
 aily attacked in 1(>23 and 1702. In 1801) it be- 
 cnmc the asylum of the Cortes, and was blockaded 
 by the French till 1812. In 1823 it surrendered 
 to the French under the Due d'Aiigouleme. 
 
 CAEN, a town of France, dcp. Calvados, of 
 which it is the ca[)ital, in an extensive valley be- 
 tween two large meadows, at the conlluence of the 
 Odon with the Orne, about 8 m. from the em- 
 bouchure of the latter, 30 m. 8VV. Havre, on the 
 railway from Paris to Cherbourg. Pop. 43,740 in 
 1861. Caen is a well-built, hnproving town. The 
 streets are generally broad, straight, and clean; 
 aiid' the houses of freestone luive a good appe.ir- 
 aiice. It was formerly a place of eoiisidcra'ulu 
 strciiglli, being dclended by a castle, and sur- 
 rounded by massive walls. Hanked with towers. 
 The latter and the walls have almost disiippeared : 
 the castle, which was of great size and strength, 
 
 was partly demolished at the Kcvolutinn ; the por- 
 tion of it that still remains is now used as a prison. 
 There are four sipiares, of which tlu^ Place Itoyale, 
 ornamented with a stiitne of l<4Miis XIV., is the 
 linest. A roKm, or public walk, shaded by magni- 
 tieent elm trees, extends for nearly a mile ahnig 
 the banks of the rivers. There are some line old 
 churches, of which the most interesting is the 
 AbbuyeniiT Ilttmmes, built by William the (Con- 
 queror; it is a large, plain building, with two very 
 high spires; and contains, among other interesting 
 monuments, the tomb of the (.'oncpieror; but the 
 latter was violated by the Huguenots, in I,'iri2, and 
 the boiU!s dispersed. The Alihni/e iiiLr /''i'liiiiivn, 
 also very ancient, is now the Trinity Hospital, one 
 of the best nunniged establishments of the kind 
 nnj'wIuTe to be met with. The church of .St. 
 Peter has the tinest spire in Nonnamly ; and .seve- 
 ral of the other (dnirches de.serve noti<'e. Among 
 the other public buihiings are the hotel of the pre- 
 fecture, the Hotel de Ville, the Palace (d'.lu.stice. 
 and the Hotel Dieii. Caen has been long cele- 
 brated for its university, founded in 1431, by 
 Henry VI., king «d" England. It was nunodelled 
 after the lievolntion, and now exists under the 
 title of an acntlrmie universitttlre. There are here, 
 also, a royal college, or high school, with from 
 4.50 to .JOO pu)iils; a secondary scliool of medicine; 
 a jirinniry normal school ; a school of hydrography ; 
 a public library, containing 47,000 volumes; a 
 botanical garden, with agocxl collection of plants ; 
 a school of architecture and design ; a deaf and 
 dumb school ; museums of pictures and natural 
 history; with numentus societies for the promotion 
 of literature, and the line and u.seful art.s. It is the 
 seat of a royal court for the depts. of Calvachis, 
 IManidie, and Orne; and for tribuiuils of original 
 jurisdiction and commerce. The manufactures of 
 the town are important and valuable. They con- 
 sist principally of laces, and of thread and silk, the, 
 making of which employs a vast number of jieople ; 
 stockings and caps, table linen, a variet}' of cotton 
 fabrics, coarse and line earthenware, cntlerj', hats, 
 l)ai)er, and leather. At high water, vessels of loO 
 or IGO tons come up the river as far as the town, 
 where they lie alongside the quays. Since the 
 opening of the railway which places Caen in direct 
 communication v.itb Paris, the commerce of the 
 town has nuich increased. 
 
 Several large fairs are hehl for the sale of the 
 products of the town, and of the horses, cattle, 
 butter, and fowls of the .surrounding country'. In 
 conisequence of its excellent establishments for 
 education, and other advantages, (Jacnisa favour- 
 ite resort of English families. It has produced 
 several distinguished men ; among whom are Mal- 
 herbe, the father of French poetry; the learned 
 Huet, bishop of Avranches, Tannegui, and Lefevre. 
 Caen is not very ancient. It became of imjiort- 
 ance under the dukes of Normandy, by whom it 
 was fortitied. It has undergone several sieges, 
 and fell tinally into the possession of the French 
 in 1448, when it was taken from the English by 
 Dunois. It was taken by the Protestants in lo<J2, 
 when it suffered severely. 
 
 CAEKLEON,atown of England, CO. Monmouth, 
 bund. Usk, par. Llangattock, on the Usk, 18 m. 
 SW. iMonmouth, Pop. I,2(i8 in 18G1. Caerleoii 
 was the Iscn Siliirinn of the Anglo-I{omans, and 
 was. then of great imjjortance, being the cap. of 
 the prov. of Itritannia Secnnda. At a Inter period, 
 il was celebrated as a sent <if Icariiiiig, and, in the 
 12ih century, Girahlus Cambrensis gave a lively, 
 though jierhaps exaggemted, i)icture of its wealth 
 and magnilicence. Several Itotnan antiquities 
 have been dug up in the town and its vicinity, and 
 in several parts the Koman walls are still visible. 
 
 •II, '.HI 
 
 ;'"'! 'a 
 
008 
 
 CAERMARTHEN 
 
 An dlipticftl concavity, the lon^c^t (linmptor mon- 
 BiiriuK 74 ynnlH, nnd the nhortc'nt 04, and (! y/iniM 
 in depth, JH Hitiintml in n Held cIohc liy thcUtik, 
 ncnr the HVV. nido of the town. The country 
 iK'ople call it ArthurV Koinid Talile ; but no doubt 
 It iH the rcmainH of an ainphitboatrc. \Vitliin tlio 
 course of last century stone Heats were discovered 
 on openinjj the sides of the concavity ; and, in 
 17(M!, an alalinstcr statue of Diana was found in it. 
 It has a well-en(iowed charity scliool for mainlain- 
 iufi and educntint; 80 I)ovh and 20 )xirls. 
 
 CAKKMAUTHKXorCAKMAUTIlKXSIHnE, 
 nniarit.co.of S.Wales, liavinKS.Caermartheii Hay, 
 which unites with the Uristol C'hainu4, K. the cds. 
 of (ilamoryan and Hrecon, X. Cardigan, and \V, 
 Pembroke. Area, (W!{,iJtiO acres ; pop. lll,7!)(i in 
 IHtil. Surface various, in part mountainous, and 
 in ))art cunsisting of low tine vales: the lar)j;est 
 nn<l most celebrated of the latter is the vale of 
 Towy, stretching for about .SO ni, along tlie river 
 of that name, by which the co. is intersected, with 
 an average breadth of about 2 m. ' Ystrad Towy,' 
 or the Vale of Towy, was tlie ancient Welsh name 
 of the county. Lxclusive of the Towv, (.'aer- 
 marthen is separated from Cardigan by tfie Taafe, 
 nnd in part from (Jlamorgan and I'ombrokeby the 
 Longhor and the Taafe, The portion of this co., 
 S. and K. of the 'I'owy, adjoinnig (ilamorgan, is 
 included in the great coal-lield of S. Wales : at 
 Llanelly there is also an abundant supply of iron- 
 stone, and considerable iron-works. Soil of the 
 arable land mostly a sandy loam, easily wrought, 
 admirably adapted to the turnip husbandry, and 
 in general very productive. Hut agriculture here, 
 and indeed in the greater part of Wales, is in an 
 extremely backward state. The occn|>iers are, for 
 the most part, iiniustructed, and strongly attached 
 to ancient j)ractices. Drainage, though the first 
 and most essential of improvements, is almost 
 ■wholly neglected ; tenants are not usually untler 
 any restrictions as to management, and the com- 
 mon practice is to take corn crops in uninterrupted 
 succession from the land till it be completely ex- 
 hausted. Manufactures, unimportant. Principal 
 towns, Caermarthen, Llanelly, and Kidwelly. 
 
 Carmarthenshire is divided into H hundreds, 72 
 whole parishes, and parts of 4 others ; and 6 re- 
 gistry districts and poor law unions. The co. 
 i;onstitutes an an^hde.iconry in the dio, of St, 
 David's, It returns 2 mcms. to the M. ofC. for 
 the CO., and 1 for the bor. of Caermarthen, Ifc- 
 gistered electors for the co., 4,337 in 1WG6. Gross 
 rental assessed to poor-rate 33ti,18r)/., and net 
 rateable value 28!),3(i3/. The gross annual value 
 of real jiroperty assessed to income tax amounted 
 to 35l,K0(i/. in l«o7, and to 374,721/. in 1H()4. 
 
 Cakrmauthen, the cap. of the above co., and 
 a pari, oiul municipal borough, situated on an 
 irregular acclivity on the NW, bank of the navi- 
 gable river Towy, 7 m. N. from its embouchure in 
 Caermarthen 15ay, Bristid Chainiel; IHO m. W. by 
 N. London bv road, and 24i)| m. by (ireat VV'estern 
 and South VValcs Kailw.-iy. Pop". 0,52(1 in 1841, 
 and !t,!»!>3 in lUtil. A few of the streets arc tole- 
 rably wide, well i)aved, lighted with gas, and 
 contain many respectable houses ; but the rest are 
 narrow and crooked, and those leading to the 
 river steep, and the pop, much crowded : the best 
 houses arc on the Rlilford line of road. The sujiply 
 of water is inadequate. There are two churches, 
 several dissenting chapels, and a grammar-school ; 
 a Presbyterian college for young men intended for 
 that ministry (of which the corporation nomi- 
 nate the master and (i scholars) ; a Lancastrian 
 .ind a n.itional school. The guildhall, a handsome 
 eililicc raised on iiillars. has under it the market- 
 place for corn. It has also a tlieatre, and bor, and 
 
 CAERNARVON 
 
 CO. gaols; the latter is on part of the site of die 
 old castle (of which some remains are still Icfi), 
 on the brow of the hill rising abru|)lly from the 
 river ; along which the quay extends. The rivir 
 is crossed by a line bridge of 7 arches. Markets, 
 Wednesday and Saturday; and cattle fairs, April 
 15, .lune 3 and 4, .hily 10, Aug. 12, Sept. !i, 
 t)ct. !», Xov. 14 and 15, 'There are np maniilnc- 
 tures of any importance in the town; but, as It 
 furinshes the po)>ulous district in the vicinity with 
 articles of general consumption, its trade is cdii- 
 siderable. Principal exports (all coastwise), burk, 
 marble, slate, lead ore, leather, corn, butter aiuj 
 <'ggs; imports, general cargoes of Hritish and cci- 
 lonial prodiu!e, and mamifactures, and timlsT niul 
 deals. At an average, 10 cargoes a year an: 
 imitorted from abroad, the vessels sailing outward 
 in Imllast. About 40 vessels belong to the port, 
 and vcss('ls of 50 to 150 tons are built here. It 
 is a creek, comprised in the i»ort of Llanelly. 
 Vessels of 200 tons may ascrend to the bridge iit 
 springtides; but many obstructions are sulVcrcil 
 to accumulate in the river, so that they are Irc- 
 (luently obliged to discharge 2 m. below. TIk: 
 salmini tisher}', which was once very extensive, 
 has much decreased. Haces are aimnally held in 
 Sept., 4 in. up the vale of the Towy. It is the cou- 
 tral town of a poor law union of Hi pars.; gniss 
 rental assesscMl to poor rate .58,405/.; net raleulili! 
 value 40,773/., in lHtJ2. 
 
 Caennarthen has retunicd 1 mem. to the II. nf 
 C. since the reign of Henry VIII. The liniils nt' 
 the present pari. bor. coincide with those of tiji' 
 ancient bor., but Llanelly is now Joined with it, as 
 a contributory bor. Previously to the Itclorin Act, 
 the elective fraiKdiisc in Caermarthen was exur- 
 cised by persons admitted de jiint burgesses, iiiidcr 
 qualilications of a freehcdd estate within the lior., 
 e.r flratid, and servitude of apprenticeship fur 7 
 years. Kegistered electors in l)oth bors., ^^.'l5 in 
 'lWi5. Tlie election of a mem. for the co. tJikis 
 place here. The limits of the municiiial bnr. nrc 
 now restricted to the town and a small space ronnil 
 it. It is divided into 2 wards, and governed liy ii 
 mayor, (> aldermen, and 18 counsellors ; a slicriH' 
 ami rcconler. Ccuirts of petty sessions are held 
 weekly ; fortnight courts, for the recovery of debts. 
 and courts of general sessions twice a year, for the 
 bor. : the assizes and three of the general quarter 
 sessions of the co. are also held in the town. 
 
 Its ancient castle, in the last civil war, was ni 
 first garrisoned for Charles L, taken subseqiicnily 
 by the Parliamentary forces, and dismantlcil iiy 
 order of Cromwell, in 1048. Caemiartheii iniisi, 
 on the whole, be considered a nourishing and in- 
 creasing town. A column has been erected at its 
 W. end by i>ublic subscription in memory of tlic 
 public services of SirT. Picton, who fell at Waior- 
 loo, and h.ad previously represented this Ixir, 
 More recently, there has been another miiutniiPiK 
 erected to the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers. The latter 
 stands in Lammas-strcct. 
 
 CAliKX AllVt )N, a inarit. co. of N. Wales. sepa- 
 rated from Anglesea by the Menai Strait, extriidiii;; 
 from Conway, on the N., in a SW. <lirc(li"ii 
 along the shore to the extremity of the itcniiisiila 
 of Lleyn opposite IJardsey Island, having 10. i«irl 
 of Cardigan IJay, an<l the cos, of Merioneth and 
 Denbigh, Area, 348,100 acres; pop. 95,«ltl in 
 1801. This is the most mountainous co. in tlieprin- 
 cipality, being traversed in its whole extent by the 
 Snowd'on range ; it has, however, some liiiiiteil 
 tracts of comparatively low fertile land The 
 Conwaj', which has its sources in the co., and Inrms 
 for a considerable distance the line of dcniarcaiion 
 between it and Denbigh, is the principal river; 
 but there are several streams of inferior diuieiisiiuis, 
 
CAEUNAKVON 
 
 mill Hnmo Htnnll liikon. Lmd niid coiij^r orcshnvo 
 Im'cii foiiiiil within Iho ('o„Hiii| Imvc liccn wnmnlit 
 tiiHiiiiii-cxrcnt. 'l'li<'sliii(>i|iiiirri(Mli('loii|^nii^loliiiril 
 I'cnrvliM, iitar llmipir, «'iii|iiiiy alxnil l,)>oi) riicii 
 iiiiii imyn, mill art' iiimiiifr I lie iiiu.sl cxIciiMivc nnd 
 valiiithit' ill the ('iii|iirc ; mid other siiitc i|iiarri<'M in 
 thiHCo.('ni|iliiyalti)p!th('ralMiut I.TddiiiciiandlMivH, 
 Soil of the ^crcatcr part nfthc araldc land ha/.cllv 
 liiiiiii. Afrrii'iiiliirc, Ihoii;;!) a pxid tlcal iiii|iri>vci1, 
 i.t Htill ill u ('(ini|iaraliv('ly liat'kward Ntalc; h'asi's 
 are citluT not ^raiiti'd, or they coMtaiii no |ii-oiH'r 
 rt'^nhitioiiN as to iiiaiiap'nifiit ; a proper rotation 
 (if crops is II >t f,'oncraiiy oliscrvcii ; the land is not 
 (rcncrally el >aii and in ^ood heart ; and llie iinph'- 
 iiH'iits are ^'(ill, in many inslaiiees, defective. Oats 
 !:< the pri.icipal corn-crop, ltree<| of cattle small 
 and Imrdy. 'I"he older class of farm Imildin^^sand 
 cotta^'es, es|M'ciaily tlie latter, are liail; liut they 
 have lieen in inanv parts replai'cil liy others of a 
 new and improved cliara<'ter. Mnnnl'a<'tnres nn- 
 irii|H)rtaiit. Principal towns, I'<anf;'or, Caernarvon, 
 niidConway. Caeriiarvon is divided into lohnnils. 
 and fin whole parishes, with parts of ,'> others ; and 
 •I registry distriiUs and poor-law nnioiis. It sends 
 
 1 mem. to the II. of ('. for the ( and I for tin; 
 
 town of I'nernarvon and ils contrilintory hors. 
 l!ef;istered electors 2,'27l in 1H(!'). The j;ross ren- 
 tiil assessed to |ioor-rate amonnted to \H{),i\.r>(, in 
 IM*'i2, and tlii>aiiiinal valneof real property assessed 
 til income tax, 2H;(,ti7.'j/. in IM.')?, and ;iiV.»,22 1/, in 
 
 (Iakunakvon, a Hca-|)ort nnd pari. bor. of N. 
 Wales, cap. of the nliove co.. on the SK, side of the 
 Jleiiai Strait, at the month of tlu' Seiout, 7 m. 
 SW. from the Menai ltrid{,'e, aii<l 2(15 m. NW. 
 I.iinilon by road, and 2'l(> m. by I^ondoii and North 
 Western railway. ]'op. 8,(l(»l in 1« 1 1 ; and H,r)l2 in 
 ISiil. This town, with its mti^nitlcent castle, was 
 liiiilt bv Kdwanl I., between 12«'* and 12Kl,asa 
 place ol streiif^iii to sev-nre his ii.'wly achieved con- 
 quest of Vv'ales. The walls, constructed by t he Con- 
 (jin^ror, round the town, arc still nearly entire. They 
 nre Hanked with round towers, .iiid had orif^inally 
 
 2 jirincipal f^ntcs, but others have been since added. 
 Within the Avails, the streets, though narrow, arc 
 regular; but of late years, new streets and build- 
 ings have been erected without the walls, and the 
 wliole town has been much improved : it is well 
 supplied Avith water, nnd lif^hted with yas. I'en- 
 iiniit says of it, that it 'is justly the boast of N. 
 Wales, for the beauty of its situation, the pioilncss 
 (if its bniUlinu;s, the regularity of the plan, and, 
 alidve nil, the grandeur of the castle, the most 
 magnilicent i<adgo of our subjection.' (Tour in 
 Wales, ii. "401, Kvo. cd.) The prr. church is i m. 
 from the tow.i ; but the latter has n liandsomc 
 ciiapcl of ease, and 4 dissenting chapels, and a 
 llritish and a national school. The town-hall is 
 over one of the ancient gatcAvays, and one of the 
 iild toAvers is littcd up as a iirison : there is also a 
 ('!>. hall, a small theatre, and a modern mar- 
 kfit-liousc for jirovisioiiH, the (dd one being uoav 
 used for corn. Many o)>ulont families reside in 
 llie neighbourhood, and the toAvn is much resorted 
 til in the season by sea-bathers. There nre hot and 
 cold baths, assembly and billiard-rooms. Outside 
 tlic Avails is a line terracse Avalk along the Menai. 
 
 There arc no manufactures of any importance. 
 The harbour, Avhich lias of late been n good deal 
 improved, admits vessels of 4(10 tons, but the trade 
 of the jiort, Avhich is mostly Avith Liverpoid, Hris- 
 tol, and Dublin, is |)rincipally by small coasting 
 vessels and steamers. The jirincipal export is 
 slate, brought from the quarries by a raihvay. The 
 removal of the coast duties on slate occasioned a 
 KTeat increase of demand here and in other ports 
 whence it is exported. 
 
 CAl'FA 
 
 ftOO 
 
 Prpviously to the Kiforni Act, (^nemnrvon re- 
 turned 1 mill), to the 11. of (' iijointly Avitli 
 
 the contributory bors, of ConAvay.Criccicth, Ncviu, 
 and I'wlhcli, the right of voting being in the 
 resident and iion resident burgesses, 'I'o thcsi! 
 contributory bors. the l.'eforin Act adiled Uangor. 
 The limits of the ancient bor., «^ith which the pari, 
 
 bor incidcs, are about H m. in cin-. licuislcrcd 
 
 electors in all the bors, !l2t'i in ixtl."). <irn<s anniial 
 value of real properly a^iscssecl to incninc-tiix 
 firi,r».W, in IH.'iT; and C.'l.s;!!/, in iNi'iJ, The liniils 
 of the municipal bor, extend about 1.^ m, round 
 the town. The assizes and general c|uarlcr sc>.>iioim 
 for the CO, are held here. Market -dav. Saturday ; 
 fairs, March 12. Mav If.. Aug. 12. Sept, 2il, 
 
 Caernarvon Castle is one of the uobleit and 
 most magiiiliccnt ruins of its kind in the eiupirc. 
 The walls, which euidose an area of about :i ai'ics, 
 arc 7 ft, !» in, thick, have Avithiu them a gallery 
 with slips for the discharge of missiles, and are 
 tlaiiked by IK strong |ieulagoual. hexagonal, Ac. 
 towers, A narrow chainber in the l'".a;^le Tower 
 Avas the birthplace of I'.ihvard II., the first Saxon 
 prince of Wales, Near the steep bunk of llui 
 river Seiont,at a small distance from the casile. is 
 an ancient lioman fort, the walls of which are 
 still pretty entire. At a small distance from this, 
 and i\ 111," from the Menai, is the site of the ancient 
 Jioman statitm of Si'i/Diitiinii, Aviieuce, it is most 
 jirobalile. Kdward I, derived |iart of the materials 
 for building the castle and town of Caeruiirvi.... 
 
 CAi:i!l'llll<I-Y, a town and chaiielry of S. 
 Wales, CO. (ilainorgaii, bund, Caerphilly, jiar. 
 Kghvvs-islan, between the Taaf and the Kumnev, 
 7 in, S', Carditr, Pop, of the jiar, 3,!t7:i in IWil. 
 The toAvii is an irregular collection of ancient and 
 inodern houses; but it has a }' . id ap])earance, and 
 being surrounded by mountain ranges that open 
 on the l"„ and W,, the sceuerv is grand and ]iic- 
 turesque. It has a neat chnrcii, and three dissenl- 
 iug places of Avorship. Market, Thursday, and 
 fairs for cattle, corn, and cheese, April o, Trinity 
 Thursday, duly 1!>, Aug. 2.j, Oct. it, and Nov, l(i. 
 IManufactnres of cheques, and linsey-AVoolsj'y shirt- 
 ing for miners, employ about KM) jiersons; the rest 
 nre engaged in the mines and quarries of the neigh- 
 bourhood or in agritMdturc, It Avas anciently a 
 bor,, but lost its privileges in the reign of Henry 
 Vlll. Its castle, whose maguiti(!ent ruins show 
 that it must liaA'c been one of the linest in the 
 kingdom, AA-as of Norman origin, and enlargeil at 
 successive periods, but chietly by the favourite 
 of K.dward II,, Hugh De Spencer, for wlnmi it 
 Avas Avrested from tlie Moriiniers, its ancient pos- 
 sessors, 
 
 C/KSAIJEA, a ruined nnd deserted const toAvn 
 of Palestine ; lat. iii° 23' 37" N,, long, 31° 44' 45" 
 1'^. Under tlie Romans it Avns the cap. of the dis- 
 trict in Avhicli it stands, nnd the residence of a 
 proconsul. An artilicial harbour, n castle, the 
 Avidls of the city, and tAvo aqueducts, are among 
 the most jierfect remains, but a great extent of 
 ground is coA'cred Avith the ruins of iiublic and 
 private buildings. It owed its existence, or im- 
 portance, to Herod the Creat, who named it Grm- 
 reii, in compliment to Augustus, it.c, 22. It ligures 
 in the early history of (Jhristianity as the place 
 where Peter conA-ertcd Cornelius and his house 
 (Acts X. 1.), and as the scene of Paul's memorable 
 speeches to I'elix and Agrip)ia (Acts xxiv., xxa'., 
 and xxA-i.). Vesjiasian maile Cicsarea a Koman 
 c(dony, under the name of Flavia Coloiiia, and it 
 continued to flourish till a.d. (135, when it f(dl 
 into the hands of the Saracens. In 1101 it Avas 
 taken by the Crusaders, and in the Avars of this 
 jicriod it sank ncA'cr to rise again, 
 
 CAFFA. See Kama. 
 
600 
 
 CAOLI 
 
 CAOLI (nil. Calllii), n town of ('ciHrnI Italy, 
 nn>v, Driiiiii) iiml I'c.tnro, nt tlic tixit nC Monnl 
 I'l'iraro, at the I'oiilliiciict' of ilii> Caiiliiiiio ami 
 JliisMo, I I in. S. rrhiiiii. I'ii|i, !>,'it'>(i in |Nt;i. It 
 liMM a callicdral, and I'mir convciilM tor inonkM and 
 four for iiiiiiH. 
 
 ('AtiMAItl ^an. Cnlnriii), a inaril. city of Sar- 
 dinia, of widt'ii It if* till' rap., on a liay of'ilic Haiiic 
 name on llu> S. Nliontof tlic ixland, lal. 'MP I'.'' 1:1" 
 N., loiiK. !)0 d' 1 1" K. I'i.|). ;t(»,!Ul(l in m>H. 'I'lio 
 city, in llm middle a;;cH, appourit to have lieeii re- 
 ■Iricted to a trian);'ular H]i.'ifc, on (ho, Hiiminit of a 
 hill aliont 401) ft. above I lie lieach, now called the 
 'CaNile,' which \h walled round, and han a citadid 
 on iiM N. nidc'. To this wen? NiicceHnively addeil 
 the Marina, a jxirtioii extending down the W. 
 face of the hill I'roni the ciiNtle to the Hca, which 
 In Niirroundc'd liy a Hlij^ht wall, Ihinked hy nouk! 
 IxislioiiN, and farther defended liy a wide hut nIuiI- 
 low ditch; the (|uarter of Slainpace, to the W. of 
 tlie castle; and that of Villanova, to llie K. The 
 modern city connistH of these- four portions: there 
 in he.sidcH a Hiihiirl), iiearlv a mile in leiifrth, called 
 St. AvandroH, ('nfj;liari lias an imposing appear- 
 nnc(! from the wa. The Marina is tolerably well 
 liuilt, hut Villanova quite otherwise ; and the 
 i*t reels j;encrally are narrow, irre;ciilar, dirty, steep, 
 and paved with round pointed sloniw. There are, 
 however, some exceUent and even s|)lendid public 
 buildings, and many spacious private houses. The 
 cnstle is the part in which the nobility and state 
 odicers reside. It contains the vicere^jal palace, a 
 line edilice: the cathedral, built by the I'isans, 
 with ft front in preat part of marble; a handsome 
 mansfdcnin of Martin, kin^' of .Sicily; a celebrated 
 cryptic sanctuary ; the citadel, and three larjje 
 Hipiare towers, pxid specimons of I'isan art; tlie 
 iiniverHity, with its four faculties of theoloj^y, law, 
 medicine, and philosophy, and between 200 ancl 
 HOO students ; and other public seminaries. The 
 Marina is inhabited chietly by nienihanfs, and by 
 the foreifjn consuls; it contains a n<"'<l bonded 
 warehouse, an arsenal, lazaretto, and mole. In 
 Stampace are the corn-market ami storehouses. 
 Caffliari contains, besides about thirty churches, 
 twenty-one convents, to one of which, bclonj^in;; 
 to the .Fesuits, there is a very handsome and richly 
 ornamented church attached; two hospitals, a fe- 
 male orphan asylum, a pidilic; library, with lOjOOO 
 V(tlnincs, innsenms of antiquities and natural his- 
 tory, ft coUcfje of nobles, a sciiiinnrio, a small the- 
 atre, and mint. At the S. an^lc of the Marina 
 wall there is a very commodious ilaracno., or pier- 
 hiirbour, capable of containin|j; fourteen or sixteen 
 vessels of a tolerable size, besides small craft. 
 The jiort is one of the best and safest in the I\[e- 
 (literranean. Ships usually lie about a mile S\V. 
 by S. from the mole, in six or cijjht fathoms 
 water, on an excellent bottom of mud. The (Julf 
 of Catfliari, which extends from I'ula on the W. to 
 ("a]ie C'arbonara on \\w. IC, 'lA m. across by 12 ni. 
 ilecp, has^ood anchoraj^e everywhere, after f,'cttinfj: 
 into soundings. The city being placed on a hill, 
 is healthy, notwithstanding; the immediate prox- 
 imity on its VV. side of the .stagnant lajL^une of 
 (.'aKliari, <i or 7 m. loiifj; by IJ or 4 in. broad. This 
 lake abounds with lish and aquatic birds. To the 
 E. of the city there an; some good salt-works. 
 Cngliari possesses a royal niaiuifa(;t<iry of tobacco, 
 and has manufac'^ories of cotton fabrics, cake saf- 
 I'ron, soap, chairs and other furniture. Its trade 
 is chietly in c( m, legumes, salt, oil, and wine. 
 From the pori.,in of commerce it cnjo3's, (Jagliari 
 lias, on the wh(dc, a busy appearance, Provisions 
 of all kinds are chea|i an<l plentiful, except water. 
 The castle is sup))li('d from cisterns ar.d extremely 
 dcoji wells. Extensive remains exist of a line 
 
 CAIIOHS 
 
 nticient aqueduct, which might bo restored nl a 
 comparatively small expense. There are Ncvcral 
 other Itonian an(i(piiticH, iiichiding u liiml) i„ 
 tolerably good preservation, and an aniphithcairc 
 excavated in I he rock near the city walls, Vi.,. 
 ligcsof the ancient (ireekcity may Ix; slill trai'iil 
 beyoiul Stampace, A good carriage road of rcri'iit 
 conslruclioii connects ('agliari with Sassari, 
 
 Cagliari is the scat of a royal nudiennu, or lieiul 
 tribunal, ami of the vorle*, or states-general of tin' 
 island, of a Iribunal of coinmirce, an inlendaiii- 
 general, a general-commandant, and an archlil.s|iii|i 
 with the title of primate of Sardinia, 
 
 This cily is verv anci(Mit, its foiindalion hcin); 
 carried back to the fabulous ages. It was ili(> 
 residence of the king of Sardinia, from ITIIN i„ 
 1K| I, during the occupation of his contiueiital ijn- 
 niinion by the French, The latter bonihardeil it 
 unsuccessfully in 1 T'.t.'J, 
 
 t'AIIICI!, an inland town of Ireland, co. Tip- 
 jHirary, iirov. Miinsier, on the Suir, '.Mi ni, S\V. liy 
 S, iMiblin, on the railway from Limerick to Wii- 
 lerford. Top. 2,ll2(i in IHtil, against :i,l(m in |n:||, 
 and ,'I,2HM in IM2I. The whole of the inhabitants 
 are Itonian Catholics, with the exception, in |f<i;i, 
 of iOH members of the Established I'luirch. Tin' 
 town is well built. There is a market-house, liridc- 
 well, fever lios|iital, dispensary, schools on llic 
 foundation of Krasnins Smith, ami large caviilry 
 barracks. The stalf of the Tipperary militia, ami ii 
 party of the constabulary', are stationed here. Tin' 
 Earl of (ilengaH's mansion is in the town. Iiuccs 
 take ]dace annuallv in the neighbourhood, \ 
 manorial court is held every six weeks; |ietly sc- 
 sioiis weekly. The linen and straw-plat inamirac- 
 tnres are carried on upon a small scale; nnuli is 
 done in the corn trade. Markets are held on Tri- 
 (lavs; fairs on Htli Eebrnary, 12tli April, 2(itli ami 
 27th May, 2()th July, l«tli and I'Jth Seplenilur, 
 20th Octiiber, and 7tli December. 
 
 CAHOKS, a town of France, dc'p. Lot, of wliidi 
 it is the cap., on the Lot, <i0 in. N. Toulinbc, 
 on a branch of the railway from Paris to A;,'i'ii, 
 I'oj). Ji;i,Hl4 ill IKtil. The town stands on iin 
 eminence, almost surrounded by the Lot, and is 
 for the most (lart ill built, with narrow, cmokcil 
 streets. It was formerly defended on the laixl AAv 
 hy towers and ramparts, that stretched across ilic 
 isthmus ; but of these only the ruins now reniaiii. 
 It is traversed by the groat roatl from I'liris in 
 Toulouse, and has three bridges over the river, 
 one of which, built in ihc twelfth century', is sur- 
 mounted by three enormous towers. Tlie catla'- 
 dral has been supposed to be partly of lidiiiaii 
 construction ; but it is pretty curtain thai tlic 
 most ancient part of the building is not olilcr 
 than the sixth century. With the exceplitm dl' 
 the hotel of the prefecture, the ancient c|)isci)|)al 
 palace, few of the other public buildings deserve 
 notice. It is the seat of a l)islio|)ri :, and has tri- 
 bunals of jirimary jurisdictii.ii and of coinuieree. 
 Cahors bad a university, founded in i;fil2: llio 
 famous jurist Cnjas was, for a while, one of its 
 professors, and i''enelon was of the iiumbor of lis 
 pn])ils. The university was united to that nl' 
 Toulouse in \~tt\. At present it has an ucdf/nHw 
 uHiversitiiirv; a royal college, or high school, with 
 about 250 piqiils : a diocesan seminary, with IJil 
 pupils; a primary normal school; a public library, 
 with 12,000 volumes: a theatre ; and a society »!' 
 agriculture. The manufactures, which are. nut 
 very considerable, consist principally of some de- 
 scriptions of wocdlen goods and )mper, Tliere is 
 contiguous to the town a departmental nursery. 
 The excellent rc<l wine called the viti <le s/riiee is 
 raised in its territory ; and it has a good deal el 
 trade iu that and other wines, and in oil, heiup. 
 
OAIPHA 
 
 lliix, niKl iiiitrt, largely urowii in tlui nri((liliour- 
 
 lllHlll, 
 
 CiiliorK u Niin|ii)Ncil to lu' tlio nnciciit Dlnma, 
 »lu' caitilnl 1(1 tlu! Ciiiliirii, 'I'lm Ii'imiiuiim ciiiIm'!- 
 lislicd it with novituI i\\w iMliliccM, of wniic nf 
 wliii'h tlicrt! Niill ri'iiiiiiii a Ccw vcsti^trs, Tlu- 
 liriiK^ipiil of tlicMd iiri' ii portico, HiiiiiHirteil to have 
 niailr a part ot'tlut pultlio hallis; with (lif riiiiiH of 
 a larKo llHUitru or (•inns ami of an ai(iic<|iict lor 
 I'liiivt'yiiig water into the (own. Tiien^ have alno 
 licen iliif{ up frii^iienis of cohininM, inonaii'M, and 
 ninnerouH iniMlalr* of 'rilxTliis and ( Ijaiidinx. In 
 more inodern times it Iuim inidergone nuiiiy viein- 
 (iiludes. In ir)M(» it waM lienief^ed hy lleliry IV., 
 anil Ix^ing taken, after an ohslinate re.-tiHiani'e, it 
 was, despite Henry's elVurts to the contrary, jjiven 
 til) to military execution, Cuhors is tii'e hirtli- 
 piace of three tainous men, wi.'ely dilVcrent in 
 tlieir spheres of life,— of I'ope .loini \.\ll., of the 
 poet C/lement Alarot, anil of Napolei.. 's itashing 
 p'ueral Murat, king i>ro tern, of Naples, 
 
 C/All'HA, or KAIFA, a small marit. town of 
 ralesline, at the, foot of Mount C'armel, on the \V. 
 side of the Hav of Acre. Tluf harhonr is one of 
 llie hesi along tiie coast (see A(j|{K), and the ancient 
 river Kishon tlows past the town. It has a furircss 
 with a garrison; hut the most important and in- 
 teresting bnililing in the place is u liospice main- 
 tained hy the monks of Mount Carmel, wiiere 
 Hiraugers of nil nations and religions are ludgi'd 
 and entertaiiH'd. Tlu' Kishon is referred to in the 
 Hiingof Deborah and Itarak (Judges v. 21,). It is 
 finniius also as the place wluTe Klijah slew the 
 Ijfophets of liaal (I Kings xviii. -10.) 
 
 CAIKO.or KAIlIkA (El Clinliir,li,Arnh., ' the 
 A'ictDrious,' called liy the iidiahitants Miisr), tlu! 
 niiideru cap. of I'-gypt, and the second itity of the 
 Alohammedan world; chief resilience of the I'aclia, 
 nuil seat of his go/crinnent, near the right or K. 
 bank of the Nile, about 12 m. above tlu? aiiex of 
 its delta, 1 12 m. SIC. Alexandria, !)7 m. SSVV'. I)a- 
 inietta, and 7.') m. VV. Sue/, ; on the railway from 
 Alexandria to Suez. I'op., including the port of 
 IlDiilau and Old (Jairo, about 2-10,0(11) ; of whom 
 about l!)0,000 are ICgyptian Moslems, 1 0,000 (N.pts, 
 froMi U,000 to 1,000 Jews, and the rest strangers 
 from various comitrics. Shape oblong, being nearly 
 .'t in. in length, by l^ to 2 m. in breadth, on sloping 
 Uround, midway between the Nile and the K. 
 niiiuntain range of Mokattem, and occu|)ying an 
 area of about '.i sq. ni. The distance of its N. ex- 
 tremity from the Nile at Itoulac is u|)wards of a 
 mile; but from its S. extremity to the bank of the 
 river where (Jld Cairo stands, is somewhat less 
 tliaii }j m. 'I'lic intervening tract is laid out in 
 pinlens or otherwise cultivated, and watiiriKl by a 
 canal. Viewed from a distance, Cairo has a mag- 
 iiiliccnt and interesting a]>|iearance ; but, like most 
 other K. cities, its interior ba.s a very dilferent 
 aspect from its exterior. It has, however, though 
 still susceptible of much improvement, been, wit bin 
 these few years, quite changed from the wretched 
 place so often depicted by travellers. l'"ilth, of 
 every descriptiim, putrid ditches, drains never 
 clwncd, unbtiried carrion, fragments of vegetable 
 matter, all in various states of decomposition; 
 want of free circulation of air, clouds of iliist, aiid 
 multitudes of deformed beings, are amongst the 
 nuisances .oiiiicrly complained of; but, according 
 to more recent observers, the rigid |)olicc estali- 
 lislied hy the viceroys of Mgypt has already ellected 
 so ilosirabic a. change, that, for cleanliness, as well 
 a.H order, quiet, and the absence of crime, Cairo 
 may iu(w rank with the best governed capitals of 
 liiiriipo. 
 
 ('airo contains 2-10 principal streets, 46 public 
 places (squares), 11 bazaars, liO schools for the 
 
 CAIKO 
 
 flOl 
 
 inslrni'lion of children. :ii)0 public cisterns, l.liiti 
 eolVee-honses, ii.'t public baths, lOO mosques, and 
 several considerable hosiiltals. The whole city Is 
 enclosed by a stone wail, Icrminatcd on the SI',. 
 by a detached and scarped rock rising more than 
 200 ft, above the level of the Nile, on which stands 
 the citadel. 'I'his lortress, with the city walls, was 
 built or restored by Saladin, about IITil. The 
 walls havi* battlements, and lofty towers at about 
 loo yards apart. They are, however, of little 
 strength, and have been siilVercd, in many parts, 
 to fall to decay. There are four gales, praised lor 
 their grandeur and magniliccnce. The «i reels are 
 partly iinpaved, and mostly cruoked, narrow, and 
 irregular. Though deprived of a great deal of 
 light, lliey are rendered cool, by the upper stories 
 of the bouses projecting over them, so as not nnl're- 
 i(Uently to meet each other. The .lewish quarter 
 is. as in all other cities, the liltbic-il ; the Copts, 
 Franks, and other nations, generally speaking, in- 
 habit distinct (piarters, though there is no restric- 
 tion in this respect, llu' whole city being tree to 
 all. Ill the Frank (piarier, where also many of the 
 Armenian and Syrian (,'hristians reside, the streets 
 are rather wider than elsewbere. The houses are 
 solidly constructed and lolly, being mostly Iwi 
 stories high, and freipiently more; their li'Wer 
 parts are built or eased with the soft calcareous 
 stoiKt of the Mokattem mountains, the layers of 
 which in front are often painted alternately red 
 and whitit; their upper parts are cominoniy of 
 brick; their roofs, which are llal. starve for many 
 llom(^stic pnr|ioses, and are the resort of the family 
 in the cool of the evening. Mo>t coiisideralile 
 houses enclose an o|)en nnpaved court , into which 
 tlu? doors and the windows of the principal apart- 
 ments open. The windows of tlu? iipiicrapiirtincnls 
 generally project I J ft. or more, and are coinniouly 
 formed of wooden lattii-e-work elo.ii? enough to 
 shut out much of the light and sun, and to screen 
 the inmates from observation, while they aibnit 
 the air; occasionally glass windows, which some ■ 
 times are linely stained, are made use of. The 
 front doors of the larger houses are banilMimely 
 carved, painted, decorated with Arabic inscriptions, 
 and furnished with iron knockers and wooden 
 locks. The conrl-yard and ground floors com- 
 monly (Mintain wells, fonntaiiis, pools, stables, and 
 other domestic ollices, and a hall sometimes very 
 handsomely fitted iqi, in which the master of the 
 house receives his visitors; the upper apartments 
 are those of the woiikmi and children. Lodging- 
 houses or caravanseras, called wi'knlilis, and de- 
 signed for the reception of merchants and their 
 goods, are somewhat dilVcrent ly laid out ; and such 
 persons as have neither a wife nor a female slave 
 are usually obliged to take up their abode in one 
 of these buildings. There are several open spaces 
 or squares : KsbehUth, the ))riiici|>al, is surroundeil 
 by many of the tincst palaces and other slrnctiires 
 in Cairo; its centre is laid out as a garden, and is, 
 like some of tbi? other sipiares, annually overtloweil 
 by the inundation of the Nile. Tlu? waters of that 
 river are conducted into the city by a canal, be- 
 lieved to be '.lie Amnis 7'iajiiniis\rv\l\^0^ ilOT- 
 A.MO:i) of I'u.lemy's (leog. (lib. iv. c. i>), and which, 
 commencing at Old (Jairo, runs through the wholi? 
 length of the modern town, tilling a number of 
 ))nblic and |irivate basins, and irrigating numerous 
 gardens planted along its banks. The citadel is, 
 ill many respects, one of the most interesting mo- 
 numents in Cairo. It is believed to stand upon 
 the spot once occupied by the Acropolis of ilie. 
 I'^gyptian IJabyhm, erected byCambyses upon the 
 site of the still more an(?ieiit Latoijolis, a city almost 
 as old as Memphis. This miicli seems c(?rtaiii, that 
 a similar structure existed here i)reviously to the 
 
 •>i Hl':iil' 
 
002 
 
 CAIKO 
 
 liriic i>r Siiliiilin, tn wliom ihn rrKlornlinn, rnllicr 
 
 lllllll III)' t'liiinlrili'liiiii, iif I||(> I'illlilrl xlinulil lit' 
 iixrrilH'il. 'I'lii- riH'ky hill mi wliicli if in Imiil Im 
 xi'iuiriitnl liv II rliiiHiii iiliiiiit loo yiirilN wiilc iVoin 
 tilt' Mnkuiti'in lillN, lit wiilU an- iiiiiMijvr, rcti 
 
 on n fiiiiiiilnijiiii i)rHriir)i<'il nick, ninl liiivi' I ii |iul 
 
 iiilii II r<'H|ii'i'tiilili- hIiiIi' III' ri'|iiiir; Init, Ikmii^ coiii- 
 iiiiiMih'il liytlii' Miikiillciii liill, nil w' It'll u I'lirt Iiiih 
 lit't'ii |ilii('i'il, Mini lii'inu; iiiii'ii lllllll (III ||ii> I'l, mill 
 VV, III llii' lire iirnriiili'rv, II I'miltt mil Imiil mit I'ur 
 iiiiv li'MKlli III' lllllll ii^'iiIiinI a l'!iirti|i<'iiii I'lirri'. 
 WilliJii itH pri't'iiit'l iii-i> till' |iiiliirc iiiiil liiiri'iii III' 
 
 I lie |iurliii, I III' mini, till' I'liiiiK'il rliiiinlMT or ili villi, 
 
 II iiiii)<i|iii' liiiili liv Mi'lii'iiH't Ali, 11 iiiilitiirv iirti'iial, 
 
 mill Vlll'iiillrt ntliiT |illlilii' iilHi'crt mill WiiriiS ni' lilt' 
 
 Miiiiicliiki' niiiiiiiri'liM, Tlif ihu'Iiii'h |iiiIiii'(> iiihI 
 Imri'iii lire |ilnin Hliilc-wiixlii'tl liiiilillii;{H, iircsi'iit- 
 in^ iiiitliiii^ rc'iiitirkiilili', mihI iIii' new iiiiiti|iii' Iiiin 
 t<iinii> liiiN-ri'lii'I'M ill iiiiirlilt' iiii|iiirl('il rrntii (icntui. 
 Till' iirHciiiil ciHitaiiiM rniniilrit'H t'nr liriiNH mul irmi 
 <'Miiiiiin, niiiniiriit'ttirii'M of Hiiiiill-ariiis, ami work- 
 hli(i|iH I'nr llii' »ii|i|il_v (if all utirlH ot' iiiiliiary ('(|iiiii- 
 iiii'iilK. 'I'likt'ii allii^ii'tlicr, il i.s I lit' lincsl CNlaii- 
 li.Hlinii'iit ill l'".Ky|il. Itiil iIki f,'rt'iili'Hl cnritiNlly in 
 tliii I'ilaili'l it .l(if<i'| ill's W'i'il, ,sii|iiiiiHi'i! Ill Imvc lii'i'ii 
 liii^ liy Salailin. ll is la It. in cirt', at its inoiitli, 
 licili;; ml lliriiiif;li miI'I cali'iiri'iiiis strata In the 
 ilcjitli 111' '.^rii ft., or to the Ii'Vi'l of tlic Nile, frniii 
 U'liit'li its water is iiiost prtilialilv ilcrivcil. A winil- 
 iiiK stairi'nsc ciinilnctH to its linttoin, l'"rtini llui 
 raiiiparls of llic cilaiicl is (lis|iliiyi'(l n iiolilc |iaiio- 
 riirim. 'I'o tlii' I'l. ari' seen tlic olii'lisk of lli'liti|iolis 
 ami tlic toinlis of tlui Maini'liikcs, litirkcil liy an 
 ariil desert; lo tlie S., the lofty qiiarries of Mount 
 IMokalteui, with ruined enstles, iiioiilderiii^ domes, 
 mid the remains of oilier edillees, aliove, lielow, 
 iind siretehiiif; lieiieatli the liei^hts far into the 
 jilain: SNV. and W. are tlii! ^irand aiinednct, 
 iiiosi|iios, and minarets, tlii^ Nile, the ruins of Old 
 Cairn, and the island and (troves of itlioda; lieyniid 
 the river, on the ISVV.. the town of (ilii/eli, amidst 
 jjroves of syeatnore, llj,'. and |ialni trees; still more 
 reimite, the pyramids of (ilii/.eh ami Snccara; and 
 beyond these the f;reat l^ihymi desert, N\V. and 
 N., may lie disenvered the ureen iilains of the delta, 
 HprinUled with white edillees; and N. to NI';., at 
 tlie feel of the speelator, is the city of Cairo, siir- 
 I'oimded in the latter direction by heaps of sand, 
 in lull, tliis fortress was the scene of the niassacro 
 of the Mamelukes, by order of Melieniet Ali. In 
 ]M2I, '1,000 individuals, and a j,'real portion of tlie 
 «'itadel, were destroyed by the explosion of a 
 powder inaf^azinc. 
 
 Much yet remains in Cairo to evince the success 
 with wliieli the dynasties of IMiissuhnan princes, 
 who f^ovcnied Kf,'y|)t previously to the Ottomans, 
 strove to beautify thiseitj'; and we mij^lit look in 
 vain Ihroiij^hout tlie modern Jsaraceuic world for 
 any works at all npproacliiiif; in excellence the 
 inelro|iolitan mnsqiie of Kl-A/.har, with those of 
 Snllaii Hassan, the Mnristan, Hassan Ain, VA 
 <!hnree. and Zittezenab, the j^ate called l!ab-el- 
 iS'asr (duttt of Victory), and one or two of the 
 other gates; the acincduct on the road to Old 
 Cairo, and the tombs of the Mamelukes. The 
 ])rincii)al mosque — that of El-Azhar, or Lazarus — 
 IS in the middle of the rtlo.st jiopuloiis quarter. 
 That of Sultan Hassan, said to be a work of the 
 l.'Jth century, is the larj^est mosque; its dome is 
 considered the finest in Cairo, and beneath it, in 
 its ir.terior, is the handsome tomb of the sultan 
 •whose name it bears. The body of the mosque is 
 closed by a bronze door beautifully inlaiil with 
 silver, and is siirroumled by a large 0])en square 
 court, with shrines under line bidd arches. This 
 mosque is also remarkable for the height of its 
 two minarets, the variety of mafblcs used in its 
 
 coiiHlriu'liiin, ilH nrnlK'nqiie nnirtitientu, iniwaii'.., 
 and inscriptioiiN, The iiinNipic nf Tiigliniiin is ili,. 
 iminl ancieiii of all, Imviiig been cri'ili'd iilmiii 
 NH7, by (he siilliin Acliiiied Kbii Tiigliniiiii, ilir 
 founder of it new ilyimHly In i'igypt, iieiiriy u 
 century before the city of Cairo was Imili,' || 
 coiisisiK of a \t\M o|Mii court Hiirriiiimleil by it 
 colniiiiade of marlile and granite pillars, xnppiiri 
 ing a diiiilile row of artlies of I he liilesl Sariiniiif 
 style, and beiiring a greiii ri'ti'inblanee in iIh' 
 I'alio lie Ion NMriiiijns adjniiiing the riiosqni' at 
 Cordova. It coiiliiins rich iiiid tleliriile iiir\iii^', 
 but is now iniit'h neglet'li'd. The miiii|iii> i,|' 
 lliissmi Ain, nil the cmiirary, is greatly llii-niigfil, 
 being cniiMidtrid by far llie niost hnly in l'.gy)il, 
 and siirpiissed in smictilv by few in the iMnliiiin. 
 medan slates. Iliitsiile t)ie walls nl' the cit\,aiiil 
 between them and the Mnkatleiii hill, arc tin' 
 celi'bniti'tl lniiili:< nf the Mmiielllke snvereigii^ 
 sniiii' of which are line bold spei'lmciiN nf iln' 
 i\rabi<' style nf iii'ihileitiire nf the Uttli and I lili 
 centuries: they are chiflly nf white miirlili'. iiii.l 
 aliiiiind with tine araliesipie nrnmiieiits ami ciir\ iii^. 
 There art' several niher eenieti^rleH in dilhrini 
 parts of the envimns. 
 
 Old Cairn, which is believed lo have snccccdiil 
 lo the town and forlre-<s of the I'.gypliiin llidiylnii, 
 is cliiclly occupied byCopIs: it cniitailis twelvi' 
 Clirlsiiaii churches, sniiie of Iheiii hirge tiii(| 
 siimplnniis biiililings; the ancient granaries, lienr 
 ing the inline of .loscph; a gmtto ciisilc, and ii 
 iniichine fur raising the water of the Nile inin 
 the ancient aqueduct. This, which is excliisivclv 
 a|iprnpriuted to the supply nf the eitmlel wiili 
 water, is raised nii arches, and prnceeils fmni Olil 
 Cairn bv a winding cniirte, and a h'liglh nf alunii 
 2 m. Ijoulac, the ]iort of Cairo, cotilaiiis ilic 
 )irinci|iiil inmiiifiiclures, ami is thi! seal of nmst 
 of the Iraile. Along llie banks of the Nile, iie- 
 tweeu lloulae and Old Cairo, embnsdnicd in 
 groves of orange, sycamore, and acacia, .'ire ;i 
 iinmher of handsome ]ialaces, the most cmi- 
 spicnoKs of which is that belonging In Ibrjihim 
 I'.'isha. 'I'liis palace is built in the Tiirki>li 
 style, and eniitains some handsnme aparlnifiih, 
 gamly furniture, ;iii<l ti large cnllectiniinl I'.gypti.iii 
 antiipiilies. Its extensive gardens and |ilaiii.'i- 
 tions oceiqiy the jihiin behM'eii it and C.'iiru; 
 towards the Nile the grounds are laid out in 
 terraces ornamented with statuary, which giw 
 them (piite a I'lnrnpcan api>ear,'incc. In the Nilr, 
 immediately opposite (,'uiro, are the two cmisiilt r- 
 able islands of Hoiilac and Itlioila; the latlcr. 
 Avhich is nearly 2 m. in length, is almost ciiiiicly 
 the prnperty nf Ibrahim I'asha, ami is laid mil iis 
 lileasiire-groinuls open to the )iublie. Its S. ex- 
 tremity, however, between Olil Cairo on one Imnk 
 and (iliizeh on the other, is ocenpieil by powder 
 mnga/.ines and mills. Here also is the celeliriilcil 
 Nilometer, a gradiiateil pillar in a large sqiiiirc 
 well, having a subierianean comnimiicatimi willi 
 the river. From a court leading to this stnnlinc 
 a tlight of steps descends to the water, callcil llii' 
 Steps of Moses, from n tradition of that being Ilic 
 spot where the deliverer of the Jews was ftuiini 
 amongst the biilrnshes. 
 
 Most of the higher class of Turks, and imli- 
 vidiials holding chief public em])loymeiits, liiivi' 
 their residences in Cairo, where tliey live iniinuli 
 siileiiddiir. These are iirincipally in thi! tn\\\\\xv nl' 
 El I'.shvkiiih; il was in the garden of one of tlicst' 
 that the l<"rench general Kleber was assassinatcil. 
 .Some of the public baths are very spacious. ;iiul 
 greatly ornamented ; and several public fmiiilaiih 
 are worthy of notice. There are about twenty 
 stone bridges over the canals of the city .iml 
 plain, but none worthy of special notice. Tlic 
 
CAIKo 
 
 ruffi'o-lioiMM HT« Ri'iiiru'ly vi-ry |>li»ln, nnil tho 
 »liii|M lint incri'ty Miimll rcci'iMCM ciiinilili' nl' linM 
 iiit( two or tliri'i' |M'rwitii4, |'!iti'li <u'|inral<' \nuar 
 In iiHiiJiily ili>viili'(| III )'iii< kiiiil III' corniniKlily. 
 
 Wilhin till" city Iho lute vlnmy, Mi'lumi't Ali, 
 t'NlaliliNlii'il ikii l'^t(<lHl^<' I'oMiin t'tirtiiry ; a ^iiii 
 liii-liiry, I'lirnlMliiti^ iiiiniiiilly jo.dtiii iiiii-<lx<'i'« ; n 
 iiiitniilm-lnry nf xmlilh's, liriilli">, l<iin|isiii'kM, Ih'Ih, 
 niiil t'vcry nllicr li'iitlii'r i'i|iii|inii'iit rciiuiriMl I'nr 
 llin iiriiiy ; « coiiiicr mill, ami iniirlmirry fur 
 liiiriMK Kiin-linrri'lN, liotti ilrivi ii liy MltMin ; a 
 liapcriiiill mill ullirr fai'turii'!', wliirli have cuii- 
 lilllM''l to rioliri.oll llllilcr till' |iatroiui^;r ol' IiIh <>iii'- 
 
 1 iMS(ir-<, 'I'licrc arc alNo larp' ^iiMpowiIrr ami null 
 l'< Int ract'irii's in ilir lu'l^'lilioiirliooil, .iihI a lar;^^' 
 tun yard on llic rnail to UhI I'airo. 'riictc i'ttnU 
 lisluiiciilN Nii|i|ily tlid cliiililti^ ami nn'niiiri'nK'MN 
 rrt|uiri'il for llu' army ami navy of K^yi'l an wi'll a^ 
 most arlicli'xiMiMiniinoniiMfilirunKlionl iln iintry, 
 
 Cairo has always Ii(>i>m, aud still Is, ili(< scut of 
 (lie lu'st wliMols lor Araliii- liicratiin' aiiil Moliani- 
 laiilan Ihcolu^ry, 'I'lic inosi|ii(> of \',\ A/.linr lias 
 Httat'lii'd toil a lilirary ami collc;^'!', where leclliri's 
 till llie Koran, law, <>tliii's, niatlieiiialii's, iiii'l 
 iiii'iliciiut are ilclivcreil In HimlentN, 'I'liere are :i 
 |iriinary Heliools in Cairo, vliieli afl'onl eiliication 
 to )iOO liiiys, who are also elotlii'il ami leil. At 
 llinilac there is a seliool of engineers, willi IHII 
 |iii|iiU, At Ahoosaliiil, within a mile of the city. 
 Is a preparatory srhool, with l,i"i(M) pupils; a schuol 
 of ini'ilieine, with 21)0 stmlenls; a veterinary 
 Hi'liool at iShoolira ; a seliool for aceoiinlants; mnl 
 M'liools for the artillery ami cavalry serviee at 
 (ilii/.eli, ami elsewhere in the vii'inity, 'I'lie prejii- 
 ilii'e apiiiist these; schools was at llrst so siroii^ 
 that the ^overninent was olili^eil to resort In coiii- 
 piil.ston to ohtain scholars, anil lo^ive I hem re^ciilar 
 iiay. The latter is still contimiofi ; Imt comptilsion 
 IS no loii^jer iieci'ssary to olitaiii pupils. Ite^i- 
 iiii'iital Hcliools are also estahlislieil, anil jiriniary 
 srliools are attaehcil to the greater iiiimlier of the 
 niii'iinieN. 'I'hrre is a printiii^r ])ress at Itoiilac, 
 frmn which a weekly paper in Arahic issues ; ami 
 at which niiiiiy popular works in history ami 
 Kiience arc |priiiteil for the iis(i of slmleiits, 'I'lie 
 jiriiicipal cliaritalile instil iitiuns in ami near Cairo 
 arc — a mililary hos])ital, in the siiuarc of V.\ 
 Ksliekiah, capahle of accoinmoilatin^ I,IHH) pu- 
 tii'iils; anolher lar^e mililary hospital, ahoiii a 
 (|iiarter of a lea^^iie from the (Mty, composed of 
 liiiir raiij^es of Imililin^s, enclosing; a sipiarc, and 
 containing III Hpaeioiis apartments, with Id licih 
 each; niiiseiims of physic and nalnral history: u 
 clieiiiical lahoratory, and all necessary ollices. In 
 lliecily is a hospital for the ICf^'yplian navy, with 
 two jjeneral hospitals; ami a iyin^?-in hospital, 
 miller the direction of a Freiicli fciiuili! practitioner, 
 with a iininliur of pupils. 
 
 Most European nations Imvc vice-consuls resi- 
 dent at Cairo; it is the seat of the patriarch of tlip 
 Ceplic church : there, arc liolli Konian Catholic 
 anil (irei^k convents, presided over liy dijjniliirics 
 nillcd patriarchs; ami Iwo Kiif^lish missionaries 
 lire estahlislieil in the city. Tliere arc, however, 
 winiparatively few Maropeaii inlialiitants in Cairo, 
 iiuil they arc for the most part i)oor and without 
 iiilluenci!. The city is nsnally garrisoned by 
 two refcimcnts of 1,001) men each, one stationed 
 within the cituilel, and the other encamped outside 
 the walls. 
 
 The neif^libourhood of Cairo ahonnds with places 
 (tnil objects ]M)ssessinjf great inlerest. 'I'lio |>yra- 
 miils, and tlie remains of the city of lleliopoliw, 
 till'. On of the Scriptures, are treated of iinihT the 
 •irtides (•ni/Kii and Ixivrr. About 2 m. N. from 
 Ihc city, the country palace of Shoobra. beloiij^iiiic 
 tu the iiaeha, is pleasantly situated on the bank of 
 
 CAJAZ/c) flna 
 
 llic rivw, mill ronnciieil with Cairo, for ilio whnlc 
 dlsliince, by a line aveiiiu' of acacias iiiid syca- 
 mores, A few III, III llie M'',, of Shoobra is the 
 Hieiie of the victory obtaiiieil by Klebcr over 
 Voiiicf I'acha, in Imii'o. 
 
 Cairo is suppoHeil to have been fniiiided by 
 ilanhar, an Arali ({ciieral iimlir the llrst Kaiiniile 
 caliph, in 1)70. The caliph Mm/, al'lerwards inailc 
 it III! capital of his iliiiniiiiuiis, wbicb ili^ilnciiiin 
 il rcl^ioied till the overllimw of the Maineliike 
 siiV('reiL,'iity bv llic Turks, in l.'ilT. It wii-i the 
 resiih nil' of ifie pacha of ilie Turkish prii\ ime of 
 i'-Kypi nil I7',)H, whiii it will taken by ihc l'"reiiili, 
 who ri'taincd it until its capliirc by the llnulish 
 amlTiirks in IHO|, Not lom,' afier the re iiiHiaie- 
 iiieiii of ilie Turkish rule ill I'km'*. Mehcmet Ali 
 bci'Mine viceroy ; and nnder liiiii Cairo luice more 
 becnine the cajiital of a viriiially indcpemlcnt and 
 c\lensi\c empire, 
 
 CA1TIIM'',SS, a marit, co. of Scipllaiid. occu|iy- 
 iiiK' ilf* Ml. I'Xlremily, haviiij; \V, Siiiberlaml, and 
 NM. and S. the ocean, |)iiMni't Head, on Ihc N, 
 shore of this co.. lal, M' liiy N,. loiii,'. Il*^ •.'•-'■ W.. 
 is the iiiosi iiiirlherly point In li. Itritain: area 
 "I"-' .-unare miles, or l.'i.'i.ToM acns, of which .•ibnvc 
 iio.oiM) are ciiltivaled, tl,l()0 waste, and the re- 
 mainiler moimtanis, moors and niossis. The 
 mountains lie principally nhii\^ the coiilincs of 
 Snllierland, teniiinalin;,' to the S, In llie .'■lii- 
 pcndiitis precipice called the ' )rd of Ciiiihncss, Itnl. 
 with this exceplion, the rest of the ciniiilrv is 
 mostly iindnlaiin^' or Hal, consisting principally nf 
 vitsl tracts of mossy imiurs, coveri'd wiili low 
 stunted heath, and desliliile of wmiil. Principal 
 rivers, Thurso, Wick, and Dimbcath, Owini;iii 
 its beiii|< nearly snri'oundi'd by the sea. the winleis 
 are less severe than mi^lil liave been i'.\pirleil, 
 but the Ninnmers are in general cold ami wd, 
 j'roperly in a few hands, and mostly entailed. 
 Kariiis ofien small; and the practice of umlir- 
 tetliiil^ and of stipulating for payment of a portimi 
 of the rent in services of various kinds iimiI to be 
 very prevalent. These practices are now, lioweviT, 
 on the dcclint'; and notwillistaniiiiig its iiinoU; 
 sitnalion, this co. has astonishingly improved 
 within the ))resent cenlnrv, by the opening of new 
 roads, consolidating small farms, taking in waste 
 land, improving the breeds of callle and sheep. A 
 great ninnber of superior farm-hoiiscs and ollices 
 have been constructed of late years ; but,geiiirally 
 speaking, the lulls of llie peasanlry arc still poor 
 and miserable. ()a(s, bear or bigg, and poiatoes, 
 are the principal crops, Wick and Thurso, its only 
 towns, arc, at present, the principal scats of the 
 ISritish herring lishery. I.imeslone is abiiinlaiil, 
 and is bnrned with turf. The inhab. of Caithin'ss 
 are of Scandinavian or (iothic origin ; and. except 
 along the border of Sutherland, Gaelic or llcr.se is 
 neither spoken nor understood. All ranks ami 
 orders spe.ak English, taithiicss contains 10 pars,, 
 ami bad, in I Mi I, a |iopiilalion oi' 11,1 1 1, living in 
 7.1.)7 inhabiled hoiisc^. It semis I ineiii. to the 
 II. ol'C. for the CO., and Wick unites with other 
 boroughs in returning a representative. Co. 
 eoiislilnency .''il2 in |MI)5. Tlie old valued rent 
 was 2,1)70/.; tin; new valuation for lHi!l-,'> was 
 102,0;!!)/, The gro.ss annual value of real property 
 a.ssc.s.sed to income tax was >SI,712/. in lf>.>7, and 
 102,0 Hi in \H{;>, 
 
 CA.IAZZO, a town of .Siaithern Italy, i)rov. 
 Caserta, cap. cant., on a hill near the. Vollnrno, 
 1 1 ni. XK. by K. Capna, I'op. ti.2(io in |Sil2. The 
 town is very ancient, and is ilefended by a castle 
 built by the Lombards, lie.sidus a line calhedral, 
 it has several other chnrches, with convents, a 
 college, a hospital. Jind a seminary. Its teiriiory 
 produces good wine. 
 
 
 i^i 
 
 )iii \ 
 
 mil., 
 
(lot 
 
 J'AI.AIlnZO 
 
 • 'M.AIIOZO, nil llll. lilWM nf N'rlir/iulil, lirnv. 
 
 < iiriiia*, ill (III' /Ainii'i, iii'iir tlic itiiiirimriM'r, ll in, 
 N. Ii.v i;. < ii|iini ; llll. M*^ Ci.i III, N„ Imin, ii; " I.'' 
 W, rii|i, ,'i,iHiii. ll liaoiiuiHiili'liiirrli, mill Ki'vcntl 
 \illiiKi'» niirriiiiii'liii^ ii : nmiiv nl' iin inluilt, nri' 
 iirMniMTciiiHriilili' liiriiiriN, 'I'ln' |nhi|ii hi lU iii'IkIi- 
 iHiiirliiiiiil aiMiriii Miili I'li'i'irii' i'i'Im. 
 (AI.AIllllA, II liiriiii'r jiriiv, <il' iId' Ni'ii|inlliiiii 
 
 l|nlllil|iiill«, ihc llliinl S. |iiilii4ill III' llll' killK'l"lll nl' 
 
 lliil>,liiiwi't'ii .l.'J lii'itiiil lirJ 7' ,\, llll,, mill l.i" ;!'.!' 
 mill IT'^ l.'l' I',. ImiK',; liiiviK^ N, lilt' prnv. I<ii'<ili 
 mill, M''„ llll' (iiill' III' ruriiiilii, ,S\V, iht' Sinnt nl' 
 
 Mi'MiiiiM, mill ill llll' riKl nl' iln fXli'lll llic .Mnlllrr 
 
 riMicmi : ii miiipriiiN ilii> ihiri' nl' ilif iwn jii'iiiii 
 Hiilii'< ill llll' I'Mrriiiilv III' lliily, mill Inriiii wliiil Im 
 
 Clllii'il till' I'nnl III' llll' llillimi I I, 
 
 III iiiiiNi |iniiiin, ( 'aliiliriii iillnrii't a MtriUitik; rmi- 
 
 lrai>l In llll' |H'llill'<llla nl' ( )lritllln,nll llll' ntlllT '•iili' 
 
 III' ilic Tiiraiiliiii' liiill'; iiN Mlmri'H art' i'\ln iii<'l\ ir 
 rt'^iilar, ami |lrl'^<l'lll iiiaiiv <'a|irH nr liriullmiil-' ; llic 
 
 |irllli'l|illl art' lllimi' nl I nlnlllli' mill Iti/./.llln, nil llll' 
 
 I'!, i >S|>ariiM'iitii, nil Ihc S, ; iiinl Vulirmin, mi llii> 
 \V, rmiHlN : llir |iriiiri|iiil i;iiII'm art' lliiwi' nl'Tiiraiitn 
 (will' ll ii iiiniNiH ill I'nriiiiii^) iiiiil Siiiiillmi', mi ilii' 
 11,; (iinjit mill S. I'liili'iiila, mi llic \V, nlinrcN. Ilv 
 far llic ).;rcalcr |iarl nl' Calaliriit In tiimiiiiaiiinii»; 
 llic |iriiii'i|iiil A|iciiiiiiii' cliiiiii ciilcrN il iil .Mmiiil 
 I'niliiin, mill riiiiH III llrNi ,S. near llic Nlmrc, iik in 
 N, Italy, then I!., anil lanily in a SW ilirci'linii In 
 ils I'Mrcinily. ll Kivcinlt'a InHymiil rcinmUalilc 
 lirmii'li III llic l'l„ the Silc-'c inmintain.i, which 
 nccimy niiwl itf the central ami wiilcr renimi nl' 
 Culaiiria. The A|iciiiiincN here alliiin a Kr*'"'*''' 
 hi'i^'hl than in the central |iriiv. nt' Ihc kill^^ ui' 
 NajileN, mill the hininiiilH nf iiimiy of llicin arc 
 cnvered with miihw I'rnin Dec. lili March, Mmitc 
 Sila i't l,ii,t'.' It,, Mmitc Alto (AH|irnnimilc), 1,1 in 
 I'l., aiiil Ihc pa^rt ol' Nicasiro, :i,'Jlii It, ahnve the 
 level III" the Hca. 
 
 The |ilain.-i arc lew, anil nl" iin ^rcat extent ; the 
 larj^'cKt arc in the Nl''„, mi the haiik^ nt' the Cniii 
 ami CiiHcilc, anil mi the I'l, cmiHt ; in the \V, Ihc 
 liiwImiilH cmiMi.'il. of only a KncccHnimi of iiarrnw 
 valicvM, The iiimintain xlrciiiii.s arc niiincrmi.-*, 
 liixcharKinK ihciiiKi'lvcM into Imlli .seas; the larp'r 
 rivers, uhicli, however, rc(|iiirc no |iariiciilar mil ice, 
 arc imislly in the central |iarlH nl' ( 'alaliria. There 
 arc many hiiiall lakes aronml the K. Hlinre, hut 
 iiniic wiirtliy of t sjiccial notice, ('alaliria |iriHhices 
 corn, rice, oil, ^\iiie, ti;;'riinii, ami I'rnilM of every 
 kind; silk, sn^ai', iiimina, wilil hmicv, tnliaccn, 
 salVrmi, resins, liijiinricc, iiiany inciliciiial |ilanls, 
 ami lives; forests of oak, elm, ami chcsnnt ; it has 
 also Veins of ^^olil ami silver, iron, iiiarhle, ami 
 alaliaster; anil yielils licsiiles crystal, rock salt, of 
 Ihc |inresi kinil, and siil|iiMir. (ircat iiiiinliers of 
 lish surround the coasts, and pinie aliminds in 
 its forests. .\o |iari of l''.iiro|ic |iresciits iimrc 
 ina^iiiliccnt sccncrv than ('alaliria. On cnteriii;; 
 il from tjic N., at ^tnllt(^ (iiordaim, Ihc nniliilalin^ 
 hills arc Inst; the A|ieiiiiiiies assnnii! a hold ami 
 sleep charaelcr, and arc hmkeii liy deep hollows 
 ami ravines, and dolhcd with forests of massive 
 linilier. The Itriitlian forest of .Sila, which occu- 
 pies to a uri'tit extent, all the S. part of C t'iira, 
 and the N. of ('. I'ltra II., consists of oak, elm, 
 sweet chcsnnt. hcccli; and pine and lir toward the 
 siitnmiis of the mountains: in other |)arts the 
 Apennines arc covered almost to their tops with 
 Woods of line cypress, laurel, hazel, olive, oran^^c, 
 and cedar trees; near C'ariati the manna ash |ire- 
 vails. There arc many pastures, liowcvcr, in the 
 re;rion of I,a .sila; hiii hahitalimis are very thinly 
 scattered thrmi;<li it, and towns or liamlcis arc 
 vi'ry few. Around the coast of (.'alaliria Cilia 
 there arc some cultivated tracts: that near Koscto 
 yields olives, capers, salVroii, corn, and colloii, on 
 
 CAr.AKIMA 
 
 the llluh Inilils near the neai tlie llll Iff I* PIllliMitid 
 alio at ( 'ii>>-aiiii, Trrcn arc wmitiii^ mi the l>aiik< 
 of llic Neto, and the coiiniry ahoiil Cnlrmic Ir i>ii>' 
 of il.c iiiiml niiinicrcniiiiK in ('alaliria, I'ri'in 
 Cmilmi/arn to .Npiillacc the ground ii level ; ilir 
 mill full of liriikcii shelly di'poiil, and I'erllli' In 
 corn, iiiai/e, ami iniiHicrry trees. .Vt Chiaravnlli' 
 the lli'ld are i'iilli\atcd vtllli lliiM ; the \ ilii m lur 
 lew, cherry ni'iharilM iiiiiiiirHU'', and Iii'iIkii nj 
 holly, wiHiilliiiic, mid suici liriiir, and liaii„i i,r 
 licarli I'liic, ami wild ntrawlicrry, S, Ciilahria Im^ 
 many Inwiis and xllla^es, Mirimis culture, and iliie 
 Moods; its scenery is decldcilly superior In thai nj' 
 Sicily, The eiix irons of tti't;Kio arc cili'liralnl l'..r 
 
 their licauly, mid its nci^dilimirh I is ucll stnrknl 
 
 with cattle; Irmn Tiopiia to .Mmitclcniie ijn' 
 ciiiiiitry is like a park, Iml ipiiic unciiclii>n|, 
 ailnrncil with lai|;c clniiijis nf oPim' Irecs. Thi'ii,'i< 
 In the Apenninc-i is a W'>>H|i'd \alc, ilirnii^h wjiii li 
 the Anuitola wimls; liiyond this is a lllar^'ll\ 
 cmnitrx ; and mi the Imnks of Ihc AmiiiIo is ihr 
 Held of .Maida. cclcliralcd for the iiclimi I'imi^Iii 
 llici'c ill iHiM'i, N.of Nii'iisi I'll ihc main mad pa-^i , 
 ihroiiKh a line plain cmliraccd hy the iiinniiiiiiii., 
 and mi Ihc liiill KrmimU hence to Ciiseii/a llir 
 hnaks in the wnmls display on either side vii'Ws 
 nf wiindcd vales, sprinkled w il h tnwns and villii).'r>, 
 and the sea licyniid, Snuie Hal ;;rminils pri'vail 
 N. of ( 'nscii/a, as nil the hanks of the I 'rati, wliirh 
 arc fertile in corn, vices, and miillierry-iri'i-, 
 hill .siilijecl to malaria; louurds the (iiill' <.t 
 rolicastm there is a tract of pasturi^ land, lecillii^ 
 many Mocks nf sheep, 
 
 ('alaliria is siilijcct to carthipiakcs : a iiin-'t 
 Icrrillc visiiatimi of this sort oii'urrcd in IT'*:!, 
 which swallowed ii|i a ^reat niatiy towns iiinl 
 villiip's. Near ,S. Itiisile there arc traces nf Inr 
 incr \ nlcanocs, and Ihc soil is niie mass nf lavn. 
 Several spnis arc retinwiied fir the eveiils nf 
 aiicii'iit liislnry; niimerniis are the sites ofaniiiiil 
 (iici'k cities, as .Syharis, Crotmia, Ac.; ncar('ii|ii' 
 Vaticano Sextus I'ompcius defeated at sea ijii' 
 iiavv of .Xu^'iislns. .Marie the (ioih, IhecoiiiiniTir 
 of Italy, was luiried under one of the liiluiiiin 
 sinauis of the ('rati. No Italian prov. of ei|ii;il 
 cxient possesses so many (iolliic remiiins. 
 
 'I he arts and manufactures of ('alaliria are in ii 
 very depressed and luickward state. Silkwnnni 
 arc cnliivaled larL;i'ly in smiic places, ami silk I-' 
 
 produced in tolcrahle ipianlity, and of ;; i 
 
 ipialily. It has a darker colour lliiiu in nilnr 
 .Neapoliian provinces, in cnnsei|iiencc nf fieilin; 
 the wnrins nil the leaf nf the red niiillieri'y, wliiili 
 prevails in every part nf this territory. The cnii- 
 dition iif the peasantry was formerly \vty had, Imi 
 has 1m ll ^{really anieliorated since the iiinirimni- 
 timi III' I lie Neapolitan dmuiii ions with the kiii;;i|i>iii 
 of Italy. Nevertheless, numerous hands of rnliliir^ 
 coiiliiiiic to show ihatlhe old lawlessness nf ik'>- 
 potisiii has not yet hccn overcome; while siiiii;r- 
 ulin^:; is very prcvalcni.and outlaws and nuinliciiiif 
 friars arc lioili alaindaiit. 
 
 The peasants arc neither mi tall nor so piml- 
 lookiii;;' as tho.se of Ihc nsl of Italy. The ouliiiii' 
 of their faces is African; their complexion a |i:ili' 
 olive, or copper-eolour ; their hair coarse, hiiuk, 
 and i'riz/.lcd ; lint they have licaiitifiil teeth, and 
 their countenances are expressive, and mixed willi 
 a look of melancholy and wildncss. They iirc 
 vi^iormis, a<;ile, active, and nervous; ipiiek, j,mv. 
 courageous, t'aillifnl, and lios|iitalde; lint irrilalilc. 
 and prone to pa.ssimi. In the N. a solidilv, lil<(' 
 that of the (Jcrmans, is manifest in their dispu-i- 
 tion; while, in the S., their manners apprmirli 
 more to those of the (Jreeks. Many (ireeks roiiN' 
 in S. ('alaliria, who are niticli liandsmiu'r in tluir 
 persons uiid drusn than thu Culabrcsc. The tlri.'>> 
 
J'AI.MIOKUA 
 
 nf (III' Intlrr viirii'< ; iir llir S, ii i-« likr llint ti|'iln> 
 >lriliiiii«, mill Iii'Iiim'If' iiri' uuni ; In llii' N. iliry 
 Hi'iir liiiln; Mil' iiiiii ilri'Nx in it 'li<>ri climi' jiicki'i, 
 mill I'liini- jiii-«>, liiitli III' lilui'k I'liilli ; li'iiilicrii 
 ^iilhTn, mill mIiih'm III' iiiiilri'Mt tklii, lii'il witli iIuhiK'* 
 nf llii' Kiiiiii'; or t'hr III II riiiii'*!' ImiK JiU'Ufl, 
 riitnllli; iliinil I'lir lirluw Ilir Hlll'it ; uiili' llimc lull 
 i>r |ilikilK; mill III nil ^'iiilrrs nf t'oitrMr cliitli, 
 liMlt'iii-il uiTiiH'* Willi I'linN: llii> r('tiiiilf>4 wrar ii 
 liiruc lull |iliiiii'i| |H'ttii'iiiit III' iliii;;y ni'iirli'l. 'I'lii' 
 I'liliklirrii' ftpi'iik II jii'i'iilijir lliiliaii iliiilcri, |irii' 
 
 linlllirillU till' r/ mill /, llli' /( illlil /<, lllikc, TllrV 
 
 iiri' i;i'iicnkllv |iiiiir; llii' iiiarriiiui' jmrtioii nl' a n\t\ 
 ii lrr(|iii'iitly iiiilv a xiiiall jiiirr iil' viiirv int, or 
 I'M'ii a niii;:!)' li'iiii Iri'r. (liiitU-s arr iiiMiii'r<>ii«, 
 iii'i'iiii) iii)( Ilii'iiii4i'l\ I'M ill making niiiiiII irnii 
 iiriii'li'M. 
 
 Ili'l'nri' llii' iliiMiiiiioii III' till' ItiiiiiiiiiM, I'aliiliria 
 wiH Niiliiliv iilcil illlil iiiiiiiy rt'iHililii'i, r<iriiiiii;,' |>ai'l 
 III Ma^'iiii liriniii, a ri'u;i<>ii tlnil rmiiiiriMcil all Italy 
 ?>, Ill Napli"*. Albr ilii' full of the \\ i"<lrrii iiii|iii'i', 
 it fell itiii'ri'.'<siv<'ly iiuilri' I III' riili'iif I t:|iiai'i'r. I'liru- 
 ilmii', ami Hiilitniiu'iitly uf tin' (inrk riii|ii'riiri, 
 wliii |iii.-«'i<mmI it till llic year !''.".•, wlii'ii tin' Aralu, 
 Irmii Sicily, I'staliliMlinl tliriiMi'lvi's in a I'l I'lirlH, 
 \sli('iii'i' lliry I'Ntinilcil their riilf oxer tin I'si of 
 till' |iri>viiii'('. A ri'iitnrv ami a half afirrwiiril-i it 
 ua.H I'limiiirri'il liy tlii' Nnnmins, wlini it fiMincil a 
 
 |wlll nf tilt' iliiniiniiillN nf liiilirrt (ini'<rMI'il, itllkr III 
 
 .\|iii;4liii, with till' lilHiiiry of which |iriivim'i' it^ 
 iiwn ifi Miilnciini'iiily cuiiin'cli'il. At tin' ii'iir^t'i- 
 iii/.aliiiii nf the nlil |irn\inci's, niiilcr the r'l'verii- 
 iiieiit nf the kill);' nf Italy, ill iKiil, Calahrli wax 
 ili\iileil iiltn the three new |iroviiice.s of CnMeii/u, 
 l!c;,';,'in, ami ( 'ataii/.ai'n. 
 
 CAI.AIlOlilI.V (an. Cnhiiiurni* XiihIiii), n city 
 nf Spain, priiv. Snria, nii the I 'iilaeuM, near itn emi- 
 lliieiice with the Mhrii; '21 in. SI'l, Ln^n'mln, 111 in. 
 SSW. I'amiiclnnii. I'np. 7,liMl in \h:,7. The city 
 liii-i a catheilral ami an episcopal palace. The 
 iii'l^'hhniirhniiil pi'niliii'cs ;^'rain, piiNe, lieiiip, tlax, 
 fruit, wine, iiinl nil. This was a l>iiniaii town nf 
 .siiiiie nnte, the reputed liirlhplace nf (^ninlilian. 
 
 t.'ALAIS, a sea-piirt tnwn nf Fnince. ilep, I'as- 
 (liit'alais. Clip, cant., nil the Straits nf l>iiver, '.'() 
 Ill, NNI']. Iliinliin'iie, nil the Nnrthern Itailway nf 
 France. I'np, l_','.»;il in iHiil. The tnwii is nf a 
 st|iiiirc t'lirin, ami is well I'lirtilieil; heinir siirniiimlcil 
 liy walls mill hastinlis, ami prnleclcil nii the W. 
 niile hy a strnn;{ citailel, cnniniMmliiit;; the Inu ii ami 
 liiirhniir, ami Inwanls the sen hy several furls; the 
 ciMiiitry rniind may also, in case nf necessity, he 
 liiiil under water hy nieaiis nf sluices. It is j;ene- 
 rally pretty well liuilt, the Ikuisch heiiij^ nf lirick, 
 mill tlie streets hrnad and stnii;;ht. It lalinnrs 
 miller a delicieiicy nf sprinj^-water, the want nf 
 which is hnt imIilVereiitly supplied hv the rain- 
 wiiter cidlccled in cisterns. In the iiiidille nf the 
 town is the /lime t/'aniirs, liaviiij^ rniii'.d it several 
 KiiihI hniiscs, and a haiidsniiu' lintel de Ville. The 
 ^'ate nil the road to Paris, eiuistriicted in lili^.'i, is 
 II lini' piece of architecture. The parish church, 
 irecti'd liy the I'jij^lisli, is a lar;;e, line hnililiii),', 
 with a Infty spire. A lower, near the Hotel de 
 Ville, serves as a lijilit-liotise ; the lij^lit, which is 
 rcviilviii^, lieiiifi elevated IIH I'l. above the h'Vel 
 iif the sea. A pillar has lieen erected on the spot 
 where Louis XVIII. landed on his return to Kranci! 
 ill 1814. The Jloti'l Dcssiii, enniprisinjx, hesides 
 an excellent inn, a theatre, |mhlie hat lis, ami a 
 IHistiiif^ estalilislinient, is the liiiesi liiiildiii;; in the 
 ttiwii. The raiii)iarts, which are planted with trees, 
 I'linii an iiicreealile iiroiiieiiade, Calais derives its 
 lirincipal iinpnrlaiice from its beiiif; the nearest 
 French port to Kiigland : it is only '2*>k in. I'rnin 
 the South Foreland, and 2'2i in. from Dover, with 
 which, ami London, and other Kiij<lisli ports, it 
 
 l'AI,ATAI'"I.MI (loA 
 
 linsilallv steam coinninnli'aliiiii. Tlii'innil «|i'nineri 
 Iniiii hover, which arrive twice ii ila\', iiiakeM llie 
 pa'>saui' ill iiIhiiiI one liniir ami a hall'. I'lie total 
 nniiiher nf passeiiKer'i I'tiiliiirkinu: and diieniliark 
 lii({ at Calais uimninted tn rj.i.n.i;! in the year 
 iMil.'l. (Kepnri nf Mr. Consul llothiiiii mi'tliK 
 Trade nf Calais.) The entrance tn the harlNiiir U 
 helwceii Iwii pierx, nearly | in, in Iciitjih. Fxcel- 
 lent aiichnra^i' Kronml existM in the miter mad, 
 I'rnin '.' Ill ;i III. N\V. I'rniii the liarlHiiir. Then' are, 
 a trihnnal nf coninierci', m'hiinls of hkilmuraphy 
 and de'.i^n, and a piihlic lihrary, uilh I'J.imiii nhU, 
 
 Maniil'ikctiires of la iiiplny some h.imiii hands, 
 
 ehielly In the snlmrh of St. I'icrre Ics Calai". 
 N'essi'ls are liiicd out lor the end, Inrrin;;, and 
 mackerel li<hirii's, and a cmisideralilc trude is car 
 rieil nil in sail ami spirits; wliil" the town dcrlMi 
 iniii'li liciielii Irmii the resort nf travellers tn aul 
 I'rnin l''.ii^land. It cnnininnicaics wiili the Aa, and 
 cnnscipieiitly with St. Oiiier, hy iiicmiis nf a canal 
 aliiiiil '.'I 111. in Icnulh. 
 
 I'jiward III. tonk Calais, after a leii^Mheiied and 
 ineiiioralile !*\ixv, in I.I 17, The ohsiinate re- 
 sistance made by the hesie;|ed so llllich incensed 
 the conipieror, that he delerniined to put In ilcalll 
 six principal burgesses nf the town, who, to -a\e 
 Iheir fellow-eiii/eiis, lidd inaKmiiiiniiiiisly placed 
 llieniselves at his dispnsal, lint he w/is driven 
 from it by the tens and entreaties of (^iiceii 
 I'hilippa, The l'!n;;lisli retained possession nf ( 'nlais 
 for iiinre than two centuries, or till l.'i.'iH, when it 
 was taken by surprise by the hue de (iiil-e. In 
 loin; it was taken by the .\rcliiluke Albert; but in 
 ITiltH was restored lo l^'rance by the treaty of 
 Vervins. It deserxes in be inenliniied, to the 
 honour of Calais, that it is one nf the xery few 
 towns of Krance in which no imliviihial li»t 
 his life nil accniint of politics diirin;; the llevo- 
 hitioii, 
 
 Calais (.St.), n town of Krance, de'p. Sartlie, 
 cap. arrniid., nii the Aiiille. 'Jii in. llsM. Mans. 
 I'op. :l,7:iti ill iHill, 'i'he town has a line (inthi>; 
 eliurch, a lar^c siinarc nr jilace, and l\in pronie- 
 mules; ami is the seat of a tribunal nt primary 
 jiirisdictinii, and of a cominniial colleni>. There 
 are niaiiul'actiiresof ser;;es, linen, and coiion stniVs, 
 with tanneries and ^lass-works. The count ly 
 round is barren, bein^ principally occupieil with 
 lieiilhs and I'orestM. 
 
 CALASCIHKITA, n town of Sicily, val, Ciila- 
 Imiisella, cap. cant,, I') in. NI'l. Calalaiiiseita. 
 l'o|). .^(Hiil ill IMti'J. There are in the environs 
 niinierous caverns. 
 
 CALATAHKLI-in'A. or CALTAIIKLLOTA, II 
 town of Sicily, val di tiiiKeiiti, nil the Mininiit nl" 
 a Inl'ty iiiounlain near In, and ovcrlnnkiiiu;, the 
 courst^ of the river of ihi' suiiie name, lit in. N I',. 
 Sciacca. I'op. ri.d'JI in \W'2. The town is very 
 dilliciilt of access. TrUxulii, a stron;;city nf an- 
 cient Sicily, was situated within a slmrl distanco 
 nf the nindern tnwii. This city is I'ainoiis in his- 
 tory, I'rnin its haviii;; been the stronghold of the 
 revolted slaves diiriii}^' the ilaiij,'erous seivile iii- 
 siirreetinii that brnki- nut in Sicily, l((l or 10;') 
 years n, c. Owiii^c to the streii^tlli of the cily, 
 and the talents of their leader .Vtlienio, the iii- 
 sur;,'eiils were abli^ to defend theinselves for I'lnir 
 years; and were not subdued till a iMiisiderable 
 army, headed by Aqiiiliiis, the cnlleajfiienf Mariiis, 
 was sent a;;aiiist tlictn. (Ancient I'niversal lli.-r., 
 xiii. 2(1, Hvo. eil.) In more nindern times, l.'n^fer 
 I. defeated the Sarneens, with great slaughter, in 
 the viciiiitv nf this town. 
 
 CALATAI'TMI, a town of Sioily, val di Tra- 
 jiaiii, cap. cant., 7 in. S\V. Alcanio. I'op. !),l!b.'{ 
 III IK(!'-'. The town is ugly and ill built. Its 
 castle, now in ruins, stands on the snniinit of ii 
 
 ^i<; 
 
 l*i! 
 
 
«(I0 CALATAOIUONK 
 
 bill, in n cnmmnniUiiK Mitiintion, The environs 
 arc well (Miltiviitcil, 
 
 CALATACilltONK, or (;Ar/rA(iII!ONi;, ii 
 town of Sirily, viil ili Cntiinin, cnp. (liKtr„on llio 
 (Icflivitv of .'I mountain, !!.') ni. S\V, Cntaniii. To)). 
 2.'l,ti72 ni lNt!2. The town HtinidM in a Halniirious 
 »<itnntion, and is Maid to Ixt the richest and ix-st 
 p)V('rni'(l city of Sicily. Streets clean, MpaciouN. 
 well paveil, and tolcrahly li^hlcil; many of the 
 paljices and other puhlie huildin^ts ore handsome, 
 and the market is well snpplied with jtrovisions at 
 moderate rates. It is the seat of a hishopric ; has 
 s(?veral ehnrclies and convents, a royal college, a 
 hospital, and an <ir|ihan lK)s|iital. The inhahitanis 
 are industrious, and have made flic ^jreatest i)ro- 
 licieiicy of any in the island in the useful arts. A 
 kind of soft argillaceous earth is found here, and 
 manufactured into tcderahle imitations of the 
 Saxon porcelain ; fjroups of lifjures, in the various 
 costuines of Sicily, are also formed from it Avitli 
 iutinite tasle, The nei^hlMiurlKuiil affords sattron 
 and ycdlow ochre, bistre, soda, and otlier coluurinj,' 
 materials. A p-and festival and fair is held for 
 fifteen (hiys in Ocfoher, during which fjrcat sales 
 are made of cattle, cloth, honey, wax, iwulfry, 
 and af;rieultural produce. It is supposed, from 
 tlu! existence of sepulchres aiul other remains of 
 antifpiit} , to occupy the site t)f the Hyhia Jlwrea 
 of the aticiinits. 
 
 CALATAXISKTTA, a town of Sicily, cap. 
 prov. of the same name, in a larfjo and fertile 
 plain, near the rifjht hank of the Salso, (12 m. SK. 
 ralernio. I'op. lis,;")ll in ]8(i2. The town is well 
 huilt; has hroadand straight streets, a fine square; 
 is defended hy a castle, and has a civil and crimi- 
 nal court. In its environs, at a ])lace named Terra 
 I'ilata, are two salses that emit hydroj^en f^as. 
 
 CALATAYUD (an. liilbilin), a city of Spain, 
 ArajiTon, cap. district, on the jalon, at its con- 
 fluence with the Jiloca, at the foot of a hill, 4.5 m. 
 S\V. Siirajjossa, 115 m. XK. Madrid, on the railway 
 from Sarapissa to jMadiid, l'o\), i).H:!() in lHo7. The 
 town has a lar^^e sciuare full of shops ; i)leasant 
 and shady promi^nades, a IVjuntain with eleven /<Y.s 
 d'l'iiii, a.ul a mafiuilicent luvadcrox an episcopal 
 jialace; a hall for the meetinns of the .Junta; a 
 liouse of industry, two liosi)iliils, and barracks for 
 'l.OOO troops. Streets and houses repdarly liuilt ; 
 there arc three bridj^es ovr the river. It has 
 several clemefitary schools, and two {jrannnar- 
 Kchools, with manufactiu'es of common cloths, 
 brown paper, and leather. The soil aboinds in 
 cathartic salts, and there are several chalybeate 
 springs, and extensi>\i caverns, from Avhose roof's 
 hauK concretions, said to be sulphate of lead. 
 This wiia a Itoman ( >vvn, and is celebrated as 
 heiu{^ the birthplace of Mar'ial, who has eulogised 
 it:, manufactorv of arms. 
 
 C'ALATIiAYA LA YIK.T\, in Spain, the re- 
 mains of the ancientcity of C^alatrava, the Or^'tum 
 or Oria of the liomans. on the (iuadiana, ])rov. 
 J,a Mancha, 12 NK. Cuidad Heal, 1.5 m. N. Alma- 
 j^ru. The order of the Knights of Calatrava had 
 its origin here. The city being menaced by the 
 Moors, in 1158, was abandoned by ;he Temi)lars, 
 who had held it for ten years, and Sancho HI. 
 liromisecl it to any one who would '.nidertake its 
 defence, ^{ayniond, abbot of Fitero, and Diego 
 Velasquez, offered themselves for the task, and 
 were furnished with money, arms, and mu- 
 nitions. A crusade was proclaimed, and jjlenar^, 
 indulgences were granted to iill wlio should be 
 found at the defence of Calatrava. The Moors, 
 alarmed at the report of these i)rc])aiations, aban- 
 doned their enterjirise, and Velascpiez, in his turn, 
 made several incursions into their territories. On 
 this, the king conlirnied the grant, with new 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 donations. The order wufl then regularly orga- 
 nised, in two classes, one for the service of the 
 choir, and the other for the Held ; hut the knights, 
 on the death of I{n>-mond, separated themselves 
 from the monks, and chose a grand master distinct 
 from the ablMit, who returned with his monks to 
 Fitero. The knights sid>se(piently ac(|nired gn'al 
 fame and riches in their contests with the Moors, 
 hut having sustained serious rev<Tses, and quarrel- 
 ling among themselves, the jiope adjudged the 
 grand-niaslership in peqietuity to the crown (jf 
 Spain. 
 
 CALCUTTA, a celebrated city of Ilindostiui, 
 ])rov. Iteugal, cap. of the Ilrilish dom. in the Fast, 
 and seat of the supreme govennn., in a level tract 
 on the F. side of the Ilooghly river, an arm of the 
 (Janges, aliont 100 m. N. of the Itav of llengid; 
 lat. 22° 2;i' N., haig. 88° 28' K. I'op. 4i;!,lN-i in 
 18(!1, of whom 274,3;ir) IIin(h.os, aiul 110,018 Ma- 
 honu'tans. This ])op. is exclusive of about lHii,o(iii 
 dwellers in the environs who come daily into tlio 
 city. On aiJiiroacliing Calcutta from the sea, the 
 stranger is struck with the magnifu'ence of its 
 apjiearance ; the elegant villas on each side of the 
 river; the govcunment botanical gardens; the 
 spires of the churches and temples, and the strmii; 
 and regular citadel of Fort William. Includiii:; 
 Fort William, the Fsplauade, &c., Calcutta ex- 
 tends along the bank of the river, from Kidderporc 
 to (Jossipore, a distance of (5 m., with n variable 
 breadth, hut averaging about I A m. A haniisumv; 
 quay, called the Strand, is continued for 2 or ;> in. 
 along the bank, from the point at which the espl.v 
 iia<le meets the city : it is raised 40 ft. above low 
 water mark, ami furnished with about thirty prin- 
 cipal f/liaiits, or flights of steps, for landing. Tiio 
 Ilooghly is here about a mile in width at liigli 
 water, or at least twice as broad as the Thaiiie.H 
 below London Bridge, and is, like that river, 
 crowded with shijiping; vessels of all descriptions 
 being able to lie almost close to the quay. The 
 resiliences of Furopeans are mostly detached from 
 each other, built in the Grecian style of archi- 
 tecture, and situated in Chowringhee (the S. 
 portion of the city, lying at the edge of a |iortiiiii 
 of the esplanade), or in the suburbs in that quarter, 
 as Garden IJeach, where the villas exhibit much 
 beauty, and are surrounded by plantations ef 
 mango, Jack, and other fruit trees. The cifailol, 
 or Fort William, which stands near Kidderjjore, 
 about i -n. SW. the city, is not only the strongest 
 and n'ost complete fortress in India, but in the 
 IJritish dominions ; it is, however, large, and would 
 require for its jjroper defence, 10,00() men. It is 
 an o^'tagon; the iivc faces on the land side are 
 regular, the three others, toward the river, vi'.ry 
 according to circumstances. The bastions have 
 very salient orillons, and every curtain is co\ereil 
 witii a large half-moon, mounting twenty-six 
 ])ieces of cannon : the outworks are very extensive, 
 Imt not much raised above the level of the sur- 
 rounding country, and Fort William does wit, 
 therefore, nuike an imiiosing appearance frurn 
 without. It contains an excellent arsenal, anil a 
 cannon- 'lOnndrv' ; its interior is beautifully liiiil 
 out in 'valks and gr.iss-phits, sha<led with rows ef 
 trees, iatemiixed with jales of shells ami caiuion 
 balls. It is usually garrisoned by. one stMui; 
 luiropcan regiment, two native nigiments, and :i 
 strong detachment of artillery ; was built by Lunl 
 C'l.^ soon after the b.ittle of Plassey; and lias 
 C(jst from first to last 2,000,000/. Calcutta has no 
 defence other than this fortress ; the ditch and 
 mound, constructed by the early settlers as a barrier 
 against the Maiiratfas, were tlostroyed by Marq. 
 Welleslej', and th.eir place is now occu])ied hy the 
 ' circular road,' which marks the bounilary of il"-' 
 
lil)ortirR of rnlciitlft. niid of tlio ndministrntion of 
 Kii^Iih)! linv. Ilctwccii tli(! flirt iiini tlu' city tluTc 
 is an extciiKivc ojicii |iliiiii oiillcil tlu' KspliiiiiKlc, 
 iM'iii^ a roiitinuMtiiiii df tlii< ^liicis, tlicfiisliiDiinhlc 
 rcsurl for (Iriviii^; aixl riilin;;. Oii it is tlic p)vi'rii- 
 inciit-lidiisc, in ii line with wliicii llicrc is ii riui^'c 
 iif very lunxlsonu' (iwcliinn-liiinscs. Cliowrinnlu'c, 
 fiimu'rly n collcctiim of Imts, is now u villiif^c of 
 |)!iluO('s, inul extends for a eonsidcralilo distance 
 nilo llie foiMitry. Iteliind ("iiowrincliee, tlie native 
 or ' liiacli Town ' streleiies alon;; the river to tiie 
 N., and exhil)its a reniarkalile contrast to ilie part 
 inhahited hy Kuropeans. Its streets arc dingey, 
 narrow, and crooked, and consist of luits of eartli 
 haked in tlie snn, or of twisted handxios, inter- 
 spersed here and llicre with ruinons hrick hazaars, 
 jiools of dirty water, cocoa-tna-s. and little pirdens, 
 and a few larj^e and fine, l)Mt j^eiierally very dirty 
 lionses, of (ireeian an'hitecture, the residences of 
 wealthy natives. There are some snndl niosipies 
 ( f iiretty architecture, and very neatly kept, and 
 some |)a.i;o(las, hut mostly ruinons and decayed; 
 tlie religion of the iieople of IJeiinal hein^ chielly 
 eons|)icuons in their worshii) of tlie (ianf.''es, and 
 ill some iinly iiainted wooden or plaster idols, 
 with all inuiiner of heads and amis, whicli are set 
 lip in <litl'erent parts of t\w city. Under tlie ad- 
 luinistnition of the jMarqiiis of Ilastinfj;s, larfje 
 sums were sju'ivt in the improvement anil venlila- 
 tion of Calcutta ; a street tlO ft. widi^ was carried 
 tlirou^jh its centre in its loiifrest diameter, and 
 several squares were laid oi)('n, each havinj? a 
 tank or reservoir in the middle, surrounded hy 
 planted walks. The lar^'est sipiare, which is near 
 tlie S. extremity, is i')(l() yards on each side, and 
 ciiiitains a tank UK ft. deep. There are no covered 
 ways, as in the cities of Persia and Turkey, 
 llioiiifh, froni the violent heats and rains, such 
 would be very desirable. The bazaars in the 
 native town are very inferior, and the shops and 
 warehouses have all a mean ap|)earancc : the 
 iiiihlic biiildiiif^s there are few and small, and there 
 IS not a single minaret in the whole jilace. The 
 most remarkable ])ul)lic edilicc is the {;oveniment- 
 liouse, which was hnilt by the Mari|uis Wellesley, 
 and consists of a centre and four winf;s, connected 
 tdnetlier by circular passr.f^es, so constructed as to 
 (il)tain the l)eiielitof the air from whichever quarter 
 the wind blows. The wiuf;s contain the private 
 apartments, and that on the NK. the council- 
 roiini ; the centre has two very tine rooms, the 
 tipper one of which is the hall-room, and both arc 
 lip;hted by n i>rofiisioii of lustres, while at the 
 same time they exhibit much f^ood taste: the 
 aivhitcctiire of most of the buildiiif^ is of the Tonic 
 iivder. The otiicr chief edilices are the town and 
 ciistoni-hoiises, the mint, St. .John's cathedral, 
 and another Knj^lish church, all of which are con- 
 tifjuous to the f;overnmeiit-lioiis(! ; the Scotch 
 I'resbyterian church, a very handsome structure; 
 the Portuguese, (ireek, and Armenian churches; 
 the courts of Justice, barracks, naol, and hospitals. 
 There arc many ])ubli. coUet^es and benevolent 
 institutions; as the Hindoo, JMoliammedan, and 
 Aiif;io-Indian collef,'es, and the college at Fort 
 William; the Calcutta grammar, free, and other 
 charity schools; the military and female orphan 
 asylums; and poor-funds; besides miiny bible, 
 niissionary, and other religions associations. On 
 the. X \V. side of the river arc the extensive suburb 
 of Ibiwrah, opposite the ' Pdack Town,' and the 
 liiitaiiic garden, opposite the citiidel. Near the 
 latter is tlic bishop's college, a handsome building 
 111 the Elizabethan (Jotliic style, occupying three 
 silk's of a quadrangle lot) ft. square, erected in 
 b^'20, for the education of a clerical body, by the 
 Siiciely for the Propagation of the Gospel, at the 
 
 CALCUTTA 607 
 
 suggestion of Ilishnp Middleton. The boinnic 
 garden is lieantifnily laid out, ami covers IlnO 
 acres of ground: between it and the bishop's col- 
 lege there is an extensivt! plantation of teak, 
 which, allhongh not in its native soil, thrives ex- 
 ceedingly well. There are several dry and oilier 
 docks on both sides the river, in which vessels of 
 any size maybe built and repair<'d; but the ships 
 constructed here are of inferior diiratiility to those 
 built at Itombay, in consequence of the framework 
 being of inferior wood, and the visible portions 
 and upper works alone of teak: ail the limiter in 
 Calcutta also, wiHimit the fact being outwardly 
 obvious, KiitTers ^freatly from the devastations of 
 the white tint. In every part, this city is covered 
 by an amazing nuiltilnde of little pools, or reser- 
 voirs, yet the soil on wliiidi it stands is remarkably 
 deliclent in springs, none having been met with 
 even after boring down I Id ft., till IH2M, jiiid sub- 
 sequently, when Dr. Strong tbtind some in isolateil 
 spots, at a depth of "(I ft. The draiiiings of the 
 place, with siitdi iiortions of the refuse as arc not 
 devoured by crows, kites, vultures, adjutants, and 
 liariah-dogs. which abound in the streets, and iit, 
 night by foxes and jackals from the surrounding 
 country, are conveyed away, by a canal, to a 
 large shallow salt lagnne about i^ m. distant, to- 
 warils the K. IJetween the city and this lagiine 
 tli(! country is tilled with gardens, orchards, and 
 villages, but is little inhabited by Kiiroiteans. The 
 tract to the N. is drier, bejilthier, and mori; open ; 
 and the two great roads to Dumdum, the artillery 
 cantonment, and Hjurackpore, the country seat of 
 the governor-general, lie over a vast extent of 
 fertile country, divided into rioe-lields, orchards, 
 and gardens, and swarming with ]io|iulation. The 
 vicinity of Calcutta is very pleasing; as soon as 
 its bonndarv is piissed, the roads wind through 
 beautiful villages, overhung with the finest and 
 most (jicturesque foliage the world can show, of 
 the banyan, the palm, the tamarind, and the 
 bamboo. Sometimes the glade opens to |)lains 
 covered with the rice-harvest, or to a sight of I hi! 
 broad, bright river, with its ships and wooded 
 shores; sometimes it contracts into little winding 
 tracks, through fruit-trees, gardens, and cottages; 
 the gardens fenced in with hedges of aloe and |piiie- 
 ainile ; the cottages neater than those of ("alciitta, 
 and mostly of mats and white wicker-work, with 
 thatched roofs and cane verandahs, with gourds 
 trailing over them, and the broad, tall plantains 
 clustering round them. The rainy season at Cal- 
 cutta generally begins about .June Ii, anil termi- 
 nates Oct. 14. The average fall of rain for tlirec 
 recent years was o'J'Hii inches ; the imniial 
 mean of the barometer is './ilvtit ; of the ther- 
 mometer, 78° 1.'$'. The most ple.Tsant and tenqic- 
 rate iieiiod of the year is from Oct. to March ; by 
 the middle of April, the weather becomes oppres- 
 sively hot, often rising to 100° Falir. 
 
 Calcutta enjoys a very extensive internal nnvi- 
 g.ition, by means of the (Janges, and its numerous 
 arms and tributaries; and it monopolises the 
 whole of the external trade of Ikngal. The total 
 value of the imports into Calcutta, iiicludiiig 
 treasure, amounted to 20,-21l I, !)!.'!/. in l«(l(); to 
 1 0,1)2-1,07.')/. in 1801 ; and to II,-J'J1.1IH7/. in ISli2. 
 The total value of the exports was l'J.I2.').H07/. in 
 l-SW); 1 ■2,577,700/. in 18()1 ; and l-J,7(M,!):il/. in 
 18()2. During the same three years, the sliifiping 
 of Calcutta was as follows. In 18U0. there entereil 
 'lC>-> vessels, of 117,801 tons, and cleared 1112, of 
 l.'')7,.')00 tons; 1801, there entered 220 vessels, of 
 101,22.5 tons, and there cleared .S.')8, of 101,82.'! 
 tons. Finally, in I8(')2, there entered 128 vessels, 
 of l!).8,2;U toils, ■•mil there cleared 718 vessels, of 
 2.j1),281 tons. The statistics of shipiiing here 
 
008 
 
 CALCUTTA 
 
 given nrc pxcIiihIvc of the codstiiiK IriKlc, wliiili is 
 very I'lmsiiliTiililc Iniiunicralilc sumll craft diiily 
 nriivd friiiu tin- iiit<ri(pr, Imifii with tin; iiroiluci- 
 iiiiil iimmifHftiircs of tlic (iirt'iicnt iirovH. ; nixl tlie 
 ♦ iilciiftii market is well su|)|(lie(l with an ahiiii- 
 (laiiee of excellent provisions : pmie, sniiies. wild 
 (lucks, teal, and ortolans, arc eomimratively cheap ; 
 slall-fed venison is usi'at as in Kiinland,lmt with- 
 out tlavonr: an ininieuse variety of fruits of line 
 (|ualily Hfipear on Knropean tai)les; and an ex- 
 quisite luxury is met with in the ta/Hiiiwi or 
 nianp)-lisli (sii called liecaiise it. is in season with 
 the nnni;j;o fruit), and which has heeii liilherto 
 fouinl oidy in the rivers of Hen(,'al, the Itinnun 
 empire, and the Camhoja rivers. 
 
 The, commercial iirosperity of Calenfta lias 
 ^Creatly iiutreased since tlie eslahlislnnent of a 
 railway system ni India. The Calcutta and South 
 I'lasiern railway was opened throuf^hont .Ian. 'i'ind. 
 I«(i;i; the ' Kastern Henyal,' from Calcutta to 
 J)acca, was oiiened Nov. ir)tii, lH(i2 ; and the 
 'East Indian,' from Calcnlta to the Northern 
 I'rovinces, was opened as far i.s lleuares, Dec. 
 22nd, 1MI!2. lly means of tlu'S(^ lines, I lie city has 
 become one of the central points A' railway com- 
 mimication in India. * 
 
 The population of the city is nneqnally distri- 
 buted : its N. and central portions, es))ecially the 
 former, are very densely inhabited; the S. part nnich 
 less so, owiiif^'to the dwelliuKs of Kuro])eansbeiu^ 
 so much more widely dispersed. (Jalcntta is the 
 seat of the chief I'rotestant liisho]i of India of the 
 Established Church of Kufilaiul; of the supremo 
 courts of justice; of one of the courts of circuit 
 and appeal for the ((residency <if l!enj,'al ; <(f a 
 vicar-apostolic of the Itomish ehuri'h, with autho- 
 rity over II priests and Ut churches, om; of which 
 is in that city. 
 
 Kuri>pcini society in Calcutta is jjny and c(Mivi- 
 vial ; and fetes and diinu'r-pnrtics, both uinnerous 
 and splendid, are ^iven by the f;dvernment ollicers 
 and wealthy jirivate in<lividunls. A certain decree 
 of formality and stillness is, however, very preva- 
 lent : and the lirahmiuical institution of rasirs 
 would appear to have communicated itself to all 
 ranks and classes of iMiropeans. 
 
 llishop lleber observes in his ' Journal ' that the 
 larffc dinner-parlies, in addition to tiie ffeoirraiihical 
 situation, and other local pecniiarilics ; the aspect 
 and architeciurc of the i)lace; the multitude of 
 servants, and want of furniture in the houses, 
 tend, except in respect of climate, to {i'ive ( 'alcutta a 
 strikiiif; resemblance tol'etersbnr};-. ]!esidesi)rival(! 
 ])arties, there are public sidiseriiition assemblies, 
 with coHrcov/^mw/, concerts, and a theatre, I houfih 
 the latter is but little frequented. It is usind with 
 Euroiieans to rise early, the jileasantest ])art of the 
 day bein^ the first df the morninjr; after ti/fin 
 (liinch), which is taken between 2 and iJ o'clock, 
 many persons, durinfi the summer heats, retire to 
 slee|ifor two or three hours ; at sunset tln! fashion- 
 able drives of the ICsiilanade are crowded Avitli 
 European vehicles of all sorts, and the dinner-hour 
 soon after succeeds. The e(|uipa;;i's of Calcutta 
 einlirace barouches, chariots, tilburies, j^i^s, itc.. as 
 in Knu'land, drawti by a breed of horses which 
 have licen ^really imjiroved throui;h the f^overn- 
 ment stud and im|)ortations from luirope and 
 Arabia: but a iirotes(pu> and ))eculiar a]i])earance 
 strikes the eye of the European in the intermixture 
 of Asiatic costmncs. and black coachmen, in the 
 scene. Jlost visits at a short distance are |iaid in 
 ])alan([uins, the bearers of which are from lialasore, 
 Ikhar. or the northern Circars, and run silently, 
 bare-headed, and almnsr naked, 'i'lu' Annlo-lndian. 
 or lialf-easle population, tin' iiroduct ol' ;ni inter- 
 course between Europeinis and natives, are more 
 
 CALDKR 
 
 numerous in Calcutta than anywhere else in India ; 
 they aw intelli;;eiit, iinlnstrions, and p'nerallv 
 well educated, and possess a defrree of considerai ion 
 in the eyes of the native population, thon^Mi tlicv 
 ar<^ without any ]M)litical iiilluence. All of tlicm 
 speak En^'lish, as well an the native dialect. 
 Many of tin; half-caste females, dauf,'hters of mo- 
 thers of lii^'h caste, arc educated in tlu! senniiarics 
 in ami near Calcutta, and often marry Europeans, 
 when they ar(( said to make most imexeeptioniiliic 
 wives and mothers: their children, in this case, 
 lose in <(ne or two ftenerations all distinctive mark 
 of their Indian (ui^'in. A considerable nnmlivr of 
 till' new /emiiidais, and the retired traders who 
 have beconu^ wealtliy, reside in Calcutta; where 
 they have iKUises handsomely furnished in tlie 
 Knroiiean style; drive the best horses and e(|iii- 
 pa^es; have adopted ICin^lish habits and tables; 
 speak the l'",nttlisli lannnaKc ; enter into the polilics 
 <if the Itritish empire, and are not i;;'iii>riuii (if 
 I'.n^li.sh literature. With all this, the educntinii 
 of their sous is often miserably ncfilected, and 
 they tir-n (Mit mere s])endtlirifts; liut the fact 
 is siillicieiitly and fcenerally manifest, that the na- 
 tive inhabitants of all ranks show a willin;;- 
 iiess to learn and sjieak Eiif^lish, an increa>iii^' 
 anxiety to send their children to school, ami a 
 >,Towiiif5 neglect of caste and other national prc- 
 jiidices. 
 
 The great hulk of the natives have a very Imil 
 character, being prolicients in intrigue, falsehiiinl, 
 and chicanery ; (irone to perjury, theft. ganiMiiii;, 
 and all kinds of dishonesty ; and of a cowanlly 
 disposition : but it is generally aihnitted that ilie 
 morality of the native inhabitants of Calcutta is 
 at a lower ebb than that of those in the pro\imi.il 
 districts. A perceiitible amendment in the iiKir.-iIs 
 and pursuits of the jieople is, however, said to lie 
 taking ]ilace. The liengalee <lialect, which liiul 
 long been looked on with much prejudice by the 
 natives of India, is now reviving, and varieus 
 Avorks are iniblished in it every ye;ir. Nuiiiernns 
 periodical works, and newspa|iers, issue fnnn the 
 t )iress. There are several distinguished Hcienlilic. 
 i literary, and other associations in Calcutta; as tlie 
 Asiatic Society, which owes its origin to Sir '. 
 .loiies; the Medical and Physical, Agr! iiltiiral 
 and Ilorticultnr.'d Societies; the Chamber of Cuin- 
 inerce, and the Trade Association. 
 
 In KiDH thellritish factory was removed tliitliiT 
 from Ilooghly; but in the early iiart of lliei.ist 
 century Cahnitta was bntajialtry village, lielon;,'- 
 ing to the Nnddea district, and inhabited chieliy 
 by husbandmen. ( 'howringhee was also but a stivi;;- 
 giiiig village, and a forest jungle, interspersed lure 
 and there with jiatches of cultivated land,< uveri'il 
 what is now the ICsplanade, so late as IT.'ifi. In 
 that year Suraja-ul-Dowliih, the soubahdar nf 
 Heligal. dispossessed tlie English of theirsettlomt lit; 
 on which occasion Ml! Englishmen, who had liiin 
 left to defend the factory, were shut up at night in 
 the black hole (a jiart <)f the old fort, taken ilnwii 
 in ISIS), of which number only 2;) were reuiiil 
 alive next morning. Col. Clive, with some Jbulr.is 
 troops, n^took Calcnlta Jan. 1, 17.37; since wliicU 
 it has been quietly retained by the Ih-ilish. and 
 risen to its ]iresent degree of importance. 
 
 CALDEf; i. river of England, in Vorksliiro, 
 rises on the SE. side of Holesworth-hill.in ihegr.niii 
 central range of English nioimtaiiis, and liouin^' 
 in an E. direction, at a little <listance from Ibililux 
 and Dewsbiirv, and past Wakeli(dd, imitcs with 
 the Aire at Castleford. This river is of gnat im- 
 portance in the canal system of Vurkshiiv ami 
 E.-iiicashire, and has been" rendered navigahlc f'>ni 
 great jiart of its course. Another river "I Im' 
 same name rises on the W. side of the same lull. 
 
CALICUT 
 
 nnd flowiiiK W., fallH into tlip K'ilililo. It is of very 
 inferior iin)M)rtaM('('. (Scf IIdmiikk.) 
 
 (.'AUCIJT, a ninrit. (Ii»tr. ui' lliiulimtan, prov, 
 ^Inlnliar, wliicli hco. 
 
 (-'aijcut, n marit. town of Ilindostan, cap. of 
 tlic alMivc diNtrict, and of the prov. Malabar, ^i.'t ni. 
 SVV. Serinpipalani, and itWl rn. WSW. Madras; 
 lat. 11° IH' N., lon^. 7.^? .')l>' F,. Pop. ctitiinatcd at 
 'Jl.tlOd. The ))rin('ipal exports are pepper, teak, 
 ^iandal-^vooJ, vardanioni!*, coir, cordap', and wax ; 
 liiit (Calient is destitnte of any piod liarlxmr. 
 'I'liis was the first jilaec in India made liy tiie 
 l'ortnf;nesennderVas('0(le<lania, who arrived liere 
 l«th May, 1 1!W. In l.'iOit the i'ortiiguese were re- 
 ]iulsed, with ^reat slaughter, in an attack on the 
 piaee, and their commander killed. In 17<iti it was 
 taken hy Ilyder Ali, and Tippoo afterwards de- 
 stroyed the fort and town, ol)li^in^r theinlialiitants 
 to mif^rate to Nelliini; hnt on the (M)n(piest of the 
 prov. hy the Itritish in IT'.M), most of them returned 
 to it, and iu 18t)U Calicut again numbered r>,UUU 
 houses. 
 
 (JAIJFORNIA, a state of the North American 
 T'nion, IMth in mimber of tiie IJuitvd Sttitfn, vs.- 
 teiidint; alonfj the W. coast of North America, from 
 the ;i-2A° to 'l-.'° N. lat., havinj,' S. the ))eninsnla 
 (if Lower California and the river (iila, liy wliich 
 il is divided from Mexico; I'". Ilie liio (Jrande or 
 Del Norte; and N. tlie stat(^ of Orcf^on, I'mm 
 V, liicli it is divided bv the l-'nd parallel of Int. 
 Area IHH,<m-2 stpiare m". ; pop. .')7',t,;i!l I in IXCO, of 
 wlioin i!l,!)l!l were Cliinese, 2;i('i Mexiciin half 
 lireeds, and 17,o(i2 Indians. The stale, throiij^hoiit 
 lis area, is mountainous, and tlie Sierra Nevada 
 extends, inider difl'erent names, and with diH'( rent 
 altitudes, in a nearly continuous chain, fmui (lie 
 S.extremity of the peninsula to Itussian America. 
 It is remarkable for its parallelism and proximity 
 Id the sea, its }{reat elevation, and its nunu'rous 
 volcanic jieaks, stretchinj; far aliove the liii" of 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 fi09 
 
 fj:ranitc rocks, covered with snow, in sheltered 
 places, all the year round. Acorns of imconnnoit 
 size, ami not had taste, used for food by the In- 
 dians, abouiul on some of the oaks. The cypress, 
 l>iiies, and cedar are between Kid and 2r>(> ft. in 
 iici^'ht, aiul from .'» to 12 ft. indianuter, with clean 
 solid stems, (irass abounds on almost all parts of 
 the slope, except towards the hi^;hest sinnmits, 
 and is fresh and j^reen all the year round, beiiif; 
 iK-ither killed by cold in winter, nor dried by want 
 of rain in sunnner. The foot hills of the sliipe are 
 snthciently fertile and gentle to admit of piod 
 settlenu'Uts, while valleys, coves, beaches, and 
 meadows of arable laiul are fouml throu^Miout. 
 Many of the numerous streams, some of them 
 amounting; to considerable rivers, which tlow down 
 the mountain side, nuikehandsonie, fertile valleys, 
 and furnish fjood water i)ower. The climate,' in 
 th(' lower part of the slope, is that of constant 
 sprin;;. 
 
 The principal feature in the countr*' between 
 the Sierra Nevada aiul the ocean is the great bay 
 or inlet of the sea called San Francisco. It has a 
 narrow entrance about I ni. in width, in about ;i7° 
 'IH' N. lat. Within it expands into a noble basin 
 stretching NNW. and SSM. tJii or 7(1 m., and K. 
 about .")() m., being divided into the three great 
 compartments of San I'ablo on the N., Santa 
 Clara on the S., and Suisoon l!ay on the I",., aiul 
 all'ordiiig accoimnodation to all the navies of all 
 ihecouMlrics in the world. Its coast line, which 
 extc'uds to aliout 275 ni., is highly diversitied, 
 displaying a singularly rich and varied outline. 
 The great rivers, the Sacramenio from the N..and 
 the San Joaquin fmni the S., fall into iliis bay. 
 The lower parts of the valleys through which these 
 rivers How unite at the bollom of the liay. and 
 foini an imnunse plain, si retching N.and S. above 
 211(1 m. This great valley has at some tornier 
 ))eriod been evidently a lake ; and were it not for 
 licrpetual snow. Its distance frtan the coast varies the streams which tlow into ihem IVom the nioun- 
 iVoni loO to 200 ni., so that the area of this portion j tains, the rivers by which it is watered would be 
 (if the country exceeds 1(IO,0()(I s(|. m. The great , (luile dry in the sunnucr months. The soil is a 
 iiiountain-wall of the Sierra Nevada interce]itsthe j deep, black, alluvial mould, porous and extremely 
 warm winds charged with vapour, which sweep fertile. It was formerly ovi rtiowcd by the rivers 
 across th<! I'acilic Ocean, prcci])itates their iiccunm- in the rainy season; iind the (inbankmeni has 
 lated moisture in fertilising rains and snows upon | been one of the lirst ol)jei'ts to which llie attention 
 its western flank, and leaves cold and dry winds to j of the settlers was directed, liolh rivers, but 
 imss on to the K. Hence the characteristic differ- | especially the Sacramento, atl'onl every facilitj' 
 (lice of the two regions — mildness, fertility, and a i (or steam navigation. In the iijiper jiart of tlu^ 
 Miperh vegetable kingdom on the one side, com- valley of the San .Ioaf|iiin, between ;>.")° and litij'^ 
 ]iarative barremiess and cohl on the other. I lat. is the Tulare (Hulrush) Lake, surrounded by 
 
 lietsveen the latitude of 3-1° and 41°, a ratige of ; extensive swamps overgrown with luxuriant bul- 
 liiw mountains or hills runs close along the shore, ! rushes, and receiving all the streams in the S. 
 
 die culmimitilig point of which, the Monte del 
 J)iunil(i, close to the hay of San Francisco, attains 
 til the lieight of o,()74 ft. The valley between 
 tills coast chain and the grand barrier of the Sierra 
 Xcvada coni|)rises the valleys of the Sacramento 
 and San .loaquin, .'iOO m. in length, and by far the 
 most valuable jiortion of California. The western 
 Hank of the Sierra belongs to the latter. It is a 
 Idiig, wide slope, timbered and grassy, with inter- 
 vals of arable land, copiously watered with nu- 
 inuniiis and bold streams, and without the cold 
 wliicii its name and altitude might imply. It is 
 friini 10 to 70 m, in width from the sununit of the 
 UKiuutaiii to the termination of the foot hills on 
 the edge of the valleys below. Timber h(dds the 
 lirst place among the products of this slojie, tin; 
 wJKile being heavily wooded, lirst with oaks, 
 wliicli predominate to about half the elevation of 
 tlifi mountain, and then with pines, cypress, and 
 mlars, the pines predominating; and hence called 
 the pine region, as that below is called the oak 
 ri';iion, though mixed with ()ther trees. The 
 liitfliest sunniiits of the Sierra are naked, niasoive 
 Vol- I. 
 
 end of the vaUey. In the wet season it attains to 
 a great size, its surplus waters being discharged 
 into the San Joaquin. In the dry season it is 
 reduced within conqiaratively narrow boundaries, 
 and is in some places fordable. 
 
 The appearaui^e of the N. and S. portions of 
 California difVers considerably, the former being 
 much better wooded than the latter. Helow the 
 ;{!lth (leg. lat. the forests are limited to some scat- 
 tered groves of oak in the valleys and along the 
 borders of the streams; and of re(l wood on the 
 ridges and in the gorges of the hills, the latter 
 being sometimes, also, covered with dwarlish 
 shrubs. With these excei)tions the coinitry is 
 clothed in tlie wet season with the linest herbage, 
 consisting either of ditferent grasses, or of wild 
 oats, which, iu the valleys es|iecially, grow most 
 luxuriantly. 15ut in the latter jiart of the dry 
 seas'm it has a burnt-up, scorched ajipearance, and 
 is often subjected to devastating fires. N. of the 
 o'.Hh deg. lat. the forests are extensive and valu- 
 able ; and are lifted to att'ord all but inexhaustible 
 supplies of timber. 
 
 n u 
 
 ■I, ;t; 
 
 !«*;« 
 
 lt|.! 
 
 <::i:i!! ' 
 
610 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 Thp toinpprntiiro ix a pxid donl liifjlicr llian 
 ill iUv i'iirr('H|iiiiiiliiif^r liilitmlcs mi ili(> K. const of 
 America. 'I'tie year is iltvidcil into two scaHoiiH, — 
 the wet, cxteixliiiK from Aiiril to Novemher, anil 
 tlie dry. In the former the rains, though not 
 l>y any means coiitiniioiiH, are frei|iieiit and heavy. 
 In the S. parts of the country tiie dry season 
 commences earlier and (rontinnes longer than in 
 (he N. During the iirevalcnce of the liillcr the 
 district iinmeiliMtely I'ontif^uons to the sliore is 
 infested with foj{s and cold winds from the sea. 
 lint within the coast ranp', the climate is delij^'lit- 
 fiil ; the heal in the middle of the day not liein^ 
 HO >;rent as to hinder lalMiiir, while the iiightn are 
 cool and pleasant. 
 
 The couiitrj-, parlicularlv in the N., is well 
 united to the growth of wiieat, barley, rye, and 
 »iats. VVihl oats, indeed, as already noticed, grow 
 ill vast (|iiantities all along the coast, and as far 
 inland as the sea-hrccze has any material iiitliience. 
 Potatoes, tnrnips, carrots, and all the edible roots 
 of the Atlantic coast of Aiiicrica, with apples, 
 jicars, peaches, vines, niiil other frnits, attjiin to 
 the greatest perfection. In the southern valleys 
 between the coast-hills and the Sierra the climate 
 is siirticiently hot to mature niai/.e, rice, and 
 tobacco. The heat and drought of summer make 
 irrigation a most im))ortant auxiliary in farming 
 operations ; but it is not indispensable. Van- 
 couver found, in 17!I2, at the mission of San 
 Ihiouiventiirn, lat. iil° !(>', ajiples, |)ears, ]dums, 
 ligs, oranges, grajics, peaches, and ))omegranates 
 growing together with the plantain, banana, cocoa- 
 nut, sugar-cane, and indigo, and all yielding fruit 
 ill abundance, and of excellent (piality. Humboldt 
 pays that the olive oil of ( 'alifornia is equal to that 
 of Andalusia, and the wine like that of the Canary 
 Islands. The valleys are overgrown with wild 
 mustard, the vineyards and olive orchards an^ 
 decayed and neglected ; and in a few places only 
 do we see the evidences of what tli(! country is 
 capable. At San Ihionaventura the olive trees 
 are often found in January, bending under the 
 weight of neglected fruit ; and the mission of 
 San Luis Obispo (lat. ;Jo°) is distinguished for the 
 excellence of its olives, which are iinerand larger 
 than those of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Among the wild animals are bisons, bears, 
 wolves, foxes, wildcats, )iolecats, otters, beavers, 
 liares, rabbits, and a profusion of ether kinds of 
 game. Large herds of a peculiar variety of deer, 
 of a gigantic size, with horns of a corresponding 
 magnitude, and great swiftness, are found in the 
 forests and grassy plains. They used to be taken 
 by the lanso, and sometimes i)y the artifice, de- 
 scribe<l by Humboldt, of the Indians disguising 
 themselves with the skins and horns of captured 
 animals till the herd came within reach of their 
 arrows ! (Xouvellc Es))agne, ii. 2S,5.) The bison 
 is hunted for its skin, which is used in many jiarts 
 of Spanish America as a bed or cariiot. Otters 
 and beavers are found in all the rivers, lakes, and 
 bays ; but their numbers have greatlj' decreased 
 since the country began to be settled. The sea 
 contains cxhaustless stores of tish. 
 
 Hut the vegetable and animal products of this 
 region, however important, are reckoned of but 
 little account, compared with it.s mineral produce, 
 
 to within nbont 25 m. of the edge of the plaii:s. 
 In IKiV.t this district was supposed to possess abiMit 
 l,(llllt s(|. III. of available niining territory, iiiiliiil- 
 ing both placers and veins of gold-bearing (|iiiirt/. 
 2iid. The Miililli: I'lwtrH, situated at about an 
 average distance of 2(1 m. from thi' line of iIk. 
 higher foot-hills, and having its western liordir 
 within al)oiit 1 in. of the edge of the plains. Tiij-i 
 district covers an area of about (i.<)()l) sip in„ giiid 
 th(! milling is mainly gold-washing. .'Inl. i'lic 
 Valley mines, which are sitiialnl among the lower 
 foot-hills of the mountains, and extend tlicncc 
 westward on to the eastern edge of the jilaiiis cif 
 the San .loaquin and Sacramento to an exlciii (j|' 
 from .'i toT) ni. These mines extend from north id 
 south a lineai distance of about 2.')() ni. 'Did 
 anioiint of territory occupied by these mines Is 
 probably not less than (!,(l(IO sq. m. The prolitalile 
 mining of the deposits in these, as in the iiiiililji' 
 placers, has re(|tiired the cinistriiction of exleiiileil 
 watercourses for the washing of <\ic gold Iriim the 
 sand and gravi!. The Hood of IHtil-d;! laiil Imn' 
 many new deposits in this region. The Mirie'ics 
 of inining are — I'hirvr mhiiiiij, which bears cuii- 
 siderabh analogy to coal inining in I'ennsylvaiii.i, 
 adits being driven into the hills, and <>ftcii tlinniy;!! 
 solid rock, to the locality where the gold de|iii>ii 
 exists, lli/dniiilif mining, where a bniad, open 
 ditch is carried through the hills, and the sides 
 washed down by directing a powerful stream nf 
 water on them, liirv miitiiiff, in which, when 
 the rivers are low, the streams are diverli'd I'miii 
 their courses by means of flumes, tail-races, A-e„ 
 and the beds of the rivers thus exfiosed and their 
 sands washed for goM. This can only be canieil 
 on for about six months of the year, diilili luiii- 
 iiifi, in which a large diime is f'onned below the 
 surface of thi; earth in such a manner as to reeeiv; 
 all the adjacent streams after being used by Ihe 
 miners. And lastly. Quartz miiiimj, which re(piires 
 a considerable investment of cajiital, but is pnifii- 
 ablc. In this description of mining tl'.e gold-beariiif; 
 quartz is crushed by powerful stamiis, in mills 
 driven by steam, water, or mule power, to the 
 lineness of flour, and then the gold taken up hy 
 means of quicksilver by the usual washing \ni\- 
 cess. In Januarj', IH.'i!), there were nearly 'M) 
 mills in operation, with an aggregate of ".'.(JIO 
 stamps and 51!) arastras. The cost of niacliiiiery 
 was estimtited at il,27(),f)()() dollars. The entire 
 receipts of gold from Califoniia at the mint ami 
 its branches up to June 30, 18t)2, was .')2H,l-l,0,(liir) 
 dollars. The estimates of well-informed statis- 
 ticians give about 20 per cent, aihlitional as the 
 amount shi|)])ed direct to England, retained in the 
 state as gold dust, or manufactured, iirevioiis to 
 1807. Since that time, the direct shipment to 
 foreign ports has been somewhat larger ; aiiil it 
 would probably vary very little from the tact, if 
 we estimated the entire vield of the CaliCdniiii 
 gold-mines to July 1, I8(!2) at 050,000,000 dollars. 
 (The National Almanac, 1 8('i4.) 
 
 (lold is not the only valuable mineral yielilcil 
 by California. Silver is know n to exist, and liiis 
 been profitably mined iu El Dorado, Mariposii, 
 Santa Harbara, and Santa Clara counties: and must 
 of the gold contains a considerable proportiim nf 
 silver. About 3,000,000 dollars worth have thus 
 
 acco 
 l)arliL'ularly with the gold found i:'. the beds of i been obtained since the discovery of gold in Ci'li 
 some of its rivers and ravines. The discovery of i fomia. Copper, strongly impregnated v.iili piiil 
 these auriferous deposits has rendered California an I and silver, is found in Placer, El Dorado, Shasta, 
 object of universal interest, and has directed to | and other counties. Quicksilver in the form et 
 lier shores an unparalleled ainoiiiit of emigration. ■ cinnabar is largely produced at the New Almadeii. 
 There are three distinct gold-regions in the state, Guadaloupc, Aurora, and other mines; and in \^(<-- 
 though the first two iire connected by outlying aside from the homo consumption, the expcirt mI 
 placers and leads. 1st. The Kasteni HiitKje, ex- : that metal reached the sum of 1,1 12,051 (loliars. 
 tending from the !sumiiiit-riilgo of the muunlain.'i ' Iron is found in large quuiititics and variuus 
 
 forms all nlo 
 
 county ill a (;o 
 
 in purity, and 
 
 hydrate. Snip 
 
 occurs near Sai 
 
 same region. 
 
 persed throiigl 
 
 smaller qiianti 
 
 usually assoeia 
 
 several |iarts of 
 
 lung be mine 
 
 gypsum, nickel, 
 
 salt, nitrate of 
 
 large (piantitie 
 
 extraordiiiarj' 1 
 
 stone, lime, d'c. 
 
 products of the i 
 
 It was known 
 
 visitors of the c 
 
 or was belie\-pd 
 
 statements had 
 
 impression, and 
 
 ciirly ill .lime, I 
 
 were discovereil 
 
 and had such w( 
 
 on the S. fork ol 
 
 (if ihe Sacrainen 
 
 The news of tl 
 
 ralleled rielniess 
 
 traordiiiary rapii 
 
 season iibout 5,( 
 
 tli<' spot, and the 
 
 liy the ac(piisit 
 
 sterling. Durin; 
 
 tioii of the disco\ 
 
 preat distance ; a 
 
 grants of all desc 
 
 eiiinitries, includi 
 
 viaiis, Chiliiioii, ; 
 
 .111(1 Chinese crc 
 
 meiito and its t 
 
 liyiOO Mexicans 
 
 'They had,' savs 
 
 tents, booths, and 
 
 stores, and sho|)s 
 
 whatever moiie^ 
 
 from the Sierra, 
 
 Inxurios. An \w 
 
 hraiiches of trees 
 
 sen-ed as a sort ( 
 
 other amusement 
 
 were to be seen in 
 
 resorted principal 
 
 them a great siq 
 
 tlie Anuricans, a 
 
 session of some ol 
 
 country. 
 
 Government. — C 
 to the United St 
 ia California the 
 .States, and otlier 
 selves in a singn 
 k\\ inhabitants, .. 
 Ihc C(Miiitry; and 
 unac(piainted witl 
 the property aiu 
 hitherto lieeii re^ 
 {freatest confusion 
 congress of the U 
 of this untoward 
 portaiice of the v 
 'orv. Hut the < 
 organise the con. 
 siiljject it to a CO 
 stnieted at the on. 
 of (leci.ling wheth 
 Ik.' allowed in the 
 
 c'f- 
 
 nt 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 611 
 
 fortriH nil nlonp flio ronHt rniipo 
 t'liiinty ill n coiulitioii n|)|iroii(')iirii^r I 
 
 in I'lat'cr 
 iiiilivc iriiii 
 ill |iiirity, niid in Maripii.sti ('(iiiiiiy in tlii' l'i>rin of 
 liyilriktc, Siil|iliat(> of inm in liir^c i|iiaiiliti('H 
 oi'CiirM noar Santa (Vii/., and iiia);:iit'lii- inm in tlic 
 wnno region, I'latiiniin is aliiidst an widely diH- 
 licrscd liiriiii(r)i tlio Ktatc as ;;i>ld, tlnin^;li in 
 liiiiallcr (|imnlitit'n ; nsniiiini and iridinin arc 
 iiriiially a.-'.'<ii<'iat('d witli it. Tin is alsn rinind in 
 M'viTal parts of tiii- slate, and will proliaMy ere 
 lull),' lie milled with advantage. Clironiiiiin, 
 ^vpsnni, iiiekel, antiinony, liisinnlli, sulphur, lead, 
 .salt, nitrate of [Mitassu (saltpetre), liorax, <'oal in 
 iar^e tpiantities and of ^ood i|uality, niarlilo of 
 extraordiiiarj' heaiity, alahaster, >;rani'e, Imlir- 
 stoiie, lime, il-e.. arc the otlier prinei|ial mineral 
 produets of the state. Mineral sprin^^s alioniid. 
 
 It was known from the statements of the earlier 
 visitors of the country, that pdd had heeii found, 
 or was helieved to exist, in California; hut these 
 statements had liecn eithi-r forgotten, or made no 
 impression, and it was not till late in May, or 
 curly in .luiie, IHIH, that the auriferous deposits 
 were discovered that attracted so miicii attention, 
 niiil had such wonderful results. They were found 
 (III the S. fork of the American river, a trihntary 
 (if ilie Sacramento, at a place now called (!<doina. 
 The news of tiie discovery and of llie niipa- 
 rallcled richness of the deposits spread with ex- 
 traordinary rapidity; and hefore the end of llic 
 season ahoiit ."(.(MMI men had lieeii attracted to 
 tlic spot, and their enterprise had lieen rewarded 
 liy the acipiisilion of f^old worth I,(mh».(HMI/. 
 sterling;. During the followiiif,' winter infornia- 
 tidii of the discovery sjiread on all sides, and to a 
 great distance ; niid in the season of I f<l!l, immi- 
 grants of all descriptions, and from the remot(*t 
 (■(iiintries, including; Americans. Mexicans, Peru- 
 vians. Chiliiios, Kii 'opeans, Sonth-sea ishinders, 
 jiiul Chineso crowded in swarms to the Sacra- 
 mento and its aflluents. A camp of at least 
 111,(100 Mexicans is said to have hecn formed. 
 'They had,' says an eye-witness, 'quite a city of 
 touts, hooths, and log caliins; hotels, restaurants, 
 stores, and sho))s of all descriptions, furnishing 
 whatever money ciuild jirocure. Ice was lirought 
 ffdin the Sierra, and ice-cream.' addod to otlier 
 luxuries. An inclosun; made of the trunks and 
 liraiiches of trees, and lined with cotton cloth, 
 served as a sort of amphitheatre for hull-lights; 
 (itlier amusements, chara<'terislic of the Jlexicans, 
 were to he seen in all directions.' 'i"hc foreigners 
 resorted principally to the S. mines, whieli gave 
 them a great superiority in numerical force over 
 tlic Anuricans, and cnalilcd them to take po.s- 
 scssion of some of the richest in that jiart oi' the 
 couiitrj'. 
 
 Gomrnment. — California wa.s ceded liy Mexico 
 to the United States in 1«4«. On their arrival 
 ill California the immigrants from the liiited 
 States, and other distant countries, found them- 
 selves in a singular iiosition. There were very 
 few inhnhitnnt.s, and no government or jxdice in 
 the country ; and the immigrants were totally 
 uiiacipiaiiitcd with the Sjianish laws, by wliicli 
 the property and affairs of the settlers had 
 hitherto been regulated. In coii.seqnence, the 
 greatest confusion and disorder took place. Tiie 
 Cdiigress of the United States soon hecanie aware 
 (if this untoward state of things, and of the ini- 
 |iiirtaiice of the vast addition made to its terri- 
 tory. r>ut the efforts of the government to 
 orjjanise the country into a new state, or to 
 suljject it to a constitutional regimen, were ob- 
 structed at tile outset by the fonniitabhi difiiciilty 
 ci (h'ciding whether slavery .slciuld or should not 
 lie allowed in the now slate ; and the disinclina- 
 
 tion or iimhility of Congrps.i to decide this ques- 
 tion jireveiiled' tlie admission of California into 
 tlie I iiion eiilier as a stale or a Icrrilory. 
 
 In this dilemma the .Americans in the country 
 displayed their singular capacity for self-govcrn- 
 iiieiil, by )ir(>mptly and unanimously adopting the 
 manly and safe course of forming I'heiiisclves into 
 a stale. In.lnne, iNl'.t.represenlaliveswcre cho.sen 
 in all |iarts of the Icrrilory to meet for the pnr- 
 lio.se ol forniing a consiirulion. The new slate 
 wasadiniilcd into the Union in IH.'iO, and Sa<Ta- 
 iiienlo declared to lie its capital, liy the terms 
 of the slate constitution, the legislature of Ca'i- 
 forniii consists of the senate ami assembly, and 
 convenes annually at Sacramento on tlie lirst 
 Monday in .laniiary. The Mnntr is composed of 
 forty members, cho.ien from twenty-eight sena- 
 torial districts, and the lemi of 'otlice is two 
 years, Th(' lieulenant-governor is e.r-o(flrii) pre- 
 sident of the senate. The ihihciiiIiIi/ is composed 
 of eighty members, elected iinnually, and the pre- 
 siding ollicer is chosen from their own body. 
 The pay of the members of the legislature' is, for 
 the lirst ninety d.ays of the session, ten ilollars per 
 day, and for IIk- reniaiiiih'r of the session live 
 dollars jier day, and mileage at the rate of four 
 dollars (or every twenty miles of travel from llieir 
 residence by the nearest mail-ronle IoIIk^ capital. 
 
 'i'lie coiistilulional anieiidnients provide for 
 biennial sessions, to conmicnce on Die lirst Mon- 
 day ill December. I\Ienibers of the as.seinbly are, 
 to be chosen for two years, and senators for four 
 yeans. 
 
 Riviiiiie mill E.ipvmUliin'. — The siilijoined l.inle 
 shows llii' receipts and cxpcnditiires of Calilbinia 
 for Ihirlcen year.s, fmm 1«J0 to iM'l, to the ;K»lli 
 of June, each year: — 
 
 Ycari ' 
 
 Kecclpti 
 
 KiiirndUurei 
 
 
 Dullan 
 
 — • — I 
 
 nnllan 
 
 IS-IO .... 
 
 a.i.'io 
 
 •.ir,\fl-i'i 
 
 IS.-il .... 
 
 .'^.^0,7!l(! 
 
 i\->:ivi 
 
 1H.V.> .... 
 
 ;tii(i,s-.».-. 
 
 1,(l:'ll,:':i9 
 
 lK."i:l .... 
 
 4.M.!1S(; 
 
 ],-t.Mi,Hir, 
 
 IS.Vt .... 
 
 1 ,(i-.'-.>,i|.t7 
 
 l,.|ii!»,'.'(ir) 
 
 w:,:> . . . . 
 
 I,|:i.'-.,.'i:l7 
 
 l,17l,!i:l7 
 
 lH.->(; .... 
 
 72:l,'.'!)ll 
 
 l,(i:i-.>.7(i5 
 
 1S.-.7 .... 
 
 7llll,7!l.'i 
 
 l,iil.s,-.'ii:i 
 
 i«.w .... 
 
 1,'.>1.\P.'!) 
 
 !is:l,:ir,:i 
 
 IS.^!) .... 
 
 1.1 SI, •.'•.>•_' 
 
 ],l(i!i,li:) 
 
 IStKI .... 
 
 l,liis,.-iS'> 
 
 l,l(iri,7is 
 
 isdl .... 
 
 l,-.'!f.',7l!» 
 
 1 .^li-.'.CJIl 
 
 m;-i .... 
 Totaid . . . 
 
 \,w;\,:,'i'd 
 
 ],I4(;,745 
 
 l.''.,n(in,4fi8 
 
 10,779,.M3 
 
 
 
 10,77i),'.'13 
 
 Excciw of Expenditures ov 
 tor i;i Years 
 
 er Ueccipts ) 
 
 4,281,255 
 
 Objects of expenditure for thirteen years, from 
 
 |M.")(I lo Isilj iuchisive, showing aggregates for 
 that period Ibr each class : — 
 
 Execntivo . . . 
 
 LcKi^liitiiro . 
 
 .Judiciary 
 
 rrintiiig 
 
 Schools .... 
 
 l)o.s)iit.ils 
 
 Indifrciit Sick 
 
 Insimc Asylum 
 
 State I'l-isim . 
 
 Indiiui Wars , 
 
 Interest Sliito Debt 
 
 Bends paid 
 
 Helief imrposes 
 
 Miscclluncous 
 
 Total for \'i Years 
 
 Dollarii 
 
 1 :>'>■■) A-ir, 
 ;i,-.':!7,lo:! 
 
 1,270,7;)!) 
 
 .'lie. ,0(10 
 (;!iii,.'i(i2 
 
 !<■■., 1 10 
 82.'i,-.'(i(l 
 
 l,r,4(l,ll4 
 l:l(i,.'.!iO 
 
 l,7!i:!,(;'J!> 
 y7H..SIo 
 
 ai4.(i!i« 
 
 l,(M8,sy7 
 
 i:),(i(;o,4(i8 
 u u 2 
 
 K 
 
 
612 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 TliP totnl (U'lil of the Htiif)', fimdctl mid iin- 
 fiiiiiU'd, ninoimtrd to f».rit!!V2H"» <li>lliir« on tin; 1st 
 (if Jimimry, lN<i3, 'I'lu- ^renter |iiirl of tliin dct)t 
 <'()nNiHt('(l iifolilipitioiiH known n.s ' Itondsof IH,')7,' 
 to tliu nnionnt of 'A,T27,MM dollarM, th« whole of 
 -which Nnni wim HixMit upon Imrhoiirx, cniiiilH, und 
 other workx of pulilio utility. 
 
 y'liliiiition unit Tmut'ion.—\n 18(i2 tlio nsHcsw-d 
 value of the real and pcrHonal property of Cali- 
 fornia for puriHMi'.s of taxation wan l(');i,It(i!(,(l<"l 
 (jollarfi. On tiiiM there wa« asuessed for Htate useH 
 a lax of <i'2 <^ents on the hundrcil (hillars, ainount- 
 iufT to !l!)t,22H (lollarx; of whieii there had heen 
 eolleeted to Deceniher of that year 1 1 'i.il'.l'.t doUars. 
 For the ])iirpose of raining (in part) the Htnte 
 quota of the I'liited States direet tax, a pro- 
 l)erty tax of I.*) cents on the innidred (Killars was 
 nssesseil, nmountiiif? to 2IO,r)5!{ dollars; also for 
 the same punxme a poll-tax of two dollars on each 
 taxahle )ioll (estimated to number l.'JO.OOO), 
 making; 2(>l),(l(ll) <ioihirs. 
 
 The state owned, in iH(!2, in all 8,807,(180 acres 
 of lands uniier the following 
 
 Grant of S<'liooI Lnnds . 
 „ Bwanip I.umls 
 „ Intcnml Imiirovonicnt 
 „ Senilnnrv 
 „ Public Uulldings . 
 
 Total 
 
 Acrri 
 
 fi.T.i.'i.'jno 
 
 l,fi(M),0(IO 
 
 ri(i(i,o(io 
 
 4(i,()H0 
 «,4MU 
 
 7,807,(iH0 
 
 A portion of this land, possessed liy the state, 
 has hecome extremely valuable by the discovery 
 of new mines. 
 
 Uiiilwitys mill CuMih. — The state has three rail- 
 roads, viz. 1. Th(! California Central, 4:1.8 m. in 
 lenylii: the cost of this road and erpiipment is 
 stated at 1,000,0110 dollars. 2. The Sacramento 
 Valley, 22.") m. in lenf,'th. 3. The Las l\farii)osas, 
 n railway .'J.7 m. in length, constructed by (ieneral 
 Fi('niont on his mining jtroperty at Mariposa, and 
 is remarkable for the skill with which it has over- 
 come serious engineering dilHcnhies. There are 
 no state canals; but the canals constructed by 
 private companies for purjioses of mining and 
 navigation arc of extraonlinary extent. In 18.">!) 
 there were 5,72<i miles of artificial water-courses 
 constructed for mining-purposes, at a cost of 
 13,074,400 dollars. A single county (El Dorado) 
 had l,lt)0 miles of these canals. These are inde- 
 pendent of iiiiucducts for the supply of water to 
 four or live ei' the larger towns. They have nearly 
 or fpiite doubled since that lime. 
 
 Steamers make the ])assage from New York 
 and New Orleans to Chagres, respectively, in 
 about seven and four days; and allowing three 
 days for the conveyance of freight across the 
 Isl'lunus, and ten dajys for the voyage from Pa- 
 nama to San Francisco, the passage from New 
 York to the latter is made in twenty, and from 
 New Orleans in seventeen days. This facility of 
 comnuiniealion is of no less importance to the 
 Atlantic states of thcl'nion than to California. 
 
 JJi.itori/. — California was discovered by Cnbrillo, 
 n Spaniard, in 1542. At a later jMiriod, or in 
 1,')78, Sir Francis Drake sailed along its shores, 
 jirolonging bis voyage to the 4«th dog. of lat. 
 From this circumstance, the name of New Albion 
 lias sometimes been given to the country N. of 
 San Francisco; though, as Humboldt states, this 
 designation, if employed at all, should be restricted 
 to the country extending from tli(! 4:ir(l (the N. 
 limit of Cabrillo's voyage) to the 48th (leg. of lat. 
 (N. 1'"si)agiio, ii. 27i).) It was not colonised by 
 the Sjiauiards till 1708. The latter founde<l esta- 
 blishments in various parts of the country under 
 tlie nmuiis oi rif\sk/it>s M\d 3Ji.isujtis; the fonner 
 
 CALLKNDEU 
 
 lieinK military postH, and the latter a sort of wnii- 
 ndigions tbundations under the guidance o| i||,' 
 Franciscan friars. Like the Jesuits, these I'lUliir^ 
 exerted thems«'lveH to iiiNtruct the Indians in tlii^ 
 art of hiiNhandry, and apparently their efforts witc 
 crowned with success, llut here, as in other piirH, 
 the civilisation of the Indians appears to liav(3 
 been wludly forced and factitious; and when iIk. 
 missions were deserted by the friars the luitivis 
 relapsed into their original barbarism. Tlicir 
 numbers have since rajiidly decliiUMl ; and it is 
 probable that at no distant period the race will lii> 
 entirely extirpated. The Americans seem gciii'- 
 rally to regard them as a sort of fi-ru' iniliiru; 
 or at best as irreciaimable burbarianH without liiu 
 pal*! of hnmanitv. 
 
 In 18;t0, California began to he resorted to hv 
 American and Knglish hunters and other adven- 
 turers; who soon began to think of enianei|mtiiif,' 
 themselves from the feeble dominion of Mexico, 
 The latter was overthrown in 18;i(i. Subse(|U(.|itly 
 the country became a prey to all sorts of disonlcrs; 
 adventurers from the United States and Mcxicn 
 alternately getting the ascendancy. At ieii;,'tli a 
 war broke out in 184t! between the Tnited SiiiMs 
 and Mexico ; and the latter, having been dcl'eiiiMl 
 at all points, finally ceded California to the linidii 
 in 1848, 
 
 CALLAII (EL), a town of Harbary, reg. Algiers, 
 on a moinituin, and surrounded by ramilicatiniis 
 of the Atlas, IT) m. NE. IMaseara. It is a dirty 
 and ill-contrived town, having neither drnini, 
 pavement nor causewavs. It has a citadel, mid 
 a large manufactory of carpt'ts and Imrmitm^ or 
 woollen cloaks. Several villages in the iieigli- 
 bourhoo(i are engaged in the same eniploynicnt. 
 Dr. Shaw thinks that it may have bejn the Cillui 
 or Apt'uc of I'tolemy. 
 
 C.VLLAN, an inl. town of Ireland, co. Kilkenny, 
 prov. Leinster, on the King's Itiver, an atlincnt iif 
 the Nore, 72 m. SW. by S. Dublin. Top. •J.IWI 
 in 18G1, the great majority of whom are li. Catlid- 
 lics. The town was anciently wjiMed and a place 
 of ctmsiderable strength ; but was Conned ami ilis- 
 mantled by Oomwell in KI.^O. Tliv streets lonu 
 a cross, with lanes branching from them, and tlic 
 houses arc, in general, very indillVreni. TIk' parisli 
 church was anciently a nionastic building; tlio 
 Konian Catludic chapel is modern. There is al.Mi 
 an Augustine friarj', with a large chap(4, a nii- 
 tional .school, a disjjen.sar^', and a loan fnnd, A 
 party of the constabulary is stationed here. Tiii' 
 cor]ioration, which consists of a sovereign, Ijur- 
 gesses, and freemen, returned two mem. to llic 
 Irish \\. of C. till the Union, when it was dis- 
 franchised. The liberties extend to a eonsiilcr- 
 able distance round the town. The only trade is 
 in grain. Markets are held in a small inarkct- 
 hoHse, on Tuesdays and Saturdays; and for |ii;;s, 
 on every IMonday from January io jMay. I'airs 
 arc helil on 4tirMay, l;5th June, lOth J'nly. 2l>t 
 August, lOtli October, 4tli November, and llili 
 December. 
 
 CALLENDEL*, a village of Scotland, co. Pcrtli, 
 valley of Jlenteith, beautifully situated on the lilt 
 bank of the Teith, ICim.NW. Stirling, on a liraiicli 
 of the Scottish Central railway. I'op. 881 in iMil. 
 The village may be regarded as the threshold uf 
 the Highlands in this quarter, and is siirnjinuled 
 on all sides except the S. by stupendous nioini- 
 tains, forming part of the tiranipians; IJenledi, 
 the liighest and most striking, being, ii.Otili ti. 
 above the level of the .se;i. I'op. l,2n(). Gaelic 
 and English are both spoken, ami the Ili;,'lilaiid 
 dress is ))artially wojn. A cla.ssical interest has 
 Ix^en inqiurted to this town, and to tlio district 
 with which it is connected, by Sir Waller Scott's 
 
 IKiom of * The 1 
 and the'l'rosael 
 in that poem, 1 
 activity and pn 
 village are chie 
 derives from lyi 
 fare leading to ( 
 is Iniilt oil t'fiiM, 
 noble family of 
 an acre or nio 
 has a sounu! o| 
 jieciiliar to Vn 
 nig ill the tow 
 edi.uu!, with a «| 
 
 HclUHd. 
 
 (;allao, ft, 
 
 AV. from Lima, 
 side of a orojecti 
 barren island of 
 U'. side of its bii 
 10" W. TIh! h, 
 jioor, with nind 
 forlided. The i 
 I'eriiviaii coast, 
 10 fathoms, Tl 
 within which vei 
 ludoad. There i 
 I'allao to Lima. 
 paratively moder 
 lieen whdlly de.st 
 fill earthquake tl 
 destroyed great 
 tlie ruins of the 
 tlie water at a 
 town. Ill Nover 
 out the Esmeral 
 from under the 
 These siirronden 
 course of the folh 
 CALLE (LA), 
 ({oria, prov. (.'oiisti 
 town contains a fa 
 can Company, 
 nearly surroundei 
 the iirincipal .sea 
 along the Harbari 
 liy the .Mgeriiies' 
 CALLIANEE, 
 Aurungabad, pros 
 lat. llPJo'N., h.i 
 a distr. of the sa 
 bank of the Caila 
 is, however, popu 
 ciK:oa-nnt.s, oil, c( 
 ware. It sustain, 
 lietween the Mogi 
 iif Callianee is a 
 along t he .sea-coas 
 8alselte, Ac., boii 
 eontaining the t 
 l>aiai)oor, »tc. : it; 
 well |)eopled ; but 
 and thinly scatter 
 CALLINtJTON 
 CO. Cornwall, mid( 
 '.'.'iOO acres. I'tip. 
 ill a low and nnpl 
 Tavistock. It wii 
 K'i^abeth, and re 
 C.l'rom that iierii 
 li'oform Act, wlujii 
 of election was in 
 liaying scot and h\ 
 CALLOSA DE 
 prov. Alicante, 18 
 1>*">7. The town 
 the Gaudalest :\ 
 
CALLAO 
 
 |Miom of'Tlio I.ndy of llifl Lake,' Loch KiUlioriiic 
 mill ilinTroHiiclw ('hris'lod country'), mo ('clclirnrcil 
 in lliHl poem, lie 10 m. W. I'roni Callander. The 
 iirtivity (ind prosperity wliicli murk iIiIm neat little 
 vilhiK'' '>'■'' cliielly aMcriliahle lo the advantages it 
 derives from lyinj; in the lincof llii-^reat Ihonin^h- 
 fare leading to IIicmc romantic scenes. The vilia^'e 
 is hnilt on t'riiM, or hnildin^ leases, hiddin;; of ih(> 
 nohle family of I'erth, to each of which is attached 
 an acre or mor<^ of j^romid, ho that each family 
 luiM a s<Mirce of employment within itself, almost 
 jiecniiar to Callander.' The only puhlic linild- 
 nit; in the town is the parish church, n modern 
 edi.ice, with a Hpire. It lia.sulm>an etlicieiit |iarish 
 fichool. 
 
 CA I.LAO, n RPft-port town of Peru, about (! m, 
 W. from Lima, of which it is the port, on the N. 
 siiie of a iirojeetiii^r toiif^'ue of land, op|i(isit(! to the 
 barren island of San Loreii/,o, which pnitects tlu( 
 W. siije of itH hay; lat. 12° il' M>" S., loii^. 77" I' 
 Id" \V. The houses in the town are mean and 
 |Hior, with mud walls and flat roofs. It is well 
 i'lirtiliiMl. The roadslea<l is liy far the hest on the 
 IVruviaii coast, with ^ood anchorn^e in from 7 to 
 ll» fathoms. There is .t rudely constnuaed pier, 
 within which vessels of larj^e hiirden may load anil 
 unload. There is a very j^ood carriime' road from 
 t'allao to Lima. The jtresent town is of com- 
 paratively modern ori>,'iii; the fonnertown haviiij; 
 iieen wholly destroyed and Hulimer^ed in a dreiid- 
 fiil earthquake that occurred in 174t>, which also 
 ili'stroved jjreat part of Lima. In calm weather 
 the ruins of the old town are Htill visihle under 
 the water at a short distance from the present 
 tiiwn. In November, 1H2(>, Lord Cochrane cut 
 out the Ksmerahia, a, lar^c Spanisi; ship of war, 
 fnim uuiUt the nuns of the castles of Callao. 
 These surrendered to the Indepundent.s in the 
 cuurse of the following year. 
 
 CALLK (LA), or LL' CALLATI, a town of Al- 
 ^'oria, )irov. Constantinc. I'op. l,'2()(iin l«(il. The 
 town contains a factory founded by the French Afri- 
 can Company. It stands on a iieninsulated rock 
 nearly surrounded by the sea. This was formerly 
 the |)riiicipal seat of the coral lishcry carried on 
 aloiifj; the Uarbary (toast. It was nearly destroyed 
 hy the Alf^erines in IH27. 
 
 CALLIAN'KK, an inl.town of Ilindostan. prov. 
 Aurun^abad, jiresid. liomliav, 21 m. N'K. that citv; 
 lat. IIP 15' N., lon^;. 7',i° [r> K. It is the cap. "of 
 a ilistr. of the same name, and stands on the S. 
 tmiik of the Cailas river, surrounded by ruins: it 
 is, however, populous, and carries on some trade in 
 ciK'oa-iiuts, oil, coarse cloths, brass, and earthen- 
 ware. It sustained many sicffits durin}i; the wars 
 lii'tween the Mofiuls acd iMahruttas. Tlie district 
 iif Calliauee is a strong hilly country extendiii;; 
 iiliiii^' the sea-coast, opposite the islands of I{ond)ay, 
 .Salsctte, &i;, bounded K. by the W. (ihaiits. and 
 ciintainiii!f the towns of Itassein, I'anwell, (Jhowl, 
 l!aiai)oor, itc. : its towns arc larj^e and tolerably 
 wdlijcopled; but its villages small, meuiily built, 
 and thinly scattered. 
 
 CALLINtjiTOX, a town and par. of Kti^jland, 
 CO. Cornwall, middle div., E. hiinil. Aa-n ofjiar. 
 2.(iO(» acres. I'op. of do., 2,202 in l«(;i. The town, 
 in a h)W and un])leasant situation, is 7 m. SSW. 
 Tavistock. It was made a bor. in the 27th of 
 Eli;;abeth, and returned two iiieni. to the II. of 
 C.froni that ]ieriod down to the passiiij^ of the 
 Hoform Act, when it was dislraiichiscd. Tlic ri^lit 
 of election was in the owners of burgaj^c teuures 
 imviiig scot and lot. 
 
 CALLOSA DE KNSAIMUA, a town of Spain, 
 prov. Alicante, IS ni. SSW. Deiiia. Pop. ;!,;m)() in 
 1><")7. The town stands near the coiilluciicc of 
 the Gaudalest iiiul Algar, in a mountainous 
 
 CALNE 
 
 AIS 
 
 coimfr>' that produces line rnisiiiH, and rxcellent 
 wine, nlmonds, and fruit, 
 
 CALLOSA DK SKtilTHA, a town of Spain, 
 prov. Alicant(>, four m. I'',. ( trihiiela, on the river 
 Segura. i'op. .'l,M7t! in I«."i7. Charcoal, known 
 by till! name of jimitini, is here maiiiifacturid 
 from the stalks of hemp; il is said to ite superior 
 to any other for the tnaiiufacture of gunpotvdcr, 
 and ischictly used in the preparation of that made 
 for the Spanish arlillerv. 
 
 CAL.MAK, or KALMAK, a sea-port town of 
 Switden, cap. prefecture of same iianu', on the \V. 
 side of tin; narrow strait of the Ilaltic, separating 
 tlu^ island of (Kland from the continent, '.mi m. 
 NKK. of Carlscrona ; lat. M° lo';tO" N., long. IC^ 
 2<! I")" K. Pop. l."i,!ti')l in IHtlO. The town siaiids 
 on the Hinall island of (juarnbolm, which commu- 
 nicates with the mainland, where there is a sub- 
 urb, by a bridge of boats. It is built of wood, and 
 is stronglv Ibrtilied. The castle, in the sultiirb, 
 formerly looked upon as one of the keys of the 
 kiiigdoni, is now occupied as a house of correction. 
 Calmar is the seat of a bishopric, luid has an aca- 
 demy and a <lockyard. The cathedral is a line 
 stone building; and the mansion of the |)refi'ct, the 
 town-hall, and some other publiit edilicos, are of 
 the same enduring material. Its port is small, lait 
 safe and commodious. There are nnmufaclures of 
 woidlen stiirts, tobacco, and potash. Previously 
 to the annexation of the provinces of Scl.' neii and. 
 lilekingen to Sweden, this town was of much 
 greater consequence than at jiresent. Its impor- 
 tance as a fortress has declined ; and its commence, 
 which was formerly very eonsiih'rahle, has been 
 mostly transferred to Stoitkholm; but timber, 
 alum, tar, and liemn, are still exported. 
 
 This is a very old town. Having been burnt 
 down in If!l7, it was rttbnilt on the island of (^uarii- 
 holin, being ]ireviously sitiialed on the mainland, 
 where its suburb now stands. It has been the 
 scene of some very important events in Swedish 
 history. Here, in 13117, was coiicluileil the famous 
 treaty Avliich united the kiiigihmis of Sweden, 
 Denmark, and Norway, under tiie vigorous sceptre 
 of (^neen Alargaret, surnamed the Northern Scmi- 
 ramis. Kut in its consequences this treaty was 
 very ruinous to Sweden. Here also, in IjVJO, (Jiis- 
 tavus Vasa disembarked to deliver his country 
 from the domination of foreigners and of a san- 
 guiiuiry tyrant. Louis Will, resided at Calmar 
 in \H{)\, and erected at Steiisai a tablet in honour 
 of (iustavus. In l«IM( n lire destroyed a great 
 number of the houses, with the buildings of the 
 academy. 
 
 CALNK, a pari, bor., market town, and par. of 
 Knghmd, co. Wilts, huud. Calne, ><ll m. W. from 
 Lo'idon by road, and !)',» ni. by (Jreat Western rail- 
 way. Pop. of ]mrliament. bor. i>,\7'.K and luuuic. 
 bor. 2,4!)t in IHlil. The liorongh formerly com- 
 prised 8H5 acres ; but the l^oiindary Act made the 
 limits of the pari. bor. coincident with those of the 
 par. The town, which consists chietly of one long 
 street, is well liuilt, with stone houses, and is well 
 jiaved aiil lighted with gas. The chiirdi. a largit 
 ancient stri •turc, has a tower by Inigo ,Iones; 
 and there uw various dissenting chapels. The 
 town-hall was erected at the exi)ense of the Mar- 
 (piis of Lansdowne. The t'raniniar-school, founded 
 ill I (Kid, has l\i) exliiliitioiis to (^)ueen's College, 
 ( Ixford ; and I here are Uritish and national schools, 
 Sunday sclmols. Tlicrc are dax and water mills. 
 A branch of ilic Wilts and IJerks canal coiuniuiii- 
 catcs with tin town, and. together with the rail- 
 way, much facilitates its trade. 
 
 (.lahie is a bor. by prescription : it began to .send 
 mem. to the II. of C. in the reign of Ivhvard I. ; 
 and regularly scut 2 mem. from the reign of 
 
 .v\i 
 
 k; 
 
(ill CALVADOS 
 
 Ifiilmnl n.ilnwn torlin paHsiitj^of llio Rpform Art, ] 
 wliii'li il<>|trivi'il it nC iiii<> of ii.s nu'in,, itinl al llii* , 
 HiiiiK' liiiK' t'xtciuli'il iIk^ liinits III' till! Iiiir. a-* Mtalcil 
 hImivc. I'rcvinii.-ily I" llic Ui^Cnriii Art, tlii^ rijflitur 
 vittiii)^ was ill lli(> liiir^'i'MHCs, who iiiifrhl lie iiiiic- 
 liiiitcly iiicnNiMcil, HcnistiTciUiicctnrs IHtiii iHtil. 
 IIiiw'ihhI, the ina^iiiticciit Hciit of llic Miiniiiit of 
 LaiMilDwiic, lii'H alMiiil \\ in. WMVniii the inwii, 
 
 CALVADOS, a (|i'|i. "(' I'Vaiiff, mi> cnllcil (rum a 
 cliaiii of rocks of ttiat iiainc that Hlrclc-hcH iiloii/j; 
 jilirt of itH coant, lioiiuilcil N. hy the l'',M;(llHh 
 riianiH'l, v., hy the (lop. Kiiro, H. hy <»rMc, ami VV. 
 hy that of La Maiuh(!. Area rt.Vil,!!',!;! lurtarcM. 
 I 'op. I K< ),!)!)-.> ill IHtil. SiirtiK't' mostly Hat, the 
 only hills of any coiiMcipiciu'c Iwiii^ in the arroml, 
 of Virc, ill lh« SVV. corner of the ili'ii. Soil of the 
 plains coiiipoHcil principally of calcareous clay ; the 
 woil of the valleys, of which there are several of 
 larj^e extent, is principally alluvial, aiitl that of 
 the hilly parts saiiily. Minerals iiiiiiiiportant,with 
 the e\c(>ptioii of coal, of which alioiit Dill ipiiiil. 
 (iiH^t.) are annually produci'il nt Littry. Cliiiiate 
 rather cold and moist. There are several rivers, 
 hul none of them is navipihle for any coiisiderahle 
 cMeiit inland. Coasts in must parts iiiaccessiiile ; 
 and the de'p. has no piod harliour. I'astiira){e is 
 more alteiiiU>d to than tillage; hut the latter is in 
 a mote advanced state than in most other dejiart- 
 nieiits. The average produce of wheat is estimated 
 at. alioiit 1,11)11,(11111 lic(;t. ; and that of harley, oats, 
 rye, and huckwheat may he taken at ahoiit as 
 much more. Apples are larf;'ely cultivated, and 
 cider is the common l«>veran(! of the country. The 
 |)otato ciiltiin? has recently heen much extendiMl. 
 Oxen hut little nsecl in li(dd lahoiir. Meadows 
 very extensive, exteiidiiij; over ahoiit 12;i,(HMl hec- 
 tares, and their manap'iiient well understood. In 
 tlu^ valleys, larj^c; henls of cattUt are fattened for 
 the markets of I'aris, Itouen, and (jaen. They are 
 hounht lean in the dei)artineiitH of Fiiiisterre, 
 (.'otes-du-Nord, Sarthe, luid Mayeiine. The dairy 
 is also ail ohjeut of much ulteiitioii; and lar^e 
 ipiantilies of superior hiitter and cheese are pro- 
 duced. 'I'otal stock of cattle (-stimated at 1(10,(100 
 head. 'I'he horses of this part of Normandy are 
 reckoned the (inest in France: stock estimated at 
 W),000, exclusive of 12,00(1 mules and asses. Sheep 
 have heen vastly improved during; the iiresent 
 century. Annual produce of wool ;UO,0(IO kilo;,'s. 
 (ireat. iiiiirihers of ho}^s are futteiied. The forests 
 cover nearly 40,(100 hectares. The lace manufac- 
 tory is widely ditl'iised, particularly ahout Caen ; 
 and the spinniii}^ and weaving <>f cotton and wool 
 occupy a ^reat munher of hands ; there are, also, 
 paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, retincries of heet- 
 root and foreif^n sujjar with distilleries. The 
 mackerel and lierriiif^ lishery is successfully carried 
 on along the coast. The <le']). is divided into 7 
 arrond. Principal tciwns, Caen, Lisieux, Hayeux, 
 Falaise, lloiitleur, aiidVire. 
 
 CALV'l, a sea-port town of Corsica, N\V. coast 
 of the island, on an elevated peninsula in the 
 f,'ulf of the same name; lat. 42° iU' 7" X., loiij^. 
 «o 45' HI" K. Pop. 2,0(;!» in IHtil. The town has 
 a f:jood harhour and road; hut derives its i)riucipal 
 conse(|ueiicc from its strong citadel, flanked with 
 live hastions. It was taken hy the English in 
 17!t4, hut not till after a siege of .51 days. 
 
 CAMAltCUK (LA), a river island of France, 
 dep. IJc)u<;hcs-du-lihonc, heing, in fact, the delta 
 of the Hhono. It is of a triangular fonn, and ex- 
 tends from Aries to the sea ; having I'], the (ireat 
 Jfliouc, or miiiii hrancli of the river, X. and W. the 
 Little lihoiie, and S, the sea. It is (luito flat, and 
 is supposed to contain ahout 5.5,000 hectares, of 
 which ahout 12,000, lying |irincipally along the 
 river, arc cultivated ; the rest cousisld of lagoons, 
 
 CAM HAY 
 
 mnrshos, and wiwlrx. The lagoonn, pnrticiilnrlv 
 that of Viilcaris, are very extensive: ihi-v ar.' 
 inoitly situated in the centre of the istiiinl ainl 
 along the sea coast, where the ground is Iowchi, 
 Lxcepl in certain districts, where saml iirednnii- 
 nates, the soil is, in general, very fertile. Tli,. 
 cultivated portion produces exitelleiit crops uf 
 wheal and harley; and the marshes and otiirr 
 grounds feifd large llocks of sheep during winter, 
 with great numhers of cattle and horses. Tlie 
 latter liavi' many properl ies of the Arah hordes, 
 and are hanly, and highly esteemed for the Nadillr. 
 The oxen are a small hreed, hut strong and ai'tive; 
 and heing hred up in a state of the most perlcci 
 I'reedom, are very wild. Considerahle tracts uri' 
 covered with a salt etlloresceiice, a conseipieiicc uf 
 the siihsoil coiisiiiling of sea sand. Th(> |ierMicliiiis 
 intluence of this salt impregiiaiion is in some pints 
 counteracted hy inundating the country with tlie 
 waters of the Itlioiie. A good deal of salt is pm- 
 diiceil. It is proposed lo atti^npt liie drainage nf 
 the lagoon and marshes, hy cutting a canal fur 
 that ]i#>rpose. Insiimmer tlieair is very unhcaliliy. 
 C.VMJtAV, a marit. town of llin(iostaii, pruv. 
 (iiijerat, in the (iuicowar's dom., formerly a cele- 
 hriited and tlourishiiig sea-port, hut now iiiiicli 
 decayed, through tlu^ tilling iiji of the hay, al the 
 head of which it stands, hv the deposits lir(Mi;;lit 
 down hy the rivers. It is t2 in. NSW. Sural, -.'(Hi 
 in. N. I'tomhay. Pop. ahout 10,000, almost e(|ii.iliy 
 divided hetween Hindoos and Midiammedaiis. \a- 
 rioiis Hindoo and Mohammedan ediliees an^ still 
 to he seen, amongst which is a very heaiitirid 
 mosfpie, close to the nawaiih's residence : its main 
 court contains .'t(iO jiillars of a handsonu; red saiul- 
 stone, tint material for wlii(di was hroiight, it is 
 said, from Ciitch. There iire also the remains nf 
 a suhterranean temple, said hy some to Ik- of .lain, 
 hut helieveil hy others to he of Ihiddhic origin : ii, 
 consists of two ehamhers, one over the other, ami 
 ahout 20 ft. sq. In the lower chamher three >iili-s 
 are occupied hy empty niches; in the fourllf tlicrr 
 is a (hiiihle row of white iiiarhle idols, liaviii;; in 
 their centre a gigantic idol 7 or H ft. high: they 
 are all alike, with a mild aspect, the legs cro-iscii, 
 and a hitos tlower on the sole of the font. In tlu; 
 upper room the figures arc similar, and in one 
 corner there is a hiack marhle idol of the same 
 size and apjiearance as the one heneath ; noiii' dC 
 the other tigures here are more than 2 ft. liif,'li. 
 Many emigrants from Persia formerly settled lieri', 
 after the civil wars in that country and coiupic-'is 
 of Niulir Shah; and it has still thirty or loriy 
 Parsee families. The silversmiths here ciuIhiss 
 very neatly, hy tilling the artich's to he opcraicil 
 on with glim lac, and then punching the ligiircs 
 with a small chisel ; hut the chief industry consists 
 ill the nmiufacture of cornelian, hloodstone, agate, 
 iSrc. ornaments. These stones, when inteiidiil fur 
 heads, are chipped into a roundish tigiire, ami 
 aftenvards rolled together in hags for several 
 weeks, till they hecome perfectly spherical : wiitii 
 a tlat surface is reipiired, the stones are sawn iiy 
 means of a mixture of gum lac and quart zose siil/- 
 stances, which readily fuse together, find lianliii 
 as they cool, when they are formed into cuttiii;; 
 instruments. Camhay formerly exporteil silks, 
 chintzes, gohl, stuffs, li'C. ; hut these manufactures 
 have dwindled away: the town was given up as a 
 trading station. Heavy goods have almost ccaseii 
 heing shipped at (Jamhay, and most of the (injerar 
 cotton is now sent to (Jogo, The surrouiiilin;; 
 country is pleasant and rich, hut not generally well 
 cultivated; it yields ample returns of wheat ami 
 llindostancc grains, indigo, cotton, oil-seeds, ami 
 excellent tohacco : some grain ami indigo arc ex- 
 ported to Bombay, aatl tobacco, Ironi which many 
 
TAMUKnWFXL 
 
 imiiiition^ of Miiiiilla cIiitiioIh iirc mnilr, TIiIn 
 cily iiikI (crritorv |iriM<|H'ri'il iiiiiItT the Mn^riils; in 
 ITiHO it v/an (rifiiitarv III tli<< Mnliriitta iintliwn, 
 iiiM('4> \v'liiiN«t I'lkll IiIh ri^lilH lmv<> lU'Volvnl on tin; 
 ltrilii«li n»v., to whiiiii iIk! iialiiili yioltU allc- 
 ({iiini'c, 
 
 ( 'AM lll;.U\VKI-r„ a par. of Knulaml. <•... Siirrcv, 
 I'!. <liv. Ilrixriiii, liuinl, a miiIhii'Ii of tlii' iii('iro|Hili.s, 
 on itH M, Hide. Arm l,.'>70 acrcx. I'lip. '2x,'i:H in 
 |H:tl,anil 7I,Ihn in iNiil, 'rinMnorcnniii'ni |iiirt of 
 what waH forincrly ilcsignatcil I lit' villap' ot Cani- 
 Intwi'II, incluilin^ the iircfii, in nio.<*tly ot'cniticii 
 liy nImi|ik, ikml iH hn|i|ili('(i uicli wali'r from ihr 
 workN of till' S, Loiiilon ('oni|iany. TIk- inori^ 
 niodi'rri inanHionH i\w. nio»tly ilciailiril ImnilHonio 
 lioiiNi's, oiTii|iyiii^ tlic ri:>'u\n f;rouni| to llic S, 
 mill SIO, of till' fonn<>r; known iw llui (irovc, 
 ('liMrn|iiiin, Drnniark, unil lli'mr liiilH, Witliin tlii' 
 h\M few years, I lie wliole of Canilicrwi'll Iiiim Ihtii 
 ureal ly iiilerHeeleil liy railways. I'lie iiarisii clinreli, 
 N(i|i|ioseiltoliavelteenliiiill in I 'i'ill,anileniar)^eilaiul 
 iiii|iroveil ill I'HCi.is in llie laler (ioiliie«lyle, liav- 
 hn; a lotv eniliattlcil lower, witli many iiilerexlinf; 
 luoiinmenlH. 'I'liere are numerous oilier cliiirelies, 
 Hinoii); lliein Cainileii Clmreli, ami om^ lieside llie 
 Surrey Canal, Imilt l>y IIk^ el'iireli commissioners 
 ill ilie (irecian style, anil forming llie ilisiriel 
 eliiireli of Si. (Jeor>;e. There are also a ^;real 
 iiiitnlier of ilissenlin); i.'liapels; a free ^'ranimar- 
 hi'liool, foiindeil in IliiX for I'.' hoys, is endowiMl 
 with an estate valued at 2(10/. a year. There is a 
 ^reen-eoat school, on the national plan, on Cam- 
 lierwell (ireeii, and a similar one, allaehed to 
 Camden ehni'ch, founded in IKIU; It or I other 
 M'hools have small endowinents ; aud there are 
 ^lunle minor eharities. 'I'he ^^ronnds of the S. 
 Metropolitan (Jemclery, in this parish, form an 
 extensive enclosure, laslefiilly laiil out, with a 
 chapel anil other ollices iiiid eatacoinlis. The 
 )i;;riciilliiral portion of the parish is fertile; and 
 iiiarkc^t-^jardeiis and imrserics employ jiart of 
 tlic )lopnlalion. The majority, however, are more 
 iir less engap'd in the ^(Uieral liiisiness of the 
 metropolis. The Surrey Canal terminates in it. 
 On Lailland Hill, S. of Camlicrwell, was a i|iiadri- 
 lateral lioman camp, with a donlile enlrenchmenl. 
 Ill di;;>;iiiff the canal, in IHII'J, a lioman way was 
 ilisiovered, formed of s(|uare hlocks of chalk, 
 Hccnri'd with oak piles, which has inaile some 
 suppose that this was the place where the Koman 
 li'jiions first crossed the TliameH : iJ ancient wells, 
 mi Well Hill, in the (mrisli, are sup[)oscil to have 
 (iri^inated the name. 
 
 CAMHO.IA, or (CAMBODIA, a conntry of 
 India heyond the (ianges, formerly one of the 
 most tlonrishin^ in that |ieninsiila; Imt at present 
 divided helween the empire of Aiiain and the 
 kiiij,'doin of Siam. It lies between lat. H° JJO' and 
 1.')° ;!(!' N., and hmy. \M° and 107° K.; having 
 N. Laos, E. Cochin China, W. Siam, and S. the 
 iiccan. It is enclosed K. and W. by two of the 
 ;;rcat monnlain chains, which, ]iassin}; S. from 
 Vminaii, trav(^rsc the l'ltra-(ianf;etic peninsula; 
 mi the sea-shore, it jiresents a vast alluvial tlat, 
 sirctchinj^ for a considerable distance inland. It 
 liiis several rivers, one of which, theMekon, ranks 
 amonj^st the larf^est in Asia; and another, the 
 river of Saif^on, is jierhaps, in all respects, the 
 liiicst river in that continent for navijj;ation. 'i'he 
 interior of Caniboja is scarcely at all known by 
 Kiii'opeaiis: it contains large forests, producing 
 smiic teak, and many luio trees, a hard black 
 timber, called i/iio, eagle and rosewood, and 
 various other woods lit for cabinet-work, dye- 
 wiKids, areca, stick lac, sugar-cane, and pepper. 
 The celebrated gamboge gum is said to be ob- 
 tained from a species of (Jarcinia, bj- making 
 
 CAMIUIAY 
 
 flIA 
 
 inciftioMK in tlw hark, from which the gninrxiuleit, 
 mill is collecleil in vessels, in which it soon he- 
 comes coMcri'ie, and III for the market wilhoiit 
 farther preparation. Itesides ihe arlides already 
 named, CamlHija exiMirts eardamoms, ivorv, hides, 
 horns, hones, dried llsh, Ate. in considerable ipian- 
 lilies, and imporis silks, China and lacipiereil 
 ware, lea, NWi'elineals, tin, and liiliniKjiif, (Seo 
 Saiiion.) In person, manners, laws, and slate of 
 civilisation, the inhabitants more closely resemble 
 the Siamese tlnin any other jH'ople : most of 
 them are Ihiddhists; but there are a few Christians, 
 The latter I'ailh was llrst introduced by ihe rorln- 
 guese .lesnits in UV1\, 
 
 In IHII',1, in conseipience of diHH(>nsinns in the 
 country, it was invadeil hv both the Siamese 
 and Anamese, when Ihe latter made themselve.^ 
 masters of reuomheng, Ihe modern capital, to- 
 gether with the person of the king, and look 
 possession of a large Iraci of country on the sea- 
 coast, from communication with which, the Kin- 
 perorof Anam. in In|',i, interdicteil all foreigners, 
 declaring Saigon the emporium of his S. provinces. 
 In IK'.'O, the tiiial purlilion ot thin country took 
 place. 
 
 Camiio.ia, an inl. town of India b(yond ihn 
 (ianges, the ancient cap. of the above, territory, 
 on both sides llu! Mekon, nearly 'Jdd m. from thii 
 sea; lat. IIP N., long. 11)1° ;t.V K. The Chineso 
 Avriters of the llltli century give a very tlorid de- 
 scription of its magniliceiice at that period, but il 
 is now in a state of decav. 
 
 I'AMIlorUNK, or CAM KOI! XK, a town nnil 
 par. of I'jigland, co. Cornwall, liund. I'eiiwith, 
 Area of par. (I.'.IOO acres. I'op, of par. I l.d.jfj, ami 
 of town, 7,20H in iMiil. This is a neatly-bnilt 
 and, for the most ]iarl, modern town, on an ele- 
 vated site, 1'2 m. \VN\V. Falmouth, nearllu^ S\V. 
 limits of lilt; chief mining district of the co., many 
 of the oldest and most productive mines of tin 
 and eop|ier being in its iinmcdiati! neiglibonrhood, 
 and furnishing employment, not only to the inliab. 
 of the town, but to llie !l or t considerable ham- 
 lets, and Ihe collages every where dispersed over 
 the parish. The church is a handsome structure, 
 in the latter (iotliic styli' : there is also a chapel 
 of ease, and several large dissenting chapels, 
 chielly for the various sections of the Wesleyan 
 Methodists; a frei; school, founded in I7li:!, for 
 J 2 boys and K girls, has a revenue of 21/. ; there 
 are idso several large Sunihiy schools. Market, 
 Saturday; fairs, chielly for cattle, Maritli 7, W'liil- 
 Tnesday, .June 2!l, and Nov. 1 1. Tetty sessions 
 for the hnnd. are held weekly in the town. 
 
 CA.MllKAV, a well-fort ilied town of Franco, 
 de'p. du Nord, cap. arrond., on the right bank of 
 the Scheldt, i32 m. S. Lille; on the Noriherii 
 railway. I'op. 22,.j.")7 in iNtil. Its fort iticat ions 
 were improved by Vanban, aiul it is further de- 
 fended by a strong citaiUd. It ia pretty well 
 built, aud has a magnilicent pluve i/'nniies. Its 
 ])rinci|ial public buildings are the cathedral, the 
 hotel de ville, and the theatre. It has a tribunal 
 of original Jurisdiction, a communal college, a 
 diocesan seminary, with iJ.'id scholars; a secondary 
 school, a society of emultilion ; with schools of 
 design, sculpture, pamting, and anatomy; and a 
 public library, containing 5(1,0(10 volumes. 
 
 Canibray was fonnerly an archbishopric; and 
 hiis to boast of having had Feiielon, who died 
 here in 171.'), among its prelates. In 17li;), during 
 the revolutionary iihrenzy, the body of Fcneloii 
 wiis lorn from Ihe grave, and the lead of his colliii 
 cast into bidlets. The idd cathednil was, at tlio 
 same time, totally destroyed. A handsome monii- 
 nient, the work of David the sculptor, was erected 
 to the memory of Fenelou, iii the present cathc- 
 
 fe 
 
OKi ('AMrnUlMIHXHIUK 
 
 ilrnl, in lHi*.'>, iinil<>r wtiirli UU rcinnliiM Imvc Im'ph 
 (li'liiwiicil. Ill iHcc.', tlii'iirrliliiHlir>|iri(Mir(Juiiiliriiy 
 
 Mito rliilli;;i'il iiilii ii liiil>'i|irii'. 
 
 'I'liit iiiMii lui'< lii't'ii Imii;; I'iiiiihiin foriu iniiiiii- 
 I'lirtiiri' lit' liiii' liiiiiM mill laiviis, tvlit'in ■■ nil xiiiil- 
 liir I'lilit'iiK iiri' r.'iili'il in I'.ii^liiiiil itimlirim. It 
 ui-iii |irii(liir<'M llirriiil ; fiirrirx nil M'vrriil liriiiiclii'H 
 III' till' riitlnii niiitiiirii'tiiri' ; iiiiil Iiiim r>iiii|i w>irl<'<, 
 laniii'ricM, iiiiil wait ii iiiirrii'M, A Kn'iitcr iiiiiiiImt 
 
 of lllllliln arr ii('i'li|iii'il ill llii< ailjniuill;; i ulllllllllli'rt 
 
 ill the liiii'ii ni/iiiiiraciiiri'. It liiii a I'liiiMitliTalili' 
 Iraili'iii uiHil, llii\, liiittiT ami lnipM, 'I'lic lavi^'a 
 liiiii iil'tlK^ Srih'lili licfriiiN lien-, anil it ('iiiiiinnni- 
 niti'H Willi Si. (^iii'iitin iiy a raliiil 
 
 'I'liiM is n very aiicimt city, liaviii^' liccti a placii 
 of ('iiiiNiili'ralilc iiii|iiii'iaiii'e iiinlcr iIh' IIiiiiiaiiK. 
 It is ct'li'liratnl ill ili|iliiiiiatit' lii^liiry lor tin* 
 raiiliiiis Icti^nc, kniiwii liy its iiiiinc, (mimIuiIi'iI 
 licrc ill Ia07, a;{iiirisi ihr rcpiililii' ul' Vi'iiici'; ami 
 liiriilrfaly ul' iicarc ni'miliali'il in l,V.V> liciwrcn 
 Kramis I. ami Cliarlcs V. li was tiikni rrmn I hi' 
 .SiMiniarils liy hiiiiis XIV. in Itiii", ami wiis coii- 
 lirini'il to Kraiii'i' liy tlic tn'atyol NiiiH';,'ii('ii, 'I'lic 
 llriliKli lonk it liy cscahuli' in Ml.j, alter llic 
 liatllt' III' WatcrliMi. 
 
 CAMIIIMlMiKSIIIIil':, MM iiilaml co. ul' Kn^'- 
 laiiil, having' N. imi, l.im'nlii, K. Nnrfnlk ami 
 >Snl1iilk, S, I'.sM'x ami llcrifiinl, ami \V, llcill'nril, 
 lliickiliK'liiini, Mini Niirlliai:i|itiiii. Area alH, IMII 
 ai'ri's, III' which almiit. .'iiio,iliMi arc Hn|i|iiiscii to lie 
 aralilc, iiicailiiw, ami pastiirc. roji. IMI.rir^.'i in 
 IMtil. SiirI'mc, cxcciit III the S. parts, where it 
 is ilivei'slliril, I'lir the niiisir part. Ihit ami iiakeil. 
 S<iil clayey ami sliililMirn. Il if diviilcd iiiln Iwn 
 |i(irtiiiiis liy the river Oiisc, ami is watered he- 
 (•iiles liy the Cam ami llic Xelie, or Neii. The 
 imist iiiirtlierly pnrtiiin . I' tluM'ti. coiisists priiici- 
 iially III' the district called the Isle of Kl •, which 
 lias separate jnrisilictiiiii within itself. This dis- 
 trict, whicli is iialiirally a marsh, is iiiclnded 
 ^vitlli!l the ^reiit level nC the fens; and is rendered 
 liaiiitalile mily liy a most expensive system ol 
 draiiia^'c, liy which th(> water is raised and ciui- 
 vi'yed away in cliaimels, kept at a lii;,'her level 
 lli.'in the siirriiiindin^ coiintry, AKrlciiltnri! is in 
 rather a backward state, the land under tillage 
 lieinn' frequently I'lnil and nut of (irder. Wheat, 
 (lals, lieans, and iMitatnes are the principal crnps 
 ill the fens; and liarley in the elevated ffrimmls. 
 J''lax ami lieinp are also raised in tlu; tens; and 
 ciile is extensivoly ciiltivat<'d as fond for sheep. 
 The ri(;h meadows in the valley watered liy the 
 Cam are principMlly nppropriated to the dairy 
 Inisliaiidry, and Camhrid;;')' liutter lias lon^ en- 
 joyed a hij;ii rcjiiitation. The liirp', thin, cream 
 cheese, made at C'ottenliam, is admitted to he the 
 (irst of its class. Heavy cart liorses are exten- 
 sively lired. The rich fjrass lamis are mostly 
 depastnreil liy short-liorned cattle and lon^- 
 woolled sheep, Camlirid^fc, as well as Ilnntiii^- 
 doii, is overrun with |)i}^eoii-liouses. Msiates of 
 all sizes: some larf^e, lint maiij' small, some bein^; 
 worth only from •Jd/. to ."ill/., and KK)/. a year. 
 ISize of liirins cfpially various, and held mostly at 
 will. Farai-liiiiises inferior, and cotta;;es di^- 
 ridcdly ' bad.' IMannfactures and minerals of no 
 imporiaiice. The co. contains )H hiinds,, exclu- 
 sive of the. Me of Kly, and H>7 parishes, I'rinci- 
 iial towns. Camliridj!;e, I'^ly, Wisln-acli, In J«til 
 It had !i7,l>IM inhab. houses. It sends 7 mems. 
 to the II. of C., viz. it for the co., iJ for the Uni- 
 versity, and '2 for the bor. of Cambridge. liej^is- 
 tcn'd "elccinrs for tlii^ ('o. 7,17(! in INti.j. The 
 gross eslinialed rental assessed to |)(ior rate was 
 'JM,M'.)I. ill iJ^lil, and the amount assessed to 
 property tax was l,02(j,37(J/ in 1)5J7, anil 
 l,l40,ciiD/. ill 18Gi. 
 
 CAMimimM': 
 
 rAMiiiiirxii;, n pari, bi.r, mid town nf Kiit{l/niil. 
 CO. Cmiihrlil;;!', hiind. Ilemlisli, lli sent of tm,. „i 
 tlicKreiil l'.ii;;llsli iiiiivcrsllies, 0:1 the Cam.; |m 
 111. X. liN I,. Loiidnii by road, and u.'J in. by (inni 
 Kasii'in railway, I'.ip', W,:M\ 10 iNi.l, Tliv. town 
 issiliiali'd ill ail exieiixive level Irmt.tlin, irarcciy 
 presciii-i iiiiy inequality, with the exceptnui of lli. 
 (ioK Mau'iK hills. I III." SW, of the town; and tli,' 
 ureaicr pan of |u piibllc structures, will i||,.|r 
 walks ami Miirdeiis, are einbosoiiied in hikhI, 
 I tvvin^ to lliese circiiriisianct's, the ap|ir<uii in 
 Cambridp' is iinilii|iressivi' ; bill the iioliU' 1 i.n,)! 
 of Kiii'^''s Celleue, ihe tower of St. MiirvS ami 
 tlicsoin'ot Trinity Church, rise above tlie irei'-.. 
 and break the general iinitormity of Ihe oniljn, 
 The i^'rcMlcr |Miriiiiii of the town stuiiils on ilir sr, 
 bank of llic river. The streets ari' in.islly miii. a 
 am! irreniil.ir. There an two principal liiii .. 
 which iiiiiieoii I be M-;. siili', near tln' iron bri'lKv 
 over the ''am; from these smaller streets ilivir;;i' 
 on cilhii side, all ul «liich are paved, sewerid. 
 ami lijjiiicd by pis. The chiel supply of water is 
 
 deriveil iroiii a spring ;i m. distant, and t vcmiI 
 
 by an iKiueduci, under some of the |irim'l|ial 
 streets, to a piilplic coiiilnit in the iiiarkei -pkiic. 
 I''or this thetowii is indebted to lloli^in, the Imr^e 
 hirer, whose deleriiiiiiatioii to let lis horses in 
 strict rotation ({ave rise to the wii known pru- 
 verli of • llobsoii's choice,' There are foiirii'cn 
 distinct parishes, mid a correspondiiin innnlicr nf 
 cliiiri'hes, St. .Slary's, a stately (iotliic sinniiiri', 
 forms one sidi^ of n i|iiadrnn^r|e,'in whiidi the niiJi- 
 lii' library and Henale-house are also placed; it is 
 occupied both by the parish and the iinivcrsiiv; 
 St, Se|iulclire's, built in the rei^ii of Henry I., in 
 imitation of that of the Holy Sepulchre at ."lcrii>a- 
 Icm ; and Trinity Church, "an ancient criiciloriii 
 structure, are the only churches woiili iioiin'. 
 The lliiptists, liide|ieiideiits, Friends, I'rimiiivi' 
 Methodists, ami Wesleyaiis hiiv(M'ha|M'ls, Thirc 
 is a free j,'rammar school, foumled bv Dr. rer-e in 
 ItJI"), originally for IIMl scholars, Init now cilii- 
 eating sixteen ; they have preference of Ihe I'crx' 
 fellowships ami scholarships in Cains Coll.: a na- 
 tional school, founded in IKIIK, and extended in 
 iMIti, educates tiill) boys and girls: in this the oM, 
 or Whisteii charity schools, have merged. In iiiin' 
 distinct sets of almshouses, lifty-six poor perMHK 
 are wholly 1 r partially supported : there are al-n 
 benefactions for various other (diaritable purpuM'^, 
 held in trust by the coqioration ; and a geniT:;! 
 infirniarv, called, from its founder, Addenbrnnkc's 
 llospilal, in which about 1,(1(10 jiatients are an- 
 nually relieved. The market-placu occupies iwn 
 oblong squares in the centre of Ihe town, at iIk^ 
 head of which stands the shire-hall, and beliiml il 
 the town-hall. The gaol, built on Howard's pi.in 
 in IMli), is ill the yard of Ihe ancient ciisile (nf 
 which little more than the gati -vay reniaiM>) ;it 
 the N\V, end of the town — the only comparatively 
 elevated portion ; near it is an artilicial inoumi, 
 whence an extensive view is coinmanded, I'lic 
 various slriictiires connected with the universiiy 
 form, essentially, a part of the town, mostly mi 
 its W. side. There is a musical society on a larf,'c 
 scale, and groat musical I'estivals an; held, at in- 
 tervals, in St. Mary's (Jhnreli. The Cam, fnrincil 
 by the jinu'tioii of several small stre.iins aboiii I 
 m. from the town, is made navigable for bar;;os 
 up to the town: it Joins the Otise not far I'mni 
 Kly, by which n water communication is cmi- 
 tiniied to Lynn h'egis. There is a daily market 
 for general provisions; hut the chief supply is mi 
 Saturday, 'J'wo annual fairs are held— lli'e lirsi. 
 commencing June 2;(, lasts three days: it is held 
 on a common near Jesus Coll., and called I'ni 
 hair, from the quantity of earthenware brought to 
 
CAMnUIPOK 
 
 it; llicfo Id rt \nrm> hur«<- lair mi llii' llr<l d.iy. 
 'I'hi' ntlii-r in Simirt>ri(l|.'*' litir, iiin'iciiilv iIh' liirui^l 
 ill llii' l\iiiK<l<»iii mill ^lill >>( i'>>iir<lil<'riklil<' ri'Kiirt, 
 tlmii^'li iiiiirli curluilicl Imili in iliiriiiiiii itiicl iiii- 
 |iiirliiiii'c : it in lii'lil ill It lli'lil lii'iir I tiiriiucll, (k 
 villiiKi' iKljiiiiiiiiK rmiiliriilKi'i i>"<l I*"'" (ui'ili't'ii 
 ilii>>i nil iwi> III ilii'O)' liiirTH iiri' nmIiI, iiml on tlit' 
 iilliiTH tilt' >'liii'f Iriillir i^ ill wiiiil, Ii(i|i,<, IniiliiT, 
 clicrsr. anil iriHi. TIkti' lire iiii iniiinitiiitiirt'n riir- 
 I'ii'iliiii; lint il.i Nilimlimi, III llic licitil nl' the ill- 
 liiiiil iiuviu,titrHi I'nini l.viiii, ami an n |iriii<'i|iai 
 htalinii oil ilic <ir<'at jjiMlrrii railw»\ , iicraNiuiiN 
 n iMiii>iili'ralili< triiilc in nirii, cnal, tinilxT, nil, ami 
 iron. iSimr the iiinrc iMTli'i't ilriiiiiMi;i' iil'tlic I'lin, 
 iHi.j ilio liirMuitiiiii III ^imkI roaili lowarils ami 
 aldii^, I tio l'„ anil SK. riianlK, nviT trni't-i jirr 
 viiiii.^ly I'lipiWHalilf, it lia.i Ih-ciimic ii rniisiilrralili' 
 tlinriiii^litair, ami iIitIxi'm muni' lm>iiii's.t rniiii that 
 wiiiiTc: ill rliii'l' iriillii', iiuwcvcr, '\n, ilir<'<'llv or 
 iiiilirrrlly, ciiniin'tcil with llic uiiiviTMiiv, .•iml the 
 hii|i|ily III ilM variiiiiM waiilN. 'I'lir aniniint a^>Ki'oM)'it 
 III |irii|«'riy lax I'nr llit' liiirouj;li nim I •.'•J,M / _*/. in 
 1M.'(7, mill r.'ii,7ii(t/. in IMti'j; ilic aniuiinl asxr-Hril 
 til |)n>|M'rtv lax Cur llm iiiiivcriit/ wnn ilii.l'iH'.'/, 
 ill |M.)7, iinil ;il,;W(>/. ill iMdl'. " Tlic liiirmiuli 
 iiii'inni' aviTap'.'* I7,(l<t(l/. per anniini, iil' «liii'li 
 iH'arly nni'liall in rruiii ratcM. 'I'lic liiiiii.-i nl' llir 
 aiiricnt liiir, liavi' lit'cii ai|ii|itt'il Imtli in the I'arl. 
 ami Mniiiripal Iti'lnrin iu'Ih, uikI cunipri'*!' an ari'a 
 III ;l.l'.)ii iirrcM. It in iliviilcil into livr wanl", ami 
 (,'iivi'riK'il liy a mayor, Irii alilfrnu'ii, ami thirty 
 ciiinirillorM, Coiiris ol' prtiy Aiiil i|iiari('i' Mc.s.sinns, 
 ami a rniirt. of ph'us, iirc iiclil lor the lioroii^rli, 
 rroni llu^ JiiriMilii'iiiiii of whii'li the iiii'inlx'rs ol'ilu' 
 university iiiiiy rliiiin ptTsmial I'Xt'inptioii. 'I'hi' 
 lii'aiU ol' it are iiiiilril with thoNf of ihc coriui- 
 raliiiii in tlu! ooininisHiuiiH of prart' that arc issiii'il 
 liir tilt! horiiii^rli. Till' piilii!!' is aUn iimU'r tlirir 
 Jiiiiil ciiiilrol. The. iniprovcniciil.H in tlii* iiaviKa- 
 liiiii (which of lat»! years have hceii very coii- 
 oiileraltlc) an^ iimler Ihc ilircctinii ol' conservators, 
 three of whom arc appointeil liy the university, 
 three liy the corporation, ami three hy the county" 
 iiin^iistrates. I'art of the corp. rev. uf the town is 
 lieriveil from rents of laiiils ami teiieineiil.s, ami 
 lulls of Ihc fairs ami markets, which the corp, re- 
 ceive, tlioiifih the entire ciniirol of these, as well 
 as the licensing of piililic-hiniscs, is vesteil in the 
 iiiiiversily ; there are also ItlO acres of coiiiinnn 
 lami iiniler the inaiiagemenl of th" corporation, 
 hut on which the iiiliahitanls gem'rally have a 
 rij^ht of piislui-aj;e. (,'anihriilf^e has retnriieil two 
 nieiii, to the II. of C. from the earliest recnrils of 
 imrliameiit, I'reviouslj- to the, IJeforin Act the 
 riiclit of election was liniiled to tlu! freenieii of the 
 Imr. not receiving alms, IkC^fistcreii electors for 
 the hor. 1,7«7 in IHUl. The (inarler sessions ami 
 nssi/.es for the county are held in this town. The 
 first historic meiiiioii that occurs of ('amliridKc is 
 ill N7I, when it was rava^'d hy the |)aiies. The 
 iiistle was hiiilt hy Win. the C'omiueror. In l-'IH 
 the llrst notice of dissensions between towiisnieii 
 anil si udeiits occurs. In l.'WI (the iKTiod of Wat 
 'fyler's riots) the university charters were seized 
 ami destroyed l>y the towiisinen, for which Hicliil. 
 II. (leprived them of tluar own, and vested the 
 university with their privilej^es. Henry Vlll. w- 
 sliired their charter, hut witli moililications which 
 niaile them, in many respects, still suhordiiiate to 
 till' university. In Kl-lli the town was giirrisoned 
 by Cromwell, wlio liail, iirevimisly, twice repre- 
 siiiled it in the If. of C No suhseqiient event of 
 imhlic importance is connected with its history, 
 liishiip .Jeremy Taylor and Jtichurd (,'iimlierland 
 (llu^ dramatic writer) were natives of t'amhridjj,!'. 
 
 CAMUKIDUK (IJXIVKKSITY OF). This 
 celebrated scat of learning aiul educatiun derives 
 
 CAMniUDnK (UNIVKn^ITY OF) (117 
 
 111 ofi^i;in from ciriain piililli s. hooli, exiulili-hid 
 ill the town III n MTV iinmii hiit iim< riain period, 
 perhaps in the 7ili c'liinry. 'I he Niiideiiis who 
 resorted III tlio.M' seniiiiarirs lived in |i«lniiii;s in 
 the town; imr did they, till the l.'lili ceMiiry, 
 nsHimie III!' re^'iihir fiirni of a iiiiuersil\, in 
 that lenn wiis iimler<,iiiHl in ihe niiildle ' au'cs. 
 In K"Ueral, fn.ir hnimhes of -dm iiliini. or fami- 
 lies, were recin;ni«eil ; that of nits, iniiinii.ry In 
 the others, ami enilirai'in^ the lime siipi rior ami 
 fiiiirsnlHirdiiiaic sciences, or, its they werf rallrd in 
 the lailKlia^n- of the liriU', llie Iriritim iiiiil iimnf- 
 lii'iiim — the first comprising thesiiiily ot Kiiininiar, 
 rheliirii', unit lo^'ic ; ami Ihe si loml, that of 
 ariihiMctic, iniislr, Ki'i.nielry, ami asiromnny ; and 
 the lai'uliii's of iheiilivv, la\\,.tml mi'diciiie. In 
 eilill of lliiM', there Weic ii'IimIIv Iwoile^^rees, thai 
 of hachelor luiil master; and the fiimiions of ii 
 university, n^ at pn^eiit, was in iiiipait the iieci's- 
 sary instrncltoii in each, ami to confer iliurees, 
 or certiliciitcs of pr'iicieucy. Kxcepi the 
 iMililic schools, there n , ml lirsl, no other 
 iiiiildin^'s appiopriiii.il hi ncademical piirpoMs; 
 bill subseinieiilly, | ililu- halls or linstelries rimie 
 to be esiahHshed for the cniiveiiii'iice of tlio 
 Nliideiits, ail' I the intrudiu'tioii of some JMiier 
 system of discipliiie. The slmleiits, resorliiu,' lo 
 each of these clio-e it principal, or rerlur, fmiii 
 aiiioii:;>l Iheniselves, whose appoinliiieiil was 
 saiii'tiiiiied by the noveriiin(f In ily of Ilii> uni- 
 versity; resilience in lliose halls was, hiiwe\er, 
 ne\er iiisisied on as an isseiilial fnpiisiie. I'lie 
 ciille;;es are of still laler iirij;in. ami derive their 
 exisleiice from privale niiiiiiliceiu'e ; Ilic olijii'l. 
 lieiiin lo provide loil^inj,' and siihsisteiice to a 
 limited iiiiinher of ihe poorer class of stmleiils. 
 ( >rij,'ilially the masters of arts were the public 
 instriiclors, and were boiiml to teach others sniiie 
 of llie snlijects perlaiiiiiiK' to llu ir respi'ctive facul- 
 lies; coiiveiiieni'e iiltiinalely came to limit this 
 fnm'tiiin to a ciTtain nnniher of masters, who also 
 caim^ to form chielly, or wholly, the j;iiverniii,i;' 
 body; and hence the ilistiiiction of nijciil ami 
 niiH-rnjiiit masters. Tlie appointiiieiil of pro- 
 fessors in the ilill'ereiit laciillies, paid by salaries, 
 instead of fees (as was the case with Ihe i'cffiiit 
 masters), compUteil the iiiiiversily systein on ihe 
 reco;;iiised phi:' of the period. 'I'iie "geiier.il right 
 of lecturing was, howexer, retained down lo a 
 recent dale, Smli, probably, was the system 
 pursued thioiigli tlu I 'lb and l.'itli centnrivs. 
 The greatest number of stiii'.eiils freipieiiiing the 
 Iiiiiversily during the period vvlieii Ihe public 
 halls formed the ri'siileiices of Ihe niiijoriiy, 
 was in the l.'lth century. From the earlier part 
 of Ihe Mill, downward, the iiiimbi'i-s diminisbeil 
 considerably; partly from civil war, partly fruni 
 the dei'lining repnlalion of scholastic |iliiliiso|ihy, 
 and snbseipiently, from religious dill'ereiices; so 
 that, at tiu! Ifi^formatioii, tlu- halls had been 
 niosily deserted, anu the greater part of the 
 students were those iii Ihe fonmlation of the dif- 
 fiTeiit colleges, which had beioine iiiiimrotis, 
 and were nearly tlu^ only instiintions that sur- 
 vived the religious confusion of the age. It w;is 
 in I "i.'M that the university publicly renoiiiieeil tlu! 
 snprcinacy of the pope, and in the following year 
 the whole of its charters were resigned to the king, 
 who, liowcNX'i, .•'•stored them soon after. Some of 
 the colleges, in the Iiith cenlnry, admitted imle- 
 pomlent members in residence ; others came to be 
 established, ami the remaining halls were con- 
 verted into colleges. 'i'he ascemliiiicy of Ihc 
 college systcn, however, was elfected gradiiiilly, 
 throiigh a considerable period. The following are 
 the collegiate establishments of (Jumbriilgc, in the 
 order of their foundation : — 
 
 4\ 
 
 \i 
 
 «(''!! 
 
 *\\i 
 
 i 
 
 hi 
 
 ml 
 
 %^i 
 
 Ml J •'" 
 
 m 
 
 '.III,! 
 
 Hi; 
 
 I i 
 
^, 
 
 4^ ^ 
 
 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 11.25 
 
 ut liii 12.2 
 
 !tf 144 ■" 
 
 IIS 
 
 iti 
 
 If 
 
 «» u 
 
 IM 
 
 
 6" 
 
 7] 
 
 7 
 
 
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 s:^,. 
 
 7 
 
 Photograiiiic 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Corporation 
 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) •72-4503 
 
c 
 
 *^^ 
 
 '>>^ 
 
 ^4^ 
 ^ 
 
018 
 
 Nwnni 
 
 St. IVtcr'rtColl., I 
 ^r I'uttTlioiisc i 
 
 ClaroItoU . 
 
 rombrokc irciU . 
 
 (Iniivlllo and 1 
 Cuius Coll. J 
 
 Trinity Ilnll 
 
 Corpus Christl ) 
 
 Coll. . J 
 Kings Coll. 
 
 Queen's Coll. \ 
 
 Catlmrino Hall . 
 Jesus Coll. . 
 
 Christ's Coll. | 
 
 St. John's Coll. . 
 
 Slagdalen Coll, . 
 
 Trinity Coll. 
 
 Rnimanucl Coll. 
 Sidney .Sussex 
 
 Coll. 
 Downing Coll. 
 
 Dull' or 
 
 FoiiiKla- 
 
 tluii 
 
 l'i57 
 l.l'.'e 
 
 laio 
 urn 
 
 13.11 
 
 MU 
 
 114(i 
 MliS 
 
 It-r, 
 
 ll'.Mi 
 14M 
 l.jd.'i 
 
 Mil 
 
 1.119 
 
 154G 
 
 l.l.Sl 
 1.198 
 1800 
 
 Founttcri 
 
 ( Hugh do Balsam, Bp. 
 i of Kly 
 Ur. Biulew ; hut rc- 
 eonstltutcd by Eli/., 
 de llurgh 
 CnuntcKs of Pembroke 
 Edw. (ionvill(! : .loliu 
 CaiUH, in I. LIS, in- 
 creasiid and olitaiiRil 
 n new cliartiT 
 W. liati'man, Bp. of 
 
 Norwieh 
 The Brethren of 2 
 
 Cambridge guilds 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Jlurg. of Anjou : ro- 
 foundeil by Consort 
 of Edw. VI. 
 Boht. Woodlark 
 .Ino. Aleock, Bp. of Ely 
 I ll<>n. VI., Countess of 
 i Uiehniond & Derby 
 i Countess of Ilichmond 
 t and Derby 
 Lord Aiidley 
 rllen.VlIl., augmented 
 by Mary : it oeeupies 
 ■i the ground of several 
 8iipi)ressed Coll. and 
 L hostels 
 
 Sir W. Mildmay 
 ( Lady F. Sidney, 
 t Coinitess Sussex 
 Sir G, Downing 
 
 Eiicli of these cnUogos is {governed by l.iws and 
 iisflges of it.s own (for the most part estai)ii.shcil hy 
 tlic respective (bunders), and is suhject to the 
 inspection of its own vi.sitor or visitors, appointed 
 by the foundation charter. Excejjt at Kinjj's and 
 'I'rinity, the heads (masters) of these collej;'CS are 
 el(!oted by the fellows, for life, from amonjj; them- 
 .selves; in general, they must be in onlers, and 
 are allowed to marry; their incomes (which vary 
 considerably) arise from the proceeds of a double 
 fellowship, livings attached to the otHce, &c. They 
 exercise .supreme authority in the discipline of 
 (heir college in respect to education, and the con- 
 duct of those in statu pupiUuri, and are associated 
 ■wilh the general government of the university, as 
 will subsequently be noticed ; but, as respects the 
 government of their college, they form part of the 
 general legislative council, and are assisted by the 
 foinidation fellows, who fonn the governing body 
 in each college. In regard to these last, the ordi- 
 nary practice is to elect to vacancies, each from 
 the respective students of its own establishment, 
 and, for the most part, from amongst those study- 
 ing with the view to taking holy orders; time, 
 however, is allowed by the statutes for graduates 
 to make choice of a profession, and, consecpicntly, 
 those who decline after the limited period taking 
 t)rders have to vacate any fellowships they have 
 been appointed to; vacations also occur by ac- 
 ceptance of college livings, (which, as they fall in, 
 are oft'ered bj' seniority to the respective fellows,) 
 or by other livings or situations, statutably in- 
 cimipatible, or by marriage, which is against the 
 statutes in some of the colleges; .«o that, from these 
 and other circumstances, the succession of fellows, 
 in most of the colleges, is tolerably rapid : when 
 in residence, a considerable part of their board is 
 ])rovided. The incomes are very ■.-arious, and in 
 each college vary I'rom year to j ear, being con- 
 tingent on the college revenues, much of which is 
 tlerixod from rents, varying with the prices of corn 
 anil I'rom the falling in of leases. Tlie college ex- 
 penses also Viiry, and are paid from a fund set 
 
 CAMimiDOE (UNIVF-:R.SITY OF) 
 
 aparl for general purposes, and derived partly from 
 taxation of the fellowships, partly from room-rent, 
 and minor sources of iiu'oine. 
 
 'llie fiiumlntion srhiiliirshipn are subject lo 
 ditt'ercnt regulations and conditions, peeidiar to 
 each college ; but they are always elected fnun 
 among the uiuler graduates, and in the larger 
 colleges, where these are numerous, they form a 
 .sort of minor prizes, to be contended for like tlmse 
 of the fellows. The emoluments attached to these 
 scholarships are very various in amount; in re- 
 gard- to disci[)line and education, they are pre- 
 cisely on the same footing as the uulependeut 
 stiulents, 
 
 'I'he v.iliililtiomi arc annual pensions, given in 
 some instances by the colleges, but mostly by IVee 
 endowed schools elsewhere, to assist such youths 
 as, having been educated at them, are .sent to the 
 university : c.ililliitioitfis are not usually aceounied 
 on the foundation. Uesides these, there are stu- 
 dents of an inferior class, termed nizars, who are 
 jirovided for wholly or in part by the foundatimi. 
 The ollicers of the establishment, such as dean, 
 bursar, itc, are .selected hy the fellows of eaiii 
 respective college from among their own body; as 
 also the college tutors, to whose charge all the 
 students, whether on the foundation or not, are 
 entrusted. The whole of these must necessarily lie 
 in residence; but in respect to the other fellows, 
 it is not in general required, though a nuinljer 
 usually do reside, some as private tutors, others 
 for tlie purpose of study. In some colleges, iiro- 
 hationers have to pass an examination previously to 
 being admitted as fellows on the foundation. The 
 iu.st ruction given at each of tho.se colleges is pre- 
 liminary to taking the lirst university degree of 
 H.A., and is exclusively adapted and ilirected lo 
 that object. This is chiefly attained, not through 
 the juiblic lectures of the university professors, hut 
 through the ijrivate labours of the respective col- 
 lege tutors. The character and extent of this 
 instruction is determined by the imiversity, hy 
 which the degree is granted; but no one is admis- 
 sible unless he have been entered at, and resided 
 within the jurisdiction of one of the colleges ur 
 licensed halLs, and has been under the collegiate 
 htstruction of his house. Thus the university is 
 formed by the union of 17 colleges, devoted in 
 academic pursuits and the study of all the liheriil 
 arts and sciences: it is incorporated (13 Kliz. c. 2'.K} 
 by the name of ' The ChauceHor, Masters, and 
 Scludars, of the University of Cambriilge ; ' ami 
 though each college is a body corporate, bound by 
 its own statutes, it is likewise controlled by ilie 
 paramount laws of the university. The statutes 
 of the 12th of Eliz., which were sanctioned hy 
 parliament, and conlirmed some Ibriner privileges, 
 are the foundation of the existhig governnieni, 
 anil form the basis of all the subsequent legisla- 
 tion ; in fact, no grace of the senate is con- 
 sidered valid which is inconsistent with the 
 statutes of Eliz., and certain nearly cotemiioniry 
 interpretiUious of them ; or with king's letters, 
 that have been accepted and acted on by the 
 miiversity. 
 
 Each college furnishes members both to the 
 executive and legislative branches, collectively 
 termed the senate. It is divided into 2 houses, 
 called the regents' ami non-regents' house. The 
 former, or upper house, is composed of masters ef 
 arts of less than o years' staiuling, and doctors of 
 less than 2 years; its nr mbers wear hoods, liiieil 
 with white silk ; all the rest, who retain their 
 names on their respective college boards (for which 
 a small annual fee is charged), constitute the 
 lower house, and wear hoods of black silk ; hence 
 the distuiction of white and black-hood houses. 
 
CAMnHlDOE (UNIVERSITY OF) 
 
 rtly from 
 loin-n'iii, 
 
 ilyrct lit 
 'Ciiliar Id 
 •tt'd In nil 
 In; liirniT 
 y t'lirin ii 
 like iIkim; 
 il til llu'si; 
 It; ill rc- 
 nro piX'- 
 .Ifpeiuli'iiL 
 
 j;ivt'ii ill 
 tly liy Irt'i! 
 ch yimllis 
 (I'lit to tin; 
 
 aci'ounU'd 
 re are slii- 
 r.s, will) art! 
 'ouiiilatiiiii. 
 h as (Iran, 
 rt'M (if t'acli 
 
 II liiiily ; ax 
 rj;c uU the 
 or not, an; 
 i;esMarily lie 
 lier t'(;llu\vs, 
 I ji uunilicr 
 itors, (itluTs 
 )lloycM, jtnp- 
 ireviiiiisly to 
 liitioii. The 
 lejjjes is i>re- 
 ;y decree of 
 
 ilirecteil u> 
 not thnmj;li 
 rolessors, Imt 
 siiective i'"!- 
 teiit of tliis 
 liversity, Ity 
 me is udiiiis- 
 
 aiiil resiileil 
 Ic colk'f^i's iir 
 
 ic collej;iiile 
 luniversiiy is 
 1, (levoteil to 
 
 III the lilieral 
 pKliz.e.-21i.) 
 
 blasters, ami 
 [iridge;' atiil 
 ,te, boiiiiil I'V 
 [oiled tiy liio 
 The statutes 
 .lU'tioncd by 
 ;r privilc^L's, 
 IgovernmL'iil, 
 liieiit let;isla- 
 uitc is cou- 
 t with the 
 cotemiiorary 
 [iiig's letters, 
 on by the 
 
 I both to the 
 collectively 
 lito 2 houses, 
 house. The 
 lof masters of 
 liul doctors of 
 hoods, liiu'il 
 retain their 
 J-ds (for whieh 
 uiistitute the 
 silk; hence 
 Uiood houses. 
 
 (519 
 Tbi' imblie imifessorships in tho titiivprsity are 
 
 111' niiiili 
 l.ndy .Alarj^nret's, of divinity, fuiindt'd l,'>(tj; iliu 
 
 DortoTs of more thnii 2 yonrs' staiidiiii;, mid the 
 piiliiio orator of tlie university (who may lie roii- 
 
 Hidered as the secretary), mavvote in either lioiise, _ _ , .. , 
 
 at pleasure. Hesides tiiesc, there is a eiuiiicil caHed Hebrew, and (Ireek. fimnded by Henry VIII. 
 chosen niiiuiallv on tlie I'Jih Oct. It 
 
 the cii/)iif, 
 
 eoiisists of the vice.-clianeeilor ; a doctor in each of 
 tho three faculties, of divinity, civil law, and 
 |(hysie; and 2 niaste.-s of arts, as the reprcsenta- 
 liv'es of the regent and non-rej(ciit houses. In 
 practice, these are mere noniiiiees of the vice- 
 chancellor; and as the a))pn)val of tho caput is 
 essential previously to any 'i;race,' or Icffislativo 
 pniiiosition, beiiiff voted on in either house, the 
 substantive fjoverinnent of the university vests in 
 him. He also lixes the days when eoii;;re,ij;atioiis, 
 or mectiiif^s of the senate, are to be ludd for traiis- 
 actiiif; university business; these, in term time, 
 are usually once a fortuij;ht; but there are also 
 certain lix'ed times by statute for eoiii;re>;ations to 
 be belli, for conferring' de^frees and electing ollicers. 
 Graces which pass both bouses, under the sanction 
 of the caput, become acts of the senate, and, if of 
 a ]mblic nature, become statutes of the university. 
 All assembly of the senate held out of term time 
 is called a convocation; but, by a grace passed 
 pro forma, it is converted to a congregation, and 
 the business proceeds in the usual way. The chief 
 ollicers of the university are, a chaiKHdlor, in whom 
 the executive authority vests, except in matters 
 of mayhem and felony, within the limits of the 
 jiirisdictiiui, which is a mile round, reckoned in 
 any direction from any part of the suburbs; the 
 olliee is biennial, or for su(;h longer jieriod as tho 
 tacit consent of the university mav choose to allow. 
 A high steward, who has special ])i)wer to try 
 scholars impeached of felony within the limits, 
 and to ludd courts leet, wliich is done by deputy. 
 J lis election is by a grace of the senate. A vice- 
 chancellor, elected annually by the senate (on the 
 'lib of Nov.) from the heads of colleges. In the 
 alisence of the chancellor, the powers of that otiicer 
 vest in him, by the statutes, and be is also, ex 
 officio, a magistrati! for the university, town, and 
 county. A commissary, ajiiiointed by tlie chancel- 
 lor, to hold a court of record for all causes to be 
 tried and determined by the civil and statute law 
 and university custom, in respect to all jirivileged 
 jiersons under the degree of 'SV, A, A jiublic orator, 
 who may be said to l)e the speaker of the senate. 
 The assessor, an ofHcer to assist the vice-chancellor 
 ill his court. Two ))roctors, or peace otHcers, 
 elected annually, to enforce pro)ier discipline and 
 behaviour in all who are iii statu implllari, as well 
 as various other duties. They must be M, A. of 2 
 years' standing, at least, and are nominated in turn 
 iiy the dirterent colleges, in a ])rescribed and pecu- 
 liar cycle of 51 years. There are many other 
 ollices" of minor imjiortancc; among them twomode- 
 rators, who are nominated by the proctors, and 
 appointed by a grace of tlie senate, to act as the 
 pnictors' substitutes in the philosophical schools, 
 and alternately superintend the exercises and dis- 
 initations in pliilosoi)hy, and the examinations for 
 the degree of 15. A. 'There are, linally, eight 
 classical examiners, nominated by the several 
 colleges, in term (according to the same cycle as 
 the proctors), and elected by a grace of the senate; 
 four of these are examiners of inceptory bachelors, 
 and four of the junior sophs, in Lent term. 
 
 The University is represented in the II. of C. 
 by two members, chosen by tho collective body of 
 the senate, the vice-chancellor being returning 
 ollicer. T'lie iirivilegc was granted by charter, in 
 1 .lames I., and at present is vested in the Doc- 
 tors, Masters of .Vrts, and blasters of Law of the 
 universitv, whose names are 'on the books.' The 
 eonstituciicv thus I'ormed numbered i,'di'J in 1805. 
 
 regiiis ])rofcssorships of divinity, civil law. physic, 
 
 ill 
 1510; those of Arabic, one foiindi'd by Sir F. 
 Adams in I(p;l2, the other, the LonI Aliiioner's ; 
 tin; Liu-asian pnifessorship of malheinatics, in 
 Hil!:l; that of music, in lilMl; that ofcasiiislry, 
 foiiiKled in l(iH;l; of chcinistry, 17ll2; the I'bi- 
 niian imifessorsbip of asinmoniy and expcrinu'iital 
 jiliilos thy, in 1701; that of aiiatoiuy, in 1707 
 (there is a good aiiatoiiiical muscuni cuiniected 
 with this) ; tho.-ii; of modern history and of botany, 
 1721; that of geology, in 1727, by Dr. Woodward, 
 who left his collection of luinerals in connection 
 with it ; that of astronomy and geometry, foiinded 
 in I7t',t; the Norrisian pnifessorship of divinity, 
 in I7l!il; of natural and experinicnl'tl |ihilosophy, 
 in 17M.'{; the Downing )irofessorships of Kuglisli 
 law and of medicine, founded in IHOII; that of 
 mineralogy, in \WH ; and, lastly, of ]iolitical eco- 
 nomy, in 1S2'S. These professors are iiaid from 
 various sources. Some of the foundations have 
 estates appro|)riated to the |)urpose; others are 
 paid by ancient stipends, in pari ; and some from 
 the jirivy purse, or by goveriiineiit. One has 100/., 
 another 200/., the rest 100/. annually. The ap- 
 pointment of some of them rests in the senate, of 
 others, in the crown, and of others, again, in spe- 
 cial bodies of electors. None of them can be said 
 to be directly concerned in the education of I he, 
 students, as the attendance on the courses of hu;- 
 tures given by them is not made essential to any 
 
 of the students (with the exception of tliosi; jiro- 
 ccoding to the bachelor's degree in civil law and 
 medicine, who are rerpiired to bring testimoniiils 
 of attendance on the courses eoniiecteil with those 
 subjects). The public income of t!ie university 
 arises cliielly from the proceeds of the rectory of 
 Hiirwell, from matriculation, and other fees (about 
 3.'''00/. a year from all these sources), and from 
 :iie trading profits of the I'itt or university press. 
 The funds are managed by the vice-ehaiuxdloraiid 
 specific trustees, and three annual auditors are. 
 appointed by the senate to pass the accounts. Its 
 library claims (uiuler the copyright act) a copy of 
 every volume, map, and print luiblishcd in tho 
 United Kingdom; it is also endovied with a por- 
 tion of the jiniceeds of two estates: besiiles ibis 
 and occasional donations, a quarterly subscription 
 of Is. tirf. is paid by all the members, except sizars, 
 towards its support. A new building, from designs 
 by IMr. Cockerell, was opened in 1K51. The Fitz- 
 ■william museum, consisting of a splendid collec- 
 tion of books, paintings, drawings, and sculpture, 
 was left by Viscount Fit/william to the university, 
 in IKUi, together with funds for the erection of a 
 building to receive it, which was commenced in 
 1837. it is an imposing structure, in the (ireciaii 
 style ; the portico, an imitatiim of the I'antheon 
 of Rome, is ornamented by a group of sculpture, 
 reprcsenthig Pegasus and the nine muses. The 
 university also possesses a collection of pictures, 
 left by Mr. iVIesman; an observatory, built in 182 1, 
 at an expense of 18,000/.; and a botanic ganlen 
 of three or four acres. The Cambridge I'hilo- 
 sophical Society was established in 18U), for the 
 promotion of seieiititic inquiry, and the advance- 
 ment of phihisophy and nntufal history; in I8:}2, 
 it was incorporated by charter, and all, excejit 
 honorary members, are requirc(l to be graduates 
 of the university. 
 
 The degrees conferred by the university are 
 those of Doctors in the tlirce faculties of divinity, 
 civil law, and medicine, and also in the scienc(; of 
 music; that of Master of Arts; and the degn'c of 
 Itucliclor m each of the foregoing. Except in the 
 
 m 
 
 iiij 
 
«2() CAMnUinOK (TIN 
 
 iniliatoi'v <lc;jrro lust nnnird, all rxiiiniiinliuii In 
 rcpinl III iiroliiiciicy is in rciil'ly dimMinlinui'd, 
 iind tile lii);lit'r d('f;rc('n lire ronrcmMl ii« nf rin'lit 
 on lliiisc will) liiivc (ilituini'd ii purticnliir stiindhi);, 
 williiMit rcl'crt'iu't' to i|niilili('iitinn, or (with Irilliii;; 
 i'M'cplitm.s) tt> resilience. The neadeniieul y<'i>r 
 <'onsi.sls of three terms, viz. Miehiieliniis, I^ent, 
 mid l'",iister; imil the fnlliiwinK are IIk- eliiel" refjii- 
 luliiins iieeessary for pnieeeiliii;,' to ilef,'rees : pre- 
 mising first, that the mode nf admission on the 
 lioards of a eolle;;!^ is either hy personal examina- 
 tion of its tutors and ollieers, or (the more usual 
 plan), tliroii;j;li a recommendatory eertilicato, spe- 
 cifying the a^e and ipialilicationsof the candidato, 
 sij^ncd hy an M.A. who has ^railnalcd at the uni- 
 versity, and accompanied hy a deposii called caii- 
 lion money. This is usually done hefore the end 
 of Kaster Term ; and, if deemed satisfactory, the 
 iiame is at once entered on the hoards of the col- 
 lep'. and the student usually comes into residence 
 the Octoher following, when the academical year 
 begins. 
 liaclitlor of Arts, — Twelve terms on the boards of 
 
 some cidlege, ten of which in residence. 
 Miisti'v of Arts. — IJ.A. of three years' standing. 
 Jluclii'hr of Dirinity. — M.A. of seven years' stand- 
 ing: under the !>tli statute of Kliz., those who 
 have been admitted on the boards of a college, 
 aller 21 years old, and have remained so ten 
 years (the two last of which must he in res.), 
 are admissible without having taken any 
 other — these are called tvn years men. 
 Dmior of Divinity. — H.i). of live, and M.A. of 
 
 twelve years' standing. 
 Bachelor of Civil Law. — Of six years' standing 
 com])l'ete, nine terms of which iii res., or J5.A. 
 of four years' standing. 
 Doetor of Civil Law. — It.C.L. of five years', or 
 
 jM.A. of seven years' standing. 
 Bachelor in Medicine. — Of live years' Standing, 
 
 nine terms of which in res. 
 Doctor in Medicine, — Similar to that degree in 
 
 civil law. 
 Licentiate in Medicine, — M.A. or B. A. of two years' 
 
 standing. 
 Bachelor of Music. — The name must be entered 
 on the hoartls of some college, and an exercise 
 performed. 
 Doctor of Music. — Usually K.M. 
 
 J'ersoiis having the rank of pri\y counsellors, 
 bishops, noblemen, and eldest sons of noblemen, 
 are entitled to have any of those degrees conferreil 
 on them without complying with tlie regulations; 
 and knights and baronets from that of M.A. down- 
 ward. Hy a grace jiassed in \H'li>, these are to be 
 examined" and approved in the same way as others, 
 but they are admissible after keeping nine terms ; 
 but though none can claim a degree in right of 
 nobility. &e., yet hcnorary ones are often con- 
 ferred, without examination or residence, on emi- 
 nent individuals. 
 
 'I'lie respective orders in the different colleges 
 rank as folh)Ws: — 
 
 1. The Heads of Colleges, who are generally of 
 
 the degree of D.D. 
 
 2. The Fellows, who are doctors, masters, or 
 
 bachelors of the dittcrent faculties. 
 
 3. Noblemen, who are grailnates, doctors, and 
 
 Ms.A., not on the foundation (the name 
 must be kept on the college boards, the cost 
 of which varies from 21. to 4/. a year.) 
 
 4. Bs.D.. who are ten years' men. 
 
 6. Bachelors of Civil Law and of Physic : these 
 wear the habits, and enjoy all the various 
 privileges of M.A., except that of voting iii 
 the senate. 
 
 0. Bachelors of Arts, who are considered in statti 
 piipiUari, 
 
 IVERSITY OK) 
 
 7. Fellow Commoners, usually younger sons nf 
 
 the nobility, or sons of men of forliuie, ^c., 
 
 who have the privilege of dining at tliesgiiin- 
 
 table as tlu^ fellows. 
 K. The Schohirs, who are on the fouiidation. 
 It. Fensioners, who pay for their chambers, coin- 
 
 inons, iic, and comprise the chief part nf 
 
 the students. 
 10. The Siiiirs, students of limited means, wiio 
 
 usually have free commons and other einolu- 
 
 menls. 
 As all substantial examination for degrees is 
 limited to the initiatory one of hachelor (of wliiili 
 that of It, A. is the lirst, and only really iniporiinil 
 step), the necessary education of (he ililVcrcnl ciil- 
 Icgcs is of course directed to that object, and cnn- 
 lingent, in its nature and scope, on the (juaiiru a- 
 tions which the iiniversily deem lit to exact at 
 their |iublic exfiminalions, and the class-books 
 thev order to be .•idopted for the pur|iose. The 
 ordinary course of study for It.A. may hc^ coin- 
 prised under three heads: — naliiral philosophv, 
 theology and moral |ihiloso))liy, and the lul/rs 
 lettres; and for (he attainment of these, the ^^lll- 
 dents attend the lectures of the college liiinrs, 
 which are not formal harangues, but rather of a 
 catechetical nature, intermixed with reading and 
 discussion ; at each of whiidi a limited nuniber of 
 the students go through a certain portion of soiiit' 
 mathematical or classical work with the tutors. 
 Half-yearly or yearly college examinations usu- 
 ally take ])lace, in addition to these lectures, when 
 the names of the students are arranged in the 
 order of their resjiective merits. The first public 
 examination of a student takes jdace in the l.ciii, 
 and October terms of the second year from liie 
 commencement of his academical residence. After 
 the examination, the candidates are arranged in 
 two classes — those who have ]iassed with credit, 
 and those to whom the examiners have only imt 
 refused their certificate of approval, A second 
 examination takes place, in ISIicliaelmas term, of 
 those who have been absent from the former by 
 permission, or were not then approved of: this is 
 tenneil, in university ]>hrase, the ' little go.' Thosn 
 anxious to take honours usually engiige a private 
 tutor (who is not necessarily of their own college) 
 after this, in order to secure more exclusive atten- 
 tion and assistance. The usual fee of a ])rivato 
 tutor is Ml. a year. After this ])reparatory sicp, 
 those wh>) are candidates for honours iierl'onn the 
 college exorcises under the superintendence of tliu 
 moderators; these are usually Latin theses, ]mi- 
 pounded and oi)poseil in a syllogistic form. The 
 senate-house examination, for the degree of H.A., 
 commences on the Monday jireceiling the first 
 Monday in Lent term, and continues six days. 
 The previous division of the candidates for honours 
 into four classes has recently been discontiniKMl, 
 and the same ([uestions are now projiosed throiigli- 
 oiit the examination to all whom the modeiaiMrs 
 judge, from the jirevions public exercises in tlic 
 .schools, to be qualified for examination as caiiili- 
 dates for mathematical honours ; and of the six 
 examiners, two confine themselves to matlicina- 
 ticil subjects, two to Homer and Virgil, itc. ami 
 two to l'aley"s Kvidences and Moral I'hilosopliy, 
 and to Locke's Kss.ay on the Human Lhiderstaiiil- 
 ing, (tc. The whole is conducted by writing, ami 
 the various subjects and problems may he seen in 
 the annual registers of the university. Those who 
 are not candidates for honours, noAAot, are classed 
 and examined sejiarately, the subjects being — tlie 
 Acis of the Apostles in (ircek, one (ireek and oiu' 
 l^afin 4'lassic, I'aley's Moral I'hilosopliy, and cer- 
 tain questions in mathematical and mechanical 
 science, speciticd in a printed schedule. The de- 
 
CAMBRIDOE (UNIVERSITY OF) 
 
 yropH arc {'onforrnl <m hiicIi of ttic qiiostionistH n» 
 piisH to the Hill isl'iirt ion of lli(> t'Xiiininrrs, liy il 
 >iiilw('(|iit'iit ^'riii'c of llic sciialo, ulii'ii llic oiillis ol' 
 nlli'fjciiincc Mild .sii|>i'finiu'y ari; liikcii, niiil n ilccln- 
 riitiiiii of iKllu'rciicc to the tlot'lriiics oi the Cliiircli 
 of Kn^laiid i.s rt'i|iiirnl lo Itit .si^Micd ; liiit pro- 
 vioiisly to lli'iH, on tlic limt cNiiiiiination diiy, the 
 niiitlicniiilical tri/ios or list of tliosc who Hiit'cccil in 
 ohtainiii;; an honour, is fxiiihilcd, fornit'd into 
 tlii'fd (hvisions, tlial of irrniii/lfrs, and of sfiiinr 
 and /hhioc oitlimvH, arranged affording; to merit, or 
 ' hriiclitllci/,' wliurc two individuals arc coiisidcri'd 
 on an ('(|uality. Tlu^ senior wraiij^lershih is the 
 lii<r|iesl acadeinical lioiioiir olttainalilc in tlie king- 
 dom, On tilt! fonrth Monday after the ^eiuTal 
 admission itd rvniioiiilfiidaiii iiiiestimti, an examina- 
 tion eominenees of all siieh as have ohtained an 
 lionimr at the niatlieiiiatieal examination of llu^ 
 jirevioiis Jamiarv, anil who voluntarily otVer them- 
 selves for tlu' |iiirjiose in elassii'al learning; at. this 
 examination (which continues live days), trans- 
 lations are re(|nircd of passap's from the hest 
 (Jreck and Latin authors, and written answers to 
 (|iiestioiis arising; ininicdiately out of such i)as- 
 sap's, 'I'he names of those who ohiain honours 
 arc^ arranged in three di\ isions (like those in the 
 niatheinatical tripos), in a, list which forms the 
 classical tiipoH o( the year. Then? are two tri/ioH 
 days, one for irraiii/lvrs and si-nlor ojitiiiics, tlu^ 
 other for /H«/'<*r «/<A//Ht'.s, when these are puhlicly 
 announced. 
 
 The aitiiiinl /iriz<'sit{thv, uiiiversitv form anotliei 
 siihjecl of competition : tlu; classical ones are — tlu' 
 chanceUor's p)ld medals, f;;iven to 2 coinmeiicinjj; 
 15s. A., who, having attained senior optimes at. 
 lea.st, show themselves most proliciciit in classical 
 lenrninj;: these prizes were first institntedin ITrjl. 
 A third, first H'iven hy the Duke oftiloncester, and 
 continiKMl Iiy the present chancellor, is for the host 
 Miifilish ode, or Kiif^lish poem in h(!roic verso. 
 jMany of the.se have heen pnhli.shcd, under the 
 title of ' C'anihridfie I'ri/.e I'oems:' the coni|)etiti(m 
 is limited to resident under };radnates. The mem- 
 bers repre.sentiiifj; the university also nive 4 prizes, 
 of I.") fjiiineaseach, which arc bestowed on 2 H. A.s 
 and 2 under {graduates, who compose the best <lis- 
 .sertations in I.aliii prose. ISrown's H p)ld medals, 
 of ") f,'iiiiieas each, to under f,'radiiates, are given 
 for the hest (Jreek ode, the best Latin ode, and 
 the best (i reek or ].,atin epigram. Torson's ])rize 
 consists of one or more Greek books, pven for the 
 best translation of some pa.ssap; in Sliakspeare, It. 
 Jonson, Massiiifjer, or Iteanmoiit and Fletcher, into 
 (■ reck verse. The mathematical consist of 2 an- 
 nual prizes, of 2o/. each, left by the Kev. 1{. Smith, 
 and given to 2 commencing H.A.s who prove the 
 best proficients in nnithematica and natural ])hil()- 
 tiophy. The examination takes place soon after 
 the admission of questioniiits : the competition is 
 open, and the adjudicators are the vice-chancellor, 
 th(! master of Trinity, and the Lneasian, I'lnmian, 
 and Lowndean jirofessors. The second or even lower 
 wranglers occasionally become first ])rizemen ; 
 hence it forms, in .some sort, a court of appeal from 
 tlu! decisions of the examiners. Cateris parihits, 
 preference is given to candidates of 'I'riu. Coll. In 
 theoh)gy, there are the Norrisian andllales'.s prizes. 
 The Si'iitunitm is a poetical one ; the subject is pro- 
 jHised in January, anil the poem is to be sent in by 
 jMichaelmas : that which obtains the premium is 
 printed from the nroilnce of the estate left for the imr- 
 ))ose, the remainiier of which is given to the author. 
 The unh-vrsity sclwlansfiip.^ are also publicly cou- 
 teiiiled for, and are given to the most successful can- 
 didates in classical reading and composition : in this 
 re.spoct they rank first in the cla.s.sical comiietitions 
 of the university, and are usually extended bcyoud 
 
 {^\MMIN 621 
 
 the ordinary rnngp of text -books. The oxamina- 
 tioli is the .same for all, bnl most importance i^ 
 usually attached to tlit^ I'ilt .Hcholarship, it being 
 less frei|iient as well as of greater |)ecuniary value. 
 
 Lodging within the walls of a college i.s"not en- 
 forced on under graduates, provided there le no 
 vacant rooms; which niay probably account for the 
 greater incre.'i.se of stmrents niatriciilatcl in this 
 than in the sister university of Oxforil. where 
 residence within the walls is enforced. The col- 
 legiate buildings of many of th;' estahlisi iits 
 
 have been greatly iinpnivcd and angmeulcd of 
 late years. Those of Trinity arc the largest of 
 any single college in either" university ; those of 
 St. .John have also been iiicrea.sed by a large 
 i|uailranglc on the left bank of the Cam, funning 
 one of the finest collegiate j'difices in the kingdom. 
 
 Ca.miiiuduk, a town of the U. S. of N. America, 
 Massai^hiisetts, co. Middlesex, on the Charles 
 river, ;( m. WNW. Miwion, with which, and the 
 adjacent town of Charleston, it is conneciid by 
 bridges. Top. 2(i, 1(1(1 in IHOd. It is. in conjunc- 
 tion with Concord, the co. town, and the courts 
 are held alternately in each. There is a coiirl- 
 hoiise, county gaol, arsenal, and several ph'ccs of 
 public worship. It is tlii^ seat of Harvard Ciii- 
 versity, formerly Harvard College, the oldest and 
 best endowed institution of the kind in tlii' I'nioii : 
 it was founded in Jti.'W. The medical school con- 
 nected with the university is at liostoii. The 
 university library, the second in America, con- 
 laiiiH upwards of "h(I,(M)() vols., besides a .students' 
 library, with upwards of lO.OOO vols. The philo- 
 sophical apparatus and cabinet of minerals are 
 valuable ami comi)lete. Here are a chemical 
 laboratory, an anatomical nm.scnni, and a botani- 
 cal garden, occupying .seven acres of land. Since 
 its establishment, this university has received 
 large benefactions both from the state, and jirivate 
 individual.s. A greater iinmher of students have 
 been educated here than in any other coHege in 
 the Union. 
 
 CAM KLFOHD, a to>vn and par. of Kiigland, co. 
 Cornwall, hund. Lesnewtb, on the tJuniel, 2(15 m. 
 VVSVV. London. Area of ])ar. ;{,"j")(» acres ; ]»>]). 
 1,470 ill l«(il. The town is nuiaiily built, but the 
 streets arc wide and well jiaveil. It has a coiii- 
 niodious town-ball, built in IWK!; a free school, 
 founded in l(i7!», and a few minor charities. 
 Market, Friday ; fairs for cattle, Friday after March 
 10, May 2(i, June 17 and JH, and Sept. 5. Inliab. 
 mostly engaged in agriculture. Camelford re- 
 turned 2 mems. to the il. oft;, from 1st ICdw. VL 
 down to the passing of the Keforra Act, by which 
 it was disfranchised. 
 
 CAMEHINO, a town of central Italy, prov. 
 Macerata, on a hill 5 m. SSVV. Aiicona, near the 
 railway from Ancona to Home. I'op. 11,«,J4 in 
 iy(!2. The town is pretty well built. Among the 
 public buildings are the cathedral, which contains 
 some pictures of the grcjat masters, as does the 
 church of Uinaiiisia ; and the archiepiscopal palace, 
 a fine builduig surrounded with columns. In the 
 principal square is a bronze statue of I'ope 
 Sixtus V. It has J 2 monasteries, and 7 convents 
 for women ; and is the seat of an archbishopric, of 
 a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, and of a uni- 
 versity founded in 1727. A good deal of silk i.s 
 spun and manufactured here ; hut the business is > 
 rather declining. 
 
 CA]MMIN, or KAIMMIN, a town of Prussia, 
 prov. Pomerania, cap. circ, on the Dievenow, about 
 f> m. above where it falls into the lialtic, SH m. X. 
 Stettin. Pop. 1,458 in 1><(!1. The tow n was for- 
 merly the i"at of a bishoi)ric, supj)resseil in 1C48. 
 The fine cathedral still remains, and the chapter 
 continued down to 1812. There is an asylum for 
 
 li i( 
 
 I' 
 
 iC iiH 
 
 \.l 
 
 I 
 
 < § 
 
 1% 
 
 11; 
 
fi22 
 
 CAMPAdNA 
 
 iiiililc ln>lii'.'«, ami nn liosititiil. DiHtilliilinii is 
 carried nil tci a conhidcralilc extent, uml the liHlitrj' 
 )H very iiclivc, 
 
 ('.\.MI'A<iN'A, a fdwii of SiMitlicni Italy, jimv. 
 Saitriiii. call, (listr., Mirroiiiicicd l)\' lii>,'li iiioiiiitiiiris, 
 1« III. K. Salcriic). I'lp)). !t,I.V,t in IhCrJ. Tlictuwii 
 in I he scat of a bisliojirii'; lias a ':iij)crl> catlicdral, 
 ',\ parish clnirilu's. x'vcral coiivciiis, and a ciillc;,'c. 
 
 CAMrAN, a Iciwii <i(' France, (lc|). llautcs I'y- 
 rences, ('a|). cant., "ii the Adoiir, l(i in. SSM. Tarhes. 
 I'tip. Jt.Ci.j,'') ill I Mil. 'I'Ik' houses are nioslly linilr 
 III' inarlile. 'I'his town ^^ives its name ton lieaiitiriil 
 valley, fertile, and full of life and industry. The 
 fottat^es are dean and <'omfortahle ; and the neat, 
 well laid-oiit gardens, ami res|icctal)le dress of the 
 jieasaiitry, evince their coni.'ortalile condition. 
 
 CAMI'MKLTON, a sea-port and royal her. of 
 Scotland, CO. Argyle, heing, though not ilic ca]iitat, 
 liy far the most important town in the co., on the 
 E. coast of the long narrow ]ieninsiila of Cantire, 
 I'd]). ti,((H.'i in IHiil. The borough consists of two 
 leailing streets crossing each other at right angles, 
 with adjoining streets of an inferior (lescri|itioii. It 
 is hiiilt on the SAV. side of a large salt-water loch, 
 or inlet of the sea, about 2 m, in length by 1 in 
 lireadlh, fonning an excellent harbour, liaving 
 from (i to l.'l fathoms water. Two 'finical insular 
 Iiills lying in the mouth of the liiy, and inter- 
 cepting the view of the sen, make the harbonr look 
 land-locked. Campbelton was at cue tiineasmall 
 lishing village under the name of Dalaruan; hut 
 having begun to rise into imiiortance, it was made 
 n royal burgh in 170(1, when its iiresent name was 
 conferred on it in honour of the noble family of 
 Argyle, on whose jiroperty it is built. The pari, 
 boundaries of the burgh are very extensive, in- 
 cluding the entire iiarish. 'J'lic annual value of 
 real ])roperty in the burgh aniountcd to 14,087/. in 
 18()1-,"); corporation revenue, ind. harbour, 2,12 1/. 
 Camiibelton has numerous distilleries and malt 
 kilns. The inliab. also engage extensively in the 
 lierring lishery. Coal is got wilhin -I m. of the 
 burgh, and is brought thither by means of n canal. 
 There is a good quay projecting into the bay, but 
 accessible only at high water. Kegiil.'ir steam 
 communication exists with (ilasgow and various 
 parts of the mainland, as also, though less fre- 
 quently, with Ireland. The climate of ( 'ampbelton, 
 though moist in the extreme, is mild; and re- 
 garded as ])arlicularly salubrious. The burgh unites 
 with Oban, Inverary, Irvine, and Ayr, in sending a 
 mem. to the II. of C. Kegistered electors 220 in 
 1802. 
 
 CAMPF-ACHY, a sea-port town of Mexico, ^V. 
 coast of the peninsula of Yucatan, on the l\io 
 Francisco, <).') m. .S. by \V. Merida, lat. V.P M' lb" 
 N., long, iioo 28' l.'j" \V. Pop. tluctnates from 
 about 7,000 to about 14,000. It is walled and de- 
 feniled by some fortitications, which, however, <ire 
 of little importance. It has a pier about .^iO yds. 
 in length ; but the water is so shallow that only 
 email boats can come up to it, vessels of conside- 
 r.iblo burden anchoring at ccrt.iin distances off 
 shore, according to their draught of water. It is, 
 in common with the whole of this coivst, ill-sni)- 
 plied with fresh water, that which is btained from 
 wells being brackish. It derives its entire im- 
 ])ortance from its being the great seat of the log- 
 wood trade; that valuable dye-wood, sometimes 
 called Campcachy wood {IIwmnto.ri/lon Cam- 
 peach imiii in), being found in greater perfection 
 and abundance in the adjoining district than 
 any where else. The imjiorts of logwood into 
 this country in 1830, mostly from Campcachy, 
 amounted to 6,037 tons. The other exports are 
 ■wax, the ]irodiicc of wild, stingless bees, with some 
 small quantities of cotton, &c. Campcachy was 
 
 CANADA 
 
 founded in IMO, and milTiTed much at ilifTerent 
 times from hostile attacks, having been sacked liy 
 the Kiiglisli, in Kl.M); by Scott, a pirate, in I(i7«; 
 and by the buccaneers in 108,"». 
 
 CAMI'M, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Te- 
 raiiio, cap. caul. 5 in. X. Teraino. Pop. (i,')3('i ip 
 1802. The town hasa ('atliedral, three colle^iaii^ 
 churches, an abbey of ('rlestine monks, several 
 cnuvents, an hospital, and a iiioiit ilf jiiitr. 
 
 CAiMI'OltASSO, a town of Southern Italy, ca|.. 
 of province of same name, on the declivity of n 
 inoiiiitaiu, ,'13 ni, Nl'"., Naples. I'op. 12,601 in 
 180l', The town is forlilied; is the seat ofaei\il 
 and criminal court; and has a collegiate and Icuir 
 parish churches, several convents, a royal collc'^c, 
 an hospital, ami an almshouse. The best cutlery 
 is jiroduced here ; and being traversed by the ex- 
 cellent road forming a cotiimnnicalion belweeii 
 till! capital and the towns on the Adriatic, it lias 
 an extensive commerce. 
 
 CAMI'()-F()1{J1M», a town of Austrian Italy, 
 iirov. Friiili, four miles SW. ITdiiie. Po]). 1,6111) 
 m 1867. The town is famous in history for the 
 treaty of jieace concluded here on the; 17th nf 
 Octolier, 17!t7, between Austria and France, 
 
 CAMI'O-RIAYOU, a fortilied and frontier town 
 of Portugal, j)rov. Ah'iitejo, 12 ni. NN'K. FIvns, 
 and 16 m. NW. liadajos. Pop. 4,101 in 1868, The 
 town is ill-built, with narrow dirly streets, iiinl 
 old low houses; lias a collegiate church, two con- 
 vents, an hospital, and a workhouse. It wiis 
 nearly destroyed in 1712 by the explosion of a 
 powder magazine. 
 
 CA^II'OS, a town of the island of Jlajorca, in 
 an extensive jjlain, 22 m. SIO. Pahna, and 7 
 m. from the sea. Pop. 4,120 in 1867. It has in 
 its vicinity a hot well of reputation ; and consider- 
 able quantities of salt are nuide along the coast. 
 The surrounding jdain is very fertile. 
 
 CANADA, a vast territory of N. America, be- 
 longing to(ireat Pritani, lying principally in a 
 NK. and SW. direction, along the M. side of the 
 St. Laurence, and the IS', and F. sides of lakes 
 Ontario. l'>ie. Huron, and .Superior, Ix^tween 67° 
 60' and 00° \V. long., and 42° and 62° N. lat. It 
 is diviile<l into Upper and Lower Canada, the area 
 of each, and population according to the census of 
 1801, being as follows : — 
 
 
 ArcB 
 Enn. sii.m. 
 
 Pop. 
 In 1801 
 
 Upper Cnnnda 
 Lower Canada 
 
 141,000 
 2()n,8(10 
 
 l,:t!M!,(int 
 l,lil,r.(i(i 
 
 Total 
 
 340,800 
 
 2,507,6ri7 
 
 Canada is bounded N, hj' the Hudson Bay terri- 
 tory; E. by the Atlantic Ocean; S. by lakes 
 Huron, Erie, Ontario, the St. Laurence, and tiio 
 Ignited States, and AV. by Lake Superior. The 
 length of Canada from Amherstbnrg, on Detroit 
 river, the extreme S\V. limit of the prov., to Siil'- 
 lon lliirbour, on the strait of Pelle Isle, its extreme 
 MF. limit, is about 1,,620 ni. ; its breadth varies 
 from 200 to 400 m. The Ottawa or ( Jrand lliver, 
 which has its sources in about 48° 30' N. lilt., ami 
 80° W. long., and flows in .an IvSK. direction till 
 it \inites with the St. Laurence, near Montreal, 
 forms ncarlj' in its whole extent, the line of de- 
 marcation between the twoprovs. ; Lower Canada, 
 comprising the whole territory lying Nl'-. of the 
 Ottawa, on both sides of the .St. Laurence ; wliilo 
 Upper Canada coinjirises all the territory lyiiii; S. 
 anil W. of that river. The latter is entirely an in- 
 land prov. ; but from its having the great lakes 
 and a part of the St. Laurence for its boundary, it 
 has avast command of internal navigation, and a 
 ready access to the ocean. 
 The origin of the population of L^pper and Lower 
 
CANADA 
 
 023 
 
 Cnnndn is thus stated in tlic census returns of 
 
 Origin 
 
 Kn(.'1nnil nml Wall's . 
 S(mi|Ihiu1 . . . • 
 Iri'liinil . . , . 
 Niitlvrs of Ciinndii ■ 
 
 Not of Krcncli (irlKin . 
 of I'rciH'h origin 
 TTiiltcil StiitcH . 
 Novii Siotiii mill rriiicu I 
 
 Kilu'iinl Inland . | 
 Ni'W Itninswick . 
 Ni'wfoiniillaiul . . 
 Went liiillc'rt . . 
 ICaHt IndicB . 
 Franco . . . . 
 rrusHla, (ipnnan States, \ 
 
 and llolliiiul . . i 
 Ttalv anil (In'rcc 
 H))iiiii and rortntral , 
 Hwcdcn and Norway 
 Kiissia and Puhijid . 
 Hwitzi'rl.ind 
 (iiicrnscy, .lorscy, and \ 
 
 otlicr Uritisli Islands ) 
 All otlier plivcL'.s 
 At Kca . . . . 
 Not known . . 
 
 TottU . 
 
 Upprr Ccnnil* 
 
 lAwrr CaniMl* 
 
 11I,-J!»0 
 
 ilH.Tll-.' 
 
 1!I1,'J:I1 
 
 l;i,l7!» 
 
 l:!;.'n| 
 
 fi(),;i;)7 
 
 s(;»,.'',!i'.> 
 
 :i:l,'.'.Hi 
 f)M,".'.H 
 
 1«I7.!>I!> 
 HI7.(il.-| 
 
 l;i,tiis 
 
 4,:!H:i 
 
 )»77 
 
 ;i,v!ii 
 
 8.V2 
 
 l:)7 
 
 4i» 
 
 Ul!) 
 
 '2-2,mi 
 
 072 
 
 10 1 
 IM! 
 
 'Jlil 
 nil 
 
 «17 
 
 114 
 
 r,r, 
 
 i!','!) 
 
 nil 
 
 HI 
 
 f.l>!) 
 
 O'JM 
 
 Ml 
 
 :i-j:l 
 
 1 ,-\<.K, 
 
 <il 
 
 414 
 
 l,il!l(!,0'Jl 
 
 l,l11,f.(i(i 
 
 The N. portion nfJMitli U))|)er and Lower Cnnnflii 
 I'oii.iists of a tiiMe lauil, little ofwliicli lias la'cii 
 liitlu-rto exjilorcd. In I'pi.cr Canada, l'^. of Huron, 
 it IniM an uveraj;(^ elevation of jierliaps from J. 200 
 to l.itOd ft. It is eovered willi forests, interspersed 
 will) ravines, swuinps, and torrents; and al)oniids 
 with hikes, whic]i.anvwlierel)iit in the neii,ddionr- 
 hood of the innnensc lakes of this continent, would 
 lie deemed of fonsidcrahle size. The eoast of 
 Lower CaiUKhi, NK. of the Saf;nenny, is less lofty 
 than SW. of that river; hut of a very uninviting; 
 desi'ripfion. The interior of this part of the 
 eonntry is <leserihed hy the Indians and Ksqni- 
 nnuix, l)y whom aloiu^ it is traversed, as eoinjiosed 
 of roeky elitt's and low hills, seattered over harren 
 ]ilain3, diversilied with thick forests of stimted 
 pines, and checquered with small lakes. There 
 seems reason to suspect that the expectations 
 once entertained of tindhi^ here tracts of culti- 
 vahle Iniul will never be realised; but liojies are 
 still cherished that the district may eontahi valu- 
 able minerals. From the mouth of the Saj^nenay 
 to ("ape Tourment, near Quebec, the shore of the 
 St. Laurence is bold and desolate ; but W, of this 
 jioint a plain country begins to extend iidand, 
 with a variable breadth of from 15 to 40 m., risinf^ 
 into the table-land behind it by successive terraces. 
 The cultivated country N. of (Quebec (h)es not ex- 
 tend far, being hemmed in by hill ranges. ]5ut 
 as these ranges gradually recede from the St. Laii- 
 reiu^e, an<l the ciuintry, at lirst diversilied by 
 varied enunences, sinks into a level ])lain, tlic 
 surface of settled and cultivated land increases ; 
 and this is es|)ecially the cas(\ as we aiiimtach and 
 penetrate Upper Canada. The peninsula orgreat 
 jilaiu of this jmiv., between lakes Huron, Krie, and 
 Ontario, comprising about 20,000 sq. ra., consists, 
 for the most part, of alluvial soil, on a calcareous 
 substratum. It is ofvarying fertility; but, on the 
 whole, is believed to be the best grain country of 
 any of the more N. jiortions of the American con- 
 tinent. A large part of this tine plain is still co- 
 vered with lofty forests : it has, however, some 
 prairies, or natural meadows ; but these are not 
 extensive. At some remote period it had evi- 
 dently formed part of the bed of a vast inland sea, 
 of which the live great lakes having been the 
 
 dccpc!*!, are now the principal remaining norlioim 
 N. of lake Ontario, two terraces Inleiveiie belweeii 
 the plain on the shore of the lake and the table- 
 land in the N., decreasing somewhat in fertility as 
 they increase in height, and separated from each 
 other and fiom the plain by two ranges of hills of 
 moderati^ eh^vation. Tlie most S. of these two 
 ranges iniites near long. HiP with a third, which 
 passes N.and S. from Natawasanga l!av. in Lako 
 Iluroii, to the \V. exiremity of Lake Ontario, 
 The condiiiu'd range, after encircling the head of 
 the latter lake, crosses the bed of the Niagara 
 river, forming the ledge over whii'li are the cele- 
 brated falls, an<l is Ihially hmt in the territory uf 
 the United States. 
 
 That part of Lower Cainnia S. of the St. Lau- 
 rence, extending between long. 72^"" ltd' ami 71° HO', 
 and entering into the distr. of Montreal, consists, 
 for the most part, of an extended plain almost 
 comiiletely tiat, except that sonu' detached hills 
 diversify the surface, one of which, that of lioii- 
 ville, is 1,000 ft. in height. It is less extensive 
 than the plain on the opposite shore of the river, 
 and contains no large towns, but it is in many 
 districts e(|ually fertile ami well watered, and the 
 cities are dependent on it for a large proportion of 
 their supplies. To tin- S. an<l K. it ascends by <le- 
 grees into the monntainons region, fonning tho 
 boundary between the Uritish and Ciiited Stales 
 territories. The aspect of the S. shore of the leslii- 
 ary of the St. Laurence, between long. (!!i° Mil' and 
 72°, though bold and hilly, is not mountainous, as 
 on the op|)osite shore; and the hill ranges are in- 
 terspersed with valleys and even plains of some 
 extent, many of which, from the encouragement 
 afforded hv the conliguous markets of tlie cap., 
 have been brought into very toh'rable cultivation. 
 v.. of Kamoiiraska, the country is diversilied by 
 more abru|it eminences, while pop. and cnltnro 
 become more limited : and in the district of (Jasp(' 
 the mountains rise into two chains of <'onsidcrablL' 
 elevation, enclosing between them a lipfty table- 
 land or central valley. The most sinitherly of 
 these chains bounds on its S. side the valley of 
 the liistigoiicheand St..lohn rivers. 
 
 J!esi(U's the great lakes indeuling the W. outline 
 of the eounlry, Canada contains numerous minor, 
 yet still considerable, bodies of water. In Lower 
 Canada, the lakes and rivers have been estimated 
 to cover 3,200 sq. m. of surt'ace ; the jirincipal of 
 the former hitherto discovered are I^ake St. John, 
 with an area of .VIO s(i. m. ; those of Manicouagan, 
 Piretibbe, and others N. of the St. Laurence, ami 
 Mephramagog. S. of that river. In Upper (,'anada, 
 the chief are Xipissing Lake, Temiscaming aixl 
 St. Ann's, in the high table-land; and the Simeoe 
 Lake in the upiier terrace country of the Home 
 district. 
 
 Amongst the rivers falling into the St. Laurence, 
 or into the lakes which fonn a part of its system, 
 there are some deserving of es)iecial mention for 
 their utility as regards navigation, or their agency 
 in fertilising the soil. In tlie peninsula of I'pper 
 Canada, the Thames originates in the district of 
 London, by the union of several streams, near lat. 
 43° and long. 81°, and after a eiairse of about 150 
 m. chielly SW., falls into Lake St. ('lair, situated 
 between lakes Huron and Krie. The Thames is 
 navigable for large vessels to Chatham, 15 in. up, 
 and for boats nearly to its source. It intersects 
 and waters a tine and fertile country. Besides 
 Chatham, sni.all towns, with the ]iompous names 
 of London and Oxford, are situated upon its banks. 
 Next in magnitude to the Thames is the (Juse. 
 This river rises in the Home district, about lat. 
 44°, long. 80° 10', runs generally SK., and falls 
 into Lake Eric near its NE. extremity. Parallel 
 
 I ■> 
 
634 
 
 CANADA 
 
 to tliin rivpr ftir nbout M m„ riin» tlic Wcllnnd or 
 ('lii|i|ic>vii\ liivcr. wliirli in <iiii> piirt nl' iiw <onrs(' 
 i'lii'iii.sn piii'iiiiii III' till' caiml ln'twccii tlic Oust- iiiiil 
 Liiki^ Oiitiiriii, l)y iiu'iiiis nf wliitli tUv. I'iiIIm oI' 
 Niii;,'iirii arc iivuiilt'd. 'I'Ik^ Trt'iil, in tlic district 
 (if Newcastle, ciiiiiicctN llic Miiall lakes Italsnin, 
 Miirp'nii, ami several ntliers in the u|i|ier terrace 
 CHiiiiirv, with the Ifice Lake, and after a lurtimus 
 iiiiirsc discliarp's itself intu I he Hay uf t^iiiiitt- in 
 Lake Ontario, It is said to he navinidile forhoats 
 in the whole of its conrse, 'I'he Lake Italsani is 
 heparated liv only a short portage frmn that of 
 Mnicoe,which dis'char]i;es its waters into(ilon<'ester 
 l!ay (Ilnron Lake) liy the Severn liiver. A short 
 and valualih^ line of direct water conninuiication 
 lielwccn the lakes Huron andOnturio isappnreiitly 
 impeded oidy liy the intervention of this short 
 porlanc, and hy the rapids of the Sevi'rn, ■which 
 liver is, however, lio more Ihuii 2(» m. in len^^th. 
 The otiier allhienis of the St. I.anrtnce and the 
 fjreat lakes are elsewhere treated of. (See Lau~ 
 ]ii:.N'ci;, St,, A'c.) The Kistinouche, which hounds 
 the district of (iaspe .S., and falls into Chalein- 
 Itay, is the oidy river of any importance in Canada 
 Hot lieloiigin^ to the St. Laurence hasiii, 
 
 C'liiiiiiti: — The climate of Cmnula is suhject to 
 f^reat extremes of heui and cold; thethennomettr 
 ranjiin^i lictween IO:i° ahove, and .'1(!° below, the 
 zero of Fahr. In snch an extensive rcfiion there 
 is, of conrse, some ditl'erence in this resiicct : as we 
 ascend the St. Laurence, not ordy a more .S. jia- 
 rallel is reached, but the country is less wild and 
 C'X|iiised than that near its entrance; so that, 
 •whilst (Quebec has been said to have the sunnnor 
 of I'aris, and the winter of IVtersbur^,', the ureat 
 ])lain of Lake Kri(^ has the clinnite of IMiiladelphia. 
 Still the Canadian climate, as a whole, must be 
 considered very severe : all the streams are lockeil 
 up by ice, and the j,'ronnil is coven'd everywhere, 
 to an avera^jc depth of f) or ti ft. by snow, for four 
 or live months of every year. J'"rosts usually com- 
 mence ill Oct., whilst the weather, by day, is still 
 mild and serene. Jhif with Nov. liepiis a succes- 
 fdoii of suow-stonns and temiiests, from the N.and 
 K., accompanied by a {;reat increase of cold ; and 
 this sort of weather usually continues to the second 
 or third week of Dec, when the atnios])here ajj:ain 
 becomes serene, but tlie cold still more intense, so 
 that the rivers become suchleiily fro/en over. To- 
 wards the latter part of April, or, in late seasons, 
 the heniniiiiijj; of ^luy, the ice begins to break up; 
 n sudden increase of temperature stimulates vege- 
 tation, and makes its growth almost i)erccptihle to 
 the eye ; so that siiring and summer can scarcely 
 be recognised as distinct seasons. Jlay and June 
 are occasionally wet, to the hindrance of the farmer, 
 ■whose seed-time this is (to be t'oHowed by harvest 
 towards the end of Aug.); but usually the siim- 
 nuTs are very line. Thunder-storms are often of 
 great violence, and the aurora borealis is frequent 
 and vivid : of the jinn'ailiiig winds, those from the 
 S\V. are usually accomjianied bj' clear and serene 
 weather; those from the NIC. by continued rain 
 in summer, and snow in winter; ■whilst a N\V. 
 breeze is usually dry, with severe cold. Fogs 
 (except in the district of (iaspi^ are of unusual 
 occurrence ; there, however, the}' are very preva- 
 lent, and seriously obstruct the navigation of the 
 St. Laurence. It seems to be the general opinion 
 of the inhab. that the winters are graduallj- be- 
 coming less severe; and this may he attributable 
 to the clearance of the Ibrests and the increased 
 extent of cultivated surface ; for, whilst the state 
 of climate (especially of humidity) intlucuccs ve- 
 getation, that, in turn, reacts on climate. 
 
 The lenj^h and severity of the Canadian -winter 
 is a heavy drawback on the country, uiid lays the 
 
 fanner under serions difllciiltieN niid privationn lui) 
 experienced in countries where the climaie j^ 
 milder, as in the conligiiouH territories of Indiana 
 and Illinois. For live or nix months almost ail 
 agricultural operations are suspended, ho that liiiu' 
 is not left in tint rest of the vear for tlu- proper 
 )ire|iiiration of the ground for tlie crops and other 
 necessary labours, Horses, cattle, uiid other farm 
 stock ri'ipiire a proportionally large supply of fodder 
 for their Keep; and to these causes must be ascrilieil 
 the leanness <if the animals, the high jirice of 
 (iroduce, and the cheapness of labour as compariMl 
 with the r. Stales, lint there is a material dilVer- 
 ence between the lower and the upper provini'e. 
 In the latter the severitv and the length of the 
 winter are considerably <(iminished. The soil ton 
 is generally belter; and the (puilitv <)f the wheat 
 inniroves nearer to the S. limit of tin? prov. 
 
 Slost of the causes that contribute to make the 
 climate of th(^ northern part of America inure 
 severe, and Hubject to greater extremes than that 
 of I'.urope, in the same parallel, hear with especiiil 
 force on the Canadian regions. The greater portimi 
 of these provinces is covered by extensive forests; 
 the trees composing which (especially in the niore 
 northern and eastern parts) do not, generallvspenk- 
 ing, attain the same lofty si/e as those ol the I', 
 States, nor tlourish with the same exuberant vi- 
 tality: the |iine family, and various species of 
 evergreens, are the most numerous and predomi- 
 nant. Amongst various other kinds of trees are, 
 the silver and American lirs, Weymouth and Cii- 
 iiadian pines, white cedar {Tliiiya oiTidi'iiliilU), 
 maple, birch, American ash, bass wood, hickory, 
 two or three species of wiltl cherry, and numerous 
 species of oak. IJke the r.'st of the American 
 continent, most of the ])lants and animals dillcr 
 sjiecilically fnmi those of the Old World. Many 
 of the smaller kinds of annual and ])erennial [)laiits 
 arc common to Canada and regions lying nnicli 
 further to the S., which may be ac<H)nnted for hy 
 the high summer temperature, whilst the d('C|i 
 winter snows etVectuallj'iirotect their roots through 
 the severest seasons; but the trees and larger 
 shrubs, which liud no such shelter, belong for the 
 most )iiirt to more iiortlicrn and arctic regions. 
 Of the smaller jdants, the Z'nunia luptatiai iiiiiy 
 be noticed as ))eculiar to Canada, and aboundinf; 
 in most of the swamps (a grass not unlike rice, anil 
 aft'ording food to birds, and occasionally to tlic 
 Indian tribes), and the Ginseng, and Canadian lily, 
 common to this country and Kamtchatska. Frmn 
 the saj) of the maple {<teer sucrlitirinum), as it rises 
 in the earlier part of spring, sugar is made in con- 
 siderable quantities; in collecting which, from 
 trees scattered over thousands of acres, whilst the 
 snow still covers the ground, much hardship isl're- 
 <|uentlj' endured : these districts are called sugaries, 
 and are a valuable description of property. The 
 mode of procuring it is by inserting a small cane 
 shout through an incision made in the bark, the 
 sap being received in a wooden trough placed uiiiUt 
 it; it is afterwards boiled, and then left to cddl 
 into a hard .solid mass, of a dtirk brown colmir, 
 which is mouhled by the form of the jars which 
 contain it ; the value of the article is about half of 
 that i)roduced from the sugar-cane. Most of the 
 oak growing in the woods is unfit for ship-buildin);, 
 and the greater part of the timber used for that 
 purpose is imported from New England. The 
 species culled the live oak, which grows in the 
 warmer parts of the colony, is, however, saiil to be 
 well ada])te(l for ship timber; the various kinds (if 
 wood available for no other ])urpose, serve to supjily 
 the i)ot and pearl-ash manufactories. Amongst 
 the wild animals, ranging through these unre- 
 claimed regi< ', are the Aniericou elk, fallow deer. 
 
(CANADA 
 
 G2S 
 
 ln'nr, wolf, fox, wild cat, mcmm, mnrtln. otfor, nml 
 viiriimHNiM'cicNof I'lnrnfuuii Mimtvlir; tlii^ l«'iiv«'r, 
 linr«',K'""'yni"l r«Ml Hciiiirri'l; ikn<l,iiithi' inoroHonth- 
 iTii jKirtM, the liiitliilo ami riH'Imck : tin' Ih'iifn 
 
 to ^('t Hiillicicntly fill for llic piinHmc, if nut. Ilicv 
 ini^rriiit' to a more Noiitlicrly cliniatr. (Wit'lianl- 
 Noii'i* Katinn Iturcalis, i). It;,)' Aiikhik^I iIk' liirilM, 
 iiiav )•(> iicilict'il the wild pif^coii, (|iiail. jiartriilijc, 
 ami diftorciit kiiidn of ^toiim' ; of lln' water liirdn, 
 till' .H|n'<'ic(< ari" very iiiimi'rous, aw minlit Ix' iufi-rrcd 
 from tlui general cliaraftcr of the n^'ion, wlicri', 
 ill tlu! haMiii of ihv St. Laurence, and the iiuiiie- 
 roim InkcN occupying the elevated talile-lamlH 
 around it, lialf the fresh water on the Nurfaee of 
 th(>){lolieiMeolleeied; ahiiinininKhird (llu^NnialleNt 
 of ilM p>iuih) In alHo imlip'Hous, aii<l may he Keen 
 ill the < ^lichee gardens, tlittiiif^ round the llowcrs, 
 mid eonHtaiitly on the wiii^. AnioiifrNt tin; re|i~ 
 tih'H, tlu! rattlesnake is occnsionally met with, 
 l-'ish, ill fn'cot variety and ahiindanee, are found in 
 the lakes and rivers; in which respect few streams 
 can rival the St. Laurence ; llu' stiir>,'eoii is common, 
 and the snlinon and herring lisheries are eonsider- 
 ahle ; seals are also met with occasionally, in hirne 
 shoals, ill the lower parts of the river. Forests 
 can only exist where the iirevailinj,' winils hrin/^ 
 with them sutlicieiit moisture, hut they may 
 usually he taken as a measure of the fertility of 
 the soil, no less than of the humidity of the <'li- 
 iiiatt! : ill this respect, therefore, taken jjenerally. 
 Canadu must he considered n fertile region ; the 
 upper i)rovince nuicli more so than the lower. 
 Tohacco, hemp, llux, and the diilerent kinds of 
 ftrain and of pulse, are successfully cultivated ; as 
 arc all the connnoner fruits and vcfjctahles of 
 ICuj^land ; melons of difl'ert^iit species alioiiiid, and 
 are prnbahly indif^enous ; as are also the straw- 
 herry and raspberry ; these last tloiirisli luxuri- 
 antly in the woods: and on the (ilaiiis hehind 
 Quebec are ^athereti in ifivnt <|uantities, and taken 
 to that market, I'ears ami a)>ples succeed well, 
 both there and nt ISIontreal; and on the shores of 
 Luke Krie, the scrape, peach, and nectarine, us well 
 as all the hardier kinds of fruit, arrive at the 
 greatest perfection. 
 
 Canada is supposed to be rich in minerals; iron 
 and copper ore abound in some districts; veins of 
 silver-lead have been met with in St. I'aul's Hay 
 (iJOm. below Quebec), and coals, sai;, and sulphur, 
 arc known to exist in the cidony. No voloanos 
 have been discovered, but authentic accounts are 
 liroserved of several vi(dent earthquakes; amonfjst 
 others, one in 1CG3, when trenien(h)us convulsions, 
 lastinf^ for six months, extcmled from (Jiiebec to 
 Tadeausac (I'M m. below it), which broke u)) the 
 ice of the rivers, and caused many great land-slips 
 and dislocations. In 1791, earthquakes were also 
 frequent and vi(dent in the same rcpon ; and the 
 shores, both of the Gnlf and liiver St. T^aurence 
 (like thoseof the great lakes, as previously noticed), 
 present many ])roofs of former convulsions in the 
 horizontal banks of recent shingle and shells, and 
 in elevated limestone strata, with wave-scooi)ed 
 marks, and lithodomous perforations, that occur 
 on various parts of the shores. (Lyell's Geology, 
 vol, ii.) 
 
 People. — The majority of the population of 
 Lover Canada are of French origin, as will be seen 
 from the population tables given above. These 
 French-speaking inhabitants are for the most i)art 
 descendants of settlers from Nonnandy, established 
 ill the colony previously to 175i). Their number 
 nt that period was about 70,000, and in 1801 they 
 had increased (according to the census) to 847,(515. 
 Neither the conquest, nor the long period which 
 lias since elapsed, has wrought any great change 
 Voi,. L 
 
 ill their character and habitu; nor hnii their iii- 
 creiising iiiimlierH iiidixed Iheiii to make any 
 coiihiderable encroachmeiits on the wildenieHii 
 around: on the coiiirary, thev biive continued 
 within their original limits, sulidi\'idiiig llie laud 
 more and more, and subuiilting to a coiiHtaiitlv 
 decreasing ratio of comliirt. They are frugal, 
 honest, iiidiistriouN. and hoNpitable, but cling with 
 unreasoning tenacity to ancient prejudices and 
 customs; bv temperament cheerful, social, en- 
 gaging, ami (from the highest to tlu lowest) 
 distinguished for courtesy and real politeness, 
 they retain all the essential characteristics of tint 
 French provinces previously to the revolution, 
 and present the spectacle of an olil stationary 
 siM'iety, in a new and progressive world. A few 
 seignioral families possess large, but not verv valu- 
 able, ]iroperties: tlie <'lass wholly depemicnt on 
 wages is a very small one : and tlie gnat majority 
 consists of a hard-working yeomanry (usually 
 called litihilaiis), amongst whom there is almost u 
 universal eipiality of condition and property, and 
 of ignorance loo; for few of tlieni can read or 
 
 write. From ihe piiblii lieges and seminaries 
 
 established in the cities and other central )ioiiitH 
 by the early possessors -if the country, cliietly by 
 the Jesuits (where the education resembh s that of 
 oiir public grammar-schools, and is entirely in the 
 luuids of the Catholic clergy), between '2W and 
 .'{(Ml annually finish their education, and are dis- 
 ]iersed through the coinmiinily : nearly the whole 
 of these nr<' of ;he cluss ii( liuliitiinii, and return to re- 
 side amongst them, mostly as notaries or surgeons; 
 and thus, living on leniis of complete social e(|iial- 
 ity, though with greatly su|ierior knowledge, in 
 communities vt'hicli possess nothing in the shape «( 
 municipal institutions, they possess almost despotic 
 iiiiliieiice over )io]iuhir opinion and conduct in all 
 )iiibli(' matters. The huhitdm under the old feudal 
 tenures have cleared two or three belts of land 
 along the St. Laurence, and ciiltivaie them on tlu^ 
 worst system of small farming; their farms and 
 residences beiugall so iMniiiectcd, that the country 
 of the seigniories ajipears like a continuous village. 
 They spin and weave their own wool and tlax, and 
 make their own soap, candles, and sugar. What 
 energy and enterprise there exist in the comiiui- 
 nity (beyond the portion required by this sort of 
 ronline) is exerted in the fur trade and in hunting, 
 which, it appears, they still monoixdise through 
 the whole valley of the Mississippi. (Lord Dur- 
 ham's Keport, pp. 11 — lit.) The Anglo-Saxon 
 portion (d' the pojMilntion of Lower Canada consists 
 almost wholly o' • .sons who have emigrated 
 trom the United . ''.om. or the descendants of 
 such, subsequent t> ' -oO. A considerable addition 
 was made to their n inibers by U. S. loyalists in 
 1 787 : at a subsequent t)eriod many families from 
 Vermont have settled in tlie townships adjoining 
 that state, and since the formation of the American 
 Land Company many have emigrated through 
 their exertions. A majority of the labouring 
 class in this portion of the population are Irish 
 Catholics ; the rest are Knglish or Scotch Protes- 
 tants, by whom the resmiri^es of the country, so 
 far as they have been called forth, have been 
 mainly developed. It is also by these that the 
 internal and foreign commerce has been created, 
 which is wholly in their hands, as well as a large 
 jiortion of the retail tride of the jwovince ; besides 
 this, they possess the best cultivated farms in the 
 province, and are owners of fully half the more 
 valuable seigniories. (Lord Durham's Report, p. 11.) 
 The inhabitants of the upper province consist 
 principally of emigrants from the U. Kingdom, 
 and from Germany and Holland. A large I'.ropor- 
 tion of the emigration of Ireland has of late been 
 
 S !S 
 
 fi 
 
 I ' 1 1 til 
 
 ijlil: 
 
 II 
 
62« CAN 
 
 (liri'ctpil 111 ilic HlmrcH of Ciumilft, nn will Itc xci'ti 
 liy II ^'liiiirt' Ml ill)' ImIiIc iiIhivi' ^ivi'ii, ^iliiiuiiii; iIm' 
 ori^'iii lit' |iii|iiiliiiiiiii, Mtiiiy nf 'w I'tiii^riiiitM wlio 
 liniil III </iii'liir iijtiiiinlt'ly Hi'tili' in tlit- I'.SImIi'h, 
 vliilc a i'iiiii|iiiriillvi'ly miiiiiH iMiiiilicr nl' ilin")' who 
 liiiiil III New ^llrk litiil tlii'ir wny In < 'iiiiinlii, 
 < iiiiiiiliTiilili' liiliiilH'rM III' liiiir |iay hIIIi'ith nl' llir 
 ariiiv ami navy tiiivi' Imtii, ai ilitlrrrnl IIiiicm, 
 CMtiililiHlinl in r. ('aiiitila. If we limk In llic wrll- 
 li<'iii){ III' iIh> I'liii^raiilM, wliirli in ilir |iriii<'i|inl 
 
 fiiiislilrralinli, il is iinl iiiiirli In lir ri'Kri'llril jlial 
 fii iiiiiiiy prcliT llic r, Sialrn. 'I'licrt' can lie iin 
 
 (Inlil)l lliiil till' Vlllll'y nl' llic MlMHiH^llilii nll'iTH 
 
 ^Tcalcr ailMiiitii;;('s In iiiiliistriniis itiiiiiiKriiiiln, 
 M'lii'liicr Willi nr williniit ca|iiliil, llimi can lie cii- 
 Jnvcil in any pari nl' Canaila. Il Iiiih a niililcr 
 cliniah', II liclliT inula clii'a|icr noil, ami i^* Tree 
 fi'iiin tlic^rrcalcr niiinlicr of tliimc Miciiil ^rricvanccx 
 lliiil iliMiiirli ami cinliillcr snciciy in ('tiiiaila. 'I'lic 
 womliT, in I'licl. in, mil iliat no niiiiiy nl' llic ciiii- 
 jfriiiiis In ( 'aiiiiila liiivc Id'i il I'nr llic I'. Slalcs, Imt 
 lliiit liny ('iiii^<iilci'iililc porlinii ol'tlicin Hlinnltl liavc 
 rcniiiincil licliiiul. 
 
 'I'll!' niiiivc Imliaii trilicK Htlll nrciipy iinrtionNnf 
 this ciilniiy nil liikcn Superior anil lliimn, niiil 
 aIniiM' III,. >vliiilc cMciil liiwiinU the N. liminilnricH; 
 lull I heir iiiinilicrs arc riipiilly ilinniii.shin);. ami 
 liiey are last ilc^'cneratin;; I'miii their ori^^inal 
 Hpiril Mini character, so ihiil the utter extiiiclinii 
 of the lac" Hceiiis inevilalile, as civilisation iiil- 
 viinces nil the wililcriiess, In which niily they 
 appear In he atlaptcil. It lias hccii said, that 
 wiihoiil a chan;;c in their nioile of Ireatnicnt, ' the 
 I'ateol'ihe Imliinis is Hcaleil.' lint tlu^ Inilh is, 
 that, however it iniiy he chanp'il, their fali^ is 
 ' scaleij,' M.Npericnce has s>iHiciently prnvcd that 
 the red men arc inciipalile of any real civilisation; 
 mill nothing' can ]ireveiit their exicrriiinat ion other 
 lliiiii the ahiilin;; hy a ilelcrininalion not to enter 
 their territories, or to iiitcrl'ere in any decree with 
 their^rroiinds, Imliits, or pursuits. Iliit such a deter- 
 niiiiiitloii could scarcely he curried nut. America 
 has hcen settled, civilised, and iniprnved only 
 throii^di perpetual encrnachineiits on the natives; 
 and to say that these should cease, would he to 
 say that vast tracts of line cnnulry tthuuhl be 
 thionied tncnnliniied liarharisni, 
 
 Triiiire and Jlintriliiitioii of Lfiiiflu, — Tlip land 
 <'oin|iriscd in the sci;;iiinral districts of f.ower 
 Canada amounts to almiit ',1.(1110,0110 acres; of this 
 last, ilie whole has hcen granted hy the crown, 
 siiliject loan ohlipition to cniicede tuiuMiial set- 
 tlers. The {grants made hy the French fjovcrninent 
 jircvioiisly to the cniiquest were on one uniform 
 system, Sfifiiiiorim (or manors rontainin^ from il 
 to 'Ml sq, Ica^iiics) were created in favour of certain 
 leadiiif,' imlividuals, who were hound to (jrant 
 or ' t'OHcrf/t ' a specitied iinrtion to any applicant; 
 the jirolit, to the scif,'nior, heiii}^ derived fnim 
 payment of a small rent, from services which 
 the reiisitairi- (or tcnaiTt) was hound to i)erform ; 
 from l-12tli of the corn fjronnd (hy compulsion) 
 at the scit^nioral mill; and from n fine on the 
 transference of the property (other than by iii- 
 beritance). 
 
 This sort of tenure, copied in prcnt part from 
 the feudal system existing in France previously to 
 the licvoliition, was maintained after the Itri'tish 
 acquired jiossessioii of the country. The con- 
 scipience has been that the French pop, lias been 
 conliiK'd to a comparatively limited extent of ter- 
 ritory, and has never amalgamated with the Brit- 
 ish ; for, by ennhling every individual to obtain a 
 porlioii of land, which, as the jioi). increitsed, 
 liecanie gradually less, without any immediate 
 oiillay, yoniig men were tempted to remain at 
 borne ; and being snbjeut tu feudal regulations 
 
 ADA 
 
 ami servicer, Iho nccii[ilrw wore hound, iw il were, 
 III II riiiiiiiie sy>.|ciii. Ilcnreihe I'rcm'h ('iiiiiMJiitiii 
 exhibit a Hlngidiir waiitof acii\ iiy and enlerpriT; 
 iiml the pnriinii nf the pmv. which they nciupy 
 has a dense iind a pimr pop,, Mtroiigly attiiiiiiij, 
 as already hccii, to uncieiit liabilM iind lundcH of 
 exislence, 
 
 since the prov. oaino under the llnliNh Koveni- 
 mcnl, the plans under which land has been gninii d 
 and sold have dill'ered very widely at dlll'ereiii 
 periods. The lauds, when surveyed, have lieiu 
 divided into townships, coiisistnig each of iiIiimh 
 "0,000 acres, ex !'> per cent, for high-ways. Tin. 
 townships have I "en griinled in many iiiihIis, i|i| 
 fering linlli in their character and object : iit iir<i, 
 they were granted to settlers in fri'c and cniiiiiinn 
 socrage, wiili a reservation to resiinie all, or iinv 
 pari, if required for niililary purposes, but siilijii'i 
 In nil ntlier ciiliditiniis ; the qiiailt ity, so grillili'ij 
 III each imli\'iiliiiil, being limited to loo acres li.r 
 hiinself, and ■''lO acres iiddilinnal for each inemlMr 
 of his family ; the governor having aiilhorily in 
 increase this amount by 1,000 acres. These I'h- 
 vourabh^ lernis wcri> iiicanl to attract selllers rriun 
 the colonies, which now form the II. States, In 177,", 
 this arrangement was superseded, and the (jmlnv 
 ,lrl of the preceding year having restored ilit; 
 Freiicli code and language, ('orresponding iiisinic- 
 lions were given, that fntiirc grants slinuld iigniii 
 be made in lief ami seigniory, and three Hcigiiinrics 
 Were tliiiA crcalcd. In I7III the regulalioiis nf 
 I7ti;i were revived, though with certain comliiimis 
 annexed to them, which in )iraclicc wen^ avniilcd; 
 and this imide continued till IH2li : but the cmi- 
 stitiitional act of I7!ll also enacted that a reserve 
 for the support of a I'rolcslant clergy shniiM h" 
 made, in respect of every grant, equal in value, m 
 near as could lie estimated, to l-7tli iiart of ilio 
 land granted. The crown reserves, tn a like exiciil, 
 nriginated in the view of supplying, lirst by sales 
 and ultimately by rents, un indepi'iideiit sniirce of 
 revenue, and obviating the necessity of taxes, niiil 
 consccpicntly of such disputes as had led to ilu; 
 independence of the U. States, These rescncs, 
 however, have jiroved most serious obstacles tn 
 the welfare of the colony, which the mis-eoiistnii'- 
 lioii, or violation, of the act, has aggniviited, hy 
 increasing llieir extent bevond what apjieiirs to 
 have been conteni|ilated. (Lord Diirhanrs Keport, 
 Apjiend. II., pp. (!, 7.) From IHOO ibiwiiward, no 
 new townships were granted ; and the grants, nii 
 to 1811, were in lots of 21)0 acres, to actual sctlleni, 
 and few in number. From the last date, grants 
 were made on ' location tickets,' reipiiriiig the 
 erection of a house, and the clearing and cultivat- 
 ing four acres, before the title was jicrfecled. In 
 IH"2t) the new mode of selling land by aiiclinn,flta 
 miinmnin upset price, was adopted, the piircliiisc- 
 moiiey being |)ayable by four annual instalinunts, 
 without interest. In IHiU the iiurchase-iUDiicy 
 was to be repaid by half-yearly instalments; tiiiil 
 ill 18H7, to obviate the had effects of giving crcilit 
 on such sales, the imrchase-money was made imy- 
 ablc at the time of sale, llesides the grants nuule 
 under these different regulations, other excciitimi.il 
 ones have been made — mostly in reward of public 
 services ; such as those to the militia of the revo- 
 lutionary war, and of that of 1812 — there has .also 
 been an exceptional sale of nearly 800,000 acres to 
 the Uritish N. American Land Company. 'i'\w 
 crown reserves must be considered as virtually 
 abandoned when the auction sales were iiitrn- 
 diiced ; and an act of the imperial legislature h;is 
 authorised the sale of l-4tli part of the clergy 
 reserves, at a rate not exccieiling ]0(),000 acres 
 annually. Latterlj', however, the system for the 
 disposal of the crown lands by auction, at a fixed 
 
TAN 
 
 minimum pricp, Imn lircn r'uforccil in Cmmila n« 
 
 mil (IN ill il ihir rnlitnii's. 
 
 Of lnt(< yi'iint n rcvriiiii< Iuin Im-oii dcrivi'il frum 
 JIiiiImt pr(i|MTly ill Imlli provii •«. OriKiimlly (lie 
 HkIiI of ciiMlii^ tliiilit'i wiiH <i niiiiii>|Hi|y in llii> 
 Imiiiln (if roiitriicliirM, for i«iip|ilylii)^ tliiit iirliilr 
 ftirllic imvy, wlm iiHually Hold licfiiHcs to iiicr 
 I'liiiiitN Hiiil liiinlHT-ini'ii.'liy wlioiii nil tlii< Ir^'iil 
 
 triulc WHS ill (•ollHC(HH'|l<'l''cM(,'roH,'M'(l. Ill jM-.M 
 
 liccMMCH to ('lit wt'rt' lirnt oIl'criMl liy Kovpriiiiiciit liy 
 iiiiclioii: tilt' value oC mi ncni oV linilicr, at lliV 
 price eliar^reil for these, is often very niiieli ^reatiT 
 lliat||lliat reipiireil forlaml, and llie'lirst instaliiieiit 
 lias lieeii paid freriuenlly for land solely in the 
 view of entfinj,' down tlie tinilier. Tlie ( Mlawa is 
 tlie chief seat of the trade, which is in j^reat mea- 
 sure, forced and factitious ; and which, whih^ it is 
 of no real advanta>{e to Cmirida, entails a heavy 
 harden on (ireat llritain. 
 
 Lands in the iippiT prov. have heen granted in 
 the same way as In the lower; and the prufii^e 
 manner in which these grants have lieeii made, 
 many very extensive tracts having heen n'^''" to 
 ])ersons who had iiu intention of seltliii); upon 
 them, coupled with the >;reat extent of the clergy 
 and stale reserves, has had a most injurious iiitlii- 
 eiice over the eoloiiv, and has mat(-rially retarded 
 its pro/,'resH. The lands thns >;iveii away to indi- 
 viduals not settlinj; upon them, ami reserved, liy 
 iiitenxisiiiKniicnllivated desert tracts helweeii the 
 actual settlers, render it, in all eases, much more 
 dilUciilt and expensive, and Hometimes all hnt 
 iiiiposslhlc, to form roads and other means of eom- 
 niunication ; so that the cultivators arc freipiently 
 cutotVfrom n market for their produce ; and Iteiuf; 
 seltleil only in particular districts, they are less 
 nhlc to comhine for municipal (inrposes, nnd for 
 the estahlishment uf s(;hools and chnrches, and 
 the undertaking of public works that require co- 
 uperaticMi. 
 
 The extent of land for solo at tho end of 1802 
 was as follows : — 
 
 /« l^/>iiitr Cnniiiln — Crown lands, after dcdiiet- 
 m^ sales and free grants, and adding extent sur- 
 veyed, 2,«il!t,itr)M acres, clergy lands 'J t,n;i« acres, 
 grammar school lands 61,714 acres, and common 
 school lands l),7t>7 acres. 
 
 In Lower Cannda — (.'ro^vn lands, after deduct- 
 ing sales and free grants, and adding extent sur- 
 veyed (i,*M)H,t>tu acres, clergy lands i{5,5,!(!tH acres, 
 making a total of !»,2(J0,2:V2 acres for tale in Upper 
 and Lower (Canada. 
 
 The niimher of acres of land sold, in the three 
 years lH(I0-2, was as follows : — 
 
 Doicrtptiun of Land 
 
 1800 
 Kent 
 
 1801 1 1803 
 
 AcrM 1 Acrei 
 
 Crown J U|>i)or Canada . 
 Lands Lower Canada . 
 
 Total . 
 
 Clcrpy 1 TTppcr Canada . 
 LanUs ( Lower Canada . 
 
 Total . 
 Common Schc ' Lands . 
 Grammar School Lands . 
 
 Total . 
 
 12(1,413 
 200,026 
 
 2/57,933 \ 101,r>ll 
 273,835 232,180 
 
 410,439 
 
 fi2,.')22 
 4t,r.45 
 
 531,708 
 
 333,097 
 
 74,300 
 41,290 
 
 20,771 
 30,504 
 
 107,007 
 
 115,005 , 60,275 
 
 3,221 
 
 4,498 : 2,2'I0 
 
 fi.OOO 
 
 8,729 1 2,909 
 
 533,(127 
 
 067,000 41)5,190 
 
 Agricultural Statistics, — Tho actual state of 
 agriculture in both Upper and Lower Canada is 
 sliown in the subjoined table, compiled from rc- 
 
 AT).\ n27 
 
 turns of the Colnnial (ioveniment. The atatislic* 
 are for the year lM(i2; — 
 
 
 l/rtr»t 
 
 I'piwr 
 
 
 CmimI* 
 
 Cuiaite 
 
 Nil. of lliililhmi :— 
 
 
 
 10 Acres ulnl under 
 
 n,H22 
 
 4.424 
 
 10 „ „ 20 Aorcn 
 
 a.isii 
 
 2.075 
 
 20 „ „ 5" „ . 
 
 2o,o7» 
 
 20.1130 
 
 50 „ „ 100 „ . 
 
 41,011 
 
 OI.NIH 
 
 100 „ .. 200 „ . 
 
 2l.7;iii 
 
 28.;):m 
 
 200 iiiid iipwardM , 
 
 •I.SdII 
 
 5,027 
 
 
 Arni 
 
 Ainu 
 
 f.niiilH liclil til Acres , , 
 
 IO,;i75,-|IH 
 
 13.351.1107 
 
 Uiiiler Culllviilldii . 
 
 4 .HI It, 2: 15 
 
 0.051,(110 
 
 „ Crops .... 
 
 2,92S,|:i3 
 
 4,101,1102 
 
 ,, I'otiilocs 
 
 1 ,K»2,(IS5 
 
 l,8t;0.N|8 
 
 „ (liinlciiH inid Drcliards. 
 
 3:1,417 
 
 88.SII!) 
 
 Woods and Wild Lands . 
 
 fi,57l,lH3 
 35,731,880 
 
 7,303.288 
 01.402,110 
 
 Valuo of Kiirms In ikiuikIs stor. 
 
 „ of Kariil InililriiM'hts . 
 
 1 ,5.12,7 19 
 
 2,350,0(il 
 
 „ of (lurdcii and Orchard \ 
 rroiliice . . i 
 
 184,304 
 
 271,007 
 
 Quantity of Lund held liy 
 
 Arri'M 
 
 Acrc« 
 
 Towiispeople, not liolllK 
 
 147,293 
 
 182,552 
 
 Fanners . . . ) 
 
 
 
 Land under Crops ; — 
 
 
 
 I'all Wheat .... 
 
 5,480 
 
 434.729 
 
 HprliiK Wheat 
 
 230,289 
 
 051,037 
 
 Hurley 
 
 130.142 
 
 118,0 to 
 
 Uye 
 
 83,031 
 
 70,370 
 
 I'CIH 
 
 234.035 
 
 4(iO,505 
 
 ihw* 
 
 055,5.',3 
 
 078,337 
 
 Huckwlii'at .... 
 
 75.005 
 
 74,5(15 
 
 Iiidiiin Cum 
 
 15,012 
 
 70,018 
 
 I'otatdCH .... 
 
 118.709 
 
 137.20(1 
 
 Tnriiliis .... 
 
 0,475 
 
 73,400 
 
 MaiiKcl Wnrzel . 
 
 1,230 
 
 1,523 
 
 No. of Live Stock :— 
 
 KlK. 
 
 N<ii. 
 
 Hulls, Oxen, and Steers 
 
 200,1101 
 
 00,005 
 
 Milch ('(iws .... 
 
 328,370 
 
 451,010 
 
 Calves and ilelfers 
 
 287.(ill 
 
 4(il,083 
 
 Horses over three years old ■ 
 
 185,(I!I7 
 
 277,258 
 
 Colts and Fillies . 
 
 03.418 
 
 10(',l2:l 
 
 Wieep 
 
 082,829 
 
 1,170,225 
 
 I'iKs 
 
 280,400 
 
 770,001 
 
 Vroduco :— 
 
 llii. 
 
 \\n. 
 
 llutter 
 
 15,90(i.949 
 
 20.828.204 
 
 CliecH! 
 
 (18(i,207 
 
 2,(i87,l72 
 
 JiiH'l', In barrels of 200 lbs. . 
 
 07,054 
 
 07,508 
 
 I'ork „ ,1 
 
 100,598 
 
 330,744 
 
 Canada, as already Staled, is supposed to be rich 
 in minerals, but its wealth below ground has only 
 been partially explored. Copper and iron ore arc 
 at present the chief produce of the mines. 'V\m 
 quantity of copper ore exjiortcd in the year \HiVi 
 amounted to hfift'A tons, while of pig and .scrap 
 iron there were exported 2,40« tuns. Ab(mt two- 
 thirds of the cojiiHT ore and the whole of the 
 exjiorts of iron went to the United States, the re- 
 maining copper being taken liy Great liritain. lint 
 the iiroduce of the mines is insignilicant to that of 
 the forest, and, still more, to that of agriculture. 
 The value of agricultnriil produce exported in lH(i2 
 was above 15,0(10,000 dollars, and that of the forest 
 9i millions; »vhilc the value of the produce of 
 mines Avas but 7O.'l,000 ihillars, and that of manu- 
 facturing industry less than half a million. 
 
 Commerce and Shipping. — The imports of Ca- 
 nada on tho average exceed the cximrts in value. 
 The imports, in 18(i0, amounted to 7,17(!,tir)H/. ; 
 the exports to 7,214,078/. In 1861, the imports 
 were of the declared value of 8,9(J9,7.')()/., nnd the 
 exports of 7,<)27,957/. Lastly, in 1802, the im- 
 ports amounted to 10,r2.'),l.S2/., and the exports to 
 0,999,192/. The principal imports are cotton and 
 woollen mannfactnrcs and colonial goods, while 
 timber and agricultural produce constitute tho 
 chief exports. The subjoined table shows the 
 value of the chief articles of exports during the 
 two years 1801 and 1802 :^ 
 
 s s 2 
 
 i t 
 
 if! 'I 
 
 iijiiiiij 
 
 :''! t 
 
 '!, ijll 
 
 III 
 
 m 
 
 
 w 
 
 i 
 
(i2H 
 
 CANADA 
 
 R>|wfW 
 
 iwi 
 
 PulUn 
 
 IMton 
 
 
 Tiilii unci HiiIIIdii , , 
 
 iUM'i 
 
 |7N,lt!t7 
 
 ('ii|i|nr Drr . . , 
 
 44iM;l0 
 
 MII'I.IIMH 
 
 I'Uli, lii'li"! 
 
 *K*,m\ 
 
 ;,7ii,Mnii 
 
 „ I'li'klnl . 
 
 •iiu.l.M 
 
 fiit.vii 
 
 AkIii'h, I'lit , , , 
 
 70f.,r.'H 
 
 iw;.,M(p| 
 
 „ r.'.iii . 
 
 I7;l,77lt 
 
 •i.Mt.tlllt 
 
 TIimInt : r.lin . 
 
 •jd.l.Mij 
 
 airi.Cill 
 
 „ Uiik . 
 
 ft';il,iMl7 
 
 fi'^.,:il7 
 
 Whlli- I'lim 
 
 U,M)l,:mH 
 
 ■;,llii.ii4)l 
 
 „ llinl riiii' . 
 
 nim.tidii 
 
 4.vj,ii;i 
 
 „ Htiui'laril Htitvcit 
 
 ■ilN.II.VI 
 
 'J.M.llll 
 
 ,, (Itlicr rituvt's 
 
 |ii7,:iH,^ 
 
 |(i4..M:l 
 
 ,, I.'riiU 
 
 V,IW>,"IIJ 
 
 l,:l7r.,;iiM» 
 
 „ IMiiiikH Jk lloctnlH 
 
 l,:.7ii.:iHi 
 
 a,:i:i:i,7Jti 
 
 „ MikHti 
 
 MH.KII 
 
 71.17.-. 
 
 AiiImiuU: IIiiix'14 , 
 
 (I)I7,:I.'>A 
 
 tllll.:l:|:l 
 
 „ Hiiriii'il Citttle, 
 
 ;is.»,;.iti) 
 
 ■JI'IMNij 
 
 „ Hwlmi 
 
 Illl,'i7l) 
 
 fp|l.rj7 
 
 Hhi'i'ii 
 
 Illt.'iJO 
 
 21 7.7.^ 1 
 
 Priiiliirnof AiiIiiiuIk; 
 
 
 
 lllltllT .... 
 
 Htl.llltl 
 
 1,1:12,772 
 
 I'.WU* .... 
 
 ii;i,;iii 
 
 .Vl.lllll 
 
 Iliill'H lllul I'cltH . 
 
 liiii.i'ii 
 
 i;ii,7iH 
 
 I'nrk .... 
 
 .|M7,.'.im 
 
 1711;.' IS 
 
 W.)()l .... 
 
 4:11. lIMt 
 
 72I,h:1iI 
 
 PlIfH .... 
 
 ■j:iO,AIMI 
 
 'Jll2,ll2S 
 
 Atfrli'iiltiinil rroiliifts : 
 
 
 
 liiii'lc'v mill llyii . 
 
 l,oi)'.>,!);ii 
 
 l,ri;M,».'.7 
 
 Iriiliitii C'lirii . 
 
 :il(i,ii;i7 
 
 4lii,t!!m 
 
 Out 
 
 (i|:i.ii'i:i 
 
 <II2.I>NM 
 
 IN'IW .... 
 
 I,tii7,.')ii)i 
 
 7:l'',l>J7 
 
 Wlii'iit .... 
 
 7,ti:l4,HOI) 
 
 n.rii.'i, 211(1 
 
 i''l<inr .... 
 
 u,iiu,ti(m 
 
 fi,M4:l,H«4 
 
 Miuiiiriu'turi'n : 
 
 
 
 liiillii-riililx'r . , . 
 
 aa.ofia 
 
 .'I4,7M1I 
 
 Stil)j(>iii(>il is a xtatcniciit ^'iviiiK the niiinlicrnnil 
 toniiM^'c iif vchhi'Ih (if oat'li iiiitioii which ciitcrt'd 
 niiil clciiri'd lit the iiutiiortH uf CuiukUi in the your 
 
 im-> :— 
 
 
 Eiilrrod 
 
 Vlnml 1 
 
 Nmlniiiiilly of 
 
 Vt-IH)U 
 
 Vi.ifli 
 
 Tiiiu 
 82.'i,40ft 
 
 
 
 VclloU 
 1,907 
 
 Turn 
 8l2.fif!n 
 
 nrltlsh . 
 
 l,OM 
 
 Atncrlcnn (U.S.) 
 
 4n 
 
 |H,I20 
 
 41 
 
 17,9211 
 
 IlllSh^illll . 
 
 ft 
 
 2,IIH2 
 
 5 
 
 2,(iH2 
 
 "Vdrwi'tflnu 
 
 1:11 
 
 f.7,:l!t;i 
 
 12.'. 
 
 r.ft.:i22 
 
 Swcillsh . 
 
 ;i 
 
 I.:i2(l 
 
 :i 
 
 1 ,;12I1 
 
 limine TownH . 
 
 Id 
 
 (l,22H 
 
 Id 
 
 tl.22H 
 
 I'riihsiiui . 
 
 2(1 
 
 H,H(I7 
 
 1!) 
 
 8,.''.tlH 
 
 KriMic'li 
 
 2 
 
 111) 
 
 :i 
 
 04 
 
 AiiKtriiin . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 riirtiiifiipso 
 
 6 
 
 8A4 
 
 4 
 
 &tR 
 
 Otlior Ffprclgn 
 CountrluH ) 
 
 Total . 
 
 6 
 
 1,825 
 
 fi 
 
 1,625 
 
 3,187 
 
 922,430 
 
 2,12H 
 
 9(Mi,847 
 
 ShipbtiildiiiK is curried on to n considrrnlile ex- 
 tent in Cnniida. The numlier of snilin^ vessels 
 hiiilt in the tliree years i«C.O, 1«<!1, and \H&>, 
 ninoiinted to '2M(!, and of steamers to 80. I)urin>f 
 tlie same period fiCid sailing vessels and 01) steamers 
 were registered at Canadian ports. 
 
 Form of Gorenimeiit. — Cniiadn was ceded by 
 France to Kiifjland in ITti.'J : it had previously been 
 fjoverned by French military authority ; from 
 tbenee, to 177'1, it was under the rule of an Fnjj- 
 lisb governor and council, with Knffliiih law, ad- 
 ministered in the Knplisli lan^imj^e only. From 
 1774 to 1791 it was f^overned by an Kn^lish f;o- 
 venior and a lepslative council, appointed by the 
 crown, witb £wj//i)t/i ('riminal and French civil law; 
 and from 17!M downward, by the constitution, 
 previously explained, tbe colony beiiifj then di- 
 vided into two provinces, each with an independent 
 Icf^islature. Down to 1774, the line of policy 
 jiursued was that wliicli, had it been vigorously 
 and systcniaticuUy followed up, would certuiuly 
 
 linve n-douiided nini*i,iti the mil, lo tliondvnMlii(;i' 
 of llic chIciiiv ; jiia^iiiiii li a» it wmilil hiivi'urailiinll'. 
 milivcrlrd the inMliiiiliiiUH jiiid liiii^iiiitteof {''rniiii. 
 and eNiiiblinlii'il ill ihcirHleiiil the hiMiiliilioiiM atiij 
 
 liniKiitii;e of I'.n^liinil. Ilul Ihc l^iii'l Act nf 
 
 1771 iniriHliiccd a nrw and tiinre lilienil, lint m ilic 
 name lime a p<hort Mi^'hied iioliiy. If < 'iminhi wiu 
 lo be preserved as Ull l'',M|4ll'<ll i'oliin>', il nIiuiiIiI, Mi 
 
 far as possible, have been made l'',ii^'lish ill In 
 laws, its liin^ua^c, niid In the fei'lln^'s i,f ijn. 
 
 people; and no illNlillllioli nIioiiIiI liavi> lireli liilc 
 rated llial Milu'lil ha\e jirevciilcd the ^railiiiil iiiiil 
 ciiiii|ileie amalv;iiiiiiitiiiii of the Freiicb «Nilli ilic 
 Kllgli-«h Hclllcrs. The (^iieliec Ai'l lllll'cirlllliiitrly 
 proceeded on tniaily liilVerciit priiiciple<i. In nnli'r 
 lo conciliate tbe ci.ioiiisis, it siilislilulcil llir oli| 
 HVstem of civil law, or thai called the ('niilumr lilt 
 i'liriii, for the civil law of l'',iiKlaiid,iiii<l it iliniii'il 
 till- use of the French lail)^'iiaue to be rc'iininl m 
 the law courts. It is pmbably true lliiil tliiii' 
 concessions, bv gralilyiiiK th*' * 'aiiadiiins, liml <.iiiiir 
 eti'cci ill hiti<ieriiiK ilieiii from ji.iniii;^' tlie Ami' 
 riciiii coloiiisls of Kii^rlisb origin in their ^'rcai iiihI 
 successl'iil revolt ; ami ciiiisci|iieiilly coiilrilnili'i 
 to preserve tbe |irov. fur the llrilish crown, Willi 
 out sliijiping to eiii|iiire whether this has beiii u( 
 any advaiiliigc to (irciit Itriliiiii, il hceiiis prulmMi' 
 that the ililVereiice of language, and tlie pniiliiir 
 circumstances under wliicli the Frciicb ('aiiailiiiiii 
 Were |ilaccd, wnuld have elVccliially previiiiiil 
 llieni, lhoii);li lh(^ Ijiieliec .Act had never lii'iii 
 heard of, from iiial\iii){ coinnion cause wiili ilic 
 colouisis of New I'jigland ami the oilier Aiiicriiiiii 
 colonies. Ilul, whatever opinion iniiy be cmiii' ii. 
 iisto this, there can be no doulit llial Ihecstaliii^li- 
 inent of French hiws and laii^iia^e in tlie innv, 
 liasteniled to insulate the French pop., to niaiiiiiiiii 
 lliem as a distinct race, and to restrain, and in a 
 ureal dej^ree prevent, all intercourse belwcen ilicin 
 and the colonists from l'!n);laiid : in poini offiirt, 
 the French in Canada are now almost as iiiiiili a 
 distinct (leople as in I7)ill. The Xnlion Oim- 
 itiviuie has no sympathy, and but little coininiiiii- 
 calion, with KiiKlislimeii : on llie contrary, a linuiil 
 line of ileiniircatioii and a deep moled aiitipailiy 
 subsists between them. 
 
 The basis of the |iresenl ])iilitical conslitiitiini of 
 Canada is tlie act of III (ieo. 111. can. III., passcil 
 by the I'arliament of (ireat Mritain in 17',)|. Hy 
 the terms of il, the old province of (Quebec — wliici; 
 then embraced t!ie whole of Canaila — was ilividcil 
 into the two piverinnents of llii]ier and bower 
 Camilla, with representative instiliilions for cacli. 
 Tb(( le^fislalive authority was vested in a li'^i^- 
 lative council appointed by tbe crown, and in a 
 bouse of assembly elected by the inlialiitants; 
 the Lower province was under a governor, wliilsi 
 the lljiper was under a lieutenant-governor. Tliis 
 constitution was suspended in consequence of tlic 
 rebellion in Upper Canada in IHHH, and a special 
 council aiipoifited. In l^l■IO tliC! two provinces 
 were reunited — by an act .'Ird & -tth Vic. cup, ll.'i— 
 and the lepslutive councils of the iiniled pro- 
 vinces were consolidated. The new le(,'islative 
 council consisted of twenty members ap|H.iiiteil liy 
 the pivernor for life; while the jieoplo were repre- 
 sented in a house of assembly, comprisinf; eijjlity- 
 Ibiir members, returned in equal ]iroportioiis liy 
 the inhabitants of Cppcr and Uiwer Canadu. A 
 final modilicatioii of the constitution, by uii net 
 passed .lune 14, lUb'A, comprises the fundaniPiiliil 
 laws now in force. The (diarter thus estallli^lu'|l 
 ve;;ts the le(;;islative authority in a parliament nf 
 two houses, the Icf^islative council and the limise 
 of assembly. The fonner consists of tweiity-limr 
 members nominated for life by the governor, and 
 of twice the number elected by the people. The 
 
CANADA 
 
 ej9 
 
 lioiito nf nKKcmltlv crtmiiriHon 1.10 riK'niltor*, rhown 
 ill I'J.'i t'li-i'liiriil lii.'tlririt Mini liitriiii((|iK, >ii'tiilit'rM 
 
 III' till' lliil|Nl> III' nn-<l'llllllv lllllrtl III' |lii'<Nl'>M'i| III' 
 
 rrri'liiilil |irii|H'r( y nl' ilii- viiiiir nl' HiMi/. Kii'itorx in 
 riiillilli'M, liy II liiw wliicli liiiik I'lVi'il in iM.i.'i, iiri' 
 l<'i|ulri'i| III Ih' Iiiiski'xhi'iI III, nr In •irril|iv, |ir<i|irrly III' 
 lliii MHMi'HKi'il iii'iiiiil vitiiii' III' Ml., (ir llii' yi'iirly 
 Miliii' III' Ti/, ; wliili' I'li'i'iiirM III lowiH niiiMi lie |iiii 
 i<i"<!«i'il III", iir iii'rii|iy, |irii|irrty "I" ilii' yriirly vuliir 
 III' 7/, lll». Mi'IiiIhtm III' fill' liiiUKi' lit' iiK^i'iiilily, 
 illirill)^ hi'mhIiiii, Iiiivi' Mil alliiwilliri' I'riiin llir |illlilli' 
 
 riiiiil't. ('iiT^yiiii'ii III' III! ili'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH itri' iiii'ii 
 
 IKllill'iif lii'riililillK nii'Mllii'ri, 'I'lir Iimiihi' In rlorti'il 
 
 I'lir I'liiir yt'itrM ; Itiil inuy In' |iri'\'iiiii'ily iIImhoIvi'iI liy 
 llii> ({iivcriiiir, in wliirli ciim' a nrw rli'i'liun iiiiinI 
 'iikr pliirc iiiiiiit'iiiiiti'ly, Al li'ii'l inii' Hr»^<iiiii inii.^t 
 III' lii'lil niiniiiilly, mi tliiii ii iiiTiiMliil' Iwi'lvi' iikhiiIi^ 
 may ni'vi-r I'liipsi' hriwi'i'ii rarli ini'rliii^ uf llii' 
 Ii'^lMlatiiri'. All |iriirri'iliiiK!< ami ri'i'urils of tlif 
 li'^irtjativi' aHwi'iiilily arr unliTril to In' ki'|il, liy 
 till' ai't III' |H|il, in till' l'',ii);li!<li laiiKiia^'i' nnly. 
 'I'll!' Hpi'aki'r III' till' liiiiixi' of a-<Mriiilily is t'lccicd 
 liy llii' iiii'inliiTM ; wliiii' llii' |irr.'<iili'lil ul' llir li'u;iri 
 laiivo riiiini'il ii aiiiiiiintcil liy llii' rrnwii I'nr lil'i'. 
 
 Till' I'xi'nilivi' M vi'ili'il in ii ^tnvrninr ^I'lirral, 
 htyli'il ' lioM'niiir-lii'ni'riii uf Hrilidli Nurlli Anii'- 
 ririi,' anil apiiniiiii'il liy llii' rniwu, Hi' lian a 
 salary nl' 7,<lilii/. yvr unnuiii, ami linliH aiitlinrily 
 ill lliii nanii' nf tlic Hiivi'ri'i;;n nl' (irriil llritain, 
 'I'lic niiviTimr-Ki'mTal liii.-i tlii> imwrr In n'lvv ur 
 williliiilil till' royal iismciiI to IiiIIh |ia'«M'il liy llii' 
 li't^iMJalivi' roiinril ami as.ii'inlily, nr In ri'si'r\'ii 
 till' Kitnii' till lliu rnyal iili'iiHiini hi' I'Xiiri'ti.ii'il, 
 Siirli liills iiH arr aiMi'iifi'il In l>y tlii' j^nvrriinr in 
 llui name nC ilic I'mwii ari', iu'VitiIh'Ii'sm, Miliji'i't 
 In ili><aiinwanri' liy liii' Movi'ri'ijfii, within two yrar^i 
 al'li'r till' ri'r('i|it of aiitlii'iitir ropii's hv oni' of Ihi' 
 |irini'i|ial Hct'i'i'larii'n nf Htatc in (irral (tritaiii ; anil 
 nil hills, rcscrvcil for tin- rnnsiilrralion nf the 
 iTowii, ran have any fnri'i', niili"is llii' rnviil iihhi'IiI 
 III' Ni^iiilicil within two yi'iirn al'li'r Ihi'v liavi' lici'ii 
 iiri'McnIi'il In till' K"v<Tnnr-^;i'm'ral. All |irni'i'i'il- 
 nij^s anil rci'iinis nf lim l^'^;i^lalllrl' ari' iliri'i'tcil In 
 liii krpl in thi> l''.n^rliMli ian^MiiiKi' only. 
 
 AdininiHtruI'mii ofJustiiT. — 'I'lii' criniinal hiw of 
 Kiifjlaml i.s a|iplirahl(' to Ilii' wholi^ nf Camilla: 
 hut, ax ri'pirilH the prnvim'i'nf (jni'hci', tlii'am'ii'iit 
 law of ('aiiaila, that is, llu' Fri'iirli laws, an-, liy 
 the Mill nf (ion. III. I'. «;i. ri'si'rvc'il as applii'iihli' 
 to all nialtt-rs of I'lnitrnvcrsy ri'lalivc to propiTly 
 anil rivil ri^htH. This rcsi-rvatinii, however, iloes 
 not holil where lamls are helil in free ami eonnnon 
 siiceiige ; anil wills, involviM^ the ilestinalion of 
 property, may he exeenleil in eniiforniity either 
 with the laws of ('anailii or those of I'ji^latul, as 
 liie testator may deem expeilient. In NVeslern 
 Canaila the law of Kiij^hkml is nniversallv ajipli- 
 e.ilile. The jii'lp's ennmerateil in Seheiliilo A at- 
 lai'hi'il to the Act nf Union, are the following: — 
 Tor rpjK'r, or Western, Canaila, one ehief justice 
 anil four puisne jnil^es of (Queen's Heneh al Tn- 
 nmtn, hesiiles a viec-eham.'ellnr ; ami fnr Lnwer, 
 nr Kastern, Camilla, one eliief Jiistiee anil three 
 ])iitsne jmlK*!>< "1" Queen's Heneh at. (iiiehee, ami 
 one chief justice anil three puisne jmljices at Mnn- 
 treal ; one resilient jmlne at Three Kivers; anil 
 line jiiilf?*' each for the inferinr districts of iSt. Fran- 
 cis ami (jas)ie. The juil^ments of these courts of 
 (iiieeu's llench are siiVject to review in a superior 
 court, or court of a]i|ieal, consistiiif; of tlie j,'nver- 
 niir, lieutenant-fjovernnr, or |iersiin ailministeriiif; 
 the pivernment, certain meinliers of the executive 
 council, ami the chief justice or justices of tlie 
 )iriivince, nr any live of these functionaries, ex- 
 chnliiift always the, jnil^c nrjiiilfjes whose decision 
 is appealed aj^ainst. There are also variims circuit 
 Cdinmissionurs uf bankruptcy, and theru in u Vicc- 
 
 Ailiniralty i'ourl mtnliliMhril nl (jii(>lH>r, Ihr k"- 
 
 vernor heinj^, rr itffirio. viic admiral of Cunada, 
 Much liti(;iiiiiiii ^^^n^H on Imth in rp|H'r ami l.nwcr 
 Canada, ami lawyers are of cmir'^e niinii'niiis in 
 the chief iiiwiis. riioii^h the criminal returns for 
 
 Canada are far from licin^ cninpli'le, ll xieiil nf 
 
 crime w'i'ins, on ihe whole, In he small, and on llie 
 decrease, when cotnpiireil with the ainnunt and 
 rapid |irii|^ress nf iinpulatinn in the cnlniiy, 
 
 Hrliiiiiin iiHil hiliiviitiimiil Knliihliitlunritl*. — I'm 
 viiiiin was made liy the lllsi lieo. III. c. ;il. for ihe 
 siijipiirt of the I'roli'sinnI cler^'y in Catinilii. My 
 tills ad, there is allotted for the inaintciiance of 
 
 the clergy nf the Church nf Kn^hind in tin lony, 
 
 alioiil a seventh part of all Ihe waste lands in he 
 granted to settlers; and the tithes of nui'h I'm- 
 le'<lants as live within Catholic heiielices are to 
 lie reserved hy the receiver-jfcneral nf Ihe pro- 
 vince, and appriipriali'd to thesiippiirl nf a resilient 
 rroti'slanl clergy therein. These are ilcsi^'nati'd 
 the clergy reserves. The ^overnnr is empowered 
 to present to any parsonages or rednries to Ui 
 consiiluted in the colony. 'I'liere are livcCaimdian 
 liishops heloii^in^ In Ihe Church of Kn^land, 
 while the Ifnmtn Calhnlic Church is ^nverned hy 
 line arcliliisliop and ei^lit liishops; and Ihe I'res- 
 liyteriini Church of Canada, in connect inn with 
 Ihe Church nf Scoilaml, hv animal synods, iire- 
 siileil over hv moderatnrs, 'I he niimlier of memliers 
 of each relluinns dennmimilinn, according to the 
 census of I Mil I, was as follows ; — 
 
 Ki'IIkIoiii Dviiimilniiiliiiu 
 
 I'llsT CmimU 
 illl.All.'i 
 
 l.itwfr CiiiiuiU 
 tl:i.lH7 
 
 Chur(!li of Kii^laiiil . 
 
 ,, iliiliie , 
 
 •jriH.ltl 
 
 11 |;i.-.':i;i 
 
 rre>lijti'riiuis 
 
 
 
 Cliilrcli of Sciitlimd 
 
 |OH,iii;:i 
 
 •j;i,7.'ii) 
 
 KiccClmrcli oil Hootlnnil 
 
 ll:l,li|:l 
 
 ll.H.MI 
 
 I'nltiil .... 
 
 f)l,;i7H 
 
 f),ll!l 
 
 MelhiKltxts - 
 
 
 
 Wcsleyim 
 
 2IH,1'.'7 
 
 ai.,!»:.7 
 
 K|il'<i'ii|iiil 
 
 71, I'll.-. 
 
 •J,.'i7:i 
 
 New Coniiexlon . 
 
 •JH.'.'IIO 
 
 1,'.>!IJ 
 
 Otiier .... 
 
 •.':i,;i:ii» 
 
 H7t 
 
 IliiptistH .... 
 
 111, Ml) 
 
 7,7.'il 
 
 LiitlierniiH .... 
 
 '/»,-Jii!) 
 
 H.-i7 
 
 CoiiKreKutionalistn . 
 
 Il,:l.'i7 
 
 4,if.'7 
 
 Qiiiikcrs .... 
 
 7,;ih;i 
 
 \i\ 
 
 Illlile (Miristliuis 
 
 h,Sil| 
 
 IHt 
 
 'Clirlstlaiis' 
 
 fi,ipi« 
 
 'Jim 
 
 ' .S-coud Ailventistn ' . 
 
 l,ii:iO 
 
 'j,:io'i 
 
 t'l'ole^tinits 
 
 7,rii4 
 
 •J,.'iMt 
 
 ' III rt|ilos' 
 
 4,117 
 
 .% 
 
 ■lews 
 
 lilt 
 
 r,vi 
 
 Mi'iioiiUts iiiid 'Tnnkers' 
 
 8,!lli.'> 
 
 — 
 
 ' nnivcrnnlists' 
 
 a,-.':t» 
 
 'J.'.'Sff 
 
 ; l^iiitarliiiis 
 
 ii:il 
 
 t)A2 
 
 1 Moniuins .... 
 
 74 
 
 ,1 
 
 1 ' No ri'lliilim' . 
 
 17,:i7:l 
 
 1,477 
 
 1 DeiioMiiiiiition not stated . 
 
 H.l-.'l 
 
 fi'.'S 
 
 Other CreiHlii not classed , 
 
 11,'JNII 
 
 tl78 
 
 Total . . 
 
 i,8o«,oai 
 
 i,ni,fi6(i 
 
 TTpper ami Lower Canada have separate whool 
 laws adapted to the relif{ious element*! jirevailinjj 
 in either. I'jich township in Cpper (Canada if* 
 divided into several schnnl sections, according to 
 the requirements of its inhahitants. The common 
 schools are supported partly hy government, anil 
 )iartly hy local self-imposed taxation, and occa- 
 sionally hy the ]iuvment of a small monthly feo 
 for eacii scholar. 'I'he total amount expended on 
 common schnnls in Upper Canada dnriiij^ 18.")8 
 exceeded 20H,l)27/. In settled rural districts each 
 school section 1ms a ^ood school-house, fimiished 
 with maps, niithnriscd school hooks, nml ele- 
 mentary philosophical apparatus. The salaries of 
 teai^hers vary from !;IU/. to K)/. in cnuntry parts, 
 aiul I'rum '■liol, tu 7^/. in cities luid lowns. All 
 
 1 1 
 
fi3(> 
 
 CANADA 
 
 citmmnn school tpachorfltniiflt pnssanoxnminntinn 
 liclorr, a couiitv bonrd of ciliiention, or receive a 
 licciu^e from tlio provincinl tiornial hcIiooI, cm- 
 Ijowcriiii; them to teach, before they can chiim 
 th(! ){overiim(!iit Hlh)Wiiiice. Tlierc are j^ood jjram- 
 iiiar hcIiooIh at Montreal and (2ucl)cc in connection 
 ■with the Clhiirch of Kn^hind, whicli are partly 
 Hii|i|iorte(l hy funds derived from the OHtates of 
 the JesiiitH, and partly by fees paid by the s<'ho- 
 lars. There are also excellent Catholic schools in 
 tho same cities, which were endowed with con- 
 siderable estates by the French government, prior 
 to the close of the 17th century. These estates 
 they still enjoy. There are also between l,t!(»0 
 and 1,700 common schools, and various colleges 
 and other superior cilucational establishments dis- 
 tributed over the various counties of Lower, or 
 Eastern, (Janada. To support the common schools 
 larfje sums are ainnially voted, in addition to the 
 l)roduce of certain estates of the Jesuits (j^enerally 
 exceeding 4„")00/. a year), which arc ilevoted to 
 the same ]iurposc. 
 
 In Upper Canada, still more liberal provision 
 and more strenuous exertions are made for the 
 education of the peo|)le. Hcsides the sums ex- 
 pcniled in building and repairing schoolhouses, 
 about 100,000/. are annually paid to teachers of 
 the ordinary schools throughout the province, 
 which are managed by committees of householders, 
 elected in each district or section. The schools 
 arc supported jiartly by grants and i>artl}' by 
 school rates and fees. The ci'urse of education 
 prevalent in these schools is much the same iis 
 that pursued in similar establishments in Great 
 liritain. 
 
 Revenue mid Expenditure. — The total revenue 
 and expenditure of Canada during the three years 
 IHtiO, 18(il, and 18G2 is shown in the subjoined 
 table. The comparatively large amount of both 
 income and cxjienditure in IHtiO arose from finan- 
 cial operations on a large scale, shown in the sub- 
 joined detailed budget : — 
 
 Vcan 
 
 1860 
 1861 
 1862 
 
 Net RcTonuo 
 
 Expenditure 
 
 Dollari 
 38,076,425 
 12,6.15,581 
 10,629,204 
 
 £ 
 
 7,932,588 
 2,639,59ti 
 2,235,841 
 
 Diillara 
 35,995,748 
 14,742,834 
 11,395,923 
 
 £ 
 7,499,114 
 3,071,424 
 2,389,185 
 
 The public expenditure in 1863 was .S'8G dollars 
 per head, and the funded debt 21 '69 dollars. 
 
 Tho amount of the various descriptions of the 
 public debt, the rate of interest, and the amount 
 of interest paid thereon, are shown in the subjoined 
 tab' :— 
 
 Dex-ription of D«bt 
 
 Amount 
 
 Interest 
 
 Ratci 
 
 Amount 
 
 Impnrial Loan . 
 Deljentures 
 
 Now Loan 
 
 Total . 
 Less India Bonds — 
 At 4 percent. 846,0001 
 „ 6 „ 6,453,200 / 
 
 Total . 
 £ 
 
 Dollar! 
 
 7,300,000 
 
 922,821 
 
 30,077,007 
 
 28,630 
 
 27,264,011 
 
 Per cent. 
 4 
 5 
 C 
 8 
 6 
 
 292,000 
 
 46,141 
 
 1,804,620 
 
 2,290 
 
 1,363,200 
 
 65,592,469 
 7,300,000 
 
 58,292,469 
 12,144,264 
 
 3,508,251 
 3.-)6,.')32 
 
 3,1.')1,719 
 £656,608 
 
 The greater portion of this debt was expended 
 in loans to incorporated companies, and for the 
 biiildhig of roads, canals, railways, light-houses, 
 and other works of public utility, which are held 
 as assets. 
 
 Railimys. — Considering the vast extent of i\n 
 territorj' and the thinness oft he |io]mlation, Canada 
 has shown immense enterprise \\\ the construiiion 
 of railways. Ilesides a large number of local liiips, 
 such as the Krie and Ontario, length 17 m., tiie 
 I'rescott and Ottawa, M m., and the Montreal 
 and (Jhainplain, 81 ni., and a lumiber of others of 
 equal importance, Canada is traversed by two 
 great iron highways, known as the ' Grand 'I riink ' 
 and the ' (ireut Western.' The Grand Tnmk rail- 
 way, which was fonned, in 1 852, by the ainalga- 
 mation of seven incorporated lines, viz. the (Quebec 
 and liichmtmd, the >St. Laurence and Atlantic, 
 the Old (irand Trunk, the (trand .Junction, the 
 Toronto and (iiielph, the Toronto and ISarnia, and 
 the Main Trunk, traverses the wljole of Canada, 
 from east to west, commencing at (Quebec, and 
 ending at Port Huron, at the southern border of 
 lake lluron. Engineering ditliculties of the most 
 stupendous kind had to be ov <me in the for- 
 mation of this great railway, sonic of the works «'f 
 which, such as the great Victoria Hridge over the 
 St. Laurence, are among the wonders of the age. 
 The total length of the (irand Trunk lailway is 
 1,174 m. 'i'he second great railway of Canada, 
 the Great Western, 300 m. long, runs through tiie 
 interior, or western districts of Canada, com- 
 mencing at Niagara Falls, and terminating at 
 Windsor, opposite Detroit, on the straits connect- 
 ing the lakes Erie and lluron. This line brings 
 Canada into direct connection with the vast rail- 
 way system of the United States. 
 
 Armed Force. — In addition to the troops main- 
 tained by the imperial goveniment— the strength 
 of which varies according to circumstances- 
 Canada has a large volunteer force, and an en- 
 rolled militia, numbering above 200,000 men, 
 rank and file. The militia is divided into three 
 cla.sses, namely, — tirst-class service men, com- 
 I)rising unmarried men and widowers without 
 children, between 18 and 45 ; second-class service, 
 married men and widowers with children, between 
 same ages; and third-class reserve men, those 
 between 45 and 60. Assessors each year prepare 
 the militia rolls, distinguishing the three classes, 
 and on the governor calling for a number of men, 
 the warden, sherilf, and county judge meet and 
 ballot for the number required from their resi)ective 
 counties. In Lower Canada, in cfi.'jes where tlie 
 assessment system is not in operai,ion, the militia 
 census is made by militia oihcers appointed for 
 the jmrpose. The ballot takes place for three 
 years, and in the balloting, the nimiber of bat- 
 talions required from counties and townshijjs is 
 furnished according to population. In apjioint- 
 ing otHcers for the service battalions, the go- 
 vernor, as a rule, selects those who have qualitieil 
 themselves bj' volunteer service or by means of 
 drill associations, or who have shown themselves 
 qualified by examination before boards of exa- 
 miners ap|)ointed for each county or union of 
 adjacent counties. If a sufficient number of com- 
 petent officers cannot from tho outset be obtained, 
 the governor may grant personal commissions, to 
 be withdrawn within a certain time if those to 
 whom they are issued do not qualify themselves. 
 Sums are granted towards the education of officers. 
 A school of militar>' instruction is established in 
 each section of the province in connection witli 
 some regiment of the British forces, a ccrtam 
 number of whose officers and non-commissioned 
 officers assist in the work of instruction, and are 
 paid an allowance for the extra duties they have 
 to perform. The government defrays the ex- 
 penses of travelling and maintenance of those wlio 
 receive instruction, and the governor-general may 
 at his discretion call out service battalions for 
 
CANANDAIGUA 
 
 drill, for a period not cxcpcdinj; six days in one 
 year. The voluntwr forw! ot'Cnniida in IH(!'2 con- 
 fisfod of 10,(lir) infimtrv, l,ti«7 artillery, l,<'>ir) 
 ravalry, anil 'J(C2 oiiffiiiccrH, In the Meswion of tlie 
 h'f^i.slative assembly of IH(i;t, laws for the ro- 
 urf^anisation of the militia were imwsed, providing 
 that the noveniment shall have power to at'cepi, 
 eqiiiji, and ch)the l(»,(MIO more volunteers. Fines 
 are nnposcd on volunteers for non-attendance at 
 drill, in order to insure a thorough military pro- 
 ficiency. 
 
 llistory, — Canada is said to have hern first dis- 
 covered hy Sehnstian Cahot, in I4!»7. It was then 
 comprised with the rest of the extensive line of 
 coast, under the fjeneral name of Newfoundland, 
 subsequently limit(!(l to the island so called. The 
 French lirst attempted to make these discoveries 
 available, and framed a map of the jjulf as early a3 
 loOM. In MriU the country was taken possession 
 of in the name of the kinj? of France, and in loii;") 
 (.;arti(!r explored the river, naming it St. Laurence, 
 from having entered item that saint's day. (Quebec 
 however, the lirst settlement, was not founiled till 
 lt!(l«. For a considerable ])eriod subserjuent to 
 this, the colonists engaged in a series of san- 
 guinary conflicts with the native Indian tribes, 
 and were often on the brink of being extir|>ated: 
 tlie strife, however, ultimately tenninated in a 
 friendly comi)act, which converted the Indians 
 into available auxiliaries against the Knglish. 
 Quebec wiw taken by the JJritish forces under 
 (ieneral Wolf in 1759, and the whole territory 
 was formally ceded to (Jreat Kritain by the 
 treaty of Paris, in 1703. The seignioral rights, 
 the various holdings and tenures under them, and 
 the endowments of the Catholic Church, were lelt 
 undisturbed; and all the estates, including all 
 the unappropriated lands in the province, hidd at 
 tlic period by the French king, became vested in 
 the British crown. In the years 1812-13-14, 
 during the war with the United States, the lakes, 
 and especially the shores of Niagara, were the 
 scene of a succession of severe contests ; the war 
 was wholly a frontier one, and the militia on 
 either side being engaged in it, near relatives 
 were found often contending in opposite ranks ; 
 Indians also were employed, and increased its 
 horrors. The subsequent history of Canada was 
 coni])aratively uneventful, except as regards the 
 constant endeavours of certain parties to detach 
 the colony from the crown of Great liritain. To 
 count(!ract these endeavours, an attempt was 
 made, in 18()4, to miite Canada Avith the other 
 llritish jjossessions into a great ' Confederation of 
 British North America.' Though begun under 
 good auspices, the realisation of this plan was 
 found to be impossible. 
 
 CANANI)Al(iUA, a tovm of the U. S. of Ame- 
 rica, New York, cap. co. Ontario, beautifully situ- 
 ated on an acclivity at the outlet of the consider- 
 able lake of the same name, 88 m. K. Buffalo, and 
 il5 m.NNW.New York. Pop. (i.fwO in 18(!0. The 
 town consists chiefly of two parallel streets, run- 
 ning N. and 8., intersected at right angles by 
 several others. It contains a large square, in 
 which are the court-house, prison, and town-house, 
 and it has a state-arsenal, various places for public 
 worship, male and female academies, several large 
 niills and manufactories of different kinds. The 
 inhab. are intelligent, liberal and hospitable. 
 Within three m. of the town, on both sides of the 
 lake, are several sulphuretted hydrogen springs, 
 Canandaigua was founded in 1788, and from its 
 ])osition on its lake, and in the vicinity of the Erie 
 Canal, is a place of considerable commercial im- 
 portance. 
 
 CANANOKE {Canurn), a marit. town of Ilin- 
 
 CANAIIA 
 
 631 
 
 dofitan, prov. Malabar, at the bottom of a small 
 bay, If) m. N\V. ('«li<'uf, and titi m. SSH. Manga- 
 lore; hit. 11° 42' N., htng. 7a° 27' K. It trades 
 with Ilengal, Arabia, Sumatra, and Surat, from 
 
 which it imports horses, piece g Is, almonds, 
 
 sugar, opnun, silk, l)en/,oin, and cam|ihor; its ex- 
 ports are chiefly pepper, (lardamorns, sandal wood, 
 coir, and shark-fins. It is the cap. of the talook of 
 (Jhericiil, a lofty and uneven truck, exididiiig for 
 two m. inland from the fort, and sonn^ years since 
 containing together with tin; town about 11,(100 
 houses. Its territory is now siibordiiiate to the 
 llritish, but has long been governed bv a succes- 
 sion of female sovereigns, whose authority has ex- 
 tended over most of the Laccadivt^ islands. Cana- 
 nore is the head military station of the British 
 dominions in Malabar prov. 
 
 (3ANAIJA. a marit. jirov. of llindostan, presid. 
 Madra-s, comprising the ancient countries of 
 Tulava and llaiga, with small portions of Malabar 
 and the Hindoo Kaiikaua. It lies chietiv between 
 lat, 12° and 10° N., and long. 74° and 70° E. ; 
 having N. CJoa and Dhanvar (Itejapoor), K. the 
 latter province and Mysore, S. Coorg and Malabar, 
 and VV. the o<;ean; length, X. to S., 230 ni. ; ave- 
 rage breadth, about 35 m. ; area, 7,477 sc]. m. The 
 province is bounded by the \V. (ihauts, but in- 
 cludes a portion of the country above them, called 
 Cantata, of which the name of this distr, is a cor- 
 ruption, most improperly apjjlied. Surfaces gene- 
 rally ruggCMl and uneven. It has no considerable 
 river, but a number of minor ones, of which Man- 
 galore is the chief. The coast in the S, is occu- 
 pied by a chain of salt lakes. Soil and climate 
 very similar to those of iSIalabar. (iranite and 
 lateriie are amongst the prevailing rocks, and near 
 the sea -shore there is much sandy soil, on which 
 cocoa-piilms are grown in great number. The 
 l)erioclicai rains are extremely heavy, and set in 
 from the Middle of Jlay till the end of Sept., dur- 
 ing which ships leave the coast, and a stop is put 
 to all traflic. The country abounds in forests; 
 those in the N. producing teak, and other large 
 timber, sissoo, buKsia latl/ulia, prickly bamboo, the 
 varnish-tree of Birmah, nu.v vumicn, mimosa cate- 
 chu, cassia, saiulal wood, wild pepper, anil a spe- 
 cies of nutmeg; those in 'he S. containing teak, 
 mango, caryota ])alm, and much jungle, greatly 
 infested with tigers. Canara is the granary of rice 
 for Arabia, (Joa, Bombay, and Malabar; and both 
 the climate and soil, especially in the valleys, arc 
 highly adapted for its culture. Sometimes 50 
 bushels a year are obtained from an acre ; and in 
 the S. the land frequently yields two or three 
 crops during the same jieriod. Besides rice, sugar- 
 canes, pepi)er, betel-nut, and cncurbitaceous plants, 
 are grown Husbandry is better here than in 
 Malabar ; the plough is a neater implement, and 
 manure of both leaves and ilung is made use of : 
 some cultivators employ 25 ploughs, although full 
 half of them use no more than one. Kice is thrashed 
 by beating lutnilfuls in the straw against a bam- 
 boo grating. There are no barns, and the grain is 
 kept in straw bags hung ii]j in the houses : carts 
 are not used, the roads are bad, and goods have 
 to be conveyed on the heads of the peasantry. 
 There are neither horses, asses, nor goats. All the 
 lands in the S. are private projierty, but generally 
 much encumbered with mortgiiges: in the N. 
 mortgages arc much less frequent, and the culti- 
 vated lands only arc the property of inili\'iiluals : 
 government claims all the hill, forest, and waste 
 land. In S. Canara inheritance in land, goods, 
 honorary dignities, and whatever else is capable 
 of being conveyed, descends in the female line ; 
 and instead of a nam's own children, those of his 
 sister, or maternal aunt (as is the case in all the 
 
 lit,, 
 
 I I'd 
 
 '4 
 
 4 
 
 
 ■I 
 
 II! 
 
o;j2 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS 
 
 country in the 8. part of tho Mnlnhnr const) be- 
 come his licifH, while he has n eorrpspoiidiiif; rislit 
 over thcin.to the cxtotitofnelliun tiiein for slaves, 
 III Kaniata Proper, al)ove th(^ (Jliaiils, tliese hiws 
 are reversed, ami a man's diildreii inherit his pro- 
 perty. The lands mostly lieloii^' to individuals, 
 Avlio let them, and even freqiienlly inortj^a^e them 
 to cultivators : the land assessment is moderate, 
 lieiiif; alioiit 'M jHTceiit, on the produce; hut the 
 cultivators ^•-'•'•''■"I'.V "re as much dejiressed as 
 ('lsewlier(\, siiic(^ they have ahout 20 per ('eiit. to 
 pay to their landlords, and out of the remaining 50 
 per c(^iit, to provide live and dead stock, and sub- 
 sist the slaves. Land, when sold, usually fetches 
 from 8 to 12 years' purchase-money on the clear 
 rent. Miinv dilferent tribes inhabit Canara, The 
 .lains (see IIindohtan) are more numerous here 
 than in any other part of India, and many ancient 
 Jain temples exist in tcderablc perfection. Nairs 
 inhabit the inland parts, where, tofjetlier with 
 Bunts and Siidras, thoy own most of the land. 
 There are about 5(1,000 'H,(!atli, in ('anara, mostly 
 descendants of tho Portiijjjiiese, Dutch, French, 
 and Danish colonists, Canara is not celebrated 
 for manufactures; the chief are those of sugar 
 from the palms, and salt on the coast. The ex- 
 ports consist principally of rice, betel-nut, black 
 pepiK>r, ginger, cocoa-nuts, and oil and raw silk; 
 the imports are cloths, cotton, threa<l, blankets, 
 tobacco, black cattle, and sandal-wood, forexnort 
 to Homl)ay, All the chief towns, viz. Mangaiore, 
 liarcelorc, and Calliampore, are in the S. 
 
 Tulava was governed by its own ])rincca till 
 A,i>. 7K2 ; from that year till H'M it was subject to 
 the rajahs of liijnagiir ; and afterwards to the 
 princes of Ikeri. It escaped the Mohammedan 
 conquests till l~()5-(), when Hyder invaded and 
 confpiered it, after which it suft'ered all the horrors 
 of anarchy, till the death of Tiiijioo in 17!)!), when 
 it passed into the hands of the JJritish, and under 
 them has become a tranquil and orderly district, 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS (Span, Islns Catuirias; 
 believed to be the Furluiuitm Iiismlcc of the an- 
 cients), a group in the N. Atlantic ocean, belong- 
 ing to Spain, between 27° 40' and 2!)° 21' N, lat,, 
 and 13° 32' and 18° 20' W. long,, 135 m, NW. 
 Cape Uojador, in Africa, and (150 m. SW. Cadiz. 
 This grilui) consists of seven principal islands, 
 namely, Arrecife, (iuia. La Lagiina, Orotava, Les 
 I'almas, Santa Cruz de la Palma, and Santa Cruz 
 de Tenoritl'e. The total area of the seven islands 
 embraces 3,250 sq. in,, and the pop,, according to 
 the census of 1857, amounteil to 233,784, divided 
 as follows: — Arrecife, 20,938; Guia, 18,110; I^a 
 Laguna, 22,048 ; Orotava, 40,4!t7 ; Las Palmas, 
 49,950 ; Santa Cruz de la Talma, 31,451 ; and Santa 
 Cruz dc Teneriffe, also called Gomera y Hierro, 
 38,184, These are the Spanish names of the seven 
 islands ; but English and other gazetteers often 
 describe Arrecife under the name of Lanzarote, 
 Guia under the name of Canara, and Gomera y 
 Hierro as FeiTo. Adjoining these chief isles, and 
 included in the Canaries, are several small islands, 
 viz, Graciosa, Clara, and Allegranza, They arc 
 called the Little Canaries, are situated to theNW. 
 of Lanzarote, and connected with that island by a 
 bank, on which there is, for the most part, 40 
 fathoms water. Lanzarote is the most easterly, 
 Allegranza the most northerly, and Hierro, or 
 Ferro, the most southerly and westerly of the 
 group. This last-mentioned island has acquired 
 considerable celebrity, from its having been se- 
 lected by the early modern geographers as the 
 point wiicre they placed the first meridian, or 
 from whi(rh they began to reckon the longitude. 
 In some countries this method of reckoning is 
 still kept up ; but the Lnglish and French adopt 
 
 for their first meridians those passing through tho 
 Observatories of (ircenwich and Paris, The must 
 VV, part of Ilierro, or Ferro. I^a Dabcssa. is \**P it' 
 45 " W. of the meridian of (irecnwich, and 20° Hll' 
 W, of that of Paris. The islands are all of vol- 
 canic origin, very mountaiiuais, their coasts pre- 
 cipitous, and the channels between them very 
 deep. The greatest height of simioof them above 
 the level of tlie sea is as follows : — 
 
 Fret 
 
 Lnn/.nroto (Montniin 
 
 Illiiiioa) , , 2,nfin 
 AUuKruiiza . . t):i!) 
 
 Fpct I 
 TencrllTtj (Peiik) , 11,40(1 
 (.'niiary (KI Ouiubro) Ii,(!t8 
 l'"iiL'rtcvi'iitiirii(Imlia)'.',H-2() 
 
 Teneriffe and its peak, a half extinct volcano, 
 which may be seen at a distance of more than 150 
 m,,will be found elsewhere described (Tunkkikkk). 
 In all the islands there are plentiful traces of ex- 
 tinct volcanos ; but in that of Lanzarote one 
 burst forth in 1825, which still continues active. 
 The basaltic cliffs in that island rise almost per- 
 licndicularly to the height of 1,500 ft.; Allegranza 
 a|)|)ears whidly comnosi^d of a mass of lava and 
 cinders. The Canaries have no rivers, properly so 
 called, but they are watered by nuineroiis brooks, 
 which rise in the higher mountain regions, and, 
 during rains, suddenly swell to torrents. There 
 are few safe roadsteads, and no close harbours : the 
 (ireat Canary island has, |)erhaps, more safe an- 
 chorages than any of the others, and the Hay of 
 Las Palmas at ita NE, extremity offers a s]mcii)us 
 haven for ships, secure from all winds except those 
 from the SE,, which seldom Idow with any vio- 
 lence. The climate, though hot, is generally 
 healthy; the heat being attempered by the eleva- 
 tion ol the land, and the prevalence of X, and W, 
 breezes. The temperature is in most parts very 
 e(|uablc; the average in Dec, and .Ian. has been 
 found to be 07°, in Aug. 70° Fall. The range of 
 temperature is seldom more than four or live de- 
 grees in the twenty-four hours. The S, and Sl'I, 
 winds occasionally cause pestilential maladies in 
 the E. Canaries, and bringing intolerable heats, 
 and clouds of locusts, scorch up and desolate the 
 country. The fertility of the lands is in propor- 
 tion to their humidity. In some parts they jjro- 
 duce abundance of wheat, maize, and other kinds 
 of corn, dates, figs, guavas, lemons, olives, and 
 numerous other fruits, of both the torrid and teni- 
 ])erate zones ; the sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, or- 
 chill, and many perfumes and medicinal i)laiits. 
 They contain, also, woods of pine trees, laurel, and 
 arbutus, and excellent pasturage. The average 
 annual (piantitics of the principal articles of pro- 
 duce in the entire group are : — 
 
 Wine . 
 
 . f>3,200 pipes 
 
 Kyo . 
 
 . 41,000 bushels 
 
 Wlicat . 
 
 . ;i(>(),50() bushels 
 
 Pulse . 
 
 . flO.OOO „ 
 
 Millet . 
 
 . •Jl-.',400 „ 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 . 782,000 cwt. 
 
 Uarley . 
 
 . y.j 1,000 „ 
 
 Barills 
 
 , aao.ooo „ 
 
 Guia, or Canar\', is, perhaps, the best watered 
 and most fertile island ; and it and Teneriffe are 
 the two best cultivated. Tenerifl'e is the principal 
 seat of the vine culture ; the Vidueno and Jlal- 
 vasia wines are exclusively the produce of that 
 island : the vine is, however, largely grown in 
 the others, and the wines produced exported to 
 Europe under the name of Teneriffe. The best 
 wine in the E, Canaries is that of Lanzarote, 
 where the grapes grow on a soil of decomposccl 
 scoriic. Much brandy is distilled and exi)ortcil. 
 Amongst the other chief products are silk, honey, 
 wax, and cochineal. Game is very plentiful ; and 
 they are said to be without either ferocious or 
 venomous animals. Cattle and jjoultry have been 
 introduced from Europe. The canary-bird [Frin- 
 (filla Canaria, Linn,) is still found in these islands ; 
 but in its wild s'ate its colour is grey or linnet- 
 
CANAKY ISLANDS 
 
 brown : thn ])liimn>^o of tluwc wc iiro nrciistomnd 
 to Hor, lins derived its hue from repeated eroHsiii};;!*. 
 'I'Ik! (isliery, wliich is |)riiu'i|)iilly earned on aloii); 
 tlie opposite African eoast, occupies n ^rent num- 
 lior of IuiuiIh ; and it is said tluit Spain nii^iit, in 
 ensc of eiiier^'ncy, procure? 2.(11)0 able yonnt; sea- 
 men from the, islands witlioiit. distressing; tlie 
 lisliery. Suj^ar, witli course woollens, silits, and 
 linens, arc amoufjst tlie mninifact ures. 
 
 Tlie exports of tiie ( 'anary Islands to tlie United 
 Kintjdoni consist diietly of wine and cochineal. 
 There wen; exported lii,l!)l ptilons of wine in 
 1H(1(»; l(i.K2t! niiWom in IHCl ; l<t,4«'2 in l«ti-2; 
 mid 10,0t)',t in IHtJil. The value of these quantities 
 fluctuated from 4,10!)/. in l«(iO to 2,512/. in IKC.t. 
 Of cochineal there were exported from the Canary 
 Islands to the United Kingdom 5,)S02 cwt., valued 
 at 107,.S21/. ill 18(i0; 10,142 cwt., valued at 
 l;j5,(il«/. in IKtil : 9,852 cwt., valued at 147,Ot(;/. 
 in lWi2; and 7,7(i!) cwt., valued at i:M,H22/. in 
 18011. The imports from the United Kingdom con- 
 sist chielly of cotton and woollen mannfactureHiind 
 Mdniiial jirodiice, and were of the value of 141.('i70/. 
 in 18(i0; 132,4 CO/, ill 18(51 ; 152,700/. in 1802; and 
 141,38a/. in 180;{. 
 
 Santa Cruz in Tenerifle, and Las Palmas in 
 Canary, are the principal commercial jiorts. The 
 present inhabitants are probably almost wholly of 
 Spanish orif,'in. The islands are governed by the 
 Spanish laws, the administration of which is 
 directed by an audicncia in (ireat (Canary. The 
 governor of the Canaries, who is jiresident of the 
 andhncia, resides at Santa ('ruz. The three east- 
 erly islands form one bishopric, an<l the four 
 westerly another. There are 4 1 monasteries and 15 
 convents, with 423 regular clergy ; and the people 
 are said to be equally ignorant and bigoted. They 
 arc not, however, deficient either in industry or en- 
 terprise. On the contrary, many of them emigrate 
 to America, the Philippine Islands, itc, where they 
 arc distinguished by their adventurous spirit. Hut, 
 at home, such of them as are not engaged in the 
 tisherj', are sunk in comparative apathy, produced 
 by vicious laws and institutions. The lands are 
 parcelled out in immense estates, held under strict 
 entail, and the plan followed in letting them to 
 the actual occupiers being as bad as possible, in- 
 dustry is at the lowest ebb, and few or rather no 
 improvements are ever attempted, or even so much 
 as thought of. The military force is conipos('d of 
 25,000 men, (For descriptions of Santa Cruz, 
 I^agunas, and Orotava, see Tknkhu-kk.) Las 
 Palmas, in the island of the same name, nenr its 
 NE. extremity, lat. 28° 8' N., long. 20° 23' 30" 
 AV., has a handsome sea-port town with 18,000 
 iiihab., a cathedral, hospital, college, a mole, many 
 public fountains, and a well-sui)plied market. In 
 good weather ships anchor within half a mile of 
 the town, but the roadsteail is but inditlerent. 
 The other chief towns are, Arccife, or Port Naos, 
 in the island of the same name, a well-built town, 
 with 2,500 inhab. ; Cabras, 1,000 inhab. ; and Santa 
 Cruz, in Santa Cruz de la Palma. 
 
 When these islands first became known to Euro- 
 peans of modern times, tlicj' were inhabited by 
 a race of i)eople called Guanches, of a tall and 
 vigorous frame, and who made a determined re- 
 sistance to the invaders. Though unacquainted 
 with the use of iron, they appear to h.ive arrived 
 nt a considerable degree of ci\-ilisation ; they cul- 
 tivated music and poetry with success, had a kind 
 of hieroglyphic writing, believed in a sniireine 
 being, in a future state of rewards and i)nnish- 
 mciits. and embalmed their dead. IMany of their 
 mummies have been found in modern times in 
 caves in various ])arts of the islands. They are 
 placed erect upon their feet, .iiid are in so rcinark- 
 
 CANDAHAR 
 
 033 
 
 able a state of dc-iiccalion, that some of them do 
 not weigh al)cive from to K llis. Their govermnciit 
 was oligarchical. Humboldt (Personal Narra- 
 tive, V(d. i.) and Dr. Prii'bard (Ilcsearches, ii. 
 34.) think that the (iiianchcs were either inti- 
 mately connected with, or descended from, the 
 llerbers of N. Africa. Many of flu- (iuanches 
 were reiluced to a state of slavery by tlie Spanish 
 and otlier Kiiropean traders, by wlioin the i^':ulds 
 were tirst visited; and those who escaped (he 
 scourge of slavery, war, ami famine, were inosily 
 carried otV by a pestilence in 1 l!»4. Tlie Can,'iri('S 
 were first discovered bv ac('id(Mit alioiit 1330 by 
 the (;rewof aFreiich slilpdriven thither in a storni. 
 After several unsuccessful Spanish expeditious, 
 .lohii de Itethencoiirt, a Frencli gentleinan, sailcil 
 with a fleet from IJochelle in 1400, and took pds- 
 sessioii of the chief islands, lletlieiicoiirl's heir 
 snbsefiueutly disixised of these to a Spanish noble- 
 man, and they afterwards became tlie propcrtv of 
 the S])anish crown : the conciuest of I lie whole of 
 the islands was eflected by Spain before the ter- 
 mination of the 15th century. 
 
 (yANCALF, a sea-port town of France, de'p. 
 llle-ct-Vilaine, cap. cant., !» m. K. St. iMalo, and 
 45 m. N. Keniies. Poj). 0,352 in 1801. The town 
 is situated on the slope of a hill, on the W. side of 
 St. Michael's Hay. At a short distance from the 
 town there are some large rocks, within which there 
 is good anchorage in 5 or fatlioms. Kxcelleiit 
 oysters arefoiiiKl in the bay, and make a consider- 
 able article of traflic. The Knglish made, in 1758, 
 an unsuccessful descent on the coast here. 
 
 CANDAIlAli, a fortiticd city of Caubul, in a 
 plain near the Urgundaub river; 200 m. SW. 
 Caubul, 2G0 m. Si;. Herat; lat. 32° 20' N., long. 
 00° 15' F. Pop. 50,000, the greater ])ro|)ortion of 
 whom arc Afghans. The city is of an oblong form, 
 enclosed by abastioned mud wall, on the rainpart.s 
 of which three men may walk abreast, and a 
 ditch, !t ft. deep, surrounds the whole. Canduhar 
 is regularly built, most of the stre<'ts meeting at 
 right angles ; its house.-i .ire generally of brick, and 
 often with no other cement than mud. Four long 
 and broad bazaars meet in the centre of the city, 
 in a small circular sjiace about 45 yards in dia- 
 meter, and covered with a dome, where |)rocla- 
 mations are made, and the bodies of criminals 
 exposed. The principal bazaars are each about 50 
 yards broad; their sides arc lined with well- 
 supplied shops one story high ; and there is a gate 
 at the end of each opening into the surrounding 
 countrj', except the >{. bazaar, having the palace 
 at its end, a structure in no respect remarkable ex- 
 ternally, but containing many conrt-s and buildings, 
 and a private garden. There are many caravan- 
 seras and mosciues : the principal building of the 
 latter kind is the tomb of Ahmed Shah, an elegant, 
 but not a large, structure, with a handsome cupola, 
 fomicrly an inviolalde sanctu.iry. A great variety 
 of trades are earned (Hi, and the streets arc filled 
 with a noifty and bustling crowd from morning till 
 night ; but, unlike most other Afghan cities, there 
 are here no water sellers, the city being well sup- 
 plied by canals from the Urgundaub, whence 
 subterranean or open water-courses are carried to 
 the diftercnt streets ; and there are, also, numcroiiH 
 wells. Three of the ])rincipal bazaars were at one 
 time planted with trees, and had a narrow canal 
 running down the niid(lle of each ; but many of 
 the trees have withered, and if the canals ever 
 existed, they are no longer visible. The vicinity 
 of (3andaliar is fertile, and abounds with gardens 
 and orchards, producing the finest fruits and ve- 
 getables, cspeciiilly iiomegranates ; with corn, 
 tobacco, madder, assalVutida, and artificial grasses. 
 The climate is mild ami health v. Persian tradi- 
 
 Ptil 
 
 If "Hi 
 
 ' 111 
 
 *<i.i 
 
 i-i, 
 
 
61] 1 
 
 CANDKIMII 
 
 linns, nnd thr ronjpctiircs of Kiirnpcan ^yrnprnithors, 
 ni^rco in iis>4i^niin^ tin- fcuindalidn of ('iiniliiiiiir to 
 AlitxundiT (lie (ircnt. Tlin ])n'H('nt city was liiiilt 
 hy Aliincil SImli in 17.'),'J or I7.'»l, wlio iniulc it tilt! 
 ciipilul of liiN (ioniiniiin.s, nn lionour wliich lii.s 
 HuircHsor Tinxiur tranMl'crred t" (Janbiil. 
 
 <!ANI)I'',ISI[, a Noiiliali or pntv, of llic Dcccan, 
 Ilindostan, Ix'lwcen Inl '2((° and 2'2° N.. and lon/jf. 
 7.'{° and 77° I';. ; liaviufr N. Midwaii, K. (iundwana, 
 S. Hcrarand Aiirunpil>ad, andW. (iiijcrat ; Icn^tli, 
 E. to W., alHitit 210 ni. ; avcrn^o lircadtli, «() in. 
 It contains partH of three inonntain ran^'ttH, viz, 
 the Santpoora mountains in its X.; tlic ('liandorc 
 or Adjnntali ranp', S. ; and tlic Syflarce moun- 
 tains, or \V. (ilniuts, in its SW, parts: its prin- 
 cipal jilain is helwccn these ranges, and opens 1^. 
 into tlio plains of iterar, and \V. is continuous 
 Avitli those of Siirat, from wlucli it is separated liy 
 a tliioii and extensive JiMif?le. The Tuptee rivt^r 
 Hows tlirou}{h this jdain. The Nerhndda forms 
 tiu' \. houiidary, Candeish, tliough interspersed 
 with low harren liills, has a larfje extent of very 
 fertile territory, watered by copious streams and 
 limped rivulets from the taldc-lands, wliieh greatly 
 t'uhance its natural beauties. For thirty years, 
 liowever, before the Hritish became possessed of 
 it (IHI!'), it had been the scene of continual 
 anarchy, and mueb of the best land, especially N. 
 the 'rui)tee, had become oversjtread witb an unin- 
 liai)ile<l forest, abounding with the ruins of former 
 villages, and swarming with tigers. This prov. 
 is comprised within the ses-eral territories of the 
 (ruicowar, Sindia, tlie Nizam, and the liritish 
 government; the land in those parts belonging 
 to the latter is granted on the most easy terms 
 to the cultivators, but some length of time must 
 elapse before the countrv recovers its former pros- 
 ])erity. The existing villages are mostly built of 
 mud, and ])rotected by a mud wall and fort, with- 
 out ditch or outwork. The hill ranges, and the 
 ■whole country along the courses of the Nerbiidda 
 and Tuptee rivers, are inhabited by IJheels, who 
 have been here less disturbed than in any other 
 jiart of India. They arc of small stature, dark 
 complexion, ])rone to rapine and thieving, go 
 armed with a bow and arrow, and in many re- 
 spects reseml)le the hill-])eople of Hhaugulpore. 
 Tliey eat beef and pork, drink spirits, and bury 
 thv.n dead ; yet they jjretend to be Iliiidous of the 
 lirahmin and Rajpoot castes. They have contri- 
 buted greatly to the devastation of the province. 
 
 (Candeish fonnerly contained a large number of 
 ]\[ahratt.a fortresses : its principal towns are IJoor- 
 haii])oor, Aseerghur, Hindia, Xuiuloorpoor, and 
 liaulna. Numerous Arab cohmists settled here, 
 and early in the loth century Candeish was an 
 independent kingdom, governed by sovereigns 
 claiming descent from the calii>h Omar, who liail 
 their ca|)ital at Aseerghur: towards the end of 
 that century, it was comi)letly subdued and an- 
 nexed to the Mogul emi)ire. The decline of 
 ('and(!ish may be dated from 1802, when Jeswunt 
 ]{ow-lIolkar ravaged it; next year it was de- 
 poiiulated by famine, and subsetpicntly ruined by 
 the exactions of the pcishwa's ofticers, and the 
 predatory incursions of the IJheels, Pindarries, 
 and insurgent bands of the Arabs, who had estab- 
 lislied themselves hi the strongholds. In 1818, 
 ■when Ilolkar's possessions in Candeish fell under 
 llritish dominion, these refractory tribes were 
 either brought into subjection or pacified ; or, as 
 the Arabs, obliged to emigrate from India, after 
 having been paid ■what they 'were legitimately 
 entitled to by the Hritish government, 
 
 Candkihii, an inl. zillali or distr. of Ilindostan. 
 prov. Candeish, presid. liomliay ; between lat. 20° 
 aud 21° 42' N., and long, 73° 37' aiid 70° 22' E, ; 
 
 CANDIA 
 
 having N. the collectorale of Siirat and Sindia's 
 doiii.; I), thc^lattcr, and those of the Ni/.am ; S. the 
 Nizam's doni. and the collect, of AhmediiiiggMr ; 
 and W. a portion of the < iuicowar's territory ; shMp(> 
 somewhat rhoiiii)oidal ; length, K. to W., about iMi) 
 in.; greatest breadth 115 m. ; urea 12,527 sq. m, 
 l'op.47M,.'")()(). This district is for the most ))arl over- 
 grown with jungle ; very complete einbankments 
 on tlut various streams, and many dilapidated, 
 though substanlially-built dams and amicdiicts 
 for irrigation, are met with, which might be again 
 rendered availabh; at a small expense. An or- 
 ganised band of marauders, the Itheeis were formerly 
 in tiie habit of levying a kind of Itlark mail upon 
 the villagers, consisting of a portion of the produce 
 of the land; but, b)' conciliatory treatint^iit, inoNt 
 of them returned to tlu-ir original occupations as 
 village watchinen and guardians. The agricuil- 
 tural (dasses arc peaceable and inotVensive, but 
 timid and destitute of energy, 'I'here are no 
 large or wealthy landholih^s, excepting the pn)- 
 prielors of certain jaghires granted for military 
 services by the Kritish goverimi(^nt. The village 
 constitution exists, but the ryotwarry system hits 
 been introduced into this distr,, to which, in the 
 o])inioii of gentlemen who have held civil olRces 
 in it for a considerable time, it is, from various 
 causes, extremely ill adapted, drain, cotton, and 
 indigo are the chief articles of culture ; but there 
 is much waste land, and the cultivation and 
 revenue have both diminished of late years. 
 
 Civil justice is administered by the jmncliai/vt, 
 or native arbitration ; and, in criminal cases, trial 
 by jury has been established. Schools arc com- 
 mon in Candeish distr, ; every lirahmin, and all 
 who have anything to do with mercantile busi- 
 ness, are instructed in reading, writing, and 
 accounts. The Mohammedans are the most 
 ignorant of the population, 
 
 CANDIA, or Ml^GALO-KASTRON, a forti- 
 fied marit, city, cap. of Crete, on the N. shore of 
 that island, near its centre, ol m. W. S[)inal()iiga, 
 and (II in. ESE. Canca ; lat. 35° 21' N., long. 
 24° 8' 15" E. Top. estimated at Ki.OdO, about 
 one-half of whom an? ^Mohammedans. The city, 
 and hence Crete itself, derived its name of Caiidla 
 from the word khaiidali, signifying an entrciicli- 
 ment in the language of the Saracens, by whom 
 it was built. Its present fortifications are of 
 Venetian construction ; they are massive, has- 
 tioned, and furnished with outworks; the scarj) 
 wall, a beautiful s])eciinen of art, is in most places 
 50 ft. in perpendicular height; the sea wall is not 
 above 20 ft. in height, irregular, and but badly 
 tianked. The port is Ibrmed by two niolcs, 
 which, bending towards each other, jirojcct about 
 250 yards into the sea, and are deieuded at their 
 extreme points by forts. It is at i)rcseiit so 
 choked up by sand and the ruins of the old Vene- 
 tian dociis and arsenal, that a vessel drawing 
 more than 8 ft. water cannot enter. The city 
 has four gates, three on the land side and one 
 towards the sea. Principal streets wide, roughly 
 paved, but clean, well furnished with fountanis, 
 and adorned with clumps of trees. Houses gene- 
 rally well built, but have seldom more than one 
 story above the ground floor. The bazaars, which 
 are good, have a Turkish ajjpearance. In the K. 
 part of the city, the houses are mostly inter- 
 spersed with ganlens, Caiidia is the residence of 
 t/ie Pasha and scat of the provincial council, and 
 of a (ireek archbishfip. Chief buihlings — go- 
 vernor's palace, the (Jreck cathedral and other 
 churches, many mosques, a synagogue, the re- 
 mains of two H<mian Catholic churches, a liglit- 
 hoiise on the VV. mole, and some good liatlis. 
 The arched vaults built for the Veuetiau galleys 
 
CANDIA 
 
 flill exist, mid sovoriil other rt-lics of Venetian 
 Kwiiy nni fuiintl. Tlu- country ininicilintely round 
 Candiii \» not jMirtii'uliirly IVrtili!. Its prov. coin- 
 |>ri.-cM all tlu! K. part of "the inland, and |iro»hices 
 thielly wheat, harley, ralHinn, and a little cotton. 
 
 Candia. See (JnKTK. 
 
 CANDY, an inl. town of Oylon, at the head 
 of an extensive valley, in lat. 7° 17' X., and loiij,'. 
 K(^ ;il!' K., ahoul 1,100 ft. ahove the h-vel of the 
 «e«, HO m. KNK. t;olonilM>, an<l \)^t in. S\V. Trin- 
 coinalee. l'u|i, alxait !<,OiiO. It is surrounded by 
 Woody hills and mountains, varying from '200 to 
 2,000 feet in lu^i^ht, and stands on the horder of 
 an artiticia) lake ; hut il.s situation, though hcaiiti- 
 ful and romantic, is insecure. At a distance of 
 '•i ni. it is nearly surrounded by the Mahavilly 
 Oan^ra, hero navif,'ahle only for small boats. Ex- 
 cepting those inhubitud by the chiefs, which arc 
 tiled, the native houses are built entirely of clay, 
 and thatched. Temples very numerous, and cou- 
 Kidered almost indispensable appe,ndiij;es to the 
 houses of the opulent ; in the >;reater number 
 lights arc constantly kept burning; and in one 
 of them the celebrated tootii, said to have be- 
 longed to ISoodh, is still preserved! Since the 
 capture of Candy, residences for the governor and 
 commandant, and a gaol, have been built by the 
 Kritish, and several missionary and other schools 
 established. There is no church, but the district 
 court-house and missionary school-room are made 
 iiso of for divine service. Candy was anciently 
 the cap. of an indep. kingdom of the same name, 
 which comprised the central mountainous country 
 of Ce3'lon. It was taken by the Hritisb in l«ir>. 
 
 CANEA, or KIIANIA (an. Cydon'ia), n sea-port 
 and the ])rincii)al commercial town of Crete, cap. 
 jtrov. of same name, on the N. shore of the island, 
 25 m. from its VV. extremity, 01 m. WNW. Can- 
 dia, and about 140 m. S. the island of iSyra. Esti- 
 mated pop. 8,000, about 5,000 of whom are Mo- 
 liamnicdans, and J, 000 foreigners, chietly Hellenes 
 and lonians, who engross most of the im]iort 
 trade. The town, inclusive of the port, forms an 
 irregular square, enclosed by walls, with bastions 
 and a ditch on the land side. The present fortili- 
 cations were constructed by the Venetians, but 
 are inferior, both in nnignitudc and disjiosition, to 
 those of Candia. The port is formed by a mole 
 about 1,200 feet in length, prolonged from the 
 KE. extremity of the town to the N\V., where it is 
 terminated by a light-house opposite to a fortress 
 defending the harbour's mouth. The port is the 
 best in Crete, and capable of containing vessels of 
 oOO tons burden. Streets wide and w;ell paved, 
 but not clean ; houses loftj', old, and rickety, but 
 sjjops good. At the N. part of the town is a kind 
 of citadel, formerly containing the ai'scnal and 
 docks. The Venetian galley vaults are still in 
 good preservation. There is a small but excellent 
 lazaretto, and several soap manufactories. Canea 
 is the residence of the provincial governor and of 
 several European consuls, and the seat of the pro- 
 uncial council, and of a Greek bishopric. Strabo 
 and Scylax descril)c the site and port of Cj'donia, 
 so as to leave no doubt that Khania stands n\ni\\ 
 the identical spot. No vestiges of the ancient 
 city are now to be seen, though some existed at 
 the end of the 17tli century. The plain around 
 Canea is celebrated for its beauty; its pronnce 
 comprises all the W. portion of the island. 
 
 CANICATTI, a town of Sicily, prov. Girgenti, 
 cap. cant, 16 m. S\V. Caltanisetta. Pop. 18,713 
 in 18()2. The town is well built. The greater 
 part of the population consists of agriculturists. 
 
 CANNiE, a village of Southern Italy, i)rov. 
 Cosenza, near the Olimto (the anc. Aufidus), 8 m. 
 WSW. liarlctta. Pop. 4,272 in 18(52. The vil- 
 
 CANTAL 
 
 63'i 
 
 lage is adjacent to the site of the ancient city of 
 ('annus famous for the tircisive victory gaineil in 
 its vicinity by Mannilial, over the Koinans, in Iho 
 year 217 ii.c. Never were the talents of a great 
 general more coiis|iieuonslv displayed than on this 
 occasion. The army of llannibal was very in- 
 ferior in numbers, and perhaps, also, in the iiuaiity 
 of the troops, to that of his enemies; but the 
 ability of the conunan(U'r made up for every 
 oIIht deticiency, and with a loss of only 1,000 of 
 his own men, lie put 50,000 Konnuis to the sword, 
 and took 10,000 prisoners. (Tlie English reader 
 will lind a good account of this great battle in 
 Ferguson's Koman History, cap. 5; the chissical 
 reader may resort to Polybius and Livy.) The 
 scene of action is marked out to posterity bv the 
 name of Ciim/Ht di iS'Hm/«»', ' lield of blood ; ^ and 
 spears, heads of lances, and other pieces of armour, 
 still continue to be turned up by the ]ilough. 
 
 The city of t'anna; was destroyed the year 
 before the battle; but it was afterwards rebuilt, 
 and was a bishop's see in the infaney of (Miris- 
 tianity. It seems to have been aitaiuioned in the 
 middle ages for the cities along the coast. 
 
 CANNES, a sea-port town of France, on the 
 Mediterranean, deji. Var, cap. cant., 25 m. V,. 
 Draguignan, on the railway from ^Marseilles to 
 Nice. Po]). 7,357 in 1801. The town is situated 
 on the declivity of a hill projecting into the sea; 
 has a line quay, an old (iothic caslU', and an old 
 church. Its port is neither deep nor commodious, 
 and can only be used by lishing boats and small 
 coasting vessels. Napoleon I. landed in the, 
 vicinit)' of (Cannes on the 1st of March, 1815, on 
 his return from Elba. 
 
 CANOSA (an. Canusium), a town of Southern 
 Italv, prov. liari, ca|). cant., near the Ofanto, 15 
 m. SVV. Harlctta. Pop. lil,27l in 1802. The old 
 city, said to have been founded by Diomed, or in 
 a i)eriod antecedent to the records of Koman his- 
 tory, was in ancient times one of the most .'on- 
 siderable cities in thi:: part of Italy for extent, 
 popidaticm, and magnificence. Its walls are said 
 to have endn-aced a circuit of 10 m. ; and various 
 ruins still remain to attest its former grandeur. 
 Among these are the remains of an aqueduct and 
 of a vast am])liithcatre, with tombs, colunnis, ami 
 triumphal arches. Great numbers of fictile vases 
 of the best period have been found here, surpassing 
 in size and beauty those found in the tombs of 
 any other ancient city. The modern town occu- 
 l)ie,s the site of the ancient citadel. The old cathe- 
 dral, built in the 0th century, still remains. Its 
 altars and pavements are rich in marbles; and 
 the verde antico colunms that support its roof iiru 
 s[ilendid even in their decay. Ilere is also the 
 mausoleum of ISohemnnd, so celebrated in the 
 Gernsahinme Liherata. 
 
 Canusium was the place to which the wreck of 
 the Homan army tied after the battle of Canuii;. 
 It seems to have been at the acme of its ])rosperity 
 inuler Trajan. It was reduced to its present con- 
 dition by a series of disasters intlicted on it by the 
 Goths, Saracens, and Normans, 
 
 CANOUKGE (LA), a town of Franco, de'p. 
 Lozere, cap. cant., in an agreeable and fertile val- 
 ley, on the Urugne, 9 m. SSVV. IMarvejols. Pop. 
 1,!)12 in 1801. There are some branches of the 
 cotton and woollen manufactiures, and some trade 
 in cattle and grain. Excavations made in the 
 vicinity in 1820 have been the means of discover- 
 ing a number of vases and other remains of Koman 
 pottery, which appear to have been manufactured 
 on tlie spot. 
 
 CANTAL, an inland dep. of France, formed of 
 parts of the ancient districts of Haute Auvergnc 
 and Velay, between ■i.\° 37' and 45° 20' N. lat., 
 
 ii! 
 
 i . m 
 
 1 1 
 
en6 
 
 CANTELEU 
 
 mill '2° r/ nnd a" 14' K. Imin., iH.undpd bv thn f<il- 
 liiwiiif; <l('i(ts., viz. N. l'uy-(U'-l)6nio, U. Ilaiiit! 
 I.tiirc, SI'l. I-ipz('t(', S. Avi'yniii, mid VV. I,(it nnd 
 Corri'zc. Arcii, r)74,l 17 licctari's, I'dp. *2I(),.")L';1 
 in lutll. 'I'lns IH onii of tlm lonst. jinidiiclivi', 
 iioon'st districts of Friincc. Surfncc iniutii inicnni- 
 iKTcd with niDinitiiins, The lii;{ii('Ht snniinit, that 
 of the l'l(indt-de-('antal, in the centre of tlie (|('|i., 
 and wiieiiee it takes its name, is elevated l.K.'iti 
 nietres (rt,Ol(l fi.) aliovethe level of the sea. There 
 are every where indications of the nclion of sidi- 
 terranian tires anil volcanos; and th(inf;'h steep, 
 the monntains furnish, in HUHiiner, excellent pas- 
 ture. Valleys not very extensive. lletween 
 Murat nnd St. Fleiirs there is a level ))lateau, 
 which may he said to he the ffranary of the dt^it. 
 Climate severe, the snow fjenerally lying on the 
 fsuniinit.s of the mountains for seven or eif;lit 
 months tofjether. Several rivers, tlowing i" dif- 
 ferent directions, have their sources here ; ainonfj 
 which may he specilied the Cere, Alapion, Hue, 
 mill Arceuil : the Dordofjuc runs almiK its NW. 
 frontier. Agriculture in tlie most backward state ; 
 the occupiers heiiiff f^encrally poor, and wedded to 
 old jiractices. The produce of wheat and oats is 
 in.sutlici(!iit for the consumption ; but the inliab. 
 live principally on buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and 
 fhesuiits. The last, indeed, is the staple article of 
 food in nn extensive district, thence called t7i«- 
 iairinemij. Hemp and tine tlax are also raised, 
 with various descriptions of fruits, and a little 
 very bad wine. The jmncipal wealth of the dep. 
 consists in its mountain pastures and meadows ; 
 partly occupied, in summer, in dairy farminf^, and 
 jiartly in the fattenint; of cattle and sheep. Lar/,'C 
 quantities of cheese nnd butter are annually jtro- 
 (luccd. The ordinary yield of n cow is estimated 
 nt 75 kiloj>s. of cheese and 15 ditto of butter. The 
 best cheeses are made in the environs of Salera; 
 they weijjfh from 70 to 80 lbs.; great numbers of 
 ])igs are fed on the refuse of the dairies. Large 
 lierds of cattle are also fattened on the mountains. 
 The native breed of sheep is small, nnd have fine 
 ilceces. Large Hocks are brought from the more 
 S. departments, to be fattened durhig the summer, 
 the fattening and jiasturage grounds being often 
 let to the proprietors of herds nnd flocks from the 
 neighbouring depts. Horses small and hnrdy, and 
 used for the light cnvalrv, lumbers of mules, 
 nsses, nnd goats nre nlso raised ; the skins of the 
 bitter nre sent to Milhaud to be made into parch- 
 ment. Honey is nn importnnt product. Manu- 
 facturing industry is at a very low ebb in this 
 dcpt. There are a few fabrics of coarse woollens 
 nnd linens; and these, with coarse lace, copper 
 nnd brazier's work, wooden articles, paper, and 
 tanneries, include almost all that is worth notice. 
 Numbers of the people nnnually emigrate in 
 search of employment to Paris, and other parts of 
 France. The inhabitants of the mountains and 
 plateaux suffer severely irom the scarcity of fuel 
 iind cold in winter. To obviate the intluence of 
 the latter, they lie m bed as long as possible, and 
 have their cottages so iilanned that the family 
 occupies the middle space between the cattle and 
 the bam. Cantal is divided into four arrond., 23 
 cantons, and 259 communes. The chief towns, 
 ■which give their name to the arrondissements, are 
 Aurillac, St. Flcurs, Murat, and Mauriae. 
 
 CANTELEU, a town of France, dep. Seine In- 
 fe'rienrc, on the summit of hills which command 
 the right bank of the Seine, at the entrance of the 
 forest of Koumaris, 4 m. W. Rouen. Pop, 8,430 
 in 18()1, The town commands a fine view of 
 Kouen and the hills by which it is surrounded, the 
 course of the Seine as far as Elbeuf, the valley of 
 Deville, and vast meailoAvs, 
 
 rANTKRIlUIlY 
 
 CAXTKininO', n city, co„ nnd bor., nnd the 
 nietriipolitan see of I'jiglaud, ro. Kent, in a fertile, 
 v'cll-ciiltivated valley, intersected by various 
 branches of the Stoiir, near the base of the N, 
 Downs, 53 m. SK. bj- K. Loudon by rond, and m2 
 m. by South-Kastern Ifailway. IMp. 2l,;iJl in 
 iMtil. The town was originally enclosed by tur- 
 ret ted walls (the remains of which still exist), ami 
 had I main streets branching from the centre, cacli 
 terminating by a gateway, of which the W. only 
 remains, 'I'he modern town consists of these and 
 of 4 suburbs, continued in the diri'ction of each, 
 that on the E, side being much the largest. The 
 High Street, ahnig which the old road from l,oii- 
 don to Dover passes, is of considerable width, with 
 well-built houses on either sid(^ and a haiidsonu! 
 guildhall iieur the centre. The whole is well 
 paved, lighted by gas, and supitlied with water; 
 the Stour, which tlows through it, divides aiwl 
 makes an island of its W. part. There are 1 1 
 parish churcluw, hut, exceiit that of All Saints, they 
 are generally small nnd msignilicant in exteniid 
 appearance. The cathedral is a noble jiilc, and 
 forms a conspicuous ohject from whatever i)art of 
 the city it may be viewed. It stands on the site of 
 the cathedral anciently founded by St, Augustine, 
 in connection with the monastery of (Christ Chiircli, 
 established by Kthelhert, king of Kent, on his 
 conversion to Christianity, by St. Augustine, in 
 5!)7. The oldest part of the present structure dates 
 from 1184: the nave, cloister, and chapter-house 
 arc two centuries later, during the best jieriod of 
 the jiointed ecclesiastical style ; the interior is very 
 line, and the styles of ilill'ereiit ages skilfully 
 adapted to each other; the choir is the most spa- 
 cious in the kingdom, and the great stained 
 window accounted one of the finest. The structure 
 is of the usual cruciform shane, with n semi-circu- 
 lar E. end, and is 513 ft, in length inside, the 
 central tower being 235 ft, in height : under the 
 whole is an old cryjit or xindcr-croft. The ancient 
 celebrity of this cathedral is partly attributable to 
 its being associated with the first establishment of 
 Christinnity in England, but more especially to 
 the murder of its famous archbishop, Thomas-ii- 
 Becket, nt the foot of one of its nltnrs, in 1171, 
 Uecket having been canonised, bis bones were, in 
 1220, removed, with great pomp and expense, from 
 the under-croft, where they had previously been 
 .deposited, to the Trinity Chapel, built for the ])ur- 
 pose. The anniversary of the day on which they 
 were removed was celebrated as a great festival 
 down to the Reformation ; nnd devotees, not only 
 from every part of England, but of Europe, made 
 pilgrimages to the shrine of the saint, to tlie 
 enrichment both of the establishment and of tiie 
 city generally, A supposed pilgrimage of this 
 sort, such as was then usual, was made the medium 
 of a lively description of the characters and customs 
 of his day by the earliest of our great poets, and 
 has been rendered familiar by the engraving of 
 Stothard's ' Canterbury Pilgrimage,' in which the 
 characters described by Chaucer are admirably 
 represented, Erasmus, who saw the fane in un- 
 diminished splendour a short time previously to 
 its annihilation, gives a vivid account of its wealth 
 and magnificence. In 153G, however, all high 
 festivals occurring between July and Scptemlx'r 
 (which included the chief festival at t'anterhury) 
 were forbidden, on the ground of their taking 
 jieople from the necessary labours of harvest. But 
 this was merely a prelude to more energetic 
 mensures ; and, in the following year, Becket was 
 thrust out of his place in the catalogue of saints, 
 declared to have been a rebel, his bones being, at 
 the same time, burnt and scattered, and the 
 treasury of his shrine appropriated to secular pur- 
 
CANTERIIURY 
 
 pnspM. SnbHPqiK'iitly to tliin vij^oroim oxrrciMO i)f 
 tlif |iri'riinali\f, the present enlle^'iate eMtiililisli- 
 nient was (irdniiieil, eoiiN'mtiii^ iif n ileuii, I'J cnnoiis, 
 <t preiicliorH, (l iniimr enniiiiM, anil otiier Niilmnli- 
 lint(<H ; it (if tlie iirelieiidarieM liein^ in tlie ^'il't iil' 
 tlie areliliiHliiip, llie rest in tliat of the eniwii. In 
 Kllil, ('(inHiileral)le injury wax done to the eathedral 
 ill <Minsei|iieiu'e of a pariiaiiieiitiii'v order to purify 
 it, and snhHeipiently the nave was eoiiverted into 
 temporary harrnekH for ('niniwell's troops. On tiie 
 h'estoralioii. the ehoir >vas relltted for divine ser- 
 vice; and now, for many years past, conMidi^alph' 
 funds have lieen annually devoted l>y the chapter 
 to the restoration and improvement of tliis ma^- 
 iiillceiit. old siruclnre, which contain!* many in- 
 teresting; monumental reiiiains; nmoiiKst others, 
 thai of the hlack I'rince. The (li<icese of Caiiter- 
 biiry consists of the co. of Kent (witli the exception 
 of the city mid deanery of IJochester, and of H 
 other parishes, whiidi last are in the London 
 diocese), and the parishes of Croydon and Addin|{- 
 toii, and district uf huinbeth I'alucu, in thu cu. of 
 (Surrey. 
 
 The province comprises 20 otlier dioceses, and 
 ahout 100 scattered fiarishcH, called 'pi^ciiliars;' its 
 arohhishop is primate; and metropolitan of all 
 England, and takes precedence of all fjreat iillicers 
 of state, and of all peers of the realm except those 
 of the royal blood ; lie formerly had (he |)iivilefie of 
 conferriiif^ decrees in divinity, law, and i)hysic. 
 The revenues of the see amount at an averafjc to 
 ]r),000/. a year. The succession is traced with 
 tolerable rej^nlarity from St. Augustine, A. i>. M~, 
 Cardinal I'ole was the 70th and the last archbisho|i 
 under the Catholic system. The site of the ("icieut 
 palace, near tlie cathedral precincts, is occupied by 
 modern buildiiijjs, leased to private individuals; 
 the present archie|)iscopal residence beinj; at Lam- 
 beth. There are several dissenting chapels in the 
 town, and a Jewish synagogue. A grammar school 
 founded by Henry VIII., is in the |)atronage of the 
 dean and eha|)ter; there arc '2 masters, and 50 
 king's scholars. The other public structures are 
 a sessions-house, theatre, assembly-rooms, philo- 
 sophic institution (with library, museum, and 
 lecture room), and the subscription wells, whose 
 mineral waters were discovered in the latter part 
 of the 17th century, and were for some time in 
 great repute, but have since been comparatively 
 neglected; one spring is a jmre chalybeate, the 
 other impregnated with sulphur. The citv gene- 
 rally has of late years undergone considerable 
 im|)rovement ; the Donjon-lield, and a large arti- 
 ticial mound in it, is laid out in ])ublic walks, and 
 forms a pleasant jiromenade. There is little or no 
 trade carried on excejit what is reipiired for the 
 supply of the town and its immediate vicinity. 
 The silk trade, originally established by Tlemish 
 and French rel"iigees (to whom Klizabeth granted 
 the under-croft of the cathedral for public worship), 
 and that of silk and cotton, subsequently intro- 
 duced, have ceased: but there is a considerable 
 traffic in hops and agricultural i)roduce, large 
 quantities of which are sent from it to London by 
 railway, either direct or through Whitstable, and 
 from thence up the river Thames, by boats. Whit- 
 stable, the ])ort of Canterbury, is G m. distant 
 from the city, and a railway to it, one of the 
 earliest in I'higland, was opened in ISaO. There 
 arc four market-jjlaccs for the sale of meat, and 
 poultry, lish, cattle, corn, and hops : there is a daily 
 supply of provisions, but the chief markets arc 
 held, one on Saturday, and another, for fat stock, 
 every alternate Tuesday : there is also an annual 
 statute fair, which begins October 10, and lasts 10 
 or I'i days, but little business of importance is 
 transacted at it. Canterbury has long been noted 
 
 CANTON 
 
 fl37 
 
 for brawn, whi''li fonns an art iclo of Homo impor- 
 taui'(; in till- trade of the place, and is sent t<i 
 various parts of tlu; kingdom. Tin; ho|i-grouiid.4 
 of the vii'inity att'ord employment to a large pro- 
 portion of the labouring populatiun of both sexes. 
 
 The pari, and municipal limits of Canterbury 
 are id<Mitical. The city, which is a county of itself, 
 contains within the walls M pari->bcs, besides 
 ani'ieiit monastic precincts. Itcforc the passing of 
 the .Municipal Act thi; city magistrates had no 
 jurisdiction over these )irecincts, but they are all 
 now under the authority of the civic powers, with 
 the exception of the ville of Christchurch, in which 
 the city and county magistrates have concurrent 
 jiirisilicliou. 
 
 Canterbury has sent 2 m. to the II. of C. from 
 the 211 Kdwurd I.; the right, of voting being, pre- 
 viously to the Iicform Act, in llie resident and 
 non-resident freemen; the; freedom of the town 
 being acepiired by birth, marriiigi', appreiiliceship, 
 purchase, and gift. Tiie present pari. bor. iiK^lndes, 
 besides the above par,, parts of those of three 
 others, and the bor. of Longport : area ;i,(ir>H acres ; 
 registered constitu"ncy l,7rj«iu iM(ir), of whom 7 \'.> 
 freemen. It is divided into .'( wards, and is 
 governed by a recorder, mayor, (J aldermen, anil 
 IH counsellors. 
 
 This city is of great antiquity, as is proved by 
 the notice of it in the itinerary of Antoninns, ami 
 by many Hoinan remains. A staple of wool was 
 granted by Kdward III.; but its chief iinportaiUHi 
 previously to the Kcformation was derived from its 
 numerous religious establishments, and the inlinx 
 of |>ilgrims of all ranks and conditions. It was 
 also tile most fre(|uented thoroughfare to th(; ('on- 
 tinent, and is noticed as such in the charter granted 
 by Henry IV., where it is called, 'a <'ity near the 
 sea, and as it were a port and entrance by whicli 
 foreigners come to the kingdom.' During the last 
 war, a large body of military were usually stationed 
 here, for whose reception there are three sets of 
 cavalry and infantry liarracks. The outer walls of 
 a castle of the Nonnan period still exist. For 
 some time at the beginning of the present century, 
 the city was decaying, but the establishment of 
 railway communication has raised it to a more 
 flourishing state. Canterbury is now connected 
 with the metropolis by two lines of railway, the 
 South-Kastern, opened in 184(!, and the London, 
 Chatham, and Dover line, opened in 18GI. 
 
 CANTON (called by the Chinese Samj-Ching, 
 the provincial city), a marit. city of China on its 
 S. coast, cap. jirov. Quang-tong, and residence of 
 the i)rovincial authorities; the principal enqio- 
 riuin of the Fast, and the first port in (Jhina at 
 which any Furopeans were established. It stands 
 on the N. bank of the C/ioo-kiam/, or I'earl K'iver, 
 and the F. bank of its afUuent, the I'e-kiang, 
 CO m. NNW. the Chinese Sea, and 1,200 m. S. bv 
 \V. Pekin. Lat. 23° 7' 10" N., hmg. IU\° 14' 3o'" 
 E. It is nearly scpiare, about (J m. in circ, built 
 generally upon level ground, except on its N. 
 side, and is divided into two unequal parts, the 
 outer, or Chinese, and the inner, or Mantchou 
 (Tartar) city, which are surrouiidetl by one wall, 
 and separated by another. The walls are partly 
 of sandstone and partly of brick, about 20 or 25 
 ft. thick, and from 2.5 to 40 ft. high. A line of 
 battlements, with embrasures "t ir.tervals of a few 
 feet, raised on the top of the walls all round, are 
 in some places mounted with cannon. The city 
 is farther defended by three forts on the land 
 side, and two on Pearl Hiver ; but as a place of 
 strength Canton is insignificant. The outer walls 
 are pierced with twelve gates, and four other» lead 
 through the inner wall from the old to the new 
 city : all of these are daily opened at dawn, and 
 
 "Ill 
 
 I'itI 
 
 
 iiii 
 
 1 '" 
 II; 
 
 
 I:K 
 
«8<) 
 
 CANTON 
 
 Hiint nt nn cnrly hour of tlio pvpiiIpk, niid dlriplly 
 ^Miirili'il III iircvcnl tint exit or iMilriiiicit ol' iiiiy 
 
 llllt>, I'Xt'Cpt ll|l<lll M|l(>l'illl (M'I'MsillllH, 'rilt> HIllllirllK 
 
 iir(>, |K'rliii|m, nn cxlt'iiHivit uml |iii|)IiIiiuh iih the 
 fity itself. 'I'licy till up tho (t|iu('(! iM'twccii tlu! 
 h'iiIIh iiikI lIuMvutcrV cil^'d on l)otli rivors ; fliosc 
 till tlic W. ni(l(> nrt' tmicli tint liirt^cMt. Tlic city 
 iiiiil NiiliiirliN nrt! Iniil out in a iircciHcly Hiniiliir 
 ininuicr. Streets niiinerouM, anil >{enerully short 
 mill erookeil, thouj^h HonietiineH of consiilornlilo 
 length. They viiry in wiilili from iiliout 'I to !•! ft,, 
 lint lire eonnnonly IVotn tJ to H 11. wiile, piiveil with 
 little ronnil stones, anil llii;.r){ei|, elimo to the 
 lionses, with larger ones, ehieliy of granite. Kiieh 
 is eloseil liv slron)^ piti's, seenreil anil pnirileil at 
 ni^ht ; anil streets of liiisiness are eaeli ilevoteil 
 to one ilistinet Itrani'ii of traile. Several eannls, 
 nseil for the eonveyanee of |iasspn>,'ers anil (^"oils, 
 intersect the city aiiil snlmrits. Two of tiie lar^^est 
 run ailing tlie ontsiiie of the K. nnil \V, walls, anil 
 eoinnnniieate hy a third, which ])assos throuf^li 
 the new city. Several smaller oiuw liranch oil" 
 from these on either siile : they are crossed in 
 nnmy places hy stone hridnes. Houses huilt 
 chietly of hrick ; lint nmil, sione, and wood are 
 also us(>il ill their construction, and many of the 
 hnhitalions in the old city are said to he composed 
 entirely of the former inaterial. \car the river 
 they (ire raised on wooden iiiles, and elsewhere are 
 (ienerally erected on solid foundations. Scarcely 
 any arc more than one storj* in hei^dit ; the roofs 
 of many are thit, and heiiif; surrounded with a 
 lireasl-work, they form terraces frequented hy 
 the family in the cool of the eveniiifj;. The tloors 
 are usually coin)M)sed of indurated mud, marhle, 
 or otliiT "tlafistimes, or tiles Joined hy cement. 
 'Windows small, the jilace of ^lass heing su))- 
 plied hy jmper, mica, and thin shell. Very little 
 iron is used. The better sort of residences are 
 built within n court, surrounded by a wall, 12 
 or It ft. Iiiiil, and the interior of those of the, 
 opulent Chinese are in general very richly fur- 
 nished. The houses of the middle orders, in 
 ■which about one-third part of the ])opulation 
 reside, have no court, nor any Huperaiamdant 
 room ; those of the lower orders, •which arc very 
 numerous along the banks of the canals, in tho 
 N. jiart of the old city, and in the extreme parts 
 of tho suburbs, are wretched mud hovels, in which 
 six, eight, ten, or sometimes even double that 
 number of individuals, are crowded into one low, 
 dark, and dirty apartment. The foreign factories, 
 or hviH/s, as the (.'hinese call them, are situated in 
 the SW. suburb, where they extend from E, to VV, 
 for about U furlong. They occupy a muddy flat, 
 •which has been gained from the Choo-kiang river, 
 vhicli they face, being separated from it by a quay 
 about lot/ yds. wide. This si)ace, which is con- 
 sidered as belonging to the European merchants, is 
 railed in, and forms a promenade, called Kespon- 
 dentia Walk. Near it is another small open space, 
 about 61) or (!0 yds. square, •walled in, and laid 
 out as a garden, with gravel walks and flower- 
 beds. These narrow limits bound all the terri- 
 tory assigned to forcigncr.i within the Celestial 
 empire: even the (piay 'tI enclosure were not 
 obtained •without considerauie difKculty, and the 
 European merchants cannot erect a few steps on 
 the water's edge without express permission from 
 the authorities. There are thirteen hongs, or fac- 
 tories, including the British, Dutch, American, 
 French, Austrian, Swedish, Danish, and I'arsee 
 establishments. They are amongst the hand- 
 somest buildings in the city, and usually con- 
 sist of three, four, or more brick or granite build- 
 ings surrounding a kind of close or court : two 
 tolerable liuropean hotels occupy portions of two 
 
 of them. Tho English hong far snrpnssnn tim 
 rest for elegance and extent; this, liie Diitrli, 
 and the American hongs are the only ones which 
 have their national Hags (lying; the Ilritish Hag, 
 which had been hauled down at the expirtitioii ol 
 th(^ K. I. Company's charter, was again raised in 
 April, IKI7. (Kanqiii in China, i. '2W.) Con- 
 tiguous to the hongs are three noted thorough- 
 fares, Old and New China Streets, and Hog Eaiu> 
 The first two are amongst the best streets in the 
 suburbs, rather wider tiuiii the generality of the 
 public ways, prettv regulariy paved, and liiied 
 with shops, in which a considerable ainoiint of 
 business is soinetiines traiisiu'ted. TIk; lillhy 
 street, or alley, apiiropriately named Hog I.aiie, 
 has an infamous notoriety as being the plaen 
 where foreign seamen are intoxicated, robbed, and 
 maltreated, and where, owing in a great measure 
 to their imprudence, most of the disturbances have 
 arisen which have led to serious disputes between 
 the Chinese government and the foreign traders. 
 Excejit in those devoted to tho European trade, 
 most of the shops open to the streets, and the 
 most valuable kinds of wares are exjiosed, apjia- 
 reiitly without any protection from theft ; but the 
 sharp eye kept by the dealers, the gates at the 
 end of the streets, which may be shut in an 
 instant, and a most vigilant police, commonly 
 prevent any frauds. Uurglaries are rare, but loss 
 iiy tiro is frequent; to avert which, in the winter 
 months, an additional body of watchmen occujiy 
 watch-towers erected on bamboo poles high above 
 the roofs of the houses, and an alarm, given by 
 bells or other means, (piickly spreads tlirough the 
 city. The Chinese have very generally adopted 
 the use of our engines, which they occasionally 
 manufacture siifticiently well to answer the piir- 
 ])ose; but the fatalism which jirevails among the 
 people makes tlu^m singularly careless as regards 
 lire. In IM'J'i a tire broke out, which destroyed 
 the Kritish factory and above 1(),()00 other houses. 
 The loss of the E. f. Company on this occasinu 
 was estimated at 5(10,000/. sterling. C'anton is 
 subject to inundations, -which carry a^way many 
 mud hovels, and fre(|uently fill the lower ajmrt- 
 meiits in the hongs to the height of several feet. 
 The city is tolerably well sujiplicd with water 
 by several reservoirs, maiiv wells, and canals, and 
 some line springs on its jf. side, both within ami 
 without the walls. 
 
 A large part of the population of Canton resides 
 on the water. For 4 or 6 m. ojipositc the city, and 
 both above and.helow it, the nver is crowded with 
 vessels and rafts of all descriptions and sizes. 
 Everj' one is registered, and the whole number in 
 the neighbourhood of the city is reported to 
 amount to 84,000. Many of these, called egg- 
 boats, which are no more than 12 or 15 ft. hing, 
 about C ft. broad, and covered with a low bani- 
 Im)o shed, not only accommodate whole families, 
 but contain coops in which large bniods of ducks 
 and chickens are reared. Others are immense 
 rafts of timber on which many individuals live. 
 Some of the floating-houses are, however, hand- 
 some residences; their hull is large and broad, 
 and the building in the centre is surrounded by a 
 spacious wooden terrace, and supports anotheron 
 its roof, both of which are ornamented with 
 flowers and evergreens. The narrow channel left 
 between the stationarj' shipping and the shore is 
 so incessantly thronged with barges and craft of 
 all kinds, as to render landing or embarkation 
 usually a difficult undertaking. Upwards of 120 
 different temples are enumerated in and adjacent 
 to the city, and this does not include thewhole 
 number. The principal is the Buddhist tem])le on 
 the island of Uouau, in the river opix)site Canton. 
 
CANTON 
 
 flftO 
 
 Iln liiiililinKK nro niimoroun, niul cliii'lly of lirii'k ; 
 ii ciivi'ix, with iti« I'liiirtx uml ^'iirili'iiH, ti i>r Hncrr^, 
 wliU^h arc Niirniiiiiilnl liy a lnl'ty wiill. 'I'lit- hiIII- 
 iicMM wliicli rciKiiM within llii^ hurricr I'liniiM a 
 Klrikiiif^ coiilraHt to tht- tiiriiioil whirh iiri'ViiilH 
 without. 'I'hi^ pathway to the ^rcat ('<'iitra{li'in|il(' 
 IcailH ihriiii^'h two wide court -yanlN hiiil out witii 
 gravel wnlkM, nml plantcil with mwrt of irci'H; in 
 thi' >{iit('way Ni'paratiii^ thi'^c courtu art- two liiTiui- 
 liiokiu^ cMiloHsal li^urcM, Ncatcd on hu^t; pciicHtalH 
 or^raiiito, 'I'ht' principal iiall is about NO It, sip; 
 its wails ant liun^ willi crinisou tapestry anil 
 tablets, ami its roof is ornanicnlcil with ^rrulcstpic 
 paintings anil ti^urcs in relief; iii the centre of 
 tUv hall are three enonnous, heavy, ^'ilileil ll^ures 
 represeutiiiff the ' I'ast, Present, and Future,' Ik-- 
 fiire which incense is contiiiiuillv burniu;{. In 
 vnriouH other halls there are shrnies of inferior 
 deities, and the remainder of the Imililiu)^' is occu- 
 pied chielly l>y the dwelliii^rs and ollices of the 
 priests, of wlmni there are nearly "JIKI. 'I'liere are 
 two other consideralile llnddhist temples in the 
 NW. part of the old city, one of which, fmnidi'd 
 ahont A.ii. ',2')(), has ahoul. 'JllD inmates, and .'l.'tiMl 
 acres of landed property. In the old city there 
 is also a Mohammedan mos(|iM', with a doiiK! and 
 minaret Itill ft. in hei;{ht; there are ahont ,'),(M)i) 
 iMolunnmedans in Canton. Without th<' walls, on 
 the N. side, Iheru is a lofty pa;;iiila livi- stories 
 hifjh. There are several <'haritalile institutions, 
 hut they are mostly of recent foundation. Va;,'a- 
 honds and hcf^'pirs are very imnierous in Canton, 
 hut not more so than in numy lar^i; cities of 
 Europe. A foundlin^r hospital estahlislied in ItiDH, 
 with aeconuuodations for 2110 or ■'KMI children, and 
 supported with ahont Hid/, a year; a retreat lor 
 the a;;ed, inlirm, and hiiud, supported by imposts 
 un forei^'u ships briii^'iii^ rice to the port, and 
 a hosjiital for lepers, all on the K. side, without 
 the city walls, are amongst the chief native 
 charities. A ^{eneral hospital in the S\V. suburli, 
 established by an American missionary society in 
 Ik;I."», has been ))roduclive of nuich bciu'lit. Hut. 
 the best maintenance for the |ioor consists in the 
 manner in which both law and custom cnl'orc(> 
 the claims of kindred. In the old city are the 
 residences of the lientenant-^^overnor, Tarfar- 
 fjeneral, treasurer of the provincial revemn', lite- 
 rary chancellor, and criminal Jud(^(t : and in the 
 new city, those of the prov. fjovernor, and the 
 ^raiul liojipo ur commissioner of the customs on 
 foreifjn trade. 'Ihese residences, and others of the 
 liouf^-merchantH, and some wealthy citizens, arc 
 little interior, except as respects size, to the im- 
 perial palaces. In the <dd city is the ^^rand hall 
 iitr the examination of candidates for literary 
 honours. There arc M liif^h schools, and about 
 30 collcf^es, in ('anton ; three of the latter have 
 each 200 students. It is estimated that about 
 lialf the inhabitants are able to read. 
 
 Thereexistsno information on which it would be 
 safe to place any reliance as to the pop. of Canton. 
 It is estimated in the Chinese I.eiiository (vol. ii. 
 307) at 1,23(1,000; but the data on which this 
 estimate is made are far too loose to entitle it to 
 any weij^ht. It is ])rol)al)le that the pop. of the 
 city does not exceed half a million, or about 700,000 
 incIiuUng the tluctuatin^ crowds on the river. 
 
 The manufactures of Canton are numerous and 
 important. It is said that there are about 17,000 
 persons employed in the weaviu}; of silk, and that 
 60,000 arc cn(^a{;e(l in the manufacture of allkiiuls 
 of cloth. There are said to be 4,200 shoemakers ; 
 besides great numbers of ])ersons Avho work in 
 wood, brass, iron, and stone. The book trade is 
 considerable. The persons engaged in these trades 
 arc all funned into distinct cummuiiities, and have 
 
 ea«'h their own lnwn fur the regulation of their 
 business. Ihit a large portion of the manufactureit 
 rei|uired for the conNuuiptiou and trade of Cantnik 
 are carried on at l''u-shHn, u large city u few mile* 
 \V. from t 'anton. 
 
 Tiw/r,— \ great part of the trade of ( hina with 
 j'.urojtean nations passes through Ciuiton. 'I'lui 
 KuMsiansare the only nation not having a resident 
 or factory here: the connnerce bciweeii the two 
 empires, which is verv extensive, centres ut 
 Kiachta, on tbi' border nl^tlu' empire, in Mongoliu. 
 The policy which deteruiineil this regulation, im 
 well as that which li.\e<l the mdy foreign mercan- 
 tile port al almost the greatest po-.Nible dislaucii 
 from the capital, was probably dictateil not oulv 
 by a jealous fear of strangers passing the boun- 
 daries of the empire, but also from a de-<ire ou thii 
 part of the goverinneiit, to obtain the grl'ale^*fc 
 aniomit of transit duties. The I'.uriipean trade, 
 now so imnu'use, originated in a couunercial treaty 
 between I''.tnmanu4'l, King of I'ortiigal, and tint 
 Kuiperor of China, in lol7. In lt;;i|,somc llriiisli 
 ships llrst touched at Canton, In lONO, the direct 
 trade of th(> I',, I, Company with Cliiuacommcnci'il. 
 In ciinse(|uencc of thi> extraordinary increase in 
 the denuind for tea, w-hich, from being a luxury 
 seldom seen, so late as the reign of l^ueen Aniu', 
 even in the houses of the luibility, has become a 
 necessary of life, used by the poorest classes, thii 
 llritish trade with Canton has |iri)grcssivcly and 
 ra|)idly iiu'rcased since 1700; and the great" nias^t 
 of the foreign connnerce is carried on bv the l'!ng- 
 lish and Auu'ricans. Cntil the expiration of their 
 charter, in In;1|, the I'.rilish trade was entirely in 
 the bauds of ti • K. I, Cnuipany ; and during tlio 
 last thre(! or lour years of iheir monopoly, that 
 body imported tea (which has always hcl'u tlio 
 principal export from China) into llugland to (ho 
 amoinit of ;il,oOO,0(lO lbs. annually. Alter the ex- 
 piration of their charter, tint ipianliiy impnrted 
 was still greater. In lx;>l, l.")0 iJrii'ish vessels' 
 with a luiited toimagc of 82,170 tons, resorted to 
 Whampiia, near Canton, and brought awav 
 •l.'l,(>ll,200 lbs, of tea. The export of that article 
 snliseipienily diminished; but not to any great 
 extent. In iMtlO, the export of tea from Canton 
 amounted to 3,'>, lOI.KII lbs.; in I SO I, to 
 ;t!),l7l,Hoi» lbs.; in 1S(;2, to 3l,«t»l,034 lbs.; ami 
 in IHO:!, to 21,177.11 1 lbs. 
 
 Ilesides tea, the chief artiide exported from 
 Canton is silk. The exports of silk amounted to 
 I,1I2,!W4 lbs. in IWU; l,tilK.OIO in lNt;2; and 
 1.371, 7(!2 in 1803. In 1802, (he expor(s also in- 
 cluded 38,77.") picnis of cotton; but in 18(13 lu) 
 cotton was exported. 
 
 The shipiang of the port of Canton amounted to 
 783 vessels, of 238,4;")(i tons, which entered in 18(11 • 
 to 723 vessels, of 2.")3,I4(! tons, in 18(12; and id 
 8(17 vessels, of 300,520 tons, in 18(13. The total 
 value of the imports of C!anton was 2,0l!»,!)08/. in 
 l«tll; 2,412,r)l,U in 18(12; and 2,28|,;t,Vl/. in J8(l;i, 
 The total value of the exports of Canton amounted 
 to 3,5:)7,r)l»0/. in 1800; 4,0(JO,740/. hi 18(12; and 
 3,8(12,0!!1» in 18(13. 
 
 A fleet of .50 or ()0 vessels, of about 400 tons 
 burden, is annually ilespatched to ('anton from tho 
 United States, the whole of the American trade 
 being valued at about 10,000,000 dollars. About 
 15,000,000 lbs. of tea arc annually imported into 
 America. The Dutch usually send" 10 or 15 vessels 
 during the season ; but many come from Hatavia • 
 and the import direct of tea from Canton into 
 Holland is not more than 3,000,000 lbs. a vear. 
 From 2 to 3 or 4 F'rench ships have appeared of 
 late years at Whampoa. The tmdo («f Spain, 
 Sweden, Denmark, uml Austria, with Canton, is 
 very small. 
 
 i,;(, 
 
flto 
 
 CANTON 
 
 'I'lu' ('liiiit-lii'iiiK. <i|i|ni»itf' ( 'iiiiliiii, in (U'<>|> pnniii^li 
 
 fiirvi'MM'lM nl'XIMI nr 1,00(1 liillH lilirdi'li; lillt I'lip'iKO 
 
 hlil|w Hilly 4'iiiiit' up t\w river mm Car iim \VIiiiiii|i>iii, 
 iilHiiit l.'i III, lii'liiw tlir ciiy, liiMilitiK mill iiiilo/iiHii^ 
 
 liy liirilllH III' liiilivf lioatH, All lilt' ilrillillK^i ot 
 I'liri'iKiKrN willi llic Cliiiii'Hi' iixril to lit- ciirricil mi 
 liy till' iiilrrvi'iiliiiii III' a few IciiiliiiK iiiiTrliitiitH, 
 callfil y/om/ nr xri'iirily inrri'liaiitx, rruiii llit'lr lie- 
 ('Hilling H't'iirily fur llu' iniMiiciil of llu' iliilicH mi 
 hliipH, nil ilir piiiilN iiiiportcit mill cxpuricil, ami liir 
 till' pi'Mi'ralilc lii'liavimir of the cri'WM, lliii iIiIh 
 rrHlrit'limi ix imw almliilii'il, miil rnrri^iu'rH may 
 liiTc, aN miywIiiTt' t'l,'<i', ileal willi any mrri'limil or 
 ollirr party tliey think lit to ciiipinv. '\'\iv liiii/iiiHtii 
 iir Kiivi'miiicnt inicrpri'ttrH iiMially pmi'iini p<'r- 
 iiiitN I'nr ili'livcriiif; ami taking in carpicn, ami 
 transact llii' ciihtmii-limiMi' ImHiiicMN, 'I'lic nlatc- 
 iillli'crM III' till' city, ri'i'i'lviii;; little nr iin salary 
 f'rniii piveniineiil, liiil rreijiieiilly piireliiiHiii;; tluir 
 ilppniiitmeiitM, ilerive tlieir prnlils eliietly liv e.\- 
 tnrlioii; ami Caiitnii liiix tlie eliarai'ler nt' iieiiif; 
 lint only the imiMt lieeiilimis, hut lliu imiNt cur- 
 riiptly-Knveriieil I'ily of the empire, 
 
 Cmitoii is peculiarly the eiiipnriuin of Chiiiesi' 
 inaiiiil'aetiires, ami the shops are cmwileil with 
 articles of the neatest ami imisl minute workiiian- 
 i-liip. The imirki'ts devoteil to ealalih's are less 
 iitlractive to I'liirnpean tastes: puppies, cats, owls, 
 horse-llesh, worms, slu;;s, ami e\en snakes ami 
 other reptiles, are exhihileil as tempt innilelicacies. 
 All are solil hy >Yi'i;;lit, ami a cat ami a pheasant 
 freciiieiitly fetch the same price. 'I'he arts of 
 /j////i/ii/aremit forgotten in Canton; in thesiihiirhs, 
 staring laliels ami Imarils are coininon ('nou;;li 
 over the sho)i ilnnrs, inviting tlii' custmn of the 
 jiassenners, hy means nf laudatory mottoes, written 
 III I'lii^^lish and other laiiKuafA'cs; and many of the 
 Chinese shopkeepers haveaci|iiired sutlicieiit Knj;- 
 lisli, and the free and easy style so well ada]iled tn 
 cajitivate the llritish seamen, and make them part 
 with their nimiey. The streets are neiieially clean, 
 liiit. ahound with cripples aiul miserahle ohjects, 
 lief,'pirs, and vanahomls nf all descripliniis. No 
 wheeled carriages are seen in llieiii; the only 
 vehicles used areseilan chairs slnnj,' nil poles, which 
 Roim* of the piveriiment funclionaries and more 
 opulent natives are privilep'd to use. 
 
 As soon us the season for hiisiiiess lias termi- 
 nated, an edict from the emperor comes to Canton, 
 iirderiiij; the removal of the l'orei;;n merchants to 
 ]Macan, wliere they remain for several inoiiths. 
 I^nring the summer, excursions are made hy hotli 
 (Chinese mid Hiiropeaiis tn Faliteeii, a villime ahmit 
 2 m. hifiher up the river, ahove Canton, where 
 there are some f^ardeiis laid out in the l'",n)^lish 
 style. The scenery in this direction is deliKhtfnl. 
 ' Meyniid the city, and when clear of the hiiihlin^s, 
 nnd the crowds of boats which throng the passa>;e, 
 the river winds about in a beautifully serpentine 
 ninnner. The country opens gradually, and dis- 
 jiluys both bill and dale covered with luxuriant 
 vcffetalinii. On every remarkable eminence, pa- 
 )rodas arc erected, and jnss-iiouses adorn the Imnks 
 in every direction. In tlie midst of the stream, 
 often dividing it into two or three separate chan- 
 nels, arc romantic islands, either niider the hand 
 of the flgricnlturist, or envered with trees to the 
 water's edfje.' (Fanqui in China, iii. '203.) Canton, 
 althou{;b extremely hot in summer, is much cohler 
 in winter than miKbt be expected from its lat., and 
 tires are often agreeable. 
 
 Accnrding to native historians, Canton was 
 founded by one of the last sovereigns of the Cliow 
 dynasty, who reigned about 2,000 years ago. About 
 the year 700, it becnme a regular mart for foreign 
 trade, and the residence of an imperial commis- 
 sioner of customs. The fonner city was utterly 
 
 t'AI'E HKKTON 
 
 desfrnyed In IlLMt hy the Tartar dyimsfy now on 
 the thrniii', after a siege of eleven nioiilh^, during 
 and HiibNei|uetil to which vast iiumberH of persoiiH 
 perished, 
 
 «'\l'ACClO,orCAl'l'ACCIO NroV'O.iilnwn 
 nf Snulliern llalv, pmv, Salerno, cap. cant,, iTi m, 
 SK, Salerno, am( I m. frmii the sea. I'np. 2,0<l,'i 
 ill Ixii'.'. It has Iwn line parish churches, and u 
 convent. The cathedral is al Cappaccio Vecchin, 
 a small place in the vicinity, destroved in the lillh 
 century hv the iiiipcmr Frederic 1 1. The iiihiihi 
 taiits having lied tn 8. rietru,gavv it the nanieuf 
 Capaccin Nuovo. 
 
 CAI'K HI!i;roN, a large nnd tnost Irregularly 
 shaped island of llritish America, separated frmii 
 the N. exlninily of Nnva Scniia. of which pmv, 
 it is a part, hy ii narrow, navigable chaiinel. It 
 forms the SI'',, hniimlarv nf thetinlf of ,St. I.aiiri'iu'c, 
 and lies between 15"^ '.'"' uiid '17° I' N. hit., miii 
 ■V,i° I.V and ti|o IIM' W. Imig. Area estimated al 
 near -^ooti sq. in. The cna.st is, fnr the iiinst part, 
 mcky and elevated; and it is (everywhere iiidentcil 
 by deep gulfs and arms nf the sea, by one of which, 
 the llras d'Or, it is very nearly separated into two 
 great divisions. This inland sea has deep water 
 tbroiighoiit, and alVords the greatest facilities to 
 navigation. 'I'hv island has many line harhniirs; 
 that of Sydney, the cap., on the K. coast, being 
 one of tlue best in tlieprov. Loiiisboiirg, so famous 
 in the history of America in the reign of (Icnrge 
 II., lies on the SK. coast of the island. It was a 
 strongly fnrlilled settli'tneiit established by the 
 French in I7'.'0, and reckniiedthe key nf their pns- 
 sessioiis ill this part nf the wnrld; but having 
 been taken by the l'',iiglisb in 171"), was tirst dis- 
 mantled, and afterwards entirely abandoned. 
 
 The r///H(//cof Cajie Itrelou is subject tocniisidcr- 
 able extremes. The incaii summer heat is siiid 
 to be HU° Fahr., whilst in winter 20° below /em is 
 not a very uncommon degree of coltl. The teiii- 
 ]iei'ature, however, is suliject to more variatimi, 
 and is less iiiiifonnlv severe than the cniitiiieiit in 
 the same )iarallel. 'I'he frost usually sets in aliniit 
 Dec, and between that and the end of April there 
 are sometimes intervals of a week or two nf mild 
 weather. The siiring is short, and vegetation very 
 rapid : May is the sowing season, and the harvest 
 is gathered in Aug. ami Sept. : on the I'',, coast, 
 the summers are usually dry; on the W, they are 
 usually more moist. 
 
 This island terminates a low mountain range, 
 which traverses the whole province of Nova Scotia 
 (from S\V. to NK.), and consists of granite, trap, 
 and slate, in alternating strata; the slate being 
 in narrow, and the trap in broad belts; beyoiul 
 these, ari! graiiwaeke, sandstone, limestoiic, gyp- 
 sum, and several other formations, which for the 
 most ])art rest on an atnygdalnid base. In tliis 
 more recent jiortion are extensive bcilsnf coal, said 
 to resemble that of Newcastle, atid well adajitod 
 for steam and other general jmrjioses ; it also yields 
 an abundance of excellent gas. Cape Hretoii is 
 sui)]iosed to contain a sutiiciency of this, to supply 
 the world for centuries. The mines at jireseiit in 
 work are near Sidney: they were leased by the 
 crown in 1827 for sixty years to the (Jeiieral 
 Mining Association, on payment of 3,000/. sterling 
 ft year for 20,000 chaldrons, and 2s. currency for 
 every chaldron beyond that quantity ; which terms 
 embrace the other mines of the prov., wrought hy 
 the same compiniy,who have several steam-engines, 
 and employ regularly about 500 men. Since the 
 commencement of tiieir operations, the demand 
 has steadily increased, and is sup])osed likely to 
 proceed in an increasing ratio, from the circum- 
 stance of the only available mines of the U. States, 
 at present, being those of anthracite, iu Peniisyl- 
 
iKHi very 
 tinrvcst 
 K. ciiast, 
 llicy nru 
 
 iiiii niii^'o, 
 
 DVii Si'otiii 
 
 liio, trii|i, 
 
 ■ lifiiij,' 
 
 licyiimi 
 
 me, nyi'- 
 lor llic 
 III this 
 
 coal, saiil 
 11 ailapli'd 
 also yii'Kls 
 
 Urol nil is 
 
 to supiily 
 prt'sciit in 
 *wl l)y the 
 (Jciicral 
 O/.storliiig 
 
 rreiicy tor 
 hicli t'onii8 
 
 rouftlit liy 
 
 l-OllgilH'S, 
 
 SiiR'e the 
 
 e demand 
 
 likuly to 
 
 le circum- 
 
 U. States, 
 
 Pennayl- 
 
 CAPE CLEATl 
 
 vniiln, fn wliirli, fiir ^Tiirral |nir|«is<"«, ilir ('a|i<' 
 liri-toii Con! U iiiiirli Nii|i<'rii>r. 'riii"«< iiiiiu'M Mere 
 llrNi oiM'tinl nlioiii iH'iy ycarM hIiu'c, ami have coii- 
 liiiiii'il tVoiii lliat ihtIimI to In> wrciii^lii ; Inil, |irt'- 
 vioiiHJy to IM'.'T, on a very iin|H'rlrii .HyNii.ni, ami 
 to 11 very liiiiitcil extent. Iron ami i'o|i|ier have 
 h\» I lieeli iiM't Willi, hut lieitlier Iuim yet l>eeii 
 ultemleil to, l.inii' (^'y|iMiiiii), well aila|ilec| (or 
 Ufrrii'iiiliiral iniriMwei*, Ih iiliiitulaiit, ami at |dai eH 
 tierreelly aeeeH.sjIde to Hlii|i|iiii^ : llirre are alto 
 liriiic MpriiiKs of Ki-eat HtreiiKili, wliieli il i.i Miip- 
 |><iM'il may lie in lime inaile iivailalile, l>y ineaiH ol' 
 the ret'iis4' eoal, in the iiiaiiiiraetiire of xalt tor thi> 
 llslierieN: excellent I'reeKtonu lor liiiililini; piir|ioHen 
 Ih also met willi. 
 
 'I'lie ve){elalile |iroiliielH reHemlde tlioN(« of the 
 llei^lilioiirili); conliiieiil ; the wooiU heiii^^ ecmi - 
 poMed of liemloek, Itlaek ami wliitc spruces, ||i(> 
 wliile ami rcil pineH, oak, heccli, liircli, ami maple: 
 the liiiilier Iraile liax heeii ^railiiMlly liimiiii.Hliiii^, 
 The greater pari of the Nhipmeiils at prcHciit are 
 from the W. ItaMJii, opening from the lillle Itras 
 • rOr; on the Alhitltic mIiIc, the .spruce lirs, \c. are 
 nioslly of Nliiiiteil ^'rowlh, lait xupply I'mc! to llie 
 iliU'ereiit lishiii;; Heltleineiil.s: these, however, are 
 (.'omiucteil with lillle I'lier^y, ami to a much more 
 liiniti'd extent tliaii the ^reat eapahiiilie.s of ilu> 
 Hiations Would Neein to admit of, 'i'hc lisli iiiomI 
 t'oininonly taken are cod, hnlihut, haddock, mack- 
 erel, nIuuI, xniidls, and alewivcM; stnrp'on and 
 haluion are. also caught in the .sireani.s, and these 
 and the lakcM ahoiind with Iroiil and perch, 'I'he 
 inhul)itants enpi^ed in the llsherle.s are chiedy 
 I'Vencli Acadians, and Scotch, from the Western 
 Ishinds. Those en^rnfrt'd in tlic linilier trader and 
 Uf;ricultiire are chielly Scotch and Irish eini;;'ranls, 
 and u few ant the descendants of I', S. loyalists. 
 Those en^rajrcd in the eoal-niines are immtlv skilled 
 lalionrers from Scotland. There are also aliout 111)1) 
 Jmiiaiis, for whom .some tracts are reserved, on 
 which they cultivate inui/,e and potatoes: they are 
 an inotlensive trilie, and support themselves chielly 
 hy fisliin^; wandering alon^' the shore in summer, 
 and returning; to n llxed winter station. 'I'he 
 common kinds of grain, niaizo, ami potatoes are 
 (Millivated; hut the island does not ]>rodncc siilli- 
 cient for its own consumption. The exports consist 
 of timber to the IT. Kingdom, llsh to the \V. Indies, 
 and coals to the II, States, and corn. The imports 
 consi.st of liritisli manufactured goods; corn nnd 
 meal ft;oni the U. States, and colonial ]iroducts. 
 lletwcen 300 and 400 vessels, varying from 20 to 
 200 ton.s, are registered in the island, and some 
 Hhipliuilding is carried uii, which is iiicludud in the 
 provincial returns. 
 
 Sydney, which is the chief sctllenicnt, contains 
 eighty or ninety houses, all with ffardens attached, 
 and regularly disposed, ho that its appearance i.s 
 very neat and respectuhle; the courts of justice for 
 the island and the residences of the gov. otiicers 
 are in this little town, which was founded in 182ii. 
 The rest are all small lishing settlements, on dif- 
 ferent parts of the 8ea coast, or round the borders 
 of the Uras d'Or. Cape Hreton is a co. of the 
 province of Nova .Scotia, and returns 2 in. to the 
 II. of A.s.senibly in I lalifax. It is comprised within 
 the diocese of the Hp. of Nova Scotia ; Imt the great 
 majority of the iiihab. are Roman Catholic.s, Legal 
 provision is made for the poor, and there are also 
 other local assessments to defray co. charges. The 
 French fonned the tirst settlement (ni it, in 1712; 
 a iletucliment of IJritish troops, from New Knglaiul, 
 took ])08.se.s.sion of it in 1 74.5, and from that period 
 it has remained under ISritish government. 
 
 CAl'K CLKAH, a bold promontory, rising 400 
 ft. above the level of the sea, on the S, siile of Clare 
 Island, near the VV. cxtremitv of St. George's 
 
 Voi„ I. 
 
 CAPE DE VEPH I.«!LANT>.S fill 
 
 Chaiiiu I, ami alxml 7 m. SI!, from llallimore, co, 
 Cork, Iridand, Ad|oiiiiiig the catie is a lighlhoiiso 
 of the lirsl clasN, Willi i'e\id\ing lights, having tlio 
 lantern elevated t.'i.'i It. above ihe level of Ihtt 
 sea. The ligliihiiu<e is in iai. .'il*^ '.'O' ;1" N., lung. 
 !)0 20' 20" W, This is ihe point from which shipH 
 leaving .St , t icorge's Chanind for the W, usually 
 take their depart lire, and those arriving prefer 
 making il Iheir landfall, 
 
 (AI'K DK VI .Kl> ISI.ANKS (I'ort ///».» 
 I'iiiIi'h), n group in the N, .Xtlaiilic Oiean, be- 
 lon),'iiig lo i'oriiigal. beiween hit. I I" 20' and 17*^ 
 20' N., and long. 22° 20' and 2.".° ;10' \V., about 
 ;i20 III, NV.Capede N'erd, on Ihe W, coasi of Africa, 
 which, as widl as the ishiinls, derives its naiiiii 
 from ihe greenish linge given to the iiiljoining sen 
 by the aliiindance of sea-weed. The group coiisislM 
 of I'oiirteen islands, of which seven are iiibabilcd, 
 besides islets and rocks, having a iiiiiled area of 
 about 1,700 N|, III., and a pop, of ^<,'l,:lll;l, accuriiing 
 to Ihe census of 1H,"(H. They are, in general, 
 inoiinlainoiis, rockv, and very ill supplied uilli 
 water; are all evideiiily of >olcanii' origin ; ami 
 in l''ogo, the most elevated of llie ^roiip, aiiai'tive 
 volcano slid exists, Tlic heat is exirenie from 
 November lo .Inly, and for llie rest of the year 
 storms and fogs are prevaleni, and the climate is 
 
 ex( liligly imlieallhy, hronghls areol'freipieiit 
 
 occiirrein'e ; and soinetimes, as was tlie <'asc pre- 
 viously lo \M',\, no rain falls for three or four 
 years to(;cther, Tlie soil, wliere iiol coniposeil of 
 vtdcanic matters, is chielly calcareous or sandy, 
 dry, slony, and in many parts barren, Vegptalioii 
 is coiiseipiently partial ; bnl, in various places, it 
 is very vigorous, and rice, maize, itaiianas, oranges, 
 iiiehiiis, poiiiegranalcs, and oilier fruits, both of 
 Miiidpe and the tropics, grow aiiundaiillv. The 
 lirst Iwo products constitute the chief frnit of llie 
 inhaliilanis ; but agriciillnre is iieglecleil, and the 
 wheat that is consumed is brought from America. 
 Tiiis, however, is not so iinich a consecpience of tlio 
 poverty of the soil, or Ihe indolence of llie in- 
 iial)nants, as of the rapacity and short-sightedne.sH 
 of liiegovemmenl, t )range.s, lemons, mehiiis, Ikv,, 
 come to great perfection, and the gnavas, llgs, 
 .sweet potatoes, and gourds are excellent. Vines 
 and sugar-canes are ciillivaled lo some extent ; 
 ijut the making of wine is prohibited. Indigo and 
 cotton are iiidigenoii.s. One of the |)rincipal pro- 
 ducts is orchilla weed, which here attains to great 
 perfection ; it is monopolised by the government, 
 and is supposed to yield a reveniieof about ")0,000/. 
 a year. S(mie parts are well wooded, chielly willi 
 the tamarind tree, Adansoiiia, and |ialins, (ioals, 
 tus.se.s, and poultry, are the most iinmeroiis domestic 
 animals ; monkeys, wild cats, wood pigeons, and 
 other birds, and turtles arc plentiful. There is no 
 dangerous animal ; but clouds of locusts often ilo 
 much damage to the crops. Chief manufactures 
 those of leather and salt. Notwitlislanding the 
 severe ch-oughts, the actual produce of thesi! islamU 
 in cotton, indigo, fruits ,.salt, goat-skins, and turtle- 
 oil, might give them a considerable value under n 
 more intelligent government. TJie other chief 
 articles of export arc cotton, indigo, some cattle, 
 ox hides, cotton cloths, and rum, .St. .lago, the 
 principal island and most southerly of tlie grou|>, 
 contains the town of liibiera Cirande, formerly the 
 cap, ; but during the dry season, the governor- 
 general now usually resides at I'ort I'laya, which 
 has a good harbour, and is occasionally touched 
 at by vessels biamd for India. I'orto tirande, in 
 the island of .St. Vincent, is however ilecidedly the 
 best harbour in the groii]). Shijis in it are com- 
 jilctelv sheltered from wind and sea. In .St. Xicolo, 
 the island second in importance, very good cotton 
 stiill's, stockings, &c., are made. The pop. are u 
 
 T 'r 
 
 111 
 
flI'J 
 
 cAi'i: iiAVTii:.N 
 
 iiiixi'il run' III riirlii^iK'Mi' /iiiil iii'^riH'K ) Iml itll 
 
 liiiM' (III I'M' liiiul.v I'lirtt t'liliiiir. 
 
 'I'lii'iMi inl/iiiiU Wirt' llp<i ilifn'iiM-ri'il In itiiNli'rii 
 liiMi'M, ill I III), liy Aiitiiiilii ill' Null, II lli'iiMi'xi' 
 
 MMxiuiiiiir, ill till' Hir>iri' 111 I'rii Hi iirv nl I'nr 
 
 liiKiil. '•> \tliirli iiiitiiiii ilii'v wi'ri' Miiiiii iii'ii'r iiiki'ii 
 
 |Hi«Hi'H«iMl| III', titlil riilolllxril, 
 
 t'AI'l'. II W ril'.N, 11 Hi'ii |.i.rl tiiwii 111" lldvll. 
 iiri;,'iiiiiil,v rtillril liv llii' S|iiiniiirilM liiiiirirn, iiml 
 iilirrniinlK liv llii' Kmnli l'a|ii' I'Viiiirnii, ur l.i' 
 ( 'ii|>, nil lilt' \. nlmri' nl' llii' i'<liiiiil, !MI ni, \. |>iirt 
 nil rriiirt'! Int. IIC^ HI' '.'il' N., Imij;. 7-."^ II' \V. 
 
 ri>ii. iiriiiiitiiiv rriiiii r.'.iMHMii H'l.oiMi, 'riii4 iiiwii, 
 
 liiriiH'rlv till' III) 
 llii' rrviiliiliMii, 
 IllINt' llffll 
 rt'niilfll't' 
 mill \\r\' 
 
 luiiiiNiiiiii' 
 
 Ml|i|llv 111' 
 Ht'l'll lllllll 
 
 III' ilif i-liiiiil, wix-'. |irf\|i'iixly III 
 
 I'l iimrluilily liniiiliriil, .iihI iiiiii'il 
 
 iliiriiiu iu ulnrv, llif iiiii-i ii^rt'i'iililt' 
 
 ill ilii' W. Arrlii|ifliiuii.' Sirii'ls lirmiil 
 
 |iM\t'il ; liiiii«t"t I'liii'ily III' Niiijii', Willi 
 
 i|iiMrt'N, iiir^f iiiiirkt'ii, nml a t'ii|iiiMM 
 
 NMIIrr. ' Itlll IIIIW lillll' llluri- in III III', 
 
 llii' Iriirt'-t (if iiM I'linin'r K'''"iil'''ii' ! i'M'II j 
 
 ill llii' I'liii'c irAniii'M, llii' IiiiiiiInuiiii'hI Hi|imri> in il, | 
 
 hniiii' III' lilt' lliirHi limi^irM art' iinnii'li'il, Mini |ilaii- 
 
 laiii ti'i'i'-' art' i^'niwiii'^ in ilif iniililli' nf llif niiiH. 
 
 Till' t'liiinli, \sliii'li \Mis liMiiilniiini', is in rtiiiii, as 
 
 iiri' lilt' llirali'i', ^iiMTiiini'iil Iiihinc, ami >li'MiiirN 
 
 ('iillt';;'t',' (Mai'lii'll/ii',) Il is lillill nil tlin vir^i' ' 
 
 tit' II vt'i'y I'xii'ii.-'ivf, wi'll-walrri'il, ami Iriiiiriil i 
 
 jiiaiii : Iml licin^ sitci'IH'iI mi llif N. ami W. Iiy ill 
 
 liiiiniiiaiii (Miirni' < 'a|i|, il is ('\|inNt'i| In all tlin 
 
 vinli'iii'i' nlilii' suh'm ravN, ami is, in t'niisi>i|ni'm'i>, 
 
 mil M'ly lirallliy. 'I'lit' litirliniir ami mini, In llii' 
 
 II. ami S. Ill' lilt' Inwn, am iimictMfil nii llif N. liv 
 
 a iirnJiM'liii;; iiiii^iii' 111' liiml, 'I'lic fiilram'f is 
 
 ratiiiT ilillii'iilt ; luit llif iiiiflinnip' is fi I. ami 
 
 tlif t|iiayH liaiiilsniiif, Thf ilfl'fm'fs inwanls llif 
 
 Mf.'i art- rfs|ii'iiiil)lf, 'I'lif iirsfiial was fiinslniflfil 
 
 in llif rt'iicn nf Lmiis .W. I'mlfr llif Fri'iii'li, 
 
 ('M|if llavlicii was, as wfll as I'nrl-nii-rrinff, 
 
 tin tisiniially llif sfnl nf ^nvfrniiifiil ; nml il fnii- 
 
 liniifil III fiijiiy tills ilisiincljnii nmiiT 'rmissaiiit 
 
 ainl ('lirisln|ilit'. lis Irnilc, llmii^^li ^n'ally fallfii 
 
 ntf, is still Vfrv fniisiilfralilf. It is iiriiifiiiiillv 
 . . . •. . . J . ' . t 
 
 L'llZU' M 
 
 liilf. 1 1 IS jiriiifi|ii 
 Htatfs. ( Muf lii'112 
 
 carrifil nn willi tint I 
 N'nli'.s nil llayti.) 
 
 ('AIM'; llOliN, II faniniis jirnimiutiry nf S. 
 Aiiifrifii, fdinmnnly rf;;iirilfil as ilic S. exlri'iiiity 
 nf lliat fiinliiicnl. In |iiiinl nf ftift. linw>'Vfr, ('a|if 
 
 llnrn lines lint liflnil;^ In tli(> I'nnlillfnU liiit In il 
 siiiall isiaml <if tlu^ saini' iiainc, llif iimsl S. nf tin; 
 'I'ifrra ilfl Kiifpi firnnp, sfimratcil fmin tlic fnii- 
 I infill liy till- Straits nf Map'llaii, nr Ma^'fllnu'iis. 
 Ciiiif llnrn is tlif must S. pniiit nf tlif isliiiil; and 
 is iii^Hi, lilni'k, jirffipiiniis, ilfslilnti! nf all vo- 
 frflaiinii, ami liaviii^; a iimst ilfsniatf n|>|K'arani'(>. 
 AffnnliiiK In Wfililcll, it is In liit. ."i.'»" .V.»' 21" !S., 
 ami Inii;^. <'i7° 14' W. ; Malf spina plat'i's il in lat. 
 r).'i° i>H' ;i(l" S„ ami 117° '21' l.'i' W. 'I'lit! ilanj;frs 
 iillfmliiiK tlif ilniililin;; nf ('ii]if Iliirii liavf, iiii-nn- 
 w'tpifiii'f nf tlif iinprnvciiifiits in iiavi;,'ntinn. lifcn 
 Vfry (^rfatly tliniinislicd. The cnasl may lif ap- 
 prniiflifil witli fnni]i»rativfly littlf tlinn^fr ; the 
 watfr lu'int; ilcfp, ami freo frnin fillifr mcks tir 
 ^linals. DilVcrciit npininiis arc fiitfrtaiiifil as In 
 llif prn|u'r sfastin fnr passiii)^ tlif fapf. Cnptaiii 
 Hall profcrs tin; xuiiiiiifr (that is, tlu; wiiitfmf the 
 N. lu'misplifrc) nn Hfcnillit nf tlif nwnt loiifitli nf 
 tlie (liiy, iiiul the cnnijmriitivf ffwiifssnf iwhfrj^s 
 and flnatinj^ niassfs nf iff, which arc always daii- 
 P'miis. (llall's S. Anicrica. ii. Aiipcnd. Iti.) 
 
 CAl'K OF (iOOl) HOl'i;. II celcl.ratcil prn- 
 niniitnrv iiffir the SW, fxtreinitv nf the African 
 cniitincnt ; lat. .'12° 2;{' -III" S., h.n|,'. IKO 32' 2/." K. 
 it was lirst seen by Hiirnpcaii.s (in nuidcni times) 
 in 11><(I, Itarthnlnmewilf Diaz, a Portiifjiicac com- 
 maiulfr, liHvin;^ liccii its iliscnvcrcr. Diaz, Imw- 
 €ver, merely fsuw it ; the vinlenccof the winds, the 
 
 CAl'K i»l' tHHU) llnl'i; 
 KitHili'rcil I'liinliliiiii nf hit Klii|H<, iMiil tliii iiirliii 
 
 li'liri' nl Ills cri'Ws, pri'M'llli'il lliin I'rnni ilnillilin;; 
 il ; and llii'Kf t'iri'iiiiistaiit'in iliiiilillfsH iiidin nl liim 
 In tiaiiic il t'lilui 'I'lirmt'iitiimt, nr ' Sinrinv • 'i||m> j ' 
 Iml Ills snvf ri'iun, Jnliii II. nf I'liriii^al, lii'lii'viiit; 
 il In III' Ml nr near tliiil ri ninie exlri'tiiily nf .M'ririi 
 wliirli llif l'iirliii{iii'Kf Iml Im'I'Ii >iii \iiun finlea 
 Vnlirill)i tn reach, desiuiiateil il I'llliii lit Hill ml 
 
 l'!itliniiii:ii, nf which the iiaiiif we ^ivc il ii a 
 Irnii^liilinii. Viiscii lie (iaiiia dmililfil il in I l!ir, 
 after which il cniilitined fnr llinre lllllll a celiliir\ 
 
 and a half In he nidi'<criiniiiali'ly resnrteil In la 
 I'Mii'iipeaii miN iK'il"rs, (h'tirthe rest nf its hii.iiir\, 
 see siicceedilit; lirlicle.) 
 
 CaI-I'. Ill' titmli lliil'l'. (t'lil.DNV ot'), an I'Mi'li 
 
 nIvc cnliitiy, nr nil her lerrilnry, su called from iIim 
 iilinvc cape, liflnii^iiiL; III (ireal Itrilain, in >, 
 Africa, cninprixinix Ihe ^'ri'iiler pnrlinli nf the e\ 
 Ireiiiily nf ilial ennlineiil S. nf lal. 2'.)° Ill)', and 
 helwccli InllK. 17" and 27*^ ;ll»' K. It is hnlimli'd 
 nil Ihe N. Ii> the (iariep nr < iruiiKt' river ; nn Ihe 
 S\\, \>y Ihe lerrilnry nf ihc llaslllns; nll the I!. )iy 
 Kallirfand, and the newly erected cnlniiy nf Itriij-li 
 Kalfraria. 'I'nial area csiiinaied at |H;l,2Nri s(|. m. 
 (l)Hicial tallies.) 'Ihe cnlniiy hiis a cnast line nf 
 aliniii l.l.'iii III., Iimkcii hy niiniernns luiyr', ilir 
 jirincipal nf which arc St. Helena, SMldanha, mm I 
 I'ahle Hays nn the \V., and Kalsc Itav, St. SiImi' 
 linn's, Mi'iHsel, rielieiilmr^, St. Kranciit, uiid Al;;iia 
 
 llavs nil the S, ennst. 
 
 'I'hf wlinle cnlinlrv cnllsidtH nf tliri'f Hlicce^sivp 
 plateaux increasing inelevaiinn accnrdiiiKln ihelr 
 distance fmni the st'a, and sfpnrnlcd fmni cmiIi 
 nllifr liy as inniiy fhniiis nf ninnnlains, 'I'hf lir^l 
 ^'rt'iil chain riinninv; 1'^. nml W.. the l.anp' Kliml, 
 nr l.nllf^ \'l\>-<, ' fliclnses lietween it and ihi' S. 
 cnast an irrei^nlar hell nf land Irntii 2il In li<l in. in 
 widlli, indented hy sfvcrnl hays, cnvfrt'd with a 
 ilffp and fcrillf snil, intfrsfcicd hy niiiiieniiis 
 slrcamlets, well clnthed with ^rass and sinall 
 arlmrenns nr friltfscellt plants, WfU wnnded ill 
 many parts with fnrest trees, supplied with Irc- 
 <|n(;iit rains, and eiijnyiiit;, nn accniinl nf lis 
 pmxiniity tn the Nca, a innre mild and fipinlile 
 tfinpcratirc, than the innrt' rfinnli^ and iiileiinr 
 parts nf the cnlniiy,' (Hiirrnw.) The next ^riiil 
 chain, the (irnnlf Zwiirte ltfr;.Cfil ((irfiit lUmk 
 .Mninilaiii), is cmisidfralily nmrf rii^'K*''' '>■"' '"''>' 
 than llu^ lirst, reaching; stniiflinu's In I, Olio I'l, in 
 lu'i;;lit, and cnnsistin^ in inaiiv itlacfs nf tlinilile 
 ami t'Vfii trchlf ratines, Tlic ()ell nf tcrrucf fii- 
 flnsfd lietween il ami the lirst chain is ahmit the 
 mean width nf that hetween the lirst and the sea. 
 Its Niirfiice is verv varied ; it is enmpnsed in nuiic 
 parts nf liarren hills, in ntliers nf naked and plains 
 nf clay, calletl knrriHi, ntidnpiin in nihtTsnf ferlili' 
 and well-wateretl patches nf lanil. The teinpera- 
 tiirt; is here less nniftirm than in the };mnnds skiri- 
 in<; the sea. The tliirti ^rent mtinnlain chniii. the 
 N lew veldt (iehir),'tc, hetween lat. il2° and ;i;l°. is 
 cnnlinnoiis Inwards the K. with the Schneciiw- 
 herKcn (Snnw Mnimtains), the hifjhest ran^c in 
 S. Africa, the loftiest snimnit nf which is estiniali'd 
 at lint less than 10,000 ft. in lieif;ht, and iscnvercd 
 with snow for nearly half the year. Hetween tiiis 
 and the fteconil eliniii is the ISreiU Kiirron, an arid 
 desert plain nearly 800 m. in leiij^tli hy fmni xi) lo 
 100 m. in hreiultli. ' This ii* not n saiitly |iliiiii. 
 anil hears nn resemhlanee to the Sahara nr Araliiaii 
 deserts. It ennsists of a sort of tnhle-land, nr cle- 
 valetl liasin, thinly envercd with an ar;;illaccmis 
 .soil, larj^ely imprcgnnted with iron, iipmi a suli- 
 stratum of rock nr fjravel, .Simie larf^e pnrlii)iisiif 
 it are perfectly level, but in others tlie surface is 
 diversilietl hy slaty hills and eminences, snnie "f 
 which wonltl a)ipearcoiisiderul>le save for the Inl'iy 
 numiitiiiiiH -which buuiul the Karroo uii all siiies 
 
••xct'pt (iiwnril* »In> V.„ wtirn' ll rxInnU iiiloCiiin 
 ilcltiHi, III) ini'iliiiiu lii'i;{lii iiInim' iIii' Ii'M'I III' ilii< 
 Ni'ii U (•Nilinali'il lit iiIhiiiI .'I.iioo I'i. It m irimni'il liy 
 iimny Ih-iIm <i|' rixrm, nr riiilitT Inrrt'iitH, inimt of 
 wliirh run (r»»\ N, in S„miiiI llml lui I'^ii Cur lln'ir 
 wnliTN til llu> t'liiiMi ilirmiuli It I'i'W limtkn in ihr S. 
 rlmln of iiiiiinitiiliiN. 'r)ii-<t> rivcr'<, liiiwi'vcr, iirr 
 liir lliii Kif»'"'»'f I'i'rl "I tin ' ■ " fiiliir tiiiirrly 
 ilrii'il up, or I'lirniMli nnlv n IVw ■i<'i\ |hmiU luircly 
 Millli'li'iK I'lir till' Willi iniiiiiiili. /M.ij-- i|iiiii.'KMM, 
 
 tmtrirhfM, At\, wliirll rr('i|iii'|il llih iii( '- ' il li' 
 ri'Kiiiii, Not iint'ri'i|ii('iillv i>vh) iIiow' i 
 |iiiiiU mill I'liiiiitniiH al"" fail, an vtm^ lhi< <'u.-<t' m m 
 llliii' III' iiiir Jiiiiniry ! iiiiM "tii'ii llid KrtfriiK |)*;^t>nicH 
 hIiiiiikI iliiiiiiH?<iil)|i' liy iiiiiii, ,1'kI a lar;{c iiiifiinfl uf 
 il iiiiiiiliiiliiiiilili' I'Vi'ii liy tlii> T\ III iH-twtit. 
 
 ' III Niii'li a ri';{iiin, Mlim' ram ift H>ri; nml iIcwm 
 iiIiiiiihI iitikiiiiwii, llio vi'Ki'laliiiii iiiiii<4 1 1' iit'ii'-iNiiy 
 III' at all liiiii'H I'xlri'ini'ly Nraiily ; aiiil in -iiiiiitiu'r, 
 >vlii'ii till- Klin liiiM lirii'il till' Hiiil to ilic liari|iir«H 
 nl' lirii'lt, il ccaMCN aliniiMl ciilircly. Kxrcpl almit; 
 flic CDiirMfM III' ihf ii>in|Mirarv rivrri*. wliirli lor llm 
 iniiNt part ar<< niarkcil liy a tnwui' ul' niiinii.>ii'<, imi 
 a iri'i' nor a IhinIi, iiur a lilailf nl' KraMN. ilcrkA lli<> 
 \viil4> t'xpaiHf of till' waNli', Kiiu Miimii'd HlirnliH 
 ri'M'inliliiiK licalli ; niinicrniH ^in'rti'H of 11^' inari- 
 Kiilil>'i Ullil ii't'-iiliniU (misiiHlin/initliiiinim), ^lian- 
 na-l)oM'|i (miliuilii), t'lirlrria, nstrrH, iVr. ; kihiii' wirl!* 
 of prirkly cuplinrlila, ami nllii'r Hiii'nilriil plnnl"; 
 anil hiiili.i, wliiiNf rooiN naliiri' lian fnrtiliiil with a 
 ti'iifolil ni'i of llliri'H iiiiili'r ilir npprr riml, to iiro- 
 Icrt. Ilii'in liiiriii^ till' loii^ ilriiii^lilM, ari' aioiii' 
 
 alilt! Ill NiiliNiMi ill tilt' arlii Karr Iliirin^' Ilic 
 
 dry NciiNon cvt'ti tlicnc appear In lir fur tin- most 
 part pari'lit'il into a lirowii hHiIiIiIc, Ihinly sraitiTi'ii 
 over the iniliiratcil or nlaty Moil; lint in llir ciirlv 
 Hiiriii^, wlicti till' )^roiiiii| Ih'i'oiiii'h inoiMlciK'il >villi 
 llie fail of rain, llicsi' planiK riinli into vcp'iation 
 with II rapidity that lookH liki' I'lu'liantini'iit ; and 
 in a ft'W davH inillions of llnufrs of tlu' inost lirii- 
 liaiit hncM I'lianifl tlio carlh. It ix chit'lly at tlii^ 
 HcaMiii, when the whole dreary waxti' may lie xaid 
 to he traiiMfornied into a viihI. tlnwer-pirdeii, thai 
 the eiiliiiiiHtH of the Sehneenwhern. the Nieiiwveldt, 
 the llokkeveldt.aiid the Ito^p-Neldl, wIiohc alpine 
 faniiN are tlien chilled witli keen fro.slM and the 
 piercing mninitnin winds, deseend into the Karroo 
 III paMtiire their herds and tlockMoii the short-lived 
 ve;;etation.' (I'rin^jle's Sketelies, p. 2!(7.) 
 
 From the \V. coast tlic country ascends in n 
 similar manner towards the interior hy successive 
 plateaux, separated hy mountain chains, the Uiftiest 
 of wliich, the Koj^neveldt (Hye-lield) Mountains, 
 reach to upwards of f>,l)(IO t\, ahove the level of 
 the sen, niid unite about lonj;. 21° with tlu' Nieiiw- 
 veldt chain. To the N. of all, and near the liouii- 
 ilary line of the territory, there is a chain of 
 inoiintniiis, the height of which is estimated nt 
 it,(IOO ft. The whole tract of country to the N. is 
 much more sandy, linrreii, and thinly inhabited, 
 llinn that to the K., which seems to increase in 
 licauty and fertility in ]iroportioii as it is distant 
 from the Capo. The third great chain of moun- 
 tains forms the water-shed, or division between 
 the streams which How N. into the country of the 
 llosjesmans, aiul those which have a S. or W. 
 eoiirse through the colonial territory. On its X. 
 side rise the (Jreat Hiet, liraak, and other atllnents 
 iif the Orange IJiver; on its S. side, the (Jreat 
 Doom (Thorn), the (iamlm or (Ireat Lion, Cam- 
 tons, Sunday, (ireat Fish, and other rivers. The 
 lirincipal streams on the W. coast are the (Jreat 
 llerg (or Mcanitain) and Olifant or l-U'iihant 
 liiver. lioth are navigable by small craft for about 
 L'O ni. inland, but the mouth of the former is 
 choked up with a bed of sand, and that of tlie 
 latter has a reef of rocks across it. The chief of 
 
 CAPK OK (lOOI) nopK (COLONY OK) Ml 
 
 llioHc whii'h illxrhnrKe llii'in«rlveii on llii< K. eoMt 
 are ihe llrirdi' or llroiid liiver, the (iNiirii/i, Catn- 
 loim, Sunday, HiiiM ireat Fiih in>rn<. Nearly all 
 of I hem, tinforiiiiiiiii'ly , haM- bar^ or otlur ob- 
 Htrui'tioiiit At their iiiouilii), ri'iidcriiig them in 
 great iirtrt iiscIisn for iiavigaiion. The llniail 
 Itiver, however, may be iiaxiKaiid by xniall rralt 
 for aboiii :io m,, and Its inniitli, wliirh in calh'il 
 I'orl Iteaul'ori, allows vc-ini'ls of '.'11*1 |on< lo enter 
 in Nal'eiy, The (iaurili!, formed by the union of 
 several other Nlreiinii<, is in ihi' rainy sea'<iin ii 
 I'irge and rapid river; but in the Miiiiinii'r inoiiiliit 
 !iili only a >ery weiik iiirreiii, while the bar at iu 
 month is then gem rally dry. The t'ainioos Inm 
 within its bar a wide lia->in deep enmigh lo tloiii i\ 
 :>lliji of the line, but the bar ilself is fori table lit 
 full, ami l'r>'riii<'iilly dry at ebb, liile. Ili-iilex lint 
 alsive Iheri' jii ' mi'iiber of smaller rlvin ; but, 
 for the niimi pan, iIk » ;ir<' either dried up itiiriiig 
 a part of the year, or nin hi miih diep chasms m 
 III be nearly iinser\ iceiible, 
 
 Consldi ri Ihe gre.ll extent of const, gisiil har- 
 bours lire few . Saldaiiha Hay, li.'i in. N N\V. Capo 
 
 Town, is bv far the inosi loiiii limis, Miips iiti 
 
 safely in 'I'able Hay .it Cape Town during t ho 
 prevalence of the SI'., moiisoons from Sept. to 
 Nlay ; but afler ibis, when the N\V, winds set in, 
 they are oliliged In resort lo Simon's llav, ill l''illsi» 
 Hay, This harbour is proieclcd on llie W. Ut 
 the penln''iilil of the Ciipe, and atlbrils shi'ltir all 
 Ihe year round; il is conseipii'iilly much fre- 
 (pienii'd by our ships of war, transports, ami 
 store sliijis in their voyagi's to niiil from Ihe I*',, 
 Indies, and is the sliitinii of the Cape M[iiailri>n, 
 I'li'lli'iibiirg's Hay is opiii to (he SI',,; bill alliiriU 
 safe anchorage in eight or ten fatlionis water, ami 
 desirable shelter, during strong NM.or NW. gales, 
 to vessels intending lo make Table Hay. Algoil 
 Hay, the most l''„ but one, is exposed In the pre- 
 vailing winds; but it coiilalns good iinrliorage; 
 I'orl I'lli/.abeili, the prliuripal port next to Capo 
 Town is sealed on it, 
 
 CHiiiiiti; — Thoiigli in general temperate anil 
 lieallby, Ihe climale is neither steady, iigreeable, 
 nor suitable for agricultural purposes. In theSW. 
 districts rains, in the cold season, are profuse; but 
 in summer they are of rare occurrence, mid during 
 the greater jmrt of thid season Ihe ground ii* 
 iinrclied up with drought. The detlcieiicy and 
 irregularity of the raiiM are, in fact, the great 
 drawbacks on the colony. In some of the inoro 
 northerly tracts bordering on the (ireat Karroo, 
 there has occasionally been no rain for three years 
 together; and even in tiie more favoured districtii 
 of Albany and I'itcnhage, and generally through- 
 out the greater part of the colony, tlu' rain, when 
 'it does come, descends in torrents that swell the 
 smallest streams to an extraordinarv magnitude, 
 and occasion great damage. Sometimes the Sl'^. 
 wind is really a species of simoom, and is not only 
 excessively liot, but is loaded with impaliiablo 
 sand, which it is nil but impossible to shut out ; 
 but as the breeze continues, it gradually cools, 
 and usually, in about twenty-four hours, becomes 
 sup|)ortahle. The mean temp, of the year, nt tlio 
 cup., is about 07^° Fahr., that of the coldest month 
 being 67°, and of the hottest 79°. Cajie Town is 
 a customary place of resort for invalids from India, 
 who certainly benelit by the change ; though per- 
 haps they hiive been led to visit it as much from 
 its being' within the limits of the K. I. Company's 
 charter, which entitles 8er\'anis of the ('ompaiiy 
 resident there to full pay, as from its salubrity. 
 
 The beautiful white cliiud frequently seen during 
 the SK. monsoon rc'^ing on Table Mountain, and 
 thence culled the 'Table Cloth,' is occasioned by 
 the condensation of the moist urc in the air, cooled 
 
 T T 2 
 
 m 
 
 \\ 
 1 
 
 I'ii 
 
 ' ''it 
 
644 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF) 
 
 l)y contart with the mniintaiii. DuriiiK the pro- 
 viil<Mic(! of tliis plieiiitniuiion, thu t'old nir ut'toii 
 nishi's (liiu'ii tlic HuU'H (if th(! inoiiiitmii witli xiicli 
 iin|M'tu<i.>*ity ah to Ix; futnl to Hliippin^ in thu hay. 
 Iliiil NtoniiH are occasionally vory violent an<l dc- 
 Hlriictivc. OwiiiK prolmlily to itH I'Utvation, the 
 colli of winter in thu (ireat Karroo i.s niiieli more 
 Hcvere than coiihl have hucn antiiMpated from itx 
 latitude, 
 
 (ieolof/i/, Mliiertth, Sci\ — The general fjeoloKical 
 character of the Cape in that of a rej^ion of «and- 
 Htone rcMtin;; upon a haxe of granite. In propor- 
 tion as the latter rock is near llie surface, as occurs 
 (Ml and round 'I'ahle Mountain, s|iriu^rs are aliiiii- 
 dant; Imt wherever tlie f^raiiite lies at a consider- 
 alile depth, as is the case thr(iii);;hout a f^reat 
 jxirtion of the countrj', the contrary ohtains. The 
 territory generally sutlers from a deliciency of 
 water, Linicstone is found in the E, ; clays and 
 Hand of various kinds compose most of the surface 
 of tlu; plains; an alhiviai loam and lihutk peat 
 mould are very aliiindant in some of the lands 
 Hkirlin^ the sea. Very pure and white alum; salt- 
 petres and salt, with wliicli the ground in some of 
 the N, jtarts of (Iraaf Iteinet and in the (Jreat 
 Karroo are impregnated, coal, iron, galena, argen- 
 tiferous lead, a little copjier, cornelians, bloodstone, 
 Ike, are amongst the cliief mineral jjroducts. Siil- 
 ])huniiis, nitrous, and other mineral springs are 
 not rare, and several natural salt-jians exist at a 
 coiisideralile distance from the coast. In lleaufort 
 district fossil remains of the mammoth have been 
 met with, 
 
 Veiictalile ProitucU. — The Flora of the Cape is 
 very "remarkable; its species are extremely nume- 
 rous, varied, and elegant ; but they want the 
 aroina, whose sweetness lill lie iiower-ganlcns of 
 Kiirope. Hulbous jdants are particularly plentiful; 
 and the trilies of i.c'ut, iris, uiitholiza, pladioluH, 
 amanjllis, and yeraiiiiiiu are both abundant and 
 beautiful ; and simie of the most magnilicent 
 plants that adorn our gardens and grceiilioiises 
 are brought from thi i)art of the world, Still, 
 however, as I\lalte-15run has judiciously remarked, 
 'the vegetation of the Ca)ie ('olony (Icm-. iiol sa- 
 tisfy cither the eye or the ideiis of a iMiiopean. 
 Kocks and sands everywhere prevail. 'J"he tields 
 are separated by deserts; the green turf, scattered 
 and thin, nowhere jirosents a close sward ; the 
 forests, tilled with pointed trees, have neither a 
 delicious coolness nor a solemn darkness,' (IJi ok 
 7(t.) The Cape olive tree and the sopliora (a tree 
 like the ash) furnish some wood for joinery ; but, 
 except on the I'L, frontier, in the district of George, 
 and in some spots near False Bay, there is gene- 
 rally a great deticiency of timber and fire-wood. 
 Th(i only spontaneous' vegetable product that is 
 turned to much account is the aloe, which grows 
 over a large surlace in the district of Zwellendam, 
 and lor which the farmers sometimes get as much 
 as 20/. a load at Cajie Town. 
 
 Animals.— The elei)hant, rhinoceros, hippopo- 
 tamus, lion, leopard, liywna, jackal, zebra, quagga, 
 masked boar, antelopes of various kinds, monkeys, 
 racoons, squirrels, &c,, are nati\ es of the Ctipa ; 
 but many of these have now become comparatively 
 rare, at least within the old limits and accessible 
 districts of the colony. The rhinoceros is nearly 
 extirpated; the hippopotamus is found only in 
 the Great Fish and Kei rivers ; and the elephant 
 and lion have retired from all the old settled dis- 
 tricts. Leopards and hyiviias are still, however, 
 bv no means uncommon, i)articularly in the eastern 
 districts, and are exceedingly voracious and de- 
 structive. The Cape lluttalo {Bos differ) is a 
 powerful and a formidable animal, which has not 
 hitherto been tamed, and is probably uiitamcable. 
 
 AntelofK's of all kinds are exceedingly numerous; 
 and it is said that as many as 6,01)0, 10,000, anil 
 even 40,000 springboks have sometimes l>een seen 
 bounding along in a singh; herd ! Eagles, vultures, 
 and other large birds are met with. In the Great 
 Karroo, and along the skirts of the N. deserts, the 
 ostrich is abiindaut: it is (KU'asionally seen in large 
 tlocks, and is eagerly hunted for the sake of its 
 )dtiniage, which meets with a ready and advan- 
 tageous sale. It is very wary and diificiilt to come 
 near. Small birds arc numerous and beautiful, 
 but delicient in song. Li/ards and other species 
 of amphibia are met with; and the serjient tribe 
 is both numerous and dangerous. Some rivers are 
 well stocked with fish; but in general this is m it 
 the case, a consequence probably of the greater 
 number of the rivers being nearly dried up in the 
 hot season. A particular variety of locust {Gri/I- 
 liis ilepustatur, Licli.) occasionally commits dread- 
 I'lil ravages. They always come from the N,, and 
 are no doubt bred in the interminable deserts of 
 the interior. Their inroads appear to be ])eriodicnl. 
 They arc devoured by the liushmcii and Hot- 
 tentots. 
 
 People. — The total population of the colony, 
 according to the census of IHHO, amounted to 
 2(i7,0!)(); of whom l((2,I5(i whites. The increase 
 of j)op. is very rapid : the births, in the year lN.j(i, 
 were 11,217, and the deaths ;i,«21. The Euro))ean 
 inhabitants consist in part of the English author- 
 ities and English settlers; but the majority an; of 
 Dutch, Geniian, or French origin, being the de- 
 scendants of the original settlers. The blacks arc 
 Hottentots and KalVers; the remaining portion of 
 the pop, consists of Malays and Africanders (this 
 ort'siiriiig of a black woman and a Dutch father). 
 The Dutch, in the more civilised districts, are 
 distinguished for sobriety, prudence, and economy, 
 and by their hospitality and benevolence towards 
 whites. Like other savage and uncivilised trilie:', 
 the Hottentots have suifered severely from tlio 
 settlement of whites among them, by whom (hey 
 have been despoiled of their lands ; and those that 
 were not exterminated or driven into the desert, 
 were reduced to a state of substantial slavery. At 
 length, however, the Uritish government "inter- 
 posed in favour of all class(!s of natives ; and hr 
 an order in council, dated the 15th of Jan, l!S2',l, 
 jilaced them on the same footing, in respect of 
 civil rights, as the other free subjects of the colony, 
 '.'■ 's wise and liberal measure made less immediate 
 change than Mas anticipated in the condition of 
 the natives. They can no longer, indeed, be flogged 
 at the pleasure of their masters, nor their children 
 forcibly taken from them, nor be sold along with 
 the estates on which they lived ; but in other 
 resjiects their condition is nearly the same. They 
 continue to be without consideration in society, 
 and are now, as formerly, the servants of the co- 
 lonists, who employ them partly as cultivators, 
 but mostly as shepherds and herdsmen, occupa- 
 tions for which they are extremely well fitted. 
 
 The Kaffers on the E. border are both physically 
 and mentally a far superior people to the Hotten- 
 tots. They are tall, robust, and muscular. Their 
 complexion varies from a dark bronze to a jet 
 black. They practise agriculture to some extent, 
 raising maize, millet, kidnej' beans, and water 
 melons. But they are, notwithstanding, a pastoral 
 rather than an agricultural people; have large 
 herds of cattle, and are, in fact, semi-nomadic. 
 They have the art of working iron, and manufac- 
 ture a rude sort of earthenware. They practise 
 jjolygamy and circumcision ; and have some of 
 the worst vices of savages, being treacherous, 
 cruel, and vindictive, Tliey appear to consider 
 the cattle of their neighbours as a sort of fene 
 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF) 
 
 nnfiirti', whScli it in mpritorioiis tonttiick nnd rnrry 
 nwny. Tlio prentiT niinibor of tlio contosts in 
 which we liiivc been piij^/if^cd with tlicni linvc 
 .oripimtpd in tliin thievish prfmensity, or in tlicir 
 attempts upon tlie cnttle of tno colnniHtH. The 
 coHtern parts of tiic colony hnvc Ruffered very 
 opverely from these contcMts; nnd it was only with 
 ditHculty, nnd liy the em|ilovment of n stronji; 
 militnry force, thnt some of ttieir late irruptions 
 wi-rc repelled. It is, Ave nre nfrnid, in vnin t<i ex- 
 pect thnt the conflicting interests of the colonists 
 nnd the nhorighies should ever lie reconciled, or 
 thnt Kuro|)enu civilisntion should ever take nny 
 Ann root amongst the Intter. Very little couimu- 
 iiicntion takes place betwetm the negroes, African- 
 ders, nnd Malays, each race holding the others in 
 contempt. 
 
 Af/riculture. — But n smnll portion of the lands 
 of the colony is as yet under cullivntion. As mny 
 be expected, the pasture Iniuls are the most niune- 
 rous. The crop lands are principnlly situated in 
 the districts of Worcester, Stellenbosch, nnd the 
 Cape in the W., nnd in Alhnny in the K. Agri- 
 culture is in a backward state, though perhaps not 
 so much so as is usiuilly stated. The boors are 
 industrious, sober, nnd pnrsimonious ; but they 
 nre, nt the same time, strongly attached to nncien't 
 habits and routine practices. IJetter implements 
 luive, however, been introduced, and various im- 
 provements effected of late years. Agriculture is 
 injured by the Dutch law of succession, whi<'h, 
 by dividing a man's property equally among his 
 children, hinders the nccumulntutii of capital in 
 masses, nnd the formntion of proper farming esta- 
 blishments. (Thompson's Travels, ]>. il24, 4to cd.) 
 In some limited districts the soil is very fertile, 
 nnd the crops and quality of the grnin excellent ; 
 but the grenter part of the arable land is but of 
 indifferent qunhty, and the cro|)s nre very liable 
 to be injureil by droughts, hail-storms, and rust. 
 
 The (arms occupied by grn/iers nre often of very 
 great extent, comprising from 3,000 to 10,()()(t 
 acres nnd upwards : tho^a in tillage are compara- 
 tively small. The boors are, for the most part, 
 proprietors of the farms which they occupy, paying 
 n f|uit rent to govermnent ns the originnl owner 
 f)f the soil. Such n thing ns land on rent, from 
 one owner to aiiorher, is almost miknown. The 
 transfer of land from one individual to another 
 is effected with the utmost facility, nnd 'with- 
 out the possibility of frnud.' Property seldom 
 remains long in one family. Owing to the law 
 of equnl succession, farms are fretpiently sold on 
 the death of the owner; sometimes the whole is 
 purchased by one son, but it is frequently split 
 into parts. 
 
 The vineyards are mostly in the vicinity of the 
 Cape, where the vine-growers occupy freehold 
 farms of about 120 acres each. The vine (Vitis 
 vinifem) has been long introduced to the ('ajie, 
 an(i has for a lengthened period been cultivated 
 with more or less attention. The culture, however, 
 made no great progress till 1813, when the duty 
 on Cape wines imported into this country was re- 
 duced to n third jmrt of the duty levied on the 
 wines of Portugal nnd Spain. But, excepting 
 Constantin, Cape wine, whether from the vines 
 being planted in nn unsuitable soil, or from n want 
 of cnre in the pre])nrntion of the wine, or both, has 
 nn earthy tnste, and is generally very inferior ; nnd 
 the consequence of this reduction of the duty has 
 merely been to increase the quantity grown and im- 
 ported, without in any degree improving its (juality, 
 and to make it be employed as n cheap and conve- 
 nient menstruum for adulterating more expensive 
 wines. It was, therefore, scarcely a loss to the 
 colony when, in 1864, the wine duties were again 
 
 015 
 
 ef^unlised, leaving the growers nt the Cnpo to tho 
 fair laws of compeliiion. 
 
 Constantin is iiroduccd on n fnnn of thnt name 
 at the K. base of Tnble Mountain, 8 or !t ni. from 
 ("ape Town. Its soil consists of deconqjosedsnnd- 
 stone, nnd is consequently more nnalogous to the 
 soils which produce tine wine in Kunipe than tho 
 richerclayey soils where the ordinary vineyards are 
 planted. (Jrenter care is also taken in the produc- 
 tion of the wine, and in conseqiu>nce of Ihese, nnd 
 probably other causes, it is very siq)ericir. It is 
 luscious, sweet, has n strong flnvour, and being 
 produced in limited quantities only, felciu-s u 
 pretty high price. It is probable, however, that 
 Constantin, or a wine closely ap])roaching to it, 
 might be produced in other parts of the colony, 
 were sutiicient pains taken. (llenderson on Wines, 
 p. 2oii.) 
 
 Potatoes yield two crops a year. The fruits of 
 N. Kiirope, as cherries and apples, have somewhat 
 degenerated, but tigs, ajiricots, nlmoiuls, and 
 oranges are as good ns in Frniu-e. (jrajies are 
 j)articularly good on the W. coast. Tobacco suc- 
 ceeds well except in clayey soils, or in situation!) 
 exposed to the SK. winds; but its culture is. not- 
 withstanding, conlined within very luirrow limits. 
 Tea was introduced by the Dutch, and some was 
 rnised of a tidernbly (.,'ood quality ; but, how 
 favourable soever in other respects, labour is too 
 dear in the Cape colony to allow of tea being nuido 
 a protitable article of culture. Dried fruit and 
 aloes are important articles of export. There are 
 large herds of horses and cattle. 
 
 The climate is suitable for sheep, and great en- 
 deavours have been made to improve the itreed liy 
 the introduction of merinos from Knglaud and 
 Australia; and we are glail to have to state that 
 these etlorts have jjroved successful, and that the 
 numbers of sheep and the export of wool have 
 been largely increased. The native breed of sheep 
 is very inferior; it is remarkable only for tin; size 
 of the tail, which sometimes weighs 20 lbs. : its 
 wool is good for nothing. Goats, which are very 
 numerous, serve for the food of the Hottentot 
 farm-servants; oxen are used for draught in large 
 teams. Herds of all these animals wander during 
 the day over large grazing farms of from 3,000 to 
 (>,000 acres, and at night are shut u]) in kriuih, or 
 iiK^losures. Hogs attract only a snuill share of 
 attention, but turkeys, geese, ducks, and other 
 poidtry, are reared in great numbers. 
 
 Trade and Commvrce. — The lisheries arc not; 
 without importance, but produce no more than is 
 required for home consumption. Alining industry 
 has made little progress; but slate, lime, and 
 building stone are (|uarried. Almost everj' farmer 
 in the interior makes his own candles nnd soaj), 
 the alkali necessary for the latter being funiisbecl 
 by the consumption of a' kind of salsola, which 
 grows plentifully on such parts of the waste tracts 
 as are nt nil wntered. The other mnnufactures are 
 mostly confined to those of leather, lints, snuff, 
 saddles, tiles, rope, and a few other articles of a 
 necessary kind ; a few wind, water, and saw-mills 
 now exist in most of the districts, and in Capo 
 Town there is a steam flour-mill. There are se- 
 veral breweries and siiirit distilleries, which, as 
 well as other manufacturing establlshnieiits, arc 
 most numerous in the W. i)art of the territory. 
 
 The cultivators of the interior send their surjilua 
 agricultural produce, Wfiol, butter, soap, candles, 
 t)strich feathers, nnd skins, to the principal towns 
 at stated intervals, and take back in return Euro- 
 pean manufactures, tobacco, brandy, coffee, iSrc. 
 The chief foreign imports of the colony consist of 
 woollens, cottons, hardware, earthenware, fire- 
 arms, furniture, paper, books, habertlasherj', soap, 
 
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF) 
 
 646 
 
 and portions of moHt other articlcH in usic in the 
 11. Kingdom, i)i('cc-f,'oo(ln; su^ar, and teak tinilwr 
 from Iniliu; tea from Cliina; and Hii^^ar frdm tlic 
 MaiiriliiiN. The (irincipal artictcH of export are — 
 wool, wincH, corn and flour to the Mauritius and 
 Kio Janeiro, liides, HJtinH, lioniH, Halted provisions, 
 horses, butter, ivory, whale oil, ulocs, and argol. 
 The hides, skins, and horns come chiefly from the 
 E. province. The suit lieef and other cured meats 
 are very good, and are largely exported to the 
 Mauritius. The export of wool, especially from 
 the eastern districts, has, for some yeors ])ast, been 
 greatly on the increase, and it has now become 
 the greatest and most profitable of the colonial 
 (ttaples. {Subjoined is an account of the (|u»n- 
 tities and values of the principal articles of colonial 
 produce exported from the Cape colony in the 
 years 1802 and 18G3. 
 
 Imports 
 
 PiiiNcn-Ai. AirnciiEB. 
 Apparel ami Slops . £, 
 Oals. 
 
 liccr & Ale, Bottled | 
 
 { 
 
 in Wood 
 
 Gals 
 
 £ 
 
 Cnl)Inct & Upholstery ) „ 
 Wares . . . ) * 
 
 Coala. . . I T°"^? 
 
 Cofteo . . -j n 
 
 Cotton Mnnufocturca £ 
 Ilnboriloshery and Mil- \ „ 
 
 linery . . . f * 
 Hardware, Cutlery, & I ^ 
 
 Ironmongery . ) ' 
 Iron, Bar, Bolt, J Cwts. 
 
 and Rod . . ( £ 
 Leather Manufactured & 
 Linen Manufactures £, 
 Oilmen's Stores . £ 
 
 Rice • • • 1 £ 
 Saddlery and Harness £ 
 Sugar, Raw . |Cwt| 
 f Lbs. 
 
 Tea 
 
 £ 
 
 Tobacco, Manufac- ( Cwts, 
 
 tared . . \ £ 
 
 Wood, Deals | Cubic f^ 
 
 Woollen Manufactures £ 
 
 Total Value of princi- ) 
 pal & other Articles J 
 
 1863 
 
 138,740 
 2no,'i7a 
 
 30,467 
 30,(in0 
 
 M,V.i1 
 ]4.-),087 
 
 a(!;t,;i!»3 
 
 252,297 
 
 149,022 
 
 41 ,380 
 
 17,435 
 
 93,139 
 
 18,«52 
 
 51,814 
 
 97,201 
 
 54,901 
 
 30,739 
 
 137,727 
 
 139,fi54 
 
 72!»,()«5 
 
 42,928 
 
 807 
 
 6,405 
 
 909,908 
 
 86,308 
 
 108,574 
 
 £2,789,638 ■ 
 
 186S 
 
 117,753 
 141,094 
 
 25,230 
 181,055 
 
 15,382 
 
 27,033 
 
 20,030 
 
 20,473 
 
 04,(i94 
 
 170,280 
 
 137,061 
 
 191,230 
 
 102,285 
 
 38,600 
 
 10,500 
 
 71,791 
 
 9,937 
 
 61,970 
 
 124,078 
 
 63,095 
 
 15,914 
 
 129,238 
 
 120,223 
 
 616,422 
 
 86,032 
 
 5,758 
 
 7,.501 
 
 134,714 
 
 9,393 
 
 71,210 
 
 2,275,833 
 
 Export! 
 
 PuiNciPAL Articles. 
 Copper Ore . | ^""^ 
 
 Lbs, 
 £ 
 
 No, 
 £ 
 
 Lbs, 
 £ 
 
 Feathers, Ostrich | 
 Hides, Ox and Cow | 
 
 • I 
 
 • I 
 
 Ivory 
 Skins: 
 
 Goat . . 
 
 Sheep . . 
 
 Wine, Ordinary 
 
 Wool, Sheep's . 
 
 No. 
 
 £ 
 No. 
 
 I8ti« 
 
 ( Gals. I 
 
 1 £! 
 j Lbs.i 
 
 1 £ 
 
 3,396 
 93,505 
 
 7,462 
 42,488 
 2»,(;04 
 17,022 
 113,379 
 24,813 
 
 470,673 
 
 45,925 
 
 827,894 
 
 05,929 
 
 225,097 
 
 31,453 
 
 25,209,004 
 
 1,283,136 
 
 Total Value of princi- 1 <.i 071 n.in 
 pal & other Articles [ *-i>'"^'»^^ 
 
 1863 
 
 3,540 
 103,214 
 10,275 
 72,834 
 25,203 
 17,307 
 63,226 
 10,773 
 
 510,171 
 
 53,6t7 
 
 873,307 
 
 69,495 
 
 319,146 
 
 46,0.54 
 
 31,148,176 
 
 1,504,661 
 
 2,224,446 
 
 The total tonnage of vessels which entered and 
 cleared the ports of the colony amounted to 
 
 5()(!,0«!1 in IStU; to 012,008 in 1802; and to 
 501,8,58 in 18(ii). Of these, the tonnage of Uritish 
 vessels was H-17,71)9 in 1801 ; 410,970 in 1802; and 
 354,919 in 1801). 
 
 The weights generally in use are those which 
 were introduced by the Dutch. Home of these arc 
 
 as follows :-round {JfJCds} -^^^ ''^"''•''•' 
 muid (4 schepels) =3 imp. bushels nearly ; leaguer 
 = 120'0 imp. gallons; pn)e = 9l'0 do.; aum — 31^ 
 do.; nnker=>7-9do.; fla8k = 0-4940 do.; 128(^6118 
 = 100 English yards; 49-^V. morgen = 100 English 
 acres. 
 
 The coin in circulation is exclusively British, 
 The paper rix-dollar is worth 1«. 0(/. 
 
 Public Revenue is derived from customs duties 
 imposed in 1847 on goods ini))ortcd and exported, 
 stamps, licenses, auction and transfer duties, 
 port dues, land store and rents, postage, asscs.'''e(l 
 taxes, tithes, and duties on stock and produce, 
 interest of money in the government banks, di.s- 
 ciaints, (fee, tolls and ferries. The revenue 
 amounted to 753,320/. in 1802, and to 757,00.'t/. 
 hi 1803; the public cx|)enditure was 044,812/. in 
 1802, and 082,8(i0/. in 1803. 
 
 OovernmcHt. — The government was formerly 
 vested in a governor and a legislative council 
 nominated by the crown. But a more lil)eral and 
 responsible system of government having been 
 demanded by the colony, the principles of a 
 new constitution were embodied in a report 
 by the Board of Trade, approved by her Majesty 
 in council on the 30th January 1850. According 
 to letters patent dated May 23, 1850, the legis- 
 lative authority is vested in, Ist, a governor ap- 
 pointed by the crown ; 2n(l, in a house of as- 
 sembly, of 40 members, elected for 5 years hy 
 persons whose property has been assessed for the 
 expense of the public roads ; and 3rd, in a legis- 
 lative council of 15 members chosen for 10 years, 
 and representing the country districts and towns 
 of the colony. Each prov. is administered by a 
 lieutenant-governor, and each district by a civil 
 commissioner, subordinate to whom are the field 
 cornets, magi titrates superintending tracts of 
 country 15 or 20 m. in circuit each, with juris- 
 diction in trirtnig disputes, and power to call out 
 the burghers of their field cornetcy armed. These 
 magistrates, unless on the KafFer frontier, receive 
 no salary, but are exempted from all direct taxes. 
 
 Justice is administered by a sujireme court of 
 judicature, presided over by a chief justice, with a 
 salary of 2,500/., and three puisne judges, whose 
 salaries are 1,500/. a year, a hij^h sheriff, and 
 d<!inity sherifTs for each district, a court of vice- 
 admiralty, and police, and matrimonial courts. 
 Civil and crimuial circuit courts are held. The 
 laws in operation are a modification of the Dutch 
 civil and criminal code, and ' Statutes of Indi.i,' 
 supplied when found deficient by the Corpus Juris 
 Civiliji, Trial by jury in criminal cases has been 
 established. The Dutch language, formerly used 
 in courts of law, has been superseded by the 
 English. 
 
 Religion and Education. — The Dutch and Eng- 
 lish Keformed Lutheran, Roman Catholic, and 
 Presbyterian churches in the Cape are all entirely 
 or in part supported by the government. There 
 are numerous missionary schools ; and Bell's, 
 Lancastrian, and other free schools in each dis- 
 trict. The sum expended by government, in the 
 year 1802, for ecclesiastical purposes, amounted 
 to 15,270/., while for educational puqioscs the 
 expenditure was 17,510/. A joint-stock institu- 
 tion, entitled the ' South African College,' with 
 five professors, was established at Cape Town in 
 1829. 
 
CAVE TOWN 
 
 The Militiiri/ Font in the cdlony iiiinilww 
 nixiiit. n,0(iii HUM), incliiilin)^' from i'lOD to CIKI 
 imtivi>.s, Tlu> troops art; iisiiiilly Htiitioiicd iit 
 ('iipc Town anil (iralianiV Town, Tlicy incluilt- 
 a (k'tai'linicnt of Koyal ArtilliTy, a |mrty of tin- 
 lioyal Kn^int'i-nH, and a rc^iinont of nionntt'il 
 riHvnicn, Icrnicd tlio Cape cavalry, the privali's 
 and non-roniniissioncd odiccrs of wliicliari'itrinci- 
 pally lIolliMitols. The naval force, is under tlio 
 coiniiiand of a rcnr-adniiral, with aulliority aloii^ 
 the K. and W. coasts of Africa, and the Mauritius 
 and St, Ihdena. 
 
 TIh! possession of tliH colony is im])ortant from 
 its bcin^ tliu key of tlic Indian Ocean, and form- 
 ing a depot whence ships and troops may be des- 
 patched with facility and expedition to most 
 parts in S, India, tlic K. Archipelaj^o, an<l Aus- 
 tralia. It is prohahic, too, that in time it may 
 become, intrinsically, a valuable c(dony; though, 
 from the limited extent of its fertile land, and 
 the other disadvanta^^es attending; it, a rapid pro- 
 f^rt'ss need not be hioked for. The nnnibcr of 
 eniif^rants who left the L'. Kiufrdom for the V,i\\m\ 
 of (iood Hope, during the year Jstil, amounted 
 to H~'.\, whicli was mori! than the average, 
 
 Hintory, — In 1(!2(), two Knglish K, India com- 
 manders, by a proclamation dated from Saldanha 
 ]{a}', took possession of the Cape in the name of 
 (treat Ikitain ; but no Hcttlement was subse- 
 quently established by tbe Knglisb, and in 1 G.")(), 
 the Cape j)ri.montory was colonised by the Dutch, 
 who afterwards made settlements in tSaldanha 
 Hay and clsewbere ; and disregarding, like other 
 cohmising adventurers, the rights of the original 
 inlial)itants, gradually exteiuling tlicir eiicroach- 
 nients, till tlieir territory reached nearly to tbe 
 boundaries of tlkat of the liritish territory at 
 jtreseiit. In 17!);"), the luiglisli took possession of 
 the Cape; but at the jieace of Amiens, in IHOO, 
 restored it to its former masters. In IHOO it was 
 again taken by tlic English, to whom it was 
 finally coded in 181 ii. 
 
 CAI'K TOWN, a sea-port town of S. Africa, 
 the cap. of a small distr, and of the above described 
 Hritisli territory, on its SW, coast, S, shore of 
 Table Hay, at the foot of Table Mountain, about 
 32 m. N.Vrom the Caite of Good IIoj)e; lat. ;3a° 
 6o' ,")•>" S., long. 18° 1' K. Top. 2t>,420, in 185(5, 
 of whom about two-thirds were whites. It is 
 regularly laid out, and contains several good 
 squares ; its streets, which are straight and wide, 
 cross each otherat right angles, many of thera being 
 watered by canals, and jjlunted on either side with 
 trees, in the Dutch fashion. Houses, mostlj^ of 
 brick or red granite, are llat-roofed, and chietl}' 
 white, Avith green windows ; they arc spacious 
 and convenient, having an elevated terrace, hero 
 called a stock, in front, and small gardens behind, 
 usually with a treillage, clothed with vines. Upon 
 the shore, at the E. extremity of the town, is the 
 castle, a pentagonal fortress of considerable 
 strength, containing some j)ublic otKccs and 
 barracks, and having outworks which command 
 both the bay and the roads to the country. On 
 the W. side of the town. Table Bay is defended 
 by four batteries, placed round anil on the hill 
 called the Lion's Hump; on its E. side, the town 
 is protected by fortified lines of defence. 
 
 The principal jiublic buildings are the govern- 
 ment house, with extensive gardens, the burgher 
 senate house, barracks, commercial exchange, 
 custom-house, town and distr. gaol, military 
 depot, tax ofHco, English, Dutch, Lutheran, and 
 Presbyterian churches, K. Cath., Independent, 
 Wesleyan, and missionary chapels, iSonierset 
 Hospital, and two others, the theatre, Freemasons' 
 Lodge, and South African College. Cape Town 
 
 CAPrOQUIN 
 
 fi»7 
 
 is the seat of the suprenu; court of justice for the 
 colony, of the vice-admirally court, and a court 
 for the recovery of small debts. It has several 
 joint stock associations for banking, insurance, 
 and other purposes; a savings' liaidi, a publii; 
 
 library, four public free scl Is, mid many 
 
 literary, scientitic, religiims, and benevolent asso- 
 ciations. The town and di>tr. contain several 
 water mills, tanneries, hat, caudle, snnll', and 
 stiap factories, an iron foundry, breweries, dis- 
 tilleries, ami sawing and steam mills. It is 
 plenlifullv supplied with go<id water. 
 
 Tabhf ilay is capable of containing any mmiber 
 of ships, and forms a safe and, on the whole, good 
 harbour, except during the months of .lune, Jidy, 
 and August, when it is exposed to a heavy swell 
 from the W. A wooden jetty projects for half a 
 lurlong into the bay from the V,, end of the 
 town, near the castle, alongside of which ships 
 discharge or take in cargoes. Ships that only 
 take in water or refreshments lie in the other 
 anchorage, A lighthouse, furnished with double 
 lights, stands on the shore, near the W, extremity 
 of the bay, about 2 m. NW. the town. The 
 greater part of the connnerce of the colony centres 
 at Cape Town, (»nil the returns of trade given in 
 the preceding article apply as well to tbe town as 
 to the colony. 
 
 Hritish residents in India frequently resort to the 
 ("ape for their health; and the town h.is generally 
 thea|ipearance of bustle and gaiety ; balls and the 
 theatre are tbe favourite amusements. The envi- 
 rons of the Cape are very ])icturesipic, an<l between 
 it and the mountains wliich surround it, many 
 handsome private gardens have been laid out. 
 The people of Cape Town, in connnon with those 
 of the other parts of the colony, distinguished 
 themselves in 18l!>, by their uncoii:i)romisiiig and 
 successful ojiposition to the ill-advised attempt of 
 the government to send convicts to the colony. 
 
 Cape Town was founded by the Dutch in 1 (>.")(•, 
 and remained subject to them until taken by the 
 Hritish in 171).'). It wis restored by the treaty of 
 Amiens, but being again captured by the Itritisli 
 in 1800, was linally ceded to us with the rest of 
 the colon v in 1815. 
 
 CAI'O'D'ISTHIA (an. JE(jifln),a. sea-port town 
 of lllyria, gov. Trieste, circ. Istria, on a small 
 islan(l in the Gulf of Trieste, connected with the 
 main land by a causewav 4 m. in length, 8 m. S. 
 Trieste. Pop. 9,18{i in 1857. The town is forti- 
 fied and defended by u citadel, and contains a 
 catheilral, with about 30 other churches, and seve- 
 ral handsome buildings ; but the streets are narrow, 
 and have a gloomy appearance. It is the scat of 
 a bishopric, and has some superior schools, and a 
 prison. Its inhab. manufacture salt, leather, and 
 soap, and trade besides in wine, oil, and fish. The 
 town is ill supi)lied with water, and not remarkably 
 healthy. Its harbour is large, but little freiiuented 
 except by fishing boats. Capo d'lstria belonged, 
 in the middle ages, alternately to the Venetians 
 and the Genoese. 
 
 CAl'l'OQL'IX, an inl. town of Ireland, co. 
 Waterford, prov. IMunstcr, on tbe Hlackwater, 105 
 m. SW. l>v S. Dublin. Pop. iu 1821, 1,820; in 
 1831,2,28b; and 1,77-i in 1801. It will be seen 
 from these figures that the ])op. is declining. The 
 town, which was a place of some celebrity in the 
 wars of 1041, is finely situated (m the N. bank of 
 the river, over which it has a wooden bridge. The 
 public buildings are, a church, a Homun C'atholic 
 chapel, and a school-house. Petty sessions are 
 liehl every alternate week, and a party of the con- 
 stabulary is stationed here. At iMoimt Melleray, 
 near the town, is an abbey of Trappists, who re- 
 moved thither from France. Fairs are held on 
 
648 
 
 CAPRI 
 
 l7th Mnnli. Slnt Mnv, Tilli July, 20th Soptnnbrr, 
 niid '2!)lli Octolicr. 'hw. tido IIdwh up llu* Hliu^k- 
 walcrto tliis plncc ; l)iil llio iinvipilioii to Lisiiiurv 
 in I'liictiv by a I'liiinl four miles lonj;. 
 
 ("Al'kl (nil. Ciipriw), a Miniill islnud liclonniiif; 
 to Italy, oil the 8, Hide of tlic, ontraiirc to the 
 (iiilf ol^ Nttjilcs, nliout 4 m. W. Cti\n' ('ani|iaiiclla 
 (an. I'mmimtorium MhierViv). I'op, !I,2()0 in 
 isCi'i. 'I'liit island is alxmt 10 m. in cirr., and is 
 niostlv SMiToiiniUtd by lofty iicrpcndicuiar clitVs, 
 It prini^ipally fonsists of two ffccnt masses of 
 niKfrp<l calcarcinis rocks; but though tlic larj^cst 
 |iorlion of its surface be wild and ini]iraclicable, it 
 IS in parts very fertile ; and tbese beiii{^ cultivated 
 with great assiduity yield the linest crops, with 
 the choicest graj)e», olives, and other fruits. Hut 
 the most valuable product of Capri is its stock 
 doves and quails, particularly the latter, which at 
 certain seasons of the year are caught in vast 
 numbers. Hows of nets are placed across every 
 break in the woods, or chasm in the rocks, to in- 
 tercept these birds in their annual tlights; and the 
 quantity taken is almost incredible. 
 
 Capri is famous in history from having been for 
 about 10 years the retreat of Tiberius, who here 
 abandoned himself to debaucheries, while his pro- 
 scriptions filled liomo with blood. The tyrant 
 was most i)robably led to select this sjwt for his 
 favoured residence, as well from the dilHculty of 
 its access as from the mildness and salubrity of the 
 climate, and the unrivalled magniticence of the 
 prospects which it affords. He is said to have 
 built no fewer than 12 villas in different parts of 
 the island, some close by the sea, and others in 
 more elevated situations. (Tacit. Annal., iv. § 67.) 
 After his death, these were destroyed by order of 
 the senate; but the ruins of some of them still re- 
 main; and the sculptures found in these, and the 
 medals that have been dug up, go far to establish 
 the accuracy of what would otherwise "ajipear to be 
 the singularly exaggerated statements of Tacitus 
 and Suetonius, as to the private life of the em- 
 peror. 
 
 There are two towns on the island, Anacapri, 
 near its W. (see Anacaphi), and Capri, the caj)., 
 on its SK. shore. The latter, situated on the ac- 
 clivity of a ridge, has about 1,200 inhab., and a 
 cathedral and some other churches. 
 
 CAPUA (an. Cupoa or Capita), a city of 
 Southern Italy, prov. Caserta, Terra di Lavoro, 
 cap. cant., on the left bank of the Voltorno, in a 
 fine plain, 18 m. N. Naples, on the railway from 
 Kome to Naples. Pop. 10,713 in 18(52. The town 
 was fortilied by Vauban ; has a strong citadel, and 
 is reckoned one of the keys of the khigdom. It 
 has 3 principal streets, 2 magnificent gates, 2 fine 
 squares, and 3 public fountains. The principal 
 public buildings arc the cathedral, the cupola of 
 which is supported by 18 antique columns, the 
 church of the Annunciation, the palace of the 
 governor, the Hotel de Ville, the barracks, and the 
 theatre. It is the scat of an archbishopric ; has 
 no fewer than 18 parish churches, several convents 
 for both sexes, a royal college, a seminary, a mili- 
 tary school, and 4 hospitals. A great fair is 
 annually held on the 2Cth November. 
 
 The ancient Cai)ua was situated about 2^ m. 
 from the modem city, which lia.s nothing in com- 
 mon with the former, except that it was partly 
 built out of its ruins. The remains of its amphi- 
 theatre, said to have been capable of containing 
 100,000 spectators, and of some of its tombs attest 
 its ancient splendour and magnificence. The con- 
 siderable town of Santa Maria di Capua occupies 
 part of the spacious enclosure of the old city. The 
 amazing fertility of its territory, and the com- 
 mercial spirit of its inhabitants, rendered Capua 
 
 CARAVACA 
 
 one of the largest and ric-licst cities of ancient 
 Italy. Its citizens wannly espoused the side of 
 Hannibal, and that great general tiHiU up his 
 winter (piarters here after the campaign .tf ('anna'. 
 It has been said that this was a false step; that he 
 ought to have marched <lirect from ('aiiine to 
 Kome; and that his soldiers, enfeebled by their 
 residence in this luxurious city, henceforth lost 
 their former superiority. Hut there seems to be 
 little or no foundation for these statements. Han- 
 nibal, though victorious at C'annn>, was so far 
 from being able to attack Home, that be was rc- 
 ])ulscd in an attempt upon Naples ; and the fact, 
 that he maintained himself, without assistance 
 from home, for a dozen years in Italy after he had 
 wintered in Capua,and defeated, during that period, 
 several Homan armies, completely negatives the 
 idea of his troops having been enervated. It was 
 hardly, perhaps, necessary to say so much on such 
 a point, the authority of Hannibal being of in- 
 comparably greater weight than that of those win. 
 have presumed to find fault with his proceedings. 
 The old city was destroyed by the baruarinns , 
 
 CAHACAS, an inland city of Colombia, cap. of 
 the repiib. of Venezuela, prov. Caracas, in a moun- 
 tain valley nearly 2,!t()0 fl. above the level of tlui 
 sea, 12 m. SSK. La Giiavra ; hit. It'® 30' N., long, 
 f>l)° r)5' W. Pop, estimated at 50,000. The city 
 is finely situated, and in the enjoyment of a tem- 
 perate and healthy though variable climate ; but it 
 IS exposed to the attacks of earthquakes ; it has 
 the advantage of lieing nearly surrounded by the 
 Giiayra and several other rivulets, which supply 
 many public and private fountains, and wash the 
 streets. It is well and regularly built; the streets 
 arc sufliciently wide, paved, and cross each other 
 at right angles; there are several squares, the 
 priiuapal of which, the Plaza Mayor, has the ca- 
 thedral on the E,, the university on the S,, and 
 the priscm on the W. side ; but is disfigured by 
 ranges of low shojjs collected in ita centre, where 
 the fruit, vegetable, and fish markets are held. 
 Most of the public buildings are of a religious cha- 
 racter; the cathedral is spacious but heavily built, 
 and it is probably to this circumstance that its 
 preservation was owing during the great earth- 
 quake of 1812. Previously to that year there 
 were 8 other churches, the handsomest of which, 
 Alta Gracia, was built by people of colour ; but 
 this and the other churches, nine-tenths of the 
 houses in the city, and between 9,000 and 10,000 
 inhab., were totally destroyed by the terrible ca- 
 tastrophe that then hajipcned. There are 3 con- 
 vents, 2 nunneries, and 3 hospitals; besides a 
 theatre capable of holding perhaps 1,800 persons, 
 the pit of which is not roofed. The houses in Caracas 
 are at present inferif)r to what they were before 
 the earthquake of 1812, at which period those of 
 the iijiper classes were also very well furnished : 
 they are now chiefly of siui-dried clay or mud, the 
 roofs tiled, and the walls whitewashed. La Guayra, 
 which is the port of Caracas, is the chief trading 
 town in Colombia; but its merchants are for tlm 
 most part the agents of others in Caracas, and all 
 negotiations are conducted in the capital. This 
 city was founded by Diego Loseda in 1.567, and, 
 under the S)ianish government, was the scat of 
 the captain-general of Venezuela. 
 
 CAKAVACA, a town of Spain, prov. ]\Iurcia, 
 42 m. \VN\V. Murcia, and 64 m. NE. Granada, 
 on a river, and at the foot of a mountain ridge, 
 both of the same name. Pop. 6,84(( in 1857. 
 The to'wn has four convents, three hospitals, and a 
 Jesuits' college. The remains of the ancient 
 castle of Santa Cniz are on a height commanding 
 the to%vn. In a mountain on the VV. is the cavern 
 of Barquilla and its beautiful stalactites. The 
 
CARCAJENTE 
 
 vicinity contnins mnrlilcs of various colours, nnd 
 ])ro(lu('(>H ({mill, ])iils(<, wine, oil, li('iii|), tinx, 
 rn/itirti) or S|iuiii,sh ru«ii, and iMisturc for «hc('p and 
 gouts. 
 
 (.'AKdAJKXTK, a town of Spain, jirov. Va- 
 lencia, 7 m. NXK. San Fdipp. Pop. H.MoO in 
 1H57. Tlic town is in tlic centre of a larjje pliiin, 
 planted with wliite niulherry trees, and interseclcil 
 liy canals. Its streets are spacions, and the coin- 
 fiirtalde appearance of the houses announces tlie 
 prosperity of the place. Many Konian remains 
 are tound here. Its vicinity produces silk, whent, 
 maize, jmlse, rice, ahundanue of oranyes, pome- 
 granates, niul garden stuD's. 
 
 (JAKCASSONNK, a city of Franco, d(<p. Ando, 
 of which it is the cnp., on "the Aude l>y which it is 
 intersected; ii4 m, VV. Narhouue, on tlie railway 
 from Touhaiso to Narhonne. I'o]!. 20,015 in IHUi. 
 The town consists of two ])arts — the city, situate<l 
 on a hill on the right hank of the river, and the 
 new town, on a plain on its left hank, the com- 
 nnmication between them being maintained liy a 
 bridge of ten orches. The city, which is very 
 ancient, is Hurronndcd by do\ible walls, and has an 
 old cnstlc. The new town is well built; has broad 
 streets intersecting each other at right angles, a 
 Htpuire shaded by magniticcnt plane trees, and 
 ninnerous fountams. There is a tine promenade 
 along the canal. The fortitications l)y wliich the 
 new town was formerly surrounded have been de- 
 molished to make room for gardens and boule- 
 vards. Princi|)al public buildings— cathedral, with 
 a tine spire, the church of St. Lazarus in the city, 
 formerly the cathedral, the episcopal palace, the 
 hotel of the prefecture, the hotel de ville, the ba'- 
 racks, and the theatre. The halles or covered 
 markets are worth notice. It is the seat of a 
 bishopric ; has tribunals of primary jurisdiction 
 and commerce, a de])artmental college, a primary 
 normal sch.xtl, a diocesan seminary with 110 
 pu))ils, a secondary ecclesiastical school, a royal 
 society of agriculture, and a public library with 
 6,000 vols.: it has also a hospital and a work- 
 lioiise, Carcassonne has long been famous for its 
 manufacture of line woollen cloth, patronised bv 
 Colbert: this, however, has much falk-n olif, 
 though, exclusive of minor articles, it still fur- 
 nishes annually about 30,0((0 pieces of cloth, of 
 which about 24,000 are sold in France, and G,0()0 
 in the Levant. There are also fabrics of stock- 
 ings, linens, and soap ; with paper-works, distil- 
 leries, tanneries, and nail-works. Its commerce, 
 which is very considerable, is greatly facilitatecl 
 by the railway, as well as by the canal du Midi, 
 a branch from which comes to the town, and 
 serves it as a port. 
 
 Carcassonne is very ancient, having been of 
 considerable importance in the days of Ciesar. It 
 fell successively into the hands t>f the Visigoths 
 and Saracens, and sufterctl much during the wars 
 of the Albigenses. Its last count ceded it to 
 France in 1247. 
 
 CAKDIFF, or CAERDIFF, a pari. bor. and 
 sea-port of S. Wales, cap. co. Glamorgan, on the 
 E. bank of the Taafe, about IJ m. above its em- 
 bouchure in the estuary of the Severn, 25 m. W. 
 Bristol, and 170J m. W. London by Great Western 
 railway. Pop. 1870 in 1801; i0,077 in 1841; 
 and 32,954 in 18G1. The town consists of two 
 principal streets, at right angles to each other; 
 behind these there are several courts, alleys, and 
 lanes of very inferior houses; nnd some new 
 streets, mostly occupied b}' Irish labourers. The 
 castle, on the N. side of the town, is of great an- 
 tiquity ; it is in excellent repair, and is partlv oc- 
 cupied by its proprietor, the Slarqnis of' lUitc. 
 Besides the church of St. John, which has a lofty 
 
 CARDIOAN 
 
 (140 
 
 tower, there are places of worship for Baptists, 
 Methodists, Independents, Ac. There is here, also, 
 a CO, gaol, a guildhall, where the assi/.cs are held, 
 a theatre, a bridge over t lie Taafe, of live arches, 
 and numerous schools and charllies, ('ardilV has 
 become, a |)lace of very cnnsiilerable Iru.le, being, 
 in fact, the port of IVterthyr Tydvil, an<l of the 
 principal mining district of S, Wales, The ex- 
 ))orts of iron amount to about riOO,(Hli) tons n year, 
 and those of coal to lu-arly a inillioii tons. In the 
 year I8t!:t, there chared at the port l.tdO llritisli 
 vessels, of 404,221 tons, and 2,M7.'( fureign vessels, 
 of (157,5:10 tons. The products of Merthyr anil 
 Aberdare are bnmghr, to CardilV by railway, and 
 by the Glamorganshire canal, which imites with 
 the sea about I m. below the town, and by the 
 Taafe Vale railway. Ihit as the canal was' con- 
 structed about tifty years ago, its basin did not. 
 all'ord sullicient accommodation for the vastly in- 
 creased traftic of th(! place. To obviate this in- 
 convenience, the late Marquis of Bute con- 
 structed, at his own expense, a ship canal and 
 docks a little below the town. These works nro 
 on the most magnilicent scale. The inner basin 
 occupies a space of not less than eighteen acres ; 
 and there is an outer basin occu|>ying a space of 
 about 14 acre, for the accommodation of sbijis and 
 steamers of large burden. Thes(( great works 
 have done mucli to increase the trade and im- 
 portance of Cardiff. And also the fortune of their 
 jiroprietor. The hmits of the pari, and mimicipal 
 boundaries coincide, and comprise an extent of 
 1,191 acres. It is joined with the bors. of Vaav- 
 bridge and Llantrisscnt, in sending one member 
 to the II. of C. Previously to tl;e Reform Act, 
 the franchise was vested in the l)urgesses. l!e- 
 gistcred electors 2,195 in 18ti5. IMarkets, Wed- 
 nesday and Saturday; fairs, Juno 29, Sept. 19, 
 Nov. 30. 
 
 CAKDIGAX, a marit. co. of S. Wales, stretch- 
 ing in the form of a crescent, along the SK. shorn 
 of Cardigan Bay, having X, the cos. of Merhtneth 
 and Montgomery; E,, Radnor and Brecon; and 
 S., Caermarthen and Pembroke. Area 4;>2,000 
 acres; pop. 97,401 in IHOl. Surface mountainous 
 and hilly, interspersed, however, with several lino 
 valleys, of which the ])rincipal arc those of the 
 Teify, or Tcivy, Kheidiol, and Ystwith, so called 
 from the rivers, the largest in the co,, by wliich 
 they are intersected. The soil along the shore of 
 this CO., particularly between Llan L'hystyd and 
 Llan Non, is a light sanily loam, and is, perhaps, 
 the finest turnip and barley soil in the einiiire ; it 
 is, in fact, in some places alleged to have pro- 
 duced, with little or no manure, an uninterrupted 
 succession of good, or at least tolerable barley 
 cro])s, for a period reaching beyond the memor\' 
 of man. (I)avies's S. Wales, i. 103.) But this 
 continued succession of corn crops has unhappily 
 been tried in places where the soil is less caiiablo 
 of supporting such abusive treatment; and, alto- 
 gether, agriculture is here at a very low ebb, 
 being quite as far behind, if not more so, than in 
 Caermarthen, which see. Estates of all sizes, 
 from the smallest patches, which in some districts 
 are very numerous, up to several thousands a year. 
 Farms similarly divided. Silver, lead, and copper 
 have all been found in Cardiganshire ; and at one 
 time the silver mines were an object of great at- 
 tention, and yielded a considerable produce ; but 
 for a lengthened period they have been wholly 
 abandoned, and little or no attention is now paid 
 to those of copper and lead. Slates are quarried 
 in different parts of the co., and are largely ex- 
 ported from Cardigan and Aberj'stwith, INIanu- 
 factures unimportant. Principal towns, Cardigan, 
 Aberystwith, IVegaron, and Lampeter. At the 
 
 i! 
 
e«0 CARDKIAX 
 
 Inxt montionoil plncn in n <:oIIi<(;p, ONtnMiMlipil in 
 |H2'2, lor tli«i (><\u('iilii)ii (if the Wclnh clcr^jviiicii. 
 ('iir(li^')iii.-4liiri> cuiitiiiiiN i\vi\ liiiiiiU, niut Hixly-livi- 
 ])arH., mill liail 15,7*^1 itiliiil). Iumihch in iHtil. It 
 rt'tiirns iiiii> mom, to tlio II. of (', lor tint co., iind 
 ono lor thi> liorx. of Canlifjun, AlicryHtwitli, l^am- 
 pctcr, ami Ailpar. IJt'>{ii*t»'ri'ii flcctors lor tliis en., 
 il,|H(» in I Mill, Amount anrntHMiMl to properly tax, 
 I'.IM,177/. in IHiil ; grosH rental UNH«!«8f(l to poor 
 rale, HW.-lM. 
 
 ('aiiuiuan, a m<n-]Mirt and ]mrl. Iior. ofS, WaloM, 
 rap. CO, CanliKiin, on the N. Iianii ol" the Teivy, 
 h m. from its eniltonehnrein St. <ieor){e'N Cliannel, 
 lim m. WNW. London, I'op, it.olii in I hi; I. Tliu 
 principal Htrcet is H|ia(:i<iiiH, lint the oIIuth are nar- 
 row and irrepilar, and the town cMintaiiiH a large 
 proportion of Hinall, mean tcnieinentH. Hecently, 
 however, not only the innnlier of hoiiseH has been 
 H good (leal increased, lint their (pialily has also 
 lieen materially improved. A stone liridge cross(!s 
 the river, and connects the town with Itridgend, 
 in remlirokushire ; and there is another bridge 
 across a deep iidet of the river on the W. siilo 
 of the town. It has an ancient church, a free 
 granmiar-school for thirty boys, ii national and 
 another charity school (in which l.'iO children are 
 (■ducntc<l), n handsome co. hall And a co, gaol. 
 Two towers, the romninH of its ancient castle, still 
 exist on a commanding site above the river, 
 I^Iarket, Saturday ; annual fairs, Feb, 13th, April 
 «th, Sept, (ith, and Dec, l!)th. The town has no 
 manufacture 4if any conseijncnce. A bar at the 
 river's mouth is a great impediment to navigation, 
 and makes the entrance to the harbour very dan- 
 gerous in rough weather. In moderate weather, 
 and at spring tides, vessels of from UOO to 400 tons 
 may come up to the town ; but the general trade 
 is coiillned to vessels of from 16 to 100 tons. 
 There belonged to the port, on the 1st of January, 
 ]H()1, 118 sailing vessels under, and (i!) sailing 
 vessels above £0 tons. Total toimngc, 10,193, 
 There were no steamers. Ivxports, slate, corn, 
 and butter ; imjiorts, coal, culm, timl)cr, and deals, 
 limestone, and articles of g(*neral consumption. 
 
 Cardigan, conjointly with Aberystwilli, Lam- 
 peter, and Adpar, returns I mem. to the II, of C, 
 Previously to the Keform Act, the franciiise (in 
 Cardigan) was vested in the burgesses, who were 
 created by being presented by a jury of burgesses 
 at the court of the corporation, Kegistered electors 
 11)7 in 18(12, The town is divided into 2 wards, 
 and governed by a mayor, aldemicu, and coun- 
 cillors, 
 
 (;AI{I)()NA, a fortified town of Spain, Cata- 
 lonia, in a rugged country on the Cardanet, 55 m, 
 NW, Barcelona, Pop, 3,000 in 1857. Near the 
 town on the S\V., is a mountain of solid rock-salt, 
 which neither the erosion caused by the ruins, nor 
 the mining operations that have been continued 
 foi- ages, seem to have power mater.ally to dimin- 
 ish. (See Oatau»nia.) Being exceedingly hard, 
 the rock is tirst blasted with gunpowder, and after- 
 wards dug out with pickaxes : it is then ground, 
 and laid up in the government storehouses. Vases, 
 crucitixes, and other articles are made out of it, 
 ■which stand very well in the atmosphere of Spain, 
 but soon liquefy in a moist climate. 
 
 CAKENTAN, a town of France, dep. LaManche, 
 cap. cant., on the Tante, near its embouchure, 16 
 m, NNVV, St, Lo. Pop. 8,1 10 in 1861. The town 
 is situated in the middle of a marsh, and is indif- 
 ferently fortilied, and mdiealthy. Small vessels 
 come iip to the town, which has some manufac- 
 tures of lace and cotton. 
 
 CAUIACO, a marit. town of Venezuela, prov. 
 Cumana, in a large plain near the bead of the gulf 
 of the same name, 38 in, ENE. Cumuna; lat. 10° 
 
 CAUINTIIIA 
 
 30' X„ long, 03° 10' W, I'op, esliinnird al 7,500. 
 The town is snnill, and its cliniati! is nnheallhy ; 
 but it has some trade, and ils vicinity is exten 
 sivelv cultivated with cotton, 
 
 cAlMATI, a sea-port town of Sontlu-rn Italy, 
 prov, Cosen/.a, cap, cant., on a high iironiontory 
 wnsiied by the Ionian Sea, 18 m, SK, Itossann, 
 Pop, 3,133 in I8('i2, Though the seat ofu bishop- 
 ric, it IS a desolate, wretched-looking place, sur- 
 rounded by dilapidated walls, and having a castle 
 in ruins. Il has siilfered much from the attacks 
 of the Turks and Algerines, and more recenlly 
 from the depredations of brigands, who, in \x{\{\, 
 and again in l8)SI-.'i, made the caus(^ of legiliiniu'v 
 subservient to their own predatory purposes. It 
 is now, however, iM'ginniug to improve. The best 
 manna of Calabria is found in its environs, and 
 the rivers furnish llsh in aliiiudance. 
 
 CAHKiNANO, an iiil. town of N. Italy, jirov. 
 Turin, cuji. distr., on Ihi; left bank of the Pn, 
 which is liere crossed by a wooden bridge, 1 1 in, 
 S, Turin, Poii, 7, 111 2 in 18112. The town is sur- 
 rounded by old walls, has a haiidsoin(^ s«piare, ji 
 line church, several convents, two hospitals, and a 
 college, aiul some remains of its ancii^nl castle, A 
 good deal of silk is pnidiiced in the nelghbonrbooil, 
 and there are several lilatnres in the town, Carig- 
 naiio is also celebrated for its confectionery, II. 
 has been several times taken ; the French sacked 
 it in 1544, 
 
 CAHINI, a town of .Sicily, prov, Palermo, cap, 
 cant,, on the rivulet of the same name, nearwhere 
 it falls into the sea, 12 m, WNW, Palenno, Pop, 
 10,827 in 1802, The town stands on a rising 
 ground in a beautiful situation ; is a res|ie(^table 
 and clean town; and has a (iolbic castle, wiih 
 several churches, convents, and public buildings. 
 Near Curini are the ruins of the ancient Ifi/iTuru, 
 a small but rich city, sacked by Nicias, who, on 
 that occasion, captured Lais, the famous courte- 
 zan. 
 
 CAIIINTIIIA and CAUNIOLA ((}erm. Kiini- 
 tlien ond Krain) DuciiiKS hf, two contiguous in- 
 land provinces of the Austrian empire; the iortncr 
 Ixsing included in the ancient Norkum, and I lie 
 latter in lUyrirum : they now respectivclv form the 
 northern and central portions of the kingdoni of 
 Illvria as established in 1815, chicHv between lal. 
 45° 30' and 47° 10' N., and long. 12° 40' and VP 
 40' E, ; having N, Salzburg and Styria, E, Slyriii, 
 S. Croatia and Istria, and VV, a part of the govcrii- 
 racut of Trieste, the Lombardo-Veiietian kingdoni, 
 and the Tyrol, Area, 0,930 sq, ni, (320"09 (Jerm.). 
 Pop. of Carinthia 332,450, and of Carniola 45l,!Ml 
 in 1857. The pop, is more dense in the latter 
 than in the former province; there being 1,h44 in- 
 habitants to the Germ. sq. m. in Carinthia, and 
 2,004 in Carniola. These prova. coni|iose that 
 part of Illvria forming the goveniment of Lay- 
 bach, and are divided into 5 circles, viz. Carinthia 
 into Klagenfurt and Villach, or Lower and Upjier 
 Carinthia; and Carniola into those of Laybni'li, 
 Adelsberg, and Xeustadtl. The whole country is 
 mountainous : the great Alpine chain which passes 
 from the Tyrol through Styria into Hiuigary, 
 bounds Carinthia on the N., and its southern pa- 
 rallel chain, with its second rainitication, or the 
 Julian and Carnic Alps, run through the W. and 
 S. parts of Carniola, an(' :i '*« N. separate it from 
 Carinthia. The great A iiiue chahi consists in ils 
 whole extent of gran'tc, gneiss, ((iiartz, mica, and 
 clay-slate, and other primary rocks, and contniiis 
 many metallic ores ; the Carnic and Julian Alps 
 have chietly a calcareous formation, and the latter 
 abound with ravines, caverns, and grottos. They 
 are comparatively jioor in metallic produ(?ts. 
 There arc fertile valleys between the inount:iiii 
 
CARINTHIA 
 
 rnnKCd; hut tho pountry ^'Piipriilly in stprilo nnd 
 Ixin-, utid tlopH lint yii'lil piirii Piioii^rli for tlip phii- 
 Hiiiiiplioii (if itM iiiliuliitiiiitM, tilt! ilpliciciipy iH'iiii; 
 nin(tpii|i liy iMi|i(irtii from lliiii^mry. Cariiithin ix 
 iiiorp aliiiiiilaiitly watprpd tliaii Cariiiola: tlip 
 Dravp iiifprspptH tlie fonnpr i>ri>v. in its wliolc 
 IpiikIIi ; Dip Save ri^pH in tlip latter, and ruiiH with 
 a SK. coiirNP tliroufrli iiH N. and K. divisioiiH : iiotli 
 grpatiy ansiHt tlip trutHp (if iIiphp iiMvincps. 'I'licro 
 nrp Hcvpral modprat(!-Hi/.P(l Iujip.m, an tlip VVortliHpp, 
 Kftniaclipr-Hpc, MiililHtadtpr-Hcp, in thp central part 
 (if Cariiithin, and thp tlzirknil/cr-NPeand others in 
 tlip \V. nnd N\V. (inrtH (if ('ariiidla, lipsidps ninny 
 miiall onvN. The tpni]iprnturn dpppndH ehielly 
 upon thp plpvntion; Imt.pxeeptiii H, Caniinla, the 
 clinintn iti gpiiprnlly cold, nnd iinfavniirablp to 
 nKricultiiro. The Hiirfacp of thp conjoined jirovs. 
 ix tluiH dividptl: — Arable land, t>7H,9'Ji< Kiij;. acrpn; 
 viiiPvnrdH, 2it,901) do,; ineadowH nnd ganleiiH, 
 7!t2,015 do.; commoiiH. l,(wri,(Wl) do.; fore.stH, 
 2,174,177 do. : total, 4,7rtri,2Hr) do. 
 
 The rpnpectivc (pinntities of the chipf nftrieiil- 
 tiiral products arc Htnted to be — \Vh(n»t, HH, i;)l 
 Kii^. quarters ; rye, 187,201 do. ; barley, 12(i,M(i2(lo.; 
 oats, iir> 1,1)74 do. ; wine, H,3uO,*)()l Kn^. imp. pill. 
 
 VVbcat, barley, nnd wine are principnllv pro- 
 duced in Carniola; rve nnd oats in Cnrinthiii, 
 Ihickwhcat, millet, iiemp, anil tlax, an; also 
 grown, and the tlnx of Cnmioln is sniil to be the 
 best in thp empirp. Theoxtcntof surface devoted 
 to gnrdens and vineynrds in C'nrinthin is vpry in- 
 fprior to that so npproprintpd in Carniola, iii the 
 S. of which duchy the tiiiesi apricots, peaches, 
 ap|)lps, pears, and jihiins are producpd, besides a 
 coiisidprabic quantity of good wine. On the other 
 hand, in Cnrinthin, thp )insturp Innds are exten- 
 sive, and cnttlc nrp renrcd in much Inrgpr numbers 
 thnii in Cnmioln. The horses, which are large and 
 strong, arc bred mostly in the valley of the(jinil,nnd 
 clsewiiprpiiiUpiipr Cnrinthin. Thp sheep yield only 
 inferior wool, llogs and goats are |>lentiful. The 
 Alps nre inhabited by bear8,which make great havoc 
 amongst smnllcr animals. (Chamois, deer, hares, 
 and foxes are, however, found, as well as n grent 
 vnriety of feathered game. The rivers and lakes, 
 and especially the Drave and the Ossiacher-see, 
 abound with salmon, trout, nnd other .mqicriorlish. 
 Bees nre numerous, especially in S. Carniola ; of 
 late years the rearing of silk-wonns has increased. 
 The principal wealth of Cnrinthin is in the jtrodiu^e 
 of its mines. Iron is found throughout tlie whole 
 extent of the primary Aljiine chain, nnd is nlso 
 procured in the Cnrnic Alps. Copper is mined in 
 several places, but although the quantity of ore be 
 inexhaustible, the hardness of the stone in which 
 it is found and other difticulties oppose serious ob- 
 stacles to the attainment of any great supply of 
 metnl. The lead mine of the ore-mountain near 
 Villach is the largest and moat productive of that 
 metal in the empire: it yields annually 3;{,(l(IO 
 centner of pure metal : other mines in the duchy 
 nfford ycnrlv about 20,000 centner. Zinc, silver, 
 nnd qii'icksilvpr are likewise met with, and near 
 llllttenlierg antimony is found in conjunction with 
 iron. There are some iron and lead mines in Car- 
 niola, but those of the greatest importance in that 
 prov. are the celebrated ipiicksilver mines of Idria, 
 • the richest in Eurojie. Coal, peat, marble, build- 
 ing stone, various clays, talc, asbestos, jasper, 
 beryl, opal, emernld, garnets, nre found in various 
 parts of the country. The following shows the 
 average annual produce of some of the mines in 
 i)oth provinces: — liar iron, 27 1,925 cwt.; cast iron, 
 it,!)42 cwt. ; lead end lead ore, 60,893 cwc. ; copper, 
 78 cwt. ; coals, 49,(!14 cwt. 
 
 Manufacturing industry in Carinthia is mostly 
 confined to working up its raw produce, and cspe- 
 
 CAHirK 
 
 fi.-)l 
 
 cinlly it« metallic ores. There nre n great niimlM'r 
 of fiirniu'(>H and forges, ir(iii-|ilntp and steel -works. 
 Kesidps ttipsp, there are ii few wooIIpii, silk, and 
 cotton factiiries, sitiialeil cbietly at Klageiifiirl, 
 the capital of the province. In Carnioia tint 
 manufactures aiv tnon* iiii|K)rtaiit, altluiugli still 
 inferior in amniiiit to those in many ntlier Aus- 
 trian nroviiices. Most of the rural malt; popula- 
 tion tiillow linen weaving, in addition lo their 
 ngriciiltural occiipntions ; while their wives spin 
 tliread. liotli these articles art! gpiii'nilly coarse; 
 but there are Home tine linen and lai-e inaniil'nc- 
 tiirps, and ninny of woiillpii cloth, llannel, worsted 
 stockings, and leather. Iron niaiiiifiu'tiires, nnd 
 others of wooden articles, also occupy iiiaiiy liaiids ; 
 and in Layluich, the cM)iital of ('ariiiola, there is 
 n very extensive porcelain and earthenware fai;- 
 tory. The principal exports from Carniola are 
 steel wares, timlier, aiul wooden articles, glass 
 wares, linens, felt hats, wax, wine, lo Carinlliia ; 
 flour to Tru-stp ; and (|uicksilver to Lower AiiHtria. 
 Its imports are Hungarian and Italian wines, salt, 
 oil, fruit, colonial produce, with colVee, siignr, 
 vnrious mnniifactiired fabrics, tobacco, and a large 
 sujiply of horned cattle. The exjHirts of home 
 imMluce are not probably much below the value of 
 Us imports; but considerable wealth is derived to 
 the prov. from the traffic through it, and coiivey- 
 nnce of goods from Austria, Cariiitbia, Croatia, to 
 Trieste, and tho other ports on the Adriatic. The 
 town of CJott«cheer, where a (Jprman colony is 
 situatpd, has a remarkable conimcrcinl activity, 
 nnd it» goods nre widely dilViised over Hungary 
 nnd the N\V. provinces of the empire, as well lis 
 in many other parts of KiiroiK' : Laybach, the cap., 
 is the other chief |)lace of trade. Tlie exports of 
 Carinthia are almost coiilinedto its raw and innnu- 
 facturcd mineral ]irodiicts, and cattle. Klageii- 
 fiirt, the ca|>., and Villach, nre its principnl com- 
 mercinl towns. The iiihnb. of these jirovs. arc, 
 mostly of the Slavonian nice, denominated Weiidcs 
 or Vandals; in C '.nthia, however, those oftJer- 
 mnn nre to those 01 ' !nvoninn st(H;k as 172 to 9;"). 
 The Drave formerly sttparatcd the two races. 
 Carinthia and Carniola have each their own pro- 
 vincial diet, formed in the same manner as that 
 of the other provinces of the Pinpire. (See Afs- 
 THiA.) The high criminal and other judicial courts 
 of Cnrinthin are at Klagpiifiirt. The Liithernu 
 religion made considerable progress in this jirov. 
 in the Kith century, until checked by the govern- 
 ment: there are now scarcely 20,000 Vrotestniiis. 
 mostly in Upjier Carinthia. The whole jMip. of 
 Carniola is Itoman Catholic — n robust, contentnl, 
 and frugal peopU;, The Cnrinthiniis hnve, to a 
 grent extent, the character and disposition of 
 Italians. They are said to be more inclined to in- 
 dolence than their Houthern neighbours, and are 
 often igiiornnt and suiierstitioiis. Hoth pro\s. 
 fonned parts of the empire of (Iharlemagiie, jiiul 
 aftenvards bphiiig(Ml to the dukes of Friiili. After 
 ]iassing through various hands, the house of Aus- 
 tria became possessed of Carniola in 1245, and of 
 Carinthia in 132 1. In 1809 these countries were 
 annexed to the empire of NajMileon, and remained 
 connected with it till 1814, when they were re- 
 stored to Austria. 
 
 CAKIPK, a town and valley in Venezuela, prov. 
 Curaniia, 40 m. SE, that city. The town is the 
 chief seat of the Chnyina Indian missions. The 
 valley is celebrated for a remarkable (tavern in ii 
 limestone formation, at least 2,800 ft. in depth, 
 and for some distance CO or 70 ft. high. It is in- 
 habited by multitudes of birds, called giiacliaros, 
 a species of Caprimulgua, the young of which arc 
 annually destroyed in great numbers by the In- 
 dians, for the sake of the fat with which the lining 
 
6ft2 
 
 CAIlI.snUOOKK 
 
 CARTJSLK 
 
 nicnilirnnn of tlirir nliddtnoii in liiilcii, nnd of wliich 
 fxccllciil nil U rniiito. Iliinilioldt vi.'^ilnl tliitt ca- 
 vern. (See liJH I'lTrKiiinl Niirriilivc, vol. ii.) 
 
 CAIilSHKOOKK.iiixir.aiHlvilliiKcit Kii^'lniul, 
 IhIc of WiKht, lilxTty \V. iMcdina, hifimlcd liy n 
 riviilft, at (lin banu of a coiiiral hill, NiirtiKiiinlod 
 l)y its ca.HlIc or fortri'sn, 7« ni. S\V. Loiidnii. Area 
 oi'imr.K.HOO acres: |)o)i. of do. ".riO'J in IHiIj, Some 
 liorlioiiM of tlie f<irlri'MH anM'cry (d<l; Imt it was 
 reiMiired and fjreatly aiiKniented in the reiK" "f 
 l')li/,alielh. The walls of llie old fortress (a |iaral- 
 lelo(;rani enclosini; an area of 1^ acre, with its 
 kee]) in the centre) are com|)rised within the more 
 modern fort ilicat ions, which enclose an area of 
 ahont twenty acres. The latter hav(( live hastions 
 and a deep moat, and are (M)nn(-cted with a line 
 tt'rrace nearly I m. in leiif^tli. 'I'he |iar. chnrch 
 Htands on an acclivity oi)|Misite the castle: it is a 
 Nonnun Htrnctnre, orijcinally attacheil to a Cis- 
 tercian inonastc^ry, founded in thiv reif^n of the 
 ( lonqiieror ; some remains of whi<'li exist at a farm- 
 house on its site. The most, celelirated event in 
 the annals of C'ari»brooke( last le is tli(>con<inement 
 of (Charles I. for thirteen months within its walls, 
 innnediately ])revious to his heinfc delivere.l np to 
 the ])arli)niientary forces. Snhsequently, liis <'hil- 
 dren were also iniprisonetl in this castle; and his 
 eldest danj^htcr dieil in it, at the ajjc of tiftecn. Ft 
 continues to he the residence and head-quarters of 
 the {governor of the Isle of Wi>;ht; and a consider- 
 nhlc body of troops are iisi.ally stationed in it. 
 There are many pleasant villas scattered over the 
 parish ; within' which, also, is the general work- 
 house of tha island. 
 
 CAIM^KK, a small villapo of Ilindostan, prov. 
 Aiirungahad, Jl-t m. N\V. I'oonah, near wliich are 
 Home remarkalilu cave-temples, ex(;avated in a 
 Hpiir from a chain of hills running K. and W. ; the 
 chief cavern is said to he (),()(I0 ft. above the level 
 of the sea, and faces due AV. A little to the left, 
 before the entrance, stands a large pillar, sur- 
 mounted by three sculptured lions back to back. 
 The temjdc is entered under a noble horse-shoe 
 arch, through a small square door^vay in a kind of 
 portico screen, wliich in great part tills up the 
 arch, and abounds with laboured workmanship. 
 To one third of its height, it is covered with va- 
 rious figures in bas-relief; and one of these in a 
 dancing attitude is exceedingly graceful : the ends 
 of this screen arc occupied to the same height with 
 the figures of gigantic elephants, projecting in alto- 
 relievo, and well carved. After entering the cave, 
 which is 40 paces long by 14 broad, Mrs. Graham 
 observes, ' when we looked round, wc almost fan- 
 cied ourselves in a Gotliic cathedral.' Unlike the 
 liuddhic cave-temples of ISaug, J'^llora, &c., tlie 
 roof is arched, rising to an astonishing height, suji- 
 ported by twenty-one pillars along each side, and 
 above these by ribs of teak, whicli are fitted by 
 teeth into corresponding holes in the rock above. 
 I'he pillars are mostly hexagonal, each with a bell- 
 fdiapcd capital, surmounted by two elephants with 
 their trunks entwined, and each carrying one 
 female, and two male, ligures. On several of the 
 columns there are inscriptions, wliich have recently 
 been translated (see Journal of the Asiat. Soc. of 
 Bengal, vol. iii,), and from one of them it would 
 appear that this temple was constructed a.v. 17G. 
 The cave is semicircular at its termination : oppo- 
 site, the entrance is a structure with a dome, on 
 whi'cli is fixed a huge teak umbrella, an ornament 
 common in the temples of Buddha ; but no sepa- 
 rate cells, opening from the main temple, have 
 been noticed, though such have been supjiosed cha- 
 racteristic of Buddhic structures, ((iraham. Journal 
 of a Kesid, in India, pp. (13-65.) 
 
 CAKLENTINI, a town of fciicily, prov. Syracuse, 
 
 The 
 
 10 m. \W. Syracuse. I'on. Mi'il in IHfi2. 
 town was bnil't by Charles V. lor the head-fpiarlcrs 
 of the Sicilian army; hut the dcNign was never 
 completed, and since the earilifmake of lti!):i, by 
 which il was partially destroyed, it has beconii' a 
 miserable place. 
 
 CAI.'MNtiKOKI), a sea-port town of Ireland, 
 CO. I.oiilh, on th(! S. sid(> of Carlingford lough, Ml 
 m. IC. Pundalk. I'op. of town 777, and of parish 
 7,()il!) in iHdl, Carlingford lough isN m. in depth, 
 by from 1 to 1^ m. wide, with deep water ami 
 se<;ure anchorage, but being situated between lofty 
 nioinitains, is liable to sudden srpialls. The hiir 
 at the entrance has H ft. water at low-water springs, 
 17 ft. at ordinarv high water, and '2i> ft. at springs. 
 This bay is well stocked with <'Xcelleiil oysters, 
 the lishing of which employs most part of the pop, 
 of Carlingford. The town relumed 'i mcnis, to 
 the Irish parliament, but was disfranchised at the 
 Union. 
 
 CAKMSLK.a city of England, eo. Cumberland, 
 on a gentle eminence, in an exl(^nsive plain at the 
 continence of tlu^ Kdeii.Calilew, iind I'eteril, which 
 nearly surround it; ^i'lO m. NNW. London byroad, 
 and 'MOk m. by London and North- Western rail- 
 way. Ihe pop, of the citv was l(t.'221 in l«(l| ; 
 'A012 in IHII; and 2!VH'7 in iWil, The gnat 
 increase of pop, is attributed to the iiicre<ise of ma- 
 nufactures, and tim influx of Irishmen and Scotch- 
 men to tlie mills and railroads. 
 
 The Eden is crossetl by an elegant bridge, finished 
 in IK17, consisting of ilve large and five smaller 
 arches ; the Caldew has two bridges, and the smaller 
 stream of the I'eteril one. The principal streets 
 iliverge from the market-place, an irregular area 
 in the mi(Ulle of the town : though not regularly 
 arranged, scsveral of them are well built, and thcv 
 are generally well |)aved and lighted, ami plenti- 
 fully supplied with water. 
 
 Carlisle is the seat of a bishopric, founded by 
 Henry I., and remodelled by Henry VI. I, after 
 the (lissolution of the monasteries, with whosc! 
 lands he largely endowed it. 'Ihe ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction extends over O.'t pars., containing the 
 wli(de of W^estmoreland and great part of Ciinibcr- 
 land. The revenues of the see amount at an ave- 
 rage to 4,600/. jier annum. The cathedral, having 
 been repaired at different periods, exhibits various 
 kinds of architecture ; the E. window is said to he 
 the finest specimen of the kind in England. The 
 dignitaries, besides the bishop, are a dean, 4 pre- 
 bendaries, and 8 minor canons. The nave of tlu! 
 cathedral forms the parochial church of St. ISIary : 
 that of St, Cuthbert is a plain buihiing, erected in 
 1778. There are three other churches, and places 
 of worship for I'resbyterians, Independents, two 
 denominations of Methodists, Baptists, I{. Catho- 
 lics, and the Society of Friends, The grammar- 
 school was founded by Henry VIII. There are 
 also Lancastrian and national schools, St. Patrick's 
 school for educating 400 children of all denomina- 
 tions, and a school of indiistrj- for females. The 
 county inlirmary is in the town, and it has a fever 
 hosjrttal and a dispensary. An academy for the 
 encouragement of the fine arts was formed' in 1822, 
 a mechanics' histitute in 1824, and a literary aiicl 
 philosophical institution in 1835: a handsome 
 building, erected in 183!), for the accommodation 
 of these societies, contains a museum and a theatre 
 for lectures. There are two subscription libraries 
 and news-rooms — one of the latter, a chaste new 
 building, opened in 1831 — and several weekly 
 newspapers. The environs afford many delightl'iil 
 rides and walks, liaces take place in autumn at 
 the Swifts, a fine course on the S. bank of the 
 Eden. The ancient castle, which stands on an 
 eminence over the river, consists of on outward 
 
CARLISLK 
 
 anil imuT wnll, rnrli i<( >;n'iit ihickni'sH, nnd of n 
 ^rt'iit N((ii!ir<' towiT, t'liiiNtriictcil at't'uriliii); In llic 
 niu'iciil iniiili' III' (U'l'('ii('i>. 'I'liv ruiiipiirlM ('tiininnnil 
 
 11 very line view. It Im now u.st'il only im uii iii- 
 I'aiiiry luimit'k and ariiiniiry, 
 
 ('arli»l«t in a ctiriioralion liy iircwriptioii ; and 
 olitaiiii'd fiinlinnationM and cNtcnMionH ul' its privi- 
 It'^i'i* liy a NcricM of |H t'liarlfr.x, ItTminalin^ wild 
 li'i ChnrlcM I., which was tiic pivcrnin^ charttT. 
 Under the nt'w municipal ncl, Ihc ^itvcnnnciit irt 
 vt'Mlcd in n mayor, ID aldermen, and ill) common- 
 cMinncilmen, cluwcn annually hy ihe rate-pnyers. 
 There are eiKlit nuiiilH or fraternities of trades, 
 admiMHiun into any of which Im hy hirth or ap- 
 prehliceship only; and admiMsion into one of the 
 ^riiijils in a preliminary reipiiMite to Ihe freedt)m of 
 the citv. Carlisle has sent 2 mem. to the II. of ('. 
 Hiiice tiie rei;;n of Ivlward I.: the riKht of election, 
 previously to the Itefnrm A<'t, hein^ in resident 
 and non-resident freemen. 'I'he lioiindaries of Ihe 
 pari, hor, were e.xtendetl hy the llonndary Act, so 
 as to emhrace, not merely the city, hut alsit 
 the suhurhs and ii cousiderahle contiguous cinde. 
 lienistered electors I,4IH in IHlia, of whom .'litl 
 freemen. The election of memherti fur the K. 
 division of the co. is also held here. 
 
 The court of the mayor and hailiIVs sits weekly, 
 and holds jiersonal ]ileas to any amount. I'etty 
 Hcssions are held on Wednesdays and .Saturdays. 
 A foimty court is also estahlished here. There is 
 no city K'lol, prisoners heiu); coidincd in the county 
 gaol, an extensive and well-constructed huilding 
 at the S. entrance to the city, or in the house of 
 correctitai : asuhterranean passage, through which 
 the |irisoners are hrought to trial, connects hoth 
 these plaiies of confinement with the county courl- 
 liouso. The comity assi/.es, and the quarter ses- 
 ttions, nt Kaster and Alidsiimmer, are held in this 
 hiiildin^, which was erected in IK Id on the site of 
 the ancient citadel : it has two maj^iiilicent towers. 
 The revenues of the corporation amounting itl 
 imil to ;(,:((■)!)/. — exclusivo of the jirolits of the pis 
 works, which lielong to the corporation — arise from 
 lolls, rents, and shares in |)uliliu companies. 
 
 The huildin^'s for cor|iorato and other piihlic 
 purposes conneclod with the ^covernineiit of the 
 jilace, arc the town-hall, guildhall, and eouncil- 
 chanihcr. Cotton is the sta|ilu mamifacturo of the 
 town, em))loyiiig ahout 2,0U(t hands. The hatting 
 trade is also extensive ; and there are several 
 dye-works, jirint-works, iron-foundries, tan-yai'ds, 
 and breweries. (Joal for manufacturing and do- 
 mestic purjMtses is hrought from (.iilsland, V2 m. 
 distant; and from other collieries, about 20 m. 
 distant. A eonsiderahlc ])art of the manufacturing 
 pop. of Carlisle used to he in a very di^ircssed con- 
 ilitioii ; but, on the whole, the city is thriving, and 
 il.s general as]icct is good. Its situation, on the 
 great N. W. line of railway from London and 
 Manchester to tilasgow and Edinburgh, gives 
 great facilities to its trade, which is still further 
 promoted by the railways connecting it with New- 
 castle, on the one liand, and with Maryi)ort and 
 Whitehaven, on the other. The navigation of the 
 Eden being greatly impeded by shoals, a canal, 
 suitable for vessels of 100 tons' burden, has been 
 cut to IJowness, on the Solway Frith, 1 m. distant. 
 The trade with Liverpool and' Ireland is carried on 
 by steamers. It has been made a sea-port and 
 there belonged to it, on the 1st of January, 1804, 
 
 12 sailing vessels of under, and 14 vessels of above 
 20 tons. Total tonnage 2,204. dross customs' 
 revenue 32,104/, in 1802, and 2«,.S03/. in 180;}. 
 
 The rate of mortality in the city of Carlisle has 
 been supjjosed to correspond pretty closely with 
 the average rate of mortality in' England and 
 Wales ; and Mr. Milne, proceedhig on this hypo- 
 
 cahlow 
 
 flA3 
 
 IhrMis. ronstriicfrd a tiihle of mortality from oh- 
 Hcryaiiipiis made by Dr. Ileyshani in this city. 
 This lahle has been adopted by various insuranco 
 ollices. It gives a decidedly lower rate of mortality 
 than Ihe Northampton lul'ile, which, previously I'o 
 its appearaiii'c, was the only one in use. 
 
 Markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays; fairn 
 on llie Saturdays before Whitsuntide and' Martin- 
 miiM; also a statute-fair on 20lh Aug. and II davi* 
 after, during the (•ontinuance of wiiicli no allach- 
 iiK^nt from the city civil courts can be executed i 
 and another on l!»th Sept. The hanks are, the 
 Carlisle Citv and District Hank. Ihe Carlisle^ and 
 ( 'umberlaiiil Hanking Co., a hraiich of the ( uniher- 
 land I'nion ItankingCo., the llouseof Monkhouse, 
 I lead, and ( 'o,. and a savings' hank. The viHage of 
 Stan wix,N. of I he Kdeii, mil v he considered as a sub- 
 urb of Carlisle, though not included v ilhiii its cor- 
 porate or parliamcnliiry limits. Its ancient church, 
 d<'dicaleil to St. Michael, is built on Ihesiteaiid out 
 of the ruins of the lioinan station of Congavata, 
 which stood along the rampart of the wall of Severiis. 
 
 Carlisle was a {{oiiiaii station, under the nanie 
 of Luguvallum, as is attested by vestiges of the 
 liomaii wall, and by man v lioman relics discovered 
 here at various times. 'I'lie Saxons called it Caer 
 Lull, whence its present name is derived. William 
 the Conqueror biiilL the castle; and during ihu 
 wars between Kngland and Scotland, Carlisle was 
 a frequent object of attack. It surrendered, with- 
 out niakiiigany opposil ion, to the rretenderCharles 
 Kdward, in 174;'); lait, on his being compelled to 
 evacuate it on the approach of the Kritihh forces, 
 he left hcliind him a small garrison, w liich sur- 
 rendered at discretion : the oOicers of this garrison 
 were siihseqiiently executed at London as traitors, 
 and their heads exposed on the gates and walls of 
 Carlisle. 
 
 ('AliLOFOL'TK, a sea-port town of Northern 
 Italy, on the small island of San I'ietro, near the 
 SW. coast of Sardinia; lat. !t!t° 8' 28" N., long 
 8° 17' 28" !•;. Pop. ;i,lo.-, in !«(;•>. The town is 
 surrounded by a wall, and has some fort ilicat ions. 
 It is moderately healthy. The inhahilanls aro 
 engaged in the anchovy and coral lisheries, and in 
 the manufacture of salt. 
 
 CAKLOTA, LA, a town of Spain, prov. Cordova, 
 cap. dep. of its own name, 17 in. SW. (.'ordova. 
 Toji. 2,.'{."jO in 1857. The town is one of the chief 
 seats of the foreign colonists— the majority of them 
 (lermaiis — planted in Andalusia, in 1708, in the 
 view of peopling and fertilising the Sierra Morena. 
 It is a pretty town, and the iiihah,, who are dean 
 and thriving, have some manufactures of hempen 
 and linen cloths. 
 
 CAKLOW, or CATIIEKLOUGH, an inl. co. of 
 Irehmd, prov. Leinster, lying mostly on the K. side 
 of the Harrow, having S. and E". Wexford and 
 Wicklow, N. the latter and Kildarc, and W. 
 Queen's co. and Kilkenny. Area 219,803 acres, of 
 which 23,030 are unimproved mountain and bog. 
 Surface on the S. border mountainous, but else- 
 where gently undulating. Itesides the Harrow, by 
 which it is partly intersected and partly bounded, 
 it is watered by the Slaney. Soil in the uplands 
 a light gravel; in the lowlands a fertile hiam. 
 This is one of 'he principal dairy cos. in Ireland ; 
 and the stock of cows has latterly been a good 
 deal ameliorated by the introduction of Ayrshire, 
 and other improved breeds from (iroat Britain. 
 Estates middle-sized; and that minute division of 
 land among the occupiers, so destructive of the 
 best interests of the country, has prevailed less 
 here than in most other parts of Ireland. Agri- 
 culture is, in consequence, in a much more 
 advanced state here than in many other Irish cos. ; 
 there is a considerable breadth of laud under green 
 
•I'll I'AULOW 
 
 rriiji ; mill itn|inivt>il I'urinitiK iiii|ili'ini'nlH iirc prrtlv 
 ^O'licrally inlnxliiccil, Munul'iicliin-M iiml riiiiuTiiiM 
 III' iKi ini|Hiriiiiii'i>. Curliiw ix tlisiili'il iiilit ,'> liu- 
 rmiirx uiiil r>il iinriNlii'N, and moihIn il iih'iiim, in the 
 II. Ill' ('„ viz. 2 i'lir till' CO., anil I lor tlii< Uir. «f 
 Carlow. lit'ttiHicrnl I'lci'turi lor llm ro. 'J.lT.'i in 
 |Mii4. rop. Htt,?-.>N in iHll.anil ri7,i:i7 in imll. 
 <iroHH annual valui> of ri'al iiroiicrtv u<<m«'nn('iI to in- 
 t'onnlax, I;I7,!IH!)/. in lN,'t7,anii l.vi,<,Mi7/. in lm;-.>. 
 
 Cahi.ow, a pari. Iior., Ilic prinripal town of tin- 
 
 nlHivfi anil lln- plari* wlu'rc I he aHMZi'M aro hriil, 
 
 on till' ItamiM', wlirrt' it Im Jnint'il liy Ihc llnrrrn, 
 •l.'i ni. SSW. l>iililin.on tlu> Nonlli MaHlfrn railway. 
 I'op. of iiarl. hor. IO,lo<i in Mil, ami N,ti7;i in 
 IWdl. Tlu' town, properly no ralii'il, Viv* wholly 
 on tlii> left hank ot Ihc Harrow, lint ii in conncrli'il 
 liy a liriil^c with Ihc Nulmrli of (iraiKiu', on the 
 iip|MNitc nIiIc of the river in (^ueen'H en,: iIiIn hiiIi- 
 nrli has U'cn inclmleil in the pari, hor., which 
 exiciiiirt over n npace of rr/'J acres. It Ih a wcll- 
 hiiill, nnil, III Honn' extent, a thriving town. It 
 hax an olil cantle now in rninn, hut mico a place of 
 coiiHiileralile Htren^lh anil iinporlance; a parinh 
 church with a Npire ; a hand.Hoine 1{, Cath. cathc- 
 ilral church, o|)cnc(l in jHlIt; a l{. Cath. college 
 anil convent ; ImrracliM ; a lunatic district nitylnni 
 for the COM. of Carlow, Wicklow, Wexford, and 
 KilUeiniy, erected in IMIIO at a cimt of nearly 
 'Jd.iKMl/, ; an ele^'ant new court-houMe, a <'ii. fraol, 
 aiul CO. inl'rtnary. Hc.sideH the Ii. Cath. ciillcp-, 
 lilted foriheacciHninodalion of 2110 Ntndenls, llicn^ 
 is a dioccNan hcIiooI, and nunieriMmeliMrily-Nchools 
 Itoih for I'rotenlants and Catholics, There are also 
 several charitalilc inHtitntions. 
 
 Kein^ situated on n main lino of railway, nt\ 
 well as on a navi^ahle river, conununicatiiiK with 
 Waterfonl on tlu! one hand, and with Duhlin, liy 
 means of the (iraiul Canal, on the other, Carlow 
 has u very considerahle trade. It is n f^rcat mart 
 for the agricultural produce, particularly the corn 
 aiul hiittcr, of the siirroundinj; country, (freal i|uuii- 
 titics of whicii are sent down the river to Waterford 
 for ex)iortation. It has also some \iir^i\ Hour mills, 
 mill an extensive malting; business; and furnishes 
 considerahle supplies hoth of Hour and malt to 
 i>uiilin. The llaiik of Ireland has u hraiich here. 
 
 Carlow is a place of ^'reat antiquity, and has 
 various charters; hy the last of these in 11171, the 
 hor, consists of n sovereign, elected annually, and 
 twelve self-elected free hurj^esses. J''roin ltii;{ 
 down to the union with Great Itritaiii it sent two 
 iiicms. to the Irish 11. of (.'., and since the union it 
 has sent one inein. to the Imperial II. of C, who, 
 till the imssin^j of the Ifeform Act, was returned 
 by the sovercifiii and biirjjfesses. Itegistered elec- 
 tors 2:tli ill l«l!2. 
 
 CAKLOVVITZ, a town of the Austrian statca, 
 Slavonia, within tlie military frontier, circ. I'eter- 
 wardein, on the ri^cht bank of the DaiiulK', 4 in. 
 SK. I'eterwardein. I'op. 4,850 in lHi>7, mostly of 
 Servian descent. Many of the ilwellinns are mere 
 luits, and it is only in part paved. It contains a 
 (ireek cathedral, two other (Jrcek churches, u K. 
 Cath. church, a hoBjiital, seminaries for the (ireek 
 and Cath. clerpy, a (ireek lyeeiim, and a (Jiith. 
 liJKh-school. The subordinate jurisdiction of the 
 town in in the liaiiils of an equal niimlicr of li. 
 Cath. and Greek magistrates. It is the seat of a 
 Greek archbishop, the only one beloiifjiiig to that 
 <'luireh in tlie Austrian em])ire, to whom all the 
 Aiistro-Greck clergy are subordinate. 
 
 CARLSBAD, a town of lioheniia, famous for its 
 liot apriiiRs, on the Tepel, near the Kger, 72 m. 
 \VN\V. Prague, Stationary pop. 4,384 in 18o7. 
 The town lies in a low narrow valley, surrounded 
 by hills, covered with every variety »)f foliage, and 
 ailording the most extuiiijivc and varied prospects. 
 
 CAHLMCKONA 
 
 The town eniiNists principally of lodging hoiiseM 
 and hottds, for the accoinmodation of visitors to 
 I he waters; liul it has some goiHl Nhops and private 
 houses, with a theatre, aKNeiiibly and reailiiig- 
 roiiiiiN. The Spriidel, the principal Ntiriiig, U the 
 hiiltest in l'!urii|M> : lis leni|icralure being about 
 .''I'.KJ Iteaii., or III."! Fahr. The expansive force of 
 the siciiin below fnrccs uii the water in |i'In to a 
 coiisidenible heiglil ; and to guard against the 
 danger that has soineliines arisen frmn the ob- 
 struction of ihc aiierlures by which the water and 
 vapour escape, it lias been covered over by a Nojiil 
 bed of masonry. There are several other springs; 
 that of Muhllirunneii, which is the luosi coinnionlv 
 drank, has a Icniiierature of l.'tN'J Kiih. Ilallisof 
 
 all sorts are lilted up with every ai iniiinilaiion. 
 
 The waters are ellicacious in a' great variety of 
 coniphiiiils, hut chielly in those of the liver'and 
 kidneys. The walks and proincnadeH in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the town have a great deal of roinmi- 
 tic beauty and interest. The nninher of visiiors 
 in the season varies from 10,000 to I 'i.OOO every 
 year, iiicluding nearly always some of thecrowntil 
 iieads of Kiirope. 
 
 Carlsbad, now the most fashionable and aris- 
 tiKTalic watering-place in Kiimpe, is of compa- 
 ratively recent origin. The springs are said to 
 have been discovered in I;t7li, by the emperor 
 Charles IV., who, when hunting in the vicinity, 
 was attracted to the spot by the cries of a hoiind 
 that had fallen into one of the springs. The town 
 belongs to till! em|icror. A celebrated congresii 
 was held here in IHI!». 
 
 CAI{|-Sliri!(J,orKAI{LSl>I'UG, a roynl town 
 of Transylvania, CO. Cnter-MI.i 'is, on tlurN. bank 
 of the Afaros, 112 m. XVV. Iler„i,nist'idt ; hit. Iijo 
 iV 21" N., long. 2ao 2.') i"' ]], ]•„,.. (;,(i;i4 i,, 
 \H,'>7, It consists of the upper town or citadel 
 l)uilt on a hill, and tlio lower town, situated 
 beneath it. The citadel Is surrounded by walls 
 with seven bastions, and its principal "gale is 
 adorned with some line Hculptnres, The town 
 has a haiiilsome l{. Ciitli. church, containing the 
 tombs ami monuments of .lohii Iluniadcs, and se- 
 veral royal ind other personages; the line residence 
 of the bish 111 , of Transylvania, a canons' college, 
 containing '.lie provincial arcliives, royal mint, 
 oliservatory with a tine coUectiiin of apparatus, 
 several libraries and scientilic collections, an ar- 
 senal and barracks. There are also n hosjiital, 
 an ecclesiastical lyeeiim, college, and primary 
 school. From the lower town a bridge, 210 jiaces 
 in length, passes over the Maros. 
 
 CAULSCKONA, or CAISLSCUOON, a 8en-[>ort 
 town of Sweden, on the lialtic, cap. prefecture 
 lUeking; lat. filjo 10' >.)" N., long. 1 5° 3.r 25" K. IVm. 
 I."),!t51 in 1«5H. The greater jiart of the town is 
 built on the small rocky island of Tros-oe, and 
 the rest on some adjoining islets ; the commu- 
 nication with the mainland being maintained 
 nartly by a mound, and partly by a wooden bridge. 
 The harlioiir is large and safe, with water sutHcieiit 
 to float the largest ships. It has three entrances, 
 but the only one practicable for large vessels is on 
 the .S. side of the town, and is defended by two 
 strong fortu. The dry docks constructed here, for 
 the building and repair of men-of-war, have been 
 formed at a vast expense ; they are of great ex- 
 tent, and have liecn cut out of the solid granite 
 rock. The town is well built, consisting partly 
 of brick, but principally of wooden houses. The 
 arsenal, and other buildings connected with the 
 docks and shipping, are on a large scale ; and there 
 are also two liandsome churches, an hotel for the 
 prefect, a hospital, and a lazaretto. There is a 
 great dcliciency of gowl water ; that which is nh- 
 taiued from the well) sunk iu the town ia brackibli. 
 
Rpn-port 
 
 (•ret;! iiro 
 
 i:. I'op. 
 
 Idwn in 
 
 (If, mill 
 
 LMiinimi- 
 
 iiitniiu'd 
 
 liriilfjo. 
 
 utK(n('iit 
 
 tranccH, 
 
 Ah ix on 
 
 by two 
 
 lero, for 
 
 vc 1)0011 
 
 rent cx- 
 
 jjrtuiito 
 
 partly 
 
 , Tlic 
 
 til thu 
 
 ul there 
 
 for the 
 
 re i» a 
 
 h is oh- 
 
 ruckuh. 
 
 CAIIL^IIAMN 
 
 ''o ihiit \\\iiH r.iiii \Mtirr luiN. rrcoiirFo' hii-< to Im> 
 liiiil toMprliiK'* ilinliiiit ulioiii it III, 'rhiTrnrc khiih' 
 MiaiiiiliM'iiir>'H of I'aiiviiM amt liiicii, with uiu'lior 
 l'iir(()'it Mini liiiiiii'rii'H. 'lilt- Iraili' u( ilic town i^ 
 lull iiintiiHiilrritlili' : till' I'xiiiirisi'ctiini^i principally 
 iif iron, I'opprr, Nii'ol, poiHtli, hir, ami pilrli, 
 
 ('HrUiroiia ilrrivoH Iim naiiii' ami ori^'iii from 
 riiarli'H \l., mIio, ill li'iMii, foiilVrrt'il mi it cnii- 
 Hhlrriilili- privili'^i'H, ainl rcimivtil ilir iIitI ihlilicr 
 li'iiiii Stoi'klioliii, It Imih miiii'o colli iiiiK'il lo lie I lie 
 principal Mlatioii of llio Swcilisli llccl ; liiil I lie 
 uiliiiiriiltv. wliicli liail liccn loiij^ ?<caii'<l here, was, 
 in ITTii, iraiiNrcrrril III Slocklioliii. In I7!MI, it Miif- 
 Icrotl f<cvcn'l\ from a lire. 
 
 (•AI!l,Sll\MN,or K AIM,S|IA|.|;\. n Nrn-|Hirt 
 town of Swi'ilcii, prov, lllckiiiK', <'ap. h.i'rail., on 
 the llallic, at tlie month of tlio Nic, o.'i iii, W, 
 t'arlHcroiiu! hit. Mfi Ti' in" N., lonj,'. II" .il' K. 
 I'op. 0,7:10 ill INoN, 'riioiiiwii liMN two cliiirchi'H, 
 a hoNpitiil, with coiiHiilcralilc maiinfactnrcs of caii- 
 va", woollciiM, ami lohacco, ami linililiii^^ yanlK. 
 'I'lic harlioiir is Hiiiall, Imt safe. 'I'Ik- cxporu coii- 
 nIkI of iron, limlicr, poiash, pitch, ami tar. Ilcin^ 
 liiiilt principally of wood, it Iiiih Noiiiolimi'M HiilVcroi 
 m'Vcri'lv from tires. 
 
 (•Alfl,.SI{i;iir. (C7mr/.n'K lii'Mf), a city of (ier- 
 niaiiy, euii. of the ^raml iliichy of llailcn, circ. 
 MiiliUe Itiiiiie, resilience of the KramI iliiKe, nml 
 xeat of the ailminisiralioii ami principal staU^ 
 antlmrilies, in the line plain of the liaanlwalil, 
 which siirronmis it on the N, ami W, ; I m. K. I he 
 Khiiie, :i7 m. \VN\V. Stnlfnanlt, 'i7 m. S. Iiy \V. 
 Ihirmslailt, ami l'2 m. Nil. Strashnr^, on the rail- 
 way from I'ranUl'orl to llasel. i'op.-.'7,|ii;i in IHiil. 
 The town is ipiite iiiii((n(^ in eoiistriiclion, lieiii^ 
 liiiilt III the form of an ontspreail fan, or rather 
 wheel, roiiml the ^raml-iliical iialace, from which, 
 as a centre, thiriy-lwo pnlilie mnles radiate. 
 ■Several of the streets stretch into the forest. 'I'he 
 hij^h, or loii^', street rims from K. to \V,, dividing 
 the city into a N. and S, portion, (.'arlsriiho is in 
 part walled, ami has suveii ^ates. It is a haml- 
 Mime, lint nil her dull town. Streets liroad, well 
 paved, furnished with fiiut-|iatlis, and well lif^hted 
 at ni;>;lil. Mouses linilt in a ^'reat variety of styles, 
 ••liielly of hrick. There nru nine piihlio squares, 
 and facing the palace, at the point of union of the 
 principal streets, is a semicircular raiif^e of ele|;aiit 
 iinildiii|;s, comprising the pivernment ollices, and 
 others attached to the |ialace. The ^'rand-diical 
 resideiKU', n plain building, composed of a centre 
 and two wiii(;s, contains the Jilri/lhurm (_lead- 
 tower), from the snmmit of which there is uii 
 exteiisivu prospect ; a cabinet of coins and na- 
 tural objects; IX library of M(l,(MK) vols,; and the 
 (diiirch uttemlod by the court. Towards the K. 
 extend the Inr^e gardens and park iH'lon^iin^ to 
 iIk! palnce, which are thrown o|m-ii to the public. 
 There arc several other palaces beUmgiii)^ to the 
 nobility deserving of notice, and ninety public 
 linildiiifjs, including four I'rotestant and Catholic 
 churches, a Nynapi^iie, town-hall, in which both 
 chambers of the senate meet ; a miiscnin, the 
 )rrand-diical niid another theatre, a m^w mint, the 
 )iost-ofIice, infantry and cavalry barracks, arsenal, 
 <!annon-foiindry, and several hospitals, llerr 
 .Stiiltz, the once fashionable London tailor, was 
 the founder of one of these hospitals, which he 
 enihiwed with 10l),llO() tlorins. In return for his 
 fjenerosity the tailor was created a banm. The 
 city is supplied with water by an aqueduct from 
 Durlach, distant 2J m. K. l>y S. ; it is adorned \>y 
 several public fountains, and in the centre of the 
 principal square is a stone pyramid, erected to 
 the memory of the founder of the city. Its chief 
 establishments for ciliicntion are a lyceum, pol; 
 tochnic, military, medical, and veterinary schoo 
 
 MIMONA 
 
 GMi 
 
 irchid ' lire niid paint iii^. It 
 lit bo' .idi-Kar' <i, a »{allcry of 
 "ty ' . arts, r ,cr the pairon- 
 'hik«*, CurUri' Ih not a placo 
 It hiiM NO I' mnniifai'turert 
 
 l; 
 
 and iicadi'inii 
 IMMsessen an e\< 
 paiiilin^s, and a 
 a^e of the ^raiid 
 of Considerable trn 
 
 of silki, carpels, u nnlleiiM, siiull. chemical 
 duels, furniture, cairniKC". clocks, (cwdlery. I 
 articles of luxury, Imi ihe priisperiu of lis 
 bilauts mainly depends on iis lieiiiK the > ..f 
 the court, and the rciidc nre of ihi' principal 01 rn 
 ol siaie. It is quite a modern citv, and has I, 11 
 aroinid a hniiiin^' »eal luiilt by diaries Williuiii. 
 Miir^raM' of Itadcn, in I7iri. 
 
 CAIf l,S TAIt, a town of Sweden, cap. prefect nro 
 of Ihe sjiiiie iiaiiie, on the islikiid of Tin^'vallii, at 
 the iiioulh of Ihe Khir, on Ihe hike Wciiern, and 
 on the projecied railway from Chrisiiaiiia to ,*iiock- 
 holm. I'l'ip, l,s:'H in"|M,)M. The town is built 
 of wood on a regular plan; has a liandxoine ca- 
 thedral, a ^'ymnasiiim, an oliservalory, an a^jricnl- 
 tiiral siiciely, a cabinet of nalnral hisinrv, ainl a 
 tobacco manufai't lire; and is the seal of a bUhopric, 
 and Ihe residence of the prefect. The opening of 
 Ihe (lot ha canal has added considerably to lis coin - 
 inercc. It exports copper and iron, corn, sail, and 
 liinlier, 
 
 CAIJKSTADT, n town of Austrian Croatia, co. 
 A^raiii, cap. circ. of same naim', at the coiitlueiice 
 of the Korana and Hohra wiih the Knipa, iiniiic- 
 diatcly beyond the liiiiil of the military fronlirr, 
 :<■> III. SW, Akiihii. I'op. [),72{) in If<."i7. The 
 town is well built, thon^di mostly if vood; has a 
 small fortress, originally intended to resist the in- 
 cursions of the Turks, and which issurronmlcd by 
 ramparts, trenches, and palisades; and contains a 
 handsome parade, barracks, ami arsenal. Il has 
 live Catholic clinrches, a tireek church, a K.vnina- 
 i«inm, superior and ^■■'1'*' schools, a civii; and mili- 
 tarv hospital, and is the residence of a tireek 
 bisiioj). Considerable qnanliiies of the liqueur 
 called nmiijliii are produced here. Its trade is ini- 
 important, but its inliahitants derive coiisideralilu 
 prolit from the conveyance of ^oisls to the ports 
 of Ihe Adriatic. It was fiiunded by the late Arch- 
 duke Charles, whose name il bears. 
 
 CAI!.MA(iX()LA, an inland town of X. Italv, 
 prov. Turin, cap. disi.. near the I'o, l^> in. S. bv ic. 
 rnrin. I'op. :i,«(;o in iKiil. The town is well 
 built and laid out ; many of its streets, as well as 
 its )irinci|ial s(|uare, are ornamented with porticos. 
 It contains several ehiirches and convents, and u 
 hospital, and has two suburbs. It has consider- 
 able trade in silk, tlax, hemp, corn, and cattle, for 
 which two larj^e markets are held weekly. This 
 town fonnerly lielon^red to the manpiisateof .Salii/.- 
 zo: it was taken bv the French in Iti'.tland I7'.iti. 
 
 CAIJMKL (MtiCXT), a famous mountain of 
 Svria, extendiiij; from the jilaiii of Ksdraelon in n 
 N\V. diretttion till it terminates in the steej) pro- 
 montory forming the SW. extremity of the Hay 
 of Acre. The name. Mount (,'annet, is usually 
 conlined to this promontory, the liei;;lit of which 
 is variously estimated at from 1,,")(H) to I MOO ft. 
 This mountain is famous in S«'ripture history, more 
 especially in that of Elijah, biMiiy the plaice where 
 he destroyed the prophets of liaal. (I Kiiif^s, 
 xviii.) In more modern times, the mountain ban 
 been occupied by monks, who have resided in 
 grottos cut out of the rock, and in a monastery 
 built near the summit. The latter was destroyed 
 in 1K'2I, but has since been rebuilt. 
 
 CAIJMONA (an. Caniio), a city of Spain, prov. 
 Seville, cap. dep. of same name, '-'0 m. KNK. Se- 
 ville, M in. WS\V. Cordova. I'op. lo.Ow in 1«.")7. 
 The town stands in a picturesque situation on an 
 isolated hill, hiokiii^ down npon the plains of 
 Andaliisiu; it is well built, and has seven churches, 
 
n/vo 
 
 C A UN AH 
 
 nitin onnvrnin, «nil two lioxiiiinN, mmw Itiiioni) 
 aiilii|iiili<''<, mill ii iH'aiilil'ul KinurUli k<>I*'- I' l»k<* 
 
 Niiirni", 
 MiiiirUli 
 Koiiii' iiiiiiiiiriirliiri'M III' riiiiriM' wiinlli'ii amt lii'ni|irii 
 
 Cliitll, llMtN, ullic, miilp, ili'ltl, mIiiH' li'illhiT, mill ViHX 
 
 4'aiiilli'N ; lull niimt III' llii'iii art' in ailrrayiii^Niuli'. 
 llM I'livlriiim iiri' very I'criili', piirlii'iiliirly in >iii)'it 
 ami iilivi'M, It wait a |ilari> nl' iiii|Mirtiiiiri> iiiiijrr 
 llii> lEoiiiaiii, mill Cii'Nur rinilrrri'il nil It llii>|iri\i- 
 ll'^'l'l« III' u Itiiiiiaii t'ilv. I'liilir I III' MiiiirN it svim 
 ri'li'liriili'il I'nr ll.'t I'lixiii'M, palai'iN, ami I'lUiiitaiiix, 
 of wliii'li lianlly aiiv ri'iiialtm iiovv cxiNl, 
 
 t'AKNAC, a vilfiinr nl' Fniiii'i', di'ii, Mnrliiliaii, 
 nil a Iii'IkIiI III a litlli' ilixtiiiiri' Innii llii' Hca, 'JO m, 
 SI'!, I.'< Iriciil. It l.-i ri'iiiiirkaliii' t'nr vi'ry t'Xli-iixK ■' 
 ri'iiiaiiii III' what in lu'lirvcil In liavi' Ih'i'Ii a ilriiiil 
 irill inniiiiiilrlll. 'I'Iichi' rniiNisI n|' I'ii'Viii railKi'H 
 III' ^raiiilt' Htntii's NiaiiilliiK in liiicN iirarlv p<'r|irii 
 tiirillar In llii' cniiNt, 'J'lii'Hi' nlulirH ari' nl' i^rrilt 
 
 tliirkiicriN, Mini I'min !l tn |i>, pi'rIiapN 'Jii, I'l, in 
 Iu'IkIiI. 'I'Iii' Fri'iirli writrm nay llial liny iiri' 
 ((('iirnilly iiiiniil '.'II l'l„ ami iliiil tlii' IiIkIh'"! mi'h 
 'J'2 (Fri'iirli) I'l. alin'i' ^'rniiml, lliil iMr'«. Stnllianl 
 iliMlliii'lly alliniiH llial IIiIh Im iiii cxaKKcralinii ; 
 lliat till' liiKlii'^l ill) iinl ri.Ht' iimri' tliiiii l.'i I'l.alinvi' 
 ^'riiiiiiil, aiiil llial I lit' iiiriliiiiii lii'lj^'lil is I'mni tl In 
 i'i I'l. (l.i'ttrrM rrnin Niiniiiimly, p. '.'nii.) 'I'licir 
 iiiinilii'r in Hiiiil tn I'xriTil l.iMlil: ilir Hiiialli'Nt I'liil 
 JH IIm'iI ill llii' (^'miiiiil, ami in nihih' iiiNtaiircH Mat 
 htoiirH, Niippiirtril liy Iwn nfiliiHi' ihat art' iipriKlit) 
 (nriii viiKi ^jali'wiiyH. 'I'lii' nliji'i't, ami llir cpni'li 
 u( liic I'liiiHiriu'linii III' tliii cNlrMiinlimiry iiiniiii- 
 iiirnl, arc aliUi' iiiikiinwii. 1 1 lias I'Xi'rrist'il tiii> 
 inp'iiiiily III' llii' atiliipiarii's nf jlri'iii^iit'; luit 
 llii'ir rcscarrlu's liavc iml lici'ii imiri' miri'i*sliil 
 tliaii tliiHc III' niir nwii aiitiipiaricM mi ihc Hiiliji'rt 
 <il' Stnlirlicilf^r, 
 
 CAIiNATIC, a very nxtennlvo iiiarit. jimv. nf 
 S. llimlnslMii, I'liiiiprixiM)^ a I'liiiHiiit'i-aliic poriinii 
 of liii' liTritnry iimliT llii' iM/niras prt'siiiiiii'v. It 
 I'Xtcmls alnii^' I III* ('nrninaiiili'l cnasl, I'tniii (.'ape 
 Cniiinriii In the riM'r (iiiiiilcj^am, or lictwci'ii lat. 
 h° ami 1(1° N.. ami Inn;;. 77*^ 1;V ami H()0 ;t(i' K., 
 liaviii^ X. the Nnrilicrii Circars, W, ilm llala^liaut 
 (U'iK'il ilislrii'lM, III)' |irnvs. Sali'iii nml CniiiiliiUnnr, 
 mill llic Ciiciiiii ami 'I'ravaiu'nrc ilniiiitiiniis, ami 
 S, ami v.. till! Imliaii Ocean, the (inll' nl' Maiiar, 
 ami lilt! Hay <>l' liciipil. LciikIIi NK. In S\V. 
 [)M III., avcrii^c lircailih aliniit !M) in. Tntal area 
 rr.VC';! hi|. III. ; I'stiinalcil pnp, 7,0011,000. The K. 
 (ihants intcrNcct this prnv. in a NK. nr X. ilircc- 
 tinii, ihrnnK'lionl its whnle extent N. ol' hit. 1 1° 'JO', 
 dlviiliii}; it iiiln the Tpjier nml l.nwcr (.'aniatic, nr 
 thecniinlricsaliiiveaml lielnw tlietihaiits, dilVcriii^ 
 III' enn^^e >;rcally in elevation ami prnporlioiially 
 ill cliinale. The principal rivers, the IVniiar, I'u- 
 liuir, Cavcry, anil Va^iih nr V'aypirnn, all rise in 
 the tahle-laiiil alinvc the (ihiiulsl ami fall into Ihe 
 ocei'.n nil the ('nroniamlel nr F.. coast nf Imlia. 
 The climate of the Lower Canialic is oik' nf tlio 
 linttest ill the peninsula, tlioii;;'h in the ininicilialu 
 iiei).;lilinurlinoil of the coast it is sometimes niiti- 
 mateil liy sea breezes; that of the Upper (Janiatii; 
 is similar to that nf jlvsorc. The primitive rocks 
 of this region are chietly sieiiite, with n small 
 proportion of felspar, ami all the soil of the 
 province appears lo consist of the di'liri* of tlis- 
 iiilej^rateil sienile inoinitains. Near the sea, sand 
 and loam prevail upon the surface, MpariiiKly 
 intermixed with the remains of marine animals. 
 KIsewhere, aecnrdiiif; to circumstances, loam Ih 
 more or less prevalent, mixed with various propor- 
 tions of {{ravel ami sand, sfrnii{,'ly imprcfrnated 
 with irnii, and coiitainiiifj frequently large (luan- 
 tities of soda and common salt, which ettlorescc 
 upon the surface in dry weather. Near Madras 
 the soil is heavy, and ahoiiiuls with salt : thence 
 to Yellore, mid, lu iiiuiiy other purt», it is so sterile 
 
 CAItoLINA (LA) 
 
 UN ill nniirlxh only the cnnimoii liread tren (Mrlln 
 iiiiiiliriuhlii), llie HiJiiHiii miHn, iVc, Idee In tint 
 primlpiil iTnp ill Ihe low country i in the liltthlmidit 
 all kimlK of Niiiall ^raliiN are ciiltivalrd. Siiftar in 
 KTowii only in niiiiill ipiaiiiiiicH, the xml imi lifln^ 
 
 rich eiiniiKli I'nr the t'aiit'N. Tnliiti ami n liiilti 
 
 indi^'o are ciiltivaled ; Iml the lallir not for ex - 
 pnrtilllnll. 'the coltnll raited Im cliiellv nf (hit 
 dwarf kind {(lonMiffiium hrrtMimim), lrrit{alinll 
 lieiiig liiTt' t^i'iirrally nf extreme inipnrlaiice in Ilm 
 mii'i'cMNof the crnpN, nuillerniiMiind exlellnive laiikN 
 have lieeii ciiiiHtructt'il in xiich iliHiricis as are not 
 iraverMeil hy eiiiisiili'ralile ri\t'rH, FainiiieM nml 
 Ncarrilies are mil iiiifi't'ipieiii in (his iiart nf Imlia, 
 The I'arniH are iinmily tilled liy .SinlraH. iMiriiig 
 Ihe llrHt few years after our acipiislllon of the Car- 
 iiatic, the land revenue of exti'iisive Irai'ls wan 
 reiiled lint to a set nf iiiidille-inen nr leiiipnrary 
 /I'liiimlars, wlm under let cerlalii parts to ilin 
 heads of villages. That thisHysteni was not with- 
 out its defects, is certain ; ami partly w ith the view 
 nf olivialin^; these, ami partly in oiilrr lo M'ciire a 
 f^realer ainouul of reveiiiie, the ri/nlinir svsti'in 
 has lieeli {generally intmihiced. 'I lie iirinciple nf 
 this HVsti'in is In siiiiersede all iiiiddle-inell and 
 head lariners, mid lo hriii^; the cnlleclnrs iiiln ini- 
 inediate cniitacl with Ihe n/otii, itr ciillivalnrs, who 
 are directly assesHcd with such a rent as it is snp- 
 pnseil Ihe land will hear; the more prospernim 
 persons in a vilhif^e lieiii); at Ihr same time com- 
 pelled to make up I'nr Ihe ileliciencies of (heir lesi4 
 i'oriuiiate neiu'lilioiirs, and the assetsmeiit is per- 
 petually v;' yiiig, NolwithstamliiiK our res|K'ct 
 for Ihe aide nieii liy wlinin this Hystein has lieeii 
 rccniniiieiided, it is not goln^; inn far tn say, that 
 it is a curse upon the cniinlry, and that till it he 
 alinlislied, or very materially inotlilied, nntliing 
 hut iinpnverishmelit need he Innked I'nr. Most of 
 the pop. are llimlotm of Ihe llrahiinnieal sect; 
 there are ('iimparalividy few Mnhannnedans, and 
 Hindoo ciisinms are retained in wonderful purity 
 tlimiigliout the prov. Madras, I'ondieherry, Traii- 
 tpieliar, Tanjnre, Arcot, Hindigiil, il'c, are the 
 chief cities and towns. Formerly there werea vast 
 iiiimher of strong hill fnris; Imt must of them ure 
 now crtimhling into ruin. Few prnvs. exhihit so 
 many largi^ temples and other iiiihlit; monuments 
 of former civilisation and wealth: the temples are 
 all liiiilt on a uniform plan, and inclosed within ii 
 four-sided wall, IT) or '.'n ft. liigh. 
 
 The Moguls tirst invaded the Canmtic in l.'HO, 
 Imt it was not linally in their possession till the 
 reign of Aiiriingzehe. In 1717 it was severed, 
 witli the Mogul territories in the Dccciin, from the 
 throne of Delhi. Alter the wars, which lasted 
 with little intermission throughout a great )inrt of 
 the 1 Ktli century, the Carnutit! was eonqiicred hy the 
 Kritishin I7h;|;LiuI itwasnot linally ceded till IhoI. 
 
 C.Mi'XKUiA. {See(,'AlUNTiiiAandCAK.Nloi,A.) 
 
 CAKXVVA'III, .1 village of Scotland, K. part 
 of Lanarkshire, 'J.'i m. S\V. Kdinhurgh, on the 
 Fdinhiirgh line of the Caledonian railway. I'oji. 
 Mll.j ill l«Gl. The place luus of late been greatly 
 im]iroved ; the numerous new houses that have 
 been erected are handsome, and built according lo 
 a delinitc |ilan ; and mamifacturing industry has 
 been introdm^ed. 'i'hc great body of the iiilia- 
 bitunts are employed in weaving, and Uciieiidciit 
 on (ilasgow for employment. 
 
 CAKOLIXA (LA), a town of Spain, prnv. 
 .Jean, iUt m. NXK. Jaen; near the railway frnm 
 IMadrid to ( 'adi/,. This is the cap. of the foreign 
 coloincs settled in the Sierra Moreiia in the reign 
 of (Jharles 111. The district whcrt: they are estab- 
 lisheil was previously a desert, and abuiidoned to 
 banditti ; but Don I'niilo dc Olavido, who thou 
 held a high ulUcc iu the govcrumuut uf Seville, 
 
 *' .IfflVi 
 fofi'i^ll,., 
 
 "Wn lain 
 mid eacl 
 niii for I 
 lilhii oi 
 ini'iii 1^,1 
 mid seed 
 hnilM,. ' 
 of tliti la 
 Jilt; hilt 
 
 oil liriiij;i 
 withstMiii 
 tclifine h, 
 asNij^iii'il I 
 liirly Niipi 
 inmh hiM 
 • " niniJMi 
 
 the penp||< 
 
 lagers ill I 
 
 ralivvly ii 
 
 linlaloes, , 
 
 '•est siiileil 
 
 cnnstriiciji 
 
 Kmitry. am 
 
 •'"Id /limit 
 
 wrappid II 
 
 are all bus' 
 
 assiiiiilaie,] 
 
 with their 
 
 thest- Inwii) 
 
 (Mt'OLI 
 N. Americii 
 X. hit., and 
 X. Virginia 
 iiikI S. Cai 
 KcngtIi. F. 
 Area /"iLoo 
 whom ;i,l|,i 
 free-colniirei 
 toast is f(>ni 
 "'"idy isls., i 
 places by nil 
 or Ingooiis. 
 shallow ami 
 only one X 
 small vessel 
 gi'iierally n 
 ■niiinland 
 h'fs, (he pri 
 I'iiinlico sou 
 I'tirtaiice is / 
 'iver, near tl 
 IH ft. wafer. 
 The siirfa 
 — Ihe low 1* 
 The low com. 
 • he state, an 
 dead Hat. iiiii 
 most extt'usi 
 flimi TiO 111. Ill 
 Hiila formed 
 The swamps 
 vegetation, ai 
 pine, cedar, at 
 the snrlace sw 
 part rises im 
 Apalai liian cl 
 of il.oiio ft. 
 most W. calk 
 K. the Ilhio . 
 estimated at a 
 Allantic. 
 
 Most of the 
 less a SK. con 
 laiitic. The 
 ail'! Cape Fear 
 Vol.. I. 
 
 is 
 
CAUor.lNA (NOKTII) 
 
 M7 
 
 (Mfliit 
 \» tint 
 ;lilitllili« 
 iiiuiir \» 
 1 l>i'lii)( 
 n UtiUt 
 fur fx- 
 i>t' tliii 
 
 It In ttltf 
 
 ,(• IihiUh 
 I iiri^ ii'it 
 
 llt'H Ullll 
 
 il' liiiliii. 
 
 IMiriux 
 
 llir Ciir- 
 
 iii|)iiriiry 
 
 A (II lll« 
 
 lilt willi- 
 tlu' viiw 
 p wrun- II 
 
 iiiL'liili' "f 
 -null III"! 
 . Into iiii- 
 itiirn, wlio 
 it in HUp- 
 
 iriWlHTIilH 
 
 \\\\w I'lini- 
 
 llu'ir U'!"* 
 lit il* I'tT- 
 (ir ri'!*ini't. 
 1 IlIkH lii'ii 
 > HIIV, tliiil. 
 1, till it '•" 
 I, iiotliiiin. 
 r. M<>!»t "'" 
 iiifitl Kt'i'l ; 
 umIiiii)*, mill 
 irlul imriiy 
 
 rry/rraii- 
 nr« tilt! 
 WtTl! 11 viicl 
 tlu'in arc. 
 xliiliit H<> 
 
 loinmu'iitrt 
 
 ■miiU's aru 
 ud within II 
 
 tic in l.'^lt*. 
 
 lion till till! 
 
 art Hcvcrt'il, 
 ui, from tlic 
 hich laitted 
 rcat jiart of 
 lert'tllivtlio 
 U-(ltilll«Ol. 
 
 JAIISIOI.A.) 
 
 ml, K. port 
 (r\i, on the 
 way. I'op- 
 ct'ii urcatly 
 that liavc 
 cconlintJ •'• 
 iHliirttry liiiH 
 
 (f the iiili'i- 
 dependtnit 
 
 pain, prov. 
 
 jilway from 
 J the fori'i),'n 
 lin the rei(,'ii 
 \y are estali- 
 iJaudoued to 
 who then 
 It of Seville, 
 
 1*1 iircivtiil tli<< ilrnlifn nf cojoniitinK Ihr Sierra with 
 t'i>ri'l^iii>rN, w liii xhoiilil Hii|i|iiiri iht'iinH'lM'nliy ihiir 
 • iwii liitMMir. Mimt of lhi< Ni'iiltTM wrri' tii'rimiiin, 
 mill I'tii'li ri'i'^'lv I'd iMio.tHMi Mi|, I'l, III' liiiiil, rri'<< Irmii 
 ri'iii I'lif It'll v' ir», atiil aftrr that lo Im kiiIiJim-I to 
 liihi'i iiiii\ . A'iili rai'li nlloimi'iii llu> govern 
 iiiriii nnvi\ aUo, HI roWN, I a-w, 'J pi^n, 2 I'iimIn, 
 and Hi'cd I'i'T ilii< laiiil, willi a lioiiMt', iiiid a IhiIm'- 
 liiiii'<f, 'I'lii' ni'llJiT wan ri'.tiraiiii'il I'rniii ili-|MiHiii>{ 
 of tilt' Jaii-I I liny niit' in piinminmIuh nl' iiniillii'r 
 lot; hill «M|H I In< t'lilillt'd to anollit'r ripial Krant 
 on hrin|{iiii; iliit lirot hiln .iiltivalinn. Hiil iml 
 williMliitiiliM)( llii'DK and ntlicr ail\aiiliiKi'^i ih<' 
 MclifiiiK ii.iit not hi'i'ii vi'ry iiu'fi"*-!!^!, Tht- funds 
 niotiKiK'd lo I .irry il into ii|><'ralli>ii wi'rr not ri'),'ii- 
 larly Hiippli I, and llif ^'nvfrnnicnt wan in loo 
 tnni'li liii.ili draw a riMiiiu' froiii thi< iii'W pop. 
 to n'inilHii lUi'ir lor ihr iIthI advaiu'i'i, SI III 
 tin- pfoplr I'll ii'iil a NirikiiiK I'linlniMi in ihn vil- 
 la^t'rM ill iiiiiNi oilier |iarl.s ol' Spain, hciii^ coiiipa- 
 ralivvly liidiiNirioiiH and aclivi*. Corn, piMliiri', 
 
 IMilatoi'M, iind ralilia^;!'!* art! raini'd in tlii' Hpoin 
 M'Nt Hinted to iIk'iii, 'I'Iii' nitta^'t'it are of lii'tler 
 t'lin.iiriii'iion than thi< caliinM of ilii< Spanish pca- 
 Naiilrv. and havi! iiiuhI ni'i'i'SHiiry iirlirli'N of liiuisi'- 
 liold riirniliiri' ; and their inliali., iiiNleiid of NJltiii^ 
 wra|i|>i'd lip in eloakH in a Hiate of Mliipid apiilhy, 
 are all Iuihv with Nonielliiii^; or ollii'r, 'I'hey have 
 iisniniilalt'i'l llieniNelvi'H ill laiiKiiii^t^ and reli'^ioii 
 with ilieir iieiKiihoiirs, There are llfty-uij;ht of 
 IheHt' townxliipN ill Spain, 
 
 C.VKOI.INA (N()|{'ni),a niaril. Htnle of the 
 N. Anieriian I'lilim, heiweeii X\° Un' and 'M'fi 'M' 
 N. Lit., and 7oO .'lo' and « 1° "Jo' W. loii(;. ; having' 
 N. VirKiiiia. VV. 'rriinexsee, SVV. and S. (leorula 
 and S. Carolina, uiid SI'), and K. the Alliiiiiii'. 
 Length. K. liiW., l;iU III., averaj{e hreadth IIH in. 
 Ar«>a ril.lMK) m|. ni. rii|>. *.l!l-.',li-.".' in iMlo, of 
 whom .'t;il,l)'*l) Mlaveft, l,iriH Indians, and llll.lli.'l 
 free-coloured tieoplc. The n;realer part of I lie 
 t'oant is fenced hy a line of lonj;, low, narrow, 
 Mainly inU., neparated from the niainland in Moine 
 (ilaccM hy narrow Honiidf*, in others hy liroad jjiilfs 
 or hiKooiiH. The ]iassa)j;cs lietween them are mostly 
 shallow and danp'roiis, and Ocracoke Inlet is the 
 only tine N. of ('apt! Fear, tlinini^h which t'Vcii 
 small vessels can pass. The sliores of the isl. arc 
 P'licrally regular and unlirokeii, while that of the 
 mainland is deeiily indented liy nnnieroiis in- 
 lets, the principal of which art! Alhemarlc and 
 I'ainlici) Hoiinds. The only harlioiir of any im- 
 portance is formed hy the estnary of ('ape Kcar 
 river, near the S, extremity of the Htate, and has 
 18 ft, water. 
 
 The surface may he classed under tliree divisions 
 — the low level, hilly, and nioiinlainons connlry. 
 The low country com|>rises nearly all the I'',, half of 
 the slate, and for (il) or Hi) in. inland coiisisis of a 
 (IcatI Hat. hilerseetcd with swamps and marshes, the 
 most ex'cnsive of which, Alligator Swamp, more 
 than 50 in. lonf^. hy J)0 hroad, occupies the penin- 
 sula formed hy Alliemarle and I'amlico sounds. 
 'I'lie swamps are mostly covered with a hixnriaiit 
 vegetation, and have extensive forests, chielly of 
 ]iine, cedar, and cypress trees. Ik-yond this rejjioii, 
 the surface swells into hills, and in the most W. 
 ]iart rises into mtaintains. These lieloug to the 
 Apalncliian chain, which here rises to an eU^vatioii 
 of !I,(IIMI ft. They form two principal ranges, the 
 most W. called the Iron Mountains, anil the more 
 E. the nine l{idne; the intcmiediate valleys are 
 estimated at ahout 1,000 ft. above the Icvel'of the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 Most of the rivers in this state have more or 
 loss a SK. course, and llow directly into the At- 
 lantic. The principal are the Koanoke, Neuse, 
 aiii! Cape Fear rivers. The latter is the only one 
 
 Vt>i,. 1. 
 
 wholly t« it hill ihe itinie ; il is navi({nhlo for miiall 
 
 Vi'iwi'ls to l-iivt'llex ille, I^IO III. Initll llsniiiiilli. 
 
 The Nt'iise, Mliii'h ii|H'ns liy n wide esliiary into 
 I'anilico Soniid, iraNcrses the centre of itie Ninle, 
 and is iiavl^alde for lioals In most parts of lis 
 course. The Itoaiioke enters the siale Irmil the N,, 
 and lliiws Into .MU'inarle Sonnd, alter a coiirstt of 
 ahiiiii iiro III, Il can Im< aseeiidi'd liy M>s»eU of 
 eoii'-ideralile loiina^'e fur alioiit :in ni. from lis 
 iiioulh, and liy sniiill crall lo 70 in. higher. 
 
 The eliniate varies according lo elevallon; a 
 ililVereiice iif iiiori^ than !>'' Falir, exists in the 
 annual ini'iin temp, of the 11. and W. extremitirs 
 of Ihe stale. In the low connlry, the siinmii'r is 
 sultry, and pestilenllal diseases prevail; elsewhere 
 il is very healthy, and the winters ofliii severe. 
 
 Soil in the pliiins fur the iiiosi pari sandy and 
 sterile. In the hillv connlry also there are soinil 
 nine liarreiis; hut tliese are less extensive ihan in 
 Virginia, Jtc, AIouk the hanks of the riveri, aiol 
 W. of the niouniains, tliere are lands of a rich 
 hiai'k mould and of great li'rtility, 'Ihe forests nf 
 Ihe inlerior coniain oak, hickory, niiiple, iisli, 
 cypress, cedar, and hlack walniil. Apples, pears, 
 sirawlierries, the llg tree, vine (I'iliH riiilfrin), 
 wilcl vine, Ac, atliiin perteciion; the clurry trecH 
 grow to an iinmensi> si/.e, and peaches Ihrivo 
 every where. •Snake-root, sarsaparilla, and other 
 vahialile drugs are found. Cotlon and rice artt 
 staples. Large ipianiities of Iht! former are grown 
 111! the sandy isls., nnd in the low country ; rice in 
 ciillivated iirincipally on the more solid tracts, 
 interspersed amongsf the swamps. All kinds of 
 Fiiropean grain, pulse, and llax are produced in 
 the interior; and a great deal of pilch, tar, liir' 
 peiitine, and Inmher art! ohtaini'tl from Ihe pino 
 forests. Mni/e thrives well; hut the wheat is 
 generally of inferior tpialily. The lenvi>s of the 
 canes, with which many of the lower lands aro 
 overgrown, alVurd good fiidder for the cattle ilnrint^ 
 Ihe winter. Hogs are Ihe mosi immeroiis of the 
 domestic animals. The wolf anil wild cat art! 
 almost the only fnrmidiJile wild (|uailrnpeils. Wild 
 turkeys are plentiful. The Itoanoke and tit her 
 rivers alionnd with large lisli. Alligators of an 
 enormous sizt! infest Ihe swamps and lower courseii 
 of Ihe rivers; and snaketi, including the ratlli!- 
 snake, art! numeroiis. 
 
 In conseipiencc of its want of liarln>iirs, N. (^nro- 
 lina has little direct foreign trade, luid nearly all 
 its coninierct! is with the iieighhonring slates. lis 
 iirincipal exports are cotton, rice, tohaecu, Inmher, 
 III vast (pianlities, tar, jiitiih, tur]ienline, wheat, 
 anil Indiun corn, Theri! are sevtTal canals, lint 
 none »if any great exlt!nt. Only two railroads 
 lie wholly within this state; the Kaleigh and 
 (iaston, and the Wilmingtoii and llaleigh. Ilolli 
 wer^! completed in \H',\H ; their united length is 
 nearly 2(il> m., and the cost tif their construction 
 was estimated at ahout 2,>^(H),0II0 dol. Others 
 intersect the \. ]Mirtion of the state, and several 
 lines of railway have either heen commenced, 
 or projected, hut their constrnctioii was prevented 
 hy the tuithreak of the civil war in the Ciiited 
 States, in which North Cartdina took u leading 
 part. The state is ilivided into sixty-two counties, 
 italeigh is the caj). : the other chief towns being 
 Fayetteville, Wilmington, and Newbiirn. The 
 legislative power is vestiul in a senate anil n house 
 of representatives. Hoth are elected annually by 
 the people, each co. seniling 1 mem. to the senate, 
 and 2 to the II, of It. Klectors of senators must 
 possess lifty acres of freehold ]iro|)erty; but the 
 right to elect mems. of the II. ol U. belongs to 
 all citi/ens above the age of twenty-one. The 
 executive power is in the, hands of a governor, 
 ussisteU by a council of 7 mems., chosi'ii hy ik 
 
 L' U 
 
 ' I 
 
 ' 1 
 
(!.')8 
 
 CAROLINA (SOUTH) 
 The fltato hcikIa 13 
 
 jdint voto of the (wo hodwji. 
 r('|)rcfK>ntntivc8 to CNingroMS. 
 
 N. rarolinn is divided into nix cirpiiits, in each 
 of which a circuit court itt lield hulf yearly. The 
 judj^es are appointed bv a joint vote of the two 
 houKes, .tnd hold office during pleaHure. Education 
 is rather bacltward, hut advanoiuf;. There is n 
 university, and academies are estahlished at various 
 iilnccs. The earliest attehipts made by the EnK- 
 linh to colonise America took place in this state ; 
 but the tirst colony, planted on the Koanokc river, 
 in 1587, is supposed to have been cut off by the 
 natives. In IfiJiO fresh settlements be^an to l>e 
 made, and in Ui67, the colony obtained a repre- 
 sentative ffoveniment. In 1717 Carolina was 
 brought under the direct control of the crown, and 
 in 1 7*20 divided into N. and S. This state zealously 
 joined in the revolutionary strufj^le. North Caro- 
 lina separated from the (Jnited States by an Act 
 of (Secession passed May 2(t, 18(!!. The seaboard 
 counties were recon(pu"red in 18(>2, and the state 
 again joined the Union in 18C5, when slavery was 
 tinally abolished. 
 
 CAROLINA (SOUTH), one of the U. States 
 of America, in the S. jjart of the Union ; cbietlj' 
 between lat. 320 and 35° N., and long. 78° 40' and 
 83° W., having N. and NE. N. Carolina ; E, and 
 SE. the Atlantic ; and SVV. Georgia ; from which 
 it is separated by the Savannah. Shape some- 
 what triangular. Length, NW. to SE., 240 ni.; 
 average breadth, 130 m. Area about 31,000 
 sq. m. Pop. 708,708 in 18ti0, of whom 402,400 
 slaves, 88 Indians, and 9,914 coloured free people. 
 Surface very different in different parts; but ita 
 changes are, for the most part, gradual. The 
 whole coast S. of Winy aw Point is broken into a 
 number of low islands, and is tlat, sandy, and 
 alluvial. It continues so for nearly 100 m. in- 
 land, where a range of small and sterile sand hills 
 stretches across the state NE. to SW. This tract 
 is succeeded by a picturesque country' of hills and 
 valleys,, clothed with extensive forests; and 
 farther W. the country continues to rise till, at 
 the border of the state, it terminates in a table- 
 land, some peaks of which are estimated to rise to 
 more than 4,300 ft. above the level of the Atlantic. 
 This region forms part of the Apalachian, or 
 Alleghany chain. The coast has several excel- 
 lent harbours of the second class; but few of the 
 first order. Those of Charleston and Port Royal 
 are the best, and the only ones accessible for large 
 ships. The chief rivers are the Savannah, Santee, 
 and Pedee ; but all of them are shallow at their 
 mouths : further inland, the river navigation is 
 much better than on the coast. The Savannah may 
 be ascended by small river craft and steam-boats, 
 as far as Augusta, 130 m. from its mouth. Much 
 of the soil consists of a swampy land, applied to 
 the culture of cotton and rice ; more of the latter 
 being produced in S. Carolina than in any of the 
 other state.°. The low sandy islands along the 
 coast, though apparently of very little value, 
 furnish what is called the ' Sea-island' cotton, 
 being the very best description of cotton that is 
 any where produced. It is longer in the staple 
 than any other variety, and is strong and even, 
 of a silky texture, and a yellowish tinge. It de- 
 generates if it be attempted to be raised at any 
 considerable distance from the shore. It brings 
 a much .ligher price than any other sort of cotton ; 
 but as it can be raised only in certain localities, 
 its quantity is limited, and. apparently, unsus- 
 ceptible of increase. Short-stapled cotton is 
 raised in the more uiland parts of the country ; 
 and wheat, maize, and other grain, as well as 
 tobacco and indigo, are grown upon the high 
 lands. There are many pine barrens, and some 
 
 imnroductive sandy wastes ; but the soil is gene- 
 rally extremely fertile, especially in those tracU 
 lying along tlie courses of the rivers. In the 
 lower i)arts of the country the winten* ai« vcrv 
 mild, and snow does not lie long on the ground. 
 Hurricanes and heavy periodical rains occur 
 there : the summer is extremely hot, and pes- 
 tilential fevers and other diseases are then 
 generated. The N. and W. part of the states 
 are, on the contrary, reckoned very healthy ; frost 
 an(i snow occur annually, from Nov. to Jan. The 
 changes of temperature are, however, every where 
 very sudden ; and at Charleston the thermometer 
 has' been known to vary 46° in a day ! The 
 forests yield large quantities of oak, beech, hickory, 
 ash, cypress, and other fine timber. Cotton, rice, 
 and maize are the only considerable articles of 
 export. The swamns on the banks of the rivers 
 are well adapted for hemp, com, and indigo. Tho 
 culture of wheat, barley, oats, and Indian com 
 was, until lately, much neglected; and large 
 <]uantities were annually imported. Tobacco is 
 now more generally cultivated than indigo, which 
 was formerly next in importance to cotton and 
 rice ; the sugar-cane is chietly confined to the 
 district of Beaufort in the S. Field labou. is 
 performed entirely by the black population, who, 
 I)reviously to 18(56, were slaves, and who then 
 comprised nearly three-fourths of the popula- 
 tion. Planters were wealthy before the civil war, 
 which desolated this state more than any other. 
 Most of the farmers are of fmgal and industrious 
 habits. Wild animals, such as bears, wolves, 
 foxes, wild cats, are much scarcer than formerly. 
 The rattle-snake has become rare. Alligators of 
 large size infest the marshes and mouths of the 
 rivers. Iron, of good quality is found ; and some 
 gold has been found in the sands of some of the 
 rivers. 
 
 The state is divided into 30 counties. Columbia, 
 situated near the centre, is the cap. and seat of go- 
 vernment; but Charleston is the largest town, and 
 the principal emporium. The other chief towns 
 are Savannah, Augusta, Camden, and Beaufort. 
 The trtal value of real estate and personal pro- 
 perty was returned at 548,138,754 dollars in 1860, 
 but as this included the value of the slaves, libe- 
 rated by the civil war and the events of 1865, 
 the estimated wealth of the state must have 
 greatly decreased since that time. The state 
 government consists of a senate and h-^nae of 
 representatives; the executive power is vested 
 in a governor and lieut.-govemor, who are both 
 elected for 2 years, and are again eligible for office 
 after a lapse of 4 years. The senate consists of 
 45 members ; half of whom are chosen for 4, and 
 the other half for 2 years. The house of repre- 
 sentatives is composed of 124 members, chosen 
 every 2 years. The legislative assembly meet 
 annually at Columbia. The chancellors and 
 judges are chosen by ballot of the senate and 
 house of representatives ; and hold ofllce so long 
 as their conduct is approved. This state sends 9 
 mems. to the house of representatives, and 2 to the 
 senate in congress. 
 
 South Carolina was first colonised about 1670 : 
 but no permanent settlement was formed till 
 the foundation of Charleston, in 1680. In 1695, 
 the cultivation of rice, and subsequently of cot- 
 ton, was introduced by Governor Smith. The 
 two Carolinas were separated, and a royal go- 
 vernment established in 1719 ; and the state con- 
 tinued prosperous until the beginning of the dis- 
 turbances, caused first by Indian warfare, and 
 afterwards by the revolution, in which it took a 
 prominent part, and suffered severely. Its con- 
 stitution was formed in 1790 ; but has undergone 
 
 Ncvcral 
 Judicia 
 was tl 
 Americ 
 and sai 
 of Sece 
 was udi 
 slavery 
 CAH 
 Coro, ii 
 Coro; li 
 estimatt 
 contain* 
 its climj 
 plied wii 
 abounds 
 gums, a 
 sources t 
 which o 
 has man 
 from the 
 industrio 
 ducts of 
 nnd Carl 
 Mestizoc! 
 CAKP. 
 TAINS, 
 Hungary 
 pality of 
 portion of 
 Including 
 (Little Ca 
 the left ba 
 ofPresbui; 
 they run ] 
 lat. 49° 3( 
 mountains 
 connected 
 ranges. A 
 and SE., i 
 the Bucko 
 they conti 
 30' N., loi 
 turns due 
 Transylvai 
 the long, o 
 the Danub 
 44' N., loi 
 points, thei 
 a curve of 
 comer, one 
 Its width ii 
 the longest 
 direction p« 
 san, in thi 
 to Puttna it 
 the great S 
 from Moui 
 bend) to tl 
 mountains 
 towards th 
 and the soui 
 are not moi 
 tween the i 
 less than 3( 
 they may h 
 regard to ek 
 the height o 
 or the Alps 
 under 9,000 
 point of the 
 chetze.inTn 
 have shown 
 Lomnitzer S 
 cedence. Th 
 in the count 
 chain, betwc 
 
B trafli* 
 In th« 
 re very 
 grouiul. 
 I occur 
 nd pp»- 
 e tlicn 
 5 stnton 
 iv : frost 
 n. Tho 
 y where 
 Tiometor 
 y\ The 
 hickor>', 
 ton, rice, 
 tides of 
 lie rivers 
 ro. Th", 
 ian com 
 ul InrKo 
 jbacco is 
 TO, whicli 
 itton and 
 1 to the 
 labou. is 
 ion, who, 
 vho then 
 ! popula- 
 civil war, 
 iny other, 
 iid'ustrious 
 g, wolves, 
 
 formerly, 
 ligators of 
 ths of the 
 
 and some 
 ime of the 
 
 Cohimbia, 
 seat of go- 
 , town, and 
 Itief towns 
 Beaufort, 
 'sonal pro- 
 rs in 1860, 
 aves, libe- 
 ls of 1805, 
 nust have 
 The state 
 house of 
 is vested 
 are both 
 le for office 
 conusts of 
 for 4, and 
 of repre- 
 Ers, chosen 
 nbly meet 
 ellors and 
 lenate and 
 ice so long 
 ate sends 9 
 nd 2 to tae 
 
 bout 1670: 
 ormed till 
 In 169.'), 
 tlv of cot- 
 ,1th. The 
 royal go- 
 • state con- 
 of the dis- 
 irfare, and 
 h it took a 
 Its con- 
 undergone 
 
 CARORA 
 
 several amendments in 1801, 181(1, and, as regards 
 judicial matters, af;nin in 1835. Houth (.'anilina 
 was the tirst state which separated from the 
 American Union, and thus originated the great 
 and sanguinary civil war of 1860-66. The Act 
 of Secession vt^^ dated Dec. 20, I860. The state 
 was admitted again into the Union in 1865, when 
 slavery was abolished for ever. 
 
 CAKOKA, an inland town of Venezuela, prov. 
 Coro, in a dry and sterile plain. 91 m. SSW. 
 Coro; lat. lOO 18' N., long. 70° 26' VV. Pop. 
 estimated at 6,000. The town is well built and 
 contains three liandsome churches and a convent : 
 its climate, though hot, is salubrious ; it is sup- 
 plied with water by a small rivulet. Its vicinity 
 abounds with the* Indian fig, aromatic balsams, 
 gums, and excellent cochineal; but these re- 
 sources are neglected for the breeding of cattle, 
 which occupies many of the inhob. The town 
 has manufactures of*^ leather, and of hammocks 
 from the fibre of the agave-faiida ; the inhab. are 
 industrious, and have a brisk trade in the pro- 
 ducts of their industry with Coro, l^laracaybo, 
 and Carthagena. Most of the inhabitants are 
 Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Indians. 
 
 (^AKPATHIAN, or KAKPATHIAN, MOUN- 
 TAINS, a very considerable range, enclosing 
 Hungary on the N. and E., covering the jmnci- 
 pality of Transylvania, and forming the NE. 
 portion of the great mountain system of S. Europe. 
 Including a lower range, called Klcine Karpathen 
 ( Little Carpathians) , these mountains commence on 
 the left bank of the Danube, in the ne!ghbourhoo<l 
 ofPresburg; lat480 8' N., long. 170 6'E.; thence 
 they run NE. to the borders of Silesia, where, in 
 lat. 49° 80' N., long. IS^ 86' E., they meet the 
 mountains of Moravia, through which they are 
 connected with the Sudetes and other Bohemian 
 ranges. After this they bend round to the E. 
 and SE., separating Hungary from Galicia and 
 the Buckowine, and Transylvania from Moldavia : 
 they continue the last course as far as lat. 45° 
 30' N., long. 26° 80' E., where the main ridge 
 turns due W., and forms the boundary between 
 Transylvania and Wallachia. Finally, about 
 the long, of 23' E., it turns SW., and again meets 
 the Danube at the town of New Orsova, lat. 44° 
 44' N., long. 22° 80' E. Between its extreme 
 points, therefore, the Carpathian system describes 
 a curve of about 800 m., and, except at its SE. 
 comer, one of a very regular and gradual kind. 
 Its width is various, but generally considerable ; 
 the longest line that can be drawn across it, in a 
 direction perpendicular to its course, is from Bok- 
 san, in the Banat, NE., through Transylvania, 
 to Puttna in the Buckowine, ajbout 240 m. From 
 the great S. bend of the Danube at Waitzen, or 
 from Mount Matra (about 85 m. E. of the 
 bend) to the neighbourhood of the Vistula, the 
 mountains measure f40 m. from S. to N.; but 
 towards the NE., between the Upper 'Thciss 
 and the sources of the Dniester, in Galicia, they 
 are not more than 70 m. ; and on the W., be- 
 tween the rivers Waag and Morava, they are 
 less than 30 m. across. At a rough calculation, 
 they may he said to cover 90,000 sq. m. With 
 regard to elevation, the Carpathians do not attain 
 the height of other ^eat ranges, as the Caucasus, 
 or the Alps; the highest measured peaks being 
 under 9,000 ft. For a long time, the culminating 
 point of the range was held to be Mount Buts- 
 chetze, in Transylvania ; but recent meosuicmenta 
 have shown that another peak, known as the 
 Lomnitzer Spitze, or Lomnitz Peak, claims pre- 
 cedence. The highest ascertained eminences are 
 in the county of Zips, the most N. part of the 
 chain, between the meridians of 19° and 21° ; 
 
 CVRPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 6r.9 
 
 and, among these, the following are the most 
 noted : — 
 
 Ft 
 
 Ix)innitz Peak 8,779 
 
 Orciit Konniiirk <Iltto .... 8,«47 
 Oront KrivRii Hldtfu .... 8,48'i 
 Gold Mine on ditto .... 7,093 
 
 White 8cB Poiik 7,075 
 
 Limeotone ilockg, above the FIcisch Bank e,A-J9 
 
 Fleisch Hank (1,307 
 
 Kolilbock 6,307 
 
 Orun See (Green Lake) . . . B,I91 
 Brook at foot of the Fleixch Bank . 4,999 
 
 The lower peaks, and subordinate ranges, vary 
 from 2,000 or 8,000 to a few hundred feet in ele vat ion. 
 Hut if height be not, ruggedness is a very striking 
 feature of the Carpathians : the roads among them 
 are generally ditHcult, sometimes impracticable 
 for horses ; and the whole ell'ect of their apjH'nr- 
 aiice is one of great majesty. The descent towards 
 Galicia is much more abru))t than that towards 
 Hungary, and in the Sl'^. and S. the steepest sides 
 of the mountains are towards Moldavia and \\a\- 
 lachin. The rivers, which mark the limits of the 
 Carpathian system, are, on the N., the Vistula, as 
 fur as its junction with its most important afllucnt 
 the San, and the Dniester; on the E. the Sercth; 
 on the S. the Danube, from the mouth of the 
 Sereth to that of the Morava, which marks thu 
 extreme limit of the mountains towards the W. 
 Within these bounds, however, are contained a 
 large quantity of flat land in Galicia and Wal- 
 lachia, together with the greater part of the Hun- 
 garian plain ; cm the other hand, the bed of the 
 Danube at Orsova is nothing but a cleft between 
 the Carpathians and the N. branches of the 
 Balkhan, and at Waitzen, in like manner, it can 
 scarcely be said to break the continuity of the 
 former with the offshoots of the Sty nan Alps. 
 
 Geology. — The most ancient rocks are found.only 
 on the highest parts of the Carpathians, and not 
 always there ; one of the highest ridges in the 
 Alpine country of Zips consisting of calcareous 
 limestone. Granite, however, forms the substratum, 
 or rather the main bulk and nucleus of the whole 
 mass, and scmietimes, even at slight elevations, 
 lies at no great depth. Hornblende in small quan- 
 tities, gneiss in much larger, and trap verj' con- 
 siderably distributed, form the mass of the' other 
 older rocks ; but the formation most worthy of 
 notice is a kind of conglomerate, formed of har- 
 dened clay, quartz, sharl, spar, and lithomarga, 
 which, from its richness in ore, has obtained in 
 Hungary the title of Metallic Bock, and which is 
 met with most abundantly throughout the whole 
 range, from Presburg to Orsova. Limestone, old 
 and recent, occurs in immense quantities, and in 
 the Alpine regions, Townson found stratified rocks 
 of the first kind, of the amazing thickness of 2,100 
 ft. Basalt, porphyry, porphyritic basalt, jasper, 
 petrosilex, lava, obsidian, and a whole host of 
 substances, volcanic, and the result of aqueous de- 
 position, are scattered in the wildest confusion 
 among the lower ranges, givuig unquestionable 
 evidence of the extensive agency of both tire 
 and water, but so little defined, that the best ob- 
 servers decline to offer an opinion as to the origin 
 of many of the appearances. It is worthy of 
 observation that the more recent formations, as 
 sandstone, &c,, obser\'abIe in other countries, are 
 singularly scarce in the Carpathians. 
 
 Hydrography. — These mountains form the di- 
 viding line between important river systems. The 
 N. faces give birth to the Vistula and Dniester ; 
 but with these exceptions, no river that reaches 
 the sea has its source within them. The afiluents 
 of these two, from the N. slope, are, however, ex- 
 tremely numerous, though not comparable to those 
 
 u u 2 
 
im CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 
 
 that pour from the 8. and E. faces, to swell the 
 ctroam of the Danube, to wliich river, also, the 
 drainage of the NVV. face is conveyed, with the 
 exception of an insi^nilicunt imrtion, wliich tinds 
 its way to the Oder. The running water of the 
 CarpathianH belongs, then, to two Hystems, tlie 
 niack Sea and the Itultic ; and there arc no lands 
 better irrigated than those over which it Hows; 
 the Thciss, Maros, Aluta, and many others, would 
 li(! called im|iortant rivers in most i)arts of the 
 world, and the smaller streams and sub-tributaries 
 are al)solutoly innumerable. (Sec Danube, Vis- 
 tula, Dnikstku, IIunuahv, &c.) 
 
 Mineral Prmluctitms. — The sides of the Car- 
 pathians are rich in the productions of the vege- 
 table |{ingdom,and abound in animals of the most 
 useful kind. The decomposed volcanic matter, 
 which forma so large a portion of the soil, ac- 
 counts for the lirst, and consequently for the 
 8e(;ond of these results. The particulars of botli 
 will be. however, better treated of under tlie 
 heads of the diH'ercnt countries through whicli 
 tlie mountains run. (See Hunoary, Tkansyl- 
 vania, and Gai.icia.) It is intended hero to 
 restrict the description to a brief account of their 
 mineral wealth, in which respect they stand pre- 
 eminent among tlie various ranges of Europe. 
 Nearly every metal, and all in abundance, are 
 ])roduced in' the Carpathians. The riclier mines 
 of Transylvania and the Banat yield for 1 cwt, 
 of ore 125 oz. of gold, and G8 oz. of silver, and all 
 the mountains of these beautiful countries are 
 full of signs of undiscovered metals. It appears, 
 however, that native gold and silver is scarce, ex- 
 cept in the SE. districts, but all the other ores are 
 mixed with these precious metals throughout the 
 ■whole range. The stamping-works at Schemnitz 
 employ 1,0(10 hammers, each hammer stamping 
 three quintals of ore per day ; the return averaging 
 12,000 florins per month, clear profit to the go- 
 vernment. It would be endless to go through a 
 detail of all the wealth of these mountains ; sufKce 
 it to say, that copper, iron, lead, cobalt, antimony, 
 sulphur, and saltpetre, are found in large quan- 
 tities ; cinnabar also appears, but not in sufficient 
 abundance to tempt the miner; and in many 
 places there are large fields of coal. Rock-salt 
 IS also one of the treasures of these mountains. 
 The Polish mines of Galicia have long been 
 famous, and from all appearances, their treasures 
 are actually inexhaustible. In a word, the Car- 
 pathians appear to be one extensive mine, where 
 nearly all the varieties of metallic wealth are pro- 
 duced ; in addition to which, their recesses yield 
 the opal, one of the noblest and most valuable of 
 gems. 
 
 Name. — The Carpathians were known to the 
 ancients, and by their present name, KopiraTijs 
 (Ptolemy, iii. 5) ; and they applied the same 
 name to that part of the Mediterranean which 
 lies about the island of Khodes. (Ptolemy, v. 2 ; 
 Strabo, x. 488.) Its etymology is not very clear ; 
 but Strabo, in speaking of the sea, calls it also 
 Crapathian {KpairaOov) ; and though it be not 
 very easy to connect the ideas of these mountains 
 with that of the remote shore of Asia Minor, it is 
 something remarkable that the German term for 
 the former is Krapack, of which the Greek of 
 Strabo seems only a softened form. The Hun- 
 garian name for these mountains is Tatra. 
 
 CARPENTARIA (Gulf of), an extensive 
 ann of the sea, deeply indenting the N. coast of 
 New Holland, between 10° 40' and 17° 30' S. lat., 
 and 137° and 142° E. long. No settlements have, 
 as yet, been founded on its coasts. 
 
 CARPENTRAS, a city of France, de'p. Vau- 
 cluse, cap. arrond., in an agreeable situation, at 
 
 CARRIBEE ISLANDS 
 
 the foot of Mont Yentoux, and on the left bank of 
 the Auzon, 15m. N E.Avignon, on a branch of 
 tlie Paris-Mediterranean railway. Pop. 10,918 ia 
 IHGl. The town is surrounded by high walls in 
 goiHl repair, flanked by several towers, of which 
 tlie most remarkable is that surmounting thoport 
 d'Orange. It is well built, but the streets arc 
 narrow, winding, and dirty. There are some good 
 houses without the walls, in the suburbs. It is 
 well supplied with fountains, and water is con- 
 veyed into the city by two aqueducts, one con- 
 structed by Clement v., and one by the town, in 
 the early jiart of last century. The principal 
 public builduigs are the hospital, erected in 1757, 
 without the walls ; the cathedral, a large Gothic 
 pile, with a spire of the age of Charlemagne ; the 
 ancient episcopal palace, now the palace of justice : 
 contiguous to the latter is an ancient triumphal 
 arch. Carpentras is the scat of a tribunal of 
 primary jurisdiction, and has a departmental col- 
 lege, a Jewish synagogue, a society of rural 
 economy, a i)ublic library, with 22,000 vols., and 
 some valuable manuscripts. It has distilleries, 
 dye-works, tanneries, and madder-mills, ^^•ith 
 fabrics of soap and anuafortis ; and has a con- 
 siderable trade in silk, madder, and excellent 
 fruits. 
 
 Carjientros is very ancient, having been, under 
 the Romans, a principal town of Gallia Norbo- 
 nensis. It was successfully attacked and pillaged 
 by the Vandals, Lombards, Saracens, and other 
 barbarians. During the residence of the popes at 
 Avignon, it began to revive ; anil was, for a short 
 period, under Clement V., the seat of the holy see. 
 The bishoi)ric of Carpentras, said to have been 
 founded in the third, was suppressed in the present 
 century. 
 
 CARRARA, a town of Central Italy, prov. 
 Massa-Carrara, on the Lavenza, abont 3^ m. from 
 the Mediterranean, and 60 m. WNW. Florence. 
 I'op. 13,935, in 1862. The town has an unfmished 
 cathedral, several churches, a convent, and an 
 academy of sculptiu'e. Several artists have fixed 
 their residence here, attracted by the convenience 
 of obtaining marble almost cost free ; and the sale 
 of rude marble and of articles of sculpture forms an 
 important branch of traffic. 
 
 The marble quarries from which this town de- 
 rives its entire celebrity and importance have been 
 WTought from the age of Augustus, and probably 
 from a still more remote epoch, 'rhey are found 
 in the lower ridges of the hills which unite in the 
 Monte Sagro. The beds of the dove-coloured 
 {bardiglio) marble are the nearest to the town. 
 Higher up the vaUey are the beds of white marble. 
 Only a few of these beds produce marble of such 
 a grain and transparency as to be highly prized 
 by the statuary ; and if the quarrymen succeed in 
 obtaining one block in ten that preserves through- 
 out a good colour, they are satisfied. Still higher 
 up, the marble becomes of a dull, dead, colour ; 
 but of this much larger blocks may be obtained. 
 The principal quarries of veined marble are in a 
 parallel valley. Notwithstanding the vast quan- 
 tities that have been dug up since these quarries 
 began to be wrought, the supply of marble ui this 
 district seems to be now as mexhaustible as ever. 
 About l,2ti0 men arc always employed in the 
 quarries. 
 
 CARRIBEAN SEA is the name given to that 
 arm of the Atlantic Ocean included between the 
 Carribee Islands on the E., Hayti and Jamaica on 
 the N., Guatemala on the W., and the N. coast of 
 S. America on the S. 
 
 CARRIBEE ISLANDS, or LESSER AN- 
 TILLES, the name sometimes given to that por- 
 tion of the W. Indies that includes the -vast chain 
 
bank of 
 tnch of 
 ),9IH in 
 valla ill 
 f which 
 the port 
 >ct8 aro 
 ne fjood 
 
 i. It M 
 
 in con- 
 mo con- 
 town, in 
 ,)rinci])»l 
 in 17r)7, 
 e Gothic 
 j;nc; the 
 r juHticc : 
 rinmnlml 
 bunal of 
 intal col- 
 of rural 
 f»\»., and 
 iHtillerii'H, 
 Us, T\iH» 
 [w a con- 
 exccUcnt 
 
 len, under 
 la Narho- 
 d pilla},'cd 
 ftiid other 
 J popes at 
 "or a short 
 i holy sec. 
 have been 
 ;he present 
 
 :aly, prov. 
 ^ ni. from 
 , Florence, 
 unfniished 
 It, and an 
 have fixed 
 nvenience 
 d the sale 
 Ire forms an 
 
 is town de- 
 have been 
 [d probably 
 
 are found 
 inite in the 
 re-coloured 
 
 the town, 
 lite marble, 
 fble of such 
 ;hly prized 
 
 succeed in 
 '8 through- 
 Ktill higher 
 |ad, colour ; 
 obtained. 
 
 )le are in a 
 I vast quan- 
 ise quarries 
 
 rble in this 
 
 )le as ever. 
 
 ■ed in the 
 
 ven to that 
 letween the 
 Tjamaica on_ 
 
 [N. coast of 
 
 ISEB AN- 
 lo that por- 
 1 .vast chain 
 
 CARRICKKEROUS 
 
 of islands which extends, in a circular sweep, from 
 Anguila on the N. to Trinidad on the H. They 
 comprise the whole of the Windward and the more 
 S. portion of the Leeward islands. The i)rin<ti|)al 
 islands, reckoning from the N., arc St. (Jhrinto- 
 )ihers, Antigua, Unadah)U|ie, Dominica, Marti- 
 nique, 8t. Lucia, Harbadoes, St. Vincent, (ircnada, 
 'I'obago, and Trinidad. They derived their name 
 I'rom having been mostly (K-cupicd, at the peritnl 
 • ■f their discovery, by a trilK! of Indians, called 
 Carribs or CarrilKses, now nearly extinct. 
 
 (3AKKICKFEKGUS, a pari. bor. and sea-port 
 of Ireland, co. Antrim, jirov. Ulster, on Camck- 
 ftirgus hay, or Ikilfast Lough, !t5 m. N. Dublin, 
 •J m. NNfi. Belfast, on the railwav from Helfast to 
 Uallymena. Top. 8,023 in lH2l"; 9,379 in 1841 ; 
 and 9,422 in 18G1. The castle, on a rock pro- 
 j<'cting into the sea, was built or much strengthened 
 by the English shortly after their first landing in 
 Ireland under Strongbow. It is still kept up as an 
 arsenal, and is mounted with heavy guns. King 
 AVilliam landed here on the 14th of June, 1C90, 
 It! days previously to the battle of the Uovne. 
 In 1760, It surrendered to a French naval force 
 under Thiu'ot, who soon after evacuated it on 
 the appearance of the English squuaron under 
 Commodore Eliot, by which Thurot's squadron 
 was captured, after an engagement in which he 
 lost his life. On the 24th of April, 1778, Paul 
 Jones captured the Drake sloop of war in the 
 bay; but sailed off without making any hostile 
 attempt on the town, 
 
 Carrickfergus consists of the town within the 
 walls, pn'ts of which still remain ; and of suburbs 
 on the E. and W. sides, called the Scotch and 
 Irish quarters. It is pretty well built, and has a 
 respectable, though antiquated appearance ; it is 
 nor lighted, and is but indifferently supplied with 
 water. The church, a large cruciform building, 
 with a fine modem spire, has, in one of the tran- 
 septs, a large mural monument of the Donegal 
 family ; there is also a Roman Catholic chapel, and 
 places of worship for Presbyterians, Independents, 
 IMethodists, Covenanters, and Unitarians. The 
 castle, ke])t up as a fortress and magazine, has a 
 number of heavy guns mounted on the walls, and is 
 garrisoned by a company of foot. The town and the 
 adjoining district, cont ining 1G,700 acres, forms 
 a CO. independent of that of Antrim, w^ithin which 
 it is enclosed on every side, except towards the sea. 
 Uy its ruling charter, granted by James I. in 1012, 
 the corporation consisted of a mayor, sheriffs, 10 
 altlermen, 22 burgesses, and an indefinite number 
 of freemen ; but this body is now extinct, and the 
 government of the town and the corj). p jperty is 
 vested in aboard of commissioners. The borough 
 r jurned 2 mem. to the Irish H. of C, and sends 1 
 mom. to the imperial H. of C. Kegistered electors, 
 1.243 in 1805. The assizes for co. Antrim are held 
 here in the court-house in the county prison, a 
 large and expensive, but ill-arranged building. 
 There is a small local police. The rural district 
 is watered by numerous streams, and in it is Lough 
 IMoume, covering 90 acres, at an elevation of 556 
 ft. above the level of the sea. Tanning is carried 
 on to a considerable extent. There are in the town 
 also several cotton and flax-mills. The inhab. de- 
 rive their principal support from the concourse of 
 strangers at the assizes, and during the bathing 
 season ; and from the fisheries. Excepting had- 
 dock, all kinds of fish that frequent the Irish coast 
 are abundant ; as are oysters celebrated for size and 
 flavour, scollops, and lobsters. A v)ier has been 
 built for the use of the fishermen ; but it is defective 
 in not being accessible at low water. Tiic greater 
 jiart of the lisli is sent by land to Belfast for sale. 
 Markets arc held on Saturdays ; fairs on 12th May 
 
 CARRICK-ON-SUIR 
 
 Ofil 
 
 nnil 1st November. The port was long the chief 
 mart on this part of the coii^t ; but in I0:I7, tbu 
 corporati(m having sold its exclusive privileges to 
 tlie <Town, the business has since been almost 
 wholly transferred to llolfast ; its trnile being, at 
 present, confined to the import of coal, and the 
 export of cattle and grahi. There were, in 1H03, 
 3(>o registered vessels bidonging to the ])ort, most 
 of them under 60 tons burthen. The largest vessels 
 may enter the bay at low wat<!r, but are prevented 
 from dis(;harging at the town, through the want of 
 a landing-pier with sufficient depth of water. The 
 appearance and manners of tlie inhal). exhibit 
 striking iiulications of their Scotch descent. The 
 lower classes are industrious, frugal, and honest. 
 Though wealthy residents are not mnnenms, many 
 are in a state of respectable independence; most 
 industrious persons attain the means of eomfortablo 
 subsistence, and very few arc in a state of desti- 
 tution. 
 
 CAUIIICKMACUOSS, an inl. town of Irelan.l, 
 CO. Mcmaghan, prov. Ulster, 40 m. NW. bv X. 
 Dublin. Pop. 2,979 in 1831, and 2,003 in'l8«l. 
 The town consists of one long street, in which is 
 the church, a K. Cath. chapel, whicli serves as the 
 cathedral for the K. Cath. bishop of (Jlogher, and 
 a Presbyterian meeting-house. A grammar-scliool, 
 endowed by Lord Weymouth, was rebuilt in 838. 
 There is also a dispensary, a mendicity society, a 
 savings' bank, and a bridewell. I'etty sessions arc 
 held every fortnight : a party of the constabidary 
 is stationed here. Markets arc held on Thurs- 
 days, and on corn on Wednesdays and .Saturdays : 
 fairs on 27 May, 10 Jidy, 27 Sept., 9 Nov., and 
 
 10 Dec. 
 CAKKICK-ON-SHANNON, an inl town of 
 
 Ireland, prov. Connaught, cos. Leitrim and l!os- 
 common, on the Shannon, 85 m. WXW. Dublin, 
 on the Midland (Jreat Western railway. Pop. 
 1,673 in 1821, and 1,587 in 18()l. The tow.-. lies 
 principally on the Leitrim bank of the river, l)cing 
 connected with a small suburb (m the Iloseomnion 
 side by a bridge ; and has a church, a IS. Cntli. 
 chapel, 2 Methodist meetmg-houses, and a co. in- 
 firmary and disjiensary. It was incorjiorated by 
 James I. in 1613, under a provost, 12 burgesses, 
 and an unlimited number of freemen, and n;- 
 turned 2 mem. to the Irish H. of C. ; but was dis- 
 franchised at the Union. The assizes for the co. 
 Leitrim, of which it is the co. town, are held here, 
 as are general sessions, in Jiin. and July, and petty 
 sessions on alternate ]yioudayH. The co. court- 
 house, ga(d, and bridewell are in the town. A 
 party of the constabularj' is stationed here ; ond it 
 lias an infantry barrack. A trade in butter, grain, 
 and proNnsions is carried on by the Sh.innon, now 
 rendered navigable to Lough Allen, as well as by 
 railway. Yarn is also manufactured. IMarket-s 
 are lield on Thursdaj's, in an enclosed marketplace; 
 and fairs on 18 Jan., 20 IMiir., 12 Mav, June, 
 
 11 Aug., 14 Sept., 22 Oct., 21 Nov., and 10 Dec. 
 CAKUICK-ON-SUIH, an inL town of Ireland, 
 
 prov. Munster, cos. Tipjierary and Waterfonl, on 
 the Snir, 85 m. SW. by S. Dublin, on the railway 
 from Waterford to Limerick. Pop. 9,02(» in 1831, 
 and 0,.')36 in 1801. The to\vn, situate at the SK. 
 extremity of the Golden Vale, and near the junc- 
 tion of the cos, Tipperary, Kilkenny, and \V ater- 
 ford, consists of an open area surrounded with 
 houses, and a long street leading to a bridge across 
 the river, connecting it with the suburb of Carrick- 
 beg, formerly C.-magrifiin, m co. Waterford. It 
 has a par. church, a K. Cath. chapel, an abbey, a 
 nunnery, a fever hospital aiul disiiensary, an alms- 
 house, and the ruins of the castle built by an an- 
 cestor of the Efirl of Ormonde. Some traces of t he 
 town walls are still visible. The woollen nianu- 
 
662 
 
 CAKKON 
 
 fitRture was cairied on under the auMpiceti of the 
 Ormonde family till the cIoHe of lawt century ; hut 
 nil trnccH of it have now di>ia|iiiearcd, and the la- 
 bouring pop. are very ])oor unu miHerublc. Tan- 
 ning and brewing aie still carried on ; and there 
 iH a considerable trade in grain and provisions. 
 Large vessels come up the >Suir to I'iltown, ab.ut 
 4 m. lower down, whence their cargoes are con- 
 veyed to the town by lighters. A local act autii(<- 
 ri.ses river improvements, which, if effected, will 
 enable vessels of larf^er tonnage to discharge at 
 the town. Petty sessions are held ever^' fortnight. 
 A party of the constabulary is stationed here. 
 Markets are held on Saturdays ; fairs on the tlrst 
 Thursday of every month. Hy a grant of William 
 1 1 1, the par. is exempted from co. rates. 
 
 CAKKON, or CAKKONSHOKK, a village of 
 Scotland, celebrated for its iron-works, co. Stirling, 
 '2 m, NK. Falkirk, on the Carron, a stream which 
 falls into the Frith of Forth, at Grangemouth. 
 Pop. 1,((35 in 1801. The iron-works were first set 
 on foot in 1700. The Carron company, which is 
 cliartercd, had an original capital of 50,()0()/, sterl., 
 <Uvided into 000 shares ; but which has been greatly 
 nugiiientcd since its formation. The Carron iron- 
 works were long the most extensive in Scotland, 
 and were for a while, perhaps, the most extensive 
 ill liritniii ; but they arc now far surpassed by 
 himilar establishments in Scotland, and by vast 
 numbers in l^ngland. The works are employed 
 ill the smelting of iron ore, and the manufacture 
 of all kinds of cast-iron goods, whether for civil or 
 warlike purposes, lint they were chiefly celebrated, 
 during the late French war, for the manufacture 
 of cannon, mortars, howitzers, carronades (so called 
 after Carron, where they were first made), bombs, 
 and such like warlike instruments. Since the 
 peace, this branch of business has been well nigh 
 annihilated, except for the supply of a limited 
 foreign demand. The componj* convey their goods 
 to Liverpool and Lon<lon (at both ot which they 
 have warehouses), and other places, in their own 
 vessels, which vary from 15 to 20 in number. The 
 Forth and Clyde canal runs within a J m. of the 
 works, 80 that the access to both seas is most con- 
 venient. The company have cut a canal from the 
 interior of thewoi'K.suo..a to the Carron Wharf at 
 Grangemouth, 3 m. dist., on which lighters ply 
 and carry their goods for shipmont at the latter 
 place. The supply of water is abui:dant, derived 
 jiartly from the river, and partly from artificial 
 reservoirs, which cover about 250 acres of ground, 
 
 CARfAGENA, or CAHTHAGKNA, a marit. 
 city of New (iranada, and the chief naval arsenal 
 of that repub., cap. prov. of same name, on a sandy 
 peninsula in the Carribean Sea, connected with 
 the contin< nt by a narrow neck of land, 410 m. N. 
 Uogota; lot. 10° 20' N., long. 75° 34' W. Esti- 
 mated pop. 25,000. The city has, on its. E. side, 
 a suburb called Ximani, standing on an island, and 
 almost as large as the city itself, with which it 
 <:ommunicates by a wooden bridge. Both the city 
 niid its suburb are surrounded by strong fortifica- 
 tions, and at a short distance from them on the 
 mainland they are overlooked by a strong fort 
 placed on an eminence about 150 ft. high. These 
 ■works are, however, commanded by a contiguous 
 hill, rising to the height of 550 ft. above the sea, 
 and which, instead of a fortification, has on its 
 summit an Augustine monastery. The possession 
 of this hill has several times led to the capture of 
 the city. 
 
 Cartagena is famous for its port, one of the 
 largest and best on the N. coast of S. America. It 
 lies to the S. of the town, between the peninaula 
 on which it is built and the island of Tierra- 
 Ijombii, and the mainland. The anchoring ground 
 
 CAUTHAOE 
 
 is excellent ; and being completely land-locked, 
 vessels lie in it as if in dock. It had originally 
 two entraiiLCS, — the Boca Grande, close to the 
 citv, and the Boca Chica (narrow passage), several 
 miles fartlier S. The former, however, was blocked 
 up by the Spaniards, subsequently to Adm. Ver- 
 non's attempt upon the place in 1741, by sinking 
 several shi|)s in the channel. The Boca Chica is 
 defended by two strong castles. Cartagena con- 
 tains a handsome cathedral, several other churches, 
 convents, &c., and some fine public cisterns. The 
 city and its suburbs are well laid out; streets 
 regular, and well naved ; houses mostly of stone, 
 and of one story aliovc the ground floor, with bal- 
 conies in front, and lattices instead of windows. 
 A recent French traveller, speaking of the town, 
 observes that it presents a melancholy ospect with 
 its long galleries, short and clumsy columns, and 
 streets darkened hy projecting terraces, &c. ; but 
 he admits that, how singular soever the construc- 
 tion of the houses, they ap|)ear to be well contrived 
 for supplying the indispensable luxiir>' of fresh air. 
 The (jreat drawback upon the place is its climate, 
 which is intensely hot. It is not unfrequently 
 visited by the yellow fever, and is infested with 
 tormenting and destructive insects. The import- 
 oiice of Cartagena has greatly declined of late 
 years; but it is still the principal depot for the 
 goods of liogota, Popayan, and Quito, and has a 
 considerable foreign trade. Its artisans are inge- 
 nious, and excel in the manufacture of shell arti- 
 cles. There is regular communication, by steam- 
 ers, with the chief ports of the United States and 
 Europe. Cartagena was founded in 1533, and was 
 long considered as the great bulwark of the Spa- 
 nish possessions in S. America. It was taken by 
 a Corsican pirate in 1544, by Sir F. Drake in 1683, 
 and by the French in 1097. Under the Spaniards 
 it was a bishopric, and the seat of a captain-gene- 
 ral, and of one of the three tribunals of the Inqui- 
 sition in America. It is still the residence of a 
 bishop. 
 
 CAKTAGO, or CARTHAGO, an inl. town of 
 New (iranada, prov. Popayan, on the left bank of 
 the Yieja, a little before its junction with the 
 Cauca, 105 m. NNE. I'opavan ; lat. 4° 45' N., long. 
 70° 8' W. Estimated pop. 3,000 in 1800 ; but above 
 10,000 previous to 1841, when the town was almost 
 entirely destroyed by an earthquake. The town, 
 though still in niins, has a good trade in cattle, 
 dried beef, fruits, cacao, and tobacco. Its whole 
 district is rich in mineral products ; its climate is 
 hot and dry, but healthy. 
 
 CARTHAGE (Lat. Carthago, Gr. KapxvS^f), a 
 famous marit. city, long the rival of Rome, with 
 which she waged a lengthened, doubtful, and des- 
 perate contest for the empire of the world, situated 
 on the N. shore of Africa, in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of Tunis. But such is the mutability of 
 human affairs, and so complete the destruction 
 that has overtaken this celebrated city, dives opum, 
 atudiisque asperrima belli, that even her position 
 has been matter of dispute among the learned ! 
 
 Giace 1' alta Carthago, e a pena i segni 
 Dcir alte sue mine 11 lido serba I 
 
 But the plans of M. Falbe seem to have put to 
 rest all doubts as to the situation of Carthage ; 
 and, combined with the learned ond elaborate <lis- 
 sertotion of Dureau de la Malle, give not only a 
 satisfactory explanation of the form and situation 
 of the city, but of all that can be ascertained re- 
 specting it from the most careful examination and 
 companson of ancient authors. Referring such of 
 our readers as may wish for full information as to 
 this interesting subject to the sources now men- 
 tioned, we shall content ourselves with stating 
 
C'AUTHAOE 
 
 6A8 
 
 ; the ooaflt 
 from n little 
 
 tlint Carthage w-an principally built alcmg 
 or the peninfiiila to the N K. of Tunis, froi 
 N. of the golctta or entrance to the Iiikcnhi of 
 'J'liniH to Cane Carthage (lut. 360 61' 80" X., long. 
 10° 26' 46" E.), and then round to Cai>e Quanmrt. 
 Jt was defended on the land sidCj where it woti 
 most open to attack, by a triple line of walls of 
 great height and thickncM, flanked by towers, that 
 stretched across the |)cninsula from the lagoon of 
 I'unis to the sea on the N. The harbour lav to 
 the 8. of Cape Carthage, and was entered from 
 what is now the Gulf of Tunis. Having lens to 
 fear from attacks by sea than by land, the city hud 
 on that side only a single wall. 
 
 At the period of ita greatest splendour Carthage 
 must have been one of the richiWt and flnsst cities 
 of the ancient world. It consisted of three i>rin- 
 cipal divisions, nz. the Byrsa, or citadel, built on 
 an eminence, the summit of which was occupied 
 by a magnificent temple in honour of yKscuIapiiis ; 
 and it also contained the famous temple of the 
 I'hccnician Astarte, the Juno of Virgil. The Me- 
 gara, or town so called, lay to the Vf.ai the Uyrsa, 
 along the triple wall, aiid was of great extent, 
 comprising extensive squares and gardens. 'The 
 thinl division was called the Cothnn, or port ; this, 
 as its name implies, wa« artificially excavated, and 
 consbtcd of two great basins, an outer and an 
 inner; the first for merchantmen, and the latter 
 for ships of war. The access to both basins was 
 bv a common entrance, which was shut up by a 
 chain ; and each was supplied with (luaj's, ware- 
 houses, and stores, suitable to its clcstniation. It 
 was in this quarter that the seamen, shipwrights, 
 merchants, and others connected with the warlike 
 mid mercantile marine of the republic principally 
 resided. 
 
 Hesides the public buildings already alluded to, 
 Carthage had a famous temole in honour of its 
 tutelar deity, Melcarthus, or Saturn, whose altars 
 were sometimes stained with the blood of human 
 victims : with temples to Ceres, Jupiter, &c. It 
 had also all the usual places of public resort and 
 amusement, including a magnificent forum, u 
 circus, and a thefltre. The water within the 
 Ijrecincts of the city seems to have been at 
 once scarce and bad ; and to obviate the inconve- 
 nience thence arising, vast cisterns, of which the 
 ruins still exist, were constructed for the saving 
 and preservation of rain-water. The streets were 
 all paved ; and this essential improvement in the 
 construction of streets is said to have been ori- 
 ginally introduced by the Carthaginians. Stralw 
 states that the pop. of Carthage amounted to 
 7110,000 ; but M. Dureau de ia Molle has shown 
 that no reliance can be placed on this statement, 
 and that the pop., previously to the destruction of 
 Carthage by the Romans, cannot safely be esti- 
 mated at above 250,000 i)ersons, slaves included. 
 (Kecherches sur la 'Fopographie de Carthage, pp. 
 1-100.) 
 
 The early history of Carthage is involveil in the 
 ^preatest obscurity. All that is certainly known 
 with respect to it is that it was founded by a body 
 of emigrants from Tyre ; but of the occasion and 
 e|)oeh of their emigration we have no certain 
 knowledge. The common opinion is that Utica, 
 also a 'lyrian colony, was founded before Car- 
 thage ; and that the foundation of the latter took 
 place anno 1269 B.C. It is probable that the colony 
 subsequently received fresh accessions of immi- 
 grants from the mother coimtry; and it is sup- 
 posed that one of these was headed by Eliza or 
 Dido, to whom Virgil has ascribed the foundation 
 of the city. (L'Art de Verifier lea Dates, iii. 414, 
 8vo. ed.) 
 
 The Carthaginians apiiear to have inherited, in 
 
 its fullest extent, the enterprising character of their 
 ancestors ; and, like them, were principally od- 
 dicted to nnvigntion and coniairrco. After ex- 
 tending their sway over n c(inHi(lcnil)le part of 
 Africa, they Ix'gaii to nuike sctilcmcnts in, and to 
 endeovour to subjogate, mure distant countries. 
 The flue and fertile ishind of Sicily seems to have 
 earl^v excited the ambitinus views of tiie Cartha- 
 ginians; but, though they had several valuable 
 settlements in it, they were uniformly thwarted 
 in their efforts to effect its complete subiugatioii. 
 After the destruction of Tyre, Carthage inherited 
 the possessions of the former in Kpain, to which 
 she afterwards made large additions ; and she also 
 subjugated the i.'^land of Sardinia. 
 
 Of the long-continued struggle between Car- 
 thage and Home, it would lie useless, even if our 
 limits permitted, to say any thing. It is a fa- 
 vourite subject of every classical reader, and has 
 been ably treated in many modern works; but 
 it is much to be regretted that we have no Cartha- 
 ginian history of this memorable cinitest, and that 
 we arc constrained to de|)cnd wholly on the one- , 
 sided prejudiced accounts of the Latin historians, 
 and the Sicilian Greeks. The reader will do well 
 to bear this in mind, and to modify most of the 
 statements unfuvouruble to the Carthaginians. 
 
 Government. — As far as can be gathered from 
 Aristotle, and the incidental allusions of other 
 writers, the government of Carthage seems to have 
 been one of the wisest and best constituted of an- 
 cient times. Like that of the mother country, it 
 is generally 8up])osed to have been originally 
 monarchical ; though on its first emerging into 
 authentic history we find it an aristocracy of birth 
 and wealth, wiih a slight mixture of democracy. 
 At the head of this aristocracy was a senate ana- 
 logous to the senates of Sparta and Home, and 
 composed of the most illustrious citizens. Its 
 members appear to have been very numerous; 
 but all statements with regard to the mode of 
 their election, or the duration of their authority, 
 must be purely conjectural. The senate had the 
 management of all affairs of peace and war, the 
 arrangement of treaties and negociations, and, in 
 short, the yiower of deliberating, and to a certain 
 extent, of deciding upon all public affairs. Within 
 itself, the senate contained a committee of 104, 
 called, by a roun<l number, centumviri, originally 
 instituted as a check upon the encroachments of 
 the aristocracy. It afterwards become a high 
 court of judicature, vested with such authority as 
 rendered it in eft'ect the depository of all the sove- 
 reignty which lay in the senate itself. Aristotle 
 compares this committee, or council, to the ephuri 
 of Sparta, but it should seem that the pentarchics, 
 or <ptmquumvm, had a better title to the com- 
 parison. These were composed of several bodies, 
 each consisting, as the name implies, of five per- 
 sons selected from i\\e gerousiu, or committee, and 
 possessed of almost despotic authority. They had 
 cognisance of all affairs both j-ubliu and private, 
 and appear to have constituted a court of appeal 
 in the last resort for all causes. They continued 
 in office a long time, and had not only the power 
 of tilling up vacancies in their own body, but the 
 right of choosing those who composed the tribunal 
 of the centumviri. This, no doubt, was a highlj' 
 aristocratical institution ; and Livy says of it, 
 that ' viSffama, vitaqiie omnium in illorum poteslate 
 erat,' At the head of the senate were two magis- 
 trates, or giijfetes, answering to the Spartan kings 
 or the Roman consuls. Originally the right of 
 electing the sufletes was vested in the senate ; but 
 in the decline of Carthage it fell into the hands of 
 the people. In their nomination, according to 
 Aristotle, regard was had chiefly to birth, riches, 
 
«64 
 
 CARTHAGE 
 
 nnil |)opulnri»y ; nnil a pnmnRc in the recently dw- 
 c'overcd work of CIchto (Do I<c|)iiI)1u-&), in wliioh 
 hu com|>nrfs tlicni with the Spnrtiin kin)rH, nnd con- 
 IrnHtH tlirm with the Komnn conHuli*, would lead 
 IIS to inti'r that tlu-y were eleeteil for life. Their 
 jiroviiiee was to convene the senate, in which they 
 ]>reHided, to projiose Mnhjects for delihemtion and 
 to collect the HulT'rii^t^H. In time of war, one of 
 the HuffeteH was usually appointed general of the 
 forces of the state, while his colleuf^nc remained 
 at home, lUit Itesides the sufl'etes there were other 
 Hulxirdinate maf^istrutes, with the nature of whose 
 duties we have become ac(|unintcd only through 
 the Koman writers. Wc hear, for instance, of n 
 j)fajectn» montm, prmtor, f/iuvstor, §•(•,, with jiowers 
 analogous tu those of the Itomun magistrates so 
 calletl; but these statemcntfl must be received 
 with ^eat caution, considering the tendency of 
 the Koman, as indeed of nil authors, to repntsent 
 the institutions of other |)eoplc as corrpsfHinding 
 'with or anahigous to their own, though, in renlity, 
 there might be verj' little in common Ix^tween 
 them. Ihc jH-opIo were divided into guilds or 
 corporations ; and though in the infancy of the 
 Hiate they did not directly participate in the ad- 
 niinistraticni of affairs, they iMissesscd, from the 
 first, the im|K)rtant privilege of deciding upon 
 those (pieations about which there was a difference 
 of opinion in the senate. They had also, like the 
 Spartans, their publi(; or ]>olitical festivals, at 
 which questions of policy were discussed ; and 
 thus ])ublic opinion was enabled to exercise a 
 salutary inlluence over the deliU'rations of the 
 senate. Upon the whole it should seem, that 
 although, as indeed might have been expected in 
 a commercial state, the intluciicc of wealth jire- 
 pondernted in the administration of ulfairs, still 
 HO well had tiic constitution of Carthage been 
 balanced, that while, on the one hand, the nobles 
 flid not engross the whole power, ns was the case 
 in Sparta, Corinth, and liorae, the peo|>le seldom 
 or never exhibited the factious spirit of the ' tierce 
 Athenian democracy,' or the ferocity of the Roman 
 rabble. ' The excellence,' says Aristotle, ' of the 
 Carthaginian government is evinced by a single 
 retlection : though its origin mounts to a very an- 
 cient date, and though, for man}' centuries, it has 
 contained within its bosom a numerous and a free 
 people, yet Carthage has never, to the present <lay, 
 experienced any one sedition worthy of record, 
 nor has it ever endured, for a moment, the cruel 
 yoke of a tyrant.' (Gillies' Aristotle, book ii. § 9.) 
 Possessions and Commerce. — At this distance of 
 time, nnd with our scanty means of information, 
 it is almost imirassiblc to trace the various stages 
 of Carthaginian encroachment on the neighbouring 
 territory ; but we are enabled to state pretty accu- 
 rately the extent of country in Africa subject to 
 Carthage at its most nourishing epoch. K. it 
 stretched to the Syrtes and the conKncs of Cyrene ; 
 S. to Lake Triton and Mount Atlas; and W. 
 (though this point has been less accurately ascer- 
 tained) to the territories of the Numidian jirinces ; 
 while in the same direction the whole African 
 coast was studded with Carthaginian colonies. 
 Hence its subjects were divided into three dif- 
 ferent classes : the first were tlMs cities on the 
 coast, such as Uticn, Hippo, Zaryta, and others, 
 which, like itself, were colonies from Phoenicia. 
 'J'hese were at first not so much its subjects as its 
 allies ; thoufjh at a later period a supremncv was 
 concciled to it which soon passed into sovereignty. 
 The next class consisted of its own colonics — the 
 mnritime colonies on the coast and the agricul- 
 tural settlementa in the interior of the country. 
 'J"he third class were the native Libyans, to whom 
 Carthage had originally been tributary, but who 
 
 ubmilted to her antlmrity. Tliesn were 
 pnrtly a fixed agricultural people, who, from a 
 gradiinl amalgamation with the (.'arthaginians, 
 were called Liby-l'hcenicians, and were kept in re- 
 straint by the agricultural cohmies planted among 
 them ; and partly nomadic trilH's, whose alle- 
 giance was partial and precarious. The agricul- 
 tural population only, which the Carthaginians had 
 trained and accustomed to that mo<le of life, could 
 be treated as subjects, properly so called ; for the 
 nomadic tribes were subject to Carthago only so 
 far that they paid her tribute; and their hntreil of 
 those who d'isturi)ed their alM)riginal mode of life, 
 fomented as it was by the oppressions of the (Car- 
 thaginian govenimeiit, frequently broke out iu 
 revolt when the apiiroiuih of an enemy gave the 
 signal. Rut the Carthaginians appear to have 
 attached less importance to their possessions in 
 Africa than in other parts. At an early (lerioil 
 they became masters of Sardinia, the Halearie 
 Islands and Malta. We have already noticed their 
 vigorous and long-continued efforts to make them- 
 s»!lves masters of Sicily ; and had they succeeded 
 in this, the foundations of their power w(nild ]>ui- 
 bably, as Ileeren suiiposes, have been established 
 on a solid basis. 'Ihe failure of their efforts to 
 effect the <u)nquest()f Sicily, and the loss of Sar- 
 dinia, that was taken from' them by the Romans, 
 seem to have impelled tlu'm to attem]>t the sub- 
 jugation of the entire Spanish peninsula. They 
 had also several settlements along the W. coasttif 
 Africa; and it is probable, though not certain, 
 that Aladeira and the Canary Isjands {FortunaUu 
 Iiisiihe) were included in their dominions. 
 
 The commercial ofKirations of Carthage cm- 
 braced the whole ancient woild, and have only 
 been surpassed by those of Kurope since the dis- 
 covery of America and the passage to the East In- 
 dies by the Cape of ( Jood Hope. Rut the greatest 
 difference of opinion exists us to the extent to 
 which the Carthaginians carried their maritime 
 expeditions ; and while some geographers 'estrict 
 their limits Ixjtwecn the S. coast of Rritain on the 
 N. and Cape Roiador on the S., others contend 
 that they reachcil the coasts* of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, circumiiavigat(!d Africa, and even 
 visited the shores of the New World, a thousaml 
 years before Columbus. It is probable, from the 
 statement of Herodotus, that the circumnavi- 
 gation of Africa was really perfonned by I'Ikc- 
 nician mariners ; but there is no ground wliatevi r 
 for 8ui)posing that it was ever perfonned by the 
 Carthaginians, or that they ever approached the 
 shores of America. The only really authentic in- 
 formation, as to their navigation, is embodied in 
 the account of the voyage of Hanno along the W. 
 coast of Africa ; and it is so v(>ry ditHcult to iden- 
 tify the localities mentioneil in it, that some critics 
 assign to it a length of 3,000, and others of not 
 more thr.n 700 miles. 
 
 The merit of Iwing the first who, in modern 
 times, drew attention to the land trade of the Car- 
 thaginians belongs to Hecren, whose researches 
 have placed the connection of Carthage with the 
 central nations of Africa in a clear and striking 
 light. We have already, however, adverted to 
 this interesting subject, and must refer those wish- 
 ing for more comprehensive details to Heeren's 
 work. It is sufficient here to remark that the in- 
 ternal trade of Africa seems to be alike unchanged 
 and unchangeable. The countries to the S. of the 
 great desert of Sahara are destitute of two most 
 important articles, salt and dates, which aboimd 
 in tiie countries N. of the Sahara ; while, on the 
 other hand, the S. countries have amjile supplies 
 of gold dust, ivory, drugs, gums, and slaves, all 
 articles in great demand along the Mediterranean. 
 
CARTHAOR 
 
 flfi.1 
 
 IIcTPnro thfi wnntf* nn<l mnlprinl* that H" t" •"""" 
 nil cxl<tiiMivi> niul iiiutiiiilly lH'iu>tiinal iiitcrcoiirHc ; 
 iiikI tlin onm'H fouiiil in tlic ilcsort anil tlut cnnicl 
 ruriimh tho incniH of (^arryiii^ it on. It in, in 
 I'lii;!., carried on at tliis moinciit liy cnravnnn, nc^nrly 
 in Itic Haniv nianiicr that it wnx carriuil ini by thtt 
 Cnrlhn^iniaiiM iiiul no^nx-.s '2,5110 yoars aK<>;aii(l 
 tiio prohnhilit^' \>\ that it will I'dntliiiic in tiino tu 
 roine to tlow in the »anic dianncLs, 
 
 It ii* impoHHihIo to uniinu-ratd the varioiiM arti- 
 rlpsofCttrthnninian tralHc, hqv'iuh that thoy nnwt 
 probably iiuinded thucoinnioditicsof eviiry known 
 foiintry and dimati!. Thi! oxporfHfVom ('arthage 
 consiHtcid ohiotly of artich-H of nativo prodnoo, and 
 of ihoHc procured by its land trade from the inte- 
 rior of the eontiiu'iit. She freif^lited her ships 
 with tho wines of Italy, Sieily, and Sardinia, and 
 carried these articles to Cyrcne, the Itah-aric Is- 
 lands, and W. Africa, She carried on a larj^e trade 
 ill oils and other articles, which slie sent to (!enie, 
 tho 'nltiina tluile' of her African colonics, aiul 
 received skins, Rold, and ivory in exclmiif^e. She 
 procured iron from Kllia, alum from the l.ipart 
 Jsiaiids, and tin from the N, of Spain, tiie Scilly 
 islands, and ('ornwall. The Kaltic supplied her 
 with amber; but whether it was procun^l l)y sea, 
 or conveyed overland to the head of the Adriatic, 
 and tliciico imported into Africa, has not been 
 ascertaincil. From Tyre, with whicii she always 
 maintained the most fnendly relations, slic re- 
 ceived not only trinkets, fjlass, ]iearls, and other 
 ornaments, and Si(h)iiian cloths, the chief l>ranches 
 of the iiKliistry of Tyre itself, but cassia and cinna- 
 mon, and tho other precious spices, which were im- 
 ported int(»Tyro from India. Malta, too, supplied 
 ii(^r with articles of woollen manufacture equal if 
 not superior to those of Tyre. llertratHc in slaves, 
 Avhicli she procured from the interior of Africa antl 
 from Coriica, was most important, and formed a 
 larj^c source of revenue. So abundant were slaves, 
 t hat, duriiij^ the second Punic war, Asdrnbal is sai(l 
 to have purchased ."i.OOO at a time. The commer- 
 cial |)olicy of the Cnrthajjinians has been said to 
 lie of a peculiarlj^ graspiiif;, jeaious, and seltish 
 character; but it is not entitled to any such dis- 
 tinction, and really differed in very few respin-is 
 from that of most other commercial nations. Her 
 object was, in as far as |K>HsibIe, to muiio|>olise the 
 tMidc of the world; and in this view she practised 
 most of tho favourite schemes and devices of the 
 niercuntile system. The privilege of trading was 
 vested exclusively in the citizens (in contradis- 
 tincti<m to the slaves or tributaries of Cartluifje) ; 
 no commodities were suffered to be exported or 
 imported except in ('iirthaginian vessels ; the trade 
 of her colonies was restricted to the mother city, 
 and the ships of the foreiiLcn nations with whom 
 she had entered into commercial treaties were ab- 
 solutely excluded from her harbours ; but this re- 
 gulation appears to have been dictated more by 
 political than commercial jealousy. 
 
 But though Carthago was from the first a trad- 
 ing city, it would be wrcng to regard the (Cartha- 
 ginians as a mere nation of merchants. On the 
 CO itrary, it is sutliciently proved that they found 
 leisure to engage in other pursuits, among which 
 agriculture held a prominent place. This science, 
 in its widest range, was so well discussed by them 
 in their writings, that the Komans considered them 
 worthy of translation. Nowhere, indeed, was 
 agriculture better understood, or practised with 
 more zeal, than in Carthage; and most families 
 were in the haliit of applying the produce of their 
 commerce to the cultivation and improvement of 
 the soil. All account.s concur in assigning a high 
 state of cultivation to the ncighbourliood of (Car- 
 thage. ' The territory,' says Diodoriis Siculiis (ii. 
 
 411.), 'through which Agathocles led his army, 
 was coverlid with gardens and largi^ plantations, 
 everywhere intersected with canals, by which they 
 were plentifully watered. A continual siiccessioli 
 of landed estates was there seen adorned with 
 elegant buildings, which evinced the opulence of 
 their owners. Vineyards, (dive-grounds, and 
 meadows spread on every side ; and the whole re- 
 gion was tliickljr studded with the country seats 
 of tho wealthy citizens of Carthage and thu other 
 towns in its vicinity.' 
 
 Hevfnm:, — Our infonnaticm on this subject In, 
 unfortunately, extremely incagns but there Ih 
 little doubt that the revenues of Carthage were 
 more considerable than those of any state of aiiti- 
 (piity. They were lU rived from three sources; 
 the tribute, levied <m the subject and confederate 
 states ; the I'lmtumii, and tho milieu. To what ex- 
 tent tribute was levied in time of peace is un- 
 known; but examples are not wanting to prove 
 that, in cases of urgency, tho tributary nations 
 were very heavily taxed. It is a curious fact that 
 the contftbiitions paid by the allied states and tho 
 cities along the Atrican coast were in money, and 
 by all the other tributaries in kind. The cuHtoiiiH 
 were levied with great rigour both in Carthago 
 and in all her colonial ports ; and in later times 
 they became so important that they are said to 
 have supplied all the wants of the state without 
 the imposition of any other tax. Tho miiiK» 
 formed an important source of revenue: in work- 
 ing these all the inventions which ingeniiil v and 
 iiuiustry could suggest were rendered available. 
 The most considerable mines wore situated in the 
 iieighlioiirhood of Carthago Nova in Spain ; they 
 gave employment to G(l,(H)0 slaves, and yielded 
 about riO.ilOO drachms daily. At lirst they be- 
 longed entirely to the state; but wo after\vards 
 find them in possession of some of the great fami- 
 lies, who worked them on their own account. 
 What use the Carthaginians made of tho great 
 quantity of precious metals whicli they pntcured 
 from the mines, cannot be ascertained with cer- 
 tainty. The circumstance that no Carthaginian 
 coin has been handed down to us will scarcely 
 warrant the belief that no coined money was em- 
 ployed in Carthago ; and though it be true that 
 many, and indeed the most important, expenses 
 of the state were not paid in moiiev, it is highly 
 improbable that a city, whose colonies confessedly 
 coined money, should herself be without a coin- 
 age. A singular circumstance connected with this 
 branch of the history of Carthage is the contriv- 
 ance which they made use of in their colonies, 
 nearly answering the iwrposo of our paper-money, 
 or bank notes. It consisted of a small iticce of 
 leather, stamjicd by the state, upon whiiOi a licti- 
 tioiis value was bestowed, and. which could be ex- 
 changed at pleasure for the i)recious metals. 
 
 These were the ordinary revenues of the state; 
 but in cases of emergency, the Carthaginians re- 
 sorted to other means of recruiting their exhausted 
 treasuries, either by i)rocuring foreign loans, by 
 legalising piracy, or by the imposition of a pro- 
 perty tax, which should press more heavily on tho 
 rich than the poor. Ihit with regard to all that 
 concerns the administration of the revenue, we are 
 still in the dark ; though it has boon said that one 
 of the pentarchies above mentioned, with a magis- 
 trate at its head, formed a board for its manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Naval ami Militar;/ Forces. — To maintain the 
 sovereignty of the sea, the chief source of her 
 jirospcrity, and to protect her commercial marine, 
 as well as to extend her conquests and preserve 
 them, rendered the formation and smiport of vast 
 tleets and armies indispensable. The ordinary 
 
666 
 
 CARTHAOE 
 
 numbrr of nhipii or f^allpy* of war po«M>mtpd by 
 CartlinKc, at the ncriiMl imtncdintcly prpccditif^ tliu 
 J'liiiic wan, waH mmi 15U tii 200. 1 1 wax iiicrcaM'il 
 ill the flntt I'unic war, when their naval |M>wur 
 ai)|icar8 tu have attained itit lii^lieHt pitch ; and in 
 the fatal navalenfta^emrnl hy whicli l<ome (){M'iied 
 itH way to Africa, the Carthaginian fleet coiiNiRted 
 of 850 ((flUevH with (but tliiii in no doubt exauK*!- 
 ratcd) 1 &0,0()0 men, exchiitive of traiiit|M>rti«. 'I lieir 
 war-fihipH were manned partly by (iuhtiiig men 
 and partiv by roweri* ; the latter of whom vonMiit- 
 tcd entirely of ulaveii bought by the state for tliiw 
 particular puqHixe, and amounting, even in time 
 of peace, to 5U,UU0. lint, though the geniuH and 
 position of Carthago naturallv led tiie citizens to 
 regartl the navy an their main bulwark, the wars 
 of conquest in which the republic was neqictually 
 engaged, and the maintenance of it« toreign {mw- 
 K'ttHiouH, obliged it to keep large armies contniually 
 in the flcld. These were com|)osed almost entirely 
 of mercenaries, collected ti>;m every part of the 
 world, and exhibiting every <livr'.liy of blood, 
 c(>m|)lexion, tongue, garb, and weapon; ' Kxervi- 
 tui mii'tuu excolluvinne omnium gentium quiltuii non 
 U'x, non mo», tion lingua cmiimuni* ; aliut hahitu», 
 iilia ve»ti», alia arma, alii ritun, alia mera.' (Livy, 
 tiH, 12.) Hordes of half-naked (iauls stood side 
 by side with bands of white-robed Iberians; wild 
 IJgurians were arrayed with far-travelled Naza- 
 niones and Lotophagi; Carthaginians and IMia-ni- 
 t'ian Africans fonned the centre or main army ; 
 lialearic slingers formed the advanced guard ; and 
 lilies of colossal elephants, with their Ethiopian 
 drivers, preceded their march like a front of move- 
 able fortresses; but the main strength of their 
 army consisted in ita light cavalry, which was 
 provided in abundance bv the nomadic tril)es 
 which flanked their dominions. All these tribef 
 including tlie Maxsyles and the Maurisii, the Nii- 
 roidians, the nomadic races of the Syrtes, the 
 Nazamones and Lotophagi, were acccustomed to 
 serve in the Carthaginian armies, and receive their 
 pay. The heavy cavalry were formed from Car- 
 thaginian, Libyan, Spanish, and in later times 
 (iallic, levies. In cases of emergency tlie Cartha- 
 ginians could raise an army of 40,000 fVom the 
 citizens alone, besides the battalion called 'the 
 sacred legion,' which consisted eiuirely of the elite 
 of the Cai-thaginian nobles, and amounted, even 
 ill time of peace, to 2,600 men. 
 
 Language, Literature, and JReligion. — The de- 
 struction of the Carthaginian records, which would 
 otherwise have thrown a flood of light, not only 
 on the history of Carthnge, but on that of the 
 numerous nations with which she came in contact, 
 must be considered as one of the greatest losses 
 the civilised world has sustained. It has, no doubt, 
 been usual to regard the Carthaguiians as wholly 
 immersed in commercial pursuits, and thence to 
 infer that their attainments in literature and the 
 arts must havi' been very inconsiderable. But 
 there is not so much as the shadow of a foundation 
 for this opinion. So far from commercial pursuits 
 being unfavourable to literature and the fine arts, 
 their eflect is distinctly and completely the reverse. 
 The expcricnci! of Athens and Corinth in antiquity, 
 of the Italian republics in the middle ages, and of 
 England in mcKlem times, is conclusive as to their 
 humanbing influence. Had the literature of thr; 
 C.-irthaginiaiiE survived the WTeck of their empire, 
 ■we believe it would have been found to be at least 
 as valuable intrinsically as that of Rome, and less 
 exotic. It is worthy of notice that they began 
 their career under the most favourable circum- 
 stances. Their descent from the Tynans, ccn- 
 f'essedly one of the most civilised nations of 
 antiquity, gave them, as it were, on almost intuitive 
 
 knowledge of many of the most useful and orna- 
 mental arts and M-ienceN, an<l placed at once within 
 their riach all those means and contrivances which 
 ImiIIi facilitate the pnixecution of commercial un- 
 dertakings, and extend the Utundaries *if civili- 
 sation. .Surely then it mav be reasonably inferred, 
 rvcii in the absence of all monuments uf genius, 
 that the rich legacy of their ancestors, increased 
 as it must have been bv the intervourae they car- 
 rieit on for iieven centuries with the most renowned 
 nations of antiquity, and by the researches and 
 inquiries which their wealth afforded the means of 
 prosecuting, must have prinluced. in the end, a 
 vast accumulation of science and literature. Dut, 
 like the city itself, nothing remains of all this. 
 The only traces of the language of ('arthagc are 
 to be found in a comedy of I'lautus, from wTiich it 
 is clear that, like the I'lia-nician, it formed a liranch 
 of the original Asiatic languages^ lieariiiga strong 
 resemblanco to the Hebrew, Syrian, and Chaldaic, 
 with a slight adnlixt^rc of purely Libyan idioms 
 and jihraseology. The voyage of Haiino, and a 
 few other fragments, are known to us only tlurough 
 the medium of translatiims. 
 
 Like all colonies, they brought with them the 
 religion of their fathers; but the authentic infor- 
 mation respecting it is verj' limited indeed ; and 
 tl c Icumcd. disquisitions of liochart, Vossius, and 
 Klunter, on this siiliject, have little other founda- 
 tion than the ini^eiiuity of their authors. It appears, 
 however, that, like the religion of most other Asia- 
 tic nations, it was chiefly directed to the worship 
 of the supposeil intelligences of the celestial lumi- 
 naries, and those of the elements. The chief of 
 these were Melcarthus or liaal, the Chronos of the 
 Greeks, the Saturn of the Romans, and probably, 
 from the sanguinary rites ofl'ered to him, the Mo- 
 loch of Scripture, and Ashtaroth or Astarte, the 
 goddess of tiie moon, whom the Greeks identified 
 with their Hera or Juno. The Carthaginians en- 
 deavoured, in periods of extreme public calamity, 
 to avert the wrath of the offended deities by 
 ofl'ering up some of the noblest children of the 
 state in sacrifice to Saturn ; but in less urgent 
 circumstances children of the slaves were the 
 usual victims, and even their immolation was of 
 rare occurrence. It does credit to Gelon, tyrant or 
 king of Syracuse, that having defeated the Car- 
 thaginians in a great battle (anno 480 b. c), he 
 made it a condition of the peace which he granted 
 to them, that they should abolish these sacriflccs. 
 IJut we are not to judge of the civilisation of tlie 
 Carthaginians by these Iiorrid rites, distinct traces 
 of wliicli may be found in the religious worship of 
 most nations of antiquity. It is rather to be re- 
 garded as one of those deplorable exhibitions of 
 superstition and fanaticism which have, under 
 other circuiHStAnces, lighted the autoi da fe of 
 Madrid, and the fires of Smithfleld. Of the other 
 riioenician deities worshi])i)ed at Carthage little 
 can be collected. We know, however, that they 
 were by no means bigoted in their attachment to 
 their Phoenician deities : but as their intercourse 
 with other natiims extended, frequently introduced 
 tlic worship of foreign gods. 
 
 In conclusion, we may again observe, that the 
 Roman writers, who, wliile they admit the skill, 
 address, and industry of the Carthaginians, have 
 depreciated all their moral qualities, are authorities 
 on which no reliance can be placed. The length- 
 ened prosperity and great power of Carthage are, 
 in fact, a sufHcient refutation of their calumnies. 
 ' Nee tatitum Carthago habuisset opum texcentus 
 fere annos, sine consiliia et disciulinu,' is the un- 
 willing adinissiim of Cicero. The Romans, it should 
 be rememliered, despised that coinmerce and in- 
 dustry of which their rivals were the successful 
 
, that the 
 the akill, 
 Jiians, have 
 lauthorities 
 the length- 
 Irthage are, 
 1 calumnies. 
 $excentos 
 lis the un- 
 \s, it should 
 tee and in- 
 successful 
 
 CAUTHAOENA 
 
 cuUivaton, holding ihem Ut lie employments un- 
 worthy of frt'cmpii, and lit only for Nlnvi-H and the 
 very <lr«KM of the |K)iif.)nce : and in extenuation of 
 tlicir niiHreprPNentatiouM and anti-I'unic prcJudicoM, 
 it may lie oliNervcd, that they knew only the wont 
 iinrt of Carthage, that in, her neanicn and wildien*. 
 i'hcHe, aH already itecn, couMiHtisil <if iilaves and 
 recruitN fVom all partM of the world, allure<l to her 
 standards by the proH|iect of pay and plunder, and 
 lield tof^cthcroMly liy aitevere HyHtem of <liHciplitie. 
 'J'hc fact of their iieiforminu mu manv ffteal actionit 
 with such materialH Betit the abilitfeH of the (.'ar- 
 tho^inian admirals and gonerals in a verv striking 
 iHiint of view. The campaigns of Ifannilial, even 
 ii»d hiH trooiM consisted wholly of native citi/.ens, 
 and each had felt that the fate of his country de- 
 |H!nded on his exertions, would have placed him 
 on a level with the most renowned generals of his 
 nt;e. Hut when we take into account the quality 
 <if his triHips, and the difllculties he had to contend 
 with in a foreign country, de[ieiuling mainly on 
 )iis own resources, and thwarted by faction and 
 Joaliiusy at home, his achievements appear almost 
 luiraculous, and place him above all the com- 
 manders of antiquity, and perha|i8 also of modem 
 times. 
 
 'l"he last struggle of Carthage was not unworthy 
 (if her ancient reputation, and of the great men 
 tilie had produced. The conduct of the Komans 
 (in this occasion was most treacherous and base. 
 They now practised that bad faith (Punka fide«) 
 nndcontempt of engagements, of which they had 
 gratuitously accused the Carthaginians, to on ex- 
 t(^nt and with a shamclessncss of which history 
 lias happily but few examples. But though be- 
 trayed on all hands, deceived, without allies, 
 nnil all but defenceless, Carthage made a brave 
 defence ; and all that she had that was brave and 
 really illustrious fell with her fall. 
 
 The Romans having glutted their vengeance 
 and (piieted their fears by the total destruction of 
 Ciirthago (b. c. 140), it remained for a while in 
 ruins, lint about 80 years after its fall, Caius 
 ( irncchus, by order of the senate, carried h colony 
 to Carthage, the tirst that was founded beyond the 
 limits of Italy. Julius Coisar, on his return from 
 Africa, settled in it some of hb troops and a 
 number of colonists collected from the ai^oiuing 
 country. During the ear' f ages of the Christian 
 e'ra it was regarded as the capital of Africa, It 
 f^ll under the dominion of the Vandals a. n. 419 ; 
 and under that of the Saracens in 1608. Under 
 the latter its destruction was again effected; and 
 Fo completely that it is ivm prupriU non agno»- 
 ccnda ruiim. 
 
 CAKTHAGENA, or CARTAGENA (an. Car- 
 thago Nova), a fortilied city and celebrated sea- 
 port of Spain, prov. Murcia, on the Mediterranean, 
 17 m. W. Cape Palos, and 32 m. SSE. Murcia, 
 with which it is connected by railway. Pop. 
 27,100 in 1857. The town occupies the declivity 
 of a hill and a small plain extending to the har- 
 bour. It has several good streets and houses, 
 with numerous churches, convents, an arsenal and 
 park of artillery, and a roval hospital of great 
 extent. The W. division of the city b occupied 
 by the naval arsenal, with docks for building men- 
 oi'-war, and a tine rectangular basin, in which the 
 sliips arc moored during the time they are being 
 rigged. Adjoining to the arsenal is the bagne, or 
 prison for lodging criminals employed on the public 
 works. It has also a foundling hospital, a school 
 of mathematics and navigation, an observatory, 
 theatre, and circus. The harbour, which is one of 
 the best in the Mediterranean, consists of a circu- 
 lar basin, opening to the S., and having the city 
 at its N. extremity. It has deep water through- 
 
 CASERTA 
 
 (tA7 
 
 out; is protert^l from every wind by the sur- 
 niunding heights, and by an islet at its entrance ; 
 and is, as well as the city, strongly fortified. The 
 excellence <if the harlNiur gave rute to the com- 
 mon saying among the Me(TiU>rranean sailors, that 
 there are but three giHMt isirts— tho months of 
 June and July, and the harlMiur of Carthagena. 
 This has always been the grand rendezvous of the 
 S|ianish Heetjt in the Mediterranean, and large 
 sums have b<!en expended on its naval establish- 
 ments; but these are now in a state of decay; 
 many h<iuses in the city are also unoccupied ; and 
 it has an im|Miverished, deserted ap|iearunce. The 
 pip. is stated by Mr. Townscnd to have amounted, 
 111 1787, to 0(),0()0; whereas, according to the 
 census of 1857, given above, it is n<iw under half 
 that amount. Cables and cordage of the esparto 
 rush, and canvass, used to be largely manufac- 
 tured here, and large quantities of barilla, with 
 c<irii, wine, and oil, were formerly exported. Its 
 trade, however, has declined quite as much as its 
 naval establishments. A valuable fishery is car- 
 ried on in the |Mirt and the acyoiiiing sea. 
 
 The city was founded or occupied by the Car- 
 thaginians, who made it the capital of their pos- 
 sessions on the E. aiast of Spain. It was taken 
 by the H(>mans, anno 208 u.c, at which period it 
 is said by Livy to have been, next to Home, one 
 of the richest cities in the world. Its importance 
 in modern times dates from the reign of Philij) II. 
 
 CAUUPANO, a town of Vene/ueU, very plea- 
 santly situated in the immediate neighbourhood 
 of Curiaco ; prov. Cumana. Poii. 8,0U0 in 1800. 
 It has some trade, es|ieciaUy in horses and mules. 
 
 CASALE, an inl. town of N. Italy, prov. Ales- 
 sandria, cap. dist. of the same name, in a fertile plain, 
 on the Po, 87 m. E. by N. Turin, on the i.iilway 
 from Turin to Milan. Pop. 25,403 in 1862. The 
 place was formerly considered one of the strongest 
 fortresses in EuroiH>, but its ramparts have been 
 converted into public walks, and it is at present 
 defended only by an old castle, once the residence 
 of the maniiiisses of Montferrat. It has a cathe- 
 dral, several churches with fine paintings, nume- 
 rous palaces, and handsome private residences), 
 sevenil convents, hospitals, and charitable insti- 
 tutions^, a college, public library, theatre, corn 
 magazine, and many silk filatures. It is the resi- 
 dence of the provincial governor, and is the seat 
 of a bishop, and of the prov. court of Justice. It 
 originated in the 4th century. 
 
 CASAL-MAGGIOUE, a town of Northern 
 Italy, prov. Cremona, cap. distr., on the Po, 22 m. 
 SE. by E. Cremona, and 21 m. SVV. Mantua. 
 Pop. 15,122 in 1802. The town has manufau- 
 tiures of glass, earthenware, and cream of tartar ; 
 with distilleries, tanneries, and numerous mills. 
 It contains a superior and other schools, an hos- 
 pital, oqihan asylum, almshouse, munte-di-pkta, 
 and other charitable establishments, and a theatre. 
 Its origin is uncertain, but it existed in tlie 0th 
 century. It is very liable to suffer from inunda- 
 tions of the Po, by one of which, in 1705, it was 
 laid under water. 
 
 CASAL-NOVO, the name of several small 
 towns in Southern Italy. The largest of these 
 towns is situated in the province of Naples, and 
 had a pop. of 3,816 in 1862. This town, in com- 
 mon with most others in the same district, was 
 almost totally destroyed by the dreadful earth- 
 quake of 1773 ; and to guard against the effects 
 of a similar catastrophe in future, the houses are 
 now all low, and of wood. 
 
 CASERTA, a town of Southern Italy, cap. of 
 prov. of the same name, in an agreeable plain, 16 
 ni. NNE. Naples, on the railway from Rome to 
 Naples. Pop. 30,311 in 1862. 'The town b ir- 
 
nm 
 
 (WRHAN 
 
 ri'^iilnrly ImiIIi, Iml Iiiih Hcvi'rnl cliiiri'lici*, n ron- 
 Vi'lll of tliililit llltlit'M, n iiiohIi' lit liirtii, nil liiiit|iitill, 
 II inililurv tu'liiii)!, iiinl Niiiii'rli liarrikckM, Hut tlii> 
 
 Jiriilr of ruNiTtn foiifiiMU ill iti« royal iialiici-ilM'^un 
 II 1721, froin tUi' (IfNi^ii of tlui nrcliittrt Vaiivi- 
 li'lli. It Im of vnHi. fxtiMit ; lliii two iiriiicitial 
 t'roiiiH Ix'inK t'acli 7N7 ft. in Iciifttli, niiil t'ontaiiiin^ 
 livK NtorlcN (if Ihirtv-M'Vf^ii wiiulowH carli, i'li<> 
 ]iorlici), which (livi(f<-M tli(> ini(>ninl nynrv. into four 
 roiirtN, Ih truly inHKiiillccnt, im U the HiaircaHc 
 li'ailiiiK I" th<> npartiiii'iilf*. Tint vant iliiiiciiNioiiM 
 of the latter; tlic Imlil Miiaii of their ceiliiiKH ; tin* 
 I'xeetleiiee and iH'aiity ot the materials eiiiployed 
 ill liiiililiii^;; and the Mtn'n(;th of the nniHonry, 
 flaini the atlniiration of all lieliohlerN, The park 
 u of vant extent, ax arc the K'^rileiiN, Miipitlietl 
 M'itli water, brought from n f;reat diNtanee Ity a 
 iiohh- ni|uedu('t. A fi\k inainifaetiire Iuih li'eeii 
 cstaliliNhed in hiiildiiiKH attaehed to Iho palace, 
 which produccH very rich and line KtiirtN. 
 
 ("ASIIAN, n city of I'erHia, prov. Irak, In n 
 hlonv ))lain, ill Hiipplied with water, \H> in. N. Iiv 
 ^\'. "iHpahan; lat. 3!»" 56' N., loiif?. ;)|o 17' l'. 
 1v-«tiinated pop. 8(I,IMI(), It ix «)ne of the nioxt 
 thriving towns in I'ersia, and ix indehtcd for its 
 proxperity to its cxtenxivo nianiifactiires of silk, 
 car)iets, and copper warex. The kiii^ hitx a hunt- 
 ing-seat and garden alxuit 8 m. tVom the town, at 
 the foot of the mountains. 
 
 IIASHKF., an inl. city and pari. Imr. of Ireland, 
 prov. MuiiHtcr, co. Tijuterary, W(i m. 8W. Dublin, 
 and i)M liy Great Soutneni and VVcxtcni railway. 
 Top. f),{t7l in IK2I, and 6,458 in IHOl. The city 
 formerly was the residence uf the kin^s of Munster, 
 nnd ill 1142 was made an archbishopric. Hut by 
 the act for reducing the number of bishoprics in 
 Ireland, Caxhel, on the demise of the lute prelate, 
 ceased to be an archbishopric, and was united with 
 the bishotiric of Watcrford. The t<iwii is im-j^u- 
 iarly built, and, with the exception of the main 
 street, and of one or two others, the Iioukch are 
 mean, and exhibit every ap|iearaticc of ])overty. 
 Its supply of water is very scanty. The cathe- 
 dral and the U. Cuth. chapel are modern and 
 bpacious editlces. Here is also a convent of nuns 
 and n Methodist mctiting-house. The archbishop's 
 jialace, a lar^e and well-built mansion, has at- 
 tached to it a small library', and is surrounded l>y 
 an extensive pleasure-ground. There is also an 
 iiitirmary, market and court houses, a well-ar- 
 Tangc<l bridewell, and infantry barracks. 'I'ho 
 jilacc contains many very interesting relics of an- 
 1 i(|uity. On the rock of Caxhel, which rises ])re- 
 ripitoiisly over the city, arc the ruins of Corinac 
 ]M'(yUlinan'H chaiHil, built in the !)th century, and 
 lnvscntiiiK a tine specimen of ancient Haxon archi- 
 tecture; also the ancient cathedral, in the ]H)intcd 
 Ciothic style, the catttlc, and a pillar tower, all 
 within an enclosed area, commandiiifr an ext(Mi- 
 hive pros|)cct of the xurrounding fertile district. 
 'I'herc are some other monastic ruins in the city 
 and its vicinity. The corixiration, under a charter 
 of Charles I., in 1035), consists of a mayor, seven- 
 teen aldermen, two bailifl's, and an unlimited 
 inimlier of freemen. It returned two mem. to 
 the Irish H. of C, and sends one mem. to the im- 
 perial II. of C. Previously to the Keform Act, 
 t)ie riglit of election was vested in the mayor, 
 bailiii'i, .ildermen, and six freemen. The boun- 
 fluries of the present i>arl. bor. extend over 3,974 
 acres. Itcgistered electors 147 in 1H65. The cor- 
 ])oration estates comprise 3,278 acres. There are 
 no manufactures of any conxcquence. Markets on 
 Wednesdays and Saturdays; fairs on 2Cth March, 
 7th August, anil the third Tuesday in every 
 month. 
 CAbHGAK, or KASCIIGIIAK, a considerable 
 
 CAHIIMKRK 
 
 rity of riiiiicMe Turkestan or Tartary, of which it 
 wiiM fiiriiierly the capital, ami the farthext \V. 
 pliK'e of note ill the Clihiexe empire; on the \V. 
 side of a inounlaiii, in which xeveral xtreanix have 
 their Noiirrex, on one of which the city ix plarcil; 
 11(1 m. N\V. Varkund, and 2,2ri<l m. \V. hv S. 
 I'ekin ; lat, 3!»o 2«' N., long. ''.P 55' K. l'op.'xaid 
 to U> alxiut ltt,iMH), excliixivu of a garrixmi of 
 8,(HH) Chinexe troops. It is surrounded bv a wall 
 of earth, entered by four gates, and ix divided into 
 two portioiix — the 'Klohammedan and Chinexe city, 
 TIm* Chinexe governor and trixipx tH'ciipy a citadel. 
 Caxhgar was much more thuirixhing and ixipuloiis 
 before a reliellion which broke out here in iH'.'ti. 
 (Murnex'x Idikhara, iii. 1!)2.) Moxt of the iiiliab. 
 an; iMohamniediiiix, and Kp<'ak a diiilect pmlialdy 
 of Turkixh origin ; but there arexome Nestoriaiix. 
 (Killer.) The upper clasxes are opulent, liixii- 
 rioiix, and extravagant ; the artixans ingenious in 
 working gold and Jasper, in dveing, an<l in pro- 
 ducing cotton manufactures, Yhere is a weekly 
 market, ex|K'cially celebrated for horxex. Caxhgar 
 has a large trade with Itokhara, to whi<-h it sends 
 a great deal of inferior tea. |Mircehtin, Chinexe 
 xilkx, raw xilk, rhubarb, tl'c, and from which it 
 receives |{iiHsian and other merchandixt!, including 
 woollen cloths, coral, pearls, iMH-liineal, clolh of 
 gold, velvets, gidd and silver wire, ploughshares, 
 mirrors, needles, Hitxsian nankeen, d'c. The 
 whole of this trade amoiiiited before the relH'Uion 
 to 700 or 800 camel loads yearly. The intercourse 
 with Kokan is conducted by means of horses; but 
 it is very small, owing to hostile fe*'lings between 
 the Chinexe and the inhab. of that khaimt. The 
 trade with the country to the NK. and the Hussiaii 
 town of Semiimlatiiisk is brisk, as well as that 
 with Yarkunil. Cashgar was a celelmited com- 
 mercial city l)efore the Christian era. Under the 
 names of Sule, ('haje, dtc, it is B|iokeii of by 
 I'tolcmy, Kbn lIuuKal, and many subsei|uent 
 authors. Its territory is extensive, well watend, 
 fertile in corn, rich fruits, the vine, cotton, llax, 
 and hemp, and contains numerous considerable 
 towns. IJiuler several dynasties it formed an in- 
 dependent kingdom. The Chinese possessed tlieni- 
 selves of it about eighty years since. (Hitter, 
 Asieii Erdkunde, vii. 422,'4!)0; Klaproth, Me- 
 moires; Calcutta Jouniai, iv, C55; liumes; Kl- 
 phinstone.) 
 
 CA8IIMKUE (on. Ciupirn), a prov. of N. Ilin- 
 dnstan, dom. of the niaharajah of the I'linjaub; 
 consisting of the upper valley of the .Ihyliim, 
 chieHy between hit. 33«> 30' and 34° 30' N., and 
 long. 75° and 7t!° K., having NK. the central 
 chain of the Himalaya or Hindoo Kooxh, which 
 sttparatcs it from Thibet, and on all other sides 
 secondary ranges belonging to that chain, by 
 which it isdivi(led from the ri'stof Hiinjeet Singh's 
 territories. Shape, somewhat oval; leiiglh, WNW. 
 to I'.SK., about 8U m.; breadth of its central plain, 
 varying to 30 ra,, or, from summit to summit of 
 the opposite mountain chains, 50 to fiO m. Pop. 
 estimated in 1832 at 800,000, but reduced by war, 
 famine, and disease to less than 400,000 in 18(i0. 
 In 1828, un carthiiuakc destroyed 12,000 peojjle, 
 and, in two months after, cholera fonowe<l, by 
 which 100,000 ])erished in the course of forty clays. 
 The Himalaya has here an clevati<m of from 
 18,000 to litjilOOft.; the Pir Panjahl, belonging 
 to the opposite chain, is 15,000 ft. above the level 
 of the sea. There arc twelve passes into the 
 neighbouring countries, viz. eight to the Pun- 
 jab, one to the W., and three to Thibet : some? of 
 these arc open the whole year, and two are 13,000 
 ft. above the sea. Cashmere is copiously watered ; 
 a great nunil)er of rivulets and nuxintain torrents 
 from either side unite in the central valley to form 
 
 / 
 
CAMIIMKHK 
 
 «lfll> 
 
 ttm .Fhvliitn, wlilcli InlcrNooM it in nonrlv hi* wh<>li> 
 li-iiKili: iiiikny liiki'M nn< M|iri'nil over Iik NiirfiuT, 
 tliii InrKi'Hl •>■ wlilrli In iiciirly l<l in. iicrnHit, (irit- 
 niti>, ni'lilNt, linii'Niiini', ^yiMuni, iiml nliitt', iirc tli<< 
 
 Iiri'iliiniinani priniillvi' mcki*; Minic lii'<nii hIicIIh 
 mv« lH'4'n r*iun<l in tliii linii'Htunc; ^ihhI iron in 
 nit'l with ill llitt iniiiiMlMiiiH, iiiul i'ii|i|)i'r mid Iciiil 
 nn> Miiil lit «'\i*t in (!iiiiliin)'ri> ; llii> iipjM'r wiil of 
 till* ci'iilriil pliiin iH II rii'li I'liiy, In xnnii' iilarcK 
 iiilliunnialilc ^iix, wliich K|i<iiitnn)'oiiHly i^iiiirH, 
 t'Ni'iiiN'H rriiiii lint ^roiiiiil; iiiiil IIu'mi' Ih'Iiiu rrrk- 
 oiii'il |ii'('iiiittrly liiily, li'in|il<'i iiri> Imill nvi-r lliciii. 
 'Ihi' cliiiiiilf iH JK'iillliy, f\<'i'|i( ill till' rli'i' KniiiiiilH 
 ill lint wt'iilliiT, ami itpiicarN in have Ix'i'umk' iiiililiT . 
 williiii II It'w yrurx, Niiicv ilicri' am now uHiially 
 bill two or lliri^> yanlri' ttt'htli oC ^<llo^v in (iIiu'i'm 
 wlii'ri> tlio ili>|itli niiM ronnt'rly ten yanli*, 'I'owarilH 
 tilt! I'liii til' July tlit> ilii'rniDiiii'tfr Hiiiiiilt at t)<V^ K.: 
 tliii |M'rii>tlii'al rains lull mily in li^lit nliowtTH, tint 
 tliK Moil iicvi'r Niitl't'rit I'rtiiii ilniiixlit. 'I'lif I'liinar 
 (I'liiiitiinii* orienlaUn) (frnwH tt) a (,'ri'at »i/f; llr 
 unil ili'iHlikr I'lircNlM, waliinl-lri'CN, anil nnu'li Jnii)(l(>, 
 nlitiniKl tin llu* S, hIiIi* nt' ilii> valli'y; tin* N, tic- 
 clivilit'N artt t'liniparalivfly liari> tif Ircct, Imi arc 
 iilt'iitil'iilly I'livcri'il uiili ^ratM. I''.iirii|it'aii planU 
 in a wilil Hiatc art> ('iiniinnn, aiul t'riiil' tri't'H niiint!- 
 niiiH, lint nt'itlifr palm, niaii|;o, ntir tiran^i'-tri'CN 
 art' round: mtfn, iridi'M, InliiM-llowtTN, and otlii'm 
 art- irift with in prnt'iision. 'I'lit' tdk, and lifarx of] 
 lar^t* sixc, tilt! niiiHk ilcfr, im liari'M, liut pitnty tif 
 iitlifr punts varioiiM kindHoI'mTpiMilH, nix iirHitvt'ii 
 kindx of IImIi, and a ^m\t varit-ly of inxoflH, ar«> 
 nnlivcH of tliix rt'Kion, 'Natiiro lias ilono nini'h 
 lor CaHlnntTP — art inoro;' tlit> wlioiii valli'y is liku 
 a nolih'inan'H park; llic villii);t'N, wliit'liart' pli'tutaiit 
 looking, lK>ing Niirroniidt'd with iinint'iiitt! plani>, 
 ]ioplar, anil f'rnit-tri-i>ii, and haviii); liotwfi'ii tlii'in 
 ont'Mlu'et of cultivation, 'tlirouKli wliicli tlit> nolilu 
 river winilH itnelf in clt'pnit nwci'Ph.' !>illtTt'iit 
 kiiiilH of rifc arc >;rown, IjiiI tlicy tin not arnvi< at 
 any perfcftion ; wlu'at, barley, and the nllicr dry 
 KraiiiH, are nioro cnltivuttMl, and are said to yielil 
 u largo iiitnrn ; saOron of exeellent quality is 
 ])lanted tu a considerablo extent, and houiu of it 
 Hcnt even to Yarknnd. In tlio gHrdeim many 
 kitchen herbs uf eold countries arc (^rown ; turnips 
 are the only produuo yieldinj; two crops a year ; 
 the apple, |)ear, plum, apricot, nuts, and an ubun- 
 ilancc of vines are raised. The wine of Cashmere 
 resembles Madeirn, anil acipiires with age u su- 
 ]H>rii)r quality ; a s|iirit is distilled from the k^'M^^') 
 whicli is used freely by all classes. The farm im- 
 ]ilemcnt8 in nso ore very inferior ; the harrow is 
 unknown, and the clods arc broken with a kind 
 of mallet. Neither indigo nor opium is cultivated; 
 the poppy is grown for the sake of its seeds, which 
 arc used as food ; eight-tenths uf the ])eopIc eat 
 rape-oil, linseed, or sesamum, instead of ghcc or 
 butter. Sheep, which arc numerous, arc used to 
 carry burdens; tlic other ilnmestic animals are 
 horses, small, but hardy and sure-footed ; and 
 cows, which, though ill-shaiMid, yield excellent 
 butter and plenty of milk: liecs are kept on every 
 farm. The principal commercial wealth of CJash- 
 merc is derived from its shawl mannfacture, which 
 branch of industry is thought to have originated 
 ill this valley. The Cashmere shawls are the very 
 best that arc made, ])i>sscssing unequalled lincness, 
 delicacy, and warmth ; they ore formed of the 
 inner hair of a variety of goat (Qtvra hirciix) 
 reared on the cold, dry, table-land of '1 hibet, from 
 14,000 to lti,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and 
 which degenerates in any country at a lower ele- 
 vation. The great mart for the shawl wool is 
 Kilghct, about twenty tlavs' journey NK. Cash- 
 niere, whither it is conveyeil on the backs of moun- 
 tain sheep : it.s colour varies from white to usby 
 
 grey : almul '2 Ibt. nre oblnineil from A Ninglc goat 
 yearly. At Kilght'l the In'nI wimiI felflit'ii nlHUit 
 I rii|H'i> |M>r lb. In Catliincrf, after the down biH 
 iH't'ii fart'l'iillv M'lMirali'd I'mm the liairt, it it re- 
 |H'att'illy wanlied wiili rii'f Miiiri'li, 'I'liis pris'ims U 
 ri'i'koiifd ini|Hirtanl ; and it is to the ipiallly of 
 the water nt their valliy llial the Casliinirian-i 
 allrilinte llie pei'iiliar and iniiiiiialili' IIiiiiii'nn nf 
 the faliricN priHliii'i'd tliere; Ilie ihreail ii alwavH 
 dyed in rii-e-water. Al'liT tlif shawlH are woseii, 
 llii'V are nnrii'iii'd at a partiriiliir spnt near lln* 
 I'lipiial, wliiTi' inniHi of ilifin are waslii'd wlili A///.-, 
 till- root of n paraHiiii-al plant: nnap is iimiI I'nr 
 while nIimwIh only; the linrder U altai-bi'd la'>t. 
 The inanurai'iiire nfa large and rieh piiirnf Hliawl- , 
 wnrlli "ii'id/., will iM'ciipy lllli'fii ini'ii fnr liglil, 
 niniiiliM. The value nf Cashnit're shawlrt moKI iit 
 the annual aiirlinii in London is ri'|Hirlt'il to havn 
 riii'ii I'mm KKI.ooo/. in IH.'iii tn ■Ji;i,,'iki;/, in IHi;ii. 
 (I'ulilished prni't'eiliiigs of a nii't'tlng of shawl 
 nifriliani'*, held at Aniritsur, •Jltli August, iwil.) 
 Neverllielew, the niiinlier nf shawls inaniifartiin d 
 in CiiHlinu're is steadily di'i'liiiiiig. Ilnder the riilo 
 of tilt* Moguls there is said In have U'eii 'iD.iMiit 
 shawl looms; in the lime nf tin* Afghan dvnn.siy, 
 when Forsier visited Casliinere. Ibis niinilier bad 
 lieen reiluii'd to Ki.OiiO; in jNt;o, there wire no 
 more than .'1,(100 looms, and two or three nu'ii eiii- 
 plnyeil at earli. The maniirai'tiire has not. how- 
 ever, degenerated in exitllt me. Unnjeet Singh 
 took a niimlMT of shawls in part payment of his 
 revenue fniin this provime ; the aniniint nf whiili 
 varies eonsideralily, aeenrcling to the eapriee nf 
 the maharajah. I'iittle silk is woven; the ehiif 
 maniifiielnres, next to shawls, are writing pa|ii'r, 
 lai'kered ware, flit lery, and sugar, I'nnnerly innniili 
 greater quantities than at present. 
 
 (.'ashmere is divided into ;i(i iiergunnnhs, and 
 contains 10 towns and 2,<'0() villages; Ihi* eliiif 
 towns are Ca.!inu>re, the capital; Chiipiniim, 11,000 
 inhah.; Ishunabail and I'ampiir, 2,000 inliab. each. 
 Fannne, cholera, and emigratinn havt* greatly 
 thinncil the |iopulatiiin, and rendered many of tli'o 
 villages desert. There are here aliimt '2.'),000 Mnih- 
 mins, who arc the only Ilindnos; they are nf ii 
 darker colour than the rest of the natives, being 
 desceinleil from a body of cnlonisls fr iii the Dec- 
 can. The C'ashmerians are a stniii, widl-fnrmed 
 iHMiiile, of Hindoo stock, although Mohammedans. 
 Their complexions arc what wmild in Fraiiee Im 
 termed brunette ; the women arc handsome, |ini- 
 lilic, and much sought after by the Mogul noliility 
 of Delhi. The people arc brave, active, iiulnslrinus, 
 lively, and fond of music, literature, and art; but 
 said to be avaricious, cunning, ami proverbially 
 false. Their language is a dialect of Sanscrit, biit 
 their songs are in I'crsian. Indepemlent of its 
 celebrity for romantic bcautv, (!ashinere has been 
 always regarded as a holy land thoughout Inditi, 
 and as such has been continually resorted to bv 
 pilgrims. The source of almost every brook is 
 aihirned with some Hindno monument; but nearly 
 all the remaining temples ai)pear to be of Huddliii! 
 origin, and by their peculiar shape remind the tra- 
 veller of those of KUora. Koran-I'andah, neiir 
 Islamabad, formerly built of black marble, is one 
 of the finest ruins in India. Abnl Fazel enume- 
 rates U)0 Hindoo kings who reigned in Cashmere 
 prcviotisly to the year 742 of the llegira, subse- 
 quently to which the Mohammedans and Tartars 
 successively hail {)ossession of it. In 1.5N(5 it was 
 conquered by Acbar, and Ahmed Shah aftenvards 
 annexed it to Canbul. In 1809 the governor 
 asserted bis indejiendencc: since 1810 Cashmeie 
 has belonged to Kunjeet Singh. (Elphinstone's 
 Canbul, ii. 237-212; Mr. Davies'a IJcport on the 
 Trade of Central Asia, 18(54.) 
 
ero 
 
 CAMHMRUK 
 
 ('ANiiMitRit, nr Hrhinaoiih, th« rap. of thn 
 ■Im>v« |>mv„ on th« Jhylum, A,!MNI ft. mInivii tint 
 w<a , Ut. lilio 23' N., loiiK. 7 1<> 47' K. KmliimtiMl 
 |Mip. Ti^OOO. The town r xti*iiil« for alMitit i\ m. 
 on rilhi'f nIiIo llio river, (>vi<r which thru* ant lour 
 ur llvt) wiHNlitn hriilKvM : In Miintt |i«rtii tht< city in 
 'i m. in width ; Rtnwlit narrow niul pxcpcilltitrly 
 flithyt houitea mimetiinpn thrrn niuI four iilorloN 
 hi^li, the b«tt4'r mirt having lln*-|ilao<*H niiil chlin- 
 n«yii| with nlopinK nntfii of wihmIiui fraino-woric, 
 over which th«r« ii« a layer of narth, which ii* found 
 vpry warm during winter, and in Humini>r in co- 
 vered with tiowen. Kxcpiit a fortreiM at itJt .SK. 
 nuarter, formerly th« reMiilcnce of itH K<>vcnior, 
 ( aiihniere cont.aini« no liuildluK worthy of n'niiirk. 
 (Nivered iloatinK hatlm nre raiit(i><l nloiij^ the hank 
 (if the river; on the latter ninny ditl'erent kindx of 
 flat-lMiitonied ImatN are uoniiniinlly plying* hring- 
 Inu rice to the city. 
 
 The lake of Dal or Canhmere Rtretrheit NK. tlio 
 city in nn oval circuit of A or l> m., and Joini* the 
 Jliylum l>y a namtw channel. It hiw liecn much 
 celehrnted for it« iM'nulicN, and contains niuny 
 •mall iNlamlH, one of which derivcN itH name from 
 the plane-trees which cover it, lM>Hid(^H mnnv llont- 
 iuK Ki>i'<l*>'>'*t i» which watcr-melonM ancl otiicr 
 ft-uitH are cultivated: itn liankit nre adorned with 
 the blue lotua lUiU utbur duwcrs iii large number, 
 
 ('A.SPE 
 
 In the plain near the lake ime of It' Delhi 
 em|N>rorH, proliahly (Shah •lehan, cunnirttclc^l a 
 N|Hicioui« unnlen. 
 
 CASOLI, a town of Southern Italy, pmv. Chieti, 
 cap. cant., on a mountain, I'i m. nVV. l.ancinno. 
 I'op. H,'il(> In IHti'^. It haa avveral uhur«-hvii, and 
 two normal M-hiMdii. 
 
 (lAMOUIA, a town of Nouthem Italy, prov. 
 NaplcM, can. diHir., II m. NNK. Napleti. I'oii. H.IMiO 
 in iHtl'J, It haa four line churche* ; in liie rciii- 
 dence it( njuyt il' inttrMetum, and tlie liirthplaco of 
 I'ietro Martino, the celelinited |Miintct 
 
 CAHI'K, a town of Sftain, prov. Am^on, in the 
 ant(lu between and near the ciuilluencti of tliu 
 <iuadalou|w with the KImi ; M m. KK. !SaraKoi<>m, 
 I'op. I>,'ll() in IH.^7. The town \i»* ii caiitle, a |>iir. 
 church, tlve coiiventN, and four lioMpitnli* ; wiili 
 manufacture)* of rourxc bain, itonp, brnndy, and 
 cloth. There ar«< in tln' vicinity exii iiNive plantn- 
 tiouH of oliven and inullM'rry tn><<i«, which yield 
 aliimdance of oil nnd xilk : unit piti*tun>N which fei-d 
 1I0,<HHI Mlieep, The town in ii>iied for the coiiKrcMH 
 of the AraKoneiie, (JatabmiHiiN, nnd VuleiioiniiH, 
 held in it in Itl'i, to itettle the iiucceHition to tho 
 crown, after the death of Don Martin, kin^ of 
 ArnKoii, without Koim; when Ferdinand, hoii of 
 John I. kiiiK of Castile, was uhutou tu succeed 
 him on tho ilirone. 
 
 END or THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 lOffDon 
 
 raiNIBO BT SPOTTIHWOOOl AND CO. 
 
or III Drllil 
 Ci)lliilriM'li-<l « 
 
 y, iiniv. flhlfil, 
 
 H\V, l^iii'lniio, 
 
 vliim-hvH, aiui 
 
 •n I Inly, pmv, 
 \tm. I'lm. H.ttiiO 
 >M ! iit thn rrNi- 
 « ItlTthplniiu (if 
 
 lUu'iicii ol' tliu 
 HK, •SnraiftMHU, 
 II caMlIc, a pitr, 
 iiiii|iituli); Hiilk 
 , lirniiity, nml 
 I iiHivft |ilnntii< 
 I, which yii'lil 
 m>N whicli ri'i'il 
 ir lhf> ('(iiiKri'HM 
 i<t Vnli'iioiniiN, 
 '(■(•Htiidii to thd 
 nrliii, kiii(( iif 
 linaiul, MOM (if 
 
 Cll tu SUL'CC«'(|