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G
M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY
GEOGKAPHICAL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTOKICAL.
VOLUME /.
LONDON
PiujTTnn tiv spottihwoouk and ( o.
MEW-tiTllEKT SqUAUB
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m the Pacific Oiv^ui ^cart shomn by thf n.i/nM
Yf.'Wjf ('.- LapiU't Lihndj Ktd ; Rryioni of
B D _- f .1 . t'lTtA^ial Orfrrssioa
Si'mer RfHs TfUo* ' *
London LonoTHun X^ ih.
Frtntimo Bert's
1 Rt-eiaas ot'
S
i» • *■ '''T<i,T..\T ■■ • ^ '
"»«1. Fii<rLd Zon
A DICTIONARY
GEOGRAPHICAL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTORICAL
OP THR VARIOCS
COUNTRIES, PLACES, AND TRINCirAL NATURAL
OBJECTS IN THE WORLD.
.V 1
BT
'i^
J. R. M'CULLOCH.
NEW EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED,
WITH THE STATISTICAL INFORMATION DROUGHT UP TO THE LATEST RETURNS
BY
FREDERICK MARTIN
AUTHOR OF 'THE STATESMAN'S YEAIl-nOOK.*
IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL. I.
LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
186G.
2272;fl
'-)
M l'^
V.I
PllEFAC)]^]
TO
TIIK KIUST KDITION.
Trir, ITII.ITT of f^ooprapliioal works is ho generally atlmittotl, that, it
Ht'CinH nniu'coHsary to onileavour, by any l('tij,'tlu'ruHl Htatt'inciitH, to
(.•«)uciliat(» tlin f'avourahlo opinion of tlio rtwliT hy dwelling on tlicir
tncritH. 'riuM-c! are few ho iiuuiriouH as not to wiali to learn Honictliinjf
of tlio statu of forei^'n countries, especially of those with which their
own nation is connected, or which have been celebrated in history. Tho
desire to gratify this laudable curiosity has, in all ages, prompted itidi-
viduals to visit foreif^n countries; and has made the works of voyagers
and travellers be eagerly sought after. Mut vhe situation of most
pco[)le prccludes tho possibility of their leaving their native country ;
while fi!W of those who do travel can survey more than a small part of
the earth's surface. Neither is it ])ossible adequately to HUi)ply this
want of personal knowledge by resorting to the relations of travellers.
These are frecpusntly contradictory and inconclusive ; tho statements
in them are usually, also, limited in their afjplication, and are not
always to bo depended on ; and, though it wero otherwise, tho conmumd
of many humh'ed volumes, and tho free disposal of one's tinu', would
bo necessary to enable an individual to acquii-e, by tiu'lr means, even a
Buperficial acquaintance with the ditTerent regions of the earth. Henco
the utility of geographical works, comj)iled -with due care and know-
ledge : they embody tho information scattered in tho accounts of
travellers, in topographical works, and in official returns and other
public and private documents ; sift and distribute it under its proper
heads ; and lay it before tho reader in a condensed form, disencumbered
from superfluous or irrelevant matter.
Systematical works, or those in which the various details with respect
to the physical, moral, and political state of a country or district aro
arranged in their natural order, in a consecutive narrative, are probably
the best adapted for tho use of the student and scientific reader. But
Dictionaries are much more convenient, and better fitted for public
use. When arranged in alphabetical order they are easy of consulta-
PREPACK TO THE FIR8T EDITION.
tion ; and, if properly compiled, the articles in them arc not <!onnpcto(l
or mixed up with others, but are separately complete, supplying llio
inquirer with independent, and, at the same time, precise and well-
authenticated information. Such works seem, from the extreme diver-
sity and interest of the subjects treated of, peculiarly fitted to * excite
curiosity by their variety, to encourage diligence by their facility, and
to reward application by their usefulness.' We need not, therefore,
wonder that they have generally, even when their execution has been
very indifferent, enjoyed a large share of popularity.
It is necessary to observe, that we have not attempted to supply the
reader with a complete Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Dic-
tionary. We have proceeded on a principle of selection ; and, instead
of noticing unimportant places and objects, have endeavoured to n-^ice
those only that might reasonably be expected to interest the reader. A
work of this class on any other plan would necessarily extend to many
volumes, and would embrace multitudinous details of no general im-
portance. In illustration of what has now been stated, we may men-
tion that the Grand Dictionnaire Gdograpliique, Histotique et Critique,
by Brazen de la Martiniere, which aims at considerable completeness,
occupies no fewer than six huge folio volumes ; and, gigantic as this
may seem, it is far surpassed by the German edition of the same work,
which extends to thirteen similar volumes. Though on a compressed
and far more judicious plan, the Dictionnaire Geographique Uuiverael,
Paris, 1823-1833, occupies ten thick octavo volumes. It is needless to
say that works of this size are quite unsuitable to the great majority of
readers ; and it has been our object, by excluding articles and state-
ments of little interest, to keep our work within reasonable limits, and
to allow, at the same time, sufficient space for treating the more im-
portant articles at adequate length. It is also necessary to bear in
mind, that this being a work intended for the especial use of English-
men, we have dwelt at greatest length on the articles and details we
presumed most likely to interest them. Hence we have appropriated
a much larger space to the description of our Eastern possessions, and
oi our colonies in different parts of the world, than they may appear, on
other grounds, properly entitled to. On the same principle, we have
lengthened the accounts of those countries and places with which our
countrymen have the greatest intercourse, or which have acquired
celebrity by the historical associations connected with them, and have
proportionally shortened the others.
Without neglecting the physical geography of the different countries
and places, we have directed our principal attention to what has been
called their political geography, — that is, their industry, institutions,
and the condition of their inhabitants. Neither have we attempted to
confine ourselves within what might, perhaps, be called the limits of a
strictly geographical and statistical work. Wherever the occasion
seemed to justify it, we have not scrupled te commend and censure, as
well as to describe ; and have endeavoured to appreciate the influence
of institutions and habits of national welfare. The historical notices
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
Yii
are necessarily brief, and, unless in the more important articles, are
mostly restricted to an enumeration of leading events.
Our object being to supply a work of easy reference to the public at
large, we have, in general, given our notices of countries and places
under the names by which they are commonly known in England.
This plan does not involve any want of scientific precision ; though if
it did, the defect would bo much more than compensated by its being
better adapted for public use. There are not very many readers who
would think of looking for Leghorn under Livoruo, or for Munich
under Miinchcu ; and among tho many thousands who might wish to
acquire some information respecting the present state of the Dead Sea,
there are not, perhaps, as many dozens who would seek for it under its
Arabic name of Ikihr-el-Li/at.
It did not enter into our plan systematically to notice (countries or
places as they existed in antiquity. But, wherever it was supposed
that such notices would bo likely to interest the general reader, wo
have not hesitated to introduce them. Our object, in fact, was not so
nmch to compile a dictionary on strictly scientific principles, and that
should be perfectly homogeneous in its parts, as to produce one that
might be relied on, that should omit few articles of importance, and
that ordinary readers should find generally instructive and interesting.
None can be more ftiUy satisfied than we are of the extreme difficulty
of accomplishing even this much. In a work embracing so great a
variety of statements, many of them relating to matters in regard to
which it is frequently all but impossible to acquire correct information,
perfect accuracy need not be looked for. But we can honestly say that
we have spared no pains to make our work worthy of the reader's con-
fidence ; and would fain hope that its errors are not such as sensibly to
detract from its utility.
J. R. M'CULLOCH.
LoNuoN : January 1841.
PREFACE
TO
THE REVISED EDITION.
In this new and revised edition of Mr. M'Culloch's Dictlonarij, the
changes have been marked which the world has undergone in the lapse
of a quarter of a centuiy. Short as is the time, these changes have
been neither few nor unimportant. Whole kingdoms have disappeared
from the political map of the globe ; empires have refixed their bound-
aries, and nations have reformed their existence. In the course of less
than a generation of men, an immense network of iron roads has come
to encircle the civilised world ; vast navies of commerce have been
launched upon the ocean ; and races the most distant have been
brought together by the new agents of pi ogress — steam and electricity.
To register all these marvellous innovations, without altering the
character of the Bidiunary, has been the duty of the present editor,
who must plead, in extenuation of sins of omission and commission,
the last paragraph of Mr. M'Culloch's preface.
FREDERICK :MARTIX.
Lojtdon: January I8G61
Vol.. I.
1.
2,
3.
4.
6.
6.
LIST OF MAPS.
1. THE WORLD . . . to face title-page
2. AFRICA „ page 11
3. AMERICA, NORTH ......... „ 91
4. AMERICA, SOUTH „ „ 97
5- ASIA „ ,,197
6. AUSTRALASIA „ ,,259
II '
iii
A DICTIONARY
GEOGEAPmCAL, STATISTICAL, AND fflSTOEICAl.
AA
A A, the namo of a\xmt forty small rivers in
France, Switzcrlntid, the Nethcrlanils, and the
states of (Jermany, The wide diffusion of tl>o
name oeema to nruve tltat it i» derived from the
AARGAU
18()1. There are linen factories; also tanneries
and oil-mills.
A AH, a river of Switzerland, the most consider-
able in that country after tlie Rhone and Khino.
Erratv/m
Page 382, line 5, for Baylen derives its principal conity, and which
read Baylen derives its principal celebrity from the
M'Cullocb's Oeog. Diet. Vol. I.
manufactures of soap, flsh-oil, fire-arms, refined
sugar, leather, and silk, with a considerable
amount of shipping and trade: principal exports
com, flour, fish, butter, and spirits. Formerly it
was accessible to large vessels; but owing to the
gradual filling up of the channel of the Lymfiord,
It is now accessible only to the smaller class of
merchantmen, or those not drawing more than 9
or 10 feet water. Aalborg means Kcltown; a name
derived from the immense number of eels that are
found in the waters in its vicinity.
AALEN, a town of VVUrtemberg, circ. Jaxt,
cap. bailiwick, formerly a free im{)erial citv, on
the Kocher, 42 m. FL Stutgard, on the rallwav
from Stuttgard to Nuremberg. Pon. 4,272 in 1861.
The town is surrounded by walls flanked with
high towers; has manufactures of wool and cotton,
and breweries. There are extensive forests in the
environs, and iron mines.
AALSMER, a village of Holland, E. side of the
sea of Haarlem, 10 miles SW. Amsterdam. Pop.
2,680 in 1861. The callage is famous for its straw-
I berries, grown in immense quantities, for expor-
1 tation.
AALTEN, a village of the Netherlands, Gucl-
Iderland, 7A miles SSW. Groenlo. Pop. 6,038 in
Vol. I.
Is well built, has a gj-mnasium, a school of art, a
seminarium or normal school for the iustniction of
teachers, a public or cantonal library, a society of
national instruction, with manufactures of silk
and cotton, a cannon foundr}-, and bleach-fields.
A station on the Central Swiss railway, from the
Lake of Constance to the Lake of Geneva, opened in
1862, has done much towards increasing the manu-
facturing activity. The peace, wliich terminated
the civil war of i712, was concluded here.
AARGAU, or AKGOVIA, the 16th of the Swiss
cantons, separated by the Rhine from Baden,
having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of
Lucenie on the S., and Soleure and Basel on the
W. Area 502 sq. m. Pop. 194,600 in 1860, licing
397 persons to the square mile ; or, next to Basel
and Geneva, the densest populated canton of the re-
public. The mountains in this canton do not attain
to any very great height, and it possesses a con-
siderable extent of fertile land. It is traversed
by the Aar, whence it derives its name, and by
its important tributaries the Reuss and Limmat.
The country is well cultivated, and the produce
of wheat and other grain exceeds the consumption :
there are numerous vineyards .with abundance of
garden and orchard fi^il. The rearing of cattle
B
I
III!
A DIOTIONAHY
GEOGRAPmCiVL, STATISTICAL, AND HISTORICAL.
AA
A A, tlip nnmn of nlMnit forty omnll rivers in
Frunnp, Kwitxcrlniiil, the Nutlifrlands, iinil tliii
«tnti'8 <)f (k-rmany. Ttio wide tlifFiision of tlic
name seems to provo that it is dcrivetl from the
old Teutonic word HiKnifyin^ stream, or, simply,
water. Besides the forty rivc^rs called Aa, there
arc a dozen more ending in this name. Such arc
the IIoopstcr-Aa, and the J^adber^er-Aa, both in
Hanover; the IJredevorder-Aa, in Holland; the
Vcilc-Aa, in Denmark ; and the Arl-Aa ond
Scholm-Aa, in Schleswij^.
AALHOUG, an old town of Denmark, cap.
diocese anc. bailiwick, and the principal town in
Jutland, situated about 17 m. from the sea, on the
8. side of the channel of the Lymtiord, or (jreat
internal Ridf, enterinj; from the Cattefjat, near
where it begins to expan<l into an extensive lake.
Lat. 570 2' 82" N., long. «« 60' 41" E. Top. 10,070
in 18t;0. Aalborg is the terminal station of the
railway from Teensburg to the north of Jutland,
opened in 18(i5. The town is intersected by two
small rivers, and surrounded by ditches; it is the
, seat of a bishopric, has a gymnasium or college, an
episcopal library with 11,000 vols., a school of
I navigation, and an hospital and two workhouses.
Exclusive of distilleries and breweries, it has
manufactures of soap, tish-oil, lire-arms, refined
sugar, leather, and silk, with a considerable
amount of shipping and trade: principal exports
com, flour, fish, butter, and spirits. Formerly it
was accessible to large vessels; but owing to the
gradual filUng up of the channel of the Lymfiord,
it is now accessible only to the smaller class of
merchantmen, or those not drawing more than 9
or 10 feet water. Aalborg means Ecltown ; a name
derived from the immense number of eels that are
found in the waters in its vicinity,
AALEN, a town of VVllrtembcrg, circ. Jaxt,
cap. bailiwick, formerly a free imperial citv, on
the Kocher, 42 m. E. Stutgard, on the roilwoy
from Stuttgard to Nuremberg. Pop. 4,272 in 1801.
The town is surrounded by walls flanked with
high towers; has manufactures of wool and cotton,
and breweries. There are extensive forests in the
^ environs, and iron mines.
AALSMER, a village of Holland, E. side of the
I sea of Haarlem, 10 miles SW. Amsterdam. Pop.
2,(i80 in 1861. The \'illuge is famous for its straw-
I berries, grown in immense quantities, for ex^rar-
Itation.
AALTEN, a village of the Netherlands, Guel-
Iderland, 74 miles SSW. Groenlo. Pop. 6,038 in
Vol.1.
AAHGAU
1801. There are linen factories; also tanneries
and oil-mills.
A AH, a river of Switzerland, the most consider-
able in that coinitry after the Rhone and liliine.
Its principal sources are in the glaciers of tho
Schreckhom and (irimscl mountains in Kerne,
near the source of the Hhonc. Having united its
different arms near Mcyringcn, it Hows thenco
through the lakes of lirienz and Thun. Escaping
from the latter, it takes a northerly direction till
it reaches Home; it then turns W. till having re-
ceived its tributary, the Saane; it Hows NE. by
Aarbcrg, Solcurc, and Aarau, till it unites with tho
Rhine, opposite to Waldshut. Its most important
tributaries arc, on the right, the Emmc, Reuss,
and Limmat; and on the left, tho Soano, already
noticed, and the Thielc. Its course is about 170
m. It becomes navigable on emerging from lake
Thun. In the upper part of its course it dashes
along with great fury, and is prccijiitated over
several waterfalls. — Aar also is tho name of two
small rivers in Waldeck.
AARAU, a town of Switzerland, cap. cant.
Aargau, on the Aar, 1,140 feet above the level of
the SCO, 23 m. SE. Basel, on the railway from
Basel to Luceme. Pop. 5,094 in 1800. The town
is well built, has a gvmna;ium, a school of art, a
seminarium or nomuil school for the instruction of
teachers, a public or cantonal library, a society of
national instmction, with manufactures of silk
and cotton, a cannon foundrj-, and bleach-fields.
A station on the Central Swiss railway, from tho
Lake of Constance to the Lake of Geneva, opened in
1802, has done much towards increasing the manu-
facturing activity. The peace, which terminated
the cix-ii war of 1712, was concluded here.
AARGAU, or ARGOVIA, the ICth of the Swiss
cantons, separated by the Rhine from Baden,
having the canton of Zurich on the E., that of
Lucerne on the S., and Soleure and Basel on the
W. Area 502 sq.m. Pop. 1 94,600 in 1800, being
397 persons to the square mile; or, next to Basel
and Geneva, the densest populated canton of the re-
public. The mountains in this canton do not attain
to any very great height, and it possesses a con-
siderable extent of fertile land. It is traversed
by the Aar, whence it derives its name, and by
its important tributaries the Reuss and Limmat.
The country is well cultivated, and the produce
of wheat and other grain exceeds the consumption :
there are numerous vineyards .with abundance of
garden and orchard fFuU. The rearing of cattle
ill
P
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mill nUcv]) U not fiiiiiul til l>r iirmliirtlvo, Imt llioy
liri' ililvillltilp'iillsly I'litli'lli'il in tlir inrttilnU'H, wllii'll
nrr ImiIIi cxli'iiNivi' nml cxccllciit, .Maniirartiiri's
imvi- iniulf «•■<'"• I'rnnrc^H. 'I'lic nrinciiwil i* that
(ilrnttiin, iii'xt to it is Mk, and tlit'ii rnllow lini'ii,
Nl raw platting', iiiul tlic inaniil'ai'tnri' urniat'iiincry.
CiiltiinM art' kIIII in part woven in the cotta^cH of
till' pca^iintTt or Nniall laliourin^ rarnirrx, 'I'lu!
canton U iii->tinKni'<lii'il liy tin- attciilion it lias
paiil to t'dncation. I'.vt'ry clistriit of l-jut diililn'n
must lutvc at least one prinuiry anil one sniterior
Hcliool. In t'Vcrv <'iri'li' (Hrzirh), tlie popnlatioti
liiinK from l.'i.ooo to '.'ii.iido, tluTf are from live to
Hix seeoMitary ni'liools. There is also in the eapitiil
u ^rymnasium, ii sehool of arts, ami n nonnal
Mehool for the instruction of feaehers. The expense
of till! sehools is ilefrayi'il partly by the eoinmiineM
mill partly liy the state fiiinis. In the ^viiina-
Niiiiii anil sehool of arts the state iiroviiles lor the
]iaymi'iit of I'ourleen professors anil their assistants.
Alioiit three-liniis of the population, namely,
]0|,I()7, are Protestants, anil the rest li'omaii
Catholii's, The piililie revenue amoiinteil to
2,i;i(l,im(» Irs., or H.'), I HI/, in the year IhO 1. Aliout
one-half this sum is ileriveil from state property.
The eaiitolial eontin>,'ent to the diet is llxed at
V.lllinien, For an aeeonnt. of the piverninent,
nee art. Swn/.i;iti.ANi). I'rineipal towns Anrau,
Laiifenlier^, lladeii, and ZoUinp'ii.
AAlilIL'i'S, II sea-port town of Denmark, rnp.
dioeese and liailiwiek of the same name, on the
K. coast of Jutland, lat. 5(1° I)' ;(;■)" N., Iohk. UP
14' K. I'op. 11,IMI!» in IHtll. A railway, opened
in IMi, connects Aarhuii.s with Aallior^ in tlie
north, anil the chief towns of Sehleswi^j-llolstein
in the south. The town is well liuilt, has n lar^e
cathedral founded in 12iil, a lyeeuin, n nuiseum
of nntiiinitios, and a valualile diocesan library.
Its ooninu'rce and industry liavis iiicrenscd con-
aiderably of late years. The cxjiorts consist prin-
cipally of a;;rieultural produce; with spirits and
beer, the iiroduce of its distilleries and breweries;
and cloth and >;loves. ('onsidernble sums have
recently Ik'cu expended on the imjirovement of its
port, which has lieen rendered one of the best in
Jutland. Packets sail rcfjularly between it and
Callniidbert;, on the west coast of Zealand.
AAHOXSIUIHGII, a small town of the United
States Centre Co., I'ennsylvanin, 51 miles N\V.
Ilarrisburf,', on the railway from Harrisburg to
Pittsburfj. Pop. 1,27') in lw;o.
AASZY, the Orontes of Greek geographers,
•which see.
AATYL. A town or village of Syria, in the
Ilaouran or Great Plain, extending t^. from l)a-
masinis and l], from the mountains beyond Jordan,
lat. it2° 1;V N., long. 3tio m' K. The inhabitants
consist of Dnisos (see Lihanns and Si/ria), of the
number iirolmlily of '200 or 300. Though now in-
signilicant, the remains of ancient grnndeur in its
vicinity jirovc that Aatvl was imce a place of im-
portance. These rcmanis occupy a circuit of a
mile, and in many instances are inhabited by the
present po])ulatioii. W. of the town a jierfect arch
of very line workmanship, with broken pillars and
friezes, marks the site of a small but elegant
tem])lc. On the S. another temjjle, almost entire,
■with n portico of four columns and an entrance
beautifully and elaborately carved, has been con-
verted into ft private residence. Aatyl is 51 m.
} direct distance) SSR. Damascus, and 48 m. E.
.ake of Tabaria, the Genesareth of the Bible.
AHADKII, a large village of Persia, jjrov. Far-
pistan, 11.5 m. N. Shiraz. Estimated pop. 2,000.
It is surrounded by walls in a state of decay ; and
is defended by a large square fort, now containing
the whole population. The ground in the ueigh-
AUUEVILLE
lionrhood I« very fertile, and interserted by nnnifl-
roiis watercourses and rivulets. (L'ssher, Journey
from l.ondon to Persepolis, iHi'iri.)
AUAK.XNSK, ft town of Siberia, gov. Jennis-
seisk, on the Aliakan near the Jeniswi. Pop. I,2;'i0
in iH'iH. On iniiunt Isik, and other places in its
environs, are fmind some of the most reiniirkabln
of those singular remains of fonner civilisation
that are met with in many places of Southern
Siberia. They consist principally of tumuli or
totnlis, which fnM|uently contain ear-rings, briii-e-
lets, and other ornaments and utensils of gold,
silver, and copper, with iron stirrups. Near Aba-
kansk are statues of men from 7 to !t feet high,
and covered with hieroglyphics, of which unfor-
tunately no explanation has yet been given.
AMAXO or ALHANO, a village of Northern
Italy, prov. Padua. 10 m. SW. Padua. Pop. II.OC.H
in IKCil. This village derives its celebrity from
its hot springs and mmln. It is situated near the
l''.uganean hills, in a place marked with some low
eminences, whence issue copious springs of water
capable at their source of boiling an egg ipiite
hard. The waters are partly employed to prepare
and soften mud, partly to supply the baths, and
partly go to waste, or turn a mill which revolves
amid volumes of smoke. Tliey are supposed to Ih)
efltcacioiis in cases of palsy, rheumatism, and ii
variety of complaints, 'i'he mud is applied hot tii
the alVecteil [lart, somewhat after the manner of
taking a stucco cast ; and the baths are regarded
Iirincipally us an auxiliary to the ' dirty ' appli-
cation.
These baths were well-known to, and much used
by, the Komans. They were called J'litiii'inie
Af/iitr, the principal source being distinguished
by the name of Avimiis fonii, whence their muderu
name has eyidently beeii ileriven.
Aponus torrls ubl famlfor exit.
Lucnn.vH. 1. 194,
A branch lino of railway places Abano in com-
munication with Venice aiid Mantua.
AliM, a town of Arabia, in the Usjebel, ornioun-
tftin land of Yemen, lat. 1 3° 5«' N., long. 44° l;V E.,
ilf) m. S. Sanaa, 73 m. NK. Mocha, and 104 m.
NVV. Aden. Number of houses said to lie about
800, which at an average of (i individuals to each
gives a pop. of nearly 6,000. It is built on the
summit of ft mountain ; is surrounded by a strong
and well-built wall; and overlooks ft well-watered
(for Arabia) and extremely fertile country. Houses
(as usual in the mountain towns of Vemen) of
stone; streets well paved, which, in this country,
is very uncommon. An aqueduct conveys water
from a mountain at a little distance on the N. to
a large reservoir in front of the principal mosque.
AUI5EVILLE, ft thriving industrious town, in
the NVV. of France, dep. Somme, cap. arrond. on
the navigable river of that name, 25 m. NVV.
Amiens, on the railway from Paris to Uoulogne
and Calais. Pop. 20,058 in 18(51. The town is
neat and well-built; is regularly fortified on the
system of Vaiiban ; and has, exclusive of the old
Gothic church of St. Vulfran, several public build-
ings worthy of notice and a public library. A
tine cloth manufactory was established here in
KUiO, by ft Dutchman of the name of Van Ifobais,
under the auspices of Colbert ; and Abbeville has
ever since continued to be distinguished as one
of the most industrious towns in France. Besides
black cloths of the best quality, with serges and
barracans, there arc produced calicoes and stock-
ings, sackings, packthread, cordage, and jeweller}'.
It has also establishments for the spuming of
wool, print works and bleaching works, tanneries,
soap works, ft glass work, ami a paper manufac-
tory. The tide rises in the Somrac about 7 feet.
and
thrli
rnlllll
III. Ill
A I.I"
All
'"I
docted liy niiiTiP-
I'xHlur, Joiirmy
I
T\a, ffitv. Jcnniw-
li.xw'i. I'op. l.'.TiO
;luT |iImccm ill it«
iiiiHt ri'iiiiirkiililo
niicr (■ivili'<iitii)n
iiccs (if SiMillii'm
Iv of tmiuili iir
cur-riiiHH, liriii'i'-
iitcnsils of ^iilil,
■iip.H. Near A I III-
7 to !t fci'l lii«h,
, of wliicli uiifiir-
I n jflvcii.
mH' of Nortlicm
itiitiii. I'op. :i,oi;h
ts (('Iclirity from
.sitiiiitcil near till!
•(I witli noiiif low
H|iriiiKi< of waliT
u;i nil ^'^,'^c ipiito
plovi'il to pri'piird
y t\\v lintliH, mill
ill wliicli ri'volvi'H
iD^ mipposcil to Ih)
I'liinatisin, ami n
I JM Mpplicil hot to
(T till' maiiiuT of
atlis aru n-pinlt'd
ho 'dirty' uppli-
to.nnd much uwd
callril I'nUmme
iii^ diMtiii^iiisiiiMl
lUiicc thuir inuUuru
1.
or pxlt.
iican, vll. 1. 104.
tcs Ahnno in coni-
titiin.
U.ijuhcl, or nioiin-
I.,lonK.4l° l.VK.,
ijclia, and 101 m.
sail! to lie ahoiit
idividuals to each
t is hiiilt on the
iiiidcd liy a Htron^
ks a well-watered
.country. Houses
ns of Vemen) of
, in thia country,
ict conveys water
fince on the X. to
irincipal mosque,
lustriuus town, in
c, cap. arrond. on
imc, 25 m. NW.
'aris to Uoulogne
U. The town is
fortified on the
lusivo of the old
■eral public huild-
ulilic lilirary. A
tablishcd here in
ue of Van IJolmis,
nd Abbeville has
infjuished as (ino
France. Besides
with serRCs and
licoea and stock-
go, and jewellerj'.
the spmning of
■works, tanneries,
, paper manufac-
ime about 7 feet,
AKIlIATKnilASSO
and voKwIs of from '.'ilO to '.'"iii ton* ronie up to
till' town. Il«iii>;>itimfrdln lliiMTiitn'orn Irmtl'iil
ritinilrx, ami niitiriiuiiiriitili^ bv riiilnnv \\\\\\ nil
IIk in<»l Important town-* ol Frame and IlcJKiiim,
Alilii'villc liM'< a i'iin>ic|crabl iiimrrrc.
AUIllA IKtillASSO, a town of Nortlicrn Italy,
pfiiv. ra\ia, on the ciinul of llrrr|;narclo, II in.
\VSW. Milan. I'op. K.'.'i'p.l in l«tll. The town U
fortilli'd; and its piKlijcpii has made if be always
D'^anli-d of (diisiileralile iinportaiice in a military
point of virw.
Alius IM'.AH (ST.), ft promontory on the K.
roa^t of Scotland, ln'iii;; the mont »iiiitlicrl\ iioiiit
of till' l-'ritli of Forth, \aI, Im'-' itV Mi' N., loiij;.
'JO K" W \V.
AIlK ri.AZIM, a village of IVrxIn, at the foot
of till' liills III till' nrlitlilioiirlioodon'fhi'raii. Near
it stands a lofty towrr built of brick, in a very
iii'cullar form, siipposnl in have been cri'i'tcd by
oriirr of till' lirst of the Sassaiiiiin kind's, in coin-
nii'iiioratiiiii of a ^rcat victory over the I'artliiaiH.
(I'lslicr, .JoiiriU'V I'roin I.omion to I'crscpolis, p.
•ilN.)
AllF.f.A, Aim,, or AMILA.a town of Syria, In
till' llaoiiriiii, on the Shvruil-il-Miinilhniir (anc.
Jliiroiiitij), one of flic larwi'sf allliiriits of the
./nriliiii, laf, .'ir-' 17' N., loiij;. .'111° II. It is now in
n riiiiioiiM and dilapidated stale, liavin;; probably
not more than from lOil to toll inhabitants; but
formerly if was a place of considerable import-
ance, beiii^ the capital of and f^ivinu its name to
one of the six departnieiifs (.tliiliiif) info which
the lloinans divided the country K, of .Tordaii.
Home broken pillars and overthrown cohiniiis
evince its ancient ^Tiindeur; but none of its old
biiililiii);s remain entire, and if is preserved from
desertion only by its vicinity to flic wafer, which
fpmlers it a desirable resilience for the few Arab
filniilies bv whom if is still occupied.
AHi;ilHI{<)TII()CK, or AKllIfO.VriT, ft wft-
irt, inanufacturiiiK town, and pari. bor. of Scot-
mi, CO, Aiif^iis or Forfar, at the mouth of the
Drotliock water, on the railway from Dundee to
Aberdeen. I'op. WJMX in IHll,and 17,.0!);iin IHCil.
Arbroath iiiiifes with Ilrechin, llervie, and Mon-
trose, in returning am. to Il.of (.'.I'arl.constifiH'ncv
6(iH in \H(i\. It has a parish church and two chaiiels
of ease, with churches fur I'^pisciipalians, Seceders,
Methodists, and Independents. The other public
buildings are the town-house, the trades-hall, the
public schools, and the signal tower, which coni-
Biiinicates with the liell-Kock lighthouse distant
•bout 12 miles. The town lias a secure though
email harbour, frequented, in the year IHti.l, by ■l.'i.'l
vessels, of 31,(tl2 tons. The corporation revenue,
in l8(>U—t, amounted to \,!'>iK)l. The town owes
its iirosperity to the tlax manufacture ; nearly
half the population being pm|doycd in the spin-
ning, dressing, weaving, and bleaching of coarse
linen goods. Some of the mills are driven by the
little rivulet that intersects the town; but steam
mills are numerous, both in the town and the
.vicinity. Here are the ruins of an abbey, founded
Oin honour of Thomas h Heckcft, in 117K, by Wil-
liam the Lion, who, on his death in 1211, was
'linterred within its jirccincts. It was destroyed in
' i5i;ii.
AHKRCONWAY, or CONWAY. Sec Conway.
AHKKDAHK, a par. and large village of Wales,
fco. (ilamorgan. The village, in a beautiful valley,
'^•atered by the Cvnon, an atlhient of the Taft",'is
.•iM.ut 'I, J m. S\V. Mcrthyr Tydvilon flic Tafl-Vale
taihv.iy. Pop, of parish" (),47l in is 1 1, and .'!2,2!I0
In IHCil. This extraordinary increase is wholly
to be ascribed to the increase in the production of
iron and coal, on which by far the larger portion
vof the pop. is dependent. Throughout the parish,
AWAWV.KS t
immen'M' qiianlities of cnaN arc raised, nnf merely
for the II f the iron »>irk'<, but, aUo, for ship-
ini'iif at Ciiriliir. In adilltion to the par. cliiinli
there are various pliices of worship, inc. chii|H'ls
for llaptists, liidepeiiileiils, Ac,, Hitli Natluiial,
Siindav, ami other ■■cliooN,
.Ml I'. It DM FN, a iiiaritiiiieco, Scot land, boiimleil
N. and F. by the ticrmaii Ocean, S. by the cos. of
I'erlli, Forfar, and Kincardine, and \V'. by ItaiilV,
Flglii, and Inverness. Kxireine leiiglh Hti m, from
N. to .S., iiiiil 12 from F. to \V, Area l,'.'iiii,Him
acres, iir I,li7n.-i|. in. In the soiith-weitern divi-
sion, called the district of Mar, are some of the
highest niouiitaiiiN of Scotland. Ken .Macdhii, till
lately considered the lii|;hesf of the Itritish iiioiin-
fains, rises to the height of •l,2!Hi feet above Ihu
level of the cea, and several of the other moun-
tains are but little inferior in altitude. About a
tilth part of the surface consists of high moun-
tainous tracts; and these, with hills, extensive
moors, mosses, and waste lands, occupy marly
two-thirds of the entire country. The arable land
lies principally in the eastern parts, Principal
rivers Dee and Don; and besides these are the
Deveron, Hogie, \tliaii, Trie, I'gie, Ac, l.ime-
stone abounds in various places; fliere are(|iiarries
of excellent slate; and inilNtones are found of
good (iiialify. Vast quantities of granite are
shipped at .Vberdeen, particularly for I.omion,
where it is used in paving the streets. The moun-
tains of llracmar contain numbers of coloured
crystals, or cairngonns; and some real fopa/.es
have been met with. The winters, owing to the
great extent of sea coast, are mild; but the siini-
mers arc usually short and cold. Agriculture is
]irosecufeil with much more spirit and success than
might have been supposed, Oats is the principal
cro)), about 1(111,(111(1 acres being sown with that
grain; barley is also raised; and some, though
only a little, wheat. The culture of turnips and
potatoes is extensively carried on. Several thousand
iicri's of land in the vicinify of Aberdeen have been
trenched. The practice h not, however, contined
to that district, and large additions are being con-
stantly made to the arable land. Fann liiaiscs
and oiliccs are now, with few exceptions, comfort-
nble and commodious, A greater number of cafflo
are bred in this than in any other Scotch county:
the native breed is preferred. They have increased
much in size during the last forty years. They
are commonly black, but there arc many red or
brindled. Slieen eomjiaratively few, and of a
mixed breed. 'Iherc are some large estates; but
property is, notwifhsfamling, a good deal suli-
dividcd, (ireaf diversify in the si/e of farms. It
is usual for mechanics to occupy an acre or two.
The woods, which are very extensive, afford shelter
to the red deer. Average rent of land (i», '.Ul. an
acre. The woollen, cotton, and linen manufactures
are carried on to a considerable extent, jirincipally
at Aberdeen. There are considerable tisheries on
the coast and in the rivers, |mrfi(Milarly in the Dee,
I'rinciiml towns Aberdeen, Peterhead," Iliintlv and
Fraserburgh, Parishes S«, Pop, in IHII, l!t"2,.'(H7,
in lH()l,221,5r)!l; inhabited houses in IHCil, .■(2,7(i2.
Kef urns one memljer to the Himisc of Com-
mons, Pari, constituency in IHO.'J, 1,210. Valued
rental, '22!'>fiG^)l. Scotch.' Annual value of real
jiroperty in 181.'), 32"),21ft/, stg„ do. in 1HI.'{,
(iO.'{,9(i8/, stg,, do, in 18G4-5, exclusive of railways,
029,075/.
AKERDEEX the cnp. of the above co„ and
the seat of a university, an ancient, distinguished,
and flourishing royal and pari. bor. and seaport,
situated mostly on rising ground on the N. bank
of the Dee, near its mouth, Ui m. NNE. Edin-
burgh, on the Great North of ScotlancI railway.
u 2
Aiii:iti>i;i:.v
1 ;
I'np. ill IH2I, il,7f)fli in IMI, :.«.f)l!l; ill IHII.
(ll.'.LMi Mini TIl.HO.i ill \Hi\\. AUnli'i'ii I'lui^i-l" «(
llii- |iiiri'lu'' of r'.ii>l, (iri'vl'riai>', Nurtli, Si. ric
incurs Siiiitli, iiihI NV'i-il ; nUn |iiirt ul' tin' |iiiri->li
<ir Ojij Mili'lllir, l.',.'i| t. 'Illi'lr WrlT, ill |Hi;i,ai'
ccinliii^ Id till' iiii-<ii'« rrtiirii-*, •'I.hiI'J iiilmliili'il
limi'M"', mill I I,'.'.' I M'|ianiti' tiiiiiilii'i, Alirnli'i'ii
iki'i|iiii'i'<l iiii|Hii'liiiin' III nil I'lirlv iiiriml, innl iiiinli'
It riiii'<|iiriiiiii-t ii|i|iriiriiiii'<' in miiiiy nt' llii> stuniiy
Hi'iii'i III Siiilli-li lii-liiry, It ri'ii'ivrd u limrliT
fi Williiiiii till' l.iiiii.'ilati'il I'rrtli, 1 17'.); ami
till' jiiiiriiaN III' llii' town niiiiu'il liavi' I ii jui'
mTvril iirariy I'litirn oiiu'ii I.'I'.IH. It i* iinli'lilfd Ik
|{iilM'rt llriiri' for a ciiiMiili'mlili' imrticiii ul' in prii-
jH'rly, llaviiiK miiIViti'iI a Knml ilral in llin I'ivil
wntK iltiriiiK lliii rri^ii nC CIimiIi'm I,, il I'oiitiniM'il
ill a iirarly Htatintiary Hlal^ till almiil IT.'iil, wlirii
il lii'i^'aii to iiii'ri'iiNi'. It lian hIiu'c Iici'm Ni^iially
iiii|ii'iivi'il, t"«|i('('lally rliirinK tlm prc-wiit I'ciiliiry,
liy lliit I'liriiialiiiii ol' new utri't'l.Hainl siiuart'?«, wliirli
liavr '.ii|i<>r^i'ilril iiiii-it part nf iH nlil narrow ami
winiliii^ tlioriiii^'lil'arct. Frmn llio .S. Alicnlfi'ii in
(ippriiai'lii'il liy tliri'i! Iiriiljji't acroNM llic |)i'i'; nmi
of 7 arrlicr* of Hloni', ori^'imilly crccti'd in I .'(".io-i'ti,
and rclaiilt I7l<.)-'.':i ; a HiiHiiriiNion liridKc of iron,
opi'iii'il in IH.'Ki ; and tlu; railwav liriil);iMif Harrht's
opi'ticd in iHriO. Tlio roailK i'roiii tho llrxt two
Itriilni'scondni't to rnioii Strrct, which with Union
I'lacit and CiiMtle Stri'i't, in llm muu! Mtrai^ht line,
form a nniKiiiHi't'iit filrwt of alMiut i\ niili- in length,
tht) lionsi'H all of (Iri'ssod liwlit-^'ray ^raniti'. '^lli^^
Mtrcdt in iiarricd over a drcp and iiartly wooded
ravine hyu liridpMif a NinKleiireh ol \',Vi feet xpan,
opened ill IHII I. Ainonf;tlie piildie liiiildin^s may
liu Hpeeilied the ns.'«enilily riHiniH, tho town-hoiHe,
roiii't-hoiiMo, K»"li <'i«l ix'^v inarliet; the K. and \V.
churchuftdf SI. NicliohiM, the \. (diurch, and others
of liite erei'tioii; St. Andrew's eiiiseopal clinrch ;
the or|iliaii hospital; the harraeks, on tho castle
hill, fornierlv the site of a fort ; (iordon's hospital,
liridewell, tlio inlirinary, inedieul hall, anil Ma-
risi'lial Colle^^e, lately r'eliiiilt on an extensive unil
ide;;«nt plan. Hesides the latter seminary, there
nre various ])uldie and iirivatu ncadeniies and
xehools, anions whieh is tiie ^'rainniar school, es-
tahlished hefori) MIH. There are mnnorons chiiri-
talde establisiiinents and endowments, upwards of
70 liein;; under the inana'^'cinent of the majiistrates,
the net revcuuo of which amounted in IH|H t(>
JI.SOO/. Gorilon's hos]iital supimrts and educates
l.'SI) hoj's, and has un annual revenue of ahoiit
32«l/. llore is also an inlirmary, with a lunatic
asylum erected at an expense of upwards of
l(t',0(l(t/. ; nn institution for deaf and diiml) persons;
a hirpc hospital for f;irls, and one for tho education
and support of tho blind. Tlic value of real pro-
I>crty amounted to 17'J,()7"2/,, wliilo tho corporation
revenuowns ll,J{7fi/. in lWi.')-l.
Ahcrdeen oc^cupies a distini^uishcd place both in
the manufactures and commerce, and in the lite-
rature, of Scotland. During la-st century, the town
and adjoining country were celebrated for the ma-
nufacture of knit woollen stockings, of which an
interesting account is K'ven by Pennant. (Tour
in Scotland, i. 137, ed. 17!tO.) Hut the introduc-
tion of machinery has superseded that employment.
There are now, partly in the town and partly in
its immediate vicinity, numerous lar^e factories
for the .spinniufj and weaving of cotton, Hax, and
•wool, in most of which steam power is employed.
The woollen fabrics comprise carpets, blankets,
serges, stockings, and worsted yams. Extensive
iron-works have l)een established, where steam-
engines, anchors, chain-cables, and spinning ma-
chinery are produced. Paper of the test quality
is made on a large scale, considerable quantities
liaviiig been purchased of late years by govern-
nii'iil. Slii|i liiilldltig is rnrriid mi to a coiiniilcr-
alili' I'Nii'iil, mill llnre un' mpi' Murk'*, Imiiirrli''-,
•imp and riindle wnrki, comb liti'loriii, di'lillerie',
liri'weriri, \i'. The prinrlpiil iialiiral pi'mlin'M
I'Xporti'il lire I'lillli'; hiiIiiiuii, xi'tit In l.iiiidiin in
ice; gninile, «villl uhii'll llie ^Inrti nf the ini'lro-
polis are nio-<llv pavnl; I'l^g^, liiilicr, pork, mid
I'orii. The liiial value of lli>' cxporN miioiiiilrd In
•.'I.'.'.'H:/. in IM.V.I; •J;|,(m;'.'/. \v IHIIO; ,'.,i;1'.i/. in iNill ;
11,111/. ill iml'.', mill II,h:Ii,/. In im;;!, thus show-
ing iniiriiions iliii'iuiition'. The loial ainniinl of
cu'<lomidiilvriri'iviilwaM'.)7,'.'.il/.in |H.V,»; !i;i,K..;i/.
in iHtlO; tcl',7i:./. in iMill ; !I2.1m;;i/. in iHtl'.'; and
H-.',H,'l!i/. ill IxM. i'lie general shipping, in tlin
year |mi1:I, compriied I IM llritisli ve.isels, of ■i'l.Ciir)
tons, and I 17 foreitrn vrs-teN, of |M,(i,'»7 tons, whidi
arrived in the port. Only one steam ve»»el, "Jil!)
Ions, was registered in the arrivals. Tin re Ihi-
loiiged to llie port, on the 1st of .lamiarv, iHii I,
7 sailing vesxels under '20 Ions, of a total iiurtlieii
of 'JIM tons, and '211 sailing vesxels alsive I'lO tons,
of a total toiiniige of 77,lli2. There were also 5
steamers under oO Ions, of a total toiiniige of Htl ;
ami II steamers above M, of a total biirtlien of
•'I,'2h7 tons. There is a reunliir I'oniniunii'ation by
steamers with London, Luith, Peterhead, Inver-
ness, and the Orkneys.
The harbour in the irstiiary, at the month of
the Dee, labours under considefalde natural disad-
vantages, which, however, have been to a great
extent, though not wholly, obviated. Its im-
provement Is^gan under an act obtained in 177<'I;
ami it has been prosecnlid at intervals, with inoru
or less vigour, under that and other acts down to
the present time. The principal object was to fa-
eilitntc the access to the harbour, bv removing the
bar at the nioiith of the river, and deepening its
channel; and this has been elleeted partly by
dredging, ami partly by the erection of a pier
alsiut 2,U00 feet in lengtii, projecting into the sea
on the N. sidoof llie river, by a breakwater on the
opposite shore, and other subsidiary works. The
interior of the harbour has iK'en vastly improved.
In it, some years ago, were eoiistrneted a magnill-
ci^nt Wet dock, or tloatiiig harbour, the area ol
which comprises IM acres, with locks capable ot
admitting the largest steam-ships, Tho ipiay
walls and ijiiays are all of granite ; the work U-ing
executed in tlie best and most substantial manner.
Still, however, the harbour is not accessible at all
times of tho tide to vessels drawing above 10 feel
water. Hut, as the tide rises from l.'t to iii feet,
vessels drawing 17 feet water may enter tho har-
bour at high-water neaps, and those drawing '20
feet, at high-water springs. There are at an ave-
rage IS "feet water in the floating harbour. The
bay all'ords safe anchorage with off-shore winds,
but not with those from the K, or NK. A light-
house has been erected on (Jirdic Ness, t!;e S. point
of the bay, having two lixed lights in one tower,
the highest being IK;'), and the lowest 11.") feet
above high-water ; there is, also, a tidal light on
the N. pier-head, and two leading lights further
up tho harbour on its S. side. The affairs relative,
to the ImrlMinr are managed by a board of com-
missioners. There has in all been expended on
the harlKiur, since 1810, above half a niillion
sterling.
In consequence of this heavy expenditure, and
of the large outlay in opening new streets aiid
constructing bridges, the affairs of the borough
became so much involved as to lead to its disfran-
chisement, in 1817. Hut, in the end, the corpora-
tion, having been restored, was enabled to meet all
the demands upon it ; and for several years iu
affairs have been in good order, and it has enjoyed
a full share of creiUt. The burgh revenue, as be-
II III II (■(i||«ii|rr-
niirk", liiiiii'rlt'''i
iirii -I ill-lilliiii'«i
iiiiliiriil |iiii<liii't'4
lit III l.iiiiiliiii III
I |H III' llii' iiiflrii
Millir, jxirU, mill
nrt'* llllliillllli'l ti>
; .'i.HI'.i/. in iw'il J
|K(i;i, tliiiH hIiiiw-_
' liitiil ainmiiil •>!'
.Ill IM.V.t; !i;i,H..;i/.
hi/, in I «•!.!; aiut
i.|ii|i|iln((, in tlui
I vi'K'ifit, iil'i'i.lili'i
M,li.")7 tiin*, wliiiii
Ktriiiii vi'nw'l, 'ill!*
iviiN. Tlitrn Ih'-
ul' ■lanuiirv, iHtll,
it' » tiitiil liiirtlit'ii
ivU uImiVi' i"l" tllllS
riiiTf wi-ri' also 5
III liiiinii^'it of H(i;
II total liiirtliiii ol"
roiniiiiinli'iitioii liy
IVtirhfail, Invor-
, at till' mimtli of
iilil<> natural tll^ad-
n lifcn to a t;r«'i»t
liviatftl. Its iin-
(ililaiiii'il ill 17711;
iti'i'valf, with niorii
other aot.'< ilowii to
III iiliji'ct was to fa-
ir, liv ri'iiiovinn tlio
, ami (lir]uniii« its
I'll'iM'toil paitly by
tTfction of a jtiiT
ji'ctinti into Ihi- »*•'''
liivaliwatcr on Iho
iiliary works, Thii
n vastly i!ii|>iovcil.
. tnicti'il a uiannill-
jirlioiir, till! arva of
h looki* lapalilii ot
ships. Tho (|uay
ite; tho work iK'inj;
uitistantiul inaniur.
not aci'cssililc at all
iwing ahovc 10 ft't'l
from in to 15 fwt,
may entor th« har-
il thoso (IniwinK "io
riicre are at an uy<'-
tin^; harlKiiir. Thu
ith oir-.shoru winds,
•:. or NK. A li^ht-
llc Ncss,t!;o S. point
lights in one tower,
..le lowest lir» feet
Iso, a tidal linht on
idinK lights further
The ntfairsrelativti
by a board of coni-
bcon cxponAed on
(vo Ijftlf a million
i-y expenditure, and
1^ new streets and
lirs of the boronuli
n lead to its di.*fraii-
he end, the corpora-
s enabled to meet nil
or several years it<
r, and it has enjoyed
urgh revenue, as be-
fnfP iitfltr.1, nmoiintiil to ll,:i7)i/. In Ihx lliinniial
\iiir ixii:! I.
I'reviMii'ly to till' pawliitf of tin' Idfonn Aet In
|H;f.», .MMrilieii Will ii»«iM iated wllh ArbiHiilh,
llreililii, ller\ii', and Mniiini-e in reliiriiiiiu a
tiiniilHr til till' ll.id ('. ; but that ml coiilirreil
llili jiii|iiirtalit privili'ue mi AlHrdieii singly. Old
Alierdeell illld II eiili«li|er,llile Iriiet of the slirrolin
dlll^ ('iillliirv it ilielllded within the purL JHir. 'I'lie
pari, eiilistftlleiuy einisiitid of ;i^'.'7 renlslend
ilielofi ill iNt'il. 'The tiiwii is govern ' by a pro-
viiol, I bailies, Illld I t eniini illors. The miiliKipal
ciiliililueiiey in iMlil collslited of .',8'.'j re«ist<-fKd
idi'ilnri.
Abeidieii U eiinneeted by a eanal, 1*^ m, in i
lein,'ili, with liivi'riirv, aiiil 'y railway w|Mt I
Mmitriise, I'lTlll, j;dililiul>,'li, iiiei /,:• .-riU'ss. Hw ',
t'liliiil is ehielly used fur the I'liiiM ya' "( heavv i
iirliiles, •.mil 'IS t;ranile, to the town, ,,ii'> "•' fual,
liiiiiiiii'e, i\e., to the eiiiinlry,
AlHrderii hii-i three lar^e blinking rompiinii". t^'' I
lildeit III' which, the AlsTileen Hank, e^labli^lieit in
I7('i7, had ri'i'eiilly I'i branehes, and about d.-iil
iiiirtners ; but ill in til it was ineorporatetl with the
I jiiiiii Hank of Seiitland. The other coiniianies,
viz, the AlM'rdeen 'I'liwii and t'onnty Hank, and
the North of Seotland Hanking; (Joinpany, have
re-<peetively l.'l and 'M brillielies. The latter has
iiliiiiit l.'iOii' piirtners. 'i'he Hank of .Sfotland and
Kiiiiieiif the other Sooteh bunks have also brunches
in .Mierdeell.
A rej,'iiliir jiost was established between Aber-
ileeii and l''.iliiiiiiir;{h, in Iiiii7, 'I'he tlrst printiii<,'-
iiress in the town was set lip in irr.M ; and the
iirit almaniicks puldished in Scotland appeared
here in Iti77, It siijipiirts several newspapers, tin-
oldest of which, the Aberdeen Journal, coinmenced
ill I7IH,
AHr.KDKI'.X (OLD), an nneient and ineon-
•ideriible city, about :|ths m, N, Aberdeen, In
former times it was the seat of a bislmprick, the
fee of Mortlach having' been removed to it, in
llol. It has no trade, and very little property,
Its importance de|)eiidiii^ entirely upon its eol-
le(,'e, I'op, about 2000, inc. in the pop. of Aber-
deen, The, chief edilices are Kiiif^'s Collef^e, the
Cathedriil, and the bridp's across the |)iiii, Tho
buildings of l\iii;;'s (^ollep! have an atitii|ne ap-
p«'i'r;ince, iind are of diirereiit periods, but in Kood
n'|iair, 'I'he lilirary and chapel are attached to n
liil'ty s(piare tower, surmounted b}' an imperial
crown of open stone work. The cathedral of St,
Klachar, or .Macariiis, after whom the iiarish is
named, is an ancient (iothie edilice, eiiii^tly of
granite, commenced in the lltli century : the clioir,
transept, and ^reut central tower were demolisheil
or fell down upwards of a century aj^o ; the nave
remains, and is used as the parish church ; nt the
west end are two linely projiortioned stone spires;
the roof of the interior is also a curious relic. Near
its mouth the I)nii forms a haven, which, however,
nihnits only vessels of a few tons' burden. An an-
cient bridf^e, consisting of a (jothic arch, 70 feet
in span, crosses a rocky and woody ravine in which
the river tlows. Lower down is a new bridge of 5
J arches, opened in 18;J0.
i f/ni'tjerdi'/y^Alierdeen has a university, with
A two colleges. There were formerly two universities,
|but they were incorporated into one by the Scottish
j| University Act of 18o8. Of the two colleges, the
'jinost ancient is that of Old Aberdeen, founded by
,;4llishop Elidiinston in 1494, umler a bull of Pope
Alexander VI,, of which Hector IJoethiuswus lirst
principal. It early received the name of King's
C<dlege, instead ot that of tho Virgin Marj', to
whom it Avas originallv dedicated. 'Ihe other and
later seminary, established iu lO'J'd, is called Ma-
AllKUYsTWfTir 5
rixchal Collegn, I'runi Uk fnllllder (ieorgo Keltll,
I'.iirl MiiriM'hiil, 'I'he iiiil\er''ily lia'< imw '.'I pm
feasors and aboM' lioo Mtiideiits, Them are H
•cliiiliirihips of );,'i/. each, and iiboiil '.'mm liiir>ariei«
of rrmn />/. In MM/, nuh. Allhniiuh iheir Imriarlei
are iiiiiiierniis, lliiir ntlnT rexeiiues all' lull limited.
King's I'lillege UiiN I'liriiierly elitilli'd III eiipies of
all Works eiiii'red nt Statiuiiers' Hull; but in |H:Hi,
it reliiiiiiiiihed this iirivili'ue fur an iiiiiiiial pay-
ment ol '.*>'.'/. I In. .Nlarisehal l'ii||i'){e Iiiih a iiiu-
seiim, nn observatory, and an extensive appnratii'i
for teaching naliinil phllosuphy. The exielliiit
education given In iheNe seminariei has Ihtu
highly useful in dliseminatliig knowledge over tho
M. n{ .^'iitiand ; partieiilarly in improving the
ehiiraetir <>f the parochial schoolmasters, must
|it<irt <if whoiii, havini; U'eii at college, are Nii|M-rior
ill Hi«< generality of their lirethreii in the Hiiiithi'rii
parts of III, roimtry. The iiuiiibiT of bursaries,
which are mostly di'-Tostsi of by coiiipiirative trial,
is an indiieement to aihnd; Hut independelit of
llii-" cireumstaiice, Ihecost of cdui /llioii is moderato
in the lYlrenie. The llsiial fee entitling to atteiui
one of the llleriirv elasses U only from '-'/. to .1/,;
and the total annual des paid bv a stiidenl, not ii
bursar, going through the regular rurriniliim, or
eiiiirs(> of study prescribed by the faculty of arts,
do not exceeil Vi/, or 71. a vear, during each of the
I years to which it is limited, |{espectablu board
iiiiiv U' had for from •-'.V, to .'1.')/. during the session,
which coinmeiices on thi< last Monday of October,
and ends in the beginning of Anril. Manv emi-
nent men have been professors in these colh'ges ;
among whom may be mentioned ISeid, the author
of the Iiu|uiry into the Human Mind; Kordyce,
author of a Treatise on Moral I'hilosophv; (ierurd,
author of an Ivssay on Taste; Campbell, author o
the I'hilosophy of Khetoric; and lllackwell,uutliur
of the Lif(! of Homer.
AHKKFOYLK, in Scotland, n jmrish, and ft
celebrated |iass or narrow valley leailing into the
Highlands, ill the district of Moiiteith.in tlu* SW,
iiart of I'erthshire. Top. ,'^i(i,-) in IMC.l. The vil-
lag<! or cliu'han of Abirloyle in this pass is tlui
scene of some of the most interesting adventures
ill th(' novel of Itob Hoy.
AHi;i;(iAVI'.NNV, ft town of Knglnnd, ro.
Monmouth, nt the conflueneeof the (■aveimv with
the Usk, 14 III. SW. Monmouth, I'JO m. W.'by N.
London, on a bramOi line of the (ireat Western
rail. Top. 4,t'i'_'l in IHCI. The town is built in ft
straggling maiiiier; has a tliu! bridge of lo archen
over the l?sk, ami sonut branches of woollen manu-
facture. There are very extensive iron works in
the vicinity. On an eminence, n<'ar tho S. end of
the town, are the ruins of its ancient castle.
AHKI!(JKLI'',V, a sea-port and m, town of
Wales, CO. Denbigh, bund. Isdulas, on thorailwav
from Chester to Ihdyhead. I'op, .'{..'iOH in IHOf.
The town has been considerably resorted to of lato
years for bathing,
AHKUNIiTHV, n parish of Scotland, partly in
Fife and partly in I'erthshire. It was once' tho
scat of on archiepisco]ial sec, removed to St.
Andrew's in the ninth century. All that now re-
mains of its ancient structures is a round tower 7ii
feet high, and 16 in diameter. The modem vil-
lage of Al)eniethy is small, and tho houses mean,
I'op. of village t»H4, and of parish l,fl(!0, iu IHtil.
ABKKYSTWITH, a sea-port town of VVales,
CO. Cardigan, at the mouth of tho Ystwith, over
which is a neat bridge, 178 m. VVNW. London.
Pop. 5,(i41 in 18C1. It stands on an eminenco
overlooking the buy; and the streets, though well
paved and Macadamis(;d, are steep and uneven.
It is a place of considerable trade, exixirtiiig lead,
calamine, oak bark, flannels, &c., mostly tu Liver-
6
ABERYSTWITH
'!ii|,
f)ool; Imtowin^ to the HhallownosH of the water,
It 18 nc(!«8sil)l<! only to small vcfwelH. Aa there in
no mnrkot town within IM m. it lin« the supply of
a i'()nNi(leral)l<! nfljacH-nt territory. Latterly it has
lK;en extensively resorted to in summer for sea-
bntliinff. Public r(M>mH were oiK-ned for the ac-
commodation of visitors in IH'20, and a new theatre
in I Hill). It Bcems to have been once stron^lv
fortified. Its castle, of which some vestiges still
exist, was rebuilt bv Kdward I. in 1277. A con-
Hiderablo extent of ^en land to the N. of the town
has recently iKien recovered from the sea.
AiiKKYSTWiTii, a parochial chapelrj', hund.
Al»erjfav»!nny, co. Monmouth, celebrated for its
collieries and iron works, which have (^'catly in-
creased during the last half a century. Pop. '6,561
in 1801.
ABIAD (HAIIR EL). See Nile.
AULN'dDON, an ancient town of England, co.
Herks, at the confluence of the Ock with the Isis,
and at the Junction of the Berkshire canal with
the latter, ft.'ij m. WNVV. London on the Great
Western rnilwav. Pop. 5,680 in 1861. The town
lias several well-paved streets terminating in a
spacious raarket-))lace, having a market-house in
the centre. It has two churches, with places of
■worship for Dissenters, a well-endowed grammar
school, and sundry almshouse's and charitable en-
dowments. It has a considerable corn market:
some trade is carried on in malting and hemp-
dressing. It returns one m. to the H. of Commons.
The pari, constituency consisted of 317 registered
electors in 1864. Amount assessed to property-
tax 20,425/, This was formerly a scot-and-lot
borough; every inhabitant assessed to the poor
rates exercising the elective franchise. Of these
scot-and-lot voters only four remained in 1804.
ABO, the ancient capital of Finland, near the
extremity of the promontory formed b'^' the gulfs
of Bothnia and Finland, on the ri \ r Aiir^ocki, by
which it is intersected, lat. 60° 26' 58" N., long,
22° 17' 15" E. It was the seat of a university,
and has a considerable trade. But in 1827 it
Buffered severely from a fire, wliich destroyed the
university and above 700 private houses. The
university has been since removed to Helsingfors,
now the capital of the province. Previously to
the fire the town contained about 13,000 iiiluil)-
itants; the population thei. decreased, but had
risen again to 16,870 in 1858. The town has a
gymnasium, a bank, and some unimportant manu-
factures. A treaty was concluded here in 1743
between Russia and Sweden.
ABOMEY, cap, of the kingdom of Dahomey, in
Africa, nearly 100 m. N. from the sea, lat, 7° 30'
N., long. 2° 17 E. Pop. said to be 24,000.
ABOUKIR, a village of Egypt, with a citadel,
on a promontory, about 10 m. NE. of Alexandria,
being supposed by some to occupy the site of the
ancient Canopus, lat. 31° 19' 44" N., long. 30°
r 16" E.
ABOUKIR BAY, on the north coast of Egypt,
formed on the west side by the point of land on
which Alwukir is situated, and on the east by
that which lies at the mouth of the Rosetta branch
of the Nile, Here, on the 1st of August, 1798,
was fought the famous battle of the Nile, when
the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon to
Eg3rijt was totally defeated by the British fleet
under Lord Nelson ; ond here also, on the 7th of
March, 1801, the English army, under Sir Ralph
Abercromby, effected its disembarkation.
ABOUSAMBUL, See Ii-sambuu
ABRANTES, a fortified town of Portugal, prov,
Estremadura, Lit. 39° 26' N., long. 8° 15' \V., at
the S. extremity of a ridge that trends SVV. from
the great range dividing the valleys of the Douro
ABRUZZO
and Tagus. Pop. 6,020 in 1858. The position of
the town adapts it admirably for a military' sta-
tion ; ami Sir A. Wellcsley availed himself of its
local advantages by rcsiNting there the progress of
the French in 1809. (See Nanier, ii. 317, &c.)
It is alnnit ( m. from the right bank of the Tagus
and 72 m. alwve Lislx)n. 'riie hill-side on which
the town is built, aa well as the hills about, liear
vines, olive, peach, and other fruit trees, while the
])lain eastward produces pumjikins, water-melons,
and other vegetables: all these proiliicts arc car-
ried down the river in barges to the capital, with
which this town has very considerable traffic.
The trade, now occupying above 100 l)arges, would
be much increased if the navigation were improvetl.
A few small craft go 24 m. higher, as far as Villa-
bella; but the stream is rapid, and the bed much
impeded with sand and rocks. The church of San
Yincente is the largest and finest in Portugal.
ABKUZZO, an extensive territory of Italy,
forming the NE. [Ktrtion of the former Neapolitan
dominions, between 41° 60' and 42° 65' N. lat.
While Naples existed as a separate kingdom the
territoiy was dividetl into the provs. of Abruzzo
Ultra I., Abruzzo Citra, and Abruzzo Ultra II.,
but these names were abolished at the formation
of the kingdom of Italy, and its reconstruction
into 69 provinces. The new administrative divi-
sions of the Abnizzo, arc called, after the names
of the chief town;), Aquila, Chicti, and Tcramo.
Aquila has a population, according to the census
of 1862, of 339,555; Chieti of 337,364, and Teramo
of 240,035, so that the total pop. of the Abruzzo
numbers 917,954 inhabitants. An enumeration of
the year 1831, stated the pop. at 735,931, which,
considering the nature of the country, shows a
remarkable increase.
The country presents every variety of soil and
surface; but the greater part is mountainous, rug-
ged, and occupied by extensive forests. It is tra-
versed throughout its whole extent by the Apen-
nines, and has some of their highest summits.
Monte Como, sumamed // Gran Sasso, or the
Great Rock, rises to the height of 9,527 feet above
the level of the sea, Monte Majella to about 8,500,
and Monte Vellino to 8,397. It is watered J)y
many rivers, most of which fall into the Adria-
tic; and in Abruzzo Ultra II. is the celebrated
Lago Gelano, the Lacus Fucimts of the ancients
(see Celano, Lake ok). The climate differs with
the elevation of the soil; but though very cold on
the mountains, and comparatively hot in the low
grounds, it is, speaking generally, temperate and
healthy. Along the Adriatic, and in the valleys
and plains, the soil is very productive; and large
quantities of com, oil, wine, silk, liquorice, and
almonds are produced. Saffron used to be very
extensively cultivated in the valley of Aquila,
but the quantity raised is now very much restric-
ted. The inhabitants of the mountainous districts
are principally engaged in the rearing of sheep and
cattle. 'The upi^er regions and recesses of the
mountains are depastured in the summer season
by vast flocks of sheep, brought from the Capitan-
ata and other level provinces more to the S.
Their migrations are regulated by law, and are
similar to those that take place in Spain and in
the SE. depts. of France. The inhabitants are
stout, well-made, healthy, and industrious. The
occupiers and labourers, who form the vast major-
ity of the population, are mostly poor, living in
miserable dirty huts, feeding principally on Indian
com, and drinking a poor wine. Many thousands
of the peasants emigrate every autumn to seek for
emplojTnent in the Northern Maremme. Manu-
factures have made but little progress; but wool-
lens, silks, and earthenware, are produced. The
a Mil
Ten
A
Ara
16°
hmg
whi«
disti
ratec
by
the
. The position of
for n militurj' Htn-
lilcd liimHclf of its
lore tin" profjrcsH of
pier, ii. HI 7, &e.)
Imnk of tho Tapis
hill-Hide on which
e hills about, hear
lit trees, while tho
iiiH, water-melons,
I products arc car-
3 tho capital, with
msiderablo traffic.
B 100 barf^es, would
ion were improved,
ler, as far as Villa-
ind the bed much
The church of San
St in I'ortugal.
«rritory of Italy,
former Neamlitnn
id 42° 65' N. lat.
irate kingdom the
provs, of Abruzzo
Vbruzzo Ultra II.,
1 at the formation
its reconstruction
Iministrative divi-
1, after the names
icti, and Teramo.
ling to the cenHua
I7,3G4, and Teramo
in. of the Abruzzo
ki\ enumeration of
at 735,931, which,
country, shows a
variety of soil and
mountainous, rug-
forests. It is tra-
tent by the Apen-
highest summits.
ran Stxsso, or the
9,527 feet above
11a to about 8,500,
It is watered i>y
into the Adria-
is the celebrated
of the ancients
limate differs with
ough very cold on
ly hot in the low
temperate and
nd in the valleys
active; and large
Ik, liquorice, and
used to be very
alley of Aquila,
ery much restric-
intainous districts
iring of sheep and
recesses of the
summer season
rom the Capitan-
more to the S.
by law, and are
in Spain and in
inhabitants are
ndustrious. The
the vast major-
poor, living in
i))ally on Indian
Many thousands
tumn to seek for
rcmme. Manu-
grcss; but wool-
produced. Tho
If
■M
ABU-ARISCH
foreign trade would !« much more cxtcnmve than
it is, were it not that the entire coast is without
a .-ingle good jHirt. rriiioipal towns Chicti, Aquila,
Teramo, Sulmonn, and Avczzano.
AHU-AKISCH, a petty state in the SW. of
Arabia, on the Ijorders of the Ked Sea, l)ctween
16° 60' and l'° 40' N. lat., ond 41° 30' and 48«> K.
long., consisting of the narrow slip of low land
which lies l)etwoen the coast and tho mountain
district of Ha$chid-u-Behel. On the N. it is sepa-
rated from El-IleJjaz by a small district inhabited
by wandering tribes of [Kfculiar manners; and on
tlie S. it borders upon the state of Lnheia. Its
extreme length is alwut 130 m., and its greatest
width from 70 to 8(» m. It forms part of the
Tehama or low lands of Yemen, being almost
•wholly a sandy plain (see Auabia), extremely
hot and drj', destitute of permanent water courses,
and preserved from utter sterility only by the
nbiindant rains in the neighlwuring mountains,
wliich periotlically inundate its otherwise water-
less soil. Its principal pnxliicts are dhourah or
barley, which forms the principal f<KMl of the
inhabitants, and a peculiar and highly esteemed
brei'<l of asses.
Aiiu-Akiscii, a town of Arabia, cap. of the
above state, and the residence of the sheriff, lat.
10° 40' N., long. 42° 20' E. It occupies the
centre of the principality, being midway l)etween
the Ked Sea and the mountains, and b<!tween its
N. and S. Ijoundaries. It is walled : population
estimated at from 4,000 to 5,000. It seems pro-
bable that Abu-Arisch, which at present is 24 m.
from the sea, was formerly much nearer to it, if,
infleed, it were not once what Gheran now is, the
port of this part of Arabia. This is rendered pro-
bal )le as well from the appearance of the surrounding
country as from the well-known fact mentioned
by Niebuhr, that the coast here is constantly and
iai)idly gaining on the water. (Niebuhr, Des. de
I'Ar. par. ii. p. 232; Voy. en Ar. ii. 69.)
ABUTIGE, a considerable town of Upper
Egvpt, on the site of the ancient Abotis, lat. 27°
2' N., long. 31° 23' E. It is tho seat of a Coptic
bishop, and is celebrated for its opium.
AIJYDOS, an ancient city, founded by the
Thrncians, and subsequently occupied by a colony
of Milesians, on the Asiatic "side of the Hellespont,
where it is narrowest, bearing nearly S. from
fiestos on the European side of the strait. It had
a commodious harbour, and was strongly forti-
fied. It was here that Xerxes constructed the
bridge of boats by which he conveyed his ill-fated
host across the Hellespont ; and it is distinguished
in ancient history for the desperate resistance
made by its inhabitants to Philip of Macedon,
who, however, partly by force and partly by
treachery, succeeded in taking it. But Abydos,
and also Sestos, are mainly indebted for their im-
perishable celebrity to the story of the loves of
Hero and Leander, and the melancholy fate of the
latter. Abydos magni quondam amons commercio
innignis eat, (Amm. Marcellinus, lib. i. 8. 19.) It
was destroyed by the Turks; and the fact that
the materials were carried 3 m. S. to assist in
building the Sultanie Kalessi, or old castle of Asia,
the strongest fort on the Dardanelles, and its con-
tiguous town, accounts for few ruins l)eing found
at Abydos. The modem fort of Nagara occupies
its site.
ABYSSINIA, or Hahesch, an extensive coun-
try of Eastern Africa, of which the boundaries are
not well defined, but which may be regarded as
occupying the space included Iwtween 9° and 15°
40' N. lat. and 3«° E. long, and the Red Sea;
having E. the latter, N. Senaar and Nubia, and
on the W. and S. Senaar, Kordofan, the Soudan,
ABYSSINIA 7
and other barbarous and nearly unknown coun-
tries. It is sujiposed to include in all alxivo
300,000 Eng. w|. in.
iX'uwc— Abyssinia was incluilcd in the ICthioijia
(from ai9ia<l/, a man burnt by the sun, or of a dark
colour) of the ancients. The name Abyssina,
or more properly Haljessina, from the Arabic
Ilahesch, signifving a mixture or confusion, has
iK-tn given to the country by the Arabic and Por-
tuguese geograi)hers, and indicates the supposed
Arabic origin of the people, and their subseijuent
intermixture with the Africans. The Abyssiniuns
do not use this name ; and either assume that of
the provinces in which they live, or coll them-
selves Itjotnans, and their country Manphtstn It-
jnpia, or kingdom of Ethiopia, a name given it by
the Greeks during their ascendancy at Axum.
Face of the Country. — Abyssinia presents great
inequalities of surface. It consists principally of a
series of plateaus, intersected and separated by
mountain ridges. Uitter classes the plateaus un-
der three great divisions. Setting out from tho
coast of tho Ked Sea, and traversing the low arid
ground by which it is bordered, and ascending tho
heights or mountains of Taranta, we arrive at tho
first plateau, or country of the Bahaniegash, lying
between the Taranta on the E. an<lthe river Mareb
on the W. Passing through the Baharnegash,
and making another ascent, we arrive at the; great
])lateau of Tigrc', between the Mareb on the E.
and the Tacozzo on the \V. ; but .ncluding to the
south the mountain regions of Enderta, Wt)jjcrat,
Lasta, &c. The last-mentioned country contains
the sources of the Tacazze, one of the principal
afHuents of the Nile. The towns of Adowah and
the ancient Axum (see the names), are situated
in the middle of the plateau of Tigrd Antalow
lies more to the south, in the province of Enderta.
The mountains of Samen, on the W. side of the
plateau of Tigre', are the highest in Abyssinia, and
form, with those of Lamalmon and Lasta, a great
but not continuous chain, running NE. and SW.,
and separating the high lands of Tigr^, from tho
still more elevated plateau or alpine country of
the Habesch or Amhara, including the provinces
or countries of Dembea, Gojam, Damot, &c. This
region, the highest in Abyssinia, and the nucleus
and centre, as it were, of the old empire, contains
the sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or eastern arm
of the Nile, and the great lake of Tzana or Demlxja.
It has a mean elevation of about 8,000 feet, and is
fenced and intersected by mountain ridges, of which
those of Gojam, from their containing the sources
of the E. Nile, are the most celebrated. Gondar,
the capital of Amhara, and formerly the residence
of the Negus or emperor of Abyssinia, lies a little
to tho N. of the lake. From this plateau the
country shelves down on the W. to the barbarous
and unknown regions already alluded to.
The provinces of Efat and Shoa, which now
form, with their dependent territories, the most
powerful of the Abyssinian states, lie to the SE.
and S. of Amhara. The first is very elevated,
part of its waters flowing westward to the Nile,
and part eastward to the Hawash. Its chief town
is Ankolier. The province of Shoa, lying along
the southern side of the Nile, is comparatively
low, and is reno^vned for its magnificent pastures
and fniitfiil valleys. It has several towns and
some celebroted monasteries. Salt is inclined to
think that the Ethiopic language and literature,
and the ancient manners of the Abyssinians, are
preserved in a purer state in these provinces than
in any of the others ; but they are very imper-
fectly known.
Exclusive of the above, there is a vast and but
little known country in the S£. part of Abyssinia,
8
ABYSSINIA
i ilni
i "
between Efat and Liuta, and tho Red Sea and the
HUH of littlt-ul-niundvb. It in uluiust entirely ucuu-
Ek'd by tribes of Galla.s, some of them tlie most
rutified of any to be found in Abyssinia. The
country of Nana, at tlie sources of the Male));, SW.
from the prov, of Damot, is one of tlio most ele-
vated of the African plateaus. Its inhabitants are
said to be nearly as white as tho Spaniards and
Neapolitans.
On the SE. of Tigrc^, between it and the low
country or jjrovince of the Dankali, lying along
tliu Kcd Sea, and between tho fourteenth and fif-
teenth degrees of latitude, is an extensive salt
plain, having, in most parts, the appearance of
lee covered with portially thawed snow. Tho salt
is perfectly pure and hard for about two feet deep ;
but that lying beneath is coarser and softer till
purified by exposure to tho air. It is cut into
pieces with a hatchet; and not only serves to
season and preserve food, but even circulates as
money. The salt is carried off by caravans, or
companies, consisting of from 3U0 to COO beasts of
burden, and its digging is not unaccompanied by
danger, from the attacks of the savage Galla.
Mountains. — Those of Abyssinia have not in
general been accurately measured. Thev were
represented by the early Portuguese travellers and
the Jesuits as being of such vast height that, com-
pared with them, the Alps and Pyrenees were
mere hillocks ! But these exaggerated represen-
tations have been since reduced to their proper
value. The highest summits of the Samen, how-
ever, approach closely to the line of perpetual
congelation, so that their elevation may be fairly
estimated at from 12,000 to 13,000 feet. The
Abba Jared is 15,000, and Kas Detschen 15,986
feet high. The mountains of Gojam are of very
inferior altitude, and are cultivated to the sum-
mits. Generally the Abyssinian mountains have
a peculiarly abrupt and precipitous appearance.
Sometimes they form what are called amhas or
hill forts, consisting of steep, rocky, and all but
inaccessible sides, having on tho summit a level
Rurface covered with trees and verdure. Tho most
celebrated of these hill forts is that of Ambu
Geshin, formerly used as a place of confinement
for the princes of Abvssinia.
Rivers. — Of these the Bahr-el-Azrek, Blue River,
or eastern branch of the Nile, is by far the most
famous. It rises ftom two mountains near Geesh
in Gojam, being, according to Bruce, in lat. 10*'
69' 25*^ N., long. 36° 65' 30" E., and at an eleva-
tion of 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Its
course is thence N. to the lake Dembea, a large
sheet of water, which receives many other streams ;
but the Nile is said to preserve its waters with
but little intermixture with those of the lake,
across which its current is always visible. Es-
caping from this lake, it sweeps in a southerly
direction round the E. frontier of tho provinces of
Gojam and Damot, till, between the ninth and
tenth degree lat. it takes a NW. direction, which
it preserves till, at Halfaia, near the sixteenth
degree lat., it unites with its other and more im-
portant branch, the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White
River, flowing from the SW. (see Nile). The
next most important stream is tho Tacazze, whose
source has been already noticed. It drains the
mountains of Samen and Tigrd; and pursuing a
pretty direct NNW. course through Sonaar, falls
into the Nile near the eighteenth degree lat. The
Mareb, which rises in the heights of Taranta, runs
nearly parallel to the Tacazzo. In the dry season
it loses itself in the sand ; but Bruce says that in
the rainy season it continues its course till it
unites with the Tacazze. The Hamazo and Ha-
wash run E. in the direction of the Red Sea; but
the latter is swallowed np in the sands Iteforo
meeting it. Exclusive of the great lake of DcmlM^a
or Tzano, already referred to, which is 60 inilus
long, 30 miles broad, and ,6120 feet above tho sea
level, tho lake of Ashangee, on tho E. sido of the
Samen, is also of very considerable size.
Mineralogy. — This is very imperfectly known,
though geologically presenting some remarkable
features. Granite and schistus or slate have been
extensively observed ; and it is probable that these
primitive rocks occupy a large portion of tho prin-
cipal chains. In Tigre, tho strata aro chiefly ver-
tical ; but in the mountains of Sumcn they incline
more to a horizontal position. Extinct volcanoes,
hot springs, de]K)sits of sulphur, rock salt, and
malachite have also been found; as also gneiss,
antimonv, iron, gold, and silver. Allusion bus
already been made to the extensive salt plain E.
ofTigrd.
Climate. — This necessarily differs with the ele-
vation of tho country, the direction of the moun-
tains, &c. In the deoi) valleys and low grounds
{hollas) the heats are frequently excessive ; and
this, combined with excess of moisture, renders
them unhealthy. But the climate of the plateaus
is extremely fine, particularly that of Ainhara,
which is said to enjoy a perpetual spring, ver eter-
num, Tho Portuguese found it quite as temperate
as that of their own country. According to Lu-
dolph, tho natives often attuui, in that happy cli-
mate, to tho ogo of 100 years and upwards ! Tho
climate of Tigre is not quite so mild ; but there,
also, the great extent of pasturage and of verdant
plains shows that the country is not visited by the
extreme of heat. The plateau of the Bahamcgosh
is the hottest. In March, Mr. Salt found its air
hot and dry, and the bods of the rivers w^ithout
water. The year is sometimes divided into four,
but more properly into three, seasons. Winter
(kramt) is the season of rain, which always falls
in great quantities, and often with much violence,
rendering rivers and even brooks quite impassable.
It begins on tho coast at the latter end of October,
and in the interior about the end of February, the
river Tacazze being swollen from April to Sep-
tember ; the rest of the year consisting of summer
(hagai) or the season of heat and drought ; and a
short period of harvest (tzadai.)
Races — Population. — Tho inhabitants of Abys-
sinia comprise a variety of tribes. They all, how-
ever, closely resemble each other in their physical
character and manners ; and, in respect of bodily
conformation, are entirely distinct both from tho
Negroes and the Arabians. They belong to what
has been called the Ethiopic variety of the human
race ; and their most prominent characteristics will
be found described in tho article Africa, to which
the reader is referred. Of the different tribes, the
principal are the Tigrani, or inhabitants of Tigre ;
the Amharans, or inhabitants of Amhara; the
Agows, inhabiting the province of Damot; the
Efats, occupying the southern banks of the Nile ;
the Gongas and Enareans, still further S. ; and the
Falashas, occupying the mountains of Samen, &e.,
who profess Judaism, and protend, though it is be-
lieved on no very good grounds, to deduce their
origin from Palestine. These tribes are easily dis-
tinguished by their language; but it is not clear
whether their idioms be really distinct languages,
or, which is most probable, only dialectic varieties
of a much smaller number of mother-tongues,
(Prichard on Man, vol. il p. 136, 8rd ed.)
The Galla, or savage tribes by which large por-
tions of Abyssinia have been overrun, are said to
have made their first appearance on the southeni
frontier in 1637. No doubt they belonged ori-
ginally to the central parts of the African conti-
ABYSSINIA
the snnds licforo
at lake of Dcmbtdi
vhich in M iiiilfs
fet't above the sea
thoE, side of the
.ble size,
iperfectly known,
8ome remarkable
or slate have been
)robable that these
(ortion of the prin-
tta are chiefly ver-
^anien they incline
Extinct volcanoes,
ur, rock salt, and
1(1; as also Kiieiss,
'cr. Allusion has
nsive salt plain E.
iffers with the ele-
ction of the niouH-
s and low grounds
tly excessive ; and
f moisture, renders
late of the plateaus
f that of Amhara,
ual spring, ver etur-
t quite as temperate
According to Lu-
, in that happy cli-
and upwards I The
80 mild; but there,
rage and of verdant
is not visited by the
oftheBahamcgash
r. Salt found its air
f the rivers w^ithout
es divided into four,
>e, seasons. Winter
, which always falls
with much violence,
oks quite impassable,
ittcr end of October,
end of February, the
from April to Sep-
lonsisting of summer
and drought ; and a
nhabitants of Abys-
bes. They all, how-
her in their physical
in respect of bodily
itinct both from the
rhey belong to what
rariety of the human
it characteristics will
cle Africa, to which
. different tribes, the
nhabitants of Tigre ;
its of Amhara; the
nee of Damot; the
banks of the Nile;
. further S. ; and the
itains of Samen, &c.,
tend, though it is be-
nds, to deduce their
tribes are easily dis-
_ ; but it is not clear
yr distinct languages,
ily dialectic varieties
of mother-tongues.
136, 8rd ed.)
by which large por-
overrun, are said to
mce on the southern
^ they belonged ori-
of the African conti-
nent. They have a brown complexion, with long
black hair; and tlu-ir tribes are all independent
of, and often at war with, eacli other. Most of
them have adopted the Mahommedan faith, and
have partially conformed to the manners of the
AbysHinians. They are still, however, distin-
guished by their greater ferocity.
No means exist by which to form any probable
estimate of the nuniber gf people in Abyssinia.
Mr. Salt could obtain no accurate information on
the sulyect. If the country were tranquil, it could
hardlv fail, owing to the'fruitfulness of the soil
and the general healthiness of the climate, to be
exceedingly populous ; but the anarchy and civil
war in which it is constantly involved more than
neutralise these advantages,' and keep the popula-
tion far below its natural level. Its total amount
is estimated at 4,600,000.
I Lanffuage. — The Ghee/, or Ethiopic, a language
I akin to the Arabic and Hebrew, whs the language
I of Axuni, and of the subjects of the Axumite sove-
reign, at the era of their conversion toChristianity
in the 4th century. It is now extant only as a
dead language, consecrated to literature and reli-
gious uses. The Amharic, or modem Abyssinian,
is not a dialect of the Uheez, though it has adopted
from it a great number of words, but a totally dis-
tinct language. It is probably an ancient African
language, and the original idiom of the inhabi-
tants of tlie south-eastern provinces of Abyssinia.
I As regards literature and learning, the Abyssinians
I are at the lowest ebb. Their clergy are ignorant,
* and have no taste for learning. Mr. Gobat thinks
I that in the country where Amharic is spoken
^ about l-5th part of the male population can read
a little, and in Tigrd about 1-1 2th part.
I'roductiong. — The country is very fertile, and
' has a vast variety of products ; among which are
"•wheat, barley, millet, and other grain. On the
; higli grounds wheat is raised in considerable quan-
tities ; but in the low grounds the heat is too strong
for it. Barley (dhourra) is raised in large quan-
tities ; but the principal dependence of the country
is on the teff' (Poa Abyssinica), which grows on
every soil, except the very lowest, and affords the
bread in general use. The plant is herbaceous.
■ From a nuinlHjr of weak leaves rises a stalk about
•; 28 inches in length, and not much thicker than
"that of a carnation. Out of the top spring a
number of branches, which contain the seed or
fruit inclosed in a species of capsula. The grains
are not larger than the head of the small&st pin,
yet so numerous as to constitute on the whole a
bulky crop. But the lowest grounds (kolla) are
unfit even for the production of teff; and on these
is raised a species of com called tocousso, which
yields a black bread, the food of the lowest classes.
There are at least two harvests in the year ; and
in the same place may at once be seen in progress
tlie operotions of ploughing and reaping, with corrt
in every different stage of advancement. Among
the other vegetable products are cotton, of which
clothes are usually made ; coffee, which grows wild
on the western mountains; senna, myrrh, and
other medicinal plants. The stalk of the ensete, a
species of palm, the banana of Abyssinia, is said,
when stripped of its green covering, to be the very
best of all vegetable food. It is found in great
abundance. Various species of figs, some of them
of a very large size, as the Ficus sycamonts, are
1 also very plentiful. Citrons, oranges, and sugar-
i canes are met with in the low grounds, but not on
I the elevated plateaus. Dates and vines are met
with, but neither are supposed to be indigenous.
Both are believed to have been imported and cul-
tivated by the Portuguese. At present the vine
is grown only in the district of Emfros, on the E.
side of lake Dembca, whore it pro<lucoH magnifi-
cent grapes. The Ai)yssiiiians do not use wine
except for the communion table. Telle/, says ex-
pressly, that in his time the vine was unknown in
Abyssinia. The papyrus, so celebrated for its fur-
nishing the priiicipalspccics of paper used by the
ancients, is abundant in the lakes and rivers ; ond
Bruce contends that it was thence transplanted to
Egypt.
The domastic animals of Abyssinia do not differ
materially from those of Europe. The horses,
which are the principal wealth of the inhabitants
of the plateaus, are strong and active. They aro
used in war and the chase, mules and asses wing
used principally as lK>asts of draught and burden.
The number of mules brought from the interior
annually is about 1200. Oxen are verj- abundant.
The most remarkable species is a native of the low
grounds, and has homs of an enormous magnitude,
Mr. Salt having seen one 4 feet long, and 21
inches round at the base. It is called the Galla
ox, from its having been brought to Tigrd by the
Galla. Of the wild animals, the most numerous
and characteristic is the hyaena, called here tho
dubhah, exceedingly fierce and untameable. In
most parts of the country they arc found in vast
numbers, place travellers in continual danger, and
even enter houses. They are not naturally gre-
garious, yet sometimes assemble in vast troops,
attracted by some common object, particularly tho
scent of dead bodies, which, according to the bar-
barous custom of the country, are often lefl un-
buried. Bruce contradicts the common report of
their digging into sepulchres. The elephant and
rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds, and
in places full of moisture. They are hunted by
the Shangalla, who use their teeth as an article of
commerce, and feed upon their flesh. It is a mis-
take to suppose that any of them have C'^r been
tamed in this country, or, indeed, in any part of
Africa. There is a species of rhinoceros with two
horns, found only in a few districts. Its horns
have no connection with the bone ; its skin, which
has no folds, is used for shields; the homs for
handles for swords, and also as a lining to drink-
ing vessels. The antelope species, which is very
numerous, is seldom found in the cultivated dis-
tricts, but chiefly appears on broken ground near
the rivers. The buffalo, domesticated in Egypt
and elsewhere, is here one of the most ferocious of
animals; he lodges himself in deep and sultry
valleys, under tho shade of the tallest trees, and
near the largest and clearest rivers. The hippopo-
tamus, called qotnari by the natives, is abundant
in the lake o^ Dembea; but Ludolf affirms that
this lake contains no crocodiles. They are both,
however, found in the deep pools of the Nile, Ta-
cazze, and other rivers. The crocodiles in tho
latter are of an enormous size, of a greenish colour,
and arc more dreaded by the natives than the hip-
popotamus. The torpedo is found in the rivers
and lakes. The lion is found only occasionally.
There are several species of leopard. The zebra
is frequent in the southern provinces, where its
mane adorns tho collars of the war horses. To the
list of wild animals may be added the wolf, tho
lynx, the quagga, the monkey, the jackal, several
species of wild cat, many varieties of the antelope,
two kinds of hares, &c, A small animal, the jerboa,
about the size of a rat, burrows in the fieldis, both
here and in Barbary,
The feathered creation in Abyssinia bears more
than its usual proportion to the other species,
Mr, Parkyns, who lived several years in the coun-
try, states that he collected 300 varieties. The vast
profusion of insects, grains, and plants, even tho
waste and destrtvction attending continual wars,
Id
ABYSSINIA
■■')*•
I, ' '
afford them an abundant Aupply of food. Tho
nKscT, or ){()ldon euKle, i>crliai)!4 the larj^ust bird of
the old continent, and a U'luitifid Hpcrio.s culled
thu black uu>;le, are particularly noticed by lirucu.
To thcKc Salt adil.s a new siuicies called goodie-
goodie, the Hi/.e of the common falcon. According;
to Mr. I'arkynH, there are Hcveral varieticH of the
vulture, and alM)ut twenty-four sorts of hawks and
falcons. Storks, partrid^^es, snipes, pigeons, and
swallows, occur in f^reat numl)cr anil variety, as
well as plovers, (;rouse, f^inea-fowl, llorican, ^eese,
ducks, horn-bills, the cuckoo, parrota, woodjieckers,
thrushes, larks, crows, &c. The ostrich and tho
bustard are found to tlic north of Abyssinia and in
the wilder districts of the country.
Keptilea of all sorts abound in the hot districts
of tho Tigrc^, and of the smaller lizards there are
an innumerable quantity.
Among insects the most numerous and useful
are bees. Honey constitutes everywhere an im-
portant article of food. Several provinces used to
pay a large proportion of their tribute in this
article. The honey assumes different appearances,
sometimes black, sometimes blood-red, according
to the plant on which the insect feeds. Of u very
different character is the locust, which commits
here ravages quite as terrible as in the other coun-
tries of Northern Africa.
Government — Political Divisions. — The former
government of Abyssinia, or that which existed
in it when it became known to the Portuguese and
the Jesuits, was an absolute and despotic monarchy,
in which the emperors, restrained by no written
laws, popular assemblies, or privileged classes, had
full power to dispose at pleasure of the lives and
property of their subjects. But this ancient govern-
ment may now be said to be totally extinct. The
force of the central government was gradually
weakened, partly by the rebellion of the governors
of the different provinces, and partly by the ir-
ruption of the Gallas and other slave hordes, who
have subjugated some of its finest countries. Salt
has ingeniously compared the state of Abyssinia in
a political point of view to that of England during
the heptarchy; and since he visited it anarchy
seems to have made a still more rapid progress.
I'he whole country was, till lately, split into an
endless variety of states, the limits of which were
perpetually changing, and between which the most
deadly animosities and interminable contests con-
stantly prevailed. Within the last few years the
most of the territory has fallen under the sway of
an adventurer Theodoros, wlio is styled King of
Abyssinia. He was bom in Quara, a small pro-
vince on the western borders of Amhara, his father
being a poor nobleman, and his mother, after the
father's death, having been driven to seek a sub-
sistence for herself and her child by the sale of
kosso flowers, considered by the Abyssinians a
specific against tapeworm. Growing up to man-
hood, the young 1 heodoros attached himself to a
band of robbers in the malarious borders of the
western lowlands, and soon became famous
throughout Abyssinia and the Soudan, attracting
a gradually increasing following of discontental
chiefs. After a good deal of fighting, he made
himself master of the whole of Western Abyssinia.
In 1856 he conquered Tigre, then governed by a
chief named Oubi, which was followed shortly after
by tho conquest of the Wollo Galla and Shoa pro-
vinces, 80 that he is now really master of nearly the
whole country. For some years after his success he
manifested great partiality to Europeans, enter-
taining readily any project of theirs to enhance the
wealth of his empire and the stability of his throne;
find missionaries and consuls describetl him as far
iu advance of bis people in ideas oud aspirations.
Latterly some unfavourable changes have chorac-
terised his proceedings, the most prominent of
which has lieen the imprisonment f«r a lengtheneil
period of Messrs. Stem and Koscnthal, two mis-
sionaries, and Mr. Cameron, the British consul, at
his capital, for which cause is not very certainly
known. Ilis reign has licen signalised by great,
severity towards rel)cls. Mr. Stem states that, in
18«0, 8,000 of them, after their defeat on tho
western bank of the Tacazze, were with their
leader mercilessly butchered in cold blowl; but
such barbarity has not been unusual in Abyssinian
sovereigns.
Manners and Customs. — The almost perpctuol
state of civil war and confusion, and not any ])ecu-
liar cruelty of disposition, seems to be the main
cause of that barbarism and bnitality by which
the manners of the Abyssinians are characterised.
All the feelings by which man is restrained from
shedding the blood of his fellows seem entirely
blunted. Human life is scarcely more respected
than that of bmtes. Bruce seldom went out at
Gondar without seeing dead bodies lying in the
streets, left to be devoured by dogs and hyienas,
without being even allowed the rites of sepulture.
To show the indifference usually felt on such oc-
casions, he mentions that one day, passing along
the streets, he saw an ofllcer of rank alM)iit to exe-
cute three men who had offended the sovereign.
This person, calling to Bnice, begged him to stop
till he had despatched this business, as he wished
to have a short conversation with him. But tho
circumstance which seems to place the Abyssinians
below even the most savage tribes, is the extreme
coarseness of their festive indulgences. Their brinde
(raw beef) feast has excited the astonishment of all
travellers. Alvarez, who visited the country as am-
bassador from Portugal in 1620, and remained there
for six years, describes it as a thing ' of which he
dare not in a manner speak.' Being invited to a
feast, he was much surprised, insteatl of the usual
dishes, to see brought in ' pieces of raw flesh, with
warm blood.' The landlord, on seeing his guests
show no fovour to this savoury dish, ordered other
food better suited to their tastes ; but immediately
began eagerly to devour the flesh, ' as if it had been
marchpane or comfits.' The lady of the house did
not appear at dinner ; but, in drinking, she ' bravely
seconded ' the rest of the company. Bruce and Salt
have furnished still more particular descriptions.
The table, which is low, is first covered with suc-
cessive piles of teff cakes, serving to the guests at
once as food and as towels with which to wipe their
fingers. The company being then seated, the next
process is the slaughter of the cattle, which are
standing at the door, and the cutting warm steaks
from their flesh. Bruce says that these are ex-
tracted while the animal is yet alive, and bellow-
ing inider the pain of the wound. But this
disgusting circumstance is not mentioned by any
of the earlier writers, and Mr. Salt aftirms that
the head is separated from the body before tho
operation of slicing commences. Salt, however,
as well as Bruce, admits that the luxury of an
Abyssinian feast consists in having the pieces
brought in while the blood is yet warm and the
fibres palpitating. The female who sits next to
each chief then wraps up the slice in a teff cake,
and thnists into his mouth as large a quantit}'- as
it is capable of containing, which is greedily de-
voured. All parties drink copiously of hydromel,
and bouza, the beer of the country. Having satis-
fied themselves, they rise, and give place to another
company of inferior rank, and these to a third, till
all IS consumed. The gross indecencies which
Bruce represents as perpetrated on these occasions,
and which he has described with such revolting
ABYSSINIA
II
iges have clinrac-
oHt prominent of
It for II lpn>;th»'nc(l
xcnthnl, two mis-
Uritish consul, ut
lot very certainly
(jnalised by great
>m states that, in
)ir defeat on the
were with their
I cold blood; but
iual in Abyssinian
almost perpetual
and not any jk'cu-
is to be the main
rutality by which
are characterised,
is restrained from
(W8 seem entirely
ly more respected
Idom went out at
•dies lyin^ in the
dofjs and hyivnas,
rites of sepulture,
y felt on such oc-
lay, passing along
rank about to exe-
led the sovereifpi.
Bgf^ed him to stop
iiiess, as he wished
ith him. liiit tlio
ce the Abyssinians
bes, is the extreme
;ncea. Their hrinde
iLstonishmcnt of all
the country as am-
Bnd remained there
liiufj ' of which he
Ik'inf; invited to a
istcml of the usual
[ of raw flesh, with
I seeinf? his guests
dish, ordered otlier
; but immediately
I, 'as if it had been
ly of the house did
ilcing, she 'bravely
y. Bruce and Salt
cular descriptions,
covered witli suc-
ig to the guests at
f hich to wipe their
m seated, the next
cattle, which are
ttiiigwarm steaks
hat these are ex-
alive, and bellow-
round. But this
mentioned by any
Salt affirms that
3 body before the
s. Salt, however,
the luxury of an
laving the pieces
yet warm and the
who sits next to
ice in a teff cake,
arge a quantitj' as
ch is greedily de-
usly of hydromel,
y. Having satis-
ve place to another
lese to a third, till
ndecencies which
m these occasions,
th such revolting
ininutoncflR, have been denied by Mr. Salt, and it
is hardly |M)Hsiblo to siipjsise that they can be otlier
than rare orcurreiues. Mr. (loliat, the missionary,
admits tliat a feast sucli as tliat described by
Bruce may have taken place among the most
jf shameless lilttrtinus ; Init hu adds, that 'excesses
iof tliat kind arc not customary either as to their
cruelty or iiideceiicy.' The practice reiHirted bv
Bruce, and which subjected him to no little ridl-
H'^'^ cule, of cutting steaks from a living animal on a
si jonmey, and then closing up the wound and driving
•'^I'l it (III, ap|)eai'ed at tbrst quite unfounded to Mr. Salt;
■' but ill bis second iouniey he witnessed it, and found
that it was callca by a jxiculiar name — cutting the
Shulada ; which certainly goes a good way to prove
its frequency, though that also is disputed by Mr.
Goliat, who denies its occurrence, unless perhaps in
cases of extreme hunger. Mr. I'arkyns, a later
' traveller, corroborates the testimony of Mr. Salt,
having heard of, though he had not himself wit-
nessed, an occurrence of the kind. He believes in
•,. the accuracy of Hnice's observations at the time,
although apparently a change for the better had
f'ft taken place.
J' Justice in Abyssinia is altogether barbarous,
v'l venal, and corrujit. When a person accused of a
% criminal offence is found guilty, he is detained in
■'1 prison till hu has made satisfaction to the accuser;
" ,1»t)r, if he have committed murder, till he be dis-
,,, jKtsed of by the relations of the deceased, who may
% citiier put him to death or accept a ransom. The
latter is generally fixed at 250 dollars for a man,
but the relations are under no obligation to accept
it. To csca|)c the avenger of blood, however, the
inurderer may retire to another province, as to a
city of refuge, and he cannot be followed. When
• murdered person has no relations, the priests take
ttpon themselves the office of avengers of blood.
Th,e king in person constitutes the final court of
K)[)eal, and is very assiduous in performing the
jduty of judge. Theft and murder and other aggra-
vated ofiences have been a good deal suppressed.
> It- Marriage in Abyssinia is a very slight connec-
on, formed and dissolved at pleasure. The most
irmal mode of concluding it is, when the lover,
ving made certain engagements to the parents,
<l obtained their consent (for that of the bride is
ildom asked), seizes her and carries her home on
shoulders. A magnificent feast is then given
brindc and bouza; and at a fixed period of
enty or thirty days aftcnvards, they go to
church and take the sacrament together. It is in
a few rare instances only that even this slight
.ceremony is used. In most cases, mutual consent,
?»nd a plentiful adminis'^ration of raw meat and
; bouza, form the only preliminaries. The will of
J ;eitlier party, or of both, is at any time sufficient to
dissolve the connection. If they have several
^XJhildren, they divide them ; if they have but one,
j|Bnd he is under seven years of age, he belongs to
c mother ; if above seven, to the father. Gobat
■'3S^y^ t''8t after a third divorce they cannot contract
nother regular marriage, nor partake of the com-
lunion unless they become monks; Bruce, ho,vever,
entions being in a company at Gondar, where
here was a lady present, with six persons, each of
rhoin had been successively her husband, although
one of them stood in this relation to her at the
;ime: nor do either party consider themselves
und to obser\'e with rigid fidelity this slight cn-
;agcment, even while it lasts. Manners may be
nsidered, in this respect, as in a state of almost
tal dissolution. Slaves are common in all parts
Abyssinia. They consist of Shangallas, a race
f savage negroes inhabiting the low countries on
"e NNW. and NE. frontiers. They are very
umerous in Gondar and other places of Amhara,
and also in Tigrt!; are well treatcil, and C8ca|io
many of the privations to which they are subject
in their wild state.
The only display of arrhitcctnral mngnifioonco
in Abyssinia is in the churches. They arc built on
eminences ; are of a circular form, with conical
summits and thatched roof's ; and are surrounded
with pillars of cedar, within which is an arcaik,
which produces an agreeable coolness. The houses
of the sovereigns and grandees are also largo and
commodious ; though, in this warlike country, the
camp is considered as their more (iroiier residence.
All the houses arc mere hovels of a conical form,
with a thatched roof, and containing little or no
fumitiu'e. The dress, both of men and women,
consbts chiefly of a piece of cotton cloth, 21 cubifji
long b^ 1^ in breadth, which they wTap niund
them like a mantle, with close drawers reaching to
the middle of the thigh, and a girdle of cloth.
Needlework and washing, according to Mr. Stern,
are performed not by the women but bv the men.
Their food consists of the different species of grain
already enumerated, fish, fruits, honey, and raw
meat at festivals. The most general drink is bou-
za, a species of sour beer, made from the fermen-
tation of their cakes, particularly those left at
entertainments. Tocousso, the coarsest grain, pro-
duces bouza c(iual or superior to any of the others.
Hydromel is also made in great quantities. Agri-
culture, the only art much cultivated, is very far
behind the perfection which it has attained even
in the most backward parts of Europe. The
ploughs, of the rudest construction, from the root
or branch of a tree, are drawn by oxen. The land
is twice ploughed, but with the utmost indifference
as to the straightness of the furrows ; after which
women are emjiloyed to break the clods. In the
course of ripening, the corn is carefully weeded.
As previously stated, there are two or three crops
in the year. The worst grain is commonly used
for seed. In general, every family cultivates for
itself, and little is brought to market. The poor
people live miserably on black teff and tocousso,
and even persons of consideration use little except
teff and bouza.
The Abyssinians profess Christianity, but it has
little influence over their conduct. At present
they are split into three parties, violently opposed
to each other. They retain a great number of
Judaical obser>'ances, abstaining from the meats
prohibited by the Mosaic law, practising circum-
cision, keeping both the Saturday and Sunday as
Sabbaths, and regarding fasts as essential. But their
fasts, though apparently long and rigorous, are
dispensed with on payment of a sum of money,
according to the rank and wealth of the party.
The Coptic patriarch of Cairo continues still to be
the nominal head of the church, from whom the
Abuna, the resident head, receives his investiture.
They have monasteries, both of monks and nuns,
who are far, however, from professing that rigid
austerity which is the boast of the Bomish church.
Their veneration for the Virgin is unbounded ; and
the Catholic missionaries found that they com-
pletely outdid, in this respect, their own ultra
zeal. Their saints are extremely numerous, and
surpass, in miraculous pow^er, even those of the
Romish calend^. They represent them by paint-
ings, with which their churches are lavishly
adorned; but they do not admit any figures in
relievo. The clergy do not attempt to prohibit
divorce, or even polygamy, the propensity to
which in the nation is probably too powerful to
render any prohibition effectual."
Mohammedans, as well as Jews, are also found
in Abyssinia. The fonner appear to have in-
creased since Brace's visit; at present they arc
12
ABYSSINIA
in "
/'ilill
," I
If
i'H
|ti
l^
lii
most rmmorous in Atlownh ond its ^•ic^nity, Few
of thviii have uiiy kiiowlc«lgo of the Kuriin. They
61)^11^0 more in tralilc than the ChriMtiunN, and
have more money. They ore said to (^nRTOHH the
'wliole trndic in Hlavim; the ChristtianH, uccording
to Mr. Gobat, never taking nny part in it. The
Jews claim to bo deticcndcd from immigrants into
AbysHiuio, who rctnnicd witli the Queen of Shebn
after her viMt to Solomon. In moralft they are
much Kupcrior to their neiKlilMurs, both Christians
nnd Mohammedans, but arc unm>cial and ascetic.
Husbandry and a few nimplo trades arc their solo
occupations.
Thou^li low, as compared with Europe, the
manufactures of Abyssinia occupy a prominent
place amon^ most of the African nations. It sui>-
]>lies itself with all the most indispensable articles.
Cotton cloths, the universal dress of the country,
nrc made in large quantities, the fine sort at
Gondar, and the coarse at Adowa. IJeinf? unable
to dye their favourite dark blue colour, they un-
ravel the blue Surat cloths, and weave them again
into their own webs. Coarse cloth circulates as
money. Manufactures of iron and brass are also
considerable, the material being procured from
Sennaar, Walcayt, and Uerbcra ; knives ore made
at Adowa and spears at Antalow. The business
of tanning is well understood in Tigrd; and at
Axum sheepskins are made into parchment.
Saddles, and all ports of horse furniture, are good.
The foreign commerce of Aln-ssinia is carried on
entirely by way of Massuan, whence the com-
munication with the interior is maintained by the
channel of Adowa. The imports are chiefly lead,
block tin, gold foil, Persian carpets, raw silk from
China, velvets, French broad cloths, coloured skins
from Egypt, glass beods and decanters from Venice.
The exports consist of gold, ivory, ond slaves. The
slaves are reckoned more beautiful than those
which come from the interior of Africa.
Progress of Discovert/. — The ancients never ac-
tiuired any accurate knowledge of Abyssinia. To
it, along with Sennaar, they, in a peculiar sense,
applied the comprehensive name of Ethiopia ; for
though that term was made to extend generally
to the interior of Africa, and even to a great part
of Asia, yet Ethiopia sub jEqypto was reganled
as the proper Ethiopia. Descriptions of Etiiiopian
nations are given by the ancients at considerable
length ; but they serve chiefly to show the im-
perfection of their knowledge, and are tinctured
with a lar^^e admixture of fable. Kennell sup-
poses, seemingly on good grounds, that the Ma-
crobian, or long-lived Ethiopians, said to live
farther to the south than the others, belong to
Abyssinia. The ancients had no distinct know-
ledge of more than two Ethiopian kingdoms : the
first and only one known to the earliest writers
is Meroe, or the Peninsula, which they erroneously
supposed to be an island formed by the successive
union of the Nile with the Astaboras and the
Astapus (Blue River and Tacazze). The chief
city of Meroe was placed by them on the Nile, in
lat. 16** 26' ; and Bruce, in passing through Sen-
naar, saw, near Chendi, immense ruins, which
probably belonged to this celebrated capital of
Ethiopia. The other kingdom became known
after the Greeks, under the successors of Alex-
ander, extended their na\ngation along the eastern
coast of Africa It was that of the Axumito;,
situated upon the Red Sea, and occupying part of
Tigrd. Ita capital, Axura, still remains, and
though in a state of decay, exhibits remains so
vast as amply to attest its former greatness.
The inscriptions discovered here by Salt show
that the Axumites had received amongst them
the religion and the arts of foreigners, and that
they made urn of the Grecian language in tho
inscriptions on their inuniiinuiits. The nort of
Axum, Adulis, was the channel by which the
tinest ivory then known was exported, and a
commercial intercourse maintained with the coasts
both of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Salt,
though unable to visit it, seems to havu ascer-
tained its situation near Massouah.
Prior to the niiildle of the fourth century, Abys-
sinia was converted to Christianity, which it has
over since nominally professed.
After the rise antl rapid spread of Islamism,
those of the Egyptians who Avcre reluctant to
change their faith being compt^lled to Hy south-
wanls before the sword of the Saracens, Nubiii
and Abyssinia became filled with Jewish aiul
Christian refugees. And as both these countries
were at that time ('hristian, the Arabian geo-
graphers, who have fully dcscrilwd other parts of
the continent, make a very slight mention of
them ; so that Abyssinia remained almost un-
known till near the asra of modem naval dis-
covery. In 1446, the emperor of Abyssinia sent
an ambassador to the senate of Florence, and
wrote a famous letter to the priests his subjects at
Jerusalem. This, and the favourable reports of
the Abyssinian priests now referred to, gave rise
to the most exaggerated reports. It was said that
a Christian prince, to whom the Portuguese gave
the fantastical name of Prvster or Presbyter John,
ruled over a vast, highly civilised, and rich em-
pire, ill the centre and I<I. of Africa. This state-
ment inilamed at once the spirit of discovery and
of religious zeal, the two ruling principles in that
age. The Portuguese monarchs, who took the
lead in exploring the eostem world, immediately
devised measures for acquiring a knowledge of so
remarkable a region. The passage to India by
the Cape of Good Hope had not yet been dis-
covered; Al)yssinia was therefore viewed as a
tract through which the commerce of India might
bo conducted. Two envoys, Covilham and Do
Paiva, were therefore sent, under the direction of
Prince Henry, upon a mission to explore it. They
went by way of Alexandria, and descended the
Red Sea. Do Paiva perished by some unknown
accident; but Covilham, after visiting diflerent
parts of India and Eastern Africa, entered Abys-
sinia, and arrived, in 1490, at the court of the
emperor, residing then in Shoa. Being brought
before the sovereign, he was received with that
favour which novelty, when there is nothing to
be feared from it, usually secures; and being a
man of address and ability, he contrived to main-
tain this friendly disposition. The reports which
he transmitted of the country were favourable;
and having prevailed on the empress-mother to
send an Armenian as an ambassador to Portugal,
whose arrival excited a great sensation in that
country, the Portuguese sent out several other
embassies. Of these the most remarkable is that
described by Alvarez, in 1520. He remained six
years in the country, ond traversed it from north
to south, visiting the provinces of Amharo, Shon,
ond Efat Paez, Almeyda, Lobo, and several
others successively undertook journeys into Abys-
sinia. Paez, who resided in the country from
1G03 till his death in 1622, visited, in 1618, the
sources of the Bahr-el-Azrek or eastern arm of the
Nile, and describes them nearly iu the same terms
08 Bruce, who absurdly f^lni n is . lie honour of beiiif,'
their discoverer. From i',' accounts of these oml
other missions, Tellez first (1660), and afterwards
Ludolph (1681), principally compiled their his-
tories and descriptions of Ethiopia. Ludolph,
who was well versed in the language, derived a
considerable port of his information from the com-
I
s
1nnK*iiRC in tlio
tM. Tim iM>rt of
I'l by wliiili tlio
('xpiirt(')l, and ii
Nlwitli the ctm!*tft
inn Ocean, Halt,
iR to have awJcr-
ih.
til century, Abyi*-
lity, which it has
'end of iHlamimn,
^ero rehictant to
!lli'<l to rty Houth-
SaracciiH, Nubiii
with Jcwixh and
th these countricH
tlio Arabian K«<>-
ImiiI otlicr parts of
(liKht mention of
allied almost iin-
lodcm naval dis-
of Abyssinia sent
of Florence, and
ests his subjects at
ourablo reports of
erred to, gave rise
9. It was said that
Portuguese gave
or Presbyter John,
ised, and rich em-
>frica. This state-
it of discovery and
J principles in that
;h», who took tho
world, immediately
a knowledge of so
issage to India by
not yet been dis-
'cfore viewed as a
crco of India might
Covilham and Do
tier tho direction of
to explore it. They
and descended the
by some unknown
T visiting different
frica, entered Abys-
it tho court of the
oa. Being brought
received with that
there is nothing to
cures; and being a
contrived to main-
Tho reports which
y were favourable;
empress-mother to
assador to Portugal,
t sensation in that
out several other
t remarkable is that
Ho remained six
ersed it from north
08 of Amhara, Shoa,
Lobe, and several
journeys into Aby.<-
i the country from
visited, in 1618, the
ttr eastern arm of the
ly iu the same terms
s . lie honour of beinj,'
ccounts of these and
560), and afterwards
compiled their his-
Ethiopio. Ludolph,
language, derived a
nation from the com-
ACAPULCO
miinlpations of Gregory, an Aliysiinian monk of
till' |>r<>vincu of Amiiara, then in Kiirope.
I'lililic ciirioxity, however, with rcHpect to Abys-
siiiiu gradually mili»ided, till towarils the close of
m last century (i7!»0), it was revived by tho publi-
,| cation of Mr. IJnice's Travels. Many of the cir-
m c'lniHtaiicis he relates are so very extraordinary
III as to give to his descriptions a gooil deal of the
M a|.p(aranco of romance. The outhenticity of his
■M work was in coiisi-cjuenco vcrj* gcneralKr doubted;
'.^ and it must bo admitted that some of his statc-
'■"'■' nu'iits have been shown to bo unfounded, and that
otliirs arc of very oiiostioiiablo authoritj^. Hut
the accuracy of the leading features of his work
has been fully established by Mr. Salt and other
late travellers.
Further information as to Abyssinia will bo
found ill the Modern Universal History, vol. xv.;
;the Travels of IJruce, Salt, and Lord Valentia; Mr.
^Goliat's Journal ; the account of Abyssinia in Hit-
ter's (.ieography ; Prichord's Researches on Man;
J'arkyn's Life in Abyssiiiio ; and Stern's Wander-
ings among the Falashas in Abyssinia.
!i ACAPULCO, a celebrated sea-port and town of
^; Mexico, in the intendency of that name, on tho
f4?c(>nst of the Pacilic Ocean, 190 m. S8W. Mexico,
flat. 16° 60' '29" N., long. 990 46' W. Estimated
Ij-^jiop. 3,000. The harbour is one of the finest in
Vthc world. 'It is familiar,' savs Captain Hall,
• :** to the memory of most people, from its being tho
' port whence tlio rich Spanish galleons of former
days took their departure to spread tho wealth of
the Western over the Eastern world. It is cele-
brated, also, in Anson's delightful Voyage, and
occupies a conspicuous place m the very interest-
ing accounts of the Buccaneers : to a sailor, there-
fore, it is classic ground in every sense. I cannot
express tho universal professional admiration ex-
citiMl by a sight of this celebrated {lort, which is,
moreover, the very beau-id'al of a harliour. It is
,ea»y of access ; very capacious ; tho water not too
deep ; the holding ground good ; quite free from
liiditon dangers; and as secure as tho basin in tho
centre of Portsmouth dock-yard. From tho inte-
rior of the harbour the sea cannot bo discovered ;
lind a stranger, coming to the spot by land, would
jmiigine ho was looking over a sequestered moun-
tain-lake' (South America, ii. p. 172.) There are
two entrances to this splendid basin, ono on each
side of ^hc small island of Koqiicta or Urifo, tho
broadest being nearly 1^ m. across, and the other
from 700 to 800 feet. The town, commanded by tho
♦ extensive and formidable ' (Hall) castle of San
Carlos, is poor and mean. Since it ceased to bo
.the resort of tho galleons, it has ceased to bo of
/.any considerable importance; and, when visited
.;,' by Captain Hall, had only thirty houses, with a
; largo suburb of huts built of reeds, wattled in
.'•jopcn basket-work to give admission to tho air.
.'d The climate is exceedingly hot and pestilential.
'^.To give a freer circulation to the air, an artificial
'Js cut was made through the chain of rocks by which
"-■ the town is surrounded. But, though this has
been of considerable ser\'ice it still continues to
be very unhealthy. Its natural insalubrity is in-
creased b}' the poisonous vapours exhaled from a
marsh situated to tho E. of the town. Tho annual
desiccation of the stagnant water of this marsh
occasions tho death of innumerable small fishes ;
which, decaying in heaps under a tropical sun,
diffuse their noxious emanations through tho
p^eighbouring air, and are justly considered a prin-
>i.'ipal cause of the putrid bilious fevers that then
Erevail along tho coast. Some trade is carried on
etween Acapulco andGuayquil, Callao, &c. ; but,
owing to tho extreme tediousness and difficulty of
the voyage from Acapulco to Callao, the inter-
ACIIMUNEIN
13
course lietwccn Mexico and Peru is confined
within very narrow bounds.
ACI'lUEN'/A (an. Acherontia), a small and
very ancient arehiepisconal city of Southern Italy,
prov.Potcnza; 14 m. NE. Potenza. Pop. il.O.Oij iii
1862. It is situated, according to tho descriiilion
of Horace (Od. lib. iii. car. 4, 1. 14), on an almost
inaccessible hill, Aidiia ceUit Acberimtia;, tho foot
of which is washed by tho lirandano. It has a
castle, a cathedral, two convents, a grammar
scluKil, and an lios])ital. Tho archbishop resides
at Mutcra. This town was looked uimiii l>y tho
Komans as ono of tho bulwarks of Apuliu and
Lucania.
ACEKXO, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Sa-
lenio; 16 m. N. by E. Salerno. Pop. 3,715 in
1862. Tho town has a cathedral, a parish church,
a mont de piiitc, which makes advances of seed to
indigent cultivators, a fabric of paper, and a
forge.
ACEURA, a town of Southern Italv, prov. Ca-
scrta; 9 m. NE. Naples. Pop. 11,274 in 18(52. It
has a cathedral, a seminary, and a mont de pieti'f.
The country is fruitful, but unhealthy. This is a
very ancient town. In the second Punic war it
was destroyed by Hannibal, the inhabitants
having deserted it on his approach. (Liv. lib. xxiii.
8. 17.) Under Augustus it received a Komaii
colony.
ACJIIEEN, a princi|)ality occupying tho NW.
extremity of tho island of Sumatra (which see).
AcHKKN, the capital of the above principality,
situated near tho NW. extremity of Sumatra, on
a river about 3 m. from the sea, lat. 5^ 35" N.,
long. 95° 45" E. It is very populous, being saiil
to contain 8,000 houses built of bamboo and rough
timber, and raised on posts, to secure them from
inundations. A good deal of trade is carried on
with Singajwre, Batavia, Bengal, &c. Owing to
a bar at the mouth of tlio river, none but small
vessels pass up to the city. The entrance for three
months of the year is dangerous, but the harbour
is secure.
ACHERN, a town of the G. D. Baden, on tho
Achem, 14 miles NE. Kehl, on the railway from
Kehl to Carlsnihc. Pop. 2,57f> in 1861. Within
a short distance of Achem is ' t > village of Sass-
bach, contiguous to which is a g. lito monument,
erected at the expense of the French government
in 1829, on tho spot where the Marshal de Tii-
renno, one of tho greatest generals of modem
times, was killed by a random sliot on tlie 27tli
July, 1675. Ho was interred in the chapel of St.
Nicholas at Achem.
ACHIL, or EAGLE ISLAND, an island on tho
W. coast of Ireland, co. Mayo, separated from tho
main land by a narrow channel. It is about 30
miles in circumference, and contains above 23,000
acres. Pop. 6,776 in 1861. It is mountainous;
and eagles — whence its name — breed in its inac-
cessible fastnesses. The inhabitants speak the
Irish language, and arc in an extremely depressed,
miserable condition.
ACHMIN, or ECHMIN, a town of Upper
Egypt, on tho right bank of the Nile, 230 m.
S. Cairo. Estimated pop. 3,000. Streets well
disposed, broad, and straifjht, which is very un-
usual in Egypt ; so that this would be a hamlsome
town, were the houses biult of better materials
than baked bricks cemented with clay. It was
anciently called Panopolis, or Chemnis ; the former
being the Greek, tho latter the Egyptian name.
It contains a church of some antiquity, and held
in much veneration ; but its chief ornament is the
granite pillars taken fnim the ruins of Panojiolis.
ACHMUNEIN, a larjje village of central Egj'pt,
prov. Minyeh, on the site of the an. UermopoHs
14
ACIIONRY
f i
if|ili
V
'I
; I
4 . I
!i!i
Miufna, Int. 270 W N., lon^. n(P fi.T F. In the on-
viroiiM In tin* |Mirtif() nC nn ancient tompio, rovrrod
with hion)Klv|)hii;i«, and roKanlcil nn una ol'tho tlnoiit
rcnwiinM of Kf^vptian architecture.
ACIION ItV, n imrinh of Irelnml, en. Sli^o, which
l^ivert nnmn to a iMNhupric, now united to Killahi.
IG m. VV. Sli^o. Pop. i)f pariMh, 14,6(t4 ii. I«(ll.
ACI-UKALE, a M>a-|)ort town of Sicily, prov.
Cntnnia, cap. cant, at the fmit of Mount Atnn,
» m. NK. Cntnnitt. I'op. 2»,8!11 in IHt)2. The
town Htundft nn a vnNt tnnM oflmwiltin lnvn,alH>ut
8(K) feet alM)vo itH port, tho Marina of Act, and is
i)up|>ortc<l on archeH conNtnicted with fpvnt lal)our
and expenHc through ten altcmntn xtrnta of lavn
and earth. Tho Rituation iit healthy; tho town i.s
K'K'iliu'ly built, clean, with many churches, con-
ventH, and public liuildinKH, tho whole ^ivin^ evi-
dence of a thriviuff and indiistriouH population. A
connidcroblo trade is carried on, particularly during
th(t fair ii! July, in wino, fniit, {^oVX tilif^ree work,
cotton, Hnx, aiid diaper, the last l)cinf; bleacheil
in >^reat quantities in the plain below the town on
the banks of the Aequo (irando. The port is small ;
the mole is forme(l out of a mass of lava, anil
tlicro aro some good warchnusos. The town is
celebrated for its cold, sulphurous mineral waters,
tho cave of Polyphemus, and protto of Galatea.
There are six other places bearinR the some naino.
During the 8cr^•ile war Aci-Ucnlc wos the heod-
quarters of tho consul Aquilius, who succeeded in
8uppn;ssin(7 that danji^erous revolt, anno 101 n. c.
ACONIJAGUA, a province of Chili (which see).
This also is tho namo of tho cap. of tho same
prov,, a town containinfi^ about fi,()00 inhab,, and
also of a mountain and river, the former one of tho
loftiest of the Andes, being 28,910 feet alwve the
sea. The river rises on the S. side of the mountain,
and tlows into the sen 12 miles from Valparaiso.
ACQUAPENDKNTE, a small town of Central
Italy, 15 m. W. Orviclo. Pop. 2,605 in 18G2.
It has a cathedral and 5 churches.
ACQUA-VI VA, a town of Southern Italy, prov.
Ban, 18 m. S. Ban. Pop. 7,843 in 1862. It is
Burroimded by walls, has a handsome parish
church, some convents, 2 hospitals, and a mont de
pieti.
ACQUI, or AQUI, a town of Northern Italy,
cap. prov. same namo on tho left bank of tho Bor-
mida; 47 m. ESE. Turin. Pop. 9,944 in 1862. It
has a citadel, a cathedral, 2 churches, and a semi-
nary ; and is celebrated for its warm sulphurous
baths. The inhabitants arc principally employed
in the silk manufacture.
ACKA, a small district on the Gold Coast of
Africa, belonging to tho Ashantees, nearly under
the meridian of Greenwich. The English, Dutch,
and Danes have forts at Acra.
ACRE, AKKA, or ST. J RAN D'ACRE,a town
of Syria, cap. pochalic of same name on the coast
of tfie Mediterranean, Int. 32° 64' 35" N., long.
36° ()' 6" E., 33 m. SSVV. Tsour (nn. Tyrm), nnd
85 m. W. Lake Tabaria or Genesnreth. It is
situated on a promontory, forming the NE. limit
of a fine semicircular bay (the Buy of Acre) open-
ing to the N., bounded N\V. by Cnpe Carmel, at
the extremity of the mountain of that name. The
hnrl)our of Acre, on the S. side of the tow^n, within
the bny is shallow, and accessible only to vessels
drawing little water; but opposite to Caipha, a
small town at the foot of Mount Carmel, on the
W. side of the bay, there is good anchorage ground
in deep water. Few towns aro more advan-
tageously situated ns a centre of commerce or seat
of political power; but these advantages, by
making its possession of importance, have ser^•cd
to expose it over and over again to hostile attacks.
The climate is unnenlthy; the winter rains, de-
ACTIE
sconding in torrents fmm tho mountains, fill the
adjacent plain with stagnant lakes, from which,
and tho dccom|Nmitlon of vegetable reinainN, con-
stant malaria is produced, fonning a striking con-
trast to the healthy atniosphcnMif tlio ncigjibouriiig
mountain lund. Cotton nn<l com are the chief
products of the plain of Acre, and thcM) fonn its
staple exports.
Previously to 1832 tho population of Acre wad
loosely estimated at from 15,000 to 20,000 : but
tho siege of that ycnr hnving ended in its nimost
totnl destniction,*it is impossil)la to stnte exactly
the numU'r of its prewnt inhabitants, tliough 9,000
is probnbly nlNMit thu mark. The snme cnuso
o|)erntes to mnko an account of tho plnce his-
torical, rather than descriptive of its existing
stnte. Even lieforo the |H>riod nlluded to, a few
broken columns of granite, nnd other dilapidated
and neglecte<l relics, were the only remains of
antiquity; but of the Gothio age tlien; were, nt
this epoch, tho cnthcdrnl churches of St. Andrew
and St. John. Tho mos«iue of Dje/.zar Pacha was
a fine qiiadrangtilar building, ])aved witii whito
marlde, and surmounted by a cupola supported <m
pillars brought from the ndns of Ciesarea. Thn
same governor also constnieted a large fountain, of
incalculable advantage to the town. The baxanrs
were numerous and good, l>eing arched over, and
well supplied with commodities. Houses built of
stone, nnd flnt-roofed, the terrnccs on their tops
forming agreeable promenndes; tho more useful,
ns tho streets were extremely nnrrow. At ])res«!nt,
however. Acre is, or at all events within a year or
two was, little better than a mass of niins; of nil
its buildings, public or privnto, tho fountain of
Djezzar was the only one that escaped uninjured
from tho effects of the siege by the Egj'ptians in
1832.
Although the modem town be of compnrntively
recent dnte, its site hns been occupie^l by buildings
from the remotest nntiquity. Here stood n Hebrew,
or perhaps a Phoenician city, called Accho. Being
improved and enlarged by "the Greek sovereigns of
Egypt, they gave it tho name of Ptolemais ; and
it was justly regarded by them and their Bomaii
successors as a port of great importance. Syria
was one of the first conquests of the Mohammedans
{see Arabia), into whose hands Ptolemais fell,
A. D. 638. It then received tho name of Akkn,
which continues to be its Saracenic appellation.
In 1104 it was captured by the first crusaders, and
formed for eighty years part of tho kingdom of
Jemsalom, when it was taken by the famous
sultan Salodin. About four years afterwards
Kichanl Cceur do Lion and Philip Augustus ap-
peared before its walls, and after a siege of twenty-
two months it surremiered to their arms in 1191.
It subsequently remained in tho possession of tho
Christians exactly a century ; and under the go-
vemment of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John
attainc<l considerable importance ond prosperity.
It derived from the magnificent cathedral erected
by these soldier monks to their patron saint its
common western name of St, Jean (TAcre. In
1291, however, the knights were driven from SjTin,
and Acre was the spot on which their last despe-
rate but useless struggle took plnce. From 1291
till 1517, it formed part of the Coliphate, when it
passed, with the Inst pnltry wrecks of that once
mighty power, into the hands of the Turks. Neg-
lected by the govemment, and exposed to the
depredations of every wandering tribe, it con-
tinued to decay, till, in the beginning of the 17th
century, it was seized by Fak'r-el-din, the cele-
brated emir of the Dnises, under whose wise and
energetic govemment it began to show symptoms
of rctiurning prosperity ; but in the latter pnrt of
|cr
moiintnins fill the
InkcM, friim which,
tnl)l« n>rnaiiiN, ron-
liiiK n Htrikin^ <Min-
<)t'thi<Mi'i){hlHiiiriii(;
com iiro tht! vhU't
and tlii'Mi funn its
ilntion of Arre won
100 to 20,000: Imt
^ndcd in itN nlmoxt
ilo to state exnctiv
itantx, thdiif^li !),00b
Till) tmmo cuiiNo
; of the pliipn hin-
:o of its existing;
1 nlhidcd to, a fuw
il other diliipidntcd
e only reniidns of
nm\ tfioH! were, nt
•hes of Ht. Andn!W
Djozznr I'ncha wan
jiaved with white
U|)(da Niipported on
I of (,'wHan'n. The
a lar^e fountain, of
own. The ha/.anrn
g arched over, and
4. Houses built of
■ncoa on their topn
I ; the more useful,
arrow. At present,
ts within a year or
)ss of ruins; of all
0, the fountain of
cscape<l uninjuretl
f the Egj'ptians in
10 of comparatively
;upied bv buildinfja
ere atom! a Hebrew,
lied Accho. lieing
ireek sovereipis of
of Ptolemais; and
and their Koman
niportance. Syria
the Muhammedana
(Is Ptolemais fell,
le name of Akka,
icenic appellation.
first crusaders, and
the kingdom of
by the famous
years afterwanls
lip Augustus ap-
a siege of twcnty-
leir arms in 11 ill.
possession of the
nd under the go-
:aller8 of St. Jolin
!C and prosperity.
cathedral erected
patron saint its
Jean (TAcre. In
Iriven from SjTia,
their last despe-
lace. From 1291
aliphate, when it
•cks of that onco
the Turks. Neg-
exposed to the
ig tribe, it con-
ining of the 17th
-el-din, the cele-
whose wise and
show symptoms
he latter part of
ACUI
jhln life Fak'r-el-dln, anprchondinff a Turkish In-
iVOMiiin, destroyed the liarlxiur, ami thus left, the
Jtlace in a worse condition than that in which h«
liunil it. Another century of decay and misery
^.ensued, till, in I74!t, the Mcdouin Arab Dahcr ex-
'■''p«'llrd the Turkish aga, and inndeAcri" the capital
«il a territory which for more than 20 years wna
aivirtually inllcpendent of the I'orte. Daher par-
^aftially fdrtilied Acre, partly cleared Its ruins, and
''^tetllVd colonies of (ireek and MuKsulnmn fanners,
liarasst'd and despoiled in the neighlNturing coun-
tries, in tlie surrounding plain. On Dahvr's fall
In I ''•'>, iVcrc reverted to the dominion of the
Turks, For once, however, the change of masters
was not productive of ruin. DJczxar, who was
Immediately appointed pacha, how inferior soever
to Daher in personal character, seems to have re-
sembled him in his political energy, nronifttness,
!j|nd decision. Ho strengthened the lortitlcations
gnd emiM'llished the town. The detenninetl and
|U(U'CMsful resistance which it made in 179!) to the
^ins iif Napoleon have ren(h>red it famous in
Inndern history. There is, indeed, good reason to
,tbink that the termination of the siege had a
powerful influence over the future fortune of that
extraordinary person, and conse(iuently of the
, 'World. (See Voyage du Marechal Marmoifl, iii.
i>. 7f).) Acre continued to prosper till 1832.
Though fettered by imposts and monopolies, it
Carried on a consiiierablc foreign trade, and had
resident consuls fnim most of the great states of
Kurope. During its siege by Ibrahim Pacha in
1WI12, which lasted f> months and IM days, its pri-
vate and ])ublic buildings were montly destroyed.
In into it was bombarded by the English and
Austrian ilcets, through whom it was restored to
the sultun. It has not recovered its former pros-
E;rity. (Volnev's and Kobinson's Travels, and
ussell's Palestnie.)
'( ACUI, a town of South Italy, prov. Coscnza,
fap. cant,, on the Mucone, in a healthy situation ;
12. m, N. K. Cosenza. Pop. 11,73(1 in lH»i2. It
has *! parish churches and a hospital. The sur-
l^unding country is very fruitful.
ACTllJM. Sec AiiTA, Gui.Pii OF.
ACTON, a village and parish of England, for-
inerly resorted to for its mineral waters ; «i m.
yj', St. Paul's, on the North London railway. Pop.
of parish 3,151 in 1801. Acton has in recent
times become a suburb of the metropolis. (See
ACUL, an inconsidcrablo sea-port town of
. Ilayti, on its N. coost. Lat. 19* 47' 40" N.,
long. 72° 27' 13" W. It was caUcd St. Thomas
by Columbus.
; ADALIA, or SATALIEH, a sea-port town of
■ J. Turkey in Asia, Anatolia, cap. Sangiack Tdke-ili,
7- on the gulph of the same name, near the mouth
of the Douden-sou, lat. 360 62' 16" N., long. 30°
,. 45' 3" E. Estimated pop. 8,000, two-thirds Turks
f' ' and one-third Greeks. It is finely situated, being
built amphitheatre-wise round a small harbour
'■ on the declivity of a hill, the summit of which is
d surmounted by a castle. It is enclosed by a ditch,
* a double wall, and a series of square towers about
50 yards apart. Streets narrow, and houses mostly
of wood. It is the residence of a pacha and of a
Greek archbishof); and has numerous mosques,
churches, baths, caravansaries, &c. The sur-
rounding country is beautiful, and the soil deep
^: and foitile.
Adalia is supposed to occupy the site of the an-
cient Olbia; and the fragments of columns and
^ other remains of antiquity found within its walls,
" attest its former flourishing state.
ADAM'S PEAK, the highest mountain in the
island of Ceylon, altitude 7,420 feet ; 46 m. ESE.
ADELAIDK
15
Colnmlm, It has a sugar-loaf shape ; and its
sumndt, supposed to Int the |Mdiit where Kuddhn
ascended to heaven, is esteemed sacred, and is
resorted to by pilgrims.
ADANA, a town of Asia Minor, the capital of n
district or government of the saim) name, on the
Sihon (Sams), alM)ut 25 m, alstve wh'-re il fallt
into the sea, bit. IW° 69' N., long. 850 HI' K.
Estlm, pop, 20,000. It is verv ancient, stands on
a declivity, surrounded on all sides by groves of
fmlt trees' and vineyards; is large, well-built ; ban
a castle; a bridge over the river, said to havelN'cn
built by .lustinian ; and a noble (sirtico in Ihu
middle of the ba/.aar. It carries on a considerable
trade in wine, fruits, and com. In summer it is
rather unhealthy, and the majority of the inha-
bitants retire to tho country. (Kinneir's Asia
Minor, &c. p. 131.)
ADAHIC, an ancient town of Ireland, co. Lim-
cri(!k, with some fine miiis, now much deci ved,
situated on the Maig, over which it has a bridgo
of 9 arches; 130 m. SVV. Dublin. Pop. SIC. Ditto
of parish 2,941 in IHOl.
ADDA, a celebrated river of Italy, fonned by
the junction of several rivulets nearIiormio,in tho
Valteline. Having traversed that province, it
passes Sondrio, enters the lake of ('omo near its
northem, and issues from its southern extremity,
and passing Lodi and Pizzighettone, falls into tho
Po (5 m. VV. Cremona.
ADKLAIDE, a city of. South Australia, cap. of
the Ilritish colony of that name, alwut 7 m. SK.
from its port, an inlet on the E. side of St. Vin-
cent's Gulph. Lat. .'(4° 67' S., long, 13S0 -w j,-.
Pop. 7,143 in 184(i, and 18,303 in 18()1. The mu-
nic. Iwundarj' oomprises rather more than 1,000
ocres. It isdivideil into N. and S. Adelaide by
the river Torrens, hero cro8se<l by several bridges.
Uoth portions of the town stanil on gentle eleva-
tions, and are regularly laid out : tho streets, which
vary from 7(t to 130 ft, in width, mostly cross or
meet each other at right angles, and there are se-
veral goo<l squares. The S. is a goo<l deal larger
than the N. division of the city ; it includes the
government house, hospital, &c., with some hand-
some terraces and villas, having from J to A aero
of shrubbery and ganlen ground attached. Along
King William Street, the central thoroughfare, aro
many largo buildings, including the government
offices ami commissariat stores, with many good
private houses and shops of all descriptions. Ilind-
loy Street is the principal place of business, and
here is to be observed all the bustle of a flourishing
town. It is lined on both sides with goml stone,
brick, or wooden houses, some of which are of su-
perior biuld, and do cnxlit to Australian street
architecture. Many of the stores or merchants'
warehouses are massive brick or stone buildings.
Tho government house, near the river, is a fine
house, surrounded by about 10 acres laid out in
ornamental gardens. A botanic garden was es-
tablished in 1856, and in 1868 a special grant of
1000/. was allowed for a conservatory, tilled with
palms and other tropical proiluce. Among the
other principal edifices are Trinity and St. John's
churches, the legislative council house, court house,
the office of tho S. Australian bank, an auction
mart, tho offices of the S. Australian Company,
and a large prison, built at a cost of 34,000/. In
the centre of Light Square is a handsome Gothic
cross, 45 feet high, erected to the memory of Colo-
nel Light, the founder of the city. Adelaide has
chapels for Presbyterians, Homan Catholics, Bap-
tists, Independents, Metho<lists, German Luthe-
rans, and others, a Friends' meeting house, a Jews*
synagogue, numerous schools, tho S. Australian
bank, and a branch of the Australasian do., S.
10
ADKLSIIKUO
I ;
'ii htl.
ii
AiiNtriiliiiii ANHiiriinnn (lornpnnvt n |)liilaiitliri>|)io
iiiNtitiitiiin, mill II ini'i'lmtiicN' )riHtitiitu. Ni^vcriil
ii<iWM|ia|H'rH iirti puMiitliutl in tliu luty. It niiinii-
lii(-liin>H wiMilli'i) ^(mmU, Htaroh, mmii, miiilT, itiiil
iimcliiiii'rv, nnti it lins n variety of Htnnrn nnd
iitliiT mill'*, witli l)ruw<'ri(H, tunnnriuH, nml nmlt
lioiiM'M. ItH trmlu ill (ir<>n iiiul wool U nlrvailv vory
(<xti'ii)tivi\ mill it will necoimirily incrcnite with tlui
incri'nwi of the trailo of tliu colony, of whii'h it ii
the ^rund oin|)orium. AiIcIaIiIo cx|iortctl r),ltl)0,'J()()
llm. of wool in IHfiO; 6,(102,020 Ihn. in lH(il; nml
7,1112,01(2 1I)H. in 18(>2. Around tho city on the K.
nnd S, ill a Mcmicirclo of hillH, nemo riitinK to iip-
wnrilM of 2,000 ft. alM)ve tho nca; nnd within a few
inilc)! nro houio of tho principul copper nnd luiid
inincN, to which, CK|H<cinlly tliu fonnur, tho colony
ownit gtvat pnrt of um prosp*<rity.
Tho rivor Torrons on which Adnlnido iit built,
loMH itself in a ninrKli licforo roachiiiK tho Mon, 8o
thnt tho city in from d to 7 m. di.itnnt from itH
port, an inlot of St. Vincont'it (iulph. In tho
ruinv Hoaflon tho Torronit Id much (Io(kIo<I, though
it wAdom ovcHlowH iti Imnkit, which oro gtccp and
lofty; hut in tho dry wnson it hns no current, its
Ited' lM>ing thon fonnod into a wirioa of pools ur
tankx.
Port Adelaide, 7 m. NW. from tho city, in a
low nnd mnr.shy f*itiintion, consists of a numljcr of
dwellinp^-hougos nnd warehouses, many of which
nro of stone, with whnn-es, pnrtly Imlonf^in^ to
government, nnd pnrtly to tho Houth Austrnlinn
Company. Tho inlet of the sen forming; tho hnr-
iKHir, opposite tho entrance to which a lif^ht ves-
sel is moored, stretclies from tho gulph, from which
it is separated by n narrow nock of land, for alwut
H m. southward, surroundinK Torrens Island. There
entered at Port Adelaide, in the year 1802, a total
of 293 vessels, with a tonnngo of '92,120. Of those,
273 vessels, of 80,230 tons, woro with carp;ocs, anil
20 vessels, of 6,890 tons, in ballast. Tho clenrnnces,
in the snmo ycnr, amounted to 282 vessels, of a
total burthen of 92,502 tons. Port Adelaide has
A custom house ; but vessels nro exempted from all
port charges in this and in tho other parts of the
colony. A railway unites the city with tho port.
(For hirthor inforrnation in regard to the trade of
this city and of tho colony generally, see Austka-
LiA, South.)
Adelaide was foundcil in 1834. In 18-12 it was
incorporated by an act of tho colonial legislature
ns a city under a mayor, aldermen, and common
counciL (Wilkinson, Dutton, Dennett, S. Aus-
tralia ; Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial
Possessions, 18(i4.)
ADELSUKHG, a village and cavern in Illyria,
about half way l)ctween Laybach nnd Trieste. The
cavern is decidedly the most magniticent and ex-
tensive hitherto chscovered in Europe. It has been
explored to a distance of between 1 and 2 miles
(1310 fathoms) from the entrance, and is termi-
nated by a lake. It is believed, however, that
this is not the end of these vast hollows, and that,
•were it carefully examined, its extent would be
found to bo much greater. Tho cavern is placed
under tho core of an officer in the adjoining village,
who appoints guides to conduct strangers through
it. It is easily accessible, and may be visited with-
out any risk. The entrance is situated almut a
mile from the village, in the face of a cliff, below
a ruined castle. At this point the river Poik, after
winding throuf^h the plain, disappears beneath the
mountain, sinking into the rock below a natural
penthouse formed by the slope of the limestone
strata. The entrance for visitors is a umall h(de
al)ove this, closed by a door. At a distance of 180
yards from the month, a noise of nishinp; waters is
heard, and the Poik may bo seen, by tho light of
ADKN
tho ta|)«r, Ntnig^ling nlonK ut a ciinHiil<<rMl>le depth
Im'Iow ; and on a Niiddcn a vant hall loo t\f'X Mfth,
and iiioni than 300 loii^r, called thu Dome, is I'li-
tereil. Thn river, having cliveil unditr tho wail of
riM^k on tho outNide, hem ru-ap|)cars for a short
space, and is thun lost in tho ImweU of tho moun-
tain. It is Ijt'liuveil to be idi'iitical with the Un/,
which bunts forth at I'laiiina ; planks of wihmI,
thrown into thu stream of thu cavern, upi^ar then*,
it is said, after ten or twulvu hours.
Tho Domn was tho only ])art of tho cavern
known down to 1819, when a lalH)urer, working in
tho cave, accidentally broke through a screen of sta-
lactitc.and discovered that this was, to use thu words
of KusNul, 'but tho vestibule of thu most maKnillcent
of all thu temples which nnturu hits built for her-
self in thu region of thu niKht.' Kudu steps, cut
in tho rock, lead down the sloping sides of this
chamlKtr to the level of the river, which is crossed
by a wooden bridge ; nnd tho op])osito wall is
scaled by means of a similar (light of steps. Hero
tho visitor enters tho nowly-discovered part of tho
cavern, consisting of a rango of chamliers varying
in si/.c, but by far the must interesting, from tho
variety, beautiful J)urity, and quantity of their
stalactites. Sometimes uniting with the stalag-
mite Ixdow, they form a pillar worthy to siip|M)rt
a cathedral; at others a crop of minute spiculm
rises from tho tloor ; now a clust'^r of slcniler co-
lumns reminds one of tho trncery of a (iothio
chapel, or of tho twinings or intcrlacings of tho
ascending and descending branches of thu banyan
tree. The fantastic sha|>cs of some masses hnvo
given rise to various names, applied by the guides,
according to tho likeness, whii 'i th;;y imagine they
can trace in them, to real oi.iects; such as tho
throne, tho pulpit, tho butchi'i s shop, tho two
hearts, tho bell, which resound': aimo't like metal,
and tho curtain (Vorhang), a very singular muss
about an inch thick, sjircading out to nn extent of
several square ynnls, pcrtectly resembling a piece
of drapery, and lieautifuUy transparent. The sta-
lactical matter |)ervades almost every part of tho
cavern ; it paves tho tloor, hangs in pendants from
tho r(X)f, coats and plasters the wall, cements to-
gether fallen masses of rock, forms screens, parti-
tions, and i-Mlars, Tho only sound in tho remote
chambers is n )diice<l by tho fall of tho drops of
water chargc(' with lime, which arc found, on exa-
mination, to tip each pendant mass, forming an
nscendnnt spire, or stnlagmite, on tho spot where
it descends. One of the long suite of chambers,
larger and loftier than tho rest, and with a more
even floor, is converted once a year (in May) into a
ball-room. On that occasion tho peasant lads and
lasses assemble from miles around, and the gloomy
vaults re-echo with sounds of mirth nnd music.
ADEN, a small state of S. Arabia in Yemen,
Iving between 12" 32' and 18° 3' N. lat., nnd Isi-
tween 43° 30' nnd 45° 30' E. long. It extends
from E. to W. about 115 m., its greatest width
being about 30. Tho mountains in this part of
Arabia nro close upon tho sea, and, for an Arabic
district, it is well supplied with water ; and from
both these causes tiie heat of the climate is con-
siderably mitigated, and vegetation flourishes upon
a more extensive scale than in most other parts of
tho peninsula. It has a considerable forest. Tho
cultivated parts produce wheat, dhourah, and cot-
ton ; the woods consist of mangoes, sycamores,
and pomegranates, and tho suriace of the whole
country is interspersed with date trees. Wellsted
(Travels, ii. 409.) states that in purity of atmo-
sphere, richness of soil and venture, nature of vege-
tation, and proximity of production and desolation,
this country resembles Egypt. The barren parts
arc represented us/wcu/uir/^ so; but they o«cur in
onnRlilrriil)1o ilopth
liiill lot) IWtt IiIkIi,
<l till) l)i)mt>, ix iMi-
{ uiiiliT tlio wnll of
|)|K>arH fur a ulntrt
vfvU of thfl moiiii-
Icul witit tlin IJn/,
I ; ]ilnnkit of wihhI,
kvcni, apiwar thun<,
llfH,
art of tho cavcni
ilM>iiriT, working in
li^h a Mcrucn of Nta-
riiM, to urns tliu woniK
luniostninKiiillcent
u liiiN built for livr-
' HikIo HtopN, cut
[>pinK tides of tiiiii
ir, wliich in cmwKMl
I op|i(mito wall in
(htofHtppn. I [pro
lovored part of tho
' chaniltvrH varying
[crcRtint;, from tlui
quantity of tlioir
r with tho Htalaf;-
worthy to BupiMtrt
nf minute Rpiculio
iM'iT of Hlcndvr ro-
irory of n (lothio
intcrlacinfjH of tho
Rhes of the banynii
Homo mnsscfl havo
died by the f;iiidt>N,
th::y imagine thny
iiTts; Mich an tho
.^I's shop, tho two
aiino't like metal,
very Hiuf^ilar maxH
out to an extent of
rcsemblinc a picco
Uparent. The ttta-
t every part of tho
in pendantH from
wall, cements to-
>rms Hcrecns, parti-
>iind in the remote
ill of tho drops of
are found, on exa-
ma.^s, forming an
>n the spot whore
suite of chambers,
and with n more
or (in May) into a
c ])oasant lads and
I, and the gloomy
irth and music.
\rabia in Yemen,
!)' N. lat., and Ik<-
long. It extends
ts pvatest widtii
3 in this part of
and, for on Arobic
water; ami from
ho climate is con-
on Hoiirishes upon
[lost other parts of
ruble forest. Tho
Ihouroh, and cot-
1R0CS, sycamores,
face of the whole
trees. Wellsted
purity of otmo-
re, nature of vege-
on and desolation.
The barren parts
but they oacur in
Alfl'N
mnnriilivciv small piitrhw, ami In tho mid^t of
, rtility. Tlio liilmltitiintt an* moMly iiKrifidlii-
M-t-. ; but Hiiili ix till' nii»«riilp|o "tiitf of tlio ((iiiii-
Irv, that till' hiiibaiuliiiaii iii'viT ^im's to hU lalMiiir
%iilii>iit Im'Uii; Hfiinil, mid n""'rtt to tho to\vii« for
ii'iiirily diiriiiK tho niK'tit. Tho town iiihabilaiits
#r tlio'iiitorior larry on an oxtoimivo fnido with
^ic lloijniiins, who' briiit; to inarkot thoir k'x'*'
limltorl, frankinooMM'. and milk, ri'ooiviiiK in ro-
iiini ^raiii and clolli. Maniifaotiiros lliiiitod to a
tiio Mripod oinfh or HJlk, iwd for tho dn-Msosof tho
IU|iorii>r olaxm-H, tlio woa\ hi>; of wliioh oc'cii|iios
■Ixiiit ;ti» loonifi in llio town of l^thnUJoo.
AniiN, a m'a -port town of Arabia, oap. of tho
above ttato, now in tho poH-wnidon of (iroat Mrilain,
M llio liiiliaii Oi'oaii, I IX in. K. from tho Ntraits of
rbrliiiandob, lat. \-J° HI' I.V N., lonw. I '.o 10' •.'(»"
It slandM on tho \'„ nido of a pninionlory, pro-
jtcthin S. into the (M-oaii, ciilloil tlio I'oniiiHiila of
Ailoii. riiix poniii!<iila, which toriniiiatos in a lofty
■loiiiitaiii, lioariii^ a Htrikin^ roMoinblaiioo to tho
Muk of (iibraltar, in ooniiot'tod with tho main land
Sa low isthmus alnait lOO yards in briNtdtli. <>n
N. and \V. tho town is oVorhunjj by stoop and
ira^,'j,'y rooks, on which an- tho roinains of old for-
{lioatioiiM. The K. or oiitwanl harlHair of Adoii,
riiiorly (and apparontly at a roooiit poriisl) larj^e
ind ooiiiniiMlioiis, is now partly lillod up with sand.
But tho harlHiur on the \V. hide of tho town, Ih--
tiyooii the promontory ini wliioli it stands and
•nollior imranol thoro'to, is a iiiOKnittiont basin,
Mpablo of aocominiNlating the lar^ost ttoots. It
has a nontmctod oiitrance, which inij^ht easily lie
Jbrtitlod, so as to make it itmccessible to a host lie
igiiudron. From this harlHuir the approach to the
erii is over a low rid^e <>■' the mountain, the rood
lit; in parts cut through the m\M rock.
Tho site of this town, the la-st adapted for trade
M tho wholu coast of Arabia, and tho key of the
Be<l Soil, has alwavs made it o point of primary
toportaiioo in the diroot trade botweon Kiiropoand
tie l'',ast. It bii-aino at a very early jtorioil a cele-
atod emporium (the Aiahiw emjMtium of I'tole-
y). Aftor the Koinans obtained |iossession of
l^ypt, and llipjmhis (a. ». 50) hod discovereil the
ect route to India, they destroyed Aden lest it
Duld fall into hostile hands, and interfere with
eir monopoly of this lucrative traffic. (Vincent's
Coniiiiorco, &c., of tho Indian Ocean, ii. 'A'il, 52H.)
It is not known when or by whom it was reiniilt ;
Int from the tlth till the IGth century it was the
Jj^at, or rather the exclusive, entrejiot of Kasteni
aoniinercc. The dis«;overy of the passage by the
U
IT
pe of (ioo<l IIo|>e wos the fh'st great blow to its
ftnportance. Kimiiltoncously with the a|>poarance
4f the Portuguese in India, the Turks, under Soly-
IDan the MagniH(%nt, took possession of various
'rabic ports, Aden among the mimlier. They
ccted the fortiticotions, the ruins of whii;li excite
le admiration of every traveller, and which re-
plied the attacks of the famous rortngnese gene-
I .Albuquerque. From this date, however, Aden
pidly declined; nor did the expulsion of the
iirks', which took place olxiut the middle of Inst
iitiiry, retard its downfall. Its ruin was more
mplete than could have been anticipated ; for
:s convenient harbours and plentiful supply of
a tor moke it, opart from other considerations, a
ost desirable port.
When first occupied by the British, Aden had not
ore than 100 houses, with a parcel of wretched
iits, and from 3,000 to 1,000 iuliobs. It had
deed the ruins of several cisterns and reservoirs
t in the solid rock, and of aqueducts for convey-
g water from the mountains of the interior, which
illy testified its former greatness. Hut witliin the
Bst twenty years a vast change has taken place,
Vol.. I.
and the ancient prosiN^^y C Aden bids fair to Ut
again rostorod. XhAvX^f,,^- the aoconinnNlaiioii of
fiio passoiigors by the stoi, -irs lur Is'on or' i-tod;
and tho |Nipiilalioii of t\\ ioiuji , allra' I by
tbo sooiiritv alfiirdod by ii I'.ii^'lish fl/i liavo
tliiokod Id llio plaoo, nliirli :i.h now an o nalod
iMip, of I'io.otNi, |>i'fonsivo rtorks liavo i, onily
boon ooiisiriiciod, wliioli an< oinsidorod to fudor
it iinprogiiablo, and mako it tlio (iibraltar i>r thu
Kod Soa. Its groat dolloioiioy was formorly tho
supply of water, ibiaigli tbo supply was abundant
as ooiii|iarod with many ollior Asiatic towns. Tbo
sources of supply aro — llio adjacent plain, from
uhii'h brackish water is drawn, and a condoiiNiiig
apparatus used by tbo rosidonis. It rains only
oiico in tbroo years, wtioii tho rain dosccnds in
tnrronts for alsiiit a fortnight in SoptonilKT. To
liiisband the raiii-wator tbo llritisli bavo lately
consfnictiil a system of roson'oirs in a rocky ra-
vine, at a cost of 1,01)11,01)0/., ill onler to supply
tho inhabitants in dry woalhor.
VVIiile its commanding positimi, exorllont |Mirt,
and abiinihint supply of water, make Aden an
important station in the route from India to
I'',iiro|«! bv the Kod Sea, it is no less favourably
situated for la'coining an entrrjit't for the ciai-
tigiioiis countries of Arabia and Africa. It owed
its fonner coiiseqiM'nce mainly to its natural ad-
vantages, and these it still retains. It is lie-
coming more and more an im|Mirtant em|K(riuin,
Olid bids fair to lie of the greatest utility to tho
Biirroiindiiig continents. Thu vliniute though liot
is nut iiiihoalthy.
(Nicbuhr, Descr. del' Ar. par. ii. pp. 221, 222;
Forster's Historical Gcogropliy of Arabia, ii. 104
and iril'i; and recent and oDicial documents.)
AnJYGHIIH, a town of llindostaii, pniv. Alla-
habad, lot. 210 50' N., long. HOO »' K. It has a
fortress at the top of a stoir|i hill that was taken
bv the Itritish in IKO'.t, after a stout resistance.
I'stinmtod ]sip. •l'>,()()<).
ADIGK, a large river of Italy, tho Ate»iu$ or
Athesit of tho ondeiits. It is formeil by wiverol
rivulets which have their siairces in the Khetian
Aliis, and nnitc near Glunis; thence it flows K.
till near liolsano it is Joined by its im|)ortant tri-
butary, tho Kisaek. It then takes a southerly
course past Trent, where it becomes niuigoble,
Hovenxlo, and I'ontonc. It then changes its course
to the K., and passing Verona, I.egnano, and
Aqiiileio, falls into the Adriatic, 20 m. S, Venice.
It is deep, rapid ( Velox Athesin, Cloud.), and is
usually navigated with difHculty. In spring, on
the melting of the snow in the mountains, it is
liable to sudden floods, to prevent the injurious
influence of which in the Polcsino of Hovigo and
other low grounds, it is fenced liv strong bonks,
while a port of the sun>lus water is carried off by
canals. Exclusive of the Kisock, its principal
uflliients ore the Nocc, Aviso, and Agiio.
ADMIUALTY ISLAND, an island on the W.
coast of America, lictween George the Third's
Archi|ielago and the continent, about 90 m. long
and 25 brood. Lat. 670 2' to 68° 24' N., long.
134° W.
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of 20 or 30
islands in the South Pacific Ocean, of which the
largest, called Great Admiralty Islanil, is from 5.»
to 60 m. in length: in alwut 20 10' S. lat., and
from 12G0 to 12«o E. long. Iliey were discovered
by the Hollondv-rs in 16 1(!, and are inhabited.
ADOUH, a considerable river in the SVV. of
France. It has its source in the Pyrenees, 6 m.
E. Borfcges, whence it flows N. by Hagneres and
Tarl)cs to Oise ; here it takes on easterly course,
and passing St. Sever, Dax, and Bayonne, falls
into the sea a little below the latter. *It is nnvi-
C
m
IK
A now A
l"^ .,
* . i,
III
'^ i !l'
Hi
K«lilr trt St, Si'vof. Tho Olomn «nil Hip Pnii nre
th« ini>«t cimniilornhlc nf It* nllliit'Mt^
AlM)\V'A, tho cniiilrtl nf I'ijrn*, in Ahywilnln,
|mrtly on llii> mIiIi' hihI |Mtrlly nt llir fiHit ofik hill,
cnnininntling n nin«{nilli'i'nl \ icw nC ilii> nxiunliiiiM
«.r TIkti'. Ut. I|0 \-i' :i(l" N., l.mK. ;i!»o fi' K.
Till' hiiuMOK iiri> nil of it coniciil fonn, pn'lty ri'^ii-
Urlv <lii>|)oiM<il into MtriTlA or iilloyt, inttTxiHTxi'il
witfi tn'oitiinil xinall KoriUMM. I'ltp, iirolmltly m.ihio.
It linn nmnnriii'tiircit of rotton ('iollia, iiml nn rx-
ti'iixivr Iriiilc in i'iittli>, I'orii, Nitlt, nnil Hlitvri.
AhltA, A w>n-|Nirt town of .S|inin, nip. ili/4trict
nanw iiiiino, prov, (iriiiiiiilii on tht> Mi'ililrmiiinin,
4A m. SK. (trnniKln. It U Hiiiintvil near tin- montli
of till* Ailrii. In hi* virinity iiro Koni<> of tin- rii'li
rut lend iniiiP!« in tho world, tli«< priNliioo of wliirli
rii!iHlitiit«i* tlio principal artioUt of (<x|iort from
thft town.
ADItAMIT, a villn^n of Armrnin in ItiiMin,
Mitimtpil on tho ithorc of I.iikp Viin, It ii n plncc
of mitnn lM<niity m to Nitimtion, lH>in(( ni<i*tlc<l in
nmonK crn^w nnd riM'kN, nt thn fiMit of which,
whcritvcr Npiicc in nvniliihlc, fruit trcoM nnd Ninall
gnrdpnM nn> planted. The hiili«, of tho xnnic niiw-
ralilc di>»<'ription nt other Armenian villn^cM, arc
liiiilt of roii^h NtoncN, put together with mud, ami
rrcctrd chmc up to the Hide of a hill, into which
pnrt of the dwollitif; ix excavated. The tint sum-
mit of tlu^ rocky hill on the nlopo of which the
villa^^e Ntaiid'4 is xiirroiinded liy an aneient wall,
liiiilt of liii^e Htones laid one upon another, with-
out mortar or cement of any kind, and reNeml>liii((
cyclonpan remaini«. (ruMher'n Travels, p. !V2\.)
AIjKAMYT, a town of Turkey in Aula, Ana-
tolia, alHHit •( ni. from the K. extremity of tho
giilpii of tho Hnmo imme, 7H m. Nt 8mvrna, hit.
SHO 2!>' N., lonfT. 'H\° fw' 15" K. I'on. A.IHM) (i*).
Street)* narrow, ill-paved, and (ilthv: lioiiso!*, with
few oxecptions, iiiunn, nnd niiwraUly liiiilt. Tho
nlivcH priMliiced in tho ndjoiiiiiiK territory, with
Inr^o qiiaiititieH of wind from tho interior, are prin-
cipally Hliip|M<d for OonxtAiitinopIo; little except
gallx WiiiK Nhip|)ed for other parts of Kiiroiie.
ADKIA (an. Atria or Hiitriu), a towiiol North-
ern I taly, delejf. (formerly tho I'olesino of) Hovi^o
on tho CaxtaKiiano, iM-tween tho I'o and tho Adi){e,
12 m. K. Kovi^o. Ut. 4.">o 2' ru" N., loni{. 12° .'»'
f>6" K. Pop, I2,H0;» in l«'iH, Adria in n very
ancient city, heinj; mipiMised to ho of (Jreek ori>;in,
nnd having aftorwurds lormed part of tho dominions
of tho Ktruscnns. It was ori^^innlly u wa-jMtrt of
fiuch magnitude nnd im]M)rtancc ns to l>o able to
jjivc its own name to tho great ami of the Meditor-
rnnoan on which it Ht<Nid; hut owing to the gra-
dual oxten.sion of tho land, in ronwnuoncc of tho
mud nnd other dopositM brought down oy tho rivers,
tho {tort of Adrin hns been long since tilled up, aiul
it w now an inland town IH or 10 m. from tho sea.
When Strain) wrote, it had Iwcoiriv, a comparatively
unimportant plnco, and it subst'qiiontlv .Mift'crcd
much from inundations nnd war, particularly from
the attacks of the harbnrinns. During the twelfth
century it l)ogan to revive. Its climate, which
had become very unhealthy, nnd its environs, have
lH)th l)cen mntorinlly improved by the drainage
effected by opening the cnnal of I'ortovico. It is
the scat of a bishopric, has n flnc collection of
Etruscan and Roman antiquities found in the
vicinage, with manufactures of silk and leather.
The surrounding country is pro<luctivo of corn,
wine, nnd cheese. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, i.
p. 116, Halbi Abr<«g«<, ed. 1837.)
AUKIANOFLK (called Edreneh by the Turks),
n celebrated city of Turkey in Kiiro|M!, prov. Koii-
iTiclia, on the Alnritzn (an. Hehrut), where it is
joined by the Tooiign nnd tho Arda, 131 m. NVV.
Constan'tinoifle, lat. \i° 48' N., long. 20° 29' 16"
ADRIANOPLF
v.. Ailrinnopic Im^, according to Mr. Vicp-ronwd
llliinl (Ki'iMirl, iMtll), 18,0(10 houHi* nnd n |H>p, of
!Mi,ooo miuN, of whom 2^,000 are Muhtiimni'daii',
Aii.ooo ChrlNliann, and ti.ooo .lews. It coniaiiiN tin
moitquex, 1 1 I'liiiri'hex, and \\\ KynngngiieN; | mill
Inry Keho>d, nnd <'17 oiher niIumiU, <a\\\\ '1,1 M\
pupils; 2 hoNpiiitIn nnd I madhoiim'. It is InwihiI
fnllv situated in one of the richest and lliicni
tilains in the worlj, on the siclcs and Itnne of a low
liill, nnd when viewed from a distance has a nmg-
nillc4'nt appearance; but, as is the case in nioHt
Turkish towiiN, the ilhisimi vaiiiMhes on entering'.
The streets are narrow, <'riH)ked, and tllthy; nnd in
certain iM'riiMls of the year it is unhealthy, Siiinc
of the houses are three stories high, and their
shelving roofs project so much as to meet those on
the op|iosite side. In the centre of the town an
old wall, supiMirled by massive towers, the work
of the sovereigns of the Lower Kmpire, encloses n
simce occupied by the rayali iiopulalion. Origin-
ally it may have U'en the citailel; but it is now
useless ns li defence. Among tho public buildings
the most distinguished are the nncicnt |>nlni I'
the sultans, in a »late of decay; the I'ainoiis baxaar
of Ali I'aslia, approprinteil to the warehousing'
and sale of various descriptions of coinnuHlities;
and the iiumeroiis inoHiiues, Of itiu latter, the
one erected by Selim 11. is the most splendiii;
and ranks, indeed, among the lliiest Mohammediiti
temples. There are 8,000 shops and several large
stone bn/aars and bans. The largr'r<t ba/.ajir is that
of ' Ali I'aslia :' it is some H."i(t iiai'es long, with rows
of shops on each side oc<Mi|>ii-d by retail dealers in
foreign and native nianuliictiires. There are alsci
numerous baths ami fountains supplii'd by water
conveyed into the city by uii iii)ueduct. A nic-
drasseh, or sn)M>rior school, is attached to tlii^
mosniio of Sultan Selim, and there are n niimlsT
of otiier schtsds. The \Iiirit/a is navigable up tn
tho city during winter and spring; but in summer
tho sea craft only ascend as high as Denioticn.
Knos, at the mouth of the Marit/.a, is pro|M'rly the
sea-)Mirt of Adrianonle. It formerly admitleil
large vessels; but owing to the candessncss of tli((
Turks, who have allowed a suiid-bank to accumu-
late, it is now accessible only to vessels of com-
paratively small burden. >\itli tho exception of
tanning, which is rather exiensivelv carried on,
tnniiiifacliires are inconsiderable. It )ias, however,
a pretty extensive commerce. The exports con-
sist principally of the raw |>rodnct,s of the adjacent
country, comprising excellent wool, cotton, silk,
toba(!co, good wine, otto of roses, fruits, berries lor
dyeing, &c. The iin)M)rts consist principally of
manufactured giMids; nscottonsand hardware f'nini
Kngland, woollen stiitls from (iermnnv, &c. The
trade is principally carried on by llrecfe merchants.
The coqiorations of sadiilcrs nnd shoemakers ein-
phiy n great iiiimlM'T of workmen, nnd niiiinally
dis|K>so of large qiiaiitilies of Turkish saddles nnd
shoes at fairs hold in 'I'lirnco and Itiilgaria, The
town is the seat of a (ircck archbishop.
In early times Adri.'inoplc wos the capital of the
Ilossi, a [)coplc of Thrnco, and was then called
Uskadama. It derives its present name from the
emperor Adrian, bv whom it was improved ami
eml)ellished. Tho 'fiirks took it in I:i(i(); audit
continued to be tho seat of their goveniment from
13(i(S till the taking of Constantinople in 14.V!,
It was occupied by the Itiissians in 182',); but vn\*
evacuated on n treaty Iwing concluded iKstween
them and the Turks in Septomlter that year.
(Keppors.Toiirncv ncross the Italkhan, i, jip, 25(1 —
5(i3; Walsh's .tourney fnmi (%iiistanlinoplo to
ICnglaiid, |). Ml; Ueport by Mr. Vic«'-('oiisiil
liluiit, Commeri-iul Iiuiiort.s, July to Dcccmbi!r,
1804, pp. 160-7.)
to >tr. ViiT riinxiil
lloilHro nilcl n |Mi|i, of
nrc MiiIiiiimidimIiim*,
rwM, tl I'linlaiiiH )ii)
i*\'iuipi)Xii<-K; I iiiili
x'IiihiIm, mIiIi '.',7:10
lliillni'. It ix iN'illlli
• rii'lii-Kt unci llnrni
icH mill Imiw "f II l"w
iliMtiiiict' linn II mil;;
U tlll< <'lti«<> III immi
iiiixlK'N on niicriiii;,
il, mill tlllliy; nml in
m illihoiiltliy, Soiiif
ii'K liiuli, iiikI llii'ir
I UN to nii'i'l llioM' on
iitri> of ilii> town nil
,■(' hiwcru, III!' work
•r l''.iii|iirt', oiii'iom'N n
iio|iulalii>n. Ori^iii-
iIikIi'I; lull ll \n now
the |iiil>lic liiiililiii^'!*
\n\ ani'irnt |wiliii'<' of
v\ tlii'faiiioim hn/.aar
to llic wari'lioiiHiii^'
iiiiN of i-oiiiiiiiM|ili('H;
Of thu laltiT, till'
lliit iiiiiKt N|il)'niliil;
tliii'Nt Moliainiiit'iliiii
i|w mill Hi'vt'ral lar^'r
Inr^i'^t l)a/.aar \i\ iliiii
jiai'f.'* iidij,'. with roH'jt
I l>y ri'tail ilcalcrj* in
iin-H. 'riicrc arc nUn
im Hii|i|ili('<l l>y water
kii M<|iir(liicl. A ini'-
U atlnclictl to the
I llicrc nri^ n nimilMT
r.i\ \* nnvi^nlilo up In
iriii;;; liiit in Niiinint'r
lit^li iiM |)(<nioti<'n,
iriiza, in pro|M'rly the
fonncrly nilinillcd
If can'h'HunpHH of the
iinl-liaiik to nri'iiniii-
• to VCXHoIh of ("0111-
itli tlip cxcrpfioii of
|icii«ivclv carrifil on,
Ic, 1 1 lift.t, however.
, The exporlH con
iliu't.M of the ndjnceiit
t wool, cotton, Hilk,
jscM, friiilN, lierrieH fur
oiisiHt |)rinci|Milly of
iHfliid hardware froni
(lennanv, &c. The
hy (ireefcmerelmiils,
nd »hoeinaker» eiii-
nieii, and aiiiiiially
TiirkiHh HnddlcH and
and Hiilnarift, The
hluHhop,
as the capital of the
nd w'a.s then ealleil
sent name from the
was improved ami
it in 1:1(10; and it
ir government from
tantinnple in M.VI.
jiiH in 1829; hut wiw
concluded between
Iptemlicr that year.
|lalkhan, i. pp. 25(1—
(JoiiNtanlinople tn
Mr. Vice-Consnl
July to Decumhir,
AI>i;i ATIC HFA
% \I»UIVri(! SKA, ordllTII OK VKNHK
vH/./rr A-lrintiium or ,S'm/htmw), I" lh«f K"'"' «"!'
Kf the MiiliiirriHieiin "•Meinliiin f^l'".. mid NW.
elueen il oaslK i.l |l ilv oil the W. miil ll f
IvriiuiM.. AllHiiiia ni (he K., from «ImhiI |(»o to
■'^ Xi \. Int. llH •" hern ixlniiiiiien are llie
xi ili l,eii.n, or Si, Miirv'x. in Niiple«, and llie
of Kiino III Ihe N. of I'l.rfii! mid il* noriherii
fxireniiiv Ihe iMildrtii of the ^iilph of 'l>ii'-.le. IIh
tiiile.i leiitflh from < i|H' l.eina lo Triexte i» \M
.; mean linndlh 'M' ». It derived iii. aneient
iMiine Iroin Ihe oiue l.nirinhiliK mil |Hirl town ol
Adriii iwhieh cei'l. now IM in. from Ihe i.hiire. and
llii nio.ltrn name lr<im Vi-niie. Iln \V. or lliiliiiii
■bore 14 di'lli'ieiil III llnrllollr^<, In p'lierally low.iind
fiNfiii (lie etiiranee «■ Kimini Inw iln|> water; hiil
ftbiri (he laller iiori rtanl" it Iiiim heeii partially
ille.l np liv the d«'|i< -> hr<>ii){hl down liy Ihe I'o
n<l Ihe Ailip', iihiI ■■ dtfed liv liiifooni*, marMheit,
■III ^hoalx. On the K. Nide ilMConNlitarep'iieriilly
M^h. nleep, and roikv, mill are liroken into deep
Sy^ and gnlplm foriiied liv Ihe iinmerouH iHlaiidn
mi whiih it in leneed, U'ilh Ihe exeeplion of
So«e already menlioiied, il receiveit no river of
Cy eiimiiderfilde mnKiiiliide; and the HalliieHN of
willerx \* fiiid lo exeeeil Ihat of Ihi eail.
Tile elili and flow are eon»i(|eralile al Veiiiei' and
«ther pliieeH. The liiim or N I',, wind i'* Ihe moxl
itrmidahle i>l<M(aele to iu nnfe navigation. ll
flpini .-I on ill xiidden mid impeiuoiiN Hipialls, which
gvneriilly CMiitinne for three ilayN, and in an
■dviineed Henjton from It to l.'i or more. A veNHcl
«(»er(iiken li\ it nhoidil always make for a |Mirl or
MJchiiriiKe gToiind mi Ihe K. coiinI, those on the \V.
bting o|H'n .tnil unsafe. The SK. wind Ihrowx up
ft heavy sea; hill is not dnnueroiis, an vesseU may
Mtily gel lo an aiiehor.igi' on the K. shore,
^iiiee, Triesle, Anconii, and Fiiimo arc the priii-
dpnl (railing jHirls mi the Adriatic.
AKKSCIlor, a town of llelgium, prov. S. Ilra-
bfeiit. mi the Denier, 11 miles N K. I.onvaiii. Top.
|yH'.)'> in iH.'i*;. It was I'ormerly fortillud ; and has
lOliie hreweries and distilU'rh'S,
AKHillANMSTAN, the name npplleil to a
fltuiitry of (Viitral Asir. hilmhited liy the .MFghau
Stion ; and, smnetinies, to a kingdom of wliieh
It eoiintry formed the |>riiiclpiil part. In the
latter sense," the iMmndaries of Allgliaiiistan have
bten snhjeet to the same political changes which
ksve all'e'ctcd other Asiatic states. In the former,
OpnHiilered as the country of thu Afl'ghiin people, it
■ay he lU-scrilied as extending from the JKItli to
the -'l-'illi degree of N. latiluiU', and from the Ii2nd
to the 71st degree of K. longitude; having the
Inil'is on the K., the crest of the llimaleh or Ilin-
diK>-('oosh, Mild jiart of the I'liropamesan or (ioor
inoiinlaiiis on the N.; the districts of Seeweestan,
Cnteh (iiindavn, and Sareewan, with part of the
4e-i'i't of Iteloocliistiiii on theS. ; part of Sistan,
With (ihnrian of Khorasan on the west ; and Mer-
(hi'ih, and the Il:i/.areh <'ouiitry on the N\V. Ac-
fnrding to the most recent authority (HeUew,
"li-^siou to Atlgluinistan in Wti, pp. I, '2), All'glian-
iil:in is not so designated hy the Atlghans tliem-
Ivcs, although the name in not unknown to them,
^v the Atlghans their country i!i usually called
('rlayat' (lieiice the term 'Crlnyate' often ali-
bied to ilH (leoplc hy the nntiven of Hindustan),
' unlive couniry; hut it is also distinguished by
k'o appellations, including diiTerent portions of
brrilory, viz. '('luihul,' or * Knbulistnn, wiiich in-
|uiles all that mountainous region north of Ulinzni
nd Siifaid Koh, as far as Ilindim-Cuosh, limited
bwards the west hy the Ilnznruh country (the
•ticient I'ai'iipamisus), and eastward by the Abba-
3iii, or I""a(her of liivers, the Indus; and *Klio-
Hhsan,' ur ' /nbulintun,' which includes all that
AlKnllANISTAS
If
r-tlenKlvp •met of couniry, Alpine In It* riwtiru
limits, mid table land or I'icwrt In lis woierii ex-
Unl, whieh siretehen soiiihward and weslward frmii
niHiiii Ihe Inlitmh' of <iha/.iii, and iHinhrs on tho
eonllnes of I'ersia. Irom whieh lowmU Ihe soiiih
ll is se|Mirated I'V the desert of ^isliin. I'o I ho
Allghmis Ihe rersimi province of Khorivsan U
known bv the name of Ivnn. The existing (sdi-
licnl sirtie of Allkhanislan mnv Ih« said to lin
JN.lw I hit. •.'•1'^ *■)••' mill ;U.'J ;io' N. ; long. lUi^ and
l-i9:W I',., having I'., the fiiiijnub; M. Hiili«l|Ms.r,
Minde, mid jlehsichisian ; \V. the I'ersimi <lm li-
nimi; and N. IndeiMiident Turkestan, ln>m which
it is seitarilled by llie IliliiliNi Coimli.
/>irMi<.nii (im/".(»;»rr» o/'Mc < i>«»i/»-y.— -The former
de|«'iidiiigrniher iiisin nalnrnl features and foniia-
thm tlimi u|Mm iHiliiicnl or arlilleial arrangement,
will Im'sI be noliccd in describing the laller. This,
so far M is known, presents an n^tgifcgmhin of
moiiiilahious grou|iH mid ranges, .iiverging from
certain prinil|Mil isiinU, nml thu« iM-comes dlviih-il
into numerous valleyit of greater or leiwer si/.e,
which are watered liy Hlreams of corres|Mindiiig
ningnitiide, and wbicli sometimes streleh out iiitu
plains of considerable extent. The south face of
the MindiHi-CiMwh is furrowed by a variety of siib-
ordinalegleiis and ravines, whieh carry their walem
loihcCaubnl river. This stream, which rises near
(Ihiznee, but drains also Ihe bighhinds of Kohislan,
runs in a large and frequently very bniad valley
from Ihat city to the IihIiih, which it eiilers at
Allock. It separates Ihe mountains of llindoo-
Coosli from those to the southward, which, origi-
nating in the huge jM'ak of .Speeiigur or SuH'eed-
koh (While Monnlainl, spreiul east nml west,
conlining the Canbul valley on the south, and
stretch in ft variety of huge ranges in that
dirtetimi : one of these uniting with lhat of Ihu
Tucht-e-Soly-maun, extends lo l)er«'h (ilia/ee-
kliaii; ftiiollier enters Seeweestan; and another,
tending more to Ihe westwani, by Shawl ami
I'isheen, sinks into lh« deserts of lieliHichiHtan and
Sistan,
The rniibul valley is the most imimrtant of thn
natural divisions thus constitiiled. 11 contains thn
larj^cst river, the linest plains, and the principal
cities of Ihe couiitr}-, including Ihe ancient town
of (ihiznee; and extends from Ihe westward of
liaumiaii to the Indus, n distiince of more than
'JOO miles. It is subdivided into severnl sections,
of vliieh Ihe western is fomieil bv Kohislan or
'the Highlands,' com|irising Ihe vnUeys mid low-
lands of Nijrow, I'niijsheer, (ihorchund, Tugow,
mid Oo/.beeii, which are all blessed with a delight-
ful climale, embellished with the linest sci-nery,
produce Ihe linest fruits in ubundance, and are well
watered mid cullivnted.
Lugmnun, also on Ihe north side of the river,
comprehends Ihe vnllevs of Alingnrand Alisbeng,
with minienms subordmate glens, all ecpiallv rich
mid iM'auliful. The fertile plains of Jelallabad
all'ord Ihe iiroduce of Isitli torrid and lcm|M'rat(i
climates, I'lie Uell of (.'oonnur Conns but a lied
for the rapid river of Knshknr, which, traversing
Katl'erislan, here pierces Ihe Ilimnleh range t<i join
that of Cnubul. The small valleys of I'uiij rora
and Itajour pour their streams into the more ex-
tensive and vcrv' fertile district of Swaut, where
ftirest, pasture, and cultivated land are found ad-
mirably blended, and everj' valuable fruit and
grain is produced. The same description will apply
to lloonere, (.'hoomla, and all the glens that din-
elmrge their waters info the Caubul or Indus rivers
from the north. I'eshawur, the lower division of
the great Caidiul valley, is (livide<l from the plains
of •Telallabad b^ a range of small hills, which stretch
from the lliiidoo-Coosh across to the Sulleed-koh.
C 2
20
AFFOHANISTAN
It in well watered nnd extremely rich, but nuifnn
from hont in Hummcr.
Dnmaiin, which Higniflcs the ' «kirt,' and is the
tract between the foot of the Solymnun mountains
and tlie river Indus, is poorly cultivated and thinly
inhabited ; being chiefly hard tenacious day, scan-
tily covered with tnmn'risk and tliorny shrulis. It
is hounded on the north by the Salt range of the
Khuttult country, and stretches southward to Dereh
Gha/.ce Khan. A wide extent of mountains in-
tervener between this district and the valleys which
furrow the western face of the Solymaun range ;
but even in this wild region we hear of fertile tracts.
The plain of Boree, for instance, is compared by
the nativem to that of Peshawur for extent and
richness ; the rivers Zhobe and Goomul water some
line valleys ; and Tull, Choote^alee, and Furrah
are mentioned as well peopled and cultivated.
Among the valleys opening westwanl, those of
Shawl, Burshore, I'isheen,, Yessoon, Saleh, Urgh-
essan, (luashtft, are doscrilied as interspersed with
well cultivated spots, but as more generally suited
to pasturage than agriculture; but the two first
are stated to he rich and prwluctive. Beyond
these, to the NW., the river Tumult, rising near
Ghiznee, but on the southern slope of the country,
runs through a poorly watered and ill cultivated
district, till, to the westward of Kandahar, it is
joined by the UrgundAb, and both fall into the
preat river Helmund. The district of Kantlahar
18 fertile and highlv cultivated, but is circumscribed
within narrow limits by the desert. In like manner
the fertile valley of Hcr&t, which may be 30 miles
long by 15 wide, constitutes the most important
portion of that district.
A vast and varied surface, such as has lieen de-
scribed, must naturally exhibit much diversity of
aspect and fertility. Of the mountainous tracts,
some are covered with deep forests of pine and
wild olive trees ; others afford excellent pasturage
for sheep and cattle, while others again arc bare,
rocky, and sterile. Of the valleys, as we have
seen, many are fertile, well watered, and wooded,
especially those which pierce the Hindoo-Coosh
range ; while others, particularly to the south, arc
bare, or covered only with tamarisk and thorny
shrubs.
Mountains. — These have been already men-
tioned. The chief ranges are those of tlindoo-
('oosh, or Himaleh ; the Speengur or Suffeed-koh,
called Kajgul by Captnin Burnes, a branch from
which joins the Solymaun range; and perhajw
that of Khojeh Amran, which seems to be the pro-
longation oi a spur from the last-mentioned range.
The Hindoo-Goosh, or Himaleh, is described by
Mr. Elphinstonc as rising above the level of Pe-
shawur in four distinct ridges, the lowest of which,
clear of snow on the 24th of February, was clothed
with forests of oak, pine, and wild olive, and a
profuse variety of fruit trees, and graceful herbs
and flowers. The second was still more densely
wooded; the third was at that time white with
snow ; and beyond rose the glittering and stuj)en-
dous crest of the true Himaleh, spiring into shaq)
peaks and bold masses.
Captain Burnes states that the term Hindoo-
Coosh, though applied generally to this chain,
which is a continuation of the Him8.1eh, belongs
proj)erly to one single peak, forming the western
buttress of the range, which beyond that point de-
clines in he'rrht, and is lost in the Paropamcsan
or Ghor mountains. The peak of Koh-e-Baba,
estimated by him at 18,000 feet high, is the only
one covered with perpetual snow to the westward
of the passes. Little is known of the height of
the other ranges, but the Suffeed-koh obtains its
name from its snowy cap. The Tucht-e-Solyniaun
is estimated at 12,000 feet in height ; nnd there is
a very lofty iieak to the south-west, named Kund.
River*. — Thc! principal of these have also been
mentioned. They arc the (*aul)ul, the llehnund,
the Tumiik, and Urghundiib; the Goomul, the
Zhobe, the Lorah. Tlie courses of the three last
are little known, and their waters are lost in the
sand, excepting in the time of flomls.
There arc no lakes of any consequence known
to exist in AfTglianistnn.
Climate and Soil. — These vary in an extreme
degree, according to locality. In the eastern part
of the Caubul valley and in those to the south,
Iwrdering on Cutch (lundava, the heat is suflicicnt
to mature all the prmlucts of India, such as the
sugar-cane, indigo, and some of the tropical fruits ;
while the northern valleys almund in thc prodiu;-
tions of cold regions, and the mountains are co-
vered with forests of pines. Acconling to Ferricr
(History of the Affghans, p. 257), the soil of
AifghanistAn resembles that of the rest of the great
table-land of Central Asia. Within the princi-
pality of Caiibul, and the northern part of that of
Herat, are high mountains covered with forests,
having l>etween them vast argillaceous plains well
8U])plied with water, covered with fields, and sus-
ceptible of every species of cultivation. TTie portion
south of Herat and Kandahar also consists of im-
mense plains, but generally arid, running fnn.i
east to west, and Imrdered by a chain of sterile
mountains. The soil of these plains is sandy, and
alworbs so much water as to create a great scarcity
of that necessary of life within their limits, and
the inhabitants are obliged to obtain by long and
toilsome labour that which nature has denied them
at the surface. They dig a deep hole at the foot
of a mountain where they expect to find water,
and having succeeded, lead it to their villages by
a subterranean canal connecting a scries of wells.
If the country unhappily becomes the theatre of
war, the first operation of the invading army is to
destroy them, and deprive the people they come to
attack of their supply of water. It is to this un-
happy mania of destnietiveness, especially in this
particular form, that the depopulation of Affghan-
istan is principally to be ascribed : immense tracts
of country have in consequence lieen abandoned,
and become arid ; they belong to no one ; the lan(l
is valueless, and cannot be sold.
Mineral Products. — Tlie mineralogy, as well as
the ge(dogy, of Affghanistan, is but little known.
Burnes tells us of two sorts of sulphur, of wells of
petroleum or naphtha ; and, of what may prove
still more valuable, of coal, which exists in Jio
district of Cohat, below Peshawur. Vast quanti-
ties of iron, lead, and sulphur are found in the moun-
tains of Affghanistan, as well as mercury and as-
liestos — thc latter called singui-pemhe — and silver.
But this mineral wealth is entirely unexplored and
unused. (Ferricr, History of the Affghans.)
Agriculture is in the same rude state as in Per-
sia and most Asiatic countries. 'I'he soil is broken
by a crooked log of wood, sometimes shotl with
iron, whi' h is generally dragged by oxen ; and ir-
rigation is resorted to wherever rain does not fall
in suflicicnt abundance to bring fonvard the crops.
Only the richest and most promising tracts arc
thus employed ; so that, as the seasons are usually
regular, the harvest afforded, even by so rude a
process, is for the most part abundant. Wheat,
l)arley, rice, maize, form the produce of the more
temjierate regions ; while in the warmer, thc
smaller grains common to India, as moongy. chuii-
na, joar, dal, &c., with the s'.;gnr-cane, cotton,
tobacco, indigo, madder, &c., reward the farmer's
labours. Horticulture is carried to a consideriiWn
extent fai the neighlwurhood of the principal
AFFOIIANISTAN
21
I heipht ; nnd thon> is
h-wi'st, nnmod Kiind.
those linvc nlw» h<>on
^niilnil, the Ilt'hnuiul,
\h; the (looinul, t)io
iMOH of the tliree Inst
vntrrH nrc lost in the
of fi0(MlH,
y consequence known
I vary in nn extreme
, In the eastern part
(1 those to the south,
1, the heat is Rufli(;ioiit.
of India, such as the
! of the tropical fruits ;
iliound in the produc-
lie mountains are oo-
Accordinjj to Ferrior
p. 257), the soil of
of the rest of the jn'ent
Within the princi-
)rthern part of that of
covered with forests,
rgilliiceous plains well
I with ilelds, and sua-
Itivation. The portion
IT also consists of im-
y arid, running froi.i
hy a chain of sterile
le plains is sandy, au'l
create a preat scarcity
thin their limits, and
to obtain by long and
ttture has denied them
deep hole at the foot
expect to find water,
it to their villages by
!ting a scries of wells,
icomes the theatre of
e invading army is to
e people they come to
ter. It is to this un-
less, especially in this
[)ulation of AfTghan-
)cd : immense tracts
nee been abandoned.
Of to no one ; the lanil
)ld.
lineralogy, as well as
is but little known.
)f sulphur, of wells of
of what may ]>rove
which exists in iho
lawnr. Vast quanti-
rc found in the moun-
as mercury and as-
rii-pembe — and silver.
tirely unexplored and
the AfTghans.)
rude state as in Per-
'i'he soil is broken
ometimes shotl witli
fed by oxen ; and ir-
ver rain docs not fall
ng fonvard the cro]is.
promising tracts are
e seasons are usually
even by so nide a
abundant. Wheat,
produce of tlie more
n the warmer, the
lia, as moonfft/. rhun-
sugar-cane, cotton,
reward the farmer's
ied to a consideraliln
d of the principal
towns ; and to the fruits of Europe, in high pcr-
Ifeiiiou, are added gra|H!S, |)omegranates, tigs, the
Iniungo, orange, lemon, giiavas, plantains, and
other fruits of India. Vegetables are also reared
in great abundance, and of excellent quality ; of
tlicMC, two, the rhubarb (niwash) and the ossafwtida
i|)laiit, deserve mention: the fonner is used when
oung and tender, blaiu;hed artiticially, and is eaten
•til raw and dressed in great iiuantities, as a very
Rhcilesonie delicacy; the latter is not (mly culti-
vated for its valuable gum, but is eaten roosted,
;V-licn it springs yoiuig from the earth, like the
1flo^vcr of a caiilitlower in ap[)earancc. It is es-
teemed a great delicacy ; but it smells so strong,
that, to those unaccustomed to itt* odour, one head
0f it, while l)cing cooked, is enough to poison the
air of a whole cam]).
' The prin(!i|)al animals of AfTghanistan arc the
wrse, camel, and sheep. The tirst two are largely
(ported into India, and are bred chictly in the
irestcrii parts of the country. The camel an<l
ftiecp constitute the main wealth of the nomad
Vilies, together with cows, buttuloes, and goats,
ill the sheep in Attglianistan are of the fat-tailed
Variety, and are remarkable for the peculiarly
brown colour of their wool. From the skins of
these sheep, properly prepared, are made the pos-
tiiis, or sheep-skin coats, the common dress of all
tliisses of the people. The wool of the white-
fleeced sheep forms an important item of the
ftaplc exports of the country, whilst their Hesh
fonstitutes the chief animal food of the lower
(tlusses. The principal wild animals of the plains
Sc the ga/.elle, the jackal, the fox, and the wolf,
juiineil to the western deserts is the wild ass,
Ikalled, from its colour, the 'gorftkhar,' or white
ips. Throughout the mountainous districts are
fcund the tiger, leopard, lynx, and hyojna; also
8>e bear and monkey, with more rare specimens of
we ibex, the wild goat, and the elk, or 'bara-sing.'
;|Bellcw's Mission to Affghanistan in 1857, pp. 11
ii»14.)
' Alanufacture* are confined to home-made stuffs
,«f cotton and wool, and a little silk, which serve
|br the dress of the inhabitants : little or nothing
il manufactured for export.
-; Commerce. — The disturbed state of the country
br a succession of years has been unfavourable to
' Bde ; and the large and valuable caravans which
brnierly carried the rich protluctions of India and
Dashmere to Caubul »nd Herat, for the consump-
|iun of the courts at these cities, or for transit, by
Ye/., into Persia, have dwindled down to the
'tmallest dimensions. There is still, however, a
^less extensive traffic carried on, chiefly by a pas-
•toral tribe called the Lohfinees, occupying much
of the country between the Indus and Ghiznee,
who at certain periods of the year repair to India
to make their purchases, or receive goods from
those who have brought them from thence, at the
ferry of Kahcree. With these they return, carry-
ing them on their own camels, through their o^vn
couiitrj', by the Golairee pass, and the valley of
tlu^ Goomul, not only to Ghiznee and Caubul, but
^northward, across the mountains, to Berkhara.
iCaptain Burnes states, that a thousand canicl-
lloads of luiglish and Indian chintzes, calicoes and
pnuslins, brocades, shawls, Punjab turbans, spices.
Tic, are yearly consumed in Caubul; in return for
vhieh are sent back horses in great numbers, mad-
Jcr, saffron, assafcetida, and fniit, both fresh and
Iried, in large quantities. An official report of Mr.
X'lvics, secretary to the government of the Pun-
Jab, states that among the exports from KurracLee,
rthe lollowing are brought down through the Biluch
rami Attghan mountains: — Madder, r2,22«/.; assa-
[ftjutida, 2,296/.; raw silk, 17,976/.; sheep's wool.
315,101/.; horses, 92,051/.; nnd fruit, 14,911/.
(Heport on the Trade of Central Asia, printed
among the House of Commons' l'a|)i'rs, Febnuiry,
IMO-l.) The commerce of Atrghanistan, on the
whole, is increasing, and will probably continue to
do so. The ojiening of the nver Indus f()r trade,
a channel which, with the Caubul river, enables
goo<ls to be conveyed into the lieart of Asia, can-
not fail to stimulate the commercial pn)pensitic8
of the people, and give rise to a vast increase of
traffic.
Population, — There are no very trustworthy
data on whicli to ground a tolerably accurate es-
timate of the (Kipulation of this country. It must
viu^' greatly in different districts. The rich tracta
bordering the Caubul river, and the fertile glens
that i^netratc the Hindoo-Coosh, are certainly
more densely peopled than the high and bleak
]iastoral countries to the west. Mr. Elphinstone,
from the best infonnation he could obtain, bus
mentioned the supposed numbers of several of the
])rincii)al clans ; but it is to lx>. feared that these
are not to be depended on. Thus the Fussuf/.e-
hees, who occupy a very small district at the
extreme NE. comer of the country, are set do»vu
as 70U,0()0 souls at least; and the whole of the
Benlooranees, a collection of tribes including the
Eussufzehees, who inhabit a country of about
15,000 squ. m., are estimated at nearly 1,400,000,
or 90 to the square mile. The Dooranees, on the
contrary, who occupy at least 52,000 squ. m., are
said to amount to only 800,000 or a million, being
from 17^ to 19^ per square mile. The Ghiljees,
in like manner, from 500,000 to 600,000 souls, are
spread over 1,500 squ. m., or alxjut 40 per square
mile. This is on a calculation of five indiviauala
to a family, which is too little in these countries.
Now the whole of Affghanistan as here defined
does not quite amount to 170,000 sq. m. of surface,
of which suppose the richer parts, such as, and
including the.
Benloordnee country, to be .
3U,000
at 90
2,700,000
Country of secondary fer-
tility
20,000
40
800,000
Poor high land, such as much
of the Dooraneo country .
00,000
18
1,080,000
The remainder, token at a
low average
60,000
20
1,200,000
17(),0((0
6,780,000
Add estimated amount of
Tanjiks
, &c.
scattered over the country and in cities
l,fiOO,000
Total .... 7,280,000
And this is independent of Hindoos, &c., who
are stated to be numerous.
This estimate, founded on the vague numbers
stated above, would give to Affghanistan a popu-
lation of more than seven millions, or nearly 43
to the squ. m., which taking into account 'he vast
tracts of high and unproductive lands on the west
of the Solymaun range, and north of Kandahar
and Zeemeendawur, is undoubtedly far beyond
the truth.
On the other hand, Mr. Ferrier gives the follow-
ing estimate and classification of the population :
ParaiTini
vid uthcri,
800,000
800,000
2,'J00,0OO 1,100,000
The province of Herdt is now under a distinct
Affghan government, but otherwise resembles the
aboye-namcd principalities. Mr. Ferrier's census
is as foUows : —
Afghani. Pmtvani, lie.
Herdt ..... SOU.OOO UOO.OOO
Province of Kandahar
Ditto Caubul
Total
Afghani
600,000
1,600,000
22
AFFGHANISTAN
. ti.
iiii!
The general total is 4,200,000, which in considcralily
above the rHtiipat« of Lieut.-Col. Lumsden, in the
report of his mission to Aff|[;hniii»tan in 1857. On
the whole, and upon ((rounds of analogy and pro-
bability, therefore, rather than from any existing
data, the population of Affghanistan may, perhaps,
bo regarded as little exceeding four millions.
Tribes, — The Aflghan nation is comiioscd of a
great number of tribes, who claim a common
origin, and differ intrinsically very much from all
their neighbours. This origin m very obsciu'e. A
native history derives them from Saul, the king
of Israel, whose progeny was carried away in the
time of the captivity ; bnt no proof of this is ad-
duced, and Mr. Elphinstone classes this among
btbcr fabulous genealogies. The name Affyhan is
not known to the people, wlio call themselves
J'ooshtoon, in the plural Poo»htauneh, from whence
by corruption, Peihin or Patdn, the name they
have obtained in India ; and of their great anti-
quity there is no reasonable doubt. Bunies says,
the Affghans call themselves • Bin-i-Israeel,' or
children of Israeel ; but consider the term of ' Ya-
hoodee,' or Jew, to be one of reproach. The
tribes of Soor and Lodi, from both of which kings
have sprung, are mentioned as owing their origin
to the union of an Arab chief, K haled ibn Abdool-
la, with the daughter of an Atfghan chief, in A, d.
682; and Mahmood of Ghi/nee, though sprung
from another race, ruled over the Affghans m the
ninth centuiy. According to their own traditions,
the whole of the tribes descended from the sons
of one Kyse or Kais Abdor-reshced, who, whether
a real or imaginary character, is the person to
whom all their genealogies refer ; but as it would
be impossible to examine all these, the following
classification must sutKco to enumerate the prin-
cipal tribes, with their habitats, as they at present
exist: —
EAsrKRN Division.— 5?rrfooranw«.
EnssufTzchecs. Poshawur tribes. Bnngush.
Osman Khcil. Khyburees. Kbuttuk.
Turcolunees.
Neighbourhood of Sail Range,
Essawkheil. Bunnooses. Khoostecs.
Sheotucks. Dowers.
Dowlntkhell.
Meankheil,
Tribes of Damaun.
Baboors.
Stooreeonees.
Gundeporees.
Ckntral "DvnsKys.— Including Mountain Tribes,
Jaujecs. Vizeerees. Zmurrees.
Zoorees. Murheils. Sbeeranees.
Jadr&ns. Hoonakheil. Speeutereens
Western Division.-
-Dooranees.
Zeeruk.
PungepatB.
Popul-zehee.
Noor-zehGe.
Alleko-zehee.
Ali-zehee.
Baurik-zeheo.
Iskhak-zehee.
Atchik-zehee,
Gilgeet.
Kougonee.
Makoo.
Tooran,
Booran.
Hotukee.
Solymankheil
Tokhee.
Alikheil.
Under.
Turrukee.
Sheerpah.
Wurducks.
Kharotee.
Baraitches.
Tor Tereens.
National CTiarac.'er.— This aggregation of tribes,
though exhibiting considerable diversity in cus-
toms, dress, and appearance, among themselves,
form, taken together, a nation singularly homo-
geneous ; yet Mr. Elphinstone remarks, that
' amidst the contrasts which are apparent in the
government, manners, dress, and habits of the
different trilws, I find it difHeult to select thono
great features which all possess in common, and
which give a marked national character to tlie
whole of the Affghans,' And this becomes the
morci perjilexing, because even the virtues and
attributes on which they most value themselves,
and which separate them most from their neigh-
lM)urs, are apt to l)c misundersto(Ml or overlooked
by strangers. Thus, an English stranger might
regard their wild freedom as but a savage mixture
of anarchy and arbitrary power. Alarmed at the
absence of any organised government, or regular
courts of justice, and witnessing the summary
inflictions of retributive and customary law, he
might fancy that violence and revenge entirely
usurped the jilaco of justice and equity ; while the
rude hospitality, the bold and simple manners, and
martial and lofty spirit of the people, would
scarcely in his mind com|iensate for their pronc-
ness to violence and rapine — to the deceit and
fraud which are the vices necessarily engendered
by the lawless freedom in which they exult.
The traveller from India, on the other hand,
sickened with the servile vices of its pliant, timid,
and indolent inhabitants, would probably be fa-
vourably impressed, not less with the bold and
independent bearing of his new acquaintance, than
with their sobriety, their superior energy, their
strong and active forms, their fair complexions,
and features marked and striking even to harsh-
ness ; and he might view, in the stormy indepen-
dence of their mode of life, a favourable contrast
to the apathy t»f that which he had left. The
result in both cases might be, that, mingled witli
many a vice and failing, he would find the germ
of many a virtue and noble quality; and that
however much he might lament their great fail-
ings, he would not be able to deny them a portion
of his esteem.
One of the strongest characteristics of this peo-
ple, according to all travellers, is their hospitality,
which is founded on national feeling, and there
are some usages connected with this principle
which deserve mention. The first is that of Nun-
nawautec (two Aff^han words, signifying, ' I have
come in '), by which a person having a favour to
entreat goes to the house of the individual on
whom it depends. La* refuses to sit on his carpet or
partake of his food until the boon be granted ; and
this, if in the power of the party besought, custom
makes it imperative on him to concede. A still
stronger appeal is the second, being made by a
woman, when she sends a person her veil, and im-
plores assistance for herself or for her family.
All persons, even a man's bitterest enemy, is
safe under the protection of his roof; but this
protection extends not beyond the lands of the
village, or at most of the tribe ; and it is not un-
common for the stranger who has benefited by it,
and experienced the kindest treatment, to" Ite
robbed and plundered when once beyond its in-
fluence. 'There is no point in the Affghan
character,' remarks Mr. Elphinstone, ' of which it
is more difficult to get a clear idea, than the mix-
ture of sjanpathjr and indifference, of generosity
and rapacity, which is observable in their conduct
to strangers. ... So much more do they attend to
granting favours than to respecting rights, that
the same Affghan who would plunder a traveller
of his cloak if he had one, would give him a cloak
if he had none.' In this, as well as in their regard
for hospitality, their customs much resemble those
of the Desert Arabs.
The pastoral tribes in the west are more addicted
to robbery and theft than the agricultural ones; but,
in general, a previous understanding with the chiefs,
confirmed by the presence of a single man, ensures
AFFOHANISTAN
2d
!cuU to select thnm
Otis in common, anil
ml character to tlio
11(1 this bccomcN tliu
•on the virtues and
9t value themselves,
St from their nei^h-
rstood or overlooked
;lish stranf^er mif^lit
)ut a savage mixture
'cr. Alarmed at the
sreniment, or re^ridar
Hsing the summary
customary law, he
nd revenj^e entirely
id equity ; while the
simple manners, and
the people, would
sate for tlu-ir prone-
— to the deceit and
cessarily engendered
ieh they exult.
on the other hand,
^s of its pliant, timid,
)uld probahly be fa-
I with the bold and
w acquaintance, than
perior energy, their
eir fair complexions,
iking even to harsh-
the stormy indepen-
i favourable contrast
1 he had left. The
!, that, mingled with
would find the germ
i quality; and that
lent their great fail-
deny them a portion
cteristics of this pco-
I, is their hospitality,
d feeling, and there
with this principle
'. first is that of Nun-
signifying, ' I have
havhip a favour to
the individual on
to sit on his carpet ur
ioon be granted ; and
rty besought, custom
to concede. A still
d, being made hy a
son her veil, and ira-
for her family.
bitterest enemy, is
his roof; but this
nd the lands of the
and it is not un-
has benefited by it,
treatment, to be
once beyond its iu-
it in the Affghan
nstone, ' of which it
idea, than the mix-
rence, of generosity
tble in their conduct
»re do they attend to
pecting rights, that
plunder a traveller
lid give him a cloak
ill as in their regard
nuch resemble those
jst are more addicted
riculturalones; but,
ding with the chiefs,
single man, ensures
ifety; and the Aflghans, it is soid, are less prone
1 add munler to phuider than most other rapacious
ril)es. They are repniached with ignorance, bar-
irism, ond stupiditv, by the Persians, but on no
itHcient grounds. "They are less polished, it is
.lie, and have less of worldly knowledge thon their
kproachers ; but are in general prudent, sensible,
nd observant, and are less indifTerent to truth
lian most of their neighbours. Like most moun-
Uneers, they are proud of their lineage, and will
dly acknowledge one who cannot prove six or
>ven descents. Like Highlanders t<x), they are
,'hly national. Love of individual frisedoni,
■ong though it be, is exceeded by devotion to
lilv ond clan, and this seems by no means to
Jiilliee their love of country at largo ; for the
fuiiff flu Foosh tauHvh,' or, honour of the AtF-
an nomo, which is one of the feelings warmest
their breasts, apjK'ars to Ije equalled by local
Mtihmeiits, so strong in all mountaineers. A
Cive of the wild valley of Sp<!iga, who for some
fence had l)een forced to wander abroad, declared
his return that he had 'seen all Persia, India,
feorgia, Tartary, and IJeloochistan, but in all my
l\ els I have seen no such place as Sjieiga.' * To
jii up their character in a few words,' says Mr.
Iphinstone, with whom subsoc^uent travellers are
' ijorfect agreement, * their vices are, revenge,
|vy, avarice, rajwcity, and oiwtinacy; on the
ber hand, they ore fond of liberty, faithful to
cir friends, kind to their dependants, hospitable,
ive, hardy, frugal, lab«)rious, and prudent ; and
/WUiv are less dis|)osed than the nations in their
''fiighbourhood to fttlseh<K)d, intrigue, and deceit.'
^Customs, Manners. — The former of these heads
iprehends the internal government of the
es. This is patriarchal. Tribes are subilivided
l)ranches, which are termed onloos, and each
[|these are commonwealths, which have their
"ef or speen-iherah (literally white beard), or
llik (master), if small; or if large, a khan, who
; always chosen from the oldest family, and is
netimes selected by the king, sometimes by the
iple. These carr>' on the internal government,
[conjunction with certain assemblies of heads of
isions which are called Jeerga, and which
ermine all matters of consequence. In civil
inns the statutes of Mahomet are generally
lered to; but criminal justice is administered
ording to Pooahtunwullee, or A '' i^han usage, a
stem sufficiently rude, and founued on the law
/retaliation. This, however, as tending to per-
Wuate feuds and quarrels, is modified by judi-
,al jcergas composed of khans, elders, and mool-
Ikhs who inflict suitable penalties on offenders;
id in fact this whole system is subject to various
id considerable modifications.
A family forced or induced to quit its ooloos
lay be recei) i d into another ; and once received,
t is treated with peculiar attention, and placed in
11 respects on an equality with the original
lerabers of the community. Every ooloos, more-
ver, has many persons called Uumsayaha (or
ompanions), who are not Affghans, and who are
Bgarded with consideration, but not permitted to
lare in the administration of affairs. Of such
heils oolooses and tribes the nation is composed ;
nd when placed under one sovereign, has seldom
ielded him a full or implicit obedience. Mr.
^Iphinstone has compared it to that yielded by
cotland of old to its kings, who ruled pretty
bsolutely over the principal towns and country
their vicinity, but whose authority diminished
1 it extended to the extremities of the kingdom ;
rhose court nobles were inordinately proud, and
rliose more distant chiefs were nearly inde-
endent.
fFomen, Mnrrinqe. — Their customs with re-
gard to their females are nearly those of most
Mohammedan countries ; those in towns are jea-
lously setdudcd, those in the country have greater
liberty. They purchase their wives, who tliero-
fore are regarded as property. The husband can
tlivorce at pleasure ; and a man marries the widow
of a deceased brother. The latter, decide<lly Jewish
custom, is strictly adhered to, and it is a mortal
affront for any other man but the brother to take
the widow without his consent; but she is not
forced to marry at all. The age for marriage ia
twentv among men, sixteen for women. In towns,
courtships resemble those in Persia. In the coun-
trv, matches are made more according to the liking
of' the parties. If a lover can cut ofl'a lock of his
mistress's hair, or snatch away her veil, and in
doing so pnudnim her his alKanced wife, no other
will approach her with these Wews, and he gene-
rally obtains the consent of her parents on pay-
ment of her price ; if not, they elope ; and this
offence, which ranks not less fjravely than a
murder, is settled by intervention of parties.
Among some tribes the bridegroom earns his
wife by scn-ice, as Jacob did Rachel ; some permit
not the least familiarity before marriage, others
an excessive and perilous degree of it. Polygamy
is permitted, as in other Mohammedan countries,
but less practised; the poor content themselves
with one, those of middle rank with two wives,
and perhaps as many concubines. The wives of
the nch live in luxury and indolence; the poor
not only employ themselves in household, but in
field labour. In towns they go about, as in Persia,
veiled from top to toe ; in the country they only
veil in the presence of strangers, and that more
from decency than obligation. The Affghan women
are said to be correct in conduct and deportment ;
but adultery or incontinence is punished with
death to both parties upon the spot, by the injiured
relative.
Education is conducted much as in the conter-
minous countries. A village mooUah, or school-
master, teaches the children of the poor to sav
their prayers and to read the Koran; the rich
keep lallas, or private tutors, in their houses ; the
village schoolmasters are paid in allotments of
land and some small fees. Those intended for
the learned professions go to towns, and live in
colleges instituted for the purpose of instruction.
Literature is at a veiy low ebb. The Pooshtoo
language is an original stock, embracing a good
deal of Persian, with some Zend and Sanscrit
words: they use, in writing it, the Niskee cha-
racter of the Persian alphabet ; but there are few
or no works of much repute in the language.
Religion. — The Affghans are all Mohammedans
of the Soonee persuasion, and are superstitious
enough, believing in alchemy, astrology, and
magic; but are far from being intolerant to
others. Hindoos remain unmolested, on paying
a slight tax. Christians sustain neither persecu-
tion nor reproach ; they are called people of the
book, as deriving their tenets from a written
source, which they themselves respect, instead of
being pagans, as the Hindoos. Sheahs are de-
tested more than any sect: yet the country is
full of Persian sheahs, many of whom held im-
portant offices under the crown, and now do so
under the several chiefs. Sooffeeism (or free-
thinking), though denounced by the moollahs, is
common, and ^ains ground among the higher
orders. The priests and moollahs, like those of
Persia, are avaricious, hypocritical, and bigoted,
as well as arrogant and overbearing, and they
exert a very absolute and dangerous power over
the people. This ia strengthened by the occar-
^4
AFFGHANISTAN
lii
i|(li ;:,!
I, I
Hinnal cxproinc of poml offices, ami l)y tlic in-
iliipiicc of Home rare vxanipli's of wlsiloin ami
virtiH*, ovinivil in roitrcsMJii); liloodslicil iiiid vio-
li-iicc. Kilt tlio Itliiid ri'pinl of tlu; Atf^liaiiH for
thcHc iioly im|M)stor!i ih ohiotly attriliutnl>l(! to
tlii'ir i(;iiorancc aiul NiqH^rstitioii, which leiul tlicm
uhnoHt to adore al! di^rviNhes and tithor axtrcticH,
and to visit their toiiilM aa those of canonised
Miinls.
J'ersomtl Aitpearancf, Amu»ement», — The men
of Ati'^lianislaii are for tite most part robust, ge-
nerally lean, thou^^h iMiny and mus<;ular. 'I'liey
have elevated noses, hi^li cheek hones, and loii|{
faces ; their hair is commonly hiack, sonietinu-s
hrown, rarely red; they wear hint; thick beards,
but shave the middle of the head: the western
tribes are stouter than those to the east ; the lat-
ter have darker complexions, and more strongly
marked features : their demeanour is frank and
open, equally free from stateliness and j)nerility :
they are very s(H'ial, deli^htin^ in dinner-parlies,
smoking after dumer, and sitting in a circle telling;
stories of kings, viziers, and genii, or singing
songs, generally alnrnt love, to the sound of in-
Htmmeiits like rude guitars, tiddles, and hautlM>ys:
they take much snuff, of a high-dried line-jiow-
dered sort, like the Scotch : they arc fond of the
chase, driving the game into sonio valley, and
killing great quantities; also of coursing hares,
foxes, and deer with greyhounds ; and they ride
down iiartridges in the o|)en ground, tiring them
out till they can knock them down with sticks :
thev arc aico fond of horse-racing and lighting
cocks, quails, rams, dogs, and even camels. The
western Aftghans have a dance, called the attum
or ghoomlwor, in which ten or twenty jico))le
move in strange attitudes, shouting and clap])ing
liands in a circle, round a single jierson, who plays
on an instrument in the centre. The national
vostumc apjiears to consist of a l(H)se pair of
trousers of dark cotton stuff; a large shirt, like a
waggoner's frock, reaching a little below the
knees; a low cap, the sides being of black silk or
satin, and the top of some sort of brocade ; half-
boots, lacing up to the calf; and a cloak of soft
grey felt, or of well-tanned sheepskin with ^he
wool inside. The women wear a shirt like that of
the men, but much longer and of finer materials,
coloured or embroidered with silk ; their trousers
are tighter than those of the men ; a small cap of
bright-coloured silk, embroidered with gold thread,
conies down to the foreheail or the ears ; and they
throw over their head a large sheet of plain or
printed cotton, with which they hide their face
when a stranger approaches ; they divide the hair
on the brow, and plait it into two locks which
fasten behind ; they wear iound their head strings
of Venetian sequins, and chains of gold or silver,
which are hooked up, and end in two large balls
hanging down on either side: ear rings, finger
rings, and nose pendants are worn. In towns the
fashions more approach those of Persia, particu-
larlv to the westwanl.
Of individual Tribes. — What has been said
a])plics to the nation in general ; but almost every
tribe has its peculiar characteristic, which can be
but shortly touched upon. The IJerdooranees,
who occupy the north-eastern districts, are brave
but quarrelsome, active, industrious; but selfish,
bigoted, and remarkable for vice and debauchery.
Tlieir quarrelsome disposition is thought to have
given origin to a sort of federative alliance, offen-
sive and defensive, among tribes and sulutivisions
called Gtxindees, which were held more binding
than ties of blood. From these Gootulees, how-
ever, were excepted the EussufTzehees, the most
powerful and numerous, as well aa most Imughty,
insolent, nnil turbulput tribe of the Hordoomnees,
who are said to number 7tMI,0<M) S4nils. They now
(Mviipy Swaiit, llunerc, I'liiijecora, &<"., ami ant
notorious for the anarchy which reigns among
their imlmt»t». Though an agricultural people,
they do not themselves lal>our; this is left to their
fakirs, a species of villains or servants, consisting
\tf strangers or individuals of con(|uere<l tribes of
other nations, reduced to serve these invaders, and
jirotected by them for their services. Their mas-
ters, or hhawuuds, can iK'at or kill them at plea-
sure, but are lM>und by custom to jffotect them ;
and provided they pay the customary tax, and do
their work, they may engage otherwise in trade
as they i)lease, and are commonly treated mildly.
The Timrknlanees, who are brave, active, indus-
trious, and cheerful, are all subject to one jiowerfiil
chief, who exercises over them a very powerful
authority,
'J'he khyl)eree», who possess the njnier branches
of the Hajgul or Speengur mountain, and tlerive
their name from the formiihiblc pass of KbyU'r,
Hie the most rapacious and treacherous robbers of
all Affghanistan : no ])revious agreement secures
the traveUer from their assaults; they watch the
approach of the caravan, matchlock in hand, and
choose their victims with certaintv and security.
They are a lean muscular race, capital marksineii,
and carry swords and short s|)ears in aiUlition to
their matclil<K'k ; they are altogether more un-
couth than most of their countrymen.
The Khuttuks, occupying the banks of the
Indus, from the Oaiibul river to the Salt range,
are a tall well-favoured peojjle, as remarkable for
honesty and orderly conduct as is their country
for dreary and rugged barrenness.
The tribes of Damaun arc said to be more
sini])lc and honest, less bigoted and litigious, less
vicious and debauched, than the northern tribes.
They are a more bony and fairer race than tiie
licnkHiranees, and universally wear long hair and
beards. They owe the greater onler which jire-
vails in their oolooses to an establishment of ma-
gistrates, formed some fifty or sixty years ago,
which has been eminently efficient.
The GundejMmrs are a luirticularly thievish and
quarrelsome race, in spite of a commercial turn,
which leads many of them to make annual trading
journeys to India and Khorasan.
The Baboors are a civilised tril)e, much ein-
I)loyed in merchandise. The Stooreaneea were
shepherds, till robbed of their pasture lands by
the Cankers, when they bet<H>k themselves to
agriculture. These agricultural tribes have all
fakint, or villains, like the Eussiiff/.ehees.
Of the central di^asion, theJaujeea and Toorees,
hereditary enemies, live in the glens and valleys
of the Solymaun range. The country of the
former is colder, wilder, and higher than that of
the latter; the mountain sides are covered witli
pines. The Jaudraus, who dwell in a pleasant
district westward of the rich plain of liunnoo, are
remarkable only for their disgusting vices.
The Sheeranees, who inhabit the borders of the
Tukhtu-e-Solymaun, a wild inaccessible country,
arc very jwor and uncivilised, plunder every one,
and are at war with all the world ; yet they never
break their word, and a single individual of their
tribe suffices to secure the safety of a party : they
are described as wild and savage in their apiiear-
ance, as in their habits and mode of life. The
Zmurrees, neighbours of the last, resemble them
closely, but are less inveterately predatory. The
Vizeerees, NVV. of the two lost'-nicntioned tribes,
live in little societies, among pine-covered moun-
tains, and are eqimlly uncivilised and addicted to
plunder; yet the smallest escort ensures safety.
•I I" I
for
pet I
of tlip norrtooranccs,
0(»0 wiiiIh, TIu'V now
iijt't'iirii, fic, mill lint
which ri-i^iiM aiiitni);
I a^friiHilturnl pi'opli',
ur; thU iit li>t°t to their
ir MervaiitH, con.si.stin^
i>f con(|iu'ri>(t tribcM ot
vc the.su invatlvrs, uikI
sorvi<'o«. Thi'ir miis-
or kill thcin nt plt'ii-
;oiii to |irotcet thcin;
nistoniary tax, aiul (Id
^;c otluTwi.sc ill trade
noiily trratcd iiiiUlly.
Itravc, iu;tivc, iiuliis-
iihjct.'t to OIK! |H>wvrl'iil
liciii a very powerful
'88 the ii|i|H>r hrniielu>!i
nioiiiitaiii, ami derive
table pa.ss of KhylM-r,
treaeheroiKs roblxTs of
•us agreement HeeiircH
lults; they watch the
itchlock ill hand, and
ertaiiitv and security,
ice, capital inarkNineii,
8|H!nrs in addition to
altogether more uii-
intrynien.
if the banks of the
cr to the Salt range,
pic, as remarkable for
jt as is their country
iincss.
arc said to be more
ited and litigious, lesi
1 the northern tribea.
[ fairer race than the
ily wear long hair and
Iter onler which i)re-
cstablishmcnt of nia-
or sixty years ago,
ficient.
ticularly thievish and
' a commercial turn,
make annual trading
san.
sed trilK>, much em-
he Stooreaneea were
ir pasture lands by
took themselves to
ural tribes have all
isaiiif/.ehees.
Jaujees and Toorees,
he glens and valleys
"'he country of the
higher than that of
les are covered witli
dwell in a pleasant
plain of liiiniioo, are
:ustiiig vices,
it the borders of the
nacccssible country,
,, plunder every one,
orld i yet they never
e individual of their
ty of a party : they
age ill their apitcar-
modc of life. The
last, resemble them
!ly predatory. The
9t^nicntioned tribes,
pine-covered inouii-
scd and addicted to
cort ensures safety,
und the chicfH, powerful khnns, nrr, it, is said, rc-
lliiarkuble for their love of ikmicc. The Vizerees
divided into a fixed and eiriilii' population.
J'he long vallev of Zawura, wiiirli oikiis on the
jiiaiii of Tull and Chootceallee, is inhabited by the
vhite and black (n/w/i and tot) Z.-re.-iw, great
■(^carriers of nierchaiuliHO lietweeii Upiier Simle and
^it'andahar.
' Tlie two most noble aii<l miimrtant trilws, how-
tMT, are the Hwirnnei-s and tihiljees. Their terri-
tory <«n.Hists chiellv of high bleak <lowiis iiiter-
iiHTsc.l with hills, in some parts desert, in others
iparselv cultivated, in all open, bare, and lit chiefly
for pasture. They are therefore chietly a pastoral
people, with patriarchal habits, and live for the
-tost part in tents of black wool. These (hizhdeet)
■e from 2i» to '2i) feet long by it) or Ti '..road, and
or !t high, supported by a row of thrtH! pedes, and
(sed all round with a" curtain. In winter they
lined with felt, and are warm and ctmifortable.
le country of the Dooranees is KM) miles long
1.1(1 liroad, extending from the I'aropame.san
.oiintaiiis to the Khojeh Amran range. They
rere formerly called AlMlallee.s, till the late Ahmed
hah, their chief and sovereign, changed the name,
II eon.si'(|iience of the dream of a famous saint, he
^kiiig that of Shah Dooree Dooran. They may
lluiioiint to 80(t,t)IIO souls; the Siiddoozehee, from
? hence spning the king, is a sulMlivision of the
opulz<'hee. The king is their hereditary chief,
tnd military commander of the whole : he claims
4 horsemairs service for every plough of land;
|bi<l the oHicers commanding them are the civil
iiagi.-itrates of their respective districts, besides
&iiig employed in olRces of state at court, when
imero was a court. The internal govoniment of
JlSe clans is better maintained than among other
bes, and the progress of improvement and civil-
tioii among the agricultural Dooranees has
n correspondingly great. They are generally
iiidst)me stout men, with good complexiims and
e beards. They are brave and hospitable ; and
ough not quite strangers to rapacity, still may
esteemetl tlie worthiest of their race.
The Ghiljees occupy the upper valley of the
milk, and great i>ttrt of the Caiibul valley, to
le llerdooranee country; a tract which contains
ime of the principal cities, with some tine dis-
icts of land, but the climate of which is cold,
e Clhiljees were formerly the leading trilK) of
_ ffghaiiistan. It was a branch of them that
#onqiiered Persia and broke down the power of
i^e Sctl'avean kings; and they are still a liigh-
minded, brave, and numerous people.
The Hotekee and Tokhee are the noblest of their
elans, having produced — the first, kings ; and the
•eeond, their viziers; and they are a hospitable
and gootl people, ranking deset^'edly as the second
if the Atlghan trilies: they amount to about
00,000 families, and resemble much the Dooranees
ap]iearance, customs, manners, and dress, though
ating them, as their successful rivals, with an
nquenchable hatred. They ore perhaps the
fairest and handsomest of all the Atfghaus.
There is yet another class, which, tliough not
itrictly Atfghan, still, as amalgamated with that
ople, ought to be mentioned — the Tdjukt. The
ord is used in opposition to that of Toork, the
aceable to the warlike ; and it was applied to
e subdued Persians by their Tartar masters. In
ffghanistan they are sup^tosed to be descendants
" Arabs displaced by their conquerors, who now
ive scattered over the land which they might
ice have eultivated as their own. As tenants or
ir\-ants, tliey are mild, solwr, jwaceable, and in-
ustrioiis, and live on good terms with the Aff-
:hau8, who, though they regard them oa inferiors,
AFFOIIANIHTAN 25
tlo not treat thorn with contempt. Tliey are most
niiineroiis in and around the great cities, anil are
all zealiiiis sooiiiiies. There are also the llmnrrhi
and other allied triU's, whow language is a dialect
of tlie Persian; and the Hindki* and Jut», who
si)eak Hindi, or rather a dialect of that tongue.
There are also some Kashmires and \rmeiiiaim
settled alCaiibul, but their iiiimlier isinsigiiitieant.
Tlie llindhiH are very nninerous and are Hindus
of the military caste, transacting nearly all the
business of the country. The Jul* are a tine,
athletic, handsome race, usually very dark. They
are mostly very \\kwr, and are emplov«'<l iw fariii-
servants, barbers, musicians, he, I'lio llindkis
and the Jats number about (iOO,000.
HtDtonj and i'olitical ChdHijeg. — AtTghanistan
having, from the nmiotest |M>ri(Hl of aiilhentio
record, followed the fortunes of its more |M)werfiil
neighbours, or foniied but the centre of a greater
whole, cannot correctly lay claim to any history
of its own, until after the death of Nadir Shah.
For though several dynasties sprung from its soil,
they never erected there a separate kingdom of
any duration, unless |M>rliaps in the instaiiee of
Sii'imctageen, father of the celebrated MahiiioiMl
of (ihiznee, who resided at that city l)efore the
rise of his son's iwiwer — a power which extended
over great part of Asia. On the murder oi' Nadir,
ill Khora.taii, Ahmed khan Abdallee, after an in-
decisive conflict with the Persian troops of that
conqueror's atmy, fought his woy with 3,000
Atlghaii horse to Kandahar, where, seizing on a
convoy of treasure on its way to Nadir's camp, he
assumed the ensigns of royalty ; and, at the ago
of 2.1, in October 1747, was crowned as king,
the Dooranec, Kuzbilbash, Heloocliee, and other
chiefs assisting at the ceremony. Wise and ]im-
dcnt l)cyond his years, Ahmetl consolidated the
discordant mass of tlie Atlghan triln's by employ-
ing them in the congenial occu|>tttion8 of foreign
conquest and plunder; in which he was so suc-
cessful, that before his death, in June 1778, after
a reign of '2(! years, his dominions extended from
Nisha|Miur of Kliorosan to Sirhind of the Punjab,
and from the Oxus to the Indian Ocean. He was
succeeded by Ills son Timoiir Shah, a weak and
indolent prince, who died in 17!)3.
/cmaun Shah, the son of Timour, who was
placed on the throne by a faction headed by the
queen, began his reign with a promise of energy
and talent, which the event but ill redeemed ; for
after a seven years' reign of ill directed enter-
prises, domestic rebellions, and dark conspiracies,
lie fell a victim to the revenge of a chief whom he
had provoked, and who first opposed, then seized
the Shall, and delivered him to MahmtNHl, his
half-brother and most formidable comi)etitor, who
blinded the unfortunate Zcmaiin.
Mahmood, however, was in liis turn soon op-
posed by ShujalwKd-Moolk, full brother c»f Ze-
maun, who, seizing the treasure at Peshawiir,
proclaimed himself king. Ihit his prosperity was
short-lived. Mahmood, who had been made pri-
soner, escaped, and joining with Fiiteh Khan, the
able chief of the liaurikzehecs, who had caused
the niin of Zemaun, raised a rebellion against
Shujali. At this period the British mission under
Mr. Elphinstone arrived at Peshawur; and before
it had well quitted the country, the ill-fated
.Shujah was forced to fly and seek a refuge with
Kunjeet Sing, chief of the Sikhs, from whose per-
secutions he aftcnvanls with difficulty escaped to
throw himself on the protection of the liritish
government at Loodheana. Mahmood, a king
only in name, became a pageant in the hands <.f
Futeh Khan. This mhiister, turning his arms
westward, seized Herat, but soon after full a victim
26
AFFOHANISTAN
&
to trcacIiGiy and the fcelinKS of <UiiKu«t which hl8
ami^niu;ct hnd excited in the mind of hin royal
«lc|)('ndant, Ixiinc tint blinded and then put to
death by order i.f MahtncHNl and hia son Cainr&n
MtHsrza. IliM numcrouit brothere, alarmed at this
act, tied to their voriouo Kuv-<mmentM and Htronif-
lioldH, exciting; diHcontent and rcbi^llion through-
out the kingdom, until nothing of IiIh dominions
remained to Mahmood, Have ller&t and its im-
mediate dependencies. .Since then the affuirH of
Aft'^hanistan i)rcHciit little save a scries of civil
broils, till the lato Sil<h chief, Kunject Sing,
8trip|)cd it of Cashmere and Pesliawur, with the
country between it and the Indus. It was subse-
quently partitioned among the chiefs of Caubul,
Kandahar, and Herftt. The attempt made by the
English in 1831), to dethrone the tint of these
chieftains, on account of treachery and bad faith,
led to some of the severest reverses wo have met
with in the East. The Bolan Pass, a long and
narrow detile, leading through the mountains on
the S. frontier of Affgiianistan, ha^'ing been passed
with ditticultv, the British forces advanced to
Kandahar andGhuznee. The latter was taken by
storm on the 22nd July, 1889. The army soon
after entered Caubul ; and the chief Shah Shiijah
was established on the musnud. Dost Mahomed
Khan having retreated with a few followers be-
yond the Oxus.
A force of about 8,000 men, partly Europeans
and partly Sepoys, exclusive of native troops,
having been left in the country (mostly at Cau-
bul) to support and consolidate the newly estab-
lished order of things, the rest of the British army
returned to India. But no sooner had they with-
drawn, than plots and conspiracies began to be
formed against the English garrison. From some
unexplained fatality, the latter did not become
fully alive to their danger till the envoys, Sir
Alexander Bumes and Sir William Macnaughten,
had been assassinated, when it was too late to
adopt the precautions necessary to ensure their
safety. Being unable to maintain themselves in
Caubul, the troops, amounting to about 5,000 men,
exc. of an infinitely greater number of camp-fol-
lowers, women, and children, commenced their
retreat from it in January, 1842. The defiles
through which they had to pass being of the most
impracticable description, the cold extreme, and
the attacks of the Affghans incessant, the retniat
was most disastrous, and resulted in the all but
total destruction of those engaged in it.
The receipt of this melancholy intelligence pro-
duced a great sensation in India and England.
Government immediately resolved to march a
fresh army into Aifghanistan to inflict a signal
and well merited punishment on its treacherous
people and chiefs. This was effected in 1842.
Having entered Caubul the British troops de-
stroyed its fortifications; the prisoners and de-
tachments that were left in the country were
relieved ; and our ascendancy and the prestige that
had so long been attached to our arms were again
triumphantly restored. But having wisely re-
nounced all idea of maintaining a permanent
footing in the country, we finally qmtted it in
December, 1842.
Dost Mahomed who had surrendered himself
our prisoner was set free, and returning to Caubul
regained the allegiance of his former adherents
and subjects. Having fully established himself
in the capital and central provinces, the outlying
districts became the objects 6f his aspirations. In
1850 he conquered Bsukh in Turkestan, and, four
years after, Kandahar, which he made a province
of CaubuL Herat, after the death in 1852 of Zar
Mi^omed Khan, by whom the defence of Her&t
AFRAGOLA
in 18n9 had lieen conducted, was governed by hit
son and a succcHMion of UNur|)crH till 1850, in wliidi
year the AfTghans, under the direction of Kalimi.
dil-Khan, a Uonraneo chief, threatened it. The
then chief of Ilcr&t, Isa Khan, a Har-l)ouran<>i>,
called in the aid of the Persians, who, espuuHiiii;
his cause, threw an army into Ilcr&t in IHiiH.
This Uting an infringement <if our treaties witli
Persia led to a war in 1850-7, in which a small
force, despatched under General Outrani up tliu
Persian Gulf, was able to bring the Persians tu
reason. In ac(;ordance with the terms of a new
treaty, the Persians evacuated Iler&t in July, 1857.
On their departure, the government fell into tliu
hands of one Sultan Ahmed Khan, a Baruk/vu
chieftain. The danger to his western fVontu<r
induced Dost Mahomed to invoke the aid of the
British, and the result was a treaty concludt'd
with him at Peshawur in January, 1857, grantiiij;
him a sulwidy so long as the Perttian war shouM
last, and providing that a deputation of BritiHh
officers should enter the country under the pro-
tection of Dost Mahomed to watch the movements
of the Persians, and aid in organising the forces
of the Ameer. The mission which was sent had
for political chief and head Major H. B. Lumsdcn,
and the medical officer of the mission was as-
sistant-surgeon W. H. Bellew, whose work we
have consulted in the compilation of this article.
The Indian mutiny of 1857 added to the dangers
of the mission, but by great tact and prudence the
danger was not only avoided, but the influence of
the mission decided the Affghan government to
remain faithful to the British alliance, and refrain
from attacking Peshawur, an attack which in all
probability would have been the signal of a rising
of the Punjab, with all the disastrous conse-
quences of such an event. Since the death of
Dost Mahomed in 18G3, the country has been the
scene of perpetual disonlers, owing to the quarrcln
among the sons of Dost Mahomed. One of them,
Sherc Allee Khan, succeeded in establishing him-
self in Caubul, consolidating his authority by a
'great victory' over one of his brothers in the
summer of 1864. After the battle the defeated
brother surrendered on the promise of good treat-
ment, but the Ameer treacherously imprisoned
him. Other brothers, however, still dispute the
Ameer's authority, but the state of matters is not
authentically enough known, nor of sufficient in-
terest to demand a more extended notice.
AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (or Black Castle of
Opium), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia,
cap. Sanjiack, 188 m. E. Smyrna, lat. 380 45' N.,
long. 30° 56' £. It is situated on the declivity ot
a mountain range, and is defended by a citadel,
built on a high and almost inaccessible'rock. Pop.
estimated by Kinneir at 12,000 families, or from
50,000 to 60,000 individuals. It is pretty well
built; but the streets are exceedingly narrow, and
in many parts very steep. Some of them arc
washed by streams that descend firom the adjacent
mountains. It has numerous mosques, two Ar-
menian chapels, six khans, and five public Imths ;
an extensive manufactory of black fielts, fire-amis,
short sabres or yatagani, with stirrups, bridles, &c.
But it is principally celebrated for the great quan-
tity of opium grown in its vicinity ; from which,
indeed, it derives its modem name. It is said by
D'Aiiville to be the Apumea of the Greeks and
Romans ; but the latter was situated a good deal
further VV. According to the Turkish annals, it
was founded by Aladdin, one of the Seljuckiun
sultans. It was the patrimony of Othman, the
founder of the Turkish empire, of which it has
ever since formed a part,
AFKAGOLA, a town of Southern Italy, prov.
OLA
il, wu governed by hin
qicrH till 185(1, in whiih
ho direction of Kaluiu-
f.f, tlircatunetl it. The
fvhan, a liar-Douranop,
L'ntiAnH, who, cKp«)ii8iii|r
into Herat in IK»>.
It of our treativH witli
5(S-7, in which a itmall
eneral Outrani up tliu
brinK the PcrHiuni) to
[h the terniH of a new
m\ Ilcr&t in July, 1857,
vemrocnt full into tlic
ed Khan, a 13arul</vi!
) his wcHtcm flrontivr
invoke the aid of tlic
RH a treaty concludi'd
nnuary, 1867, (frantiiij,'
the Pentian war shoulil
deputation of Brititili
:>untiy under the pro-
I) watch the movements
1 orfi^aniging the forccD
>n which was sent bad
Major H. U. Lumsdcn,
the mission was a.s-
ellew, whose work we
pilation of this article.
7 added to the dangen
'. tact and prudence tlic
id, but the influence uf
ft'gban government tu
ah alliance, and refrain
m attack which in all
n the signal of a risinj;
the disastrous consc-
. Since the death of
B country has been the
, owing to the quarrels)
kbomed. One of them,
^d in establishing him-
«ig his authority by a
>f his brothers u) the
le battle the def(>ated
)romi8e of good treat-
acherously imprisoned
ever, still dispute the
itate of matters is not
nor of sufficient in-
«nded notice.
(or Blaek Castk of
Turkey, in Anatolia,
lyma, lat. 880 46' N.,
ed on the declivity ot
lefended by a citadel,
accessible' rock. Pop.
000 families, or from
It is pretty well
:eedingly narrow, and
Some of them are
end fh>m the adjacent
us mosques, two Ar-
nd five public baths;
black telts, fire-arms,
stirrups, bridles, &c.
d for the great quan-
icinity ; from which,
name. It is said by
of the Greeks and
situated a good deal
le Turkish annals, it
e of the Seljuckiun
ny of Othman, the
I, of which it has
anthem Italy, prov.
.tt'
AfHIi'A.
I fH.».
Kililuautl-f Iiiuti
4avnl
AlHia ,hfii l.'i'oo Vii Vi/i-/
»-^- II ' —
KlUjung* W all'. .<(.-,i ;i,-.il(ii /./I < fi.illtri i l.rn,,ll, M':< UiUt
l., -ililh jtofirilrj
50
Alivavpum
■ vuiiail
fiI..,.K
i. unvrnon* ' 'lA uoo
puvrilw
M\l««in. .11.^0
AukMrwtr*
».l»r>*ii«'rrr oadoo
^iiv9 F^- ■ ttooo
giruwldt
KuufrM?
'V^4,<?V*<»-' -" -- mmu. T*/^J* »• A « ^
MaiUir*.
L. lillh ■{M,;:Mll^j
A»kft
Blwlth I Milrp.
Ktki^uxAt-WtX" IU,„.tih ;-jl
r.l.(V« UK""
IVliti l|>al Hlvr
« 'IV.^fhiiii
*■ ^^ V K S Kv R' T
- — >.
,<,,.l.lr.
\o-. ♦ *.»v*'«< ''i^'""*' -TT*^ "'"•''...
v. U'eller \i\TiIp*
I
a:
III,
r
!
Allnr* ./>. 'II <;;i'i'>> .'>'<' I'.j .Vi7>'.
KlI^luHL V i4l>» .tini liiHlli. A« S,).ilUn l-ni-ilh .IH.'i Mllrt
JtmMjb^Mat
ri-M
KiluiiBii4.'t fuuuu
' Kllf^UlA*W,ir. 11,,. ullKi^JljJtg^
l%Mu1|tal Klvi-t.
:,"J€A
ATMIIA
Mika.
AinirA
Nnptriit ft m. NXF. Nunlon, on thfl rnllwny from
KoiiM^ to Sn\Avo. V»]>. Itl.717 ill IMitl. 'Ilio town
liiiH iiiuiiut'iictiin'N of hiraw liatH, iiiul a K"'iit mi-
iiiiiil fair, which foiiiiiiiuwH oil the hccoiiiI Muiiihiy
of Mav,
AKlUC'A. A viwt ponliiHuln, Olio of tho KTi-nt
ilivUi of thd n\»U; Hiluatnl to the H. of KurolM-,
and to th« VV. niut S\V. of Aula. It Im m-parati-il
from tln" former hy tli«> Moilltcrrnncaii Men and llii!
Strait of (iihraltar; t\w two coiitimntM npnronch-
iii^ at the Intlt-r within aJMiut 10 m. of fuc-h othi'r.
It in -iparatwl iVom Ania liy tlic IM Sea, at whtw
Hoiith.ni <'Xtrt'niity, tlin »fralt of l(al>-fl-nmn<l<>h,
the Nhon-s of the two contincntN ar« only l*> in.
apart. Hut at the mimt northerly extremity of
tlie l{e<l Sea, Ania niul Afrieii are united hy the
iHlhmnM of Suez; the Mediterranean being there
alxiut 72 III. from ihe Ked S4'U.
Tlie iiioHt Houtherlv jxdiit of Africa, Cape dan
AkuIIww ((;a|M( NeedU'N), U in lat. ;l|0 M' S. ;
and the nioMt northerly, Oapc Klaii opposite
Siiily, in lat. 37° 21' N. (.'ape (iarilnfui, the
niiHt eaxtcrly |M)iiit, Im in long. 51° IIO' K., and lat.
1 1° M' N. ; anil ("arw Verde, the extn-me weNferii
point, is in lonjf. 17" iVX VV., and 14° III' N. lat.
The (iiNtaiK^lK-twecn the inont Houtherly and inoHt
nortlierly poiiitx in con8ei|uently about ftUOO in.,
and iH'tween the extreme eastern niid wcnteni
pointit not much Iomh. The area pmltably falL)
little Hhort, if it do not exceed, r2,0l)(),l)(H) mj. m.
Africa in diNtiiiKuished from the otluT conll-
nent!* Iiy itit coasts extending inoHtIv in continuoufi,
unliniiien linex, having but few indentatioiM of
the M'lX, and no cxtenttive peninNula.s ; m> that it
forniH a more compact and undivided inaHX of land,
Tlie uniformity or its outline seems to l>e in ac-
cordance with the uniformity of its interior. The
surface of the latter does not prcs<!nt that endless
HiiccesHion of changes which are met with in
Kiiropo and southern Asia, and which arc found
ill Ixtth Americas, but on a greater scale and at
greater distances. It resembles rather the north-
ern parts of Asia, exhibiting elevated table-lands
anil low plains, both of immense extent and of
remarkable uniformity. The whole of the con-
tinent, from a!x»ut 16° X. lat. of the eiiuator, and
S. of it to the northern border of tlie Ngami
Water, 20° 8. of the equator, constitutes, with
the exception of the central depression uf the
Lalce Hegioii, a mass of elevated land, comprising
extensive plateaus and high mountain chains and
groups. North of this table-land, between 10°
and 30° N. lat,, extends an immense but low
plain, the greater part of which is occupied by the
Great Desert, or Desert of Sahara. A compara-
tively narrow tract of mountainous country, in-
cluding Atlas and its dependencies, separates the
desert from the Mediterranean. On the E. the
desert does not reach the Kcd Sea, being sepa-
rated from it by the mountains of Abyssinia and
the rocky countries extending from them north-
ward along the Ked Sea to the shores of the Medi-
terranean.
The great central belt south of the equator
'rejects,' says Captain Burton, 'the old hypo-
thesis of desert and plateau, and forms the
sharpest contrast to our grandfathers' idea of
Central Africa.' He thus describes the eastern
section of it : — ' Near the coast are low littoral
plains and rolling ground, with lagoons, savan-
pahs, and grassy valleys, the courses of large
streams, whose banks, inundated by rain-floods,
retain in the dry season meers, morasses, reedy
marshes, and swamps of black infected mud. Be-
yond the maritime regions rise lines and moun-
tain groups of primary and sandstone formation ;
ridges and highlaiuu, often luicultivated, but
rarely uterlle, with hndlii" ami hill-plaimi of e xu-
iK'rnnt fertility, traversed by |MTeiiiilal rivuletn
and Hireaiii*. Ileyond the landward xlopeof theno
AtVican ghaiitH JH'^iim an elevated plati'iiii, now
level ami tabular, tlivn broken into undiilaiionn
and geiith' eiiiineiii'eit, di.'<playiiig liy huge oiit-
eropH of uraniteN anil NveiiileHthe activity of tlin
igiieoiiA period ; where rain in dellcii lit, thinly clad
with IiunIi, broom, and NhrulilM>ry, with thorny
and KUeeuleiit ihirkelM, cut by frirrows and liiinit
by torrid niiiim; and veiled where nioiilure alMiiindit
with tangh-d jungle rising (Voiii shallow vaMeVN,
with uiiiltrageoiiN foreMtt broken into glades of
exeiM-ding lH>aiity, and with interlaceiit plains of
emerald or aiiiber-<'oloiin'<l grauM, iVoiii whirb treen
of the darkeftt laurel-green, uiid kiiolli* and eluiii|H,
large and Minall, against which no feller has come
up, <!aNt thick Nhade over their Hiilijei't circlets of
luxuriant iindcrwuod. Dull, dreary, and mono-
loiioiiM, where lying desert, in iiart this plateau is
adorned with a lavish iiatunts choicest charnm
and varietii's. Itevond it, again, tiie land sinks
into the liake Kegloii, or the great Central De-
nrcHsioii ; the su|M'rabiiii(laiit nioistimnlift'iiKed by
Its network of waters, fordable and unfordalile,
covers the land with a rank growth of gigaiitiu
grasses and limber-trees, and the excessive luxu-
riance of nature proves unfavourable to the de-
velopment of animal organisms. Throughout the
line, to Judge without statistics, in the more ste-
rile parts, about tme-titlh, and in the more fruitful
one-lialfof the land, is under cultivation ; whilst
almost everj'where the abundance of the desert
vegetation evidences the marvellous eapabilitieit
of the almost virgin soils. The su|>eriicial eoii-
foniiation owns four great varieties. When low,
the plains are reedy uiu\ muddy ; when higher
raised and well watered, they In-ar evergn-eii
jungle and forest trees. In the deserts, when)
water lies deep beneath the earth, and rain is
scarce, the plateaus |)roduoe short tulty grass,
bush, and scraggy thorn, and in rare spots the
land is almost bare.' Dr. Livingstone, who made'
a Journey into the interior from Loaiida on the
west coast, represents the country as similar in
most essential characteristics.
At the southern extn^mity, Africa presents to
the Indian Ocean a broad line of coast, running
east and w-ost nearly along the t)4tli parallel from
1«° to 2(1° E. long., or from the Cape of (lood
Hope to Algoa Hay. Along this coast extends uii
undulating country, intersected with a few eleva-
tions deserving the name of hills. Its width varies
lietwecn 10 and 60 niiles^ North of this the table-
land rises in terraces. Tlic first terrace, called the
Limg Kloof, is enclosed by the double ridge of the
Zwarte Bergc, or Black Alountains, of which the
nortiiiin, or the Grooto (Grcot) Zwarte Berge,
rises to about 4000 ft. above the sea. North of this
range is the second terrace, called the great
Karroo, which is about 100 miles across and 8,000
feet elevated above the sea. It is bounded on the
N. by the Nieunveld Bergen, a chain of which
some summits are considered to rise to 9,000 or
10,000 feet On its northern side the table-land
seems to have attained its mean elevation, which
probably is not less than from 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
At both the eastern and western extremities the
two above-mentioned ranges run NW. and NE.
parallel to the sea-shore, at a distance of from 80
to 200 miles ; the intermediate space being like-
wise occupied by two or more terraces. The
ranges along the west shores do not extend farther
than about 29° S. lat., where they terminate in
isolated hills and with a high bank on the Gareep
or Orange River. N. of this river, the coast, when
seen from the sea, presents only high sand-hilla
tl
wlthoMt «ny ^nit>» ofwntor, fiml U, n)n«rqiirtitly.
(••itlrt'lv iIi'kIIIiiIk 1)1' V)>Ki'liiliiiii, ll I'XliiiiU ii'<
fur n« ('»[»• Ni'Kru {\k" ,H. Int.), Tin- lulrrlor i-nM
orilii' wi'Hirni ratiKcN iiiiil ol' iliU roiixt U uii I'U'-
val<'<l Muiidy (trm-rl, with Ihvf wcIIh iinil lillli> rnln.
Tbit riintrrii hull' of ilitt tnltli' lunil tVuiii ilic
('n|N> Ciilony to IH° M. Iiii. tirtVnt » i||||i>ri>iit ift|M-('i,
A nrvnt iiimiiInt of inoiiiitniii rlil^i'M, of iiio<li'riit<<
fit'vitlioii, tritviTNo it III illtl'iTi'iil illrcciloiiN; mill
ut lliv liHil of (lii'Mt ru\ut'A till! I'oiiiitry U wrll
wiilcri-ii mill fi>rtiU>; tliuiiKli ln-rc, too, cxti'iiKivu
hIitIIi- triii'tH ixri'iir, liiit thi>y iiri< not ciiiiliiiiiuuM.
'I'liii iliMi'oiii tVoiii iliiiliiltU'-ltiiiilliitlii' liiilliiiiOfraii
U foriiii'il liy two or tlirrtt irrriircN, ilu> liiKlii'Nt
('iIk« of It iilNiiit IM) or |0(I tnlU'M iliMtttiit tVoiii tliv
Hliori', 'I'liU <mI){(>, fiiriiifil liv n iiiouMtiilii rlilKi',
lircvitiitK till' rivt>rN of ili<> tuliU'-liiinl from i-waiiiii^
to till! Iiiiliiin Oi'oaii; piii that llii-y iMllu'r run
wi'Miwnril, mill fall iturlly into ilu* <inn'<'|i river, or
arc iwrtlv lont in tliu h»iiiIm of the ilcNtTt. 'riiii
■■aMicrii lii'MTiit of till* tnlili'-liiiiil n-Hi'iiililcM tliiit
I'arllirr Hoiith, Ih-Iii^ foniit'il liy tcrriu'CN, Thin,
liiiwrviT, fxti'iiiU only to tint «>i|imlor, or tint
iiioiitli of llii> river .liilin; for fiirtlior tuirlli, np to
CitiM' (iarilal'iii, the coiiNt itHelf Ih fornieil by \\'m\\
rockM, riMiii)^ to 4(MI feet mid iipwanl, ninl no nioiin-
laiii ranj^cH are vixililu from the una. On tli«
weHtcni Niile (if tilt) eoiitiiient, U'tweeii 1H° anil
•U)'^ H. Int., them ix a voiiMtilernlile ileprpMNioii in
the tnhle-lanil. TIiIm country, which Ih known
iinilcr the iintne of Lower Guinea, hiiM low Hhon«,
lM-hiii(l which at a coiiNiilerulile ilintunco Ihn Nur-
fiu;e riscM, hut not to n threat heij^ht. Then follows
nn uneven plain, watered in itH lower |)artH hy
iiiimeroiiN rivem, amoiiK which the Zuini or (Jonp>
mill the C'lianza arc the lnr({eMt; hut towanU tli«
BoiirceH of thcMC riven* the country Ih mountainoiiH.
In the plain nuinuniuit lakes uf cuniiiilcrablo ex-
tent are met with.
North of the river /aire, at about 4° 8. lat.,
the country o^niii riHex at no Kft-'at diHtance from
the Hea to a ((reot lici){ht. This hiKh gruund is
called Hi>rra (Joniplide. Its W. declivity extends
NVV'., by (le^reeH aiipronchinft nearer the Atlantic,
till it reaches the inncnnost comer of the Hay of
Itiafrn, where it comes close down to the sea, and
forms for more than 30 miles the shore, risitiK,
under the name of Cameroon Mountains, to 13,00U
feet alxive the water. These threat mountain
masses form the W. extremity of an extensive
raiiKe, which at about b° of N. lat. traverses (He
whole continent.
l>r. Livingstone found the geological structure
of the earth, which he had an opportunity of exa-
mining at the river Mimmba (lat. iP 88' 8., long.
2()0 liP 34" E.), to ainsist uf— flrst, a capping of
ferruginous conglomerate, containing wnter-wom
jiebblcs of all sorts; then a pale red hanleiutd
sandstone; beneath that, a trap-like whinstono;
and lastly a coarse-grained sandstone, containing
]icbblc8, and in connection with which is some-
times seen a white calcareous rock, or banks of
([uartz pebbles.
The true nature of the centre of this southern
belt is now satisfactorily establish eil. Sir Roderick
Murchison had the honour of starting the theory,
which has since been verified by the discoveries of
African explorers, that, instead of the arid plain
long supposc<l, the centre of Southern Africa is a
vast, elevated, watery basin, whose waters escape
to the sea by Assures and depressions in the higher
lands by which it is surrounded.
Extending southward from Lake Ngami to the
Orange Hiver, and from 24° east long, to near the
west coast, is the Kalahari Desert. This tract.
Dr. Livingstone says, has been cnlle<l a desert
oiercly on account of the absence of running
AFRIHA
water, Tt Is hy no monn* ilMtltiitK nt yrgotation,
Many plaiitM are found there, liion< eM|H>riully tlm
water iiirloii, ami there are |Hitrlii'H of IhimIh'n hihI
even tr"es. The Mill In Mift, light -coloured Rainl,
and the graM grows ahundaiitly anil In tiit'lH. Tim
human liihaltltaiitHof this region uru the IhiNlinit'n
and the llHkalrthrtrl,
Still fiirtliir xoiith, at Cajie t'olonv, Africa pre-
Netits to the liiiilaii Oi'eaii a liroiid and undulating
line of I'oaNt, extending from the Ca|K) of (IinhI
lloiie to Algoa Itny.
S'orth .{t'rii'ii, extending from south to north
through a lireadth of alMnit '2't degrees, coiitiil'iH
two ilitlen>nt coiiiitrieM, the one fertile and i '
other sterile. The fertile lands are, on one ki.|<',
tlioM* which lie along the Mediterranean, mid mi
the other, the tropical lands to the Noiitli nl' the
Sahara, called the Soudan. Of these Dr. Itiirlh
my*, that they are far from exliihltliig the iiioiio-
totiy |Nipiilarly aMTils'il to them. He dewrilM") Ihn
fertihi regions of Negroland as lH>ing as varii >l iii
any jiart of Inilla. lie tells us ' MontiliiiiiN In'
tweeii r>,lMI(l and (i.tHIO I'eet are not at all rare, and
most iMtaiitil'iil and pictiirestpie uleiis Jind vallevi
are funned by them Tnu general midiilu
altitude of mountainous tracts is '2,MHt fei^t.' In
many tiarts it is well watenil by rivers, which
descend from the table-lands or originate In tliu
low ridges by which the cimntrv is intersectwl;
such districts are co\ cred with In. • ">'•" foreMts,
and am very fertile where cultivated. In other
])arts water is rather scame, and some of theni
partake largely of the nature of the Sahara. Its
climate is extremely hot, nevertheless it sometimes
hap|H>iis that during night the thermumeter de-
scends to the freezing |N>iiit.
The Sahara, or (ircat Desert, is not, as was onca
lielieveil, a dottp sink. It is rather, to quote fmm
Dr. Harth, ' an elevated tract of a mean elevation
of from 1,000 to 1,400 feet, mostly consisting ' I
rock— namely, sandstone or granite, the latt r
Udiig overlaki in the heart of the desert by viitt
tracts of gravel, while the sandstone mgion fomis
many elevated plains of larg(>r or smaller extent,
strown with small pebbles.' Se\ -ral moiintuinims
groups am found in diifemnt parts of this tract,
the most im|)ortant being Tilicsti, A'slien or A'ir,
the two mountainous regions of A'deri'r, and the
A'taleor. These atTurd a dwelling-place to a con-
siderable nomadic populotion ; but the inhabitable
localities are limite<l, and the ravines are very un-
healthy, though some of them ore amply pro-
vided with water-springs, and produce grapes and
These mountains, however, are quite destitute of
timber. A characteristic feature of this desert is
the immense change of temperature which is found
there. The greatest heat in summer alternates
with a considerable degree of cold in winter, the
difference l>etween the maximum and minimum
lieing as much as 80° The aridity of these tracts
Dr. IJarth thinks greatly oxaggeritcl, as they are
occasionally refreshed by showers. Another cha-
racteristic feature of the Sahara is the reaion of
Saitdliilli, which exist either in zones of saml-
ridges, or in the shape of isolated hills. The for-
mer sometimes reach an elevation of from 800 to
1,000 feet, and have a breadth of 60 geographical
miles. A great deal of moisture collects in the
depressions between these ridges, and in most of
them large quantities of dn* 's are produced. All
the western part of the Su.iara would, owing lo
its burning heat and the want of water, be totally
impassable, were it not that it is here and there
interspersed with venlant well-watered sjmts or
oases, which appear like islands of the blest in the
midst of dosolation. Th< ancients compared thuiu
AFUK'A
M
iiiito ot vpuctAtion.
iiiiini i-ii|Hi'liilly iliii
li'lii'K III' IhimIii''* NMiI
l|;lll-riiliiun*il Mlllil,
y mill III liit'tM. 'I'liH
HI uru thu liiiNliiiii'ii
I'lilimy, Al>i<'i» |iri<-
iiiil unil uiiiliiliitliiK
th« Cu|)«) III' OihhI
i>m Miiith to iiiirtli
.') ili'Kri'i'K, ointiil'ii
iiiit fiTtlltt mill I
Ih iin', nil owi ni'lf,
llti-min<>un, tml mi
III lllll Hlllltll III' lllll
M° tlii'w Dr. Itjirtli
lilliltiiiK tl>'' iiiiiiiii-
II. H»' ilrwril"'" till!
N Ik'Iiik UN viirii-.| iti
iiH ■ MiMititiiiiiM Im'-
iiot lit iil\ ran', mnl
n' ulciiH Jinil viilii'vn
Thu ){i'iii-rul iiiiiliilo
H in >i/ilHl t'evt.' Ill
mI by riviTM, whiili
ur urlKiiiHtu ill thu
iiitrv ix iiitt'riM'ctiii ;
th In. • ""•" I'liti'iitH,
iltiviiuii. In other
ami Moino of thi'iii
of the Suhiira. Itn
rtheli'MH it Moini'liincii
lio theriiiunivtvr du-
t, Is not, an MraM onoo
iither, to quoto fmni
i>r a mean eluvatioii
IIOHtly COIINiNtillK ' I
j^ruii'itc, the lati r
If the ilencrt by viiil
iilHtone rcKhin fnrniR
>r smaUHr extent,
le\<'ral moiintuiiioii!)
purta of thin triiit,
Mti, A'filien or A'ir,
of AMen'r, ami the
lliii(;-i>luce to a con-
but tne inhabitable
ravines are very un-
em are amply pro-
produce grapes and
ire quite destitute of
lire of this desert is
fiture which is found
sumnier alteniaten
cold in winter, the
urn and niinimuiii
iiity of these tracts
geriti 1, as they are
vert. Another chii-
n» is the reaion of
in zones of sand-
ted hills. The for-
tion of from 800 to
of 60 freographicnl
tare collects in the
:es, and in most of
are produce*!. All
'a would, owing lo
of water, be totally
t is here and tliire
ll-wat<!rcd sjHits tir
of the blest in the
nts compared thcui
(1
lo the iipots on A looraril's skin. (S»r«»H>, p. 1.10.)
'ilii w ii««" an- mimllv of very llmllwl ilim-nsions!
bill Ki.ini- oftlH'm ani'vin- rxlcn-lvi': »hi> cimiiiry
III' Vv/.*niu for ••xnin|il«<, U In fsi't »•• """l'"- ''"'•''V
an- iidiiallv mimiiinilnl by bi»{hi«r land, wblih
iii.r>r« lo aiviiunl fnrlh.- spriiigK, and I'linwiiiii-nlly
till- vi'hhirr for wlilih ibi-y an> wi ridi-brnii-i!. Mm
• lii'ri' wrnis lo Imi much pVolMiliilliy in Ibr ulin-wd
ri>ii|i'<liini of Mnjiir HiiiiK'll, that the oasi's nn^
iiiililiicd for no inriiMsiilerable portion of tlu'ir m-
|Mili-il iM-mil V and ib'liclous fh-shnt-ss to Iho ulriking
ilrast Ih-iWi'I'II Ihi'in and the jian'bi'd drwrl by
whirh thoy an- surrniimh'il. (I Ji'ogrniihy of lli-n*-
iliinis, Hvii. ed. ii. II. IMA.) Tliotir only who bavc
liiiU'd lor ilays amid a pathlcnH liiiniin»( Hand, can
I'limi a prii|M>r idea of ihe dniigbt cx|M>rii>nc(>d in
fulling in with one of
th«» tiiftH l»lcw,
That renlant rlM< amid thu Llliyan wild.
In Kngland or Franrn they might Ixi thought
tiiilhiiig of; but ill the Maliara they seem more
lliaii a iMiriidise. The fanioiiM lenipln of Jupiter
Amnion was erected in the oasis of .Siwiib, in the
NK. angle of the great desert, in lat. '21^ 12' N.,
and long. 'JO" IM' K.
7'Af Aliy»inian MoimUiin* constitute an exten-
iiive nioiiiitaiii sysleni, wbose centre is placed be-
t«veim H" and vP N. iat. in the countries called
Niiri'a and KtTat. The highest ar« the Samcn
range, which, with the I^amalmon and Lasln
miiiintains, run north-east and south-east, in a
long but not unbroken chain. Si^veral of these
mounlaiiis are from 12,000 to lfi,000 feet in height.
lk>tween the Samcn mountains and the Red Sea
is the Tarania range, rising to an elevation of
7,0(10 feet. The most lofty of these mountain
p«>aks are frequently, if not alwaj^s, covered with
snow, though some'aro crowned with cedar forcsta.
The vallevs are fertile and well peopled.
From tlhe northern declivity of the Abyssinian
niiiiintaiiis cxtciids along the shores of the Ked
Sea as far as the Isthmus of Suez a rocky countrv,
which, lietweeii 12* and 20° N. lat., occupies in
width an extent of between ttOO and 400 m., but
further north bv degrees grows narrower. Ik'tween
2:1° and mK* N. lat. it is only from IflO to 200
miiim across. Near its western border it has a
(leei), but comparatively narniw, deiiression, in
which the river Nile flows N. from the Abyssinian
Mountains to the Mediterranean. This lon^ val-
ley is mostly very fertile. The small (lortioii of
the rocky coiintr\' which lies to the west of this
vallev, and which forms the eastern boundary of
the Mahara, does not rise to a great height, rarely
III more than about 1000 ft. alsive the valley. Hut
the countries cast of the valley of the Nile and
Isawcen it and the Ked Sea are more elevated.
They form a table land, mostly of an uneven siir-
fiice, which however in many" places exhibita ex-
tensive plains, whilst in others it rises into ranges
of high hills. Many of the plains arc covered
with sand, and resemble the eastern portion of the
Sahara ; other districts atTonl pasture ground, but
very few places are flt for agriculture and culti-
vated.
This rocky country terminates on the banks of
the Nile hi the parallel of Kahira (Cairo), from
the neighbourhood of which its northern Ixiundary
runs ofT in an ENE. and WWV. direction. The
former constitutes the Isthmus of Suez, and reaches
to the Mediterranean between the Lake of Menza-
leh and Has Ka/aroon in Syria; farther east it
joins the mountains of Arabia Petnca. Tliis rocky
country lies to the E. of the delta of the Nile. On
the W. of the delta the rocks nin from Kahira
VVNW. to the Arabs' (iiilph, where they approach
the Mediterranean near the Arabs' Tower (31° N.
lat. and 20o .ir E. long.). Fmm this line tb«i
riN-ky ciiiniiry I'Xlrnils weKtwnrd with a width of
alMiiil 71)111, al llie iiiiiNet, wblrli, however, iiirrraiea
as it ailvaiici'N further \V., m as to iicciipv U'lwei'n
200 and .'IDO inliis at 20° K. Imiu., when' it mid-
ileiily lenniniiii'ii. In the iieiglilMMirboiHl of ih«
Kgypiian della, the riH-ks an' hanlly a hiindn'il
feet above the iiliiiii, lint I'lirther W. Ibey riiM' iiitit
lliaii hills and ininnilniii ridges (lienlobab Moiiii-
tains), and tenniiiate with the high table-land of
llari'a, whime meiui ed vriliiin alsive the sea is exli-
inatt'il to In- alsiiil l.'iOO feet. Wlieni the titble-
Imid of the llanwi tenninate* with a rather alinipt
liewont (near20°i, a nnrmw strip of the Sahara
comes lip to the vi rv sbon's of the Mediterranean,
al the most southerly corner of the tiiilpb of Sydra
or Kibbir (thetln-nt Syrtis), whem it tennliiales
on the lieaeh with saiid-bills. This strip of tlin
Sahara se|iarates the rocky n-gion of the Nile fnun
the mountain system of l)ie Atlas,
Mount Alhi* and it» ilritendrncin, by far thn
most celebrated of the African chains, iHviipv that
IMirtion of the cmitinent nnmt to the iiorlli and
nean'st to Western Kiiro|M'. It seems to liegiti mi
the I''., near the easteni iMiiindarv of the eoiinlry
of Fe/./.an, whence two ridge.'i of nnHh'rate eleva-
tion run VVNW., r.iid in the iM'ginning are called
Kanish. Farther E., however, they receive other
names. This mountainous counlrv, which traver-
ses the N. of Fezzan and the S. of Trifsili, is no-
where piolmbly more than 120 miles in width ; but
the ridges of low hills which issue from it advance
to the very shon's of the Mediterranean, lietween
Ca|ie Mesiirata and thetiulph of Calies (the Lesser
Syrtis), so that the whole region may lie fnim iKt)
to 200 m. across. At the (iiilph of (!alM>s, however,
the region of Mount Atlas enlarges considerably
towarils the N., and thence to its western exlrc-
mity im the shores of the Atlantic Ocean its mean
breailth exceeds 850 miles. The highest ridge
seems to traverse the region in an oblicjiie line,
l)cginiiing on the east opiiosito Sicily, at Capes
lion and lUanco, and terminating on the shores of
the Atlantic at Ca|)es Cteer and Non. The moun-
tains which (H'ciir in that line do not rise alsivn
the line <if congelation. The country whicli ex-
tends N. of it to the shores of the Mediterra-
nean is mountainous, and contains a numlier of
fertile longitudinal valleys. Farther W. (alsiiit
5° W. long.), however, where its northeni slope
is diverted VV. to the Atlantic Ocean, it extends
in large plains, which fidlow each other in the
form of terraces. The tracts of country which lie
to the S. of the highest ground cannot lie called
mountainous, their surface being formed by wide,
broad-backed riilges, of verj' mislerato elevation,
anil by slight depressions lietween them in the
form of shallow valleys. These latter tracts* par-
take of the hot and diy character which distin-
guishes everywhere the 'African continent; whilst
the district situated towards the Mediterranean
and the Atlantic Ocean resembles more the coun-
tries of Southern Europe. (See Atlas.)
Climate. — By far the greater part of Africa lies
within the torrid zone, those countries only which
are situated towards its so;. them and northern
extremities being beyond the tropics, or within
the temperate zones. Owing to tlie vast extent
of its and plains, the tcmyicrature of Africa is de-
cidedly higher than that of any other of the great
ilivisions of the globe. The parts without the
tropics are destitute of that regular succession of
four seasons which is considered as a characteristic
feature of the tem|ierate zone. Here, as between the
tropics, the year is divided into the dry and rainy
seasons; but with this difltirencc, that between
the tropics the rainy season seta in when the sun
so
AFRICA
appronchuR the zenith, whereas it oonirs in tlio
countries Iwyond the tropics when the mm np-
proachcs the opposite tropic, and conscrjueiitly is
at the greatest distance from their zenitli. Hut
Dr. Livingstone says: — All the interior of Smitli
Africa has a clistinct winter of cohl, varj'ing in
intensity with the latitudes. In the central parts
of the Cape colony, the cold in the winter is often
severe, and the ground is covered with snow. At
Kuruman snow seldom falls, hut the frost is keen.
There is frost even as far as the Chobe, and a jiar-
tial winter in the Barotse vallev, hut Iteyond the
Orange liivor wo never have cold and damp com-
bined. Indeed a shower of rain seldom or never
falls during winter, and hence the healthiness of
the liechuana climate. From the Barotse valley
northwards, it is questionable if it ever freezes ;
but during the prevalence of the south wind, the
thermometer sinks as low as 42", and conveys the
impression of hitter cold.' Mr. (jialton, travelling
in South-western Africa, over the hilly country
which separates the Fish liiver from the sea, savs
that the rains were perio<lical and very variable.
From the middle of May to November rain is
scarcelv ever known to fall. The rainy season
cxtcn({s from al>out the first of January to the last
of April ; the ground is seldom saturated till Feb-
ruary, and is quite dried up by June. Yet, not-
withstanding the appearance of drought, the
marks of violent torrents are visible. Captain Bur-
ton thinks the climate of Eastern Equatorial Africa
superior to that of the Western coast, but of too
uniform a temperature, and too deficient in cold
to be healthy for Europeans.
Rivers. — The last few years have produced an
entire revolution in our ideas of the water system
of Africa. Instead of the ' dry and thirsty land '
which books of geography were accustomed to re-
])re8eiit the interior, recent discovery has disclosed
n vast assemblage of rivers and lakes, which are
not only important as subjects of geographical
knowledge, but which it is hoped and believed may
be made the means of developing the resources of
the country, and of raising the condition of the
inhabitants.
The principal river is the famous Nile, the only
large navigable river on the North African coast.
Assuming as its source the Victoria Nyanza of
Speke, a little to the south of the equator, the Nile
has a course nearly due north, extending over more
than thirty degrees of latitude, and its length and
depth of water entitle it to rank as one of the
most considerable rivers of the globe, while of the
large rivers it is by far the most famous. Till
quite recent years, the Nile was reckoned the only
large river of Africa, but modem exploration has
added to the list the Niger, flowing into the At-
lantic on the west coast, and the Zambesi, whose
principal sources appear to lie quite near those of
the Nile, in the great central depression of equa-
torial Africa above described, though it receives
numerous important tributaries farther south. It
is the chief nver on the side of the Indian Ocean.
Among other considerable rivers are the Senegal,
the Gambia, the Congo, the Coanza, and Orange
rivers on the west coast, to which may be added
the Ogobai of M. du Chaillu. On the east coast,
the most important river next to the Zambesi
appears to be the Ro^'llma, which flows into the
Indian Ocean north-east of the Zambesi, and
which has lately been found useful as a conve-
nient mode of access to the interior, where lie the
sources of the Zambesi.
Lakes. — These are numerous, and often of great
extent. The Lake Tangarrijika, one of the most
important in the great lake region, was discovered
by Captains Burton and Speke in the year 1858.
It is 1,800 ft.al)ovotho level of the sea; and has n
length of about 800, and a breadth of from 30 tn
40 miles. The same year. Captain Speke made a
more important discovery, in the Lake Victoria
Nyanza, the reservoir from which the Bahr-eU
Abiad, or White Nile, descends into Egypt. This
lake is between 8,(K)0 an<l 4,000 feet above the
level of the sea, and is at present alxmt 150 miles
in length and breadth, though Captain Speke sup-
poses it to have been at some period of greater
extent. The northern shore of the Nyanza is
parallel to the equator, and its north and south
direction is, from 24° S. lat. to &° 80' N. lat. It
has been oscertauied that two other lakes, viz. the
Baringa and the Luta Nzigi^,have a shore in feed-
ing the Nile : the Luta Nzigd lies 120 miles north-
west of the most nortlierly part of the Nyanza.
Previous to this. Dr. Livingstone had made his
discovery of Lake Ngami, 20" 8. of the equator,
and more recently he has explored Lake Nyassa,
a lake in East Africa, which gives exit to the
Shird river, and which is surrounded by a dense
population. During a certain portion of the year,
this lake is \'isited by clouds of midges, which All
the air to a prodigious height, and cover the
waters. The natives gather these insects, and
bake them into cakes. (See Letter from Mr. C.
Livingstone to Sir U. Murchison, Journal of (leo-
graphical Society, 18G8.) The Tchad Lake is
upon the southern border of the Sahara. There
are many other lakes of less moment. The Lake
of Dcmbea, in Abyssinia, traversed by the Bahr-
cl-Azrek, or Eastern Nile, is also of very consider-
able magnitude.
Races of People. — Although we are acaistomed
to consider the inhabitants of Africa as being
generally of the Negro race, the actual number
of varieties of the human family occupying this
portion of the globe is not only much greater than
those found in Europe, but the differences in colour,
form, and stature are much wider. There aro
alwut seven ascertainable varieties, which may be
enumerated as follows, beginning with the southern
extremity of the continent: viz, the Hottentot,
Katfer, Abyssinian, Egyptian, Numidian, Nubian,
andNegro. We shallgive a brief description of each
race in this order. In the Hottentot the colour of
the skin is a yellowish brown, and has been com-
pared to that of a * faded leaf.' The cheek Iwnes
are high, and much spread out in the lateral direc-
tion; and from these the lace is suddenly con-
tracted below to a very narrow and pointed chin.
Nose remarkably flat and broad towards end.
Colour of the eyes a deep chesnut ; they are long,
narrow, and removed to a great distance from
each other. The hair of the head is of a singidar
nature; it does not cover the whole scalp, but
grows in small tufts at certain distances from each
other. When kept short, it has the appearance
and feel of a hanl shoe-brush : with this difl'erenco,
that it is curled, and twisted into small round lumps
about the size of a marrowfat pea. When suf-
fered to grow, it hangs on the neck in hard twisted
tassels like fringe. There is little beard ; and the
hair on other parts of the body is either scanty or
altogether wanting. The stature of the Hottentot
is very short, about four feet six inches being con-
sidered about the middle size for the men, and
four feet for the women, which is about fourteen
inches short of the average stature of Europeans.
Their form is slender, delicate, and not ill-propor-
tioned ; but altogether they may be pronounced a
very ugly race. The sex is distinguished from all
others of the human race by a pendulous rugose
elongation of the nymphcB of from two to five
inches long, and by a vast accumulation of fat
over the glutei muscles, which invariably takes
AFRICA
51
Ipliico after the flret conception. Both theno ap-
I pparanccs are well ancertaincd to be natural, and
In no way the result of art. The language of the
I Hoft*ntot« i» as singular aa their pcmonB. Ita
i pMniinciation haa lK!cn compared to the clucking
of a tiirkcv. Tliere arc numerous guttural sounds
prmluccd ('leep in the throat, and pronounced with
a peculiar clack of the tongue, which is quickly
• struck against and withdrawn from the teeth or
palate. The aspirated gutturals arc coml)iiie<l
with harsh consonants in a manner unpronoun-
ceable by Europeans, except those who nave ac-
quired the language in infancy. No portion o''
this race, unconnecteil with Europeans, has ad-
vanced beyond the rudest stage of the pastoral
state of society. When discovered, they had do-
mesticated the ox and the sheep, the flesh and
milk of which afforded them fr 'I. and their skins,
with those of wild animals, cloM. ..., ; they knew
nothing of tillage, had no n. . I '...v filings, and
practised no mechanical art excepting that of
fabricating the bow and arrow. The ancient
country of the Hottentot variety may generally
be described as that which now constitutes the
liritish colony of the Cape of Goml Hope.
The immediate neighbours of the Hottentots,
and lying N. and NK. of them, are the Caffres, in
all respects a different race. The colour of the
Kaffer is neither black, like that of the Negro, nor
of the colour of a faded leaf, like that of the Hot-
tentot, but of a deep brown. Hair short, ciurling,
and woolly ; but it is not of the wooliness of the
Negro, l^ose tolerably elevated ; lips large and
thick ; but the lower maxillary bone does not pro-
: jcct in the remarkable manner of the Negro, and
consequently the facial angle is much greater.
The Iwdy, instead of being, as in the Hottentot,
I diminutive and feeble, is muscular and athletic,
I and the stature is equal to that of the European
I race. The peculiarities of the female form in their
southern neighbours have no existence among
them, and the genius of their language is distinct
and pculiar. In the useful arts they have made
considerable progress. })esides domesticating the
ox and sheep, they have also tamed the horse and
I goat ; and their agriculture extends to the culti-
vation of barley and millet. It is a singular and
distinctive trait that they practise universally the
rite of circumcision. Of the origin of the practice
they can give no account ; and it has most pro-
bal)ly been derived from intercourse, at some re-
mote period, with some people by whom it was
practised.
The Abyssinian race is entirely different from
those previously mentioned. Their colour is nearly
black ; but the hair is long, and generally lank,
like that of an Arab or Hindoo. Features regular,
after the European model, and the nose often aqui-
line. The stature equals that of the European ;
and the whole person is generally well fonned, and
occasionally handsome. The nations compre-
hended under this race have made considerable
progress in the useful arts. They have domesti-
cated most of the useful animals, as the ox, sheep,
horse, ass, and camel ; and cultivate most of the
common corns, as wheat, barley, and millet. They
also work, with some skill, articles of iron, copper,
and brass ; and except the ancient Eg3rptians, and
probably the Numidians, are the only native race
of the entire continent who have invented an al-
phabet or possessed a literature.
The Egyptian race is represented by the Copts
of Egjrpt. These have long hair, a yellowish
dusky complexion, neither Grecian nor Arabian,
a puffed visage, swollen eyes, flat noses, and thick
lijw ; and, in short, according to Volney, much re-
semble Mulattos, or the mixed offspring of the
European and Negro. It is almost nnnecossnry to
add, that this was one of the earliest civilised rarea
of mankind ; and that at least thirty ages ago it
had already tamed the useful animals, cultivated
the most valuable plants, smelted the useful aiul
precious metals, and erected architectural monu-
ments which for their durability, extent, and gran-
deur, still astonish the world. They were also
among the first to invent hieroglyphic and alpha-
betic writinf^.
The next race to bo named is the Numidian.
The people who inhabit the northern portion of
Africa from about the 18* of N. latitude to the
Mediterranean, and known by the various names
of Moors, Berbers, Tuanghis, and Tibbans, are, in
some cases with an admixture of Arab blood, pro-
bably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
before the settlement of the Phccnicians, Romans,
Vandals, or Arabs ; that is, they are the descend-
ants of the Lybians, Numidians,' Mauritanians, and
kindred tribes. With this race the hair is long and
black i eyes dark ; the colour of the skin a light
brown, little deeper than that of the inhabitants
of Spain • the features are Euro])ean, but the nose
generally not very prominent, and never aquiline,
as is often the case with the Arabian. Although
apparently superior at all times in civilisation to
any Negro nation, this race appears at no period
to have made any remarkable progress in arts or
arms, and scarcely any in letters ; for it has been
ascertained only of late years, rather as a matter
of curiosity than anything else, that they once
possessed the art of alphabetic writing. Theii- lan-
guafje, indeed, is but the jargon of a rude jxiople,
destitute of terms to express the most common
distinct ideas, such as shortness, roundness, sloth,
and death. Such ideas are either expressed by cir-
cumlocutions, or in more ditlicult circumstances
recourse is had to the Arabic language. Their in-
feriority is indeed most decidedly implied by the
facility with which they have given way before
every successive race of conquerors, during a pe-
riod of at least 2,500 years.
The next race to be described may be called the
Nubian', and, with the exception of the Abys-
sinians, will comprehend nearly all the people of
Africa from about 8° of N. latitude to the southen
confines of Egypt, and from the Red Sea anH. jn-
dian Ocean on the east to about the 25^ of i;. lon-
gitude westward. In this race are included the
people called Barabra or Nuba, the people of Sennar,
the Sumuli, the Snaking, the Bishari, the Abab-
dah, the Galla, and others. A long oval counte-
nance ; a curved nose, somewhat rounded towards
the top ; rather thick lips, but not protniding ex-
cessively, like those of the Negro ; a retreating
chin ; scanty beard ; lively dark eyes ; strongly
fiizzled, but never woolly hair ; and a finely formed
person of the middle size, with a bronze com-
plexion, are the physical characteristics of this
race. Some of the nations of this race have made
considerable progress in the common arts of life,
but they !iave no indigenous literature.
With the exceptions now mentioned, the rest of
the African continent may be said to be peopled
by the Negro race, which commences at the south-
em boundary of the great desert, and, embracing
both the western and eastern coast, with the island
of Madagascar, extends to about 20° of S. latitude.
The following are the leading characteristics of
this well-kno%vn varietv of our species : — Skin and
eyes black; hair black and woolly; skull com-
pressed laterally, and elongated towards the front ;
forehead low, narrow, and slanting ; cheek bones
prominent; jaws narrow and projecting; upper
firont teeth oblique; chin receding; eyes promi-
nent; nose broad, thick, fiat, and confused with
I
"St Ik !l
i
^2
AFRICA
tho oxt«ncIcd Jaw ; lipn, nnrtictilorly the upper one,
very thick ; pahnx cif tfic hand and moIch of tho
feet Hat ; tibia and libula convex ; polviH narrow ;
knees turned in, tneH turne<l out. The Htnture ami
Shyttical Htrength arc equal to that of the European,
lany of the Negro trilwM have made conHiderublc
progrcflH in tho neceimary and uscfid artH, a pro-
grcHH which, it may be safely affinned, greatly »ur-
notiHcM that made by any native race of AuiT«rica.
I'hey cultivate utteful grains, r(H>ts, and fruits ; Ijave
appropriated the services of many of the domestic
animals, such as the ox, horse, ass, camel, goat,
sheep, and hog, all of which appear to be indige-
nous. It is singular, however, that no Xegro tribe,
nor even any native African race, has ever had the
ingenuity to tame and train tho elephant, a service
to civilisation which has been performed by almost
every Asiatic nation to whose country this animal
is indigenous, and which there is abundant evi-
dence to show was done by the Carthaginian and
Koman settlers in Africa.
It is a still more striking fact that no Xegro,
and indeed no African nati(m, save the Egyptians,
Abyssinians, and partially the Numidians, ever
])ossesscd a literature, or had ingenuity to invent
any alphabet, however rude.
The general character thus sketched belongs
with more or less intensity to the whole Negro
race within the limits we have assigned to It ; but
it is not at the same time to be forgotten that there
is much variety — a greater perhaps than exists
among tlic European or any other family. The
Berbers form the chief part of the population of
Barbary, and, according to Dr. Barth, ' are of im-
mense importance in the whole question of African
and Asiatic ethnography, as a link between various
nnd most distinct races.' He estimates them in
Barbary, though existing under different names,
and speaking dialects greatly mixed with Arabic,
at between 7,000,000 and 8,000,000. The Man-
dingos are a numerous people, occupying the moun-
tainous country on the west side of the continent
which lies towards the sources of the rivers Senegal
and Gambia. They possess the true Negro fea-
tures, but not in an exaggerated form. The colour
is black, with a mixture of yellow ; the person
strong, symmetrical, and above the middle stature.
Of all the Negro races the Mandingos have exhi-
bited the greatest aptitude for improvement. They
are industrious, enterprising, and, compared vnth
their neighbours, of an o|)en and generous cha-
racter. They have adopted the Mohammedan re-
ligion, and with it the letters and literature of
Arabia. The Foulalts, or Fulbe, inhabit the same
portion of Africa. The colour of the skin with this
race is a sort of reddish black. Their countenances
are regular, and their hair Icmger and not so woolly
as that of the ordinary Negro. They are robust,
courageous, industrious and enterprising, and like
the Mandingos have adopted the literature and
religion of Arabia. They lack the industry of the
Mandingos, and manifest a want of political or-
ganisation, being, from their origin, cUsposed to a
nomadic exbtence. They are intermixed with
several other tribes, so that great diversity of type
and colour prevails amongst them. They are of
great importance as regards communication along
the Niger. Altogether they make a c(msiderable
approach to the family which we have before de-
scribed under the name of the Nubian. The
Suhnias are a sr^uat robust Negro race, not ex-
ceeding 5 feet 8 inches high. They are remark-
able for their courage and hardihood, and have
made considerable progress in the common arts of
life, but have not adopted Mohammedanisn or the
Arabic letters. The Jolofi inhabit both the mari-
time and mountain country on the south banks of
the Senegal, and arc. In fact, tho first Xegro nation
we encounter on the western side of the continent
after quitting the Berbers. Their complexion is a
tine transparent dc black. With the exception
of thick lips and a nose much roundeil at the end,
their tcatiires make some approacli to the Euro-
pean. The hair is crisp and woolly, the staliiro
tall, and the figure<good. To the south of tliu
Gambia, and extenilinj' to Cape Palmas, we And
the race called Feloupt, of a deep black odour;
with longish woolly hair; features so regular an
to be thought to licar some resemblance to tlio
Hindoo ; am', of slight and short stature, but mucli
agility. These are nearly in a savage state. To
tlie south of the Feloups are the Papain, a race of
very ugly Negroes, of dull, gross, and ferocir)iis
asiwct, with very flat noses, and of a dirty livid
colour. These and some other races resembling
them are followed in proceeding southward by the
Bullom, &c., of a fine black colour, of gcMMl features,
and well made, with persons above the mean sta-
ture. The Tehu, or Tedti, occupy the eastern half
of the desert, corresponding in ])OHition to tho
Berbers on the western side. The Baiisa form an
intermediate race between the Berbers and Ne-
groes : near neighlxxirs to these are the Kantlri or
Bdmu. On both sides of the Niger ore settled
the Yoruba-Nufe nations, industrious and com-
mercial people. Farther to the cast arc the Log6n
or LAggone, the Bagirma, and the Wadai. The
Bagirnia are a fine race, but cruel. Wadai isi
powerful kingdom, with a population of about
0,000,000. Procceiling southward, and more to the
Gold coast and the country lying inland from it,
we find the Intor, Fantee, and Ashantee nations,
which appear to constitute another distinct variety
of the Negro race. It is of the mean stature, and
well proportioned. The face is of an oval form ;
the eyebrows lofty and thick ; the lips fresh, red,
and not hanging down as in the extreme forms of
the Xegro ; and the nose not so flat. The hair is
rather curled than woolly, and occasionally so long
as to reach to the shoulders. Tho Ashantee belong
to * a larger groiip of people,' says Dr. Barth, * con-
stituting the O'chi race.' Xow and then are to lie
seen examples rather Asiatic than African. No
nation of this variety has ever possessed the art of
writing, either springing up among themselves or
borrowed from strangers ; and, although they have
all made considerable progress in several of the
common arts of life, they are in the habitual per-
petration of cruel and ferocious rites,- not to be
paralleled by any other race of mankind. From
the Bight of Biafra down to 20° S. latitude, where
we encounter the Kaffers, there is comparatively
little variation fi«m our general description of the
Negro family. Dr. Livingstone tells us that tho
amount of population in the central parts of Africa
is to be called large, only in comparison with Cape
colony, or the Bcchuana country, v. .ach extends
from tho Orange Kiver m IS** south latitude. He
says of these tribes, * The people who inhabit the
central rejjion are not all quite black in colour.
Many incline to that of bronze, and others arc as
light in hue as the Bushmen.' Amongst the
south-western tribes are the Ovanepo, a corn-grow-
ing, honest, and well-ordered people, who, consi-
dered as blacks, are highly civilised ; the Demaras,
a handsome, sprightly, but worthless race; aiul
the Ghou Danup, a very peculiar race of Negroes.
In the interior of Africa, lying between the Moun-
tains of the Mo<m, which cross, or are supposed to
cross, the entire continent in about 10° of X. lati-
tude, and the great desert, wc have, as far as our
very imperfect information extends, little variety
from the common type of the Xegro. This is tlic
coimtiy which the Arabs call Soudan; a word
AFRICA
33
he first XegTo nntirtn
lide of the continent
heir complexion iH a
With the exception
roundetl at the end,
proncli to the Euro-
woolly, the stature
fo the south of thu
ape Palmas, we find
I ilcep black cidour;
laturcfl so rcRular as
resemblance to tlie
urt stature, but much
I a savage state. To
the Papal*, a race ot
f^ross, and ferocious
and of a dirty livid
ler races resembling
ng southward by the
lour, of gootl features,
above the mean sta-
cupy the eastern half
' in jmsition to the
The IlaiiBa form an
he Uerl)er8 and Ne-
jse are the Kantlri or
he Niger are settled
idustrious and coni-
ie cost arc the LogAn
[id the Wadai. The
t cruel. Wadai isi
population of about
ward, and more to the
lying inland from it,
lid Ashantee nations,
lother distinct variety
he mean stature, and
! is of an oval form ;
I ; the lips fresh, red,
the extreme forms of
t so tlat. The hair is
1 occasionally so long
The Ashantee belonj^
says Dr. Barth, ' con-
>w'and then are to Ih)
than African. Ni>
possessed the art of
among themselves or
although they have
in several of the
in the habitual per-
ous rites,- not to be
of mankind. From
!0° S. latitude, where
ere is comparatively
ral description of the
ine tells us that the
entral parts of Africa
omparison with Cape
ntry, v. .iich extends
south latitude. He
ople who inhabit the
ite black in colour,
ze, and others are as
len.' Amongst the
v^anepo, a corn-grow-
peoplc, who, consi-
ilisccl; theDemaras,
worthless race; and
liar race of Negroc?.
between the Mouii-
s, or are supposed to
bout 10° of N. lati-
have, as far as our
tends, little variety
Negro. This is the
11 iSoudan; a word
Iwhioh means the countrj' of black men,* and \»
lexiictly c(juivalent to the Persian word Ilindostan.
[On the east coast of AfHca, between the Caffn
and Nubian races, we have notldng but true Ne-
groes. It is, however, U\ be observed of these, that
although the woolly head, black skin, flat nose,
thick lips, and projecting jaws are never absent,
their excess which is found in general on the west-
(cm coast does not exist. Captain Burton Siiys,
I that the aspect of the great mass of this Negroid
J race is not unprcposse .wing. They are tall and
I well-made Muhittos, tut a handsome man is never
seen except amongst the chiefs. The osteological
structure of the head is not so heavy as in the
I pure Negro. The haiv of these races is stiff, short,
crisp, and curling, 'jnder the same denomination,
I though shorter and feebler, is to be included the
inhabitants of the great island of Madagascar;
I who, because their language contains pntbably
I alx>ut 100 or 160 words of Malayan, are absunlly
I supposed by some writers to be of the Malayan
I race, which they no more resemble than they do
I Europeans. The introduction of such terms has,
tin fact, been satisfactorily accounted for by the
I drifting of boats with crews of Malays from the
Idhore of the island of Sumatra, two or three au-
Ithentic examples of which have occurred within
lour o^vn times. The fact of such occurrences
•having taken place is a suflicient answer to the
(apparent difficulty of open boats with their crews
I performing a voyage which cannot be less than
|<),000 nautical miles. The manner in which such
{events would take place is, we thinkj obvious
Icnough. A trading or fishing-boat, with a few
■cocoa-nuts, affording meat and drink to the crews,
land known to be a constant sea-stock in such cases,
Jrivcn from the coast of Sumatra in the height of
the NE. monsoon, would in due course be carried
linto the SE. trade wind, and going with a flowing
nheet before the wind ^the only course she could
Ipnraue), would be carried to the shore of Mada-
Ignscar in a shorter time and with more safety than
Imight at first be imagined
I Such is a brief and necessarily imperfect account
lof the races of men inhabiting Africa. The sub-
liect is indeed full of difficidty; not only from its
Icxtent, variety, and complexity, but also from
Ithc imperfect infonnation, and indeed in most
leases the entire ignorance, which exists regarding
lit. Tlie numbjr of different nations, and even of
Idistinct languages, is proportional to the barbarism
[of the people; and there is no quarter of the globe,
I America excepted, in which the number of both is
I so great
There are no accurate means by which to form
I an estimate of the population of AJfrica, the calcula-
tions varj'ing between 60,000,000 and 100,000,000.
I Probably the mean of these, namely 80 millions,
[accepted by Ritter and other eminent geographers,
I will be nearest the truth.
Animah of Africa, — These, at its northern ex-
jtrcmity, where it approaches Europe, and at its
[eastern, where it approaches, or rather joins, Asia,
I arc generally the same as those of these two por-
Itions of the globe; but throughout its greater part
I they are not only different from the Euroixym and
I African species, but equally also from the animals
[of the two portions of America, and from those of
[the Oceanic continent and islands. We shall con-
[fine our observations chiefly to those more imme-
|dintely subservient to the uses of man.
Of 1,270 known species of terrestrial Mammalia
[there have been discovered in Africa, although
[ more imperfectly explored than any other portion
[of the globe, no fewer than 290, of which 242
[are peculiar to this continent. Of the Quadni-
inmna, comprchcudiiig apes, moiilccys, and lemurs,
Vol, I.
there are 65 upecicd, of which 48 are {tcctiliar
to it; not one of them being identical with tlio
species found in Asia or America. One of tho
most remarkable of the whole tribe is the Simia
troglodytei, or chimpanzee, which, after a careful
anatomical comparison with tho orung utan of
Borneo, is now considered to make in physical
formation a nearer a))pn>ach Xn man than the lat-
ter, while it is unquestionably more lively and
intelligent. Another curious specimen of tho
Troglodytei Ls the nshietfo-mhorme, or nest-making
ape, of which M. Uu Ciiaillu gives an account in
his travels, and which constructs for itself a house
of leafy branches in lonely forest trees, always
choosing a tree which stands a little apart from
others. The Kooloo-kaniba is another species of
African ape. But the most wonderful of all this
great family is the Gorilla. M. Du Chaillu thus
describes a meeting with one of these monsters :—
' He stood about a doaen yards from us, and was
a sight I think I shall never forget. Nearly six
feet high (he proved four inches shorter), with im-
mense bodv, huge chest, and great muscular arms,
with fiercely-glaring large deep gray eyes, and a
hellish expression of face, which seemed to me
like some nightmare vision : thus stood before us
this king of the African forest. He was not afraid
of us. He stood there, and beat his breast with
his huge fists till it resounded like an immense
bass dnim, which is their mode of offering do-
fiance, meantime giving vent to roar after roar.'
Of the Cheiroptera, or bats, there are 80 species in
Africa, 4 of which only are common to it with
Europe and Asia. The carnivorous animals of
Africa are 66 in num1)er, of which 14 only are
found in other parts of tho world. The most re-
markable of these is the lion, which is known
historically to have once existed in the east of
Europe and west of Asia. With the exception of
an inferior variety found in some parts of northern
Hindostan, this animal, so renowned in the fable,
poetry, painting, and sculpture of almost ever^
nation of the old world, from China to Spain, is
now confined to Africa (Leonum arida nutrix)',
which it ranges from its N. to its S. extremity.
Panthers, leopards, and many small species of
the feline race also exist; and the cat has been
domesticated, though it be much more rarely
found in this state than in Europe, Asia, or eveu
America.
Of the Canine family, Africa contains the dog,
wolf, fox, jackal, and hyena. The dog has not
been found there in the wild state, but many
varieties exbt in a semi-domesticated condition,
living in troops in the towns and villages, as it
does in almost all the countries of Asia. The
Africans have never, that we are aware of, used
it for food or labour, or even for the chase.
Jackals and foxes are numerous. Africa may be
considered the peculiar country of the hyena;
for of four existing species one only, belonging
to Hindostan, is found out of its limits. Of the
Viverra, or civets, several species exist in Africa;
among which is the true civet cat, domesticated
by the natives to produce civet ; and a species of
the Mongoos, viz. the celebrated Ichneumon, or
rat of Pharoah. Of bears, which either still exist,
or are known to have existed, in almost every
country of Europe, Asia, and America, no example
has yet been found in Africa.
The Marsupial order of animals, or that of
which the females have a double womb, is wholly-
wanting in Africa, as it is in Europe and con-
tinental Asia. Of tho Kodent Mammalia, or
gnawers, Africa yields many species of rats,
squirrels, and four or five species of hare; while
the rabbit is thought to have been originally
D
^wm
'If
III
jiii:
in
84
AFRICA
brought to Eurnpo throuf;h Spain firom the Af-
rican coast of tho Mediterranean. The Pachy-
demutta, or thick-$kinned order, iit very aburdant;
more bo indeed than in any other port uf tho
world. We find among these tho horse, ass,
zebra, dow, and qua^a; tho elephant, rliino-
ceroH, hippoputomuH, common hog, and lingallo
or African boar. Ahhoiigh the horse cannot bo
asserted to be a native of Africa, not being found
in tho wild state, it has been domesticated there
from tho earliest ages of history. The Nnmi-
dians had their cavalry when the Romans first
became acquainted with them; and the horse
does not appear to have been a stranger oven
to tho ancient Egyptians; though among tho
mummies of quadrupeds found in the catacombs
that of this animal does not appear. Tho most
improved of tho negro tribes possesa the horse,
and have often a numerous cavalry; but, like
Asiatics, generally, the Africans do not apply the
horse to draught or burthen, and coniine its use
to war or pleasure. When tho Arabs conquered
Egypt and northern Asia, they introduced their
own breed, which, mixed in some degree with
the native one, constitutes the Imrb and Egyptian
horse — little inferior to tho pure Arabian blood
itself. Tho Dutch and English introduced into
the colony, at the southern extremity of tho
continent, their respective national breeds; and
the soil and climate of Africa being found gene-
rally congenial to the constitution of the horse,
it has thriven and multiplied there as scarcely
anywhere else.
The ass is most probably not a native of Africa,
or wo should still, in a country so little occupied
by man, find it in its wild state, as we do in so
many countries of Asia. It has, however, been
introduced into Egypt and Barbary, — possibly by
the Arabs, — and thrives extremely well in both.
The zebra, the dow, and the c|Hagga, quadrupeds
peculiar to Africa, and beautiful, at least as to
colour, are found in troops all over its arid plains
and deserts. But from a natural indocility or
wajrwardness of temper, or from the unskilfulness
of tho African people, — probably, indeed, from
both causes, — and the possession of the horse and
ass, they have never been tamed and applied to
economical uses.
Ruminating animals ore not less abundant than
the Pachydermuta, Of the 157 species of those
which are ascertained to exist, 73 are found in
Africa; and, with the exception of 10, all of them
are peculiar to it. Tho dromedary, or single-
humped camel, is now abundant in all the dry
parts of Africa, and is the principal beast of
burthen. In the earliest portion of scriptural his-
tory it is mentioned as being employed in carry-
ing on tho trade between Syna, Arabia, and
Egypt, and therefore it is fairly concluded that
it was well known to the ancient Egyptians. It
is also found sculptured on some of the earliest
Egyptian architectural monuments. Egypt, how-
ever, from position, physical character, and civi-
lisation, was always more an Asiatic than an
African country ; and from tho fact of the camel's
existing there, its general diflfusion over tho
country cannot bo inferred. It does not appear to
have been known in tho portion of Africa lying
along the coast of the Mediterranean during its
possession by the Romans ; and it seems not im-
probable, therefore, as some have conjectured, that
Its general diflfusion over the continent was the
work of the Arabs, after their adoption of the
Mohammedan religion in the 7th century. The
Giraffe, known to the Romans, and used in their
games, is exclusively an inhabitant of the dry
parts of Africa. Notwithstauduig \t» size, strength,
and grntloncms, it has never been applied, in itg
domesticated state, to any useful pur|Miso of man ;
and from its eccentric and awkward form of move-
ment, is probably unlit for onv.
Homed cattle, or oxen, of man^ varieties, an
general among all tho mot« civilised tril)es of
Africa; and in Egypt tho existence of the ox
is coeval with the earliest records of the country.
Mummies of this animal have been found in tlic
catacombs, supposed to be not less than three
thousand years ohl. Whether the original stock
was imported or was indigenous, cannot bo ascer-
tained; but most probably tho latter, for the
common ox in the wild state is not known to ex-
ist in any part of this continent as it does in many
parts of Asia and its islands, and as it is known
once to have done in Europe. The bufTulo (Bni
bubalui) has been naturalised in Egypt since the
middle ages, havhig been introduced from India
through the conquests of the Arabs. One speci(>g
of the ox family only is ascertained to be indi-
genous to Africa, and is peculiar to its B<juthcm
extremity. This is tho Duffalo of tho Cape, or
Bos Cajfer ; an animal of great size and ferocity,
which has never been tamed, and is probably uii-
tameablo.
Sheep and goats exist throughout all the drier
parts of the continent ; but neither are found in
the wild state, and have probably been intn>-
duced. The prevalent variety of the first is that
with the fat tail, of from 10 to 30 pounds weight,
the same which is so general in Persia, Arabia,
and Tartary; and which, though long looked
upon as a rarity and a monstrosity, is probably i
as extensively diffused over the globe as the
variety more familiar to us. Tho wool and flesh
of the fat-tailed sheep ore greatly inferior to those
of our own breed ; but the flesh of the lamb is
thought to bo superior. There are said to be but
two species of deer— one of which is the common
fallow deer — existing in this continent, and these
are confined to the countries boniering the Mecii-
terrancan. This is compensated by the existence
of not less than (iO species of antelope, all peculiar
to it ; a number far exceeding that of the genus
found in every other part of the world. Some of
the species, as the gazelle, do not exceed a foot
and a half high, and are remarkable for the beauty
and gracefulness of their form. Others ere equal
in size to a laige ass or zebra ; as the gnu, which
has the body, tail, and paces of a horse. The
most numerous species is perhaps the springbnk;
which, in the wide plains of southern Africa, is !
said to be found in herds of 10,000, or even 60,000,
Not one of the whole family bos ever been do-
mesticated for the purposes of food or labour by
the natives, as tho rein and fallow deer have been
in Europe. |
The elephant is found in all the wooded and
low parts of Africa, from the northern limits of
the great desert to the southern capo ; and gene-
rally in greater numbers than any where else in
the world, if we except Ceylon and tho countries
lying between Hindostan and China. The African
elephant diflfers, specifically, from the Asiatic.
The crown of the tooth is marked by a lozenge
instead of ribbon stripes ; the hind foot has thru |
toes instead of four ; the forehead is convex in-
stead of concave, and the ears are longer. In
point of size, general form, st^acity, and docility,
there is probably no great difference. No native
African people, that we are aware of, ever tamed i
the elephant. When an African is told that this
is done in the East, he is as incredulous as a
European would be if an African told him that
his countrymen tamed the hippopotamus, and
used it as a beast of burden. The only hint wc
AFBIOA
r been appliwl, In its
eful purjHiw! «)f man ;
kward form of mov»-
r many varieties, aro
re civiliHcil tril)es of
exisUince of the ox
!onl8 of the country,
I'G been found in the
not less than tlirrc
ler the original stock
QUA, cannot bo osccr-
tlio latter, for the
) b not known to cx-
snt as it docs in many
I, and as it is knowii
e. The buffalo {Itm
d in Egypt since tlie
itroduced from India
I Arabs, One species
icertaincd to bo indi-
ndiar to its southern
ffttlo of the Cape, or
eat size and ferocity,
1, and is probably uii-
oughout all the drier
neitlier are found in
probably been intro-
ty of the first is that
I to 30 pounds weight,
ral in Persia, Arabia,
though long looked
•nstrosity, is probably
'er the globe as the
, The wool and flesh
reatly inferior to those
tlesh of the lamb h
here are said to bo but i^;
which is the common
s continent, and these
s bonlering the Medi-
tated by the existence
f antelope, all peculiar
ing that of the genus
r the world. Some of 1
do not exceed a foot |
lorkable for the beauty
jrm. Others ere equal
ra ; as the gnu, which
:e8 of a horse. The
jrhaps the springboit;
of southern Africa, is
10,000, or even 60,000.
lly has ever been do- j
of food or labour by !
fallow deer have been
all tbe wooded and
|he northern limits of
lem capo ; and gene- 1
|an any where else in
Ion and the countries
Id China. The African
r, from the Asiatic,
larked by a lozenge {
J hind foot has thret
Irehead is convex in-
lears are longer. In
lagacity, and docility,
lifference. No native {
iware of, ever tamed
lean is told that this
I as incredulous as a ]
Jean told him that
hippopotamus, and i
The only hint w
Lave nccn that «nch a thing mkv be, is given by
JMr. Campbell, the African traveller, who mforms
us that he was told by a people of the interior
rhom he encountered, that another people more
idvnnced in civilisarion than themselves, the Ma-
J»ala»Iey, ' wear clothen, ride on elephants, climb
Into their houses, and are go<l8.' That the ele-
phants use<l by the Carthaguiians were of the
African species there cannot, we think, bo the
least question. One of the conditions of the treaty
forced upon them by the Romans after the battle
ttf Zoma implies this clearly enough. They were
surrender all the elephants which they had
amed, and to tame no more for the future. Livy's
_ccount is ! — * Perfugas, fugitivosque, et captives
omncs rcdderent Roman is, et naves rostratas, pneter
decern triremes traderent, elephanto»que, quos ha-
'erent domito$; ncque domarent alios.' — (Livy, lib.
ixx. c. 87.) The elephants of Pyrrhus were, no
(lubt, Asiatic, and received through the Mace-
onian conquests. His invasion of lUly was but
7 years after the Indian invasion of Alexander ;
,iHt therefore, considering the long age of the
lephant, the very individual animals in the army
if Pyrrhus may have been the same which Alex-
nder brought from the banks of the Indus. The
nrthaginians being of an Asiatic, and not an
frican stock, form no exception to our previous
mark. The Egyptians, the only people of
frica from whose ingenuity we might have
ked for the domestication of the elephant, had
to tame; nor was their highly cultivated
Country well suited for their use, if they had. As
contrast to the Africans, it may be observed,
hat there is no people of Asia whose country pro-
luces the elephant by whom it has not been
lomesticated and used as a beast of burden, from
he Hindoos, the most civilised, to the Malays,
he least so. The Africans consider the elephant
^nly as a beast of chase, and hunt it for its ivory,
1 flesh, and its hide ; and the herds are so nume-
0U9, and the population so scanty, that the supply,
ccording to present circumstances, appears for all
bractical purpttses inexhaustible.
The two-homed rhinoceros, of a different species
rora the two-homed rhinoceros of Sumatra, inha-
|)its the same localities as the elephant, and is
hunted with the same avidity by the natives for
Its tough and thick hide and its horns. Traces for
Dx-hamess, but above all shields, arc made of the
h>nncr, which are in repute throughout all eastem
pountries; and the latter are used for their sup-
K)scd medical virtues, and are a regular object of
aflic. It may be oteerved of this species of rhi-
noceros, as well as of the two which belong to
India and its islands, that their docility and capa^
bity for domesdcation are not inferior to those of
[the elephant itself. The slow and sluggish move-
Qcnts of this animal make it, notwithstanding
{these qualities and its great strength, an unsuit-
able beast of burthen, especially in countries where
Ihe elephant, the ox, the buffalo, and the horse
exist; and, consequently, it has never been ap-
plied to such a purpose.
The hippopotamus is exclosively a native of
irica, inhabiting the rivers and fresh-water l^kes
bf the whole continent, from the southern confines
pf the Sahara nearly to the extreme cape. It was
veil known to the Greeks and Romans as an in-
habitant of the Nile ; from which, however, it has
|iow disappeared everywhere below the third cata-
act. In the rivers and lakes of tropical Africa it
ktill exists in undiminished numbers, being from
^ts locality difficult to come at by the hunter.
The common hog, in the wild state, is said to be
found at the two extremities of the continent,
vhere it approaches Europe and Asia, viz. Bu-
bary and Egjrpt ; bnt there is no evidence of tho
existence, anywhere else in Africa, of this animal,
which was at one time general throughout Europe,
and is still general throughout Asia and its large
islands. Its place seems to be taken by the lingal-
lo, or masked boar. This animal, which has teeth
of a formation and growth resembling those of tho
elephant, and a large pendulous protuberance sup-
ported by a bony process on each cheek, giving it
a hideous api)carancc, is not only found on tho
continent, but in Madagascar and the Canary Is-
lands. It has never been domesticated, but tho
common hog has to a limited extent.
The native Ornithology of Africa does not pre-
sent the same number of subjects subservient to
man as that of Asia, or oven of America. Tho
common fowl, goose, and duck are all of them
probably strangers, and there is no doubt that thia
IS the case with at least the first. They are bred
by the native inhabitants, but only to a very
limited extent. The only bird which Africa haa
contributed to the poultry-yard is the Guinea hen :
of this genus there are four or five species found
abundantly on the western coast and its islands.
The bird, as its Latin name, Numida, implies, wa.4
known to the Romans, and bred by them. Most
probably they received it domesticated from the
Carthaginians. It i.s very remarkable that it is
now wholly unknown to any African people in the
domestic state, except as imported by European
colonists — a singular proof of apathy and dniness
in the whole race. This bird seems to supply, in
Africa, the place of the common fowl of Lurwiie,
the peacocks and pheasants of Asia, and the tur-
keys and alectros of America. The ostrich, which
once extended to the nearest parts of Asia, is now
confined to Africa; and the Arabs are said to have
introduced the practice of breeding them in the
domestic state, in order to obtain their feathers in
greater perfection. Of our summer birds of pas-
sage many pass their winters in Africa; as tho
cuckoo and nightingale, some swallows, and the
common quail and land-rail. The cheerful and
active period of their lives, therefore, is passed
among us, and the note of the cuckoo and song of
the nijrhtingale are wholly unknown to the jjcople
of Africa. The woods of tropical Africa abound
with birds of the parrot family, from those which
are no bigger than a lark to some which are
equal in size to a large falcon. As in South
America, the Indian Islands, and Australia, they
are remarkable for the variety and brilliancy of
their plumage, their dissonant and incessant notes,
and their utter inutility to man. Proportional to
the number of graminivorous and frugivorous birds,
and of wild mammals and reptiles, is that of eagles,
hawks, vultures, and other birds of prey.
Among reptiles are to be found a great variety
of the lizard family, from the chameleon up to the
crocodile ; and of snakes ^a few poisonous, bnt the
greater number harmless), some species not ex-
ceeding a few inches long, up to the python,
which measures 30 feet in length. All the 8])ecieii
of this class differ from those of Asia and America,
not to say of Europe, or the Indian Islands, or
Australia. Africa, of course, abounds in the insect
tribe. Of these the bee alone is directly useful to
man, but has never been domesticated by the
Africans. Africa yields no useful insect, such as
the kermes of Europe and Western Asia, the lac
of Eastem Asia, or the cochineal of South
America.
Plants of Africa. — In reference to its Flora,
Africa may be divided into three districts, namely,
the Atlantic, the Equinoctial, and the Austral re-
^on. A fourth may be added in the principal
islands on its western and eastem sides, viz. the
»2
««
AFRICA
CanAricfl and MndapfOfloar, with the MniiritiuK and
ItoiirlNtii. The ))lant8 of the Mt'ditcrranuan cooiit
difTcr little or nothin;; from those of tlu; npjioHito
«horo of Andalusia. Wheat, barley, niai/.c, rico,
the KTii\w, the fl^, olive, and date, att well as the
cotton plant, thrive here in perfection. It is not
until we reaoh as far south as K^ypt, that the
Flora assumes a character intermediate, as it were,
Itetween Kuro|iean and Tropical ; an<l hore, to the
plantA already enumerated, may be added the
Bu^ar-cane, cotton, indi);o, and coflco. In lJp|)cr
Effypt, Nubia, and Al»yssinia, we have a some-
what peculiar vt^tation ; and hero we find the
acaciat, which prcnluee gum-arabic, and the ea»sia»,
which yield the medicinal senna. In Altyssinia
first appears the Hcitaniineous fitmily of plants,
the same which in the Kast yields ginger, tunne-
ric, ani cardamoms. The coffee plant still grows
wild in the same regiim, which is indeed supposed
to be its native country.
In the equinoctial part of Africa a totally new
vegetation presents itself, entirely differing from
that of Europe, and almost equally so from those
of tropical Asia and America. One conspicuous
forest tree of great size, however, the Bombax
jittntandrum is common to the three continents.
Another forest tree of vast magnitude, the Itaobab,
or AduHsonia, is sup)>oaed to afford cxam])U!S of the
oldest living organized matter on our glolw; some
specimens, l>y counting the numlier of their con-
centric circlcit, being estimated at near 6,000 years
old. The African oak, or teak, which, however, is
probably neither the one nor the other, though its
rM>tanical place has not lieen as yet ascertained, is
an inhabitant of the same region. The bamboo,
so common and so useful in Asia and America, is
unknown to Africa. Whole plains in this quarter
are occasionally overspread with the papyrus plant,
to the exclusion of every other. Peculiar palms
of course abound; among which, however, the
date is no longer found. The most useful of these
is that which yields the oil of commerce, the
£lau Guineenni, Wliether from the barbarism of
the natives, or the nncongeniality of the soil and
climate, corns are little grown, and their place is
taken by hardy fai.naceous roots, pulses, «c, ; as
the Dioscoria or yam, the Aruchis or ground nut,
and the pigeon [tea or CyttBus cajan. The fruits of
tropical Africa, in comparison with those of Kuro]ie,
Asia, the Asiatic islands, or America, are few in
numiwr and of indift'eretit quality. The most re-
markable are the nitta or donna {Parkin Africa-
ns) , a sjiecies of custard apple {A nana Seneqalensis) ,
the safu, the cream fniit, the negro peach (Jano-
rephalus lauritta), the monkey apple, pigeon plums
(Chry»ohalanus), the Kammee a]>ple (Mammea
Africana), and the star ai)|tle {Chryg(ti)hyllum).
The pine ap|)le, a native of America, grows luxu-
riantly in the forests, as if it were indigenous.
As we approach the southern extremity of the
continent, a new form of vegetation presents itself,
differing essentially from that of every other part
of the world, but bearing the nearest analogy to
that of Australia. Its character is suited to the
arid nature of the soil and climate ; and the pre-
vailing genera are euphorbias, aloes, crassulas, and
heaths, of endless species, and often of great beau-
ty ; plants generally with fleshy leaves, and slen-
<ler roots, which are nourished more bj' dew than
by the moisture of the earth. The grasses are
generally coarse, and forest trees are only found
m the moister parts near the banks of rivers.
In the Canary Islands the species arc for the
most |)art European, but their growth and luxu-
riance is tropical. The great island of Madagascar
has on its western side plants common to Africa,
and on its eastern some that arc common to the
Indian archipelngo. Ilut generally lioth liore niiit
in liourbon and the Mauritius, the Vlora is |ieculiar
ami local.
Heligum. — Feticism, or the wonihi|i of natural
objects, animate or inanimate, is, in its nnwt
degrading and offensive form, the religion of ihv
greater numlicr of the inhabitants of Africa, Immii^'
professed by almost all the Negrm'S, and by nearly
all the natives of Madagnwnr. They afi|K'ar
f generally to admit a g<MNl and an evil principle,
lave their lucky and unlucky days ; and their
priests claim the power of preserving men ami
animals from the influence of evil spirits. Sevt-ral
of these nations have a national and supremo fe-
tiche: the p<>ople called Ouidah or Widah, for in-
stance, worship the serjient, an order of i)riosts ainl
priestesses Ix'ing set apart to minister t4) this r<'|h
tile. The liissagos worship the cock; and the
tril)es on the Itight of Itenin, who regard their
own shadow as a fetiche, have a lizard for their
principal divinity. Other tribes worship alliga-
tors, hyenas, leopards, &c. ; and in some instaiu'cit
immolate to them human victims. The AgowH,
who reside near the sources of the Nile in Abys-
sinia, have, with less absunlity than most othern,
from time immemorial, offered sacrifices to the
genius of that river. The narrative of the MiMir
Sydy Hamed represents the inhabitants of Wat-
Bcnah and some frilMis of Nubia, and of other
countries in the region of the Nile and the inte-
rior of Africa, as worshippers of the moon ; and
tliose contiguous to Capo Mesurado in Guinea m
worshippers of the sun. The Galla hold as saen'il
certain trees and stones, the moon, and some (if '
the stars. Sometimes tho Neprnies frame idoln
with a human countenance; and Capt. Tuckey
and Dr. Smith were surjmsed to see, on the banka
of the Zara in the interior of Africa, idols with
Eurojiean figures, and resembling tho Egyptian,
or rather the old Tuscan statues. The Betjouai:^!
have a kind of high-priest, who ranks as the most .
inqtortant personage after the king. At Dagoum-
ba, in central Guinea, there is a famous oracle, tlic ,
resort to which renders it the entrepot of a flonr-
ishing commerce. According to M. Douville (who, '
though referred toby lialbi, is a very doubtful autho- •
rity). the Cassange, Molouas, Muchingi, Moucan- ;
gama, and other nations of southern Nigritia, like ',
many trilws in its centre, unite to idolatrous super-
stitions the horrible practice of human sacrifices:
and though of an hos{)itablo disposition, arc sai<l
to l)c cannibals. Such are the dreadful aberratiniii |
to which unhistructed and uncivilised man is ex-
posed.
Among these nations, human sacrifices, accoitl-
ing to M. Douville, take place only on the acres- 1
sion of a sovereign, or on the occurrence of some I
great epidemic. The victim is always selected out |
of the country, and, if jmssible, at a great distance j
from the place of sacrifice : it must be a yonnj; I
man or woman, nnd ignorant of the fate that I
awaits him or her till the moment of immolation, |
Should any one reveal the fearful secret, death is I
the inevitable penalty. During the interval bo- 1
tween the selection and the sacrifice the victim is I
kept with the greatest care, and every possible I
means is adopted for the purpose of making him I
fat. On the arrival of the fatal moment, he iil
suddenly put to death in the midst of imposing
solemnities, and in the presence of the king, graii-f
dees, and people assembled to witness the spectacle,!
Hia body is usually quartered, and immediately I
roasted, to be portioned out among the spectator; i
according to their rank, and devoured on the spot.r
But enough of these brutalising enormities pcqie |
trated in the sacred name of religion.
With the exception of Abyssinia and the c«li>-|
AFRICA
87
e wonhi|i of natural
inte, 18, in its mimt
I, the rt'li^ion of tli«
tant» of Africa, iH-inn
('KnM'B, and liy nearly
wi'ar. Tlicy Bp|K'nr
Mid an evil prinii|(lc,
city dayd ; anil tlicir
prpHorvinK men and
f evil fiplritfl. Several
oual an<l supremo fi-
idah or Widah, for in-
an order of prientN ami
n miniatcr to this r(|i-
p the cock; and the
lin, who regard tluir
lavo a lizard for their
tribes worsliip allipi-
and in some instanort
victims. The A^owh,
of the Nile in Al>)s-
tlity than most others
fered sacrifices to tlic
narrative of the MiM.r
c inhabitants of VVa>-
Nubia, and of otlur
ho Nile and the int(-
e.rs of the moon; and
Icsurado in Guinea an
fic Galla hold as sacrnl
lie moon, and 8om<! of
B NcRToes frame iddis
;e; and Capt. Tuckry
ed to sec, on the banks
r of Africa, idols with
jmbling the Epvptiaii.
itiics. The Betjoua.is
who ranks as the nm^t
he king. At Uagoiim-
is a famous oracle, tlic
the entrepot of a flour-
ig to M. Douville (wlm,
s a very doubtful aiitlui-
IH, Muchinpi, Mouciin-
Houthem Nipritia, likt
lite to idolatrous miiKr
e of human sacriCnes:
le disposition, arc miA \
he dreadful aberrations
uncivilised man is ex- {
man sacrifices, acconl-
lace only on the iiocw-
the occurrence of some I
is always selected (nit I
ible, at a great distance I
it must Ims a ytninRJ
»rant of the fate that I
noment of immolation, I
fearful secret, death b I
luring the interval bo- 1
sacrifice the victim is I
re, and every possililel
urpose of making him I
e fatal moment, he ii
the midst of imposiii;'
ence of the king, gran-
;o witness the sjicctaclf.
ered, and immediately I
t among the spectatnp
devoured on the fpnt. f
ising enormities pcriic-j
f religion.
ibyBsinia and the colo
tiiM foimdod In modem time* on some points of
Ithe Alrican coast, where Christianity is professed,
IlklohamnuHlanism prevails in all the countries of
lAfrica not devote<l to Foticism and idolatry. It
lis very widely dltt'uscd, having extended itself
lover the whole of Haritary, Kgypt, Nubia, Ac,
land lieing professed by a considerable niimlN-r of
•♦he more advanced Negro nations. Its introduc-
Itioii has iMMm, poriiaps, the greatest tioon ever
Iconferred on Africa, and has tended materiallv to
liniprovc the hat)its and morals of the jKiople. The
I Koran is the only rccogniMed code in many coun-
jtrieH; and, what is singular, the Arabic is evcry-
Iwliere throughout AlVica, with the exception of
JAbvHidnia, the language used by such of the iia-
Itives as either read or write, ft was iiitriKliiced
{ill lh(! lirjtt age of the Hegir.i, and has iMirticipated
lldit little in the improvements that have since
jjK'eii made u|)on it in Asia. Arabic bos Im-cu for
Isoine centuries the language of the Copts or de-
lucendaiits of the ancient Kgyptians.
The Christianity that jirevails in Abyssinia is
{largely alloj'cil with debasing practices and observ-
liiiices'; and the ))ricsts are as ignorant and wortli-
jlesH as can well l)e imagined. With the exce))tion
(of the Caijc Colony, the seats of ChnHtiaiiity in
lotlier parts of the continent are too trifiing to de-
I serve notice ; but a considerable number of Cbris-
jtians of various denominations, and of Jews, are
Ifoimd in countries where Mohammedanism and
IFeticism are prevalent.
iMugmye, — Halbi has given a classification of
|tlie people of Africa according to their languages.
|rerlia|is it was impossible to have sel(H;ted a worse
ittaiiilard. VVe know little, and sometimes literally
Slothing, of the j)eoi)le in some very extensive
Viiiintries, and if it be possible we know still less
of their languages. Our knowledge of the latter
Is indeed in most instances exceedingly imjierfect ;
^o that any classification of the pttople bottomed
b)ii it must necessarily be little else than a tissue
■of errors. The Arabic, as we have just seen, is
lllie learned language of the entire continent. The
|]lcrlH!r is the vcniacular idiom of the Ilarbary
■states; the Sango& is used in Guinea; and the
Iroiil, the lolof, 4c., bear the names of the people
Iby whom they are spoken. The Ambounda is the
llaiigiiagc of all the trilies between the Congo and
Itlie coast of Mozambique. As was to be exjiected
Ifrom the low state of civilisation of those by whom
itlicy are used, these languages arc all miserably
[poor. The reatlcr will find in the article Abyssinia
Isomc account of the language of that singular
Ijiortion of the African continent. Speaking of the
I language of the tribes of the south. Dr. Living-
Istoiie says: 'The structure, or we may say the
|skelctons, of the dialects of Cafirc, liechuana, Da-
ly eiye, Barotse, Bat oka, Batonga or (icople of the
l/aml>csi, Mashora, Babisa. the negroes of Soudo,
I Angola, and people of the West coast, are wonder-
j fully alike. A great proportion of the root is iden-
jtical in all.' The most regularly developed of all
|iiegro languages is the dialect of the Bechuanos,
|into which the Bible is now nearly all translated.
|Thc Hauga language is the most sonorous and
■beautiful of all the languages of Negrrdand, but
Igrammatically defective. The Kauttri is very rich
Im gmmroatic forms. A complete grammar and
■dictionary of the Demara tongue has now been
|made by the Rhenish missionaries.
Government. — Most forms of government, may
■be found in Africa. Despotism, however, in its
Iworxt and most offensive shape, is by far the most
IprGvalent. In some states there exists a sort, of
jeudal aristocracy, and in others an aristocracy
Idepending on the rude distinctions of superior
Istrongth and prowess in war, which porticiiuites to a
greater or loss extent In the rights of sovereignty,
and in some they are (s-cosionally shared by tJio
lieoplo. Some large states consist of a kind of
confederacy of jietty chiefs, who, however, are very
frerpiently at war with each other. In fact, with
but few exceptions, slavery and anarchy reign tri-
umphant thmiighoiit Africa. And it would be to
no puqsise, even if we were accurately informed
as to the discrepancies in the forms of government
established in ilitferent [mrts, to waste the reatler's
time by detailing in what res|M>ct one barbiiMUA
and generally Huctiiating system of government
difiered from another. Since the year IH.Vi, when
the privilege of self-government was iccorded to
the C(doiiy of the Ca|K! of Good IIo|ie, the im-
provement in its development and resources has
■((■en most conspicuous. Algeria, too, has to l>e
reckoned as possessing a civilised government, as
well as the other colonies on the Afrii^an coast
)M)ssessed by France, ltrit:iiii, and Portugal; while
of late years, in Kgypt, some approaches luive lieen
made to Kiiroiieaii models, with the advantage of
greatly stimufaling material prosperity by securing
at least stabilitv and good order.
Inilustry in Africa is at the lowest ebb. I'lxcept
where they are associated with or have Ir'CU in-
structed by Kuro|)caiis or Arabs, the Africans have
made little progress in the arts. All the more la-
borious occupations are devidved (m females ; and
in some parts the wives of kings or |Kif(y jjrhices
are made to till the land for the support of their
barbarian lords. Kven the most necessary arts are
in an extremely backward state.
Commerce. — It may appear a singular and not
easily explained fact, tliat notwithstanding' the
low state of the arts in Africa, and the difiiciilMcs
of the country, an extensive intercourse has beeu
carried on, from the remotest antiquity, Iwtween
very distant parts of that continent. This, no
doubt, has lieen owing to the natural productions
in greatest demand being confined to certain local-
ities: and to the facilities aftbrded for traversing
the vast deserts which intersect Africa by the
aid of the numerous oases with which they are
studded ; and the emjiloyment of the camel, or
ihiu of the desert. Salt ond dates are the princi-
pal articles conveyed fnim northern to central
Africa. The extensive region of Soudan, to the
south of the great desert of Sahara, is completely
destitute of these valuable articles. Both m them,
but esjiccially salt, are, however, in great demand
in it; the latter being, in many piurts, so highly
prized and so scarec as to t)e employed to peiform
the functions of money. This necessary article ia
found in various places in the desert, while dates
are found in the greatest abundance all along its
north frontier, the country adjoining to it l)cing
called from this circumstance Biledulgerid, or the
country (if dates. But, though destitute of these
important products, central Africa has others; such
as gold dust, 'wory, gums, palm oil, feathers, and,
above all, slaves, for which there has always been
a ready market in Barbary and Egypt. In conse-
quence of this natural adaptation of the products
of one part of the continent to supply the wants
of another, an intercourse has sulraisted amongst
them from the remotest antiquity. Even so early
as the days of Herodotus, the merchants engaged
in the interior traffic hod penetrated as far as the
Niger, or one of the rivers flowing into lake Tchml;
which the venerable father of history correctly
describes as a considerable river lieyond a sandy
desert, which it required many days to cross, flowing
eastward, and infested with cn)codiles ! (II. § 32.)
Egypt and different towns in the N. or Barbary
states have always been, and continue to be, the
great scats of this trade. It is carried on at present
88
AFRICA
M it wu 8,000 ydan tf^o, wholly by oaniTanii.
TheM conRMt of an indetinite number of camols,
widom loM than ftOO, and often aa many m from
XfiW) to 2,000. Thoy do not follow a dinwt coumo
acn>M the denert from their (Miint of do|Mrture to
where thoy are deittined, but UiverKe to the obmh.
or venlant itpotii, where thoy procure water and
refresh themHclvofl. If they \m diHamxtiiitod in
fliidintf water at one of these rcstinK-places, or bo
overtaken by a land-itorm, the coiutoqucnccs are
often most disastrous. In 1H05, a canivun pro-
ceeding from Timbuctoo to Tafllet, not havinf^
found water at a resting-place, the whole persons
bcIonginK to it, 2,000 in number, with alMiut 1,800
camels, perished miserably 1 (Jackson's Morocco,
p. 8119. 8ce also the excellent chapter in Hceren,
on the Land Commerce of the CarthaKiniaiis.)
Exclusive of this internal commerce, Africa has
carried on a considerable commerce by sea, since
the discovery of lier W. coasts by the Portujjuese ;
but the probability seems to be, that she has lost
more than she has K^iucd b^ this commerce.
Hlaves have lieen the staple article of export from
the African coast ; and in some years aa many as
110,000 or 120,000 have been carried across the
Atlantic. It bos been said, and no doubt truly,
that the opening of this new and vast outlet for
•laves was advantageous to Africa, by lessening
the odious practice of cannibalism, and preventing
the immolation of the captives talien in war. But,
admitting this, it seems notwithstanding abun-
dantly certain that the slave-trade has been pro-
ductive of a far greater amount of misery than it
has suppressed. Without stopping to inquire
whether <lcath might not tie prcferalue to slavery,
it has multiplied the latter in no ordinary degree.
Formerly the peace of the country was compara-
tively little disturlKid by wars ; but now a whole-
sale system of brigandnpo and robliery is organised
in many extensive distncts ; the bulk of the people
being hunted down like game by the petty princes,
and by the Mohammedans, who affect to iKilicvc that
they are entitled to capture and sell the ' idolaters,'
to serve as beasts of burden in another hemisphere.
Hence it is that the suppression of occasional in-
stances of cannibalism, and of the sacrifice of
human victims, has been supplanted by a widely
diffused system of rapine, productive of a total
want of security, and subversive of everythinjj?
like good government and good order. Until this
state of things be tot My changed, it would bo
idle to expect that civihsation should make any
progress in the countries where it exists. Its
abolition is indispensable aa a preliminary mea-
sure to give them even a chance of emerging from
the barbarism in which they have been so long
involved.
There seems to be a reasonable prospect that
the meritorious efforts of Great Britain for the
suppression of the slave-trade will, at no very dis-
tant period, be crowne<l with success, in so far at
least as the nations of Europe and America are
concerned. But it is quite otherwise with the
slave-trade carried on from the interior with the
Barbary states, Egypt and Arabia. There are no
grounds for supposing that it will be speedily sup-
pressed ; probably, indeed, it is destined for a while
rather to increase. Luckily, however, it is much
less extensive than that carried on from the W.
coast, the entire export of slaves rarely amounting
to so many as 10,000 in a single year, and it is not
accompanied by so many disastrous results.
Exclusive of slaves, palm oil, gold dust, ivory,
gums, teak, timber, wax, hides, and feathers are
the principal articles imported into W. Europe
and America from Africa. Mozambique exports
ivory, boea-wax, sesame seed, orcbollo, coffee,
tortoisA-iholl, armw-mot, sago, and other can-
moditiea. /anziliar, in lat 6o 28" S.. and Iohk.
30° 83' E., exports gold, ivory, drugs, coir, cocov
nuta, gum«, IwoH-wax, tortoise-shell, spice, riiv
from Femlw, seaamo seed from Angoxa, and t
large quantity of timber. In 181H cloves w<>r«
introducctl into Zanzibar, and thrive so well that
thev have to a great extent BU|M>neded the cul'i-
vatum of the sugar-cane. The im|Mirta of Zanzi-
bar may bo valued at 500,000/. |)er annum. Lamii,
in lat. 20 Ifl' 45" S., and lon>^. 41° 1' 6" E., carriw
cm a cimsiderable trade in hides, and the export!
from Zanzibar. Urava, lat. !<> (i' 40" N., and Ioiik.
41'' 3' E., tradea largely with India and Araliin,
and it« trade with America rapidly increases. It
exports, hides, bullocks, horses, and camels, th«
skins of wild animals, and some other thiii}{N,
Beside the actual commerce thus going on in Kant
Africa, M. M'LcckI, t<t whose ' Travels in Easlcni
Africa ' we are indebted for these details, iioiniit
out various other places in this part of Africa,
which are rich in produce, and admirably adaiiicil
for tra<le : Ilio, Melinda, Mombas, and (jHamlMirii
offer great advantages in this way. Perhaps ex-
aggerated notions have been entertained of the
value of the trade and of its capacity of exten-
sion. That it may be materially incrcaaed is, no
doubt, true; but the fair presumption seems to
be, that till civilisation has wrought a radical
change in the African character, the wants of the
native Africans, an*l their industry, ore much loo
contracted to a<lniit of their ever becoming extvn-
sive <lcmandcrs of European produce.
Carthage, the flrst maritime power of antiquity,
though situated in iiortlicm Africa, was a IMiaiii-
cian colony, and her fleets were principally maniii'd
from her colonies in the Mc<litcrranean. Since
the fall of this powerful republic, no African pcojile
has had the smallest claim to lie called maritinu'.
The most advanced natiims arc at this moment,
and have always been, nearly ignorant of the art
of shi]>-liuilding. It is to European engineers
and carpenters that the Pacha of Egypt is in-
debted tor his ships ; and every one Knows that
this was formerly the cose with the Deys of Al-
giers, Tunis, &C. Ill some few places the natives
fit out a sort of large cutter; not, however, fur
the purpose of trade or fishing, but to engage in
piracy.
Besides salt, to which we have already alluded,
gold dust or tibbar and cowries are the articles
principally used as money in Africa. The latter,
a (ipecics of small shell gathered on the shores of
till] Maldive islands, ore used in small payments
throughout Hindostan; but in the interior of
Africa their value is about ten times greater than
in Bengal.
77^ social condition of the people of Africa is as
depressed as their industry and their science. The
practice of polyf^amy is diffused all over Africa;
and though forbidden in Abyssinia, the marriage
tie is there so slight as hardly to have any sen-
sible influence ; ai J morals are, in this respect, in i
state of almost total dissolution. That cannibalism
formerly existed to a frightful extent in man^
Earts of Africa, cannot be doubted ; and though it
as greatly declined, partly because of the intro-
duction of Mohammedanism, and partly, and
principaUy, perhaps, because of the ready and
advantageous markets that have long been opened
in the West Indies and America for the slaves or
captives taken in war, there seems to be no doubt
that it still exists among certain tribes. Among
some considerable nations the exposure of chil-
dren, and the slaughter of those that are deformed
or maimed, is not tolerated merely, but enforced.
In some ports human blood is reported to be
AFRICA
iga, Knd other earn-
(P 28" S., and Iohk.
ry, (Irugn, coir, cocon-
4iiMc-itli(!ll, iipicfi, rii«
rroin AiiKoxa, and «
In IHIH clovM W)>n>
id thrive wi well that
Mupenoded tho ciM'i-
^ho importR of Zaii/.i-
)/. \tfiT annu.Ti. Lanm,
1^. 410 1'6"K., cnrri.,,
iideM, and the cxi>ortH
lO6'40"N., andloiiK,
:h India and Aral)iik,
rapidly iticrvaflCH, it
fHCH, and camcltt, the
. Bomo other thiiiKN.
thua Koinff on in Kiut
I ' Travels in EaHUni
r thcMC detailH, iMiintH
I this part of At'ricn,
id admirahlv adunlcil
)niba8, and UHumimrii
is way. Perhaps cx-
'.n entertained of the
ts capacity of extcn-
irially increased is, no
ircsumption seems to
IS wrought a radical
ntor, the wants of the
idustry, are much too
ever becoming exton-
produce.
no power of antiquity,
Africa, was a IMiu'iii-
rc principally maniii'i]
iffuditcrrancnn. Since
blic, no African people
to bo called maritini(>.
arc at this moment,
y ignorant of the art
European engincrn
icha of Egypt is in-
ivery one Knows that
rith the Deys of Al-
)w places the natives
not, however, for
ing, but to engage in
[lave already alluded,
vries are the articles
Africa. The latter,
crcd on the shores of
in small payments
in tho interior of
n times greater than
people of Africa is ai
id their science. The
ised all over Africa;
yssinia, the marriage
ly to have any sen-
e, in this respect, in a
That cannibalism
ful extent in manj
ibted ; and though it
ecause of the intro-
and partly, and
of the ready and
.ve long been opened
ica for the slaves or
leems to be no doubt
tain tribes. Among
e exposure of chil-
se that are deformed
erely, but enforced.
ifl reported to be
jiixo<l np with tho llmo or mortar us«l in tho
.iiiiNtniction of trmplcs. Anil it is said to bo usual
among the greamr numlKir of the nations on the
coast of Guinea for rich individuals to immolate
tinman victims once in their lives to the manes of
Itheir fathers. (Halbi, Al)n<g«<, p. H41), 2nd c<l.)
lAtrooilies like these are, however, prinoii«llv con-
llliied to the least improved tribes of the Negro
Irace. Hut, s|)eaking generally, bari)arism, cruelty,
land the most dogra<liiig 8ii|M)nttitlon ar»< univer-
Isiilly prevalent aininig liy far the greater numlH>r
lof the nations of African origin. (See art. Asii-
Iantke.)
I As already state<l, with the exception of Egjrpt
[and Aliyssiiiia, all tho science and literature to
\u> found ill Africa are of Arabic origin, Tho
lArnlw have schmds cstahlisheil in Cairo, Mcroii,
I ami Diirfoiir, in the region of the Nile; in Mo-
Irdtco, Fez, Algiers, Tunis, Ac, In Itarbary; niid
Itliiro are HcluHtls among the Mandingos, Koii-
ilnliH, JolofH, and other Mohammedan nations
[of central Nigritia or Soudan: these are placed
liiiKler Mohammedan teachers, and assist in dis-
Isciniiiating the rudiments of Arabic learning and
Igc'ience. The European colonics at the Cape,
lAlgiers, and various other places along tho coast,
I have l)cen regarded as so many centres, whence
■ tho language and literature of EuMpo might lie
I expected gradually to spread over the whole con-
Itinent, Ihit our anticipations in this respect are
I far from sanguine; and the presumption seems to
lite, that if bturharism and ignorance are not to be
liinmortal, they are, at all events, destined to a
|))rol<iiiged exintence in Africa.
I Cauiiei of the Iiiferidrilif of the African*. — Tho
|lnw state of the arts in Africa, and the barlmrism
that so generally prevails in it, have been va-
riously accounted tor; and, perliaps, we are yet
without the means of coming to any satisfactorv
Iconclusion in regard to either matter, hut it
1 would seem that the first, or the low state of the
lartN, ii* mainly attributable to the climate, which
|su|K3rsc(lcs the use of many articles in<liHi>ensable
I in rvgiimsmorc to the N. and S. Manufacturing
I industry is princiiuilly devoted, in Euro}M!an and
I / sialic countries, to the production of articles of
I clothing; but where clothes aro an incumbrance,
land most of the people are satisfied if they have a
I piece of coarse common cotton stuff to wrap round
I their middle, it would be absurd and contradictory
I to exi)ect that this great department of manu-
I fnctunng industry, and its many dependent and
subsidiary arts, should make any progress. The
agriculture, too, of the greater part of Africa is ex-
cc(!dingly unfavourable to the development of a
spirit of enterprise and invention. The seasons
! differ but Uttlo from each other; and in those
tracts not condemned to perpetual sterility, that
is, in the tracts watered by the periodical rains,
or by the overflowing of the rivers, the rudest
husbandry is sufficient, the heat of the sun o]«ra-
tiiig on the moisture of the soil being all but
enough to produce the most luxuriant crops. The
houses, too, in tropical climates may be construc-
ted at comparatively little expense; and, except
for the cooking of victuals, fires would be a
nuisance. It is idle, therefore, to wonder at the
I backward state of industry m Africa. It would
[ be as reasonable to expect to find a manufactory
j of freezing machines at the North Cape, as to ex-
pect to find extensive cloth factories in Nigritia.
The industry of a country always bears some pro-
portion to the wants and necessities of its in-
habitants; and few comparatively of those things
which employ a large part of the industry of
Europeans being wanted in Africa, they aro but
little produced.
It ht true that Itosides tlio groat artlcloa now
referred to, them are others, such as articles of
show and ostentation, arm*, and Jewellery, for
which it might be suppoMNl the taste in Africa
would be as strong a* in Europe. liut these are
costly articles; and, in point uf fact, are never
found generally diffused in any country not distin-
guished by its indiiHtrv. Men aro not instinctively
lalM)rious or oiitcr|)risiiig. Industry is with them
luily a moans to an end — a sacrifice they must
IMiy to obtain supplies of the necessariiw and con-
veniences of human life. Wherever the sai^rifice
required to pMcure ftMNi, clothes, anti other neces-
sary accommiMlations is considerable, the popu-
lation is generally industrious; and a taste for
lalN>iir iMsing widely difi'iised, those who are not
obliged to apply themselves to tho production of
necessaries, engage in the prisluction of siqier-
Hiiities. Hut wherever the priiici|ial wants of man
may Iw supplied with but little exertion, indolenco
lN!comes the distiiigiiishiiig characteristic of tho
|)opuliitioii ; and instead of^cniph)yiiig their spare
time in tho production of articles of osteiitatiiin
and luxury, they usually wast« it in id'' j and
apathy.
In athlition to the circumstances now mentioned
explanatA)ry of the low state of tho arts in Africa,
anil the Imrbarisin i)revalent in it, tho Negriws
and other African races have been supposed by
some phihisophers to be naturally inferior in
point of intellect, and not to iMissess the same
capacity for improvement as the Europeans, or
people of the Caucasian variety. This suppo-
sition has, however, lieen vehomently denied; and
it has lH>en contended over and over again, that
the peculiar circumstances under which they have
l)ecn placed siifHciently account for the condition
of the Africans — for their want of a literature and
their low civilisation. That groat weight should
be attached to tho considerations now mentioned
is true; but still thev aro insufficient wholly to
account for tho existing state of things. Egypt
was, at a very remote iwriwl, tho principal seat of
science and of art; and various nations of Africa
were in contact with, and had a pretty extensive
intercourse with, the Egvptians, and also with
.the I'hucnicians, and afterwards the Uomans.
Hut they seem to havo profited little or nothing
by this association. And while the people of
Greece, Asia Minor, and Magna Unecia raised
themselves in a comparatively brief |)eriml to
the highest pitch of civilisation and refinement^
tho nations of Africa continue, without a so-
litary exception, down even to the present day,
immersed in the grossest barbarism. Yet, during
the space of 3,0U0 or 4,000 years, opportunities
must have been afforded to some of them to make
advances.
With tho exception of that of the ancient
Egyptians and Ethiopians, whose descent is in-
volved, in tlie greatest uncertainty, almost all tho
civilisation that exists in Africa seems to lie of
foreign origin. Tho introduction of Moham-
medanism, though in a debased form, has, as
previously stated, gone far to banish cannibalism
from many countries; and some of them havo
also adopted the letters and literature of Arabia.
But the progress they have hitherto made is not
such as to lead to any very sanguine anticipations
as to their future advancement ; and it would not,
indeed, be very philosophical to suppose that those
who have been wholly nimble to produce any
thing original should attain to much eminence in
the practice of foreign arts and sciences.
It is unnecessary to enter into any examination
of the vexata tjuestio, whether the varieties of tho
human race iii Africa originally sprung from
40
AFRICA
UWrcroiit Hoiin^cii, or whether they all l)ol(iti(; to
thfl Nnmn NtiM'k, hut chanf^ctl to the Ntate hi wliirh
«rn Ihiil thi'iii hy th« itilluctifti of circiiinfilmuTN
in tint lu|Nm of AtftM, Whatever eiiiichii>iiiii may
\m i-iime to on ihiH iM)int eniniot in any wixe ntlVct
iiui'Miiiin OM to tl
the Al'rii'iin |M>o|>le. The Mime cirininiMtHnceH ihiit
the iiiieMliiin OM to tlie eoni|)nralive intelligence of
lire NupiNweil hy thiwe who eonteii)! for the ori){iniil
iilenlity of the riu'UH to have mo ^•nlly ull't'i'leil
their n|i|M'nrnnc'u ami iihyNiciil eaixu'itieM, coiilil
hanlly fail to have an ei|Mally iHtwerfiil iiitlucnee
over ilieir mental facnItieM, 'riiiM in faef ii* miiIi-
Hlaiilially a<lmitte<l hy hr. I'richanl, who Unn
nhly <'oni4>nileil for their eoinmon origin, ami the
p(|iiulily of their intelleet with that of the other
rneeH, 'The trilN'M,' Hayn he, 'inwhoNe iirevaleiil.
eoiiformalitin the ne^ro ly|H^ In iliNi'ernilile In an
exitKf^craleil decree, are iinifornily in the lnweNt
MlUKe of hnmun WN'iety ; they are either feriM'iouN
Mava^cM, or Mtuiiiil, HeiiHiial, ami imloh-nt. Siu-h
are the l*a|ialM, IhilloniH, an<l other rntht honli'M on
the eonMt of \Vi>Nt«>rn (iniiiea, ami nianv lrilH>M
near the Slave eoatit, and in the Mi^ht ol' liciiin;
countrieM when* the Hiave trade han heen earried
on to the ^n>ateHt extent, and luw exercised itM
UNunlly Imnefnl intlnence. On the other hand,
wherever wo hear of a Ne^ro ntate, the inhaliitantH
of which have attained any conNid«'ral>le <h-Kree of
improvement in their micial eonililion, we con-
Btantlv And that their phyHical characters deviate
coiiRiiferahly from the ntronglv marked or exaj^-
gerated ty|ie of the N'e^ro. ^I'he Awhantee, the
Bnlenia, the DahomanH, are exeniplilicutionN of
thin remark. The Nef^oeH of CinlM'r and llaiifia,
where a eonsidernhhi dej^reo of civilixation hart
loll); cxixted, are, perhapH, the llneHt race of
genuine NegrocH in the whole continent, unlcHs
the JohifH are to Iw excepted. The Jolofn have
Leon a comparatively civilixed |>eople from the
asra of their tirHt dim'overy hy the I'ortngiieHe.'
(|{e.searche8 into the iligtory of Man, ii. p. H'tM,
8rd ed.)
It M doubtful whether this is a perfectly correct
statement; hut at any rat* it may he worthy of
vonxideration as coming from a great authority on
qiieHtioiis of nice. As to the negro, the new era
opening for him in the great American repuhlic,
where he has l)ecn freed at such lM)iindle8s ox|>en-
dituro of European lilood, must ultimately settle
the question whether he is lit for a higher civilisa-
tion.
Geographical and Political Division*. — Africa
has lieeii variously divided, acconling as one stan-
dard or another has l>cen adopted. Owing to the
barharism of the people, our ignorance of the
ditferent xtates into which the continent is di-
vided, ano the revolutions to which they are per-
])etually i :ili|ect, any distrihiition of the country
founded on its political divisions would l>e almost
impossible ; and, however accurate at the time,
would speedily become (juitt obsolete. A better
method would be to distribute it according to the
races of {Miople by which it is principally occupied ;
but OS these are in parts very much blended, and
it is sometimes no easy matter to say which pre-
ilomiiiates, it seems, on the whole, the better way
to distribute it according to the great natural fea-
tures of the country. On this principle, Africa
mav be distributed aa follows, beginning with the
North :—
1. The Rarbary Stales, Inohidtnfr the whole oonntry K.
of tlic deacrt of Saliora, and W. of the ii5th degree
of £, long.
2. Sahara, or the Oreat Desert.
3. The Region of the Nile, including Egypt, Nubia,
* Abyssinia, Senoar, Kordofaii, and all the country
drained by lt« oUiuenta.
A, Slarilift, which mav \te mitxllvlilcd m followi, vli.i—
•, Hoiiitan, (ir N. NlgrUIn, IH-Ing tlin country to tti«
H. of thii Hitliarn iiMil N, of ttm Kimg inoiiii'
titliiK, NVHtcnil liv lliii Ht'iicgut, OaniolA, Mkit,
and the rivvrii llowiiiif Into tlio gn<ut litloi of
I'i'llivl.
b. Cfiilnil Niijriliit, firing tho n-glon iNitween tlici
Kong niiiiihtikiiii) itiul tlic N. Hlicini uf tlm giiliih
of lliiiiii'u lo till' lllglilof llliirrik.
0, SiiilhiTii \i;irihii, liu'liiillng tlm iMiiintrlii< fnim
till' night of lllnfrik along the cinttt to Ciiim
Ni'gro, mill liiwnnlii to thn wiiirci'* of the rlvrrt
tliiwltig through It t > tliK coiiHt,
0, Hixilhrrn Afnva, or tho region 8. of CniM' Negro nti
till' W,, mill of tlm /nniU'Hi river on the K.
(I. hUitlerii A/ririi, or tho region N, of /.unilieiil river,
riiiinil hy Miu iM>n eoniit tu the coiitlncN of AbynMiniii
and the ()elHil-el-Kiiinrl,<ir MoiintninH of the Miinn,
7. The /W<m(/<i)/.l<nr«,lnelii(|lngthiiMiuli'lrn,('«niin,
mill CitjNi lie V'enio ImIiuiiIh on the W. coiutt, wlili
tliiM'of 8t, Helena, Aweniiloii, iiti., luiil on the V,.
ciiiint the greiit InIiiiiiI of MiuliigitHoar, tho inlea uf
Fniiiee luiil MikiiritiiiH, iSuentru.iiii.
I'riHjrtn* of l)i»covrry. — Africa, Himuig all llip
quarters of tlie gliilie, has always Ih'cii llie ciiiel'
olijecl of ciiriiiNiiy and discovery. Her Mcdiler-
raiiean coast indeed was well known to tlui
ancientH, and included in tlieir circle of civiliNtij
slates, lint her eaHtern .ind western liinili,
siretching an indctinile extent sotithward, loii;{
balllcil the al tempts lo reiu'h their tenninatinii
and that of the iMintineiit; whih* iinmensc desiTl^
barred the aci-ess into the interior. yV |M;ciiliar
dilliciilly was also found in tracing the soiirtv,
and sometimes tlie tennination, of the mi^iity
rivers by which its inland regions are watered.
Tyre, the earliest st'at of n tlourisliing com-
merce, migiit be ex|H'cted to seek a route to tlm
distant parts of Africa. In tho curious account
given by Kzekiel, Tarsliish is mentioned as Isitli
tlie most rc>inote and most ini|Mirtant place witli
wliich she trallicked. The learned, however, have
lieen much divided respecting its site; but llio
Tarsliish to which the Tyrians sailed thiwn the
Meiliterraiiean, whence they inqMirted iron, silver,
lead, and tin, the products of Spain and Itriliiiii,
was most probably either Carthage, or tlie S. part
of SiMiin. Carthage made violent ctt'orts to prt-
vent other commercial jiowers from iienctratiiii;
beyond Sicily, thus seekmg to monopolise the ex-
clusive trade of the remoter coantries, of whoso
products her merchants would, of course, keep an
assortment.
Mention, however, is mode of another route to
Tarsliish, by the Kcd Sea, which hos singularly
pcqilexed geographers. It was opened by Sih
iomon, during the most prosperous period of tho
kingdom of Judica, and aided by an alliance witii
Hiram, king of Tyre. To reconcile these two
voyages, M. Gosseliii supposes the term to mean
' the ocean ' as distinguished from inland seas or
gulphs : 80 that one voyage was to the Atlantic,
the other to the Indian Ocean. But all the moiloii
in which Tarshish is mentioned — the fare of a
vessel thither, its merchants, its kings — seem in-
consistent with so very vogue a dense; nor does
there appear any room to think the Jews ever
viewed the Mediterranean as an inclosed sea. We
are disfsised therefore to prefer the suggestion of
Mr. Murray, in the Encyclopedia of tJeograpliy,
that the Tyrians gave the name of Tarshish to tho
whole continent, of wliich it formed for them tlie
most important part. Tarshish, in this larger
sense, becomes nearly synonymous with Africa;
the one voyage was along its northeni, tlio other
along its eastern coast
Ophir is another country much celebrated in
the Jewish scriptures, particularly for its golil.
Many learned men have sought it in India,
though gold was not then an article of export
AFRICA
41
ileit Mfottowi, tIi.!-
Iiiif tliiK'iiiintry to tlm
, iif till! K»nt( r'liMiii.
iH'KiU, (l«niiil«, Nlifir,
i\u> tlio irnutt lukii (if
in rt'trlon Imtwiton tlio
N.HlKiniuf till) Kolph
if llliirrit.
\H tliii (i>iintrli<)i friitii
ug till* limit to ('aim
III wiimiii of thu rUiir«
< lllliHt.
I 8. of CiilM' NrKroiiti
■Ivor on till- K.
N. of /.iuiiIitkI rlviT,
I floiiHiii'ii of Al>y»»liilii
lountnltiH of till' Moiiii,
K t)iMMiuli'lrii,<'niiiiry,
on till) W. iMiikNt, Willi
nil, &II., ikiiil on the i;.
iiilitt(>W4i.'ar, tliu Inli'H ill
rit, iio.
frii'ii, ntnoii^ nil lli<<
*uyn Im'imi till' rliii'f
vi'fy. Hit Mrdilcr-
H'cll kllllWII ill III!)
I'ir cirrlc of civillNi-il
uiil wi'mUtii liniilA,
I'tit MHitliwaril, lull;;
li tlii'ir tcrmiiiatiiiii
hill' iinmeiiMi' (li'tnTtn
iiiti'tiiir, A |K'ciiliar
truuiii^ the Hnurtv,
(ton, III' Ihu iniKliiy
{iiniH lire watori'il.
n lliiiirishiii^ coni-
I fH'A'k II mute to till!
thv curiiiiiH nc'coiiiit
H inontioiiuil ah Ixitli
ini|Mirtniit plavu wiili
iiriu'it, hiiwuviT, havi-
ng itH hUo ; but till'
aUH Hailcil down tiio
ini|M)rtc(l iron, hiIvit,
r S|iain and itritain,
tha^o, or thu S. ptirt
iolent cti'ortH to \m-
KlhM
monopoliHO the i-x-
coantricM, of whosii
1, of cuurxe, keep un
of another route to
hiuh has Bin^ularly
[was opencil by Si>-
jperous period of tiio
by an alliance with
Ireconcilo these two
the term to mean
from inland seas ot
■aa to the Atlantic,
But all the moilua
ined — the fare of a
its kinf{8 — seem in-
a dense; nor does
hink the Jews ever
in inclosed sea. We
>r the suggestion uf
fedia of Oeof^raiihy,
ic of Tarshish to the
rormed for them tlie
lish, in this larger
/mous with Afrira;
northern, the other
inch celebrated in
Jilarly for its gold.
|>ught it in India,
ill article of export
frim that rminfr^', htit thfl contrary j ami no
one (itaplo of Itiiliiin triidii U mi'ntioni'd n« hroiiKht
from tiphir, hulii'd iln |H)Hition wini)* clnirly
(Ixi'il, wlmn we tlnil the Ki'd Sea voyage to Tar-
HJiiih ili'wrilM'd elmiwiiere an one toDphir. The
Inltcr, fhi'ii, won on the eOHtern maKt of Afrira,
wliiregolil la nowhen' found north of the Zam-
Im/.i'. I lire lU'fi.rdingly we llnd Sofnlo, long the
itili'f emporium of llml rivrr; audit may 'm. oI>-
Hirvid that Oiiliir i» ciilU'd in the Mi'ptiingint
HiMiphi'irn, while the modem Arab tenn u in-
dilliri'ntly Zofar or /ofont.
'I'liiH iMteriouriM' did not hiirvive Soliimon, whose
diii-ri'HMor.'*, weakened by the divinion of the kilig-
doiiii, were luialiK' to maintain it.
Our next information is derived from Ilero-
(lotiiM, who, during his ri'Hidence in Kgypt, made
Mrv earilul Inipiirii's of the priests and learni'd
nirii. lie given a very eurious report of no lens
an exploit than the entire eiri'umnavigiition of
Al'ririi. Ni'iho, one of the greiitext Kgvptiiin
priiiii'i, engaged for this purpose I'luenirian iiia-
riiiiTM, will) deseended the Keil Sea, and having
nmlii'd the iM-eaii, landed, Howed a eroii, reaped
it, and n'imwed their voyage. Tlins they pro-
ei'i'ili-d for two yearn, and in the third entered
till' Pillars of lleroules. 'they remarked that, in
roiuiiliiig Afrieu, they had thu sun on the right,
that In, on the south, whieh nnist have lieen cor-
rect. This brief ri'latiim has given rise to a mass
of controversy. flleriHlotus, iv. 12; (tosselin,
(■i'ogra|)liie den Anciens, i. li)U-210) liennell,
(ieog. IleriMlotiis, s. !i4, •25.)
Iliroilotus has given a detailed account of the
wild mid wandering trilics iM'hind the Atlas ridge,
\ exteiiiling to and somewhat b<>yond Fezzan. —
lie adds an interesting narrative of an expedition
to explore the interior, undertaken by some
voutlis from the country of the Nasamones lying
ndand from Cyrene. They passed, llrst, a ver-
dant and cultivoted territoiy ; then a wild region
tilled with wild lH>ast«; next entered into an arid
dreary desert. Here, while plucking some wild
fruits, a party of black men surnrised and carried
tlu'in along vast marshes and lakes to a city situ-
ated on a river flowing eastward. These last
features, after thoy were within the desert, could
not lie found short of central Africa; but it is
doubtful whether thev refer to Timbuutoo and the
Niger, OS supposed by Kcnncll and Ileercn, or
to the lake Tchad, and the Ycou or river of
Bornou.
Another singular circumstanco mentioned by
Herodotus relates to a tratUc for gold carried on
by the Carthaginians with a people beyond the
straits, and managed in a peculiar manner, with-
out the parties seeing each other. There is no
gold in Africa north of the Senegal or Niger;
but whether the Carthaginians penetrated thither,
or the gold was brouglit by natives across the
desert, there seem no means of certainly deter-
mining.
Tlio records of Carthage, which would have
I thrown so much light on ancient commerce and
I geographical knowle<lge, have unfortunately \)&-
I rislieiL There remains only one valuable docu-
ment, the narrative of a voyage by a commander
I named Uanno, sent to found colonies on the
western coast, and to push discovery as far as
possible. He is said to have carried with him
sixty vessels, and no less than 30,000 men women,
and children. After passing the straits, he founded
I successively four colonieo in convenient situar-
I tious ; then sailing thnie days along a desert
I cpost, came to Cerne, a small island in a bay.
In its vicinity he visited a lake, through which
I flowed a large river, a'jd another stream full of
criM-oililoit And hlpponntaml. Tlien, fptiimltig tii
('erne, he sailed twi'lve ilnys along the cixtut of
tilt- Kthiiipians, a timid riu e, mIio lied at the n\t-
proarh of KtriingerN. His party (hen reached and
sailed for !M-vertu davs along a coast, when< lln-y
olMerved many striking oliji'i'tn. In one phu'e tlio
earth was mi hot (hat it could not lie troddi'ii ;
torrents of llame were seen to roll along it and
rush into the sea. During the day there appeared
only a vast forest; but in (lie nfght, the air wai
tilU'd with the sound of miiKiral instnimenis and
of human voices, (.jiniling on an island they
found a singular race of Is'lngs, in human sliajH',
but with rough skins, leaping from riM-k to ns'k
with preternatural agility, I'owards the close of
their voyage, tliere appi'uri'd a very lofty moun-
tain, seeming to reach the skies, called the Chariot
of the (iisls.
This voyage has U'en the Nubject of elaborato
disserlation by learned men, wno have iliflered
very widely as (o i(it extent. Iloiigainville carrii'H
it to ('a|H' Three I'oinis on the (iold Coast,
IteiMiell III Sierra Leone ; while (iiisselin restrirli*
it to the river Nun, in MoriK'co. The llrst wpaco
exceeds .'1,1100 miles; the latter falls short of 7l 10.
The dillicullies are very great ; not a single naino
coincides; the descriptive feadires are tmi slight
to llx any one s|Mit with precision. The |H'riiHl,
estimateii only ut JlH days, seems scarcely ade-
quate to HI) long a voyage of discovery along an
unknown coast. Yet the asis'i't of man and na-
ture; the ICtbiopians or blacK races; the gorilla),
evidently large apes, whose form resembled Ihu
human; the gn>at rivers, full of crocisliles and
bipj)o)M)lanii; the conllagralions, ap|>arently oc-
casioned by the still |)revalent custom of burning
the grass at a certain season ; silence during the
day, with music and gaiety in the night, — all
tbesu Htn)iigly suggest tropical Afrii^a. Uosseliii
indeed mainlains that the coast of Morocco, in its
then comparatively rude state, would much mora
than now resemble the negro countries ; but this
seems scarcely to account for all the alM)ve par-
ticulars. (Ilannonis reriplus, in Hudson's Ueog.
Gncc. Min. torn, i.; liennell, Ueo^. HeriMlot. sect.
1C-2U; Cfossclin, (jL<og. des Anciens, i. (il-llM;
liougainville, in Memoires do rAcadi'mio des In-
scriptions, xxvi. 10.)
The Persians, who entertained an almost super-
stitious dread of the sea, were little likely to ex-
tend maritime knowledge. Yet Xerxes showed
some interest in the subject. Having condemned
to death Stttas[)C8, a rersian nobleman, ho was
persuaded to commute the sentence to that of
circumnavigating Africa. SataH]>e8 passed tho
straits, but soon tcrritied by tho stormy ocean and
rocky shores, ho returned, and declared to his
sovereign that the vessel hod stopped of itself, and
could not bo got forward. Tho monarch indig-
nantly rejected this apology, and ordered the
original sentence to be executed. Tho attempt
was not renewed; and under this empire the
knowledge of Africa seems to have on the whole
retrograded. When Alexander sent an expedi-
tion down the Persian giilph to seek its way into
tho Ked Sea, it returned without success ; whence
tho inference was made that no communication
existed.
Under the Ptolemies, though they were an en-
terprising dynasty, and a learned school of geo-
graphy was then formed, little progress was mttile.
rhe prevailing hypothesis of on uninhabitable
torrid zone at once indicated the limited amount
of knowle<lge, and tended to perpetuate it. The
map of Eratosthenes makes Africa an irregular
tra|)cziiim, of which the N. and S. sides were
nearly parallel, and the whole terminated N. of
41
i •
II
y.id
p\
11
!i:t
11
ill
h
11
i
the rqimlor. Thn cnMtii Iwynml thi< Klntltit of
<ill)r«liiir iin<l (!ii|h' (••nlnfiii, ImiIiik oliMtrvi'il on
lM>tll rIiIiiM Ui ClinVcrKOf WUrtl «U|l|MNMtll U> VOIlUllIlt'
in that lUnN'tior. •ml miwt, A navlK(Ht<ir n«mt<<|
KikIoxoh, partly aiitiul l>y l'tiili<niy Uviiruvtc* ami
liy tliK mttrtUiaiilx of Daills, niatlo w>vrral *iiirit«Nl
attiimpu Ut |wrf'>nn thin voyauc, of wliirli lio <li<l
not miNiMwt the (ixUint ; Imt he ri'tunuMl alwayn
without NIICVdiN.
Tliu Komana did not much adv«nr« tho know-
Itniuo of Intnrior Africa. Mela, without any ail-
dithtiial Information, a<lo|itM thii NVi)lt>in of Kra-
tiMth^iKw, with Mtme fannifiil adiiitioiiN, I'liiiy,
howcvnr, had a<!Ri>M to all tht^ infonnation ool-
lcft4>d hy tho Koman chiitfn and voninian<l*>rN,
H«'i|iio had iwnt I'olyliiiiN to)>x|ilori) thn wi-Hi«<ni
roMHt, which won Niirvuyiid by that olHir«r for alxiiit
X(l(l itiihM, i'on.><equ<intly not Iwyoml thn limilM of
MoriH-(!o. Hm>t4tniuiil'aulinu)i had |N>nctrntt>d Into
thn region of Atlnit, <U>wrihint{ ItM loltvand rii^^i'd
•it<><!|M richly clothed with lorcHtit. Ondcr VcH|Ht-
Mlan, Comuliua llalliun made an cxiNMlition int^i
the dewrt, reM^ivin^ tho MulimiMiion of (Jydamux
((iadamix), and Oarama (<icnnu), but we can
•cATcciy identify Hoin with Hortiou.
Alexandria meantime, iindnr the impulM (fivon
hy the luxiiriouH conNumptioti of Kuiue, ac(|uirc(|
a tfniat extcnMion of ('on)ni<'r(-e. HIm* oiMiiied a
regular rommunivatiiMi with India, and aiMo to a
t'onsidurablo extent nUmn tho eaiitem cooHt of
Africa, lioth are duMn'ilied in an important com-
mercial work written in the flntt century, calletl
the I'uriplun of the Krythrenn Sea. The African
rourne terminatoii at Hhnpta, a promontory ahd
llouriHhinK |N)rt, tho ptwition of whith, however,
from I lie usual cauN«H of <:hanKcd natniM and vaKue
dew^riprioiiM, Ih oiien to coiitrovurMy. ViiK^ont llxeit
it at (juiloa, while UosHelin mukeit it Ma^odorca,
not quite a third part of the dixtance from the
awrcriaiiied ]xunt of Ca|x> Aromala (Uuardafui).
Hut th«! former han one conxpieuouH fuaturu; Hvo
muccchhIvu lar^e eHtuaricM, which UoHHelin owuh
IiimHclf unable to tlnd within hix limitfi, but which
actually occur a little north of (juiloa, in the
moutliH of the f^at river (juillimanci. There
Bceinit little room to liCHitato therefore in tixin);
UliaptA at Quiloa. The f^old of the Zambezi had
not reached thin port, tJio exports from which
consifttcd only of ivory, tortxtiiie-Bhell, and slaves,
(l'eriplus,in Qeog. Gnec. Minor, torn, L; Uossclin,
iU^g. des Anciens; Vincent, Periplus of the Kry-
threan Sea.)
Aliout a century after, Ptolemy pnhlishcd his
gcofrraphical work, the most complete of any in
ancient times. On the eastern coast he odds to
that described in the Periplus on additional ronf^e,
stretching; south-east from Khapta to another
promontory and port called Prosum ; considerably
south-cAst fn>m which lay a large island, Mcnu-
thitts, evidently Madagascar, According to Uos-
sclin, Prasum is lirava, while Vincent makes it
Mozambique ; but the south-easterly direction of
the coast seems to limit it to Cn|)e Dclgado, This
too would harmonise with Ptolemy^s singular
theory ' '' a great austral continent extending from
PriiMiui to the coast of the 8inie (China), thus
making the Indian Ocean an immense inland sea.
In regard to the W. boundary, Ptolemy's ideas
seem by no means very precise. His graduation
shows an sxtent of coast which woidd reach far
into tropical Africa ; yet the Canaries are placed
opposite to his most southern limit, which would
thus seem scarcely to have reached beyond Mo-
rocco, Gosselin accuses him of having em-
ployed the materials afforded by three different
voyages along the same line of coast, supposing
tliom to ^ply to separate and succossivo ports,
AFRICA
theri'tiy trebling its extent t hut wn rnunt heititafe
In iin|iuting t^i this eminent geograiihcr an ernir
so llagrani.
On tho side of central Africa, Pttdcmy de-
lineates a very extensive region, reaching for
«4>uth, which he names Interior LybM. It con-
tains two siMicious lakes, the I.yhian and tlio
Nigritian, receiving the great rIveniOirand Niger,
lU'riveil from chains of lolly mountains, A nimi-
Iter of cities are iiiMTted which cannot Ini riMtiig-
nised by imslern names, liut the remarkaliln
ciri'iiinslance is, that these objects apiiear con-
tiguous to, and even connect4><l with otliers, thnt
uiieiiuivm-ally Isdong to norlheni Africa, llenco
/i ll» I ..,!...- . l,...^ I. ..I.. .I..J
(iosselln ana other writers conclude that his in-
terior Lybia was not central Africa, but merely
the region along the northeni Isirders of the descrl..
We must oliM'rve, however, that the fonner, dc-
siTilNul OS a region of mountain, river, and lake,
all on a great scale, iN'ars vi-ry little restMnblame
to the desert iNirder of northeni Africa, Our ini-
pH'ssion is that i't^ileinv, n-ceiving his intelligeiii'n
from caravans itoming k. from lioniou Ut the Nili>,
not from those crosxing the great dest'rt, wns
ignorant of the extent of the latter, and conne-
qiiontlv of the interval S4>narating northern from
central Africa ; and that lie hence supfsised ami
delineated the two as almost in contact. Yet
this gt'ographer had received intelligent of two
marches, one by •Julius Matemiis (Vom ('yreno,
the other hy Septimus Flattens from (iarama, wlm
during perttsls res|M>ctively of three and of four
months had p<<iielrated into the country of tlin
Kthiopians, Ptolemy scarcely gives criMlit to
routes of such an extent ; but he la^s down
Agysimba (|)erhaps Agadiz), into which they
p«>netrut«Ml, as tint most southerly known region. As
it contains neither rivers nor lakes, it cannot lie
central AfVica; but if, in the manner alM)ve su|)-
iMised, he was ignorant how far south that reginn
Iny, tho length of the marches would neitessurily
oblige him to protract Agysimlm Istyond It. ((ieo-
graphia Nubiensis (Hdrini), in Lalinum verxa a
(iabrielo Hionita ct Joanne Ilesroiiitu (-liiiiatc,
i, iMirts 1, 2, 1), 4; Notices tics MS,S. d(> In IlililiiH
thcquo <lu Koi (Paris, 17H9), llie possagcH of
these writers relating to Central Africa tranul, in
Murray's Discoveries iu Africa, App. (2il ed.) il
519-583.)
In tho seventh century a grand revolution
changed tho face of tho wt)rlfl. Tht> folio wen tif
Mt)hammc<l, inspired by fanatical zeal, i.sxucd forth
from Arabia, anil not only shook llic Homaii
empire, but spread thoir con(|ucsts and scttlemenln
over countries never visitctl by the Roman arms.
To Africa particiilarlv they gove an entirely new
face. Along its Mctiitcrranoan coast, they estuli-
lished several flourishing and civilised kingdomx.
Their wantloring habits, and tho use of tho camel,
an animal expressly formed for sandy desertm,
enabletl them to overcome obstacles that baflled
tho Romans. The Sahara, across which no regular
route appears to have lx«n known to the ancient!*,
was penetrated by them in diflTcrent ilirections.
Their dispersion was aided by the great schism
between the dynasties of the Abbassiiies and Om-
miodos. The vanquished party, in large btslics,
crossed the desert, and formed settlements, where,
under the title of Fcllatiis or Foulahs, they still
exist as a race entirely ilistinct from the Negroes.
Their possessions extended along a great river
called by them the Nile of the Negroes, which,
however, was not, as long supposetl, our Niger,
but a tributary flowing into it fnim the east,
termed by Clapperton the Quarramu or Zirmie.
(ihona, the modem Kant>, was then the chief Mint
both of empire uid commorco. Tho 80veieji;n
AFRICA
4S
ilUliUyoil « p«inp iinriv«llr««l In AWm, having hi«
IhMiio ailonu'il with « niiMi uf niint ifiM, iiittl-
miiiiir tho oommcrKii l>y wlilrh tnu city ww «>n-
rit-hi>tL Thiit irnlil wm foiinil In • country to tha
wiiith calloil Wnnffara, IntonKH-twl by numoniiw
lir»n«h«i of tliti NilK. *n<l whom th« nmUl wm
cxtriwU'tl from ulluviftl oartli. Tlii'm i» «>viiUmtly
xoiMo coiifuiiiiiii hons M tfolil, in Alliivial lirpoNti^
lit only foHD«l In uountriM far to thn wi'nti the
error probably arUint; tttm the nhannvl by wlili-h
it WAM brought. Vartb«r rait, on tho N ll« of th«
Nf^iM'is Kilriiil ropmwntM ik<riiwa and Tirka,
which iweinnl to liavu U'en rocu^niMHl bv ('lain
Itrrlon In li«r»h«« and (iirkwa, Htill oonHidoralAo
townii. Farthor in that direction, Kiiku, a tfti'Ht
and HoiuriKliin^ kinKdom, i* ovidnntly Itomuii, tho
ch|iIih1 of which Ntlll lioan that namo; whil«
KniiKha, twenty dayn to the Houth, nnd dixtiit-
^iiixhiHl bv itN artJi and inihmtrv, np|K>Ani pn>tty
clearly to Iw th«> Lo|{>fun of Denliain. Kotumiii^
to (iliana, and procowlinn down the rivor, wo nrc
conducted to Tovrur, an inferior yet lar^o and
iMwerful klnplom. It a|)|M!an evidently to be
H(HX'nt<M>, whkh, in a diwiunient niioted by Clap-
Jierton, iii even called Takror. Snia, two dayn'
oiimey lower, cannot now lie idenlitled. Farther
woHt, tho knowledire of tho ArabianH became moHt
ini|H!rfrct. They conNidercd tho ocean as only
fi(H) milei liovond Tocrur, when it in nearly 2000.
They notice in that direction the island of Ulil, at
the niimth «>f the f^rent rivor, whence all tho
ciiuiitrictt on itn liankit were Hupplied with Halt.
This wa« pretty evidently MUKKt-'xtt^i by Walet,
the ^reat mart n)r tho Halt of tho northern dettert;
nn<l llH iHtioK reacltud acrotut the ^eat lake Dibble
nuKht attach to it the idea of an inland.
About four centuricH after Kdrini, central Africa
wii.>t vinited and described by Leo, a MoHlcm
S|iaiiiurcl, who was t*von surtiamcd Africanus. A
^rrt>nt change liad now taken place, Timbuctoo
having rixcn to bo tho most powerful city, the
ciiicf city of commerce and splendour, the mart
fur K*'!!!*' 'f he neiKhb4)uring states, including even
U liana, called now Kauo, hod become its txibu-
turics. This writer mentions Romou under that
mime, and adds for the first time other states that
Ktill Hubxist — Cossina, Giiber, /cgzexiand Zanfiira.
Kyeo, under tho name of Gago, is justly described
a.4 a large and fine kingdom, 400 miles south-east
of 'I'inibiictoo. In a western direction, Qhinea or
(ihunooa, distinguished for its great commerce, is
the Jennd of Park. Thus all this part of the con-
tinent luul assumed nearly the shape which it has
ever since retained.
StMin after began that grand career of maritime
cntcr|)rise, which terminated in the circumnavi-
gation of the African continent and the discovery
of a passage to India, It was carried on entirely
by the Portuguese, and proceeded by gradual
8te|)s, from the rounding of Cape Bojador in 1433
bv Gilianez, to tho memorable passage of the
Cape of Good Hope in 1497 by Yasco de Gamo.
During this long period, at every successive point,
vigorous efforts were made to penetrate into the
interior. These were inspired, not only by the report
of gold mines and other objects of commerce, but
still more by a hope of reaching the court of a
mysterious personage named Proster John. This
name appears to have originated in reports brought
by Kubruquis and other early travellers of a ruling
Nestorian bishop in central Africa. When, how-
ever, notices arrived of a Christian prince in Abys-
sinia, the name Prcster John settled down upon
him; and, ignorant of the breadth of the con-
tinent, they supposed that, at no very great dis-
tance from tho western coast, his dominions might
be found. The commanders wero therefore m-
Hinirtcd fn\ ey«y nwr dliMWYwy to maV" Ihrir
lirst incpilry roncitrning PreHii^r John i and ttiou»{li
total IgimrnncH was evcrywhvnt profitMHtd, they
{M>rMW(ire<l, and really a|)|Miar t4t liavu wnt onilia*-
•iM even to Tlmbuct(M>. Dl ItarriM has given a
pretty correct acetHint of the tMwItion of that vity,
and of GennI (Joum<) its rival. The Kngllsh and
Fnnich foumi a ninslderable PortugueMi |Mipu-
latlun on the Hi^ni'gal and Gambia, and many
wonU of that language current among the |M>opl«
of liamlMiuk. Yet nothing was tlone to correct
the Arabian idea of the Niger ridling westward
into the ocean; and tho Senegal was thercfom
cunsidenid as forming its lower course, though Dl
llarroM expn^Nst's wonder that , after [MMsinu I hniiigh
so manv regions, it should not have rolled a greater
InmIv (>{ waters.
1 he Portuguese formed leading Mttlemonts at
Klmina on the (iold coast, and at the mouth of tliu
river Formosa, which has now proved to \m that of
tho Niger. They learned that the rulers here, on
their ai!ces«ioii, were acciist^imed to send ambassii-
don almut 'JAU leagues into tho intt>rior to tho
court of a prince named Agan(<, from whom, im
fViim a su|>erior lord, certain symlsils were received,
which formed tho prince's investiture. This \h>-
tentate, during tho interview, was screened from
view by a silk curtain, and only at the cUmmi bin
foot was put forth, to which they did homage.
(Di Ilarros, Asia, b. iii. ch. 3-12.) M^or liennell,
with Hocming reamin, presumes this to l>o tho king
of (jliana ; and in the uin|>s of tho sixteenth niiu
sevent^ienth centuries tlntro aji|>earM a very largo
lake named (iuantiu, which, from the site and a
rude resemblance of name, we Husp<!<\t to Iw tho
Tchad ; but D'Anville, llnding no authority in ita
sup|iort, expunged it. Tho Portuguese abto fonmtl
considerable settlements on the coast of Congo,
which, to a certain extent, they still retain ; and
their miHsiimaries |M>netrat.ed to i omo distaniro in-
land. After passing the (ya|ie, and on the way t<>
India, they sailed along nearly the whole of tho
eastern coast as far u» Melinda and Momliasiu
Tho king of Portugal hod previously sent out two
envoys, Covilhani and Do Payva, to reach Iiulia
by wa^ of the lied Sea. Their notices and oli-
Hcrvntions, coupled with those of tho circumnavi-
gators, first conveyed to Europe a full view of the
outline and circuit of this vast continent.
Covilham, in returning, settled in Abyssinia,
and transmitted such accounts as induced his sove-
reign to send thither a succession of missionaries,
through whom copious accounts wore received of
that remarkable country, scarcely at all known to
the ancients. They did not, however, curry dis-
covery far into the interior of tho continent ; and,
indeed, Huch ignorance nrovailed on the subject
that, in the maps of tne seventeenth century,
Abyssinia and Congo are brought nearly into con-
tact, while the Nile rises almost in the vicinity of
the Cape of Good Hope.
In Europe meantime a growing interest was ex-
cited respecting the course of tho Niger, the coun-
trjr of gold, and the trade of Timbuctoo, It was
heightened by the conquest of that city by the
emperor of Morocco in the end of the sixteenth
century. In 1618, an English company was fonued
for the purpose of penetrating thither, by ascend-
ing the Gambia, supposed one of the mouths of
the Niger, They sent out Captain Thompson,
who, leaving his vessel at Kassan, went in a boat
to Tenda, which no European haid yet reached ;
but he was killed in a contest with the natives,
another body of whom, instigated by the Portu-
guese, attacked and massacred most of the men in
the vessel. Another crew, sent to reinforce him,
fell almost all victims to the climate. In 1G20,
41
AFRICA
i
Captnin Richard JobHon eamo nut with a larf^cr
annament, and, iindiHmaycd bv those evil tidin^R,
motlc Um way conHidorahly hi^^hcr than hix ]trc-
ciiniors. Ho even supposed, on erroneous informa-
tion, tiiat he was near Timbuctoo, and returnc<l
with tiio intention of actively rcHuming his re-
searches, hut was prevented by a (pmrrel with the
nierithunts, who lost courage, and (lr<)p])cd the un-
d(!rtakinK. (Jobson, Golden Trade, or a Discovery
of the Kiver Gambia. Lond. 1023.)
A century elapsed without further effort, till the
Duke of Chandos, director of the African Com-
panv, entertained the idea of enlnrj<ing its scanty
profits by o|H:ninK a communication with the
country of gold. He sent out, in 1 723, Captain
Jiartiiolomew Stiblis, who having procured canoes,
))ushcil vigorously up the river. On passing the
fulls of 1iarra(!onda, however, the stream became
in many ]ilaces so extremely shallow, that even
his little boats could scarcely be dragged upward.
1I(! was finally obliged to stop nearly at the point
which Jol>son had already reached. Ilis informa-
tion led him to conclude that ' the original or head
of the river Niger is nothing near so far in the
country as by the gcogra)>hers has been repre-
sented.' The Gambia, at a little distance upwards,
was described as dwindling into a mere rivulet.
It had no communication with the Senegal, or
with any lake. He nowhere heard the Niger
named, and had great doubts if such a river ex-
iste(L Moore, a zealous agent of the company,
strenuously repelled this conclusion, and endea-
voured to overwhelm him by quoting I'liny, Pto-
lemy, Leo, and other high authorities ; but >Stibbs,
though unable to meet him on this ground, con-
tiimed not the let>s steadily to affirm what he had
seen with his own eyes. (Moore, Travels in the
Inland Parts of Africa. Lond. 1738.) In fact,
notwithstanding one or two other attempts, the
English made no farther discoveries in this quar-
ter, nor obtained any intelligence of the real
Niger.
The French meantime wore making greater
exertions on the Senegal, which they early chose
as their place of settlement. About 1630, a com-
mercial intercourse had been opened by some
merchants of Kouen and Dieppe, without any set-
tlement, the crews merely erecting temporary huta
during their stav. (Taiinezina, Voyage de Lybie.
Paris, 1645.) They were obliged, however, in
1664, to give way to the great VV^est India Com-
pany, whose privilege included also western Africa.
In nine years, however, it fell ; and on its ruins
was erected a second, succeeded by a third, fourth,
and fifth, which last was merged in the Mississippi
scheme. These, like similar mercantile associa-
tions, were all disastrous ; but each had its interval
of activity, during which a good deal was done to
extend discovery and trade. The chief efforts were
made by the Sieur Brue, appointed governor in
1697. From Port St. Louis, where a settlement
was now formed, he immediately sailed up the
river, with a view to adjust some differendfes with
the Siratik or king of the Foulahs, and open a
trade with its upper regions. He succeeded m his
negotiations, and had hoped to reoch Gallam, but
was obliged to stop at Ghiorel, where he erected a
fort. In 1698 he reached Gallam, and arrived at
the rock of Felu, which stops the navigation for
large barks. At Dramanet he fixed on a position
for a fort, which was soon after erected under the
nome of St. Joseph, and became the centre of
French interior trade. Through the exertions of
one Compagnon, he acquired a full account of
liambouk and its gold mines, the most productive
in Africa. He laid before the company a plan for
conquering the country, wliich ho midcrtook to
effect with 1,200 men, but could neither obtain tho
requisite authority nor means. Ho made diligent
incpiirics resiHscting the re^ons Iwyond, and ob-
tained pretty distinct accounts of Itambarra, the
lake Maberia (Dibbie), and Timbuctoo. Re-
specting the Niger, two opposite statements were
made. According to one, it Howed westward, and
divided into the three branches of the Gambia, the
Fal(>me, and the Senegal; while others asserted its
course to be eastward. The former continued to
be the popular belief; but D' Anvillo, who bestowed
much attention on tho subject, and had access to
the best documents, became convinced that there
was a great river quite distinct from the Senegnl,
which Howed eastward, and was the one that passed
by Timbuctoo. Upon this jjrinciple he tomied
his map of Africa, a wonderful effort of sagacity
and ability, and which, in fact, is still tolerably
correct as to a great part of that continent. (Ln-
bat, Afrique Occidentale, 5 tom. Paris, I72H,
GollMjrry, Fragmens d'un Voyage en Al'riciiie. 2
torn. D'Aiiville, sur les Kivifcrcs dans I'lnteriiir
de I'Afrique, Academic des Inscriptions, tom xxvi.
64.) Hy restricting Abyssinia oud Congo to their
true limits, and obliterating imaginary features,
this great gcogra|ihcr first exhibited that vast in-
terior blank whicdi so strongly excited the curiosity
and entenirise of Europe.
The spirit of African discovery slumbered in
Britain till 1788, when it burst forth with an ar-
dour which led to the most splendid result.i. In
that year was formed the African Association, com-
posed of a number of distinguished individuals,
among whom Sir Joseph Banks and Mr. Beaiifuy
took. the lead. Ledyard was sent to nenetrate by
way of Egj'pt, and Lucas by that of Tripoli, 'i'lie
former, who, with an iron frame, had travelled great
part of the world on foot, excited great expecta-
tions; but unhappily a fever carried him off before
leaving Cairo. Mr. Lucas, long vice-consul at
Morocco, had the advantage of understanding )ier-
fcctly the African languages. He found no dilli-
culty in obtaining the concurrence of the Pasha
of I'ripoli ; and ha<l set out for Fezzan, but was
arrested by an insurrection among the Arab tribes.
Valuable information, however, was obtained from
several intelligent natives, confirmed by the tes-
timony of Ben AUi, a merchant, who happened to
be in London, and had travelled far into the in-
terior. From these sources pretty copious accounts
were received respecting the great countries of
Bomou and Cassina, the latter of which had be-
come the chief among the states of Houssa. The
informants described also a great caravan route
across the continent, from Tripoli to Asientc or
Ashantee, behind the Gold Coast. In this course
it crossed the great central river, described, how-
ever, as flowing to the westward. It was, in fact,
the Arabian Nile of the Negroes, the Quarrama of
Clapperton, which in that direction proceeded to
the main river, of which it is only a tributar}'.
Kennell, having these materials put into his hand's,
and not being aware of any central river but one,
reversed the direction given by D'Anville to the
Niger, making it flow westward to the ocean by
the channel of the Senegal. At the same time
Bomou, understood to be described as bordering on
Nubia, was carried far to the north and east of its
real position, and the bordering countries displaced
in consequence; so that this map, though ably
drawn up, formed decidedly a retrograde step in
African geography.
The Association now turned their attention to
W. Africa, and engaged Major Houghton, for some
time consul at Morocco, to proceed from the Gam-
bia. He went on foot, imprudently loaded with a
quantity of valuable articles. He passed uiimu-
AFRICA
40
their attention to
Houghton, for some
ceed from the Gam-
lently loaded with a
He passed unmu-
,lci»ti'il throjiph Medina and Bamlmuk; but on
IrcarliiiiR the territory of the Moors, was seduced
fbv tliatiK'0|)lc into the desert, where he was either
(killed or ahandoned to iierish. (Proceedings of the
African Association. London, 1790. Ibid. Loud.
1 17!t7.) . ,
( )n receiving this intelligence, the Association
[lost no time in seeking a substitute, and were for-
tunate enough to engage Mr. Mungo Park. That
gentleman, in Decemtier. 17i)r), set out from the
(ianihia, and passed through Medina, Hondon,
liallam, Kasson, and Kaarta. Havinj; suffered on
tlic way severe spoliation, he was seiised and de-
tained long in captivity by the Moors of Ludamar.
He contrived to escape, and though in extreme
distress, made his way through the kingdom of
llambarra to 8ego, its capitoL This formed a crisis
in African geopraphy, for he there saw ' the long-
sought majestic Niger, glittering to the morning
sun, as broad as the Thames at Westminster, and
iiowing slowly to the eastward.' The extent of
the city, its crowded jiopulation, and the numerous
canoes on the river, presented altogether a scene
little expected in the heart of Africa. Mr. Park
penetrated down the Niger as far as Silla ; but his
destitute condition, and the formidable accounts of
tlic bigotry prevailing at Jenne and Timbuctoo,
ileterrcd him from proceeding farther.
This traveller's arrival in England in December,
1797, with accounts of such important discoveries,
raised higher than ever the enthusiasm for African
discovery. He retired into private life; but the
Association obtained the services «)f Homemann, a
Cierman, who possessed many requisites of a tra-
veller. He went by way of Kgypt to Fezzan,
thence into central Africa, and aiipears to have
IKiictratedby way of Cashna to Nyne on the Niger,
where he fell a victim to the climate. The same
fate tiefcll Mr. Nicholls, who attempted to reach
the Niger by way of the Gulph of Benin. Some
years before, Mr. Bro»vne, an enterprising indivi-
dual, by his own resources had penetrated by way
of Egypt into the interior coimtry of Darfour, about
midway between Abyssinia and Bomou. He ob-
tained there some important detached notices re-
Rl)ecting the neighbouring nations, and the origin
(if the White River or main branch of the Nile,
said to rise in the mountainous territory of Donga.
Meantime Park's mind was intensely bent upon
Africa; and tlirough liLs acquaintance with Mr.
Maxwell, who had commanded a vessel employed
ill the Zaire or Congo, he became persuaded that
that river was the terminatitm of the Niger. Being
invited by government to lead an expedition on a
liirge scale, he readily accepted it, and its arrange-
nioiits were adjusted with a view to his hypothesis.
( )ri the 4th of May, 1805, he departed from the
tiambia, with a well appointed party of upwards
of forty ; but the harassing attacks of the natives,
with the pestilential uifluence of the -ainy season,
reduced them to seven before they reached the
Niger. He proceeded do>vnward, however, and at
t>ansanding obtained materials for conatnicting a
schooner, 40 feet long, which he named the Joliba;
and on the 17th November, 1805, set sail to ex-
plore the mysteries of interior Africa. It appears
that he passed Timbuctoo, and m.ade his way down
the river to Boussa, where the king of Youri, in-
dignant at having received no presents, pursued
with a large body of men, and attacked him ui a
narrow and rocky cliannel. Park and his com-
])niuons, unable to resist, threw themselves into
the water, attempting to reach the shore, but were
drowned. His paiiers were never recovered.
A German named KOntgen attempted to pene-
trate byway of Morocco, and set out in 1809 from
^Nlogadore ; but he appears to have been murdered
by his guides. Some intelligence was gleaned from
Adams and Kiley, two Americans, who were suc-
cessively shipwrecked on ihe coast of Sahara ; but
much uncertainty attached to their statements.
In 1809, the association engaged the services of
the celebrated Burkhardt, who undertook to ao
company the interior caravan from Cairo. While
preparing himself for the exiK-dition he made ex-
cursions through Nubia, and also througli Syria
and Arabia, his observations on which have be(^n
published, and are extremely valuable. In 1817,
however, when about tn set out on his main desti-
nation, he fell a victim to dysentery.
Tlic public mind continued to lie intently fixed
on African discovery ; jiartly from a wish to learn
tlie real state of countries so dithcult to explon*,
and so different from those of the temperate zone,
and partly, and perhaps principally, from r.bsurdly
exaggerated ideas as to the value of the commerce
that might bo carried on with the natives. At
length government, on the suggestion of Sir John
Barrow, determined to make a more extensive effort
than ever., Following up the hypothesis of the
identity of the Niger and Congo, two expeditions
were prepared; one to ascend the latter river,
another to descend the former. Captain Tuckry,
who commanded the first, sailed from England in
Februarj', 1816, and arrived in June at the mouth
of the Congo. The party proceeded for some time
with great spirit ; but being obliged by the cata-
racts to leave their boats, and proceed on foot
through a nigged country affording little shelter,
they became exposed to the baneful influence of
the climate. Severe sickness soon assailing the
whole party, obliged them to stop short, and ulti-
mately proved fatal to all the officers, including
the commander. The other expedition, destined
to go down the Niger, was commanded by Major
Peddie, who endeavoiiretl to reach the interior
through the country of the Foulahs. Having died
before the march began, he was succeeded by Cap-
tain Campbell, who reached the Foulah frontier ;
l)ut the sovereign, jealous of their designs, detained
them under various pretexts, till exhausted sup-
plies and general sickness obliged them to return.
Immediately after Captain Camptell died, and his
fate was shared by Lieutenant Stokoe, just as he
had planned a new expedition. Captaui Gray, of
the Boyal African corps, penetrated by andther
route to Gallam, but could not obtain permission
to proceed through Bambarra.
AH this series of disaster did not shake the per-
severance of the British government, A new open-
ing was afforded through the Pasha of Tripoli, who,
inspired with a desire of improvement new in this
quarter of the world, cultivated European connec-
tion, and influenced by the judicious conduct of
consul Warrington, offered his assistance to the
British government. Holding Fezzan tributary,
and having a commanding influence over the cen-
tral states, he could secure the safe passage of a
traveller through a great part of Africa. Under
his auspices, in 1819, Mr. Bitchic and Lieuten-
ant Lyon reached Fezzan; but through the
climate, and the treacherous ill-treatment of
the sultan, they incurred such severe illnesses as
proved fatal to the former, and obliged the latter
to return.
This failure did not prevent the speedy forma-
tion of another expedition, for which a more for-
tunate diistinj' was reserved. Its chiefr, Major
Dcnham, Lieutenant Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney,
arrived at Tripoli in November, 1821. Nextspriiig
they proceeded to Fezzan ; but through the neg-
lect of the sultan were unable to procure camels,
which obliged Denham to return to Tripoli. Here
he received assurances of protection from Boo Khal-
49
AFRICA
loon, a j^nat Arab nlave-mcrchant, who was set-
ting out for the vcrv countricH which he Bought to
explore. Under his guidance, the party, in the
end of 1822, began their route through the great
dcHcrt, paHMing lietween the tcrritori<^8 of the two
rc^miu-kable native tribes, the Tuaricks and the
Tibboos, They then travelled for a fortnight amid
hillH of moving f«and, without the slightest vestige
of life or vegetation. Soon after they entered Ka-
nem, the northem province of Bomou. At Lari
they came in view of Lake Tchad, the great in-
terior sea of Afrii a, 200 miles long, receiving two
great riven, and < ontaining numerous islands. In
proceeding along its eastern shore they visited most
parts of liomou and its chief cities of Kouka (Kuku
of Edrisi), New Bimie, and Angomou. This king-
dom, once the most powerful in central Africa, had
alM)ut thirty years before been conquered and
dreadfully ravaged by the Fcllatas from Houssa ;
but a private indiWdual, by valour and ability, had
reasserted its independence, and driven out the
enemy. That person, under the title of Sheik, ex-
ercised all the real power, while he suffered the
legitimate king to reign in empty pomp. Major
Dcnliam also visited the smaller kingdom of Man-
dara, bounded by an almost interminable range of
mountains filled with savage tribes, who are hunted
down for slaves. In Loggun, situated along the
great river Shary, which falls into the Tchad, ho
found a people more ingenious and industrious than
those of Bomou,
Meantime Glapperton and Oudney were making
an expedition through Iloussa, the most interest-
ing region of central Africa. It was found inha-
bited by the Fellatas, a people having nothing of
the Negro features, but apparently descended 'rom
the great body of Moslem Arabs, who had migrated
many centuries ago. They were quite superior to
the Bomonese both in aspect and character, culti-
vating the land with greater skill and diligence,
and manufacturing very fine cottons. The sway
of Ghana, and even of Cassina, had been trans-
ferred to ^ackatoo (Tocrur), the sultan of which,
about the beginning of the present century, over-
ran all Houssa, and for some time occupied Bomou.
Ghana, however, under the name of Kano, was
found great in its decay, and still the chief seat of
commerce. The transactions were extensive and
wrcU arranged ; but slaves were the staple com-
modity. Sackatoo was found considerably larger
than Kano, and the traveller was hospitably re-
ceived by sultan Bello. The river Quarrama was
observed traversing this country, and flowing west-
ward into the Niger, which, at the nearest point
to Sackatoo, had a southward course ; but accounts
varied, whethev continuing in that direction it
reached the sea, or making a great circuit emptied
Itself into the lake Tchad. The traveller, having
in vain solicited the means of proceeding to the
river and the coast, returned to Bomou by a new
route, which enabled him to see Cassina, a capital
now greatly decayed. Dr. Oudney died early on
this journey.
The British government determined to follow
up these extensive and important discoveries.
Clapperton was employed to land on the coast of
Guuiea, thence to penv trate to Sackatoo, and on
his way explore the termination of the Niger.
Instead of attempting to ascend the river of Benin,
he was advised to proceed by land from Badagry;
but from impradent exposure to the climate two
companions died, and he became sickly. He soon,
however, reached the Yarriba, or Kingdom of
Eyes, which he found populous and flourishing ;
and the natives, not imbued with Mohammedan
bigotry, courteously received him. In traversing
it he crossed the chain of the Kong Mountains,
peopled to the inmroit. Leaving Tarriha, and
passing through the large cities of Kiama and
Wawa, he reached Boussa on the Niger, where ho
received a confirmation of Park's death, and even
an invitation fn>m the king of Youri, who pro-
mised to give him that traveller's books and
papers ; but this visit was delayed till he should
return from Sackatoo. On his way thither he
passed through Nyffe, a highly improved territory
though dreailfully laid waste by the Fellatas ; and
through Zegzeg, also very populous and well cul-
tivated. At Sackatoo, or Soccatoo, an expedition
against the rebel territory of Goober enabled him
to procure farther information. The sultan, how-
ever, prepossessed with groundless jealousies,
treated him with a harshness, which, with pre-
vious sickness, brought this spirited traveller to a
premature grave. His servant. Lander, after
doing the last duties, conceived the plan of him-
self exploring the termination of the Niger, but
was forcibly prevented.
The information attained on ihis journey afforded
the strongest reason to suppose that the Niger ter-
minated m the sea. Lander, on his return, submitted
to government a plan for proceeding to Bousm,
and thence navigating the stream downwards.
The British Government agreed to furnish the
means, though promising only a very slender re-^
ward. In March, 1 830, accompanied by his brother, '
he arrived at Badagry, and proceeded by nearly
the former route to Boussa. Thence he visited
Youri, which proved a very rich and populous
country; but the king treated him ill, and <e had
no success as to Park's books and papers. On the
island of Patashic, below Boussa, he procured,
with great difliculty, two canoes, afterwanls ex-
changed for one of larger size, and thus began the
na^dgation down the Niger. He soon found it
expand into a most magnificent river, about three
miles broad, and bordered by noble forests. The
large island of Zagoshi presented an active scene
of industry and navigation, and by a large force
of armed canoes maintained its independence of
the neighbouring states. On the adjoining shore
appeared a very large town, named Kabba. Far-
ther down, Egga, another great port on the river,
terminated the comparatively civilised territory of
Nyffe ; below which were only detached states of
a very turbulent and lawless character, among
which serious dangers were encountered. The
next striking object was the influx from the west-
ward of the great river Tshadda, three or four
miles broad, and with a current so strong that
they soon gave up the attempt to ascend it. They
learned, however, that three days' journey up was
Fundah, of whose importance they had often
heard. It became more and more evident that
their voyage was to terminate in the sea, and that
the numerous river branches which open into the
Gulph of Benin are the delta of the Niger, Near the
large town of Kirree, they passed the one which
runs towards Benin. Here the natives were almost
entirely clothed in the manufactures of Europe, and
had fleets of large canoes adorned with European
articles. The travellers, however, were made pri-
soners, and carried down to Eboe, the greit mart
for slaves and palm oil, with which tra>ie the
natives, who are rude and dissolute, do not hesi-
tate to combine piracy. With great difficulty, and
the promise of a high ransom, they succeeded in
getting arrangements made for conveying them
to the sea. They reached it by the channel called
by the Portuguese Nun, by the English Brass
River ; not the largest of the estuaries, but that
which comes in the most direct line from the
main tmnk. Thus, by very humble agency, was
solved that grand problem in African geography,
AFRICA
47
LcATing Tairiba, and
cities of Kiama and
n the Niger, where ho
'ork'H death, and even
g of Youri, who pn>-
traveller'a books and
delayed till he should
I his way thither ho
hly improved territory
\ by the Fellatas ; and
lopulous and well cul-
iccatoo, an expedition
>f Goober enabled him
)n. The sultan, how-
nt>andles8 jealousies,
ess, which, with prc-
flpiritcd traveller to a
rvant. Lander, after
iived the plan of him-
ion of the Niger, but
n this journey afforded
OBC that the Niger tor-
in his retum,8ubniittcd
proceeding to Boussn,
e stream downwanls.
agreed to furnish the
nly a very slender re-
npanied by his brothor, '
I proceeded by nearly
)a. Thence he visited
ry rich and populous
:ed him ill, and 'e had
:8 and papers. On the
BouBsa, he procured,
;anoe8, afterwanis cx-
se, and thus bcgnn the
ir. He soon found it
cent river, about three
by noble forests. The
isented an active scene
, and by a large force
d its independence df
n the adjoining shore
named Kabba. Fnr-
reat port on the river.
y civilLsed territorj' of
ily detached states of
ess character, amoiii;
e encountered. Tlie
influx from the west ■
shadda, three or four
urrent so strong that
ipt to ascend it. They
days' journey up was
nee they had often
id more evident that
« in the sea, and that
s which open into the
of the Niger. Near the
passed the one which
e natives were almost
Etctures of Europe, and
lomed with "f luropcan
rever, were made pri-
Eboe, the greit mart
ith which traile the
isBolute, do not hesi-
great difficulty, and
I, they succeeded in
for conveying them
ly the channel called
the English Brass
e estuaries, but that
direct line from the
humble agency, wati
I African geography,
in the sfiarch after which so many abortive efforts
bad lK>*>n mailo.
This imiM)rtant discovery, opening a water com-
(luniuation into the very centre of the contmcnt,
iindc a strong impression on the mercantile world,
Wr. M'Gregor Laird, and some other gcntlemeri of
L,iven)ool, entered into an association for forming
settlement and opening a trade on the UpiMsr
■Niger. Two steamers, the Quorra and Alburkah,
Iwprc fitted out; while the Columbine, a larger
Isailuig vessel, was laden with goods. They ar-
Irived in the mouth of the Nun in October, 1832,
Ibut suffered severely from sickness amid the
I swamps of the delta; and though before the
lend of the year they reached a healthier station,
Ithc survivors did not regain their health. In the
IcourHc of the next two years, Mr, Laird ascended
I the Tshadda, and reached Fnndah, nine miles in-
llaiul, which ho found a large city, with nearly
1 40,01)0 inhabitants, situated in a very extensive
I and l)cautiful plain. Its commerce, however, had
I been much injured by war, and b)^ the tyranny of
I its ruler, from whose power Mr, Laird had some dif-
Ificulty in escaping. Mr, Oldtleld in the Alburkah
I sailed about 100 miles up this river, but neither
I found its banks so fruitful nor the commerce so
I active as on the Niger, He also visited Kabba,
I which proved equ«5ly extensive with Fundah,
ITlic streets were crowded and dirty, but the mar-
Ikets spacious and well arranged. The state of
I the vessel frustrated the attempt to ascend to
iBoussa. Lander had unfortunately died of wounds
Ireceivcd in a contest with the natives. The
■expedition was unfortunate in a commercial
Ivicw, the only valuable article found being ivory,
■in too small quantity to pay the expense of the
irovage.
From the southern extremity of Africa, inter-
sting discoveries have also been made. It was
not till 1650 that the Dutch formed a colony at
itlie Cape of Good Hope, which quickly became
I nourishing. IJcyond the Karroo desert they set-
Itled rich grazing farms, at the foot of the high
linterior ranges of the Nienweld and Sneuwge-
Ibirge, compelling the natives to labour as slaves.
JTowards the end of the eighteenth century, Sparr-
Iman and Vaillant brought interesting accounts of
I the scenery of this tract, and its natural prmluc-
jtions both animal and vegetable. The settlement
[having been captured by Britain, Mr. Barrow, as
(secretary to Lord Macartney, made in 1797 an
I excursion into the interior, and gave striking pic-
I turcs of the pastoral life of the Kaffres, and of the
miserable aspect and condition of the Bosjemans
or mountain Hottentots. In 1801, Messrs. Trutter
I and Somerville passed the Sneuwgebirge, disco-
vered the large stream of the Orange Kiver, vrith
the pastoral tribe of the Koranas, and finally ar-
rived at Lattakoo, capital of the Boshuanas, a
more industrious and improved people than any
j yet known in southern Africa. On recei\'ing this
intelligence. Lord Calelon sent Dr. Cowan and
I Mr. Donovan, with a party of twenty, to attempt
I to penetrate as far as Mozambique ; but after pro-
ceeding considerably beyond Lattakoo, they were
I surprised and killed by a party of natives.
Tlie Rev. Mr. Campbell, in his zealous pursuit
I of missionary objects, considerably extended our
knowledge of this part of Africa. Beyond Latta-
koo, he passed through a succession of towns
I always rising in importance. Kurrechane, the
I last, was estimated to contain 16,000 inhabitants,
I who, besides agriculture, showed considerable skill
in adorning their habitations, tanning skins, and
j smelting iron and copper. Dr. Licbtenstein and
! Mr. Burchell made important observations on the
I Boahuaua people, but neither penetrated so far as
Mr. Campbell. In lfi2S, whilo Mr. Thompson
was at Lattakoo, these districts were invadc<l l>y a
numerous and formidable Cati'ro people, from tho
vicinity of Caiw NataL Tlicse, it was discovered,
had iM'on driven from their country by a still more
powerful tribe, the ZihiIoos, whoso chief, Chaka,
could muster 100,000 fighting men. Yet thera
was found to l)c in that quarter a laigo extent of
fertile territory, to whicn a numl)er of DuU-h
farmers were induced to emigrate; but having
been involved in hostilities with this savage tril)o,
they have of late suffered dreadfully, and many
of them have |)crished.
During the years 1822 to 1826, Captain Owen
was employed by the British government in
making a very careful survey both of tho eiistcm
and western coasts. He obtained much informa-
tion rcsfxicting the former, which had hitherto
been very imperfectly known. In 1837, Sir Jamea
Alexander, under the auspices of the Geographical
Society, performed an expedition to the north-
west from the Cape, into the country of the
Damaras, where he penetrated farther than any
fonner traveller.
Within the last few years, a now and powerful
impetus has been ^ven to African exploration,
w^hich has resulted in most important discoveries.
In the first place, the true nature of the interior
has been ascertained beyond dispute. In the year
1852, Sir Koderick Murchison suggested the hypo-
thesis that the interior of Africa was now, as in
ancient geological perio<ls, an immense watershed,
occupied by fresh water lakes, outflowing to the
east and west through fissures in the inountiun
ranges near the coast. This theory has been com-
pletely established by the discoveries of our most
eminent African travellers. It is known to be
true of the passage of the Niger, and Dr. Living-
stone proved it to be the case in that of the Zam-
besi, whilst it received a fresh confirmation from
the discoveries of Burton and Speke, and Speko
and Grant, with respect to the sources of tho
Nile. The discovery of the latter is a most me-
morable one in African geography. It was in
1858 that Captain Speke first visited the Lake
N'yanga. He subsequently made a second jour-
ney for the purpose of farther investigation ; and
in a memoir, in the Journal of the Geographical
Society, he published a statement of the facts on
which he grounds his conclusion that this lake is
the great reservoir of the Nile. He says that it
appears 'that all the drainage of the N'yanga
must come down the channel of the Nile, unless
perchance the Sobat might be the rivej alluded to
by the Arabs and natives as "making Usoga an
Island." Should this not be the case, then the
Sobat must be an independent river, draining all
the mountain range north of Mount Kenia up to
this parallel, and so to the eastward as far as
possible the basin of the Nile is determined. Now
to complete the western side of the basin of the
Nile as far as possible, I must state as a positive
fact, the Nile at Gondokoro is the parent or tnie
Nile. No explorers on the Nile, of the present
time, doubt that for a moment; and all those —
there are many — ^who have recently directed their
attention to the discovery of the source of the Nile,
have invariably looked for it south of Gondokoro.
Thi0 matter established, — as on the east the only
affluent to the Nile worthy of any notice was tlie
Asua river, and that was so small it could not have
made any visible impression on the bo<ly of tho
Nile, — leaves only the Little Luta Nzige to be
discussed, for the rest of the land included in the
basin of the Nile is drained into the Nile north of
Gondokoro. Information assures me, that as the
Malagarazi and Uusizi rivers drain the southern
48
AFBICA
ri\ I
i !■(■
m,
side of tho mountains encircling the Tanganyika,
BO do tho KitniigiilJ and Little Luta Nzigii drain
the north side of those moiintainn; and thiH, I think,
is proved by the fact, that the Nile at Gondokoro
wuM not BO large aB the Nile was in Unyoro during
the flood. For this ntoson alxo I feel very sure the
Little Luta Nzigd of itself, if it wa« not 8U|iplicd
by the Nile a8 a backwater, would be nothing
more than a flat nuh-marBh, like the Uahr-el-
Ghnzal.'
Dr. Livingstone, in hiB exploration of the Zam-
l)o»i, has not only contributed largely to geo-
gra|>hical Bcicncc, but it may be hoped that hin
exertions will ultimately prove most uaeful in the
cause of humanity. lie propoBcs a chain of sta-
tioua licyond the Portiiguctio territory on that
rivcr^ m a means of facilitating commercial com-
munication with the natives. Some of the races
in the vicinity are anxious to engage in trade, and
the country is suitable for cotton. He believes
that it is only by encourasing industry in this
way, in connection with missionarv labours, that
real good will be done to Africa. We owe to him
the discovery of Lake N'gami, and ho has but
recently returned from explorations of the Shin5
river — au affluent of the Zambesi — and Lake
Nyassa.
Dr. Barth's researches in north Africa arc well
known as placing him on the list of illustrious
African travellers. Captain Burton i« not only
distinguished for his discovery of tho Tanganyika
Lake, and his explorations in western equatorial
Africa, but for his valuable observations on the eth-
nology and condition of the east African races. M.
Paul du Chaillu, during his travels in eq^^iiatorial
Africa, made some most important investigations
in connection with the river Ogolmi; and has
also greatly enlarged our knowledge of the ani-
mals of Auica, particularly introducing to us that
wonder of natural history, the Gorilla. Anderson,
Petherick, Galton, Krap)', Kebmann, Yon Decken,
and many other names occur in the history of
African exploration, in which field so much zeal
and heroism 'five of late been displayed. Von
Decken ascended the Kilimandjaro to a height of
13,000 feet, and there witnessed a fall of snow,
thus establishing by personal observation the fact
announced by Krapf and Hebmann of snow-capped
mountains under the equator.
But after all that has been done, there still
remain inteicuting points to settle, which will
afford abundant stimulus to the exertion of new
explorers.
AFItlCA, or MAHADIAH, a sea-port town of
Barbnrv, E. coast reg. Tunis, 110 m. SSE. Tunis,
lat. 35° 32' N., long. U^ 10' E. It contains about
iifdiiO inhab., and is at present a wretched place,
surrounded with broken-tlown walls, and without
8hops or bazaars. Formerly it was a sea-port and
fortress of very considerable importance. In 1550
it was besieged by a powerful armament, under
the orders of the \aceroy of Sicily and of Dorip
the famous admiral of Charles V,, who took it
after an obstinate and desnerate resistance; but
being found to be untenable it was subsequently
abandoned.
AGADES, a town of central Africa, cap. of Air,
or Asben, in lat. IC© 40' N., long. 7° 30' E. Est.
pop. 8,000 ; formerly 60,000. It is still an impor-
tant entrepot of the interior commerce of central
Africa.
AGADIR, or SANTA CRUZ, a sea-port town
of Morocco, on the Atlantic Ocean, and the most S.
in the empire, lat. 30° 26' 35" N., long. 9° 35' 6()" W.
It is built on the declivity of a hill on the shore of
a gulph or large bay of the same name, well do-
fended from the winds, and ntt'ording good anclior-
AGLIE
nge for shipping. Agadir belonged at one time u>
the Portuguese, by whom it was' surrounded hy
walls. It was taken from them by the Moors in
1536, when its fortifications were farther strength-
ened. It was for a considerable period tho centra
of an extensive commerce; but having relKjlhd
against the government in 1773, the priiiciiml part
of its population was transferred to Mogadoro,
The vast sandy deserts of N. Africa commence
immediately to the S. of Agadir; and hence it.4
bay is aptly termed by the Arabs Bab-Somlun,
that is, Gate of tite Black*.
AGDE (an. Agatha), a town of France, dop,
Herault, on the river of that name, near when; it
is traversed by the canal of Languedoc, about II
m. above where the former falls into the Gulph of
Lyons, and about the same distance from where
the latter ia united with lake Thau. Pop. 9,710 in
1861. Ships of 200 tons burden come up to the town
by the river, near the mouth of which is fort Ilriscou.
It has a considerable coasting and some forei^m
trade, with ship-building, manufactures of venii-
grise and soap, and distilleries, lieing entirely
uilt of black basaltic lava, and surrounded by "a
wall and towers of the same material, it hns a
grim appearance, and ia called by the couiitni'
■jieople the Ville Noire. It made a part of Gallia
JVarbonenais, and was in 506 the seat of a council
summoned by Alaric.
AGEN (an. Aginum), a to^vn of Franco, cap,
dep. Lot-et- Garonne, on the right l)ank of the (ia-
ronne, on the railway from Bordeaux to Touloiiso,
Pop. 17,263 in 1861. The town is ill built ; streeU
narrow, crooked, and dirty. The hotel of the pre-
fect is worthy notice, and there is a fine hndge
over the Ganmne of eleven arches. It is the sent
of a cour royule for tho depts. Lot-et-Garonno,
Lot, and Gers ; has a college and several literary
institutions, a public library with above 12,0(10
vols., and a theatre. Its situation, though ratlicr jl
unhealthy, makes it the entrepot of the commerce
between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Therj is here
a sail-cloth manufactory, which recently employed
above 600 work-people, and produced annunlly
130,000 metres of canvass for the navy : there arc
also manufactures of serges, printed cloths, cottons, '
braziers' ware, pottery, soap, and spirits. En-
virons beautiful ; the promenade du Graviem is
one of the finest in France. The town is famous ii:i
the birthplace of Jasmin, 'last of the Troubm lours,'
who kept a hairdresser's shop in tho High Street
till the time of his death, in 1864. Agen is vcr\'
ancient, and under the Roman emperors was a
pnetorian city.
AGGERHUUS, a bishopric of Norway, and one |
of the most important divisions of that kuigduni ;
which see.
AGGERSOE, a small Danish island in the I
Great Belt, near the E. coast of the island of
Zealand, lat. 55° 12' N., long. 11° 12' E.
AGHRIM, or AUGHRIM, an inc(msidcral)1c |
town of Ireland, co. Galway, 82 m. W. Dublin.
Pop. 383 in 1861. One of the greatest buttles j
ever fought in Ireland took place in the vicinity
of Aghrim in 1691, when the troops of William III., j
commanded by Ginkell, afterwards Earl of Ath-
lone, gained a complete and decisive victory over i
those of James II., commanded by St. Ruth, who
fell early in the action.
AGINCOURT, or AZINCOURT, a village of I
France, dep. Pas de Calais, 13 m, NW. St. Pol.
Pop. 438 in 1861. The place is famous in histdn' |
for the great victory gained near it in 1415 liy
the English monarch, Henry V., over a vastly j
superior French force.
AGLIE, or AGLIA, a town of North Italv. |
prov. Turin, 10 ni. SW. l\Tea. I'oi). 3,321
>long(Hl at ono time t<i
it WOH surrounded by
hem by the Moors in
were farther HtrenRth-
iible period the cciure
but having? relKillcil
773, the principal part
inferred to Monftdtirt,
N. Africa commence
Vgadir; and hence its ||
e Arabs Bab- Soudan,
town of France, dtp,
it name, near where it
f Languedoc, about ;)
falls into the Gulph of
) distance from where
eThau. Pop. 9,74fi in
en come up ti) the town
of which is fort Ilriscou,
;ing and some forcifri
nanufactures of verdi-
leries. IJeing entirtly
, and surrounded by a
me material, it hits a
ailed by the country
made a part of GuUk
16 the seat of a council
to^vn of France, raii,
! right bank of the (la-
IJordeaux to Toulouse,
own is ill built ; strccli
The hotel of the jire-
thcre is a fine bn(lf,'e
I arches. It is the neat
tlcpts. Lot-ct-Garoiine,
;e and several literary
iry with above r2,llitii
ituation, though rather
trepot of the commtrce
ulouse. Therj is licr(
hich recently employ c4
nd produced annually
or the navy : there are
printed cloths, cottims
)ai), and spirits, i:ii-
lenade du Gravkn i<
The town is famous as
jst of the Troubftdoui^.'
np in the High Strcd
18(54. Agen is very
)man emperors was a
ric of Norway, and one |
ions of that kingdom ; |
Danish island in the
loast of the island of
110 12'E.
M, an inconsiderable j
ly, 82 m. W. Dublin,
f the greatest battk■.^
place in the vicinity
troops of William 111.,
erwards Siarl of Ath-
decisive victory over |
ided by St. Ruth, who
COURT, a village of I
, 13 m. NW. St. Pol,
;e is famous in histnn'
d near it in 1415 iiy
iry v., over a va.stly
town of North Italv,
J\Tea. Pop. 3,;{21 ill
AGNES
Ififil. It has a collegiate church, and a mag-
nificent palace with a conniderable library.
A(iXF.S (ST.), one of the Scilly Islonds hcmg
i\\o nioHt S. of the group. It contains olM)ut iJOO
ires, and had in 1831 a jiop. of 281), ond 200 in
18(11, It is celebrated for itM light-house with a
revolving light, in lut. 4S)° .W 37" N„ long. (JO 1!)'
U3" \V. The lantern is elevated 138 feet above
hiigli-watcr mark.
A(;N0N'I':, a town of South Italy, prov. Cam-
idiiiMo, 18 m. NNE. iHomia, in an elevated
Siealtliv situation. Pop. 10,.H20 in 18C1. It has
Etn imincnuo number of churches, an hospital, and
Jive mont»-tlc-pieU<, which make loans of seed
corn to the peasants. It is the seat of the prin-
cijiid copjH'r manufactures in the kingdom. Some
iwritcrs have allirmed that it (K!cu|iies the site of
the ancient Aaullonia of the Samnites.
AdOA DE PAO, a 8ea-iM)rt town of St. Michael,
^ino of the Azores, 12 m. K. Punta delGado; near
1 induntnin |)eak of the same name, 3,0(!() feet high.
A(;(»N, a small sca-|iort town of France, (lep.
La Mauclie, 7 ni. VV. t'outanccs. Pop. 1,605 in
AliOSTA, or AUGUSTA, a maritime town of
.icily, cap. cant., prov. Gatania, on its E. coast,
2 ni. N. Syrocuse, lat, 37° 13' 35" N., long.
5° 14' E. Pop. 9.735 in 1858. It stands on a
t)enin.sula, and was built in the 13th century by
the eniiicnir Frederick, who pcoi)led it from Cen-
jtiirissa, which was razed for sedition. It was
heiirly de8troye<l by the earth(|uakc of 1693, when
liiiiiil'iers of people were crushed to death under
)lic ruins of their houses, and a siil])hur()us vapour
iding its way to the jmncipal jMiwder magazine,
It blew upwitii a tremendous explosion. A similar
Tnisl'iirtHne occurred in 1848. Streets regular and
barallel, with some tolerable munici|)al edifices
liid magazines for articles of commerce ; but the
biiiiNus arc low and mean, and the inhabitants
have an air of dejection and poverty. Their whole
Lvistencc depends on the export of salt, and a
little oil, honey, and wine. It is strongly fortified
Ixitli on the land and sea sides. The harbour,
[hough rather difficult of entrance, is deep, spacious,
fnA .secure ; but in E. and S. gales there is often
, hea\-y swell. The holding ground is excellent.
AtiliA, one of the subahs, great divisions, or
provinces into which Ilindostan, or India N. of
lie Nerbuddah River, was divided by the emperor
Vkbar. It lies chiefly between 25° and 28° N.,
md may be computed to contain about 45,000 sq.
II., and from 6 to 7 millions of inhabitants. Those
subahs or provinces of the Mogul empire were in
kact equal in extent and population to kingdoms.
The province of Agra lies in the alluvial plain of
the Jumna and Ganges, with an elevation but a
|few hundred feet above the level of the sea; and
the finest portion of it, well kno%vn under the
biame of the Doab, or country of the ' two rivers,'
[lies between these streams. By far the greater
iiortion of its surface is a dead flat. Although
hvatcred by three great navigable rivers, the Chum-
l)ul, Jumna, and Ganges, the country is charac-
terised in general for its drought, the greater jiart
^)f its irrigation being effected by means of deep
jwells. It m&y also be descrilied as eminentlj-
klcficient of timber. From March to June the
[climate is drj', and extremely sultry ; from June
|fo ( )ctolier, sultry and rainy ; and from November
^o February inclusive, serene, ilrj', and cold, the
thennonieter almost every morning falling below
the freezing point. With the excei)tion of a few
Kvuody portions of the province Iving towards its
^V. extremity, and here only during the season of
the ]ieriodical rains, the climate is healthy. No
"nctallic mines exist in the province ; and ita only
Vol. I.
AGRA
40
valuable minerals are the red sandstone, of which
nearly all the monuments of the cities of Delhi
and Agra an: constnictitd ; and a sjiccies of tufoiis
limestone, called hanghar in the language of the
country, and which is the only Hourcc from which
lime is obtained for e(;onomical nnqtoses. There
are commonly two har\-cst8 : tlie greater crops
iteiiig rcapt'd before the setting in of the rains in
May and June, and the lestter in December ami
January'. The principal corn crops are those of
wheat and borley. Rye is not known, and oats
bardlv so, and rice is not cultivated for want of a
sutliciency of water. Of the smoller kinds of corn,
those chiefly cultivated are two siK-cies of millet,
viz. llnlcua Sorghum, called in the language of
the coiintrv Jcwur; and Ilolvut »}iicutu», called
Jiajera. 'Ihese two constitute the chief bread
corn of the lalKiuring yicople, who seldom tiisto
wheat, (ireat quantities of pulses arc raised as a
winter crop for the ftxHl of man and cattle, the
most common of which is the Cicer urrietum, called
grain by luiro|icans. Mustard seed is raised for
oil, and the sugar cane is cultivated for the manu-
facture of sugar. Cotton is cultivated to a very
considerable extent, and indigo is produced more
extensively in this ])rovincc than in any other
part of Upper India. It was, in<i(;(Hl, from hence
that the drug, in the earlier periods of l''uro))ean
commerce, was ])rocured for the trade of luiroi>e.
The great ma.ss of the inhabitants are Hindoos;
among whom the two first classes in rank, the
lirabniinical and Military, are more frequent than
to the eastward, or to the south. To the W. of
the Jumna, chieHy arc found two nations or trilnta
well known in the liistorj' of Upi)e.r India, the
Jaiits and the Mematties, both distinguished by
their warlike and predatory habits. It is remork-
able of a country so long subject to Mohammedan
rule, ond the immediate seat of power, that the
pro]xirtion of Mohammedans found in this, as in-
deed in the neighbouring provinces, is smaller
than in the more remote one of Ilcngal. The in-
habitants, of Avhatever denomination, are of more
robust frames and a far bolder spirit tlian those of
the last-named country. The language of the
people throughout is the Hindi or Ilindustany.
The basis of this language is the Hindoo dialect,
which was spoken in the kingdom of Kanqje,
which is within the limits of this province, on the
first Mohammedan invasions.
AoRA, the name of a zillah, or district, consti-
tuting a judicial and fiscal divi.'-'ion of the last-
named province, lying on both banks of the Jumna.
Its computed area is 4,500 Eng. sq. m. ; and if it
be equally populous with the neighbouring pro-
vince of Delhi, of the population of which some
estimate has been made, and it is probably some-
what more so, it contains 273 inliabitant« to the
.square mile, or near one million of absolute popu-
latiim. In 1813, ten years after this district came
into British ]H)ssession, it was estimated to cont^uii
2,456,214 begahs of land, each equal to near one
third of an English acre, of which there were
under actual culture 1,222,667; fit for culture
330,807 ; and waste or uncultivable 902,740. Half
the area of the whole district, therefore, was imder
actual tillage. The land tax as assessed to the
land under culture was at the rate of two rupees
and two anas a begah, or near 18«. an acre; a
very high or ratlior opjiressive land tax, for a poor
country just recovering from long disorder and
anarchy.
.AoitA, a city of Hindostan, cap. of the above
province and district, on the SVV. bank of the
Jumna, which during the season of the Hoods is
here about half a mile broad, and at no season
fordable; in lat. 27° 11 N., long. 77° 63' E. It is
so
AGRA
lllli
iliHtnnt from Cnlcutta 950 m., Mndros 1190, and
liiiinliiiy H.^O, tiiid iM coiiiiRutvd l*y niilwiiy with
Onlciiltn, linnarcM, ami l)(-llii. The prcHcnt popii-
Intioii iMCHtinintwl at hut ween 70,000 and Wl,0((0.
It in (if coiiNidcrabIc extent, and has now hntid-
wimo liiiuscM for Knr(i|M>nn officers, nulMcription-
rooms, churclicH, fort and nntenal. The town itt
very conveniently situated for the commerce of
W. India and K. l'er»ia, und in the mart, of a very
(;onHi(U'riil>l(> iidand and frontier trade. The trading;
comniunieation ix, licMideH the chief medium of in-
trrc(nirHe, the railway, carrieil on l)y boats on the
Jumna and (jhumbul, and by hurHes, camelx, bul-
locks, anti bullock carts by land. The jjimmIs c-om-
prisin^ the imports consist of shawls, horses, camels,
rock-salt, and the dry and fn^sh fruits and dru^s of
Persia , cotton wool and coarse cotton fabrics from
the S., with Kuro))ean commodities by the Jumna
and (lanyes. Tlie chief exiMirts consist of raw silks,
indigo, and coarse supir. A^ra, in remote times,
ap[icars to have been a fortified town of some
••onsoquence ; luit it was not until the year 1504
that it was made the seat of Mohammedan em-
l)ire. This was ettcctcd by the Afghan emperor
Sihundur Lodi. About half a century later the
]>Iacc was (0'<'at1y eml)cllishcd Jiv Akbar, by far
the most illustrious of all the Indian cmfierors. It
continued to be the seat of fjoveniment during his
reign and that of his son ; and Delhi was not re-
stored as the mctro]M>li8 mitil the rcif^ of his
fjrandsrin, Sliah Jeban, in the year 1047. When
Akiutr fixed the scot of his f;<'Vf"inient at Agra,
he changed its name to Akbarabad, which coii-
tiiuies to l)c its Mohammedan designation. It
contains many fine monuments, all of Moham-
medan origin. The fortress is of great extent, the
doultlc rampart and bastions lieiug built entirely
of hewn red saiulstonc, and at least fiO feet above
the level of the Jumna, on the bank of which it
Htaiuls. The most remarkable structure, how-
ever, is the Taj Mahal, literally the ♦ Crown of
Empires.' This stands alM)ut 2 m. IkjIow the for-
tress, and on the bank of the river. It is a mau-
soleum, built by the emperor Shah Jehan in
honour of his empress the Begum Narr Mahal ; a
building of white marble raised on a terrace, and
in the ordinary form of a Mohammedan mosque
with minarets. The mosaic ornaments of the in-
terior, including even the marble pavement, are
extensive, rich, and elalsiratc, the flowers and ara-
liesqucs l)eing composed of no less than twelve
different stones, such as agates, jaspars, lapis la-
zuli, and various coloured marbles, and the nu-
merous quotations from the Koran being in black
marble. A garden with fountains and highly
ornamented gateways surrounds the mausoleum,
and the toute etisemble is supposeil, whether for
extent, sjTnmetry, materiel, or execution, to sur-
pass any thing in the world of the same descrip-
tion. This is the uniform opinion, even of those
who have seen the master-pieces of Italian art.
♦ It is possible,' says the celebrated and accurate
Bemier, ' I may have imbibed an Indian taste ;
but I decidedly think that this monument deserves
much more to be numbered among the wonders of
the world than the pyramids of Egyjrt, — those un-
shapen masses, which, when I had seen them
twice, yielded me no satisfaction, and which are
nothing on the outside but heaps of large stones
piled in form of steps, one upon another ; while
within there is very Uttle that is creditable either
to human skill or to human invention.' The ar-
chitect was a Mohammedan native of Sahar, and
the whole building is said to have cost 750,000/.
It is kept in excellent repair by the British govern-
ment, which assigns a handsome annual revenue
for this object. The'tomb of the emijeror Akbar,
AHMED ABAD
at Seeimdrn, <1 m. from Agra, would he considrroil
a splendid building in any place that had not tli<>
Tiy Mahal to Ismst of. It was constructed liy hi^
son, tlie em|)cror Jchanghlre. A marble jialacp nf
Shah Jehan exists within the fortress; and ijip
neighlsiurhoo*! of the town for miles contains the
ruins of palitccs and tomlw of costl^v materials and
workmanship. Agra, with the district to which
it Isdongs, was conquered by the chief Madliaje«
Sindiah in 17H4, and formed a |)ortion of the jagliHT
assigned by this prince for the maintcnaiure of the
army, organised on the European systA-ni, and
officered by Kurojx^ans, by means of whi(di lie
maintained his su|iremacy in llpiwr Ilindotttan.
In the course of the military oiierations which de-
prived the Mahrattas in IMOJl of nearly the whole
of their possessions in Ilindostan, Agra was lie.
sieged by Lord Lake, and surrendered after a
practical breach had Im-cii effected in one of the
bastions. Since that time it has continued In
British occupation. The f<irtress has always a
considerable garrison, and about two miles bevdml
its walls is a cantonment where a inucli larpT
military force is stationed. There are several
modeni buildings, including the English and
Oriental College, the Metcalfe Testiuumial, and
the (Jovemment Mouse. Agra was the liirth-
lilace of Abul Fazcl, the famous immc minister of
the emperor Akbar.
A(;KAM, or ZAGUAB, a fortified city of the
Austrian empire, cap. Croatia, and the residence
of the governor-general, <in a hill on the banks of
th(! Save ; lat. 45° 49' 2" N., long. 15° 4' !•:. I'o|..
Ifi,(!57 in 1H57. Agram is the seat of a bishopric
and of a tribunal of ap|K<al for Croatia, the Baiinal,
and Slavonio. It has a sujierior aca«lemy, a gym-
nasium, a Franciscan convent, a considerable ciini-
merce, partictdarly in the tobacco and com of
Ilungarv, and manufactures of silks and iwrcelain.
AGUkDA, a walled town of Spain, prov. Soria,
at the foot of Mount Cayo, celebrated l)v Martial.
Pop. 8,120 in 1857. The ttiwn is ill built, has I)
churches and 4 convents, with tanneries and pot-
teries.
AGREVE (ST.), a town of France, dep. Ar-
deche, cap. cant. Pop. 3,133 in 1861.
AGUAS CALIENTKS,a town of Mexico, prov.
Guadalaxara, 100 m. NE. (Juadalaxara ; Int. ff
N., long. 101045' W. Est. pop. 20,000. The town
is situated in a fertile district, has a fine climate,
and is one of the handsomest of the Mexican towim.
Being intersected by several great roads, it has
an active and considerable commerce. It is cele-
brated for the hot springs in its vicinity, whence
it derives its name.
AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of
Spain, prov. Cordova, 22 m. SSE. Cordova. Pop,
11,836 in 1858.
AGUTLAR DEL CAMPOS, a town of Spain,
prov. Valencia, on the Pisuerga, 40 m. KW,
Burgos. Pop. 1,026 in 1858.
AHANTA, a rich well wooded territorj- on the
Gold Coast of Africa, between the rivers Ancobia
and Sulterin. It has gold mines.
AHMEDABAD, a town of Hindostan, presiil
Bombay, prov. Gujerat, cap. district of same name,
on the navigable river the Sabermatty. Lat. 22°
58' N., long. 72° 37' E. Estim. pop. 130,000.
About the middle of the 15th centurjr it was a
flourishing city celebrated for the magnificence of
its mosques, palaces, and streets ; but it has since
fallen greatly to decay. It is surrounded by a
lugh wall flanked with towers ; and is a great re-
sort of itinerant players and poets. It suffered
severely from the plague in 1812, and from an
earthquake in 1819. The district of which Alime-
dabad is the cap. contains 4,356 sq. m. and an
ilist. same name, c
AHMEDPORE
pstimntpd pop. of Cr)0,220. The town in the hoad-
iiiiarlurH of the iiortli diviHion of tlio Uumhay
uniiy. «ii'l hns n niilway to iJombny.
AIlMKItroHK, a town of IIuuloBtan, prov.
Uriswi. 1 1 ni. S. Jiiffifcmaut.
AIIM KDNUGGUK, a city and furtrcfls of India,
iiri-xid. liond)ay, prov. AurunKnhad, cap. district
iif same name, on the river Soena, 70 m. NVV.
p.H.imh ; lat. 19° 6' N., Iohr. 74° 55' E. The
town, ftiuiided in 1403, w enclrmcd hy a Btono
wall, and hat* a haniUome market-place and some
nrutty RixmI streets. At nrcHont it it* the head
station of a civil CHtalilislnncnt, and has about
iJK.OOO inhab. exclut*ivc of the f;arri«on. The for-
treitB, a little way from the town, is oval 8ha|)ed,
and alKtiit 1 m. in circ. : it is built entirely of
jitnnc and is surrounded liy a broad and deep ditch.
It surrendered U> General Wcllcsloy (Duke of
WflliiiKton) in 1808.
The ditttrict or collectoratc of which ^hmcd-
mUffuT is the cap., contains an area of 9,910 sq. m.
witii n pop. of about 990,000.
AIIMOOD, a town of Gujerat, 20 m. N. by W.
liroach; lat. 22° 3' N., long. 73° fl' E.
AHUWEILEK, a to*vn of Pnissia, nrov. Lower
lihine, cap. arc, on the Ahr, 23 m. VVNW. Cob-
Icntz. Pop. 8,709 in 1861. The town has manu-
factures of cloth and tanneries.
AHUN, a very ancient town of France, dep.
Crciise, cap. cant., 10 m. SE. Gueret, on a moiui-
t.iin at the foot of which flows the Creuse. l*op.
2,;!U0 in 18G1. There ore coal mines iu the neigh-
liuiirh(K>d.
AIIVVAZ, or AIIVVUZ, a town of Persia, prov.
Kuzistaii, on the Karoon, 48 m. S. Shuster, In
fiimier times this was a large and flourishing city,
cnp. prov. of same name, and the winter residence
(if the Persian kings. It is now a wretched place,
nith fiOO or 700 inhabitants. Some ruins of the
old city are still to he seen. Oi' these the most
worthy of attention are the remains of a bridge
over tlic river, and of a royal palace. The portion
of the wall of the latter now standing is built of
large blocks of hewn stone, and is about 300 feet
in length, and 14 or 15 feet high. A little below
Aiiwaz, at the deserted ^'illllge of Sabla, arc the
remains of a remarkable mound or dam made
across the river to procure water for the irrigation
of the surrounding country. (Kiuneir's I'er. Emp.
p. 8!).)
AIAS, or AJASSO, a ruined sea-port of Asiatic
Turkey, on tlic N. shore of the gulf of Iskendercuin.
AICHACII, or AK'HA, a town of Bavaria, circ.
Upper Danul)c, on the Hai r, 12 m. ENE. Augs-
liuffc. Pop. 1,950 in 1861. Near the town are the
niins of the ancient castle of Wittelsbach, from
wliich the rulers of Bavaria derive their name.
AIGLE, a town of Switzerland, cant. Vaud, cap.
(list, same name, on the torrent Grandc-Eau, near
the Rhone. Pop. 2,582 in 1860.
AiuLE (L'), a town of France, dep. Omc, cap.
cant., on the Kille, 18 m. NNE. Mortagnc. Pop.
5.154, Though old and surrounded by the remains
of old walls, it is well built, neat, and clean, and
Is distinguished by its industry. The needles and
pins manufactured here are celebrated all over
France, and it has also fabrics of iron and copj^er
wire, wire-gauze, and nails. It has witlistood
several sieges.
AIGNa!n (ST.), a to^vn of France, dep. Loire et
Cher, cap. cant., 24 m. S. Blois. Pop. 3,600 in
istil. There is in the vicinity the only quarry
of gun-flints in France. The quantity annually
manufactured is estimated at frt>m 35,000,000 to
40,000,000. Those for the use of the army are
kept in depot in the castle of Amboise. The town
luu manufactures of cloth.
AIN
II
ATGUE FENTLLE, a village of France, dep.
Charente Inffrieure, cap. cant., 13 m. NNE. Kochu-
fort. Pop. 1,HI2 in 1861.
AIGUE PEUSE, a to^vn of France, dep. Pay
dc Dt'ime, cap. cant., 11 ni. NNE. Kioin. Pop.
2,697 in 18(;i. Near it is the ("hatcau <le la
lioche, the birthplace of the Chancellor de I'lli'ipi-
tal. The town has manufactures of cloth and
mineral springs.
AIGUES MOUTES, n town of France, dep.
Card, cap. cant., 20 m. SVV. Xismes ; lat. 43° 33'
58" N., long. 40 11' 22" E. Pop. 3,865 in 1861.
Though now about 4 m. inland, Aigues Mortes
wos formerly a sea-port, and was, m fact, tlio
place where St. Louis emltarked on his two cx^)e-
ditions to Africa. At present it is connected with
the sea by a canal, which is prolonged to Beau-
cttirc on the one hand, while it is united on the
other with that of Languedoc. It is fortiflcd, and,
from its position, is an important post for the de-
fence of the coast. Owing to the retrogression
of the sea, the to'^vn is surrounded by marshes
(whence its name Aquic Mortuce), and is very un-
healthy. The salt lake of Peccais, in the iieigh-
lH>urhood, is celebrated as well for the quality aa
fur the quantity of the salt obtained from it.
AIGUILLE (L'), a celebrated mountain in
France, dep. Istre, 4 m. NVV. Corps, height 2,000
metres, or 6,365 feet. Its under part has the ap-
pearance of a truncated cone, and it« upper part is
of a ctdtical form. It was htiig supposed to Ite in-
accessible, and was hence called Mons Inaccestus ;
but in 1492 an ofticcr of Charles VIII. reached its
summit,
AIGUILLON, a town of France, dep. Lot et
Garonne, at the confluence of the Lot a'..d the
Gar(nine, 17 m. NW. Agen. Pop. 3,78'. in 1861.
It was unsuccessfully besieged by John duke of
Normandy in 1845 ; when, it has been said, but
incorrectly, that cannons were first made use of.
AIGUKANDE, a town of France, dep. Indrc,
cajj. cant., 12 m. SW. Chatre. Pop. 2,146 in 1861.
It is the centre of an extensive cattle trade ; and
has, or htid, an octagonal monument, believed to
be very ancient, but of wliich the object is un-
known.
AILSA, an insulated rock in the Frith of Clyde,
10 m. VV. (iirvan. Its base is elliptical, and it
rises abruptly from the sea to the height of 1,098
feet. It consists of columnar trap. The NVV. side
is almost perjiendicular, being formed of snccessivn
tiers of immense columns. It is frequented by
innumerable flocks of sea fowl, and is a very
striking object from every part of the Ayrshirn
const. It gives the title of marquis to the noble
family of Kcnnedj'.
AIN, a frontier department in the E. of France,
having the Rhone, which separates it from Savoy
on the E. and S., the Saone on the W., and the
depts. t)f Saone et Loire, Jura, and part of Switzer-
land, on the N. and NVV. Area 592,t!74 hectares.
Po)). 370,919 in 1861. Exclusive of the Klume
and Saone, by which it is partly bounded, it is
divided by the Ain, whence it derives its name,
into two nearly equal ports ; that to the E. iK-ing
rugged, mountainous, and principally adapted to
])asturagc; whereas that to the W^,, though in
parts marshy, is generally level and fit for culti-
vation. There are in tlie SVV, ))ortion of this dep.
a great numlier of lakes or ponds, some of which
arc subjected to a very peculiar species of rotation.
It is usual to drain and cultivate thnm for a
season; and when the crop has been gathered
they are again tilled with water, and with dif-
ferent sorts of fish, according to the nature of the
pond ; and after being occupied iu this way for
two years, or thereabouts, arc again dried and
e2
I
fil
AIN-TAB
11
h
\\\<i
11
l!
I .Ml ,|.'
fi '
1:1
iiiibjprtcil to thn plmi^h. Tlic pxtcnt of tht nondu
no rmploycd Ih oMtiiiuitcd iit noarly Ift.OC hcc!-
tnrcM, TluH Ih fnunil to Ixt a vory prolltnlilo N|,,.'cii'it
of cultivnlidn ; thoii^li, from tlin liiiiiiidity it oci-a-
tiioiiN, it \n Hiiiil to n^iilcr tho climntc unhealthy.
Oxen, of wliii^li ]nr((u niinilM'nt are hrcd, iirc Ki'no-
nilly iiMid in tillnKC FriMhice of com cTit\m huIH-
cicnt for the coiiHuniption. Yinta(;u conHidernhle,
three-tlflhH of the pnNhiee <>x|)orted. W<mkIh very
exteiiHive, anioiintni^; to alMiut 120,000 hectan-H.
Nenr UelU'v arc pHMliiced tho Iwnt litho^nphit;
HtoiieH in l<'rnncc. ManufncturcM innonHiderRlile.
(■rent niimlHTH of tlie inhnhitnntH cmi^rnto an-
nnally after hnrveHt to Heck for eiTi)iloynient in
the eonti);uoiiH (le]>urtnientH, Chief townx llour^.
Nnntua, Trevmix, Melh-y, and Gcx. lint tlie
most celehratcd plac^e in tho dep. is Femcy, lonjf
tho roHidence of Voltaire.
AIN-TAH, tt Inr^ct town in the N. of Svria, on
tiic S. hIofk) of the Tunnis; lat. m° 58' jj., lony.
«70 V.i' 15'' K.; 70 m. N. Aleiipo, and 30 in. W.
liir, on tlie KunhratOH. I'op, iins iM^en eHtimnted
at 20,0(tO, whieh, if the town be two-thirds the size
of Ak>))po, OS stated l>v Manndrcll (.lournal, 210),
I'an scarcely \»>, consitiered as exaggerated. The
inhabitants consist of nearly equal numbers of
Annenian and (jreel( ChrislianN, Curds, an<l Mo-
hammedans, among whom a spirit of toleration
and unity prevails unparalleled in most otlxtr
liastem Boci(!ties. They tisc the Turkish lan-
guage. Houses were built, of a tine stone re-
Hombling porphyry, tlat-roofed, and generally of
only one story. There arc live mosques, and
Hevcral large and well supplied bazaars. In the
centre of tlic town is a castle on a moun<l, re-
sembling, in every respect, that of Aleppo, but
much smaller. Water abundant, many of the
strceta having streams flowing through them.
On the 8. is a large burial ground, which at a
short distance resembles an important suburb, and
is perhaps not much inferior in extent to tlie town
itself. Manufactures of goat-skin leather, cotton,
and woollen cloths, are carried on to some extent ;
and there is some trade in raw and tanned hides,
cloth, honey, and tobacco.
Ain-Tab may be regarded oa the capital of a
limited but very fine country, consisting of small
hills and valleys among the roots of the Taurus.
The towns and villages in this little district are
very numerous, the most impf)rtant being Adjia,
Silam, mid Kles. At Adjia, 6 or 7 m. distant, is
the source of the Kocik (the river of Aleppo) ;
and within 10 yards of this stream there nins
another, the Sejour, the banks of which are thickly
set with trees' and villages. Tho Sejour has a
good bridge over it, about 2J m. from Ain-Tab.
The air is good and the soil fertile ; but cultiva-
tion is not much followed, tho majority of the
rural population being shepherds. Principal agri-
cultural products com and tobacco. Bees are very
plentiful.
Ain-Tab was taken and plundered by Timour
Bee in 1400 ; but its favourable site and the tolerant
spirit of its inhabitants have kept the district re-
markably free from the usual Eastern casualties.
The Turkish pachas, notorious as they are for ex-
acti(m and oppression, respect the homes and rights
of these hardy mountaineers. They have, indeed,
been taught this forbearance by some severe les-
sons, having experienced, in every attempt at
tyranny and extortion, a firm and successful re-
sistance. The last of these attempts ivas made in
1780, when the Turkish forces were completely
defeated ; since which the men of Ain-Tab and its
vicinity have been suflFered to enjoy the produce of
their ticlds, flocks, and bees, in undisturbed tran-
quillity. According to Maundrell, Ain-Tab is iden-
AISNE
ticalwith tho Aniioi'hia ad Tiiurtim of the nnciontx;
but this is doubtful.
AIKDIMK, a royal and i>ar1. Imr. and m. town cif
Scotland, co, Lanark, pa. New Monkland, on ri^-in;;
ground U-tween two little rivulets, 11 m. K. (iliiA-
gow, on the railway from Kdiuiturgh to <ilaH);i)w,
I'oii. of pari. bor. in I Hit, 12,408, and 12,i)22 in
IMtil. 'fhe town consistM principally of two !«.
ralh'l streets joined by cross streets. It hint a
handsome town-house, and the houses of tlut
labouring population are well built and conifur-
table. Iti the early part of last (century Ainlric
contained only rmo solitary house. It owes \u
rapi<l rise to the coal and iron mines in its irnmn-
diato vicinity, and to its contiguity to the Mnnk-
land canal and the (iariiltrk railway. TheCaldor
and other great iron works in the nei^hlNiurliiMKl
em))Uiy a number of hands; and within the town
there are iron founderi<>s, at which machinery is
made, with distilleries, breweries, malt bams.'&c,
Tho weaving of cotton giHnls (m account of tlic
(jihisgow manufacturers has hitlierto, liowcvor,
been the princi|)al source of employment; audit
has, also, a cotton factory. It is divided into two
parishes ; and licsides t^io chundies attached tit
them, it has sundry clmiiels in connection with
the Free Church oiid the different classes of (lis.
senter.s ; with various schools and charitable insti-
tutions. It is governed under a (charter of iHIt;),
by a iirovost, three baillies, and twelve coiincillnrH,
liurgh revenue, 18r.;{-4, 2,70(1/. Tho Reform Act
united Airdrie with Hamilton, Lanark, Falkirk, ami
Linlithgow in the return of a memlx^r to the II, nf
C. I'arl. and municip. const. .38!) in 18(i4. Annual
value of real projicrty in 18(!2-3 (railways not in-
cluded), 12,241/.
AIHK, a river of England, important from its
navigation and the numerous canals with which it
is connected. It rises in Yorkshire in the contra!
mountain ridge, a little to the E. of Settle. It
pursues a SE. course, till passing Leeds it is jiiin(>il
by the Calder at Castleford ; its course is thence
E., with a good many windings, till it falls into the
Oiise, a little above Goole. From Leigh to Ferrj--
bridge the Aire flows through one of the rich^t
plains in tho kingdom.
AiiiK (an. Vicua Julii), a city of France, dop.
Landcs, cap. cant., on the Adour, 80 m. SSlv.
Bordeaux. Pop. 1,9G0 in 1861. This is a vcrj
ancient city, and has been since the fifth centurj*
tho seat of a bi8ho])ric. Tho Goths became pos-
sessed of it in the sixth century, and it was for some
time tho residence of Alaric II. It suffered much
in the wars with the English, and still more in the
religious contests of the sixteenth century. The
fortifications by which it was once surrounded have
now wholly disappeared. It is pretty well built, |
has a cathedral, a college, and a seccmdary eccl^
siastical seminary. A bridge has been built over
the Adour.
AiKE, a fortified town of France, Jen. Pas de
Calais, cap. cant., at the confluence of chc Lrs
and Laquetto. Pop. 4,864 in 1861. It is pretty
well built; has several public fountains; wth
manufactures of linen, hats, soap, Dutch tiles, ge-
neva, &c. In a military point of view, it h ni |
consideroblo importance for the defence of the
couniry between the Lys and the Aa.
AIR'VAULT, a to^vn of Fronce, dep. Deux
Se\Tes, cap. cant,, on tho Thou^, 15 m. NNE. Par- 1
tenay. Pop. 1,735 in 1861. The to^vn is well built.
and has the remains of an old castle and monastery |
destroyed in the sixteenth century.
AISNE, a dep. in the north of France, between I
48° 60' and 50° 4' N. lat,, and 2° 56' and 4° 12' L \
long,; the principal town, Laon, in its centre,
being 75 miles NE. Paris. Area, 728,530 hectares, I
fthcnnripnti;
ind tn. town nf
IiiikI, on ri.'-in;;
II m. K. (il)iit-
li to (flnxi^iiw,
niul 12,02-2 ill
ly of two |i«-
i'tit. It liiiM a
lOIIHCH of till!
t nnil conifor-
ciitiiry Airilrio
!. It OWCH itH
BS in itH inime-
f to the Mimk-
y. The ( 'iildor
iK'iKtilMiurliiHHl
atlun thi! town
h inacliinory is
itinlt ImriiH, Ac,
account of tliu
icrto, howovfr,
oyincnt; nndii
ividcil into twii
ipA attaclicil tn
connection with
t clasHcs of (liit-
chniritnhle in»ti-
chftrtcr of lKi;i,
■clvc councilliirs,
riio Ueform Act
nrk, Falkirk, and
nl^r to tlie 11. of
n 1804. Annual
(railways nut in-
portant from its
ak with which it
ire in the central
E. of Settle. It
Leeds it is joino<l
course is thcnw
11 it falls into the
Leieh to Veny-
e ot the richest
of France, dep.
^ur, 80 m. SSI').
This is a vorj-
JthetifthcentuK
Iths hccame p«s-
lid it was for some
lit suffered much
still more in tlie
Ih century. The
I surrounded have
Lretty well hnili,
secondary cccle-
been built over
|ice, Jen. Pas dc
jence ol che Lys
l61. It is pretty
Ifountains; with
Dutch tiles, pe-
I of view, it is nf
defence of tlic
J Aa.
Ince, dep. Deux
V5m.NNE.Par-
J)Wi is well built.
lie and monastery
[France, between I
be and 4° 12' L
in its centre,
|728,530 hectares. I
AIX
Pop. .W 1,597 In 18(11. The department in traversed
liv tliii AiMiif, whence itH name, the ()iM>, Miiriie,
iiliil liy wverul ciuialH, Hiirface p-iicrallv Hat or
uiiilnlatiiiKi hut in parln hilly; itoil fertile. The
I'liltivaled land amoiintH to iilHiiit r>(KI,<)(MI licctan!H,
niNiiit 11111,1)110 iH'in^ occupied with wimmIh, and
.|'.>,(IIH) with nu>adowH, Agriculture K<**<*li nnil after
pniviiliiiK for the iiihnbitiuilH there ix a lar^e ex-
iKift of corn, as well as of itheep, o.xcn, horses, and
iiii;)t. It alHo iirodiices tla.x anil hemp, hopH, Kr<M>*'<
iKft root, iMitntoeH, Scv, In the Hoiilheni part
n'iiic is maiie ; liiit the ordinarv drink of the in-
liAliilaiits Ih wine and beer. This dep, is celebrateil
I'lir its manufactures, at the head of which must lie
iiliu'cd the cottons, laces, lawns, shawls, tabic
lim-ii, &c. of St. Quentiii ; the mirrors of St. (io-
luiin ; and the UittlcH, of which Folamhry furnishes
iilmiit i),00(),0(M) a year for the wines of ClinmpaKne.
It hoH also cast iron and iron plate fouiiiU'i'es,
lirii'k and tile works, manufactures of obemicai
iinMtucls, and of l>eet-root su^ar, bleach tlclds, &c.
It is divided into five arrond., iil i^ant, and 8;)7
I'linim. (Miief towns, Laoii, St. (jucntin, Suissims,
Chateau-Thierry, and Vervins.
AIX, an ancient city of France, dep. Tlouches
(111 lihone, cap. arrond. and cant., formerlv cap.
I'rovi'iice, in a plain at the foot of some hills, Iti
m, N. Marseilles, on a short branch of the railway
fnim Lyons to Marseilles. Pop. 27,(159 in 18()1.
The town was founded by Caius Sextius Cal-
vinus, a Itoman general, 120 years b.c, and re-
ceived the name of Aqme SextcB, from its famous
hot sprinf^s. It is a well-built handsome town.
Streets generally well paved, wide and clean. It
hoH a lieautiful promenade, and some good squares,
(imamented with fountains. A side of one of the
M|Uttre« is formed by what is called the Palau, an
iilil building containing some ppacious halls, for-
merly occupietl by the jiarliamc. t of Provence and
(ither public iMnlies. It has also a town-hall, contain-
ing a valuable collection of antiqiutics, a magniti-
cent cathedral, a nmseum of pictures, a theatre, and
nther public buildings. Previously to the Revolu-
tion, Aix was the seat of a university ; and at
pre.scnt it has an academy equivalent to a univer-
sitv, with faculties of theology and law, and a
valuable library containing above 100,000 vols. It
is also the seat of a cour imperiale for the dept«. of
the llouchcs du Rhone, Basses Alpes, and Var, and
of an archbishopric ; and has several learned so-
cieties. Aix has manufactures of silk, wool, and
cotton, and its industry and commerce, chietly in
oil, have materially increased within the present
century. The mineral springs, from which the
town tiMik its ancient name, were accidentally dis-
covered in 1704, and were identified by the medals,
inscriptions, and other Roman monuments then
dug up. The establishment of the baths belongs
to the hospital. Tounicfort, celebrated as a bota-
nist, and one of the best of the travellers that
have visited the Levant, was a native of Aix ; as
were Vanloo and Adanson.
Aix, a to\vn of France, prov. Savoy, 8 m. N.
Chambcry. Pop. 4,253 in 18G1. It is celebrated
for its hot baths, which were in vogue among the
Komans, and are still extensively resorted to.
There is a large and convenient building for the
accommodation of visitoi-s.
AIX-LA-CHAPELLIC (the Aachen of the Ger-
mans, and the Aquisgrana of the Italians), an
old and well-built city of Prussia, prov. Lower
Rhine, near the confines of the Netherlanils, on
the railway from Brussels to Coloffne. Aix-la-
Chapelle was formerly a free imperial city, and
is now the cap. of a prov. tlistrict of the same
name. It is divided into the inner and outer to>vn,
and contained in 184(3, 46,585 inhab., and in 1861,
AJMKIIK
A3
59.911, inrliiding a garrison of 1,.1H8. It U thii
seat of a bishop, of a court of apjM'al, a tribunal
of commerce, and has an exchangi', a gymiiiisiiini
or college, a school of arts, a picture gallery, and a
public library with alMtve 5I),IMI0 volumes,' Maiiii-
iiictiires considerabhs and recently increased. The
most iiii|Mirtnnt an* those of broad-chitli and colloti,
in which 4,.''>00 ihtsoiih an> engaged ; and next to
them the fanmus nei'dle-works, which emiiloy
aiNiiit 1,51)0 bands. Watchmaking and Jewellery
are extensively carried on ; and there are also
print-works and tan-works. ICxrliisive of tlio
cathedral, there are eight Catholic churches, a
Protestant church, and a synagogue. It had at
one time twenty-one monasteries and convents,
but most of them have In-en suppressed. Among
the |iiiblic buiblings, the most n^niarkiilile are the
town-house, cnrichetl with |Mirtriiits of the ditfer-
eiit ministers pri-seiit at the negotiation of the
treaty of 1748 ; the cathedral, fouiuled by Charle-
magne; and the fountain in (he principal market-
place, with a statue of (Jharlemagne,^c. Ilandsomu
private houses are to Ihj met with in every street.
Aix-hi-Cliapelle won the favourite residence of
Charlemagne, and for some time the ca|iital of his
empire; hence it was hmg customary to hohl (ho
coronation of the emperors of Germany in this
town; and till 1794, when they were carried to
Vienna, the regalia used on the occasion were to
1)0 seen in the convent cha)iel. Strangers arc still
shown a sabre of Charlemagne, a copy of the
gospel written in gold characters, and an imraenso
number of relics.
Aix-la-Chapelle is celebrated for its hot baths,
which issue from 6 distinct springs. The most
celebrated Is that called the Source tie V Kmpere.ur,
The water is strongly impregnated with siiliihur,
and has a temperature of 141P Fah. The baths
are generally ojiened with much ceremony on the
1st of May, and arc frequented by from 4,000 to
5,000 bathers annually. Two celebrated treaties
of peace hove been concluded in this city; the
first in 1088, between France and Spain ; and the
seccmd in 1748, between the dilferent powers en-
gaged in the wars of the Austrian succession.
Here also a congress was held in 1818, which
abridged the period uf the Allies' occupation of
France.
A.JACCIO, a sea-port town of the island of Cor-
sica, of which it is the cap., on its W. coast, and
on the N. side of a giilph to which it gives name ;
lat. 41° 65' 1" N., long. 8«> 44' 4" E. Pop. 4,098
in 1861. It has a citadel built in 1,554; is the
scat of a bishopric ; has a royal court and other
judicial establishments, a college, a model school,
a public library, a gixHl theatre, and a tine prome-
nade along the bay. The latter is spacious and
commodious, but exposed to the W. gales. Streets
straight and broad, and houses good, but it labours
under a deficiency of good water. It has a con-
siderable trade, exporting wine, oil, and coral.
Ajaccio is memorable from its having been the
birth-place of the greatest war-captain of modern
times. Napoleon I. was bom here on the 5th of
August, 1709, and a statue of the Emperor was
erected at the principal place of the town in
180.5.
AJMERE, a town of Hindostan, cap. district
belonging to the British, in Rajpootana, 225 m.
SW. Delhi; lat. 20° 31' N., long. 74° 28' E. Pop.
estimated at 25,000. It is a well-built, moderate-
sized town, on the 8lo|)e of a high hill, at the
summit of which is a fortress, formerly deemed
impregnable, and which, with a little improvement
from European skill, might easily be matle a second
Gibraltar. Ajmere is a holy city, having the
good fortune to possess the tomb of a saint whose
A4
AKAMII
inirnt'liH nn* rpiuiwni'«l nil <iv«>r Imlin. The rmp«Ti>r
Akiiiir iiiiMlt' II pilurinin^i* on fixit In t\w NhrliiK nf
till' Njkitii ; itiiit ll i-iiiiiiiiiit'N to Im* ri'Miirti'il til liy
)l*>voti'i'H I'roiii III! |iarlMiif liuliii. It In nnl iiiicniii-
niiiti, in Mulwii, fur |ill^'riiiii4 wlm hiivo Imtii iit
AJincrn to iM'l ii|i n lirick or n itl(itii> inkcii rrum
Ihii Mtiiciiiitrv iH'ar lliclr iIwoIIIm);, niul to In'i'iimih
MiiiiilM llii'iiinrlvi'N, iiiid liav«t |iilKriiiiM;;i>N ini"lf In
thi'iii ! A Mir>in)( ili^liu'liiiu'iit nj' iriMipH In iiNiiiilly
Nliitinm>il Hi AJiiicrc, ami llic iii-iKliliniiriiiK town of
Niim'critliMil. It liiiH now a niiMlical xrlinol nml u
IIiIhnIiiII Nllltillll,
At It nliort iliMlnncc" \V. from AJmoro In tho cplti-
liratt'il lliiiilon ti'in|il(i of INinNlikiir, nil tlix liaiikM
of II MiicriMl iNinl iH'ikrly n niilo in cirriiil. 1 1 Ih
nnnnally vImiU'iI in Oi^IiiImt liy trnwilx of |iilgrimH
rmiii nil iiartN of liuliu.
AKAIIaH ((Jl'MMI ANDCASTLKOK). Tlio
piljili nf Akiiliali iMHiliTpnnrriiw inli'l.iiniliiiKwilli
llin NK. I'Xtrcinilvol' till' Ki-tl Sea. It uxIcikIh in
n NNK. ilinrtinn 'imin 'ino to '2\f> ;t2' N. lal., adiM-
taiuu!o(',-»l.nvn 100 V.wn. in. r liciii^, wlicri; lirmulcNt,
It! nr 17 III, acrosM, It > nniiniinicatcM with tlii^ Kcil
Sfii l>y flianni'lH nil wicli niilc tho ImIc of 'riraii at
ilH S. (^xtrl'lllity. 'Vh'in K<il|ili, lli» Sinim /•'/itnitiruH
of aiiti(|nity, no called from tliu |M>rt of Klaiia or
Klatli, i'nnim I In; K. Iionndary of tint |M>niiiHulii
(itriipi(>d liy Mnmit Sinai. It Iiiim tlu; apinMirancc.
(if a narrnw doi'p raviiio, tht; tilitlH riHin)^ in munit
niiiccH *J,000 IVut |M<rpcndicularly from tli<> ncu, and
iiiiH In-eii very littlt) frciiuciitvd in nuKlcrn tiini>H.
Itciiif; cxpoHcd to HiiddiMi and licuvy Nipialls, and
rncnmlicrcd in piirtn with coral ruufM, itM iiuviKatioii
in not a little daiif^croiiH.
The ciwtlc of Akiihah, from whieh the giilph
tak(!s its modrni name, in not a place of any
Hlrent^th. It w hitnatcd alMiiit I50 yanlH from the
lieacli, on the K :i lu nf the ^iilpli, and about 2}
m, from its extremity, in Int. '2',P 80' N., lonj^. 3;')°
iV K. It has a supply of ^ood water, and there
are neveral Arab linta within its walls. The j^nr-
riHnii cnnsists nf nlxiut !I0 K^^yptlan wildiefH, kept
to (jnard the com depoHitcd in it for the supply
of the caravnnH, m their journey from Cairo to
Mecca.
Akabah has been supposed to occupy the site of
Elan or Klath, fn)m which an extensive interontirsc
wdH carried on in the earliest nfjes with Uhinocu-
lura, now Kl Arish, nii the Mediterranean, only
IK! m. distant. There are, however,' no ruins nf
any kind nt Akabah, and nu port. It would,
therefore, seem more j)robablo that the situation
of Klath is identical with that of Jczirat Fnroun,
on the \V. side of the giilph, and about 6 m. from
its extremity, where there arc very extensive
niins, and a natural harbour. Ur. Shaw supposes,
apparently with much probability, that Mecnap-
cl-Dsahiile, i. c. the Golden Fort, on the VV. coast
of the gulph, and nearly opposite to Mount Sinai,
occupies the site of Ezumgeher, whence the ships
of Sohimon sailed to fetch f;<>l<l from Ophir. It is
said by Lieutenant Wcllsted to bo the only ' well-
sheltered ' harbour in the gulph. (Shaw's Travels
in Uarbary, &c. 4to. ed. p. 322. ; Wellsted's IVavels
in Arabia, ii. passim.)
AKEUMAN (on. Ti/raii), a fortified town of
Russia in Europe, in Bessarabia, on the W. side of
the aistuary or liman of the Dniester, near its
junction with the Black Sea; lat. 4G° 12' N., long.
30° 24' E. Pop. 11),076 in 1858. The citadel, sur-
rounded by a deep ditch, was constructed by the
Genoese during the time that thev were masters
of the Black Sea. The Dniester fieing rapid and
not well suited for internal navigation, the com-
merce of the town is not very considerable. The
exports consist princiiially of salt, the produce of
the salt lakes in its vicinity. Tlic basin of the
AKHIIKHR
DnieNter hnvliit^ only frnm T* to 7 frrt wnlor, ilh'
larger elnMit of venne'ri niielior oulMidc lliu liny, in
till' illnek Sen, nlwuit II! m. frnm town.
Akerinnii Im diMliii^uinhed in n nt dlplnninlin
hixlnry by the trenly eniii'luded here in IH'JII Ik'-
tweeii Itusdin and thii Ollninnn I'orte, by wliiih
Wallneliin, Mnldnvin, nnd Scrvin were eiiiami.
pnled fmiii all but a nnniinal de|K>ndencu nii iliu
Inller.
AKIirsSAK (an. Thyntim), n city of Tiirk.y
in AnIh, Aiinlnlia, llie Heat of one of the A|mh'iiIv|i-
lic ehurehes, I'lH ni, NE. Siiiynin. It Mlnnds on an
eniinenee (•levaled but lilllenbove the Hiirrniiniliii){
mnrfthy nnd nlluvial plniii. The town iN'iiig nIih.
nted on the direi^t rond U'tween ('oiii<tanliMii|iln
and Sinyriia, wearx nn ;ippeiirnneo of comfort mi-
iH'rinr In Ihntnf Annlolian tnwiiH in geiiernl. Tlio
lin/.anrH are large and amply supplied; the kliiiii
haiidmiine, clean, and well ordered. Accnrdirig in
the latent eNliniales it hits 1,000 Tiirkixli, :iiim
(ireek, and 30 Arineiiiaii dwelliiigs, with a pup,
nf li.OOO, It exports <;nllnn giHidn.
AKIliiAT, tt town nf Turkey in Aitia, in Kiir-
dintaii, on tlu^ NVV. shore nf lake Van, nt llic I'lmt
nf the S<'ibaiidagli. It is very ancieiil, and wan
fnnnerly n pincu nf cniisideralile iinp<irtnnce ; Imt
it is nnw greatly decayed, not having inon* llinii
1,000 hnuses, or perhaps li,000 inhiib. Its territury
is tilled with gnrdeim and vineyards. ^See Kiii-
neir's Persian Eiiipin*, p. 32H,, where it is iioiiaul
uiidiT the name Artjkh,)
AKIITYKKA, n'town of Hiissia in EiiroiMs (;i>-
vem. of Khnrknll", liO m. N\V. KharkniV, I'op.
I3,!MI! in IH/iM. It has a pretty cniisideriilih^ com-
merce ; and among its chiin^hes is one lliiit allriiciit
a good inanv pilgrims to visit a miraculous iiiia^^u
of the Virgin.
AKISKA, or AKTIALZIKII, a city nf Asinlic
Russia, ])rnv. (lenrgia, formerly the cap. of a Turk-
ish ])achalik, on an atlluent of', ami at a short ilis-
tance frnm the Kiir, 1 1,5 m. W. Titlis; Int. 31° l,V
N., Inng. 43° r E. I'np. has liceii eslimnted iil
aliniit 1,5,000, two-thirds Annenians. It is an npen
town, but is defended by a strung castle silualcd
nn a rnck. It is remarkable fnr its tine mosipu' nl'
Siilliin Ahmed, built in imitation of St. Sophia,
and for the college and library attached therein.
The latter was reckoned one of the most curiniH
in the E. ; but the Russians have removed alidiit
300 of the rarest nnd most valuable works to
I'etersburgh. Akiakn is also the seat of a Greek
archbTshnpric, and has about GO Jewish families
and a synagogue. Ita environs are productive uf
silk, honey, and wax ; and it has some manufac-
tures. It was formerly a principal seat of the
slave trade. The slaves sold in its markets were
brought from Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeritia; nml
being conveyed to the nearest ports on the Hlaek
Sen, were shipped for Cnnstantmople and Alexan-
dria. This commerce is now entirely suppresscil.
Many of the Turkish inhabitants have left the
town since its occupation bv the Russians.
AKSERAI, a town of 'furkey in Asia, in K«-
ramania, cap. snnjinck of snme name, on the SW,
arm of the Kizil Ermak, 90 m. NE, Koneich (aii.
L'oniiim). Pop. cstim. at 10,000. It has a cnntle;
and its territory is productive of com and fruits,
AK-SIIEHR (the White City), a city of Asiatic
Turkey, Karamania, sanjiack of the same iinmc,
55 m. 1<:SE. Alium Karahissar; lat. 38° 13' N.. leu;:.
31° 30' E. It is situated near the S. extremity of
a considerable lake, at the foot of a mouulain
chain, in a rich and well watered country. Its
position is said to be identical with that of the
ancient Thynilirinm, visited by the younger t'ynis;
and, according to D'Anville, it was denoniiuaieil
Atitiochia ad J'isidiam, from its being on the cuii-
Mk
a fity of AH'mlic
e Clip. ofaTiirk-
1(1 at li Hliort ilis-
itliH; Int. ilio I.V
leii I'Htitiiatod nt
iH. It ii«anii|i('u
rastle Htluali'il
:» tine nios(|iii' nf
|i of St. So|p|iia,
ittachcd thcri'tii,
|he most (^uriinH
removed iilmiit
IliiaMe works In
scat of n Greek
Jewish families
[re productive of
Home nianiifac-
ipnl Heat of the
pt8 market* were
Imeritia; nml
ItH on the Hlack
>le ami Alcxaii-
fircly suppressed.
[9 have left tlic
UBHiariH.
in Asia, in Ka-
ime, on the !S\V,
[E. Koiieieh (an.
It ha8 a castle ;
jtn and fruits.
|a city of Asiatic
;he same nnmei
38° 13' N., Ion;;.
S. extremity iif
of a mountain
id country, li^
ith that of till'
younf;'er<'ynb;
laa denouiiiialecl
ling on tln! cuii-
AKYAM
liiiiM* of I'inidiA, of wlilcli prov. it nflerwartU l>r-
I'liiiii' (lie •'Mpital. It In int'iiiioiii'd in 'I'urkish
iiiiiihU iv* llie place where lta,|il/.el wiw eoulWied
liv iiinour, nml wlirre he expired. It iit NUppum'd
lit Mr. Kiuiieir to have niHtut l/iiHt houiieii, wiih
iiijinv line »{ardenN in the vieiiiitv. Itx nrineipnl
iiriiiiiiielU in II linndNiiiiie iiii>m|ue and eolie^e, de-
iljiiiled Ki tl>e memory of lli^|a/.et. 'I'liit NireetN
arc I'leaned hy nu'iiiiN of MtreiiiiiM from the iieich-
Uiiiriiiu; moiitilaiiiH ilint niii tliroii^li iliem. (Kiii-
iMir's.li>iiriiey ihroii^li AKiaMiii'<r, p.'i'.'tl; Olivier,
vi. \>. .'I'.Ml.)
AKVAll. a marit, towti of India lieyond the
(iimvceM, <'ii|>. pti'V, Arraciiu, and of n diNt. of same
imine, on ilie K. of llie Island of .Vkyali) lat.
V'lr^M' N., Uiii^. U'^^tl' K. It is liuilt of wimnI; Iuim
linuwi streets, and markelH for >;rain, and K.uro|M'iin
mill Indian ^inhIs, Its harlsMir, llioii^'h inferior to
llifit (if Kyoiik riiyiw, is safe ; and it is^ in most
(ither res|MM'ts, Nii|H'rior to the lastmeiili iiied town
Its 11 place of trade. The vicinity is level, fertile,
Ih'c friiin jun)^le, and traverscil hy several roads.
It in the residence of a Itritish commissioner.
ALA, a sitiiill town of the T>'nd, on thu AiIIkc,
TJ III. S. Koveredo. I'op. ■\,H-H> in iHM. It has a
^'yiiiiiiisiiim and a (!apiiehin convent, and manu-
lueliiri's of silks and velvelM.
ALAltAMA, one of the Ifniled Staten, in the
S. iMirt of the Union, iK'tween MP 10' and iUfi N.
hit., mill H,'>°and «H°;Ut' W. lawn., having S. Flo-
riilu, S\V. (Julpli of Mexico, W. .State of Missis-
^i|l|li, N. 'reiiessee, and K. (Jeorf^ia. Area, .'")l>,72'2
K(i. III. i'op. in IH2I), 111,1)11; in IH.'ll), :il)!),.V27,
01 whom ll7,r(l!» were slaves, and 1,572 friie
hlai'ks; in IWIII, !)(i4,2lll, of whom l.'l'>,l*K<* were
Khives, and '2,<>'.H) free colounMl, The principal
river, the Mohil(>, formed hy the junction of the
hir(,'n rivers Tomhij^hee and Ahihama, Ixith of
which How S., falls into the Isittoni of Mohilu
Itay. Tim ChattahiM)chi>e also (lowing 8. forms
ill jiiirt the K. iHiiindary of the state. The uoimtry
^Tailiially rises from tile low hivel lands alon^ the
(iiilph oi' Mexico, to an elevati(m of from 1,111)0 to
l,;")()ll ft. in its 'N. parts. It has, in consequence,
a cdiisiderahle difVerence of temperature. Soil
iiidstlyverj' fertile, particularly in the N. counties.
(!ott(iii is the staple produ(3t, the crop of which,
lin^viiius to the late Secession war, was rajiidly in-
erensiiij;. The su);ar cane is cultivated m the S.
districts. Indian corn is the princi]ial corn cro|>.
Alaliuiiia was erected into a state in 1H1!>. The
);nveniincnt is vested in a ^fvenior, elected for
2 years, a senate elected for .'1 do., and a house of
repreHentativcs elected annually. Meinhers of the
latter receive 4 d(dl, a day each, and their niiml)er
is not to fall short of GO, nor to exceed 100.
Judges of the supreme and circuit courts are
elected hy a joint vote of the two houses of as-
Remlily for 7 and (5 years. Several canals aiul
railways have heen completed, and more jjrojccted.
Ill lH(i2 there were 743 m. of railways open, hut a
(.'mill many have liccn more or less destroyed during
the civil war. Liberal jirovision has been made
fur education ; and a state university, well en-
dowed, and on a large scale, has heen founded
near the cap. Tuscaloosa. The princiiml foreign
trade of the state is carried on from Mobile (which
wc). The value of the domestic produce, jirin-
ci|)nlly cotton, exported during the year 183,5,
nmiiiinted to 7,572,128 doll, which had increased
ill IStiO to 38,670,183 doll.
ALABASTER, or ELEUTIIERA, one of the
Bahama or Lucayo islands, which see.
ALAIS (an. Alesia), a town of France, dep.
Ganl, caj). arnmd., on the Gardon d'Alais, at the
fiKit of the Cevennes, 25 m. NW. Nismcs; lot.
44° 7' 22" N., long. 3° 4' 25" E. Pop. 20,257 in
ALAND
AA
INrtl. Tlie town is anetent, and pretty well
liiiilr. I hiring the ndigioiis warn of Kriinc(>, thu
iiihaliilants went distingiilihed hy their nilacli-
ineiit III the I'rolestant party, and to hridle tlietii
Louis X I \', eoiisirucled a fort in the town. It
has n eiiiiimuiial college, a tribunal of primary
jimsdictioii, a theatre, a indilie library, a CMnsii>>
torial I'riitestani church, Ac. It has, also, inaiiu-
faetures of riliiiiiil, silk stockings, and gloves)
with a glans wmr., |sitteries, copiM'ras works, Mte.
liesides its own (inHliicts, it has a eonsiderablu
iraiU' in the raw and dressed silks, oil, grain, in'.,
of the siirroiindiii^f country. There are inineH of
iron and coal in (he vicinity,
ALA.NI) (ISLAND.S oF), a group of islandM
belonging to Kiissia, at the eiilraiK fthe Gulpli
of llothnia, iH'tweeii Wi" 50' and lilio ;I2' N. Int.,
and Ui^ 10' and 21° 7' K. long., eonsisliug of mom
than HO inhabited luid upwards of 2oo uniiihabite.l
islets and riH-ks (.VAtirrm), occupying an area of
alsiut 470 s(|. in., and divided into three oblong
clusters by the straits of Delel and LapiivUsi, The
llaltic iMi'iinds th(>in to the M. ; on the \V, the
straits of Alandshaf se)Hirate them from Sweden,
their width U'ing alsiut 24 m. ; and on the K. thu
straits of Wuttuskiflet, which are scarctdy 2 m.
broad where they are narrowest, and alsiiit 14
where the^y are broadest, iiiterisise between them
and the Kinlaml shore. I'op. t,),lMlO in IH5K. The
principal of the islands, called Aland, has a |Hip.
of ',),000, and the chief town hen-, likewis(i named
Aland, a |H>p. of nearly 3,000. Nearly all the in-
habitants are of Swedish extraction. 'Most of the
islanils stand at a oonsi(U>rable elevation aliovu
the level of the sea, and are intersected by chaiim
of granite rocks, which iH-casionally ris<> into
peaks, and are full of hollows. There are tut
rivers, but many small lakes. The surface ia
either a thin layer of clay or rich mould, slate-
stone or sand, 'i'he climate, tliiaigh keen, and at
times severe, is more tem|M'rate than that of Fin-
land. There are extensive forests, ehietly of
birches and pint's; the pasture grounds are very
|M)or, excepting near some iiarts of the coast; and
the arable land, on which rye and barley are
mostly grown, produces a suHlciency fordomestio
consumption, the Is'st yielding seven-fold. Hops,
cabbages, piusnips, carrots, and other roots, jsila-
toes, and a little tlax are likewise raised, Nuta
form an article of ex|iort, TIh! horned catth', of
which there arc upwards of 12,00(1, are small in
size, and few of the cows have horns; the latter
furnish the 'Aland ciieeses,' which are much
sought after, and nuuh; principally in the island
of Fagloe. Of sheo)i there are above 13,000, the
wfMd of which is converted into coarse stufls and
sail-cloth ; horses and goats are also bred in con-
siderabht numbers. The lisheries arc ]>r(Nluctivc,
particularly of {itromlinge) lu^rrings and seals, of
the lirst of which li,00"o tons and upwards arc
salted. Waterfowl abound. The ex|K)rts consist
of salt meat, butter, cheese, hides, and skins, dried
and salted lish, wood for fuel, tS:c. ; and the im-
ports of salt, colonial jiroduce, ironware, woidlens,
cottons, and other manufactures, t!lrc. The Alamlers
are excellent seamen, and navigate small vessels
of their »)wn that trade with the adjacent parts :
they are Swedes in their language, manners, and
usages. There are a number of good harbours,
many of which have been fortified by the Hus-
sions, who keep up a disproportionately large mili-
tary force in the islands, us well as a numerous
flotilla, called the ' Skaerentlott.' One of tliese
harbours, Domarmnd, strongly fortified, and gt.
station of the Russian fleet, was destroyed by the
Anglo-French fleet in 1854, The Lslands contain
8 parishes and as many churches, and 7 cliurches
M
ALA-HIIKIIU
I If
:i: !"
I;;.
•ir i'ha|N'li) (if i>nM>, AoUiul, tlm Inrui-Ni iNlitii<l, U
nt'iirlv t'IrniLtr, Mtiu hInmiI 17 inili'x In Icii^ih
mill Itl III liri'inllli i It I'linliiliiN iiInivi' D.iMMi liiliit
lilliiiilD, itiiil liiiN ail )<xri'lli>iil liiirlHiiir nl \ttvr
imi'x, nil llii> W. xliji'. Il in ilivlili'il liy II iinrMw
•iiriill frmii KkiTiN', ilii> wrxli'miiiiMt IkIiiihI, wliirli
lull* II li'Irurillill. On ltii> I'!. i'inikI nl' Anliiiul l« llli'
iilil I'ltMili' III I 'itxilt'liiiliii, iiiiw III riiliiM, 'riicw)'
UtniiiU wiTc wri'»h'i| liy Itiiiwiii Iniiii Swi'ilcii in
iMii'.i) mill ){ivi' iliii rnriiiiT II |MiNiiiiiii t'riiin mIiIi'Ii
IIm'V iiiity i'iii«ll> iiiiikii n ili'Mci'iit nil III!) Swi'iIIkIi
«'nil»l.
AI.A Hlll'.llit (ihi^ rxniliil Hly), ii lity of
'I'lirkry In Anlii. (iriiv, Aniilnllii, riimniiN iin llm Ncnt
nf iiiif 111' till- AiMM'iilyiiilr rlniri-lii'H. ji wiut I'or-
lllrrly cnllcil I'luliulrlitliin. 'I'lii' Inwii \» hIiiiiiIimI
K'l III. v., Siiiyrini, iiciir tlic CnKiiiiiii'i, |iiirllv In tlii'
liliiln, mill |iiirily mi iini< of llm riNiiN nl' I'lnnlii'*,
>vliirli, w|iiiri(ti>il liy n viilii'y rrniii llix |HiNli>rinr
riiiiui', iinil rl^lii^ in n vorv eniiniilcriilili' cli'viiiinii,
lit till' hIIii III' lll(< Arrii|Hilli«, 'I'liK nlil Willi III' IIk'
tnwn, I'nniK'il III' Hiiiiill Niniit'it lii>li| tn^flln'r liy it
Mtrnii); I'fini-nl, iiikI Hircii;xllu'iit'il willi invvcrM, Im
liMkcii iltiwrn In ninny filnrtiN, iiiiil tin* Afm|Hiliit in
nUn ill riiitm. 'I'lu' innilcni liiiiiiti>N an' iiii'un ami
irrcKiilnr, iiml llit< Nln'Hi* iiiiiniw ami llllliy. 'I'lii'
riiiiiN III' ilic I'liiiri'li nf St. .Inlin am nf fitvni aiitl-
«|iiity, anil iinriciit n-liiM incut tln' I'vii at nvcry
ttlt'p. Ala-SliclircniitaiiiH nearly ll.OtHri'nrkiMli uiui
V!>')<Miri'i'k Iiiiiim'n; nh that the |miI), may Imi pmiI-
niateil at fmiii iri.lKM) In IH.ltlHI. It In the neat nf
nlireek archlilMlio|i, ami divine oervice in re);iilarly
|M'rfnriiieil in !t ClirlNtinii ehiirelieN. Tlu! emiiitry
roiinil In very fruitful ; the waten are Maid tn Ihi
cxiTlli'iit ill dyiiiiKi and Itein^ Nitiiated nii niieof
the mimt fru(|iiei)teil madN tn Sinyrnn, it Ih miieh
remirted to liy caravaim, and ha» a t("<Ml deal nf
trade. It id heid mi iinered, even by the TiirkN,
that, they oceoNinnnlly convey their dead thither
for intennent, fmin OnNtnnti'mmIe ; and apply tu
it the epithet of Aln, or the exalted.
riiilndelphia derived itrt name from AttaliiA
I'hilndelphiiH, liMthcr of KnineneM, by whom it
WOM fniinded in the Heennd century n,v, Strnim
KnyM, that it Hiitrered tniicli frnin re|H!ated NhnckH
of «!artlii|iiakes; and it wa.s one of the fourteen
eiticM which were |iartially or wlinllv destroved by
n Hubterraiiean coiivnlNion in the reipi nf TilHiriiiH,
Anciently, indeed, it waM matter of Huriirine that it
wiM not iibnndnncd; but it continueH to Ih' a coii-
ttiderabli! place; and the church nf I'liiladehihiii ii*
Htill erect, 'u coliiinn in a Hcene of riiiim.' It wax
the last city of AhIu Minor that Hubinitted to the
TiirkH. ' At a diHtancc from the Hea, fnr^nttcn by
the ciniM-'rorM, encoin|iaNNe(l on all Hiden by the
Tiirkx, lier valiant citizeiiH defended their reliKimi
nnd fri-ednm, alMive foumcore yearx; aiiil at len;;th
(in i:<!ll)), capitulated to tho proudest of the Uth-
maiifi.' ((iibl)on, cap. (il.)
ALASSIO, or AHKACI, a nea-port town of
Northern Italy, prov. (ienoa, 5 ni. SSVV. Albeii^a.
Pop. 4,*il'nn'lKt!l. MoKt of the inhabitantH are
industrioiiH, active, and daring Heanien. There Ih
jfood anchorage n|)|)o«ite to the town, which con-
HixtH of a long narrow Htreet. Fine coral Ih lisheil
«tn the const. A gocKl hnrlHiiir for tho Inrgest dims
of vettsels might 1)0 formed between CniKs Mele
and the ixland of Galiimra.
ALATKI, a city of Central Italy, prov. Fro-
sinone, m. NK. i'rosinnne. Pop. 11,370 in 18(»1.
Tbe city is the seat of a bishopric, has a cathedral, a
collegiate church, nnd some convents. Antiquities
arc frequently (lug up in the environs, which
abound in olives and vines.
ALATYK, a town of KnsHin in Europe, gov.
Simbirxk, at the confluence of the Alntyr with the
Sura, <J0 m. NNW. Simbirsk. Pop. 4,407 in 18u».
AI.MANIA
Il in built of wiiinI, Iian IniinerieH, a glAiw Mrnrk,
and a i'iiiii<ii|i<ralile triide in cum.
AI.AVA (mi, i'limirtium), n wn-imrt Inwil nf
'I'lirkey III Aula, Aiialnlla, rap. NnnJiiU'k nf the xiiini.
iiaine, mi the K. niile nf a Inliv prmniiiilnry ; Im,
;iiio ;ii' :»i" N.. imig. '.\'if^ i' ir !•:. I'np." iii-Mit
'.',01111. 'I'lie prmiiiiiitnry mi wliidi thin tnHii i«
built iM'arN a Mirlkiiig ri'm-iiililniii'i' tn ilmi „(
tiibraltar. It iNjnlned In the ciillllni'lll nii Ihi' N,
bv n Inw Mainly iHiliiiiuM, frmii which it ri»i'ii
uliriipllys nnd IIm \V. mid S. Mides cihimImI nf jht-
IM'iiiliciilar clllt'i* .'lOO nr lidO feet high. TIh' K.
mIiIc, mi which llii' inwii in built, Im aUo mo Nii.<'|,
that the hmiMCM Mceill In Miami nii lln' lop nf I'lirli
iillier. 'liiMbiirl, It fiiniiH a naliiral fnrtn'MM ilmt
niiglil Im' ri'iidered iiiipregnable; and the iiiiiiiiTniiit
walJM and inwerM prnve how anximiMly iiM fnnni'r
iMiMMi'MMnfM lalMiuri'd to make It mh.' At preMcni it
Im nf trilling lin|Hiriniicc: ntreetji and limiMeM iimm'-
rable; ninMipii'M few and nieaii. When vlMitcil hy
I'aplain lleanfurt it hud im Mi>;iiM nf cmiiiiii'riv,
The bay Im oim'ii In Moiitherly wIiiiIh, and the an-
chnriige iiiilitli'ri'iit.
Oorai'i'Mliini Mhiit its gntcN ngiiitiMt AiiliiH'liuH
when nil the other lowiiNnf Cilicia had Mubiiilitcil;
and nt a Miilmeqiieiit |H'riod it wiim the place mcIi'i'.
led by llie pirates at which In make a IiimI Mlniui
ill their Mlriiggle with Pomiit^y. (Ik'aufnrt'M Knra-
inaiiia, p. I7'j, iic)
AI.liA, a tnwn of Xorlherii Italy, prov. I 'iini'ip,
on the Taiiarn, 'A'2 iii. HHK. Turin I'np. !i,ti7'« in
INIII. Il has a tribunal nf nrigiiial JiiriMilii'iinn, a
cathedral, !( pariMli churches, a college, and a cim-
itiderable trade in rattle,
AIJIA(!KrK, a town of Spain, prov. Miircia,
9 m. NNV. Chinchellii, agreeably Mitnated in a vtmi
and fruitful plain. Pop. II,NII0 in Wu. The
town liiiH manufactures of coarse cUith and miiii|i,
Oruat quantities of wine and salTron are onllectcij
in its vK^inity; and a great cattle market is annu-
ally held in SepUmiber.
ALIIAX (S'r.) a town of France, dep. Lo/.irc,
22 m. NNVV. Mende. Pop. 2,27(» in IWII.
AIjHANIA, a large prov. of Kuro[H'an Turkey,
iHMiiided N. by Dnlniatia nnd Servin, K. by Miut-
don and TliesMnly, S. by Livadia, nnd W. by ilii'
Adriatic, along with that part of the Mediterrniienii
called the Ionian Sea, lying generally lietween hit,
;!!»«> and UP N., hmg, l\\° nnd 21° .'«i' K. It tiiii»
comprehends, in its widest ncceptntinn, the niiciciil
lllyrin and Kpirus, and is at present incluileil in
the Turkish government of Knmniiia. ItMnrenin
I X,\iH sq. in„ and the |Kip. is estimated nt I ,2(MI,ihhi.
The mountains in the north rise to the height of
!),000 feet, but tho country includes the fertile!
iilniiis of Scutnri and others. Tho climato is wnnn
liiit healthy. The maritime trade is for the iiiiint
rt cnrried on through the jsirts of Prevesn, Siiln-
lorn, (iomenitzn, Snynda, Snnti (jiiarnntn, iiiid
Avlonn, while nt most of the smaller |sirlH tlint
indent tho western const n jictty Irnde, of wliicli
no stntistics have lieen collected, is carried on with
(!orfii. The snfest jiort on the Adrintic is Avliniii,
The Inrgest town in the province is .Inninn, ona
Inke nf the same name, which has n |Mip. estimated
nt 3(»,000. Tho principal priMlnctions and ex|Mirts
are vnlonin, tobacco, olives, Inilinn com, dye-wixKl,
raw hides, wool, raw silk, choose, salt prnvisimis
drugs, sheep, nnd hnrscs; but nenrly all the prii-
ducts of Southern Kuropc, including cattle, may
lie included in tho list of the district's cafialiiiitirn.
The Albanians are principally Mohammeiliuis,
though on the coast a considerable number are
of the Greek or Roman chun^hcs. Lately coii-
sidcrnble nttention hns lieen pnid tn the coiiHtrui;-
tion of ronds. In the end of lHti3 telcgni|iliii;
communicatiuii was established between Cou-
C
««':*',
ft 1(1*"* ^"'lt>
».IHlM »IIWII Clf
ii-k •>!' ill)' "iiiiM'
iiiiiiiiiiiiry ; lai,
K. ri>|>. IiIhhiI
II IIiIm Iiimii i«
I'll III llllll llf
lll'lll nil III)' N,
wliii'li it riin's
I niiiNUl iif iHT-
lii^li. 'I'liK i:.
Im IiUo no H|<1-I|
I III* l<)ll lit' flll'll
mil flirt ri'KH ilmt
III I III* iiiiiiii'riiiiK
muly llH liiriiHT
At |iri'Hi'iii it
ml llllllM'H IIIJM'-
rili-ll vl»ili'i| liy
IN of I'liiiiiiii'nv,
iIh, mill tliii aii-
ItillNt AlltilK-llll*
t liail Miiliniilli'il;
I I III* plnri- Hi'liT-
iiiki! II liiMi hlaml
Ik'Uul'iirt'M Kam-
uly, jiniv, Ciiiioii,
|'ii|i. ti,iS7V ill
ml jiiriitilirtiiiii, a
llo|J;t>, mill a run-
II, prtiv. Miircift,
niliiiitfil ill II viixt
1) ill Ih:)7. 'I'lie
> cliitli mill miii|i.
'nm am onllt'ctfil
) miirkvt in aiinii-
nre, dcp. lior.crc,
I in IHllt.
jiirii|H>nii Tiirkoy,
via, 1'". Iiy M(i<<-
, ftiiil W. Iiy till*
lie Mi'tlitirriiiii'iiii
rallv liflwfi'ii Im.
:((i' K. It t llllll
Intion, the amiiMil
k*H(>iit iiidiiili'il in
niiia. ItHnronin
lateilntl,*20il,(l(l(i.
to the lififtlit of
:luiU'8 the I'lTtik
cliinato in wiinii
le in for the iiiiwt
of I'reveHa, Siil«-
i (jiiiiranta, ami
jnaller tx>rt« <l>»'
trttile, of wliiili
\in carried on with
Iriatie in Avlmiiu
in ,lniiinn, on a
a jMip. entiiiinteil
ions and ex|iiiri!i
|i com, (lye-wtMKl,
salt provimiiiiN
lirly all the pni-
[ling cattle, may
•ictV capaliilitien.
Mohamnipdiiii!',
iblc niinilwr are
Lately ci'"-
to the coiistriu'-
8ti3 tele(,Tniiliit!
between Cuu-
AI.IIANO
il^niliiiipln and .laidiin, Iiy tvay of Sntnhora and
.JHri""!), iiiid \^iirk>i wtrii In prn^reiut in Iwl'i lor
I'liiiiiiiiiiiiK it III Arlm and i'rt'veiui, ((!oiiMilar
Ili'iHirin,)
AMI.'
lANO (TOWN, I.AKi;. AM> MtUN TA!N
DKi. Ill '!■*' ('<""/""/'•'< ili Homii, Kiliialiil in llie
jiiii'iil' ilie Ajipian \\'i\\, on a hill, near llii> S\V,
niiliMif ilie lake, niNiiit 1 1 III. SMI'., Kmiie. Top,
il.liio ill IN.'iH, Thin liiwii in mil linlli, ax xiiine
Imvi' miplMiKiil, on llie xile of Allxi /.um/ii, wliieli
kIihmI nil llie ollliT xide iif the lake, lint on llie
mill" <>l l*iiiii|M>y'ii villa. Iin Niliialloii, al a ninde-
riiic I'levatiiin alNive Ihe level of the plain, line
NiliiiiriiMii* air, Mhaily walkii, and uiaKiiilleent vieWN
III' tlie 'elernal I'ily,' the ('iiiniiaKiia, and the nea,
make il a favoiirUe relreat iil' llie iimre opulent
jtiiiiiiiii I'ili/eiiN, (lariieidarly diirini; K|iriiii( and
AiiliiiiiM. It Im the Meat of an arrhliiNhup; U well
Imill; hait a ealhedral and Nome eoiiveiilN, with
iiiiiny line palaeeN, aiiinii^ which may Ih' N|H>eilled
ihiwi' III' the ('orNiiii mill l>arlH>riiii faiiiilii'N. Ala
liitle iliNlaiii'i'i on the iiiar(;iii of Ihe lake, In CiinIi'I
li/iiiiloll'o, the niiiiimer rcNidence of the pii|H<. The
ailjni'eiil eoiiiilry in alinoNt wholly apiirii|iriated In
thr i'lillnre of Ihe vine; and the wine which it
viiOilM i<lill inainlaiiiN ilN niieient repntttlion.
file lake of Alliano, a little to the NK. of the
tiiwn, In Hiirroiimled on all NidoN Iiy very \\\\i\\
JMiikN, except towanU Ihe N., where they are a
lillle lower, it liiiM Ihe form of an irregular
I'llipii', and there would iip|M>ar to Ih* little doiiht
that it iK'ciipien the crater of an extinct volcano.
The ilimance round the crater, or Niitniiiit of the
iMwiii of the lake, in eNlimnled at ahoiit H in., mid
that Miiiid the wnter'n ed^e iilmiit 4 in. It in in
IMirtn very deep: n variety of IInIi are found in it,
aniniiK which arc vein uf nil imnioiiNO nizc, and
highly eNteenied.
Hut the tiihterrnnean conduit or tunnel, called
liy till* ItaliaiiN an rmimuirio, for cimv(*yiiiK away
ilx Hiirpltm water, in the feature inimt wort liy the
Attnitioii of the iiitellif;eiit traveller who vinitn Ihin
lake. Thin tunnel, intended to pn*veiit the watem
iif llie hike froiii inlnrin^; the fnirroiindin^ country
liy iiverllowiiiK itn liankn, and to keep them alwnyn
ai their prcient level, wan completed at an early
IH'ridd of the Uomnii hintory (alioiit 'I0(( yearn
■I.e.), and henm uiieqiiivocnl proofn of the na^aeity
mill iK'Weverance of tliono hy whom it wan exe-
riiteii. ll in cut ri^lit through the mountain, and
miwily through solid rock, n dintancu of con-
hiih'rahlv mon; than a mile, bein^r generally nlKnit
!1 fwt io inches wide, and from (ij to 7 feet in
height; at its entry from the lake, and its issue
ill the plain, it is solidly built round with larj^e
ittuiivn, arched at top, and in in [M>rfect [in'serva-
tion. This ^cut work is said to Im'vo been com-
|il('toil in alHiiit a year; but it has Ih'cii objected to
tiiis, that as only tlm<u or at most four men could
have wrought touether, and these at the outer end
iiF the tunnel only, the other end Ix-ing under
water, it must have taken many years for its cmn-
|ili'(iiin. But I'iraiiesi has shown that after tracing
the lino of the tunnel alMivc ground, shafts had been
sunk, by which 'workmen might have been let
(Inwii in various places, and the work cuniplctcd
within the stated time.
The Alban Mount {3fon» Alhanun), now Monte
Cum, lies a little to the E. of the lake. It is
almut 8,170 feet in height; and the view from its
miinmit, extending over Iwiliiim and n great ex-
tent (if country, is one of the noblest that can be
iniii|;inc<l. It was crowned by a temple in honour
"t'Jiipiter Latialin, where sacrifices were annually
offercil up by deputies from the various Latin
NtateH. with the liomans at their head, to their
cummuii father and protcutur. Here, also, the
AMIANY IT
Itotiinn geiieraln nfiiNcd the hnnoiir of the gnat
Iriiiiiiph in llie cily, |M'rriiriiicil llir Iikmt triiiiii|ili,
or ovatiiiii, and *ik<'rill I to .Inpiicr l.aiitlin.
Some I'raumeiitN of iIiIn fainoiiN innple exi^icil in
1750; but tlicy have NJiice iliNappeiiri'd. i lleNlih'H
the ailllloritieN referrid to, Nee llie ixcclleill Wnr'l
of LiiiiiNdeii on the Antiipiilicn of Itoiiie, pp. ■liVI
-HI.'..)
Al, HAN'S (Sr.),aiiancieiil ImnMighof Kiiglaiid,
CO. Ilrriford, iicciipyiiig Ihe Niiinniil and nIiIcn of h
low hill, on a feeder of the t'olhc, 'ill m, NNW.
liiindon, on the Londnn and N'orih WeNierii riiil-
way. I'op. of pariMli ll,ii7<,l, and of municipal
iNiniiigh 7,tl7ri in \M\, The iNimiigb long luul
the privilege of n'tiiriiliig '2 in. to ihe II. of (',,
the right of voting having Im'cii vcnIciI in the free-
men, whether reNideiil or not, and in scni-and-lot
lioiiNeholdemi but il wiu* n few yenm ago diKlran-
chiNed on acciiiint of corriiplion at the eleciioiiH.
The place in very aiicieiil, and in either mi or \ery
near Ihe site of the ancient Koiiiaii Vrrulumium,
The abbey chiirch In the most imiHiNiiig iili|ci't in
the place; mid is celebrated alike for its anliipiily
and great iiuigiiitiide. It lately niiiler\vciit n
thoroiigh repair. In Ihe church of St. Micluiel in
the tomb of the great Lord liacoii, with a lino
marble moiiiiiiieiit to bin memory. There in a free
grammar ncIhhiI, with Mcveral chariiable iiiKlilii-
lioiin. The town in not thriving. Straw plait is
the (irinciiial inaniifactiire; and there are Is'siden a
cotton mill and a nilk mill, but neither on a largo
scale. Then- is a market each Siitiirday.
ALHAN'S IIKAI) (ST.), a cape of Kngland, on
the KnglinhChannel, co. Dorset ; lai.oO" \W 10" N„
long. aO|i' 15" W.
A I, MAX Y, a city of the rnlled States, cap. slain
of New Vork, on the W. Iiank of the lludNon,
liri m. N. New York; Int. 4-2° ;t!l' !1" N., hmg.
7i«° -ll' 60" VV. Pop. in lH2o, l.'>.!t7l ; in l«l(i,
I<<i,7'2l ; and in iMiO, (i'i,<'ll!7. Ite.iiiles iK-iiig the
seat of government, it in, in |Mipiilatioii, wealth
and commerce, the neeoiid city in Ihe ntale. ll in
tiiiely situated at Ihe head of the river navigatiiiii
of the llndsiin, and in now coiiiiected by caiiain
with Lake Krie and the Minninnippi on the oiiii
hand, and with Lake Oliamplain and the St. Law-
rence on the other. It is also the centre where a
number of railways meet connecting it with Hiif-
falo, Hoston, Lake Chainplaiii, and New York; so
that it is, and has for a considerable time been, one
of the principal centO's of internal commerce in
the Union. A line basin has In-en eonstriieted for
the accommodation of the shipping on the river
and the canals. Among the public biiihlings are
the eapitol, the stale hoiLse, an academy, a splendid
miiseuiii, a jail, with iiumerouB banks mid placits
for public worship.
ALHANY, a district of S. Africa, lielonging to
Great Itritain, ot the K. extremity of the Capo
(johiiiy. It has on the K. the (Jreat Fish river, on
the VV. Hoshiiana river, on the N. an imaginary
line, drawn from the junction of the Great anil
Little Fish rivers to tlie Konap, and on the S. the
ocean. Its area has been variously estimated, but
may probably amount to about 2,000 sq. m. or
1 ,2«0,000 acres. I Is aspect is highly pleasing, being
divernilied with hill and dale, its verdant |)asiiires
and smooth grassy knolls, contrasting agreeably
with the dark masses of forest, which clothe tliii
broken ground near the river courses. Soil very
various. The stiff clayey lands would be the most
jiroductive, were they siitliciently watered ; but an
rain is precarious, and the rivers'nrc said not to bo
suitable for irrigation, light friable soils are pre-
ferred. Climate temiierate, tjalnbrious, and suit-
able for Kiiro|icaii constiliilions. Lions, wolves,
and leopards are oceasioiially met with ; but uro
fiS
ALBEMARLE SOUND
S I 'M ii ,
hjj
I n
cviTy (lay becomiii)^ riircr. KIcpliantH aro now
NoMotii Hccii within th(! limits i>f the ilistrict,
Hor.si'H, catth', h)ioi'|>, pi;itn, ho^'s, &.C., tlirivo. ro-
iiiai'kalily well, and their prodiK^c fonns tho Krcut
(U^IK'iiileneu of the colonists. The country is tra-
versed l)y nunicriins streams, of which the (ircat
Fish river is hy far the most important. I're-
vionsly to lH2li, there were not more than 1(500
KnropeanH in the district; lint government having
j^iven encourajjement to emigration to this cpiarter,
i'{,7'20 emigrants landed in 1820, at Aljfoa Hay,
whence the greater numl)(>r proceeiled to this dis-
ti'ict. For the lirst 4 or 5 years, the colonists suf-
f<Ted severely from a failure of the wheat crops;
but their prof^rcss from IH%') down to 1836 was
comparatively rapid, and presented a picture of
prosperity and advancement, not often to he met
with in the early annals, even of the most suc-
cessful colonies. At the last-mentiuned epoch,
however, this career was suddenly arrested by an
irruption of the Cafl'res, who destroved a ^ff^it
<]uaiitity of valuable jirojicrty, and killed several
of the colonists. This invasion havinj^ been re-
pelled, and peace havinfj been aji^ain restored with
the Caftres, a lieutenant-governor was appointed
to the K. ]irovince, and the district is fast recovcr-
iii<; from the losses it !iad sustained. The pop. in
l8(il was estimated at above 20,000, with 15,000
whites. (Iraham's Town, the cap. of the E. prov.
and the residence of the lieut.-Kovcrnor, is situ-
ated almost in the centre of this district, A town,
called Port Francis, has been founded at the mouth
of the Kowie river; but as the access to it is ob-
structed by a dangerous bar, it is doubted whether
it will ever become of any material importance.
The shi|)pinK trade of the district is cliiclly carried
from Port Elizabeth on Alf^oa Hav.
ALBKMAKLE SOUND, United States, coast
of N. Carolina, in the N K. part of the state, being
(iO m. lonf^ from E. to VV., and from 4 to 15
wiile. It communicates with I'imlico Sound and
the ocean by several narrow inlets, and with
(Ihesapeakc 15ay by a canal cut through Dismal
Swamp,
ALIJENGA Can. Alhium Iiiflaunum) , an ancient
8ea-port town of Northern Iralv, prov. (icnoa, 44
m. SVV. (lenoa, on the Centa. Pop. 4,189 in 1801.
It is the seat of a bishopric, and lias several re-
rn.iins of antiquity. The situation is unhealthy;
but the surrouniling country is jirt/ductive of oil
and hemfi. This is the birthplace of Proculus, a
comjietitor with I'robus for the throno of the
CiPsars.
ALBERT, a town of France, dep. Somme, cap.
cant,, on the Miraumont, J. 3 m. l-^NE. Amiens.
Pop. .'!,806 in 1801. It hai' a cotton mill, with
))rint works, bleaclilields, and paper mills. In its
vicinity is a cave or quarry where tliere are a va-
riety of |ictrifactions.
ALBINO, a town of Northern I.aly, prov. IJer-
pamo, on the Serio, 7 m. NE. Uerjjamo. Pop. 2,027
in 18()1. It is very well built, the castle and f;ar-
dens of Count Siiini beinj; particularly worthy of
iKitice. '1 here arc silk lilatures, with a manufac-
tory of agricultural iinplements and machinery for
jiolishinfj whetstones renowned all ovci Europe.
r.I.BlON (NKW), a large tract of the NVV. coast
o( America. Tl'is designation was given by Sir
Francis Drake to California and part of the adjoin-
ing coast ; but recent geographeis, and among
others Humboldt, limit the (lenomination of New
Albion to that part of the coast which extends
from the 43rd to the 48th deg, N. lat.
ALI5UFE111A, a sea-jiort town of Porrutval, S.
coast Algarve, 28 m. E. Lagos ; lat. 37° 7' 30'' N.,
long. 7° 1!)' 12" VV. Pop. 2,800 in 1858. Large
vessels may anchor in the port, which is defended
ALCAMO
by a citadel and batteries. The inhabitants mostly
subsist, by lishing.
ALIUJIIICUA, a town of Spain, Estreinadurn,
14 in. SSE. liailajoz, on the river and near tlie
mountain of the same; name. Hero, on the liltji
May, 181 1, a sanguinary conflict took place Ik'I ween
the allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese trcHipH
under Marshal Beresford, and a Fit'iich force under
Marshal Soiilt. Each army lost alxint 7,000 iiicii
in killed and wounded. (Jn the allied side tliu
chief brunt of the action fell on the British, wlm
suffered severely. In the end Soult, who com-
menced the attack, retreated.
ALlUKiUElKiUE, a towi of Spain, with an
old castle, prov. Estreinadura, on the front iiT di'
Portugal, 22 m. NNVV. Badajoz, I'op, 5,470 in
1857, It has cloth and cotton manufactures,
ALBY (Al/iij/ii), a city of France, ca]), dep. Tarn,
on the Tarn, wliicli is crossi^d by an old-fiushioiu'ii
bridge. Pop, 15,403 in I8(il. The town has a
station on the railway da Midi, It is situatiMt <iii
a hill, and has few public buildings worth notieo,
except the cathedral, begun in 1277 and finishcil
in 1480. It is ill built, the houses iMiing gloomy,
and the streets narrow, crookeil, and dirty; bin
the shady Fromenude de la Lice, on the side next
the country, is universally admired. It has a jmlt-
lic library, a museum, and barracks, with varimi-t
manufactures of coarse cloth, sacking, table linen,
handkerchiefs, cottons, hats, and jiajier. The pre-
paration of woad has been long carried on in the
vicinity. Alby has sutlered much at different
periods for its attachment to Protestantism.
ALCALA DE (ilSVEUT, an ill built towi of
Spain, prov. Valencia. I'op. 4,!»54 in 1857.
ALCALA DE HENARES {Complutnm), a city
of Spain, prov. Madrid, on the right bank of tli'o
river of the same name, 17 m, ENE, Madrid. I'dp.
0,400 in 1857. It is surrounded by walls tlaiikeil
with square towers, has a line (iothic cathedral, a
magnificent palace of the archbishop of Toledo,
with numerous churches and convents. It is the
seat of a university founded in 1510 by the illus-
trious statesman, Cardinal Ximenes, which, iiexi
to Salamanca, is the most celebrated seminary in
Spain : it had, in 1831, 17 colleges and 31 pniles-
sors. The cardinal also bequeathed his library in
the university, and founded in it a printing ))ress,
which produced, at his expense, in 1612-17, tli(
famous I'olyglott Bible, denominated the Biblin
Complulensia; an imperishable and noble luonn-
ment of his i)iety, learning, oiul liberality. The
remains of tl.e cariliiial were interred in the oil-
lege church. But it is the chief glory of Aleal.i
de Henares to have given birth, in 1547, lo Cer-
vantes, the inimitable author of Don (Juixote ; ii
is also the birth-place of the poet Figuerroa, ami
of Solis, the historian of Mexico.
ALCALA DE LOS GAZULES, a town if
Spain, prov. Cadiz, 38 m, E, Cadiz, and 48 m. S.
t'eville. Pop. 6,610 in 1867. The town stands in
a hilly and bleak district, totally unfit for tillajjc,
but well adapted fir rean.'g sheep, which consti-
tutes the chief employment of the peoi)le. It is
at a very short distance fron the river Barhate,
which flows inlo the sea 35 n . SE. Cadiz. Clnso
to the town r.rc the remaiir of an oUl Koiiian
castle.
ALCALA .^A REAL, a Knvn of Spain, prov.
Jaen, on tlvj (Jualcoton, at an elevation of mure
than '■^/".yi feet above the level of the sea, 30 ni.
WS».". «iic.!. Pop. 0,738 in 1857. There is a j
rich abbey, with various churches, convents, ami
a hospital. On the 28th January, 1810, tht
French defeated the Spaniards in the vicinity of |
this town.
ALCAMO, a town of the island of Sicily, in the I
Ijitniits mostly
Kstrmmdiirii,
mul iH-ar tlic,
■o, (III the IHlli
H)lllfl!lH!l\Vt'(ll
■tuf^iiew triKips
leli force miclcr
Mint 7,tMH» mill
nllietl sitlf. tlw
10 llritisli, will)
)iilt, who coiii-
Spnin, with nii
the front iiT nf
I'op. J),! 70 in
iiiifactureH.
, cni). tieii. Tnm,
in oUl-fiuiliiimcil
he town I1U.S a
It is situntcHl oil
;s worth noliw,
l77 and finiclieil
* iKiiun f^looiiiy,
and dirty; liiii
tn the side next
(1. Ithasaimli-
;ks, witli varimis
win;,', table liiuii,
jiaiier. The prc-
nrried on in tlui
iich at (UH'crt'iit
ostantisim,
ill bnilt tow. of
i4 in 1H57.
ttmplutum), a city
if^lit hank of the
[E.Madrid. I'op.
by walls tlanknl
othic cathedral, a
|)iHhop of Toli'ilii,
iivents. It is the
510 by the illiis-
nes, whieii, next
■ated Hcmiuarv ill
'ea and 31 priilcs-
|hc(l his library to
a printing l>r*'^*'
[, in 1512-17, till
nated the BMn
iiiil noble luiinii-
liberality. The
erred in the cul-
;f ghiry of AU'alii
in 1517, 10 ("tr-
Don (Juixote ; it
it Figuerroa, ami
LES, a town m
Idiz, and 4« m. S.
lie town stands in
unfit for tillani,
lep, which cuiistj-
Vhe peoiile. It i*
|ie river IkirlKitc,
KE. Cadiz. Clii>«
If ail old Koiuaii
of Spain, prdv.
Ilevation of m''^
I of the sea, 30 ni.
1857. There is a
les, convents, anil
luiarv, l«lll, il>''.
Kn tiic vicinity nl
IdofSicUy, iiitttcl
ALCANIZ
Vnl ili Mazzarn, on the ^jreat road from Pnlprmo
l„ IViiimiii. '-'I in. VVSW. I'alcriuo. Vo\). !!»,5!H
ill IHiii. Tlie town is situated on hi^jli f^round,
ill a line, open, cultivated country, and is well
uliclliTt'd by hiTtio. woods of olive trees. Within
the districts of Alcaino, and at no )^reat distance
friPin the town, (Inely situated on an eniinen<;e,
nre the mafjiiilicent ruins of an ancient Dorio
„,„,,,|,.j — (ill that now remains of the once power-
ful S(';,'ista. It is a parallelopjram, 1()2 by (Hi feet,
anil lias 3(5 columns, wliich, when examined by
Swinliiinie, were all, with one exception, perfectly
entire. (Swinlnime'sTwo Sicilies, ii.|).2.'SC,'lto.cd.)
AMJAXIZ (Arab, for trea«uri/), a town of Hnain,
iimv. of Ternel, Arafjon, on the r. bank o( the
(laiidalouiie on a hill side, above which is a castle,
Imilt by James I. of Ara^on, (12 m. SE. Sara^ossa.
I'lip. t!,l(H» in 1H57. A handsome coUej^iate church,
with a iiolde portico, is the chief Imihiing. It is
eiu'iri'lcd liy walls ; and is connected by a canal,
ciiiistnictcii by the Moors, with the Ebro. There
are in the vicinity rich mines of alum, and tiiriviii>;f
planfationH of mulberry and other trees; there is
alsii in its vicinity a pond, which produces re-
markably larf^e line eels.
A!>(jANTAI{A (from the Arabic nl-rantumt-al-
Hrif, the brid^fe of the sword), a fortilled town of
Spain, prov. J'Istremadura ; and the cap. of a dist. of
tlidsaiiH! name. I'o)). 4,273 in 1H57. It stands on a
stpcp hill, close to the K, bank of the Tafjus (run-
iiiii;; here N\V.); was called by the Romans, its
fiiiinilcrs, Norbn-Ctesurea ; and they in the rei^?n of
Trajan erected the famous bridjjc, whence; its
pri'si'iit name is derived. It was of fjranite, its
]en;,'tii 577 ft., breadth 22 ft., span of the two
ccntri! arches 110 ft., thickness of jiiers SH ft.,
ii(>it;lit aliove ri/er-level, 175 ft.; in the middle of
the liriilKC was a triumphal arch, 40 ft. hi;;h, with
a lioinan inscription. (Labonle's Voyaije I'ittor. ;
where see views and sections of the brid^^c. Ponz,
viii. |). 1)3.) This fine relic of antiquity was unfor-
tunately destroyed, tofjether with some adjoining
liiiililiiiKs, by the IJritish troops, June 10, 180!),
iiwiiit; to a mistake of military orders, (Napier,
viil. ii. p. 31(5.) The river was once navigable up
tills town, and before the separation of Portugal,
in loHO, a large trade in fruit was carried on with
Lisbon (Minano) ; but it now serves only to turn
a fi'W niill.s, and to su^iijly the people with dace,
harliel, eels and other fish, which greatly abound.
(I'miz.) It is joined a lit.ile below Alcantara by
tlip Alagon, Jartin and Salor. At the expulsion
III' the Moors in 1213, which was aided by the
kiiiirhts of San Julian del Pereyro, the defence of
the town was entrusted to them, and thoy thence-
fcinvard assumed the title of knights of Alcantara.
The order is now a dignity of some value, and the
mnnnrch has been tlie grand-master since 1405.
The knights, i.i 1506, built a handsome convent
and church, which still exist. A ch)th minufr';-
tiire once existed here; but it has ])erished.
lirick-making ami tanning are all the signs now
to bo seen of industry.
Aix)ANTARA, a sea-port to^vn of Braisil, prov.
Slaranham, on a hill, 15 m. NW. San Louis de
Maranham. The surrounding territory is pro-
(hictive of excellent cotton an(l lice ; antl the suit
lakes, a little to the N. of the town, might yield
the largest supplies if they were properly managed.
Estim. Pop. 10,000.
AI.CANTAUILLA, a dist. and town of Spain,
prov. Murcia, 4 m. from the 1. bank of the Se-
Cura, 5 m. SW. Murcia, and 50 SVV. Alicante.
Pop. 4,083 in 1857. The country around is famous
lor its wines.
ALCAKEZ, a town of Sjiain, prov. La Mancha,
on the Uuudarama, 45 miles VVSW. Manzanares.
ALCOY
A9
Pop. 2,!>07 in 1857, The town has a citadel,
manufactures of doth, mines of calamine ami
copper, and an ai|uediict.
AL(;A/AU do sal, a town of Portugal.) mi v.
Estremadura, on the r. bank of the Sailo, 21) m.
SIO. Setubal. Po|). 2,400 in 1857. The town is
delightfullv sit. in the midst of an extensive and
fertile plain, and is chiefly distinguished for ifn
salt works and sedge mat factories.
ALCA/AU DE SAN JUAN, a town of Spain,
prov. La Mancha, 55 m. SE. Toledo, on the railway
from Madrid to Alicante. It is the cap. of a dist.
which contains K! towns and villages. Pii]t. of
town 7,800 in 1857. The dist. (besides its |iasluro,
com, oil, and fruits, which are aliundant) produces
saltpetre and other minerals, su|i|Hirling above oOO
W(/rkmen and their families. 'Ihe town contains
several soaji factories.
ALCESTICH, a jm. and m. town of England, co.
Warwick, 103 m. NW. Lond., 1(1 m. WSW. War-
wick. Pop. of parish, 2,128 in 18(il. Tlui town,
situated at the confluence of the Alne and Arrow,
has a handsome (iothic cliurch, a free si-hool, n
good corn market, and carries on a pretty hirgo
needle manufacture.
ALCIHA, a town of Spain, prov. Valencia, on
an island of the Nucar, 25 m. SSW. Valencia, and
so low that the river by rising 12 feet above its
usual height, inundates the town; lat. 31)° (J' N.,
long. 0O25' W. Pop. !),250 in 1857. It is fortified
and flanked with towers ; has several churches,
convents, and hospitals, with two tine bridges over
the Xucar. This is a very ancient town, having
been successively occupied by the ('arthaginians,
Pomans, and Moors, The inhab. are thritly and
intelligent farmers, su|)erior to most in Spain, and
in the immediate neighbourhood of the town they
raise excellent pimentos and tomatos, in addition
to the rice and other jiroducc of the district.
About 2 m. E. are some limestone hills, among
which is a stalactitic cav(! (Ciieva de Ian Maravillas),
visited as a natural curiosity.
ALCKMAEli. See Alkmaau.
ALCOHAZA, a town of Portugal, prov. Estre-
madura; lat.39° .SC N., long. !)0 W., 15 m. SSW.
Leiria, and within 5 m. of the sea, at the con-
fluence of two small rivers. Po]). 2,700 in 1857.
The town contains a very handsome and exten-
sive Cistercian mimastery, founded by Alfonso I.,
possessing a good library with valuable MSS., and
a collection of pictures, among which are jiort raits
of all the Portuguese kings, from Alfonso I. to
Utmna Maria I. The cotton manufacture is
carried on here to some extent.
ALCOLEA I)]";L KEY, a town of Spain, prov.
Seville, 2G iv., NE. of that city, near the r. bank
of the(iua<lalqtii\'ir, in the midst of a tine and ]iro-
ductive plain. Pop. 2,200 in 1857. When the
(iuadalquivir was more navigable than at pre-
sent, this town appears t-) have been of some im-
portance. The recently completed railway from
Seville to Cordova and Jladrid has restored it to
bomewhat of its fonVier iirosiierity.
ALCOKA, a town of Spain, jirov. Valencia, 48
m. N. Valencia, in a comitry watered by the Mi-
jares. Pop. 5,()0!) in 1857. Its agricultural and
industrial ]iroducts are not important.
ALCOVEP, a town of Spain, prov. Cataluna,
on the banks of the small river Angiira. Poj).
2,812 in 1857. In the time of Alfonso VIIL it
was a place of some imj^ortance.
ALC(!)y, a town of Spain, Valencia, at the
source of the Alcoy, 24 m. N. Alicante. Pop. town
and district 27,001) in 1857. liesides churches and
convents, it has a college, a considerable manu-
factory of tine cloth, soaji works, and iiajier works ;
the contiguous territory is very fertile.
60
ALCUDIA
1^
m^'%1 Mk
AfiCnOIA, a town IxtlonKing to Spnin, nonr
Dm N. cxtroin. of tlio i»lc Miijorcii, on a winall )>i'-
iiiiiHiilii hclwccn tlic Ixivs of i'ol!(!nNn niid AhMidin;
Lit. :i\P MY, Ion),'. 3° 8' !■:. I'op, 1,11(1 in iHo?.
Two Ntaj^niuiit pools, or Albiifcnis, lie between it
nnd (he Iwy; nnd the exIialntionH from them
fjrciilly injure the health of the inhahitantn, a
nii;kly nnd miserahle ra(;e. The |X)ols mij^ht be
drained, and the Hoil rendered UMeful, if the natives
were |)o.sspssed of any enti^rprlse or energy. Coral-
flsliln;; employs some -lO vessels in the bay. At
nixxitii m. SIC. is a stalactitic cave, visited and
well descril)ed by Antilhm, Several other towns
in Spain have tlie name uf Alcudia, but none of
great importance.
ALDIJOUOlKill, a horonRh of EnRland, W. R.
CO. York, wapentake Claro, 185 m. NNW. Lond.,
18 m. WNVV. York, Pop. 020 in 1831, and 522
in 1801. The borouph enjoyed, since the era of
I'hilip and Mary, the ])rivileRe of returning 2 mem-
bers to the 11. of C. ; but was disfrunuhiscd by the
Keform Act.
ALDIJOKOUGir, or ALDEnUUGII. a sen-port
town of Knglnnd, co. SuA'olk, hund. Plomcsgnto,
85 tn. XK. Lond. Pop. of bor. and pn, 1,721 in
1801. The borough returned 2 m. to the H. of C.
from the 15th Kliz. down to the passing of the
Iteform Act, when it was disfranchised. It lias
Huii'ered much from encroachments of the sen.
For the last few years it has been rising into
repute ns a quiet watering place. A short brancli
line connects Aldb'Tough with the Great Eastern
railwav.
ALi')KA DEL 1{EV, n town of Spnin, prov. La
Mnnclia (Ciutlad Heal), on tlie 1. bank of the .la-
balon, an atlluent of the Guadinna, 17 m. S. Ciu-
dad IJeal. Pop. 1,050 in 1857, The climate is
verv unhealthy, owing to inundations of the river,
■which a very slight industry might obviate. Here
is a jialnce of the knights commanders of Calatrava,
ALDEA GAI>EGA, a town of Portugal, prov,
]']s(remadura, lustuary of the Tagus, on the E.
side of the hay of Montijo, Pop, 3,750 in 1858.
I'revioiis to the cstablislinient of railways the town
was well known as a ftsrry station i)etween Lisbon
and the great road to Hadajoz and Madrid.
ALDKKXEV, an island belonging to Great Bri-
tain, in the English Channel, 55 m. S. from the
Isle of Portland, and 18 m. W. Cape I^a Hogue in
Xormandy. Tlie channel between Aldemey and
(he latter, palled the Race of Aldemey, is dan-
gerous in s'.onny weather from the strength and
ra|)idit.y of the tides. This island is about SJ m.
in length l)y ^ m. in breadth, and had in 1801 a
poj). of -IjO.'^i, Aldemey is sfronf^ly fortitied, nnd
largo sums have been expended in the erection of
n harbour for men-of-war. It is a dependency of
Gnemsi'V, find celebrated for a small breed of cows
which aiiord excellent milk and butter,
ALDKKSHOT, a par. of England, co. of Hants,
'which has come into notice since 1854. in conse-
(pieiioe of the eiital)lishm('iit there in that year of
a ]MTmanent camp for '20,00lt men. Tiie camp has
caused the erection of n town in the immediate
iU'ighl)ourh(H>d. Pop. in 1801, 10,720, of wliioh
8,11(15 were military. There are railway stations
in the N. and E. of the camp.
ALUSTOXE MOOH, a par. and m, town of
England, co. Cumberland, Leath ward, on the bor-
<l('rs of Northuml)erlaiid. The town stands on n
hill waslicd 1)V the Tvne, The parish contains
.■15,050 acres, "Poi). of'par. 0,404 in 1801. It, is
chielly celebrateil for its lead mines, formerly ihe
]ir()perty of the earls of Dcr^ver'.twater, and now of
Greenwich Hospital.
ALI'UJO, a town of Spain, in the prov. of Mur-
cia, sit, on a mouiilaui side, m, from the 1,
AI-EITO
bank of the Sangnnern, n brancli of the Segura,
nnd nlxjut 25 m, WSVV. Murcio. Pop. l,02i) in
1857.
ALEN^OX, a town of France, cap, dep, Orno,
in nil extensive plnin of the snnie nnme, on Ihc
Snrthe, nenr the southern boundnry of the d(>|i.,
5(! m, SSE, Cnen, on the railwny from Cnen to
Mans. Pop. 1<),110 in 1801, The town is agree-
ably situated and well built ; streets generally
broad ami well paved ; the walls by which it wiis
formerly surrounded have nenrly disappeared, niid
it has several considerable suburbs. Among tlio
public buildings mny be specilied the cnthedral
church, the town-house embodying two well-pre-
served towers, the only remains of the ancu'iit
castle of the Dukes of Alencon, the courts of jus-
tice, and the com market. It has a commuiinl
college, several hosjjitals, a public library, and an
observatory. Its manufactory of the lace, known
by the name of Point ttAlenfon, cstaldished by
Colbert, still preserves its ancient celebrity, ami it
has in addition manufactures of muslin, of coarse
nnd line line;i. buckrnm, serges, stockings, am!
strnw hnts. There are freestone ounrries in the
neighbourhood ; nnd nt Hnrtz, a little to the \V.
of the town, are found tlic stones called AU'nijdn
diamonds, which when cleaned nnd polished arc
said to be little inferior, in respect of lustre, to ilic
genuine gem. Several fairs arc held in the town.
which is the seat of a considerable commerce.
During the religious wars, Al('n(;oii, which was
generally attached to the Protestant piu-ty, sutFered
severely,
ALEXQUIR, a town of Portugal, prov, Estrc-
madura, 20 m. XNE. Lisbon. Pop. 3,200 in IH.X
It is one of the principal points for the defence of
Lisbon.
ALEPPO, a city in the N. of Syria, cnlled by
the natives Haleb-cs-Shabha (an. Chalybtm and
Beraa); lat, 30° 11' 25" N., long. 37° 10' 15" E.;
70 m. ESE. Iskenderoun, and 120 m. XXE. Da-
mascus. Its present pop. is estimntcd nt about
100,000 ; though from the middle of the 17th to
the beginning of the present century it was va-
riously estimated at from 200,000 to 258,000. Ac-
cording to Russell, it had in 1794, 2.35,000 inliali,
of whom 30,000 were Christians, and 6,000 Jew.*,
the rest being Mohammedans ; but, according to
Volney, the pop. in 1785 did not exceed lOO.dOii,
which we incline to think is the more proljaWc
stntement. Aleppo occupies nn elevation in tlic
middle of an open plain ; and is surrounded by
walls 30 ft. high nnd 20 broad; supposed, frcnii
the massive style of their architecture, to be Sarii-
cenic. The city, within the walls, is about 3J ni,
in circ, but including its suburbs, it occupies a
circuit of more than (louble that extent. Houses
of freestone : they are said to be elegant and du-
rable, and those belonging to tlie better classes
exhibit an elaborate degree of ornnment in tlieir
lofty ceilings decorated with arabesques, and tiieir
large windows of painted glass. Roofs Hat, as in
most Eastern towns : during the summer muntlis.
the inliabitants pass their nights upon them, un-
protected by tents or awnings of any kind. These
tlat roofs form also a continuous i ice, u]iiiii
which it is ea.sy, by climbing over tlu jow parti-
tion will)", to pass from one end of the town to
another. Streets broad, well paved, and clean—
remarkable qualities in the E. : the latter may
perhaps lie owing, in ]iart, to the drainage, occa-
sioned by the slight elevation of the town and
neighbourhood above the surrounding plain. The
seraglio, or palace of the pasha, which used to !«
admired for its magniticence, was destroyed in
1810-20 during the siege of the town by Khour-
chid Ahmed Pacha, Mosques numerous, but nearly
i
ALEPPO
01
nil linve hcon injtirod, jind many of them arc in
ruiii^i 'f'"" •'"' <'"'*'«•''" "'f 'Ix! i'artli(|iuiki'« wliich
Imvc !<ii "I'toii nlmkcn tluH part of Syria; the Dja-
niic' Zacliaric, and ICl-Halawc are, however, line
remnants of the ancient Kt)inan style ; thev were
(iri"iiially CliriHtian cdillces, the latter built, it in
.•ini"!, hv the FCinpress Helena. There are ten or
twelve' Christian churches, tlirec Christian con-
vents, and several wakfs, the conventual establish-
iiiciiU of the MohanimedanH. An ancient aquc-
iliiit conveys a jdentiful pupply of ^""d water
I'riiin two stIrinKS. Thin work is an object of much
eiire ; and it is sin^rular tliat, l)eing certainly con-
■itriii'ti'd before the time of Constantine, it should
liiivo remained uninjured amid the frequent con-
viiMoiis to which the town has been subject.
Within the walls of the city is a castle, partly in
niiiw, biiill upon an artificial mound, of considcr-
jilile lu'i^;ht, and 4 m. in circumference; this is
mirrmmded by a broad and deep, l)ut dry ditch,
crushed by a "bridge of 7 arches. From this spot
is fiinimaiided a very extensive view, bounded N.
bv the snowy to))s of the Taurus, W. by the ele-
vated rocky bed of the Aaszy ; while to the S.
mill F" the eye reaches over the desert as far as
the Ku|)hrates. Here are several large khans,
iiriiicipally occupied by Frank and otiicr foreij^n
merchants. These are handsome and convenient
iiiiildiiigs, containing counting-houses and store-
riioms raTiged round an interior court, in which
arc stands for loading and unloading the beasts of
himlen, and a fountain to sujiply tlictii wifli water.
At |iresent, liowever, Aleppo can be regarded as
little more than the shadow of its former self.
Sliffht eartluiuakcs are frequent in its neighboiir-
htidd, but in 1822 a tremendous shock overturned
most of the public buildings, and reduced the
j;reater part of the city to a heaj) of ruins. This
calamity has occasioned the erection of a new sub-
iirl), materially altering the a])pearance, and injuring
the beauty of the town. The houses in this sub-
urb, intended at flrst for the temporary shelter of
the ])o])ulation that had escaped from the town,
were hastily constructed of wood, lath, and plas-
ter ; but from want, either of funds to repair their
,i(ire substantial dwellings, or of energy to set
? Miut the work, or probably from a fear of return-
in;; into the city, these hastily constructed edifices
have become permanent residences, while many,
perhaps the greater number, of the large and con-
venient stone buildings in the city are either in
ruins or tenantless.
Although upon the borders of the desert, Aleppo
is advantageously and agreeably situated. A
small stream, called the Koeik (an. Chains), wate/s
the \V. side of the town. This brook, which is
about the size of the New Kiver, and never dry,
swells in the rainy season to a formidable and
rapid current : it rises at the foot of Mount Tau-
rus, about 70 m. N., and after a course of 80 or 90
m. liises itself in a large morass full of wild boars
and pelicans. The upper coiuse of the Koeik lies
between naked rocks, but near Aleppo and S. of
that town, it flows through an extremely fertile
valley, in a high state of cidtivation. This river
anil the aqueduct before mentioned furnish an
alinndaiit and unfailing supjily of water ; and
besides the piddic fountains and baths, every pri-
vate individual, who chooses to be at the ex|iense
(if pipes, may have his house served with water in
tlie European fashion.
The far fameil t/ardens of Aleppo are situated to
the SK. of the city, upon the banks of a small
rivulet, one of the very few affluents of the Koeik.
They are rather orchards than gardens, consisting
<if fruit trees, with vegetables growing between
iheni, but scarcely any flowers. They arc pleasant
spots, from the luxurianoo of their productions,
and the nightingales that resort to their sliailes;
but very little taste is exhibited in their arrange-
nuMits. W. of the town the banks of the river
are covered with vines, olives, anil tig-trees, ami
towards the K. are some plantations of ]iistiU'bio
trees, which, though still extensive, are only the
remains of much trore majestic groves, for which
this coimtry was formerly famous.
The air of Aleppo is dry aiul piercing, but ac-
counted salubrious both to natives and strangers ;
th(» former, however, are subject to a jteciiliar dis-
ease, said to attack them once, at least, in their
lives, the habal'es-sine; 'ulcer,' or ' ring>vorm of
Aleppo.' It is, at first, an intlanmiation of the
skin, subsequently becomes an ulcer, continues for
a year, and generally leaves a scar for life. It
usually fixes in the face, and an Aleppine is known
all over the E. by the mark left by this disorder,
the cause of which is unknown, but suspected to
be owing to some qmdity of the water.
Alep|)o ap|M'ars to have risen to in")ortance on
the destruction of Palmyra. Like the latter, it
was a convenient emporium for the trade between
Europe and the East, so long as it was carried on
over laiul. The |)rodu<-tions of Persia and India
came to it in caravans from IJagdail and Uiissora
to be shipped at Iskeiuleroun aiul Latakia for the
different ports of luirope. Ale|)po comnnuiicated
also with Arabia and I'.gypt, by way of Damascus;
with Asia Minor, by Tarsus; and with Armenia,
by Diarbekir. It rose to gr(;il wealth and conse-
quence imder the Greek sovereigns of Syria, and
into still greater luuler the early Hoinan emperors.
In (138 A. 1)., it resisted the amis of the Arabs for
several months ; but being liiially taken, it liecame
of as much importance under the Sanu'ens, as it.
had befori, been uiuler the b'onians or (ireeks. In
the 'iiith century it was reunited to the empires
of Constantinople, by the arms of /iinisc<'s; but.
it soon after fel! into the hands of the Seljiikian
Turks, under whose sway it remained during the
time of the Cni.sades. It suffered considerably
during the imii)tions of the Moiig(ds, in the thir-
teenth century, and again, by the wars of Tamer-
lane, or Timur I5ec, in the lifteeiitli. Selim I.
annexed it, in lolO, to the Turkish empire, of
which it continued a part till I8;i2, when it opened
its gates to Ibr.'iliim I'aeha, without a siniiinons.
Its political revolutions, with the excejition of its
two captures by the Tartars, affected its prosjierity
only temporarily and in a slight degree ; but the
discovery of a passage to India by the Cajte of
(Jood Hope struck a iloadly blow at its greatness.
Since that event it has continued to decline, and
the earthquake of 1822, together with the wars
which have distracted Syria, by causing extensive
emigrations, have reduced it to comparative in-
significance. Its capabilities are, however, very
great, and under judicious treatment it is more
than probable it would speedily regain a consider-
able .share of its former prosperity. It is the mo.st
convenient centre for the trade between Persia and
the interior of Arabia, on the one hand, and Asia
Minor and Armenia on the other: it is, beyond all
com])arison, the cleanest and most agreeable town
in Syria; and still, even amid its ruins, better built,
than almost any other lietween the IJlack Sea and
the Euphrates ; its inhabitants, a great proportion
of whom are sheriffs (descendants of the Prophet),
are the mildest and most tolerant among tlu! pro-
fessors of Mohammedanism. Tlie.se cireumstancjes
have made it the resort of strangers, and they are
not likel}',m peaceable times, to have less uifluence
in future.
Alejjpo formerly po.ssesscd several manufactures,
and before the eartluiuake, it was said to contain
tell
'•'"'At*
M
ff2
ALESSANDRIA
m\ :J:.
Max
12,000 nrti/niiH, cliictly wcnvorH of ^old nnd Hilvar
Iiicc, nilk luiil ('iitli)ii ^'ihhIh, anil siniwls. TIicno
M'orkH an; now laiipiisliin^^s Ixit tlit-y Hiill v\int,
and, with tho pi.stai'liio nuts, furni tlie cliicl' part
(if its rcinainin;^ tradf. Its ini|Hirls are pmts" liair,
friini Asia Minor; pill mils, from Kurdistan : and
Indian jjoods, such as shawls and muslins. From
luiropt!, it receives cotton stntt's, cloth, suf,'ar, dye
ntulTs, &c. ; VV, I. cdtlcc, thon|;h a iirohihitcd arli-
v\v, is also introduced, and is cheaper than that of
]M<H'ha. Within the last few years Alep])o and
the surrounding; district Imve sluired in the ])ros-
)«'rity which the wide-8])read demand for cotton,
(consequent on the stojipanc of su])plic8 from the
United States by the f^rcat civil war, produced
in many ditferent countries of tho, world. The
demand for native manufacturer, csiiecially for
the supply of the Kfi^j'ptian markets, also increased,
(iieport on the Trade of Aleppo; Consular Reports
Jan. to .lime 18(il.)
AI-KSSANDUIA, or ALKXANDIJIA, an im-
)>ortant town and fortress of North Italy, jirov. of
ilu! same name, in a marshy country on the Tanaro,
near where it is joined by the Uormida, 47 m.
ICSl'-. Turin, and iW m. Ni'IN. Genoa. Pop. 5(),.'j4,5
in 18(Jl. The town lias a very strong citadel,
and was surrounded by Napoleon with extensive
fortifications, demolished at his downfall. Of late
vears, however, it ha-s risen aj^ain into importance,
'riierc arc extensive barracks and armouries, and,
next to Verona, Alessandria is now the strongest
place in Italy. It is the centre of live lines of
railways, spreading in as many ditl'erent directions.
'I"h(! town IS well built ; has a cathedral, numerous
churches, palaces, and hospitals; a handsome town-
liouse, with a gymnasium, theatre, pid)lic library,
and large barracks. It has manufactures of silk,
cloth, and linen, and some trade. The latter is
promoted by its two fairs, held the one at the end
of A])ril, and the other on the Ist of October; they
are both well attended, not only by Italians, but
also by FreiKsh and Swss merchants. Alessandria
was founded in the twelfth century, and has fre-
(piently been taken and retaken. It has always
been reckoned one of the bulwarks of Italy on the
side of France. The village and battle-lield of
Marengo He a little to the E. of the town.
ALKUTAN,or ALKUTIAN, ISLANDS, a chain
of islands in the N. Pacific ocean, stretching from
the ]ieninsula of Kamtschatka, in Asia, to Capo
Alaska, in N. America. They are very numercus,
occupying a circular arc, cxteniling from 105" to
;l!tr)° E. long., whose chord is in 55° N. lat., and
above (iOO m. in length. Apparently, this insular
chain consists of the summits of a range of sulj-
marine mountains. In 1795, a volcanic inland rose
I'rom the sea, in the middle of the line, which, in
1807, was found to be enlarged to about 20 m. in
circuit, and lava was then flowing down its sides.
There are always amongst them several volcanoes
in activity, and some, kno'wn to have emitted
flames, arc now quiescent. Earthquakes arc com-
mon, and sometimes so violent as to throw down
the huts of the inhabitants. IJehring's Island,
Attoo, and Oonulashka, an; the largest, the first
being 10-1 m. in length, but many are only incon-
8idc'rai)le rocks. Tl'.cy are intersected by chiinnels,
various alike in width, and in the safety oi" navi-
gation. All exhibit a barren aspect; high and
coiiii-al mountains, covered with snow during a
great portion of the year, being the most promi-
nent features. Vegetation scanty ; there arc no
trees nor any jilants surpassing the dimensions of
low shrubs .uid bushes. IJuL abundance of fine
grass is produced in the more shelti-red valleys, and
ditt'cront roots, either indigenous or introduced re-
cently. The seas abound iii lish, ami the feuthcretl
ALEXANDRIA
tribes nro numerous. The himting tho sea ottor.
whos(c skin affords a fur of the finest (piality, wum
formerly carried on to a great extent; fh"y wen-
wiint to be caught in thousands; but their iiuJiH-
criminate destruction has greatly reduced tlie
ninnbir of those now taken. The seal is partiiu-
larly valuable, affording tho inhabitantit a constant
supply both of food and clothing; the thin nicin-
brane of the entrails is also converted into a sul)-
stitute for glass. Foxes are the principal quadni-
l)eds. The natives are of middle size, of a dark limwii
com])lexion, resembling an intermediate rai-e 1k'-
twcen the Mongol Tartars and North Americans.
Their features, which are strongly mark<'d, have an
agreeable .vnd benevolent cx|)re8sion. Hair stmn;;
and wiry ; beord scanty ; eyes black. They are not
deficient in capacity, and the different works of I Kith
sexes testify their ingenuity. They are indnlcnt.
peaceable, and extremely hospitable; but stulilMirn
and revengeful. Tattooing, which was conimn::
among the females, is on the donline, but t'lcv ]irnc-
tisc a hideous mode of distiguring themselves, liy
cutting an aperture in the under lip, to which vurioiis
trinkets are suspended. These (Uiforniitics, iiowevtr.
arc less common than when the islands were :li,'^
covered, the more youthful females having learned
that they arc no recommendation in the eyes of
their liiissian \i8itors. A men takes as many wives
as he can maintain ; they are obtained by purclia.ic,
and may be returned to their relations; or tlie
same woman may have two husbands at once ; and
it Is not uncommon for men to exchange their
wives with each other. Their subsistence is prin-
cipally obtained by fishing and hunting. Their
dwellings are spacious excavations in the earth,
roofed over ■with turf, as many jis 50 or even laii
individuals sometimes residing in the different
divisions. Only a few of the islands are inhal)ited;
but in former times the population is said to liavc
been more considcndilc. Its decrease is ascribed to
the exactions of the Uussian American Comi)in)y,
who have factories in the islands. Its present
amotmt ha.s been variously estimated, at f'r(>in ,i
few hundreds to 10,000. The islands were partially
discovered by Uehring, in 1741.
ALl'LVAXDKKTTA. Sec Iskendeuoon.
ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Ifkendinjijeh), a cele-
brated city and sea-port of Ef^ypt, so called from
Alexander the Great; by whom it was either
founded, or raised from obscurity 332 years n.c,
about 14 m. WSW. of the Canoj)ic, or most \V,
mouth of the Nile, on the ridge of land between
the sea and the Ixjd of the old lake Mareotis. Lat.
of lighthouse SP 11' 31" N., long. 2!)° 51' 30" E.
Its situation was admirably chosen, and docs
honoiurto the discernment of its illustrious founder.
Pre\'iously to the discovery of the route to Iiuliii,
by the Cape of Good Hope, Egypt was the prin-
cipal centre of the commerce between the E. anJ
\V. worlils ; and it so happens that Alexanth-ia is
the only port on its N. coast that has deep water,
and is accessible at all seasons. It has not, it is
true, any natural communication with the Nile,
but this defect was obviated in antiquitv by cutting
a canal from the city to the ri\Tr. Al'ter Alexan-
dria came into the possession of the Saracens, this
canal was nllowed to fall into disrepair; and if was
not to be supposed that any attempt would be
made to reopen it, while Egypt continued suliject
to the Turks and Mamelukes. But Mchemet ^VJi,
the late ruler of Egypt, being anxious to acquires
na\'y, and to revive the commerce of the counlr}-,
early perceived the importance of AlexaiiilTia.
both as a station for his fleet, and a cei;tro o*' com-
merce. In furHierance of his views he gn utly im-
jiroved, beautified, and strengthened thj -nty, and
restored the ancient communication v.ith the Kile
AI.EXANDRIA
68
^ the Roa ottor,
»!Ht (iimlily, was
tent; tlioy wirt
Imt their iiulin-
y lediicctl till'
'. seal in partiiu-
tant« a cdiistaiii
the tliin nioiii-
jrtcil into a m\>-
rincipal qiindni-
;,(ifa<larklir(iwii
nediate rai^e 1*-
ortli Americaiiii,
marked, have an
lon. Hair »tripi\|,'
k. They arc not
cnt works of I Kith
hey arc indolent,
)le; but still ilxiru
ch was coninio;;
:ie, hiltt'.ey i)rac-
n; themselves, l)y
i,towhichvarimis
irniities, nowevir.
ishmds were Us-
es having; leanipil
)n in the eyes of
tes as many wivca
lined by piirchahc,
relations; or the
auds at once ; ami
[) exchange their
iibsistencc is prin-
l hunting. Tlieit
ions in the earth,
ns 50 or even loi)
in the ditTereiit
nds are inhahjtwl;
ion is said to have
reasc is ascribed to
nerican Com)mny,
Inds. Its present
imated, at from a
mds were partially
[KENDEKOOU.
miinjijeh), a cole-
'j>t, so called from
)m it was cither
y 332 years ii.c,
topic, or most W.
J of land between
ikc Mareotis. bat.
fnt,'. 2i)° 51' 30" E.
chosen, and ihiei
illustrious founder,
he route t« India,
lypt was the \iriii-
;tween the E. anJ
that Alexaiub-ia is
it has deep water,
It has not, it is
[m with the Nile.
tiquit V by cuttini;
jr. Al'ter Alexan-
[thc Saracens, this
irepair; andiMvas
tttempt would be
continued suliject
IJut Mehemet^Vll,
Ixious to acquire a
pc of the country,
[e of Alexaiulria,
j1 a centre o*' cora-
ws he gn utly im-
jned til J 'uty, ami
ion vath the Kile
liv inran-* ol tlie Mahmoudieh onnnl from Alex-
(inilria I" l''i>iiah, a distance of •!« ni., opened i:i
IMll). Il '■■' '"' '•*' I'ejfrctted that its (construction is
jn several respects defective; but i( is notwitli-
siandiiif; of ^'reat advantii>;e. Alexandria is built
iiiirilv nil a ]K'ninsula, consistiuf; of the island of
I'haros, so famous in antiquity for the lighthouse
iiriiliaros, whence it has derived its name, and
iiiirtly on the isthmus by which that island is now
eiiiHUM'ted with the mainland. The ])rincipal ]iul)-
lic iiiuliiiufjs, as the palace of the pacha, the
arseiinl. the hospital, ^c, are on the |)eninsula,'and
the town principally on the isthmus. The ancient
eitv wiui situated on the mainland opposite the
iniiileni tovvn ; and the vast extent ol its ruins
wiinld sutlii'ieiitly evince, were there no other cvi-
(Iciiees. its wealth and fO'catnesa.
,v|e\.indria has two porfx. That on the \V.
i-JHe of the lity, called the old port, the EunoMitit
lit' (lie ancients, is the largest and by far the best.
'I'lie eiiiriiiu'c to it is narrow and rather ditlicult ;
tint when in. ships may anchor off the town in
friJiii 'I'l to l'» feet water, and there is good anciior-
ajre ill deeji water all along the shore. The new
harlMiiir, or liiat on the E. side of the town, is
vcr\ inferior, being comparatively litnited, having
a Imil !i:id rocky bottom, and being exposed t(.'
the N. wiiiils,
A dry dock was constructtd in the course of
IKiT. Naval and military bosjiitals have been
established, the fonncr under the direction of an
llnglisli. the latter u' a French (hietor. A ((iiaran-
tiiie lioard exists under i\w direction of tlie con-
sul, :r body, to which the I'acha has coiitided this
iiraiieh oi' service, and connected with which a
large and com;u(dious lazaretto has latidy been
creeled outsidt! the wall.s. V(cs.sels arriving from
aiiv of the infected port.^ nf the Levant, are sid)-
jecied to quarantine, tlie same as in Europe; there
is also a school for the marine, and a board com-
posed of the admirals and higher otlicers of the
tieef, for examining into the merits of candidates,
maintaining the discipline and regulating every
ninrter connected with that branch of service. The
Fj.iich system has been adopted in every dcpart-
nieiit ol the ser\'ice, and to the French tlic Pacha
was chietly indebted for the advances he made.
On the peninsula has been erected the Sr/inna,
(ir range of warehouses for the rcccjition of the
siir|ilus |)rodiice of lig.^•llt, and hither it all conies,
with the exception of tliat exported from Suez
and Cos,seir, for the maintenance of the iirmy and
Hoot in the Kcd Sea. According to tlie late
Pacha's monopolising system, the whole produce
ol'tlic country came into his hands, at prices fixed
hy himself, without the option of resorting to
other markets l)cing allowed to the grower. And
not only did this apjdy to the produce of I'-gyjit,
hilt to that of the adjacent countries, wherever
the Pacha's influence extended, embracung the
fdffee of Mocha, the gums and tlnigs of i\jabia,
[ the tobacco of Syria, elephants' teeth, feathers
from the interior, &c., all of which were purchased
for him in the first instance, the prohil)ition of
trading in their, applying to every one, and carrv'-
inj- with it the risk of confiscation, if contra-
vened; — the whole of this produce, native a" well
as exotic, being collected in Alex-^ndria was sold
i)y public auction, in the same way exactlj' as
auctions are conducted in Europe, the iqiset price
Iwing tixed according to the latest rc])ort of the
markets, the merchant having the privilege of
examining the article in the schuna before the
sale, and being required to pay in cash the pri'jc
at which it was knojked down to him within a
limited number of days when delivery took ]dace.
The iiriiicipal articles'thHSi!ispo.sed of were cotton,
which was hy far the largest, rice, opium, indigo,
gni.is, cotVee, senna, lienip, linseed, and tin* co-
tiifstihili of the country, wheal, barley, beans,
lentils, &c. Hut this system is now much modi-
fied. I>uring the ascendency of Mtbemet Ali,
every otln-r branch of industry was sacrificed to
the raising of cotton; but since his demise a more
rational system would appear to be followed,
though the stimulus caused by the failnri! of tin;
cotton supplies from the United" Stat eh again (caused,
in late yer.r.s, the revival of the cotton culture.
The greater part by far of the trade of the jiort is
carried on with England, but she has also a con-
sideralile trade with Marseilles, Trieste, Constanti-
no]de, Leghorn, the Isles of the Archipelago, Ike.
According to the rejiort of the Alexandrian
cnstom-house, it appears that, during the year
!«(U, the total valiic of the exjiorts from Egypt U\
all parts was '2,(i3H,>i22/. ; but a very great incn^a-se
has since taken place. The exjiorts of cotton to
(Jreat Ilrilain alone ainouiited in l«<i2to:!,723,t 10/.;
IH(;3. H,H4\J>'t7l.; and in l«(!l to M,30(),507/. The
imports in lHli2 from (ireat ISritain, of liritisli and
Irish jiroduce and maniifacliin^s, amounted to
2.tO.">.!)H2/. ; in \XiV.i to 'l,.lHi,210/., and in ivtil to
0.070,221/. England of (onrsc had by far the
lar.:;est share of lioth the imitort and exjtort trade.
The (jutintitii's of cotton exported to (Jreat [Iritain
were, in 1H(;2, .')20,«1)V cwts.'; 1K().% «:i.",.2M!t cwts.;
and IKOI, 1,120,17!) cwts., .so that the increa.se in
value has been much greater than in quantity.
Tlie exjiorts from Egypt of other arliid'es in
which tbere has been less variation were, in IWil,
Valuo
Voluo
Wool .
,
. .€L'S,3I7
Onms ,
. £!»l,:)sO
Beans
.
. 207,:!IH
Ivorv
;iK,!M).'i
Wheat
,
. 37(1,721
Hico .
. 1'J.'.,S!I4
Barley
,
fifi.llO
Cotton seed
. 45,;!:i(!
Indian
com
. 45,.'i74
The imports from (Jreat Britain in 1864 included
cotton manufactures of the value of 2,4!t2,l)02/. sig.,
the amount in l«r)3 having been 1,810,130/. The
Iirincipal other im])ort.s from (Jreat Itritain were
machinery, in-":, w<)(d!cn and silk goods, hardware,
timlter, drug... and other cidonial ])roducts, anil
coals, besides the quantities imported for the use
of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company
and of the l''ii.st India Company's steamers at
Suez.
There is no doubt that the population has trebled
or quadriqiled since the opening of the Mahmou-
dieh canal, and it is (•till on the increa.se. It might
amount in all, in 1K03, ti; 150,000, including troops
and arlizans in the arsenal. A good del of thi.<
incrciise has taken place at the exjiensc of Kosetta,
which has latterly very much declined. The po-
pulation of Alexandria is of a mixed character,
consisting, besides the native Turks and Arabs, of
Amienians, (ireeks, Smyniiotes, Syrians, Moghre-
biiis, or men from the Barbnry states, Maltese,
Jews, and Euro])e;ins of almost every nation, in
PMcb. numbers, that it may be questioned, whether
the strangers, in a commotion, W(udd not be more
than a match for the natives. The English have
numerous commercial houses; as have also the
French, Italians, and (Jrecks. Amateur P'reiujh
and Italian theatres exist, the iicrt'orinanccs iu
which rival those of the Acadi'inie Koyale and
San Carlos ; balls and routes are givtci) in the most
ajiproved style of fa.shion; a commercial journal
has been establisiied in the Italian language, which
however doe3 not treat of pcditics; Freni b mo-
distes, tradcrsmep in all de)iartincnts, and shops
tlLSjilaying every article of funiiture, and of male
and female attire, from the Parisian I)oir.ict of t'.e
latest fashion to the very humldest article of dress,
all conspire, in conjunction with the style of the
4'1
64
ALEXANDRIA
IK ■'^■
:^^^ , I
iiiiildinf^, nnd pretty cqiml bnlnncc of liat niul
tiirlian, to tukn iiwuy froin iIiih pliicu tlio u|)]K>iir-
niic<i of iin Oricniiil city; and it \h imly after
leaving if, ami iiiirHiiiiif; )iis way to Cairo, that
the NiraiiKer Irtiiy I'ccIh tliat liu in in the KaHt.
Here also exixt Cathohe and (ireek eonveiilM,
where divine Herviee in iH^rforined on SundayH and
liolydavs to tlie people of thoHe perNiiUHionH : the
AnnenuniH, Syrian (.'hri.Mtiunx, and JewH have also
plaeeH of won<liip, I'rotestunts alone licinft without
a temple. There is little intereourxe hetwcen the
iiiitive.s and FrankH, cxeept in the way of huHiiicHtt.
They oeeiipy dixtinet (puirterH of the city, the
former Hceludin^ their fumiliefl, and maintuiniii;;
all the reHcrvc of Oriental life, the siesta, pipe, uiul
cotlee filling up three-fourths of their time; the
latter adhering to the customs of their own coun-
try, in tlress, furniture, the use of carrift^es nnd
horses, and indeed in all thin^rH hut the siesta, the
]iipc, and immuring themselves during the heat
of the day, wherein they imitate the Orientals.
Latterly also, after the example of some of the
hi;r|ier Turks, several of the richer Frank mer-
chants have ohtained grants of land from the
I'acha, on the hanks of the canal, nnd built houses
and made gardens, which serve tu beautify niul
give interest to tiie neighbourhood.
The Turkish quarter of the city consists of a
mnnber of narrow, irrej^ular, tortuous, filthy
nnd ill built streets and ba/.aars, with h.irdly any
};ood houses but those of the Pacini's olliuers, and
without a siuf^le pid)Hc huildiiifr, mosque, or other
object worthy the least attention, the bu/aurs beinf{
mean, and hut very ii.ditt'erently provided. The
Frank quarter, on the otlier hard, jjrcsents several
streets of well built substantial houses, with pxMl
ohops ; in particular the square, which is the resi-
dence of the consuls and principal merchants,
called the I'iazza (irande, that may well bear
comparison, for the size nnd stylo of its buildings,
with some of the best streets of I'aris or London,
llirnhim Pacha owned the preater part of these
houses, which he built on speculation, and for
which he drew rents, varying from 200/. to 240/. per
annum. The whole town is built of stone and brick,
dug up from the foundations nf the ancient city.
During ])art of the year Alexandria is supplied
with water from the canal ; and during the otlier
]iortion, from the cisterns of the ancient city (the
only portion of its public works that has been
s)iarcd), which, at the ptricil of the inundation,
when the canal is full, arc thence tilled, and to
which recourse is only bad, when the water of the
canal, by being stagnant, becomes untit for use.
As the inundation advances, the old stagnant
water is run otf into the sea, and the canal being
tilled brim full with fresh, is shut u]) at both ends,
and so remains till the following year, serving in
the meantime for navigation, for "the use of man
and beast, and for the irrigation of those small
portions of land on its banks, that have been re-
claimed from the desert, and brought into culti-
vation. The climate of Alexandria is considered
vcrj' salubrious, the heats of summer, which rarely
e:ccecd 85" Fuhr,, being tcm|)ered by the Etesian,
or NVV. winds, which prevail for nine months of
the year. In winter, a good deal of rain falls,
which, however, is confined to the const, and is
probably the cause, coiii)lod with the wretclied
habitations and miscrj- of tlie poorer classes, why
the plague so often makes its a])])earance here,
\Vere the labouring classes better clad, housed,
and fed, there is little doubt that this scowge
would soon be no longer heard of.
The municipal government of the city is en-
trusted to the governor, who has inider him a
oomiuandant de place, and uu uiiiuer, called the
Ilnshagn, or chief police magistrate, wIiorc duty it
is to see that onh'r and quiet are maintained, I'lio
city is besides divich-d into (piarters, over ('acli of
which a sheikh presides, who is res|Minsible to iIh.
governor for the peace of his district: and ninrc.
over, each trade and profession has its shiekli,
whose duty it is to collect the taxes, and to sec in
the g(MMl behaviour of the members. Guard-houses
are also distributed all over the city, and the niilj.
Inry are instructed to take all riotous and disor-
derly jwrties into custody, the oflicer of tlu! giiiinl,
if the ottender be m native, having authority to
inflict summary |iimishrnent by the bastinaiht ;' Imu
if n Frank, he must send him to his own ('onsiij.
to bo punished according to the laws of his own
country. The system works so well, that a nmri'
orderly place, or one freer from riot or criine,'i:i
rarely to be seen ; ind(>ed, when crime is ccitn-
mitted, it is usually by F'rank u|m)II Frank ; imil
then, from defects in the consular system, it ahiinst
always escapes detection. Uesides the liasha;;ii,
or pidice court, there is the Meh-kemeh, or Kinti'j
court, where all civi' (juestions l)etweeu natives
arc (ietcmiined; and u commercial court, with
F' rank judges, but presided over by a Turk, forik'-
ciding questions between the F'raiiks and natives,
where the latter are defendants: the F' ranks
themselves, besides exemption from all taxes anil
burdens of every sort, being amenable only when
defendants to their own consular courts, anil tu
the laws of their resjiective countries. 'I'liesc
immunities have been secured to the F'raiiks Ijy
convention with the I'orte, and are rigidly iii-
sisted u|H)n here as well as in every other part of
the Turkish empire.
Alexnndria, as everj' one knows, has recentl;-
acquired an unusual degree of impo»tnnc<! fim
her having become the central and principal sta-
tion in the overland route to India. Her jwirt is
now regularly and frequently visited by steanicn
from F^iigland, Marseilles, and other places. Her |
hotels and streets arc crowdetl with passt-n^'ers
going to or returning from India, C'eyl<i<ii, tlie
ICastem Archijielago, Australia, &c. She hn.*. in
consequence, become the centre of a considentUi'
transit trade ; and the influx of so many vi^rdrs
has not only add<'i greatly to her wealth, liu; i;
has, at the same time, given a powerful stimiiius |
to industry and civilisation in all parts of K^'\|it,
Alexandria is now connected by railwnv witli
Suez and the sea-bathing village of Kamleli, 7 in. |
distant, as well as with Cairo, 130 m. distani,
The shortest sea-route, from Southampton to I
Alexandria, is 2,0U0 m., the average time by steam |
11 days.
History. — The Ptolemies, to whom Egj'pt
on the demise of Alexander the Great, made I
Alexandria the metropolis of their empire ; anu ii
became, under their liberal and enlightened j;i>-
vernment, one of the greatest and most tlourisliini; [
cities of antiquity. VVhen it was annexed
Augustus to the empire of Home, it 's said to have I
occupied a circumference of 15 miles, aiul to hiive |
had i500,000 free inhabitants, besidf s sla>'e>', ivli
were probably quite as numerous. It was rfiju- 1
larly and magniticently built ; an', was travcr*! I
by two great streets, each m.' c tiian I (Id tki |
across, and the large extendin,r more than 1 ni.
from E. to \V. Under the Ptolv.iiies and the I
1-i'omans, Alexandria was the entrejjot of the prin-
cipal trade of aiiti(|uity, being the market wlitrp
the silks, spices, ivory, slaves, and other prodiici* I
of India, Arabia, and Kthiopia, and the corn of I
I'2gypt, were exchanged for the gidd, silver, and [
other jn'oduL'ts of the W, world. The inhnliitanu
were distinguished by their industry; either *x I
and every age were engaged in laborious occiipa-
ALEXANI RIA
(ioiiK, and even tlut Iiinio uin li>c l)linil hnl ^m-
iiIdViiiciilH .siiilcil to their (■oiiit°<iiiii. ^-.loiiu; the
irji'icipjil iimiuil'ncturi'H wen- tlitwc oi ^jWi-hm, liiicn,
;iiiil |)a|iyrii>*, Ihu |iii|H<r of aiilii|iiity, I'liilt'r the
KiJiiiim iinporiirs, I'^K.viit hiciniu! n j)riiici|)al Km-
iiiirv for the su|i|ily nl Ititly; and itH ]Ml.■tt*(^s^4U)ll
WIU4 roi'kiiiiud of Iht! iitiiiDst iiii|iort)iii('(>, and
walilH'd oviT with |K'ciiliar care. Variims jirivi-
Icp'^ mid iintniinitii's were! roiircrri'd n|Hin Alcx-
niiilriii; many ol" her inhaliilanls were luhuittiMl
III till' ri^'lits of Itninan citi/.i'ns, and hur 'weahh
iiiiii |iri>.s|ii'rity cdiitinncd inidiininishcd.
Itiii Ah'xandria was still inon^ dislin;;uis)i(>d l>y
liiT ('niiiu'M(-(^ in litiTatnrc and pliilosopliy tlian by
licrciimiiicri'i! and riches. The fonndalion of licr
iiri'-cniiiieniH! in tliis respect was laid hy the
I'liilcniies, wlio foinidod the ninseuin and library
(• tlnjitnliic n'ljum riiru'iiue eyrei/ium n/iits,' Livy),
iliiil'artenvards lH'<'aniesofani<ins,at tlie same time
lluil liiey K'lvc (lie most nnniilicent encouroRe-
iiHMit to lileritnn!' and learned men. This pa-
iriiiiiine lieinj; eontiinied by the em|KTors, Alex-
aiiilria was, for several centiiries, a distinguished
seal (if science, literal ur(' and |)hiloHopliy. (Gene-
rally, however, her literati were more distin-
I'lii'-licd for learning and reseandi than for original
};ciiiiis. She produeiid a host of gramnnirians and
critics; and the names oi' Knclid, Apollonins of
IVrfja, I'tolemy, Kratosihen.'s, Nieomachus, Hero-
iiliiliis, Zdpynis, Ae., are b,it a few of those most
disiiiigiiislicd in the schools of getimetry, astro-
iiiiniy, gcograjihy and medicine, that Hourished in
Alexandria. Ihit her jihihisophy was the most
iilrikiiig feature of Alexandria, in a literary point
111' view. The iidlnx of <loctrines from the K. and
\V. schools jirodneed a siiignlar''oiilliet of systems;
wliich ended in an attempt of the philosophers
A'liiniinius, I'lotiiuis, and Porphyry, to establish
(111 eclectic or universal system by selecting and
MciuJiiig doctrines taken from the )irinci|>ul exist-
ing' s;-stems, |)articnliirly froin those of I'ytha-
(.'iiriis ir.id I'lato. Christianity was not cxempte<l
Ircmi the iiilliiencc of this spirit; and on its intro-
duction, it was strangely alloyed with Platonism ;
anil |irin''iples for expounding of its doctrines
were lai'i down that would now be with ditliculty
admitted.
The schools of geomefrv', astronomy, physic,
and other branches of science, maintained their
ri'|iiitatiiin till A.i>. (i-lO, when, after a siege of
II mtiiiths, Alexandria was taken by Amrou,
fli'iicnil of the caliph Omar. The conquerors
wre astiinishcd by the greatness of the prize;
iiiid Amrim, in acquainting the caliph with its
[ caiuiirc, said, ' We have taken the great city of
I tiif West. It is impossible for me to enumerate
I ilie variety of its riches and beauty ; and 1 shall
ciijitciit myself with observing, that it contains
1 4,11(1(1 iialaces, 4,(UI0 baths, -100 theatres or places
(if ainusement, 12,000 shops for the sale of vege-
I lalilo fiioil, iuid 40,000 tributary Jews. The to\ra
lias been subdued by force of aims, without treaty
lor capitiilntion.'
It was on this occasion that the famous library
|i. said to have been destroj-ed, conformably to
lie fanatical decision of the caliiih, that 'if the
|\vritiiigs of the 'ilroeks iigreed with the book tif
Idiiil, they were iiseless, and need not be prc-
iMrvi'd; if they disagreed, they w>re pernicious
|.nnil might to be destroyed.' This biirbarous judg-
jmi'iit lieiiig carried into effect, the books and
Iniamiscripts were distributed among the 'tjOOU
tliatli!) belonging to tlie city ; and so prodigious
iwas their number, that six months are said to
lliavi' been required for their cvmsumjition. Such
lis llic' tale that has so often excited the iiidigna-
liii'ii and H'gret of scholars and the admir(.rs of
Vol. I.
ALOARINEJO 65
ancient gonins, Hnt Uil.oon has shown that it
has no goiHl foundation: it rests on tlu; solitary
Htateinent of Abnipharagins, who wrote six cen-
turies after the event, and is not noticed by
those more ancient aniialists, who liave tiarlicii-
hirly described the siege and capture of Ilie cily.
It is, besides, repugnant to the character of the
caliph and his general, and to the policy of Iho
Mohammedans, Kven if it did lutcur, the loss bait
been nnich exaggerated, tireat part of the library
of the I'lolemies was accidentally consnined by
the tire which look place during the attack on thu
city by (liesar; and either the whole, or the prin-
cipal part of the library subsequently coUci^leil
was destroyed A, I), .'tM',), when the tenq'de of Sera-
pis, the most magnilicent structure of the cily,
was demolished by the enthusiustic zeal of Ilie
Christians.
Alexiuidria contimiod progressively to dediiu!
till, in l't!>7, its ruin was consunnnaled by the dis-
covery of the piissiigi' to India by the (.'ajie of
(iood llo|ie, Kut there can be no doniil, Uft pre-
viously slated, that it is destined to recover ii
large portion of its ambient importance, it liii'<
necessarily iK^come the centre of the (MUnmiuii-
cations carrieil on by uteain between Europe and
India.
The cisterns which, ns already seen, nro still in
pretty good |)reservation, are the principal monu-
ments of the inicient city that have outlived lli<!
injuries of time, and the ravages of barbarians.
Tlie catacombs are also comparatively enlire.
The magnilicent column, improperly called I'om-
pey's I'illar, seems to have been erected in the
reign of Diocletian : its shaft consists of a shigle
block of granite, (W feet in height. Two obelisks,
vulgarly called Cleopatra's Needles, of which only
one is erect, are said to ha\'u formed thu cntruncu
to the palice of the Ciesars.
Ai-i';xAN'i>uiA, a city and port of entry of the
Unitetl States, (list. Columbia, on the W. bank of
the Totomac, (> m. S. VVashington. I.at. 3»° ID'
N., hmg. 77° 18' W. l'oi>. 12,(;.J2 in 1«G0. It is
well built, the streets crossing each other, at right
angles, and it has commodious harbour with deep
water, the largest ships coming close to the
wharfs. Hallways c(jiinect the city with New
York, Uoston, and all the important towns of the
United States.
ALEXiVNDKOVSK, a town of Russia in En-
rope, gov. Ekaterinoslalf, caj). district on the
Onieper at the bottom of the cataracts, 140 ni.
N.E. Cherson. Pop. 4,217 in IMoH. It is forti-
fied; and ilisplays considerable activity fnmi its
being the place where merchandise conveyed
from Ekatennoslaff by waggon, to avoid the cata-
racts in the river, is again sliip]icd.
ALFAUO, a town of Sjiaiii, jirov. Soria, on the
banks of the Alama, close to its junction with the
Ebro, 12 m. W. by S'. Tudela. I'liere is a military
nwid between this pluce and Logrono. Pop. 5,043
in !.s,J7.
.\LFKLD, a town of Iliuiovor, prov. Ililde-
slieini, ut the contiux of tiicLeinc and \Varue,
and at the railway from llildesheim to (iottiugen.
Pop. 2,700 hi IMIil. The to»vn has paper and oil
mills. Flax and hops ui coiisiderable qiiantiiies
are grown in the neighbourhood.
ALFRKTOX, a |iar. and m. town of I'^nglan.i,
CO. Derby, bund. Scarsdale, 10 m. NNK. Derby.
Pop. of town 4,0!)(l, iiud of parish ll,r)4'J in l-SOl.
The inhabiliiiits of the town are principally em-
ployed in the manufacture of sto(;kings and
earthenware, and in the adjoining collieries.
ALGAKl N KJO, a town of Spain, prov. ( iranada,
close to th(> froniiers of t^irdoba. near the right
bank of the Uenil, in acounirv whose abundant and
F
'^k
60
ALG.UirOIlO
IMP
'*jri
i i»iii I
,,. », .
CirtiliKitiR BtronmH ('(ill into llmf rivor. PnntiirnRP
anil lilliiKO fiinn I lie rhirf biiniiiCNH of tliu [lopiila-
tidii. I'op. .|,;W.'» ill IHr.7.
AL(fAI{l«)IIO, n tfiwii (if Spnin. jirov. (Iriinndn,
*J III. rmm the Med. Sen, in Hie niiilHl of a cuiiiiiry
partii-tilarly rirli in Icinunii, orantxcN, fi^!*, ami
oilier t'niilH iN'liiM^in^ to tlH> huntli of Sjiaiii.
I(>i m. K. Malapi, uud 'M in. SSVV. (iranaila.
I'oit. 2.1t.>» in \Hi,7,
AIMM
kkVK, tlio mcmt 8, pniv. of Porliij^al,
wliicli M'c.
A[,<;i;('IKAS, or Al-Iijizirrth, \\\p Cnrtr'ui of
Itonian Kcoj^rapliv, n town of H|iain. prov. Cadi/,,
on till' VV'. nide of tin; May of (iiliriiltur, op|ii)Mitt'
to tli(! celcliratt'd rocU and pciiiiiNiila of that
name, from which it \n distant alioiit 7 in. I>y
water, mid 17 ni. hy liiiid. hat. ;i('p° H' N., lontc.
tfi ill'7"W. I'op. I t,'-'2!» in W,l. The town
liiiH a ^ood liarlioiir and nonie trade in the export
of ('<ial. It waH liiiilt liy the Moors, and taken
fnnii them after a two vears' sie^fe, in I. 'Ml.
AL<;i[r.l!l, or AI.('>nKI!(), a town and sea-
)Kirt of till- island of Sardinia on its W', coast.
If) III. SSW Sassari; lat. -lOo 2;")' .'ill" N.. lonj,'. 8°
l»r 45 " K. Pop. M,ll!t in IHdI. The town is Iniilt
on a low rocky jioint, Jiittiiin out from n sandy
lieacli, ill the Hhajie of a iiarnllelo^rani with sloiit
walls flanked hv Itastioiis and towers: the walls
are iii f^ood re]iair; lint lieiii^r eonimanded liy two
lu^i^hts it coiihl not ojijiose any vipiroiis attack
from the lanil side, lo the S\V. of the town
there is tolerable summer aiudiora^^ in from Kt to
\h fathoms, f;ood holdin^-^oiind. Thoiij^h narrow,
the streets are clean and well paved. It is the
neat of a liishopric, has a cathedral an<l 1 2 churches
and convents, with pulilic schools which carry
their Hcliolars through a course of |>hilosopliy ; and
a Hur^ical institution. It \\nn n, small theatre.
The town was hm^j occupied by the Spaniards,
and their lanpia^c and manners still |irevail. The
country round is well cultivated, ])roduciiiK wine,
liiittcr, and cheese. In addition to those the cx-
]iort8 consist of wool, skins, tobacco, rags, ancho-
vies, coral, and bones,
ALCilKklA, now frc(|iientlv called Alokiua, a
coiintrv of N. Africa, and till recently the most
powerful of the Harbary »tnt«s, comprisiiifr the
Ntimidia Proper of the ancients, or the Numidia
of the Masxyii and the Numidia ^fussdsi/li, after-
wards called Mauritanin Cicmricimig, with c •ine
])ortion of the rcfrion S. of the greater A'.ias an-
•^iently inhabited by the Getuhe and (luramantes.
It has been since 1H30 in possession of the French ;
bill for more than three centuries ])revi(msly it
formed a subordinate part of the Turkish empire,
and was (hiring that jieriod the seat of an exten-
sive system of ))iracy and Christian slavery.
Situatiim, Extent, Bouiidurieg, — Algieria lies be-
tween 2° 1 r VV. and H° 5;{' E, ; itH greatest N. lat.
is 37° !)'. It is bounded N. by the Mediterranean,
\V. by Fez (Morocco), and K. by Tunis; its S.
boundary is doubtful, but it extends beyond the
greater Atlas range to the confines of the desert of
Sahara : it is above 600 m. in length ; its breadth,
which is greater in the K. than in the VV., varies
from about 40 to about 200 m. The iiopulation,
in 18(il, amounted to 2,1)09,124 souls, nainelv,
2,«0(),378 natives; 10,000 negroes; 30,000 Jews;
and 1!)2,74G Europeans, A later estimate (]8()3)
makes the number of Europeans 21.'{,000. Algeria
is divided into three great militarj' jirovinces —
that of Algiers in ^'^c centre, Oran in the west,
and Constantinc in the east. The civil territory
(if each forms a deiiartment, having at their head
ji prefect, and subdivided into sub-prefectures, viz.
in the de[iMrtmeiU of Algiers, Dlidah, Me'de'ah,
Milianuli; in the dopartinent of Cunstuiitiiic,
ALOTKTIIA
Bonn, Philippoville, (iiielma, Si'tif; in that of
Oran, Mostaganein, Mascara, and llemcen. Tln'
ri'inaiiider of the territory is in each iirovii
administered by the military aiithnrity. Thccisil
territorii'N arc generally iinderst I to include imlv
the 7W/,or land N. of the greater Atlas, ex(diiilin|;
the territories of /aab or Wad-reag, S. of that
range.
Miiiintitln.% — Ah'ieria is mostly nioiiiilainoiiK: tjif
little Atlas, which runs along the coast parallel t„
the greater Atlas, varies from .'1,000 to 4,0(mi ft, j,|
height. The abrupt mountains of Titteri. belcn^'-
iiig to the greater Atlas, reach in some poiiitr. in
an elevation of 0.000 ft., and send off three jirin-
ciiial ridges: NVV. towards (!ape Ivv; N. toward..
Algiers; and NK. towai'ds Mugia. \laiiy of ilicc
mountains are remarkable; as VVannaslirees t/n-
IwHii), jirov. Oran, verv lofty, and .lurjura, SK. „|
Algiers, both capped with snow during wii 'cr; ilu'
Titteri Dosh, or rock of Titteri, is also a remark-
able ridge of rugged |irecipiees.
J'/iiIhh, — The principal is that of Metidjah. im-
medialely S. of Algiers, .OO m. by 20 ; fertile, will
watereil.and covered with an abundant vegetalimi.
but in parts marshy and unhealthy. In the \V,
|irov, are several plains, esjiecially thiit thrcnit'li
which tlu' Shellifl'rims; and another .S\V, of Oriiii.
sandv and saltish, dry in summer, but iiiiiiiiiatcil
ill winter. In the S. prov. are the rich ]ilaiiisiif
llamxa, watered by the Nasava. Many liixiiriiini
plains an> found in the E. |irov,, as those of Si'iii.
Majanah, and that skirting most part of the |;,
coast, which is, however, in many ports Dlttr^llv.
(Shaw, iip. 21, ;17, 44, 47, 50, M.)
The Jiivem are se))ar;ite(l liy the greater Alia*
range into those which run N. and S. Of iln^
former, or those which discharge themselves iiiin
the Mediterranean, the principal is the Shidlitf (nii.
Chinahph), which rises S. of the VVonnashrec ,\l.
and afti^r a tortuous course of 20(1 m., during wliiili
it passes through the Titteri (Jawie or lake, falls
into the sea imder Ca(ie Jilibel Iddis, In the rainy
season it overflows its banks, and interriijits tlic
communication between Algiers and Oran. 'I'lii
VVad-el-Kelieer (an. Ainjmigu), which falls iiiio
the sea, N. of Coiistantine, 'in (i° E. hnig., is tin
second in inagiiitude; the others are the Seilnnis
or river of Hoiia, the IJooberac, Yissa, /owah. Wi
y-Zaine, &c. The large rivers, the Adjedi uiid I
Abiad, run SE,, and empty themselves into tiit
i>/(7r//(/_(/ Lake; and sev«Tal rivers of inferinr di-
nieiisions empty tlu^mselves into the Shott. Tho
are two very extensive salt marshes; the liminr I
on the S. the latter on the N. side of the grcaier
Atlas : they (-onsist partly of a light oozy .snii, as
dangerous as quicksands to travellers. The Liki-
are those of Titteri; two near Oran, which dry in I
summer, and from wlii(4i salt is collected; Mniif
salt marshes near Cape JMatifou, and others almi; I
the coast from Uona to the borders of Tiiui.-, f
(Koz(!t, p, 10 ; Shaw, p. .55.)
(Jlimate. — The climate of the Tell, i. o. lietHwn |
lat. .34° and 37°, is generallj- wholesome and tem-
perate. Shaw states that for twelve years duriji,'
his experience it only froze twice at Algiers; yii I
the heat was never oppressive imless duriiij,' S.
winds. The mean temperature of the year at
Algiers is 70° F., in July and August about Ni'
F. ; but ranging occasionally during the ])revak':iif I
of the khamsin, simoom, or hot wind fniiii tif
Sahara, as high as 110°, or even more. Luckily,
however, the latter ticldom or never continues lir I
more than 5 or 6 days at a time, and rarely llC(MI^ I
exce])t in Aiigu-st or September. In winter i
temperature is usually from 55° to ().5° F. Tu I
heiit is mitigated by the N. winds, which wiili liifl
li, prevail dmuity suininer. About the c(lllilHlXl^l
(if Mt'tiil.j(»)i. im-
•>{) ; IVrrili'. Will
uliintvcuclniiuii.
tliy. In tluW,
llv" tl\af llirmiu'li
IktSW. "f'Omii.
■r, liiit iiiiiiiilatcil
lip rich iiliiiiisi.f
Many luxuriiim
an those of Sfiil.
St |mrt of llic K.
,ny liartH nmr>liv.
thr, p-patcr Allai
i. nii'l S. Of 111''
p thiMnsclvcs intii
is the SlicllitV (nii.
(• Wannnslirpf M,.
II m., duriiif,' wliii li
lawle or Inlii-. falls
lilis. In the rainy
md intorruvts ilie
and Oriiii. 'flu
whii^li fulls iniii
K. lon(?., is till
. are the Scilimis.
issii, Zowiih. Willi-
the Ailjedi ami
■mselves intii the
[>rs of iiiferitir (li-
the Shott. 'I'lu'w
.rshes; the fimiiiT I
.lie. of the urcatfi
Ufxht oozy soil. :i* I
.Hers. Tlie laki'
Iran, which dry iii |
collected ; smw
and others almij I
borders of Tiiiii;,|
Tell, i. c. hotwwn |
Kdcsome and tdii-
elvc years duriii;
cc at Algiers; yti
unless duriiif,' N i
a of the year at
A^iiffiist ahout M-
inji the i)revalei«*
it wind from tl'
,1 more. Luckily. I
ever continues li* I
and rarely 'icfui< |
. In winter
lO t,. 1)5° F. 'I'i"
|ls, \vhi('h witliili'l
(Ut the eiiuiiKix^-
ALOIERIA
viiilciil SU'. wlndM occur ; NW. wind* nro pomnion
friiin NiivcMilx'r to Ajiril. at which lime sturiiiM and
slmwcrs (if ruin are iiKwt frci|iiciii ; hut in Niiinnicr
ihiw winds lirinj; dry weather; the M. and S.
»|ii(ls arc also (Iry, and (|iiile iiiihke what llicyan-
ciii ilic (i|i|i(iNilc l''.iirii|iean coasts. 'I'lie liiiroint'tcr
varies only from 'J'.l ami l-lntli lo iln and I-IoiIin
in. 'I'lieri' arr- alnMit All wet days during the year,
i'liii'll\ in Marcli. along the coast and on the lesser
Alias. The (|unntity of rain varies greatly in dif-
r.rciii years; Imt, at Algiers, it may average frmn
■jr 111 ■i'* inches : little falls dnriiig summer. Dews
iiri' aliundant, and the air on the coasi is dam^i.
\r the end of Decemlier th(^ trees luse tlicir
I, lives; I'lit hv the udddle of Kehrinirv vegclaiion
in again in full activitv, and the fruit is rijie in
May. (Sliaw, lip. I.'l.'l-lllli ; I{<izct, i. jip. MO-I l!l;
li'Avizac, art. 'Alger.") Tim atnios|ihere is very
clear and llie ooimtrv healthy, excciiling in the
iii.ir>liv districts. 0(' late years Algeria has come
riiiiili ill vogue as a residence for invalids,
(livltiiji/ mill Miiuraln. — 'riie jirimarv rocks con-
i<i>i in jiiirt of granite, hut chielly o| gneiss and
iiiicaiH'ons s<'hist. Travertine is found on the
I'uast; nearOran a greyish (|narlz, hut novolcainc
rmks; in the interior a lime formation often aller-
iiaics with a schistose marl. The secondary dc;-
iHixits consist in many |ilaces of a lias fonnation
and calcareous strata, containing few organic and
nil vegctahle remains. At Oraii the lime contains
liivalve, hut no univalve shells. The tertiary de-
|iii,<its are mostly <'alcareons, in the Aletidjah of a
vellowish grey colour; sometimes a hlue clay en-
i'liising n mininary gypsum and a little iron, in
(itlicrjiarts sandy and miu-h impregnated with salt.
All llie chain of Atlas has a tertiary clay deposit,
'file W. iiroviiice a)>pears to be the richest iii mi-
nerals, hull is extremely abundant, in springs and
lieds, on both the K. and W. frontiers; near Con-
^lanti^e, the Titteri Dosh mountains, and the Mel-
KJ^'g and Shott marshes. The salt jiits near Ar/.ew
(H't'iipy a space of (im. circ, forming marshes in
winter which dry in snmmei, when large (|uaiili-
ties (if salt are collected. Nitre, though not found
jiiire. is very jilentifnl in the \V. province, (ietn-
lia, ^c. Iron IS most abundant. Co|>|>er is found
ill variinis places; and there are some very rich
liail mines, the ore i>f those of the VVannashrees
I iK'iiig said to yield 80 per cent, of imrt^ metal.
'fliere are also fullers' earth, potters' clay, tab;, i)y-
I riles, A'c. Diamonds (verifying what was reckoned
the a|iocr\-|)hal statement of IMiny, Hist. Nat., lib.
;i7, § 4) liav(^ been found in the sands of the VVad-
el-Kamniel that runs by Constantine, mixed with
Ismail ((uantilies of gold dust, silver, tin, and an-
jliiiKiny. Saline hot and cold springs are e\ceed-
|iiii;ly abundant, more so, in fact, than those of
ll'resli water. The latter, however, are by no means
Iriire, and may every when; be found by digging
llhniiigli a crust of tiaky soft stone lying jit ditVerent
(Icjitlis, but near Algiers ami Itona immediately
IkIow the siul'ace of the ground. (D'Avizac, art.
I'AlKer.')
Veijetatwri in the N. parts of Algieria is nearly
liho same as hi the S. parts of .Spain, Provence,
jltiily, and the rest of the Mediterranean shores.
' iiKiinitains of the little Atlas arc coven'd with
Ithiek forests, in which are found _fivi; different va-
Irictics iif oak, the Ale|)|)o jiine. the wild olive, tlu!
,fhiimnc tree (Hhus ciitiiius), with arbutus, cypress,
Irnyrtles, &c. S. of the greater Atlas are found I be
Idiite-ltearing ])alm, and other trees belonging to a
hviirmor climate. The Algerian Sahara is far from
pieiii},' a |ierfect desert. There arc multitudes of
Kiiises, full of towns and >-iUages, surroundcil by
tilivos, tigs, vines and luilms.
Ammals, — Lions of great size and strength,
67
panthers, liyirnnK, and leopnrdi*, inlmbif llie moun-
iaiuoiis recesses of the greater .\l las, but an- never
seen near Algiers: wild Imars, wolves, and Jackals
are more Cduiiiinn, and I here are n few bears.
Wild cats, monkeys, porcupines, and hedgc-bngs
are more or less abundiini; as well as aulelnpes
and other species of deer, bares, gennels, jerboas,
rals, mice, A-c. 'i'lie uscl'id animals are horses,
asses, black callle, sheep, camels, dromedaries, Ai;
(Isiricbcit are fiiiiud in the desert on the conliiies
of Morocco; iliere arc idso vultures and oilier
large birds of prey; bllierns, curlews, lapwings,
plovers, pigeons, and snipes; with great plenty of
gaim^ and small birds. Sonieseris'iits ol tlu- t'ldii-
ber race are mel wilb; and li/ards, ehamelcons,
and other amphibia. 'I'uiiuy and oilier sea lisli
abound on th<' coasts; barbel, perch, eels, &c„ are
found in the fresh waters, and even in the warm
siiline streams; conger at the monllis of the rivers;
and lidisters and many oilier crnstacea along iIk^
shores. Among the insect tribe are scorpions and
tarantulas. Lix'usts seldom comniil the same
devastations here as in I'lgypl and Syria. Coral,
which is very abundant on the coasis. forms an
important article of produce and indiisiry; it is of
a larger sort, but less vivid in its colour, than lliat
of Sicily. (l!o/.el, vol. i. p. 21H; Shaw, p. I'.L';
Campbell, Letters from the Soulli.)
/'(■o/)/c. — There are nine distinct races of in-
habitant", \iz. : 1st. Herbersor Kabyles, who, how-
ever, call themselves Miiziijli (noble) or Mininj
(free); they conslilute about bidf the entire po-
pulation, and are the lined descend.iiils of the
aboriginal inhabitants of the country. They .'ire.
principally foimd in the mountain dislricis; and
their lands are occitsionally well cnltivaled and
irrigated. 2(1. Itiskeris or Mo/.abs, supposed to be
the descendants of the (ietuke, living principally
S. of th(! greater Atlas, «nd comparatively in-
dustriiMis, ,'td. Moors; a mixed race, (h'scended
from the Mauritanians, Iterbers, Carthaginians,
Homans, Vandals, ami Arabs; they constitute the;
bulk of the ]iopnlalion of the towns and villages.
■Itli. Arabs, consisting of three tribes: the tirst,
sup|iosed to have (U'scended from the ancient.
Amalekit(.^, is nearly extinct; the second (MHisisls
of cultivators of the soil, and is fixed to certain
spots; the third, or wandering .\rabs, are princi-
pall)' herdsmen and sbephents dwelling in tenis,
Titb, Negroes, called Ahijd (slaves) or Somldii
(black); originally brought tliitber from the in-
terior, and sold as slaves. Gth, .lews, who form a
third part of the inhabitants of Algiers, and a
fourth jiarf of those of Oran. 7tli. Turks, now
very few, nor ever very numerous, although long
the dominant race: they were a heterogeneous
body, com|ioscd of genuine Turks, (ireid\s, Cir-
cassians, Albanians. Corsicans, Maltese, and rene-
gades of all nations, mounted, and fonning a
militia similar to the Miuneluke.s. On the con-
(piest of Algieria, in 1h;J(I, by the French, the
'i'nrks being permitted to withdraw, evacuated
the country to the number of about 2().(MH». «th,
Kolouglis, or (lesccndaiits of Turks by Moorish
motluw, their name literally signifying 'sons of
soldiers.' Although jiosscssed of intlnenc<', they
did not formerly enjoy the same rights and con-
sideration as their fatbers. '.Mb, Kuropeans, who .
may ofcmir.se he subdivided into various nations,
but are mostly French. Amongst the Kabyles of
the Aiiress are a tribe distinguislKtl by a fair coin-
jdexioii, blue eyes, and liglii hair, believed lobe
descendants of the \'jtiidiils. Traces of the Huns,
Snevi, and other (iothic nations have been also
found, (For furtlier information res)iectiiig the
different native ..ces, see Akabia, Hajsuaiiv, ani>
MOKOCCO.)
F 2
-v'^
'•' ■ 'if
,if^:.^^:r
^ u
Srrnrrif. — Pntrocdiim from \V. Ii> V,. n rifli
i'liniii|iiii^ii ciiiinlry ^'lr^•l^h(■'< fur hiiidi' iliHtniK'i'
illliiliil S. of Arascw, IiimiikIciI tuwunl.s the cfii liy
Htci'i* nx'kN mill |iri'ri|ii('i'N; iiihiiv I'criiUt pliiiii^ nr<'
irri^iili'il liy llii' Sij{({ rivi-r (nr Sikk, n ilraiii nr
frciH'h), ilN wuttTM liciiiK ilivcrlnl liy iiiiiiK'niiiN
niiiiilH I'nr tliiit |mr|iiiH<'. iN'liiiul Mii.xii^'niii, ami
iiciir the Slu'lliir, HH far att ilic koii, Im n Iriirt rttml-
ilnl M'itli iirrliarilH, (;arilriiH, iiiiil ciiiiiitry liiiiincH,
'I'lic niillilrv riMlllii SliiTslirll is of (III' iiiiikI 'XM-
ImthiiI Irriility, pnhNrHsiii^; liirni' iractH nl' ariiliii'
ImmiI, mill till* iniiiililaiim rnvcrril (u llirir HiiiiiiiiilH
with |ilanliitiiiiiN III' Iniil IrccM, ami hH'omIIii^ iIi'-
li;;liiriil iukI t'XlriiHivc |iri>s|M'rts, TIk' iiilaml (lariM
of llic W, |iri»vinri' jirt'M'iil iillcriialcly I'crtili' val-
li'VH ami lii^Oi raii^i'M of ro<;ky iiioiinlaiiiH, 'If wt>
ciitK'i'ivts' NavH Sliaw, 'a riuiiilit'r of liilln, iiNiially
of lliti pcrin'iiilitiilar liciuhl of Km). M»\, or tlOO
ynriN, wiili an caKV axi'ciil, ami Movcral f^rov' s of
fruit ami forrsl tri'cs ri.sin^ up in a Hiu'ccHsiim of
rikii^i'N omi licliimi amitlicr, ami if In lliiH iiroxpi'i^t
we licri' ami llii'ni ailil it roi'ky preripicr ot a Hiipc-
rior t'lniiu'm'r ami ilillii'iili an'i-ns, ami pliii'c iipmi
the niiUt or Hiiiiiniil of it a inml-wallr<l Daslikcrali,
or villaKC! of tim Kaliylrs, — \vc xliall tlini liavi' a
jiiHt iilca of the atlas lioiimliii^ ilir 'I'l'll.' 'I'lic
viTKi- of III)' Sahara liryoml this pri'sriits iiniliinn
lull HcaltiTi'il villa^^l'^' ami plaiitatioiiH of iltili's.
Till' plain of Mi'liiljnli, ailjoinin^ tlir capiliil, con-
tains many farms ami coiinlry Iioiihi's, iiroiliirin^'
ill pcrfci'tion tlax, hi'iiiia, roots, pol -IiitIis, riri>.
fruit, ami corn of nil kimls; it is ailorncil hcsiilcH
vitli iniiltitiiilcs of olcamlcrs, p'raiiiiiins, passion
llowcrs, anil other luxuriant sliriilm. Tlii' S. pni-
vinci! has I lie same >;eneral clianicter as that of
Orini, The Titteri Dosli, 211 ' ;. S. of .Meileali, is a
tou'erin^' ranp! of lii"ak precijiices. The .liirjiira.
HK. of Algiers, is a similar tract. The sea coast of
the K, province, as far as the river /hoore, is
inounlainous, ami calleil liy the Aralis l'',l-Ailwali
(the Lofty); thence to the Seilums it. is hilly; ami
from llie latter to the lionler mostly level, innl
Hoinetimes covereil with forests. Some ilistance to
the S. are the M. ThamlnH of I'tolemy. 'I'lie
Seilioiis in some ]mrts wamlers through tieantiftil
valleys, clotheil with olivt! tnu's, leiitisks, anil a
line turf. The country ahout ilie source of the
/eiiati is hroken ami irregular, ami appears to lie
voloimic; that to the N. ami X\V. of (Joustantine,
from which that city is chielly siipplioil, is watereil
by the Ifusuli, which is 'lionlereil by a few viUas
ami numerous ganlens, rich in every variety ol
vegetalile and fruit trees, with extensive groves of
iiomegranate, olive, tig. orange, ami citron,' nml
iioiimleil hy hold ranges of hills; its fruit is esteemed
over the whole province. In the roail from Algiers
to Oonstantine, lietween the plains of llamxa and
Majanah, a deep narrow ]iass, called Hreluin (the
liutes), which a few men might defend against an
army, leads tlirough a mountain ridge; and a
little farther E. the road is carried by a dangerous
track over the crest of a high mountain. 8. of
.Set if are many rich plains. The. territory around
Tifesh is the most fruitful in Numidia, and the VV.
province the linest of the regency. The villages
of Ziiab are collections of dirty liovel;^, siirroiimled
b}' date plantations; VVad-reag, a similar country,
lias 25 villages. To the VV. extends the vast
region of Ulaid-el-Jerride, 'a dry country,' abound-
ing in dates. (Shaw, pp. M-(>8; Sir (i. Tenifile,
Extracts in the Geograph. Journal, iHiW, ))art. ii.)
Antiquitkii. — Most ol tlie citit^s and towns bear
names little altered from tliose given tbcm by the
Womans. Many ruins remain ; those of Tipasa
(Tifcssad), li! m, E. of Shersliell, stretch for two
miles along the coast : on the brink of the SlieHill",
in about the same lat., tliere are several clas.-iical
remains, rorinttiiaii rnpitali*. ftf., in. Iitiblv ilm
ruins I'f the ( 'oluiiia Augusta of I'liiiy. AIhui
II III. I'',, of Algiers are the ruins of Itiisuciiriiiui.
At Uliiliaiwi, N. of the Shillilf, a stone iiiserti"' i\,
a inoderii nail, bears an inscription, wluiiie ii \in,
lii'iMi inferred lliill it was thepliici' where roin|ie\ k
gramlsou and great griinilsoii were buried. (Sr
Martial. Epig. lili. v, l.p. 7.').) Near lloiia are
rniiiH of llifiiiti liiiiitm. and many towns can Unis^
of am Kill relicK ill tolerable preservation. Tin
province of ('iiiislaiitiiic especially iilioiinds witi,
them, and with li'oinan roinls; and i veil the ri'-
mote ili!<lrii'r of Wml-reag has niimeroiis reiimiiH
of |{oinan imisonry. Near the capital ix a n>l
lection of nnhi'Wii !>loiies, somewhat sinniiar ir
IhoseofStonehciini'. which the French call I 'I'liiijii',
lint others belicM' to III- I'liienii'ian. I'licre iirr
few ('hrisliiiii remains, their liiiildings tun iiig hicn
destroyed by he /.eiil 'I' the Saracens, (Slm«,
pp. 2l-tJ7. ; Sir <«. Teinple, f.xtracts.)
AiiriniltHrf.-- Mwh of the land is iincnltiMiliM
and waste; but the fertility for which it vva.i mi
famous in antiipiity —
' .N'dii ipilffl|nli1 Llbvcli) tcrit,
Fcrvi'iis ana iiii'sslliin,' —
still continues nnimpiiired; nml rei|ulres incri'ly
the snhstitiition of regular government fnr \uvi\in
violence, and of imliisirioiis colonists for roviii.'
herdsnien. to render it once more the granary nl
Europe. The laud in many parts, ii\Ning tu iln
ipiMiitlty of salt with wl'lili it is iiiipri',"iiiileil, l<
so rich as to reipiire no manure but lninit wei'ils,
Itiit in a dry climate like this every thing depeinl.
on the conimiind of water; and the necessity iiii-
der which the native ilihiibitants were plaieil (I
providing this indispensable element for lliiir
lands, had so far countervailed their imloletu'i' iiii<|
want of scienci' its to makc^ them pretty expert in
the art of irrigation. The Erench were not, m
lirst, siilliciently alive to the vital imporlaiici' d
this; ami some of the Aridi works for irrig.'itiii;'
were in coiiseipience neglected, to the great iiijiirv
of tli(^ province, but the mistake has latterly fiiiii
repaired. The laud is usually iiloughed and >»m\
in October, or (if with bttrley) in November: liy
the aid of April rains a good cro|) is tliiiiii;lii I
secure, and tln^ harvest takes place in the em! i(
May, or the beginning of .June, yielding lit ;in [
average H or 12 for I. The sjiecies of corn iiin^tly
grown are the 'J'ritlcitm tliirum (liitrd wheat), aii<l
Jlorileuin vuUjare (common barley). Mai/e i» uni
miK^li cultivated, except in tlie VV. ]irovince ; wliiit |
millet for fattening cattle is (ilanted there; riiv
chiefly in the prov. of Oran. Oats not lii'liid]
grown, horses are fed wholly upon barley ami
straw. The plough used round Algiers is t he "iiiiif I
as that of S|)ain and rrovence; but in general ii I
not shod with iron. It is drawn by co> i and i\m\\
very rarely by horses; yet with such iinprrliril
|)loiighing the crops are generally excellent. Wliw I
reaped, tlie grain is trodden out by cattle irl
horses; and after being cleaned by throwiii;; i:
iij) against the wind, is deposited in subterraiii'in)'
caves or magazines. The pulse crops are Ik'hD'.
lentils, kidney beans, pease, and garvam;os (cinr
jiea) ; turnips, carrots, cabbages, &c., are gomliro;
)ilentiful. Endive, cress, spinach, and nnii'lmlvi-
are in season from Ctctober to June; after wliiiii|
come calnbashes, mallows, tomatas, and waiir-
melons. Potatoes are frecpieiitly grown, liiif i\'
not arrive ata large size, and are of inferior finality.
The date is the princi]ial fruit, and is byfarili'
most valuable iiroilnct of the country .S. iil'tli(|
greater Atlas. It is propagated chiefly by yi>i«i-
shoots, and yields fruit \n its (ith or 7th year;]'
attains maturity at about its ;?Oth year. aiiili*i=|
full vigour for (it) or 70 more, after which it g« [
Ar,oiEniA
iliinlly (Iw'linox, till it iKTOiiKt oxliiii-t wluii hImpui
'.Niii \rnrn I'lil. (Hliiiw, 11. II'.'.) Triilv, llnTi'liin . I
nii;,'lii riillftiliiit SUV. ' < ui pliiirf cutn» luj- /•«• »tn n
IntHin ill" ixilmin r(»r/iVi7 iitHnrreniliii.' (d't. I'.M i
liiiriiu' ilK iMiKiirity il yirlcl-t iiiiiMiiilly frmii l.'i I" i
'ii (•li^-'i''f "•' •I'll''"' ''■'"''' vn'ijjIiiiiK' iViiiM l.'i III
•j('l II)*. 'I'llC illltr |.illlil {■ttmviO Wlicil il (lii'H is
alwiivn «iiri't'i'ilcil liy iillicrs Iniin MhoniH nr kiTiiclK ;
iilii'iirr iiiiiy |iriiliulilv lii c iiriKiii.itfil llii' I'lildi' or
III :;iirv III' 'lie I'ifit I'liuiiix. Tlir liilll.t iir Hirilril
Wit* » 'ii'fry Willi nil over tliii S. ilinlrii'l. .Miwi
III' ilii Iriiii in>(<.'4 ciiiiifiiiiii III l'iiirii|i*| nrc riuiiiil in
,\l;,'itrr»; hut il>c friiiiH iirt' iiiCrriur, cxri'iiliiiu mi ■
liiriiii'". |>*'»<'h*'^. <"|| |Hiiiii'Kriiiiul(>H ; tlicrc iirr im
liii/cl Illltr. tillit'ri.--, •*travvlHTrit'H, piu-rlicrriix. iir
I'lirraiil'i. 'Hie viiu> m I'lillivalcil with iiiiicli lul-
viinta;,'!'; ll"' Kf'M"'" fil"'!" I'v M"' <''"' "• •'"ly,
,'inil tirr I'lllrii Imlli IVcsli ailil ilry liv llu> iialivt'N,
»|iii xrMiiiii ii^iiImi \viii(i; lliiiii;;li lliir<, iiii ilnnlii,
will lie iilli'iii|il)'i|, mill iiiiHl lik(>iv uilli siii'i'CH't.
jiv ilir Iti'iu'Ii. (Ill III :i MTV inrfrinr i|iiiiliiN . iiiiil
niwiivs iicriil, is iililaiiM'il rnnii llir> olive. Mi'Iihim
Mini liiiliaii ll^'^ ari> lar^'rly ^tuwii, ami rnnii a
i'iiii-.iili'ralilt> part iif tliii t'omt nl' ilui Aralis. In
Millie ^'roiiiiiln iicnr AI>,'i('rM llir Hii;;ar-(!anc in ciilti
vali'il. CiilliiH mill iii<li;;ii liavc lict'ii Iricil, ami
ihc I'liiiial)^ HiiilH lliciii well. Il apiicars fniiii
(pjliriiil rcliini-* llial llicrc were Il.'.'TI licrlari's ul'
iaml hlaiitt'il wiili ciillun in llic yrar |Ki;:i, in
.\l):i'ria ; iliai ilic i'Mji aiiinniiit'il to IvtHil.-U.') kilo-
^'raiiiiiu's, anil tlic value is e^liinateil at :i,N,')',l,l«lll
IraiHM. hiiriii;,' the years ixtll anil \Hi',->, the
^'PHiiiil jilaiiteil with coiion iliil not measure more
iliiiii l.l:.'i'i heetares, anil the value diil not e\(H>e<l
.■ill-.'.lHMI riMlies.
Calile coiistitnte the prin('i|inl wealth of the
imiivcs. Sheep are of two kinds: one small, with
n iliii'k lar^e tail ; the other of a miieli lar^'irsi/.e,
rliiclly I'liiiiiil in the eountry ol'llie Melano-tieliilie.
Slir('{i III' the line 'rmiisian hreeil are not iniit with.
Iliiais jirelty ahiinilant ; pi^js few, roiinil-hotlieil,
sliiirl-le^';;cil, anil );eiierally lilaek. Cattle iisiially
hlaik: ilieir milk is inferior to tliat of Kuropean
I'aiili ; llial of sheep ami pints is mostly ii.seil in
till' iiiakiii;,' of ehees(' ami Imtter. The .Vralis
Uclilnin iliiiiiiiisli their Mocks liy killing' them for
luiiil. lint live on ihiMr milk ami wool. No miiinals
I ari' lastrateil. 'Vhv common heasts of linrtheii are
canii'ls, (Iroi'ieilaries, asses, anil mules. Dr. Shaw
!.|i('aks of II »*iii;;iiiar rross lirecil lietween an ass
iiiiil u ('i)w, ealleil kiiiiiriili, having a sleeker skin
lilmii its sire, no horns, lint llie liam's head and
tail; hut Itii/.ci says that lit^ had not been ahle to
liiiil iiiiy trace of any such animal. The horses
larpiiiit always, nor even often of the imrc Aral)
llirocil, imr altoj,'ether well sliajied, lieuiK laiikv
mill niiiiiil-shoiildered ; head small, and not ill
lluniipili <'itrs erect; and they are hardy, lleet,
s|iiril('il, and docile: those of Oran are nccoiintud
Ilia' licst. They are used only for ridinj;, and like
lllio canu'ls are roared ami live in the tents with
lllii'ir tiwiiers. (Shaw. )ip. "J-tir), Iiili-17(>; liozct,
Ipp. 'iill-'.'lil ; Canipliell's Letters from S.)
Trades and MttniifiirUirvn. — Almost all the
jtrailosof Kuro|)e are ioUowcd in the towns; Imt
Iftiiiducted in a very inferior maimer, as well Ik;-
Imusc (if the indolence as of the if,niorancc 6f the
jiiiitivo.s. The Jews are the most indiistrions, and
|iniMioiiolisc the ^Tcater (lart of the external trade,
I with tlic hifiher branches of art, beiiif; the chief
Ijcivc'llcrs, watcdmiakers, and tailors. The Arabs
lart' merchants, tanners, and carpenters; the Xe-
Ltiii's unisons, brickhiyers, and other artificers;
jilie Kahylcs extract iron, lead, and cojiper from
Itlicir iniiiintains, and manufacture K""!"'^'"''''") *""''
Itn 1» superior to that made at Alj^iers, The chief
Iniamil'ucturcii arc courno liiicii, wuulleii, and isllk
stiiU's, ilin first two fnnniinr the (frentrr part of tho
dress of till' |Mipulatiiili, Icalhcr, Haddhs, bridles,
inrpeln, lln'-ariii«, stei I aiiil ollitr meinl iiriicle",
pnitery, (iiiupowder, bill very inferior to that of
l'.iiri'|H'. Wmnen only are < inployeit in the liin'ii
itiid coarHe woollfii inaiiiil'ii'iures, as well nx in the
••lavish occnpalioii of ^rindiiit; corn. l',uro|M'aii
plods are miii'h in reipiesl.and are liarlered in tint
S. fur pdd dust and osiricb leathers.
Triiilf. — I'revionsly to I hi iipiiliiin of Al)j;ieriii
by ihe Freiicli, the eslnblisluil rati's of duly wer«
•) mid III |M'r ci>iit. on iiiiporled articles, mi rdiii;^
to tlie slipiiliitiiins ill the tri'iilirs with the coun-
tries of which they were the priiiUn'c, Itiil theso
(general rules Were eiilirely disreniiriliil in practice;
and, ill point of fad, little or no trade .'oidd bii
carried on except by limsewho obtaiiied lici-ncex
to I bat eU'ect from piveriimeni, which wen- either
sold to the lii(;liesl bidder, or to those wliii bad
most interest with the Mlvan, As ^ihmi us I Iiii
Freiii II bad taken possession of \l|^'ri:«, the
trreat resources of the ciiiiiilrv ((tine to be de-
veloped. The imporl -. cbiill\ irniii Kniiice iiilu
AlpTia, amounted to ".'I'Hi.oi'iii frs., or '.'ho.ihio/.,
in iKll.aiid Kriidiiallv ruse to 111,01)0,000 frs., or
l.(;oit,000/.,in IHII: io'f<l,'.';it,l li"frs.,or:i.'.'lli,:i7T/.,
in iH.'il; and to nearly I,) milllnus nierliii^' in IMtlil.
Iliit the exports scarcely kept pace with this );row-
in^' iiiniori trade. In ihe ten years from iH.'il to
lNi;;t, .\l;;eria never expor'ed more than frmn l,J
to 'J millions sterling worth of her prinluce, nearly
two-thirds of which went to France. However,
the exports from Algeria to the I'liited Kiiiploiii
j;reatly increased duriii),' the years lM(!o-;t, owiii;^
chielly to Ihe sudden demand for cotton, prodiiced
bv the American civil war. The exports amounted
oiilvtol,.^7'_'/. in ixiio, and rose to;iil,:i-.''J/. in |Ki;i ;
U>\~;iMI ill iNil'i, and to llll.-J i|/. in \M\\. (Jn the
other hand, the imporls from Iheriiited Kinploin
into Alp'ria declined during' Ihe saiiui period.
Tliev were of the value of l.'t,7ol/. in IXlJO; of
'iO,!t'.V>/. in Ixiil; of M\:i:tM. in IMC-J, ami of
i;i.7;t'J/. in iMiill. In addition to corn, or rather
lloiir, the principal articles of importation are
cotton, Woollen, silk, and linen sliill's, but par-
ticularly the lirsl ; wines .ii'd spirits, siiptr and
colVee, arms, hardware, and cutlery.
The em|iloymenl of shipping correspondo with
the amount of trade; and the ]>roportion of both
in the hands of the French is increasinj,'. A regular
intercourse is kejit np by means of steam-packets
between Marseilles, Cette, Antwcqi, Havre, and
Alj;iers.
The weights, measures, and money in use are,
Wi-iijlilt. — Tlio Oiuiiiynli (1 (fninimps) ; Hotl H tliary
= Hi onipiyiili ; C'niitiir= loti rotlil.
Afi-iiMircMif ('ii/Hici/ii. — lAiiniil : llollnh, (Ifi'fifi litres)
= olioilfc 17 pltits. lirii: I'sa (IS litres) =r>l ll-7tli iiliits.
Oflemjlh: Dzeril i\ Torky (lUll iiillleiiietres) = l,(i!l'J feet
Kii).'. ; Dzenlil Uiiby (4Hil nilllemetresji: 1,.')74 foelloiiK'.
Moiieii [s OS follows: f>'i//(/, Seiiuili= S,«. ti^i/. .Silivr:
Mdii/.oiinali — 7-IOtlis of \il.; Ileal Hini(ljoux = '/l niou-
zoniiali. CiippiT! Dcrlii'iii '^cKiir, l-2!ltli I f anion/..
Krciich money Is now, however, in fnxiuont use, and
Spanish dollars worth nlioiit •'!*. 4i/.
lii'irniwu. — It is iiii]iossible precisely to a.scerlaiii
the amount of revcuiues at the disposal of the dey
of Al^fiers previously to fhe French conipiest; but
it may be fairlv estimated a', about .3,1100,000 fr.,
or 120,000/„ incliidiiif,' therein .■"),)0,000 fr., or
2'2,0IH)/. of tribute imid by Najiles, I'ortnpil, &o.
for exemption from piracy; but it is probable that
the taxes paid by the people amounted to at least
three or four times as much. The taxes were of
various kinds : the jirincipal was the tithe (dsc/ir)
of all crops; and there were also pidl taxes on the
Jews, with taxes on professions, trades, &c. ; juid
the govcrinneiit derived a considerable Hum fruin
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23 WIST MAIN STRIET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0
(716) 872-4503
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ALGIERIA
tlifi innnopoly of wool, lonthor, salt, and wnx.
Tlipsc! taxi!H have bpcii |mrtly rotainod l)y tlio
I'Vciicli ; liul. tlio iiKiri' opiircssivc, with tli(^ iiii>-
iiopdlics, have been alMili.shcd. A coiisidcraliU'
rcvciiim has hccn latterly (Icrivcd froin the sale i>l'
tlu; |iiil)iio laiiiis and other iiropcrlv ix'toii^iii^ to
the slate, which are he^iiiniii); to l)e extensively
|iiir<:hased and occupied hy Knroneans. Tlie re-
venue from all sources anioiinted in iHtilJ to almut
T)! ),((()((,( MM) CrancH, or 2 millions sterlin},'. The
Vreneh ex|)eiuliture in Alfj<'ria, from its conquest
to the end of the year l«(il, is estimated at.
■l,(i;i-i.lH4,(MI0 fraiWH, or IHo.-.'Jtlt.atiO/. To France
Algeria always has heeii, and nuist contiiiiui to lie,
a most costly colony.
T/ii- Gorvriinifiit is ailmiuistered hy the com-
maniler-in-chief of the French forces in Al^ieria.
who is ^'overnor-f^'cneral, and responsihle to the
French cahiiu't. Ilis salary, hv an ituperial de-
cree of Sept. ."), I«(; I, has liee'n fixed at 12.'>,()II0 frs..
or .j,(i(l(l/. The, pivernor-Kcneral exercises ali-
solute authority, rreviously to \H'M) the ^;ovcrn-
ment was vested in a dev. or pacha, lieiuiC ''"'
oHicer at the head of the I'urkish soldiery in the
rej;-ency.
M'dittirif and Naval Force.. — TTnder the Turks
the (K>y maintained ainiul 1(1,(1111) re^adar infantry
and (>,(l()() cavalry ; hut. in cas(( of need he coidd
liriiif^ into the lielda (Minsiderahle body of irrcKidar
troops, biinnd to serve, like the Kuropean forces of
the middle afj;es, for a certain mimber of days at
their own cost. The cavalry was recruited chielly
aniouf^ the Arabs and lierbers. The naval force,
so lon^' an object of terror to the Christian powers,
was never very formidable. In IHK!, when it was
nearly ainiibilated by Lord KxmoiUh, it consisted
of 4 frif^ates of fronj 40 to .")(! f^inis, 1 of iiS f;uns, 4
eorvettes. 12 brij^sand fjoelettes, anil .'iOjiun-boats.
In IH21 their corsairs had aj^ain bej-'un to infest
the seas; and in l«,'i(), on the cajituro of Algiers,
the French found a lar;;e frij^ate in dock, and two
others in the port, 2 corvettes, S cir 10 brif,'s, several
xebecks, and .'>2 f,'un-boats. (Itozet, iii. i). ;J(!2-
.'(MO.) The French troops in Ai^cieria in I8ti;{. .iccord-
iiifj to ollicial returns, were ()2,4(l7 men and 14.;i2;5
horses. The French troops of all arms inchuled
in these tij^ures amounted to 51,855 men and
10,714 horses, the surplus beiiif; formed of a foreij^ii
refi:imeiit and native troojis. In the so-called na-
tive troops, which never quit the colony except
for fijihtiiiK iiuqioses, there are a great mimber of
Europeans. They consist of three rci^iments r)f
Zouaves, three of Turcos, or • Tirailleurs Al<,^e'riens,'
three of ' (.Chasseurs d'Afrique,' and three of Spaliis,
but for some years a number of these have been
absent in Cochiu-China and Mexico.
Jicliylim and Education. — The f^cat bulk of the
people jiMfess Mohammedanism. The nej^roes,
iu>wever, arc mostly aildicted to felichism ; and
the creed of the Berbers is scarcely known, as
they Butter no stranjjers to witness their rites:
they pay jj^reat reverence to their marabouts or
mniiralici/x, ))ersons who practise a rigid and austere
life, and who sometimes all'ect to iicrforni miracles.
Tliey regard them as inspired, and honour their
tombs. This custom has crept in amongst the
Jews, who venerate the seimlchres of their rabbins,
and convert them into synagogues. ,Since the
French occupation a good many mosques have
been converted into Christian churches.
Morals arc at an extremely low ebb; the inha-
bitants, |)articidarly the Moors, being in general
grossly sensual, ilebauched, and corrupt. Drunken-
ness is not very frequent amongst the natives; but
the French have lost large luunbers of men from
excess.
'I'he Moora and other inhabitants of the towns
can for the most part read the Koran and write,
which, however, comiirise the whole of their in-
St ruction ; few understand aril hnu'tic, or go bcvdiui
the tirst two ndes; and this limited instructioii, it
will be observed, is enjoyed by the male sex mily,
women being brought up in the most cnni|ilii,
stat(! of ignorance. The Moors often traiis.Kt
business by placing their lingers on dirtereiit puns
of each other's hands, without speaking; (.luh
(iiiger and joint denoting a ditlerent ntnnber. Few
books, except the Koran, ami some ciu-oniiiisiic
commentaries ui)on it, are ever seen or siiii;;lii
after. The education of children in tlu- Kuruii
goes on for three or four years, when their tiiiiidn
ceases. The French have established schonl-i „i
mutual instruction in all the iirincijial town-,
which are chiefly suiieruitended by Jews, mid
tolerably w(41 attended. ()lli(?ial returns Aww
that, in" IH(;2. there were 471 establishments li.r
primary instniction, which received ;{5.!i',t!t pupil,
of both sexes. Uuring the three last years ih,.
mimber of children who have received i>riniary
instmi'tion has increased by over5.(f((0. In Iscj,
among the tribes which had submitted to the mili-
tary adininistratiou, 2,140 pnniaiy schools |„r
Mussulmans had been established, with 2,:) I .'Ijn-
stitutions at whic^h 25.000 iiujiils learned roadiii;',
writing, aritlunetic, and commentaries on tlu'
Koran. (Tabh'au (h- la Situation, &e. p. 254., ainl
French Ollicial |{etiirns.)
Artsand Sdences. — The Arabs (if Algieria. tliciii;;li
descended from the iieojilc who gav(! algclira in
ICiiro))e, and preserved medicine during the dark
ages, have no notion either of arithmetic, or nfilic
correct measurement of time or distance. Their
medicine, too, is in the rudest state, and few dis-
eases occur that do not, under their treatment,
become either chronic or mortal. Their romcdiis
consist chietly of superstitious practices, iis |iil-
grimages; or inert decoctions, as that of uiiillnws
They are accustomed, in cases of rheumatism and
jdeurisy, to jmncture with a red-hot iron ; to dri-s
wounds with hot butter, and sometimes with |ii'|i-
per, salt, and brandy ; and on the tield of battle in
thrust wool into them. When amputation is r-
sorted to, it is performed by the stroke of iui aia-
ghan, and followed by the application of hotpitiii.
Hence, notwithstanding their aversion to cliani;c,
we need not wonder that latterly the French anny
surgeons have been in great request by the natives,
Hospitals have been established in the ijrincipal
towns, and vaccination has been introduced. In
1«()3 not fewer than 23,;)0l civilians, lieliin},dii,'
either to the luiropean i)r to the native iHipiila-
tion, apjilied for ailmi.s.sion into the hospitak
(Shaw, p. 196-199 ; Campbell, Let. 20 ; and Oliieial
Returns.)
Social Life. — Tlie Berbers or Kabyles Uvc in
cabins (qu'rbies) made of the branches of trees
plastered with mud and straw, with a low door and
narrow glazed holes serving for windows; thesi;
huts are collected together in small gToii]i.< ur
dashkras. The Moors, Jews, Negroes, and nmst
others, exce])t the Arab.s, live in houses built (oia
uniform model, which from the earliest times liaj
not varied. An open court-yard forms the ccuirf,
around which are various aiiartments, opening ujinii
galleries supported by light pilasters: the rodt'sari'
Hat, surrounded by a battlement breast high, aiei
built with a composition of sand, wood ashes, aiiJ
lime, mixed wiiii oil and water, called /errmy;
whence our word. The rooms are floored and cis-
terns are made of this com]iosition. Water-cnurss
are compo.sed of tow and lime only, mixed iviili
oil; this mixture, as well as the former, .soon m-
(piiring the hardness and im[>crviousness of ftoin'. I
In most habitations there is in each apartuicni a
ALOIERIA
71
rsUoil platform for sleeping on, the bed beinpf com-
l»ii<i'(l (if junk, muttinji, shcuji-HkinH, or more costly
iii.itcrial. iic<:or(linK to circumHtniicoN. The other
liiriiiturc oonMsts, among the noiniuUc trihc.t, of
tivi) liirge Htones for grinding corn, >vrought hy
immMi; ft few articles of pottery and hron/.e, and
ii nidc frame for weaving. The better cla.Hse.H have
cibliioiw and caqtetH to their rooms, the lower
part of their walls being adorned witli colonriMl
haiiKings, and the upj)er part painted and decorated
with fret work. The tents of the Arabs (tlie nui-
(/(i/itf tif the ancienti) are s-imetime.-* called A/iy»i(M,
iroin tlie shelter they afford ; and sometimes heut-
ihluuir, or houses of hair, from the wel)s of gouts'
li;iir iif wliicli they are made. They are constructed
at this moment iireciselv in the wav described by
i,ivy (lil). xxix. § 31.), Sallust (Hell. Jug. § 21.),
Virgil, &c. They are of an oblong shape, not un-
ilki' tlie liDttoni of a sliip turned upwards, and are
(■;j-ily set u)) and taken down. (Sluiw, i>p. 20(1-
t!t) Tlie dress of tiie Herbers is very rude and
(narsc; tliat of the other classes varies greatly;
lull it is common with both si!xes to wear abroad a
kik, or toga, and a benious, which covers the
iiiiul and shoidders : the facets of tlie women are
Ferdinand of Spain, having driven the Saracens
from Kurope, followed tliem into Africa, and in
l.")()l ond l.jl)!> took possession of Oran, Hugia,
Algiers, and other ])laces. The natives, wishing to
throw ott' the Spanish yoke, had recourse to the
famous corsairs, the brothers AroudJ and Khayr-
ed-Uyn, better known by the names of Karba-
rossa I. and II., who had distinguisheil them-
selves by the boldness and success of their
enterjirises against the Christians. The brothers
s))eedilv succeeded in expelling the Spaniards
from all their jxissessions in Africa, with the ex-
ception of Oran, wliicli they held to the enil of llm
eighteenth century. Algieria became the centre of
the new power founded bv the llarbarossas; the
survivor of wlioni obtained, in l^fM>, fnmi Sultan
Selim, the title of Dc^y, and a reinforcement of
'2,0(10 troops. Since lluMi it has been governed
nearly in the maimer descTiiied above; and has,
I with few interruptions, carried on almost iiicess;int
I hostilities against the powers of ( "nristendom,
' capturing their sliips and reducing tlieir subjects
1 to slavery. Atletniits have been made at dillereiit
I periods to aliate this nuisance, in l.")4!, the em-
peror Charles V., who had successfully achiev(!d a
mm
v(T>- nniih concealed. Vegetables form the chief ; similar enterj)rise at Tunis, arrived with a powerful
diet (if all classes, not a fourth )iart of the animal
I'lHid lieiiig consumed by them that is cimsumed by j
an equal population in Kurope. iJread, conscouson
(a kind of Irish stew), legiiines. ])otatocs, tomatas,
anil iither ''egetables, dressed wilii spices, oil, imt-
iir.nr aromatic herbs; Indian figs, raisins, melons,
and titlier fruits; with water, sherbet, and coffee,
— Inrm the main articles of consumption.
Drinking coffee and smoking tobacco constitute
never-failing amusements. Almost all the male in-
lialiitaiits of the towns have a pipe attached to the
liiiltdn of their vest; and tiie more hidolent and
(i|iulcnt will sit for days in cafes, unmindful of
their families, smoking incessanth', or i>laying at
iliess. In the country, fowling, hawking, and
liiititing the wild boar and lion are a(;tively pur-
.<iic(L Theatres are now opened in the priuciiial
tiiwiis.
Tin: Language is mostly Arabic, but mixed with
MiHirish and I'littinician words. The Kabyleshavc
a [leeiiliar language, so very poor that it is wthout
ciinjiiiu^tions or abstract terms, and is indebted to
the Arabic for these, and for uU terms of religion,
science, &c. In conversing with Kuropeans a //«-
im Franca is made use of; a mixture of Spanish,
lialiiin, French, and I'ortuguese. (See IJaubaky.)
Railways. — In no respect have the efforts of
France to civilise this part of Africa been more
MK'ccssful than in the fonnation of good roads,
and, the most perfect of all roads, railways. At
the end of the year 1864, there had been prepared
in iUgeria a net work of 340 miles of railroads,
namely, a trunk line from Algiers to Oran, 287
miles long, and a branch line from Philip])eville to
Ciiiistantine, of 58 miles. The iirst section of this
mam, from Algiers to ISlidah, was ojieiied for
trallic in April 18()4, and the whole network was
exjiected to be complete in May IHti!), A connec-
tiiiii of all the towns and military stations of
Al^jeria by telegrapluc wires was brought into
iilienition in I8.;lti.
Hhtonj. — The countrj' formed part of the Ro-
man ein|)ire ; but during the reign of Valentiiiian
III. Count Boniface, the governor of Africa, liavnig
revdltod, called in the Vandals to his assistance.
The latter having t.aken posscssitm of the country,
held it till they were expelled by Helisarius, a. i).
o:!l who restored Africa to tlie K. ICinjiire. It was
ovemin and coinpiered by the Saracens in the
seventh century, and was soon after divided into
as many kingdoms aa there arc now provinces.
tleit and army in the vicinity of ^Vlgiers ; but the
tleet having been immediately overtaken and nearly
destroyed by a dreadful storm, the troops, without
jirovisions or shelter, iindenvent the greatest pri-
vations ; and the emperor wa.s compelled forthwith
to re-embark such of them as had escaped tin; fury
of the elements and the sword of the Turks.
(Robertson's Charles V., cap. (i.) This great dis-
aster seems for a lengthened period to have dis-
couraged all attempts at capturing Algiers. France,
however, as well as ICnglard and other powers,
repeatedly chastised the insolence of its banditti
by bomliarding the towni ; but in general the
'.'European powers jireferred negotiating treaties
tvitli the (ley, and ]mrchasing an exemption from
the attacks of the Algerine cruisers, to making
any vigorous or weU-combined effort for their
effectual suppression. In 181o, the Amr -icans
captured an Algerine frigate ; and the dey con-
sented to renounce all claim to tribute from them,
and to [lay them 60,000 dollars a.s an indemnilica-
tion for their losses. Hut the most effectual
chastisement they ever received was inflicted so
late as IHKi by the IJritish under Lord Fxmonth;
when Algiers was bombarded, the fleet in the
harliour ilestroyed, and the dey corajielled to con-
clude a treaty, by which he set the Christian
slaves at liberty, and engaged to ceose in future
reducing Christian captives to that ignominious
condition. But it is exceedingly doubtful whether
these stipulations W(nd(l have been better observed
than others of the same kind previously entered
into by his ])re<lecessors.
The last of the Algerine deys got entangled in
altercations with the French government. I'ro-
voked by the discussions that had taken (dace, and
the cl.aims that had been jnit fonvard, he had the
temerity to strike the French consul on the latter
jiaying him a visit of ceremony. Redress was, of
course, demanded for this gross insult ; but instead
of com])lying with any such demand, the dey took
and demolished the French jiost at La Calle. This
was equivalent to a declaration of war; and France
determined on being avenged. In this view, she
fitted out a powerful armament, including a land
force of nearly 38,000 men, with a formidable train
of artillery, under the command of (ieneral Bour-
mont. The annament arrived on the Algerine
coast on the 13tli of June, I8:!0; and having effec-
ted a disembarkation on the following day, Algiers
capitulated, after a feeble resistance, ou the &tli of
'i^fe»'
m
liiim
I.
w>
''' i'
'■ifh
111 ■"'' ' f""-
\'.J <;■■■»■ I ■
!i
!ibih;I:;
Ill ,-. '
lli'*!:!^
72 ALOIERIA
July. The dcy wns allowed to retire with lii.s per-
sonal property iiiimolosted to Italy, and his troopH
to wherever they elioite.
'l"he I'Vcnch iound in the treasury of the (lev
fiold and silver, coined anil uncoined, of the value
of 'I7,II.'19,0I 1 fr., excIu.Hive of stores of various
kinds valued at 7,(l«(l,!»2(; fr.
The towns of Oran and Dona soon after suh-
mitlf'il, and the iiev of Titteri was also reduced to
ohedicnee. Hut the hey of Oran, or Tlenisen.
<'arri('il on for a len;f|hened i)eriod a series of con-
tests and nepttiations with the French, which
were terminated in ls;(7 hy the Ireatj' of Tafna; by
which he iifrreed to ahnndon the maritime parts of
the province, and to recoj^nise the supremacy of the
French in Africa. The hey of (jonstantine was
less (')isily dealt with. Trustin^j to the strenfjth of
his )irincipal city, its <listance from JJona, the
nearest jHirt, and the hadiu'ss of the roads, he
braved the hostility of the French. In Xovemher,
iH.-tti, a force of M,<M»0 men, under Marshal Clausel,
a<lvaiU'ed npiinst Constantine. Ihit the ex])edi-
tion, havin;; heen too lonjc delayed, encountered
the greatest difHculties on its march, from the se-
verity of the weather, and the impracticable nature
of the country ; so that when it arrived before Con-
Htantine, it was unable to luidertakc the siej^e of
the J (lace, and with difflculty cft'ected a retreat.
To wipe off this disfjrace a poweri'ul army left
llona in the foHowiu^c autumn for the attack of
Constantine, before which it arrived on the (ith of
October. The Arabs made a vifjorous resistiuice;
fcnt breaches having been cfl'ecled in the walls,
the city was carried by storm on the 13th. The
French commander-in-chief, General Uamremont,
was killed during the siege.
Since that time, France has heen engaged in a
continuous stubborn conflict with the native tribes,
imdertaking frequent expeditions into the interior,
the most important of them in the years ltS45-0.
The latter ended in the surreiuier of "the reno\\Tied
chieftain Abd-el-Kadcr, who was taken as a ]iri-
Boner to France in 1847. He was released by the
Emperor Nayxdeon III. in 1852. Minor insurrec-
tions and small frontier wars, however, contiiuicd
to occupy the French troops ; and a rather serious
revolt of the tribes in the south-east broke out
tow.irds the end of 18G4, and was not stojiped
without much bloodshed. To assist in the pacili-
cafion of the colony, the Emperor Napoleon him-
self went on a tour through Algieria in May, 18(55,
issuing many proclamations, in which the inhabi-
f.ants were exhorted to submit, without furthei
ojiposition, to the rule of France.
Ai.GiEus ^Arab. ^ZJeze/re e/.^niie, Algiers the
warlike), a city and sea-port of N. Africa, cap. of
the above countrj', on the Mediterranean coast, on
the VV. side of a bay about 11m. in width and fi
<leep; lat. of light-house 30° 47' 2(1" X., long. 3°
4' 32" E. It is built on the face of a pretty steep
lull, the houses rising above each other so that
there is hardly one of them which does not com-
mand a view of the sea. The summit of the hill
is crowned by the Kashj, or citadel, 700 ft, above
the level of the bay. The town is nearly 2 m. in
circ., being surrounded by thick and high walls,
flanked with towers and bastions. The fortifica-
tions towards the sea arc comparatively strong ;
but those on the land side, though greatly im-
proved by the French, are incapable of any very
vigorous defence, being commanded by the adjoin-
ing heights. Algiers had, previously to the French
invasion, 5 gates — 2 on the sea, and 3 on the l.ind
side; about 160 streets, 6 squares, 2 i)alaces, 4
large and 30 small mosques (some of which are
now converted into Christian churches), 2 large
and 12 small synagogues, many buihlings for the
militarj', and altont 10.000 private houses. Tlip
pop. was formerly estinuited at from IKl.OOl) t„
1811.001); but it is* probable that the lowest of tlicM.
nuinliers was beyond the mark. It appears l'rii:n
a census taken in 1817, that the poji. of the cjiv
iind commune amoinited at that date, inc. garrisim,
to !)7,.'(8!», of whom 72,3!t3 were Fri-nch and ntlicr
ICiiropeans, the residue being Moors, Kabyles, mui
,Iews. A considerable emigration of Turks iiii,|
olliers took place after the occupation of the city
by the French ; and the above statement sliiwcil
that the emigrants had not retunuMl. A linal
enumeration of the year 18(i2 showed a furtluT
decreiLse, the ])op. at this time consisting of Imt
58.315 souls, of whom 37,145 Eurojieans, niul
21,1711 natives. The citv has a very iinposin;;
appearance from the sea, looking like a su(^ces>iiiii
of terraces, the houses, which are all whiteiicil.
giving it a brilliant aspect ; but, on enlcriiii;,
the illusion vanishes : the streets are tilthy, dark.
crooked, and so narrow that, until latterly, the
widest was but 12 ft. across. The French linvc,
however, taken down many buildings to eular;;!'
the streets, amongst others the principal niosciuo,
in the view of making the Plare dii Goiivmnmntt
in the centre of the city, a large and haiulsi.nie
sqiuire in the Eur<>iiean style. The houses have
flat roofs, that command a fine view ; they vnrj-
from two to three stories in height, and have a
(piadrangic in their centre, into winch the windows
luiiformly open. The streets have, in conse([iipiico,
a gloomy ajipearance ; and they are farther dark-
ened by the successive stories of the houses ])ni-
jecting over each other, and by their being fre-
quently pro))])e(l up by timbers across from cmc lo
another. The ^ isluiuW whence Algiers derives
its name, are two rocky lc<lges o]iposite its N'K.
qtiarter, which have been united, strongly forlilieil,
and connected with the main laud by a mole;
another mole, stretching S\^^ from these islands,
and furnished with two tiers of cannon, inclnses
the harbour, which is rather smsill, and incapalilc
of accommodating any vessel larger than a niidille-
sized frigate. A light-lunise is ere> ted on oiic uf
the islands, at the jiniction of the two mtdes. Tlie
Kasha or citadel is surrounded by strong walls, niul
its fortifications have been repaired and strciij;tli-
ened by the French. It is, in fact, a little town
in itself. It was here that the French found tlie
treasure belonging to the (ley. The moscpics arc
octagon buililings, with a dome and minarets, ofleii
elegant, and adorned with marble colouiiailes.
There are numerous public and jirivate fountains,
and baths of all kinds; for though formerly desti-
tute of water, Algiers is now well supplied with
that important element, which is brought to the
tmvn by aqueducts constructed in the last ceiitiin,',
and which, previously to the French occui)ati(iii
were kept in repair by funds set apart for that
purpose. Many shops have been opened by Euri>-
])eans; they consist of recesses in the sides of llic
houses, about 7 ft. by 4 ; but business is \{n»\\)-
transacted in the bazaars, which, with) barlx'rs'
shops and cafes, are the chief places of resort fer
the natives. Algiers is now the residence of flic 'fi^-
vemor-general of the Freiudi possessions in Afrita,
and of the ))rincipal government functionaries ami
courts of justice. It was created the seat of a
bishopric in 1838 ; is strongly garrisoned ; and liiis
a regular intercourse by steam packet^s with llar-
seillfcs. The maiud'actures are chiefly those of silk
stuffs, girdles, purses, clocks, jewellerj', woollen
cloths, kaihs, hemmis, sandals, harness, caqicls.
junk, bronze utensils, (.tc. The markets are well
provided with meat, vegetaldes, and fruit ; itrovi-
sions generally cheap, excepting bread, which is
dear: there were no ovens, and only handinills fur
hoiiscH. Tlip
11 llll.OOO In
lWCH( of tlH'-.t.'
iippfiirs Iruai
I. i)f till' city
, inc. fcnrrisnn.
lU'li ami iitlicr
Kaliyli'H, mill
of Tiirkn aii,l
on of tlic I ily
citiciU si It will
■lu'd. A tiiial
\v«il a fiirilicr
isistiii;; of Imt
iiroiioMiis, ami
viTy iin|>o.siii;r
kc n sii(M'('s>i(iii
; nil wliilciu'il,
, on piitt'riiii;,
re liltliy, dark,
il Idtti'rly. the
i Freiii'li liavp,
ii\(fs to i!iilar„'e
incilial nmsiim',
K Gotircniiiimil
ami liamlsiinic
he liouHCs have
icw ; t'lcy van-
lit, and liave a
ich the windiiHs
ill consociupnce,
ire farther diirk-
the houses imt-
their heiiif; I'ni-
•ross from one lo
Alfiiers derives
;Hi|iosite its NK,
(troiiKly forlilicil.
and by a nidlr,
m these islamls,
cuiinon, iiu'ldscs
II. and iiicaiialilc
|cr than a iniddlc-
>rcv,tetl •'» '>"<'»'
two moles. The
Istroiif; walls, ami
[cd and strciiK'th-
ct, a little tirtvn
rcncli found tlie
ITIic mosiiuos are
id minarets, (ifuii
[rlilc coloiinaik's,
■ivate fouiitaiim,
h formerly desti-
fU supplied with
[s broufjht to the
the last coiitiiry,
jnch occu\)atiiiii
t apart for tlwu
lopcncd by lMir.i-
thc sides of llic
jsiness is iii(i.*tly
[h, with", barbers'
ices of resort lot
;idcncc of the p>-
essions in Al'ricii.
lunctionarics ami
id the scat of a
isoncd; and lias
jkets with 5Iar-
[efly those of silk
[vellery, woollen
.aniess, carj"''''
iiarkets are well
md fruit; provi-
bread, whit* i*
ily handniills fur
ALGOA BAY
rriiidiug <'fTi before the oc(!uiialion liy the French.
I'.iinipean hianners, habits, and dresses are com-
iiiiiii; II* many bats are seen as turbans; eif^nrs
riiilace pipes, simps ba/aars ; grand hotels, enfi's,
liilliard tables. ealin}r houses, cnhinets littirairfs
liavp been set up, and ft circus, >'osmoranm, and
ciiicra eslablislied. There is regular steam com-
iiiimifalion with Toulon and ("ette in France, and
Oraii and lloiia in Africa. The streets have all
received French names. There arrived in the port
111' Alfjiers. in |S(;;t, l,,jK7 vessels, of a total bur-
iIkii of l!»2,ll!> tons. Of these vessels, l.OOl, (tf
K'l.').;!-'!! tons burthen, were engaged in tlic foreign
trade, and TiS.'!. of 2<i,7!>'.) tons, were coasters. The
environs of Algiers are very beautiful, and for
Mime miles round inters|)ersed with great numbers
(if elegant villas. There are 2 small suburbs, those
111' |lali-el-()ueil and Itab-a-Xoun; the former to
the N., the latter to the S. of the city. About a
mile S. of the Kasha is the Snltan Kalvsgi, or fort
111' the emiieror, an irregular pidygon without fosse
or I'liiinterscarii, ab(ait \ m. in circiiniference. It
jiiauds on the s])ot where (Jharlcs V. encamjied,
A. n. ITi'tl, anil completely conmi.iiids the town;
Init is itself coninianded by Mount Uoujereah.
The ancient city of Uiistonium, the capital of
Jiilta, was situated not far from Algiers, to the W.
iif Torretta (Jica: some ruins of this city still
exist. Algiers was founded A. 1>. !)it5. For some
iiiiticp of its history, see the previous article. (Sr •
Talileaii dc la Situation; liuzet, iii, pp. 14-H,s. ;
Shaw's Travels, |)p. .S3-;i'),)
ALtjlOA HAY. See Port Euzabetii.
ALIIAMHHA. Sec Ghanaha.
ALllAXIJUA, a town of Portugal, prov. Estre-
mailura, on the Tagns, IM m. NNK. Lisbon. Pop.
1,(1(1(1 ill \H'>H, The town has some small manii-
facliires of linen.
AliK'ANTE (an. Lncenliim), a .':ea-]iort town
iif Spain in Valencia, cap, prov. same name, on
the Mediterranean, 42 m. KN'l']. IMurcia. Pop.
2(1.7(11) in IH,')7. Alicante is the terminus of the
Smitli-Kastern of Spain railway. It is situated
k'tweeii mountains at the bottom of a spacious
li.iy. having Cajie la Iliierta at its NK. extre-
mity, and Isla Plana on the S. Alicante is de-
reiidcd by a castle on a rock about '1(10 ft. high.
Streets n.irrow and crooked, but well paved and
clean. Xone of its churches, convents, or other
]ulilii! buildings deserve notice. The trade of
Alicante had fallen much off, in consequence of
llie eni.inciii.ition of S. America, and the disturbed
state of the country, but is now again increasing.
lis exports consist principally of wine, almonds,
harilla, olives and olive oil, brandy, tigs, s.ilt,
esparto rush, wool, silk, and linen. The imports
cmisist principally of linens, salted fish, corn, cot-
tnn.and cotton stuflFs, colonial produce, timber, &c.
The iiumlicr of IJritish vessels which entered the
jtiirt in 1802 wiis 234, bringing coals, iron, machinery
anil guano, to the value of 224,805/, The exports,
lirincipally raisins, oranges, and wine, were i!2,2(i(!/.
The trade with other nations was, shi|is JJti!) ; im-
imrts ;!n7,9.").5/., exports 92,305/. In 18(!3 the figures
wcre,ltriti.sli ships 180; imports 145,710/. ; exports
Id,ti57/. Foreign ships 343; imports 182,025/.;
I ex|)orts 72,14!)/. The decrease in imports arose
friira the diminished quantity of railway material
I imported, and the inc^rease in ex])orts from an aug-
mentation in the shi|>meiit of lead and esjxirto
(feather gras.s), which last had doubled in price
ill coiispquence of its demand for the manufacture
•if paper. ' The prosperitj',' says a consular re-
jKirt, 'of Alicante since the oiiening of the rail-
Iway to Madrid in 1858 continues gradually to
|aii;,Tncnt. The town and suburbs now contain
|3I,'200 inhabitants, 3,950 dwelling-houses, 161
ALKSLVAR
•3
Htroets, and 17 squares. It possesses fi chnndies,
an inslilut(! or preparatory cidlege for the univer-
si(y, 14 sebools, a ])ublic library, a hiiiidsoino
theatre, 2 hospitals, and a well-conducted estiib-
lisbmcnt for foundlings and aged )ian|iers of both
.sexes. Hitherto little hue been done in the erec-
tion of manufaciories, for wliicli the position of
Alicante is well adapted, the remembrance of the
ruinous result of .several joint stock companies for
(ftnelting lead and silver ore in ixl I being still
fresh ill the memory of the iiihaliilants. An ex-
tensive cigar manufactory', a government mono-
poly, in which iqiwards of 4,000 women arc
enqdoyed. still continues, however, to retain its
reputation for superior linisli, and is constantly at
Work.' (IJeport of Colonel Uarre, Itrilish Consul
at Alicante, 18(;3.)
AMCATA, or LICATA, a sea-]>ort town on
the S. coast of Sicily. Val di (Jirgenti, at the
nioulli of the Salso; hit. 37° 4' 25" X.. long.
13° 55' 40" K. Poj). 15.481 in 18,')8. It is built,
partly on the beach and ]iartly on the slope of
some hills. Its walls have gone to decjiy, and
neither of its two castles is of any considerable
strength. It is a ])oor-looking place, but ex|iorts
considerable quantities of corn, with sulphur and
soda, pistachio nuts, almonds, maecaroni, Ac, The
port is shallow, so that large ve.ssids must load in
the oiling, or mail, about a mile S\V. of the town,
where they are exposed to the southerly winds.
ALICIJDI, the most VV. of the Lijiari islands,
t)(i m. KXK. Palenno. Pop. 4.-)0 in 18,'iK. It is
aboiii, fi m. in circ, nses abruptly from the .sea,
with irregular ravines and )irecipitous hills. It is
cultivated wherever there is any soil, with singu-
lar and laborious imliistry, and produces most ex-
cellent wheat, 4)arilla, tlax, capers, &c. The jieople
are said to be exceedingly healthy; it has only
t^.'o unsafe laiiding-iilace.s, and is rarely visited by
strangers.
ALKillUR, a strong fort of Ilindostan, in the
district of the same name, between the (iaiiges
and the .Jumna, 53 m. \. Agra. 82 m. from I)idlii
by rail; lat. 27° 5(1' X., long. 77° 59' K. It was
taken by stonn in 1803; and was soon after maile
the head-ipiartors of a civil establishment for the
cidlection of the revenue, and the administration
(d' justice. The X. portion of the district of Ali-
ghnr is a desidatc tract, overspread with low
jungle; but the S. |iortion is fertile and highly
cultivated. The natives, though turbulent, are
superior to the liengalee.s, and other tribes more
to the E. Alighiir was one of the places held by
the Seiioy rebels in 1857, and was retaken on 5t"h
October of that year.
ALKMAAI5, a tomi of N. Holland, cap. arrond.
and cant., on the great ship canal from Amster-
dam to the Hehler, 20m. XXW. the former,
and 18 m. S. the Helder. Pop. 10,500 in 1801,
It is strongly fortitied and well built; there are
many fine canals, shaded with trees, and the
whole town has a strikingly clean and comfort-
able apjiearance. The llotel de Ville and the
arsenal are the imly ]ml)lic buildings that deserve
notice. It is the .seat of a court of ))rinmrv jiiri.s-
diction, and has a college, physical .society, theatre,
concert-hall. &c. Vast quantities of excellent
butter and cheese are produced in the surrounding
meadows. Exclusive of butter, about 40,000 tons
of cheese are said to be annually disposed of in
its markets. It also manufactures canvass, and
has a considerable trade in cattle, corn, tuliiis, &c.
Its commerce has been m.aterially facilitated by
the construction of the great canal. Without the
town is a line promenade, similar to those at
the Hague and at Haarlem. In 1573, Alkmaar
was invested by the Spaniards ; but having liecii
ii'i, ':•
i': „'•
11
tt.^'-l
■'*'.'
ii., t
-I , \
'km
I'm h'f; lifU
mm''
\m¥'0
mi
7i ALLAHABAD
rcpiilspd with (jprt'iif. Idhh, in nil ntfomiit to tnkc tho
liiHii hy Htonii. (hey almndoned tlio Hi('>;<^ In
I7!>',), tliu An^lo-lkiiMsiim iinny iniilcr lliu l>uk<>
of Viirk, advunuud fruiu the iluldur ua fur lu
Alktnuar.
Alil.AIIAllAD, nn extensive nnd populous
prov. or Hoiilinh of Ilindoslun projMT, hcfwccn th<'
'J 1° itnd 2tJ° N. hit. nnd 711° nnd Ki° K, lon^. It in
honndud on the N. hy Onde and A^ra, H. I>y
<iund\vnnu, K. hy Ituliar and (inndwnna, nnd VV.
hy Mnlwnh nnd A^rn. It in ni>uut 27U ni, in
h'n;;tli hy nhout 121) in l)rpndth.
It in divided into tiiu folhiwin^ zillaliH or dis-
Iricts, vi/.. : I, Alhiliahnd: 2. ISenarcs; ii, Mir/a-
poor; 4. Jnanpoor; !>, 'I'iie Ki^wah territory; ti.
IhnidehMiiKl; 7. (,'nwnpoor; K Manieipoor territory.
Ft in watered hy th(! (inn^:;<^s, .luiniia, nnd oilier
threat riverH. Adjaeimt to the fonner, tlie eoiiiilry
is Ihit and very prodiietive, hnt in tlu^ S\V., in tlie
I'linideli'nnd dislriet, it forms nn elevated tahle-
hind,diversilied with hi^^li hills eontaiiiin^ iIkm-cIc-
hrated diamond mines of I'lxinah. Tlu^ tint eountry
is extremely sultry and suhject to the hot winds,
from which tho more elevated region is exempted.
in the hilly country, where tlie rivers are less
niim(>rous than in the plains, the periodical rains
and well-water are chiedy relied on for iifirieiil-
tiiral purposes. On the whole, howes-er, Allalia-
liad is one of the richest provinces of llindostan.
'i'he principal articles of export are siipir. cnilon,
iiidipi, cotton (riotlis, opium, snilpetre. diainoiiils,
&L\; and, in addition, it proihices all kiiiils of
(jjrain and a vast variety of fruits.
The chief towns are Allahahad, Benares, Cal-
linjier, Chatterimor, ('hiinar, < ihazypoor, .Juaiipoor,
and Alirzapoor. The whole of this extensive; pro-
vince is now suhject to the Hrilish pivnnmeiit ;
the Itenares district hnvin;? heen ceiled in 177');
Allahahad and the adjacent territory in IHOI ;
and the districts of niiiidelcnn<l in IKO:!. Total
])opulation 3,710,2ti3 in iMill. Seveii-eifihths of
the iuhahitants are su|)posed to he Hindoos, the
remainder iMohnmmcdans.
Ai.LAiiAKAi), an ancient city of Hindostnn, cap.
of the fthove ])rov. and (list., near the continence
of the (imiffes nnd Jumna, heinj; hy the course
of the river Hii) m. from the sea, hut tlie distance
in n direct line from Calcutta is only 47.J m. ; from
ISennres, 7.J m. ; and from A^ra, 2M0 m. Lnt. 2.')° 27'
N., loii)^. Hl° .'iO' E. At a short distance from the
city, at the junction of the rivers, is situated the
fortress, founded hy the Emperor Akhar in \[)Hii;
hut much imi)rove(l since it came into the jiosses-
sion of the British. It w lofty nnd extensive,
completely commanding the navigation of hoth
rivers. ()n the sea-side it is defended hy the old
walls ; hut on the land side it is rcgiilarly and
strongly fortified. It could not he taken hy a
European army, except hy a regular siege ; and
to a native army it would be all hut im|)rcgnahle;
and hence it has been selected as the grand mili-
tary depot of the up])cr provinces. In the course
of the Indian mutiny in l«57, an insurrection of a
dangerous character broke out, on the 5th of June,
at Allahahad, and the Fiirojjcans had to retire
into the fort, where they were besieged. How-
ever, they soon recovered their ground, and, before
many days were over, retook possession of the
town.
Being situated at the point of union of two
great navigable rivers, Allahabad is in one of the
liiiest positions iii Iiulin for beuig the seat of an
extensive commerce. The town, indeed, was de-
caying for some time after its occupation by (ireat
Brilaiu in 17G5; but of late years, and i)articu-
larly since the opening of the great Ea.st India
railway from Calcutta to Delhi, on which it is a
ALLEOIIANY
chief station, it hnw heen grontly increasing ui
prosperity. The populalion, which was only aliiuii
2(1,11(10 in iHiKt. Iiad risen to (!1,7«o in iWil. Tiu'
extensive (Millivatioii of cotton in liidin. a ri'suli
of the American civil war, was also particularly lii-
vourahle to Allahabad, it having JH-como the clii«f
seat of an extensive trade in the nrticle.
Ill the eyes of the iintives, the city is chielly
important as a jilace of pilgriinaj^e — one of tlici
most renowned in India. Besiiles the (innges niul
Jumna, the Hindoos believe that niiother river,
the Sereswnti, joins the other two from beluw
ground. In conseipience of this cxtraordinary
junction, Allahabad is reckoned i)eculiarly lioiy,
anil is annually visited hv many thousands ol'
))ilgrims, who come from nil parts of llindostan to
liatlie and purify themselves in the sacred streiuii;
ill some years their numbers have amounteil in
nearly 22(i.(((M), each of them paying a small l(i\
to government: — 'When,' says Mr. Ilamiltoii, •;i
pilgrim arrives, lui sits down on the bank of ilie
river, and has Ids head and body shaved, so lliai
each hair may fall into the water, the sacred
writings jjromising him one million of venrs' reni-
deiice in heaven for every hnir so deposited. At'icr
shaving, he bathes; and the same day, or lliu
next, performs the obsequies of his d(H'eased an-
cestors. The tax accruing io government for |)cr-
mission to bathe, is 3 rupees each person; but :i
much greater ex))eiise is incurred in charity aiul
giflsto Ihelirahmins, who are seen sitting by llic
river-side. ]\Iniiy |)ers(ms renounce life at this licpjy
conlhience, by going in a boat, after |)erfomiaiire
of certain scdemnities, to the exact spot where the
three rivers unite, where the devotee plunges iiiin
the stream, with three pots of water tied to his
body. Occasionally, also, some lose their lives
by ihe eagerness of these devotees to rush in aiul
bathe at the most sanctified spot, at n jireeix;
lieriod of the moon, when the immersion possesses
the highest 'iHcacy. The llengalees usually jicr-
forin the ])ilgrimagea of (iaya, Benares, and Alla-
habad in one journey, nnd thereby ncqiiire gre.it
merit in the estimation of their countrynu'ii.'
(Hamilton's Gazeteer; Ileber, i. pp. 441-11.).)
Since 1K(>2, Allahnhnd has become the capital of
the north-western jmtvinces.
ALL.\N (HKIIXH-; OF), a neat village of Scot-
land, on the Allan, 3 m. NVV. Stirluig, on the
Scottish Central railway. Pop. 1,«03 in IWll,
The village is a good deal resorted to in suninicr
by visitors, on account of a mineral spring in the
vicinity.
ALLAUCII, a towTi of France, dcp. Bouchw
du Rhone, 5 m. ENE. Marseilles. Pop. 3,()41 in
18()1. The town is built on the declivity of a
hill, and is very ancient.
Alleghany or Appalachian moun-
tains, a chain of mountains in the IJ. States of |
\. America, running in a NE. and S\V. dircclimi
from the N. parts of jVlabama and (Jeorgia, te the I
state of Maine, n distance of about I,2(i(J in. It
consists of a number of ridges, having a mean
breadth of about 100 m. and n menn elevatimi if |
from 2,500 to 3,000 feet. Their highest summiij
are in N. Hampshire, where thev attain to an ele-
vation of between (>,0()0 and 7,000 feet. They are |
almost evcrj'where clothed with forests and inter-
si)ersed >vith delightful vnlleys. Their stceiie>t I
side is towards the E., where granite, gneiss, ami
other primitive rocks are to he seen. (_)ii the W.
they slo]ie down by a gentle declivity coiitiniuil
to the Mississippi. Iron and lead are both nu't I
with, the former in great abundance, in varimn |
parts of the range ; and the considerable ([iian-
titles of gold that have been found in the stream I
in the upper pjirta of N. Carolina ami GeorfcHil
ALLEN (BOO OF)
f]v\\r tliftt it nlmi in nmon(; the products of tlio '
\llc;,'lmni('H. Hut poal hitiiis to hv. \>y far tlio |
111(1^.1 iuiiiorlaul of ilicir uiiucral richt-s. Viwt. ami i
all lint uu'xIiauHtililc Ix'il.s, i>( liiluminouH and of
iiiitliracit)' or Mtonu coal an; found in ditVorcnt iiarlx
i,f the I'liain, and arc aln-ady very cxtcnuivt'ly
wrciiifrlii. 'I'll*' quuiiiiticM of anlhriu'it*; lirouKlit
1,1 |Miiliid(^l|iliia, ]>artly for the NU|i|ily of tlu< city,
ami iinrtly for Nhi|iiii(!nt to otlu>r placoM, have
LTcatly incrcawd of late. Within the liwt few
years.' most extensive oil wpIIh have also Iwcn
llisciiV(^red in thedistri<'t of I'enusHvania, (jiviuf^
rise to vaf^er speculation, and the sudden growth
III' iiiHiicuse fortunes, Salt spring's are ahundaut
all aiout; the VV, slopci of the Alh%r|iaiiie>*, and
IViiMi some of them lurjje supplies of salt are pro-
cured. This mountain systc^ni is crossed hy the
jhidsou river, and is the only instano" known,
except, that of the St. I.nwreiiee, of the ocean
lidcs passin;r throu;^di a primitive nioinitaiu-chain,
ami carryiuf; depth for the larp'st vessels. It is
also crossed hy several (lanals and raihvava.
Al.LKN (IMXi OF), the name usually pvcn
til the extensive tracts of morass situalc^d in
Kildare and Kin^'n and t^uei'u's counties, and
llic adjoining counties of Ireland. These do not
hdwevcr fonn, as is commonly supposed, one
LTi'iit morass, hut a nuinher of <Minti;{uons mo-
rasses separated hy rid^(\s of dry fjroinid. Though
tint, the ho^r has a mean elevation of ahout 2.')()
feel aliovo the level of the sea, and j;ives hirth to
scinie of the princijial Irish rivers, as the Harrow
tlowinj; S., and tlu; IJoyne K.
ALLKN (LOlJdII), a lake, co. Leitrim, Ire-
land, ahout 10 m. in length, and from 4 to !> in
wiiltli. This lake is f^enerally HU|)p()sed to he the
simrce of the Shainioii, and it luis jjerhapH the
iH'st title to that distinction. It is eh^vated 144
feet al)ove the level of hi^di water-mark at Lime-
rick; and the .Shannon luis been rendered navi-
((alilc as far as the Lou(;h.
AliLI'.XDOlil'", a town of Ilesac Cassel, on the
Werra, 23 m. ICSK. Ca.ssel, on the railway from
t'asst'l to Kisenach. I'oi). 2„")00 in ItJtil. There
is ill the vicinity a considerahle salt work.
ALLliV^Vl-JI). a town of France, dep. Isere, cap.
cant., 21 m. NK. Grenoble. Top. 1,047 in IWil.
There are valuable iron and copper mines in its
vicinity, and founderies where iron t>f an excellent
description is prepared for conversion into steel,
and also for being cast into cannon. In the neij^h-
liimrhood are the ruins of the castle of Hayard, the
lilrtli-jilace of the famous knif^ht of that name —
tlio, chevalier sans peur et sans reproche.
ALLIEU, a dep. almost in the centre of France,
so called from the river iUlier, one of the principal
atllueuts of the Loire, whic^h traverses it from S.
to N., between 45° 58', and 415° 47' N. lat,, and
2° IG' and 3° 57' E. long. Area, 723,!)8I hect.,
whereof about 4()8,000 are cultivated land, 7I),000
meadows, 18,t)00 vineyards, G4,0I)0 woods, 28,700
lieaths, moors, &c. Pop. 356,432 in 18(ii. Ex-
clusive of the AUier, it is bounded E. by the Loire,
and is traversed by the Cher, and other lesser
rivers. The ponds and smaller lakes are so nu-
merous, that they are said to have an injurious in-
Huencc over the climate. Surface luululating, and
ill piuts hilly ; soil j^enerally fertile, iiroducin;,' a
siiqilus of corn and wine for exportation, with f^rcat
numbers of cattle, sheep, and excellent horses. A
Cood deal of the timl)cr in the forests is oak, suit>
alilc for ship-bnildin}^. A^^riculture in this, as in
many other departments of France, is in a back-
ward state. Many of the ])easantry are small pnn
lirietors, and wedded to the practices of their fore-
fiitliors. (See Fkanoe — ' Aj^riculture.') There are
valuable mines of coal, iron, and antimony ; and
ALLOWAY KIRK 7r.
(piarricH of marble and jrranite. AmouR the ma-
iiufacturiii(r establishments may be nu'ntinned the
l^liiKS Works (if Souri^uy and Comment ry, wliirli
eiiiphty alsiiit MOO workpeople ; the iron works uf
Troncais, which employ above 500 ditto, and fur-
nish annually alMive 500,0t)i) kilof^'s. of iron. Them
are also manufactories of cutlery, earthenware,
(doth, and pa|M-r, with spinning-mills, and nume-
rous breweries. The (U-partment is divided into 4
electoral arroiid, ; l(» can!, and ,'122 communes.
Chief towns, Moulins, Montlu(,'on, lianimt, aiul La
I'alisse,
AI.liOA, a sea-jiort and m, town of Scotland, eo,
Clackmannan, on tlu; Forth, at the |iidnt where it
ceases to be a river, and hi nies a frith, 25 m,
WNW. KdiiiburKh. I'..p. of town, in ixll, 5.i:i| ;
of parish ami town, I!, 505 ; in IMtll, town. ("1,125 ;
par, and town, m,k*;7. It is irregularly built ; l>ul,
lias recently been much improved. A church,
opened in IHII), has a spire 200 feet in height.
T'be barlioor is excellent; vessids of large burden
lying close to the (piays; there is also a dry dock
and two yards for shiji-bnilding. and a sjiaciouM
wet dock was opened in \xt'>:\. The trade of thu
town is considerable. In \H[\-> the reg. siiippiiig
was 4S, tonnage, I4,tl III ; steamers, 5, tonnage,
2;U, The customs revenue in 18(11 was 5,li2!i/.
There are very exieiisivc collieries, distilleries, and
iron works in the ncighbiiiirhodd, the produce of
which is principally shipped here; aiul in the town
and its vicinity are I'xtensive on'weries, which
|)roduce ale rivalling that of Ivlinburgh, with iron
founderies, woollen manufactories, glass works, tile
and brick works. The iustiee of (leace and sberilV
courts for the co, are held here. In a park adjoin-
ing the town are the ruins of a seat of the Karl of
Mar, ]iart of which consists of a tower of the 13lli
centurv, !tO feet in height,
AI.LOWAY KllJlv: the church (Scottice,Kirk)
of tt parish, on the coast of Ayrshire, long united
■with that of Ayr, near the mouth of the l)oon, on
the road from Ayr to Miiylxde, about 3 m. S. from
the former. The Kirk has been for a leiigthemid
jjeriod in ruins, but being prominently brought for-
ward in Ilurns's inimitable tale of Tarn O'Sbanter,
aiul having in its immediate vicinity the poet's
birth-place, and the monument erected to his me-
mory, it has become an object of great int('rest.
Though rootless, the walls are in pretty good pre-
servation ; and the feelings with which they are
now associated will protect them from depredation.
The church-yard, which is still used as a burying-
gronnd, c(mtains the graves of Hurns's father and
mother; and such is the prestige with which it
has iKJcn invested, that latterly it has become a
favourite place of interment, IJctween AUoway
Kirk and Ayr, but much nearer the former than
the latter, is the cottage in which Hums was b<irn
(on the 25th of Febniary, 175'J),aone-8t4iry house,
of humble appearance, with a thatched roof, aiul
long used as an inn. About J m, on the other side
of the Kirk, are the ' Auld brig o' IJoim,' and the
new bridge — the latter about 100 yards below the
former, and built since the time of Hums ; aiul on
the summit of the acclivity of the E. bank of the
river, about h.ilf way between the <dd and new
bridges, is the monument of the poet. This ele-
gant structure was tiiiislied in 1823, at an expense
of about 2,000/, It is built in imitation of the
monument of Lysicrat«s at Athens, and consists of
a triangular basement, on which rises a fieristyle,
of 1) Corinthian columns, .30 feet in height, sup-
porting a cupola, surmounted by a gilt tripod. It
is above CO feet in height ; is built of line white
freestone, iuul has a chaste, classical a|ipearance.
Independently of the peculiar associations con-
nected wtU the place, the scenery aroinid is eijual.
!*j:'^i
w^
L'
m
7ft
ALMADA
iilf'^'"
i ,!L,
U! •,,
1*1
in r'nilincsH iiiiil viiricfv to any in Sfotlnnd. Tlio
ccli'liriiti-il HialiicM of 'rmn O'Slmnlcr imhI SnutiT
.liilinnic iirt' ,i|)|irii|iriiili'lv jiliu'cd in ii ;;riiitii williin
till' K^'oniils alliK'licil Id lilt' niiiiMiini'iil,
ALMAI>A, n town of I'lirin^ai, prov. ICstrcma-
ilnra, on llic 'l'aKnso|i|iosit(- to l.islion. I'o|i. !'>.'iiM
in |M.')M, 'I'licrc is an old rnnt\v on a rock, an Ims-
]iital, il l.alin Hcliool, with lar^c ina^'a/iin- for wine,
AI.M.VDION, a town of S|iain, prov. La Mant'lia,
on its S\V. frontier, in tlic Sierra Morena, .''•"mileM
WSW.Cindad Iteal. I'op.H.dj.nn |s'.7. Williin
n Nhort distance of tliJM town is a I'anions mine,
wlu'iu'i! (piicji.silver wiis oltlained to tlui extent of
from ilO,0(»i» to Kt.dno (piintalM a year aliont 'I't
yeari^a^^'o; lint in IHilitllie produce w'as only lli.iinil
(|nintals. 'I'liis mine in very ancient, and is lie-
lieveil to )iav(! Iieen wronKl'f previously to, and liy
the lioniauH. Hut the statements of I'liny, wliicli
are nliiie curious and instrnclive (Hist. Nat. lili.
xxxiii. 7), apply distinctly lo Sisapo in Hietica.
that is, to Almaden ile. la J'liiht, 27 m. NNW. Se-
ville, wlien? tliere is still a |iroductiv(> mine; and
then^ are mines of the same sort, tliou^^h of very
inferior c<iiiMe<|uen(-e, in otlier parts of Spain.
The inliali. of Almaden are almost, wholly cn-
pif^ed in the mines, or in the sulisidiary employ-
ments connected with them. Fonnerly, the mines
were principally wrouj^ht liy convicts; hut that
Hvsteni has lieun relin(|nished for a ^niod many
A'cars, and they are now wholly wrouj,'ht liy free
Liliourers. Working in the mines is still, despite
the morittirions ctVorts made for its iniiirovement.
vor^' inihealthy; hut it is less so in winter and
Hpnn^ than in summer and autumn; and during
tlie latter the mines are comiiaratively deserted,
the miners \mni^ then mostly enf{afjed in ajfricul-
tural pursuits. The mines were formerly wron^jht
<ni account of pivernment, who disposed of the
produce liy contract to the hij^Hiest bidder; hut in
the year iHiil, owiuf; to tinancial dilHculties, they
were leased to the unnt liankin;^ house of liaron
Kothscliild & Co, for a numlier <if years.
ALMAOI'O.a t<iwn of Spain, )ir(iv. f^a Mancha,
12 m. KSK. Ciudad I.'eal. I'oji. iL'.tiori in iH.u.
It has an imjiortant manufacture of lilondes. The
country round is eeleliraled for its nniles and asses,
for which there is annually a larj^e fair.
ALMAN'ZA, a town of Spain, prov. Murcia, 'ifi m,
N\V. Alicante. ro|).«,7;((! in 1«,)7. It is well huilt,
lias broad streets, hnen falirics, and a ^^reat annual
fair. In the neij^hhourhood of this town, on the
'i.'ith April, 1707, the French, under the I)nkc of
I!er>vick, f^ained a complete victory over the allied
forces in the interest of the Archduke Cliarles. The
latter lost 5,0()() men killed on the liekl, anil nearly
ll),(»00 taken prisoners.
ALMKIDA, a fortilicd to^vn of Portngal, prov.
lleira. 24 m. W. by N. Cindad Kodrif,'o. I'oi). (),H,j()
in 18;")«. From its position on the frontier of the
kinffdom, it has always been deemed a military
jxist of tlie greatest importance. In 17(i2, it was
taken by the Spaniards, after a long sief^c. In
IHIO, it was taken by the French under M.assena,
who abandoned it in the following year, after blow-
ing u[) the fortifications.
ALMEKIA (an. Miirgis), a sea-port to^vn of
Spain, cap. of prov, of same name, and near the
month of the river, and at the bottom of the giilph
<if the same name; 4!> m. ESK. Alurcia. Pop.
27,(li{0 in 1S57. It is the se.it of a bishop, and has
falirics of soda and saltpetre, and of cordage and
other articles made of the esparto rusli. The harbour
is large, well sheltered, and is protected by a castle ;
the water is so deep, that large vessels anchor half
a mile from shore, in from 'J to 14 fathoms, and
straller vessels anchor, close in shore, in from 5 to
S> fathoms. Tlic ancieiit sovereigns of Granada
ALNWICK
I'onsidered this ns llu! most important town i,(
their dominions, as well on account of the ferijlitv
of the Nurroiiiiding <'onntry, as of iis nwinufaciuri 4
and commerce. 'I'lll of late the town had verv
much fallen ot)', but its importance as a connncrrial
port has greatly increased in recent years, niiij
It has been endicllished with many new Iniijil-
ings. Itesides the esparto trade, that in lead aini
grapes alVord considerable oc<'npation, and the pro-
iluctioii of liarlev is likewise oil the increase. TIh>
total shipping in lM(;;t was l,27« vessids, !IH,|n|
Ions. There art^ 111 smelting works for lead nrc,
and the products in iMIill was H.IIIKI tons. The ruails
in the district are very indilferent ; thi're are im
railways, and none projected ; and the inoiinlai i»
nature of tlu^ country interposes a natural hurricr
to ihe town keeping pace with more favoured iljs-
tricts of Spain. (Consular Ifeports.)
AI/MONIU'KV, a pa. and township of l''ngliiiii|,
U'.lt. CO. Vork, waji, of Aglirigg, diviiled by (lie
(Nilne from the pa. of llnddcrstield. The iia. is
very exti-nsivc, containing itO, I Id acres, with n
jiop". of I2,w.si» ill IMOI. Ii contains several vil-
lages, of which Almonbury, 14 ni. SK. llnddcrs-
tield, is the principal. I'op. of Almonbury town-
ship Kl.illil in im'il, mostly engaged in tlic
manufacture of woollens and cottons, especially
the former. (See IIudkkusi-ikmi.)
Ali.MOKA, a town of llindostan, cap, Kiimniiii,
in the NI'I. i>art of India, !l(l in. N. bv K. IliiriUly;
lat. 2i»° UiV N., long. 7!l0 1(1' K. It stands on' a
ridge r),.'t;i7 feet above the level of the sea, and 'n
compactly built. The houses of stone, and slalcil.
are gt'iierally two and some three stories high, tln'
grouiid-tloor being occupied as shops, Tlu- iilil
(ioorka citadel stands on a commanding |ioiiit nl'
the ridge at the K. extremity of the town, nml
several martello towers have be(^n erected on |ieaks
to t\w eastward. This jilace was acquired bv tlic
Itritish in IHI,"). The surrounding country is lileak
anil naked.
AliMUN'KCAK, a aoa-port town of Spain, pmv,
(Iranada, 41 m. S. (Jranada. Pop. 4,710 in ls.'i7.
The town is of Arabic origin, its name siffiii-
fyiiig a 'jilaco of banishment.' It has a riiiiicil
castle, ruined walls, and narr<iw streets. The sur-
rounding countrv, though nnsnited to corn, pni-
duces tigs, raisins, the sugar-cane, cotton, h\
The anchoriige is lit only ior small vessels, ami
should not be used by them except in cases nf
emergency, as the E. winds common on this coast
are ihingeroiis.
ALXMOUTII, a village of England, in Nortli-
nmberland, at the mouth of the Alne, !>\ m. KSK,
Alnwick. Pop. 454 in IS(51, The village expnrts
considerable quantities of corn and other iirodiicc.
ALNWICK, a town of England, cap. co. Nortli-
nmberland, on a declivity near the river Abu, 275
m. from London by road, and 3tB m. by (Jrcat
Xorthern railway. Pop. of town, in 1«41, 4,1)45,
of township (i,(i2'G; in IHIil town 5,(i70, par, 7,;-)Jii.
It has a spacious square, where a weekly market
is held, and a town-house, where the co. courts
meet and the members for the co. arc elected: tlic
assizes, however, are not held here, but at Xch-
castle. Alnwick was formerly fortified, and ves-
tiges of its walls and gates still remain. At the N.
entrance to the town stands Alnwick Castle, once
a principal stronghold of the kingdom on the siile
of Scotland, and now the mjignificent baniiiial
residence of the Diikes of Northumberland. It
underwent, not many years ago, a complete repair
and renovation, executed in good taste. At the
entrance to the town, a c(diimn is erected in
honour of one of the Dukes of NorthumherlamL
A cross, called Malcolm's Cross, stands on thcsimt
where .uulcolm III., king of iScotlaiul, is said lu
k iM^i
rtnnt town df
(il'tlio Icrlilily
* iiiiiiiul'iu'tiiri'H
own liiwl Very
tH It ciiiniiicrrial
•lit. yt'iirH. mill
iiy IK'W liuilil-
lii'kt in Iciul itiid
III, mill tlic iirii-
iiicri'iisc. I'Im!
VVSSflH. !W,|sl
kH fur Ifiiil iiri',
DiiH. The riiiuls
; then! nrc im
|U> IlllilllltlUlllills
ntktiiriil liiirricr
Tc. I'livourt'tl iI'h-
iliip of I'MiKlainl.
(livitlfil liy III!'
■Id. I'lif (111. is
I) ncrpH, with n
niiiM si'vcral vil-
n. SIC. lIllildiTrt-
Inionliury lown-
■ii)4ii|ii'il ill tlio
tloiiH, esjK'ciiiUy
n, rap. Kiimadii,
. by K. llarc'illy;
It wtiinds on a
if tlic st'ii, and is
monc, and slalcil,
! storii's lii^'li, till'
HhopH. TIk^ "111
maiidin^; i»iiiit of
if ilui town, ami
1 erect I" I on iicaivs
H iK-iiiiirod liv till'
g country is bli'iilv
|vn of Spain, pmv,
p. 4,710 in Ix.'iT.
its name fipii-
It liiw a riiiiii'il
streets. Tlic sur-
ed to corn, jiM-
ane, cotton, h:
niiiU vessels, ami
(•])t in cases nf
inon on this wisist
ngland, in Xnrtli-
\lne, 5^ m. KSK.
he villat,'e eximris
id other proiliii e.
id, cap. CO. North-
Jic river Alnt, i'h
313 m. by Groat
;, in IH-U, 4,',)4.i,
5,670, par. 7,;l.V).
a weekly market
ire the co. cmirts
. are elected; the
ic'c, Imt at Xew-
"ortified, ami vcs-
emain. At the X.
wick Castle, once
igdom on the siile
;niticent baninial
tluimberlaiid. It
a complete ropait
id tASte. At the
(in is erected in
Northnmberlauii.
itandson thesimt
itland, is said to
ALOST
jinvi' Iki'Ii killed, in l(i;>:i, by a soldier, who eame
I,, iiitir liiin the keys of the ciistle on the point of
a sjM'ar,
AIA 'ST (Flein. Afilit), a town of llelKinin, iimv.
V.H Flanders, on the l>eiider, aboiil liiilf way
liiiittci'ii llrns^els and (Ibeiit. I'op. IJM'.VI in If^.iti.
It iM >iirriiniid<'d iiy walls, and is idcan and well
liiiill: 111!' parish church, the liirK<'st in tlu' country,
i^ III it tiiiished; if has a colle>;e, and several other
(':|iicatii'iial establishments; a town-house, reiiiark-
alilc fur its anii'luity, with maniifaclnres of linen,
,.„il,iii, lace, hats, Ac, print works, and dyi! works,
lircwrrics and distilleries, tanneries, soap works,
irnii and copper fonlideries, and polteries. Vessels
(if small size come up to town by the river; and il
liiis a coiisiiU'raiiK! commerce in the produce of its
inaiiiifactures. and in hops of an excellent ipialitv,
LTiiwii in the tieifrhbonrh 1, rape oil, A'c. At
,\|(ist is the tomb of the celebrated Thierry Mar-
ti-iis, the friend of Krasmiis, who introduced Ihc
art iif printing into Itelgiiim.
Abl'IIKN, a town of the Netherlands, prov. S.
Iliiilaml, cap. cant, on the IMiine, 7J m. K. Ley-
dcii. I'op. 3,1 <!7 in isiil. it has maintfactures of
earl lien ware aiul pipes.
AM'NACIl, a village of Switzerland, cant.
1 jilerwalil, on the SW. ann of the lake <if Lucerne.
I'dii. I.titi" in IHtiO. A very singular road, called
llic Slidf of A/pnurh, is constructed in the imme-
dialc vicinity of this town, for conveving trees
rrniii Mmiiil i'ilatus to tin- lake, from which they
arc I'linvardeddown the l{hine to the Netherlaiuls
ill ilic fiinn of rafts.
ALPS (THK), the most extensive mountain
,«vstcni of l'".urope. They extend from the banks
(il'llie Iihone in France on the VV,, to llie centre
iil'Slavoiiia and the frontiers of Turkey on the 1'".,
frmn tlie oth and l«th degree K. long., forming a
vjist semicircnlar bulwark which encompasses, on
the N., Italy ami the Adriatic Sea. The ex-
tremities of this semicircle a|i]iroach 4.3° N. lat.,
liiit the great body of the range occupies the space
lictweeii the 4(itli and 4«th degrees X. hit,
Tlie Alps are closely united to two other moun-
tain ranges; on the \V. to the Apennines, which
traverse Italy in its whole length; and on the K.
tci the llalkhan, which covers Tnrkev and (Irecce
with its numerous ramifications. I'lie boundary
line lietwecn the Apennines aim the Alps is ditK-
tult to determine. It seems to be most expedient
to sii|i))ose that the Aljis begin on the \V. side of
tlie great road over the Uochetta jiass (2,.").5(l ft.
aliove the level of the sea), which leads from
lieniia to Novi in Piedmont, That portion of the
range which begins at this road and extends E. to
the sources of the Tinea, a tributary of the Var, is
called the Maritime Alps, and docs not contain
any very high summits; but it is extremely ste p,
anil is traversed only by one road jiracticable for
cfirriiiges. This road connects the town of Nice
with the town of Colli in Piedmont, and traverses
three ridges by the mh or mountain passes of
llroiis Hrovis, and dc Tende. The last col is in
the main ridge of the range, and rises to 6,159 feet
above the level of the sea.
Between the plain of the Po a.id the valley of
the Khonc, the mjuntain mass lies in its greatest
extent S. and N., reaching from the shore of the
Mediterranean, or from nearly 43°, to the lake of
Geneva, or to nearly 4(1° 30' N. lat. Its length
in here, consequently, about 230 m., and its width
averages about 100 m. The watershed, between
the rivers falling into the Po, and those emjitying
themselves into the Khonc, does not traverse the
middle of the mountjiin region, Init 's found at
about 30 ra. from its K. border. On it rise some
very high summits. The most remarkable ore,
ALPS
77
Monte Viso, 1'.',<*I,'( feet iibovp the sen, on whono
!•'. declivities the Po lakes its origin ; and Mount
Ct'liis II, "!•.") feel above llie sea. Mont iNcrau, il
apiM-ars, mils', lie dcpoHcd from the place il Iiim
long held aniotigsi mountains. On reaching I ho
sninmit of the Col d'Iseran. the traveller naturally
expects, says the Alpi'ie (liiide, to see this r«ninniil,
lowering, as has been described, 13,271 feet above
the level of the sea. Ihii no great peak lies close
to the pass; the bighcHi point near il, and thai
which occupies the place of the Mont Iseraii of
the maps, is not more iban IO,Hil(l feel above the
sea levt I. Farther N. is the iinineiise iiPiss of
rocks that coiistitiile M<int Mi. anc. whose highest
iioint, the Ho»»e dv Uromviliiin; in lat. 4.')° i")0' N.,
long. 11° [>[' K., Ii'i,731» ft. above the sea, is the
highest elevation to which the Alps attain. Tho
vaUeys, both to the K. and W., branch otf at
right angles from the watershed. Those to the K.
are short, straight, and deep, and terminate in the
plain of th«! I'o; those to the W. are of much
greater length, and rather winding. On this side,
especially in the dep. ilis Jluiitis Al/ifH, belweeii
the upper branches of the rivers Isereaiid l>nraiice,
are placed a considerable number of verv high
summits; Mont l.oiicyra attains 1 l,l.")i ft".. Mmit
liOiipilla 14,144 ft., lilont I'elionx de Valloiiise
14,1 ID ft., and at least twelve others rise above
1 1,000 ft. The ])eciiliar disposition of the valh^ys
in this ]iortion of the Alps has rendered the eoni-
munication between I'"rance and Italy compara-
tive'/ easy. The roads follow the valleys up to
the watershed, and have then only to traverse one
high ridge. Three great carriage" roads lead over
it. The farthest to the S. is the road of Mount
(le'nfcvre, which ascends from the banks of the
Jvhone along the valley of the Durance to llrian9on,
and traverses the ridge N. of Mount tie'nevre,
where it attains (i,l lit It. above the sea, whence it
descends in the valley of the river Dora to Susa.
The second is the road of Moiuit Ceiiis, which tut
the side of France may be said to begin at (Ireno-
ble. It ascends lirst the valley of the Isere, and
afterwards of the Arc, a tributary- of the former,
and traverses the ridge N. of Mtint Cenis, where
it is (i,772 ft. above the sea, and then descends,
like the former, along the Dora to Susa. The
latter is by far the most used of all the roads over
the Alps; and it is stated that annually from
10,0(10 to 1 7,000 carrifiges of all kinds, and from
45,000 to .50,000 horses and mules, jiass along it.
A railway folliv '-ig the course of the road over
Mont Cenis, w' •' gigiuitic tunnel through the
mountain, is i .nipleted in 1M72. The third
carriage road L >liat of the Little S. JJernard,
which ascends the valley of the Isere, passes the
ridge between Mont Iseran and Mont Ulanc,
and descends in the valley of the Dora Baltea to
Aosta. It attains in its highest point to an eleva-
tion of 7,015 ft. above the sea, and it is most
commonly suiijiosed that it was by it that Han-
nibal penetrated into Italy. This jiortion of tho
Aljis comprehends what commonly are called the
Cottian, Graian, and partly the Pennine Alps,
together with those of Dauphinc' and Savoy; but
respecting the limits of the Cottian and Graian
Alps, there prevails considerable uncertainty.
At Mont lllanc the direction of the range is
changed. It runs hence ENE. and the N. ridges
continue in that direction to their terminarion in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. With the change
of direction a change in the disposition of the
valleys is observed. The range is divided into
two or more ridges, running nearly ])arallel, and
including extensive longitudinal valleys. From
the ridges enclosing these longitudinal valleys
short transverse vallevs descend S. and N. to the
Hk'. --^z^?
Vu
'M'i.
1*
il-;t'
7H A I
filfiiiiK wliicli iHtiini) the inoinitniii rnnfff. This
iliHiMixiliiiii of tli<< riiii;;('H rcinliTH tlii> I'linimiiiii'
<'iiliiiii Ih'Iwitii ltiil\' nil dill' HJili', Mini Swit/.cr-
liiiiil mill llrriiiiiiiy cm tlx' nilirr, iiiiiili ninri'
ilillii'iill llmii tlif t'liiiiiniiiiii'iiiiiiii liriwiTii linly
mill Friiiicc ; I'lir tln' rmnlH iiiiiNt i'hIiit truMT;*!'
(wiior iniiri- riilm'M, or pcri'iit lii'lli'i'linim iiiiiMt In-
iiiailc III Hviiiil Olio of tlioni.
I'!, of Miiiit Itliinr llic riiiiKc \i* iliviili'il into two
lii>;li riilj;i'H, wliicli I'lirlouc tlio viilloy of ViiluiHo,
and iiiiilc ahiiiit H° lid' K, loii;;., iit tin' soiiri'i'H of
till' Itliolic, Till' HolillicriliniMl of llii'si' niliurr*,
wliirh iH iiiiiiii'iliuli'lv coiint'cti'il with Mmit lllaiic,
conlains nearly in Uh miililli' Mount ItoHa, tlic
Hi'conil lii^'lii'Mt Niiiiiinit of tlic AI|)m, liciii;,' l/i,'JI7
ft. al;iiv»' till! Hon. W. of it HtainlK Mount CtTvin,
or Matti'riiorn, the tliinl liiKhi'st Hiiintnit.risin^r to
ll,M,'(ti ft. Thi'ii follow Aloiint ("oinliin, which
htiH l'l,lt!4 ft., anil Mount \'i'lan, whirli nttaiiiN
l'-',.'iri.'i ft, I''., of Mount K'osa, anil near it, is the
rinia di' Sari. i.'l,7l(i ft. hi;,'h. This chain coiii-
lirisc." the f^rcalcr part of the I'eiiiiine anil a
|iortioii of the Le|ioiitiii(> Alpn, hut is coiiinionly
calleil the Alps of Valaise. In the cliain which
encloses the valley of Valaise on the N, the
j,'reati'st Kiiropean jilacicr is foiinil, not far W.
of the source of the Hlione, Here a ^freat part
of the chain rises ahove the line of con^;elatioii,
anil is always covered with ice. It is stated to
have an area of *20l> sq. m. Many hif,di siiininils
rise out of it in the I'onn of iiyraniids; and us
the snow does not adhere to their slee]) sides,
they form a siildiino contrast with the sea of ice
tliat surrounds them. The most famous of these
siiinniits are the Finsteraarhorn, Il,(f2(! ft.; the
JMoncli (Monk), l.'(,t;t« ft. ; the Juiififran (Vir(j;in)»
i;{.7t;i ft.; the Schrekhorn, l.'U'.H ft.; the Vis-
cherhorner in (irindelwald, which include six
summits raiif^in^ from 12,(i!)4 ft. to 1J1,2SI ft.;
and the Kifjer, l.'J,()4;3 ft. hif^h. The (glaciers of
(Irindelwald and Laiitorbninnen, whii^h attract so
many travellers, are only small detaeheil ])ortions
of this iniinense f^lacier. W. of the prcat fjlacior
the chain still contains many summits rising to
ll,()(lt), and even to 12,(M)() fr. "of elevation ; as the
Altels, the lilUmlisalp, and others. It may he
(Mtiisidered as tenninatiii;; on the \V. with the
Diahlerets, or Teiifels-homer, which attains about
1(),(1(!(» ft. of elevation. W. of them the moun-
tains are of moderate heif^ht, and Inwards the
lake of Geneva they sink into elevated hills. 'J'liis
<'haiii ii<>v» commonly by the name of Boniese
Alps (Jk'rner Alpen).
The depression of this cliain at its ■western
extremity has aflorded an opportunity of esta-
blishiiif; a carria/^e cominiinication between Ge-
neva and Jiernc in Switzerland, and Milan in
Jiomhardy. The road runs aloiifj the shores of
the lake of Geneva, and enters at its eastern ex-
tremity the valley of the h'honc or of Valaise.
It then ascends the vallc^y as far as the town of
IJrifif^, and passes thence over the S. ranj^e by the
pass of the Simnlou to Domo d'Ossola and the
nhorcs of the Laj^o Majij^iore. The hij^hest
point of this road is (!,.")«;') ft., the town of lirigR
'2,325, and Domo d'Ossola 1,01)3 ft. above the
sea. This road, made by order of Napoleon,
partly at the expense of France, and partly of
the then kinjrdom of Italy, is a noble work. It
is about 2l)i ft. wide, risiiif; IJ inch each yard.
In some ]ilaces it is tunnelled to a considerable
distance throuf^h the solid rock. It is the only
carrifm'e road over this ran^e ; hut another road,
used only by mules, has obtained celebrity by
Napoleon having passed it in 1800, previously to
his famous Italian camiiai.tcn. This is the road
of the Great 8. Bernard ; it beguis at Martigny
on till' Uhone, wironds the vale of the ttmnll rivir
Mrance to its source, where it passes over tji,.
I'liiiin mar the cclcbrati'd Ijiwiiice, at an eleviiiiuii
of M,I73 ft. above the sea, ftllil lUwemlH lieiiee ti,
Ao'^la oil the l>ora llaltea.
!•'. of the sources of the Ifhone is the niilv
place in the Alps rimiiin^' \V. and K. where ih,
raiiKe is not di\ ided by loii^ituiliiial valli'\s. Inn
is intersected by the two triuisverse val(e\s n|
the Ueiiss and Tessiiio. Hence there has e\iy|ii|
time imineinorial a line of commiiiiicatioii In
this point between Switzerland and Italy. Tin,
is Iht^ "oad of the S. (ioihard, niiiliiif; '/.w'wh
and fjiceriie with Milan. riinniiiK lirst aloii;; |||,.
shores of the lake of the four cantons (or of I.n.
cenie) to Allorf, and afterwards in the valley nt
the upper IJeiiss to Anderiiiatt. It passes the
riil/,re at an elevation of ti.MOM ft., dcsceinls in
Aviolo on the Tessino in Val I.eveuliua, and niiis
in this valley to the Ka),'o Mawiore. and tliinn:
to Milan. This much fre(|uenteil road has nnly
ill inoilem times been rendered practicable liir
carria;,'cs, on account of the jioverty of the sinall
cantons which it traverses.
That portion of the mountain system wliiiji
lies between Mont Itlanc and the road of ilic
S. (iothard is less broad than any other part. It
iirobably does not measure more than 8t( ni. acm.s
in a straight line; hut its valleys, both to the s.
and the N.. but I'specially the latter, known liy
tlienameof lli^rhlaiidsof Itenie (lleriierOberliiiiili,
are considered as exhibiting the richest mouiilaiii
scenery in the / Ips,
K, of the road over the S. Gotliard pass, the
mountain system widens considerably; so thai
between !)° and 13° K. long., its average hreailth
may be estimated at bct'.veen 120 and 13(1 iiiilcs,
lint nt the same time the high siinmiits ari' los
numerous, a few only attaining 12,000 ft,, tlimi>;li
a great number still exceed 10,000 ft,, and jiii.*
the line of congelation. The height of the iiiniiii.
tain passes shows evidently that the elevatimi nf
the whole mountain mass has rather incrcainl
than decreased, at least VV. of the pass over ilie
IJrenner.
That portion of the range which is hoiindrd nn
the south by the Val Tellina, tiie roail of the
Tonale. and the valleys of Sol and Noii ; on llit
north by the road of the Vorarlherg from Fcid-
kircli to Landock, on the oast by the Adige from
San Michele to its source, and then by the Fiiis-
tennllnz road to Landeck ; and on tlie west liy
the valley of the liliine and the Sjilllgen rmul is
called the Kli.i'tian Al])s, or the Alps of the (Irisinis,
It is traversed by a great valley, which is diviilci! liy
a high transverse ridge into two, of which the \V.
or shorter, called the Vale of Hregaglia, is draimd
by the river Mora, which runs \V., and falls into
the lake of Como, or rather of Mesola ; and tlic K.
and much longer by the Inn, which falls iutii the
Uanube. The Adda, and its tributaries, willi the
excefition of the valley of I'oschiavo, has liccii
united to Italy since the year 18.59. Kxcept Kn-
gadine, all the valleys running castwanl frmn
these Alps belong to Austria, as also belongs the
valley of the 111, opening into the valley of the 1
Hhinc at Fclilkirch. The valley of the Uiipcr |
Khine afl'ords two openings towards the Imv
country ; one to the lake of Constance, and tlie I
other to the lake of Wallstadt. Thus the towiiuf |
Chur or Coire, situated where the Kliinc tiinis
N., has an eosj connnunication both with Ucr- 1
many and Switzerland. Though a small jilaic
by far the greater part of the commercial iiuer-
course between Ilavoria, Wirtemberg, Baden, ai:il
Switzerl.and on one side, and Italy on the other,
is carried on by the road passing through it. The
|;,Miciers, occiipyinfp
«mall rivi r
mm over tin.
ail t'li'vaiinii
IIiIh lirlU't' I.,
in tllC lilllv
K. WlltTC lllr
ll vallrVH. Ijiii
■HC VallcN » u|
•f has «'\isiii|
iiiiiiii'atioii ill
1 Italy. 'I'lih
iiiliiiH Ziirirli
lirHt aloii^' III!'
HIS (i>r ol' l.ii.
llm valley nl
It ))aMH('S I III'
,, (li'Kcrllils III
itiiia, anil niiH
re, anil tliciin'
mail liiiH Hilly
liraclicalilc li.r
y of the Hinull
ByMtcni wliiili
n riiad "ll" III!
ollirr (larl. Ii
an HO in. aim-s
lidtli to llicS,
tier, known liy
TncrOlH'rliiiiili,
l.'llL'Ht luouiiluiii
Hinrd paw, the
ralily, ho llmi
ivt'ra^je lircailtli
t and l!)(i miles.
iiniinitH arc los
J.OOO ft.. tli(iii;;li
101) ft., and \<a.-»
■lit of tilt' IIKlllll-
[thc elevation iif
■atlier incrcaii 4
le jiass oviT llit
|j 19 lionndrilon
'k>. road of llic
id Noll ; on till
KTH from Fi'W-
tlu! Adi!,'*' I'roiii
|en by the Fiiis-
oii tiie west liy
S|)lilneii rii!i(ll<
isoftlieCirisiiiis,
lieli isdividcilliy
if wliieli tlicW.
:nj';lia. is draiiml
., and falls into
sola ; and tlio K,
ich falls into tlii;
iitaries, with the
liiavo, has ln'cii
l9. Kxcept \'.\\-
eastward Irmn
ilso belongs the
lie valley of the
of tlie Ujijii
ivards tlic In"
listanee, and tlie
'luis the towniif I
he Khine tiin\s
both with (JtT- 1
1 n small plaw-
immcri'ittl iiucr-
jerg, Baden, ami
[ly on the. otlicr.
;hrough it, Tk
fl»tlt<"> "f •'"' fifi*"""' "elKible of the ndvaillat'e
nuniiiii,' If'"" ''''" eoMiincrrial inirn'onrHe, lias
,1,11-triirli'd three exeelleiit roadx over llu' raiinr,
nhji'li ilivideH the afllneiil of the liliiiie iVolii
tlm-i' ileHri'tldin^' into the |ilaill of the I'o, A
pmil nnis Iroiii Colre aloii^ the Ithiiie to the plaee
uhirr till' Vofiler liliriii and llinirr Kheiii jnin,
mill ilu'iiee acfi'iiilH in the valley of the laiicr \i<
till' village of S|illlp'n in the Itlieinwald. At tlii-<
iiliii'i' till' road divides in two. ( >ne eoiitinnes to
ii.iiiid llie valley of the llinter IJIiein to a village
ciillnl also llinterrhi'in, and passes theme o\cr
ilie lii^'li inoiintaiii rii||^^< to S, Iternardino; it is
caili'il till' road of S. Keriiardino, I'Vuin this vll
hu,'(' it ilrseeiids in the Val Misoeeo or .Miso aloii);
till' rivrr Moosa, which opens near llelliii/nMa
into the small plain snrronndin^ tlu' N. extremity
(iC the Lap" Ma>;giore. This mad, wliieh risrs to
7,ii|.'i ft, aliove the sea, has been made in modern
limes to avoid the heavy duties which the Aus-
trian ){overnm('iit laid on the li>rei;;n coiiiiiioilities
|lll.•|^in^C Ihroiiffh its territories; for from llellin-
ziina they now can pass to Turin and (ieiioa
williiiiit traversing any portion of the Austrian
iliiiiiiiiions. The other road leaves the IMiiiiwald
III the villagi^ of Splllgen, and directly pa.sses over
till' iiiiiiinlain ridge to Val (iiaeomo, which ojieiis
iiitii Val Hregaglia near (.'hiaveiina. The hi>,'liest
pari of this road between Sjilllgen and Isola is
l!.!i|ll ft. above the sea. Anoilicr road runs from
I'liiri' nearly directly S. over some mountains of
nmilirate height, till it enters the valley of Ober-
liiilhstein, wiiicli it ascends nearly to its iip|ier
cxtreiiiity, where it divides into two branches, of
wliii'h the K. pusses Mount Jiilier at an elevation
iil'.'.'H.') ft.; it leads to the valley of I'jigadien,
fiiiil is not a commercial liiut of eomninnication.
The \V. road passes over the Maloga and descends
iiitii Val Hregaglia, where it eonlimies to tint town
uf (!hiaveniia. It rises to 8,*J60 ft, above the sea,
iiiiii though practicable only for small carts, is
iimcli used.
The next road farther K. is ratlier n military
than a commercial line, and was rei^eiitly made
hy the Austrian government to ojien a carriagi^
('iniiiiiiniicatioii between the newly acijiiired
Vallcl'iU! and Tyrol, It begins at Innsbruck,
asci'iids along the Inn as far as Fiiistennlln/,, near
the hoiindary line between Tyrol and Switzerland ;
turns then soiitliward, and pas,ses the watershed
I (if the Alps, between Naiiders and IJeshen, where
its highest ]K>int is about 4,500 ft. above the sea.
I Tiicii it (h'scends along the valley of tlii' Adige to
(Hums; hut a few miles S. of this it leaves tlu-
I vaihy, and turning SVV. traverses a very lofty
lateral chain of the Alps, which at the ]dace where
I it is crossed by the road is calleil Monie Stelvio.
liieii rises to the height of lt,177 ft., being the
I lii);liest elevation of any carriage road in Kiiro|)e.
Frmii this point it descends rajiidly into the valley
(if the Adda to Ikimiio and Kondrio, and thence to
liMilaii. it is commonly 10 ft. wide, and has been
|niaile at a vast expense, and with great skill.
This road encircles on three sides an extensive
J niimntaui region, tilled up bj'snow mountains and
L'lacii'rs, ocoiipying the greater part of the country
hetwccn Innsbruck and (iluriis, luid displaying
I the wildest scenery of the Ali)s. I'^ternal snow
Icovcrsliere ii ^jiace not much less in extent than
jiliut which . irrounds the Finsteraarliorn and
jVirfjiii, and it is likewise overtopi«d by numerous
Ifteep summits of a ])yramidal form, many of them
Irisiiif; to more than 10,OtiO ft. above the sea;
liis the Gebatch Femcr 12,288 ft., the Wildspitz
|Femrrl2,.St;4 ft., the tUockthurni 1 1 ,284 ft., and
lolhers. Where the road traverser* Monto Stelvio
lit imsea near another niuuiitain grou]), less in
AI.I'H 70
I extent, hut rising to A greater elevniion. Tn it is
I Mniinl < trti'Inr, or Orlchr, the highisi suniiiiii in
Tyriil, r.'.H.ij ft. iiliove the sr;i ; and mar (he
hitter Miiiiiii Hock Ishiriiowald 1'.',!:.''.' It., and
[ .Mount /cl.rii l'.V'.7.i ft. Iiitii.
To the I''.., iiiit at Nome distance fnun Ihesfl
I miiiuitain masses, is the road o>er ihi' KniiiH'r,
I wliiili ma\' be coiisidcrcd as the !•',. bnuiidary lino
I III till' Itliiellan Al|<'. This rmtd iic^'iiis at Inns-
! briii'k. ascends the valley <>f the small riM'r .sill,
I and jiiisscs tlielice over the watershed between the
Inn and the Adi;;e, where. N. of Sior/.ini;, it
attains the elevation of l.ri.'i!) I't. ll then descends
in the \alley of the I'.isaek from llrixen to llul
/.ami or ll<>t/.en, and thence to Ituveredo and
Verona, ll is one of the most freipieiiled coiii-
inereial roads over the Alps.
This road may lie consiilcred as separating tlio
W. from the I".. Alps. The latter are di-.tiii^iiiislied
from the former liy being more disiincily diviih'd
by longitudinal valleys running W. and I',.: by
the greater number of separalit ridges; their
greater width and lesser elevation; tlic niiinber of
snow-topped inoimtailis being comparatively few,
and none of t hem occiirriiii; l'„ of I 1° I'), long.' The
northern half of this mountain rc^^ion is known
by the name of the .Noric .Alps; and the Noiithern
by those of ('ariiilhian, Crainiaii or Julian, and
Dinariiin Alps.
Not far distant from, and nearly parallel with,
the N. border of this mountain region, extends a
very long longitudinal valley from 11° to \:>'^ \'„
long.; but it isdividcilliy two transverse ridges
into three valleys, in which llow tlii' rivers Inn,
the rpper Sal/ach and the I'pper I'^iis. all of llieiii
running H, To the S. of the valley of the Sal/.acli
is placed the highest jiart of thi^ Noric Alps,
Many summits rise above the snow line, and be-
tween them are many extensive glaciers. This
highest summits are the (inLssliloekiier, I2,;")('>7 ft.;
the<iross Wiesbach, or Krnmmhoni, 11,844; and
the Ankogel, ll,87i» ft. above the sea. The hiii-
gitiidiiml valley south of this range is divided by
a transverse ridge into two valleys, of which the
W. is ilrained by the I'jsach, which runs W. and
falls into the Adige. The K. valley is drained by
the Drave, running I'",., and one of the largest,
tributaries of the Danube. The mountain chain
dividing thesis from the plain of l.ombardy is
much less elevated, rising only in a few siiminil.s
to above 8.(100 ft., and iioneOf them excei'diiig
!>,000 ft. above the sea. (Inly the Terglou. which
rises near 14° K. long., at the sources of the Save,
attains a height of !l,««l ft., and is by many con-
sidered as the most K. snow mouiittiin of "the S.
range of the Alps,
K. of 14° K. long, the Alps are divided into .'i
ridges by 4 longitudinal valleys, .'ill of them open-
ing to the K. These valleys are traversed bv the
rivers I'^ns, Miihr, Drave, "and Save, The iliihr
suddenly turns S., and running through a wide
and ojieii transverse valley, empties it.self into the
Drave. The ranges enclosing these valleys on
their N. and S. sides gradually decrea.se in height jw
they advance towards the K. ; so that when rr-
rived at l(i° they may rather be termed hills than
mountains, except the ridge which divides the
valley of tlie Drave from that of the Save, which
jireserves its mountainous aspect beyond ]8° K.
long. ; where, at the conlhience of the Drave with
the Danube, it sinks into low hill.s, but rises again
into mountains towards the contluence of the
Danube and of the Save, where it takes the name
of Sirmian Mountahis, or Friizka (Jora, This
latter group may be cimsidered a.s the most E.
oll'set of the Alps, but rises hardly to more than
3,000 fu
\:^
«!%
. III!" :
81)
AM'S
i'l
.11-
■LJ ■
'llif rimur «liii'h dUiilrs llic VHllcy'* nf lln-
Miilir mill III' ilii' I'jiN liiriiM S,, iiiiil nuiiihiii'H lur
n ilindiiiri' in tliul ilirt'i'linii, I'liriiiln^ iIk' I'!. Imiiii-
<liiry III llii< iritii'ivrrH)' vullcy nf ilir Mulir; Iml nil
till' liiiiiniliiry liiir IkIwci'Ii Slyriit iuhI lliiiiKury. il
tiiiliHiiIci iiitii jiiu liilU, wliirli iiri' riillnwcil liy lliil
lii^'li ^'riiiiiiil, riiiiiii'i'iiii^r ilic AI|iN Willi till' I'lirrHi
«>l Ittlknliy, 'I'llirt IIHIIK' i^ |^i\i'M In II InW llliillll-
liiiii riiii^i' wliii'li N<'|ifiriili'H iIk' Iwn |iliiiiift nl'
lliiiiKiiry rmiii nuc iiiinilnr, iiTiniiiitiiii^ wlirrr iIm'
|)iiiiiilif Hiiililciilv tiirii.<4 )<nulli>Miri|, mill wliirli
IIIIIV tllmi Ih! C<iUnuli<ri'(l Its nll(> nl' till' K, nll'silH nl'
Jill' ,\1|.M.
'I'lic iiiiihI N. ri(l>f«> of tli(> N'nric Alpi*, wlilfli
l<kir(.s llic vtillt'yN nl' llic Sikl/.ikrii iiiiil liiiN nil llii'
N., \H limki'ii ilirnii|{li l)v llicHc rivcrM wIhtc llicy
liirii N. Ill run In llicir r<'('i|iii'iil, tlic l>iiiiiili<'.
This rid^i' limy li*M-niihiiU'ri'il lo tcniiiiiiiic with
llii> Schiiii'liiTK. iK'nr Ni'IihIuiII, rixiiiK ti.NX'.' I'l.
alinvt' ill)' Hca. This riil^'i' semis niiiiicrniis lalrnil
lirmirhcs In iIk' N,, wliirh li'niiiiiittt' >'liw(> In, or itl
II xhiiri ilisimu'c IVniii, (lie l>iiiiiili<', litlwccii IJn/.
mill Vii'iiiiu. Hut ilii'y rarely ulluiii lliit IivIkIiI •>!
<|,niio nr .'i.iMio It.
ThrniiKh this purl n| the Alps lie the minis hv
>vhii'li till' Inw'iis III' I, ill/, mill \'iriiiiii I'luiiiiiiiin-
t'uli' with lliily milt Trii'stc mnl {''iiiiiu'. 'I'hcri' iirr
twocarriiiniTi'iiilH witliilill'i'riiii liiaiiclics; liii\iiiK.
U.S I't'ii trill I minis, tiif Inwiisnl' N'illut'li nil the l>raM'
ill Carinthia, mnl nf l.aylnirli mi the Save in Car-
iiiiila. Tlic lirst, uiiitiii;^' I. in/, nii the |)mnil>c
with Italy mnl 'I'lirstr, runs in the licKinniiiK
ninsily alnii^' iIki hanks nl' the river Traiiii, in a
\\'S\V. ilirertinii, tn the tnwil nl' S.'ii/.hni');' nil the
Siilzliaeh: it then rnllnws the valley nl' llie l.isl-
ineiitinlieil river lip to the plaee whire il is diviileil
hy a transverse I'iilj^e I'min that nl' the I'jis, and
Ihen |ia>ses nver that ridi^e tn K'ailstadt. Ileiiee
il direelly aseeiids the elevated raii|,'e wliieli
M'parales the valley nl" tin- l''.ns I'mni that nl' the
Aliilir, and is kiinwn hy the iimiie nf the Tanerii.
The highest ] uiiit nf this mad, at llirsi'Invaiid,
rises lo .">. '21111 ft. uhovi! the sen. Frnm S, JSIieliael,
in the valley ef the Miilir, llie road aseeiids agnin
to iiass over the tliird rmijje, whieli divides the
valley of the Miihr from thai nf the Drave. This
chain', linwever, is niiieh lower. The mad leads
to Spital on the Drave, and thence I'nilows the
lianks of the river In Villaeh. Frnni Villaeli it
Jisceiiils the valley of the tiail, a triliiitary of the
Drave, tn Tarvis, where the mads leadiiifj; lo Italy
and Trieste seiiarate. The road to Italy turns \V.,
traverses tlii' lunsl S. ridj^e liy ihejiass nf I'niiteha,
2.;")72 ft. aliove the sea, and deseends through the
valley of the Telia to Treviso and Veiiiee. The
road to Trieste runs from Tarvis S., attains its
liif^host point at the piuss of I'redil (;i,S 10 ft. liiffli),
and deseends thence in the valley of the Jsoiizn
to (Joerz or (Jnriza, whence it turns S. to Veil h
and Trieste, This mad is connected with that over
the nreinier by n transverse mad, nnitin;; the
valley nf the liravewith that nf the Kisaeli. It
ascends along the Drave fmin Villaeh to Spital
and Lien/,, passes over the transverse bridge se|ia-
rating the valleys hy the pass of liinich, and de-
Hceiids the Kisacli in the wide valley of I'uster to
IJrixcn, where it joins the mad over the Hreiiner.
The road hetween Vienna and the towns on the
Adriatic runs in the lieginning along the K. skirts
«>f the Aliis to Neiistailt on the Leitha, whence it
ascends the ridge called the Sommering, on whose
dumtnit it is !{,.'J37 ft. above the sea. Ilencc it
descends along the small river MUrz to IJruok on
the Miihr. Along the last-named river it ii.isses
through (Jriitz to Marburg on the Drave. It then
traverses the range separating the Drave and Save,
passing through Wcudish, Teislrilz, Cilli, aiiil the
Triijntin ynnn to I,a> bach. Ik'lwern this pliiiT ■m.\
Trli'sti> is the iiiniintitiiitiiis country callnl Uu
Adelxherg and Karsl. .Near AdeNlierg the ri||4
rir'i's I'.'.'TI fl. iibnve the sea; il llieine desciinli i ,
Seiinnethli, mill pa-siiig nver the Karst arriM ■ f
Triesic. Frnin Ihe pa.'<H of AilelsUrg u nai
hrmirhes nil' In l''iiiliie.
There arc two r.iilwavH acrnss Ihe Alps, fi>||i,\t.
iiig. with but slight Miriatinii, Ihe course nl' ||„
mads here ileKcrilied. The lirsi, and iiiohI weijirK
nf the twn, riiiiH I'mni Liu/, r/ii Sal/liriick, lu lim.
briii'k, where it is tocrims the llreinier, lalliii:; liuu
the plain of Lniiibiirdy al lloi/.eii, and then i^himu'.
in a straighl line, to Trieste and N'emna. 'Il,,
secoud railrnail— the earliest that was ever rmii
pleted across Ihe Alps — K"es frnlll Viellllil tii«iiri|.
iilnggnii/., ill a straight Hiiiitlnrly direciinii, iukI
then ascends, in cmistmil curves, in (iral/, ami
Cilli; the asieiit, very cniisiilerable at some imini.,
being nvercniiie by pnw'erfiil Inconinlives, spn iail;
built for lliiN line, Frnm Cilli and Laybarli, tin
railnay falls, in gradual curves, towiirils Trii ^i.,
Ihrnwing nif brmii lies in an easterly and wc-iiii;
direction. The jnuriiey fmin N'ienna to Trioir, in
this line, nceiipies llfleeii liniirs by the fast triiiiH,
Two carriage muds unite ihis railway with iliiu
which cniiiiecis Lin/, wiili Italy. The iimsi N,
runs in the valley of the Miihr weslward, l>ii;ii,
niin; at llriick, and traversing Lcnheii, Inileiiliiir.,
mid .Miiraii ; al St. .Michael it joins the other ri>u<!.
The S. runs in the valley of the Urave, hii.\nn
.Murbnrg and Villaeh, and traverses Kliigeiil'iiii,
The |)iliiiriaii Alps, which may be eoiisidrnil ii.
the link conuecting Ihe inoiintain system with il
Ilalkhan mountains, occupy the eniinlry hciwn:,
the (iiilph of Ijuaruer;) or Fiiinie and the riMP
Verbas or \'erliri/a and .Narenta in Turkey, anl
have obtained their name I'mm Mmiut liinar,,
their higlust summit (nearly 11° N. hit.), whi, i;
rises to ti,(ll(! ft. above the sea. The priiiri|i,i;
ridge lies nearly jiarallel In Ihu Adriatic, at iiili>-
taiice nf abniit Itll miles mnre nr less, and I'oriii.i m i
the same time the watershed hetween the rivir^ |
falling into the Adriatic or joining tlu^ Si;\i,
Lower ridges, mostly )iaralle( to the )iriiiri|;il
ridge, lill the country Iwlween il and the sea; Im.
those branchiiig otf towards the Save run iiiarli
S. and X. Opliosite the (inlpli of (^ujiriieni, III
higher inountains cover only a space of less tlun
Kit miles from \V. to K. ; and as here the I'crii:'
plains of llniigary approach nearest tliesea, tl>
Austrian gnveriiment, desimns of devising shhh
means by which the nbundant |irodiice i>fllu:|
country could be brought to the markets nf ili
commercial world, made in the last century Itii I
roads over the numerous ridges which traviivl
thecounlrv. They are known by the iiaiiirMfl
the Caroline and Josephine roads; Ihe I'uniK!
rising at one point to 4,.57(i ft. abovt^ the sea. I!u;|
the lines were not judiciously clinscn. They run |
over a succession of steep acclivities and iIitII.i-
ties; and, as they traverse a eonntry destiiiili' nf
water, they could only be used by light carri;i;."<
mid mules. liiit in the beginning of Ihis ceiiiiin I
a enni])any of private individuals constructeiliin-j
other ami very siijierior mad, on which all sIhh
slopes have been avoided; so that it is praclicalilel
for carriages conveying the most bulky ciniiiini-l
(lilies from tlic interior nf Iliingarv to the ccnK
This road begins on the coast at F'iiime, ;is('i'i;il-|
directly the mountains, passes through Kiiiiiciij.il
and Skerbuteryak, and tenuiiiates at Carlsimli tiij
the Culjia, where this river begins to he iiavif;alilt. |
On three sides the Alps are siirmiinded by ]ilninN
On the S. by that of Lombardy, on the X.hytlii'H'l
of Switzerland and Havana, and on the F. liy
great plain of Hungary. The plain of Lombaiiiv I
I ^
ALPfl
fll
U l.M rlovnh'il timn flnwn« nf Swilzrrlniul hiwI | ti'itfrr, tlirn'forr, mnvM fnnlcr tlinn Iho ulitr*. niut
1' -.1... I ...... Vf ......Cm.. 1.. ....I.. Ull'. I't ll... .....I'. I'..„i... tl I... I..1. tt'l 1.^
Iliniinfi; I'itiIk' I.iiK" Miikk'""' '* ""'.v H(»,'( I't
itiiililx' liiki' ■'! ('iiiiici il!)7 I'l,; wliilnl llii> Inki'H nl'
lii'iii'Mk /iirii'li. mi'l riiiiiiiiHii'i' nri' ri'»|K't'tivt'ly
I,;iil7, l,:lll», l.;lll| ((, lllinVf Ihc urn, 'I'lif llixlirxt
ritiiL'i'^ ol l'*'' iMotitilaiiiit itri' iiiiirli iinirrr lo llii'
pliiiii III' i.oiiilxirily lliiiii Id ill)' iiliiiiiM oil llic N,;
itiiil ilK'ir ill'"!'''*)! Ih tinicli nit'i'jK'r lowanlN liuly
iliiiii lii»'itril'* .Hwit/.rrlaiiil nr < imiuinv. i'lir iik'hii
(li'Vittiiiii of llx' (X^'itl plitiii of lliin^'ury it uiilv
:iiHi 11. iiIh'Vii lli« Noa; luid in it tcnniiiaio tint K.
r\iriiiiiii<"< i>f tiiu runKt!i«i wliich iiowlicri! riitu tii n
j;riill iii'lK'lil.
iliii ('ciiirat riil#x<'i* or til" Al|i« an' rinii|mH«'il of
priniiiivo mi'kH, i'n|H'i'ially nl' i^'raniln ami ^iii'Inn,
III! iiri' iliKiiMi;iiii«lii'il liy ilicii |ioiiiti>il pfakN. On
Mil' N.^illl'<•^ lliiK lonnittion r.MrnilM a Mlaltt for'
iiiiiliiiii <>r I'linniilrraltli'. wiillli. 'I'liii* iIovh not ap-
piiir III arroniiiany llin ranfrii on ihn S., I'Xi'i'pt
iiliiiiK' llx' l''<- AliiM, whrro it |i/iM IxM'n ol>M*'rvi'<i to
i'\ii'iiil IViini liri.xcn on ili<> Kinarli to Marlnir^ on
ilic Priivc, Nkirtin^' thai river on the S, iicyonil
ilii' nliitt' I'onnation, the ciialk oi't'u|iii>H a conNiitiir-
alili' spai't'. Il ii* fonnil to occupy lln> ^rcatcnt
I'Nii'iit on tl>" SIC, of the nionntani xyNicni, tlic
wliiilr Julian .Mpx U-in^ coinpoNcil of ii, On llu>
ii|i|Hi.iiti' or N\V. hIiIc, iIic NaintNlonc furniationcx-
iciiils I'roui llu> laki! of (icncva an far ax tho S.
iHiiniiliiry of Havaria. 'I'lu' clialk fornnilion Im iMn-
liii^^iii.tlii'il liy itx NutinnitN, which <lo not rino in
luiiiili'il peak?*, hut form cither coiicn or cn|iola)*,
,MI tlioHc partrt of lh(! nnincronx riilp'H which
rill' aUivc I hit line of con){clation iirc, of c(MirM(>,
I'liviTcil with Hiiow all thu year ronnil. In many
iiliii'ci the Hiiow occupies a conNideralile Hpacu on
ilic upper pariM and NUinniilM of the nx'ky nniMHCH,
anil Inmi these ' eteriinl reservoirs' of snow the
illaciiru ahi derived. The sides of the rocky iiwihs
'lire usually furrowed hy lonj; narrow vaUeys; anil
ill these nuLsses of snow, descenditiK Irnni the npiM'r
purts under the form of ice, extend the fartlier
iliiwnwnrd the greater the mass and height of the
Miiiw from which thev are derived. These accu-
iiiiilnliiiiis of snow and ice form glaciers, many of
whiiii are from 15 to 20 m. lonff. In the Intro-
iii;('tioii to Messrs. Lon^^man's ' (iniile to the Cen-
trnl Alps' (Part II. of Alpine (juide), will be found
u ilctailed and interesting; airount of these pheno-
iiiPim. The author describes, in the tlrst plac( ,
I tlie ninnner in which the snow-dust and minute
crvHtuls are partially mtJted nnil fused by the in-
1 tiiiciu'o of the sun m wann weather, and frozen
toct'tlicr into c<mipact [)articlcs of ice during; the
next interval of cold, — the alternate melting and
ciiii^'plntiiin hciiiK uontinnally repeated until the
wliiilc mass is converted into that ])eculiar rondi-
I tion called neve ; and how, in the lapse of years,
I tlie neve incroasinf; layer by layer, aiul each layer
I'.Kortiii^ considerable pressure on tliat beneath, the
I jifwcss of congelation n™<l"i'lly tnnis the deeper
jiiirtiims of the muss contained in the rr.ser\'oir
I into compact ioo. The.se reservoirs ]mrtaking of
Itlio shipc of the mountains, and the ice in this
Ltnte |N)ssessinf; considerable ]ila-4l icity, the masses
(if m've (gradually flow down through tlie clmimels
liif the valleys, t)r become gluciers. The Introduc-
Itiim goes on ; * We now see that the essential con-
lilition for the formation of a glacier ia the existence
liil' il reservoir large enough, and at a sutlicient
IlielK'ht, to accumulate such a moss of neve as will,
lliy its weight, convert ita own substance into ice,
liiiiil force it to flow in whatever direction it en-
li'iiuntera the least resistance. In moving onward
|tlie j,'laoier conforms to the laws that regulate the
niiitiun of imperfect fluids. The resistance of the
Itidcs luid the bed on which it moves retanla the
Iniiitinii of the adjoining portions of the ice : the
Vou I.
the xiirface faster than the iMiiiom. Wbrii tlio
icc'Miriain tlotvs through a iH'ud in the valhy, Ihn
jHiint of nioNi raiiid motion is shifted I'roiii Ibu
centre towards the convex slile of the curve.
While the ice thus conform'* to the lawt of lliiid
motion, the internal changes by which il is eii-
lUiled thus tocnm|Hirt ilxelf are jHTuliar, and havo
no example among other IsHJies of which we havn
ex|M'rieiice. 'I'he nature of the motion, involving
constant changes in the relative posit ions of iIdi
linrticles, implies frarlure, which must U- freipienl-
ly n-netvetl; but Ibis would s|s'edily reduce llui
whole to a mass of incoherent fragments, if it wi'ru
not for the pro|M'riy of regelation. At each ilep
in the progress of the glacier, this repairs Ihii
damage done to tht iitiniiity of the iee, and by
the twiifold process itf f'rm tun- niiil n-i/fliition, tht)
glacier moves onward, constantly eiianging itit
form, yet presenting a continuous mass of solid
hard ire.' When the general movement of the
l^lai'ier tends to draw asunder adjoining pott ions of
lee, the mass is rent through, and ('reriMxex aro
made. Where tli(> descent is gradiiiil, the siirfaco
of the glai-ier is nearly level, and olVers few cre-
vices; but where the declivity is rapid and une'.eii,
the glacier is rent with numerous chasms, atitl
covered with (devalions, rising from llHI to 'JOO ft,,
having the aH|M>ct of a sea agitated by a hurrican)>.
Tlu' chasms arc freipientlv many feet wide, ami
m»tv than Km deep, 'f'heir formation, which
never takes place in winter, but is frerpient during
summer, is accompanied with a loud noise resem-
bling thniuler, and a shock wliii^h makis the adja-
cent mountains tremble. These chasms are subject
to change every day, and almost every hour, and
it is this cln-umstance that ren<lers the ascent of
the glaciers so dangerous to tmvellerH. Kouietimex
there are found in the glaciers pyramids of ice of
a considerable elevation and a regular form, on the
tops of which are placed large pieces of rocks. At
the lower extremity of the glaciers is an excava-
tion in the form oi' a grotto, fre(piently IIHI feet
high and from *><) to HO wide, whence issues a small
river, bringing down a bluish water. Though
every single crystal of the ice of the glaciem
seems jierfectly white, (he whole mass is of u blue
colour, passing through every shade from tim most
feeble sky-blue to that of ihe lapis la/.uli; it Ih
most fiure and lH>autiful in the lower ))arts of the
chasms. The glaciers impart one of the gn>atest
charms to Ihc si'eiiery of the Alps, by the lioaiity
of their colour, aii'l their contrast with the sur-
rounding country, iheir lower extremities l)eing
commonly contiguous to meadows coventd with
the flnest grass and the most beautiful flowers,
and the de(;liyities of the mountains which enclose
them exhibiting large t racts clothed with magnitl-
cent trees, especially firs.
AvalunrlieH are more frequent in the Alps than
in most other mountain.s, because of the stee))nes.s
of their declivities. The most common <;oiisist of
masses of snow, which, commencing their descent
at the higher parts of the mountains, and increas-
ing in magnitude and velocity as they roll down
to the valleys, i»yer\vhelm, in their headlong ca-
reer, men and cattle, destroy villages and forests,
and dam up and obstruct the course of rivers.
Four kinds of avalanches may, however, Ims <li.'»-
tinguishod. 1. The drift avalanche takes place
when the up]M>r parts of the mountains have lieen
covered by a heavy fall of snow during a calm,
followed by a strong wind l)cforc the mass liaa
acquired consistency. An immense mass of loose
snow is then suddenly brought by the wind into
th" valleys, where it frequently covers villages ;
but ill general these avalanchea do not occa.sioii
G
82
ALPS
':'•>
ii '<
?i |H -:
, 1 .K-
^^if
is*
nuich (InmflfrR, tinloHs when thoy cniiBO a compros-
Hioii of t\u' air. TIuh Mirt of avnIaiiclK! iiHunlly
•K-cuw ill the iH-^iniiiiif; of winter, 2. 'I'liP mUin;/
ovalftiH'lics: tliow liriii^; down prcnt masHCH of com-
pact Hiiow, <'.ip<'('iaiiy towanis tlic ciitl of tlio. win-
ter, wlien it iH'^rJiiH to tliaw. In their pro^rens,
tliev are iiiiTeased liv all ttic snow thov meet in
tlieir il('M<;eiit; tluar impeliiH and inaMs iwiiij^ fre-
(pieiitly Niicii nH to ovenvliolm and heat down
ever\' tliiiifj, rocks not even excepted, that may
interrupt their course*. These, tiie most destnic-
livc of I he avahinches, cause fjrwit loss of life and
liroiierty, !t, Tim gl'uUiKj nvuianches are musses
iif snow (le8cendiii;r slowly aioiiff the surface of
a not very steep (leclivity. They take place in
xprin^, when a lon^; thaw has dissolved tliat por-
tion of the snow which lies immediately on the
TiM^ks, and thus loosened the bond with which the
whole mass is united to its base. They carry
before them every tliiiif^ that is too weak to with-
stand tlnur pressure. 'J'hey sometimes occ^asion
con8id<!rahlo loss, hut not frequently. 4. The ire or
ginner avalanches are formed by larj^er or smaller
l>ieces of ice, detached from a fjlncicr by the sum-
mer's lieat. They are precipitated downwards with
a noise like thunder. When seen from a dis-
tancCj, they re8enii)lc the cataract of a powerful
river; As they generally descend into uninhabited
piaffes, they seldom do much damage.
The rolling and slidiiif? avalanches expose tra-
vellers to the fo-eatest Jankers they have to incur
in traversing the Alps. There arc, in fact, certain
localities <m the most frequented roads, to which
they descend annually, and which are consequently
very dangerous. To obviate the risk of accidents
from this cause, in the construction of new Toatls,
as of those of the Simplon and over Monte Stel-
\\o, care has been taken at such places to excavate
the mountain to a certain dcj)th, and to cover over
the road with strongly built arclies, which effectu-
ally provide for the safety of the traveller. A few
places on the roads are also rendered unsafe by less
or greater pieces of rock, which descend with fear-
ful velocity from the steep declivities of the moun-
tains. This usually happens when, after some days'
continued rain, a strong wind arises, and shakes
the higher portion of the mountains. Luckily,
liowever, such places are not frequent. Travellers
on the glaciers run the risk of falling into chaBms,
or of liiiding the ice under their feet suddenly open-
ing in the progress of the formation of a new chasm.
The scenery of the Al|)8 owes a part of its nu-
merous charms to the great numlier of extensive
lakes, of which nearly every one is distinguished
by some peculiar lieauties. Most of them have
an easy access, being situated on or nejir the out-
skirts of the range, as the lakes of Geneva, Con-
stance, and Zurich ; or partly within and partly
without the range, as the lake, of the Four Cantons,
and the Lago Maggiorc and that of Como, and
the l)eautiful lakes in Austria. Innumerable are
the small lakes which occur on or near the sum-
mits of the high ridges and glaciers. Most of the
rivers and torrents have their sources in such lakes.
The chalk formation of the Julian Alps offers
the most interesting natural phenomena. It con-
sists of a tine-grained, much-decomposed jjrimitivo
chalk, which is rent by a great number of trans-
verse crevices and precipices, and frequently forms
deep depressions in the fashion of funnebi. In it
occur numerous caverns and subterraneous galleries
of great extent, in which everywhere the finest
and most fantastic stalactites arc formed. More
than a thousand such caverns are alrcadv known,
and many hjive never been visited. 'I'he most
remarkable arc those of Adelsl)erg (which see),
Magdalen in its neighbourhood, Zirknitz, &c.
Niimerons too arc the rivern and torrents wliidi
suddenly disap|M>ar underground, jirecipitaliiii;
thcrascrves iiit<i a largt; chasm, and re-appcariiii,'
after a subterraneous course of many miles. Here
are also many intermittent wills, wiiicii, at cer-
tain seasons, emit large quantities of water, nud
at others are dry. Several of them feed thf lake
of /irknitz, whidi has ac(|uircd ('clelirity for bciii;;
for several inonlhs quite drv, and for several olhiTs
tilled with water; so that it serves each year suc-
cessively for tillage, pasturage, hunting, and (isliju;;!
The Alps art! not rich in initials, except inm.
Some mines of gold and silver occur on tlu^ S. as
as well as on the N. deidivity, esjjecially in tln'
Austrian dominions; but their jiroduce is iiicdii-
sidc>rable. Others of copper and lead are mun
productive ; but they too are comparatively )MHir,
except the Hleiberg (li "' mountain) of Cariiitliia,
which furnishes some ., ihe l)est lead in lMirii|K.',
The quicksilver mines of Idria, NNK. of Tripstc.
are reckoned among t!ie ri(;hest of the globe, Tlic
iron mines of Styria, Carinthip and (laniiola arc
very productive, and their produce hardly iiiforidr
to any of Europe, Hock-salt occurs only in a
very few places jn the VV, Alps ; but on 'Ww X,
side of the K. Alps arc very rich layers of tliat
mineral, running, as it seems, in a continuous line
from the banks of the Inn at Halle to lUose of tlic
Enns in Austria. They arc worked with great
industry at difl'erent places.
VegetJition covers the greater part of the Alps,
The larger valleys, none of which rise to r),()(lO ft,
above the sea, contain some tracts tit for agricul-
tural puqwses. They consist generally of umwcn
ground, extending on both sides a river. Ik'hiiiil
it the mountains rise with a steej) and comnKnily
inaccessible ascent, which is covered with liidii
trees; in the lower parts with oak, beech, elm,
&c. ; and in the upper region with tir, pine, lurch,
and the Pinus Cembra. Kear the region of tiie
pastures the trees dwindle down to low huslit^. |
The pasture region, which occupies the nextplacf,
offers commonly a plain strongly inclined towanl*
the valley, and is in general of considerable wiiltJL
It is called in Switzerland the Alps. Here arc
found the huts or sennes of the herdsmen, inha-
bited only in summer, when the cattle are broufjlii
to these pastures. The upper part of the raii)j;cis
occupied by bare rocks, many of which rise nixive
the line of congelation. This line occure in the
Alps between 8,(100 and 9,000 ft. above tha sea, |
and is lower on the N. than on the S. declivity.
Com is grown on the N. side, not above 'i,>fi*
or 4,000 ft. ; but on the S. it succeeds 1,500 fi.
higher. The highest place at which barley riiwii-
is Skala in the Engadin, 5,950 ft. above the .sea, I
High trees are found in some places not alw: I
4.600 ft., at others they ascend the declivities even I
to 7,000 ft. and more. Oak is found up to 4,000 ft. I
elm to 4,300, ash somewhat higher, beech to 5,(Hln
fir to 5,300, mountain ash to 5,000, birch to 5,(tv, I
pines to 6,600, and larch to 7,000 or 7,300 ft.abovfl
the sea. Where the high trees begin to cease, the I
mountains are covered with bushes and the Alpine I
rose (Rhododendron ferrugineum and hinutm\.\
Beyond the upper limit of trees, are found the saxi- 1
frage, primrose, pedicularis, anemone, gentian,©'^
other specimens of the brilliant Alpine flora.
The author of the 'Alpine Guide' just quotell
divides the Alps, geologically, into thirty-thiwl
groups. He says: 'To the modem race of Smj
geoh)gists belongs the credit of having asccrtaiuedl
the real order of succession of the strata, andtlifl
general plan of structure which prevails throiigb-l
out the entire chain. M. Studer, who holds il
foremost place amongst .Alpine geologists, rccogT
nises tlic existence in the Alps of a series cJ
AIJ>S
83
;orrpntR ■wliidi
I n'-aii\H'iiriiii;
y miU's, lltTi-
wliicli. at iiT-
of watiT, ami
1 I'cfil the liikc
i'l)rity for iH'ili;;
Ttievi'riil iillicrt
o«ch yt'iir xm-
Ih, cxcopt imii.
\ir (in tilt' ^. ft>
specially in lln'
odiiw! w iiicdii-
li'iul aro iiKirc
]»arntivi'ly iiiHir,
in) of Oariutirui,
lend in VA\r\i\*:.
INK. »f Tripstc.
■ the nU)l)C. Tlic
[ind (.^aniiola nn
;c liariUy inU'ridr
tccnrs only in a
; but, on the N.
;h layers of tliat
a continuous line
lie to iliose of tlu'
urked with ffwi
part of the Ali»,
i:h rise to 5,(100 fi.
cts fit for aKricul-
niernlly of unmin
I a river. ISehiml
ep and commdiily
ovcred with lii;;li
1 oak, beech, eta,
ith fir, pine, liucli,
the region of tk
wn to low busliw.
lies the next place,
y inclined towanis
considerable widtli,
e Alps. Here are
ic herdsmen, inlia- .
; cattle are brouj;k
)art of therantjcis
,f which rise alxive
line occurs in the
ft. above tha sea,
the S. declivity,
le, not above 3,W»!
, succeeds 1,500 ft.
kvhich bariey n\m^
ft. above the sea.
p places not abo'":
Ithc declivities evei
l)undupto4,00Ufi.
Iher, beech to 5,(iii",
1600, birch to 5,'<W.I
T)0or7,300ft.alxiul
J begin to cease, the I
ihes and the Alpine
turn and hir!>tttmi\
V arc found the saxi-
lemone, gentian, an'
It Alpine flora. ,
Tjluide' justquoWl
-, into thirty-thi«l
ndcm race of StoI
■ having ascertaiuedl
the strata, and tht I
ih prevails thrmigh-l
£uder, who Iwltb'l
fc geologists, rcafrl
* Ips of a sencs i)|
(TTotipo, coch with its crystalline centre, Romctimes
piiriillul to each other, Honictimes arranged en
tthelim, like tlie s(iuareH of a chess-lMiard.
•TIk' intervals between the higher crystalline
masses liad been imperfectly studied liy the earlier
m'lildgists. It is now known that the.se inter-
niciliatc species, which we shall (h'signate hv
ihc general term tniiaih [I'V. m»it, (Jerni. multte],
IIP' I'dnncil of rocks completely ditlerelit from those
(■(lustiliiting the crystalline centres. As a general
riiir, these are stratitied rocks of softer and le.ss
resisting texture.' The crystalline masses may
JH' regarded as islet.s. which, in the process of up-
jiiaval. hav(! driven back or tilted up the denosits
tliniii(,'h which they forced their way. It is,
tlierel'iire, in the troughs or spaces, where it has
IxTM less disturbed, that the clue to the original
p'dliigical structure must be sought.
The iidiabitants of those ranges of the Al)»
wliicli extend from the Mediterranean to the lake
(if (ieneva are mostly of French origin, siH-aking
a ('(irrupt dialect of the French language. In the
rcniaiiider of the mountain system the ]K)pulation
is iif Teutonic origin, only a few of the more o))en
valleys terminating in the plain of Lombardy,
spiuking a dialect of the Italian language. The
must E. extremity of the whole range, between
tli(^ rivers Midir and Save and the Julian Alps, is
)iiirtly inhabited bv a population of Slavonian
(irifjin, called the VVendes or Shivenzi. As the
tracts of land lit ff>r agricultural puqioses are of
(.•oni|iarativ(4y small extent, the rearing of cattle
unil llie making of butter and cheese constitute
the principal cmph>yment. Many of the inhabi-
tants migrate, at certain seasons, to the neigh-
iKiiiring countries in search of work. Some of
them return annually, some after the lapse of
some years. Besides the dairy, the mines give
enipliiymcnt to a number of irdiabitaiits ; but this
is (inly the case in the Alps of Styria, (jarinthia,
and Cariiiola, where rich mines of iron and ex-
tensive layers of salt are found. In these districts,
alsd, arc some manufactures of hardware and iron
iitciLsils. In the other i)arts of the range manu-
facturing industry is almost unknown; but near
its outskirts on the N. side it has in lat«r tim(!s
iHHiome so diffused, that it hardly yields to any
(ither part of the continent. The inhabitants of
the mountains arc distinguished by their love of
lilicrty, their oppoJSition to every kind of oppression,
the frankness of their behaviour, their ahhcrencc
to their old manners and dress, and their lidelity
and honesty.
The iUps did not become well kno\vn till the
i reign of Augustus. That emperor finally sub-
dued the numerous and savage clans which inha-
hited the Alpine valleys, and cleared the passes of
the banditti by which they were infested. He
improved the old roads, constructed new ones, and
I succeeded iu establishing free and easy communi-
I cations across the mountains. The chain was then
[divided into separate portions, which have prc-
j scn-ed their boundaries and dcuommations nearly
I tu the present day.
The exploration of the Alps has, within the last
I few years, excited a considerable amount of public
I interest, principally through the exertions and
lachievements of the Alpine Club. In 18,59, the
llicv. C. Hudson established the practicability of
Ircacliing the summit of Mont Ulanc by the ridge
Ifnim the D(*)me du Gofit<f. The highest pinnacle
l»if Monte Rosa, 15,217 ft., was reached for the fiist
jtitne in 1855 by Messrs. G. and C. Smith and
Ithree other gentlemen. The north end, 15,132
[ft., was ascended for the first time in 1861 by Sir
T. F. Buxton, Mr. E. Buxton, and Mr. CowelL
riie Lyskamm, 14,889 ft., was ascended by the
Key. P. W. ITardy, for the first time, by the
Monte Hosft glacier. The Weissborn, IVnnino
Alps, 14,8(11 ft., of which the lutcent is (me of tho
most dilli(Milt and laborious yet r.c(Miniplislu>d, was
first ascended by rrofe.s.>»(W Tyndall in 1861.
Monte Vi.so, Coliian Alps, IJ,6i;i ft., which hnig
had the rcpiilntion ot liciiig inaccessibh^ was
a.scenilcd in 1 861 by Messrs. W. Mathews and
F. W. Jacomb; and a .second ascent was made in
1862 by Mr. Tuckett. The Grand Combiu, l'(^n-
nine Alp.s, 14,164 ft., was hnig one of the least
known of Alpine summits; but in 18,")7 Mr. \V.
Mathews reached its second peak, and in 186(1 a
Swiss gentlenmn attained tlie highest, and an
I'jiglisli olHcer performed the same feat almost
immexliately afterwards. The Dom, 14,!i;i,') ft.,
the highest peak of the .Saas Grat, Pennine Alps,
was ascended for the first time by the IJcv. Llew-
ellyn Uavies. The ascent of tlie Dent lilanche,
14,1118 ft., a most (Utficult undertaking, is only
known to have been aidiii ved once — by Mr. T. S.
Kennedy and a party of friends, in the year 1862.
Amongst the pa.s,ses re(H'ntly ojieiu'd may lie
mentioned the Hied I'ass, from Sa.ss to St. Niklaiis,
discovered by I'rofes,sor Ulrick; the Col de (iran-
crou, from Cogue to Ceresole, first ellected in 1862
bv Mr. F. F. Tuckett; the Jungfrau Jocb, from
Weiigcrn Alp to i'Kggischhorn, one tif the most
ditlicult passes yet accomplished, and considered
insurmountable until ascended, in 1862, by tho
l{ev. Leslie Stephen and other enteqirising mem-
liers of the Alpine Club; the Kiger Joch, ettected
but once, in 185it, by the Kev. I^eslie Stephen and
friends; the Lawinen Thor, a pass made and
named by Profes.sor Tyndall in 1860; and the
StuiiT Joch, from (irimsel to the yliggischhorn, n
most (iifticult pass traversed by Messrs. Macdonald,
Buxton, (irove, and Hall, in 1863.
Ai.i'.s (.'iOWEu), Basses Alpes, a frontier dep. in
the SE. of France, having K. the Sardinian states,
S. the dep. ( f the Var, W. de|i. A''aucluse, and N.
the dept{>. Drome and I lautes Alpes. Area, 682,643
hectares. Top. 146,368 in 1861, against 152,070
in 1851, showing a consi<'erable decline in tho
decennial i)eriod. This dep. derives its name from
its being principally occupied by the VV. shipe of
the Alps. Its aspect is highly varied and pic-
turesque, presenting a succession of high rugged
mountains, crowned with eternal snow, vast som-
bre forests, and low, rich, smiling valleys. The
mountains and hills occupy about half the surface,
and the woods about a sixth part ; the extent of
cultivated land is estimated at 155,000 hect., of
meadows at nearly 18,000, and vineyards at 14,000
do. The principal river is the Durance, which
traverses the dep. from N. to S.; it is also in (lart
intersected, and in part bounded, by the Verdon,
and is watered by many mountain streams, tho
immdations of which often occasion great mischief.
The climate varies, of course, with the elevation
and exposure of the soil. There is a good deal of
spade liusbanilry; and mules and asses are used in
preference to either horses or oxen. Produce of
corn crops insuiticicnt for the consumption. Po-
tatoes extensively cultivated. Olive, fig, and
mulberry trees, are all cultivated in the hiwer and
warmer districts, and dried and other fnuts make
a considerable article of export. The lower moun-
tains afford excellent sheep pasture. They belong
partly to individuals, and partly to communes;
and besides the stationary sheep, or those that
belong to the dep., about 400,000 head are annually
brought from the adjoining depts. of the Var and
the Bouches du Rhone, to be depastured for about
four months in summer on the mountains referred
to. They pay at the rate of from 1 fr. to 1 fr. 25
cent, per head; and both their size, and the quality
a 2
t ■ ?,
8t
ALPS
!(^"
of their flrsh and wool, are said to he materially
imnrovdl by the chiiiiKe. Tlie Hhrjihcrds never
ciiiit tlu'ir charj^c either hy iii^ht <>r by <laj'.
IlesideM I be Hlieep belitiiffinff to the (lep., the breed
of wiiieti haw lieeii materially improved, it has a
preat numlter of j^oatH; and the rearing of bees is
alHo much attended to. There are mines, but not
very productive, of iron, lead, cop|K'r, and coal.
IVIiinui'aeture.s have not made much progress; but
tbc^re ar(( several silk tilaturcs and silk looms, with
inanufiivtures of cloth, bats, earthenware, and tan-
neries. (Jrciat numlx-rs of the poorer classes leave
their homes for a portion of the year to seek
employment in the nei^^bbourinfi depts. It has f)
arrond., 30 cant., and 2i»7 communes. Principal
towns DiKiie, Histeron, and Harcelloncte, in the
picturescpie valley of the same name.
Ai.i'H (Uim'kk), Hautes Alne», a frontier dej). in
the SK. of France, on the 'is. side of the dej). of
the Baxmes Alpcs, and havinf^ on the K. tlm Sar-
dinian states. Area, r)i")i{,2(!4 beet. Pop. 125,100
in IHOl. The pop. numbered l.S2,038 in 18.51, so
that there was a decline durinf; these ten years.
The department of Hautes Alpes differs in few
respects from that just described, except that it is
more moinitainous anil less fruitful. Some of the
mountains rank, in fact, amonfj the highest in the
immense chain of which they form a i)art. Mont
I'elioux, the most elevated, rises 14,120 ft, above
the level of the sea, and Mont Olan 13,4(11 do.
The mean elevation of the mountains may he
taken at about 9,000 feet, and the elevation of the
liighest cnh or passes from one valley to another
sometimes exceeds 7,000 feet. There are several
glaciers in the N, ])art of the dep, Aj^culture
similar to that of the Hasses Alix-s. Only 1)7,500
hect, of surface is cultivated; 77,000 hect. are
occupied by woods and forests, and about 24,000
by meadows, the irrigation of which is an object
of great nnportance. The valleys principallv lie
alongside the rivers Durance, I'triuch, and ()rac,
lidi.ibitants jioor and laborious. Grenkrs tTahon-
ditnce, or com magazines, are established in dif-
ferent communes, which make loans of seerl and
necessaries to poor families. There are mines of
iron, lead, and other minerals. Manufactures
^principally contined to coarse cloth, linen, stock-
ings, and hats, required for the use of the in-
habitants. The cheese and butter of the Hrian-
(jonnais are liighlv esteemed. Hread made of
Eotatocs is extensively used. Families using rye
read commonly bake it only once a year; it
keejjs for 15 or 18 months, is hard, and has to be
broken to pieces by a hatchet. Between 4,000 and
6,000 of the peasants leave the dep. every year in
the beginning of October, and return early in
June. It is estimated that at an average about a
' fifth part of those that emigrate never return, and
that those who do, bring back >vith them about
200 fr. a piece; the emigrants principally take to
the trades of pedlars and sho^vmen. The depart-
ment has 3 arrond., 24 cant., and 189 communes.
Principal towns Gap, Brian9on, and Embnui.
ALKKSFOKD, a market town and two parishes
of England, co. Ilants, hund. Alton. The town is
situated on the Itchin, at no great distance from
its source, 57^ m. SW. by W. London. It is
divided into Old and New Alresford; pop, of Old
A. 626, and of New A. 1,546 in 1861. It was for-
merly a place of much more importance than at
present, and sent a member to the H. of C.
ALSEN, an island in the Baltic, formerly
belonging to Denmark, and ceded to Germany by
the treaty of Vienna of Oct. 30, 1864. It is sepa-
rated by a very narrow channel from Schleswig,
and by the Little Belt from Funen. Sha])e irregu-
lar, being about 20 m. long, aiid from 3 to 8 in
ALTAI MOUNTAINS
breadth. Pop. 22,500 in 1800. Surface pleasantly
diversilied with wood and open (iclds. All O'w
country houses are surrounded by frint trees, mul
large quantities of fruit ani aninially ex])(irt(M,
Principal towns Norborg and Sondcrborg. Chris-
tian II., deposed by the states of Denmark in
1523, 'vas conliniHl for nearly 17 years in a tower
in the castle of Sondcrborg. The island was taken
by the allied Prussians and Austrians from the
Danes in June, 1864, the Danes having withilrnwn
to it after the imsiu'cessful defence of DUppcl (in
the opposite mainland. The capture of ^Vlscii waj
the last event of the war.
ALSFELD, a walled town of Hesse Dnrmstndf,
cap. bailiwick, on its N. frontier on the Schwalni,
I'op. 4,1.'J3 in 1861. It has manufiictures of rii-
teens, flannels, and linen, with considerable bloaili
fields and print works.
ALSLEBKN, a walled town and castle of Pnis-
sian Saxony, reg. Merseburg, on the Saale. iNip,
3,00!) in 1861. The castle is the projjert^ of tlio
Duke of Anhalt Dessau.
ALTAI MOUNTAINS (TIIK), a series ef
mountain ranges of central Asia, forming nii
Alpine belt, intersected by wide vuUeys and tra-
versed by numerous rivers, extending from VV. in
E., about the parallel of 50° N. between the meri-
dian of 84° and 100° E., where the Altai proper is
separated from the system known as the Daiirimi,
by Lakes Kosgol and Baikal. The name had Inr-
merly a much more extensive meaning, the rnn(,'o
being reckoned as extending from the eastern
banks of the Irtish, a tributary of the Oby (8I)0 1;,
long.), to the shores of the Pacific, at the S. extre-
mity of the Sea of Okhotzk, opposite the island nf j
Tar'akai (142° E. long.). Its length, therefore,
was counted little short of 2,500 m. It was, luw-
ever, not possible to determine it with any dP},Tec
of exactness, since only the N. declivities of tlic
range had been visited by travellers, the S. de-
clivities lying within the territories of the Chinese
empire bejng inaccessible to Europeans. Of laic I
years, however, the mountain ranges between tlie
frontiers of Kussia and China, espj^cially in the
west, have been the scene of repeated exploralidns
by Kussian travellers; while our own countrj-man,
Mr. Atkinson, since 1846, devoted many years e( |
his life to the same task.
The most westerly portion of the system, betwen I
the river Irtish and the river Tshulysbmnn, tli»
uj)per branch of the Oby, is properly called ilie
Altai Mountains, which name has been aftcnvanlj
used to indicate the whole system. This portiun I
bears also the name of the Ore Altai, because i[ |
contains numerous veins of the precious metals,
It consists of several ridges, which mostly nin |
WNW. and ESE. These ridges advance tlicirW.
extremities close to the banks of the Irtish, wbere I
they are 600 or 600 ft. high, but at a distance if j
about 15 or 20 miles from the river they attain I
from 3,000 to 5,000 ft., which elevation may kl
considered as the mean height of the greatest pan I
of the ranges; only where they approach the lake I
Teletzkoi and the river Tshulyshman they rL<l
still higher, even to 10,000 ft., and this part is I
always covered with snow. It ia colled Altai I
Bielhi, and is, so far as is kno'wn, the highest por-f
tion of the system. Mount Katunsk, or BilouU I
is 12,796 ft. high.
Between the Tshulyshman and the great lake (< I
Baikal, the mountains appear to form two gniit
chains, running E. and W. ; of which the S., whickl
falls within the Chinese empire, and is called Ikl
Tangnu Oola, or Tangnu Shan, seems to he thtj
principal range. It is divided from the X. chaiil
by » long valley, in which run the Kemtslnitl
from W, to E., and the Oulou-kem from E. toW.J
fiicc plpmrnntlv
(.|<|!4. All t)h'
IViiit trcos, ftiiil
iiilly cximrtcd.
■rliiirfj. t^'liris-
f Doiiniftrk in
pars in a towir
liuul was taken
riniiH from llic
viiif^witliilrawii
c of DlliM"'! nil
iro of AlscH wai
PBSC Pnmistmit,
n the Scliwtilm,
lufuPturi'H of ni-
isidcrablc bleatli
1(1 castle of Tnis-
thc Snale. r<i|i.
! property of the
E), a HPrips ot
Lsia, forming mi
vuUeys and trii-
niUiif^'fnnn \V. tu
jctwecii the mcri-
hc Altai proper ii
II as the Daurimi,
['he name hail fur-
leaninfiC, the rftni;o
from the cnstcrii
iftheOby (WPi;.
ic, at the S. cxtr.'-
josite the island cf I
length, thercfom
) m. It was, ^»™-
it \vith any dcRKc
. declivities of the
.vellera, the S. lU-
mes of the Clnnose
uropeans. Of Ime
ranf^cs between tlie
,, esp(!ciftlly in tk
pealed explorations
ir own countrjinan,
ited many years «(
the system, betwffn 1
Tshulyshman, tlic
[properly called tl*
lias been aftenvanli I
ftem. This iwrtwui
Ire Altai, because k
lie precious mctak
[ which mostly ran
[es advance their W, I
lof the Irtish, whw
>ut at a distance i( I
ic river they attml
I elevation may b(l
of the greatest pan I
y approach the lab I
jlyshman they li^l
ft., and this part bI
It is called Altai I
m, the highest pot- 1
Latunsk, orlJilouUI
knd the great lakc((l
Y to form two pent I
twhichtheS.,whiclil
V, and is called tlul
U, seems to be thil
k from the N. clan
Irun the KemtsWI
l-kemfroraE.to«.;r
ALTAI MOUNTAINS
85
lifter their junction the river is called Yenesei, i
lirciiks liirough the N. chain. Tlu; portion of
,and
jf the
jailer situated W. of the Veufsei river is called
ilic Sftvaiiskiiui range, but the K. chain l>ears the
iiaine of I'lrgik Turgak Taiga. Holh chains unite
alioiit 11)0° K. h>ng., at a cousi(lcrai)le distance VV.
,,1'tlic lake IJaikal, at the sources of the Solenga,
llie iiio»t considerable river which empties itsi If
into the lake. The united chain is here called
(iiHirbi Uhilcu Dzong, which name it iireser\-es to
liiH° K. hmg., running in general K. On the K.
^idfi of the meridian of 108° K. long, and the river
Selciiga, the direction of the mountain chains com-
posing the Altai system is changed; they run NE.,
and form a very extensive mountain region E. of
the lake Haikal. This region is called the Jlaika-
lian or Daurian Mountains; but the highest chain
lieliiiiging to it, and lying withhi the Chinese
cmiiire, hears the name of tlie tJrcat Khing-Khan.
'I'lic most easterly iM)rtion of the Altai Mountains,
lietween 122° anil 142° E. long., lies again nearly
due \V. and E. ; but here it advances to 60° N. lat.,
and is called by the Itussians Yabloni Khcrbet,
and by the Chinese Khing-Khan Tugurik.
The Aldun Mountains may be considered as a
continuation of this latter chain. They separate
from it at the sources of the river Aldan, a tribu-
tary of the Lena, enclose the valley in which it
runs on either side, and continue on the E. side
along the shores of the Sea of Okhotzk up to the
liav of Pershina, the most northerly corner of that
oeiL From this baj' one branch nms NE., and ter-
minates at IJehring's Straits with the East Cape
and the Cape of Tshukotshoi-Noss. Another
branch turns abruptly S., and traverses the jienin-
milaof Karatschatka, terminating at Cape Loj)atka.
The highest Summit of the Aldan Mountains, ad-
jacent to the road connecting Yakutzk with Ok-
hotzk, was found by Erman to be 4,055 ft. above
the sea. Hut the chain traversing the peninsula
of Kamtschatka contains several volcanoes, some
of which rise to a great elevation. Erman mea-
sured three of them. The highest peak of the
volcano of ShivcQutsk (36° 40' 32" N. lat.) rises to
10,591 ft., the volcano of Kliutshuvsk (50° 4' N.
lat.) 15,825 ft., and that of Tolbatshinsk 8,346 feet
alH)vc the sea. If the Aldan Mountains and the
range traversing Kamtschatka be considered as a
continuation of the Altai chain, more than 1,500
miles must be added to its length.
The country extending N. of the Altai Moun-
tains and the mountain chains which continue the
range to the eastward to the shores of the Polar
Sea, form one continuous plain, sometimes of an
undulating siuface, but mostly exhibiting immense
Hat lowlands, called, as others of a similar descrip-
tion, steppes. Tliis plain, at the foot of the range,
is hardly more than 500 ft. above the sea, to which
it gradually slopes do^vn. On the other hand, the
countries lying S. of the Altai Moimtains consti-
tute a portion of the great elevated table-land of
Upper Asia. Their surface is much more imeven,
being traversed in many parts by ridges of rocks
and hills, whilst others present themselves as im-
mense plains covered with sand. The mean ele-
vation of these countries seems to be from 2,000 to
3,000 feet above the level of the sea.
Roads. — Two roads lead over the Altai, and one
over the Aldan Mountains. That most to the W.
is the great road of Kiachta, by which the com-
merce between Russia and China is carried on. It
hepsiB at Irkutzk, the capital of East Siberia, situ-
I ated on the LoAver Angara, not far from the point
where it issues from the lake Baikal. From this
town, which is 1,440 ft, above the sea level, goods
are carried in summer by water, and in winter over
I the ice of the lake, to Udinsk, and hence to Selc-
ginsk, where thoy arc landed, and transported to
Kiachta, the Kii'ssian commercial establishment,
and exchanged with the goods brought by tho
Chinese to Muimatshiii. The Chiiu'se bring tho
goods to Urga, the j)rovincial capital of the adja-
cent country; and in advancing farther S. they
attain the highest (loiiit of the range 8. of Urga,
t>n the mountain Dshirgalantn, S. of the riv' » Tola,
where it rises to 5,055 feet above the sea. They
aftcr^vards descend to the table-land, and traverse
the great desert of Cobi, or rather Gobi, sometimes
called Khamo. The other great road leads from
Udinsk, on the river Selenga, to the niiiiing district
of Nertshinsk. From Udinsk it runs E. in tho
valley of the river Uda, a tributary of the Selenga,
somewhat more than 250 m. ; then it traverses tlio
highest [lart of the range near 112° E. hmg., and
descends into the valh^v of the Ingoda, in which
it continues to (iorodisktshenk, where the Ingoda
unites with the Oiion, and forms the Shilka river.
On the bunks of the last-mentioned river it con-
tinues to Nertchinsk. The great road over tho
Aldan Mountains connects Yakutsk with Okhotzk.
Yakutsk is only 2«7 feet above the level of tho
Polar Sea, lietween this place and the river Aldan
the road rises gradually, and attains at Nokhinsk,
on the heights forming the W, bank of the Aldan
river, 751 feet. In the valley of the Aldan it (le-
scends to 424 feet above the sea. E. of this river
the road rises to 1,581 feet at (iamastakh, and in
the mountain pass six miles W. from Khoinia to
2,61!). It continues nearly on this level for several
miles, and then descends with a rather steep de-
clivity towards the Sea of Okhotzk. This latter
place is on'.v 3 feet above the sea.
Mines. — 'I'he Altai jNIountains are rich in me-
tals, especially in gold, silver, copper, and lead.
The mines from which these metals are extracted
have been worked on a large scale at some unknown
period, and by an unknown nation. In the middle
of last century the Uussians, following the traces
of the ancient mines, began to work them ; but
only at the W. extremity of the mountain system,
between the Irtish and the Oby, and again on the
banks of the Shilka river, east of the lake Itaikal.
The first mines are comprised in the mining dis-
trict of Barnaul, and the second in that of Ner-
tchinsk.
Latterly, however, the mines have been com-
paratively abandoned, and the attention of all
parties is now directed to the washing of the de-
tritus, or sand, earth, and gravel, found in the
valleys and in the beds of the various ailiuents of
the Irtish, Oby, Yenesei, and other great rivers
that have their sources m the N. slope of the moun-
tains. These efforts have met with great success ;
and the country of which Barnaul on the Oby (iii
about lat. 48° N., long. 83° E,), and Krasnojarsk
on the Yenissei (lat, 56° 1' N., long. 92° 57' 16"
E.) are tho capitals, is bv far the most important
and valuable of the auriferous regions of the Old
World. The district, of which Nertchinsk, to the
E. of Lake Baikal, is the capital, is also, thougb
in a very inferior degree, productive of gold. The
produce of the Siberian Gold- Washings amounts,
on the average, to 1,000 jniods, or about 45,000
pounds per annum. In 1837, they produced but
132 poods, but the quantity of g(dd found annually
increased every successive year, till it rose to 1,302
poods in 1840. The jiroductivity, after this pe-
riod, slightly declined, remaining, however, about
a thousand poods, worth nearly 3,000,000/. By far
the greater portion of the gold is raised by private
adventurers.
As the existing detritus must be enriched by all
the gold brought down from the mountains during
a long course of ages, the probability is that the
11
lyt'.i
86
ALTAMURA
!'■ u.'l;.;
i
I'-yi''
wuHliinRS will in the end Iwconio loss productive.
Kill Hiich ii\ the extent of the niiriferoiiH region that
it h(w hitlierto heeii (tiily imiK'rfeetly explored,
miicli leHH exhaiiHted. Silver, copper, and other
valiinlde prodiietH are iiIho found in thix region.
They are, however, of trivial importance, oh com-
pared with the HiipplieH of pild.
At KolywanoWonkrenenHk arcextennivo polish-
iiiH workH, where (rranite, porj>hyry, janper, agate,
and marble are worked into talileH, vohch, cliininey-
IiieecH, hasiiiH, and columim. The material irt
miiight from the river Korgon, and Uic wo;'kmun
arc employ<l at Ilie expense of ({ovmiment.
AL'IAMUKA, a town of SouiIh'iIi Italv, prov.
Hari, at the foot of the Apennines, 29 m. SVV. Hari,
I'op. I7,il(!.''> in IH(i2, The town is surrounded by
walls, ha.s u magnificent cathedral founded by Fre-
<leric II., an hospital and a lyceum, and is one of
the handsomest towns in the province. Having
taken part with the republican party in 17!)'.), it
was taken by the royalists, and given up to mili-
tary execution ; but it has since recovered its former
prosjierity. Altainura is supposed tt) be foundiul
on or near the site of the anuient Lupazia, This
opinion is strengthened by the number of Grecian
vases, of tlic most beautiful forma and workman-
ship, and other anticpiities, that have been found
in excavations in tlie town and its vicinity. The
Rurmunding country is fertile, being esjiecially dis-
tinguished by the excellence of its pastures.
ALTAVILLA, a town of Southern Italy, prov.
Avellino, 7 m. N. Avellino. Pop. 2,717 in 1802.
This also is the name of a town in the prov. Sa-
lerno. Pop. .S,J39G in 18(i2.
ALTDOHF, a town of Havana, eirc. Rezat, 13 m.
SE. Nuremlierg. Pop. 2,«00 in 1861. A great
number of wooden toys are manufactured here, and
are exported to all parts of Kurope and to S. Ame-
rica. There are also considerable breweries. The
surrounding country is beautiful and fertile.
ALTEA, a tttwn of Spain, Valencia, near the
sea, 30 m. Nli. Alicante. Pop. 5,502 in 1857. The
town has glass works ; and the contiguous territory
produces cottim, wine, tlax, silk, and honey.
ALTENA, a town of Prussian Westphalia, cap.
eirc. same name, on the Senne. Pop. 6,942 in
1801. The inhabitants are principally employed
in wire-drawing and in the manufacture of needles,
pins, and thimbles.
ALTENAU, a mining town of Hanover, prov.
Grubenhagen, Hartz mountains, about 1500 feet
alMtve the level of the sea. Pop. 1,996 in 1861.
There are in the vicinity mines of silver, copper,
and iron.
ALTENBERG, a town of the kingdom of
Saxony in the Erzgebirge mountains, 22 m. S.
Dresden. Pop. 2,419 in 1861. It manufactures
lace. The surrounding mountains abound in tin,
and are covereil with forests.
ALTENBKUCK, a town of Hanover, on the
Weme, near where it falls into the estuary of the
Elbe, a little atave Cuxhaven. Pop. 2,550 in
1801. The to^vn has some trade in corn and
cattle.
ALTENBURG, or SAXE-ALTENBURG, one
of the small German States, governed by a sove-
reign duke. The duchy is divided into two prin-
cipal parts by the lordship of Gera, with several
detached jwrtions in other states. Area, 609 sq. m.
Pop. 137,883 in 1861. The W. part, watered by
the Saale, is hillv and woody ; while the E. part,
watered by the I'leisse, ia, flat and fertile. The
hihab., who are descendants of the Wendes, are
industrious, and are almost all Lutherans. The
annual revenue fwm 1862 to 1864 amounted to
123.498/., and annual exi)enditure to 120,051/.,
oiKThalf of the revenue produced by state domains
ALTORF
and about one-third by indirect taxcfi. Altenhiirj;
eontributeH 1,621 infantry with 17 arlilleryineii in
the army of the Confederalioii, PruHsia appoiiilin;;
the ollieers. In 1820, by a general exchange nf
territories among the Saxon princes, the slate wm
handed over to the Ilildlmrghausen branch of the
Saxon princes. (See Saxo.nv.)
Ai.TKNHuno, the cap. of the aliovo principolily,
24 m. SSE. Leipsic, near the Pleisw, on the riiil.
way from llerliii to Munich, Pop. 17,l(!8 in luiil.
The town is well built; has a gyninaxiiiin, with
a considerable library', a foundation for noble linlicK,
an orphan asylum, and a theatre; with manu-
factures of wool, tobacco, sealing-wax, gloves, and
an extensive trade in wood, com, and cattle.
Ai.TKNiumo, or Ovar, a town ctf Hungary, 29
m. SSE. Knoxhurg, in an island of the EriHm,
at the jMiint where it unites with the right ami or
the l)aniil)e. I'op. 3,150 in 1858. It has a gyni-
nasiiim and an old castle, now used as a com ma-
gazine. It was burnt by the Turks in 1683.
Al/I'ENKIHCHEN, a town of the Priissinn
states, |)rov. Rhine, cap. eirc, on the Wied, 10 in.
N. Coblentz. Pop. 1,697 in 1801. It has mm
fabrics of linen and cotton, and a forge. Tiic
vicinity of this town was, in 1791), the tht^atre nf
some obstinate conHicts between the French and
Austrians; in one of which, on the 21st Septemijtr,
the brave General Marceau was kilted.
ALTI':NSTEIG, a town of WUrtemberg, eirc.
Black Forest, 5 m. WNVV. Nagold. Pop.2,l00iii
1861. It is bnilt on the declivity of a steep hill,
at the summit of which is an old castle.
AL'rEll-DO-CHAO, a town of Portugal, prov.
Alemtejo, on the Avis, 14 m, VVSVV. Portalagrc,
Pop. 2,226 in 1858. It is surrounded by walls.
ALTKIRCH, a town of France, dep. Ilaut llhin,
cap. arrond., 34 m. S. Colmar. Pop. 3,108 in IWil.
It is situated on a hill, at the bottom of which in
the III ; has some tanneries, and a cattle fair once
a month.
ALTOMONTE, a town of South Italy, ym.
Cosenza, 24 m. NNW. Cosenza. Pop. 2,9.4;i in
1862. It is situated on an eminence, has good air,
with mines of iron and silver, and a brine spring
in the vicinity.
ALTON, a town of the U. States, Illinois, on
the Mississippi, a little above its confluence with
the Missouri. This town was founded in 181*,
and in 1832 contained only two or three dozen
houses. But the public attention having been then
directed to its advantageous situation for com-
merce and navigation, it advanced with extraordi-
nary rapidity, and, in 1860, had a pop. of 7,33«.
Alton, a m, town and parish of England, en.
Hants, hund. Alton, on the Wye, 47 m. SW. hy
S. London, on the London and South-Westcra
railway. Pop. 3,286 in 1861. It is a neat town,
with manufactures of dniggets and worsteds.
ALTONA, a considerable city of Ilolstcin, on
the Elbe, 2 m. W, Hamburg, and at the head uf
the railway from Altona to Kiel, Pop. in 18(ii\
45,624. It is well built, is a free port, and enjiiys
various privileges. Altona has a good deal nf ]
trade; ship-building is also carried on to a con-
siderable extent ; and there are manufactures nf |
cotton, silk, and leather articles, with sugar-
houses, breweries, and distilleries. There is here a
superior academy or college, a public library, a
mint, an orphan-house, with numerous churchci
The inhabitants are mostly Lutherans. Altona j
was biumed by the Swedes in 1713, under circum-
stances of great barbarity.
ALTORF, or ALTDORF, a town of Switzer-
land, cap. cant Uri, situatetl in a narrow valley j
surrounde<l by lofty mountains, near the SK. fx?
trcmity of the lake of Lucerne, at the N. extremity I
il^i
JR. Altpnhiiri;
irtillpryiiK'ii Ui
iHiii nppoiiiliiiu'
il t'xclmiiKc 111'
I, tlie MnU' \\M
I branch ol'ihe
vo iirincipalily,
HO, on the riiil-
17,W>H ill IHIII,
ninm^iuin, wiili
fornoblu liulii'H,
r; with maiiu-
nx, f{h)vcs, and
iiid cuttle.
)f UiinKwy. 29
of thf Fritliii,
lie ri^iit anil nf
It hiw a f?.viii-
•d 08 a com niu-
i» ill ich:«.
if tho rriisdinn
he Wieil, 10 in.
1. It ha8 Hiimc
I a for^e. Ti"'
), the theotro of
1 the B'reiu'h and
I'ilst ScptemlxT,
illed.
rurtembcrR, rirc
.1. Pop. '2, 100 in
y of a steej) hill,
ca«tle.
f I'ortuRul, prov.
/SW. I'ortalagie.
nded by walls.
, dep. Haiit liliin,
'op.H,10«iii IHIll.
)ttom of whieli is
a cattle fair once
outh Italv, l)Tnv,
. Pop. '2.'.t3;i in
^nce, has S"'"' "''•
id a brine spring
:ate8, Illinois, on
|r confluence witli
founded in ISIK,
[o or three dozen
having been then
[tuation for com-
sd with extraordi-
pop. of 7,338.
.. of England, CO,
e, 47 m. SW. Iff
d South- Western
:t is a neat town,
id worsteds.
, of Ilol8tcin,nn
id at the heiiil "f
il. Pop. in 1«IA
port, and enjoys
a pood deal of
ied on to a con- |
manufactures if
;les, with siigar-
. There is here a
public librar)'. «
[merous churchci
iherans. Altona
[13, under circiira-
I town of Switzer-
a narrow vnllfv
incar the SK. (^
■t the N. extremity
ALTRINOIIAM
(if ilip pn*"* "ver l^Iount St. (Jothnrd. Pop. 2,420
jii I Mild. 'I'lie town siitt'crcd scvcrt-ly from a tire
in |7:i:). I)iit hit-M iH-en rebuilt on an im|iroved ]ilan.
Il lias a liaiidHome (Mtrinh rburch, a to^m-houM>,
uiiii ft Ciii'iK'hin convent, with a library attached.
Mtiirf iH mtiiiiately asHociated with the hiHtorv, or
ic'i'iul, of William Tell. He is mild to have been
hirni in UurKh'ii, a village chwe by; and an ohl
iiiwcr in the town of Altorf, covered with ]iaint-
iiiL's ill Imiiour of Tell, is said to mark the ajxit
nlicncn lie xliot the ap|)le ofl' Iun mm'g bead.
AbTHI^'""'^^^') ft town of Kiiglnnd, Cheshire,
H 111. Maniilicster, on the railway from Rlan-
clii'stcr to Cnwe. Pop. (tfiW in 18(»1. It is a
iicttt. tliriviiif? town, with factories for the spinning
„f idtton and linen yarn.
AI/i'SOHL, a free town of Hungary, at the
(•iiiitliii'iue of tho Szlatina with theOran ; Int. 48°
;!1' ■,!)" N., long. 19° 7' 20" K. Pop. '2,«()0 in lHr>7.
The town is old, and is entirely occupied by Sla-
vmiiftiit. On a hill in the neigbbourhiHid arc the
ruins of a castle, said to have been a favourite
riwiilfiice of Mathias I.
ALTSTKTTKN, a town of Smtzcrland, cant.
St. (iail, y m. S. from the embouchure of the
lihiiie in the lake of Constance. Pop. 7,206 in
IWiO. It is Hituatcd on the declivity of a moun-
iniii ill a beautiful country, surrounded with coni-
tiidds and vineyards; has a fine church which
.servos both for Catholics and Protestant-s, a public
library, a muslin manufactory, and three fairs
iinmially.
AliTURA, a town of Spain, Valencia, 3 m. N\V.
Sfnorbe. Pop, 3,300 in 1857. The town has dis-
tilleries, potteries, and a paper-mill. The country
Mund produces a great deal of wine.
ALVA, o village and parish of Scotland, co. Stir-
liii};, 7. m. NE. Stirling. Pop. of par. 3,283 in 18G1.
The Devon iron company has considerable works
here i but the chief industry ia the manufacture of
tnrtaii .shawls and blankets, as in the neighbouring
towi of Tillicoultry.
ALVAKADO, a small town of Mexico, near the
mouth of the river of the same name, 40 m. SSE.
Vera Cruz ; lat. 18° 34' 18" N., lonp. 65° 39' 15"
W. The bar at the mouth of the nver, about IJ
ra. below the town, renders it inaccessible for
vessels (h-awing above 10 or 12 feet water ; lar^c
sliiiis being in consequence obliged to anchor m
the roads, exposed to all the fury of the N. winds,
which often blow with much violence. During
the period that the castle of St. Juan d'Ulloa
continued in possession of the Spaniards, after
Vera Cruz had thrown off their yoke, the trade o
the latter was principally carried on through Alva-
mdo; but upon the reduction of the castle by the
patriots, it speedily reverted to ita old chonneL
Pop, estimated at about 6,000.
ALVINCZ, a town of Transylvanio, on the
Maros, opposite Koberick, 7 m. SW. Karlsburg.
Pop. 1,570 in 1857. The inhabs. are almost all
Majtyars and Bulgarians.
ALVITO, a town of South Italy, prov. Caserta.
fij m. SE, Sora. Pop. 4,242 in 1861, The town
is built on a declivity of a hiU, in a healthy situa-
tion ; has an hospital, and several monts-de-piete
for the marriage of young girls.
ALWUK, a large tovni of Hindostan, prov.
Delhi, cap. dominions of the Macherry Kaja, 90
m. SSW. Delhi; lat. 27° 44' N., long. 76° 32' E.
It is situated at the base of a steep hill, and is
strongly fortified. On the summit of the hill,
about 1,200 feet lugh, is a fortress containing
several tanks.
ALYTH, a town and parish of Scotland, co.
Perth, 12 m. W. Forfar. Pop. of par., 3,422 in
1861, The soil is fertile, and the town, which is
AMARANTE
87
finely situated, carries on some branches of tho
linen niiuiufucture,
ALZKV, a walled town of Hesse Darmstadt, on
the Selz, 18 m, SSW, Mayeiice, Pop. 1,(1(1!) in
1861. It has manufactures of linen and stockings,
and tanneries,
ALZONNK, a town of France, dep, Aude, at
tho coiitluence of the Lampy and tlie Fn-sqiiel,
near the canal of Laiigiiedoc, 12 m, WNW, Carcas-
sonne, I'op, 1,566 ill 1861, It has manufucturcM
of fine cloth, caps, and lace.
AMAK, a small Danish island, on which a part
of Co|ieiiliagcn is built. It is principally laiil out
in gardens and pleasure-grounds.
AMALPIII, a city and seaport of South Italy,
pniv. Salerno, 9 m.' WSW. Salerno. Pop. 6,5(16
m 1862. This city attamed during the early |»art
of the middle ages to great distinction as an iiidc-
iiciident maritime republic, and was the first
Italian state that traded with Egypt and tho
shores of the Mediterranean. In the zenith of
her prosperity, ui the eleventh centurj", Amalphi
is said to have contained 50,000 citizens ; and her
wealth, and the skill anil intrepidity of her mari-
ners were then luiequalled. IJiit after being re-
duced by the Normans, she was taken and sacked
by the Pisans, in 1130; and from this period she
rapidly declined, and not long after fell into oli-
scurity. A unique copy of .Justinian's Pandects,
said to have been found by the Pisans among the
spoib of this city, was believed to have led to the
revival of the study of the civil law. Amalphi is
also famous for having been the birthplace of
F'lavio Gioja, supposed by some to have been tho
inventor of the mariner's conqiass, but who, it i.s
certain, was only its imjirover. The place is now
resorted to for sea-bathing. (Gibbon's Decline and
Fall, cap. 56.)
AMAND-LES-EAUX (ST.), a town of France,
dep. du Nord, cap. cant., on the Scarpe, 7A m, N W.
Valenciennes. Pop, 10,210 in 1861, Ibis town
is celebrated for its mineral waters, whence its
name ; it is very ancient, has a communal college,
and the ruins of a celebrated abbey, destroyed at
the revolution. It is situated in a rich, well-cul-
tivated country, where the flax is produced (/in
rame) of which the finest laces are made. These
are manufactured in the town, with woollen stock-
ings, cotton coverlets, soap, linseed oil, and chiccory.
It has also distilleries, tanneries, and a great fair
held on the 31st May,
AMAND-MONT-ROND (ST,), a town of
France, dep. Cher, cap. arrond., at the confluence
of the Marmaudc with the Cher, and at one of tho
extremities of the canal, joining the Cher and
Loire. Pop. 8,607 in 1861. It is well built, has
a tribunal de premiere instance, a commercial col-
lege, and a theatre. It manufactures wooden clogs
and leather; and there are forges, cannon foun-
deries, and porcelain manufactures in the neigh-
bourhood. It is the most commercial town of the
dep. ; the exports consist principally of the produce
of the surrounding country, viz. timber, staves,
iron, wine, chesnuts, cattle, leather, hemp, wool,
and goatskins.
AMANTEA, a sea-port town of South Italy,
prov. Cosenza, 14 m. SvV. Cosenza. Pop. 4,077 in
1862. It is encircled by whUs ; has an old castle,
4 parish churches, some convents, and a school
for belles-lettres. There are hot springs in its
vicinity, and its territory has the appearance of a
continued oUve wood. It is supixised to occupy
the site of the ancient Nipezia. It was taken by
the French in 1806, after an obstinate defence.
AMARANTE, an ancient town of Portugal,
prov. Minho, on the Tamega, 36 m. Nil. Oporto.
Pop. 5,500 in 1858. It is situated in an agreeable
88
AMARUPURA
if '• ' ■
;3'!i! 111! ■
('■ !
M^'
valloy, in well built, ha« a fine bridge, nn hoBpitnl,
an liiiH|iicir), (wo cbiirchrfi, mul a Litlin Hcbool.
AMAHlIl'lIltA (viiIk. Ummerapnrn), a city,
and formerly (he rap. of (lie llirmnn empire, on a
)ieniiiHiila between the lriiwn<li on the one hand,
and a deep and exti'iixivc lake on the other, (I m.
NK. Ava; lat. '21° 65' N., long. !»t>° 7' K. In IWIO,
the pop. was ewti na(e(l at 175,(l(Ht; but the seat of
government having been transferred to Ava in
lMl!t, it ban Hinoe rapidly declined, and is now an
inconsiderable place. Near the city i« a temple,
much frequented by devotees, containing the cele-
brated broii/.e Ntatuu uf (Juadania, brought from
Arracan in 1781,
AMASIKFI (an. Amnna), an ancient city of
Asiatic 'J'urkey, cap. Hanjiack of same luinie, in
the E. part of Natolia, <in the ,lekil Krmak ; lat.
40° i);i' N., long. ;«)» 2(1' !•;. The situation is i)e-
cidiar, Ix-ing (lilHciilt of access, and having a
citadel on a sharp-pointed rock, connected with
the hills whereon the town stands. Outside the
walls are some curious caverns ; and in the u|iper
part of the town, are to be r-cr the ruins of a
temple, a fountain, and aqueducts, mentioned by
Sirabo. Most of the houses are of wood, but many
arc of stone, and all are covered with tiles. Streets
narrow and lilthy. The mosque of Sidtan Bayaxid
is a fine edilice, with two lofty minarets of hewn
stone. (Jreat quantities of silk and wine are pro-
duced in the surrounding country, and some bran-
ches of the silk manufacture arc carried on in the
town, which has a considerable trade. Pop. esti-
mated at 25,000. Strabo, the most celebrated geo-
grapher of antiquity, belonged to Amasia, and has
left a very minute description of thia his native
city.
AM ASREII, a sea-port town of Asiatic Turkey,
Natolia, on the Ulack Sea; lat. 41° 4,V 27" ^.,
long. 32"' 21' E. It is built on the declivity of a
hill, on a iicninsula between two jmrtM ; but its
proper roadstead is on the E. side of the isthmus,
at a short distance from land, in B or 4 fathoms.
Its commerce is inconsiderable. There are in the
town the ruins of a temple of Neptune, and some
other antiquities.
AMATUICI'^ a town of South Italy, prov.
Aquila, on a pleasant hill, near the source of the
Tronto, 22 m. N. Aquila. Pop. 6,725 in 1861. It
has 6 parish churches, 2 monta-de-pietv, and a
manufacture of counterpanes.
AM AX IC HI, a sea-port town, cap. Santa Maura,
one of the Ionian Islands, near its NE. extremity,
on a bay of the narrow strait separating the island
from the opposite coast of Albania ; lat. (castle)
38" 50' 15'' N,, long. 2(f> 43' E. Estimat, pop.
7,000. The access to the town by sea is defended
on the N. by the strong castle of Santa Maura,
dist. about 1 j m., and on the S. by Fort Alexander,
on the narrowest part of the strait. The town is
meanly built. Owing, probably, to the prevalence
of earthquakes, most part of the houses are of
wood, and only one story high ; but those in the
principal street are somewhat superior. It is the
residence of a Greek archbishop. Extensive salt
marshes, or rather lagoons, lie between the town
and the castle of Santa Maura, the communication
with the latter being kept up by a causeway sup-
]K)rted on low arches. The harbour, though im-
proved by the construction of an extensive mole,
IS fit only for small craft. In summer, the town,
owing to the neighbouring marshes, is unhealthy'.
AMAZON, MAKiVNON, or OKELLANA, the
principal river of S. America, and perhaps the
largest in the world. It is formed by the united
waters of the Tungiiragua and Ucayale ; it being
doubtful which of these should be considered as
the main stream, though the precedence ha» gcnc-
AMAZON
rally Iwcn given to the first. The Tungurfipn
takes its rise from the lake of Ijlauricocha, in fern,
in 10° 30' S. Int., within (io ni. of the I'luiiiv
0<Tan, while the I'cayale is fonned by the jiniiiicm
of the Apurimucaiul I'aro, the source of the furmit
being near Arequipa, in alMUit the Kith deg, ol' S,
lat. Hoth rivers follow at first a northerly ('i)iir''c,
inclining to the \V., the Tunguragua till it reacliM
.laen, in about 6^° S. lat. and 7ho W. long., iiikI
the Ucayale till it unites with the other at St. Mi-
guel Yarrupa, in about 4J° S. lat., and 721° W',
long. The course of the river is thenrie geiicmlly
from W. to E. till it falls into the Atlantic, aliinwt
under the equator, in about 51° VV. bing. Taking'
the Apurimac for its source, and following \h
windings, its course nuiy Ih5 slaterl at above -I.Tiiil
m. It is studded with innumerable islands, niiiiiy
of which are from 10 to 16 m. in circ,, and sumo
much more. Its mouth, which is IKO m. in width,
has the large island of f'aviana in its centre, mul
marking its extreme limit. The rise and fall of dm
tide is distinctly felt atObidos, 400 m. inland. At
its mouth, two days before and after fulhnoon, tlic
phenomenon of the bore occurs in a very fomiidnlilc
shape; the water from the ocean rushmg into the
river, with a prodigious force and noise, in twn,
three, and sometimes four successive waves, each
iiresenting a perpendicular front, from 10 to l.")fi,
m height. No small vessel can encounter it with-
out certain destruction.
Of the rivers which fall into the Amazon, nftor
the junction of its two great branches, from llic
N., those most important are, the Nnpo, I'litti-
mayo, Yapura, and Hio Negro, the lattc^r Imviiii;
a course of fr<mi 1,400 to 1,500 m. To the S, the
principal tributaries are the Yavari, Yiitay or
Yotan, Y'urua, Madeira, Topajos, and Xingu, (If
these the Madeira is by far the largest, and wimlil
any where, except in America, be reckoned a river
of the first magnitude. Ita course may be esti-
mated at about 1,800 m.
The Amazon, and its tributaries, afford the
greatest extent of inland navigation of any river
system in the world. Its amount may be mcKJe-
rately estimated at 50,000 m. The Amazon itself
is navigable to the E. port of the Andes, 2,000 m.
in a rlirect line from the sea. The navigation to
the Pongo de Manseriche, in about 704° W. long,,
is not interrupted by a single cataract or rapiil.
Its channel is deep; and it may be navigated l)y
vessels of almost any burden, up to the junctien
of ita two great arms, Brazilian steamers of IflOO
tons navigate to Nanta in Ecuador, and as the
head waters of the river reach nearly to Quito, it
has been proposed to bring down produce tliat
way instead of taking it to Guayaquil, which Li
about 150 m. or nine days' journey. In ISfiO, the
number of passengers conveyed by the Stcani
Navigation Company was ()1,085. During the
swell in the rainy season the current is rapid ; Imt
at other times it may be stemmed not by stcani
only, but by the aid of the E. breeze which blown
perennially against the current. At Jaen, in 7^°
VV. long., the level of the stream is only 1.2^il
feet above that of its sestuary at Caviana, so tliat
ita descent is not at an average rate of a foot ever)'
2 m., and during the latter part of its course it is
much less.
At present the vast and fertile country travprsetl
by the Amazon, and its aflluents, is nearly in a
state of nature, being mostly covered with im-
mense forests, affording cover to wild beasts, ami
all descriptions of reptiles. During the period uf |
the inundation, a great extent of the low countrj',
on both sides the river, is laid under water ; the
rains swelling it to between 40 and 60 feet almve
its onliiiary level. There can, however, be little
Tiinpirncim
nifhn, in I'crii,
ol' tlu< I'arllic
liy tlic jiiiii'iidii
•V of Ih'f loriinr
KUh (It'K. of S,
nrthcrly course,
latill it rcmlKH
> W. lonjj.. ftiui
ntliwr nt SI. Mi.
t., nn.l T-'Jo W,
lu'iu;p m'lirriilly
Atlaiitii!. nliniiKt
. \imfi. Taking
[I fdllowinn ii*
1 lit nl)ovn 4.7110
l(> islnll(l^ inmiy
circ, mill H(iiii(i
IHO ni. ill width,
1 its centre, niul
sRandfiiUofllu'
m, inland. At
iT full moon, tliii
1 vcrv forniidalili'
riishin(j; into the
d noise, in twn,
flive waves, rncli
from 10 to 1.5 ft.
icountcr it with-
ic Amazon, nfior
anclies, from the
he Napo, r>iiu-
!,hc latter liaviiiK
n. To the S. thi;
avari, Yiitay nt
and Xinfju. Of
irfjest, and wotiM
3 reckoned a rivtt
irse may be csii-
laries, afford the
ition C)f any river
lit may he mudo-
hc Amazon itself
Andes, 2,000 m.
he navigation to
[ut 7GiO W. loiiK,,
■ataract or rapiil.
be navigated liy
to the junction
steamers of 1000
lador, and as the
learly to Quito, it
wn produce that
lyaquil, which 'n
■y. In 18G0, the
[1 by the Stcara
i86. During the
rent is rapid; hut
icd not by stcara
■cze which IjIow*
At Jacn, in 7^''
im is only 1.240
Cavianu, so that
ite of a foot cvcr^■
lof its course it is
Icountrj' traversed
Is, is nearly in a
lovered with ira-
J wild beasts, aiid
ling the perimlnf
I the low countt)'.
linder water ; llie
lid 50 feet alnive
lowevcr, belillle
AMIUZAC
ilniiht Ibnt, nt dotnc future period, nil its immrndc
liii^iH, roniprising above 2,-lllO,0<M) s(|. ni., will Iki
i„.|.|i|iii'd hy civilised nations, Tbc^ .Vniiizoii will
then lie one of lli(^ moM important and vahutlile,
1), well as extensive chaiuiels uf cunwnunication
ill the world.
The iiiijier part of the river, as far as the mouth
iiflhi' Vavare, which forms the boundary line be-
tm'cii Itra/il and i'erii, is caUed Mararion, (hence
tiitlie inoiilh of tlu^ i:io Negro it is called Soli-
iiiiH'iiK. and from the Negro to its mouth, Amazon,
Till' Mararton attains its greatest height in Ja-
niiarv, the .Solinuiens in l'"ebruary, the Amazon in
tho liiiddle of March.
A ciinimnnioation exists between tho waters of
the Amazon and those of the Orinoco. In fact,
lliiiiilioldt passed by water from the l{io Negro,
thr nriiicipal N, allhient of the fomier, into tho
i'lU'tsiiiiiari, an allluent of the latter, and thcnco
iniii the nukiii stream of the Orinoco.
The mouth of the Amazon was discovered in
l.'iDii, by Vincent Yancz I'iinjon ; but very little
was known respecting the river, till I5:W, when
Francis d'Orellana, a .Spanish adventurer, liaving
oinliarked on the Kio Napo, one of its remote
trilHitaries, and following tho currimt was carried
(idwn the stream to its embouchure. Orellana
iiaving reported that armed women were met with
iiii it.s banks, it thence obtained its popular name
(if Amazon, though it is still sometimes called
Orellana, from its explorer. Tho origin <if the
tcnn Maranon is not certainly kiuiwn. According
to Condnmine, it is the name of a Spanish officer,
who visited the river jireviously to ()rellana ; but
this is very doubtful, and the more probable opinion
R'ems to be, that it is derived from an Indian
iiation of that name, which had inhabited some
part of its banks. The Amazon was first accu-
rately described by M, de la Condaniine, who
having embarked upon it, in 174B, near Jaen, and
fiilliiwcd ita current to its mouth, gave an inter-
esting account of the expedition, with a map of
tiio river, in his Voyage de la Riviere des Ama-
ziinca, Paris, 1745, See also Humboldt's Travels ;
Jdiirnal of (leographical .Society, ii. p, 050,
AMHAZAC, a town of France, dep, Ilnutc
Vicnne, cap. cant. 12 m. NNW. Limoges. Top.
2,925 ill l«(il.
.VIIIIKKU, a town of Ilindostan, the ancient
oap, of the Jeypoor territory, 5 m. N. by E. Jey-
|uj()r; lat. 26° '57' N., long, /"oo 40' E. 'tho town,
riiniantically situated on the margin of a lake, is
now in ruins. In its vicinity is a fine old for-
tilicil palace, and a large castle. The former has a
noble hall of audience, and many beautiful apart-
ments,
jVJIBELAKIA, a to^vn of Turkey in Europe,
j fjinjiack Tricala, or Thessaly, on the W. declivity
j of Mount Ossa, near the Peneus, 15 m. NNE. La-
rissa. This place was distinguished during the
latter part of the last and the first part of the
I present century, by the industry of its inha-
iiitants, and the skill and success Avith which tliey
I carried on the business of spinning and dyeing
ciitton-yarn. The townspeople, who were wholly
(Irecks, formed a sort of independent community,
and either defended themselves from tho exac-
I tions of the Turks, or were neglected by the latter.
At first individuals carried on business on thou-
own account, on tho principle of free competition ;
hut thinking that their profits would be incre.ised
I by carrying it on in common, they formed theni-
wlves into an association on a joint stock prin-
I ciple. For a while this succeeded perfectly well ;
luit, in the end, the parties quarrelled amongst
I themsclve.'!, and the fruits of their industry were
I swallowed up in expensive and protracted litiga-
AMUOISK
89
tion. At length the staple trade of the place wan
tolall.v annihilated by the iniportalion of clicupcr
yarn from I'lngland ; the produce of our spinning-
niills having not merely superseded the liandHpiiii-
yarii of Ainbelakia in foreign mnrk<'ls, but in
those of Turkey itself. The town and Hurroiind-
ing country have since beconn! comparatively poor
and depopulated. In the acme of its prosperity it
might have 7,000 inhabitants; thu cHtimatu now
is 4,000,
AMItEIttf, n town of Uavaria, circ, Kegen, oil
the Vils, bv which it is inlerseclcd, ;il m, NNW.
liatisbon, ^'o|(. 12,012 ill iHlii, It was forincrly tho
capital of the IJpnt^r ralatinate; streets v.iile and
clean; and llinugh the houses an; mostly of w I,
it is pretty well built. It is encircled by a doiiblu
wall, flanked with numerous towers, I'rincipal
public buildings, the electoral, now royal castle,
arsenal, mint, salt-warehouse, town-bouse, anil
church of St, Martin. It has a Ivceiim, a gym-
nasium, a seminary for the education of teachers,
some well endowed hospitals, n convent for noblo
ladies, a public library, theatre, and liouso
of correction. It is an entrepot for salt, and
has manufactures of firearms, tobacco, and earlh-
enware. There are mines of coal and iron,
V ilh iron works, forges, and the principal glass
wtrks in ISavaria in its vicinity: its territory is
also very productive of bops, \t is the seat of a
tribunal of ajipeal, a commissariat of ]>olice, a
president, and a chamber of finance. The French
were defeated in the neighbourhood by the Aus-
trians in 17!M).
AMllEKIEU, a town of France, dep. Ain, cap.
cant. Pop. 2,7«2 in 18(;i.
AMIJ1C1[T, a town of France, dep. Puy de
Dome, caj). arrond. on the Dore, JIG m. SE. Cler-
mont. Pop. 7,(;GI in IHGl. The town is well
built, but the streets are narrow and crooked^ and
the houses being principally constructed of granite,
from the adjoining mountains, have a gloomy ap-
pearance, Ambert,aiid the arrondissemeiit of which
It is the capital, are distinguished by their indus-
try, Tho town is especially celebrated for its
paper for printing and engraving. There are also
in the town very extensive manufactures of rib-
ands, lace, woollen cloths for the marines, called
ctamines a p<a'ill<in, serge, linens and pins.
AMRLICTEUSK, a small decayed sea-port
town of France, dep. Pas de Calais, 6 m. N, Hou-
logne, on tho railway from Calais to Uoulogne.
I'op. 72G in 18(il. It was formerly a .sea-port of
considerable importance; and both Louis XIV.
and Napoleon endeavoured, by improving its har-
bour, to regain for it some portion of its ancient
consequence. Hut, owing to the accumulation of
sand, their efforts have had no permanent in-
fluence, and the town is almost deserted, James 1 1.
landed here after liis abdication of the English
throne in 1(!89,
AMBOISE (an, Amhac'm), a town and castle of
France, de]>, Indre et Loire, cap. cant,, on the loft
bank of the Loire, 15 m. E. Tours, Pop, 4,570 in
18G1, The castle of Amboise, celebrated in French
history, occupies the summit of tt rock, .about 00
feet in height. The town lies principally between
the bottom of the castle rock and tljje river; but
it has suburbs on an island in the river, and on
its right bank. The castle, which is of vast'ex-
tent, was commenced niuler Hugh Cajiet, and
finished under Charles VII,; it was a favourite
residence of Louis XL, and in it Charles VII 1.
was born in 1470, and expired in 1498. It is also
famous in French history as the birthplace of the
conspiracy, dite cTAmlmise, against the (iiiises,
concerted in 15G0. It suffered much during the
religious wars, and was partly demolished duruig
00
AMIJOOR
I'M':!
"'ii!!
♦ ho rovnliitionnry freniy. Tho rcinninin(( i>ortion
ix luiw rmiviTtcil into n i\e\v\t Tor llii> tlintH fi)r llio
u*<' of Hio French amiy, l>r()u>;!if Iroiii the rumrry
of MciiHiio, nt'ur Ht. Aij^naii. The viuw» from iu
towcnt nnil hattlompntj* nrn Hii|M>rl>,
AMItOOU, a town of lliiulontnn, in thn Car-
nntic!, <liHtri<a 8. Areot, IIIM m. VVSVV. Mftdrrw.
\m. 120 50' v., lonK. 7«o Jfi' K. It in nviM nn<l
regularly built: thu inhahitaiitn, who an^ in(hiH-
trioiiH, pr«|ittr<i a conHidcrahh! quantity of cantor
oil for exportation. To the left of tho town w a
lofty iMolatod mountain, that woh formerly iiur-
niounted hy an all hut im|>roKnal)lo fort; but it*
nppe,r workn have been (lentroved Bince it camo
into the iK)SHe»»ion of the Hril^iHh, and tho tower
is used on a place of conllneinent for malefactors.
AMHOYNA {Amhun, Malay), an island of tho
K. Archi|)ela>jn, in its third or E. division (Craw-
furd), Monjfing to the Dutch. It lies in il" 40'
H. lat., iKftwecn 1280 and 12!)o E. long., SW. of
(lerani; is 82 m, in Icn^'th, and 10 in breadth;
area 424 «q. m. Estimated population 188,000,
mostly Malays, with some Cliineso. Iwsides tho
1>utch residents. Tho sha|)o of tho island is irro-
(fular, bein^f indented by a long bay (Hinnen),
which divides it into two very unequal iKirtions,
connected by a narrow isthmus. Surface m<HUi-
tainous, and tho wholo district volcanic. It is
watere<l by numerous rivulets, and overjyrown
everywhere by trees and underwood, intcrsfwrsed
wth clove plantations; its soil, a rich red loam,
is <if a darker colour in the valleys, and some-
times mixed with sand; climato* healthy, the
averaf^e heat of the year 82° Fahr., the lowest
temperature 70° F. Tlic monsoons occur rcpularly,
but their effects are quite tho reverse of those
experienced in Ik)meo and the VV. division of this
nrchi{)elago ; tho E. monsoon brinf^ing rains and
tempests, and the W. dry weather. The Dut<:h
appropriated this island Ut the culture of the clove,
for the production of which it is especially calcu-
lated ; and to secure to it a monopoly of this valu-
able product, barbarously compel tho destruction
of tho trees in the otlier islands subject to their
power. Tho clove (gomode, Tidor lang.) thrives
nest in a dark loamy soil, but not very near tho
sea, on hills, oa sandy or hard clay soil, or on
sedgy grounds, and requires much care in its cul-
ture. "The plant resembles a large pear-tree, from
20 to 40 feet in height. In the Moluccas it bears
at 7 or 8 years, in Amboyna, not till 10 or 12
years old; about one-third of the trees are infer-
tile, tho rest may continue to bear fruit for 70
years. The crops are gathered in Oct. and Nov. ;
they aro very unequal in different years, but the
produce of each tree may average from 2 or 8 to
51b. ; the total annual produce is said formerly to
have been 650,000 lbs. (Hamilton.) Sago forms
the chief nourishment of tho inhabitants, and
very superior indigo, but inferior coffee, are also
grown. Sogo trees are 7 years in arriving at full
growth, and last about 30 ; but they aro generally
cut down when about 20 years of age. When in
full vigour, thej'. yield from 42 to 46 lbs. of sago a
year. 'The w'' nnimals of Amboyna are deer and
wild hogs ! there aro no beasts of prey, but a mul-
titude of birds and servants. Buffaloes, cows,
sheep, goats, and horses, were brought thither by
the Portuguese, but cattle are rare. The inha-
bitants are of four distinct races, viz.: — 1. Hora-
foras, the aborigines, who are in a savage state
and live in the forests, whither they were driven
by, 2. Malays, who compose the bulk of the popu-
lation : 3. Chinese, who are the principal mer-
chants : 4. Europeans, mostly Dutch. The Malays
are indolent, effeminate, and fond of imitating the
Dutch ; they are expert fishers, in canoes from 10
AMKLfA
to 20 feet long; in war they use horokoni, HO to
100 feet in length, and capable of containing' sii
men. Their houses aro of w<mmI, nxifcd with |ialiii.
leaves, and aro mostly of but ono story, on lU'ciiunt
of the prevalence of earthquakes. The prevtiiliri);
religion is Mohammedanism, iiitpNl. A. i>. l.')|,i;
but some of the AmlH)yiii>so are Christians, atui
lH>ar Portuguese names. The govenmient is i|o-
iM>n<lent on that of Itatavia; its seat is at Fun
Victoria: tho public revenues are derived frcnn a
m(mo|)oly of arra<'k, custom-house and {sirt dllti<'^
taxes on merchandise, and licences to keep an inn,
and kill ))igs. The ex|M>rts consist of cloves, nmi
other natural pnNluce; the im|Hirts chiuHy opium,
and a few Euro|)can and Indian g(MHls.
Uintnry, — Amboyna was lirst distuivcred by th(>
Portuguese in 1515. It was taken by the Itiiti'li
in 1607, and by tho English in 1615. The latter,
who were soon aftor ex|Mdled by the Dutch, re-
tained a factory in tho island till 1622. Tha
destruction of this establishment by tho Dutcli,
and the cruelties inflicted on the unhappy iHTKnnH
found in it, afforded a theme for lengtliene(l iie^it-
tiations, and for much declamatory invective. At
length, under the vigorous administration i>r
Cromwell, tho Dutch were com|M>lle<l to ninkt!
somo comjiensation to the descendants of xhm:
who suffered in tho 'Amboyna massacre.' In
1706, tho island was captured by the British, wIm
restored it at the peace of Amiens. They recaii-
turcd it 1810, and held it till 1814, when it re-
verted once more to the Dutch.
Amboyna. The principal town in tho o1k)vc
island, and the second in imiM)rtance l)elnii);in;,'
to tho Dutch in tho E. Archqjelago, on the SK,
side of the bay of Kinnen, near Fort Victoria, in
30 40' S. lat., and 1280 15' E. long. Pop. 8!tt!t; in
1861. It is rcgidarly built; the streets, X\\m\A\
not paved, are broad, and intersected by many
rivulets ; tho houses, excepting tho towii-lioiiw,
which has two stories, aro all of only one story,
constructed of wood and roofed with palm leaves
A long esplanade, reaching as far as tho fort, is
lM)unded by a handsome range of houses, anil .1
double row of nutmeg trees ; there ore two Chris-
tian churches, an hospital, a fine garden mid
menagerie, and several go<Ml bazaars and markets,
Fort Victoria is an irregular hexagon, siutouikIiiI
by a ditch, but as it is entirely commanded liy
two neighbouring heights, its best defence u
in the difficulty of anchorage in the cuntiguuuj
bay.
AMBRIERES, a town of France, dcp. Ma-
yenne, cap. cant., 7 m. N. Mayenne. Pop. 2,720 1
in 1861.
AMBROIX (ST.), a town of France, dcp. Gani, I
cap. cant., 11 m. NNE. Allais. Pop. 4,060 in
1861. It manufactures coarse silk stockings, and
has tanneries and nail works.
AMELIA (an. Ameria), a city of central Italy, I
prov. Perugia^ deleg. Spoleto, 23 m. SVV. Spolctd,
Pop. 7,024 in 1861. It stands on a small hill, v I
the seat of a bishopric founded in 1344, and has a
cathedral, three churches, and some convents.
Ameria was one of the most considerable and I
ancient cities of Umbria. The famous comedian. [
Sextus Roscius, was a native of Ameria, which ii
frequently referred to by Cicero in his speech in I
defence of Roscius. It- is said to have Iwen I
founded 1045 years B.C., and became a colony [
under Augustus.
Amkma, an island on tho NE. coast of Florida,!
from which it is separated by a narrow channel I
40 m. N. St. Augustine, between St. Mary's aiidr
Nassau rivers. It is 20 m. in length by 2 inj
breadth, is fertile, and its chief town, Fcmandina,]
has a good harbour.
nrokorr; RO tci
4MiiitniiiiiiK Hii
iftll Willi |lllltll'
iir>', on iU'ciMiiit
The pri'vniliiin
•(hI. a. n. I. '•I.);
ChriHtiaMH, nml
cnimpiit U (If-
M-nt i» at Vm
(IctivihI fnnn a
and |M)rt iliitio,
I to keep an inn.
t of I'lovi'N, nml
(I chieriy uiiiimi,
imhIh.
Hcovcred l)y thn
n by the Uiitrh
J 1 5. The liittir,
r the Diitcli, re-
till 1<122. Tho
t hy tho Dutch,
unhappy pernoiw
ennthencA w^o-
py invective. At
lininiHtration nf
ilH'Ucil to nmU
cndantH of tluwi
a manHBcre.' In
tho Hritiith, will
mn. They riHUih
814, when it rc-
wn in the almvc
)rtanco beUmpntf
)claffo, on the 81„
■ Fort Victoria, in
ng. Pop. H\m in
10 streets, tlioujrli
OTCcted by many
r the town-house,
»f only one stcin,
with palm leaves
far 08 tho fort, i*
, of houses, anil »
ere ore two Chris-
fine garden nntl
r-aars and markets.
..afion, surrniiiiileil
ly coromandetl liy
best defence w
the contiguoiu
france, dcp. Ma- 1
fenne. Pop. 2,720
iFrance, dep. Ganl.
P«)p. 4,0(;o in I
l^ilk stockings, and |
,, of central Italy,
13 m. SVV. Spolete.
Ion a small hill, i^ I
in 1344, and has a
lome convents. I
I considerable an'l
[famous comedian. I
Ameria, which ii I
in his speech ill
Jd to have toi
I became a colony
£. coast of Florida,!
la narrow chainieU
Ten St. Marv'.s aii'll
£i length by 2 ml
rtown,"Fcmanilina,l
J V
^ ^
H o
M ^i
^.1 /v)
7,
H ^"1
■f
c) :"q
5'
^^
^
-S /:
JM.U.JJ.J.I J
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l.ini.' iliviili'il liy
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,l..'i*i III. rill' In
I'M I III' tlir Hrcilii
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jni' I) nlill lii^htT I
•Mli'llli'llt will ll|i|ii
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l«iy», lukcN, cnlnrncti
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'.<liiiiil(l bo compnrati
lAniprican k iiroimlil'
lOfiliclowfir aninmlHj
limrlinniHfouml in A;
|(ii»titutc of the home
jolHliioh vrervi carried
|aiiil(itliCT KiirojKian 8(
I N'. America w inoi
Iif the great (liviHions
ItruljiliiiaiKlarmsof th
I'flhcuc, in the NK. p
lifwiiat Kalhi hat< nc
|iWE«qiiiniaux, from
I'wipiwl with t,ril)c«
Jrai'c. It conHWtH of i
ISiraits and Hatfln'a
Ifnim the rest of the co
llj'ini; more to the S. t
lihe former by numero
Iweonly been recent!
Jtmn of tiicBO seas an
Ifivoiirablo seasons, is
I'liwbflinK constantly
lit « only during a shoi
■fan l)c attempted. T
■to on the American
■Uwence, so called ft
AMEninA
IM
AMFflK'A. nr fhf Sfw WofM i.f the W. »ir-
niKiJiiri'. I'll'' "I till' ^ri'iil iliviniiinn nf III!' kI"'*<'<
.iiriutwiMi; nil iIk' iiilirr'* in iiiit({iiiliiili', ivitli lln'
iMilillMll III' A^ill, Id Mrllirll, IlllWl'MT, il In lull
hull' iiifi'riiir. 'I'IiIn vitni I'miiiiK'nt ^iri'irlim N,
tii'l H, II iliitniirt' 111" iiIm'M' i»,tMMl III,, iir frmii
,ii..iit till' '-i"l ili'Krri' 111' *v "if. Ill <'a|M« lliirii,
,„ nlimil 'I'l S. liU. 1 1 it v<'r> ttf , 'il irS iiliit|H'il,
IriMk' iliviili'il I'V III" (iiili'li ipf M.m'i anil ttiii
( »mt"'»ii ?*''" iitlii IIh" •«■' fiKiniiiiiw (^<i' "Mill'"
„i N, fliiii M. Aiiirrlrit, iiiillcil l>v ll«' u.iff •
l-iliinii" 111' hiifii'ii, iir I'ltiiiiiiiii. H >M'r»' l>ri>ii<l> >i,
S. Aimririi, I'M'liiiliii).: ' ' < 'Iniul, l« li"! Ii'A<i il^aii
I 'iiMi III, mriiMM, mill S, AnTifu imi |i,<4 tliitii
,l,.'l»l 111. Tin' Im'hI •'MlllllHt - llllll llHVtl IhtII
i,,riiiiiliil'lli<'un'aiil' Aiiifriru vnfv h .w I I 7!hi,imm»
|.i l.'i.NIO.INHI l'!li){, |H|. III., while Niinil . 'Xliitrllii'N
JIM' a iitill liittlicr IlKiiri', I'nilnilil.v, ilic luljn'viii^
.liiii'iiiriil will it|i|iriiiii'li tlin iiiuiui, ImwhmI uii llm
iui«i ri'liiilili^ HtiillHlirM: —
N. AiniTli'A
H. Aiiii'ricit
I'litiiilt
(inviiliiiiil mill tlin InIuiuIh ronnM'tol
Willi II N, nf MiiiImiii'm SlrulU .
Rn*. iq. m,
7,'tlNI.IHMI
U/llMI,INH)
IAO,l)<X)
fmo.iioo
I1,ll.-|0,IMH)
Tiitikl . .
TlnTiiiiliiiriil of America lies Iwlwccii the A»-
litniii' ami I'lirilic iM!cium, lliii t'lirincr .^'piirnlinK it
I fri'iii Kiirii|H> mill Al'ricn, ami Ilic InltiT friiiii y\Miii
ami AiiKiraiia. All the iliitiiii^'iiiHhint^ t'ealiircH of
I ilii' Aiiu'ricmi (■iiii(iiii>iit mi>i'iii |o Ih> rurini'il on
ihi' mimt )(i^'anli<' Mcale. Tlie chain of Ihe AihIi'h,
I uhirli riiiix froin onii cml ol' M, Aincrii'a to llie
I'tliiT, anil is iirolon^nl iinilfr ilill'tTcnt imnirr*
ihriiiiKli the wliole exii-nt of N. Aiiierieii, in, in
l«iint iif leii^lh, iine<|ii»lleil hy any iiiniinlain
ilmiii in the old worlil ; mnl in far Hiiperior, in
I n'<|Hrt iif allitiiile, to llie Alpx niul every iitliiT
muiiiilnin ovHteni with which wo nru Hci|iiaiiilc>il,
ilii' iliiiiinaiaya only excepteil. The plaiiiN, riven*,
I U\f, lakcM, calnractN, nnd foreNtn of Aniericii are
of iiiirivnllt'il extent anil ^ratuleur. I ler mineral
I nrlii'M M'cni alHo to Ih; Niiperior to t.liomi of every
iithcr colli inent; and Hlie ponneMneH every variety
I if climnle, from tlie extreme heat of the torrid
\im' to the eternal winter of tlie arctic circhi. It
u !<iii)^ilnr, however, that while inanimate and
Tcci'tnliiu nature arc devehiped on ho Krand a
I male in the new world, the animal kiiif{ilom
"iild bo com|>aratively dellciitnt. The iiativo
AnicrioRn iH pmhalily inferior even to the nejfro.
Idftliii lower animaln, neither tlio elcpliant, camel,
limrlinn iH found in America; and itwaa originally
lilniitiitv uf the home, the ox, and the 8heen, all
l(if which were (tarried thither hy Spaniuh, liritiHli,
|inil oilier Kiiroiiean Hcttlcni.
I X. America ih more indented thaii any other
I (if the );rpat ilivimonH of the ({i'*l>Ci with immeiiHe
IpilliliH and arini* of the aca. One of the principal
lifthciie, in the NK. port of the continent, conNiMt«
liifwliat Italhi hoH not unaptly called the oea of
lihi' l'>qiiiniaux, from it« coaotfl Imnft cverj-whero
Vcupied with trihea lielonKin^ to that jit'culiar
jraio. It conHiata of two threat divisionn, Davia'a
ISiraita and liaffln's Hay, aejiarating Greenland
Ifnim the rest of the continent ; and Hudaon'a Hay,
llyin),' more to the 8. and VV., but connected with
jihe former by numerous channels, some of which
Ihave only been recently discovered. The navifia-
|ii"n of tiicac seas and inlets, even at the most
jfavmirablo seasons, is extremely difficult, from
llWir bcinp; constantly cncumliered with ice ; and
lit Li only during a short period of the year that it
l«in he nttempted. The next ffrcttt mlct of the
Iw on the American coast is the (iulpli of St.
lUnTence, so called from the great river of that
immp wWeh full* Into Itn RW, rOrrmlty. I'«»>»Iiik
liver llie iiiiiiiiriiiiK iiih'N uiiil imlile liay^ mi the
I'liiiNt of iIm' I'lilli'il Siali'4, wi> I'liiiie til the (iiilph
(if Mi'xirii ami ilie < nrrilM'mi Sen, 'I'hla Mfl tiie-
ililirrmiean In N'pnraleil Irniii the Ailmiiic liy Ihi*
|M'iiliiKiiln lit Kliiriila, mid the linaier or l.eM«'r
Aiillll)'*, or Ihe Wi'xt imliaii UIiiiuIk, 'I'lie InlliT
are, an il were, a ixtiiliiiialinii uf I'lnrldn; ami iire,
Il in pmliiilile, llie oiilv reiti'tililliu: |HiililN nf M lull
waa iitii'i' a lirnail In'U of laml, Mhirli liiw* Imim
linikeii III pii'ceN mnl partly miliiiirrui'd ill Hiiiiii' iif
1 ii'iie Iri'mi'inliiliH i'iiiiviiIkIoiih In Hliirli the larlli
lui'; Ih I'll Nllliji'i't. Illll, however llli^ Miav Ih<, iIim
Kri'ut Inland wa In illvidcd liiio two imrtliiiiM hy
flu |>«'iiiiiiiiht of Viiralmi ami tape ,Mt, Aiilniiio,
at the W, rxtri'Milty of the ixlmnl of 4 'iiliii, which
niiprom'h will t l'lllnparali^elv aliurt iliilitiice
of each other; that In thi N. lieiii({ ralliil Ihe
tiiilph of Mexi ami thai In the S. llie < 'iirrilnaii
Sen, nr till- wa of the Aniilli'H, 'I hr l'<iliiiiii'< nf
I'Hiiniiia i^ i' Ihe extreme H, limit of ihe lal ' in
alMiliI the Mill i|r|;;ri'e of N. latitllile, Il in U'lii'Mil
that It Would Ih- hv im meaiia dillii'iilt In cut a
canal aerimn IIiIh iniIiiiiiih, and cntiNeiMii'iiily to
unite the Atlantic ami I'acili ihin. 'I'lic <iiil|ili
of ('alifnriiia,Ni'parailiig the pciiiiiKiiln nf thai iiniiio
frnin Ihe niaiii land, in the iiionI iiiijinrlaiit inlet
of Ihe Ken nil Ihe \V. coiiNt nf North Allli rica.
H. America hears a Hirikiiiu reNi'iiililaiice in Ihe
fonii nf its ciia.'tlM to Africa. Il in much inorecniii.
pact than N. America, and is cniuparalively little
unleiiU'd hy nriiiH of the nea. The great riverH,
Amazon, |,a I'lala, I'ara, Orinoco, Ki;, may, Imw -
ever, he looked u|)oii an a Npccics of inland Ncas;
and are, in some reNpects, ninn* Herviceuhle than
the latter. The \V. cniint nf America, I'mm tlio
liroxiniily of the Amies, has hut few gulphs; ami
IS, in great part, all hut deHlitiile nf liarhniirM. The
S. exiremily nf 8. America, nr liie cmintry nf
Tierra del Kiiego, is properly an archi|K'lngo, iM'iiig
sejiaraleil from Ih niiiient hv th<! narrow ami
winding strait of Magellan, nr AfngalhaeiiN,
Mouniuinn, — lliimlHildt has slmwu that all the
high elevntiniis nf the New World iM'Intig to that,
great chain Mrhich, under ditiereiil demiminatiniiH,
extends from one of its extremities to the other,
along its western coast, over a space of no lesa
than 10,000 m. The American mountains may,
however, he divided into riyht systems, nr prin-
cipal grniips, three of which Is'iong to S., and
three to N.America; and one each to the West
Indian nnd Arctic arclii[M-Ingos.
1st. Of thes«! systems, that of the Andes, or
Peruvian system, from the highest moiinliiinn
being, with one exception, in the country kiinwii
by the name of I'eru, is the most gigantic. Thin
vast chain of mountains commences at Carie Horn,
in about the ftllth deg. of S. Int., and lollowing
jiretty closely the line of the W. coast of the cnii-
tinent, to which it forms as it were a huge bul-
wark, sln^tclies N. to the Itay of I'miama, in aliniit
tlie 0th deg. of N. Int. Itut at ro|iayan, in nitniii
"i\l^ N. lat., the chain is divided into tliree gri at
ridges, of which Ihe most westerly takes the di-
rection alKive mentioned, while that farthest to llin
K. follows a NK. direction, terminating a little to
the E. of lake MatacaylK). The name rortJilkra,
sometimes given to the entire chain, iM-hings pro-
jierly only to the highest ridge. In parts the
chain consists of only one riilge, and in others of
2 or 3, enclosing very extensive Ahiine valleys,
many thousand feet above the level of the sea.
Next to the Ilimmalaya, the Andes has the high-
est elevation of anv mountain system ; its mean
height may be taken at from lO.IKMI to 12,000 ft.
Chimborazo, near (jiiito, 2 1, '124 ft. above the sea,
was formerly supposed tu be its culmiuatiug point ;
h''J\
w ,
3 "!3
''M
92
AMERICA
"1; lilin
m
liiit it ifl HiirftAflscd in nltitiido l>y Aconcn^un, in tlic
Chiliiin Anih'H, lat. 324 ^*m '""«• ''^° ^V-> which
iMTtiiiiily rincH t(i hImivc '22,200 ft., or to more than
(;,'I!M) ft. above the hei^'ht of Mont lilonc. (Hc.e
Anues.) 2(1. Tlio system of La Parimo, or (luv-
nim, embraces the moiintaiiiH scattered over the
immense island formed by the Orinoco, Cassiqui-
nri, Itio Nep-o, and Amaxon. It consists of an ir-
regular group of mountains, separated from each
other by plains, savannabs, and immense forests.
The Sierra de I'arimc may i)e regarded as its nrin-
<iipal chain. The Peak of Duida, 8,2H0 ft. in
lieight, is the culminating point of the chain and
of the whole system. 3(1. The Brazilian system,
embracing the mountains that lie between the
Amazon, Paraguay, and Kio dc la I'lata, Tlie
Sierra de Kspinhazo is its most elevated chain. It
traverses, under difFerent denominations, the pro-
^°inocs of liahia, Minas-(rerai!s, liio do Janeiro,
San Puulo, and the northern extremity of the
province of San Pedro. Its culminating points
arc Itambcand the Sierra da Piedade, nearly 6,000
ft. high, in the province of Minas-tierat's, 4th. In
N. America, the principal mountain system is that
of the Mexican Alps and Kocky Mountains, which
may be regarded as a continuation of the Andes.
In Mexico, it is divided into three distinct ridges ;
within which, between the parallels of 19° and
24° N. lat., are innncnso plateaus elevated to the
height of between (),()00 and 9,000 ft. Tnc central
Cordillera of Mexico stretches N. 10° W. from the
25 th to the 38th deg. lat., separating the waters of
the Kio del Norte, tlowing SE. from those of the
Colorado, flowing SW. The highest peaks in the
ridge in Mexico are tlio volcanoes of Pocatepetl,
17,717 ft., and Orizaba, 17,374 ft. From about
the 38th deg. the ri(ipc, which then begins to be
called the l{ock_- Mountains, stretches N. 28° W.,
till it terminates near the mouth of the Mackenzie
Itivcr, on the Arctic Sea, in about the 69th deg. of
lat. and 138th deg. of W. long. Some peaks in
tliis chain, hetween 62° and 53°, are said to be
nearly 16,000 ft. above the level of the sea ; and
others, between 37° and 39°, have been ascertained
to bo from 10,000 to 12,000 It. in height. 6th.
Parallel to the liocky Mounliuns, and at no great
distance fum the sea, a chain of mountains runs
N. from the peninsula of California till it is lost in
L'ussian America. This chain, which has been
called by Humboldt the Califomian Maritime
Alps, increi^ea in altitude as it gets further N.
Mount Hood, near the 45th deg., on the S. side of
the Columbia or Oregon river, is said to be about
16,000 ft. high ; and Mount St. Helen's, about a
degree further N. on the N. side of the Columbia,
has an elevation of 14,000 ft. Mount I)'airvv rather,
in the 69th deg., is also 14,000 ft. high; and
Mount St. Elias, the loftiest in the chain, attains
to an elevation of nearly 17,000 ft. The last two
are volcanoes. Between the Rocky Mountains
and the Maritime Alps is an extensive prairie
tract, 700 m. in length, by from 100 to 200 m. in
breadth. The Kocky Mountains and the Maritime
Al|)s are connected by a ridge in about the 42d
deg. lat,, dividing the waters which flow N. to the
Columbia from those which flow S. to the Colo-
rado. Gth. The mountains E. of the Mississippi do
not at all approach the Kocky Mountains in mag-
nitude. They are included in what is called the
Alleghany or Appalachian system, extending in
a NE. by N. direction from Alabama, on the N.
confines of treorgia, to the banks of the St. Law-
rence, being about 1,200 m. in length, with a
mean breadth of 100 m. The White Mountains
of Now Hampshire, 7,300 feet above the level of
the sea, are the highest in this range, which is
crossed by the tidal waters of the Hudson river.
The immense valley of the Mississipp lies between
the Kocky and the Alleghany chains. 7th. Unlhi
proposed) to embrace, under the dcnominutinn nf
Arctic system, all the mountains that an: almuiv
or that may liercaftcr be, discovered within tl'ij
Arctic archipelago. The culminating points i,f
that system, in so far as tliey are at present kiunvn,
are the Com du Ccrf, in (irecniand, the hci^r|,t,i
which has been much exaggerated, but which i,
probably above 8,000 ft., an(l the Acraefl Tm>knl|
ni Iceland, 6,649 ft. 8tli. The system of tlic An-
tilles embraces the mountains in the orchipolagndf
that name. Its culminating fioints arc, the Antun.
Sepo, in Ilayti, nearly 9,000 ft. in height; aini
the Sierra de Cobre, in Cuba, the most clcvaicd
summits of which attain about the same lun^'ht,
Plateau*. — America has a great variety of jilj.
teaus, some remarkable for their prodigious dcva.
tion, aiul others for their immense extent. Undtf
the former are included the plateau of Titicaca,
divided between B(divia and I'cru, comprisinj; an
area of about 18,000 sq. m., with a mean elevaiinn
of above 13,000 ft. Ihe populous an(l well culti.
vated plateau of Quito is elevated about 9,600 ft,;
and the extensive plateau or table-land of Ana-
huac, in Mexico, from 6,0(tO to 9,000 ft, Aminn-
the latter, or those principally remarkable fortlicir
extent, may be mentioned the central plateau df
S. America, embracing the vast province of Matt,,
Grosso, with parts of Goyaz and San Pniilo in
Brazil, the whole of Paroguay, Chaco in the con-
federation of the Kio de la Plata, and a part of the
lands of the Chiquitos and Moxes in Bolivia. lu
elevation varies from about 750 to 1280 feet.
Volcanoes. — America has a great number ot |
volcanoes, and some of the most elevated volca-
nic mountains in the world. The states of Equailor
and of Cauca in Columbia, the states of Nia- 1
raguaj San Salvador, and (jiuatemala in central
America, Chili, Kussian America, and Iceland in
Danish America, contain a great number of vol-
canoes. The most remarkable volcanic mdiin-
tains arc, Cotopaxi, Sanguay, and Pichincha in
the Columbian department of Equador; Pastu,
Sotara, and Purace in that of Cauca; Guajnia- 1
Plitina, or the volcano of Arequipa, and Sehania |
in Peru ; the volcanoes of Copiapo, Chilan, An-
toco, and Peteroa in Chili ; those of Socomiisca, |
Guatemala or Fuego, Agua, Pacaya, San Salva-
dor, Granada, and Telica, near St. Leon, of Nica- 1
ragua, in central America ; Popocatapetl, or tie I
volcano of Puebla, Citlatepetl, or the volcano of I
Orizaba, the volcano of Colima, and that of Xo- 1
rullo, in the Mexican conicderation ; St. Elias and I
Fairweather, in the Califomian Alps; the two vol- 1
canoes of the peninsula of Alashka, and those of I
the Aleutian islands ; with Hecla, and otheis in I
Iceland. I
Plains. — In no other part of the world are the |
plains so vast. The immense space from the out-
let of the Mackenzie River to the delta of the I
Mississippi, and between the central chain of the I
Mexican system and Rocky Mountains, and the I
Alleghany, forms the lai]gest plain, not of Amelia I
only, but oif the world : it embraces the basimofi
the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, Churchill « I
Nelson, almost the whole basin of the Missoiiii I
nearly the whole basins of the Suskatchawan and I
Mackenzie River, and the entire basin of the C«|)- 1
permine River. Four-tifths of that portion of thii I
vast plain which lies beyond the 60th deg. of laul
is a bleak and barren waste, overspread with inmn I
merable lakes, and bearing a striking resemblaiin I
to N. Asia ; but its more southerly portion, or thai I
lying W. of the Alleghany chain, and N. from the I
(iiilph of Mexico, differs widely in character frm |
the other, bcuig well wooded and fertile on theLl
AMERICA
03
ipp lips between
tiiiH. 7tli. Unllii
(li'iiotniiiutioi) i,f
that are alremly,
rcTcA witliiu the
latin^ pointH irf
it present kiunvn,
iiul, the ln'iKlit (if
ted, but which «
Acrnefl Tuekiill,
ystcm of the An-
tlienrchipelagiiiT
t8 arc, the Anton-
. in heif^ht ; ami
ho most elftvatoil
he same hei},'lit.
at variety of |ila.
prodigious elcva-
se extent. Umkr
iteau of Titicira,
Tu, comprisiiif; an
a mean eleviitiun
lus and well culii-
Bd abtmt 9,(500 fi.;
able-land of Ana-
9,(t00 ft, AiDdni;
imarkablc for tluit
central plateau df
province of Matin
md San Tnulo in
Chaco in the cnn-
1, and a part uf tlie
:e8 in Uolivia. lu
to 1280 feet,
great nuralicr nt
)8t elevated volia-
e states of Equadiir
ic states of Nlia-
itemala in central
ca, and Iceland In
pat number of vol-
e volcanic niduii-
and Pichincha in
f Equador; Pastu,
f Cauca; Guagua-
piipo, and Sehania
piapo, Chilan, An-
lose of Socomusco,
acaya, San Salva-
St. Leon, of Nica-
)pocatapetl, or the
or the volcano of
and that of Xo- 1
ition; St.Eliasand|
Alps; the two vol-
ishka, and those of I
icla, and othen in I
the world are tk |
space from the oui-
the delta of the I
entral chain of the I
lountains, and the I
oin, not of Amcria I
jraces the basins d
ence, Churchill or
in of the Missouri
Suskatchawan ani I
■ebasinof theCof-l
that portion of thii
le 60th de{?. of lau I
erspread withinnii-j
riking resemblance [
irly portion, or thsi I
in, and N. from the I
y in character ft« I
nd fertile on the 1 1
niile. hnrc but not infertile in the middle, and be-
(iiminK tiinnwt a desert in the extreme W. The
vcconil Rrcttt jilain of the New Continent is that of
ilio Anin/on : it embraces the whtde central [lart
,if S. Amerit-a, compri.Ming more than half Urazil,
with south-went Columbia, the eastern part of the
rciiiililic of Peru, and the northern part of Iloli\'io :
iis limits are neorly identical with those of the
iiijilillc aii<l lower parts of the immense basin of
the Amazon and Tocantin. The plain of the Itio
ilo la Plata extends between the Andes and their
iirinci|)nl branches, and the mountains of l)ra/.il,
til tiie Atlantic Ocean and the Straits of Magellan.
It embraces the sotjth-wcst part of liraxil, Para-
r-iiftv, the country of the Chiquitos, Chaco, with
il,(. "greater part of the confederation of the Rio
dc la Plata, the state of Uruguay, and Patagonia.
A large jiortion of it is known by the name of the
I'umpaii of lluenos Ajtcs, or Kio de la Plata. The
iilaiii <if the Orinoco, embracing the Llanos of
Xcw Granada and Venezuela in Columbia, extends
fmm Caqiicta to the mouth of the Orinoco, ah)ng
the (iiinviaro, Meta, and hiwer Orinoco. In some
(if the Hat parts of America large tracts of terri-
tory are met with, which, in respect of ariility of
soil, and of the sand by which they are covered,
may be compared to the deserts of Asia and
AInca. The most remarkable and most extensive
(if these tracts are the desert of Pemambuco,
occupying a great part of the NE. ]ilateau of Bra-
zil; the desert of Atacama, extending with some
interruptions along the coast of the Pacific from
Tarapnca in Peru to Copiapo in Chili; and the
desert of Nuttal, at the E. foot of the Kocky
Mountains, l)etween the Upper Arkansas and
I'ailuka, forming part of the central plain of North
America.
The Rivers of America are on a much larger
scale than those of any other portion of the glolie,
aft'onling facilities of internal communication of
vast importance, and quite unequalled any where
else. The principal are the Amazon, IMississippi,
Plata, St. Lawrence, and Orinoco. TTie Amazon
flows E. through the broadest part of S. America,
falling into the Atlantic Ocean under the eqpator.
Its entire course is estimated at about 4,700 m.,
and it has several tributaries larger than the Wol-
ya or the Danube. Uninterrujited by either rocks
or shallows, it is navigable for vessels of consider-
able burden to the E. foot of the Andes, a distance,
in a direct line, of above 2,000 m. from the sea ;
and though cinlisation has as yet made little pro-
),Tess in the vast and fertile regions through which
ii tlows, there can be no doubt that it is destined
to become as it were a great highway for many
]iowerful nations, and to have its banks thickly
set with populous towns and emporiums.
The Mississippi, taken in connexion with the
Missouri, the largest and most important stream,
flows from N. to S., falling into the Gulph of
Mexico, about 100 m. below Ne-w Orleans. Its
I course, including windings, exceeds 4,200 m. ;
many of its tributaries, as the Arkansas, Ked
Kiver, Ohio, &c., are of great magnitude ; and it
drains one of the larger and finest basins in the
world. It is navigable for about 1,700 m. in a
I direct line from its mouth ; and though civilisation
s only begim to strike its roots and scatter its
I seeds in the wide regions through which it flows,
I it is ahready a well frequented channel of commu-
nication. But the boldest flights of imagination
can hardly figure what the Mississippi will be,
1 when the rich and fruitful countries on its banks,
I and those of its afHuents, are all fully peopled, and
I making use of its waters to send abroad their sur-
plus products, and to import those of other coun-
tries and climates.
The Plota, which runs S. with a alight inclina-
tion to the E., is the grand channel of communica-
tion to a very large porticm of S. America. Its
course maybe estimated at about 2,r)00 m. ; and
its basin is inferior only to that of the Amazon or
the Mississippi.
The St. Lawrence, with its connected lakes, or
rather great inland sea»i, is the grand outlet of the
largest frerthwater system in the world. Including
the lakes, its course cxceeils 2,000 m. It is ni-
markable for the equality of its current, which ia
nearly uniform throughout the year.
The OriiHico has a course of aliout 1800 m., and
carries to the sea an immense body of water. There
is a water communication between one <if its artlii-
ents, the Cossicpiiari, and the Kio Negro, an afllu-
ent of the Amazon.
Owing to the circumstance of the Andes, and of
their prolongation in N. America, being generallv
within a comparatively short distance of the \V.
coast, there is not, in most parts, room in the in-
tervening space for the formation of any very great
river. Hence, notwithstanding the prodigious
length of the W. coast, it only receives two largo
rivers, and these not of the llrst class; the Bio
Colorado, falling into the bottom of the Gulph of
California, and the Columbia or Oregon. Their
course may be estimated at about 1,100 m. each.
The Mackenzie is the only great river flowing
into the jVrctic sea. It ha.s a NNVV. course ; it is
connected by a series of lakes and tributary streams
with lake Superior, and conseciut itly with the St.
Lawrence.
Lakes. — No part of the world has so many lakes
as N. America, especially that portion between 42°
and 67° lat., which might be justly called the lake
region. It presents not only the greatest masses
of fresh water on the siuface of the globe, but so
many smaller lakes and morasses, that their enu-
meration is almost impossible. These lakes form
a most important feature in the physical geography
of the new world. In the rainy season, several of
them overflow their banks ; and temporary com-
munications are then established between rivers
whose embouchures are frequently at immen.se dis-
tances from each other. Some of these communi-
cations are permanent ; as, for instance, that of the
Mississippi or Churchill with the Mackenzie Kiver.
The ^eat lakes of N. America are. Lake Superior,
Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Eric, and Ontario.
These, which are all connected together, discharge
their superfluous waters by the St. La^vrence, and
form that vast reser\'oir of fresh water, sometimes
called the sea of Canada. (See the titles for a full
description of these lakes.) The next in size and
importance are Lakes Winnipeg, Athabasco, Great
Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake, stretching NN W.
from Lake Superior to near the mouth of the
Mackenzie River, and forming as it were a conti-
nuation of the Canadian lakes. There are some
considerable lakes in the Mexican states ; and the
comparatively small lakes of Tezeaco, Xochimilco,
(SfC, in the valley of Mexico, are remarkable for
their elevated situation, their vicinity to the ca-
pital, and the superb works undertaken to prevent
the damage caused by their frequent overflowing.
Lake Nicaragua, in central America, is remarkable
for its size, tlie beauty of its scenery, its volcanoes,
and from its forming the basis of the works jiro-
jected for uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
The limited size of the principal lakes of S. Ame-
rica, strikingly contrasts with the dimensions of
those of N. America. The lake of Titicaca, the
largest and most celebrated of the S. American
lakes, is situated near the NW. frontier of Bolivia,
or Upi)er Peru, in an Alpine valley surrounded by
ridges of the Andes. It covers an area estimated
94
AMERICA
I .
Ii ||M»>,''
,11 L.i!
iVlf.l
iif
at 2,225 gcag. sq. m., Its length beinp; 120 m. and
brtiudth HH in., and it in elevated r2,HdO feet above
the level of the sea. Manco Capac made hin Unit
n|>pcnrance nn the hankx of this lake. The liaHina
<if the Hio Colorado, or Mendoza, and Kio Nep'o,
]>r(!.s(Mit several very extensive lakes; but these
urc really rather vast monuscs, than lakes i)ro|)erly
80 called.
Jxlawla. — A multitude of islands bclonff to
America. We shall briefly notice the principal,
ill the order of the seas in which they are situated.
Jn the Atlantic Ocean are, the archipelago of St.
Lawrence or of Newfoun<lland, at the mouth of
the (iulph of St. Lawrence: its principal islands
are Newfoundland. Anticosti, Prince Edward's Is-
land, and Cayte lireton. The great (Columbian ar-
chipelago, or Antilles, commonly called the West
Inilies, comprises a great number of islands and
secondary groups, lying between the peninsula of
Flori(hi and the delta of the Orinoco. Its chief
islands are, Cuba, Hayti,or St. Domingo, Jamaica,
and Porto-Kico, called the greater Antilles; St.
Cruz, Antigua, (iuadaloune, Martinico, St. Lucia,
liarbadocs, St. Vincent, lobogo, Trinidad, and se-
veral others, called the smaller Antilles. The Lu-
cayos, or Dahaina Islands, a vast secondary group,
are situated to the N. of Cuba. Towards the
southern extremity of the New Continent, are the
Falkland or ]\Iulouinc Islands, which have no fixed
inhabitants; in the southern ocean is the archi-
pelago of Magellan and Ticrra del Fuego, the most
southerly inhabited part of the world. By its
Iiosition, at the extremity of America, it belongs
ns much to the ocean, to which we have assigned
it, as to either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean.
The Antarctic archipelago, or Antarctic lands,
under which denomination we include all the
islands situated beyond 56° S. lat., next claims
attention. The greater part of these islands have
been recently discovered ; they are all uninhabited,
are mostly covered with ice, and are important
only to whale and seal fishers. The most remark-
able islands and
groupi
s are, the island of St.
Peter, called by Cook, S. Georgia ; the archipelago
of Sandwich, the Orkneys, S. Shetland, 'Irinity
Island, the small islands of Alexander I. and
Peter I. The Pacific Ocean has also a multitude
of islands, lying in groups, of which we can only
notice the following : the archipelago of Madre de
Dios, on the W. coast of Patagonia ; the Cam-
pana and Madre de Dios are the largest of these
islands : the archi)jelago of Chiloe, situated to the
8. of Chili, to which it belongs, and of which
Chiloe Island is the largest : the archipelago of
Gallopagos, situated under the equator, about
50U m. W. from the coast of Columbia, but which
has no stationary inhabitants : the archipelago of
Quadra and Vancouver, comprising a great number
of islands, and that of King George III., on the
NW. coast of N. America, with the Aleutian
archipelago in Russian America. In Behring's
Sea, are the group of Pribyh>f and Nounivok, be-
longing to Russia. The Arctic Ocean presents a
vast number of islands, the minority of which,
previously to the late voyage of discovery, were
regarded as parts of the American continent.
Balbi proposes to give to these islands the gene-
ral denomination of Arctic lands or Arctic archi-
pelago, and to subdivide them as follows : E, or
Danish Arctic lands, comprising the great group
of Greenland and Iceland, belonging to Denmark,
an(l Jan Mayen's Island, without stationary in-
habitants; the W. or English Arctic lands, ex-
tending to the W. and N. of Baffin's and Hud-
son's bays, the principal groups of which are, N.
Devon, N. Georgia, with the islands Comwallis,
Melville, &c.; and tlie archipelago of Boffin —
Parry, with the islands Cockbum, Southamptor,,
New Galloway, 4c.
The Climate of America is nearly rs colcbratui
for the predominance of cold, as that of Africa fut
the predominance of heat. With the excerption nf
the limited space along its W. shore, betwwn the
Andes in the S. and the Maritime Aljis in the X
the temperature of the New World, in the mIhJ
latitude, is everywhere inferior to that of the ()|||^
Countries which, from their geographical jHwitidn,
we should supiiose would be mild and tcmjieratf^
are exposed to long and severe winters, (hinnJ I
which thev are wholly covered with snow ; and ij
point of fact, the entire continent of N. AmiTiq
above the 60th degree of lat. is all but uninhabit.
able. Even in the 45th parallel, on the N. side uf
the Canadian lakes, frost is continuous fnr tnnn
than six months. Occasional frosts occur lu l(i«
down the Atlantic coast as the confines of Floriili^
near the 3()th deg. of lat., in the parallel uf Mu.
rocco,_ Cairo, and Suez. This predominance of
cold is no doubt ascnbable to a great variety uf
causes ; among the most prominent of which nuv
be placed the extraordinary elevation of the siiii
Not only is the continent traversed from one cj.
tremity to the other by immense chains of moun-
tains covered with perpetual snow, but in manr
parts, as in Mexico and Columbia, very extensive
plains are found at an elevation of from (>,(Mili ui
10,000 feet above the level of the sea ! Thm
the plain of Quito, immediately under the equa-
tor, nas an elevation of above 9,600 feet, and iu
mean temperature is said not to exceed 63°Fahr,
In some parts, where the plateaus rise rapidly,
there is often, within a few leagues, an extraont
nary change of temperature. At Vera Cruz and
Guayaquil, for example, on the borders of the
plains of Mexico and (Juito, and nearly on a level
with the sea, the heat is often quite oppressive.
These different climates have dinerent vccetaUe
productions. ' Hence the traveller joumcyinj
down the deep descent of one of these magnificent
ravines (leading from the plateau of Slexico),
through forests of birches, oaks, and pines, his
himself suddenly on the level shores of the Kio
Alvarado, surrounded by palms, and has an oppor-
tunity of seeing the animal products of the X, I
and S., of the Alpine regions and tropics, nay uf I
the E. and W. hemispheres mingled together, f
Wolvcs'of northern aspect dwelling in the vicinity
of monkeys ; humming birds retuniing jjeriodicallv
from the borders of the frozen zone, with the X; I
bunting and soft-feathered titmice, to nestle neir I
parrots; and our common European whistiinj;!
ducks and teal, swimming in lakes which swam
with sirens and Brazilian parras and boatbilk,'!
(See Richardson's Zoolojjy of N. America, in the I
Sixth Report of the British Association, p. 135.) I
In addition to its vast mountain chains, and the I
prodigious elevation of many of its plateaus, the I
lower temperature of America may be partly as- 1
cribed to the great indentation of the sea between I
N. and S. America, and the want of extensive I
sandy deserts in the tropical regions, cosily im- 1
pregnated with heat. The place of the lottcrinl
the African continent is here occupied by vast I
forests, traversed in all directions by immtnsel
rivers. The forests, however, are not confined to I
the tropical regions ; they extend over the greater I
portion of the continent, powerfully diminishing |
the influence of the solar rays upon the earth, ami I
greatly increasing its moisture. A strong and I
abundant vegetation, the result of its greater ho- 1
midity, is, in fact, the distinguishing characteristic [
of the New World. I
But a very small portion of North America is I
within the torrid zone ; it reaches for witMi I
mu
ATHERICA
95
the Arctic circle, where it also attiuns to a p*ttt
imiiltli. The N\V. wind prcvnilH during wintur.
Iliis ttiiiil, HWceiiiiiRovern dcsoliite C(iuiitry,()vrr-
spreail witli ninr»lu'», forests, frozen lakes, nnd
J,„„„tftiiis, buried under eternal snows, contracts
»i, intense decree of cold, and in its i)ro{,'re»8
!i,iuttiwnr<l. passintt over a wilderness, wliero the
frciuiitl i'' shaded by forests from the solar rays, its
oriL'iiial character'is in no re>i|)cct clian^'ed. It
aliiwiv viclils to the dominion of the climate, and
iftaiiis it" temperature lonj; after it has penetrated
intii tlie rcjfions of heat. Throughout N. America
III,, ){, wind is accordingly felt to Iw keen and
iiicrt'liitl- I'' increases tlie rigour of the seasons
III tlic more northerly regions, and extentU the in-
lliiiMicc of winter far into those latitudes which,
in lilt' other hemis])here, arc blessed with perpetual
Mirinj;. The countries lying within the tro])ic8 are
(>NiHisc<l to the inroails of the northern blasts ; and
tiie (fteat heats felt at Vera Cruz and Ilavannah
arc often suddenly reduced l)y strata of cold air
lirought by the "H. winds from Hudson's Hay.
'i'liese wiii'ila blow from October to March, fro-
niiontly bursting forth in tremendous hurricanes,
anil c(N)ling the air to such a degree, that^ at Ila-
vannah, the centigrade thermometer falls to 0, or
320 Fahr., and at Vera Cruz it falls to 16°, or to
Gil* Fahr. At Zacatecaa, within the tro])ic of Can-
cer, it frequently froze hard in the winter of 1825 ;
anil in the city of Mexico the thermometer has
lnTii known, though rarely, from the same cause,
tdfall l)clow the freezing point. To the prevalence
(if these N. winds, thorelore, combined with the
cxiracmlinary elevation of the ground, and the
iiiiciiltivated state of the country, overspread with
vast forests, the greater cold of N. America seems
cliii'tiy ascribable. In S. America nearly the same
causes operate. The country is even more deso-
late; the climate is more inclined to moisture;
anil liable, beyond the 40th parallel, to dreadful
tempests ; while immense mountain ranges, rising
far above the limit of perpetual snow, aid these
cft'ects, and greatly increase the rigour of the sea-
sons. To these causes may be added the form of
the American continent, which being jrreatly con-
tracted in breadth as it approaches the S., is, in
consequence, exposed on every side, except towards
the N., to the surrounding oceanic winds. To the
S. of Cape Horn is the great Antarctic Ocean,
where cold prevails even to a much greater degree
than in the N., so that the winds coming from
those inhospitable seas bring to the American conti-
nent all the unmitigated rigour of the polar regions.
The Andes and the Maritime Ali)8 protect the strip
of territory between them and the Pacific Ocean
[from the freezing influence of the NAV. wind ; and
to this its greater mildness is partly at least, if
lot wholly, owing.
Mnerah. — The mineral riches of America are
jprobably superior to those of any of the other
treat divisions of the globe. The discovery of the
Imines of Mexico and l^eru effected an entire re-
olutiun in the value of the precious metals ; and
mother revolution, in the same sense, followed
he discovery of the mines of California, of recent
late. The annual produce of the American mines,
it the commencement of the present century, was
stimated by M. Humboldt at 17,291 kilogs. of
:ol(t, and 795,581 kilogs. of silver, of a total value
if 9,243,750/. This produce continued slightly to
Bncrease down to 1810, when it was estimated by
llr, Jacob, author of an Inquiry into the Con-
lumption of the Precious Metals, at 9,913,000/.
But the revolutionary struggles which began in
;he lastTmentioned year to agitate Mexico, Peru,
1(1 the rest of S. America, speedily occasioned
e abandonment of some of the most productive
mines, nnd an extraordinary falling off in the
supj)ly of the precious metals. According to Jacob
their average annual produce in America, from
1810 to 1829, did not exceed 4,o:i(i,00()/. a year,
or less than half its amount at thccommeiicenuMit
of the century. (Jiutd), ii. 21(7.) Latterly, how-
ever, the supplies of bullion from Mexico, and
still more from Chili and I'eni, appear again to be
on the increase. And to the supplies from Mexico
and 8. America we have now to add those from
California and Columbia. The extraordinary pros-
perity of the former regiim, consequent on the
discovery and energetic working of its mineral
treasures, fidlowed as it was a few years later by
the Australian discoveries, and on a smaller scale
by the discoveries in Columbia, has quite thrown
into the shade the more ancient gold iitdds of
South Amctrica ond Mexico. The value of gold
exported fmm San Francisco in 1857 was esti-
mated ot 14,000,0(Kt/., and the entire yield of gold
to 1st July, 1802, was 13<i,000,000/. Gold was dis-
coveretl in 185G in Columbia, and in 1801 the total
yield was estimated at 1,527,975/. To these must
be added the produce of the silver mines of the
new territory (now state) of the United States,
Nevada, of whose enormous richness the most
marvellous reports have recently reached us. There
has already been a large immigration into the new
territory', but the working of the mines and the
knowledge of their immense fertility has been
comparatively recent, llesides gold and silver,
most other metals are found in less or greater
abundance in America. Chili and Cuba have some
of the richest copper mines in the world ; lead is
found in the greatest plenty in different parts of
the U. .States, particularly at Galena, Dubuque,
and other points on the Upper Mississippi, in
Mexico ; and in California, Columbia, nnd Nevada,
lead, antimony, mercury, and in some places dia-
monds are found. Diamonds are also found ex-
tensively in Brazil, which till late yeors was the
principol source of supply for the world. Iron is
extremely abundant in the U. States, and in many
other parts of the continent; salt also is very
widely diffused ; and coal, including onthracite, is
found in vast and indeed all hut inexhaustible
deptisits in different parts of the U. States, in
British America, and in Chili.
Vegetation. — Stretching, as America does, from
the eternal snows of the Arctic to those of the
Antarctic circle, and possessing soils of every ele-
vation and quality, her vegetable products are
necessarily of the most diversified description.
Owing to the prevalent humidity and coolness of
the climate, and the richness of the soil, her fo-
rests and pastures are unrivalled for extent, luxu-
riance, and magnificence. The forests consist ge-
nerally of very heavy timber, including many
species of pines and larches unknown in Europe,
with an endless variety of oaks, maples, cypresses,
tulip trees, mahogany trees, logwood, Brazil-wowl,
&c. &c. The Old World is indebted to the New
for some of its most useful and widely diffused
vegetable protluctions. Potatoes, though probably
not introduced into Europe for more than a century
after the discovery of America, already form a most
important part of the food of most European nations ;
and tobacco, though it also is of American origin,
has been diffused from one extremity of the Old
World to the other, and is, perhaps, the most
universally esteemed of all luxuries. We also
owe to America maize or Indian com, millet,
cocoa, vanilla, pimento, copaiba, cinchona or bark,
so important in medicine, jalap, sassafras, nux
vomica, and a great number of less important
plants. The Cactus cochiuilifer, which furnishes
I the cochineal, is also peculiar to America. Ou the
i8ti>. I i|
M
AMERICA
other hnnd, America is indebted to the Old World
for a threat variety of cereal p'osacfl, trees, and
fruitjt. At the head of the former may Im placed
wheat, harley, oat«, and rice, all of which Huccced
admirably well in lar^e portions of America. It
Huems ]iretty well establiMbed that the sugar-cane
is indijLCcnous to some of the W. Indian islands ;
but it is abundantly certain, not merely that the
art of making sugar, but that the cane, now most
generally cultivated in the islands and in conti-
nental America, was brougtit to them either from
the K. Indies or from Madeira. America is also
indebted to the Old World for the coffee plant,
now one of her staple pnMlucts ; and for oranges,
lemims, peaches, and most descriptions of fruit-
trees. New York apples, though now very su-
jHirior to any produced in this country, are derive<l
from plants carried from England. The vine has
been raised in America; but either the soil or
climate is not suitable for it, or, which is |)erhaps
most probable, sufficient care has not been be-
stowed on the manufacture of the wine. The tea-
plant has been tried in Urazil ; but, owing to the
(loarncss of labour, there is no chance of its being
protitably cultivated there, or any where else in
America,
The Zoology of America differs in many im-
portant respects from that of the Old World. Of
about 1,350 mammals that have been described
and classified, America possesses about 540 ; but,
with few exceptions, she is singularly ill provided
with the useful animals. As already stated, nei-
ther the horse, ox, sheep, nor hog were found in
America on her discovery by Columbus ; and the
want of them must, no doubt, have been a con-
siderable obstacle to the advancement of the natives
in the career of civilisation. The elephant and
the camel are also unknown in America ; but she
was not entirely destitute of useful animals. lu
Peru they had the llama, guanaco, paco, and
vicunna, animals that bear a considerable resem-
blance to each other, if they be not of the same
species. The first has a considerable analogy to
the camel, though it is neither so large nor strong,
and wants the hump. It was, and still is, em-
ployed to carry loads, and being docile and sure-
footed, makes its way over the most dangerous
paths. Its pace is slow, seldom exceeding 12 or
15 m. a day, and it usually carries about 80 lbs.
Its wool, or rather hair, which is generally, but
not always, white, is spun and made into articles
of clothing. The guanacos and pacos are not so
serviceable as beasts of burden as the llamas, and
are comparatively little used. The vicunna, the
smallest of them all, inhabits the least accessible
parts of the Andes ; it is chiefly prized on account
of its wool, which is of a very superior quality.
The flesh of these animals, though dry and coarse,
is used OS food. They are almost the only animals
that the native inhabitants of America had been
able to subdue, and to render subservient to their
purposes. The bison, or American ox {Bo» atneri-
canus), the; largest native quadruped of the New
World, is principally found on the prairie lands of
the Kocky Mountains in N.America. It is rarely,
if ever, seen to the S. of the Mississippi; and it is
doubtful whether it was ever found on the At-
lantic coast. The Boa motchatui, or musk ox, is
found only in the most N. parts of America to the
W. of Hudson's Bay, from 66° to 73° N. lat Its
horns, which cover all the forehead, are often of
great weight. The Rocky Mountain goat, re-
markable for the fineness of its wool, inhabits the
Kocky Mountains from Mexico to the extremity
of the range. Several species of deer are found
both in N. and S. America. The rein-deer is the
most northerly ruminating animal, being found in
Orcenland and the remotest of the Arctic iRlandt,
On the W, coast it descends as low as the Culuin.
bia river.
America possesses several peculiar specim nf I
the genus Canh, or dog. The physiognomy nf il^
American wolf, when contrasted with that of ji,
KurojHian namesake, is very distinct. There i, ,
great variety of foxes. The fur of the Cunis /««,.
pua, or arctic fox, and of some other variuticH i,f I
the same genus, is of considerable value. Tlie |
best known variety of the American dog Is i
Cania familiarii, found in Newfoundland. Tlii) I
animal is now very common in Enghind, and '»
deservedly a great favourite. It is stn>n){ aiKj
active, has long, fine, glossy hair, a curved bushr
tail, and webbed toes, by means of which it 8winu
admirably well. The colour of the book anj
sides is generally black, with a white belly and
legs, and froquentlv a white spot at the tip (if the
tail. It is naturally fitted, by its thick cAvcrini;
of hair, for a cold climate, and is more active and
in better health in this country in winter thaii in
summer.
The beaver (Castor) is more abundant pcrhap
in the NW. parts of N.America than in an v other
part of the world. But the great demand ior,mi
high price of its fur, has led to a great dimiiiutiim
of its numbers, and to its nearly total extirpation
in the more accessible parts of the country. 'Die
coypou, known in commerce by the name of iifu-
tra, and the chinchilla, are found in 8. Aroerirt.
They yield a highly esteemed fur, and immeoie
quantities of their skins are now imported,
America has but few beasts of prey. The most I
formidable, the Felix onca, or jaguar, is found!
only in S. America. It is larger and strongetl
than the panther; but is inferior in size and fom- 1
city to the Bengal tiger, with which it is gene-
rally compared. The Felix ditcolor, or puma, \i I
found in both S. and N, America; though dcno- 1
minated the American lion, it is neither so Iai;,'e
nor fierce as the jaguar, A number of bears, some
of them of the largest and most formidable de-
scription, are found in Arctic America: two an |
peculiar to it,
Tropical America has a great variety of apei, I
but none of them approach so nearly to the human I
form as the orang-outang, or chimpanzee, and none I
of them have the ferocity of the baboon, Manr, [
however, have prehensile tails, endowed with io I
great delicacy of touch that they have been com- 1
pared to the trunk of the elephant. This fit) |
them admirably for travelling from tree to tree.
The vampjrre bat, frequent in S, America, it I
veiy dangerous. It attacks the larger animalJ
and even man himself, when asleep ; and as iu I
bite is not sufficiently painful to awaken the w I
tim, the bleeding it occasions sometimes proval
fataL
America is inhabited, or rather infested, by an I
immense number of reptiles. Of these the rattle- 1
snake is one of the most common, and also the I
most dangerous: but there are others little les I
venomous. The true boa constrictor is found <( I
an enormous size in the marshes and swamps dl
tropical America. Centipedes, sometimes a,r»i|
in length, with enormous spiders, as well as scor-[
pions, abound in these r^ons. According t)|
Humboldt, the white anta and termites are eval
more destructive here than their congeners in the I
Old World.
The birds of America are exceedingly numerm I
The condor, which inhabits the most inaccessibkl
parts of the Andes, though of less dimensions thai
was formerly supposed, is the largest and dx^I
powerful of all the feathered tribes. There nl
also a great many eagles, vultures, falcons, nil
tho Arctic iftland^
low as the Culuui-
lecuHor species if
hysioKiuimyoftlie
id with that of iu
itinct. Tlu're i« «
■ of the Cunii /ujjo.
other vnrietits nf |
jraWo value. The
nericnn doj; is [h
wfimndlnnd, Tlib
in England, ami u
It ia Htrong and
ur, a cur\'e(l liusk
8 of which it Bwinii
of the back and
a white l)clly ami
)ot at the tip uf the |
r its thick covcrinf
I is more active and
■y in winter than in
B abundant pcrha|« I
» than in anv other
rcat demand for, and
) a great tlimiiiution
rly total extirpatinn
f the country. The
jy the name of nm-
bund in S. Amerifj. I
>d fur, and immeiM |
low imported.
1 of prey. The idmi I
or jaguar, is found I
larger and stronger I
srior in size and fero- 1
:h which it is gene-
ditcolor, or puma. Ii I
lerica; though deno-
it is neither so larj,'* I
umber of bears, some I
most formidable de- 1
ic America: two arc
reat variety of ap»
I nearly to the human I
jhimpanzee, and nm I
the baboon. Many,
lis, endowed with so
they have been com- 1
elephant Thisiitil
5 from tree to tree.
it in S. America, ill
the larger animaUl
in asleep; and aaiul
to awaken the w I
IB sometimes proval
ither infested, by ail
Of these the rattle- 1
lommon, and also the I
'are others littlclal
tutrictor is found '<|
.shea and swamps dl
^8, sometimes ayarif
liders, as wellasscot-l
ions. According til
id termites are eval
leir congeners in tbtl
icceedinglynumeroittj
Ihe most inaccessibkl
I less dimensions thai
Ihe largest and mo«|
■• tribes. There «l
atuies, falcons, wl
Ill ^ I'
1
}hh if I If]
*»
i.llur \i\pU of
■iiiiillcr (liuii I
lUlll ill)' Wllllll.M
\«'l lIlu'liN llC 1
Till! wnii'iM I
!>li; mill rlio I
iiii !• ftl.io ciiiim
liMt (iCilic Cai
N'lithiiiK, Ikm
ri'l.'iiiciii III t\u: i
!nI iiicrriiNc of
Ir'in Kiirojio, I
ilii' I'irciiiiiHimic
II Hiiiilil ciTliiin
»rri' iiiilij^'ciiiiii!
\\.:- liii'ir iiiuivt'
in iiiinK'ii.i(^ luM
mill xu iiiimcro
•liiii;;htt'r of ox(
It iIi(> liiilp, is
lAii'imivc provir
}iiir ftlidvc Hi)U
irmn Urnzil oiil
IrHiii lliK'nos yVy
III coiimMniciifc,
1 1 licirKCs, tlK> nfi(
■cvfml |mrt.M Ims
licnmc i'.\|ii'rt I
I'irt (if llicir till
iliis rt'Kpoct Id t\
(iciit wiirlil, SIk
ill America an ca
ill miiDt parlH, is
liiiii.
Uiiret of Mer,-
riia (JitrtT ill pJiy,-
li.ips in iiitcllfcli
variety of the In
ilie ),'cncral af,Teei
wives ia even m<
(.TW'incnt friim oil
Anicricnns call th
ilip Kuropcan an
il'Mtet and Blue
knowledge of.) exl
I'lthutigh extendi
•'1° on the S. side
ilwujfhtormoistu:
flee, have certaii
wii of the small
nlJe among thcrn
>.iy3 Humboldt, ' I
"lio inhabit Can<
• »ver 1,500,000 .s(i.
""t. Laurence and
at the first glance
"I the features of
l*rceive them all
stock, notwithstai
their languages, 1
"f the Canadian ]
wattered over the
'■irony. The sa:
wth Americas.' '
''.'ll'>W8:_.skin da:
"litre, usually call*
'i' more correctly
'ii"ii; liairoftheh
'"OK. but not verj
' ' Ihc body very d
■■'"iKether wanting
'«'tltcn to present
;oreheadlong;'ey
"ee broad across t
I'Miinent; nose y
ai'«; mouth larg(
■'"glis massv, legs
AMEHICA
07
nthrr liifilM of proy. A hihtIm of cmtricli, Imt
•mailer lliiiii llic Africun, iiiliiiliitM the l'arii|)iis;
mill tl"' winiil!< of Ixirli Anii'ricaM nrc iliti rcwirt, of
tii.i HiK'kN of will! liirkcyN, and iii^i'onx.
riK! walcrx of America are ucll Hiipjiliod with
li-li; niid till' rivern in the trojiiral ri'j.vioiiH pro-
iiiiiv aJxo ciiiimioiiH lixanli* ami aliipitorH, In the
hkf* of llu> CaraccitH in found l)u> cloclric rcl,
Xiithiii^, however, in no worthy of remark, in
nliiiiciii to the 7.oolo(,'y of America, (W tlie wonder-
liil liicrcaMe of the horNex and cattlu carried there
Irum Kiirojie. Had we not hocn fully aware of all
ilii'i'ircMniHlaneeH in repird to their ininiiuration,
ii wdiilil certainly hav(> been Hiipposed that they
Miri' iiidlKcnouN to America, and that it, in fact,
>,,; :iicir native country. Tiiey here roam aliout
ill iiiinu'n«e herilN in a state of jiristine fn'edom;
mill HO nnmeroim have they U'come, that the
>imyhtt'r of oxen, not for the carcass, hut merely
l,ir the hide, is the principal Itnsiness of matiy
i\iciinive provinces. (See 1'ami'AS.) In a single
Miir nhove Htl(l,(l(HI hides have heen exported
irnin Itrazil only, exclusive of those exported
Irniii Iliienos Ayres, Montevideo, and other ports.
Ill (viiiwiinence, too, df the extraordinary increase
if iKirnes, the mode of existence of the natives in
■cveml jmrts has been wholly changed ; they have
liirume expert horsemen, and pass a considerable
{I'irt iif llieir time on horseback, approaching in
iliis respect to the Tartars and Arabs of the an-
liiiit world. Sheep have not succeeded ho well
ill America as cattle and horses; and their W(Md,
ill imiut parts, is gctiendly of an inferior descrip-
linll.
Haeti of Mer . — The native inhabitants of Ame-
rir;i littler in physical form, in language, and per-
liaiw in intellectual character, from every other
variety of the human race. Probably, however,
ilic ),'oneral agreement whi(rh exists ainong them-
Nlves is even more remarkable than their disa-
i.Ti'1'ment from (tther r.'u-es. The Ited men, as the
Anicricnns call themselves, in contradistinction to
ilio European and African races, (that is, to the
//7ii7f» and Black*, the only two they have any
kimwlcdgc of,) exhibit sur|)risingly little difference,
I'.lihough extending over 70° on the N. side, and
.'il° on the S. side, of the equator. Heat or cold,
ilnmf,'ht or moisture, elevation or depression of sur-
f.kp, have certainly no effect in the production,
ivMi of the small variations occasionally discover-
iilile among them. ' The Indians of New Spain,'
>ays Humboldt, ' bear a close resemblance to those
«lio inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil.
I Ivor 1,500,000 sq. leagues, from Cape Horn to the
Si. Laurence and Hehring's Straits, we are struck
at tlio ttrat glance with the general resemblance
in the features of the inhabitants. We think we
[KTceive them all to be descended from the same
stock, notwithstanding the prodigious diversity of
their languages. In tlie portrait chrawn by Volney
iif the Canadian Indians, we recognise the tribes
scattered over the savannahs of the Apurc and the
I'arony. The same style of features exists in
lioth Americas.' The general jdiysical form is as
li.llrtw j ; — Skin dark, having more or less of a red
I liiifte, usually called copper-colour, but thought to
I'l' more correctly characterised by that of cinna-
iiimi ; hair of the head black, coarst-, lank, shining,
'""K. but not very abundant : hair on other parts
I'l the body very deficient. The beard is seldom
altogether wanting, but it is so uniformly scanty
as often to present the appearance of its being so.
Forehead long; eyes deep sunk, small, and black.
I lace broad across the cheeks, which are round and
jlirominent; nose well raised, and round at the
|i>|i«x; mouth lorge, ind lips thick; chest high,
tliighs massy, legs arched, feet large, hands and
>ouI.
wrists nmall. Tlie height is iieariy Iho mean sta
tiire of the Kiini|H'aii nice, but the IhhIv is iisiiallv
more squat and thick set. The coiinteiiance is
banl-favoured, and the liHik stern, yet with a cer-
tain sweetness in the expressimi of the mouth
which is a contrast to the n-sl of the feiitiires.
It will iiiipear from this siatemeiii that llie races
which the American miwi nearly resembles arc
the iMongul, Malayan, and liido-('hii«'.-<e. The
features of the face are, however, more umphi
chiselled than in any of these; the frontal bmie
is more Ihittened thnii in any of ilieni; and the
stature is greater than it is, at lea^t, in the Ma-
layan race. Although in the tropical regions nf
America (here are no black men, as in Alnea or
Asiii, imr in its teiiiiierate regions any whites, as
ill I'Jirope. still varieties do t'\\*\ in an inferior
degree, which may be coiiipared to t! use which
exist among Kuropciuis, ami among Negroes. Thn
most striking of these are found in the short, sipiat,
and tallow-coloured l'!s(piiinau\, about the polar
regions of the N., and the tall ralagonians towards
the S., extremity of the continent. The first of
these differ in no respect, as far as physical form
is coii(M>nied, from the people of the same name in
Asia and ICiirope. The I'alagoiiians or I'lielches,
inhabiting the SIC. coast of the soiitberii extremity
of America, may be considered, after rejeciing the
exaggerations of early, and the contradictions of
later travellers, as the talli'st people in the world.
If with us the niediiini height of the male sex
may be estimated at o feet M inches, that of the
I'atagonians may be taken at six feet. Other
races, remarkable for their great stature, also exist
among the Americiiiis; as tlie (,'aribeesaiid ("bero-
kees. Hut there are also races remarkable for their
shortness, as the I'ciriivians, who are between the
mean Kuropean standard and the Cbaynias, whose
average height, according to Iliiinbolilt, is .'> feet
2 inches, wliich makes them a. full inch shorter
than the Malayan race, yet much taller than the
Ksquimaux. Upcrn the whide, it may be remarked
that the American race exhibits u wider difference
hi stature than any other family of mankind, while
this difference, at the same time, would not seem
to be productive of any essential variation in
physical or intellectual capacity. In iioint of co-
lour there exists also considerable variety; the
brownish-red tinge for the most part prevails;
hut in some cases ita intensity approaches to
black, and in others to the fairness of a southern
Kuropean. The probability is, after all, that the
number of distinct races of men in Amerii^a is at
least as great as in other portions of the world,
although their smaller numbers, and obscurity of
the tribes make it more diilicult to distinguish
and class them. In this matter, languages, so
useful a guide in Kuropc and Asia, have not, in
America, on account of their multiplicity and in-
tricacy, afforded as yet much assistance. The ex-
ceeiling, and perhaps insunnountable difficulty of
this branch of the inquiry may, indeed, be judged
of when it is known that the number of distinct
languages spoken by men whose numbers are not
supiKised to exceed 10,000,000 has been reckoned
at no less than 438, and their dialects at '2,000.
The intellectual powers of the American family,
must, at first ^^ew at least, be considered as rank-
ing very low even among the uncivilised races of
mankind. The Americans, when left undisturbed
to the exercise of their native energies, had not
tamed any of the useful animals, whether for food
or labour, the llama and vicunna by one tribe ex-
cepted. The Peruvians used gold, found in its
native state, and they appear, also to have been
able to smelt and harden copj)er — the utmost
stretch of their ingenuity ; but they knew nothing
H
i;- 3;
i;i.-'' ^'
)' '" '
5r¥
A KB
»8
AMEKICA
h ,»«»,
«f the iiiw of inm. Tim imrirulfiirr of t\w immi
nilviiiH'cil (if tlic AitX'rii'iiii (rilH's wim (if a rude-
iii'Kit iiikI iiii|H'rfi'('iiiiii iif wliicli llicrc ciiii liiinlly
Ih' Hi\ii\ III liiiM' liccn iiiM'\iirii|il)' ill tlM>< llil Wiirlil.
The <^iiii'liuii, III)' iMiiNt iiii|inivi'il (if llicir liiii-
giiiHtcM, Iwiil III! wiinU til <>x|irc»H iilittrnct nr iiiii-
vcr^ill idciiH, UN n/Miir, limf,hfimi,mitllrr,»Hl>»tuni'i\
(ir even Hiicli UH JitHtiir, hiinmir, iimtituilr, ilinl
fiinliim. 'I'licv liiul iiivciilt'il nil M|i('ci('M iif wriliiiK,
uml llic ('iiiilnviuici'H liy wliicli llicy atli'iiiiili'il to
<l)'|iii'l ami n nl their iitean are inure rmle than
aiiyiliiii); hitiiih'd ilnwii in liie irMililiniiN (if Kiim-
lieaii ami ANialic iialimiH. In ail the rexiieelN iiiiw
iiieiitidiied, the AiiiericaiiM evinced their iiiferinrity
til the natiiiim nf Kiirii|K' and Asia, and, in all lint
llle invent inn of a rude Hurt nf IliernKlyiillicM, tn
«<ven the Ne^'rn iiatiiniH nf Africa. Nature had
lint, indeed, ill niiillV respeclN, lieeil )ir(iliitinUH to
llieiii: whe had denied them nearly all the dn-
iiieNlic aninialH which have eniidiiced materially
Ut the civiliHatiiiii nf the iiihaliitantH nf thi^Old
Wnrld; ilH the horse, iimh, n.\, euinel, Hlie(>|i, ^oat,
hn^', and innst nidiir doinestic poultry. Ihil their
want nf ingenuity is siiniciently slinwii hy their
lint availing; theniHidvesof such as they iinssessed;
us the rein-deer, t;nnse, turkey, mid other (Miiillry,
Hiinii dnmesticate(l hy th(' I'liirnpean settlers. For
their want of iiip'nnity in imt discnveriiiK the
art of smelting' iron, im plea ciui he shnwn; ami,
indeed, it iniKliI ratiniially he supposed that the
paucity nf iisel'iil aniinais for dniiiesticatinn wniild
rather have had theeU'ect nf directing; and con-
ci'iitratiiifr their etfnrts in ntlier ((luirteis. M(>re
hamlfuls nf I'jiriipeans, in cninparatively rude
a;;es, siihdued the innst iniinerniis and warlike
trihes of America, and tlieM<( haiidfiilH have now
H'rown into the majority nf the iiopiilatinii.
Of the oriyiii of the American race wo arc
totally ignorant. Neither the evidence of pliy-
sical form nor of arhitrary customs and institii-
tiniis, which could spriii;; only from n cnmmnn
sniirco, or the testimony of lanfriia^e, coniicct
them with any otlier race of men. The testi-
innny nf lan^ua^o on this siihject is narliciilarty
clear. For example, incniiteHtable evidence of a
connection exists ninoii)r the j^eat majority of
those insular lanpia^es which extend over at
least (1(1° of latitude, and between Madn^rascnr f 'i.'
Kaster Island, over 'JOO"^ of loiif^itiiilc; hut t'le
moment w(! (piit the last named island, which is
hut \ifi from the coast nf America, all further
trace of a Polynesian lAii^riia^e ceases. Wo arc
lint, indeed, unaware that the comparison of a
jfreat iiunih(^r of American with n preat niimhcr
of Asiatic laiifriia^cs has exliihited a small number
of resemblances ; but those we are disposed to con-
sider as forced, fanciful, or accidental.
The moral character nf the native Americans
has lieen depicted under very different colours.
Their capacity of enduring hardships and priva-
tions nf all sorts, and oven the most cxcruciatiii};
tortures, without murmur or complaint, is well
known, and is owiiifj; as much, perhaps, to phy-
sical causes as to the traiiiin;^ they undergo.
They cannot be accused of ingratitude, or of a
want of hospitality, but they are in the last degree
vindictive, cruel, and treacherous. When not
engaged in war, or hunting, or drinking, they
sinL into a state of toqior and apathy from which
nothing can rouse them. They have all, or
mostly all, an irrepressible rage for spirituous
liquors, to obtain which they will sacrifice every-
thing. If the state in which women live be taken
as indicative of the character of a people, the
American Indians will be found to be almost at
the bottom of the scale of civilisation. From the
one end of the continent to the other, woman,
with very few pxreptionn, iHaNlnvp; nhe hiw i„
jierfiinn all the lalHirioiiN iHi'iipaiiniiM nf the iriu.
uml is, ill fact, degraded alniiwt to the level (,{' ,
beast of burden. I'olygaiiiy is very ueiicriilK
practised; niid it is only in some rare cani* ilim
chastity is held ill any eMtiiniitioii. Their ri'li;,'iiiii
is a rude species of idolatry or feiicisiti. i'„|,
iiibalism has iindnubtedly prevailed nver the wlii,|,.
eniitiliellt, and is lint yet entirely extinct, '||„,
Mexicans, the innst iidvaii I of the native iiiiliHn,,
delighted in lilnod, and were ai'i'iiNtniiinl, m||,.|,
invaded by the Spaniards, annually tn nlVir uii
thniisands nf human victims on the altars of ili,.,,
gilds, Kveii the I'eriixians, the least sangiiiiiiirv
of all the Americans, they being Siibians, nrwi.r
shipiH-rs of the heavenly bodies, did tint Hiriiph.,
on tlie death nf their moiiari'hs, to iiiimnlate Jim,.
dreds nf human victims nii their toiiihs.
The natural inferiority of the native Anieriiaii'.
and their incapacity to attain In anvthiiiglikiTial
civilisatinn, an* strikingly evinced fiy the rcsiili i.|
till! cniitiiineil efforts nf the .lesiiits in l*ani{;iiiiv
fnr their iniprnvenieiil. So Imi^ as tlii^ •li'4iiii<
resided among them, and could direct their cllnrii.
and compel theiii to be industrious, all went mi
very well, and the golden ag<! seemed tn li«> n.
stored. Hut the entire system was fnrceil an^
factitious. The mnnient the .Jesuits withdrew, the
fabric that had cnst them so much pains aiii||;|.
Iioiir to raise, fell to |)ie(U's. Civilisation had tnkiii
no real root among the Americans; and llicv n-
lapsed forthwith into the indnlence, impniviilt'iui',
and idnlatry, that seem natural tn the race,
' Frnin the moment,' says an able writer, ' ih.it
the Kuropear- landed in the New Wnrld, iH'iU'-
vnh'iice has ocen at wnrk to instruct mw
portions of ihi. e tribes in religion and the ari<,
and tlattering •:.' niiiits have been jnililislieil l'ri>m
time to (ill c of th«: success of those liuinain'
persons who dedicated their lives to the t.'i.<k,
Ihit, after three centuries of incessant exerlimi,
what is the result V Is there one tribe timt ex-
hibits the steady industry, the provident lialiit,.
the spirit of im|iroveinent, and the rational sm*
of religion, which are to be found in aiiv pari-li
of KnglandV We cannot liiid thnt there i>.
Mony tribes, living near the whites, have a(lii|itc.|
their habits and ideas to a certain extent, Imi
merely ander the inlluencc of imitation. Whilr
missionaries and teaclu>rs are among them, even'
thing wears a favourable aspect ; but their civi-
lisation is never self-sustained. It is created bv
the ageiii;/ of men of higher natural endownipiUii,
and when they are removed it moulders iiway,
because it has no foundation in their cliararier,
Many parties of Indians, remnants of trilictima
powerful, have lived peaceably, on reserves if |
land, inclosed amidst the ])o]iulati(m of the I JiithI
States, lor more than a century. No sitiiatiim
can be imagined better fitted to iironiotc tluir
improvement; but in no one instance, so far as
we know, have they mc Ited into the mass of ik
white population, or risen to any thing near their
level in knowledge and the useful arts. Thtv
live in huts in no material degree better than the j
wigwams of their wandering brethren. Tliev art
generally honest, but drunken, indolent, ami i{.niii-
rant, though teachers and missionaries are em-
ployed by the government to instruct them.
Hasket-making is almost the only trade they ply.
and in their habits and character they may l« I
aptly compared to the gypsies of I<;urope, wli" exist
in the midst of civilisation, without partnkin.!; if
its spirit or its benefits. It should be obsencJ \
that there is not the same reluctance in the wliiw
to mingle their blood with the red men as with
the blacks. Much has been recently said of the
AMKRICA
iiniifTt'" nm<I<' '>>• llic ('luinikroft; lint wo »iii<|M'i't
lliiit wiml Ik wiliU'Hwd iIktc in Itiil a IliiiiHy vi'il
i>i iniiiriivrnifiil, it|(ri'ii(l <ivi>r ImliiiM wliicli iirc
,„«'iiii(illv "iiviiKf, We art iiviiiri'il, in nhort,
ihiii till' lii'limi •« truly llic timn »( tin- wimkIh;
itiiil lliiil. Iili<' llx' ^'"'1 aiiiiiwilM III' livi-i* ii|Hiii, III'
|. ili'!<iiiii>il to iliKiipiH'iir licl'iiri' ilii' lulviiiiriii^ lidc
1,1' I'iviliMktiiiii, wliii'li I'liiU iijioii him lil<i' » liliKlit.
In'ciiiisi' it Hii|i|ili<'H iirw fiMid III iiiiiiriHli liii* vii'i'H,
»liili' it ili'inanilK iiilclli'i'tiiul luiil nuinil litriillii'N
III wliirli I"' i" ilt'lli'ii'Mt, ami ri-mlrrK iisi'li'xn tlm^r
iiiitilitii''* wliii'li iirciliiiiiinali' in lii.t I'liararti'r. \Vi'
ni'iilit lint iliNi'iinraijt' the allrin|it to nii'linrati'
i|i,> liil III' llio lliiliaim; lint tlii'* «vill Nin'ri't'il
ImkI wlirii it iH (;ronnili'il on a trni' knowli'il^T uf
ilii'ir iiaiiiriil I'apai'ilirx. Soiiii> nf llicin an' iiiiirh
ninri' KMw'i-iitil'l*' of mural and ri'li^ioiis im|>rii\t'-
nii'iil lliiin iitlirn*; lint tii insiriii't ami ri'rlaim
ilu'iii I'rtVclnally, onr lit'lii'f is that the Myslcm of
till' .li'siiit.'* in lhi< only (ini'lhal Imlds unl a rhaiiri'
i,| niHTi'K^. Thi'y nm.it mit unTi'ly lie tanyht and
Kimlii'd to, lint they miiHt lit' rt'taincd in a Htalo !
iiri>iipiliih'<>. trained io (heir diitii'H, I'lintrollcd and
ilirrrtcd in all tlicir iiroci'cditi^!* Iiy inlt'lliTtH
MiiMTiiir to thi'ir own; and tliiTr arc many Irilicx
i<Hi I'lTiiriiiiiH and inlrai'lalilc for even tliin mcllmd
III' iiiitiiin. We do not mainlain that the clia-
riiriiT of llic Indian nalioiiH ix imU'lililc; lint to.
iiViit any niiiKidcralilc chaiiKi' in it. the \h\ihc of
11 IdiipT iH'riod wonld hi' ri'iinircd than the cxinl- '
iiici' nf llicsi' trilM's in likely to extend to. Nei- i
tlur ito we think that there Ih anvlhinK in the!
lAtini'tiiin nf the^e |ieii|il(! hy natural means wliieh
limimiiity shmild mourn over. In every utale uf
lil'i' iniui has Init a hrief sjian of exiHtenee allotted
inliini. SiieeesHivo (lenerations fall like the leaven
iif tlic fnre.it ; and it Hhoiild he remenihered that
ilii^ I'vtiiii'tion of n race of men hy natural caiiHCH,
iiii'Hiis merely it« min-renewal or the ttus|ieii.Hiiiii
iil'llinsc circumstances which enahled it to cniitinne
lis oxistcnce,' (Kncvc. llriiannica, ii. p. (i.'H.)
l'i>puliiliim. — Hosldes the oriffinal mhaliilants,
va.<t miniliers of Knro|ieans of all nations, have
iiiiijfrnteil to America sini-e its discovery liy Cu-
himbiin, teiniited originally, for the most jiart, hy
\W tiiira mirm f'ameii. It was this same passion,
liikiiit: it in its' most lit-ral and def^radiuK sense,
iliiit lin» made them till tlu; Antilles, and part also
of the (.'nnlinent, with millions of neurons hron^rht
Irom Africa, and reduced, with their descendants,
til ft state of slavery. Hut at a later period Ame-
ririi furnished an asylum for the victims of poli-
liial and reli(;;ious persecution in the Old World;
ami for these many years she has offered an all
liiil incxhaustihlc liclil for the profitalile cniphiy-
mcnt of its redundant ca|iital, skill, and lahoiir;
ami thousands upon thousands, who could hardly
t'l'iitrivc to exist on this side the Atlantic, have
attained, if not to opulence, at. least to comfort
ami inilepcndenee, in America. Hence she has louf^
Ih'CII, anil still continues to be, the jiromised land
cf the poor hut industrious man ; and a city of
rifuffc to all who Imjipcn to be discontented with
the plicv, or who have given ott'eucc to the rulers,
iif the Old World.
The estimates of the population of America at
ilillbrent jieriods have ditt'crcd very widely, in
oiinsenuence of the vague and defective nature of
mir information with respect to it. Humboldt esti-
mated the populati(m of America, including the An-
tilles, at 35,000,000. Baibi estimated it, for 1827,
at 39,000,000; but we incline to think that this
was below the mark even for the epoch to which
ii refers ; and the population of the United States,
liritish iVmerica, and Brazil, but especially the
tirst two, has since increased prodigiously. Ac-
curcling to cstunatcs for the year 18G1, which we
linn in pMlmaled at nO.^.IO.OW ;
iiwiiig to the liirgi' naiiiral in-
I'linivi' iimigrii<''>ii from {'.iiropn
I Sim Ii Ainri ., mnsi at I lie
li'ii liy mm niilliniis, and ii
liliat lliepi'i ilioii amoiiiiK'd,
to at least . .oih),ihH) in ili«>
Riihjiiin, the ,, ,,,
lint this mil,),,
crcasi'. ami tli>
til liiiih Norili
pri'Mcnl ihiv he r
miiy lie salely sIhi
in rmiml mimltei
year lHil,'i,
Till' fiilliiwing aiTonnt of the dilV< rent Ani'
Slates, and of ilirir exlciil and pupiiliilioii ii
has liiTii carefully compiled from the late.'-
Iii'st aulhiirilieN : —
AWiwiii/f ii/Ihe A ini iiml I'lipiiliilion o/lhf A mrrifon ,^,t <
III iNlil.
utd
■UIM
Noiiin Amkiiii'.v ;
ltii>'<liiii 'I'lTrlinry .
lirii'iiliiinl . ,
Urltlsli N. America
I'lillnl StutM ,
Mcxirc) . . ,
(Viitnil Aiiierira .
West tiiilla Mitnili
Siiirii Ami.:iii(!a;
(liiiiiiiii , . ,
(iruiiiiillanCoiifcdpratioM
Vciii/iii'la
Ki'iiiiilnr .
I'l'IU . . . .
Ilnlivia ....
Cliill . . . .
Arifi'iitlneConfoiliTntlon
I'nieimy
l*iii'iii,'iiiiy
llnizll . . . .
I'lUiiirnnlii and Falkland
IhIaiiiIh ,
An* In ail. in. I l'ii|>ul«llnn
IIIII.IIIIO
:isii,iiiiii
;i,iili>,niio
•i,li»l».sil
N.'.'.I.M
ITI.M.MI
HIi.MH
mil,
•t'.'il,
VH.'.,
Mil,
11.'.,
:>ri,
71.
71
l,i:iM,
,1100
,11110
,.Mt
;.\nn
.HII'J
,7HI|
,SIII)
,11110
,.|Sll
aim.ooo
7';,;i7ft
11,11111
:i;; III, Hill
:ii,i4Misii
7.1»li.'>.l'.iil
«,:i'.'tl,7'.il
•jiM'.'iia
•.'!)0,H'i!)
'.>,Hiiii,nno
H1.".,4IW
l,iMii,;ii<
y,;iiiii,iNiii
I,iw7.:i.v,i
l,.->.'iH,:ll!t
1,1 7 1, win
•jw.mr,
I,;t;i7,|:il
7,(I77,SI»«
Vir,,m\o
(Ht,3no,no))
DheitufH of America, — The Anghi-Americaii
population is Huhject to the same diseases as the
people of r.ngland; but sutlers more from inter-
mittent and remittent fevers. Vellow fever sume-
times prevails epidemically as far imrlh as New
York and I'liiladeljihia; hut the mean duriition of
life in the Knglish race has been incnnsideralily
atVected by the climate of America. Deadly epi-
demics however, decimate the llavannah. Vera
(.'riiz, mill other cities in tropical America. Tho
yelhiw fever begins to prevail e)iiilemically at
Vera Cruz in Mav, when the mean temperature
rises to 7;')° 2' ol' Fahrenheit's thermoineter: it
attains its maximum force in Se))tember and Oc-
tob r. The di.sea.so is fatal to strangers, particu-
larly to the inhabitants of the teni|ierat(' and
cold climates. In the inteiideiicy of Vera Cruz,
the yellow fever, which rages in the capital, has
never been able to ascend above the farm of En-
ccro, which Humboldt found to be 3.0-M feet above
the level of the sea ; and as the Mexican oaks do
not flourish below this limit, it shows that the
constant average temperature is of a true tropical
character. Humboldt also observes, that, while
yellow fever rages at La (limyra, it never crosses
the Cumbre and the Cerro de Avila.
The condition of the mothers, and the training
of the children, exercise an influence upon tho
health and diseases of the native American tribes
which cannot lie overlooked. The women, though
doomed to severe labour, are s|)ared during tho
peri(Ml of pregnancy. They seldom marry till they
are about 20. Accouchemcnts take place in iiri-
vate cabins, and the mother, after washing herself
in cold water, returns in a few days to her usual
cmplojTiients. Sir W. Penn wos assured, and
correctly, that the American Indians plunge their
infants into cold streams as .soon as Iwrn, in all
seasons of the year. This practice, which ilestroys
H 2
:* )'.;■' I?
W^i
'^m
iSKiS^
\l %,^^
t, 1 ; 1
JOO
AMKniCA
V !
i^:
till- wrnklli-r InmIIck, nitil Htrpi)({l)i(>tiii llip Niirvlvuro,
liii'< Im'i'Ii ^iMU'riilly nilii|iii'it liy llir niwnni'n ot'riilil
mill ii'iii|H'riiii- I'liiiiaii'K. Ii wiiNi'iitniiiuii iii(ir4>i'r<>;
mikI Viruil iniikt'N our nf llic curly IiuUiuin uny in
till' .Kiii'iil : —
lliiriim It Kllr|i<> iri'Miio : imtowiul Itiinilim |irliiiiini
Ih'trrliiiiix, wi<viK|iiii Ki'lii iliiruiiiiix III iiiiiliit.
Till' Doriiiiii mill l*i'UH|{imi<« i>x)mhii>i| tliiir cliil-
ilri'ii ; mill l.yriir^iii ri'Kiiliii*'il ilx' |iriii'tiri> by
I'niirliii)^ (lull iiiiiii' lint llir iiillriii nml iIIni'iimi'iI
fliiiiilil lie illilllliliilH'il /iflrr ll |mlilir rxilinillllllnll.
'Ilirri' iiri' no ili'l'iirnii'il linlimiN or iilioin; ilit-y iiri>
riiirrillrril, MiiNH nil ii|iiilo|^i4t of NiiMi;{i'», liy I In*
Hi'M'rily ol'tlif Iniliaii iiiiiiiiirrM. 'I'o I'liiilliilf llirir
traii4|iort rrniii plai'i- lo iilarr, llic riiililrcii an* linl
|i> a liiiiinl, wlirri' lliry III' ii|iiill llirir liarkH I'lir •'>,
|M or IH iiioiirliN, Ity Hoiiif irJlK'N tin* lii'UiN iirr
tialli'iiril liy iiri'MMiiri', Tin- clillil ^'iiu'rally HiirkH
il-> iiioilii'r till it Ih 2 yi'ari* oil, aiul NoiiK-tliiu'ii
Imiurr. Till' t'iriMilatioii of ilii' IiIimhI Is inori' liiii-
(fiiiil in tin- liiiliaiM tliiin in |ii'rNiiiiM «vlio art- in tln>
t'oiiNlant fM'rriMc of the lialiilH of I'lviliwd lil'i'.
Out of H North Anirrii'iin ImliaiiH, uIiuho |iiiIni'h
IIiimIi i'xaniint'il at tint wri^tM, In' iliil not nirrt
^nili OIK' ill wliiiiii till' artery licat niorti tliaii <ii>
Htroki'M ill a iniiiiiti'.
Till' iliwi'iiHi'M of till' IniliiiiM varv willi Ilii' rli-
nwiti' anil iorality. In llii' inirtli, ImwcviT, Ii'Vith
('oiiHtitnti' tin- nioNi Hirikin^ ili-ii'aiM'N, I'li'iirixii'tt,
iii'ri|iin'niniinii'M, ami rliniinatiMiiiH are coinnioii.
byMi'iitcry i.-i an Imliaii ilisca.ic. iin-at ininilii'rK
]nTiHli of fainini', ami llni iininiin'ralilc ilim'a.icM
Ki'iH'riiti'il liy faininc. In tin' lriii|i('rali' /oni',
w^w, ri'iiiittiiiK ami inaliKnanl I'i'vitm aHsail tlicin
in tini t'liilii'HH fori'HlM, ami in tin* inar^licH, ami
rlllnvial atninxiiln'rc of tini laki's ami rivcrH. In
(In- iro|iirM, lliiinliiijilt xnyH, they arc <'M<ni|it. at
X'cra (Vn/. I'roni ilic raviiKci* of vi'llow frvcr, wliirli
(irovi's MO fatal on I In- coaxt ami in tin' W'cnI liiilii'x
to ICnro|it<aiis, lint tlimiNiiniN liavti Im'cii carricil
olf in rcpcatoil I'liiilcmirM, liy a iliNoani' not very
(liircfcnt from yellow fever, ealleil MatUnnhui'lt.
Sniali-liox, wliieli is lielieveil to have lieeii ititro-
iliiceil ainoii^rrit tlieni hy the SpaniariU, Honu'tiiiioH
ilestriiyx lialf the hemU of a trilie. IMonte/.iimii
(lii'il (if Hniall-|Mix. It, hiiH been a K<'"*->rally re-
i'eiveil ii|iiiiiiin that liif» ri'iwrrn was ni'i|iiire(l
from the inhaliitantH of llisjiaiiiola (llayti), and
coiiveyeil liy the ei|iii|iaK() nt ('oliiinhii.s to Kiiro|M'.
The HOD of (.'iiliiinliiiH ntiatC'i in his narrative that
the ixhimlerx liinl n eiitaneoim niVeetion, called
rn.mraritrol, whieh roKeinliled ft tetter (Tenia) :
tlie liistorian Ferdiimnd Oviedo de VnldeH otliriiw
that the SpanianlM were iiifeoted with it- hy tho
Indinii women, and eonmuinieated the iliNeam* lu
(he Neaiiolitann in the ex|ieilitiiin of (iiin/.alvo de
( 'ordova. Uc. lUicriheH its importation to the Hecond
fxpodition of (."oliiinliiis. Various i-ntniieoiiH atl'ec-
♦ions hail been ilescrilied by earlier medical writers,
coiifoiiiii led with Icjirosv, and attributed to impure
intercourse; but, in I'iltll, syphilis appeared, with
its Htrikiiif; and appuUiiif; symptoms, almost simul-
taneously oil over Kiirope, Columbus diNembarkcd
from his llrst voyap*, Mnrrh 1."), at I'ahis; and
orrivcd at Seville in April, in the bopnninfr of
the summer, the disease was observed at Auverpio,
III Lombordy, in the rest of Italy, and in ItruiiH-
wick. It stiil, howevcT, remains a problem whether
the-, outbreak of the malady merely coincided
with the return of Columbus, or was conveyed
from America.
Violent deaths arc common among the Indians.
Their occupations expose them tu accidents. They
are engaged in an olmost peq)otual warfare ; and
entire tnhes are sometimes exterminated. Their
connexion with the European population has made
I hem nc(|iminlpd with NiiirltiiouK Hipinrn; mid tlii<
hns proved mini her priilitlc Mnirre ol di'iifilrr.
CeUlH Hixyi*, Mrilii'lHil HUHifuiim huh mt ; ntnl
this IioIiIm among the Ann'riraii Indians. Tlinr
nii'iliral treatint'iit, fur the intlrinith's to hIiI.Ii
they are niiIiJitI, is Minipjr, and nl'len ilinlriniiM'.
In fevi'm, they abNirart all kinds of Niiiiinlailiij;
fiHsl ; and allow their patiwiits to drink pli'iiiilujly
of colli water, Hweating is a ciiininon ri'ninl\.
The Indian iniHle of iirociiriiig Ihix evuciiatiiiii i<
as fiilliiwM : — the patient is conlliicd in a ilmi'
tent, or wigwam, over a bole in the earth, in whiili
a red hot sliiiii' is placed; a ipianlily of wiitir i.
thrown ii|ion this stone, which instaiilly iinnlu'i
the patient in a cloud of vapour and sweat sin
Ibis Nitnation he rushes onl and plnngcs biniiilf
into a river, from whence he retires to bcil, |r
the remedy has U'cii iiNcd with success, he ri«i'<
from bis bed in fniir and twenty hniirs perlrrilv
rcciiveri'd from his iiii|is|HiNitiiiii. This baili i<
Used nut olllv to cure fcNcrs, bill to reniiive lliiii
uneasiness wliicli arises fniiii fatigue nf body ; iiiil
used fur this pnqsise it is an excellent reiMi'i|\.
Thcv purge and vomit : ipecacnaiibii is one ntiliH
many mois ihev einpl'iv for the latter piiriHwi.
'I'hc> ntilie bleeding lo the parts atVecteil. \
piece of rotten Wood is liiirilt upon the skill fiirllii^
same pur|Hises as the iiioxa. They attctn|it lu
slaiincii the lliiw of blood fruin wounds by phiiiuii:;;
ill cold water, and eiideavnnr to restore drowiu"!
liciiplc by suspending ibelll by the heels. 'I'ljiv
nave a great many '|iccilics of nncerlain vuliu,
The Indians atteini li> the sick fora certain seiisnii,
lint aliaiidiiii them if the disease Imi protriictcil.
When the iiortliern Indian is unable, fnini NJii-
■less, to continue hi^ Journey, h" is left behiiul liy
his ciiinpiiniiiiin, ainI covered over with deer »kiii!i;
he is supplied with water, food, fuel, if the ijIihi'
will atlord it, and informed of the track which lilt
companions iiitemi to pursue. (Ileanie.)
Some of the most important drugs in the Mn-
teria Medica arc derived from America, (iiiala-
ciiiii was iiitroiliiced, at an early periisl, n* a
specitic for syphilis in the place of mercury, wiiiili
it superseded (or several years. It is now I'lillcii
into disuse. Nut so the root of the American w-
saparilhi, which is coiisnined in great ipiaiitiliis
although it is exceedingly expensive. It is fouml
in the hedges and swamps of V'irginia. Thcri! lire
several sjiecies; the liest, according lo Iluniliiiliii,
grows oil the Isirders of a lake, two days' iimriin'
from Ksmeralda. The calumha root, jalap, rn-
iiaiha, and ipecacuanha are derived from AniFriri.
VVe are also indebted to the New Worhl for I'oru-
vian bark. These remedies are inyaliiable; they
contributed, in the 17th century, with the iiitr"-
ductioii of syphilis, to destroy the blind adortttinii
of (ialen, and led to a revohitiiin in mediciiii'.
Dhcnrery of Amrruui, — This is the most strik-
ing eveiit in modern times, and has perhaps inailo
the most imiiorlant change in the conditinii i>f |
mankind. Tnere is no rational ground for huji-
posing that the ancieiitx had the slightest idennf I
the existence <if the American continent. The I
form of their vessels, tint -bottomed and iinptlW
by oars, and their ignorance of the composii, al-
lowed them to move only at a short distance l'ri>ni
land. Their voyages tlicrefore, though in t*m
instances extensive, were always along the c(ia>t
of the great continents ; nor is there the fiiintN
record of any one having turned his daring ken!
into the vast abysses of ocean. Nothing could >»
less probable, than that tem|>est or accident shuulil
drive any of the few vessels which then navij;aifii
the exterior seas of Europe Ui so immense a &■
tance, or, if driven, that they could ever have re-
turned.
ti'i
AMKIlir,\
lol
Imliiiiiii, 'I'lirir
lllii'X III mIiIiIi
Irii inxtriii'tiM',
I III' Nllniiiluliiit;
Iriiik |il)-nliriilly
iiniiiiiii ri'iiiriK.
in (•vnriUlliiMi i<
IlK'll ill II I'll""
< t'lirtli. ill mIiIiIi
itity III' wiitiT i<
Kdiiilly iiiviiKn
r mill HWt'iii ; III
liliiii^i'M liini^i'lf
liri'it III lii'ii. If
Hin'i'i'HH, III' ri«M
,• Imiirn |ii'rrrrlly
I, 'I'liiit ImiiIi k
I III ri'iiiiivi' lliiii
{ut< III' I II Illy ; nii'l
xi'i'lli'iil ri'iiii'ily,
lllllll il* IIIW 111 ill''
I! liiltiT |iiir|piii«i',
iiirlH iilVi'i'iril. A
II ilii> Hkiii I'lir ilie
'I'licy iilli'iii|it I'l
luiiiU liy |iliMi«ii i:
II ri'Htiiri' ilruwiii"!
I In- lifi'U, liny
iincfrlain vuliir,
iriii'rrlaiii hi'iiwhi,
IMC Ihi iiMiraiii'il.
inalilf, tViiiii "ii'li-
< in Icl't lii'liiiiil liy
•r with lU'iT MttK
, fuel, if till' lllllll'
lie iriu'l* wliie'li liii
(lli'unu'.)
(Iriiiii* in llif ^lii-
AiiH'rit'a. (iuiiin-
■arly |HTiiiil, a* «
(ifiiMTt'iiry.wliuli
It in llllW I'lllll'll
tlie Amcricnn nil'-
ffroat ((iiniitiiii'*.
isivo. It i" fi'iiii'l
Tuiiiia. 'riiiTt! art
iHK to llumlMiWi.
,wii ilayH' jimnify
la riHit, jalaii, i'i>
ivt'il fnmi Aiiiprini.
w Wiirlil lor Tcru-
. iiivalualilpi tliey
.y, witli tJie imr-
lu! Iiliml ailorttiitm
n in iHeiiii'iiii'.
in tlie iiioKt uttik-
lias iicrha).H raaili'
. the cimilitiou if
il ^TimiHl lor KU!"-
ic (tlinlitcst i(lca"f
.. coiitiiifiit. Til*
nncd ami iinpcHfl |
)f the I'omiiaHS. nl-
wliort diHtanc'c I'm"
though ill some |
lyH ttlouK Ihe e(ia«t
i tlicrt! the fiiiiitesi
led his daring' W |
Notiiinj,' could l»
„ or accident sliiiulil
lich then navi^aieJ
»o immense a di>-
ould ever have te-
fliil It' «"" li"!"! •'• i«>m»< h'rtriiril niiHlrntu,
\iiM'rii'a » lllllll ii|i|H'ar I In- ^t'lirriil ri'l'iiui' nl' all
uho li'll I'li'Mlnrlvi'M MlnillflM'il ill tlli> Old Worlil.
ihii irnjiim*. HvrlniiK, CiiriliaKiiilntiK, ( 'anitAiiiii-ii,
I'lii iiImivi' (iH i(i<' .Irw, havi' Imtm ri'iirrwiilnl an
till' iiiiiliiiiilii'd niii'i'xtnrit III IIm iirrxoiii |i<>ii|ili',
llii'M' "III"! ii' iiloiiM {iriii'i'i'd ii|i<iii a tiiial iiiillvinii
Ml ilii' liii t II' ii niaii lian I'viTv wlii-ri' inaiiv lliiii^*
in riilllllixill with Win fi'lliiW'<. 'I'll)' dlviMliill ililo
trilii'ii mill rriiM'i't I'lir rhii'l'ii, ihi' laiiii'iilalioiix over
ili'inl ri'likti'i"'*! I hi' love III' nniaiiii'iii, ari'rmiKiili'ri'il
IK liiiliilK «t ' x'h till' AinrriraiiM iiiuhI have Irariii'd
rriini lli>- 'I rt«< liarria, hInxtvIii^ that iiiohI nl'
ihriii lii'tiiMiri'il llirir iinrrniN, aiiil niiiniili'n'il llii'l>
AMil niiirilt'r ai rriini'M, thinks it rlrarly iinivnl
thill iIk'V ri'ri'ivi'il the ti'ii i-nininaiiiliiii'iitH I'miii
Miwi'n, Mtlii'rx were olwiiiinle, iiiilii'lieviii^, ami
Miii;rni''lii "iirc li^^iiN nl Ihrir lit'liiMKiiiK In llii>
niifl'-iii-ili iHwirriiy nf Aliriihain. (Uan'ia. Ori-
^'Pn il>- I Hiiliim; KMiii mir In i|iiri<iiiiii, Ijiiami
ct ('i)inmi Ml l'Aiiu>rii(iH' nl il «'li< |i('ii|ili''i' f> toni.
r.'niii. l7.'iT; Ailair'n lli»liiry of the North Aiiii'ri-
I'.Hi IniliaiiK, 'till.) Altriil|ilH liave lieni iiwiili' In
triii'r a liiiiilarily Im'Iwi'i'Ii fhi' laiiuiiaKi'x nl' tlw
lijil ^Vl>rld ami of Aiiierira, luil ''tTlaiiiiy with iiiont
uli'ilili'r niirri'MH, llartoii Iiiin nilli'i'li'il 'i.'i NJiniliir
miinuiii, wliirli I'ml'i'MHor Vatcr lian railed In In I,
mill Mallc-llnin In I'iO; Imt to |irniliir(> tliin, it
hill- lii'i'ti iii'ri'Hmiry to M(;areh throiiK;h nixty Ian-
(,'iintfi'H in cai'h world.
Hip WcImIi liavi' piil in n olnim to ihi'diHcoviTv
I.I Anii'rira, In 1170, .Madoc, a priiu'c nf Norlli
Wnli'n, wiili'd in i|iieHt of tnaritiinc advent itri', and,
aticr a \i>»n voya^'e, reached n ' I'aire and larKe
Kiiilltry' tilled with wonderfnl olijeets: he tlien
rriiinieil and took with hini li'ii v/iMNnlN and a
lirKcr parly. 'I'Uu* far HeeiiiH lideralily alteMled;
liiit iliiiii^ii nfl'onlin^ a NiiDieieiil rniindntioii I'nr
Mr, Siiiitliey'n |ioein, the idea of the re^imi arrived
III iK'iliK renllv Aineriea HeciriH Heareely to merit
ri'riilntiiin. 'I'^ie intiination, thai he li'll Ireland
fur til the Mori h. niakeM it not iiii|irolialile that he
niii,'lit have reaehed Home part of Spain, no iiicoii-
Milcralilit nchiuveineiit in that ut^u for h I'ymrie
I'liii'flaiii.
'I'lio claim of diMcovery hy the Northmen from
Ii'flaiiil lian lieeii much more jjenerally received.
Till' Scandinavian writerK have Nupiioried it iks a
|Hiinl nf iiatiniial honour; and the learned in the
n'.^l nf Kiiroiie have p'liernlly nc(iuiesced in Iheir
iiiiilinrity. They would not, we lliiiik, have done
mi liml they perused the oriKinnl narratives in
Tiirl'ii'iiH, and the lleimskriii>;la, or Sapi, of Kiii^
( tliif TrvKK'''*"'!* llioni, an Icelander, in sailhi^
arpiHN III (ireenland, was overtaken hy n tempest,
ami alter iM'iiif; tossed aliout for several days, came
III view of an niikmiwii land. After navif^atiiif;
M'vcrul (lays nloiifj the coast the wind liecnme
favuiirnlile, and in four days lie reached his desti-
iiiiiinii in (ireenland. (.'an any one seriously siip-
[Hiso, that in this short iiitssaKe lie could have lie<ai
driven ii|miii Newfoimdlniid, iiiiwards of a thousand
Miili's nut of his way, or il driven, could thus
liiroilly and rapidly have retraced his course?
Xiiincrims voynKes to and from this new country,
iiamiiil Vinland, are then relaled, with no mention
iif IMirliciilar ditlicully or danger. One of them i»
staleil, without any surprise, |o have lieeii per-
fnmicil ill twenty-four hours; a manifest impossi-
liiliiy iinitcr the Newfoundland supposition. As
til I lie term F/'*i-lnnd, very innii))ro])rinte even to
Xcwfmmillaiid, the Northmen prohalily, who could
iiiii lie great comioisHeurs cm this siiliject, mistook
fur the grufie one of those <lclicate berries which
aliiaiiiil on the Arctic border. Wo are convinced
ilu'ii that 'Vinland was merely a southeni part of
(Greenland; for the mudeni hypothesis, which
plilci'M lhi< coiiinies nn the wealeni hwihI, Ik IiV mi
meaiiH «iip|Nirti'i| by K'""! early niithnriiie*. ('I'or-
fii'iiH, lli<i. Viiilaiid. Aiiiii|. I'll. I. Ii. v., p. .'iti
r.Ma|Ki III' Sii'phniiiiH and TliorlaiiiKi, lleiiiinkrin^-
In, cdii. I'rriii^xkinlil, I. ;l'iN-:i:i,'i.)
Annthcr alleged di very nf iiiiicli ci'li'briiy
HiamU on the report nf the >^eiii, Veiiciinn imbhi-
meli nf dislimtliiti, 'riiwanis the end i ( the Iniir-
ti'eiilh ceiiliirv, they vialli'd and N|M'iit a I'oiisider-
alile lime ill Krii'slatid. an iiiiiilar cnimtry in tlin
north of I'luroiie, which l''i>r<icr has kIihwu in
ajfrii- not ill wlili ( (rkncy, Mieilaml. mid the Kirni
iilainls. They tin re leiinied, lllill I'niir t|p«liillK
IhiiiI'* bi'liii; driven mure than a ibniiMainl niiles to
rlie wesiManI, liinl ri'iiched a cniinl iiumed by Iheiii
I'liisi-oui land, where they fniunl ciiliivatinii, lar^e
cities, ciisili'M, ninl a Latin library in |HiHsi"<»iiiii of
III)' kill^'. 'I'lience thev saili'd to a llinri' niiilthi'l'll
cniiiiiry, named hm^in, inhabiied by a riiile
people, i(;iiiiraiit nl' iron, wai^iii^ fiiriniis wars, uml
devouring each oilier. Kcpiirts wei-e iheii miidii
nf a mure civilised penple In the snillll West, who
alHiiiiided in ^rnld and ^il^er, iiinl had Hpleinlid
lem|ili's in which hiiinaii sacritices were otfercd.
Forsier, Malie llriiii, iiinl I'nr Mime time ^en^^ru'
pliers in p'lieral, iniiiidereil iliai ibexe coiinirii'S
Were iiiidnubledlv Newfniindland, New Kii^daml,
and iMe.xico. ^ir, iMiirray was, we believe, the
llrst III observe, thai eveii the distiuice of I.IHMI
miles by no means cnrresiiniii led: that the ensiles,
libraries, and popiilniis cities on the savaue cnasi.
of Newfoiindlninl, were the reverse of credible,
and that aci nls nf iMexico were liltle likely to
have ri'acheil the Frieslainl tishermen. Ilear;;iied
therefore that, siippnsinj; the iinrihern voyiipi
correct, iiiler|inlaiiiin mii-<t have been priu'tised in
what relaled In America, 't'liis has lieeii cnrro-
iNirated by the reiearch of .Mr. Iliddle, who, mi
coiniinrin;; ditVerent pO'ilmmnus edilimis nf Ita-
niiisio's work, found that the iiarratiM' bud been
altered in accordance with siiccessivc and cor-
rected a lints of the ni^w cniilineiil. lie tliere-
fnre rejects the whole as a liirt;i'ry : we rather in-
cline to think that the norlhen'i voyap- may Imi
genuine, while all that relates to America is iiii-
liniibleilly interpolated.
In the maps cnimtriictod diirinu; the lifleeiitb
century, snmeciiriniis features appear, wbirli have
been referred to a western world. In I l.'lt!, one.
fornicd at Venice by Andrea Itianco has in the
north-w»'sl Atlantic, not very remote from New-
foundland, the word Sloka ti.\a (Sincklisli). Ihit.
it is to be oliser\'eil that Iceland and the adjacent,
seas were then the .seat nf a ;;reat llslu'ry, and
the tenii may have been merely used in ex-
press tli<> abundance of its tinny trils's. Annthcr
remarkable object in this map, as well as in ono
lotiK prior, and in a subse(|uent one by Martin
Itehaim, is a loii^ niiij;e of territory west of llio
Canaries, named ,\ntilia. It seems impossible li>
lnu!e with certainly the ori;,'iii of this term, which
we slr»ii>jly suspect to be a cnrruptinii of llio
Atlnnlis of I'lato, and In liavi* no other ori;;in.
The inhabitants of tbime islands are said In bavir
cniilinned the imjircssion, by as.sertiiif; that, in
certain states of the atmosphere, thev saw in
mysterious distance a ^reat iinkin wit land; tlu!
w^ork either of imagination or of .so.ne o|ilicnl de-
ception. These ideas, however, rested on no solid
basis, and the sound jiid^nent of (Ndumbiis ap-
jKjars to have been in no dcf^ri'e iiiHuenccd by
them ; it was not to Antilin, but to other refjions,
that he directed his voyime.
Perhaps no individual ever stood so much nlone
as this iiavi;,'ator, in making? a discovery that
changed the face of the worhl. lie conceived the
dcsi^'n, and struggling against the ojiiiosition
M
103
mode by his iirp, sinply achieved it. Yet, like
every nther fitctxt rcvuuilioii, it wan (loiil)tleHH
prepared l)y previdUH eirciiinHtnnreH. The pro-
^CMs of nnvi^.ition and cotnnierce, tlie entluiNinHin
excited liy ninritime diHco\cry, il» wide raii^e
aloiii; Al'ricn, nnd townrdN liidin. all tended to^ive
thiH (lireutii)ii to ld,s siiirit of lofty nnd daring ad-
venture. The invention of the eomiiaHH, nnd im-
proved eeleMtial observations, rendered itnolon>{er
impossible to steer through an unknown ocean.
Soinid reasoning;, aided by some errors, mnde him
hope, by snilin^ westward, to reach, even nt no
very j^rent distance, the (■oiiMts of l-iOstem Asia.
Columbus, bein^; lirmly im]>reHsed with this
opinion, nnd being supported by the judgment of
learned friends, made the tirst ofler to <icnoa, his
native country ; but the citizens, unused to oceanic
expeditions, at once rejected it. He then n|>plicd
to Portugal with seemnigly every chance of bftter
success; and King John accordingly referred it
successively to a special commission, nnd to the
council of state. 'I'here was then, however, a
powerful iiarty opposed to maritime enterprises
altogether, as wasting the luitional resources;
while their opponents merely defended n prosecu-
tion of the sure and successful career, by which
they had nearly rounded the southern point of
Africa. The j)roposal was rejected, while .John wjis
persuaded to take the mean step of secretly send-
ing n vessel on his own account, which, however,
returned without any success. Columbus next
repaired to S|)ain, then under the able sway of
Ferdinand and Isabella. Here, however, cosmo-
gra])hical knowledge was much less advanced ;
the globular form of the earth was doubted by
many, and even represented as against the atitho-
rity of scripture and the fathers. Financial ditfi-
culties, caused by the war with the Moors, and
the lofty demands of Columbus to have the oHices
of viceroy and high admiral made hereditary
in his family, operated against him : and five
years' solicitation was vaiidy employed. Pro-
posals were then made by his brotlier Bartholo-
mew to Henry VII. of England, who received
them more favourably ; but as Columbus was on
the point of setting out for this country, Isabella
■was persuaded to recall him, and, after some fur-
ther ditiiculties, she engaged in the undertaking
with the utmost ardour, nnd even pledged part of
• her jewels to raise the necessary funds.
The expedition after all consisted but of three
small vessels, and cost only 4,000/. Columbus
sailed from the port of Palos on the 3rd of August,
1402, and went by way of the Canaries. He en-
countered innumerable obstacles arising chietly
from the timid and mutinous temper of his seamen,
and after exhausting every resource furnished by
his extraordinary address and perseverance, had
been obliged to promise to return in a few days, if
still unsuccessful. Signs of land, however, became
frequent, and on the night of the 11th of October
a light was observed at some distance, and the
joyful sound of land ! land ! burst from the ships.
But having been often deceived before, they spent
the night in a state of the utmost anxiety. As soon,
however, as morning dawned, their doubts and
fears were dispelled ; and the natives of the Old
and the New Worlds found themselves, for the
first time, in sight of each other. The land on
which Columbus made his descent, and which had
a pleasant delightful aspect, was one of the Ba-
hama Islands, called by the natives (luanahani,
and by the Spaniards San Salvador, Having landed,
AMERICA
therefore immediately set sail, and, shaping liis
course a little more to the S., successively dls-
cr)vered the great islands of Cuba, an<l Ilnvti nr
ilispaidola. After various transactions with tho
natives of the latter, he erected a fort, and leaving
there a detachment of his men, set out on liis
return to Spain, arriving, after l)cing ol)lig((l to
take refuge in the A/ores, and in the Tagiis, nt
Palos, on the \t>th of March, 1403, having spent 7
months and 11 days in his memorable voyimo.
He brought with him pieces of gold, a party of
natives, and specimens of the vegetable an<l ani-
mal productions of this new world. His arrival
was hailed with an enthusiasm of wonder and nd-
miration in Spain and in Eiurope, and he made Ids
entrance into Barcelona almost in regal pom]i.
Columbus found no longer any difticulty in
equip|)ing a new armament, to which vohuitccn
flocked from every quarter. In September lie i<et
sail with 17 vessels, several of large burden, and
having 1,600 persons on board. Tliough he found
his colony involved in many troubles, "le was not
deterred i'rom ])usliing his enterjirises to the west-
ward. Having fallen in with Cuba, he snilod
along its southern coast, then steering to the let'i,
lighted upon Jamaica. He was delighted with
the rich verdure and picturesque aspect of these
line islands, which he lirmly believed to be parts
of the Asiatic continent. Having returned to
Spain, he set out, in 1408, on a third voyage.
Having tirst jtroceeded southwnrd t'- tho CajKide
Verd Islands, and steering thence across the At-
lantic, he came in view of the h>fty mountains of
Triniclad. Bounding that island into the tiidiili
of Paria, he saw the Orinoco ndliiig by many
mouths its mighty stream into the ocean. Tins
discovery higldy gratilied him, and was, indeed,
the lirst time that any part of the S. American
continent had been visited ,by Europeans. Ik
sailed ah)ng the coast as far as Alargarita, uml
tlience to llaj'ti. In 1502 he undertook a fourtli
voyage, seeking to push westward till he sIkiiiIJ
arrive at regions belonging to India. In tliLs
course he struck against the coast of Honilnrib;
where, instead of turning to the righ^, which
would have led him to Mexico, he took the left,
or NVV. course, as most promising for his (dijcct.
He reached the Gulph of Darien, but without
seemingly gaining any intelligence of the South
Sea. lie then rettirned to Spain, where, weij,'licil
down by hardshijis, and disgusted by the ingrati-
tude of Ferdinand, he closed, m iSOG, his un-
rivalled career.
America had, in the interval, been explored
from a diflFerent quarter. John Caboto, or Calmi,
a Venetian, who had settled at "';risU)l, presented
to Henry VII. a plan of western discovery. That
monarch, who had nearly earned the glory of Co-
lumbus's voyage, gave his full sanction to the nu-
dertaking. The adventiuer, it appears, was williiii;
to defray the whole expense ; but whatever rosions
might be discovered, he and his family were to
rule them as lieutenants, and to enjoy the exclu-
sive trade, paying, however, to the khig l-yth
part of the profits. The patent was granted in
1405, but circumstances prevented him from sailing
till 1497. Then proceeding due west, he arrived, on
the 24th of June, at a land, w^ith an island ad-
jacent, which appears to be Labrador and Xeiv-
foundland. This was the lirst discovery of the
continent, since it was not tiU 1498 that Co-
lumbus reached the mouth of the Orinoco. Calmt
brought home several of the natives, and, tliuii|,'h
and taken formal possession of the country for the the aspect of the coast was not very invi
— -i* cj»_:.« / i,.i 1 1 i:..ii_,i J* IT __ T- i?/._ J Ai i 1- _ .
crown of Spain, Columbus became satislied, from
the poverty of the natives, that this was not the
rich country of which he was in search. He
Vltlll!!,
Henry was so much gratilied that he next year
granted a fresh patent, allowing him to take tip
any 6 ships within the realm, equip them at tlic
AMERICA
103
id, dhaping Im
iccewtively (\i»-
i, 1111(1 llnvti (ir
ctiims witli tlio
ort, u:iil lenviiij;
Hct out on his
Kiiiin ohligwl til
11 the Tiisiis, ni
, hnviiiK NiM'iit ;
noniblc Vdvimp.
Hold, a party nf
rotable and ani-
■Id. His arrival
wonder and ail-
and lie made liis
I regal pom]),
ny ditticulty in
vfiich voliintecw
icptember he set
irgc burden, ami
riiou(;h be fduiul
ibles, 'le was nut
rises to the west-
Cuba, be sftilcil
lering to the It'll,
.s deligbted with
e aspect of these
ieved to be parts
k^ing returned to
a third voynfje.
d t'- tbe C'ttjie de
ce across the Al-
ol'ty mountains of
d into the Oul|ih
niUiiig by many
tbe ocean. This
and was, indeeii,
' tbe S. American
' Europeans. He
iw Margarita, awl
indertook a fourili
[ard till be shdiiW
3 India. In this
jast of Honduras;
the rigbS whioli
», lie took the left,
ing for bis olijcct.
rieii, but witliiiut
ence of tbe South
n, where, weighed
;ed by tbe ingraii-
in 1500, his uii-
•al, been explored
Caboto, or Cftlini,
;ri8tt)l, presented
. discovery. Tliiit
d the glory of Co-
lanction to the iiii-
ppears, was willini;
It whatever regions
lis family were to
_ enjoy the cxclu-
to the king l-atli
nt was granted m
ed him from sailing
ivest, be arrived, on
vith an island ad-
.abrador and New-
discovery of the
ill 1498 that C'o-
fhe Orinoco. Calwt
itives, and, thongh
lot very invitiiii;.
that he next year
ig him to take up
equip them at tiic
rnvnl exponsp, and rerpivo on board any numlier
of Kiigli»*b subjects who might be pleased to ac-
t(im|i»iiv bini. John, from sonic unknown cause,
illil lint go out in person ; but the expedition was
led l>v his sun iScbastian, who, though a youth,
shotted already the talents of a great navigator.
Acciiriling t" 'he very imperfect accounts of his
viivage, he had with him 3(10 men, and sailing Ijy
waV of Iceland, reached the coast of Labrador in
alMiut hit. (><>°. Discouraged by its bleak aj)-
iicamncc lie steered to tbe south, and ctintinued
in that direction till lat. ;j»°. (Hackluvt, iii. ;
Memoir of Cabot, ch. 6-10; Tytler's Northern
Coasts, Amer.)
Jleaiitiine, in another quarter important dis-
coveries were proceeding, Vincent Vanez Pincon,
ill crossing the Atlantic from tbe Cape de Verd
Islands, was assailed by a tcm|K!st, which drove
him t4) the southward of the equator; and, after
being bewildered for some time amid unknown
seas, he cainc in January 149t>, to the view of an
unknown coast, which was that of llrazil, near
Cape St. Augustin. Thence he coasted northward
to the mouth of the Amazons, and viewed with
astonishment the immense IkhIv of water i>oured
liv it into the ocean, justly inferring that it must
have rolled through a continent of vast extent.
Three months after, Alvarez Cabral, despatched to
India to foUow in tbe footsteps of Vasco de (iama,
came u|Min a more southern ]iart of the same
coast, which he named Santa Cruz, and took pos-
session of it in the name of the king of Portugal.
America had thus been rcachccl in three dif-
ferent and distant quarters, on a scale which con-
veyed a high idea of its greatness, but without at
all ascertaining its outline and limits. There was
still ample unexplored coast to leave room for tbe
[lassagc to India, which continued to be the grand
ohjcct in the (liscoverics that immediately fol-
lowed We shall begin with those most important
ones, made by way of the Cinlph of Mexico. Kven
U'forc the fourth voyage of Columbus, Alonzo de
Ojeda, on learning the results of the third, set out
from Sjiain in 1491), and following up the career of
his predecessor, explored the coast from Margarita
to Cape do Vela. He was accompanied as pilot
tiy Amerigo Vespucci, a skilful navigator, who,
returning to Europe, published a narrative of the
voyage, representing himself as the first discoverer
of the continent. The relation was read with ex-
traordinary interest, and the public adopted the
name of America, yielding him an honour un-
doubtedly dufi to Columbus. In 1500, Koderigo
de Bastidas explored the coast from Cape Vela to
the point reached by Columbus in his fourth
voyage, thus connecting a vast extent of conti-
nent. Ojeda and Nicuessa obtained grants of
different portions; but their colonies, conducted
rashly and violently, were almost entirely de-
stroyed. A remnant was assembled at Darien by
Vasco Nugnez de Balboa, an officer of great en-
terprise, who, penetrating across the isthmus,
came ui ^iew of the great southern ocean. Vast
prospects were thus opened ; but the court of
S|)ain ungenerously transferred the chief command
to Pedrarias Davila, who, actuated by mean jea-
lousy, iiersecuted and put to death his predecessor,
viithout himself achieving any thing of importance.
The discovery of the northern coast of tbe
Oulnh was begun by Ponce de Leon. This officer,
while in command at Porto Kico, was misled by
the illusory report of a fountain, in which who-
ever bathed was restored from the most decrepit
old age to all the bloom and vigour of youth. In
liursnit of this chimera, he beat about from coast to
coast, plimging into every pool, of course without
success. In the course of his search, he came in view
of an unknown coast, which he named Florida
Sailing along to a ciiiisidcrable extent, and turn-
ing the southern |M)iiit, he ascertained it to be
part of the continent, and tbe S|>aniards long con-
tinued thus to name and to claim as their own
tbe vliole territory to ('annda inclusive, though
they were ultimately unable to maintain more
than this southern extremity,
The main direction was still towards the west.
In 1-517, Cordoba from Cuba sailed along the coast
of Yucatan, and C(dlfcted some iutelligeiice of the
wealth and civilization of Mexico. He was fol-
lowed next year by Juan de (Irizalva, who, in the
same directiim, traced the entire coast of Mexico
as far as Panuco. The fertile shori's, well built
towns, and abundance of gohl, inspired tbe most
flattering ideas of this coast, which was imme-
diately dignified with the title of New Spain. In
1519, Oaray, governor of Jamaica, sent four ships
under Pineda, who, beginning at Florida, traversed
the whole coast as far as Vera Cruz. The entire
survey of the (Julph of Mexico was thus com-
|)leted, (Oviedo. Hobertson. Marit. and Iiil. Discov.
1$. iv. ch. iii. iv. ; Bancroft's Hist. United States,
ch. ii.)
Velasquez, governor of CUiba, on receiving the
flattering accounts brought by (irizalva, deter-
mined to lose no time in tilting out an armament
for the conquest of New Spain. Jealousy, how-
ever, deterred him from employing the original
discoverer; and he gave the command to Ilernan
Cortes, a personal favourite, but who possessed
every quality fitting him for such an undertaking.
In March, 1519, he landed at Vera Cruz, and
having burned his ships, inarclied into the interior
with about 500 men. With this small force,
seconded by his own superior sagacity and daring,
Cortes subverted the cmiiire of Mexico, ])ut its
sovereigns to death, and annexed it to the Spanish
crown. Having reached the South Sea, he em-
ployed Alvarado to march along its toasts, which
he did for tbi- space of 400 miles, till he reachea
Guatemala. Nunez de (jiuzman afterwards jiene-
trated the northern provinces to New (ialicia,
now Guadalaxara and Zacatccas. Cortes himself,
having e(piip])cd a fleet in 1580, discovered the
]icninsula of California, with its deep gul]>b, com-
monly named in that age tbe Vermilion Sea.
(Cortese Helazioni, liamusio. III. Kobertson.)
The iliscovery by Balboa of the South Sea re-
mained long >vithout any result, through tbu
weakness or disunion of the officers employed.
The most tempting accounts were however re-
ceived of the wealth of Peru, and the abundance of
its precious metals. In 1581, 1'izarro, a daring ad-
venturer, who had sailed with Ojeda, after one un-
successful attempt, succeeded in assembling a band
of brave and fierce followers, with whom be sailed
to attack that great country. By a union of bold-
ness and treachery, he seized the em]nre and trea-
sure of the Inca ; and Peru becan-f an appendage
of the Spanish croivn. Almagro, the companion
and rival of Pizarro, pushed .soiitliward into Chili,
but he met there with great difficulties, and was
recalled by the affairs of Peru. Pedro de Val-
divia, however, having the government of that
country conferred upon him, marched to the
southern border of its fertile territory, as far as
40° S. lat. Vadillo, in 1537, made a march from
Darien to Peru, through the fine countries of New
Gratiada and Qiuto. Expeditions to conquer the
latter were undertaken by Banalcazar and Alva-
rado, who, after contending for its possession,
agreed to divide it between them. In 1540, (ioii-
zales Pizarro, brother to the conqueror, undertook
an expedition through the Andes to the west of
Quito, m hopes of discovering a country said to
104
AMERICA
alxiiiiul in flnc cinnnmnn. Mlcr nutnl)cr1cRs hnrd-
Bhipx. ho Clime to tlic l)ankH of tlie great river
Atnfi/.oii. Knviiig lollowod its course for some
(liHlance, he employed Orellana, one of \m offic^ers,
to descend the Htream in a light hark tt) search for
]trovisions. Orellanu, inspired by a spirit of ad-
venture, continued his voyage, and traced the
>vluile of its immense course down to the ocean.
While the ahove-m<'ntioned events were in
progress, discovery proceeded, though in a less
brilliant train, along the eastern coast. In 1514,
•Juan Diaz de Solis, a skilful mariner, wa« sent to
Hail round America, and reach the opjiosite side
of the isthmus of Darien. Solis, beginning with
St. Augustine, the limit of I'ingon's discovery,
surveyed the whole coast of Brazil, and then came
to the grand opening of the liio de la Plata. But,
having incautiously ventured on shore with a
small party, he was surprised by the natives, and,
with several of his party, experienced the dread-
ful fate which await« those captured by the can-
nibal tribes of this continent. The remaining
crews, on witnessing this cataatroplie, were struck
with dismay, and immediately returned home.
Three years after, Fernando INIagalhacns, or Ma-
gellan, a Portuguese, discontented with his treat-
ment in his native country, offered his services to
Charles V. The immediate object was to reach
the Moluccas from the west, and thus, according
to the pajial grant, establish a claim to those
islands, which were then much valued. A fleet
of five sail being equipped, he sailed in September
1519, and having ])roceeded along the coast of
Brazil, reached Port St. Julian, where he win-
tered. In October 1520, he entered the strait
bearing his name, and after a few weeks' naviga-
tion, saw the great Pacific opening before hira.
He stretched directly across, and came to the
Philijipines, where he was killed in a contest with
tlie natives; but his vessel had the honour of
being the first that circumnavigated the globe.
In 1526, Sebastian Cabot was sent out to the La
Plata, where he ascended the Parana and the
I'araguay, and, notwithstanding the op])osition of
the Portuguese, established two or three forts. In
1535, Juan de Mcndoza, an opulent Spaniard,
founded the city of Buenos Ayres, and in 1537
Juan de Ayolas penetrated across the Andes to
Peru. Thus the great outlines of Southern Ame-
rica were traced in every direction. (Herrera. Ro-
bertson. jMarit. and Inl. Dis., B. IV. ch. vi. vii.)
Discovery in the north did not proceed with
the same rapid steps. We have already noticed
the important voyages made by the Cabots. This
excited the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in 1500
(iaspar de Cortereal, a nobleman of that nation,
set sail and surveyed a considerable extent of the
coast of Labrador. He carried off about 60 of the
natives, to employ them as slaves ; but the enmity
of the peo])le, thus justly roused, probably led to
the fatal result of his next voyage, from which he
never returned. His brother Michael, sailing in
search of him in the following year, met the same
fate, which was shared also by another expedition
sent in 1503.
The reign of Henry VIII. was unfavourable to
nautical enterprise. The discovery of the Cabots
was not followed up, and Sebastian sought the
service of Spain, lie was sent out, however, in
1517, as ])ilot to an expedition commanded by
Sir Thomas Pert, which, it appears, actually cn-
teied Hudson's Bay; but the commander then
lost courage and returned, to Cabot's great indig-
nation. This discovery attracted little notice, and
Avas soon forgotten.
France now entered fm the career of American
discovery. In 1524 FrancLs I. employed Giovanni
Verazzano, a Florrntinc navigator, who m\c\
along and described the ('oast from Carolina to
Newfoundland. Unhappily, in a snbsecpient \i,\.
age, he fell into the hands of the natives, niV|
suffered a cruel death. Ten years afttr Janim,
Cartier, a seaman of St. Malo, jierformed scvcfid
voyages, in which he entercil the (Jnljih of Si,
Lawrence, and ascended the river as high as Ahiui.
real. Attempts were then made t^) c<donize i\wm!
countries, for some time without success: how-
ever, in 1(>04, De Montz founded the colony of
Acadia, and (Jhani))lain, in 1G08, that of Cnnadn.
The latter, engaging in warlike expeditions, pcne.
trated southward to the lake bearing his numi',
and westward beyond Lake Huron.
The Spaniards meantime, as already ohservnl,
had, under the title of Florida, claimed nearly all
North America; nor were they wanting in vlj^nr-
ous efforts to make good their title. In l,r2ii,
Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon discovered and at-
tempted to form a settlement on South Carolina;
but having begun by entrapping and carryinp; (f
a number of the inhabitants, he excited siR'h a
fierce enmity that many of the settlers were killed,
and the rest returned to Hispaniida. In lojl,
Kstevan Gomez sailed as far as the latitude (if
New York, whence he brought off a cargo of
slaves. A more important expedition was uiidcr-
taken in 1528 by Narvacz, the rival of Cortes, and
sent to supersede him, but who had been van-
quished and made prisoner. He now sought to
indemnify himself by a kingdom in Florida, lie
landed with a force of about 000 men, and ad-
vanced about 800 miles into the interior, ballling
all attempts to oppose his progress. The natives,
however, irritated by his violent and doniineerini,'
conduct, pC'Sted themselves in the woods, nnd
harassed him by constant attacks and siurprisw,
The Spaniards, completely exhausted, and in ex-
treme want, were obliged to seek the nciire.-t
coast. Unalde to reach their ships, they cim-
structed frail barks, which, on coming out to the
o])en sea, were wrecked, and almost the wliolfi
number perished. Alvaro Nugnez, the treasurer,
being cast ashore, contrived, by conciliating the
Indians, acting as a merchant and physician, and
even pretending to work miracles, to make hi^
way to Jlcxico, after a seven years' pilgriina!,'e.
The land route was thus traced between that
country and Florida.
This catastrophe did not prevent another at-
tempt, Fernando di Soto had been an associate
of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, where he ili>-
tingui.shed himself by the capture of Cuzco. ainl
other exploits. He relumed to Spain with a lii|,'h
name and a princely fortune ; but instead of sil-
ting down to enjoy these, he resolved to make
them instruments for conquering an empire for
himself. His reputation attracted many of the
most distinguished Spanish youths a.s volunteei^;
and in May 1528 he landed in Florida, with a
more powerful armament than those which had
conquered Mexico and Peru. The exploits of
Soto surpassed, in daring valour and brillimit
achievement, those of Cortes and Pizarro; hut
his fortune was far dift'erent. There was here im
great empire, no central point to strike at. He
struggled on amid a succession of fierce and petty
tribes, whom he always vanquished, but who
rose around and behind him, and never left to \m
troops more than the ground which they covcreil.
He was lured on by reports and specimens of the
gold formation of North Carolina; but amvui:;
there, in a most exhausted stat«, and finding (inly
ridges of naked hills, he turned back. He after-
wards pushed far to the westward, crossed the
Mississippi in about lat. 35°, and proceeded nurlh-
AMERICA
105
ir. wlio sailoil
)m (!nrolina in
iibsiequtMit vny-
ip nntivcs, nii|
w afiiT Jnr(|iiii
liornHHl iicvcfiil
ic (iiilph iif Si,
mliif^liasMmii-
o colimize \\\f>v
; success; liow-
(l tlui colony (i(
:,lmt of Canailn,
Lpp.ditionB, jH-iie-
aritifj; his nuinv,
I.
ilrendy obaervod,
,niinc(l nearly all
milting in vl^'nr-
titlu. In l.V2n,
•ovcred and at-
Soiith Carolina;
: and carryiii); off
e excited such a
ittlera were killoil,
auiola. In 1521,
18 the latitude of
t off a carp) uf
(lit ion was uikUt-
val «)f Cortex, and
had been van-
le now Bought to
n in Florida. He
;00 men, and ail-
le interior, baliling
ess. The nativtf.
t and doniinecriii!,'
11 the woods, anil
icks and siirpriw*.
auated, and m ex-
seek the neim-t
• ships, they cim-
coranig out to tlic
almost the wlinfe
;ncz, the treasurer,
' y conciliatlnj,' the
ind iihysician, ami
idcs, to make hi-.
years' pil>,nriinai,'i',
iced between that
[event another ai-
been an associaie
fern, where he ili>-
^ure of Cuzco. nn4
Spain with a liit;li
'jut instead of sit-
rcsolved to make
,in{; an empire fur
Ictcd many of tte
liths as vohmteoi>;
In Florida, with a
those which h;ul
The cx\tli)it.s (if
lour and brilliiuit
[and Pizarro; but
?here was here im
^ to strike at. He
of fierce and petty
luished, but who
.ul never left to Ills
hich they covered,
specimens of the
jiia; but arriviiis
p, and lindinj,' only
fl back. lie alter-
Itward, cros^ell the
Id proceeded uurih-
wuril "> n*""' *''" present nito of New Madrid.
Fiiidint; no report of gold, or rich kingdoms, he
iHade a dftjdi at the extreme west, paused the Iieads
(if llic Wl'i'c Kiver, then descended the Washita
and Kcil Hiver to the Mississippi. Here, over-
iHiwcred by fatigue and disappointment, he mink
Into the grave. The miserable remnant of his
men, anxious to conceal his death from the In-
dians, carried the body at dead of night into the
middle of the river, and sunk it beneath the
waters, afterwards putting together some rude
harks, they made their escape to Mexico. (Alvaro,
Xaiifragi(>s in Barcia Historiaderes, torn, ii, Vega,
Florida. Bancroft, i. 41. A'c.)
The wanderings of Alvaro had attracted the
attention of the Spaniards to the regions imme-
diately north of Mexico. A friar, Marco di Nizzn,
net oiit with a party to explore tliem, returned
with a romantic account of a city, named Cevola,
iiaving 2l),0()0 8j)lendid houses, and its most com-
mon utensils of g(dd, silver, and the richest
jewels. Mendoza, the >-iceroy, hoping to emulate
the glory of Cortes, fitted out two large expedi-
tions, one to proceed by land under Vasrjucz Coro-
nado, the other by sea under Fernando Alarchon.
I'oronado, after a most arduous march through
riiLrgcd and des(date mountains, reached the plain
(if Cevola, and, notwithstanding a most desperate
resistance, forced an entry, but found a n.cre vil-
lajje of 4(K) houses, with nothing at all sjdendid ;
the jewels were only pebbles and rock-crystal. In
1 hii|ies of achieving something, he marched 300
leaj,'ues to the coast, where he found a city of
Uiimewhat greater c(tnsequence, named (^uivira,
which cannot now be identified. Alarchon, un-
ahle even to join his associate, returned equally
disappointed. Cabrillo, a Portuguese seaman, was
I tlien employed by Mendoza to explore the coast.
I He reached as high as 44° N. lat. but brought
h,ick a gloomy account of the aspect of the region,
I and the diflicidties of navigating this northern sea.
I(i!araiisio, vol.iii. p. 297, Ac. Vcnegas, Cnlajfornia.)
I The zeal of Spain now slackened ; but, in 1579,
|l)rakc, in his exjiedition round the world, traced
Ithe north-westeni coast as high as lat. 48°. There
lis a narrative by a Spaniard, named Juan de Fiica,
Iwho Iwasts that, in 1.596, he reached a similar lati-
Itiulc; and his report, h>ng discredited, luis been
Iconlinncd, in a great measure, by the discovery of
strait closely answering his descri|)tion, and now
icaring his name. In 1.59(' .nd 1(502 the Condc
Ic Monterey employed Sebastian Viscayno, who
Ilid nut, however, reach so far as Cabrillo. There
Is ako a narrative by De Fonte, who boasted that,
■n lt)40, he had reached the latitude of 53°, where
Be found numerous islands separated by narrow
Itraits, which he named the Archipelago of St.
In/are, and within them a large lake named Belle.
Iliis account is generally branded as fictitious ; yet
Ic (,nnot but observe, that it strikingly agrees
kith the numerous chain of islands found by Van-
buver in the same latitude, while Lake Uelle may
c the interior sea between them and the main.
Torqueraada, Monarquia Indiana, book v. Murray
piscov. N. Amer. vol. ii. p. 87, &c.)
The power of Spain having declined, she was
uiable to maintain the vast pretensions she had
Vivanced ui relation to Flori(la. Britain, now be-
rime a much more formidable maritime jwwcr,
Btablishcd colonies in Virginia and New England
b defiance of Spain. In doing so, although there
fas not room for great discoveries, she acquired a
r more accurate knowledge of this long range of
bast. The expectation was still entertained that
line of its openings might lead into the South
ifa. and this was even viewed by the Virginia
pmpaiiy as one of then: leading objects. But the
laborious sun-ey of Chesapeake Bay, by Smith, in
KiOH, nearlv ])ut an end to lluwc hopes.
The Britwh, however, made indrfatignble efforts
to discover a passage to India by the north. Sir
Martin Frobisher, in 157(i, found means to e(piip
two slender barks of 25 tons ibr this arduous at-
tempt. Passing the southern extremity of < Jrecn-
land, he reached the coast north of Hudson's Strait ;
but, after sailing alwut for some time without |)er-
ceiving any opening, and the season being ad-
vanced, he returned. One of the party brought
home a shining black st(me, which some ignorant
persons pronounced an ore of g(dd. The utmost
enthusiasm was thus kindled, and a larger expe-
dition was easily fitted out next year. Frobisher
then discovered the straits bearing his name, lead-
ing into Hudson's Bay; but he was arrested in
them by the ice ; he carried home, however, a
store of the black stone. The hopes of the nation
were higher than ever, and the queen sent him
back with 15 shijis, a strong fort in frame-work,
and 100 men to form a colony. In approaching
the place, however, he was attacked by so furious
a temjKist, with islands of ice driving against the
vessels, that he had the utmost ditticulty in saving
Olid bringing them home. These disasters, and
the discovery that the appearances of g(dd were
illusory, caused a suspension of this series of en-
tenirises.
In 1585, a number of leading merchants fitted
out two vcs.scls under John Davis. Steering fai -
ther N. than Frobisher, he crossed from (Jreeuland
the straits bearing his name, and came uj)on the
Ameri('an land in about 00° N. He sailed .some-
what farther N., and surveyed dilferent parts of
the coast, but was obliged by the lateness of the
season to return. His report, however, being fa-
vourable, he was sent out again next j'ear.
Though much retarded by the encounter of n huge
field of ice, he reached his former station, and
steered thence SE. till he came to Labrador, having
pa.ssed numerous islimds, as apjwared to him, but
probably the coasts bordering on the sounds and
inlets leading into Huds(m's Bay. Being assailed
by tempests, he returned to I^igland, still giving
such favourable hopes that, though many of the
adventurers held back, Mr. Sanderson, his zealous
l)atron, procured for him a smaller armament. He
juished to the yet unattained point of 72° 12' \.,
on West Greenland ; thence he steered 40 leagues
across, but was arrested by the fixed field of ice in
the middle of the bay. iHe vainly attempted to
round it, and was pushed southward to his former
station on the American coast. lie iienetrated (iO
leagues up Cumberland Strait ; then being obliged
to return, he observed, without entering, the en-
trance of Hudson's Bay. He returned home .13
sanguine as ever, but the perseverance of the mer-
chants was exhausted.
The Muscovy and Levant companies, in 1602,
sent out John Weymouth ; but the mutinous spirit
of his crew jjrevented his achieving anything.
They employed, in 1606, John Knight, who was
surprised and killed in Labrador by the natives.
In 1607, Sir Dudlej' Digges, Sir John Westen-
holme, and other gentlemen fitted out Henry Hud-
son, a celebrated navigator, who had already made
three arctic voj'ages. Though furnished only with
one ship of 55 tons, he penetxated, after many difti-
cultics, into the bay, or rather inland sea, which
now bears his name. He surveyed a considerable
extent of its eastern shore ; but as November had
arrived, was obliged to winter there. Much hard-
ship l)eing endured till spring, a mutiny arose
among his crew, who expo.scd Hudson and his
friends to perish on this inho,spitablc shore, and^
with thiimcd numbers, made their way to Ireland.
106
AMERICA
1N'
it
u.h:.
h
Nofwitlistnndinp; these melancholy circum-
ptuncoM, a. nTcnt o|>oniii^ hn<l Ihun iM'cn traced,
mill, in l<it2, the ('timnany Hcnt out Sir ThoinnM
](utt(in, iiccompanied l)y liylot, oni! of Mndson'H
coni|ianion.s. Sir TlioinnH having entered the bay,
steered ('irectlyacnwM thrcdij^li Nuch an extent of
o|)en Hen, a.s made him hoym that he wa.t now in
the Pacilic; when he suddenly saw himself ar-
ri'Sted by a long line of coast, to which he gave
the name of Ho|>o Checked. He wintered in
Nelson's Kivcr, sailed up Itoc's Welcome, sur-
veyed various ]>oints on Southampton Island, and
returned to Kimland. Atler a fruitless attempt by
<«ibbons, Uylot and KatHn were sent in IGIT) ; but
they were arrested by the eastern coast of Sou-
thampton Island. In 1616 they went to try the
more patent route of Davis's Strait-s. They made
then the complete circuit of that great inland sea,
which has since l>cen named HatHn's bay; but
returned with the omviction that it was enclosed
l)y land on every side, and afforded no hope of a
])assagc. The search in this direction was dis-
continued ; but, in 1631, Fox was sent out by the
king, and James by the ISristol merchants, to try
again the route of Hudson's Hay. Fox, afVer
vainly attempting a western route, sailed up the
channel bearing his name, the most direct route to
the strait of the Fury and Ilecla, but 8top|)ed
much short of that point. James stocMl to the
southward, and being entangled in the eastern
coasts of the gulph, was obliged to winter there,
where his crew suticred the utmost extremity of cold.
The north-western coast of America, notwith-
standing the Spanish discoveries, remained still
almost unknown. But after Russia had overrun
Siberia, and reached the shores of the eastern
ocean, her active rulers felt an interest respecting
the opposite continent. It was even doubted,
whether it was separated from that of Asia; but
this, in 1728, was nearly ascertained by Hehring,
who reached the eastern extremity of the latter
continent, on the straits which bear his name.
He saw the land thence stretching NW., but did
not discover anv part of America. A few years
after, Kmpishe/', a Kossac, from Kamtschatka,
descried, and sailed along it for two davs. In
1741, Hehring and Tcliirikoff were sent thither to
make a careful survey. They were separated : the
former reached the coast, and landed about the
latitude of 58°. He could not accomplish his ob-
ject of 8ur\'eying it to G.'fi, and being obliged to
winter on one of the Aleutian islanils, suffered
severe hardships, to which he fell a sacrifice.
Tchirikoft" came in view of it in about lat. 55°;
but being imable to land, and ha^'ing lost two
boats in attempting to communicate with the
natives, he returned to Kamtschatka. On this
voyage the Russians found their claims to the
American coast N. of 55°; and their traders soon
established along it a chain of settlements with a
>dew to collecting furs and skins of the sea-otter.
(Purchas, iii. 696, 716. Narratives of Fox and
James Biirrow's Arctic Voyages.)
Capt, Cook employed his last voyage in ex-
aminmg the north-west boundaries of America,
and in attempting to effect a north-west passage.
He traced the coast from 50° northwards, till he
came to Cape Prince of Wales, the western limit
of the continent: then steered north-east till, in
about 70°, he was arrested by an unbroken chain
of ice islands. He returned, naming the adjacent
promontory Icy Cape; and King and Clerke next
season in vain attempted to penetrate further.
The information obtained in this voyage induced
many English ships to resort to this coast with a
view to the capture of the sea-otter, for whose rich
skin there is a regular demand in the China mar-
ket. Dixon and Mearos, in this pursuit, oxpInrp,j
Nootka an<l the ailjacent coasts. The Spniiijirii,
attempted to op|M)se this trade, and even captun,!
tlie Argonaut, a Uritish vessel; but were ol)lij;„|
to willidraw their opposition. They now H'w
several expeditions, )inrticularly one under Ayala
and Maurelle; but these could make no disccivorv
which had not been anticipated. In 17!t|-2, Vmi.
couver was employed in making a I'areful survey
of these coasts, in the hope of tlnding a paxsn^.c
into the Atlantic;, through one of their niinuTiiM
bays; but this he proved to Iks impracticnhic,
Kroughton, under his dire(;ti(>n, ascended iii,,
Columbia for alxait !t(t miles. Capt. (iray. wn-
ploycdhy the United States, had before l>cr'n at its
mouth, and given it its name; but he is said ncvct
to have entered the actual channel of the river.
Meantime some straggling attempts after tho
jiassnge were made from the Atlantic. In ic^
the Hudson's Hay Coniiiany was formed, and im'
dertook to make exertions for this object. Then-
is however no record of any till 1721, when Knii;||i,
governor of one of their iorts, jirevailed on them
to siqiply him with the materials for a v(iyii(;p.
Unfortunately, being obliged to winter «ni Jlnrlilo
Island, he and his Miiole crew fell a sacrilice t.,
sickness and famine. In 1741, Mr. Ddhhs, a
gentleman of iniluence, and imbued with tlie |
most ardent zeal on this subject, jirevailed on the
A<hniraltv to send out Capt. Middleton with the
Furnace f)omb-ketch. That officer, in 1 742, xaile.!
to the head of Sir Thomas lioe's Welcome, wliere
he found on one side Kcpulse IJny, on the other a
frozen strait between Southampton Island andtlit
mainland. Having also looked up Wager Inlet,
he jironounced a passage in this direction itn-
possible. Dobbs and others loudly accus(-il liiinof I
carelessness and even treachery, and kindled smtii
a spirit that 10,000/. was raised by subscriptiim.
and parliament voted a bounty of 20,000/. to tl»
subscribers in the event of their success. Twi,
vessels were sent out under Captains Morr aiil I
Smith, who however merely examined the Wa^
Inlet, ascertaining that there was no passage, aiiil
then returned.
Maritime expeditions were now suspended, \v
some imiwrtant discoveries were made by lanil
Ever since Baffin's last voyage, the impre,«i,ial
had prevailed that North America stretched in-
definitely towards the pole. But in 17(!ft, Mr, |
Ileame, sent by the Hudson's Bay Compaiiy,
descended Coppermine Kiver, and ' found it ioi
terminate in a sea at about 65° N. lat. In KiiS,l
Sir Alexander Mackenzie, an agent of the Xunl [
West Fur Company, descended, much fanlirfl
westward, the great river bearing his name, a
came to what he termed a lake, but which, innol
its having tides and containuig whales, wius veirl
decidedly judged to be also a sea. There vis\
thus foimd great room to suppose that, in a 1
tilde between 60° and 70°, America was bounJtJ I
by a great Arctic ocean : while from these obsen>[
tions combined with those of Cook, the estimatei/l
its breadth was greatly enlarged. f
These considerations protluced little influeti*!
tiU, after the iieace of 1815, when the enerpiisl
called forth during the late war sought a differeml
direction. Sir John Barrow proved that the im-l
pression against the existence of a passage, (if- 1
rived from former failures, rested on very slight I
grounds. Under his auspices, Capt. RossivasMil
out in 1818, with the Isabella and Alexander, iJ
make a more full trial in Baffin's Bay. liJ
sailed entirely round it, but returned decidedrl
reporting that navigator's opinion to be comftl
and that it afforded no western passage. Liecl
Parry of the Alexander, however, and uitel
.illpljl
IfiffiorTS, were of opinion Hint the spacious oponinj;
1 ,f I,nmii'''er Soiinil had Imoii qiiittrd without duo
IrsiiminatiiiM, «nd afforded « tnvourahle promise.
. y,nn tlK-rerorc scut *iut next year, and thoujjh
llriliil ii'it reach tlui sound till August, found all
111 expeitations fultillcd. The ships, during the
lipt (Ihv after enteriuf^ the sound, had an un-
J!li!itnu'te<l run of upwards of a hundred miles.
LUtcr sailiiiH '* ''*''•' further, ho wa« arrested hy
Ve ami "liliK*"'' '" '""' southward alonp the
Ltcni sliofe of rrince Hef^eiit's Inlet, Ikinfj
«,<tc(l there, he returned northwards, and was
fcnitilied to find the iinssa^o to the west become
oiiitc tlear. He run alonp it to beyond 110° W.
■oiiL'.. thus entitling the crew to n royal bounty of
KiiUO/. lie was then obli^rcd to make arran^e-
Wnt» fi>r siKiuding the winter, during which, not-
Lihstandinj; the most ri^jorous cold, the health
L„[ spiritj* of the crew were sunirisinjfly jireserved.
lie was defeated in his attempt next year to
lenetmtc furtlier west, and obliged to return.
t'npt. Parry was again sent out the iollowing
Lar; but it was now resolved to try the channel
Iv the northern head of Hudson's Hay, which
I'iiildlcton was considered as having by no means
Idiniilctcly explored. He found no reason to doubt
The acciiracv of that navigator; but by iiushing up
Lie Fox Ciiannel, he arrived at a strait, named
Iftcr hw vessels the Fury and Hecla, which was
Xcertaiiied to afford a passage into the Polar sen.
|i was so blocked up with ice, however, that his
limnst efforts, during two successive seasons, could
lut fiirce a passage. Having returned to England,
|r was sent out a third time, in 1X24, to endeavour
J penetrate through I'rincc ]{egeni"s Inlet into
Sie ii(>cii sea, of which he had now fully ascertained
fee cxiiftence. The season, however, being jiecu-
larK rigorous, it was not till next summer that he
laiiicil the western coast ; and the Fury, being
lien sqiice'-c'l between two masses of ice, sustained
.1 severe an injury, that it became necessary to
iiandon her, and give up all attempts to proceed
krtlicr.
Totlier means were at the same time resorted to
Ir exploring the northern boundary of America.
lieut. Franklin and Dr. Richardson undertook to
locecd to the mouth of the Coiiperminc Kiver,
I tlience attempt to trace the whole coast, from
be strait of the Fury and Hecla to the Icy Cape
fCook. They sailed from England in May, 1820;
lere obliged to winter on the Athabasca Lake, and
I July, 1821, embarked on the Arctic Ocean. They
ned to the eastward, but were forced to take a
In' circuitous course through deep sounds and
Mts. particularly the great one named Coronation
kilph, Hence, on reaching Point Tumagain, in
wP 25' W. long., though the sea continued open,
ley found it necessary to return, from the ex-
lustcd state of the equipment. Tlie partjr, being
llii'cd to travel by land over a range of naked
ntoty broken by lakes and rivers, endured the
iiost extremes of human misery, and several
Imhed before they could reach Fort Enterprise
1 the Coppennine. They returned, however, with
Ibroken spirits and determination, and govem-
lent liberally furnished the means of renewing
leir efforts. At the same time, Capt Beechey
J sent by way of the Pacific Ocean to follow in
t steps of Cook, and meet them from the west-
Franklin's new exjiedition set sail in 1825,
btered on Great Bear Lake, and early next year
! at the mouth of the Mackenzie, whence they
proposed to begin their survey. From this
nt Capt Franklin proceeded W. ; Dr. Bichard-
1 E. The former explored a considerable extent
[coast bordered by ranges of the Rocky Moun-
s;but, after passing Foggy Island, in long.
AMERICA 107
147° W., the obstacles became so serious as maiie
it necessary to turn back. Mcautinu', however,
Cnpt. Heeclmy had passed IJchriug's Straits; nnd,
though the shii> coid<l not b(< navigated beyond
the Icy Cape of Cook, Mr. Elson, in a iM)at, reached
15'!° '21' W, long., where a raj)C stretched into lat.
71° 2;i' N. The expeditions were tlius within It
short (leg. of long, from each other ; of which hacl
they been aware, thev would at every cost have
pushed through. Dr. liichardson succeeded in ex-
]>loring the whole coast l)etwen tlie Macken/.ic and
the Cop|)emiine, connecting bis discoveries witli
those of the former voyage, and leaving imknowu
only two comiiaratively small ))ortious between
Franklin's extreme ]H>ints niul those reached by
Beechey on one side, ami I'arry on the other.
Catit. Ross, regretting the mistake by which ho
had tailed to discover the entrance into the Polar
Sea, anxiously sought the means of retrieving this
error. These were furnished by a public-spiril(^d
friend. Sir Felix Booth, nn<l the resources of steam
navigation were calleil forth. They were not of
much avail ; but Ca|il. Ross, through many ditii-
culties, made his way into Prince Regent's Inlet,
and reached considerably farther than I'arry on its
eastern limit. He thrice wintered there, and v.x-
jdored a great extent of the adjacent coasts. Ho
foiuid himself on what appeared a penir.sula, named
B(H)tbia, reaching to 74° N. lat., and connected
with the continent by a narrow isthmus. A con-
siderable extent of the American coast to the west-
ward was also cx)>lored, but without reaching
Franklin's Tumagain. (>)mniander Ross is (;on-
sidered as having ascertained the site of the mag-
netic pole on the western coast of Boothia, Capt.
Ross, ni attempting to reach home, was obliged tf
spend another winter near the northern point, of
the (leninsula. His arrival, in IH'Mi, occasioned a
joyful surimse, as the most melancholy foreboiliiigs
had prevailed as to his fate.
During the alarm felt at his long absence, an
ex])edition to discover and release him was titti'd
out, partly by government and partly by private
subscription. It was entrusted to Capt. Ba(.'k, a
companion of Franklui, with the liope that he
might also make somo further discoveries. Having
left England in February, 1838, he wintcrc<l at
the eastern end of Croat Slave Lake, and next;
summer descended a river named the Thlew-ee-
chop. It terminated in a spacious bay, at the end
of which the coasts appeared to stretch, one SIL,
the other due W. From Cape Ogle, where this
last direction began, was seen on the E. an ai)i)a-
rently boundless expanse of sea. By the observa-
tions then made it appeared i)rol)able, that Boothia
did not form part of the American continent ; but
was connected with a more southerly ])cninsula
which, along with it, formed one great island.
In 1838, the Hudson's Bay Company determined
to explore what was yet unknown m their o«-n
territory. Under the direction of Mr. Simpson,
the resident governor, Messrs. Deasc and Simpson,
in the summer of 1837, went over the intermediate
space between the points reached by Franklin and
Beechey. It was found to run in a nearly direct
line, presenting no remarkable feature except the
eitiux of two large rivers. The same gentlemen
were employed, in 1838, to explore from Capo
Tumagain to the strait of the Fury and Hecla ; a
more difficult task.
The first imjtortant steps in the discovery of the
interior of N. America were made by the French
from Canada, under the government of Count
Frontenac. Under his auspices, loylet and Father
Marquette, in two Indian bark canoes, undertook
to explore the vast regions on the Mississipjii.
Lake Michigan then formed the extreme boundary
?t,E
108
AMERICA
\ .
.'!!,!
r 'i
mi
hmm
li
«)f Kiiroprnn knowlnlffo. From it, iv>cpiiiling the
Fox river, niul ilcMci-iiiliiif; the OiiiNcniiHiii, thi-y
rtMiclKtil th(! (-pntral Ntn>nin, and wpm OMtoniNlipd
lit its ^raiidntr, and tlic niajPHlic fon'HtH on ilM
lianl<H. In prrMH-cdinK downwards, the (Irst pj-oplo
thoy met went the Illinois, who rwrivcd th«'in
lumpitably. Afterward« they wpro Htrnck i>y the
influx of tho mighty Htrcum, deeply liiiKcd with
mud, of the MiMHoiiri (named l>y them PeketAnani).
Under tlie name of OunluHkKou, they deHcril)0 the
imitcd stream of the Wohanh ond Ohio. Tliey
cumc next to the Akamseaa (at tha month of (he
ArkauNai*), l)ut perceiving now that the river muHt
terminate, not, as had i)ecn supposed, in the (tidph
of (!alifomin, hut in that of Mexiro, tlicy were
afraid of the Spaniards, and retume<l.
VViien the two travellers arriveil at Qucliec,
there hapf>ened to Imj in that city an enterprising
yomig Frenchman, of some blrtli and fortune,
named Hieur de la Sallc, who conceived an en-
thusiastic desire to prosecute this career of dis-
covery. Through influence at court, ho procured
ample means. After some time spent in erecting
forts upon the lakes, he reached the Mississippi
jiy a new route, ascending the Miami and descend-
ing the Illinois. On reaching the Arkansas, ho
hesitated not to prosecute his voyage, and passed
along the territory of tho Taoncos, Notches, and
Quinipissas. Soon after, by the vast breadth to
which the waters expanded, thoir brackish taste,
nrtd the shells on tho shore, he discovered, with
exultation, that he was at tho mouth of tho Mis-
sissippi. He hastened back by the same route to
(>anaila, and thence to France, where ho was
received with the highest distinction, created
governor of the region ho had traversed, and sent
out with four ships and 280 men. He went by
the W. Indies; but unfortnnatelv he could not
distinguish tho entrance of tho river, and, while
searching for it, a mutiny arose among his men,
in which ho was killed.
About this time Hennepin also attempted to
roach the source of the Mississippi; but, after
passing the Falls of St. Anthony, he was taken
])risoner by the Indians, detained long in captivity,
and thought himself happy in making his csca|)c.
.Some time after. Baron Lahontan reported his
having ascended a great tributary, whicli he calls
Long, but which appears to be the St. Peter's.
He met some members of a distant tribe, who
described a chain of high mountains lying to the
westward, beyond which was a great salt lake, a
term which the Indians often apply to the sea.
These correct statements seem to absolve the
baron's rejiorts from tho suspicion of fiction, which
has been sometimes attached to them.
The English colonies on the Atlantic had made
a great advance in population and wealth, before
they attempted to penetrate across the Alleghany.
An opinion had indeed long prevailed, that this
range formed an iiisiurmoun table barrier. In 1714,
however, Spottiswoode, governor of Virginia, sent
a party, who made their way into the western
territory. It was still some time before the
colonists made any attempts to settle there, and
when they did, they were vigorously opposed by
the French, who, in virtue of tho settlement of
Canada and the discovery of the Mississippi,
claimed tho whole region. They drove out a
company who attempted an establishment on the
Ohio, and erected, on the present site of Pittsburg,
Fort Duquesne, which struck a general alarm
through the provinces. The conquest of Canada,
and tho peace of Paris, in 1763, removed this
opposition. Still the settlement was made, not
by any combined or official movement, but by
Boone, and other daring adveutiurers, who main-
tained a series of bloodv struggles with tlip m.
tivrs, by whom the Knglish were kept in iMr]i.ii|„ I
alarm. It was not till some years after tlie yc^.A
independence, that Kentucky was received jr,,,
the union, and that the great fide of enrt^rnii j
began, which has covered the valley of ihc %.
sissippi with so many |M>puIous and f!'.;'„ii>ii{,|,
states.
The Americans having in WH i)nrchnKO(l J,,,,,..
siona from Napoleon, claimed under timr va;,,
title the whole region to and lwyon<l the ^W, ,..
sippi, and commenced o|ierations for e.x|ili.rii;
that vast territory. An cxjiedition was nrriin;."
by Mr. .leflerson, then pn-sident, and was IcU^^
(faptains Lewis and Clarke, tho former of wlnn
was his private secretary. On the •titli )|jv,
IH04, they began their vovage on the Jllswinr
Having a8cen<lcd 1,000 miles, and readied i!«
f(M)t of tho Kocky Mountains, they found iIk
season too far advanced for crossing tlmt (.t,;;
chain. They, therefore, built a fort naincil .Mr.
dan, where they 8^lent the winter. Early in A|iril
they wore again in movement, and in iiinotw!
days came to the influx of the Yellowstone, nb.:
equal to the main stream. Having reiuliod il*
crest of the great rocky chain, the travellers ,|,.
sccndod rapidly, though not without (Hlli(•lllli^
from tho riiggednoss of the road and thewuniif
provisions, fhey at length, however, endjjirki.j
on tho southern branch of tho Cohniiliin, wlii.t
they named Lewis, and after passing its falls ax
it spread into a wide channel, and ultimately ii|«
into a bay, where they oxultingly heard tlicsimiii
of breakers from the Pacilic. 'I'hey wintercilii
tho mouth of the river, and hai^tened back liyil^
same route in the following spring. They iw
not, however, the (Irst who had crossed the entin
breadth of the continent. This had been cApk
in 1792 by Sir Alexander M'Kenzie, in a m i>
northerly quarter; and in 1803, the agents ul tk\
Montreal Company had crossed the mountains
and formed trading posts on tho northern htmi'^
of the Columbia. (Journal of D. W. llimnni.
Andover, 1820.)
The American government sent, in 1805, nn(iik(j|
oxiMJilition under Major Pike, to trace the
unknown head of the JILssissi^jpi. It was l'iiiii>:|
in a direction almost due north, not rising fr-a
any great natural range, but in a flat mar-lir
region, and passing thnuigh a number of liiili
lakes, the chief of which, named Leech and U\
Cedar, contend for tho honour of giving birtli ;»
this leading American water. Its length, i'«i
proved to be at the mutual junction Utile In
than half the Missouri, which therefore ought [r-
porly to rank as tho main stream. Pike, mi m
return, was sent to explore the course and (irL'j
of the Arkansas and Bed IJivers. The former li
found very broad, flowing through a couiid
richly stocked with game, and having its soiih
in tho Kocky Mountains. He lirst convcycliil
idea of tho loftiness of that chaui, which lie c
pared, though with exaggeration, to the CVinfJ-l
leras. He attempted thtii to descend the M
Kiver, but entered by mistake on the Rio H|
Norte, and proceeding into the Mexican terrii'
was made prisoner by the Spaniards, but tJI
treated and soon released. About the same tiim
Mr. Dunbar and Dr. Hunter, from NatcliPs,M
to a considerable height up the Bed Kiver rf
its tributary the Washita, sitfveyiiig the feni
country on their banks.
After a long sus))ension, the American gmfi
ment, in 1819, recommenced this career. M
Long and Dr. James were sent to explore m
precisely the western territory southward oft
Missouri. They iliscovered with regret ttoi
04 ])iir(!hnHO(l I.auj.
UlllllT tlint \l\i<:,
iM^yoiul tlu' Mi^ I-
tio'nH for exiili.ni.'
litioii wiw nrmii;''!
nt, nml wan Icl Iv
ho fomipr iif wli„iii|
;)n the 't'.tl\ Miv,
TO on the MisMiiir.l
*, nnrt reachiil iu|
IS, they fdniul iV
cro»^'iIlK that p.xl
. a fort iminw\ Mr,
Iter. KarlyinAiin'.l
nt, anil in nini'iw.f
! YellowHtone, i\lni'»;|
Having rciii'licil i!,.[
n, the tnivellcrs .
without dirticnliKl
■oml mid tlicwunill
, however, eniUirkiJ
the Cohnnbin, wliiil
passing ittt falls sjjI
, and nltimatelyiiiffll
ingly heard the siniril
;. They wintrmUl
hastened hack tiy il'l
5 Hpring. Tlipywwl
lad crossed the oniidl
'his had been eflfinl
M'Kenzie, in a iiicl
803, tlie agents nf ikil
[ossed the niountani\l
the nortlieni liramliel
I of D. W. UhtiikI
sent, in 1805,aiiiii!if]
ke, to trace tlic ;
««>lH)i. It was l'"™''L
lortii, not risinn Ir il
Imt in a flat maMjl
li a number of litiil
lamcd Leech and Kf^l
tur of giving birili;!
ter. Its lenRtli, i-l
III junction litllt ImI
;h therefore ought |<-l
stream. I'ike. »».*^
the course ami iiri:il
ivers. Tlie formtrbil
J through a coiiiiul
and having its mm
He first conveycis|
chain, which luut
iration, to the Oe
to descend the U%
_)take on the K'* 'i^l
the Mexican tcmwl
, Spaniards, but w|
About tl»e same i»l
r, fromNatclics,suWj
p the Ked KivrtiiJ
surveying the lenii|
;he American p«»
;d this career. Mf
sent to explore H
tory southwaiil ('iiij
with regret tte'
AMERICA
rent M"'!^ (losort cxtcndH for a breodth of nI)out
no miles 'euHtwanI from the Kocky Mountains.
I hai I'hain was carefully examined, and its highest
,.ik l'"inul not much to exceed l*2,(«»0 feet. Seek-
"Miidcsccnd the Ked Kiver, liv a fresh fnlalily
„*v inisliiok for it the (.'auudian, the longest
rjhiiiarv of the Arkansas, hv whose chaiuiel they
iiiiu'd tlic .Mississippi. Aleantimo tJeiieral Cass
|"i iTiiplovcd ill a more careful examination of
klii. last ruer, tracing in his way the southern
Lii„re of Lake Su|K>rior. Major J^ong, on his re-
kurii asiciiilcd SI. I'eter's IJiver, alreadv visited
|,v lialioiiian nu'l Carver. He found, rising from
Lnicrmiiioiis sources, the northern Ked Kiver,
kliidi lli'ws into the Hritisli territory, and ends in
ili,. \Viiini|>eg. These successive cx|M'ditii)iis
Miivcvcd to the United States govermnent a
[,ritiv correct idea of the interior of their vast
.rriiiirv, including those parts of the continent
hlilch iiad hitherto been most imperfectly known.
[\ntic; eiitcr|>rise, which had remained dormant
„r <ix years between 1H3!> and I Hir), revived with
liur'V ill the latter year, when Sir .John Franklin
fctarted iii>oii his exiicilition. His directions were
iihriiceed through Lancaster Sound and Harrow's
«imit to Cape Walker, ond thence south-west to
liliriiiK's Strait, a distance of about 'JOO miles;
r, il he found this route Impracticable, he was to
II III) Wellington Channel. The Erebus and
Vrriirwcre seen for the last time in July, 1815,
«(i months after their deiiarture from Kngland.
'(,r three years the government at home was oc-
ii|iiid oidy in speculations resi)ecting their pro-
raitoil altseiice, and jdaiis of relief; but in 1848,
xiietlitions of search were sent out, with one of
iliit'li sailed Sir John Kichardson and Dr. Hae ;
ihilst another was commanded by Sir James Koss.
ir James Ross's squadi'on returned in 1819, with-
iiil having succeeded in getting to the west of
,poiH)ld Island; and in 1855, the ships IJnter-
irise and Investigator again sailed, the formor
lailcr the command of Captain Collinson, and the
Iter under the command of Captain McClure.
he object of this exijcdition was to search the
wrthcru coast of America, and the western coasts
if WoUaston and Hanks' Land, Melville Island,
iitoria Land, and the passage between. Its
ipinorablc result was the discovery of the North-
cst passage. Having passed through Behring
Itrait, Cai)tain McClure proceeded, according to
is i-istnictions, along the northern coast of
menca to Cape Parry ; then sailed NE. and dis-
ivered Prince of Wales's Strait, Ikring Land, and
riiicess Royal Islands. Upon the 2Gth of October.
|W0, whilst the Investigator lay in this strait,
plain McClure, having 'mdertaken an exploring
lursion on land, saw, from a hill, the frozen
aters of Slelville Strait lying away to the north.
rom the distance his eye commanded, it was clear
lat no land could intervene between them and
elvillc Island, so that there was notlilng to ob-
nict the passage into the Atlantic. Ihns, at
It, the North-west passage was found ! After
intering in the Strait, he found it advisable to
itrace his steps to Baring Land, and steer round
e west of lianlvs' Limd on his homeward track,
isre'jm voyage was one of disaster and peril,
d the ship was lost ; but at length, in 1854, he
:he(l the shores of England by a route wliich
iiisfactorily settled the question which had been
rjilexing English seamen for nearly three hun-
id years. Captain Collinson, of the ' Enterprise,'
itunied to England in May, 1855, having esta-
'i'hed the fact of the connection of Victoria,
iuce Albert, and Wollaston Lands, and bring-
ti with him some fragments, supposed to have
longed to the Erebus and Terror. In both
AMEKSITAM
109
those discovcrioH, however, he had boon foresfallnl
by Dr. Itae, who had U'cii sent out in IN,'i:(, to
complete surveys of llmilhia, and other {Hiiiils.
Ik'tween the years IH.IO, and I8.*)7, nnineroiis ex-
]iedilions were sent out, ainniigsl others a se<'<iiid
American expedition, under Dr. Karre, which rt>-
sult«Nl in the discovery, by him, of the great
' Humboldt (ikzier,' and the sup|M)sed discovery
of an »\»i\ Polar Sea. In IH57 the search was cimi-
mcnced, whitdi was destined at last to put at rest
the hoiK's and fears rcsiiecting Sir .lobn Eriinkliu's
fate, 'n the summer ot that year, C^antain Mc( 'lin-
tock sailed in the Fox for the Arctic Seas, The
results obtained by this ex|)edilion were of the
most convincing kind, not only as dt'tertniniiig
the unhappy end of Franklin's enteri«''sc, but as
proving, fmm the route through which he was
traced, that he, after nil, is entitled to the honour
of iMiing the earliest discoverer of the North-west
passage. Captain McClintock's vovage has also
furnished considerable geographical infonnation.
He has laid down the coast-line of lioothia, from
Itellot Strait to the Magnetic Pole, delineated
King William's Island, and oiicned a new channel
from Victoria Strait to Melville or Parry Souixl.
He also ac^hieved the navigation of liellot Strait.
Since Captain McClintock's return, Mr. Hall,
of Cincinnati, started on n renewed search for
the Erebus and Terror. Two other expeditions
from America departed in the course of the years
18G()-() I, to attempt the voyage to the Pole. In
England, the j>roject of n new North Polar expe-
dition is at present (18U5) under discussion, opi-
nions lieing divided as to the Smith Sound or
Spitzl)ergeii routes.
In British North America, Mi*. Palliser's sur-
veying expediti(m, which was finished in 1800,
has disclosed, between the southern end of Lake
Winnipeg and the base of the Hocky Mountains
a fertile tract of land admirably fitted for ctdoni-
sation. An expedition despatched by the Cana-
dian government, under the charge of Professor
Hind, has also made important investigations in
the country west of Lake Sujierior, giving good
ground for the belief that the Basin of Lake Win-
nipeg will one day have ' a great future.'
In Central America, surveys have been under-
taken for an Interoceanic Itailway across Honduras,
and in South America the vast project has been
started of a railway over the Chilian Andes, from
Copiaix), across the Argentine provinces, to Kosario
on the Parana.
AMERKOTE, a town and fort of India, terri-
tory of Sinde, in the desert, 85 m. E. Hyderabad;
lat. 2.5° 20' X., long. 09° 49' E. . The emperor
Acbar was bom here in 1541.
AMEKSFOKT. a town of the Netherlands, prov.
Utrecht, on the Eem, which becomes navigable at
this point, 12 m. ENE. Utrecht. Pop. 12,700 in
1861. It is well built and well fortified; has a
court of original jurisdiction, a college, a commis-
sion of agriculture, with manufactures of fustians,
dimities, and bombazeens. it is the mart for the
corn and tobacco cultivated in the contiguous ter-
ritory ; and has a considerable transit trade in
produce from Germany, embarked here in tlat-
bottomed boats from Amsterdam. The distin-
guished statesman and grand pensionary, Bame-
vcldt, sacriiiced in 1617 to the fanaticism of tlie
people and the hatred of Prince Maurice, was a
native of Amersfort
AMEIiSHAM, a bor. and pa. of England, county
Buckingham, near the Colne, 26 m. vVNW. Lon-
don. Pop. of parish, 3,550 in 1861. The town
consists of one long street, crossed by a shorter
one, having the church at the point of inter-
section. There is a free-school, to which are
l.'"^!
M
n,
'V
If
no
AMESnUHY
nttn«'1iod tliroo oxliil)iti(iim nt ('or|)ii« Chrlsli rol-
l('^i>, (Kl'iird. with nliiixhouNt-M ami tlirt>e chnritiiw,
A KDoil (loni of himik laci>, Ih tn<iiMirti)^tirr<<<l, mid
IIk^ iiiarkrt in well Httuiidi'il. I'n'viiiiixly to tlu^
Itcform Act, liy which it wiim dixfrniicliiwd, thJH
hiiroii^h »<uiit two mcml)(>rH to tlic l[, of (J,, the
ri^ht of voting Itciiifr in th(> inlialiitniilH piiviii^
sent and lot; hut tlicHii hoiii^ all tcluuitM ol tlic
lord of thu inaiior, it wuh in fact ii nomination
boroii)rh.
AMKSiniHV. or AMUItKSHIIIiY, a in. town
and pur. of Knfxhind, co. WiltH. Tlin town \h situ-
ated ou tiie Avon, 74 m, N, Salinhury. Though
ini'onMi<lerahlt>, it is noted for tlic ruinH of an ahhcy,
tin; vicinity of Stonchcn^fc, and for having hct'ti
Uw hirth-placc of A(idiHoii. Tlio)>ariMli coinprihu.i
6,(MiO acroH, witii a po)). of l.t8H in imil.
A.MIf.VliA, a division of Ahysainia, wliich hcc.
AMilKUST, a soa-port town of the Urit. prov,
of Martahan, India beyond the (jian^es, and tliu
chief liritisli military and commercial Htation in
the provinces IC. thu Than-lwcnj; river, on a point
of land in the NH. an^lu of the (iulph of Mar-
tal)an, fucni^ the montli of the Than-lwen^ and
the Isle of Ual.i t„ riie X. Lat. Kjo 4' 4h" N.,
lonf?. !»7°35' 24" K. Estimated i)op. f),()()(>. Am-
herst was foiuided in l«2ti, after the restoration of
tlie town of Martabaii to the Hirmesc, in the view
of Hcrviiif; as a military jMist, and n commercial
establishment, and as an asylum for such refuj^ees
as mi^ht choose to eniif;ratc from the Uirmese
dominions. Tlie anex of the jiromontory, which
is the hi{j;heHt spot in the town, is occu|)ied by the
church, p)veriior's house, court of justice, fortiti-
cations and other public buildings; on the higher
fjround around it are tlie European and Chinese
quarters; and the lowest ore by choice inhabited
by the natives. The military cantimments are
about 14 m. distant, in a dry, levl, and elevated
spot. The harbour is spacious and secure, with 3
fath. water at low neap tides; rise and fall above
lit ft., with a How of <i ni. an hour, and i)criectly
still for 2 hours both before and after high water.
Ships may lie within IdO yards of the shore.
Jlangrove and a kind of oak are abundant here,
and there are teak forests at no great distance.
(iood water is found everywhere G feet below the
surface.
Amherst, a town of the U. States, Hompshire,
CO. Alossttchusets, 82 m. W. Hoston. Pop. 3,0;V2 in
1800. A college was established here in 1821,
which has an observatory and a good cabinet,
Amherst is the name of some other places in the
U. States.
AMHERSTBURCIH, a small town of Upper
Canada, on Detroit K., 3 m. above its embouchure
in Lake Erie, and 14 m. below De'troit. It was
founded during the administration of Lord Am-
herst, and was named after his lordship.
AMIENS (an. Samarobriva), a city of France,
cap. dep. Somme, on the river of that name, 72
m. N. Paris, on the Great Northern of France
railway. Pop. 58,780 in 18til. Amiens has a
citadel constructed by Henry IV. It is well built;
streets for the most part straight and clean ; and
it has some tine squares and promenades. The
old Gothic cathedral, in excellent preservation, is
one of the linest in Europe. It is 366 ft. in length
and 132 in height. Among the other public build-
ings may be specified, the Royal College, theatre.
Hotel de Ville, corn-market, courts of justice,
barracks, seminary of St. Acheul, and chateau
d'Eu. It is the seat of a bishop, has u cour Im-
periale, a court of assizes, a commercial tribunal, a
custom-house, a public library containing above
40,000 vols., an academy, an academy of sciences
and belles-lettres, a free school of design, and a bo-
AMMAN
tanical garden, itc. Manufactures very cnnsiilff. I
able. They consist principally of kirii-ymcrh
cassitnercH, tnerinoes, and serges, made partly ij I
honie, and partly of <ierman and Siiaiiisli wo.M
'\'\w liiK!!) trade is also considerable; hut it iiiiii,« |
surpassed by that of cotton. There are aiinuallv
produced alsnit (iO.llOO ^lieces of cotton velvet, ii,, I
aggregate valiu) of which is estimated at almu;
8,(((Ml,(MMM'r.; and alwiit 400 hxims are (M'cii|,i„j
in the production of velvets ditet irUlrer\t,
There are also several mills for the spinning ii I
cotton and tlax ; with dye and bleach-WDrtu;
manufactures of ma(4iiiiery, beet-root sugar, aiii|
chemical products ; tanneries, soaji-Works, anij I
paper-mills. The pi\tf» de cuimrd made here ,w
liighly estecmetl. Flat-bottomoil vessels, driiwiir
from 40 to 50 tons, I'oine up the river to the tiwn'
which is the centre of a very considerable trail*'
as well in its own prwhictioiis an in those of ikr I
surrounding country. Amiens is very aiKicnt, 1
being su|iposed to have cxistetl anterior tu ilr
invasion of Delgium by the Romans. It is kiKwo
in diplomatic history from the circinnstnncp nf 1 1
detinitivo treaty of peai;e between l^iigland ani
the French republic having been sigiie<t in iiml
the 25th March, 1802. It is the liirth-|)lace n'
Peter the Ilemiit, the apostle of the tirst criisade; I
of Ducange, author of the Ghiisarium ad SctlA
tores medice et injima: Latinitath, a work (if wnn. I
derfiil research and labour; and of Delambrc, [\>
learned author of the most accurate though m I
the most eloquent history of astronomy. [
AM.IHKRKA, a small Rajpoot state nf N,|
India, Malwa, 46 m. WSVV. Iiidur. Area riSIsi],!
m. Pop. about 58,tM)0. Maize, cotton, siiKai-l
cane, and grain, are the chief products. Thtrekl
a town of the same name 60 m. N\V. Oojeiii, omi- j
taining about 500 houses, and large and well su|>
plied i)azaars.
AMLWCH, a sea-port town of N. Walen, X.l
shore of the Island of Aiiglesea, at the terminuil
of a branch line of the Chester and Hohlifiklj
railway. Pop. 6,949 in 18t!l. The town rose firm I
the state of an inconsiderable fishing villA$:eiil
consequence of the discovery of the famous cdpixil
mines in the adjoining Pary's IMonntain in IW.I
It has a pretty good port, excavated from tlil
solid rock. During the flourishing iiericnl oftl»l
mines, thev produced above 3,000 tons a yeaiiJ
pure metal; but they have been gradually lif I
dining for several years. Amlwch is united niii I
Ilcaumaris, Holyhead, and Llangefni, in retuniiii>|
a member to the H. of C.
AMMAN (the Rabbah of the Scriptures, anjl
Philadelphia of the Greeks), a city of Syria E.fil
the Jordan, deserted and in ruins; lat. ii2°8'N,r
long. 36° 8' E.; 25 m. NE. Dead Sea, and 30 nj
E. Richa (an. Jericho),
The remains.of Amman are very extensive, biJ I
none of them seem to be older than the rera of thil
(Jreek power in Syria. They consist of thcatial
temples, and colonnades, of great beauty and hijAl
finish, some of them being in very perfect prestml
tion. A great number of private houses still *l
main, but there is not a single inhabitant.
This is one of the most ancient cities mentioDJl|
in Jewish history. It was the capital of the Aii-I
monites, a people undisturbed by the Israclittll
settlement in Palestine, and with whom the Jenl
lived in a state of suspicious truce till the rem «
Jephethah, aljout 1161 b.c. Thenceforward tial
two nations were in almost constant hostilityJ
generally to the tlisadvantage of the AmmoniieiJ
and in 1035 b.c. Dawi took their capital
notwithstanding this untowanl event, and the m-l
successful war they waged against Jehosaptal
(B.C. 896), and Jctham (b.c. 760), theycontiniifil
r»>« vrrv coiniiipf.
y of kiT^cymiTi'.,
)H, miiilc |mnly((
\\u\ Simnisli wi»|,
ililo; liiit It Ik iii.w I
I'Ucto artf iiiiniwllv
I'otton vi'lvi'i. 111, I
Htinmtcil at almu;
iMmis are i«'ciii*i I
4 ditet <rUtnrlii,\
(ir the Hiiinniiitc i^
kiid liU'iicli-wiirki;
;t't-r(Mit HtiKiir, ami I
, H(m)i- Works, ami I
lard made licri' » |
oil vcHHcls, (Iniwiii;
e river to the timn,
coiiHidprahlo tnV.
as in tliose of ili. |
iH in vory uneii'iit,
l«!(l anterior to ili» I
iiinans. It is hmt I
e cireninHtaiH'e (if »
ween r.iinliiiiil u\\
H'Cli Binned ill iti«
I the liirtli-i)liicei(l
of tlie llrnt iTibaiif;
'lomarium ad Scrip-
litis, a work of wim. I
nd of Delunilirc, tin I
iccurate tlioiij;!! m I
oxtroiiomy. I
[ftijMKtt Htute nf \|
Iiidur. AreauK^I
aizc, cotton, siij;ai-r
I" products. 'i'luTeiii
m. NW. Oojoiii, cifl-
il large and well mif
wn of N. Walci". \\
.'sea, at the temiiniBl
lestcr and UoKheiij
The town rose from I
(Ic linhinK villasreitl
of the famous i'(i[i|x( I
8 Alountain in lift I
excavated from tfel
irisliing i>eri(Hl df tl«l
3,0(H) tons a year (I
' been gradually fri
[mlwch is united wiii I
ilangefni, inrctuminjl
the Scriptures, iiiil|
[acitv of Syria E, ((I
I ruins; lat. 320 8!i.P
)ead Sea, and 30 ml
.J very extensive, bul
l;r than thearaofihi
Ky consist of theaiw
Ireat beauty and liifk
fvery perfect prcstm
livate houses still «■
he inhabitant.
Went cities mentioM
he capital of the .\b-
ted by the Israclitfek
I with whom the Jen
truce tillthcKtaa
Thencefonvani tin
it constant hostiliiyJ
le of the AmmomiK
Ik their capital BU
Vd event, and the 10-
against Jehosapt*
.700), they contimM
AMMERSCIIWmn
t„ 1)0 « powerful pt'opic, and alioiit tiOO yonrp n.c.
' plioil Scbiichadiiezziir with a strong auxiliary
l„nv to nxHist in the dcstrui-tion of their old eiie-
,|,i,,H. Auuiiau was HuliNcciiiently incliuled in the
\^,vria" '""' l'*'"^'"" einpiri's; and after the battle
1,1' IsMis (ii.<'. illl-'l). it I>itsseil, with the rest of
'i\ rill anil ralestine, into the hands of the (ireeks.
In ilM II. f. Palestine was the st'eiie of war be-
iwiTii Aiilii'fhiis the (ireat and I'toleiny I'hilo-
fiitir; the former of whom utterly destroyed
\pimiin. Having Imu'ii rebuilt by I'tolemy I'hila-
ilclphii'', it received from him itstJreek appellation
'„( riiil:idelpli>»- It iH'canie a Koinaii town in the
list (Tiitiirv n.c, and reniii'iied siich till the coii-
I liucst of Palestine by the .Saracens, A. I)., tliW.
I'liderthe (!liristian emperors of the I'.ast, Ain-
I iiiiiii apiH-ars to have U-en a bishop's see, but it
wiin (h'ciiiiing liefore its capture by the Arabs, and
I \liul-Foda, in the early part of the llth century,
I iltscribes it as already deserted.
Tlic ruins of Amman stand on the banks of a
linxik, uiiiih i.tsiiing from a large jHind at the .S\V.
I ((iriiir of the town, flows (partly under ground)
(ivir a tlinty bed into the Zerka (an. JuMxick) an
atliiH'Mt of the .Jordan. The water of this stream
i, cxiM'lleiit, a eirciiinstanco which renders the spot
I a disiralde lialting-placc for caravans, the drivers
(if wliit'li use the ancient temples and buildings as
.shelter for their beasts, fulllUing, it is supjiosed by
Lmiii- stmkiits of |irophecy, the denunciation of
i'.zi'kiel, ' 1 will make Kablmli of the Amnnmites
111 stiiblc for camels and a couching-iilace for Hocks.'
hSiiinbers to Chronicles, jMtsaim ; I'olybius, lib. v.
leap. i>- oinl "• '• Kobinson, ii. 172-17,").)
I AMMEltSCIlWIHK, nt Marivillier, a town of
iKmncc, dep. Ilaut Ubin, 4 m. N\V. Colmar. Pop.
I'j.ii.'iil in IMUl. Excellent wine is grown in the
|]iei;;hiiourliood.
ASIOL, a city of Persia, prov, IVfozunderan, on
|thc Heraiiz, about 12 ni. above where it falls into
ithe southern part of the Caspian Sea ; lat Jlti" 30'
Jx., long. 52° 23' .'>5" E. Pop. (lifters at diflx-rent
Ifoasons; but in winter, when greatest, is estimated
Ihv Mr. Krazer at fnmi 3.5,000 to 40,000. The iirin-
|ti|ml (ilijcet worth notice is a mausoleum erected
lliv Shall Abbas over the remains of a former dis-
lliiigiiislied sovereign of Saree and Amol, who died
pn lit'H. This magniticent structure has, however,
ln'cn injured by an earthquake, and is rapidly de-
caying. There is a bridge of T2 lurches over the
pierauz, and there are in the v icinity of the town
naiiy mounds and other remains of Persian anti-
ijiiities. The bazaars are extensive, and well siip-
jjlieil with certain articles ; but it has little trade
tr industry. Mr. Frazer could not tind tea either
lereor nt Halfroosh, and the inhabitants iiad never
prard of cott'ee. Chilluw and mas, that is plain
milcd rice and sour curds, is the common ftxid of
llic jieople, some of whom season it with a little
lalt tisli. (Fraser'a Southern Banks of the Ca.spiaii
tea, p. 101.)
AMOOR, or AMUR, a large river of E, Asia,
khJL'h has its sources in ^Mongolia. It is formed
ly the junction of two great rivers, the Oiion or
tliilka, which rises nearly under the 1 1 deg. of
I. long, and the .")0 deg. of N. lat., and the Kerou-
iin or Argouii, which rises nearly under the same
peridian, but about 2^ deg. more to the S. The
btter riv°r traverses the great lake of Koulon, and,
piling from it, and pursuing a NE. course, forms,
r recently formed, for a considerable distance, the
ine of demarcation between the Hussian and Chi-
i empires. The Keroulun and Onon unite near
he fort of liuklanova, in about the 120th deg. E.
|«il,'. The combined river having taken the name
Amoor, flows E. and SE., till, at its most 8.
joint, it is joined by its large tributary, the Soon-
AMorn (ST.) Ill
giiri, flowing NE. ! the Am<Mir, liaving middeiily
taken the same direction, pres(>r^-es it during the
ri'inainder of its coiinte, till it falls into the ami of
the sea opiHisile the N. end of the island of .Sag-
balieii, or Tehoka, in alsiiit the 0,'ld deg. of hit. and
the !40th deg. of Umu, The entire course of the
river, to the source of the Keroulun, reckoned the
principal branch, is estimated, ineliisive of its wind-
ings, at 2,)i4l ni. It is navigable by steamers from
■June to November, when it is free of ice, to a <lis-
taiice of 2,2i)'i m. from the sea. In the lower part
of its course it tlows through a comparatively rich,
well-cultivated country ; but the country round its
sources, and the upper part of its course W, of the
Kiiigan Yalo nioiintains, being contiguous to the
great desert of .Shaino or (iobi, has the samii
characteristics. The Kiissian fort of Nertscbiiisk
stands on the Nertseba, near where it falls into
the Cliilka. In \KM, a l{i:ssian expetlition went
ilown the Amoor, plantiiu; a number of posts, and
securing to Russia jHissession of the course of the
river to the sea, and the whole country to the.
north. In IMll the Russians also actpiired, by
treaty with China, all the region east of the h>wer
AuKMir and the river I'ssuri, an atlliiciit from thu
south, which joins the Amoor in lat. 34° 40' N.,
giving to Russia the sea coast as far south as Capo
.Sisdro, in the Sea of ilajian. The Riissinii terri-
tory is divided into the (irov. of the Amoor (cup.
Wagoveschensk), area TlH.odO sq. m., pop. 40,(HI0,
and the maritime prov. of E. Siberia, separated by
the Kingan mountains. The country is as yet
very siiarsely inhabited. The chief places on thu
recently acquired coast, counting from .S. to N.,
art — Victoria Hay.or Pcterthe (Jreat (Julpii ; Port
Seymour, or Ogla Bay ; and Vladimir Buv, in the
Sea of .lapan ; Constantinovsk, or Port Imperial,
on Barracouta harbour ; Alexandrovsk, on Castries
Bay, near the mouth of the river: and Nicolaicvsk,
at the mouth of the river, in the (Julphof Tartary.
The trading places in the interior are mostly t'lii
the banks of the Amoor. The Russians have also
the port of Dui, in the island of Saghalien, and
coal is found in the neighbourhood. Within the
last few years a considerable trade ha.s grown up
along the shores of the Anumr. In the year I8(j4
there arrived 9 foreign ships at Nicolaicvsk, name-
ly — 3 American, 2 (iermaii, and 4 Danish. In lM(i4
a Russian government steamer o])enctl the naviga-
tion of the Pocmgari, ascending a distance of iip-
Avards of 600 miles, as far as the Chinese town of
(iiiirine, a most populous place, estimated to con-
tain above 100,000 inhabitants. The Russian na-
val force in the Amoor river was composed, in
18(!4, of G corvettes, mounting 11 guns each; 7
schooners, each of them with G guns; and 11 steam
transports, with a total of 37 guns. (Consular
Reports; Ravenstein, E.G.; The Russians on the
Amur, Lond. 1861.)
AMOR(t() (an. Amorgos), an island of the Gre-
cian Archipelago, about 36 m. in circumference,
lying SE. from Naxia, in about 36° 50' N. lat.,
and under the 26th deg. of E. long. Pop. esti-
mated at between 2,000 and 8,000. It is in part
mountainous and rocky ; but, in antiquity, it was
noted for its fertility, and is still well cultivated,
producing more com and wine than the inhabitants
can consume. It contains a town of the same
name. Port St. Anna, on the N. shore of the
island, is an excellent harliour, with goo<l anchor-
ing ground in from 18 to 20 fathoms. Simonides,
famous in antiquity for his iambics, was a native
of Amorgos.
AMOUR (ST.), a town of France, dep. Jura,
cap. cant. 9 m. SW. Lons-le-Saulhier. Pop. 2,343
in 1861. It has a forge, a nail work, a considerable
marble work, and tanneries
iiii!
I-/^U,P'
U*v;^
! I
^1.
112 AMOY
AMOY, fi Hrn-port town nfCliinn, pMV. Koldrn,
with Ik I'liiniiiiHliiiiiH mill Ncciirr liiirliniir; lal. '21"
HI' N., Illtl^r. UN" 10' K. It Ih OIK) of tllM iioriM
iinw o|i<<n to I'tiri'ixii tniilx in Cliinii. 'I'lioii^li mIiii-
iili'il ill oiiit of till! IciiHi frriilc (liNtrii'iM of tliii
nii|iirt', llio iiKTi'liiiiilH of Aiiioy ciirrv on n very
«'Xl('ii.'«ivi' iiiliTiMtiirHf with Korniomi, wli*-iii'«> tlicy
itii|iorl iiroviMJoMH, with the oilu'r ('hiiii>N« jMirlM to
the N, iiikI S„ mill with Simii, .liivii, Siii^aiMirit,
the Siio-liHi isliiniN, Ai: Kx|HirtN to I'tirciKii coiiii-
trii'N, ten, mill nilk ; iiii|MirtH, rir<>, Hiipir, runi|ihor,
Ai; III iHti'J till- iniiiilx'r of HriliHli vchhi-Ik ciitcr-
iiit; till' port WHS — Nti'itnicrH I'Jti; Hiuliii){ vckhoIh
!>7; total tonnaK<'< ^'(■■'ll'.i. 'I'htt niiinhcrof foroiKii
vosimOm, other than llriliHli, wiut '<!til ; tonnage,
Ttt.V.tM. Tlu! iHtiinatt'il vahin of the ex|MirtH in
llrllish vcsmcIh, in Spanish ilollarM, waH 2,<lt)'2,<)'l!i
(:t<.Mi,2-.>()/.) ; ini|N>rtM, in SpaiiiHh ilollarH, it/i!) 1 ,1)2 1 .
'riiere hail Ikm-ii a very j^rcat il«'(.Ti'aM<! in the traile
as coinpaml with IHIHI anil l«til, owinj,' ••hielly to
the hravy exactions levied liy liieal aullioriticn.
(('iiiiMiilar Iteports.)
AMI'l'INtJ, n villaKo of Ilavarin, fl m. W. by
N. Miihlilorf. A i^rent hattle was fou^'hf in the
viiiiiity of this vilia^ce, on the 2Mth Septemlier,
l:)22, hetweeii Louis, duke of Kavaria, eni|)i<ror of
<ierniaiiy, and Frederick, arehdnke of Aiistria,
when the latter was entirely defeated and made
prisoner. (I'letlel, anno l.'!22.) It. was from this
point, also that Aloreau commenced his famons
retreat in I Ml 10.
AMl'LKITIS, a town of France, dep. Itlione,
J!» m. W.SW. Villefranche. Pop. 5,:U I in IWll.
It luiH niannfactnruH of linen nnd cotton, particu-
larly the latter.
AMI'TIIIMj, n m. town and p. of England, co.
]k>df(ird, h. ItedlMirnstokc, 4/>A m. NW. London.
I'op. 2,011 in IKtil. It is neatly liiiilt, has a cha-
rity Kchool for li) poor children, and an hospital
for 10 poor men and women. Ampthill I'ark, a
niii<;ni(icpnt mansion, the property of Lord Hol-
land, is Hitiiated a little to the W. of the town.
AMPUIMAS, a town and castle of Spain, NE.
|)art of (.'atalonia, on the Llohre^rat, near the sea,
24 m. NE. (Jerona. Po]). 2,r)00 in 1857.
AMlfAN, a walled city of Arabia, in the Dsjc-
bel, or mountain land of Yemen, Wmg the chief
town of a district of the same name; lat 15° 82'
N., loll},'. 'i;J° iW E. ; 25 m. NW. Sanaa, anil 104
NE. Hodeida. Pop. unknown, but may probably
nmonnt to from 1,500 to 2,000. It stands near a
mountain, in a fertile country, in the centre of the
coffee lands, the dcj). to which it gives name bein);
a ])art of Haiichid-u-]{ckel, one of the most noted
divisions of Yemen for the >;rowth of coftee. Ara-
ran is not, however, politically united with the
state of Haschid-u-Itckel, but is under the govern-
ment of the Imam of Y'emen Proper. (Niebuhr,
Des. de I'Ar,, par. ii. pp. 127-220.)
AMKliTSIU or UMKITSIK (Pool of Immor-
talltu), a town of the Punjab, India, the holy city
of the Seikh peojile, 44 m. E. Lahore; lat. 31°
aa' N., long. 43° 38' E. Pop. estimated at 5)0,000.
It is un open town, about 8 m. in circ. ; streets
narrow ; houses lofty, and built of burnt bricks,
but the apartments are small. Manufactures in-
considerable ; l)ut being situated on the high road
between Cabool and Delhi, and Cachmere and the
Dcccan, it enjoys an extensive trade, and is the
residence of several rich merchants and bankers.
It is defended by a fort built by the Kunjeet Singh,
who united it to the Kavee by a canal 34 m. in
length.
i'he town derives its entire celebrity from its
being the principal seat of the Seikh reUgion.
Aniretsir, or the Pool of Immortality, is a basin
135 paces square, built of brick, in tlie midst of
AMSTERDAM
which U n temple, eoviTed with ' bimdshod ({ii|,|
(Hiirnrt), dedii'Mted to the warrior Hiiiiii tiiH.^,,
I iiiviiid Singh, the principal fniinder of the ri'lit;i<,|,
and power of the Seikhs. Within this Ii'iii|>If i,
jtreserved, under asilkun raiiop\ , the (Irinlh Siii,,!,
or sncred Imok of the Seikhs, U'ilig a eiHle nf !„»]
and ordiiiaiii'es, priiieipally eiinipiled by tluMilkit,
sainl. 'I'he temple is attended liy a nuini'riiii»l«a|v
of priests, who are supported by the voliiniiin'
oll'i rings of the devotees Ity whom it is frei|iii'iiih|.
ImmerHion in the sacred pisil is iM'lieveij \,\ ii,,
Seikhs, and many tribes of Hindoos, to I'mriiv
from all sin.
In 18 Ki a treaty was signed at Aniretiilr,
wliii'h the territory enniprised lietweeii the rivir.
Itens and SiitleJ was led to the Itritish,
'I'he total annual value of the iraih' of AmM.jf I
is estimated to exceed 1,000,000/. sterling, il,, |
most important items lieiiig — shawl fahrirs, dIjh
2;i5,<lt)0/, ; cotton piece giHids, 235,tit)0/. ; raw mIL I
I 17,000/.; silk fabrics, 18,(100/.; spices, drii(rH,i;r^ |
eery, and halicrdashery, I'ltl.otto/.; and tea, Iii.ihni/
The remainder is made up of a great vnrit'iyufl
articles, including madder, alum, indign, tuUnn\
sugar. Jewels, and cochineal. The silk nmim.
faciiire is a very ini|H>rtant one at Amretsir, iu< h,;|
as at Lahore and Alooltaii. The raw silk Is Jrji.
ported from Kokand, llokhara, Kalkh, Klmlm. i
Kashmir, and other part.s of Central A.^iu; (»«
Mengikl, and from China liv hoinbay. The ^Tniii't
portion of the trade is with Afghanistan iiinlCin.
tral Asia. Amretsir is the princiiial iiiiirt iiiili«|
I 'un jab for the cotton fabrics of MancliesttT, ili
golii thread of Agra and Delhi, the metal iitcii-i!
of Hindustan, the sugar grown in the HiimiiiiKlin
alluvial plains, and the grain and cattle nf tw|
neighbourhood. Founded about one liiiiulrod ycari I
ago, the town is now the terminus of a rnilwiir |
from Mooltan by Lahore, and the seat nf siini!
and silk manufat^turcs, and is advancing yi'iirlv in I
wealt h and population. It is proposed to coiMnin I
a road from Laliorc to Peslmwur, which willjfrpailt I
facilitate the trade Ijetwecn Amn'tsir and tlip liiti«l
place, through which is the principal trade vithl
Afghanistan and Central Asia. A further impiiUl
will be imparted by o railway lietween Aiiirei-iij
and Delhi in course of construction. (I{c|i(irti/|
Mr. Davies on Trade of Central Asia, 18t;.l.)
AMSTERDAM, a famous marit. and commet' I
cial city of Holland, cap. prov. N. Holland, mid i( I
a district and cant, of the same name, on tliei\|
bank of the Y, an inlet or arm of the ZuydcrZce,!
where it is joined bv the Amstel; lat. 52° 22' l"j
N., long. 4° 53' 15" iC. Being situated in amaril
its buililings are all founded on ])iles driven fn«il
40 to 50 icet into a soil consisting of alluvial (l«-l
posits, peat, clay, and sand. The canals bvwUl
It is everj'w^here intcrsecteil, aiul along which til
heavy burdens are conveyed, divide it into M
islands, and are crossed by about 290 bridges, panljl
wood and partly stone. Its form is that of a cwl
cent or half moon, the honis on either side pi
jecting into the Y, and inclosing the port. Ontifl
Imid side it is surrounded by walls having 20 b» I
tions and a wide diteh ; but its ramparts Imvebenl
]>lanted with trees, aiul converted into public walkil
and boulevards ; tlie only defence of the towncoo-l
sisting in the facility with which the surr()iimliiij|
country might be laid underwater. Itisfruu*!
to 9 m. in circ., and covers a space of nhiiiit |»ll
acres. The Amstel, which runs through tlie citvj
divides it into two nearly equal portions; thattti
the E. of the river being termed the old, and tliiil
to the W. the new city. In the centre and oldesl
portion of the city, on both sides the Amstel, iiil
cluster of irregular streets and canals ; but il»l
streets and canals round this central nucleus ml
AMSTI'IfDAM
11.1
' ImniUlird ^iM'
iiir Hiiitit <i(air<,
|)<r III' till' ri'lii;i.,ii
ill tliin t<'iii|ili' I,
111" (Iriiitli .s'«*i*,
Hf II cimIc iif Inn,
ilnl liy Ihi' n\*,\, I
n iiiinii'riiii!«lii>|t
»y till' vi'liiiiinn I
n it ii* rr<'(|iii'Mii.i|.
« Irt'lil'Vl'll liy llir I
iiuliHiK, III imriit
nt AiiirolKir,
I'twoi'ii tliM rivih
i> MritiHli.
triidf <>l' Amrct-ir
i|)l)/. HtiTlin^, \U
awl fiilirirw, iilHnit
lf».(i(t(>/, ! raw »iH,
miici''*, (Irnxsun-
.; mill li'U, lt»,i»»'(
Ik itu-nt vnrii'ly 4
in, iiiil'ipi. tiiluiiY",
'I'lip xllk mniiii-
nt. Anirclxir. ih«(;!
riic raw nilk i^iu-
II, Kalkh, Kliiilm,
/('iitral Ah'ih; lri.ffl
iiibay. 'I'ln' uri'iun
rliaiiistaii amj IVn.
iiiciiial marl in th*
(if MaiK'lu'StlT, 111?
i, tin- metal iitwiMli
1 ill the Hiirrmiiiilin;
1 iiiul cattle iif iW
it oncluiiKlredywt
■iiiiiiiiH of n rftllvK
,1 tho weat of xlia*!
advniieiiiK yinrly ii
brolMmed to ronstnirt
r, whiiili will (,TPaik
nretHirnndtliolami
miM'iiMil trailc with
A further im|iuU
iH'twcen Aniret<ii
ruction. (heiHirtirf
al Asia, IHt!;!.)
marit. ntitl cummw-
. N. Holltind, ttii<li(
no imme, on the !\
1 of the ZuyrterZw.
ltd; lat.f)20 2-2ir
Hituatcd inamarA
n pile» driven (m
stinR of olluvial lie-
The canals bvwliifk
md along which lil
1, divide it into «
it 290 bridges, partlt
irm is that of a cm-
on cither side p*
_ug the port. On tin
Brails having 20 b»
J ramparts have bM
ted into public walti
mccof thetown(^*
lich the surrounJic?
water. It is fwi*
space of alxi"' '•'"'
ins through the city,
lal portions; that*
led the old, and it*
[he centre and olta
ides the Amsteliii
ind canals ; hut '»
central nucleus «
ri..«ilv rririiliir. nnd pnrnlli'l In eneh other. 'I'line
I .,| llii-r sIriilH. Ilie llriTill. I\i'.\ -iT-i. aixl I'rilli'i'll
lirmhi. «f'' ""' eM'ily lo be liiiili'bed in any nllier
,iiv "I r.i""!"' f'" ''"■''^ It'iiKlb. uiillli. Mini Ibe
runl'iif 10"' elf;.'aiiiM' <if Ibeir biiijiliii;;^. 'I'biy
:,'r,. null "I""" '-* •"■'"•'«• abiiiil -.'Jil (,v{ bniiiil :
!,,i,| iMlJiiwillH the illri'i'linli iif llie iilller Wall of
il,.' lity, ttliii'b it Ibat of a |iolyKoiial cretcciii,
lin,. all Ibe I'"""* IKTleclly Hlrai;,'bl betwccil llie
imiu'iilar [■■iiiil«. Tbe limi^es are lar^e and well
liiill; a eaiial, eniH'X'd by iiiiiiieriuM Nlmie brii|y;i'>
Lii,| linrdiTi'il with lree». rillix duwil tbe lllidijle iif
h iif ihi'^'e str.'ilx, tbe Mpaeet mi luidi siiles
|l«iin: well paved ami ligbled. at it iiiileiil ijir
,;,.,. willi all Ibe iitber Ntreels, 'I'lie |iriiii'ipal
Liii.p«Mri' ill tbe Kalveri Slraal, tbe Nleiiweinlyk,
„„| ilii' WMriiioiK Slraat. Tbe imaiter (i.'eii|iie(|
,\ llie .lews it Ibe illrtie.ti pari of llie Inwii, Many
iii-diit mid ntber.t lH'liiiif;in;{ lo Ibe iiiiiiriTela^-ieH
iiluiliit rellart under the liniitcn of tlir mure iipii-
liiii ; ami a great many rer«ii|e eimslanlly on ibe
iiir, ill I'liiiifortable a|iiirtiiii'nlt Iniili on ibe
ii|,|Nrilei'kt of Ibeir trading vetwels, inure parlieii-
liirlv ilii^e enipliiyed in inlainl iiavlKiilinn. '{'lie
ii'.iM, wliiili are all <if briek, are generally I ur
iiirii'K liigbi inid have ibeir gables Ui llie sir-,'!,
liiiiv ciltlieni are (■iiii«tnii'leil in an elegant style,
III iiinie of tbeiii are Mplendidly lltlecj up.
Of llie public buildings, tbe palaee, fnnnerly
I' «iiiill-lii'ute (ti>wn-b(inse), i:t tbe iiiD.st iiiag-
liiii'i'iit. Il HtiiudH III an open xpaee or sijiiare,
llie Paiuiii. Tbis line Hlriu-lure, regardeil
v ilic hiiteli at tbe eiglilli wonder of tbe wurld.
ini'ted nil a fciundatiim nf l;i,(!.'i!i piles; it i.t
.'fret ill lengtli, '2:io in depth, and I Mi liigli,
rlihive of tbe cupula, wliieli is 11 feel lil;;ber,
iii| Iriiin llie tup of wliieli Ibere is an excellenl
littiif Ibin shigillar city. Willi tbe exeeplimi
ilii' griiiind tliiiir, wliieli is of briek, il is built
tr('i'>tiiiie. Tbe ball-room, represcnled as one
till' liiietl in Kuriijie, is said to be I'JH feet long.
ill width, and !)li in beiglil. Tbe fiinndatiiiii.i
ilio ("tadt-boii.te were laid in llilH, and it was
lidinl in tbe short space of 7 years. .Viiinng
illier public biiiliiiiigs are. tbe exelwinge,
iiinili'd in HilW, and capable of accommoilating
JiHl |icr»(ius ; i\uy hotel iff villi; fnnnerly Ibe ad-
iriltvillie nuiseum, eniitaining an excellent
lirliiin nf about .'idO |iiclures, including wevenil
■tcr-jiicees, |iriiicipally of the Diitcb and Fle-
li M'liiiiil.s; the arsenal, built on the isliiiid of
iicniiiirg: and tbe buildings of tbe sneiety of
i:i Mcritln, having a superb concert ball. Of
rlinrches, that most worlliy of utteutioii, tbe
w Chnreh. was begun in 1 KIS. It contains
111' line niiiiiuiiienis, ]mrticularly one in boiionr
till' brave admiral De l.'iiyter. Tbe painted
windiiws of the (Hil ('liundi, dedicated to St.
rliiilns, are ainong the linest in Kurope. 'I'liere
in all about .00 places of worship, ainong wbieb
>(wtii\ synagogues, the .lews being supposed
jainiiunt to about 1(1,(10(1, The principal bridge
T the Amstel. near where it outers the city,
feet in length by (i4 in breadth, with 11
Ihi's, through wliich large ships jiass. Tbe bar-
Iks, bnilt liy the French, three wcigh-liouses,
two ancient towers, called Imrring toMcrs,
It'ne to be noticed. In 1H22, tbe wareboiises
kinaliylmilt for tbe East India Company being
Ivily laden with corn, their foundations gave
f. and they sunk halfway ihiwn in the earth.
ImonR the literary institutions is the Alhe-
m. or college, with 10 or 12 professors, a good
firy, an anatomical theatre, and n botanical
pli'n. There are here also a school of naviga-
Pj a royal academy of the line arts, founded in
.with 6 professors; t be Amsterdam Institute,
I'll. I.
or So illy nf f'llir }firil!i>\ and n sociely nf I'lib-
lie I'lilily, fiMiinlril on iin i\li'ii«ive miih' In I7h7.
Seliniilt nf Ibi' bi'sl i|i'..i riplinll, fnr the KrilluilnllH
I'dlli'iilinll nf Ibe pimr. lirr fnlllld ill eViry part nf
Ibe Inwii; and iniiriii'linii limy be «aiil In Ih' uni-
versally ditVuted. There are tbree ibealres. 'I'lie
workhniiti's, bos|iiials, iiilinnarles, ibe bniite nf
cnrreetinli, or rasp-boilse, ibe nriibail bnll'.e, Ibe
eslablisbiiieiil fnr widow>, llie Innalie asyluui,
wilb Ibe iiiiinerniit nllier ebarilable e>lalilis|i-
iiieiils, may be cited at inndils nf i^nnd nrder,
cleaiiliiiffs, and ecniinmv, Tbe bo..pital fnr the
old and iinligeiit of bnlii sexes, nil llie (piay nf
the ,\mt|el, is admiraldy I'niitrived fnr Ibe cniii
fnrt ami cniivenieiiee nf its ininaiet. The luiililing
is '.'lid feet Inn;;, by ■.'.'10 deep, and .'t stiirii's high.
It bat galleries and a Kardeii wbere iit neenplers
elljny tile fresh air. There is here, a'ld in nt'ier
Idltidl Inwilt, a flats III' prnviilellt ill^lilillinil.. nr
asyliimt, nliicb iidinit a^ed per-'nii-- nC bntli mx's
nil piiytneiit nf a cniiipiiralivi ly tniall sum. M it-
ters ami iiii..tri ^ses freipi.'iitlv rew aid nil and f.iilb-
fiil servants, bv piiyiie,' fnr tlieir adiiiissinii iiiln mie
of Ihete exeellenl ii|t|ltlllinlis.
The innullit nf tbe canalt npeiiing inin the V
and nf Ibe Amstel are prnvided with stmii'^' llnnd-
gates; and on tbe side nf the Inwii nearest the
sea a new dyke has been (■iiii'-lriieted In ),'iiard
against inumlatiniis, The hMrlnnir it s|iaeinut a'ld
secure; tbe largest sbi|'s ciimiiig elnse In the ipiavs
and wareboiitcs. It Ium reeeiitly been inneli ini-
proM'il by tbe formiitinii nf ilneks and basiftx At
the pniiit where the V jiiins the /liy der /ee there
is a b;ir, called the I'mnpiis, wliieb ciinnot Imi
ernssed by large sliijis unless pre\i'msly liiibtelied.
To obviate the iiicoiivenienees arising I'lniii tbis
ciri'imistance, and the (liingirs and delays nrca-
siiined by tbe .sballnwness and dillii'iilty nf iia\ i-
gatiiig the /iiyder /ee, a ship canal has been
eniistriicted frnin Ainsterdani In tbe Ilelder. Tbis
iiiilile wnrk is abmit .'lOA m. in length: ami being
■-'0 feet !l inches deep, aillilits large ships. Its h'vel
is that nf the highest tides, the niily locks it re-
quires being one at each end: but it has twn sliiicoH
in the intermediate space. It was begun in |M|!>,
and tini-hed in \H->,'), at an expense nf about
1,(100,00(1/. The dues are moderate: and it has
been nf the greatest service to Anislerd.iin, by
giving it, as it were, a decji-watcr liarbonron the
most accessible part of the Dutch coast.
Tbe maniitiiciures of Ainsterdani, iK'sides va-
rious branches of those of wool, linen, cntlon, and
silk, comprise sail-cloth, relineries of sugar, bo-
rax, sal-anmioniac, sulphur, ^c. : with ilisiillerieR
and breweries, tanneries, lobacco-manufaetnries,
imn-fnuiiileries, rope-walks, snialt/.-works, gjis-
works, soap-works, nil mills, A-c. Sliip-bnildiiig
is extensis'ely carried on. The art of cutting
diamonds and other stones liir tbe lapidaries has
here attained to great perfection. About 10,000
]iersons, !t,(IOO of whom are .lews, are engaged in
the trade, and the annual value nf the tratlic in
)irecious stones ainoimts to .'")(),00(»,000 tlnrins.
.lewcllery, gold lace, itc. are also largely iiroiliiced.
Hut Amsterdam is far more distinguished as n
trading than as a manufacturing city. Through-
out tbe 17th century, and the first half of the
I Hill, she was what Kondon is at present, the me-
tro|M)lis of the commercial world, ( Jradually, how-
ever, ]>artly in consequence of the o|i|iressiveiiess
of the public burdens, but more, perhaps, of the
growth of commerce and navigation in Knglaiiil
and other countries, she lost the greater part of
the carrying trade, which she had neany en-
grossed, at the .same time that her lislieries and
foreign trade progressively fell off. During t\\'.
subjugation of Holland by France, her colonics
I
114
AMHTKUr)A>T
'
Ml in»o tht> hniDli) of I'.nulimil, hrr >«l(l|m ilixip- I
|M>ari'<| rriiin ilif m'h, ami iId' irailr i>l' AiimtiTiliini
Will) aliniiKt ntiiiiliilMli'il, Itiii iiiiiwilli'liiMiliiiK
Iht'Mi' iiiitiiwiiril I'vi'iitH, mill iIiim xitrlioiin lo wliii'li
hIk' wjim ri'|M<itlri|ly niiIiji rii'il, xlii' |iri'Hi'r\t'i| lirr
iiiilii^lrv mill II vaxt aiiiniiiit nC fapilah ami ii'>
niiiiiii'r hail |H'ari' In'i'Ii ri'Mtiiri'il mill llnllaml IiikI
riM-iivi'ri'il a |K>rliiiii uI'Ikt nilmiifit, iliaii ilic ciiiii-
iiirrri' of AiiiHiiTilarii U't^nn ra|iitlly to liitTcaMi' ;
ami rliniiKli Hiill far nliorl of Iin amiiiil iiii|Hirt
aiiri', il m now of vi-r> i-oiiMiilcrnlilit ^xtriit uml
Vllllll'.
Tim iiiiiMirlt |irlnci|inlly ronniiit of mi^nr, coftVt',
NjiirrK, liiliai'i'ii, riitliill, Ira, llnliKo. < llllK'Hl, wll«'
niiil liraiiily, wiml, ^'riiiii oC all -uirti*, tiiiilHr, piU'li
ami tar, lii'in|i ami Max, iron, IiIiIi'n, liiim, niltoii
ami tviHillm nhillH, liarilwart-, mrk niiIi, tin jilaii'S
loal, ami ilrinl IIkIi. 'I'Ih' <-x|HiriM I'liii.xiHl parlly
III' till' iiniiinri' III' lliillaiiil, iiarlly ol' tlif |iriHliiri'
III' liiT |iiiNHi'«HionH in llif IminI iiihI Went liiilii'M
ami ollu'r tro|iical cunntrii'M, ami partly of rotn-
iiiiiiliilcN liri)ii(;lii to AiiiHti'nlain a^lo a I'lmvi'iiii'iit
riitrr/mt I'riini ilitViTrllt plirtM ol' I'liiriilNi, ( tr till'
llrMt I'laHH an' I'liiM'Kt' ami liiittrr; iniuliU'r; clover,
rape. Iii'iiip ami llax smln ; rnpr ami liiiHccil oil*:
Ihiti'li liiii'ii, iVf. (ii'iit'va il* prinripnily I'xpnrti'il
I'mni Srliit'ilitni uml Itoltcrilani (no Ii"*m lliiiii
.'MMi.OiMi lam-H wen- iliMpatiliiil to Aiixtraiiii in
I >«!'.') ; oak liark principally rnnii the latter. (H
the Hceoiiil cIiimh are xpicex ; Mocha ami .lava cof-
fee ; Hii^ar iif.lavu, llra/il, amICiilia; cocliincal,
inili;;ii. cotton, tea, toliacco, anil all NortM of caHterii
ami coiiiniiil proiliictH. Ami of the lliinl cI.'imm, all
kiinls of ^'raiii ; lineiiH fniin (icrinany ; tinilieriiml
all MiirtHof Haltic proiliice; SpaniMli, tierniaii, ami
l''.ii^Mi.-*li wooIh ; rremli, Itlienixh, anil Hungarian
wiiieK, hranily, A'c. The trade of AinMlcnlani may,
imieoil, lie liaiil to coinpriMe every article that
«'iiterH into the coniinerce. of Kiirope. The total
value of the iinporlH anil ex|Mirts are respectively
cMiniateil at alimit :i,oiM),il(l(i/. or I,(I(MI,imhi/. From
ti'JO to '2>'lii lar^e MliipH U'loii^ to .Vnixtenlam, eni-
iiloved ill the trailu to the K, ami \V. Imliex, the
Itattic, vVc. Then? in little coastiiifi traile; the
commin.ication with ino.it other |)iitch towns
licin;; principally kept up liy canalri anil niilwayH.
'I'lie total nnmlierol Mliipi of all wirtH entering; the
port ainoiint.M, at an averM^,-e, to alHiiit 2,"J0ii n year.
In IHti'J only l,72o vesne Is entered the port, ii con-
Hidenililo decrease from the pn'cedin^ year, Ain-
witli
mill, ill iMfll, to mviol. .VolwuhMnniliiiB ih,
lily U Hiirniiimleil on all Nii|f< wi'l' tvater, ami n,.,.
the Kreatot care and nitinil' tin> nijiiiri'd i,
pn'M'iit itM Im'Iiiu iiiiliiner((i'il, ii Inlxinrit uuilir,
loial want of xpriii^ wiiter. I'lic Malir in it
riNcr and canal" U'liiix liltliy. tirarkiHli, miil i,,|,,|;,
iiiilll for iM'. the iiihaliitantx an' partly >ii|i|,h^|
liy mill water can'fnlly cnllected in tmik», tni i
partly liy water liniiit{lit in a peculiar ilcrirnpiimi
of liarp'i* from the Veclil, tl or 7 m. iliNlaiil. |i>. |
"pile thi" want of ({inmI |Hiiiilile water, the hinn,
ilily of the alinimplnre, and the ellliiviaKi'iiinil*! I
in warm weiithcr i'mm the w iter of the caiiiil., i|,
town i.i fn'e from eiiideiiiic conlerN, and iIh' n,
haliltanl" an' healtiiy and ioIhikI, Mimi |>rul,.|i.|, I
tlli't if* owiii^ in a coilKldernlde de^^ni' to ihv ,-vai.
fortalile ninilc of living ol Ihe hulk of thr \»;,y\r
the pri'valence iif cIciiiilineKM, in will' li llic llm,;,
an' Hiiperior lo all oilier iialioii'*; and ihc iihonrri
of extreme povcrtv and deniitiilion.
The tolcialion tliat pr> vailMiit Am"terdnni<
honour to the peoiilc and the Kovcrnineiit, 'Hir|.j
i" hen' every vanity nfKcct; liiil they arc cli.ii,.
uni"lied liv nothiiu' "o much as l>y their ali-tiimh,
fnmi theolii^ical di-«'ii""ionN, and !iy their ii|i|iiiM:
n'Npecl for the opinioiiH of other". 1 1 hum n ;
however, he inferred that the tolcratlnii iaI.iih,
hen' and in the n'nl of llollaml — a lolcriitinii g
!■ c| in _/!«!■< iiH'vell a" in law — has its nriciii inaul
.JiKrec ofapmii_, . illi respect lo n'Mnimi. dn
any irn'liKions tendencies mi tlu? pari of llii'|a..
pie; such a concliisiiiii would lie utterly errniii.ijj
iienerally sjH'akiiiK, the Kollanders, wliiiii'viriiirT
he their particular n'lif;ioui* pnifi's>ioii, mv tin|
helievers, and devilled to the practice nl' |iir:i
This virtue pervades all classes of smicty, .\it.|
stenlam for a>;es has lieeii ii 'city of rrl'iiL,'!'
the oppn-ssed mid |H'rseciited of all iiatiiiii*: irtl
iherein lies one of the main causes of its wcaliil
ami pmspcrity,
III every part of Ilollund, hut no wlicrr imcl
than at Anistenlam, do we llnd pniofs uf iIm'
nishiiiK power of in^'iiuity, industry, iniil |Nr«^i
I veraiice. This ^reat city is not i: I'ly liiiiliiiiil
niarsli, liiil is constantly exposed lo tlie rl<U|
Ik'Iii^ overwhelmed liy the iiillucnce of liiuli li.ifil
and storms. Itiit this danger has Im'cii I'tVi'itiuST
pnivided against; and the waters liy wliii'li ili|
city is all hut sumuindeil, niiil wlijcli iK'uiiniil
every one of its streets, nro under coiiiplcto »l
tml, mill made to coutriluitc to the coniliirt tC
nccomintHlation of the inhaliitnnts. The vitt
fit'
sterdam has re^ilar sttMiin coinmunicalion
llarlin^^'ii, iluinliur)^s London, and Hull, and is
connected liy railways with the lla|riioy liottenlum, 1 necessary for the piihlii! safety and protwti'in
ttiul Aniliem. The trade of Anistenlam is chielly j (|uire, however, to Im) watched over with iiniw
with Australia, ,lava, (iuinea, .lapun, ('liili, Kin: vifrilance; uml a lar^e annual ex|M'iiditiiri' i'
(l<! hi Plata, the Mediterranean, Sweden, Norway, \ ciirred in keispiii)^ them in tfoml repair, ami
tlie Haltic, and the While Sea. The trade with
Kn^land is decreasing;.
The merchants of Amstcniam were formerly
most nxtensive dealers in hills of exchange, and
in nil sorts of funded iiroperty and ^overnnu^nt
securities; but London is now, in this res|H'ct, far
Hii|KTior to her old rival : the latter, however, still
enjoys a lurt^c share uf the exchange business of
the (Jontiiient, and many of her capitalists arc
larjje holders of foreign securities.
The old bank of Amstenlam, founded in 160!),
and so celebrated amoiij; the moneyed institutions
of the iHth century, ceased to exist in I "!>(>, on
the invasion of Holland by the French, The pre-
sent bank of the Nethcrlunds was established in
1814, Insurance business is extensively carried on.
Amsterdam is scarcely more populous now than
it was eifjhty years aj;o. In 1785 the |)op. is said
to have amounted tu 235,000. It had declined in
1814, the epoch of its greatest depression, to
180,000; and it amounted, in 1841, to 211340,
dredging and ideuring the |Hirt and cinialK.
Notwithstanding the superabundance nf vriis
there is not, owing to the tlutness of the Mli
single water mill in Holland. There are, himtiif
immense iinimliers of wind mills, eniiiluvdl
(piently to pump up water from the low j.'muw
as well as. to grind com, and crush seciln. Tin
is a larp' windmill ou every one of the lia.«tiM|
by which Amstenlam is surrounded.
Amstenlam has been sometimes called the V|
nice ot the North ; and in respect of nitnaM
numbir of canals, and the niagniliccnee nfii
public and private edifices, it certainly U'lirsavd
strikijig resemblance to the Venice of the S«r
Hut ich of tliese. great cities has, notwithstiimlii
a perfectly original and distinctive chariu'tor.
Ill the 12tli century, Amsterdam was uiiljj
snuill lishing village ; in 1482, it was fortiliotl. -
tli«" outset of the revolutionary stniggle with Si«
tl'r Duke of Alva having expelled the I'mteifl
In. in the city, and committed the governiiccil
AMMTKKDAM IS].\S])
l„.„|„ii( t'lillKilirs it Mi|i|M.r|..| I'.if a Irii^tliiniil
i^rii"! lliriiiii""' "I 'li" Nuiiiiiinl' ! inul i| u.i< iml
I till |.i7»< lliill It Ji'iiiicl til iilrili rill ion. I''riirii
, i'|i4x li II Ih-|XiIII ril|>l<llv III ilirri'MX'. I'lic IIIukI
ANAM on ANNAM
IM
till
mill'
,.|r toli'riltiiiii Ix'illU K^*l<l*'<l til nil Mt'i'ln, ll
IhiiiiiiH 1111 ii'.vl'i'" •"f III"""' ilrix I'll liy |»r«i'riitiiiii
|iy,,,„ ll tlnr liiSMii III' till' (.iiw ( 'iiiiiilrii'" inul
,|.i«llirr. rili'r|ii>(llK ll|> III' till' Si'liclilt, ill It'ijX,
ll,,ii,(,rri'il till' uri'iiti'C |iiirt nl' tlii' Iridi'iil' AiituiTji
III. ViiniiTiliiiiK iiii'l riii-u'il llii- liillcr III till' lii^iii'^i
llH,'li"r|in.-|'''''">'
AM>III;I>\.M ISf.AM). n dMinli lull n iimrk
liil.jr i-l.iii'l ii' ••"' ^- l""<li'>'i ".M'liii, liil, .'17 J IT' S.,
,inr, ;r,'j ."i I' I'!., Iiiiiitf i\ III. ill li'iiKili, liy •.'4 in
||,f,.i^|ili,iuiil 7<HI I'n't liiijli. ll it iili\ iiiii-l\ III' vol
i.iiii.' rHriiiilliiill. A liir;^'r |iiirliiill it iii'ril|iir.l liy
tliiit liii' iiiiiliiiilili'illy Ih'i'II 11 iiiiiixnillri'iil rriilrr;
,iil ilii' ten liii\iiiK iiiiiili' nil imi|iliiili into mii' nt'
|i. .jili's it ii iHiw riiinrrli'il iiilii II rirriilar liiir-
Iniiir, ilii' ■xily iii'i'i't^ililr mil' ill till' itliiini, 'I'lif
Lirliii'i' i'< |'M'>'y^^ll•'^■' li^lit iiml x|Hin^y, iiml in
|i,iri. liiiniinK I'"'- TIhti' iirr scvrriil Iml Kpriii^H,
Mniii; ti'inpiTiiliirrt varyiiii,' rnnii hi)0 |.'hIi, t,, tlii<
biiiliiiL: jxiiiii : >vltl> ll>*' I'M i'|iliiiii III' a nIm^jIi' rlin
^vU'iiii' tjiiiii^', having' a triii|H'nitiin' nt' 11'."^, all
<|iriiiu'< ill till' itiiiiiil ari' liriirkiNli, Sniin' uf
ll,' hill >|iriii>;H iiri' kh near llir walrr's cilur, that
I i> iin i'\<i^';;i'riitiiiii III alllriii thai lith taki'ii u itii
mir liiiiiil iiiiiy ll)' linili'il with till' iithrr ! Ihv
lirrniiiiiliii;,' "I'li" KWiinii with varioiii fiiccit'snl' ijul.,
liiriuiiliirly with rriiylitli. No Iri'rs ur ntlirr Iriiil-
liiirin^' |iliiiit, iiiir i|iiailrii|i('ils, nor iaml-liirils, an>
!,Miiil nil tills i«liuiil; hut it in ri'oiirlt'il to liy vait
lintilicrHiir M'ti-liirils Snils anil rra linn-* nlmiinil
ll ii'i >liiiri"< inul ill lh<> ailjniniii^ m>ii, u liirh niaki'M
I lie iM'rii-liiiially visitnl hy Mlii|is ('n;4;ll^,'l•ll in fliii
kill rblury. It was ili-MMivrrnl liy a hiilrli iiavi-
litiir, Van Vlaiiiin;;, in Hi'.Iti, ami wnt viMiicil hy
|r. Ilarriiw in I7i>.'l.
.\.\|sri;i;i>AM. NKW. a timn ami hnrhoiir <il'
Aiiii'ririi. l'!iiKli-<li (iiiianii, near the in. nf tlm
kMic riviT. i'liji. I.T.'iO ill l^<•il. Itcin^H'niinilcd
ilic Diitrli, it is liiiilt in tlii'ir I'a.iliiun, nml in-
l^i'i'li'il liy iniiiicriiMs canals. 'I'lic |iri\ali' liiaiscs
iiuwtly III' wiiiiil, ciiviTfil with liamlHiu leaves,
ki tlu'ctivcriinient nlliees are nl' lirick. anil lianil-
HiicU liiiilt. 'I'lie eiifranee tn the river, in lat.
liit'X.. Illll^r. ri7° ir \V., is defemleil l.y three
H\ Tlieri' are mily 7 feet water mi the liar at
I'lili. Tilt! canals heiii); lilleit ami (aniilied hy
lliiw mill ehh ol' the tide, nil iiiiiiiirities arc
li'jit iilV, mill the health nl" the fnwii is presi'n'cd
Ituitlistmiiliii^ the heat of the (^liinnte.
]AMTZ1;LI,, n villat,'!' of \VHrteinlierK', circ. Dn-
I>o|). l,ai)0 ill IKIil. Theri! in a. tinu old
kilo.
(,\NArAri!I, a town in the XW. onnior of the
nil nf Capri, in the (iiilf nf Naples, on the N.
■ of Mmint ■Siihiro, nearly 'J.IHIO feet aliove the
Id iif tlin son. I'dp. l,ti(!7 in IHIII. The ascent
|il is \('ry utocp, and is clVected hy a stair of .'h>'2
jM'iillcd /(( ncaliimta. It has ii church, ii con-
pt, ami a castle in the nei^hhotirh<K>d : there
I almi two ancient towers, and the roninins of
be fdiliccs, nscrilied to 'I'iberiiis. The prospect
ni tlu! ensile is extensive, and singularly rich
llKwitiful,cominan(liii>; the Tyrrhenian sea, the
Bf of Xii|ik's, and VcHuvius. The inhahitants
li^iil to Ik! much attached to the situation ; and
p. it in ntfirmed, have never descended la sca-
Mii.
\S AdXr, a town of central Italy, 3« m. E. liy
tloiiio, on the railway from IJnine to Na|)les,
'i.iKii) in l«(il. The town sfamUi on a hill,
I has a very line jirosjiect; Imt its interior is
in ami niiserahlc. It is tlie seat of a bisliop-
If"miik'(liii-187,
ANVMiiiiAN N AM il'.tifiiiK )iK),nl*o known
as I'll) iiiN ('iiiN\, i .iiiiiiiry nf A'in enpyiiiix
Ihr I'!. |iiirlinil nf llir );rritl I'). |H'llilli>llhl of S. Axilli
or Iii4iii licMiml till' liantti's, i'oiiiprl'<lii(( I'lK'tiiii
t'liiiia and rmiipiiii (In which only the iiniiie ol*
All until |>rii|ii'rl\ hrlnii^H), with the h). and S, part
oft 'nnilHiilin, ami iiiaiiv Mniall islaiiilt in the < 'liineMi
Sea. It lies lietwi'i'ii n^ I,-,' iiiid 'i;!^ •.»•,»' N. Int.,
and lo.i'^ In MMI" K. hiiii;. ; having N. the Chim-sti
iirnviiici'sof t^imiiK toii^, Ijnnii^ si, and Viinnnni
\V, t.iins mill Siaiii, and in the ri"l of its extent,
the iH'enn. It is !m;,'i in, in len^'ih, viiryin^ in
width frnni tl.'i ni. to lio in. Aren, pmlmlih almiit
'.iM.iMiii H|. in I'op. estiinali'd at from 10 to Ii
inillinlis,
111 iintry is siilHllvlded n* follown; —
1. t'liihin China (calluit DniiK-traoiiiKt or Cenlral
rniinlry ).
riiiiMMim. Uiiciliiii'ii, Nlmtniiiir, I'liiiyeii, (^iil-
lilmii, i.iiiiiimiil, <,iiiiiii^-iiiiii, \\\v.
ClllKl'iiriM. Iliii', till) eupltal (imp, tlO,r>l)il, (VrdC.
/iml), 'I'lunii, Kil(-fii.
2. Tiiiuiiiin (\}it\\;i\'ni\\, l''xtemal eonnlry).
I'lliiViNiKS, Ki'-i'lin, 'riiiif-|ii|i«, Wiil-liik, Siiiw-al,
KiiiK-|iiik,Sliiuk\Viiiii;, llliiu-wliii, Kii-plii^, I ii^>
Hnii,<'lihii/-\vliii,l,ii'iiiiiii iHr.l.n-iiiiiii'.'nil, Hiiljoii^f,
Awkwiiii|(, Miiii-nliiK-eliaii.
CniKi'cmr.s.- A'l -i/m (('aclmn), lAn,iiUi) Inlinliltimt*.
//.((/I, '.^n.iMio liihiililtiiiits.
;l. CnmlHuljn (called Ko-nien liy the nnlives).
I'liiiviNCKs,— Yii-teiijr, Pliitr-roii);, l''ii-naii,Wlii-elienir,
IIii-hIii, 'reiiKcliiiiiK.
ClIIKK-i'llV. Siiy-Koli, JHO.IIOO,
The aliiive lltfiiri''! lire diielly taken I'rnm Cniw-
fiird's '.loiirnal of an Kinlmssy,' one of the liest
Winks on Aiiiini.
MiiMiitiiiiiH. — The principal chain, an nfl'sei from
the llinialaya rMii^i', runs tlirniijL^li the central ami
sniitliem parts nf the cniinlry, fnrniiii;; the W.
Iioiindary nf Cncliin China, and the K, iim> nf I.nnH
and Cainlinil|a. anil terniinnles at Cape St. .Iniiies,
in Int. 10° lii'N. Iletween this ran^e anil the sea,
Cochin China consists of a succession of others,
^'radiially deereasiiiK in lieij;ht as they apprnaeli
the shore, and inclosiii<r a Kr<'<>t niinilier of ferlilo
valleys. These mountains have not lieen niea-
siireil by Kiiropeatis. The summits of the prin-
cipal chain are acuminated, sterile, and most pni-
hahly Kronilic ; Imt their steep sides are clotheil
with extensive forests, and the inferior raiij^es arc
often cultivated nearly to their tops. (White's
Voyage to Cochin China, p. 72; Finlaystin's Mis-
sioii to .Siam and Hue', p. il'i.'),)
I'ln'm*. — Ton(|uin and CamliiMlja are liotli im-
mense alluvial hasins of p-eat fertility, niid tra-
versed hy lar^e rivers : in addition to these, there
are n few small tints arinind the months of the
rivers in the central provinces. The plain from tho
miaitli of the (Juliefiuemme to Cape St. James is
hut little above the level of the sea, and subject to
inundation nt every spring tide.
Hivem, — The Mennm-konj;, or river of Cnm-
boilja, is one of the Inr^jest iii Asia; it rises in tlio
Chinese jirovincc of Yun-nnn, is joined by some
Inrjie streams from Til v,'t, and, running nearly duo
S. through the centre of Laos and Cambodjn, forms,
for some distance, the W. boundary of the Annmeso
dominions, and discharges itself in Int. 9° 35' ami
10" 16' by two principal mouths (the farthest N,
being called the Jaiiancsc river, the S. one the
Onbenuemme), and by many smaller ones. Tho
Sang-ko'i (Balhi) or river of 'f oncpiin, has a shorter
course ; it rises in the mountains of Yun-nan, runs
mostly SE. through Tonquin, passing by Ke-cho,
and falls into the Gulf of Tonquin by two prin-
cipal mouths, between 20" and 21° N. lat. IJoth
these rivers, as well as that of Sa'i-gon (which ia
I 2
m
V*
.l.i
'•■e.i
it
116
ANAM
m
\ \i'-
t| of n mile in width nonr timt iMty), linvn doltfiH iit
liicir inoiitliH: flicy nrr navipilili! f^cncriilly for
hxTi^v HliipM; Inil owiiif; l<> .sitiiil hankti nt lioth its
iiKiiitlis, it is reported that tlic Tonqiiiii river is
nvniiali)(- to none nlnive 'iW) tons hnrtlion, tlion^li
Crawfurd donlits this statement ns respects tlie N.
moutli. ((.'ra^vfurd, Jonrnal, Ac, ]tp. 4.")!t-4(!2.)
Tiiorc are several other considerahle rivers in Ton-
(piin; ns the Li-sin^- K ian^ : alon^ the Cochin
Oliinese coast th.ey are all inucli smaller, and with
n shorter course ; tlie river of Hue' (on which ihc
ra|)ital is situated) is one of the most considerahle.
has n flne estuary, and is navi^^ablc by vessels of
200 tons Imrtlien!
Tjukf* — Ilarltours. — Europeans have dcscriljcd
no lakes of any mapiitude; hut the shores of
( 'Ochin China aboinid with some of the finest har-
bours in the world. From Cape St, Jatnes to the
Jlay of Turon, there are no less than nine of these,
safe and accessible with every wind : that of Turon,
in the opinion of Mr. Crawfurd and others (th<tu;,'li
iidt in that of M. de liuupiinville), is not surpassed
by any in the Kast,
Count and S/iorea, — ^Thc coast here is generally
lM)ld, and presents many promontories, like that of
C. St. James, which is iJdO feet in height; the
]irecipices occasionally alternating with a narrow
sandy beach. The anchorages are everywhere
good ; but nt no great distance from the shores sand-
banks and rocky islands are otU'n very jirevalent.
Geology and Minerals. — The jirimitive rocks, of
which the principal mountain chain is jilmost
wholly c()m])osed, are granite nnd syenite ; the
lower hills contain quartz, nuirble, and mountain
limestone. In the S. provini^es the granite is
seamed in every direction ; on the rounded sides of
the hills it niternates with syenite, and both rocks
arc jienetrated by veins of iron ore: near Hud,
all the hills are granitic, nnd their penks in the
liighcst degree sharp, nigged, and imcovercd. There
is a great diversity of upper soils in the valleys;
some being dry, friable, and sandy ; others of a stiff
clay. The soils of the central provinces are, how-
ever, mostly sandy : those of Tonqiiin and Cam-
bodja are, as already stated, alluvial. Aroun<l their
shores there are extensive and fertile mud-flats.
Toncpiin is the only part of the emjiire rich in
metals ; it produces large quantities of gold, silver,
copper, and iron: with the latter it suijplies all
the country except thc-most S. part. Its mines
nrc worked bv' Chinese, and about 1 00 ]>icuLs (or
17,800 lbs, Troy) of silver ore produced yearly.
Cochin China has no metallic wealth: silver only
is said to be found at Cape Avarella ; Combodja is
poor in metals. It produces iron, but in inadequate
quantity for its own use, and it is therefore imported
from the neighbouring countries to the W. of it :
the central provinces yield salt.
Climate — Is generally fine and healthy, the heat
being tempered in the maritime districts liy llie
sea breezes ; in the winter it is even cool in Cochin
('hina, but in Tonquin the heats of summer arc
excessive, and the cold of \vinter proi)firtioiinlly
severe. At Hue, M. Clmigneau, who reside<l there
for some time, reports tiiat the greatest heat of
stimmcr was 10.'{°, and of the cold of winter .57° F.
During the wet season of August, Mr. Crawfurd
found that the thermometer in the shade ranged
in one day from 79° to 82° F. at Sai'-gon, In the
}S. the seasons follow the same order as in Malabar,
Bengal, and Siam ; viz, the rains prevail with the
SVV, monsoon from May or the beginning of June,
to September : the same takes place in Tonquin.
]!ut in Cochin China, between 11° and 18° N. lat.,
the rains set in with the NK. monsoon, and last
from October till March; the high mountain range
liruteetiiig this country from wet weather by inter-
cepting the clouds at the rnnvprso wnsonnfi^^
vear. Tbegeiu'ral height of the baronicicrni Hu, I
IS 2!('8r)', Immense iinnidations last nomi'timM
for three or four days at n time, Tonquin is ,^1
ject to heavy fogs and violent hurricanes.
Vegetable Products. — The forests oft !<H'|iin Cliin, I
produce a variety of scented woods, as sninlnl, n~.
eagle-wood, itc. The true <'innamon {Ln'trmni
namomum) is indigenous to this country, and valu,,j
by the (.'liinese more than that iiroiluccd in nnrl
other: it is found wild chiefly in dry nnd »ati.|tl
soils. The banks of the- Sni-gon nnd tliomlit, |
large rivers are thickly covered with jiinclc
amongst which are teak, iron-wood {SydentujU
a kind of CaUophylliim, as straight as a Xiimail
fir and well adapted for shi|)s' masts; niaiii,'r.i\v |
&c. In the forests of (Jiu'liin China, cednn*. wj'.
nut, peltry, cocoa, areca, betel, banilMHi, raliai.l
ebonies, and oiost of the products of Itriti.sli Jnliil
Cambodja yields gamboge, the fiiuwt cnnliiniMmJ
aniseed,' areca, nnd indigo; the central prdvimhl
pepper and two sorts of sugar cane ; Tonquin, manjl
kinds of varnish trees, areca |)alins, nnd other vr;^
table produce. Cotton, rice, nnd tlie nuilhcrryiriTl
nre nimost universnl. Amongst tlu' fruit arc ipraii;«|
af a blood-red pulp nnd delicious flavour, haiiain.,r
figs, pomegranates, pine-apples, guavas. Inlm;^»^,l
shaddocks, lemons, limes, and ))lnntaiM, (iiii;.Hl
and spices of various sorts, are nlso iiidi:;('ii.<^l
An inferior sort of tea, with a leaf twice orthriil
08 large as that of llohea, grows wild in the 1
parts of (^uang-ai, and is sold at from (! to 'JOfiimil
the picul, or, in English money, for about n ikiiiii|
a pound.
The coeoo-nut tree, next to the hamlmo, is ilJ
most useful of any. The trunk is used fi)r]hii,|
and shi)) building ; the husk produces cordii^'e awl
cables superior to any other ; the leaves are uvT
for roofing, nnd for making paper, nnd wickorwirrij
the oil for lamps and painting ; the shell fur ciin|
(to,; nnd the nut furnishes both food and drink.
Scenery. — The interior of Cambodja has Vil
little explored by Euroiieans, but its surface i«l*-l
lieved to be covered, in great jiart, with cxitn-inl
forests. The hanks of the river Sai-gon arc w\m\
with mangrove trees, nnd no cultivation a|)|«J!l
until within from 20 to 30 m. of that city, N*
tliuon, the most S, i>rov, of Cochin China, pxtcnil
to about 12° N, lat,, and is most rcmarkalde fwisl
aloes, Nlia-trunff, which succeeds it, is an clevaii^l
and ill-ciiltivateil region, but produces .sill<. Pkt
yen, which renches as far as lat, 1 4°, is the rielwl
and the most highly cultivated and j)coplc(i pii>l
vince of all : it is full of fruitful valleys and jutmt
undulating hills, on which rice is grown in terraos
almost to their summits, and bounded W. h\\»fM
mountains, crowned with towers nnd paf,'ii(las, J
having their iiinnncles enveloped in fleecy cluitiT
Qiii-nhnn is a province of great extent, and nil
cultivated: Quamj-ai and Quiing-7iaii,i'x\m
from 14J° N. to nearly 17°, are nimost cxi'lii.*ivw|
the countries of the sugar cane and the tcairitT
The banks of the river of Hue, thoii;,di hemiiifti|
are more indebted to art than to natim'; il*
abound in ornamental gardens, laid out araon.'S
groves of cocoa, areca, banana, and bamlw, jm
rows of hibiscus. At Turon, and in most nf i^
N. of Cochin China, there is a degree of steril
not met with in the S. ; but the wliolc cwiiitr; ij
apparently inferior in fertility to that of J"is
Tonquin "has been very imperfectly examincil l|
Europeans, but is the most populous pniviMj
therefore, most probably, of superior fertility i
cultivation.
Animals. — The elephant, rhinoceros, tijjor. 1
pard, bulfalo, bear, horse, deer, goat, &c.. im mM
of Anuni. There are no jackals nor foxes; <
ANAM
117
^mc wnson of iU
Imrmiu'tcrnt llw
iH lant Komi'tiiiiH I
Toiiquiii w »uV
virricmu's.
iti*of("iM'liin('liiM|
hIs, iu* Htindnl, n^.. |
imiHi (Lii'iriii m-
;(mntry,niiiivaliiMi|
t pnttiutu'il iu nnyl
iu dry mid sank
^oii mill llio (Ilk I
■rod Willi jungle:
(Mxi {Syde.riwjU.
iii;;lit iiH a Nontsi I
inasts ; niaii;;ri.v..
(Iliiiui, ('('liars, Ma-
i-l, banilio", ratiaii
ctH of llritislilnlii.!
c finest (;arilamim\|
V, central |iriivin«\l
uie; ToiKiiiin.matTl
lins, and other vcL'f.
ul tliP niullK'rrvttffl
,tliefruitar(Mir,iii;«|
)us tlavdur, liananhf
>s, g'iavas. mimi.MiN I
I plantain, (lin;*!.!
are also iiulii;i'iifii\|
I leaf twice nr tliiitl
)ws wild ill tlicli&l
atfr()m('it(i'2tii|iw|
;y, for about a i»nsf|
;o the bamlKio, is M
'link is used (nt \mt'
produces corda^'c aw]
; the leaves are ii<
jper, and wicker ivui:
ifT ; the shell f»r «[-,
oth food and drink,
Camboilja lias m
, but its surface i"!*-
t part, with cxlen.ii?
cr Sai-}:;on are ciivdii'
o cultivation aiii«JB
1. of that city, if*
Lehiu China, exlrat
host remarkable fnrii
ceedsit,isanelev,ii(i
It produces silk, ft
'lat. 14°, is the note
ited and peopled p
ful valleys and },«
icc i.s f^rowii in tenao*
|l bounded \V. by 1»H
>wcrs and \w^n\M
loped in fleecy cl»y
•reat extent, amUJ
iming-nan, extcii't:!
ire almost exelusivsf
,.,ane and thete.it«l
[lu(.<, thonjih lieiiuii«|
ban to nature; m
^ns, laid out amoiu^
ina, and baml)w,»M
, and in most of 14
a degree of sttnJl
the whole ooiintr))^
itv to that uf >f
leffectly examined !■
,t populous pnjviwj
sui)erior fcrtilit,*™
J rhinoceros, ti!i«!
lr,Koat,&c.,areu.i"j
ckals nor foxes; »
liares Imt a profusion of ntlier kinds of ^anie.
lirciil iiiiMilK'rs (d' iiioiiUcys and biibnnns arc Imiiid
iiillicwoods: line lar;.'(' and iHiwcrfiil species seems
I,, lie peculiar to Ciicbiii China; the ilo;; and cat,
wliicli are also natives, are doinesticaled : elephants
are ii^ed in war. reacocks, |iarMfs, and a variety
111' liiriN of the richest iiluinage, inhabit the forests;
curlews, plovers, itc. tlie shores ; and aipiatie birds
iif all descriptions, the rivers. Allij;ators inhabit
ilie liiri;er rivers; the rohrti-ite-ni/iflli), and several
oilier large and venomous serpents, infest the
iiiiiiiiry. Tlie seas abound with an inexhaustible
,iipply" of lisli, and atVonl siibsisteneo to a large
|i,,riiiiii of the populatimi; amongst the sjieeies
iiro, llic living lish, scorpion lisli (remarkably and
licaiilifully variegated), mango tisli of Ileiigai,&c.,
villi soles, mullets, and many others familiar to
us; shriiniis and cniwlish are very line; and mol-
lu-ca', in large 'ji.ui."''^'"s. arc taken for food.
Miisi|iiiloe.s anil oiler \ .iccts abound iu great
(|iiaiitities.
Tlif I'cnple consist of several racca: — 1. the
Cmliln Chinese and Toiitpihiese, who are similar
ill person, and most of their habitH and customs,
111 the Chinese; 2. the CamlHuljuim, iu jihysical
(|imlitie.s, ni'inners, &c., more resembling the Sia-
uiese; it. the Mol rave, inhabiting the mountain-
iiiis country between (.Jochin (.'liina aiKKJambodja;
believed by some to have been the Aliorigines;
iiaid to be black like the Catl'res, and in a savage
state. IJesiile.s t)ic native races, tliere are 2,"j,00()
(,'liiiicsc, who work the mines and trade in metals
in Toiiipiin, and manj' others wlio are settled in
the oiinimercial towns, but mostly in the N. pro-
vinces. 'I'lie other strangers are chietly Malays,
alniut r),O0l) in the S. part,s of Cambodja, and Por-
tlli,'UCSC,
I'Injxieal Qualities. — According to Mr. Finlay-
fon. a surgeon, who accompanied ]Mr. Crawfu'rd
in his embassy in the year 1H22, the majority of
tlic inhabitants are of Malay origin. lie observes
' that the men average i> feet 2^ inches in height,
which is below the ordinary standard of the Ma-
lays and Siamese ; they are less bulky and clumsy
than the latter, but of a somewhat S(]uat (igure.
Their upper extremities are hmg, their lower ones
short and stout; they are not fat; their muscular
system is large and well developed, lle.id and
face both nearly round; the longitudinal and
transverse diameters of e.ich being nearly equal;
I'lirehcad short and broad, check-bones wide, but
nut particularly salient, chin large and broad ; but
I the coronoid process of the lower jaw has not the
fulness apparent in the Malays and Siamese, and
I ilie atliinty in this respect to the Tartar race is
still less. Kyes rouii'ler and smaller than those
I iif the Chinese and Siamese, more lively and in-
tensely black ; lips moderately thick ; hair on the
scalp copious, black, and coarse ; beard grisly and
thin, and no hair on the cheeks. The colour of
the skin is olive, and very often, especially in the
females (who are sometimes really handsome), the
I complexion is no darker than that of the iuliabi-
I lants of the S. of Europe.' (Finlayson, pp. 298,
■i7-l--378.) They are intelligent, without much
loriginahty or invention; but exhibiting a very
I great ajititude for imitation. Of their disposition,
such conflicting statements have been made by
I those who have experienced cither a handsome or
Ian unhandsome reception from them, that it is
I difficult to come to any conclusion. They are
sprightly, animated, good-humoured, and alto-
Igctlierdestitite of the solemn reserve of the Clii-
jnese; always laughing and chattering, volatile,
Icaprieious and changeable, vain, and endued with
lo'insiderablc national pride. Crawfiird and Fin-
11,'ivsiin sav that thev are iiiild, ducile, and inollen-
VoL. 1.
•«ivo; (iiii Iravcllers have accusicd tlicni uf I'lTniily ;l
alVable, kind, and atli'iilive to strangers; and ilie
lower orders nut rapacious, although a (l('s|Hiiic,
illiberal, and avaricious goveniineiit lias iiiii|ii('s-
tiiiiiably made all wilhiii the iiilliienee of the
(Niiirt the most arrant thieves, Iu iheir manners
and behaviour the Anamc.so are polite and grace-
ful ; but piiiK^lilioiis a'ld ('ereinoiiinus.
Atinniltnrv. — IJice, which is here the 'staff of
life,' forms tlii^ main article uf ciillure. 'i'hereare
,six (lirt'ereni sorts grown; two 011 the uplands,
used for ('(infect iiinery, and yiebling only one crop
annually; the other sorts yield from two to ll,-e
eri/ps a year : but generally two, oik' in April, and
another ill October; or three, where the iniinda-
thiiis have been profu.se. Mai/.c, cotton, yams,
.sweet potatoes, ])iil.se, and fruit, are the other arti-
cles of general culture.
The sugar-cane is cultivated by the (^icliiii
Chinese only, and a very inferior, dark, clayey
produce obtained. Most of the cinnamon thai is
exjiorted is cultivated; tobacco, eaiisiciiin, pepper
of a very good quality in the central provinces, iiri!
other chief (dijects of tillage; no coll'ee is grown,
except in a few gardens near Hue,
Kaw silk is produced in large quantities in Ton-
qiiin and Cochin Cliiiia, The ground is but in-
ditl'ereiitly tilled; near Sai-gon, it is in many
small jiatclies of about half an acre, the rice
grounds being bounded by ditches. Agricultural
labour is almost wholly performed by women ;
they guide the plough, which is drawn by a buf-
falo, plant the rice, build and repair the cottages,
and are entrusted with all the household conivnis.
Their pay, as well as that of labourers of the
other sex, is 1 mas a day with food, or 2 man
without it.
The buffalo is domesticated, and is u.sefiil in
agriculture; the ox is of a small reddLsh-brown
kind, but not used as food, beef not being com-
monly eaten. A small species of goat is kept ;
but sheep are very rare and extremely inferior.
The hog is a very favourite animal ; the breed is
the Chinese, and remarkably tine. At Hue, hogs
are always stall-fed, and seldom suffered to roam
at large. The horse, of an inferior breed, is used
only for riding, being untit for cavtiiry service.
There arc neither asses nor mules
I'oultry, iu large numbers, arc kept every^vhere :
those at Saii-gon are said to be amongst the finest
in India, Gee.se are not so common as ducks or
fowls. The game cocks are trained for fighting.
Food, &c, — The diet of the people is to I'^iiro-
pean ideas often gross and disgusting in a high
degree. Kice, legumes, and lish form the chief
part of their food : but dogs' and alligators' llesli,
rats, mice, worms, frogs and other rei)tiles, mag-
gots, entrails, and putrid meats, are among their
favourite dishes, I'ork, boiled ducks and fowls,
boiled and stewed yams, and sweet potatoes, sugar-
cane, fruit, and much confectionery, corapo.se great
part of the rest; and tea, and rice-whiskey (of
which a great deal is drunk), compose their usual
beverages, Fish-jiickle is their favourite condi-
ment, into which nearly ever3' morsel they eat is
plunged. Elephants' flesh is eaten only by the
sovereign and nobility. Milk is not used at all,
and eggs are not valued until they are rotten, or
nearl}"^ hatched. They t.ake two meals a day ; one
at 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning, the other at
sunset. These they take in the open air, generally
in front of their houses, and eat with chop-sticks
tipped with ivory or metal, porcupine quills, and a
pottery spoon.
The tobacco that is grown is all used in the
country. All the men smoke, and, as well as the
women, chew betel and arcca, which either they
*i3
!J?t M
m.
118
ANAM
n
m
m
or tliiir attonilanU (if rich) iilwnyt nirry witli
thorn ill lioxcs or Inrno purMOM for th(^ oxjircsH jiiir-
posf. In tlicir jicrsoiis they (ire extremely dirty.
liDtwithstaiuliii^ llieir freipieiit nlihilimi ; tlieir
uiiilur /,'iiniiaiitM iirLv lu^ver waslied nor elianpMl
until th(ty dro)! to jiieces; tlu'ir nails are never
cut, their len^itli Ix'inj; an indieation of rank.
Arh and Miimifiirtnres. — The inferior dweilintjH
consiMt of mild walln, tliatched or covered wilii
liamboo loaves; the hotter sort of houses are of
wood or hrick, and tiU'd, hit tho lirieks an; only
haked in tiio sun, and j;lazod windows arc un-
known. Tiio huts of the peasantry near iSai-j^^m
consist of wattled iloors, raised ahnut 'A or •! feet
ahovc the ground, and contain two or three coin-
partinents, one of whieh is a coniiuon room; in
the others ihc family sleo]t on mats on a kinil of
raised platform, ranged around the walls. The
ordinary furniture of a cottage cotisists of a co-
loured matting for the floor, an eartluTn stove, an
iron rice-)>ot, and sfmie verj' rmie porcelain and
other earthenware articles.
The art in which, above all others, the (Jooliin-
Chinese excel, is that of ship-building. Their
vessels, the construction of which, were it not for
tlicir rude materials, would not disgrace l'',uroi)e,
are built of from h to 100 tons burthen, but mostly
between IG and ill) tons; shaq) at either end, ami
the deck one-third longer than the keel. Their
bottoms mostly consist of wicker-work, covered
on the outside by a coating, ,J inch thick, of */«/</«/,
a close and durable mixture of jutch, oil, lime, Ac.
The sides and deck are bound together with cross-
bulk heads ; and as the larger vessels usually be-
long to a joint-stock company of merchants, there
arc as many separate holds ..s owners. The lish-
ing boats and others, .50 feet in length, are made
of 5 long planks extending from stem to stern,
their edges morticed, tightcnied with wooden pins,
and boiiiuled together by twisted bamboo fibres : at
each end they are raised much higher, and jiaintcd,
gilded, and ornamented with ligures of ilragous
and serpents. They often carrj' a covered cabin,
built like a house U])on the deck ; from one to three
sails of matting, which in the N. provinces are
often square and more like tiiose of Europe ; a
wooden anchor with one fluke, shrouds and cables
of rattan, and cordage of coir. During the unfa-
vourable monsoon, the boats arc taken to pieces,
and the larger vessels dra^ni up on shore to some dis-
tance. The mode of rowing is by pushing, and not
pulling, the oars against the water (White, p. 'J0!1) :
when there are many rowers, they push in regular
succession, beginning with the one at the stern.
The government rowers, who are selected from the
army, are paid but 1 quan per month. The boats
that ply for hire are chiefly conducted by women ;
but the very unfair and ungallant custom prevails,
that the men pay no fare, they being all supposed
on govomnicnt service. They have no wheeled
carriages ; but people of distinction are carried in
a palanquin, formed of a cotton net hammock,
with a mattress and pillows inside, covered by a
large varnished canopy, in form like a tortoise-
shell ; the whole slung upon a long pole, and car-
ried on the shoulders of two, four, or six men.
In most manufactures, the Anamese are very far
behind, and are superseded by the Chinese, from
whom they derive most of tlieir useful articles.
Sword-handles with very good filagree work, boxes
of lacquered ware, inlaid with pearl or gold, purses,
matting, baskets, coarse silk, and very durable
cotton stufis, bells, cannon, iron nails, scissors of a
rude kind, varnish, &c. they can make ; but they
cannot temper iron or steel, print calico, or make
a matchlock, and depend for all their arms on
European nations.
Tinih: — 'Hie (liineso are the butchers, tai!(l^,
confectioiK^rs, bankers, money-changers, luid |i(,|!
Iiirs of the ein|iire, ami are met with in nil ih,,
to\ ' s with an ehislic (lole across their sliijiililif
Mn>, .It either end a baski't containing tlieir wan,]
In the bazaars, gilt paper, fans, porcelain, dni^'J
and other ( Ihiiiii produce, tools, necessaries of liiv^
and the other articles yielded by the country, ap'
sold. Provisions are cheap. Mr. Whiti' Vdiiii,!
that, at SaV-gon, |)ork was.'! cents per Ih.; 1h-(.|;
•I c. (Americ.) ; fowls, 50 cents per dozen; a lii,,.
deer, \\ dollar; rice, a dollar a picul (i;!;; Hu
I'Jig.) ; shaddocks and lemons, 50 c. per liiiinl,;
oranges, ,'10 c. jier liiind. Tea of Hue' is siili|j;i
boats on the rivers, as well as vaniish, wliidi,
with other combustilile matters, is not allowwl i,,
he kept on shore, and the varnish niereliaii|.i
live constantly in their covered houses, liiiiltun
bamboo rafts. The foreign trade is coiii|iara-
tively trifling, and almost wholly with the, '.'lii.
nese; verv little with the Siamese or i;iiri)|«',iii<,
Erom 2(1,000 to (10,000 piculs of sugar: -.'."iimhi'i
to 80(1,000 lbs. of true eiiinainon, not freed fn.m
its epidermis, at .OO to (50 quaiis per pieiil ; ."p.iiiiii
jiiciils of aniseed from Cambodja; raw silk at :;',
to (plans the catty ('JJ lb.), 2(10 piculs fnjin I'af.
foo, (!0 p. from llui', and 1,000 p. from Caclian
annually; cottons superior to those of lieii^'.il:
areca, s|)ioes, cardamoms from Cambodja, IjdV
lard, scented woods, rice, eilible bin' " ne^ts. ainl
molliisca>, and the precious metals, tjiC ex]i(irt(-,!
toChina; gamboge, red dyeing wood froniTimqiiin,
ivorj', pearl, horns, hides, gum-lac, gohl-iliisi. ,nii,i
other metals in smaller quantities to other jiartsi!'
the world. AVheii Harrow -wrote, sugar at 'I'limi
fetched .'t dollars, jieiiper of Cochin China (I ton
doll., and rice half a dollar the picul of lU;!Jlli.,
llritish manufactures then sold usually at 20 tii,;'i
per cent, profit, and were paid in silver iiii,'iitj.
Ko-cho was formerly the centre of the Y.nAm
tr.ade, and at the end of the 17th cciitiiry the
English and Dutch had factories there, whence
they exported largely.
The imports are chiefly manufactured silks,
porcelain, drugs, a great quantity of gilt ]ia]Kr.
and line teas for the upi)er classes, with lunisiiioM,
&c. utensils from China; spices, saiidal-wo(nl,aiiil
tin, from IVfalay ; opium (which is, however, prii-
hibited) from India. 150 chests annually, 2-onlsii(
which arc coiisunicd in Tonquin ; cottons itm
Canton and 8inca|)ore (but none of a variety !■(
colours in the same piece, nor chintzes) ; l!riii>(i
woollens, chiefly scarlet, some yellow or },T'eeii. |
and all coarse ; a few serges and camlets, iron m\
amis, from Europe ; but altogether aniouiitiii;; |.i
very little. The Cliiiia trade is chiefly in Ke-clin |
Sai'-goii, Hue, and Fai-fo, but the whole scaroiiv
amounts to 20,000 tons annually, being little iiiurt I
than half the Chinese trade with the single city of |
Bangkok, in Siarr
The transport of goods between Ke-clio ari'l
Ilud is facilitated by a canal, 180 miles in Iciigtii.
20 yards in breadth, and almost straight; saiJi.i |
be constructed by the reigning monarch in IMi;
near Hue it is used for irrigation as well as con-
veyance.
Weiyhts and Measures. — The picul is about 13oj I
lbs. Eng., and divides into 100 catties, each oquil
to ] and l-3rd lb. ICiig. A bag of rice wcij,'l:s >'
catties. The current coin is the sepeck, c<i«t ai I
Ke-cho, of a compound brittle metal, eallc.l h- 1
tenagiie, the base of which is zinc. It is about tiif I
size of a shilling, and jiierced with a sriuiire li '
by which they are strung in numbers together, ad I
as they are the only coin used, they form avonf
bulky and inconvenient medium. Aeeount'i jrf I
thus reckoned :—()0 i-cpccks = l mas (5 cciit.-U'i |
ANAM
119
ImtcliiTJ, tnilll^.
iiiiificrM. aiiil iH,|
with ill all till,
ss tlu ir siiDiililir,
iiiiifj tlioir wan^.
port'flain, (inii;<,
U'cc'8Srtri{'-( (if life,
' the country, ar>
Ir. WhiU^ fuuinl
Ills per 11).; Iwf,
jH>r do/on ; a I'n.i.
II piuiil (i:!;! 11^.
i")() (•. per liiiinl,;
of llu(' is siiMiii
H viimisli, wliieli,
, is not allimwl in
urnish nicri'liams
il liouses, lmik(,ii
;riiilr is I'oiiiiian-
illy with lUit rhi-
cs'n or I'airuiioaiH,
of suf;'iir : -J.'in.iHM
lOii, not fri'cil I'lmn
ns per iiiciil ; II.iniii
(Ijii; raw silk at ;i[,
»") piculs IVdin Fiii-
lil |). from Cai'han
thofiP of lieii;,',il;
1 Caniliodja, liii^'r'
lie bin' ■ lu'hts. mill
etnls, >5.i' exi"irt(«.!
wood from Tiiiiqiiiii,
-lac, gold-<hist. aii'l
ties to other iiartsif
)tc, supir at 'fiiMi
jchiu China fi tiiK
c picul of 13;!^lli>,
I usually at -.'U t" .io
lid in silver iiii;"!*.
itre of the l^astra
e 17th ceiilury tlie
;ories there, whence
manufactured silks
mtity of gilt W.
sses, with Iiousi'IidU
Gs, jiandal-wodil, aiiil
di is, however, prii-
s annually, 'i-orils (it
nuin ; cottons from
none of a viirietvuf
ir chintzes) ; UtiiiA
,\e yellow or ffm.
nd camlets, inm aiiJ
tether amouiitin;; u
lis ehietly in Kc-clin. ]
t the wiiole scarocly
jllv, being little iiiuit
'ith the single city of
Ltween Kc-clio an'!
MHO miles in Iciiijtli. ]
Jost straijuht; saiiltn
Ig monarch in 18ri;
ation as well as con-
U picul is nhout 133j
BO catties, each equil I
lag of rice wci|,'lis >' I
I the sepcck, c!i*t a;
Itle metal, ealle.l («•
Izinc. It is abdtit tne I
II with a sfiuare luiie. [
lumbers tosiethcr. awl
]>d, thev form avtnl
Bium. Account' arc I
: 1 mus (i> cciiti-'i. 1«
n]Aii=1 quan (50 cents), the two latter units ore
iiiiiuriiirtfy. A Sitanish iloUar is valued at IJ
iiimii; »ii ingot of silver, at from 27 to "iM ipiuns;
(here are also gold ingots of the same and of double
value, but the currency is subject to very capri-
tidusand roguish changes.
l>uUif Revenues are derived from, 1. a capitation
tax of 1 '""1 l-lf^t'' qiian, paiil by every male
alxive I'.lvearsof age; 2. a land-tax; 3. the crown
iaiiilH. wliieh are fanned by ditterent villages ; 4.
variiius eontributions, imiiostson fonugii trade, Ac.
'flu'se ini]i' sts are small, and there is none on
exported ■mgnr; those in the service of the govern-
iiiiiii are exempted from them. The king has
,i,„iiiipoliei of gold-dust, ivory, and rhinooeros'
litiriis.
The Government is an hereditary military des-
iKitisni, in which, however, primogeiiilure is more
attended to than legitimacy. The sovereign has
the title of Kmperor. The central adminisfratiim
miller liini is conducted by six Mandarins, ininis-
tprs who have charge of the archives, religion,
justice, war, tinance, and woods and forests. He-
sides these, the viceroys of Toiuiuin and Cam-
IkhIju, and the Mandarin of Ekphantu, who is
iirinic minister, and mhiister of foreign atlairs,
have seats in the sujjreme council. Each province
isdiviiledinto 3 departments, called Hit-yen-^ each
(Icp. into 3 or 4 districts, called Tou. The pro-
vincial governments arts under a viceroy of the 1st
class iif Mandarins (or military class), who has 2
civil Mandarins under him; each /iw-wn is go-
verned by two and each tmi by one civil Alandarin :
the villages are governed by oHieers ehuiled by the
iK'asaiiiry, who are answerable for the taxes of
their constituents.
All rank is otHcial, and although in part here-
ditarv. descends a stej) in each succeeding gcnera-
tiiin." Each functionary has jiower to intlict
imiiishment im all inferior to him in rank, and
unlimited obediiMice to this power is disi)layed
anidiigst all classes.
Armed Force. — The royal guard consists of
3(1,0(111 men and «(M» elephants, besides the jiroviii-
cial troops, the number of which varies. All
males are liable to serve, and 1 out of 3 is gene-
rally a soldier. There is continually a levy of
tliiisc l)etween 17 and 20; and those who are
(ihli},'cd to serve, cannot leave the army till age or
iiilinnity coniiKjl them. They are in active ser-
vice for three successive years, and then have
leave of absence for the three next, which they
.s|iend with their families, eni[iloying themselves
ill the till»,i<'! of a small aUotment of land, granted
hy gdveminent to each. The standing anny was
formerly 10(1,000 men; but when Crawfurd visited
the country, it was only between 40,000 and 50,000
men. I'inhij-sou says, ' they arc robust, smart-
luoking troops,' clothed in British s«u-let woollens,
sumetimes turned up with blue or vellow, and
wear a conical helmet of basket-work, lacquered
ami gilt : their other arms are swords, muskets
with bayonets, shields, and long sjiears, decorated
with a "tuft of red horse-hair. Their cartouche
box(», and other accoutrements, bear a similarity
to those of Europe, the defensive arts of which,
discipline, &c., were introduced by the Ereuch
diiruig the last century, who om^j supjdied them
with 10,000 stand of" arms. Miu-h progress was
made in military aft'airs by the Cochin Chinese.
and the late king ca.st a number of caninm. Hue,
^I'i-gon, and some other cities, are strongly for-
tilied.
The Xavi/ consists of about 200 gun-boats, car-
rying from IG to 22 guns, 100 large galleys of li-om
uU to 70 oars, with several small swivel pieces,
and a 12 or 21 pounder at the prow, and 600
smaller gnlleva wimewhat similarly armed. The
seamen art; classed in regiments the same as land
troops, t! of which are on duty at the capital, and
1 at each of the other principal forts, ((.'rawfurd,
p. 4!t2.)
tteliqion, — The religion of the mass of the
people IS a si^cies of lluddhisin ; the u|iper orders
follow the religion of ('onfiicius. Christianity was
introduced in 1024 by the l'ortugues<? Jesuits;
and there are alxnit 42'>,000 Christians in the em-
pire (Crawfurd), viz.: 300,000 in Toii(|uin, 100.000
in Cochin China, and about 2r>,000 in Cambodja;
but they are the most abject- of the )iopiilation,
and possess no |H>li(ical weight whatever. Tlie
religion of the Anamese does not affect their morals
or mode of life. Its ceremonies seem to consisi in
offering first fruits, scented woods, &c. to iibds, in
burning great (|imntities of gilt paper at certain
times, sticking inscriptions on posts, trees, and
houses, and carry ingal tout phylacteries, and other
sacred objects. The Cochin Chinese are verv
superstitious, and endeavour to apfx'ase the evil
spirit more than they venerate the beiieticent one.
'1 hey have jiagodas, and a jtantheon ; but their
idols and temjiles are most coimnonly an image of
the Chinese god Eo, enclosed in a small house of
wicker work, hung up in a tree, or elevated on
four long posts, and approached by alaihler. Their
priests are few, and but little respected by a people
who treat many of their gods with contempt, in
(!hiampa (7V«w/«j). tlie S. part of Cochin China,
Indian and not Chinese gods arc the obj(!cts of
worship.
Mr. White observes, that theft is universal, and
murders not uncoinmon. All travellers agree in
the want of chastity amongst unmarried females;
their open )irostitution neither degrades them in
public opinion, nor jm'vents their beconiing mar-
ried, after which, however, a strict watch is kept
over them.
Jurisprudence. — The police of the villages and
the laws are administered by the village chiefs
already spoken of; in the towns, one of the prin-
cipal inhabitants of each street is chosen by the
rest as head of the street, and is answerable for the
good behaviour of all the rest, over whom he is
an arbitrator. In ca]iital cases, judgment rests
with the governors of the hu-i/en, or there may
be apjjcal from them to those of the province, and
ultimately to the royal coumnl; wln^rc all the
evidence is scrupulously re-adduced. The judges
write and seal their individual opinions separately,
and the emperor himself determines on the case.
Xo distinction is made between natives and fo-
reigners, the latter In-ing under the protection of
the minister of strangers. The several tV.iefs give
audience and receive petitions every day; but
presents to each are necessary to obtain a hear-
ing.
The bamboo is constantly at w(jrk, and the
caungue, or yoke, for other minor crimes, which is
c(niiposed of two pieces of wood 10 feet long, fast-
ened across by two others, and worn somewhat
tightly round the neck. All capital crimes, as
murder, robbery, sometimes corruption (excepting
adultery), arc punished by decajntation : the cri-
minals are brought into the bazar, or public place,
and placed in rows, each oi)posite a placard, de-
claring the nature of his crime: then, with one
blow of a two-handed sabre, their heads are suc-
cessively struck otl". Parties convicted of adul-
tery arc tied together and thrown into the sea.
Polygamy is allowed ; the first wife is the chief,
the others being mostly of inferior rank; the
children of all are, however, equally legitimate.
The richer classes marry at 15, the poorer at 20
or 30 j'ears of age, or when they can afford to buy
'h.
u
120 ANAM
11 woninii fVoin her frlcndH; Imt wonion raiiiiot 1)0
nmrricd iiLtaiiist tticir own t'<lll^<('llt. Miirriii^^e in
liiit a vcrlial (•■mtratt, ratiticd 'ty i-xcihaiiKiiiK |irf-
sonts Ix'titro wilncsMOK, ami (lisxolved as readily l>y
merely lireakiii;,' a pair of clioi>-nti<'l<H, or [torcu-
l)iiie qiiillw, lulorc a tliird party. Tlie reinaiim of
tlic dead arc often laid out with mnch pomp under
a ]mvilioii covered with Hilks, and surrounded with
tal)leH of the choicest fruits, and a hand of music
for l.'i day". White jjarnients arc worn, and much
fjilt ])aper is Immt at these times. No native nor
foreigner, if married, is allowed to quit the
country,
AmmemenU, Public Taste, §y. — The Anamesc
are very fond of dramatic representations, which
are performed in pavilions for several days to-
f^etherwiih little intennission, and to which no
entrance-money is re(|uired, the actors depcndinj,'
on vohintiiry contriltutions. The plays consist of
historical operati(r pieces, or of a li^lit and comic
dialoj;ne, interspersed with cheerful airs, each con-
cluding with a common chorus. Their daiu-in^'
and music is in exa<'t time, the latter not destitute
of melody, not unlike some Scotch airs. The iii-
strmneiits in use arc K')nfcs, drums, violins, flutes,
guitars, and trumpetssufliciently harsh an<lKratiiiK;
hut the applause is always in proportion to tlie
noise made. They have some notion of sculpture,
the hest s)iecimens of which are seen on fomhs.
They are foiul of shuttlecock juid footliall, cock
and (piail fi;,'htinf,', the tricks of Juf^f^lers, itc. ;
and the upper ranks of elephant, tij^cr, or hnffalo
hunting, and fireworks, cards and. dice, without,
however, heinij addi<:ted to ^anihlin^.
Dress — Is the same as that of the Chinese be-
fore the Tartar coiuiuest, consistiuf^ of loose
trousers, tied roun<l the waist with a sash ; several
loose frocks of ditlereiit lengths, the upper one
the shortest, and haviuf; long loose sleeves, a small
close collar, and live buttons and loops ; a broad
basket-work hat, or a turban of crape; slip|)ers
by which the feet are not cramped like those
of the Chinese; hair lon^f, and turned up in a
knot on the top of the head. The dress of both
sexes is alike, only in that of the women the
frocks are lonf;;er, and they wear bracelets and
armlets of pearl, of ivory, earrings, and other
ornaments. Dress is au object of great attention
with all classes,
Lamiuufle, — The language of the Cochin Chi-
nese, like their dress, &c., has been derived from
that of China : it is monosyllabic, destitute of in-
fl(!xions, its written character like the former,
althougli it |)osscsses several elements, as the B,
D, and H, which the Chinese are unable to pro-
nounce. The Cambodjans speak a different lan-
guage, and the [)eople of Tsiampa another distinct
from both. Lit(!rature is confined to Chinese
books, chiefly on modicijie, and the works of Con-
fucius.
History. — In 234 b.c. this country was con-
quered by the Chinese, who held it till am, '2().'}.
In 140() it was reconquered by the Chinese, who
abandoned it again in 1428, In 1471, Cochin
China was complcitely subjected by Tonquin; hut
in 15r)3 threw off the yoke, ami, until 1748, was
governed by both a nominal and real sovereign,
the latter of whom was a military commander
aiuV regent. The nominal ^'overcigns then ob-
tained the mastery, and ruled in the midst of
anarchy till 1774, when, in the reign of Caung-
shung, the revolution of Nhac {Yinyac) and his
brothers overturned their j)ower. Bishop Adran,
a French missionary, the tutor of the late king's
son, obtained for linn the alliance of Louis XVI.,
nnd, with the aid of a few of his countrymen, was
the maiu cause of the restoration of his pupil Gia-
ANCONA
long to the Ihnme of his ancestors, on whicli |,,.
was firmly seated in I8((2. Adran refornicil tl,,.
jurispriiilence, coimnt-nccd [)nhli<' works, survcviii
the coasts, promoted trade, established naval arxc-
nals, and new disciplined the king's army : Imi
dying soon afh>r, many of his wholesome retiiniu
sank into disuse, (iia-long died in 181!), and wn^
succeeded by an illegitimat(' son, who was invcsti.,!,
in 1821, by i\w. court of Peking with the enipift
of Tonquin and Cochin China.
Anam. — TiiK Fkioxch Colony, Before the
French revolution the g(»vennncnt of Louis XVI.
made great endeavours to obtain a foofiriK in
('oehin C'hina, and they were successful for a time,
causing many of the places to be fortified in Y.\u».
pean fashion, introducing Freiu-h oflicers im,)
places of authority, and generally modifying tli(>
government according to ICuropean ideas. In the
beginning of the prcsc'Ut ccntiirv these cliaiij;M
had become obsolete ; but, in |8(!(), a powcrlnl
Franco-Spanish expedition reduced the city of
Saigon, which was made the capital of a iiiw
French colon.v. The territory of tliis colony Odin-
prises the three pro\s, of Dongmii, liicn-lioit, .nul
Saigon, or that part of the country extcndin;;
east of the Cambodia 8"» m, in a direct line, aiii]
north on the Cambodia to 1 1° 10' north, V.'Mm,
along the river course. (See Sakion,) In »t\\v
(piarters in India, the ])osition of the Frendiji
viewed with some concern, more especially ^il|l■(.
the French have rocogniseil the sovereign off jiiii-
bodia as independent, while he is really depciulcnt
on Siam, an empire on tenns of enmit.y witli tht
Bunncse provin(;e of India. The French arc en-
deavouring to attract tlus commerce of the [ini-
vinces of China bounding the Anamite empire' mi
the north, down the Catnbodia river, while l!riii.«li
nu'rchants, both in India and at home, favmir a
scheme to (!f>nstruct a road into these Cliincso
provinces from Rangoon.
AX.U'A, a sea-port town and fortress of F.iim-
pean liussia, Circas^ia, on the NF. coast iif tho
Black Sea, 47 m. SK. Yenikale, lat, 44° ij I' ,rj ,
hmg, 37° 1(>' 21" K, Pop, ex, of military, H.Oiiii,
The fortress, constructed by the Turks in 17k|.
was taken by the Russians in 1791, and in IsiC,
and finally in 1828, since which it has been ili-
tiintively ceded to them. The houses are iiiosily
mere cabins, built of woo<l and mud. The iiilia-
bilants consist of Circas.'ians, Turks, Tartar,
(Ireeks, Jews, Armenians and Hussinns, The |«n,
or rather road, is nearly open, with bad hdldiii;;
ground, and so shallow as to admit only ships ui
small biu-den. Anapa is at jiresent prineipiilly
important as a military post ; but were triiiii|uii-
lity restored in Circassia, it would most likely
become the seat of a considerable connnercc. Tlie
exijorts are grain, tallow, and butter, hides, pel-
tries and wax.
ANCFNIS, a town of France, dep. Loire Info-
rieure, on the Loire, 21 m. EXK. Nantes. \'«\\
4,(!28 in ISGl. It is well built, hits a liandsonie
college, an hospital, and barracks. There arc coal
and iron mines in the neighbourhood; and it liu
a good deal of trade in wine, vinegar, braml.v,
and timber. Its jjort serves as an eiitrei)ot aii'l
station for the vessels navigating the Loire, Tlie
town is commanded by a Gothic castle placed en
a steep hill.
ANCFK'VILLE, a town of Frjince, dep. Alcii*
11 m. SSW. Bar-le-Duc. Top, 2,003 in 18(il.
ANCIIOLME (Isi.E of), see Lincolnshikk,
ANCONA, a marit, city of Italy, on the Ad-
riatic, 17A m, SK, Sinigaglia, 15 m. NN\V. Loreta
and 188 ni. NE, Rome, lat, 43° 37' 42" N.. H',
13° 30' 35" E, Pop, 4(;,OnO in 18G2, of wliuoi
nuiny are Giccka and Mcjhaiumeduns, and exdu-
<, (III wliii'li )i,.
I rct'driiud il«.
orkN, !«iirvpyc,|
IiimI naval arsi'-
\fi'>\ nmiy : Imi
Uwdiio rct'uniu
I l«l!t, niidwiu
no was iuvi'stcil,
nt\\ the vm\m
Y, IJi'fiiro tlic
t of Louis XVI,
ill (I foiitin^' ill
^ssfiil tor II tinii',
brtirti'il ill luiru-
•h otHccrs int.)
y iiiodifyint,' tlio
ill ideas. In \h
y tlicsi! chaii^^'iH
SCiO, a pnwcrl'iil
iced tlin I'ily nl'
a|)ital of a luw
tills colony dini-
«i, liicii-lioa, ;ni4
iiiitry cxlciiilin;;
a direct line, lUiil
1(1' iiorlli, i:>itni.
.KioN.) Ill siniii'
of tlic Frcmli i<
ft especially mim'
sovereijiiiofCam-
1 really dciieiulc!)!
eiiiiiity with ilic
he Freiicli arc cu-
mercc of tlie \>ui-
^iiamite eiti|)ir(! m
iver, while lJriti>h
at home, favmir a
iito these CliiiKs;
d fortress of R«m-
NK. coast (if tlic
,e, lat. -14° ij I' h-r,
|of military, !!,<iii",
lie Turks in 17x1,
|l79I, and iii Ix"".
;h it has hcenili-
Ihouscs are mostly
mud. The inlia-
, Turks, Tartim,
lussiaiis. Tlic \MU
with had hdldiiii;
limit only sliipn I'l
irescnt principally
but wore traiKiuil-
[vould most lilitly
lie commerce. The
butter, hides, inl-
\c, (lep. Loire hifo-
kl-:. Nantes, l'"!'.
It, lias a liaiiilstmi*
Ivs. There are t"i
Jirhood ; and it li w
vinegar, briimly,
an entrepot aiil
L' the Loire. Tli<
|o castle placed un
Ifrance, dep. Mciu*
1 -ijOO;! in 18f)l.
LlNCOl-XSIlIKK.
I Italy, on tlie Ad-
• m. NNW. Lorrtii.
|o 37' 4-2" X., y^f'
18G2, of whiiB
Leduiis, and exdu-
ANCONA
..ivc of L**"^^ •^'■"'^ '^'''" '"''"'''t " Hopnrnfp quarter, i
ii JH tlic ^eat of a civil tribunal, of a tribunal of
i,i.j,jii„l jiiriMlictioii. and of a bishopric: is built
,,iiipliitlieatre-w i.-c, on a sloping ground, declining
III tlie sen, between two hills, on one of which
siaiids its cathedral, on tlic other its citadel;
ircctn narrow, dirty, anil irregular; but many
|„„is«>s siMicions and elegant; quay fine; port
tiiriiicd by a mole 5J,(l<)() ft. in length, KM) do. in
lirvadtl'i I""' ''"' '»''o^<' the sea, having at its ex-
ircniitv a lighthouse, with a handsonio revidving
IJi'lit. ' The mole iK'ing hooked at the extremity,
vessels may lie imnie<liately within the harbour in
friini ' to 8 fathoms; but it shoals rapidly, and
viwiH'ls drawing more than to or 10 feet water
sliduld anchor within a short distance of the entry.
There is good anchorage ground about J in. witli-
iiiit the nude, in Ittand 12 fathoms. The harbour
It miiidty imiiroving under the present Italian
..'iivcriiiiieiit, several dredges of late ycar.( having
Krii kept constantly at work increasing the depth
iit'tlieliarlponr. On the mole stands a iiolile ancient
triuinpli.'il arch, in honour of the Kmiieror Trajan,
HJii) iiiipriived and einbellished the town and port :
it is funned of large blocks of white marble; and
ii has also another arch in honour of I'ope lleiie-
ilict XIV. The cathedral, situated on a b(dd jiro-
iiKMitorv on the site of an ancient temple of Venus,
liiw a cnriods iiorch, supported by two lions of
Kfivptian granite; a very ancient altar, and many
line marble pillars. There are 10 other churches,
loiitaiiiing many good paintings; 1,") convents, a
(•(illcge, and two hospitals. The jialace of the
delegate, the exchange, the town-bouse, and the
I'urtilicatioiis, particularly the citadel, are also
wiirthy of notice,
Itsinannfactures, ehielly in the hands of the
.lews, consist principally of wax, tallow, silk hats,
and imjier. The harbour is well adapted for biiihl-
iiij; and repairing shijis, and is frequented by those
ipf all nations. It was made a free port by Cle-
ment XII., and liaa a more considerable trade than
any other town on the VV. coast of the Adriatic,
Vp'nicc excepted. This trade is now on the in-
creiiiie, outside the harbour is a tine lazzaretto, on
an ariilicial island, communicating with the town
liy a bridge. The market-place is spacious, and
tiie town is well furnished with cheap and good
|irorisioiis. The women are said to be remarkable
luf their beauty. The town is now connected by
i railways with Kimiiii and I'escara, Steamers
leave tor Corfu, Patia.s, Athens, Smyrna, and Con-
siantiniiple. Hxports, corn, hemp, bacon, sulphur,
ami tallow. Imports, colonial goods, drugs, and
nictnls, and large quantities of coal from liritain.
llxports lX(i.-J !f2,24o/. ; imports ;U7,I1!»/. : of which
the British share was 2«,48y/. and 196,520/. re-
spectively.
Ancona is said by Strabo to have been founded
liy a colony of Syracusans in the time of Dionysiiis.
The liomans established themselves in it B.C.
iW. living justly regarded as a naval station of
^Twit iniijortance, Trajan expended large sums
uion it, and built the mole; A. d, 592, it was oc-
( iipicd by the L(jmhards ; in 839 it was sacked by
the Miissulmiins ; and it afterwards formed an in-
(li'lK'ndcnt republic, till 1532, when Hcriiardino
liarlia, under pretext of defending it against the
Turks (having built the citadel which entirely
iiiinmaiids the town), placed it in the hands of the
'iipc. In 1799 it was taken by the French, and
ill 18111) formed the chief city of the dep. of the
i Jk'tauro. in 1814, it was restored to the Pajial
SCO. Ill Feb. 1832, a detachment of Freiicli troops
landed unexpectedly, and took possession of the
citadel; which the French government announced
its resohitiuii to rutaui so long as any AiL'^tviau
ANDALISIA
I'il
troops remainpil within the Papal territories; flic
latter, however, having been withdrawn, the
French evacuated the town in the course of 1839.
In the year |8I9 the town having shared in llur
revolution in the I{oman States, was bombarded
and then occupied by Austrian troops and held by
them till 18,J9. On 29tli October I8(;() it surren-
dered to the Piedmontesc tniops, and has siiici*
formed part of the Italian kingdom. (Kampoldi,
Corogratia dell' Italia, vol. i. p. 80; Consular L'e-
lM)rts, 18(i;J-l).
ANCY-LK-FHAXC, a town of France, dep.
Voniie, cap. cant, on the canal of liiirgundy, Ht m.
SK. 'i'onnerre. Pop. 1,839 in 18(!|. It is neat
and well-built, but is chietly remarkable for the
magnificent castle in its vicinity, built after tlio
(h!signs of Prima ticcio, iM'longing to the descendants
of Ijouvois, minister of Louis XIV. It is sur-
rounded by a beautiful park, and has fine gardens.
ANDAi) KUAN, or ANDKJAN, a town of In-
(le|ieiident Tartary, Kliaiiat of Kliokan, on the
Sihonii (Jti.rartea), r>,") m. K. Khokan, lat, 1 1° 21)' N.,
hiiig, 71° 27' K. It is siirrounded by gardens, and
is a place of coiistih'rable size and antiquity,
ANPALUSIA, a district of Spain, so called,
either from the Vandals who settled here in thu
fifth cent., or from an Arabic wonl, signifying
Land of the tFvat, It is the most S. division of
Spain, comprising the four Moorish kingdoms of
Seville, Cordova, .Jaeii, and (iraiiada, between
3(iO()' and 38© 38' N. lat., and 1° 37' and 7° 25' W.
long,, having N, Estrcmadnra and La Manclia;
E, Jliircia; W. Portugal; and S, the Atlantic
Ocean, the Str. of (iibraltar, and the ^Mcdilcr-
ranean : length, K. to W., about 350 m. ; greatest
breadth nearly 200 m. : area, 27,153 sq. m. Pop.
3,927,357 according to the census of 1857, being
an increase since 184(5 of 1,509,298. Andalusia is
at present divided into eight provinces, vi/. —
Seville, Cadiz, Cordova, (Jranada, .laen, Malaga,
Almeria, and Iliielva. Its chief cities are Seville,
Cadiz, Cordova, Jaen, Almeria, (iranada, Malaga,
Huelva, and (Iibraltar. Two ranges of nuamtains
traverse it from I'], to W. : the most S, of these
ranges is the loftiest, and has several ])oiiits covered
with penietual snow; the highest, Miilahacen,
being 11,078 ft. above the level of the sea. The
Sierra Morena belongs to the N. chain, and forms
jiart of the N. boundary of the district. Between
these two ranges tlows the (Juadalqnivir, by far
the largest of the Andaliisian rivers, and swelled
by numerous stre.ims from the latenil valleys open-
ing into its basin. There are numerous small lakes.
On the coast, the climate is hot and ojipressive ;
but N. of the Sierra Nevada, the temperatiu'e is
more equable, and cooler, although it never freezes.
The iirimitive rocks <if the high S. mountains are
chietly mica-slate, gneiss, and clay-slate, covered
in some ptirts by black transition limestone, con-
taining sulphuret of lead. Soqientine marble, and
alabaster, arc found in Granada ; and there aro
numerous mines, that either produce, or have pro-
duced, gold, silver, copper, antimony, mercury,
iron, lead, vitriol, coal, and sulphur ; but, with the
exception of the lead mines of Adra, near Alalaga,
they are at present mostly in a neglected state.
Tlie vegetation partakes of the I'^uropean and
African characters : mastic, olive, myrtle, palms,
bananas, &c., abound in the central parts of the
country, but on the S. shores those common to
Euroiie almost wholly disa|ipoar, and the sugar-
cane and cotton are cultivated. Wheat, barley,
fruits of all sorts, and wines, are .ibiiiidantly pro-
duced ; the chief wines are those of Xercjs (sherry),
Pajarete, Malaga, and !Montilla; silk, is iilso an
article of considerable culture. There arc many
rich pasture-lauds; and the cattle and horses, ea-
m
V'y
It
122
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
iD;h
m
'\i
iK^cially tl)« lattor, nre renowned an nmongHt the
liont in Spain, Tiie wulf and Imar arc tlii' only
fonnidalilc wild animals; tlicrc is plenty of kohi*''
an al)und'ni(H! of lisli, and none of (he niimt veno-
mouH reptileH : the cochineal insect is successfully
cultivated near Cadi/. Most part of the coinilry
is parcelled out into vast cstatt-s, Ijelon^iiiK to
grandees, the church, and corporations. Af,'ricid-
ture is in a very backward state. The (greater
part of the conntn* is appropriated to pasture, the
traveller often jourueyiuf,' many miles without
tM'ein^ a single house, or any symptoms of culti-
vation; and, iiolwithstaiidiiif; the fertility of the
fMiil, there is auiiiuiUy a consi(h'ralile importation
of com from the opposite coast of Africa, Sicily,
and the llhick Sea. The occupii^rs of the lauil
mostly live tof^ether in towns and villaj^es; their
rents are usually ])aid on the mi'tuijer principle,
and they are at once i;;norant and poor; the iu-
)ial itants of the inountuinous and less fertile dis-
tricts are. as niinht he expected, the most indus-
trious. Th(! chief maniH'actures are those of
Woollens, silk, and leather; and hut for opjiressive
custom laws, there would he a more consuU'rahle
trade than there is hoth with other i)art8 of Spain
and foreign countries. Cadi/, is the chief ])ort.
The Audalusians are a mixe<l race, desci-iided
from Afri<'ans, Carthafjiinians, Kornans, (ioths, \'an-
<lals, anil Moors, 'i'liey retain much resemhiauce,
both in jwrsou and maimers, to the latter; al-
tliou;;h li^-lit hair, eyes and complexions, are by no
means iiiifreipient. When they have any motive
to exertion, they are not deticient in industry,
nnd are int(dli},'ent and imapnalive. Andalusia
lias jiroduced nmnv p)od poets and distinguished
men in all «ii?es : 'IVajan, the Seiiecas, and Silius
Italiciis were natives of this prov., with Miirillo
the jiainter, and some of the be»t lyric authors of
modern Spain.
ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a Ipiifctheiied narrow
groii]! of islands, none of which are of any very
considerable mapiitude, in the K. jiart of the Day
of Itenj^al, stretchiiit; N. and S., between 10° ;{()'
and 13° 40' N. hit., under about 112° .W K. lonj,'.
ThvV an' within the full sweep of the SW. mon-
soon, and are washed foreifflit months a year by in-
cessant rains. They produce many larj^e trees, that
miKht, furnish timber and planks for the construc-
tion of ships, and for the tinest cabinet work. The
quadrupeds are but few, consisting' princijjally of a
diminutive breed of swine and rats. Amoii}; the
birds is the swaUow, that jiroduces the edible nests
80 hiffhly esteemed in China. Fish are fjfeiierallv
plentiful, but occasionally scarce. The inhabi-
tants, who are not su))])osed to exceed 2,500 or
8,((00 ill number, seem to be a ])eciiliar race in the
lowest state of barbarism. Tliey seldom exce(!il
6 feet in heif^ht, have jirotuberaiit bellies, limbs
disproiiortioiially slender, skin a deep sooty black,
liair woolly, nose flat, lips thick, eyes small and
red, their countenances exhibitiiifj the extreme of
v;retcliedness — a mixture of famine and ferocitj'.
The}' go quite naked, and are insensible to shame
from exposure. They ha\-e made no effort to cul-
tivate the ground, and are found only on the sea-
coast, de))ending i)rincipally for subsistence on
fishing. Their implements are of the rudest texture;
but they use them with great dexterity, particu-
larly in spearing and caitturing tish. They are
Bkilful as rowers, and in the management of their
boats. They have no utensil that will resist lire,
and dress their food by throwing it on the live
embers, and devouring it half broiled. Their ha-
bitations display little more ingenuity than the
dens of wild beasts, being mere huts, funned of
four irregular posts stuck in the ground and covered
•>vith paim leaves. Leing much incommoded by
ANDERNACH
inserts, their llmt occuiMition in tho momin;; Ih to
niaster their iMMiies all over with mud, wliii),,
hardening in the sun, forms an impenetrable anu'
our. They jiaiiit their woolly heads with n,|
ochre and water, and, when completely drcimci,
have a most hideiais appearance. They have lui
intense hatred of strnngers, with whom they iiiii-
not be |iersuaded to hold any intercours%. 'TIicv
are suppos(>d to worship the sun ami moon; niiil
during stonns and temiM'sts, endeav<Mir to avert
the wrath of the <lemoii bv whom they sn|i|HiM:
them to be produced. Their language is peiMilJar.
and is not known to have the slightest alliiiity to
any spoken in India, or in any of the liiilian
islands. They have been said to be ««Mm/«i.
j)liii(iii<tii, but this is not continned by the luti.i
visitors. Some have supposed them to be a rare
of degenerate negroes; luit this ajtpears not icil,,.
the case. No distinct resemblance can be irami
between them and any other race — M'llay, AiMral-
asian, or others — a descent from oi.. r otlicrcif
whom might have been looked for, and they iiH^t
reseiniile a dwarfed and undefonned Liirdixaa
race. Their want of correspondence with aiiynilur
tyi)e raises an interesting question in ethimldjjy,
A lirilish settlement was established at I'urt
("ornwallis, on the largest of the islands, near (lie
N Va. exi remity of the grou|), in 1 7i);}. The liarlKiur
is excellent; and the settlement tvas desigiicdii.r
the reception of convicts from llengal, aixl lurilic
security of shipping during the monsoons; hut ilii'
situation turned out so very unhealthy, as toncrn-
sion its abandonment in ll'M. Since then tliiv
have been but seldom visited, except in 1x21 anil
\H2^>, when some of the ships, on tludr way tn
llaiigoon, ttaiched at the islands. On one of tliiM'
occasions the natives attacked a jiarly waleriiii;
with the utmost fiirj'; and were not repulsed wiih-
oiit great hiss on their side, •iiid after they liail
killed one soldier, ami wounded three others. A
place on one of the islands, I'ort lUair, was selcdiil
as a penal st^ttlement for the Sepoy reliels in Isjs,
(Syines, Kinbassy to Ava, jip. 127-liW, llu. iil,;
and Mouat's Adventures and Kesearches uniuiiL;
the Andaman Islanders, I8<!;(.)
ANDKLYS (LI'^S), two towns of France, wiiliiii
a very short distance of each other, de|i. Mure, caii.
arrond. one on the Seine, and the otluu' a lilile
inland, 10 or II m. K. L(Hiviers. Pop. ."),i;i7iii
18dl. The greater Andely is ill built, with iiarroiv
crooked streets; but it has a fine collegiate (•liurcli,
The lesser Andely has to boast of the magiiilicciil
ruins til' the chateau Uaillard. There are manu-
factures of line cloth, kerseymeres, rateens, cotlui:
yarns, and jiaper, with tanneries. Nicholas l*mi«-
sin, the famous painter, was bom in the haiiilet nl'
Villers, near the greater Andely, in ir>i)l: ami a
monument has been erected to his memory iu that
town,
ANDl'^NNI'^S, a town of Belgium, prov, Xamur
on the Maese, l;{ m. FNH. Namur, Pop. (I,.')L'iii
IM.jO. There are manufactures of earthenware ami
l)orcelain. and of jiipes formed of the clay foiuiJiu
the neighbourhood,
AN 1)K IfN ACI I (the A ntunacvm of the IJomanj),
a town of the Prussian jmiv. of Lower h'hiiic, mi
the left bank of the lihiiie, 10 m. NW. Colileiitz,
on the railway i'rom Cologne to Cobleiitz aiiJ
Mayence. Pop. 4,2;')7 in 18(!1. It is situated in a
country formerly volcanic, and its massive towiK
tuiTcts, and ruined walls are admirably suiteil i'
the sombre scenery by which it is surrdimiinl
Streets narrow and ill jiaved, and the liiiiw>
gloomy, old, and out of repair. There is a tiiieuM
archway, supposed to be Roman, forming the jiale
of the town on the side next Coblentz; and liclow
it, iu a line towards the river, are the ruins of iui
mominp 1h u
I mud, wliiili,
iciit'triilili' nriii-
.i'UiIm villi Ml
ili'Irly tircswl,
'I'lll'V llliVW nil
k'hiiin they ciin-
■rcoiirs.. 'I'liiv
iiiii itiiKin ; ninl
i>nv(iiir ti) avert
n tlioy su)i|Ki»(:
uviH' iH (iciMiliiir,
htcHt utiiiiity t<i
of lh(! Iiidmii
to 1k! itnlhivim-
,[ by tlic latiM
i>ni til lie. H rail'
|i|i('iir!< mil t" 111'
I'f can lie trmi'l
-M'llny, Aii>iriil-
01.. r (itliiTiif
r, iuhI IIh'V iiii.<i
mnetl l'',iirii|ii'.iii
•{'. with iiiiy ntlur
II in «'tliiiiilii(;y,
ililislictl at P'Ti
islaiiils, near llu'
'!»;}. Tilt' liarlHiiir
•,vus (U'si;;m'il l"r
ni^iil, ami I'lir iln-
lonsoiiiis; Imt llir
■allliy, as to ni'ia-
tSiiiw llii'ii llii'V
ccopt in is-il ami
oil tluiir way tn
, On OIK' ot'tlicM'
a iiarly wati'tin;
not ri'iiulscil wiili-
id al'tiT ilioy liiiil
tliree otliiTs, A
llUair, was .-iclci'ti'il
Kiv ri'licls in l"'"*'
liiK, 'llii.i'il.;
tesearfhcs aiiiuii;;
of France, within
.T, dcii. Kurp. tail,
the other a link'
... I'op. o.Ki'iu
built, with iiarmw
collegiate I'liurdi.
uf the ma^'iiiliccni
There are iiiaim-
•es, rateens. cotli'ii
Nicholas l'»u<-
11 in tlie hanik'i "i
y, in 1;VJ1: m\^
is memory iu tkt
'■ium, prov. Nanira
lur. I'op. <"',:il-' '"
f earthenware and
' the clay foiiuil ill
i«nofthel{(iman.<).
■ Lower Hliiiic,*'ii
,n. N\V. Colik'iitz.
' to Cohlentz aiiJ
J It is situated in a
its massivi^ towi'K
llmirably suited i|'
lit is surrmiiidtil
and the limw;
iTliere is a liiu' "'i
1, forming the f.*
Iblent/; aiuUiel'*
lire tlie niius ol im
ANDKH 128
cxtonnive palncn, or cniilln, HUpiiohiHl to hnvo been l the name of Smyth'x (Channel, ami iliviilmt first
liiiilt liv tl>^' ('otlit >**>*>n after the I'.xpiilsloii of the { Kiii^ William's Lund Iroml^ueeii Adelaide's Arehi-
Ii'ijmi.iii's. I'll'' '■>wii e.NjKirts mill-sloiies maile of pelaf^o, and allerwardsjuiiis the Frith of Siii.silid,
iiciriiiis lava, and larn'e iiuaiitities of iioumli'd /«/(«,
(Iciiiiiiiiuati'd Intim, u cement which, when mixed
Willi water, liecomes as hard as stone. The former
are in j^'reat demand in most parts of Kuroiie; the
latter is principally used bv the Dutch in tlie con-
^triii'tiiiu of their dykes, liut is also exported to
iitlier countries. Immen.so rafts of timber from the
(iennaii forest.-*, destined for tlie Low Countries,
arc tiiriiied near Andernach.
ANHl'.S ('I'llK), an immense mountain raiiKe,
runs aliinj^ the whole \V. coast of S. America,
I'DveriiiK with its chains, declivities, and valleys
iiliiiiit a sixth part of that continent. The Cur-
(lilliKt, a name soiiietiuies ^iveii to this chain, is
iiriiperly applicable only to the hinermosl and
hi^rliest riil^e of the mass.
Cape Horn, on Cape Horn Island, in about MP
S. lal., may be cunsidered as the S. extremity of
the Amies.' The most N, chain of the mountains
is till' raranio de las llosas, Avhicli extends to the
K. of Lake Maracaybo, and terminates at about
!i°N. lilt. The whole system ii thus found to I'x-
teiiil lenK'thwiso over I!.') deg. of lat. Us width
varies very much; in some parts it occupies only
between il'u or 10 miles across, in others it covers
with its branches and valleys a country extending
iW miles and ujiwards from E, to W.
Ik'Kiniiing at the southern extremity, the Andes
toimiieiiee at the Cape of Good Success, on the W.
Bhores uf the Straits of Le Maire, in about 70° W.
lull},', Lven the high rocky mass which consti-
tutes the island of Stanten Land, and extends
nmrc than a degree farther L., may be considered
iLs a continuation of this range, from which it is
fcparateil only by the Straits of Le Maire, between
yi) and 41) ni, across. From the Cajie of (jood Suc-
cess the range runs W, uhiiig the S. shores of
King Charles's Southland, the most extensive of
the islands constituting the S, Archipelago of
America, commonly called Tierra del Fuego. It
Clivers about u third jiart of the surface of that
island, as well as the whole of the islaiuls lying S,
(if it; as Navariii, Ilosle, \V(dlastoii, Hermit, and
I'lipe Horn, Towards the Straits of Le Maire, the
range consists of rocky hills, of no great elevation ;
but farther \V. they rise to an altitude of '2,WH) or
3,1100 ft. Cape Horn itself is a conspicuous rock,
with a steep ascent, upwards of ;j,l)l)0 ft. high,
llmmt Sarmieiito, near Magdalen Chaimel, is the
liigliest summit, and rises C,!.iU( ft. above the sea.
in the W, part of King Charles's Soiithhuid,
the range extends over the whole district S. and
W. of Admiralty iiay. Farther VV. it changes its
direction, running in a >i W, direction as far as
the Fiitli of Saiisalid (Ancon Sinsalida of the
hlianianls), 52° S. lat., and 73° \V. long. This
jiart of the range, whose mean width may be about
WOorliO miles, is longitudinally divided by that
]iortion of the Strait of Magalhaens which extends
iruin Cape Frowanl to Cape \'ictoria. Two trans-
verse channels divide the S. portion into two
islamls. The E. or Magdalen Channel separates
Clarence Island from King Charles's Southland;
and the W. extends between Chirencc Island ami
hiiuth iX'solation; the latter bears the name of
liiirhara Channel. That part of the range which
lies tu the M E. of the strait is intersected by two
decii transverse inlets. The south-eastern, called
Jeriime (Channel, terminates on the E. in two large
lufjoons, called (jtway and Skrying Waters, which
are both situated on the eastern side of the Andes
ill the plahis of I'utagonia. IJy this extensive in-
let, Itnniswick IVninsnla is divided from King
William's Lund. The Is \V. transverse inlet bears
which likewise piuielrates through the whole chain
of the Andes, and terminales with its numerou.H
branches in the plains of I'atagonia. South of this
frith the mouiiiains rise siimewhat higher than on
King Charles's Sontlibind, but their mean eleva-
tion does not exceed -liOlM) ft. above the sea.
The mountain range south of the Frith of Sinsa-
lid may be called the iMiiiiiillini-nH -i nf/c.'t, extending
principally on both sides the strait bearing that
name. It consists of idands and )ie,il<isiilas inier-
seeleii by deep but narrow arms of t'le sea. The.
summits of the mountains are covered with eternal
snow, the snow line oceurring in thes ' countries nt
about ;j,."iOi) feet above the sea. The lowi^r parts
of th(' miiuntains and the sti'cp and rocky simres
of the islands are jiartly covered with evergreen
Woods; except towards the ocean, where they pre-
sent the asiH'ct of bare black rocks.
At the Frith of Sinsalid begins the tininter-
mpted chain of the Andes. At this place il again
changes iis direction, running due N. with slight
bends as far north as the liiglit of Arica (!«'-' S,
lat.). It compreliends the ratagouian iViides be-
tween b'iP and -12°, the siiulhern Chilean Andes
between -12° and ;Jo°, and the nortbern C^hilean
and Atacamean Andes between 35° and 20° S, lal.
The I'utaijoniuH Andes extend from the Frilli of
Sin.salid to the N. corner of the Uiilpli of AiiciuL
opposite the island of Cliiloe. They are only known
from the side of the ocean, whence they risi' to a
considerable height with an eAtrtmely steep ascent.
It would seem as if the range i:' this part Iv I once
oceuiiied a much greater breadth, iii:'' tliat by some
extraordinary convulsion the whole of the western
declivity, with the summits of the range, hud beuii
broken down and buried in the ocean, so that only
the eastern declivity has remained standing, 'i'hu
numerous and rocky islands which skirt this slioa!
in all its extent, except at the protruded cape of
Trcs Mollies, appear to support such a supposition.
The eastern declivity of the range has not been
examined ; but what we know of it seems to be
! suHicieiit to warrant the supposition that in this
part the Andes occupy a width of only from 30 to
40 miles. The mean height of the i'atagonian
Andes may be estimated at about 5,000 or ((,000 ft.,
and the extreme height H,030 It. Ihii snow moun-
tains, and even glaciers, are stated to be freipient.
The lower jiart of the declivity is covered with
trees and shrubs, the upper part bare, as also those
portions of the shore which are exposed to the
iiiimediate cU'eets of the gales blowing from the
I'acilic.
The Southern Chilean Andes extend from the
most N. corner ol' the Gulph of Aiieud (12-' S. lat.)
to the lofty suinmil of Aconcagua, in aboiu 32^^
S. lat. and 70° W, long. Towia'ds the S. extremity
the Andes keep for sonic extent a distance of aliont
150 miles from the shores of the I'acilic, the greatest
which they attain in their whole course; but to-
wards the N. tlii-y gradually ajiproach it to within
about 100 miles. Jietweeii the Andes and the
shore are extensive plains, from 1,200 to 2,000 ft.
above the sea; and from these ]ilaiiis the moun-
tains rise with an extremely steep acclivity to the
mean elevation of 13,000 or 14,000 ft. above the
sea. Some summits attain 15,000 and even 15,500
feet. Thougli our knowledge resjiecting this jiart
of the Andes be comparatively scanty, it would
seem that they form one e.-wtensive mass from (iO
to ><0 miles across, which, however, in its upper
jiart is furrowed by a longitudinal valley, diviiled
iiy short iniiisvcrse ri Iges into sever.il shorter val-
leys. This great m;i»s of rocks is mostly clotlicd
M 4i
12 » ANDKH
with lorcxt irct'M ami ii rich vt'tcctntlon ; luit in tht<
interior it prfo'iits miiv l>iirf rin'l<M, iioiirly without
liiiintN of liny ili'scriptioii,
Thrct! niiNHCH art' known to travorso the Chilean
Antlei*. That fartliext S, Nkirtn the hi^h volcano
of AhIhio, lK!tween ;170 an<l 'M° S. hit., leadiiij,'
from the itniail town of Tneapel to the ^;reat pining
K. of the Anden. It is also nneil liy the •iliiiri;;ineM
inhaliiiin^ these iilaiuH, who li.-in^ to Chile nalt
ami xonie eoninioditieH, 'I'he Necoinl roail traverm's
th(! J'linH ilrl /'/(i/ii'Aon, wliieh eroHHeN the inonntain
rldj^es near .'l."i° S. lat., he^iiniiiiK <"i the went at
tin- village of (Jnrieo. and leailiiiK to the territory
of tlu! I'elnienelieH, who occupy the K. ileclivity of
the AndcM, and llicntie to Mciido/a. It '\* riaid to
lie the lowest of the mountain ]iasNeH of the Andes,
vef^elalion ascendin|r up to the highest part of the
road; it is further staled to he more ffentle in its
ascents and descents. Vet it is little used, exi'cpt
liy persons trailing with llu- Indians in the Pam-
pas. The third pass is (hat of I'mtilh, which at
first runs aloiiK the river Maypo, S. of Santiaj;o,
the capital of Chile, and at'lerwards crosses (he
two rid;;es of the Andes which cnclosi^ the valley
of Tunuvan. On the \V. riilp! the road rises to
M,:it;i', (in the K. to i:i,2l(l feet aliove the level of
the sea. From the latter it descends to the plains,
and leads to .Mendo/a, It is the nearest way lie-
tween the last-inentioned town and Santiap>, the
capital of Chile, and is therefore sonu'times, lint
not frc(|nently, used. There is also the )iass of
San Kranci.sco, and other passes to he descriheil in
fipeakin;; of the pro|iosed railway and new roatls
a»'ross th(! Andes. (See end of this article.)
Thi're is some douht as to the exact hei^jlit of
the i«unnnit of AconeaK'iui ; hut it certainly ex-
ccedn 2.'t,!{0(t ft.; and is, therefore, entitled to he
ropirded as the eulminatiiiK point in this vast
chain. N. of thissunnnit the iVndes, which farther
S. form only one enornioiis nniss of rocks, divide
into two masses, which enclose lon^ and wide
valleys eonsiderahly lower than the surrounding
ridf;i'>*. The lirst valley of this description is that
of ljs]mllata, which extends ahout ISO or 2IH» miles
S. nnd N. It is traversed liy two rivers; the Ifio
lie Mendoza, which (lows S. ; and the Kio <le S.
Junn, which runs X. The watershed between them
lies N. of iVJO S. Int. This valley is ahout 15 miles
ill width, .. :d presents an undulating suiface. It
is about (),<)()0 feet above the level of the sea. The
range K. of it, called the I'arnmillo de Uspallata,
seems not to exceed 10,(UI() ft. ; but the VV. or prin-
cipal range attains ll.ltOO ft. and upwards. The
foniier is about 2.5, and the hitter more than 70
miles acniss. The V.. range has two narrow breaks,
by which the two rivers of the valley liiid their
way to the plains extending E.
Over these two ranges, and through the valley
of Uspallata, lies the most frequented motmtain
road crossing the Andes. On the west it begins
at the town of Santa Kosa, in the valley of the
C^uillota river (2,()I4 ft. above the sea) ; it next
follows the bed of that river for a great distance,
and then crosses the high range nearly at equal
distances from the mountain summits of Tupun-
gato and Aconcagua (between 33° and 32° S. lat.).
The Cundire or highest point is 12,454 feet above
the Pacific. Hence the road descends along the
liio de Mendoza into the vallej' of Uspallata, passes
tlie I'aramillo range, and enters the plains near
Villa Viciosa, whence it runs along the last-men-
tioned mountain chain to Mendoza (2,608 ft. above
the sea) ; from Mendo/.a it leads over the Pampas
to Hueiios Ayres. Thougli much frequented, it
cannot be passed by carriages, and only mules are
used for the transport of conunoditics, and by pas-
sengers. In winter (from June to September) the
passage is very dangerous, on ni'connt of the heavy
ialls of snow, which eatise frei|uent hisses if |i||.
and property. The pass is by some named that ni'
the Cuinbre, and by othent oi' ('M|iallata.
N. of the valley of Uspallata the Andes coiitiMiic
to form two ranges, including extensive lonKilii-
dinal valleys. The llmt in order is that of Agiui-
lasla, of which we know only that its soil is sterile
but its mountains rich in metallic ores. Then M-
lowM the valley of Anilalgala, which is entirely un-
known. The Matter extends to 2.'I°S. lat, A great
number of mountain passes ar(> stated to exist hvit
the W. range enclosing these valleys, which wmilil
indicate that the mean elevation of the Andes is
here much less than in other parts. Ihit nonenf
these passes seems to be much used, nor has any
of them been visited by Kuro|K'an travellers, ft
is, however, known that towards the Pacilic this
range does not descend with a short and rapiil de.
clivily, as in th(> S.Chilean Andes, but by taMi:
laiiils in the form of terraces, which lu'ar the prin-
cipal ciiain are 5.00t) feet and more abovi- the m>ii,
lint lower by degrees as lliey approach the ocean,
where thev slill t'orni a shore from 30(»to 500 |'(.,.t
high. Ileing furrowed by deep watir-courses. iIkx.
table-lands, when seen I'rom lh(^ banks of rivers,
appear frequently like mountains of consideralilu
height.
From their farthest M. point as far as the V. |Kiint
of the valley of I'psallata, the Andes do not seml
out lateral branches. Ihit from the K. range, in-
cluding the valleys of Agnalasta and Andalgiilii,
several ranges branc' olf into the K. jihr «, an'l
extend in a S. and Iv. direction to a distance uf
from 200 to 250 m. By these lateral chains the
countries extending K. of the Andes, between ;i;i<'
and 2.'!° S. hit., are rendered hilly, and in simiu
districts even mountainous. In tlu! S. districts
the height of the ranges is not considerable, hut
farther to the N. it increases greatly; and the
chain, which branches olf at the N. end of the
valley of Aiuhilgala, and forms at present the Imuii-
dary between the republics of lluenos Ayres and
liolivia, may attain a height of 10,0I><> ft. almvc
the sea. It terminates at no great distaix'e I'roni
the p<iiut where the liio Grande enters the l!io
Vermejo.
Kelween 23° and 20° S. lat. the principal rnnxc
of the Andes seems to constitute a single chain,
rising to a mean height of ab<ive 15,000 feet. la
it stands the Xevailo de Chorolqiie, which is staled
to rise l<i,548 ft. above the sea. From this eliaiii
several lower and narrow ridges run K. 120 or IM
m. The 8. districts of liolivia are in consciiiunoc
rendered a succession of valleys and mountains.
However, these ridges do not attain a great eleva-
tion over the plains on which they rise. A road
traverses the prnicipa! chain ; it l)egins on the coast
of the Pacilic at C'obija, or Puerto de la Mar, the
principal harbour of Ucdivia, passes over the hi;,'h
And .s of Liiiez near the volcano of Atacania, and
descends to I'lipiza ; hence it runs to Potosi and
Chnquisaca. This roa<l is not much used, on ac-
count of the sterility of the surrounding countr}-,
and the dilliculty of ))rocuring provender for the
mules and other animals of burden. In sonic parts
water too is extremely scarce.
Near 20° .S. lat. is the mountain knot of Force.
Here begin the Bolivian Andes, which extend to
14° S. hit,, and may he considered as collstit^ltin^'
the central jiortioii of the wh<ile mountain system,
In no other i)art do the mountains generally attain
an equal height, nor do they cover so great a .sur-
face. The chain, which previously formed one
great undivided ridge, here diverges into two
smaller ridges, the one to the E. being deiionii-
iiated the Cordillera do Anciuiia, and that to the
t of ihchcHvy
I loHM'H «if li||>
tiaiiu'tl iliiii III'
liitn.
LlliU'HCdIltiliiiP,
iiitivti limniin-
llllll llt'A^rilll-
H soil 'wMlcrilc,
r«'H. 'i'licii (ill-
ix entirely ini-
■(. liU. A Krcat
'd to exint liver
X, wliieli uiiiilil
if the Amies is
. Itiit none III'
il, nor linH (inv
frnvellefH. ft
lie I'aeilir this
t itnil rapiil ilc.
s, but liy talili'
I near llie |iriii-
alioV(! Ilie M'li,
naell tlie iicriili,
;i(HI to i")(HI liTl
T-l'olirM'S, IIli'm'
laiiks of rivers,
(if cdiiHiileriililu
r ax the N, imint
lies ilo imt senil
lie K. nuiKe, iii-
aiiil Aii<lal;:'iila,
e v.. |)la' I, aii'l
Id n clisiniiee nt'
teral ehaiiis tliu
les, hetweeii X'fl
ly, and ill simii!
Vlie, S, (liKtric'ls
•onsiderahle, liut
reatly; ami the
! N. end 111' the
ireseiit the lioiiii-
leiiow Ayi'es iinil
1(1,(10(1 ft. aliiivc
nt distaiiee Inmi
enters the llio
principal rniiKC
a single ehain,
15,00(1 feel, la
wliieh is stated
'roin tlii.s ehaiii
111) K. I'iO (ir 150
ill foiisciiiieiicc
and inoiintaiiis.
in a great eleva-
jy rise. A mad
;^ins on thceiia.st
o de la Mar, the
IS over the hi^'li
if Ataeania, and
18 to I'otosi and
iicli used, on ac-
luiiding country,
rovendcr fer the
In sonic parts
knot of Porco.
•hicli extend to
1 a.s constitutini;
lountain system.
generally attain
ir so great a siir-
isly formed ene
erges into two
, being denonii-
and that tu the
ANDES
W. the rordillprn de Ion Andox, or of Iho coast.
Ihev unite afrain in abont 1 1° or I IA° S. lal., eii-
ijiisiii;; U'tweeii them the great Alpine -alley,
piiini'tiines called 'rilienen, from the fainons lake of
thai iianie, and xomeliinex hesagiiadero from the
river which llowx from it. This immenxt< basin is
iilHiiit :i:i') m. ill length from N. to S, ; its breadth,
whii'li is dilVerent at ditferent places, may Im' esti-
iii.iteil at about Ciii III. at a medium, making its
iiri'H aliout IN, l;i'> sq. m., of which the lake is reck-
Miiiil at about '1,000 si|. in. 'I'he latter ix at the
|.riNli;,'iims idcvalioii of I"J,H|7 It. nlxive the level
,,1'llie sea; and the mean heighi of the moimtaius
|,v which it ix Hiirnninded <'annot be less than
11,11(10 ft. The highest xiimmitx on each side ax-
I'l'iiil far alH>ve the liiu> of perjietnal snow. The
Ci'mxla I'otosi, near the S. extremity of the range,
iiiiaiiis to an elevation of lO.la'i ft.; and farther
III the N. lllimani and the .Nevado de /orata in
ihe K. ehaiii rise respectively to the height of
'.'1,1 10 and '21,2N(> ft. Ihil the peaks in the W.
rhaiii are still higher, Sahania, in lal. 1N<^ H' S,
hi'liig 2'.',;i')0 ft. abov«', the, sea, rariuacota, "J'i.O.'IO
II,, anil th(^ volcano of Are(piipa 'JOiIliO ft. These
iiad iilher altitudes have Im-cii dt^lermined by Mr.
IVnlland. South of 17° S. hit., the two ranges
run nearly tlu(! S. and N., Imt N. of thai parallel
.•sSi;. amrNXW. At their N. extremity (I 1° S.
int.) they are united by a transverxe range, which
(Xieiiils XNK. and SSW, It has x((veral snmniits
I'livereil with perpetual snow, but their elevation
has iiiif been ascertained.
The --'uteau or valley of T'Ucaca (h)cs not pre-
sent a l(i'el plain ; those portions of it which are
I'lmtiiuioiis to the ranges being covered with moun-
tains, or rather hills, rising several hundred and
Niinetiines even a thousand feet abovi^ their bases.
Itut the internal districts preserve notwithstanding
a snlliciently htvel snrl'ace. The 1 )esaguadero,
hIiIcIi issues from the S. extremity of the lake of
Tilicaca, Hews S. till about \\)fi° S". lat., when it ix
I'l-t ill a Hinall lake. The former lake is famous
ill the history of Peru, for being the scene of the
niiracahms appc^aranee of Maiico C'apac, the founder
III tiie Inea dynasty. lie is said to have inhabited
ihc largest of its many islands, which was, there-
fire, ludd in peculiar veneration. Snccce<ling Fiicas
erected on it a magnilicent temple, which became
111 the I'eruvianx what the tem|ile at Mecca is, or
r.'ilherwas, to the Mohnnimedan world; for it wax
iiiennibent on all Peruvians to visit it, and to bring
wilii them rich od'erings. Hence its wealth became
iinnicnse. It is staled that when the Spaniards
iiiiik ii(isscs.sion of the coiinlrv, the natives, to dis-
ii;i|iiiint the avarice of the coiupierors, and prevent
ilii- ]iiillution of the temple, threw its treasures
iiii" the lake, and rased the fabric to the founda-
liim. Some ancient ruins are still to be found on
ilielmnlers of the lake, and Mr. Prescott supposes
it to have been the seat of civilisation anterior to
j ilieera of the Incas. — (Hist, of Peru, I. 11th ed.
■^h.) The storms that rush from the mountains
I render the navigation of this lake peculiarly dan-
U'eriius, Its waters arc said to be bitter or brack-
li-li; hut they are drunk by the cattle in the vi-
riuity. The lake is well stocked with trout and
I otlier lish.
The ranges enclosing the alpine valley of Titi-
loaea are traversed by several mountain roads, of
nvhich the following are the most frequented: —
Itliat through the pass of Potoul, traversing the
ll'aerto between the (Jerro of Potosi and tbat of
jllaaviia Potosi: it leads from Potosi to Oruro,
land rises in its highest point to 1 l,.'!'2(» feet. The
Iriiad over the pass of Cnndiir Parhi-ta, between
lOruni and (Joohabaniba, rises in its highest part
The road tlirongh
lie 13,'J50 ft. above the sea.
V2ti
the jiisx of Piirvnnl, lendin;' from I, a Vm to the
countries east of the ridges, rises to l;"i,'J'.'tl ft. The
most used road ix over the western range, and
that through the pass of l,iii> (lunlilliis, leading
from Arica on the coast, and Tacna, to l,a Pa/, in
lhi> valley of Titicaca; il traverses the range at
17° TiO' S. lal., S. of the Nevado de Cbipicani,
where it rises to 1 I,h;10 tt. Tarlher N. {\ffl 'J' S.
hit.) ix another mad, which, connecting Areiiuipa
with Pniio, atlainx in the pass of .IIIhh <lr 'lulah
an elevation of l,"),.'r.'H feet above the sea.
.Several lateral ridgex run off from Ihix great
mass of rocks to the V„\ bill none of Ihcm xeetim
to be dixtingnished by its height or extent, except
the Sierra de Santa Crn/, which detaches itself
from the priiK'ipal range aboul 17° 10' S. lal,, and
lerminatex near tbi> banks of the Itio (iuapai or
l!io lirande, within a few leagues of the town of
S. Cm/, de la Serra. It exteiulx aUiiit .'too inilex,
and is of considerable elevatimi in its wexterii
part, where il fornix the Nevado de Tinaica, near
( 'ochabaniba ; farther eaxt it becoinex gradually
lower.
The Periirliin Amlfii oecuny the next ))Iaee,
extending from 11° to (i° S, lat. Ilelwcen these
latitudex they ineaxure from 100 to I.")!! tri. in
width, and their area doex not pndtably fall xliort
of "JOO.OOO ^"J. in. On their borders extend two
ranges; of wliicli the 1''.., separating the mountain
regimi from the great )ilains exleiiding south of
the Ama/.oii, branches <itf from the K. exliiiuiiy
of the .\iides of Vilcanola in a N. direction. It
divides the alllnenix of the I'cayMle from those of
the Vavari, and lermiiialex near 7° S. lal., about
llio m. from the Amazon. \V(- know very littlo
of this range, but it does not seem to rise any-
where to a great lieight ; probably none of its
summits exceed 10,0(M) feet above the sea.
The W. range of the Peruvian .\ndes, which,
with its W. declivities, approaches the Pacilic
Ocean to a distance of 50 m. or less, must Ixi con-
sidered as the )irincipal chain, on account of its
Insight anil breadth, and because it fonnx with the
N. jiarts of the AmU's an nninlerru]ited chain. Il
may be said li> eommenee near the Nevado de
ChiKpiebamba, where the Andes of Vilcanola join
the \V. range of the valley of Tilicaca. It is re-
markable that the Peruvian Andes seem to be,
rather a eontinnation of the Andes of Vilcanola
than of the great \V. chain ; for near 1()° S. hit.
and between 71° and 75° W. long, the Peruvian
Andes extend in a direction K. and \V., whilst
three degrees farther S. the liolivi.'in Andes run S.
and N. In this portion of the Andes are some
very high summits. Besides the Nevado de Chn-
quebamba, already notii'ed, arc the Cerro de Ilu-
ando and the Cerro de Parinacocha, whose eU'VJi-
tion, however, has not been determined. Near
75° \V. long, the principal chain of the Andes
declines to N\V,, and runs in that direction to the
neighbourhood of Cape Parina, the most W. ex-
tremity of S. America. In the S. iiortiun of this
chain several summits rise above the snow Yww.,
but the elevation of ikjiic of them has been deter-
mined. The best known are, the Toldo de la
Nieve, seen from Lima, to the SK. of which it is
situated; the Altuncliagua, near 10° S. lat.; anil
the Nev.i(h> de Il.-iuylillas, 7° 50' S. lat. Hut
between the last named snow-peak and IMount
Chimborazo, in the Andes of Kenador, or P'quator
(2° S. lat.), there is no summit which attains the
snow line.
The country lying between the two outer ranges
of the Peruvian Andes presents a continual suc-
cession of high ridges and long valhivs, here and
there intennixed with plains of moderate extent.
It forms the best portion of the rcpublio of Peru.
.is
lift
AXDKH
'lit! I
li'ii;
!!|
it^h'
'I'ln' tniiNt rciimrkiilili'ili^trif'f wci-niHtn licllic |>liiiii
<i(' IIkiiiIioii, iii'iir 11'^ S. Iiil., wliii'li U IiI.immi Irrt
nlxivf till' li'vi'l III' iIk' Ki'ii, mill •'xtcmU iiImhiI Ih
iiiili'M ill wiillli Iriiiii 1). til \V., iiiiil 10 or Mt I'miii
S. to N. A KTvnt jiiirt nl' llii.s I'lcviili'il pliiiii,
Wllii'll 'iM I'lli'loM'it liy two riilp's III' llloiltilililM,
mill oil wllirll llir iirKirrrollH Crrro of I'lim'o 1.1
iiiliitilt'll, i« covfrt'il wllli K\viiiii|pH. Till' wiitiT
riiiiiiiii^ oil' rriHii llii'iii, mill I'l'iiin tlir I'U-vati'il
^roiiiiil, wllirll hri|ui'iit!y is covi't'i'il with niiow,
is collirti'il ill ^I'vt'riil U\kf!*, Ill' wllirll lliri'c iiri>
t'H|M'rjiilly iiiitii'i'il, lift Ki^'"W I'i'"!'! '" tliri'r coii-
HiiliTiililt' rivers. Tlic l'artlii"<t N. U ilu' Liilin of
l.liiiiriroclm, froiii wliii'li tlu' Anniitiiii ri-i"* ; tlir
fiirtlii'.tt S. U ciillril tilt' Niiko of (/iiilimroi'liM,
wllirll kIvch liirfli to till' Smijii nr Miit;irii, mii' of
till' |iriiii'i|iiil liniiii'lii's of till' r<'ii>'iilr. Iti'twi'i'ii
till'"!' l.'lUi'M irt llial of ('llil|llilli'oli|, wlli'lli'i' llli' Ikio
lliiallii^ii isNiii's. 'l'|ii> jiliiiii of Itoiiilioii is farllii'r
to III' ('oti,<iiilcn'il an II iiioiiiitniii i<iiol, I'roiii whii'li
ililt'i'ri'iit raii^'i'M liraiii'li oil' in ililVi'i'riit iliri'rliiiii.i,
li('-<iili'.s till' |iriiiri|ial raii),'(Mif thi' I'mniaii Anili's,
wllirll lii's I'ontipioiis to it on llio \V., two niniiii-
tiiin cliiiiiiM run olf froin it to tlif N„ ami oiii' to
till' S. 'I'ln! most W, of lliti two N, cliniiis riiiH
111 iirly jiMi'allcl to the |iriiiri|ial raii^'i' of tlii' IVrii-
vian Aiiili'M, ami forms the I'',. Iioiimlury of the
valley of the Maniiioii or Uiiper Ama/nii. It rises
to II ureal elevation, liiit iloes not enter the snow
line. One of its fartlie,-.t N. Iiraiiehes extends
close to the hanks of the Ania/.oii, where it forms
the faimiiis I'on^o, or cataract of Maiiseriche. A
lateral riil);e of this chain, liraiichinn' oil' from it
(It alioiii 7'-', runs I'],, ami terminates on the hanks
(if the Ikio lliiallapi, where that river forms its
yreat cataract, or /lomin. Tlie fartliest I'",, of the
K. cliains separates tlie valley of the Hiiallapi
from the i>iuii/i(iH of S, Safjjramento, traversed liy
the li'io llcayale. It is towards its he/^'inninj;, in
the moiiiitain knot of Iloinlion, of ^rreat. liei;;lit,
lint lowers consideralily farther N., terininatinK
lietweeli (J° and 7° S. lat., at the I'ol|i,'o of till!
Jliialla);!!. The S. chain, issiiin;;; froiii th(> plain
(if iioinlioii, runs SSi;., nearly parallel to the prin-
cipal riili;,'e of the Andes, and encloses the rich
valley of the IJio Saiija. It terniinates in the
most S. IkuiiI of that river, nhoiit l.'i° S. lat. and
Tl" \V. hiiij,'., and nearly opposite another raii^e
of hi|i?h moiintains, which issm^ from the Aiiiles
(if Vilcanota, and run N., separatiiijj; the vallev of
tht! liio Apiirimai! from that of the Hio (^lullii-
liainliu or river of (Iii/.co, The valleys enclosed
liy these several chains of mountains seem to hnv(!
a mean elevation of from 3,0IJ0 to 5,000 feet above
the se.'j.
The roads traversiii;; the Peruvian Andes are
somewhat imperfectiv known. That most to the
S. leads from Arcqn'ipa (near 1(1° iiO' ,S. lat.) on
the coast ii- (Juzco in the valley of the t^nilhi-
bamha, and traverses very hif^h raii^jes of moun-
tains. Another ronil leads from Lima to the town
of Tanna, in the valley of the Sanja, and thence
to (luaneavelica, Iliiamanpi, and (Juzco. It ris('s
on the principal chain at the i'ortacnelo de Tiicto
to l."),7(iO feet above the sea. Farther north is the
road passiiiff over the plain of liomhon to the
Cerro de Pasco. It traverses on the iinncipal
raiif^e two mountain passes, of which the \V.,
called Alto de Tacaibamba, attains an elevation
of 15,li{5, and the K., or Alto de Lacha^^ual,
1.5,48(1 feet above the sea. Another road connects
the town of Tnixillo with the vall(\v of the Ma-
ranou. It traverses the jjnmt ran,i,'e near the >i'e-
vado de (iiiaylillas, and li^ads to Iluamachucoand
Caxamarquiila ; but we are not acquainted with
its partienlars.
• The Aiuks of Ecuador, or the Equator, extend
to the \. of the prriiviiiii Aiide", Their rum.
Ill) liceiiii III llliiy be lixed oiipo«ile the I'luil,! ,|,,
Akujii (0' S. hit,), mid the place where the Mun,
lion climiKes its NNW, cour-e iiiio a NNK. |„
llii^ same parallel the chain also cIiiiiiki s ilsijin.,.
tioii. It runs bclwecii li'^ S. Int. and the eijiiainr
nearly due north. This portion of the iiii>iiiiii,i„
system closely resembles the Chilean Aliijes. |f
constitutes one enormous mass of hi);li roiks, i,f
aboil* MO or loll III, in width, overtopped Iimi^'j.
tilililllllly by a double scries of very elevalnl iiim.
mils, HO that belweeli them a siiecessinii of hi^;!,
valleys is liiriiieil. These Andes are also iji-tln.
),Miished from those between .'I;i'^ and 11° S. Lit, |,v
their not sending olf to the I'!, lateral liriiiii'lu.,
Their eastern declivities are siipiiorled by ■.|i,,ri
cuiitreforls, which probably nowiiere extcinl U.,
ymid oO 111. into the I'!, plains.
It is reniarkable thai the elevated valleys mrii.
pyillj,' the middle of the railp- rise ill eli\ali.,ii
as they advance hirthcr N, That portion nf tli.'
raiiKc which lies between 'i\^ and '.\\'^ S. Lit. i,
occupied by all extensive nioiintaiii knot, liie An-
des of l.oxa, which, however, at no place aliaiiK
the snow line. 'I'heii follows the loii){ilii<|iii;i|
valley of ('uen(;a, which extends from IP I."/ t,,
•J° ;io', and rises to about 7,NiiO feet above Hi,.
sea. On this side no snow nioiiiitains occur, Tlh'
mountains of Assiiay, which form the N, bomnlarv
of the valley of ('iien(;a, extemliiiK betwiiii tli,.
two outer raii;,'es, rise to I r),.")00 feet above the mm,
and enter the snow line; but they are iiarniw,
occiipviii); oiilv about ;i mill, of lat, (lictwcin
2° -27' and -1° \W). To the N. of them eMin.h
the loiiKitudiiial valley of Alaiisi and llaiiilmii.,
which extends betweeii 2° 27' and lo' S. Int., ami
risi^s to about 7,!)20 f>'et above the sea, Tiie mhh-
mits of th(i raii^jcs which enclose it on the ll, i\\\,\
\V, rise to a ^jreat eh^vatioii. On the wc-tirii
raiij;c stands the famous ('himhora/.o, risiii;,' :'l,r.'ii
ft. above the l(\vel of the sea. It was until latilv
considered as the hi;;liest summit of the Andes
but it is now known that Aconca^ciia, and trc lii;,'li
peaks of the Kolivian Andes, Parinacota and Sa-
iiama, rise (Minsiderably hij,'her. On tlu^ K, raii;;ii
stand the volcanoes of Saiinay, Collancs, and hlaii-
>iaiiat('. On the N, the valley of Alaiisi and Ham-
bato is bounded by a narrow transverse riilj,'e, tlip
Alto de ('hisinclie, which hardly rises ;!00 ft. al»ivo
the adjacent h^vel ^rroiind. Hut at its extrciiiilics
and precisely on the lateral raiif,'es, rise tMii very
hi(;h siunmits; on the K, the volcano of (!oliiiiaxi,
atlaininjf |K,W)0 ft,; and on the W. the Vliiiiza.
attaining; 17,;{7(! ft. above the sea.
The valley of (iuito extends from 10' S, lat. In
20' X. lat., and has an elevation of !),(!0i) ft. almvfi
the sea. It likewise is skirted by very hij,li "iini-
mits, on the E, by Antisaiia, which attains lii,l.i'!
ft., and by C'ayambe IJ rcii, which attains lli,,"i;i,'i I;,
above the sea. The summit of the latter ninuiitaiii
is traversed by the Equator. On the W. raiip;
the hij;liest .summits are the Pichincha, risin;,'to
10,030 ft., and the Cotocache, ll),448 11. aliovt'tlie
sea.
The three longitudinal valleva of Quito, Alami,
Ilambato, and (.'ucnga, beiu}^ only separated fmm
each otlier by very narrow transverse riitp'Siimy
be considered as one valley, extendinfj 2!(i iiiilw
ill Icnf^th, Avith a mean breadth of from 12 tu hi
miles. They form the most populous and riehc-t
jMn'tion of the reiniblic of l']qnator.
The northern boundary of the valley nf Qiiiln
ia formed by a transverse rid-je between the Xi.-
vado of Cotocache and the volcano of Iiiilialum
(21' N, lat,'). To the N, of it lie the Amln of hi
Pantos, an extensive mountain rej^ion, which ix-
teiuls to l** 1 3' N. lat,, and is crowned by .severaliii;.'!!
Their fftm-
till' I'llMl.l.l,.
iTi' tlic Mini
.1 NNK. In
HlH !« it!t lllriH'.
ct till* ri|liilli>r,
IIk' llliMilllahi
III! Allili'-", It
hinli ri»\\ if
rln|l|inl |n|l;;i.
cIcviiIimI ■.iiiii
•i"<-<iiin 111 lii-li
ire nlfci ili-tin-
III C.o S. lilt. I,v
tiriil liriiiiilii'.,
Hlll'll lis illnrt
ITf I'Xtl'llll Ih'-
il vnll<\V'< "ITU-
sf ill I'liv.ilimi
I Mil-til HI 111' til''
I ;i\o S. lilt, is
II Uiiot, till' Aii-
lio jillU'r lllliiilH
lll> lllll){itll'lilllll
rriiiii :P l.V I'l
t'cl't IlllllVC till'
liin iirriir, I'li''
till' N. liiiiiiKlnry
iijj; lii'twi'i'ii til''
ft alii'Vi' till' Mil,
hey iird iiurrnw,
il' lilt. (Iii'lwiia
if tliriii ixliii'ls
\ tniil lliiiiiliiit",
(1 lo' S. Iat„ ami
1' st'it. 'rill' Mim-
it nil till' K. Illl'l
On tlir wf.-tiTii
;a/ii, ri-iiit,'-!,!'.''!
was until latily
it 111' till' Aiuli";
na, anil tii'hi;'li
rinacntii nml ^n-
Oii tlic, i;. raii-i)
illant'S ami Llaii-
Maiisi anil lliim-
is\ crsu riil^;i', tlio
isi'M ;((i(ll't.iili'iv.^
Ill its cxlrciiiiliis
I's, rise two very
ano ol'l'iiliili'ixi,
W. tilt! Yliiii/a,
jVom 10' S. lat. t.i
Jill" it.fiOi) It. alii'Vi'
vcrv liit,li ^""1-
li'li attains l'.i,i:i''
1 attains ll)..W.n!,
Jc latter iiiiiiiiitim
[)u the W. '""'r''
J'liinelia, riMiif-'t'i
l-l-W rt. alxivi' tlio
i of ()uito, Al'iu'i,
ly separati'il t'nwi
[verse riiir'''S'""y
lending '-'H' '"'1''*
J of from \i til 111
lulous and riclii'>t
lir.
valley of QwM
rbetwcen the N«-
|ano of Iiiilialiiiw
_) the Aii(li'!< of I'"
K'ffion, whii'l' w-
I'll by .several lii!;li
ANl
,iiinmit< mill volonnoo*: n« the volennne^ of ("iim-
(,«! (lull', ail'' l'a-li>. 'Ihe iiiirniw valleys w liiih
li,. ii.twi<i> the ililli rent riilKen liy wliieli it is irn-
vcr-il nil', at a ineillmii. |ii,"iiii (i. alMive the sea.
I'liji jmrtii'ii of the Amies U illmteil froni S\V.
idNK.. ami may Ih' eon-lilereil us iIi ntre of
ih.' N." Ai'iles; tor It Is lieri' that the ehalii U'l^ins
III iliv'iile into two liriliei^ial lii'iinehes ; the western
,i| wllii'll is ealleil t'linlllleril lie Ilk Ciista or ileSill-
,\■^^f^[n, whilst tho K. iH-arH the name of Amies ile
|,i. I'll.'tliS.
'I'lii' Amies of SinilH|;iin have ii hreak nt iilMiut
|0 jii' \. Lit., hy whiih the liio ile las I'atiiis eur-
rii'iitV the waters ile«eenilinK from the Andes ile
|,i< I'li-'tiis anil those whieh colleit in the valley
,,l' Vliiiiiixiler. This valley exteinls lietweeli I" l;l'
mill 1° •''•' '^'' ''^ siirl'aee is very uneven, and its
ini'aii ileviilioli may lie aliont ti.lHKI t'eet iiiiove the
.(•a. Ill Ihe nioimtaiiis wliieli extend to the l''„ of
it isa Lnv'e aliiine lake, theCuiiievca de Seliondoy,
ill wllii'll the liio I'litiiinaya or lea, a larp' trilnt-
tarv iif till' Ania/on, takes its oriirin. This !''„
rliiilii i'X|ianils eoiisideralily to the N. of 1° ."iii N.
Int., >ii iisto forma iniiiintain knot, whieh reeeives
till' name of I'aramo de las !'a|ias. A little t'ar-
tlirriiiirth (-p tt' N. lat.) the knot divides into two
iliaiiisiif iiioiintains, which advaiieiiif^ N. eiielose
till' valley of the liio Ma^dalemi, as we Nliall see
ailirwanis. From the mountain knot of the i'a-
raiiiiiiie las I'aiias a transverse riiiu'e liraiielies nlF
wi-twaril, imitmtc the eastern chain of the Andes
with the Cordillera of .SindiiKua, and sepiiratiiiK
till' valley III' Almauuer from the >;reat vaMey of
tlii'l'aiii'ii. Near the place where this fransver>e
niii^'e leaves the moimtain knot of Ins I'nstos is
till' viileimo de I'uraet', ll,;'ill IT. aliove the sea.
'I'lijs viili'Hiio may he considered as the most N.
I'liiiit of the Andes of l'',i|iiator, comprisiiihr those
nt'i/iiito and of los I'astos.
Tiieeiiuiitries lyin^oii lioth declivities and at the
fiKitiif the .Viides" of the l'",i|nator are verv thinly
liilialiiti'ii, and almost entirely liy idiori;,'!nal na-
tiiiiis, iiiuicipiainted with civilisation and com-
iniri'e. Hut the elevated valleys lyiii)^ lietweeli
the two riin},'es are comparatively well peopled,
|iartly hy tlie descendants of Kiiriipeans, and
|iiirtly liy Indians who have made some profjress
ill I'ivilisatiiin, and arc aci|uainteil with the ad-
vaiitani's of eommeree. Hence the f^reat com-
iiiinial riHid which traverses this portion of tlie
Amies runs longitudinally over the internal val-
li'vs, iH'fjimiinnoii the north at I'opayan ("2° 2(1' 1 7"
N. lat.) in the vaHev of the (.'aiiea, and terini-
iiatiii;; at Truxillo (H° it' 40" S. lat.) on the Paeilie.
Fruiii I'ojiavnn ("),72 1 ft. above the sea) it nscend^
till' Alto de'Koble (('slTti tt.). and then tho Alto de
(Jiiilijuase {(i,lltl ft.). Hence it descends to the
iliciiie (iiiaehicou (;i,(M2 ft.), whence it rises afjaiii
hy ili'>;rt'es to the town of AlinaKuer (7,4-10 ft.) in
till' valley of Almafjuer, It next enters the moun-
laiiis of los I'astos, |ias.sin;{ over the I'aranio de
l'urii),'uay (!),40«) to the villaf,'e of I'asto (8,o7« t\.).
Siutli of this it descends to the Kio de (inaitara
i'VI.'iti ft.), and aj^ain ascends n steep declivity to
the villiifje of (iuachuKal (10,;{20 ft.), whence it
p.wcstuthe village of Tulian (10,112 ft.). Havin/.;
traversed the I'aramo de Holichc (ll,o04 tt.), ami
the Alto dc I'ueara (10,400 ft.), it descends by n
stM'|i declivity to tho river Cliota, which is passed
at the I'lmte'de CIr.ita (ri,2K() t\.), and hence it
liads upward to the town of (iuito (9,");t() ft.).
From (Jiiito Ihe roail runs over tho plain (o the
Alto lie Chisinclie, which ha.s a little more than
l",il(iil ft. of elevation. It next passes throu;ch
the valley bv Hambato (8,H(i4 ft.), Hiobamba
Niieva (9,472ft.), (iuamote (10,224 ft.), and Alausi
(','J84ft.). Between the last-nientiouod place and
>i':^ lir
the town nf riienen Is the famous and dnntreroiM
iia^s oxer the I'liranio dc .Vxiuix, whlih in It4
IduheKt point, the j.adilil de ('iidbiil, ri-is In
l.'i,.')di'i ft., and {■> iiliiivi' the '<iiow line. .Mure or
fewer lixes are auniially lott on this fiiinimii,
Ciieni;!! is H,i; In I'l. iiliiive the sea. I.i'iiv In^ this
town Ihe rmid dciiuds In the Itio de Siirii^iini
|7,;I7)I ft.), iind ai/ain ri'<i's to the Alin de I'ldhi
(III.IMMI ft. I, wlielio it pasie'< to l.nXll ()'>,7)lH ft.).
From I.Mxa the road passes in the \V. derlivity
of Ihe AmU s.where it traverses Ayavacii (X,'.ll»2 t\.)
and l)llcr>>s ( |,7ilH it.), whence it repasHcs Iho
raiiKc bv till' I'aramo lie I Inaniani (lo.'.M'ii* t>.),iini|
enters t)ie valley iil' the .Marauon, In thi< it tra-
vers,'^ I iiiancibiiiiiba (t!,.'ltiO ft.), Zulaea ( I.l.i2 It.),
the I'aramo de Vaiimea (H,7tiM ft.), the I'asso do
I'licura (.'l.'ViJ ft.), Miintiin (H.jiiii |\.), and Caxii-
iiiarea ('.•,2mi It.). From the liot-meiitiiiiiid plaen
il ai.'iiin pasMs the Andes to liuaiii;aiiian';l
(H.oiio II.), and runs heme to Cascas (I.;In| It.)
and l.os Mnkiiiiis (liilM ll.i.terminatiii^at I'nixillit
(200 ft, abiiv:' the sea). Thus this loiif,' nuid riiii'4
I'oiitiiiually over mountains in traversing tl^^
of lat.
Frmn <inayai|iiil a road leads to (juito. From
the lirst-nienliiiiied place it runs thrmiyili the lii\/
fxriiiinds >klrtiii;;tlii' K'in dc I iiiayaipiil to ( 'araeol,
and then iiIihik' the banks of the Itio ( ijiluir In Ca-
Inma, where the ascent of the niniintains cnui'
mcliies. The acclivity is extremely .-ticp lielweiil
Caluma and riiimbn, whieh is situated mi an
elevated cnimtry S. nf the ('himbora/n. Frtiiii
Chiinlio the mad leads to Mocha and Hnmbato,
where it jnins the ^reat mountain mad.
At abniit 1" 20' N. lat. the Andes nf Sinda^iiii
branch ntf frnm the niniintain kimt nf Ins I'listus.
The I''., ran^je divides attain at alioiit -p .V N. liil.
in two hi;;'h mniiiitain riin;;es. Thus, we Iind N.
nf the latter parallel the Andes diviiled into tlii'eo
distinct chains, which eiiclnse the Nallevs of tho
rivers iMiif^il.iieiia and Caiica. These ciiaiiis aro
ealled the !■;. Central and W. Andes.
Till! Kimtfrn Aiiilfn lA' New (iranaihi run be-
none of its Minmiits, exieiit Ihe Nevmln de Cliitil
('}° ."lO' N. lat.) and the Nevado de Mnciichnes
tween 2°.V and 'P .'10' N. hit., nearly parallel with
the central ran^e NN !■'..; but N. of 'fi .'to' they
incline farther I']., running' due NF.. Thnii;;U
icieiit 111
le N'evj
(8° 12') enter the line of perpetual cnii^;clatinn, its
ineau height is cnininniily abnvt! the rej^inii of
trees; and the /(((r^miw, whieh extend on its sum-
mits, have a scanty ve;;etatinn, and rise to an
eh'vation of between 12,000 and 14.000 ft. I.as
IJosiis, the most N. of these paramos, terniiiiates
near 0° N. hit., and may be considered as the must
N. extremity of Ihe Andes; for the hilly ((iiintrv
lyiiif,' farther N. about the towns of Tiicuyo and
Itaripiisiinento is not known to contain summits
exeeediiiK 1,000 or ."i.OOO ft. in elevation, and on
that account alone cannot be considered as a con-
tinuation of the gij^antic mountain HyHteni uf the
Andes.
The eastern doelivity of this rnnf,'c is so ])reei[ii-
tons that it alfords no space for agriculture and
can only 1)0 ascended with j^reat ilifHculty; but
on its \V. declivity recline several extensive talde-
laiids, exliibitin}f a more or less level surface, and
risinf^ to an elevation of from 0,000 to il.OOO It.
above the sea. Such are the rich and fertile jilains
of HoKota. with those of Tiinja, Socorro, ,Sof,M-
moz/.o, and I'amplona. These table-lands termi-
nate rather abruptly, and at a little dislance from
the banks of the Hio Maj,'dalena. The river
Fiinzha, or Hio do liopita, wlieii issiiinj,' fn.m the
|ilain, precipitates itself at Teiiuendama, at two
liounds, down a perpendicular heifjht of (ioO ft.
In no other cataract is there so great a mass of
AM
vtij
!> - 1 •V'l
i,
, '*.■ '
•'■ 'S:i|
an
ASUKH
Y/ttivt prrrl|iitili>il fr<im mi ifrrnt ii liri;,'lit! mill j I lc\ntiiiti of 1 1„')0| rt. nluivp iho IivpI nfirip
U\
%r
ii,
'ikf "olitliilr III' llir |i|||"i', llii' liiMil'iiiln r )il' llli
Vi>K<'tii>l<»i, anil till' 'iri'iiilt'iil runr, prfKnit a Mi'iic
of iHiriMilli'il Nitliliinily.
'I'lii' I'.. Aiiilt''" nr>' lwir<> IrnviTxi'il l»y JIip r<mil
li<n)liiiK rrmii llii^ntii in 4 'nrriu'iiK, Kruin Ilir rii|ii-
iiil III' N'i'W (iriininla it riiiiH nviT tlir liiMi' IjiihI nt'
lliiKiilll llliil 'rillljii III till' wilirri''* III' llir 'I'l-uiii/l, n
trilillllirv III' tllr '>iiKlllllii//<i, wllrrr it |iil"»r« iiViT
III!' I'lirillllii ill' Alllliirililrrii, nil till' Nliiiiniil nl'
vliirli It nitfiiiih nil I'li'viilinii III' l:.',H,'iO IK iiIhivo
till' m'li, It tlit'M iji'irniilM tiinanU till' I''.. |il/iiii i
lll'l'liri' lllllllllllU' Wllirll, it IIKIlill llni'lMll" till' rilM^I'
III llii' town It l',iiii|iliiiiii, uliirli iiriiliiiMv i'< imI
li'HN lliiiii tP.iKMi I'l. lii((|i. ']'.. ilic N. Ill' liil'i it irii-
vi'TNi'M till' iipiKT jiiirl lit' III!' riiMKi', mill |iiiN-'i'ii to
li'iiitiiio ill' riiriilii, Kriiiii till' liiHliimiii'il pliii'i'
till' riiMil !'• nillilr IIVIT the liiu'll (.'■'■'O**''" wlllrll
><kirt till' N\V. ili'clivity nl' lln' rliiilii, |ia-<->iiiK
IIii'iiukIi Mi'i'iilii, Mriii|ii/ii, mill 'rnixilln, tn To-
ciiMi. Kniiii 'I'l'i'iiyo It tnivi'rii'K tlir liilly ri'Kiiiii
liy wlllrll till' Slcrrii ilr IiiCuhIh N iinilril fu tlii'
Ainlri. jiiiKMiiiK iliriiii^li lliii'i|uiNliiii'iilii, S, CiirliM,
N'llli'liliil, 1111(1 \'li'tiil'lil. III Clll'liri'lli.
Till Ci'iitnil .-tiulfiii I Nitw tirmiiiilii run N.,witli
n NlJKlit iti't'hiiMliiiii I.' till' K., -Mill I'lirin Ix'twi'di
llli'lr riilMiMriM'cnX'nl niiil /i° l.'i nlli' ^Tctit immhn nl'
rni'ki, iiliniii 'lOor /ill niili'H In lircMilili, wliiwi' nIiIi'h
lire niily I'limiwi'il liy raviii("<, liiit nut iiitiTMi'dt'il
liy viilli'yn, Its iiicmi lii'i^,'lit hi'I'Iiix tn lie riitliiT I li° N. Int. It niiiH In tlir \V„ ami »r|iariiiii tl
It ili"<ri'iiiU al'liruiirili In llir I'uvii nl" ('ariii)(irii,
Ihi' vallry nlthi' Ciiiiril (;l,|.i'^ li'i't).
Tin- U'. ,t»itii 111' Ni'« tiriiiiiiila arc ilu' ,|,„,^
rwiui', wlili'h I'lirtlirr H. in cnlliil Hirmi ij.. |,
Cimla or ill' SillilllKIIM. It liiWiTl rirtlnjillTlllilv III
iiilviiiii'iiiK In till' N., "II that lii'iwi'i'ii 1'^ ,'|ii'',|,|
• >° N, Int. \\* inraii rli'Milinii ilm's nnt i'Xi'(.,,{
r».0(MI nr (i.dllO ft. iilinvc till' ni'II, nr I'rnin 'i.lHKI |„
.■|,IMMI l'(, iiIkivi' llii'Xalliy III' till' I 'aura : imri. m.
Iiri'aillli rnMiiiliTiilili'. |iriilinlily imt iiinri' Ilmniv,,,,
l.'i In ■.'<> iiiiliK, lull il ri'i'N with a vrry |in'ii|iiti,i|,
iln'li\ity. N. Ill' .■)'5 I hi' raiiKi' ii liiuhcr. nml ii,
liri'ailtli iiinri' ri>ii'<ii|i'rali|i'. Iim lii^'hoi mininiii
\* till' 'I'nrra ilrl Cli M'.. nl" Sii\ilii, whiiii,
linui'ViT. !<< I'ar rmiii ntl'iiniii;; tlu' kiuiw Iim, mH
|iriihalily iIim'h iml riir In lliiiih llinri' lllilli IH.iiKi
li'i'i. N, III' iIiIm niiiiiniil till' ran^fi' a|i|>iiiar|ii,
rliiKi' In till' li'in<'aiu'a. liniiiii);ilM lii^li lnuik^ I,..
Iwi'i'ii till' Salln ill' S. Aiitniiln anil llir lliii'i"|.{,|
l'!>i|iirilii Sanln, nii<l rniinitiilin^' with || ^^„.
Hill- ninui'M III' till' Ci'iiinil .Viiilrn, ai« It win'.iiii,.
niniiiitain knni, 'I'lii' Wi'hiiTii AihIi'm hiiiiI fr,!,,
this |initil a ran);i' tnwiinl.M the rarihlii'iiii Sn.
whirli nkirlM till' liin Catira nii thi' W., I'xtin.jiiij
In till' N. nr«° N. Int., ami cniilains Ihr Aliip,!"
Virnin, n Hiininiit whirhallaiiiH iimri' than '.i.hinih.
nri'li'>'alinM,
Krotii Ihi' W. AtiilcH (I riil>;(' lirnnrlios nil' mar
Kri'iilcr than that nrihc l''„ AiuIrN, ami it I'liiilaitiN
Hi'vrral hiiiimiiIIh wliii'li cxo'cil thi> Htinw Hiii>, 'i'lir
Itin.st rciiiarkalili' nl' tlicin arc rmni S. In N.; the
Ni'vailiiN ill' lliiila, ill' lliira);iian,ili' Tnlinia (wliii-li
iittiiiiiH iM.il.'iii I'l,), iimlih' lii'rv'cn. In thr viriiiity
nl'llir Itillcr (^fi I.V) the rmi^'n ('X|iaml)* tn nliinit
iliiiililc il.H wiiltli, M'pariiliii;; Ml Ilic hiiiih' litnc liitn
Kcvcriil riil^cH, Nnas tn fiirni tininiitiltilii kiinl,wiih
iiitirvrtiliif; viillcyH. This iiiniintiiin rcf^inii, knnwii
ittiilcr the iiMiiic III' Sierra ilc .\iitiiii|iiin, I'nrniH in
its iipiicr valleys a hi^li iiniiitry, t'min ri.OOli tn
T,lilMi I't. ahnve the wa. nil which the riilKcs rimi
iJ.iMMi It, anil ninre. It Mii|irnMi'hes very clnse In
the Kin Caiicii, mi ns tn skirt iln lieil I'nr iilmiit h'lO
miles. (>|i|Hisitc to the liinh hmiks tiirtncil by
I hoe riil^'cs, nther ninnntaiiis, liclnii^riii;^' In the
W, Aiiili ^ ii|i|iriincli as near tn the river, which
riitiH I'nr nearly IJO miles in an iinniense clrl't,
over a nicky and rnf,';rc(l hntlntn, ami rnrnis a
Hcrii s (ircalttnii'tH ami rapiils lielween .Salin ile S,
Anliiiiin, ami Itncca del I'lsiiiritn Sanln. In all
lliiss|iac(' the river is i|nite unlit I'nr iiavi;;atiiiii,
fitiil travelling hy lanil is in this cniintry very
I'ttliuuiti); ami mil withniit dan^^'r. 'I'he riil^eM
which issue fnnn the imnintain kiint nrihe Sierra
lie Anliiii|iiia M|i|iriiiich the Ilio Ma^rihilcnn tn n
distiniee nC ii lew miles, and tcrniiiiatc nut )iir
siiiirccs of the li'iii lie S. ilnaii. which falls iiitiiili.<
I'acillc, I'riitn tlmse nl' the Atrain, which ruii'i tn
the < 'arrililican Sea, This raiij^i' smin tiirn-tciil,!.
NWV., and advanees in Ihat direclinn IiiImxh
the Itin Alralii and Ihe racilic, lis eli'vuiifiii
seems iinl III lie cnnsidcralileal Ihc heKiiiiiiii;:,iiii<!
it j;riiws Inwcr as it advances farther N, It miuk
tn ilisa|i|iear eiilircly hi'tween 7° and H'^ iiii|j(i,i|(.
In Ihe harliniir nl' t'lijiica on llie I'ai'itic; I'liriii,
niniiiitnin ran;ce is I'niind on the islliniii« nf
Panama, where il is iiarrnwest.
Six roiids arc said to cross the W. Aiidci: Imi
they can mily he used with ^r^'n\ ililliciilty, mi
account nf Ihe c\liiiiii' slci'|iiiess nf the riilp'.
They arc cnnininiily ini|inicticalile fur iiiiili',-', uinl
travellers as well as pmils are liriiiij;ht ipmt .n
the hacks nf Indians. The roads nmsl iihi'iI nr
that nf Las .Inntas, which leads from Cali in thr
valley nf theCanca In lliiciiavenliirn. a liarlKiir
on the racilic; the road of S. Aiikii^I'iii. coiiiini-
iiif,' Cartnpi with \ii\iln; and that of N'lrnip'.ln
which the Inwn of Citarn in the valley nf iln'
Atratii communicates with yViitin(|uia mi ll»'
hanks of the CaiuM. (Kor n further accuinii if
existing' and |irii|iiised roads over the All(l(■^«('
liii!/iriii/.i, at the end nf this article.)
77;<' llinliii/i/ of the Andes is very inijicrfrillr
known. Only n Nmall |inrliiiii of their ii:inii'ii"
exieni lias heen visited liv seii'iilillc trnvi'llir>
frnin the place where thai river joins the Itio
Cancn, ahnut H° !10',
That portion of the Central Andes wliicli fonns j and the information ohlnineil from them tcarln-
one iindivided nuihs is crossed hy two roads ; one j only a few isolated facts, which do imi jii-iifv
lending from liopila to I'opaynn, and Ihe other to ; ^;cneral cniiclnsioiis. We are, Imwcver, iiit'nniiiil.
Carlaj,'!!. The tirst runs alter descemliiiK from
the elevated )ilain of Jlopitn to the hanks of Ihe
li'io Ma^dnleiin, in the valley of this river to the
(S. n» far as the town of l^a I'lata, whence it turns
\V., and erosseH the raii^e over the I'aramo de las
(iiiniiacns, on wliieli it rises to II. TO.") ft. ahove the
sen. It then descends into the valley of the (.'ancn
to the town of I'opaynn. The roail between Ilo-
ffota niul Oartajio descends from tlie plain of Ho-
fjotn («,73(! ft.), crosses the Hio Maplaleiin at the
pnsH (Ic (iiinynennn (l,'2()<> ft.), passes tlirou<;li the
town of Ihn^iie (•l,'l«(l ft.), and crosses the rniifjc
liy the famous mountain )inss of (^nindiii, lietween
the Xevndos of llnra^iian and Toliinn; at its
Li^lic'ut iMiiiit, the Guriloilel I'uramo, it attains nn
tliiit the most frci|nei!t of the iirimilivi' riii'l> i
the Alps — urnnite nnd j^niciss — arc hy no 1111:111
frequent in the Andes, which nre eoiiiposcil iiih-iI;
of porphyry and inicn-slale. I'lirphyry is liy lir
tlie most widely extemlcd of the niistraiiticil rmk-
of the Andes, and occurs thron^rh the whole riiiyf
at all eU^vations, nnd freqiu'iitly the hi;rhi'st Mini-
mits nrc eoniposed of it. Next to ])or|iliyry ami
mica-slnte, truchyteaiidhasalt nre most fri'iiuall}
met with.
Vidcnnoea nrc frequent in certain pnrtiims nf |
the rniif;''. ('apt. 11. llnll ohserved apliciiiiTiH'in'ii. I
which induced him lo think Ihat a volcinin c.visi'
on one of the Inrj^cr islands N. of Cnpe Ilnrii, iiii'i
t hut the observed phununienon waspruducuclbyaii
ANDK8
130
ill of I'lirlii^., II,
I).
Ill iin' iIk' »»mi-
Itxl Hitmi ill' U
(•irtlniill'fillilv III
Wl'fll '.''■' :i"'«ii|
IM'N not IXl'IKJ
iir I'miii •J.iHHM,,
'iiiirii ; liiir ii lu
t ntiirr iliniiffMiTi
very |in'ci|iiii,(i,
I liiulicr, Aiul li<
IiI^IicmI Niiiiiniii
r Si>>illl< «Ulirli,
III' umiw line, niii|
iinro llwiii l",i««i
iiii^t' iiii|iniarlii,
li lli^ll IllUlkn l«-
ll.l till- llcMVl.l.l
\r witll lll'Ml|H»,.
'H, «l« it WTI'. "Ill'
Aiiili'r* Hi'ii'l Iriin
i' ('iirililirllM Nil,
lie NV., cxli ti'lini;
iliiiiis till' AIiimI,.
:iliiri'l1lllll'.).<")IMI.
liratwlio'* citV iinf
mill Hi'|iiiniii"< III!'
p'liii'li ('ikll!*iiii"ili''
ilii, wliicli niM« III
(• Hiinll I urns liillii'
iliriTl'iKii Ipi'iMim
ifu'. llH I'li'Miiimi
till' lii'Kiiiniii;:.!!!!!
rtlicr N. Il »<'iiin
7" mill >*^ itl"»i'''
tlif I'lii'ilic; I'nriiii
II tlu' ii<lliiiiii'* I'f
lie W. Aiiclt"«: I'Ul
j;n'(»t (lilliriilly, mi
IIH'SM of till' riilp'.
lalilc for iiiiiliMiinl
V liroii(,'lit (ivirun
[iuIh iiii'^I "•'•''I iif
Is fnnii Ciili ill t'li'
liviMiliini. a liiirl»'ur
All^'U'-lill. I'lillll"'!-
ll'at tif Virrii-.liy
till' valley 111' ill"
AiiliiKiiiiii "" ""',
fiirlluT ni'i'iiiiiii "I
ivcr the AmU's, w
icU'.)
IS very iiii|it'rfi'i'tl'
of tlifir h'.miiii- ■
■ii'iilitif trll\Tllc^^.
froiii tlifin Kiiili"
ifli <li> nut jii-ii(|
lliowcvcr. iiiriiniuil.
livimiiivi' riH'kM'l
-arc I'v 11" '"'■''"'
.•(' (•OIII\IOf('ll 111""'')'
Iri.riiliyry i-' liyf"
(' uiistraiiticilr'"'-'
,'h tlK' wlicilf riiii).'!'
Iv the lii^'lii-'t Miiii-
t to i«iriiliyryanil
re mttst freiiucuily
[•ortain portions »! I
\\('\\ Ullllfll'lIIH'"""'
lat ft volfiiiii"-'''*
(of Cniip Hiirii.iwl
l,.,n,lrtni Iwl r«p». KlnR, who lurveyml thi-mi
fiiiiml » v"l<«no In Tli'rr* M Furuo, nor in «n.v
Inilw-r imrti"" "( Ih" w"Ko wmth of At\° S. lat. Hut
liinlirr N. Ilx'y <i«'i'nr In ifn^t nunilM<rR. Four
iMiUnomi urn vUll>lii Aroni tho Ulmnl ofChiliM';
l,h,.v lldiin tlirio|)|K»iillinio««t, iM'twi'un 4i\° mid VJP
L |||,_ ^till nmri' niinn'Mim nni voliitMiiM-K In Mm
li hilfin Anilt'N not Iiwk tlinn nlimlwii lo-iiin known
Itii lir thfrc In a «tatii of m-tivily. Th» nioxi N. In
lilinti'l' ('i"iitinilx>. wiini'wlmt to llic H. ofilil°S.
Iliii !'*■' Ix'tw'*'** "*'** voliniio nml that of AtH-
Vniiii* (Iw'w'''"" '•"" "'"' '^'^ ^' '"'•) "" *'"'''""'• "
Lnti'il •<• »'*'"•' FttftliPf \. Ihti volranif nioiin-
|,i,iii« iKciiriinly In tim W. raiiKii of the l»ollvi«n
lAiiiliKi noiii* of tint hiuh NiiininitM of the K. riuiK«
\tiv\»it <'v<'r ln'cn known to Iwivn niiiilf nn «im|i-
LiiM.iircmitliilHinoko. That |M>rtlim ol Ihi' Anih-*
L which voii'iwili' agency in inont aotivc lien \h\-
Swii .'li° H. Int. anil ■i*' N. lot. Tim nuinlxT of
Liiiiiiiil" wli'"*«" «'niiition» iini rt'conh'il Im hcM- vi-ry
[iiiiniiliTnliic; nml lluintHililt lit Ini'liniul to think
llmt till' vnlli'VH N. of tin- |in>w of Annuny nr«) to
I I'onHJilcror OM in'iun |ilu<'<'i| on an tixtfiiNivn
..ilcmiii^ iMwii*, mill that niimt of tim tiiinmroiiH
Liiiiinilii HurrDiiiiiliiiK them liavi> oiicn Mirvcil, anil
Lhv ntfaiii M>rv)>, at chaniii'lM for tIm xulitorrancan
L' iummiiiiliatiii); with llm atniiM|ilii'rt>. Tim
ftirtlii'Kt N. of tliosit volcmioi'H in that of l'ura(;i<,in
Ihi' iic'it:li'x'"f*"'"'<l "^ Popnyan, whiTfl tlm AikIhh
iririn til iliviilu into throu rnngiiH ; which Nutim to
If, in tlii'ir prcwnt state, (initii t-xeniiit from vol-
niiio a^vnRy, lumu of thoiriiuminitH liuviiiK vvur
liiviii an i-ruptiiin.
Sii (HPftioii of tho fclobc Is (tulijpct to Hurh fro-
Lrnt mill friKhtful enrthquakoH iw tlin couiitriuH
|inlKMom(!il within thu raiiKd of the AikIoh, and
hine lyiii(? Iietwppii them and the I'acillc (K-ean.
Kiobamlia, Callao,
and othont, have
Itililtirent tiroen been more or lorn* destroyed Ity
Pii'ir attsncy.
/.iMd/i^iTJe/Ma/Coni^e/tt/iVm.— ThcolMicrvationH
Aileby Ihimholdt in tho AndeH indnncd him to
Ix the Know line near thu equator, at an elevation
iri.T.'ii) ft.; and he thought that, near tho
rupio, it would lio found at ahout 14,U()() ft., or
jumrwliat higher. lUit Mr. I'eiitlaiid fimiul it
Ur 17° S. lat., at nearly 17,000 ft. ; and later ol>-
tnationit tix it near l'i° S. lat., at aliout l*i,<UM) ft.
txive the level of tho Hca. It in farther remark-
^Ic, that though a groat number of BuminitH
i aliovo the snow line, glauiers aro of raru oc-
\mncQ in the AndoH. TIiIm m partly to bo at-
Hbuted to the relative position of their Hummit^,
■hich ({oiivrally form a continuou!* lino, without
pinK other xummita on their sidoH ; and partly* to
kecoiiitiilf rahle distance which everywhere is found
( uitervcne between two summitx. It is only in
ke narrow ravines, by which some of the sides of
p ),naiit Dummits are furrowed, that glaciers of
nail extent are met with.
I Vrgtiation and Zoology of the Andes. — The dif-
mt plants and trees peculiar to tho different
^ons of tho globe appear in regular succession,
iwe ascend from the level of the ocean to tho
rii(ht« of the Andes. In tho lower grounds, bo-
kfen the tropics, from the level of tho soa to tlio
fijiht of from 3,000 to 6,000 ft., cassava, cacao,
[aiiie, plantains, indigo, sugar, cotton, and coffee
je cultivated. Indigo and cacao, the plantain or
Je banana tree, and the cassava nwt reipiire great
at to be brought to maturity, fjenerally a climate
[which the mean temperature is To", 'But cotton
til cotTee will grow at a considerable elevation,
Jd sugar is cultivated with success in the tcm-
mte parts of Quito. Miuzo is cultivated in the
iVou I.
UliiW IVIIlg >N'[Wi*ni iimiii iiiiii UK!
Ibetii'wnM of Hogoto, Quito, Kiol
piipiajxi, Val|>araiMo, Conce|icion, ni
Itilimrent times been moro or Ics
Munfl rlimate M the lianana; lait Itn rulllvation
i*xteniU ovur a much wider Nphrn<, an it arrlvpii at
maturity at an elnvation of tl.ooo ft. alMiv« the ura.
Th« low country within the tmtilcs U aU> thn
ri'gion of orangn^ pine-apph's, anil tho mimt d«ill-
cious fniilN. Hf twi><>n the altitudoii of (I.ihhi ft. ami
D.IHIO ft. lien tho cliinato U'xt >iuito<l for tlm cultiim
of all kiniU of KiiroiN'nn grain. W'hoal, undor tho
(>(|uator, will Mddoin fonn an oar IkiIow an eleva-
tion of 4/iOO ft., or ri|M>n if aiNivti that of IO,tMNl ft.
At the Mime tiiiio it must Ixi olMorvitil that tho
Kuro|M>aii ooloniNts have not sulHciontly varioil
thoir agricultural oxpcriments to ascertain' oxactly
the niiiiiiniim of liolglit at which Kuro|Ntan coroalia
would cointi to nmtiirity in the oi|uinoxial rogioim
of America. lliinilNihlt montions that in tho
Cararcas Im saw tine linrvosts of wheat near Vic-
toria, in tIm latitude of UY> III' N., at thu height of
l,Oti) and 1,000 ft., and at Cuba wheat HourishoN
at a still Hinallor elevation. Kye and barley, on-
|M«cittlly the latter, reNi<«t cold iM'ttor than wheat;
they are accordingly cultivated ut a greater eleva-
tion, liarloy yields abiiiulant harvusts at hoightit
whore thu tlierinonieter randy keeps un during tho
day above tt"'^ Fall, Within thu limltH in which
KiiniiH'an grain tlouriNhes is to lie found the oak,
whicli from an elevation of l),20(t ft. tiover deHconds,
near the eipiator, In'Iow that of ttJM) ft., though it
is met with in the parallel of Mexico at the height
of only 2,*!20 ft. lloyond tho limit of !),00() ft.
large trees of every kind Uigiii to disup|M'ar, though
some dwarllsh pines are to Imi found at thu height
of i:i,000 ft., nearly 2,000 It. from the lino of per-
(Mttual snow. The grasses clothe the ground at an
elevation of from 13,/iOO ft. to iri.lOO ft.; and from
this to tho rogiotis of ico and snow tho only plants
visible are the lichen, which covers the face of
the rocks, aiul seems even to penetrate under tho
snow.
In districts as elevated as the valley of Titicacji,
agriculture is conilned to potatoes, onions, and ca|>-
sicum, and to tho grain called i/uinna {Chenopedium
qui.wa, Lin.) ; liarley and ryu are only cultivated
as fiMtdor. ()n the plain of Bogota a farinaceoui)
rout, called aracacha, is cultivated, and lately some
attempts have been made to introiluce its culture
in Kngland. Trees are found to ascend to 12,000 ft.
or 14,000 ft. on tho declivities of tho mountains ;
but their summits, which commonly form plains
of some extent, are nearly bare of vegetation,
nourishing only two or three kinds of low plants.
Among the vegetable productions of the Andes,
nono has obtained greater celebrity than tho cin-
chona, or Jesidts' bark, which is now known to
grow not only on different parts of tho Andes, but
also on tho other high mountains of S. America.
Tho liost bark, however, is collected on the Andes
between 5*' N. lat. and I'P H. lat., where tho trees
grow at an elevation of from 10,000 to 14,000 ft.
above the sea.
The most remarkable kind of animals in the
Andes is the sjiccics comprising the guanacos,
llamas, and vicunas. The llamas aro used as ani-
mals of burden ; but they are slow, making only
al)out 12 miles a day, and carrj'ing altout 70 lbs.
of burthen. Tho vicunas give a very valuable kind
of wool. Among birds, the condom have always
attracted the attention of travellers, on account
of their enormous size. They are a species of
vulture.
Mineral fFealth, — If the high table-land of Ana-
huac in Mexico be excepted, no mountain range
can vie with the Andes in mineral riches, especially
in the precious metals. Many of the rivers de-
scending from the Andes between the tropics con-
tain small particles of pold in their sand. The
particles of gold deposited in the alluvial soil
K
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ANDES
NkirtinfT the 1)«(Ih of some of tlienc rivers linvo at-
tractoil tho attention of luiru])nuii.s, and at Home
plucitH tlie Hoil is carefully wuHlicd. The alluvial
noils richest in gold are those lying to the W. of
the Central Andes of Xew Granada, on both sides
of tho Kio (lauca; as also in the provinces of Uar-
Imcoas and Choco along the Pacilic. In the latter
districts |ilatinn also (xicurs; and, till within these
few years, wlien it has been found in the Ural
moinitains, these were considered as the onlj>' places
in which it was to be met with. Alluvial soils
rich in gold are alsv) found along the rivers which
descend from the range of the Holivian Andes,
between 14° and 17° S. lat.; and here, too, con-
t-iderable quantities of gold are extracted. The
annual produce of the lavaderos and gold mines
of the Andes is stated by Hiimlwldt to have
amounted, in the l)eginning of the I'Jth century, to
2><;},42'J oz.; equal, at 4/. jieroz., to 1,133,710/. As
far as can be ascertained, it has rather decreased
than increased since that time.
Silver occurs in many i)laces of the range be-
tween 33° antl the equator ; but it is conmionly
found ut an elevation where vegetation nearly
ceases, which renders the working of the mines
very expensive, and frequently disappoints the
otherwise well-founded expectations of the under-
takers. The number of mines which have been
worked and abandoned is very great ; many of
tnem, however, arc still worited. The most cele-
brate<l silver mines are those of Fotosi and Pasco.
The former are in the Cerro de Potosi (19° 30' S.
lat.), which rises to 1(),()37 ft. above the sea. This
mountain is ])erforatcd in all directions; and it is
said, tiiough the statement be jirobably exag-
gerate<l, that there are no fewer than 5,000 exca-
vations in it. The Cerro de Pasco is a hill, rising
on the high jdain of Bombon (about 11° S. lat,).
It has been worked for more than two centuries,
and may now be considered as the richest silver
mine of America ; unless, which is doubtful, it be
surpassed by the silver mines discovered in N.
Chili in 1830, about 30 or 40 m. S. of the town of
Copiapo, where silver ore is very abundant. There
arc also to be mentioned the silver mines in the
iSan Juan i)rovince of the Argentine republic,
Avhere also, according to late reports, gold has been
iliscovered. The yield of the San .Iiiau mines, to
work which a company has been formed under the
patronage of the Argentine government, is very
considerable. At the beginning of the present
century the annual produce of tlie silver mines of
the Andes was stated by Humboldt to amoiuit to
()!>l,4y2 lbs. troy; which, if we take the silver at
5». the ounce, gives a sum of 2,074,470/. It is not
easy to estimate its amount at present ; but pro-
bably it is not much fallen off.
Mercury or quicksilver occurs in many places
N. of 14° 8. lat., and S. of the equator; but since
the destruction of the mines of Guancavelica, we
are not sure whether it be anywliere worked.
These, which were extremely rich, yielding from
4,000 to 0,000 cwt. a year, were unluckily ruined
in 1789, through the ignorance and mismanage-
ment of a superintendent.
Copper seems to occur very frequently S. of 14°
S. lat. Large masses of nearly pure copper are
Btated to exist on the surface of the S. extremity
of the valley of Titicaca, but the expense of
bringing them down to the coast is at present so
great that they cannot be turned to advantage.
In the N. jirovinces of Chili several mines are
worked with advantage. Miers estimated the
quantitj' of copper exported from these countries
in 1824 at 40,000 cwt.; in 1829 it rose to 00,000,
and has since materially increased. It is mostly
exported to China, Iniliu, and the U. States.
Ores of lend, tin, and iron exist in variouii parti;
but they arc little worked.
Travelling in the Amies. — The improvement o(
the countries embosomed within tho AndM ij
much retarded bv the want of easy communication.
Sometimes the mtercourse l)ctween places in th(
immediate vicinity of each other is interrupted hv
quebritrias, or rents, generally nanow, someiimw
of a vast depth, and with nearly perijendiculi,
sides. The famous natural bridge of Icononxu, it
Columbia, leads over a small quebradn ; it is t>|^
vated abfiut 312 ft. above tlie torrent that flowj
in the lH)ttom of the chasm. Most of the torrenti
that are passed in travelling over the Cordillfrai
are fordable ; though their imjietuosify ia micIi
when swollen by tho rains as to detain "truvollen
for several days. IJut when they are too deep \i,
be forded, or tho banks too inaccessible, suspensioo
bridges are thrown over them, of a singular make:
but which, notwithstanding their apparently Jaj.
genius an(l fragile construction, are found to ansiirr I
the purjioses required. Where the river is iiamur, I
with high banks, they are constructed of «•(«({ I
and consist of four long beams laid dose tu^^eihtt I
over the precipice, ond forming a path of alioutil
yard and a half in breadth, being just suflicinnl
for a man to pass over on horseback. These bricljM I
have become so familiar to the natives that fm I
pass them without apprehension. Where ikil
breadth of the river will not admit of a bwil
being laid across, ropes constructed of ltejucoi,t
species of thin elastic cane, of the length reqiibl I
are thrown over. Six of these ropes are stretcWl
from one side of the river to the other ; two, in- 1
tended to serve as parapets, being considerallrl
higher than the other four ; and the latter k'iazi
covered with sticks laid in a transverse (lirci;iici,l
the bridge is passed by men, while the mules, Ixin; I
divested of their burdens, are made to swim acre* |
All travellers have spoken of the extreme da
of passing these rope bridges, which look lilit|
ribands suspended above a crevice or irapetuwl
torrent. lint this danger, according to HumbolilJ
is not verj' great when a single person passes oral
the bridge us quickly as possible, with his Wil
leaning for^vard. But the oscillations of the ropal
become very great when the traveller is conduet(i|
by an Indian who walks quicker th.ui himself; otl
when, frightened by the view of tlie ■water <m\
through the interstices of the bamboos, he iia4ll«l
imprudence to stop in the middle of the briil;,t,|
and lay hold of the ro])es that serve as a rail
Some of the rivers of the higher Andes are pad!
by means of an invention or bridge denominattil
a tarabita. It conveys not only the passcii;.fri|
but also their cattle and burdens; and isus^dttl
pass those torrents whose rapidity and the tofil
stones continually rolling down, render it iiiipis-l
sible for mules to swim across. It consists »Ii|
strong rope of bejuco, extended across the rivsl
on each bank of which it is fastened to stout poal
On one side is a kind of wheel or winch to straiMJ
or slack the rope to the degree required. Fral
this rope hangs a kind of moveable leatiiera hiii-l
mock, cajjable of holding a man, to which a rofti
is fastened for drawing it to the side intenWl
For carrying over mules two ropes are nccesfwl
and these much thicker and slacker. The creaiuij
being suspended from them, and secured bvpinkl
round the belly, neck, and legs, is shoved olf, iiil
dragged to the opposite bank. Some of tiiesetfrl
juco bridges are of great length, and elevated toiT
great height above the torrent.
A bridge of this sort was constructed bv I
6th Inca over the Desagiiadero, or river that iss«
from Lake Titicaca, where it is more than it*'^
in width ; and, on account of its utility, is s
ANDES
131
t invonouRpait!;
kept up. SometimeH, Instead of being made of
Mxieot or oslcm, these suHpension bridguit are
mide of twiftted strands or thonp of bullock's hi(!e.
Mr Miers passeil along one of this sort in Chili,
•>2a ft in length, by 6 ft. wide. It conveyed over
I'osded mules, and was perfectly seiiure. (Ulloa,
Voyajre en Amerique, i. 358 ; Miers, Chili, i. 835 ;
Humboldt's Kescarches, ii. 72.)
The ruggedness of the roads in the less fre-
quented parts of the Andes, can hardly be de-
Iribcd. In many places tlie ground is so narrow
tliat the mulcscmployed in travelling have scarcely
room to set their feet, and in others it is a con-
I tinned series of precipices. Tliese paths arc full
of holes, from 2 to 3 ft. deep, in wliich the mules
set their feet, and draw their bellies and their
riders' legs along tlie ground Tlie holes serve
as steps, without which the precipices would be
I in a ^'reat mcusiu'e impracticable ; but, should the
Icrfature happen to set its foot between two of
I these holes, or not place it right, the rider falls,
land if on the side of the precipice, inevitably
liierisilies. This danger is even greater where the
[holes are wanting. The tracks are extremely
I steep and slippery, and in general chalky and wet ;
I anil where there are no holes to serve as steps
I Indians ore obliged to go before with small spades
I to dig little trenches across the path. In de-
Iscending those places where there are no holes or
jlienches, and which are sometimes many hundred
Yards deep, the instinct of the mules accustomed
jto pass them is admirable. They are sensible of
Ithe caution requisite in the descent. On coming
Ito the top of an eminence, they stop ; and having
Iplaccd their fore feet close together, as if in a pos-
Itiire of stopping themselves, they also put their
[hind feet together, but a little forwards, as if going
[to lie down. In this attitude, naving, as it were,
ken a survey of the road, they slide down with
khe swiftness of a meteor. The rider has only to
keep himself fast in the saddle, without checking
hi beast i for the least motion is suiHcient to dis-
btdcr the equilibrium of the mule, in which case
Ihey must both unavoidably perish. The address
pf these creatitfes is liere truly wonderfid ; for in
Ihis 80 rapid motion, when they seem to have lost
■11 command of themselves, they follow exactly
[he different windings of the path, as if they had
Iteriously reconnoitred and settled in their minds
[he route they were to follow, and taken every
Irecaution for their safety. There would, other-
ifije, indeed, he no possibility of travelling over
llaces where the safety of the rider depends on the
Ixperience and address of his beast.
I The valleys of the Cordilleras, wliich are deeper
|nd narrower than those of the Alps and Pyrenees,
Bii present scenes of the wildest aspect, give rise
' I to several other peculiarities in tlie mode of
■avelling. In many parts, owing to the humidity
flhe climate, and the cljclivity of the ground,
lie streamlets which flow down tlie mountains
jave hollowed out gullies from about 20 to 25 ft.
I depth. The pathway which runs along those
ttvices is frequently not above a foot or a foot
kd a half in breadth, and has the appearance of
Igallery dug and left open to the sky. In some
lates the opening above is covered by the thick
It gelation which grows out from both sides of the
hvice, so that the traveller is forced to grope his
lay in darkness. The oxen, which arc the beasts
1 burden commonly made use of in this country,
D scarcely force their way through these galleries,
me which are more than a mile in length ; and
Ithe traveller should happen to meet them in one
Tthe passages, he has no means of avoidmg them
•t by climbing the earthen wall which borders
le crevice, and keeping himself suspended by
laying hold of the roota which penetrate to this
depth from the surface of the ground. ' In manv
of tlie passes of the Andes,' says Humboldt, ' such
is the state of the roads that the usual mode of
travelling for persons in easy circumstances is in
a chair strapped to the back of one of the native
|K)rters, called cargueros, or, men of burden, who
live by letting out their backs and loins to travel-
lers. Tliev talk in this country of going on a
man's back (undar en cargueros), as we mention
going on horseback. No humiliating idea is an-
nexed to the trade of cargueros ; and the men who
follow this occupation aro not Indians, but mulat-
toes, and sometimes even whites. The usual load
of a carguero is six or seven arrobas; those who aro
very strong carry as much as nine arrobas. They
earn, by a journey from Ibague to Cartago, only
12 or l4 piasters in from iifteen to twenty-tive days.
The passage of the mountain of ( juindiu is not the
only part of South America which is traversed on
the backs of men. The whole of the province of
Antioquia is surrounded by mountains so ditlicult to
pass, that they who dislike entrusting themselves
to the skill of a bearer, and are not strong enough
to travel on foot from Santa Fc de Antioquia to
llocca de Narcs or Hio Samana, must relinquish
all thoughts of leaving the country. The number
of young men who undertake the employments of
beasts of burden at Choco, Iboguc, and Mcdelliu
is so considerable, that we sometimes meet a file
of fifty or sixty. A few years ago, when a project
was formed to make the passage from Nares to
Antioquia passable for mules, the cargueros pre-
sented formal remonstrances against mending the
road, and the government was weak enough to
yield to their clamours. The person carried in a
chair by a carguero must remain several hours
motionless, and leaning backwards. The least
motion is sulKcient to throw down the carrier;
and his fall would be so much the more dangerous,
as the carguero, too contident in his own skill,
chooses the most rapid declivities, or crosses a tor-
rent on a narrow and slippery trunk of a tree.
These accidents are, however, rare; and those
wliich happen must be attributed to the impru-
dence of travellers, who, frightened at a false step
of the carguero, leap down from their chairs.'
(Kesearches, i. 69.)
Railways. — Within the last few years measures
have been projected, and steps have been taken to
carry them out, which there is little doubt will
break down the barrier to commerce which the
Andes of South America now form. Most promi-
nent of these is the project to prolong westward
the line of railway from Kosario on the Parana
river to Cordova in the interior ; and in fact, con-
nect the Atlantic with the Pacilic, the Kiver Plate
with the coast of Chili, by a railway crossing the
Andes at a height of l(i,023 ft. abjve the level
of the sea. It was originated and roughly sur-
veyed about ten years ago by Mr. Wheelwright, a
New England gentleman of long experience in
constructing mountain railways in Chili. Under
his direction a railway was constructed from Val-
paraiso to Santiago, which Ues about 2,000 ft.
above the sea ; opened for traffic in 1863. In 184!)
he completed 50 miles of line, from the seaport of
Caldera to the mining station of Copiapo, now
extended 52 miles farther to Chanaryillo, passing
over an elevation of 4,476 ft. above the sea, with
a maximum gradient of 1 in 20, a steepness un-
precedented, but worked for more than three years
at a slo'v speed with powerful locomotives, draw-
ing a maximum load of 43 tons. The success of
this line as a pecuniary speculation, and mure ex-
tensive knowledge of the country, suggested to
Mr. Wheehvright the greater scheme of crossing
k2
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*1>K^:(^''V
132
ANDES
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the Andes. Frrrni' Copiapo a pftfs, railed by the
name of Han FraneiHco, croxHcit the Chilian Conlil-
lera. Though it exceedH the height of 16,000 ft.,
it i» rarely if ever bliicked tip with Bnow, partly
owinR to the drj'ncss of the atniosphcro, partly to
its wide and open clmrnctor. From (,'opinpo to
the Hiimmit is 225 miles, the rise in heif;ht alM)ut
14,80(( ft. From the summit to Fiambnla, where
the ])lains which extend to the Atlantic may he
said to bepn, the distance is 125 miles, the fall
near 11,000 ft., Fiambala being over 5,000 ft.
almvc the sea. Here, however, rich soil and abim-
dant vegotation, with almost tropical products,
begin, and the rest of the distinicc to Cordova,
850 miles, and thence to Hosario, 250 miles, though
])assiiig occasionally through salt and barren lanils,
offers no engineering difficulties ; and, indeed, like
the neighbourhood of Huenos Ayres, is singularly
favourable to cheapness of construction. From
Copiapo to the simimit only two places involve
much difficulty or heavy works. The first re(|uires
steep gradients and a tunnel between 1 and 2 miles
long, in a space of about 1 1 miles, at the ])assnge
of a secondary mountain ridge called Cuesta di los
Chilenos. Passing it, the road comes o'!t :;n the
great central plateau of the Cordillera at a height
of near 13,000 ft., at a point distant about HO
miles from the summit level, and with a total rise
of little more than 3,000 ft. in that distance, in
which only one difficulty occurs — a gradient of
600 ft. to the mile f;)r 3 miles, to lie reduced to
200 by taking a circuit increasing the length to
10 miles. The first portion of the descent, for 13
miles is on a heovy gradient of 150 ft.; and no
furtler difficulty occurs except ot a place called
the Angostura — the contraction of the Los Losas
river, where it falls rajiidly for 5 miles. Hut it is
probable that this difficulty, itself not excessive,
might be avoided by a side valley, which would
also shorten the route. As yet only a survey of a
rough description has been made ; but the prac-
ticability of the line is proved by the gradients
not exceeding what have already been worked.
The scheme, it is also remarked, includes only 2^
miles of tunnelling. It is even expected that
when more accurate surveys come to be made,
more suitable parses may be chosen.
Mr. Wlieelwright stated, in a paper communi-
cated to the British Association in 1863, that
since he left Copiapo, ' a Mr. Hrewer, a very reli-
able person, who resides in that city, has driven
over the mountain by San Francisco to the pro-
vince of Tucuman, and returned in the same car-
riage by the Horquera Pass, further south, which
he preferred. Mr. Brewer describes the summit
of the Horquera as licing only a few thousand feet
in width, whereas at San Francisco it is 100 miles,
and that there is an abundance of water except
for a space of 20 to 25 miles. He is, no doubt,
the first i)er8on that ever crossed the Andes in a
carriage.' The pass called Planchon, above des-
cribed, has also attracted attention.
If this should be found practicable, another
trunk line would probably be planned to diverge
from the Rosario and Coldova line at a place
called Villa Nueva, and run direct by the impor-
tant towns of San Luis and Mendoza to the Plan-
chon. It would then descend to join the Great
Southern Railway of Chile at Curico, 85 miles
south of the capital, Santiago. In that case, the
otlier line on arriving at Horquera, a central posi-
tion for the provinces of Catamarca, Tucuman,
and Santiago de Estera, instead of turning west-
ward to the pass of San Francisco, might run
nearly north through Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy,
and enter Bolivia and Upper Peru even as far as
Potosi, if it should be found practicable.
ANDORRE
Among the advantages expected from thn* 1
railways is reckoned not only the commeitt of
Chili and Peru, seeking a port or a river tlny,\^
into the Atlantic, bnt it is anticipated that theg
construction would lead to the aaoption of a nn
passenger route from Europe to Australia. Ai
Admiral Fitzroy pointed out before the Geopj.
phical Society in 1860, 'a ship ninniiifr afetl
hundred miles to the north from Copia|>o or CjI. I
dcra, gets into the heart of the trade-wind, vhkii I
woiiUi carry her across to Australasia. On tin I
other hand, by running a little south from Ad«. I
tralia or New Zealand, a ship would get into tin I
south westerlv winds, which would carry herrisliil
across to Chili : so that a ship without stonm nii;;|ii I
make the vovage either way in live or six wceki I
without having to guanl against any intcr\-eniii; I
land, or peculiar danger of any kind, beyond th« I
of an oceanic passage without a hurricane.' flit I
actual distance, again, across that part of .Soott I
America from New Zealand to Europe israthcrbl
than by the Isthmus of Suez. The voyage fma|
Liveqiool to Rosario is reckoned at from twentr-l
five to thirty days, so that, allowing five tlavslifl
the railway transit, little more than two mnnibil
would be sufficient for the transmission of mailil
and piissengers between Australia and Knplani I
ANDLAU, a town of France, dep. Has I'hiil
arrond. Schelestat, on the Andlau, lOm. NXwl
Schelestat. Pop. 2,018 in 1861. I
ANDORRK (REPUBLIC OF), a small aijl
nominally independent state on the S. (Ifcliriirl
of the Pyrenees, between the den. of Arioge iil
France, and the district of Urge! in Spain, lil
stretches from N. to S. about 36 m., and from [I
to \V. about 30, comprising three mountain vallml
and the basin formed by their union. These vitl
leys are among the wildest and most pictnre«]ii|
in the Pyrenees, and the mountains, with thtil
immense peaks, by which they arc encMI
among the highest and least accessible. Itil
watered by several small rivers ; the largest it
which, the Embalin, having received the othenl
falls into the Scgre, an affluent of tlic Ebul
Pop. from 7,000 to 8,000, divided among six mt
miines. Andorre, the principal town, has dImI
2,000 inliab. It has but little arable land, kli|
considerable extent of excellent pasture grounl
sheltered by vast forests of fir. The inhab. depa
principally on their flocks and iron mines, iliij
pro<luce of the latter finding a ready markfts
Spain. This little state, though connectdi
some degree with both its powerful neighbots
has preserved its independence for alwut \,4
years. The government is composed of a «« '
of twenty-four members, chosen for life, i
commune electing four. The council elect t
Syndics, who enjoy considerable authority, (
voking the assemblies, and carrj'ing on thejij
vernment when they are not sitting. Aiidfg
owes its independence to Charlemagne. In li!(|
that prince, having marched against the lidi
of Spain, and defeated them in the neighl*
ing valley of C'arol, the Andorrians are s
to have rendered themselves so useful toi
French army, supplying them with prore
and taking care of their wounded, that the 1
peror, by way of recompence, made them imi
pendent of the neighbouring princes, and |«
mitted them to be govemecl by their own M
After him Louis le Debonnaire ceded to theBisM
of Urgel a part of the rights over Andone »l]
Charlemagne had reser\-ed to himself andr
successors. In virtue of this grant, the m
acquired right to a part of the tithes of the!
communes, and a sj)iritual jurisdiction ovci»
countrj', which he still exercises.
ANDORRE
In l"!*". ♦'"' rights exercised by the sovprpignfi
of France in Anrlorre \mi\g considered as feudul,
were abandoned, and the republic was for a time
fompletelv sejMirated from timt country ; but not-
,itli.Ht8ii<iing tW» temporary independence, the
Andorrians continue<l to preserve their attach-
ment to France. They resisted the violation of
their territory by the Spaniards, and furnished to
I the French armies, during the late war, guides
and assistance of every kind. At the same time
thev anxiously solicited the estal>lishment of the
ancient order of things ; and Napoleon yielded to
their wish. By » decree of the 2t)th of March,
1806, Andorre was declared to l)e a republic con-
nected with France ; its viguier, or criminal judge,
was to be a Frenchman, of the dep. of Ariege ; and
I it was allowed to import certain quantities of cer-
Itain specified articles, free of duty, on payment of
I the trilling simi of OCO fV. a year. Except thore-
Ifore, as regards the spiritual jurisdiction of the
JBinhopof Urgel, which cannot be said to interfere
I with us independence any more than the Pope's
lecclcsiastical authority over Catholic countries
lean with theirs, Andorre is altogether independent
|of Spain ; and, as regards France, the annual
Ipavment it makes to her is not a tribute, but an
linadequate compensation for a valuable privilege;
«nd there being little crime in Andorre, the ap-
mintment of a Frenchman for criminal judge was
jnore with a view to deter Frentih crimmals from
Itaiiing refuge in this neutral territory, than to
Vssert any superiority. Andorre may," therefore,
ke justly considered as the oldest free republic in
^istence. The people oil belong to the church of
liome, and are very religious. Their clergy, and
Ihe more wealthy of the inhabitants, are educated
■t Toulouse or Barcelona. Each cure', in addition
lo his pastoral duties, has charge of a school,
Ifhere the i)oor are instructed gratuitously ; but
his does not give him much extra trouble, few of
he peasants thinking it necessary to send their
ihildren to school to acquire what, in their land
If shepherds and labourers, they imagine can be
(f little consequence in their future lives. Hence
Jhe great majority of the people can neither read
|or write.
The Andorrians are simple and severe in their
planners, the vices and corruptions of cities not
laving hitherto found their way into their valleys.
ihey live as their forefathers lived a thousand
rears before them : the little thev know concem-
W the luxuries, arts, and civilisation of other
puntries inspiring them rather with fear than
nvy. Their wealth consists in their sheep or
ittle, or in the share they may have in iron
Irges, only a very few of their numl)er being the
Voprietors of any land beyond the ganlen which
prrounds their cottage. Each family acknow-
llges a chief, who succee<ls by right of primo-
kniture. These chiefs, or eldest sons, choose their
Jives from families of equal consideration with
Ifir own, reprobating mesalliances, and looking
Itle to fortune, which besides is always very
pU upon both sides. They never leave the pii-
rnal roof until they marry ; and if they marry
I heiress they join her name to their own. Un-
M married, they are not admitted to any share
I the management of public attairs.
IWhcn there are only daughters in a family, the
lest, who is heiress of the entire property, and
«eeds as an eldest son would do, is always niar-
i to a cadet of another family, who adopts her
nc, and is domiciliated in her family. By this
tangement, the principal Andorrian houses have
fctinued for centuries without any change in
Va fortunes, ni plus riche, ni plus pauvre. The
Vrcst inhabitants are not so badly off as in most
ANDRE
18S
other conntries ; their wants arc few and easily
Hupi»lied, the opulent families taking care of those
who arc not ; and the latter honouring and rc-
sjiecting their benefactors.
The Andorrians arc in general strong and well
proportioned ; the greater part of the diseases pro-
ceeding from the moral atfections are unknown,
as well as those originating in vice and corruption.
The costume of the men, composed of coarse brown
clotli made from the wool of their own sheep, re-
sembles that worn by the |)easants of Bigorre, with
this ditference, that the Andorrians wear U>e Mow-
ing red cap of the Catalans. There woulil seem
to be but little galUmtry among these mountaineers,
for the women are not admitted to any of the as-
semblies where public affairs are considered ; nor
even to the masses performed upon the reception
of the bishop or judge. Crime of every kind in
rare, and i>unishnients, though mild, arc effectual.
There are no law-suits relative to paternal suc-
cessions ; and should disptites of any kind arise,
they are at once referred to the Svndics, whose de-
cision is never controverted. The men are all
liable to serve in the militia, should they be re-
quired ; and every head of a family is obliged ti>
have in his possession at all times a musket, and
a certain quantity of powder and ball.
Commerce of every kind is free ; but, with the
exception of iron, of which it has some mines
and forges, its manufactures are all of tho
coarsest and nidest kind.
ANUOVEH, a borough and m. town of Eng-
land, CO. Hants, near the Anton, on the great road
from London to Salisbury, being 63 m. WSW. of
the former, and 17 N E. of the latter, with a station
on the London and South- Western railway. The
municipal borough and pari, district which" include
7,670 acres, had 5,221 inhab. in 18GI. It is com-
pactly built, extending on either side alraut one-
third of a mile from the market place, in the centre
of which is a modern town-hall, supported on
arches, under which are held the markets. Tho
church, an old Gothic building, is on the N. side
of the town. There is an hospital for six poor men,
a free school founded in l.'jfi'J, and a charity school
for thirty boys. Some trade is carried on m malt-
ing, and the manufacture of silk; but its principal
support is derived from its being a considerable
thoroughfare, and the only market for the sur-
rounding coiuitry. It is in a thriving condition ;
and contains several good shops and respectable
private houses. The great annual fair of Weyhill
(which see) is held within a short distance. There
is a canal from the town to Southampton. It re-
turns two members to the H. of C. From 168!),
down to the passing of the Keform Act, the right
of voting was in the bailiff and corporation. Pari,
constituencv, 257 in 18(>5.
ANDOVkli, a town of the U. States, Massa-
chusets, CO. Essex, 20 ni. X. Boston by road, and
23 by railway. I'op. 6,748 in 1860. It is finely
situated, and has some manufactures; but it is
chiefly distinguished for its literary institutions,
particularly its theological academy, founded in
1807, and liberally endowed. There is also a very
flourishing academv, founded in 1778.
ANDKACIO, or'AXDKACY, a town of Spain,
on the SW. coiust of the island of Majorca. Pop.
4,(i0i) in 1857. It is situated at a little distance
from the sea, but it has a small port accessible to
vessels drawing little water. Its territory is pro-
ductive of olives.
ANDUi:, or ENDRE (ST.), a town of Hungarj',
on the right bank of the Danube, opposite to the
island of the same name. 111 m. N. liuda. Pop.
2,080 in 1857. It has one Catholic and seven Greek
churches. The hills in the vicinity produce ex-
!>.«
!^Af
r '\t
4i^
134
ANDRE-DE-CUBSAC
!&.
m
ii,j
I;
■^■ii!;'
'H
»^K
iil
m
III
cellent wincH, and tlio island in the river is cele-
brated for its fertility.
ANDHK-DK-CUHHAC (ST.), n town of France,
dep. (iironde, cap. cont. 12 m. NNK. IJordcaux.
I'op. 3,(i!IO in IK<il. It is Nituntcd at a little dis-
tance from the 1 Jordoj^ne ; hut it has a port, (3ul)-
sac, on that river. Tlie hi>;h road from Hordeaux
to Paris crosses the Dordogne at this point, and
formerly, previously to the construction of roil-
ways, jmssengers and carriages were conveyed
across in a large ferry hoat.
AXDKKASHKIUl, a town of Hanover, princi-
pality of (irubcnluigeii, in a district which has
mines of iron, cohalt, copper, and silver. Pop.
4,300 in IHfil. The town has a college, a council
of mines, and manufactures of lace and thread.
ANDREW'S (ST.), on ancient and celebrated
city and seaport of Scotland, co, Fife, ftnely situ-
ated on a low eminence on the (Jerman Oceon,
81 m. NE. Edinburgh, lat. 6(;o 20' N., long. 2° 50'
\V. Pop. of pari, burgh, 5,1 7tt in 18(11. The
population in IHOO was only 2,519. The city
chiefly consists of three principal streets, leading
in a ^V. direction from the cathedral, is in general
well built, and has been much improved during
the present century. St. Andrew's was long the
metropolitan see of Scotland ; and is highly inter-
esting from its numerous remains of other ages,
and the historical associations connected with
it, many highly important events having occur-
red within its precincts. Its splendid cathedral,
founded in lltiO, and completed in 1318, was re-
duced to a ruin in 1659 by the barbarous zeal of
the reformers. The castle, long the residence of
its archbishops, and a place of considerable strength,
stood on a precipice overhanging the sea. The
famous Cardinal licaton was assassinated in it in
154(i, in revenge of the share he had in bringing
Wishart, a preacher of the reformed doctrines, to
the stake in the previous year. Its picturesque
ruins now serve as a landmark for ships. There
arc also, among others, the ruins of a chapel, and
a square tower 108 ft. high, called the chapel and
tower of St. Kule or St. licgulus, suppose<l to be
the most ancient of the existing fabrics. The
priorj' of St. Andrew's was one of the best endowed
in Scotland ; and part of a gigantic wall, intended
to enclose the grounds of the priorj"-, 870 ft. long, 22
high, and 4 thick, with fourteen turrets, erected by
Prior Hepburn in 1610, is still in good preserva-
tion, and is not one of the least interesting relics
of bygone times. The foundations and part of the
walls of this edifice were uncovered in 1800. The
parish church, founded in the Pith century, but
rebuilt in 1797, has a monument to Archbishop
Sharpe, assassinated in 1079. The university of
St. Andrew's, the most ancient in Scotland, and
now the principal support of the city, was founded
in 1410 bj' Misho]) Wardlaw, and confirmed by a
papal bull dated the following year. It originally
consisted of three colleges, St, Salvador's, St. Leo-
nard's, and St. Mary's ; of which the two former
were united in 1747, when the buildings of St.
Leonard's were pulled down. The two colleges
are in different parts of the town, and their pro-
fessors and discipline are quite distinct. The
United College consists of a quadrangular edifice,
in which some excellent rooms were recently
erected at the expense of government. This insti-
tution is appropriated to the study of languages,
philosophy, and science, ami St. Mary's to that
of theology. The chapel of the United College,
founded by Bishop Kennedy in 1468, is a fine spe-
cimen of the light Gothic ; and is used as the col-
lege chapel, and as a parish church. It has a
tomb of the founder ; on opening which, in 1683,
six .silver mccea were found, of which three were
ANDRIA
sent to the other Scotch imivcrsitics, and thrw
retainml in the college. St. Mary's CoUeKB j, ,
handsome stone Btnicturc. A librarj' contJKiioiB
to the latt4!r, and containing alxiut 00,000 Vl)ll|ln^,
is common to both colleges ; and until the |iri\i.'
lege was commuted, in 1880, for 45(!/. a ym, it
was entitled to a cony of every work entered at
Stationers' Hall. Tlic llnite(f College nnd Si,
Mary's have together thirteen professors ; each ni
lege has a principal, the principal of St. Man'i
being one of the professors, antl the univerHiiyji
presided over by a lord-rector and a chancefldr,
The f ndowments arc considerable, each proff,«ir
receiving at an average alxiut 230/, a year, exclu-
sive of fees from pupils. The fee for attenilingone
of the literary classes is HI. 8». ; students in tht
theological cliuwes pay no fees — with the exceptim
of a fee of 6». on matriculating, which is ciimmoii
to both establishments. The United ( Joliegc hv
69 bursaries. Within the last thirty yearn a vm'
large addition has been made to the facilities for
education already enjoyed by St. Andrew's, tlimucb
the lil)erality of' Dr. Hell, of l^Iadras, who diwljii
1832, bequeathing the sum of 45,000/. three ^ I
cent, stock for the erecticm of a seminary on a cnm- 1
prehen.sive plan in this his native citv. A lin«
building for this school has been erected at a litil; I
di,stance from St. Mary's College. The number (^ I
teachers in the Madras Coilege (the name given in I
Dr. Bell's establishment) is nine, exclusive of lil
sistants. This seminary affords instniction (jraii* I
to the poor ; and the fees are very low, beiiiK unlv I
7». (>rf. per quarter for Latin and tireek ; tiie saiw I
for (ierman and French ; the same for mathenit I
tics, and the same for drawing : 6«. per quartw I
for geography : 3». for writing : 2». firf. for arilfc- [
metic : and 2». for English. Students may atten.] I
one or more classes, and pay accordingly, 'flit I
average numter of pupils at this wiiiinarj- b I
been about 800, but it is rapidly increasing, aniliil
now 900. There is also an infant school, with u I
average attendance of 120. Of the nnmljenJ
people at the college, above a half are straii|,w I
attracted to the citv by the d&servedly high chi-l
racter of this excellent institution, the best put I
bably of its kind in the empire. To this cau«l
it is also in great measure owing that the tow I
has been completely renovated of late yearsan^l
the population largely increased. Much credit t(«l
the improvement of the place is also due to llnl
late provost, Lieut. Col. Sir Hugh Lyon Plaifcl
Through his exertions a broad foot i)avemeiit wnl
laid down, in place of the once grass-grown cau*!
way, and the old townhouse, which fonncrly.sioJ
in "the middle of Market Street, obstructing i!»|
thoroughfare, was swept away, and a more elciiaiil
building erected in South Street. St, Andrcwsiil
becoming increa-singly a place of fashionable ^1
sort, and its buildings are rapidly extendin;,', Tliil
harbour, partly formed by two piers, is on the Ll
side of the town, extending about 430 yards in-l
land ; but it dries at low water, and the aecessM
it being difficult, it is little frequente<l by shi«
ping. The town has no manufactures worth p*|
tice, unless it be that of golf-halh, or ball*™
plajdng the game of golf, which employs about .if
or seven men, who ])roduce annually alwut m
dozen balls, of which about 800 dozen arc mii^
other places, the rest being consumed in St,.'
drew's, which has been long famous for this gi
A good workman makes eight or nine balLfaiirl
St. Andrew's unites with the two Anstmthfr
Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem inretiii
ing a member to the H. of C.
ANDRIA, a town of South Itah-, prnv,
cap. cant. 9 m. S. Barletta. Pop. in I8()I,.W
It stands on a ploin on the edge of tiie eiielo:
k
ANDRO
rniintn', flii'l i*" environs iirc far from nnplrnsnnt.
It in the neat of o bislioprif, has n Hupcrb catlic-
(Iriil, « foval coUc^jc, and three iiion» flepit'U': It was
founded in Wii by I'etcr, Count ot'Trani, anil uv-
niiircd its name from tlie antra, or cuvems occu-
I'irti by its lirKt Rfttlers.
ANUKO, or AXDKOS, an island of tuo (Jrecian
AriliipelaK"' '>''">? '" '''" ^' "'^ Ne^rojiont, and
iiiimcdiatc'ly td the N. of Tino, from which it Im
nfimrated by a verv narrow channel. It rxtcnds
all,,iil •.'" m' in a N'VV. and SE. direction; but its
linmlfli docH not exceed "or H ni. Though numn-
tAJnoiis, it has several extensive, fertile, and well
watered valleys, and a number of villaf;es. The
Kip. has been estimated at from l.l.dOd to 1(!,()()0.
(Vine if the principal article, the annual j)roduct
amountinj; to 2WV"W ft"'"- i exelusive of which
there is a considerable export of silk, oil, oranges,
citrons, Ac. The corn raised in the island gene-
rallv sutlices for the consumpti<m of the inhabi-
tants. Andro, or Castro, the capital, a consideral)le
town, with about ."),0()0 inhabitants, is situated on
the E. coast of the island ; its jjort, which is de-
fended by a castle, is too shallow to admit any but
the smallest description of vessels. I'ort (iaurio,
orGabrin, on the W. side, is a much better liar-
Ixiur. The Andrians took the part of the Persians
on the latter invading Greece, for which they were
afterwards chastised by Themisiocles.
ANDKOS ISLANDS, or ISLKS DEL ESPI-
lurrU SAXTO, a group of islands among the
Bahamas, which extend about 120 m, from N. to
ig., lat. 24° to 25° 20' N. long. 77° to 7«° VV.
I AXDUJAH,a town of Spain, Andalusia, on the
iiadalnuiver, in a plain at the foot of the Sierra
Morena, 2(1 m. NW. Jaen, lat. 38° 1'32" N., long.
IB0o»'33"W. Pop. i),.^;! in 1H;)7. Mr.Townsend
avs that, in 17H(>, it contained 6,800 families;
iriiifh, if accurate, would show a great decline in
[the interval. (Travels in Si)ain, ii. p. 297.) It is
(upposcd to be built of the ruins of the ancient
^"orumJulium; it is defended by an old castle, and
has numerous churches and convents, a theatre,
■nd an old bridge of fifteen arches over the river.
Its environs arc fruitful, and the inhabitants are
Mostly employed in agriculture; but there arc
[tanneries, and manufactories of wine and water
toolcrs, made of a peculiar species of white clay
found in the neighbourhood.
I ANDUZE, a town of Erance, dep. Gard, cap.
bant., on the Gardon, 2(5 m. NW. Nismes. Pop.
I,2»3 in 18G1. The inhabitants are mostly Pro-
Eestants. It is ill built, but agreeably situated at
[he foot of the Cevennes, between nxiks and bills
fclanted with vines and olives. It has a tribunal
Bf commerce, with manufactures of hats, silk,
lojicry, cloth, earthenware, and glue, a silk lila-
|ure, and tannery.
AXET, a handsome town, dep. Eure et Loire,
ap. cant., 9 ni. NN E. Drcux. Pop. 1 ,40(i in 18t;o.
It is principally celebrated for the niins of its tine
lastle, built by Henry II. for Diana of Poitiers,
Iml destroyed during the revolutionary frenzy in
r92. There are in its environs forges and paper-
Bilk
j Anet, a village of Switzerland, cant. Berne, on
i hill, 17 m. W. by N. Heme. Pop. 1,378 in 1861.
Roman antiquities are found iu the ueighbour-
liood.
AXGELO (ST.), the name of several towns
n Italy, of which the principal are St. Angelo in
krov. of Milan, circ. Lodi, 7 m. SW. Lodi. I'op.
1,334 in 18G2. St. Asoklu in the same kingdom,
Jrov.Padua, 11 m. NE. Padua. And St. Angeix),
South Italy, distr. Campagna, 16 m. SSE.
fampagiia. Pop. 2,264 in 1862.
AXGELO DE LOMBAUDI (ST.), a town of
ANGERS
136
South Ttalv, 48 m. E. Naples. Pop. 6,.1-I4 in 1862.
The town IS the seat of a bishopric, has a college,
and two parish churches. In 1664 it was almost
entirely destroyed by an rarthipiake.
ANGEKHUlUt, a town of Prussia, prov. E.
Prussia, cap. circ, on the Angerap, (iO m. SE.
Konigsberg. Pop. !!,!)'.) 1 in 1861. It has a castlo
and manufactures of woollen stutTs and leather.
The .\ngerap falls, a little to the S. of the town,
into the large, irregularly shaped, shallow lake of
Maucr, celebrated for tlie abundance and excel-
lence of its eels.
ANGEI{iMi:NI)E, a town of the Prussian
States, prov. lirandenburg, reg. Potsdam, cap.
circ, on the lake Munde, 43 m. NNE. llerlin, on
the railway from Merlin to Stettin. Pop. 6,205 iu
1861. The town has manufactures of hats,
woollen stuffs, and tobacco.
ANGEKS (the JulUtimujti* of Cavsar, afterwards
Andeijavia, and hence ^liii/em), a very ancient city
of France, dep. Maine et' Loire, of which it is the
capital, on the Mavenne, which divides it into
two jHirtions, near Us contliu'iice with the Loire
and the Sarthe, lat. 47° 28' !•" N., long. 0° 33' W.
Pop. 51,7!t7 in 1861. The town is 131 m. SVV.
Paris, on the railway from Tours to Nantes. It is
surrounded by massive Wiills, built in 1214 by
John, King of England. Speaking generally it is
ill built, and mean looking; houses partly of wood
and partly of slate, streets narrow ond crooked.
Principal objects of attraction, cathedral and
castle. The first begun in 122r>, and of large di-
mensions, has its front ornamented by two sym-
metrical spires, each 225 ft. high. It contains the
ivionnment of Margaret of Anjou, daughter of
Kene', King of Sicily, and wife of Henry VI. of
England. The old castle, the fonncr residence of
the dukes of Anjou, stands on a rock having the
river at its foot : its plan is that of a vast paral-
lelogram, surrounded by high massive walls, de-
fended by tleep fosses cut out of the rock, and by
eighteen towers; but these, with one exception,
have now been reduced to the height of the walls.
The castle ser\'es at present as a prison for the city,
and a powder magazine: on the side next the
river it is becoming ruinous. Angers is the scat
of an imperial court for the departments of Maine
et Loire, Sarthe, and Mayenne; has a tribunal of
original jurisdiction, an academy, a royal college,
a school for deaf and dumb, and a secondary
school of medicine. It has also a school of arts
and trades, being, with the exception of that at.
Chalons-sur-Marne, the only school of the kind
in France. Each department is entitled to send
three piiinla to this school — the instruction of one
to be entirely gratuitous, the others paying one a
fourth part and one a half of the ordinarj' pupils.
It has also a school of design ; an agricultural
society; a public librarj', containing 35,000 vo-
lumes; a museum with about 600 pictures, many
of them good; a lK>tanical garden; a cabinet of
natural history ; and a theatre. There is an im-
perial manufacture of sail-cloth, a cotton mill,
with manui'actures of linen, serges, handkerchiefs,
hosiery, and starch ; a sugar refinery, a wax re-
finery, and tanneries. The town has three bridges.
It labours under a deficiency of water, that of May-
enne not being fit for use. Previous to the revolu-
tion Angers was the seat of a university, founded
in 1246 : it had also a celebrated academy of belles
lettrei ; and such was the fame of its riding-school,
that it was attended by I'eter the Great. It suf-
fered severely during the wars of La Vendee ; but.
since 1815 it has been comparatively prosperous,
and various improvements have been effected.
Angers has produced several distinguished per-
sons, among whom Bodin, the author of the work
my-
136
ANGERVILLE
U'lll "'I'H.,
¥ ■.
ml
m
Pt5
^•i,:h
' I)n In Ropubliqiin,' pul>liHho(l in 157G, Menage,
and Ikniier, the fainoim trnvoUer.
The Hinto qimrrieH in the vicinity of AngerH,
whence the town in huilt, and which nlso Nupply
Inr^e qiinntiticH of r(M)tlng HlnteH to other deji^,
are imrnenHe cxcaviitioriN. It ir* noticed in Frencli
workH that the ahundnnco of nlntc iH tiuch that
almoxt all the houMCH are covered with Hlates, for
which reason it haM been termed the Black Town
( Vill« noire).
AN(ii:KVILLE. a village of France, dep. Seine
et OiKe, tVA m. S. Ver.sailles, and on the railway
from PariH to OrleanH, pop. 1,545 in 1801,
ANGHIAKA, a town of Italy, nrov. Arezzo,
near the Tilwr, 18 m. K. Arezzo. I'op. 6,88(1 in
18fi2. The town is (celebrated for the victory ob-
tained near it, in 14'tO, by the FlorentincH nnder
Piccinini over the forces of the Duke of Milan.
This also is the name of a village of the Veronese,
and of a decayed city on the banks uf the Logo
Maggiore.
AN(iLES, a town of France, dep. Tarn, cap.
cant. 16 m. ESE. Castres. Pop. 2,66a in 18()1.
This is the name of several small villages in other
parts of France.
ANGLESEY (the Mona of Tacitus), an island
and CO. of N. Wales in the Irish Sea, separated
from the mainland of Itritiiin by the Menai Strait,
but connected with the co. Carnarvon across the
, strait by the famous Menai bridge, and the Uri-
tannia tubular railway bridge. It is of a triangular
form, extending, Ilolyheacl included, about 27 m.
from E. to W. by about 20 from N. to S. ; orea,
173,440 acres; surfoce gently undulating ; climate,
temperate, but liable to fogs; there is in most
parts a great deficiency of wood, and it has gene-
rally a bare uninviting aspect.
Since 1768 Anglesey has been famed for its
mineral riches, the celebrated copper mines in the
Parys mountain having been discovered in the
course of that year; but they have now greatly
declined. (Sec Amlwch.) Lead ore and asbestos
have also teen found ; and coal is wrought to some
extent at Maltraeth. Soil various, but principally
a fine loamy sand, which, when properly cultivated,
is highly i)rotluctive. Agriculture is not, however,
in an advanced state. So late as 1810 it was no
uncommon thing to take five white crops in suc-
cession, most of which were so poor as hardly to
pav their expense; but an improved system is
bemg gradually introduced. The stiff loams, of
which the extent is considerable, are usually ma-
nured with a sort of shelly sund. Principal crops,
oats, barley, wheat, and potatoes, the latter being
grown more extensively than in any other part of
N. Wales. Grazing is the principal object of the
farmer's attention. Several thousand head of cat-
tle arc annually sent from the island to the main-
land, exclusive of consi<lerable numbers of sheep.
Manufactures unimjrartant, consisting merely of
some of the coarser descriptions of woollens. Chief
towns, Beaumaris, Holyhead, Amlwch, Llanerchy-
midd, and Llangefni. It is divided into 3 can-
treds, 6 comots, or hundreds, and 73 parishes. The
pop., which in 1776 amounted to 19,780, had in-
creasal in 1831 tt) 48,325, and in 1851 to 67,327,
but hod decreased in 1861 to 54,600, or a decrease
in the ten years of 2,718. It returns a m. to the
H. of C. for the co., and one for the boroughs of
Beaumaris and Holyhead, lieg. elect., 2,389 in
1865.
Anglesey seems to have been a principal seat
.of the Druids. The Romans, under Suetonius
Paulinus, havuig taken it after a fanatical resist-
ance, A.D. 61, cut down the groves of the Druids,
atevis supemtitionibus sacri, and seem to have ex-
terminated both the priests and their religion.
ANGOLA
(Tacit. Anna!., lib. 14, S 30.) It was mibiiiKatM
along with the rest of VVales, by Edwarcl I., m^J
was incoriM)rated with England and made acounir
by Henry VIII. The most important events in
its recent history are the tliscovery of the I'an,
mines, in 1768, building of the Menai liriilKc'ig
1825, and the constnuition of the Britannia tul«j.
lor bridge for the railway from Chester to Holv.
head, which was oficned Octolwr 21, 1850.
AN(JLET, a town of France, dep. Uasaes py.
nmne'cs, near Uayoime, famed for its exccUein
white wine. Pop. 2,663 in 1861.
ANGOLA, DOXtiO, or AMBONDE, a kin?.
dom of the W. coast of Africa, extending fn,,,
8° 20' to 90 15' S. lat., and from 14° to IH^ nr i;^
E. long., but the eastern boundary is not dctiiu^
On the N. it is se])aratcd from Congo liy tti,,
Danda ; on the S. the Coanza divides it fmm tii(
districts of (juassima and Libolo ; and on the W.
it has the Atlantic Ocean. It is rcctanpilji
shaped, lies nearly parallel to the equator, Ijcin'
about 350 m. in length from E. to W., 50 (ir Gil a
in width from N. to S. ; containing an area i(
probably not less than 18,000 or 20,000 sq. m. Tht
district of Benquela, to the south of Coan/a, lyini;
between lat. 10° and 17° S, and long. 12° and IP
E., is also claimed by the Portuguese, aiui iher |
have established in it the new colony of MoW-
medes, the population of which district and coldnv I
is usually included with the retiuns for Anj^nla,
(Ace. of Discov., 22, 143 ; Annales des Coloniw |
de Portugal.)
This country is properly a part of Congo, from I
which, however, it has been politically scpiimtd
since the middle of the sixteenth century, wiieni I
chief, whose name or title was Atujola, made hini!«ll I
independent of the King of Congo, and gave iu I
present designation to his new kingdom, the u- 1
tive name of which was Dongo, or Ambunde. It I
is very powerful among the neighbouring states, I
the paramount authority of its monarch beji«;[
acknowledged by several districts, some of tbea |
greatly exceeding itself in extent.
Physical C/iaracter. — Angola is extremelr |
mountainous, with no plains, except upon tlie ti
shore, and some small plateaus on the sides ml
in the gorges of mountains. The land ap|ieai<,|
however, to be making advances on tiie sea, an>l
forming islands, which are wholly of an allmiil I
and level character; such is the isle of Loaiiila,!
lying a short mile from the coast, and formiDi;|
with the Cobo Palmareinho one of the most m- [
venient harbours on the W. coast of Africa. Tl»|
cope itself is also a plain of the same nature, an<! I
very evidently in a state of progress weslffarlf
(Pigofetto, Del Regno di Congo, 10 ; Merolla,|
Viaggio del Congo, 70.)
The country is extremely we'' watered (aSjk-l
deed, is the whole of Congo) ; thu , ,. lacipal streaiiB |
ore the Coanza, Benga, and Danda, which i
nearly parallel to each other, and to theeqiiatur;!
the first and last forming the S. and N. Ixnimlarrj
of the country. The Coanza, however, before ran- 1
ning east and west, has a north-westerly cciitji I
among the mountains, east of the district of Bni-I
guela. Among the mountains inland from Aiigolii
and Benguela arc also the sources of the soutlieril
branches of the /aire or Congo river, whichflonj
into the Atlantic Ocean to the north of Angolil
and of the Leeambye and Chobe rivers, ivliicil
unite in the centre of Africa to form tiie greatj
Zambezi river. The interior mountainous comitit I
has been comparatively little explored, but ol'tel
years some progress has been made with the Jt-I
termination of the courses of the principal rivasl
by the travels of Dr. Livingstone, of .a PortuguMl
merchant, Silva Porto, and of Dr. VVeiivfeil
ANGOLA
137
lioNDK, a kini;.
I, extending fnm
I 14° to IHOfliW
ary i8 not dclinpil
im ConRo !))• the I
iivides it from tk(
lo ; and on the \S.
It is rcctniiKuW
the equator, ijoin^
. to W., SO "Hill in.
tainiiiK an ana i(
• 20,(100 Mi.m. Th(|
th of Coanza, Iviiic '
Along. 12° audi
rtuguesc, and they I
iV colony of Mosjj- 1
t district and colrniy
returns for Antjdii
males dcs Cuiuam
;)art of Congo, im
jolitically sepnratml I
ith century, when H
ingola, made him.<«ll I
JonRO, and gave iu [
w kingdom, tlie m- I
ro, or Ambonde. It
leiglibouring states, I
I its monarch lieini;
;rict8, some of then |
tent,
igola is extTemfly
■xcept upon the inr I
us on the sides m\ I
The land api)w,|
nces on the sea, a
holly of an allu\Tal|
the isle of LoanJi,!
coast, and kmm,\
ae of the most M-f
jast of Africa. TbI
lie same nature, a»! I
progress wcstwajill
ongo, 10; Merollj,|
(Tpl' watered (as, in- 1
he ,,.;ncipalstrean!|
Danda, M'hichrail
and to tlieequati*;!
S. and N. bounJiiirl
lOwever, before tin- 1
jrth-westcrly cia«|
the district of Bn-I
inland from Angoli I
/ces of the southern I
.•o river, which Hon I
he north of Angolil
Ihobe rivers, wm|
to form the gteisl
loimtainous comitiyl
■xplored, butoftel
1 made with the ilf I
the principal riv«l
)ne, of a rnriufjue*!
of Dr. VVehvi»|
iinilor the au«plcpn of the Portugnosc Rovommont.
Those travellers have also adde<l to the information
^,. i)()S(io!« of the trilKiH inhabiting tiio interior, the
nriHliii'tiiins, and geological chuructcristics of the
'" Soil, Climate, — The worst soil in Angola is that
upon the coast, and the moro recently formed
island", which is sandy, hut by no means desert r
f„f at any time, by digging to the depth of a foot,
or less, an abundant supply of good water may lie
uroctired. It is, however, a remarkable fact, that
it the e^h tide these temporary wells an? always
found nther brackish, while at the Hood their con-
tents 'je perfectly sweet. (I'igafetta, 10; Lebat,
i, 09.) The mountain sides, and the valleys of the
rivers, present all the richness of soil common in
e(Hi..torial countries which are well irrigated,
thou);h the useful productions of the land are said
to l)echicHy owing to the agricultural labours of
the Portuguese. The climate is excepted by Adams
(Remarks, 200) from the general charge of malig-
nity towards Europeans under which the rest of
tropical Africa labours. Situated so near the equa-
tor, Angola might be expected to have two dry and
two rainy seasons in each year ; but this does not
appear to bo the case; and, indeed, the accoimts
of travellers on this point are sufHcientIv contlict-
ing. I'igafetta says (p. 7) that the ramy season
is from April till August; Lebat (p. 107), that it
oecupics November, December, and sometimes
January. Bnrbot (.'>22) leaves it uncertain, but
makes the drj* season extend from May to Sep-
tember; though ho remarks that this period is
not without an intermixture of pleasant showers,
Dejnrandpre (Voyage b, la Cote d'Afnque, i. 4) says
that rain teldom falls, and never abundantly. The
game author remarks, that the abundant dews arc
fully sufficient for the devchipment of vegetation,
anil in this he is br>nie out by all the other nu-
tlioritics. The trade vfiM blows steadily from S\V.
til S., the sea breezes commonly from VVSW., and
the land wnd from E. by N. Angola is, however,
sufficiently remote from the internal deserts to
pievent the ill effects that might be otherwise
feared from this breeze. Tornadoes are not unfre-
qiient; and at such times the wind shifts violently
to all pouits of the compass, settling, finally, uito
the direction of the trade. Gold and silver have
been discovered in the mountains near the coast ;
but no gold dust is found, though it appears to
have existed formerly. Iron is produced plenti-
fully through the energy of the Portuguese ; and
copper is said to exist in the interior. Lead, sul-
phur, and pitroleum are among the mineral trea-
sures; but there is no mention of precious stones.
The natives are reasonably good miners, under
European direction ; and it is asserted that the
subterraneous exhalations produce as sensible a
dilferciice in their colour, as the same cause is
known, in many cases, tu effect in that of Euro-
Vegetation has the magnificence observable in
lall wdl-watercd tropical regions. A species of the
iFicus, called by the natives Eiisada, and posscss-
ling the property of dropping its branches to the
Iptiund, where they take root, and germinate like
la new plant, is very abundant. Some of these
Itrees, resembling small thickets more than indi-
vidual plants, extend to more than 1,000 paces in
Tcireumference. The ensada is an extremely use-
Bid plant : the fruit, which resembles an ordinary
m;, 18 an important article of food ; its outer bark
psiits in the construction of huts and boats, and
M inner coating, being washed and beaten, is
fnaniifacttired into cloth. The date, and every
per species of palm, the citron, orange, lemon,
iiia,guava, banana, cocoa, tamarind, mangrove,
and every fruit and forest fnMi common tn tho
equinoxial n'gions, grow here spontaneously, and
reward the least exiwiise of labour with the most
abundant n>turn. The same remark holds good
with regard to yams, potatoes, and the whole riu-o
of rtM)ts; and though the climate be too hot for
the priMluction of Euro|H>an grain, yet four HtHM-ics
of wheat, Turkish, Sarosin, Massingo, and l<uiiii,
are raised in great abundance. I'lilses of all kinds
are likewise plentiful ; and the sugar-cane, |iep|M\r-
vine, and a plant called mandioca, of wbiidi a very
good bread is made, absolutidy struggle with man
for the possession of the soil. Many trees prodiico
tine gums or resins; and, in a word, tliere is
scarcely a vegetable proihu^tion which Angola <loes
not, or under reasimalilo care might not Iw made
to prmluce. The wo'mIs and mountains shelter
lions, tigers, leopards, liyu'iias, and wolves ; of
smaller wild animals, there are foxes, wild cats.
Sec. Of the useful animals, there arc hares, rab-
bits, all the species of antelopes, slags, goats, and
bogs of the (.Chinese variety. The sheep, cow,
horse, and ass are strangers to the countrj', and
known only as importations from Europe; but the
zebra, elephant, and rhinoceros traverse the woods,
and the bip|Ni|Mitamus is found in the rivers. Thu
civet cat is also a native of this country, which
likewise almunds in monkevs of all kinds, among
which is the chimpanzee, the most intcllijr nt of
the trilic. A species of wild dog is said U» bo
found in the woods.
To enumerate the birds of this part of Africa,
would be to give a list of almost interminablo
length ; all that arc found in other tropical re-
gions, and some that are p«iculiar, flourish here.
The tlsber and the sergo, w honey bird, are among
the lattttr, and with whidc hosts of pelicans, ami
nearly every variety of parrot, constitute the chief
characteristics of Angolian ornithology. Reptiles
numerous, consisting of centipedes, scorpions, and
exceedingly venomous serpents. Some of the
lizard tribe, as the camelcon, are less danger-
ous than these ; but the rivers swarm with two
or three s|)ecies of croc(Kliles, which make fishing
dangerous, and bathing all but fatal. Lifi; is an
ainindant in the wuf ers as on the land ; and be-
sides the usual tenants of the deep, as whales,
sharks, dolidiins, macknrel, oysters, crabs, &c., tho
coasts and rivers possess an endless list of err' -
tures, the very names of which are unknown in
Euroiie. Insects are as numerous, Ixiautitul, and
destructive as in other tropical climates; and
among tho last-named class, the termites or white
.•\nt stands pre-eminent.
Dr. Frederic VVelwilsob, director of the Botanic
Gardens of Lisbon, has been engaged for many
j-ears in the scientific exjiloration of the province!,
of which be has given an account in the ' Annalcs
des Colonies de Portugal.' His travels on the coast
extended from Quizembo to the north of Ambriz,
in the north, as far south as the mouth of the
Coanza, and he afterwards gradually penetrated
to the interior of the continent, among countries
previously imknown. He ascended the course of
the Pcnga, as far as Saiige, the chief place of a
district called Golongo-Alto, where bcest ablisbed
his head-quarters, from which to make diverging
excursicms among the surrounding precipitous
mountains and virgin forests. Travelling east-
ward, M. Wclwilsch, after leaving the dictrict of
Ambaca, reached Pungo-Andougo, which he se-
lected as a second centre for liLs operations in the
interior, and hence he exphired the banks of the
great river Coanza, the mountains of Pedras and
Guiga, and the islands of Calemba; the vast
forests lying between Quironda and Condo, the
salt marshes of Quitagc, the river Luxillo, and
i,/' M
m
. . -^M
■'ilJNri/iir
'"m,
/t>:, .
138
ANOOLA
( fr< •(
i.^ ,:;
1
t. ,
l;>:'if»
%
'i
"i'l
m
ti.i
the (liMtrirt of <'nmlmnilH>. During thin Icmj;
jiiiiriicy, M. Wi'lwilNch colli-rtril H,227 vr)j;ol«l)lc
anfcii-M, iM'lon^inK to Itlii fntnilitM, lie rct'OKiUNCN
ttirpt' lM)lnnictil rc^iotm in Angola. I. The n>n'um
orihn coottt iirwliioli the llioniy pInniN, the nca-
ciiiN, and the Imolmlm fonn tlic principnl vr};(>ln-
tion, 2. the inoiintain rrKioXi I'hietly cliarnctrriMol
by itn maJcNtio forcxtN, itx on^hiilN, an<l a |Milin am
iiMffiil AH hpaiitiful {the eluii fiuineen»i»), and tho
region of tlic phitpnun diNtinKiiixhi'd hy an iin-
mcnxe variety of vegetation, the elegance of the
H|)eeieH, and e.speeially by a multitude of aromatic
and bullMiUH iihtntH, and tho luxuriant verdure of
the vaat proirieH. The overoKo annual tempera-
ture of Angola he found to Im; ii'29 F, and that of
the region of the plateaus 7<t<'.
Population, Cuttomt, ^c. — Tho population w
denxe for a barbanuiH country, the monarch l)eing
called Ineue, from tho great number of Hubjectj*
under bin command. It is not, however, easy to
oitxign tho amount, but it mav ))erhapH lie taken
at between 2,0()(),0()() and a,()m),()n(). The capital
city, St. I'aul, or I.oaixla, contaimt H,0(H). The
nativcH have few of the negro peculiarities in form
or feature : they arc of onhnary stature, well
limlM>d, and, but for their cfdour, very like the
Portuguese, by whom they are surroundeil. Illuc
eyes and red hair arc not uncommon among them.
Society is divided into fourclosBcs, two free and two
slaves; the tlrst two consisting of nobles and hus-
bandmen or artificers; the others of slaves, native
lH)m, and those acquired by war or foreign \mt-
chase. Marriage is an extremely simple cere-
mony, a mere agreement between the hus()and and
the /ather of the woman. The appearance of the
first tooth in children is an important epoch ; the
infant being then carried from house to house, and
gifts extorted from friends and strangers. For the
rest, they do not differ much from other ncf^roes.
Dancing is a favourite diversion, and a religious
rite; and, like other African jHiople, their cere-
monies are defiled with bUxxl and cnielty. Money
is of several kinds : marked cloths, the shell of a
small fish called simbo, a red wood brought from
Malemba, and iron, which last was introduced by
the Portuguese. The country is parcelled out
into an immense number of little lordships, each
imdcr a magistrate called a sova. It would ap-
pear that the king is able to control the petty
despotism of these governors; for they have
neither wealth nor any other distinction, except
the personal respect paid to them, which is, how-
ever, very jirofound, to distinguish them from
any other freemen. The religion f the bulk of
the people is Feticism, differing in nothing from
that «in the coast of Guinea (see Ashantkk) ; but
there are many Christian families among the na-
tives, and at one time the Jesuits had converted
nearly the whole population, and established a
regular form of church government. But the
eflect of their labours has now nearly vanished,
and the negroes have relapsed into the idolatrous
rites of their ancestors. The language is less bar-
barous and more uniform on this coast than in
most other parts of Africa ; the whole of Congo,
that is, the country between the Coanza and the
Zaire, speak a dialect of the same tong-ie, which is
extremely musical and flexible ; not particularly
sonorous, but very agreeable ; with a perfect syn-
tax, and bearing in some points a resemblance to
the Latin.
Trade. — The Portuguese established a factory
on this coast in 1 485, and their power has been
constantly extending to the present time. Two
of their establishments are 700 m. inland ; but it
is not to be supposed that they possess a sove-
reignty over the whole country to this extent.
ANOOSTITRA
Their p«wts, rolled fairs, nrfairria, are litilr nrnn.
than enlre|M')tM for trade ; though the ri'hi<lH,ii
exercise a |M)litical [M)Wor in their ininiiiliM,.
neighlMiurhood. These eHlabliNhmentH have, it i,
said, excited a spirit of manufacture and cuni.
merco among the negroes; but we doubt miKli
whether this has lieen tho rose in any considoralili.
degree; and whatever lienellcial iiiHuence iluv
might otherwise have had, has t>een couni('r\'ail(i|
and nullified by the sup|Nirt given by tliv l'„j.
tugucwe authorities to the slave tradi-. In fmi,
Angola was for a lengthened series of vi-nrs, the
great mart whence slaves were obtained for Itrazil;
but the slave trade to that coinitry has nowal!ni>.t
entirely ceased. The Portuguese gov. of Aiipili
is undo. stood to embrace the kingdoms of Aiipilg,
IJenguela, and other Presidenirios. Area with
Ambri/, Henguela and Mossamedes alMiut 'JD.lllii
sq. m. Pop. estimated at 2,0(MI,0(M»; but llin |'i,r
tugueso colony in IH5H was reckoned to luimUr
only 0.')!),l!M}. Attention of late has Ik'oii direcidl
to the cultivation of cotton. A Koyal Portii^'ui-y
decree of December 4, IHOI, provided for the
granting of waste lands in Angola and Mnzam-
biquc, for the cultivation of cotton at a niuninal
rent, and on other advantageous condition!!, aii<|
at the same time a Mr. John lieaton obtaiiitdihe
concession of -lOOiOOit acres. He had engofjid lu
form a cotton-growing company, but the com-
l)any not being formed witlun the contract timr,
the con(!ession became void. A similar allninKm
of land to alMMit the same extent was mailctni
French gentleman, M. de liellegarde, lK>i*ii|M
smaller grants to Portuguese speculators for »imila:
purposes. The actual exports of cotton have as yet,
however, been inconsiderable. (See Poitxt/oAi-i
ANGOHA, or EXGOUUI, the ancient Anc^n.
a city almost in the centre of N'atolia, near the SL
source of the Sakariah, or Sangarins, lat. 10° ii
N., long. 330 18' K. After undergoing varioiw
revolutiims, it fell under the dominion of the
Itomans ; and being embellished and otlicmsf
favoured by Augustus, the inhabitanti erected in
his honour the celebrated Monumentum Anq-
ranum, a temple of white marble, on the walli if I
which an account of the principal events in the
life of Augustus was inscribed. The ruins i>( \\m \
edifice still remain. Notwithstanding the (lt'mL<e
of its powerful patron, Ancyra continued to flimrish, |
It was here that St. Paul preached to the (.iali-
tians; and when the Christian n'ligiiin sprtad :
itself all over the world, it was advanced tn the
dignity of an apostolic see. It came into the p"?-
session of the I'urks in 1359. The great Iwitif
between the Turkish sultan, tiajaxet, or ISaynzi'l
and the famous Tartar conqueror Tamerlane, "t
Timur Ilec, which ended in thi total defeat anJ
capture of the former, was fought in the viciniiy
of Ancyra in 1401. It continues to be one tif iht
principal cities of Natolit , and is celebrated k
manufactures of stiifli 'nade of the silk-like khJ
of the goat of Angora, a variety pecii'iar to the
country round the town. The population has Iwn
variously estimated at from 35,000 to mfiW. t)«i
according to the latest accounts it is consideraUv |
less, the numbers being 10,000 Mohammedm
6,000 Armenians and Greeks, and 200 Jews.
ANGOSTURA, a city of S. America, rep. of I
Venezuela, on the S. bank of the Orinociu
about 240 m. above its embouchure, and aboai I
190 ft. above the level of the sea, lat. «° 8' I'H
N., long. 63° 65' 20" \V. It was founded in 1». [
Owing to its situation in a fertile countrj-, on 1 1
great navigable river, and its command of a \w I
extensive inland navigation, Angostura is favour- 1
ably situated for commerce, which it carried on i« [
a very considerable extent previous to the revoln- 1
ri, nro lirtlo mxn
i;h lh«' roiilciiti
thi'ir imniciliai'
imtuitH tmvi', it I,
I'licturp iiiul mm.
wt! (Ii till It miicli
\ any coimidcralil
111 iiitliK^tico thc'v
locii c(iiiiilcr\ailh|
ivt-n by the I'l.r
c truiU'. Ill foci,
}t'wh of yi'iirs, ilie
^lainril tnr llriuil;
ry has imw almihi
HO f{()v. of An){(iU
ll^doinit ofAllKnlg,
iicioH. Area with
i>(l(>H alioiit '.'O.'t.llii
,0111); but llipl'iir
:knnv(l to mimlii'i
3 ha» been ilirecinl
, Uoyal I'ortiiKuw
providtMl fur the
ip)la anil Mozani-
iitton at a lumiiiial
)UH L'oiiilitiims, ainl
Icaton <il)taiiii'il the
Ic bad pii);bki'(I in
,ny, but the em\-
the foiitract timr,
\ Himilar allutmm
tent was nindctot
HoUonarde, lioniilci
cculators for wmila:
ifcottonhaveasyei,
(See r<ntTiioAU'
be ancient Ancm.
utolin, near the NL
mgarius, lat. liP5
undcrnoinj; variow
le dominion of the
4hcd and otherwise
iabit«nt» crccteii in
lonumentum Ancj-
blc, on the walLi of
icinal events in the
. The ruins "f ihL*
itanding the demise
iontinucd to timirL<li,
■ached to thctiak-
ian reli>,'i"ii spn'aJ
i» advanced tu the
t came into the piJ-
Tbc liTvat Iwtile
Bajazct, or IJayazil
leror Tamerlane, "t
h". total defeat w\
igtit in the viciiiiiy
ues to he one i)f lli«
id is celebriitcd foi
jf the silk-like vd
iety peculiar to the
population ha*! li«»
■,,00Oto80,0Ull:hui
its it is considerably |
000 Mohammedans,
and '200 Jews.
S. America, rep. «l
ik of the Oriiioo'.
louchure, and about
16 Bea,lat.«0 8'W
was founded in I'M
fertile country, on i
command of a very
Angostura is favour- 1
hich it carried on i«
ivious to the rev*
ANOOULKME
linnaiA- KtmUKloo. These, however, hnvo dl-
miiiii'lit'tl its <ommer<M«, wealth, and nopulntion.
The Inst, which in IH07 was estimated at alKint
H.VNi, was for a time eonsid<'ral)ly less, but is again
'pilm'lilv alsmt that nninlier. It lias a largo ball,
where meetings of Congress have iM'en held, with
,„h<H<|>ilfll n"'' aeidlege; and is defemled by a
f„rtiinthe opposite bank of the river. Though
liiw, and subject to inundation, the climate is tem-
l»TiitP, and liot unhealthy,
AN'OOl'L^-MK (an, /<M/Mmrt),a city of France,
(Ifii. Chnrente, of wbh-h it is the capital, on a
plateau elevated 2'-'l ft, above the river (^lia-
rente, on the railway from Paris to llordeaux,
m ni. NK, Ilordeau'x. Pop, 'il.Otil in IHtil.
The old town, which (M-cii|des the summit of
the plateau, has narrow, crtM)ke<l streets, and is
Iriile et laifir. In its centre sti.'uls the old castle
in ruins. The walls, with wbicl: the city was
liimierly surnuinded, have been m.-stly demo-
lished, and the ramparts <'onverted into public
waiks. The new town, built on a declivity to the
S, of the (dd town, has broad straight streets,
fm\ houses, and is rapidly increasing, 'I'her* are
alw several suburbs, of which llouiiieau is the
must important. Its port is the entreiMtt of the
mmmcrce of Angouleme: cathedral ancient, but
neither large nor In^autiful ; and, with the ex-
reption of the tine bridge over the ('barente, and
an olielisk erected in biuiour of the pn>seiit l)u-
ehcHse d'Angoulemc, the other public buihlings
deserve no particular notice. The Plnce tTArtoin
i.« a tine promenade, and, from its elevated posi-
tinn, commands a view of the valley of the Aii-
puienne and the surrounding ccmiitry. Angouleme
Ik the seat of a court of assizes, and of a tribunal
of uriKiiial jurisdiction ; and has an im))crial ly-
ceiim; a society, of agriculture, arts, and com-
merce, which ])ublislieH memoirs once a month ; a
large public librarj', a cabinet of natural history ;
gseliiH)l of midwifery' ; a foundling hospital, and
various other hos]iitals; a theatre, &c. It has
also under the Kcstoraticm a royal marine school,
the ImildingH of which were <m a large scale : this
institution was, however, transferred in 1S;J7 to
Brest, Angouleme is celebrated for the extensive
pa|ier manufactures in its vicinity: it has also
iahrica of serges and coarse stiitt's, and earthen-
ware; with extensive distilleries, which produce
excellent brandy ; tanneries, a cannon foundry, a
manufacture of arms, a sugar refinery. The pdtci
de perdrix aux truffes d'Aiigouleme are sent to all
parts of Europe,
Angouleme is very ancient, being noticed by
Aiisonius, who flourished in the tliird century.
Balzac was a native of the town and so also was
the detestable regicide, Kavaillac, the assassin of
Henry IV. In the vicinity are the ruins of the
famous abbey de la Couronne, founded in 1122,
long the ornament of the Angoumois. This ve-
nerable and niagniticent structure, after escaping
therevolutionarj' phrenzy, was demolished in 1808.
The fountain of Trouve, a few miles from Angou-
leme, is, next to that of Vaiicluse, the most cele-
brated in France.
ASGOUMOIS, the name of a district in France
prenously to the revolution, nearly but not exactly
coincidiij. with the dep. Charente, It formed, in
eonnexioii with the district of Saintonge, one of
jthe pmmces into which France was formerly
divided,
ANGRA, a town and sea-port of the island of
Tcrceira, one of the Azores, being the cap. of the
[archipelago, and the residence of the governor, at
the hottom of a deep bay or creek, lat. .S80 .IS' 33"
[X.. long, 270 12' 33" VV. Pop. variously estimated
[»t from 10,000 to 15,000. It is beautifu'lly situated
ANIIALT 130
on A hill, rising gradunlly from the son. The
streets are broad and regular, and the bouses,
generally of three stories, lliougli gh>omy, are well
built. It is well supplied with water, but the
streets, as well as the inhabitants, am iiolwiih-
slandlng excessively liltliy. There are a great
nimilier of cbiinhes, and it formerly also bad
various monasierii's and convents; but the latter
have iM'eii dissolved, and the buildings appli<-d to
other uses. As a jiort, Angra has notliing to Umst
of: it is open to all winds from the SS\V, by the
S, to the K, The swell from the SNV. in particular
which sets round Mount llrazil, on the \V, side
of the bay, is tremetiihnis. In the bad weather
months, large vessels anchor in the mouth of the
bay, abreast of St, Antonio, in 2H and .'1(1 fathoms,
to be ready instantly to put to sea in the event of
storms setting in, the coast all'ording no sludter.
The town is (lefended^on the \V, bv the citadel at
the foot of Mount lira/il, and on tiie opposite side
of the bay by the fort tt( ISt. Sebastian, the <Ui»-
taiice lietween them being almut J m,
Anoka, a »en-jM>rt town of llrazil, prov, Kio
.laneiro, liears SVV. distant 78 m. from tlm city of
that name. Its |Kirt admits large ships; it is for-
tified bv two reihxibts, and has som<' <'oinmerce.
ANtiUlLLA, or SNAKK ISLAND, so called
from its torttioiis figure, an island Udonging to tlut
Itritish in the VV. Indies, Indiig the most northerly
of the ('ariblMie Islands, and separated by a narrow
channel from .St. Martin's; lat. IH° «"' N., long.
(!3° 12' K. Area alniut iUi sq. m. It is Hi m, in
length, by alwut 3 to 1} m. in breadth. Pop.
ttlsiut 2,.")00, of whom nearly 2,400 are coloured or
black. Surface flat; sidl chalky, and not very
prmhictive ; and there is a deliciency liotli of wood
and water; climate healthy. Hy far the largest,
portiiui is uncultivated. It produces some sugar,
with maize and provisions of vari(uis kinds.
Cottim is exciting attention and alMuit tiO acres
arc under cultivation. A salt lake in the miihllu
of the island furnishes a considerable supply of
salt, and the revenue is chiefly derived from a
duty of ,5 c, per barrel on salt. The island has no
giMxl harliour. The town, an inconsiderable plac'e,
stands near the SE. extremity of the island. The
islantl is part of the government of St, Kitt's, and
sends one member to the assembly. For local
purposes it is governed by a stipendiary magis-
trate paid from the Imperial Treasury, assisteil by
a vestry of which be is (;hairmaii. The n^veniio
in I8(!l' was 4141. and exp<!nditurc 210/, Besides
the local courts for administering justice there arc
also supposed to be Courts of (Queen's IJencb and
Commons Pleas, and Chancery in the island !
The colonists elect their chief magistrate, subject
to the approval of the governor of Antigua.
Anouiixa, one of the lialmma Islands, about
20 m. Ion. and 5 broad ; lat. 23'^ 36' N., long.
79° 20' W.
ANGUILLARA, a town of North Italy, on the
Adige, 23 m. S. Padua. Pop. 3,500 in 18(;2. This
is also the name of a town of nearly ctpuil size on
the H. side of the lake Braccioiio, 16 m. NNW.
Home.
ANGUS. See Forfar.
ANH ALT, a principality of Germany almost sur-
rounded by the Prussian dominions, having Briin-
denburg on the N., Prussian Saxony on the E. and
S,, the county of Mansfeldt on the SW,, and
Brunswick and the Prussian circ. of Magdeburg
on the NW. Its greatest length is CO m., and its
breadth varies from 12 to 16 m. Principal river the
Elbe, by which it is intersected. Area 8(i9 sq, m.
Pop. 181,824 in 1861. It is mostly flat, and is
very fertile and weU cultivated. It was formerh'
divided into the three duchies of Auhalt-Bernburg ;
110
ANHOLT
f . ,:
: «
:|t
!l
■i»M;
m]
"h:i
h''
^'[■i[
AnlmU-rrnthnn, and Aiihiilt-DmNaii, Imt tlir lino
of Aiihnlt-Ca'llicii U'ciiniiH extinct in iHi' nn<l (if
AnIinll-llcniliiirK on An((. ID, IHIIH, IcnvinK thn
family of Anhnll-l)pNi*nu in wili* pomoitNion. The
conwMit of thn NtaloH in nivi'K^inry to tha im|HiNi-
tion of any new tax, Imt liy a foiiMtiliilion
liroclaimcd in lH/>0, the rcprcm'ntation of the
peoplo In meri'ly noniinnl. Inhali, nioMtly I'ro-
tuHtanta anil very iniluNtriouN. Tlin cntin^ princl-
pality fiirnifthuM 2,(K»4 nion to tliu army of tlm
confiMlfration. Principal townfi, l)uHMau, /orbnt,
CiN'then, anil II«>rnliiirK,
ANHOLT, a xniall DaniMli iMianil in the Cnttc-
gat, nearly halfway lietween I^eNNoe anil /calami,
A liKhtliouNC, liavinff tlin lantern elcvatcil 1 12 feet
al)ov« the level of thn wea, han lieen crecteii on itH
moHt eantcrly promontor>', in lat. 6(5" •14' 20" H.,
long. l|0iW'^6l" K.
ANI, former capital of Armenia, now in ruinf).
It waH vi:<iteil liv an KngliHli traveller, Mr. Jolni
llHHhcr, in 1^04, and in tliuH graphically ite-
wribed ; — ' Making a IfHK circuit, we enten d the
duM'rtcd city by the centre aato, there iH'inu three
pvat entrances in the double walls which were
built of largo blocks of hewn Htone. Over the
outer gate wan an Armenian inscription, over the
inner a leopard was sculptured in lM)ld relief;
while near it, on the towers, were carved crosw's,
ornamentcil with decorations and tracery of a
very delicate nature. We found the ground in
i. interior coveretl with fragments of sculptured
stones, broken columns, capitals, and carvings.
Clambering over the masses of ruins we entered a
few of the churches, three or four of which seemed,
with the exception that their doors had been
carried away, quite as perfect as when just out of
the hands of the builder. One of them in particu-
lar, which stood just above the bridge that spanned
the abyss below, was in complete preservation, the
fresco paintings on the interior of the dome re-
taining their bright colour and hues uninjured by
time, the subjects being Christ riding into Jeru-
salem, the Virgin at the sepulchre, d'c. These
churches stand solitary among the niins, in which,
save a few pigeons, no living creatures seemed to
exist. In the centre of the city were two lofty
octagon towers, on which were small turrets ; and
not far from them was an isolated steep rock, near
the edge of the precipice. Tliis was also covered
with scattered fragments of what had onco been
buildings — the citadel of the fortress city. The
walls of the palace yet remain, and are of great
extent and solidity. The masonry is perfect, the
huge stones are squared and put together with the
greatest care, and the whole is covered with the
most elaborate candngs, decorations, and mosaics,
all of exceedingly delicate workmanship. There
were also two mosques ; one built on the edge of
the precipice, the interior of the dome of which
was covered with perfectly preserved arabesques,
resembling in character and finish of design those
of the Alhambra.' (Ussher, John, F.K.G.S., from
London to Persepolis. 18(55.)
ANIANE, a town of France, dep. Herault, cap.
cant., 16 m. W. by N. Montpellier. Pop. 3,557 in
1861.
ANJAR, a town of Hindostan, prov. Cutch, cap.
district of same name, ceded in 1816 to the Itritisli,
near the NE. shore of the Gulf, lat. 23° 3' N.,
long. 70* 11' E. It is fortified, but not strongly.
In 1819 neorly holf the town was destroj'ed by an
earthquake, in which 165 persons lost their lives.
The pop. is estimated at 10,000.
ANJENGO, a sea-port town of S. Hindostan,
Jirov. Travancore, 18 m. NNW. Cape Comorin,
at. 80 37' N., long. 76° 53' N. The E. I. Com-
pany had a factory here from 1684 to 1813, when
ANNAN
It was alMilUhed. Itin lM>Ht coir rablen nn th,
Malabar coast ant made here and at CiH'Inn; anj
IM'p|ier, coarMi plece-giKMis, and drugn an- ixiKirtfi^
AN.MXI.an ancient prov. and gov. of Frm,,"
now diNtriliiiled among the depti*. of Mnlnp ,t
Loire, l^oirn lnfe'rleun>, Venilt'e, Inilre et |,i,|n
Harthe, lllu lit Vilaine, Maycniie, anil Ij^j
Hitvres.
ANKLAM, a town of Pniwla, nrov. Piiin(>r(ni4
rap. circ, on the navigable Uiver Peene, alNuu Tml
from where it falls into the strait MepiiratiiiK ih'
Ixle of I'xedom from the cimlincnt. Pii|i. !),;iiii|j„
IHlll, It was founded in 1 188 ; has a I'lillc^oaiul
three hospitals, with maiiiifactures of clntli g„,|
linen, and carries on a coiiMiderable trade in aiiJK.
building and shipiiing.
ANK(>l,'>rANbKn(),atownofltiikhnra.;,^ni
W. Italkli. lat. 36° 48' N., long. 6<io |;. M«v»„.'
dortf says that it has nearly 4,000 hoiiNi"), wiilrh
would infer a pop. of at least from 25,0011 tu.'lii.iHid,
consisting nrincipnUy "f Arabs. A Ntnnll river
flows past tm town ; but as it dries in miinini'r,
the inhab. are obliged to sunplv tlu^mNelvcH witil
watur from wells. (Voyage a Ikiukhara, p. 14,1 1
ANNAHKUG (ST.), a town of Saxony, ciffl,
Erzgebirge, 8 m. SVV. Alaricnburg. Pop. ll.Tlnii,
1861. It is well built, has three chiirclii-A, twu I
hiMpitals, and a gymnasium, with nuiiiuriictuni
of lace and ribands In its vicinity arc ininos <i
iron, tin, cobalt, and silver.
ANNA 11, a town of Asiatic Turkey, cap. S«r-
jiack, on the Euphrates, 160 m. NW.'itagilnil
34° 10' N., long. 41° 47' E. It is finely HituaM I
on the route of the caravans that cross the dewn
of Mesopotamia. Il was surprised in 18(17 hy tht {
Wahabites, who, after committing all sorti* nf ex-
cesses, set it on fire. The |)op. docs ]iriilialily noi I
exceed from 8,000 to 4,000. The eaviriinn are |
very fertile.
ANNAMABOE, one of the four fortiiicil pnub I
occupied by liritain on the Gold Coast of Afrita,
formerly prov. Fanti, empire of the Asluiiitw>,
lat. 6° 5' N., long. 1° 16' E. It was burnt l.y the
Ashantees in 1808. Pop. probably from 3,000 to
4,000.
ANNAMOOKO, one of the Friendly Isla
(which see).
ANNAN, a borough, sea-port, m. town, Ami p. I
of Scotland, co. Dumfries. The town is situatal
on the E. side of the river Annan, wliicli if here
crossed by a fine bridge of three arches, erected in I
1824, about IJ m. above its conflucncu with tb(
Solway Frith, 67 m. S. EiUnburgli. Pop. d
borough, 3,473 in 1861 ; inhabited houiie*, ii;B; |
annual value of real property 8,113/. in IM(i4, ev
elusive of railway ; corporation revenue fjHM/. in |
1863-4. It is clean, well built, neat, anil tiirirat,';
has a handsome new church and spire ; a is'oui I
natural harbour, which has been much impruveil I
by an embankment constructed at the expend 4 1
Mr. Irving of Newton ; and an academy wliioh u [
well attended. There is also a cotton maniifncton', I
and ship-building is carried on to a ciinsiileratik I
extent ; but the principal trade of the town ciin>i$u
in the curing of bacon and hams for tiie Xewiwli
and London markets, and in the shipping; of m, I
fat cattle, and sheep, by steam, for J,,iverpool [
Annan unites with Dumfries, KirckciulbriRht,
Lochmabcn, and Sanquhar, in returning a mcmlic; I
to the H. of C. Parliamentary and muiiicipil |
constituency 176 in 1865.
Annan, the river on which the above town bj
built. It rises on the S. side of Hartfell, a monni
tain on the confines of the cos. Dunil'rics ai»i|
Peebles, near Moffat, and after pursuing »M
course of about 36 m. in a direct line, unitw mik I
the Solway Frith, IJ m. below Annan, to vhichiil
Ir rahlpn nii Ih.
lit Cocliin; an I
HK» flfi' I'XiKirici.
|ltn. <if MhIiii- .1
, Indri' I't l.nm
itlllV, Ullll \h[i\
nrov. I'limPMnu,
INhmumiI milt. Tin,
lit M'|iiiriiliiiK til'
It. l'ii|>.'<Viil*iiii
lllkN It ('>i|ll')(C tllil
ir«'H (if clipili Hn,|
till! triidi! in <i|i||i.
lof Itiiklmra,;.^!)!.
, «itlo K. Mavm-
IMKI hiiiiw'H, whii'li
ir2&,ooiMi>:tii,iH>i,
». A Hiiinll river
(Iriex ill Hiiinnirr,
y tliemwlvt's *iili
kmkhnrn, p. I4;i,i
. «)f Hnxony, e'wk
irn. I'op. '.i.Tlnin
lit- (1 cliiirflK's, iwii 1
ivilli i)iiimifii('tiin'<
;inity nru iiiinra uf |
Turkcv, Clip. S«n-
, NW.'UantlmUai. I
t iH ilnuly HituatM
lat croHs the dwen
iHcd in 1807 bytht
:inn all sortu nf es-
il(ic8 iiriilinltly not
The envirimi art |
four fortirtcd iwt*
lid Coast of At'rici, |
of the AslmiitM!,
t was burnt liv tht I
|bably froina,000t«
le Friendly Islamlj |
rt, m. town, ami p.
lie town i:< situatal
man, which ic ti«
'0 archcH, i-rt'ctwl in |
[onflueiu'o witii th«
iinburt;h. Pop. 4 1
ibited houses ti^fl;
),113/. in \m,n-
n revenue (.SM. in
Incat, and timM: \
and spire ; a p»>l
■en much iraprovni 1
|l at the expanse rf I
II academy wliiili LI
Jiotton maniifactcir). I
In to a consideralil!
of the townconsi*
j» for tlie New(*«il*
lieshippinRofwni,
[am, for Liverpwl
IS, Kirckcudbriptt.
„-eturninf,' a mcmte
[ary and municipil
the above town i) I
If llartfell,nnionn-|
1 cos. Uunifrics hikI I
Iter pursuing »''■[
)!ct line, unitw wtk
Annan, tu which II
ANNANDALK
!< ntviKuhl)*. It I**** "<**' 't* niouth Mlmon fiHh-
,rif« of riin»lder«bli) vnlu«.
AN'N'ANI>AhK, th« name xivmi to thn valley
,f liiw tC^MiniU tfttvorMNl IvnKthwiite Ity thti rli >>r
AN'NAI'OMS, n town of Nova Hcotia, on the
S ,«iclt' III' tix' river of the name name, near where
ii t'iilii« iiilii it<* eittimry or iMiitin, on the S\V. nhte of
,l,r |,av ..f Fundy, lot. M)° 47' N., loii^. Wfl M VV.
'Ihf harlwiur in iipnrioii)> and stHMire. This is the
iililist Kiirii|H'aii M'lt lenient in N. Aineriea, haviiiK
Uh'ii fiiiiiidi'd in IliOt, It was ealU>d Fort Knyal
i \ the Fri'iu'li; bi't. on their ceding tlie prov, to
Kiicliuiil in •!'" ""'''K" "'" <^ieeii Anne, it received
it< pri'ii'iit nniiie in lionour of her MuJcKty, Not-
witn^taiiditii; it wax tliu cap, of tlie iirov. till the
fiiiiiiilntiim of Halifax in lifiO, ami its line liiir-
iHiiir, it never attained to any coiiNideralile magni-
tude. At iirtwiit the for' illcations and ^overii-
nii'iil liuil(lin){^ are pdiiK to ruin. Top. of co.
Ainiapiili-i, lt',i'i7H in IHt!l.
ANNAnn.iH, a city and jiort of entry of the
r. States I'lip. Maryland, on the Severn, 2 m.
t'roin itH mouth, '2H m. SSK. Italtimure. I'op.
4,;V.".I in I8«>0. It is a handsome, healthy town,
with a slatehouse, H theatre, <itc. The proximity
ami more iidvantaKeoiiM situation of Italtimure as
a place iif trade, have uccosioncd the slow growth
of Annniiolis.
ANXW'Y, a town of France, den. Ilaute-Savoie,
nt tliH norfliern extremity of the lake of thu same
name, 22 m. S. (;eneva. Pop. I0,7!J7 in IHtil.
TIr' town is ph-asantly situated umoiiK hills and
mountuins; and is thriving; and industrious,
having estaldishments for the spinninK <>f cotton
Olid xilk, with inanutiicturcs of earthenware and
);liM.«, vitriol, straw hats, white iron and steel.
It is the seat of a bishopric, and is very ancii^nt.
ANNI'yr, one of the Scilly Islands, about 1 m.
from that of St. Allies.
AXXOXAV, a town of France, dep. Ardbchc,
liein^', tliou);h not the cap., the princdpal town of
tiip dep., at the i^ontlueiK^e of the Caiice and the
Ih'iime, 7 m. from the Uhoiie. I'op. l(i,271 in
IMiil. Aniionay is a thrivinj^ town, a^treeably
Mtuated on the elevated uneven ground between
the two rivers, with siiliiirbs on the opposite banks ;
Iwiii); well, though irregularly built. The only
|iulilic Iniilding worth notice, is an obelisk in
honour of the celebrated a-ronaut MontgoUler, a
native of the place. Annonay is principally dis-
tinguished by its inanufiictiires, particularly by
that of paper, long reckoned the liest in France ;
and hence the recommendation so frequently seen
in French catalogues, of books biting printed on
]»p{er fin d Annonay, (See Audkchk.) It has
also manufactures of cloth, woollen stockings, and
(tloves; establishments for the spinning of cotton
and silk, part of the lotter of a peculiarly line
(|uality, been employed in the manufacture of
I tulles and blondes ; with dye-works, tanneries, &c.
JThe town is projirietor of a large nursery; anil
jin its vicinity is the first suspension bridge con-
I striicted in F ranee.
ALOPSl I K II H, a town of H indostan, prov. Agra,
Ion the W. side of the Ganges, 68 m. KSF], Delhi,
I lat. 28° 23' N., long. 78© 8' E. It is surrounded by
la strong mud wall, and is thickly inhabited.
I AXSPACII, or ANSBACH, a town of Bavaria,
leap. circ. Kczat, 24 m. SVV. by W. Nuremberg,
Ion a branch line of the railway from Augsburg to
iXiwraberg. Pop. 12,24.') in 1861. It is sur-
Inmnded by walls, and has four gates ; is the seat
lof'he provincial authorities and of a court of
Tijilieii'. The objects most deserving of attention
lare the rastle and gardens that formerly belonged
Ito the Margraves of Anspach ; the church of St.
ANTIHF.S 141
.John, with thn lomb* of the princtxi. It ho* a
gymnaniiim, nil honpital, an orphan himpital, a
ll)irary of l«l,«HH) vols, with a cabinet of inednls;
and manufactures of wisdlen and cotlon vtiitis,
enrlheiiwnre, while lead, and plavlng cards,
ANSTH|;TMKU (F.ASTI'u «ml WKSTKH),
two inconsiderable iNiroiiuhs and M-a-|M>rtMof Scot-
land, CO. Fife, on the N. shore of the Frith of
Fiirfh. Po|i. of JMilh iNiroiighs, with their pari'«hr'i,
1,4:ir in In:I1 ; |,,v.):i in iHiil. Pari, const. ||-J
ill l8i;;i. The iNiniiigliH unite with Hrail, Pitleii-
wei III, and Kilreiiiiv, in returning u in. to tha
II. ..re.
ANT ARCTIC .HKA.theniimegiven to the ocean
extending tVoni the Antim'ticCircle, lat. tiO© III)' S.
to the South Pole. It was long considerisl iiii-
iM'iietralde for ships, on account of the ice; but of
late years many discoveries have lN>en made,
chielly liy Kiiglish and American explorers. Sir
.lames Koss, in |8 II, reached lat. ~H° \' the highest
S, latitude yet reached. Various tracts of barren
hind have Ihicii obst-rved bv Iheexplorers, to which
the names of AdiHie, Ibilleny, K.nderly, Sti-
briiitt and Victoria have Imk'u given, but a great
deal of adventurous research is still necessarv
iH-fore our knowledge of these regions is mai(e
copious.
ANTIC(^ITF,KA, a town of Spain, Andalusia,
30 m. NNVV. Malaga, on the railwav to Cordova,
Pot). 22.0)!)) in 1857. It it built partly on a hill,
and partly on a plain; has an ohi castle built by
the Aloor's, several <4iurcheH and convents, with
establishments for the sjiinning of silk and cotton,
and fabriirs of pa|H'r, morocco leather, and soai>.
There are in its neiglibourliood ipiarries of marble
of ditVentnt colours, and plaster, a salt lake, and
a mineral spring. It was taken by assault from
the MiMirs, by Ferdinand, afterwards King of Ar-
ragoii, in 1411). A railway, completed in 18(ir>,
jdaces Malaga and (iranada in communication
with the rest of the Peninsula. The line nuisfroia
]\Ialaga bv way of Antequera to Cordova.
ANTIlkMK (ST.), a town of France, deii.
Puv de Dome, cap, cant, on the Ance, li in. E,
Anibert. Pop. a,22») in I8(!l.
ANTHONY (ST.), FALLS OF, in the Mis-
sissippi, alxnit 2,(1(10 m. aljove its embouchure,
lat, 44° .'iO' N. Here the river descends about
74 ft., vix. IG ft, of perpendicular fall, and 58 more
of rapids.
Anthony (St.), a capo on tbe coast of S. Ame-
rica, Argentine republic, being the S. extremity of
the estuary of the La Plata, lat. BG" 15' 19" S.,
long, oljo -AT W.
ANTIBES (an. Antij)ol!$), a sea-port town of
France, dep. Var, cap. cant., on the Mediterranean,
22 m. ENE. Frejus, on the railway from TouKm
to Nice. Pop. G,82!) in 18G1.' ^Beiiig an important
station on tbe side of Italy, Antibcs is pretty
strongly fortified. It is the scat of a tribunal of
commerce, and of a school of navigation. The
])ort, which is circular, of considerable size, and
easy access, is formed by a mole ])rojecting from
the town, the distance from its extremity to the
point on which F'ort Carrd is built being only
alMiiit 150 fathoms. In most parts the port is
shallow ; but within and near the mole there are
from 15 to 18 ft. water. The inhabitants are
principally em|>loyed in the fishing and curing of
sardines and anchovies.
Antibes is very ancient, ha\nng been founded by
a colony from Marseilles, 340 ii.c. It was after-
wards occupied bv the Romans, by whom it was
fortified and embellished. Having been destroyed
by the Saracens towards the end of the ninth cen-
tury, it continued in a comparatively neglected
state, till it was again fortified by Francis I. and
,', 'i,
' k.
m
mj
"! J
'i.i:';
mi
IHi.'.^
k. f
'K' 'i:
fiff^fl
'S-mI
IV2 ANTU.'OHTI
IlKiirv IV. It WUD iiii«iicrt>Mfiilly lM'i>i«>t(i'<l Uy {\u>
KiiglUli ami lni|H'rlNlliiU hi 1 7 111,
ANTiniHTI, « \mu» UIiiikI In tli<- inotilh of
the SI. ^•wn<ll<•^ iH'twwn III" niul Mr^ N. Int.,
iiikI tll° 4U' mill HI°liA' VV. Iomk. It ha* mi uii-
t'liviiuralilti Mill, U wltlioiit a kIiikI)' K''*"! Imrliour,
Mini ii iiiiiiiliiiliiti'tl, witli till' i'Xi'i'|itiiiii itf til)' at-
tt'lKJillltN nil tint liL'llllliiliM'n, tun- of wllirll llilt
Imi>ii i'rit't)i| on IIhT:. imliit ; iiikI aiuitliiT <>ltli)'r
lull* Ih'I'II or ix uUiut til Ihi iTirli'il (III Un W. t>X-
trt'iiiilv.
AN''ri(irA, All iiilitiitl lii'loiixini; lodrriit llrl
liiiii, ill till' Wi'Mt liiilii's Ih'Iiik mil' III' tliiixi- ilt'ini-
llllliali-i| lllr Wiiiilwiiril iNlaililH. It wum nllli'il liy
tliii Iiutivi-N XaviiiiK'ii, liiit CoIiiiiiImih i(u\v it tin*
liiiiiii' lit' Santa Mariii ilc In Aiitii^iiii. It \n aiNiiit
'2tt III. NI'l. MiiiitMcrrat, uml '10 in, N. (iiiHiliiliiii|ii'.
It In o\ul-Hlia|i('il, lii'iii); 'JO III. in itN K''*')it'''<l
li'M^tli, unci ciiiitaiiM uliiiiit liiN Ni|. ni., or iii'arly
7<i,iMMi iicn'M, Till' |Hi|i, linN (It'ci'i'iiMii Hiiu'i* 1771,
vlii'ii it hail 'i.ri'.Mi wliili'N, ami 'l7,Him Mlavt'H. In
|n:i7, tint |H'ii|ili> III' I'liliiiir ami Mliiicn tnurtliiT
HiTi' Hilly aliiiiit 'J,(ioo ; uml tlii' lilarki, all nl' wliinii
wiri'i'MlfamliiMi'il in IM.'ll, uliiint :i:i,ono. In iml:!,
till' niiiiilii'r!* wiTi' — wliitf, 'JiJM; lilack, 'J7,'iit7;
I'liiiiiiri'il, (i,)il!l: total, :MI,II'.'. Aiiti^Mia Iiiih |ittl(•
ll^ thr iiioiiiiiaimiiiH I'liiirarti'r III' tin' iiriKlilHinriii;;
ixliimlN, till' 1,'rriiti'Ht rlrvatimi In'iu^ only l,°JIO I't.
On a|i|irimrliin^ it I'roni tin* Ni'a, instead of immn-
taiiiH cliitlu'il with rich I'oliiiKi' uml luxuriant
vi'p'tatliiii, a liarri'ii ni^'^i'il i'oii><t. alimiit ili'nii-
tiiti' of vrnliirr, jiri'iu'iitit it.'^i'lt'. A I'l'w niili'n, Imw-
t'vcr, I'riiiii till' Hliort', the iiroMin'i't in inori' plcuiiiiiK,
till iintry lu'lii^ a^^ri'calily ilivrriiliril with hill
uml ilaltt: unilwlicn imt |iari'lii'il liy tint ilroii^htn,
to whirli it ii4 Niilijt'i't, Krt'i'ii lU'liln ol'('am'.i, rluin|ii«
(if I'cathcry liaiiilioii.i, IIowi'M of ila/./liiii; lirilliaiicy,
mill vi-rilant cliirN hiiti^ with liraiitil'iirvarictii'H of
iiiti'rlrii|iical |ilaiits, iiii'liant tin- voyager. Thu
iNlnml liiiM iicitlu'r loiintain iinr river, ami liut a
f(!W HL'anly Hprin^H aiming the liillx. It'ain water,
]ireMi'rveil ill liinkK, in NuliNtiliiteil, ami it is foiiml
jiurtiriilarly \\n\\t ami |lh'a^allt to the |iahite. The
Miil in the lii);h laml.s in a reililihli elay on a kuI>-
Htrutiini uf marl ; that in the low hiiiili*, a rieh ilai'k
niiiulil on a Hulistratiiiii of elay. The eliniale in
rviiiarkalile for itn want of imii.itiire, thoiiKh the
uverajje fall of rain be Att iin'lies. The dew id
M'anty, ami the rainy sea.soii very iiiu'ertain, but
it may be wiiil generally to extend froiii .liinu to
the end of the year. The alternatiniis of leinpe-
rature are very Nli^ht, the therinonieter Neldoin
runKiiiKinorc than 'l<^in twenty-four hourx. The nu-
);ari.'ane ixthe iiriiicipal article of eiiltivation ; but
Muliiciunt ground provi.iioiia are alHu ]iroeureil in
favourable Heaiwiiis for the Kiipplv of the inhabi-
tants. The crops vary euiiMiderubiy. In the veur.i
1770, 177.'(, 177M, there wan iiiiiiriHluceof any kind,
thu canes and Kroiuid provisions beiiij; destroyeil
by driiii|rht, and the iiihab. wouhl have perished,
but for the imiMirlutioii of Hour and eorn-meal
from America. The total value uf imports in
18.'J3 was 17<l,S<<'M/. ster., the principal of which
were grain, meal, and Hour, cotton iiiaiinfai'tures,
linens, woollens, and lish. In lKi4, the value of
the ini|iorts was I70,07(i/. ; in IHM the imports
amounted to 2(i0,.'tti.'i/., but had diminished in the
year iHtiJI to 17iJ,'jrJ/. The exports, which in
1«3« were a2i'J,«l(l/„ had fallen in ISiiii to 2ii\) fiMI.
The produce in IKOii was 1'6,ImH hlids. of sugar,
930 iiuncheoiis uf rum, and (),U18 punchcuiis of
inolusses.
The government is composed of a governor, un
executive council and a legislative council, both
appointed by the crown, and an elective assembly
of twenty-seven memliers. The courts of equity and
law are the same as in Ureut llrituiii. The governor
ANTIOCH
for the tlini< U'liig act* aa iliaiicfllor nf lh«riiiiri
iif I'ipiity, and miiturit have a riulit of nii|M'al fn^t
IiIn lU't'n't'K to the klnt( in euiiiieil. on KlviiiKw,,,
rilv for I'lmtn, There arw II plaerH of «i««||iu
Im'IoiikIiiu to lh«i (,'huri-h of Kiit(laiiil, lit Mun
vian, 10 Weiile^aii. 7,IA«l/. U annually >|ifnt m
the mipiHirl III piHir-hoiiM'N, hiMpilMU, iHuiril „(
health, and for iiiiilieal relief, viieeiiiulinii, A,
The iiiniinera, eustoimi, uml huliiln of tlii' \m».\,
diller In no degree Imin llio«e of the iiilnr Ur.i
Imliti ImIuiiiIs, The revenue, in |n:I|, wai li;,ii!i;/,
the eX|H'lii|iture iri,70M/. ; in tNli:l, il.'vIlK/, „„|'
il<''>,l7 1/, The ini|M'rlnl ex|i«'mliture for llie ihjhin
ill iKi'i,'! was ll.llilM/. The island I'liiituitiMaix iiiwii,
ami villages, viz, St, .lohn's, I'arhnni, Kiiltiioui:,,
Williiiigliby liny, (Mil Idiad, and .lanieN ^'urt, >i.
•Iiihn's the capital, on the NW, side of tlie i'.lniiii
lat, I MO 2'/ V , loiig.tlio ir \V„ is regularly ImiiIi'
luirtly III! n high rock, eotinerted with tlii' ninn
land liv a caimeway, which is, however Miliiiirrifni
at liigfi Hater. In the hiirlMnir there is Kiiillcirni
depth of water for meri'hant vesHels, ami |H'rht
MTiirity in all winds, Knglisli harlsiur, mi i|if>,
side of the island, is, however, the iM'it liiirlmiirin
Antigua, and is indeed uiie of the Ih'kI in llii'\V<.|
Indies. It has water for ships of any ni/.v, m\i{»
well sheltered ill all weathers. It has it iM.
yard, a iiuval hospital, uml every eoiivi'iiii'iiiyf^r I
careening aiel repairing ships.' Antigua ii iw
ohiest W. I, colony, alW St. Kitl's ami lluHuul..,
in possession of the l'',nglish, having been iiriiuiM
in Iti.'I'J. Its planters have been reimirkulili' i;.t {
their leniency to thu slaves, who were liiiiillyrn.
fraiicbised in IN.il. The uinnunt uwanli'il tu I
Antigua out of the 20,000,1)00/. grnnted U,nU\
freedom of the slaves, was 'I25,H(!()/, 7». O.^i/., tlmv |
of Angiiilia included,
ANTII.KKS. See Wkst Indikn.
ANTKHTI (vulg. Antakiu) (Antioiii), pni|iirir |
Antiocheia ('Afnox'ta), a famous city of Syriii.Mil
once the residence of its Hovereigiis, on llio lelt I
bank of the Ans/.y (Onmtri), 20 m, hIkivc iii |
moiitli ; Wi\ m, V„ Ale|ii>ii, and 2'.) iii, S. Inkin-
deroiin, in lat. Wfl 12' N,, long, Wfi \:> V.. Tlw
population, which at its most floiirishing p|*«li
jirobably umoiiiited to 100,000, is estiinatiil (IxC
al IH,oriO, of whom 2,000 are (jreeks, thu utiitn |
Amieniaiis and Mussulmans.
Modern Antioch does not cover more tlmnil
sixth |iart of the area of the ancient city, tlii' hiIIi I
of which, though ruinous, may still lie di.Hiimilr
traced throughout their whole circuit. Tliv lI9l^
lliiuloiis ((iate of St. I'aul), the entrance fruni iht I
K. is now ^ m. from the nearest bouses; aiiiLiil
every other direction except the \V., the lmiliiiii;'i |
have similarly receded from their old liinitn. Vul-
iiey describes it as a wn'tched collection uf huKi
built of mud and straw, with narrow umiminf
streets, and exhibiting every ap]iearance nf mis'rT
and desolatiiiii. Kiimeir, however, suys tlmt'ilii
liouseH are in the Turkish fashion, small, Ui I
neatly built of hewn stone.' liut thougli tliiilM
the case with some of them, the mnjority awo* I
striictedof slight materials; and, unlike iliclimiMri I
of other Syrian or rather Kastern towns, have [
sloping roofs covered with thin tiles. There aw in I
or twelve mean and uniiii|Mirtant iniisqiii'M'iilil
low minarets; but in this city, so fuinoU'* 'm\^\
annuls of Christianity, there is not at presontii
single Christian church. The baths uiul luzxi I
are numerous, but neither exhibit ttiiytliin); n- 1
murkuble. It has manufactures of cuarsc iwtien,
cotton stuffs, leather, &c. ; but the greater part ^ I
thu inhabitants are engaged iiithecultivutiuiiaii'|
manufacture of silk. I
All traces of its famous theatres, its circus ar^ I
its magniliceiit baths, hove irretrievobly |)trbb«l. I
i>l|iir of lh*niiiit
It of •ll)M'tl hit.
L oil KlviliK mti
iImi'I'n ii( »iir«hly
it{litii<l. \'A Mun
intiiinlly ■(x-m m
MpiliiN, \nAtt\ .(
viii'i'iiiiitiiiti, Ai
liilii ol' till' |irii|.|.
if till- otlicr Wh
Mill, wiix lii,iiii;i..
Nii:i, :t.'>;iiM/. ii»i
uri' lor I In' iiil.iin
IMlltlllllXxiX lllWII.
iirlmini Kiilmniii:,,
I .Ihiiii'h hirt, H
xiilt' ol' till' i'laikl.
, iH rt'uiiliirly liuili,
111 will) till' III Mil
lOWI'Vt-r MllllllirKr'l
' tlllT*' H "llllli'lrnl
'I'nM'Im, Hint jniht
liarliour, on ilii'>.
till' iM'it liiirlH'iirin
III' lii'Nt ill iIh'W"!
of miy "i/.i'. mill i»
H, It lull « ll'»k-
vty i'oiivi'iiii'iii\("t
»,' Anti^iiii i» Ihr
iti'i* mill Harliiiilin
living Ih'*'I> i»'<|iii'"l
iccii n'liiiirkalilc f.t
A\i> wiTi- liniillym-
nioiiiit uwiinli'il Vi
i>t>/. urniiti'il liir ilu
),Htlll/. 7». I'Wm ">« I
NlUKS.
) (Jnri'o<'/i),pri.|)frly
iiUHiuty ofSyriii,mi.|
•fri'ijfiii'. on the Wt
i), W in. nlwivi' 111
lul 'iit in. S. lAn-
mH. !"''° '•■>' '"'• ""
Hi tloiiri»liiii^' fl'*!"
1, in I'HiiiniiK'illI*'
(irei'liH, tlic iitlii'n
cover mori' llmn < I
lu'ii'iit <'ity,tlii'»«IM
ly Htill l)« <li»li"'il? I
jc cireiiit. 'I'lii' Half
lie enlriinci^ frura ibi
irt'Ht lioiisfs; amlii
ilui VV., Ilu' \i\Mw I
[heir old limits. Vul-
1(1 I'olU'ctiou uf hull,
til niirrow and mii)'
Li)lK«urunceofnii*f!l
•evt-r, Huys tlmfilit
fashion,' Hmall, ta I
lUit though this l«
the mnjority awciH'
indiUiAiki- >!'<!>""'*'
kustern towns, hnvel
[ntilew. There art w
Irtnnt mosques, wii
Itv, HO fuinoii* iniin
'is not nt iirescntil
he huths umlbann
xhibit anytluiii; «■ I
lrc» of coarse iwtieP' I
It the greater part ')i
fii the cultivation Ml
cntroH, its circus, ai^
retrievablyiietisWI
,„'„l,iit |.«M«iiHit Htill txl»i«: mill on lhi< S. urn
,|m' riiiii" of nil «<|ii«'iliiii, whlrli roiiveyi-'l N «ii|)|>ly
„l wniir from ilif I'iNit of llio IIJi'In'I Okriih (nn.
\[l I'uuiitt). '\Ui< olil wmIIx mt\>, howKvcr, lii-
iffMlliiK """"""•'"'*• Tlii'Hilimtioiiof llninnrienl
,,(v wim moHt (h'llKlitfiil. I» miunlfil tlu' miinmilN
iiiil oliilM'" ol^ 1^" ■oiiRiili'mlili' lillk mill thi> plulii
Mmn-w ilii'm «"'! '•"' riyt. Ovi'r tlu'W liilU nml
^■„m» tlili |>li»in thi' wiiIIh w«'ri« liuill nearly in n
r,'.iiiii«iilar funn, Iih'IoxIiik it i<|>H»'t« of (n-vernl in.
II, I iniiinfiri'iiri'. Tlii'V an« of variotiK auex, imrt
l»'lii^, a|i|mn'iilly. w olil ai tin- llrnt fonnilallon of
ilii'iiiwiMwrl reiiniMo to ilir n-raof Uoinaii |iowi'r,
,111,1 part III'' work of the triiwilfm. Tiny art'
iiirrie'l iiMT the Ix'ilx of iiiouiitain torreiit», ami
iliiwii ilie "iili'« of aliniwf |i('r|M'iiiliiiilar |ire«i|>iii's
lillinif ii|( the Intervening Kornex ami ravinen, ho
'hill tiny vary from '.'o or !i(» ft .in lieiifht to np-
ilih'Kt |Hirti<)ii of tlie walU U
y,„t,\* of 7lt. Till
iiUitlir most |ii'rfei't; It Htamln ii|Hin a riM-k, ami,
liiiviii^ Ihi'Ii oriKlnallv well Imill, hil.i re^Utnl the
iiilliii'iue iif time ami the NhoekH of earlhiiiiakeH.
TliiTi'ari' two liriilKi'*, Olil! of live ari'lu'H with pier^,
,'iit mil of the roek, aeronH a ravine; ami one of
iiiliTi'ir ilimelitionH, aeroNH the Oroiitei. Ill the
siili'inl till' miiiintaini* to the Si'l. of the town are
iiiimiMin* I'Maviitloiis, apparently inleinleil for
I ciiiitirii'i or I'litaeonilw, hoiik^ of whirh are now
1 ii-iil aji plttieit of womhip \>y the Christian popnla-
I llilM.
Till' uiieient Syrian name of Ant loch ix wiiil to
hiU'lHi'M Itililath; hut heing enlaru'ed and heaii-
{Ihii'il liy SelemiiH Nieator, he j^ave it, n.i;. IKII,
iil'iir Ills tiilhrr, the naine of Aiitioeh. It heeanie
iitiiiii'c the eapilal of the Macedonian kingdom of
Uvria, anil eoniiniied for nearly 24 centuries to lie
I tlic n'«iileme of tin- inoiiarchs of the .St'leiiceidan
ilvnanty. AlM)Ut tl."* years ii.c, the coii(|iiestH of
|'iiiii|iiy hroii^c'it Aiitiiieh, witli the whole of Syria,
luiiilertlie rontrol of |{iinie. At this lera it con-
Ki^tiiliif four distinct towns, each having separate
r,irtilli'ati<iiis the wlnde lieing Hiirroumled liv a
Iriiimmiii wall; hence it was sonieliines ealled
I Ti'irapoli'i. Under the Konians, Antioch continued
Itoadvaiiru ill importance: it was the centre of an
lixieiisive conimeree, the residence of the governor
Id!' Syria, the fre(|ueiit resort of the ein|H-rors, and
Itlii' iiiiwt celehrated town of the empire (the capital
Idiily excepted) for the aimiseinenis of the circus
Innii the theatre. It is intimately connected w^itli
llhc early history of I 'hristianity. the diH'triiies of
Iwliii'h were planted in it hy I'aiil and Marnahas;
laml ill it, also, the term Cliriiiliiin had its origin
|a.'< a distinctive a]ipellat ion. (Acts xi. '2(i.) It has
ImHired wverely on many oircasioiis from earth-
quakes. One of the most celehrated and disastrous
^if the>;e eulamilies occurred a.i>. 1 1 '). T'lie emperor
Trajan, who had just concluded his victorious
p'urtliian campaign, heing then in the city, it was
nmdeil with trooiis and strangers from all jiartj*
k the ancient worl'. The shocks are said to have
rmtimieil for a lengthened period, and to have
Vnmost severe; the emperor himself narrowlv
psajied with some hruises; and many thousanits
III' individuals were hurled in the ruins of the city.
lAiicient Uiiiver. Hist. xv. liW, «vo. ed.) It again
kutfered severely from similar catastrophes in the
);i'ars 34l), 31M,';J!I(!, 4.W, hH), and .J«.S : the last
'stniying, it is said (hut such statements are
fclmiMt always much exaggerated), above (iO.OOO
Vrsons. Notwithstanding these repeated intlic-
jiiins, and its devastation by Chosroes the I'ersian
■M, it revived again anil again, and continued
I be the ' Queen of the East,' and a place of great
il'drtance, till tJ3«, when it fell under the power
f the Saracens. In lO'JS it was taken by the
ANTKU'll 141
Cnisiiders, mi'l eontliniiMl to Ih< the rnplial of »
ChriNtlan priiici|i«lliy till r.'il*,), whin it wu« lakm
hy Ihii Kgypiimi Niilian, by wliuiii it wax |M»riialty
di'tnollxhed. It wkj* added to the ( ttloninii empire,
by .Mt'llin I., in 1,1111; but il« commercial iiii|Mirt-
a'lice had alrewly vmiixhed; and it hax coiiliiiiied,
under the iHtrbaroiix xway of ilu* Tnrkx, to di'cliiiti
till it hax reacheil its present xtate of coiii|Hirativti
iiisignillcanct'.
The vallev of the I >riiiitex xpreailx, In the neigli-
iNtiirhoiNl ol .Vnlioi'h, into a fertile plain, ID mUei
In length, ami ooril in width; the town ami river,
iM'i'Upving the extreme edge, iH'ing I'lose to tllU
iMiiimling mountains mi the SK. Tlie xnll is ex-
cellent, coiiNisiing of a rich alluvial depixit, pro-
ducing llgN, olives, vines, ami mulberries in great
abiimlaiii'e. The deserted spaces wiltiin the old
walls are one eonlinued garden ; but in geiieriil tho
country is ill ciiliivated, U'liig abainloned lo ilin
Tiirkmiins ami other wniiderlng trils's. I'liiiy
speaks of a iiart of Antioch lying on the right
bank of the river. (Hist. Nat. v. 'Jt.) 'I'his must
have been a suburb, and probably, as in the case
of Aleppo, as extensive iis the town within the
walls; but no vestiges of it now remain.
Modern critics and travellers ditl'er in opinion
as to the site of the grove, and village of llaiiliiie,
and temple of Apolhi, in the iminediate vicinity of
AntiiH'h. (iibboii has given the following deserip-
tlon of this loiig-l'aiiious seat of religion and plea-
sure. 'At the distance of 5 m. from .Vutioch, the
Macedonian kings of Syria had consecrated to
Apollo one of till' most elegant idaces if devotion
in the pagan woild. A magnltlceiit temple rose
in honour of thetind of light; and his colossal
tigiire almost tilled the capacious sanctuary, which
was enriched with gold and gems, and adorned by
the skill of the (ireeiaii artists. 'I'lie deity was re-
iireseiited in a bending attitude, with a golden cup
III his hand, pouring out a libation on the earth,
as if he supplicated the veiierabh! mother to give
to his arms the cold and beauteous liaphue; for
the spot w^iis ennolded by liction, and tlu^ fancy of
the .Syrian poets had transplanted the amorous
tale from the hanks of the I'enens to those of tho
Oroides. The anrieiit rites of (ireeee were imi-
tated by the royal colony of Antioch. A stream
of propliecy, which rivalted the truth and reputa-
tion of the Uelphic oracle, tlowed from the Cas-
taliaii fountain of Danhne. In the adjacent lields,
a stadium was built by a special )irivilege wliii'h
had been iiurchased from Klis: the Olympic games
were euhdirated at the ex|)eiise of the city; and a
revenue of .'tO,UI)()/. .sterling was annually applied
to the public pleasures. 'I'he perpetual resort of
]iilgriins and spectators insensibly formed, in the
neighlsiurhood of the temple, the stately and |s>pu-
lous village of Daphne, which emulated the splen-
dour, without aci|uiring the title, of a ))rovincial
city. The temple and the village were di'eply bo-
somed in a thick grove of laurels and cypresses,
which reached as far as a circumference of 10 m.,
and formed in the most sultry summers a cool and
ini|>enetrable shade. A thousand streams of the
purest water springing from every hill, j)reserved
the verdure of the earth and the temi>erature of
the air; the senses were gratitied with harmonious
sounds and aromatic oiloiirs; and the peaceful
grove wiw consecrated to health and joy, to luxury
and love. The vigorous ycaith ]mrsiied, like AixiUo,
the object of his desire, and the bliLshing maid was
warned by the fate of Daphne to shun the folly of
unscasonal>le coyness. The soldiers and the phi-
losophers wisely avoided the teiuptatiun of this
sensual paradise, where pleasure, assuming the
character of religion, imperceptibly dissolved the
tinnncss of manly virtue. But the groves of
m
lt'f(
. ' ■•!
.1 'Mi
,1 V'
m
»*■"■> if
Vfi
i.
'm \'
144
ANTIPAROS
'I, <:>
•IP
t 1
lk.l, I
a
M,
Iff-
Daphno continucil for runny nj^es to enjoy the ve-
neration or natives antl stranKcrM; ttie privilc^^cM
of tlic lioly ^ound were enlnr^eil liy tiio niiinili-
cence of Nuccccdin^ emperors ; and every tH'Mim-
tion added new ornumentB to the splendour of tlie
temple.' (Uedine and Fall, cu|). 2li.)
ANTIPAHOS (an. Oliuros), a small island of
the Urecinn Archipelago, k''<*"1> •''' the Cycliides,
between I'aros and .Siphunto, 1^ m. \V. of the
former, and IG m. K. of the latter. It is about
7 ni. in length from N. to S. by about 3 ni. breadth,
its hif^hest jwint buiiiK in lat. 30° I't'.t' W N., long.
'Jo° 3' (>(>" K. It consists of a mass of marble co-
vered with a moderately fertile soil ; ami, exclu-
sive of some cotton and wine, it produces Parley
<'n(aigh to sulHcc for its hdiab., consisting of some
()(( or 70 families who live in a miserable village
about 1 m. from the shore, and are partially em-
ployed in fishing. Though hardly worthy of notice
in other resjiects, this islniul is famous for an im-
mense subterranean cavern or grotto. Its entrance
is on the side of a hill under a low arch. The
passage thence to the cavern is long, narrow, and
in i)art« jirecipitous. ' The mode of descent is by
ropes, which are either held by the natives, or
joined to a caole fastened at the entrance round a
stalactite pillar. In this manner we reached the
spacious chambers of this truly enchanted grotto.
The roof, the floor, the sides of a whole series of
magnilicent caverns, are entirely invested with a
dax/,ling incrustation, as white as snow. Columns,
some of which were 2.5 ft. in length, ponded in tine
icicle forms above our heads ; fortiniately, some of
them are so far above the reach of the numerous
travellers who during many ages have visited this
place, that no one has been able to injure or re-
move them. Others extend from the roof to the
tloor, with diameters equal to the mast of a lirst
rate ship of the line. The last chamber into which
we descended surprised us more by the grandeur
of its exhibition than any other. Probably there
are other chambers still unexplored.' (Clarke's
Travels, vi. p. 125, 8vo. ed.)
The lera of the discovery of this cavern in mo-
dem times is not ascertained ; but it was first made
fully known by the visit paid to it by M. Nointel,
ambassador from France to the I'orte, who de-
scended into it with a cortfege of no fewer than
500 individuals, at Christmas, 1()73. On this oc-
casion it was brilliantlv illuminated. His exce'-
lency and suite remained in it for three entire
days, and celebrated high mass at midnight on
Christma.. in this most magnilicent of subterranean
temples. It was also visited by the learned and
excellent I'aveller, M. Toumefort, who supposed
that he saw in it conclusive proofs of his singular
theory as to the vegetation of stones. (Tournc-
lort Voyage du T^evant, i. pp. 185 — 195, 4to ed.)
It has since been repeatedly vlsued by other tra-
vellers; and it is said that the ^aioke from the
numerous torches that have thus necessarily been
carried within its recesses, have somewhat im-
paired its otherwise unrivalled splendour and bril-
liancv.
ANTIVART, a town of Turkey in Europe, 19 n.
W. Scutari, within a short distance of the sea, I Jt.
42° 15' 20" X., long. 10° 4' 15" E. Pop. estira at
4,000. It is defended by a castle on a steep 'ock,
is the residence of a Greek archbishop, ov.d the
entrepot of the merchandise of the va. '-y "^ T~>rin.
ANTOING, a market town of Belgium, prov.
Hainault, 4 m. SE. Tournay. Pop. 2,200 in 185G.
ANTOXIN (ST.), a town of France, dep. Tarn
et Garonne, cap. cant., in a spacious valley at the
confluence of the Aveyron and the Bonnette, 22 m.
EXK. Montauban. Pop. 5,152 in 18(il. The
waters of the Bonnette beiiig charged wi; the
ANTRIM
refuse of various tanneries establiiihed on itn bonk)
render the town at times unhealthv. It hufu!
bri(!8 of serges and other wordlen stuns, and iiaiicr;
and a considerable commerce is carried on iii
leather, primes, and juniper.
ANTUAIGUE8, a town of France, dep. Ardfcchc,
cap. cant. 1 1 m. W. Privas. Pop. 1,570. Near
the place is a singular causeway, cnllwi the
Clumissie-de»-Geants, formed by colonnailus uf ba-
salt, 700 yr.rdu in length.
ANTRIM, a marit. co. Ireland, prov. Ulster; in
greatest length being about 55 m., and its (,'raitw
breadth about 32 m. ; having N. and K. the Iruh
Sei, S. Lough Neagh and Down, and W. L(m(l(jii.
derrj', from which it is separated for the ),'n'aitr
part by the Uann. It contains 758,800 im|i. acn'<
of which 225,970 are mountain and boj;, and
49,790 water, being part of Lough Neagh which
lies principally within this county. The X. am!
E. districts arc mountainous, and there are some
high rugged grounds in other places, while thctiat
ground along Lough Neagh is in many parts
boggy. Still, however, there is a large extent of
fertile ground. Property in very great estatw
hut large portions of some of thcin are leased fur 1
ever. Farms small : agriculture in most rcspeou
similar to that of Down (which see). The coumrv'
round Belfast has more of an improved apixjar-
ance, and the people are more orderly and iniluv
trious than anywhere else in Ireland. Linen ma-
nufacture universally diffused : the manufacture I
of cotton has a' so been successfully introducdl,
with some others of inferior importance, A coal
mine is wrought at Ballycastle ; but not exten-
sively, the coal being of bad quality. IJesidea the |
Bann and the Laggan, which form part of its .S,
boundary, it is watered by many smaller streams, I
but none of them are navigable. The N. coi<t
is remarkable for its basaltic columns, which are
l)articularly conspicuous at the far-famed Gianii
Causeway (which see). The lofty proraontoria
of Bengoie and Fairhead are also, in a great niea- 1
sure, composed of these columns. There are con-
siderable salmon fisheries on the coast. Carritk- 1
fergus is the county town ; but the principal to«iu
are Belfast, Lisbum, Antrim, and Lame. Pop,
202,800 in 1821 ; 316,909 in 1831 ; and 247,564 in
18G1 : it contains 14 baronies and 75 parishes; and
returns five m. to the H. of C, viz. two for tlieco, I
two lor Belfast, o'le for Carrickfergus, and one for I
Lisb'im. Pari, constituency of co., 10,921 in IStiJ, [
AiTUiM, an inland town of Ireland, cap, ccj
Antr m, prov. Ulster, on the Six-mile-water near I
its en bouchure in Lough Neagh, 94 m. N. Duhlin.1
Its anc'ent name was Entrium, or Entrum-nea);h, I
and it >' supposed to owe its origin to a religionil
house fou.uled by a disciple of St. Patrick,
suffered mucu '.i the wars with the Danes i
with the first English settlers; and in 1641 was I
burnt by the Scotch, under Munroe. In 179i<it|
was the scene of a sanguinary conflict between the I
king's troops and the insurgents, in which the!
former were victorious, but with the loss of LotJl
O'Neil, who commanded a regunent of miliiin.!
In 1831 the pop. of the par. was 5,543; of whifhl
750 were of the E. Church, 1,252 K. Catholics, and I
3,541 Prot. dis; in 1801 the pop. of the par.wl
4,G59, and of the to^vn, including Massarene, 2,loil
The town, lying in the bosom of a fertile valley,!
consists of two main streets, with several branches.!
Houses substantially built of stone, several exhi- 1
biting proofs of considerable antiquity. Its puhtf I
buildings are the par. church, an ancient edifr'^l
but lately repaired ; a spacious R. C. chapel; t»o|
places of worship for Presbyterians ; two for 5le-l
thodists; and one for the Society of Frii'mlil
There are schools for boys and girls, under tiiee»-|
ANTWERP
145
l„»int'iif of l>ii?»niu» Siuitli ; niul Hevernl priviite
1 1, |ii«iK ill nil of which nearly 70i» i-hildrcii receive
iii.inii'tioii ; oIho a menilicity Hociety, and a m-
{m:»btink. rreviously to (lie Union the borough
snttwo m. to the Irisli pari. The coiirt-honse, in
ilip centre of the town, is used for holdinp t;cnoral
j(,.inns of the jjeace in April and October, and
iKitv wssion.H on alternate 'riipsilays. The court-
it t and court of record of the manor of Moylenny
_»iihin which the town is, and at whitih the sc-
1 n ^hal, ajipointed by the Manpiis of Doiietja ,, pre-
.ili's— are also held here ; the latter court decides
Ifaj nf debt to the amount of 20/. I'art of the
liiiiirket-hduse is \ised as a bridewell, ('lose to the
llnnii iit the re8i<lence of Viscount Ferrord, and
laliiit 4 ni. distant is a perfect pillar-towjr, 95 ft.
Ilii.'h, with conical roof. The manufactures are
|lh"sc »f linen, cotton, and hosiery. There are
Lveral bleach-greens in the neighbourhood ; and
Itwii paiHir-niills, one of which lirst introdiicecl into
ilnlanil the process of making paper in webs like
Idth, instead of 8C[)arate sheets. Tliere are also
iH'veral Hour and meal mills, and a brewery. Most
|,f the grain is sent to Kelfast, its conveyance
fuiiii; facilitated by the contii;iiity of tough
l>'(ii(,'h, where a small fpiay has been erected at
th nioutli of the Six-mile-w iter. Markets are
..Ion Tuesdays for grain, and on Thursdays for
tfiieral purposes; and fairs on Jan. 1, May 12,
l\\\". 1, and Nov. 12, Antrim is a station on
ihi'lielfast and Ballymcna railway, 14 m. NW.
I(lfa.st.
ANTWERP (Ger. Antwerpen, Fr. Anvers), a
Lrit. city of Belgium, cap. prov. and arrond. of
wine name, on the N. bank of the Scheldt, 26 m,
. Brussels, 32 m. E. Ghent, on the railway from
|!riissel9 to Rotterdam. The city is in the shape
kf a Iww, the arch bemg formed by the walls,
(lid the chord by the river. A strong pen-
ii;;onal citadel, built by the Duke of Alva in
l.'iii', and improved by the French, stands on the
>i(le of the town, which is farther defended by
larioiis forts on both s'des the river. Though
Biich declined from its former prosperity, Ant-
Irerp b a well-built fine old city, and is in various
opects highly interesting. The principal street,
fLice de Meer, rivals any in Europe. It is about
Ve width of Portland Place, but the variety and
ithncss of the architecture render it far more
kapiificent. The older and narrower streets, bor-
Vred by lofty houses with their gables to the
eet, are singularlv picturesque. Antwerp had
11846 a pop. of 881487, and of 114,669 in 1861.
[he {treat boast of Antwerp is its cathedral, a su-
p Gothic structure, begun early in the fifteenth,
Idnot finished till the sixteenth century. Itsspire,
]f the most beautiful and delicate workmanship,
i by Schreil)er and others to be 466 ft. high;
|it according to a statement in 1 he * Penny Cyclo-
Jia,' this is 100 ft. too much, the height being
lere alfimicd to be only 366 ft. ! The interior
liTfspunds in grandeur with the exterior, and
1 contains two famous pictures of Rubens; one
[which, the 'Descent from the Cross,' is gene-
Jly regarded as his chef-tTccuvre. Of the other
furches, that of St. James, which contains the
nb of Rubens, St. Andrew, and St. Paul, are the
9st celebrated. All of them are adorned with
le paintings. The Bourse, or Exchange, is one
I the finest buildings of its class in Europe : it
Id to have served as a model for the London
tchange, burnt down in 1837. The Hotel de
m, a marble structure, rebuilt in 1581 after
Ing destroyed by fire, is a magnificent fabric.
|ic convent of the Recollets has been converted
I a museum, in which is a superb collection
I paintings, including many that were formerly
IVfli, I.
scattered among the ditl'urent churclies and con-
vents. It comprises wime of the choictst speci-
mens of the masters of the Flemish sclxxd ; a.<i
Rubens, Van Dyke, Jordaeiis, Van Vien.and Mar-
tin de Vos. Antwerp has a theatre; an academy
of painting (St. Luke's), which originated In the
16th centurv; a royal academy of the fine arts,
establishetl ni 1817; an academy of sciences ; an
Atheiuuum, or college ; Latin, medical, and naval
schools; a gallery of sculpture; a public library,
with 15,000 vols.; a botanical garden ; with vari-
ous learned so<;icties, and many good private col-
lection.! of works of art. Its charitable institu-
tions include several hos|iitals, asylums, and work-
houses. It is the scat of the courts of assize for
the province; of u tribunal of original jurisdiction,
a commercial tribunal, &c. The p(^ople have every
appearance of being in comfortable circumstances,
and are quiet antl orderly. The upper classes
8i)eak French, and the lower Flemish.
The manufa(;tiures are very various, and are of
considerable importance and value. They com-
prise fabrics of silk and cotton stockings, thread
and tape, linen and calico ])rintiiig. Embroidery,
bleaching, sugar-refining, and sliip-building are
extensively carried on. The lapidaries of Ant-
werp are very skilful in the cutting of diamonds
and other precious stones.
The depth of water in the river opposite to the
city is from 32 to 40 ft, at ebb tide, with a rise
at springs of from 12 to 14 ft.; and as this depth
is increased towards the sea, Antwerp is a pecu-
liarly eligible sitiiaticm for the formation of dock-
yariis and the building of large ships. Its cai)a-
bility in this respect did not escape the observation
of Napoleon, who endeavoured to raise it to the
first rank as a naval arsenal. His plans in fur-
therance of this object were judiciously devised on
a very grand scale, and were zealously prosecuted.
Two large basins, capable of admitting ships of
the line, were excavated on the N. side of the
town ; one comprising an area of 1 7, and the other
of 7 Eng. acres. Attached to these was an ex-
tensive dockyard, with careening and repairing
docks, storehouses, &c., all planned and executed
in the best and most approved manner, and at an
immense ex]iense. On the downfall of Napoleon
the dockyard, with its fortifications, was com-
pletely destroyed ; and it was even debated whe-
ther the two great basins should share the same
fate. Luckily, however, they were preserved ; and
being converted into commercial docks, are of the
most signal service to the trade and navigation of
the city. The fleet and naval stores in the arsenal,
wiisn it surrendered to the allied forces in 1841,
were divided ; two-thirds being assigned to France,
and one-third to the King of the Netherlands.
Her fine river, and the numerous canals with
which it is united, give Antwerp great adyantages
as a commercial emporium ; and during the early
part of the 16th century she was one of the first
trading cities of Eurojx!. Owing, however, to the
ascendancy and jealousy of the Dutch, and the
supineness of her rulers, her foreign trade was nearly
annihilated during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. But the navigation of the Scheldt, which
had been formally closed by the treaty of West-
phalia, was re-opened on the occupation of Belgium
by the French, and since the peace of 1815 the trade
of the town has rapidly increaicd; and the pro-
babilitj' seems to be, looking at the natural advan-
tages of her situation, that it will go on increasing.
The greater part by far of the foreign trade of
Belgium centres here. The imports consist prin-
cipally of wheat, coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco,
and all sorts of colonial produce ; with cotton
stuffs, wine, hardware, ashes, coal, hides, pepper,
'■• N.
. !1.
' i' ■
.)■ •'?;
■fisii
.•.''\i
'»«
U.I ,
P
illir-'^
^in!
■pi^H^r..
fcH
1 \6 ANTWERP
indi^ro niid other (lyo-Hliin\ Tho timlier used in
Hliip-liiiildi'iK in iiKistly broiifjht Ity water from
till' intfrior. Tiie cx|)ort« conmHt cliietly of corn,
]ins('i'<l, llttx, Imrk and madder, linen, lace, eariKttH,
tiiiliiw, hops, (-'iin**, paper, mneliinery, and fruit.
In IMfJI, 1 ,!).")4,!M!7 (jrn. of (jfrain and tioiir were
importeil into, and 9H,K'J3 qrs. exported from,
Antweq).
The increase in the trade of Antwerp is evinced
by the fact, that while only (iHl »hips arrived at
the port in 1«"24, and HOO in 1«25, there arrived in
l«i{(J, 1,24.') HhipM of the burden of 176,079 tons,
and in 1h;}7, 1,4-.'<; Hliips of the hiirden of 22,'>,{)80
tons. In IWII, 2,77H vessels entered the port, and
2,7H() cleared. Antwerp is connected by railway
with Rotterdam, (Jhent, Malines, and Hrnsscls,
and is an important ])oint in the liel^ian nystem
of railways, throng;!) which it is connected with
the railway syslems of France and Germany.
There is renulur steam packet communication
between Antwerp, London, anil Hull.
Antwerf) has produced many distinKuishe(l )r.en,
being the i>irfhplare of the painters Teniers, Van
Dyke, Jordaens, and (Irayer ; the pcof^rapher
Ortelius, and the admirable cuf^raver Edelink.
Antwerp is very ancient. Lodovico Guicciardini,
in his « Descrizione di I'aesi Hassi,' describes it in
l.')6() as a city of vo-st wealth and the most exten-
sive commerce; adding, that it was no uncommon
thing ftir 500 ships to enter and leave its port in a
single day ! And making every allowance for the
exoggeration obvious in this statement, there is
no (loul)t tliat it then enjoyed a more extensive
foreign trade than any other city in the X. of
Europe. Jhit this prosperity was destined to be
of short (hiriitiou. In l.')7() it was sacked and
iiartly burned iiy the fSpaniards. In ITiS."), it was
invested by the famous Alexander Farnese, prince
of I'anna, who took it after a lengthened and
memornble siege. After its ca])ture the greater
]mrt of its merchants and princi]>al ])eople emi-
grated to Amsterdam and other towns in the
United Provinces, carrying with them their capi-
tal, skill, and connections. The niin of its trade
dates from this e|)och, and was consummated by
the Dutch obtaining the command of the river,
and by the stipulation in the treaty of Westphalia
by which, as already seen, it was regularly closed.
In 1704 it fell into the hands of the French, who
made it the ca|)ital of the de|)artment of Deux
Nethes, and held it till 1814. On the revolt of the
Belgian ])rovinces in IKJJO the Dutch garrison
contiiuied to hold the citadel for the King of the
Jietherlands : and the latter having refused to
nuike it l)e evacuiatcd, agreeably to the determina-
tion of the great powers, a French army of (i.5,(IO()
men, under Marshal Gerard, entered Helgium in
Novi^niber, 1882, to coin|>el its evacuation. The
details of the siege are well known. The treiuihes
wen; openi'd on tlie 20th Xovenilier; and .ifter an
«)bstinatc, but not a skilful or en.Tgetic defence,
ilie citadel surrcudpred on the 24tli of December,
n recent times, |)arficularly since the year 1848,
the population of Antwerp has taken up a some-
what hostile position against the Helgian govern-
ment, owing chiefly to the determination of the
latter to surround the town with new /ind exten-
fiive iortitications, which, it is feared by commercial
men, will interfere with trade and shipping, and
lead to ])os8ible ruin in another war.
AXZIX, a village of France, de]i. du Xord, .3 m.
W. Valencienuos, on the railway from Valon-
fiennes t( Douay. Pop. (!,,SO.i in 18(il, Thepoimtrk'
near Aiizin is the seat of tho richest coal mines in
France. They have been wronglit since 1734, and
some of the jiits are as much as 1,500 ft. in depth.
'I'hc mines of Anzin, Vieux Coiide, and Funics,
APENNINES
are said to employ in all above 4,000 wnrk-poopi,
and to furnish annually nearly !1,00U,(I0I) licctnliL
of coal. There are also iron-foundries and kIjs^
works. I
AOH, or AUR (Pulo), an island in the('liii„l
Sea, ofT the K. coast of the Malay Peninsula, 3 » I
by A m. in diam. Est. pop 1,400. It is doui,!,. I
peaked, the one peak 1,805 and the other l,.52iif. I
HI height. On the NW. side there is a t«|
sheltered from the XE. monsoon, in whicli shii I
anchor in stormy weather, awaiting afavumatiJI
change for entering the Straits of Siuj^apore.
AOSTA, a town of Northern Italy, cap.pn,rl
same name, at the confluence of theHutcrawJiil
the Dora, at the opening of the two vnlloysofiliil
Great and Little St. Bernard, 49 m. NN\V. Turin,!
Pop. 7,8;i0 in 1861. It has straight broad stwiij
and many of the houses having gardens attaclKil
to them, it covers a large extent of ground, hi I
the seat of a council of justice, and oi'aliishnnricL
but is principally distmguished by its ruin4ij|
editiccs constructed by the Romans, nmoiijjwhicil
are a triumphal arch, a superb gate with thnti
arches, and the remains of an amphitheatre, iJ
received different names from the Romans, imjA
sometimes called Civita* Amiiisti, Auijimtu M
toria Jul'up., and Augusta Saiasiiorum ; tho hwA
from its having been the capital of the Salassil
subdued by Terentius Varro.
APEXNIXKS, the name given to the moimual
system which traverses the whole length of Italtl
TJmbrosismwIiam qua colUbus Apenninus
Erigit Italiam, nulloqua vci'tice toUus
Altius intiimnit, proplnsqiie occessit Olymim,
Mons Inter gomlnns modius so porrigit iind'is,
Inforni siiperi(iue maris : collosquc cocrcent,
Hinc T.vrrlipna vndo friingentcs lequoni I'isie,
Hinc Dalmaticis obnoxiu fluctibus Aneon.
Lucan. lib, ii.
At its W. extremity this range is so closely wl
nected with the Alps, that it may be consi
as an extensive offset of that great system, itii
difficult to determine where the Alps tcraiinffll
and the Apennines begin ; som" think tli.it tl«|
road over the Col di Teiide P^- ti) K. hn«;.)k
the boundary ; others assign for it tl at rnad vrtiii
begins on the N. at Alessandria, rr.iis in thcvallt
of the Bormida to Acqiii, Spigno, d'c, .indtm
nates on the coast at Savona, rising at its lii^-ta
point to 4,4()0 ft. above the sea; others think tli
the sea Alps extend to the road which leads frJ
Novi on the N. over the Pa.ss of the Bucclieial
(2.550 ft.) to Genoa on the coa.st.
The Northern Apennines extend from the PiJ
of the Bocchetta E., with a .slight (U'clinatki
the S. through three degrees of longitude (ii'ii
12°) to Monte Falterona, lying E. of Fhjrciii*
The Central Apennines extend from .Mtc
Falterona SE., with some bends to either siifc.l
far as Monte Velino, or nearly two degree-soflf
tude (440 and 42°).
The Soiitheryi Apennines, beginninf; at M'«
Velino, run ESE. between 42° ami 41° N. '
South of the last-mentioned paralhl, betwiiiiO
towns of Con/ii crenza, and Verosa, amlaiiil
sources of the i)iandano, they divide iiii'ini
branches; of which the E., extending first K.J
then SE., terminates at Uapo de Lcuca, o|if
Corfu. The W. range runs between 41° ami 5
N. lat., nearly SSE., and between 'MP ami
SSW., and terminates with the Capo dc"
on the S. extremity of the Straits of Jleviiii
The Northern Apennines, which, near tlic M
of the Bocchetta, are of moderate liei^dit 1
breadth, occupy farther E. a greater space 1
rise to a higher elevation. The highest sunm
are between 10° and 11° E. long., where ii
10 wnrk-pwpl,
,00()hectolitJ
ricn and ^\i^
(I in the Cliin, I
I'diiimikSit,
It is (IdiiiiVl
B other l,.Viii(J
there is a !« [
in whidi»hi]»l
DK a favumiiil
Siiit;ap(ire.
Italy, cap. prill, L
the Hiitcra»iil|
fo vallpvsdfilnl
n. NNVV.Tuia
lit hroadrtwul
jardenn attach I
[)f (JMUIUl. Iu|
1(1 ()t'al)i»hn[iri(;f
by its ruins ((I
118, amoiii; rtil
gate with thru I
mpiiithcatre, J
iR Himians, Wii^l
'i, AuyuHlu fr«l
iorum; ttie lattdl
.1 of the Salail
1 to the tnoum^l
e lenf^lh of Itjltj
IpenniiuH
e tellus
3essit Olymim.
lorrlgit niiil;is,
que cocrcent,
! lequoni IMsiB,
bus Aneon.
Lucan. lib. ii.
is so closely n*|
nay lie coiisi
cat system, li ill
le Alps tcnninal
think iluitihil
,0 K. loiin.) fir
lit tl at road \rii:i|
rr.iis in thevallfi
(i'C, and ten
IsiiiLC at its liyl!
others tliinkul
which Icaii.'I'M
of the liucduB
|t"ml from the Pd
;ht (U'cliiiiUi'in:^
[lonf;iliiile {^fin
J E. of Floreivt.
lend from Mi«
Is to cither >iiie.l
Vo ile^'rees ol'li
■f^iniiiut; at Mi«l
y ami 410N.1
^allcl, hetwirtitl
a-rosa, andaii*
divide inH't
tiulini; fir^i
Be Leuca, a\>Y'
fweeu 41° ami 1
(•eeii ;iO° aii'l '
CaiK) dfir
Its of Mesfiiii
lich. near the P^
Icrute hci;;htr
greater space i
" liif^hest sunn
hg., where Mi*
Pdlocrino rises to 5,lfil ft. anil Monte Cimone to
f'l-') ft. Their northern dcelivity towards the
niniii of the I'" »» ffradnnl and Rentlc ; hut towards
L S thev lower with an nhrupt and sleep dc-
.fiit On the S. thev send off some lateral ranges,
lainonirwhioli that which is calleil the Alpi Apnani
luihe most remarknhh>, and highest. It leaves
Itho main tunRe \V. of Monte Pellejjrino, and is
Lrarated from it l>y a considerable depression. It
lextends Mnithward," and temiinatos at a short dis-
Itniicc fn in the sea, near the towns of Miwsa and
|( irrara. It forms a mas of finely crystallised
lliiiicatotic nearly .SO miles long, and scarcely ever
\[ a less elevation than 4,000 ft. above tho sea,
tl.iiii: often mufli higher, as In the Panni della
kpN^e. at the S. extremity, fi,102 ft., the Pizzo
il'ccilo, at the NW. end, C.147 ft., and Mont«
> ,iro, near Carrara, 5,540 ft. On the slope of the
lii^t mentioned mountain the quarries are worked,
|r„ra which, nearly for 2,000 years, the finest
nirble ha.* been extracted.
Besides the road over the Boccbetta, the N.
kiiennines arc traversed by three roads ; one be-
tiiij at Parma, runs over the plain to Fornovo,
Indthen in the valley of the Taro to the u|)per
liirt of the rang!', which it crosses by the Pass of
Viito Croci ; it afterwards descends to Poiitre-
Lli. and then, mostly in the valley of the Ma
APKNNINKS 147
the Adriatic at Fossonibrono, on the Melauni ;
runs S. to (jagli, and passes over the raiiKC between
this place and Sif,'illo, whence it continues to
Neccra and Foliffuo, and hence by Spoleto, Terni,
and Nnrni, to Kome. The S. road be>;in8 nt An-
conu, runs S. to Loreto, and hence W. to Tolen-
tino and Uclforfc; between the last-mentioned
place and Folif;no. it passes the ran^e at some
distance \. of Monte Sibilla. Only one road
traverses the southern higlu'r part of the Central
Apennines. It bej^rins on the N. nt Terni, <hi the
Nera, a tributnry of the Tiber, passes hence to
Kieti and Civila l)ucale, on the Vi lino, whence it
traverses the ranj^e by a long mountain-pass,
which terminates near Aqiiilo, on the Alterno,
and thence Mie road continues to Sulmona.
The undivided ))ortioii of the S. Apennines re-
sembles, in part, the Central Apennines: its off-
sets, towards the Adrintii;, rini otl'at nearly right
angles; butcm the \V. it has a lateral ridge, which
runs parallel to it for a distance of more than
60 m. ; and between it and the principal range ex-
tends a longitudinal valley, drained by the V'ol-
tiirno, and its tributary, the ( 'ah. re: lifter these
rivers have luiited. thev break through the lateral
range. an<l enter into the plain of Terra di l.avoro.
The princi])al range contains some high sinninits,
n.s MdUte Meta, 7,-J(;i ft.. Monte Miletto, (!,7-J0 ft.
to the Gulf of Spezia. Farther F,. is the [ above the ,sea. The highest part, however, seems
Lillietwecn Modena and Pistoja ; ii runs through
k\al!o, Pieve Pclago, on the west of Monte (;i-
inne. and traverses the range by the I'a.ss of
J;;naibo. The third road unites liologna with
Jloreiice; it runs from Hologna over the plain of
,„mbardv to Lojano, crosses the range by the
fx« of I'ietra Mala, at an elevation of ;3,'.'84 ft.,
1 descends into the valley of the Sieve, whenc
[ passes over a lateral ridge of moderate elevation
I Fiesole and Florence.
iThc Central Apciniines may be divided into
ioliart.s. Hetween Monte Falterona (8. of 41°)
Id Monte Sibilla (S. of 4,'?°) their general direc-
Im is SK., and though their upper declivity is
\t\- steep, they do not .seem to rise to a great
Vvation, one of the highest summits, Cima de
tmina, hardlv exceeding 4,000 ft. IJetwccn
Imte Sibilla imd Monte Velino (N. of 40° lat.)
le Apenninea attain their greatest elevation.
lonte Siliilla rises to 7,212 ft., and Monte Ve-
lio to 8,1H3 ft. Nearly at equal distatice from
|hcr, and near the source of the Velino, two
Icral ranges branch oft", wlii<di are overtopped by
kh summits; on that which runs to the SE.,
hards the Adriatic Sea, is the (Iran Sasso d'l talia,
|iosc summit, the Monte Corno, attains 9,521 ft.
]ove the sea, and is tlie highest in the range.
ithc W. lateral range is the Tcrminello Grande,
134 ft. above the sea. Ninnerous are the
|eral ridges which branch off from the Central
icimines. Those running towards the Adriatic
, f(irm nearly right angles with the princiyjal
|ij!('. preserve for some distance a con»ideral)le
Ivation. and lower afterwards rapidly but gra-
lly. They terminate with hills, at no great
Jlaiice from the shore. The lateral ridges, which
|verse the much more extensive cimntry between
f Apeoiiines and tiie Mediterranean, run mostly
slid to the princi])al range, so that nearly all
I rivers of this region run in valleys extending
, or XW., and form as it were terraces of
ierent elevation, by which the country gradu-
B' lowers towards the sea. In these lateral
ges Some siminiits attain a considerable eleva-
, as Monte Aniiata, W. of Kadicofani (S. of 43°
IJat) which rises to 5,794 ft.
wi roads traverse the N. portion of the Central
|6nniues. The northern begins on tho side of
to be th(; Matcre, an enormous itiass of chalk rocks,
40 m. in circ, situated at t lie sources of the Hi-
feiuii. nearly in 41^° X. lat. On somi' id' its sum-
mits snow is stated to be fuiind the wlnde year.
Near the sources of the ri\fi- ('aluri :i lateral
branch runs off lu'arly due \V., wbicli iiniiinates
with a high ridge on the peninsula S. of the (lulf
of Xaples. It contniiis the .Mimte S. Aiigido di
('astelaniare, which rises to the licight id'l.f>><H ft.
The VV. extremity id' this ridge is the Piinlii didla
Cain](an(dla, opposite the rocky ishfiid of ('at)ri.
Monte (iargaiio, a pronmntory projecting into tho
Adriatic, is commonly considered as tlie E. ex-
tremity of another lat(Tal ridge id'tlu^ Apeiniines,
but it is quite uiuioiuiected witli that range, being
separated from its nearest oll'set by a low plain,
many miles in breadth.
This range is traversed by two roads: one runs
from the town of Naples to Capua and Presenzano,
and pa.sses over the lateral ridge enclosing tho
valley of the Vtdttirno to Venafro and Isernia.
Between Isernia and Cast(d di Sangro it crosses
the iirincipal range of the Aiiennines, and from
the last-mentioned place it continues to Sulmona
and t'hleti. The .second road strikes off E. from
Xaiiles, and pa,sses over the tirst range by the
pass of Monte Virgine ; it then desceiuls into the
valley of the river Calore, in which it traverses
the towns of Avellino and Ariano. E. of the last-
mentioned town is the )trin('ipal range of the Ajien-
nines, over which the road passes to Ponte di
Hovino, and then enters the great plain of Puglia
(il Tavolieri della Puglia), and continues to Foggia,
Bari, &c.
The most easterly ridge, arising from the bifur-
cation of the A])enniiies, preserves a considerable
elevation as far as the town of Altamura ; but E.
of that it is contiinu'd only by a series of hills,
called Lc Murq'w, which extend through the whole
of the iieninsu'la lying between the Adriatic and
tho Gulf of Taranto. They are interruiited in
several ])laeos. and tenninate at CajM) di Leiica.
The otner chain runs directly S., and apjiioachcs
by degrees the shores of the Mediterranean Sea :
on the E. side of the Gulf of Policastro it C(jnies
close to it, and contimies to run along the sea as
fur fis tlie Gulf of S. Enfemia, where it suddenly
turns to the E., but soon again to the S., in wldch
l2
;i.:u ^
\\X\
>?)»
I4d
APKNKADK
iU:
*'l.
IsRi,''):.iyi:.'iM-.'; 1,
«liro('tion if ttkirt.s llic eastern HlutreH of Calnhriii,
butw(!(!ri llu! (iiilf (if Squillaeu anil ('itiiu S|mrti-
venli). In (liix cliain an; Honn! cIcvHtcii HuniniitH
Muntu Pollino (nt'ur 4(1° N. lal.) Hhcn to 7,()ti7 ft..
iiImivo the Hon, anil Monte Alto, the lii^^hest snni-
init (if the ^reat nionntain inasM, witii which the
Apnnnin(!8 terminate im the Straitj* of McHHina, is
4,;iH() ft. alxive the sen.
In addition to the roads eninnernted, the A]ien-
nines arc crossed ut several points by the Italian
network of railways, in conrse of construction, or
already completed. {Si:h Italy.)
Geiitix/i/. — The N. parts of the AjH'iinines are,
in );encral, coniixiscd of sandstone and chalk.
The former is known in Toscana hy the name of
viuciyno, ht pietra serrntt, and several hi^h moun-
tains are comjiosed of it : others consist of chalk,
and (It hers of maci^no and chalk tot^ethtif. In the
S. ranfjes the chalk formation iiredominates, es-
pecially on the W. side ; on the E. de(;livity sand-
stone occurs in a lew places. A (jrent portion of
the hilly districts, which extend to the VV. of the
range, and intersect the plains aliuifj the Mediter-
ranean, is comtMiscd of Inva and other volcanic
productions. This rej^ion extends from Monte
Vesuvius on the S., to the river Ombroiie, in
Tuscany, on the N. Near this river is Monte
Amintu and Monte Kadicofnni (3,01)0 ft. hijrh),
both volcanic mountains. A volcanic country en-
closes the lakes of Itolsenannd liracciano, and the
rocky iniuiscs near Vitcrbo are also of volcanic
origin. S. of the Tiber other volcanic rocks of
considerable extent and (devation form the moun-
tains near Ali>ano: here Monte Cavo rises to
8,110 ft, above the sea. The country roimd
l{onic is overspread with volcanic matter; and the
Seven Hills themselves are ])artlv comjioscd of it.
A third volcanic region occurs U. of Oajuia, near
Teano, wlierc several heights rise to a considerable
elevation, esjiecially Monte St. Croce. Jlount
Vesuvius and the volcanic country' roimd the town
of Naples, constitute the most southerly region of
the volcanic tract which skirts the W. side of the
Apennines. On the E. side of the Ajiennines only
a single extinct volcano lias been found ; — it is
Monte Vulture, near Mclli, .lot far from tlie place
where tlie bifurcation of the range takes place.
The lower declivities of the princi|)al range, and
a great part of the lateral rangcis, where they do
not rise above an elevation of 3,000 ft., are com-
monly clothed with woods, especiallj' evergreen,
oak, and chestnut. The upper parts of the principal
range have, in general an arid soil, or are formed
of bare rocks, of fant^istic forms, and destitute of
vegetation, except a few stunted bushes. The
whole range is poor in metals, none of them oc-
curring, except iron ore in a few places, and of
bad quality. But in many places excellent
marble is met with, and in a few it is worked.
The higher parts of the Apennines begin to be
covered with snow in October, and they are not
entirely free from it before June. It is deserving
of remark, that the quantity of rain falling in the
countries E. of the range is much less than that
\vith which those on the W. are favoured. In tlie
plain of Puglia the rain amounts only to about
19 inches annually, whilst in that of Terra di
I.avoro it is 27 inches.
The countries lying VV. of the range are subject
to frequent earthquakes, and even some i)arts of
the range itself are visited by them. An earth-
quake in the country lying about Mount Matese
oi'curred in 1805. by which 8,271 [jersons lout their
lives, and l..'iI3 were wouiuUul.
APENKADE, a sea-port town of the Duchy of
Schleswig, (Jennany, at the bottom of a Ijay of
the same name on the £, coast, opposite to the N,
APPKNZELL
end of the island of Alsen ; lat, li3° '2' '>'" \ i,.
9° 2(1' 38" E, i'op, 4.100 in l«(i1. It is tiii-'L, I;,
a bailiwick. Its port is shallow, and not v('r\' >ii,
but it has, notwithstanding, a consiilcrulili. tr>,L
in the export, of agricultural produce, witi, ,||'
tilleries, breweries, and tanneries. ltcMirt,.,| .„
from June to September forse/i-bathiiiK.
AP01J)A,a town of thelJrand I)u(•lly(lfS,^x^
W('imar, Oermnny, 9 J m, NE. Weimar, }'■,
7,732 in lH(il, It has a castle, a ciillcj;i.. wjii/j
iK'll-foundrv. fabrics of cloth and cassimerc, amMn
tilleries. lis fairs, four annually, are well attcinW
APPKNZELI, (Canton (ik), a caniciii h, ,i^
NIC, |>nrt of Switzerland, th(! l.'lth in tlii> (,'„f,f,.
deration. It is coinpletely enclosed wiihin il,
t(frritory of St, tJall, and is sliap«'(l soiiii'tliin;;liU
a ham. tlu^ knuckle end stretching N'K..\\itf,i
area. l;')3 sq. m. (7'2 ( Jenn.). Pop. (ill,!!-.'! in i*j
or 'M')'y.i to th(^ sq. in. Its surface consists tliifii, I
of mountain ranges; those of tlu- S. Iicl(iii!rii,„t,
the higher Alps; the j)rincipal of wliiWi/i>J
IIocli Seiilis, is 8,109 ft, liigh, but bavin;; its, irj.
niit covered with perjietual snow: most iff iJ
others belong to the Lower or Fore-Alps ,<„\
Switzkui.and), which enclose niu>ieriiin -ni.
valleys. It is watered by several rivulet-, m
chief of which is the Sitter, ruiining tl roiyh j;,
centre; there are also several siiinll iniinntiiil
lakes. The prevailing geol >gieal I'lirmiuiun m
calcareous; Im!- pudding-stone and samly (iribil
soils are likewise found. Cliniale ciilil ami urii
able, but not unhealthy. TIk! mineral riihp*j|
the canton consist of ]ieaf. and coal: sa't, ciiali
bcate, and sulphurous springs are met with, s<«|
of which, as those of Weissbad near AjJiioiUfJ
and Waldstatt near Ilerisan, .are used as laiJ
Its forests, mostly of pine and lir, oriifiimllv rj.f
tended over the whole surrounding Cduiitrv; hi
their extent has been greatly diminisheil witli iJ
increase of population and cultivation; aiiiliiiil
animals, game, lisli, &c., have become pro|wrtiii-l
ally rare. Before the Hcformatioii, the wkJ
canton wa.'i under one governmei.t; hni at iLiI
epoch, part of the inhab. haviii', emliractil iljj
Protestant faith, while the other ]iart ciiiiiiiiiiJ
Catholics, violent disputes were kiiulled \whJ^
them, which after much contest, were at Icmii
settled by a singular compromise, Hyauai.'n
ment in l.')97, the canton was divided iiitu n
portions — Rhodes Interior and HIkxI-h Eik
it was stipulated that the former should h app
priated to the Catholics, and the latter to lii
Protestants, Accordingly the two parties sf
rated, and formed two indenendent denuionitiii
republics, having each a distinct system of j]
veriiment, police, and linance. Exterier or Om
lihodes, coniprLses about two-thirds of thewhiij
cant(m (its N, and VV. parts), and has ■\>i,(i)iA
hab,, engaged chiefly in manufacturer; Ira
Rhodes has 2,020 inhnb,, principally aj,md
turists. Both republics have but one viiteim
Swiss Diet, and send their deputy hy turns
cept in a few districts at the N E. extremity,
penzell produces neither corn nor wine; but I
mountains abound with rich pastures, aiulcaiiij
breeding forms the chief occupation of ilie ki
Rhodes, 15,000 cows and oxen, 000 sheep.!
2,000 goats are fed there annually, it beiel
practice to jnircliase them when lean, ami
them again when fattened : cheese, beer. aiii|
liqueur made from a fine kind of black chemi
the other iiroducts of the agricultural dl-ffl
The manufactures of the Outer I.Miodesarorta
and linen goods, and embroidery : there are slfl
10,000 looms, by means of which are woven ami
rage of the same number of pieces of cluih kf
ells in length. Machinery has not been intn)J»'
infnyft^ 'vork from
Hnv, ThfV are dir
Liiiliiiiewi'th their I
M «mnil fanners, be
Ihrir lamilieM,
The houses are di
■rmieiice, and clenni
niih Karileii.<) and I
Jver the country, gi
jf|iert. \\'cavers gen
[if.xd. to !»». 2rf,) pc
OiiKT litioiles has I
lii'l n f,Taii(l c(Miiicil
W'i^trales of each
hviic a year, and es
riie errand council |ir(
Bieiii for approval to i
tscmlily ofall tlie ma
<>n years of iigc, win
ay in April, in the o
|iul iheir veto on th
«iipei>, il'c., are pi
fiiiillies are iinpos(>d
the 1,'ovenimeiit of t
Ve|i( that the cler^
jiatiiiiiii'iiiulereiglitei
fviilin;; in the geiien
universally cstalii
iiliments of ediu'ntio
ni,iii;; are taught,
kit.'.ated. Savings' 1
llalilishod in every ji
jiK orphan a.sylums j
Itioii.t. The Appenzt
of (iernian, those c
tninre simtheni linear
llpllif;eiit, and exliib
nity, and, with few ^
oral, well-behaved, pi
(«le of life.
[In the seventh or ei;
fip hestowed this coi
and it remained s
pun the inhabitants re
lie of their iicighlmur
lliifved their liberty,
' the forces of the
jtnt.s. In 1.513 it wf
peration, with the
Wf|iiently connected
\P1'EXZELI,, a town (
pell, cap. Inner Khoi
h council, in a pleasai
Ithe Sitter, 9 m, S. St,
lis dirty and ill-built;
Ih'CO, which contains
inerw.irs by the App
hmoil house ; and tw
^c annual general Asser
ippA!""" ^* "•• '^^ «
ftilliN, an cxtensivi
i'J'l" (which see).
miEm, a borong
%'land, CO, VVestmore
230 m. NNVV. Lon
'•;'ftowii,9(;0,ofpar.
neipally on the left I
J* nf a hill, and cons
reUiavrng the castle
>li church at the low(
p.v <'f the earls of Tlia
Jg either of Saxon oi
f; hut It was mostly rel
! rebuilt in l(!f,5, by
pfaeiresa of the town
rndwl to the Thanct
r'lment to her ladv^
AI'PIN
rMvers work from tliirtpt-n to foiirtorn 'loiirs n
,v Thev nrc diHiKTMcd ovor tim ('(nintry, nnd
■ 'liiiiP wi'tli tliflir lniMiiicMs an maiiuracturcrH tlmt
H *ni«ll fnrincrH, being, in each case, assintcd by
fhoir familinn. , . ,.
The hoiiHca are distmpuisned by neatness, con-
onit'iMC, and I'lennlincKH ; and being Hiirrounded
iih parilons and bed(rfi», and thickly Hcattcrod
iver ilip country, give it Honicwhat of an Knglixli
iiocl. WcaverH generally earn from 2 to 6 fiorins
;l,,.Hr/. tn9«.2rf.) per week.
OiiiiT KlioilcH lias coninninal and lessei- councils,
iiiil a {iTumi council, composed of the principal
aciritratcs of each commune, wliicli assembles
iviio a vcar, and exerci.scs the execulivo power.
lie frraiid onuucil (iroposes the lawn, and submits
iriii tbrnpi>r(pv«l to the Inndngemntide, or general
scinlily olall tlio males of the" republic above six-
II years nf age, who meet armed on tlie last Sun-
vin Ajiril, in tlie open air, and either sanction,
iiiii their vrto on the laws proposed. Hankrupis,
iiipori, itc, are j)rcclu(ied from voting; and
naltios are inipoHed on others who do not attend.
f ;;iivcrnni('iit of the Inner Hhodes is similar,
•p|it that the clergy take more part in it, nn<l
aliiiiiii' under eighteenyearsof age have the right
voting in tiic general assembly. Public schools
universally established; in which, after the
liiments of education, arithmetic, drawing, and
ill},' are taught. Music is very generally
Iti.iited. Savings' banks and poor-houses arc
iMliiislied in every j)arish, and there are niime-
iisorpiiau asylums on<l other charitable insti-
ilimw. The Appenzellers of the Outer Khodcs
iif (iornian, those of the Inner lihodcs chietly
more southern lineage; all, however, are livelj',
itdlifjent, and exhibit much mechanical inge-
iiy, and. with few excei)tions, are said to be
irai, well-behaved, prudent, and simple in their
«ie (if life.
In the i^eventh or eighth century, the Frankish
iifis k'stowed this country on the abbots of St.
11, and it remained subject to them until MOl,
iiiii the inhabitants revolted, and, with the assist-
iif (iftheir neighbours of Glaiirus and Schwvtz,
|hicv«l their liberty, defeating the Austrians
the forces of the abbot in several engagc-
nts. In 1513 it was admitted into the con-
icralinn, with the history of which it is
iseqiiently coiniected.
ri'ENZBLi., a town of Switzerland ; cant. Ap-
izell, cap. Inner Khodes, and scat of its execu-
e ciiiincil, in a pleasant valley on the left bank
the Sitter, 9 m. S. St. (lall. Pop. 3,277 in l.stiO.
isdirtyand ill-built; has a (iothic church, built
1IIG9, which contains various baimers taken in
erwars by the Appenzellers; two convents;
miincil house ; and two bridges over the Sitter.
le annual general assembly of the republic is held
About 2J m. S. are the baths of Weissbad.
PPIX, an extensive district, of Scotland, co.
^-jlc (which see).
API'LEBY', a borough, m. town, and par. of
land, CO. Westmoreland, of which it is the
, 230 m. NNVV. London, 28 m. SSE. ('arlisle.
oftowni, 9()0, of par. 2,824, in 1 8fil . It stands
loipally on the left bank of the river, on the
of a liill, and consists chietly of one broad
t, having the castle at the upper end, and the
*li eliiirch at the lower. The former, the pro-
y of the earls of Thanct, is very ancient, |)art
g either of Saxon or early Norman arcbitec-
1 hut itwiis mostly rebuilt in lOSO. The church
ribnilt in IGfio, by Lady Pembroke, a great
idkiress of the town, from whom the castle
diileil to the Tbanet fa;nily. and hns a line
iiiument to her ladyship, 'fhere is a good
APULIA 149
market-houRO crecte<l in 1811; and a town-hall
and giud on the right bank of the river, which is
here crossed by an old stone bridge. Applcbv had
a grammar-school, Amnded in the reign of hliza-
bcth, ofK'n to all children l)olonging to the town
on payment of a fee of lOn. ayear, and having
attached to it livesclKdarsbips at Queen's (^oUegc,
Oxford, and a right to participate in as many ex-
hibitions in the same college. It has also nn
almshouse, founded by Lady Pembroke, for thirteen
i)oor widows. Previously to the passing of Mio
Kcform Act, when it was disfranchised, Appleby
returned two m, to the II. of t!. ; but they were in
reality the nominees of the Tlmnet and Lonsdaln
families. The town is without manufactures, but
has a good market. It is the seat of the assizes
for th(^ county, and of quarter and petty sessions,
APT (an. Ajitn Julia), a town of France, dep.
Vaucluse, cap. arr(md., on the ('anion, 20 m.
KSI-:. Avignon, lat. 43° 2' 29" N.,long. 5° 23' r>2" E.
Pop. 5,78.') in 1801. The town is situated in a
spacious valley, surrounded by hills covered with
vines and (dives. The walls originally c(mstrncte(l
by the Romans, and repaired by the Conitcs dc
Provence, still partially exist. 'I'lic older streets
are narrow, crooked, and the houses mean ; but
the more modern streets are broad and straight,
and the hiuises comparatively good. Principal
public biiihling, cathedral of great anti(]uity,
and remarkable for its subterranean chnfuds. A
bridge over the Canhm, of a single arch, is said
to be itonnuntr par »a hardlttsse. There are esta-
blishments for the spinning of cotton and silk,
with fabrics, (if cloth, hosier^', cotton-stutfs, hat.s,
and earthenware; the latter, and the cimjiturea
made here, being highly esteemed. Several re-
mains of Homan works are found in the town and
its vicinity.
APULIA, PUGLIA, or APUGLIA, a portion
of S. Italy, lying between 3<.»o 4.V and 41° 40' N.
lat., and 14° 57' and 18° 34' E. long., c(mij)rising the
SK. provinces of the fonncr kingdom of Naples;
\\'/ (.'apitanata, Bari, and Otranto; having NVV.
tl:. |)rov. Sannio, NF. the Adriatic, SK. the Ionian
Sea, S\V. and W. the Gulf of Taranto and the
])rovs. of liasilicata and Principata Ultra. Area,
8.0!t2 sq. m. Pop., 1802, l,31.'),2«!t, being an in-
< lease of 80,422 since the census of 1848. It
hiis, at it« S, extremity, the sub-peninsula of
Otranto, which forms the lieel of the fancied Ita-
lian boot; and on its NF. shore the promontory
of (iargano. Although it has 440 m. of coast, it
is singularly deticicnt in b(\'s aiul harbours, and
the shores are low; forming in both respects a
great contrast to the SW. shores of NapU^s,
Puglia ])resents also a striking contrast to Cala-
bria, and the SVV. prov. of Naples, in being almost
whidly a plain coimtry, and iiuleed containing by
far the most considerable extent of level lands of
any tract of the same size S. of the Po. It is
divided into I'm/lia piana, and Pvglia montana;
tlie latter is conqiosed of the Apennine chain,
LOr) m. in length, wlii(;h, emerging from Basili-
cata. runs through the 'IVra di IJari and Otranto
to the extremity of the latter, and of the Garga-
nese, and other branches chietly in the N. and W.
of Capifanata. The mountains of Bari and
Otranto are much loss elevated than the Apen-
nines in any other region. The plains in the N.
are pretty well watered, while those of the central
and S. ])arts are nnnnrkably destitute of water,
forming another contrast to the sidj-|)cniusula of
Calabria on the opposite side of the Gulf of
Taranto. C'hief rivers, Candclaro, with its tribu-
tary streams, Kadicosa,Tri(do, Salsnla, an(lC(done ;
and the Cervaro, both of which run into the La-
gime Pantano Salr-o; the Fortore, Carapella, and
'It %'•*
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IffO
APULIA
Ofmito, which di»rhnr>;o. tlirniHolvM Into the Ail-
riatic, nil in Ihf |)ri)viiir(>ol'('ii|iilnimtii; tliclnttcr
riviT is tlip only one i)i>t ilricil iip ili.riiiK Niitnnicr,
On its liiiiiks iicnr (.'aiiiic, was fought Ihtt fiiinoiiH
haltlc (il'Cuimm (xw Cann.k). Tlu'iicc loC. St,
Maria ili Lfiica, a tract Hill in. in Icnutli, thcru
arc only a lew insi^'niticant HtrcaniH, I'licrc arc
no lakcK, lint several la^nncs of sonic si/.c, alonf^
tlic shore round unit near M. (iarpino, as those of
Lesina (14 ni. lon^^ ami I) ni. Iiroad), Varnno,
I'antaiio Salso, and Salpi ; nii<l n few Hniullcr ones
near 'rnranto.
Apulia is divided into the provinces of Capitn-
nata, ptip.:tl'J,lK."); Terra ili Ilari, pop. 00 1,1112; and
Otranto, pop. II7,1)h2. 'I'Iic chief town in Capi-
tanata is Fo^^^ia, poji. IM.nrri; in Terra di Itari,
Itari ill.lli;;!; Ilarletta •ii\J>'.>2 ; Moiiopoli I'/iOo;
Trani '>->,7i>> ; Itilonto 2:t,«;fJ ; M<illilla 2l,!t.">H ;
niuK'orato'JI.Mo"; and in Otranto, Taranto27,IMl,
J.ccce •JI,;il.'», and Fraiicavilla I7,<>(III.
.'IsiH'ft und Aiiriciiltiire. — Much of the land Ih
uncultivated and aliandoned to wanderiiif; herds
of oxen and liiitfaloes: in otiier parts a piod deal
of corn of dill'ereiit kinds is frrown ; lint niai/.e does
not generally flourish, owiiifj to the dryness of the
noil. Corn and wocd arc the chief products of
Capitanata, which also produces plenty of wine
and oil. III this prov. lands are let in lar;;c tracts,
and a ramie or larj;e house estahlishcd upon each
fann, in which the iKjente and laliourcrs reside.
Tiiere are also extensive^ tnvolicre or pasture lands
lie'oiininf; to the crown, capahle of feeding; as many
as 1,2(1(1,(100 sheep. The centre of Capitanata has
a snndy soil, and consists chielly of pasture. From
F'l'KKin to Manfrcdonia this tract aliounds with
thisth's, asphodels, wiltl artichokes, and giant-
fennel, of the stalks of which latter chair-hottoins
and licc-liives are made. On the hanks of the
Cervnro the mountains are chitlied with line woods,
and thickets of tloweriiiK shruhs; near Uovino the
]>lain is wooded with htw stimted oaks; n forest of
oak, manna and other ash, jiitch-pine, chestnut,
and cverjjrcens (hut none of them lar|;;c) adorns
M. Gargano ; the country is well cultivated at its
foot. Capitanata produces excellent A'e;;etal)lcs,
M'ine, and fruit of all sorts, lii|U(iricc and tohacco.
A finmt deal of wine is produced in the Terra di
Jtari ; the vines are cut low, hut not staked a.s in
France ; it is fertile in corn, oil. satFron, almonds,
tohacco, mnllierry-trecs, liipiorice, and capers,
generally without manure, though in some jiarts
th(! soil is hilt indill'erent. Its slieep (all of n dark
colour) furnish the best wool in Apuglia; goats
and swine are kept in large numhers. This prov.
yields also, aninially, l,()(iO,000 mofigic of salt, and
12,000 cwts. of nitre. It yields wine, olives, cot-
ton (good and aliinjdant), wheat siitiicieiit for the
inhali. ; the nralih; lands are well culli\ate(l, hut
there are no artificial pastures, and much of the
land lies waste. The chief natural disadvantage
if lahours under is the want of water, and tiie rain
that falls is therefore carefully i)reserved in sub-
terraneous cisterns.
The hilly jiarts of Apuglia feed many flocks,
and produce an ahundance of corn, oil, colton, and
flax; which latter is ex|)ortcd to Venice, (Jermany,
and Switzerland. The shore is generally sandy,
micultivated, and covered with hushes, wild ])runes,
myrtles, ericie, Ikr.. that serve as food for oxen and
hnflalocs. The whole coinitry, in Hari and Otranto,
abounds with aromafic plants; and botli the wines,
and flesh of souic of the animals, as the butl'aloes,
have an aroniaiic- tla\ mir. I'uglia is famous for
its deer and otlicr gain(! : (he sport -iinen run down
hares with grcyhonuils, and pursue the wild-boar
with lurchers and mastiffs, riding armed with a
liuice and brace of pistols. The shores abont
AQUILEIA
Tnranto fuminh large (pinnlities of shell-fi^h, T*.
viper, asp, a species of large black snake, niiij \i
tarantula infest thix part of Italy.
The dyeing of wool is an imp^irtnnt hrnnrhff
industry at Taranto; the inlernni commcrre ,1
A|mglia, of which Foggia is the hcad-(|imrt(r,(„i,.
sists (diielly in 1 he sale of wool, uhecito (from shcm,,
milk), anil corn. ''
The country is quite healthy, the peojilo ii,,!,,^
trioiiM, peaeealde, and handsome. Alaiiy df tiif,,
in various districts are (Ireeks or AlhaiiiniiH; i^
iK'ing, in the Terra d'Otranto, one-fourth nf ih, I
whole : they preserve their original custoiiK.dr,,^
and religion, and occupy themselves in coiiun.
weaving.
This territory was originally called Daunii,
lapygia, reiuietia, and Messapia, and fornioil kvt
of Magna Ciriecut. Having fallen under tlu' Ijuniaj
dominion, Augustus made it the third pniv. 1^
Italy, niuler the name of Apulia. After tlu; U\,{
the empire in the \V,, it was occupied succfiwivciv
by Oihiacer, The(Mloric, and the Oreek (■m|Kn.ri,
till, in the eighth century, it wius wrested f'njniiht
latter by the Arabs; and from them in turn IiviIk
Nonnans, in the 11th century; Jtobert (iiiiiarj
styling himself (irst Count or I)ukc of Ai)ii),'lia. li
continued in the possession of IiIh succcsiuir!* til]
the death of Manfred, at the battle of Uoncvcnt^
in I2M2, when it fell under the dominion of (.'liar|«
of Anjon, as well as the rest of the Ncnpulim
territory. Its subsequent history belongs tn ih«
of N oples, with which it wa« incorporated, in lw;i,
into tiie kingdom of Italy. (l{ampohli,C()r(i);niiii
deir Italia ; Swinburne's Travels in the I»)
Sicilii!s ; and Consular Reports.)
At^UILA, a city of Southern Italy, cap. prov,
Abruzzo I'ltra, on a hill at the foot of whidi tion
the AHerno. lat. 42° 27' N., hing. liP 2«' K. 1',,;^
1.5,7;)2 :n 1(<*)1. The town is surrounded by wi'k
and ranks i»s a fortifinl jilace of the fourth dw;
is pretty well built; ha* a cathedral, and varjnoj
churches, conyents, am? lunspitals; is the scat 0(1
bishopric, of a civil and criminal court, a cliamlw
of finances, &c. A royal college, esmliiishdl &
Sulmona in 1807, was transferred thither in \%:
it was soon after raised ti> the rank of a Ivrtiiii,
differing little from a university, and is aiimW
by about 400 pupils. There is also a swniiilui
school, cstablistied in 17(W, and various othcrstnii-
naries. A handsome new theatre, Imilt on ibi
model of that of Viccn/.a, was opened in iKil
Kxcellent water, conveyed from the Mimte Su
Ginliano, about three miles distant, by an aqiK-
duct, constructed at a great expense, diirin); lit
flourishing jjcriod of the city, is liberally ilistrilmii
to some line public fountains, as well as [irivwj
houses. The town has manufactures of liimiaiill
wax ; and a considerable trade in saflrun rai*iii
its neighbourhood.
Aquila was founded in 1240; and ruse inn
long time to be one of the richest, most iiopiilois
and powerful cities in the king(h>m. Hut m
combined influenced of misgovernment,pcstilfnrti
war, and earthquakes, from the latter of wliich it
sufl'ercd severely in 170it and 170(i, have ruM
it to its present state of decadence. I,utterh',li)t-
evc, •'^ has been improving
AQUILKIA, n small town of Austrian Italj,
near the bottom of the Adriatic, 1« ni. SSlf,
Gorizia, 22 m. WNVV. Trieste, lat. l,".o|.V;Ji'.\,l
hing. liJ<^23'E. I'op. l,7.'Win llS'iH. It is siirnniiiW
by a wall and a fosse, and is connected liy ;ir(uiil|
with the port of Grado, the residence of altwii?
ermen. This Ls all that now rcmahis of one "HI
principal cities of ancient Italy — its chief biihv
on its Nli. frontier, and the great emporiuiii nl
trade with the nations of lUyria and raiiiw«»|
ARABIA
151
Auiioniiw wisij{n«''l t" '' *'"* ninth plnco nmonj; the
c-rcatfiliPHol'thocnipiro:—
Xnn» Intpr clnrnii, Aqiillnia cinhorid, nrhoa,
italniv) lll.vrii!<>H objiHitu (x)loiila montcH,
MirnlbiiH ct porta ccloU'irliim. Clarm ('rbt», 7.
Aqiiilvin witliHt<HNl n Hip^e l>y MAximinii!* ; and
in 4'>"- it <'I'|x»*'''' * vin'TouH anil ^allnnt rcwHtnnco
I til Attil« i ''"' "'*' '"•'''"»'i'>n having; cnrried it by
n^^ult, razed it to tlie p-iiuud, the d«»triictioii
ln'inir HO cdinplptfl that tlio Hiu-ceedin); ^cnvrntion
foiild wart'cly diHcovcr its Hite. The iiiiiu>altlii-
no.tn i>f iti* ititxation hax oaiiHod the miMcarriaKo of
tho attPinptH that have been made for itH rextora-
tion. In I "5 1, two arc'hliish<)i)ricH were formed
out of tlie natriarohatc of Aqiiileia.
AKAHIA, an c:.,cn»ivc pcnniHula, comj)riHin>;
the SW. |M)rtion of tho A.siatie continent, Httiiated
Uiwccn the rent of Asia and Africa, and hctwecn
li-o fi and 3;(0 45' N. lat., and 82° />(»' and SHO
I ii E. lonp. It if lM>undo<l on the S. and K. hy
jth»t part of the Indian Ocean calkHl the Araldan
Lspa; on the NK. hv the (lulfs of Oman and Ter-
Ifia; and on the W. tho Aral)ic (Julf, or Hed ,Sea,
Ifiirras its bonndary from the Straits of IJah-el-
IMaiuifb to the iHthmus of Snez. The N. limit is
I IfM olearly defined; the dcHcrt in which Arabia
Itorminatcs i." this direction being conterminous
Iwith that of Syria, and no well-dclined line of
Idimarcation axisting between them. The most
liiatiiral boundary on this side ap|)earH to he a line
Idrami from the head of the Persian Oulf to the
Vami westerly |Miint of that of Suez, coinciding
Iven- nearly with the 34th parallel of N. lat. ; but
lit is usiml'to include in this country a considerable
Ipartof Irak Arabia, and the desert, plains S. and K.
|i)f Svria and Palestine ; and under this view, the
Is. iKiundarj' follows verv nearly the course of the
lEuphratcs. ' The countries contiguous to Arabia
tare, (in the N. the Asiatic provinces of the Turkish
Empire; on the W. I'^gypt and Abyssinia; on the
p, Adel, the most easterly portion of Africa ; and
iDn the XK. Persia. On the K., except along the
Peniian Gulf, the nearest land is Ilindostan. Us
viesi length from Suez to Cape Kas-al-Hhad is
90 ni., and its greatest width from the Straits
bif Balvel-Slandcb to the town of Keyham on the
Euphrates, 1,400 m. Its area, measured on D'An-
rillc's maj), is about 1,100,000 sq. m. ((.'ompare
P'Anville, Carte d'Asie, with Travels of Ali l$ey,
p, p, 9 ; Map of the Coast of Arabia, same work,
up. 27.)
Diminns, Ancient and Modern. — From the
irhcst period of authentic history, Arabia has
m the connecting link between the K. an<l the
world. It was the mart whence the Phte-
licians drew the supplies of g(dd and silver, gems
Ind pearls, sj ices and perfumes, with which they
jimiihed the countries of Kurope. And even be-
pre this more extensive intercourse existed — be-
pre Phoenicia was a nation, or her ' traitickers
rincesi,' the Arabian caravan wa.s seen ujyon the
Kile, air' on the borders of Palestine, iaden with
p most rare and precious products. (Genesis,
I. xxxvii.) That these were only partially, if
all, native prinlucts of Arabia, is sufHciently
■ovcd; but the W. nations, who received them
lom Arabia, looked at first no farther for their
tigin. Exaggerated notions were formed of the
jfauty of a laud whent;c such precious luxuries
Iw procured, and the term T.vHaiixuii; Felix, or
le Happy, became connected with its name. Ihit
incii, in the course of time, the (ireeks first, and
Im the Komans, camo to this fancied paradise,
li;y I'mmd the st)ll, wherever they essayed to
Iter the countr}-, a burning sand or an unfruitful
Vk. The nossiliility of an erroneous theory Avas,
ki«ever, seldom admitted by ancient infpurer.s.
Arabia was still believed to l)c the Happy or For-
tunate, but its blisxliil regions were sup|ioM-d to
Ik! separated from the less favoured portions of
the earth by an absolutely sterile /.one or belt.
All the country K. of Kgypt had, indeed, Im-cii
known, time imnu'inorial, by the conmiou tunnu
Arnltid; aiul this desifrimtion iM-ing still retained,
the inhospitable tracts on the N. and \V. received
the distinctive epithet of Kprj/ii. /fenertu, or tho
Desert. (Mercxhitus, Thalia, §tj 107-1 13; Dio-
<lorus Siculus, lib. ii. pp. loO-liii', lib. iii. pp. 'Jl 1-
'Jlt'i; Strabo, lib. xvi. pp. 7(»7-7Hl ; Pliny, Nat.
Hist., lib. V. § 11.)
Ptolemy subsequently ailded a third division to
Arabia, including the coinitry between the Hed
an<t Dead Seas, and iM'tween Palestine and tho
Kupbrates: in other words, he gave to his Arabia
the N. limit which, since bis time, it has gene-
rally l)een considered as retaining. To this new
district he gave the name of Arahia I'etrwii, from
llcrpa, a town on the lesser Jordan, south of tho
Dead Sea, and the capital of the Nnbat beans.
(See Pktua.) This division of the country by
the Greco-Koman geographers was universnlly
ado))ted, not only by their contemporaries, but by
all the western nations in the middle ages. On
the revival of learning, the great work .if Ptcdemy
was taken as the text-book of geography, and his
arrangements were univer.sa''v ado)ited. Kven
Gibbon was deceived by tb . * It is singular
enough,' he remarks, ' that a countrj- whose lan-
guage and inhabitants have ever been the same,
should scarcely retain a vestige of its old geo-
graphy,' (Dec. and Fall, v. chap. .50.) Hut he
forgot that this ' old geography ' was the invention
of foreign nations, po.s.s(!ssing neither p(ditical
powbr nor influence over the wandering Arab trii)e,s,
ni almost total ignorance of the settled portion of
the Arab people, and, con-sefpu-ntly, without the
means of making their divisions known among
the natives, still le.ss of causing them to be adopted.
The fact remarked by (iibbon of the idcmtity of
the people and language in ancient and modern
times, leads, indeed, irresistibly to the conclusion
that an ' old qenyraphy,' of which the natives retain
neither vestige nor recollection,- never had an
existence among them, and that the ancient
Arabic divisions of this country are as identical
an the people and the language with those exi.sting
in the present day. These native divisions are
the following : —
1. Bar-el-tour-Sinai (the Desert of M<iunt Sinai),
nearly identical with the Aralua Petraa of Ptole-
my. It comprises the small iieniiisula between
the Gulfs of Suez and Akaliab, and the country
northward as far as the Dead Sea. This is tho
region .so celebrated in Sacred Hi.story as the scene
of the wanderings of the Jewish people ; but,
though it may bo gathered from the Mosaic ac-
count that it was tlien the residence of several
warlike tuitions, it is, at present, nearly uninha-
bited. (Ni.'buhr, par. ii. p. 345.)
2. El-Heiljaz, or the Ijand of Pilgrimage, oc-
cupies a considerable portion of the coast of the
Hed Sea. It.i boiindarii' ■ are K. Nedsjed, W. the
lied Sea, S. Ynnen, and N. Bar-el-tour- Sinai and
Nedsjed. This district ai.'knowledges a sort of
doubtful .lutbcrity in the grand Signior .as pro-
tector of the hilly cities (Blecca and Medina) ; but
tho.xe cities, aid the whole southern part of lledjaz,
called Beled-el- Harem (Holy or Forbidden Lund)
were, till within these few years, under the go-
vcmnicnt of the sheriff of lilccca. The sberitr.'j
(HHver, lias, however, of late been much shaken ;
first by the VN'ababees, a fanatical sect of Ned.sjed,
and more recently by Mehenict Ali, PaclLa of
Egypt. (Niebuhr, par. ii. p. 302; Ali Rev, ii. pp.
%,
'v /■■
111 \ i-
... '^'^I
If'. ' i
!• «i
:-i-lifr
1.V2
ARAHIA
liurckhnnit'H Travclit in Arnhiii,
•>
^N^i.
'K,
hii^i-h
U.y
\f ;i!:
>■.,, -ji.
If. t-
a!», el ii-,i.\
pnimiiii.)
.'I. \eihjril roiiNtitnloK tbp cnifrnl part of thn
Itoninxiila, It In tlic Inr^i-ftt of nil Ihi! iliviNiimN.
t In IhiuiiiIciI N. I»y tlie- Syrinn Dcwrt, K. Iiy
//tirAMi, S, l>y Kcwjj-n, and W. by //«(/<«. (Nidnilir,
|mr. ii. i>, '1W\\ liiicklmnlt, vol. ii. p. iitH*, et mi/.)
4, Ju- Hiitmt- Lufhiia, otIierwiHt', /Mvhiui, IIaii»-
jiir, or Hiihreiii, lii's upon tlu! I'l-rumti Oiilf. ItH
iMniiulnricH arc, towanlH tli« N. tlio ooinitry of
Irak Arahi, VV. NrdnJKfl, S. Oman, and l'<. the
IVrMinii (liilf. (Niflmlir, iiar. ii. i>. "ilW.)
/). Omnn M IxmiKlcd N. by tlio IVrnian (lulf
ami lAuhm, K. Iiy the (iiilf "of Oman, W. and S.
by van! Handy dr»«<rt» (j)artH of \fihjfd and //«-
Hrnmnuf), in the inidNt of which il HormH to rJNO
liko a little knot of inountainH out of an extuUHivc
»i<a. (Nieltulir, par. ii. p. 2M.)
(>. Hiirtrumaut fomiN Ihc SIC. divittion of Arabia,
and In bounddd N. and NK. by the DcHcrtM of
Keditjed and Omnn, S. and Sh. by the (iidf of
Aden and the Arabian .Sea, and VV. by Yemen.
(Niebubr, par. ii. j). 245.)
7. Vemen, the Houthem part of the peninnula,
has the Ucrl Sea on its W. Bide, the StraitH of
IWvel-Mandeb and the (Julf of Aden on the S.,
Ifndrammit on the E., and Xedsjed and Hedjaz N.
(Nicbuhr. par. ii. p. IfiO.)
Vemen and Hadrnmaut point out the Hituation,
if not the extent, of the Arabia Felix of Strain)
and Ptolemy. The inhabilantH regard them»elveH
as the chiefof all the Arabian people, cnllinp; their
country Bellad-d-Ulm i Bellad-ed-l)in, 'The
birthplace of the sciences and of relipion.' (Xie-
huhr, par. ii. p. 247.) Ihit the Arabia Felix of
Greek geography seems to have extended much
further N., comprising the whole of Hcdjaz and
Oman, together with the greater part of Lachsa,
and a very considerable portion of Nedsied. (Stra-
bo, lib. xvi. cap. 3, p. 7(i5 ; I'tolemy, lib. vi. caj).
7, p. 112.) The Arabia Deserta included the N.
parts of Ncdsjed and Lachsa. In Ptolemy's map
this district is separated from the former by an
imagiiiarv range of mountains, running from the
Persian ("iulf to another range, equally imaginary,
supposed to form the boundary between Arabia
Fehx and Arabia I'etrivn, The jjosition of this last-
mentioned province has h'^on previously pointed
out.
Phi/niral Features of the Country, Mountains,
and FUiins. — The name (Nednjed) of the central
and largest division of Arabia signities high or
elevated ground ; and the whole peninsula, as far
as at present explored, consists of an elevated
table-land, with a general inclination towards tho
N. and IL. 'Taken in the aggregate' says Dr.
Wallin, 'Nejd [ Nedsjed] presents an undulating
and rocky surface, intersected on the AV. by off-
shoots of the hilly ranges which run from the
western chains, and in other places varied by the
occurrence of broken groups, and of isolated hills
and peaks, apparently unconnected with each
other.' It is surrounded by a belt of low land,
varying in width from one or two days' journey
to a single mile or less. (Xiebuhr, par. ii. pp. 160,
296, li'c. ; liurckhardt, ii. p. 397, et seq.) This
flat belt is called Gaur or Tehama, Arabic terms
for a plain country ; and the W. part of Yemen, on
the Ke<l Sea, has received the latter name as a
distinctive a])pellation. A range of mountains
runs S. from the borders of the Dead Sea to Ye-
men ; the face of which is much more steep and pre-
cipitous towords the W. than the E. ; so that the
feat plain which commences immediately to the
of these mountains is very considerably raised
above the level of the sea. (Uurckhardt, ii, p. 146.)
The hills of Oman seem to fonn the E. shoulder
of this table-land, and the plaiuA of I.mlKn th>
termination of its inclination towards the IVmu
Oulf. (.\iebuhr, ii. iip. 'iM>, '2im.) TliLi |ii,,|,
plain In diversilled witli several considcrnlilp Hr-
vations, which cros« its surface in every (iJr<Tii„ii,
shooting off like braniOies or snurii fVoiii the iirjn!
cipnl chain. The main cham, supportiiiK 'liii
tahl(!-landon the \V., increases in elevatinti imi
extends towards the S. ; and, although it 1)8.4 iii>t
lH<en explored in the SK. part of the iM'uiii.^nli,
there can lie little doid)t that the same cimiii, aii«r
following the direction of the Red Sea to Vinm,
and lladramaut, is continued in a lino, |iarallil
to the Indian Ocean, as far as Oman. I.oril V|.
lenlia lU-scrilies that part of the E, coast of Amiiji,
which he saw in his vovago from India to id,
Hed Sea, as a sandy Ik'OcIi with a chain of mmin!
tains in the distance (V'oyages and Trnvdi., ii,
p. 12.); and Nielmhr has no doubt that the hijji
of (Jman form the N. termination of ilds diaig
(par. ii. p. 20.')). The elevations of the laiiii are
rather in masses than in |)eaks, and the fiwi^'mt
eminences of the latter kind, noticed by trllv('lll'^
are referred to in terms which seem to im|ily ihu
they are regarded as singularities. Mouiiisilnri'li
an<l Sinai are, out of all comi)arison, tliv mini
celebrated in the world ! they are coiniecteil wiili
some of the most imixirtant events in sacred liLc |
tory ; and are regarded with feelings of rciininui
awe by Mohammedans as well as by Jews is,\
Christians. The Sinai group is the hut crni-
siderable elevation towards fhe NW. of tlic mmin-
tuins which su|)|)ort the table-land of the intrrinr, I
This group fills the ])eninsula between the tiulfi
of Suez and Akabuh. Mount Arafat, an cminrim
extremelv sacred in Mohammedan estimaii(Jii, n
a short distance from Mecca, rises from the plain
country of the table-land to an elevation ni l.Vi
or 200 ft. It forms the centre of a natural
solitude, being situated in a plain aliotit thM
quarters of a league in diameter, and siirroiimlBl
by barren mountains. The compoi<itioii uf iIk
Arabian mountains, towards the N. anil W,, is |
limestone rock, with granite towards the summit*;
but in the higher parts of the coinitry the \m I
granite rises uncovered from its very base. (Ik \
liurckhardt, Ali Itcy, and Niebuhr, iHtuim.)
The Gaur, or Tehama, from its regular inolini- 1
tion towards the sea, and the nature of itti »oil-
sand with saline incrustations (Nicbuhr, par. iL;^ I
1 Jl ; Lord Valentia, vol ii. p. 361)) — seems tohavt I
been under water at a comparatively recent perini I
At Mocha the soil for 28 ft. in depth is whollvl
composed of marine productions ; and at ( Ikits [
close to the Straits of Ihil>el-Mandcb, where an- j
ciently there was a harlionr in which a fleet coiiH I
lie, there is not, at present, much more th.in a Ik I
of water. (Lord Valentia, vol. ii. p. 3lil). Thtl
town of Musa, formerly on the coast, is nnw sovf [
ral miles inland. This fact was remarked even Li I
Pliny's time. ' Nowhere,' says he, ' has tiie carii I
gained more, nor in so short a time, fruni tbt |
water.' (Nat. Hist., lib. vi. § 27.)
Rivers and Lakes. — There are no rivers, in iht I
strict acceptation of the term, in Araliia. All
streams of nmning water known to exii-t in tte |
coimtry have more or less the character of iwi- ,
sional torrents. Niebuhr remarks it us a si:ii,*|
larity, that the Massora and another smnll fin-m [
in Oman continued to run throughout tlic year; a»l I
he states, that in the Tehama of Yemen there are I
no rivers that retain their water during tiie eiitiit I
summer. (Des de I'Ar., par. ii. jjp. 25.5, ItJl. fei [
The few perennial streams are all reduced toiiisij- j
nilicance during the dry season; but, under thtl
influence of the periodical rains, these and it* I
others often swell to uii immense si«;c, and *iii«- 1
ARAM I A
]M
time* mnkp iifiw clmniu>U fur tlu-inwlvcs, clmiin-
inu, ill tlii'* wiiy, th»> ii|i|MMirain:« til" the coiiKt, unil
|( iiiinc to roiitrmlictory Htiitt-iiu'iitt nutotlii! mmi-
Irr milt cnilMiiu'liiiri'rt' of tho diti'uront slruuiiii.
iViilt'iitm. '••P- •"•"•)
I'lic arid *MuU of tlic Tphonm, iinfavouriiblo to
t!ie fomiiitioii of riviTst, iiri', of course, i>(|uully
hmtili' to tl'" mTuniulation of water in lakes. In
liu t, tlio itrjiit'.HH of tlio Aniliiaii soil is nroverliial.
(•/„„„jt,J-Tlie Trojiif of Caiicer iliviiles Araliia
iiitiitwoiiot very uiieniial oarts. It lies, tliere-
i.irc, (inrtly in tiie torriil, and partly in the S. part
„l till' N. teni|K'rate zone ; hut mo many ino<lifyin){
,.|f,.,iiii»tniices exert an inlluence over its eliniate,
tlmt tli« "'•"■« l"t't"<l« "f ''•■* t'lveral parts is, jier-
haiw, the hNist ini|H)rtant element in detenniiiinj?
the tem|ieratiire, hnmiditv, and saliihrity of its
iiiiiiosphere. In ({oncral, the climate in very simi-
l.ir to tlmt of N. Africa. lAinn under the trojm;,
it has, of course, its succession of dry anil rainy
M'titniis; and on the moinitaiim of Yemen the
iliinvi'M re({ularly fall from the middle of .linu^
till the end of September. Durinj; the early part
vf the season the rains arc most abundant, and at
this time the sky in sometimes, but very rarely,
covered hy cUmds for twenty-four hours together.
Uiiriii)? the dry season a tdoiid is scarcely ever seen.
In Oman the rainv season liej^ins in Novemiier,
awl continues till tho middle of Kebruary. In the
iiiaiii country on the coast, and in the Tehama of
Vcnicn (thouj^h so close to the mountainous re-
poiis of rc({uh»r showers), a whole year frequently
parses without a drop of rain. (Niebuhr, {jar. i.
|i|). 1)4, et set].) In this resjicct is foi4nil strikinj;
iiliysical rcscniblnnce between Africa ond Arabia.
Ill the latter, as in the former, the parched plains
aro denied the refreshment of falling showers, and
owe what share of fertility they jMJSsess to the
iiiuiulatioiis consequent upon the saturation of the
iiioiiiitaiiis,
The temperature of Arabia, like that of other
[ oniiiitrics, dill'ers widely, according to tho eleva-
tion of tho surface, the nature of the soil, and
the nei|{libourhood of the ocean. In general, the
[ mountains of the S. Yemen and lladrannuit arc
the most habitable, and even the coolest parts of
the peiiinsuhi ; but the heat of the Tehama is
excessive; and great extremes of temperature are
exiierienccd within very snuill distances. At Mo-
cha, oil the h'ed Seo, the thermometer rises in
I summer to 'M° l'"alir. ; while at Saana, in the
mountains, it never exceeds 85°, and in this dis-
trict freezing winter nights uio not unfreiiuent.
rriie iiiliaLitunts of Yemen live, consequently, un-
Idtr several difl'erent climates, and very ililferent
|f|iecicsof animals and vegetables tiourish within
I its limits, (Niebuhr, par. i. p. 4.) From the bor-
llieniuf Hedjaz to the banks of the Euphrates the
Icoiintrj' is a vast plain, and wholly destitute of
I rivers or )icrnianeiit springs. The soil is one mass
luf moviiij; sand, and the dreary monotony of the
jwiie is broken only by the appearance of a few
liciriiy shrubs, which, taking vigorous root in th<'
Isaiid, supply the patient camel with the only food
Iwliich he can liiid in these deserts. (Yooseph-el-
iMilky, in Zach's Correspondence, Xo. 18.) This
Icountrj", with the Desert of Syria, seems to have
|funnedthe Arabia Descrta of Strabo and Ptolemy.
Another plain of the same kind, and most pro-
Ihahiy even more extensive, called the Uesvrt of
tAkluif, lies between Y'emeii and liadranmut, on
Ithe S. and W., and between Nedsjed and Uman,
l>ii the N, and K. (Niebuhr, par. ii., pp. 245-25,5.)
ITIiese vast sandy deserts increase very greatly
tU heat of the atmosphere in their ueiglibour-
piowl. The wind blowing over them, about the
puiiiiucr solstice, becomes so dry that paper and
parchment oxnoscd to Its InMiienrr wrorch and
crack as thoiigli placed in the month of an oven,
and life, Ixilli animal and vegetable, perishes In
the noxionit blast. (.^11 itev, vol. ii. ii, Ki.) Thix
is the wind known, in different and often very
ilistunt coimtrieM, by the names of the Simooni,
JSamiel, Sirocco, and Horaiiu ; and which is alwayH
generated hi every trtipical country having exten-
sive sandy deserts. Its grand seat is the vaxt De-
sert of .Saliara, in Africa; and next to it, perhaps, tho
deserts now mentioned. It comes from a dilVerenl,
quarter in dillerent jiarts of the peninsula, accord-
ing to their position with respect to these deserts.
Thus, at Mecca, the Simoom coim-s from the V..;
ill the neighixiurhood of the Persian (iulf ami
tho Kuphrales, from the W. ; in Yemen ami lla-
drainaut, from the N. and NK. The chain of hilln
seems to shelter the Tehama of tlu! liedjaz from
the intliience of the Simoom from the .Arabian
Desert, as tho hottest wind known in this district
comes from tho African deserts across tho Uvx\
Sea, and is, consec|uenlly, very considerably cooled
and mitigated in its viilleiice.
It is only, however, during the intense summer
heats that tho .Simoom is dreaded ; and such in
tho general nurity of the atmosphere, owing to
tho few exhalations from the dry soil, that both
man and beiist in .\rabia are aware of the approach
of the poisonous blast from the sulphurous oiloiir
by which it is preceded. It is said, also, that thn
point of the liouvens from which the Simoom is
approaching is always marked by a peiniliar co-
louring, easily distiiignisbable by an Arab eye.
Thus forewarned, the Arab throws himself upon
the ground, and the beasts hold down their heads;
for it is found that this terrillc blast has little or no
power near tho earth, perhaps because, blowing in
a horizontal direction, it is broken by the inequal-
ities of the ground, and also, perhaps, because the
few slight exhalations forced from the arid soil by
the oxtronio heat have jiower to counteract its
virulence. Those who are rush enough to face it
are suddenly sutTocated; and in the deserts, ■where
the Simoom blows hmg and stronglv, wh(do cara-
vans have been buried beneath thi! iiiirning sands,
which then rise in waves as high and strong as
those of a stormy ocean. (Niebulir, par. 1. pji. 7, 8.)
Natural Productinns. — The ditl'erences of soil
and climate occa.Hion much variety in the specieji
and amount of the natural products of Arabia.
Nothing can, perhaps, be more strongly contrasted
than the vivid descriptions of tho country by
ancient and oriental writers, and the cidd realities
exhibited to the traveller or voyager who ap-
proaches its conlines. Kven on Hearing the
southern shore, the Arabia Felix, or terrestrial
paradise of the ancients, the eye hioks in vain for
the beauty; nor is the smeil gratified by tho
' Sabioan oiUiurs ' which have been so vividlv,
but erroneously, described. A wide sandy beacli,
bounded in the distance by a range of mountains,
dreary and unproductive, without a patch of ver-
dure to relievo the eye, or a running stream to
slake the thirst, or break the dull mimotony of tho
view, constitutes the southern coont of Vcmen.
(Valentia, ii. p. 12.)
The fertile sjwts, however, like the oases of the
African deserts, arc so luxuriant and beautiful,
as in simie measure to warrant the hyiierbolical
l)raises bestowed on tho ])cninsula. In consequence,
too, of tho various circumstances of elovati<tn, as-
pect, temperature, and moisture, there is no country
whose productions are more numerous and varied.
The sandy plains of the centre jiroduce the same
plants as N. Africa, — the mesanbryanthemuni,aloe,
euphorbium, stapcla, and sals(da ; |)hiiit3 which
answer u wise purpose iu tlioye waiitcs, by allevia-
'm
.1.*;%
•.H
'.f^J'
j,f^'
lAI
ARAniA
;l 'lUj:!
¥
%
i:;ll!
liiiK tlic thimf "f ihp rnmpl, diiriiific t^P pniiilul
Joiinii'yt of thr raravniiH.
'I'lu' »e«-coo8«, ooiiKiMliii^ f(ir (he vnrmt part of
arid HaiidH, pnitliiccN, in (tciicral, iliit muw plants
aM the ri'iifrnl lifHcrtH ; liiit wherever the Tehnnia
iH watered \>y riviiletM dem-eiidiii^ from tlie nioiiii-
iain.'), or wherever tlie Hoil is Hidijected to orea-
Mioiinl iniindalioim, a very iliffereiit Hceiie ix pre-
M-iiled. (Jiuh'r these eireiiiiiHtitiH'eH, a veKetiition,
hixiiriant and diverNitled, Ih produced, the cHect
of wliich IH the more N(rii<in|;, frmii the d(>f*<dution
with whioh it in Mnrromided. The valleyH, too, in
the mountains, ex|HiNed to the intluenrc of the
re^'uiar rainx, and coiiHeciuenily alioiindin^ in ri-
VMlelM, are the HcutH of an al)iindant veKcintion,
In Hiieli di.ilrictM, the lainarind, cutton tn>e, mn;wt
cane, hanana, nutmeg, iM'tel- and every variety of
nielonM andpiinipkiuN, are iHitii/emmii; at all eveni.s
tlicy have^rown tliere from theremoteNt antiiiiiity
(Stralio, liii. xvi. 11!, cap. H, pp. 7(14, et »rq,\ IMiny,
Nat. liiNt. lih, xii, rap. M, p. Mi\ lb. lil). xii. «ap.
Id, I). I«!I); Ih. lih. xix. eap. i. p. 't), and eontiinio
to tfouriHh in (greater luxuriance than in any other
part of the world, except in the Niniilar miil and
under the Himilar clinuile of N. Africa. Arahia
produeeH Hcveral kindH of liard wood, of which the
a;;all(ichum seeniH to Ix) the Haine with the xundal
wood of the Kant In<tia iNlandi*; and it nuiy Imi re-
garded ax the native home of the date tree, the
cocoa, and the fan-leaved palm. Of other treex,
there are the li^, orange, plantain, almond, apricot,
acacia vera ^iiroducni); the K<>in Araliic), (piincc,
and vine. Anionf^ xhrulw, the HCUHitivo plant,
caxtor-oil plait, and senna (holh nited in medicine) ;
tl<c ^htXw amaranth, white lily, and [lancratium
(all (liHtinf^uixhed for their fragrance) ; the aloe,
Htyrax, and Hexamum are very ahundant. Hut,
notwithxtanding thix varietv of woihI, although
there arc xome t^rovex or thicketx on the mountain
side, Arabia poxxesxex lU) forext, properly so called.
Of Arab treex, the moxt worthy of notice are
the eofl'ee tree, and the tree producing the halm
of Mecca, called, by the nutivcx, Abu Schiim (that
ix, the odoriffnmi tree). Both are nativex of
Yemen, the eofl'ee p1antati<mx bcinj^ found chicHy
on the W. xlopexof the mountainx, in that tlivixiim
of the peninxula. It ix xaid that the Arabs have
alwayx prohil>itcd the exportation of the cofleo
plant ; but it ix a well known fact that it wax tirxt
introduced into the W. Indies from Arabia. The
cofl'cc of Yemen xtill, liowevcr, prexervex its sujH!-
riority, and fetchex the hip^hcst nrice in the Euro-
pean markets. The balm of Mecca is the moxt
fragrant and valuable of all the gum rexiiix, but it
is never met with pure out of Arabia, and there j
scarcely hovond the confines of Yemen. The mer-
chants of Mocha convey it in great quantities to
Medina, whence it ix never exnorted for the pur-
poxes of external commerce till it has been con-
siderably adulterated. (Niebuhr, par. i. p. 127.)
Among the natural productions is the singular
substance called Manna, prodiu'cd from a little
thorny bush, which xeemx to be abundant in all
the deserts and their neighbourhood, and exactly
answers the description in Kxudus xvi. and Num-
bers xi.
Wherever water is found, or can be procured,
the labour of the Arabian agriculturist is well re-
paid. Maize, wheat, dhourrah, barley, and millet
cover the mountain siilex of Yemen and other fer-
tile i)arts. Indigo, tobacco, l/urs, a plant yielding
a yellow ilye ; Ftiar, aw herb which prodiuies a reel
colour ; together with many xi)ecie8 of garden
fruits and vegetables, are cultivated ; but, in order
to inxure success in the cultivation beyond the
districts watered by the scanty rivulets and tor-
rents, much labour is required. It is true that the
agricnitnrni linp1empnti« arr of a very xlmplp itid
primitive construciinn, but (t U not in \\w i,„.„f
these that the great lalxiur <'. Arabian nKririiltnrt
exixln. (!hantM'lM anddykcK liavi to U- riin:«inii'ii',|
to conrluct the water to HiM>ts when' imne llnw* i,,.
fnrallv, «nd to retain it there it i| it mav fcriiliw
ilirni. (irt-at reser^'oint are iMuitcd, in »hii'||||,r
abundant rains of the wet sroxoi m'<> cull I'lt'ilfnf
future use. The I'litfw* grouii'l nd yn .Icn. „n
the mountain xidex iin- Hupiwirted by «•«//.«. t" ^la,,
their surface horixontal, and no prevent ih,. ,.,,,„.,,
of the moisture. Wells are ilug i\\ iiiiini>nw
depths ; and, in xhort, since il is upon the nmoiint
of irrigation that the iirodnctivenexx nl the unij ,i,.
pends, it ix to the collei'lion and Just diHtriliiiilun
of water that the carcN of the cultivator are prin.
ciiially dire<-ted ; and the nature of the Amlijiin
climate uuil hydrography reiiden* these cnr<'n in
the highest degree lalxirious. (Niebuhr, Mr, i.
pp. i:»l— I 12.)
The fame of Arabia a« the land of incrnHp im^
I)erfiitnex is of very (dd date. Hut it has Iteon hi<-
torieally pro\ ed that Ih'' frankincense, myrrh, miil
similar products with wli li it supplied the nticifnt
world, were not all of ns own growth, liiii hitp
principally brought to its isirls from Africa ariil
various l5. coiinlricH. (Niebuhr, |iar. i. p. iiij;
Valentia, ii. I). 12.)
The catnel is to the Arabian what the reiiidifr
is to the Laplander. It has l)eeii justly ciilliilihe
'Shin of the I)esert ;' and without it the Anih
coiihl never cross the W!ax of sand that IVncf hi*
countn-. There arc two sjjecieM of this ii-ifnl
animal; that used in Arabia and N. Afrien hu
only one hump, while that found in I'erxin and
Itokhara has two. The latter is freipiently calM
the Hactrian camel, and the Arabian spri'icn u
sometimes called ilromedary. This last imrtipti,
however, inn)ro|)erly apjdied, the (Jreek term ipoMi
(swift), iM'ing, most probably, unknown to tlie
Arabians, while by the Greeks themselves it vm
a|)plied to only one variety of the Araliiiiii caiiifl,
distinguished by its greater speed from thime best
adapted to carrying burdens. (Diodonis Siciilu*,
lib. iii. p. 120.) Arabia is generally regnnlod at
the native cimntry of the horse; and llierf are,
perhaps, no breeds to be compared with tin*
trained by the Ueihaiins of the desert, ThchirsM
arc of two kinds : the one called Kadeichi, thai v,
of an unknown race, are used for the jjurpoiieiiiif
labour, reside in the towns, and arc not more n-
teemed than the horses of Kiirope. Ihit the true
Arab steed, the horse of the desert, is siiid to be
descended from the breed of Sidomon; this kiml
is called Kochluni, or horses of an asccrtaineil
race; and it is pretei' le<l that their gonenloftyhu
been prescr^'ed in the country for 2,(H)l» yt'an,
(Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 142 — 144.) Horses are. h(iw-
ever, by no means so numerous as has i)eeii sup-
iKiscd. In the settled districts the most commoo
t>cast« of burden are oxen and (!amels (Xieliuhr,
passim) ; and among the Itedouins the mm b
rather a mark of distinction than a sulisiantive
part of her master's wealth. In many trilws (dud
those among the richest) not more tliaii one mm
to six or xeven tents can be found; in some of the
W. districts there are many encampments witJKini
a single horse or mare among them ; and when,
in IHI.'J, the S. tribes united against MehemetAli,
out of an army of 2.'),0t)0 men not more tliati M
horsemen could he mustered. The Arab tribe)
richest in horses live without the limits <ir the pe-
ninsula, in the fertile plains of Mesopotamia, td
ill the plain country ot Syria. Burckhnnit tliinkf |
that the number of horses in Arabia docs not ex-
ceed .W.OOO. (Notes on Hedouiiis, pp. 40, Ho, (< I
seq. 246—249.)
iither. This breed
. . K'>ats and asses,
P^'"*-oiie not (liHi
ARAIUA
\f>5
j]^f great ra»ne of tliiH (wnrrit^ U iinilouhiiilly
till' >lilll<'"l'y "f |in>vl<lini{ food lur he anlrriiil, •'!•-
i^vinllv ill ill*" S. <liKtri<'tii; Iml annihrf omiw, cIa-
' ,„ll„')r priiltnlily ii|Min Iho llrxt, Im, i)int (ho AiiiIm
'iliiiniii uniforrnly riilc lln-ir miirr-H, miil nvW t\w
liiirwi* '" thi' t"Wii'!t-|i»'o|iU', 'I'lii' hiirMOH llint llioy
fi«.r\T in- riHTi'ly lor llif |iiir|M>.>M' of lir Iiii>{, niiil
a u'cMiiiu' i* riiri'ly if over coi'ii in tliii (l<wri, Al-
iliMii|;|i till' jli'ilnuiii pnrlH ri'itiliiy wilh lli*' homi'M
,.; iu<liimini" Kiiihliini lirci'il, lit' rnn-ly (lisiMwi'K of
till' iiiiiri'4 until llicy lifcoiiic old, or iiri> from xotni*
.'iilt'iit iiMtlt for witr; mill ('Mil tlicii ho coiilriMiN
'li the Imyor to rccoivo llio llrnl liily I'oiilod of
iiii\ iimrc tlii'n ho tnuv moII, or to rocoivo lim-k fho
iiiiirc. till' liiiyor rotaliiiii^ tlio lillv. Somotiinox
till' lir«t two.tiiroo, or oven li.iir tlllici nro thim ro-
htvciI to llio Hollor; and tlii", in Aralt |)liriiHoolojry,
j. I'lilli'il Holliii|{ a half, a third, or a fourth of tho
iiiiin's Ih'IIv. It iH vory rarolv, iiidcod, that n
llriliiiiiii will |iart with li Kochlaiii niaro oxcont
iiii.ji'r HiH'li roMorvatioii of ri^ht in licr future otV-
^|lrill^;. (Ihiri'khardt'H Noton on the Iti'doiiiiiN, ii^).
117, IIH, i(fe.) An Arali will Hoinoliint'o lake Lh
niiiri- n Jniimcy of Moveral dayx, in order that hIic
riiiiv liri't'd hy wmie eelehratod horne; hut, in ^eno-
mi, the KoiloiiinH are liy no nieanN ho |>artlctilar in
thi:* ri'!<|M'('t iiM Kiiro|ieaiiN, and eonsider the goo<l
i|iuiiiiii'H (if the colt to (le|M>nd rather ii|)on llie
iliim tlinii the sire. They never, however, will-
iiicly mix the Km-hlnni with the kmU-itrhi liroed ;
oiiilif Huc'h mixture take (dace hy aceideiit, the
riijt \* reckoned of the inferior race. In tho towtiN,
KwlnM niarcH are emijjled with Kwhlani liorHOH,
tint ill thix ('a.so, alxo, the iittMprin); is aocuiinteil
Kudrmhi, (Nieliiihr, par. i. p. t-i t.)
Knrhlani hornoM are moHtly .small, neldom alir, ,'e
fiiiirtfcii IwukIh hif^h, of a delicate lint extremely
):riii'i'fiil I'urin, ami have all Home charactcriMtic
iK'iiiity which diHtiii^uiHhoH their hreed from every
iiilicr.' This hreed in Huhdividcd into almost iiiini-
mcralile families; for every mare (liHtin^uishi>d for
ii|pe('(l iir bcniity may tfive riHC to a new hreed called
after her. They all, however, Indoiifj to live jjreat
iliviHidiw, named after the favourite mares of Mo-
hainmnil, Taneyse, Manekeye, Moheyl, TakUncye,
anil Dujlfr,
A cult" is not mounted till it is two rears (dd,
tmt friini this time the naddlc in rarely oti its hack ;
it lieciimcs the intimate companion of its manter,
fhiirin)? all his comforts (siKih an they are), and
iilwi all his privations. I'asture in the rainy soasim
— Iiarley and wheat when the plains are scorched
hytlie tropical sun — date-])aste, and dried clover
wlicnKTuiii is srarce — form the variable diet of the
Arali liorse, in ditl'iTcnt diHtrictH and weasonH. As
liiiii;, tiio, an its miuster's camc^ls can supply milk,
I it reocivcs its share, and the nedouin most coin-
mmily nivos the fra^rmcntM of his own meal to the
I mare on which he rides. 1 1 is, moreover, a common
|iracti(,'e, more especiall.v in Nedsjed, to jjive horses'
I lii'nh, iMith raw and cooked, particularly before tlu;
iiiinnicncemcnt of a fatiffiiinj; journey. Like their
I miiHicrs, the Arab horses live all the year in the
"lien air. With little uToomxwf^ and attention to
I tln'ir health, thev are seldom ill. licing constantly
ill the society ot' their miwters, they become gentle,
hlmile, anil intellif^eiit in a hij^h deforce ; they are
I riiidiMi without bits — generally, too, without' stir-
Inilw; and instances of vice or ill-temper are almost
1 unknown among tlicm. (Niebuhr, par, i. pp. 141-
W: Hiirckhardt, Not«» on IJedouins, pp. 115-123,
1 lie other domestic animals arc oxen, Ronerally
■"falmmiK-'d kind, like those of Syria; sheep, one
Ivariety of which lias extremely thick and broad
rails: (;oatM and asses, of which last there are two
Ivariciii's— one not difiering from those of KiuroiK!,
tho other Inrco, coininroioi, and more donirnblo lor
a loumey thiiii oven ilio horno, Krom ihom' a^NOM
a hrrod of \ i-ry valiiahln miili>» I* procurol. The
liufTalo, thiiii^ii common in Ktfypi, Syria, and on
the bmikM of tho Kiiphralos and li^ris, that In, all
round tho conllnoH of Arabia, is not found within
itN limits: at leant Niobidir did iioi moot wilh it,
and no otlicr writer montloiis tho imimal, except
in oni> or two instancos, when the InimiN'd Syrian
ox Hociiis to have U'ou mistakon for tlie biitfalo.
The latter rri|iiir*'.s a inoixt pasture and a plentiful
Hiipply of water. Iloiice it is found on the iiaiikit
of the Nile and (he OrmitoN, thouKh in the dime
noiglilioiirhood of parched deserts; but the want
of Witter in Arabia ch^arly renders that country
uiilli lur its location,
Anion^ the wild animals are the Jackal, hya>ns,
Hoveral kii»ds of as ■<, the jerUia, widf, fiix.'lMiar,
and panther. U('.'<i ics (liirse, there an^ several
kinds of aiitol(i|-.M the goal runs wild niiioiii; tho
iiiouiitalus, aiK . wild oxi'ii ami asses an' in Im> mot
with ill the plains. Domestic |)oiilir>- ih very
plentiful ill all the fertile distrlclH, and tho plaiim
are lllled with partridges, the woods with guinea
fowl, and the mountain sides with jihoasants. Itiit
'he inoNt. celebrated bird is one of the thrush kind,
called by the natives Snmin-nu>g, which comes in
llocks every year from Persia, and commits gnat
devastation among the llights of locusts. For ibis
im|Mirtaiit service it is held in a degree of reH|M'ct,
amounting almost to adoration. The ostrich wan-
ders in tlie sandy doserts, and Is called by Ihin
Arabs Thar-rthmjmm'l, that is. camel-bird. It ia
certainly a remarkable circumstance that in a conn-
try lying on both sides the tropic there should Im)
no great abiii dance of insects ; yet this apjH'ars to
bo the case. Ali Hey, s|)eaking of lledjax, says.
'There are few Hies, and no gnats or other ins<H-is.'
(Travels, ii. [ip. lo, I IH.) The locust in, however,
one of tlie ncoiirges of Arabia, though even thin
|K'st seems to lie loss destructive here than in tho
neighbouring countries of Syria and IVrsia. Tho
esculent locust is sohl in the markets, and is
esteemed r. ^'reat delicacy. (ItiK'hart, llierozoicon,
par. i. lib. iv. cap. li, p. -lit.) These destructivo
ravagers come to Arabia from ditl'eroiit quarters:
a SVV. wind brings tlieni from the Libyan Desert
to the shores of Venieii and Iledja/ ; a N W wind
hurls them upon Oman and Lairlisa, from I'ersia
and Mesopotamia; and a wind from the NK. fre-
quently ovenvhelnis Nedsjed with this plague,
from Syria. They seem, however, to lie contincd
to their several localities, iHtrbaits from inability to
pass the interior deserts ; for the W. flight, as it
may be called, or that from the African shorea,
never jiasses the raoimtains of Yemen, and com-
monly retraces its route on the day following ita
Hrst appearance. No i)art of the year seems to be
peculiarly exposed to or exempteil from this
plague. Niebuhr noticed li.cust tliglit-s in the
months of •January, May, .luiie. July, November,
and December. In one of these, the lied Sea be-
j twcen Mocha and the opposite coast of Africa was
covered with tlu^ir ilead ImkUoji.
Of t'le rejitilc tribes, land and sea turtles are
very numciMiis; there are also several species of
serpents, one of which, very small, and covered
with white blotches, is extn'mely venomous, its
bite being instantly mortal. The gnaril, a large
lizard, is said by liocliart, on the mithority of Kar-
wyiii and Ab<lollatif, two native writers, to lie equal
in size and strength to the crocoililc. (llierozoicon,
jiar. i. lib. iv. cap, .'<, p. 1070.) All the coasts abound
ill fish; reefs of coral and madrepore extend along
the shores of the Hed Sea, and the pearl oyster is
abundant in the Persian Gulf. (Niebuhr,' par. i.
pp. 142-159.)
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23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80
(716)S72-4503
1A6
AliABIA
m
Mincraln arc scarce; but this may proceed from
aw-niit of industry or skill in working mines. The
mountains, of an old formation, arc precisely those
in \vhi(;h the precious metals are found, and the
unanimous voice of anticpiity proclaims this coun-
try as the land of gold and gems, as well as of
incense and nerfumeH. Nicbuhr affirms, however,
that no gold is found, and that only a small por-
tion of silver is found mixed with lead in the
mountains of Oman. There are some iron mines
in the N. of Yemen, but the metal they yield is
brittle and of little worth ; and with regard to
gems, it is now well known that the agate called
Mucha stone and the Arabian cornelian come from
India; and there is nothing to contradict the pre-
sumption that the other gems for which Arabia
was formerly distinguished, were derived from the
same source. The onyx, however, is found in
Yi-men, and an inferior emerald. The other mine-
rals are basalt, blue alabaster, several kinds of
spars and sclenite. (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 123-126.)
Population, Manners, and Cugtoms of Arabia. —
Tiie native Arab has always been an object of
interest and curiosity to the rest of the world.
Descended in all probability from the same stock
with the Jews, he has preserx'ed his race almost as
unmixed, and traces up his genealogy to Abraham
through Ishmael, with the same ])ri(ie as his con-
genitor looks up to the same ))atriarch through his
lawful but yoinigcr offspring Isaac. Through all
the centuries which have passed over his head, he
has preserved the character given to his infant
ancestor in the wilderness. The desert has con-
tinued his home; he has been a man of war from
his youth — 'his hand against every man, and
every man's hand against his.'
Though the various eastern traditions on the
subject arc too numerous and too involved to be
lierc stated, it seems pretty certain that the Arabs
of the towns and those of the desert owed llieir
origin to different ancestors — that the settled popu-
hilion on the coasts are descended from a more
ancient, if not an aboriginal race, while the wild
horseman and shepherd of the waste is the de-
scendant of the discarded son of Abraham. Be-
tween these a marked and striking diflerence has
existed throughout the historic jteriod; and not
only is this the case, but each class seems to have
retained pretty nearly the same distinguishing
features which marked it in the earliest times.
1'he caravans from I^IooJia and Sanaa still convey
the produce of the South to Turkey, Egypt, SjTia,
and Persia (Niebuhr, par i. p. l'2(i) as they did
2,000 years ago (Pliny, Nat. Hist. lib. vi. cap. 28),
though the Arab merchant be not so important a
character in this commercial age, as when it could
be said of him that ' he must, of necessity, be ex-
ceeding rich ; for with him the lioman and the
Parthian leave large sums of gold and silver for
the products of his woods and seas, which he sells
to them without buying ai.ything in return.'
(Pliny, 1. vi. § 28.) '1 he IJedouins, too, or Scenitte,
are described by Pliny as living in the black hair-
cloth tents, under which they shelter themselves
at present ; and he expresses his astonishment at
the fact, that, being ho numerous a race, the half
of them, at least, should live by plunder. (Nat.
Hist. 1. vi. § 22.)
Though the younger race, the Bedouins account
themselves the more noble; and the Arab is
prouder of his rank than the native of any other
country in the world. They have no titles of
nobility, excepting such as refer to religious or
political offices. The Bedouin has no idea of rank
depending upon letters patent of a caliph or sul-
tan ; all men descended from the same ancestor
are, in his estimation, equal in rank ; and hence
the prespr%ation of their genealogies is amattpt
of extreme care. Among their great hmiwj
those descended from the Prophet hold thefi^t
rank; then those whose ancestors diverged ttie
latest from the common stock ; the lowest place
being seemingly assigned to those who trace their
genealogy to Ace, the second son of Adnara, thus
diverging from the Prophet's stock in the first
accredited generation. (Sale, Introd. Koran, p 9-
Nicbuhr, par. i. pp. 9, 10.) '
According to Niebuhr, the Bedouins are now
the only true Arabs,— the inhabitants of the citiw
and coasts being, in consequence of their com-
merce, so mixed with strangers, that they have
lost much of their ancient manners and customs'
whereos, the Bedouins (les vrais Arabes) have
olways looked more to their liberties than their
ease or riches, and continue to live in separate
tribes, under tents, preserving, in the present
day, the same manners and customs which dis-
tinguished their forefathers in the most remote
times. (Par. ii. p. .427.) Niebuhr enumerate?
above a hundred Bedouin tribes, each under its
own particular sheikh or sheriff; these are not,
however, all found within the limits of the penin-
sula, but extend over Syria, the plain countt)-
between the Euphrates and the Tigris, and even
from the left bank of the latter river into Persia.
There ore, however, two closses of Bedouins; the
Ahl-el-Abaar (true, noble Arabs) who live entirely
by ijasturage ond plunder, and those tribes, who,
finding any portion of the country fitted for agri-
culture, bestow their labour on the ground, an
occupation which the true Bedouin considers far
beneath him. This second class of Arabs is called
Mvedun, and it seems to hold an interracdiatft
place between the Noble Shepherd {Ahl-el-Abaar)
and the peasant of other countries.
The liedouin tribes who inhabit the open
country between the Euphrates and Tigris, ex-
tend as far north as Orfa and Diarbekr. Thcv
are under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish
pachas of Bagdad, Moussul, and Orfa; tlieir
sheikhs frequently receive the Tojh, or horse's
tail, from the grand signer ; but it appears that
the bestowal, and the acceptance of this mark of
dignity is almost the only assertion on the one
one hand, or acknowledgment on the other, of
supremacy or subordination that is ever attempted
or conceded ; except in occasional instances, when
direct force has deposed a sheikh, and a])pointed
another in his place, without, in the slightest de-
gree, changing the relative position of the tribe
and its so-called sovereign pacha.
The Bedouins of the Syrian desert are rather
more closely connected with the pachas of SjTia,
inasmuch as the necessity of protecting the trade
between Aleppo and Damascus on the W., and
Bagdad and Balsora on the E., has caused the
employment of the various Arab tribes as a kind
of irregular soldiery ; and the liestowal of the
rank of emir on the reigning sheikh of the most
powerful tribe for the time being. This emir
sheikh (hi consideration of his rank) is obliged to
conduct the caravans in safety through the desert,
and to hold in check any or all of the other tribes,
' We may easily judge,' says Niebuhr (Des. do
I'Ar. par. ii. p. 389), 'that this is not done for
nothing.' In fact; if it happen, as it not unfre-
qucntly does, that the pacha is unable to fulfil his
engagements with thu sheikh, he is compelled to
cede to him such towns and villages as border on
his encampment ; and thus to make him, in effect,
the master of the settled, as well as of the open
country. The tribe of Anocse is the most con-
siderable of all the Syrian Arabs. It has fre-
quently been at war with the pachas of Damascus;
ARABIA
157
amt,ttt»ucli times, the departure of the i^arnvans
twiu tliiit fity for Ba^^dad lias been delayed ; and
the reason, openly assij^neil, that the Arabs of
Svri.'i were discontented with the pacha.
'Tlic Bedouins, within the penin'tula, do not
jfknowledKe a sovereiijnty of any kind, except in
(heir native chiefs. They arc very numerous in
NeiLsjeil, and are scattered amoni; the settled
pipulation in all the other provinces. The most
Hiiwerful tribe of any in Arabia is, perhaps, that of
Beni-Khaled ; it inhabits that ])art of the desert
nhich borders on the Persian Gulf, and has under
its dominion not only many smaller tril)es, but
also most of the towns and villages of Lachsa.
The reifjning sheikh passes a portion of each year
ill these towns ; but by far the greater part is
spent in the open country, under tents.
The form of government among the Bedouins
is strictly patriarchal, and their manner of living
is that of the pastoral ages recorded in the Bible.
The head of a tribe receives a submission from his
mbjects, similar to that which a father receives
from his family ; and, in the East, that submission
is unbounded. There is, however, a cheek upon
the abuse of power in the sovereign sheikh,
which, thoi.gh indirect, is by no means weak.
Since every tribe consists of many branches, the
various heads of these sub-tribes, as they may be
called, form a powerful restraint upon the chief ;
ami should he become unpopular, though direct
opposition to his will is never attempted, the dis-
contented branch not unfrequently leaves his en-
campment, and either forms itself into a new tribe,
or, if not powerful enough for that, joins itself to
the tents of some other powerful sheikh. In-
stances have been known in which a Bedouin
chief has been entirely deserted, and thus the
names of several tribes have vanished. As, how-
ever, the pride of tribe is strong in every Arab
breast, this expedient is only resorted to in the
last extreme : but the assumption of supremacy
by some subordinate branch, is frequent enough
to render the continuance of the sovereignty of the
tribe of Montefidsj in the same family, since the
(lays of Mohammed, a remarkable circumstance.
The preservation of their herds being the first care
of the Bedouins, a wandering life seems awarded
to them by nature ; the search for proper pas-
turage leacls from place to place in their extensive
country, according as the desert has become tem-
porarily fruitful under the influence of the tropical
rains, or has been burnt up by the continued ac-
tion of a tropical sun. Accustomed to live in a
clear air, their sight and smell become extremely
fine, insomuch that, on arriving at a spot which
affords nourishment, however scantily, to plants
or herbage, they can at once determine at what
depth water is to be found, and, consequently,
whether it be worth the labour of digging for.
Accustomed to privations, the Bedouin is tempe-
rate from habit as well as from dbposition, and can
almost emulate the endurance of his camels, which,
in the burning desert live five days without drink.
A conspicuous part in the Arab's character is
his hospitality. In many of the towns where the
population is most unmixed, houses of entertain-
ment are kept at the public expense, or at that of
some rich individual, where the traveller is fed
and sheltered without charge. But, in the desert,
hospitality is a part of the Bedouin's nature ; and
though the influence of foreign manners has, upon
the Hadj roads, considerably dimmed the lustre
of this virtue, yet even there a helpless, solitary
traveller, is sure of finding relief, though the
membled Hadjis should crave in vain for assist-
ance or mercy. In districts off the Hadj roads,
that is, over much the greater portion of the
desert, the Bedouin considers his pro|)orty less as
his own than as that of the casual stranger he nuiy
meet; however hungry, he shares his last morsel
with the wayfarer ; and sacrifices which he woulil
not make for himself or his family, are m.ide un-
hesitatingly for tiio wants of his guest. The inha-
bitants of the towns have fewer points of interest
than the Bedouins. Niebuhr (par. ii. p. 327) siiys
they have lost much of their distinctive character ;
and" other travellers speak of them as having super-
added the vices of civilised society to tliose of a
savage state. 'Superstitions, yet irreligious; per-
forming all the rites of their faith, yet living in
the practice of every vice, natural and unnatural.
Hypocrites by profession, pr('f('rring a lie to the
truth ; even when not urged by motives of in-
terest, deceit forms a part of their education from
youth. Their governments are systems of ex-
tortion and tyranny ; their traders are fraudulent,
corrupt, and dishonest or\-crreachers ; the in<li-
viduals of their communities are sunk into the
lowest state of ignorance and debauchery.' Such
is the character given of the town Arabs by Lord
Valentia (ii. 354, 35.5), and a similar picture is
unwillingly exhibited by Niebuhr (par. ii. iip. 180-
19U). (Ali Bey, Burckhardt, and Bucknigham,
passim.)
In prosperous times, the right of entertaining a
guest is frequently disputed ; and should a stran-
ger reach the encampment unobse-. ved, it is reck-
oned an affront if he pass the first tent on his
right hand, and enter another.
In many tribes the women are permitted to
drink coffee with strangers; and in some, towards
the S., the wife entertains a guest in the absence
of her husband, and does the ho.iotirs of the tent.
To tell an Arab that he neglects his guest is the
greatest insult that can be oftered. (Xiebuhr,
par. '. pp. 41 43 ; Burckhardt's Not. on Bed., pp.
100- 102,192-190.)
The superiority of the Bedouins appears to bo
admitted by the town residents ; for the descen-
dants of lilohammed, resident at Mecca, set •!.
their male children, eight days after birth, to tlie
tents of the neighbouring Bedouins, where thej'
remain till they are eight or ten, and frequently
fourteen or fifteen years old. All sheriffs (desceri-
dants of the Prophets), from the sovereign down-
wards, have been thus bred ; and, as they usually
take wives from the tents where they liave beeii
educated, they preserve the race and many of the
customs of the Bedauins, in the midst of the mixed
population by which they are surrounded. This
custom is very ancient among the pure Arabs.
Mohammed himself was educated in the Bedouin
tribe of Beni Soad. (Burckhardt's Travels, vol. ii.
pp. 424-428.)
The Arabs are of a middle height, generally
extremely thin, and when either very young or
far advanced in life, of a highly prepossessing op-
pearance. The mild but expressive countenance
of an Arab boy, and his dark, sparkling eye, arc
si)oken of in terms of admiration by all travellers.
As he reaches manhood, however, a very disad-
vantageous change takes place; his meagre figure
becomes still more attenuated, and seems as thougli
it were parched and shrivelled up. The very splen-
dour of his eye, buried between high cheek-bones,
apparently destitute of every covering except the
tightened skin, is then rather a deformitv. But,
in old age the Arab is truly venerable, 'fhe fine
dark eye contrasts admirably with the long white
beard ; and the emaciation which, in middle life,
seems to intimate premature decay, assimilates
well with the closing scenes of existence. There
are exceptions, however, to this general descrip-
tion. The Aeneze Bedouins are generally short
'm
158
ARABIA
i\u'hi
filial'
m
'hi;-'',
well fomipd, an<l by no mcnnH bo lliin na llic
niajiirity ol" their (Miuntryinon. Thn (ilifirrah Hc-
douinn are a line atlilctic race of men. ' It ntruck
me,' Hays (Captain IIaine.s, in his Memoir of the
South and I'-ant Coasts of Arabia, contrihiited to
the Journal of the fieojcraphical Society, 1845,
* that their women (who arc modest, though they
wear scarcelv any covering) an«l their younj; men
have a JeWish cast of countenance.' The lower
orders in Mecca are generally stout. The Aral>
women are stouter than thij men, and larj^er
limbed. The complexion of the Bedouins is
tawny, but this is evidently the effect of their
exposed life ; an effect which the same exposure
Would proihice on the most N. people. At the
time or birth the infant is fair, even of a livid
whiteness ; and Burckhardt, who, as a physician,
saw the naked arms of a sheik's lady, states that
her skin was as fair as that of any European.
Lord Valentia makes the same remark rcf;arding
the wives and daughters of an Arab of Djidda.
(iii. 308.) In the towns, the Arabs may l)e des-
cribed as fair, especially in the mountain districts.
But this remark must be understood as limited to
those of pure descent : on the coasts, and in the
towns of Mecca, Medina, &c., the prevailing co-
lour is a sickly yellowish-brown, lighter or darker
according to the origin of the mother, who is, in
many, perhaps in most cases, an Abyssinian slave.
(Niebuhr, par. 1. p. 41 ; Ali Bey, vol. ii. pp. 103,
106 ; Burckhardt, i. p. 322 ; ii. p. 240 : Notes on
iJedouins, p. 29 ; Valentia, ii. p. 351.)
The Arabs, like other Eastern people, wear long
dresses. A cotton shirt, over which the more
wealthy wear a komhar, or long gown of silk or
cotton stuff, and the poorer classes a woollen man-
tle, is the usual costume. The mantle is of vari-
ous kuids : one very thin, light, and white, is
called meaoumy ; a coarser and heavier kind, worn
over the former, is called ahha. In some cases,
however, this last is a very splendid garment. It
is usually striped white and brown, but the rich
Arab frequently clothes himself in a black ahha,
interwoven with gold, in preference to the komhar
or Turkish gown. The abba is not used in the W.
districts, Yemen and Hedjaz. In the towns, large
cotton drawers are worn by the men ; but these
rarely form a part of the Bedouin's dress, among
whom any covering for the feet or legs is almost
unknown. Though they walk and ride barefoot,
they greatly value yellow boots and red shoes;
but more as articles of ornament than use. A
very rude kind of scandal is worn by the lower
orders in the settled parts of the country, and the
more wealthy inhabitants of the same districts
use a slipper of yellow or red leather, sometimes
very elaborately worked, brought from Egypt or
Turkey. The head-dress is a turban, varying in
form, size, and material, according to the taste or
wealth of the wearer.
Arab cookery is very {)eculiar. No oil is used
for culinary puqwses, except in frying fish. But-
ter is their universal sauce, and of it tbe consump-
tion is immense; their vegetable dishes all float
in butter ; with it they work their adjoue into a
{)ropcr consistency ; dried com, or bread crumbs,
>oiled in butter, is a common breakfast with all
classes ; and, in the desert, the kemmayes are pre-
pared for use in the same manner. Arab butter
IS made from the milk of sheep and goats, that of
camels not being used for that purpose. The
home supply is not nearly sufficient for the con-
sumption, and butter consequcntiv forms an im-
portant article of importation. It is brought from
the opposite coast of Africa, chiefly from Souakin,
jiassouah, and Upper Egypt. Salads are un-
known. Coficc is used to a great extent, though
scarcely so much as might l>e expected ; and to.
bacco is smoked universally by young atul dlil.
The parental character is highly re»|)ooted'
though the Arab children, both in the towns ami
in the desert, have more freedom than in anv
other K. country. The Bedouin child runs nnkci,
in tlio open country round his father's ti'nt ; ami
at Mecca, Djidda, and other towns, the cliiMrcn,
even of the lietter classes, are allowed to plnv in
the streets as soon as they can walk, nearly in
the same primitive state. But, within doors,' tho
strictest decorum is ol)8erved, a boy never pn..
suming to cat in his father's presence, unlec, ex-
prcssly invited. It would seem, however, thai
this is little lietter than mere ceremony ; for, when
emancipated fVom his father's authority, the ymini;
Arab pays him little deference, and instances are
not uncommon where the old man, having fallon
into poverty, is left by his, perhaps wealthy, sun,
to struggle with distress, or to seek for assistance
at the hands of strangers. An old Bedouin v,
sometimes supported by the charity of the whole
trilic ; and the daily quarrels between the father
and his adult sons form one of the most revolting
features in the Bedouin character. On tlie other
hand, however, it should be stated that the Arab,
young or old, invariably treats his mother with
the most respectful attention. This fact is the
more remarkable as contrasted with the little esti-
mation in which the female parent is held in other
E. countries ; and as combined with the fact that,
in Arabia, the facility of divorce (see Laws, if,)
tends naturally to loosen every tie that connects
families. (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. 44, 45; Burck-
hardt's Travels, i. p. 340 ; Notes on Bed., pp. 6J,
66, 199-203.) The Arab has a grave deportment,
but a lively imagination ; he is a stranger to
gaiety, in the European sense of the word, but
the silent reserve of most other E. nations is
equally unknown : he delights in public nieetiiijri
^-especially on occasions of weddings, births, and
the like; his language is animated and pictu-
resque ; he is intuitively a poet and an orator, and
is extravagantlv fond of music. In a word, the
demeanour of the Arab may be characterised a> >
serious cheerfulness ; equally removed from bois-
terous mirth on the one hanil, and dull apatliy on
the other. One of the chief amusements is listen-
ing to the recitations or songs of poets by pro-
fession, who travel from town to town, or from
encampment to encampment, after the fashion of
the bards and minstrels of Gothic Europe, accom-
i>anying their verses, usually in praise of some
native hero, with the nebaba, a kind of guitar,
Niebuhr affirms (Voyage en Arabic, ii. p. 134)
that it is reckoned scandalous in people of credit
to practise music ; and Burckhardt (Notes on lie-
douins, p. 143) states that, in most districts
slaves only perform before company. This con-
tempt for instrumental music does hot, however,
extend to vocal performances : songs, or chantcii
poems, form the great delight of the Arabs. Love
odes, closely resembling the similar productions
of the Trobadours and Provincials of the middle
ages, are in every mouth. Dancing is reckoned i
disgraceful in a man, but a woman piques herself
upon nothing more than skill in that art. Their
ordinary amusements, beyond those now men-
tioned, are of a sedentary and indolent kind. The
military, indeed, and the young Bedouins, practw
the djireed, and other warlike sports ; but unle«
particularly excited, the Arab, both of the town
and desert, employs his leisure in smokinf;. or in
playing games of chance, of which chess, draughts,
and cards are the principal. The cards in use are
similar to those of the Chinese, which are mucii
more numerous than those of Europe ; and tbe
ARABIA
159
[pectcd; nmlto.
iiiti;; and nlil,
Khly respected;
II the towns ami
im than in any
ihild runs nnhi],
thcr'a t(!nt ; anil
lis, the cbiMrcn,
lowed to plav in
walk, nearly in
ivithin doors, tlip
boy never pre-
lence, unle!'» ex-
1, however, that
mony; for, when
liority, the vdiiiid
ind inHtunccs are
in, having fallen
apB wealthy, sdn,
cek for assistance
1 old Bedouin ij
rity of the whole
Btwecn the father
he most revolting
er. On the other
,ed that the Arab,
his mother with
This fact is the
rith the little esti-
nt is held in other
ivith the fact that,
8 (see Laws, ic)
tie that connwij
. 44, 45; Biirck-
is on Hed., pp. C'l,
grave deportment,
is a stranper to
of the word, but
tier E. nations is
in public meetiiijts
Idiufts, births, and
nated and pictu-
and an orator, and
, In a word, the
characterised as a
moved from bois-
nd dull apathy on
isements is listen-
of poets by pro-
to town, or from
fter the fashion ot
lie Europe, accom-
in praise of some
a kind of guitar,
\rabie, ii. p. 1S4)
people of credit
irdt (Notes on Be-
in most distridj,
pany. This con-
loes not, however,
songs, or chanted
f the Arabs. Love
milar productions
'ials of the middle
ncing is reckoned I
man piques Iwrselt
n that art. That |
those now men-
idolent kind. The I
Bedouins, practise
iports; but unlc«
both of the town
. in smoking. 01 in
ch chess, draughts,
e cards in use are
which are much
Europe; and the
eameH, also, are more intricate and involved. The
Miiliannni'dau law prohibits idayiiig for money,
Imt tiiis prohibition is not always attended to.
(\iilmhr. V'i)yage cii Araltie. tom. i. pp. 141-1.52;
liunkliftril'- N'otos on Bed., ]>. 202; Travels, i. 377;
Liird Valentia, vol. ii. p. 308.) All jiublic occa-
sions are festivals to the Arabs. The noorest will
make Ids marriage a gala ilay ; but tne greatest
famiiv festival is that of the" circumcision of an
infant : on such occasions the great«st efforts arc
made to give a handsome entertainment. In the
desert it is usually so arranged that all who have
families perform the ceremony on the same day,
wliicli is consequently one of great festivitj^. The
reli(,'ioiis festivals and the saints' days — witich are
verv numerous — are also days of sport and re-
ioicing. On such occasions the town Arabs affect
ereattsplendour in appearance, and a jjcrson wouhi
rather be thought a thief than allow one of hia
equals to exceed him in finery. The Bedouin,
iLsu, on such occasions, loads his wife with gold
and silk, but seems little careful as to what ap-
pearance he may make. Ali Bey affirms that the
people of Mecca ore the dullest and most melan-
choly he ever saw; that their marriages and births
are "unaccompanied by rejoicings, and that the
arrival of the Hodj is the only thing that arouses
them from their lethargy; and that it is rather
an incentive to avarice than pleasure. (Ali Bey,
ii. pp. 103, 111; Burckhardt, i. p. 338; Notes on
Ited., pp. 50, 51, 147, 148.) Mohammed found the
alave trade so firmly established in Arabia that he
made no effort to abolish it ; and throughout the
peninsula there are a great number of black slaves,
Africans, or the descendants of Africans, or mixed
races, besides a great number of free blacks, the
offspring of emancipated negroes. The great slave
dealers are the Yemen and Muscat merchants,
who annually import fresh supplies from the coast
of Africa. In the towns, especially those of the
Hedjaz, every man, almost, keeps an Aljyssinian
mistress, whom it is reckoned shameful to sell;
and whom, if she bear him a child, he generally
marries. This accounts for the swarthy com-
plexion of the people of Hedjaz, The male
slaves and the females, not Abyssinian, are usu-
ally employed in domestic duties. The Bedouins
never cohabit with their female slaves ; but after
a few years' service they give them their freedom,
and many them to some of their own complexion.
I The ufTspring of these marriages are free, so that
a vast number of these black naturalised Arabs
are spread over the country. The emancipated
slave possesses all the rights of a free Arab, but
no Bedouin, male or female, will intermarry with
the race, so that they remain a distinct people,
dLscriminated by their colour from all around
them. They have, however, lost much of the
nej,^) appearance, especially the woolly hair and
I tliii'k lip, but the form of the head still bears wit-
I ness to their origin. Greek and Syrian slaves are
I found commonly enough in the bazaars ; but they
I arc not regularly supplied. A native Arab is by
Ikirth a freeman; and though, in most ca.ses, the
I condition of the mother fixes that of her offspring,
I there is no difference between a man's children by
jliis Arab wives and those by his Abyssinian slave.
Ilnstaiices of harsh and cruel masters occur (Ali
I^.V) ii. p. 103), but, generally, slaves are con-
jadered as part of the owner's family ; the younger
lones are instructed with their owner's children,
Ifrora whom indeed, they are distinguished only by
Ijverj' slight difference of treatment, and the'per-
Iformance of some menial offices. They are pro-
wled by legal provisions ; and upon a just ground
p complaint against his master, the cadi will
per a slave to be sold. Servilitv is no bar to
official dignities ; indeed, the dolas, or governors
of towns, are not unfrequeiitly scleiited from slaves,
for the express reason that they belong to that
cla>(8; Ijcing supposed to be more strictly bound
to their masters' interest than free Arabs of noble
blood. (Burcklurdt, i. pp. 342, 343; Notes on
Bed., 10.1, 104 ; Ali Bey, li. pp. 45, 103 ; Niebuhr,
Des de I'Ar., par, i. p. 91 ; Lord Valentia, vol. iii.
pp. 328, 329.)
Arabia, if united under one, or even a few go-
venimcnts, wouhl possess many of the elements
of |M)liticaI power. The imtufe of its soil and
climate has always proved a formidable obstruc-
tion to foreign invaders, while the conquests of
the immediate successors of Mohammed bear wit-
ness to the effect that the combined operation of
its military energies is capable of producing.
Split as the country is into some hundreds of
petty sovereignties, this effect is little likely to
be reijeated. Though every Bedouin is by birth
a soldier, dreams of conquest, beyond the plunder
of a camp or caravan, rarely disturb his imagi-
nation; and though the princes of the settled
districts surround themselves with regular troops,
they employ them rather to avert internal trea-
chery than to make any attempt at foreign og-
grandisement. Still, however, the military power
of the Arabs is considerable. In 1816, the princes
op|x)sed Mehemet Ali with an army of 25,000
men ; and in 1803, the VVahobee chief marched
atcainst the same potentate at the head of 45,000.
(Hurckhardt's Notes, p. 248; Ali Bey, Travels,
vol. ii. p. 115); and though unable to prevent
the establishment of the Egyjitian power in the
Hedjaz, they delayed it for some years, during
which thay more than once defeated the troops of
the Pacha, and failed at last, more, as it would
appear, from want of concert in their operations
than from want of force. It should be remarked, too,
that Mehemet Ali seems fully satisfied with the pos-
session of the sea-ports of the Hedjaz, and the holy
cities. During twenty-four years he has made no
attempt to extend his conquests ; but has sought
to conciliate his neighbours, and liis new subjects,
by enacting laws equally favourable to both. The
sultan sheriff of the Hedjaz, previously to the
Egyptian conquest, maintained a guard of 1,000
men at Djidda, and probably 3,000 or 4,000 more
in the other towns of the Hedjaz : this army is
still maintained. The iman of Yemen has an
army of 4,000 or 5,000 men, and the iman of Mus-
cat, one of about 1,000. The smaller settled
states have also their military forces, but no re-
turn of their amounts can be obtained.
The Bedouin attends his chief much in the
fashion that the feudal vassal attended his liege
lord during the middle ages in Europe. He arms,
ec[uips, and clothes himself; and trusts for pay to
his share of booty. The Wahabee chief, who is
essentially a Bedouin, has indeed kept on foot a
lar^e body of mercenary troops ; but this system
is in its infancy in the desert, and it is doubtful
whether it will survive the present generation.
The Wahabee j)ower, since 1815, has evidently
been on the decline. In the settled states, on the
contrary, the soldiers are all mercenaries, their
pay being, in general, 2J dollars per month, in
addition to food, arms, and clotlung. This ac-
counts for the different appearance made by an
army of Bedouins, and one belonging to the states
of Yemen, Muscat, Hedjaz, &c. The former pre-
sent a motley appearance as to arms and equi|>-
mcnt ; the latter have the same arms and uniform.
The Bedouins use long lances, sabres, and short
crooked knives ; and shorter lances for the foot-
men. Clubs are very common, where lances,
(which are never of home mauufauture) cannot
"■2'k
IGO
ARABIA
Hillli'li
be procuroil ; ami tlie IloiloiiiiiH Imvi' sovoral
kiiulu, Home wholly of wood, Home Imli'ii willi
iron, and otlirrn wliolly rompoHod of tlie liiltpr
material. l\IalPlil(M'kH,'and, in more recent tiincH,
rillpH, arc in xreat recjueHt, bnt not very plentiful ;
tlioup^h, when posccHHed of one, the lledouin is
an ulmoHt unerring niarkHman. The pistol Ib a
favourite weapon.
A shield, IH in. in diameter, covered with ox or
liippopotamns hide, in a veryeommon piece of dc-
feuHivc amiour; in addition to which, coats of
mail are worn whenever they mn hv. i)roeure(l.
An iron cap, without a feather, iron plovcH, and
somctimeH fjrfftves, for the Icgn, complete the cos-
tume of the mailed Aral), 'riiis mode of equip-
ment is, however, chiefly confined to the nedouins.
Of all tlie arms in use, only the jamhea, the cluhs,
and the target, arc of home maimfacturc; the
lances come from Syria and Persia, the sahres
nominally from Damascus, but in reality from
I,iege, in Belgium, the matchlock from Egypt,
'I'urkcy, ond ICurojie, and the coats of mail, prin-
cipally, from Syria.
It IS a common practice for all Arabs, except
merchants and learned professors, to go armed.
The jambea is the usual weapon. (Niebuhr, par.
ii. pp. 184-190; Burckhardt's Notes, 30-32, 134,
135, 218; Travels, vol. i. pp. 338, 339; Ali Bey,
ii. pp. 109-1 15 ; Lord Valentia, ii. p. 348, iii. p. 329.)
Agriculture. — The nfaure of the soil restricts
the pursuits of the agriculturist to particular lo-
calities, and his return varies materially in dif-
fcreuc parts of the peninsula. In Oman, the
better sort of wheat, even when the sea-son has
been peculiarly rainy, will not return more than
ten for one; nor the dhourrah (a coarse kind of
barley) more than twelve for one; while in the
most fertile parts of Yemen, wheat is said to yield
sometimes as much as fifty times the seed, and
the return for the dhonrrah, it is affirmed, amounts
to 150, 200, and sometirties even 400 for one. But
statements like these, being liable to extreme
exaggeration, must be received with considerable
scepticism; though, as the dhourrah yields, in
this district, two and even three crops in the year,
the accounts of its extreme productiveness are not
so very extravagant as, at first sight, they seem
to be. (Niebuhr, Des. de I'Ar. par. i. p. 135.)
The Tehama of Yemen, whenever its arid soil
is naturally, or can be artificially irrigated, is
plentifully sown with dhourrah. The plough is
dragged in every direction over the field, till the
eartli is well broken and completely mixed. The
sower follows the plough, and casts the seed into
the furrow, as it is formed, the return of the
plough covering the grain. In about eight weeks
the dhourrah is fit for the reaper; but as the fanner
wishes the com to be extremely ripe and dry be-
fore it is gathered, it remains standing a week or
two longer, and is then pulled up by the roots.
As, by this process, a considerable (quantity of the
dry seed is shed, the plough is again passed over
the ground, and, in about ten weeks, a second crop
is produced, which, being gathered in the same
way OS the first, is, as before stated, not unfre-
quently followed by a third.
The plough is of the mdest description, and
even this cannot be used on the mountain side ;
the latter being tilled by means of an iron hoe, or
rather pickaxe. These, with tools of primitive
construction for cutting channels in the fields and
gardens, and for forming banks or dikes to pre-
serve the water, complete the scanty list of agri-
cultural implements. When the com is to be
threshed the Arabs place it in two rows, ear to
ear: a large stone is then drawn over it by two
oxen, so that the grain is rather cmshed than
beaten out of the hiisk^. A water-m'iW would I*
an anomaly in a country where there arc Imnllv
any Hf reams; but, with tho exception nf niic (ir
two, lately introduced into the Hedjaz. Iiy the
Kgyptians, there are no v.-indmilla in Ariibin.' Tin,
corii, when ready to he ground, is placed iM'twcpn
two stones, of which tlie uppermost, if Hinali, j,
turned by the hand; if large, it is worked by an
ox or ass. (Niebuhr, par. ii, p. 189.)
litit notwithstanding this rude state of nf;rii'ii|.
ture, such is the fertility of the S. parts of Amliin,
that they not only supply corn for their own am-
sumption, but for that of the greater part of the
other ilistricts, and of the wandering tribes of the
desert. The Hedja/. is, however, almost whullv
dependant on supplies from Egypt. (Ld. Vnleiitia,
iii. 325 Kt seq.\ Ali Bev, ii. 40, 101, &c. ; Niebuhr
par. ii. 302-;^07.)
Manufactures, — These are at a lower ei)h in
Arabia than in perhaps any other seini-civiliswl
country. Among the Bedouins, two or three
blacksmiths, and a few saddlers, are the otily ar-
tists : they arc not memlK-rs of the tribe for whioh
they labour, but natives of the neighbouring towns
and villages. The Bedouins regard them as an
inferior race, and would feel degraded were anv
individual of their tribe to give his daughter in
marriage to one of them. It is curious, liowovcr,
that while they thus regard the service of their
horses (their greatest pride) as a meiiinl occupa-
tion, they should themselves unscruimloiisly fier-
form other works, which appear to us quite of m
low a character. The businesses of dyeing and
tanning are performed wholly by the men. The
Bedouin women weave the coverings of tents and
the bags for holding provisions, of the hairof poaii
and camels, but the manufactiira of tent-covcn is
confined to the mountainous regions, where Roau
abound, their hair being exclusively used for that
purpose. (Pliny, Nat, Hist., lib. vi. ca]). 28, p. 14'2.)
1 hese are all the arts or manufactures ])ractL««d
among the Bedouins ; and the standard sccnu
scarcely higher in the towns. It is true that gold
and silver ornaments are manufactured in Yemen;
but by Jews and Banian Indians. Even the money
which is coined in that district (and there is none
coined in any other) is the work of the fornier;
and the only watchmaker who ever settled in the |
country was a Turk. Of machinery, there is next
to none. Some rude sorts of amis are made in
Yemen, as the crooked knife, jambea, and a yert
inferior matchlock. There are also, in Yemen,
several looms for the manufacture of coarse linen;
and this, like the hair and wool-weaving among
the Bedouins, forms by far the most important of |
all their industrial occupations. Some wotilli
cloths are also woven ; but this manufacture ii I
much less extensive than the former. Tiie shp-
pers and sandals in common use are brought from
Egypt and Constantinople ; and the only attempts
at manufactures are confined to the construction
of rude matchlocks, janibeas, and lance-heads, to-
gether with" vessels of copper and tin, in which the
pilgrims carry away the water of the hoi)' well,
zemzeni. (Burckhardt's Travels, i. 343 ; Ali Bey,
ii. 99, 100.) In Oman, the only manufactures «
sashes and turbans of silk or cotton, the ahba.'»
Arab cloak of wool or camel's hair, a coarse kind [
of cotton canvass, arms of a very rude descriplioi.
earthen jars, called murtaban, and gunpowder,
(Frazer's Journey into Khorasan, p. 18.) I
At Suez, Hodeida, Mocha, and Muscat, somerfl
the vessels are constructed in which the Ab» |
carry on their coasting, and Indian trade.
within these few years, ship-builiUng was earned I
on at Djidda also (Ali Bey, ii. 45) ; but though ill
be still a very important shipping-station, no\* I
ARABIA
161
a lower el>h iu
lier Bcmi-civilisod
18, two or tlirw
are the only ar-
he tribe for wlikh
iiphboiiriiiij tflwm
•Hard tliein as u
cj^rnilcd wore any
c Ilia dnu);htcr in
1 curiouH, lupwovcr,
le service of their
a niciiinl occupa-
nscriiiHiloiirtly [*r-
r to us quite of a^
sea of dyeing and
by the ntcn. The
erings of tents anJ
of thchiiirofcoals
ra of tcnt-covcK is
?pons, where RoaU
aively used fur tint
>. vi. cap. 28, p. 142.1
lufacturcs pract'twl
he standard seems
It is true that Rold
factured in Yemen;
s. Even the money
. (and there is none
orlc of the former;
ever settled in the
linery, there is next
arms are made in
jambea, and a very-
re also, in Yemen,
mre of coarse linen;
lol-weaving among
most important (if
,119. Some woollen
ihis manufacture ii
former. The slip-
se are brought from
Id the only attempts
to the co'nstruction
ind lance-heads, t>-
id tin, in which the
T of the holy well,
d8,i.343; AUBey,
ly manufactures »«
[cotton, the abk.«
[hair, a coarse m
TV nide description,
and gunpowder,
an, p. 18.) ,
,nd Muscat, some^
„ which the Ante
Indian trade. M
aiilding was carnrt
45); but though It
ling-station, no VB-
„1, of «ny kind are now built at It, and it Ih with
liiBciiltv that means are found of even rrpairini; a
Zor lx«t. niir.-khar.lt'H Travels, i. <l«.) The
want of wuKl,m Arabia, lavs the shipwrinht under
itfiuliar (liHftdvantaKes. '1 be timber used in Suez
[i feilotl in the WfMMis of Asia Minor, conveyed up
the Nile to (lain), and tliencc, overland, to its j)laco
Lf leslin*!'"'"' When ships wore built at DJidda,
the timl)cr came by the same route ; and it may
Ik. presumed that it* further transit, by the Hetl
Sn.fwn' Suez rendered it too costly. In Moclia
Lil IlwU'ida a part of the timber is procured from
III,, mountain-sides of Y'emen, but the jjrcater |K>r-
ti.in is imported from the coast of Africa. (Uurck-
hanll's Travels, i. 42-49.)
I The M\>» of the Arabs, excepting those of Mus-
Ifat. wliioli are of a very suiMirior description, are
Lxtnmely rude and simple. Those called (lows
lire the largest, and are the only ones that perform
the voyage to I ntlia. ( Uurckhardt's Travclsj i. 48.)
Theunskilfnlncss of the Arab seamen, with the
(lumsv nature of their dows, ren<ler shipwrecks of
jerv frwiucnt occurrence. Ali Hey was wrecked.
iin his voyage from Suez to Djidda, and again on
L return fmm Djidda to Suez (Travels, ii. 84,
jiil); and ho affirms that not a year jiasses without
everal vessels being totally lost, and many more,
noie or less injured ; so that ships are always
K'injf built or repaired, without increasing the
tual number employed in the coasting trade (ii.
j). That number is, however, considerable ; the
jiips belonging to Djiilda only amount to 2.'i0 ;
hill it is estimated that about as many Inslong
Jf.<pertivcly to Suez, Hodeida, and Mocha. (Burck-
lanlt's Travels, i. 42 ; Ali Bey, ii. 45.) Many of
hese ships are purchased at Bombay and Muscat ;
he vessels of the latter beinp ver^ superior to
liose of the Kcd Sea, and their navigators much
tfore the sailors of Yemen in energy and skill.
Bee Muscat.)
I The best houses of the Arabs are built of stone,
■, if upon the coast, of madrepore and coral. This
ittcr material is of such a nature that it rapidly
imposes when exposed to the weather. In
llher parts they use a sun-burnt brick with little
r no lime, so that constant care is necessary to
!\'cnt the introduction of moisture, the tropical
ns bringing w ith them sure destruction to the
iglected buildings of an Arab town, quickly re-
kcing them to a heap of rubbish ; and as the
noden materials very soon vanish in a country
pre wood is extremely scarce, the very ruins of
pny cities, formerly celebrated for their magnifi-
nce and grandeur, may now be sought for in
n, Even in towns that are populous, and stir-
g with activity, many houses are falling rapidly
[decay; and while no part is old, many parts are
lapidated and ruinous : yet an Arab town, on the
kt approach to it, appears handsome and pictu-
«)ue; the houses, like those all over the East,
! flat-roofed, and among them rise, here and
re, the dome-covered tombs, called kobas,vihich,
[ihthe tapering minarets of the mosques, give to
t whole outline an air of variety and elegance,
^er}' good house exhibits a series of gaudy lat-
i to its windows; and many of them are oma-
nted with fanciful designs in wliite stucco.
ket of the gateways have pointed arches ; and
^general character of the ornamental architec-
1 is not very dissimilar to the Gothic. The
(|ue8 are square buildings, or rather parallelo-
ms, without much external beauty, except
r tall and slender minarets, which always ap-
! light and graceful ; but their interior fre-
Btly displays much skilful workmanship. The
^t mosque at Mecca contains more than 5()0
nns and pilasters of very great beauty. The
foul.
houses of the poorer classes are of the most wretchc<l
description. Huts coninosed of wicker work or
date-tree leaves, covered on the insiile with mats,
and sometimes on the outside with a little clav ;
huddled togetlicr, and hanlly sufficient to aflfonf a
slieUer from the weather. These cittnirastaiiceH,
with the tilth collected in the unpaved streets, and
never removed, impress the mind of a Euro|iean
with a sense of xitU'T des<dation and misery.
No remains of tlie line Saracenic architecture of
the miihllc ages are found in Arabia ; singular aa
it may appt^ar, that a |)eople who have left the
traces of tlieir skill in this art in every land, from
Mesopotamia to Spain, should possess no trace of
it in their native country. The perishable natiiro
of building materials in Arabia muj/ account for
this fact, for even the holy mosque at Mecca has
undergone so many repairs* that it may lie regarded
as a modem structure ; but it is much more pro-
bable that, while ihe Arab conquerors caught the
love of arts and sciences from the enervated, but
refined, nations subdued by them in their headlong
career of conquest, those arts and sciences did not
find their way into the peninsula, and that architec-
ture, like the rest, never flourished within its limits.
The Arabs use no lev(!ls in their buildings, con-
sequently their floors are very uneven ; and, not-
withstanding the heat of their climate, they have
a very bad, or, rather, no idea of ventilation. The
large ventilators, ])laccd on the house-tops in
Egypt, and which diffuse a current of air through
all the lower apartments, are totally unknown.
In many places tlie windows are composed of trans-
parent stone, built into the walls, and, consequently,
incapable of opening, (Burckhardt's Travels, i.
17—22, 153— 153,18.')— 242; ii. 160, 329, Ac; Ali
Bey, ii. 30, 42, 94—104, ICl— 174 ; Lord Valentia,
ii. 845—348 ; Eraser, 7, 8.)
Commerce. — Owing to the situation of Arabia,
nearly surrounded by the sea, and oecupj'ing, aa
it were, a central position between Europt^ Asia,
and Africa, it has always enjoyed a considerable
trade, which, in later ages, has been materially
promoted by the resort of pilgrims to the holy
cities. The hadjis, indeed, are expressly autho-
rised by the Prophet to combine commercial pur-
suits with the performance of a religious duty
(Koran, chap. ii. Sale) ; and a great amount of
business is, consequently, transacted at Mecca,
during the period that the pilgrims remain in that
city. With the exception of coffee, and a few
other articles of infenor importance, Arabia has
but little native produce to export. Its trade,
therefore, is, and always has been, principally one
of transit. Great quantities of commodities are
annually brought to Djidda, Mecca, Muscat, and
its other entrepots, from Turkey, Persia, Africa,
and the Indian Islands. With our own country,
however, Arabia has scarcely any intercourse
whatever. The total value of imports into the
territories of the Iroaum of Muscat from the
United Kingdom, in the year 1863, amounted
to 1,189 f., representing 2,489 tons of coaL In
the four preceding years the imports were nil.
The exports from the United Kingdom into the
territories of the Imaum of Muscat, in the year
18C3, were of the value of 3/. steriing. (An-
nual Statement of Trade and Navigation.) The
great centres of Arabian trade are Djidda, Mocha,
and Muscat. The flrst is the port of Mecca, and
also the principal' channel through which the re-
gular trade between the Hedjaz and Egypt is
carried on ; the former being principally dependant
upon the latter for its supplies of com. Since the
zeal for pilgrimage has b^un to abate in the Mo-
hammedan world, the trade of Arabia has conside-
rably decreased; but it is still carried on to a
M
;'il •■
: ;■■■ Mw
h
■\l
m
i-'n
162
AHABIA
*&i?:'H''
ffTpntcr rxtont than would romlilv lio Mipiuwi'd,
cotisiili'riiiK thii limitcil amount ol' iIh |M>i>uialiitn
unil produittiouH. Moclm ih tho priuc-ipal Hcnl of
tlu! cdtfco tra(l(>, tliou^h LoIkmii hiut of lato yvun
niada wmio ixtwcrfiil attoinptH at rivalry; and
MuHcat liaH n-ccntly risen to vpry connidpralili' cnii-
ni'Mci! an a H»(a-port and wat of tlic carryinn trade,
particularly with India and llie ('oiuilrii'H mund
the rerxian Gulf. (IJurckhardt'H TravelH, i. 'J'.l-
!tl; Ali lUry, ii. 101-107; Fraser, 10; Lord Va-
lentia, ii. il7b; Nielmlir, par. ii. p. IDS. Sec aUo,
D.nn.iA, MociiA, Muhcat, tl-o.)
Litiin, Crime*, itnd Punishment*. — The law» of
Arabia arc those of a |)riinitive j)e<»j)le under a pa-
veninient. The eivil laws, foundec
Iriarchal ^ov
upon the Koran, are administered l>yea<lis, distin
guislutd hy their experience in the eustonis of the
nation, liut to whom a knowledge of the arts of
readimj and writimj is not always indispensahle.
It sluiuld he ohservcd, however, that the Arab
judges arc of two kinds; the Cndi-el-ferian (judge
of customarj' law), aiul the Citdi-el-iilteryua (judge
of written law), tlie latter heing more common in
what are called the Turkish towns (that is, in
towns governed by Turkish law), thon in those
where the unmixed customs of Arabia exist.
Written ])leadings arc not, however, unknown, even
in pure Arab towns ; but precedents (in some cases,
perhaps, reduced to a nule form of coditlcation)
seem to form the principal, if not the only guide,
to an Arab judge's decision. The sovereign,
wliethei he be monarch of a state, or sheikh of a
Kedouin tribe, is only president of the tribuiuil of
justice; he cannot decide a case, either civil or
criminal ; everyone iimst he referred to the pro])er
tribuiuil ; and the sovereign jiossesses no power of
reversing its tlecision. Hut this protection from
despotic power is, in the towns, merely apparent;
for, tLS the sovereign names the cadis and dismisses
them at {)lca8ure, they regard themselves sim|ily
as his otHcers, and never dream of pronouncing a
Bcntence of which he disajiproves. Among the
Bedouins, however, the office of cadi is elective,
and the sheikh has no intluence in the appoint-
ment, (Nicbuhr, par. ii. pp. 18U, &o. ; Burckhardt,
Notes on Bed., pp. (W, &c.)
Capital piniisimients are very rare; being in-
flict(!d only for blasphemy, and conjugal inlid-lity
in women. The blasiihemcr is hanged; the un-
chaste wife, if her guilt be unequivocally proveil,
has her throat cut ; and, by an unhetird of retinc-
ment of atrocity, her father or brother is coin|)elled
to be her executioner. This detestable barbarity
is, however, rarely perpetrated ; for the marriage
tie being, on the part of the husband, of very easy
dissolution, he generally prefers sending his offend-
ing spH>usc back to her family, merely assigning as
a reason that she does not suit him. (Niebuhr,
par. i. p. 21 ; Burckhordt, Notes on Bed., p. 03.)
Cor])oral punishments are almost unknown. The
immemorial usage is to award a pecuniary fine,
whatever may be the nature of the crime. Every
offence has its ascertained mulct, even to murder ;
but, in this case, the friends of the deceased are
not compelled to take the compensation, being,
by the law of Thar, or blood revenge, allowed to
take the life of the homicide, or that of any of his
relations within the fourth degree. If, however,
the fine be accepted, the Koran expressly jjrovides
for the safety of the murderer. (Koran, chap. ii.
p. 21 ; Niebuhr, jiar. i. i)p. 28-31 ; Burckhardt's
Not(!8 on Bed., pp. 84-89.) Insulting exjiressions,
acts of violence, however slight, and the infliction
of wounds, have each their respective tariff of
lines. The decisions of the cadis are generally
founded upon the amount of testimony before
them ; but, if there be no witnesses, the defendant
is called upon to oxpurgato himself by nnih. Ti,
judicial oaths vary in sanctity and Nolcuuiiiy; «,,;
if the accused swear, by the one propoiwl, ti, (,,^
innocence, he is considered as acrpiitted.
Among the liedouins, the customs of friuyu,!
Ihthheil luive all the fort-e of law in ullicr mur,!
fries; by the first, an Arab family binds \\m:\\]„
be the protector of another, and this (ililiKaii<ii, i
once undertaken, descends through all tlin|;i>nen.
tions of both. There is no Arab, from llifl(i««i
to the highest, but has his wumj, or guitnliaii; «,]
the duty of protection iiderrc<l from this I'lianita,
is among tlu; most sacred recognised in Arnliij.
Hy the law of dtikheil, a person in actual tknn I
who can touch another, or even miytliin^; ini
which that other is in contact, or can hit him!,;
sjiitting or throwing a stoiut at him, nt tlic nam i
tune exclaiming, ^ Ana lUthheihik,' (I iuntliy|)pJ
tccted,) ac(piires a right to the protectiiiirvthiitl
he seeks, and which is always acconlcil to il« I
fidlest extent. Kven a detected thief, if lit fa I
touch anyone in his ca|itor's tent (cxecpt iln I
captor himself), l)ecomes safe; for wliich ^y^A
he is bound hand aiul foot, and lieatcn, tilli«l
agrees to renounce the ilukhe.il for that dny. Jul
for this reason, too, that he is subsequently Inirk I
alive, as it were ; for should he become the ili^X
of anyone, his right to freedom is immcduifltl
allowed, and he is treated, in every rcs|)*ct, like'il
newly arrived guest in the tent of his Intc Piirail
There is only one offender to whom the privilijl
of (Ittkheil is refused, namely, the tliiof rplcwjl
u|M)n the respimsibility of some third party, if iil
should, when at liberty, refuse to satisfy his Itil
Under such circumstances, he is proclaimed hmbi
and loses all the privilege in question; infnl
becomes outlawed. The daklteil does not applr J
a homicide under the thur. (Hurckliordt, N'iiigl
on Bedouins, pp. 74, 75, 8!)-100, 182.)
Though polygamy be allowed by the Mohi
medan law, in practice it is by no means |,'eoei
Few men, of moderate fortunes, have more Ibi
one wife ; and many, even of the highest i
similarly confine themselves. (Niehuhr, pv.il
p. (if); Burckhardt, Not. on Bed., p. 61.) Onil
other hand, the nature of the marriage cereni
and the facility of divorce, renders cAawjn^
wives of very common occurrence. In the ton
an agreement Ix-fore the cadi, in the destrt, il
slaughter of a lamb ui the tent of the t«ii|
father, completes the contract, which is bni)
quite as readily as it is formed. The hmli
having said, liefore witnesses, ^ent talek' (t\m
divorced), and sent the woman back to her fan
both iMirties are considered free ; the husbanilfii
the maintenance of his wife, the wife to fumuK
ccmnection. In these cases, the woman's pun
is returned; and, among the Bedouins, thchitti
adds to it a she-camel. The custom of divowl
however, much more prevalent in the tenuii
in the towns. In the latter it is always consii
indecorous, and implying dishonour in theffoi
but in the desert a wife may have l)een div*
three or four times, and yet l)e free from anys
or imputation on her character. Polygamy.b
ever, is much more common in the to»nJtl
among the Bedouins.
If a man leave a widow, his brother genen
offers to marry her; but this is entirely a 1«J
custom, and not binding on either (Mirty. A»
has, however, an exclusive right to the handrfj
cousin ; and, although he cannot be cora|)ell '
niartj'' her, his renunciation of his right is o
sary to enable her to marry another. M«r
arc consummated at a very eorly age; it*
r koned discreditable in a man, ami ata*]^
nious in a woman, to lead a life of celibacy.
ARABIA
103
liy outh. T}i(
Milcniiiily; uj
pni|Hineil, toha
littctl.
OH of Waty iti,l
in oilier (dun.
' MikIh itM'lf (,, '
thiit (il)liKaiii,i;,
I all t)i« Ki'iien-
fnim t)i<' l(i«K
r ^iiurilian ; m\
II thiH vharii'tH.
<uil ill Araliii.
ill actual ilanM.
1 miythiii)! «iik
■ cikii hit iiim III
liiin, nt the ttiw I
t,' (I am tliy|iM.I
protc'ctioH wliukl
, lu'i'onh'd l(] till I
I thief, if lit ritl
tent (cxw'Vi tl<|
for which viaii
ul licnton, till mI
•r that (lay, luj
il)SP(|iK'iitly'.mri«!l
lecomc the dnlUl
im is inimeifair
k'cry reftjioct, likul
ofliin late eiiraT,l
i\wm the priviKil
the thief rcMJ
e third pttrtv.il!*!
to satisfy his Ul
n prochiimcd (raibl
1 question; infttl
eil (lot's not ap|)ln|
(lJur('khardt,!igB|
10, 1H2.)
fcil by the Mohi
y no means f^t
[cs, liave morettir
f the hifjhcst '
. (Nichuhr, pir.il
ed., p. CI.) On It
marriaj^c cereiM
renders ckww^
■lu-e. Ill the ti)«i
, ill the desert,
tout of the l)ni|
.f.t, which is bnii
[ned. The husta
ent talek' (ttwujj
,. backtohcrfam
ic ; tVie husbandit
hcwifctofonmii
the woman's pun
edouins, the bush
custom of diviMti
ut in the tenuir
is always consii"
lonourintbeM
J liave l)een divdi
)C free from any*
I'olycaniy.t
in the" towil
er.
hanU'^i N"''"" "" ^''''- PP- "•-'"'! NIcbiihr, par. i.
"ilit' law of iiihrritnncc in vf rj' simple as n-KanU
iiriiixftv. The cftict.s of n dcfcaMed father nre
jmLl amoiiK his children, the iMirtioii of a male
Ilia brother m
s is entirely a Wj
cither iwirty. AjJ
[fht to the handal
nnot be compeWj
l,f his right IS"'
another. Mm
early age ; it ,
_nan, and almofii
|e of celibacy. (!■
;iiim'd amoiijf rus cniuiren, uio jm
Irinir double that of n feinalc. Ihe HUCcesHioii to
i„wer is less clearly ajwertained. If a tdudkli or
Lcreiifn ilie. his succeHsor is usually taken from
1 iiminu his sons; but it does not seem"that any («!<•
li,n a well-established ri^bt in preference to the
lihers. Ill Yemen, it would appear that the inian
I i, ,iif('eeded by his eldest liviiijf son, even to the
' ' ' ' ~ - ' ised.
s on
I li,','l.7|ip. <W, 75; llord Valentia, vol. ii. p. .'IHii.)
/ff/K/i'mi,— Antecedent to the earliest records,
Ibe city of Mecca had been sacred f,''"""!'! ; «"<l its
iiilv temple, the hanhu, ideiitillcd in the minds of
Ithi" Arabs with every sacred feelin^f. The le^'ends
Iwilh res|)oct to it, to which it is unnecessary more
liiiinicularly to allude, show that the relipmi of t\w,
Itarlv Arnlis was, to n considerable extent, mixed
lull with that of the llebn^ws. They acknowledj,'ed
Lie supreme tioil, reh'nnlinj,', however, ltie sun,
liiKwn, planets, and stars, mt inferior and subordi-
Inaie intelligences. This religion has been called
Isabianism, either from Rami, a sujiiMised scui of
Ist'th, or, as is more probable, from the word Saka,
Tjijiiifying the Host of Heaven. The supreme (io(l
Las callc(U//aA Tmhi <Most lIi>,'hCiod), the Mib-
bniinatc deities, Al-Slii)ial (the Powers). It was
llifse titles (one jiarticular, tlie other ^eiieral) that
ed HeriKh)tiis to atlirm that the Arabians worship-
jeil only two frods, namely, Urotalt and Alilat;
Iticfiimier of whom he identifies with the IJiicchuH
liiiiHipcK) of the Greeks, the latter with Urania,
Ilie muse of astronomy. (ner<Mh>tii», Thalia, § H ;
Rl-Firawz, ShahrestAn et aliis in Po<!ocke, pp. 1 U(,
m 143, 2H4 ; UTIerbelot, pp. 726, 72(5, &c.) The
Vbian religion can scarcely bo deemed irrational,
Jrlien profes.sed bv a rude peojile, iiihabitiiij; an
l[K"i country, under a clear sky; who must have
wiiiccted tlie changes of the seasons and the rc-
ums of the jieriodic rains and drouKhts, that reii-
tred their plains alternately fertile and sterile,
rith the rcvolutioii-s of the lieavenly bodies. Hut
iie^Vrabs also worshipped angels (Koran, chaiis.
hi. and Ixxi.) ; and their images, which last they
|flieved to be inspired by the Hii])renie divinity
Kth life and intelligence. This sort of idolatry
Bvin); been once introduced, gradually spread;
Ljiii the sixth century, and long before, the num-
kr of these deities was very great, each tribe
ping chosen one to be its peculiar interce,ssor
Kth the Supreme Ileing ; and 300 were enshrined
I the kaaba, as tutelary guardians of the davs of
K Arab year. (Al-Janaub, Shalirestan et aliis in
pciicke, 90 et seq.; Sale, Intro. Koran, 14-22;
prckhardt's Travels, i. p. 299, &c.)
iThe Arabs seem, indeed, to have admitted, wth-
(t hesitation, all deities ; and thus, in the sixth
nlury, a figure of the Virgin Mary, with the in-
lit Jesus, was sculptured on one of the principal
liars of the kaaba as an object of adoration. (El
bky, quoted by Burckhardt, Travels, i. p. 300.)
lis most probable that this iniliscriminate sAop-
kn of the objects of veneration of all sects, was
lemltd to render the sacred city sacred to all
p, and thus to increase the resort of lulgrims.
'iflcr the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus,
70, many Jews tied into Arabia. These exiles
de many proselytes among the natives, whole
lies embracing the Hebrew faith ; so that, in a
fctury or two, the Jewish Arabs became a very
perful section of the whole people. A similar
pe, the persecution early in the third century
I tlie Christian rera, drove many Christians to
Arabia, wlu.sc zoni, nnchroked by former siifU'r-
iiigs, h'd Iheiii to preach their doclrincM in their
new homes, and that with such success that in a
short time thtiy had made a very great progresH
in the <'ountrv.
The faith of tlie I'ersian Magi, or the «'ligion(>f
/oroaHler, had, at a « ry early |ierio(l, found ilx
way into the peninsula; had been embraced with
avidity by ninny tribes; and thus, in the middle
of iIk; nixtb century, the population of Arabia wtm
divided, |M'rhaps ii4it very unequally, into Sabians,
.lews,Cliristians,aiid Magians. (Shalirestan etnliU
ill I'iK-ocke, \ U) 1 1 Hei/, ; Sale, Intro. Koran, 21-21.)
Such was the state of religion in Arabia at tli'j
birth of Mohammed ; an e|MMdi which may be re-
garded as the conimenceineiit of one of the most
extraordinary revolutions that history bos to re-
cord. It occurred at Mecca in the month of Mav,
A.i>. 571 (Dr. rrideaux. Hist. Mob. (!) or TxO
(Abiil-Feda. Vit. Mob. 40). This founder of a new
ndigion, and of a ]iolitical power which, even in
his lifetime, extended over bis native country, ami
which, under his succ<>Msors, tbrealened to etnlirace
(be empire of the world, trr.ced his genealogy in a
direct line through eleven ibwceiits from Koreish,
the founder of tlu; powerful tribe that bore hia
name. Koreish, again, was aHirmed to l>c the
tenth in direct descent from Adiuin ; and Adnan,
the third, seventh, or eighth (which is doubtful)
from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. (Abul-Fcdo,
Vit. M(di. cap. ii. pp. ('<, 7.)
The future I'ronhet sprung, tlierefore, from the
noblest tribe of the Ishmaelitish Arabs, and bi»
grandfather was, at the time of bis birth, sovereign
of Mecca, and guardian of the kaaba; coiise(|uently,
from the sac^redness of bis territory, and the ludi-
ness of his oHice, a prince of great power and influ-
ence. (Abul-Feda, cap. vi. p. 13; Al-I''irawz et
aliis in I'ococke, p. 51 ; Kccbelensis Chroii. or Hist.
Ar., par. i. cap. iii. p. 130 et aetj.)
Yet, notwithstanding his high connections, Mo-
hammed's early life was passed in comparative
poverty. His father, r. younger son of the sovo-
rcigii of Mecca, <lying before Mohammed was two
years old, the latter, and his mother, were left
with no other provision than five camels, and u
female slave. To his grandfather, AlMlol-Mutalleb,
in the first instance, and subsequently to his uncle,
Abu-Taled, the future Prophet was, therefore, in-
debted for his infant protection ; and this guar-
dianship was exercised with the greatest kindness,
the uncle especially (f > ' vdol-Motalleb died when
Mohammed was on! ' ' years old), continuing
the firm friend of his ' ul, throughout his life,
and protecting him in ti.a dangers and difflcultiea
wliich beset his first attempts to disseminate his
d'-jtrines. Under the aus]<ice8 of his uncle, Mo-
hammed began life as a merchant, accompanying
a trading caravan to Syria, in his thirteenth vear.
Subsequently, and at a very early age, Abu-1'aleb
recommended him as a factor to Khadija, a rich
widow, to whom his skill in commerce, or his other
accomplishment<), so far endeared him, that, in a
short time, he exchanged the name of servant for
that of husband ; raising himself by this alliance
to an equality with the richest, if not the most
powerful men of Mecca. At the time of his mar-
riage, he was twenty-five, and liis wife forty years
of age. (Abul-Feda, caps. iv. and v. pp. 10 and 12.)
It would be useless now to attempt to discover the
proximate cause that led Mohammed to attack a
system of idolatry, of which liis own family were
at the head. It was not, however, as some have
surmised, a sudden outbreak of enthusiasm ; for,
after his marriape, he continued to live in all the
privacy compatible with the station of a rich and
iiighly connected individual for thirteen years. At
M 2
•''•- -Its-n
't*
101
ARAIJIA
m^i^i
<.w {
fep'*''^
k
H:
^!*-
m
llic torminntinn of thif* period, he willidrow from
Mocicly, ri'Nnrlt'il toiK-iivo in I ho nci^lilMUirlKHMl of
Mi'cni, wIktc, for two yviw, lii> uiivi' out Hint li«
WHN in ilnily cAnnnunirnlion uitli tlH> Divinity.
At t\u' 011(1 of tliin lime, liciii^j tlii-n forty yrnrn of
nifr, hi' nuMutticil tho chiiriii'tcr of n I'roiihot, Mont Itv
thi> AlmiKhly lo rNtnhliMh a new religion; or, if
wo niny taltohiH own woriJN. to roHtoro tho anciont
ono, profoHNod hy Adam. Noah, Ahralinm, the
I'rophctH. and tJoHUH (^hrittt ; hy doxtroyin^ tho
liTiiKH iddlntrioN of hix connlrymoii, and woodinj?
out tho oorniptioMN and Hii|H>rMlitionM hy which, aH
ho alh-^od, tlio .I«'Wn and 4'hrixtianM had doformod
tho iMwuitifnl Nimplit'ity of tlio triio faith. (Ahul-
Fcda, cap. vii. pp. 11-17; Ahid-IMiarimiti», p. 102;
Kl-Macin. Hi.st. Sar.. lih. i. cap. i. p. I!», Ao.)
NothJMK ran well oxoood tlio Nimplicity of thn
Moliammodaii iloctriiioH, nx dolivorod hy the
foiiiidor and hix iinmodiato NiiocoHHorH ; and iih
thoy aro omiMidiod in tho 114 ohnptorM of tho
Koran: The unity of (iixl; tho diviiio mixMion of
IMohamniod; tlio Htatod ohHorvani* of prayer;
th(^ K'vinK of almH; tho olworvanco of an annual
fiwt ; and tho ))ilH;rimii>;n to Mecca; comprixo
nuder Hvo headn, tho principal points, whether doc-
trinal or practical, which were to he enforced.
The resurrection of the hody was proclaimed, and
n future state, in which men will receive thc! re-
vvaril of their ^'ood actions and ohodicnco to the
law of the Prophet, or ho siihjected to a fmrij'i/ing
imnislinieiit for their evil deeds and inlidelity.
Ihi'fiiifil admission of nil true hclievers to n state
of hiiss, is an article of Mohnmmodan faith.
{Koriiu, juiHiiim, especially chaps, ii, iii, iv. v. and
cxii. ; IJolniid'H Mohnm. Theol.. p. 20, dc.) The
Hiijiposod divine lepition of Mohammed is the
]>rincipnl novelty introdiicod. The stated prayers
were only ndnptntions of customs already existing
among the Sahians, Jews, Christians, and Ma-
gians; the annual fast was a very ancient prac-
tice among the oldAralis; and the only change
cfloctod hy Mohammed in its ohservance, was, tiy
pndiihiting the intercalation of a month in the
lunar year, to mal«c the sacred season fixed in-
stead of ambulatory. (Koran, chap, ix.) The
pilgrimage to Mecca was, as has been shown, a
practice followed from tlie very earliest times;
and the rewards and punishments in another life
were adopted, but with much adulteration, from
the Christian doctrines. The grossly sensual
character of Mohammed's paradise, is, in fact, the
great blemish in his religious system ; and has had
a most debasing and degrading influence over the
otiuntries where it hos acquired an ascendancy.
The new religion being in most parts little
more than an adaptation of various parts of the
religions previously existing in Arabia, was well
fitted to attract all by the respect it iirofesscd for
the peculiar tenets of each, excepting the idola-
trous worship of the Sabinns. Accordingly, Mo-
hammed was heard with patience by the people
of Mecca, till he denounced the idols of the
Kaaha, This, however, raised so strong a feeling
against him, that his ruin was prevented, and his
life jireserveil, only by the firm friendship of his
uncle, Abu-Taleb, who, although unconvinced by
the preaching of his nephew, protected him
against his enemies. In the sixth year of his mis-
sion, the persecutions to which he was exposed
became so severe, that many of his followers
sought by permission, refuge in other lands, chiefly
in Abyssinia ; where they became the first instru-
ments for planting the new faith in Africa. This
event is called by Eastern writers, the first
TIkjira or flight. (Abul-Feda. caps,
pp. 21-27; Kbuoil-Athir El-Firawz
rocoke, p. 177, et serrJ
ix. X. xi.,
el tdiis in
In less than nine years, Mohnmmod nurr(«»,|ft|
in uniting all Arabia in one faith; hut ili,|,.^
live long to enjoy his triumph. .Some y(<A^ hn^
viiitiHly. or in the Moventh llejirn, A.i>. iJ'iM, h^ »^
poiiMined by a .Jowohh of Chaihar, who, mi him.|,.
leriiig that town in triumph, olferod him ami,,
eggs, previously drugged, profeHsedly to tnt i|„
reality of his divine knowledge. (Alml-K(i|i
cap. xlv. p. 1*2.) Henceforward his KtreiiKth ,1,,
dined; hut his (h'ath was caused hy « u.\„
which, having at intervals deprived liitn ni |,i,
retiHon, terminated his existence in the a|ia,',. ,,|
fourti-e.i days, on tho 12th of the Ist nioiitli, i!,,.
hizah, in the ehivonth ilejira (Dth.luiie, tiilAm
his sixty-third, or, iicconliiig to nouio nutlmriii,^
sixty-fifth year. lie was buried at Medina; mii
the Mohammedan dm-tont ditt'er as to whiili j,
tho most sacred — Mecca, which gave hirih l,
their AjH>stlo, or Medina, which received liim in
his flight, and contains his mortal remaiiin. (U.
Macin, lib. i. p. 10; Abul-Feda, caps. Ixl-lxiv
p|.. M-M2; Ockley's Hist. Sar., i. I.)
Mohammed died in the midst of prepartliuDi I
to carry his spiritual faith and toinponil \m^
into otlier countries. His death w'arci^lv, luiv.
over, siiHponded the completion of liw (.im
designs : a momentary state of confusion ku
followed bv the election (d' Abu-llecre, faliw-in.
law of Mohammed, to the oflico of supreme lirM
of the Mussulman religion and power, under lU
title of ' Khaliif,' or ' Siicci-ssor of the rr«|ihei.
Under his reign, and that of his two siiccessdrn, ihe I
Arab arms were carried triumphantly iiitoallilitl
neighbouring countries ; and by the tweiitit'tliycii I
of the Hejira, or within loss than ten ycaw inn I
the death of Mohammed, the conquest iif Sym,
Persia, and Kgy])t, was completed. la theiljirl
toenth year of the Hejira, Oamasciis was laku,
in the seventeenth, Antioch; in the ninntceiiili, I
Ispahan ; and in the twentieth, Alexaiiilrin. (tl- 1
Macin, lib. i. cap. ii. pp. IG-H8 ; Abul-l'li«ni(,'iiu, I
pp. HW-117; Ockley, i. pp. 1— 3'Jl.)
The khalifatc continued elective for four succw- 1
sive elections ; the last who held the |M)wcrbyiiub-l
lie suflrage, iHiing Ali, the cousin and siiii-iii-la«ii|
Mohammed. This fiuht hki.ikvku hail \m\
thus long passed by, in consequence uf hisie-l
fusing to hold as sacred any thnig not contninti I
in the Koran, or the immediate traditions iif thtl
Prophet. (AlNlul-Pharagius, p. 116.) From tliiil
circumstance arose the division of the MohaO'l
mcdans into two great sects, the Sonnites mil
the ISciiiTKH. The latter, the disciplea uf.\lil
whom they denominate the vicar of God, rMeiviijI
only those doctrines which he admitted tu lii|
sacred; while their adversaries (the orthoiliiil
Mussulmans) hold, at least in eaual reverence, liil
7,275 Sontia, or oral laws, whicn, within the fal
2U0 years of Mohammedanism, had grown iiul
respect and veneration. (D'Herbelot, arts. Boiiliiii|
Hadith, and Sonnah, pp. 288, 416, and 807.) I
Ali fell by the liaiid of an assassin, a/leril
troubled reign of five years; andMoa\viJ8h,8oii«
Abn-.Sophian, the greatest enemy of Mohamn^l
usur])ed the throne ; and, what is more reiMi4-|
able, had the power or art to make the khalifw
hcreilitary in his own family. His descemlm
are called the Ommiyade race of khalifas ^
Oinmiyah, the grandfather of Abu-Sophian; i
they possessed the regal and sacerdotal po«
through fourteen generations, and for nearly 111
years. (El-Macin, lib. i. caps. v. and vi. pp. Si*-))!
Abul-Pharagius,pp. 117-123; Ockley, ii. pp. l-'if^r
The Ommiyade khalifs were, in the 133tdHejii^
(A.it. 7iiO), superseded by the descendants of Abta
one of the uncles of Mohammed. The Ommiy«l
dvimstv had never received the cheerful siibm
ARAUIA
IflA
i|,m of (he rmphct'i* fnmWv ; iiikI, after n Iciitfth
f>ini^K'l<'< III*' I'^l < 'iiiniivnilt^ klinlit' witit
Icd'lv ilrfriili'il in McNci|Mit''-iii», iinil iiuiiiii
'where III' wiiM Niniii iil-AliiiM-SatVii,
clinl
|MI71|'
ill K^fviit.
mill tix' liriiiccn, IiIm ili-m't'iitlHiitM, arc known in
hj.iiin OK !)>•' Alilinxiilc kliulirM. (Kl-Mn<'in, lili. i.
Kh, xxi; lit'.''- <'iip. i. pp. U6-HHtj Alml-I'lmriv-
mi*, pp. I''l"> ''"*•)
Ihritt'at iirnovtinimfiif liml, in tlip mrnnwluli',
l,yn n'niDvcd from Moliiin l<> 1 >itiniv<fiiN, nnil
fnmi the inltrr to liiiK<ln*l. It wan in tlii^ ni<w
iip«t <if I'nipini thnt the Arnli cliiiin to litcniry
and K'ii'tililiti cminrncc wiw llntt ruimMl. It wiw
hi'iv that tlu! itplciKliii conrlM of lliiroun-nl-
i{aM'hiii, anil hii* wmih, Al-Mnnwior nnd Moti>i*n<>ni,
wiff htiil. It wim lu'D' that, under their patron-
1 jp.', tlietin'ek MUeH iind nliilomipluTH were iran!<-
Uiiil, that the native Aral) f^eniuM raiHed its head,
ami carried the scieneen, plivHieal and metaphy-
Liral, tetJeiher with the nHelul artN, to a point of
LTamitur unknown in former tinien. The naniei*
aliMie of the SaraiTU iiliiloMoiihrrH, niatlieinaii-
riaiis iuitri)nonien4, phvmciaiiH, iMitnniHtM, clieiniMts,
«mi ari'hitectH, wlio illnntrated tliis |K'riod of Arali
hi'torj', woid<l nil a volume. Of cliemiHtry, they
may be culled the inventor*; and altliou^h in
[jmnpiiiiiny, they did not jircHuu'o to (Upart from
lihf I'tolumean hy|MitlieNiN, they carried out the
I views of the Alexandrian philimopher, and at-
Iwinml remdtH manellous for their accuroey, when
■ the crroiUMiiiH nature of the data on whieli tliey
Iwerr founded ix considered. To the aNtronomieal
Italilo* of lln^dad, (.Cordova, and Samarcand, nuI>-
lieqiiont (ib!ter>'eni owe a lar>,'e debt of gratitude;
limlmany of the common ternw in modern atttro-
Iniiniy, aild moat of thu names apidicd to the lixcd
Idam, attest the source whence Kuroiic ilrew the
Ifieinonis of astronomical science. The Arabs, if
Itiicy dill not invent, ot least were the p\'nt im-
Ipmvpw of aljjcbra (the name sufKciently at-
itmiH its orif;in), which placed in the hands of
|lhe analyist an instrument of vast and apparently
Mtiliraited power. Perhaps, liowevcr, the most
ini|)iirtant invention wo owe to the Arabs, is that
\i the arithmetical characters, now in common
if, which banished at <mcc and for ever the cum-
^ri>uiiand unwieldv notation of the Romans. In
medicine, the Arabs were pre-eminently great :
ind the mof^iilicent remains of their public and
Irivatc biiildinpt, in Syria, Kj;yi>t, and Spain,
Innce their skill in architecture. The Arab court
|f Bagdad was, in fact, the centre of the know-
eii^'C and retiuement of thu ])eriod in which it
Ixisted; and, by a sinfjular contrast, that period
pine^ponded with the darkest and most degraded
(orlion of Euroiwan historv. (Abdul-Pharagius,
, 1511, etieq.; UTIerbelot, pp. 430, 51.5, &c.)
School* ami Edueatiwi. — The learning which
javc celebrity to the court of liogdml in the
piddle ages, does not appear ever to have been
liuiraliiied in Arabia. Before the icra of Muham-
ked, i^iiorance (that is, ignorance of written
Itarninf;) was so far fnmi being accounted dis-
'eful, that wo learn from the Koran (chap.
ixLx.) that Mohammed, though of the royal
Iwisc of Hcdjaz, could neither read nor write ;
pi, in the jtrescnt day, judges aro frequently
literate. (Uurckli irdt's >«ot.es on Bed., 08.) It
innot, therefore, I supposed that education in
bia a either very good or widely ditt'usciL
[cording to Niebuhi (Ues do I'Ar., pur. i. p. 91)
' B Arab princes by no means encourage science ;
kd, throughout tho East, you meet few who
krit the title of learned.'
[Public provision is however made for the edu-
Ition of youth ; and a teacher for the children
W young .slaves is no uncommon part of the
donio<tic oMablishmont of dislingninhed families t
no that, in the ritieM, the greater part of the |HipU'
latliiii <-iin reitd ami write — attniiinients wbii-li
are aUo fouiid ennnnonly (•nmigli among tbi>
Kheikbs of irilH'H in the neighlMnirhood of the
nettled diHtrietx.
To iilinost ever)- mosipie tben- is attached n
HchKid, where the ptmrer ihildreii may In> taught.
gMtuitousJN ; iH'side.o which, lIuTi' are in every
great town nmre or lewer private establisbnientA
where the children of the miildle cluMMeN are re-
ceived. The edu<'ation is of a limited kind, com-
prising little more than reading, writing, the
simple rules I '* arithmetic, and the doctrines of
the Mnhannnedan religion. Sehotd- houses, like
the shops, are open to the street, so that lint
whole process of education is conducted in publii",
and to prevent the distraction incident to such n
situation, the readers and re|M'aters sjieak in tho
highest iMishible '.ey, and accoinpiuiy their deli-
very with violent gesticulations.
HesideH these, there are in many of the greater
towns sclitsds of a higher character; colleges, in
fact, in which the higher sciences — nnitbenuttics,
astronomy, astridogv, and ntetlicine — are taught.
In the Imaiuit of N'enieii (which is but a small
part of the district so iiilled) there are two of
these c<dleges. Oll<^ of the chief studies in them
is tho ancient Arabic, now a demi langiiiige ; for
their learned men an> expected to understand
clearly, not only the Koran in its original tongue,
but also all tho ancient commentators, of whom
tho number is very considerable, t'andidates for
otiices, civil or ecclesiastical, are saiti to undergo
a very rigonais ]iublic examination as to their
literary and scieiititic attainments ; but tbi.i iH
mere pretence, the most initerale persons iH'ing
fretpiently appointed to tho highest )M)sts, while
tho best instructed get a precarious living om
scriboM, teachers, and public reciters or poets,
llenco the wish to acipiiru a high degree of scho-
lastic knowledge is very weak in the majority of
Arabs ; and tho jmtfession of teacher is far from
rcs|)ectablo or lucrative. In many of the towns,
the f^)iiblic schotds are falling to decay ; and IIiosd
qualitiod to conduct them prefer wandering over
tlio country like the bardi* and troubadours of tho
middle ages, as ])octs and orators ; in which cha-
racters, as tho reciters or singers of the glories of
the mitioi), they arc welcomed and rewarded aliku
by tho sheritl's and sheikhs. There is no public
provision whatever for female education ; and,
among tho Bedouins, whole triltes can neither
read nor writo. A very great obstacle to tho
advancement of education in Arabia is, the preju-
dice of the native^s against printing. From the
nature of the Arabic characters, interlucing each
other, and frequently placed vertically, they ap-
pear handsomer, when well written, than when
printed. There was not, a few years ago, and
perhaps there is not at present, a single printing-
press 111 the country, (Niebuhr, par. i. pp. S)l-l)(i ;
rnr. ii. p. 188; Ali Bey, ii. 100; BurckhordtH
Notes on Bc<l., 42, et ney.)
Folitical Diviuion*. — Sources of' Revenue. —
Without reckoning the Bedouin tnbes, the num-
ber of which can hardly be ascertained, the settled
parts of Arabia arc divided into a groat RMiny in-
dependent governracnts : hence states, also, not
unfrequeutly spring up. The political divisions
of this country aro therefore very uncertain, but at
iiresent they may bo reganleil as consisting of— Ist.
• ourteeu or fifteen states, upon the SSW. coasts ;
2nd. A much greater number uiion the shores of
the rcrsian Gulf; 3rd. The hali-settled Beilouiii
tribes on the N. part of that Gulf; 4th. Tho
dominions of the VVahabee chief, Abdullah, in
'^ w
IM
Km
AKAKIA
%.t\]< \
^1 Dd
I
M
Npilnjpili Ath. Tlir-Ilcdjn/. mill Hfthr-ol •mir-Shml,
on llit^ W. mill NW. ol all llicNf. Tlu- Inxl arc llir
only |i/irlH ihiit nwii a Inri'l^ii iimi«ii'r, 'l'lu< ilm-
ci'iiiJanlN III' Miiliiiiiiiiii'il niiiiiiiiK'il in rciKii in IIk'
llriljll/ frnrn IiIh liniit iluwil In it llllf i'Ihm'Ii ; ur
kiiiiwIcilt^itiK. liKWi'ViT, llif i«M|irt'inur,v, llrsl hIiIki
court III' llii^ilitil, mill iit'irruiirilM nl' thi> 'i'iirki'<li
Hiilliin, itM lii'Hil ol' llir MoliMinninlan I'lkilli; iiiinlH-
tiTM III' ilm imrinioiint powiT ri'Nlillii^ iit ilii< hhuc-
liiitry ill till- holy ciiics, Wliiln llii* 'I'lirkinh K"-
V(riiini>iil ri'liiiiicil iu Hircii^lli, iIiin roniii'rlioii
wiis iirknowlcil^i'il iiiiil ri'H|M'i'ti>il in llic llnljiu;
Iml in Ihi^ Inlin- pitrl of lant rciitiiry, llu' nlii'rill'N
r«-noiiiu'i<il ilii'ir nominal iilli'Kiain')', aliurknl
thr 'I'lirkith iiat'liax, ami llnallv i^xih'IIciI tlii'in,
Hcarci'ly, how«vcr, wax tliij* flVfcli'il, when llu-
\Vulial)ot-N hiiIhIiu'iI tim wliolf of tlir Holy Ijiiiil,
mill hvlil it till lHl,'i-l4; when Mulitaiuil Ali,
I'at'lia of K^yiit. nominally rt'itorcil lti<< Holy
C'itim Id t\n' |iriili>«'lioii ol'ilii' I'orti*, Imt virtually
niaili^ liiniHoir iiiaMtcr of ihr llciljajt; wliirli lif
lian fiince rctaiiicil, anil ptvcriit'il ut iliNiTclion.
Tlui DcNcrt of Sinai lia.i alwavH IicIoii^imI, inoru
or It'MM, to K^vpl. (Uiirrkliarill\ 'I'ravflH, /NixKi/a;
NotoM on VVttliuliet'H, ;i,il-l'JOj honi Valuiitia, iii.
»2r)-,l27.)
Taxi'M, ill tlio HCtllisI portioim of Arnliia nri!
pretty iinifomi. A twnlh of the proiliu'timm of
l\w land in paid to the wiverei^n, and this not
iinfreqiienlly in kind. (Kra»er, p. lo.) In Veiiien,
liowever, thiH tux appcarM (o he compounded for
liy the payment of a tixed huiu annually (Nie-
liiihr, pur. ii. p. IH.'I) ; ami with repird to the
town ]iopiilutioii, IIiIh method niunt neecMHurily he
(general. The tithe upon land ix the only le^ul
fixed impoHt which the Miihjet'ts of the native
Aral) ]irinceH are called upon to pny. Mul u fur
more priMluctivo Hiiiirco of revenue Ih found in
the cuNtoiuK and dulieH upon merchaniliHe. The
Iman of MuNcut layH ^ per cent. u|>on all (^ihkIh
IiUHMiii); up the PerNian (iulf, in Aruh holioniM;
and thiH xmall duly Ih no productive that it yielilH
from U(),l)UO to l(i(),(l()0 dollam annually. (Fra-
8er, p. 1(>.) Ill Yemen, the Imuii levicH !{ ptT
cent. u)Min the coflee carried from hiH dominions
boyoiid the StruitH of liuh-el-Mundeh, and 7 per
cent, upon all that in nent up llie Heil Seu; and
the Sultan Shcrift'of Muccu— or ruther Iiih present
niUHter, Mehenict Ali — tukcH (! per cent, more in
the port »if DJidda. (Lord Valeiitiu, ii. ati«, •{(i'J.)
The large quantities of piodH that are coiiNtaiitly
poHHiiig fniin India, AhyHHiiiia, Kgypt, Syria, &c.,
to all the tradin)j; towimof Araliiu, have al^o their
Htated rale8 of duticH ; and the income derived
from them is 8u threat, that Mehcmct Ali cheaply
purchoHcd hiH popularity in hit) new dominioiiH hy
foregoing the Nettled tithe which had formerly
been paid in them. One of his first acts was a
declaration that the inhabitants of the Iledjuz
Hhould be wholly free from tuxes. (liiirckhardt's
Kotes on IJed., p. 30().) The city of Meilinu was
said to be impost free, oven before this period.
(Ali JJey, ii. 1'27.)
Certain articles of commerce are monopolies in
the hands of the governments; us suit in the
Uedjuz,aud the same article and sulphur, in Oman,
(liurckhiirdt's Travels, i. p. 65 ; Fraser, 10.) He-
sides which, the sovereign is frequently possessed
of large landed jiroperty in privuto right, which
he lets out precisely like any other lundlord ; and
in certain coses, us in those of the ImaurasofMuscat
and Yemen, he is also the most considerable mer-
chant in his own dominions, (^iiebuhr, pur. ii.
pp. 182-184 ; Froser, 1«.)
These are all legitimate sources of revenue ; but
the evU in this and all other Mohammedan ooun-
trics is, that the governments, being despotic, prac-
AHACAN
tim< and tiilernte nil Nnrtn of I'Xtortion, FWnrr h,,
coliqiieitt of tliii ili'dju/ liy llie Kgvpliiuix, ii «„
ciiiilonmry for the itutlun Bherilf of Mi'nii in im ,,,
priMiiim with |H'rNoim upon chnrgi'H of ilixiilVivii.t
III IiIn {mthoii, ihui Ihry might puri-liiwii' ilii'irli.,^
and liU'riit'it by large IIik'n. (lliirckliuriir-iTrjiti^
i. p. ■Ilti.) In Vi'ini'ii the dolus rcnivi' lln> ijni,
and cuNloniH of the Iowiin, pay llii< iriiii|i4, ii;,
JmlgcH, and other public fiiiiclionarii'N, mul \tim>-
mil the buliilire to Suiiiui, the hcuI of gnviriiiijiiii.
In this urraiigi'iiiriit, the iinun hiiiicc/i'h all hi'.jij
from tliednlu; uiid the latter, wIiohi- iiiiiiiiimi,,,.
I'oine is very trilling, rcHorlH to uny iiii'iiik, h,„.
ever infuinouK, of reiiliNiiig u large itu'iinic liir liim
Molf. The chief HulliTfrs in lliese lraiinncii(iin.,ri
the Indian, and other foreign mfrrliiiniH, n,
I'ollection of the cuNloniM, too, is utti'inliil vtnti
coiiNiderable fraud ; and it in in the {hiwit ih\i,\
ollli-er to fuvoiir his frieiulH, und opprrsH Kirnii^'i^
without incurring any respoiiNibility. 'I'Iu'mi' uiiu,,
have, however, been conftiilerubly inmlilii'cl in iiu
lledjaz since the eslabllHliment of the K(!\|iiiu)
iHiwcr. (Lord Valeiitiu, iii. p. U'2ri; lliirikjiurk, {
Travels, i. iip. Mil, 417.)
Arm iiiul I'i>i)tiliition, — Arabia has been KU|i|aMi| I
to ontain from I2,(MMI,IMII) to II.IMKmhiii ii,yj
Ihoiigh this is probably I M>yoml the iiiiirk, Dk |
nomadic hubili of the greater part of itit |i.i|,iii,.
tion, and the number of petty stales into whicliilK I
settled |Hip. is divideil, and the little tl>at inkiioii
with respect to most of them, remlcrs it iin|H».ii,|,
to UNMign cither their limits or their |ii>|iiikii'ii. I
Accoriling to Italbi, the iinanat of Vi'imn, ,<
Yemen I'roper, and the imanat of A.uscat, uniLcl
coast of Omar, huvc resi>eotively —
iMANAT OK YKMK.N. IMANAT OK MI'WAT.
SiiiMTtlciiil extent, OJi.UUO tiu|ierllcial uxtciit, M/Ki |
H<(. m.
I'op., •J.fiOO.OOO.
Uevi'iiiiu, 4!i:i,iHW. Btcrl.
Army 6,000 men.
H(|. m.
Top., 1,1(00,1)0(1.
UuvL'iiuo, Hi.'i,0ll()/. gtorl.
Army, 1,000 mun.
Niivy, 1 Hlilp, ;i frigjw,!
.'10 inferior viwoln.
DciiHlty ut \wp., 91 pi I
8*1. m.
Density of pop., 47 per
iKi. m.
The lledjnz hnsbccn very well survoycd, ojk-
cinlly by Ali Hey and Hiirckhardt, biu iiMvarr-
ing |iopiilation, owing to the intlux niid clllu.Mf
pilgrims, together with the crowil of tratli'M rti
are constantly passing between its h\mtvh ami A*
tunt countries, renders it diilicult, if not ini|Hih4lr,
to assign its real numbers with uny toleralileaoiv
rncy. I'robably, however, it is more deiisdy |«*
pled than either Yemen or Muscat.
The states of Yemen, as enumerated by Xiebulii,
are the following : —
1. Yemen rrojier.
a. Allen.
i). Knnkcban.
4. Uu8cliiil-u-Bckcl.
6. Abu-ArlHli.
(1. Bclca-cI-Koball.
7. North Kliaulan.
8. Bahnn.
II. NeUnjircii.
10, Kachruii,
11, Uajof.
I'J. South KImulnn.
la. Nehm.
14, Joft'u.
There are, also, a great many little states upon ilti
Persian Gulf; and I ladramaut consists of biif
niticunt sovereignties, mostly of no greater extail
than a mile or two round the town where tlieehi
resides. (Niebuhr, pur. ii. pp, l(jli-24J, *H
29-2, »!tc.)
AKAHKIK, a town of Asiatic Turkey, pack
of Sivur, cap. sanjiack, 7 m. N. Euphrates, andil
m. NNE. Jlulattia, lat. 39° 5' N., long.3'J°E
Estim. pop. 25,000. The town is well built,
the country round is exceedingly fertile.
AKACAN, a country of Asia, culled i)y then
lives HaA/iai/u;, extending along the W. o*ij
the great E. peninsula of S. Asm, acquired li^
the Birmese, by the British, in 1824. It liw'
iwrrn I.V M' (Ct
mi,! :»'.«' 'io' ami I
It"
nl.Hit .'ii^Tl III. ; lir
ilii'iiee Miiiiliwaril
|ii,:'.'iO iu|, gi'iig. 11
nIxMll '.'.'lO.INHI olll
iiuii'il, lull priilia
I'.iliio.iNMl. (I'eml
iiiri>rilritiiili Iml
Hie Vt'iiiiiamloi
iiuni>, »' a liraiii'li
\'«li' iif Ahmiiii ; ni
Aru'iiii Aiiil I'liiiii
:'.IKII( III N.IKM) ft.
hiii.1 1'.')" !•;. long.,
ilie-eiu Near lal.
I |i>r iiIh'UI It degree {
h X. to M. ; they
lintT iniiiiiTiiim p/i
Kliynuiizflli and (ii
I liiluli, ami Aeiig, it
I in', in almimi ever^
llliiler, Krilkiimie,
. Hie I'lHintry, gen
liiiil ilale, lint on th
lihen^ are Intv ami n
IniiiMly in a SVV,
liiat ipilili! fur tradin^
lllie laixe^t is the
Jwliich risi'i* ill ihe II
iLii.. ami ilischnrgcH
ImiiulliH; DM one of i
Tllif town iif Aracaii,
[liinii hurl lion, Thei
\m(, Aeiig, Alioii, ,
"fiir (kxree navigab
The coast, in the
plly, I'liiitains mai
iilintcd by creeks, a
liicki., which render t
)wnewh«t daiigeroii
ii(jii»(Kiii : (luring the
^aier w Hinooth, and
\mg the coast, in
duijily iHittoni,
The principal islam
ikyab, between the J
pioy arc UMually sept
amiw channels, and
H*i't,
Tlic climate is dccii
\kvi splits, as Kyonk
mm; and esiieciallj
F atiackcd by intei
Itwiii (if mnlaria. 1)
ti«i|«i (lied ill jrreat
[hi' eountry is niundf
PSW. ni<in»()on, whi
\ Octdher.
J ihc abundance of foi
lins have hitherto Ix^e
|™i» any kiiowled^.
^iinitive rocks that h
fic. The lower hills t
[ih a stiff clay occnsioi
)n of the coast coral ai
I low alluvial soil exte
mry from the foot oi
[uttlc systematic info
I '"the products of tlu
pluccd in the creeks.
w met with ; jmigle
^ilNl-*!
m.
M<
("ft I III
;v|itliiii«, II »i,
ktl-r>'lklMlU||;.
lit' I li nil till III r,
liiUK- thi'ir lr.<
Imrill't TriHii,.
rcivf llic uxk
t\w triKi|.... Ill,
ir'u'N, mill iriuH.
of i^KViTiiinii.i,
ICI'/.I'M M III' ..111 I
,(iw< llHliiiliul III-
my llll'ltll^ h'.<.
iiu'iiiiii' tnr liiiii
lriini»iu'iiiiiii(,,it
iit'rrlimilH, TU
iH Ullt'lllU'll Viilh
!»• )Hiwt'r 1 1' ihf
ijHin'!*H ^lraln;l^
ly. 'I'lifHciiliiNi
y niixlUlcil intlK
of the l''.t;y|iiiiii
lb\ lUirckharlti
hnittHTiuu|i|«ii>«{ I
i 1,(111(1,111111 iiiliilj
I tilt? iiiiirk, TIk I
lart of i(i< ihiiiiiIa'
kicM iiitowliicliiU I
ittU'. ll>iil iHkiii>iii|
ihU'W it 'hiiikmH,
• Ihi'ir |iii|iiiliHii.ii.|
at of Ycimii, ( I
of &.llSCUt,011lli
y—
INAT OK MCMAT,
llolul wwnt, Mini I
111.
i,tin(),(M)(>.
luo, KiS.dim/.gtorl.
r, 1,(1110 Illl'Il.
L I ship, !) trl«M»,|
nferlor vtwclii.
ty ol jiop., 31 pa I
111.
(•llsur\-cyoil,c»f»-|
IliariU, 1)1(1 it* vaiyl
idiix ami «'ltiuxi(
iW(l tif trailcrt M
its Mliiin'Hiiiulili>-|
t, if iioi i!ii\»»i'iU'.[
luiiy tolenilile ac*|
[cut.
crated by Niebukr.]
Iihan.
Iwlsjircii.
Jat'liraii.
Iitjof.
)utli Klmulan.
lehin.
ilu.
Ittlc states iiii«nilii|
If no^'reatercxl«|
Iwn where t)iei'
i.p, H5U-i4J, »'■
Ic Turkey, Vi>A
I Euphrates, and'
Is' N., long- *-^'
is well limit, r
hy fertile.
fe, called by then
f ^r the NV. f*"'
Vsia, ac<)uir<!«l If'
18-21. life
iwrfnliV>M' (('n|t«' I-rnrain) nnd ai" 110' N. l«t.,
,i„i;r." jo mill Itl'J II' i:. li'iiK. ; Imviiix N. ilii> r.
Nmil.. wbirli i«i;tHr«H'n it from <'liill«K""Ki ''•■ 'h'"
),.Miiiuiil"»K inouiiiHiiiN, iliviiliii^ it from the llir
iiinMiliiiiiiiii""". mid NV. llui Imliaii Oiiaii; thf
mn Utitr iKuiiiilnrieit nn'«'tiii« nt iiii ariite aiiKb' m
( i|K Secraii. il« S. I'xtn'iiiiiv! IriiKih, N. to .S„
,l„iit .'iiMi III.; breadtli, nt iti« N. I'lid, !•(> m. ; but
iliiiii* miutliwanU eoiiliiiiially di'rr«|iD.iii)< ; ana,
lii.j.'HI M|. K''Of{. m. (I'l'llllM'rloli) ; |Mip, Kiiiil to Im
nlii'iil '.'IKM"'" oulv, wlu'ri'im, in ITK.'i, it wiw f«li
iii.iiiil. but priiba^ily iiiiicli iM-yoml llm mark, at
■.MliHi.iKMi, (IVmlH'rloii'H H«|Kirl on tliu K, Kmii-
I I'liriif llritinli India.)
Ilu' Vciiiiiaiidoiijf, or Aru)o-|M'«t<M)-m(Mi ninun-
„„,, ii> a braiicb from iluw<> that bound S. the
I VjIc of An»aiii ; (inil form tlu- K. boundary of both
\riMiiii anil t liiltaK'Xij,'. 'I'lielr lieiKhlH vary from
MUNI III X.tNH) ft.; Table Mounliiin, in 21^ N.lal.
I'liiil IKI" I'" liMl^.i ii* W,l.'l() ft. alKive the level of
ilii Mil. .Near lal. 'i*^ they take n middeii turn V..
I f„r iilmiil « ilcKfee i but ill general their direeiiim
N, to S. ; they nru covered with forewiN, and
lliiivi' minii'riiUH p(WHei«, the ehief beilin tbiwn of
iKIiviiunznli aniHioa in the MirmeHe, and Tonsil,
T»liik,aiiil Aeiii;, in the Itritinli dominioiiH, 'I'bey
jw. ill almiwt every eiwe, inen^ narrow foolpathx.
IdiiiliT, Krilkiinde.vol. i.p. ;i(IM.)
lliiMoiiiitry, Keuerally, U diverHitlrd with hill
ijiiil ilale, biit'on the N. border and the wa-)<liore
lihcn' an^ low and mandiy traits. The rivern run
Iniaidy in n HW. diree'tioii, and are frei(ueiiily
liiavi)(iilile for IradiiiK veHMeU of Honiit nia^iiituih; ;
laruest in the Araeaii (properly Kiiladyne),
Ivhit'li riseK in the liirmeNedominioiiH, near '2'.P N,
Iki.. mill (li-'elinrneH itself in 'ill" 15' by neveral
Imniiilm; oi) one of iti« minor braneheH ix Mitiiuti'd
Tthc town of Araeaii, aeee.sNible to veHxeli* of '2i"i((
lliiiiii liurilien. The other principal HtreaiiLsare the
Saiif, Aei% Mioii, and 8andoway riverN, nil in
k'liir decree navigable.
The toaitt, in the central iinrt of Arncnn eupc-
kinlly, contmns many K<i*>d harbouni, is much
liiiliutcd by creeks, and studded with islands and
(iiokx, wliieh render the mouth of the Aracan river
Kimewliat (Inii^erouH to approach in the S\V.
iwiiitoiin : during the rest of the year, however, the
)iuet k Ninooth, and there arc pxid anchorages all
lull),' the coast, in from U to iu fathoms, with a
builily iMittom.
ihu principal islands aro Chcdulm, Kamrcc, and
kyab, between tho liivers Kuladync and Mioii.
it'y arc usiinlly separated from the mainland by
lamiw channels, and partake of the same natural
^|Krt,
The climate is decidedly unhealthy, except in
[fi'w !i|MitK, as Kyouk-l'hyoo, on the N. side of
pmrcf, anil especially hostile to Kiiropeans, who
attacked by intermittent levers, and other
IttkiH (if malaria. During the Uinnese war the
«i|is (lied in fjreat numbers from these causes,
!ho cnuntry is inundated by heavy rains during
krSW, munsoon, which begins in May aiul ends
\ (Wolier.
The abundance of forests which cover the mouii-
m have hitherto been insurmountable obstacles
Iwanln any knowledge of their geology. The
[imitive rocks that have been seen are mostly
He. The lower hills consist chicHy of sandstone,
iih a stiff clay occasionall v iiitermi.xed ; on every
tof the coast coral and sliell-lime arc abundant.
|low alluvial soil extends over the whole of the
«imry from the foot of the mountains to the sea,
iLittie systematic information has been collected
11" the products of the country. Salt is largely
Vluceil in the creeks. Gold nnd silver are said
be met with; jiuiglcs of mangrove crowd the
AUACAN IflT
banks of tho rivrr*; flrn nn' common N. of the
Araiiiii river, leak, baiiilMio, rc«/ /urM/, loon, Ac. ,
are I'liiind in ihe foreols, and niiu'i' the llriliMli
iM'riipaliiill have Imtii iimmI for ship-biilhlilig ; Ihe
sugar raiie, ronia, palm, indigo, coiton, rice, ml
|M'p|H'r, cnriimlH'r, iiii'loii, planlaiii, iiiango. laiko,
orange and oiber fruits, are iiidigeiioiis: clrpliaiii s
cattb', birds of many kinds, llsh, silkwonns, and
Ih'c^ are found In grral pleiilv.
The iiibab. are I Kith Itimiese, M-HUhs Mohain-
medaiis and liniiaiis, and Ihe remainder i I'hiin or
li/ii-in, as Ihrv call tlieniHrlves, the Miighs of Ibii
I'.iiroiii'aiis, 'I'l > latter are of middle height, with a
broad face, liigh and prominent cheek-bones, tho
iiiiM' Hat, and Ihe oyes like those of the Chinese:
thev are cunning, and addicted to stealing, but not,
III I'alschood. Tilt ir laiigungeand religion resembln
lliime of llic llirmesc; the latter, however (that of
llooilh), tbey do not adhere lo very siriclly, since
they do not abstain from animal food. The Aracan
esc are by nomransiineibicaled; almost all of I hem
can read and write ; the latter they prm tise with a
chalk pencil mi a paper made from the bark of a
tree; their records are kept on palm-leaf, lacipiered
in Japan or red upmi a gilt ground. The jieoplc
are fond of lliiery ; Ihe dress of the women is a red
binder wrapt closely round them, over this a robe
reaching to the knee, and the (K'tticoat fastened
loosely on one side all down, so that in walking
Ihe wlioh- of one limb is exposed. Women are not.
k(>pt secluded, but enjoy as much lilHTty lis the
other sex. Slavery in all its forms is loleruled.
Marriages are arranged by the pan>iits of the par-
lii's; solcmniMMl by feasts, and ralilied bv the
married couple eating out of one dish. It they
separate nt a future tinu^ at the wish of the hus-
band, he must take ii|Hin himself all his wife'K
debts; if such a determination originate with Ihe
latter, she lakes them niioii herself, but can demand
"i!) rupees from her husband. If n man b<' in want
of money, he may pawn his wife ; but if she Ih'-
conic pregnant in conscipience, he can claim her
again, and the contract lo pay liccomes null and
void. The dead are either buried or burned.
This country has l>ecii very greatly imnroved
since it came into the possession of the llritish,
previously to which it wos in tho worst |s)ssiblo
slate. The bands of robbers by which it was iii-
fcstiil have been extirjiated; and the habitat of the
bulk of the people materially improved. 'I'he
introduction of trnnriiiillity and commtirce bus
awakened a spirit of iii'lu.stry, nnd rendered the
Iicople cultivators, salt-ninnufacturers, and traders.
Akyab Ls daily becoming of more and more im-
portance.
Uefore 17WJ, Aracnn was independent, though
often ravaged by the Moghuls and I'eguans : in
that year it was conipiered by the liinncsc, nnd
governed by their viceroys; whose oppressions de-
iiopulnted the country, causing many of the inlia-
[litantH to fly to Cbittagong and Tipperah, where
they settled; and others to become jungle-robbers.
A revolt broke out in IKll, anil the violation of
the iiritisb frontier by the Hirmesc, both then and
subsetiueiitly, was the cause of the Uirmese war of
IX21 ; which ended in the cession of Aracan to tlio
British.
Akacan. a town and cap. of the nliove prov., on
an inferior branch of tho Kuladyne river, which in
here crossed by several lofty wooden bridges, 60
m. NE. Akyab, lat. 20° 44' N., hmg. m° 2«' E.
Eslirn. pop.'lO,000. The town Ls in the form of
an irregular square, walled on all sides except tho
Nli., wlierc it touches a shallow lake. As a fort-
ress, however, it is worthless, liciiig commanded
bjr varion . hills in the neighbourhood. S. of the
principal street which runs E. and \V. are the ruins
"•*«.;■
^^.H
m
m
V ♦••5'h
168
ARAD
of an ancient nalacc anil rurt, the latter Ritrroundcd
bv a triple enclosure of Htiinc patched up with brick.
There arc many paf;<Mlai4, Imth in the towii and on
the heiKhtH an>und it. Next to Akyab, it hax the
bcftt market in the prov. for liritiith manufacturcM
and the wilkH of Pe^u, and its river is navigable
for lN)ats at hi^h tide; but itA consequence has been
gradually diminishing since Akvab began to rise
into importance. Aracan was taken in 1783 by the
Birmese, who captured much booty, including a
large brazen image of Cruadma, held in the highest
veneration, and other idols.
AKAD, a town of the Austrian empire, on both
nidcs of the Maros ; that part which is on the N.
bank, or Old Arod, being in Hungary, and the
other, or New Arad, in the Uannat, 27 m. N.
Temeswar, lat, Hi° V 66" N., long. 21° 18' 8" K.
Pop. of both jjarts, 30,959 in 1858. New Arad is
strongly fortined ; and Old Arad is the residence
of a Greek bishop. The most opulent inhabitants
are the Jews, who are very numerous. The town
is the entrepot of the pro<luct4) of a large tract of
country, which are here embarked on the Maros,
and sent by the river to the I)anul)e, and thence
to Germany, Hungary, and the lilack Sea. To-
bacco is manufactured, there is a large trade in
corn, and the town is the place of the greatest
cattle mark.tt in Hungary.
ARAFAT (MOUNT), a hill of Arabia, 16 m.
8K. of Mecca, consisting of a granite rock about
160 ft. high, a principal object of the Moham-
medan pilgrimages to tnat city.
AR AGON, one of the ancient divisions of Spain,
formerly a separate kingdom, comprising the provs.
of Zaragoaa, Huesca, and Temel, lying between
40O and 42° 55' N. lat., and 46° E. and 29 7' W.
long., having N. the Pyrenees, which divide it
from France; £., Catalonia; 8., Valencia; and
W., Navarre and Castile; length, N. to S., 216 m.;
breadth, 65 to 136 m. ; area, 14,692 sq. m. ; pop.
880,643 in 1867. It is a basin everywhere sur-
rounded, except on the £., by mountain ranges ;
on the N. offsets from the Pyrenees extend mto
the prov. as far S. as lat. 42° 10', enclosing many
picturesque and fertile valleys ; the Sierras Mon-
cayo Cuen^a, Molina, and Albarracin separate it
from Castile, and those of Morella from Valencia.
Another distinct chain nms parallel to the latter
through the S. part of Ar(4;on, from N VV. to SE, •
between the Sierra and this chain is the valley of
the Xiloca; and between this latter chain and the
Pyrenees is the extensive plain intersected by the
Ebro. This, which is not only the largest of the
Aragonese rivers, but the lai;gest river which has
its embouchure on the east coast of Spain, runs
through the prov. in a S. easterly direction, di-
viding it into two nearly equal parts. Exclusive
of the Ebro, there are a great number of other
rivers, mostly its affluents, having their sources in
the mountain ranges that bound on either side the
central plain; as the Gallego, Cinca, and Segre,
from the N., the Xiloca, Guerva, ^Xguas, S. Martin,
Guadaloui)e, and Alguaa, from the S. : the Tagus
and the Guadalaviar have, also, their origin in this
region. Salt is everywhere abimdant, and gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead, nitre, alum, &e,, are met
with, but the mines are mostly neglected. The
mine of rock salt at Kemolinos, near Alagon, is,
however, extensively wrought, furnishing supplies
not only for the prov., but also for Catalonia and
other parts of the kingdom. Climate temperate
and warm in the valleys and plains, but on the
Pyrenees the snow is often found 6 or 6 ft. deep
in Jvne, and violent storms occur in winter.
The coimtry is, however, universally healthy. The
soil of the plains is, in general, fertile, and well
adapted to the growth of most products of tem-
ARAGON
pcrate climates. Though agriculturo ha vny ,\^
fcctive, m'ire com and wine are produced thaiun,
required for home consumption ; and there arc al»i
laigo supplies of tine fruits, with leguraen, Hit
hemp, oil, saffron, liquorice, madder, ciijjartn, an,|
bHrilla. Homed cattle are scarce. VVulvcit anl
liears arc met with in the mountainous (luitricic
game is plentiful, and the rivers abound with es'
ccUcnt lish, es|)ecially eels and trout. The manu.
factures are confined to common woollen and oth^t
cloths, cordage, and hempen articles, gunfxiwiier
with soap, vinegar, brandy, paper, hats, earthen-
ware, and leather. The manufacture of silk in ih,
capital and other towns has greatly diminiahtd,
Arogon is divided into thirteen districts urfrobtennti:
its chief cities are Zaragosa, Huesca, Calatavuil.
andTeruel. The first is an archbishopric: therein
six bishoprics and two universities. Several rDadi I
cross the prov., passing - \11 the great towns; ml
the Imperial canal, from I'udela to Zarngoxa, lijfi,
in depth and 70 ft. wide, commenced in I52!l bv
Charles V., and completed to its present extent iJi
1772, serves the double purpose c'" promoting tnult
and navigation. Several railways ore also cdn-
structed through the province ; among them, t\»
Madrid, Sarogossp., and Alicante ; the Sari^;i».M
and Barcelona; and the Saragossaand Pampelum
lines. The Aragonese are strong, and w<>U-buiii;
not so active as the Catalonians, but indiutriiiu.>!
brave, and honest. They are intelligent, anil k-
sirous of knowledge, hut proud, sullen, ami ex-
tremely opi)osed to foreign interlcrencc with tliei; I
government. The original harsh Aragoncae dii- 1
lect has now become intcmiixed with the (Jastiliaii. I
The male peasantry wear a waistcoat and a muirf I
jacket over it, drawn together by a thong, anil 1 1
large round hat, or sometimes two, to work in I
during the heats of summer. The dress of the I
women is odd and grotesque ; it consists partly (if I
two woollen corsets, and three or four thick petii- 1
coats one over another, tho whole weighing 1 1
quarter of a cwt. Under the Romans Aragon wu I
included in CeltilMiria ; in a.d. 470 it was ovemis I
by tho Goths, and in 714 by the Moors. After tbt I
expulsion of the latter, it was governed by its on I
kings till the marriage of Ferdinand with Isabelli |
of Castile in the foiurteenth century.
The gov. of Aragon, previously to the junciiM I
of its crown with that of Castile, and tor nm I
time aftenvords, though monarchical in form,vii|
in principle essentially republican. The kiiip,!
who were long elective, retained little more thai
the shadow of p<iwer ; it being really vested in tbt I
Cortes or parliament. This supreme osscmbli ral
composed of four different arms or members; thel
nobility of the first rank, the equestrian onlenJ
second rank, the representatives of cities auli
towns, and the ecclesiastics. No law cuuld |
without the assent of every arm ; and withoul
permission of the Cortes, no tax could be impuseiil
no war declared, no peace concluded, normoufTJ
coined or altered. The power of reviewing thtl
proceedings of the inferior courts, the privilti^iJ
inspecting every dqiartment of admiui8trauoii,|
and the right of redressing all grievances, beio^till
to the cortes ; to which, however, those aggrievdil
did not address themselves in the humble tonei'l
supplicants, but demanded its interference as dntl
to them as freemen. This sovereign court nil
held during several centuries every year; butfiiol
the beginning of the fourteenth centuij' was m-l
voked only once in two ye^rs ; the sension wn-l
tinned forty days, and the king could neiiheil
prorogue nor dissolve the assembly, after it Ul
met, without its own consent. ' I
Not satisfied with having erected such fomiii'l
able barriers against the cncroaclimcntti of tliil
ititainoutt (liHtricU;
r» alxiuiul witli ex-
trnuU The rnanu-
n woollen and othtr
irticlcH, nuinxiwiler,
uper, hntis earthen.
ttcture of silk in tin
>;reatly diminishrf.
li«triclHor(;()l)iOT.is;
llucHco, (.'alatayuiL
libishoijric : there ue
liticB. Several rotdj
;he great towns; and
la to ZaragoKa,lljfi.
umenced in 152"J by
itt* iircHcnt extent iii
tc <•' promoting twit
ilways are also m-
;e ; anions thrm, ihe
ante; the 8ara);iit«i
[Tosaaand Pampeluni
rong, and wiU-buili;
ians, but indugtrimir,
■e intelU(;ent, and de-
oud, sullen, and es-
riterfcrence with tlieii |
harsh Aragoncse dii-
icd with the (Jastilim,
tvaiatcoat and a itiuiiil I
ler by a thong, audi |
mea two, to wotii in
er. The dress of the I
> ; it consists partly *l I
rce or four thick peiii- 1
I J whole weighing i
B Romans Aragon »«
•D. 470 it was ovemm
the Moors. After the
_ governed by it«ow
•rdinandwithls8bell«|
[century,
lously to the jimctiw
.Castile, and lor scum
Inarchical in fonn.nB
lublican. The kin?,
iiiied little more thsa
ng really vested in ibt
lupremc assembly™
imis orraembers; ihel
lie equestrian order i< I
Itatives of cities M
No law could pj»l
.J arm ; and withMtl
tax could be imposeAl
wncluiled, nor moDwl
jver of reviewing tbil
iourts, the imvikgei*
it of admuiistniiiiil
_ grievances, belonkflj
.ever, those aggrievKJ
lin the humble tone i(l
its interl'crenceasdiiel
sovereign court wj
every year; butftiol
mthccntuij'wasas-j
irs ; the session m-I
king could neithetl
isembly, after it Wj
erected sudifomijl
iiicroachments o( m
ARAGONA
mv»l prcroRativo the Aragonese, by an infititiition
iictiiliar to thcmsclvcH, electe«l ajustUa, or supreme
uilcc as the protector of the jKiople anil the coii-
trolier of the prince. Tl o person of the Justiza
««< sacreil, and his power and jurisilictiou almost
unbounded- he was the supreme interpreter of the
Igws, and not only inferior judges, but the kings
themselves were bound to consult him in every
difficult case, and to receive his responses with
implicit deference. An appeal lay to him from
the royal as well as the baronial judges, and even
when no appeal was made, he could inteqwse by
hi, own authority, prohibit the ordinary judge
from proceeding, take immediate cognisance of
tiie cause himself, and remove the party accused
to the prison of the manifestacion, to which no
ijerson had access but by his permission. His
nower was exert«d with no less vijjour and effect
in superintemUng the administration of goverr-
ment, than in regulating the course of justice. It
was the premgative of the justiza to inspect the
conduct of the king. He reviewed all the royal
pwclamations and patents, and declared whether
they were agreeable to law, and ought to be carried
into execution. He, by his sole authority, could
exclude any of the king's ministers from the con-
duct of aflairs, and call them to answer for their
mal-administration. He himself was accountable
to the Cortes only for the manner in which he dis-
chaiged the duties of his high office, and jjcrformed
functions of the greatest importance that could be
committed to a subject. The Aragonese were so
jolicitous that their monarchs should know and
feel their dependence on their subjects, that even
in swearing allegiance to their sovereign, the jus-
tiza thus addressed him m their name, ' We, who
are each of us as gowl, and who are altogether more
[wwerful than you, promise obedience to your
government, if you maintain our rights and liber-
ties, but not otherwise.' Conformably to tliis oath
it was expressly declared in their constitution,
that if the king shouhl violate his compact with
them, it was lawful for the Aragonese to disclaim
him, and elect another sovereign, even though a
heathen, in his room.
Aragon. while a separate kingdoir, was the most
powerful of the peninsular states, it comprised,
exclusive of Aragon Proper, Navarre, Catalonia,
Vdcncia, the Balearic Isles, and Sardinia. The
marriage of Ferdinand with the heiress of Castile,
the conquest of Granada by their united forces,
with the possessions they inherited or acquired in
other parts of Europe and in the New World, by
giraig the sovereigns extrinsic, and as it were
foreign resources, rendered them in a great mea-
sure independent of the supplies voted by the
Cortes, at the same time that it enabled them
gradually to subvert their authority. The estab-
lishment of the Inquisition was also a great blow
to the liberal institutions of Aragon and other
parts of the Peninsula, which were finally sup-
pressed during the reign of the bloody and tyran-
nical bigot Philip II.
AKAGONA, a to^vn of Sicily, Val di Girgenti,
" m. N. Girgenti, on a hill. Pop. 10,440 in 1861.
The town is ill-built, and dirty ; but is worthy of
notice for its castle, its antiquities, and for having
in its vicinity the mud volcano of Maccaluba.
This consists of numerous little hillocks, with cra-
ters on a kind of truncated cone of argillaceous
liarren soil, ^ m. in circiut, elevated about 200 ft.
above the surrounding arid plain. These craters
•re continually in action, making a hollow rum-
bling noise, and throwing up a fine cold mud,
mixed with water, a little petroleum and salt, and
uccasionally bubbles of air with a sulphurous taint.
Sometimes reports like the discharge of artillery
ARARAT
1G9
are hcani, and slight local earthquakes, till an
eruption takes place by the ejection of mud and
stones to the height of from BO to til) ft., the ordi-
nary height of the spouts being only from a few
inches to 2 or 8 ft. (For a further account of
this singidar phenomenon, see Smyth's Sicily,
p. 218.)
AKAICHE (EL). See Larachk.
ARAL (Sea ok), an inland sea or lake of Asia,
in indei)cndent Tartary, between 42° and 40° 12'
N. lat., and 5GA° and 01° 15' E. long., Ixdiig alMiut
800 m. in length from 8W. to NE., and from about
100 to nearly 250 m. in breadth ; so that, with the
exception of the Caspian, it is l)y far the most ex-
tensive inland sea ot the Old W orld. At its SW.
end it has a prolongation called Aibueoorskoe lake,
80 m. long, and about 20 broad. It has a great
number of islands, particularly towanis the S,,
and is generally so shallow, that it can be safely
navigated onlv by fiat-liottomcd Imats. Its waters
are salt, and its coasts generally low and sandv,
the country round consisting Im'wtly of vast arid
steppes. It is well supplied with fish, of which
sturgeon are the most valuable ; seals are also met
with. The Sea of Aral receives, bafidcs smaller
streams, the waters of two great rivers, the Sir-
Daria or Sihoun (the Jaxarlet of the ancients),
and the Amoo-Daria or Jihoun (the Oxus of the
ancients). But notwithstanding it has no outlet,
the prevalent opinion is, that the supply of water
brought to it, and also to the Caspian Sea, from
which it is separated by the desert ])lateau of Oust-
Oust, is unequal to what is carried oft' by evapora-
tion, and that their level and surface arc being
gradually diminished. It is 117 ft. above the
Caspian and 33 ft. above the Black Sea. The
extraordinary difference between the level of the
Caspian and the Sea of Aral, and the level of the
Black Sea (b<ie Caspian Sea), as well as the
nature of the Svdl in their vicinity, the traditional
and historical btatements with respect to their
boundaries, and t^ie opinions of the most eminent
naturalists, all lead to the belief that they once
extended over a m\tch larger tract of country, and
most probably made part of one great inland sea.
(For further details, see Casi-ian Sea.)
ARAMON, a town of France, dep. Gard, cap.
cant, on the Rhone, 16 m. E. Nismes. Pop. 2,31*3
in 1861. Manufs. of saltpetre.
ARANDA DU DUERO, a town of Spain, on
the Ducro, 48 m. S. Burgos. Population. 4,122
in 1857.
ARANJUEZ. ( Ara Jovis.) A town of Spain,
new Castile, in a fertile and well-watered valley
on the left bank of the Tagus, immediately a)M)ve
where it ia joined by the Xarama, 28 m. SSE.
Maiirid, and 22 m. ENE. Toledo, on the railway
from Madrid to Alicante. Pop. 10,727 in 1857.
The town derives celebrity fwm its royal palace,
commenced by Philir" II., and enlarged and em-
bellished by several of his successors, particularly
Charles IV., who added the fine gardens and
groves along the banks of the Tagus, and a small
but elegant pleasure hoase, the Casa del Labrador.
The palace is a handsome square building, with a
fine marble staircase, containing many fine sculp-
tures, and (as well as the church and monasteries
of the town) paintings of the Spanish and Italian
masters, especially of Raphael Mengs. The town
is built after the Dutch model ; having broad and
well-paved streets, houses uniform and painted,
fine promenades, and a square adorned with many
handsome edifices. The court formerly used to
occupy this palace from Easter till the end of
June; in July and August the situation is ac-
counted unhealthy.
ARARAT (Turkish Aghur Dagk, Armenian
* .M.-
If
■:\ m
-'^M
'km
170
ARAS
F'l
Macit), a famnuA mountain of Armenia, on the
coiithiuH of the KuriHian, Turkish, and Persian em-
pires, it« ]>rincii)al Hiimmit bein^ about i)5 m. S.
Erivan, lat. 890 30' N., long. 44° 35' E. lU base
K. and NE. is waslicd by the Araxcs, from the
low plain of which it rises most majestically to
an immense height. It forms the termination in
this direction of a range of mountains connected
with the Caucasian chain; but these, though
elevaied, seem in comparison with Ararat so low,
as to strengthen the impression of sublimity and
greatness made by contemplating it singly from
the plains to the E. It consists of two enormous
conical masses, one much higher than the other,
but the lowest ascending far within the line of
perpetual congellation. Ke|:)eated efforts had been
made at different times to reach its summit, but
this Herculean task was not effected till 1880,
when I'rofessor Parrot, of Dorpat, accomplished,
by dint of extraordinary ijcrsevcrance and energy,
what had previously been reckoned all but im-
possible. He determined the altitude of the
highest peak to be 16,'200 French or 17,230 Eng.
ft. above the level of the sea, being about 4,700
ft. higher than Mont Blanc. The summit is de-
scribed as a circular plain of limited dimensions,
united by a gentle descent to the less elevated
peak towards the E. The whole of the ujjper re-
gion of the mountain, from the height of 12,750
ft., is covered with perpetual snow and ice ; and
not unfrequently avalanches precipitate themselves
down its sides with tremendous force and furj'.
The mountain was again ascended in 1860, by
Colonel Khoelsko and a party of sixty, engaged in
the Kussian triangulation oi Transcaucasia.
On one of the sides of the principal cone is a
chasm or cleft of protligious depth, having much
the appearance of the crater of a volcano. '1 oume-
fort says, that its precipices are blackened as if by
smoke, but that nothing issues from it except tor-
rents of muddy water ; but the mountain presents
many appearances of volcanic action, and Dr.
Keineggs affirms that he has seen fire and smoke
issue from this chasm for three days together.
Ararat is not only an object of superior interest
from its mass and height, but still more from the
association with which it is connected. It is be-
lieved to be the Ararat of Scripture, on whose
summit the ark rested. (Genesis, viii. 4.) And
certainly it would be difHcult anywhere to find a
mountain that seems better entitled to the honour
of serving as a stepping stone ' d Noe pour de-
scendre du del en terre avec le reste de toutes les
creatures.' (Toumefort, Voyage du Levant, ii.
p. 360.)
Ararat, a district of Victoria colony, Australia.
Pop. 49,646 in 1859, of whom 3,300 were Chinese.
Ararat b one of the important gold-mining dis-
tricts of the colony.
ARAS (an. Araxes), a river of Asia, which has
its source in the mountain laud of Armenia, 20 m.
S. Erzeroum. It flows E. past the N. base of
Mount Ararat, then SE. to Curdasht, and NE. to
IVjrat, where it falls into the Kur, 60 m. in a
direct line "rom the embouchure of the latter in
the Caspian Sea. Its entire course may be esti-
mated at 420 ra. Notwithstanding its rapid
current, it is in many places fordable. It is de-
scribed by Ussher as a long, wide, and shallow
stream, a good deal of its water having been di-
verted for purposes of irrigation. (Ussher, From
London to Persepolis. 1865.)
ARAUCANIA, an extensive territory in South
America, comprising the country lying between
37° and 89° 50' S. lat., and 70° and 76° 20' VV.
long. On the N. it is bounded by the River
Biobio ; on the S. by the Valdivia or Calacalla ;
ARAUCANIA
on the E. by the Andes j and on the \V. hy Hj
Pacific Ocean.
The Araiicanians divide their country into tni
liutolmapus or tetrarchies, viz. : —
1. Langenmapu, 1. «. the maritime countr}-.
2. Lclpunmapu, 1. e. the plain country,
8. Inapiremapu, t. e. the country at the foot o|
the Andes.
4, Pircmapu, 1. e. the Andes country.
Each tetrarchy is governed by a 'foqui or te-
trarch, anil is subdivided into nine Allarej^ua or
Brovinccs, at the head of each of which is an Ano-
'Imcn. Each prov, is again subdivided into nine
Regues or district*^ severally presided over hy an
Ulinen, This division existed before tlie arrival
of the Spaniards, and is supposed to be of great
antiquity.
The dignity of Apo-Ulmen and Ulmen are he-
reditary in the male line. In case, however, ii(
failure, a successor is chosen by the iKoplc, anil
their choice is afterwards confirmed by the Toqui
or generalissimo. The succession is thenccfont-ari
perpetuated in the family of the individual newlv
chosen. The ensign of an Apo-Ulmen is a staf,
with a silver globe at one end and a silver ring in'
the centre. 'Ihat of an Ulmen resembles the fore-
going, with the exception only of the ring, which
is peculiar to the former. The ensign of the
Toqiii's authority is a battle-axe.
'1 he form of government comprises a mixtuie
of democracy and aristocracy.
The natives proper of Araucania belong t« the
race of the Moluehea, and the name of Araiica-
nians has been given them by the Spaniard".
Their range of information is extremely limited,
and though Spanish writers afiirm that they have
some notion of geometry, and are sutticiently ac-
quainted with astronomy to distinguish the'stan
by particular names, the credibility of theii
account is much to be questioned.
The industry of the country is confined to a
little agriculture. The .Araucanians cultivate a
few fruits, and make a kind of cider. Their prin-
cipal wealth consists of their flocks and herds, and
they possess a great number of horses, of the
Spanish breed, as well as oxen, guanacos, anil I
vicunas. The oxen and guanacos yield them t
plentiful subsistence, and the wool of the vicunu
supplies them with various articles of clothing,
The Auracanians have a sort of criminal code,
and the crimes which seem to be regarded as the
most heinous by them, are murder, adulter,
robbery, and witchcraft. The latter is mted
with immediate death. (Wimmer neustea Ge-
mSlde von Amerika, vol. iv. p. 812 ; Wien, 1833.)
Their religion consists in the belief of the ew[-
ence of a Supreme Being, besides that of many
lesser deities, and also in the immortality of the
soul. (Stein's Handbuch der Geographic, V0I.E
p. 752 ; Leipzig, 1834.) The Araucanians main-
tain no standing force, but every male is inuied
to the use of arms, and being naturally a warlike
people, it needs no compulsion to rally them in
defence of their country. None of the aboripnsl
race of S. America have resisted with so much
obstinacy and such determined bravery all the
attempts of Europeans to reduce them to a state
of subjection, and to the present time their efforu
have been successful, and they remain indepemlent.
They are extremely proud of having maintauied
their independence, and call themselves the w-
conquered people. They have derived from the
Spaniards the knowledge and the use of cavak
in battle, and then- skill in this mode of warfare
is scarcely to be surpassed.
The clothing of the men consists of trowseu,
reaching to the ankle, of woollen stuff and a |
on the W. by iht
r country into fum
itime cnunlr)-.
n country,
atry at the fwt ol
countiy.
by a Toqui or t^
nine AUarepies or
if whicli iH an Apo-
ulHlividiHl into iilnt
resided over by an
before tlie arriv»l
ised to be of gtcji
ind Ulmen are he-
i case, however, »(
by tbe iMjople, ami
rmcd by tlie Toqni
on is thenccforwanl
lie individual newly
po-Ulmen is a »t«f,
and a silver ring b
I resembles the fon^
f of the ring, whifh
The ensign of the
xe.
iompriscs a mixtuR
icania belong to tbe
le name of Arauci-
by the 8paniari^
J e'xtremely limited,
fflrm that they have
d are sufficiently «c-
distinguish the ttan
credibility of theii
)ned.
try is confined to i
icanians ctdtivate a
f cider. Their priii-
locks and herds, and |
[er of horses, of the
ixen, guanacos, and
inacos yield them i
wool of the vicunu
■tides of clothing,
|ort of criminal code, •
be regarded as the
murder, adulter;',
he latter is \Tsited
limmer neustea G^ |
. 312 ; Wien, Iffi)
[e belief of the exul-
isides that of many
immortality of tie
Geographic, vol. iiL
Araucanians main-
[very male is inuied
I naturally a warlike
on to rally them in
Ue of the aborijiinal
jted with 8(1 muck
led bravery all tlie
[luce them to a stale
jnt time their effotu
remaiu independent.
having maintained
themselves the un-
■e derived fmm the
, the use of cavalry
this mode of warfiK
ijonsists of trovm
tooUen stuff and »
ARAUCO
rninokof the same matcrialH, usually white, over
which is thn)wn a piece of cloth 2 ^ds. wide, and
i\ Icing, with a hole in the centre for the purpose
oi ailmittiiig the head. This garment is styled a
noncho. lucir hat is of a conical shape. The
dress worn by the women is a long white tunic,
.i„| a black upper garment fiwtened round the
liiin with a girdle, together witli a small mantle
called an ichillo. The favourite colour is blue,
ha«ng a greenish hue. The latter wear no licad-
dtess and go bare-footed. They are fond of dis-
plavi'ng a quantity of rings upon their lingers,
,ii(i ornament their arms and necks with strings
of beads. Kverv woman is obliged to present her
husband annually with a ponclio of her own
making, and daily with a dish cooked by herself.
(Wimmcr, vol. iv. p. 313.) Both the men and
women are exceedingly hardy, and capable of
enduring great fatigue. The children go naked
till their tenth or eleventh year.
A tribe, called Cunchi, inhabits the country
between Valdivia and the Gulf of (iuayatica;
and another, known by the name of the Hinlichi,
that between the Archipelago of Chonos and the
GiilfofPennos.
The government of Araucania was republican
till the year 1859, when a French gentleman, a
barrister named M. Do Tonners, who had tra-
velled through the country, gained some adhe-
rents, and proclaimed himself sovereign, under the
title of Kmg Aurelius Antonius I. To get rid of
this ruler, his opjwnents called in Chilian troops,
who defeated the king and made him prisoner in
Febniary, 1862 ; but at the same time annexed
Araucania to Chili. ' Aurelius Antonius I.' was
I liberated soon after, and returned to Paris.
AKAUCO, a town of Chili, cap. prov. and bay
I of same name, 230 m. SSW. of Valparaiso. Pop.
ofprov. 43,466 in 1856.
I AKBE, or AKBA, a small island in the Gulf
[of (iuamero in the Adriatic, separated by the nar-
Iniw channel of Morlacca from the coast of Croatia.
I Pop. 3,600 in 1857. It produces, com, tigs, and
I excellent wine; and has salt lakes. Its capital,
I of the same name, is situated on a bay on its S.
I coast, has 1,100 inhabitants, and is a bishop's see.
AKBELA, or AKIUL, a town of Turkey in
I Asia, pachaUc Bagdad, between the Greater and
■ Lesser Zab, on the high road from Bagdad to
I Mozul, lat. 36° 11' N., long. 44° E. This was for-
Imerlyalarge city, the cap. of the prov. of Adia-
Ibene, and is renowned in history for the tinal and
I decisive victory obtained in its vicinity, anno 331
I B.C., by Alexander the Great over Darius, which
Iwas speedily followed by the death of the latter,
land the total subversion of the Persian empire.
JBut, under its present Turkish masters, Arbela
Ihas sadly declined from its former greatness, and
lis now an inconsiderable mud town, with about
|3,0UO inhabitants. Part of it is built on an orti-
Iticial mound, 150 ft. in height, formerly surmounted
|by a castle.
AKBOGA, an inland town of Sweden, prefect.
iWesteras, on the navigable river Ulvison, which
[falls into the lake Maslar, near the point where
jthe former is joined by the canal of Arboga, pro-
; from Lake Hielmar, 160 m. VV. Stockholm.
Pop. a,Q22 in 18G0. It is the entrepot for the
'[on, and copper of the surrounding country ; has
I considerable transit trade, and has been the seat
|nf several diets.
ARBOIS, a to'Nvn of France, dep. Jura, capt.
ant,, on the Cuisance, half-way between Salms
md Poligny. Pop. 6,672 in 1861. The town is
kU built, situated in a valley surrounded by hills
Bid raeyards, which produce excellent white
^ues. It has a royal college and a tribunal of
ARCIIANOEL
171
original jurisdiction, with fabrics of oartlienware,
rape seed, oil, andpajMsr; tanneries, and tiatling
mills. Pichogru was a native of this town ; ami
after the Kestoration of 1815, a bronze statue was
erected to him in one of its squares.
AKCADIA, the classical name of central Pelo-
ponnesus, now an inl. immarchy of mod. (irect'o,
Morcn, of which it occupies the high tnlde-laiid
l)ctwcenlat.37015'jaiulnear380 N., h>ng. 21°44' to
22° 35' K., having N. Achaia, E. Argolis, VV. Elis,
and S. Mcsscnia and Loconia: length and breadth
aliout 40 m. each. Area, 1,600 sq. m. I'op,
96,546 in 1861. It is intersected by hill-ridges
ill various directions, ond on the N. a lofty moun-
tain range renders its access difficult. It contains
several plains of tolerable extent, as that of Tri-
polizza, 25 m. long, and from 1 to 8 m. brood, with
those of Loiulari, Mantinea, Tegea, &c. Its chief
streams are the lioulia (Al/>heii») the largest river
of the Morea, and its tributaries, the Dogana,
Ladon, <&c. : its lakes are insigniiioant in si/,e, but
the Stymphaliis, of classic fame, is amongst tlicni.
Arcadia has many gcogra]ihical features in com-
mon with Ikcotia : it is copiously watered, but its
vaUeys are often quite encased by hills, and having
no good outlet, the waters are but i)artly carried
off by subterranean channels, leaving stagnant
marshes, which deteriorate the air. Arca<iia, from
its elevation, is much colder than the rest of the
Morea ; its climate is even rigorous. Much of it
is uncultivated or given up to pasture, cattle-
feeding being by far the most important rural
occupation, the Arcadian shepherds roving about
with their Hocks in families of twelve or lifteen
persons, living in tents, and changing their loca-
lity as fresh pastures are required. Some of the
plains contain many vineyards; that of Henjea
was said by Pliny and others to proiluce a wine
that made ' men mad, and women fruitful : ' a
sweetish red wine is still made at that place, with
more flavour and body than almout any other iu
the Morea. The Arcadians are strong and lalxj-
rious, but all the operations of agriculture devolve
upon tlie women: the men devote themsel/es to
tending cattle, or pert'orming necessary joiuneys
on business. The decline of the cultiure and
population of Arcadia dates from a very remote
period. Strabo refers it, or at least the conversion
of the corn laiub into pasture, to the lera of the
foundation of Alegalopolis, to settle in which city
many of the smaller towns and villages were
abandoned. Forests, however, have not appa-
rently much increased ; and that of Pelagus, in
the plain of Pallaiitium (Tripolizza) has wholly
disappeared. Arcadia presents, m many places,
most beautiful scenerj' ; as, for uistance, the val-
ley of Megalopolis. (See Leake, Mouea.) The
plane, iir, chestnut, oak, ilex, wild-pear, lentisk,
&c., are the most common trees ; deer and game
are plentiful ; wild boars, wolves, bears, &c., com-
mon only in the N. Arcadia, which was formerly
divided into four eparchies, is now divided into the
deps. of Mantinea and Gortynos : Tripoli/.za, Lon-
dari, Karitena, and Andruzzcna, are its chief
towns. It contains the remains of the cities of
Phigaleia, Megalopolis, Pallantium, «tc. besides
many other interesting ruins.
AliC-EN-BAKltOlS, a town of France, dep.
Haute Marne, cap. cant, on the Aujon, 13 ni. SW.
Chaumont. Pop. 1,349 in 1861. There are
woollen manufactures.
AKCHANGEL, or ARKHANGHELSK, a
government of Russia in Europe, occupying the
whole country from the Oural Mountains on the
E. to the Grand Duchy of Finland on the W., and
from the frontiers of Vologda and Ohnietz on the
S. to the Arctic Ocean and the White Sea on
n^i
r:i
178
ARCHANGEL
\ i ml
the N. It indiKlcH, alm>, Novn Zembln, and Romc
otlinr lar^c MlaiulH in the Arc-tio Sea. The (>i«li-
matoH of the area ditler conHtdcrably, but it Ih
believed, excliisivo of tho inlands, to exceed
2r>0,00() Hq. m., or more than double tho si/c of
(ireat Dritain and Ireland; incl. islandH its area in
CHtitnated at 29(),0f)7 h(j. m. The largcHt portion
by far of this vast temtory is condemned to j>er-
petual sterility. Tho itart of it within the Arctic
circle consists principally of an almost boundless
expanse of sandy and mossy plains, having ice,
even in tho middle of summer, always a little
bolow the surface. The country on this side the
Arctic circle consists, also, of iminense plains,
partly occupied with forests that cover more than
naif the entire extent of tho prov. ; partly, but in
a very inferior degree, by low pasture grounds ; and
partly with lakes, and morasses. Principal towns.
Archangel, Onega, Dwina, Mezcn, and Petchora.
Pop. in 1846, 253,000; in IHM, 274,951. Owing
to the severity and variableness of tho climate,
com crops cannot be de]H;ndcd upon; and, in
consequence, even in the southern districts, where
the land is most fertile, they are but little at-
tended to ; though considerable quantities of hemp
and flax are raised. The principal wealth of the
government consists in its immense and appa-
rently inexhaustible forests ; but tishing and hunt-
ing are the chief employments. The rein-deer
is the domestic animal of the Laplanders and Sa-
inoyedes, the former occupying the N W. and the
latter the NE. parts of the government. Among
the tril)es now mentioned, dried flsh occupies the
place of bread ; and in the more S. districts, the
inner bark of trees, and certain species of moss,
are intermixed with meal, or substituted for it in
tho making of bread. Horses and cattle diminu-
tive, and but little attention is paid to their treat-
ment. The district of Kholmogor, on the Dwina,
a little below Archangel, where the pasture is ex-
ceedingly goo»l, must, however, be excepted from
this remark. A breed of Dutch cattle, imported
into this district bv Catherine II., and distributed
amongst the inhabitants, still preserves its supe-
riority ; and the calves of these cattle, being well
fed, furnish the delicate white veal so much
esteemed at St. Petersburgh. (Tooke's Russian
Empire, iii. p. 89.) Ship and boat building, and
the preparation of pitch and tar, are carried on to
a considerable extent. A good deal of coarse
linen is made by the peasantry of Archangel, and
of the contiguous districts ; and they also manu-
facture a good deal of cordage and immense quan-
tities of mats, with leather, tallow, turpentine,
potash, &c. The population, though originally
Finnish, is now essentially Russian. The Sa-
moyedes, who are almost at the bottom of the
scale of civilisation, though spread over an im-
mense surface, do not exceed 6,000 or 7,000 indi-
viduals. They are exempted from tho Obrock
and from compulsory military service, paying only
the issaak or tribute imposed on Asiatics. The
Laplanders, who are a little more advanced, do
not amount to 2,000 individuals. They are sub-
ject to the capitation tax.
Akchanqul, the cap. of the above govern-
ment, and the principal city and port of trade in
the X. of Russia, on the right bank of the Dwina,
about 34 m. above where it falls into the White
Sea; lat. 64° 32' 8" N., long. 40° 33' E. Pop.
28,981 in 1858. The town ia almost entirely
built of wood, and has been materially improved
since the fire of 1793. The principal building is
the Gostinoi dwor, or bazaar, for the exhibition
and sale of merchandise, and its protection against
lire. It is of stone, and of great extent. The
marine hospital also deserves to be noticed. Arch-
ARCIIirELAOO
angel is the residence of a general and civil gn.
veriior, and of an archbishop. There is an ccdnj.
Bstical seminary with nine professors, ag^'mnasimt,
a school of commerce and navigation, and mmj
other educational establishments. Notwitliittand.
itig its high N. latitude, and the lengthened p«rii,i
during which it is annually inaccessible, ithiM»
pretty extensive commerce. It owes this t« ji,
situation on the Dwina, one of the most importtni
rivers of Russia, and which has been united |jv
canals with the Wolga on the one hand, and ihf
Neva on the other. The greater part of the
articles of export are brought by this channel
mostly from a considerable distance, some even'
from Siberia. The principal are com, flax ui,|
hemp, timber, iron, linseed ; vast quantiticji li
mats, potash, tallow, tar, pitch, train-oil, cauvjsi
and coarse linen, furs, cordage, and dcalx. Xhe
cxjjorts vary materially in different years, prin.
cipally according to the demand fi)r cum in
this and other foreign countries. During the live
years prccecUiig 1864 they amounted to— ifiji)
1,297,879/.; I860, 906,851/.; 1861, 1,157,345/':
1862, 1,128,965/.; and 1863, 796,898/.; tUe^'^
falling oft' in the latter year, however, arinin;;
from the failure of the grain and linseed cru|« in
the districts which supply the port. About th^e^
fourths of tho exports are to Ureat Hritiiin. Tiie
value of the im|)orts, which consist principally uf
colonial produce, spices, salt, woollens, cottons,
hardware, and flsh, is always much less than thii
of the exports. 'I'he figures for the same yeam
as the exports above given were — 67,771 /., 67,'7oii/
61,180/., 69,608/., and 80,480/., about one-founh
of tho amount being from Great Uritaiii. The
article most hugely imported is flsh, the value cf
which in 1863 was 41,928/. Of late years there
has been a considerable importation of tea from
England, competing with the teas brought over-
land from Kiachta. The amount in M'i m
5,305/. The exports, being bulky articles, employ
a great number of ships, varying from 30U to oW,
The number of vessels which cleared in 1863 »«
354 ; tonnage 68,870 ; of which 187 vessels, and
35,989 tons, were British. There were, beside!,
181 vessels employed in the coasting trade mih
Norwegian Finmark. The harbour is at the Island
of Solembolsk, about 1 m. below the town; and
the ships are principallj^ loaded direct from the
prams, rafts, &c., that bring the produce down the
river. There is a bar at the mouth of the river,
with from 13 to 14^ ft. water ; and vcssek
drawing more than this must, of course, partly
load and unload by means of lighters in the
roads. There is a govemment dockyanl, with
slips for building ships, about 12 miles' below the
town, where also are situated warehouses bclongiiij;
to merchants of the city. A flshiiig company wis
established here in 1803. Exclusive of the ship I
and boat builiUng, and the manufacture uf conlage
and canvass referred to in the preceding article,
there is here a sugar rcflnery and several brcweriesi [
The entrance to the Dwina, where Arclianj.fl
was soon after built, was discovered by tlic famoiii
Richard Chancellour, the companion of Sir H%'li
Willoughby in his voyage of discovery, in 155i; I
and from that period do^vn to the foundation of I
Petersburg, it was the only port in the empire [
accessible to foreigners. (Commercial Reports.)
ARCHIDONA, a town of Spain, 34 m. .V.
Malaga. Pop. 7,611 in 1857.
ARCHIPELAGO, a term applied to suchtracB
of sea as are interspersed with numerous and con- 1
tiguous islands ; but it is especially applied to the I
islands in the /Egean Sea, or that part of the |
Mediterranean lying between Asia Minor audj
Greece.
ARCraPELAOO (EASTERN)
ARCHIPELAOO (EASTEUN). Thw most
,j,„ivc archii)clnfto citmpriHCM a vast number of
i<l«ii(l.s H'""" "* which, 88 IJonico, Java, .Sumatra,
('i>lel)€»t &'■ ""^ "^ ^*"y liWC dimeiiHioiis. The
i*lnn(l» extern I within the tropics iM^twcen 95® and
11150 E. ionj?., nnd 11" 8. and 19° N. lat., having
siv. and N. tlie ChincHO Sea; NK. and E. the
i'aeitic! and S. and S\V. the Indian Ocean. The
im'hip«l«K" " divided by Mr, Crawfurd into the
'olldwii'X "^'^ divisions, eacli distinguished by pe-
aliarilicH of situation, climate, and producta.
1st Uiv. From long. 95° to 11(5°, including
Sumstra, Java, Uali, liombok, Madura, Dangita,
Billiton, the Malay penins, and the VV, and larger
wrtm of Horneo. The soil of this division is
LkI, and suited to the production of most kinds
of vfL'. f<HHl. I^i'^o is the chief subsistence of the
inliabitaiits, who are the most civilised of the
ATctui^lago,
ill. Div, From long. 1 1C° to 124°, includes
I CclelieS) Sumbawa, Flores, Sandal-wood, Timor,
nnd the K. part of Borneo to 8° N, lat. The soil
is inferior to the former ; rice is not so abun-
(iaiitly produced, and sago partly supplies its
I nlui-'e.
3(1. Div, From long. 124° to 130f ; lat, 10° S.
1 to "2° X. : includes Ceram, Booro, Gillolo, Timor-
I laii't, the Arooc I, and Papua, The climate differs
from that of most of the other div, : the E, mon-
s(Kin is rainy and boisterous, the W, dry and tem-
jiemte; the plants and animals of the 1st and
1 2ml division disappear, and others take their
I place, peculiar to this region of the world, as the
cliive, nutmeg, tfec. Very little rice is grown;
I sa(!o ftimis the chief food : the natives are greatly
iiiferiur to those of all the other div. in civiliza-
itiun.
4th Div. From long. 116° to 128°, and lat. 4°
I to 10° N. includes Mindanao, the Sooloo I., Pala-
wan, and the NE. part of Borneo. Prwlucts of all
I the former div. are found here ; but the clove and
I nutmeg are very inferior. Kice is consumed, but
Isajj'oisthe principal article of food; the natives
I are above those ot the 3rd division in civilization.
5th Div. From 10° to 19° N. lat. includes the
Iteraaindcr of the Philippines, and is the only
Iportion within the limits of the hurricanes. The
Isuil 13 fertile in rice, tobacco, and the sugar-cane,
Ibut not in the pepper of the 1st, nor the fine spices
lof the 3rd div. The manners, institutions, and
I language of the inhabitants differ from those of
lall the other divisions.
Mr. Wallace, in a paper read before the Geo-
Igraphical Society June 8tb, 1863 (vol. xxxiii.
Ipp. 217, et seq. of Journal) gives a different and
Inoic extensive definition of the archipelago.
■Acoording to his views, the Malay— or, as he
lehould prefer to name it, the Indo-Australian —
larchipclago, extends from the Nicohar Islands on
■the XVV. of St, Christoval, one of the Solomon
Jliilands on the SE. ; that is, between long. 95° and
11 62° E,, and from Luzon on the north to Rotti,
Tnear Timor, on the south. The whole region, in-
Kluding the Malay peninsula, which is almost an
bland, and from which the archipelago is not
physically separated, is of a somewhat triangular
Ibrni, with an extreme length of about 5,0U0, and
breadth of rather more than 2,000 English
niles, 80 that it is comparable in its dimensions
rith the primary divisions of the earth, while its
nmponent parts are on an equally extended
ale— two of the islands, Borneo and New Guinea,
leing the largest on the globe. They are nearly
qual in extent, and the only other island which
Approaches them is Madagascar. Borneo would
iintain within its vast area the whole of Great
Britain and Ireland, with all their islets from
173
Scilly to Shetland in their true relative positions,
and still leave boundless forests stretciiing out
like an ocean beyond tliem. Then comes Sumatra,
about equal to great Britain; after which fcdiow
Java, Luzon, and CelcU's, either of which may
compare in size with Ireland, or one of the larger
New Zealand Islands, After tliese succect! eighteen
islands which average as large as Jamaica, mora
than one hundred alnnit the size of the Isles of
Wight and Man, with many thousands of isleit
anil islets below these, and which arc practically
innumerable. The region deserves to be hniked
on as a separate continent, possessing its own
races of men and its own as|)ects of nature, alto-
gether cut off from the great continents into
which we are accustomed to divide the globe, and
?uite incapable of being classed with any of them,
f Australia bo a fifth division of the globe, this
great archipelago may be considered a sixth, Mr,
Wallace considers that the northern jM>rtion of
the archipelago, consisting principally of the
Islands of Java, Sumatra, and liomeo, must have
formed at a comparatively recent date a portion
of the continent of Asia, drawing tlie inference
from the general likeness of the /uu»a anil Jlora
to those of Asia, and the shallowness of the Mean
dividing the archifjologo from that continent, the
depth not exceeding 60 fathoms. F<ir similar
reasons, Mr. Wallace considers that the southern
half of the archipelago formed a portion of the
Australian continent. The contrast between the
two halves is abruptly exhibited in passing from
the Island of Bull to that of Sombock. The strait
here is 15 miles wide, so that we may pass in two
hours from one great division of the earth to
another, differing as essentially in their animal
life as Europe docs from America. Eastward of the
Malay archipelago, a group of islands stretches
out into the Pacific Ocean ; but these character-
istics arc distinctively Australian, and they are
therefore, not included in the island-continent.
The E. archip. is mountainous, and its principal
mountains, which are often isolated, have all a
volcanic character. It is very generallv covered
with deep forests of stupendous trees. The num-
ber of grassy plains is very small, and there ore
no arid sandy deserts. It is distinguished from
all other clusters of islands by its periodical winds,
and peculiar natural products, one of which, sago,
' is such as man nowhere else subsists upon ' as a
chief article of food, Gold is found in almost
every part, but especially in Borneo and Sumatra,
the total yearly produce being estimated at
165,000 oz. Silver is believed to be native, tin is
very plentiful in Bangka ; and there are als«> iron
and copper; diamonds are found in Borneo;
sulphur pretty generally, and salt from springs,
especially in Java. Palms, bamboos, and ratana
are universal ; the most remarkable of these trees
is the sogo-palm (Metroxylnn sago), one of the
smallest of its tribe, seldom reaching to more tluin
30 ft. in height, and growing only where the E.
is the boisterous monsoon, a region extend-
ing W. to Celebes and Borneo, N. to Mindanao,
S. to Timor, and E. to Papua ; Ceram is its chief
seat, and there large forests of it are found. The
edible farina is the central pith, which varies con-
siderably in different trees as to the time required
for its attaining proper maturity. At the age of
perhaps fifteen years the tree is cut down, and may
yield 500 or 600 lbs. pith, but the average is about
300 lbs. ; this is ground into powder, clarified, and
made into cakes kept dry for use : it is eaten by
the natives in the form of pottage. Sago grows
well only in marshy places : ' a good sago planta-
tion or forest is a bog knee-deep. A farina of an
inferior kind is supplied by the gomuti (Borassus
I >'"
r
174
ARCIIIPELAQO (EASTERN)
lid
ffomntuH), nnotlirr pnlm pprnlinr to th'xn jMirt «f
tliu wiirlil, which (jrowH in the K. ixl. in the val-
li-ys of hilly tractH, nnd yicltln nlw) totldy, ami a
flhroiiH qtidprmisuHcd in tho corda^^c of the native
Hhi|)|)in^, Tonk itt abundant in Java, and tho
banana f^ntwH commonly in the f^roatcHt perfection ;
t lie orange and lemon tril)0, Hlmddock, pome^^ra-
natu, pino-applc, (fuava, tamarind, Jack-friiil,
maii^o, &c. are iilentifiil ; and wvcral Wne fruitw,
an tiio vhnmjmnnah, mamjitgtein, and duriitn, are
confined to the orchiiK-lago. The latter in eHtcemed
by the natives before all other fniitH; it in as
lar^e as a piim|>kin, its seeds liein^ enveloped in
n rich white pul]), the edible ]>ortion ; and, though
repnlsive at first by a strong smell, a taste for it
once accpiired is lasting. The copal tree is found
in Palawan, and others yieldiuj;; resins arc plen-
tiful ; the ))alma christi, cocoa-nut, and sesamum
yield oil, as well as a lar^e and handsome tree
called kunari, peculiar to the E. isl., benzoin,
<!atechu, camjdior, olibanum, are the gums na-
turally produced, and tho pterocaqjus, yielding
dnifTuns' blood, ^rows in Sumatra ond llornoo.
I'Ibony, toon, sandal-wood, in Timor and the ad-
jacent isl., sajjan-wood, lipuim-aloes, &c, are
foiuul; and indi^^o, annotto, satllower, and tcr-
meric in nearly all tlie isl. The clove nnd nut-
niej; flourish in Amboyna and the Moluccas, black
]U'pi)er in Sumatra, and Ringer and cassia pretty
{generally; cid)ebs, cnjeput (melaleuea cajuputi),
and sassafras in various parts, areca in all, as well
as the auchar or poison tree : the chetik, Avronply
called u)xts, is confined to Java. The sugar-cane,
otton, tobacco, capsicums, onions, cucumbers,
nnd the sweet potato in tho W. are common arti-
cles of culture ; many kinds of pulse arc grown
OS articles of AhkI ; millet is but seldom cultivated,
but maize, which is next in imjiortanco here to
rice, flourishes evervwherc. The natives gene-
rally are very fond o^ flowers ; those of the archip.
are mostly yellow or red ; blue is rare amongst
them ; lotuses and other aquatic plants are pro-
fusely numerous. European flowers and other
vegetables transplanted thither, in general soon
lose their perfume and excellence ; and the same
is the case with those from America, which, like
the pine-apple, «S.'C., are treated with indifference
by the natives. The buffalo and ox, l)eing both
of remarkably large and fine breeds, are used in
agriculture ; elephants are found in the Malay
peninsula and Sumatra only.
The argus pheasant and bird of paradise ore
the most remarkable birds. The latter is exceed-
ingly abundant in Pai)ua, the Arooe, and other
E. isl. The edible birds' nests, so much valued by
the Chinese, are built in caves, most commonly
on the sea-shore, by a species of swallow {Hirun-
do esculenta). Tortoises are numerous in the E. :
the shores, esjiecially in the W., profusely abound
with fine fish, as the pomfret, ealcap, soles, <JL'C. :
the whale fishery of the S. seas is reputed worth
upwards of 1,000,000/. perann. ; sharks, whose fins
are important articles of export in China, pearl
oysters, cowries, or gigantic cockles, are common ;
and the Holothuria, or sea slug, is fished for on
coral reefs from one end of the archipelago to the
other. The lac insect exists in most of the
forests, esjiecially in Sumatra and the Malay pe-
nins. ; and bees are very numerous in the E., but
they have never been domesticated.
Native Tribes. — The inhab. are of two distinct
races, differing widely in conformation; one
having a fair or brown complexion, wliile the
other is block. The former inhabit chiefly the W.,
the latter the whole of the archip., but become
more prevalent as we go farther eastward. The
fair or brown tribes are short, squat, and robust,
T) ft. 2 inches l)eing the greatest height commnniT
of the men, and 4 fl. 11 in. of tho women, Tlieit
lower limbs are large nnd lieavy, but not 11).
formed, the Imsoms of the women rather m\\\
than largo in proportion to their size, and th«
arms and limbs of both aoxcs are round and tlc«hv
rather than muscular. Face round, mouth wid/
teeth remarkably fine, chin square, onglos of Inwit
jaw vervprominent, cheek-bones hi|?h(clu'('k8 there-
fore hollow) ; nose not very pnimment, l)iit nevj,
flat ; eyes small and black ; hair on the hetil
long, lank, harsh, and generally black ; vlHcwhere
very scanty. This race is superior in ni)pcaraii«
to the other, but less good-looking tlum munt
Asiatic nations. Tho black or Papuan race is i
kind of dwarf African negro, never more than 5 ft,
ill height; spare and puny, with a projcctiii)(bf||v
and buttocks, which are much lower tlian the
African's; complexion sooty, noso and uiukr-lin
projecting very much from the face ; hair wmiilv,
III small tufts, and each hair with o spiral twiiii
For undersized ]ieople, the inhob. of the arcliip,
ore strong and athletic, though not agile, nur, like
some Asiatic nations, fond of practising ami ex-
hibiting feats, to show the flexibility of their
bodies. They hove a singular strength of cim-
stitution, and ability to recover speedily frum
bodily Occidents and resist inflammatory disonlcrs.
They are temperate and abstemious, and not d^
voted to intoxicating liquors, although thev
universally use betel, areca, and tobacco, and
would consume much opium, were the price nut j
so high. They are good-tempered, brave, luimaiie,
hospitable, and neither bigoted nor perfidious, but |
very revepgeful. They are capable of attachmem,
gratitude, and fidelity, have great parental ami
filial affection, love for their country, ond a. KpA I
for truth. The faculties of their mind arc gcneraUv
feeble ; they are slow of comprehension, cnKluluib,
and superstitious; their judgment narrow,
their reason, memory, and imogination alike I
weok ; they are, however, good imitatoni, and |
hove on aptitude for music ; in their manncn they
are grave, courteous, and reserved ; they consider I
it most respectful to sit, cover the head, and
turn the back to their superiors. The more savajie
tribes go quite noked, with the exception ofi
smoll piece of cloth worn round the loins. In the
Philippines the dress is nearly the same for tah
sexes, and between the flowing dress of the
Asiatics, and the close one of Europe, consisting
of two coverings : excepting the Mohammedans,
all weor the head uncovered. Their teeth are I
usually filed and blackened : the women's orai- 1
menta'ore chiefly of gold : pearls are never worn. I
All the men are armed with the kris, or diigfier,
which, with the spear, is the favourite weuptin;
the others are the club, sling, sword, and bow I
and arrows ; the latter are often poisoned with I
auchar, which is, however, by no means, a power- [
ful drug. They are not expert in the use of fiie- 1
arms. The materials of their dwellings an I
commonly bamboo, ratan, palmetto loaves, and
wild grass, the two latter of which are used k I
roofing : houses in the neighbourhood of the sea I
are mounted on posts 16 to 20 ft. high, and so- 1
perior residences are enclosed within temporaiyj
])nling8. They consist of but one floor, and their I
furniture is rude and scantv ; the beds are roufk I
mats, or often mere benches, on which a person I
lies down, with his day-dress wrapt around hini. j
Knives and forks are unknown, and porcelain j
dishes are a luxurj' : meals are taken sitting m I
the ground; the food is served up in trays rf I
wood or metal, ond grasped by hondfuls by exi I
as he wonts it. The Polynesian language, whlcb, I
in various dialects, is spoken over nearly tin |
ARCHIPELAGO (EASTERN)
,\w\f of the orcJiip., and cxtcniU n« well
ARCO
na
to
!,vcne« towonl the 8., i» in every renpect ilifferent
from »11 "thow, and probably derived from an
nncifnt nation originally settled in Java, where it
U unokcn in its Kf'"''*'*''^ purity. Next to the
aialiM't (if Java, those of the Malay jieniiis., lUiKis,
and MiionsHHr, arc the nrjoHt civilisecl ; Sanskrit is
jiitnHluceil into the more improved islands of the
\\ (livinion; Arabic has also been intriMluced by
ilic Mohnnimednns. There is in parts also a
miiill admixture of Chinese and Tcrsian, Portu-
guese and Dutch. , . , , .
Kvfnr the greater imrtion of the land is yet
iipcultivntcd ; and of tliat which is, the chief iiart
i, tio iK^tter than a morass for half the year. There
|!i H wide diflVrcnce in the industry of the natives;
f,me arc roaminf? alwut their forests, but the
ureatcr number have actually made ' a respectable
nriiLit'ss in social order, tamed the useful animals,
miiilicil themselves successfully to agriculture, to
tUhcrics, to navifjation, and even to mining.' The
luL'W race are fond of hunting; all arc devoted to
pimcs of hazard, and in Java cock-fighting is a
favourite amusement. They are fond of dancing ;
tlifir (lances being grave, stately, and slow : their
music is not destitute of melody. Polygamy and
oincubinage are common amongst the higher
ranks, in the more civilised states. Chastity is
variously appreciated ; but women are never im-
mured, and are even eligible to govern in elective
monarchies as Celebes. Slavery exists every-
where except in Java. The inhab. of the nrchip.
are clothed in cotttm, mostly woven by them-
[ selves: silk they never wore generally, nor wks
I the silkworm ever cultivated by them : their loom
thev have derived from the Hindoos. They know
liuw to work many of the most useful metals, as
iron, tin, and gold. Some of their musical instru-
ments are made of a kind of bell-metal, which
they cast themselves ; and they sometimes use a
metallic coinage. Iron, however, is but little
used for tools and implements of agriculture : their
cutlery is ^vretched, from a want of knowledge
how to temper it ; and they arc unable to make a
lock for a musket. They car\'e kris handles, and
make betel-boxes in a very superior manner, and
huild vessels even to 40 or 50 tons burthen ; but
their smaller ones are better, safer, and swifter.
They manufacture balachong, a kind of lish-sauce,
liotli for home consumption and exportation : salt
they obtain by the usual means of evaporation,
ami saltpetre by boiling the soil of caves which
bats and birds frequent. The manuf. of glass is
unknown ; but they attempt that of gunpowder :
the great request, however, in which they hold
that of Europe, proves the inferiority of their own.
In war, the flower of their land-forces always con-
sikts of infantry; but their naval strength ia the
more formidable : their warfare has always been
cimtined to predatory descents on adjacent islands.
Every description of government is to be met with
in this archip., from unlimited freedom in a
savage state, to absolute despotism in the most
civilised; in no one is there an hereditary no-
bility, and the civil and religious authority are in
even- case kept distinct. The public revenues are
usually derived from the three sources of taxes on
land, a poll-tax, and taxes on articles consumed
or imported ; in Java there is a tax on lisheries.
Famimg the revenues is a common practice, and
it is common in manv states for the prince or
chief to reward his officers by assigning to them,
instead of iwying them directly, a certain extent
of land, or the amount of the value of the labour
of a certain number of cultivators. The prevail-
ing religion is Mohammedan, which was introduced I
into the archip, in the thirteenth, and continued to
HI tread till the end of the sixteenth century. i!hris-
tianity itrovailn (mly in the Philippines and the
Spice isl. The Mohammedan laws are thoso
chiefly in force in the civilised |>art4<, and are
closely adhered to sometimes ; but the task of
avenging private injuries mostly Vassos into pri-
vate hands. The ItJ^ UiVumit is very jiopular,
though almost all punishments may Ixt com-
iiounded or alleviated by paying the party injured,
iiis friends, or the executioner : slabbing by the
kris is the most usual m(Mle of capital punishment.
Trade in the arclii|)elag<i is esteemed a most
h(m(mrable emph)yment, and even sovereigns
]>crsonally engage in it. Java, Sumatra, and
Celebes are the chief seats of trade : from the
latter forty vessels go annually to the N. coast of
Australia, and many others into the rest of the
archipelago, to collect articles for the Chinese
trade, the most considerable of all, yet not of IHO
years' standi?.^'. The ex|)orts to China are jiep-
per, cloves, mace and nutmegs, scented w(io(ls,
ebony, ivory, horns, hides, tortoise-shell, sharks'
tins, edible birds' nests, gold dust, l>enzoin, cam-
j)hor, betel, wax, wool, tripang, and t^urojiean
woollens and cottons. The trade with India is
believed by Mr. Crawfurd to have commenced nt
the l>egiiiiiing of the second centurv of the
Christian tern, and is now very extensive. The
imports consist principally of i)epiier, tin, betel-
nut, fine wiKids, gold and silver, dainar and spices.
The ex[)orts to Kurope and America have vc^y
greatly increased within these few years ; priii-
ci|)ally in consequence of the wonderfully ex-
tended growth of sugar, coffee, ond indigo in
Java (which see). Hut, exclusive of these great
staples, Java sends rice to the other islands, to
the Cape of Good Iloiie, and even to Euro|Ki ;
sago is sent to Kurope, China, and liengnl ; cotton
is produced principally in the great S(mtli chain
of the first and second divisions, but little, how-
ever, is sent beyond the archipelago. The chief
imports are black tea, coarse porcelain, wrought
iron, cottons and silks, brass and tutenague ware,
paper, books, shoes, fans, umbrellas, ])aint ami
toys, from China ; salt, tobacco, blue cotton cloths
and chintzes from India. Chintzes dyed red,
green, and other bright colours, and especially in
patterns of running flowers, are peculiarly accej)-
table to the natives. Manchester and Glasgow
cottons, bandana handkerchiefs, cotton velvets
and woollens. English saddlery and inm, fire-
arms and ammunition, glass and plated wares,
raw and wrought silks, and opium, are also in great
request. These nations are ignorant of arithmetic,
and, excepting in Java, 1,000 is the highest num-
ber they have any term to express. Interest on
money lent is very high ; bills of exchange are
unknown; and women are almost solely the
merchants, brokers, and money-changers. (His-
tory of the Indian Archipelago, by John Craw-
furd, 3 vols. 8vo.)
AKCIS-SUK-AUBE, a town of France, dep.
Aube, cap. arrond. on the river of that name, at
the point where it begins to become navigable,
and where it is crossed by the high road from
Troyes to Rheiras. Pop. 2,81.5 in 1861. The
to^vn has manufactures of woollen stockings and
caps, an establishment for spinning cotton, tan-
neries, &c., and is the entre]K)t of the iron of the
valley of the Aube, and of the wire and wood-
work of the Vosges. This town suffered severely
during the campaign of 1814. Napoleon, who
displayed equal skill and courage, repulsed at this
point, with a very inferior force, one of the prin-
I cipal divisions of the allied armv.
ARCO, or ARCH, a town of 'the Tyrol, with a
Vi J|'V
178
ARCOLE
'•I.
I
caxtln, on the Rarca, 7 m. W. Rovcrcilo. Pop.
8,430 in m,7.
AUCULK, a villiif^c of northern Itnlv, on tho
AI|M>ra, lA m. KHK. Vcronn. Pop. '2,1n/> hi IHfii.
A Ni>riFii of NAM^uiiinry eM((n^<<m<>ntH tiMik |ilacc
licreon tlio l/ith, Itit'h, and 17th of Novonihor,
17!Mi, iN-twccn tho AiiNtriunM nml tho French
nn<h>r Na|Mile(in, when tho hitter f^niiieil one of
the inoMt Hif^iml victuricH in the fainuiiH campai^^n
of that veiir.
A1{C()S DK LA FHONTEUA, a town of
Hpiiin, AnilahiHin, on tlie Uuatlalete, DO in, KXK.
(,'ii(liK. I'op. 1 1,272 in 1H57. The town Ih Hitnated
on nil elevated rock, nn<l in of ditHcult acceHit.
StreetM unimved, aiul ill adapted for foot pax-
fleiiKont. It hoH two imriMli cliureheN, and Home
t'onveiitd for lioth hoxch. 'I'ho nwnt altar of tlio
(■htirch of Hunta Maria w much adorned. The
rouiitry in the vicinity ix moiintainouH, interHected
by vallevft, and very fertile.
AKOOT, a marit. district of IlindoHtAn, prov.
('arnatic, prcHid. Madrax, divided into two huI>-
ditttriuts, or coUectoratefl, compriHiii);; the whole
country from Coleroon river on the S. to tho
frontier of the Nellorc diiitrict on the N. and K. of
i'udilupah, Mysore, and 8alem, with tho excep-
tion of tho Ohin^leput dintrict Iviiiff round
Madras, United area, lJJ,400Hq, m. Pop. 1,578,042
ill 1801. The districtH are divi<led hy the Palnnr
river. Near the sea the country Ih low and well
cultivoted; hut further inland it is hilly, with
exleimive tracts of jungle. Agriculture is the
({reat liusineM) of the natives; and thin depends
very much on irrigation, to assist in which many
very lar^o tanks, artitiitial channels, and dams
liave Ik'cii constructed. Tho country is held under
the ryotwar system. (See India.) The trade in
piece f{0(Ml8 has been well iiiKh annihilated by tho
introduction of the cheajier cottons of Great
liritain; but cotton stuH's still continue to l>e
manufactured at Pulicat and Irrycum, and there
is an extensive iron foundry at Porto Novo.
AncoT, a city of Ilindostan, tho former Mo-
hammedan cap. of the Carnatic, on the S, side of
the Palaiir, 0« m. WSW. Madras, lat. 120 54' N.,
lonf?. 7!)° 23' E. It is well built, is enclosed by
walls, and contains the ruins of the ])alacc of the
nabobs of Arcot. The popul{>tion consists prin-
ciiNiUy of Mohammedans who speak the Decanny
dialect, which we call Ilindostani. It has a hand-
some Mohammedan mosque, with some other Mo-
hammedan religious edilices. The citadel, for-
merly of largo extent and considerable strength,
is now (luitc in ruins, its principal defences having
been blown up ; but the rampart next the river,
as it protects the town from inundation, is kept
in good repair. Arcot is very ancient, and has
undergone many missitudes. It come dctinitcly
into our possession in 1801.
ARCTIC OCEAN, the name given to the sea
exteniUng from the Arctic circle ; lat. 60° 30' N.
to the North Pole, and washing the northern
shores of Europe, Asia, and America. North of
Euroiie it is called the White Sea; north of
Siberia it forms the Gulfs of Kara, Obi, and Ye-
nisec ; and noi ' "f America it takes the name of
the Polar Sea. The principal rivers flowing into
it in America are, the Mackenzie, Coppermine,
and Back ; and in Asia the Oby, Yenisei, Olenek,
Lena, and Kolima. Its chief islands are Spitz-
bergen, the Loffoden Islands, Kalgouef, Waigatz,
and Nuvaia-Zemlia in Europe; the islands of
New Siberia, in Asia, and the Polar archipelago
ill America. Ice, covering a space of nearly 4,000 m.
extends for a winter season of about eight months
round the Pole, and even in summer the surface
is at the freezing point. From this region, during
ARDECHE
the spring, ieelicrgN and flehls of ice drift intoDn
North Atlantic — the former sometime.i extcniliiw
to I0<> m. in length, and tntm 25 to Ho „, j^
diameter. The coast-line in Europe and At<iihu
iK-en pretty well ascertained by EiiKiinh ui
Itiissian navigators, and the roast-line tif S'l,^),
America has also Iwen traced; hut the arcliiprii^
of islands in the Polar sea rt^mains yet to be n-
niored, though the professed ex|iedition lo (^
North Pole must add considerably to our inriimu.
tion, (See AMKitirA).
AltI>A(ill, an insigniflcant village of Irplanij,
CO. Longford, Tho church is very ancient; atidit
was the see of a bishopric, united in IIIH,') U\ ih(
bishopric of Kilmore, but separated from tlic laiii.(
in 1741, when it was unitM to tho archbiiiliii|iric
of Tiiam,
AKDEHVL, a town of Persia, prov, Azorliijun,
38 m, VV. from tho Caspian Sea, from which it
is separated by a chain of high mountaiiia, nev
the edge of an extensive and elevated pltig,
lat. 380 15' N., long. 48© 28' E. Pop, iMti,| !,,
amount to 500 or 000 families, or fn>m S.inni id
8,000 individuals. Houses mean and Hmsll, Imiit
of mutl or Hun-hiimt bricks, with Hat mtU. like
those of tho poorest villages. It is summndnl Ijt
a ruinous mud wall; but the fort is a rcpiiv
square, with bastions, a ditch, glacis, and draw.
bridge in the European style. The jilace is k-
markable for containing the tombs of Shiikli
Sull'u, the founder of the Sulfite dynasty of IV
sian jirinces and of a religious sect, and* uf mnt
of his descendants. It is a good deal resorted lo
by pilgrims, but is now falling into decay, A Ijm
library formerly lielonged to Ardebyl ; hut it wu
carried to Petersburg on the town being taken liv
the Russians, by whom, however, it was rmtomi
to the Persians. (Fraser's Travels on the Shores ul
the Caspian Sea, p. 290.)
AUDECHE, a dep. of France, lying IcnRthww
along the W. side of the Rhone, by which it ii
separated from tho Drome, having S. the Garil,
W. tho Lozere, and Hauto Loire, and N. the
Loire. Area, 639,000 hect. or 2, 1 30 English m, m.
Pop. 880,559 in 1851, and 888,529 in 1801, With
the exception of a narrow border along the Rhone,
most part of the surface is occupied by liiils and
mountains belonging to tho chain of thcCcvciin«i:
Mount Mezen, on its W. frontier, the hi);hest in
tho dep., rises to the height of 1,774 toiscs (6,""(lfi,)
alKive the level of the sea. Several of the smaller
hills are of volcanic ongin. The cultivable soil ii
estimated at about 129,000 hectares — meadov),
44,000— vineyards, 27,000— forests, 98,000 moiui- 1
tains, heaths, &c., 148,000 — and culture$ dinna,
68,000 hect. Besides the Rhone, the dep, ii
watered by the Ardeche, whence it derives iti
name, the Erieux, and Doiix ; and it has to bout j
of the source of the Loire, which rises about 18 in,
W. Privas. There are mines of coal, iron, leaJ,
and antimony. The produce of com is insulHcicnt
for the consumption of the inhabitants ; the it-
ficiency being sup])Iied by potatoes and chestnnis
of which last the forests pnnluce immense quan-
tities. Valleys cultivated with the plough ; hill)
generally with the spade. Tho inhabitants tie
exceedingly industrious, as is evinced by theii |
careful system of irrigation, and by the ten*»
formed on the sides of the hills planted nith vines,
The culture of the latter is an object of great at-
tention ; and the wines of Limony, St. Joseph,
Comas, and St. Peray, particularly the last men-
tioned, ore highly esteemed in foreign countries, [
OS well as in Prance. The raising of the silk-
worm and the production of silk is also a no* I
important object in the economy of the dep. The
culture of the olive has been abandon! d, and the
ice, lyinR lenRthww
[lonc, by which it ii
iavint<; S. the GanI,
Loire, and N. tli«
2,180 EnKU8hiiq.m.
<,629 in 1H«1. With
ler alun^ the Rhone,
jcupieil by hill« and
ainoftheCcvciines;
[itier, the hijjhert in
,774 toises (6,770ft,)
»veral of the smallet
.'he cultivable soil ii
hectare*— meadof^
jrestfl, 98,000 mooin
md cnlturei dittrm,
;hone, the dep. ii
lence it derive* iu
, and it has to boa« 1
fch rises about ism.
[s of coal, iron, le«i.
of com is insufficient
Inhabitants; thede- 1
toes and chestnuis
luce immense quin-
th the plough; hill
'he inhabitants ue
IS evinced by theii
ind by the Um»
planted wthvinei |
object of great at-
.imony, St. JoMph,
jlarly the last men-
\n foreign countries, [
raising of the silk-
silk is alsoanwst
ay of the dep. Tbe
alMUidont d, and tlie
ARPKE
,niv oil '""*''l '" ^"^ proriireil ft-om wnlniifn.
lliiiii'f «'"' <'b''<''«' yii'lil conHidcriilib' rctiinift;
,f,,,,t luiriilHTM (if flit Ui'nn uri' f.\|Mirt(Ml; iiml thr
flu'i'P, ttiii<'li arc niimcnui!*, fiiriiiMh annuiilly
i alKiiit 4l*l."<"* ''■'"U'*- wool. Miiniifacliirin^ iii-
iln<trv is priiMPiMitcd with much Hiiirit and huccohm,
ihr |irim'i|'"l iK'in^j silk, besides cloth, cot ton, iiml
laiH'r. TIk' |>a|><'r jiriMliicctl iil Aiiiioiiay and nthcr
rliirit riiiik" anions tlic very bent in Kiinipi-. Tlic
I m!inii('iicliir'' '"• ""•• howovcr, very cxtciiMivc.
LiiiitIv iIk' tanning of h-atlicr, purliciibirly of
Lisii-skinn for (jIkvch, has Imcoiuc a ronsiilfriibli-
I liiiMiKW. TlnTc nrv also fnlirics of coarse clnlb,
llliii'ii, mill straw hats, rslablisbincnts fur s|iiniiiii^
|('fii;i>ii, with iron works, and lories. Tbi> dep. has
lilinc iimiiid., I/Ar^'cntii-rc, Trivas, and Toimioii,
liaiit.niid'l.'lii t'omni. It fonns partoftho oi^lilli
I niiliinry division, and is cinbraccd in tho dioccsp
1,1' Vini'fs, and under the Jiirisdii'tion of the coMr
ii'mriH/f of Mines. I'riiu'ipal towns, I'rivas the
|(;i|i.. AiiiiDiiay, and Aubenas.
AliDIlK, an iiilaml town of Ireland, co. liOiilb.
iiriiv. I.ciMstcr.'oii tbe Dee, wlienc«> its ancient
hiMiiiMif Athcrdee, 'Town on tb<> Dee,' Kt! in. N N\V.
|]iiil>liii. A strong; castle, now fitted up as a coiirt-
|)i,.iiM'. Imilt here by one of the early l'',iij,'lisli
Killcn. liiii^ rendered it a place of nnicb iin-
Kfliiin'o; lint it was, notwithstanding, burnt by
[[jlwnrd llriice, during his invasion of Indand, in
J:11J. imil iifjaiii byO'Neil, during tbe wars in tbe
(lipi (if Klizabetb. In Kill, it was the bead-
fciiaricrs (if Sir IMieliin O'Neil. Afterwards it f(dl
|iitii ilic hands <if Cromwell, and was one of tbe
Iwtiiin.i (if the army of .James II., while retiriuf;
K'l'iin' thiit (if William III. previonslv to the
iiilc of the Hovne. Pop., in 1 82 1 , ;(,r.8H ;' in I s;i I ,
|,!t:,); in 18t;i,'2,r)HO; pop, of iiar. in I8(il. •J,27;i.
'town, which stands in a fertile district, con-
lisiK (if a main street, baviiif; several lanes branch-
ifrom it; the dwelliiifjs, with the exiH'ption of
lumi' K'Hul houses, are mostly miserable cabins.
■hcchureh, built in the early part of tbe tbir-
riilh century, and orifjinally forniiiif; part of an
^iipistine monastery, is a ]daiii t'tructurc in ^ood
t|i,iir: the K. C. chai)el is a new and spacious
■liticp. There are scbocds for both sexes, under
)ie eiiilowment of ICrasmus Smith; a savinj^s'
laiik, and a disiiensary. In the centre of the
|i»'ii is another ancient castle, now fitted up a» a
\rp|linf,'-h(inse, and near the entrance is a larfje
itilii'ial mound, called the Castle Guard. It was
|wir|K)ratc(l towards the reign of Edward III., and
K'oived additional privileges from Hubsc(]ucnt
iimarchs. Its ndinp charter is that of 1 1 th Anne,
Diler which tt'.^ gov. consists of a portreeve,
hnty-thrce burfjcsscs, and an unlimited number
ifwmen; the municipal government being vested
]ilie portreeve, six burgesses, and six freemen,
' (lid office for life. Tlie local courts have fallen
ho disuse ; general sessions of the peace are held
1 Janiiarj' and .June, and petty sessions every
lodnesdftv : part of the ancient castle is used as
Ibridcwcll The manufacture of malt is carried
\ to a considerable extent ; there are also flour
raeal mills. Turf is brought from a bog,
joiit two miles distant, by the river Dee, which
|licrc navigable for boats. A market-jdacc for
1 was built in 1710, and shambles in 1790, in
|iich a well-stocked market is held every Tucs-
Fairs, principally for live stock, are held in
tee enclosed area provided by the corporation
[1st March, 10th April, fith Juiie, 8th July. 20th
k'ust, 23rd October, and 17th December; that
Idrtnber is principally for sheep.
lAKDELAN, a prov. of Persia, forming the E,
|i.<i(m of Kurdistan. It extends 200 m. in length,
the stream Sbarook to tbe Turkish district
AKDKNN'KS 177
of Zohaub, and is near'v Itio in. in breadth. Frmii
the Sliariidk to Senna, ca|i. prov., in l/it, ;t.'i'' 12' N.,
long. ■10'^ K., the Miirlacc |ireseiits NMCccssivc clus-
ters of hills, beaiied, as it were, on each otbcr, on
extensive tidde-lands, covereil with huts, and the
thicks of tribes iHwxing tbe Hunimcr innnths here,
and migrating ni winter towards jlagdad. Tbe
soil in gdiid, and will yield abundance of wheat
and barley; but tbe Kurds, who prefer a pastoritl
life, content Ibeniselves with raising only wli/it is
absolutely iieci'.sMnry for tlieir sulii,i.'<t4'nce. To-
bacco is cultivated in xiiiall (|uiintities; and llio
extensive forests of oak on tbe mountains \V. of
Senna alliinl alMindance of timber and gMll-initH.
Tbe fdrnier is floated down the /ab in rafts info
the Tigris, and tbe latter exported to India. Va-
rious tribes inhabit Anhdan, which are reiiresented
tis robust, brave, temperate, and living to a great
age; but they are averse fniin settled habits; war
and rapine are their didight ; and they scarco <!on-
sider innrder and parricide as crimes ! They havo
a language of their own, and are proud of their
descent, which they trace back to the must distant
eiimdis. Some of their (diiefs have great power,
(kinneir's Persia, p. 1 12.)
.VIMM'A'NKS, a(h'p. in the \. of France, having
N. HelgiLun, V.. dep. Mcuse, S. dej). Marne, and
W. (h>p. Aisne. Area, .'')l7.;wr) beet., or about 2,(100
Kngli.sh s(|. m. Pop. :i;il,2!t(i in IHol, and :(2!t,l 1 1
in 18111. riie department derives its name from
the old forest of Ardennes, which occujiics its N.
division. It is divideil into two purtiims by a
mountainous ridge, a ramilicatidii of tbe chain ol
tbe Vosges, b_v which it is traversed from SI',, to
X\V. Principal rivers Meuse and Aisne, C(innect(>d
by means of the canal of the Ardennes and the
Har. Soil of very different degrees of fertility.
The N. is interspersed with mountains or high
bills covered with forests and heaths, and soiiu>
plains in tbe SW. district are naked, arid, and bar-
ren. Ibit it has some large aiul fruitful valleys,
particularlv that of the Aisne. one of tbe Ix'sf c("irn
countries in France. The extent of its ]irinci|ial
divisions is set down as foHows: viz. ciiltivaldo
lands, ;U l.OOO; meathiws, 48,000; forests, 90,000;
and lieaths, &c„ 11,000 beet. Some inferior wine
is made in the S. districts. There are large herds
of cattle and tlocks of sheep, there being aininig
the latter, which are celebrated for their mutton,
several of the long-wooled and merino breeds. The
dep. is distinguished by it.s mines and manufac-
tures. Among tbe former are those of iron, lead,
calamine, &c., with quarries of slate luid marble,
the fonner the most imixtrtant of the kind in the
N. of France; coal is also found, but it Ls not
worked, at least to any considerable extent. Above
6,000 indivi(hials are employed in tbe iirrondisse-
ment of Mezibrea in the nail tnide, ami 000 in th,c
manufacture of ironmongery goods. Immense
quantities of slate an? quarried at FUmay, Fepiii,
and St. HamalH>'. Fabrics of superior earthenware,
glass, white lead, tanneries, ifcc. are met with at
Monthemie and other places. There are also nu-
merous establishments C»r tlie spinning of wool ;
and various branches of the woollen nianuf^i<;turc
are extensively ciUTietl on at Sedan, anil Hethel.
The great manufactory of fire-arms on account of
government, carried on at Charleville, has been
transferred to B'eltri and Cbatellerault. Besides
furnishing timber and other proihujts for exporta-
tion to the contiguous depts. and Belgium, the
forests are the great source of the pmductivenesK
of the mines, timber being the fuel used in tbe
iron and copper works. 'Flie dep. is divided into
5 arronds, 31 cant., and 478 ('(imm. It beb)ngs U\
the finirtb military division, diocese of Reims, and
is under the jurisdiction of the cour iin/x^riale of
N
'<i :
ill
■ ' . ^
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i
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ii'tm
"«)|Nv:V,^i
178 AUDKH
Mclz. rriiicipal towiiH Mt'xi6rcK, .Sodiin, (,'lmrlfi-
villc, Hitli.-I, anil (iiv«'».
AU|)I'^S, n lown of Krnnrp, tU-n, Puy-ilp-I»omo,
cnp. ciiiii.oiinMiiall river ihni I'lilN inro llu> Allivr,
H> III. MW, iMHoiri'. I'l.p. I.MIH in IMtil.
AIUKJLAS.H. timnrit. town nf Inlmul.co. Down,
Iirov. I'lHii-r, on tlic m'u loiiM, ii littlt- lo tlic N. of
St. Jolm'H I'oiiil, lirhvi'in hiiiitlrnin Hiiv mihI IIii-
oiilriinccofHtraiiKroril l.nutth, M m. NN'l'".. Diililiii.
'I'Ik! town wuN formerly of miicIi (•oninifrciiil ini|iort-
niicc that n nu-ri'iiiiiilii foinpmiv from Lmiilon
M'ttlcd herd ill the rei^'ii of Men. )V., iiiiil in lliiit
of lien. VI, itH tniile excelled tliiit of any port to
the N. of DroKlieda. It w«m also a place of eoii-
Hiilerahld Htreii^'tli, an ap|M'ari4 from llie f^allant
Htand made in it liy Simon Jordan, at llie elone of
tlie reif^n of Kli/.alt'etli, wlio maintained it HiiceeNH-
fiilly dnrin>; a Hie^e of tliree veunt apiiiiHt tlie Karl
of Tyrone; lint HidiNeiiiienllv, in eonHecpieiice of
itH exchiHive eoininercial privilefjeN having lieeii
piireliaHcd uii Ity the Crown, and transferred to
Newry and lielJiiNt, its trade deelined, iiisomneli
that It lias lieeii for many years merely a tlsliiii^
station and watering-place, and the port for ein-
harkalioii to a few passenjfcrs t> the Isle of Man.
Top. of town 771, of jiarish !,Otir» in iHdl. The
town stands on tliu side of an elevated tract of
land overlookinj; the sea, hetween two remarkalile
hills. It consists of a loiij; semicircnhir street,
with lanes hranchin)^ from it ; a ranne, called the
("res<'ont, overlookinif the bay, and several di'-
tached residences. The j)a. ciinrch and I{. Cath.
chapel arc neat Imildin^s. Schools, on tliu foun-
dation of Knutmns Smith, educate ninety lioys and
fidelity fjirls; there arc also several private schools,
in which about IIMI pupils are instructed. The har-
bour consists of ^i iimercove, capable of udmittinf;
vessels of 100 tons, but nearly dry at low water,
and of a lar^c outer harbour, which, having been
still farther enlarged by a pier, extendiiif^ !iO() ft,
into deep water, admits vessels of ."JOd tons at any
time of tide : it has a lighthouse at its extremity,
A constabulary force and eoast-Kiiard are main-
tained here. The lishery is tlic almost exclusive
occupation of the workiiifr classes; that of herriii){s
beiiifj most followed. Duriiiff the season, which
continues from the bcpnniii^ of June to the close
of Aii^iHt, vessels assemble here, not only from
the tisliiiiK ports on the K. coast of Ireland, but
from the Isle of Man, and (lornwall.
AKUNAMUKCIIAN POINT, a promontory on
the \V. coast of Scotland, Argyleshire, bein(( the
most westerly jxiiiit in the mainland of Great
llritain, lat. 6(io 46' N., lonf?. (>° «' 30" VV.
AKUNAKKE, a marit. town of Ireland, co.
Sligo, prov. Connaiiglit, KiOJ m. WNVV. Dublin,
on the Moy, a bridge over which river connects it
with the town of Uallina. It being, therefore, in
reality a suburb of the latter, the particulan rela-
tive to it will be found under Bai.lina.
AKDOCH, a village of Scotland, co. Perth, pa,
Miithil, 8 m. N. Dumblane. Pop. of parish 1,074 in
1801. The village is remarkable for having in its
vicinity one of the best preserved Itoman stations
or forts in the empire. It is on oblong, 420 ft. by
375 within the lines. On the W. side it is defended
by the steep banks of the river Knaig, on the S. by
n deep morass and two ditches, and on the other
sides, where it is most exposed, by no fewer than
live parallel ditches and six ramparts. On the S.
side the ditches have been partially destroyed in
the process of cultivation, and the W. siilc has
been injured by carrying (unnecessarily) the mili-
tary road from Stirling through Crieff to the High-
lands through part of the works ; but it is now
luckily enclosed and protected from further depre-
dation. The Pnctorium, which is well preserved.
AUECIFK
is n square, fiO ft. in the side, but it U lint mm,
in the centre of the ntation. Near t\m Ntnm);(„n
are three camps of different magniludi's, niii' .i,<,„
by I,!).'i0 fl„ estimated to acnimiiMHinlt'
men; another, l.'.llo by I,.'I10 ft., acc(inim.Klai»!
I'.'.OtiO men; and the' third ami sninlkiit, 1 1^,
by iMMi fi., accommodating 4,000 nn'ii. .\'i,ii,„J
certain is known as to the (htIimI wli<'n,iiri
general by whom, this station and cnmiH «,„ I
conHtrut'tcd ; but they are generally nii|i|hmi',| {.,
have U'eii the work of Agricolii. A liii||. luii,
\V. of Ardocb a cairn formerly existeil li<ifi.|,|
height ; but it in now nearly deinoli.s||('i|,t|iPKti«^
having been carried away to build \\inim isj I
fences, (Hoy's Military Aiitiipiities.)
AUDOVh;', a town of lUlgium, II in, ,ssw I
Uriiges. Pop. 7,400 iu \HM\.
AHDISA, or AYKM, a country of Afria,ft.|
nierly independent, but now a prov, of llahnmttl
Ardra is also the name of the capital of the ilnnil
countrv, about 40 m. inland. I
AHIHtKS, a small but well-fort itlH to«Ti J
Frani'e, dep. Pas de Calais, cap, cniit., !) m, >t,l
Calais, (m the Northern of France railway. K>l
'2,'i77 in INOI, In the vicinity of this tiiwii,'iiiJgii(l
ITi'JO, was held the famous mci^ling between Fru.1
cis I., king of France, and Henry Vin„kint;i/I
Kngland, The pomp and magnillceiu'c di^iilni^l
on both sides, during eighteen <lays that tlicniiWl
ing lasted, acquired for the (ilace nf reiulraiol
the name of the Chump dti dran dor. Thtiii»l
view liad no very important political remili. I
AUDHOSSA^f, a jiarish and sca-porl tnwn J
Scotland, co. Ayr, the town being "24 m. W>».|
(ilasgow, 20 ir. S. Unienock, and almiit I ra, NtJ
Saltcoats. P.ip, of parish in I H4 1 , 4,<.I47 ; in Ik|
(>,770; of town in I HOI, 2,8!)(i, The towin
founded by the late Karl of Kglintoii, \X\i\
sbi]i's intention was to make a Imrhoiir here iki
should be accessible at all times of the tiile;
as a nroject was, at the same time, sot on hnk
bringing a canal from (ilasgow to AnlnissaiLH
was supposed that the latter would liennni' !
port of the former, and that the circuitoiin naiij
tion of the Clyde would be avoided. In fimbi
ancc of this design. Lord Kglinton expeiuieih
sums on the harbour and town. The harWiJ
partly fonned by a small islet, called IIo^el
wliicli shelters it on the N\V., and by n lciij(thf»|
circular pier, and a breakwater. Within the «
ta'inity of the latter, there are 20 ft, wjwd
spring ebbs, shoaling gradually to 1.5 ft,, wla
tlie ])ier commences. 1 here is a fixed li^jlit diitlJ
N K. breakwater. The wet docks which it »as^
tended to construct have not been ])rocc«le<l»
The town is laid out on a regular and m»),'ni&\i|
plan ; there is a splendid establishment uf mt
and the purity of the salt-water, the niildnwj
the climate, and the facility of ttcces.s, haven
it be largely resorted to by visitors in the baiki
season. The projected canal from Glasgow loii
drossan not having been excavated further ill
the village of Johnstone in Keiifrewi!hiie,aiiij
was obtained, in 1827, for constructing a tail"^
from Johnstone to Ardrossan. For a while in
only completed as far as Kilwhiiiing; buiitk
since been finished to Ardrossan; which. in m'
quence, has become more accessible, and i*ii
frequented. There is regular steam conimuii'
tion with Arran and Belfast, in coniicetidn i
trains from and to (Jlasgow by the railway.
AREBO, or AKBON, a town of Benin, cM
river Formosa, 60 m. from its mouth. Lat. J*!
N., long. .'JO 8' E.
AKECIFE, a sea-port town, cap. island of U
cerota, one of the Canaries, on its E. coa<t.M
50' N., long, 13° 30' W. Pop. with I'ori )i<
i>wn,cap.i!<lai«>f ,
Pop. with I'ori >i
ARENDAL
in |H()I, Till' luirlMiiir, nlilrli l)ii>ii;^'li miiiiiII
|i»,iriiiriii"'''". '•»' ^'- •'"viiiKii il«'|ifli <i|' r.». mill
, , . |;_||f 171 ft'fl, ai l"w wilier, with ii ',( ft. rifv
,1,.'. Hiilli clllrillii'rM lire ili'l't'iltlcil liy ImiiiiIi
l,r,.,.|l'nrtH. Tlic iiilmli. iiri' niiwdy ciijiiiK'''! ill Hie
jiirv nil iIh' <i|i|Mmiii' omHi ol' Aj'riiii.
^i;|.;>;|)AI„ iiHi'ii-jMirt town nl' Norwiiy, on llii-
.„,ii,l„l, ;,') III. NK. I lirintiansimcl, liil. tM° '.'r'N.,
,-. 1*0 .Ml' '.''>" K. I'op. '.'.•.'■'iT ill iMdo. Arciiiliil
,iiiii>ilv li"!'' "" pil''"! """' "•null vi'HMi'l.t micli iil-
■1 iili iiarlHol' till' lowii liy iiu'iiiih of tlic I'liiiiils
iv wliiili i' '" iiitfTwfcri'il. 'I'lic ImrlMiiir in |pnt-
,K.il liv ttio oppciHitc iftiiiiiil ol'TrcniiDc, 'I'lirri'
Ir, imii iiiiiK')* '»■*' lor^iH in llio vicinity ; iiiid a
|i.<lili'itiol'irail(' i^ carrii'il on in iron aiiillinilMT.
I'liri' iiri' ni!*o iliMtillvrifM, tobm.ro iiiamiractoricH
„l.hi|HliiiiiiliiiK.
AIIKNIX'I'K. ft villayp of llolj^nun, prov. Ant-
Ini, fit ni. I''-, iiy l^. 'I'lirniinut, l'o|i. .'I,2.'li> in
L.'id, Tlic town luiN iiiannrat'turuH of HtiH'kiii({!4 ami
LiiMiiiil ili-'tillt'i'ii''*-
lAllkM'^ !>!'' MAH, afown of Spaiii,('ataloiiiii,
i ni, Ni'l. Itari'clona, iioar tiit> Mca. Pup, l,7H I in
Till' town iH neat ami clraii, lias a lino
icliiircli ami u convciil, lalirics of nilk nml
liiiiii *ti"'l<iii},"'i a Hfliool of plloiii^jt'. a yiiril for
L'liiiililiiii; offimnll vessels, ninl anelior-forp's.
Lnumi'ii omploy tlieniselveN in milking lace.
lAKKNSIIl'Ud, a nea-port, town of Kiiropeiin
ti<siii. );iiv, Livonia, cap. of the island of < >esel, in
llaiiii', at till' inontli of llu> (iulf of lli^a,
|iii;;«itimtcil on tlie S. side of the island, hit. j')N°
SJiiiij;. '2-JO 17' t:)" K. I'op. :i,iV,l2 ill |n:.H,
I lm.4 1) ('little, ft liiissian and a Lutheran church,
ililii' si'liiiol and a hospital. The water in the
miir lioiiiK shallow, vessels are ottli^jed to aii-
l[ir ill till' roads at a considerahle distance from
irn, The nrticles of ex|)ort consist of corn, tiin-
f, liiitter, clieeso, tallow, hides, and seal oil.
ien«liiir),' luis receiitlv Iuhmi much resorted to for
liiitliiii); niul ' mini liaths,'
\liK(iUirA, ft city of S. America, reii. Pern,
.prov. same name, in the valley of ( jiiiica, on
(Chile, lit the foot, of M, Oinate, 7,70(1 ft, nliove
Itvcl of the sen. Hi) m. K. from tint Pacillo
^aii.aml -JOOm. fiSW, Ciizco, lat. KiO ill I' S,, loiij,'.
'll'W, It was founded by order of Pizarro, in
li). The houses, though low, on account of the
ploiiceof cnrthniiakes, are stronjrly built; and
latliedral, ft hroiizc fountain in the great
C and the hridj;c over the Chile, deserve iio-
It has four convents, a collej^e, a workhouse,
I several churches, as well as tlourishiiig maiiu-
(urcsof gold and Hilver cloths, woollens, and cot-
Its environs, notwithstaiidint.; their elevation,
Iverj- fruitful; and by means of its port Mol-
llo,aiulofthproad)iassiiig throiif^h it from Limn
|hc S., it is the seat of a pretty extensive com-
*■ carried on chielly with the port of Isliiy, on
|Paiilic, and with the interior of I'erii. It is
r subject to earthquakes, from several of wliich
i sustained {^reat injury, and it has also been
»ll)y frequent revolutions. The accounts of
«ip, (liffer very widely ; but it may jierhaps be
nated at about 35,000. The pop.'of the prov.,
[liy Indians, is estimated at 1«0,II00. The pro-
1 are wheat, maize, sugar, gold, silver, lead,
«r, sulphur, nitrate of siida, wine and brandy.
exports of Islny, the port of the i)rov.,
TOtcd in 1863 to' 52(),17«/., the importa to
|l;i9/.
KKTHUSA, a famous fountain of Sicily, which
close to the sea, in the city of Syracuse.
"isay9ofit. III hue insula {Ortijijia) extrema
|™s aqua dulcis, ciii nomen Areilmsie est, i«-
f'/i viagnititdiiie, phnisslmus pisvium : qui
AUdKNTAT
IT'.i
Jliiilii /iifiin iifirrlii hir, iiIhI miiiiiHnnr iir mii/i' lii/ii'
iliim II miiri ilinjiiinhiit mint. (In \'err., lib. iv.
§ ."i.l.) piielry and fiiblc bnvc cuiiibincd lo give an
i-ndiirliig cidi'briiy lo tliJM fniiuiaiii. Il was siip-
piHi>d iliat the rl\cr AlplniH, which llnws piisi
Olyinpla in (irei , ami liills luio ihc Niciliiin Sea,
dill Hill icriiiinale its course lliiTi' : biil llwii il cmi-
tiiiiied tollow in a subicrraiietiii clwiiiiicl, preserving
the jiiirily of its waters till lliey iigiiiii rcappciircd
in llie fiiiintaln Ari'lliiisn; and in pronf of this
it was Mlllrined lliiil things <'a>l iiito the AI|iheiM
were lifter It while thrown up by the foiililiiili !
Virgil alludes to this uircninstnncu when he Hiiys,
Hie tilil.ciiin lliictuH Hiilitcr liilirri'Sli'iinoj,
Uorl.4 uiiiui'U Kiiiilii lion liiteriiil-cnil iiinhiiii,
lii'liiK' x> IIO' '!< '> <
and it is referred to bv Pliny (Hist. Nat., lib. ii. SsH.)
Seneca ((^iiii'st. N., lib. iii. § '.')l). and other iiiuiiiii
aiilliors. The poetical arciiiint of the foiiniaiii
niiiv be seen in Ovid's .Met. lib. v. liii. r>7'-'.
'I'his celebrated spring is now sadly chiiiiged.
The sea has made its way, |inibiilily by the agency
of the eartliipiakes so fri'i|iieiil lure, iiitu the finiii-
tniii ; so lliiit, instead of being sweet, the wiilir,
which also is greatly dliniiiislied in (|iiaiiliiy, in
coiiseipience of a large portion rising i;: the scii, is
br.'icki'ih and until for any piirjiose but that of
washing. Its lisli have disappeiired with the sa-
cred groves and temples thai adorned its bunks;
and this glory of ancient Syracuse is now de-
graded into a sort of public washing tub for the
poorer classes of the niodeni city.
AIMCVALO, a town of Spain, t »ld('aslile, ]irov.
Arels, on the Adaj'i, 'i'.l ni. NNIl. Avilii. Pop.
4,i")llO ill IH.')7. Jlesides churches, it has two hospi-
tals and two corn markets,
AliKZZO (an, Arnliiim), a city of C'eiilriil
Italy, in the rich plain <if Chiiiiia (which see),
ill in. K. bv N. Sienna, on the railway from Flo-
rence to Ancoiiii. pop, ;il),K(l(i ill \H{\->. It is
siirroniided liy walls, has a citailel, but is neither
well built nor widl laid out. It is the seal of n
bisiioi), and has n (iothic cathedral. Its tinest.
building, /(■ Lo;i(ie, containing the ciisloni-hoiise
and theatre, in the principal square, has a mngni-
liceiit ]iortico, '100 ft. in length. The town has also
iinmerons churches, convents, and four hospiliils.
There are nuinnfactures of woollen sliitfs ami pins.
Petrarch was born lu're, on the 20th July, LiOl ;
and this also is the native countrv of Vassiiri,
Itacci, and of Lcoiido Itriiin, called Aretin.
Are/.zo is very ancient, having been one of the
))rinci)ial states of Ktruria. After it became sub-
ject to the Homans, it was reckoned a jiost of great
importance us a defence against the incursions of
the ('isalpine Gauls, It Uus famous for its terra-
cotta vases, ranked Ity Pliny with those of Samort
and Sagnntum. (Hist, Nat., lib. xxxv. § 1'2.) The
remains of the ruins of an amphitheatre are still
visible. It was taken bv lussaiilt by the rreiich
on the 19th of October, 1«00. The jirov. o{ Arczzi)
was an area of l,2it0 sq. m. ; jiop. 222.1) ">1 in 1 8(12.
AU(f KNTA, a town of Central Itiilv. delcg. and
18 m. Si:. Ferrara. Pop. I"),ii2t> in Ifiiil.
AIJGENTAN, a town of France, dep. Onie, cap.
ftrrond,, on the river of that name, 22 m. N. by W.
Alencjon. I'o]). f>,(!;!8 in IHOl. It is agreeably
situated on a liill in the middle of a large and fer-
tile plain. The walls by which it was fonnerly
surrounded have been demolished, and its ramparts
converted into agreeable promenades. It is jiretty
well built, ha.s a tribunal of original jurisdiction,
with manufactures of linen, lace (called poini
(VAlentvn), tanneries, and bleaching-groumls.
AU( i !•: NTAT or AUt JEXTAC, a town of Franco,
dep. Correze, cap. cant, ou the Dordogne. Pop.
S2
■4
■ '4
11- ,'*^
I ,;'
S.I
■»i
^
\m4
I«f» AnOKNTKl'ITi
•I. lit') in IMOI, Tlii*ri< nrc inliii-ii nf coal ntid Inul
in III** rnvirmK.
Ai»JI'.Nri;rH„ n t«wn nf FnmiT, (Icp, H«ini«
I'l l)i»i', I'ltii. I'linl., on llii' Mi'iiii', 1:1 ni. N \V. I'lirlH,
on lli<> riiilwity In I 'lirrlHuir^, riiji, ,'i,|il,'i in IMiil,
'I'lii' rt'li'liriiii'd lli'liiiKii wimi'iliii'uh'il in n iiiiniirrv
in lllinliiuii; mill il witM III III!' MitllK- |tll|i'l' llllkl
hill- ntlml, in ll,i(i. iiliir ilu- iiiiKliirliiiif nf Mm-
lunl, lii'l'iiri' hIic U'riinii' AIiIh'm uI' I'lirnrli'l, 'I'lirrc
Ih licrii n liiwiiiial, iMtiililiMlu'il by Si. Viiui-ntiU'
i'lnil.
AlKiKXTIKMM'.. n lown of Vrivu'v, i\vy. Ar-
lU'i'lir ilic 1.1^111', .'n ni. SW. I'riMkM, rop.
'2,7/1.') in iNiil. Il itt'rivt'M itN niinir Iniin inini'H ul'
nilviT, \vri>ii({lil liiTi' in llii- UvtU'lli iinlury. Il
Im Niliiiiit'il iin It riM'k in n ilt'cii Millcy, liii-i iiitrmw
criMikcil Niri'i'lM, mikI in ill luiill liinl ilirly, Il liiir<
Iliiitiiri'M Mini I'lilirirH nl' Nilk.
AI{(ii;\TINK IMll'L'MMC, me 1'i.ATA (U),
]{i'|inlill(' III'.
Al{(ii:NTON-SirK-CIM:rSK.iil()wniifKrmirf.
(li'|i. Iiiilri', i-a|i, ctnit., on ilic Cri'iiitc, Hi in. SSI',.
('Iii'ili'tnininx. I'i>|>, ■l,7)i>'i in IHIII, 'I'liiN Inwn is
iliviitcil inio two parlM liy llir Cri'iiNc. Tin' IiIkIkt
mill more ikiii'ii'iil pari t'ontaini'tl a van! (iotliii' |
cuslli', ilisnianl It'll liy LoniN .\IV„ and ol' uliii'li
tliiTc arc now lianlly any ri'inaiiiH, 'riir lilcarliin^
f;roiinilM for wooIIciin al iIiIh placi' liavi' U'cn \i'\m
ft'li'lirali'il. Ar^ciiioii wan callcil .iriiiiiloiiuii/iiH liy
till' I'oinanH; ami nicilal!*, ami oilier rcniain.s of
llial illiiNtrion.'« pciipU-, art' Hiill foinid in llii^ town
and ils virinity,
AlKiOS, ft city of Grocco, in llio Morca. in
nntiipiily llii> cap. of Ar^^oliM, the kiii){iloni of Api-
ini'innon, and one of ijic mionI ancicnl and ci'lr-
liralcd of the (ircrian cities. It \h siliialed alioiit
"i III. from the Itottoni of the ttiilf of Ar^oh i.lr
QiiliriiM Sinus), and alioiit Ijl in. N\V. Napoli di
noiniinia, lal. .'17° Id' N.. lon>,'. '2J° II' K. Sonio
fraKnieiiLs of iu <'yelopeaii wallH, and vexli^feH of
the Ihialre, are the only remains of the ancient
city that can li(> idcniilied helow the acropolis.
The lallcr stood njioii a pointed rock of consider-
iilile elevation, and H'^'ut natural strength, which
is now snmionnted liy a castle, liiiilt on the foun-
dations of the ancient citadel. The town snll'ered
inncli during t\w revolutionary strii^^le lietween
the (ireeks and Turks, hnt it is said to have since
rapidly risen from its ruins; the buildings, how-
ever, are mean and poor,
AH(iOSTOIil, a sea-port town, cap. Island of
Ceplialonia, on the K, side of the gulf of the same
name, lat. ;1mo U»' 40" N„ long. 20° 2'J' Ui" K.
Vn\). est. from 4,000 to 5,000, Situation low and
unhealthy, and the hoiises mostly mean and |Hior;
lint hoth the appearance and police of the town,
jiarticularly liie latter^have heen much imiiroviMl
vliile it was under the imitection of the F.nglish,
The Gulf of Argostidi is about 8 m, in depth, by
about 1^ or 2 m. in width, and has in must ports
good aiutljorage.
AUGUIX, u very small island, in the gulf of
the same name, on the W. eott.st of Africa, about i"»4
ni. SE. from Cape Hhnico, It is abundantly 8\ip-
plied with fresli water, and is supposed, apparently
on gooti grounds, by D'AnvilU;, ISoiigainville,
«nd liennell, tii be identical with the Island of
C"(!rne, where Ilauno settled a colony during his
famous voyage of discovery. In modem times it
lias been «uccessively possessed by the Portuguese,
Dutch, and French ; but hasbecn abandoned for
more than half a century. The dangerous bank
or shoal of Argubi extends SE. a considerable dis-
tance from Cape Blanco. It has been the scene of
nun\erous siiipwrccks ; among others of that of
the French frigate la Me'duse,
AUCiUNSKOI, a town and fortress of Siberia,
AnnvLK
on the ArKiin, the chief brninh of ilii> \^f^^
Itt'J III. from its nionih. Tlii' fort Is pnli»ii,|,.,|, ,j
the right liilllk of the t\\vt, llllil ill lai..'il-' :,\\
hiiig. Il!»"..n' v..
AlIliYM'., or AIIOYI.I., nmnril. Oil, Ki'ntv
consisiiiiK wirily of iiiaiiilMiid,aiiil piirih ud.i;,, ,^
of which iiM' priiii'ipal are (slay. Mull, mil Inn
having N, Invcrin'ss shire, V., I'crlli iiinl |liimi«
ton shlri's, S, the Irish Sea and the Krlili uf i u i,
anil W. llic Allaiiiii', lis shores an' cxinin,;,
irregular, coiiKisliiiu "f Iciiglhened prdin.ini.rvi
and deep bays and inli'ts. The loialiiri'a('i>in|ir«i
H.-i.'h't si|. ni., or 2,om;),I2iI acres, of wliiili,!„4
1,1 10,1110 acres are niaiiilainl, ami •iOM.oiiii |.|„„,^
The rivers are iiiiiniiiorlinit i luit ihc frinlm,],,
lakes ill the niaiiilami and islamis are nii|i|m.«|:„
cover j'l I, H in acres. Owing to ils dn p Imvi ^
gulfs, the sea coast of the niaiiilaiid ii« i'»i|tiuvi
at about t'lOO III. A large portion of the rm»i
I'onslsis of heathy moors, inoriksses, mckii, iin.l » j
rugged niounlains, lien Criiachaii, thi> mii<i,>
valed of the latter, rises !t,li70 ft. almvi' thr 1.-,
of the sea. Woods and planlatioiiH ('i>\(T iM
llo.OllO III |.'i,00i) acres, Lead, copper, and \m»\
niel with, and coal is wrought near riiiiipl„!i<^|
(iood nnirlile is found in the Isiaiul iiI'lirir.iKi
several other places; and the slale i|iiiimr<
l''.asdale and llalachiilish supply a large |mrii.i,
Ihe deiiiaml for Scotland, ('liinale iiiiM, '.(iin^i
varialih'. and boisterous. The entire exlcniidjil
arable land is not sii|iposed to exceed I7il,iiiiii
so that graxing consiitiites the iiiuiii Iiumim
the farmer. Argyle is celebrated for tlu: cxcilln
of its native breed of black cattle; Ihi'vurt
hardy, easily fed, and, when fatlemd In tlier<
pastures of ihe Ijowlands of StMiilaiid or Kiuli
ali'ord Ihe very best beef that is liriPU);lii im,
Sheep fanning is not carried on so extciwiMV
in some other Ilighlaiid connlics; hut Iniiirlv
has been a good deal extended, and the hmL-
sheep much imjiroved, I'roperty in a I'w In
Farms of all sizes, extending from a few nw
many square mih's. In various ilistridn in
CO, the iiractice of holding lanil in piiniic
or what IS called run-rig, was kept up until
cently, and still exists in some rtinutc n.ii
I'nder this system, a number of |«'r«(Mi* uli
fann in common, each being bound for the
They then divide the arable land iiitti uniall
tignous portions, or ridges, as eniiiiliy--(|iiai
and (piaiity taken together — as is puioiilile;
space falling to each tenant being (k'torniiin*!
lot, sometimes for the whole lease, anil suraei
only for a single season. IMoiighiiiK anil
other sorts of labour are perfonned in cimii
and if, as is usually the case, any hill \mw
attached to the low ground, it is let iii (ima
In some of the low Highland districts occupiiij
this way, the land falling to the share nf an
vidual (foes not exceed from three til sevfiiawi
that, perhaps, is divided into some doziiiortw
jiatches. Farm buildings of various kinds ; tW
the largest and best farms good and wiiwUK
but, in general, the houses of the snmlli'r(l«|
occupiers, and of the cottiers, are miscraUebu
sometimes without cither windows or t'liim
Improved cottages, are, however, bej,'untiit«
troduced; and it is to be ho}ied that thcjiuj]
universally diffused. Principal com cfi'P*' ]
and barley, esjiecially the tirst. Potati** •«_
extensively cultivated, and form an imi*'
part of the food of the inhabitants. Kdp.i-*
along the shores both of the mainlaiulai"''*'
but the business has latterly fallen vcrj' M*
This, also, is the case with the herring"'
which used formerly to be prosecuted m"
greater extent than at present, in Ludi Fji"
ARoYRrt
li„ nmK "if If"' n'l,|i»''<'iit Nia. Mrnni nn\ iKniinii
I) in Uti'ly K'*''" li'M'"'"'' •" •'*"> Itiuh'Ii nf In-
liajini»i"' •' ""' "" ''"' '■'■'''' "I ''l><l<' 1» III
i,j|vi''iiiiiiiiiiii'''>''"ii *•''' <<lii''Kii" iiiiilliri'i'iiiii'k,
li,f,. iiIkii iliirt' iir<' iniiiii'miiM wiiliriiiK |iliii'i''<, ilic
,,urili' nwrt "f lli»' ••ili/i'ii" "I tilnhnnw, nx Wfll
ii.iicirK I'riiin more n'rimi*' |mrtt nf SchiIiiikI, in
A I! KANSAS
181
ur -i\cn
|l„ •iiiniiii'r.
\ritylf i" |K)|>iil>t*'ly iliviili-il iiii>
1,1. nf Aruvli', < '"Will. Kiiilvn-, Lom, .Ai>|.iii,
tin, hikI MiiII. imk' I'oiitiiiiiH (Itiy (larishcM. f'"'
li»| tiiwiiK, (''»iii||l"''l"'i> liivi'itirv, aiwl <»*>nii. ,
l.iiilH;il, I'.llii inliiili. li"U(»«'i<, ID.a.ViifBiiiiU.-..
,l'|(i(i,li;;l iiilinl)., Imvliig in' TPa""! (Vi'TO li.^iiit
l»(i|. hi IWil, liiiwrvrr, owiiiV to the <-li(i7
I,,, I'ifi'liil "I' ••"' «'"lti<rM, llii' )., ■j/iiluti.iii liiul
niiiii*lii'il III 7!i,T".'l, ami the liilmll*Mt Ji-uiscs
1:1,112:1, It iM'iuU iiiK' III. •" llif II. <<f < fur
ami ('Hni|)lM'lion iiml liiMTiiry joiii vmiIi
tr mill IrviiK' in rrlnniiiiK a in. Pari, mn-
itiiiniy ill f^i'l. ■•<'l't. Valni'd rint, I l!i,.'>!)ii/.
,i,h ; aiiiiiial valni' of ri'iil |irii|Mrty in l«i(l-r),
i.i;:'/.
AlJdVKO CASTUO. n town (if Turkey in I'.n-
r. in Allmnia, tli*> |iriii(-i|ial piai't' in the extm-
r itiiil W(ll-nillivat('<l valley "I" l»erii|inli, near
> rivtT lirinii, on tlit^ lower iliTJivitv of the
niitaliiK nil the W. ciile of the valley, at a Hliort
laiic'c frniii the lite of the oiil Itoinan town
lliidriuHnfitiliii ur JiiHlinHiiii^iiiliit, la 111. N\V,
iiiiiin, mill I'll III. .SK, of Aviona. it haw an
...iiUfiinii iK'culiar aH|K'et, lieiiij,' Imill on three
rail' riilifi'H, iliviiled from <'aeh other liy deep
m* "I riiviiiei*. The houses, w hii'li are mostly
■I, «n' lint eonti^nons, liiil stand in variiuis
iilmm, 'Slime are placed on eommandiiiKenii-
iiM, otIicrH iieiieath proji'clinj; era^s, and many
ilio riiltfi's of iireeipiees; liut the j;reater nart
111 the lint snrlaeo of the roek, lietween its deep
m»: the whole aiipearanee ih singularly
ikiiii;, mill its tine ofleet. augmented, not only
the miiinrets (if its nios(|ues, lint liy the ^raiid
le or fiirtress, u|miii a mneli lar^'er ticale than
over iH'I'iire coiiBtnieted in this oonntry.'
nlicM, ii. ;il!0, 8v(i. cd.) Pop. estinukted at
lut 1,1100. It has a ffood Imzaar, which used to
Iwcll siipiilied with articles of commerce. I're-
ly til its siiliJuKation by AH I'acha, it was a
If hi' ('(iiisideralilo industry, had a pretty ex-
ive internal trade, and enjoyed u considerable
uf iii(U'|iendenco,
KIAXO, ft town of South Italy, prov. Avrl-
011 H Meep hill, in one of the passes of
AiieniiiiK'H, 17 ni. K. Ilencveiifo, on the road
Naples to Fof;)i;iu and Manfredonia. I'oii.
U,m in I8(>l. It is the residence of a
ip, and hoH n tino cathedral, with luimerous
ilipii. ciinvents, and monts-de-piete; a semi-
, a lioHpitftl, and a manufacture of earthen-
It will'ered much from eartli(|uakes in ILOt!
32, and seems latterly to have lieen de-
hf. t\\m\ji\\ now partaking in the prosperity
rnewltiilian kiiif^dom.
IICA, a Koa-port town of Pern. S. America,
ic Pacific Ocean, at the month of a Hmall and
»atcr(!(l vallev, 210 m. NW. Potosi, lat. IH©
" 8.,lo!i|,'. 70'° la' ao" VV. It was nearly de-
eil by an earthquake in UiOo, and has heen
since in n comparatively noor state, thoufih
pimint; in importaiu*. Pop. tiliont 80,(I(I0.
abetter Innilinfr place than the contij^uous
ofllo, Miillendi), and(juilcn; and it is much
t situated fur commerce than Lamar, that
tolierto liocn the principal p<irt of Holivia.
>twith8taiidin)» its superiority to most other
on this part of the American coast, it
till lately, owing to the heavy surf, at all
I liinen iIIiIIimIi to I Ifeel n Inndinif, ami mmie.
tillH'ii ipiile iin|H>'<sllile, unless in the titi/mf iil the
nali\e». There is now a pier fur laiiiliii^, and n
! Iwiiiery III defend the ahip|>iMU in Hie rniids. Thi>
chief exports are I'lipjier on', Wool, and sihcr, Arien
Is eoMiierled liy rnihuiy with the city of Taiiia, HI
m, to (he north, where most of the foreign nier-
eliants reslije. The net earnings of the raii\«ay
in |H<;:| MiTc ■.*!!, I la/.
AKKiN \, a place in tlip N, of the eo. WoHcotn-
<i>"ii. Ireland, on the W. side of l.oii^li .\den, near
I' lire colli and irmi mines that lia\e lieeii
»'>ii>><i III dilVerelll limes with Vlirintis siiccessi
IhiI Keiieritlly with ^reat lunn to the parties carry-
H\u them on. The coal Is of an inlerior (piality.
I'lie proM'i'diii^s of a company formed in l.oiiilnu,
ill IH-.'J, f,,r wiirbiiitr the Ariniia mines, were nl so
singular, or rather s. !i"^'rncel'iil a chariu'ler, as to
uive rise to an iiupiiry liefute ii loniniitlee of (he
Mouse of ('ominous. Full deiiiils as lo these
mines iiiiiy Ih' found in ' VVehl'it Survey ol Iton-
common.' "
AKISPK, n town of Mexico, In the intendency
of Soiiora, near the source of the river Yagriii.
Pop, estimated at .^,l)iMl.
AKI/ONA. a district of the V. S. \. America,
lioiimled on the \V. Iiv the Itio Colorado, on iho
1:. by hiiig. |(l,|0 \V. to the ;illli paraUel of Int.,
and thence \V. on the same parallel to the t'olo-
rado river; on the S. by Soimra and Chiliiiahiias,
on th(! boundary line between the I', S. and
Mexico, and from Itio tirande on the :i'.'iiil
parallel in Texas to long. Iiil°. Area about
100,11110 N(|. m. Till' dislrirt was ceded by the
Mexicans in lN,j;i to the (J, S., and forms now
a |iortion of New Mexico,
AlfKANSAS, a large river of X. America. It
rises in the h'ocky Moiintaiiis, in about 11° N. lat.
and 110° or 111° W. long.; and, pursuing an
F.SK. direction, unites with the Mississippi in lat.
.'(i»° ;■);■)' N., hmg. !»10 10' \V. The river has a course,
following its iM^nds, of about "2,170 m. It has seve-
ral im|iortant tributaries, of which the tireat
Canndian, falling into it on the right, is the prin-
cipal. During tlie |K>rio(lical swell, the Arkansas
is navigable to the iiocky Mountains; and at
other times it may be navigated for about liOO m.
from its continence with the Mississippi. Its navi-
gation is safe, being uninterrupted by rocks,
shoals, or rapids. If the Missouri be reckoiieil
the first in magnitude among the tribiitiiries of
the Mississippi, the second rank is due to the Ar-
kansas, it being hinger, and draining more surface
than the Ohio, Mississippi proper, or Platte.
AitKANHA8, one of the V. S. N, America, so
called from the above river, by which it is tra-
versed through its whole exti'nt from W. to K.
between iJifo and 3(1° HO' N. lat., and «!»° 1 1' and
!U° ao' \V. long., having K. the Mississippi, by
which it is divided from the states ofTennessee and
Mississippi. Length 210 m., breadth 22H m.
Area about 52,000 sq. m. Pop. in 1H20, 11.27:1;
in l«ao, ao,aH«; in 1«I0, 97,574, of whom l!»,!t:!5
were slaves; and in l«ti0, 324, 14a, of whom 111,11.^
were slaves. Hesides the Arkansas, the princij^al
rivers are the White Kiver, the St. Francis,
Washita, and Ked Kiver, all atHuents of the Mis-
sissippi. The country is divided into three iior-
tions, viz. Ist, the K. portion, or that lying along
the Alissjssippi, low, flat, and covered with a dense
forest; 2nd, the central jiortion, a little more ele-
vated, and cuntniuing several extensive prairies ;
and the ard, or W. portitm, which, compared with
the others, may lie called mountaiiioiLs. All de-
scriptions of soil are met with. On the borders
of the rivers it is exceedingly fertile, hut as it
recedes from them it becomes jiodrer, and in some
pi
W
.jjik-I
*'»h
.'«■ k-
m
■'-■' '••^<'!i
1«2 ARKLOW
of (ho moro elovntcd (inrts in sterile. In mmiy
• listrict.i ihcro Ih a scunity of wntcr. In tlie K.
piirt of tlio Htate, nnil in tlic Jiollowx nlonj; the
rivers, esiu'ciiilly the ArkiuiHnH, tlie elininte i.s
moist nml tniliealtliy; Init in tlie middle and \V.
|i(irtH it is roni|iftrutively salnlirious. The mineral
riclics of the state are very iniiierfectly explored:
hut it eontniiiH vast quantities of saltj^ which, in-
deed, render the waters of the Arkansas hraekish.
Iron ore, coal, zinc, lead, manganese, and jfy])sum,
are also fnund. Indian corn and cotton arc sta|)le
products ; wheat, oats, tohacco, &c,, are also raised.
The country is well lifted for the rearing of cattle,
and lar;;e herds of ludlaloes arc met with. Wiiil
turkeys are also very abniulant. Manufactures
have made hut little pro;;ress. Kducation ai)pears
to he in a hnckward state. It is very indifl'erently
snp])lied wilii common schools; thou/^h these
Would appear to he much neglected. Arkansas
was (Mirchased, as part of Louisiana territory, hy
the L'nite<l States from France in l«(l!J. It was
erected into a separate territory in 18lit, and into
a state in IfiSt!. It joined the so-called Confede-
rate States by an Act of Secession from the
I'liion, jiassed May ti, 18(J1; but was conquered
before lonj; by the army of the United States.
HntT'rago universal: senate, elected every four
years, to consist of not less than seventeen, nor
more than thirty-three members; liouse of rc-
)ircsentatives, elected biennally, consists of not
less than fifty-four, nor more' than a lumdred
mernbors. Governor elected for four years, jnd^jes
fi ir ei;,'ht years. .Slaves not to he cmanci| lated, with-
out owners' consent. The state is divided into
tifty-one conntics. Caj). Little Kock, or Arka-
])r.iig, on the S. bunk of the Arkansas, about 80 m.
ni a direct lin.' from its month. Pop. in 1840,
2,r)()0; in 18(i0, ;<,727. It stands on lii^jh ground;
and has a statc-honse, theatre, academy, gaol,
and penitentiary. Several newspapers are pub-
lished in the town. During the late civil war,
the post of Little iiock was one of considerable
importance.
AKKLOW, a marit. town. E. coast of Ireland,
CO. Wick! )w, prov. Leinster. nn llie Ovoca, at its
month, S'.i m. S. by E. Dublin. It was taken jios-
session of, and a castle erected by the first English
settlers. In lG4t) it was taken by Cromwell, and
dismantled. A severe conflict took place here in
17'.t8, between the royal forces and the insurgents;
in which the latter were defeated with much
whiughter, and their leader killed. Pop, in 18G1,
l)ar. (i,257, town 4,760. The toAvn, placed on the
declivity of a hill on the S. side -^^ thp Ovoca,
which is crossed at a short distance below by a
bridge of nineteen arches, is divided into the
Upper Town, consisting chiefly of a main street,
formed of well-built houses, and of the Lower
Town, called also the Fishery, from being chiefly
inhabited by fishermen. The church, a handsome
buihling in the English style, was erected in
18-2;5. The K. Cath. chapel is also an elegant
modern structure. The Methodists have a small
place of worship. A male school is snpiiortcd on
the foundation of Erasmus Smfth; two female
schools by private contributions, and some others
in the same manner; in which, and in private
seminaries, about 550 children receive instruction.
A fever hospital, vrith a dispensary, is in the im-
mediate vicinity of the town. A small infantry
barraciv stands on the site of the ancient castle,
and a coast-guard station is in the neighbourhood.
Petty sessions are held every Thursday. The
to^yn is a constabulary statifin. The inhal)itanta
derive their sup])ort chief!}'' from the fishenes.
There used to be an abmidant summer fishery for
herring and hake; but the former have deserted
ARLES
the coast for some vears, and the winter flRhor\- jj
also declining. Tlie oyster fishery eoniinuM i,,
l>e a great and constant source of cmploynicni J I
the fishermen, who attribute the eonilorts ihev
enjoy to its continuance. The oysters ure ,,,rrj„i
in iMiats to Keaumaris, in Anglesey, wliprc iIk
are laid on banks ; and raised, when rcqiiiml. t'i I
the Liver)>ool market. These people hiiiMii„j,|
cottages on the sandy beach ; few have nnvkiirfl
of garden. Their exertions are much imixllcl Ir I
the defects of the harbour, which has a liariiiiiJ
mouth, with seldom more than 5 ft. water cvcmt I
high spring tides. The boats, wluni rctuni;!
honH\ are obliged to lie oft" the bar and wnkh ilJ
opportimity of crossing it on the rise of tiicwavfl
and few boats come in without strikiii);, Tlil
tishemien keep iq) a light, at their own t'.xpowj
during the season, to |)oint out the bar. Tln^iil
a floating light S. end of Arklowbank.lat.ai'tfl
\., long. 5° 57' W. I
AHLANC, a town of France, dep. Puy de Dfiml
cap. cant., on the Dolore, 10 m. S. Aniliert. ivJ
f!,!iliOin IHtil. It manufactures ribbons amlani-l
cles of memie-mercerie, t
AIJLES (an, Arelns or.<4re/a<e), acity of FraiKtJ
dep. Houches dn Khcme, cap. arroiid., ontiieli
bank of the Rhone, at the ))oint wiiere the rival
divides into two branches to inclose its ilelin
the island of Camargue, 40 m. WNW. Mnrstill
on the railway from Marseilles to Avifj^ion. p,
25,543 in 1 801. The situation of the town, thoud
pleasing, is, owing to the adjacent inaralips. »!
very healthy; and its streets!heingnamiwaiii|ilim
and its houses mostly old and mean, it is iniklnijl
for its celebrity princi|)allv to the liistorical a.«
ciations connected with its name aiiii its miiuJ
ments. It was an important town on tlic inva>i(
of Gaul by Cie.sar, who calls it Arelatc, It suli*
quently became a Roman colon}', and wna lunjj
large, rich, and populous city. Its ani|)liithei
(which does not, however, apjiear ever to have Ik
quite finished) is a noble monument, capahle.i
cording to Martiniere, of accommodating .iii.ni
spectators: it is of an oval form, l.'iW ft. in(i|
enmference, three stories high, occupyini; i
highest [dace in the city, and is older, larger, i
more magnificent than that of Nismcs, butnwJ
well preserved. The obelisk of Aries cniiastsofi
single block of granite about 54 ft. in hei):t
though, unlike other monuments of the sane kii
it be without hieroglyphics, it is all but cem
that it has been brought from Eg}q)t ; but the
arc no authentic accounts with respect to it, esai
that, after being long buried in the grnira(l,it«
erected on the pedestal 20 ft. in height, on itlii
it .stands, in 167(J. A beautiful .•statue of VeoJ
now in the museum of Paris, was discovfre(f bi
in 1651; and exclusive of the above, the nikj
an aqueduct, of two temples, of a triumphal v
an extensive cemeter}', and numerous frayiK
of granite and marble columns, e\iiicc tlie f*
grandeur and imjiortance of the city. It hasid
thedral and numerous churches, and hastenij
seat of .several ecclesiastical councils. The m
hall, built by Mansard, is a handsome edifice;!
it has a school of navigation, a college, a miM
of antiquities, and a small pidilic librari-. Ji
soap, glass and bottles, are manufactured, and ij
sausages of Aries are in the highest esteem. J
obviate the difficulties in the navifratinn cf)
Rhone and Dur.ince, a navigablo canal has l«
made from the city to the sea, at Port Itaif. i
12 m. E. of the E. embouchiu-e of the Ulninf.^
from the city to the Durance op]wsite to Cads
It is also connected with the canal of Beaiif
and consequently with that of Laiiguwloi'.
water communication, together with tliat »f|
flic winlor fishm- » \
llHlicry coniiniiPH i.,
CP. (if CtniiliiytlKliI |„
c the cumfiirts ihev 1
he oyntcM arc carridil
^iijfU'scy, wliprc thev
:i\, when rc(|iiiml. u j
!HC peoiile t)uil(lilM[|
1 ; few liave any kinl
are much itiUH'iled W |
whidi has n ImratiiJ
inn fi ft. water cvHuil
iiats, wh(!ii ri'tim.it;,
thehar ami wntetiiliel
n the rise (if tlicwav*,!
ithoiit Htrikin;;. Tlitl
It tlicir own expoiii*.!
out the har. Tlipniii
rkluwbank,lat,5f'l*|
relate) , a city of f tniiffj
;ap. arroiid., (mtlielifr
E point whore the riva
1 to inclose its (Wtm
■) m. WNW. Marstilln
;iUes to Avignon. I'^i,
ion of the tdwi. tliouji
i adjacent marxhes m
s!l)eiii^ narrow aaililinf
and mean, it is imkiM
/ to tlie historical »»
ts name and its mm
mt town on the inviii.<
lis it Arelate. It »ul«
colony, and was \m\
city." Its amiihitlicji
appear ever to haveli
monument, capaUc)
' aecommodatiiiK Sw^
al form, 1.2«4 ft.ind
9 hif^h, occupyint; '
and is older, larger, i
at of Nismes, but nrd
lisk of Aries cnibi<tsi<|
about 54 ft. in heijtl
unientsofthesaraekia
ics, it is all but wrti
from EKJiit; biiilb*
with respect to it, esM
iedin the ground, H
Oft. inhei};bt,on«liii
cautiful titatuc(if\(ii4
iris, wa.s diseovtrtifh
if the above, the niiij
:)les, of atrium|ihalaii
and numerous fra?n4
umns, e\iucc tlic m
of the city. hliasJJ
urches, aiidhaslwaj
ical councils. The in
a handsome editiceiij
ion, a college, a m«
all public librar}-. N
re manufactured, anilfl
the hijjfhest esteem, I
n the navigation dl
navigable canal has J
J sea,' at Tort Bouc, ill
ichurc of the Uh'ff'i
ance opposite to Cada
h the canal of Beaua
lat of Langnedoc. »"
.■other with that 1)11
ARLESnEIJI
railirnvs, hnvc mndo it the centre of a considerable
ami LiiiwiiiK trade.
After beinff pillaged, a.d. 270, Aries was re-
laimi and cmljellishcd hy Constnntinc, whose son,
((iiintantinell.jwasbominit. It declined under the
Menivingian kings. In 855 it liecame the capital
iV t kingdom of the same name, united in 9ii3 to
iliat of Burgundy. It was sacked by the Karncens
in 730. In the' twelfth century it constituted a
npublic, and in 1251 it submitted to Charles of
I Anjou.
AULESIII'HM, a village of Switzerland, cant.
l^r, 4 m. tiil'^. Kale. It has baths and a tine bo-
laidc'al garden. I'op. O.'Jt! in 18(i(t.
ARLKS-SUR-TIiCII, a town of France, dep.
I I'vren^s Orientales, cap. cant, (! m. VVSW. Cdret,
I'iip, 2,450 in 1861. It has hot mineral springs.
aIrLEUX, a town of France, dep. du Nord, cap.
I rant, on the Sausct, 6 m. S. Douay. Top. 1,6G0 in
I IHtil.
ARLON (an. AroJaunum), a town of the Ne-
I ihoriands, duch. of Luxembourg, can. cant., on a
liill in the middle of forests, 16 m. WNW. Luxem-
IlKiurg, with which it is connected by railway.
Pup, 6,647 in 1801. It has iron works, and some
manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, and
(arthcnwarc, and a trade in grain. Arlon, which
I ij of very remote origin, was formerly fortified. In
I ihe excavations that have been made in the town,
Kiatues, medals, and stones bearing inscriptions,
I liave been dug up that leave n<i doubt in regard to
its ancient importance. It was nearly burned
Iddira in 1785, and several engagements have
[taken place in its vicinity.
I ARMA(iH, an inland co. Ireland, prov. Ulster,
I having N. Lough Ncagh, W. Tyrone and Mona-
Ighan, S. Louth and E. Down. It is about 31 m.
I in length from N. to S., and '20 m. across where
I broadest, containing 612i sq. m., or 312,327 imp.
lacres, of which about 40,000 are unimproved
Iraountain and bog, and 18,000 water, being part of
IliOugh Ncagh. Surface partly rugged and moun-
Itainous, but generally flat. Soil jiretty fertile.
Il'roperty to a great extent in the hands of the
Ichurch, colleges, and corporations, but some noble-
Imen and gentlemen have good estates. Minor es-
Itates numerous, and the tenures by which they
lare held such as to reduce them into the minutest
Ipcrtions. Potatoes, oats, and wheat are the principal
Icrops. There are some dairies which produce but-
lier, and cattle of an inferior breed are reared in
■the mountains. Sheep, few and inferior. Mid-
Tdlemen but little known. Habitations of the bulk
lif the lower orders decidedly superior to those of
|the same class in most other parts of Ireland, ex-
cept the neighbouring counties of Down and An-
llrira. They are mostly white\vashed, well thatched,
Vnd have a clean and comfortable appearance.
Notwithstanding their, alleged propensity to
ambling, the inhab. may be advantageously com-
lared with those of most other parts of Ireland.
linen manufacture widely diffused. The rivers
lann and Ne\vry being joined by the Newry canal,
Jhere is a navigable communication between the
I at Cnrlingibrd Bay and Lough Neagh. Ar-
pa^h contains eight baronies, and twenty-eight
Mnshes and parts of parishes. Principal town,
taagh. Pop. in 1821, 197,427 ; in 1831, 220,651 ;
1 1841, 232,393, and in 1861, 198,086. It returns
I m. to the H. of C, viz. two for the co. and
Ine for the city of Armagh. The co. constituency
lumbered 5,805 registered electors in 1865.
ARMAGH, a city and pari. bor. of Ireland, the
Nt of the archicpiscopal sec of the ' Primate of
'1 Ireland,' prov. Ulster, cap. of the above co., on
|ieCallam, an afllucnt of the Blackwater, 70 m.
■. by W. DubUu, and 33 m. SW. of Bellast by
ARMAOII
183
railway. The city is said to have been founded
by St,'Palri(k, a.u. 450, but we have no authentio
notice of Armagh or of its primacy previously to
1122. Since the Kevolution it has gradually in-
creased in extent and prosperity, particularly from
its having been the residence of Primate Boulter,
and of his various successors in the see, who have
all contributed to its imprtivement by liberal do-
nations and lieqnests. The jiopulation in 1821
amounted to 8,493; in 1831, to 9,470, and in
1861 to 8,801. There have always lieeii more
Homr.n Catholics than Protestants at Armagh,
notwithstanding the fact of the town* being re-
garded as the head-quarters of Protestantism in
Ireland. The census of 1861 showed 1,313 males
and 1,499 females who belonged to the Established
Church, and 2,112 males with 2,711 females who
were lioman Catholics.
The city is well built, chiefly of a hard reddish
limestone, raised in the vicinity. The streets,
which are flagged, and macadamised, diverge from
the cathedral down the sides of the hill on which
it is built. A plentiful supply of water is conveyed
thAiugh them, in pipes, from a rcser%'oir at some
distance: they are kept perfectly clean, and arc
well lighted with gas. A library, containing up-
wards of 14,000 volumes, was endowed by Primate
Robinson, the great lienefactor of the town. Ho
also founde<l and endowed the « bservatory. It is
supplied with an excellent astronomical aiiparatus,
and enjoys a well deser%'e(l scientilic celebrity.
Primate feobinson endeavoured to raise the city
to the rank of a university, but in this he failed.
The archbishop's mansion is plain in style, but
elegant in its architectural proportions, and near
it is a private chapel. Barracks in the vicinity
afford accommodation for 300 men.
Armagh derived its corporate privileges from a
charter of James I. in 1613, contirmed by Wil-
liam III. The ruling body, which consisted of a
sovereign, twelve burgesses, and an unlimited
number of freemen, was abolished by the Munici-
pal Reform Act. The bor. returned two m. to the
Irish pari. ; but it only sends one m. to the Im)).
pari. The constituencj', in 18()5, numl)ered 416
registered electors, of whom seven were ' old free-
men,' and the rest 10/. householders and 8/. rated
occupiers. The assizes and general sessions of the
peace are held twice a year ; a court for insolvent
debtors three times a year; and a court of petty
sessions every Satunlay.
The ecclesiastical prov. of the Primate of all
Ireland comprises the six united bLshojirics of —
1. Armagh audClogher; 2. Tuam, Ardngh, Kil-
lala, and Achonry; 3. Derry and Raphoe; 4.
Down, Connor, and Dromore; 6. Kilm<ire and
Elphin ; 6. Meath. The diocese of Armagh is
divided into the upper or English part, which in-
cludes the cos. of Louth and Meath, and the lower
or Irish part, containing Armagh, Tyrone, and
part of Londonderry. The archieiiiscopal estates
extend over 100,563 acres; the annual income, by
rents and renewal-tines, is stated to be 17,670/.,
which, on the demise of the present archbishop, is
to be reduced to 12,000/. The cathedral, a large
ancient building, has recently undergone very ex-
tensive repairs, principally at the expense of the
present pnmate. It contains several fine monu-
ments; but, to the extreme regret of all true
Milesians, the moiiument of Brian Boru, said to
have been interred in it after the battle of Cloii-
tari", can no longer be traced. A cha^iel of ease, near
the Mall, is consecrated to St. Mark. In tlie l>.
Catholic arrangements, the parish is one of those
belonging to the archbishop, who re.sides and has his
cathedral in Drogheda. The parish chajicl, which
is remarkable for its triple roof, b too small for the
-m
184
ARMENIA
iL'-f!
(Miiifjrcfjntion. There an; pInccH of wor»hin fi>r Pros-
by tpriniiH, Spccdcrw, Iii(le|i(>n(lc>nt8, nn<l MctluxliHt!*.
Armngh hns one of the free p-nnimnr-scho<ilH no
lihorally endowed hy JnnieM I. It in a Inr^e hnild-
iiiK. in «» enclosed area, willi accommodation for
100 reHident pupils. The present jmmatc main-
tains a separate school, for the i?encrnl education
of the boys of the choir. There is a charter school
for boys and girls, under the endowment of Mr.
1 »relhicoiirt ; a F^ancastrian, a national, and a Sun-
day school, besides several iirivate establishments.
^'hougb little or no manufacture l>e carried on
in the town, Armagh is the centre of a large inlaiul
trade, chietly in grain, linen, and yarn, which has
considerably increased since the o|M!iiing. The
linen-hall, a large and well arranged building, is
open for sales on Tuesdays, chiefly for brown linens.
'1 here are considerable weekly sales of yam at the
yarn-market.
AKMENIA, an extensive country of W. Asia,
consisting principally of the table-land lying be-
tween the Kur on the N. and the Kurdistan
mountains on the S., having the Euphrates from
the ridge of Mount Taurus to Krzingan on the W.,
and apjiroaching to near the Caspian Sea on the
E. But the limits of Armenia differed widely at
iliffcrent periods, arid were at no time exactly de-
lined. The tlat parts of the country are, probably,
not less than from S.OOO to 6,000 ft. alwvc the
level of the sea, and it is intersected by several
lofty mountAin chains, the summits of some of
wlii(;h — as that of Ararat (see Akauat) — ascend
within the line of |)cr|)etual congelation. Armenia
gives birth to some large and celebrated rivers, as
the Euphrates aiul Tigris, flowing S. to the Per-
sian (Julf ; the Cyrus or Kur, arid its important
tributary, the Aruxea or Aras, flowing E. to the
Caspian Sea; atid the Akampais orChorak, flowing
>J. to the Hlack Sea. It has three great lakes;
those of Van, Shaliee or Urmiah, and Goukcha or
Sevan. The circumference of the first is estimated
at 240 m. ; it has several islands ; and its waters,
though brackish, are drunk by cattle. The other
two lakes arc also very extensive. The water of
that of Urmiah is excessively salt, and so buoyant
that one can with difliculty stand where it is 3 ft.
deep. The soil atid products are very various ;
l)ut in general the former is abundantly fertile,
especially in the few spots where it is irrigated.
In the higher iwrts all sorts of corn may be ad-
■\antageously cultivated ; and the valleys produce
excellent cotton, tobacco, granes, &c. The ploughs
are all dra>vii by oxen or builaloes ; no fewer tlian
flight or ten of the former being frequently attached
to one. The only minerals raised in modern times
are copper, iron, and rock-salt; but in antiquity
the precious metals ranked among its products.
Owing to the great elevation of the countrj', the
climate is in most parts rather severe ; but though
the winters last long, the summer heats are suffi-
cient to bring all the fruits of the eartli to perfec-
tion. The country is in many jMirts desert, and
is everrwhere very thinly i)eopled. Besides the
Armeninns, or old inhabitants, who are principally
eiigage<l in agriculture and trade, the pojudation
(^unsists of Turks, Persians, and Kiissians, and wan-
dering jMistoral hordes of Turkmans and Koords.
The jmncipal towns are Erivaii, Erzeroum, Nak-
chivan, Akhlat, Van, and Akhalzikh.
Armenia, though it has long since l)een effaced
from the list of nations, was governed, for a length-
ened jMjriod, either by independent princes, or by
vassals of the Assyrian and Persian monarchs It
subsequently became the theatre of long-c«ntinue<l
struggles between the Persians and Komans ; and
iu)twithBtanding the hardiness of the inhabitants,
and the natural advantages of the country for de-
fensive warfare, it seems never to have \wn al.|;
to oppose an effectual resistance to any iiivmlir
In the thirteenth century it was ovorriin liv ly
Moguls; and in the succeeding century tlio li.t
trace of its Indeiicndcnce disapiieared, and the Ar-
menians ceased to have a country.
The people early began to seek an asylum in
foreign parts from the oppression under which ilipv
suffered at home, and they are now widely ilitl'u*ftl
over Turkey, Persia, Kussia, and India. Tlnir
emigrations have not, however, always beoii vnlim.
tary. In 1604, Schah Abbas, emficror of Ppm^
in order to protect his dominions on the side (,f
Armenia against the Turks, resolved to earn- i,f
the inhabitants, ond to lay waste a large tHini(,n
of the country, so that it might no longer U ai,!,,
to support an army. This monstrous rpsohitinn
was executed with the most revolting barharitv,
Tlie inhabitants, driven off like cattle, j)eri»hpi| hv
thousands, while their houses were burnt (lowi
and even,' vestige of civilisation obliterated, A
part of the sun'ivors were settled in one of tlij
suburbs of Ispahan, where they were kiniilv
treated; but the greater number, being settltdii
an unhealthy part of the prov. of MazimdcnD,
were soon swept off by disease. Until rewntly,
Armenia was divided between Turkey and I'una;
but the fonner ceded to Russia, by the treaty o( I
Adrianople, a considerable portion of her Am
nian territories; and in 1827, Kussia acquired ihe
entire prov. of Erivan from Persia. These acqiii.
sitions have been consolidated into the Kovm-
ment of Transcaucasia. The Turkish portiim i^
Armenia is subdiN-ided into the pashalics of £n:e-
roum, Kars, and Van.
Whatever may be its influence in other rcupeoii, I
there can be little doubt that the occtipatinn iH
part of Armenia by the Uussians will be of sin^nt I
lar advantage to its inhabitants. Great imnilJei!
of Armenians have already emigrated fnim ike I
Turkish and Persian provinces to those of Hum. I
where they have been advantageously setilnlj
The depredations of the petty chiefs and of iht I
wandering tribes will now be effectually restrained; I
and for the first time for these several ceiiturifs, I
the Armenians will be made aware of the advji- 1
tages resulting from the security of pn)perty, ai>l I
from living under a strong and (compared iriib I
those under which they formerly lived) a IIIkiiI I
and tolerant government. Col. Monteitli Ijejflj
decisive testimony to the benefits that have r- I
suited to Georgia and other Transcaucasinii mm- 1
tries fnim their occupation by Kussia. 'Youinivj
now,' he says, 'travel in perfect security, mthpnll
horses, froin the mouths of the Phasis to tlicKul
and the Caspian, through countries where, ill
1815, the roads were all but impracticable, amil
exposed to the unrestrained attacks of robhersdl
other banditti.' (Journal of the Geographical SiJ
ciety, vol. iii. p. 37.) These remarks are coiitiniifil|
by the experience of late travellers.
' The total number of the Arraeninn nation ii|
estimated by Mr. Conder at about 2,000,000, it
whom about two-thirds may be within the Oit*|
man dominions. With the exception of theJenI
no other people is so much scattered. Itissuf-I
pt>sed that there are about 200,000 in Constanii-I
nople and the adjacent villages ; about 40,0(«) III
India; 10,000 in Hungary and the coiitip»H»|
countries ; and they are met with in Africa aoll
even America. Jf r. Ussber (Travels, Lond. 1W)|I
states that the number of Armenians in AnneMl
proi)er is not very large : they are supposed li-l
together to consist of ten or twelve milliomj
scattered over nearly every country in '
world.
Like the Jews, the Armenians found in forfia|
ATIMENIA
1S.7
r to have Won aH«
;!c to nny invailu.
as (ivcrriin liy iW
H century the la>t
(t'arcd, and the Ar-
try.
seek an aHvliira in
(H under which iliey
now widely ditlWi
and India. Tlw
, always been vnlim.
, cnijKiror of Pmij,
lionH (in the itiile it
resolved to earn- 4
astc a large wirtinn
;ht no longer lie alile
nonstrouH rpsiihiti.in
revolting Imrharity,
ce cattle, jKirisheil liy
B8 were biinit dmn
ition obliteratwl A
let tied in one of tht
they were kimlly
fiber, being settWij
irov. of Maziimlmn,
sase. Until roccnily,
n Turkey and PeM; I
issia, by the treaty iij
portion of her Amif.
r, Hussia acquired the
Persia. These aeqii
ited into the govm-
he Turkish (lortidn li
the pashalics of Ene-
uence in other rcupwt!,
that the occupatiiiii !■(
ssians willbcofsillu^
tants. Great mimliei!
y emigrated fr»m tbe
iices to those of Ktim
dvantageously scttW
etty chiefs and of tbt
c eftectually restrained;
[hcse several centuAs,
dc aware of the advai-
curitv of property, aiti
ft and (eompare<l mill
Irmerly lived) a lilieni
Col. Monteith bun
benefits that have le-
Transcaucasian coun-
by KuBsia. 'Yimiwy
yfect security, Kith foi-
thePhasistothcKiil
countries where, ii
lut impracticahle, ail
1 attacks of robbers aiid
i)f the Geographical S.>
|c remarks arc cuufiH I
Iravellcrs. . , ,
lie Armenian nation n
at about 2,000,UO(l, d
lay be within the Otto-
» exception of the Jen
fh 8cattei«d. Iti«s«H.
200,000 in Comtanfr
laces; about 4O,O0««
y and the contifjiM
net within Afnca art
«r (Travels, LondJW
'Armenians in ArmeM
they are supposed H-
in or twelve m^^
ivcry country in '
enians found in fowl
mnntries arc mostly all cnRagcd in some dcpart-
imiit <)f C(»mmercc, or of the employments con-
ii,,,if(l therewith. The moment, in fact, that they
liavp their native soil, they endeavour either to
.(('t themselves or their children into some brantdi
p|' trade. Tlmy begin with the lowest depart men ts;
the more aide or fortunate ascending gradually
ipmi "lie grade to another, till they arrive at that
iif banker, the summit of their ambition. A large
iiroportion of the foreign and internal trade of
liirkey, Persia, Southern Russia, India, A'c, jiar-
ticulurly the tirst, is in their hands. They arc
oxreedinglv industrious ; and though not free
triini the vices produced by slavers- and ignorance,
arc lioncster in their dealings, and less prone to
iiractisc deceit, than the (Jreeks.
The iVrmenians are Christians differing but little
ftnm those of the Eastern or ( Jreek church. They
reject the decrees of the council of Chalcedon, and
admit only a divine nature in Christ. Their olHci-
aiiiiji clergy, or vartabeds, arc obliged to marry ;
I Imt celiliacy is enjoined upon those of a higher
"radc, as patriarchs, bishops, &c. The election of
fhe officiating clergy is in the hands of the peojde,
and is uniformly exercised by them ; but, notwith-
siamliiig this circumstance, and that the priesta
have no fixed incomes, but depend entirely on
I'lW and other ywrquLsites, they do not ap))ear to
have much influence, or to be very attentive to
their duties : they are uniformly almost in the last
AtfTfce illiterate," and their morals are not repre-
sented in, the most favourable point of view.
(Misaonary Ucsearches, p. 243.)
The Armenians generally do not acknowledge
tlie supremacy of the Pope ; but since 1441 have
recojjniscd, as their siiiritual superior, the patriarch
lit' Echmiadzin, residing at the famous convent of
the three churches, near Erivan, now in possession
of Russia. The jiatriarchs of Constantinople and
ilenisalem have no authority in ecclesiastical
alfairs; but the Turkish government consider
the former aa the head of the Armenian rnyahs :
tlirough him all applications are received, and all
[ orders issued ; and he is accustomed to receive an
annual stijiend from the different bishoiw, which
[was paid him even by the patriarch of Echmi-
adzin till the latter became a IJussian subject.
Previously to 1441, the patriarchs of Sis and
Athamar (a monastery on an island in Lake Van)
sliarcd the spiritual authority with the patriarch
(if Echmiadzin ; and latterly the Porte [with little
[success] has been endeavouring to sever the coii-
luection between its Armenian subjects and their
lid spiritual heail, now under the control of a
\imffi power, by directing their attention to, and
|rc\iving the pretensions of, the patriarch of Sis,
sident witliin the Turkish territories. (Elliott's
Travels, i. p. 470.)
A considerable number of Armenians are in con-
noi'tion with the Koman See ; they are called the
lljiitcrt Armenians. The Armenians of Poland,
together with their patriarch, submitted to the
llidy See as early as the year 1616. But a more
jni[wrfant fact in connection with these views wfis
{he foundation of the order of Mechitarists, first
the Morea, and afterwards in the island of San
^azaro, at Venice. Mcchitar, an Armenian monk,
fas bora at Sebaste in Asia Minor, in 1676.
Thirsting after knowledge, and filled with ardent
uve for his people, he endeavoured by spiritual
|nd moral influences, and the dissemination of
iumpean culture, to elevate his unfortunate and
niressed nation ; and to this purpose he dedicated
lis life. He submitted to the Poi)e, and founded,
fith his consent, an order and monastery, into
thich only native Armenians were received. He
' established an Armenian printing-press. He
and his companions and successors have done much
in translating from otlu-r languages into Armenian.
He himself translated Thomas h, Kcinpis, These
Armenian books are sent by caravans into Persia
and India, and prepare the way for the education
of the peo|de. ... In (ieorgia there are many
Homnn Catlwdic Armenians: they have a great
dislike to their non-united countrymen, and do not
call themselves Armenians, but Catholics, as if
that were the name of a nation. . . . Many at-
tempts have also been made to unite the Armenian
with the (treek church. Six Armenian villages
on the west bank of the Euphrates have a(h>pte(l
the (Jreek faith, the largest of which is called Aga
or Aguntsi. The Protestants, too, have endea-
voured to make converts. The Hasle missionaries
founded an Armenian scluxd at Shusha, whicdi
was, however, removed, at the request of the Pa-
triarch, who regarded it as dangerous. (Hax-
thausen ; Ussher's Travels, p. 26!).)
Nowhere is the patriarchal system carried to a
greater extent than among the Armenians. Dnriiiff
the lifetime of the father, all the sons and their
descendants live together in one common dwelling;
and thus houses may he found which, from tlio
numl)er of their inhabitants, resemble beehives,
often comprising three and four generations. All
the i)roperty is liehl in common by the desccndant.s
of the head of the house. Brothers and sisters
inherit equally ; but unvil the death of the head
no one can possess anything sejiarate from all the
others. Until marriage the Armenian girls go
about as they like ; they are unveiled, and enjoy
OS much free<lom as they could do in I'^iiropciiu
countries, flirting, love-making, and marrying to
])lease themselves, as in mt)re civilised lands. Put
once married, and all is changed. From ihat time
until she bears a child, she never speaks to any
one except her husband ; and then only in iirivatc.
After she becomes a mother, she may speak to her
mother-in-law first, and after the lajise of certain
periods, to her own mother, her sisters-in-law, and
iier own sisters. She is always veiled, even in her
own house; she never speaks to male strangers,
and she seldom or never leaves the house. Her
finery, jewellery, and ornaments can be shown
only' to those of her own sex ; and in every way
her* seclusion is as complete as that of the Turkish
women. On the other hand, the Armenian women
seldom do any liard work ; they remain at home
while their husbands labour in the fields, and they
enjoy, probably on account of their acquaintaiu^e
jinor to marriage, much more respect and confi-
dence from their husbands than falls to the share
of the Turkish wife, who, moreover, has to divide
with two or three rivals the little affection or re-
spect which her husband deigns to bestow on her.
As the Armenian woman can only talk in her own
house below her breath, that none of her male
relatives may hear what she says, it follows that
the consequence which usually results from the
residence of so many women in one house, inces-
sant quarrelling, is quite avoided. Custom, the
strongest of all laws, forbidding them to speak
above a whisper, a war of words could only be
carried on under preat difficulties. (Uasher, John ;
From London to Persepolis, 186.5, p. 248.)
The language of Armenia is harsh, and over-
loaded with consonants. Itcsides a great many
Indo-Germanic roots, it exhibits numerous rela-
ticms with the Finnish idioms of Siberia, and
other languages of N. Asia. Its grammar is ex-
ceedingly complex. The ancient Armenian is no
longer spoken, and exists only as a dead language
in books. It is so very different from the modern
Armenian, that it is no longer understood, except
by those by whom it is studied. The modern
' ' 'II
11
..1, .f
■ih .1
m
■% iff
irvH
('
180
ARMENT
itii
IniiKtinpe is larptly inndc up of Persian nnil Tiirk-
ihli wohIh; anil itH frrammar, anil the conHlniction
or its ])liraH«fi, arc totally iliHtinct from tlumc of
the ancient language.
The alphabet of the ArmcnianH, introiliiceil a.t>.
400, ami Ntill in uhc, consiHts of tlurty-cif;ht ietten,
of wliieh thirty nro consonantH, anil eight vowels.
At an early pc'riotl the Armenians had a literature
tinil leanied men ; and, thouf;h the great bulk of
the nation be now plunged ui the grossest igno-
rance, they continue to this day to (wissess lioth,
;inil works of considerable merit are still iirinted
in their language. They have j)rinting-pre«ses at
(youstantinoplc, Venice, Moscow, Calcutta, and
other places. (.laubcrt, Voyage en Arme'nie et en
I'erse, /M«»/m; Smith and IJwight's Missionary
Kcscarches in Armenia ; (^>lonel Monteith's I'aper,
in the .loumal of the Ocograjihical Society, vol.
iii. ; and Ussher's Journey from London to I'ersc-
jiolis, imn.)
AHMENT, a village of Upper Egypt, near the
left bank of the Nile, 20 m. N. Esnd It occupies
the site of the Ancient Hermont'iH. It has in its
environs a tem]ile, on the walls of which, among
other ligiires, is a giraffe — an animal now un-
known in Egynt.
AHMENTIEKES, a frontier town of France,
dep. dii Nord, cap. cant, on the hvs, 13 m. NVV.
Lille. Pop. 11,901 in 18(!1. It is well built, clean,
and handsome; has a communal college, anestal>-
lishment for spinning cotton, fabrics of tablc-Iincn,
mattresses, laces, thread, tobacco, &c.; with bleach-
ing-grounils, soai)-works, distilleries, and a refinery
of salt. Large quantities of bricks, made in the
environs, are exported by the Lys, and boats are
built for its navigation. It has a celebrated mar-
ket for seed com.
AKNAY'-LE-I)UC, a town of France, dep. Cotc-
d'Or, caji. cant, near the Arroiix, 29 m. SW. Dijon.
Pop. 2,oiJ7 in 18(>1. It has manufactures of cloth,
serges and druggets. On the 2;)th June, 1750, the
great Huguenot leader. Admiral Coligiiy, defeated
near this town the army of the Marshal de Cossc-
Gonor.
ARNEDO, a town of Spain, prov. Burgos, on
the Cidacos, 10 m. S. Calahorra. Pop. 3,;}35 in
1857. (jikkI wine is made in its neighbourhood.
AKNHEM, a town of the Netherlands, cap. prov.
Giielderland, on the right bank of the lihine, at
the foot of the Veluwe hills, 34 m.E. bv S. Utrecht,
on the railway to Dllsseldoif. I'on. 20,904
in 1861. It is a fortified place of the hrst class;
its fortifications having been greatly improved
and enlarged, in 1702, by the famous engineer
Coehorn. The ramparts, planted with elms, af-
ford an agreeable promenade. The town is well
built; has a good port on the river, which is
crossed by a bridge of boats; ond is advanta-
geously situated for trade. It is the residence of
a governor, and is the seat of a court of assizes,
of a tribunal of original jurisdiction, and a tri-
bunal of commerce ; and has a college, a literary
society, an agricultural commission, &c. In the
church of St, Eusebiiis are the tombs of the old
Dukes and Counts of Giielderland.
AKNHEM LAND, N. coast of Australia, be-
tween the Gulf of Carpentaria and Anson Hay, dis-
covered by the crews of the ' Anihem ' and ' Ptre,'
in 1(!18. ' It forms part of the territory appor-
tioned to South Australia by the Koyal Letters
I'atcnt of July 18(!3, for the juiqiose of the colo-
nisation of the north coast of Australia. (See
AusTitAi.As:A.)
AHNO, a considerable and celebrated river of
Italy (Tuscany), the Arnus of the Hoinans, has
its source in the Apennines, at Mount Falterona,
fi or m. N. I'ratovecchio. At lurst it flows S. to
ARPAIA
Piinte a Huriano; thenco N.W. to Pimtasion>
where it receives the Sieve; whence it pursues a
wesK-rlv course, flowing through Florence ^^^
Pisa; I m. Indow which it falls into the Mcdiier.
ranean. Its emimuchuro was formerly a g,^
deal farther to the S. ; hut having Iwonmc uh.
striicted, it was diverted into a new chniiiicl cm
for it in l<i03. Its course may he eHtimatftl
at from 140 to IfiO m. It is naturally imvi);al,le
from the sea to Florence, and has been mailcnnvi
gable from Florence to near its source by memi*
of twenty-seven htcks; but its navigation Ih liahlt
to many obstructions, at cerlain ciisoiin rmm
floods, and at other seasons from droughts: in
guard against the injurious influence of thcfoniipr.
it has l)een embnuked for the greater part of iij
course. The A'lil d'Amo, or the country l)otwo(ii
Florence and Pisa, is one of the richest, ixisttui.
tivated, and most l)caiitiful of any in Italy.
AKNSUl'MtG, a town of Prussian VVeHtphnlij,
cap. reg. and circ. of the same name, on tiieltuiir'
by which it is almost encompassuii, i7 m. \|.;'
Cologne. Pop. 4,300 in 18(il. It isthe residenw
of the provincial authorities, and has a cdurt i>f
appeal for the regency, a Catholic gymnasiimuful
an agricultural society. The inhabitaiiiH an>
principally employed in the preparation of poi-
ashes, and in distillation.
AKNSTADT, a well-built town of Saxony, prin, I
Schwarzbiirtt-Sondcrshausen, on the Girii, U m
S. by W. Erfurth. Pop. 6,09(5 in 1801. Tlictomi
has a castle, a college, a cabinet of natural hii-
tory, and fabrics of cotton and brass, with a cnn-
siderablc trade in corn, timber, wool, furs, ami
colonial ])roduce.
AKNSWALDE, a town of the Pmssinn stales,
prov. IJrandenbiirg ; cap. circle, 19 m. SE. Star-
gard, and a station on the Stettin and I'ds^n
railway. Pop. 4,700 in 1801. It is nearly sur-
rounded by three lakes well supplied with li'sh.
AUOKSZALLAS, a vill. of Iluiigary, Jnzvpi
44 m. ENE. Pesth, and an entrefnit for the inidi;
lietween that city and Upper Hungary. IW
8,170 ill 1858.
AKOLSEN, a town of the prin. of Wnlilock.dn
the Aar, 12 m. N. by W. Waldeck. Pop. !,%:> in
1801. It is the residence of the prince, and liie
seat of the principal authorities of the iiroviiief;
is well built ; has a fine castle, in which is a valu-
able collection of coins and antiquities, with i
library and a picture gallery ; there is also a al-
lege, and grammar-school.
AKONA, a town of North Italy, prov. Nnvaa
on the Lago Maggiore, near its southcni cxire-
mity, on the railway from Novara to Hcllinztiiij.
Pop. 3,259 in 1801. Its fortifications, whicii mre
formerly considerable, were demolished by ihf
French after the battle of Marengo. It is wdl
built, has a gymnasium, a hospital, a collcfnaie
church and three others, a port on the lake, with
yards for the construction of vessels for its navi-
gation, and a pretty considerable commerce. Si.
Charles Borromeo was a native of this town; anJ
in 1097 a colossal statue was erected in honour I'f
the saint, by the people of Milan, on a neighbour-
ing eminence.
AKPAIA, a small village of Southern Ilalj.
prov. Benevento, l)etween Capua and Bencvoiiiii.
3 m. E. Arienzo. Pop. 1,385 in 1802. The vil-
lage is supposed to occupy the site of the anciiiit
Caiidium, memorable for the great disaster thai
befell the Bomau arms, anno 311 ii.c. Hut ili(
better opinion seems to be, that the defile siliian'l
a little to the N. of Arpaia, between St, Afiatoainl
Moiano, is the real scene of this tlisaster, amlilie
l)lace so celebrated by the name of the Furt
VaudhuB. The Forks consist of a small plain
l.W, to PimtaMorp,
vho,nr« it jmrsiifi a
}»HU Florence imi
Is into thii Mwliitr.
in formerly a sm\
huviiiK licpnme (ih-
a new chnnnel rut
may Iw I'stimathI
nat\irally niiviualile
Ims l>ccn made iiavi-
itfl Hourcp by menin
» navi);nti<miHliali|i;
erlaiii • viwoiih I'mu
1 from (Irounhts; tn
Huenco of tliefoniifr.
c greater part nf it*
tlio coimtry Ijelwom
the richent, Ijcst cul-
f any in Italy,
I'msHJaii VVcHtphalis,
e name, on tlie Hulir,
mpaHHirii, o7 m. NK,
I. It i»thc resiilciKf
'H, and haH a cmirt i.f
holic gymnasium anil
The inliahitnnta arr
B preparation of poi-
, town of Saxony, prin.
1, on tlie Gera, lira,
[)Giul«(il. Tlietcmn
binet of natural hit-
and brass, with a con-
mber, wool, furs, aiiJ
nf the Pmssinn states,
irele, 10 m. SE. Stat-
ic Stettin and Po»en
!G1. It is nearly »ur-
1 supplied with li>h.
. of liungary, Jazyps.
entrepot for the trade
[pper Hungary. Top.
ic prin. of WaWecli.on
aldeck. Pop. l,M.iiii
>f the prince, and the 1
l)ritie8 of the prnviiire;
tie, in which is a valu-
id antiquities, with i ]
there is also a tol-
[h Italy, prov. Nnvara,
tar its southern cxire-
[Novara to IJeUinznia |
rtitications, wliich wre
re demolished by the
Marengo. It is wll ]
. hospital, a collejriaie
port on the lake, m\
lof vessels for its navi-
llerable commerce. St. |
Itiveof this town; ami
erected in hnnounf
[Milan, on aiieighta-
cc of Southern Italy.
Ijapua and KcnevoiiH'.
Kto in 18(!2. The vil-
Ithesiteof theanmnt
Ihc great disaster tta
Inio 311 ».c. liiitiH
1 that the dotilesiliiaii-
IlM'tweon St,Apiit(Mii<l
If this disaster, ami tlif
le name of the i'«w
List of a small ptoi
ARPINO
traversed by a stream, having a narrow outlet at
,.,ich end, o'l'l •*''"'■ "!' everywhere else by con-
liiiiKiiiR and impracticable mountains. A power-
ful Koman anny liaving unwarily entered this
iletile, the Samnites immediately blocked up the
I'lirtlier outlet; and the liomans, liaving retraced
tlu'ir Hte|u<, found that their enemies had antici-
iintcd their movement, by bh)cking up the pass
hv which they hail entered as well as the other.
Cauttht thus, as it were, in a trap, they were
(ibliL'ed to accept the terms dictated by the Sam-
nites, who granted them their lives, on their de-
livering u|) their arms, and passinjjone by one half
naked under the yoke. (Liv. lib. ix. cap. 1-7.)
AlilMNO (an. Arjnnum), a town (if South
Italv, prov. Caserta, (ini. SVV. Sora. Pop. ll,r)22
ill IHIIl. The town is agreeably situated on some
eminences, has various churches, a liospital, with
inmiiitiictories of the best cloth made in the jirov.,
iiftmr, and taiuierics. Ar])in(> is a very ancient
litv. Having In-en wrested from the Sanniites by
the Kdinims, it became a municipal town, and its
citizens were enrolled in the Cornelian tril)c .'}(I2
vears n.c. (Liv. lib. x. § 1, and lib. xxxvii. § 3ti,
iiiid Cicero pro Cn. Planco.) IJut it is chietly
ineinorid)lc for being the birthplace of two of the
most distinfjiiislied men Italy ever produced —
Cniiis Mariiis, surnamcd the third founder of
Kiinic ; and Al. Tullius Cicero, the prince of Roman
cratiirs. The latter frequently alliulos to Aq>intim
ill his Letters, and dwells with complacency on
the rude and primitive simplicity of its inhabi-
tants. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, vol. ii. p. 1 11.)
AlUJUA, a town of Northern Italy, prov. Padua,
12 m. SW. Padua, in the bosom of the Euganean
hills. Pop. 1,0!>0 in 18(i2. Arqua is famous for
liaving been the residence of Petrarch during the
latter years of his life, and the place where that
•jrcat jMiet and restorer of modern literature
breathed his last, on the 19th of July, 1.S74. ' His
ailics are prcserx-ed in th<j churchyard of the town,
ill a sarcophagus of red marble, raised on four
pilasters on an elevated base, and preserved from
an association with meaner tombs. The kindred
genius to whom we arc indebted for these details,
observes : —
They keep his dnst in Arqna, where he died ;
The "mountain village where Ids latter days
Went down tlie vale of years : and 't is their pride —
An honest pride — and let it be their praise.
To offer to the parsing stranger's gazo
His mansion and his sepulchre ; both plain
And venerably simple, such as raise
A feeling more ficcordant with his strain,
Tliaii if a pyramid form'd his monumental fano.
'The house in which Petrarch resi<led is on the
e(lj;c of a little knoll overlooking two descents,
and enramanding a view not only of the glowing
amicus in the dales immediately beneath, but of
the wide plains, above whose low woods of mul-
berry and willow, thickened into a dark mass by
I'l'stdons of \'ines, tall single cypreeses, and the
spires of towers, arc seen in the distance, which
stretches to the mouths of the Po and the shores
iif the Adriatic. The chair in which the poet
breathed his last is still shown among the pre-
riims relics of Arqua.' (Childe Harold, canto iv.
§ 31, and note 9.)
Akqua, an ancient ^^llage of Northern Italy,
prov. Kovigo, on the Castagnaro canal, 5 m. SS\V.
lii'vi),'o. Pop. 2,7G0 in I6G2. It has some trade
in cotton and silk.
AlKJUENNES, a village of Belgium, prov.
Ilainault, 13 m. N. \V. Charleroi. I'op. 2,22.') in
K>6. The village has valuable lime tuid marble
(piarries.
Alit^UES, a small decayed town of France,
ARTIAN
187
dep. Seine Inferieure, about fl m. from niepnc,
Pop. IMiltin IKIil. During the middle ages tins
was the principal bulwark of Normandy towards
the N. ; its eastle, now in ruins, having withstood
several sieges. In the vicinity of this town, in
loHO, Henry IV. defeated the triiops of the League
under the Due tie Mayenne.
AKKAN, an island of Scotland, co. Bute, in the
arm of the sea between the Mull of Cantirc and
the Ayrshire coast; being separated from ttio
former by Kilbrannan .Sound, and from the latter
by the t'rith of CIvde. It is IJ m. from the near-
est jioiut of the Isfii of Bute, 3^ m. from the near-
est point of Cantire, and ItlJ m. from Ardrossaii
point in Ayrshire. It is about ItiJ m. in length
from N. to .S. and from to 9 in brejidtb ; extreme
breadth II m. Acreage, including the ish-t of
Plmhla and Ilcdy Island, 10(),tit)(). It exhibits a
striking contrast in its N. and S. divisitnis, the
fonner, or that to the N. of Hrodick, presenting
lofty, bare, and nigged granite mountains, con-
nected by steep ridges and intersected by deep
valleys and ravines. Goatfell, the highest moun-
tain in the island, rises to the height of 2,874 ft.
above the sea. The S. and largest division of tlio
island is composed of undulating, hilly ground, the
eminences of which are of a tiattened or rounded
eontiguration, and covered with a deep stratum of
peat and other alluvial matter. Hound the greater
part of the coast an almost uninterrupted broad
bank or girdle of gravel has been formed by the
action of the sea, the soft greensward on which
att'ords a pleasant and convenient access along tlio
sea-side. The shores are generally steep and
rocky, but high clifls are not frequent. Generally,
the island may be considered as an illustration of
a geological epitome, containing ])robably more nu-
merous varieties.of ge(dogical formation than any
other district of similar extent. Three deep baya
indent the island — Kansa on the NVV., and Bro-
dick and Lamlash on the K. : the latter being de-
fended from the VV. gales by Holy Island, 1 m. in
length, is one of the best asylums for .shi|)ping in
the Frith of Clyde. Marble, jasper, agates, cairn-
gorms, and a tine siiccies of rock crystal called the
Arran diamond, are met with. The red deer and
wild goat, formerly very abundant, are now nearly
if not entirelj' extiqiateiL Cheviot sheeii are
generally introduced, and the native breeds of
cattle and horses are being superseded by the
larger and more esteemed breeds of Argyleshire and
Ayrsliire. Swine are raised in considerable num-
ber^ and the steamboats that touch at the island
have opened a new market for fowls and eggs.
Grouse and black-cock are very plentiful. The
system of agriculture fonnerly followed in Arran
was as bad as can well be imagined ; the lands
were held jointly by several tenants on the com-
mon or run-rig plan (see Augylk), and were
scourged by a constant course of corn crops, which
succeeded each other in a series, unbroken except
by the occasional introduction of potatoes, as long
as the soil would produce any thing ; but, since
1815, the Duke of Hamilton, who is proprietor of
nearly the whole island, has laboured strenuously
and successfully to introduce a better system';
partly by letting farms to individuals for a iixc<l
term of years, excluding sulj-tenants and as-
signees ; partly by introducing conditions into the
leases fitted to insure a better system of manage-
ment, and partly by exjiending large sums on the
building of houses, enclosing, making drains and
roads. The people at first were very much opposed
to the change, but their prejudices have gradually
given way, and they are now for the most part
sensible that it lias been as advantageous to thcni
as to the proprietor. Since the occupiers have eii-
i i!
-. d'i
1«8'
Ann AN
a*
it-.:. '''
^4
Joyed poNRONxioim cnoli tni^ht cnll liix own, tliry
nave utondily ndvniu'rd in ImMtH of indiiHtry, mid
tlioiiKh ill fliiH n'Hprct tlioy nre titill ln'hiiid the
tciimitH Hiid labourers of tlio iiiainlaiid, it im Iio-
licvcd tliat in no insular lli^liland diNtrict in
gn'ntor industry hIiowii than in Arraii.
There are now n numln'r of hirge fannn enclonpd,
Hidxiivided and well ciiltivnted, having vuhiahlc
HloekH of cattle and comfortable farm-steadiiiK!*,
where formerly there were niinieroiix luitH without
chinrincyH or windowa, niid rid^eH running in all di-
reelions without a Niii^le enehmurc or Hulidivi)*ion.
The (general rotation, exce|)t on the ttliorcH, {h, 1.
OatH; 2. Green croji — notatoea, turnipa, beana or
jieaa, with manure; 8. Hear or innn, wheat oroata,
often manured ; 4. Hay; 6. I'aatiircgraaa; fi. Pas-
ture, Hometiinea ffrann a year or two longer. On
the ahorca and h(dma, the rotation ia, I. Oata ; 2.
(ireencrop; 8. 1%^ or wheat — thcae often with
manure; 4. Hay; and then oatM, tSic, af^ain.
These rotationa are not always adhered to by the
tenants having; the small posaeaaions, but they all
row (,Tas8 aceda with the com crop which aiiccecda
1 he ureeii one, and this of itself neceasarily leads to
better mana(;ement than they formerly practised.
AVlieat to a eonaiderabic extent has for a few years
jiast been raised by the tenants of the larger jwa-
^esaiona, and a great number of the small tenants
(dao grow from lialf an acre to two acres each of
lliat grain.
Hy these changes in the mode of |K)aseaaion, and
by the improvement of the aoil, it will easily be
M'cn that more and better cattle may be reared
and supported than formerly, and the produce of
milk is also much greater. Since 1822 the Duke
<>f Hamilton has supidied good Argyleshire bulls,
Mt his own expense, for the cattle on liia projierty,
kee)(ing always in the island from twenty to thirty,
placed at convenient distances. The consequence of
t ids arrangement is, that the cattle have been aur-
lirisiiigly improvetl in every respect. On a few of
the larger farms stocks of Ayrshire cows are kept,
and succeed very well.
A number of' Iraats employed in the herring
fishery belong to Kilbride and Brodick, the prin-
cipal villages. But the herring tiaherj' in the Frith
of (31yde and Loch Fyne is not nearly so {jroaperous
lit ))resent as it once was. Luckily its decline is
little, if any, loss to the island ; for. having no con-
siderable town population, the fishery is principallj'
carried on by the cottiers and small farmers, en-
grossing their attention at the time their services
arc mtist neceasary on shore, at the same time that
it has a tendency to generate and keep alive idle
and dissipated habits. Kelp used to be produced in
considerable quantities, but its manufacture has
now nearly ceased. Most of the woollen cloth for-
merly used in the island was made by the women,
but a good deal is now imported. 1'he principal
exports are catvle, sheep, oats, and fish.
A good deal of illicitly distilled whisky was
formerly exported, but that branch of industry, if
it may be so called, has all but ceased. Steamers
ply regularly l)etweeii Glasgow and Greenock, and
various places on the island, and also between Ar-
drossan and the island, which is now much re-
sorted to by the citizen^s of Gla^igow and of the W.
of Scotland, as well as by tourists from all parts of
the world. Its singular l)eaiity would bring t^^ it
still greater numbers if encouragement was given
to building, but tlie Dukes of Hamilton, who own
the greater part of the island, are not in favour of
converting the island into a watering-place.
Brodick, the principal ■village, is finely situated
at the bottom of Brodick Bay, on the E. side of
the island. Near it is Brodick Castle, a seat and
occasional residence of the Dukes of Hamilton.
ARRAS
TJioiigh Gaelic be generally spoken, Engli«]ii»m,.
derHto<id by evervlMidy.
Arran is divided into two parishes. ItsiMipni,.
lion amounted, in 1755, according to Dr. WcliHtor
t(>8,<i'Ui; in I HOI it amounted to 5,17!); niicliii
IKII to *i,427. It declined somewhat (liiriii); tiie
ten years ending witli IH5I, but is agiun on the in.
crease, amounting in \mi\ to5,58N.
AKHAN (N. ISLES OF), on the W. coa«t „f
Ireland, co. Donegal, opposite Dangloe, tlu> m(Mt
N. extremity of the largest, called Arruiinion.
being in lat.V>° N., long. «<> 29' W. A liglitlKuw
ia erected on this point, with a tixe<l light clcvnicil
2()(» ft. above higli-water mark. This iaJHiKl ii,,,.
taina about 2,fl(l0 acres and nearly 1 ,(HI(» inlml)., the
land being divided into themiiiuteat |iortioiiN, Hiii'h
aa a ' cow's foot,' or the quarter of a cow'a (;ra,s<.
They are mostly fishers. On a smaller isjimil a
fishing village called Hutland was erected by iii^
Fishing Board, in 1780, but it is now nearly
ileserted.
AKBAN (S. ISLES OF). Theac conmt of
three islands stretching NW. andSK., about lim,
along the mouth of Galway Bay, in Irclaiul, iK'in^'
part of the co. (Jalway. They contain in nil aUmi
7,000 acres ; the largest, Arranmore, comiirisir.;;
about 4,()07; Innis More, L''-**^ i «"•' Iniiis Lw,
00!). They are vcrj' fertile, but occasionnlly sufl'ir
from a scarcity of water. The fishing of cod nmi
ling is carried on to a considerable extent, n jiicr
having been constructed at the village of Killam v,
on the largest island, at the expense of the Fislicrv
Board, for the accommodation of the craft ciii"-
ployecl. The principal jiroducts are fresh and curfil
fish, oats, feathers, the produce of puffins, a sn-
jierior kind of yearling cnlvea in great deiiiaiiil hv
the Connaiight graziers, to which were tiimurly
added great quantities of smuggled whisky. A
lighthouse, with a revolving light, has been crcotcil
on the highest point of the largest or most ndrtji-
erly of the islands, lat, 530 7' N., long, i)" 4(1' W.,
having the lantern elevated 498 ft. above the Icvd
of tlie sea. These islands give the title of Karl to
the family of Gore. The inhab., who arc ven-
poor, continue in a rather primitive state, and llic
Irish language is universally ripoken.
AHHAS, a city of France, dep. Pas de Calais, of
which it ia the cap., on the Scarjie and tlic Crin-
chon, GO m. SE. Calais, 35 m. NK. Aniiciis. ami
100 m. NNE. Paris, on the railway from Paris lo
Brussels. Pop. 26,905 in 18U1. The city is situ-
ated in the middle of an extensive and fertile
plain ; the Scarpc divides it into two parts ; it
18 well built ; houses stone ; several of \u
squares and public buildings handsome, and
worthy of notice. Among the latter arc tlic
old Gothic church of St. Waast, the hotel if
the Prt^fect, theatre, belfrj-, and barracks. Tlic
cathedral, a fine old Gothic building, was (l^
stroyed (luring the revolutionary frenzy. Aim
was fortified during the reign of Louis XIV., hy
Vaiiban. The citadel, which is yerj' stronir, is
8e|)arated from the town by an esplanade, but it is
included within the line of the works. It is the
seat of a bishopric, and has a court of nmm. a
tribunal of original jurisdiction, a college, a gmml
diocesan seminary, a secondary ecclesiastiral
school, a school of engineering (ecole regimmtuin
de genie), an ac"'!"my of belles-lettres, a litcran'
society, a bot-'ii, ,;l ;j;arden, a school for deaf and
dumb, a school ui uesigii, a cabinet of nntiiral his-
tory and ant'.quitics, a museum of pictures, and a
public library eon tain ing 30,000 volumes. TIktc
are establishments for the spinning of cotton,
manufactures of cotttm sfufl's, hosiery, laec, ('oa^e
woollen stufTs, and potteries, and fabrics fur the
preparation of beet-root sugar, soap, starch, beer,
okcii, Kiij^liHliisuii.
ARRAYOLI.Oa
iinil rflpc-oiL 1'^° Scarpo bccumcH navigable at
•liin iHiiiit.
Arriw in « very nncicnt city, and hnn boon tlip
lliwiiru of nioiiy sanguinary C(inH'«tH. TIki tvvo-
fiiiioiiiif the <'<lu't "f NantPH gave a mivoro Mttw
,„ it.s manurocturcH. It alw) Hutliurcd much during
the revolution, having i)eon for a considcraldc time
nt the mercy of Lebon, a ft-rociouH terrorixt, a
iiniivt' tif the place. Kobcdpierre, of famoiiH me-
iimrv, wuH also a native of Arrax ; ati was Da-
miens tlie nxHanHin of Louis XV.
AKKAVOLLOH, a town of Portugal, prov.
Mi'iitcj", 16 ni. NNW. Kvora, at the foot of a
inciimtain on the summit of which is a citadel.
I'lip. 2,050 in 1858. It ha<t some fabricM of stained
AKRIE<»K, a dcp. in the S. of Franco, on the
Siwiiiiih frontier, having 8. the Pyrenean moun-
tairw. K. the ilepts. Pyrdnc'es Orientales and Aude,
and N. «'«' ^^- ^^*^ Haute Garonne. Area, 455,000
hfitareH. Pop. 251,850 in 1801. This (le|). con-
sists principally of the N. slope of the Pyrenees ;
the mountains, which cover the greater part of its
jiirface, increasing gradually in elevation iw tliey
apiiroach its S. frontier ; the altitude of the highest
summits varying from about 7,000 to about 10,500
it. above the level of the sea. The principal
valleys arc those of the Arribge and the Snlnt, tlie
onlv navigable rivers in the dep. According to
tlie official tables, the cultivable lands occupy alHtut
148,000, meadows 34,000, woods (on the moun-
tains) JIO.OOO, vineyards 1 l,<i30, and heaths, wastes,
ic. 186,000 hectares. Gold has been found ; and
there are valuable iron mines near Vic Dessos,
and other places. The N. portion is pretty fertile
and well cultivated, producing wheat, rye, oats,
maize, and millet. Horses an inferior breed, and
iixen and mtdes frequently employed in their stead.
The total produce of wine is estimated at 1 15,000
licetolitrcs a year; but the quality is inferior, and
it is wholly retained for home use. The forests
have not l)een taken proper care of; and in many
parts, owing to the consumption of the iron fur-
naces, ami the want of sutticient attention, there is
a scarcity of wood The working of metals is the
principal branch of manufacturing industry ; but
there arc also manufactures of cloth, serges, floss-
silk, and cotton stuffs. It is tlivided into 3 arr.
(Foix, Paraiers, St Girons), 20 cant, and 336 comm.
it l)elong8 to the third military division, is in the
iliiicese of Pamiers, and under the jurisdiction of
the cour imperiale of Toulouse. Pnncipal towns,
Foix, Massat, and Pamiers.
ART, or ARTH, a town of Switzerland, cant.
Schwitz, at the S. extremity of the lake of Zug,
7 m. S. Zug, at the foot of mounts Rigi and Ross-
Imig. Pop. 2,196 in 1860. The town is well
huilt. The church of St. George is remarkoble
for its architecture, and for an immense fountain,
formed of a single block of granite. There is a
convent of Capuchins, with a good library. The
valley of Art is very picturescjue and interesting,
from its position among the highest mountains of
breccia anywhere to be met with.
AUTA, a town of Spain, island of Majorca, on
its NW. angle. Cape Pera, where there is a small
fort, (lepen(£ on it. Pop. 4,535 in 1857. Its terri-
tor}', which is very fruitful, produces cotton, and
has mill-stone quarries.
Arta, a town of Turkej' in Europe, Albania,
on the Arta, about 7 m. above where it falls into
the gulf of that name. It is a place of consider-
able size and trade. When visited by Dr. Holland,
in 1812, it contained six mosques, a large cathe-
ilial, and a great number of (ireek churches, and
was supposed to have a population of about 6,000.
It suffered severely during the Greek insurrection ;
ARTKRN
180
and Lieut. Wolfe, by whom it was visited in 18:iO,
says that, in many places, masses of ruins im-
peded the passage of the streets, and thot an as|M>ct
of desolation and misery hung over it. It has
since improved, though the population is esti-
mated at only 5,000. It is governed by a bey,
under the nacha of Yanniua, and is the seat of a
Greek bisnop. It has manufactures of cottons,
woollens, and leather. The floccatas, or shaggy
ca|M)t«s made Iutc, are reckoned very superior,
Kniltroidery is said to be brought to considerable
i>erfection ; and . 11 articles of dress from Arta are
highly ]iri/,ed. Kach trade has its seiHirate streca
or bazaar; but, bv a judicious regulatum, butchers
are obliged to kill, and sell their meat outside the
town. The market is abundantly supplied with
fniit and vegetables. There is a curious Venetian
bridge over the river, coiisisting of one large and
several very small arches.
Arta occupies the site of the anc^ient AmhracUi,
Traces of the ancient walls may be seen in many
places, but es|K!cially under the more modern re-
mains of the ruined* castle : the stones consist of
vast quadrangtdnr blocks, so admirably fitted tluit
it is with dilHculty the point of a penknife can be
inserted between them : — no mortar seems to liav(!
Ixicn used in their construction. There is here,
also, the ruins of a convent, built in 845, now con-
verted into a caravansero. (Holland's Travels in
Albania, p. 82, 4 to. ed.)
AiiTA (Gui-K of), the Sinus Amhraciux of tlio
ancients, is a deep inlet or gulf of the Ionian Sea,
between the Turkish province of Albania and tlie
NW. part of the new kingdom of (Sreece. The
entrance to it, between Prevesa on the N. and the
fort of La Punta on the S., is only 700 yards across.
The fort now mentioned is built at the extremity
of a low, niuTow tongue of land, celebrated in
history as the J'romimton/ of'Actium, Outside the
entrance is a bar, composed of gravel, coarse sand,
and sea-weed, with 15 feet water when shallowest.
On entering the Gulf, we first come to what is
called the Bay of Prevesa, occupying the space
between the mouth of *lio Gulf and CajK's Ln
Scorn on the N. and Mu i ma on the S. ; and it is
only after passing these ik dlands that the Giilf
properly opens. It is a noble sheet of water : its
extreme length from W, to E., including the Bay
of Prevesa, is about 25 m., and its greatest breadth
about 10 m. ; but in several places it is a good
deal narrower : the depth varies from 13 and 14 to
36 fathoms. The S. shore consists of high land,
with bold promontories, clothed with rich and ex-
tensive woods ; the N. shore is for the most part
low, and has encroached considerably on the water.
Part of the vast chain of Pindus is seen from the
Gulf. It has been long celebrated for the variety
and excellence of its fish : red and grey mullet
are the most abundant; and there are plenty of
soles, eels, prawns, tfcc. : sardine fishing is exten-
sively carried on.
The entrance to the Gulf of Arta was the scene
of one of the most memorable and important con-
flicts recorded in history. The battle of Actium,
which decided the fate of Augustus and Mark
Antony, and of the Roman world, was fought off
the promontory of that name, at the southern
entrance to the Gulf, anno b,c. 29, The exact
space occupied by the hostile fleets has been dis-
puted. Most probably the battle raged all round
the promontory, but principally on its W, side, or
in what is now called the harbour of Prevesa, and
the contiguous sea.
ARTERN, a town of Prussian Saxony, reg.
Merseburg, on the Unstrut, 30 m. W. by S.Halle.
Pop. 3,700 in 1861. It has a castle, a brine-spring,
and a distillery.
■m
100
ARTHUR'S SKAT
•'I,'*
I
ARTHUR'S SKAT, n hill in tUc. immnlintn
vifiiiity of K(liiil)iirf(h, im t\w SK. hIiIo of tlu; city,
riKin^ H'i'i ft. niMivo tlin Icvt-I of lht< hvh. Its
iim'ciil from tint liittcr Ix Kriuliiiil niid cnHv ; l>iitoii
t\u' hIiIo townniM tlut city it tIhcm aliriiptly, ainl,
ill |inrlM, almost |M'rpciiiliciilarly, from the low
^roiiiiilH. On till) S. xiiln of tlitt hill, ahovu tlu!
fiM>t|inth leading; fnmi KiliiihiirKh to DinlilinK^tonc,
isaMii|i(>rl)ranKcof|>orplivritic^nH>imtoiiitcoliimnN,
from /)<) to tiO ft. hi|(h. 'I'hc part of the hil! ncnrcNt
Jlolyrooil lIoiiNfl iH called SaliHiiiiry CriiK'*, mid,
till within Iho laHt thirty ycant, itw qiiarricx fur-
iiixhcd moHt part of the paviii^-NloiK'M iiHcd in
London. Tlui view from the top of Arthiir'H Scat
iH one of the moNt diverHilled and tine in the
empire,
ARIJUV, a town of France, dep. RasscH F'yrem'CH,
cap. cant., on the Osscaii, 12 SK. (Hormi. I'op,
l,!)<'<lMii IHOI. It Ih the centre of an activ(! and con-
giderahlc crmimerce with the nei)r|ilN)iirin^ viiIIcvh.
ARUNDKL, a hiir^h, m. town, and pa. of Kn;;-
laiid, CO. of SiiMHCx, on the \. hank ot the Arim,
nlxiiit itj m. from itn emhouchiire, 55 in. SSVV.
liondon l>y road and (!H|| miles hy Rrij^hton and
South Coast railway. I'op. of pa. 2,I!W in I HOI.
The town is pretty well liiiilt, aiul has a thrivinj^
n|ipenrance. It derives its entire consequence
from its l)cing immediately conti^moiis to Arundel
Castle, formerlv a strong fortress, now the mafj-
jiilicent baronial residence of the Dukes of
Norfolk, having; been rebuilt at a fjrewt ex-
pense by the late Duke. The possessor of this
castle enjoys, without further creation, the
difjnity of eiu"!. Previously to the Reform Act,
Arundel returned two members to the II. ofC,
the ri^ht of voting; bein^f vested in the inhabitants
paying scot and lot ; but since the Reform Act it
only returns one member. The constituency, in
18(i4, consisted of 192 registered electors, 51 of them
being remaining sent and lot inhabitants, and the
rest 10/. householdefs. The Arun, which is hero
crossed by a neat bridge, is navigable thus far ;
and is joined by canals with the Thames (m the
one band, and Chichester liarbour on the other.
ARVERT, a town of France, dep. Charentc,
Inferieure, 24 m. W. Saintes. Pop. 2,627 in 1861.
It is the chief place of the peninsula of the same
name formed by the Gironde, the Sciidre, and the
sea. It has a considerable trade in wine, and
fresh and salt fish, particularly sardines.
ARZAMAS, a town of Russia in Furope, gov.
Nijni Novgorod, cap. district, at the confluence of
the Choka and Tioncha, 62 m. S. Nijni Novgorod.
Pop. 4,700 in 1858. It is old and ill-built ; has
twenty-two churches and two convents, with soajv
works, tonneries, print-works, and iron-foundries.
It has two great annual fairs.
ARZAXO, a village of South Italy, in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of Na]>les. Pop. 4,797 in
1861. It has numerous villas; and flax and
hemp are largely produced in its environs.
ARZEVV (on. ArseiMria), a sea-port to^vn of
Algiers, prov. Tlemsen, at the mouth of the Sigg,
30 m. NNE. Oran, lat. 35° 45' N., long. 4° 64' K.
Pop. about 1,000. The bay is small ; but, though
open to win(bj from the E. and NE., it is the best
on this part of the coast. The modern to^vn,
■which is ill-built ond inconsiderable, occupies the
site of the ancient Arsenaria: fragments of
columns, inscriptions, cisterns, and other reraauis
of the ancient city, being scattered all round.
Corn and salt are both exported. The latter is
obtained from the salt pits of Arzew, about 5 m.
inland.
ARZIGNANO, a town of North Italv, prov. and
10 m. W. Vicenza. Pop. 7,700 in 1862. It is
situated in an agreeable plain, surrounded with
ASCENSION
cultivated billH, and has fllfitun's of silk, rnhri ,
of doth, dye-works, and brick -works. Its t{'n\Uir\
produces good wine, and has t^o coal-miiH.H
ASAPH (ST.), a city of .N. Wales, co. Flint, nm
also part I v in co. Denbigh, 185 m. N\V, Lmni,,,,
5 m. N. benbigh, linely situated in the Vale ,;
Clwyd, on an eminence on the banks nf t|,,!
KIwy, near its confluence with the Clwvd, nvcr
iMith of which it bus bridges. Pop. of parisji ,'),.V.r.>.
offmrl. lH)rough 2,0i;)t in I8<il. It consists |,rini
cipally of a single street ; and is reniHrkiUiJc dniv
as being the seat of a bishopric, worth (p,.'l(iii/. n
year, 'riic cathedral, a plain building, was mc idi
towards the end of the tlfteenth century. Iiiit li,,,
since undergone many repairs: it is init iiw'ili',,^
public wonliip; the parish church, in the lnwir
Jiart of the town, l>eiiig appropriate<l to thnt pur.
pose. Drs, Harrow (uncle to the faimiim Pr.
Isaac Harrow), Heveridge, Tanner, and Il(in«liv!
have Wen Kishops of this see; an<l in the ciiiIh!
dral is a handsome monument, erected in ;s-.i;i,
in memory of the celebrated iX'aii Shii)ley, Itlm^
a free grammar-si;hool, endowed by nislmp \W\\:
ridge; an<l an almshouse for eight poor wiijuw.,
endowed by Itishop Hanow. It unites witli Hi,!
other boroughs of Flintshire, in rcturniii^r a m
to the II. of C.
ASyVRO, a town of Sicilv, prov. Catania, !) m
8. Nicosia. Pop. 2,9(18 in 1862.
ASCAI.ON, an ancient seo-port town of Pules-
tine, 15 m, N, Gaxa, and 45 m, ESE, .JeriiHiiIdn
lat. 3|0 89' N., h>ng„ M° iW E. There is iii,t a
single inhabitant witliin the old walls, wliicli an
still standing; but a modern suburban villii^'c,
called Scalona, from the ancient name, has n |hi{i.
of 300 or 400, .and is fn>quentcd by the suwli
vessels trading to this coast.
The ruins present a strange mixture of S^^^nll,
Greek, and Gothic remains. There arc nlito tlic
remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and the
columns of a temple, supposed to be that nf ilio
Syrian Venus, mentioned by Herodotus (I. § lUJ),
or a Greek edifice raised in imitation of it,
Ascalnn is exceedingly ancient, Hefore tho
establishment of the Israelites in Palestine, it wji<
one of the lordships of the Philistines, Slll)s^
quently, it became one of the ports belongiiit; to
the tribe of Judah ; and, on the downfall of th><
Jewish kingdom, it fell to the king of Assj-ria,
It afterwards formed part of the Persian cmiiirc.
then of the kingdom of the Ptolemies ; aiid, on
the subversion of the latter in the last coiitun
«.('., it was subjected to the dominion of Knnw,
It was a bishop 8 see in the first ages of Chrisii-
anity; was conquered by the Saracens at the
commencement of their conqiicsta, and twcarac
the scene of more than one battle during tlie time
of the Crusades. It was one of the stronghol'ls of
the W. Christians ; but Saladin, on gaiiiinj; yHU-
scssion of the town, destroyed its works. It has
since continued in a state of decay : the prdpliecv
of Zachariah, 'Ascalon shall not be inhabitwL'
and that of Ezekiel, ' It shall be a dcsulatinn,'
are now considered actually fulfilled. Asealon
stands at the mouth of a stream (the Sortki,
where the accumulation of soil is so great, tliat
the ruins are every day removing farther from
the sea.
ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean,
between Africa and Brazil, about 8 m. in leiiph
by about 6 in breadth, its fort being in lat. 7'
26' N., long. 14° 24' W. It is of volcanic forma-
tion, and one of its hills, of tufous limestone, ri«i
to the height of 2,870 ft.. It has a bleak anil
barren appearance ; and was uninhabited till the
imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena, wlicii ii
was garrisoned by a small British force, througli
(I
im>i4 of nilk, fnliri ,
workH. IIh ((•rril.,^
'\ii coMl-iniiii'ii,
Vnli'.H, CO. Flint, nil]
.'» 111. NW. l,Mii,|„i,,
itf'U ill tlic Viilc ,■
tlut Imnks of III,
th the. I'lwycj, iiM.f
l'(»p. i)f|HiriHli;t,.v.i.;,
I. It foiiHintH |iriii.
in rpninrkiilili K-
ric, wcirtli t!,;i(ii);. ,,
iiildiii^, wns crocici
itli ('('iiturv, Imt liii,
: it JH not iiHcil i;,r
mroh, ill tiu^ \mf,
priiitrd to thni pur.
i> the raiiioiiH |)r,
aiiiirr, niid \hmh\.
; nii<l in tin- catlii..
nt, tTcctcil ill [H->\
i»'(iii Sliiiilcy. Ithii,
ed l»y IJisliop Itcvc
oinlit poor wiilim<.
It iinilcs witli tile
in returning a in,
prov. Cntnnin, 9 m,
l!-2.
-port town of Pnlos-
m. KSK. JiTiiHiilcni,
' K. Thorv in iini a
old walls, whicli W'
•n Buburliaii villiyc,
t>.nt name, ImH n |j<i{>,
entcd by the nuiali
mixture of SjTi.in,
There arc iilaoilic
ihithcatrc, mid llio
>d to Ik! that iif III!'
Herodotus (I. §10.)),
iiitntioii of it.
iicieiit. Hefore the
in Palestine, it yaa
hilistines. Sul)s^
ports belonf,^!!); In
the downfall of tho
lie kinn of Assjiia,
the Persian cmiiirt.
Ptolemies ; ami, on
in the last cciitiin-
dominion of Kunie.
irst ajjcs of Chrisii-
he Saracens at the
qiiesta, and lieo.imc
ittle during the time
of thestroiiRhol'lsol'
Un, on gainiiiK [Ku-
ita works. It has
lecay : the prophecy
not be inhabited,'
all be a deaolaiiim,'
fulfilled. Aacnlon
stream (the Soreki,
oil is so great, thai
oving farther ftum
J the Atlantic Ocean,
ibout 8 m. in length
jrt being in lat. i^
J of volcanic forma-
ifous limestone, risei
It has a bleak ami
uninhabited till the
St. Helena, when ii
ritish force, througli
AS Oil
«hiiw pxertlonH It ban Ikth partly cultivated and
,„i„l(.rfiiUy iinprovoil. Sprinun of fresh water
liiiv,. iH-cn dinoovered. Vajtt iiuinlioni of turtle are
laki'ii oil it" shores. Th»« eliiiiate is remarkably
hiiiWiv. »i><l 'l'«' anchoriige on the NW. side, o|h
,^i,,. '(iiMirjjetown, is said to Imi good, (leorge-
!,iwii \* n s'«t'"" consistiiig of a fort, military
liirtcrs. «"'' " •^'■w detaelu'd resideiuu-H. 'I'lie
illijiit ill occujiyiiig it is tliat it may serve ai« n
ileiKit for stores, and a plaee for watering ships
miixiiiK o" ''"^ '''""*' "^ Brazil, or in the S. Atlaiilie
(iccuii. If name is derived from its having been
ilisiiivered on Aseeiision-day, the '2(tlli of May,
l.vii, by a Spanish navigator in the Hvrviuu of
l'iirtu);al.
\St'H. n t"wii and lordship NW. frontier of Uo-
homia, eiri'lo Khiliogeii, 14 m. NW. Kger. Pop.
r,H,^i) ill tH'*7. There arc maniifueturcH, cotton
hiiHierv, woollen fabrics, and wire.
.\Si;HAFFENHUK(r, a citv of Bavaria, circ.
LoVer MUrz, on a hill, on the Main, which is
here crossed bv a stone bridge, il8 iii. N W. Wllrz-
liiirj; 1)11 the railway from WUrzlmrg to Fraiikfort-
(iii-ihc-Main. Poji. 9,H0(( in iHtil. The town is
yitforently built, and the streets are narrow and
crmiked. It has, however, a fine palace, formerlv
(K'ciipied by the electors of Mayencc, to which
majtiiilicent gardens are attached. It has also an
old Gothic church, containing tho tombs of its
iirinces, a town-hall, with a lyceum, a gymna-
sium, an ecclesiastical seminarv, a scho(d of de-
sign, a public library, anil a ciil^ection of pictures.
h manufactures tinted papers, and has a good
deal of trade in timl)er, wine, and tobacco. It has
also shiI^l)uillling vards and a transit trade.
ASCHP:KSLKB'1':N, a towi. of the Prussian
states, prov. Saxony, reg. Magdeburg, at the con-
Hiicncc of tho Eino anil the VVipper, 11 m. E8K.
(iiictlliiiburg. Pop. 12,139 in IWU. It has five
I'nitcstant churches, one Catholic do., a syna-
gogue, a gymnasium, two hospitals, and very
idtDiiilerable manufactures of woollen and linen
8tull"n, and earthenware.
ASCOLI, a town of Italy, in the Marches, cap.
deleg. same name, on tho angle formed by the
junction of the Castcllano with the Tronto, 15 m.
al»>Ye where the latter falls into the Adriatic, lat,
4»5r 24" N., long. IS* 25' 15" E. Pop. 17,448
ill 18lil. It is a well-built, handsome town ; has
a cathedral and numerous churches, many of
which are ornamented with valuable paintings by
native artists. The church of St. Gregorio Magno
consists principally of the remains of a lioman
temple. Of mmlem buildings, the principal is the
M2Z(>,iJu2tana/e, containing a museum, a library,
and a theatre ; there is also the palace of the
I );uvemor, and numerous palaces belonging to
resident nobles. Ascoli is a frontier town, on the
side of Naples, and is a place of some strength,
iieing surrounded by old walls and towers, and
furnished with a citadel. Its harbour, at the
I mouth of the Tronto, is a good deal frequented by
coasters, and is defended by two small forts.
Ascoli, the Asculwn Picenum of the Romans, is
I one of the most ancient of the Italian towns. It
is described by Strabo as a place of great strength,
I simouiuled by walls and inaccessible heights. It
wiis the first city to declare against the Itoraans
when the Social War broke out: and, in the
Course of that war, it sustained a long and me-
morable siege against Pompey ; by whom, how-
ever, it was finally taken. (Cramer's Aiic. Italy,
i. p. 288.) The area of the prov. is 809 sq. m.
Pup. 196,030 in 1861.
ASCOLI DI SATRIANO (an. A»culum Apu-
km), a town of South Itr.ly, prov. Capitanato, 13
% E. by S. Kovino. Pop. 6,720 in 1802. It is
ASIIANTKK
101
situated on a hill; has a tine cathedral, a diiv-
cesan seminary, a hospital, and somo conventJt.
This town IS very anriciit. It wa« under its
walls that Pyrrhus eiit'ounlered the Koiiian le-
gions for the second time, with no decisive ad-
vantage on either side. It was idniost entirely
destroyed by an earthquake in 111)0,
ASl')<)lJI) (the /luAf/rif/ of Scripture, and A^urot
of the Ore* ks,) a sea-jxirt town of Palestine, on the
coast of the Mediterranean. Lat. 31° 45' N,, hmg.
34" 37' E.,35 m. W. .Jerusalem, and II NE. As-
calon, on the summit of a grassv bill, surrounded
by luxuriant pasliir<>-!;roun(is. Its present |Mip. is
very limited, probably not more than 200 or 301),
It has no ruins; and would '>e unworthy of notii^e,
were it not for the tlgiire it makes in sacred his-
tory. It was one of the live lordships of the Phi-
listines (Ph<viii(!iaiis) ; and thither the Ark of tho
Covenant was brought when that |)eopl( took it
from the Jews. (1 Sam. v. 1.) It may be ga-
thered, generally, that the Philistine jiower yielded
to the ami of llavid (2 Sam, v. 29, etnefj,, rcbroii.
xviii. I) ; and it is probable that Aslidod became
then a Jewish town. If this, however, were the
case, it did not remain so ; for, two hundred years
later, tho destruction of the walls of Aslidod is
reckoned among tho triumphs of Uzziah over tho
Philistines. (2Cliroii. xxvi. 0.) Itappears to have
fallen into the bands of the Assyrians soon after
this; and subsequently, according to Herodotus
(II. § 157), stood a siege of twenty-nine years by
the Egyptians, under Psammeticus. It is not at-
terwan'ls heard of as a jilace of importance. Tlu!
existing village is celeorated only for tho number
of scoqiions that infest it. The water ujmn this
part of the coast is shallow, and tho land percep-
tibly gaining on the sea,
ASHANTEE, an extensive native kingdom of
W. Africa, lying ahmg the Gold (Joast of (Juiiiea;
extending from 4° 37' to 10° N. lat., ami from
4048' W. to 10 10' E. Icmg., being about 280 in. in
length and as many in breadth. It moy contain
about 70,000 sq. m.
Phimcal Features of the Country. — Mmmtnim
and Plains, — This isamountainous countrj-, though
it has few eminences very abrupt or precipitous.
None of the mountains approach the snow lino,
being, like those of Africa in general, more remark-
able for breadth and extent than for height. W^itli
reganl to composition, all the species of granite,
quartz, and slate are met with, but there is an
almost total absence of calcareous stone. There
are some small tracts of level land on the E. and
W. ; and the whole country N. of 74° or 8° lat. is
a large plain, terminated on the NW. by a moun-
tainous country, called, from the nature of its sur-
face, KoNo, that is, mountain, and on the NE. bv
the sandy desert of (jhofan. (Isert, Vov. (Jiiin.
249; Bowditch, 103, drc; I)upuis,par. ii. 30, &c.;
Capt. Adams's Remarks, 176.)
Rivers and Lakes. — Though not Iving in the
basin of any one of tho first-class African rivers,
few countries are better watered. Along the coast
are found tho embouchures of several respectable
streams, the various affluents of which intersect
the countrj^ in every direction. The A.ssinee, a
lar^e river, is usually reckoned the line of demar-
cation between the Gold and Ivory Coast ; and
forms, for some miles from its mouth, the W. limit
of Ashontee. The Volta, or Asweda, the largest
of the Ashantee rivers, runs into the sea in 30' E.
long. : its length is estimated at about 40O m. There
are several lakes which, in the summer season,
frequently overflow their banks.
Climate. — Soil and Natural Products. — The heat
and insalubrity of the climate of Guinea are pro-
verbial, but both appear to be exaggerated. It
! I
lO'i ASHANTKR
nci'iiii to Ih> now ndmil toil timf (*oiintrii'>< iiiiili'rntnl
iinir llic n|iialiir ari> Ichm Iml lliiiii iliiMr iiiiilcr niiil
iK'iir llii< lri>|iii-A, llii> iiiiiiiial iiiniiiiii of iIh> carili
ki'cpliiK (lie litlliT ri'^ioiiN (or u liiiii'li loii^rr |h>-
riitil vrrlii'iklly lH>iii'iitli t\w nihi, Kroiii IImm raiiMC,
HMTfl'iin', iIh' licaJ of AHliaiilrc iii'ikIiI Ih( cxiM'ctcil
lo Ih< It'Ptt than thai or<imiitri('M 12'^ or i^fi lartlicr
N, Tim at't'iiniiilatioii of water M«'rv«'H nUo to lower
tli(> Kciirral ti'iii|M-ratiirc, uml, upon tlui whole,
iIioiikIi ilurin^ hix nionlliN, or from (K'toU'r to
March, the heat M extremely violent, during the
oilier half year it Ih ho far from Ih-Iu^ inconvenient,
that lireN anil warm elolhiiiK are frequently ilexir-
alile. The niKhlH (alwavx nearly of the Mune
leii;;th) are eolil, eveniliirin^ the hot monlhH,nnil,
■ in a ni«lit-hall in a foreMt, u l»la/.e in ax neccHsary
npiiiiMt the colli heavy ilewM aHu^'uinsI the I'erociouH
beiiMlH, The eoaHt in, however, t'xlremely nn-
iiealthy, CMpeiially to Kuro|ieanH. This iM owiii;^
partly to the Hcor'cliinK ilayH followeil hy chillinj;
iii)^htH, hill more toa NiilphnreouH mist (apparently
a upecicH of miaKina) which riHCH from tlie vallevK
ami the iiei)rhlionrh(HHl of rivers every morning,
especially iliirin;; the rainy season. I'oor fooil, hail
iii'coininiHlation, anil exposure to the i.ifjlit iiir, ailil
to these evils, which are still farther increaseil hy
a want of repilarity in livinj; anions; lioth natives
anil Kiiropeans; lint, after all, the climate of this
coast is not worse than that of most others simi-
larly siliialeil, anil much superior to that of W.
Africa farther N., or to that of (iniana, in the same
lat., on the other siilo of the Atlantic. The in-
terior, tliou);h covered with dense forests, and
consei|iiently exposed t» the ellects of venelahle
decoiniMtsil iiin under a viTtical sun, enjoys a compa-
ratively salulirioiis atmospheri!; and Isert (^). "J.')?!)
recommends the cri'ct ion of hospitals, in the inlanil
])arts, for the benetit of suHerers from the Kiiropean
forts on the coast. The air is usually calm, except
in the cases of tornadoes, and the wind fron> the
desert, called Harmattan. The former, however,
arc pretty frcijiient, and, in the dry season, parti-
euliirly annovniK, from lieinin followed hy violent
eolil ruins. 'I'he llarinattan is mostly ex)iericnced
between the end of December and the bej^inniiii;'
of February. It lias ii NK. or an KSK. directioi. •
is perfectly dry, extremely cold, and loaded wit.
an impalpable jKiwdcr, sutHcientl^ thick to obscuru
the 8un at noon. It is exceedingly destructive;
its dryness being such that it absorbs the moisture
from every thing with which it comes in contact ;
ojieiiing the seams of ships, the joints of floorings,
mill destroying nil animal and vegetable life oij-
posed to its' unmitigated violence. It blows usually
for two or three days, but occasionally for a fort-
night nt a time, and with much force. Like other
tropical countries, Ashantee has its dry and rainy
seasons, or rather two rainy and one dry season in
each year. The first rains, ushered in by violent
tornmlow, occur about the latter end of May or the
beginning of June ; being followed by fogs and
linzy weather, extremely pernicious and particu-
larly i)owerful in .July and August. The second
raiiis come on in October, and thence till April is
the dry and hoi season.
A small part of the coast, towards the E. and W.
boundaries, is sandy, but the greater portion, and
all the interior, is an argillaceous and allnminous
soil, mixed with a rich black earth. This, with
the abundance of water, renders the country ex-
tremely fertile. From 74° N. lat. down to the
water's edge, Ashantee presents a solid mass of
forest, extending Ii. and W. from the Volta to the
Assinee rivers. The trees have all the stupendous
characteristics which mark African vegetation, but
arc strikingly different on the coast and in the in-
terior. Near the sea tlourishes the gigantic boabab
(Adnntnnin lUtjlMit), the ractns (pfobnlilv iinfj.
diiceil from America), the manirrove {Hlittmih,,,,
mitufilf), various species of palm, the cuti ,||i
other large trees, mixed with a wild enliui«li't!i,,|
of thorny bush, itself growing to n ni/i> in,,.'
ceivable to n Kuro|N-an. Alsnit ITi in. inliuiil, ,4,
reaching the Huininit of the tlrst moiiiiiiiii|,/||,
boabab ilisap|H'ars, but u tree eipial in iiiii^'hii„,i
supplies its jihu'e; the mangrove also vniii.|„i
and palms Inn'ome ver>' scarce, except the ulii, p.ni
</Clai» ijuinertmn), and the villiferous (I'hin,,'
Instead of thi-se ap|iear many |MM'iiliiir i.|n, j,,,'
among which is one tall tn>e of gn'at i'Ii'^mmo^
iH'aring llowers like the tulip; a new kind uf ,11,,!
and citron ; and, in a word, u whole forest of in,^
unknown elsewhere.
N.of 74° or'H<^ Int., trees and shrubs appiWdniv
in widely distant patches, the laiuls arc cuvirhi
with jungle and (iiiinea grass, which grows ti, ml
eiionnoiis height and thickness; and wliicli, Irin
tired, is used by the natives to mannre tlicir |il:i!,'
lations. The sngar-cuiie grows wild; niiil ii„
country produces, U'sides, tobacco, mai/.c, illii.nrn
millet, yams, rice, potatoes, and all the iiliiiiiiiiiir
iilaiits. 111 the utmost profusion. Of I'rniis thr ||;
IS interminable ; including the piiie-appli', iiriiii;,v
banana, cocoa, tig, papay, and in short all iliiiiiJrH
prodnced in any part of the world betwi'i-ii ili,
tropics. Of gums and aromatii! plants tlii'|{.iii,
very great; its is likewise that of dye ami liw|
woods. The exuberant abiindaiice of alnc^, !«].
sams (dhrioiue liiinerliw), tiilM'roses, lilies, anil nni,h |
rant lis. given to tlie tlora of Ashantee a s|iliiii|i«ir
and magniliceii ..; nowhere excelled, and hut ranlv
equalled.
The animals t n« various and numerous an iIim I
jilanls. Klepl Hits, I'linoceroses, girull'i's, Imffi. |
liM's, deer, antelopes, civet cats, apes, numki'V!.
baboons, porcupines, and goats, are anmiiK \h I
hannless kinds; lions, tigers, leopards, jiuial..
wolves, wild boars, and wild cats, ainoiig tlicw,( |
a ferocious sort. The rivers swami willi lii;
potami and alligators of several species; mmii'ifl
which are eaten by the natives. A gii,'nutif rai.
an odoriferous mouse, and a small aiiimul nM
iirompo {imtn-vuter), which digs up anil Av\\m
dead biKlies, seem to be peculiar to Ashiuitoi'. TIk
domestic animals are the same as those of KiiPij^.
but the horse is scarce, and of a bad brceil, ami ihf
sheep peculiar in fonn. Hcptiles arc prmliKidiisly
numerous; serpents of every size, from tlio onur-
mous boa to a frightfully venomous cMtiiti',
scarcely a yanl long, infest not only the wnoiNaml I
long grass, but the dwellings of tlic natives, aixl
the forts of the Europeans. Scorpions (sonictinifj
as big as a small hibster) and coiiti]K'il('s-ili(
wonnii from which, though not dangerous, i.« h- I
tremely painful — abound in ever\' place; uiiiltiiaili|
and frogs are not only as plentiful as in Knn^ ,
but the former grow to such a size, that lloMnaii.
when he lirst saw one, took it for a Innil-lortii* I
(p. 2.07). Lizards of all sizes, from the ipianil
downwards, including two sjieciesof canicli(>nj,iiR I
found here. Of birds, there arc pheasantd, pir- 1
tridges, wild ducks (of a beautiful pluinagc), ilcivfs I
crown birds, parrots, ]>aroquets, Guinea sparnnvj, I
bcccaficoes, and a multitude of all kinds, grtal ml i
small, many uf them yet unclassed by naturaliitt, [
The waterfowl are — herons, bitterns, and sal
mews : the birds of prey — eagles, kites, and «|*-l
culiar species, which, though not larger than 1 1
dove, is bolder and more rapacious than aiiyoilKJ,|
A large and ugly bird, called the pookoe (uf(,i«il I
service in destroying the field-rats), is iMTiiliail
here, as is also a creature about twice the sizeufl
a sparrow, with a remarkable hoUow anil pinvin;' [
voice, the sound of which is regarded by the ni- 1
ASIIANTKK
103
■I'H. A j;ii,'iiiitic rai. |
siiinll luiimnl ciillcl
1111 mill (U'Viw
iiirto A^*lmnt('('. Tim
m those of KiiPi|«. |
a 1)11(1 bri'cil, and till'
itilcs are pr(Kli(;i(iiisly
Hi/(>, from llie i'"'"-
vt'iuiinouM cn'alim',
otoiily thewiiiiilsanil
of the iintivcs. 31x1 i
Sforiiions (soniciinw
mill i'eiili|)i'iU'i'— ttie|
not ilannonius, is n-
jverv' pliu'i' ; iii"lii*t'
lentiful as in Kiinf . |
a size, that ]hnm.
it for a hind-tdrtiiw I
zes, from the ipuw
eciesof caincliims,att|
are jihcnxants, pir-
tiful pUiina^c), (loves
ets, Guiiifa apamim,
of allkiiuKffri'aisna
jlassed hv iiaturalisii, I
., bitterns, and m
jf^loa, kites, and «!*•
;h not lart'ertluni
ifiou8 than any otiici.
I the pookoc{of(,'Te«t
ield-rnts), is F'lib
(out twice the size of
hollow and pi«« I
regarded hy tk M-
(ffjumnffvll nincn. Tlic rpiipmI chnrnctcriHiit!
I ihc .V«hiiiitc<i hinlr* iit cxln'tiu' iM'aiity ol'ldii-
|iij,r, ; liiit iilciifinx voiceK arc rare aiiioiiix ilicm,
iticiiiiliiii>>{''d«' ami thriinh Uliif^ Itie only hhii);-
,i,tH kiiiiwii- !^|"irr(iWH and swhIIowm arc very
iiiinii'niii'*: and thi^doiiicMlIc fowl arc tlx- muik^ an
i|i„^. iif Kiiri'|«'. The woodi alMiiind in Ikm-k;
jiiililicilcstriictlvc N|H'ii<'H of ant, called icniicn,
l, *j niinu'rouN ntid rapatdoiiM, that a Hhccput-
uikiil liy them diiriiig the iiii^ht Ihim In'cii found
rfirl Hkclcton in the inoniin)^. It in wiid Ihcy
iiltai'k any animal, even the iiioHt powerful
iij.i vpiiimiou'^' Hcqient, and dcMtroy him. Fin^-
lili,., driiK"" -•"''•"• ■* "y •'xactly rcNcinhlinjj the
■luiilmriilcs in amH'aranee and ncciit, l<>nelher with
lilic iiiM'ct irilK'H cominon to the IVopics, except
hf ni"";<"'"> '^^ found ii|Hm the coast; and in
hfintciidr, hcrt,ainoiiK a vant v»ri(\ty of i*|Mriei*,
wncd several whii^li ap|M>ar(<d to he |N>c.iiliar,
|tt> liH'iist ii* not wludly iiiiknown, hut itH de-
miiiivi" visits are rans owing prohahly to the
ii ilintHiice of the denert, and the intervention
if |il;,'li moiiiitainM iHitween it and Ashantce.
Iti'k 1111(1 hnni|Hbaeke<l whalcM are niimeroiiH on
iii. oiHst k'twceii Septeinher and Dceeinher,
;irks arp very niiineroiiH, are fr«'(|ueiitly cap-
iimI, and fonn the mowt eonimon food of the
Ciinst negroes. Other sortH of Hca llsh are
imaliundanl ; and the riverM arc an well niipplit^d
ilic Kcii, yielding, among others, great ipiaiiti-
ifs iif oysters and erahs, which feed upon the
iiuWof the mangrove and other trees, hut are
,i ;;ihkI fur food if tlio Water he fresh.
Pmlittion, lluhit», Maunerg, and Cu»tom*. —
iwilitcli estiinHtcM tlic poj). of Asliantcc I'roptT
l,iiiW,(H)l» ; of whom 20 1,000, he says, are war-
in; 1(11,11110 eliihircn under ten years: r>0,000
iiv«helwecn ten and sixteen; 7,(»tO ohi men; and
.iKlii females; and the pop. of the wlnde em-
ire may, i^'riiaps, \vi Hoincwhere alsmt ;<,000,000.
ic men are well made, more miisiMilar on the
tthon in the interior, and free from the more
iviiliiiiK iMiculiaritieH of negro form ami feature.
e higher order of females (those not subject to
ml labuur) may be said to lie handsome, with
itiires rather of an Indian than an African
uliL lk)th sexes arc eleanly, washing from
ml to f(K)d every day, and afterwanls anointing
mselvcs with the grciuso of the shea, or huttcr-
agood cosmetic, and a preservative of the
ill this hot climate. The clothes of the better
isscs arc convenient, and not ungraceful, con-
ing of immense cloaks, exactly like the Human
p. manufactured of the most costly silks. The
■JresH substitutes for this a close vest, covered
:h metal omamcnta and scraps of Moorish
itini;, as spells against danger, loose cotton
mn, and large boots of dull red leather. The
irior chiefs have g(dd breast-plates ; and all
10 can procure them, wear gold ornaments in
ifn»i(in. Some of these are well wrought, others
merely lumps of rock-g(dd hung to the wrist :
war-cap consists of gold or gilded rams' horns,
irting ail extravagant plume of eagles' fea-
iisi. In peace, the liead-ilrcss is usually a fillet.
lower orders wear nothing but a piece of cloth
ened round the waist. Bosmaii enumerates
degrees, or orders of 8<tciety ; — the king, the
iiceers, the gentry, the traders, and the slaves,
the kuig, however, there is, in fact, but
distinction, that of slave and freeman. The
iiceers, or magistrates of towns and villages, are
indiscriminately from the gentry; aiul these,
I, are merely such as have enriched themselves
lie or inheritance, and who, not unfrequcntly,
bom slaves. The occuiiations of trade are,
tlsed alike by the poorer freemen and the better
OL, I.
ilime ''ctwecn the kcnun
lotiiu Marri << Is ef-
'■ nicii y to ll
iM. The
< nut Im'ciiiiii
. vv, however, (
■III ire than one wile, and
for the hiislNUid liaving
jiareiitN
IsTty of
'■mniiin.
•cpt the
class or>lavp"i. TIioJi
is oil the Worst |M>sMi)i
fcclcd liy iMiying a silii
i<f the girl, uiid a I'ainii
Ihe man and nninaii il
('(dygniiiy is allowed, i
richest individuals, have
verv many have iidihs
uiilnnilcd power of life, liinh, and liberty, over his
wife (and |inistitiition Is'ing noways (Kscredilable),
feinal(>s freipieiitly refuse to marry; the father,
in such cases, never altemniiiig compiilsiiiii, hut
instantly disclaiming all hitiire interest in IiIm
daughter, liifaiils are not uiifrci|iiently married
to infants. The food of the higher cliksses consista
of soup of dried llsh, fowls, U-ef, or miilldii; wild
hog, de<>r, and monkey's tiesh, together with the
varii^ty of vegctabli>s which the soil pnHluces.
VVell-stimkcd ami well-regulated markets are liidil
in the towns, for the supply of these necessaries,
as well lis for articles of elolhiiig and Kiirnpeaii
manufaetun>. The isiorer dosses, excepting hoiise-
hohl slaves, live almost exclusively on tish and
dhoiirrah. The common drink is palm-wine.
The Ashantees liave two high festivals; one
annually, at the yam liarvest, in Septemlwr; the
other at intervals of aliout twenty-one days, 'rim
last is called the adai custom, and alternately the
great and little adai. It forms the calendar; the
veiir, whiidi commences in October, Udiig dividi^d
hy it into eiiiial parts, and tiTininated by the great
yam festival. At these festivals, as on all public
occasions, the most brutal excesses and cruelties
are practisi^d. The skulls of all the kings and
chiefs whoso fall has swelled the |Miwer of the
reigning monarch, together with those of rebellious
calsiceers, to the amount of more than 200, are
paraded before the assembled multitude. Kuni and
i>alni-wiiie are swallowed like water, till the guests
are brought to a state of intoxication and mad-
ness, when hundreds of human victims are sacri-
Hced. They seem, in fact, to delight in cruelty
and bhxHl. The death of a free iierson is, in almost
all coses, attended by the slaughter of a human
being, to ' wet the graoe ; ' and that of a chief in-
variably causes a frightful sacritlcc of life, if a
man ot ordinary rank marry a royal female, he
must bo killed on his wife's grove, should he ha|>-
|>eii to survive her; and the ocros (iiersonal at-
tendants on the king) are all murdered on their
master's grave, togetlier with many others, male
and female, often amounting t4i some thousaiuki.
Cannibalism, as far as res|iects the blood and heart
of uii enemy, is practised, though not avowed :
and the teeth and smaller bones uf vonipiished
foes are ostentatiously worn as ornaments; the
skulls and larger joints being preserved as publiu
trophies. Such ore the disgusting enormities (K>r-
petrated by this nation of savages ; who, if they
contrast advantageously with other negro tribes in
energy and decision of character, yield to none in
that cruelty and bloodthirstiness which seem to
lie leading features in the African character. To
complete their character, it may be further ol>-
served that they are great thieves and extraordi-
nary observers of etiquette.
InduBtry and Commerce. — The labour of clearing
away obstructions in a raukly luxurious soil is tho
chief employment of the Ashantee agriculturist ;
and in tliis his chief instrument is tiro ; by
means of which ho both clears the ground, and
spreads a mass of rich manure upon the soil. Tho
only implement in use is a rude hoe ; but this is
sulncient, in productive grounds, Hooded twice a
year, to protluce two crops of most kinds of com,
and oil abundant supply of yams and rice. Tho
plantations arc laid out with considerable ordor
10(
ASHANTKK
I
liifii^.
)1
If *l ■'■*•-.
!!. 1
'*i]i ,■ ... «;'^
1 i' '
; 'V„ . t;*)
' il''
' ,:^ r . 1 ,
':■
, , ' ' l',
1 ('t'
• '' r
■ ; Tl'^i:
■^"'■:?*^,!ij
!!'■' ■
'^^•^^
! M; ■(), .
!• ,
... rS;. '"I'
i
•',:■■ ;fl^
1 1
^i:i-. . ilil..
' '''■>ii,,.K''n':
'»
,p>"-.
l'-.#*-
mill nontni'N*, mill llir ciillivnlciltfroiinilinri' pri'lly
t'XlrMxivi', lllllll){|| lll||lll'l|IIHll' III till' WlllllM III' till'
I'lillKlinirrN, |><'i<|iilr |)ii> ftTlilily nl' llir "nil. ll"'
N|i|iriiiirli iif liiirvt'Ki in nlimmi iilwnyx pri'i't'ilril liy
m'lirrily, if mil liy rainilii', Tliiiiit{li lliry ilo mil
mni'll ini-liilx, llu' AmIiiuiIi'I'n, likn Hrvrrid nl' tlif
Al'rii'iin imiiiiiiM, liuvi< liliirkmiiiiliH nml t(iililMiiililii<
ol' n NiiiN.rinr ^riii|t> lo wliitl ini^'tii Ih* fX|M-rii'il.
Till' I'liriiicr iiiiiiiiirnriiiri' nil ilit-ir nrimt (<'xr<'|il
iniiNkclx), rn/iint, Ikt; 'I'Ih' i;iililNiiiiitiN I'lir^i' niiii-
<try iirniiiiifiilH, hm riiiftN, i-hiiinN, nml lin Iicn, nml
cnfit. ll^iirt'N III' laiiiii nml wilil Imwi^-im, i'licy nn*
nImo till' );ri'nl iiliil-rnnki'M, niiil uri> ulilc to priHliirn
lino ^iilil ilirt'nil. 'I'lii' Hih'IK'nn, vuririy, ami liril-
liniiiii' III' ilui cliilliN III' ilir iinlivc wi'iivcru wmilil
Dili ilix^rni'*' nn Kn^liMli loom; llic iinlicrnN nrt'
tininlcil liy nii'HiiK of t'cnlliiTM, witli Miiltl<'ii>nl rr^n-
Inrily to hnvii tlui n|i|icHnim'i- of n cnnrMo |iriiit.
hycrn, pottiTN, t/kiincrN, nml rnrpnitiTit i-oinpU'li'
Ihii liNt of AHliiintcii nrtillriTH; of wIionii liumli-
work n niiniliorof inaniifai-lurril nml otlit'rnrlli'ifH,
in VIM' It, rooui I, of ilm Itriii.ih MiitiMini, nnt
NiM'i'irm'iiN. Tliii hiMiMCM, K(>iiorallv of omt Ntory, ant
tiialclii-il, anil tlm (ixlcrnnl vhi\]h ilccorntcil willi
n rmlo liii>ro^lypliii; Noulpturn! tlit-y nnt usually
pnintcil, liiit not. tloorcil, nml prrliy cloHt'ly nt-
Hcnililc an Kn^liMli linrn. It Nlmnlil \m incntioni'il,
Ui tlifir (Ti'ilit, that, all ^oo<l lionH<>,>4 have their
cloacas whirli a^rccx well with the AMiianU'c cha-
rni'lcr fur cUiniilincNN; nml uviiu'i'N, in this ri'H|H'i't,
a Hn|M'riority to niimt other iieKro nniioiiM. <!oin-
merre with Knnipo having now lieen cnrrietl on
for Noine eentiirieM, the iialiveH have liei;onie Mhrewil
anil ex|H>rt, ilealem : they prai^tiHe nil HorlM of
frnuilN; nml their ilexterity in nihilterntiiif; k<>I'I
('(iiuiIh that of n lirHt-rnte iheiniHt. Knrliot {'i'M))
utIlrinH that, tho I'lirtu^neHC tnn^ht thuin thiH nrt,
nH a nieaiiN of ilriviiiK the other Ktiropean natioiiM
I'nim the conHt ; nml if thiH be trim, thev linve
hIiowii theniMelvex, in thix inHtanee, miicii inoro
exjHtrt HchotarH than in any other, (iolil Ih now,
tH'rhn^w, the ehief urtiele of exfiort. ; and Monm
littli! IH alHo (lone in the wav of ex))ortinfr ivory,
nml (lye ami liani wimmIh. slnveM nre exported on
every iMmxilih; opportiniit y; nml notwitliNlnniliiit^
the vigilance of the KritiNli eriiiHers, there i« reiwon
to tliink that voiiNidernlilc iiiimlierH find their wny
ncroHH the Atlaiitie, The im|Mirtj< nre iirincipnlly
niiiMketM nml other arnii*, ^nniMiwder, HpiriliioiiH
liipiorH, tobaeeo, iron, tin, eopjicr, lend, with (Milton
and Indian ^mxIn, whieh nru tnkeii,(!liietly for their
ciilouni, to Ik) unravelled and remannfa<!tiir(!d in
the native looniH. The laNt-mentioned artiolen
arc, however, received chiefly through the interior
from Da^omlin and Fezzan, with which the Axli-
aiitites niaintaii> n verv extcnHivo trade, Hiipplvin^
them in return with luimirn, iron, and other Kuro-
|K>an comnKHliticH; hut never with armH. 'I ho
currency in ni>U\, cither in duHt or Hmall lumpH;
but the cowric-Hhells, in use farther N., are not
unknown. The denomination and viiliieH may bo
given an follows : — 200 cowrie.s (^i Htrin^x) = I tokoo
(about HJ.) ; H tokooA =3 I luikie ; 1(> ackies = 1
newemccii (ounce) ; 2.^uunuc8= 1 bcnda; 1^ benda
bI pcr^uin.
Government, Cimntittitum, Laici, Jteventie, — Be-
fore the power of the Ashantce kin^ hnd Hwallowed
up that of the other states, each jiossessed its own
IH!ciiliar form of government and administration ;
some, as Kaiiteo and Mina, were rejmblics; others,
and by far the greater number, were despotisms ;
but now all are alike brought under the Ashantee
constitution ; the legislative power of which lies
profcHscdly in the king, an aristocracy, consisting
of only four (M'rsons, and the assembly of cabocecr.-*
or captAiiiH. The aristocracy was formerly much
more uumcruua ; but Sai Cudju, who reigned be-
Iwcni I'rt.lniiil I7m,'», lM<gnn to reduce It.liyiiiiinr
I he kIimiI (hchI iif nillhiiril V) of a ilcrriliiil ihil.ln*
I hat of line xtill living (itnwdilrh, '.'.'Ilil; an.lil,,
plan hiiM Im'i'ii Mm-|.|'HH|'iill\ piirKUud, lill tin. priwi,.
ri'Niill Is the ('iiniii'i|iiriiri'. On all i|iii«li>in< (
fiiri'ign iiolirv, the nrintm'rni'y liavi' n v.iin. ,.i|.|,|
to till' king'*, exli'iiillng even In n vi'iu ..n i.,
derlsiotii). In ilniiii'.<tic ntfairs they hnvi' i'iii|,|,|,,
able iiilbicnre; but it is exerciMi'd In Imih ,,,,
privntcly, the public iinnnum'etni'iils nlwny,,.^
|H'ariiig to einniiAle from the snlc will nt t\w ni..ii.
arrli. The nNsenilily of caliiii't'crs has miili'lilHrin,,
voire; lliev are meri' recipienls of |)u' l>i«,|,..
niulgnled liv Ihe king ami ariNtoi'rni'v, id win.!,,
Iiv thi'ir iilllce, they are bound In k'wv i.|l'i.,i '
t^ifir H«'V)'ral giiveriinicnls. The iiilliii.|in' ni n,
nrisiiicrai'v is ciirlii'il by their pnvrriv; ilicywi
privih'gi'il frnin capital piiiiiNhim'nl, ^mt iim'>|
i|i'N|Hiili'il fur any nll'i'iHi' ; a regiilatinii tlim 1^1
niadc and keeps them lii'ggnrs; ninl llm.4, iii(.|f,,i
though not ill I'lirm, ibe inoiiarch in aliMi|iiir;T|
dcipolic, lie is also heir to the gold nf i'V|.rvi«>.[
The king's fninily nre not exetiipled Innii (iipji);!
puniNlimcnt, but their lilnod niu.<i| imt U'lilinl:,
dentil lie awarded thi'iii, they arc (Imwih'iI imiJ
hah. Death is the piiniHhnieiit for niwarlLTif
for picking up gold dropped in the iiiiirki.t-|i|ii.i.;l
for killing an rifnal; for treason; iiml, in «,rn,.|
cnses, for thet\ nml ncliiltery. The cniiininii |iiiiihiJ
inent for the latter is, however, line, or, il'...u.r
milted in the o|)eii air, slavery; fur llic liniHl
rt'Hliliilioii by the rriciids of the thief, MiitiliUMl
is intlicted for mnny oU'eiices; but all ii('i'u>iiii..u|
nre mostly made iit the peril of the acriwr. wli.J
if he full to estalili.Hli his clinrge, must liiinwlhg.1
dergo the |H'iially of the olt'ence. The nlati'i.ftwl
country, ns res] is security, mny U; iiircn'cil i'n«
the tiK^t that interest of money is at 'M\ \wun\
for forty days, and the creditor has tln^ |Hwrr.|
seixing his deliinr and family as slnvcN, Tw.i (
three s|K>cies of orih'nl are practi.<u'il in i|iiiiiKfiil|
cases; one of which con.iists in mnkiiiK tlu'inviu
chew about A uf an ounce of a poisoiiniifi hark,
then drink tliree or four calabashes of wiitiT.
he vomit, be is proiioiinctMl iniiiM'eiit; but if k
stomach Ik) pntenl enoiigli lo retain the |Mii«iii.iiij
Ik'IiI to Ih> a cnncliisive proof of guilt. The n-veng^
as far ns it (^nn lie ascertnined, coiisixt.^ uf-l^
The gold of deceased |iersoiis, and tliepHNUnfili
gracitd no! lies, 2ml, A lax on slaves purch;
for the coast, iJrd, The gohl mines and wii<li
in Sokoo, Dinkra, Akim, and Assiii. AiIl '
washings of the market-place, litli, TrilmiwfrJ
the ritccntly compicrod states, varying; rnnnl
Imndns to 2il0 p<>iiguins of gold annually, in*.
cases this tribute is taken in kind, \.\w lar?d
amount for any one town Iniing /iOO slav('j«,'.'i«ioi»j
400 sheep, 400 cottim chillis, and 2(111 Hilli cldihi
Belitfum. — The allegory of ' The Hunk luijr
Calabash' is prevalent through all the (iulil i «
and the stales of Ashantee, The (irriii Spigj
after (Tenting three white and as many lilmkii
and women, placed In't'ore them a lar^'c oAM
and a sealed pajicr, giving to the biiu^k nkti
choice of the two. They took the caliilwli. «'lii'
contained gold, iron, and the chniccHt |irmiiic«^
of the eurtli, but left them in igimrain'c of tb^
use and application. The paper, on the ciinin
instructed the wliito men in every thiiit;; i
them the favourites of the (ircnt Spirit; iinil|.i|
them that superiority which the iiegnie!) alu
readily acknowledge.
From this legeml it is clear that they haven
notion of one supreme deity; but tliey liave.n
withstanding, lapsed into the absurditimufFa
cism (see Akuica), or of the lowest and i-tiaj
HiHJcies of idolatry. They have an evil priudf
ily, but tlU'V imj.']
, the absiinlitic»^'l*3
' the lowest ami if^f
' have an evil priiw
\snANTi:i;
. ^hciin •'"'>■ "'"""I ••' Kf«"' <lr<'nil, Iml It I*
:|,i„,| ihnl llii'> 1 IV him iiiloriKiiiii, On tUv
iiriirv. ii i* ""'''I ''"»' '" ' ''"' "'""' ■"il'i'in
|,r,||l"lll''' "' ""•" irilH" it nil IIIIIMIIll ll'«'<rll|lllv
' ,||,.|,, •iKiiii'M, iiii'l iliililri'ii, 111 ilrivf Ihf t'vil
,1 ml I'niiii ill'" li'Wii'* ""il >illMui"<. 'I'lii'v Uiwv n
lin.il iK'li'l '" '^ I'li'uri' Hiiiii' — kiiii^x, prir'.ift, iitnl
, ii.Kffr^ Ix'i'iw l"'>''vi'c|, iil'icr il''iiih, 111 rf.'iilr
r«iih iIk' '•"'"' •'^l '•'■ '" "" '''''"'"' rciii'Miil III'
hi'ir i'*r<i>l> "'"''' '''"' '' i" futi'l liiot lix' i*<><'i'i-
,, ,il' Kd lining tiiiiimii iM'tii^x nil till* ^niM'M ul'
lilirirkiiirfi* i» iiil«'iiil<'<l '•• "iiliplv Ihi'in with ill
liriul'iiii* ii> ''"' liiiiii'i' wiirlil, 'I'lii' viriiiiiM niNi),
Iji i< iiillniH'il. ;irr "t nhn(fcihi'r nvcrw IVinii ihi;*
L.nli'i'i »'"'■'■ '' '' •'"■>' ''<'li''vt' tln'V will ixir-
liiki' till' «ii|ii''i'' ii'iivi'ii 111" I heir i'liicl'«: tlirir
Imn iH'iiiK. ■!> Ill '■ iiHTt'ly a ri'li'iiNo I'riiiii Inliniir
1„ ihf JiciiiiM' III' KiiiiH' iiilVriiir KciInIi, An iiih'iimi-
Ini'iii luiinln'r ul' t'liiiriiis, tuiii'iit, liickv ami iiii-
iikv iloyi*! '>*''' '*'* illl|'''i''l niiIiiiiImmIiiII Id IIic
,'riL-li, i'iini|i'*'i<' '!>** Nii|M'rMliliiiii ot' ihc ANhaii-
1^. Ill hiiine trilM'M, 'rilcHiliiy JH iilwrrvril itM lli«>
iirrnl Fi'iiili ilay nr Salilialli: Imt tlilt'crciit
iniillt'ii ({('iK'nilly niiiHi'iTatf <lil1'i'rt>iil ilavn; all,
iwi'vrr, iiliHi-r\iiiK "oi^ 'riicn; aro many Alnliam-
ImiJi iiiMiiiiK ')»' AKlianlt'i'it; hiuik', liy tlirir
i,'hii'ri'iiiii|ili'xii»i< alti'Ntln^ llicir Araliir nriKiii;
I ilii> iiujiirily ari> mil ilistiii){iiiNlialili' I'miii (In-
ihrriHVMK'i*. 'I'hcy havi< ftrcal inlliii'iirn in the
iiiirtol'l''Xiiiiai<'*ir. arr Nulijni in their nun oKiccrM
ill!.|iiniiial alVairH, ami, wlii-rt' very iinincmiiM,
1, ilic I'tt-w ill Hi'vcral Inwiis, an? KiivtTiicil liy
mnl'-'i in t('Tii|Miral mait<>rM.
//iiK/Mii'/f.— I'll' Kiirii|iiiin who hn« olworvoil
iMltiiiitii'H iminii^ th(Oaii|Xiia!;rH N|iiikoii in hin
n (livininn of Ihii world, the W. «( Ania, ami
rn ihc N, nf Al'rit'a, ixill pri'iiarcil Tor Iho llaU'l
iiiM^'iicH tlint prevailH S. nl' the Sahara. In
Dm, iif the liolil CnaNt, no t'cwrr than m'vcii or
jilt lRn);iia(;('i« am I'onml, each iminU'lliKilile to
iririU'H Hpeakiii^ the other, and hearing' no re-
iun wimtever to any oilier. (HoNiiiaii, iii.)
imiliich (Appendix, p. /")(»;<) jriven the iiiimeral!<
ihirty-iiiie tribes, wheiiee it apiHMtrs that,
iiKhwime few may be eonsidered as variatiniis
lhi> same root, the majiirity do imt assinii-
in the Hlijjhlest dej^ree. The Ashaiilees, Kaii-
WiwiiniiH, Akiiicse, Assinese, and Aipiapims,
ik iliiiliM'ts of the same laii^naKe ; but for the
II III' the trilH's that make up this liarbarian
lom, aa imaginary line often separates two
u pnHKPiw no means of soeial iiiterfnnrse. This
iilnblc olistnt'le to all eommiinieatioii is. no
III, a chief cause nf the continued (le;;radatioii
itip iio),^!! race, more especially as none of llicir
.mimes possess symbnlical characters. In Asb-
w, as in other parts of .\frii;a, the only persons
ail read or write are the Moslems, and the
ly written liii ^iia^e the Arabic.
''irtiiry. — 'Ihc AshantecH have two trailitions
to their iirsi establishment in their present
les; tirst, that they camo in twelve tribes from
iiintry nearer the sea; the other, that they
driven from the interior by the Mobam-
iii cdiiqnests in the tirst UavH of Islamism.
may lie that these accounts, ttuHij^^h appa-
iywntrailiotorj', arc but ditferent versions of
»«nie talc. It seems certain that the Ashan-
wcrc, ill 1)140, seated in the centre of their
■nt iKwst'ssions, and occasionally cxercisiiif;
intluciiee over the surrounding states of Akim.
' I. t^wlion, and Akeya. Then, and for near
iiiiry h»ter, the ))ara'mouiit wtate of the f;old
iirifs was Dinkra; but in the he^iiiniii}; of
eighlpenth centurv, the kiuR of that country
ini'il' ilowcreil a wife of the Ashantec mcmarch,
latitr, though considered a very inferior po-
AsmUUTDN H)'.
leiilnle, Invndi'd the llinkraii lerrilorie*. ilefealeil
llii« I'lleiiiii't ill Iwii deci'<i\e liattl«<i<, killilltf, il iM
•>alil, liMi.iHMi men, ami i'arr>iii){ ntf imineiiMt
pliiiiiler, hiiikra, iipiiii ihii, ln'<'aiiie ailacbed ;o
the Aihaillee i|nmiiiln|i>, ailil ri'nill lliii e|Niell the
exleiioinii nf Ibe latter priH'eeileil rapidly. < hie
by one llie ditVereiil Nlalex lietweill tile Assillee
and \'n|(a r'ni-rn were .xiiliiliieil ; and, in |Hii7, Ihe
ilMMiinli 111 h'aiilee brnilKhl the Ashaiilees illlo
enllininn willi Ihe llrilisb. I 'ape CnaMM 'astle, the
prilieipal fnri nf the I'lnulifh nll ihe linliH'nnHl,
was in Ihe l''aiili'e eminlry, and held, like Ihe
ntller l'',lirnpeaii fnrin llpnii ibiil cnasi, not as a
lerriinrial rii^lii. Imi at a rent frmn the native
l^nveriinieiil. Alter Ibe cnmiiiesl nf Kaillee, the
rent was claimed by ami htiiil In the kiii){ nf Ihe
Ashanteex; bill some dilllcitllies miide aisiiil re-
cn^njsin^ his snveri'it;iiiy. led to mmli discuN-<ion,
and to IwnembaMsies (ilinse nf llnwdilcb and Ihi-
lillis) In the eniirl of Cnnliiasnie. Ill jllsliee to llie
kiiiK it miisl be admit ted that, wliaiever may be
Ihnii^hl nf his enlldllcl tn Ibe natives, all nncnlil
mnii det;r f fnrbearance marked his U'liaviniir
to the llrilisb anlhnrilies. The treaty concluded
by Ihipiiis in iN'.'il was not ralilled liy the cniiiieil
at Cape ('nasi Castle, because, by the liflli article,
il reen^niMed Ibe (iiiesliniiedsnverei^nty nf llie Kaii-
lee cniinlry ; but llie heart burning neeessiirily coii-
seipienl nil Ibis nlep did not break out fiir some
lime after. The dealb of Sai l^iamiiia (kinu of
Ashaniee), who, aeenrdiiiK to Ihipiiis and llnw-
ditiOi, was the sli<ady friend of the whites, jteems
to have been the si;;iial for bnslililies. Ills suc-
cessor declared war apkinst the KiikIIsIi ; and on
the 'Jlst of .laniiary, IH21, Sir C. M 'Carl by, ^o-
v(>mor ofCapeCnast, at the head of 1,001) men,
was totally ilefealcd bv Ihe Asbanlees. It took
aliitost three years lielore the Kn^lisli |Miwer on
the (iold Coast recovered frnm this blow ; but in
|X2)S, Ihe Asbanlees baviii); siill'ered a rninoim
ilefeat, I'oiiNenled to pay li.oon n/., nf ^nhl as the
prii'e of [H'ace, and to send the kind's sun for edu-
cation, or rather as hnstai;e, to Cap<> Coast Castle.
In iMiJI, a treaty was sij^ned between <iovernor
Maclean, the Ashaiilees, and the Faiilees, by
which the Kiii^ of Ashaniee was (umipelled to
acknowleilpt the independence of these and tho
other irilK'N under llrilisb prnteclinn. The Ash-
aniee power on the cnast, since this event, may Ira
cniisidered as nearlv desirnved.
ASIIIlOCKNK.a m. inwn of Knulnnd, co.
Derby, on the K. side of the Dart, 122 m. XW.
l.onilon, i;ij NW. Deiby. The parish, in which
the town is situated, had, in IKII, -l.tSH-l inhab.,
and •'),07N in INiil. It has an old church with n
line spire, a free Krammar-scbool, two elementary
schools, one for thirty boys, and the other for
thirty ^irls, almshouses for poor men and women,
and some other charitable instilulions. Dnvcdale,
famous for its romantic beauties, is in the im-
mediate vicinity of this town.
ASllML'HT()>f, a boronj;h m. town and par. of
Kn^land, CO. Devon, bund. Tei^nbrid^e, th.^ Im-
roii^h Ihuii^ situated within 1;^ in. of the Dnrt, on
the bi^h road from London to I'lyinoulh, 170 m.
WSW. London, and I!) m. ,SVV. Kxctcr, on a branch
line of the (ireat Western railway. The parish
coiitauis K,!l'2ll acres, and had, in 18!H, a pop. of
4,l<i,'i, and ;),0ti2 in IKlil. The town hat* a hand-
some (iotliic church, with a tower, !)0 ft. in height,
a f^rammar-Hchool, and free schools, which supplv
elementary iiiMtriiclion to about toi) chihh'eii. It
is the seat of one of the stannary courts. Ser(j;e
and similar articles are manufactured, and there
arc tin and coi)per niinea in Ihi; vicinity. I're-
viously to the Keforra Act, Ashburton returneil
two ni. to the H. of C, the franchise being vested
o2
I !
106
ASIIBY-DE-LA-ZOUCII
in frocholdora having lands and tcnemonts hold-
ing of the iNiroughonly. ThoKeform Act dcprive<l
it of one m., and made the hftiindarics of the
parish and pari, horough identical. The conHti-
tucncy conaiHted, in 1805, of 232 rcgiNtcred elec-
tors, two being old freeholders, and tlie rest 10/.
householders. Ashburton was the birthplace of
Dunning, thr- famous lawyer, who was created
Itarou Ashburton; and of William (iifford, the
translator of Juvenal, and editor of the (Quar-
terly Review, who, on his death, left a legacy to
the town. It now gives the title of llaron to the
head of the family of Ilaring.
ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, a m. town and par.
of England, co. Leicester, hund. VV. Goscote,
1 16 ra. NW. by N. London, on the Midland Kail-
way. The par. contains 8,300 acres, and had in
1861, 6,958 inhabitants, of whom 3,772 belonged to
the town. The latter consists of one main street,
and some smaller ones ; has an old church ; seve-
ral free schools, for girls as well as boys; and
manufactures, on a small scale, woollen and cot-
ton stockings, and hats, and has some trade in
malting. In the vicinity arc the extensive re-
mains of Ashby Castle, built by Lord Hastings,
in the reign of Edward lY., and dismantled in
that of (^-harles II.
ASHFOKD, a m. town and par. of England,
CO. Kent, lathe of Scray, the town being situated
on an eminence near the junction of the upper
branches of the Stour, 47 m. ESE. London by
road, and 67 m. by South Eastern Railway. The
par. contains 2,950 acres, and had 6,950 inhab. in
1861. The church, a Gothic fabric of considerable
note, has a lofty well-proportioned tower, and
several ancient monuments. There is a free
grammar-school of some eminence, founded in
the reign of Charles I., and some other charities.
ASH RUFF, a town of Persia, prov. Mazun-
deran, about 8 m. from the W. extremity of the
l)ay, and 62 ra. W. from the city of Asterabad.
Near it are the ruins of an extensive and magni-
licent palace, built by the greatest of the Persian
raonarchs, Shah Abbas. The town, which was in
a great degree dependent on the palace, has been
Hcnously affected by the decay and ruin of the
latter; and does not contain above 500 houses,
thinly scattered through an extensive jungle.
(Fraser's Caspian Sea, p. 19.)
A8HT0N-UNDER-LYNE. a pa. of England.
CO. of Lancash., hund. Halford, 6 m. long. N. to S.,
4 m. broad; area 9,300 acres. Pop. in 1801,15,632 ;
1821,25,967; 1831,33,597; 1841, 46,304, and in
1861, 66,801, of whom nearly half resided in the
town of Ashton, and the residue principally in the
hamlets of Lees, Mossley, Audenshaw, and part of
Staley-bridge. Surface level, soil marshy and
poor. But the inferior quality of the soil is com-
pensated by the abundance of mineral products,
coal of good quality and in the greatest abundance
being found in almost ever^ part of the parish.
From this circumstance and its proximity to Man-
chester, of which it may be regarded as a depen-
dency, the parish has become a principal seat of the
cotton manufacture, most part of the population
being engaged in and dependent on its various pro-
cesses. Stout printing calicoes and ginghams are
the articles principally produced. The manor
and ecclesiastical patronage belong to the Earl
of Stamford, who derives a large income from the
parish.
Ashton-tjndkr-Lyke, a m. town of England.
CO. of Lancashire, in the above pa., on the N,
bank of the Tame, 187 m, NW. by N. London,
and 6i m. E. Manchester, on the London and
North Western railway. Pop. in 1821, 9,220;
1831, 14,670 ; 1841, 22,614, and in 1861, 34,886.
ASIA
The town is well laid out, well built, ..nd u emij
nently thriving. Its rapid growth is owitiR tnthl
still more rapid extension of the cotton maniifacl
ture. In 1864 there were about ninrty e„\u
mills at wofk in the town. Among the puiiij,
buildings are an old and a new church, with nu
merous chapels and other places of worsliip, ;
cotirt-house, a theatre, conccrt^room, anil an exl
cellent market The free school is but Hlcmlcrll
endowed ; but there are several other sch(H)lA, w-jil
a mechanics' institute and large Sunday schiHill
The Ashton, Staley-bridge, Ac, Hanking ('unJ
pany, established in 1836, has its head office in ihl
town ; and here, also, the Manchester and LivpJ
pool District Banking Companv, and other baiikJ
nave l)ranchp«. Market-day, Saturday. TlicnJ
a cattle market on the lirst Satiinlny in »]
month. Fairs, March 23, April 29, .'lily 14 |
and 25, Nov. 10 and Nov. 21.
Ashton is admirably situated for trade mi
manufacture, ui the centre of a populous nM
bourhood, havin)^ an unlimited command of ool
and communicating by mean:4 of canals and rail
ways with all parts of the empire. It was anciontll
a borough, but for some cause or other has Idnj
been disfranchised. The Reform Act ciinffir
on it the privilege of sending one n. to the H, ii
C. It had, in 1864, a constituency of l,flfi2 njiJ
tcred electors, the whole of them being lO/.houJJ
holders.
ASIA, the largest, earliest civilised, andinmiuil
respects the most interesting of the great (livislm
of the globe, extends from P 20' to 78° X.lai]
and, when the islands lielonging to it arc incluW
from 1° 19' S. lat. From W. to E. it extends fn,J
26° to 190° E. long. The most northerly point3
the continent is Cape Taimura, 78° N.lnt.Mhj
most easterly. Cape Tshukotakoi Noss, 19(i° I
long. ; the most southerly, Cai)e Bums, 1° 2(1' 1
lat,; and the most westerly. Cape Baba, in Aii|
Minor, 26° E. long. Cape "f aimura and Cape Bin
are more than 5,300 m. distant from each oilid
and this consequently is the extent of Asia M
N. to S. Its greatest breadth occurs under tu
parallel of 40" N.lat., between Cape Baba and lU
E. coast of the Corea, where it extends ahfJ
5,600 miles from W. to E. Its surface is m\i\m
to cover about 17,500,000 sq. m., being above foa
times the area of Europe.
I. Sketch of Asia. — On the N. AsiaisTOsbi
by the Arctic Sea, which separates it from i
Arctic countries of America ; c Jie E, by the PJ
citlc Ocean, which divides it from the continent (
America ; on the 8. by the Indian Ocean, i\hi
lies between it and Australia; on the W. itiu
terminous with Africa and Europe. The boiimta
line between it and Africa is formed by the Gulf I
Aden, the straits of Babelmandeb (where I
continents are only about 16 miles apart), the li
Sea and the Isthmus of Suez, where Iwth conii
nents unite for about 70 miles. Asia is aeparalij
from Europe by the Metliterranoan Sea, tlj
iEgean Sea, or Archipelago, the straits of the I
danelles, the Sea of Marmora, the channel ofCd
stantinople, and the Black Sea. From the easq
shores of the latter sea the boundary -line i
along the crest of Mount Caucasus to the Casfiij
Sea, which constitutes the boundary as far as li
mouth of the river Oural. Thence it follows tM
course of that river up to its source in the Ouraliif
Range, which latter forms the remainder of tf
boundary line to the Gulf of Kara, E. of f
island of Novaia Zemlia.
To the S. and SE. of Asia is the greatest of j
archipelagos, containing many thousands of Id
and small islands. These belong partly to Aa
and partly to Australia, but they arenutseiifflil
veil built, ..nd is fniil
growth iHciwinKtdiiJ
f the cotton mmmfael
I about ninety cmti,,
n. Among the iiuliiii
new church, with „i,
■ plOCCH of W(IMlli|i,
cert^room, and an c J
school w but HlcmlirlJ
eral other soIkmiIs, wiij
large Sundn^y sclm.,!
c, &c,, liankni); Cum
has it« head office in tij
Manchester and Live.
panv, and other hankj
\y, Saturday. Tluni
liret Satuninv in ci,]
April 29, .'uly 14,
21.
ituated for trade n.,,
■e of a populous ncit'li
lited command (if ciciJ
am of canaU ami raiil
impirc. It was ancicmlJ
ause or other hai Idnl
Reform Act cdnfomi
ing one m. tt> the II. i
^tituency of l,flfi'.> ng.
f them being 10/. huiB
st civilined, and inn
ng of the great divisimi
n 1O20' to 78° X.latJ
inging to it arc incluli
V. to E. it extcmh fm J
! most northerly point J
imura, 78° N.lat.Mh]
iikotskoi Noss, 1911" I
, Cape Euros, 1° 20' J
Iv, Cape Baba, in ii
I'aimura and Ca|)c Bnn
distant from each oilii>j
he extent of Asia M
cadth occiws under tiJ
vcen Capp Baba and ikj
where it extends aim
Its surface is sup|»*
sq. m., being above fod
3n the N.Asia is wa«l»
h separates it fmm
;a ; f Jie E. by the 1
1 itfrf)m the continent j
le Indian Ocean, nhiif
lia; on the VV.it ncdd
Europe. The boiinilsij
is formed by theGultj
ibelmandeb (where '
16 miles apart), the K
Suez, where Ixith fucii
niles. Asia is se|)arat(|
[editerrancan Sea.
ro, the straits of the 1
lora, the channel ofdi
[ Sea. From the easta
the boundary -line
Caucasus to the Ca'ia
B boundary as far as ij
. Thence it follow? ti
its source in the Oumlij
IS the remainder of t'
ulf of Kara, E. of
sia is the greatest of
many thousands ofl
5 belong partly to M
lit they are not sepani^
I
1
I i
( I
li
( mitiuput uf \»^^k Area IS 7i!i no Stf MUtJ
Imttth 5000 MtUs
MnuaiMim
of
ASIA
fcl' Kvrrvil tr.'.v
Kimcluiijiufpi jiiri
Illiawiil«|^iri ygfiSa
Londcn LcriiimajtJt Co
rrtimSs!^
Continrnt of \>ia
F.U|;liMid % Wnlri triadtk t;«TiJw
A*» »»«
S trraiUh 4>tv Hit/t
l^ y i/ ., dl ^
' '^■tthnfl
hWelier • .ip'
('iiaiualtin ^
* ramlotil
ASIA
107
liv any nntiiral Iwumlary. When the PortUf?ucHC
ami MiMUiinrdit Iwgan to bo acquainted willi tlie
islandx of India, they cnnmiereii or Hcttled tho!*c
(inly which were 8upnoiHxl likely to repay the ex-
jicnsc and trouble, TheHu were then, and are Htill,
t'lintti'lcnul at) Ijclon^ing to Aoia. The othen*,
wliicii <lid notofl'cr Huch advantagcH, and were not
w'ttli'<l or vittitcd at that time, are now included in
Au:<traliii. In this way, Ja|)an, Formosa, the
|'hili|>|>ii>cs, the Moluccas, ancl tliat lonfr chain of
islamls which, in the cast, bc^iim with Timorlant,
ami on the west terminates with Java, are con-
liiilvrcd as lielonj^ing to Asia, whilst the numerous
islands dis]>ersc(i between the Moluccas and New
(iuinca, and lyin^ at a short <listunce from the
fdrincr, are included in Australia.
Ill l(Nikin); at the majt of Asia, we are struck by
(iliservin^, tliat the I'acitic Ocean, which divides
it fnim America, nowhere reaches immediately to
ilie ciinsts of the continent, but is H(!i>aratcd trom
ilieni by several chains of islands, whi(di,with the
ioa.it, forni a number of smaller sea-basins. The
must northerly of these sea-basins is the Sea of
Kamtehutka, lying between the NK. extremity of
Asia and the 5«'\V. of America, and senaratcd from
tliu Pncilic by the Aleutian Islands. The Kurilian
Islands, extendinf? from Cape Lopatka to Yeso, the
must northerly of the islands forming; the empire
(if Ja|)nii, separate another sea-basin from the
I'acilic ; it is called the Sea of Oklutt.sk, from the
lar),'e island forming its W. side, and commonly
called SagliiUien. Farther 8. lies the Sea of
Juitan, shut up by the islands constituting that
cniinre and the o)i|>osite coasts of Manchooria and
('urea. Then ftdlows the sea called Tung-Hut
(Eastern Sea) by the Chinese, with its extensive
northern gulf the Wung-IIai (Yellow Sea). This
liasin is more open towiirds the I'acitic, its entrance
bi'ing shut up only by two or three small groups
III' islands, among which the Loo Choo have ol)-
tuined some celebrity in later times. The Island
(if Formosa forms the southern boundary of this
lasin. From this island to the equator extends
ilie Han-Hai (Southern Sea) of the Chinese,
called by the Europeans the Chinese Sea, because
ii is traversed by them in their voyage to China.
The eastern boiuidaries of this basin ara the Phi-
li|i|iincs and the islands of Palawan and Borneo,
iiiiil it forms two great gulfs in the continent,
those of Tonkin and Siam. The formation of these
hvc sea-basins is partly owing to the three great
IK'ninsulas, which project from the continent, the
[icninsula of the Tshuktshes, occupying 00,000 sq.
m,, and those of Kamtchatka and Corca, which
are nearly of the same extent.
The S. coast ol Asia is not surrounded by close
$cas, but is quite open to the Indian Ocean, except
vhcre it borders on the Chinese Sea; but in these
parts are s<!veral gulfs which deeply penetrate
into the continent, and thus form extensive penin-
sulas. The principal are the Bay of Bengal, the
Sea of Arabia, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of
Ajan, and the Ked Sea, separating Asia from
Mrica. The peninsulas which occur on this side
are those of India without the Gauges, which has
an area of nearly 800,000 sq. m., Inilia within
liie Ganges and Arabia. Kach of the last meii-
liuned comprising upwards of a million sq. m. ; the
three together being nearly equal to Euro^Hj in
extent.
Where Asia approaches Europe, we meet the
larfje peiimsula of Asia Minor, covering a surface
of more than 200,000 sq. m., which being sur-
rounded by the Mediterranean and Black Sea,
facilitates the intcrcotirse of both coutmcuts by sea
as well as by land.
The N, coast of Asia, indented by numerous
deep bays, and having several projecting tonf^iics
of land, would give great advantages to maritmie
intercourse with other countries did the severity of
the climat« not render them inaccessible all the
year round. They arc nearly everywhere en-
closed by ice.
1. Great Northern I'hiin. — Conformation of the
Surface. — Rivers. — Ahing the coasts of the Arctiis
Sea, always covered with ice except in the sum-
mer months, when it is o|)en along the shores to a
distance of a few miles, extends the greatest plain
of the globe. This plain not. only covers nearly
the whole of Northern Asia, but advanc(!s west-
ward, extending over the east of Europe, ami
reaching to the very shores of the North Sea o)!-
positc Great Britain. We mav even atHrm that
the h)w and level countries which in England oc-
cur ahmg the North Sea between the Thames and
Iliimlter, constitute the farthest W. corner of this
vast plain. For, a traveller departing from Emi-
don and advancing eastward between the parallels
of 62° and 53° N. bit. as far as 85° E. hnig., and
hence between 55° and oG° N. lat., will arrive at
Takutzk, on the river Lena (liJOOE.long.) without
having passed any mountain-range. '1 he highest
ground in his way would occur about (50° E. long.,
iK'tween the river Oural and the sources of the
Tobol, where a chain of hills rises, but only to an
absolute height of less than 2,000 ft. Jn this Umg
journey he would hove traversed 130 degrees of
h»ng., or more than a third part of the curvature of
the earth, and this is the length of the great plain
in this parallel. But along the Arctic Sea it
stretches farther east, and terminates at 165° E.
long, on the banks of the river Kolyma.
This plain would extend from the Atlantic to
the Pacific Sea, but for two mountain-ranges,
which rise at its W. and E. extremities like high
walls, to protect it against the encroachments of
the sea. At its W. extremity are the Scandina-
vian mountains, lying NNK. and SSW. Atits
E. extremity are,' first, the Y'ablonoi mountains,
and then the Verkhoianskoi and St^mnovoi moun-
tains, which extend from the S. limits of the lius-
sian prov. of Zabaikalskaya, E. of Lake Baikal, in
a NE. direction, until they terminate on Behring's
Strait. This range occupies a considerable width,
being probably nowhere less than 160 m, across,
but does not rise to a considerable height, the
highest of its summits which have been measureil
attaining only 4,055 ft. above the sea, and its
mean elevation being estimated at less than 2,000
ft. Its N. branches till up the whole countrj'
between the peninsula of Kamtchatka and the
Polar Sea with mountains of moderate elevation,
many of which, however, are always covered with
snow on account of their high latitude near the
Polar Circle.
It is worthy of remark, that in the seas adjoin-
ing the two boundary ranges, two of the most
active volcanic systems are met with. To the
west of the Scandinavian mountains a great num-
ber of volcanoes are placed on the island of Ice-
land, and, as it seems, also on the neighbouring
island of Jan Mayen. On the east of the Yablo-
noi and continuing ranged!, the peninsula of Kamt-
chatka offers a similar phenomenon. It seems that
the chain of mountains is mostly covered with
volcanic matter, and several very high summits,
are still active volcanoes. The highest of the
two summits of the volcano of Sliivelush rises toi
10,591 ft. above the sea, and that of the volcanck
Kliutahewsk even to 15,825 ft» The tracts of low
land which extend along the sea-coasts of thi.^
peninsula are partly coveBed with thick forests,
and partly with line grass, but neither agriculture
nor the rearing of cattle is attended to, the very
V
ft! m
iF m
■:jn
lOR
ASIA
Mciiiily |Mipiiliition (iiiiliiiK it more rnny to gel itx
Hiilmintciu'c by IIhIuii^,
ItoHiilcH thi' rniip'N furminff thr> Imiinrlnry nf tho
pliiiii to the K. hikI VV„ it 'it iwarly in ilH iniilillo
iravcrmMl liy nnothcr cliiiiii, the Oiiraliitii iiioiiii-
laiiiH, wliicli run nciirlv iliic N. niiil S., on liotli
ri.lt'Hof (!0° K, Inii);. 'I'IiIm riinf,'(', wliich in hn'iiillh
ot'cniiicH liiinlly anywiicrt! inor(< llian i>0 or (ID ni.,
cxIiiliilH near itH N. fxlrcinitv a few Hinnnntx
wliii'h riH(> to from 4,(MI0 to 5,IMM) ft. lint tlic
mean (■Icvation ii4 prohaMy not more tlwin 2,000
t'l. nifovi' Hie MCft, lU'lwoen fiti'^ unil ()l° arc alno
sonii- HnmmitH wliieli attain lii>tw(><>n 4,000 ami
■"i.OOO ft. At t lie Honrces of the river ( Jnral the raiifje
lowern coiiHiilerahlv, and dividcH in several ridp's ;
of whit'li one, eailed the IiIIIh of MnpidHharsk,
ailvani'e!4 in a S\V. direetion, and tenninntes on
(he plain which divides the Caspian Sea from the
lake of Aral. Thns this chain does not join the
mountain-ranges in the interior of Asia.
Nearly in the middle of the S. horder of the
(ireat Plain, on both sides of the hills of Muk'mI-
sharsk and the conntries lyin>? S. of it, between
4.")° and (i4° K, Ion/;;., oi^eurs the most remarkable
tlepression on the surface of the earth. A tract of
conntry, extending over nn area of more than
;J00,000 sq. m., exclusive of the Caspian Sea, is,
nucordint; to tlic supposition of Humboldt, hiwer
than the surfaiH; of the ocean. The lowest part of
it is occupied by the Cas|iian Sea, which was sup-
posed by Humboldt, to be no less than 84H ft.
l)elow the surface of the lilack Sea; but later, and
it is believed, more correct, measurements make
the level of the Caspian Sea only llti ft. below,
and that of the Lake of Aral 14 ft. above, the level
of the Ulack Sea. According to Humboldt, this
(lepression extends l>etweeri the rivers Kooma,
■\\'olf;n, and Oural, up to a line drawn from Sara-
tow to Orenburfi, whence its bonnilar\' rims to the
Lake of Ak-sa-kal (4«o \. lat., and (iHO K. lonj;,).
and then includes tlie countries traversed by the
lower courses of the Sir-I)nria (Siboon, Jnxurtes)
and Amoo-Dnria {Oxu»), consisting; principally of
the state of Khiva, on the course of the latter river.
'Phis country is so little elevated above the ^reat
lakes, whicii lie in the midst of it, that a stronj;
north-westerly wind -of some continuance forces
tlieir waters over man_v miles of the adjacent
tracts. Its soil consists |)artly of sand, and partly
of hard clay, on which neither trees nor shrubs
jjrow, and wliicli only in s])rinff, after the meltinj;
of the snow, is covcreil with a scanty but nourish-
ing grass and numerous tloweis. It is only used as
patiturc by the nomadic tribes which wander about
in this desert. Natimil wells are nowhere found,
but water is met with (m digging some feet down
in those districts which have a sandy seil, but not
in those where it consists of clay. Along the
banks of the watercourses trees and shndjs grow,
and the soU is tit for agricultural purposes, but is
commonly used as meadows.
Along the shores of the Caspian Sea this low
and desert coimtry extends to the very edge of
the table-land of Iran (Fer-sia), where it temiiiiates
between 3(1° and 37° N. lat., but from the table-
land of Eastern Asia it is separated by a mountain
region, which comprehends the countries of Kho-
kan and Badakslmn, and between them and the
desert extends Bokhara, whose surface is broken
into ridges of moderate height, and valleys of con-
siderable width, wliich, being watered by artilicial
means, are very productive of all kin(ls of grain
and fruit. This country, therefore, offers a succes-
sion of fertile and sterile tracts over the whole of
its surface.
The Caspian Sea, which covers a surface of
120,000 sq. m., is very deep towartls ita S, ex-
tremity, where it is surrounded by the mouiifnin.
ranges of Iran, but where it JHinlers on the dew>rt jt
is shallow. Its waters are salt. The Lake or Sciini
Aral, lying farther east, has a surface of between
40,000 and f')0,tHHI sq. m., and its waters are like-
wise salt, as is the ease with all the nuinenms
smaller lakes which occur m the abovc-mentiniied
depression. The Lake of Aral recoives the iw,,
largest rivers whi(4i drain the S. parts of ilie
des«'rt, luid descend from tlie table-land of K. Amu,
The Sir-Darirt, which in its upper uourse lliuvs
through Khokan, runs about DoO m., ami the
Ainn-I)aria, whi<'h rises in Madakshan, and flows
along th(> southern boundary of itokhara, aiul
afterwards through the desert and Khiva, ban a
course of nearly 1,100 m.
The Oural dividing Asia from Kurojic, the ^>^\
[ilnin is divided between these two contiiieiiix.
riiough that portion of it which belongs to i'jiri>|K'
has immense tracts of very fertile land, es|K'ciiil|v
in the centre of liussia, the plain of Siberia ikI-
where exhibits sucli a soil. Those jiarts wliich He
contiguous to the great depression, and as far K,
as K2° K. long., are steppes, that is, level coiimries
with a sandy, gravelly, or clayey soil, destitute ef
trees, except along the iMittoms of some of tin.
rivers, and covered jiartly with low shriihs, niul
partly with coarse grass, which affords only verv
scanty pasture. In most parts they are destitute
of water. The great steppe ttf Uarabinsknja, lie-
tween the rivers Vrtish and Obi, is partly coverc'il
with large swamps, and intenningled with nunier-
ous salt-lakes, some of considerable extent; tlie
remainder has a dry sterile soil, but when it \wpm
to rise in hills towards the Altai range, many dis-
tricts are lit f(-i' agriculture, and are cultivated.
This last observ-ation a)tplies still more to tlie
countries farther K., between the rivers Oiii ami
Yenesei, where agriculture has alrea<ly advaiucd
from .5(!° N. lat. to Krasnoyarsk. This portion nt'
the plain is considered the granary of Siberia. Its
surface is rather hillj'. The countries lyiiin east
of the Yenesei do not exhibit a level plain, Imt
rather an undulating surface, which in sonic pans
is even broken. But as the climate is loss mild
than farther west, agriculture is only juirsucd in a
comparatively few sheltered jilaces, and the rear-
ing of cattle and the chase afford subsistence to
its scanty iiopulation. This part of the plain is
covered with immense forests of |)ines, bircli. At,,
of whicli the W. stejiiies are destitute, and its pav
tiiros are also much richer. That portion of tin;
plain which e.Ktends N. of the Polar Circle has \H
surface frozen ten months of the year, and even
in July ice is met with at the depth of a foot. It
is an immense desert, covered with moss, and iii-
tersjiersed with numerous lakes ami swamps, hi
summer its whole surface is changed into a sv/anip,
and then it is inaccessible. This mossy desert i*
culled tundra. It is worthy of remark, that at tlie
month of the Lena, and between it and that of the
Iiidighirka, immense masses of bones, and even
entire skeletons of elephants, rhinoceroses, and
antediluvian animals are found imbedded in the
ice, which never is dissrlved by the rays of tliesiin.
This plain is drained by numerous rivers, which,
descending from the Altai and other lofty moun-
tain-ranges, on the southern border of the plain,
traverse it in a northerly direction. Some of them
may be enumerated among the largest rivets d'
the globe. Such is the Obi or Oby, which unites
with the Yrtish, and whose whole ccurse rather
exceeds 2,000 m. The Y'enesei is still longer; fr
if we take for its source the Selenga, whicli falls
into the Lake of Baikal, and issues from it uinler
the name of Lower Angara, but changes it al'ter-
wards into that of Upper Tunguaka, it nins iiui
AHIA
lOD
Ifss Ihnn 2..10ft m. Thr Lcnn, wliii-h w jdiiird liy
ilic liiru't' trilinliirit'N Vitini luid Aldiin, luiMftnuirxo
m( liarilly Ii'hh llinn 2,000 in. riirllur K. is the
ViiiiA, which tiowH alM)iit 400 m,, tint Iiulighirl^ii
alHiiit 700 m., mill thi> Kolyma !)00 in,
1 Khraird Tnhk-lund of h'linli'rn Alia, — The
iMJiiiiilnrv iif rhia oxtciiMivo region lien nrnr Mm
|,iiri>l!i I "of 50° N. hit., Iictwi't'ii H"2° mid li'20 K.
lull;;. On the VV. tlic hi)iindiiry is fumii'd l)V ii line
iNiiiiiliiiK tirst fr..in ^0° N. hit. mid H-i° K. imn. to
.|i|0 .N. lilt, mid 72° K. loiij;., and hcnw nearly din'
S, til Ml°. Fri'in tliis |ioiiit it foilowN the raii(;R of
ilic lliinnhiya niouiilains in its SK. dirfctimi to
y>p K. loiifj., where this chain, which constitutes
ilii' S. eii^e of t)ic tahlu-hind, bepns to turn nearly
iliio V.., and continiieH in that direction om far as
:i;o 1',. loiiK.. niiUT the parallel of 2K° N. Int. Hence
it piiHses SK. to the tahle-lniid of Yu-iinn, 25° S.
Int. mill I0;t° E. loiij;,, which forms the most soiith-
(fly |)i)iiit of the (freat talile-land of ICa«tern Asia.
Till' eastern boundary runs alon^ the raiiHc of the
Yiiii-liiiH mountains, which rise in the most suutli-
irly Ik'IiiI of the river Kin-sha-kian^c.
'flic whole of the immense area included williin
tliiw lines is coiisideralil}' elevated ahovc the
Ifvel of the sea. Only a few comparatively small
iriiftsiif country are supposed to liave less than
;i,iiiHl ft, of absolute elevation, and man v of its
siiiitliorii |)lnins rise to more than 10,000 ft. Ac-
(•iinliiiK ••' f <"■ scanty information, we may siip-
|Kise that the whole country rises continually
lii^'her in form of terraces os it a])]iroachcs its
wiutliprn boundary, the Iliinnlaya range. Hut,
examining the course of the rivers, wc are obliged
Id miiipose that this country gradually declines
Idwarilsthe east, as those rivers which flow from it
til tli« west rise only on the verj' borders of the
table-land, but many of those which traverse its
internal plains descend to the I'acilic Sea. Kven
those which are not connected with the sea, but
iinniimtc in lakes having no outlet, run mostly
from VV, to E.
This table-land does not extend in one uninter-
ni|itcd jilain, but besides its being almost every-
ivliero .surrounded by mountain-ranges, its interior
is likewise traversed by several extensive chains.
Wc shall tlrst iiuiicnte the ranges which arc met
on it8 borders, then those in the interior, and
make a few observations on the countries lying
between the mountain chains.
Alung the N. edge of the table-land runs a
series of mouii tain-ran jj 38, beginning in the ex-
treme west with the Altai range, a chain of moun-
Ifiuis which varies in width between 200 and 300
m., and extends along the table-land to Lake
Kiisgul, It was formerly 8up]K>sed to have a much
jjreater extent, but it is now known that this lake
\s'ith that of Baikal separate this range fnnn the
mountains of Dauria. The highest part of the
wliolc range is near its W. extremity, where, on
the banks of the river Tsliumya, an upper branch
lithe Oby, it rises in some summits to more than
10,000 ft, above the level of the sea, and is always
iiivered with snow. To the north-east of Lake
Kosgid is the great Alpine lake of Baikal, 355 m.
in length, by 30 ami 40 m. in width, and covering
a surface of 14,800 sq. m„ so that it is larger than
half Scotland.
The \V. boundary of the table-land, between
50° N. lat. and 82° E. long., and 40° N. lat. and
("2° E. long., is not formed by a mountain chain,
but by a country with a broken surface, which we
sliall notice hereafter. But between 40° and 34°
X, lat, a continuous range rises to a great height.
It is called, on our maps, Bolor Tagh, but, by the
natives, Tartash, and by the Cliinese geographers
Tartash-i-ling.
The vast range of ilio ITimalnynmonntainH ninn
along tlu' S\V, and S, cdgeof Ilie talile-liiiid, from
.•11° N, lai. and 7;»° E, hmg,, li> 2h° N, lat, mid !»7°
E. long., iH'iiig about 1,300 m, in length, and from
2.'i(> lo 350 m, across. From the low iiluiiis of
India, which border on the range on tlio SW,,
the mountain-mass rises abruptly to about 4,000
or 5,000 ft. Behind it lies a Udt of an extremely
broken surface, from loo to 200 m, in breadth,
overtoiiiied by numerous high summits, which
grow higher and higher ns they approach tho
table-land. The base on which they rest also risen
gradually, till it attains near the table-land the
height of 8,000 or !t,00(» ft. Then follows the
highest portion of this sttipend'ms range, the crest
of the Ilimi.iuH or Jmiiiis of the ancientH, some of
whose summits exceed by 10,<I(M) and 11,000 ft.
the altitude of Moiit Blanc, and arc the highest
ill any country hi'herto discovered, Tho IHia-
walngiri (28° 30' N, lat,, and 83° 30' E, long,)
attains 2C,8(i2 ft, above the sen, and theC'liamalari
(2M° X, lat,, and 80° 30' E, long,) is probably but
little lower. The Tawahir (30° 22' X, lat,, and
70° 57' E. long,) rises to 25,740 ft. There are prt>-
bably above 200 summits, which rise more than
18,000 ft, above the sea, and ar'i covered with
eternal snow. In fact, the name Himalaya or
Himaleh is merely a Sanscrit term for snowy;
a circumstance of which Pliny was well aware
when he savs IinUiia incolantm lingua nimmiim sig-
nijirante. (Hist, Xat,, lib, vi, § 17,) By far the
greater number of these high summits lie VV, of
the Chamalari ; for E. of that high pinnacle, the
mountains which attain the snow seem huge,
but few. On the SVV. are the plains of Iiiclia,
which are nowhere more than 1,000 ft, above the
sea; and on the north of the range are the plains
of Tibet, which have at least 10,000 ft. of absolute
elevation. The highest crest of the range towards
this table-land is between 10,000 and 18,000 ft.
high, the Ncetec pass, one of the lowest, rising to
l(i,5ti!J ft, above the sea.
The country which lies between the E. ex-
tremity of the Himalaya range (97° E. long.) and
the table-land of Yu-nan (between 100° and 104°
E. long.) contains the sources of the Irawaddi, and
rises to a considerable elevation, being overtopped
by high summits. The table-land of Yu-nan it-
self is of considerable height, and the winters arc
very col<l, though it be jilaced near the tropic.
Some mountain summits which rise from it attain
the snow-line ; they are mostly situated along the
most southerly bend of the nver Kin-sha-kiang,
and may be considered as the most southerly ex-
tremity of the Yun-ling.
ThcYun-ling, which rises on the E. edge of the
great table-land, and runs in a XNE. direction in
the great bend of the river Kin-sha-kiang, is also
of considerable height, so that it is frequently
called by the Chinese the Siue-ling (Snow-range).
The snow-capped summits are numerous, between
30° and 3(5° N, lat,, and more especially between
32° and 34°. The eastern boundary of this table
land is formed by the mountain-ranges of the
In-shan and Khing-khan, which extend east and
north from the most northerly bend of the Whang-
ho river. The length of the In-shan does not
much exceed 360 miles. But the Khing-khan,
whose northern extremity advances to the most
northerly bend of the river Amoor, has a length
of nearly 800 miles.
The most northerly of the mountain-ranges
traversing the interior of the great table-land of
Eastern Asia is the Thian-shan. It begins at
the northern extremity of the Tartash-i-ling, or
Bolor Tagh (40° N, lat,), with which it forms
nearly a right angle. But, properly speaking, it
,
v
i
?ri
f ji
I
-1
2no
ASIA
pritjcctH under the nome nf Ak-Tiuh into the
plnirm of liokharn, lyinf{ farther W. The 'niiori-
Hhnii niiiH from VV.* to K., U-lwecn TO" and Wfi,
anil then it tcrminateii abruptly in the plain.
ItH wemern |H)rtion, which Ih called Muz-TnKh,
though riNin^ to a fo^tat elevation, in paitiuHl hy
the cnrnvauH litaween Kiildja and KhiinKnar. Here
itH bn-a<lth doeH not exceed 30 or 40 ni. lUit near
7'J° K. lona., where it m travented by the rood be-
tween Kuldja and AkHii, the liiKhent part of t'.ii!
nionntain-|iatiH Im covered with miow, and leadH
over a j^lacier. Hence thin paw is called Muwiir
dnbdhn, or the ^lacier-pnNM, Fiurlher K, in the
hinh volcanic (H'ak, called IV-nlinn. The centre
of the whole ranf^c in occupied by an exIeiiMive
moMH of very high rockw, which rise far above the
Hnow-line, and tliiN rnaHH ih known m one of the
highest inountaiuH in Northern Attia by the name
of Hoplo OOla. To the K. of this Muh mountain-
masH occurH another volcano, named the voli-auo
of_ Uo-theou (Fire-town). Snow-capped moun-
taiuH appear likewise on tlic H. of the ltog(h)Oiila,
but we are very little acquainted with tlu« port of
the range.
It was formerly supposed that u high mountain-
range, running' SW. and NE., connect':! the
western extremity of the Thian-8han with the
western extremity of the Altai range, but it is
certain that no such range exists. The country
lying between these ranges is indceil traversed by
several lower ridges, of which some are of con-
siderable extent, but they are not connected with
each other, wide plains extending between them.
These plains do not much differ from the steppes
of Western Siberia, being only covered with coarse
grass ; but along the rivers are considerable tracts
of land, Ht for agriculture, and yielding rich crops
of rice and millet. Uesides, there arc similar
tracts along the foot of the ridges. This country
is, besides, remarkable for the great number of
largo lakes which are met with over its whole
surface. The most remarkable are the Jialkash,
which is said to extend from liJO to 140 m. from
N. to S., the Issckul or Temurti, which is half as
long, the Ala-kul, Zaisan, Kijilbash Noiir, Ike
Arnl NoiJr, Ubra Nolir, and a great number of
smaller ones. Except the Zaisan they have no
outlets, and the water of none of them arrives at
the sea. Another remarkable circumstance is the
occurrence of volcanoes, at a distance of about
1,000 m. from the sea. For, besides the volcanoes
noticed in the Thian-Shan range, there occur
others to the N. of the chain, and one is found on
an island in the Lake of Ala-kul.
Not far from the S. extremity of the Tartash-i-
ling (between 85° and 3G° N. lat.), another moun-
tain-range, running E. and W., is connected with
it. This chain is called by the Chinese geogra-
phers, Kuen-luen, or Kul-kun. We know very
little of it, except that it stretches over the whole
breadth of the great table-land, and nearly in the
middle of its extent (about 92° E. long.) divides
into two ranges, of which that which declines
somewhat to the N. is called Nan-Shan, and is
probably connected with the In-Shan by the Ala-
Shan, a range of mountains extending along the
banks of the Uoang-ho, where it Hows N. The other
branch of the Kuen-luen, which declines some-
what to the S., is called the Bayan Kara moun-
tains, and frequently also the Kuen-luen. These
ranges are in many parts covered with snow all
the year round ; whence they frequently are called
Siue-moiintains (snow-mountains) by the Chinese.
The immense tract of country which lies to the
N. of this range (on the W. between it and the
Thian-Shan, and on the E. between it and the Altai
Sloimtains), is known by the name of Gobi or
Creat Steppe. Out the whole of this tract In not
a desert. The W. istrtion of it, lH>twecn 7'^ ami
06° K. h)ng., or lM>t ween the Thian-Shan and Kiifii-
luon, is onl^ from 800 to 400 m. acriMM, an<l nearly
1,200 m. in length. Hero we Hnd a trait lif
country from 60 to HO m. a«'ross, along the f(Hit nf
the TIdan-Shan range, fertile in many diMirict",
priKlucing dilYerent kinds of grain, cotton, wiiii'.
and fruit, or covered with nourishing ^itn^^,
Through this tract runs the great commercial rinul,
which connectji W. Asia with the more euxitrn
countries, -uid here are situated the commcreinl
towns of Khasghar, Aksu, Kutsh*', Karashar, Tur-
fan, and Khaniil, or llanii. The W. portion (Ik-
tweeii 72° and 77° E. hmg.) is also notadmn,
Through the tracts separating the rivers urc
stej)|)es, i.e. plains without trees, and prodiicini;
only a coarse grass; the lands bordering the liuiik.i
of the watercourses are fertile in gram and cut-
ton. Here is the town of Yarkand, and, towaril.s
the Kuen-luen, Khotun, through which two pinm
a road runs, which connects N. Asia with IikIui,
It is sup|M>sed that the term votUm is derived rrmn
the name of the last-mentioned town. The re-
mainder of this region is a desert, and mostly of
the worst kind, where the sandy surface, acvi'inl-
ing t«» a Chinese author, moves like the waves of
the sea. This desert is sometimes distiuguiitlii'il
by the name of Sha-shin, or the Gobi of Lop Nuur,
'Ihe Lop is one of the extensive lakes without an
outlet, which frequently are met with in tiiis de-
sert. It receives from the W. the Tarini, im.i
which flow the Yarkand-Daria, Kashgar Daria,
and other rivers from the Kuen-luen, Jailor, ainl
Thian-Shan ranges. This part of the (ireatTulile-
land is supposed to be between 4,000 and 5,i)U0
ft. alK>ve the sea-level.
It seems that under the meridian of Khamil
(90° E. long.) the desert is narrowed to about l.Vi
m. across by the fertile districta of Tangut, wliicli
skir.the declivity of the mountains of Nan-Sliaii,
and protrude far northward into the desert. The
desert, dividing it from Khamil, and called (iobi of
Tangut, is also less level, more stony, and better
adapted for pasture, than farther E. or W. llpme
the Chinese government has extended its N\V,
prov. of Konsi through this desert to the >i. tiide
of the Thian-Shan mountains.
The Gobi-Shamo Steppe extends from the east-
ern extremity of the Thian-Shan (90° E. long.) to
the Khing-Khan (120° E. long.), nearly l,2Uli ni.
in length, and its width between the Altai raiige
on the N., and the Nan-Shan, Ala-Shan, and lii-
Shan,.on the S., varies between 600 and 700 ra.
Through the middle of this tract extends, in tlie
whole of its length, what is properly called the
Sharao (Sand Sea). It is from 150 to 250 ra.
across ; and in it sand almost exclusively^ cuvcrs
the surface, which commonly is level, but in suinu
places rises into hills, on which masses of luo.-e
stone are met with. Small and shallow lakes are
frequent, but their water is either salt or bitter.
The vegetation is very scanty, and affonis but
indifferent pasture. In a few places a small niiin-
ber of stunted trees are met with. This part uf
the Gobi is about 3,000 ft. above the sea-levcl, but
it sinks in some places even to 2,600 ft. In th(i>e
parts of the Gobi which lie to the N. and S, of
the Shamo, the surface is between 3,000 ami
4,000 ft. above the sea. Here it is not, in general.
covered with sand, but with gravel and pebbles
and is in many places rocky. The vegetation !<
much more vigorous, and the pastures conse-
quently richer. It is even thought that, in miuiy
districts, agriculture would succeed, if the no-
madic nations inhabiting these countries wuuM
attend to it ; and in some districts which border
ASIA
Ml
nn rhiiin, millet in powii ahiinilanlly, nnd oven
wiicnt and hnrlcy, tiioii^h not to a ^"'1' ('xtniit.
irt'1'1 am nlm) met with, an well on I he N, an on
the S. of the Hhamo, cit|)ocially tir. birch, nnd
iKipliirtt, i)iit not in lai>;n foreHtH, 'I ho rounlrieM
nrc likewioo iM'ttor |in>vitl(>d with water than the
Slinnio, which could not Im traverxcd, if welU
were not diiK at certain ptncoti wlu-ru the roadM
iiaMf*, The northern and Hotithcm diHtriclM have
iilrto a IcMM level Hiirface, ridKCH of Htony nnd rocky
hills irnverHiiiK it in many placeH; tliey run coin-
niniily from \V. to K., and are culled the Illack
OIouiIn. The few and Hhi|;pMh riveni which nw.
niel with, are Itmt in lakcH without outlclN. Oidy
ill the north-eattteni an^lo nrc the Kerlo< ti and
Klmlka-l'ira rivers, which, entering Lake 'rHhuu.
fiirm the Ar^ouii, the princiiial liranch of the
AiniHtr, The temperatiire of the air is extremely
liiwover the whole (iohi.thc wnten* being covered
with ico nix montliK of the year.
The country which Ih included between the two
hrnnches of tlic Kuen-lucn ranjje, tlu* Nan-Slum,
andlinyan Kara mountninH, m called Thoiu);-
lliii, or Khoo-khoo-noor. The latter name in
(icrived from nn cxten8ivo lake in itH Nl'i. 'diH-
trii'i. It is very little known, nnd necniH to ex-
iiihit a succession of narrow valleys and very
lii^di mountains, whoso numerous nummits iuims
fnr licyond the snow-lino. These mountains hirin
very extensive and hi);h masses in the bend of
the Whang-ho, wliich river has ita sources in the
\V. districts of this region.
Tiie whole country S. of the Kuen-lucn moun-
tains, as fnr S. .is the Himalaya range, is compre-
hciulcd under the name of 'i'il>et. It is, doubt-
hs», the highest pnrt of tho grent table-land of
Eustern Asia, and there arc goixl reasons for as-
M^niiiig it an average absolute elevation of
10,000 ft. above the sea-level, though, towards
the cast, the valleys of some rivers may be consider-
ably less. A mountnin-rango runs through it from
Vf, to E. It is connected with the Himalaya
range by a level table-land of 14,000 ft, elevation,
wliii'h surrouiuls the sacred lakes of IManassa-
lidwora and Knvan- Hrad, and un which, or near
wliicli, are the sources of three great rivers, the
Indus, Ganges, and Yaru-TBau)io, or lirnhmanoutra.
The mountain-chain itself is called (lang-dis-ri on
llic VV., but farther E. it Iman the name of Zang.
Its K. extremity is separated from the Yun-luig
hy the valley of the Kin-sha-kiang, which here
flows from N. to S. Little is known of this runge,
which probably, being placed on so elevated a base,
posses with its summits tho line of congelation.
Of the country which lies to the N. of this
range very little is known, if wc except the most
westerly comer, where tho Indus river, issuing
fri)m a table-land between mountain-ridges, enters
the spacious, level, and fertile valley of Eeh, or
Ladak, and runs in it about BUG m., till it breaks
through the mountain-ranges which oppose its
cimrse, and enters the plam of India. On the
W, of this fine, but elevated valley, is the Hima-
laya range; and on the E. another high chain,
the Kara-korum mountains, which, extending
XW. and SE., connect the Kuen-luen chain with
the Gang-dis-ri mountains.
The country east of the Karakorum mountains,
and extending between the Kuen-luen and the
(iang-dis-ri ranges, is called Katshc,orKorKatshe.
There occur in it some ranges, but the greatest
port extends in wide plains, similar to the steppes,
but abundantly provided with good pasture.
Near the Gang-dis-ri range is an extensive lake,
called Tcngri, and N. of it are the sources of the
Kin-sha-kiang. This river enters China on the
borders of the province of Szcchuen, and after
trnvrrslng the N\V. pnrt of fhi-* province imdei
the name of Kin-sha-kiang, or Kiverof theOtddeu
Hand, it iiasNcs into the nrovince of Yu-iian. It
IcaveM tliis province again towards the NE., and
re-entering S/.echuen, traverNcM its HE. |M)rtion.
At the city of Leuchow, it n'ceives the river Min,
or Wei, and after this Jumlioii, it Iomps itti iwnne
of Kin-sha-kiang, and takes that of Ta-kiang, or
Great Kiver. At Wuchang, in the province of
Ilupih, it is Joined by the Ilu-kiang, or ilu river,
and the nmm river is from this point known by
its name of Yang-tse-kian^'
The country between the (iang-<lis-ri range and
the llinuilavn mountains is Tibet Proper. Its
surface exhifiits oidy low riM'ky hills, without any
signs of vegetatitin, rising on extensive arid plains,
coveretl at certain seasons with rich grass, ami
alforditig pasture to numerous herds of cattle.
The valleys in which the rivt-rs run are consider*
ably dciiressed below the surface of the plains,
and in these valleys agriculture is carried on with
great care. All kinds of European grains are
cultivated, and in some places nee. Alostoftbo
fruit-trees of Euro|M! alst> succeed. Hut, as the
portion of the country which is tit for agriculturo
IS only a small part of the whole, the populatiini,
though fnr from numerous, is partly supplied with
corn from tho ndjncent countries. The (diinato i.-i
very severe, nnd the rivers covered with ice for
some months. Tho E. part of Tibet is very liltio
known ; it seems to be traversed by high ranges,
nnd not to exhibit the large plains which occur
farther W. In Tibet is the lake I'alte, which luiH
n large island in its centre, so that the lake hns
the form of a ring. The Yaru-Tsauiio, or llrali-
inupoutra river, runs through this country from \Y.
to E., and after a course of more than 1,000 m.,
breaks through the chain of the Himalaya raiig(>,
alM)ut 95° E. l<mg., and joins the bruhinapoutrn
under the name of l)i-hong.
The table-land of Yu-nan, which forms tho
most southerly portion of tho great table-land of
Eastern Asia, has an extremely diversilied surface,
being a succession of mountains which in some
places rise above the snow-line, and of valleys,
which, however, frerpiently widen to small ]dnins.
The climntc indicates n considerable elevation
above the sea-level, but it is not so high as to pre-
clude agriculture, corn being raised in the yalleyn
and nlains, and in some districts rice. Towards
the NW., however, it rises much higher, as tlieru
the rearing of cattle forms the principal occupation
of the inhabitants, who have lienLs of chowry-
tailed cattle (lios griinniens,) which arc only found
in verv cold countries.
3. dountrieg lying to the East of the Table-land
of Eastern Asia. — East of the desert of Gobi ex-
tends 8hing-king, or Manchooria (the country of
the Manchoos), bordered to the coasts of the Pa-
cific, except in the extreme north, where the east-
em boiuidary of Manchooria is the river Ussuri,
an affluent of the Amoor. The country enst of
the Ussuri, between this river and the Pacific, has
recently been annexed to the Russian empire.
Manchooria is divided from the desert by the
Khing-khan mountains, which on the side of tho
desert are destitute of wood, but towards Man-
chooria are covered with fine forest-trees, among
which oak is frequent. Tho boundary between
Manchooria and the peninsula of Corea approaches
the coast and runs so close along it as to leave only
at some places a very narrow strip of low coun-
try until It terminates at the mouth of the river
Amoor, opposite the Y'nblonoi Khrebet. Along
this coast the mountain-chain rises with great
steepness to from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. above the sea.
The countries eucluised by thciie mountain-ranged
1 1
<M:t
202 AS
rxliiliit (liffrrcnf clinriU'K'ru. Tlip HW. pnrt of i(,
N. iiIiIk' river Mru Miircti, nr I.i'iki Im, Ix mlfMirl,
iiiiil iiinv Ih> t'liiixiilcrril UN piiri iii'tlit- linln, wliidi
licrr |irii|t'i'tH lii'viiiiil itH imiiiriil liiiiiinliir\, ilic
Kliiii^r-kiiiiii riiiiK<'> ll hiiM H Nciiniv M'^'i'iiiiinii
mill is (itily iiiliiiliiii'd Ity iiomiiilic niiliniiM, I'., of
it, mill nn I'lir N. iim thr Aiiumr river, tin- niiiiitrv is
Iriivcrxeil liy riil^'es nf iiioiiMtiiiiiN mul liilN, lie-
I ween wliii'li, liiiwever, H|ini'ii>iis viilleVN exieiiil,
wliiiNe I'ertile Niiil is in Himie pliiees well eiillivilleit,
mill vielils rieli erii|iN, 'I'lie iniiiinliiiiiM mul hills
lire |iiirtly eiivereil willi trees, iiiiil |iiirtly iiHiinl
rieli iiiisliire-wiilks tor niinieroiiH lienls of entile
iiiiil slieep. Tlie eliniiile of this |iortion of Mmi-
elionria is very teni|ieriite. N. of the river Amour
the whole eoimlrv is eovereil with nioiintaiii-
iiiiisses, iliterseeleii liy niirrow viilleys. Here ii^'ri-
I'liltiire eeiises, mul eallle torn) the |iriiiei|iiil riches
of the inhahitmils, who also applv theiiiselveH in-
iliistrioiisly to the ehase of aninials ntlonlin^ furs,
of which there is a ki'*''>I ahiimlaiice. The prin-
cipal river is the Ainoor, whose upper hraiich, the
Arpiim, runs thriiii);h the Nh;, districts of the
(iolii, anil lifter entering the iiioiintain Joins the
Shilka, when the river is culleil Ainoor, or Sak-
hnlieii. The whole course of tliiit river iIui'h nut
fall short of '.',0(1(1 miles.
The peninsula of Corea is fiepnrated from Maii-
chooria hy tlieChann-re-slian, and from this rmi^'e
miother hranches oil' to the .S., which runs close to
the K, shores, towards which it descends with
fcreal rniiidity, and in these districts the level or
cnltivalile tractti are of small extent. The iiii-
ineroiis otf'sets to tlie W., which are less steep mid
I'levated, eonlaiii Iwlween them larj^'e and well
cultivated vallevs. Itiit the whole country seems
to have u eonsiderahle elevation ahovc the sea-
level, 08 its climate is very cold, its N. rivem
lieinj; covered with ice for four months; yet rice,
cuttoii, and silk, are produced in ahuiidance.
Cliiim I'roper occupies the renminder of the
eniinlries lyiiij^ lietweeii the (jreat tahle-laiid of
Kasteni Asia and the I'acitlc. Several moiiiitaiii-
ran^es issuing from those that surround it,
traverse its interior. Where tlie In-Shnn and the
l\hin;;-Khan meet, stands a lii^h summit, the
I'etslia, more tlian i(i,()(M( ft. above the sea-level,
iind from it u chain runs first SW. and then ,S.
'1(1(1 m., and terminates at the last ffreat liend of
the Iloaii^-ho. It isealled Kho-ihsin^-Shnii, and
thonK'h liiK'l'i 'I'"'-"* ""' '"''**' '" the snow-line. Near
;i 1° N. lat., two ranges branch ott" from the Yiin-
liiif;,, the IVliiifr (northern range) and the Ta|Ni-
ling, and tlicy continue na liigh raountnin-cliains
as far K. as 11 1° or 112° E. lonjj., when they sink
tlowii to hills. These ranges contain some snow-
eapjied summits towards the W., and are steep
and rugged. From the K. side of the table-land of
Yu-nan branches ott" another range, culled Nan-
ling (southern range), which constitutes the most
extensive mountain-system in China. It runs E.
as far as 11 (>° E. hmg., passing about 150 miles to
the N. of Canton; it then inclines to the NE., in
•which direction it continues with a slight bend to
the VV. to its tcrmiimticm on the sea, near the Imr-
Ixiur of Ningpo, o]>positc the ishuids of Chiisan.
Several summits of this range rise above the snow-
line, W. of 110° K. long., and here it extends also
to u considerable widtli. East of 110° E. long., no
snow-capp'id summits occur, though some rise to a
great elevatior, but everynvherc tlic descent of the
range is steep and rugged.
T'hc country lying lietween the Kho-thsing-
8han and the Ta])a-ling is full of high and exten-
sive mountain masses, and intersected by valhi^vs,
vhich are very narrow, excejjt two which are
tlraiued by the Wei-lio, a tributarj' of the Ilooiig-
lA
ho, niid bv the Knn-kiang, n brniich of VanK-ino.
kiniig, 'riii'se arc wide, and iitl'ord large triiru i;,r
a;;rii'ultiiral purposes. The large tract wliiiji ,'x
tciidn U'twcen the Taiin ling and the Nan Iiiik, j,
traNcrsed by many ridges of moiiiitains ami lijH,,
which mostly branch olf from the last-nieiitiiiiiiil
range, but these elevntiniis rise only ton inoiliriii'
height, and the gentle declivilies are iniwily ,.,,|.
tivalcd, Itesiiles, they are Heiiarated rrnin n,,,.
another by wry wide vallevs, wliich frenuenily nrc
intersi'cti'd by very extensive plains, thai i'\irv
where recompense the industry of the careful dii
liMitor. They arc, in fact, hardly inferior in 1,^
lility to the great Cliiiiese IMain.
This great plain occupies the NK. part of Cliijm,
extending in length 70(t m. from the tireal Wull.
N. of I'e-king, to the continence of the river..
Vang-tse-kiang Mini Kan-kiang, m-ar :io" \. Im.
its breadth is various. North of Il.'i'^ N., wIutc it
partly extends to the shon'sof the lloaiig-liiii.niKl
partly borders on the W. declivity of the Cliain;-
tiing mountains, a low riinge, occupying Ihepi'iiin.
siila of that name, the width of the plain vnrii'i
between l')0 and 2'»(( in. Hetweeli .■la^ainl :i|« N.
lat. the plain I'lilarges, and in the parallel of ihc
Iloang-ho it extends more than ilOO in. I'), aiul \V,
Farther S. it grows still wider, and reaches iiearlv
5110 in. inland, in the parallel of the iiioiilh uf ihV
river Yang-tse-kiang, This large plain, tluni^'li
the N. districts have mostly a sandy soil, and the
\',„ between the embouchures of the llniui^'-lin
and Vang-tse-kiang, are partly covered wjih
swamps, is, perhaps, the best cultivated and iiiii»i
populous piirlion of the glolie, producing almii-
dance of rice, cotton, wheat, and tobacco. It nm-
tains at least 210,000 hi[. m., so that it is ncvcii
limes as large as tlie most fertile plain of l'',urii|ii',
that in the north of the kingdom of Italy, known
as Lombardy. The internal cominiiuicalion cjf
this fertile tract is rendered easy by the (Ireal nr
Iniiierial Canal, which traverses it from S. to X,,
and whose length exceeds 500 m. in a strai^jlii
line, but iirolmiily its whole length is not lesstimii
700 m. ll is, also, traversed by the h)wer cmirKcs
of the two great rivers of China, (he lloaiig-lmaiiil
the Yang-tse-kiang, which How through it Inuii
W. to E. The Iloang-ho runs upwards of 2,(H)n.
and the Yang-tse-kiang more than 2,UUU ni., it'
their bends be taken into account.
4. ConntrifH lyinij to the Soitth of the Great
Table-hmdof Eastvm Asia. — 'I his region compriwn
the two peninsulas, which ak'c known in Eiirnpeliy
the name of India, within and without the(iuiip'!i,
The ])eninsnlu without the (ianges is travcrsiil
by four mountain-ranges, of which the three far-
thest oast are connected with, or branch oft'fmin,
the table-land of Yn-iian, the most Houtlimi ex-
tremity of the (Jreiit Table-land. The most east-
erly, which may be called the Anam range, be-
gins at 22° N. lat., and runs SE. till it approarlii's
the Chinese Sea, near 17° N. lat.; hence, fartliiT
south, it proceeds parallel to the shores of that H'li,
and terminates at Cape St. James ^10° 15'). This
range occupies about 100 m. in width ; its eleva-
tion has not been ascertained, but it seems to !«
considerable, though far from rising to the smw-
lino, except, perhaps, where it is connected with
the table-land of Yu-nan. Two other mmiiitaiii-
chaiiis branch off from the SW. side of the Mine
table-land, between 9.5° and 97° E. long., and nm
nearly due S., including the narrow valley of the
Thaluen river. The most westerly, which may be
called the liirmah range, terminates as a chain of
considerable elevation at the mouth of tlu'Tlin-
lucn river; the other, which nins to the E. of that
river, and may be (billed the Shan or Siain raii(re,
cunliuucs farther S., but gradually declining iu
ASIA
son
tiiik'ht •'" " (llMpi>onr* t'lUlrclv N, of the nuwi
i,irr>»v |Miri nf tlu' |M'iiiiiNiilii nl' Mitlii>'i'ii. ilic i'<ili
iiiiinol" Krnli (ll°:»o' N Int.); for ilir low momi
i;iiM«, wliii'li (Kviipy iIk' inlrriiir nl' tlif S. (Mirt nf
iliiit iM'iiiiiKulii, iiri'iiiil fiiiiiicciiMl with it.
Itt'twi'i-n lliv Aiiiini riiiiKi' nml tli« 4iiilf of
rniikiii licM n liir^i' i)lniii, tlini i>l' 'rmikiii, iiImiiiI
|iKi III. ill IciiKtIi hihI wiiilli: il i^ Ihm, it'vi'l, ami
, AirciiH'lv fiTlili'. I'^iiM'tiiillyii^ liiriiM ii luii U' irri-
.iilcil. ft i" HiirriiimtU'il mi ilic N.iiiiil W. Ity mtv
hriili' viillt'y*, iinil triivi'rxcdby llii' river Smin rii,
\<|iic'li riHCMiiii till' iul>lt' liiiiil iir Vii iiiiii, mill riiiiH
ill an KSK. «lirf<'(iiiii iirnlmlily iimri' tliiiii "on in.
Ilic |pliiiii "f"!'''"!*'" itTiniimitH Itciwi'tii l'.t° iiml
■.'iiJ N. lilt.! I'lirllirr S. till' (ifl'ni'ti* rriiiii tln' Aiium
niiitf'' "I'l""""''' '■''"*'' •'• ''"' "''"' '""' I''"*'" ""'^'
l,,iw('(ii lln'iii liir^jcr i>r Hiiiiillir viiIIivm, wliitli
loiiirniiiily lire wty Icriilr. .S.mili of ( ii|h' Avii-
rillii Hii'i'ii roukit (K'i'U|>y Hourly tin- wliok- of tin-
i.iiiiilry.
Tlu' N. jHirlion of tho country, oiTiipyiiin tlic
,■\ll■ll^'ivl< iriifti* wliicli Hcimriili- tin- .Vimiii riiiinc
irmii tlif Sliiui riiiim', oxIiiliiiH ncvcnil lii^li inoiiii-
iiilii riil^t'H, wliii'li incliidtt vnilcyi* ami xiirroiiml
iIcviiIimI plaiim. South of l(l<' N. lat., however,
|,iw (ilaiiiH eoUHtitutc the neiieral rhiiraeter of the
((Piiiitry i for 111011^)1 Ncveral rid^i's oceiir, they do
imt nwin to rise at any iiliieo uImivh the elevation
(if Iiiiii hilli*. TliONV low plaiiiH have a greater
iiliiimluiu'e of water than any other eoiiiitry of
A>iii. A eouHiderahle portion of their Hiirface is
(iivtTcd with iK'nnanent lakes: others are fonned
iliiriii); the rainv Heasoii, liy the iiiiimlatinn of the
imiiuTtms luiil lar^e rivers; and at that m'iisoii a
uTcnt |Hirtion of thu land is ehaiififed into iininense
fWimips. 'Ihwuf^h till! soil is very fertile, ami
yields very rit^h eroim of rice and every kind of
vinitiihles" cultivatPtl for food In'tween the troiiics,
livilixation is less advanced than either in Ciiiini
„t llinilostan; liccaiise its inhahilants liein^ iiii-
al)li' to turn this alaiiidance to their advunlaKc,
it wis as an incentive to idleness. Three lar^e
rivirs drain this country. The most easterly is
ihc Siii-f,'un, which nins aloii^j the Aiiain riin>;e,
mid lulls into the sea near t.'aiie 8t. .lames: its
iiplK'r course is entirely unknown, hut from its
t'v/y tiiwiirds it8 mouth it is supposed to run from
:m\ to tlttO m. Tho Mackhaim, or river of L'am-
IkhIjo, is called by the Chinese Lan-tsan-kiaiifx,
mid rises in the interior of the (Ireat Tahle-laiul,
w) tlmt its wliole course jirohalilv exceeds 2,0(Kt
111.: it falls into tho kch \V. of the mouth of the
Siii-j;iiii river. The third river is the Menam, or
river of .Siain, which ruiiH about 7UU m., and fulls
into the tiulf of Siuin.
Till! valley, in which the Thaliien runs, lictween
the mountnni-ranKes of Siain nnd Uirmah is nar-
row; it.s soil 18 stony, imd too much elevated to lie
irri),'ateil by the water of the river, which rushes
with t;rcat impetuosity down its contiiied bed,
desci'iuliiin from the (Jreat Table-land, where it is
called Loo-kiang, or N<Ki-kiuiig. Its whole course
liniliably exceeds 1,500 m.
The ])eiunsula of Malacca, which constitutes the
most southerly part of tho continent of Asia, and
tcmiiiiateH with the capes of Ihiros and Ifomanin,
lietwccn which the island anil town of Singapore
lire situuted, Ih coiincctcil with the mainlanil by
the isthmus of Krah (between 9° and 11° S, lat.J,
(ilxiiit loO m. long, and from 70 to HO m. wide.
It is low, and its soil is furmeil by alluvium. The
jicnir.siila itself contains a mountain-ridge in the
interior, which rises to 3,000 or 4,0t(0 ft., and is
mostly covered with thick wisid, but along the
shores extends a level coimtry, which in some
districts is very fertile, but mostly not very pro-
ductive.
The moMt westerly of the four moiintain-i'haiiis
which IraverHc the iHiiinsula beyoinl the tiiiiiui'^
from N. to ,S, neiirly in its whole li'ii^lh. In the
,\riii'iiii range, disidiiig Aracaii from the lliriiwiii
empire. It is not cnliiieited, like the otllirx, willl
the table-land of Vn nan, but with the lliiiiiilii>a
riuiKe. The lliiiialiiya inoiiiitiiiii'* are cniiHiilerrd
to tertllillMle at the soiiri'es of the Itfitlllliapoiilril,
(H7^ :W r.. long., and 'ii*^ N. hit.). The imoiiiiiiiiiM
which surround the upper course of that rixir are
i-alh'd the l.aiigtiiii nioiiiitaiii'i, iiinl many of their
Niitiimils rise above the Niiuw line ; the highest
of those which have been ineasiired, the Itiipha
itiHini, attaining lil,7l:l ft. iiliove the sea leNel:
the passes wliii'h lead over it do not wink below
ll.iMio It. Kroin these niouiitaiii'<, which rather
constitute a laruc mountain knot than a range, a
chain issues, riiiiniiig \V. pariillrl to the lliiuiilayii
range. That portion of tlie chain which is ininie-
diately connected with the l.anglaii inniiiiiuins in
called I'alkoi tiioiinlaiiis : it seems to he niiieh
lower, and more accesHible. Karilier \V. tliey are
called the Niiga nioiiiitiiins, wliiidi are still lower,
and extend to about !i:i° ilO' I'!, long,, where they
are siiccteded by the (iarrow Hills, which rarely
rise to more than ti,0()0 ft., and terminate opposite
the mountain ridges which surround the enornioiis
pinnacle of the i'haiiialari in the Uiniiilaya range,
Itetween this range and the Himalaya inoiiii-
taiiis extends the valley of Asam, or of "the llriih-
mapoiitra, one of the largest in Asia: its length
exceeds 100 m., and in width it varies between IIO
and i'))) ni. Its soil is very fertile, and the cliinatit
such as to bring to perfection nearly all produc-
tions cultivated between the tropics: but here also
the too great abundance of water retards the pro-
gress of agriculture and the increase of the popu-
lation, 'i he lirabm.'ipoutra runs more than oO<)
III. through the centre of this valley, and is here
joined by the lli-hong, which, under the nanie of
Siiinpii, or Varno-Zangbo-tsiii, flows through the
plains of Tibet, and has run a course of more than
1,000 m. belore it reaches the Itrahmapimlra.
Issuing from the valley of Asam, the Itrahma-
iioiitra runs 30t) m. farther through the plain of
Iteiigal.
The country wliich extends along the moun-
tain chains coiistitiiling the S. boundary of the
valley of Asam, and advances us far .S. lis 21° N.
lat., seems to be considerably elevated above the
sea, the iilaiii on which the town of Mooni|Kire is
built having an elevation of nearly 2,000 ft. Unt.
the plains ore commonly not of great extent, and
thu valleys are narrow, thoiigli thu mountains
which cover the gruater port of the surface do not
rise to a great elevation, A» fur as is known (for
the eastern portion of thw region has not been
visited bv Kuropeun travellers) these ranges run
S. and l)., and form right angles, or nearly so,
with the range from wliich they issue. One of
these ranges, extending along the meridian of 1)1°
K. huig., is called the Khiebuiula mountains, be-
tween Mmmipore and Katshar, but farther S., tho
Aracan mountains. This chain, whose length
rather exceeds 700 m., attains, towards thu S.,
only a mean elevation of about 3,000 ft. above
the level of the sea, though some of its summits
rise to 5,000 ft. and ujiwanls. Its mean width
may be 50 m. : it turminatea at C'ape Negrais.
Dctwecn the Aracan mountains and the Itinnah
range lies the greatest part of the Hirman empire.
A small portion of its surface consists of rich cul-
tivable lands; thusu lie in the wide valley of the.
Irawaddi, and in two large plains; one situated
between 22° and 23° N. lat., along the X. side of
thu great bend of that river, and the other butweeii
10° ttud 1«° N, lut, : tho latter comproliciula the
201
AH!A
hiTitr ili'ltn (if I ho Irnwmlill, niul tho ni^iirnit low
fimniry am fat K, nx llic llirmiih iiiniinrnliii), niiil
niii.v liiivc n mirriM'i' nf iii'urly KHi.tHMi iti|. in. Iliii
it* ntfriciihuri* itiini-rM from t'M'imi* of Mriii«r, 'I'lii*
ciiiiiiiry K. <if ilii> Iriiwitilili, niiil H. of iiM i^ri'iii
Im'IiiI, U It IijkIi ('<itiiiiry, from l,:iiNi lo J.inhi fi.
iiIhivo tlii< It'Vt'l of 'hit M'lt, whoN<> hilly Niirfiirr
Miilli'rM from wniil of wiiifr, lhi> noil \n-'um Hiituly
ntiil dry, 'I'lii* Iriiwiulill, whirh <lriiin<< thr lliniiiiii
i'iii|iiri>, riMVit ill ihiii imkiiown ri'f;ioii I''., of ihf
Laiit;liiii inoiiiilain-kiioi, ami riiii* ii|i\varilN of
l,'Jii)l III,, if iiM Im'IiiIh Im' tiikcii iiilo ar ml,
Arai'an, or Iht- country lyiii^ caNl of Ihf Araran
mouniaiiiM, In hilly, ami I'Vi'ii iiiiiiiiilainoM" in Iin
iiorlherii tlinlrii'lN, thr lalih' iiioimlaiii (iii'iir .'1°
N, lal,) rifting' lo H.IIKl ft. /ihovc llii> nnl; lillI iln
niiiliih' |iarlN an- oiM'tijiiicI hy the ralhiT wide val-
ley of the iiiiritiiiitf or Arai-an ri\i'r, ami ihif« \*
fo'tiiiinii'il farihi-r ^<. lo \\t° N, lai„ IhIii^ xt'iiaraiicl
from llii> Mca to the S, of the inoiiih of tlii' river
hy a rii|){<> of lirokni hillN, whirh riMt> to liriweni
Mi) ami 7lN) ft. The raiiiH ilnriiiK the Honih-wcnl
inoiiMooii iM'in^ cxlri'ini'ly hcitvv ami of loii^ ron-
tiniiiiiii'c, iiKririilliiru i» Uvtv iiIhii relurdiMl hy Ihc
uliiimiam't' of water,
IliiidiiHlan, or the (K'ninNiila within or on this
xide the (iaiif^i-M, Ih not eoiiiieeted either with Ihe
lultle-ltkiid of KaNt(>rn or thai of Weniern .Xnia,
iH'iiiK Heparaled from eaeh hy n wide plain, ex-
tending tirHl fruni the month of the (ian;(eN aioii^
Ihe Monlhern declivity of Ihe Himalaya raii^e to
the nhoreH of the river ImhiH, in a WNW, diree-
lioii, and thence aloii^ the inoiintain.H forming; Ihe
lioiimlary of the table-land of Iran, in a SS\V,
direction to the inoiilh of Ihe Indus, Thus this
plain haM the form of a rit;hl an^h' ; and is, on
account of ilH dill'erent cliaractcr in Ihe eiiMlurn
and wcHtern diHtrictt*, with proprii'ty divided into
the plain of the (laiiKeN and that of the Imlus,
'liie plain of the (■aiip'H may U' I'oinpared with
the ^reat plain of (Ihina, in respect of ferlilily mid
oxtetil, though not of poiinlalioii. IIh lenf;th is
ii|iwurdM of l,<IUO ill,, and iti* width varies hetweeii
I'JI) and t>5l) m. : it coverx an ana of more than
2IMI,II0U nq. in. From the month >>f the (ian^'es it
riscH imperceptihiy towards the NVV. ; hut, even
at a diHlanco of 200 in, from the sea, its surface is
not 1,000 ft. ahove it. The country lietween Ihe
W. nuMitli of the. Unni^cs, the lloo^hly, and that
of the l(rahma|ioutra, to a ilislancu ol nearly lou
m. from the sea, i» extremely low, and frequently
inundated hy hi);h tideH. It is called tlic Siinder-
hiinds, and is nearly uiiinhahitcd on uccoimt of its
nnhealthiiuws, lieiii); cuvcrcd with lar^o forest-
trees, and frequented hv ti^^crs and other heasis of
iirey. The country wfiicli lies N. of the Smider-
liuiids, to an extent of '200 m. and upwards, is
mihjeut to the animal inundations of the (ian^cs;
hy wImisc de{x>sit it is fertilised, ho ns to pve the
most nlmiulunt crops of rice. It is cultivated with
the greatest care, and nourishes a very numerous
])opnlatioii. N. of 26° N, hit. the aiumal inunda-
tions of the river cease; and where no artilicial
means arc cmph>ycd to effect an irrigation for the
culture of rice, the country produces wheat and
other grains, lint the natural ferlilitv of the soil
<lccren.HC8 as wo advance higher up the river. It
liuiuimcs more sandy, and N. of Dellii the tracts
ahiiig the rivers can only Ih) cultivated. At .'{0°
N. lat. it is a complete desert. Hetwcen this ]ilain
and the lowest range of the Ilinuilayn mountains
extends the Tariyann, a narrow strip of land from
12 to 20 m. wide, covered with immonse forests,
and frequcntcil hy a great luimhcr of elephants,
tigers and other animals. It is uiiinhahited on
account of its nnhealthincss, the suiface in the
rainy ucaiiuu being uuuvcitcd iutu ou iuiucui>e
Mnnh
Nwnmp; hut lielwrrn Novrmlirr and
may In> viviti'd withoiil dniig*''.
'Ihe river which drains thlH plain, Ihe Oauki,,,
riwii In Ihe hlKhent •ml miMi northerly rniit;i< „c
the liiiimlayn mounlaiiiK, iHirdcring on the tuM,.
land of the Hucreil lakes of Maiiaiwa, ItoMarrn, imi
of llrawan llrad. Its ncveral smiri'i'N unite U'lnr,'
it ixMucN from the moiininiim nl llnrdwar. It hihh,
iN'gins to chaiit^e Its W, into n H. and miuiIi <>ii.i
eriy I'oiirNc, in the latter direction It traviTH,^
ihe upjH'r iiarl of ihe plain, hut from its juMril,,!,
with the ,himna it runs l''„ tii ihc iieighrHiiirlnoi
of Iti^ainahal, where it again turns to the SK„nii.|
soon alter iM'gins to form its extensive delta, i||
viiliiig in a gnat luiinher of liranches, of wlii.li
the miml easterly luid piiiuipiil falls into the Ituv
of Itengal, a few iiiih's \V. of the month of i|,',.
ltrahnia|Hiiitra ; hut Ihe western mouth, callcil iIm<
lliHigldy, is in a straight line IHU m, distant In.m
it. All rivers descending I'riiiii the llimalayanh iiii-
lains, lietween 7H° anil W^ K. long., incrcaM- ji,
watifs, and most of them iiinudiiiiiig Ihe liiii,|.
I'oiiiiguoiis to their hanks during the r^iiny '-viiii.n.
ciiniriliute lo increase the fertility of the |j|aiii.
The course of Ihe (ianges exceeds I,;|00 ni.
The plain of the Indus is somewhat Icx^ in o\
tent, and greatly inferior in fertility. It cMiniU
in length alsiiit <iOO ni., and in width ,'liiii ai im
averikge, lis surface iiiav cover an area of Ihii.ikhi
si|. III, lis N, part is called th<! I'eiij-al> (cuuniry
ol live rivers), from heii 4 watered \i '\\i> 'ar.;,,
rivers, which afterwards Juiii Ihe Indus. '1 hix irmi
is I'oiiimoiily very fertile along Ihe walerciuirx,..,
anci there are evt'ii, U'tween the rivi-rs, diKiricu
whose soil recoin|M>nses the lahoiir of the Im.'-liiiihl.
man ; hut in general they have a light soil, wliiih
frequently passes into sleriU; sand or clay. Tlii't
description also ap|ilies for Ihe most part In tlic
tract of land which lies on Ihe right of tlic rivir,
helween it and Ihe ranges which «cparalc it rrmn
till! tahle-land of Iran, Ihit on tlu^ left of i|,,.
Indus extends an immense sandy desert, wliiili i 1
the N, is called Maroost'hali, or the (iniit DcMri.
and lo Ihe S, Thur, or Ihe Little Desert, It i\-
tends over Ihe tlelta of the Indus, and occupicH
lU'arly half Ihe whtdu plain. At it- hoiiiImtii i'n-
Iremily is the Kiinn, an extensi\c salt ini>m^-.
connected with Ihe (inlf of Ciitch. In the ilcscri
also occur smaller lakes and marshes, in wliii'!i
salt is produced. It is only inliahited in n tVx
places, where rocks ]irolrude through the miikI,
naviiig their surface covered with scanty gra».
The Indus, which drains this plain, has its r^mri'i'*
near those of Ihe (ianges ; descending throii;,'li tlu'
siiacioiis valley of Leh or Laduk ; it hreaks tlirimgh
tlie mountains at the north-western extrenilly d'
tho Himalaya range. Its whidc courMs umouiit'i
to upwards of 1,.500 m,
\V here the two plains of the Gang^ and Iiulm
meet, hi the |iarailel of Delhi, between 7ti° aii<l
77° K. htng., begin the mountainoll^ couiilrioi if
llindostan, which cxtciul to its most southern ex-
tremity, ('ai)e (Jomorin (near H° H. law."*. This im-
mense tract may be divided into luo triniitflcs,
connected at their bases at the Vindhya nunni-
tains, which cxten<l l»etwecn 22° mid 2iVo from tlic
Hay of Cambay, to the plain of the (Janges, X\V,
of (Calcutta. Tliis chain is of m<Hlerate eleviitimi,
its highest summits probably m-t exceeding :).()iiii
ft. above the sea, and the mos; frequented (il ih
mountain-passes, thatof Jaiim. only rising In llii's
ft. At its western cxtremitv , about iJO in, Irimi
the Hay of Cambay, it is coi iccted with aiicitluT
chain, the Aravulli range, woich lirst runs X,. iii
broken masses, uj) to the vicinity of 21° .N'. Int..
but farther N, forms a conl^imoiis range, riinnin;:
N^E. It dciiceudti westward, with a steep di-
ASIA
3nA
ivliy, tn Ihf ili>M'rt of MnnMwt'linli, nml prrvmeit
„. •I'lnil of lliiit ili'ilrirl Iroin i-ik'Mui'IiIiiij on ilit>
.riili' roiinirv Ivlii^^ fitrtlii'r K, lu iimtjiui' fir
, ,11,111 |iri>l>iil>lv iliM'M iioi <>M'i'i'il :i,oiM) II,, tliiiiiK'lt
.,1111' aiiiiiniiu ri^t' lii^lKT, mill ilii< AIhhi or AImkIii
ink (iH'twitii •.M'^Hiiil '.'.V), fvcii lo iiiori' tliiiii
..iiimMI. 'riii'Kii iwo rliiiiiiK, lliK Vitiilliyil liioiiii
iitiiiit mill llii' Arikviilli rikii^i' iiMlitiiir two hIiIch
,,l thiMiorllii'rii lriiin({li', mill t'roin llit'in llif country
;miliinlly lower*, iiniil ii iiiim>im llir (iliiln of ilii>
I'limix*'!*! '■*<>' f'^' '■'""I !'■*' Ii''>>il<'* of till' .liiniiiii.
i'Hiilit{iionN III llu< tnonnliiiiiN itri> Iwo lonNlili-rulilo
{lUiiin ; ilx^ iitlili'-laiiil of .Mitlwii, well known liy
lit i-xIciinIvo |iliiiiliitii>ni4 of o|iiiiiii, nkiru llit<
iioftliiTii ilcdivilv of llii> Vlmlliyii iiinniitiiinM for
;iIh>iiI Hihi III,, mill hiiK iin iivrrik^r liri'iidili of oil in.
Ni'iir till' iiioiiiilikinM ilN t'li'viilion In iH'lwci'n l,>«Ml
111,1 1,'HIII l>, iiliovc llii> Mi'ii-li'Vcl ; lull towiiriU llic
S, ii iiii|M'rt'i'|ilil(ly lowers lo lexn tliiin I.UOil ft.
I'll, iiklile-lmul ofMiiwar cxlemlH nloiik; llie Arii-
Milli rmi|.(is it iH lietwei'i) l'>0 mill IHO iii, loii^;,
irmii H. lo N'., nml from 70 lo loo in. wnle. ilx
I'li'vitlioii iKtiir till' iiioniitninM In iiltoiit '^,000 ft,
itlKKc tliii H«>n, I'lit on Itit citKtern iHinler It NJiikM lo
l.liKi ft. in fertility it in niiicli inferior to tlie
i,|iiiii of Miilwii ; it proiliieex illirereiit kimU of
,'min, liiit litlic rice. 'I'lie iriieU of coniilry wliiili
I'IMkritte lllexe plitillM Allil exteliil to tlic pluin of
ilid (iiuini'". 'I'kvii H very hrokeii Hiirfuee, wliieli on
iho K.. ill lIurriioiiltM', rim>H in Hteep mnl ni).'Ke<l
liill^i.liiil further NV., in Hiiiiilleeiiiiil, prenenlH iiiorti
i.-iitlii iifi'livitii'H, nml wider, m well an more fer-
iilf, viiiieyH. The riverH whieli ilniin tliene coiiii-
irii'Kfiill iiiloflieJiimna, ntriliiitiiryof ilieOmi^eM.
Tlie peiiiiiHiila of (injernt, lyinf( oppnNite the
iiHiiitli of tli(^ rivers Nerlimlila aiiil 'I'lipl v, \n nniteil
iiitlie ooiitinenl, of IliiuloHtan l>y nn i.sthiniiM more
ih^iii M m. loll);, between tlio Noiitheni part of the
N'kit nioriiKH ealleil the Itiiiin ami Ihe Hay of Cani-
liiiy. Till)* iNlhmiiH Ih ho low that, in Ihe rainy
M'.'i'iin, the waters of Imtli ^tnlfi* iiiiile ami con-
MTt Ihe peninsula into nn iNlnml. I'lii' iti.strietH
loiiiiniioiiH lo this isthmus, ns well as those lior-
iliTJiij; on till' jfiilfs of Canihay anil Ciileli, have
an iinilulatin^ surface, aiul contain extensive tracts
III Ttile ami well cnllivnteil laml. The lamls
iilmiH the western «'oiist are rather level, liiit their
Mirl'iioe is stony, covered with little earth, nml not
lirtile. The interior of the peninsnln, and all the
liUlrictM aloiij; the Nonthern coast, have? n very
liruki'ii surface, and are mostly covered with hare
pick!*, hilt contain a nnmherof fertile valleys. The
iiiiiiiutain.s in Ihe centre of the peninsnln attain a
luipilcrate elevation. The whole is well supplied
Willi niniiin^ water, except the iiorth-wi'stern ex-
irimitv, hilt is destitute of wood, except on the
liilN nliin^ the Houthern const.
(!iiiitij;iioiiH to the eastern extremity of tlio
Vinillivn mi)iintains, tint S. of them (hetween Hl°
imil h;1° K. loiiK., nml 2-2° nml •.';»° N. Int.), the
I'liiintry rises to a consideralile elevation, prohahly
111 iniiro than 5,000 ft. It is overtopped by nume-
nnm siimmits which rise 2,000 ft. hi;;lier. This
nifi^^od cmiiitry, which seems to constitute a mouii-
laiii-knot, from which ridges nml rivers run out in
nil (lirpclions, is calleil Omerknntiik. The most
wiiwiilerahlc of these rivers is the Xerlmddn, which
runs westv.-nrd in n deep valley, overhnn); on the
N, liy the steep accliviliea of "the Vindhya moiin-
laiiiM, mill iHunidod on the S. by another raii^e, the
S. Sautpoorn mountains. This vnlley, which is
wlilo, except nt its eastern extremity, nml of eon-
siilcrahle fertility, is considered ns the boundnry
line lictween Iliiidostnn Proper, lyiuK N., nml the
Hi'waii, cxtemUiif; S. to Cape ("omorin. The
lon(,'tli of the vnlley, and of the river, is about 1100
m. Siiuilar is tile valley hi which the Tai)ty
riinii aIiHik Ihe noiillieni decUviiy of iho Siiu(|HHirrt
mountains, parallel to the NtrbiidiU, liul llNcounMi
iliH's mil niiH'h exceed •IIHI m.
To till' S. and SI'!, of Uinerkiinlnk, JM'lweeii Ihn
lower part of the plain of the liaiiKes, and if fur S,
as the coiirxi'iif the river liiMlnvery, exieiuls a tract
of country whose elesiilinn alnive Ihe xea has not
been deierniim'd ; bill the coiiiparutively tow teni-
jH'raliire nf the air, mid the lieallhiiietHof the di-
niale, seem lo Indicate that it muKt Ui between
:i,IHK) mid I.OINI fl. Its surface is broken ; Ihe hills
rise to 'i.ooo ft. nbiise it, but they are separalid
from each other by wide valleys, and Iri'tpieiitly
bv plains of niiHlerale exlenl and indilTerent fen
lllily, except alnim the foot of the ridges, where
the soil coiiinionly is rich. The eastern Itorder
of this riiK^eil lalile land is formed by n chain of
nioiintains, which does not seem to rise consider-
ably above it, bill they are so steep as to Im' nhllost
impassable for lior-<e or wheeled carriages. Their
distance from the sen varies between )!o niid HO m.
On the nionntain-knoi of Onierkuiitnk rises tho
river Mahaniiildy, which traverses this broken
country in an KSK. direction tienrly in the iniddle.
It falls into the May of llen^nl, after n irse of
more than iiOO m,, and fonns nt ils nioiilii an ux -
tensive delta.
South of the month of the river Taiity, nml tienrly
in its pnrallel, rises siiddenlv from the plain a coii-
liiiuoiiHmouiitaln-rant{i' called l he tilmiits, extend-
ing Houthward as far ns the river I'mianv (1 1° S.
lat.), tliroii);h 10" of hit. In some parts ii is :I0 or
even to m, distant from the sen; In others it coii-
Htitntes its very shores. It ri'<«s abruptly with a
steep ascent from the lowcoast.and allainsa mean
elevation of from 1,000 to.^.OOOft.; but some of
its summits rise much higher. The highest por-
tion are the Neil^fherry hills (11° S. lat.), whiili
are more lliaii 11,000 ft.nbove Ihe sen; the l.ilian-
diimale (Ijo N. lat.) is above r>,riO)) ft. ; nml the
Snbramniii (12'^ llo') nbove .'i,|oo ft. In many
points, the raii^'e sinks down to less than '2,000 ft'.,
and over these ile|iressioiis lead the (//kim/x or moiiii-
tain-pnsses; whose name linn In^en truiisferred to
the rniiKe itself.
The narrow tract of country which inter\-eneH
between this ran;;c and the sea-coast is called Ma-
labar. It is mostly occupied by the short olVsets
of the (itiants, which preserve their chnracter of
steepness, but include small valleys which display
a viKoroiis ve^'ctalion. The narrow trnct of level
Iniiil nloiifr the sen. which seldom exceeds It m. in
width, mid is in ^renernl much less, is separated
from the sen by low downs; this t^ives them Ihe
ndvniitn^e of irri^'ation dnriiif; the rainy season.
The fresii water descending from tin; monntniim
has no vent, nml must therefore stnt;nnte until it
evn|K)rates : heiii'e these tracts produce much rice,
though their soil is |ioor,consistitr^ ehietty of sand.
The Neilf^herry hills constitute the S. exireinily
of the (ihniits, which are called the W. (ilinuts,
to distin;;uish them from nnothcr chain of moun-
tains called the V.. (ilianls. The Inst-menlioiieil
monntaiiiH be>;in on the Imiiks of the river Caverv
(I lO'iO' N. lat.), mid extend thence, first in n N K.
direction, ns fnr ns i;i° N. Int., where, op|iosite the
town of Mnilrns, they turn to the N., and con-
tinue so to the liniiks of the river I istnn (iienr 17°
N. Int.). Hetween this river nnd the tJodnvery nro
n raii({e of hills, which conneetH them with the
mountains which separate the Circarx from the
elevated country lyinj; fnrther W. The K. (ihnuls
«h) not form nn uniiiterni|)te(l chnin, bcinj; nt
several places broken hy the rivers which rise on
the v.. declivities of the W. Ghauts, and descend
to the Hay of Heiiiial. They also do not form one
ina>^s; but arc frciiiiently divided hi several ridges,
'.m
m
£
20fl
ASIA
l)y lonf^ituclinnl valleys. Tlipsp mniintHinfl do imi
ri.HO to (ho clpv'Uion (if the W. (iliiiiits; vot to I he
W, of MiiilrnH, liic Niillii Mnllii mniiiitiiiiiH ati.iiii
Jl,('"<» ft. mill more, mni fiirtlicr S. (iiour 12°) tin
iShi'rwiilmry nioiintniiiH t'im'. to l,!!.'!;! ft.
'riie cxtcnsivo eoniitrv enclosed between flie
two ridf^e.s of the (ilinntM is an elevnteil talile-lnnd.
Its Hnrfaec extends nearly in a l(>vel, which is
only hero and there hrolien l»y Hhort ridfjes or
^ronpH of hilLs risinfj a few Inniitred ft. ahove it.
Its elevation above the level of the sea, where it
is eontipions to the W. .(Jliants, varies between
'2,000 and .'(,000 ft,, and thus it may eontinnc to
the middle of the table-land ; but it siid<s in ap-
proacliinfr the K. <Thauts, where, in most places,
It has barely 1,000 ft, or less of elevation. Its
soil is rather fertile, and well adapted to the cul-
tnre of rice, where it can be irrij^ated, and where
not, it produces abundance of wheat and other
grain. The S. part is called the table-land of
Mysore, and the N. that of Ualajjliaut.
The Kastern (ihauts are at a distance of about
150 ra. from the sea, or coast of Coromandcl. The
surface of the intervening country extends mostly
in wide plains, which here and there are intcr-
sjicraed by hills of no ffr^at elevation. The soil is
dry, light, and sandy, but nevertheless it gives
rich crops wherever it is irrigated, which is ren-
dered easy by the great numlier of rivers descend-
ing from the Western Ghauts, or originating in
the Eastern Ghauts. The coast is low, sandy, and
without harbours, snrroiuidcd by shoals, and cx-
])oscd to a very heavy swell, which renders it ex-
tremely dangerous during the north-eastern mon-
soon. Three large rivers (iescend from the eastern
declivity of the Western Ghauts through the
table-land of Mysore and Balaghaut, to this coast,
and fall into the Bay of Bengal. The most
southerly is the Cavery, which nms about 450 m.
I'arther N. is the Kistna, or Krisha, and the
Godavery, the former flowing about 600, the latter
700 m. These rivers, though in many j)art8 very
valuable for irrigating thv- contiguous lands, are
only navigable in the low plain of the Carnatic. On
the table-land they in general have little water, and
where they break through the Eastern Cihauts,
they are broken by numerous rapids and cataracts.
On the parallel of the embouchure of the Cavery
river (1 1° N. lat.), the |)eninsula may be traversed
without passing any mountain. Here exists a
great depression in the Western Ghauts, called
the (iap of Coimbatore. The narrowest passage is
at the fortress of Animally (77° E. long.), where
the level low country between two mountain-
ranges presents a valley about 12 m. wide. The
elevation of the highest part of this gap is <mly
400 ft, above the sea-level. The whole country
in this district is covered with large forest-trees,
esjjecially with teak ; but during the rainy season
it is converted into a swamp.
To the S. of the Gap of Coimbatore the Giiauts
rise again with a very abrupt ascent : they attain
also a great elevation. The Permaid Peak, situ-
ated W. of Uindigul, nearly in the middle between
both seas, is 7,367 ft. above the sea-level, and
according to the statements of the natives, the
mountains farther W. rise to the snow-line. The
chain lies here farther from the sea, leaving a low
tract from 30 to 40 m. across between them, and
runs SSW. towards Capo Comorin, terminating
abruptly at a distance of about 20 Eng. m. from
the Cape with a huge mass of granite, 2,00(t ft.
high : a low rocky riilge extends to the Cape. The
mountains are here covered with thick forests.
The country W. of these Southern Ghauts is
throughout intersected by iiilets of the sea, which
often run for great length parallel to the coast,
receiving the various mountain streamn, and corn-
nuMiicating with the ocean by ditl'cnMit shnllnw
and narrow openings. Between ('ochin anil
• iluilon these lakes form a continual series, iM'In.r
united to one another bv short channels, niul
alfordiug an easy means ol communication. TIh^
low country, which extends for some miles inlaiul
from these lakes, has a good soil, an<l lit'iii<r
abundantly watered, gives. very rich crojis of ric?'
and other tropical jiroductions. Still more vi^'nr-
ous is the vegetation in the valleys which nrv
ench)sed by the offsets of the mountains, but thov
ar(! not cultivated with equal care. The low couiit
is here exposed to a continual and very hcuvv
swell from the ocean.
The jilain and nearly level country, which nn
the K, of the Southern (rhauts extends to mi
average width of between 70 an<l 80 m., is |)nrllv
covered with extensive forests and iiartly witii
cultivated (ields, yielding rich crops of rice: tlicir
irrigation is rendered ejwy bv the numerous snmll
rivers. Along the shores ol* the Gulf of Maiian,
and of the I'alk Strait are a great number of sfili
swamps and laginies, which mostly cotnmMiiiciitG
with one another. Jletwccn them and the sen
are sand downs, which in some places cxtpiid
to several miles across. The stagnating water
renders these places very unhealthy.
Deccan, being placed between two seas and tlip
conflict of the monsoons, is always cooled by soa
breezes. Its surface being formed by a series «(
terraces, and lying within the tropics, enjoys nil
the advantages of tropical countries, without par-
taking of their disadvantages. On the siiltr>-
coast the luxuriance of vegetation Ls displayed in
the cocoa-palm, the mango-tree, the cinnamon-
laurel, and the pine-ap])le; it thence passes
through forests of teak-trees to the table-land <ir
Mysore and of Balaghaut, and still higher, on tlie
co(d summit of the mountains, it offers the fniit-
trees and corn-fields of Europe, flax plantations,
and rich meadows.
5, T/ie JJindoc^-Coosk—The NW. extremity (if
the plain of the Indus is only abtnit 300 m. distant
from the plains drained by the Daria Amu, wliiih
form the southern districts of the level country
that extentls S. of the great depression, in whidi
the Caspian Sea and the Lake of Aral are placcil.
This tract, between the S. and N. plains, is occu-
pied by a mountain system, called the Hinddci-
Coosh, which, like an isthmus, connects the great
table-land of Eastern Asia with Iran, the most
easterly of the table-lands of Western Asia. The
whole tract is occupied by high and steep ranges.
running in every direction, but the principal of
them runs E. and W., and seems to be a prolonfja-
tiou of that high chain which is called on tlic
great table-land of Eastern Asia, the Kuen-liicn
range. Many summits in tliis range rise far be-
yond the line of congelation. One of them, tlie
Son Tchookesur, NE. of the town of Peshawer, is
at least 22,500 ft. high ; but that snow-cappeil
enonnous mass, which properly is called tlio
Hindoo-Coosh, seems to attain a much grejiter
elevation. The valleys of this mountain-rcffion
are but narrow, except that in which the river of
Caubul flows, which is of considerable brcartlli.
The mountains present mostly naked rocks on
their steep declivities, but afford pasture ground
where the slopes are more gentle.
Western Asia, or the countries lying west of the
plain of the Indus, the Hindoo-Coosh mountnins.
and the plains of Bokhara, is, like Eastern Asia.
an elevated table-land, but each differs con-
siderably from the other. Whilst in Eastern Asia
the table-land forms one m!i.ss, extending in all
directions, that of Western Asia has nearly in its
ARIA
207
miildln nnd in fho diroctinn of its p-rntost extent,
fruin HIC. to N\V., a deep (l('i>reMMiiin, wliicli at
ii,< Koiith-ejwlern oxln^nuty, wiicre it is occiipicd
liv tlic tiulf lit' IVrxia, varien between M) and
■jiH) m. in width, Imt fartlier to the N\V. extc'uds
iivrr tlie haMin of the river Kupliratt^N and tin; ad-
jart'iit denerl, m as to he from "idO to WMt in.
"iKTDHS. The wliolo lenjjth of this depreMsion, from
('ii|i(> Kas el Had (Sat), the soiith-eatitern pttint
lit' Aral)ia, to Hunikala, where tlie Knplirates issues
fruin the mountAins and enters the plain, <loes not
lull short of 1 ,500 in. in a straight line. On the
XI';, of this (ie)>ression is the table-land of Iran,
ihc mountain-region of Armenia, and the table-
land (if Asia Mhior; the latter ])roJects far beyond
till? depression. On the S\V. of it is tiie table-
land of Arabia, whieh latter is eonneeted with the
lalilc-land of Asia Minor, by the mountnin-range
iil'Sdristan (Syria), whose mountains separate the
niirth-western |)art of the lowlands from the
Mediterranean Sea. Besides, the '(ilv 'amis of
Western Asia do not rise to so higl. «>• el- •.- ion
as the southern portion of the table-lanii 01 East-
ern Asia: they attain only the heiglit of the
northern region, but being plaecd farther to the
S„ and nearer the sen, they enjoy a better climate
and are more adapted to agricultural purposes.
It is also to be (d)served that the table-lands of
Western Asia descend almost everywhere with a
sleep descent to the adjoining plains or seas, and
are iiDt surroiuided as those of I'^astern Asia on all
sides l)y lowlands.
ti. The Table-land of Iran (Persia) extends from
K. t() W. from the plain of the Indus to that of
ihe Euphrates, and from S. to N. from the (Julf of
I'ersia to tlie Deslit Kowar, or desert of Khiwa
(oK° X. lat.), and the southern shores of the (Caspian
Sen. Tiie interior of this great tract of country
extends in large and level plains, only in a few
pliiecs broken by rocky hills, mostly unconnected
witli one another. The elevation of these interior
districts seems rarely to exceed 6,000 ft. above the
sea-!evcl, and as rarely to descend to less than
li.OUO ft. These plains are bounded on every side
by a broad border of more elevated tracts, whose
siirrace is diversified by moinitain-ridges, valleys,
and some table-lands of moderate extent.
Tlie highest portion of this elevated border is at
the eastern boundary of the table-land, contiguous
to the plain of the Indus. From this jdaiii tlie
country rises in several steep ridges, running pa-
rallel to the plain, and including deep ami narrow
valleys. Thesi; mountains are called, S. of 2!)°,
lliila mountai is, and N. of this, Soliraan moiin-
laiiis. Adjacent to these parallel ridges, on the
west side, are several elevated |)lains of moderate
extent, especially the plains of Kelat (21)°), Kwella
t:llo), and (ihizni (33° and 34° N. lat.) : of whicli
the former is elevate<l between 7,000 and 8,000 ft.,
and the latter probably more than 9,000 ft. ; yet
tliey are cultivated, especially towanls the hills
that surround them, and the depressions of their
surface, which frequently descend some hundred
I'eet : the higher districts atford good pasture. All
these tracts are very cold, and covered by deep
snow during winter.
The southern border of the table-land of Iran,
extending from the plain of the Indus as far VV.
as the Strait of Orraus, does not rise to a great
elevation. From the sea, however, the mountains
rise rapidly, having onl^ a narrow low strip along
the shores, but their height probably does not ex-
ceed 2,000 ft. North of this ridge is a mostly level
plain, which, as it contains extensive plantations
of date-trees, cannot have a great elevation ; it is
othcr\vise sterile, and has few spots which can be
cultivated. Mortli of tliis plain is another much
more elevated chain, the WiishutCG monnlains,
which probably attain .''i.OdO ft. In this )iart tho
mountainous border of the table-land is hardly
120 m. across; but towards its western extremity
a moiiiitaiii-groiip ])rojecls northward (near fi()° 1',.
long,), the Siirhad nioiiiitains (cold mountains),
which seem to attain a higher elevation, but havo
several fertile valleys towards the K. From thin
mouiitain-group issues northward a rocky ridge,
which is narrow, and in general low, but h.^sa few
elevated summits. This ridge, advancing to the
northern border, divides the interior plain of Iran
in two ))arts, and forms the political boundary
between Afghanistan, or East Iran, and Persia, t»r
West Iran.
Hy far the greater part of the plain of East Iran
is occupied by a sandy desert, which, from the
VV^nsliutee mountains, extends northward to tlio
parallel of Ferrah, (iliirish, and Kandahar (from
27° to 32° 10' N. lat,), nearly 400 m,, and from i;.
to W. nearly the same distance. Its southern
part, the desert of Keloochistan, is covered with
line sand, which, when moved by the wind, rises
some feet above the solid surface. It is entirely
uninhabited. The northern portion, the desert of
Sigestan, or Seistan, has a few small oases, and
considerable tracts of fertile and cultivated ground
along the banks of the river llelmund, which rises
on tile western declivity of the llindoo-Coosh, and
runs about 500 miles. Half its course is through
the desert, and it loses itself in the Lake of Zareli,
al)out 120 m, long and 50 m. wide, but when swelled
by the melting of the snow in the more elevated
regions, it occupies a space more than double these
dimensions. Along the northern border of the
desert lies a country whose surface is partly hilly
and partly undulating, but its breadth is not con-
siderable, being between 50 and 80 m. across.
The northern Ixrnler of East Iran is formed by
an extensive table-land of very broken surface ;
the upiier part extends in wide level pliiins, but
they are frequently intersected with deep valleys.
This region, the Faropamisus of the ancients, has
been called by modern geographers the mountain-
region of the Eimaks, and Ilazarch, from the sa-
vage nations which inhabit it. It extends S. and
N. about 400 m,, and nearly double that extent
E. and W. The ground is cultivated only in the
narrow valleys, but the extensive pastures nourish
large herds of cattle an<l sbeei». On the N. it is
sejiarated from the plain of Bokhara by the Ila-
zareh mountains.
The interior plain of West Iran is of greater ex-,
tent, its length from the boundary of Afghanistan
to the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, N. of the
town of Kfisbin, exceeding considerably 500 m.,
whilst its mean width may be 400 m., but towards
the north-western extremity it narrows to 150 m.
and less. Its middle is occupied by a desert, called
the Salt Desert, its surface being impregnated Avith
nitre and other salts. Towards the boundary of
Afghanistan it may be 250 m. across, but farther
W. its width hardly exceeds 100 m. Its length
is 400 m,, or nearly so. It is entirely uninhabited.
Those portions of the plain which extend on both
sides the desert have a broken surface, but the
level ])lains are extensive, and the hills, though
sometime^s high, d(. not occupy a great space.
These districts, far from being infertile, are fre-
quently well cultivated and abound in pastures.
Ill many districts line fruits are raised plentifully :
but rocky plains also occur frequently.
The northern border of West Iran seems not to
exceed 100 or 120 m. in width. It is likewise
composed of ditterent ridges, which mostly run in
the direction of the table-land I'], and VV. Though
very rugged and steep, the mountains do not rise
^1
208
ASIA
to a Rrcnt olcvntion above the clcvatod plains lying
southward, before thcv arrive at tlie meridian of
.')(>° or 55°. From hence, westward, they rise
liiglier, but their width narrows to from til) to «()
ni. This more elevated part of the chain is culle<l
I lie KlburK mountains, and runs parallel to the
southern shores of the tJosjiian Sea, at an overa^je
• listance of 2(t m,, dcscendnif^ to it with a descent
which ia extremely rapid. It« offsets, which are
not less steep, though less elevated, fill up tlie
space between the principal range and the sea,
tvith the exception of a narrow stripe along iti'
shores. The valleys, though not very wide, are
very fertile.
The HW. motmtainous border of the plains of
AVcst Iran is still more distinctly marked. The
riountain-tract, alwut 80 or 'JO m. wide, extends
from the Strait* of Ormuz along the Gulf of Persia,
«n<l farther N. along the plain of the Euplirates,
to the place where the Tigris, breaking through
t)ie mountains, enters the low plains N. of the town
of IVIoHul. This mountain-tract consists of from
tlireo to seven ridges, running parallel to each
other, and se])aratcd by as many norrow longitu-
<iinal valleys, which sometimes are many days'
journey in length. They are seporated from the
Kca by n narrow low coast called the (Jurmsir (warm
region), and rise in the form of terraces towards
the interior. The valleys in the southern portion
of this region are cultivated, but N. of the parallel
of .H0° N. lat. they are inhabited by different tribes
of Kurds, who prefer a nomadic life and the rear-
ing of cattle. This northern range was anciently
called Zagros, but is now known under the general
name of mountains of Kurdistan.
The great commercial road which connects the
^ve8tern countries of Asia with India, traverses the
table-land of Iran. It runs between the deserts
jiiul the northern mountain border, through the
fertile and cultivated district between them, and
passes from the town of Tabriz in Azerbijan tlirough
Casbin to Teheran, and thence to Nishaboor, Me-
shed, and Herat. Thence it declines from its east-
cm direction to the S. to avoid the mountain region
of the Eiraak and Hazarch, and leads to Kanda-
har, where it passes over part of the table-land of
(ihizni to Caubul. It then follows the valley of
the river Cabid to Peshawer and Attock, where it
piusses the Indus, and traversing the Penj-ab, en-
ters the plains of the Ganges.
7. The Mountain-region of Armenia. — The most
northerly and narrow extremity of the interior
plain of Iran reaches to the vicinity of the river
Kizil Ozein, and N. of it extends a country filled
with mountain-masses, which rises higher and
higher as they proceed northward. East of Tabriz
is Moimt ScUevan, which attains an elevation of
12,000 or perhaps 13,000 ft. above the sea-level,
and other summits seem not to be much lower.
IJetween these mountains are numerous deep val-
leys, which are partly cultivated, but the inhabi-
tants mostly depend on their herds of cattle and
sheep for subsistence. A few plains lie embosomed
between the mountains: the most extensive are
those which are filled up by the Lakes Urmia and
Van. The former is 300 m. in circumference, and
its waters are salt, more salt than those of the sea,
but they are perfectly clear. The Lake of Van is
somewhat less in extent, and its waters are like-
wise salt, but not to such a degree. North-east of
the Lake of Van the mountain-region attains its
highest elevation in Mount Ararat, whose summit
is 17,230 ft. above the sea-level, and the country
which extends VV. of it to the sources of the river
Aros and the two upper branches of the Eu])hrates,
tlie Kara-su and Murad, has at least (),()00 ff. of
absolute elcvatiuu, as the town of Erzcroum is
5,r>00 ft. above the sca-lovel. Four mountain
ranges, rising from 4,000 to 6,000 ft, above thcjj
bases, run V„ and VV. between 3H° and 41° N. i^t
and the most northerly descejids to tlie Ulaek Sia
wilh great steepness, and so close to its shores that
no road can be made alu the coast E. of Treln-
zonil. Though the mountains occupy the greater
portion of its surface, the valleys along the lar™
rivers are so wide that they may be taken ttt
plains, being from 10 to 15 miles across. Tlicse
valleys, though cold, arc mostly very fertile, and
yield rich crops of com, whilst the declivities (,f
the mountains afford abun<lance of pasture. The
farthest south of the above-mentioned mountain-
ranges, that wl.ich, branching off from Mount
Ararat, contains thesor.rces of the Murad river or
eastern branch of the Euphrates, and which farther
W. is broken through by this river, after its two
upper branches have united, is to be considered aa
the con' inuation of Mount Taums, which traverses
Asia Minor. But it does not constitute the sduth-
eni boiuularj' of the mountain-region of jVrmcnia:
this is constituted by a much less elevated moun-
tain-ridge runnin;^ E. and W. between the rivers
Euphrates and Tigris, alxii
alMiut 370 20' N. lat., ami
on whose southern declivity the town of Mcrdin
IS built. After breaking through this range at
l{omkala, the Euphrates enters the plain; the
Tigris does the same N. of Mosul.
8. Natolia, Nadoli, or Asia Minor.—Thk ex-
tensive peninsula is to be considered as a westcni
coiitinuati(m of the mountain-region of Armenia.
It is nearly of the same breadth, and lies between
the same parallels (37° and 41°); but there is
doubtless some change in the direction of the
mountains where both regions border on each
other. From the Gulf of Iskenderoon, on the side
of the Mediterranean, to the town of Trebizond on
the Black Sea, the ranges run from SVV. to NK.,
as is also clearly indicated by the south-westcrii
course of the Euphrates between 39° and 36° N. lat.
These ranges are a prolongation of those of .So^
ristan, which continue southward in the same
direction. The middle part of this tract, Ixjtween
the towns of Sivas, Malatiah, and Cicsaria (Kai-
sariyyeh), forms a table-land of considerable ele-
vation; the winters are severe and snow falls
abundantly ; the summers are short and not warm.
Its suri'ace is a succession of levels, divided frmn
each other by ridges of low elevation ; the phiins
are fertile and produce rich crops of com. The
southern border of this table-land is Moimt Taurus
(near 38° N. lat.), which sends off some branches
to the Mediterranean, among which the Alma
mountains (Mons ^Vmanni), which enclose the
Gulf of Iskenderoon on the E., seem to attain the
highest elevation. A northern offset of the Taimis,
the All Tagh mountains, terminates near Cicsaria
with Momit Erjish, which is always covered with
snow, and probably rises to 12,000 ft. above the
sea-level.
From this eastern and much elevated '.jrder the
peninsula extends nearly 600 m. westward. Along
the Mediterranean as well as along the Black Sea,
it is traversed by ranges of mountains. That
which mils along "the Mediterranean constitutes a
continual range of elevated mountains, the SIoiis
Taurus of the ancients. The average distance of
the highest part of it from the sea may vary be-
tween 30 and 70 m. ; but the whole tract lying
between them is filled up by mountains of con-
siderable elevation. They attain the greatest ele-
vation on the broad peninsula between the Gulls
of Adalia and Makry (29° and 31° E. long.), where
Mount Taghtalu is 7,800 ft. high. But the moun-
tains farther inland are even in August covered
with snow for a fourth part of the way down their
ASIA
200
iir moiiiUain-
t. alxivc tlicir
luUloN.lut.,
I 111! black Sta
ilH short's tliat
it K, of Trel)i-
|)y the greater
long the lar(,'c
Im taken for
iicroH8. These
ary fertile, and
1) declivities (,f
pOMture. The
iictl mountain-
f from Mount
^lurad river, or
1 which farther
r, after itH two
e considered as
vhich traverses
tiite the 8011th-
:)n of Armenia :
devatcd moun-
vcen the rivers
20' N. lat., and
own of Mcrdin
I this range at
the plain; the
I'uor. — This ex-
ed as a western
on of Armenia.
nd lies hetwccii
) ; but there is
irection of the
lM)rder on each
'oon, on the side
of Trebizond on
)m S\V. to NE,,
e Bouth-wcsteni
»0and3(j°N.lat.
of those of .So-
l^d in the same
,9 tract, between
Cawaria (Kai-
:onsidcrable ek-
and snow fulls
rt and not warm,
lis, tlivided from
tioa ; the plains
s of com. Tlie
is Mount Taurun
some brandies
rhich the Alma
ich enclose the
em to attain the
et of the Taurus,
tes near Cicsaria
lya covered with
00 ft. above the
ivated '.order the
fvestward. Along
g the Black Sea,
lountaiiis. That
Ban constitutes a
iitains, the Mons
srage distance of
ea may vaiy be-
hole tract lying
Buntains of coii-
the greatest cle-
stween the Gulls
E. long.), where
But the nioiiu-
August covered
way down their
Hides, which indicates an elevation of at least
l.i,nOO ft. above the sca-levcl. Farther AV. the
rnnnntnins rapidly decease in hoi,dit, and are
only of moderate elevation where they terminate
on the shores of the vKgcan Sea, on both sides of
the (iiilf of Kos. The rocky masses of this chain
press so closely on the shore of the sea, that com-
mnnly only a narrow stripe of low or hilly surface
intervenes, except along the innermost part of
the titilf of Adalia, anrl along the N. shores of
that of Iskenderoou, where low plains of moderate
extent occur. In some places high mountains
innsfitutc the very shores of the sea for many
miles together.
Tiic mountains which occui along the Black
Sea do not form a continual range, being fre-
(piently broken by deep, and commonly open
valleys, by which several lar/;er or smaller rivers
tind their way to the sea. They therefore con-
lii'ute several sej)arated ranges, and have nei-
ther in ancient nor in modem times been de-
fignated bv a general name. The, several ridges
which lie between these valleys run E. and \V.,
parallel to each other, forming commonly a wider
mnuntain-border on the N. of the peninsula, than
the higher chain of the Taurus on the S. ; their
mean breadth may be 100 m. None of their sum-
mits pa'<s the snow-line; the highest which has
lieen measured is Damaun-Tagh, the Mons Olym-
pus of the ancients, SE. of Bnisn, more than 9,000
ft, (1 ve the sea-level. The wide and extensive
valleys which lie between the mountain-ranges of
this tract contain much cultivated land, which
Miinetiines extends, even on the gentle slopes of
the mountains themselves, whose higher parts are
used as pastures, whilst nearly the whole of Mount
Taurus is only available for the latter purjMse.
Tlie country which lies between these two
mountnin-districts. and the meridians of Cwsaria
(Do' 30') and Kutahiya (30° 20'), is, properly
speaking, a plain whose elevation has not been
iletermintd, but it does not seem to be much
alKJve or below 2,000 ft. above the sea. Its surface
is not every where level, but it exhibits extensive
Iwel plains, and the ranges of hills which occa-
sionally occur do not occupy much space, nor are
they commonly much elevated above their base.
The soil is dry, but not sandy ; and, along the
watercourses, or where water for irrigation can
he got, rather fertile ; but the tracts where no
water can be ])rocured are very extensive, and
»Tve in winter as pasture grounds to S'averal
nomadic trilies, who in summer retreat to Jlount
Taiims, or the high lands E. of Ciesaria : even
the fertile tract.s are not cuMivated, because
fxposcil to the continual robberies of these tribes.
The soil in the S. districts is strongly im-
pregnated with nitre and other salts, and hence in
these parts a considerable number of lakes occur
whose waters arc salt, and from which great quan-
tities of salt are prociu-ed. These lakes have, as
is eommoiily the case with salt-lakes, no outlet.
The most important of the riv^ers which drain this
talile-land is the Kizil-ermak, which rises at a
short distance E. of Sivar, and runs 200 m. west-
ward, and aftenvanls nearly 300 m. NE. and X.
It is the Halys of tlie ancients.
The table-land extends even W. of the me-
ridian of Kutahiya, but in these parts its surface
liegins to be broken in hills and dales. The hills
[ increase in height as they proceed westward, and
the valleys sink deeper, and become wider. Both
tlie hills and valleys continue to the shores of the
1 Agean Sea, indicated by the indented sea-coast,
^riiich consists of boldly projecting promontories
and deep bays between tlieiri, forming excellent
I liarlmiirs. This is by for the best portion of Asia
Vol I.
Minor, the cultivated land extending ove" the
valleys, and on the sides of the mountains, and
yielding rich crops of rice, cotton, and corn, whilst
the gardens produce many kinds of excellent fruits.
This region is also the most populous, aiul con-
tains probably more than half the population of
the peninsula.
S). Soriiitan or Syria, which unites the table-
land of Nadidi with that of Arabia, is a country
which ha.s a very jKiculiar physical constitution.
Two elevated ranges run from its northern ex-
tremity (37° N. lat.) through its whole lengtli.
and terminate on both sides the Gulf of Akaba
(2«o N. lat.), the farthest ea.st of the two gulfs
which the J{cd .Sea forms at its northern extre-
mity. But both mountain-ranges, with the inter-
vening valley and the adjacent shores of the
Mediterranean, occupy only a space trom fiO to
70 m. across. The most easterly of the two moiin-
tani-chains lowers considerably soon after having
branched off from the Alma Tagh ; and in the
parallel of Aleppo (30° 10' N. lat.) it sinks down
to hills of moderate elevation, nor does it rise
much higher until it reaches 37° 20', where it
rises to a considerable height, probably 5,000 ft.
and more : it is called Jebel Esshari, the Antili-
banus of the ancients. It preserves a considerable
elevation as far S. as 32° bii', where it lowers again,
but so<m widens in an extensive mountain-region,
railed El Kura which extends to 32° 10'. Hence
it continues as a rocky ridge of moderate elevation
on the eastern side of the Dead Sea, to its southeni
extremity E. of the Gulf of Akaba. The western
chain is much higher, at least in the northern
districts. As a high mountain-range, it skirts the
eastern sides of the Gulf of Iskenderoou, and at
some distance S. from it is broken by the river
Aazsy (Orontes), but S. of that river it again rises
to a considerable elevation. Its highest portion,
hoAvever, is between 34° 30' and .'13° 20' : this is
the famous Libanus of the ancients, its northern
and more elevated portion still retaining the name
of Jebel I.iban : but towards the S. it is called
Jebel el Dms, from its being inhabited by the
Druses. 'Ilie highest summits of the Jebel Libitu
are always covered with snow, and that which
bears the iiiime of Jebel Makmel (34° 12') attains
to 12,000 ft, above the sea. S. of 33° 20' the
mountains sink much lower, and these low ridges
continue to its southern extremity, on the rocky
]icninsida between the Gulfs of Akaba and Suez.
Near the most southerly point they terminate
with the stupendous and famous mountain-mass
of Mount Sniai, whose highest summit is pro-
bably more than 9,000 ft. above the sea.
The valley, which extends between the two
ranges, has nowhere a great width. N. of 32° X.
Int. it may vary between 8 and 20 m., but is much
wider N. of 34° N. lat. than between the two
ranges of the Libanus. From the southern ex-
tremity of the Dead Sea, to the Gulf of Akaba, it
is reduced to a narrow, rocky, and waterless cleft
in the mountains, jmibably not more than 1 m. or
IJ across. The northern and wider part of the
valley is w^atered by the river Aazsy (the Orontes
of the ancients) ; the middle and highest part,
lying between the two ranges of the Libanus, by
a small river, the Liettanie : this district is pro-
bably 2,000 ft. above the sea, S. of the Liettanie,
the valley is watered by the Jordan, which tra-
verses the Lake of Tiberias, and empties itself ui
the Dead Sea, after a course of about 100 m. The
Dead Sea, called by the Arabians Balir-el-Loot,
is aliout .50 m. long and nearly 15 m. broad where
widest ; it is remarkable for the asphalt or bitumen
fouiid on its shores, and for the remarkable events
and associations connected with its historv.
\ti
i J
J,-
;-(
fc;1
1:1
lilt sM
M
210
ASIA
Hcfwwn tlip wcHtnrn mounlnin-rniiKC and the
Hlioros of the Mcditcrraiipaii. iiro Hurni! cxtciinivc
liliiiiiH, S. of ;{;»°, where llii' coiiiilrv fur ninny
miles inlanil is low and sanily, lint willmnt liar-
litiurs. Helween il;i° and .'!'»° is the connlry (if the
aiKticnt riuenicians, lyiii(^ lietweeti the sea and
the, Lihanns. The wlioli' tract, fnmi the sea to
the nionntains is tilletl with hills, and. in ad-
vancing; to the shores, these hills form nnnierous
mnall harlionrs : the country further N. is of the
itaine (lescriplion.
The soul hern ]iart of the re;,'ion just deserihed is
nearly a desert. South of the Dead Sea the sur-
face istnosily nothing; lint hare rocks, destitute of
ve;;etahle ininildand water. It is therefore called
Arahia I'etrea, or Stony Arnhia. North of it is
I'alestine, wluiso plain towards the !Mediterraneau
is nearly a desert, on account of its sandy sinface;
lint lh(rhi;j,her |iortion, lu-lwcen this iilaiii and the
Jordan, is rather fertile, where cultivated. th;inj,di
sonic districts have a stony soil. The valley of
the Jordan is not distitiKuished hy fertility. The
Country west of the J.ihanus is ni<ire fertile, esjie-
cially aloiifi the raiif^'e, and in its small valleys,
and even on its dei'livities; hut on its side some
of the valleys are sterile, and the 1".. <leclivity of
Lihanns is ii naked rock. X<irth of I-ihaiius the
country improves; and is in p'ueral fertile, and
partly 'well cultivated. J'.ast of the mountain-
refjion is the Syrian desert, which heloiij^s to the
f^reat depression in the interior of Western Asia;
hut this desolated country does not advance to the
foot of the ranges: it is divided from them hy a
tract of most fertile eouutry, intermixed with
sandy sjxits. This tract may he ,W or (>() m.
across, hut it hecomcs niorc sandy and sterile in
ndvanciiif; further J'].
10. Aruhin is a tahlo-laiid of eonsiderahle ele-
vation, but wc are niiahle to determine the line
where it heffins to rise from the low jilain of the
Syrian desert. Prohably this line is a j^ood way
Sl of the caravan road leadiuf; from Damascus to
Bussorah, but not far fmm a line drawn from the
most northerly corner of the (iulf of Akaba to the
mouth of the Euphrates. Th(! table-land rises
abruptly on the other three sides, at a distance of
fromil toJOm. from the sea, exceiitahmp the north-
ern coast of the (Iulf of Persia, to which it descends
with a gentle declivity. The low narrow border,
with which the table-land is encompassed on all
sides, is called the 'I'ehama, and the table-land
itself Jsejd, or Nedjed. Tlie rocky and uneven
border, which divides the Nejd from the Tehama,
is mostly called Jebel (mountain), or Iledjaz.
The Nedjed is dividecl into two parts hy a rocky
ridge, which cuts the Trojiic Circle with an angle
of about 30°. It begins on the VV. near 22° N.
lat., and terminates near the (iulf of Persia, near
25°. This ridge, called Jebel Aared, divides the
table-land into two parts, of which the southern
is nearly a comidete desert, and scents almost un-
inhabited. North of the Jebel Aared, sand also
covers by far the greater part of the Xedjed, but
is in numerous places interspersed with rocky
tracts and some hilly grounds ; where, during the
rainy season, water collects and forms small
streams, by which these tracts become inhabit-
able, and even fit for the culture <if some kinds
of grain; especially dhourrah. a kind of millet.
There occur also extensive plantations of fruit-
trees, especially dates. The sandv desert which
separates these inhabitable s])ots is also covered,
after the rainy season, with grass and thjwcrs, and
the Bedouins, or wandering Arabs, liiid there all
the year round subsistence for their horses, camels,
and shce]>.
The Iledjaz, or rocky edge of tlie Nedjed, la
narrow. North of thn Tropic, where it (trohnlilv
never I'xceeds IT), or at the utmost 20 m., e>i('p|ii
in two or three places where it is contigiious to «
rocky district of the Nedjed. South <if the Tnnii,'
it considerably widens, and here its mean brcmltli
i.iav b(> about "lO in. : S. of !Mrkka the Telianm
and IledJM/ together extend more than 100 ni.
from the lied Sea. The Iledjaz resembles miicli
the rot'ky tracts enclose<l by the Nedjed, excopt
that water is mon^ abundant, and that therefurct ii
is better adapted to agriculture. In it are exten-
sive pliintalions of culfce.
The low plains of tluf Tehftma have a snmly
soil, which It is supposed has been deposlteil In-
the sea along the foot of the great moiintniii-
inass. by which the Hedjaz and Nedjed nro sii]>-
ported ; aiicl it is maintained that it is still in-
creasing in width. As it <loes not rain, freqiioiith,
for niiiny consecutive years, it (Miuld not he nilii-
vated but for the watercourses, which, duriii(; tlio
rainy season, descend from the adjacent llwlja/.
Irrigated by them, with the addition of mw
artiticial means, these sultry dry plains yield \im\
crojis of some kiiuls of grain, and are rich i:i
fruits, dates csjiecially.
II. The Plain of the Eiiphrateit romprisps tlu'
whole of the great depression in the iiiterinr (f
Western Asia, except that jiortion which is dc-
cnpied by the (iulf of Persia. Its northern Imim-
dary is formed by that range of mountains whicli.
on the W. of the Tigris, begins a little nimvi'
IMosul. aufl running westward near the tnwuit nf
^lerdiu and Orfa, terminates on the banks of tlii'
Euphrates, near I'umkola. On the VV. it i-i
bounded by the table-land of Iran, on the K. In-
the moiintaiii-rcgi<in of Syria, and on the S. In-
the northern declivity of the Nedjed. That ]iiir-
tioii of it which lies contigucais to the Nedjod ninl
Syria, u)) to the eastern banks of the Kiiphrntes,
is a com|ilete desert, mostly (covered with sand.
and subject to the pestiferous blast of the mmmti
or saiiiiel. It is, however, inhabited hy soiiii'
wandering tribes of Arabs ; and through it nm
the roads which lead from Aleppo and DnmaiiciK
to Bussorah. It is called the S\Tian Desert, h
spreads even beyond the Kuphrates to a coiisidpr-
able distance from the river in its middle course.
where its banks are hardly better inhabited than
the desert itself. In the northern districts of the
plain sand also prevails, but it is frequently inter-
spersed by extensive tracts of rocky ground: and
as these patches have commonly mould on tluni
they are cultivated and planted with trees. This
tract, through which I'uns the road from Aleiipi
to Bagdad, extends on the banks of the Tigris tn
the last-mentiolied place. South of Bagdad the
country between the two rivers is fertile, whoii
irrigated, which is done by water derived from the
rivers themselves, and from several canals; hiii
those tracts, which lie to the E. and W. of these
rivers, are only cultivated along their banks,
sandy deserts beginning at a short distance (rm
them. The two rivers, which wiiter this cnat
plain, the I'-uphrates and Tigris, rise nearly in
the same pnralhd, between :>H° ilO' and S'P Sn'
N. lat.. on the declivities of the same mountain-
range in Armenia; but the Euphrates, runnin,- j
first W., has already had a course of oOO ni. lictlir'
it arrives at the |)arallel of the sources nf tli ■
Tigris. It then by degrees tiinis SK., and i""- 1
tinues in that direction, ajiproaching graiiiniUy
nearer to that river, and unites with it nlH^i' |
100 m, from its mouth. The united river is calirl
the Sliat-el-Arab, and falls in the northern cxtrt-
mity of the Gulf of Persia.
12. Mount Cuurams, which at present is con-
sidered as the bouudary betwceu Asm. and liuroi i'. I
ASIA
211
re it iirolialily
'iO ni., ojicciit
ili(;u<>iiH tn II
of tlic Tmiii''
menu lirciulili
I the Tt'lmniii
thnti 10(1 m.
)<cinl)l('>* mu('l\
"JcMljcd. ('X('C|it
lat thrrt'fiirfiii
u it are cxteii-
hftve n snnily
n deposited liy
ent mnuntftin-
edjed lire »ii|i-
t it is still iii-
niii. frefiuently,
1(1 uiit lie ciilti-
lieli, (lurint: tlh>
IjjuTiit lledja/.
lilition '<( sdiiv
Inins yield nm.\
iiid arc rich in
s roinprisps tlio
I the interior (f
on wliieh is (ic-
s iiorllierii Imiin-
ioiiiitaiti.-< wliicl!.
s a little aliovi'
^ar the towns nl'
he liaiiUs of tlu'
II the W. it i-i
an, on the K. liy
111(1 on the S, I)y
•djed. 'rimt i«ir-
(1 the Xedjed nnd
of the Kuphmtes,
ivercd with siiiu),
nst of the simmin
lahited hy soitu'
I thron^h it nm
po and llaJTiiisciK
ijTian Desert, it
jtes to a coiisidor-
its middle ('ou^^
•r inhaliited tlwii
rn districts of tlic
frequently intfr-
oeky (icround; ami
mould on tliwii
with trees. This
road from Alciijn
.s of the Tigris t^i
ith of naRilud the
•s is fertile, when
;r derived from tlic
eral eaiials; liiii
and W. (if tlipw
onj; their tanks.
hort distance frciii
water this mf
ris, rise nc.irlv in
rto ao' and 3!I5 S"'
le same nioiiiitnin- 1
;iil)hrates, ruiiiiin^' |
•se of oOO ni. MiK
the sources (if tlu' 1
inis SIC, nnd O'li-
:oachin« gr,idiially
ites with it nl«iii' |
nited river is cnliil
the northern cxtti-
at jiroscnt is con-
ni ^Vsia and ^m'-
inft not conHtitute a part of the table-lands and
nKiiintain-re^ioiis of VVcstern Aula, beiiij; tiepa-
mtcd from the monntain-ma.siioH uf Armenia liy a
kind of vallev, about 10(( m. acroH."!. This valley
\i a level plain, where it approacrhca the CaNriian
Sea, aiul at a dintnuce of about 100 or 150 m. trom
it. Farther W. the surfaee of the valley is hilly,
intcnnixed with some undulating (dains of mode-
rate extent. It rises in higher Jiills, between 43°
and -14° E. Ion., where a ridge of low mountains
forms the watershed between the river Kur (the
Cyrus of the ancients), and the Kioni (the I'hasis
of the ancients^. The most westerly district of the
valley, which is watered by the Hioni, is almost
ontirtdy tilled with hills, the valleys and level
tracts occupying onlv a small part of its surface.
Mount Caucasus itself rises from this valley,
wth a rather steep descent, and forms a continual
mass of high rocks, running from ESE. to WNVV.,
from the shores of the peninsula of Absheron, on
the Caspian 8ea, to the small town of Aimpa on
the Black Sea, a distance hardly less than 700 m.
Its width does not exceed 120 m. where widest,
and hardly more than (!0 or 70 m. where nar-
rowest, 'f his mass of rocks covers 56,000 sq. m.,
or nearly the surface of England and Wales. Its
highest summit, Mount Ellirooz, or Elborus, at-
tains an elevation of 17,785 ft., and is situated
nearly in the centre of the range. The portion of
the range, which extends VV. of that high pin-
nacle, nowhere rises to the snow-line, Init several
snow-peaks occur to the E. of it, among which
Mount Kazbeck is 14,600 ft, high. Traces of
agriculture are met with in but few of its valleys,
tlic inhabitants living almost exclusively on the
produce of their Hock.s. This mountain-system is
remarkable for the great number of nations, be-
longing to different races, which uihabit its ele-
vated valleys. At both extremities of Mount
Caucasus are places where the soil is impregnated
with naphtha or bitumen, es])ecially in the penin-
sula of Abcharon.
13, The Islands of Asia. — Tho Aleutian islands,
which extend between the peninsula of Kamt-
ehatka and the peninsula of Alashka, in America,
as well as the Knrile islands, which lie S. of Cape
Lopatka, and terminate near the eastern shores of
Jesso, are of volcanic origin, and in some of them
are still found active volcanoes. Their soil is
mostly rocky, and dchtitute of wo(xl, but the most
southerly islands of the last-mentioned group are
cultivated on the lower grounds.
The large island, called Sakhalien, Tarakai or
Karafto, extending along the coast of Manchooria,
forms an enormous mass of rocks, which rise to-
wards its centre probably to the height of 3,000 or
4,000 ft., and perhaps even higher.
The islands of Japan, consisting of four large
( Ft'so, Niphon, Sitkokf, and Kioosioo) and a con-
siderable number of smaller ones, are also formed
by immense masses of rocks, which, especially on
Xiphon, rise above the snow-line. In most places
th( steep or gentle declivities of the rocks extend
to ttie very shores of the sea, but at others plains
of considerable extent extend between them.
Though the soil docs not seem to be distinguished
for fertility, it is rendered productive by the great
care with which it is everywhere cultivated ; corn-
fields extend on the slopes of the mountains to a
considerable elevation. In many districts the
murface consists of lava.
The island of Formosa, divided from the con-
tinent by a channel about 70 or 80 m. wide, ex-
tends from N. to S. more than 200 m. Its south-
cm extremity is a level, but not of great extent,
fur not far from it rises that mountain-range which
traverses the island in its whole length, and which
in its higher parts seems to attain nn elevation of
from 10,000 to 12,(KM) ft. alnivo the sea. Its val-
leys towards the western shores, and the small
level B|M)ts which occur along the sea are fertile
and well cultivated. The country E. of the range
is not known.
The island of Hainan, near the S. coast of China,
is sejiarated from the mainland by a strait hardly
more than 10 m. across. It extends from SVV. to
NE. more than 180 m. ; its average width is alMiul
100 m., or somewhat more. In its centre rises a
mountain-mass to a considerable height, from
which some lateral ridges branch off, but they do
not reach the shores, except in some ])arts on the
E. coast. Everywhere else a low flat coimtry
separates the mountain from the sea. The Hat
districts are either sandy, or covered with grass,
and without trees, like the savannah ; in some
places they are cultivated and fertile, aa are also
the valleys.
The extensive group of the Philippines, which
lies between 18° 30' and 5° 30' N. lat., comprises
more than 100 islands ; of which, however, most,
of the smaller ones are uninhabited. Most of them
are mountainous, and the smaller ones naked
rocks ; but the larger islands contain many plains
of considerable extent, and of a very fertile soil.
They are well watered — perhaps too much so :
some of them are volcanic.
The Sooloo islands, between Magindanao and
the eastern coast of Donieo, have a rocky and un-
even soil, but it is very fertile, being covered with
a thick vegetable mould. But the large Lsland of
Palawan, lying farther N., is a rocky mass, rising
in the middle to a high range, in which some
summits attain a great height. The rocks are
commonly bare ; in some parts the sides of the
mountains are covered with trees ; but agriculture
is confined to a few small spots on the coast.
Borneo, the largest of the Asiatic islands, and
not much inferior to France in extent, is nowhere
mountainous except in the peninsula which pro-
jects NE. from the main body of the island ; and
even there, as it apjKsars, the mountains do not
attain a great elevation. The remainder, which
comprises at least four-fifths of its whole siurface,
seems to be a plain, on which a few ridges occur
at great distances. This plain has an alluvial
soil, to a distiince of several miles from the shores,
and aftenvards the country rises graduallv, per-
haps 200 or 300 ft. The whole of this plain, as
far aa it is known, seems to possess great fertility;
and the want of culture v hich everywhere is
visible, is probably the cff^CbOf the too great abund-
ance of water, as the islrud is subject to continual
rains. All kinds of productions and fruits com-
monly met with betw^een the tropics, grow to
perfection.
The island of Celebes, divided from Borneo by
the straits of Macassar, is traversed by four ranges
of mountains, which, however, do not attain a
great elevation, except where the four mountain-
ranges and the four peninsulas, of which the island
consists, meet together ; in this part the moun-
tains are of considerable height. The surface of
the whole island is hilly or moimtainous, the flat
tracts along the coast being of small extent. Its
soil is rather sandy, and not distinguished by
fertility. Its produce in rice is not equal to the
consumption of the inhabitants ; but it produces
many tropical fruits, and sago in great abundance.
The Moluccas, lying \V. of Celebes, consist of
some hundred of smaller and larger islands, di-
vided in several groups between 6° N. lat. and
8° S. lat. They rise mostly with a steep ascent
fn)m the sea-shore, but rarely to a considerable
elevation. Many of them seem to owe their origui
v 2
' K^
m
I:
'ii;
--rm
V-V.
ill
21'2
ASIA
to volonnncB ; nnd on cinht, Bfill exist volcniiocH
in activity. Thi>ir noil, though inoxtly Hniidy nml
Htony, iM ifcrtilc, nnd |inrticulurly ada|ited for some
prtHltictionfi. Amixiynn has Inrgo plantatioiiH of
clovco, and thu llnnda K^otip fnmiHhoH miiHrnt
nutH and macr. The culture of rice and other
grain ia very limited, an the Hoil Heema not favour-
able to their fO'owth ; hut thiM want Ih HUppllud by
the extenxive plantationn of nago-trecs.
That sericH of mostly considernblc iAlnndfi wM('h
beginH on the K. with the i.-land of Timour and
tonninatCH on the W. with that of Uali, inciluding
tiie iHliuidH of Uofti, Sav(>o, nnd Snudelhowh,
which lie S. of the Heries, arc called bv geographers
the LeHser Suuda IhIuik/h, to distnigulNh them
from the grouj) of the Larqer Siinda Inlands,
eompriwng Itorneo, Celeben, .Java, and Sumatra.
'I"he Lesser Sunda Islands are mountainous ; nnd
In some of I hem the mountains rise to 8,000 or
)),0(I0 ft. above the sen, and probably higher.
Several of them nre active volcanoes, which fre-
quently bring destruction over the islands in which
tney are situated. We arc not well acquainted
with these islands, nor with the degree of fertility
they ])osse8s; but from the few indicntions we
hnve received, it may be inferred that, in general,
they are as far from being sterile, as from an
exuberant i>roductivencss. Many of the tropical
productions grow to ])erfcction.
Java, the most important of the islands of the
Indian Ocean, is properly a continuation of the
former series. It extends in length nearly 700 ra.,
but its brendth hardly exceeds 100 m., where
widest, A continuous chain of mountains nnis
through the island in its whole length, lowering
more rapidly towards the N. than the S., where
the coast is high and nearly innccessiblc. Some
summits of this chain rise to more than 12,000 or
13,000 ft. The highest are the Semeero and
Tagal. Most of these snmmits arc volcanoes,
cither extinct or still active, and their frequent
eruptions have in later times laid waste several
districts. The more fertile tracts lie along the
northern shores, which are low, and from which
a flat country extends several miles inland. Their
fertility is very great, and produces rich crops of
every kind of grain or roots cultivated between
the tropics. Hut part of these Hat lands are so
low and so badly drained, that they are converted
into swamps during the rainy seaaon. Some
tracts preserve their swampy soil all the year
round ; and hence arises the insalubrity of these
coastA.
Sumatra, only second to Borneo in extent, is
900 m. lon^ and from 160 to 230 m. wide. In ita
length it is traversed by a mountain-chain of
great elevation, several of its summits exceeding
12,000 ft, of elevation : Mount Ophir exceeds even
13,000 ft. Many of these summits are volcanoes,
but most of them appear to be extinct. The vol-
cano Gunong Dcmpo ismore than 11,000, those of
Ber Api and Barawi more than 12,000 ft. high.
The declivities of these mountains extend in
many places to the western shores, which there-
fore "afford several good harbours. The eastern
shores are flat and sandy, and the adjacent plains
extend in some places 100 to. and more inland.
Some tracts of these plains are swampy, and others
sterile and covered ^vith sand. Still a great part
of its surt'ace is fertile, and affords many valuable
productions. The western districts, being more
uneven and consequently better drained, are more
fertile and much more healthy. In the extensive
woods which cover the declivities of the moun-
tain, the camphor-tree is frequent, and yields the
best camphor. From the eastern shore extensive
shoals extend far into the Straits of Malacca, and
render the navigation tedious and difllcult. Frn^t
of this island, and townriL* its southern eMremity,
is the ishmd of Banca, famous for its inexhauittililu
mines of tin.
Cey/on, divided from the peninsula of the Deornn
by the Gulf t<f Manaar antl Pnlk Strait, is from S.
to N. 280 m. long, but its greatest breadth dm i
not exceed 140 m. In the niidille of the inland,
an<l towards its Houlhem extremity, on both hIiIcs
of 7° N. Int. is a niountain-mnss, which extondu
over nearly an eighth i)art. of its surface. Tlui
mean elevation of this mass mny exceed 1,000 ft.
above the sen, though some of its more elevntcil
valleys rise to nearly 4,000 ft. This mountiiin-
mnss is overtopjied by several high summits,
nmong which the Adain's Peak attains fi,liV2 fi.;
but I'edrotallagalla, the highest pinnacile, is 8.2h(I
ft. above the sea. This moimtnin-region is H»r-
rounded by a hilly country, to a distance of 10 dr
12 m. ancl more. Its mean elevation alM)vc tlio
sea varies from 400 to 1,000 ft. This hilly region
mny in some degree be saitl to extend to the very
shores of the sen in the S. districts ; f(ir the country
contiguous to the coast between Batticaloa. on the
E. coast, an<l Negumbo, on the Vf.j is not Icvd
and undulating, and the coast itself is rather lii(,'li.
The northern half of the island is a level plain.
and it is supposed that, even in the intennr, it
dues not rise above 300 ft. Its coast is everywlicn;
flat nnd sandy, and remarkable for the great num-
ber of lagunes with which it is skirted. Tiicso
lagunes increase in size during the rainy season,
so as to flow into one another, affording an inlaml
navigation for boats, in some places for 60 or 80 m.
Along the whole of the eastern coast, from Point
Pedro to Dondrah Head, and hence to Negumlxi,
the sea is deep, and may l)e navigated by vessels
of any burden ; hut the W. coast, N. of Negumlxi,
as far as Point Pedro, is surrounded by a shalluw
sca, in which only vessels of 100 tons can be used;
and the common vessels employed in this trailc
vnrj' between 25 nnd 50 tons. The fertility of tho
isln'nd is very grent ; snndy tracts indeed occnr,
but they are not extensive, and produce commonly
good crops, when irrigated. Swamps, which in
the other islands of the Indian Ocean, cover great
tracts of the low country, arc rare in Ceylon, and
of small extent. The islands and islets of tho
Philippine and Indian Archipelagoes are coni-
{(uted at 6,000. The Dutch possessions are calcu-
ated to have a population of 17,000,000; the
Spanish of 5,000,000 ; and the British of 250,000.
In 1860, the import and export trade of the Puteli
population was 14,747,414/.; of the Spanish
2,160,000 ; and the British, 16,430,152/.
II. Botany of Asia. — Temperature, soil, hu-
midity, and light are the principal agents in the
geographicnl distribution of plants. These ele-
ments exist under greater variety in Asia than
in any other region ; and hence the nmount and
diversity of jYsiatic vegetation are absolutely with-
out tt parallel. It is not alone the extent in l.ni.
of this vast continent, though stretching from the
equntor to the highest N. parallels ; it is not sim-
ply the different elevations of its surface, though
of these the greatest and least are respectively
27,000 ft. above and 110 ft. below the level of the
sea ; it is not even the abundance of winter in one
district, and its almost total absence in another.
which will or can account for this amount ami
diversity. Powerful as are these causes in influ-
encing the physical conditions of any region, niie
still more powerful exists in Asia ; viz., the ven-
iieculiar nnture of its conformntion. The ccntR'
18 a high table-land, varying from 6,000 to perhaps
15,000 ft. of elevation, bounded on every sidehy
high mountains, which effectually shut itoutfirum
ASIA
213
the non, nml on thn pxtorlor .'Aon of which tho
kinploiiiH of Anin iint nrrniiffoil in every variety of
iiii'linnlioii. T!ic (liirtTeiu'e of jwpert thim iiithireil,
Mill nioro than eitlier lat. or eU^vation, Nerves to
(livido tho whole continent into live f^rent Itolnnical
r.'i;ii)n8, wliieti, however Hiihjeot to Hnlxtivi^ion
aiiiiin); themmtlveM, are (liMtin^uiMhetl from each
iitliur by peetilinriticH an Ntrikin^ ax thoni^h tlie
Atliiiitii; or Paeilie rolled iM'tweeu them. N. from
tli(< ^^rent tuMc-land, the va.st t'otintry of Siboria
jldpes to tho Arctic Ocean, The inten»ity and
(liimtion of the cold in this dreary rcj^ion prevent
the tlirivinfj of any but the most hardy |)lnnts,
('X<'n|)t in tho 8. districts; where in addition to the
cirirts of hiwcr lat., vej^otation is protected by
nuiiuitain raii(;CH, which xcrcen it from the frec/.ln^
iiiirtli-eaHterly windH. The oak and lia/.el are {
fimml in Daoiiria, on the bonier of the country of
tho Manchocm ((.imelin, Flor. Si!)., i. M)) ; but
tlidr size is diminutive, their vegetation languid ;
nor are they met with in any other district X. of
il'o Altai mountains, (I'allaH. Flor. Uiiss., i. il.)
;. 'lo well watered lands of H. Siberia nboinid
in tliick forests, consisting of birch, willow, juui-
|icr, maple, ash, pino, alder, llr, larch, po|>lur, aspen,
,111(1 elm trees, ((imelin, i. loO-lSO, iii. loO;
I'iillfts, Flor. IJuss, ; and Voy. en Kuss., pass.) Of
I'ruits there are the Silvjrian cedar (Pinus veinl/ra),
the mit of which is an article of commerce ; two
(If three s|)ecies of raspberries, blacklwrries, and
(ithcr bramble fruit ; a species !)f cherry (Prumig
fruticoHus), from which is distilled a wine ; bil-
U'lTios, whortleberries, and the Siberian apricot,
(imelin (iii, 17il) j^ives a list of four species of
ciin-nuts; and I'alhw (Flor. Kusis,, i, 2(»-'i;{) one
of live si)ecies of pcjirs ; but the fruit of these is
valueless, with tlie exception of one species of
ciirruut, which is confined to the banks of the Ar-
pion, a tributary of the Saghalien, in tho SK.
I'linivr of Daouria. During the short but jHtwerful
summer, the Siberian soil is covered with tlower-
ini,' and aromatic plants in immense profusion,
((imelin and I'allas, passim. See also (Jeorgi's
I'liys. (ieog,, vol, iii.) Hut these, as well as the
tiiribcr, gradually diminish towards the N. ; till
above the (iOth parallel scarcely anything remains
but the hardy beech and a few of the more vigor-
(1U8 lichens and mosses, (.imelin remarks (Pre-
I'aoe, xliii.) that vegetation undergoes a marked
change E. of the Yenisei; and, as it is a well-
kiiuwu fact that tem[ieraturt>, decreases towards
the E., it is not surprising that this should be the
case; but the un|)roductive nature of the soil
sfctna to have been overrated ; for, in IW.'K), an
agricultural society was founded at St. I'eter and
St, Paul, in Karatchatka, from whose pa|)er (of
Xi>v. 20, 1830) it appears that the return of wheat
raised in that district was 13J for 1, of rye 21 for
1; and that the cultivation of buckwheat, Hima-
laya barley, and other grains had proved equally
suocessful. The potato, cabbage, onion, beetroot,
chieury, and melon hod also thriven ; and though
the cucumber had failed, its failure was owing not
to the impracticability of the soil, but to the bines
having been destroyed by rot.
The second botanical kingdom of Asia is con-
tained in the great central table-land itself. This
is unquestionably the highest and most extensive
plateau ui tho world, having for its bearers the
mountauis of Altai and Yablonoi to the N. ; the
Manchoorian mountains £. ; the Himalayas and
the mountains of China to the S. ; and on the W.
the Ueloi Tagh, the Elbiirz, and the Persian moun-
tains. Lying at a great though not equal eleva-
tion, bounded and intersected by lofty raomitain
ranges, and without a single natural outlet to the
uccaii, the climate, soil, hydrography, and general
physical feot'irw of thU vnut region (occttpying
more than two-lifthii of Asia) are all of a very
peculiar kind. The characteristics of the tlrst aro
dryness and coldness ; the second coiiHisIs of a dry
sand, sometimes broken by patches of verdure, at
others stri'tchiiig out into innncnse deserts, like
that of (idbi or Shamo ; and tb(> water system
consists of hikes witho>a outlets, the linal reci-
pients of many rivers, some of them of consider-
able length and magnilinle. Many of the streams
are, however, absorbed in the sandv soil. Wootl
of all kinds is extrenudy scarce in these high and
consequent Iv bleak regions ; so scarce that tho
nomadic iniiabitants use the dinig of their cattle
for fuel (L)u liable, iv, IK), and similar niate-ials
not uniVei|uentlv serve for tlu^ groundwork of their
gihled idols. (.Slarco Paulo, lilt. i. c. I!».) On tho
S. slopes of the table-land are found oaks, ns|)enH,
elms, ha/.els, and walnut trees ; but all, even on
the immediate contines of China, diminished to
mere shrubs; while on tho high lauds and_N.
sh)pes of tho same frontier the only wood consistH
of some wretched thorny brambles. (Lortl Ma-
cartney, ii. 2(((>.) This remarkable absentee of tim-
ber throughout so great an extent of country is
owing ))robably (even more than to the luiture of
the soil) to violent and cold tornadoes, which ari>
extremely frequent, esitocially during the summer.
(Carpin, cap. xvi. art. 1.) In the N. ))arts of Mon-
golia tho timber approaches in characler to that of
S. Siberia, but Ls still very nderior both in kind
and quantity. (Tunkouski, i. 44, ii. 2!)(», &c,)
Considering tho vast nmnber of beasts that tra-
verse these plains (sec Zoology), there niust lie,
notwithstanding the extensive deserts, a great
variety of grazing herbs and grasses ; but except
in the K, (Timkouski, ii, 22i)) agricidture is not
practised, and the vegetable food of man un-
known. The natives live exclusively on tlcsh and
milk (Carpin, c. xxvi. art. 4; Uubnu|uis, cup. v.;
M. Paulo, liv. i. cap. f>7, &c.) ; and when ques-
tioned as to why they so totally neglect the earth,
their reply is, "that Miod made herbs for beasts,
but the tfesh of beasts for men.' (Du liable, iv.
32.) Timkouski saw, in the N. parts of this re-
giim, red currants, peaches, hemp, and flax, all
growing wild (ii. 290), There is also here a verj'
remarkable fungus, called, from its resemblance to
the animal, the Tartar lamb ; and there can bo
little doubt but that tho flowering and anmiatiu
plants of this region are numerous and (peculiar.
The E. shipe of the table-land, comjirising tlu!
basin of the Saghalien (or Amoor) and other great
rivers which flow into the Pacilic Ocean, forms
the third great kingdom of Asiatic botany ; and
is, in every respect, strongly contrasted with its
immediate neighbour. Here are immense forests;
so extensive that it required nine days to traverse
one of them, and eo thick that it was necessary to
fell several tre&s in onler to take on observation of
the sun's meri(Uan. (L)u liable, iv. 7.) The cold
is very severe to as low a lat. as 43P ; and conse-
quently the trees are of the kind usually met with
in the more N. parallels of Europe. Of fruits,
this district possesses apples, pears, nuts, chest-
nuts, and filberts, all in great abundance ; and of
grain, wheat, oats, and millet are produced, to-
gether with a peculiar species, unknown in Europe,
ciiUcd mai-se-mi, partaking of the nature of both
wheat and rice. Kice itself Is grown, though iu
no great quantities ; and, in fact, from the little
that Ls known of this great region, it would aj)-
pear that there Is no large district of tho earth
bettor adapted for the residence of an agricultural
population. Its capabilities arc, however, wholly
Deglected by the Chinese government ; while tha
natives of the soil (the jSIunchoos), though they
1
il
^1
si
:'■ i.r, z
:! Ki
I
214
ASIA
<l» not, like the gnat mn|ority of flio MohkoIh,
utterly iit'^lort tlio piirMiiitN of htiHlMinilry, yet,
ill Ki'iicnil, tlii'y may U' (IpHcrilM'il iim n rm-o of
huntcn, ri'Hcinblintf HlmiiKly in )inl)itH ninl ninii-
norH tlio alN)riKinnt iiilinliiliintH of Ainrrica. Tlio
cotton Hhmb >{row(t Ihtc; liut owiiiK to tlui low
toiniH'ratuni (the Int. Im'Iiik rcincinluTid) it iIooh
not thrive wt'll. KHculrnt root« of vory miiny
ItindH, arc however, itU'iiliful; niul the ineiliiiniil
livrb Kinxen); In fuuiiil nowhere but in tliiH country
and N. Anierifii. Tht* CliineHO believe thiit plant
to be an infallible remedy for every (llHen«e, men-
tal and UMtilv ; and it in miuf^ht amid incredible
fatif^ieH and dan(;(>rH by particH who are marHlmlled
under ofticerH, atmoNt in the manner of an army.
iSomo partM of the itoil an; Hwaniny, and full of
wild dcHert marslieH; Imt Hand in almost unknown,
and, in general, the ({round Imvim a Htroni; rcHcm-
blaiice to the l)eNt partx of X, Kuro])e in the tbick-
nesH and vivid colouriiij; of its fjrnHWH, and the
variety of itH tloweriii^ plantj^. It in a eurionn
fact that the roscH, lilicM, and other tlowers of tlii.t
1>art of Asia excel (greatly thoHC of ICnrope in
lenuty, but are very delicuMit in |Miint of o<lonr.
The pincH and oaks tluit clothe the niountaiiiH arc
of fi^rent Hize, but iliminiHh rapidly aH tlu^y ap|iroacl)
the 8ca. (i)u liable, iv, f)-", Ac; La I'erouHc,
iii. I(i, 17, '21, 75, ^'c. ; MuUer, liot. Diet. iii. art.
Paimx.)
The three forepoinj; diHtrictn of Asia, though
very extenHivc, are each remarkably uniform in
their productions and general {>liyHicul appearance.
The variations in diflerent parts are chietiy of de-
gree, not of kind ; and whatever peculiarity of
vegetation marks ony one part of any region, ap-
pears to mark the whole, and to distinguish it from
both its adjoining neighbours. The case is <lif-
fcrent on the W. slope of the great table-land, the
fourth botanical kingdom of Asia. This region is
uniform as far W. as the deep depression of the
Caspian Sea, but lieyond this all becomes changed :
■ ..e face of the coimtry, the direction of the rivers,
the natural ])roductioiiH, everj'tbing constituting
the physical geograjjhy of a region, puts on a new
appearance ; ond the Caspian seems placed by the
hand of nature on the i)recise spot where it could
most decidedly mark the limits of two large dis-
tricts possessing few things in common. The
great plain of Tartary (the only true W. slope from
the table-land) is very jiroductivc in its E. ports;
that is, in the countries of i^okhan. liadakslmn,
and Bokhara. The description of Ebn Haukcl, an
Arab geographer, is particularly vivid. 'The
cultivated plains of Bokhara,' he says, 'extend
above IS farsang by 12 farsang; and the Soghd
(the Sogdiana of ancient geogra])hy) is for eight
<lays' journey full of gardens and orchards: corn
liclds and running streams, reser\'oira and foun-
tains, both on the right hand and the left.'
(Ouseleye's Trans., 237.) Corn of all kinds aixl
rice are here very prolific ; so much so, that, ac-
cording to Hadgi Khalfa, a field of one or two
dunen (acres) is amply suflicient to support a
family. (UTlerbelot, 207.) Of fruit, grapes, melons,
pears, apples, figs, &c., grow to such perfection,
and in such abundance, tliat they are exported to
Persia, and even to the more fertile region of llin-
dostan. The pasture grounds are also extremely
luxuriant ; but it may be gathered that timber is
scarce, and the whole country deteriorotes os it re-
cedes W. and N. The soil of the Kirghiz country
N. of the Sihon is chiefly of a saline character ;
but the {)asturage must still be good, since im-
mense numbers of animals, wihl and domestic, are
fed in the extensive steppes. Trees of the hardier
kinds, larch, beeeh, and firs, appear also on the
banks of the rivers. (Pallas, i. 018, 030, &c.) In
Jonmcying W, the rountr>' for n time cxhibitx tho
extremes of richnesM and tlcMdation (lliirin'ii
i. ICI.'i); the former, however, gradually dimini<<|^
ing till the whole soil iM'conu's a wretched nii|iri>-
(biclive sand, except in the immediate neighlHiiir-
hiHMl of rivers. (Iturnes, ii. 1, 10, Hi, 41!, ht\)
There is not, iM>rlui|)s, in the world a more Micrilc
district than tliat iM'tween the Aral and Cnxiiiun
iSeas. In the countries W. of the latter, a HirniiKo
contrast is pM-sented : on the X. Hlo|>es of the ('„„,
casus, indee<l, a constantly deteriorating coiintrv
terminateH at last in the wretched waste of .vi.
trakhan; but even here corn fields and rich jmn-
ture grounds dispute the soil with the taninri<k,
the camel's thorn, the absynthiiun, and oiIut
desert plants : while on the K., \V., and S., ijc-
clivitiesofthe same mountains, magnili(u>nt fnresu
of cedars, cvpresses, savins, red junipers, Ijeeclu'^,
oaks, lire, flourish in great luxuriance; while uf
fruit, the soil boasts thi! ulmoiul, fig, peach, qiiiiu't',
apricot, |H>ar, date, injulio, olive; and of Itowi'r*,
the rlKHltxIendron, tjhrist's thorn, ])onticiun, iisnlia
pontica, laurel, seringa, jessamine, lily, CaiiciLsiim
rose, and a whole host of others. The bread cdnn
and the most useful roots are also produced in innnt
parts of this mountainous country, ((iuldenstnili,
Com. Petrop. xx. 10, '135, 483, itc. ; PallnH, ditto,
1779, ii. 274.) With regard to Asia Minor, Meso-
potamia, and Syria, it is im[iossible to give wiiliin
any rcasoiud>lc limits the slightest sketch ol'tiu'lr
inimerous productions; though the two lust Im-
])artially desert, and their deserts be of the iiiosi
sterile character, yet their fertile spots are scarcclv
iid'erior to any oil the earth's surface. Iticv anil
barley yield u return of ahundred-foUl; the cotton
shrub tlourishes ; and indigo, sugar, and tobacco nru
among the useful productions. Lemons, oran^'cs,
tamarinds, apricots, dates, and gra|)es, are a very
few among tlie fruits of these regions; which pro-
duce in great abinidancc also nearly all the escii-
lent roots, indscs, and grains. Wood is extremely
scarce in Mesopotamia (the date palm is the only
tree known there) ; but in Svria the ninjpstio
cedar of Lebanon maintains the fame wliieli it
acquired in the days of Jewish greatness ; wliilo
majestic oaks, cyi)resses, planes, sycamores, savins,
olives, mulberry trees, pistaidiios, jiuiipers, ami tin
trees clothe the sides of the Anatolian and Syrian
mount^iins, and spread their arms over plains
where flourish almost every species of fiowerinf;
roots and shrubs. Among the oaks of Asia Minor
is the Querciia infectoria, the gall of which is an
important article in dyeing. The pistachio Is
rarely found beyond the neighl)ourhood of Aleppo.
(Volney, ii. jjasaim ; Nicbuhr, Voy. en Ar. il iat),
&c.; Olivier, iv. 2G. 134, 197, &c. ; Leake, /wsjim,
also in Walpole, ii. 202, &c. ; Belon, 7i), l(i5,
1G(!, A-c.)
The fifth kingdom of Asiatic botany remains to
be noticed. It comprises the S. slojie of the central
plateau, and contains the three great pcninsnloii uf
Arabia, India, and Malaya, together with the ex-
tensive territory of Chi la proper, and the S. slum
of Persia and Beloochistan. The W. part of this
region is badly watered (see Auabia, L.vhistax,
Beiawciiistan) ; and consequently consists ehicHy
of deserts, or of pasture grounds depending on rain
for their fertility. The vicinities of the few and
small rivers, are, however, even here crowded with
vegctatiim ; and from the Indus eastward (wlierc
the hydrography is on a scale of the must profuse
luxuriance) a district is comprised unequalled fur
the abundance and variety of its productions by
any other part of the world. Nearly every plant
of the E. continent is indigenous, or can be raiswl
in some part of S. Asia. Tne following is an im-
perfect list of the trees alone ; and these are not,
lianilioa
llirrli
riit'stniit
l'>pri»ii
Alniniid
A|.|.l.«
Aliricut
lllUIUIIIl
lliiiiyail
iiitriioiilii
nu\\i\ Ki'uit
t'luliuw
)tany remains to
)|>e of tlie central
•eati)eiiiiisiila.suf
»er witti the ex-
and the S. shore
W. part of this
IBIA, LaUISTAN,
ly consists chictjy
;epcndin(5 on rain
of the few and
icrc crowded with
eastward (where
the most profuse
cd unequalled for
1 productions by
;arly every plant
. or can be raised
llowint; is an im-
nd these are not,
lii^onornl, ronlliiod to pnrtimtlnr liN-nlitio*, hut, in
iii.Ht cases, Hprcail over the wlioUi rcj?iou : —
ASIA aift
With ro^'anl to thn nutnlxr of hijocIoh In encli
FoUKtrr TllKKM.
llanilKKi
llirrli
CMi'Mtniit
Cjliasit
Aliio«
Urfln-wood
Aliiimiil
Ari'l"
Apri.'iit
lliiiuina
11,111 viiu
llctcl
IllKiionlii
llri'iiil fruit
ttt.sllc\V
Fir
liiiri'li
Muii»rn>vo
Mjrilii
Oak
I'llWu
I'liiit
I'llllUlliu
IIAUI) WiHiim,
KlK)ny
Irou-wood
l.iiii;i>ii
Iloai'-wiiod
I'oniui
Poplar
T.uk
Willow
Huuilul-wuoU
Citrou
Coroii
('iilVfO
Diktc
iMinon
(liiaiiii
Uiiiiva
FUIMTH.
•turn 1 11)1 1
l.rllliill
l.illKi
Muii»{OHtuin
Jliillu'rry
Olivi-
Oriiiirfn
I'miiluiiiM
I'ciU'll
I'rur
I'luin
Pniiii'Ki'anatD
hllii'liliu'k
Tiiiiiuriiul
Villi!
Walnut
Ciuuiilinr
CaHsia
Sl'K'K TuKm,
Ciiiiiivmuu
t'lovu
Miii'ii
Niuiiu'i'
Many of those trce.«tyi('lil >;uni»,reHinH, odoriferous
liliissiin'is, or art' otherwise ii.sehil hcyoiul I he p'uc-
mliiy of llii'ir class. There art; also several species
HliiJli cannot ho. conveniently cla.sscil ninter either
i.l'the lour forcj;oin;; heads; as the chain, laka, nia-
liir, and tanjaiifi, liower-hearinj^ trce.s; the toiiki,
Iroin the hark of which the A.sialics niainil'aeturc a
lin|K'r; the liian^;, which yields a ricli red dye ; the
lalliiw tree, whit^h exudes an unctuous matter,
wliciu'c its niliue ; the upas, the most deailly of
vi');('talile )iiiisons ; the cotton tree, luul aliovc all
the tea plant.
The other kinds of vegetation are not less ahiin-
daiit. lirain of every kind, incliuliiig '.'T species
(il'rico, and some varieties of dhoiirrah aiid barley,
siancly known in other regions, is ^rown with
lillh' laliolir to tlu; cultivator, the richness of the
lartli ill many |)laccs prechidiii); the lu-ccssity and
(Veil the possihiliiy ol' usinij; manure, though two
rnijis arc produced ininiuilly. 'I'he le;^'uininous
plants i:iiw coimnon in Kiirope came, in most iii-
siaiurs, originally from S.Asia; hut, in luhlitioii
III the peas, heans, lentils, Ac, there are here a
whiilc host which liavc never fouiul their way W.,
as the lotus, moong, nnirhns, tai.na, tour, toll, il'c.
(See India, (.'iiina, Ac.) A root calhul katchill
Mijiplies the place of tlic American potato ; hut
iliis last root, as well as the ytuii, is ahmuhuitly
cultivated, especially in China ami the K. penin-
sula <if India. This is also the native home of the
nrriiw-root, j^alanga, jala|>, sarstiptirilla, datura,
anise, opium, ami other drugs. The tiehls ahouiul
in tiax, hemp, tobacco (tiut latter is a native
jilaiit, aciMirdiug to l.ionl Alacartiiey, ii. 171), to-
gether with flowers of every kind ami <lye, though
11 is remarkable that those of powerful scent are
loiiliiied to the N. parts. The liiie rose tliar, yiidds
tlie altar is rarely fouml S. of '2^°, and is ehiclly
liuiitcd to the plaius of the Upper (iaiigcs and
I'mijauh. (SecLuciiNow and Ca.hiimi;ii1';.) Dye
idaiiis are very nutneriiiis; the sugar cane grows
luxuriaiilly; and among the nnineroiis strongly
(Khirileruus gums, attempts have been made to
iilentiiy the spikenard, bdellium, nial.abathrum,
se|iaelira, and other precious ointments of the aii-
eient.s, but witlunit much success. (i>u ilaUh>, i.
14, in:, ii. 1)1, itc, Lord Macartney, ii. -i'.i, Iti^,
ic; tJrawford, Kmb. to Siam, passim; UusseU's
hit, to Itox burgh's I'lanta of Ooromandel, I — (!t>;
I'liilavsoii's Mi.ssion to Siam, passim ; Asiatic lle-
suarches, and Journal of Asial. tioc. IJeiig. pashim.)
imDor 01 HiK
onlerof plants. It is toU* remarked tliat lIundMihlt
gives IheCryptogamaMis l-l.'ith of the whole vege-
tation fur cipiluoxiat plains; as 1-.'ith for I'ljiii-
iioxlal mountains; as ^ (on an average) for ttio
regions o| the temperate /laic ; and as the naif
\egetation of mouutains in polar lands. The same
authority gives the Monucntyledoiis (of the old
I tineiit) as l-'ith fur the torrid, l-lth fur tho
Icmperale, and l-'lnl (on an average) fur the frigid
/.une. (Diet, dcs Sri. Nat., xviii. l:>i'i.) Hetaii-
dulle, fultiiwiiig I'er.-ooii, makis the proporiiuiis
siimcwhat dill'crciit; namely (fur the whole world),
Cryp. l-)>tli, Moiiuc. l-i;tli, l>ico. Il'itlis, uf llio
whole vegetation. (Idem. ;t',<."i.) Frulil tlu'se data,
and the viirioiis autliurilies cited lliruiigliuut this
article, the lulluwiiig MpproximntiveTiilpleuf .Vsia-
tic ilulaiiy is dedliceil. Hut it is lieccssuy to
observe that the ali.*uliile numbiT of known species
is very uiicerlain. In Ihiiti, there were bin ■JT.onU;
llrown's splendid addition of An^tniliaii plants in-
creased the ainuiml by nearly l-litii, ami since that
time discovery has been rapidly at work. It may,
however, be doubted wbetlur the very love of
science has not betrayed some of its fulluwcrs >•
too nice distinctions, |)e CiiMdulle thinks tiial
rersoiin's 'J7,()l)0 spci'ics should be increased to
I'lii.iMHi, ami that the mmiber of plants yet unknown
or nnclassilied would swell the list to 1 |(1,(MM) or
1-'(I,1MII(. (Kict. Sci, Nat., wiii, IJd.) Mndlcy is
more moderate; he makes the gross miinber of
species Mll.tlltO. (Intro, to Itolaiiy, odl.) That,
a.ssigncd in the table (M,iail)), is fnuii liumboldi's
data.
Orilcri
Wholo
N... of
kiliiMii
ulircica
0,000
(:,!I0!)
.11 .01(1
41,000
Wlifii-
Nil. iir
known
AhIiiiIc
H|iri-li*«
No. of
ii|tt('li-«f-om-
liiiiii to AhU
mill olliir
n-Kioiii
No. of
^|i' fim
|tiiMl.i.tr
to A<lu
0:J7
1,075
l.S«l
Cryptoftnnioiis
Miiiux'utyle-
lIullKIIS
Dicotyhilo-
nous .
Total .
i.8;)7
l,!».-.0
4,0.'«0
ono
87.'i
'.Mfin
7,H!I7
:i,!)4t
3,8!»a
HI. /tiKLooY OF Asia. — Asia is tho native
home of all the more useful species of animals ;
with the exception, perhaps, tif the sheep. From
some tlistrict or other of this continent came, ori-
ginally, the ox, hor.se, camel, goal, ass. together
with the whole raci^ of thunestic poultry; except
the turkey, which is a tlenizen of the New (!onti-
nent. Utility may, intU-oil, be regarded as the
leailing characteristic of Asiatic Zoology ; for
thougit its carnivorous mammalia he tmmerous as
ctanpared with the wlude iiiindter of species, the
majority are not nu>rely harmless to man, but in a
considerable degree u.sefiil to him, consisiing of
several kinds of seals, ami the fur-bearing (piadrii-
peds of the north. Ilirds of jirey are reinarkablv
scarce, when the great extent of mountain land is
taken into consitU'ration ; ami of those existences
which have little but pecidiar or ainimalous fur-
matitm to distinguish theni Asia is till buttlesti-
tuie. I'he truth tif tlie.se remarks will be at oiicu
evident from the following Tables, coiistmctcil,
with as much care as jxi.ssihle, from ("uvier's liegiie
Aninutl ; Shaw's /oology; Pennant's Hist, of
(iuad., Uoneraof Uirds. Arctic Zoology, and View
of IliiuUiostan ; Dii llalile's C!hina; La IVrouse's
Vt)yages ; (ieorgi's tieog., I'hy.s. and Nat., vi. aiul
vii. ; I'allas's Spicelegia Ztiologica, Travels, it;-. ;
(imelin'.s Ha'iisc der Sibicrin, lieisc der liits.sland,
I I
iii
'.nv
Ji
218
AHIA
Mammalia.
Orilira
Qnndmmnna
('liiiri>|i(i'rii .
Iii'-i'i'tlviiru .
Cnniiviirii ,
MiirHiipliilla .
Uinli'lltiii
I'^ll'lltlktu
I'lM^iyilcr-
IllUtll ,
Tliiiiiiimntln ,
CotHUl'll ,
Whnia
N.I. ,.r
kniiwtl
Total .
ir.n
tiiii
•n
177
;■!•
1112
21
«i
112
27
Whnlii
AalNIIti
44
(ID
II
77
2
7:1
I
II
f.7
U
0(H)
9141)
Nn-aT
■pep|<'» pom-
Krt. rtf
IIIIMI In AaiA
•tii'i'li'«
iin'l "ilnr
|M'i nitar
ri||luH<
lu AaU
It
m
l.^
4ft
A
4
42
:i.'>
2
2lt
M
1
4
7
III
41
11
U
134
924
AVKM {/llnlii)
WInilii
S|irpl,'i
1
Whol»
No. of
conniinn to
ftprrlr* '
Ortlrri
N f
known
A.iii
in-i'ullnr
knnwn
Anlnilr
tml nili' r
loAil*
fft><>i-li>«
251
■liKlri
41)
n'Kloni
Acolpltros .
.10
l)riitlro.itrpM.
1,2711
217
77
170
FiKxIroKtrcn .
127
ill)
14
10
ConlriiMtri'M .
411)
H7
42
45
Tcnulnmtres
:iil
4I>
17
82
Hyniliwtvli'H .
lilt
fi:l
IH
35
HciinsorcH
4NI
IDI
2.")
70 1
(llillilllU
:i4i
|:lll
20
110
(1 nil la- .
:i:il
107
4!)
AH
Pulllli|MHlcH .
2H'J
7H
41
87
Total .
3,0(13
087
310
021
IlKi'ni.iA.
Ordcri
Whole
No. of
known
K'urrtt
Wholo
No. of
known
Ailullu
gmiT*
(icniTft
coininoi- to
Aiht
And other
ri'Klona
12
4
2?
27
nenrrft
|>oiMilliir
lu AllA
7
ail
III
0?
Chelonla
8uurin ,
OpliUUnii!) .
Uiitravliiims .
(10
117
!l:l
UA
10
:iH
20
2?
Total .
305
70
49
The l{c))tilin nro (liviilnl into c/pnera, not uprries,
jU'iMirdinfj to tin; text of CiiviiT. Tlic list of spfcic.^
is sulllcii'iitly loii^ in some other authors; hut
th(>y nhouiul in repetitionH of the sanio Kpceics
I'liiior ditlurcnt imincH and in truiis)>osilioiis of
synonyms (ix. 'ioK). Similar considerations forbid
tiio attempt to ci.tssify the I'isccs, Inscrta, or
MoUiisca, H tabular arranRcmont of whit^li classes
wonUl not, indeed, possess nnicli inferest,
A f^laiu'c at these tables will ".■{hibit, nt one
view, the zoological riches of Asia. Of the class
Mammalia, more than a tltird of the whole num-
ber of species are found upon its soil, and nearly
n fourth (accurately 7-30ths) are ])cculiar to it.
lu the more important species, these proportions
are considerably increased. The Asiatic liumi-
nantia are nearly two-tifths of the whole ; those
peculiar to the soil, nearly two-.seventlis. The
I'achyderniata are in a still higher ratio; the
lioiicntia and ("arnivora, which two orders include
the more useful fur-liearinfj animals, in nearly the
same. Tlie 8trong-wni}.;ed Cheiroptera are indeed
almost equally niimeriiu.s ; but the (jiiudrumnna
are reduced to little more than a fourth oi" tiie
whole, and the anomalous orders of Mar.su|)ialia
find lidentata can scarc;;Iy be .said to ha\e a place
in .Xsirttic mnmmnlojfy. Hut it Im not rhliortlm
arliiiil or ri'liiiive iiiiioiiiil ofnniinal life lliuti'iin.
siitiiii'H thr i'birl'advtintiit;i'of .Xsia in thiM ri'<.|irrt.,
ainiiMic it" niiuicrouM H|N'rii'< of llu' more iin|iiiri;iiit
ord'Ts it n'i'kiiiis ilii' tmist iiii|Hirlaiil of tlicnjK'i'h'H
till niti'lves. ( ){' tlii'.'M', the llr-^t in raiil<, wiili n I, r
cure III its locality, is, |H'rliiipM, the cuiih'I, Dtliii'
aiiiiuiils arc iiiorc p'tieriiliy U'«rl'ul lo inuti; |,m
without this pntli'iil iiiid iiilclliKciit scrvaiii, u
lurni', pcrlmpH liic lar^,'i'!<l, purl of .\sia >mmiIi| U.
1IO lioini' fur the biiinaii race. Mxprissly fnriniil
fur exlHlcnce in a iIcmtI, it has biTii doiiii'Ktiiati'ii
fur a period Um^ aiili'i'cili'iil to all bislory, ami lur
i'olllltU'S'4 ^'elleratiiilH lilM bfi'll llie nii'llllH nf I'lm.
nrt'tiii>; dislricl.-i iith('r»vi><i' edi'ctiially Hcpurati'il,
and bus fornicd the principal wealth of ilirlr in-
lial)ltanl,s. The caiiiil has ibis pci'iiliarily to ills-
liiifjcuish it from oilier domestic aiiiiiiiil.i, ilwit it
does not follow its niuHier in bis wanili riii^H, flu.
other iriJM's, with out! exception (the rein dein.
have beeomi^ deiii/eiis of every corner of the carlli,
boweviT reinoic from their native home. It hitmi-,
indeed, a law, I bat the lower animals ulileli hcnl
with man sliall follow biin, with tbe.se two e\ii'|>.
tioiis; but these, tboiigh fully as siilM'rvieiit uii.l
as useful as any otliei-, have never becoiiu! iialii-
ralised bcvoiid the limits where they were llr«t
foinid. 'I'be attempts to establish the eaincl in
(ireece, Italy, .lamaica, and llarhadocs liavc lu'in
sigmil and dcci.'iive failures. Vet I be aiiiinal ran
support as great a range of climate as most niliw,
being found in N. Tartary, as far a.s the shiircsnr
Lake Haikal (from olP tii.");')" X. lal.), where tin.
average temperature is scarcely, if at all, lii;;liir
than that of Lapland, and where the winter'.s coM
is frighlfiilly severe, as well as under the seori'liiiii,'
siiii of intertropical countries. It is true, in tjit'si'
N. lands, its si/.e b(>comes diminutive; but it Drc-
serves its hardy character, nniltiplies abiiiiilaiitly,
and forms tbc'wealtli of the Hiirat and Mnii^'nl
not less than of the Arab and Syrian. (.Mann
I'aiilo, ii. li'dl; Tallas's Spic. Zool., xi. 4; l)u
liable, iii.ln;!; rennaut's Hist, tiuad., I2I); Ciiv.
iv. H, &c.)
Of the ox tribe, tho most iisctfiil spccicn an-
Asiatic, as the common ox (llos Taurus of Liii-
niviis), the aurochs, the biill'alo, and the viiik.
Their varieties are almost numberless; hut tliiiw
enumerated arc eonsiilered by C'uvier (iv. '.'H-;il|
as the only tlistinct sjiecies, with the cxce|iti(iii nf
tbo.sc not found in Asia, such us tlu! Anu'riona
bison, the (.'ape biill'alo of Africa, and the iiiu.«'v
ox. Tho most Ktriking di.stinclioii between tlw
Asiatic and mm-Asialic species of this gemw k
that the former only are domesticated, or nppeflr
capable of domestication. In all other rcspfci.i
they exhibit a general resemblance, amminiiii;,'
alnio.st to identity; their gregarious baliit.s llii'ir
food, their internal formation, all arc extriiiuly
similar; nay, they breed promiscuously, aail tlio
issue of a cross are prolilic : but while the A.siatif
species have been domesticated as long as suoiuly
has existed, the others remain to tlii.s day a.s un-
tamed as when they lirst took jiossessimi (if tlicir
native woods. A natural result of this distimtioii
I'.as been the distribution of the common ox Iruni
the Arctic circle to New Zealand, and round tiu'
whole world in longitude; while the American .ind
African siiecies apiiear incapable of multiplyiii;;
beyond their original limits. The bull'aluus, it
humped, arc less dispersed than the straiglit-baekoil
species, and appear to be less capable of sHppi)rtinic
a low temperature ; but wherever the cliiiiatc is ai
all adapted to them, they, like the others are
found to be naturalised, and thus they have siireail
from India (apparently their native home) over
N. Africa and S. liuropc ; nor can there exist any
ASIA
21T
lil'c iliiit ciiii
tl tirHrc»|iiTt;
Hire iii\iMirliiiit
III' tile n|i<'rii'i
iiU, wllli ri lir
INIIIII'I. Ollitr
to man ; Imt
■lit wrvaiit, II
AkIu NMllllil Ik'
l>rt>i<«ty fiirniiil
I llolllI'Mljl'lltl'll
liMiory, ami fur
nit'iiiii III' niii-
iiliy wimrati'il,
Itli III' llii'ir iii-
iiliarily in ilin.
iiiiiialM, tliat It
iiidiriiiK^ Till'
[till' rein ili'iri,
icr til' tilt' carili,
liilllt-. It m'l'lii-,
imIh >\Iiu'Ii liinl
ll'HC two I'Xl t|l-
HiiliMTvit'iii aii'l
r lii't'iiiiU! iiatii-
tlify wcri^ llw
li till' raiiu'l ill
iildi's liavc 111
till' lUiiiiial rail
• as iiiiwt llllll'^,
IH tllli shiilfi* III'
llll.)f wlllTI' til"
it' at all, lii;;lii'r
Ihf wiiili'r's iiiM
ItT tin- Hi'iiri'liiii;;
is triit', ill till')"'
tivc; liiit it Dn-
ilios aliiiiidaiitly,
irut and Mmi^i'l
Syrian. (Miimi
jii'iil., xi. 'i ; I)ii
^iintl., 1'2(); Ciiv.
tt'fiil (i))ficien nrc
Taurus nl' I.iii-
aiiil the yuik.
rlt'ss ; iiut lliDM'
iivier (iv. "JH-;!!!
tho exft'iitiim i/l'
IS Iht! AiniTica.i
mill tlic iiiu.-'i
lull holWi'l'M tlll^
;il' tliis fjt'Uiis i.1.
it'fttftl, iir apiii'iir
II titlifr ri'spi'i'is
int't', amiiiiiuiu;;
Dim liiiliits, tlii'ir
11 ur« tjxtri'iiii'ly
'iiDUsly, and tliii
ivliili! "the Asiaiii'
liiiin as soi'ifty
this ilay as iiii-
isscssiiin III their
)f this ilistini'tiuii
comnitm ox Iruiii
1, and round tiii'
lie American aiui
, of nuiltiiilyiiip'
l'Iic biiffiilocs, (T
B strai|,'ht-l)iiL'ko(l
l)le 1)1' supportini;
the cliinute is ai
the others, aw
they have spreail
ive home) over
I tliere exist any
rrii«iiialiliMliiiil)l hut that tht'ywiiiilil i>i|iially Ihrivir ^iint ilii> llnu iiiii-tin or IIm<x, niid llii< tinnu' liii
,11 Aii'l! riilia, I'nlyiu'Kia, and 'rcniiti'iuld AiiiiTitn, sin'i'li's, ('>f/irii ////' im, ari> Ihtuiiiisi imti'd vitrli'tii'".
iiiri' iht' fX|M'riint'Mt trii'd. • 'I lii> anitnul is in a very hii^h ili'uri-t' siTvifealih' In
rill' aiiriit'h and llit> yaiU (ur i^Tiintlii;; ii\) art' i niati, t'><|ii'i'i<dlv to tlii' iiiiniadif raii't nt' its iiativn
,,iily |iariially rrrlaiiiii'd, il, iiidri'd, llif luriin'r do t'luiiitry : il4i'>Mil turiilshiii;; an iiii|iiirliiiil arllrlii
i,,t still i'xIhI in all his uri^'inal wildtii'ns; Imt , nl' niiiiiiirai'tiirr, il'< ■<Kiii tin' h'atlii'r nl' wliirli lint
I iitier si't'ins tti III' iniolaUi'ii wlii-ii lu> limits his : waiidi'ri'r niiikfs Ids watiT Imtlli's and jiai'kim;-
1,,,'iility to Ihi* Carinilhiuns and t'liiinisiis. Tar- | fast's ; its milk is salutary in many cnmitlaints;
iiriaii travi'llt'rs dcsfrilM' th<> liri'i'tl as cxisiin^ in j and, wht'ii ynuiii;, it aHurdsa nittriliniis and a^'ri't*-
;i •late III' si'iiii'diimi'slirutiiin nil tlii> )ilali'aii iil'
.Mmicolia, and liri'i'diiiK ^vith th<; diinii'slii' I'liw,
ilii'ii'liy jiriiiliii'iii); ai'mss iniifh siniiiKi'r and nmrt^
Ml |i>r lalsiiir Ihan llii' t'onimun ii\. (Marrn I'aiilu,
ill. Uii. |>. •'>'-; lCnliriii|nis, eh. xviii. |i. i>7.) This
iri'iiiiirt' is, next lo llitt rhiniit'cnis, lliit lar;{t'sl nl'
land aiiiiiials. It has Im'I'Ii In' siinit> natiiralisis
.u|i|nisi'd III \>i\ t\w iiri'.;iiiHl s|ii'riiiii>ii ul' I lit' tln-
iiii'^iie varii't v ; liiil Ciivifr has iininlt'd mit snini'
ii'.ii'iilii^di'nl ililVi'ri'nrfs wliii'h plainly rrfrr it to a
ilill'i'ri'iit s|Hu-it's. It has also lIu* ^.triiiiiiii;; vnice
III till' yaik, wliii'li nii>,'lil liy piissiliiliiy lie ri'>.carili'd
M'laniiiall varlt'ly nl' Ilif aiirnt'hs, \vt'i'i> it imi for
ihe tail, whit'li in tin- yaik rt^scinlili's thai nl' the
liiTsi', anil is Ihe same whit'h fnin|in.^)'s the staii-
iluriUiil' Iht! Turkish nilit'i'rs. The nninlit'r nl' raillt'
jid liy the wandt'riii;; I'arlar iialion sei'ius almost
iiiiri'ililde: every I'lTlile plain, and soiiii' plains that
uri' aliiiiist slerilt', are t'overed liy tlicin; and siuiie
iilie iir nllllT nt' tilt! spet'ii's tlirivi! ll|inn tilt! sidi!S
iiiideveii iipnii the siiniiiiits nl' Ihe wiiilry iniiim-
lains iil'Tiiii't anil Daniiria. Thi! dniiieslif nx was
iiiikiiiiwii in Kainli'hutka till inlrnilui'i'tl there liy
the Itiissians ; nntl the musk i>x appears In hi! un-
kiiiiwii ill Arclii! Asia, llinu^li remains nl' Ihe
iTculiire liuvi! lieeii neeasinnally foiinil, cspeeially
a si'iill (lint lossil), near the mouth nf the Old, in
ilie latter t^ntl id' the last eeiilury. (I'allas's Nov,
Ciiin. I'tt. xvii. (i, l; limelin's N'. ('. 1*. v. K.'tl,
iV'c; I'll llaItU', iv, iiassini, Hcc,; Tinikonski, ii.
•.'ND, A'f, ; I'eiiiiunt's IliNl.t^uail., i. li'i-L'?; Ciivier,
IV. '.'M-Iil.) Nor aru sheep less iilentil'iil in Asia
tli.ui eatlle, thoiiKh it may perhaps lie ilouhted
whetlierlhis nsi!riil ereatnrt! he tint niie of tlii! very
lew treasures which helniij; nrif^iiially tn Kiirnpe ;
till! derivaiion of the varimis woolly speeies is
iliiiilitl'iil hetween the Motillou nf llalv and the
Ar;,'ali nf !Sil)t!ria. (Ciivier, iv, 27.) 'I'liere is no
rn'u of animals, except Iht! iU><r, so siihje.et to vary;
and amid the mnltiliide of lireeds imw liistrihnted
all over the world, it is prt)balily useless to atleiii|it
til identify the t>riginal. The Arj^'iili, liiiuid in
Silieriu and all the innuntaiutais reji^inns of Asia,
is, like the Kiiropeaii varieties, tlistin^uisheil hy its
short tail. Like other Arctic aninials, the Arpili,
also, cliaii;;es its covering, which is rather fur than
wool in tlio winter. In liiiliu the sheep are lonj:;-
tailed ; and in Persia, Tartary, China, anil .Syria
Ihe tail is nut only cloii^ateil, hut Inuileil with u
mass of I'ut. The power which this creature pos-
.M'sscs to acciimmndate itself to climate seenis
almost unlimited: in the hot plains of Asia its
uiverini; bucnines coarse and scanty ; while in the
frozen re;,ai)ns of Tibet its thick wool has an uiitler
ruling of the linest kind, forming an inipurtatit ar-
tielc in mnnufactures and coninu!rce. (l'an>u<'.s
Spic. Zool. xi. 3-31, 68-X2 ; (imelin's Heise diirch
Uussland, iii. 48(1, ct sen. ; lieisc lUirch .Sibcrieii, i.
ItiSctscq.; l)ullald(>, iv. pass.; I'ennant, 33— Iti ;
t'uvier, iv. 25-28.) There can be little ilniibt but
that the C'apra Kgaijriis of Gnuilin, the lbv.v Al-
piiim Sibericuruin of I'alltts, is the oritr'"-:il stock
whence all the varieties of the K""f- ''"''J'' "'t! ''i^"
rived. It herils in the mountains oi Taurus, Tar-
tary, Persia, China, K. Siberia, ami Kamtchatka.
It inhabits indilferently all elinates, but assumes
averydilferent appearance uui'eriliU'erent circuni-
ataucea. The Angnra yoat of Cappadocia, the Tibet
able food. (I'allas's S|iic. /ool,, xi. 3l-.'i7; I'eii-
iiaiit's lll-'l.l^iiid., Hf-.'iii; Ciivier, iv. 2 l-2.i.) Tin!
ri'in deer isi'iinimoii to Ihe uri'tie ri'^iniis of Asia,
I'iiiriipe, and America. It runs wild in Ihe snnwy
wastes III Siberia and Kamlchatka, but is likewise
ilomesliealed, and supplies to the lenanls nf llieso
ilreary ri'Kinns the place nf Ihe linrse, cmv, sheep,
^oal, and camel. Il is imi, Imwever, sn exleiisivt'ly
domestii'iiied In N. .\sia ns in Lapland. (Ilisi,
Kaiiilcliatka, 2-.'H; llill's Travels, 1.213; (Uivi"p,
iv. 11.) Till! elk is also cnmnion to Asia, Kiirnpe,
mill America; il inhaliits the cold re;xicins nf Si-
beria and .Mongnlia, where, tlinil;;'liiiiiil>inii'slii'alt'd,
it is hi)^dily useful as an animal of chase, the llesli
furnishing a Kond species of fond, Ihe tnngui! es-
pecially beiiiK esieemi'il a (j;reat delicacy; and Ihe
skin making; a biilf leather, capable, according In
gnnd autlmrily, of turning a niiiskel ball. (I'eu-
nant's Mist, (^'iiad., I. '.KI-',I8 ; Cuvier, iv. !l.)
Of other ruminants, Asia has the most, appar-
cnllv Ihroiighiiiit its whnlc exleiil from Siberia to
Cevloii (.N. C. I'et., iv. 3',I3; I'allas's Sjac. Zonl.,
xiii. 3-l.'i; Ili'll'sTravels, i. 2I!», ii. 8«! Du llalde,
i. li.'l, :t2 1 ; Hamilton's Vnv.K. Ind., i.2iil ), Ingether
with a great variety nf ileers and aiitelnpcs ; it is,
however, among thesi', with the llamas of Americii
and Ihe giralfe of Africa, nnipiestiniiably llu^ least,
useful of tilt! iinh'r. that Iht! niily lliiminantia waul-
ing in Asia will be finind, (I'allas's Spic. /onl,,
i. 3-1 1, xii. 3-71 ; (!iivier, iv. .O, 8-2.'(.)
In its i'aclivdermalnus tribes Asia exhiliils Ihu
saiiie snin'riiiriiyovernther regions; thi! elephant,
hoi'.->e, ass, and ling have their hniiie in its I'nrest i
and plains; while the animals of this nrder absent
frniii its snil are Ihe hippnpnlamus, and the tapir,
pticcary, pliacn, ilanians, with some other inferior
species, and such as art! usi!less to man. The ele-
jiliant rarely prii|iagales in a ihnnestic state; but
It is an (!rriir to suppose that this never lakes pliu'c :
the tame females sometimes esiNipe to the woods
in breeiling-tinie, anil, after coupling with tlit! wild
males, return to the lu^ril, orare brought batrk, and
iiroiluct! their young at the end nf nine mmiths,
I'lie locality ni' the Asiatic elephant is liinited: it
lines not appear to be found W. of India or N. of
the Himalaya mountains; but in India, Malaya,
liirmah, China, antl the islands of the I'^asterii
Archi|)elagii, it is numerous bntli in its wild and
domestieatcil state; and, besiiles its utility as a
beast i>f bnrtlen, antl the value of its tusks as an
article of conimerce, it is hehl in great regard for
many occult medicinal properties supposetl to exist
in its llesh, eves, bones, d'c. (Uu liable, iii. 480;
Crawfnrd's itm. Si., 42!), 47!»; I'ennaiit's Hist,
(^uad., loO-Uil ; Cnvier, iii. 32t'i.) The horse antl
ass are both iiiiligenous to Asia, antl nriginaiiy
pocnliar to that continent. .Species of the .saniii
genus are iiuli!etl found in Africa, but, as in oth''r
similar cases, they si>cm incapable of domestica-
tion; while the Asiatic s|)ecics, especially the
Arabian variety, have supplied the whole worlil
with two of the most useful qnailrupcds that wait
on man. The Dziggetai, a creature intermediatt;
in size between the liorse ami ass, still runs wihl
in the Asiatic deserts; like his congeners, he in
gregarious, and, like them, too, his iiunibers seein
almost nnliiiiited ; a similar remark w-ill apply tt>
. the Ivoulau ur wild ass. (Du Halile, ii. 1 7, uO, iv.
1
I"
21 H
ASIA
110 iHimwiiii; l)«'ll, i.32''^; I'rinmiit, l-l.'l; (.'ii^ kt, iiiark^ llini tlin liitrn nnd rnliliit nm unkimwii In
ill, ;i|o-il|;i.) 'I'liM liii({ ii s,i ii|iri'i(i| over ili« <« Mrlil tli<^ luwcr luiriH uf Mliuti. 'I'lit' |Hiri'ii|)iiii<4, uii iiu'
tli'fll ii Ih illlllriili to Hi"<>»{n iiM original liiciLiiivt "IImt liiiml, Hri> mil I'liiiiiil In t>ii> N. ri'Kionii; iiii,|
lilt' liK'l lliiit the Niici'it'.'i iuni< |N't'uliitr uri' itll Atri- the J*tIhiiim nfciii |MM'uliiir In the Hiil<> i>|n-ii |iliiiii.,
t'liii nnd iiiiili>ini>Hiii'nli'il, hcciiim, Imtvi'Vi'r, In iiii|)lv
tliiii thii iirii^iiinl hiurk nl' ilic iliiini'Klif nwiiin (n
Axiiiiit'; III)' iiii>ri> i'r<|><'<'iiillv iix ili<- criitiiiri* i>«
ilin|i<'rM'it over I'Xiry |>m t nl' ilii' ntiiliiiciil trmii ilM
S. I'xiri'iiiily III iliu \. nliori'N nl' l.iikx iVtiikiil in
luio N. jut. (IU'H'h Trav.'iM. i. -J/K; I'lilLc'-. S\>\i'.
/iHil., ii, !!; CruMriirii''* I'^iiilianity In Siain, li'.l;
I'uvicr, illtO-JlllJ.) 'I'wn h|M'('i('H nl' iIk' rliiiiiHTriH)
iirt' iH'ciiliiir In AnIk Mini llii> Imliiin Ulamlx, ilit^
lulUT iliNiinfcniHiii'il liv ii ilnnlili' Imrii likr llii< Wi.
ylfririiiiuM. (|)u lla'lilf, I. •.'.Ill; <'ni\vliir.l, l.".».
((■nii'liii'M Ki'im' iliirrli Silt., iMiKxiin ; <'rawt'iiri|\
Km. Si., 4'iM, I7H; t'livicr. Hi. li;M).» i iVimum',
IliNl. (^latl., iltlH-D'i't; I'alliiii'it .Still., |iam. ; ( otn.
I'i'l., \)n.>\) or till' (^iiiiilriiiniiini ilir |>riiii i|>iil
Anialir >|i<'ri<'H nri' till' nniii^ iiiitatiK ainl ilir u'i>>-
Imiiim; ilii-Hiniilli'riii I'll mill inniikcvM ari' iiiiini'rnii.t
in till' .S., cHiHriully ill liiiliii, t'liiiiii, iiiiil till.
iNhimU. A'* II p'lii'ral t'.iri. the Anialii' iiimikivH
arc iiil'iTinr in Ninirliiri' anil iiili'llit;'i'ni'i' In tiio
.Vrriraii, lint iiini'li Mii|H'rinr tn tlumf nl' Aiiurii'ii,
(('•ixii'r, i. •Jn7-'.''.'0,) 'I'hn ('liririi|itrrii an' iiii-
i\iH; rcniiiiiu'H lli^i. l/iiail., i, \'.\H ; Ciisii'r. lii. in<'rnii<* all nvi r Ihi'wnrlil; lln'V hi'i>iii, Imwi'vcr,
llitii.) 'rrnjiirul A^ia iHiNKi'-uti'M iniiHl nf till' IliTi't'i' In aliniiiiil iiinri' ill till' .\4ialii' i'-ianilH llian mi tin'
t'ariiivoni limi-. li;;t'i'», li'n|iarilN, Mark |iaiillii-rr«. , rmiiliu'iil : hiiiiii' nf lln'iii, h* iIk' Kiiu.'<'M'I|i' ni' th,.
iiiliK't'M, ami 11^1' I a In, III tlir ral ;;riiiiN : tvnlvrH,
liyciiaM, ami jarkaJH, nl' ilu' iln^ triln'. I'licy ili
Siiiiila anil Mninrra i.ili'H, arc iii'i'nniili'il iti jiiiui'
I'linil; ntliiTN, as llic 'riiiinr lull, rather iar;{i' iiii<|
iini, liiiwi'vcf, all cxInI ill cijual iiiinili<'ri, nnr ilcsirnclivc; luii llic iiinrc |iii\vcrl'iil anil iiiini'jiiiv-
rijiially in every part, 'i'iic limi is liccniuin^' very
r irc in Asia ; lie ii imw rniiinl niily in ilie iliHerU
r iMeM'|iniainia, i'erxia, ami Inilia, liiiil perliaji.-i
Jl Hniiii |iarl-< nrCllilia. lie ilneii mil .i|i|>e!ir tn lie
lie.inl ol ill Siaiii nrCnelilii 1 liilia; m wliii'h iliM-
irietH the wnir, hyena, anil lackMJ, ii> far as m yet
knnwii, are alnn Htranneri. (('rawuinl'i Kin, Si.,
■I'.'H.) 'i'he inaniil, lyii\, .mil wilil eat arc iiiunI
mil' ninn in leiii|irrale Amu; Ihe ilmt cMemliii;;,
Ilin.i'Ver, ulimint tn llie tll'i'lii' I'e^iniiN, llie ncennil
titr lehiii^ inln linth the I'ri^n,! uriil Inrriil /.iiiich;
liiM liic last (M'lireely ever iiiel with lieyniiil tile
< .iiiia^iiin niiiiintaiiiH) ap|ieai'.s nriKinally in have
lieeli Kuril) x'aii. 'I'lie ilnj;; anil lux, ill all their
varieties, are eniiiinnii to all llie eniiliniiit ; Ihe
Inrnier, in hinne jiarlH (as Kaniii'halKa), Mippjyin^
the place nl'a liea.st nl' iiiinleii, in ntheri lieiii;>' lined
UM an ariii'le nt Tiinil,' 'I'he .Vii;;'iira ami I'ernian eat
are eelelir.iteil t'lir the tinciie'>s nl' their l'ni°, as is alsu
the lilneeiit nf Siberia; liinii;;!! Ihe last, if luit \Uv,
two fnriiier, seem In have lieeii ileriveil. as well as
the ihiineslie eat, rrnin Kiii'npe, Knrniiilalile as are
mime nf these ereatnres, they cnii.-.titnle ainiisiiler-
alile (Hirlinii of tlie weallh nf the cniiniries which
they inliahit ; their skins fnnii an impnrlaiit ar-
ticle nf eniiiliierce ; ami what is rcniarkalile, the
/niiitH nf the ti;;er are slippnscil, like tlinse nf the
elephant, In pnssess ineiliciii.'il ipialilies, ami are
liiH;hly valiieil acennliiiKly. (* 'rawfiiril's Km. !Si.,
•VJiX.) The smaller Caniivnra are ahn fminil in
jj,reat uliiiiiilaiice, as the ililt'ercnt species nf mar-
tens, nmnii^ wliii'h llu^ ermine ami salile siaiiil
pre-emiiieiil liir I heir fur; the Asiatic civets, which
pntisess thcoilniir, ihiiiiK'h mit Ihe ;rlamlnhir excre-
t inn, nf the African species; anil ihe inan;;iinsti nr
ifhiifumnn, which attacks anil desirnys tlie most
(hiiiu'eruiiH Kerpciils: hears, liailt;ers, j^lut Inns, sea
otters, innrses, walruses, seals, cmnplete the list
of Asiatic (.'arnivnrn. (Hell, i. 100, li.Mi et pass.;
I )u I lalile, jiass. ; I'allas's Sjiic. Zonl., xi v. '_".( et sen. ;
t^'rawfurd's Km. Si., ■l'2H, 178; I'eniiant's View nf
lluidnnstun, i. l<.Ki-l<.l7 et pass.; Hist, (jtiail., 2I'J-
i!00; Cuvier, ii. 2;J-til.) The liiseclivnra and
Ikddcnti.'i ' iisist, the first, of hed}i;ehn;;s, shrew-
inice,aiiu nmles in their varinus species ; Ihe latter,
of tliu more iinpnrtant animals, heavers, hares, rab-
bits, leiiiniiiins, inarmnts, sipiirrels, lUirmicc, pnr-
ciipiiu's, jerboas, rats, miee, &e. Ol those, the
Asiatic s|iec! 's are very iiiimcrnus, and they form,
•with the smaller Caniivnra, the principal wealth
of Siberia, since, nmniif.; them are found iiinny tliat
iifl'ord sonic of the richest furs, especially in the
winter, when the coverinj; of the creatures becomes
thicker in texture, liner in quality, and fjeiierally
Hiipcrior in colour. Auiinals of this order do not
uppeur U) U) numerous in S. Asia. (Jrawl'iird re-
olis species lit this oriler lipiM'iir tn lie yinieririin,
and siraiiKcrs to the soil nf .Asia, (rallas's >|i|>',
Znnl., III. ;i-;i"i; I'eniiant's ilisi. i/iiml., .'iIn-.m;!;
Cnvier, ii. l-ln.) The Marsiipialia nf ibis cmiij-
llclll cnlisisl nf bill Iwn species nf l'lmlim;;rrH,
/'/kiI, HiifiiM and I'lutl. Chn/HorrlKm, (Itull'mi, .\iji.
Ill; Teiiiminck, I'.'.) 'I'hey are jiecnliar In llir
Mnlnrcas, .lava, and CelelM's, exhiliiiiii); tliiis.at
the exiremilv nf Asia, the first indicalinii nf llii>
tmninalniis AlaminalnKy nf .Viislralia. The s|iii;|c<
I'iileiilata i-<tlie sbnrt-lailed Miiiiis, which, like iIh'
last nnler, is peculiar In the liiiliairislamls, rMvpt
some few iiisiances fniind in Heiij^al, (I'eiiiiiiiit,
."lO.'i.) Marsileii (Sumatra, p. IK) seems in iiii{ii\
thai the African liiii;;-lailed Miiiiis is snini'iiim'H
fiiuiid in that island. Lastly, thet.'eliicea cmisi'.ii
nf dnlphins, inanati, piir|Niises, sea niiicnriis, ainl
whales, nf which snnie niie nr nl her species is luuiul
nil all (he enlists nf Asia. (I'ennant, uillwlj;
(Jiivier, iv, i;m-ii;i.)
The Oriiillinln;.c>' "f Asia is less ricli ilimi ji*
Mamnialn^y; Ihe former cniiiaiiiin;; cniisiiliralily
less Ihaii a fniirlh nf all ihe kiinwii s|iei'ii's, \vliili>
the hitler pnssesses verv much mure iliaii um-
lliii'd. The cniiliiient nl Asia, hnwever, iiiaiiilaiiii
Ihe peculiar characier of iiiiliiy in iis pnsscsj.ii.ib;
fur of the (iallinie, iiiiipieslinmibly the iiin.st ii^i'liil
nrder to man, the iiiimber nf lis species is lictwiTii
a third and a half of Ihe wlmle, and fully a iliinl
nf the whnle is peculiar in iis snil. Amnii;; llii^i'
species are reckniied Ihe nri^inal slncks ol all lliu
dnineslic pniillry, except the turkey, wliiili is
American; Ihe pheasants, pari rid;,'cs, pearmU,
and whole lli;ihts nf pij;eoiis. The species iiiwliiili
it is must delicient are amnii^ the ^rmi'-e, i|iialls
and |iiiitadiis; but there is scarcely a piuisnl'tlil.'i
useful order of which Asia is wholly ilcsiitiiti'. Of
other birds, llu* order (iriilhe furnishes the nsirlrli,
crane, lieriin, stork, bitti^rn, plnver, spnonhill, ihis,
many of which arc hi^^hly useful in Impical ili-
males as deslmyers of .serpents and olher daii(,'i'riius
reptiles: the Scaiisnres cniisist nf ihnse cliiiiliiii;;
birds, parrnts, iiarrn([ueis, wondpeckers, ami iii.i-
caws, the beautiful plumage of which adilsn iiiiiih
to the splendnnr nf ei|iiiiinxial fnresls ; ami tlii^
Syndactyles (the smnller order of hrinht phiiiiiifjcsi,
of bee-i'aters. kiii>;lishers, and linrnbills; wliiili
last, Irniii their f;reater size and iieculiiir lialiiis
have far less resemblance to the other gciieriuil'
the order than they have to each other. In all
these orders, it will be nli.served that Asia is rda-
tively rich, except with roKard tn the .Swiiisures
which, haviiif; little but their beauty tii rirom-
niend them, are the least iiBeful of any yet eim-
iiierated. In the others the propnrtiiui Iw'iimfs
still lower; and though among the palmiin'ile,
prirrl*, n1t)A(roiwoii, polloiina, H\\\U, gft^f^, i1ii<-k)«,
„„| awnilH, Ailtk hllH Noiiic Mllirll lll«' lllllivi'N
ii.iM' iiiriinl ii< iii'riiiiiil, MM III)' ^ri'iit ri>riiiiiriiiii.
,„i^>|ir liy III!' Cliiiii'M' III iIkIi : yd itir t^ri'iit liniiio
,,i ||||4 iinli'r III' liiriln lii"< In nilirr i|iiitri)'ri; Aiiit'-
ri.ii, Al'rii'ii, AiiKirnliii, iiml cvni KiiroiM-, Of liinU
,1 |.ri'> ( Ai'ri|iiir('n) A"iit Iuim iu i'iikI<''*< viiliurt'n,
|.,l 14, iiwIh, mill liiiwkH; lull licri', iikiiIii, iIm'
I iiiiiIxT III' ii|MTi)>H U riiMipiirnllvcly miiull, llimi^'li
III .iiiiif riiHi'M lilt' liiilivliliirilit III' It N|M'<'i<'M iiri' vtTy
iiiiMirriiiiN : mill in llif linir ri'iiiuiniiiK iirilcrM, niii-
,i.iiii|{ III' nil III" trilH''« III' i^riiiiiviiriiiiM ami iii-
.,.,'iiviiriiiM lilriU, Hlirikt'M, pii'M, tliriiHlit'H, crnWK,
.(tnliow*. fC""'"!**''^''^' I'iril'* III' I'liriiillMt', mill ilir
viiriiiii" HiiiiUHlcru, llui AHiiiiif wihhIh arc very iiimr;
ihrirrliii'f U'lmnlK, iit'ilifw uriirni, iM-iny (ji'iicrally
.,i,|i iiH iirt> iUhiIiikiiIhIii'iI tnr ln'iiiily i>t' |iIiiiiiiik<'<
Niiii; liinl* i»f" viTv »riim'. (I'iiIIiin'h S\,u\ /ih'1,,
iv,v., vi.; liincliii. I. JM-Tti, liV.»; ii, lil.l-llW ; i,i.
wi.|iMi, 'Jl'.»-'2.'»l, ;H!I, !17M, Ac. J iViiimtH'* lien.
llipK pnitH. ; Crawriinl ■< Km. Hi., -la-.'-lHO ; |>ii
lliilih'. pUHK. ; CiiviiT, \ i.— viii.)
Ill Ili'iililt'M, HH ill liiriln, Aniii U tosit nlniiiilniit
iliiiii Hiiiiii' otliiT ri'Kliiii'*' Of till' Clii'liiiiiii ii liiiH
Mviriil tine N|H'i-ii'!« nl' I'llililii liirtli', miil hIIiitm llial
;iri' rliii'lly vnliiiililc I'nr llirir hIicII. M/.iinls arc
'irv iiiiini'riiim in iiiiliviiliiain, IIiiiukIi nut in p'lic-
a niiil priilmlily mil in H|i<'rii'N ; nnimi;; iIii'm<>,
hviinr lliri'c kimU uC ailiKaturK art' very ilrMiniclivc
in ilii- rivers ol' liulia. OC M<'r|H'iitM, tfic iiinMt daii-
;,'i'riiiH !'< ill)! Iiiiliaii I'yilioii niii|irii|H'rly cnn-
haiiiilril wllli till' liim riiiisirii'liir) ; liiil, llirri' ari'
nmnv nilii'r* liinlily viiiiiiiiiiu«, ami Hiuni! wliicli
uri' rxirriiii'ly licaiitiriil ami i|iiiio llarlllll'^4)4. h'r»ii<*
iiiiil tiiaiU aliiiuiiil ill all inarMJiy |ilari'i4, Imt it
.I'cnis (Imiliil'iil wlicllior Ibi'v ln' of iii.iiiy (lillcrcnt
kiiiik (i'allas'i* Sjiic. Ziml., vii. ; (inicliii, iii. tiH,
ic; IVnnant'H View of llimlostaii, pass.; l)u
linlili', iias»iin ; Ciivii-r, i.\.)
The hi'as ami riviTs n|>|i«'nr'to jxwsors cvory
kimwii kiiiil of HhIi, ami hoino tliat arc pniiliar
ij'iilliis vii. viii,) ; anilllio in.sccl trilK'iiri' iiiinn'r-
I'lh tlirmi;,'liiiut till' wliok> coiitiiicnt ; tlio ravaK<'n
iil'iiiinu',ns iliii locust, in Araliia, Syria, ami Persia,
U'iiiK fur lining drcailcil than tin- attacks of car-
iiiviirmis aiiiiiiai.s. (I'allas, ix. x. ; (,'iivicr, ix.
xiv, XV.)
iV. Racks ok I'Kort.K and Laxouaoki. — Not
Hilly lliii niiijority of tlio liiimaii race- in niiinlHT,
liut' also ilu^ ({roatcst. variety in the wpecies, is
I'liuiiil within the limits of Asia. Tlin Huhject, an
well from extent, iintiire, ami, in many respects,
ik'ticienov of information, is one of >;reat ililliciilty ;
but wc sliiill, nevertheless, oll'er some ohservatioiiH
ii|Kin it, fmiiiiled on the physical fonn, intellect nal
oliaractcr, ami jceniiis of the lan^ua^e of the races.
Sinic of these families or races consist of many
miilinns, while others emhrace hut a few thuusanils,
a ciri'iiinstaiice which has naturally arisen from
t)io fiivmimble or iinfavourahlo jiositioii in which
tlicv have bt^en hicated on tlieir original dislri-
liiiliim, niid ])erlia|)s also from an intrinsic dif-
tirciicc in the capacity of the races themselves, —
imiscs which have multiplied some into numerous,
]iiiwerfiil, and oiviliseil nations, nnd kept others in
ilie coiulition of petty and rude tribes. We begin
our cloKsilication from the west.
The first family, which mav be palled tJic Catt-
riiiiun, coninrises all the aboriginal inhabitants of
tlic mountainous region lying lietween the Hlack
Sea ami the Caspian from about 38° to 4'2° of X.
lat. It inchules the mountnineers of the valleys
of the Caucasus, such as the Abasians, Ossetes
iir Iron, Lcsghians, and Kisti : and, in the more
level countr)-, or wider valleys lying to the
(iiiiith of the Caucasus, the Georgians, Mingre-
liaiis, and Anncniana. In iK-rsonal form tliis
ASIA tit
family mny ln> <l«'«rrl1>»il a* Fump^nn, Imt In
iiiliid A»iatic, Till' fiiri' is of nil o>«l fonn; th«
fori'lii'iiil, \\\i\\ mi'l I'Niiamli'd ; tin' iiom' I'li'Mttcd,
with a "liu'hl I'oiivcxlty ; the niniith Kiiiall; tho
lips miHJi'niti' hi si/e, and the chin full and roiiiiiL
Till' complexion Is fair, without, hnwevcr, tlm
cli'nriiess of the I'liiriipi'iiii ; the eyes are generally
dark, nml the liiiir of the IicmI fiirelv of any other
colour than black or brown : nml, (ml I, it may
here lie once fur all ole>i'rved, that the ureal variety
ill the colour of Ibis leguiiieiit, willi which we nrit
fmniliar, isconllned to iluro|s',— black U'lii^ nearly
universal in every other part of the world. Thn
hair on other parts of the inHly, with tliel 'niiciislim
family, isabiiiidaiit ; IheHtatiire is nearly eipiiil to
that of the Kiirii|H'aii, and the foriii of Ibe wliiilu
person is syiuinetrical mid liiimlsonie. The per-
Momil beauty ol this race has liidiiced llhiineiibacli
ami ■'oiiie other eiiiineiit naluralists, to iisniiim' itM
foru) as thetype ofllie ICiirii|ii'iiii,or tirst of ihe/^i'M
great varieties into which they hiiNe, fancitiilly
enough, divided the whole oj' niaiikind. Tl "y
have even gone the length of fancying that the en-
tire Kiiropcati I'liinily sprung froiii the imuin-
lailietrs of the Caiuiisus; an hypnlhc'^is for which
it is almost iintiecessarv to say tli.it there is not a
tittle of historical, |ihilological, or any other evi-
dence. N'otwitlistaiiding nmloiihled advanlagcsuf
physical fonn, no nation of this family has ever
made any einiiieiit advance in civilisation. Maiiv
of tlieiii, with a ciiiintrv not unlike Swil/.erlmul,
tboiigli with a belter soil and cliinati', arc, at tha
present day. Mot inori' advanced in civilisation than
the Swiss or (lermaiis as described by Cirsar iiettr
'2,(10(1 years ago. The Arineiiiai^' aloi'i' of tho
whole family liave made a coiisideriibic thonghfar
from a distinguished lirogress. About live cen-
turies before tne ( 'bristiaiwra, they constituted nil
extensive sociely, and eveii <'..ercised some iil-
llmiice in the political events of Western A^ia:
they alone, of all the nations and tribe s coin|iosinf(
the Caucasian family, possess a national litenitiin; ;
but even tlieir invention of alphalM'tic writing dales
only from a.d. loti, for previously to that time they
Used th(< characters of the <ireeks and I'ersians:
lart,
always acting n secoiiilarv and siibordinale iii
they have been siicci'ssiveiy subdued by Persians,
(ireeks, Koinans, Arabs, 'Turks, and llussiaim.
I.anguage, it should lieri! be observed, considered
as the (est of unity of race, must be viewed, as re-
spects its genius and the general character of its
fonnation, and not by the iiU'iitity or dissiinihr.ity
of individiiul words,'whieli, through the accii' iiit-*
of coiupiest, settlement, religion, nnd comiuerco,
often lliid tlieir way even into languages of very
opposite genius. As hnppens in rude and early
stages of society, in every jinrt of the world with-
out exception, the number of languages spoken by
the nations of tin; Cuuvasian family is very great.
The tribes inhnbiting the valleys and mountains of
the (.'aiicasiis are saiil to speak seven distinct lan-
guages, besides maiiv dialects; a number, how-
ever, which falls far sliort of those s])ukeii within n
similar extent of territory in many parts of
America, as well as of the islands of the Indian
Ocean. Tho only language of tho Caucasian
family, of which Kiiropeans have any critiiinl
knowledge, is the Armenian, of which wo jiossess
dictionaries and grainmnrs : those who have ex-
amined it consider it as quite (leculiar and distinct
from all other known tongues : it abounds in
rough consonants : its structure is exceedingly
complex : it has an article nt the end of nouns : its
nouns and adjectives have each ten Inflections in
the singular and as many in the ]ilural, and the
verb is agreeably varied by corresponding changes.
All this, which applies, however, more especially
IJ
i;:
i ''
: Am
220
ARIA
to tho nncient InnKiiapjo, implies thnt tlic Armo-
iiiiiii i.s n ])riiiiitivi! and original toii^iix, wliicli,
like tlio Simscrit, Ar.iltic, (trci'lt, tlie Laliii kciip-
rilly, and lor tlii) most part tlic (Jerman, has nut-
{'i'TMi littln (;lmn)r(! in Ktrnotnrc from tlui eommix-
Inru of forci;,'n nations and tlicir laii<riia{;os, Tlio
modern Armenian has hocn siniplllied in its f^ram-
maticnl structnro hy the mixtnrn of tho pcoplo
■with for('i);(ii nations, cspGoiaily tlic Persians and
Turks ; chantfes similar to, hut not so extonsivo as,
the I.atiu ian^ua^u lias under^oni; in its convcr-
tiion into Italian, Spanisli, and French.
Tlio Noeond Asiatic family has been called hy
philolopsts and naturalists, the Anihian, or Semi-
tic, the last name hcir.j^ pvcn to it on the hypo-
thesis that the whole is derived from thcldest son
of Noah: it embraces all the aboriginal inhabitants
of Palestine, Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, from
i\n\ east coast of the Mediterranean and Red Sea,
up to the VV^, coast of the Persian Gulf. A brown
complexion; more or less intense black or dark
brown vycn; h)ng, lank, and almost always black
crinalhair; bushy larjje beards, generally black,
but sometimes of a reddish tinge; an oval face in
bold and distinct relief, with a nose always eleva-
ted, and not nnfreijuently aquiline; high forehead,
and stature nearly of the iMiropcan mean; — are
among the most prominent characteristics of this
family, as we occasionally see it exhibited in one of
its handsomest forms, the Jewish: we say occa-
sionally, f )r the dilVerenccs existing botweeu the
.lews settled in dillerent foreign nations, show
plainly enough that they have more or less mixed
their blood with the people among whom they have
established themselves: for tliey are fair in Cler-
niaiiy, brown in Poland, and nearly bla(;kin India.
Comi)ared with the European, the whole tbrm of
the Arabian is spare, slender, and of small bulk
and weight. Tho wrists are comparatively slender,
the hand small, ami the libre tliroughout soft ami
dcxible. These last characters, however, it is to
be observed, belong more or less to the inhabi-
tants of all warm climates. In intellectual power
and energy, the Arabian family stands unques-
tionably next to the Kuropeun. The history, in-
stitutions, and literature of the Jews ; the early
civilisation of the Assjj'rians ; the commerce and
colonies of the Phamcians; and the conquests,
settlements, and literature of the Arabs, attest the
truth of this assertion. The influence of the He-
brew institutiims has pervaded the whole civilised
world; while the language, literature, and religion
of the Arabs may be traced from the western con-
fines of Spain and Africa to the Philippine Islands
over i;JO° of Ion., and from the Tropic of Capri-
corn to Tartary, over 70° of lat. Among a race so
energetic, civilisation made a very early ))rogress,
and it is not improbable but that 4,000 years ago
(he Plucnicians, Hebrews, Assyrians, aiid Arabs
had already domesticated many of the useful ani-
mals, cidtivated manj' valuable plants, and were
accpiaintcd wth the useful and even precious
metals. Several of the nations of this family had
invented alphabetic writing, in times far beyond
the memory of history ,-^as the Jews, Phccnicians,
Arabians, and Assyrians. Their literature has al-
ways been of a more vigorous and masuline char-
acter than that of any other Asiatic people, but
still has never evinced the taste, sounil judgment,
and practical common sense displayed \)y several
JCuropcan nations in various periods of the history
of the latter people. For the fine arts, if we except
architecture, they have not exhibited a glimmer-
ing of capacity. There is one circumstance, how-
ever, in the jwsition of this family, which has
always proved a serious obstacle to its advance-
ment in civilisation — the unsuitabloncss of much
of the country which it inhabits fornnyotliortlian
tho pastoral state of society, owing to its hnnt
drought, and sterility. In the genius and stnic!
turo of th(! languages of the Arul)ian familv, tlu^n^
is a common alHnity. They possess sound's wliicii
no other jx-ople can articulate: while their ncijfh.
hours liavo sounds in their languages, which thev
in their turn, cannot imitate. In grannnatielii
stnicture tlu^y resemble each other, and the words
of their language are readily interchanged, wiiiji.
they, rarely, if ever, admit those of neighboiiriiv
tongues. VVhile the dead language of India, fur
example, has found its way into the idtra-(inn;roti(:
languages as far even as N'ew Guinea, into lumiv
of the Mongolic and Turkisli languages, and im'o
most of the ancient and modem languages of Ku-
rope, it has made no impression whatever on the
languages of the Arabian stock of nations.
IJetween the Caspian Sea ond Persian Gulf, tu
the west, — the ocean to the south, India to tlii^
east, and an indefinite line to the north, exfendiiii;
at least to 50° of latitude, — there are several racos
which have nnich res(^mblance, but which dilfcr
enough in person, mind, and language, to ciiiidi!
us to class them as <liflerent families. The lirsi
of these, beginning in a westerly direction, is the
Persian. With this family, tho complexion i<
fair without transparency; there is little tir no
colour in the cheek. Tiio hair is long, striiif;lii,
and almost always jet black ; the beard abundant,
bushy, generally black, but now and then with »
reddish tinge. The features, according to Knro-
pean notions, are regidar and handsome, tlioii;,'li
generally minute; ami, beard excepted, rutlicr
effeminate. The stature is little short of the Kii-
ropean standard ; and the body gracefully but nut
strongly formed, being altogether less robust tlmn
that of the European. The jjresent inhobitants of
Persia arc much mixed with the blood of Arabian
and Turkish settlers ; and probably, therefore, tliu
purest sample of tho genuine Persian will be found
ni the emigrants established in foreign coiuitrii'si,
called Parsees, who scrupulously abstain from in-
termixture with the people among whom they are
settled. The Persians were among the earlit:*!
civilised nations of mankind; but their ])ro),'rcss
has not been in ijropordon to their prc'cocily. It
is prob.-ible that a thousand years before the (Jiiris-
(ian era they had tamed the useful animals, lul-
tivated useful jdants, were acquainted witli tlie
useful metals, and constituted a considerable coin-
numity. That they had at an early period a writ-
ten language, and that it was national, is attestiil
by the existence of the imdecyphcred and ])ei;iiliar
characters, of unquestionable antiquity, still found
at Persepolis and other places. When the Arabn
conquered and converted the Persians about the
middle of the seventh century, they found tliree
spoken languages ; viz. the Parsee, Pehlvi, and
lieri, besides the Zend, or language dedicated to
religion. Tho first of these has superseded the
rest, which are known only by name, and become
the universal language of the country. The mu-
dern Persian is of simple structure, like Eiisiish,
French, or Italian, that is, it possesses few or mi
inflections, prepositions governing its cases, and
auxiliary verbs its times and modes. Many of it.s
roots can be readily traced to the Sanscrit, .Sinoe
tho Arabian conquest, it has received a large ac-
cession of Arabic words, easily discovered by their
exotic sounds, for there are many sounds ]ieciiliiir
to one j)Cople which are foreign to the utterance of
Jio other. The entire literature of the Persians
dates since tho Arabic conquest, and flicrorore
the earliest portion is little more than 1,000 years
old, while the great bulk belongs to the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. It consists of songs of
ASIA
231
nyotliortlian
[ to itH h(>at,
lis unci stmc-
fiimily, tlifiM
Aimnils whii'ti
! their ni'itjh-
4, wliich they,
(^iniimutiviii
uid tlie wnnls
hiinpMi, whili!
nci^liboiirin^;
L< of liuliii, fur
iiUru-(.inn;;otii'
ea, into iiiaiiy
iifjcs, and iiitii
inuane.s of Ku-
latever on the
ations,
ersiuu (lulf, tn
I, India to tlic
)rth, uxtcndiui;
re several racts
lit whicli dirt'cr
ua^e, to ciiliili!
ilies. Tiie tirsi
direction, is thi'
complexion U
is little or nu
» lonj;, struinht,
beard abundant,
ind then with n
)rding to Kiiro-
mdsome, though
ixcepted, rather
short of the Ku-
racefuUy but nut
less roi)Ui<t than
nt inhal)itants uf
blood of Arabian
ly, therefore, the
lian will be fouml
foreign countries,
abstain from iii-
ir whom they arc
long the earliest
.it their ]>rot,'rcss
;ir priicociiy. It
before the Cliris-
|ful anini.ils, t'lil-
lainti'd with tlie
[onsiderablc ccira-
•ly period a writ-
ional, i» attesteil
■red and peculiar
[quity, still fwmd
When the Avals
Irsians about the
:hey found three
lee, Pehlvi, and
ge dedicateilto
superseded the
Ime, and become
[uitry. The mo-
ire, like Ellgli.^l^
losses few or no
its cases, and
ics. Many of its
ISanscrit, Since
jiveil a large ao-
fcovered by their
sounds peculiar
the uttcrnnce of
of the Persians
and therefore
ban 1,000 years
, to the fifteenth
iista of song" »f
crnixidorahle merit; of popticnl romnnros, wild and
oxtrivft^janti •'*" 1""*" chroniclcH without date,
c'„„„|P(f on tradition alone; and of treatises on
iniiralt^vritten to little )mriw»e f«>r one of the most
Heiisual, mendacious, and astute, but also one of
the cleverest people of ANia. For the history of
the Persians, for I, AGO years before the Arabian
conquest, we jwssess, from themselves, nothinp; but
iiiconfrruous table ; and were it not for the occa-
hioual, but always unsatisfactory informntion re-
siicctinR them communicated by the Cireeks first,
and then by the Homans, wo should have known
lis little of'their early history as we do of that of
the ilindoos or Mexicans. For 2,r>00 years they
have not l)een wholly stationary; but, measured
l)v the Kurofiean standard, they have made little
iirnj^rcss. The physical geoffraphy of their country
in not propitious to civilisation. Much of it, like
Arabia, is, from drought and sterility, unlit for
agriculture, and fitted only for occasional pasture ;
and hence, at all times, the roving and predatory
habits of a lai-gc portion of its population ; while
the same character belonging also, and even to a
"reater degree, to the countries wliich surround it,
The progress of industry and civilisation has not
(iiilv been obstructed by internal, but also by
foreign enemies. The Persian family has never
beon distinguished for the bold spirit of enterprise,
or capacity for social improvement, which has
characterised the Arabian. Very different from
the .lews and Arabs, such has always been the
mediocrity of talent among the Persians, that they
have no name which belongs to history, except
that of Zoroaster.
The next family of nations is the Turkish, or
Scvthian. The extensive country in which this
family is found, or rather its parent country, lies
between the 35® and 60° of lat. from the Hindoo
Koosh, a continuation of the Himalaya, to the
Belur Tagh, a spur of the Altai chain', and from
the Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the
(Insert of Gobi, where they are mixed with the
Mongols. The family consists of the Scythians
and Parthians of antiquity, and of the true Tar-
tars and Turcomans, with the eastern and western
Turks of the moderns — the Usbecks, Tadjuks,
and Kirgis. To the west it has probably been
considerably intermixed with Greek and Caiica-
>i,iii blood; to the east and north, with Mou-
gulian; and to the south with Persian. The
coiiiiilcxion of this race is a light brunette. Tlie
hair generally black, strong, and long ; but when
the complexion is remarkable for its fairness, it is
brown, and of a more delicate texture. The colour
of the eye is a light brown, but the form some-
what contracted. The skull is remarkably glo-
bular, the forehead broad, and the space between
the brows very prominent ; the proportions of
the face are symmetrical ; the npper jawbone is
singularly short, and the basis of the lower jaw
is also remarkable for its shortness ; the facial
line is nearly vertical. The bod)' is sivnit, but
the stature shorter than the Eurojiean. Abstract-
ing hair, complexion, colour, form of the eye,
and stature, with the intellectual powers as they
have been hitherto dcvelojied, the Turk is in fact
a European. The Turkish language is one of
simple stmcture, like the Persian or ICiiglish ; and
its i-ounds, but not its words, resemble those of
the former. IJy the conquests of the various
nations who s|)eak it, it has been spread from
lireece to Chinese Tartary, and from Persia to
5j°lat.; but, unlike the Arabic and Persian, the
more cultivated languages of a more civilised
jieople, it has nowhere sujiersedcd or much mixed
iiself up with the dialects of the conquered
people; nor in the government of a conquered
people have the Turks over exhiliiled the skill or
tiderance of the Arabs or Mongols. What lia-t
been said of the character of the physical geo-
gr.if»hy of the native country of the Arabian and
I'ersian families, is still more applicable to t\w
Turkish. A great portion of it is mere desert,
without trees and water; ond the cultivable por-
tions are, in fact, but so many patches along tim
banks of rivers, thinly scattered over a boundles.-i
waste of sand. In these patches industry and
civilisation spring up, surrounded in everj' direi^-
tion by robbers and freebooters, and liable at
every moment to be crushed by them. To usci
the words of Mr. Krskine, in his introduction to
the 'Translation of the Memoirs of the Eiii|M'riir
Uabcr,' we And among the Turkish family ♦ trilM .-4
who, down to the present day, wander over their
extensive regions, as their forefathers did, little,
if at all, more refined than they appear to liax-c
been at the dawn of historj'. Their flocks ar<)
still their wealth, — their camp their citj' ; and tliu
same governmetit exists of separate chiefs, who
are not much exalted in luxury or information
above the commonest of their subjects aroinnl
them.' This cause, however, it must be admitted,
will not account for the backward civilisation of
the Osmanli Turks, who have now for centuricM
occupied some of the finest regions of Asia ami
Europe, and been during the same time in close
communication with the civilised nations of the
latter.
That some nations of the tnic Turkish family
were early civilised to a certain extent, is not to
be doubted. It was among them that Alexander,
more than three centuries before the Christian
era, ftmnd the principal materials for founding
his Greek kingdom of Uactria; and from tinui
immemorial the horse, ox, camel and dromedary,
ass, hog, and dog, have ])robably been domesti-
cated among them. The ass and hog are still
wild animals of the country; and in early times
it is not improbable the others were so also.
The Turkish or Scythian family seems to havo
invented no ^vritten character, and hence, in early
times, to have had no literature. The evidence
of some Bactrian coins shows, that when the more
improved nations among them had advanced to
wnting, thev used the alphabetic characters of
ancient Persia. The best and most fertile portion
of the country of the Turks was conquered by the
Arabs towards the end of the seventh century,
and this was followed by the adoption of the Ara-
bian alphabet, and by much of the language and
literature both of the Arabs and Persians. It was
not, however, until the establishment of a firm
government under Jaghatai, the son of .Jcngis
Khan, that the Turkish language — from him
called the .Taghatai Turkish — began to assume
the character of a polished speech, and to be
written ; and its most nourishing period is com-
prised in the short time from the death of Timiir,
m HO."), to the death of Baber, in 1630. Its lite-
rature consists chiefly of popular poetrj', in the
form of odes or songs; but there are also some
prose compositions, religions and chronological ;
of which last the most remarkable are the me-
moirs of Timur and Uabcr. Turkish composition,
as described by Mr. Erskine, is less inflated and
rhetorical than Persian and Arabian ; and, judg-
ing by his own translation of the last of the works
above mentioned, we should be disposed to con-
rider Turkish literatnre as making a nearer ap-
proach, on the whole, to the good sense, taste, and
simplicity of that of l'^uroj)e, than any other lite-
rature 01 Asia. The Uiciur language, used by a
great portion of the inhabitants in Eastern Tur-
kestan, resembles the Jaghatai much in form, but
m
I'M
i;,^
'I
; ^m
if
222
AKIA
id reported by flip most recent travellers to prewnt
coiiHideralile ililt'ereticPH.
In till! poiith-onHtem nnple of vlint is roni-
moiily ronsiilered Persia, aiiti now known l)y liie
mime of Iteloochistan, we have three riieeH of n»en,
distinct ill perxoii and laiiKiuif^e, living; in tlie
jtaiiie eoiintrv, and dwelliiif; lonether, yet. not
often inlerinixiiif; their Mood, — a eircunwtanee
whieh will frequently he found in what reinain.s
of our review of the ' Kaces of Asia.' Tliese are
the Heloehcen, Krahoos, and Dehwars. The JIv-
litehrm have dark-hrown eomplexions, hiaek hair,
long visages, elevated features, with tall anil active,
but not rohiiHt lu'rHoiis. Half their langiiii^e is a
corrupted I'ersiaii; and, allhouf;h the nature of
the other he not ascertained, we have little doubt
of its heiiiR primitive and ori^^inal. The Jirnliuon
are wholly unlike the Heloehees. They have
thick short bones, — are, in fact, a squab instead of
a tall people. Their faces are round, and their
features tlat, instead of beiiij; raised. Krequently
they have lirown hair and beard, from which
we should aiif^ur a fairer complexion than is as-
cribed to them. 'J'he lanpuiKe of the Hrahoos is
entirely dill'erent from that of the llelochees; it
contains no J'ersian, ami but a few words :)f the
neifrhhourin^ dialects of the Hindoos. The Deh-
tviim have blunt features, hin'li cheek hones, blulf
cheeks, and short bodies. What is remarkable of
them is, that their lanpnifje is that of a jieople
to whom they bear no personal resemblance, the
I'ersians. This, it may here be observed, is alst)
the case with the Tadjuks of the Turkish family,
M'ho claim to be the aboripnal inhabitants of
Bokhara; but then the Tiidjiiks, though stout in
stature, have elevated features, and a riuUly brown
complexion. None of these nations have a na-
tional literature, or seem ever to have invented
nil alphabet. Kven in the time of Alexander, al-
though rude barbarians, they were far from heiiif;
savages; for they had oxen, pmts, and camels,
and cultivated wheat, barley, and several fruits.
To the N.of the races now described, and in the
NK. anf;le of I'ersia in its widest acce])tation, we
lind another race, the Afiiltan. This family is
marked by a brown complexion, black hair, some-
times brown, a profusion of beard of the same co-
lour, high noses, high cheek-bones, long faces, a
robust person, and a stature short of the Kiiropean.
Their langiiiige, called Pushtoo, is peculiar; it
contains lew Sanscrit words, but a good many of
those of the |Hi]iular language of Upper India, or
Hindi: the sounds are rough, and some of the
consonants are such as have no existence in the
Persian. They have no alphabet, and use the
Arabic characters; and their national literature,
consisting chielly of lyrics, is said not to be above
150 years old. In the time of Alexander these
people were rude barbarians, but not savages, for
they had towns, and com, an<l cattle, and were
probably on a level with the (iermans and Hritiais
m the time of ('a'sar. It is only in comparatively
late times that they have made any ligiire in
history. Conquered by a Turkish nation, in the
last years of the tenth century', they continued,
by their military enteqirises and hivasions, to ex-
ercise great iiiHuence o\er the all'airs of Iliiuhistan,
and some even over the atlairs of Persia, down to
the mi(Ullc of the eightceiith century.
Among the high mountains and n.irrow elevated
valleys which lie E. of the country of the Afghans,
exists a iieojile, of whom little is known beyoiMl
their names: these arc the Rafters, or intidc'ls, so
called by their Mohammedan neighbours, the
Dards, Tibet-lialtai, Chitral, Hazaras, and Aimaks.
These people are described as remarkable for their
fairness ; the possession, occasionally, of light hair
and blue eyes, and great personal lioaiity. They
speak nianv hingiuiges which arc absolutely im.
known to KiiropeaiiH. According to a inimt Jmli-
cioiis writer, Mr. Krskine, they eonstitiite 'aHirics
of nations, who appear never to have attniiied lint
arts, the eiLse, or tlie civilisation of the stnitlicrii
states; but who, at the same lime, unlike ttii)si>
to the north, have, in general, settled on some par-
ticular snot, built villages and towns, and eiiltivai(>i|
the soil. They cultivate small quantities ofwliciiL
and millet, but their |iriiicipal wealth consists in
oxen and goats. The nKMintain barriers wliich
surround them liavc protected them from invasicni;
and the narrow vallevs which comprise tlicir
cimntry, diviih's them into numeious tribes, niiil
hinders their civilisation.
Proceeding eastward, we come to a groat and
nuineroiis family, the llindtiit, spread from tlic
7th to the iJiith degree of north latitude, and fmin
the tWth to the !t.")th of east h)ngitude. Correctly
speaking, this is |H'rha|>s not one family, hut na
aggregate of rac«'s, hearing such a general rosom-
blaiice to each other, as the Kuro|)ean varieties do
among themselves, altbough wider in degree. The
colour is commonly black, or at least a deep bniwn ;
and hence the name of Iliiuhio, apjdied to them
by their fairer Turkish and Persian invaders; fur
that word in \\\v Persian language is eqiiivalciit
to negro in ours. The hair is always long, course.
andblairk; the beard of the same colour, aiul iidt
delicient; the eye invariably black, or deep brown,
the face oval, and the features well raised, syiii-
inetrical, and handsome ; so far at least as the iih-
sence of colour and transi)arcncy will allow, Imt
generally with an elVeminate cast: with some dc-
fect in tiie lower limbs, the person is well formed.
The staturi^ is generally short of the Kiiropean:
the body is .s]iare. and deficient in strength «nd
capacity of enduring toil, if compared with tlio
surrounding families; but the want of force is in
some measure compensated by lightnes.s, flpxi-
bility, and dexterity. .Indging by the fonn ofthc
skull, modern naturalists have (ilaced the Ilindws,
or still more whimsically, ' the higher orders' of
them, in the same class with the natives of Kiirii|ie.
This is hilt an ingenious ]>hilosophical dream; anil
Orine. who knew them well, and who never sus-
|)ecled the possibility of placing them in the same
category with men of white skins, robust frames
and high enterprise, justly describes them as h.win;,'
Iwen 'from the earliest ages of antiquity a people
who have no resemblance, either in ligiire or man-
ners, with any of the nations contiguous to them,'
Their general ajipearance to a stranger is truly
and graphically described by Mr. Ford, chapiiiin
to the factory at Surat in the commeneemont cif
the seventeenth century. 'A people,' says he.
' presented themselves to mine eyes, clothed in
linen garments, somewhat h)W-descendiiig; of a
gesture and garb, as I may say, maidenly, ami
well-nigh effeminate ; of a countenance shy, and
somewhat estranged, yet smiling-out a glozed
and bashful familiarity.' Clearness and subtlety.
rather than <lepth with vigour, characterise the
intellectual capacity of the Hindoo. In practical
good sense they arc below the Chinese; in enerfiy,
vigour, and enterprise, below the Arabs, Persians
and Turks ; but they arc ecinally astute with .any
of these ; if, indeed, they do not, in thb rt'9])eci,
surpass them all. They h.ive been repeatedly,
and, for so numerous a peoj)le, easily conquered ;
but, on their side, they have never gone abroad
for conquest.
The 1 liiidoos were probably among the earliest
civilised of the families of mankind. Nearly '2,".'t*l
years ago, the (irceks found tliem coniposuif; com-
munitie,^, whose advance in the arts of lil'e was
l)onufy. Thpy
alimihilcly uii-
n a inoRl judi-
ititulo 'iiwrii's
vc nttniiiiMl the
if tlip Roiithcni
0, uiilikv \him
•A on 8onu' pur-
, uiul cuUivatcil
nliticH 111' whim
ilth connlsts ill
bnrri(;r8 wliiili
1 from invuNiiiii ;
coniprisp tlieir
nma tribes, uiiil
to a KTcnt. ftmi
prenil from tlic
litiulc, and frmn
;ii(U'. Correctly
fmnily, Imt an
I gWK'ral rcsom-
iciin vftrioties An
■ in ilrKi^PC. The
Ht n (U'l'i) brown ;
applied to tliom
an invader!*: fur
^e is i(niival('nt
uys loiifi, eoarxc.
L! colour, and not
<, or (Uh'I) brown ,
vM raisod, hjul-
1. U'list as the al>-
y will aUow, Imt
: : with some dc-
n is well I'omicd.
f the r.iiropcan:
in strenijtli ami
nnpan'd with the
Hit of force is in
liffhtness, flpxi-
fy the form of the
^ipod tbe Iliiulwis,
liinher orders' ><(
lativi'sof ICurniio.
\\k:>i\ dream ; ami
I who never siis-
tlieni in the same
ns. robust frames,
s them as having'
inti(|uity a iicnple
in tifjufc or man-
it ij^uous to them,'
stran};er is tnilv
Ford, chaplain
oinmenccmciit (if
people,' says he.
jycs, clothed in
descendiii};; of :i
maidenly, ami
tenance shy, and
ufj-out a pWd
ess and subtlety,
characterise the
loo. In practical
linese ; in energy,
Arabs, Persians
astute with any
t, in this rcsijoci,
been repeatedly,
:!iisily concpiered;
ever" gone abmad
nioiit' the enrlio-t
nd. Xearly2.-i(»)
^ compo.'iui;; corn-
arts of life was
ffliinl to that of the PprsiaiiH of the Hnmo pcriiMl ;
1,11,1 to imvo attained hiicIi a Htatc, must have In-cn
ilicwdrk of many previous centuries. The trountry
thev inlial)it has a favonrable climate, and fruitful
miil, anil nature presented to tlie cKercise of their
niitliral infjenuity many valuable products in the
nninial. venelablc, and mineral kingdoms, such as
the useful aniiimls, numy of which an; still found
ill a wihl state in the country, with several ilc-
scriptions of corn, es(Mdent. roots, irolton, and silk.
All the lan(;uHneH of tlu! Hindoos are of simple
L'ramuiatical stnuiluns except one, the dead San-
scrit, as complex as the (ir«^e,k or Arabic. There
arc at least ten al|diabets, which seem to have been
separately invented, itnt afterwards more or less
imiiroveii by borrowiiif; from that of tbe. Sanscrit,
tiic most. c(")m|irebeiisive of them all, piirlicularly
ill the adoption of its re^^nlar and almost philoso-
phical arraiii^emcnl. The Hindoo lauf^uai^c, which
(•(iiitaiiis tbe >;reatest amount of Sanscrit, is tlut
iiiiidern Hindi; and at the close of the tenth cen-
turv, on the lirst Mohammedan invasion, a lan-
miiH'. was spoken at Delhi and its vicinity as
nearly re.senibliuji; it as Saxon (hies Mii^jlisb. The
nation, then, of which the. Sanscrit was the ver-
nacular laiijjuaf^e, imibably had for its jirimitive
scat the countries on both banks of the .Inmna,
ftliiuii the 'JHtb de^jree of N. latitinb'; and this is,
indeed, pointed out by many intelli):;ent Hindoos,
as the, locality of the ancient jn'ople who.se lan-
Uniure and institutions have ex»'rtod so }freat an
iiilluciicc over a hirj;(; |)ortion of mankind. .'\s we
diverge from this focus, the proportion <d' Sjiiiscrit.
fiiund ill the dialects of India, bei'oines less and
less; and in some of the laiif^iiaKcs of tbe ,Soulb,
not, more of it is to be, found, nor in any other
shape, than that in which we lind Latin in luif;-
liali. Hindoo literature, notwithstanding tin- un-
C|Hestioii«blc aiiti<piity of its cnltiin;, is exlrava-
);aiit, rhapsodical, puerile, and destitute both of
iiislTUctioii and amu.sement. In inp'iiuity and
ii'.vention it can bear no comparison with that of
the Hebrews, Arabs, or I'ersians; nor. in common
sense or authenticity, with that of the Chiiiese,
tame and mechanical as is tbe, latter. The aii-
thcntii- records of the Hindoos cannot be carried
hack by any iiifiennity beyond eh'ven centuries;
ami even this niucli is the work of l^uropean .-iii-
tiipiarics. That perioil then carries Hindoo cliro-
ncddf^y only to the middle a^jes <d' Kiiropean his-
tory ,-^corresponds with theArabcoiKpiestofSp.'iin,
—and is lonj; posterior to the conipiest of I'ji^land
hy the Saxons, of Franco by the Franks, and <)f
Italy by the Lombards. The cajiiicity of tbe Hin-
doo' family, then, tried by tbe test of literature,
inlands lower than that id" any of its considerable
nci(;hbours. We have already said, that thoii};h
in colour, form, and feature, a common character
hcloiifis to the whole Hindoo family, there exist
&U) sirikiiif; diU'efences. We shall enih'iivonr to
point out a few of these. Uej^iniiiiifx from the
north-west, we have the Citsfinii'iliiiis, with fjeiiuinc
Hindoo features, brunette complexions, jiiid rather
stouter and taller ])ersoiis t'.uin tbe inhabitants of
the ]daiiis of Ilindostan. They have a ix'ciiliar
laiij^uafje and a national alphabet. South of these,
and on the plain, we have tbe more numerous and
powerful nation of the Sviks or Slni/hs. 'The
features of the wb(d(' nation,' savs Ihirnes, 'are
now as distinct frimi tho.se of their neifjfbbonrs as
the Indian and Chinese. With .t,ii extreme re;.;u-
larity of physiofjnomy, and eloiifjatltm of coniite-
iiauce, they may be readily distinfjuished from the
other tribes.' We shall add to tliin, that they are
a tall, active, handsome race; of very dark com-
plexiiuis, but of features stroni;ly marked by the
genuine Hindoo character. Their laiigiuige id a
ASIA 223
<lialpet of the Hindi, lletwppn the 2.')th and 'J.lrd
de^crce of N. hit., and the 72nd and H7th deforce
of I''.. Ion., exists a numerous peoph>, now, for the
most part, speaking; also a dialect of tbe Hindi,
...I.:.. I. I : i' .1... «f .1 I....
which has, ni conse(pHMice of the Mohammedan
coiupiest, received a lar>;e admixture <>( I'ersian.
They are generally taller and fairer than the ))(Mipli!
of the south, and of all the Hindoo family may bo
considered im having made the greatest advanci; in
eivilisati(m. Their laiiKuage is writlc^n in the
same alphabet as that used in writing Sanscrit.
Thron^bout India they are known iw HlmliiiittiHirii.
To the east of these, and inhabiting; the extreme
eastern portion of the country of the Hindoos, wo
have the, Iteii^ralee raci;, distin^iiisluMl by dark
(Complexions, low st-iture, and feebhi and slend(cr
frames b(>yond any other Hindoo ])eo]de. Tint
Henpilees have a peculiar lanpni^u of simpltt
structure, without, intlexions, the parts of speeclt
beiiin fonned by the, ii.sc! of particles and aiixi-
liariccs. Sanscrit words and roots enter lar^jtdy
into its composition; and it has Ihu'u alle^(-d of
this, and of most, of tin; other vernacular lan^ua^e.s
id' India, that Sanscrit fonns their frroiindwork, as
Latin fonns that of Italian, French, and Spanish.
This, howevi^r, is unipiestionably not true of all
the lan^iia^esof the south of India; and we think
it very donlilfiil if it be so even of that of the IJeii-
pdees. This lust has a pi-culiar alphabet, fonned
on the )irinci]de of tbe Dewana^ari, an alphabet
of the Sanscrit, the basis most, probably having
been a rude, character of indi^eiions invention.
There is no Henjialee literature which f^oes further
back Ibaii tlio lifteenth century, and very littlo
even of this. Tbe lieiif^alee.s, like the other
Hindoos, havi! no history; and the first anthentit!
dale in their chronolojfy is the year I'itKi, when
the country was invaded and coiiipuTed by tliii
Tnrko-I'ersians, from Delhi. Upon the whole, tlus
Itetipilee racit may be, looked upon as the least
.enertjetic, physically and mentally, of tlic Hindoit
family. Kveii within Ilindostan, they have never
ventured, as conipierors or «!niif;rants, beyond the
limits of their own country; wliile, from the e.'ir-
liest .ifjes, ibicy seem to have been invaded and
subdued by all their western nei^'libonrs. In tlexi-
bility and acuteness, however, they erpial any
other Hindoos; and in onr times, have ('.xbibiteii
a capacity for improvement beyond them all.
To the south id' the I{enj,;alees, we tiiid the
Oria race, or Orias, taller .'ind stronger than the,
former, but still with slif^ht and delicate li^'ures.
This race is remarkable, even amon^; Hindoos, for
a lack u( spirit and intelligence. They have a
jieculiar lauj!;n.i^e, of simple, structure, into the,
composition of which both Sanscrit and Iteii^alee
enter larj;ely, but its foundation is most proliably
native. The al|diabct is founded on the principle of
the Dewananari, and the literature coiisi.st.s almost
wholly of translations and parai)hrases from the
Sanscrit.
To the south of the Nerbudda river, and of the
Orias, are the populous race of the l^clinf/as,
stouter, taller, and much more enerf^ctic. These
are the iieople called by the earlier European
settlers dentois. Their langnafjc is inharmonious,
harsh, not very simple in its structure, and is
written in a peculiar national aljihabet; followinf^,
however, as all the Indian aljdiabets do, the con-
venient cl.is.silication of the Dewanagari. Sanscrit
rs found in it, as French exists in Knglish, (Jreek in
Latin, Arabic in Persian, or Turkish and Persian
in the dialects of northern India. Their national
literature is considerable in extent. This is tbe.
only Hindoo race which has exhibited any thini;-
like a spirit of foreij,'n enterprise ; and that enter-
prise is wholly mercantile. Their commerce and
i 7 '
ill
( A.^
m
1 wm
\t
ASIA
tlipir mijn'nfi"!"' nf prcsont cxtpiiil. nn\ seem from
wrv rcindtc |icri(ii!,s to Imvo cxUMidcd, to tlm
iNlniids of fliti Iiiiliiin Orcnii, iiiid the countries
li('t\v(!oii India nnd ("iiiim. Tlio siircnd of tlui Inn-
pin^'c nnd institutions of the Hindoos, indeed, to
llicMe countries, wus most probuhly in a great
measure their work.
To the west of the Telingns, arc the Miihmttn
race, smaller in person ; rather of meagre and di-
minutive form. The Mahrntta lnn>;ua{;e is l)ecu-
liar; nnd in reference to the admixture of Sanscrit
found in it, the same ohser\'ntions apply as to the
Telingn, Amonj; all the considerable races of the
Hindoo family, the Mnhrnttn had lonj; been the
most backward in civilisation, nnd were totally un-
known to history as a people, until the be^imiing
of last century, when they suddenly entered on a
career of conquest which threatened, and, but for
the presence of a Euro|>ean ])ower, would probably
liavo cflccted, the siilijugation of all India.
The South of India, i)eyond the Telinpa and
!Mahrnttn races, is occupied by four distinct races,
(liircring in Innf^unge, nnd, in some respects, in
physical form and intellectual character. All of
them are (the inhabitants of IScngal excepted)
of shorter stature, but of more compact form, tiiaii
the Hindoos of the north. They are commonly
also of darker complexions. Immediately to the
east of the Telin{ja, is the Taiiml race, occupyiuf?
the whole of the level country below and to the
cast of the preat table-land of the peninsula as far
as Cape Comorin. iSouth of the river Krislina,
nnd occupying the table-land, is the Karnatu or
Oanaresc race, considerably civilised, and wide-
spread in this ]iart of India. Below the table-land,
and on the western coast, are two races, the Ma-
labar, and the Tiilawa, to the south, )ieculiar in
their physical orgniiisntion, intellectual character
and language. Hesidcs these well ascertained
races, there are evidences of the existence of dis-
tinct races also in the peninsulas of Gujrat and
Kutch, and in t'le territory of Sinde ; in nil of
which there seem to have been pcniliar languages,
reduced at present to dialects by the admixture of
conquerors and settl vi from the north. Among
the ilindcx) races must bo included the aboriginal
inhabitants of Ceylon, or Cingalese, who resemble
the Hindoo, and no other family, in their colour,
the form of their jiersons, the character of their
features, and the texture of their minds. They
have a peculiar language, an indigenous aliihaliet,
following the Sanscrit arrangement, and their
speech contains an abundance of Sanscrit words.
IJut bi'siilcs these more considerable races of
the Hindi" ■ family, there are a good many rude
tribes. diU'cring essentially in language, and often
in person, from their more civilised neighbours,
antl from each other. If we reckon these last at
not more than half a dozen, we shall find that the
whole Hindoo family of nations does not consist
of less than eighteen difl'ercnt races, differing more
or less from each other, in stature, strength, mien,
and intellectual endowment. If we carry our
minds back to a ))eri(Ml of Hindoo history when
society was in as rude a state as in America on its
discovery; — before the time when some of the
races, by their sujierior energy, and more favour-
able position, had destroyed or absorbed those that
■were more feeble, or less suspiciously situated, we
shall probably be led to conchide that the number
of races and languages was, in proportion to extent,
as great in India as we have found it to be in the
New World, uniform as the Hindoo physical form
and mind is commonly considered to be.
From the eastern limit of the country of the
Ilindfios to the western limit of China, and from
the 7th to the 2Gtli degree of N. latitude, there
exists n great family, wliich has n common rhn-
ricter, that is, the (iin'crcnt races, or nntions, nr
tribes composing it, agree as much nniong tlioni-
selves as Kuropenns, Hindoos, or Chinese, 'flic
gciieri(^ name most commonly applied to this t'amilv
is the llind<M)Chinei>e, 'l"he fidlowing is an outline
of its physical form. Head geiu'rally well jim.
)>orti(iiu'd, but of remarkable tiatness in the ncii-
pital part. Features never bold, prominent, dr
well (lelined as in the nations of central Asia.
Xose small, round at the point, but not flnttenpil;
and the nostrils, instead of being parallel, divir(,'(>
greatly. Mouth wide, but the lower part of ilu.
face does not |)roject ; lips rather thick ; eyes simill
and black. Kyebrows not prominent, nor wdi
marked. The face, instead ol being oval, as in the
Hindoo, Persian, Turkish, Arabian, and Kumpeaii
families, is of a lozenge form ; arising from its great
breadth across the cheeks, and the prominenec u{
the latter. Complexion n light brown; niueli
fairer than the Hindoo, but darker than the I'lii-
nese. It is never black, as in many Hindoos and
most negroes. The people described are them-
selves aware that thev are a fairer race than the
Hindoos; and. like the Turks and Persians, cnll
the latter ' black men.' The hair of the head is
always black, lank, coarse, nnd abundant. On
every ether part it is scanty ; and the bean! is
throtighout thin an<l defective. The average stature
may be taken at live feet three inches ; so that
they are shorter than the Hindoos and Chinese,
but rather taller than the Malayan family. The
lower limbs are better formed than in the" Hindoo
family, and the hands larger and less cffeminaie.
The whole person is robust, but without the liphl-
noss, flexibility, and grace of the Hindoo furni.
It is at the same time more vigorous, strong, and
hardy. The languages of this family of iiatimis
are for the most part motiosyllabic, ai'id os wc ap-
proach China wholly so. Even the polysyllahie
words of foreign languages naturalised ammi;;
them are pronounced as if each syllable were a
distinct word. It follows of necessity that thoy
are extremely sim])le in their structure, particles
supidying the jilaces of inflexions in all jiarts of
speech, and words following each other in the
natural order of ideas. There are, besides the
Pali, or character of the religious language, six al-
phabets, employed by as many distini^t nations.
which, however, on examination, may be reduwil
to three. The Uirmcse, Pcguans, and Aracanese
write in the same alphabet, with trifling nioditica-
tions. The Siamese, Cambojans, and, for the nio.-t
part, the Laos, write in one alphabet — that usually
called the Siamese. lUit a ])ortion of the ppopK;
of Lao also write in an alphabet distinct from these
two. The nirmese and Siamese have adopted tlio
classification of the Sanscrit, but not so the pceii-
liar al))habet of Lao. We hold all three to ho of
native invention, and the introduction of the San-
scrit classification to be only recent atul incidental.
The fourth alphabet, or Pali, in which relifrious
works are generally written, is common to ail tlii^
nations now mentioned, and is the same which i<
now u.sed in Ceylon for {\ similar purjiosp. ami
which was once used in Java and other regions
remote from India, the country in which it un-
questionably originated. The languages of the
Hindoo-Chinese countries now mentioned have not
only a common character, as to sound, structure,
and genius, but they contain also many words in
common, the necessary etlcct of invasions, con-
quests, and settlements ; the greater nunilier of
them, probabh% in rude and early periods of so-
ciety, and of which, with few exceiitions, liistor)'
has j)reserved no record. A large infusion of San-
scrit, through the medium of the Pali, is also com-
ASIA
22ft
mon fi> tlifin nil. The Pali difTprR cliiofly from
Siiiwrit in lirinj; more vocalic, more crt'ciniimtp
in ilH proiiiiiu'iiitloii, nw\ Ichs coiiiiiIcx in its
L'mniiimti<'iil Mtructiiro. Most prolmhiy it wii^t a lan-
jriia;;i' wliifli arose on the niins of the Sanscrit;
mill was the result of a conquest of the jieoj)le
wim s|M>ki! the latter, effected (ly some other Ilni-
iliiii iiiition, the principal scat of wiiose ptvernment
w:is iMii^ndlia or llahar. The I'ali is nut an in-
trinsic portion of the ilindoo-tjhinese lan^ua^es;
lint it is found to exist in thcin, as Arabic does in
I'lTsiiin or Turkish. The mind of this family, as
I'xiiiliitcd in theirlitcr.iryefl'iirls, ranks llicin lielow
llmt of the Hindoos. In enterprise tlicy rank also
Ih'Iiiw tiie latter. Their wars and enterprises have
Ih'imi wiioUy confined amonjj themselves, and they
Imvc never exercised the sli;;htest intliience over
till' (ilhcr fjreat families of mankind; nor have
iliev |irodiiced a sintfle ffrent name known to his-
tiirv, »r one rememi)ered even liy themselves a
(riitnry after his death. Still their civilisation
must lie of consideralile antiquity, for tlieeh'ments
til proiniite an early advance uncpiestioiialdy exist
in their country, and these have never lieen jire-
.-■itlril toaiiy family of mankind without l)ej;ettin{i
i.irly impriivement. The ox, the htirtalo, and the
cli'iiliiiiit, are natives of their countries throU},di-
iMit : niid very jjrohahly the horse and dofx were so
in I'.irly times. The soil too is fjenerally of re-
niiirkalile fertility ; is well watered ; and. in all
lilii'lihiiod, rice and some smaller (grains, with some
firiimcpims roots and useful fruits, arc indifjenous.
(nfiTiiir to the Hindoos, and still more to the
I'crsians, Arabs, and Chinese, their superiority over
all the iic<;ro and American nations is in a still
crentcr proportion. Their proj^ress in nfjriculttire,
in the rorrimim arts of life. th(? character of their
ri'lisiiiti'' and civil institutiims, and their pos-
sMiiii of a written character and a literature, to
whii'li they have been little indebted to foreiffners,
dttest. in short, an early and considerable proj^ress
in smicty. Uinnese temples, with every apjiear-
anceiif authenticity, can lie traced back to the !>th
(intnry, ciirrcsi)ondinj^ to the n{j;es of Charlemagne
anil liariiun-al-liaschid. This, to be sure, is no
jircat antiipiity; but the peojile who constructed
>ui'l\ biiildiiiifs were already i'ar removed from
lic'ini; savajjcs.
We shall now offer a brief sketch of the races
or varieties of the Hindoo-CJhinese family, begiii-
ninj; inir examination from the westward. After
leaviiit; the country of the Hindoo family — of the
men nf black complexion, tine ])rominent features,
sleiuler person, an(l {'n'aceful form — weaiijtroach the
men of browni complexion, flat features, and stron;^-
liiiilt bnt squab i)ersons. Still the Hindoo form,
vlietlier from admixture of races or orij^inal con-
stitntitmal difference, has not wholly disappeared,
.ami the half-civilised people of Cassay. Cacbar,
ami Assam, with about a dozen small tribes in a
wild and lialf-sav»fjc state, may be described as
Iiartakiiiff of the physical form of both Hindoo and
Iliniliw-Chinese. All these sjiealc different lan-
(;uiit,'es, and the more civilised write, some with
the alidmbet of the IJenj^allees, and some with
that (if the Uirmese. Amont; a few language is
liiilysyllabic, but monosyllabic dialects jirevail.
To the south and east of the savage semi-
Imrliariius or half-civilised tribes and nations now
mentioned— extending to the south as far as the
Till degree of north latitude, and to the oast as far
asthe Aiiam race — we find six considerable na-
tiiiiis in which the physical character we have,
a^i'rilied to the Hindoo-Chinese family is well
marked, the genius of whose languages agrees,
and who are nearly in the same state of social
ailvaneemeiit. These are, the Arucaiicsc, IJir-
Voi.. 1.
iTiese, Pcgiians, Laos or Shans, Sinmcso, and Cam-
bojans. Kach of these has its own jM'culiar
language; and there exists even in their iihysical
form, especiallv as to size, strength, and feature,
differences which, though not very obvious to a
stranger, are sensible enough to themselves.
I^iving among them in scattered communities, as
far -IS Kiiropean inquiry has extended, there i'xist
no less than eight tribes, migriitory or savage,
speaking as many distinct languages.
From the eastern frontier of (!ambiija, to the
western frontier of (liina, exists the Anam race,
comprising the Co<'biii-('biiiese and Toiuiuiuese.
These, though they have the common cbaraclers
of the Hindoo-Chinese family, ditler from tlii^ rest
in so many jiarticnlars that tliev might probably
have been considered, without impropriety, as a
distinct family of the hinnan race. In stature
they are shorter than their neighbours, the Laos.
Cambojans, and Siamese, and greatly shorter than
the Cbmese. Their jiersons are sijiiat, but well-
]iroportioned and active; their features are im-
seemlv, their cheek-bones very high, and in that
direction the face is very broad. Their language
is piindy monosyllabic, and in its terms has no
admixture of the western languages. It has no
alphabet; but, in lieu of it, uses, with little varia-
tion, the symlxdic writing of the Chinese. He-
sides the Anam nation there are two considi Table
tribes inhabiting the same country, the Vbanipa
and ISIoi, sjieaking their own distinct anil iieculiar
idioms. Thus, throughout the wholeof thclliniloo-
Chinese cimntries, and amimg a people probably
nnt}>y one-tenth part so numerous as the Hindoos, we
have thirty-two nations with distinct languages.
\Vc now come to an important family, comprising,
indeed, a very large ]iortion of mankind, the
Cliincne. The outline of its physical character
may be described as follows : — Colour a sickly
white, or pale yellow; hair of the bead lank,
black, coarse, and shining; beard always black,
thin, and deficient ; there is but little hair on any
other part of the body ; eye invariably black, or
dark ; eyes and eyebrows oblique, turning up-
wards externally ; cheek-bones high, and face
round — neither square, nor lozeiige-fonned, nor
angular in its outline; nose small, de])ressed at.
its extremity, and thick at the root; lips thicker
than with Kuropeans, bnt moderate compared to
those of the negro. The whole person is w(dl
built and symmetrical ; there is not in it the
lightness and agility of the Hindoo; but there is
sufficient activity, and far greater strength. The
hands are small and soft, like those of the other
l)(-o])le of wann climates. The lower limbs are
particularly well formed, far excelling in this
respect those of all other Asiatic peojile. The
languages of this ]ieii])le arc purely njonosyllabic,
none of the nations comprising it having ever
known how to put two syllables together; Ho(>
poor mcmosyllables, beginning with a consonant,
and ending in a vowel, a liquid, or a nas.al, and
each monosyllidde admitting commonly of about
four intonatiiais, so as to make in .all about 1,I!(I0
words, make up the wlude of their meagre col-
lo(piial dialects, which are no less than tifteen in
number, corresponding with theiincicnt provincial
divisions of the country, which in e.arlv times eom-
jiosed. jmibably, at least as many distmct nations.
The Chinese monosyllables arc neither affected by
number, case, nor gender; by mood, tense, «ir
person ; hut are designated by prefixeil or aflixcd
]>articles, about thirty in number. The Chinese
family never invented an aljihabet. From knotted
words they came to their present symbolic cha-
racter, which t)ears no resemblance "to the Kgjq)-
tian or any other hicroglvphics. It is a language
■y
r
if [
W\
m
{•
1^
w'
."I'VM
'm
1 »■
It
'■ m
li
226
ASIA
lor fhc oyp, nnd not fho rnr — n <'linrnctor wliii-h
iniiv lie read in Kiifrlinh or in Arnliic as wi-ll as in
any Cliint'so lau);iin),'('. and itroliiilily, indeed, >vitli
more jtreeision. 'i'lie Cliinese writing, in Cai'l, is a
inii vernal eliaraeter, like tlie Araliic nnnierals, and
IwiH eonsei|nently many conveniences ; lint it lias
also i(s inconveniences. It lias prevented iIh^ ciil-
liire of oral lanKnai;)-; occasioned I lie continnance
(il 'many distinct lan^iin^cs in the same country;
and these wretchedly meagre in strnctiire, sound,
nnd coniprehonsiveness. 'I'h(> Chinese mind, as
indicated hy its literalnro, is I'ripd, mechanical,
nnd nninia;;inative. For tlie Ihie arts, in which
the (ireeks and Ktrnscans had made such re-
marUahle proj^ress '2,ii>M years ap>, the Chinese
have never, to I lie )iresenl flay, exhiliited any
capacity. They are lahorious, jiraclical, orderly —
u vast assenilila^^e, in fact, of sho|ikee|iers anil
inechaiiics. They are nmouf; those families that
made the earliest prof,'ress in civilisation. What-
ever they have is, also, indinenons; for of all man-
kind they owe least to strangers. The Chinese
carry their authenlio history Imck to a iieriod of
nearly ;1.0(I(» years; and their sayie, Coiifiicins,
lived and wrote in the present character '2,M»t
years a;;o — wrote, in short, his moral rhapsodies
wldle Herodotus was writing; historv ; and in the
smne af;e in wliicli tlourished I'ericles, I'hidias,
Hippocrates, and I'liito; so that China was oh-
vioiisly as inferior to Europe then as it is now.
At that time, however, China, south of the Yellow
river, which at present contains the fjreatest and
most indn.strions ])ortion of its population, was in
a state of entire harliarism ; and evju the northern
frontier was divided into many petty states. Two
hundred and lifteen years hefore (lirist, or above
two centuries and a half later, the Chinese Imilt
nlon^ their frontier a wall of \,')(M miles in extent,
some ■_'(• ft. hi,i,di, and hroad cnoujjh for half a
do/.en horsemen to ride ahreast. This was in the
i^;e of the Ilannihals and Scipios, and in point of
mai^nitude, hnt nothing else, far exceeded the
]M)wer of the li'omans and Carthaftinians of the
same period. We may infer from it that a peo|ile
who could erect such a work, nnd wli(» 'i-tMio years
a^'o had a frontier of l,;'>()(l miles to defend, were
already numerous, and to a certain def^ree indus-
trious. We may safely infer, then, that the Chi-
nese, from their early profjrcss in civilisation, from
• heir invention of printin^^ their discovery of silk
and |>orcelain, their i)rojj;ress in useful works, such
as domestic architecture, hrid;;es. nnd canals, and
their acfpiaintnnee with the art of civil ndininis-
tralioii, are, if not the most showy and hrilliant,
at le.'ist the most jiractical and useful of the
Asiatic races. One tiling has heen always com-
mon to this nnd the Hindoo family — an ahsence
of the spirit of enterjirise. In no afi'o have the
("liinesc f^one ahroad in search of forei}^n con-
(piests or adventures ; and even their indirect in-
lluence on stranj^ers has heen contincd to their
own immediate nei^'hhourhood, no doubt n wide
circuit. Like all Asiiitic ])eople, too, they exhibit
n disposition to stand still, after making certain
ndviinces in civilisation, Avhich, in their case,
have undoubtedly been respectable. They at all
events display none of that illimitable facility of
expansion which, in the history of our race, has
hilberto alone characterised the Kuropean family.
'I'lie Huropeans of the l!)th century bear very little
resemblance to those of the loth, excejit in spirit
nnd enterprise ; but we perceive thnt the Chinese
of these two distant ages are in all respects very
nearly the same.
Kven in flic apparently homnpone.ius population
of China there is to be IoiiikI considerable diver-
sity, both jdiysical and intellectual, probably as
Kreat as in the Kuropean family or the Hindoo.
It has been nlrendy staled that there nre lirtecii
Iniifrua^es, helonpn^ to as many provinces; ai,,{
indeed, several provinces have more than oiii>
lan^iia^e. The inhabilantH of the soiitheni nihl
eastern const nre commonly more nthleiic t|,,,„
those of the centre nnd north; nnd amoiiL,' i|j,.
hitler are found some who have less of the obli(iiiiiv
of eye which is so chnracl eristic of the Cliiii,.sr,
and whose features nltop>ther approach ninri'
nearly to the Kuropean, There nre even rnccs
wiiliin the empire that are not Chinese eitlier in
person or speech, and who still preserve their in-
dependence, as the Meaoii-tse in the interior, tin.
I.olos on the western frontier, with (he monn-
taineers of Hainan and Kormosa. These tw„
islands, indeed, seem only to have heen e()loiiis(.,|
by the Chinese, as the Saxons colonised llriiaiii;
Hliile the almri^rines, like the Welsh and lli;r||!
lamh'rs, have been conlhu^d to the mouiitain^.
The laiiK'iui^^' of Formosa is, in fact, iiolysyllnliji^
and contains many words of the iMalayiui rniiiju'
of laii^ua;;es ; and the Chinese colonisation (il'tlij.s
island we know to be only of two centuries' date.
Near the Chinese we have another f^reat fainih-,
bearing; it some resemblance, but still so distinct
in physical nnd intidlectiuil character, tliiif we
are warranted in dassiii); it separately. 'I'his U
the •/«/«««('(«', which occupii^s a country of f;ri\'it
extent, in the line and temperate (diniate from niP
to 1,")° \., and comprises a population inl'crior
only to the Chinese. Their colour is tawnv;
stntiire short but robust; noses tlnttish', evcliils
thick, nnd, a.s it were, pulled ; eyes, ns usual, dark.
hut less sunk thnn those of the Chinese; lowir
limbs lar;;e and thick, not clean, nnd well made.
as with the latter. ' [ii the mnin,' says Keiii|it'ir,
' they an; of n very iij^ly nppearance.' Tli.'
laiiKua^'e of the Jtipanese, instead of heinj; hkhki-
syllabic, is polysvHabic, The Chinese can |irii-
nouiice the aspirate /i ; the Japanese liave iiu
such sound in their lanpnme. The Chinese liavc,
as it were, n natural incapacity of pronoimciiif; tlm
consonants r and tl, whi(di they always cinivcri
into /. The >Iapaiiesc ))roiiounce them with tho
same facility as Kurojieans. The ditfcrem |iri-
mmciatioii of the two people made n lively im-
liression on Kempfer, who describes it ns f(dlii\v>;
' As to the pronunciation, that also is very ditl'm'iit
in both lan;;naf^es, whether we consider it in
f^eneral, or with ref^ard to particular letters; ami
this <liftbreiice is so remarkable, that it seems the
very instruments of voice, are dittiTently fornicil in
the Ja|)anesc from what they are in the CIiIiicm'.
The proimncialion of the Japanese lnnj,'im};(' in
f^eneral is iiure. articulate, nnd distinct, there Ik'Iii;'
seldom more than two or three letters, acoprdin;'
to our nlphnbet, combined to>;ether in mic
syllable : that of the Chinese, on the contrary', is
nothinj^ but n confused noise of many consonants.
pronounced with a sort of sinKiiif,' accent, very
disajcreeable to the ear.' He acids, that, with tin'
exceiitioii of a few commercial terms, the liiii-
jLfiinf^e of Ja])an cloes not contain a siiifjlo wurl
borrowed from the dinlectsof China ; nnd liciirt'
he arf^ues, with justice, that the two nations ,iri'
wholly of distinct orij;in. The Jn]ianesc. I" ii
certniii extent, have ado|)ted the synilM>lic writiii:,'
of the Chinese; but they hiivealsoan alpliabci ■ I'
their own, which is syllabic, like that of tin'
Manchoos, and like it, too, written from tiip i >
bottom. A Hindoo alphabet has also bcwi r-
cently discovered nmoiif^ them, contiiied to ilii]
priesthood, who.se ritual is in the Sanscrit or I'.iH
laiifruagc. The Jnpaiicse, from the acoomiis w
possess of them, are a race of consideralilc |ili)-
sicid and intellectual encrf^y ; inferior to the Clii-
ASIA
Tl'
n(.sii in iiiK<'""''y, but siipcricir to thom in sjiirit
„iii| iciiinvi'. Faviiiircil liv n coiiiilry ('iijcivinj,'
i„,iiiy iiclviiiJliip's III' Miiil, clinifiit'. insular jiuHiiiun.
widi iiiiifil |iriilialily the iinsMCHMinn, on the spot,
iil'iiiiiiiv of thi> most useful jilants iinil aninials,
llii.voi'iiltl lianllv Tail to make an early pro^'ress iu
(•l\ili.''iiii"n. 'I'lu'ir aullientic liistorv, ai'conlin^
Id lhi'in»t'lves, dates tilio years n.f. This is pro-
jiiililv j;re«lly over-rat iuf,' its real authenticity; lor
it wciiilil eiirry us hack almost to the founilation of
Kiiiiic, luiil would preeedc, l>y nearly two cen-
liirics, the Hf,'e of ('onfiu'ius and I'erieles. In
lait. th<'y admit tluit they are n people of more
ri'iciit I'ivilisation tli.ni the ("hinese liy twelve
ii'iiliirics. They have had, however, a Ion;; time for
iiiiliriiveiiienl,aud for .he last three centuries may
|ii.c"iisiil<'rcd ashavi'.;i lieen id isohitely stationary,
ir. inilccd. as the result of their scdt'-exclusioii from
^lrall^;^'^s within that period, they nuiy not rather
111' niii^iilc'ed to 'le in a more ind'iivourahle po-
piliiin than hefori' it. While Chinese civilisation
li.is liei'M repeatedly interrupted liy the invasions
iiltlii' sliepherds of the North, no stran;;('rs have
ivir siii'cesst'ully invaded .lapnn ; and the only
iiili'iiipl at con(|uesl — made hy the Mo;;nl coii-
i:inriirs of China hetween live and six centuries
.,^rii_ti[e elements, and the coiira^rc of the .la-
iiinii'sc, repelled, and pupiished hy the desiruction
111' liMi.iiDii of the invaili rs. An industrious, and,
ill many respects, an inj;enious ciiltury of rice,
Imrlcy, and wheat — respectahle manufactures of
i-ilk, ciillou pottery, and lac(|iu>rcil ware, — letters,
liU'ratiiri, authentic records, the art of ]irintin^,
anil jiiilitical institutions — jirove the ,lapanese to
III' lapahle of n respectahle civilisation according,'
111 llie Asiatic standard ; hut they prove also that,
iiiiiwiilistaudiuf;' their more tiivourahlc position,
liiitli as to climate and jiolitical .security, tlieir
natural f;c"'u.'< !« inferior to that of the Chinese.
Tliat they are n pecidiar and on;;'inal family we
ihink there can he no ()ucstion. This is "their
imii iipinion ; and Kenipfer oh.nTves, in referc.ice
111 this siihject. that tliev * ijmcy theiii-'el vcv 'ni;;hly
atl'riiiileil liy the oniicavours of some who husy
itiiinsi'lves i<; draw the ori,L;iual of their nation
liniii the I'liinese or others of their neiiihlmurs.'
Tlio individuals of the .Japimese family, like
iillicr races, exhihit fjjvtit difTcrences, physical and
inti'llcclual. The iiduiliitants of Nipon, the prin-
lipal island, are distinguished hy liij; heads, flat
miscs, and inusculous tleshy coni]ilexiiins. Those
III' Saikiil-.f are short in stature, of slender make,
liiit well-shaped and handsome. The inluihitants
111' the I,iiiichoo islamls are descrihed as lieinj^
iii'itlierCliiiicse nor.lapaiu'se,liut par(akiiij,'oflioth.
Tlicir stature does not excc^ed 5 feet i' inches, .so
that tliey are a very dimi lutivc nun-. Their lan-
L;ua;;e is jieculiar, imrtakinj; equally of tue moiio-
syllaliic and polysyllahie character. The Japaueso.
on ilie whole, show much diversity, thounh not
til so frroat an extent as in China; owinj; to the
existence of a more perfect oral lanjj,ua,i,'e, a com-
m:in alpliahet, and, in general, the ahseuce of the
(irtiliciiii medium of comnuinication which is uni-
versal uiniinf,' the ]ieople of the latter country.
Til the NK. of China we have aimther family,
the Ciirenn, occupyiuj; a iienin.sula equal to liritain
ill extent. The Coreans are descrihed as superior
ill stren^'tli and stattire to the (.'hinese and >Ia-
|iaiu'si>, Imt they are evidently a race very interior
ill mental cnerf^y and capacity to either. Their lan-
(;nii,i;p, or most prohahly lanj^uafjes, are jieculiar,
ililleriii!,' fnim those of their inmiediate neifjhhours,
the Manclioos, Chinese, aiul Jajiancse. It would
aii|iear, also, tliat they liave a national alpliahotic
cliaraeter, althoufih occa.sionally havinj; recourse
•il^ to the svniholic writing of Chiiui. In the
nsi'fnl arts they have made consideralilc iirn>;ress,
hut the stinidanl of their civilisation is miirli
lielow that of the i'hinese and ■lapanese. Their
aulheiilic history pies hack to llio years li.c, or
ciirrespniiils with ijie clas,ic era of liomc,
'i'he inhahiiants of two thirds of the superlicicH
of Asia, from the scats of the families alreiidy
specilied to the Fro/cn Ocean, remiiiii to he de-
scrihed. These lia\e a common rcsemlilance in
some im|iiirtunt features; hut it is only such il
rcsemlilanci , colour alone excepted, as exist- in
all the families already mentioned from the ca-lcrii
shore of the Atlantic to the eastern coufiues of
Iliiidostaii, Modern niituralists have descrihed
the whiile, iucludin;;' iu it the iiiilioiis to the I'',, of
the Hindoos, wliicn we have just classed, as oi/c
of the live permanent varieties of the human nice,
nuder the name of the Momiiilinii. I'lider another
cla-sitieiilion, we miiy divide the races into thn-i^
which iiihahit the valleys or southern slnpesofthe
Hiiniil.iN'a chain; those which dwidi hctweeii the
latter, the Chinese and Coreau families, and the Altai
mountains; and, lastly, those which dwell lid ween
the Altai nio^'c ;;en,.ri,|iy and the Norlhern Itccaii.
The tirst rac", proceedin;; in the iiliove order,
and lie;;iuniii;,' from the \',., is the I'lootcM, or
iuhaliilaiits of ISootan. ' It is not possihle to
conceixe,' says Tiirm^, who was perfectly well
acipiaiiitcd with lioth, 'a ;,Teater dissimil'irity he-
twccii the in.ist remote inhahitimts of the ■^'lolie
than that which distiu^'uishes the feelile-hodicd
and meek-spirited natives of Iteimal, and their
active ;tnd herculean iieiLjhlionrs. the niountaincers
of Itootan.' 'i'hev have iiivariiilily lilack hair; the
eye is a very rcmarkahle feature of the face —
small, hiack. with loii^ pointeil corners, as thiiui;li
stretched and extended hy artiticial means; their
eye-laches are so thin as to he scarcely ]ic , eptihle;
and th.' <>velirow is hut sli;;hfly shaded, lielow
the eyes is the liroadest |iart of the face, which is
rather thit and narrow from the cheek-hones to the
rhin. "/he skin, ahout as fair as that of a southern
KurojK an. is remarkahle for its smoothness; and
the heard iloes not present itst'lf until a very ad-
vnnccil aj,^'. and then is scanty. The Mooteas arc
a stout, active race, and their stature occasioually
rises to six feet. Mr. Turner, indeed, descrilies
tluun as ' models of athletic streiiK'th.' The Itoo-
teas are a louf,'-settled agricultural iieoiilc, and
have made considerahle iiroj^ress in the arts; hll\■^'.
a peculiar lau;;uaj,'e; an alphaliet which follows
the Hindoo arraiij,'ement ; and in civilisation,
nllowance heiii),' made for their remote, insulated,
and mountainous countr\', may he considered mi
a par with the inhaliitants of the countries lyiiij;'
hetwecn India and China.
Westward of the liootcas is the country of the
Nejial, which, independent of Hindoo colonists
anil settlers from the S., who are sometimes of
pure lilood, hut have often mixed it with that of
the natives, contains eiyht ahorif;iual races, viz.,
the (iorkhas, ^lapirs, (iurunn's, .lariyas, Xewars,
Murmis, Kirauts, and Lupchas. This, from the
liredomiuaiit race, may he called the Gothlui.
family. These arc a short, rohnst ]ieo]ile, of an
olive comph'xion, and of features less jlontjolian
than those of the liootcas. Their lau},'unKcs arc\
for the most part distinct from each other, and
polysyllahie, and the greater nnmher of them Imvc
a knowl(ul):;e of letters. There is. among one of
the races at least, the rudiments of a native al|>ha-
liet ; hut the Dcwanagari, nda|itcd hy additions
and omissions to their native ]irouunciation, has
heen adopted hy the greater nimiher. Their state
of civilisation is nearly the same as that of the
liooteas; hut they have, recently a I'.east, exhi-
bited a greater spirit of enterprise.
Q 2
.'^Vi
ii
I.
*'^' '>Vi
Ih
aas
AKIA
To tin* N. of IUmiIiiii mid Xi^piil, mill on llic
trrrnco of llic Kriiiul cliaiii of tlu> lliinnlnyn, nt iiii
clcviilioii of I'J.iliiO or lil.niio li. nliovc n'n' ncii, in
n t'olil iiiiil ilrv I'liiiialc, iiml an iiiiK<'i<ial wiil, an'
found tli(^ 'filiclian family, wliicli, an far hm oiir
knowledge hkvh, rxJi'iidH over Ud d('>{rot'M of ion^i-
tiidt>, or from till' 7'ltli to the lOOtli. 'llic 'i'iltct-
iaiiM liav«! what is coinnioniy <'allt'd tin- Tartar
('oiinti'iiaiu'(^ — II fai'c aufjiiiar and iiroad arronn the
flu'ck-hiincs, and hniall hhick cycn willi very iilth-
heard, ln.'«li'ad of hcin^ tall, like the llooieaM,
they arc uliorl, n(|nat, liroad-xlionldcrcd, hut nIow
and Mlii^'iiifili in nnnd an well nx hody. They are
nnid in dispoHilion, and Unvf never <'xhihited the
mental encr^fy or enU'rp'iHe <d' their nei^hlMinrH
either to tlicN, or S. The hornc and ass, two
HiPceicH of till' ox. the jjoat and shccii, are doiiu's-
tieated anions them. All thcMC ar(! jirohahly nii-
tives of the conntry, and tlic two first are naiil
still to exist in the wild Ntate. Their linif^naKc is
;;iiilnral, nasal, and harsh, and in a ^reat measure
|iolvsyllnliic. They possess a iieeidiar alphahel,
which hears some resemhlance to that of the lliii-
(loos in their nei;;lil>oiirhoo(|, lint does not follow
its arr.'in^ri'iiunt. For rc^lijrions |mr|)oses Ihey have
aiiolher iil|ihahet, nnich resenililin^ the I'ali, and
which they no donht rcccivi'd aloiiff with the reli-
nion of Itnddhii or l'"o, which they havt^ heen the
incdiuin of c<iinmniiicatin^ to niaiiv of the trihes
of I'artarv, inclndinj,' the two winch have imhi-
(|ncrcd Ciiina. They have Ion;; possessed the art
of printin;^ with iniinoveahle wooden hlocks, which
they use, however, uiily for the nudtiplicatioii of
reli.uions works,
VVe now come to far more important races :
those inhahitin^r ffenerally the vast, plateau and
«'xlensive ascents hetween the llinialuya ranf,'e in
the sonth, and the Altai ranj^e and the ran);'es
which continue it to the eastward, in the north,
lis I'm' as the llOlh dej,'. of htiif;,, anil tlieii hetween
the laller and the riyht hank of the Ainnr, or
Anioiir, This is {\\c Mimijotian finnily, and may
he ilcMcrihcd as heinj^ t,'«'nerally coiiiprisi'd hetween
IIk! hiih and oOth dcfxrees of hit,, and ran^'iiif^
over Hi»° of lonj,',, or from the (ilUh to the I loth
ih'.iC. K.. althonuli, in some situations, exceedin;;
these limits N, and S, hy a few deforces. We shall
first f,'ive the prneral description of tlic whole
finnily. Forehead low and slantinj^;; head alto-
P'ther of a square form. The (;heek-hones stand
out widely on either side; the ulahdlu and osut
■iitisi, which are flat and very small, are placed
nearly in the same jilaiic with the malar hones;
there are scarcely any superciliary ridjjes; entrance
of th(! nose narrow; the malar ,/(>.s'sa forms hut a
slight excavation ; the iilvnlar edf^e of the jaws is
ohtusely arched in front; chin rather prominent;
hody short of the Eiiro])ean stature, hroad, square,
and rohnst; extremities short, hut slender; shoul-
ders hij^h; neck thick and stroIlf,^ Hair always
hlai'k, and the eye invariahly hlack or dark hrown.
Hair of the head long and lank; and there is a
paucity of heard, an well as of liair over the rest
of the hody.
There are two great divisions of this family
known to Kuropeaiis. under the name of Eastern
and Western Tartars. The first com]irise chiefly
the IManchoos, sometimes called also Mansliurs
and Manjurs. These are the jiresent hirda of
China, of which their jiarent country constitutes
but a dependency, though a favoured one. Those
that are seen in China arc not always easily dis-
tinguished from the Chinese. T'ley arc described
as shorter and squatter than .lu Chinese, and
having a more angular counti lance lunl harsher
features. It must, he rocollei:ied. however, that ii
perfect similarily of dress and <iis(iimc is apt lo
mislead the observer, and that most of di,, Of^j
conquerors marrying ChineHe women, the noniinni
.ManchooH of China arc in reality, in a Kreiii una
sure, a mixed race, Inhiibiiing a incin* ^ini;,!
climate and a better soil than Ilii* Miiiip,i„ „f
Western 'I'lirtiirs, iln^ Miinchoos are a niorc iIm-
lised people than the latter. They have I'nr |||,.
most part hiibilatiouH, and some a^'rii'iiitniv.
though thicks and herds constitute t|ii>ir cliiif
wcallh. The great river Amur, or Saghalicn, iiinl
its many branches, which abound In fish, pns.iu,.
through their territory, many exist as llslicnniil]
The Alanchoo Iiingii.ige is (iiiite natioiuil inul jh'.'
ciiliar; it is polysyllabic, full, and sonorous, it hjs
tli(! sort of copiousness which I'liaracteriscs tlic
Sanscrit and Arabic, and wliicli, in a iicrtci't iaii-
giiiige. ought rather to be called redunilaiicy. Tin,
iinmbcr of words for the horse, ox, itiul dug, h,-
cording to age, sex, si/,e, colour, and oihi n|iiali-
ties, is, for example, overwhelming. The jiri'-iciii
alphabet of the Alanchoos is syllabic, wriliiii In
columns from the top to the bottom of the {i,'i;;i',
like the Chinese, but, contrary to the ipriicilcc nf
that character, from left to riglit. The MiiiiiIhmi^.
though they have acted a considerable, havchv :iii
means acted an eipially distingnished, part mi tli.'
great theatre of I he world with their ncigliliniirs tlic
Mongols. In the eleventh century, however, iln'v
('stablished the great empire known in the inidilji.
ages bv the name of Katay or Cathay, by nniiin;;
to their own country the northern lialf iif t'liiii:),
This, after lasting 117 years, was suhvcrtcilliy
the arms of .Jengis Khan; but in tli(\ year lil^i,
and at an interval of more than four centuries.
the Manchoos again possessed themselves oft 'liiiin,
and have now for more than two ccnturios ph
veriied that empire, and probably with a skill ami
wisdom never equalled by its native iniistcis.
We come now to the true Mongols — to the raco
'whose rajiid conquests,' as (iibhon expresses It,
'may be coniparcMl with the |irimitive couviilsimis
of nature, which have agitaled and iillcrcij tin;
surface of the globe.' 'I'hey extend weslwanl frnm
the longitiidi! of IVkin, or about 1 IG°, to flic Sia
of Aral, a sweep of nt least ;<,(HHt m.. and wiili the
same physical form, the same language, anil im
great variety of manners, embrace the coinmnni-
ties or trihes known to us under the various (Iciin-
minations of Mongols, or Jloghuls, Kalkos, I'Mutlis,
Ogiirs, Kokonors, Kami, anil Kalmucks. ]tis]K-
culiiirly to this family that the descriiitioiis given
by Kuropeaii writers of ' the Tartars' is appliealilc.
They live, in fact, tlu! same men as thec(impai)ii«i.s
of Attila, .lengis Khan, and for the most part nf
those of Timur, who, though priding hiinsuH' mi
being .. Turk, was in reality a Mongol, wIihsc
family had been long settled in a Turkish cmmtrv,
and whose liiyriads were a mixture of both niivs.
Gibbon, on the authority of Jornandcs, (loscrilHs
the jierson of Attila, and says that it cxliiliitid
' the genuine deformity of a modern Cnlniiivk.'
An ecclesiastic, quoted hy Matthew I'ari ; pvis.
in I2lii, a picture of the JFoiigids who wore 'm
instruments of the conquests of Jengis and !"•'
sons, which is evidently drawn by nn eyc-wilncss
' The Tartars,' says he, ' have lirni ami ruliii-t
bodies, lean and pallid countenances, lii<,'li ami
hroad shoulders, short and distorted noses, puiiileii
and proTi. incut chins, a h>w and deep upper j.w,
long teeth, distant from ciieh other, eyelids stretcli-
ed out from the temple to the nose, lives black aii'l
uiiste.idy, an expressiim oblique and stem, ex-
tremities bony and nervous, large and nm.:eiil.ir
thighs, but short legs, with a stature equal to imr
own, the deficiency in the length of the Inwit
limbs being made up in the rest of the limiv.'
The Catholic missionaries, who in the reign f'U'nc
Cliinc'o rmjioror KiiiiK-lii it'iionli'dly fmvclliMl
,n,r iIh- (Miiiiiry dl' llm MimpiN, unci iii'tniilly
,iir\('Vt'il « i>i'r'i"H <•'' i'. <'<'iillrm iliit (l('>'i'ri|iliiiii.
Till' Miiii^'iil'*. !'>■ ••"•ii" Hliitcmi'iit, iiri' ii stmit, Mi|imt,
-rtiiriliv, mill ill-ravDuri'il |icii|il(', witli tlici'iiiiiinnn
Tartar'('iiiiiit('imn«'<' «'Xliit'Mf<t'(l in itn ImlilcMt linra-
iiinil.t. Till' liiiipmut' i>»' till' Miiiii^iiIm is iiolvsyl-
1 iliii', ami ilitt'trn wholly from that of Ihn Muii-
, liMdt. \Vliat i.t rt'inarknhh', ami ainioHt iifciiiiar
to ilii-i ii('ii|il<', i'*. that the whole riirc s|i('ak tin-
.,11111' laii^,'iia(,'(', Croni tlii; loii^rjtnilc of I'cUiii aliinist
liiilic ('aH|iiaii, and in .xomc Nitnation!* cvrn inio
ihc liritrl iirsilit'ria, and westward witliin tlie coii-
liiic^iir Kiiropc. This arises, no dniilil, troni their
\nw^ pliysirally the same raee, (rum their ever
waiiileriiij; and niilixed haliits, the (Ve(|nent inix-
iiiri" arifiii^? from these hahits, the practiee of
a universal hospitality, and their havint; heeii
iv]iiat('iliy iniitcd under the same (iovernnK'it.
Suini'lliiii;,' similar to this niay l)e found anions;
ihc i^Liiids of the Indinn Oeean, the liin}iiin;;es of
whii'li have a vast ninnher of words in eonnnon, a
i>;irili<' sea const it nl in;; in this case aeominon me-
iliiiiii of intercourse and eouimunicatimi, like the
.lv|ipi's and deserts of the Moupds, the iiriio and
llic oaiioe, in fact, taking; tln^ place of the horse,
ilic iix, and the cainel. The coiuitry of the Moii-
pilsisciilil, elevated, and dry, few parts of it liein^
III fur culture, and a ^reat portion of it consist in^
(il'ili'serts, or 'seas of sand,' iis the('hinese express
il, ill which tliire is neither lierh nor water. It
iilimiiiils, however, in ^aine and wild animals. For
ll.i' chase there is the ti;;i'r, leopard, th'er, aiile-
ln|ics liares, and many species of the pilliiiiiceous
lainiiy. The camel, ass, and even the horse, are
>iill loiiiid in it in tlieir wild state; and no donht
lilt' (IX and sheep were so also hefore they were
,i|i|irii|iriatcd. Such a country lu^cessarily made
till' Miiiipils early a nation of s. "pherils and liiiu-
liTs and cliuiiied them ilowii as it were to that
'.'(iiiililiiiii.
The Monpils, with tho excpption of n very
.-mail iiiunher, live almost exclusively on animal
liwiil; niid their clothiiij; and dwellings, or tents,
11-1' fiir the most part of animal teKimieiit or lilire.
When iir;;e(l to a^^rieultural employment, their an-
y.vcris, 'Ilerhswere made forthcheastsof the lield,
iiiul tlic hoasts of the lield for man.' (Ante, p. 1 7H.)
Their whole employment consists in the tending
i.f cattle, war, and the chase. Their kiiowled^'c of
lilirs is of the humhlest order, and aiiplicahle
iiilytotlie jiurposes of superstition in the hands
iif ilieir priests. One trihe, the l^'urs or O^'UfS
iiUTiiti'il a inea^;Te alphahet of fourteen Iclli^rs,
■vhiili, improved and extended from that of Tihct,
i< still in use. Of their own history and inipor-
iiuit nii^Tntions, which civilised nations have
r.riiriled for more thnii 2,0(10 years, they know as
liillu as rats or marmots do of theirs, .len^is
Kliaii was wholly illiterate, and Timur and IJaher
lad a knowledge only of Turkish and I'ersitin
UttiTs. The unmense country of the Alon^ols
may ')c descrihed as n viist nursery of soldiers,
fiiiMstiii^ of many camps, equipped, provisioned,
iiiul ready to inarch at a moment's notice with-
out iiu'diiveiiience or expense. The people have
'iri'iifjth and hardihood of hody, and vij^our ami
iiiti'llijfpiice of mind, to avail themselves of these
ii'lvaiita^'es; and whenevi'i a leader of i^'enins, ca-
jiahle i)f uniting the trihes in a common adven-
iiirc. has sprunu; up amoii^;' tliem, thev have proved
!i i»t and nui-iaiu'e to all the civdised races of
mankind within their reach. Such a union made
il mrcssary for the ITiiuese to hiiild their ^;rcat
"all mure Ihan two centuries hefore the Christian
'■ra; wcasiuiied alioiit the same period the de-
'iructluu of the Greek kingdom of Uactria ; caused
ASIA 229
the selllcment of the Tlims within the rontines of
l',nro|M', with their acts of dcstruclion and riipino
in the llncst iiarts of it. in the fourth and lll'ili
centuries; iiiul the conipiest of Turkestan, l'cr«ia,
India, and China, achievc'l hy .leiiKis Khan, T'i<
mnr, and Ihcir descendants, in the thirteenth,
fourlcciilh, and lirteenlh centuries. The ri'|H'titioii
of such exploits has hecome impossilile in modern
limes, owiii^' to the immense strides maih^ hy
western civilisation, as in other things so in war-
fare. Asiatics, indeed, thon;;li sometimes olitain-
iu^ temporary advantages, have never hecn ii
match for the l'',nropcans, even when the latter
were cornparalively weak and semi-lnirliaroiis.
Attila was defeated in the plains of Clialoiis hy
an inl'irior army of tli<> liarliariaiis of noriherii
Knrope; and the whole of his adventures were,
after all, hut so many prcdalory inroads on a lar^'u
sciile. Jeu;;is Khali, his suci'essor, elfcctcd only
the coni|iicst of the weakest and riide-'t nations of
I'.urope, the Itnssians, I'oles, and lluii;;iiriaiis, and
even llicir suhjii^aiiou was tcin|Miriii'y. Timur
did still less, and llie li.psporiis wa> sulllcient to
stn]i I he pro^^Tess of a coiiipieror who had marched
in triiiinpli over .Voiiii ni. of Asiatic territory.
The Franks defeated the Arahs in the hei(;lit "of
their pride and power. A handful of Normans
dispossessed them of Sicily, and the mouiilainecrs
of liiscay, after a Imi;,' stru^rn'h'. liually expelled
them from Spain; so that within the memory of
history no Asiatic people has foniied any tiling
hetter than a leiiiporary estalilishnient iii I'.urope.
(Uvilised l''.iirop(!aus have hei'u coiii|iiereil hy liar-
hariaiis of their own family; hut not, since the
historic a^e, hy ( hicutalists. The researches of
modern pliilolo^^isls, however, make us ac(piaiiited
with the sin;;iilar imd apparently unacconntalile
fact, that lliv lan;;iianes of India, the Manchoos,
and Alon^^ols, and of the Turkish, Persian, and
I'hiropeaii families, contain many words in com-
mon; not so mucli changed hy the peculiar pro-
nnnciiitiou of eacli peoide as not to he clearly
ideiitilicd; while the Arahic and other lau;;iia;^c<
of the same family do not contain any such com-
mon words. Hut this may he acemiuted for on
the sup|iosition of an invasion tind settlement of
Tninsoxiana, I'ersia, and Knrope hy the Mon^^ids
in times far heyond the reach of liistory, hefore
the invention of letters, when there were neither
(irceks nor itomans to tell the story. How thu
Moiif^'oliau languages caniL' to possess many words
in common with the Hindoo seems olivious enough.
All the ^loiif^olian nations at this day receive tlu^ir
religion, and the lan;;ua^e in which that relif;ioii
is explained, from the T'ihetians, and thcTihetians,
it is admitt<'d, have received hoth from India, lint
what, it may he asked, could tempt the Mon/^oliau
nations to tlie invasion, conipiest, and settlement
of a country so rude and remote as l''.urope in the
times we are suiiposinjj; V The answer is, the same
cause which produces constant international wars
amou^ themselves down to the present luomenl, —
the restless military haliits enn-emlered hy their
]i(>sitioii, — the constitutional animal eonra.ue of a
race ener^jetie and enterprising;, — the desire (o lind
new i>asiiires for horses, henis, and tlocks, which
a well watered and (then) thinly peopled country
like I'Uirope coidd well supply ; and the victories
of one trihe forciii;; the compiered to ahandoii
their own lands and seek new estahlishmeiits.
This was, in fact, the cause which drove the Huns
of the second century i:.v. upon the Greek kinic-
dom of Hactria, and eventually hrou^cht that
people to Furopc in the third and fourth centu,
ries after (,'hrist, producing even their perinaneiil
setlleuient on its eastern eouliiies. Thi- coiuiuests
of Attila Jind of Jeiigis il may be ailded, had
'Ii
'!' 41
!.'■ n
J?
2;irt ASIA
hiiiiiliir (iliJrclK ill vii'W, l)ii> tnoU n ililTcrcnt dircr-
liiiii, Mini I'liili'il iliM'rri'iilU, iiuiiiij til ilii' rrxi^l
Mtiri' ill ilii'ir liiiii'N III'
II I'liiiiiiiiriilivrlv MiiinrriiiiN,
wi'iilrliv, mill I'iNiliMcil |M'ii|ili'. 'riiiiiir. with the
firi'tiu'lli uliirli l'!iirii|ii' liii'l iilri'inlv itUiiiiiril, iil
till' I'liwf lit' till' Nth rnitiirv, niilv ihrralciii'il
>'</>«(>//<•>/» oxti'iiil iiJiiiiK the Fri(/,cii Or
iiii fnim
In iiiMiilt' it. Itiilh hi<
il .)i'ii-:
\n iiiMiili'il iiikI
(iMrriiii nil the hIIiit nuiiitricH ut' tin- W'vM in
till' liiii|.''iiiiK<"< ol' vvhii'h liiili/iii uiirih iiri' to I'l'
liiiiiiil ; lint, likt' till' ri'iniiti' invinli'i'H tn uhnin mir
tlirnrv iillinli'H, they iii'Vcr liiiii'licil the Aniliiiin
ln'iiiiiNiihi, imr I'liri I iiny iicriniini'iil rotMlilinh'
nil nl ill iinv innntry in wliiili llii> Sciiiilii! iIiihh nl
lilli^niii;;('H \H ^iiiiki'll.
The iiiitivc rii|iii('itv iif tin- Mniipilinn fmnilv
it Hiillirimtly ltlll'^<tl'li hy ilii' |iriiilni'liiin nl' Hur)i
ini'ii UN Altilii, .li'ii^is, 'ritiinr, Itiilirr, timl Kiihlny
"'inn MS well mm in the cuiiiiiicNt, llic ri'liiilinii
I'nr niiiri' IIimii '.'ii*> venrx, ninl
r<l\iiriil i^iiviTii
nii'iil iliirin^ ih'mi-Iv the kmiiu' tiinr, nt' tlu' VMMt
i'in|iirc 111' ('liiii:i. 'it is siiij;iil(ir, indrcil. that ilic
iiiiiHt ii.Mcl'iil, ;* nut the uri'Mii'Mt Miihlicuiirk in iliMt
I'linnlry, Mic ^niinl ciinMl nl' (!()(i in. in lonnlh, \\i\»
the work of llir lirst, Miiii;;iil ('tn|it'i'nr, wlin wmh
|i)<3 III 1 1,-|'^ i;. I Till' xlnliiri' III' \h\:^ vi ry i|
tinrt I'Miiiih' U ciiiiiinniily I'min I It, tn ,'• It,, mni
riillsiM|lirlllly III liil't II timl Mhnrt 111' till' KiiM|ii.||||
HtMiiihinl. Ilriiil ilioiimiinrliniiMti'ly lar;,'i'; I'n,,,
Mill ; inniith liirp' ; I'liri nUo liirKr, mihI ihr \„n,.f
|iiirtinii III' ihi' I'mit |irii|ri'tiii^. TIk' Tiliiiiiki.h'n,
] illiiiiiiiii», iinil Kitriilll» iM'ril|iy llir rMriliii'
rrii miikIi' 111' Axiii rrniilini; /Vini'iirii, Mini
I'liiirst' li'iiliirril, xiinrl |ii'ii|ili>, willmnl, \\„\,<,
111' iiHt-
the lint llimrN iir IH'rillilirlv MMIiill I'vi
'iri' II
'■vir,
"!■ lid
KMliilrhiitrMilaK'H. riiry rrHfiiihlc Ilic I'.Miiiiiiiniix
I M|H'iikin;; thri'c ili^lhiri j
iiii-
Kniip's. iirt' iirohiihly iis iiiMiiy •li'<linrt riirix. ri,(
h'limtiliiiti'iii/iiliH ntv n very Hlinrl tmi'I', with lir,,ii,|
Mliniililirx, M liirp- lii'Mil Mini ii lla( I'lmi^'Mlril iinni.
li'liMlii'i', thill li|iM, Niiwill cycN, Mini vrrv litlli' I
TIk
All II I in II n, nr inliMliilantH nC tl
A I
ii'ir,
I'liliiiii
nv uri'
inlMinls, lire a ililVrrcnl rai'i' I'miii ili)-rti>, '|'|
Nwarlhy, iliorl, hut kIihiI. ami wi'll-|irii|iiiriiiiiii'i|,
'I'lic |ii'ii|il(' ni'i'll|ivin;; lllf ^ri'Ml iMlMinl 111' S||;,'||||,
lii'ii, Ml tin* innulii III' llic Aiiinr, ami ilii' w]|ii|i>
.-hi
nl' tint Knriic iMiiiiniK, I'min tin' i
KaiiilrhiilkM III Jt'HH, in .lii|ian, arc a iliHiimi
M|M' l,|'
run
Iht' iini|is|iiiii'i| lonl nf ihi' wlinli', Kiiliiiix Khan, : rrniii any nl' tIniHc iilmvi' nicniinni'il,
llli' f^'rainUnll III' .ll'll^'i.-i, thnii^h hnni ll Nhi'|ihi'ril, i 'Ihi' MlniltCMl Mini innxt vi^nrnns nl' Ihr |ii'ii|i||. i,f
mil In I In ihcc'iilrl'lirisi'MMil i'uiir;i;(i' nl' his iiWIl ran
thr Irarnin^' iiml hkili nl' ihi' i'nni|iirrnl |ii'n|il('
IiIm part 111' Asia, nr llmsc I'miinl tn tin' S., ilwiH
in liniVI'lllilc tents, liki' llic Mnlii>;nls, havr In
Itctwri'ii the Altai ami Daiirian riin^'i's ami j ami nxcn, ami ari' nut wauling in .siMtiiri',Kii'rnL;ili,
I'iviT Aniiir In the S. anil till' Krii/i'ii Oci'Mii In the I Mild Ihi- inilitiirv virlncs. On the < iriry.ihc
inhaliitMiitK nl' llic hlc.'iU and inhns|iii:ih|i' rr^iim^
Inwards and nii the Hlmrcs nl' ihc I'nIarSia all
cxi'liMii^c the Inirsc, n\, Mini shei'|i tiir the ri'Jii-
ilcer Mild dn^'; live in culiiiis nr cavcriiN iiisirail
III' ninvcaiile tents; are snial weak, mid )iii>ill
mice. The whnlc are sn | aniimnis: ' n nice,' mm (iiliiinii e.\|ircsscs it, 'i>|'
icre cMsi triiicM iilinnsl mm niitiierniis mm hi any
('(|iial extent ol' the American cniitinciit, mnl tar
' " I
liinre distinct In
lire nhvinnsly llir
4'iinsiilereil, will,
|4||Cll
nil a hcllcl
lh(
Aim
I'l
ivsici
tinct fan
we
are >•
a CI
iiaint
I I'nnn. Mmiv nl' then
iiIicm; am
I nil
lers, lint sn
salislied, he rmiml tn
nninei'iiiiM, nliscin'e, and iinini|inrtant, that it is
dilliciill, nr rather iniiinMsihle, tn elaMsil'y Iheiil
catiMl'actnrily.
There are rnniid near In ami nil the bnnkx nf
fhi^ Amur nr .Saj^lialien, I'liiir mil inns, enlled Sn-
Iniii, Kertchiiif;, |)M;;nri. mid Nalkis, all nt" which
wlinllv iliU'creni I'lMin Ihcir iiiimc-
liMve laii;;;nMj;-es
iliiite iieiHlilinnrM the iMmichnos, while tlicy ilill'cr
alsn mining Iheinsc'ves. They arc rmic, dull, and
vhiilly wilhniit the knnwlcd^ic nl' letters; live nil
lish; and with lliein we Iiml the dn;;-, rrnin iicecM-
bity, tli'Mt MuhMtitiited I'nr the Imrse and the nx,
SherliMiii, the jfrandsnii nl" ,len;;iM Khan, led a
eiilniiy nf Mnii^nls iiitii Silieria, aiininiiliiii; In
dernnned and diiiiimilive sava;;eM, wlm trciiilili'
the Mniiml III' arms.' Anmn^r mII the native raiis
In Ihc N. nl' llie Altai niniintaiiiM letters ar>'
wlinlly iinkiniwn; aK'ricnltiirc Im scarcely |iraiii.iii:
I'nr war nii a lMr;;e Mcnle the penple Iimvc iiiiiliir
ilis|insilinn, cM|iiicily, iinr inciins; iiml, tn nliiaiii
I'nnd mid elnlhlii^, nearly their wlinle time i» ciiii-
Miiined in lishiii^ mid Ihc chiise.
r
icre lire iin inemiM wliMlever hv which In Ii.
Miiylhiiij^ like a enrrect estiniale either el' ilic
»'Xleiit nr ]inpiilMlinii of the n'rcMter miiiilicr nf
AsiMlic stales. The estiniali's nl' the pii|iiilali'>ii
nl'l 'hinaniily vary I'miii ahniit ".'.'itl lnahiiiii;!(IMiiii|.
linns (the latter is pmhalily nearest the Iniilii;
1.1,111111 I'Minilies, and his desceinlmils rei;;'m'd there i and the dillerciices in the esliinMles nl' tin
I'nr ;i(MI years, nr until the l.'iiMMimi i/isionn/ mid
«'nn((iiest ; sn tluit the Mniij;nls, iilthnii^^li nriy;iii-
iilly liireif^ners, iinw I'nrni a cniisiderahle pnrlinii
111' the pnpulaliiin of Silieria, either pure nr mixed
lip w
Ilii the natives trihes nl' the cmmlrv. 'I'll-
' iiiiiiiMis Mre sail
I to he allied In the .Mmiclii
They are nf nrntiHiii^ stiitiirc, with rcaliires nmri'
di-'tiiiet Mild mure ni ri
iM
■lief tl
■an I lie Kalmucks or
iMnllnnli
wcll-niade, active, iiml cniirMfieniis. The
Jliiriiils, it is prelendeil alsn, t\n\ nf the Minijun-
liaii race: lint, it is evident frniii their physical
fnrm that this cmiiint In; the ease, nntwithst.'iinliiif;
tlic existeiici? nf Mniif^nlian wnrds in their liiii-
Acenrdiiiu; tn I'lillas, an eve-wilness, tliev
K'-i-'ifT''.
are slmrl inslaliire; and sn ell'eiiiinate thai six
111' iheiii hardly equal, in pniiit nf sircni;ili, a siii^^'ii^
Iv'ns
lalinii nf nllier ciiillilries, thnii;;'li much
alisnlnle ainnunt, are ipiite as ^n'eal in ilci^riv,
There are alsn ^rciil discrepancies in the i-ii-
inates timl have lieeii I'nrined nf the area d' iIh'
dillereiit stales, nrij;iiiatiiii;- partly in the waul nf
enrrect ineaMiircineiitM, and partly in I he lliii'tii.ii-
iiijL,' and ill-delined nature nf (heir iHiiiinlarii-,
These estiinates will he ^iveii in trcaliii^; d iIh^
(liH'erent states, SiiinmiiiK up the whnle. wi' liii.l
the tntal area nf Asia tn he 17,XII,"),1 Hi l':ii:;li.|i
sipiare miles, inliiiliited hy a iiiip;il;ili"ii nl'
7M(>,r)(MI,l)lllt sniils. 'I'his fjives 11 inhalillaiils i"
thi^ sipiarc mile, slinwiiifr the density nt' |iii|ml,i-
tinii In he rather iiinn^ than half thai nf Kiircii',
T.'ikiii;,' the area nf terra liniiii nii the ;;IuIh' al
ril.jl);), l.'iH sipi.-irc miles, and the |iiipiilali"ii .il
These caiinni he nf the same stuck willi I 1 ,•.'•.'1,110(1,0(10, the variniis divisiniiswill lie a- (i'l-
the pnwerfiil and inlrepid penple thai, ccnii
lllfn. cnmpicn
ll tl
lese same liiissimi
'I'l
;/',
iidiil I'liiistitntes a siiijill family dwelling; helween
ilie Oiiralian inniintaius and the Ohi, nf st.'itnre
hi'low the Miirni
Aviih 111;
ick iiair, scant V
Kiirope, 7.5. This jjives the aver.'ij;c iIcmmIv "I
|inimlMlinii on thenlnlie at '1'2 per sip niile.Mi ili;ii
Asia has exactly dniilile the amniint,
V. l'i!iioi!i;s.'i 111- Discovi'.itv.— Tlio nex'^n-
jihic'il kiiiiwleil;,'e nf Asia may he eniisiilcri'il .i*
Iniir and reililish liii;^ce. They can cniiiit nn further ' cnmmencini^ willi its western cniiiilries, iimi with
tliaii 10, and live almost exclii-ively nil lisli. The tlivecc, the cradle ui' mir picscM civiri>a:ii'ii.
iicari
I, and Tartarian face. The tMin/is
liiiiiilv small !iml feelilc. with h;iir nf a li";ht ci
h)
the
pnp. nf Anstral.'isiii I jier si).
Aineric.'i, i>; of Africa, 7;
if As
il
ill': .'I
anil III'
.Iml.'ii mill I'liii'iiiiiik iiri' llii> iiiiiirlirs rrmit t\liirli
till' inrlii"') iiironiiiilliiii I'liiiit'M. 'I'lir .IrwM i<4'(irr«'ly
ririwiii"t'i|ili«liii<'tl.vMny iil'jfcl iiiiin' I'lixicrlv tl im
ilir |':ii|>liriitr><,t'in|>liiilii'»lly t<'riii<'<l liy tliciii mIk*
rixT,' iM'yiiiiil .■'hli'li, III Ik VMKiii' iiiiil iinriTliiiii :
ili.liliMC, lliry liliucil Mill' ciiiIh "I' (lie •■iirlli.'|
r\ri' irii'U'il Milii m'Vi'rill rilirn iiii ilN liilliltH, liiil
(|('« •■. mil «'i'ii' •" 'i"v<' lui'linl licr ii>t<'ri'iiur«c liir- I
ilur; tlii>ii)(li Dr. Viiiri'iii rt'dwnuilily i'iiii|i'<'tiiri'N, j
ilitii the I'hcxU of rirli ii|i|iikri'l, I'lirrriillv Iniiiinl '
niili ninlH, llrllu^,'llt l>y »lii« t'liiiiinrl, wtTi' rrmii
roiiiiirii'i* niiii'li ini>n< ri'iimic, A ^'niii tnitllr irt
iiiiiiiiiiiii'il with llciliiii, II >'ily i>r Ariiltiii, uhicli,
irniii itH iiiniiy i-lcH, iiiid it« incrrliiiinlisi' cii' |iri>-
liuiH rliilli . Miii^^t litivo U'lii ill lilt' \ii'iiiily ol'
iiniiii/., anil li'ivf ilnnMi iIiim' rniriiiiiiiliiii's irniii
liiiliii. 'I'lu'v wi'Tf triiii»|Mir;('i|, liy liirj^i' I'liriiviiiiM.
;iiti>MiAriiliiiili> Kiluiiior liliiiiii'M.uliii'li wiix^rri'iitly
iiiri>'li<><l l>y ihi'* iriitNc. Knini tlii' miuIIi of Ani-
liiii, Slii'litki or SiiIh'h, "m'IiI ciiriiviiiiM lir Icti with
;,'iilil HMil iiirciiH)', Itotli t>riiliuliiy oliliiiiicil froiii the
i,|i|H>Nit<> I'oiiNi.t of Africii.
riic kiiottlcil^ii' of Aftiik ciimc to he fuiinrwlirit
I'Mi'iiilril ill tilt' filli fi'iiliiry ii.r. 'I'lii- triiiiii|ihmit
mllli'Ml of Ort'ci'f with I't'rHilk t'Xfilt'il ilrrp illltTfrd,
iiii'l t;t'Mi'nitt'il |iliiiiH of I'oiKiiii'Nt which ri'iuli'ri'il
I'viryinloriiiikt ion ri'.t|ii'('tiii|,rt hill i'iii|iirt'nt'i'i'|iiiililt'.
Till' Miiint valiiiklilf t'oiilriliiitorwiiM llcroilotiiH, who,
iliiriti^'ii ri'Niilt'iK't' III llikhyloii, collt't'tcil inntfriiilN
Inr iiili'Mfriiilioii of ihf i«iktrii|iifs iiilo whii'h il wiim
iliviilfil. To thi^ iiorlh il I'Mfiiilril ovit ii piirt of
ilii' I 'niifi'tiaii iiroviiifi'K, I'liiililiii^ Ihf writer lo
ili'liiii'iilc tolt'riilily till* t'xlcnl iiml hlllllllltlril'^* of
lilt' ('ii;<|iiikii. Atiir^iniia ami Iliii'Iria prohahly
ri'iu'lii'il to till' Oxiis, hi'voiiil whifli wainli'ri'il tlic
Scythian lrihi> nanii'tl Massn^'t'lu'. Inilia wan thf
imwl I'astcrly satrapy; lint liciii^ ili'srriht'il as
iiiiiliiiiiiiiK no nrvnt rivor t'xci'pt the IihIiim, muiI
iHiiiiiilt'il liy an iinini'iiHt> lU'si-rt, il cviili'iitly
iiiiitaiiu'il only t\w wt'stcni provinci's, while the
lliiiitft'lii' mill Honthern conntrie-t were entirely
iiiiknowii. Ileroilotiit* fiivoM Ik wmiewhiit rinle ile-
M'ri|itiiin of the iiilukhitaiit'4, Hu^;;'eHleil proliiihly
liy tlic liorilerili^ nioiinlaineer trilies, 'I'he fail
III' iti« atfonlin;; n revvmie four times that of
r,);yiit shows eleiirly lluii it was iilremly opulent
.'iiiil improved. I>ariiis is said to have employed
Si'vlax, the ( jirvaiidriaii, lodeseend the Indus, sail
aliiiiK the sontiiern coast, imil come np the lied
S'a: a voya^je aceoiiiiilished in two yeiirs.
The next f;reat Roiiree of infnrniation to the
llrtcks was the ex|H'<litioii of .Mexiinder. It did
hill, inileed. extend liineh licyond the already
kiiiiwii limits of the Persian empire; but the
(iiiiiitrii's, heforo known only liy vajjiin report,
WMV then earefiilly examined and tleserilied.
I'liilor his direct ion two eiifiineers, IHo^fiictiis and
llai'iiiii, iniide surveys of each march, which were
imlilislied hy the latter, lint are nnfiprtuiiately
111"!. To the north, Alexninler pushed lieyond
till' .laxartes, hut without lieiii(.if alile to lirini;
uiiilcr sulijection the nitle trilies who teimnted
tliiw regions. On the siile of India, he learned
ilii' cxisieiice of t\\e (Janp's nnd the tine coun-
irics III) its hanks, to which he ea;,'erly sought to
jHiictrate; lint the nuilinv of his trooiw com
|K'llt'il liini to stop nt the llyphasis. Tlie(ire('ks
'lail then an opportimity of oliservint; some of tin
eople; their d'
refij^ions anste
iiiiii the merit attached t<i suicide. Alexander tic
>ii'nilt'il the liidiis to its month, and sent thence a
iliit timier Nearchus, who traced the coast of Asia
iisrarus ihe Persian (iulf, which hi^ asceiuled, and
jiiiiicil his master at lialiyloii. This voyap", now
SI wisy, was then considered ft most perilous
ai4iii'vemt'iit, and tlio n'irty arrived in a state of
ASIA in
dish I "H nnd i>xhiiiistion, AlcMinder himself, in
ri'liiriiiii^ tliroiiLcli (he maritime prnv iiii'ts, liccamK
aware of their eNtreiuiK d lale clinraiiir,
iliroii^h which, iiiilt'ed, hin unny wiks in dungcr of
perishing;
Oil Ihe partition of Alexntuler's t'lnpire, Selen-
ciis oliiiiineil Syria, with ns much of ihe coiiiilriei
III the I'lisiwiird lis his amis could hold in sulijcc-
lioll. lie Is siiiil lo have alli'illpted till' I'oiiipiesr.
of India, Imi tin re is im ili'<tinct airuiiiit Imw
far he penetrated; jinilialily it was imt lieyond
Alexmidfr's limit. He sent, Imwi'Vir, an tniliHsHy,
under .Mi'^'iislheiK ", to Piiliholhra ( pMt;lllpillril)
on the t illumes, capital of one of the niosi power-
ful kiii;;i|i>ms ever forineil ill Indiii; and thriiut^h
Ihischaiiuel a i^nmd ileal of iiddilional iurnrmatinn
was olitiiini'd. lie also emiiluyed his adiiiiriil,
Palroi'lns, in an attempt to circumnavii^'iile Asia;
and rnmiinr even represents him as liavinii; ac-
comiilished tliisxnst circuit, and entered IVniii llio
norlliern <M'ean into theCiispiiin ; hut the mani-
festly faliuloiis chiiracter of this report makes it,
impo.xsiliUi to t.'onjecture how fur he renlly pene-
Iriilt'd,
All lhi> materials thus collected were at the
disposal of I'lraliisllieiies, the leiiriied lilirarian of
Ali'Mindria, and were employed l>y him in fnrin-
iii)^', on the asirniioiniciil priiuiples of liippnrc iih,
Ihe lirsl Hvstematic deliuealion of the ^l<ilie. Il
is, however, as to Asiii, cMremely inipeifect. The
< illumes is made lo full into the eiistrrn an, re-
presented as liiiuntlini; the hiiliitalile eiirlli. The
('ape of the Coliaci (Connirin) is made lit once the
most southerly anil moHi easterly point of Asia,
Alioiil ten iU';;recs imrth of Ihe t tau;;'es, and ii
MTV lillle east, is placed, in the siiine oci'iiii, the
city of Thinie, iifieu alluded tons the e\ti°emily
on that side of the hiiliitiihle world : lliis iippear.H
Ihe lirst \-ery iinperrect riimnnr wTiicli readieil
the wesit rn iiatioiis of the Chinese empire. Not
far from Thime Ihe cmist Inrned westwaid,
stretchiii;; iilmiy; the ;;real imrtlieni ocenn, which
liiiitiiil-' liotli I'.nrope and Asia, Imt at so low ii
lalilude that Ihe t'asiiianwas considered to lie ik
j;ulf connected with it hy a narrow strait. This
was a relro,t;riiile step even froin ilerodotus, who
liilil descrilied it Justly as ail inlinid sea. Asia,
thus wuiilin;; Tiliet, China, the (ireater iiart of
Turtiiry, and all Siheria, possessi'd lillle iilmve ii
third part of its real dimensions.
The Itoinaiis did not, hy their coni|nests, oli-
taiii aiiv accessiiiii in the knowled^'c of Asia.
lielore tliev reached Persia that couiitiy had liecii
occupieil l>y the Parlhiaus, ii lirave norlliern
leople, the altem|its to sulidue whom were mil.
jiiriiliiirities of the Indian iieople; their division
iiilii castes ; their I'antiistical refijfions austerities;
I .
only Iruitless hnt most disastrous. Put the
lioundless wealth ilcciimulilted in the inipeiial
capital from the spoils of couipiered ualions,
liroujjlit all sorts of commndities, Imwever ilistanl
the place of their prodiiclinu, nnd however liinh
their prices, to its markets. The Scrim nstiii (silk),
then tirst inirodnccil, liecame for souie time ipiile
the ra^'c, and was readily paid for at its wei^'hl in
fiolil. The fni^Tant miilnliiithriim (lietel, or tea),
and the ornameiited vessels named miirrhina (pro-
hahly porcelain), 'irou;^ht also vast prices. 'I'lie
meridiants of Alt xandria ami Hy/antinm wen>
thus impelled no. only to emhark liirnc capitals
hut lo lirave hardship and dauber in rciichin;;' Ihe
remote extremilies of the continent where these
commodities were produced.
Of the miiriliine route, Arriaii, n merchant of
Alexandria, has fjiven a tleiailed and correct ne-
count, snpposiii;;' it to he written in tlit^ lirst cen-
tury, lie tlescrihes il as exlendiiiu; alon;; Persia,
Araliin, and India, as far as Nelisiitinm (Ni I-
kuiiila) on the coast of Malahar. The (irick u;i\ i-
TAf
\H
''i'^'sri
n-i
ASIA
>{iiii>rM (mil nut then jirixTcilcil fnrlhrr rn»l, Imt l rmili', wlilrli liml hitlicrdi iM-m ihrnii;{h lmnii'ti«i
riiiiiiil ill lliitl |H'rl Nii|i|ilirN III' llii> iiii|i<irliiiil iir | iiiiil IcmI iiliiiiin, Inl ilnii ii\rr llmx' IhIIn iihiim
lii'lt'it of nIIIi mill iiinliiiiiilliriilM. i'liix Iriiilc miik Iniii riiiiK<'>« lliiil lli' In llii' imrlli nl liiilin, \||, ^
tlirriril nil liy xlll|i'< llllll xtrrri'il illrri'll) iiirimn till' J It litliiiriiilln ll.«irlll, llli'V rrili linl || xlilliiiii I'liJIi i|
lllilillll Ori'illl tViilll llic MtriltlNiir llllll I'l Milllili'li, I lllf Sliitli' 'I'liHrr, Mllirc tlir llirrrlllklllM ili'mlii|,.,|
liv llii' rniiir ilrNt ijixi'iivt'ri'il liy lli|i|ialiiN, III liir llic rriiiiiirni t'\tri'iiiiil<K nl' Axiii iinlifii |',,r
lfii> iiiiirt' rii^lrrlv riiiixtn, Arrliiii ^ivt'N mily limr { iniiliiiil iiiil nml ili'lrinr; llii'iiri', ii riiiiii> of m'\,.n
»ny ai riiiiiilx, iHTiiiniiiit KriMliinlly I'liiiilir aii>l | iiimiiiIiii, i'lii'i|iirri'i| liy inniiy iNTiU ami vlrlmi.
liinri' I'aliiiliiiiM ; liiil lir iliHliiu'llV imlirali't Ma
Kiili|ialaiii ami lln' iiiniitli ul' I lie (iaiiKi'N, >«itli
III!' cxiiuiiiti'lv lliir I'liiiiitii ilirrc t'alirliaU'il. I'lvi'ii
tx'Viiml lliJM lliiiii, III' iiii'iiliiiiin riiryni' nr Ilic
Kii)i|fii Ulf (Siitiialrii or llnnii'ii). 'riiiiin' ix
lliilii'i'il, lull III n liiaillirr nlill Illnri' riilil'llxnl lliiill
l>y Kratimtlii'iii'N. Miil lu' ^ivt't u I'lirimin ari'inint
• it' llii' riilli'i'lliiii III' till' li'avi'H III' iiiMlalialliriini liy
a |ii'ii|ilt', till' I'liriM III' M'liiiM' vixa^i' nIihwh tlniii
III Ik> I'artarN or Cliiiii'Hc, ami nl' tix' iiiniiiu'r in
mIiIi'Ii tliry v>vrv |iii-Ki'il, ilriril, ami ciirlcil, Vhn-
hiiiM, Viiii'i'ui, ami imiHi nilur \vi'ilrr'<, i'iim'<'i\r
imliM, liriiii^lil ilii'iii iiiMrrii, tlii' i'a|iilal nf SitIih,
't'liai lliix I'liiiiiiry ix Cliiiia, ix imw xn p'lii'rnllv
ailiiiitlnl lluil Ml' iiiTil xcari'i'ly millet' Ihi' lliinrii'^
wliirli axni^'ii ii III II It'KH ilixlani |iimiiiiiii, rx|K'.
rially llial nf (iiixxclin, wlm, in |iriiliiiiiiil iuni>-
rum')' III' till' Int'iililicK, Hiiiilil tiiakc it Srriiin^'iir,
ill till' imrlli III' liiiiia. 'I'lii' iirutlii I' xilk, ihr
rliarartrr ul' Ilir ii<'i>|iii', imliiHiriniix, iiiilil, |iaiiiii',
lliiiiil, ami xliiiiiiitii;; ilir iiiii'rniiir'O' nl' I'liri'lLtiiir-',
all rnlllliilK' In I'XrIlliii' ally nllliT xu|i|iiMitii>ii, ||
ix ri'iiiarkaliir tlial miriluTii Cliiiia, narlinj lit
lllixrnllli', ix rilllril Si'rii'il, wliili'il^ xniilhirii nmM
lliix til Im' till' Ih'Ii'I. Mr. iMiiri'a\ , linwi'ViT, liax ii iiaiiinl thai nl' llii' Simi'. It is, in I'art, iii:nt
rmlcavniirt'il in hlinw thai llii'i laxl, U'iii^ niiiy
iixt'il I'nr wrM|i|>iii;{ tin' arcca mil, iniixl t'nr that
|iiir|in-<(' Ik' iiHi'il Irc^li, ami wmilil lie ilrxlmycil liy
till' alinvc lirnruNxiN ; lluil it I'lllllint i'nnxi'i|iirnlly
III', ami ix tint, nil iiliji'<-i nl' irinli', tlinii;r|i tlir arcra
ix; ami tlial llic liialalialliriini iillmlcil tn wax,
lluTi'liiri', ninxi jiriilialily ha. Tin' aiii'ii'iit in'-
riiiiiitx, linwi'VtT, ^ixc no ilixlini't inliinatinii Imw
till' artii'ii' wax iixi'il, imr iiiiy mixiin In think,
hii|i|iiixinK it tn hi' tea, thai it uas liy ilrinkiiiK llii'
int'ii>iiin, lint ralliiT, in xmnc I'nrin, a.x an nhjcrl nl'
tain, wlii'tlirr llic Iwn wrri' llii'ii nii'lrr nni' K"^' ni
inriil ; at all cvi'iitx, I hi' naini'.H wrrc pniliiilily
Ihii'x' iixnl hy thi' m'i^'hhniiri:!^ naliiiiii, a*, ni
liirxriil, till' liTiii (liinii, lln* xanii' with T'-iiiii, .,r
Siiia, ix ri't'i'ivi'il hy nx t'rntn the |ii'(i|ili' nl tli,'
nririital arrhiiirlaKii. I'tnJi'iny'H kimwli'ilp' ijiij
mil rriii'li In till' raxiiTii ni'i'iin ; ami, iinliki' Km
ti'Nihini'x, III' dill nnt axxiinm ilx I'si^imri', Imr
liniiiiili'il ,\xia nil that xiiir, nx well ax nil llic
mirth, hy a vast i'N|ianxi' nl' ■ nnknnwn lam!,'
'i'liix t'oinnniniraiinii ii|i«'nrii hy Itiuiii' ilnrin ;
xri'iit. (Arriaii, ri'ri|iliiH Marix rirrllirri, in llml- her liiKln-xt |irnx|i('riiy wax );railnally IikI nini'l
Hiin, (it'll};, (iricr. 1^1 iniir, tniii, ii. N'iiii'i'iil nn tin' tlii- (iihtrarlinim ami wt'akiii'xx nl' ilu' t'iii|iiri', im |
l't'ri|ilnx, •III), INil.'i, Murray, lli-'tnrio. ami De-iwhi'ii ail llit^ inlcnnnliah^ riinnlrii'x wirr mrn
rn'rijil. Ai'i'onnt iirCliiini, Kilinh, iMIKi.) | pii'il hy tlitt hnxtili' Sarart'ii |inwrr, Sti'|ilii'n 1,1'
Aiiiint II fi'iilury iiI'ltT, I'iniciny |iiilillshi'il liis Ity/aiitiiiin, ami liii' <ii'n;;rii|iiii'r nl' KaviiiiHi,
clahnratt' Mvxtt'm nl' ^'I'^foi'l^v, whirh xlmwx a almnl Iht' Hih I'l'iitiiry, xhow niily llir niu t
viTy rt'inarftahlc t'xtt'iixinn of kiinwliilm' in rt'j;aril iin|ifrl'('il Unowlni),'!' of tin nnlric.t Iiimiii(|
to Axia. )Ii! tli'liiii'iilt'x, liinii^h rmit'ly, a very , Itactriana, iiirlmliii^ tht'in umliT thi; viif^iii' iinii
laryu I'xtt'iit of I'liaxt frmn llu', imintli nf llii< nf India Scrira
tlan>,'('x to I'atti^ara, nn llii' foaxi of tlu'.Siim';
t'iiii'lly frmn a prt'tty lU'taili'il ronii' nf hix jiri'iU'
A new |iro|il(' now nroso, who, Imiiclicii hy mim-
hilion and ri'li^ioiix xi'al, <'X|ilori>il ami civlli^nl
fi'xxor Marinnx, partly fnniisht'd hy .McxandtT, a a mvat pnrlion of liic world. Tlif Arahx, iimlir
mariner, who, from hix iiatnt', was prnhalily a the iinpiiixe ^iveii hy Mohaiinned, riixhed rrmii
(ireek, Ilix xtatvinent thai it reaehed l,.'tiM) in. I their dexertx, and eoiiipiered an empire iiinn' i'\-
SK., and tlien n^ain alimit ax iniieii Nl''.., eiuild leiixive than thai of Itoiiie. They peni'iriiii'il
nnly foiixixt with a voyaK*' from tlie head of the ; even into Seythia, which had remained imiicrviniiH
Jtay of llenpil toOiina. Sada, Ihe point where hotli In the I'erxianx and (ireekx, and eslaliliMluil
lie tnrne'l north, iiinxt ho at or near Sinpipore
Tlu'iiee he descrihed a eoaxtiiiK voyage nl'."!.'!!! in.,
when he ' emxxed the bca ' (evidently the hmad
month of the (inlf of Siain), and reaehed what
he terms the (iiilden Clierxoiiexe, u name very
nalnrally NnKK'"'"*''''' ''.v tlio rich ininex on the
o|i|Hixite eoaxt of llornen. Theiu'e he liad twenty
days' I'onstin^ sail (alonj; Coehin ( 'hina and 'rmi-
(piin) ; tinally, a emirse partly south, hnt more
east, led to Catti^nni, wliieli must thns have heeii
on the sniithern eou>t of China, and from its name
llniirixhin<r kin^doins on the hanks of the ()\iis
and Ihe .laxariex. During; the enliKhieneil iitii nl'
Ihe caliphs, particular altenlion wax ptiii! in
KeoMjrapliical knowltdp'. A niinilier of Icinliii;'
poxilions were ileterinineil hy axii'onoiniriil hIimt-
vatinii, n process to which thelJreeks iiail Ikiii
aiinosl, slran^jers: India was well known tn tliciii,
and ere haif^ iH'caine Hiihject to Alnhainaii'ihiii
princes, ('hina was never even apprnacln'il liy
cnmpiest, hilt eoiiniierce conveyed some prciiy
accurate ideas respecting that country; imlcnl.
)iroliahly I'anlon. I'tolemv, however, thoiijfli he in the ninth eenliiry, two Arali merchants, Wahiili
professedly innile this the hasis of his delineation, | and Ahusaid, visited it, and piihlished an aci iii.
evidently adopted, and imskilfiilly conihined with 1 in some respects very accurate, and act'iinlaiii
it, information from other quarters. In his tiihles, | with modem ohservation. They nieiition itHfiruii
Ihe (ioldeii Chersonese, from ils vast extension fertility and |Hi|inloiisness; the prodiiciinn iiihl
southward, and containinfr the nanu^s Malayo
cohiii and coast of the I'irates, very clearly desi^;-
iiatos Malacca, conjoined iimlmhly with fSuinatra,
'H'hich is not separately iiientiniied.
Tlie same geo(fra|iher descrihes a caravan route,
funned thronj^h Asia hy the mercliants of l!y%an-
liiim. J'roceediii;; due east, Ihmiijrh Asia Minor
and I'lU'sia, they made some circuits in order to
include Ilyrcania (Astrahad), Aria (Herat), and
]Marjj;iana(Kliorassjin) ; they then reached Haclria
(Itaikh), which seems to h.'ive lieen Ihe main
centre u( the inland trade uf the euutiiieiit. The
(General use o( nee, silk, tea, and porcelain; ilu'
riKid watchfulness of the police; the ^fciuTiil ilil'-
fusinii of readiii);, and Ihe iireference of wriiicii
over spoken lan;.;iiap>. On the north, smiie iiii|"r-
fect notices were received of Silieria and llic Arclii'
Ocean. This re^^ion excited intense interest Inmi
its hciiif; supposed III contain the casileofhviM'iuir-
inons^'iants, (io^and Manoj;, the search after wlii'li
impelled the caliphs to expeditinlis of disciivrrv.
After several frniiK'ss ell'nrls, one was ilispiilcliiil
witli strict orilers not to return willimiL liiiviii:,'
discovered this castle. Uuder this iiuimlsc tluy
ASIA
2M
rn4ri'lii'il lownnU llio Alliii, ntnl rriiirni'il witli n |
iriilt f<>riiii<liilili' ili'irrliiiiiiii ol' ttic furtri''"), n*
.iirnniiiilnl li\ MiilU iif iMti, mill wllli it k')I<' MI'Iv
iiiliiiH IiIkIi. I lii" ri'|iiirl wiix iiii|iliri(lv ri'ti'lvnl,
iiiiil il<i' I'l)"!)*' ii|i|>«'ar>«riiii>i|iii'iiiiii'i 111 u\\ llii' iiiitin
iil'ilii' Miiilin<>iiK<'"> (l''.<lrl'<i, (ii'iiKf, Niiliii'ii'*. I'lirt',
IMI!!; Nnlii'i'N I'l KxInillH ili'H Mllllliwrilit (III |{iii
lie i''riiii> r, ii>iii. ii. ; Aiirii'iiiii'H Ki'litlioiiH, Al*. irit- I
i|{iiir'< I'lir Ki'iiiiiiilot. I'lirix, I7IN,)
|',iirii|M' iiifiiiiliiMi' wn^ liiirii'il in tlio i|i'«|H-<t
iL;iiiiriiiii'i' iiH !<• ill! Iliiit ri'lali'il lo lli i-'Iitii
nurlil. Allriiliiiii, liiiwcvi'r, wiin ill liixl iiiiwi'n'iilly i
iilirni'ti'il to it l>y ■)»' criMiiili'i, Moiiic ilin'ci nf
I'iMiiiiK »i'r<' rt'< rivi'il, mill Ii^IiIm witi' Muii^lit in
I'liilciiiy mill iiilnT mirii'iilN; ilir ri"<iill \vii'< it vrry ,
i'iiiir>i<i'i| iiiiiM III' iiiiiiiiMH, wliirli iiri< riiri<iii'<ly I'X-
lilliliril iiy Smiiiilii, ill ilii' tiiii|i jiri'llxi'il In tiii iinr- |
riilivr III llli-Mt' i'X|irililiiin><, cnlillnl, 'lirslil |>i'i
iNf I'nilirnH.' 'I'lir Worlil in lIliTr rr|iri'->i'lilri| an
II t'riiit rirriiliir |iliiiii,iii tlii' I'i'iiirc nlwliirli nimiiN
.liTiitiili'Mi. Srrii is linrriiwi'il rrom rioli'inv ; Imt
liiiliil \i* liltiri'ij |>arliy licyiiinl it, miil, iiiiilir llir
iiili"< III' Mii|iir, Minor, iiml liiliTiur, in KrudiTi'il \
lliriiii^'li ilill'rri'iil mill iliNliinl |iiirtH of AhIh. 'I'lm i
jiiilii'', ill till' ti'Ni. i>* niMilii llii' liiiiiniliiry nl' llnil '
I'liiijiii'iil. 'I'll till' iiiirlli, Allwiniii iiml <M'iir\;iii|
.irrirli aliiiiixt III till- >*vu III' ilai-lviirsM, mill in ilir
^iiiiir i|iiurU'r ii|i|ii'urM ilui ciihiIi! of (in^; ami i
.Mmkiii;. _ . I
AiiriiliiiM NvniiiliMiil llii'xniiio limi' lii..'ili!yilrawn \
III aiiiitliir ANiatii' I'lLciuii, 'I'lic MuiimhI rliii f
.li'iiK'i'<< ami lii.s ili'Mrt'iiiliinlH, (>-<t;il,ii<ilii'i| an I'liijiiri'
III' iiiiiiii iisci-xiriil, riiiii|irlr<iiii; on onr nliltt I 'lima, I
Mini nil ilir ollirr llu.HMia, wllii'il was lollf; lli'iil j
iiinliT 'I'arliir swiiy. 'I'luiu'i" tlii'v inarrln'il j
ilir<iiiu;li roimiil iiilo |[iiii)L;iiry anil Sili'siu, 'l'\w
(iiikc 111' llial r iiintry, liaviii;; vriilnri'il to imi-
(niiiiliT tlii'in, was ili'l'cati'il ami nlaiii. Ciri'iiin-
Ktiiiiii's ili'tiTfi'il tlii'in I'l-iiin iirori'i'ilin;; I'artlicr;
lull llirir miinlHTs, I'rriH'ity, ami riim|iii'sts, siriu'k
I'iiiriiiii' wiili tt'rrnr. In ho|it's of aviTlin^; I'ntiiri'
mviisimi, it was lii'trrniiiii'il to si'iul I'liiliassii's
Iriiiii till' rope, as llic I'liid' of ('iiri^iriiiluni; i.iiil
i»ii iiiiiiiks, ('iii'piiii ami ltiilirui|iiis, wcrr mio'cs-
-ivily I'liipiiiyi'il. 'I'lii'V triivi'Ui'il liy lon^; jmir-
iicy. III' many iiiontlis, over llm vast plains of
Tiiriary lo Karrakariun, a rmli! capilal, siiniilcit
liiri'ii>t ill Unit n'xion, 'I'liry wrm Inicialily wi'll
n't'civni. IIS orii'iital coiirls arc foiiil of llii' altcn-
ilmi ami liiiii)a^!;f wliirli missions imply; lint, tlus
ilircali'iH'il inviisiiin was iiri'vi'iiti'il liv qnili^ ililVc-
ri'iit I'liiisi's. Iti'in^ profialily tlic lirst who liiul
in'iiclralril into lliosn rcinoM^ rcjijions, llicy I'oni-
iiiiiiiiratcil new iilcas rcspcitiiifi tlicir vast cxli'iit,
ami till' conntrics sitnatcil liotli at their eastern
ami iinrtlieni extremities.
AIkiiiI llie same time that this intorcoiirse with
llie I'ast was ojK'iieil, ami partlj' in conseiineiu'e of
ll. llu' sjiirit of iiiihiMlry ami eoniim'rre revived
iiiiiiiii;; tlie niarilime eities of Italy, Venie(> ami
(ii'iiiia liail estalilish(>(l factories ami ean°ieil on
traili', lint only over nil the Levant, lint on the
ciiiist of the ItlacU Sea. From this last unarler,
twd Venetian mililes of f^reat enterprise, of the
nami' of I'olo, iimlertook lo visit the eoiirt of n
I'ariar prince, dcscemled from .Ien),'is, with a view
iiiilispiise of some valiiuhle cominoilities. Various
vicissitihles led them (in to linkhara; ami they
were there induced to nccomiiany a mission to
Ciiiiilialii, the court of Kulilay, named tlu^ (ireat
Kluiii, who inherited the most viiliialile of Jen^is's
i"iii[ii('sts ill Cliinii and the nei^jhliourinj; eoiin-
trii's. Having retnriied to Venice, they aj^aiii
Ml nut fur tlic Kasi, iakin;;wilh llicm Marco, one
iif their Hiiiis, to whom we ari' imlelited for ii iiiosl-
iuieri'Miiij,' account of his and their travels. On
tkir outward jouruey they passed llirough Ijallvhj
Ka'«liuar, Klioiiiii, Taiiiriii, nnd oiher poiinlrh'M In
till' ({real I aide I'liiilof Mlildlc A-iia, uliirli »e iiainii
l.iille lliicliariii, and renpeclin^ which »i> liiivti
liiile iH'ller iiil'oriinilioii ilmii Marco eoiiiiiiiini-
catcd,
Calhiiy, as Norlhcrii Cliinit was llieii called,
Willi ('aniiialii, its capilal, the niiMlmi I'ekiii,
coinpli'lely ila/./lcd llie Intvellcr'*, I'lie walU
forniiiit; a xiiiiare, each side nf Mhicli iiiea'*iired
nix miles — the lolly ornanii'iilcd Kiilci— llic s|mi
cions Ml reels — the inilliellse palace, with its paillled
halls — the licmiiifiilly oriiiiiiiiiiicd ixardeiis — tlm
poinii iif the inijieriiil I'csiUhIs — all llicsc oli|eci •,
nearly on the same scale as now, far siirpas<i'd
any iiniKiiillccnce of which Kiirope einild iheii
Imasl. ilcili^ well r(>ceive>l, and even olllcially
eiiipliiycil, Marco ncl out ii|hiii an evlciiNive lour
tliriiii;;li llie wcsicrii provinces, vi^iiliiiK part of
TiU'i, and ohiaiiiiin; iiifiiriiiiitiuii rcspcciiii;^' Mien
(Ava). This was rullowed liy ll iimre iiilerestiii;x
Jiiuriiey iiilii Maii^i, or Sinilhernl 'hina, which not
loii^r liefore had i'lirnied a scparaie kinvcdom, Iml.
hii|i|iciici| then, as now, to lie suJijccl to a power
I'esiileni in llie niirtli, lie dcscrilies it justly as
iiiiirc fniiil'iil and iiopiiloiis ihaii the region ilrJ.
visited, lis capilal, i^niiisiii. or the ('ele<<tial I 'iiy,
is painted ill ^liiwin^ colours; iis edillces, caiial>,
oriianieiiicil lirid;,'es, spiicioiis lake, and the palace.H
which einlielliilied its slmres.
Marco heard also of Xipauifii, or .lapati, ns n
rich iii.-iiilar empire, wliicli llie tircii Khan had
made a vain aiicnipt to siilidiie. Iteluriiin^ hy
sea, the travcllci's lniiched al 'I'sionijia tliid Sii-
iiialra. 'I'licv spcnl some liinc siiccessivi ly in
t'eyliiii, Coriiniaiidcl, and Maliiliar, mid .NJann
KIM'S a lint iiiifailhl'iil accuiii:! of iiidiaii niMiiiicrs
mid siipersiliioiis. 'liieii siiiliiiL; np the Persian
liillf, lliey |il'ocecded from (Iniin/. lo 'rreliisniid,
whence lliey reiiiriied lo Venice, Iweiity-foiir year-t
alter their ilepariiire.
The ureal discoveries thus made were in it
m'ulecled. In the li(';;iiinili^' of the I Itli ceii-
liiry, iliiaii ile Monh Cnrxiiio, n Minorite friar,
undertook a reli^^'iiuis mission into llu; east. Ho
penelraled lo ('iinilialu, where he was allowed to
resiiU^ fur a iiiinilier of years, and made uiany enii-
verls; the city was even creeled into a see, of
which lie was miiiied ari'hhishop. Aliniit tliesanui
time I'epilettI, an llalian merchiuil, Irai'cd llio
caravan route through Asia as far as Caniliahi, and
pnldished his itinerary. Another Miiiorile friar,
Oderie of I'orteiiaii, narrated a viiya;;e made, to
India, the orieiiial archipelago, uiid China, reliirn-
ilifX hy way of Tiliet.
In the cud of this century, the eoii(|nesls and
wiilelvexlemled einiiire of Tiiniir, witli his victory
over (taja/.el ilieTnrkislisnllan,resiiuiidedlliroii<;'h-
out Asia, ami in soim? de).;ree through Knrope,
Henry 111. of (.'aslile sent two sueces.^ive eiiiliiiH-
sies to the court of the Tartar eoiiipieror, the last
in 1 l(i:t. under Clavijo, who spent some weeks at
Sariiiircaud, ami, thoim'h he has not added much to
(;'eo^;ra|iliical knowledge, hi- ^ave an iiilerestiiifj
acciiunl of iIk^ court ami policy of that monarch,
Hy these diirereiit means, a li^ht. tlionf,di some-
what dim, was thrown upon the farlhest extre-
mities of Asia; hut it did not much avail llio
Italian repiililics, who were iiiiahle to reach ii.s
sonlhern shores liy sea, wliile the land ronle wits
too arduous ami (leriloiis to he much freipienled.
The iieriod, however, was now at hand wlieii the.
fiirtlu'st extremilies of Asia were to he tlu^ sci'iie
of Knro|ieau enterprise and adveulnre. In I I!l7,
Vaseo lie liama donhled llie Cape of (iood Hope,
and reached the sliorcs of India al Calicut. In
the short space of iweiily years Ihe l'ortii;j;ucH(',
hy u siicccsLUoii of vicloriuns annanieuls, e.stab-
\^
t^'ir
\%
^'t'
2;it ASIA
IIhIumI forts nn<l Bcttlrmfiils in Ilindostnii, (Jip
Miiluynii iicniiiHiila, nnil most of tlif iMliiiicIs of tin-
iircliipi'ln^o, and even ntt<'niiitc>(l tlicni in ('liinii.
Alllion^li lliiH cnrcfir conld not Ims miid to bcMine
of discovery, nlnioHt all tlicsc countries lieinj^ to n
certain dej;r<^n known, tlie iiitlierto doiilitl'nl ac-
count!* were antlienticated, and tliey were t*urv( yed
willi much >;reater precision, in the sevciiteeiilli
century, a lM)dy of French missionaries, enunent
for mathematical and astronomical knowledf^e, ol>-
tniiied permission t(» reside in I'ekin, and were
oven employed in making a Hnrvey of China and
the ailjacen't coiuitries. The materials thus col-
lected were transmitted to France, and arranged
l.y D'Anville.
' Hut thoii;ih the south of Asia, inclndinj? it«
finest regions, had thus he<iome known, there re-
mained north of the Altai mountains nearly a thinl
part of the continent to which neither conipierors
nor merchants had yet penetrated. Its discovery
was reserved for IJussia. After groaning for ages
i)cneath the, Tartar yoke, she emancipated herself,
in the. lifteenth century, under ,Joan Vassilievitch,
and has ever since continued an active and in-
creasing power. Altout the end of that century,
having conquered the Cossacs, she had the aildress
to engage that active and hardy race to explore
4ind con(|uer for her the v.'jst region of Silieria.
They )irocceded step hy step, till, in \(VM. lifiy
years after the commencement of the undertaking,
Dimitrei Kopilof arrived at the (iidf of Uchotsk,
a liranch of the eastern ocean. Another division
marched south-east upon the Anuiur, hut there,
having encountered the Chinese, were obliged to
fall hack. This |)rogress, being along the southern
liart of the territory, did not bring them in contact
with the coast fonning the frozen boundary of the
continent, which the English and iJiitch were, in
the meantime, exerting themselves to traverse as
Iho nearest route to China. Middleton, Itarentz,
Hudson, and other navigators, engaged in this
aftem]>t; but none of them reached lieyond the
(iulf of 01)i, a little east of Nova Zembla. About
Kilo, however, the Cossacs sent exjieditions down
the rivers Lena, Indigirka, Alaska, ■ .ul Kolima,
tracing their mouths, and the coasts between
them. In ItUti they rea<'he(l the extreme N'E.
peninsida of Asia, inhabited by the Tchulchi; in
llilH Ucschnewand another chief undertook to sail
round it, and, though the accounts are imjierfect,
scorn to Inive accomi)lislied their object. Towards
the end of the century, llebring discovered the
most easterly cajie of Asia; he and Tchirikolf
al'tenvards made voyages to America. Cook, in
his third voyage, sailed through tb.'se straits, and
ap])eare<l to Jiscertain the disjunc ion of the two
continents. It wasstilll>ossil)l(',h(l^■ ever, that their
coasts, by a vast circuit, might joii; each other;
but this idea ba.s been completely remove.! bv the
voyages of Wrangelon one coast, and of Heecbey,
Dc.ise, and Simpson on the other, t'ook, I'erouse,
and IJroughton did also mucn to explore the e;ist-
ern boundary of Asiatic Kussia, and its connection
with the large island of Jesso, with Japan, and
China.
The entire coast of Asia has thus been explored,
and in a great measure ])oss(!ssed. by Kuropeans.
The gre;it range of tlic Ilinimalab, better described
by rt<dcHiy than in ni.iiiy modern maps, lias been
carefully Hurveyed, aiic its astonisliing height as-
ecrt.iLned. The cx]ieditions of Turner and Moor-
croft into Tibet. KIpliinstonc into Caubul, aiul
ISurnes into liokhara, greatly extended our know-
ledge of these regions. The embassies from l!(issii
to China crossed iMongolJa and the desert of (iobi ,
while I'alhus and Ilumboldl, from that sid(',gained
much information respecting these central regions.
ASSAM
Our more rerent Kng'ish authorilien are Abhoft
Knight, and Atkinson, the last of wliom sju'iit
many years of his life in extensive travels tlirou^^h
Southern Siberia an< I Tartary, and in exploraiimi
of the immense territory recently annexed to the
Itussian empire, and known as the country- of tin.
Amoor. (Atkinson, Thos. \V., Travels in the rcginns
of the Upper and [.owcr .\moor. Lond. iHlill.) |„
Central Asia, the three brothers ,S('hlagintweif dls.
tinguished themselves as explorer., two of iIh,
brothers, Hermann and Hobert, i)assing (in |h,"i(;)
the Kuenluen mountains, a feat never before ac-
complished. Another foreign traveller, M. Arinl-
nius Yainb(>'ry, nccomplishcd, in lKli;i, the dillicnit
journey from Teheran to Khiva, liokhara, and Sa-
nuircand (Viimbery, Travels in Central Asia, I.iiikI.
im\ti.) Two Hussian explorers, Cn\A. Valikhain.C,
and M. Veniukol, likewise added, very recently, Id
our knowledge of Central Asia. (Michell, J.'iiiul
K., The Itussians in Central Asia. Lond. iKd,"),)
Nevertheless, there are still large portions of tins
f.mmensc continent which have remained a term
incognita, or nearly so, to the present day,
ASIA-MINOIJ. Sec Natoi.ia.
ASIAtiO, a town of Northern Italy, prov. Vi-
cenza, '2 1 m. X. Vicenza. I'oj). o.l Id in l«tll ft
is l)uilt on the simmiit of a lull, and is celelinitcil
for its dye-works and fabrics of straw lials. 'i'lu.
ainninl value of the produce of the latter exceiids
loO,()0()/.
A.siago is the chief town of a district contaiiiiii((
■seven communes, the inhabitants of which spcnk
a corni|)t dialect of the Germiui. They are siip-
po.sed, by some antiquaries, to be descended I'rnm
fugitive Cimbri, escajjed from the great i.iltle in
which that ))eoi)le were totally overthrown liy
Marius, 101 years n.c. INIarco I'ezzo, an eccle-
siastic, and a native of the district in (|iie.<ii(]n,
publi.shed a curious di.^sertation on this subject, a
third edition of which ajipeared at Verona in 17(1,).
ASOLA, a town of Northern Italy, on the ( 'liicsi,
2(1 m. N. by W. Mantua. I'op. 6,*4(i7 in \M->. It
is fortilied, h.'is a hospital, and a lilature of silk.
Its foun(lati(.n dates from the remotest antiqnity.
Asoi.o, a town of Northern Italy, 1!» m. \\'N'\V.
Treviso. Top. -1,720 in 18(52. It is liuely siiualcil
on a bill, and is encircled by walls Hanked witli
towers. The town has an old •cathedral, a piililii;
fountain, and sonn^ good houses. It is very ancient.
ASl'Fi, a town of .Spain, Valencia, 1(! in. \V.
Alicant, in a mountainous country near the Ta-
rort'a. I'op. 7,|H.") in 1857. There are quarric.< uf
line marble in its vicmitv.
ASl'KI.'C, a to.vn of ' W'i rtemberg, .3 m. NW.
Ludwigsburg, Po)). !,«.')« n IWil. Its duirdi
has some remarkalile antiqu ties. At a little dis-
tance to the N. is the fort ol Uohen-Asperg, (Ui a
steep rock, 1,1 Oo feet above ti e level of the xi\,
It is at pre.'ient used as a ])rison.
ASIM'",1>N, a small village of th>, irch-f'.icliy ef
Austi.'.'>, on tilt! left bank of the Danube, iippii>ite
the is) Mid of I^obaii, al)out 2 m. below Vii'niia.
I'op. 7;!(t in !«;■)«. This and the iieighlHuiiiiii;
village of Fssling were, in IHO!l, the scene of a tre-
mendous coiitlicr between the grand Freiicli army
commanded by Na|)o)s!on, and the AustriaiisinuliT
the i;>'cbduke Charlr.s. After two days' (21st ami
22(1 May) continiu us tighting, with va.'^t ki.^s mi
both sides, Naixdei i was obliged to withdraw his
troops from the lie Id, and take refuge in tlicislaml
of Lobau.
ASI'l'V''' .. iown of France, dep. Haute Gnnninp,
cap. cant. « m. Mv St. (Jauden.s. Top. 2,l.")7 in
IH()I. The town has manufactures of nails, wiuli.s
anil boxwood articles.
ASSAM, an iiiLnid terri'ory of India lieyoml
the (janges, a dependency of the liritish empire,
ASSAM
fcinninj; part of t\w K, frontier of our Indian piw-
scssioiis. It is incIudtMl in the viilU'y of the Hrah-
nm|KPiitrn, Iwtween -*rfi iW, and W° 10' N. lat.,
mill !tO° to !>7° iiiV K. lonf^. ; liavinj^ N. tlio llinia-
iiiva mountains, whicii He])arate it from Kiiontan
mill Tibet; K. 'I'ihet ; S. tiie Napi and (iarrows
iiiiiiintainM, wliieh divide it from the Dirnian iind
Miiiinci'ixior terrilories; ami \V. lten;;al : length,
!•; to W. alioiit ItiO ni. ; area, 18,200 .sq. m. Ivsti-
iimt. pop. 7(tO,000.
Tlif general aspeet of Assam i.i that of line and
fiTiiit' lowlands, inclosed hv ran>;es of undulating'
liijjs, and llicse again by loftier ones, the surface
(ifwiiich is mostly covered by forests, hut their
siinnnits, in winter, are often covered with snow.
Till' geology of tills region has not been much
siiidi('<l ; the mountains whicli form its S. boundary,
wliii'ii increase in height as they proceed eastward,
iijiisist ill part of a hard grey granular slate ; and
III) the inferior heights there are many s(;atteri'd
lidiililers of granite. Shell liuiastone is found in
large quantity near DIuirmpoor.
The most remarkai)le natural feature of Assam
is the number of rivers, in which it surpasses every
iilJuT coiiiilry of equal extent. Ilesides the Itrali-
iiiapi'iitra, which runs through its centre in a S\V.
(lirci'tioii, it has tliirty-foiir rivers (lowing from its
N.. and twenty-four from its S. mountains, all of
which are navigable for trading vessels of some
hizi;.
In Upjier Assam, the Brahmapoutra divides
info two streams, inclosing the considerable island
(pf Dcliing, one of the most fertile tracts in the
(ipiintry, having an area of 1,M(M) s(|. ni., and a pop.
ur25,(MM). The inundations whicli prevail during
a part of the year {nee I$isAHMAi'(iUTi{A),and give
A.-sain the appearance of an extensive lake, and
the great subscc(uent heats, render the climate
must unwholesome and pestiferous both to Imii'o-
pcaiis and natives. The chief mineral products
arc gold dust, in the sands of many of the rivers,
the collection of which enqdoys a great miinlier of
pi'ople, the produce of the Dhunsereo river alone
hciiig estimated at 1«(>,»*00 nip. a year; silver;
imn; salt, chietly from springs in Upper Assam ;
lead, coal, and petroleum. Throughout tlie whole
length of the Assam v:i)l'jy, a forest seven or eight
iiiiics wide extends along the N. border, chielly of
a tropical character; but at the foot of the hill
ranges, ehestmit, alder, &c., are intermixed with
the ()tli"r trees. The timber is not remarkably
line, nor any of the trees large, cxceiiting the
laiiutehoiic ( hciiseluntlra, Koxbiirgh),which grows
Military, sometimes to the height of 100 ft. and
idvcring with its branches an area of UOO sq. ft.
Tea, of a genuine kind, has been discovered in the
ri';;i()ii inhabited by the Singpho tribes where it
•,'riiws over a large tract of tlie peculiar yellowish
siiii so characteristically ada))ted toil. About the
yi'iir IXliO, it was brought to the London market,
liiitli black and green, and fetched a hi^-h price.
Since then its cultivation has been much extended,
anil it has now become one of the most prmiiising
agricultural products of India. The exports in
lsii;i were of the value of •J2"2,0.'l.')/. ; in the same
yi'ar there were KiO tea plantations, extending
"viT an area of nearly 14,0(10 acres, and enijiloying
17.1)1)0 daily labourers. Assam is very favourable
III the production of silk, which is of a very superior
i|Hality, but mostly made by wild insects, of whicli
iliiTe are live dillerent species. A beautiful deep
'ivo is obtained from nmm, a species of Itiiellia,
i''(mtliaee<e ; and a ]iowcrful poison is procured
liiHii Slime plant i)y the Assamcic, into which they
ilil> their arrows. T'lie hills along the bed of the
Irnlicli arc very stee]i, and covereil with dense
jiaijjle nearly to theii summits. There are no
ASSEEROIU'R
23«
tigers, hut many bears, monkeys, squirrels, A-r.
The chief object of culture is rice, and next to this
nmstard seed; wheat, rye, barley, and millet aro
rare; many sorts of pulse, the banana, orang(>,
and other fruits, black pepper, ginger, turmeric,
caiisicum, onions, tnnl garlic are cultivated, and
cotton by the hill tribes. Cattle and jioultry are
few; the buttalo is most us"d in agricultiin^ " Vil-
lages rare, and the scattered huts mostly built of
bamboo. There is some small trade witli ISootaii
and Til)et : several remtirkable roads or causeways
intersect Assam, the origin of which is not known,
but they aj)|iear to have been constructed at u
distant period; one of these extends from Couch
llahar in liengal to the extreme K. limits of this
country. 'I"he land is tilled by py/its, or natives
of four ditlerent classes, who are obliged, for a
portion of the year, to give their services fur the
beiielit of the rajah granting them their land.
The mannfaiUures are those of silk velvet and
cotton sfutls, and are carried on by the women :
silks are in general use for clothing, mid similar to
those of China. The trade is mostly with Bengal,
the imports from which are broadcloths, muslins,
chintzes, tl'c., salt, opium, litpior, glass, crockery,
tobacco, betel, and rice ; the exports being gold
dust, ivory, silver, amber, musk, daos, ISirmeso
cloths, and a few Chinese cloths; in IM.'l.'i, cotton
was added for the first time to the exports from
Assam, and the cultivation of this plant has, since
then, liirgely increased, owing to the dearth occa-
sioned by the civil war in America. Justice in
administered by the heads of tribes, and their
punisliinents are at times of the most barbarous
description. T"hc religion is that of lirahma, in-
troduced in the seventeenth eentiiry ; before that
period, thegoiK!bang (probablytliesame as Itoodh)
was a<lored: the priests have great inlluence, and
are intriguing and vicious. The people are active,
hardy, and enterprising, but barbarous, revengeful,
and (h'ceitful; tliey consist of numerous ditt'creiit
tribes, as the Mor-Kliamli, Singphns, Jlishniees,
itc, etich under a separate chieftain. l'riiici|)!ii
food rice, hut they also eat serpents, rats, locusts,
dugs' tlesh, itc. ; tl'ey use an Ilindoostaiiee dialect,
the langnigeof Assam being nearly extinct. Some
of the tribes go ipiite iiak(Ml; others have a cover-
ing round their middle, iind over the head and
shoulders : lliey wear moustaches, but shave the
scal|) and chin. Their habitations, even in the
liriiicipal towns, are mere huts, with a clay tloor
and conical roof of straw or bamboo. Jii every
respect this country is in a state of abject bar-
barism. Little is known of their history ; in Id.SH,
they invaded Uciigal, but were repulsed by some
of Shah .leliann's ollicers, and lost some, of their
own frontier pro\-iiices. A general of Anriing/ebo
subsequently led an army into Assam, whicli he
lost before (iergoiig during the rainy season by
disease and the re.-^istance of the enemy. Assam
is one of the provinces ceded to the Ilritish by the
liirmesc in \XM. Principal towns Cherghong,
Joorhatli, and Voiirhalti.
ASSCIll'^, a town of lielgium, ]>rov. South llra-
baiit, about half way between lirussels and l)en-
deriiionde. Pop. "),!il7 in 18oG. It has some trade
in liojis, tlax, and com,
ASSKKIMilUJI!, a town and fortress of llin-
dostan, presid. Itombay, prov. Candeish, cap. distr.
belonging chiefly to Sindia's doin., on a detached
hill of the Saiitpoorah Kauge, lo m. N. Itoorliaii-
poor, and '21.") in. KXK. Surat. Lat. 21° --'s' N.,
hiiig. 7i;° 2.'!' !•:. Top. about 2,000. The town,
straggling and irregular, with one good bazaar,
stiiiids iit the base of the rocky hill on whicli the
fortress is placed. The summit of this hill is about-
1,100 yds. from E. to W., by GOO yds. wiile; it is
if]
'ill
l».
'm-
236
ASSENDELl'T
; kU^-
iiKtloHoil hy n wull, and xurroiiinlL'd l»y n procipicc
from MO to 100 ft, in |)cr|)ciiili('iilar lic-i^lit, so wi'll
Ncarpi'd iUi to Icnve no niciin.s of (iHccnt except lit
two .spots, botli of whieli are slroitf^ly 'ortilied. A
Heeoiid line of works of excellent masonry protects
it on tlie S\V. side, on tlie ])rincipal road to the
fort ; and a third lino end)races the liill imme-
diately ahovc the town. It is besides protected
by ravines an<l deep hollows on every side, and
psoscsses the rare udvantaf^e of plenty of water,
Magazines and a sally port, easily blocked nj) by
the ^jarrison, are excavated witiiin tiic rock. Tiie
approacii from the X. is over a wild tract infested
with ti)j;ers and wolves. Assccrf^^iiur is surrounded
on every mW except the .S\\', by Sindia's dom.,
and is the nearest place in tiie ISondmv presid, to
ItenKal. It was taken in \H(Ki and iWllt by the
Itritish, who have held it sin<je tiie last-mentioned
A- ear.
ASS1:NDF.LFT, n villnijc of tiie Netherlands,
)irov. Holland, 7 m. NNK. Harlem. I'op. 2,UIS0
in IMfil.
ASSKNKDK, a town of Helpium, prov. East
riandens, !!) m. N. (iiu'nt. l'u\). 4,2(M) in I ;■!.")().
It has manufactures of wool and cotton, dye
works, breweries, and son]) works.
A.SSKMlKI.M, a town of the G. duchy ITcise-
Dannstadt, at tlic continence of tlie Nidda and
the Wetter, Hi m. NK. Frankfort (tn tlie Maine.
I'op, !)12 in iWil. A f{ood deal of wine is]irodu(e(l
in its territory, and it has considerable coal mines.
ASSKNS, a .sea-port town of Denmark, W.
coast of tlie island of Fiin'Mi, on tiie channel called
I ho Little licit, 22 ni. WSW. Odeiisee, hit. 0;")° 17'
\.. lonif. 'jOiVl'E. I'op. ;i,ri«l in MW. It has
ilislillerie.s, and a considerable trade in corn. It
is llie usual point of departure for persons Icaviiii;
I'"iinen fur S^'hl(^swi^,^
AS.'^ISl, a town of central Italy, 1.T ni. HSi:.
TeruKia. I'o]). l:!,«72 in iHlil. It is siluated on
iv mountnin, is the seat of a bisliojiric, has a cathe-
dral and several other cliurclic.s, some of which
iiK (irnameiited with line jiicturcs. ]\leta.stasio was
born ill this town.
AS.SU.AII'TIOX, or ASUNCION, a city of S.
America, eaj). of I'araKuayi finely situated on an
eminence on the left bank of the f^reat iiavitjai)le
river of that name, lat. 2i">° iti' S., loiij,'. 57° .■17' \V.
Pop, estini, at 12,(10(1. It was founded in loiio,
;ind from its ad\ aiitap'oiis sil nation l)ecame of
hullicient impia'tain;e to be ma<le a l)ishoprie in
1647, It is miserably built, the .streets beiiif^
nnpaved, and most of the houses no better tliaii
huts. The only jfooil lniil(lilij..cs are the conveut.s.
The country r(,r.n(liscom|iaratively well cultivated
and populous. Assumption is the centre of a con-
siderable trade in liide.s, t()l)acco, timber, imitli'; or
I'araf^iuay tea, and wax. (lvoi)ertt!Oii's I'araguav,
i. 2X8.)
AssiiMrxiox, a small island of the jMarinnnc
archipelap), I'acific Ocean, lat. 19°l.j'X,, lout;,
14;')° .") r K. It is cone-shaped, and consists almost
entirely of lava and other volcanic jiroducts. It
produces a few cocoa iiiit trees, and is described In*
reroiise as a most wretched i)lacc.
ASSl'S, an ancient city of A.sia Minor, in Troas,
iiciir the sea, wlin.se ruins occiiiiy a site eontij^iious
to the modern and iiicoiisiderablevilhiHeof Heiraui,
12 m, K, ('ajie liaba (an. Xecfiim), iio m, W.SW,
Jloiint Ida, and noirly o])posite to Jlollivo in
Mvtilcue, It is said to have Ik'cu founded by a
colony from Lesbos, and was famous in tlie iiistorv
of (u'ccian iphilosophy I'roiii its liaviiiii' been tlie
birtli-iilace of Cleaiillies the stoic, and for a while
the residciici! of Aristotle. Colnnid Leake says of
its luiiis, that ' tlie,v are extremely curious. Tiure
is a theatre in very perfect jireservalioii ; and the
ASTI
remains of .several temples l^vin^ in confused Iipa|n
on the^^ronnd: an in.scription ii]ioii an arcliiirave
on one of thes(! buildings shows that it was dedi-
cated to Anj^nstii.s, but .some tijjnres in low relief
lai another architrave appear to be in a niuclininn;
ancient style of art, and they are s<'ulptnred on ||||.
hard >;raiiite of Mount Ma, wdiieh forms the ma-
terials of .several of the bnildiiif^s. < )n the W. side
of the city the remains of the walls and towers
with a tfiih', are in complete preservation ; aini
without the walls is .seen the cemeterv, with nu-
merous sarcophagi still standing in tlieir places
and an ancient causeway heading through them to
the gate. Home of these sarcophagi are of gigantip
diniension.s. The whole gives, pcrlia])s, the most
jn'rlect idea of a (Ireek city that anywhere exists.'
(Leake's A.sia Minor, p. 128.)
ASSVK, a town of Ilindostan, prov. Ilerar, in
the Nizam's (Umi., 28 m. N. .lanliia. It is cele-
brated as the spot where the Duke of \Velliiigt(iii
commenced his career of victory. On the 2;ir(l nf
September, l8();t, the Duke, then General WellesU v,
with 4,.')00 men (of whom only 2,000 were Itritish),
completely (U'feated ii^u eombiiUMl forces of Dowlut
K'ow Kindia and the Nagjioor rajah, anionntiiig to
;iO,00(t men. The confederates tied from the lielij,
leaving about 1,200 slain, ninety-eight pieces (jf
cannon, .seven standards, their whole camp equi-
page, and much ammunition. The liritisli-liuliaii
army hist Lotit! men, killed and wounded.
ASTAFOKT, a town of France, dep. Lot-et-
Garonne, cap. cant, on the (Jers, 10 ni. S. .\geii.
I'op. 2,i;tl in I8(il. The town has linen mauu-
factiires.
ASTFItAIJAI). or ASTILMIAD, a city of Per-
sia, caj). of a snijill jirov, of the same name, on llie
(ioiii'gan, about 12 in, fnan where il fulls into the
ISF, angle of the Caspian Sea, deiKiniiuiited the
May of Asterabad, lat, .'iii'^ ,jo' X,, long, l,:'fi •_»:!' |;.
Mr, Fraser .says that it contains fnun 2,(iuil to
11,000 houses, so that its pojiulatiou inav lie esti-
mated at fnaii 12.000 to IS.OOO. It is .siiiToiiniled
by a low mial Avail, about ilA m. in eircint. Fin-
merly it was much more extensive than at present;
a great part of it being in ruins, and llu re heiiii;',
also, within the wall, e.xteii.-ive gardens anil nu-
merous trees. ILaises, chielly of wood, are .said lo
be ]iicturcsipie and iiKasant, and are fre(|iieiitly
furuishcil with verandahs resting on wooden [lij-
lars; their roofs project far beyond their w.iUs.
Tlie .streets are well paved and clean, and are tur-
nislied with drains to carry olf the water, wliich in
most other I'ersian cities is allowed to stagnate in
po(ds. None of the piil)lic or private buiiiliiii;.s
deserve notice. The palace of the jirince, orguvei-
nor, is a miserabU? fabric, 'i'lie bazaars, or pulilic
nijirkets, are tiderably extensive ; but theycoiilaiii
little besides tlie articles reipiired for theoaisiaiiii-
tioii (d" the ]>hice, Asterabad, though in fact u
port, has but little lra(U'. It is .said to bevery uii-
liealtliy. (Eraser's t!aspiaii Sea, p. 7.)
ASTI (an. Astu or Jlasta J'omjiiiu), a city of
Northern Itaiy, ]irov. Alexandria, on the lionrhn,
near its conlliience witli tiie Tanaro. 2S in. KSK.
Turin, on the railw;.,- from Turin to (ienoa. l'i'|i.
28,087 in l>;(il. The town is surrounded iiy eiil
walls in a ruinous condition, and wa.s faincms fur
its 1(1') towers, of which liardlv tliirty now remain,
Streets narrow; but it is in general pretty well
liuilt. The cathedral, a modern building, oeenpiis
the site of a icinple of Diana, and it has, liei-idis,
iiiinieidus jiarisii chnrfhes and palaces. Asli is tlic
seat of a bishopric, of a court of original Jurisilic-
tion, and a royal c(dlege, and has several silk lihi-
tiires, with niaiud'actures of silk and stiill's. The
vineyards in its vicinity furnish the best wim'sot'
ricdinuiit : aiui it carries on a considerable trade
ASTIER (ST.)
Jn thom, in raw nnd mnnnfuotun^il Hilks, nml other
iitticli'f. One <)f the ;^rimt('st ixw-tHof inixli'rn Italy,
ami, iiiilpcil, nrniiiilcrn Kuropc, Victor Allicri, dc-
scciiili'il I'roni an ancient and nulilc family ol' A.sli,
win liiini Iktc on tiii' I7lli ,faiuiarv, ITI'.t.
AM\ is a very nn(;ient city. In 11 .'it it was
Imrneii down by tlie Ivnperor Frodcrli! Uarliamssa,
liut it had been jirevionsly evaenatcd by tiie iniia-
liiliMits, It soon recovered its ancient >;randenr,
iiiid in tlie lhirt<'enth .H'utnrv was aliU^ to contend
witii the forces of ('liarles \, of Naples. In tiie
fimrteentli centnry it formed part of the tc^rritory
(if the hirds fif Milan, and was traiisferre(l. in l;tM7,
as the dowry of a Milanese |)rin('ess to the Uiik(!
cif Orleans, \irofher to t^liarles VI. of Franco. It
rcniaiiieil nnder the (hmnnion of tlie French till
l.VJ'.i, when it was ceded liy the Treaty of Camhray
1(1 the F.Miperor (Jhnrles V. The latter made it
over to one of his female relations, who married a
iirince of the llonsc of Savoy.
ASTIKIi (ST.), a town of France, dep. Dor-
(jdiiiie, on the lsl(', l(t m. \VS\V. l'erii;ii'>ux. Top.
l'.hTII ill l«(il. In the neij^hbonrhood is a mineral
source.
ASTOlMrA, a town of Spain, prov. T.eon, '50 in.
W. beoii. in an extensive! and fertile plain near
ilic hanks of the Tiierto, hit. \->° 27' N.. htii''.
(1^ Id' \V. l'o|). t.HlO ill l.s.')7. The town is very
aiii'iciit, a'ld was formerly lurlilied bv a w.iU and
,'\ castle; but both of these liave been allowed to
nd to decay. It is the seat of a bi>lii>p, has a
(Idtliic cMtliedral. celebrated for its high altar, four
parish churches, and some conveiilM.
AS'L'liAKIlAX, an exicnsiv(! f;ov. of Kiissin in
I'.iirdpe, lyiiiic aloiij; the N\V. sb(n;< of the Cas-
|iian Sea, and divided into two nearly c(pial por-
tiiiiis bv the Wol^'a. Area h;J,()(»(I s(|. in. Pop.
'.'Ml.liiii' hi INK!, and 477.l!>-2 in \X'>f<. Astra-
kliaii is one of the least valuable provs. in the em-
]iir('. With the exce|ition of the Delta of the
\V(il;,'n. and a iiaiTow strip of land alonj,' llie banks
(if tliat river, it consists almost entirely of two vast
sii'iiiKS. one on ctwU side the river, in part occii-
jiii'il with sand hills, but mostly low and tiat; the
sdil ciiiisistiiif^ of mild and sand, stronj^ly imjire;,'-
natcil with salt, interspei'M'd with saline lakes,
anil parlly iiiisuscei)tib!e of cultivation. In con-
,'cr|iii'iice aijriculture is iie.i;lected ; but in the Delta
(if the \Volj;a. fjardeniiifj; is |)ractised with some
success, and su|ierior fruits are raised. In summer
ihe heats are frequently excessive, while in Aviiiter
Ihc frosts an\ equally severe. Horses are of the
liiaiitit'til Calmuck breed, and some of the wan-
(Iciiii^ trilies have j^reat numbers of camels. That
iVrliiity which nature; lias denied to the land, she
has jiivcii to the water. The tisliery forms the
■|iiiiicilial source of the wealth of this government.
Mini is carried on nyiun a j^reat scale on the Wolj^a,
which tceiiis with iish, and alon.ic the shores of the
Caspian. Sturgeon, carp, and seal, but pariicu-
larly the iirst, tiw. the Iish most coininoiily taken.
The annual value of the siurneon tisliery is esti-
niaicdal from ■2,00(1,(1(10 to ;!,0()0,000 naililes; and
ahivc ;i(i,0(iO barrels of caviar, prepared fnan the
riios (if the sturgeon, have been exported from
Astrakhan in a single year. Though few in
iiiiinhcr, the inhabitanis consist of a great variety
dl' races. They are mostly noniades; and, aeeonl-
iii},' to the otlicial statements, there are, in the
cutircgovennnent, (aily 20.0',).s individuals subject
Id ilic capitation tax. With the exceiition of some
Niiiic falirics in Atrakhaii, manufacturing industry
is iiiiluKiwn.
AsTUAKiiAN, a city of IJiissia. in the cap. of the
ahdvc gdveinmeiit, on a small island in the Wolga,
I'll the Mt bank of the main stream, about ISO in.
l'rdmit,stinb(aicliure,lat.lO'=20'03"N.,loiig. 17°,').")'
ASTURIAM
237
E. Pop. 4 1."fl0 in IH.'iH. This 'Alexandria of I ho
Scythimi Nile, as it liiw been Honietimes called,
stands on gnauid elevated siilliciently to be above
the reach of the inundations. It consists of three
parts : — the Kmiiliii, or citadel; the Jiii'liHi'iriiil
(while town); and the M/oW/ci, or suburbs. In the
Iirst, or nucleus of the city, is the cathedral, a largo
s(|iiari! editice surmonnted by live domes, the con-
yeiit of the Trinity, and the arehiepiseopal palac(!;
in the second are ilie buildings for the government
functionaries, inidiiding an admiralty board, having
charge! of the ttotilla kept on the Caspian, thu
gymnasium, and the bazaars, or factories for the
use of the merchants. The hemses in iho suburbs,
where the bulk of the )io|iiilalioii resides, are ol"
wood; wlieroas in the other two divisions they
are of stone. Streets crooked, and mostly without,
pav(!tnent. It is the seat of an .Vrmeniaii as well
as of a (Ireek archbishop, and it has also Mo-
hammedan, Hindoo, and Protestant places of
worship. F.xclusivc of the gynniasiiim, there is
an ecclesiastical academy, a district grammar
.schoid, and .some inferior schools Then! ar;!
several manufacturing establiihtncnts for th<! pro-
duclioii of cottons, woollens, and silks; with ilis-
tilleries, tanneries, and soap-works. Astrakhan i-j
th(! centre of the lislicrics carried on in tlu! Wolga
and tlaspian. Its burgesses had funnerly a mo-
nopoly of the lisliery in the Wolga; biit since
IcSO;! they have been free to everyone. During
the season, the lisheries employ immense mimber.s
of people and boats. Tlie |Mi|iiilatioii (,f the citv
is then much augmeiiteil, ji id it presents an ani-
mated, lively scene. It is (he grand tishiiig mart
for all tlu! interiorof the empire; it isalso the greaf,
enirepi'it of the trade with Persia and tin iintri< <
tothe east ol'llieCaspiini, sending lotliein leather,
furs, iron, copper and tallow, and getting back silk
and (•( Itoii goods, raw silk, cotton twist, drugs,
c.Tpets, iVc. Tlie (!X|iorts to the coiinlrie's in ques-
tion aniiiunt.on the averagc.to twoinillions roulilcs
l>er annum, and llii! imports to rather more than
one million, but they liavi! sometinies biicu inon!
than double these amounts. This trade is piiii-
cipally carried on by Armenian merchants.
ASTLTil.VS, an ancient principality in the X.
of Spain, now the jirov. of Oviedo. Iviiig along the
Kay of jlisuay, between 4° .'iO'aiid "7° 10' W. long,
having K. the (Jastiliau prov. of Saiitander, S.
Leon, and W. Galieia. Area S.tist; sq. in. Pop.
4.'i4,().4i3 in lull), and .V24,iVi9 according to the
census of IK,")7. The surface of the ]iroviiice is
much (liversilied. Its .S. border consists of a chain
of high mountains, which graehially diminish in
height as they approach the coast," along which
there arc extensive tracts of pretty level land.
It is extremely well watered, being uitersecteil
by the Nalon, Xavia, and other rivers, and
has several sea-iiort,s, as (Jijoii. liivadesella, (Jii-
dillero, and Aviles. The climate along the
coast is mild, but in the mountainous )(arts it irf
frequently severe, and it is distiiiguislicd by its
humidity, liut little wheat is raised, the inha-
bit;iiits sulisisting chiotly on maize, and a species
of corn (tailed cgcfmJa. Haz.cd nuts are .scarce;
but chestnuts are very plentiful, and of excellent;
rpiality. The vine is cultivated in some parts;
but the ))roduce of wine is not snlliciciit for the
coiisiunption, the deficiency being sup]ilied with
cider, which is jiarily also exported. Oranges and
lemons are jirodiiced in a i'vw jilaces, ami great
numbers of cucumber.-*. J5esides the chestnut, the
wood of which, as well a.s the fruit, is n.ost valu-
able, the nioiintains are covered with forests of
oak. beech, and ]ilane. There is a consiih-rable
exportation of cattle and horses from this prov. to
tlie interior. Iimu, copper, lead, antimony, jel,
-m
'2M
ASZOD
nnilirr. mnrblc, awl niill-siniics, nrp foiiinl in dif-
rcrt'iit |iltu'cH. (.'(till is also riniiKl, ami Mifiano
^<a,vs tliat IMl.iliMl (iiiiiiialM arc Hlii|>|i('il fur iitlicr
parts <il' iIh' iK'niiisiila. Willi tin- rxci'iilimi nt'
iiardwar*', with iiiaiiy arliflcs of which this ]ir(>v.
Hiiiiplics llu' rest (if Spain, its mainifactiircs arc in
a very liackwani states 'I'lif liiilk of the- inha-
Ititants arc cxcccdin^'iy moderate in Ihcir'wav of
liviii){. 'I'licv cat little llcsh, drink little wixw.;
their usual diet is Indian corn, with l)«'ans, (lease,
chestnuts, apjilcs, pears, melons, and eiieiiinliers;
and even their bread, inad(^ of Indian corn, has
iieillier liann nor leaven, Imt is inifermented. The
prinei|ial towns arc Orviedo, (iijon, Aviles and
>i'avia.
iVslnrias may he siiid to lie the cradle of Spa-
nish independence. 'I'lic Saracens, who had over-
run the rest of the country, were iniuhle to over-
<'ome the Christians, who had taken refiij^'c^ in th(
fastnesses of its mountains. I'elayo was proclaiiiu'd
kiiiji in 7IK; and his successors, havinj;' gradually
extended their coiuiuesls, tooU,ahoul two ceiilurics
after, the title of I\inf,'s of Leo. In l.'tMM (heprov.
was crectccl into a principality, and hecanie the
appanap' of the heir presumptive to the throne,
who has since liecn styled I'rince of Asturias.
Several |ieeuiiar iirivilc'^'cs have hecii conferred
on this |irovince on account ol' the services it has
rendered to the monarchy.
ASZOl), u market town of Ilunfrary. cr). I'estli.
on the (lalpl, '_'.'! m. N !•;. I'esth, in a fertile valley.
I'op. l!.'_'l.'! in IH.")7. The inhahitaiits are mostly
J'rorcstants. Here is a hir^e and handsome
country-seat liclonj;iiij| to the ISarons rodnia-
nic/.ky. with a line colh'ction of coins and natural
curiosities. The town has manufactures of hlue
ami fcreeii dyed .sheep-skins, for which there is a
considerahlc demand.
ATACAMA, an extensive district of n(divia, or
I'pper Peru, lyinj^ iiloii^' the J'acitic Ocean, lie-
Iweeii the river Lao on the N., and the Salado on
the S., or hetwcen 21^° and 2hi° S. hit. 'J'owards
its N. extremity there are some fertile valleys,
hut liy far the fjreater jiart of its surface is an
absolute desert covered with dark brown or black
moveable sand. The arid soil of this ])ortii)ii is
never refreshed with vain, and, except whure a very
few rivers descend from the Andes, it is both
uninhabited and uninhabitable. Cobija, or Port la
Mar, is built at the mouth of one of these rivers.
ATKSSA, a town of Southern Italy, jirov. Cliiesi,
It m. W. Vasto d'Ainmone. Pop. 10,72'J i-i l^iCil.
'I'he town is situated on n hill, has a tine colle-
giate church, with parish churches, convents, an
hos]iital, and three moiits de piete. The poet (Jar-
done was a native of Atessn,
ATFIKII, a town of EfijTit, cap, prov. same
name, near the rifjht bank of the Mile, 42 m. SSE.
Cairo. I'op.cstim. at 4,000. It is sn|iposcd to be
till or near the site of the anc'wHtA/jliroditojii)lis.
ATH, a town of Itelniuni, prov. Ilainault, on
the Deiider, and on the railway from Tournav to
lirussels, l.") m. X. by VV. Mons. Pop. ;>,200 in
iMfiti. The town was fortified by Vauban, and the
works have been materially ini])roved and streiif^tb-
CMcd since lUlo. It is well built. Priiiciiial ])ub-
lic biiildiufjs, the arsenal, town-house, and the
<luirch of St. Julian: the sjiire of the latter, loO
fl. ill hei^xlit, was destroyed by liijhtning in 1^17,
and has imf bci'ii rcliuill. Ath has a collcfre,
founded in 1410; a school of dosifiu, andaii orphan
]u)s|)ital. It has manufactures of linen, wo(dh!n,
and cotlon-stuffs, hats and gloves; establishments
lor bleaching and dyeiug, with oil mills, soaj)-
worUs, bn^weriis and distilleries. It is an entre-
pot lor the tradi' iii coal, and fur the proiluce of
the surrounding country.
ATHENS
ATIIAPF-SrOW, or ATIIAIJASro, an exten-
sive lake of N. America, Ix'ing about 200 ni. in
length, niid from II to I.'') in average width. Vun
Cliipewyan, at its S\V. extremity, is in lat.oxo |-j'
N., long. I 1 10 l«' W. It receives the Alhapeiinw
river; and the Slave river Hows from it into (inai
Slave Lake, lying about 170 m. NM. Its N.sJKin.
is high and rocky, whence it is sometimes called
the lake of the hills.
ATimoV. an inl, town of Iridaml, co. Jfcatli,
lirov. Leinsler, on a small branch of the Itovin-,
from which it is supposed to have its name, sinni-
fying 'the yidiow ford,' ;tl m. N\V. by W. Ihililin.
on a branch line of tlu^ railway from Dulilinin
Navan. I'op. I.',i."i!i in IKil.aiid 2,211 in ism.
The town, siliialccl in a level and fertile diinii.
consists of one long street ; it has a modern cluinli,
with an iuicieiit tower: a large and (dcgaiii I;.
Catli. chapel, in the ancient Lnglish style, \iii]| a
steeple llOfl.high; a dispensary: Nclmnls, jutrllv
endowed imd partly jirivalc, in which alioiil Inn
|iupils are educated; and almshouses, in wiiin
twelve ]ioor widows are supponed. Kud Is mij,,
plied in plenty from an extensive neighlMnniii:;
liog. Tlu^ Hill of Ward, nciir tlic town, liiii d.
high, is a striking object in this Mat couniry. Tlic
town, which is a bor. by )irescriptioii, reciivcil a
charter from Hen. I V., <'onlinning and exldidin:;-
its privileges, which were conlirmeil and liirtlnr
extended by suhse(|uent monarchs, ji'irliciiliirK li\-
Lli/.abeth, who conferred on it the right of sciidin;;-
2 Ills, to the Irish Pari,; and by .lames i,. by wliciiii
the municipal limits were tixed at a mile hevdiid
the town in every direction, to whicl) was aildcil a
right to hold a court of record, lint tlicse, and
some manorial iiowers, have fallen into dcsnitiulc
since the Union, when the bor. lost its right in
return ms. to Pari. I'etty se.s.sions are Ik Id licf
on ultcrnate Thursdays. The market, hclil in \hv
market-house on Ihiirsdays, is w(dl supplied with
corn and jirovisions. The fairs are nunicroiis; ilic
|)rincipal being those held on Hie Thursday lidnic
2« Jan., on 4 Alay, 4 Aug,, iind 7 Nov.; the<illitiv.
held on il and 10 March, 22 and iJO June, iuitl oii
22 and 2!' Sept., are less iinporlant.
ATlIKNIiV, a decayed town of Ireland, co,
(iaiway, 14 m. K. (jalway. Pop. 1,;}1',» in Isill,
and 1,2«3 in iHtil. The town was foniierly nl
some im))ortance, having been enclosed by widls,
ami possessed of a university. It returned a ineinln r
to the Irish I'arl. but was disfranchised at th:
Union.
ATIIl'LNS, one of the most famous cities of
anti(piity, the chosen seal of literature, )ihiliisii|iiiy,
and the tine arts, and the ca)iital of the new kin-;-
dom of Greece, on the VV. side of Attica, ubout 1 in,
from the (Julf of ^''.gina, lat. 37° /is' 1" N., Imif;.
2;io 4;{' 64" E. Pop. 41, 2!)« in 18112. The town
is built on the W. side of an abrupt and rocky emi-
nence rising out of an extensive ])lain teriiiiiiaidl
N. by mounts Pentelicus and Panics, N L, by .Ahmni
Anche.snms, K. by Mount Ilymettiis, SW. by ili o
Ilill SIuseium,now called Pliilopapims. and \V, liy
Lycabeltus. JJuring the jmilonged contlicis cil'iln'
revolutionary war (1M20-27) the town was laid in
ruins; and when the seat of government was tian-
ferred liither in 1S;{4, it was with the grcaK-i
didiculty that buildings could be litted up liir tlic
members of the regency, the diplomatic hndy, iniil
their oilices. It is, however, iigain gradu.'illy lisin.;
into importance. Several streets have been nin'iicii.
levelled, and widened, the principal being Ucrmcs
or iSIercury Street, yKohis Street, iMiiierva Strwt,
and the iJazar or Market Street, The first i.l'
these tra\-er.ses the town, which it divides iniM
two ((pial parts, parallel with the Acropolis, ami
is crossed at right angles by that of ./Eoliis, wiii'li
ATIIKNS
280
trnninntps flnsc under the Acriiimlis. Miuorvii I attained its j;ri'iitpst innmiitiulp, it was cincnmpnsHe-d
Siri'i't. tlx' liroadcsi of ail, runs in ncarlv (lie I li\ a wall sunuoinitcil at intervals liystron^'ly I'nr-
'i'lie plan nl' this wall, many parts
of wliii'li ntill remain, exiiiliits tlie furni of an irri--
t^nlar nliiiaif^, havin;^ Ml its \. extremity the f^ato
III' Aehanias on llu^ S. (he Itonian pite and lh<>
riinntainCallirhiii', (HI the VV. tlief,'aie nl' Dinchares,
and on tin; K. the I'eiraie ^^ate. Ite^innin^ willi
the pitc of Aeliariue on the north, the wall ran
eastward iienrtlu^ l)ase of Ancliesmus, and past th((
Diomeian f,'ate lo the t^ate of Dioehares, wiiieh led
to the Lyeeinni; it tlu^i e(aitinned parallel to tlu;
llyssns on the western side of that stream to tho
fonntain Callirhoi^ w I'jnieaenmos: and thence to
the hill of the Mnseinm, which it crossed, conipre-
liendin;; the still exislin;; moimment of I'hilopap-
pns within its circuit. Its course from tlii^ Mtiseium
was north, takin;; in the chief )iart of the I'nyx
and Momit Lycai)ettiis, to the Dipylnm, which icil
to tli(! (inter (.'erami<'ns or (ireut linryin^r (ground,
and to the Acadeinia or School of I'lalo in tlu-
de)pressiipn lietween the I'nyx and Lycaliettus,
Athens had three fjreat Inirlionrs. the I'ineiis,
Mnnychia, and I'halcrnm, Theses ports formed a
sepanite city lar;;er than Athens itself, and were
connected with it liy iTieans of the lon^,' walls
(juifpn TfixT)). The harlionr of the I'lriens was a
spacions hasin eniliraced liy two arms of mcky laml
which formed ffif^antic nalnral |)iers. Kven now
it is considered a sale jiort, and in former times it,
constitiilc(l at once the liarhonr, dockyard, and
arsenal of Athens,
Athens, at its most tlonrishinf^ period, containeil
aliont llt.DlU) houses (Xeii. .Mem. iii. O, II), which
were for the most jiart so small and mean in ap-
|iearance tiiat. accordinj; to Diia'Mrchus, it was to
the piilplicedilicesalone that it owed its attractions.
The inhahitants were comprised under three classes,
citizens (rroAtroi), sojourners (fieroiKoi), and sla.i.^
(iouAoi) ; of these the slaves j^reatly prei)onderated,
thonijh it is dillicnlt to make an accurate com)in-
tation of their innnliers. Indeed, the whole cpics-
tion as to the popnhition of .Vlhens is involved in
^Tcat ohscurity. Hume, Letronne. Hoeckli, LeaKe,
('linlou,and()f'!ers, have in onrowu times directed
their etl'orts t,,vards its elucidation, aiul have snp-
jHU'tcd their reasonings with j^reat learnin;^ and
in^iemiity, thouj^h with little unanimity or success;
and the tlillicnlties that surround the suhject, from
the vajfiu'uc -, inaccuracy, and discrepancy of tho
data, are so ^reat as almost to ])re(^lu(le the pos.;i-
hility of arrivinj,' at anylliinj^ like a satisfactory
conclusion. IJocckh ha-' estinuited the iiopulatioii
of the citv and its por;* at IHO.OOO; Clint(ai at
Kili.OiM); and Leake at ll(;,()(M). The .itatenicnt
of Aiiu'ua'\is that the mnnher of slaves in Athens
(or Attica) was 10(1,0(111 is universally admitte<l to
lie f;rossly exajif^eraled. The commercial opera-
tions of .Vtheus t'lnhraced every known coimtrv
and commodity. '.Ml tiie jirodncts of foreiijn
countries,' says JSoeckh, 'came to Athens, and ar-
ticles which, in other ])laces, could hardly he
olitained siuiily. were collected to^fcther at the
I'ira'us. l)esi<lcs the cum, the costly wines, iron,
lirass, and other olijects of connuirc(> which eaine,
from all the rcn-ions of the Mediterranean, they
im|iorted. from the coasts of the IJhu'k Sea, slaves,
tind)er for ship-linildinj^, salt tish, iioney. wax,
tar, wo(d, rifiiiiiifi. leather, and i^oal skins: from
iJyzantium,Tliracc,ai!d Maceiionia, tiii'lier, slaves,
and salt lish; slaves from Thessaly ; carpets and
tine Avool from i'hrvf^^ia ami Miletus.' ' All the
finest products.' says Xenophon (I)e Uep. Atli. ii. 7),
'of Sicily, of !taly, Cyprus, Lydia, l'onlii>, mid
the Pelo])(mnesns, Athens by her (empire of the
sea is able to collect into one s|)ot.' Nor were
muiuifacturcs negle(;ted. It is true that commerce
Hidii' direction as .Kolus Street. Ita/.ar or iSiarkct j tilled lowers,
Stri'i't, ,so called from its containing the shops tor
the supply of the vario\is articles rcipiireil by the
iiii{i(ilalio'n, is about half a mile in leni^th. The
JiDiisi's, huilt in the nn)dcrn (ierman style, are
.ri'i'ii'rallv supplied with balconies, and contain
"imps and coffee-houses on the lower story, 'i'lie
utiicr streets hardlv de.s(!rve the name, beiiiKiiU're
luirri'W laiu's, dis|)layin); a marked cont"nipt ti)r
ic;;ii!arify. The pulilic buildings comprise the
niviii palace, the iniiversity, the hall f'or the
iia'liiiiiMl rc))resenlatives, a theatre, a mint, an
olwrvatory, barracks, hospitals, with a cathcdrid,
;iiiil .several churches, including; an l'",n.t;lisli chapel.
'flu' palace is a lar^je (piadran^i'ular edifice at the
I'niit iif M<nint l.ycabettus. 'I'he university, the
lincst (if thi' modern buildiu;;s, estalilished on the
(icriiimi model, has a jiretty extensive library, a
miincnms corps of ]irofcssors and teachers, and
aliiiiil two hiiiMired pniiils. Athens has also a
wiH-altciiilcd j;ymnasium, in wiiicli Ihe^-ovcrn-
iiu'iil lia» founded sonu! exhiliitious with various
iiirri'inr ai'adcinies and schools, and a botanic
■,'arilcn. The ]iopidation is of a more hi'tero-
fi iicciiisde<cii|itioiis than that of iiiiy othi'r city of
it,- size. Kuropean shops invite purchasers by the
siilc if I'.iistcni bazars; eoHce-honses and billiard
rddins, and French and (Ierman n'sldiiniiit.i. two
(ipciicd all over the city. The mixture; of its
liiipiilation bears a striUintc aintloicy to the extra-
(iriliiiary contrast., )iresented by the city itself.
' fill! same half acre of ;,^ronnd.' says a recent
lravt'lli>r, 'often contains two or three remaining,'
cipjiinnis of an ancient portico, a small ('hri.stiau
cliapi'l of the middle aj;es. a Venelian watch-
tiiwiT, a Turkish mosipie, with its accom)ianyinj;
cvpres.sesand palm-trees, and a modern fashionablc-
loiikin^' residence; thus, as it were, distinctly ex-
liiliitiiiLC the difVereiit phases of the varied exist-
I'liiv of this eelebratcil city.' (ireat etl'orts have
Ikcu made to seizure the health of the city, by
taking down the walls by which it had been sur-
iiiiuiilcd by the Turks ; by deansiu^' and rejiairiiifj;
.ill' ancient sewers; and draininj; the marshes
tiiri'.icil by the overtlowiiif^s of the (jcphisns, the
I'xlialations of which were extremelv noxious. .\
}:iiiiil road coimects the city with its harbour at
tilt' I'ineus. Here, also, several lar^'e houses have
liccii liiiilt, and .some fiooil streets, tlankeil by re-
:ilM'('t.ihle dwellings, have been com)ileted. A
larue custom-house, a quay, and a lazaretto, have
lie™ erected, and though trade cannot be said
til lliiurish, the town has rather a bustling
aiiliciirance.
Athens stands on a spot rich in remains of an-
tiipiity; and it is reasonable to suppose that its
prt'si'iit tranquillity will prove favourable to the
lifiliT illustration of momnnents and iilaccs already
iilontilied. and that the excavations everywhere
fiirming for laying the foundations of new build-
iiifjs will lead to many valuable discoveries.
The ancient city of" Athens —
" Tlie eye of Orecxye, mother of arts
And eloiiiience, native to famous wits,
Or hosiiitablu — "
omsiderahly exceeded in extent the modern town;
iiiul, unlike the latter, which, as already observed,
•^liicails into the plain chielly on the \V. and S\V.,
ciicirclcd the Acrop(dis. It was enclosed in a sort
iiI'lH'iiin.sula formed by the contJuem-e of thetlephi-
«is and llyssu.s, the former of which tlows due S.
imst the W". side of the city; the latter, wiiich rises
a l('\v miles to the }\K. of'the city, runs jia-^t it in
a !S\V. (liiection. At the time when Athens had
M
I' :rt
ii
t
'>*' ^f
M
340
ATHENS
wa-i ro;;(irilp(l ns llie diiof point of nntioiml policy,
mill tliiit every I'lirmir/if^eineiit was >{iven In it
>vliii'li liii;li prolectiii^ re);iila(ioiiH iiml nllier pri-
viU';;e.s eiiiilil heslow. Itiil no reMlriclion wils iin-
)ioseil upon iniliiMlry: llie nii'iinest niaiiniil oeeii-
Iialicin was atlenii<Ml hy no disj^^raee; lienee every
iraneli of industry tiourislieil, anil the niainiliu--
tnres of AtlieiiH were ev<'rvwl.er(( j'steetneil. The
lia;ive proilnets of Athens, too, were of j;rent ini-
tiiprtance; they consisteil ehielly of oliv«'s, lif^s, anil
lioney, and have heen eelelmiteil in all a^fes. 'I'lie
Wealth of the <'ily was also an;;inented hy the
Hiher mines of Laurion, ami 'those snniptnous
eililices wliiih eonstllnteil the |)riile of the Athen-
ians, and the admiration of t]w present day, owed
their i>ri;<in to the ninrhle (piarries of I'enleliens.'
(Dodwell's (ireeee.) The opnlenee, prosperity, and
jpower if Athens are fully exhiliiled by 'I'huey-
diiles (lilt, ii. 111). J'revionsly to the I'eloponne-
xian war, the treasury eontained !t,7(l(( talents,
hi'siile.-i a j,'reat (piantity of ^'nld and silver depo-
sited in the temples of the pxls and in other pnli-
lie ediliees. The eity was defended hy l,'.'ilit
cavalry, 1,(11)0 howmen, and 1.'I,ii(m» heavy armed
troops; Ki.niill men were stalionid in the i'ortilica-
tions, and the coast, was ^niarded liy ittHI well-
manned ships. The same historian has distinctly
indicated (lih, ii, <lli) that tlu; frc^edom of the
Athenian institutions, so pre-eminently adapted
to ilevelo)ie the enerjries of the hinnan mind, was
the chief source of ilieir unparalleled jfreatness;
hut our limits preclude us from entering into
details on the /[government nnd jnihlic economy
of Athens, and we can only refer the reader to
Itoeckh's iuvalunhlc trcntiiiu on this ditticult and
inlerestiufi snhjcct.
The most strikinjf ohject of Athens is the Acro-
polis, or old ('ecroiiian fortress. The Acropolis
alone formed the aiu'ient city, and from its elevated
))iisition was tenned rj avia no\it, in contradistinc-
tion to the lower part, v Kma n-oAn, afterAvards
liuilt, Athens, iuclndini,' the upper and lower
jtarts, was styled, h}' way of eminence, jtoAk, or
aarv, t/iit viti/. Jt was founded hy C'ecTops, ahout
ninio 1");')(1 A.c. At its \V. end, hy which alone it
was aceessihle, stood the rropyltea, the f^ate, as
will as the defence of the Acropolis, Throuffh
this gate the jteriodical processions of the I'ann-
thenaic juhilee were wont to move; and the marks
of clianot wheels are still visihlc on the stone
lloor of its entrance. It was of the Doric onhT.
aiul its central pediment v,-a.i .-upported hy six
fluted marble columns, each .') ft, in diam., '21t in
metopes wn« senlplnred the hnttlp nPtho rontniim
with the l.apithie; and the frie/.p. contained a re-
presentation of the I'atuilhennii? festivals, [cij,
mis, Callicralcs, and Carpion, were the arcliitt'iin
of this temple; IMiidias was the artist; ami ii«
entire cost has been estimated at 1^ millinuH sier-
lint,', <*f "•''< buildintf, ei),'ht coiunnis oC the
eastern front and .several of the lateral coliiniiiidin
an- still staniliiif^. Of the frontispiece, wlnrli ro-
jtresented the contest of Neptune and iMinervn,
nothing remains hut thi^ head of a sea horse aiiij
the llt,'ures of two women without heads. Tin,
combat of the Centaurs nnd the Lapithie is In
belter preservation; but, of llu! nunu'roiis slatiifs
with which this temph> was enriched, that i,f
Adrian alone remains. The Parthenon, however
dilapidated as it is, still retains an air of inexpres-
sibh^ t^randenr and sublimity; aiul it forms at
one(> the hi^'hest point in Athens, nnd the ceiitri!
of the Acropolis, (►n the Np;. side of the I'ur-
tlienon stood the Kreehtheium, n temple dedieiiti'il
to the joint worshi]) of Neptune and Minenn.
There arc considerable renniins of this buililiii'',
purticularly those beautiful female li;;-ures callHl
Caryatides, which supiiort, instetul of cohnniw
three of the porticos ; besides three of the colnmii,
in the north hoxastylo, with the roof over tlieM'
Inst colnnnis. The rest of the roof of this (;riice-
lul ]iortico fell during the siepi of Athens in 1«27,
iSneh is nil outline of the chief buililin;;s of f|ii>
Acropolis, which in its best days had four ilistiin't
characters; heinj,' at once the lorlress. the sacnvl
indosnre, the treasury, imd the museum of art, of
the Athenian nation. In the modem city nf
Athens itself there arc still many monuments of
antii|uity to be found. Of these the principal arc,
three exquisite- Corinthian columns crowned hy
architraves; the Temple of the Winds, built by
Cyrrhestes, of an octnj^onal tif,'urc, with a repn'-
sentatioii of the dilfercnt winds on each of its
sides; and the monuineiit of Lysicratcs, cillcil
by the miKh'm (ireeks, the lantern of J)cmo,"
thenes. 'i'his buihling consists of a |)C(leslal siir-
roinided by a colonnade, and is surmounted by ,i
dome of Corinthian arcbitecturi' ; it was siipposnl
to he the spot which Deinostbencs used as lii>
study — a supposition which has, however, Ioiil'-
been overthrown. JJcneath the sonthern wall ■•;
the Acrojjolis, near its extremity, was situafcil ilio
Athenian or Uionysiac theatre. Its seats, rising'
one nbov(! another, were cut out of the slnpiiif;
rock. Plato alKrms it, wii>i ; ..panic of v-Mitaiiiin;,'
iiO.iliHl pcrsim.s. It cont lined statues of all tiie
height, and 7 in their intercolinnnitition. On the | ^treal triif,'ic and comic popts, the most coii.s],iiiiiiiis
riffbt winj; stood the Temple of \'ictory, and on
the left was a building; decorated with ]paintiiigs
by the pencil of Polvf^notus, of which Piin.sanins
liiis left us an accomit. In a part of the wall still
rem.iiniiif,' there are frnj^mcnts of excellent desif^ns
in basso-relievo, re])rcsentint^ the combat of the
Athenians Avith the Ama/.ons; besides six colunms
while as snow, and of the liiiest architecture.
Js'ear the Propylivn stood the celebrated cnlos.sal
statue of Jlinerva, executed by Phidias after the
battle of Marathon, the height of which, inclndiii;,'
the ]K;de.«tal, was (>() ft. Ihit the chief t;lory of
the Acropolis was the Parthenon, or Teniiilc of I pods, from its cont.ainiiif; a number of
of which were those of yEschylns, .Sophiiclcs, ami
Kuripides amoiii;- the former, and those of Aristu-
])lianes and IMcunnder amon^' th(( latter. On the
south-west side of the Acropolis is the site nf
the Odeinin, or musical theatre of llcroiies Atli-
cus, named by him the theatre of Ifejiilla. in
honour of bis wife. On the north-east side uf tlie
Acro|iolis stiiod the Prytanenm, where citizens
who had rendered services to the state were main-
tained at the ])ublfc expense. Kxtenitiiij,' .simtli-
warils from the site of the Prytanenm, ran tlic
street to which Puiisanias !j;avc the iianic of Tri-
sniall ti'iH-
Miiierva. It was a ]ieripteral octostyle. of the
Doric order, Avith seventeen (Milnmns on the sides,
each t) ft. 2 in. in (li.imeter at the base, and .'M ft.
in liei^ht, elevated on three steps. Its heij;ht,
from the base of the ]ieiliments. w.as (15 ft., and
the dimensions of the area TA'A ft. by 1(12. The
eastern pediment was adorned with two groups of
statues, one of which rei-resi^ntcd the birth of
IMinerva, the other the contest, of Minerva with
Neptune for the government of Athens. On the
pies or ediliees crowned with tripods, to coiniiiciiin-
ratc the trium])hs gained l-y tlie ChoraKi i" '''•'
theatre of Hacchns. Opposite to the west einl nf
the Acropolis is the Areopagus, or Hill of IMars,
on the eastern extremity of which was situatoil
the celebrated court of the Areopagii.s. This puiiit
is reached by means of sixteen stone ste|is cut in
the rock, immediately above which is a hciicli nf
stoiK^, fonning three sides of a quadrangle, like a
tricliiium, generally supposed to have been iIk.'
ATIIKNS
211
iriliimiil. Thp niins of a wrmll clmpcl {•oiiMrcnitccl
III Si. niipiivniiiM tlu> Ar('(i|iimit<', ami ('iiiiiiiK'tini-
ntiiit; li'^ t'oiivorniim l»y St. I'liiil (Ads of the
Am«. xvii. •'It). HI"*' IxTf visildc. Almiil ii iinurtcr
III' II mil'' «()iitl)-w<'sl from tlio cpiitrc of tin- Arcn-
|l.■l:,'ll^ st/iiids I'liyx, iIh' pliicc priiviiliMl fur the
iiiililii' iisscinlilics iit Alliens in its |iiilniy days,
Tlic ftcps liy wliicli (lie speaker nnmiiled the rns-
tniiii. iio'l '> '''''' **' ll><'<'*' seats hewn in tlie solid
riik fill- the andieiKv, are still visilde. This is,
pcrliiips, the most intereslint; spot, in Athens lo
tlu> liivcrsof (Jreciaii p>iiiiis, lieinif nssocialed with
thf rciiiiwii of '. )eniosthene«, and the ut'iier fumed
Ailii'iiiiui orators,
' AVIinfo resistless ploqupiioo
■\VIc1iIih1 at will that tlcne ilcmocrnlle,
Pliiiiik till" iirsi iial, anil fnliiihird over Oreeoo
Til iliiceilon, and Artaxerxes' iiirone.'
Outside the modern city are the ruins of the
(.inpli' of .liipiter Olympins. This was one of the
lir-t ciiiiceived and the last exeeiitpil of the sacred
iiiiiimniciits of Athens. It was liefjiin liy I'isis-
initiis, liiit not linished till the time of the lloinan
(ininTiir Adrian, 7(10 years afterwards ; Imt nf thi^
IJil I'lilliiiiiis which supported it, only !(! remain.
Siif far from it is the temjilo of Theseus, hnilt liv
(iiiiiiii, shortly after the hattio id' Salamis. This
i.<iim> nf the most nohle rcmaiiis of ancient Athens,
:iiiil the most perfect, if in t the most lieantifiil,
I'Nisiiiif; specimen of (ircciiin andiitectnre. It is
Iniilt nf l'eiit(dic maride. The roof, friezes, and
fiirnirt's still remain ; and so j^cntly has the- hand
iif time pressed upon this veiieralile editlce, that
ilic tirst iiiipression of the mind in hehohliny; it i"
il.iulit nf its antiquity.
(jiiiceniiiif,' the early inhnhitants of Athens, wo
arc almost wholly destitute of infonnation ; and
ivfii after its history hei;iiis to emerj;e from oh-
M-arity, the events which distinj^uish it are for a
ion;; time sc.inty and doulitfiil. Though Onyjie**
i< niciitinned as the lirst kin^ of Athens, it is' not
till three centuries later that Atlienian history as-
^^^H■s a delinite form, when Cecrops (a.<;. ir)i")()),ft
native of ICgyiit, hy marrviii};; the daughter of
Ai'taMiii, ohtained thesovereifjnty. He collected the
liitln'rto scattered iiihaliitants of Attica, divided
tliiiii into trihes, and toiinded the Acropolis. No-
tliiii;,' el' importance occurs in the history of Athens
iiaiiiiij; the successors of Cecrops, till the time of
iiii'seiis (a.c. liKIO), who united in hi/iiself the
attrilmtes of legislator and w'lrrior. The reins of
;,'ijv('nimeiit descciKh'd in his family, without any
luYiirreiiee of historical importance, till Codrii's
lA.c. l(lt)K) heniically sacriti.-ed his life for his
ivuiitr}'. At this time an aristocratical was sul)-
>iitiito(l for the moiiurchical form of government,
iiiiilthe title of 'king' was exchanged for that
(if •archoii.' On its tirst institution, the odice of
iiri'hiiii was hereditary, .iiid for life; but after the
lapse (if two centuries, it was limited to ten years,
and after passing through six hands on tliis foot-
in;;, was tiiially changed to an annual ollicc.
When the last change took place, a further al-
itratidii was made hy dividing the duties of andion
aniiiii}; ten jiersoiis, selectetl by the people from
the class of the nobles, in whom were vested all
lp;,'isli'tive ,111(1 judicial powers. Such a form of
^.'iivui.iment was peculiarly ex])osed to party
s|iirii and contentions for power, and a strong de-
sin foradeliiiitc code of laws arising, Draco was
•iiwii as the lawgiver (a.c. tii'l). The atrocity
(il his code, however, Avhich awarded the |niiiisli-
miiit (if death at once to the most venial otfences
andthe most lliigrant crimes, soim rendered it iii-
capahle of execution ; and Dr.-^co Uist the imblic
favdiir and died in exile. To (luell the distur-
Voi.. 1.
baiiep!t wliicli continued to distract the city, the
people (.\.r, "till) hail rec'iiirse to Solon, who had
already disiinguished hlinsidf as a general, an<i
invested him wilh the oilice of arclion. The code
of laws whi(di he framed was admirably suited to
the exigency of the limes; for Ihoiigh its ten-
dency was decidedly democratic, u counterba-
lancing check was given to popular encroaidinieiit,
by the <>stablishiiiciit of the assembly of lni), and
by the prerogatives vested in the court of Aren-
jiagiis. Indeed, the freedom of spirit which Solon
inlrodneed and rendered durable, and the liberal
education which the whole system of his laws
made indispensably necessary to the noble ami
wealthy citizens, soon rendered Athens the central
|ioiiit of illumination to all tlu^ republics of
(ireece. Nor were the conse(|iieiices of .Solon's
measures at all retarded by the siibserpieiit domi-
natioii of I'isistratus (a.c. oil I). For iiotwilb-
standing his assumption of the regal power, bis
adniinistratioii was characterised by an as>iiluoiis
eiiltivalion of the arts and sci(>iices; and it is lo
him that posterity is indebted for the collection
of the Homeric poems in their present delinile
form. That the spirit of Athenian freedom was
not extinct, was iiroved by the expulsion (a.(\
510) of llippias and llipparchus (the sons id'
risistratns), whosi- tyranny became oppressive;
and from this time the I'onslilnlion of Solon was
gradually midtcd down into a pure denioeracy,
until t'leosthenes g.'ive the last blow to the aris-
tocracy by the iiistitnlion of ostracism.
'I'lie petty internal contests wliiidi had agitated
Athens were now however lo be swalloweil u|i in
others of far greater magnitude. With ra|iid
strides the Persian moiiareliy had been encroach-
ing uiion (ireece, and most of the (irecian states
had already Hworii fealty to Darius, when Athens
and Lacediemon raised the banner of deliance, anil
the battle of Marallion (a.c. IIMI), under the con-
duct of Miltiades, at once achieved the liberty of
(ireece, and enshriiied Athens in the centre of ;i
glory. Then followed the iiiva>i(in of (ireece by
Xerxes, his alternate successes and lUd'eals, tlu?
seizure and conllagration of Athens and its cita-
del, the slralagems of Thcniistocles, the memo-
rable battles of Salamis, IMatiea anil Mycale, and,
lastly, the defeat of the Persians, Among other
consequences that resulle.l to Athens from tlio
I'ersian invasion, was the impetus given to ;ts
naval alVairs. Themistocles, who was eminently
imbued with a naval spirit, caused (a.c. IT'.l) a
new and more commodious harbour to be built at
the Piriens, whiidi in )irocess of time was joined
to the city by the celebrated Long Walls. 'J'liis
precaution invested Athens with llie command of
the sea, and raised her (Mimmercial and military
marine to an niiexunqiled pitch of iiros|ierity ; a
])rosperity which w,is inainlained in full vigour
by the moderation of Arisiides, so deservedly
named the .Just, and liy the geiKroiis and martial
spirit of ("imon, son nl Miltiades (a.c. KiC)). l!e-
!'(rethe Persian iiivasii.!i. Athens had conlribnled
Kss than many other citii-<, her infitriors in mag-
nitude and in political im|iortaiice, to the iiilel-
leetiial progress of (ireece. She had produced no
artists to lie compared wifiv those of Argos, Co-
rinth, Sicyoii, /Kgina, Laconii,, and of many cities,
both in the cislern anil weslern colonies. She
couhl boast of no jioets so cvlebrated as those of
the Ionian ami Jvilian school :. Her sjiirit hitherto
had been decidedly martial; Imt her |)cacefnl
glories quickly followed, and outshone those of
her victories and political ascendency. After the
termination of the Persian war, literature and the
fine arts began to tend towards Athens as their
most favoured scat, for here, during the age of
It
f J.
i:t^
'■■ % \^ _
242
ATHENS
I'lTiclM, nlHtvp nil other parto of (Jrrrrp, (c<'>ii»'*
mill tali'titM wrro fiwtorcd l)y an niiipl<> tU>lil nt'
rxcriiim, liy |miIiIIc Hvnipnlliv hikI npplniiMc. It
wiiH iliirin^ tliirt n^c lliiit piiiiitiii^, nrcbitt'ctiin',
and HCiilptnrc, rraclifil lliv liiKlu'Ht tlt'^r)-*^ of p<'r-
ffction ; ntui that < irt'ck pix'trv wah cimiOifil willi
n iifw kind id' coniponiiinn, tlu^ driiina, tvhirli v\-
hiliiti'd nil lhi> Kmo; and vigour of tli<> Alliriiiaii
iiiiat^ination, to^'ctlirr with thn fidl niinpnHs
and the hif^hcnt rctiiiommitH of the lanftua^n
ix'cidiar tu Attica. Tlic^ drama wan indci'd tho
()rani'h of litcraliiro whii;h |K'culiarly nij^naliHcd
th(! ui(ti (>'' l'<!ri(dcM; and tho intcllnctual character
of the AllienianM is vividly |M)rtraveil hy the
Hnhlinu' and inipaNHioned Htrokeii of ytlNehylnx, the
graceful and ele^'ant toncheH of Sophorie!*, the
elahorate ))hiloHophy of Kurijiidi'H, and the eauxtie
raillery and moral power of AriNtoplianeH. And
thon^'li time Iwih etlaced all traeeN of the pencil of
I'arrhaNiuN, /euxiH, and Apidlex, poHlerity han
OHxiixned them a place in the temple of fame he-
side Phidiax and I'raxileieH, whoHe workH are,
even at the prcHent day, unrivalled for clasMicai
purity of (h'«i>iii and perlection of execution. Hut
It was not alone to works of art and the emiiel-
liNhment of the city hv Kplendid architectural
decorations, that the eftorls of I'eridcH were di-
rected. For at the ]ieriod in question, the wlxde
of Athens with its three celehrated harhours,
I'irn-us, Munychia, and I'haleruni, connected hy
means of the l^onj; Walls henun hy Themisfodes,
was made to form one j;reat citv, enclused wilhin
a vast paraluihis of massive fortitications, extend-
in<; to no less than 17-1 stadia, of which the cir-
cuit of the city amounted to -liJ, the Lonj; Walls
taken together to 75, and the cin^ind'erence of
the harlKMirs to 70. Hut the advantages that
tlowed to Athens from the administration of I'e-
ricles were not without alloy. The splendour
which he introdnced exhausted the puhlic reve-
inics ; and to supplj' deticiencies, recourse was had
to the infliction of rigorous imposts upon the
allied slates. Hence a spirit of disatl'ection was
engt^ndered ; and Sparta, who had long viewed
with jealousy the magnilicence of her rival, seized
the opiiortuiiity of fanning the discord into a
tiame. This issued in the I'elopomiesian war, the
various fortunes of which have been so ably re-
corded by the pen of Thiicydides. After the
lajise of twenty-seven years, during which (K-riod
the movements of the conflicting j)arties were
characterised by various success, victory at length
declared for the Spartans, and the Athenians were
forced to submit to the dominion of the Thirty
Tyrants; a humiliating period in the history of
Alliens, over which we would willingly throw a
veil. ]t was reserved, however, for the skill of
Thrasybulus (A.r. 403) to restore to Athens its
former constitution ; a revolution which he was
able to effect without much scveritv, or effusion
of blood, Perha|« in the whole history of the
Athenians, there is no feature more remarkable
than the vigorous elasticity of spirit which they
displayed in recovering from disasters ; and never
was the truth of this remark so strikingly illus-
trated as at the present period. One generation
had scarcely passed away, since she was groaning
beneath the Tliirty Tyrants and the Keign of 'l"er-
ror — her nativ« energies prostrate, her external
resources swept away — and now we find her on a
lofty eminence. Seventy-five cities hail her as
the head of tlie'r confederacy ; the ^igean isles
are numbered among her foreign settlements;
Lacediemon recognises .ler dominion of the sea ;
she is confessedly, and without a rival, once more
the first of the Gre(!ian communities. Nor is this
all; hitherto we have seen her producing and
fimtering IrglMntors, wnrriow, Rfntrrnien, paiutcra,
wulplors, poclM, historians, and oralors; ui' un'
now to Isdiold her in another as|i«'<'t, ax tlu'
iniilher of that pliiloHophy at once Niibtli' nml
Hidilime, which even at the nresent hour exfrt-ia
|Hiwerful inllnence over the liuman mind.
From this lime a new lera begins in Ihe liiitnrv
of Athens. I'hilip, king of Macedonia, by liint lif
dissimulation and brilM>ry, contrived lirst to t>ni.
broil the dilferent stales of (Jreece, and tli(>n |„
trample on their iiiiie|M'ndence. The Athciiinib,
roused by Ihe thunders of Demosthenes, niiiili' ii
vigorous defenc(^ (a.<;. H.'IM) ; but the imiilc i,|'
Cliu'ronea ]irov('d adverse to their ho|M's, and i.n
Ibis lield sunk the supremacy of Albi-iis. I'mlir
Ihe sway of Alexander thedreat, ami tin- (lilliniii
generals who succeedci, him in the governiiii'iit nl
Alliens, she maih' varii us clforls to Ihrow nlV tin.
yoke; but these efforts resembled more the tluilli-
tions of a slave than the aspirations of a mhIiIc
siiirit struggling to be free. In Ibis stale hIh' cirii-
tniiied, tUv sport of every tyrant who chaiu'cil tu
draw a prize in the lottery of war, till Sylla prii-
claimed Athens a tribiilary of Home ("a.c. sil|.
Hul while Athens thus saw every trace of Iiit|hi-
lilicnl existence vanish, she rose to an i'rii|iin'
scarcely less flattering, to wliicb Houk- it,-.(ir was
obliged to bow. Her conquerors looked Id h('rii>
the teacher ond arbiter of taste, philosopiiy, iiii,|
science; and all the Honians who were amliiiiniH
of literary attainments flocked to Alliens in unhr
to acquire them. Tiiis tribute of respect In Alhc-
nian taste and genius was paid by various. Humini
emperors in succession. Under Adrian (a.d, 117)
she even regained miuih of her former iiiteniiil
splendour; and his example was followed !)>•«■-
veral of his successors, though on a less miujuili-
ceiit scale. The description of Athens by Puusa-
iiias belongs to this iienod. Id the third ceiitiirv.
ac(!ordiiig to /osimiis, Athens was taken by tioihii:
invaders, who, however, did not long retain tlicir
accpiisitioii, having been expelled by liie inliulii-
tants under the command of Cleodemus. In the
year 3!»H, it was again taken by Alaric, kin;; »(
the (ioths, who is said to have laid in ruins its
stately structures, and to have stripped it uf its
ancient splendour. After this dreadful visitatiini,
Athens sunk into insignificance, and bccaim' iis
obscure as she had once been illustrious. We are
told indeed that the walls of Athens Mere piil in a
state of defence by .lustinian ; but from the fiiin'
of this emperor, a chasm of nearly seven centiiriii
ensued in its history, excejit that in the year Il:tii
it funiished Roger, king of Sicily, with a nunikr
of artificers, who there hitrodiiced the culluftMil'
silk. Doomed apparently to iKJCome the jirey ijI
every spoiler, Athens again emerged from ohlivimi
in the 13th century, mider lialdwin and his cru-
saders, at a time when it was besieged by a jjeiic-
ral of Theo(h)rus Lascaris, the (ireek cm|ioror. In
1427 it was taken by Sultan Murad; hut sinic
time afterwards was recovered from the Tiiriis liy
another hotly of crusaders, imder the Marquis nl'
Montfcrrat, a iM>werful baron of the west. \\h»
bestowed it on Otto de la Hoche, one of his I'ullmv-
ers. For a considerable time it was '^ovcriied liy
Otto and his descendants, with the title of duke;
but this family was afterwards displaced by Walur
of Brienne. The next rulers of Athens were llu'
Acciaioli, an opulent family of Florence, in wliusc
possession it remained till 14.5.5, when it was taken
by Omar, a general of Mohammed II., wliosetlleil
a colony in it, and incorporated it comfiletely wiili
the Turkish emi)ire. In the year 1(!«7 it was ca|i-
tured by the Venetians under Morosini, alter a
short siege, during which the Parthenon, tluii in
an almost perfect state, and the other buildinf,'s nl'
ATHERflTONE
lie Armpoli^*, miMtrtiiH'il tiTvnt ilnmnf^p. After n
►htiri interval, it iijjiiin fell info Hie IiiiikIh ol' the
Tiirl>s oiiilcr w(iim<> jiirimlii-tiiiii it niiiiiinc-il, until
the in'fttv <il Ailrii»ni>|il« in |M".".I, I'l.llowinK nptlit'
iiriivi^iiiii^ Hii*l tl>" Hti|iuliilli)M<i iif tin- trrnty <it'
l.iiiiiliiii ill I**-'. •'.'•tHidiNlK'd till- new l<in({(i(im iil'
(ini'ct', «'!' whiih Atlicnx it now tlu- ciipitiil.
AriiKNX M tlie nnmc of wvcriil townH in the
r. Stiili'!), Iiiit nunu o( tlivin of nny iiiiitcriul ini-
iKirtiinci'.
ATIIMKSTON'K, a m, town of Kn^lnnd, co.
Wiirwiik, Imnil. llcniliiiKfonl, contijfnons to tin-
( iivi'iitrv iimiii. 1-4 in. N. rovcnirv, and Kii'i ni.
Irotn {.(iriiioii l),v the l^ondon and Sorth-SVcHicm
railwav. I'op. ''i.^"" in IMtil. It lia.t a !>('<> hcIiooI,
I'liiiiiilt'd ill li')'-'). and niHiiiiractnn')* t\( liatn, rililionM,
and slmllooiis. Tlicrc arc lour annual fairs; that
which i.'t lu'ld on the lUtli of Scptfrnlicr hciii^c one
i.f the MKiHt con.tideraldt! in Kn)j;lund for the huIu
(,r i'Ikh'sc.
Ariir.icrov. sop chowuknt.
A'i'liis, a towr. td" Fraiuu-, dcp, < )rnp, cap. rant.,
arnnid. Dnnd'ront. I'oj). 4,.'>0H in 1801. Tliu town
has Hcvcriil cloth manufactures.
ATIILONI''- im inland town of Ireland, eos.
Wi'Ktnieiitli and Hoscominon, on the Shannon, ti.'i
ni. \V. Diililiii, on the Midland tireat VVeslern rail-
uiiv. I'dp. lij-'w!" in IHtil. llu! nanuMif the town is
ilcrivcd from Ath Lwiii, ' the ford of the rapids.' To
I'onniiaiid this ford a castle was luiilt here liy the
)iii:lisli shortly after their arrival in the country,
th.'it hecninc a |)ost of ^reat conse(iuence. In Kill
Atlihiiie was U'siened by the Irish army ; hut,
niter ft resistance of «])WHrds of live moiitlis, was
relieved hy the Dnke of Onnond. In the sid)sc-
(|ueiit war of H\HH, it was gallantly defended hy
I (il, (Irace af^ainst the Kn(;lish, but was taken by
i-tdrm the next year by (iinkell, afterwards luirl
nl'Athlone. The' fortilications, which had siitVered
much (hiritif; this sie^e, were renovated ; but in
Kill? the castle anil the jjreater jiart of the town
were destroyed by the cx])losion of a ^cuni)owder
nuifjazinc, nccasioned by lifjfhtnin^'. l>nrin^ the
war with France it was made the military depot
f.ir the W. of Ireland, and secured by strong; works
nil the t.'onnaiifjlit side, coveriii}^ an extent of
liftoen acres, and containing two magazines, an
nrihinnce store, an annonry for l."),0()0 stand of
Miiall arms, and barracks for !)()() men.
The town is divided into two nearly equal por-
tiipiis hy 'lie Shannon, over wliicli is a loiif; and
iiiiiiiiveniently narrow bridge, built in the time of
Klizrthcth. Its public buildings are tlie two parish
rimrches, four Itonian Catlxdic jiarochial chapels,
a FrancitK'an chapel, a I'resbyt(!rian and two Rle-
tliiiilist meeting houses. A pidilic school, endowed
liyime of the lianelagh family with 47(( acres of
1:111(1, educates, maintains, and apprentices tifteen
Ihivs; there are also parish scho(ds for boys and
(.'iris, and an abbey schocd for Catholic children.
The ureal majority of the inhabitants are Homan
Cathdlics. Accordiiifi to the census of 1H(!1, there
wore but 1,009 members of the Kstablished Church,
00 Presbyterians, and 21 Methodists.
By its ruling charter, received from James I. in
IGOt), its Umits are lixed at IJ mile in every di-
rti'tinn from the centre of the bridf^e ; but ior
clecloml purposes they are contined nearly to the
space ccivered with dwelliiif^-houses, whicli extends
miraliout 4«.5 acres. The governing body con-
sists of a sovereifjn ; thirteen burf^e.sses, one of
whom is the constable of the castle ; a common
ciimioil (if about twenty members, chosen for life ;
and an unlimited number of freemen nominated
l)y tiie Common council. The borough was repre-
sented by two members in the Irish, and is now
riprcscntcd by one in the Imp. Pari. The right of
ATHOfl 848
plecflon pxistn In the n-inaining old ft-oompn, anil
ill the III/, hoiim liiddcrs, 'i'be niinilH'r of elcctori
in iMiil wiiH 271), of whom nine old frccincu ikiid
the rest III/. householdeM. The general scsnioiH
for Itoscoinmon are held here twii'e a year, and
those for Westmeath four timers. There are petty
Nessions on alternate Saturdays.
There are in th(« town, or in its immediata
neighbourhiHHl, two distillericH, and the same
nundH>r of breweries, tanneries, and soap and
candle manufactories, iM'sidcs several llour-inills.
Coarse hats were formerly made hert^ in large
nuiiiU'i's, but the demand tor thcin is imw tritliiig.
Itcsides the railway, which (duces Athlone in
direct comnnniicatioii with Diddin and (ialway,
and has greatly U'liellted the town, a small trade
is carried on with Shannon Harbour and Limerick
bv steamers on tlu; Shannon, the intercourse being
aided by a canal about I m. in length, near Ath-
lone, by which the rapids in the river are obviated.
Markets on Tuesiho s and Saturdays. Fairs on
the Monday after I'Viphany, lllih March, Holy
Thursday, and 21th Aug. : each fair continues fur
thre(^ davs.
AI'IIO.S, AtilOS-Ol.'OS, orMONTK SAyi'O,
a famous mountain of Turkey in luirope, near thu
S. extremity of the most easterly of those penin-
suhis that nroject in a SIC. direction from the dis-
trict of ,Saloniki (nart of Macedonia) into thu
-.•F.genn Sea, being that between th(^ (iulfs of Con-
tesa (Siiiim Sfn/iHonivHs) and Monte-Santo {Sinia
SiHi/itir,!::). This (teninsida is joined to the main-
land by a low isthmus, not more than I J m. across,
and not more, where highest, than 15 ft. above
the level of the sea. Hut the |)eninsula itself,
which is about 2,') m. in length by about 4 m. in
breadth, is mountaino.is and rugged. Mount Athos
has, by a recent survey, been found to be in Int.
40° Id'' N., h.ng. 24° 2lV:tO" K., and to reach the
height of ti,U4!» ft. above the level of the sea. It
rises abru|itly from the water, its lower parts being
covered with forests of pine, oak, chestnut. Ac,
above which towera the bare conical peak of Iho
mountain.
Mount Athos has been fiunous both in ancient
and modem times. Herodotus relates that tho
fleet of Mardonins, the Persian general, in at-
tempting to (hiidde Mount Athos, was reported to
have lost above .'lOtt shii)s and 2(l,ii(M) men. (Lib.
vi. s. 44.) When Xerxes invaded Greece, he de-
termined to guard against the occurrence of a simi-
lar disaster l)y cutting a canal across the isthmus,
of such dimensions as to admit of two triremes
l)assing abreast (Ilerod. lib. vii. s. 24); of which
great work the traces still remain. In modern
limes the peninsula of Mount Athos has been oc-
cupied from a remote epoch by a number of monks
of the Cireek church, who live in a sort of fortified
woiiJisteries, of which there are about twenty, of
dilTerent degrees of magnitude and im]iortance.
These, with the farms or uivtovhh attached to
them, occupy tho whole peiunsiila, which has
thence derived its modern name of Monte Santo.
The situation of the dittercnt inoiuisteries is gene-
rally the most romantic and strikingly beautiful
that can be imagined. Some of them belong to
Russians, t)thers to Hulgarians, and others to .Ser-
vians. Except the jiroiluce of their own farms
and vineyards, and the sale of crosses and beads,
they dejjend chiefly on the oblations otrered by
the numerous jjilgrims by which they are occa-
sionally visited, and on the sums ctdlectcd by
their mendicant brethren in other parts. They
pay an annual contribution to the Porte. No fe-
males are admitted within this peninsula.
Most of the '• .masteries possess considerable
collcctiuns of manuscripts, and it was long a pre-
II 2
I-
■f . I,
'm
'Ak j't
':4
214
ATIIV
vnlont oftlnfnn that nrnw <>r tlut IumI tr(>niiiiri>ii of
niiciciil K*'ii)»'* '>i>>{l>t 'h' ri'i'oviTcil, MtTc h ililii^i'Ml
m'lirrli iniiili' III till' iii<>Mik'<ii'rli > ul' >|i>uiit Atliu'a.
Ill Ixoi, liiiwi'viT. llii'v Here tliiiriiii);li|y <<x|ili>r<'cl
!»>• I>r, <'iirlyli', ami, with ilio (ixrv|iliiiii of ii ('ii|iy
111' llic IlliucI mikI OilvHtcy, n few ul' tlic I'clitfd
\i\nvn 111" I III' (lltti'rriii iniKciliiiiiM, ii i-ojiy »( riiulur
niiii IIi'mIimI, till" OriilliiiiH i.f |)i'iiiii'<iIii'||i'n hihI
.Kirliiiii-N, iinrU of Ari.tiotlr, .iiiil coiiii'H of I'liilo
mill .(os(<|imii<, ho illil not iiii'<>i with iinyllilii|{
vikhiiililt'. Then' Wert' houu- vuliittlilc MSS. of the
Xt'w 'ri'NiitiiK'iil, liiit iioiii' NO old liy ci'iiMii'ifM II-
tln'Coili'x AU'XiiiiilriiiiiH or MS. of Ilrzn. I'oh'iiii-
citl iliviiiiiy, ami IIvch of tlio MuliitH, lurriinl liic
Kf'iK liiilk of the liliriirlt'H.
'I'lif iiioiiiiKti'rit''t NiilU'rcil Hovcri'ly from the cx-
nrtioiiH of the 'I'lirltH cluriiiK tlic (Jrfi'k rcvohitioii.
'ril<> ciiliri' |)o|iiilitlloii of the pcniiiKiiltk wiiN csli-
iiiiktcil at iilioiit li.diiii ill l><iil , liiii, at prcHt'iil it ix
prolialtlv rather iimlcr M.OIMI.
ATIIV, an in!, town of Irt'laiul, <*o. Kililarc, |ii'<>v'.
Lciiislcr, on the Harrow, .is m. SW. Oiildin by
roail, ami I ij \iy the South- MuMtrrn railw :iv. Pop.
'M'.'l in iHiil. The aiii'it'iit nnini' of tlii> town
was Alhlcjjar, 'the wctlcrn ford.' From its posi-
tion on till' liordir of the l'',ii),'liMli pale, and on a
lord of the ri\cr, it has Iwcii a frriiiicnl Ht't'iii' of
I'onllii't. Ill l;tllH it was plundered by the Irish,
and JMiriit hy I'.dwaril llriiee in lill'), Afort,l>uill
ahoiit l.'iilii, to ).;iiard the pass of the river, wan
iM'cupied ill KllM liyOweii Itoe ( t'Neal, on the part
of tlie Irish, Imt in lil.")ii it surrendered to the par-
liaiiieiiiarv forces. The two portions into whieli
the town IS divided l>y tlie Harrow, are connei'ted
liy n hrid^' of live arches, thus foriiiin^ one j'oii
tiniious main strci^t, whence several lessor avenues
diver;;e. There is a |iar. I'lilirch, a phiin huildili;^ ;
n spacious |{. Ciitli. cliapid, with a I're^liyteriaii
and a Methodist iiu'ctiii^-honso. Adjoining the
town is a small cha|iel, an ancient cemetery, and
n small Dominican inoiiastery. The vast miijority
of the inhaliitants are Itomaii Catlndics; llie census
of iHdl sliowed 'Mr* memliers of the Kstahlished
(,'hiirch, I" I'reshyti'riaiis, and oV Methodists. Ilc-
8ides the parochial school, there are two others
Hupported hy voluntary siil)s<'riptions. There is
also a dispensary and a poor fund. It is a chief
constahulary station, and has a siuall cavalry har-
rack. I(y a charter of 1 1 James I., the corporation
consists of n Movereij^n, two hailill's, and twidve tnir-
j^esses. Previously to the Union the horoiif^h sent
two ms. to the Irish ]iarliamcnt. The summer
assizes for the county are held here, as are ({cneral
sessions of the peace in .lanuarv and June, anil
petty sessions every Tuesday. 'I'he markets are
held on Tuesdays and Saturdays; the fairs on 17
Mar., '2") Apr,,".) June, 2.") July, 10 Oct., and II
Dec. The modern coiisoqiieiice of the town is
mainly dorive<l from its heiiif^ a statioti on the
Hoiith-Kastern railway, as well as at the junction
of a branch of the (irand Canal with the Itarrow,
and from the latter beinj; made navigable to its
embouchure. It has, in consecpience, become a
jilai^e of considerable commercial iiniiortance. The
principal trade is in corn,of which large quantities
ure purchased, partly for mills on the Harrow, but
chietly for the Uuliliu market. Corn, butter, and
iirovisions are also sent down the Harrow to New
{oss and Waterford ; and timber and other arti-
cles, for the use of the adjoining districts, are iin-
jiorted l»y the same >!liannel and bv railway.
ATINA, a town of Southern Italy, jirov. Ca-
Bcrta, 12 in. Sl'2. Sora, near the Melfa, among some
of the loftiest summits of the Ajieiinines. Po]).
6,1 10 in 1802. The town has a cathedral, a con-
vent, and a hospital; and wiis formerly the seal
of a bishopric, siii)prcHsed by Poj* Kugeno III.
Illy
nii-
ATLANTIC OCEAN
I It In pHiicipally rrmarkable for Ita Cyrlnpotin ro
! mains.
I This l« ono of the most niicicTit of (he liHiini,
cities; b.'iiig, aciording to Virgil (Kii, Itli. Mi.
, <'2!l), n coii'>id<rablc town as early as the I'ri.jn
war. It was taken from the Samniies hy li ..
Komiiiix, A.v.f, 1 10. Cjceni savH it witi u i.r,.
fecliire, and oiic of the iii<>s| ihi)iiiIous and di>iiii
giiished ill Italv. iCic, |ii,, Pliinco.) It receivci
I a coloiiv from IIoiih during the reigii of Nerii,
I ATl.ANTIl' (M'KAN.oiie of the great di\iM„n,
of that watery e\panse which covits luori' ihiin
three fourths of the slirfaii' of the globe. Till. \|.
lanlic Oiiaii lies li.'tween the Old aiiil Iht- Nmi
I World, washlnglhc M. shores of the AmiTicii-, mul
I the \V. shores of l.iirope and Africa, exlniilin.,
' lengthwise from tlic Arctic to the Antarctic Scj,^
Where mil lowest, Li I ween (irecillniidanil NurAviiv,
it is about !t;iii in. acmsi; but Itetweeii \. AlVlin
and Florida, \\'i<'re it nniins to its niaxiiniiiii
breadth, the disiaiice from sli.ire to itliore exci'i'd^
l.l'tO III. Thoij^li it comprises little mure tliiui;)
lifth |Nirt of the whole oci'/iii, itH .shores furm u
nion^ extended line of i nasi than those of nil tlii>
other seas taken togciln r. This arises fnim sevirii
extensive inediterranean seas, which enter ■
into the contiguous continents, being cmi
by straits with the N. Ailaiitic Ocean, aiui
ing portions of it. Such are the Italiic ami Miiji-
terraiieaii Sea ill the ( )ld ('oiitineiit ; and IIiii|m,ii.i
and Hatlin's Hays, and the ('oliiinbian Sea (ddli'
of Mexico anil Caribbean .Sea), in the New W'.irM.
And it is jtrobably in some degree owiii;; to tlii<
facilities all'orded for commercial intercourse liy
these arms of the Atlantic, that the cnimtrii'^ in
their vicinity have made a greater and iiiore cirly
progress in civilisation than those of most iitjur
parts of the world.
To the same cause has also been a.scriliiii lin'
circumstance of the nations iiihabiiiiig the .linri"!
of the Atlantic having applied them.selves jHrii-
liiirly to navigation: they havi^ not liiniti'il lliiir
activity in this branch of industry to the Ailmilii',
but navigate every other sea; and there is iKiwim
harbour, how remote soever, which is imt r('f,'ii-
larly visited by their ships, with the excepiimi i.f
those to which a free access is denied, or wliiili il'i
not furnish any article of trade. The Alliiiiii^
Ocean has thus, as it were, become the must liv-
(pieiiled highway of commercial nations, ami Im<
been More coinpletidy explored and exaniiiieil iIimii
the otl:er seas; and freiiueiitly repeated ex|K'ri-
ments have enabled rules to be laid down furilic
guidance of vessels traversing its ditl'ereut pun-.
in ditl'erent seasons of the year, which give tin;
greatest facility and security to its navigatimi.
Those groups of islands which impede iiavi;::!-
tioii.and render it comjiaratively dilliciilt uml ilaii-
gerons, are much less numerous in the Vtlaiiiii'
thiui in most other seas. If, indeed, we ex(i'|ii
the chain of islands which se))aratos the Coliuiilji.ri
Sea from the Atlantic, and which, tlierel'ori'. may
be considered as forming part of the shores of tin'
ocean, it can hardly be said that there exi.si.s nnv
such group of islands between .")0° N. lat. ami 'i' '
S. lat. The Azores, (!anaries, and Cape ilcVirl
Islands, as well as those of (iuinea ami the lic-
niudas, occupy a comparatively small spai'c, .ml
are easily avoided ; and the two litst-mcntiiiin 1
groups lie far from the common track of vpsmI-.
The Canaries, including Madeira, are frcqui'ml.
visited; being situated where it is usual fur vu.n-iIs
to change the direction of their course.
The direction of the winds and currents i.s ■ I
special importance as att'ecting the |)eil'orniiiiK'i' ' i
voyages; and to the more exact kimwleil.LiV"!
their course and influence, as well as to oiliir im-
ATLANTIC ()('I«:A\
3M
ririivcmont!t ill iIk' 'irl <>f nnvl^iitimi, U lo Ihi iih-
.rilKil lli<" III'' 'I'"' voviitim (ire III |ir<'H«'iil prr
I .riiM'il ii> iK'iirl.v liitll tlu> liin<> tlu>y oci'ii|)it''l only
m MiliirJiH liisit.
»V«(/i<.— V" 'Ix' AdniHli- OiTan, infliiilin;^ tJi**
iwii li'V SrtiH III ilH r\tri'iiiitii'n, cxIi'ikN Cruiii the
Aniii' I" IIk' Anliirclic I'ldc, it i^ in |uii-t4 «iilij>'cr
l.p itic ittriiiliutl 111 Iriidr wimit, In hiIiiTh to flic
riiriii/'lf wlniM i ami alnii^ nuiiii' nt' itx i'i>ii.i|h, Ih'-
(Hnii lilt' ini|»ii'.H, i.ii' wliiih arc Hiilijt'rl tn it rc-
(.'iilari liiiiiK"' iK'i I'nliii;,' t» tlic xiihuiih — or, in uilu-r
« nl.«, //MiM««i'n am there |irt'v:ili'nt,
Tlie irmle winiJH iliiniit exteiiil U'vutiil tile •'I'Jinl
imriill' I '' "n 'lie e'jnii'or; Hiiineliinex tliev itre not
iiH'l will, ai .'renter ili-tniice tliiin '27° lilt. The
wliiile surlaee ( (' the «en extemliii;^ from tlieK»> la-
lilililen to the ptileN 1h the priiviiu'e of the rnrinhk
wiiiik The latter lilow in every nenNon I'mm all
iKiiiil^ of the eoiMjMiHH; lint, liy loiij^ ex|Mrience, it
liii-i I n I'liiiiiil that the \V. wimU |ireMiil in hoth
liiiiii^lilu'ri's. If u line lie drawn in the ilirei'tion
III a iiieriilian, il is eNtiinaieil that the iiro|iiirtiiin
iKlweeii the \viiiil.-< Mowing from the \V . to those
lliai iiiiiie from the K. in as II to TfJ. 'I'liiw, at least,
is llie |>M|Hirlion ill the N. hemis|ihere, where the
I'siiiiiiile lias lieen iiiaile with the ^rreale.st exaet-
lii-is, It is, hesiiles, to lie oliserveil, that whilst
ihcwiiiils lii'lween the tro|iies anil near tin'in Idow
iiiiirlv ali^.ivs with the name ilej^'ree of foree, the
variaiile wiiiils vary extremely in this resitect —
liliiniiit; someiimes almost with the streii;;tli of
liiirririiiies, ami at other tiincM Hiiikin^ into dead
(■alius.
Tlie two trade-winds do not liliiw over the whole
Mirliiif of the sea lyiiiKhetweeii the tropics. They
lire separated from each other hy the m/mfi of
riilmn. This re;;ion varies, accor.liiiK to the sea-
Niiis, ill extern; and does not always occupy the
winie part of the ocean. It is fomid to extend
Irmn ii short distance otV the shores of the I lid
Ciiiitiiieiit to a short distance o'f those of the New,
lull its lireadth is very various. Sometimes it
(iirapies not more than U° of lat., and at other
Miisiiiis up to 10°. The most reiiiarkalile fact
rc-pcctinj.' this re;;ion is, that it does not extend
(i|iially on ImiIIi siiles the equator, lint lies nearly
llii' whole year round in the N. hemisplu're. (Inly
nlii'ii the sun is near the tropic of Caiiricorn it
|iii.s>('s tlie line, Imt never extends liirtlier to the
S, than '2,^°. On the N. of tho eipiator it ad-
viiincs at certain seasons, (!ven to the I Ith or I 'ith
ilcf;. of lat. These chan;^es in the extent and in
till' raiij;e in which the rejjion of calms is met
with, and in which the trade-winds lilow, depend
cviilciitly on the position of the sun. When the
Mill is near the N. tropic, or retirinjj from it,
i'|n'i'ially in July, Au/^ust, and Septemlier, the
liiliiis advance towards the X. even to the lltli
anil l.jtii (li% of lat. : and at the suine time the
S. triiile-wiiids encroach consideralily on the N.
lKiiii.-|ilK're, lieiiiK met with as far as the -Ith* or
.'illi ilcf,'. of X. lat. Then the lireadth of the re-
Kiiiii (if calms is 10°; but when the sun is near
ilie S. tropic, or hefjins to retire from it, the S.
traile-winds also recede farther S. ; and in January,
IVliriiary, and March, the calms extend to the
S. iif the line, hut only to a distance of from 1° to
'.'i°. In this season the X. trade-wind advances
to 2° X. lat.. and the width of tlu^ repon of calms
i* then narrowed to from .'1° to 4° lat. The central
liiii'of the region of calms may be placed at about
•i" (ir .5J° lat. ; and its mean breadth may e.vteiid
liver 5° or fiAO, m- from .'500 to 3 JO sea in. Con-
liiiueil calms reinn in this rej^ion ; and they would
I'lnn an insuperable obstacle to the profjress of
viNscls, were not the air daily ajfitated by a wpiall
which occurs about two o'clock iu the ufteriiooii.
At niHiii, a black and Hell ilellned cloud a|ip< ant
near the hori/.on, whl. h iiiiii'H'.cs, and aunonnccH
i» violent ihiiinlcr storm; suddenly a wind arivs,
blows for a ^liiirt lime with creat viiileiici>, >«'iid<
down ,1 few drojis of I lui; and after this luniult
of the elements inis l,i,i,d In. in half to one hour,
til.' calm r-iiirns. IIkh*! short viileiit mpialU
are ciilli'd innuiilom.
'I'lie nttrthrrH Intili-ii'iml It mibj"it to clianirn,
Hot only respecting the extent of »ea over wiiiili,
but also res|M'ctinK the direction in which, it blows.
When the sun advaiii'i's In the N. hcmi'.phen', it
withdraws, as already seen, further ll'im llie eipia-
tor. It also blows over a wliier ran^e of wa, near
the coasts of America, than «t a short distancn
from the tllil Coiiiinent. In the sinis inclii^<ln^
the Canary Island-', it U rarely met with at .'Kl"
lat., and often imi before tlie -.'Ttli parallel U
reached; here, therefore. Hi N. boiiiidarv may be
IKcil at -.'MJ"^ N. lat. ii^ a mean, <>ii the W. bor-
ili rs of the ocean, hoWi vcr, in .n ' i'iin,»t of Ame-
rica, it extends farther N., i en td .r.' lal.; hem
ils mean iMiiindarv m;iy be ilxi-d at ;tii° Int. In
the nei^dilionrhoiHl of the (lid ( ■mtiiient, this
irade-wind blows fri .m the Nl'., but it dci liiieH
more to the I'",, a" il proceeds farther W. In tlio
middle of the ocean it is !•',. \ X.. and where it
approaches the New ('out incut it blows IViiiii dim
I'l. This wind is sinncwhal changeable towards it.H
N. boundary; siniietiines violent Nl'!. winds aro
found to prevail between the '.'•-'nd and .'loth dcf;.
of lal., and in the same |iarall( 1> it is frcipicntly
very weak. Ihit no navipitioii can be more plea-
sant than that with this irinh'-wind. It is riiihi^r
to be called a lircexe than a wind; and is uniform,
and never interrupted by sipialls. The waves
which ar(^ raised by it arc low. and their swell
Ucntle. Where this wind blows, the passap' from
the (11(1 Continent to America may sutely be ef-
fected in an open boat. Hence "the SpanianlH
have caMeil this part of the Atlantic ( Icean tho
* Scant' the Ladies,' — (iolj'ii ilv hm Daiiutu,
The mutliiTH trndv-wiml ditl'ers from the north-
ern in the >;realer extent of sea over which it.
blows, extending;, as we |)reviiiusly observed, iu
summer, to .'^i° or even (i^ to the X." and never rc-
ce(lin;; farther to the S, I' the eipiator than •^4°.
It is, farther, much more rejfnlar, not bein;; inter-
rupted towards its S. boundary by other winds,
lis direction near the (lid Con'iinent is also some-
what dirt'erent ; for here it blows parallel to tho
coast extending from the Cape of (iooil Hope to
th(! Hi;;lit of Henin — that is, from the S. At n
distance from the coiuinciit it becomes by dcfjrees
mon^ easterly, and where il approaches' America
its direction is nearly due K. The meridinn of
'20° W. of (Jreenwich may be considered as tho
line of se|)aratioii lu^tweeii the winds which idow
more southerly or more easterly. To the K. of
this line, the wind varies between SSW. and
SSI''.; but to the W. of it, between SSK. and
SSW.
Ill some parts the trade-winds extend to tho
very shores of the continents; in others, a tract
of sea lies between the trade-winds and the land
in wlucli u dirt'erent wind is prevalent. Thus it is
found, that in the sea between the X. trade-wind
and the African coast, ti. m the Canaries to the
("ape de Verd Islands, the wind lilow\* constantly
from the W. This phenomenon is sulHciently
explauied by the peculiar nature of the (Jreat
African Desert, the Sahara. Its surface, destitute
of vegetation, and covered with loose .sand, is
heated by the sun to uii excessive deforce, and in
consequence the suprinctimbent air is raretied,
and rises. W^herc this raretied air coni(!,i into con-
tact with the more dcu-ic air covering the surfa- e
'.' rf
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
1.1
■^ Ui2 12.2
lj&
III 1-25 III 1.4 III 1.6
^
6"
►
0%
/
"^^"V
W
^.^•
y
Photographic
Sciences
Cbrporaiion
23 WBT MAIN STRf IT
WfBSTER.N.Y. MSSO
(716) S72-4503
'^
246
ATLANTIC OCKAN
' '
ifl
of the son, the Inttcr expands over the desert;
and this f^ivcs rise to a continual flow of uir from
VV. to K.
Fiirtlier S., between the Cnpo dc Verd Tslnnds
and Cnpe Mesurado (7° N. lut.), a kind of nion-
Hoon prevails, wiiicli, in rertiiin places, Mows to
tlift distance of 200 ni., and opposite Sierra Leone
altout ir)0 m. ofll' shore. From Septenil)er to June
it proceeds fnmi the X. or N'K,, and in tlie rest of
the year from S\V. AlonR the coast of (iuinea,
and in the lUfjIit of Heiiin, tlie H. trade-wind
prevails nearly the whole year round, but its
direction is a little elianj^ed, the winti blowing;
from the SVV. Between tlie Hif^jht of Henin and
80* S. lat., the trade-wind blows to the very shores
of the continent.
On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, along
tlie coast of lirazil, a re^fular monsoon prevails.
It proceeds, between September and March, from
between N. \ E. and N k. ^ K. ; an<I from March
to September, from between E. ^ N. to ESIC.
These winds blow with considerable force, and
extend sometimes to a great distance from the
shore, especially in the months of June and July.
There are instances on record of its having been
met with nearly as far as the middle of the
Atlantic.
N. of Cape St. I'oque, the trade-winds reach the
very shores of (he American continent and the
M'est Indies. Li these parts they seem even to
extend over a considerable part of the continent
itself; forthe c(mtinual E. wind which blows over
the plain of the river Amazon, to the very foot
of the Andes, is generally considered as a con-
tinuation of the trade-winds. The same may be
said of the E. winds which blow over the plains
watered by the Orinoco, where this wind is felt
as far as Angostura, and at certain seasons still
farther W,
Currents. — We are less acquainted with the
currents than with the winds. This arises partly
from the diflicultles in which the sul)ject is natu-
rally involved, aiul partly from the comparatively
short time which has elapsed since they have
attracted the attention of navigators and natu-
ralists.
Currents are to be distinguished from drift-
water, Uy the latter cx])ression, that motion of
the water is understood, which is produced on the
surface of the sea by perpetual or prevailing
■winds. By jiushing continually the upper strata
of tlie water towards that point to which they
blow, they cause a slow motion of the water in
that direction. Accordingly, we find that that
part of the Atlantic Ocean which is subject to the
trade-wind, is in a continual motion towards the
VV. ; which Ls most sensible in those regions which
are alwaj's exposed to the trade-wintls, and less
80 where they blow only in certain seasons. This
kind of current is in most parts constant, but, its
tlow very gentle. Its moan velocity is from 9
to 10 m. a day, and it is very favourable to
navigation.
Other drift-currents are met with in those pares
of the Atlantic in which the wind changes with
the seasons ; as along the coast of Sierra Leone,
and that of Brazil, S. of Cape St. Augustine. In
the former the current runs, from September to
June, S., and in the remainder of the year in a
M. direction. Along the coasts of Brazil, the
current, from September to March, runs in a S.
direction, and from March to Septemlier, N.
I'A-eu in tliosc parts of the Atlantic which are
subject to a continual change of the wind, a drift-
<-urroiit is observable. We observed that N. of
itoo jj, lat,, and S. of .30° S. lat., in the region
of the variable winds, the W. \\'inds prevail, and
in these ])arlH of the ocean a W. current is por-
ceived ; but it is feeble, and manifests ilNcIf in i||.'
X. Atlantic only on the whole course of a V(iyii);i'
from Europe to America and backward, reliircliii);
the former and for%vardiiig thi^ latter.
Besides the drift-currents, the velocity of wliioh
is moderate, there are others of much grcatu
force, called projierly vurrenta. Their ori};iii is
still involved in obscurity ; but, frimi some fact.-i,
we may su|i|>osc that they are not formed (ui iiic
surface of the water, but are of great deptli, ami
in nuiiy parts, if not in all, extend to the vt-rv
bottom of the sea. These currents cannot lie
compared with rivers ; for they extend over sui'h
a portion of the 8urfa(!e of the sea, that if they
were transferred to the continent they wonlll
cover countries of great extent.
In the Atlantic, these currents run across the
ocean in three places. The current crossing the
Atlantic ne^ar the line, is called the Eipiutnriul inr-
rent; it runs from E. to W. The current, whicli,
in a direction from W. to E., traverses the X. At-
lantic between 'M° and 44°, Ijears the name of the
Gulf Stream ; ami that which runs hi the siiiiie
direction, through the S. Atlantic, between .'iO°aiii|
40° S. lat., is named the 8. Atlantic current. Otiier
currents run along the shores of both contincm.H
between 40° N. lat. and 'MP S. lat. Along the
Ohl Continent they run towards the equator; but.
on the shores of America, they How from the line
towards the iioles. These latter kind of cnrrents
are intimately connected with the equatorial cur-
rent; but very slightly, if at all, with the gulf
stream or the S. current.
The Equatorial current may be supposed to iiave
its origin in the Bight of Benin, on tlie VV. sliorcs
of Africa, between the islands of Anno Ihira aii<l
St. Thomas ; whence it jiroct^eds in a W. directiun,
towards Capes St, Koque and Augustine, mi the
coast of Brazil. Its breadth is different in dilTcreiit
parts. Near its origin it is not quite 3° df lat,
across, about 100 m. ; but, in its progress to the
VV., it increases consideralily in width. Op|iosite
Cape Palmas, its N. border is found at about 1°45'
X. lat., but the S. reaches nearly to 5° S. lat.:
thus its breadth extends hero over more than G°
of lat., or upward of 3(S0 nautical m. It attains in
greatest breadth between 20° and 22° VV. lon^'..
where it extends over 7° or 8° of lat., from 4^° nr
5° S. of the equator to 2Jo or 3° N, of it; iuTe,
consequently, it is 450 nautical m, across. A little
farther VV., between 22° and 23° VV. long., it semis
off a branch to the N\V. ; and here it narrows to
about 300 m., which breadth it probably preserves
up to its division into two currents, opposite Ca)X's
St. Koque and St. Augustine ; but that part of its
course which lies VV. of 23° and 24° VV. long, is
somewhat declined towards the S. Its veluciiy
varies likewise, not only in the different parts of its
course, but also in dilierent seasons, being muili
greater in summer than in winter. From AniM
Bom to 10° W. long, it may run from 25 to 30 ni,
a day; but between 10° and 10° its velocity in-
creases to from 44 to 80 m. at the end of June ami
the beginning of July; in the other SHmmer
months it is somewhat less ; and, from October tn
March, very moderate, and sometimes very weak,
Between 10° and 23° VV. long., where it is com-
monly crossed by vessels, the rupidit}' of the eur-
rent rises often to 46, 50, and even 00 ni. per day:
but its mean velocity mav be fixed at about 30 m.
The temperature of the water within the cuirent
is everywhere some degrees lower than 'hat ol tlie
seas without the current. The whole length ol
this current, from St. Thomas to Cape St. Koque,
amounts to upward of 2,500 sea m.
The portion of the equatorial current v^k"
ATLANTIC OCEAN
247
current i« por-
I'HtH iiHcif ill ill.'
ir»e i>r a viiyiij;i'
iwanl, retiinliii;,'
;(!r.
elocity of which
much ({rcatir
Tlu'ir (>rit;iii is
nini Home, t'licts,
)t formctl (111 I 111'
^eiit (U'pth, ami
end to th(! very
rents caiiiint he
xtcnil over sui'h
ea, that if they
jnt they wuulil
8 nin aernw the
rent cross! nj; 'he
\e. Eipiutorial nir-
e current, whicli,
verses the N. At-
< the name of the
runs in the siinw
;, between ;ili° ami
itic current. Other
f both cdiitineiits
. lat. Ahiiij,' the
the cqiiatiir; hut,
ilow I'roin the line
r kind of currents
he equatorial eiir-
lU, with tlie giilf
)C supposed to have
, on the VV. shores
of Anno ISora ami
s in a \Y. diroctiuii,
Augustine, on the
ifferent in different
ot quite 3° of lat.
t8 progress to the
I width. Opiiiisite
.und at about 1°4'V
larlv to 5° S. lat.:
ive'r more than (P
jl m. It attain.s its
and 22° VV. Vm-
i)f lat., from 4jo ^r
3° N. of it; here.
Im. across. A little
W. long., it semis
here it narrows to
probably preserves
nits, opposite Capes
but that part of Us
lid 24° W. lonf,'. IS
ie 8. Its veluciiy
itterent parts of Its
isons, being miuli
liter. From Anu'i
ji from 2.5 to 30 ni.
[g° its velocity Ill-
he end of June ami
[he other summer
id, from Octoher to
letimes ver\- weak.
where it is com-
ipidity of the cur-
-en 60 m. per (lay:
..wed at about 30 m.
[within the current
her than that "I 111''
e whole length el
•0 Cape St. Koque,
m. , . ,
L-il current wd^
hr.inehps off from the main stream iK-lwcen 22°
and 23° W. long., ami about 2^° N. lat., is called
the .VT. current. At the point of separation, it
may Ik- from IND to 200 m. in width ; farther N. it
uidciiM even to 8(10 m., but narrows again to 24lt
and less. Its velocity is not so great as that of the
main ('iiiintorial current. In ilJ4 S. part, as far im
10° N, Lit., it may run 30 rn. a day ; but it after-
wards slackens considerably; yet at all times it
may Ik; traced up to IH° X. lat., and commonly
even to 2.5°. In the N. part of its course it de-
clines more to the N., till It is lust in the drift-cur-
rent. It is not improbable that tbi.s current in-
creases the velocity of the drift-current, whi(;h
navigators have observed between 35° VV. lat. and
the island of Trinidad ; and that the change in the
direction of the drift-current, which here declines
to the NVV., is also to be ascribed to the same
caii.sc.
At a distance of about 300 m. from the coast of
Ilrazil, extending lietween Capes St. Hoqiie and ,St.
Augustine, the equatorial current divides into two
hran<'hes. That which continueH to run ahmg the
X. coast of IJrazil, turns at the mouth of the Ama-
zon to the N,, and proceed.s along the shores of
(iiiyana to the island of Trinidad, where it enters
the'Caribliean Sea. It is called the Guyana cur-
rent, and the length of its course does not fall short
(if 1 ,.')(I0 m. Its velocity is greatest in summer and
winter, and may, in the former, be about 30 m. a
day at a nii'aii. It enters the Caribbean Sea by the
dilfcrent straits which, S. of the island of Martin-
ique, divulc the smaller Antilles from one another
and from the continent of 8. America. In the.se
straits the currents setting into the Caribbean Sea
a>e strung: that between Trinidad and Greiiaila
nui.s from 1 to \\ m. per hour; less rapid is the
cunent in the strait between St. Vincent and St.
Lucia; and lietween the latter island and Martiii-
i(|iic it runs not more than 21 m. i)er day. At the
Virgin Islands the (low of the water is only 8 or 10
m. a day, and that is not more than the common
rate at which the drift-current runs. In the Carib-
liean Sea the Guyana current terminates ; for in
I hat sea no perpetual current has been traced. It
rather seems that the currents which exist there,
de|K.'iul oil the winds, and change the tlirectiou of
their course according to the seasons.
The other current, which branches off from the
eiiuatorial current, opposite Cape St. Augustine in
liriuil, is called the Brazil current, and runs to the
^\V. along the shores of S. America, but does not
ill any part of its course approach near to them.
From 8° S. lat., where it separates from the Guyana
current, to H)° or 17° S. lat., the current has a
eonsidcrable width, and runs about 20 m. or some-
what more a day. Its distance from the continent
is nowhere le.ss than 250 m. Farther S. it increases
ill hrcadth and velocity, and approaches at the
same time nearer the continent. Opposite Cape
Frio it runs about 30 m. a day, and is not more
than 200 m. distant from the coast. A.s, however,
from the last-mentioned cape the land falls back
to the VV., the current is soon found at 300 m. and
more from the continent. By declining, by de-
grees, its course farther to the W., it approaches
nearer, but never is found at a distance less than
2'')!) m. Thus it continues to the mouth of the La
I'lata river, running all this way Irom 15 to 20 m.
per day. It becomes weaker as it advances farther
S., hut may be traced to the straits of Magalhaens
and Le Maire.
The (iuyana and Brazil currents are those with
which the equatorial current is connected (m the
shores of America. The currents with which this
(.Teat sea-stream is united near the coast of the Old
Continent, are the S. and the N. Afirican currents.
[ The S. African current seems to have its origin
I sonic degrees N. of the Cape of (iood Hope. It
appears, however, not to be connected with the
Agiillia.s current, whicii is found at a short distance
S. from the Cape, and which runs VV. from Ihe
, Indian into the iVtIantic Ocean. Itetween lH°iiiid
j 11° S. lat. exists a current running from S. to N.
I at a short distance fror- the coasts of .Vfrica, but we
, arc not acquainted either with its breadth or ve-
hicity; neither, however, app<-ars to be consider-
alile. Between 11° and the Island of .\nno Horn,
the current runs in a NVV. by VV. direction at the
rate of from 15 to 25 or even 30 m. n day, but
seems to be of inconsiderable width. It increases
ill velocity ot the mouth of the river Zaire, /uid in
width at Cape Lopez ; but soon afterwards merges
into the equatorial current.
The North African current, which is also called
the Guinea current from its terminating opposite
the coast of Guinea, has it-s origin opposite the
coast of France, between the southern shores of
Ireland and Cape Finisterre in Spain. It is impo.s-
sible to determine more precisely the place where
it originates ; but it is a fact well established by
exjierience, that the whole body of water between
the Feninsula and the Azores is in motion towards
the S., the western jiart setting more southerly,
and the eastern more to the SK. Hctween C^aju' St.
Vincent in I'ortiigal, and Cajie Caiilin in Morocco,
the motion is directed towards the Straits of (Mi-
raltar; and this motion extends as far westward
■IS 20° VV. long. Hetween Cape Cantin and (.'ape
Blanco the general direction of the current is along
the coast, but it sets in nearly periiendiciilarly
towards the shores. This portion of the current is
about 300 m. across between Cape Cantin and Cape
Boja(h)r, but ouly from 150 to 180 between tlio
last-mentioned t,'ape and Cape Blanco. Between
Cape Blanco and Cape de Verd the current runs a
little to the VV. of S., approaching the general
directi(m of the drift-current of the trade winds.
Netir the Cape de Verd Islands the temperature of
the water of the current is 8° lower than in those
parts of the sea v, hich lie beyond it. After ]iassiiig
C'ape do Verd, the current turns S., and by degrees
SE. and SSE. Here it does not approach the
shores of Africa ; at least, between Cape de Verd
and C^a|)e Mesurado it is met with only at a dis-
tance of about 200 m. from the coast. The inter-
mediate space is occupied by periodical curreiit,s,
which run, from September to June, S. or SVV., ;
but in the remainder of the year, N E. S. of Capo
Mesurado it approaches the coast, and increases in
velocity, running sometimes at the rate of 2 in. per
hour; here its temperature is considerably in-
creased, but still lower than that of the ocean at
large. At Cape Palmas it turns entirely to the E. ;
and skirts the coast of Guinea until it disappears
in the sea o])posite the mouth of the Quorra, and
in the Bay of Biafra, where it partly seems to
mingle with the Etpuitorial current.
With the N. African current another current is
connected, which runs across the British (Jlmnnel
at its western extremity. It niiis E. from Capo
F'inisterre along the S. shores of the Bay of Biscay ;
turns then to the N. and NVV., along the VV. coast
of France; and passing Ushant, it traverses the
British and Irish Channels. At the Scilly Islands,
which it touches with its eastern border, it is tJO m.
across. It then continues to the southern shores of
Ireland, W, of Carnsore Point ; and hence turns to
Ca|)e Clear, where, after entering the ocean, it turns
to the 8. and SE., and rejoins the N, African cur-
rent. By this current vessels are frequently placed
in danger near the Scilly Lslands. With certain
winds this current runs from 24 to 28 m. a day.
The Gulf stream wliich crosses the Atlantic
"Its
m
m
218
ATLANTIC 0CI:AN
licuvcpii ."('i° fliid 1 1° N'. l!it.,"riKiii»t<'f* i" •'«' •■"If
(if Mcxicii. 'I'lic water in lliin sen is* Net by two
ciirri'iits into it iicnrly ciri'uliir inotioii, wliich
.Kocins to t)(' till' |iriiiri|iiil rcasini why it lU'fiiiircs
sui'li II liit;h (It'^ri'ti of t('iii|)('riitiiri', — Ix-iiiK Hip
Fiilir., wiiilst tlmt nt" llic occjiii iil liir^c in llin
name Int. C2'>° N.) docs not cxcccil ~x° Fiilir. 'l'\w
two I'lirrcntH, wliicii jint in motion |)i'rlia|iN tiircc-
t'l^nrtlm of the wiitiT of the ;;nlf. unili- aliont 70 in.
W. of tlu^ llavaninili; imd i)y this jMiictioii ti)(t
<inlf stream is formed. It riinsahtii); the \. coast
of tlie ishind of Culm, eastward; lint it is neither
liroail nor rapid at the entrance of the Straits <if
Florida at the Salt Kays, where it lie^fiiis to run
iiliont \h in. nn hour After euteriiif; the straits,
its velocity increii.ses to 2,J, M, luid occasionally
■I in. an hour. In the Narrows, however, hetween
("ajK' Florida and the Hiiniiii Islands (which lio-
lonj; to the liahanias), where the strait is only
•H ni. across, and the water-way is straitened by
reefs and slioals to .'15 in., it runs, in the month of
AufTUHt, 5 m. an hour; and at that rate commonly
tliroiijLth the tvmiiiiider of the strait up to Cape
Cailiiveral. 'lhou;:;h the current has traversed, in
tills space, about 1° of Int., the temperature of its
water is not sensibly diminished. From i'a\)(i Vn-
ilaveral (about 2M° N. lat.) the pilf-stream runs
lirst due N., and then nearly NK. aloiif^ the shores
of the l.'nited States, up to Capo Hatlerns (38° N.
lat.). It increases fj,Tadiially in width, and decreases
ill velocity. At Cape llattenis it is from 72 to
75 ni. across, and it runs only 3^ m. per hour.
The temperature of its water has sunk from HCfi to
Hi'fi, In this jiart, the current runs not so close to
the shores as hi tlie Strait of Florida. Its N\V.
edf^c is about "24 m. Sl'^. from Cape llatteras.
After passinj; this cape, the current increases still
more rapidly in widtli, and diminishes {jradually
in velocitv. 15etweeu (.'ape llatteras and the banks
of Nantiicket and St. Gcor-e (-1(1° X. lat.), the
jjeneral direction of the current continues to be
from SW. to NK.. thouf^h the W. edpi runs nearly
due N. At the Nantucket and St. (Jeorge Banks
it suddenly declines its course to the K., and
brushing tlie S. extremity of the great bank of
NewfouiKllaiid, it continues in that direction as far
as 4:5° or 44° W. long., between 37° and 43° N.
lat. Farther K. it bends to the SE. and S. ; and
having inclosed the islaiicls of F'hires and Corvo,
belonging to the group of the Azores, it is lost in
the ocean. There are some instances on record
of the warm water of the gulf stream having ad-
vanced to the very shores of Spain and Portugal.
The strongest current is between 38° and 3il° N.
lat. ; and it is probable that the breadth of the
wluile current does not exceed 120 naut.in., though
the warm water is found to be 200, 2.)0, and even
.'>20 m. across. Between 0.5° and (j(J° \V, long,
the strongest current runs from 55 to 56 m. a day;
but !)00 m. farther K., only from 30 to 33 ni. In
the neighbourhood of the Azores its mean rate
does not exceed 10 m. a day. The temperature of
its water decreases less rapidly. At the meridian
<if ()3i° W. h>ng., or (iOO nautical ni. from Cape
llatteras, the thermometer shows in summer 81°,
<ir from 1 0° to 1 1° above the water of the sea under
the same lat. At 73° hiiig. its temperature is 75° ;
.•iiid even at Corvo, not lower than 72h°, or from
8° to 1 0° above the ocean. The length of the gulf
stream from the Salt Kays to the S. of the Azores
is upwards of 3,000 naiit. m. It traverses from
• 1',)° to 20° of lat. (from 2.3° to 42° or 43°), and its
temperature decreases only 13J° (from HtJ° to 72i°).
The sea whi<'h is traversed by it is subject to nearly
rontiniial gales ; especially towards the outer edges
of the current.
Nearly in the middle of tlie Atlantic the gulf
stream is joined by the Airtlr viirren!, v hich nrj.
ginatcs beneath the iinmeiise ina-ises of ice ii,,,,
surround th(! pole, and thence runs in a SW. dV
rection along tlu^ K. shores of (Irceiiliuid. ciirrvin.'
with it a great iiiimlicr of ii^'bcrgs, ice-lii liU.' miri
ic(!-lloes. Pressing these icy masses against iIim
coast of (ireenlaiKl, the current renders that (•(ia>t
inaccessible; but it prevents the ice from sprcaij-
ing over the North Sea, and from enciiinlHTiii'
the shores of the Mritisii islands. At (;apc Fan"
well llu^ width of the current seem^ to Im> fr,,!,,
120 to I'iO m., the ice-masses extending to sinh a
distance from it. After passing Capn Farewell
the current bends to the N. and enters Davivs
Strait, running along flu! western coast of (;re,.||-
hiiiij up to the I'olar Circle, where it crosses ihft
strait t« Cape VValsingham (about titio N, lai., j
hence it Hows southward along Ciiiiiberlan I's
Island to Frobisher's and Hudson's Straits. Oppo.
site these straits it runs from 15 to Hi ni. a dav.
.Approaching Newfoundland, the current diviijcs:
one branch, running through the strait of Ilelji"
Isle, mixes with the waters brought down hv tlu'
St. Lawrence; whilst the other skirts the I',. s'li(in>»
of Newfoundland, when! it passes between Ihegrcni
and the outer bank of Newfoundland (between l.'iO
and 4(1° hit., and 4(i° and 47° long.), and at ln<i
Joins the gulf stream between 41° and 47° \V. luii".
The width of this current, probably, nowhere ex-
ceeds 200 m. ; the tem|ierature of its M-atcr is
always considerably lower than that of the iiccaii,
sometimes as much as l(!° or 17°.
The last current we have to notice, is the Smilli
Atliintir current, which traverses the ocean frum
!•:. to W. between 30° and 40° S. lat. In the \V.
)iart of the Atlantic its velocity seems to he inoiie-
rate ; but it increases as the current advances far-
ther E., and opposite the Cape it is very stnnif;,
It is met with at a distance of from 150 to iMii m.
from the Cajio ; hence it flows in a straight line
into the Indian Ocean, and traces of it are foiiinl
2,000 m. beyond the (^ajie. That spact^ of sea
which intervenes between this current and the
Cape, is occupied by another current, which runs
in an opposite direction ; being formed in the In-
dian Ocean by two currents which desceml on
both sides the island of Madagascar, and unite
between the first point of Xatal and ('ape Itfi'ife,
about 3.3° S. lat. Passing the (,'ape of ( Joud Ilii| o,
it enters the Atlantic as a current, running at the
rate of from 1 or I4 m. an hour in a X\V. di-
rection, and may be traced as far as 25° S. lat.
This current is called the A<jiilhas vurrt'iit. frnm
jiassing over the bank of that name at the S. ex-
tremity of Africa.
Trucks of Vcsseh. — In proportion as our know-
ledge of the prevailing winds and of the stri'iifjth
and directiini of the currents has increased, the
tracks have been fixed with more precision, whiili
vessels should follow in sailing from or to a coiiiitry
lying on the shores of the Atlantic. In u few-
cases they follow the same route, whether initwar I
or homewanl bound ; but in most cases they fnUow
ilirtereiit routes. We shall notice a few of tlio.«e
which are most freipiented.
1. IJetween Europe and the IF. count of N. Ame-
rica vessels keep dear of the gulf stream, sailing'
along its N. border, between 44° and 5l)° X. lai.
If, in sailing from E. to W., they were to enter
the gulf stream and to stem its current, they wonhl
be delayed in their course, perhaps, not less than
a fortnight. If, in sailing from W. to K., they
were to enter it, they, doubtless, would arrive four
or live days sooner in Europe ; hut the vessels
would Slitter, from the continual gales which pre-
vail within the borders of the stream, so iiuicli
damage in wear and tear, that it hardly could be
|^ v)iic)i riri-
(* of ice Ihiit
in It S\V. di
mil. i'i\ir\ ill;,'
I'c-t'uldx, mill
H iiy;:ruist ilii'
ITS lliiil I'oa'-t,
I'nim sprrnil-
I'licmiilHTiii^'
It (laiic F.m-
is to lie IVniu
Till},' til MiH'h II
'a)K'. Karcwt'll,
['liters DiiviV.s
Ddxt iif (jrccii-
I it criisscs the
t (iCiO N. liil.i;
Ciiiti)it'rliui I's
Straits. (»|i|iii-
o ICi in. a iliiy,
irrciit (liviilcs;
strait nf llcllc
it down liy tlic
rts tlic E. shores
itwpen lli('),'rc:il
ul (llC'tWCCll l.'i^
{;.), nnil at liK
iiiill70\V.lim^'.
ily, nowlicrc ex-
dl' its wator is
lut of the ocoaii,
tice, is the Smilh
tlic (K'ciui from
, lat. In till' \V.
■cms to lir iiioili-
eiit advances far-
it is vorv slnnij;.
(in 150 to iKiiiii.
u a strai);ht lino
'S of it arc foiiml
lat s)KU'(^ of sell
current and tlie
rent, wliieli rims
j'orined hi tlie iii-
lliich deseeiid on
;ascar, and unite
and ('ape Itei'ifc.
hie of (iood Il"i'i',
It, rnnniiif; at the
lur in a XW. (li-
ar as 25° S. lat.
kas citrri'iit. ffimi
,rae at the S. ex-
lion as nur know-
]l of the strenntli
las increiused, tlie
preeisidn.wliii'h
Ini or to a eninitry
Jin tie. In a few
Iwhether outwar 1
leases they f 'U""'
te a few uf tiiose
IcoaxtofN.Am-
If streiim, saili:y
> and 50° N. l^it.
ky were to cnler
irent, they would
Ins, not less than
I W. to !■:., they
[vould arrive four
1 Imt the vessels
kiles whieli \\k-
Itream, so nuicli
1 hardly couW be
ATLANTIC OCEAN
(•nmpen'atrd I)y tlm >,'ain of a few days. In sail-
i,i,^ to ilie i'niled States X. of the t,'iilf stream,
vissi'ls liiive the advantage of a counter rurrent.
249
wiiieli runs from the Nantucket and St. lieorne
Hanks to (;iiesapeak Bay, and perhaps to Cape
llalieras. .
•>, 111 sailing ff'"" F.urojw. to the Wv»t Indies
and the countries S., W., and N. of the (^otuinl)iaii
Sea, dill'ereiit tracks are followed, outward and
liiiiiieward. In sailiiiK from Kurope, the trade-
winds are taken advaiitaj^e of. The vessels jmiss
Madeira and the Canary Islands, and sail S. as far
XH 21° N. hit., whero they are certain to tind a
ciiiistaiit tradc-wuid. In this course they must
avoid approaching too near the coa.st of Africa
lictweeii Cape Nun and Cape Blanco, tecausc the
N. African current sets in towards the shore-s of
the Sahara, and the winds blow continually from
the »(^a towards the land. Many navigators who
liopeil to make the island of TeneritFe, according
lo ilieir dead reckoning, have hcen carried so far
Id the K., that they have been cast on these
inhospitable shores, where most of them have
iieri^lied. Between 1790 and 1«0>'), not less than
thirtv vessels are known to have been thus h)st;
and it is supposed that many others had the same
t'iite, without its being known. Having got a con-
stant trade-wind at 21° N. lat., the vessels sail \V.,
and enter the Ctdumbian Sea, commonly by one
iif the straits lying between tlie islands of Mar-
tinique and Trinidad.
Ill sailing homeward ships sometimes go through
the Mona (between Puerto L'ieo and Ilai'ti) and
windward (between Haiti and Cuba) jiassages;
lint more commonly they pass round the island of
t'liba on the VV., and sail through the Straits of
Florida. As soon as they have got clear of thf
strait, they sail E, to get clear of the gulf stream.
Tliev then direct their course across the Atlantic.
S, ofthe Bermudas, till they come into the longi-
tude of the island of Flores. They then sail N.,
either passing lietwcen Flores and the other Azores,
or to the E. of the groufi.
3, In sailing from Europe to the coast of Guyana
(Deniarara, Surinam, anil Cayenne), and to those
jirovinees of Brazil which are situated W. of Cajtc
St. Kotpie, ships go S. till they meet the trade-
wind, and then shape their course to the place of
destination, but keeping a few degrees farther to
the E. ; for, on approaching the New Continent,
they meet tlie Guyana current, which carries them
\V." If, therefore, they make land somewhat too
far to the VV., they tind it verj- ditlicult to attain
tiieir place of destination, — having to bear up
aj;aiiist the current.
Ill returning to Europe, the vessels sail along
ihft shores of America, where they are favouretl
liy the Guyana current, as far as the island of
Trinidad. Then they keep to the windward of the
Antilles, till they get into the variable winds,
wliere they follow the track of the vessels return-
iiij,' from the W. Indies.
4. Sailing from Europe to S, America, S, of Cape
St. Roqiie, ships have to pass through the region of
calms, and to traverse the equatorial current. The
lirst retards their progress, and .the second carries
ilicm forcibly to the VV. If they cut the equatorial
line VV. of 25° VV. long., they cannot make Cape
St. Riique, and fall in with the (iuyana current,
which carries them still farther VV., and along the
N, coast of Brazil. Then they can only get back
10 Cape St. Koque by a toilsome voyage of many
ilays, and even weeks. To avoid this, vessels tra-
verse the line between 18° and 2i}° W. long.
Having (Ume this, they are assisted by the Brazil
lurrent in making, with ease, any part of the
euast they please.
Vessels homeward bound from this coast lake
dilTereiit tracks, according to the seasons. From
March to Septi'mber, when the monsoons blow,
and the currents run, from S. to N., between tho
Brazil current and the continent of S. America,
they sail along the shores, till, at Cape .St. Uoque,
they meet the (iuyana current ; and then they
fidlow tho track of the vessels returning from
(iuyana to Kurope. But, from September to
March, the periodical winds and currents blow
and run from K. to SVV., in the din^ction of tho
Brazil current. Ships then sail across the cur-
rents, and try to get into the middle of the At-
lantic, where they follow the track of the vesseU
returning from the Hast Indies.
5. In sailing to tho East Indies, it in now tho
general practice to avoid the numerous difHcultiei)
met with in navigating along the coasts of Africa,
S. of the equator, and to follow the tracks of tho
vessels bound to Brazil. Afterwards, the vessels
j)roceed along the coast of S. America to 32° or
.'13° S, lat,, where they get out of the range of tho
SE. trade-winds, and are certain to meet with tho
S, Atlantic current, which (uirries them eastward.
They do not touch at the Cajie of (iood Hope, but
follow tho current until they cuter the Iiuliau
Ocean,
In returning from the Ea.st Indies to Europe,
vessels enter the Agulhas current near Madagas-
car, and are carried by it to the Cape of (iood
Hope, where they commonly stop for some time.
From the Cape, the same current takes them by
its NVV. courso to the miiUllo of the Atlantic.
They then shape their course X., so as to traverse
the line between 22° and 21° VV. h)ng., where
they meet the NVV. current, which takes them to
20° or 25'' N. lat., whence they proceed to tho
Azores.
Ice. — Both extremities of the Atlantic Ocean
are invaded by great masses of ice. They either
have been detached from the enormous masses
which inclose the poles to a great <listauce, or
from those countries which are situated so near
the poles, that their coasts are covered with ice
for the greater part of the year. In the N.
seas the ice consists of icebergs, ice-fields, and
ice-Hoes. The icebergs are enormous masses of
ice, sometimes several hundred and even thousand
yards long and broad; their summits being, in
some cases, 100 ft. and more above the level of
the sea, though only a seventh part of the whole
mass rises above it. They are properly glaciers,
formed along the high and snow-covered coast of
(ireenland, and which have afterwards been ])re-
cipitated into the sea. The ice-fields and ice-lloes
are considered as having been detached from the
ice surrounding the pole. This ice is commonly
of the thickness of from 20 to 30 ft., and rises
from three to four ft. above the sea. These m.isses
are called fields whenever they are so extensive
that their limits cannot be discovered from the
mast-head ; and floes, when their extent may be
overlooked from it. In the S. Atlantic only,
fields and floes are found, icebergs never ha\-ing
been met with. It is further worth remarking,
that the ice advances much nearer to the N. than
to the S. tropic. The ice-floes at Cape Horn are
far from being numerous ; and Capt. Weddell says
that at 55° 20' S. lat. there is no fear of falling in
with ice. In the X^. hemisphere, we always find
great ice-masses at some distance from the E.
shores of Newfoundland, from .January to May and
June ; and icebergs arc annually seen grounded
on the (ireat Bank. It even sometimes happens
that icebergs are met with in the gulf stream,
40^° N. lat. and 32° \V. long., as was the case in
1S17.
m
v'effa
i m
m
2.>()
ATLANTIC OCKAN
minrrllmimuii HemnrhH, — fV.iA wfcm to ho niiicli
niiiro iilcntilul in tlu- mciis near tho arctic, tliaii in
those HiirrouiKlinjr the antarctic, |iiil(>. This is [tro-
hahly to Iw nccounted for l)y the fjrcnicr nnnihor
unit greater extent of haniis found in tlie N. sean;
anil these, hesides, waNJi a far greater extent of
sliorrs, which many Npei^ieH of tish resort to in
quest of food. Another remarltahU! fact is, that
the seas near the equator, and, in general, those
lying ill lower latitiules, are much richer in species
than the N. parts of the ocean; hut that, in the
latter, the numhcr of nidiviiiuals belonging to each
species is far greater. Hence we tind that the
most extensive (if heriea are those which are (^arritid
on to the N. of 45° N. lat. ; ax the cod fisheries
on the (ireat Bank of Newfoundland, and at the
LafToden Island!), the whale fishery at Spit/lntrgen
and uii both (tides of Greenland, the herring fishery
along the coasts of (ireat Britain, and the pilchard
fishery in the liritish Channel. The most impor-
tant fisheries H. of AiP, if we cxct?))! the whale
fishery near the 8. pole, seem to be that in the
CaribWan Sea along the coasts of Venezuela, and
that which the inhabitants of the Caiuiry Islands
carry on iii the sea Hurruunding Cape Blanco in
Africa.
The temperature of the water is greater in the N.
than in the S. hemisphere. In the s«>as N. of the
equatorial current, the thermometer indicates 80°
or «l°, and S. of it 77° and 7«°, at the time when
the sun approaches the line. This difference may,
]ierhaps, be satisfactorily accounted for by the
sun's remaining aniuially seven days longer to
the N. than to the S. of the eijuator.
The specific gravlti/ and mitness of the sea-water
is, doubtless, greater near the eipintor than in the
vicinity of the poles; but the experiments wliich
have been made to determine the exact difference
have given such different results, that we must
still consider this question as undecided. Accord-
ing to Capt. Scoresby, the 8|)ecitic gravity of the
sea-water near the coasts of (ireenluud varies be-
tween 1'025!) and 1*027(>. Between the tropics,
some have found it l'U80{), or nearly this much ;
and near the equator, even l'((578, but the last
statement is, with reason, regarded as doubtful.
In a part of the Atlantic, the gnlf-weed. or J'licus
natans, occurs in great quantities. This region
extends nearly across the whole ocean, beginning
on the K. at the 30th meridian, and terminating
on the W. in the sea washing tiic E. side of the
Bahama Bank. In width, it occupies the whole
si)ace between 20° and 80° N. lat. ; but the whcde
extent of the surface between these lines is not
ecpially crowded with weed. The inost crowded
part extends between 80° and 32° VV. long.;
where, in the neighbourhood of the island of
Flores— one of the Azores — it forms first only a
small strip ; but farther to the S. ex])ands to a
great width. In this part of the Atlantic, which
is called by the Portuguese, Mar de Sarijasso
(Weedy Sea), the fucus covers, like a mantle, far
and wide, the surface of the 8ea, extending from
N. to S. more than 1,200 m. Another part of the
sea, covered with fucus in a very crowded state,
occurs between the meridians of 70° and 72°, and
the parallels of 22° and 2()°, towards the VV. end
of the region. The sea lying between these two
crowded districts is, in some parts, only lightly
strewed with sea- weeds; but m others it occurs
in dense masses.
An attempt to sink a telegraph cable in the At-
lantic, between the shores of Ireland and New-
foundland, was made in 1858. The work was
completed on the oth of August of this year, and,
•according to official reports, a message througli
this cable was actually sent from Europe to Anic-
ATLAS (MOUNT)
rica, and a reply returned, on the 22nd of August,
However, electricity, id'ler this llrst faint esKuvi
refused to run its desired course, ami the wnrk
had to be abandoned. Still less fortuniite wiis a
second attempt, made in the summer of jxt;,'), i(,
siihinergc a stronger cable, I A inch in thicknesx.
The loss of this eal)le, some thousand miles IVdiu
the shores of Europe, lu<l to a postponenunit ol tliu
great undertaking.
ATLAS (M(MjNT), according to IIero<loiiis,
was a single isohititd mountain of great elevaiinn,
on the VV. c^oast of N. Africa. This iiiforniatiou
was probably obtained from the first navigators of
these seas, who observed the elevated inountHJii
which forms at Cape Oeer (80° 40' N. lat.) tlic
western extremity, and as it were the galile-eml
of that extensive range now comprised under the
name of Mount Atlas.
The |)rincipal and highest range of Mount Atlai
is that which begins at ('a|)e (ieer (near 10° \V.
long.), and extends E., with a slight declination
to the N., as far as 5° W. long., where it ii|i-
|)roaches 32° N. lat. As to cross it requires two
days' journey, its width may be estimated at from
30 to 40 m. Its height nowhere seems to excctil
the snow-line ; for its highest summit, the Milt-
sin, 27 m. SE. from the town of Morocco, ims
been measured by Lieut. Washington, and louml
to have an eleviitiim of U, 400 ft. above the sea.
It is only once in aljout twenty years free from
snow. During the winter months the N. declivity
of this range is frecpiently covered with snow lor
several weeks. This is not the case witli the S.
declivity, turned towards the great African doscn
(the Saluira), and towards the hot winds blowinj;
from that quarter, and snow falls rarely tlicrc,
even on the highest summits. The whole raii^'n
is called by the natives Kjibbel Telge, that is, tliu
Snow Mountains.
From the E. extremity of the Djibbel Telge a
chain branches off on the S. side, which runs in a
WSW. direction, and terminates with low hills on
the Atlantic sea at Cape Nun. According to Jack-
son, it contains a snow-cappe<l summit, E. of
Elala, but its mean elevation iloes not appear very
great. Between this range and the Djilibel Tcljjo.
lies the jirovince of Suse. Along the S. base of
this range runs the river Drah, which reaches the
sea about 32 m. S. of Cape Nun.
At about 5° W. long, and 32° N. lat., the chain
forms a mountain-knot, from which issue two
ranges, one running a little to the E. of N., and
the other tirst NE. and then E. The range which
runs a little to the E. of N. continues in that di-
rection from 32° to 34J°, where at a distance uf
about 30 m. from the MediteiTaneau, it divides
into two ridges, which hence run along the Medi-
terranean Sea, in opposite directions, the W. ter-
minating on the peninsula forming the Straits of
(iibraltar, at Cape Spartel, and the E. contiiiiiiiii,'
through the whole of Algiers, and terminatiiij; at
Capes Blanco and Zibeeb, on the strait separatini;
Sicily from Africa. The undivided range (liei.
32° and 34J°) is called by the Europeans (ircater
Atlas, and by the natives Djebbel Tedla or Adthi.
The chain which extends W. to Cai)e Spartel, is
commonly named the Lesser Atlas ; ly the na-
tives, Errif, that is, the Coast Mountains. The
hijijhest part is hardly anywhere more than 15 or
20 m. distant from the sea ; but in numerous places
its branches occupy the whole space lying between
it and the elevated shores ; it forms tiie capes of
Tres Forcas, (iuilates, Negro, and Ccuta. lis
mean elevation hardly exceeds 2,000 ft.
The chain which skirts the Mediterranean from
8° \V. long, to 10° E. long., or to Cape Blanco, lias
no general name. The distance of the highest [lart
id of AiiRint.
I'llint omiy,
ikI till' wiirk
Uinnt« wiis Ik
cr of iMCi.'), Ill
ill thii'km's!".
Ill niiU'M IVuiii
iiuiiutiit ol tlie
,0 HcriMlolus,
■eat I'leviiiiiiii,
It iiil'oriiintiiiii
iiavi>{iifi)rs 1)1'
itcd iiKiiiiilain
I)' N. lat.) llic
the j5iil)le-oni|,
iNod under the
(f Mount Atlas
r (near 1(1° W.
;lit declinaliiiii
, where it ap-
it requireH Iwd
itnated at Irom
ueins to exci'i'il
mit, the Milt-
MorociMi, lias
ton, mid t'miiiil
ahove the son.
^ears free fmni
he N. declivity
with snow lor
lino with the S.
t Afrienn desert
; wimls Idowinj;
Is rarely there,
lie whole raiiKi'
;lge, that Ls, lliu
Djihhel Teliica
whieh runs in a
ith low hills uii
cordiiif,' toJai'k-
siiminit, K. ef
not !iiii>ear very
c l)jil)helTel};c.
the S. Imsc nf
lich reaches the
lat., the chain
Ihich issue twu
\fi E. of N., ami
'lie range whicli
Allies in that (li-
ft a distance uf
lean, it divides
iloiiK the Mccli-
[)ns, the \V. ter-
Ig the Straits of
. E, continuing,'
terminating at
ttrait separatiiis
[led range (Int.
Iropeans (ireatcr
Tedla or Adtlii.
pape Spartel, is
[as ; by the iia-
jountains. The
Inore than 15 or
.lumerous plact^
|e Iving between
18 the capes uf
lul Ceuta. Its
)00 ft.
literranean from
lapc lllanco, lins
the highest iiart
ATLAS (MOUNT)
of the ranRo from tho Bcn varies lictwoen 10 and
;(() ni., h'lt at iiiiineroUH )Hiiiits the coast itself is
I'oniu'd hy nioinitaiiis of coiisiderahle elevation,
wliifli are parts of the great iiiilssos lying behind
llicm. N" li'^'ti' iJouiitrv "f any extent occurs
iiliiiig the shores, except tiio IMaiii of Metidjah, E.
ipf tile town of Algiers. This range is of greater
flevatioii than the W. Shaw states that the
liiglier iHirtioiis of it are covered with snow a con-
siderable ]mrt of the year; and the French natu-
ralist Desfontaines estimated their height at 7,201)
I'l. Ihit the highest poiiitH have lately been mea-
sured, ami one has been found to rise ,j, 124 th,aiid
aiintlier tJ.Ti'J ft. only above the sea, E. of 5° E.
long, the mountains in tho interior seem to be
imicli lower than farther VV., but some high suin-
inits occur on the coast very near the sea. This
I'iiain is at several places brukon down, and it is
liv these wide chasms that the most considerable
riVi^rs of Northern Africa find their wav to the
.Meiliterraiieaii Sea, as the Miilwia, Sbelfif, Fsser,
Siinieini, Wad el Kebir, Seiboiis, and Mejerdah.
Tiie mountains in which these rivers have their
origin are very imperfectly ktiowii, even as re-
s|iccts their geographical position. It is supposed
iliat they form the continuation of the ridge which.
Iiruiiches otV from the ni(Uiiituiii-kiiot at 0° W.
long, and 32° N. lat. towards the NK., but after-
wards by degrcies declines to the E. East of the
rii'ridiaii of tJreenwicli, its |iriiicipul masses si^eiii
III lie near the parallel of il.'P N. lat. and to ex-
icnil eastward to the meridian of 1(P. Hetweeii
tliis range and the more southerly one, lie wide
valleys and pbiiiis of moderate extent but of great
I'lrtility; they have a temperate climate, and coii-
siitiite'the best portion of the countries embosomed
within tlie range of Mount Atlas. The height of
the range to the S. does not equal that lying X.
of the valleys, tlioiigh it occupies a greater widtb.
Among the natives a great jMirtion of it is known
under the name of Djebbel Amer, or Lowart.
The country extending south of this range is
called Sahara by the natives, which is the land of
the steppe. It partakes in some respects of the
:.•)!
I'liuracter of the Clreat Desert, but ditlers widely
Ironi it in others, and must Ikj coiisidereil us be-
longing to the system of Mount Atlas. This
country presents a succession of tlat-backed ridges
III' muderutc elevation, but considerable breadth,
running commonly E. and W. The lower grounds
hy which they are separated from each other, are
completely closed valleys or plains of moderate
extent, each of which has a temporary or perma-
nent lake ill its lowest part, the receptacle of the
waters that liow down from the adjacent high
;,'i:ouiuls during the rains. The surface of this ex-
tensive country is composed of a sandy soil, en-
tirely destitute of trees, and, in most ])arts, even
of every kind of vegetation, at least during the
ih-y season. But along the water-courses exten-
Mvc plantations of date trees exist; hence the
coimtry has received the name of Bled-el-jcreed,
or the country of dates. In most districts the water
is salt or brackish; but in parts potable water
may be obtained in abundance by digging wells
to the depth of 100 and sometimes 200 fathoms.
This country extends S. to the very borders of
ihe Great African Desert, and extends eastward
far beyond 10° E. long.
Our knowledge of the roads traversuig this
mountaia system is very scanty. It is believed
that only two passes, Bebawan and Uelavin, exist
lietwceii the provuice of Suse and the country N.
<||' the Atlas. Farther E., between 5° and 4° \V.
long., lies the great caravan road, on which the
commerce between Fez in Morocco, andTimbuctoo
in Soudan, is carried on. It traverses the tlis-
tricts of Talilctt and Drah, and is connerli'd witli
the great caravan road leading to Mecca, which
llrallcbe^' of)' from the former between 32° and 'Xi'-'
N. Int., not fur fr.un the sources of the river
Miilwiu. The principal stations of the <-aravaiis
within the Atlas ni<iiiiitaiiis are named Kassabi or
Aksaiti Shiirefa, 'V'u Figbig, (iardeia, and Wurglah,
all of which are situated near the S. borders of the
mountain system. Fnnn Wurglah the road passes
to (tadumes, and hence to Mur/.ook in Fez/.an.
We are very imperfectly accpiaiiited with the
mineral riches of the Atlas; the precious metals
seem only to occur in the province of Suse, and
not in abundance, at least no mines are worked.
Hut copper is plentiful in tho principal range S. of
tho town of Morocco, where it is worked by tho
natives who inhabit tho mountains, and who aro
in a great measure independent of the sultan of
Morocco, Iron of good quality occurs in many
places, and is worked in few, as is likewise lead :
antimony in abundance is found and collected in
the range of Tedla. liock-salt is also plentiful, but
not worked, because salt may be obtained with
less labour by evaporating sea-water, Sallpetro
of a superior quality abounds in some districts of
Suse, and in the neighbourhoodof the town of Mo-
rocco; fuller's earth is abundant and of good quality.
Mount Atlas is inhabited bv a nation which
must be considered as aboriginal, having probably
been in possession of N, Africa long before the be-
ginning of our historical records. It is known
uiiiler llie name of Hendibers, or Ik^rbers; though
it seems that this denomiiiation is entirely un-
known to themselves. This nation, which still
forms the bulk of the pop. of N. Africa, iiieliiding
neurlv the whole of the Sahara, is divided witlun
the limits of Mount AtltLs into two great tribes,
the Amazirghes, or Mazirghes, and tlie Shelliihs.
The latter occupy the two high western ranges,
including the province of Suse; and tlie Amazir-
ghes the remainder. It has htiig been a question,
whether these two nations speak only diflerent
dialects of one language, or two essentially dilt'erent
languages; but a learned traveller, (iraberg do
Ilemso, who published a work on the empire of
Monjcco, with perfect knowledge of the languages,
states that they arc substantially the same, tho
difference between them being not greater than
that between the Portuguese and l^panisli, or the
English and Dutch languages, Both nations, how-
ever, differ in their manner of life and occu|)utioiis,
the Shelliihs living in houses, cultivating the tir-
tile valleys of the mountain ranges, and applying
themselves with assiduity and success to sevenil
meclianical arts ; whilst the Amazirghes dwell in
tents or caverns, attending only to their numerous
herds of cattle and sliee{i. Only a few individuals
of these nations are subject to the emperor of iMo-
rocco and the French rulers of Algiers. Those in-
habiting the mountains have preserved their inde-
pendence, and are governed by independent chief's.
They are freiiueutly at war with the sovereigns in
whose territories their possessions are included.
Among both nations a considerable number of
Jews are settled.
The most exaggerated notions were early enter-
tained of the height of IMount Atlas. Mela says
of it, In arenis nwn» est Atlas, dense consunjens,
veruni i7icisis undique rupibus, pneceps, inviiis, et
quo magis surgit, exilior, qui, quod altius quam con-
spici potest, usque, in nnbila eriyitur, ctnlum et sideru
non tangere niodo vertice, sed sustinere qiwqite dictus
est, (lib, iii. 8. 10). This supposed extraordinary
height of the mountain, and the ignorance that
prevailed in the earlier ages of the contiguous
countries, afforded full scope for the exercise of
the imagination. The poetical history of Atlas
«-i^;,K
a.vj
ATUI
i'i
niiiy Ik' «r<>ii ill Ovid (Mptatni)r|ili. Ill), iv, liiii' filH),
mill iH rct'crrcd Id Iiv Vir;;!! in one of tlii; lliu'.st
pHMxiiVTi's of till- .1''.iici(i, lit), iv. line "2 Hi.
ATIM, or A'l'IMA, ii Ic.wii of Soiitliorn Italy,
iirov, Tt'raino, 'i 111. rnmi llic Adriatic, and II iii.
S'. I>y I'-. Civita I'ciinc, on n Ntfcp iiioniilaiii,
poll. I0,ll'.'> ill IHf'i'i. Till' town in the scat of a
lii.sliopric, liM.s a catlicdral, parish cliiircli, wvt-ral
coiivfiitH, a ^rraniniur mdiool, two hoitpitalH, and a
inont-dc-pioic'.
Thin in a very aiiciciit city, niid iiiHtrad of tin?
Yt'iictiaii Adria, it lias liccn ^*ll|lpos<>d toliavcKivcii
its naiiK! to the Adriati(!; lint tlic wci;;lit of nu-
tliority and prolialiility is a;;ainst lliis snpposilioii;
its origin is, however, iinilctcniiincd, or lost, in
(ilisciirity. Some cxtraonlinary excavations exist,
in a hill near the town, forinin^ n series of cliam-
hers, distrilinted with such regularity as to autho-
rise the notion that, they were desi^fned for some
particular object, such as prisons or nia/,'azines.
riienc )ieciilii'iritics have snjr^jcsted the idea that
they arc of a more remote cmistniction than the
Lathomiiv at Syracii.se, which they much resemlde.
or than the ctdcliratcd prisons of Servius Tiilliiis at
liomi!. Some antir|narics have supposed, not
without considerable ])laiisibility, that the word
Atrium must have been derivecl from these exca-
vations. The town received a Itoman colony about
till' year -Kir) u.r. It seems to be generally al-
lowed that the Kmperor Adrian was descended of
a family ori^rinally of Ibis city.
ATI{II'(\LI).\,"n town of Southern Italy, prov.
Avellinn, on the Sabato. 2 m. V.. Avelliiio", I'op.
.'i.Od.'J in IM(!2. The town has a collej^iate and a
jiarochial church, with fabrics of cloth, paper, and
nails.
ATTKUCLIFFK, a township in the par. of
Sheflield, which see.
ATTI(!A, in antiquity, the most celebrated
rcf^ion of Greece, and the seat of its most renowned
jieople, now part of the monan^hy of Attica and
JJd'ol in, and forming the eparcliv of Athens. It
lies between lat. 'A~° UlC (Caiie ('oloniia), and 38°
'l-l' X., and loiif,'. 23° 2(1' and 21° ,5' (C. Marathon)
K., liaviiifr N. lid-otin, E. the vEj^ean Sea, S. and
SW. the (Inlf of Ejjina (Saronic G.), and W. the
oparchy of Megara: shape triaii^rubir, the base to
the N\V. : length 44 m.; breadth about 34 ni.
Pop. of the modem monarchy 87,223 in 18"»I, and
]|(i,()24 in I8(il. Attica owed all its ancient
filory to the industry and genius of its inhabitants.
Soil mostly rug^jed, the surface consistinj^ of barren
hills, or plains of little extent. The chief moun-
tains are Nosea (Pnrnes), tbe loftiest; Elalea
(Cithieron), and Manfrlia, which form its X. boun-
<lary ; Mendeli (Pcntelicus), famous for its marble;
Vrelo-vuni (llymettus), and Latirini {Laurlon),
famous for its silver mines. The most remarkable
])lains are those of Athens and Marathon ; rivers,
the Samnda]ioro. Ccphissiis, and Ilissus. The pro-
duce of Attica differs remarkably from that of Hieo-
tia; it is deticient of water, and yields little {;rnin
except barley ; its pastures are but few, and its
spontaneous vegetation consists mostly of e\er-
greens, as the pine, priimri, olive, myrtle, &c.
Panics is covered by a forest, and siiiiplies Athens
and tlie surrounding country with fuel ; llymettus
abimnds with lentisks, wild thyme, and other odo-
riferous plants; its honey still enjoys some portion
of its ancient fame ; and its mutton has a delicious
tlavour. The oil is equal to that of France : what
rorn is produced is very good, and the har\'est
takes place earlier than in any other ])art of Greece,
(iame is very abundant, aiul wolves, wild boars,
and a few bears are met with in the N. Owls,
especially the small grey owl {Str'ijc passerina), still j
inliabit the vicinity of Athens in great numbers ; ,
AUni!
but Iiickilv there arc remarkably few voiinnidn^
reptiles cirlii.Hccts. The I'bicf iniiicral IrciiMinvMirr
marble, while at M. I'eiiicliciis, and grey m M,
Ilyincltiis; the anc. silver mines of l.aiiriiiin nj,.
n<i longer productive. Air pure and bealihy ; aiul
tbiiiigh the country is in many parts dreuVv aii<|
iiiii'iillivated, the siimiiiils of the nioniitaiii.s al)i>ri|
siililiiiic views, einbcllishcil by niiinerinis cia't.'.irul
rcinaiiis, as.-'oejaled with imperishable aii(| ,,||.
iiobliiig recollcciioiis. I'',vcry hillock of Allieaaii.
pears to have been dedicated to gods or liemo,
and decorated with their altars and Ntatiies, |||,!
ruins of which are ol'ieii clearly traceable. \\
originally contained 171 denii or boroughs; ii ndu
possesses no town of any importiiiice, e.xcciii
Athens ; its villages are mostly inhabited by .Ulm-
iiiaiis.
ATTLEHOKOrGII, a m. town and |>nr. of
England, vxt, Xorfolk, bund. Shropham, 1."),^ ni.
S\V. Xorwich. anil 1 10 m. from Loudon by (Ircm
l''.asterii railway. The par. contains /i.suo ncrr.,
and 2,221 inhali. ace. to the census of IMIII, i{|,!
town, formerlv a ]ilace of some importance, i« imw
deciiycd and mconsid(Table.
A'lTOCK {.Itiir, a limit), an. Vurmias, n furt
and town of th(> Punjab, llindostan. on the j;,
bank of the Indii.s, in lat. 83° od' X., long. 71° j;'
i:.. 42 m. ESi;. Peshawer, and 23(> m. XW. \,t[h,m:
The modern fort stands on a low hillock besiileihi'
river; it is of an olilong form; its shortest (ikim
parallel to the river, being KXI yards in leii;;ili,
and the others twice as long. The walls ariMil
polished stone, and the whole sfriieliirc is haiiil-
sonie ; but in a military point of view it is of iitili:
importance, Ixdiig commanded bya hill, from wliirli
it is divided only by a ravine. Estiniatetl pipp, ol'
town 3,(I(HI. On the opiiosite side of ilie river is a
small village, having a tort erected by Xadir Shall,
and a line aipiediict liuilt by some forincr Kliiiiiuk
chief. The Indus is here 2(10 yards broad, tlio
channel deep, and the current rapid, but .so tran-
quil that a bridge might be thrown over if ; ami it,
is easily ])assed both in boats and on the iiiMaicil
hides of oxen, a contrivance eomnion here uml a.s
old as the days of Alexander the Great, who is lic-
lieved to have crossed the Indus at or near this |iiiiiii.
AUIJAGNE, a town of Fiance, dep. lioiiclKsilu
Khoiie, ca]). cant., on the V'eaume, 1(1 m. K. .Mar-
seilles, on the railway from Marseilles to Miv.
Po|i. 7,232 in 18()l. Aubagne consists of an nlil
and a new town; the former built on the docliviiy
of a hill, and the latter at its foot. In the lirst, iIib
houses are small, and the streets narrow and dirty,
but ill the new part the houses are good, and tlic
streets broad and well kept. It has fabric.'* if
earthenware and pai)er, and tanneries; and .sevcril
fairs are held in it, for the sale of horses, miile.-s, iiml
jewellerA'.
AUHE. an inland dep. of France, SE. I'nri.s, lii-
tween 47° 55' and 48° 42' X. Int., and 3° 21 .iiid
4° 48' E. long., having N. dep. of Mariie, E. Uauic
Marne, S. the Cote d'Or and Voiiiic, and W. Si'i:ii:
et Marne. Area, (•)()0,13i) hectares, or 2.3113 Kii-li-ii
sq. m. Pop. 2(!4,247 in 1851, and 2(;2,7«5 in IM.I.
The department is trnversed by the Seine, wliiili U
navigable from Troyes, and also by its imiMirtaiit
afthient the Aiibe, whence the dep. has its name ;
the latter is navigable from Arcis-sur-Anlie. Sin-
face generally flat, but in the X W. quarter then'
are some low hills. The soil of the region to the
N. and W. of Troves consists of chalk thinly
co\-ered with mould, and is exceedingly barren uml
unproductive, a geat part of it not being worili
cultivation. The subsoil of the other purdon, ur
that to the E. and S. of Troyes, also c(iiisi.-l.< i f
chalk ; but being for the most jiart thickly coviicil
with alluvial deposit, produces luxuriant crops ol
'W VOnoTHiMIl
tri'a>iiri'-.ar.'
I t^rev ui M.
I.iiiiriiini arc
lit'tiltliy ; ainl
is ilri'iirv an<l
iiiilaiiis iiDiiril
■rmis rliH^i^al
Itlilf iilhl (>i|.
, III' Allien ii|i'
ids tir iiiTiic*,
(I Nlllllll'X, till'
triici'iililc. Ii
itiintit; il iiiiw
tlllU'C, »'XC1'|||
biti'd l>y Allia-
I and pnr, df
|iliiiin, \it>j ni,
idem liy (Irciii
IH .'■».SIMI ftiT,-,
of I Hill. Til,.
irtani'o, is ikiw
'ariiims, n fcirt
an, (III till' I',,
1„ liiiiK. 71° J7'
i.NW. I.aliiirc.
UiH'k licHiiic ilii'
4 (diiirti'Ht I'aii'i
irds ill l('ii).'lli,
lie walls are nl
ii'lurc is lianij-
w it is (if littii;
liill.l'riiinwiiirli
tiiiiiitcd piiii. Ill'
(if till' river isii
liy Nadir Shall,
rdrmcr Kliiitliik
ards broad, tliu
id, Imt, sii triiii-
(ivcr it ; ami it
on tlio iiitliiteil
ion hero ami an
ireat, whoisln'-
riiearthisiiuini.
lep, lioiidiis (III
10 m. i:. Mar-
seilles to Nio'.
dsts of ail iiM
III llio deelivily
In tlielirst.tlie
arrow and (liny.
H'ood. ami tlif
has falirics "f
ics ; and several
irscs, inulcs, iiml
[, SK. Tnris, 1k-
atid ;{° -^ I' ."■■'I
;arnp, K. llii"i<'
, and W. S('i:ie
Ir ■l.W.i Kn^'li>h
tCrJ.TH.') in IWij.
] Seine, whieli i-<
|y its imiHirtaiit
, has its name ;
|nr-Anl>e. Siir-
f. quarter then'
te renicn to the
If chalk thinly
af,dy barren ami
lit beiiiK wiirili
Itlier portioii, "f
lalso consi.-^ts el
Tthicldy ei)ViTi<i
liriant" crops ol
AUBEL
eiiiii'idenibie pronrt'sH sini'i' till' reviiliitioii.parlii'ii-
lurlv ns resiH'i'ts llii> eiilliire of liirnips, and the
riiriiiatiiin ol urtilicial nii'iidows. Oxen as widl as
hefses are cmployi'd in liidd I'lboiir. Tlie annual
liriiiliice of wool is cstiiimled al 2-'tl,tlitlt kiloKs. A
.'real iiiiniber of lio>,'s are fiiltened. 'I'lie meadows
Til the \ alleys of tlie Seine, Aiibe, and Arinancean-
iiiiallv siipjily about 'J,<mmi,imm) i|iiinlals liav, about
iiiie-tliird part of which is sent to I'/irls. The
I'liresis in some iiarls arc pretty extensive, hut in
the liarren ehalK region there is a >;reat want of
irei"*. The best wines are Ihoso of IJicey, Mac.
lliiiiiilv, .lavernant,Mnil l.aines-anx-hnis. .\ccord-
iii" III the oilii'ial tables, the principal divisions
i,niie soil are — cnllivablt! land ll'.tl.nnn, meadows
.CMHi, vineyards -ill.tMid, woods Hd.iMiii, heaths,
niiinrs. fic. ■iL'.Olllt hectares. KxcepliiiK elialk ami
iiiarlile. t'u) minerals aro nniniportant. The
niaiiiil'actn'"e of cotton stiilVs ,ind yarn, hosiery, and
Hiiiilleii still's, i,s extensively carried on, and alimil
'.'.alHI Idoiiis and U,iill(» workpeople are employed
ill the weaving; of sto<rkinKs, The estiiblishmeiits
rurspiiininti wool, produce annually about |(lll,il()0
kilii),'-i. of yarn; and those for spinning; eoiton put
ill million liH,nt)ll spindles, einployin;^ from 2,7(tn to
:l,(i(H( workpeople, and furnish aiiiiuallN' ,"iii( ).((((( I
kilii;,'s. of yarn. There are also tanneries, works fur
(lie preparation of heet-root siii^ar, ;;lass-works and
lile-works. With the exception of Troyes, tin;
ihif'-lieii, or ca|>ital of lln^ (le|iarlineiit, none of the
(iilier towns are of much importance. The depart-
ment is divided into live arrondisseinenis, vi/.,
Tniyes, Arcis-siir-Anbe, Uar-sur-Anhe, Har-siir-
Seiiie, imd No>;eiit-sur-Seine, and subdivided into
twenty-six cantons and -IIT coniinnnes. The
eirlesiastieal affairs are under the bishop of
Tnives, siilfra^can of the archbishop of Sens.
Al'ItKI^, a town of Helgium, pmv. Lie);e, ,5 m.
N. Verviers. I'op. .'{,0,")0 in IK.'ili. It has n (^ood
weekly market, ami u con!)i(.lerablc trade in butler
and cheese.
AU HKNAS, n town of France. (U ,i. Ardeehp, cnj).
cant., near tlie Ardeche, at the foot of the Ceven-
iies, i;i m. SW. I'rivas. Pop. «,">-"■» in l«iil. The
tiiwii isheautifully situated on the slope of a well-
wiiiiilcil hill, and is surrounded by the ruins of an
iilil wall Hanked with towers. The interior of the
tdwii, however, by mi means corresponds with the
lieaiity of its situation, its streets heiiifx generally
(TiHiked, narrow and filthy, and the houses ill-
luiilt. Aiihenas is the seat of a tribunal of com-
niiwe, and has manufactures of chith, lilatiiresand
fahrics of silk, and establishments for the dressing;
(if leather. It is the f^reat mart for the sale of the
wines and chestnuts of the dep., and has also a con-
siderable trade in raw and wronyht silk, wool, and
cottun.
AUUERVILLIERS, or Nolredame-des-Vertus,
a villaf;c of France, dep. Seine, a little to the N.
(ifraris. Po]). (i,0!»8 in IH.il. The inhabitants
are principally employed in the raising of garden
stuffs for the supply of I'aris.
AUBIGNV, a town of France, dep. Cher, cap.
cant., on the Nfcre, 28 ni, N. IJourges. Pop. 2,(iiVl
ill 1«()1. The town is (dil and ill-built. It has
niaiuifactnres of coarse cloth, linsey-woolsey,
serjies, &c,, and is the centre of a tunisidcrable
trade in wool. Auhigny, with its lordship, was
erected into a duchy in 1(184, in favour of the
Duchess of Portsmouth and her son, the Duke of
Kichmnnd.
AUlUN-DE-COinriKR (ST.), a town of
France, dep. Ille et Vilainc, on a steep hill, IG m.
NE. Kenncs. Pop. 2,098 in 1861.
AUBIX (ST.), a town of France, dep. Aveyron,
cap. cant., 18 m. NE. Villefranche, on a branch of
AnirsMON
2:1.1
the Southern railway. Pop. 7,8,-)ti in 1801. In the
environs of this town arc the burning mounlainH,
or ratlier hills, of Foiitagnes and lliiegne, in which
siilitcrranean llrcs hn\e been in actimi fur iigcs.
The smoke and oilier vapuurs pniduceil by the
llres deposit on the sides of the criM'ices of the
rocks and earth, by which Ihey make their escape,
large (piantlties of imperfect aliiin and subli-
mated siilplnir. The alum crystals being cul-
lected and rellned furnish excellent alum, siilllcient
for the siijiply of France.
Al'llIN (ST.), a limdy situated sea-iiort town
of the island of .lersey, oppusilc to St. llidiers, on
the \V. side of the bay on which the latter is
hnilt. Pop. 2,070 in \H(\\. The town cmisists
iirincipally of a single street of W(dl built lionses.
There is a harbour formed by a pier, but il is de-
licieiil in water; but the largest ships may 1111-
(dior inside the pier ut St. Aubin's Castle, in the
vicinitv.
Ai:it( )NNE, a town of Swit/.erland, cant. Vaud,
on the Aiihiinne, II m. W. by S. Lausanne, mi iIh'
railway from haiisainie loCieiieva, Pop. 1.7.11 in
18110. The caslle of Anbonne, which commands
a very line view, was built by the counts of (ini-
yere, and repaired by Taveriiier, the celebrated
traveller, to whom it belonged, in the s('veiiteeiitb
century. The heart of Diiipiesne, one of the most,
celebrated naval otliccrs of France, is interred in
the parish church, where a nioiiument has been
erected to his memorv.
AIJIUIKN, a town of the IT. States, X. V,,ik,
co.t'avnga, at the N. end of Owaseo Lake, lIlO in.
N\V. Alban, and IM 1 m. N\V. New York. Pop.
12,100 in l«(iO. The streets are wide and nmc-
adainised, having nnmeroiis h)fty buildings of
brick and dressed liniestone. Auburn is prin-
cipally celebrated for its state prison, founded in
I8|(i. This is a very extensive building, and has
been conducted, since I82.'l, on what has been
called the 'silent, <ir Auburn plan,' that is, on tin;
plan of contiiiing the prisoners to separate cidls
during the night, and making them work together
during the day, taking care to enforce, when they
are together, the strictest silence. The prison
was at lirst conducted on the system of solitary
contineinent, which not being found to answer, the
liresent system was established in its stead. Ex-
clusive of tlie state prison, there are at Auburn
a county nrison, built in 18;1H; a Presbyterian
theological .seminary, incorporated in 182(1, with
a good library; a college, founded in I8.'l(i; a
court-house, with numerous places for publiu
worship.
AUHUSSOX, a town of France, dep. Crense,
cap. arrond., on the river of that ■ . ;..;, 20 m. SE.
(iiierct. Pop. 6,003 in 1861. , -.vn is pic-
turesquely situated in a sterile cou . ry, in a nar-
row gorge, surrounded by rocks aiiu mountains.
It consists of one long street of goml houses; has
a theatre, and an agricultural sociiu y. The carju^t
manufacture of Aubnsson is the most celebrated
in France, after that of the Gobelins and Hean-
vais. It was formerly, however, much more ex-
tensive than at present. In the early part of the
seventeenth century the town is said to have con-
tained 12,000 inhabitants, of whom upwards of
2,000 were directly employed in the carjjet trade.
Hut being mostly Protestants, the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, by makinji^ the greater num-
ber emigrate to foreign countries, gave a blow to
the manufacture, from which it never recovered.
In 1780, it emphjyed about 700 workpeople. It
languished for a fong time after the revolution ;
but within the last dozen years it has materially
improved, and at present it employs a greater
number of hands than in 1780.
I
II Hi
251
AUCH
AITII, n city «>f Friimc. (I()i. (>Pt», iif which It
in thi' Clip., on the hit lutiik <>)' llic (icn*, niiil on
the rnilwiiy Inmi A^'H •"> TnrlwH. |'ii|i. I I.'.mmi in
IHtil, 'l'\w liiwii NtiilnlN nil Ihi^ plali'iiii niiil ili'-
rli\ ity nC a hill, whirli ^:\\v)* it iit ii ilitlaiicc i\
tliio ik|i|i<'nriiiirc. A >'iinHi<li>ralih' Miiluirh i* hiiilt
«ni llic n|i|Mwil<> hIiIc of lhi> river, the ('nniiiiiiiiira-
tioii ^vitli it iH'iii^' kept up liy n hriil^rc. It if* llir
Meat III' a court of iiHNi/c, of triliuiiaJN of coiii-
Micrcc and original JiiriMliction, anil of an nrch-
liiNJiopric; ami lian a royal coilci^ri', a primary
iioniial Hi'hool, a tlu'oio^irnl wniiiinry, a ncIiooI
of ilrxi^n. an aKrii'ulliiral wicicly, a iiiuhi'Iiiii, anil
aiiiililic lilirary with iilMint ri.tllMi voIumii'h. Not-
Wilhstanilln^ iiioilcrii inipriivi'incntH, Aiich inMlill
IXi'iicrally ili-ltuilt, and the Htrccts ihoii^h clean,
arc narrow and crooked. The IichI |>art of the
town i.M on till' Miiinniit of the pialean. There is
]iere a inafrniticent promenade upon an elevated
terrnce of (,'reat extent, linely shaded, and eoni-
niandiiiK an exteii»ive view over tlie iieiKh-
lioiirin^ coiintrv iim far an the ryreiieeH, Prin-
cipal piililic liiiildin^'H, the cathedral and the
hotel of the prefecture. The former is one of the
most inajriiiticent in France; hut though taken
nH awiiole it i.iadmirahle, its partsare not n little
incon^ruoiiN, the principal part of the buildiiiK
Iwiiif; (lothic, while tlie front and Home other
iiortionH arc (Jreek, The ilitl'ereiit partH of the
interior are exeeediiijtly well itroportioncd. The
hotel of the iirefectnre, fomu rlv the archie]iiH-
I'opal palace, in a vaxt and noble ImildiiiK- There
U alxo (in the sulnirh) nn immense hoHpital, with
ft town-hoiiHe mid hiirrackn. Anch has manufac-
tiiri's of thread and cotton Htnll'd, coarse cloths,
with tanneries, and cstahlishments for the «pin-
iiinj; of wool. A ponniderable trade is carried un,
liarticulnrly in the brandies of Amin^tnac.
Anch is a very ancient town. Itefore the Un-
man coiu|nest it' was called Climherris, and was
the capital of the Aiiscii. Aiifiustus haviiif;
])lante<i in it a Itoman colony, it took the name of
Aii<iuiitn-Auii<ociiriim, whence its modern name
lias iK'en derived. The old city stood on the rij^lit
bank of the (Jers, on the site of the present
mibiirh. 'I'he modern city is, however, very an-
cient, havinp been fuuiulcd previously to the
reign of Clovla.
AUCHTKHAKDER, a town of Scotland, co,
Perth, on the S. bank of the Ham. Pop. 2,«44 in
IWil. The town, which is nearly 1 m. in lenfjth,
consists of a single street on both sides the high
road from (Jlasgow to Perth, being alioiit 14 m.
\V. by S. from the latter, and having a sta-
tion on the Scottish v^cntral railway. The town
is princi])ftlly occupied by cotton weavers in the
cmjiloyment of the (tlasgow manufaelurers. At
one time it returned members to the Scotch par-
liament, and it is uncertain how or when it lost
the privilege. At present it is the seat of a Pres-
byterv. It was burned down by the F.arl of Mar,
iii 17i8, and has no building worth notice. The
agriculture of the parish has been greatly im-
jiroved within the present centurv.
AUCHTKKMUCHTY, a royal burgh and par.
of Scotland, co. Fife, the town being situated on
the high road from Kinross to Cupar, !) m. W. the
latter, on the Edinburgh-Perth railway. Pop. of
town 1,215, and of suburbs 1,223 in 1861. The
town is intersected by a rapid streamlet, employed
to turn flax and other mills, and to supply a bleach-
Held. It is very irregularly built, but contains a
fair proportion of good substantial houses. The
inhabitants are principally employed in the
■woaving and spinning of linen and cotton, esjie-
<i.'illy the former. It was created a royal burgh
by Jiimes IV., but has never enjoyed the privilege
AlDINCOniT
of voting In the return ofn m. ritlicrto the.Scntcli
or ItriliKh piirllaini'iits.
AI'hK, a niarilime ilep. In the M. of France, ,iii
the Mi'iliierrani'iin, scpMratnl from Spain hvihi'
ill p. of the I'yrciiccH Orii'iitah'4. Area. (!ilii.:iii7
hectares, or 2,21*! English mi. ni. Pop, 2x!i,7l7 j„
IM.'il, aiid ;i."»:i,fi;i;i in IHIII. The Audi', wln'iin. ii
derives its name, is the onlv cousideralile ri\i'r in
the ilep. ! but it is travcrHi'i^ from E. to \V, hv ihc
canal of Eangiii'iloc. The coast along the Nlrdj
tcrraiiean is mostly low, and Is borderi'd by mi'vimI
lagiMiiis, or, as they are called in the laiigiingr oi'
the country, iViini/n, or ponds. At the nmiiili ,,(
one of them is La Noiivelle, the only purl in iii,.
de|i. Surface generally hilly and niiiniitiiiiiuih,
being encunihereil on the X. with the Mcmlairiii'
Noire, a prolongation of theCeveiines, and on tin.
S. with ramilicatioiis of the ryreiiees, Th,.
highest summit of the latter, the I'ic Mnx^it,
rises about H.dOll feet above the level of llic sea;
the highest |Miint of the Monta^^ne Nnireis hIumm
!1.!M)(I feet aboM' the sea. Soil of the plains and
valleys generallv calcareous and ver\' priiilnctlvc.
Climate variable, and iiriiicipally distiiigiiislini
by the prevalence of hot winds; that frmn tlir
SE. called the ^ ((/«», and that from the N\V.
called the Crm. Jloth of these blow with greiil
force; and at Carcassonne and Castelnaiidarv the
aiitan is occasionally so violent as to niininr
houses and tear u)> trees. In summer it simie-
times strikingly resemliles the sirocco. All snrti
of com are raised on tlie iilains, and millet niiil
buckwheat on the mountains. The priHJiire ex-
ceeds the consumption of the inhabitants so iiincli,
that the export is estimated at about iViD.diiii
hectolitres a year. Next to corn, wine is tliR
most important agricultural product, the vine-
yards being supposed to furnish about M!in,iHiil
iiectolitres a year. The red wines are iiiferinr,
liut the white wines, particularly the hlaiu|uctle
lie Limoux, are much esteemed. A good dnil nf
brandy is manufactured. Sheep niinieroiis: nn-
niial product of wool estimated at l,8(l(l,(i(Mi kiliif;!<.
Irrigation well understood; and there are sunic
line artiticial meadows. The honey of Xarlidmic
is the liiiest in France. According to the iiflicial
tables, the soil is principally appropriated ns
follows; viz. — cultivalile lands 27H,ttO(), meadows
1 l,(H)n, vineyards 5(),(MH>, forests 44,(10(1, and wiintc
lands, heaths, &c, IKMMIO hectares. Landed jiro-
perty is greatly siilKlivided in this as in the other
South-west departments; the average extent of
the farm is CO acres, and a great many are less.
This subdivision is of old date, and existed long
previous to the revolution. The dej). is rich in
mineral products. Mines of iron are wnniglit in
different places ; and the total produce of the
foundries is estimated at about 17,000 metricnl
quintals a year. Above 3(),()(I0 pieces of clntli are
annually manufactured at Carcassonne, of which
(i,(lO0 arc exported to the Levant. There is also
a large manufacttiry of combs and articles of jet,
with fabrics of paper, tanneries, distilleries, and
salt-works. Trade and industry have been greatly
promoted by the facilities of communication af-
forded by the canal of Languedoc, as well as by
the railway from Toulouse to Cette, with its
branches, which crosses the department. Princiiml
towns Carcassonne, Narbonne, and Castdnau-
darv.
AUDINCOUKT, a ^-illnge of France, dep.
Douba, cap. cant., on the Doubs, 3 m, SE. Mont-
beliard. Pop. 2,8fi4 in 18(!1. This village is
distinguished by its iron-works, which fiiniish
annually above .5,000,000 kilogs. of bar and
wrought iron, exclusive of considerable qiiantiticri
of iron and tin plates.
Al'Hltl'K'Q. a town of Frnnro, dop. l»nn ilo
Culrtis call. <iuit., 'i,HT:i m. NNW. Sl.Oinir, on
ilii'drt'iil Norilifni riiilwHv. I'lip, 'J,'J'J<l in |Ht)|,
11,(1 1 1 iw 1 1 U nlronKly Inriiru'il.
All'.KIJACII, II town of Siixnnv, on the
Onl/M-li, I-.* ni. K. I'Iniirn. I'op. 1,111 In IN«1I.
||ii> tiiwn wit!* iilinoHl entirely ili'^troyt'il l>y llff in
|n:U, liiit liiiM iM'i'n ri'liuilt in ii HiiiH'rior Ktylr. !t
|i,'t^» iiiniiiirurinrrM of nniKlin anil liliick liU't', witli
liri'wcrii'H, |>n|M'r-worl<H, iinil ttn lu'tivf truili',
AiiKitiiAt^ii, II liHiiilHoini' village of j^. il. Ilc<i»i>
lliirni.'ttiiiit. I<'i III. S, DiirniHtitilt. I'oii. I,?.'*!) in
IHiil, It lull II I'liMlIt', the Niininit'r rcftiiit'llct' of the
Dmiiil l)iik«; iiiiil m-viTiil wiiIIk and liatliN, mncli
p.^irlril to l>y the iiilialtitanlMot' DiirniHtaili.
Ari'il'!^'"'^"'"' u Mniall villaj;!' of I'ruxsian
SiiX'iny, n%. MiTsclinri;, (J in. W. Naiiinliur);.
iliTi'. on the I Itli ot'OctolitT, iHdii, III)' iniiin limly
i,r the (jrcat I'mssiaii army, iimU r tliu i)nUc of
jlruiHwii'k and tin- kinn in |><th was il<'t'cat<Ml
liv ilic division of the uraiid Frt'iicli army coni-
riiiiiiilrd liy Marshal havonst, 'I'ho naiiif day
.\ii|)iili'on dcfeati'd, at .lena, the rinlit win;{ of thi-
I'riiwiaii iirniy, under tieiieral Mcdleiidorlf. 'I'lic
niiiiliiiied action has lieeii ealled the hattle of
.Iriiii. (See .Ikna.) Davoust, in reward of IiIm
-kill mill pillaiitry, rereived from Nuiioleon the
lltli' of l>nke of Anerstiidt.
Al'titil'lt, a town of llindiwtan, prov. Malwa;
ill the iloin. of Siiidia ; on n roeky eminenee, l.o'.m
ft iilMive the level of the sea, hetwet'ii two lakes,
Hini. N'K. Oojein; lat, .'Jio l:t' N., Ioiilt. "U" 1' K.
It is surroiiiidiid hy a stone wall, and lias u well-
luiilt native fortress: it is of eonsideralile extent,
anil in 1'<'20 eoiitained n,()'») houses; Init these,
cxci'iitiiit; one street, were nearly mud liiiildin^s.
Ai;<iSUl'K(t (tux. Aiigimta f'ituMicorHin),aM[y
iif Itavaria, eap.circ. UpiVr Danulie, (Inely situated
ill ail extensive and fertile plain, lietweeii and near
till' I'liiilluence of the VVertaeh and Lecli, .'!.'» in.
N\V, Miinieli, at the junction of the railways from
Miiiiich to Dim, and from N'Uriiherj; to the lake of
Ciiii^taiiee. I'o]). 3H,HiO in IHiil. Aiiffsliiirn was
liiiiK line of the richest, most eommercial, and
IKPWorl'iil of the free cities of the empire. Its forti-
licntiiiiis were dismantled in IVDii, and the old
walls have heen partly converted into promenades.
Till' streets arc mostly narrow and inconvenient, hut
iiiii' of them, the Maximilian Strnsse, is n iiohle
llioniiiKlifare, more than ij of u mile in lenj^tli, wide
mill iiiry, with lofty, well-built houses, and orna-
iiicnied with several line fountains. There arc
some other good streets and squares. The houses,
which are mostly old, are larf^c, and sculptured
ami painted fronts arc common. The town-hall,
near one of the extremities uf the Maximilian
Strassc, the finest buildinjj in the town, was
liiiislied in l(i20. It has a hall <m its second story,
ilenominated the j?olden hall, from the profusion
of ^'ikliii^;, reckoneil one of the finest apartments in
lii'maiiy. The other public buildiiifjs are the
|wLicc, formerly the residence of the bishop, but
now used for jyovemment offices ; the cathedral,
an extensive Gothic fabric, dating, in part, from the
sixth century; the arsenal; the abbey of 8t. lllric,
with the church of !St, Afra, and the new ' VVaa-
renhalle,' or commercial exchange. The town is
extremely well sujiplied with water, and Ls inter-
sected by no fewer than four canals. Exclusive of
the walks on the glacis and hi the neighbourhood,
it has a fine promenade in front of St. Ulric's
cliurch. Among the educatioiml establishments
are two gymnasiums, at one of m cli I'rince Louis
Naimlcon, subsequently Napoleon III., Kmpcror,
rweived his education ; an academy of arts, founded
in 1820; a |)oIy tecihnic society ; twoendowed schools
f'lr females, a Lancastrian school, and several 8un-
ATCif.STA
ma
day HrhooN, The public library oontnlMM a valu-
able collection of printed and iiianiiwript (ireek
wiirk». The I'olh'ctioii of piiiiiliim'N, chicHy of tlio
(icrniaii schonl, fnriiii'rlv in iln' io«vn hall, has been
fiarlly removed to .Vliiiiich. An g the chiiritiiblo
estulilishini'lits is the t'liijijiTri. This cniiHiMls of o!
Niiiall boiiHes coiitaiiiiii»{ lINi dwellings, built in
l.'il'.t by the Fiiggcr family, and let tolndigi'iit ciii>
zi'im at a mere nominal n'tit. In our own times,
Schae/.ler, a banker of the city, has follnwed up
Ibis example, by endowing a hcIuhiI of indiisiry
for loil orjihaiis and poor children, ami foiindiiig
an asylum for decayed iiiwiis-|M'opli>,
The nianufiictiircs of Aiigsbiiri; are various and
im|Hirtaiit, That of woollen sliilfsis the niusl ex-
tensive and thriving; those of cotton and linen,
though still considerable, have declined. It has also
a cannon foundry, and pnsloces large ipiiiiitilii's
of paper, with gold and silver lace and jewellery,
print iiig-types, soap, and glass, Augsburg is liki'-
wise the ceiiire of an extensive trmle in prinliiig,
engraving, and bookbinding, but its principal iiii-
itortiince at present, and for n long time past, has
lieeii derived from its being, next to Kraiikliirt, the
grand scat of banking and exchange opiTaiioiis in
Central Kiiro^K-, The greater part of the exten-
sive transactions between Vienna and W, (icr-
inaiiv, as well as most of those between (icniiMiiv
and Italy, are finally b«lanccdaiid adjusted in this
citv,
'I'liis was formerly a place of much greater popu-
lation and importance than at present. It is verv
ancient, Angiislus having settled a colony in it
about twelve years »,«^ In the niidd'c ages it
was early distinguished by its trade; and having
purchased its freedom from the dukes of Siiabiii, it
rapidly rose in importance. At the end of the litli
century Augsburg, Nuremlierg, and some other
cities in .Southern (iermany, had establishineiits in
Venice, and i;arried on a very extensive trade with
Italv, the !<(tvaiit, anil the rest of (iennany. The.
family of the Fiiggers, [irobably the richest and
most extensive mercbants of the loth and Kitli
centuries, and who afterwards liecome princes of
the empire, were originally sim]>le burghers of this
city, weavers by trade, and though the most,
celelirated, they were not its only citizens who
attained to almost n^gal opulence and power.
Augsburg declined, partly in ccmsequence of the
proloiigeii wars of the Kith and 17th centuries, but
more, perhaps, from the change in the channels of
commerce, occasioned by the discovery of the route
to IniUa by the Cajie of GocMlHope, and the rise
of other em|)orium8. Latterly it has improved
considerably,
Augsburg has been the theatre of many important
events. At a diet held within its walls — in an
ancient buihling still standing, called the ' Resi-
dence ' — on the '2")th of.Inne, l.i.'lO, the famous
Confession of Faith, drawn up by Melancthon and
suliscribed by the I'rotestant yirinces, was pub-
licly read before, and iffesented to, the Kmperor
Charles V. This celebrateil document has thence
been called the Augsburg Confession. Here, also,
the interim, or provisional edict, was published by
Charles V. ill 164K; and here, in I.55r>, was con-
cluded the peace which assured the full enjoyment
of their rights and liberties to the Protestants,
Augsburg continued to be a free city till IKdti,
when it was ceded by Naiioleon to Bavaria. It is
now the cap. of Suabia, one of the eight provinces
of the kingdom.
AUGUSTA, a city of the U. States, E. frontier
Georgia, on the Savannah river, by which it is
separated from Hamburgh in S. Candina; 12.'{ m.
NNW. Savannah, liW m. WNVV. Charleston, bit.
33° 33' N., long. 80° 4G' W. Pop. 13,20t) in !«(>(),
IN
I'*
'2/in AIM JUST INK (HT.)
'I'ho I'ify In nitMnli-il on mi rli<v/itr<l pliiiti ; utrrrln
HJilr, mill iiilcrMi'i'liti^ null neliir itl rJKlil 4imkI)'>< ;
liiiiiHi's lirirk, tiimiy nf (liriii Ih'Ih^ Kiiiirinnt mnl
I'irumil. Il lull* II ritv liiill, I'liiirl liiiiini', llli'illir,
nniili'iiiy, liiii«|iiiii|, wiili iiiiinrriiiiN mIih'I'm I'nr |iiili
lii- wiirHliip; a niciiii'iil i'iilli'^i>, mnl u nilK'Kr I'ur
Mi'iliiiiii'^tN, Aii^^rii"!!! liiiM 11 riiii'-iili'ritlili' irmiNii
trililr, |ilirtirilllirl\ in lllc niiurx lll^ nl' ruttnn III
SiiMiiiiiiili mill ('liiirli"<iiiii, lull «\liirli NiilVi'ml
niiirli (luring llii> rivil wiir In ilii< I'liiti'il SIiiIi'n,
iNiil -'i, iliiriiiK till' mIiiiIi' III' uliirli llir lily war* in
till' IiiiiiiIm of (lie riiiilrili'mli' );iivrriiini'iil, mnl ml
oil' rrmn nil iiiliTi'mirM' \«illi llir Nurllii'm StnirH.
AriiiMTA, M tuttii 111' llii' r. Sliilrw, t'H|i. Aliiinc,
on llli' Ki'lllirlii'i', IIIH III, SI',. IIiinIiiII, I'ii|i. ill
|M|n, |,MO,'i; ill |h;|0, ;|.!)HII; iiiiil ill \Hi\l\, llt.lMin,
Il U a liiK'ly Hiliiiili'il liiwii, mill Iiiih Iktii, sinrr
lM-l°.', Ilii' Mtal III' ilic li'(;iNliiinri' aiiil piv rrnini'iit
111' till' f<lal('. 'I'lu' rivrr, which Im Ihiii* t'lir navi-
^illilr I'nr vi'nhi'Im III' ino loiiM, i.s liiTc crnHMCil liy a
liriil^'t' III' Iwii iinhi'M, cai'li Md I'l. in Npaii,
Al (irs'l'INI'l (ST.). a iiiwii ami »ra-|iort of ilio
r. Siali'x, I'.. ('ii«hI iif Kluriilii, lal. I'll'-' !>■!' N., Imiik.
Hl° •.',")' \S'. I'ri'viiiii^ly 111 Ihr Mr<|niHiiiiiii of I'Mo-
rida liy llic I'. SIiiIi'm, thin was a pliii'i' of miuiic
iin|ioriiiiiri', I'linliiini'tl frmii l.ooo lo ,'i,imm) inliah.,
ami WMN ilcfciiili'il hy ik fort, lint it liii:4 Ninrc ih'-
I'linnl, |iriiiripaily in conMcipii'in'c of the liinlncss
of ilH port. 'I'lii' liar al the iniuilh of llic laltcr
liax not inort' liiaii N or '.) ft, water at lii^li Mpriii)^
liih'H, ami at low water not iiinrc than Ti ft., wliieh
at tiiiicM makes il InipoH.Hihlc even for Imats to ynsn
in or lint. A liKlitlHiiiHC, on the N, end of Aiia.-<laNia
iHlaiiil, with a llxeil li^ht, iiinrkN the entranie to
tlu^ |iiirt. (Ithiiit'M Anurii'iin CoiimI I'ilnl, p. '.'I.'l.)
Ari.r.NDOItl'F, a niarkei-iown of Wllrldii-
lier^c, eirc. Daiiiihe, 12 in. .SSW, Itiheraeh (Itili-
eraeli, on llic riiilway from I'Ini lo the lake of
Coiisiaiiee). I'op. l.llViin JHtil. It is heaiilifniiy
Hilnateil, ami Iiiih a ca.sile, jiartly liomaii, with a
line jiietnre >;allery.
Ai'l.KT'l'A, a town of Soiitliem Itnlv, jirov.
Salerno, on a hill, near the Nej^rro. itt! ni. I'.SI',. Hn-
h-nio. I'lip. IliMH in lH(l-.». This town is very
nneient, havinj; heen fnnnileil hy ii (ireek colony.
Al'I.ONA, or VAI.ONA {hh. Aiilim), a sea-plirt
town of Turkey in l''.iiriipe, prov. Alhania, cap.
Suiijiack, near the month of the Adriatic, on the
K. sidit of a f;iilf of the smne iinnie, tiA m, KNK.
Otranto, in Italy, hit. '111° 27' I.')" N., loiif,'. lU"
2t>' 20" K, Top." estimated at (i.lHMI, consisting of
Turks, (Jhristians, and Jews lianished from An-
oona, liy I'ope I'aul IV. Thonjfh v.erv ancient, it
has few or no remains of anlii|uity. ft was taken
liv the Turks from the Wnetians in l(l!U; and
the only jjood houses of which it has to lioast,
were huill by the latter. It is defended hy a
castle. The (iulf of Auhma has nt its month the
Hmall island of .Sassino. which Her\'es as n natural
breakwater, iirotectinjj: it from the heavy seas that
would otherwise be thrown in from tiie W. and
Ju'W. There is deep water on each side the island,
and within the pilf ox|iaiids into a tine basin with
excellent anchoriiif^ ^ronnd. The country round
Aiilona is exceedingly fertile; but it is very un-
healthy ill summer, when the town is nearly de-
serted by the inhabitants.
AUM'ALI'', u town of France, dcp. Seine Infe-
rieure. cap. canton, on the IJresle, 14 m. KNK.
Keiichatel. Pop. 2,134 in 18lil. The town has
manufactures of coarse doth ; some (jood mineral
sources are in die nei(;libourliood. Henry IV,
was wounded in an action with the Spaniards
under the Prince of Parma, on the bridge of this
town, in 1;>92,
AIJUAY, a sea-port town of France, dep. IMor-
bihan, caii. cant., on the Aiiray, 11 m, W. Vannes,
AIUINOAIIAI)
on the rnllway from ViinnrH lo 1,'Oririit. ]'„u
'A.W.t in lHi;i,' The town U Imilt mi ilii. ,|,,,.||.'
\iiy of n hill: the to., ii hiiii«<' and ilir imrMi
cliiirrh are Wnrlh imlire. \'e»«e|fi iif Kiiiuil lilirili'ii
come lip III the town; but ii'< purl lower ijiiwii j,
ai'ci"<'<ili|e to vesseU of ciiii>.ii|t'ralile luirilrii, mnl Ii
ha* a ^iiiiil ili'iil of riiiixiiiii; I null'. ('Iiiir|r« „(
lllois was killeil and hii^^iiesilin made prinniur in
a liatlli' fiiiiichl lure in l.'lii I.
.\l ItlCII, a town of Hanover, cap. W. Krii'«-
hiiiil, l.'iin. ST.. I'.mileii. Top, 1,712 In INill. T|„.
town in the xeat of the pro\ iinial ^'nvcriiiiii mi, n
chaiMcllery, mnl a IVotesiant I'lHiKiKlnry, h ||.,,
thru' ehiinhes, a colle^fe, and a KymnaNiiiiii, uiih
falirirs of liibacrii, piipt r, and pipes.
Ari!IM,,\(', a town of l''raiiri', cap. dip. Cin.
tal, on the .liiriliMie, 117 m. I''„ llorileaiix, mi iju,
railway I'rmu llnnleau.x to Lyons. Tup, |ii,<i:n; ji,
iMiil. The town isluiili on tlie decliviiy nl' u Iii||.
and beiweeii it and the river is the aurriiililc pm-
ineiiade. called Ac (inirirr. Tliminh KeiiiTilllv wrll
built, il is|;liHiniy aiidili'<a;{reeable : the.strii'tn uri'
narrow, eriiokeil, and ill paved, Imi well wiiiiri'ij jiinl
clean. It was fnrmerlv siirrmuiih'il by h.iII-, luiij
drfended by u castle; iiiit excepliiij; a pail nf tin'
latter, the rest of its forlilicatinns Iuim' liei'ii i|i>.
niiili'<lied. The cnllcf^re is the liir^'i'-it nfilii' piiMii-
buildings: the hotel of the iirefecl, tin' Iuhii-
lioiise, and the church of St. (Mrmid, helmi^'in^M'i
the ancient nionaslery lo which the town iinm',, ju
fiiiindalioii, deserve notice. Then^ is a liiiiiilsnnii'
bridj,'e over the river. Anrillac has triluiimls it
oriKinikl jurisdiction and of cmnmerce; a tliiiiiri',
a iiiiblic library conlainiiiKli,<iiiii volumes, aMniiiy
ol a^nii'iilliire, a cabinet of natural hi.itnry, nuij ii
ilijii'it (/(■ iliiraii.i; or hums, 1 1 is an iinlii-'irli.ib
town, and has mainifaclnres of paper, Ijiie, aiul
taiM'strv. I'ipiniol de la Force, the aiiiliur nl' it
' |)escriptimi (ie'o^rraiihiipie el llistoriipic ile In
France' (I'aris, l7.V2-,j;j, I. 'i vols. l2mo.), wjiNlmni
here in lli'll. Carrier, infiiinmis for his atniriiiis
duriiifr till! revolution, was also a native of iiii^i
place.
Al'liIOL, n town of France, dep. Dmiihes i|ii
l>hone, on the Veanme, IT) m. KNF,. M.irMciJii-.
Pop. 0,1117 in IHiil. The town has niiiiiiiriirtiiri'H
of wool and lapeslrv, and in the neif^lilimirl I
are valuable coal tuid copper mines. A pind irmlc
is carried on, and well freipiented fairs arc liciil mi
the IMih Se|it('niber, itrd October, and the (iili «f
December, lor hoj^s, mules, f;rain, and clulli.
AL'IUIMiAHAI) (the phue of the thioiir), n
lar^e inarit. prov. of tlie Deccan, llindnsiiin, rum-
liri.sed jiartly in the Kritish dominimis (|ln■^ill,
Itombay), and partly in those of the Ni/.iiin; |iriii-
cipallv'belween 1«° and 21° N. hit., and 7;i°aiiil
77° h, long.; having ^. the provs. (iiijrat, I'liii-
deish, and Jlerar, K. Ueeder, S. IJejapdor, mid
VV. tlie Indian Ocean. Surface very irrcpilar,
and in general mountainous, especially tnwiinl
the W., where the (ihauts attain a cmi.siiicralili'
height. That part of the (irov. K. of the Western
(ihauts is a table-land rarely less than l,H(i(iri.
above the sea, and often much more: it aluMiinls
with natural fortresses and strongholds. Tlii'ic
are no rivers of any size ; the N'eern, Hei'ina, and
(iodavery rise within this prov., but nc(|iiirc im
magnitude until after they have left it: llic twn
former streams unite in marking the S\V. Itniin-
dary. The climate is particnlnrly favoiiriililo I'nr
the production of European fruits, which arrive at
greater ]ierfection than in any other part of India,
especially the peach, grape, and strawberry; nee-
tarines, tigs, and melons are excellent ; hut llw
oranges arc inferior to those of Sylhet and iip-
pcraii. The gardens and tiehls around the vill.'i^.'e'*
are very generally inclosed by hedget "f pri' kly
f
ATTRrNOAnAT)
AI'STnALASIA
2^7
Mtr iinil nillk-pliiiit j rifi> In lhi> (rniiti fni)))> riiUI- 1 A maiiwilnim tTcrii'il liv ilutt mnnnrrh to a
I . <• . I ..«• I i.-.i. tf..l 1'. _i :«• _ ..." I 1...11 i;.. - ..:.i. _
vniiil. 'iD'Hi MiiinlM'n i>r liiirNi'N (nr till' .Mitliiiiiiilii
,.„,,ilrv Miri' l'i>riiii'rl\ mirccl mi ilic liiinkx ni' iIh<
,\irrii nn*l iiot'tiiii; llirv iiri> n Imnlv lirccil, hut
iii'jilirr "iriiii^ rmr liiiiicltitnic. Tlu' iiiliiit>, nri>
iliKtIv MiilinriillNM; lull till- |iriiv, \n roiiiiiariilivi'ly
ililiily |M'i>|ili'<l. i'N|M'('iiilly iiiwiiril llii> NK. : lhi<
M<>llllMI'l»'<l'»>1 'tl**' '*> 'III' lllMlllHIlt OIllV ItN I til
y, Aiiniiiuiili'iil liax tliirti'i-n miliilix jhIiiiin, nml
niiilniii" (III' I'ilii'H of iliiiiiliMy, riKiMiili, AiiriiMKn'
liiiil, mill SiiolaiHMir, Tlii' lia/iiitrH nl' iim lar^rr
inHiin iiri' rlii'iTliil anil i'iilivriiiii^'riiiiii(;li, lull ilif
,trn lit of il'* Niiialirr uni'it fxlrriin'ly iliill ami
^,| ,iv, rri'iiilliraliHriii'cnruiiiiliiwirarin^iiiwiirilH
ilii'iii, 'I'Ik' ri'lii^liiii'* t'llillri'M ari' iIIniIii^iiImIii'iI Iiv
nmiiv |M'i'ii!iHritii't ('rmn llnwi' iil' llic pniv, Imili
I'aviiiiriir wlt'i', an iMtaKoiiikl Imililiiit; wiili a
rii|ii>lii ami t'liiir ininarrlN, rmi'-lriirli'il nn ilin
iiiiiili'l III' I III' TiiJ Mnhiil at Aktm ; ilii> inrlimiiri'
Hiirriiiinilintf ii fiiniaiiiH prrliaiM thirty acrcN of
Inml laiil mil in K'lrili'nx. 'riii> |iriiiri|tal Niihiirh ii<
i>n iht> ii|i|MiNiii> xiilii III' ilm rivrr, nml I'lmnrrii'il
will) till' lily hy iwi) NiiliNlaniial xlmui liriil({ri<,
'riiMiinl till' N, lliiTf ii a illr^;l' iii»r'<hy trail nl'
KMiiml riiliivati'il v\ilh ri>'i', ami nrar tlir llrllii
^ati' in a rmiHiili'rahlf lank, now nvrrttniwii wilh
wi'I'iIn; I'l'iiin wliirli riri'iiniHiani'i'N, cmiihiniil with
ilH low Nilnatiim ami rninnnx nlali', iIiIm city is i|i>-
riili'illy nnlirallliv, ll is, Imwi'viT, hy rriiMun nl'
ilH iiiiNJiimi, wi'll Nn|i|ilii'i| willi ^niiil waliT, run-
vryi'il lliitlifr in Ntmn- r'unliiiN I'rmn llir iii'IkIi-
N'. mill M, Imlia; tin' jHirlii'ii in nl'li'ii iirariy | hniiriii); liilJN, ami liislrilininl hy carlliin |ii|ii"4
of
n.* Iiir^'i' 1'* 'ill I'x' ''<''*' ■'(' ill*' liiiililin^i luiil in
Miiiii' tiiu'iiM llio piiK' I'lM arc rllliiT luclvc niili'il
{ivr:iniiili or miiiarc o.iililin^)* Niinniiiinti'il hy a
1,'iruT I'lijiiila. Nliiny rciniirkahic aiiiii|iiiiii"i exist
ill ilil4 |iriiv, ; iif* the Icinpli'saml cavrNat Salscllc,
|'.li|ilimiiii. t'nricc, ivllnra, Ki; I'ntii the ili'sirnc-
iJMii I'l' Miiliaralta pnwcr, in \H\x, pliiiiilcriii;; hy
liiiiil mill piracy hy ncii pri'vailcil iiiiu'li in ami
rmiiiil iIiIh priiv., the ^'rcalcr part ul' wliicli, fur
iniii siiitii' ri'HcrvnirH In cxcry ipiaricr, 'I'lic cliniain
Im Nulijcri III ^rrcal ami Hiiililm aiicratimiH: I'ur
mil' lliiril part ul' Ilic year I''., wimlH pri'vall, ami
till' thi'rnimni'ii'r ranges Inun .'in" ioHIIO Falir, ; I'ur
llic ri'sl III' the year WSW, wimln arc Ilic iihimI.
cniniiinn, llic llicniiiiini'li'r uficn risinij lo |iii|0,
Triipiral IriiitH of ail IuiiiIm arc prmliiccil in ahiin-
ilaiii'c, aiiil till' ^rapcH ami i>raii),'i's arc Hcarci'ly
inlcriur 111 iliiisc of Miiriipc, The military canton-
•iHiii' time |ireviom*ly til thai year, wait (tnliject to 'nieiits are in a MaliihrimiM simt ahmit a iniie SW.
*■" -' • • -• • (hccity, Aiirinipihail was iiri;;iiiiilly naineiKiiirka,
anil hci'iiinc llieitcat of the provincial ;<ovcriiiiicnl
till' I'i'isliwa. Anrnn^ahail was alno the ^'real
rdiiri'i'iif llie preilalory haml.s that ilevastcil llin-
(|ll^lllll fur imirc llian a ccntnrv ; Ihmi^li, alter llic
iiMrihriiw uf llic IMahnrallaN, ll hecanie one of ihc
i|iiii'ti'si ami niiiHl onlerly portioiiM of ilie pciiin-
Mihi. 'I'lic ciin.sirnctioii of a line of railway, con-
iiiriiii^' the city of Aiiriinpihail with llmnhay,
\\n* u'ri'iilly tenilcil to tlu' increase of iraile anil
icMiiiii'rcc, mill (lie ;,'ciicral prosperity of the iiiha-
litimli*. Tliis pruv. was furnicrly calleil Ahineil-
mt^'iir, anil afierwanls l)owleialiail, from ilie
ciiii'H mi nanicil hcin^' in tnrn its capitals, iimlcr
two ilyim.slies previously to A.i>. IHU,') : at which
iKrinil Sliiili,lclian linally coii(|uercil ami aiinexeil
It 111 (lie Mii^'nl empire. The scat uf piveriiimiil
Kiis tlii'ii transfcrreil from Duwletahail todiirka,
whicli town hceiiinin^ the favonrile resilience of
Aiiruiijt/.ehe, acqiiiruil, uh well us the prov., its
niiiilcni a|ipcllaliiiii.
Ai)m!x<iAiiAi), ft city of the Deccftn, llimlostan,
rnii. iiruv, of same imine, within the doni. of liie
M/.iim, Mini tlie heail-ipiarlcrs of a hattalion of his
army miller Krilisli olliccrs, 1 1 is hiiilt in a hol-
liiw oil the hanks of tlie Kuwlah, a trihnlary of
ilii'diHlavcry, in 19° W X. hit., «iul 7iP IM' K,
lOiiK., 275 m. NVV. Uydcrahail, IHll in, KN K. IJom-
liay, anil 141) m. NK. I'oonah, witli a Htutioii un
tlie railway from Nnf^jMior to Komhay. Poii. esli-
mati'il nt (iO.dllO. Auruii^almil was once lii^lily
tiiiiiriihiiif;, ftiid the favourite residence of Aiirniif;-
zrln', hut now, in f^reat part, ]ires<'nts an appearance
iifili'cny and ruin ; though, at a distance, its lofty
niiimn'ts, large white domes, and terraced lionses,
(;ivi! it an imposing character. The wall which
mirrmiiKls it, though capahle of ntrording profc^c-
tiiiii from predatory hodies, is lower than such walls
iwmily are. The streets are hroad, especially the
|irim'i|iiil hazaar, which is 2 m, in length, anil has
01 one extremity a spacious cpiadraiigle, with a
Iwmlsomc modern market: aomt! few streets are
pnvod. There are many large and good houses;
ami the puhlic huihlings, mosques, luid caravan-
«rais, are superior to tliose usually met with in
niitive cities, and intentjiersed with iiumerous gnr-
(Iciis, RTovcs, and fountains. The sliojis are snp-
plicil with the goods of both India and Europe ;
but there is not much commercial activity. The
only utructures worthy of notice arc the royal
palace of Aurungzebe, which covers a large space
of ijround, but is now fast mouldering away ; ami
Vol* I,
after the iNlognl cuiiipiesi in a.d. IInII.
Al'SI'IT/, ur llimlo/iilsrli, a lown of the Aus-
trian empire, Moravia, circ. ilrlhin, hclonging lo
I'rince l.ichtenstcin. Pop, .'l,li;» in iM.'iH. The
nei;^'liliuiirhiiud is fumoiiK for ils wine,
ArsTI''.KMTZ, a sniall seignurial town of Mo-
ravia, circ. Itrthin, on Ihc l.ittawa. III in. SI').
Ilriliin. I'op, il,l.'i".' ill ix.'iM. The lown has a
inii;;niliccnt casilc and gardens. In the vicinilv
of this town, on the •Jml of Hcccinher, iMOo, took
place the famous htillle ihat hears ils name he-
tw'cen Ihc French army tinder Napoleon, and the
coiiihiiicd Itiissian Mild Aii^lriaii ariiiics iimicr Iheir
roped ivc cnipi lurs. The halllc of Ansicriit/, was
followed hy the treaty of I'rcshiirg, signed on the
'2lilh of hecciiiher.
AU.STLK (ST.), a m. town nml par. of Kngland,
CO. Cornwall, liumi, I'tiwder, on the declivity of a
hill, at the liottoin of which is a small rivulet, 'Jl,'l
III. NVSVV. London, M ni. NNK. 'I'rnro. The par.
contains ll,<''i'l(l acres, and. accortling to the census
of \W,\, had ll,N!i:t inhah., and the town :t,K25
inhah. It is siliiated ahmil 2 m. from St. Anstle's
Kay, and is cmnn ilcil hy a railway with the |Mirt
of i'cntewan, and also with the port of Charleston.
It has a gootl church, Iml liie streets are narrow
and inconvenient, many of thciii hcing unpaved.
It is the seat of the most considerable i J the stan-
nary courts ; hilt it owes its entire conseipiencc t»»
the I'olgooth and Crennis tin and copjier mines,
and the soap-stone (iiiarries and china-clay works
in its immediate vicinity. The pilchard fishery is
also prosecuted to a considerahle extent in St.
Aiislle's liav. The extension of the mines and
day-works iias been such that the population of
the parish has more than trebled since IHIII, it
having then amounted to only i\,'HH. About ,'),(MI((
tons of soap-stone and 7,(MI() tons of china-clay
are annually shipped from Charleston and I'ente-
waii, jirincipally for the potteries.
AL'STHALASIA, a great division of the ghibc,
lying S. and SE. of Asia.
It was for a lengthened period supposed that
the (liflTerent points of land that were discovered
in the Southern Ocean, to the .S, of the islands of
Java anil Celebes, and of the Caiie of (Jood Hoiks
and Cape Horn, belonged to or formed parts of a
vast southern continent, tu which the name of
. f^
M
'I
2.'>8
AUSTRALASIA
■^''^. - i
Ti-rra Amtrali* wns pivon. The cxistonco <>f lliis
Urcat coiitint'iit wuh infi'ircd, ni>t merely from tlie
«li«fovpry of Ipii^ttliciipd jmrtions of coiiHt, ItiitalHo
on thcofctirnl f^roiiiuls, it \w\n\i HuppoMiil to lie
nopcHsary utt ii coiititcrpoiHu to the vast extent of
land ro.md the Arctic jM)le. (Ilistoire des Naviga-
tions uux Terres Anstrales, i. 13.) Hut as tliiH
Terra Australis was supposed to extend quite
round the- >;lobe, the ex|>ediency of HulxlividiuK it
into smaller portions iMicame evident; and the
learned President de Urosses, in liis exeellent work
referred to above, supK<'*'t<'d that that jxirtion of it
to the S. of Asia should he called Auslrnhtmi,
that to tlie S. of America Mai/i-lltinira, and that to
the S. of the Pacific Ocean Poli/mma, from the
iiumlier of its islands. (Navigations aux Terres
Aiistrales, i. 80.) The discoveries of Cook and
other modern navif;»tors have shown that there is
but little ground for thinking that there "s any
continent S. of America. Ihit the apiiropriateness
of the names jjiven by De llrosscs to the other
portions of the Terra Australis have been very
fjenerally acknowle<lf;ed. And with the exception
of the usual, althouf^h incorrect, conversion of
Australasia into Australia, and the extension of
the latter a little farther to the E. than De Urosses
had probably in view, his definitions are now uni-
versally adopted. It is not, however, very easy to
aasif^n the precise limits of Australasia, minfjlinjf
ns It does with the Polynesian islands towards the
NE., and with those of the Indian archipelago
towards the N\V. : [jhysical rather than purely
geographical considerations dictate the demarca-
tion.
S. of the tropic of Capricorn, Australasia ex-
tends from the 113th to the 180th meri'ian.
Between the tropic and 11° S. lat., from the
113th to the 170th meridian.
Between 11° and 6° S. lat., from the 135th to
the ICftth meridian.
Between 6° and 1J° S. lat., from the ISlst to
the IGOth meridian.
Between li° S. lat. and the equator, from the
130th to the 150th meridian.
Within these limits are included the continent
t>f Australia, formerly called New Holland, and
the islands of Tasnuinia or Van Diemen's Land,
New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides,
,Queen Charlotte's Islands, Sol .imon's Archipelago,
Ne\% Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, Admi-
ralty Isles, and Papua or New Guinea. In the
subjoined description the continent of Australia is
more particularly treated. New Zealand and Tas-
mania or Van Diemen's Land being left to special
articles. Seo Van Diemen's Land aiid Zealand,
New.
The continent of Australia lies between 1 0° 39'
and 39° llj' S. la*, and extends from 113° 5' to
1.53° IG' E. long. In form it is verj' compact; i(s
greatest length, from VV, to E., between Dirk
Hartoy's Point and Sandy Cape, being 2,400 m.,
its greatest width, from N. to S., between Cai)e
York and Cape Wilson, 1,971 m. Its average
length and width may, ])erhap8, be estimated at
1,800 and 1,700 in. resi)ectively ; its coast-line at
7,760 m. ; and its area is estimated at about
3,000,000 sq. m. (Flinders' Charts, Voyage, i. 224,
ii. 8, passim; King, ii. 178, et pass,; Picture of
Australia, 11.)
Sketch f)F AusTKALtA Coast. — In compari-
son with the outlines of Europe and Asia, and
the E. seaboard of America, Australia nuiy be
regarded as almost iron-bound. It jiossesses only
three large indentations, namely, Cambridge Gulf
and the Gulf of Carjjentaria on the N., and Spen-
cer's Gulf on the S. Shark's Bay on the W. and
Her\'ey'B Bay on the E. are the next largest,
but they are very inconsiderable, not more than
40 or 5(1 m. in width and depfli ; and for tiie rest.
though some of tlic-in, as I'ort Philip mi tli(. s.!
and Van Diemen h Gidf on the W., arc l.iri,'("
when regarded as liarlMiurs, they are iiiNignifiimit
if consid'-red as breaking the continuity of ijji'
coast. The same remark applies tfi sui'h'inlcts ns
King George's Sound, Western Port, Corner Inlet,
Ac. on the S., or to the Twofold Bay, tirrvis ltav[
Botany Bav, Port Jackson, &c. on (the K. It nuiv
Ihj observed, too, that these ports and hnrli(iiir.-< im
numerous only on the E. and N. s'lorcs; a very
considerable portion of those on the S. niwl \V.
being (pnfn unbroken. (Flinders, i. 49-2'.'3; Kiiiir'
ii. 159-178 ; Australian Directory, 30, 31, A,.) '
But the most remarkable feature in the Aus-
tralian coast is the total absence of outlets t'ciriiny
large rivers. So conijilete is this, that after Fliii-
ders' survey (in 1801-3) had established the fa, i.
a belief became pretty general that the wlmlc
land was fenced, at no great distaiu'e from tlic
coast, bv a continuous mountain ridge ; ■ n tli(>
inner sides of which the princi))al rivt. naij
their sources, flowing inwardly to a great intoniul
lake or mediterranean sea. Wild as tliir- hypd-
thesis may now appear, it received some clmn-
tenance from the earlier results of interior discovcrv,
though it was unwarranted by the account I'm
which it was founded, and has been comiilctcly
disproved by more recent and more acciirntV
investigation. The S. coast, through a length nf
more than 20°, from Cape Leuwin to SptiK'cr's
Gulf, is generally low and sandy, with only hero
and there some eminences, and scarcely anvwhcre
exhibiting a high inland countrj'. (Flinders' Charts,
2-4, Voy . i. 49-255.) On the E., indee<l, a raiifte
of mountains rises at no great distance f'ntni tlic
coast, extending from the S. extremity of the cmi-
tinent as far, at least, as the 2()th parallel, ami
most probably as far as Cape York, on Tnrrfs
Straits, the most remote point of the mainlaml
towards the N. (Adni. Ch. Flinders, ii. l-TC;
King, i. 1G5-240; Bligh's Nar, 4G-G9.) But on
the N. shore, a mountain, not higher than the
mast of a sloop, is noticed by Flinders as the liii,'li-
est ])oint of ground seen by him in a nui of 17.)
leagues along the coast, (Voyage, ii. 131.) huw
levels, with only here and there some elevations
of no great character, mark, also, the; shore W. u(
Carpentaria, as far as Cape Londonderr)-, wherf
the land begins to tend towards the SW., fomiiiiv'
the Cambridge Gulf. The coast continues nnniiiii;
south-west till the mouth of the Victoria rivtr,
discovered, in 1839, by Capt, Wickham, and tlicii
again turns northward up to Van Diemen's Giilf
and Melville Island.
Interior. — From what has been said, it is evi-
dent that the readiest means for the investigation of
a strange country, that is, extensive creeks, iiilaml
seas, and navigable rivers, are wanting in this
'land of anomalies.' Its interior rece.«ses hiwl to
be explored, if at all, by land travelling; and to
this there appeared, at first, to exist an muon-
querable barrier. The first settlers on the K. coast
found their horizon bounded towards the W. by .i ,
dark and rugged chain of mountains which msi?
at no verj^ great distance from the sea, and i« j
cross which the earlier attempts, though made hy
parties of no common skill and energy, com-
pletely and signally failed. (A. CuniiinghanH I
Geog. Joiim. ii. 99.) A rugged and abrupt as-
cent, called ' Caley's Repulse,' marks the limit
of the first adventurer's tour (Oxlf^y, 3G.S), and
the efforts of Daws, Tench, Patterson, Ilakin;:.]
Bass, and Bareiller, though some of them pro-
ceeded a few miles farther than Caley, led tu noi
useful result. The aborigines, when questioiiwl,]
T
ot moH! than
I for tlic rest,
lip mi I lie S..
iV.. lire l:»ri;i',
(■ iiiNiKiiiliraiit
tiiiiiity "f ill!'
I Hiich iiilrt^< at
,, Ctinicr Inlet,
ly, .IprviH Kay,
the v.. It nuiy
11(1 liiirlKHir.-i iiri!
H'loroH ; a vcrv
the. S. mill \V.
4i>-'2-2:i; Kiiij;,
30,ill, Ar.)
irc in tlin Aii^-
r outk'tH lor any
that after I'lin-
blisliptl the fa. I,
that tlui wliiilc
<tam'fi fniin tlic
II riilfjc; ■'" tlio
jipnl rivi. Had
1 a prrat intrnial
id ns tliir liyi>"-
ived 8(imft cmm-
ntcriordiscdvorv,
the accimiii's mi
been conniU'tcly
;\ morn acciirati'
rouf^h a Iciifitli lit
iwin to Sp(ii''or'»
y, with only liero
warcely anvwliore
, (FliniU'rs' Charts,
[i., indeed, a raii^'e
distance from tlic
tremity of the cwi-
2()th "parallel, ami
. York, on T'Ttm
of the mainlaiiil
Flinders, ii. 1-Ti!;
40-09.) lUit on
^ higher than the
indorsasthehiirli;
im in a nin of 17.)
^c, ii. 131.) Low
re 9(.me elevatiniis
;o, the shore W. "I
'mdondorr)-, when'
the S\V., foniiin-
continues niumii;,'
he Victoria riviT,
nekham, anil tlnn
an Diemen's Gulf
kii saiil. it is «^'-
Iheinvestiftatiimiii
Isive creeks, iiilmm
s wanting in tlm
Ur recesses liml to
travelling; amH"
] exist an nncim-
brs on the K. coast
Vards the W. by .i
ntains wWch rose ^
- the sea, ami to ;
I, though made l>y
\nA enerf^y, c""";
lA. Cuiiniiifjha'"*
[l awl abrupt as-
marks the hmu
hxlov,3G3), "i"M
Jktlerson, llakn'r'-
Ime of them pro- 1
lcaley,le<l .'»";'
Lhcn qucstionoil,
H
^•'J
KintMid *• W iilgjJVwrfy .M.fMW Sq. Uilrs. Lmgth Mi
Iriuith :':iSO Mil.
Xiit^nZongman &
r.nuith iiSU MUfs
iVtutralia
Hrrmllh ifm> Mild
Endnnil A- W»Je» Ji rnuMi .'to MiIm
^
13 iO"
iiHr
ISO'
16 O"
,iPilH
'If'-J
»•*,
fi,™^»^^-'' •-^•
***"'
■^.-M-'^
^rLORis ■■* 5- «. • o ■'•of ar *^ Y"*-**- " j, "^-^
Oap^ 'jIMri«tri«//
Zcn^n.Ldr^ni€Lrx&C\
E'-VfUra-. doi et Sruln
H:
■II
H. t
,1;
I,
.Australia ^/mri ,'ioott.ftito Sii Milrt
jmn.
Hrraiilh iti>i> Milrt
, K _ H- •' l^iMuni
/.Kim
E'«V'U<pr. ilri el SriUi.
AUSTRALAHIA
2/)!)
wore totally iKi"'"'*"* of aiiy<'iifiiiiiK'iii tho moiin- 1 iliimrv riiiiwc (icciir cxlronii'ly nonr tlic siimniilH,
t.iiiis (A. (!iinii., (icoK. Jouni. ii. !>!»); Imt they
liail n triiiliticiii (hut malignant spirilM rcsidcil
tliirt', aiitl tliat llic ('diitilry licymul was inlialtitcil
\iYtcliile men. Ill IKllI, lidwevur, after ail iiitcn-al
(if twi'iity-fivc yiars, an extremely dry HcaHim
Imviiif; destroyed tlif minor vegetation, and i>ro-
iliK'cd a \itei\i mortality in the tlocka and henU,
Lieut. LawHoii, Mr, ISIaxlaiid, aiul Mr, \V(^iit-
w<irili iitteiniple<l to pciiclnilc! the hitherto iin-
|i('iii'tralileinOiiiitaiii harrier, ill the liope of lindin^
|iastiire and water for the exhausted eattle of the
ccpldiiy. Tiiey were ho far HiiecesMfiil that they
fjaiiu'd a view of an extensive ronntry \V, of the
iiiiiiiiitains; hut want of jirovisions coninelliiifr
llicin to retiini, the honour of eompletin^f the dis-
covery was reserved for Mr. Kvaiis, the deputy
Mirvcyor-neneral, (Oxley, Iiitrod, 7-!); Stiirt, In-
iriid. til-7.>,) The harrier oneep(Mietrated, the lands
licviiiid were not left lonj; unexplored. In the
liliy years that have since passed, Messrs, Ilnnie,
lldvei. (Jurrie, ('nnniiifthain, Oxley, iSturt, Mit-
clii'll, Landor. (Jrepiry, Stuart, Uiiriie and Wills,
llinvitt and others, liave pushed their eiKpiiries all
(ivcr liie eoiitiiient, leavin/; hut small portions of
till! vast territory entirely unknown. Thus, au
area of ahove two millions of sipiare miles has
Imcii tlioroii^hly exphtred within a jjeriod of little
nmre than half a eentiiry : a faut hoiumruhle alike
111 ihe zeal and thi! industry of the oiiservers.
MomitithiH uiifl I'luins. — In the 01<1 World, the
niiiiiiitain ranges, however tortuous, af^ree in {gene-
ral ijirection with the (greatest length of the con-
tiiimtM in which they lie. Thus the axis of
Anieriea runs N. and S. of the K. continent
{Kiimiie, Asia, and Africa) from XE . to SW. ;
but in Australia the |)rincipal chains, so far as
(ibscrvation has yet hecn carried, apjiear to run
transversely to the direction of the land; that is,
friim N. to S. The dis(M)veries of Major Mitchell
have made known a mass of mountain land, called
by liiin the Australian Grampians, which com-
iiicnocs near the 8, coast at Portland Hav, in lat.
:i(l° 52' S., long. 1420 25' E. The direction of
tlicsc mountains is at first due N.,. but in lat.
37° 30', long. 142° 47', a range of grassy liills
(livpr};es to the ENE. to connect them with the
lii.!,'hest masses yet seen in Australia, called by the
natives Warragong, and by the settlers the Aus-
tralian Alps, The connecting range received from
llitihcll the title of Australian Pyrenees. The
Warragongs may be described as running NNE.
fnim near the S. termination of the continent at
Caiie Wilson as far as 3o° 20' S. ; but a.s high as
3ti° S, a chain of less elevation, called the IJlue
Mountains, branches off from them, and following
(.'oucrally the direction of the E. coast divides the
E. and the W, waters. In lat. 32°, long. 1.50°, the
raiifje. after tending, for some distance, a little to
tlie W. of N., suddenly turns due E., and under
tlip name of the Liveqiool Ifange, runs in that
•lireotiim for about 1° of long., when it resumes
its nortiierly course ; but though it has been traced
as low as 20° S. lat., no name has been bestowed
11)1011 any part of it beyond the parallel of 32°.
'llie highest peak in the Grampians is Mount
William, 4,500 ft. above the level of the sea
(Mitchell, ii. 2G5) ; of the Pyrenees, Mount Cole,
• or Mount IJyng, probably 3,000 ft. No measure-
niHits liave been taken" of the Warragongs, but
lis tliey are covered with eternal snow (Mitchell,
ii- ^'JT, itc. ; Currie's Geog, Mem. 37.3), their
'iciKht, in tliis lat., cannot be estimated at less
tlian 15,000 ft. The Blue Mountains, so long im-
passable, do not attain a great elevation ; ]Mount
) ork, the highest peak, being no more than 3,202
''•> but the valleys and plams in this cxtraor-
Kiiigs table-land is 2,727 ft,! the Vale of ("Iwihl
2,4!»t; ft., and Italhiirst Plains. I.!I70 ft, ahove the
level of the sea, (Oxley 'a Bar. Meu. P. Cur. Hvo.
i. 152; \Ventworth, H2.)
The Liverpool h'ango is almost a» diHlcnlt of
passage as the Hlue Mountains (A. Ciinninglmin's
Geog, Mem. 152-177); its highest jK-aks In-ing
between (i.OOO and 7.000 ft., and the continuation
of Ihe dividing chain apnarenlly still more rugged
and abrupt. A gap of the kind, called by the
.Spaniards <iurbrntlm,'m S. America, stopped Oxley
in his journey from the interior to the coast,
in l>*IS. This * tmiifHiioim rarini',' he describes
as being from two to three miles wide at top, and
3,000 ft. in per[)eiidi<ular depth; its width at
bottom does not exceed 100 or 200 ft,, and is the
bed of a river, (.Journal. 205.) Sea View Hill, in
this part of the range, is between (1,000 and 7,000
ft. high ; hut Oxley did not think it the most
elevated ground ui the neighbourhood. (Journ.
3U(.) Practicable passes are, liowever, being con-
tinually discovered; one over the Itliie Mountains,
near the 35th parallel, was effected by Mr.
Thorshy as earlv as IKIO. and two others bv
Mitchell since IH.JO, (Mitchell, i, 153; Wentworth,
81,) That over the Liverptxd Kange, traversed
hv Mitchell in 1M31, which is nearly on the meri-
dian <if Sidney, seems to be easier than I'andora's
I'ass, 1° to the E,, crossed by A, Cnnningham in
1«23 (Mitch, i.25; A, Cun., (ieog. Journ. 170),
an<l breaks have been observed in tlu; more N.
mountains, which promise to be free from those
difficulties which were well nigh the destructiim
of Oxley and his part}'.
TIk! W. mountains, viewed from the S., consist
of three )>arallel ranges, extending about 20' E. of
the llKth meridian, and running, like the E.
chains, almost due N. through the continent. The
most E., and the highest of these mount^iins, rise
a few miles behind King George's Sound; the
second, called the Darling liange, commences at
Cape Chatham, in 3.5° S., ll(i° 35' E., and the
third and lowest is found running close to the
shore from Cape Leuwin. (.lournals of Expcd. in
W.Australia; Surveyor-Gen. Hep. May 11, 1830.)
However, the first is not a continuous range run-
ning N. and S,, hut consists of two detached and
])arallel chains extending longitudinally and sejta-
rated from each other bv a [)lain of considerable
magnitude. (Journ. Dale, 1(J3-1(!7.) The W.
chain, culled Koikyennuruft", is considerably the
higher, one of its peaks, Toolbninup, attaining the
elevation of 3,000 ft., an altitude much exceeding
that of any other mountain yet examined in W.
Australia. The S. chain, called Porriingorrup, is
not only lower, but of much less extent, having
a base of only 13 m., while that of the Koikyen-
nuruff is full 30. (Journ. Dale & Collie, 1(!1-1()7,
130, 173, &c.) The Darling Kaiige is continuous
as far as 31° 8., to which distance it has been
explored, and there is every reason to conclude
that it runs in the same direction to the N. coast,
in the neigh bourhooil of Dampicr's Archipelago.
Capt. King (i. 30-53; Adm. Ch. NW.& W. Aust.
vii.) lays down this coast as high aiwl rocky,
though bounded to the W. and E. by a low sanily
shore, that is, as having all the appearance of the
termination of a mountain chain ; the high N .
coast, commencing at Cape Preston in 110° 5' E.,
and Point D'Entrecasteaux, to which these moun-
tains extend on the S. shore, lyuig in 110° 1' E.
(Flinders' & King's Adm. Ch.) The Darling
Mountains average from 30 to 40 m. in width,
and their greatest elevation is 2,000 ft. It is not
likely that S. of the 31st parallel they anywhere
exceed this height. (Journ. Preston, 0, 11; Dale.
s 2
m
26()
AUSTRALASIA
I
I'
Bl, fl3; SiinvOcn. 'on. Mar. 22, 1830.) Tho
third rnriKo, nii>ntione«l in tJu! Siir\oy«r-(lt'ncrftrH
KoiMirt, iH uniniiM)rtnnt ; it in prolmlily t'ontiiuird
in Morcshy'H ffat-tuiipcd rnnK<", tlu! nllituilr «f
Mliich in itiMiiit 1,01)0 ft. (Kin^r, i. 22; ii. 174,
Adm. Ch.) In alx.nt JW S. lut„ a Tn^f^cd and
irrcffiilar NnrccxHion (if niountnins hrunclivM (iff W.
fruni Hi(> Itliui Iklountaiti rnnne, and apjx'arH like
tlu! dividing line of two i^rvnt river baninM. It
miiokly dividoM, liowpvcr, into jjronpH, alnioHt
(k'tftcliod from oa(!hoHicr, to wliicli varionH names,
OH ( 'anoboliiN, Croker, I'eel, ]Miu'(|uarri(', Ac. have
iK'cn fjiven ; and farther \V. the interior in here
and there Htiidded with ttmaller knots ; hut, an far
as ha.s been yet, obs('rv(!d, only in a belt of about
2°, namely, lietween the iiaraliels of .'11° and 2!l° S.
The L'anobolas is l.'Kil ft. in lieinht, an altitude
much exceediuf; that of the Ilhie Mountains;
and the Marpi, aiiotiier peak of the same series,
attains the elevation of 2,100 ft. (Mitchell, i. 102 ;
ii. 10, .'177.) Isolated mountains, which in other
coimtries are rarely met with, excejit in the ease
of volcanoes, arc common pnout,'h in this new
land. Vet exact scientilit; observations of nearly
all of them are still wanting;. Thou};;h the deserts
of (!ven the interior of tlu; vast continent have
freiiuently been ex|il(pred, the investi/^'ation of the
coiuitrv, in most instances, took jilaee in such a
hurried maimer as to make careful surv(!ys im-
possible. The most celebrated of all inlaiKl expe-
ditions, the famous ride of Messrs. Iturkcand Wills
rif^ht across the continent, from S. to X. and
back, in lKOI,wa8 so far characteristic of many
Australian explorations, as to be a tiKht with
savaj^e nature ratlu?r than a scicijtilii! investipi-
tioii of her ]iheiiomena. However, a few of these
journeys of ex|)loration had the most valuable
results, notwithstanding^ the enormous dilticultics
o])p()sinff them. Amon;x the number were Leicli-
liardt's journey from Moreton Hay to I'ort I'^s-
i<iii^ton, in IKIt-.') ; Walker's ex]ie(litioii from
IkOckhain|>ton, in (Queensland, to the (iulf of Car-
pentaria, which ho reached in Decendier iNlil ; the
journey of M'Kinlay from Adelaide to the mouth
of the Albert, at the bejjinninj; of 1H02 ; and of
Stuart throufjli the central re^^ions to the Cam- sea determine, in manj* cases, the direction aiul
presents little or no nppoarnncc of utrotifimtinn.
(Mitchell, ii, !MH.) Trap occurs in many iiIucck,
hut no location can be assigned to it with relereiuv
to the position of other rocks, and vesiinilar lava is
abundant in the neiKlilxxirluMMl of the only Vdl-
cano discovered in Australia. ^Mit(!hell, ii.'.l.'iii.)
This v(d(;aiio, called by Mitchell (ii. 2.'tr>-'.>)(;)
Mount Napier, and by the natives Miircoa, lies
between the (Jrampians and the S. coast, in lal.:!7o
<V2' 2!»" S. loiifj. afumt U'*° 20' K. A bituniiiioiH
burning; hill, behiiiKinff to a low ran>;e called Win-
Heii (the native name for tire), a litfle to the S. nf
the !,,iver|)o(d I{an(;e, is chieliy remarkable for tlie
yreat variety of nn'ks of which it is coni|Mis(i|.
The neighbouring peaks are chieliy porjilivritic;
hut the burning mount itself contains witliinn
very short distance, clav, shale, argillaceous sand-
stone, felspar, basalt, ironstone, trap, and linrii-
blendo, (Mitchell, i. 2.'1.) WinK(!n has been hiirii-
iufj apiiarently for a very considerable time, Imt
no marks of any extensive ehan^'e appear on ili(>
surface near the burning; fissures. Itcd lu>,it 1^
found at the depth of al>out 4 fathoms.
Malte-ltriiii obser\-es, that the rcmarkalile pn-
larity of the jirincipal mountains here dcsiTllicij,
extends throii^'hout the whole of what h(^ icrniH
Oceanica; and if this be a Utile strained uiih
rcffard to some of the islands of I'idynesia mid ilip
Indian Arcliipela;,'o, it is at least true with ri';,','ir(|
to New Zealand and the islands incliideil in Aus-
tralia Proper. The same author (xii. H) coiiccivcs
the chain of the Itliu! Mountains to be contiiMiiil
in the islands of Hass's Straits, and the axis of Vaii
Diemen's Land, to Cape I'illar. the S. teriiiiiintidii
of the latter. Mitchell also (ii. ;i;i7) thinks llitit
;ieol(if:;ical a|)i)earaiices lead to the conchisiini that
the two lamls were not always scjiarated ; ami this
is at least hiffhly probable, and is supported liy
similar appearances in the Old World: bill in ili'o
words of Oxley (HI), 'The wlude fonn, cliiirai'tcr,
and composition of this country is so sin^jular, that
a conjecture is hardly hazarded before it is iivcr-
tiirned, every tiling seems to run counter to tlin
ordinary course of nature in other countries.' In
other lands the rocks and reefs that nin into tlu?
bridf^e (jiilf, in the summer of the same year.
Uesides their scientific importance, all these jour-
neys of exploration had the immense value of
ojiening up unknown territories for the white
settler and the track of civilisation. (Oxlev. 4-77,
2;t4,2rj8, 201,275, A'c; Start, i. G'J-82 ; Mitchell,
i. 3t), 45, 48, 02, tfcc.)
All the usual formations are found in the Aus-
tralian mountains (Fitton Kinj^'s Appen. 588, el
seq. ; Sturt, i. 197-200, ii. 249-256 ; Mitchell, ii.
849-.S69), hut they seem to occur ■without order,
and in defiance of all known geological laws in the
Old World. A ferruginous sandstone forms the
Blue Mountains, granite being rarely met with,
cxce])t when it appears to have cracked the thick
overlying stratum, in wliicli case it is found in the
valleys and the beds of streams. (Mitchell, ii. 349,
351.) W^estward this fundamental rock is some-
times found in mountains of limited extent, and
no great height, while more important ranges in
their neighbourhood jiresent regular liorizontal
strata. (Dale, 107.) In the intenor the isolated
hills are uniformly diflTerent in composition from
the connected ranges, the latter being of granite,
the former of sandstone (Oxley, 77) ; limestone,
so common in the formations of the N. hemisphere,
■was unknown in Australia before 1813. It was
first discovered, W. of the Blue Mountains, in a
district, named from it, Limestone Creek (Oxley,
6) ; and although it has since been found in other
parts of the continent, it is far from abundant, and.
continuity, or othenvise, of the mountain systems
hut the rocks and reefs of Australia afibnl no such
key to the enquirer; they belong not to geoln^'v,
they are the work of the coral insect, rising jur-
pendicularl}'- from the depths of the ocean till thcv
form ridges and islands above its surface, wliich
have nothing in common with any thing but tlieiii-
selves. (Flinders, ii. 113-110.) Even the fact.
that the geology of the continent and it-s adjacent
islands is similar, is not conclusive, for the luinilicr
of detached ranges and isolated mountains, exist-
ing in the former, prepare the mind for a niiidi
more startling admission than that the Van Dio-
men System may be wholly unconnected with that
of the Blue Mountains, from which it is separated
by a deep sea, 140 m. in average width.
From the parallelism of the jirincipal chains (the
Blue Mountains and the Darlings), it might ii»t
be unreasonabl}' supposed that the iiitorierwaKa
table-land of moderate elevation. It has already
been stated that early belief was directly contran'
to this; and the course of discovery has slunvii
both ideas to be erroneous. W. of the Blue Moun-
tains, a succession of terraces, commencing at a
great elevation, descend rajiidly to a vcrj- li»f
level. Oxley, at a dist.ince of less than HO m.
from Bathur'st, found himself only 000 ft. alxne
tho sea; that is, 1,370 ft. below the "town. (Joiinial,
9.) The transverse mountains divide levels, a|t-
parently interminable, of the most monotonous clia-
ractcr, and with a deficiency of vegetable matter,
-!_
rntiflcatinn.
miiy iiliiffH,
til rcftTi'iicc
i:\ilikr liiva H
m only vnl-
ic'U, ii.':V,((.)
ii. 'illiVJIi',)
Miirciiii, I'u's
it, ill liil.:'.T°
i liitiiiiiiniiiM
> called Wiii-
I' to tlio S. iif
'kiilili' for thfi
is coniiHwcil.
lioqilivritic;
iiiiiK williiii n
llUH'Olltt HlUld-
1), mill liorii-
in.Hhocii liiirn-
iililc tiiiii'. liiit
iiiilicur on \\w.
K(mI liciit u
ns.
,'iiiiirUnlilo |iii-
icri". (Icscrilicil,
ivlint lie tiTiiiH
straiiuMi wiili
yiicsiii and llin
lie willi r(';;iirii
chulcil in .\n*-
ii. H) conceives
II lie continiieil
tlipaxisot' Van
S. tcrininatiiiu
i;j7) tliiiiKs tlial
conclusion tlmt.
irnted; and tliii
is siipiiorted liy
irld: lint i" 'In'
((inii, cliaracter,
«) siiijinlar, tliat
icforc. it ii* over-
coiiutcr to the
•countries,' In
Kit nin into tin'
e direction ami
luntaiii systems,
a alTonl no sudi
not to jj;e(iliij;y,
isect, rising per-
e ocean till they
< surface, wliicli
thing Imttlieni-
Evcu the fad.
and its adjacent
>, for thciuimlier
lountains, cxist-
lind for a niurli
at the Van Uie-
incctcd with that
;h it is separatcil
width.
icipal chains (the
;s), it miftht nut
le interior wiis a
It has alrciuly
directly contrar>-
,ery has sluwn
the Blue Moun-
lomraencinK at a
,' to a very 1"W
less than HO ni.
ily (iOO ft. «lf"^«
etown. (Journal,
livide levels, aii-
monotonouscbii-
■egctnble mattif;
AUaTRALA.SIA
tlmt, in the opinion «f Stiirt (i. I OH), argiu's
iKiHerfully for llieir recent origin. 'I'lio line of the
tiiirizDU is, in thoso vast Hats, ns nnlirokcn as it is
iiiimu the surface of the sea; and there is every
rca-Hon to helieve, not only that they were at a
c(iin|iaratively recent iieriod under water, lint also
tliat ft very coiisiderahle portion of them is tlooded
liv the overtlow of the interior rivers, iluring wet
seiitons. The surface of these plains is extremely
ili'iires..*ed, and so flat that the detached ranges and
iHiilated mountains which rise out of them, appear
like islands snrrouniled by an nnlirok(Ji ocean.
(Oxlev, 'ii et mi,, Kit et »i'</,, I(t7, &(!., '27:i ; Stnrt,
i. 11 1," Ac, ii. .')2, iV.t, Ac. ; Mitchell, ii. /i" et m/.)
HiriTH anil Laken. — The vicinity of the dividing
ran^jestothe coast jirevents the accumulation of
larice rivert: towards the K, orVV. ; liut from the
I'aet of their running more or less through parallel
valleys, these streams possess in general a longer
cinirsc than might have been anticipated. The
I lilef of those that rise in the Hliie Mountains,
are (he Mnrroo, Clytle, Shoalhaven, llawkeslmry,
Hunter, Hastings, and llrishanc. Tliere isiuithiiig
rerimrkftlile in them, except the fact that some of
them, as the Shoalhaven and llawkesliury, not-
withstanding their short courses, issue to the ocean
ill iinhle hays. They possess few facilities for in-
ternal navigation, both as being very shalhiw, and
I'riim the t4irtuous nature of their currents. Some
of their adliients are, however, sntliciently striking.
They How through ravines in the sandstone rocks,
of from nil) to;i,4(M) ft. in depth, andof such width
that Mitciell supposes that a inas.s eqtial to l.'ll
dihic ni. must have been removed from the single
liasin of the Cox, <inc of the tributaries of the
llawkeslmry. The Grose, another alHuent of the
same river,' flows through a valley of less extent,
hut of more precipitous character ; so that the
amount of stone displaced is probably not less than
ill the case of the Cox. Wliat adds to the iiecti-
liarity of this feature in Australian geography is,
ihat the outlets to these stupendous ravines are
;;euerally very narrow ; the disposal of the vast
iiias.ses of earl h is therefore as mysterious as their
.niniiinit is marvellous. (Mitchell, i. I 'il, ii. i>.")l.)
The rivers here iuenti(nie(l have their outlets be-
iweeii the parallels of 27° and ;iri° S. Oxley, in
1K2I, discovered the Hoyne, a rajiid mountain
stream, falling intol'ort Curtis, in lat. iii° oli' ;$!)"
S. (Field's Mem. 7.) I'liiiimice-st one IJivcr falls
into Morton's llay, in •20° ,'A' ill)" S. It was dis-
iiivered by Flinders (Introd. cxcvi.) ; but in con-
n'qnenccof only cursorily survt^ying the W. shore
df that bay, he overlooked the more important
lirislianc. probably the largest stream upon the K.
eiiast. (Oxlev, in Field, 12-2o.) Kiideavour liiver,
ill Ufi 27' 12 S., is chiefly celebrated as the place
where I'apt.Cook repaired his sliii)after it hail lain
(111 a coral reef for twenty-eight hours : it has a
wiilc and convenient mouth ; but at a very short
ilislanec inland, it becomes incapable of floating
ilie smallest boat, (King, i. 221.) On the VV.
ciiast the rivers arc less numerous, and, with the
exception of one or two, less imjiortant. Hums or
lirooks of excellent water are tcderably abundant,
and four or live streams, such as the Fitzroy river,
(lisodvercd by Capt. Wickham, in 1839, issue to
tile sea by very large estuaries, which seem like
the entrances of noble water-courses : but a.s they
all have their sources in the larther VV. mountain
miigc; their length is insigniflcant, and they are
useless for internal navigation. The Swan and
('aiming which unite in Alelville Water, near the
iwrallel of 32°, are the most notable rivers on this
iHirlion of the coast, (Cro.ss's Juumnls, 110;
Inyn, 7 ; Dale, 27, 30, loo ; King, ii. 167, 11)1 ;
Adm, Ch. lirskiiic, 92,)
361
'I'lic X. shorn \n nonrly n« destitute of river
mouths, 'the MverjM'ol in 131° I.V 1'",., the Alli-
gators in 132°;lli'. I;l2°2li', l3-.'O20' V.., the Hunter
and the Ifoe iii 12,'i° 27' V.„ and I'cince Ifegeiil'n
Kiver in 121° ."i.'f K., were found by Capt. King in
his laborious survey (l«IH-l!t). ' Of these, ilie
largest (Prince Kegent), is not navigable for boats
more than .Ml in. (including windings) from its
mouth; but they are all full and wide streams;
and, like those upon the K. anil \V. coasts, issue to
the sea by immenst^ estuaries, through which (he
tiiU' rises sonielimes as high as 30 ft. The I'rinco
li'egeiit. Hunter, and l{oe, flow between sleep
rocky hills, from .'IliOtotllO ft. perpendicular alti-
tude'; the Liverpool and Alligators through u
flat muddy soil, of the tamest and most mono-
tonous lU'scription. (King, i. It'.l-I07, 2."ir)-2til,
2!I2-.'!II2, lO-J-lKl, .i;»;t-l3!».) In lH3;i, Mr. Filz-
maiirice, of the ' lleagle,' disi'overed the Adelaiiln
river, emptying itself in the Clarence Straits; and
soon after ('apt. Wickham found the Victoria, Iho
noblest stream on the norili-western coast, navi-
gable for alMiut 00 m., and from K to 10 fathoniH
deep at the mouth. (Howitt, History of Discovery
in Australia.) On the S. coast, the lllackwoud
falls into Flinders' llay in 11.')" 10' 1'. long. ; anil
in 117° .'JO' F,., Oyster" HariMiur, the N. part of K.
(ieorge's Sound, fonns the large estuary of Iho
Kalgan or French river. At the bottom of Mii-
coniiter May, in about long. i;i!l°l';., we nuutwith
a river's mouth of iniiiy dimensions, and so encum-
bered by banks as to be inaccessible to vessels of
any considerable draught of water. Hut, how
unpromising soever, this is the embouchiin^ of Iho
Murray, by far the most im)iortant river liilherN)
discovered in Australia, and which aflbnls a vast
channel of internal communication. (See post.)
In 1«30, Mitchell traced to its termhiatioii tlio
(jilenelg, a river which, rising in the (irampians,
falls into the sea hi 111° 17' K. about 10 m. F.
Cape Northumberland. This is one of the largest
coast rivers in Australia: its alllueiits are niinier-
ons, and its course, including windings, upwards
of 130 m., though its source be not more than 70
ni. from the sea. It is wide and deej), vxt-ept atitH
mouth ; but, like most Australian streams, it first
expands into a eonsiih'r.able basin, which, alter-
Mards contracting, ]iresent.s a very narrow outlet
to the sea, the entrance from which is chokiMl up
by sand-banks. Except a few very small streams,
there are no other watt-r-courses on the vS. coast.
Along a coast-line of nearly K,I)(I0 m., there are
thus not more than thirty river mouths; and of
the streams to which these give egress, none have
a course of more than 20(1 in., inclusive of wind-
ings, and but very few jienetratc to a direct dis-
tance of oO m. from the shore. Since it is evident
that these cannot drain l-loth part of the whole
land, it is not very »nri)rising that the belief of an
internal lake or mediterranean sea shoiilil have
been entertained by the first encpiirers; ami though
this be now jiroved to be unfounded, tb(! hj'dro-
graphy of the interior is scarcely less anomalous
than such an arrangement would have been. It
is diflicult both to describe and to »'omiirclieiid this
internal water system, to which nothing bearing
the least resemblance exists in any other part of
the known world. Immediately W. of the Ulue
Mountains, and in the very highest terraces and
table-lands, a host of mountain streams co":b:v^
to form the Darling, the Macqiiarrie, and the
Lachlan, which, nearly on the same meridian (the
ll'.lth), diverge towards the NW. and NNW. in
their ))rogress to the interior. The course of the
Darling is a curved line, enchising all the country
W. of the nine Mmmtains, from an unknown
point N. and E. of the 30th parallel iuid Mtjlh
m
202
AUSTRALASIA
;:"
11. !■
morlclinn to its Junction with tlip Murray, in .'11°"'
S., I rj°;i' K. in lliis i-onrno, Im'sIcIcs tin- rivcru
iilrciiily nlliidcil to, it. rcccivcH liio llo^nn (New
YciirV Crcfit of Stnri), nnd Hurli pnrt of the wiilrrs
of llic Miii'i|unrrit' iis arc iiol nlworhcd in llic noil.
(Siurt. i. Ki;-lir, ; ii. IOC. Ilii-iaO; Mitrlicll. i.
*2i.'l-.'i'pH, ii. lOK-llC.) ConMiiifriilily I'lirtlu-r S.
nnotlicr liirK<' Kircani, liic Mornnnliiil({<-(>, rixt'x in
tln^ NV/irranonn'M, and, niter rcrcivinn niiniy »<liort
lint I'nll Htrcanis from tln' W, faccN of ilic lllno
Monnlains, runs a, very torluonM conrMO, HOttlin^;
(Inally into one varying Imt little from dnc- W.
Still inor«' to till' S.. in alioiit 'M'P S. lat., the
Mnrray, already allndcd to, issnen from the flanks
of Monnt Wellington, the enlminatin^ point of
the Anstralian Alps. This >;real river follows
with numy windinfTH a \VN\V. conrMe from its
Minri'e through aliont H^ de^'s, lon;^'., till, at a point
in ahont I IDiO K. Ion;,', and :ilo S. lat., it tnrns
snddenly to the S., nml ultimately nnites with,
imd loses itself in, tlie lar(,'e shallow lake of Alex-
luidrina at the liottom of Kneonnler Hay. In its
«• ', it rei'eives llu! waters of some very lar^e
Ills, ini'lndiufr the Miirriiinl>idp'eniid Lnchlan
the Darlin;,'. In the year IH'i.'l the Murray was
lor the first time navi;;ated hy a steamer of 10
horse |iower, having; a har>,'e alonf;side, for a dis-
lanec of t,.'IOO m. from the sea; it is sn|i]iosed
that of its entire course of nliout ,'{,000 ni., from
l./iOO Id I.SOOm.ninvhenavi^'nhleforei^'hl inonllis
<if the year. (I'ur'l. I'aper, No. H!), .Se.ss. IH.VI.)
And if wc add to this tln^ navigation of its nfllu-
ents, we shall have an extent of inland connnnni-
<'ation mieqnalled. except hy that aft'orded hy the
Mississippi nnd other ^reat American rivers.
It would appear, however, that the flow of water
is not nearly so eqinihle in the Australian as in
tho American rivers. Notwithstanding their ffreat
length of course, the former are in p'lieral of the
iintnrn of mountain torrents. Formed in the hills,
by the confliu>ncc of many powerful streams, they
ruah from their nionntatn homes inniortnnt water-
courses ; hut quickly reaching a level country,
they become sIu^k'**'' '» their motion, except when
iirijcil by the inthience of tloodin;; rains; nnd, re-
ceivinji; few or no tributaries, their existence de-
jiend.s on the magnitude of their sources, so that
they shoal and narrow an they jiroceed, — an etT'ect
exactly tlie reverse of anything obser\'ed in older
countries. When the momitains are saturated with
■water, the beds of these streams become fully
charged, nnd then they foam nnd thunder along
their track, till, in the tints of the low country,
they meet with some opposition, when (their hanks
no longer able to contain them) they spread to
the right nnd left in marshes, of which the over-
flow finds its way by insignificant channels to
other streams. In drv' seasons, on the contrary,
these rivers dwindle to trifling brooks, even in the
momitains, while, in the plains, their wide and
deep beds become converted into drj' and dusty
chasms. This is the case with the Slacquarrio
nnd hacblan, which, issuing from the mountains
in large nnd full streams, are lost in extensive
swamps, which in wet seasons are everywhere in-
tnulnted. After a long-continued drought, the
beds of the rivers jiresent a succession of jMinds ;
and their marshes, nenrly or whi '\,- dried, exhibit
the creeks by which their imperfect comnnniicn-
tion is kept np during the immdation with the
1 )arling and Morrumbidgee. (Oxlev, So-HT, 102,
I.'IG, 1-12, 382, 383, &c. ; Stnrt, i. m, J58, 02, 148;
and Mitchell, i. 321, ii. 32, 771, &c.) The Darlihg
itself, which Sturt found, in 18;J0, to be n large
and powerful stream, was seen by Jlitchell, in 183(),
to be nearlj'dry; as it would have been but for
the backwater forced into it from the Miirrnv,
The latter, however, from the prrntor nntnhor
of its aflluents, and iNrhniis, aNo, froin liie nninri'
of th<' country through wi.ich it flows, ni mt [<,■».,
the character of a cont'.:;;- .;•.« river. And il jr},
lit certain seasons its waters are reduced, lis imvi-
galion.and that of its tribntarv llie .Mnmiiiilijd;;, ,,_
inav, it is believed, lie depeniied upon for iit Imvi
«'iglit months of the year.
The extent of the basin of the Murray niiiv I..'
estimated at from loo.ooo to .'ido.ooo si'|. ni." |i,
of course, comprises every variety of soil; a liirt;c'
extent of laiiil along its hanks and those of iIh'
Morrumliidgee being ainongst the nmst frrijlc
hitherto discovered in the continent, Il ;f|i ji
must be nt the same time admitted, that liiiiijs i>|'
a dill'erent and very inferior qnallly of soil iircpmi.
derate. Hut, despite ibis drawback, it isnni va^v
to imagine the exient of trafllcof which the Minrav
will prohiilily be the channel when the iiiMiiiiiM'
country through which it flows has been oirnpicil.
Il is much to be regretted thut its einlMiiii'luiri'
should he so disproportioiied to its niiigniiinli'.
Mill that defect has heeii, to some exieiit, alrimlv
overcome or greatly modified by the help of rnii-
ways. And il is by no means iinprohahle ilmt tin.
fiitri'/iiif ii\ its Jiinclion with the sea may iii -.iniii.
fiiliire period rival New Orleans in the extent of
its trade and navigation.
Liikis are abundant in Australia, as might in-
deed be inferred from the level nature of the pjnin
ciMinlry, Imt none of them are very large, iiiul lew
ajipear to he |iermiment. Lake Alexinidriiin, ilii-
recipient of the Murray, has a very lar^ sml';ifi';
hut, lis before observed, it is shallow; and l,;ikr
(ieorge (lat. .'>.">° .'>', long. 1 111° bV), which, in Is-j.s,
was a sheet of water, 17 m, long and 7 wiile, w;im
said, by an old native female, to have been a tlijrk
forest within her memory; nnd in iKlli it hail
dried up to a grassy jilain. (Mitchell, ii. ilbl.)
The lakes of the interior are subject to the siiiiii'
variation (Oxley, 120-130; Mitchell, ii. JM-U?).
and when excited curiosity has drawn the travellir
from his road to inspect one of these reservoirs, IiIh
examination is almost sure to end in (tisa|i|ii>iiii-
nient. (Sturt, i. l/i.) These lakes, such iis tlicv
are, abound along the banks of the Laclilan aiul
the Murray, as far as thejuncfion of the Darling';
they are so far from yielding any supiilies in the
rivers, that their own waters seem, in part, to
depend upon the latter overllowing their liaiiks
Some of them are, however, quite isolated, aiul
none h.ive nn.v outlet. Many, nnd those the largf'-i.
are salt ; and small salt-lakes, or rather hriiu'-|iils
appear to be common in the dead levels of tliu in-
terior both v.. nnd W,
Soil. — Were the soil of Australia merely ex-
tremely various in different parts of the coiitinriii.
it would be no more than what is seen in ovprv
other part of the worhl. But the Australian m\
varies according to laws of its own, apiiari'iiilv
unknown in any other region. In tither cmintrii^.
rivers are the great fertilizers, nnd their iiitluoinr
is the greater the longer their course. In Au--
tralia, fertility is confined to the higher imrt.-i (.f
streams ; and, as has been shown, those wliicli
pn.mise fairest at their outset from their mountain
sources, invnrinbly and quickly either dry in their
be<ls, leaving the country on arid desert, or sprcail
into marshes, rendering it an uninhabitahle swamp,
equally destructive of animal and vegetiililp litV.
Thus situated, it is not wonderful that |iro(liiclivc
soil should be mostly found on the sides aiul sum-
mits of considerable elevations ; or that tho ex-
plorers of the interior .should look for the indica-
tions of mountain land with n feverish anxioty,
which it is ditHcnlt for a native of the fertile plain-*
of Europe and Asia to comprehend, ' Hml «>'
Al'STHALA.slA
■i03
pirkwl lip 1 "'"•i*'.' •">>■" J^'iir'. »IM'ilkiiiK 111" his
„l„„„|,iiiiiiciii ol' tlif iiivi'».tiKiili"ii <•!' till' DurliiiK
(j I III, 'ni iiiilii'iitiii^' our ii|i|irciarli in Ui^h liiml,
I woiiM l■'■^*' Ki'lx' "II- I'll' ''i'^ rrriili'il a ilrnrrl,
lliiit not •vt'ii a liiril iiilialiilril. I'lir vt';;i'lalili
till' iiiiiriml rivrrx, in tlio ucurral rlmrnrtorifilii' of
ItathiirNt I'laiiiH, liivi'r|iool I'laiiis, Vaji I'laiiiH, ami
llii> otlirr tlirtlrii'tx llnil ntrrli'h away ii|ioii ilin
^iiiiiniitn ami \, nJiIch of llic lljiir iMniiiilaiiiN, ainl
N. of till' liiviTpool Kaii^c, 'I'lii' W. viillr\ « of
kjii;:<li>iii wa.-< almost aiiiiiliilait'il ; itml tlio nallvf : llif Nnnii> inoiiiilaiiiK partiiki- aUo of ilir Haiiic t'liii'
iliu', Ko thin that li mlil Hrarrdy walk, sci'tiit'd I riU'tpr; ami a niiiiilar ilrHrrijitioii will ii|i|ilv to ihii
III jriijilort' Koiiii' iiiiTcifiil hami to ilrijiait'li hiiii,' j ('orrt'N|iomliii^' coiiniry on ihc l], facrs ol ilir |)ar-
ihi. WHS chiriiii? a ilry Hcawiii, ainl llii> coiimciiiu'iiI liiij; riiiiKi'. (tKli'v, iNd, 'M>~, •JT.'i, Ar, ; A. Ciiii-
I'lilliin'of till' sirt-aiiis. ■ Then- was not ihi'HiniillrHi ! iiln^rliaiii, in Fii'lil, CII-I'.M ; Shirt, i. li-l I, ii.
(■iiiiiirin'i'.''<iiy'* **■'''''>' O'- '*•''>'""'''''''''''''""'*"""'''■'' j ll-;iti; Mili'lii'll, i.".'7-.'i7; Irwin, il-M ; Oalr, in
iliiiiiH'lric ally "p|'""'''''i ' ^''"''"''' a vii'sv iiii^;ht In- Cross, ]")l-7'.', »Vi'.) Miit the lii'sl lami hithcrlo
(ilii.iiiiril, llif ronntry n|)p('arin); a tlcail h'vi'l ; ami
allli"<>uli ^^'<' I'onlil Hi'i' lor soiiir ilislaiirc all roiiml,
M'l ilit'n- was not a risini; ^'ronml in any iliri'clion.
'fhc iiiar^'iii "'' tim stn-ain was a wi-l hni,', full of
tviitiT-holi's, ami rovcri'il with marsh plants. It
watoiilv <"• tin' viTV I'lliti' of ihi' hank, ami in Ihi'
IkiMoiiis of tlii^ hi;;iils. that any cnralypti ^fw.
'flicrc was not Ilic It'iist a|ip<'araiit f nativrs;
iiiif WHS liird or aninial ol any ilt'scriptioii Mcrii
ihiriiitf till' 'lay, except a soliiary native ilo;; ; — we
in'i'iiit'il, imh'eil, tli(^ sole liviii)^ ereatnres in these
vnul ilcsertH.' ' From a tree near the eanip.' says
foniicl in Australia, is that ili^eovereil in iH.'lt'i hy
Alitehell, near the S, eoast, ami inelmleil in Vie-
loriii. It lies anion;; the (Irainpians aiul fyretiees;
iiml, thoii);li snrroiimleil ami interseeteil liy iiiinl
ami swamps, its lii^'li levels ami valleys, ahiiii-
(lantly, hut not exeessively watered, are so pro-
lilie, that the diseoverer justly con^^ratiilated him-
self on ' l)ein;{ the harliiiiK'er of nii;;lity I'lian^es,
since his steps would soon he followed liy the ineli
and tuiiinals for whom this fertile ri'i;ioii seeins Id
have heeii prepared.' (ii. Ii')7-"JW!I.)
So inanv theories have heeii Inuarded loacconnh
Miti'lu'll (ii. I'l^)- ' Ihirnett descried a piodly hill, for the host of anomalies in this S. world, and
ilijitaiit '2~ 111. It was indeed (p. iri.'i) a welcome
kI^jIiI to iifi, iil"t''f traversing; for several inontlis
so iiiiicli of the dead levels of the interior; a. id
I nii'iiriliii;;iy named this hill. Aloiint. Hope.'
'Wiiliin theWater-line' (of l.e^jent's Lake, now a
i;riissv plain), ohserves the same authority, ' stood
ilrail trees, of a fnll-nrown size, np|iarently killed
l)v too iMiich water, loo plainly showing; to what
lull;; periods the extremes of droii;;hl and inoistnre
may extend in this sin;;iilar eoniitry.' (ii. HI.)
A;,'ain (ii. Ii>7) he speaks of n row of hare poles,
llic renniaiits of yarra trees, ei^;ht or ten years old,
which occupy the very middle of a stream, though
they must have attained their f;rowth while the
lied of the river was dry. The soil of these ileso-
lalc and extensive jilains is variiuis ; in some jdaces
red (uiiacious clay; in others, a dark ha/.el-coloured
liiain, rotten ami full of holes: sand is not very
almiidaiit, hut it is found; and whatever the eoin-
|Hwilioii, one unvarying appearance of dreariness
and desolation marks the scene. A strikiii;; de-
HTiptioii of Australian scenery is f;i\'en hy jMr.
A.Win. Howitt, who skctolioil the nei;;hh(iiirlioo(l
(if Lake, 'i'orrciis, South Australia, in a letter dated
Wiljiena, Oct. 4, 185!). lie says, ' The >;reat fea-
iim's here are extensive plains, covered with salt
luisli, and with f;ra.ss after rain. These plains run
Iiciwceii hills, varying from 100 to 2,000 ft. hi;;li,
and quite destitute of tiinher. Indeed, the only
limlier found here grows on the hanks of the water-
(durst's, and a few he or she-oaks on the hills.
The lower ranges arc most like sheep downs ; the
lii;;li('r onca are masses of rocks, toni into all kinds
(if ja);i;cd peaks and ]irecipicea, ami generally of a
reddish hue, hut, seen in the distance, of u deep
iiidi;;o. The country is intensely stony, hcing.
so to say, " metalled," and the roads are mitnrally
splendid. It is very hot and dry, and 1 should
fancy must he like the interior of South Africa,
only that there are no animals to be seen, except-
ing kangaroos and kangaroo rata. Large flocks of
emus stalk ahout the barren )ilains, like some en-
chanted creatures in the "Arabian Nights." The
air is so clear that the distances are ditlicult to
estimate. Altogether, it is a verv' wild, stran^fe
eountrj'.' (Ilowitt, W., History of Discovery ni
Australia. Loud. IHt!.").) (.'imipared with the
jllcKimy sterility of these flats, no contrast can be
stronger than the abundant fertility of the ele-
vated terraces. A rich, dry, vegetable soil, broken
into ;;eiitle undulations, and watered Avilh the va-
rious streams that form the abiuulant sources of
each in sncces.sioii found to be erroneous, thai,
great circutnspcclioii is necessary in oHcring even
a snrinise as l'> the causes of physical arraiige-
nieiits and appearances so much at variation with
former experience. One fact, however, forces
itself on our iiolici'; the fertile parts of Australia,
conlineil to the higher regions, are as etfectnally
separated from each other by apparently irredeem-
able deserts, as Ihoiigh the ocean llowed hetweeii
them. And how iminy cciiliirics is ii since the
ocean did so tlow? The dillcreiit explorers niia-
nimoiisly declare the dead Mats of the interior to
be ««'/(• IiiikI, — new, that is, in coinparisoii with
the mountains by which they are bounded ; while
those monnlaiiis themselves, judging by their po-
verty in primitive formations, are apparently more
recent than the similar elevations of the N. Iieiiii-
spliere. Sturt believes the Darling to have been
tlie main channel which carried olf the last waters
of the ocean from the low lands, and its bed —
which he esteems an estuary rather than a valley
— to have remained the natural and proper reser-
voir of the streams falling from the K. and \V.
(ii. nil.) None, however, fall into it in (itJO m.
(Mitchell, i. '2\).'>) ; but the wlnde appearance of
the coiinfv on its banks is strongly corroborative
of Sturi's opinion. Hut what, then, wa.s the con-
dition of the country, jireviously to that convul-
sion or change, of whatever kind it might be,
which laid bare this extensive tract? Kvideiitly
that of island groups, at greater or less distances
from each other, the surfaces of which (now the
terraces and table-lands of the mountains) had
remained ex|)osed sulliciently long to enable niiiie-
nil and vegetable decomposition to iK'rforni its
work of creating a fertile soil. The rivers of these
islands (now the sources of the anomalous internal
streams) wouhl, like other island rivers, run their
short courses to the t/ivn sea, and having per-
formed their otHcc of irrigating the tracts through
which they flowed, be there absorbed. On the
exi)osure of the interior all this wouhl be changed.
The newly uncovered land, deslitnto of vegeta-
tion with the exception of marine ]ilaiits, wouhl
of necessity remain sterile till the decomposition
of these gradually, though slowly, began to form
a soil. (Flinders, ii. 111!.) The rivers, no longer
received into a sea, at no great distaiure from their
sources, wouhl begin to wear themselves channels
in the new ground — a process which, while the
descent Wits considerable, would Ik; ra))id in its
operatious; but wliicli, when the stream, reaching
.'> I
2(n Ai'sin
n livit lint, Imil limt miiili of itx Inilitkl im|M<hi«,
«<nil(l ili'<'ri'iiii<< in cniTjty ! iiml, mi tin- tirciirrciit't'
i>r II hollow, woiilil wliiilly tcnw, iil IciikI for a
MWoii, .Siich n hollow Is ihc Miirxli of the Miw-
<|iiHrri(> (Siiirt, ii. l.'iW), iiml n miicccnmIoii of mith
hollowM MciiiH lo fnnn till- nmrshcH of the Lm-hliMi.
(Milclicll. ii. /■.IMIJ.) '{'111. wul<T \iif\un ItM How,
nn<l N|iri'iii|iiip;ovrr llii'Hc IioHowh, (IciHiHtlft In tlirni
• In- fcrtiU' (ii'lirJH from Uh niiiivc hilN, nnil iIhim
Kivi'N liirlh to niarNli pliuilH, iht> ilfconipoNillon of
which Nlill fiirlhi-r iinprovfH the mtil; iind, in thn
w'liHon of Ihtod, till! WHuhiiij; of thlN dcliriH to tin-
hidcn of t\w concnvity, hv i;rmhially forniinj^ ii
• hininil, n'nt'H to tlic cxlmnstrd Hlri'iini new
HlrfiiKih to Htri(>f>;li>, inch hy inch, n\«un Iim
t'onrNc. 'Dial hoiiic. hiicIi |iroc(>Hrt hiiM liccn nt
work I'vcr nIiicc iIiIh land wan llrnt explored,
McciiiH I'vidnit from the hcrjf<, or outer Imnkn
of the Rlnrray, Morrninliidp'e, Ac.; and Mitchell
I'oiild ho otherwise aci nt for the remarkahle
appearance of many of ihe liikcM which he pn^Hcd,
than Ity nii|>po»iii^f that their IioMowm exi.ited
/";/();•(• //)(• rifiri) Iiiijiih to Jloir. (ii. ill.) ' We
eaniiol doiiht,' Hays' llumlioldt (I'erM. Nar., iv,
!•')"), 'that ill hotli coiitineiitM (Africa anil Aiih-
tralia) there are NyMti'iiix of interior rivers which
niav he <'oiisidered lis not yet fully developed, and
which commiinicMie with each other, either in the
liincH of f,'reiit rif<iii>{s, or hy permanent Itifiirca-
tioiis;' a xapicions remark, madt! more than ten
years hefore the discovery of the extensive con-
nection hetween the channels of the Australian
streams, hv whicJi it is so remarkahlv coiilirmcd.
(See also Carl Kilter. Krdkimde, i. ill.').) lint if
Sturt's snrmihe he founded in truth, the hedof the
Darling;, or its coin iiinat ion, (hat of tlu^ Murray,
slionld he the coiiiiikiii drain of all the land he-
tween itself and the older mountains towards the
E. and !S. ; and this it is, or is in prof;ress of he-
cominj;. The niiion is efVected for all the known
streams except the Liichlan and Maccjiiarrie ;
niKJ of tliesc the foniier has completed its heil
(Mitchell, ii. 7K), Ihuii-'li it has not yet lieeii alile
to till lip tlii> hollows which fonn its marshes in
the wet season ; and the latter, tlioii;j;h much iin-
]ieded hy the extent and lowness of lis swamp,
IS striifrKliiiK to estalilisli a ])ermaiienl connection
with the C'a^tle^c(lf;■ll, throiij^h Morrisett's I'oiids
(Stnrt, i. 1 Ki), and with the Darlinj; direct,
lliroiijjh Duck Creek. (Mitchell, ii. Hi'.) Tlie f;"'''iit
deliciency of spriii;;s giiid triluitary sirciims is one
Hreat ciui.-^e of the slowness of this o|iei;iliim ; hut
the deliciency itself is only what nii^lit reasonalily
be looked for in ii country uf recent formation,
esjiecially in one where the eminences are so lew
and so little elevnted as they ii])l)ear to he in the
interior of Australia. Springs can be formed only
by the accumulation ol moisture in the cavities
and f^iillies of liills; and this accumulation must,
in the first instaiH'c, proceed with extreme tardi-
ness. When ovcrcharj^ed. and not till then, these
reservoirs will f;'ive forth their superfluous waters;
at first by a simple overflow, and, when the addi-
tional sujiijly lias piven to tlie torrent thus first
formed sufficient jiower to deepen its Ix-d, in a
continual stream. (See the very profound article,
HiVKK, in the Ency. llrit., xviii. 39-91, more
especially at p. 70, et seq,) When this process has
been \onfs in operation, these streams will be nu-
merous, and such is the case in the terraces and
older mountains of Australia: where the land is
com]iaratively new, they may lie expected to be
scarce, and they are scarce beyond parallel in the
interior of the same conthient. Even when he-
cumo permanent, time must be allowed for them
to cut their path to their final ehanncl ; and this
is a most wise arrangement, since, did such new-
ALAftlA
iKirn eiirreiit* find their wav ilirerlly lo nn rxton-
sive iH'd, the Noiirce from wliicli thev are iiiip|ilin|
would Im> i-xhaiiNted. Centuries, ilierefore, iiiii«t
iiriiliiklily elapse U'tweeii the flrsj iippearaiicenf |)|,;
infant torrent anil its final nlmoqitiiin iuin nom,;
river Nvstein. In the interval it will pursue ii^
course surely, however slowly; and Willi a i>|ii'ii|
and direciion viiryiiiK according to the olmtriiciiniH
which it meets with, and the amount of Iin iiiiiial
supply. Many of these incipient Htreatns ntv
found in the interior of Australia, makiii){ ^rreaiir
or less approiichcN to what llumlioldt calls ilut
'developiiii'ul of their system,' the InmIs of Hi>ini<
of them, thoiifjh dry during the siiniiner hcntn,
exhibit ill); iiiiipieslionable sij^ns of floods at nijiir
seasons; while others appear to be periiiiini'iit in
the point to which they have already cut ilnlr
way. (Stnrt, i. r.'.t ; Nlitchill. i. -.'(Ml, 'ij'.t-.'.i.i,
'.'til, it-c.; ii. .'I'J, Ac.) llut.iiKain, upon the siirliixi
of a new count ry, so singularly devoid of ve^r<'talilt>
decav (Stiirt, i. ll*W), production will iiecesMirilv
he limited to those siiots where the rivers imil
floods have deiiosited liieir fertilizing slime, ilni
barrenness of tlie disiricis remote from sireains aiut
swamps is, in fact, the universal iheiiie of nil ira-
vellers; whiles yiirra frees so disfiiiclly mark ilic
bed of a river, that the course of the latter inav
be kept ill view even at the distance of ilie visllife
hori/.oii, and every flat suhject to iniiniliuiuii in
crowded with dense shrubs, box-trccs, poly^fmiiim,
kangaroo grass, reeds, and other native vegeiaiinn,
Here, then, are aliiiiulaut elements of a soil, ihu
process of forming which is expedited hy ilie re-
markably prolonged and fierce extremes of' dnuiulit
and flood to which this region is siibjecti'il. (>i'u
Ci.i.MATK.) The vegetation of Interior Aiislralia,
such as it is, does not live its natural term, nrilii-
of natural decay; but when a flood has given
birth to that race of trees and shrubs which draw
their sustenance from excessive moisture, a Imi);-
contiiiued drought destroys nearly the whole irilic
(Stnrt, i. M."j, Ac); while such plants as deli;,'lit
ill a dry soil spring from the earth foniiid frmn
their decomposition, to be iii their turn ilestrovi'il,
after ten or twelve years' growth, by the cousiiint
exposure to too much water in a return of ilie
season of thimls. (Mitchell, ii. ill, llM, ;;i;i.) It
is quite clear that this alternation iiiiisi tcinl tulVr-
tili/.e the land niiicli more rapidly than if eiilicr
race of jilants coniiiiiied to ilraw their inniri.^li-
ment from the newly de])osited and still iii('a;,'rc
earth, till they perished from pure exhaiistieii. inu
more especially as deciduous trees are aliiinM
unknown, and consefpiciitly one great smiric uf
sii)i))ly, the scatterings of autumn in other regiiiiLs,
is wanting to the native soil of Australia.
It apjiears probuhle, then, that both the laiul
and water are here still in a course of foriiiatiuii;
that the various anomalies in each which till the
minds of Kiiropeaiis with wonder, are only tlie
nat'.iral a|)i)earaiices of an imperfect, or rather uf
an nnflni.slied work; and that they will vanish
when the causes, now in operation, shall liiive
produced their full effect. These o|iiiii(His are
ha/.arded, however, with much iliflideuco ; fiiul
only because they a)i|iear to result from the fails
collected by actual observers.
Climate, — About a third ])art of the Australian
continent, the N. jmrt, together with the lar;'e
island of New (tuiiiea, and the other isles oiuinic-
rated at the beginning of this article, with the
exception of New Zealand, lie in the torriil zmie.
The other portion of the continent, the islaiuls
immediately adjacent, and New Zealand, are in
the S. temperate zone. The proportion of inter-
tropical to extra-tropical land is, therefore, alti>-
gether about as j to |-_'. (Malte-Ilrun's Tab. xii.
• o nil rxtPii-
nrr itii|i|>liiNl
rrcl'oro, iiiii«t
I'uraiiri'iil' ilii<
nil iiitci Mniiit
ill |iiii>ui' iii«
I will) II npnil
t> olwlrilrrhnn
t III' ilH iniiinl
: HirvitiiiH iiri'
inking ^ri'iiii r
I ill It I'lillit \\m
Im'iIn III winii'
miiiniiT hi'niH,
tliHiilM III iitliir
> iitTiiiiiiirnt III
•iiilv I'lit iliiir
•-'tiii, -2 l'.t-J."i;t,
I II III the Kurl'iiin
liiliil' vc^i'ialile
lill lU'iTOMirily
tlui riviT!) iiinl
nK Hiiiiii', Till'
I III! NirriliiiK iiiiil
H'liic III' nil im-
lu'lly murk tlip
the latter may
:v, of till' visilile
II iiiiiuiUtiiiii in
■j'.H, |iiilyj;iiiiimi,
ilivii vt'ni'laiiciii,
tn of n wiil. tliu
lilfil liy the rc-
•I'liH'tt 111' ilriiiii.'lit
l<ull)l'Cl('ll. (N'O
tormr Aiixiriiliii,
irul term, nr ilii'
lliHiil lias pM'ii
III)!* whit:h ilriiw
III list lire, a liMi;.'-
' tliu wliiilo irilic
limits Its ilcli;;iil
til I'liniuil IVuin
turn ilrsiriiyi'il,
bv till' ciiiiMtimi
ii" ri'lurii lit' tlic
I. ii><, :;i;i.) It
Inuisl ti'iiil til I'sr-
y lliaii it' I'iiliiT
tluir iiimrisli-
nil still iiii'iijtre
oxliaiistimi. i'mi!
•I'i's lire almiist
jjrcHt. siiiiri'i' iif
ill otIiiTri'fjiiiiis,
uhtralin.
t liiith the l:inil
l^c tit" I'lirnirtti'iii;
;h wliii'li lill till'
■r, art' (inly tin:
I'l-et, iir ratliiriif
lii'V will vaiii^li
ioii, shall liiivc
|sc ojiiiiiiiiis iif
(lifliilciiee; anil
t Iroiii the facis
\{ the Australinn
with the law
Ihcr isles oiumu'-
Vticle, with tlic
the torrid zniic
lent, the islands
IZwiluiul, lire '»
l)(irtiiiu of i""-'f'
therefore, alli>-
llJnin's Tab. x".
AUSTUALAHIA
27rt, .17ft.) f^ 'h** Rpnrriil (•Hinritc In the I'nnncr
2nA
iHiriioii lillli* ■■* ixmilively kiniwii, (hmiKh it iiiiiy
Ih' tiHi iimlialily iiilVm-il that it riwiiililrH >{i'inriilly
thiiM- rt'){iiiii» iif tlu' N. lifiiiisiilu'ri' iiimilnrly situ-
„,,„l, whert' riiiiiiiii« w»<"'r it snirri- ; iliiti u, lliitl
AiiiiiKiilerulile |Mirtiiiii of it ih liuriiiil ii|) with iii-
liiinr lu'UU On the N. eniwt a wiiiil I'rimi tli«i S,
raid's III" H'lniKTHliirf with I'Xireiiie hiuIiIi'Iiiii'hs,
mill A N. wiml iiriHhu'eM tlit; huhw vttWt iin the H„
aru'iiinXi '" '•*'''' •■"*•■"• * |'i»''HaK<^ over » liinhly-
heateil noil. Trii|iieiil AiiMtriiliit ih in the ruii^'e of
till' liiiliaii inoiiHooiiH, of whli'li the NVV. hoIh in
iiMiallv alxiiit the IK-Kiiiiihi),' of NovemlMT, miil
that from 'lie 8IC. in the early |Mirt of April.
Thire is, ho\/«ver, niiieh irreixiilurity in their re-
I'lirreiire, the vurintion HonietiiiieH imioiiiiliii); to
iimre than it moiiili. (<'iuii|iIh>II, in (ieo^. .loiirii.,
iv, 1 1'^.) In llieHe re^fiiins the seiiHoiis ciin Hciircely
U> iliviileil into <lry ami rainy ; for ihiuiKh the
N\V. (or Hiiiiiiner) inoiisoon lie attemleil with very
lieavv falls, yet they Heliluni eontiniie iibiive two
iir tliree limirs at a time, mi that they rarely, if
ever, |>iit a <'oiii|ilete Hto|i tu iiiit-iliior lalmiir.
Friiiii •liiiH* t" Se|iteiiiher no rain falls, thoii^'li
tlie>e are iitii|iii'stiiiiialily the healthiest nioiiths of
the vear. A jfri'iit niiiiiitity of innisfiire iiiiist,
iiiiwi'ver, at nil times Ut sus|iemleil in the atimi-
!i|i|iere, tlioiiKli iiiiiien'e|itilile to the senses, iliirin;;
the prevaleneu of the ilry or SK. iiioiisooii : liir
irmi articles me kept from riistiiif; onlv liy iiiees-
>«iit eare; nml the exposeil siirfaees ol the mcks,
aiiiii),' the inter-trojiical eoiists, are so f,'eiii'r;illy
I'lilniireil by the o.\iile of iron, that the term reil
init;ht without impropriety be ailopteil as ile-
niriptive (if the NXK. amrNVV. shores. (Camp-
Ih'H's (i. J. iv. lilt; KiiiK. i. illKi.) The averap!
tem|ii'raliire at Melville Islaiiil, on the N, toast,
Iriim April l«-.'7 to Mnreh 1«2« was Ki° Fiili.; the
winter average NO^ ; that of the siiiinner H(i°;
imil the extreme averages 7.")° (for .Inly), and «7'^
(I'lir Dee.). It may also be observed that the eool-
iKt part of the day appears to be (i a.m., the tem-
lnTutiire of that hour beiiifj fniin 1° to 7° lower
than that of midiiinlit. (CimipbeH's (t. J. I.V.'.)
Witii regiird to Kxtrii-tropical Austrnlia, it is a
pretty eoiiimou observiifioii, that the cliiiiate of
.\, S," Wales nssiinilates very closely to that of S.
Italy; but this must be taken with some liiiiita-
tiims. First, the atmuspherc is very eimsiderably
ilrier; seiMiiidly, the extremes of temperature are
{.'reater; thirdly, the average heat is rather less;
anil fourthly, the temperature appears to decrease
niiire rajiidly by elevation. Aeconliiijic to (Jouiit
Sirzeleeki, n't an average of the three years ending
witii 1813, the maximum temperature at I'ort
.lai'ksoii was Sl*!)°, the iniiiiiniiin Urlf, and the
annnnl ti(i't>°. At I'ort Macqiiarrie, more to the
X., the maximnm temperature during the same
tlirccycnrs was 8iS'3°, the minimum -Itl'iso, and the
annual mean (!H° ; and nt Port IMiilip, more to
the S., the maximiiin was WH'P, the minimum
3(W)°, and the mean (}1'!1°. (IMiysiciil Descriiition
of X. S. Wales and Van Diemen's Land, "i^lt.)
It appears, also, contrary perhajis to what is the
common opinion, that the quantity of rain falling
at Port Macquarrie amounts to ti2'liK inches ; nt
I'ort .Inckson to .V2-42 ditto ; and at I'ort Philip
to 30"72 ditto. ]Jiit notwithstanding this ubuii-
(lancc of rain, the climate is properly characterised
a^* ilrj- ; and it is a curious but well-authenticated
fact, that Hoods on the const occur simultaneously
with dry wenther in the interior, and conversely.
May is the rainy seasim on the coast; in the in-
ti'rior the rains fall during the summer, or between
September and February. The spring months
comprise September, October, and November;
those of summer, Deccraljcr, January, and Febru-
ary; tliiKo nf autumn, March, April, nnil May;
And tliiiMi of winter, iliine, .Inly, and Aiigii^l,
This in nn regards the I'ontineiil of .Vusiriilia; but
llii> climale Ih very dill'erent In the iHlatids of .\us-
tridnsia, partieulnrly at New /calmid. In mhiio
iiartN here it rains often I'lrmany iiiMnths ingi'tlii r.
Nir. Slierrin, the explurer, while exaiiiiiiing the
western coast of New /ealmid, siilVeied fearfully
from the excessive wet. ' I ri'inemlH'r only three
line weeks during the six mmilhs we were on lliu
const,' be says in his Jniinial. (Printed in tho
('hristchiireh Press, .laiiunry IMiil.) hescribliig
his Journey to hake llriiniier, he exelaiiiis, Mlh,
the iiniitternble misery of that Jiniriiey ! Itaiii
every day; directed wrongly by the natives . . ,
this trip was the worst and hardest that I ever re-
meinber in the whole course nf my life. Wet
Ihriiiigli nil the time; scarcrly ever dry nt night ;
freshes every hour; n mist hanging heavy iiinl
dense, eovcring every thing: the iuuruey was wnr-e
than description can piiiiit it. ( llnwiit, Wm.,
Ilistiirv of Oiscovery in Australia, Tiismauia, and
New >{ealaiid, Lund. iHtl.'i.)
An inipnrtant division of the Australian diinate,
that is, of the eiiiitini'iit of .Viistriilia, into wet and
(lry,isinarked by periods or eyclesof ten and twelve
years each. Once in such cycles, n year of nii-
initigated driiught prevails, (hiring which mi rain
falls, and the etl'ects of whicn are ennally inleiise
on the coast and in the interior. Close iipnii this
visitniiou follows a year of llund; but the rains,
which are at lirst continuniis ami as general as
the jireceding dninght, decrease with every siic-
ceedtng year, till they again wholly fail for ti time.
It follows, therefore, that the two or three years
following the great dniiights may be deiiinninaled
the wet iivr'nut, and that nil eipial space of tiiiiu
preceding the great droughts may be regiirded a»
the long dry season of Austrnlia. It is only in the
intermediate years that the regular recurrence of
sensons, noticed nbove, is obserynble. (Oxley, vii.;
Stiirt, i. liv. 1.) A grent drought began in 1h-.'I,
and did not terminate till l«'2!l. Very little rain
fell during the whnlo of this lengtlieni'd pcrinil,
and during the last six months tliere was not ii
single shower. In consi'ipieiici'. the whole surface
of the ground was so parched and withered that
all minor vegetation ceased, and even cnliniiry
vegetables were raised with iinicli dilliciilty.
Many of the settlers were Well nigh ruined; ami
the cattle did nut for siiiiie years recover from its
ell'ects. (llruton's N. S.Wales, 21tii: Stiirl'sS. Aus-
tralia, i. 2.) In 1« 17 the Maiieriio Plains, an ex-
tensive siiuatting district, sulVered from a similiir
cause. The mortality among the thicks ami herds
was frighiful; the wafer- holes being nearly all
dried up, and tilled with the carcasses of sliee|i and
cattle. (Southey on Colonial Wools, ilO.) Fnr-
tnnately, however, these visitations nre not of
frequent occurrence, and when they (U> occur, they
are mostly eoulined to not very extensive local-
ities. On these occasions, and in the rcninter
places, cattle frequently stray away in search of
water, and either ju'rish or are lost to the owners.
Ill reference to the reverse order of the seasons in
Kurope and Anstralin, it is worthy of remark that
a cold winter in the one appears to be coincident
with a hot summer in the other, and conversely.
(P. Cunningham, i. 2 IS.) For the rest, dews are
very abundant, mid, fortunately, fall the heaviest
during the summer heats and the long-continued
droughts. Hail-storms arc frequent, as are also
thunder and lightning; the latter (lushing fre-
quently for a succession of days, wholly unaccom-
panied by the former or by a single drop of rain.
Knrthquakes nre occasionally felt on the N. coast.
The climate of Extro-tropical Australia is pecu-
'2M
ATTsTIl
i;
liiirly raviiiinilili' to llir liiiiiiiin i;!!!!^!!!!!!!!!!!,
|iriiliillily rrnMl llir ili'tliiriii-y nl M'^rtillili' ili'iniii
|Hi>iili<iM, r.iicli'inir ilini'MKri iiri' iiliMii"! iiiikiiiiwii :
CVI'tl hliiilll |iii\, iiii'ikIi'M, iitiil lliiii|iJM^ riMI|{ll liri'
KlriiiiK<'>''< ; lint llir l> I N, mIiiiI |ir<H|iiri'>i ii|ilitlml-
iiilu; mill till' iirrx, ur rniiiiil wnriii, i« tlii' riiiiitiniii
jM'^t III' rliiiilliiinij, l>\Nflllrr\' Im IIii' IIIi>'<I |iri'
Mili'iil ilix'iix'; liiii iiMi' priiiir, Mini lliiil II •triiii)X
mil', III' till* lirikilliy IlilMiri' nl llir iltllliiN|illi'ri', Ih
lll<> I'lirilily Willi uliirii nil tli'iiriliTK, rvrii tlit'
MTtir-t ciiMi'-t III' vriK'ri'iil iilVt'i'iiiiii, yifiil to (lie
hIiii|iIi"<I rrllli'ilIrM, 'I'lii' N, I'liiint i'4 lllllirilllliy,
liiil I'rriiiiiily li"<H Kii lliiiii iiiii'<l iiiliiT lrii|iii'iii
I'Hiiiilrii'i, 'lyiiliiiN mill iiriiic I'i'M'Tm iiri' tlicri' pri'-
Milrlil ill till' wi'l iiiiiiimhiiih; mnl iliiriii;; IIii' |M'riiiil
of viiriiilili' wiiiilM, iM'i'tiiiiiiiiii (iniiiiii liliiiiliii'HN) ii|t-
IH'illH III MiiiitTNt'ili* ii|ililliiiliiiiii; mill Hi'iirvy "fi'iin
to lie mi )'nili'iiiii-, I'xliiliiiin^ ilMflf with |ii'ruliiir
viriili'iii'i' wluTc till' iriijiii'iil ln'iit Im cxcrciii'iliiiinii
n <liiiii|i Hiiil. Km'Ii lit'ri', Imwi'ViT, Kii'kMi"w< |iiiti«
on II p'tii'mily mild I'uriii : tin' niiiiilM'r of ili'iitli'<,
tVoiii iliNi'iiMc, ill Mi'lvillt' Irilmiii wii-* miiy I in !l
lor liiiir vi'iirM, or I in 'Mi iicrminiiin. (I*, ('iinnini;'
liiim, i.'l7l-l7:t; ('mii|ili<'li'H (i. .1. iv. I4!l-I.jl,
KIM; Wnitwortli, .Vi; IrHin, I, IJI.)
JM'iiiiriiliHiji, — Iron in Hiircini in yrciit ]iriiriiHiiin
ovi'r III! the rontiiU'iit iiiiil ilH iiiljjii'i'iil iNlmiiJi.
Tilt' iininciiMi' t'Xti'iii oC irmi onIiIc on tin* N. coiimI
liiiM Ih'cii airciuly iilliiili'il to, mnl Hcviriki of tlic
iiioiiiitaiiiM viiilt'iiliy iilVi'i'i tlit- iniifjiiitii' nci'illc.
(Oxlry, ■.'.■(!(; Sliirl.'i. Il.''».) ('ii|i|i<'r miilli'Uii (llir
latter inixcil oci'iiMJonally with Nilvcr anil ar.-M'nic)
liavc lii'i'ii triiccti iioili in llir llliii' Mountains ami
the liariiii^ ritii>;i', iik well ax, in Niili greater
iilMiiiilaiK'c, ill the hilly Irai'tM ailjaccnt to Ailr-
laiilt', in S. Aiixtriiiia; iiiul iniiiiii;; liat lit'conic mi
iiii|iorlaiit liraiicli of imliiNtry carricil on in that
• oioiiy. (Sec AiiHTiiAi.iA. Soirni, V'U'TdHiA, anil
till' (U'S('ri|itioii of the other AiiHiraliaii coloiiieH
for more iletuileil iiolices of mineralo^ry, milieu,
and iiiiiiiiif; o|ieralioiiM.) lint the niiiii'H of eoal,
(■o|i|ier. iron, ami other onlinary iniiieralH foiiiiil in
AiiMlralin, have lieen reiulered of little importaiice,
con)|iared with the ^oid dejiosit.M with whirh it is
jirofiiHely endowed. 'I'heMe are of the most, extra-
ordinary ]irodiietiveiie.ss. The j^old is found at
varioiiN points, mostly on t\w western Hanks of
tlie f^reat mountain chain whieh runs parallel to
iiiul at, no jjreat dlstanee from the K. eoast of the
continent. This chain consists of a ^real, variety
iif rocks; those of primary foniialion hein;^ in
many parts pierced and hroken through hv those
of ifjneoiis ori;L;in. Niiinerons ipiart/. veins are
foiinil in the rocks; and these form the matrix of
the ^old, which is most fre(|iieiitly found with the
quart/, ailherin^ to it, and accompanied with iron.
The existence of fj;oltl in this inoiiiituiii chain
had been conjecturcil on theoretical grounds hy
Sir 15. J. Murchison and other emiin'iit geologists.
Itut its existence was not jiractically ascertained
till IHol, when an extensive gold liehl was dis-
covered near the town of Katlnirst in N. S. Wales,
aliout 120 m. WNW. from Sydney. The dis-
<;overer, a Mr. Ilargrave, reireived a Howard of
10,0(10/, A great variety of other gold fields have
since been explored, especially in Victoria, where
thev are of unparalleled richness.
'i^hc gold hitherto found in Australia has nil
been obtained froin 'diggings' in the beds of
streams descending from the mountains, or in the
tletrilus in ravines anil hollows on their flanks.
It is found ill every variety of form, in grains or
dust, in llnkes or scales, and in lum|is or nuggets.
The separation of the smaller particles from the
(.arlli isefl'ected in the same way as in California,
|,y washing, liut though the labour be severe, it
13 less so than in the latter. And owing to the
ALAHIA
water lii'iiig ))"<« Colli, mill the mm lew iMiwcrriil,
the heallli of the diggerx Is not ex|H».<'d |,, .,|
severe u trial here as in < 'alilnrniii.
The etl'i'it of the discnMry of gold in Ainlriilln
has been niii«l Mirlkilig, At It txel it tliniii
eiii'd II liital ili'<rilpliiill of Noriely; and it liiiK
made n gniU ihaiiue in all the koiIiiI rilaiiMiiK
that tormerly prexalleit in the coiiiini'iii. i|„,
di'iiiand fur lalionr, the rale of >Miues, ihe prirr^ i,t
liiilgiiigs itiid iif inimi artii'les "f iirnvininii, |ia\,,
iin'reilsed ill an llilpri'ri'di'iited degree, lli'iu,.
aUo, a Mi-t aniiMint of eiiiigratinii has Inch r|j.
reeled III \'irtiiriii and .\. ,S. Wale, aii'l popiilaiiun
and trade have niinli' asloiiishing iiiUaiires.
'I'liiiiigh iniliixiiiiralile at llrsi to ihoMc i'iigiii;ii|
in agrii'iiltiiral and pasinral pursuits, iln- jaiiir
have now inaily ri vered from the xl k, iiii.|
will probalilv Is'come more proKperniis iliaii rvir.
The •iligKiiii^H' are in.w bruiniiing in j,,' pm,, .
ciiied iimre as a regular cinployiiM'iit Ilii4n iii n
gambling inlveiiture. Many oi' lliuse wlm wvxv
at llrst attriiiii'd In them from other depart iihih ,
have since ri'iiirned In their fi inner piirniiii,.; hIiji,,
the rapid iinri'/ise of population, by nccaNiiniini; ii
proportional increiiM' of demand for oilier iirn-
ducts, has given a new and powerful siiiiniliii i.i
aliinifit every lirmnli of iinliisiry. In proof nf ilii^
we may refer to llie carcasses of sheep, wliich,
from bi'ing wnrih little or nothing, have, iiii',,ii'
sei|Ueiice of the gniilly increased consiiinpliiiii d
butcher's meat, lu'ioiiie of iiuicli greater valiic
than the lieeces.
Ityliiiii/.— U is well known that IJoiany lliiy
rei'i'ived its name from the abiinilaiit vigelnliim
which ('apt. Cook and Sir .). Hanks foiniil llmirhli
iiigoii its coasts; but its soil was notwiih'<iiiniliii;,'
foiiiid to li(< inipi'olitable, barren, and totally iiiiiil
for a setllemenl, which was, in coiiseiiiu'in'i ,
established at Tori .lackson.
'I'he first great division of plants is into twn
great classes: the Cryptogainous, which have ii.>
blossoms nor visible means of fructillcatioii: nurli
are mosses, ferns, fungi, <tc. : and the I'liaiuTnpi-
inoiis, which are reproduced by visible orgaiiH. ilii,
class includes, of coiirs<', all the higher onlcM ui'
vegetables, hut is subdivided into Monocntylciln-
nons plants, such as have but one seed Inlie; mnl
Dicotyledonous plants, which an^ possessed nfiwo
or more: the former comprises the grasses, cy-
peraceie, Ac; the latter those |)roductiims of tfii'
earth, the organisation of which is inosi ciimi'li-
eated, as the trees, superior shrubs, in\ Tlic I'nl-
lowing table exhibits an outline of t lie arraiii;v-
ment of these primary orders in Australia. It is
ottered merely as an" aiiproximatioii, for kiimv-
ledge on this subject is yet but scant v ; but it liiis
been constructed with much care from llrnwn's
' lloliiiiy of Terra Aiistralis ' (Appendix to I'liii-
ders, i);i;j-(>liJ) ; the botanical jiapers of A. Cun-
iiingham (Appendix to King, ollT-oCi.')) ; Fii'lirs
Memoirs, ^^•i:t-'A^Jh ; 1*. Ciiniiiiigham (i. l«li-2iMi);
Oxley. jmmm ; Sturt, jxisnim ; Alitchell (i. xx. i(
/la.iiiiin).
Orilirt
Whole
No. of
known
hpevlci
«,000
C,!tOi»
Sl.OlM
44,0U0
Whol»
N f
AllNt.
Slii'clci
700
1.144
;i,.suii
No. of Spec.
com. lit Aii^l.
mid oMuT
Ut'Kloui
No of
Si Min
Vccullnr
lu Auit
41W
1,104
;i,H4ll
' 6,440
CryptoKnmoiig
Sloiiocotylu-
donoiis
Dicotyledonous
Total . .
'i\0
40
•JO
6,710
:<7u
So profound wore the early invcHtipations ff
Hrown in this newly-opened region of slriiii;'!'
vegetation, that his name was given to it as u dis-
AlSTRALAsfV
wr
,,„,( l«.ti«iil''rt' l»liwl"m, (JiImiIIi'v, fii.'.) Ill lii«
( llii' kiKinii iiliuil" <>l' nil llic wiirlil Miiiniiiiti'il
tliiMt' III' Aii'iriillii III I, '.Mill,
il.i
I,. ;l,l,(ltHI i>|M rli'K,
iHiiiiliT"' A|i|M'ii. ''lit''.) I III' liil"'iir>i 111" poifi'i'il
Im;; li'itiiiii*!" Ii'tvi< ili'iii' liltli' iiiiiri' lliiiii niliir;;!'
ill,' li.i, wItliiMil III nil iilVri'liiiK (III' iirriiiiu'i'iiiriii,
„ii,| iiiilf III Ik ^'fv irilliiiK ij.uri'i' niii'riii^ tlii>
viiri'i'i- |>r><|H>riliiiH. Tlu' ltn<i lA't whlrli nirlkcM
ill,. iilinTM-r ill IIh- t'i'riiji.liiK IiiIpIi' i^ lliii vrry
^rriiii imiiilxf "•' |H'<iiliiir Aii^inih m »<|h'i ic-..
iini"iiiitii>t( '" •"'"''.>■ iiin' I'lutiili I'liii "I """' 111
pri'ii'iit kiii'WM. riii'« i^ « |>ri>|'iirlicill linuli ^tv,,'- r
ilijiiiiiiiil'l Ix' l<iiiki'ilt'i>rrriiiiillii'rt.|iili\<' iiiii^iiitinu
1,1 till' rcuii'iii mill wliliti. «irf tin' in li\ idfuil!* of
i;i'lii<|M'rii'n ill niiylliiiiKlikru»lmiliirri»tlii,<<f l^t'fB
till' i<|n'ii<'» llii'iii«'lv<'H ol' II kiiiil lii.;l>ly ii.scl'iil t"
man, Moiilil ri'inlcr Aiiilriiliii ii |iMniili>(', rnrnrii^
iiiiii'lv. iiriilit'riHilu' (■II"''. Fi'Tiin, iii'tiU- .I'lvvcrs,
iiii'lrvt'ii K'riiKi*!'". Iiiiviii|4 till' I'lriii, liiilk.iiiil l,.'J'i|.<
,1 iri'i'". arc huiiu' hI' tlirili'iiii^iii'liiti); I'l'Mtun . iii
Aii-iriiliiiii V('K''''"'"" ; l"f '111' I'"*'. III!' liiiilirr In
'I'licriilly III' (III' Iwinl wiiiiil kiml iHi»iiii^ nl' all i
H,i' varirtii'i* i>l l'.iii'aly|>ti>'< iiinH 'ifiiiirliiit, with
-iiiiii' varii'iii'i nl' ilic rnnc-wiMMl, winilul-wiiiiil, iiinl
inliir. M<»l *'l III*' I'lD'alyiitt iiri^ callnl k'i'k-
iri'i's iIh'iikIi iI<i' I'MiilaiioiH nl' many nl' ilii'iii
:iri' |iM|H'rly ri'^'ui'*. lii'iiiK iiifnliilili' in wairr; wliili' I
uiliiTK yiclil a manna ax lini' ami ii.* |iiiri' an ilnit
111 Anil iiu. Aiiiiilii'rfi|i«'i'ii'M yii'liJH ilii' |iiir<'»t j;niii
iiriiiii'. 'I'lii'n' i^ a lri'«^ licrc rulitMl tlir l,';i tree,
ilii' Iriivi'H III' XNliii'li an* iimi'iI liy tlic I'nlnniMis in-
Mrinl I'l' the I'hini'Mi' |ilaiil ; ami tlirrc arc uUn
^ciini' iiinliriiial trees, hm iIic »aHsii('raH ami the
i:hiiiMiil tree, i'aliiis arc limitctl In the \. ami
I'., nliiiri'H, nil tlic I'nrmcr nl' wliii'li till' li'iijiii'ii!
iii.'in^T'ivi' ^^rnWH in all ilr* liixiirlaiirc; and, in I'ari, '
ijii' jHTiiliiir ai«|ic<'t nl' AiiHtriilian vc^'i'iaiinii ili.s- ;
,i|i|iciirs ill iliis|iart nl' the cniiiincnl, heliip; Miper-
M'lli'il iiy line aMsiiiillatin;; iimrc tn ihal nl' Imiia. I
hi 'rmiiiral Ailitniliil llie Krcaler nniiilier nl' tlnmu |
plants lire fniinil which an^ cniiminii iilike In this |
aiiiliilliercniililiciilN. It has liecii iK'I'nrc nlwcrvcd
ilmt, with nnc cxce|itinii, the Australian trees arc
ivrfK'rt'i'iis : many nl' them arc reiiiiirkalile alsn
liif llie inverted pnsitinn nl' their leal'; the mar^'in,
aii'l nut either siirlnee, licin^; directed Inwards tlie
.•iiciii. An Australian nutvi: has, cniisc(|iiently, a
|K'(iiliiir 1111(1 fjinnmy niniearancc ; nor i.s the limlier
ilial it yields nl' the hi>,'hest utility tn the arclii-
tiri, lii'i'n^;' liahlc tn rnt at Ihn heart, and sn cnii-
irai'lilc lliiit it has liecii kiinwii tn shrink upwards
III' two inches within n week. (1*. ('iiniiin^'haiii,
i. 111'.'.) It reiimins tn he nliservcd that the trees j
ill Australia art^ rarely sn iiiimemiis as tn iiii|)ede ^
ImM' triivellin^: and iix a reniarkahlc tact, lliatj
tliiy appear tn h(> mnst aliiiiidant nil iiil'erinr snils,
((iiiv. Ifcp. Oxley, UtiM.) FlnwcriiitJ iiliiiits nl' very
^Tojit iK'iuityarc I'nuiul; lint the lily, tulip, and
liiiiivysni'kle exist in the. fnrin nl' standard
ir(*s (if jjreat size. TIutc arc alsn (idnril'urnufi
plants, which scent the ntninspherc to a prwit
ilisliHK'c; and prickly shnilis, which prow u|hih
siiiiily soils, and hind them down, thus prevcntinp
that ilril't which is the haiiu nf the Aruhiau anil
Afriiftu deserts. (Mitchell, i. '*■>■>; ii. lOli, Ac.)
liribscs nre ahundiint and iintritions, hut they
tniw ill detached cliiiiips, so that a heavy enii-
liiniiiiis sward, re.senililiiip an KiiKlish ineadnw, is
luikiuwM. Flax, tnliiiecn, a w|K'cie.s nl'cnitnll. tares,
iiiilipi, cliii'iiry, trefoil, and Imrnet (the last a f,'on(l
Hilbtitiite l'(ir tea), are ainniip the natural iimdnc-
lii'iis, Imt there is an unparalleled delicieiicy nf
Iniits and (if vcfjetahles lit I'nr human I'nnd. The
lerm/i'd are tntally ahsent; and the hestsniisliiiitc
tiT tlu'iii (nijiears tn he a spciries nf reed, which.
li'wi'vcr, Mitchell J'ninid In make n very li;;lil
t"ik(!. 'i'lic only native fruits are raspberric;;. ciir-
rnill* (llinre like crnnltrrric^), ntir or two tHi«leleM
fruits, itnd n sperlin nf nut. 'Ihe ll'<i fill |>r<Mlll''-
linns nf III her lllll'N are imw, llnwe\er, i'Meil>i\)'ly
ncclim.'iiiKcd, ami cirii cmiis mid nrchariU nri<
I'liiiid ill every I'erlile i<|hi| in ihe si'llled (lint rid .•.
lAci'v spci'ien nf cum, iinhidim; mii/.c, i« ciilti-
valcii l\ilh '•line's J while nf Infrinil frilils, llin
nrniiu;!', Icinnii, ciimii, iieitarine, iijirii'il, peiicli,
phini, cherry, llu:. miillNrrv, ipiiini', luinana, ^iiit\ a,
iiiiii' it|i|'li', KrajH', ail I iiiaiiy cilicr.*, have Inii;;
I II a snliric nf prnlit In llie smaller sell|iT«,
n apahililii'i nf Ihe soil are thus alli'slcd ; imr
Hii ihere Ih' n dniiht thai the su^'itr cane ami
hi' f tr'Hiiciil prndiii'tinlis wiiiild thrive in Mm
lower (i,,llildes nf the N. Snine di.<lrii'tK here,
»>«|^'clally llin-'e lyin^' (III the Imilks nf the Vic-
tnritt river — c:illiil the ' llarcnn ' liy the unlives
— afr <'^(f('m<ly fertile. Sir riininas Mitchell,
who vi...ited 111, I iiiiiilry ill iHl.i, descrilns it m
niie nf milk and hniiey. I'liere was it vcuelatinii
/(■: ahiindaiil as that nf N.uuii .\iii''rii'a: iiiimeii>i<
tree.< lined the liilllk nf the river, llm k-< nf ( ka-
Inns lilli'd ilii' air with tin ir deiifenini; churns, aii'l
Watrr fnwl, ill vikI I'miliirs, (glided acrnss llie
lliii'd, and llew up niid dnwii uviT the iieiKhtmuriii^
reiiihes.
/.mtliiijii. — Animal existence in Australia as-
sullies a fiirm mure annmalniis and jiecnliar than
evi'ii that which marks it., Ilntany. 'Ihe I'nllnwin^
tallies have liceii ciinsiriicled with every pn«sililit
care I'mni the ' lii'^ne Animal ' nf ( iivicr, with the
addiiiniis nf lirillilli, tiray, iVc,, the /nnlii^y nf
Shaw, the Iransaciinnsiif tlie Liiinieaii Sncieiy, and
the wnrks (if the variniis travellers in Australia.
In these tallies, t'livicr'. ^fnal nrders nf CiiriiiH-
siers and I'lisseres are divided itiln their several
families; the fnrnier into ('heirnpicra, liiscciiviira,
('ariiivnra, and .Marsiipialia; the latter inln llciiii-
rnstres, FiMHiruMtres, Cniiimstrcs, and 'ruiiiiirnsireH.
Class Mammalia.
Wlii.lc No.
Wliiilii No.
No.»rilpa.
com. Ill A.
Kllil olhlT
llrHliilia
No. of Kp«.
Orilen
of kiiuwii
llf .Vllatia.
IH'i'iilmr I.I
h|>«'i-ii>i
N|H.il|.a
Aiiilrullii
i^imilriiiiiiiiia
I.V.
II
i:lK'lro|iteni .
|;iii
'i
1
1
liiscf'tlvoni .
'^7
(1
(1
t'lU'iilvora . .
177
K-y
u
:i'/
Marsu|iiiiliii .
.'ill
:i:l
II
:i:i
Illllluiltiil . .
\Wi
II
I'l-
f.
I'Meiitiita . .
•i\
4
4
t'aclivder-
iimtii . . .
'1\
n
Iluiuliiuntia.
11'.'
u
II
L'etiioea . . .
•n
r.
!,
(1
Total . .
unu
fi8
13
4U
Avm. (UiuiM.)
Wlioli. No.
Orileri
of klltiwil
MlKSSlci
Acc'Ipitres. .
•i.ll
'Deiitirostres
l,'.'7:t
l.'issiro»ti'(^< .
I'JH
Coiilrostres .
410
Temilrostres
.'l|:l
KyiiilHctyles .
III!
Seal ISO res . .
4.H'.'
(Inlliiuu . . .
;t i.-i
(iralliu . . .
;i:i.->
I'uUnipwlos .
L'8!)
Total . .
3,97'i
Wholp No.
SiHrlrfi
No. ors|ii'.'
of kiiiiwn
AiKtriiliitii
h|H'i-i,.i
ciimiiiiiii 111
Aililr mill
uthor Rt!||f.
is-trullnr in
Auiiritllu
ii;
10
i:to
7
\i\
!'.>
1
11
yo
;i
17
;)()
1
•Ji>
7
7
lit
ti
:u
•JO
»
17
•ih
4
•n
'ii
'i
•ji)
.
31(i
U7
'im
F'rom these tallies, which, tlinuph not cmhndy-
iiij; the mnst reci^iit di.scnveries, yet snllicieiitly
valuahle for jjeneral piirpnises, it apjiears. first, that
the imtivc uiiiinuls of Australia arc I'uw in number;
208
AUSTRALASIA
mill, Rccdiidlv, timt llipy mo. vcrv iirculiiir in kind,
or all the known MimiHinlin ni tlio world, but
lil'ty-ci;,dit H|i('cio)*, lit lie more thnn ono-8(!vcn-
tccnfli part of the whole, belong oriK»nnlly to thin
r('jj;ion. Of thcue lifty-ei;;ht Hpecios forty-nix were
never lieiird of till iliey were lirnt met on tliiH
Kiiil ; mid of the twelve Hpecien eoninion to Austrii-
lin and other repoiiH, tivc are whules, nnd four
(out of the five (^iiriiivora) neals ; ho thiit, in truth,
of the terrentrial Mmnmaliii, only three upecio.snre
common ; of which one i» the Inrj^e nnd Hlnnif^-
win^eil hnt of MudngOHcar, another (the single and
questionuble common nxlent.) u regarded by Mr.
Ogilby aH connected gencrically only with the
JerbonH of America and Asia (Linmeau Trans,
xviii. 12!)-l.')'2), and the third is the <log, of
which it is a remarkable fact, that he is never
found out of the Hociety of man, and very rarely
alment from any spot which man inhabiUt. The
nuthoritv just quoted (p. 121) lielieves, indee<l,
that he IS not an aboriginal inhabitant of this con-
tinent, but that he came to it with the first
]irimitive settlers, in the same state of savage
(ionieslication in which he now exists. lie was
unknown in Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) be-
fore the settlement of the IJritish colonists there,
(p. 122.) The other three Carnivora (iirobably
only two) marked in the tal)le »'< jiecnliar to
Australia, are seals (Grillith's iSynopsis of Cuv.
]S()-1«3); so that the whole of this important
order, together with the numerous tribes of the
Qiiadnimana, I'achydcnnata, and Kuminantia, are
absolutely without any known land-representa-
tives ill this extensive portion of the globe.
(Ogilby, Linna!an Trans, xviii. 121.) Of the Eden-
tata, four sjiecies are marked in this table, after
the arrangement of Cuvier (iii. '2(>)W2V)i>) ; but
that arrangement was made in the. uttc' despair of
fonniiig a better, and not l>cca.i^e it ha<l any
systematic analogy to recommend it. Toothless,
or all but toothless, the creatures unquestionably
are; but classing them in this order reduces the
naturalist to the dilemma of admitting that there
are Mammalia which do not possess the dis-
tinctive mark of the class. The Echidni and
Omit horhynchi are destitiiti of teats, and do n't
suckle their young. The former genus consisis of
two species of porcujrines, one entirely covered with
thick spines, the other clothed with hair, in which
the spines are half hidden. The Oriiitliorhynclii
consist also of two s])ecies — O, paradoxus and O.
fmcus. Possessing the body and habits of a mole,
the feet and bill of a duck, and the internal forma-
tion of a reptile, these creatures lead a burrowing
life amid the mud of rivers ond swamps. They
are extremely ehy, and hence their mode of
repro<luction is yet unknown. Should they be
oviparous, it would be perhaps more consistent to
class them with the Keptilia than with the Mam-
malia: but, at present, their hot blood seems to
forbid such an arrangement. The Oniithorhyn-
chus has two cheek-teeth iri each jaw : but they
are without roots, and are merely fibrous. (Cuvier,
iii. 264.)
Of the Rodentia, two species belong to the sub-
genus Hydromys, and consist of creatures that
seem to unite some of the peculiarities of the dor-
mouse, rat, and beaver. (Cuv. iii. 72.) According
to Griflith (Synop. Cuv. 222), they are the only
true Hydromys, are peculiar to Australia, and
almost to Van Diemen's Land. A new genus of
liodentiawas made known by Mitchell's expedi-
tion in 1835, which has been called Conilurus, to
mark its general resemblance to a rabbit. It is,
however, a rat ; and the species found by Mitchell
is remarkable for the formidable defence which it
builds for itself against the dingo (native dog),
and birds of prey. From this habit it liiis bflcn
named Conilurus constructor. Two Hiicrics nf
mice (both peculiar), and the Dipiis Mitclielli (the
Australian jerboa), discovered by Mitchell in \KM\,
comiilote the list of AiiHtraliaii Hodonlia, iiiil('.<i,sa
Hinail animal, omitted in the talile, from tluMin-
certninty of its classitlciilion, belong to that orilcr.
Mitchell names it Myrmevohius rufiis, but with
considerable doubt, and says that it was geiiornllv
called the ' red shrew mouse ' by his i)arty, (i, 17,')
Should it prove to belong to the genus s'orex, it in
the first instance, in Australia, of the order In.scc-
livora. VV'ith these few exceptions, the wlioh' (jf
the Australian Mammalia consist of the very
peculiar order Marsiipialia, of which order iridri!
than four-sevenths are limited to this contiiiciit
and its adjacent islands. The leading iieculiaritv
in animals of this order, is the birth of the ynunir
in an immature state; in such a state, in fiict, as
is scarcely comparable to the ordinary develop-
ment at which other faiti arrive within a few dnys
after cimception. From the time of this preinalurc
birth, without limbs or other external organs, tlic
little animal remains attached to the teat of its
mother (which enlarges, so as completely to till
the mouth), and enclosed in a natural pmicli
formed by the skin of the abdomen. It is this
IHiuch which is the distinctive mark of the order;
and its use induced Linnieus to arrange siicli »|ie-
cies of these animals as he knew, under his genus
D'idelphis, a word implying double matrix. At
the period of full development, the young fall
from the teat, and this may be regarded as the
real moment of birth; but for a long time after
the dam continues to carry her offspring in the
same receptacle ; and the latter, even after they
can walk, constantly return thither on the ap-
proach of any danger. This rcmarkalilc confor-
mation is observed in every marsupial animal, ami
the arrangements of bones and muscles, nccet^sary
to it, is found in the males as well as the feraale.i.
In other rc8])ects, however, the several genera nf
the order differ so essentially, that tlie whole
might be regarded as forming a distinct Class of
Vertebrata, and divisible, like the otiier Mam-
malia, into various orders, (Cuv, ii, t51-0;),) The
kangaroo, the largest animal of this order ami uf
Australian Mammalia, has been known since
Cook's tirst voyage, (Ilawkeswortb, iii, riTl!.) It
is as large, in some of the sjiecies (of whicli
Griffith enumerates ten), as a good-sized calf, is
very large in its hinder quarters, and ilisi)roportion-
ateiy small forwards. Its fore-legs are very short,
and quite useless to the animal's motion, which is
pflr..;.fo,i \yy fl succcsslon of springs, assisted ma-
terially by its long and powerful tail. The
attitude is erect, except when feeding ; the colour
various in the various species, but is generally of
different shades of grev. One species (K, rufm),
however, is red and white. The other animiils arc
the Potorvus, Phalangers (so named by Hufliiii,
because the only species with which he wiis
acquainted had two toes united by a mcnihraiie),
the Dasyiiri, the Paranieles, the "Pctaurista, the
Phascolarctos, and the Phascolomys. The differ-
ent species of these genera vary in size from that
of a rat to that of a dog ; the largest, the (log-fateil
Dasyurus {Thylacynus Harisii), and Da-^vunis
ursinus (the devil of the colonists), being coiilinetl
to Van Diemen's Land. (Ogilby, Linn, Trans.
xviii. 122.) The former resembles clojicly an ill-
made dog, but is marked with zebra-like striiies;
the latter is represented as an extremely ugly ainl
disgusting-looking animal, whence his colonial
name. The other species of the Dasynri approach
in size and outward appearance to the ww
tribe. The Phalangers of Australia arc not all
AUSTRALASIA
260
jjn^lnpiishcd by nnited toc«! on the contrary,
(Mime of t''*""? "" *''" Vulpine PlmlauKcr, iipproncrJi
in tlie formntion of their extremities, to tlie (i»nil-
rutnnnn. (Slmw'« Z(K)lojjy, i. WX) Home of tlicsc,
the iiistnncc taken, for iinc, are pretty and (graceful
aniiiiBl"' The Petaurista are a sul)-f;eniw of tlic
i>l,^ln„|Tcrf), and (liHtingiiixhed hy an extension of
tiie dkin of the side, so as to form a kind of
imrailuite ; tliey are sometimes palled llyin^j Plm-
IniiUff*. Of tliis j;cnus the JJuM/jIiih Sciitnui
(Miiiirrel opossum) has so much the appearance of
a sniiirrol, that a close inspection is necessary to
detect its marsupial character. (Shaw's Zoo. N.
Hull. 29.) The Parameles approach in form and
lialiits to had^ers, and indeed are called pouched
l,,„ljrpr,(; they differ from the other Marsupialia in
tlie weakness of their toil, that member beinj^
L'eiu'riiUy serviceable to this order, either by its
gtreiiL'th" or its prehensil)ility. (Grillith's ^otes,
Cuv. iii. H!l.) The Phascola'rctos, or Koa'a, as it
is iiKire commonly called, consists of only one
kiidwii species; it has a clumsy body, about the
H/(. of a moderately lar^c dof?, short h'f^s and
flaws, adapted for climbing and burrowinj;. Tlu!
ftniale carries her yoim;;, for a lonfc time, on her
jiliiiiilders, and pot in her niarsu|)ial ba{^. Some
iiatiiralists have referred this animal to the Plui-
liiii"ers, and others have denominated it the New
lldFlaiid ."loth. It has, however, no resemblance
to the Tardiyjrada, ])(>sKesses cuttiiif; teeth, and is
dixtitiite of canines, (Cuv. ii. 70; see also iii.
L'.Vi; and (Iriflith's Synops, 2!)1.) The Phasco-
loinvs, like the last fjcnus, contains at present but
one siK'cics, tiic wombat of the colonists. It is a
iihiiitif,n"iide animal, extremely slow in its motion,
and is about the size of a l)a(lj;pr, Siiaw (i. .'iO-l)
mentions this creature under the name of Didel-
phis iirsinn, and a second species is suspected to
have been seen by Bass. (Cuv. ii. 7«.)
In haliits the (iifferent genera of the Marsupialia
differ as much as they do in form. There is
scarcely, iiuleod, an order of the whole class Mam-
malia to which one or other of them does not
assiniilato. Thus, the Dasvuri are carnivorous,
and have many of the habits of the Fclinie ; the
I'halangers are insectivorous, and it has been
already stated that some of them ap])roximate in
f(inn to tilt Quadruniana; a similar approach will,
jKrhaps, be admitted of the Petaurista to the
Cheiroptera ; and the Phascolomys or wombat is
a tnie rodent. (Cuv. ii. 61-78.)
The kangaroos, though strictly herbivorous, can-
not be compared with any known genus but
themselves ; and the useful orders of Kuminantia
and Pacliydermata are unrepresented by any
marsupial form.
But those tribes comprising most of the animals
that, by their strength, docility, fleece, or hide,
and the nutritious quality of their flesh, are most
useful to man, though only recently imported, are
now extremely abundant in all the settled parts
of Australasia. On the 1st of May, 1788, a stock
was carried out b}' the first settlers of 1 stalli(ni,
B mares, 3 colts, 2 bulls, 5 cows, 29 sheep, 19 goats,
49 hogs, 25 pigs. (Phillip, 110.) And from this
late and scanty stock, assisted by a few subsequent
importations, have been derived all the vast num-
bers of sheep and other useful animals now to be
found on the Australian continent. It is needless
to trace their progress in detail. Suffice it to say,
that though for a while their increase was compa-
ratively slow, there were in New South Wales
alone m 1810, 25,888 sheep and 12,442 head of
cattle. In 1822 the former had increased to
2911,158, and the latter to 122,939. On the 1st of
Jaiuiarj', 18(i3, the proNnnce of New South Wales
had 6,145,051 sheep, while Victoria had, on the
SI St of March, 1803, no loss than 8(1,067 horses,
57(i,r.01 head of cattle, and fi,7t)4,851 sheep. So
rapid an increase is probably unequalled in the
history of the world. It is clear, therefore, that
the pastures and climate of Australia are well
adapted to the useful animals so long strangers to
its soil; and the lieneficial changes which their
intnxluction has effected in this new laml, is one
of the most interesting instances of the power
possessed by man of modifving the physical jieeu-
liarities of the world which ho inhabits. (For
farther details regarding the progress of agricul-
ture as well as of trade oikI commerce, in tho
states of Australasia, see the separate articles.)
The ornithology of Australia is less anomalous
than its mammalogy : no order of birds is without
its representative, and there are but two the Aus-
tralian species of which are wholly peculiar. Yet
the common species bear a very small projHirtion
to those which are jjcculiar ; and, for the most part,
are common only to X. and K. Australia, and S.
Asia, or the nearer Polynesian islands. Several
g(!uera are wanting ; all the tribes of usual singing
liirds, for instance : and of the commcm species, tho
most numerous are, an might be cxjiected, those of
strong flight and comparatively light bodies; sucii
as the Acci[)itres (liirds of prey) and the Dcn-
tirostres (shrikes, pies, &c.). Among the rapacious
birds, the most singidar is a white '^agle, wbicli
Cuvier thougiit was onlv an albiiu) of some other
species (vi, 49), and which Shuw referred to the
list of hawks (vii. 93), but which subsequent inves-
tigation has proved to be a true eagle, ((irillith's
Notes Cuv. vi. ."iO.) Am(nig the order Dentirostres,
are S(mie species of great beauty ; the sujierb
warbler, a bird having the habits of the redbn-ast,
is perhaps the most ))eaiitiful. There are also soma
varkgated thrushes ; but of these and other birds
of this order, though very accurate descriptions bo
given of their apjicarance (Phillip, 157 ; Shaw's
N. IIoU, Zoo, 25), nothing is said respecting their
notes ; and it may be inferred that, notwithstiind-
ing their names, they are songless. A species of
thrush, called thunder bird (Cuv. vi. 434), iios
obtained from the colonists the name of the laugh-
ing jackaxit, from his peculiarly loud and discordant
cry. Swallows and goatsuckers, of the order Fis-
sirostres, are numerous ; and of the Conirostres,
the most remarkable species are the beautiful
birds of paradise, which are almost coniincu to
New Guinea. There are also several crows and
magpies of this onler; but the larks (so called) are
but poor imitations of those of Europe, and appear
all to belong to Cuvier s genus of field larks (vi.
480), and consequently to the order Dentirostres.
Of the Tenuirostres, the various species of the
Epimachi are, like the birds of paradise, confined
to the N. parts of Australia; like them, their
plumage ranks amongst the most beautiful; and
like them, too, they have been the subjects of
innumerable fables. (Cuv. \u. 382.) The Syndac-
tyles give to Australia its kingfishers an<l bee-
eaters, of which the sacred kingfisher of the first,
and the variegated bee-eater of the other, are
worthy of notice for the extreme beauty of their
covering. All the Australian species of this order
are peculiar, as are also those of the Scansores,
consisting of the parrots, paroquets, cockatoos, &c.
These last are very numerous in the Australian
woods, supplying there the place of the European
songsters. (P. Cunn. i. 21C.) The pheasants,
quails, and pigeons of the order Sallinae, are tole-
rably numerous; and, according to Cunningham,
the momitain ])heasant is a bird of song. The
same gentleman makes the same remark upon one
species of Australian magpie (i. 302), and states
further, that wild turkeys, of two varieties, are
270
AUSTRALASIA
founil; but. tbrso nro, most probably, a npccioH of
bustard, anil Ik'Iihi^ to t)io order (inllii*, wbicb
yicldn alno Ibc ( niii or Australian conaownrv, nearly
i'(|ual in hi/c t<> tlu- oHtri(Ji, and rcxemblinK it in
nniny imiMirhuit particulani. (Cuv. viii. 2W.) Of
this order, Au.slralia ha8 alito wimc H|H!dcs of cur-
h'WH, liorouH, avoHetH, railti, <tc. (Cuv. viii. 342-
2194.) LoMtly, uf tbc I'almi|H!deR, there are in thin
re;;ion pelicuim, Imobies (ho numcruuH as to have
ffjven name to un inland on the N. coast), petrels,
p('n<;uins, ducks of a peculiar kind, and Hwans
M'liich realise the rant aria in terri» of the Latin
poet, being coul black. (Cuv. viii. 5(11-024.) it
remains to be observed, that the eighteen turkeys,
twenty-nine geese, thirty-live ducks, and eighty-
seven chickens, which arrived in New South VVales
in 1788 (Phillip, 110), have multiplied to an ex-
tent not surpassed by the sheep. Within the last
few years some of our singing birds have also been
transplanted to Australia, and there seems little
doubt that the songstcrsof Europe will before long
be acclimatised to the woods at the antipodes.
The reptiles of Australia are comparotivcly more
numerous than either the Mammalia or the Aves.
They consist of two or three genera of turtles; as
many varieties of «lli"ators; and a considerable
number of Ii;<ards an,^ serpents, both venomous
and harmless. The liuid lizard and the Coluber
jiorfihyriacus (crimson-sided snake) arc represented
as of extroordinary beauty. The seas and rivers
'almund in tish, many of them peculiar; and the
Watts' shark, tlic .sniullcst of the species at jiresent
known, is remarkable lor having the mouth near
the end of the head, instead of underneath, as in
other animals of this geims.' The insect tribe are
very numerous, but they appear to dift'er far less
than the other animals from those in other coun-
tries similarly situated.
Jiacen of Men. — If the division of the human
family, by Itlumenbach, into live varieties, be
rigorously abided by, the native of the con-
tinent of Australia must be classed with the
I'^thiopian, or negro, as a])proaching, iijion the
■whole, nearer to his conformation than to that of
any other race. But Mr. Crawfurd (Hist. Ind.
Arch. i. 24) says that the ' east insular negro is a
distinct variety of the human species ; ' and, indeed,
lie has peculiarities quite suliicient to 'make his
classitication with the African Ethiop one of con-
siderable violence. ' The skui is lighter ; the
woolly hair grows in small tufts, and each hair has
a spiral twist; the forehead is higher, the nose
much less depressed, and the buttocks are so much
lower than in the African, as to form a striking
mark of distinction.' It is to this race, if any,
that the Australian must be referred; and the in-
habitant of the continent recedes still more from
the true negro, by having straight, or at all events
curling, hair. Capt. Cook's description of this rr.ee
has been verified by everj' succeeding observer.
' The skin,' says he, ' is of the colour of wood soot,
or what is commonly called chocolate colour.
Their features are far from disagreeable ; their
noses are not flat, nor are their lips thick ; their
teeth are white and even, and their hair naturally
long and black ; it is, however, cn^iped short ; in
general it is straight, but sometimes it has a slight
curl; we saw none that was not ^ .. ted and filthy,
though without grease, and t' t en at astonish-
ment free from vermin. The. . 1 ■ • iids were of the
same colour with their hair, bushy and thick;
but they are not suffered to grow long.' (Hawkes-
worth, iii. G32.) The colour of the Australian does
not appear to be uniform ; some, even when
cleansed from their filth, are nearly as dark os
the African, while others have a tint not deeper
than that of the Malay. The Australian is gene-
rally tall ond slender, with little development of
muscle, and more remarkable for agiiiiy than
strength, rrichard, alter comparing the variniirt
authorities, descrilKJs them in the last edition of lii^
great work as follows :— < The stature of tlu. Aus-
tralians is moderate, and often below the meaii
The limbs among many tribes are slender, thin
and in apitcarance of disproportioncd length, whilo
some individuals, on thccontrarj-, have them dtmit
and well-projiortioned. Their liair is not wooliv •
it is liard, very black and thi<;k ; they wear it dis-
hcvcUed, and in general slujrt, in frizzled niassps.
Their beard is of the same nature as their iiair'
commonly rough and tufted on the sides of tiLcir
face. Their countenance is tiattened, nose vcrv
large, with nostrils almost transversely placed
thick lips, mouth of disproportionate width, tectll
projecting but of the finest enamel. Loose circular
ears very amply deveh>iied, and eyes half cluscd hv
the laxity of their upper eyelids, give to their phv-
siognomy a savaj^e and repulsive aspect. Tiic
colour of their skin, gentrally of a smoky black,
varies in its hue, which is never very dec'i). i'lic
Australian women, still more ugly than the iiipii
have squalid and disgusting fon'ns; the distaiui.'
which separates them from tlie beau iV/c«/ appears
immense in the eyes of a Kurojiean. A great
number of families place in the septum of the mw^
round sticks, from four to six inches long, which
give a ferocious aspect to their counteiiaiucs.'
(Researches into the Natural History of iMankimi,
i. 250, 4th ed.) Itmust be remarked^! however, that
the Tasmanians (inhabitants of Van Diemcn's
Land) are woolly headed, as are also the natives uf
New Caledonia, New Guinea, and the other islands
considered in this article as constituting Australa-
sia, with the single exception of New Zealand. The
latter, though more remote from the Polynesian
islaiuis than any of the others, is inhabited' by the
brown race of those groups which is said by Craw-
furd (i. 18) to have the same superiority over thoir
sooty neighbours that the white men of the West
have over the African negro. The physical dis-
tinction between the continental and insular Ans-
tralasians is otherwise very great. The continent
of Australia may with great propriety Ije regarded
as the native home of a distinct and decidedly
inferior variety of the human race (Crawfurd, i,
24), which has spread itself to a considerable dis-
tance N. and E. among the islands of Poi_\niesia
and the Indian archipelago, and even to the k ex-
tremity of continental Asia. That this variety is,
physically considered, the lowest in the .scale nl
rational beings, is sufliciently evident. Piuiy and
weak, in comparison with the African negro, the
Australian is hunted down, without making any
eftectual opposition, whenever he is encoiintercd
by any of his fairer neighbours ; while the African
is subdued only by superior intelligence, and snc-
cessfully resists mere physical force. As personal
strength is one effect of superior physical stnictnre,
the following results may be interesting. They arc
the averages deduced from the power exhibited in
the arms and loins of thirtv-nine Australians, fifty-
six Timorians, seventeen frenchmen, ami fourteen
Englishmen. These people were found capahle of
bearing respectively the following pressures :—
Strength
12 Tasmniiinns, av.
17 New Hollanders, av.
6G Tiraorinns, av. .
17 Frenchmen, av.
14 Englishmen, av.
OfArnii
or Mm in
in Kilo.
.Mjrla-
gramniei
graramw
60-0
M)-S
10'2
f)8-7
11-6
m-2
i.va
71-4
iti-;i
(Lawrence, 404.) The Timorians, it shouhl 1*
AUSTRALASIA
271
le <lcvi'lonmont of
for ajiility than
nring lilt! variiiii*
liiHt edition of his
taturc (if tlu; Alls-
below tl\e mean,
lire Hlcmlcr, thin,
imp<l leiiKth, while
y, have, them ntcint
luir i« not woolly;
; they wear it ilis-
in friz/.led masM>s,
turc as thi'ir liair,
the siili'w of tlu'ir
iittencd, nose very
•aiisverscly phicoi'l,
ionatc width, tcwli
nel. LooKU t'iri'iilar
eyes half dosed hy
SHive to their jihy-
ilsivc asjK'ct. 'I'hc
of a smoky black,
er very dei'ii. 'I'lie
Ufjly than tiie iiion,
fonns; the distanci'
i htuH iileal a\>\mm
i'^uropean. A j^cat
i) septnm of thenuMi
L inches lonfj, whicli
their countenances.'
ilistory of Mankind,
larkcdj however, that
I of Van Dienien's
re also the natives df
and the other islands
institutinfc Anstraln-
)f New Zealand. The
from the Polynesian
9, is inhabitcil by the
hich is said by Oraw-
Isuperiority over their
liite men of tiie West
The physical dis-
iital and insular Aus-
rcat. The continent
iropriety be rejinrded
stinct and decidedly
... race (Crawfurd, i,
to a considerable dis-
ilands of Polynesia
md even to the S. ex-
That this variety is.
iwest in the scale uf
evident. Puny and
le African nc},To, the
without makiiif,' any
er he is encountered
while the African
intelligence, ami snc-
il force. As personal
lor physical structure.
interesting. They are
16 power exhibited ni
line Australians, tifty-
nchmen, and fourteen
rtcre found capable ot
wing pressures :—
Of Arms
in Kilo,
gramniet
Of Mm 1" i
Jljria- ■
paromM 1
sn-G
f>8-7
10'2
11-6
71-4
V,-2
16-3
lonans,
it should Ijc
ohM'r\'od. nro of the brown rnco; and it may bo
wen that in stren^tli of arm they exceed the Ans-
tralinns more than they fall short of tlie Kiiropeans.
lletweeii these two, tho wmkext I'iMglish arm was
mure powerful than tho strongest Australian, and
I he most muscular of tho latter coultl bear upon his
loins tinl.v li"lf « myriagramine more than the
weakest of the former.
The Australian is not more inferior in physical
viL'durthaii in moral and intellectual attainments.
Ills is the only race with which we are acr|iiainted,
that has no sJirt of clothing. The Australian has
(|ipmesti<'ated no animals, and has no knowledge
(ifaicricultiire, even in its simplest form. His huts,
inferior hy many degrees to tlie wigwams of the
American IinliaiiH, are but rarely met with in the
warmer portions of the continent. His canix^s
nen'c only tti carry him across narrow creeks or
inlets of the sea. And these, with spears and lish-
hcMiks, stone hatchets, a kind of shield, and a carved
ivodden missile, whicli, when tlirown by a skilful
hand, rises with a rotatory motion in the air,
striking at a considerable distance, aiul rebound-
liic to near the thrower, form the sum total of his
instriinients of production, defence, and aggression.
The subsistence of the Australians is alike scanty
and lilthy, consisting of tlie He.sh of wild animals,
shell niui other fish, worms an<l other reptiles, ants
and ant eggs, wild-honey, roots and berries. And
the suppl.v of wild animals and of edible plants
liciiiK limited in the extreme, and apt occasionally
to siifl'er greatly from droughts, they schlom have
a .siitlicicncy of food, and wh(dc triiies sometimes
hecomc the victims of famine. The treatment of
females in Australia is in the last degree brutal.
Wives are not courted or purchased, but arc seized
ujion, stuiiilied by blows, ami then carried off to
lie the slaves of their unfeeling masters ; and
should a mother die with a child at the breast, it
is usual to burv the latter alive with its tlead
]ttrent! (ColUns'N. S. Wales, App.p.GOl.) They
are in so far acquainted witli the right of iirojierty,
that each tribe claims the exclusive possession, for
hunting iiurjjoses, of the territory which it occu-
jiies. They seem, also, to believe in the existence
(if good and evil 8|iirits ; but they have no feeling
of f,Tatitude towards the former, though they eii-
(leavdur by superstitious observances to avert the
wTath of the latter. In short, this race, the last
and lowest of the human species, appears to be as
barbarous as can well be imagined; and in this
state it has hitherto existed, without apparently
]io»sessuig either the power or the wish to make
the first step in civilisation. Hence it has been
concluded, that the Australians are inca])able of
civilisation ; and that they are essentially, and not
accidentally, inferior even to the lowest type of
the negro. But, degraded as they are, this infer-
ence has been denied, at least to its full extent.
Nature, it is said, has been singularly unkind to
the Australian, not in his conformation only, but
in the circumstances under which he has been
placed. The fertile spots fittxul for the supjily of
his limited wants are sei)arat(Hl by deserts as wild
and inhospitable as the sands of Arabia ; and to
pass these, he had not, like the Arab, the assist-
ance of patient, strong, and faithful servants of
the bnite creation. Few navigable rivers flow
'hrough his strangely constituted land ; and thus
Communication, the great refiner and improver of
mankind, Avas rendered difficult and of rare occur-
rence. His soil was destitute of those plants,
which, though 'eaten in the sweat of his brow,'
sre at once the incentives to and the reward of
man's labour; nor did it feed a single animal like
those which, in more favoured regions, have formed
from time immemorial the shepherd's occupation
and wealth. The Australian being thus abut out
from the two grand jiritiiitive employments, bin
life could l)e neither pastoral nor agricultural.
Under less adverse eir('innstan(a>s, tho red man
continued u hunter in the greater part of America,
during the age.s that preceded his discovery hv
the Kuro[)eanH. And even this resource was ail
but denied to the Australian ; the animals anuind
him being not only inferior in kind, but also re-
markaldy fcAV in numlier. It is farther said, that
even the excitement of danger, whi(!h may be su|)-
jio.sed to have roii.sed the African to e.xertion, l>y
making his life a constant struggle with the fierce
and powerful tenants of the woods, was wanting
here ; for in Australia there was nothing dangerous,
except some noxious rcjitiles, whicli do not, how-
t^ver, appear to have any very fatal jiowers. The
Australian had nothing but hunger to contend
with; and this he endeavoured, as already .seen,
to appea.s(> by jiicking up the spontaneous prodm-ts
of his ungrateful soil, and the shell-fish found on
the sea-shore, with insects and reptiles; to which
he occasionally added a kangaroo or bird, over-
taken or destroyed bv accident. And Mitch(;ll
nenfions, that such is the scarcity of the latter
kind of food, that young men are forbidden to eat
it. (ii. itltt.) The surmise of (Jook, that it was
impossible for the inland country to subsist inha-
bitants at all seasons (Hawkesworth, iii. (iUI), was
found bv Sturt to be fatally verified in the dry
year(jf iML>8. (i. 137.)
lUtt the adverse circumstancer now alluded to,
do not, as some sup|)ose, fully account for the bar-
barous condition of the aborigines of Australia.
The stupidity of his nature, and the inertness of
his faculties, are evinced by his having made few
or no efforts to increa.se his supply of food, or to
obviate those incessantly recurring attacks of fa-
iniiie to which be has always been exposed. His
want of other things should have made him an
e.\]iert hunter and fisher of such animals as are
native to his country and its seas: luit he is
neither the one nor the other; and though it be
perhaps going too far to say tliat the Australian
is iiica)>able of civilisation, the fair presumption
.seems to be, that he is destined to remain for ever
at the bottom of the social scale ; and to be in-
ferior ill point of comfort, as he lias hitherto hardly
been superior in contrivance, to many of the lower
animals.
It has been supposed, apparently with much
probability, that the increase of wild cattle will
materially improve both the comforts and the
character of the natives ; but at present it is not
{lossible to imagine a closer approximation to the
east intelligent of the brutes, than the Austra-
lians. And yet this barbarous and degraded race
has had its admirers. According to Count Strze-
lecki, the Australian would seem to have attained
to the summit of human felicity, and he apiiear.s
to regret that the immigration of Europeans
' should have disturbed liis liapjiy economy.'
(p. S48.) To comment on such a statement, would
be about as absurd as the statement it.self. It
would be a libel on Providence, to 8U])pose that it
was intended that this extensive portion of tho
earth should be for ever occupied by a handful of
naked savages, without arts, science, industry, or
civilisation of any kind. Some of the Europeans
who have visited Australia, have not certainly
been very favourable specimens of civilised man.
Hut desiiite their crimes and their vices, they
carried with them science, talent, and enterprise,
with the germs and the capability of rapid and
unlimited improvement ; and we are bold to say,
that the least and worst of tiie .settlements founded
in this vast continent, has a thousand times more
272
AUSTRALASIA
or nil thnt (1i(:ni>1<'At cxaltn, and adorns humnnity,
thnii ever was iM)M8e88ed by its entire aboriginal
impulntion.
Uktitry and Discovery. — Some accidental dis-
coveries were made by the Spaniards as early as
1(')2(!; but the tlrst accurate knowledge that was
jcaine<l in Euroi>e of these S. lands, was by the
voyage of the Dutch yacht Duyfhcn, which, in
KiiW, explored a part oi" the coasts of NcwUuinca.
In the following year, Torres, a Spaniard, having
{)assed tlirougli the straits, which Ijenr his name,
>etween that island and continental Australia,
gave the first account of the N. part of the latter.
The Dutch continued to be the chief discoverers
for the next forty years, chiefly from their ]>os-
sessions in the E. Indies ; ond between the years
Ifi-I'i and 1044, Tasman completed the discovery
of a large portion of the Australian coast, to-
gether with part of the island of Van Diemen's
Land, now |)retty generally, anil we think pro-
perly, called Tamiiania, During the period referred
to, the Dutch navigators succeeded in surveying
nlsiut half the continental coast Hue ; and the
names bestowed upon various parts of the land,
ns (Carpentaria, De Wit's Land, Arnhcim's Land,
Kndincht's Land, Nuyt's Land, Lcuwen's Land,
Kdel's Land, ifrc, commemorate the names cither
of the discoverers themselves, or of the ships in
which they saihul. It was late before the English
entered on the career of discovery : but once en-
tered, they prosecuted it with vigour. Dam))ier,
!)etwcen i(')N4 and W.W, exjdored a part of the
W. and N\V, coasts ; and in the remaining jiart
of the 17th century, ocmipleted this survev, gove
his name to the archipelago lying E. of' N. W.
Cape, and ])uslied his eiujuirics to the islands of
>iew Guinea, New liritain, and New Ireland ; the
straits between the first two being called by his
name. The account which Dampier gives of the
native inhabitants of Australia, being gra|diical,
and, in most respects, accurate, will be read with
interest. ' The inhabitants of this country,' says
he, ' are the miserablest people in the world. The
Hodmadods of Monomotapa, though a nasty
IKjople, yet for wealth are gentlemen to these; who
littve no houses and skin garments, sheep, poultry,
and fruits of the earth, ostrich-eggs, Ac, as the
Hodmadods have; and setting aside their human
shape, they differ but little from brutes. They
are tall, straight-bodied, and thin, with small long
limbs. They have great heads, round foreheads, and
great brows. The eyelids are always half closed,
to keep the flies out of their eyes. . . . They have
great bottle noses, pretty full lips, and wide
mouths. The two fore-teeth of their upper jaw are
wanting in all of them, men and women, old and
young; whether they draw them out I know not;
neither have they any beards. They are long-
visaged, and of a very unpleasing aspect, having
no one graceful feature in their faces. Their hair
is black, short, and curled, like that of the negroes,
and not long and lank, like that of the common
Indians. The colour of their skins, both of their
faces and the rest of their body, is coal black, like
that of the negroes of Guinea. They have no
sort of clothes, but a piece of the rind of a tree
tied like a girdle about their waists, and a handfiil
of long grass, or three or four small green boughs
full of leaves, thnist underneath their girdle to
cover their nakedness. They have no houses, but
lie m the open air without any covering, the earth
being their bed, and the heaven their canopy.'
(Dampier's Voyagts, ii. 404, ed, 1729.) Between
1703 and 1700, Wallis and Carteret followed in
the track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries
those of New Hanover and other islands. These
were followed by Cook, who in 1770 discovered
and traced the whole E. coast of eontinentnl Auv
tralin, fVom Cape Howe at its S. to Cape Yorke at
its N. extremity. In the same vovage this frtem
navigator discovered the island of Kew Caltilonia
and did more, in fact, for Australian diNcuvi n'
than had been done by all the navigarors liv
whom he had l)een preceded. In this briel' notice
the name of liligh should not be forgotten, wlm,
after the mutiny of the Bounty, in 17«!», tlniii);||
in an open boat, and devoid of almost every news-
sar>', carried on a scries of ol)servations* on tho
N 1'!. coast, which added considerably to the Kcnernl
stock of knowledge. A colony having Im'cii ontu-
blished at Sydney in the previous year, intcnial
and coasting expeditions were simultanemislv sci
on foot for exploring the new land which limi y.
come the residence of Englishmen. It niiiy lie
obser%'e(l that, previously to this, France eiitcml
on the task of southern discovery, Imt witli ikp
great success ; Navigators' Islands, and the
Loui.siades, explored by Bougainville, iM'twocn
1708 and 1770, being the most ini|s>rtant mlili-
tions her otHcers had then made to the maps of
this division of the world. Edwards, in I7i)i,
liligh (second time), Portlock, in 17!ii', nnd
Bampton and Alt, in 171)3, nearly com|ilft(.'ii tiid
knowledge of Torres' Straits and a great piirt nf
the N. coast ; but the greatest discoverers, towanU
the end of last century, were Bass and Fliniicri,
who surveyed a great extent of coast, mostly in
open boats. In 17!t8 they sailed thn)ii),')i"ilie
strait between Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land,
and the continent. In the last year of the ixth
century. Grant exjilored a portion of the 8. mai't,
which bears his name ; and, in the five fdilowin;;
years, Flinders completed a survey of tlic S, ami
E. coasts, and of the Gulf of Carjicntarin, wliidi
may be regarded as nearly perfect. In tlie same
years, Baudin's expedition was employed on the
same coast and Van Diemen's Land, the Frciicii and
English commanders having met in Encounter Hay,
so named in consequence of that event. Cajitaiiis
King, Stokes, and Fitzroy surveyed the cdasts
in 1821-2; Major Mitchell (afterwards Sir Tlioma'<)
followed in 1835-0; Lieutenants Grey and Lush-
iiigton examined Western Australia in 1837-40;
Captains Wickham and Fitzroy made extensive
surveys from 1837 to 1843; and Sir Thomas Mit-
chell made another expedition to the X. coast
and the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria in
1854-5. The subsequent 8ur^'ey8 and explora-
tions were chiefly inland, and have been already
noticed.
Extent and Popvlation,—KccoT(&ng to official
returns of the year 1804, the area and population
of Australasia, at that period, was as follows :—
SUtM
Eng. iq. mtln
Fopultlion
New South Wales .
323,437
307,495
Victoria ....
86,831
673,941
South Australia .
383,328
13r),:)'i9
Western Australia .
978,000
17,246
Tasmania ....
26,216
90,728
Nev Zealand .
106,259
10C,;)lo
Queen&I.-nd
Total for Australasia .
678,000
45,077
2,582,070
1,330,131
The native population, in 1804, was vcrj' small
in -lumbers, and fast dying out. The white popu-
lation, on the other hand, is rapidly increasinjf.
Britkh Settlements in Austndasia.-^Tha oldest
of British colonies was founded in 1788 at Sydney,
on the E. coast of Australia, in the vast tract dis-
covered by Captain Cook, and known by the name
of New South VVales. The island of Tasmania, «r
Van Diemen's Laud, was next occupied, but not
r eontlnental Anii.
. to Cap« Ycirke at
vovaRC thin ((real
of Kew CRlttldnia,
BtraliandiHcovtrj',
the navi^HtiirK liy
In thw brief iintiJe
; be forfjottMi, wlui,
ty, in l7Wt, tlidiinh
ihnost every ncws-
l)scrvatum.s ini ihp
r«l>ly to tlie ncnernl
r having been csta-
vioiw yeiir, intmial
Himnltaneously set
land Avhich limi Ik'-
hmc'ii. It niiiy lie
liiH, France eutcrcd
overy, luit witli lui
Ittlunds and tlic
igninviUc, iK'lwoon
Dst. iin|i(irtant nddi-
iftdc to tlic maps df
Kdwards, in IV'.ll,
ock, in I'll-.*, ami
early comiiU'tcd tlic
Rud a preat |iart nf
; discoverers, tcjuards
I Uass antl Flimlcrs,
I of coast, mostly in
Bailed tbnmuli llie
Van Diemen's Land,
ast year of the ixth
>rtioh of the S. cuast.
in the five ftdlnwin;;
survey of the S. and
of Carjientarin, wliiih
)erfect. In the same
vas employed im the
1 Land, thcFrcncli ami
met in Encounter Itay,
[that event. Captains
surveyed the cciasts
fterwardaSirTh(imas)
ants Grey and Lusli-
L\istralia in 1H37-4U;
zrov made extensive
and Sir Thomas Mit-
tion to the N. coast
of Carpentaria in
!u^^•ey8 and cxploro-
id have been already
-According to official
e area and population
I, waB as follows :—
ig.iq. mllM PopulaUon
323,437
367,495
86,831
673,941
383,328
135,:K9
978,000
17,246
26,216
90,728
10(!,259
106,;il.i
678,000
48,077
,582,070
1,336,131
18G4, was very small
out. The white popu-
rapidly incrcaamp.
,<m/a«a.-Tl.c oldest
led in 1788 at Sydney,
, in the va.st tract (U^
id known by the name
Island of Tasmania,
>xt occupied, hut nut
AUSTRALASIA
till 18flS. And at still later pcricMls we estn-
Idishcd the colonics of Victoria and South Aiis-
tralin, "H the S. coast of the continent, and Swnn
l.'ivor on its VV. shores. We have also numerous
jHllemcnts in New Zealand.
Tlif colonies in N. S. Wales and Van Diemen's
Land were originally intended principally for
piiiai settlements; and their jirogrrss was, in con-
sequence, retarded by the vicious chararter of the
iMipnlntion, and by the comparative scarcity of
fcniah'S. Ihit des])ite these adverse circumstances,
llipv liave continued ra|iidly to increase in wealth
ami pfipulation. This has been principally a con-
spiiuciu'c of the suitableness of the country to
ihi- growth of sheep, and of the unprecedented
iniTcase in the exports of wool ; but it is also
(jwin^, tiiough to a less extent, to the discovery of
ffM.
I^niiffrat'fn to the Australian colonies holds out
varidus advantages to the industrious and eiiter-
iirisinir emigrant ; though it must at the same time
lie slated that these are, partially at least, coun-
iirlialnii('e<l by certain disadvantages. Amongst
the tiiriner may be mentioned the fact of there
licing. almost invariably, a pretty brisk demand
tor additional labour; wages, previously to the
I'idd discoveries, though not extravagant, were
lii£;h : ]irovisions, except in seasons of drought,
which ilo not often occur, are abundant and rca-
sonahlc in price; and, above all, the climate is
mild, healthy, and well suited to European con-
stitntions, and the country is remarkably free from
all varieties of dangerous and offensive animals.
The principal drawbacks are, the immense dis-
tance from Kurope, and the consequent cost of the
viivafre, with the general inferiority of the land.
Aniung the other drawbacks incident to emi-
gration tliitlier may be mentioned the fact, that
conveyances of land by one individual to another
arc framed in all the Australian states, except
South Australia, on the model of those of Eng-
land. Apart from the extraordinary attraction of
the pold-lields, the greater mildness' and salubrity
(if the climate is the principal, or rather, perhaps,
the only, recommendation in favour of emigrating
to Australia rather than to Canada or the United
States.
Ciimmercial Intercmirsemth Great Britain. — The
imports of Australian products into (Jrcat Britain
made a very decided progress during the ten years
from Wii to 18(14. Thus in 18.55 thev were valued
at 4..i0n.200/. ; in 1856 at 5,736,043/.; in 1857 at
5,9'2,V!()o/. ; in 18.58 at .5,291.287/.; in 1859 at
u.i<;i4,G41/.; in 1860 at 6,469,243/.; in 1861 at
(U101.487/. ; m 1862 at 7,109,809/.; in 1863 at
;.16n,fi6G/.; and in 1864 at 10,039,329/. The ex-
ports from the Australias made a great stride in
the j'ear 1864, every settlement participating in
the advance. Thus the value of the exports from
Western Australia in 1864 was 71,408/., against
C(M181Un 18ti3; from South Australia, 1,203,131/.,
apainst 1,097,795/. in 1863; from Victoria,
4.043,813/., against 2,681.2.39/.; from New South
Wales, 2,809,915/., against 1,966,948/. in 1863;
from Queensland, 344,362/., against 253,201/. in
18G3; from Tasmania, 464,293/., against 360,405/.
in 1863; and from New Zealand, 1,102,407/.,
against 740,397/. in 1863. Thirty years before —
in 1835 — the exports from the Australias were
valued at less than 1,000,000/. per annum; while
in 18C4 they exceeded 10,000,000/. annually; and
yet the work of Australian colonization has little
more than commenced at present.
Fom of Government. — The form in which the
Iffiislative and executive authority is exercised
(lifTers, to some extent, in the various states of
Australasia, though the main features are the same.
Vol. I.
AUSTRALIA (SOUTH)
273
The first charter for the Australasian colonies was
issued in 1H5I, by the liritiMi act of the previons
year, the l.'l ft 14 Vict. c. .59, combined with the
5 it 6 Vict. c. 76. The executive power was then
vested in an executive council, usually consisting
of the governor, the commander of the troops, tbn
cohdiial secretary, the attorney and solicitorgeneral,
and one or two more functionaries. The legisla-
tive councils, in which the legislative power was
vested, consisted of meml>ers partly elected and
partly nominat<-<l by the ("rown. The electeil
members represented counties, cities, and districts ;
the right of election being given to natural born
or naturalised male subjects of the thrown having
freehold estates of the nett value of ItlO/., or lease-
hohl estates of the annual value of 10/., or occupy-
ing houses of the annual value of 10/., ot holding
licenses to depasture lands. Provision was mmlo
for varying the limits of electoral districts, and
for increasing their number and the number of
ele(!ted members ; but with and under the condi-
tion that when two such niemi)ers w«'rc added,
another member might be named by her Majesty,
so that one third jiart of the additional members
alwavs consisted of nominees. The goveniors and
legislative councils were empowered to make laws,
provided they be not re])ugnnnt to the law of
England, or interfered with the rights of the ( 'rowu
to the lands iielonging to it within the colonies, or
to the revenue accruing from the same.
These arrangements, which had obviously been
formed on the model of the English constitution,
underwent subsequent alterations, in a democratic
sense, in several of the more tlourishing states of
Australasia. An account of the constitutional
form of each government must therefore be left to
fall in with the more detailed sketch of the seven
states into which the commonwealth at the Dritish
antipodes is divided. (See 'Australia, South,'
* Australia, Western,' ' New South Wales,' ' (Jueens-
land,' and 'Victoria,' ftdlowing this article, as form-
ing a portion of the great continent of Australia ;
and 'Van Diemen's Land,' recently called Tas-
mania, and ' Zealand, New,' given in separate ar-
ticles, as not belonging to Australia Pro{)er, but to
Australasia.)
AUSTHALIA. — The continental part of Austral-
asia is divided into five different states, namely,
South Australia, Western Australia, New South
Wales, Queensland, and Victoria. We treat these,
adopting the plan laid down in the first edition of
this work, in the followuig order : —
1. Australia (South) ;
2. Australia (Western) ;
3. Queensland;
4. New South VVales ;
5. Victoria.
I. AUSTRALIA (SOUTH), the name given to
that portion of the great Australian continent
comprised between the 132n(l and 14lst degs, of
E. long., and extending from the sea N. to lat.
26° S., having E. the region watered by the Murray
and its tributaries, and the colony of Victoria.
Area, according to the returns of the colonial go-
vernment, 383,328 Engl. sq. miles. Pop. 135,329,
in 1862, of whom 69,608 males, and 65,721 females.
South Australia was first colonised in 1836 by emi-
grants from Great Britain, sent out under the aus-
pices of a company called the South Australian
Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained
a grant from the Imperial Government of the lands
of this colony. The conditions were that the land
should not be sold at less than 1/. per acre; that
the revenue arising from the sale of such lands
should be appropriated to the emigration of agri-
cultural labourers ; that the control of the com-
pany's affairs should be vested in a body of commis-
T
■^\M
274 AUSTRALIA (SOUTH)
Bloncre approved by the BPCTotnrj' of HtnJc for the
colnnipH, anil that the f;ovcriior of tho colony
Rlumld bp noiniimtpd by the (^rown.
Tlip r(dniiy ih IxiuiuUmI on tho north by Cpntrnl
North AiiHtrnlin, and on the Houth by tiic ocean.
It JH HiU m. in leiifTth along the eaHterii boundary,
and 417 along the wcMtcrn boinulnry, and M'J ni
breadth.
Tlie coast of S. AiiNtralia in more indented than
that of any otiier part of the continent : SpenccrV
Gulf, which stretches inwards in a XN'K. direction
for about 2(10 m,, is separated from St. Vincent's
(Julf, lying mfire to the K. by Yorke peninsula.
Opposite the latter and the (iulf of St. Viiu-eiit is
Kangaroo Island, about KK) m. in length from VV.
to K„ and 'M m. in its greatest breadth. This
island, which is said to contain several fertile,
grassy, and well-wooded tracts, has on its N. side
the harbour of Ne|)enn and the settlement of
Kingscote; but hitherto few portions of it have
been o(TUpied. Most part of the settled land in
th(( colony lies ou the K. side of the (iulf of St.
Vincent, In which direction, also, is the greater
portion of the ex|(lored territory. Several parallel
mountain or hill ranges traverse this j)art of the
coiuitrv from S. to N,, but none of them is of any
greatclevation : Mt. Hryaut,ai)parently the highest
peak, reaching to only ;(,((l'2 ft. above ( he sea. The
surface is mostly imdulating and abounds in ' park-
like scenery,' interspersed with scattered woods or
scrub. The hills are moderately steep, and their
Bides covered with forests of gum-trees (ein'ah/pii),
casuarinas or she-oak, pines, various kinds of
acacias, &c., or with a sward aft'ording extensive
pasturage; but their summits are uniformlj' bare.
and exhibit fonnations of granite, gneiss, mica,
quartz, clay-slate, sandstone, and many varieties
of limestone. Some of these rocks have been found
to contain prolilic veins of valuable minerals ; and
mining has, in consequence, becomo a very impor-
tant branch of industry. South Australia has no
great river, except the Murray, which, however,
as already seen, is of the highest im|)ortance.
Unluckily the entrant* to it is obstructed by a
bar, which jjrevents the access of any but small
vessels from the sea into Lake Alexandrina at its
mouth. But a tram-road, that will probably be
replaced by a caiuil, has been already constructed
from where the Murray ceases to be navigable to
I'ort Kliott, on the NE. coast of Encounter Hay,
lat. 35° ;)2' Ah" S., long. 138° 43' 15" E. ; and the
navigation and trade of which the Murray is no
doubt tiestined to be the channel, will eventually
render this an important entrepot. In ad<lition to
Lake Alexandrina and that of Albert connected
■with it, this territory comprises the large and
mostly unexph)red Lake 'loiTens, and a great
number of ponds and creeks. It is also watered
by numerous small rivers, along the banks of which
there is commonly a rich alluvial soil: one of
these, the Torrens, on which Adelaide, the cap. of
the colony, is situated, loses itself in a marsh before
reaching the sea. It is stated that where water is
not abundant on the surface, it maj' generally be
obtained by sinking wells from 20 to 100 ft. in
depth. Between May and October, SW. winds
chicflj' prevail, and are accompanied by showers :
these are, however, less heavy than in \V. Aus-
tralin or Van Dienien's Land, and the mean annual
fall of rain at Adelaide, during the live years
ending with 1843, was found to be only 19*9
inches, being considerably less than in either New
South Wales or Phillipsland ; but evaporation is
much less rapid than in the former of these regions.
The annual temperatiu-e is a good deal higher than
in England, and more analogous to that of some
parts of Italy. The thermometer ranges from
alwnt 87° to 115° Falir., and ico as thick m a
shilling is rare in the winter months. In summer
that is, in .January, February, and March, n \v![
and oppressive wind occasionally sets in from i|ii'
N., which, however, is soon followed by a n«i\
breeze from the S. It is said that no drou<r|it Iuh
(KHUirred in the colony since its settlement, Tlu'
atmosphere! is, in general, remarkably clcnr an(|
sniubrious. Mr. Wilkinson states, that with emi-
grants establishing themselves in the country, 'a
house to live in is a secondary consideratid'n on
account of the healthiness and geniality of tlie iiir
and climate, which enables persons to <lo thiiifjH
there that would consign them to a bed of sickneM
in ICugland. Thus it is common to sleep for niijlm
togetlier in tho open air, without any injury td
health ; and on first entering on a country lii'c, a
tent or such-like slight covering is coiisiilcrcil
amply sutlicient for all wants till the emigrant
has ploughed, sown, and fenced his land.' (S. Aus-
tralia, p. 02.) Storms sonu'times occur, and earlh-
(puvkes have been felt, but the latter have iint heiii
l)roductive of damage. Dysentery and iutliicnza
are the oidy e|)idenii(; diseases, and the fdrmcr is
said to have become rarer than at the first ,<eiili..
ment of the colony. Ophthalmia apfM'nrs to lie
less fri'queut than on the E. side of the contiiieiit;
Mr. Wilkinson says it is produced by a small tlv,
which at certain seasons infests the coimtrj-.
It has been stated that of the country li. of St,
Vincent's (Julf about a third part is a'dajiteil f»r
agriculture or grazing, that another third is
covered with scrub or forest, and that the re-
maining third is barren.
The most extensive grazing tracts lie X. of
Adelaide : in that direction is a good deal of level
land, watered by the (lawler, Broughton, Wake-
lield, ami other rivers, which terminate nlioiit
1 00 m. from the capital in a chain of grassy ddwiis.
E. and S. of Adelaide the country is more limkeii,
but there are many fertile valleys, and the hill
slopes are well adapted for pasture. Alonf; tlie
shores of Ivake Alexandrina and the banks of fiie
Murray, for 100 m. from the lake, arc some f;o<"l
sheep and cattle runs, with strips of rich alluvial
land. Many valuable tracts border the coatt fmni
Encounter Bay to the Glenelg river on the froulier
of Phillipsland. Yorke and Eyre peninmlns, w\
either si(le of S|)encer's Gulf, appear to be much
less fertile than the other explored portions of the
colony : the latter has the harbour of Port Lin-
coln, and some good grazing tracts, but the
greater part of it is said by Mr. E>Te to l)C
' barren, arid, and worthless.' Its table land is
generally about 1,300 ft. in elevation.
The land in S. Australia is sold in smaller lots
than in N. S. Wales ; tracts of various sizes bciiij,'
disposed of at the government quarterly sales,
the minimum upset price being here, as elsewhere.
tixcd at the rate of 1/. per acre. From 1885 to
1852 inclusive there were sold 790,077 acres, at
an average price of about 1/. per acre. During
18(52 the area of land sold by the Crown wa.s
129,910 acres, which realised 152,(!59/., asainst
147,355 acres, and for which 189,015/. was paid
into the Treasury in 18()i. From 1835 to the
close of 1802 the total extent of land alienated
from the Crown was 2,610,315 acres, or upwards
of 4,400 sq. m. (giving upwards of G2 acres to
each male over fourteen years of age), v/hich
realised 3,150,210/. (Report -^f Governor Sir D.
Daly, dated Adelaide, Sc...;, i;), i862.) Lands are
divided into the three cl«.:.ots, of town, suburban.
and country lots : the intended sales are notitied
by proclamation at least three months before sale;
and on purchase a deposit of 10 per cent, is r^
quiretl to be paid immediately, and the remainder
I*
AUSTRALIA (SOUTH)
275
tracts lie N. 4
frood ileal (if level
koufihtdii, Wake-
tiTminate nl«)ut
in of {grassy (Ihwiis.
rv is tnoreliriiken.
[leys, and tlic hill
sture. Alonj! the
I the banks of the
le, arc some khjhI
ps of ricli alluviiil
■der the coait fnmi
ver on the frontier
fTd [leninmlas, w\
ipcar to be miuh
red portions of the
miT of port Lin-
tracts, but the
Mr. Km to k
Its table land is
■ation.
lid in smaller lots
k'arious sizes beiii),'
at quarterly sales,
here, a3 elsewhere.
;re. From 1H35 to
790,077 acres, at
per acre. During
y the Crown was
15-2.(>r)9/., auainst
189,015/. was ;«iul
T"rom l«3r) to the
of land alienated
acres, or iipwanls
rds of 6-2 acres to
I of age), which
Governor Sir 1).
1 1862.) Lands are
of town, suburlmn,
sales are notihed
.jonths before sale:
1 10 per cent, is re-
and the remainder
within a month. Conntry lotd put up and not bid
lor mflV l)e claimed by a purchaser without cora-
iiclitioii; «nd persons may apply for 'i}0,0<H) acres
without competition, the i)rice, liowcver, not to Iw
l(.^!i than the minimum of 2(»*. an acre. The deeds
of purchase contain a (jrnntof all above and l>elow
the soil: the j{oveniment reserves no rif^bt to the
minerals that may Ik; discovered, or to make roads
ncniss the proiHsrty ; its only claim is to (lu* soa-
coant within lOO ft. of hi^jh-water mark. A tract
i,f 11,(1(10 sq. m. has Im'ou leaseil for pastoral pur-
imsw for fourteen years from the 1st July, 1«51,
anil 1,1 1'^ ••'•• under" leases annually renewed.
The value of the exjiorts of bread stiift's and
irrain nnmuuted to Chl.'l,'-' 1 1 /. in 1802. The returns
show that 2,105,877 acres of land were encdosed
at the end of 1802. The average cost of enidosure,
I am informed, may be stated at 70/. jicr mile.
The area of land uiiilcr cultivation was 49l,.')ll
acres in 1802, against 48(!,007 acres in 1801. Tbc
main cmiw cultivated were, wheat, barley, oats,
maize, and hay. The wheat crop extended over
;t'j(l,l()0 acres "in 1802, giving .3,841,824 bushels,
or an average produce of 12 bushels to the acre,
while it covered 310,0;i0 acres in 1801, yielding
n.llO.'.IO bushels, or an average produce of 10
liusliels and 59 llis. to the acre. The low pro-
duce of twelve bushels of wheat per acre is ex-
plained in the report of the governor, as fidlows : —
'The reason for the low average as to quantity per
acre is, that a verj' largo extent of very bad land
has been ploughed up ; land that could scarcelv
lie expected to yield a crop liefore it had been well
worked and manured, and which will not be done
while land is so much cheaper than labour. In
fact the least possible amount of labour is be-
fitiiwed uixm the land here. It is simply ploughed,
sown, and reaped. I know land in the ncighbour-
hixMl of Gawler that has been cropiied every year
for the last fourteen years with only one small
siirinkling of manure. This slovenly mode of
cultivation will easily account for the small pro-
duce in the colony. (He))ort of Govenior Sir D.
Daly, Sept, 19, 1862.) Good farm implements are
maiie at Adelaide and elsewhere ; and a Mr. Kid-
ley is stated to have benefited the colony, and
distinguished it in the annals of art and science
hy the invention of a machine which reaps,
thrashes, and winnows at the same time, at the
rate of nearly an acre an hour.
The country produces all the choicest fruits of
southern France and Italy, such as vines, olives,
mulbcnries, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, me-
lons, peaches, almonds, figs, &c., with tobacco and
hops.
The live stock has greatly increased in the
course of twentv-two years. In 1840 there were
959 horses, 16,"052 homed cattle, and 166,770
sheep, grazing on the pastoral lands of the colony;
at the close of 1862 there were 66,261 horses,
258,342 homed cattle, and .3,431,000 sheep. The
total area leased for depasturing purposes was
3l'i,901 sq. m., besides an area of 25,571 sq. m. ap-
plied for but not yet leased.
Commensurate with the vast increase of live
stock has been the produce of the wool staple, the
total export of which amounted at the end of
lffi2 to 13,229,009 lbs., representing a money
value of 6.35,270/.
Wild dogs, which are the great pest of the
colony, sometimes prove very destructive to the
sheep; but their numbers are rapidly diminishing.
The '■, Australian Company are the largest sheep
propnetors: several other proprietors own from
10.000 to 16,000, and flocks of from 4,000 to 5,000
are common. Of late years some large sheep-nms
have been leased around Rivoli Bay and other
parts of the 8. E. conut, and beyond Port Lincoln
in the VV.
The breeding of cattle and horses is not pursued
on nearly so extensive a scale as in New Snulli
Wales or Victoria. The breeds were originiilly
im|>orte<l from the Cape of Good IIo|)c and Vaii
Diemen's Land. Itullocks are mostly used for agri-
cultural labour, liefore the introduction of farm
sliMtk into the cohmv, the tiesh of the kangaroo uuil
emu formed the princiiial food of the settlers : at
present these animals, trom the whole.iale destruc-
tion to which they have Iku'U subjected, are sehlom
met with in the vicinity of the scitli'inciits.
In the year 181,'t, a sudden inipfliis was given to
the enteqirise of the colonists by the discovery of
valuable metallic ores in different parts of the
country. Such was the influence of tnisdiscoverj"
on the sale of land, that whereas in 184.-1 the go-
vernment sold only 598 acres, in |8 44 it sold 3,428 ;
in 184.'), 09,(1,')8; and in lK4(i, 31,.3(tl acres, realis-
ing as much as 75,71. '>/. to the colonial treasury'.
Lead and copper arc the principal metals. Tlio
former is most abundant K. and S. K. from Ade-
laide ^in the Glen Osmond, Wheal Gawler, Wheal
Watkins, &c, mines), at Mt. Heevor, and at (Jat-
tagolingo, close on the coast near t^'ape .lervis.
Copper is raised in numerous localities in the hill
chain between the region of the Murray and the
(iiilfs; also in a plain 15 m. S. of Adelaide, at
(Jattagoliiigo, at tbc head of St. Vincent's Gulf,
and W. of I'ort Lincoln. The ores are met with
near the surface of the ground, and some of them
are extremely rich.
Mineral produce has been shipped from South
Australia during the ten years 18.')3-02, oftlie value
of 3,524,641/. l)uring the first half of that iieriod
1,294,013/., and 2,2.30,028/,, or nearly double the
amount, during the latter. In 1802 the exports
reached to 547,019/., greater than in any preceding
year, and 95,447/. more than in that previous.
The following table gives the quantities of mi-
neral prcHluce exported in quinquennial [icriods,
with the average yearly shipments : —
Periods 1 Copper
Lead
C„j.p.
Lead
On
Rcdu-
lua
< Cwti
Cwu
Tom
Tom
Tom
Total In five
years, 18.')3-f)7 ^46,r>r,(\
84
28,.'i.17
1,016
245
Do. 18SlMi2 310,889
4,707
35,133
1,295
1,441
Average of five
years, IS.I.Vf.T 29,310
7
5,711
329
49
Do. 18.')8-«2 63,378
953
7,020
259
288
In 1802, 85,872 cwt. of fine copjjer were shipped
against 61,047 cwt. in 1861. Of the former, 26,005
cwt. were sent to Great Britain ; 31,382 cwt. to
Melbourne, for transhipment; and 28,145 cwt, to
India. The greater part of the ore being now
smelted in the colony, the export of the crude
mineral in 1802 was only 6,216 tons, against 7,817
tons the year before. This quantity went forward
to England direct and by way of Melbourne in
about equal proportions. Of lead, only 426 cwt.
were shipped in 1862, against 1,256 cwt. in 1861 ;
but an increase appears imder the head of lead
ore and of regulus; of the latter 418 tons were
exported.
There are in Adelaide numerous flour-mills,
breweries, malt-houses, machine factories, and brass
and iron foundries ; with manufactures of barilla,
tobacco, soap, candles, leather, and earthenware.
The three great articles of export are breadstuffs,
wool, and minerals. The subjoined two tables ex-
hibit the total exports at various periotls, as well
as the per centage in which the staple articles
shared in them : —
T 2
276
AUSTRALIA (WESTERN)
I
t
! I
1^'
ill
^:jl
i^iili
Period
ToMI F.«pnrta of
FroalucD
A
73i,fl»a
1,744,184
1,920,487
n,'in:,,r,'i\
8,1U2,(1.'>H
l,nr.i,i04
l,(!3H,l:ll
In thoycar INM . . . .
lHf.7 ....
imi'i ....
Total In flvo years, 18.'..1-/17 .
Avorngo of five ycnw, 18na-n7 .
iHr.8-(ia .
or the Tolkl HhlpmcnU
llrpiMl«tu(T8 fomieil.pcrci'nt.
Wool
Mliu'rnls . . „ .
MlKcolliiiicouHrrodiicto,, .
Atitmc,
IH.M-te
Atitiwp.
Kurthifr,
IHMUUI
IH.'iH-ll'J
;w.:i
:iH"i
■M-n
•2H-\
:il-(l
11.1 -4
•.\-i-»
!i7'(l
27 "i
.;-4
•2-(i
;i'9
The whole trade centres nt Port Adclnide ; ftnd
in nt pri'seiU in f^rciit part ('(irricd on liv .KJiipitini^
Itelonpn^ to S. Anstriuiiui coloiUHtH. Tlu'rc imMio
hnrhonr diicn, toiinn/^o rates, or othi'r duties on
Hliippin^ in any of the ports of tliis colony. Hence
they are espeeinlly well fitted for the repair and
refitting of the xhipM engaged in the Southern
whale tishery.
South Australia possessed, at the end of the year
18(i2, ina(!adanii/e<l roads of the length of 2.')() in.,
nil of them in an excellent state. There were also
57 ni. of railway, whidi, in the course of the year
I8(!2, carried .'iOO.MO passengers, and 187,7<!2 tons
of goods. The introdu(^tion of 'he railway system
dates from the year 18/JO, when the tirst 7 m. were
opened.
The revenue and exjienditure of the state in the
six years l«.'>8-()3, was as follows : —
Yean
Rcvonuo
Expenditure
£
A
18.18
(ini..5no
f.4.'l,0'>.5
]8.-)9
f!(!!»,«8;j
fi20,7.'i(i
]8«0
/>()4,04.")
492,(;.-,0
18«l
B.18,.'>H6
482,9.11
]8(!2
G.')i),870
61.1,114
1803
6.31,700
63.1,205
The public debt, at the end of 18G2, amounted to
870,100/., at a rate of interest of six per cent.
The constitution of South Australia bears date
Octolier 27, 186(i. It vests the legislative power
in a Parliament elected by the people. The Par-
liament consists of a Legislative (Council and a
House of Assembly. The former is composed of
eighteen members, six of whom retire every four
years, their successors being then elected for twelve
years. The executive has no power to dissolve
this body. It is elected by the whole colony voting
as one district. The qualification of an elector to
the Legislative Council is as follows : — lie must be
twenty-one years of age, a natural-bom or natu-
ralised subject of her Majesty, and have been on the
electoral roll six months', besides having a freehold
of 50/. value, or a leasehold of 20/. annual value, or
occupying a dwelling-house of 25/. annual value.
The qualification for a member of council is merely
that he must l)e thirty years of age, a natural-born
or naturalised subject, and a resident in the pro-
vince for three years. The president of the council
is elected by the members.
The house of assembly consists of thirty-six
members, elected for three years by seventeen dis-
tricts, but liable to dissolution by the executive.
Tlie sole qualification for an elector is that of
having been on the electoral roll for six month.s,
and of having arrived at twcnty-ono yearn of njjc;
and the qiialitlcation for a nu>ndier is the fuimi'!
The speaker is elected for the Parliament by tlui
menilHTs of a new House on its first nin'tiiiK,
.liidges and miinsters of religion are ineligitili. f,,r
election as members, as well as aliens who lim.
not re.iided five years in (he ccdony. The flc('ti(,ii,
of memlK'rs of l>oth bouses are conducted hy Imilnt.
The executive is vested in a governor uppoiiiti.>|
bv theCrown and a n^sixinsible Kxecutive(,'oiiiicil,
tfio memlK'rs of whicli must have lieen eiccti.,!
deputies uf either of the two lluusos of Parlia-
ment.
South Australia was erected into a colony tiynn
act of the llritish Parliament in IHill, when it"win
jirovided that no convicts sh(ndd at any \)ft\m\ \„.
transported to it from the mother country or else-
where bv tiie Itrifish (loveniment.
II. AlJSTItALIA (VVI'.STKWN) soenllodfroni
its being situated on the VV. side of the contiiiciit,
is understoo'l, in its most extensive ncfeptutiim, in
comprise the portion of Australia VV. of the I2iiih
deg. of K. long.; but in a more limited Nensc tlio
term is ap)died to what was formerly known iistlio
• Swan-river colouv,' Iving l)etween the ifJnd ainl
.'l.')th degs. of S. Iat.,aiid the 115th and llilthdi;'*,
of K. long., comprising the SVV. portion ot' ilio
continent, its VV. and S. coasts being washed In-
the Indian Ocean. The area of the state enilirnceH
978,(100 Kngl. sq. m., with a white population, in
1802, of 17,210. The m'cupied region is nhinit .'Inii
m. in length from N. to S., by 150 m. in nvoracfi
brc'adth. The aborigines are estimated at frum
4,000 to 5,<I00.
'J'hree parollel mountain or hill ranges run from
N. to S. through this colony, progressively iiicreiH-
ing in height from the W. coast to the intcriiir,
the culminating summit near King George's Soiiinl
is about 3,500 ft. above the sea. The Swan liiwr,
with its main stream the Avon, makes iti wny
through these ranges, and after receivinj,' the
Helena and Camiing widens into an estuary, which
unites with the ocean in lot. 32", opposite Kottiicst
Islands. The town of Freemantle is at its nio-ith,
and Perth, the cap. of the colony, about lU ni.
farther up. The other princip. rivs. are the Miinay,
Preston, Ulackwood, Denmark, and Haleigh, ail \i>
the S. of the Swan River, but none of them is uf
any very considerable magnitude. The inlets (if
the sea arc numerous : principal, Cockhtim Soiiinl.
Peel Inlet, and the bay du Oeof/ruphe on the W.,
with Flinders' Bay and King George's Sound mi
the S. Cockbum Sound, though its entrance is
unluckily impeded by rocks, forms a sheltered ami
secure harbour ; and on its shore, where there is deep
water, the foundation has been laid of the new town
of Hockingham. The mouth of the Swan Kivcr is
the next most eligible harbour on the VV. const.
There are also anchorages at Peel's Inlet, Port
Leschenault, Augusta, &c., and in Shark's ami
Doubtful Island bajys beyond the limits of tlic
settled territory. Kmg George's Sound has all the
qualities of a good harbour, except that it is often
diflicult to leave it, owing to the prevalence of
strong westerly gales. All round the coasts arc
numerous petty inlets, lagoons, and lakes; ami
salt-pools and marshes are scattered over the inte-
rior. Much of the siuface is, notwithstanding, Imt
indifferently watered. From April to July a gm\
deal of rain is brought by W. winds to the territorv-
bordering the sea: the quantity falling at Kin;;
George's Sound during the winter months \mn^
about equal to the fall on the W. coast of En;:-
land; but the country 100 m. inland is much livs
abundantly supplied with moisture, and in the iiot
season, between November and Ai)ril, droughts arc
common. The climate is favourable to the con-
yw«M of nRP;
■'in tlin snmc.
iiiint'iit liy tin:
llrnt iiit't'iiiii;.
I! iiu'li^iltli' for
t'HH Wlll> 111 vi:
Till? I'ld'liclH
(•tcilliy Imlldt,
rnor u|i|iiiiiiti'>l
cutivuCiiiiiicil,
iH't'll cll'l'lisl
MM» uf I'urlia-
ft cdlony 1)y nn
111, wlu'ii it wilt
it iiiiy jicriml III!
country or cW-
;) HO oiiUcil from
if tho pimtiiii'iit,
(• iu'('('iitiitiiin, In
VV. of till' \-M\
limiti'il Hi'iisi' till'
■rly known n'<tlu'
en" the iViiiil mv\
1 and nsttlnli;'*.
[, portion lit' till-
iH'inu wH'ilii'il liy
he state cnilirni'i's
\U' popiilntiiin, in
•^ion is nlmnt 'M
150 m. in iivontKn
istimatcd at fmrn
11 rnnROs run from
gressivoly incrcns-
it to the" interior,
inK GeorKo's Smiiul
The Swan Uivi'r,
in, maltes its way
fter reeeivinn tlw
an estuary, which
r, opposite Kottncst
tie is at its niii'ith,
lony, altotit \'i ni,
vs.*arc ttieJIurray,
and RalciKli, «" i"
none of them is of
ule. The inlets nf
Cockbum Soiiivl,
(Hf raphe on the \V.,
Ocornc's Sonitdoii
j^h its entrance is
ms a sheltereil ftwl
•where there is deep
ftidofthenewtowii
the Swan Hiver is
on the W. coart.
Peel's Inlet. Tort
d in Shark's nnil
the limits of the
A Sound has all tlie
!ept that it is often
the prevalence of
md the coasts arc
B, and lakes; ami
^ered over the mto-
Lwithstandintf.tmt
Ipril to Jnlv a p"*!
Inds to the territory
Iv fallinR at Kini;
Inter months \m\\f.
\ \V. coast of I'.ni:-
Inland is much less
lure, and in the hot
lApril.drouf-htsare
Vrablc tothecon-
AUSTKALIA (WKSTKRN)
Mitiitlon of Europ<'nn.s : thnu(,'h in miminer the
,li,vH are hoi, the niKlits are iiivurialdy tool. I>y-
Mi'iti-rv of rt '"••'' ••liiiriicter, and ophilmlniia, are
the ii"rinri|i«l diseases whith all'cct Kuriipeans.
(Iriiniti', jfneiss, and red HUndstoiie, intermixed
with ciav, and roollii);-slate, and limestone, are
ihe prevalent fjeoloKieal riK;ks; aloiiK the Hay du
(iniTaphe basalt is aliundaiit ; and in one locality
tiicre is a columnar basaltic I'orinalion similar to
ihe (Jinnt's Causeway. There apiwars to be a
(liriileillv K"'"'^''" •'"'"•'•'' "f '""' "'"' '"•'«'"'"■ '""d
ill this than in the other Australian colonies,
,li„„jrh with manure ^'ood crops may be produced,
277
TMn
liniHiru
KipMW
C
e
IH.W
VJJ.'MH
44.710
IN.'.T
»»,.'..li
AD.IIIT
IK.MI
]r>:Mi
lt:i,(i:l7
imiii
iim,ii7i
H!l.-/ltl
I Hill
II7,!MJ
I»:..7M»
IHtii
140,(103
1U,7A4
llie weight of the wheat has sometimes exceeded
mil), per bushel, and its (piality >,'enerally has
Ikcii 1'^ K<"'d as that ol S. Australia. Soil upon
wliicli sheep have been folded produces nt an
averiiKe alimit 2I» bushels un acre, but the yield
iiiiifht 1h> increased.
The lierbiiK''. except In the bent watered dis-
trii'ls, is scanty, and at a medium live or six acres
are requ''"'"' ''"" " "•"K'" Hheep. The stock of the
latter is now, however, rapidly increasiiit,'. In
\h:){ the cxiMtrts of wool amounted to .'t.')lt,ir):i lbs,
iif the estimated value of l(l,7tiH/. 7*. Hr/. The
iiuality of the wool is similar to that from the
«Uer colonies; butowinf,' to its beiiiK' at lirst sent
over in bad condition, it brouKlit a less price. It
iimstitutes the main article of export, and is sus-
ciptihle of an indelinite increase. (Southey on
Ci'loiiial Wools, p. « 1 .) Sandal wood promises to
liirtn avaluable article of export, Indnf,' sent to .Sin-
uaiMire and China. There is likewise an available
Mipply of ship-buiMinf? timber, which grows quite
cliisc to the sea : it is analojjous to Honduras ma-
lm);any, is of large size, resists the sea-womi, and
is not" apt to split or warp, while at the same
time it is more easily worked than any other wood
ill Australia. It has been used in the colony for
iiiiilding small vessels, and al»t> for rafters, &c., in
houses. A shipload was recently supplieil at the
liuekvard at Chatham, and was liiglily approved
uf. 'f he vine, the tig, and the olive are beginning
ti) lie cultivatal. Zaiite currants thrive as well
as the grape, but none have been produced for
iximrtation. Wine has been made tor consump-
lioii in the colony, and projects are entertained
|,ir procuring a supply ol German vine-drcssers.
Ill 1852 the value of the imports amoiiiitcd to
117,304/., whereof those from Great Uritainaimmiited
III 1)5,447/. : the value of the exjwrts in the same
vtar amounted to 1(5,671/., wool (except triHing
i|iiantitie8 of tiral)er, whale-oil, and whalebone)
Will),' almost the only article.
Cual of good quality has been traced in veins
III' luiisidcrablc thickness over a large surface,
and, it has been stated, within foiu: or live miles of
till! coast. At present the cost of bringing it
iliiwii for embarkation, in consequence of the high
lirice of labour, exceeds the cost of English coal ;
liutAvere smelting works established near the pits,
the reduction of the ores of S. Australia might,
ler'.iaps, prove a prolitable business, no coal
luivinj,' hitherto been found in that colony. Iron
lire of excellent quality is met with in large
i|uaiititie8, as is also zinc ; and traces of copper,
leail, quicksilver, &c., have been found, though no
luiues of these metals have been opened. A trade
ill gum; is commencing, their collection being en-
trusted to the aborigines, who dispose of them to
tlie Europeans at the various settlements. A
^\<id^ of Phjrmium (enor, or tough Hax, is stated
to be amongst the indigcnoua plants wliicli might
1« turned to account.
The total value of the imports and exports of
Western Australia, in the six years from 1856 to
1802, is shown in the subjoined statement : —
The exports of the colony, very small in
amount, consist almost enlirtdy of wool and tim-
ber, tli(! former being of the average vahio of
tiO,(IIHl/. annually. The soil is believed to be rich
in mineral ore, principally cooper; but as yet
milling has not proved remunerative in Western
Aiistriilia.
The llrst settlements in this territory were
establisbeil on Swan Hiver in IMi'M; and on the
formation of the colony very large grants of landn
were made to individuals, to which cause its com-
parative want of progress may 1h>, in part at ItMist,
attributed. One settler had" a bhick of '25<i,iiii()
acres, and there were other grants of a similar
nature, so that not less than l,.'j<H),()l)U acres had
been appropriated previously to INIl. liabour is
scarce, and wages high. 'Ihe community being
small, they would not Iw able, fnmi want of
capital, suddenly to receive and employ any great
number of immigrants; but it is supposed that
from 1,5(10 to I,(i00 labourers aiiniially might be
jirovided for with us much advantage as in any
other colony.
Tor years past, immigration into the colony lias
been conlineil to the |>ersoiis sent out by the llri-
tish Government — paupers and criminals. During
the ten years, from Dec. HI, IM"i4, to Dec. .'U, IKliU,
there were introduced to Western Australia : —
Convicts 4,800
Oovoriiment immigrants, prlsonors' families,
pensluucrs, iic 4,8S0
Total
0,G'iO
On the other hand, there left in the same period —
Fr(X! emigrants, oxplrccfl, &c. . . . 4,7!)1
It thus appears that but one-half of the convicts
and immigrants remain in the colony. The cri-
minal statistics of this c(mvict ]iopulatioii appear
to be, however, not altogether unfavourable. With
a population of some K,()00 adult males, where the
boiui class, including expirees, outnumber the free,
there were only 20 cases of crime during lM(i2, of
such importance as to be tried before the Supremo
Court. Of these cases 22 were of the convict
class, and the majority of the crimes for which
they were tried were not of a very serious nature,
not one case of murder being among them.
Owing to the extensive grants originally made,
land may be obtained at a low price in thiscidoiiy.
In 1844, a million acres might have been pur-
chased at Sh, an acre. Owing to this low price,
the sale of land in the colony, in proportion to
the number of its inhabitants, w very great.
12,000 acres were sold in 18(12, a larger amount in
the two preceding years, and with a po])ulation of
17,000 persons, the majority of whom hold little
or no land ; nearly one and a half million acres
of land have been alienated in fee, and seven
millions of acres are held under lease. (Report of
Governor Hampton, dated l''eb, 20, 1863.)
The public revenue of Western Australia, in the
year 1862, amoimtcd to 69,406/., and the expendi-
ture to 72,267/. The government is administered
by a lieut.-governor appointed by the Crown, who
is assisted by an Executive Council comptised of
certain oflice-holders, nantcly, the senior olMcer in
1
1
i
1
«.
m
278 AUHTKALIA (QUKKNSLANI))
commnnil of Ihc forrM, thn rnlonlnl wcrofary, tlir
('iiiiiptriilh'r-Ki'iitTiil of I'oiiviftM, th<! mirv<'ytir-K<'n-
«'riil, lli<^ iitlortify-Ki'iifnil, mill tlii> IrriiMiirfr ami
riilliM-tiir III' iiitiTiml rt'vciiui', TIhtii Ih nlxo u
lil'U:iNllltivitCl>IIIICil)('IIIM|IIIWll, illC'lllllill^ til)* h'OVIT-
iiiir, III' i*lx (illii'iiil ami lour iimilltcial nii^mlHTH.
Thr otlU'iftl iiii'miIh'M ari! Ilii' KoviTimr, llio coiii-
inamliT of lli<> forci'N, tlio colonial Ncrrutary, tlm
Niirvi^yor-Kviierul, tlic attorMcy-Ki^iicral, ami lliti
iri'iiHiircr ami collcitor of iiid'nial rcvi'iiiKt. Tlu;
iiiiollirial int'inlMTH arc appoiiitt'il liy tliu C'ruwii,oii
till* rci'oiiiini'iiilalioti of tlii' i^ovi-nior.
III. (il!KKNSLANI>, tlui fonm'riy northern
province of New South Walen, erecteil into an
lmle|iemlent colony in IHi'iD. It eniliraccH the
iniineiiw* iliHtriet exIenilinK ahm^ the K, coiiMt of
Aiixtralia, lietween the Iroiiie of Capriconi ('i.'IJ)
ami (he .'loth tU'H, H. lat. Hut the occuiiieil |Hir-
tion of the territory extemlM only lietween the
'Jtlth anil Hildi ileKk'C!*- 'I'"' colony coniiiriiH'it
the whole norlh-ea.tlern |M)rtion of tho AiiHtru-
lian continent. It also inchtdeH, in the teniiN of
her inajv"<lv'H h-tters patent, ' all and every the
adjacent ii«landN, their iiienilM'rs and aiiiiurtenanceM,
in the I'ucillu Ocuun and in the Gull of t'ariien-
taria.'
It appenrH IVom thn statlMiual register of
f^ieen«laml for IWJI, that the mir\eyor-Kener«l
has made a careful calculation of the |irencut area
of the colony ; and tho rctiult in, in round nunibcrM,
m follown : —
AllEA OK QUKKXBLAND.
Ettdt Of lopRltiuIo 141°
Uctwooii 141" Mid lab"
Sqiurp mlln
fillO.IIIH)
UH.IilHI
Total ....
OccuriKn CoiiNTiiY.
Approximate area of country occupied by
«7a,u()o
pastoral stations
SquM* mllM
19fi,000
The vBHt territory thuH defined forme<l a part of
New South VValcH until it was erected into a
Hcparate colony, under tho name of (Queensland,
liy an order ol'her majewty in council, which took
elYect on December 10, IM.")9, upon the arrival of
tho lirst governor. Sir G. F. llowen.
The population amounted to 2-l,H70 on Decem-
lier ai, 18.")!! ; to '2!t,074 on December 31, IMtJO;
to :M,(Mi7 at the wame date in iHtil ; and to 45,077
on Decemlier 31, 1802. The increaHO of population
in the year ISfi'i by immij^ation from Europe
amounted to 8,080— namely, 4,703 maloH and
3,377 females; and the increa.se by immigration
from other colonies wa.s 1,725 — namely, 1,285
males and 440 femnlcH. At the end of 18(i2, the
population contained three males for every two
females ; but it is remarkable that in the course of
the year 18(12, though the male births were 110,
to every 100 females bom, the excess of births
over deaths gave but 387 males and as many as
518 females. The total increase by immigration
in the year 1862, from all parts, was 0,805 ; and
the population on December 31, 1802, was esti-
mated at 45,077, of whom 27,180 were males and
17.891 females.
The Australian Andes, a mountain chain mostly
from 60 to 70 m, distant from the Pocilic Ocean,
and separating the affluents of the Darling flow-
ing W. from the rivs. flowing E., have a general
elevation varying between 3000 and 4000 ft. ; but
some heights in New England are much more
lofty, and Mt. Lindsay, in a spur near Moreton
Hay, rises to 5700 ft. above the sea. Immediotely
on proceeding into the territory firom New South
Wales, the mountains are seen to assume a peaked
and volcanic shape ; they are mostly granitic, and
NamUtono iH-ing Iom prevalent than In the rnn.
round Sydney, the miil is MUjierior, Morehiii ll«\'
the nioNi remarkable geographical feature, i.^ ^li
inli'l of the iK-eaii iH-tween the i^7th and'jHili ,\,.^,
S. lal., and IM and 153^ degN, K. long,; it j, ,,|J
m, in h'ligih from N. to S., 20 ni, in wiilth,
Mliiddeil with islets, and Mheltered wawani lij
Moreton and Slradbroke islands. Its Mhiires, wliiiji
fonn thn CO, Stanley, are suited to the eulliiri' ,,|'
iHith Kuro|ioan and tropical priHlucts. I'riN'ei'dJn,'
from S. to N., tho principal streams tlowiiii; K.
through the territory are tlie Clarence, Hii Iiini,i|,i'
I.ogan, ItriHiiune, and VVidebay rivs., all ofM|ii,'||
are navigable, but, like the streanis nearer tn ih,.
S., they have bars at their inouths. The Clu.
rence, the largest riv. in E, Australia, erii|itii"i
itself into shoal bay, lat. 2!»" 20' S. It is Mi\\»\
to be navigable for sleambiiats of 100 tons liiinlin
for 80 m. alsive its bar, and througiioui iliiitiiart
of its course its banks consist of rich alluvial mijl,
well litted for agricultural |mr|Mises{ in the iiiiirr
|iart, it waters a line pastoral region on wlmli
many s<|uatters are settled ; ami near its niniiih |t
encloses a large island. The Itichmiimt, alHuit i:,
m. further N., is navigable for 50 m. frnm ilic
ocean. The country Ix-tweon this riv. and .Mur".
ton liay, a distance of 00 or 70 ni., is a contiimnui
forest of pines, some -f very large si/.e; ami iho
river Tweed towariU its centre is a gcHid ilial
resorted to for cedar timlier by coasting \\\\»U
from Sydney. Tho llrisbane, a large ami line
stream,' with a very circuitous course, is navi),'iit(,|
by steamers for 00 or 80 m. from its nioiith jn
Moreton IJay ; on It is lirisbano town, the ciiii. nf
('(M)ksland. Widebay riv. enters the sea ut I'lirt
Curtis, the N. limit of the e>.'vlored regiim. Thr
average temp, at Moreton I'uy was found tu k
alKiut 58° Fah. j in Dec. of the time year it varinl
from 72° to 80° ; and in Ju.ie k vus alxmt 54° Fnh,
Nothing can exceed the ou'uority of l!ie climate
of this region. The travollei', it is said, nmy
sleep in the ' bush ' uncovered on the haregrouiul;
and may ford rivers, ride in *et clothes, iiinl
expose himself with all but perfect impunity tn
every variation of temperature, nicslgkiiiwn'*
Australia, Ac. p. 107.) Owing to tlie vicinity u!
the tropic, rains aro more abundant ami rc^nikr
tlian further H. ; and the alluvial flats alon^' the
sides and i "•■■ : the mouths of the rivers heiii^' uii-
usually fertile, the country is better titteil llif
agriculture tliun the central region of New .Siiith
Wales. The crops, olso, ore less iiijiireil liy
dmughts. At ])resent, wheat, salted Ijccf, wihiI,
skins, tallow, and pine timlu'r, arc the princi|uii
articles of export. According to Mr. Kent, pi-
vemment superintendent at Moreton liay, the
average produce per acre of the agricultural (lists
between tho Clarence and Widebay riv., is ui
wheat; from 20 to 30 bushels, of maize from 50 tn
00 do., of sweet potatoes 30 tons, and of toliacco
about 15 cwts. (Lang's Cooksland, {i. 238,)
Sugar-cane of the Tahitian variety is inilifjcnmi'.
Tobacco, cotton, cottee, indigo, rice, baniiiias
oranges, melons, pine-apples, arrow-root, lln.x,
millet, guinea-grass, come to perfection; tiicail-
turo of silk has been successfully attcnipteil,
though hitherto not to much extent : the tempe-
rature is suited to the vine, but periodical rams
occurring when tho fruit is ripe, spoil tlie grapes
so that Cooksland is not likely to become a wine-
growing country. Darling Downs, New Engiaml,
and indeed most parts of the territory, except the
allimal Hats, aro extremely well adapted to aliif p
reoring, and a gocxl deal of land is occupicil in
large runs by squatters. Some squatting stjitiims
have liecn occupied as far N. as tho river linyne,
and extensive tracts have been discovered, $u|)-
t than In the rm,
iiir, Mort'loii l(«\,
itntl fttntiirc, in ah
H. K. I<iit|{. : il i< nil
., '20 ni. in wiilili,
I'Ucri'tl w'uwiinl l.y
Ih. ItM xhiircH, wliii il
i>il to llu' t'liitiiri' i.|'
(NlllctN. I'rixt'Ciliii;;
Htn-auiN Hiiwiint K,
Ulun-neo, lUi'liinmul,
IV rivft., nil nf wliiili
iiri'iinii* nearer i>i ilii>
inoutliH, Tilt! t'lii-
;, AuMiruIln, cniiitici
J 20' 8. It in Klaliil
trt (if too tmiM liiinlin
llirout^diiut tliiK |iatt
: i)f rich nlliiviitl Hull,
iqMtHV.H; in till! lUHHT
iral rcffion on wiiiili
and lu-ur Itn uioiitli it
i Uiclnniinil, ulxnit I'l
c lor M m. froin ilie
n thin riv. and Mhp'-
70 ni., i» ft c'ontiiiiicMn
•y larn« "''•*' i 'mil tliv
tentru in a kihkI ilciil
IX by eoaxtinn vi'»*l*
line, a lar^i^ and liiif
>U!i course, in navijtuti.l
m. from its nimitli in
d>ano town, the eiiii. nf
enterH the sea at I'orl
e-..'dorcd rt'nion. Tlu>
I'.uy was found to k
ll't i line year il varitil
icit .vus aWit 5l°Fah.
rt'i.ority 01 Ihe cliniatc
voUei', it in naiil, niay
red oil the bare urouiul;
e in ivet elothes, ami
)ut perfect impunity In
■rature. (HotlKl*'"*''''
winj; to the vicinity o!
, abundant and rcpilar
alluvial tlat» alonn tlic
of the rivcrn lii'inn u"-
ry iH better littwl U
al region of New South
0, arc le«8 injured liv
heat, wilted l)ecf, wi»il,
mber, are the iiriiiciiml
•dinj; to Mr. Kent, pi-
at Morcton Hay, tlio
)f the nuricultural ilist*.
id Widebay riv., i« "I
lelw, of maize from aO l"
30 tons, and of toliawi)
Is Ci)oksland, p. iSS.)
m variety is indigenous.
indigo, rice, banaiias
ii)les, nnow-root, flax,
to perfection; tlic oil-
successfully attcmptiil.
iich extent: theteunie-
,ne, but periodical raiiu
ia ripe, spoil the (^p.
likely to become a wmc-
K Downs, New EnglM
fthe territory, except the
ly well adapted to «h«p
of land is occupwl m
Some squatting Mm
t N. as the river Hovw,
fe been discovcretl, sup-
AUSTRALIA (N. H. WALKS)
iKiMil to Ik) wpII ftdajUeil for sheep, nIIII further N.
williin tlio liniilH ol the tro|iic, (|,i
,aiiK, pp. 111.',
i;l.l, 4c.) Slit'cp wi'IkIi at ah averuge rroiu "0 lo
fill 11 IS. nt Miireton Hav, and caltln from lil (o 14
cwt', Ihe Morrtiin lliiy pine (Aniiiruriit ('««-
niiiii'hi'ioi) is I'orithii'd to ihe geographical limit of
,^1,; MJand; it grows to fnuii loo tn l.'id fi, in
|iiit{lit, and yields excellent lintlHT for iiiasis and
pilars. 'I'n' bunya-bunyii pine (,■(. hiitinllin),
ri'il ci'<lar, iron-bark, blue gum, rose and tulip
Ihix, silk, and furesi naks, Av„ are imble
' Dr. I.eichhart found not fewer than 1 10
ililViri'Ot species of trees, exclusive of parasitical
iiliiiitt and sliridis, in the brush or alluvial llat
iiiiil of Miireton Hay, and 27 in Ihu open forest,
and idling only :>0 paces of a cattle track at Mme-
^llllle riiiin, near Ijiswich, not fewer than 17
ilill'iTt'iit species of grass in stied at Ihe same time.'
(Iliiil. p. ■^•I-) Honey is becoiiiing un article of
I'liinincrcc. Dyewoisls and gums abound in great
\ariclv, l)Ut they have not yet (or had not at the
ilate iiV last reiHirt) found a place in the markets.
Turtle of various sorts, and pearl oysters, an-
aliuiiilant on moHt luirts of the coast, Cnal has
U'i'ii met with on Isith sides of the Australian
Amies, lint hitherto no iniiies have been opened.
Must of the iinxluctions of iMith temperate and
tropical countries can be cultivated with success
ill (jiiceiisland. The climate is stated to be
lavuiiralile to pastoral occupations, and to Ihe
(jriiwllnif wool. KxiH-rience has shown that ex-
tciiitive districts are also adapted for the growth
of cotton. Many writers rcganl this ccdonv as
iMiiied to become the future cotton-lleld of (lireat
llrilain. A bonus is ottered by the govertitnent of
ii'ii iicn-s of land for cverv bale of 8ea Islaiul
cotton weighing 8(K) lbs. llowcver, the registrar-
^'('iicrnl of (^lecnsluiid, in his report of .luiiu IHI)8,
ntatvd that agriculture hud made little progress;
till' high rate of wages, uncertainty ot getting
lalsair, and the difficulty of conveyiiig produce to
market over roads always rough and often im-
jiassable, having hitherto made it more economical
to inipiirt almost all kinds (d' agricultural |iroduce
than til grow them, Acitording to an ollicial re-
iiini of Marcli IMtii), the extent of land set aside
liir the cultivation of cotton tit that period was
uiiiliT 100 acres.
Tlie value of the im])orts and ox)>orts of Qneens-
laml, ill the years 1«C0, IMtil, and I8(i:;, is given in
the t'oHowing table. It shows that, during this
trii'iuiiiil period, the imports have nearly (hiubled,
vliilu the exports also huvu largely increased.
(ireat gold fields have hith
thiingli the metal is ladh'v .^
ipilintilies.
The fonn of govenmu ,
tjuecnslaiid was establishoi
on its separation Irmii New
power of making laws and
vested in n I'arliameiil of tw
270
not heon disoovered,
U> existing in large
Ymt
ISliO
I IWil
ImporM
742,023
9(I7,!)50
1,320,225
Eiportt
Tot»l IniporU
uiil K&|)ortt
523,470
70!»,5!»8
748,519
1 ,205,499
1,077.548
2,008,744
Tlio commercial intercourse of Queensland is
oliii'tly with the other Australian cohmies, and,
next to them, with Great liritain, as shown iii the
sulijoiiicd table : —
!
\
T«»r 1 ImporU
1 £
Exporti
Tout
;
£
£
( 18«0 50,730
J 1801 90,905
—
60,730
Gnat Britain .
119,515
210,420
I 1802 228,591 215,059
443,050
1800 523,105 101,540
684,711
Auntralian colonics
1801 874,797 589,033
1,4(U.431
1 1802 1,080,338 627,545
1,613,883
There arc several coal mines in the colony, pro-
iluciiig about 18,UU0 tons of coul per tumum.
of til rolonv of
'i-oeni' .r H», ' ■%
ith VVnlott. ilio
nposing tn\ Im
lloiiscH, the 1,1 ^is-
lative Conncil and the LeginlatiM' Asm'iiibly. Ihe
fonner consists of twenty ineinlHTs, noniinated by
the Crown for life; ami the latter of twenty-six
deiiiities, idected by all natural born or naturalised
cili/ens, who |iay taxes, and have undergone no
coiiilcnniation tor a,i'- criminal act. The execu-
tive is vested in a governor appointed by the
('rowii,
IV. NKW SOUTH WALKS, the earliest set-
tled of the liritish colonies in Australia, comprises
the territory between the tropic of Capricorn on t\\v.
N. and Cape Howe, in aUiiit U7(<' S. hit., having a
coast line of about !)7:i in.
The Itbie Mountains extend irregularly throiigh-
ont the wlude length of this region, parallel to the
coast, at a distance averaging from iio to M m.
Their medium elevation varies between il.oiio
to 1,0011 I't., and their slo|Mt is most abruiit on the
K. side, between which and the ocean is a well
wiMided undiibitiiig territorv, watered by iinnie-
rons rivers. The l,iver|MHil range, coiisiderablv
higher than the llliie Mountains, trend from \\ .
to H. ill the N. |iart of the colony, dividing the
COS. jlligh and llrisbane from the sipiatting
district, Liver|Hiol plains, N. K. of the range. Sea
view, perhaps the loftiest in the colony, rises to the
height of (i,000 ft. Shores mostly bold; but in-
dented with some line bays or inlets, as lioliiny
and liroken liays, I'orts .lackson, Ilniiter, Ste-
phens, and Hacking, Kateman and Twolidd Itavs,
die. It was on the K. Hunk of the Coniiabalas
Mountain, not far from Ilathurst, and alsiiit 120
m. W.N.W. from Sydney, that the gtdil deposits
were lirst discovered in IHol. Several of the
rivers are of (-oiisiderable size; but the months of
all of them are more <ir less encumbered by bars,
so that they arc of comparatively little use for
navigation. The Hunter, after a winding S. and
K. course, estimated at 200 m., ilisembogiies in
I'ort Hunter, near hit. H.j" S. The main stream is
navigable only for ."Jo in., but it receives several
tributaries available for shipping to a niticli
greater distance ; and the districts watered by it
and its atlliients are the richest in the cidony.
The Hawkesbury, fomied by the junction of the
Ne|K!aii and Grose rivers, ImmiiiiIs the eo. Cum-
berland on the W. and N., and receives many
coiisulerablo alHuents in its course to the sea,
which it enters at Urokeii Hay. It is navigable
for vessels id' 100 tons for Mo in, from its monih.
The MacLeay disembogues in Trial Hay, hit.
30° 40' S.; it has a bar at its entrance, with, ge-
nerally, aulHcicnt water for vessels drawing 10 or
1 1 ft., and is navigable for vessels of .50 or tiO tons
for 34 m, from its mouth. (Hodgkinson, p. !>.)
Lakes neither large nor numerous : Macquarrio
and Itrisbaiie, both in co. NortlmmlH'rland, are tho
largest; Illawarrn (Camden) and the Tuggerali
beach lakes arc mere inlets of the ocean, with
narrow mouths. The sites of lakes George (co.
Murray), and Uathurst (co. Argyle), in the S.,
have been for many years dry and imder culti-
vation.
The Climate is warmer than that of Knglaiul,
mean temp, at Port Jackson liciiig tiO* (i', and at
Fort Macquarrie (!K° Fah. In winter, that is, in
June, July, and August, snow sometimes lies on
the mountains, and occasionally in the upland
valleys, for some days together; but it is wholly
Si
1
l> b
II-
980 ArHTUAI.IA (N. H. WAI,^:.S)
unkiiiiwn in Ihr virinUy of Hyi|ii<>y nml ailing th<<
cnanl ; iIktc tli<> winh-r U ii m'ummi of rain witli
uli^lil IVikIn, i'lic luinniil fall nl' rain at I'ort
Mari|iuirrii' anmuiilM In alMMit )t'.'l| inrlit'ii, anil at
I'liri .liii'kxon III ^'.''12 till. ; a niiirii larK'T ainninil
iliaii at I'lirt I'liilliji I'nr t'xatn|ili', wlirri' tlir ikvrr-
ii^'f iit iitily :i))'7 nirlii'M (SIr/.i'li'cki), (IhhikIi tli«
laittT In i'i|iial III till- avrra^i' in nnwt parlM ol'
I'.iiKlanil, itixl ciiM^iili'ralily ^ri'attr than tin* i|iiaii<
lily railing mi lii-r M. cnaKi. Wain Miinctiiiu-N
iIi'mi'I'ihIn in liirrrnU In N, M. Walt'N: it iHHlaioil
thai i>n onii iK't-axiiin '2't ini'lirn Irll at I'orl JackNiin
in 'J> litinrH (Sir/i'lccki) ; anil a river in thi' nioiin- I
tiiiniMiN rt'^ioii liiiM riM'n I'roiii a HJniilar caiiNc, in a I
few lioiirM, to '.17 It. aiNivi* iu nrilinary li'vcl, lint, |
lln> Niiil Muft in n ntvnt ini'M'«iin tn|iiii*i'il nt' '
ilixiiili'i^ratt'tl NanilNliinc, tliiN cxcchs nl'moiiliiro \n
Miiiii ilrit'il n|i. It In, aim I, iniiri< i'Ximim'iI than iniwt
otlicr iiariM nf AiiMiralia tu hut ami iiari'hinu wimln
Iriiin till' N, Thi'Ki', wliiih hear a i'Iohc aiiaingv to
till' SiiniMini of till! Anilw iinil the SiriM'co ot S.
Italy, an> wry oiiprcHnivt', ami |iriiiliit'i'i>iihtlnilinia
luniin^Mt iHitli l\w Knrii|H'an ami nalivit rat'i'i*.
l>yNt'nti'ry nnd intincn/.a arc |irt'tly iircvalfiit,
iitiHckiii); I'hit'lly the inhaliM, of l'liirii|K'an lU'vM'ciit.
Count Str/i'lci'ki iiIimtvi'h, that, coniimri'il with
the virgin HoiU which hv hiiil cxainiiicil * in
Cainida, the II. States, llra/.il, the Argentina Ho-
iiiililii', (■iiatt'iniila, Mexico, ami thii i.'tlamlN of
llally anil Loinliok, thoHc of N. S. Waleii anil Van
J>ii'in('n'H hnnil nrv iirruth/ iiifirinr in the ainoiinl
of NiiltH anil alkalicN they cnnlain, and thcrel'orc in
fertility.' (Str/.decki, |"»|i. :Hit), .Kil.) Thin lerri-
tnry ifi, in fact, much lii'tter ailapU'd for u grazing
than for an agricultnral country. Tlio tilled land
lie.t chietly along the liankH of the larger rivers, in
the valleyHof the llnnter, llawkcNlairy, Neiuini,
WollondillM, (ioiilhurn, «l'c., and along the Mac-
nnarric and(Jani|ihell, down to Wellington valley,
'rhu faniiH of the AuHtraliati Agricultural >Soci<'ty
in the N. are aniongnt the hcHt conducled uml
mimt thriving : the iieighbourhiK)d of Newciixtle,
from its excellent harhonr, the facility of obtaining
coal, tiderahic irrigation, nnd giMNl roiidH, i.i the
iniKst tlouriNhing agricultural iliHtrict in the cidony.
The Htate nnd j)rogreH« of agriculture is hiic-
«'Uii'tly exhihiUsl in the following table, which
mIiowd the land under crop at two periiKU : —
Crojn
Sill March
18tl.i
Slit March
IHU3
Wheat
Maize
Dnrley nnd Onts .
Hyo, Slillct, ami yorglium .
Kown Uniiwt.'ii
I'otntooH ....
Vliieyanis ....
Oanlt'iiH ....
Toliocco ....
Cotton ....
Other Crops
Totals .
Acrrt
12i>,!17.V
fiD.lt!)}
4l,71t!»i
l,4!Mi
4;l,'^!»2
lo,o;!!ij
1,1 :I0
8,7(»7i
JJ'Jili
2,;)coi
Acre!
117.H.V|^
7H,W.'}
60,(101
741
32,010
!),282J
l,4.')!»i
8,410
HU.'.J
64?
3,ll»«i
297,675
:)02,iy8i
nhnnihint, ihiit Kort of famiing may lie niii'in|iir<|
MiiliNonie primiM'i'l of Mii'i'ON, hill not till ihin,
'rowariN the end of laxt ceniiiry the a| ■, j„
N.M. Wali'N con'<i'<li'd prlm'ipally of llie lin.,.,{, ,,,
llellgal ami the ('ajie of (iniHl Hope; hihI ||„
ciiliiiiy it niainly iiuleliii'd for the inii'iHliiciinn „i
the nheep fanning xv-'lein, and i'on'<ei|iieiiilv niji,
Ktaple Miiiini' of wealth, to the example aii'ilixir
lioiiN of .lolin Macarihiir, l->i|. 'I'lint gi'inli'm,,,,
nHcertained, Noniew here alHmt I71i'i or I7',);i, ilim
bv jndii'iou.tly cnwhing the colony breeds wm,'
tfiiw of (ireat liritiiin, the imality of the IIi'i'ii'Mh,
very niiii'h improved, ami that ii ranked wiili i|„.
Im'»i l''.uriiiiean wool.
'I'be following waM the (|nnntity of nhoep nn.l
"iher live ."lock in .New Mouth Walei*, in the ilin,
\earH IHiiiMi-J :—
,Tawa
IMIII
IMII2
llanH
llnrni'cl
t'alila
N*.
261,4117
'2M,Ti')
Ma.
2,40M,riNII
•;,'^7t,l»'^:l
2,ii'.iO,;iH:l
klix
N„
II.IIIMfl'l
fi.iil.^i.ii.'hl
i>,i|.-i,i;:<i
The olive has been introduced to a small extent.
8ilk also hm been tried, but only on u limited
M'ale : though not indigenous, the mulberry growH
very well. The orange grows magnilicently. Tlie
cotton plant, unlike the American deitcription, is a
perennial, the same as in llrazil, the Kast Indies,
and Egypt. We believe, however, that these
branches uf industrv are unsuited to the present
cimdition of the cofony ; and that those who em-
bark in them on anything like an extensive scale
will be heavy losers. W hen the sheep-runs have , ^ „ _.,,_. -
been all occupied, pop. become dense, and labour I and black races iu the U. States ; but within tiiisc
New South Wales was lirMi colniiiHed bvciiiiviri«
inl7^H. In May 17h7, six transports ami i[irn'<ii>ri'.
sliiiis ciiiivoved by a frigate and an arineil ii'ml, r,
nailed from kngland with .'iti.'t male aiiil I'.l.' trimili'
I'oiivicl.-*, under the cumniand of Captain l'liilli|>.
lie arrived at Motaiiy Hay on .lanuary '.Ml, {'m,
but, discovering I'ort Jackson by acciilini, |„.
removed his licet to it. In I7i^<.) a Iimi'M'sI wiiniir-i
reaped nl rarnmattn. In I7!MI the lirsl griiiit di'
land was made to a convict. In I7'.i:i there wiri'
l,"-'()i) hnshcls of surplus wheal grown in lliecnlniiy,
and piirchused by governinent. In 17ns il'n.
whide ]iopulntion, including the giKertmieiit cMa-
hlishment nnd convicts, nnioiinted to 1,0,10, jn
IMOII the llrst newspaper was printed. In ItHi
the population, free and felon, nmoinited to s,'.'!i.i,
There were nl the same iR'rioii l)7,(l!i7 acres uflniiil
granted, and there were iii theclilony 1,111 |ii>rM>,
ll,27(i liorned cattle, ;i'l,ool) sheep. In IM'.'I ihr
population incrensed to 2!),78.'i, and iu IN'.'N in
27,1)11 mnlesnnd H,',\lH females : total .'Kv'iim. (ij
this nundier, lt,l<'i() were male, luid l,.)l.'l I'ciiiali'
convicts; nnd />,.'i02 males, and 1,312 feinak'ii, live
by servitude.
The munber of eniigrnnts which arrived in the
colony in the twelve years 1K2'J to IHIO aini>iiiiti4
U> 41,704. During the years 1841 and 1X12 ilic
nnnibcr of emigrants was :t().224. The popiilatinn
of Svihiey in IM.W was l(l,2a;i; nnd in iH.li;,
ll),72k In lM4(t it amouTitcd to 2!V.>7;t ; nnd in
l«4r)-40, to .'i8,Jli")H. The colony was relieved I'ri'm
the Iransportntion of criniinuls in IMIO.
While this was u iienal settlement, it wa.i imiiI,
after convicts had been detained for a loiifjiT cpr
shorter (leriod, in the hulks or government (<-
tablisliments in the colony, to assign them an Mr-
vants to the s(!ttlers ; anil subsequently it iM'i'iiiiir
customary ti) give them tickets of leave, eiiiililin,'
them to engage themselves to musters — a privikj,'e
wlricli was commonly coupled with a cninlitional
parihin. As might be expected, a distinct line nl
demarcation was early drawn, and is stilt, tii(>ii;'li
less strictly, kept up between convicts wlie liad
acquired their freedom, and the rest of the jKipiila-
tion. Society in N. S. Wales is divided info tlie ih"
classes of free emigrants and their de.scrniiani-,
and of those convicted of any offence, or win) Iwvi'
sprung, immediately or remotely, from a cuiividcd
party. Tiiese clu.ssc8 have, down to a late \ittm\,
kept aa distinct from each other as the pure aii<l
impure castes auiong the IIi!idoo.s, or the wliiie
|M,5;i-S7
iH.'iS-OS
Total
Scawarrl ,
Overland an
t Murray
AI'STIIAMA (N. H. WALKS)
r |» »Mrm|iUK|
MUtllhlKii.
y lilt' p>liii|i in
ll' lln' lirinU .11
|ii|ic; mill III!
inii'iKliii'iii'ii mI
Ht'Hiu'iillv 111 ii,
iiil|ilt' mill lAir
I'liiil K''i>*li'">'»i
■2 iir IT'.tll, lluii,
ly lirt'iil* Willi
of IIh' lli'nc v^;l^
runktil Willi the
ty iif hIii'<|i iin.l
lit'H, ill tlu' iliriT
No
II.M'.I.IM
f.,i>|.'i,ll.Vl
II.U.'i.lUl
mim'd l>vt'imviri«
■tmuiil iliri'f.tdrr
nil iiriiird ii'iiilir,
ill* mill I 'I- iciiiiili'
('ii|ilaiii riiillii'.
Jiimiiiry 'Jn. I Tux,
liy lU'fiiliilli 111'
a I'miM'st wiiKlir.i
tlif tirsi uriiiil III'
I I7'.';t lIuTf wiri'
•own ill llii'i'iilmiy,
it. Ill 17HH llll
(riiMTlllIllilt I'Mll-
iti'il to l,t>:n>. Ill
)irnitcil. Ill li^l'i
UlKllllltCtI til «,'"'.l.
17,(1117 lUTi'H III' liiiiil
(iloiiy 1,111 li'T"''.
lu'ep. Ill I'^'.il 'I"'
;l, iiml ill l«'^» I"
: t.itui :it'v.im. or
1,1111(1 l,.')i:i fi'iiii'li'
l,;j 1-2 t'cmiili'x, fill'
Lich arrivcil in Itio
I to \HW umiiunii'l
IHll anil l«l'- !l"'
ll. Tim iiopiiliiti""
l;i;i; uuil ill I'*'"'.
I to iiSilTlt ; mill in
I wait rolinvcil Iri'i"
liii IHIU.
lineiit, it was iii-niil,
V'll for a loii;;i'r '"
kir gove'riiniiiit i-
Lsinii tlicni as M r-
eqiumtly it U'mw
. of leave, eiialiliii;'
[lasters— a priviU't;^
I with a coiiilitiiiiwl
111, a ilintiiict liiii; "t
laiul is still, tliim;;li
' ciiuvicls who hail
1! rest of the iMirula-
fUvided into the iwi»
I their dcHcciiilants
Iffencc, or whuhavi'
ly.from a ei)livii:ltil
kvn to a late i*riiHi,
Icr as the imre ninl
luloos, or the white
Is; butwitliintlw.se
fi'W n*t», the |)rr|iii|lri"4 in wliirli tliiH i«'|)iirikiii>ii
.iri({liirt""l liiive I'llmlni very »{r<"llv. iiml will,
iinilHilily III III) ili"tiiiil i'ItIihI, wliiilly illHit|i|M'ar.
||iii Ktlniillll" kIm'II III illlliliuiallnll liy llie <\'\*
(iiMT* 111 ™''il'l ha^ Ih'1'11 I" ^ll ln'i'e llimi in N ii'
l.iriii;' liiii H liaN iiiilM iiliKlamliiiK. I"'iii viTv
iKiwrrliil. It i' iiii|"'i'-il''''. lio«.M'r, to I'lii'iii liny
niiiji'i'tiiri' ill ri'mai'il tn il>* nuillniiaiii'i', iim IIiiii
iiiiiDt ill ureal ni'iisiir"- ilr|M'iiil on ilie future pro
ilurlivi'lli 1" ol (he »>il<l llelilN. lint wlietlier ll
I'liiilliiiie iiImiiiI nlalii'iiiiry, iliininl-li or iin'reaie,
Mill ll i-i |ilain thai llir ' nitiiiil of tlii>^> eiiKiiKi'il
ill llie iM'ari'li fur ^uhl inr |iriivi.<4liin'< ami oilier
.irtli'le* iif ai'i'iiiniiiiiilali'.ii, eaiinot fail in llie einl
III >{ivii a eorresiMiniliiiK ini|ml''e in e\ery hraiii'li
lit iiiilii<iry, mill (n n- |iitiililii|i that (general i><|iiiil
iiv, lakiii^ all tliiiiK-* iolo ari'iiinit, wliieli ii'<iially
.I'lliiUix lH>tw('en wii^: mill |irollt'i in illlVerent
i|i|iiirliiit'iit->. 11"** I ~|i«'n>iis Hofver the "iIIk
niiii,'"' '•"•>' '"'' •'"' ' ' "ifi'" draw 11 to I hem in
llie lli'il iiittanee fnnii nt^rienlliire mid oilier piir-
.iiilK»ill Ix' sure to Ih) rLHtoi'ed to the latter, or
n|iliii III hy otlnirs.
Tlii'iiital |io|iiilaiii'ii oflliiii'idonyof N.S. Wales,
„iillie;llst of Dei'enilier IH.V2, was otileinlly eKti-
iiiiileil at '2iW,'2j'>I. of whom ll«,tlM7 were 'males,
ami N'.l,')i'i7 feniali's. A« riling to estiinaleM made
al'let the retiiriit of the reg;istrar-^eiieral, the
|iii|iiilatiiiii miiiilH!reil: —
11,.1'nili.Tni, IHi;i
iMvnilierill, IHi;-.'
M»1hi
aiej.oiM)
Frm»ln
1.MI,I7!(
ll)l,IMI4
Tiiial
M.'iS.'JTH
illl7,l!l.'.
The returns of immigration for the ten years,
IM.'h't III IHi'iJ iiieliiMive, exhibit the results shown
ill the fiillowiiif; table:—
QiillHluen'
iiliil
|i|irlmli
ItCS-UJ
Total
AtiUlml
ToluiiUry
TiiUl
Mam
y4,'J4H
i»,im7
Kemala
■2.'.,4fifi
»,;i7J
!4,:lll
:.7,iiH-2
Ki'inAlo
11,(117
14,571
•23.n8H
Mils
KomKli'
8H,nAI)
(I7,l»41»
:i-l,47.i
aii,ii4;i
U4,2I&
;I4,«'27
7'2,*2«a
These ll>;ures show that, whilst the nasisted Im-
iiii);riitioM has been eondueted with due regard to
llie equalisation of the sexes, the voluntary immi-
):riiliiiii nets at nought this important soeial coii-
>iili'rntuiii. The above luimlMirs arc exc^liisive of
:t,ii2'2 Chhiesc iinmigrnnts, who arrived in the year
isj'j, and of li,\}M uf the same nation, wliieli ar-
rived ill I8(i0. They were nearlv all males.
AiTordiiig to Count Strzcleeki, six acres per
hi'iul is the least extent of land rerpiired in the
(Tiitriil part of the colony for pasturage ; but from
liiiir III live acres is perhaps nearer the average
iilliiwed ill the runs. The arts of breeding, jias-
int'uiii hy rotation of ground, ibc, os pursued in
lirilaiu and in Silesia, are in general little under-
^tllod, nioitt part of the wool-growers being persons
iviio, licforo emigrating, had little, if any, expe-
rience in sheeji-fann i ng. The rearing of other stock,
lliiui);li less nttendeit Ut in the colony than sheep-
lii'iliii);, is, as seen above, far from unimportant.
Tile quantity of wool exnorted in each of the years
W>[ and 1802 was as foUows : —
Eiporti of Wool
18U1
1804
Seaward ....
uvcrlniid and vid the
t Murray
1 Totals .
I.bi.
la,745,8Ul
B,425,318
"l8,171,209
Lbi.
1.3,4H2,iaO
7,fiOC,264
2(),»88,3!>3
During the revnlsiou that followed the wide-
>|)rcad mania liir buying laud and stock that ]ire-
2HI
vailed in IKIil mill |n;I7, the priif< of ahreii Itll
from ii|iward« of '2/. Ill J*, lii/., and exeii l«. a lieinlt
and llial of eiillle Irnm '.(/. nr Id/, to I/, or le<4.
In lliii« de^perale I'liirruenry, Hlieii many of the
xillliT" Wire riiliireil In liiiiikriipliy, the prai'lirii
was ailiipli'd of ihiiiKJiiiiriiii; ihc <liei'p fur ilii'ir
nklns and lallnw. To priH'lire (he bttirr, llie cur-
rime will iHiili'd iliiwu; the IhmI portlnim of tliii
meal, n» the |i>i;>, \e,, Inixiii^ Ihtii llril (in "■itiio
caMi'K) reinii\i'il lur Hide or siililn^, ||y iIiIk means
ihe xlieep were liiidle to yield llieir owiiitk almiit
^i». or I'lK. per lieiid. Iliii iIiIh practice lias long
xincr bi'cii iibmidiilied,
III Ihe year Ix.'dl, mIhhiI 7(l,(i(i(l acren of laml
were in eiiltivatiiin in New Siniiji Wales ami llm
ciilnny hadri,(i(i(i,N'2<l Hliccp, ll.i2,H.V2 liiiriicd callle,
(l.'I.Niiii liorNen, and 2:I.h!I(| iii^'s. jn Im,'i!I ihr niim-
liers were: land in cull l\ at ion, '217,11(1 acres;
nliei'p, 7,7:i('i,:i2:l ; hnrncd callle, '2,ll(i,liiMi; liuries,
'2(i(i,i(i(l; and pig<, ti'2,Mii(i. In nine yeaiH llin
number of acres of land in enltivalioii had been
lielilcd; and above '2,(MI(l,llii() sheep uiid iimre lliall
1,(1(1(1,11(111 head of cattle had lH<en added to the
stock. In |Hii-2, the agricultural slatisijcs of the
colony, which in Ihe nicaiitime liiid been deprived
of the important dislricl of < jiieeiislmid, were as
follows: — Acres in ciiltivalion, '2'.l7,o(l(l; above
(!,(HI(I,()(I(I acres, as yel uncultivated, were eiudoscd.
'llie niiniber of sliccp at the same pi'riod ainniinted
to ri,(;iMI,(l(l(); of lioriied cattle to *2,-27(>,(KIO; (if
Imrscs to -2'i:i,(i(i(i; and of iiigs to I lii.ddd.
In the early period of tlic colony, the best part
of Ihe conniry near Sydney was given in free
grants to colonists; (be rest has been sold bv
governnieiit. The abolition of free gninls louk
elt'ect in IKIII, after which land was for a time
oll'cred for sale 111 a niinimnm upset price of 'm.
iier acre. In iHII!) the niiniiiiiini iirice was raised
from CiH, to l'2.<i. ; the sales producing in that vear
!l-2,!M>H/. ; and in IH 10, during the /.eiiiib ol' the
land mania, the sales produced <,l7,'t',l'.)/. A period
of great de^iression and general insolvency fnllowed,
during which, in IH 111, the upset price of laud waa
raiseilto the sum of I/, an acre.
liy an order in council, dated 0th March, 1SI7,
the lands are diviiU'd into settled, iiilermediale,
and iinsetlled; the llrsi of which conipris(>s the
'21 COS. in the central part of the colony, lands
within from Id to '25 in, of the priiiclpnl settle-
ment, '2 in. from either bank i>t' the (jllcnelg, Cla-
reiiee, and Hichmond riv, (for certain distances),
and everywhere within i( in. from the sea. The
governor is empowered to grant leases of runs of
land in the settled districts of a year, in the inter-
mediate districts of eight years' (liiratinii, and in
the nnsetth'd ilistricts for a term not excceiling
fourteen years, exclusively for pastoral purposes,
the lenaiit being allowed to raise grain, hay. vege-
tables, or fruit, for the supply of his establislmient,
but not for sale or barter. The rent is propor-
tinned to tlie numlHT of sheep or cattle the run is
estimated to Ix^ capable of supporting : each run
carrying at least -ItOtHt sheep, or (!4d head of cattle,
is not to lie let at a hiwer rent than Id/, per aiinuni,
with '2/. 10«. additiuiial for every additional I,(id0
sheep, or an equivalent number of cattle. Uiiriiig
the continuance of the lease the land is not o| en
to purchase by any one but the lessee, who may at
any time purchase not less than IGO acres, at not
less than 1/. per acre. The lease is forfeited by
non-payment of rent, d'c. ; and the government
reserves to itself the right of entering ujiou any
]iortion of the laiiils thus leased ' for any jinrposo
of public defence, safety, improvement, couvcuieuce,
utility, or enjoyment.'
Mining is extensively pursued in Victoria.
There were, ill 18U'2, coal mines to the number of
282
twenty-ono; and flflcon other miiicH, of copjM>r,
iniii, lead, zinc, and Hilvur. The K<>l*l 'itddn cxteml
over three diHtriutM, culled the \Vcfttern Fiekl, the
Northurn FieIdH, and the S )Uthuni Fiuldx. The
following iit a liHt of the annual yields of gold in
the colony, from the tireit discoveries to the end of
18G2 :—
AUSTRALU (N. S. WALES)
V«»r»
Ol.
Value
£
1851
144,120
468,330
1852
818,751
2,660,940
1853
518,652
1,781,170
1854
237,910
773,200
1855
171,367
654,i!)0
1856
184,600
689,174
1857
175,950
674,470
1858
286,798
1,104,170
1859
329,3(i3
1,259,120
1860
384,1185
1,462,772
1861
470,034
1,808,560
1862
684,219
2,306,876
The quantity of gold found in New South Wales,
it will be ^«cen, is very considerable, and mining
industry continues to l)e on the increase, as shown
by the above table, as well as the otHcial returns
oi' the number of miners' rights and business li-
cences issued in the year 18()2. The following
ligures represent the number of licences issued to
miners in each of the two years 18(J1 and 1802 : —
Mining DiilrlcU
18GI
1801
Western Gold Piolda .
South-western Gold Fields .
Southern Gold Fields . . ,
Northern Gold Fields . .
Totals ....
7,050
6,118
1,242
1,834
17,183
4,617
1,643
1,796
16,244
26,038
There is thus shown to have been a net increase
of 8,794 upon the number of licences issued in
18(!1.
Assuming that each miner's right or licence re-
presents an individual, and that its possessor was
occupied during the whole year in the search for
g(dd, it would appear by the return of production
that as nearly as possible twenty-three ounces of
the precious metal (supposing it to be equally di-
vided) would fall to the lot of each man. This, at
the mint value (3/. 17s. lOhd. per oz.), would pro-
duce an average wage of 88/. I3s. per annum, or
at the rate of U. 14». Id. per wfeek per man. (He-
port of Governor Young, dated Sydney, Oct. 19,
18(J3.)
Railway!
Yeari
Colt of Con-
itruction of
£xt«niion>
Trafflo
Total 1
Expenditure
Great f
Southern 1
Great
Northern
Great
Western
Total
1860
1861
1862
1860
1861
1862
1861
1862
1860
1861
1862
£
94,300
151,857
126,930
101,964
96,434
110,097
65,208
72,337
£
36,367
39,446
42,002
11,200
16,230
19,992
6,720
7,033
£
130,667
191,303
168,931
113,164
112,664
130,089
70,928
79,370
196,264
313,499
309,363
47,567
61,396
69,027
243,831
374,895
378,390
The commerce of New South Wales, in the year
1802, is rep.'^3ented in the following figures: —
The total imports for the year were . . £9,334,645
The total exports 7,102,562
Showing an excess of imports to the extent of £2,232,083
The imports were at the rate of 25/. 8«, per hcml
of population, and the exports ut the rate i,|'
19/, Cm, M, per bead. The exports consisUid of the
following articles : —
; Eximru
ISDl
llhia
(Seaward.
A
£
Grain ....
84,086
15;i,ofii
butter and Checso .
20,7.'>4
19,11111
l.lvoHtock
49,280
62,1157
Salt Meat
18,513
1H,4KH
HlUuH uiiU Leather .
100,459
105,458
Wool ....
1,396,426
1,283,8 IK
Tallow ....
60,816
104,IW(1
Timber ....
19,554
25,;i|H
Gold ....
1,890,908
2,7I5,();17
Coal ....
Totals .
Orerland.
160,966
'iv,,m
3,802,661
4,731,780
LiveStoek
492,353
B2n,7S4
Wool uiul II ides
380,284
527,illi:,
Fish and other Produce .
Totals .
General Total .
3,360
10,M2
875,997
1,067,111
4,678,65a
5,7I)8,8»1
The destination of the exports was as follows ;—
Exporti lo
1801
18C«
United Kingdom .
British Colonies
Foreign States
Total
£
2,037,550
3,026,661
631,628
£
2,143,497
4,72.'),21:>
233,853
6,694,839
7,102,5C2
As will be seen from the last table but one, the
chief articles of export in the year 1802 were wool
and gold, the former amounting to 1,283,818/.,
and the latter to 2,71.5,037/. in value.
The value of the imports into New South Wiilps,
in each of the two years 1801 and 1802, was wt
follows : —
Import!
1861
1863 1
From the United Kingdom
„ British Colonies
„ Foreign States .
Totals .
£
3,062,435
2,338,641
990,470
£
4,814,-i64
3,0t)«,.'19;i
1,451,788
9,334,(!4.5 |
6,391,556
The principal part of the public revenue, to Uk
amount of nearly one-half, is derived irom custonw
duties, chief among them the import duties on
spirits. The other sources of income consist "f
miscellaneous receipts, the most imjiortant of wliidi
are from land sales and rents of land. Direct ta.x-
ation does not exist. The total amount of the
public revenue and expenditure, in each of the
years 1801 and 1802, was as follows :—
Revenue .
Expenditure
1861
£1,421,831
1,629,788
1S6Q
£l,.V,7,6:!fl
l,36y,:«3
The constitution of New South Wales, the old-
est of the Australasian colonies, was proclaimeil in
1848. It vests the legislative power in a I'ar-
liament of two Houses, the first called tlie LegLt-
lative Council, and the second the Legislative
Assembly. The Legislative Council consists dl'
twenty-one members nomuiated by the Crown for
the term of five years ; and the Assembly of
seventy-two members, elected in eightj'-niiic con-
stituencies. To be eligible, a man must be of age,
AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA)
of '25/. R«. jM!r licml
tH ut thu rate ci|'
rta cuimitited ul' tliu
a
t
inul
tai
18D3
£
£
U,!tH«
1.'i:j,()«1
J(»,7.'>4
llt.iiiil
l!),2H0
62,ii.',7
iH.sia
IK,4SS
M),4'>U
105,4.'iH
)(l,4'2t>
1,2H;(,818
(i(l,HU)
104,(i;jii
VJJi^'i
25,;||H
!M»,y08
2,715,o;17
UO,9U0
245,4'Ji
02,661
4,731,780
102,353
520,7,14
[1H0.2K4
627,ii(i;i
3,360
lli,:l,Vi
875,997
1,067,111
G78,«r)a,
ii,71l8,K!tl
)rt8 was
as follows ;—
1861
18C!i
£
&
,037,550
2,143,497
,025,661
4,725,'212
031,628
233,8.';:)
),594,830
7,102,502
last table but one, the
e year IHtJ'i were wnol
iinting to 1,283,818/.,
in value.
to New South Wales,
861 and 18C2, was as
1861
1863 I
£
,062,435
,338,641
990,479
£
4,814,264
3,0«8,.'>9H
1,451,788
6,391,585 9,3iU,«45
Ipwblic revenue, to tiw
I derived from customs
[the import duties uu
I of income consist "1"
lost important of which
i of land. Direct tax-
total amount of tlie
[iture, in each of the
follows ;—
lei
11,831
l9,<88
1«62
£1,557,639
l,36l),328
£outh Wales, the old-
lies, was proclaimed iii
live power in a I'ar-
Iflrst called the J.egis-
Icond the Legislative
le Council consists (A
>ted by the Crown for
Ind the Assembly ol
Id in eighty-nme eon-
i mail must be of age,
nalural-born subject of the queen, or, if an alien,
hen he must have been naturalised for live vi-ars,
111(1 resident for two years iHjfore election, i'hero
IS no iiro|)erty qualiftcaticm for electors, 'i'hp exe-
cutive is in the hands of a governor noniinateil by
" V^VUrrORIA, formerly POUT PHILLIP, or
l'inLI'll'''*l'ANl), comprising all that portion of
the continent H. of the nver Murray, between lat.
;tl° and ii'J° S. and hmg. 141° and 15(»° K., having
'\K. N. S. Wales, from which it is divided by a
Htrdght line dra>vn from Cape IIowc to the near-
est source of the Murray, and then by that river ;
\V. the colony of S. Australia ; and S., the ocean
anil Itass's Straits, by which it is separated from
Van Diemcn's Land. It is divided into 24 cos.
ex., some very extensive, unsettled and sipiatting
districts. The total area embraces K(),831 Eng.
sq. m., with, accortling to the census of 18G1, a
iHipulation of 640,322 inhabitants.
This territory, from the mouth of the Glenelg river,
its W., to Cape Howe, its K. extremity, has about
iiiiO m. of coast, along the most 8. part of the
Australian continent, towards the centre of which
is Port Phillip, a magnificent basin, about 4(» m.
in length and breadth, entered by a narrow chan-
nel, only 1| m. across. Melbourne, the cap., is
situated on a river fiowing into the head of this
hay ; and the riourishiug town of Gcelong stands
on" the extremity of its W. arm, about 40 in. from
Jlclhourne. E. of Port Phillip arc tlie bays of
Wcsteniport, Comer Inlet, and Lake King; on
the W. are Discovery and Portland bays, and
Port Fair)'. Chief headlands, cajjes IJridgwater
and Otwav, and Wilson's promontory. Most part
uf the surface is level or undulating, and separated
hv mountain ranges into different basins. The
\Varragong mountains, or Australian Alps, stretch
from the settled country of N. S. Wales sotith-
ward to the extremity of Wilson's promontory :
Mt, Wellington, or Kosciuszko, the culinmating
point of this chain, rises to 6,000 ft. above the sea.
W. of this chain are successive ranges isolated
from each other, known by the names of Mount
Macedon, the Australian Pyrenees, the Grampians,
ic. : they have mostly a i^T. and S. direction, and,
with the Australian Alps, separate the Hume,
Huvell, and other tributaries of the Murray from
the rivers flowing southward. 'J"he rich gold fields
of Mount Alexander, near the sources of the Lod-
don, are about CO or 70 in. NW. from Melbourne;
those of Ballarat lie more to the S. ; and there
arc others in different parts of the colony. The
streams in this region are small and innavigable ;
but the country is in geiKtral well watered, and it
contains niunerous salt lakes the principal of
which. Lake Carangamite, Ls upwards of 90 m. in
circuit. The climate approaches nearer to that of
Great Britain' than that of any other part of Aus-
tralia. It has ' somewhat of an intermediate cha-
racter between the climates of N. S. W^alcs and
Van Diemen's Land ; not so hot as the former in
summer, nor so cold as the latter in winter. There
U frost sulHcicnt to freeze the surface of the poiuls
for two or three days perhaps every season, and
snow falls occasionally, but more rarely. There
is a good deal of wet and cold weather during the
three or four winter months ; and in summer
again, the heat is tempered by cold breezes, the
nights being always cool, excepting during the
prevalence of hot winds. Fires are agreeable
morning and evening for eight or nine months of
the year.' (Lang's Phillijisland, p. 336.) The
temperature at Port Phillip has been found in
January to average from 65° to 74° Fah., and in
•lune from 50° 8' to 56° Fah. Its annual range
is from 32° to 90°, and its annual mean about
283
61° 8' Fah. (Sfrzelccki, p. 229.) Less rain falls
hero than in either N. 8. Wales or Queenslaiul;
the annual average at Port Phillip not bi-ing moro
than 30'7 inches; but evaporation l)ciiig much l(>s.s
rapid than in the latter-named regions, this is
pridmbly thu district of Australia that is lH<st
su|)pliud with moisture. It is, however, like tlio
other portions of the continent, liable to severe
droughts.
On the N W. and E. frontiers of Victoria, there is
a large extent of arid and desert country, but on
the banks of the N. rivers there is a great deal of
land well adapted for agriculture, and this also is
the case throughout nearly all the country within
50 m. of the coast. Gipp's Land, in ]iarticular,
NE. of Wilson's pnmiontory, is a basin ccmtain-
ing, it is said, 320,tl00 acres of alluvial soil unen-
cumbered with timber and ready for the plough.
The port Fairy district is also sufHciently pro-
ductive ; and, according to Dr. Lang, there is on
the (ilenclg and Wannon rivers a tract of 50 ni.
square without an acre of bad land. (Ibid. p. 181 .)
The produce of wheat in the vicinity of Lake Colac
is stated to average 80, and that of barley 40,
bushels an acre ; in other parts, near the coast, 35
bushels of wheat are said to be a fair average.
Sheep-rearing is in this, as in other parts of Aus-
tralia, a principal branch of industry. Here, as in
N. S. Wales, it is chiefly let in large rmis to
stpuitters and grazing-fanncrs.
An attempt inaile by Col. Collins to form a
settlement at Port Phillip in 1803 not having
been persevered in, the country remained little, if
at all, known to Europeans until its exploration
by Messrs. Hovell and Hume in a journey over-
land from N. S. Wales, in 1824. About ten years
subsequently it was surveyed, and reported favour-
ably of as a grazing countrj', and various exten-
sive tracts of land were, in consequence, purchased
from the natives by the Van Diemen's Land Asso-
ciation. Immigration immediately set in with
great rapidity from Tasmania ; and by the end of
June, 1836, the pop. exceeded 200, and the stock
of sheej) amounted to 60,000. ' A regular villago
on the site of the present town of Melbourne had
been formed; 50 acres of land were in cultivation;
gardens had been laid out in various localities, and
the comitry was occupied for 50 m. from the port.
For the next eighteen months, the arrivals, both
of settlers and stock, from Van Diemen's Land,
continued at a similar rate.' (Lang, p. 29.) But
the colonial government having refused to recog-
nise the legality of any purchase made by the
Van Diemen's Land Association from the natives,
or any other in which the initiative was not taken
by the crown, that Association, with othetu, broke
up, its members being allowed, ' in consideration
of their payments tt) the aborigines, a remission
to the extent of 7,000/. of the purchase-money of
whatever lands they might choose to purcha S'.>. in
the prov. from the crown.' (Ibid. p. 33.) The
purchase-money obtained by the N. S. Wales
government for lands in this territory was then
appropriated to further immigration, and by the
end of 1840, the pop. had increased to 11,738 per-
sons, who possessed 50,800 head of cattle, and up-
wards of 782,000 sheep, and had 4,875 acres in cul-
tivation. In the years immediately following, the
mania for buying land raged as much here as in
N. S. W'ales: land set up by the colonial govern-
ment ill small lots, and at extravagant prices, was
so eagerly bought up, that Dr. Lang states, that
'a single acre of building ground in the town
of Melbourne realised 10,000/., or from 15 to 62
guineas per foot of frontage.'
The reaction which followed the land mania
was here, as elsewhere in Australia, productive of
H
ill
284
wifle-Hpread (listrcRS. Hut tho colony, notwith-
Ktandini^, continued to advance. The proffrcsH of
Victorin, sinec tlic discovcrv of the pdd ficldH, in
iKol, hoH exceeded everj'thing prcvi<iusly licard
of, and in, in truth, all but niiraculim.s. The
growth of the t)o])ula(ion, as hIiowu hv the censuH
of nine succcH^uve periods, ia exiiibitou in the sub-
joined table : —
AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA)
NiimhtT
Datet of Cooiut
Mkloi
Fomkloi
Toul
of Ft'inului
to o»iry
liMHaIra
May 25, 1836 .
142
art
177
24-6
Nov. 8, 1(-;I6 .
186
38
224
20-4
Kept. 12, 1838 .
3,080
431
3,511
14-0
March 2, 1841 .
8,274
8,464
11,738
41-9
March 2, 1846 .
20,184
12,695
32,879
62-9
Morch 2, 1851 .
46,202
81,143
77,345
67-4
April 26, 1804 .
155,876
80,900
236,776
51'9
March 29, 1857
264,334
146,432
410,766
55-4
April 7, 1861 .
328,651
211,671
540,322
64-4
toral pursnita amounted to 62,801, cxclimivc n|
612 (Chinese and alM)ri(rine8, the latter nearly all
in the s<|iiattinK di,strictn.
The foUowiufr tal)lc» iiroscnt a succinct view ol
tlie state of Agriculture : —
The following were the birthplaces of the po-
pulation 01 each sex, according to the census of
the year 18G1 : —
Btrthplacei
PopulaUoD
Molei
Fonialn
Total
BnmsH :
Victoria
69,389
68,686
138,075
Other Australian Colo-
nies and New Zealand
10,336
9,500
19,386
England
108,037
61,549
169,586
Wales ....
4,333
1,722
6,058
Scotland . .
37,032
23.669
60,701
Ireland ....
47,176
39,984
87,160
British Colonies (not
Australian)
2,675
915
3,490
India : British .
437
217
654
„ Natives .
188
16
204
Foueiqn:
France ....
1,026
224
1,250
Germany
8,118
2,300
10,418
Otlier parts of Europe .
6,562
376
6,938
United States
2,209
345
2,564
China ....
24,724
8
24,732
Other Countries .
346
60
406
Born at Sea .
987
853
1,840
Unspecified (British
Names)
408
265
663
„ (Foreign)
31
9
40
„ (Names not
mentioned)
1,094
106
1,200
Of British Parentage, out
of British Possessions .
770
409
1,179
Migratory (exclusive of
Cliiuese)
2,873
468
3,341
Total .
328,651
211,671
540,322
It will be seen from the above table, that among
the )iatives of the colony the sexes are nearly
e(|iuilly balanced, while they are far from beuigso
among the immi^ant population. Yet here, too,
exist enormous differences. The immigrants from
Scotland and Ireland seem more generally to be
accompanied by their families than those from
lingland, while among the foreign immigrants the
disproportion in the sexes is very striking. The
Germans alone have any considerable number of
females among them, and the rest of foreigners
are nearly all males. The disproportion is most
unfavourable among the Chinese settlers, consist-
ing of more than 24,000 males, but only eight
females. The above enumeration, in stating the
birthplaces, does not include l,t)94 aborigmcs,
namely, 1,046 males and 648 females. The abori-
ginal race is draAving towards extinction.
By the returns of the census of 1861, the num-
ber of persons engaged in agricultural and pas-
Total
Number
oftk'cu-
lilcn on
NaturaofCropf
Land under Crop
Tear ending Slit March
51 It March
IHU3
18U1
isot
vm
Acres
Acres
Acrts
-| micat .
161,202
196,922
lti2,IHI!)
Muize , .
1,«,')0
1,714
I,ivi
Barley
4,123
3,419
<>,S:|i| 1
Oats
86,337
91,061
108, lie,
Turnips .
495
187
\%
Mangold Wurzel
1,029
806
XOH
14,90oJ
Potatoes .
24,842
27,174
24,H21
Onions .
—
249
143
OtherVfgo tables
21,190
430
590
Other Crops .
8,652
8,041
9,;W2
Tobacco .
91
220
508
Hay . . .
90,021
74,681
101 ,«;)!) 1
Sown Grasses .
17,061
l(i,6«2
2.S,7I3I
Vines .
1,138
1,464
2,(KI7 j
Fallow .
Total .
—
16,835
18,34a 1
465,430 1
419,381
439,895
The subjoined table shows the produce of this
land under crop.
Nature of Cropi
Produce
Year ended Slit March
1801
1862
1803
Wheat . .
Maize . . .
Barley . .
Oats . . .
Turnips . .
Mangold
Wurzel .
Potatoes . .
Onions . .
Other Vege-
tahlcs . .
Other Crops
Tobacco . .
Hay . . .
Sown Grasses
Vines . . .
Wine pro-
duced
Bushels
8,459,911
25,045
83,854
2,633,692
Tons 2,275
„ 18,446
„ 77,268
„ 1,309
,. 4,128
Bush. 13,693
Cwts. 1,256
Tons 143,020
^ „ 1,191
No. 2,838,114
Galls. 11,642
Bushels
3,607,727
20,788
68,118
2,136,430
Tons 1,161
„ 6,142
„ 69,864
Cwts. 6,262
Tons 2,731
Bush. 12,295
Cwts. 2,552
Tons 92,479
No. 3,818,335
Galls. 47,568
Bushels
3,0(18,487
]43,(i.-)l
2,504,301
Tons 1,45()
„ Sfim
„ 60,.59;
Cwts. 6,54f'
Tons 4,31.'l
Bush. ld,'i:H
Cwts. i,»>i
Tons 110,680
No. 4,492,942
Galls. 91,893
The rearing of sheep and the export of wool,
tallow, and ludes were at Victoria, the same a-i at
the other Australian colonies, the chief industr\-,
until the iliscovery of gold. Uut even the 'gold
fever' did not interfere to a very great exttiit
with the progress of the staple occupation, as will
be seen from the subjoined table, which exhibits
the value of the exports of wool, tallow, and
hides during the septennial period from 1856 to
1862.
Tcari
Wool
Tallow
Hii'.ei
£
&
£
1856
1,506,613
35,980
72,103
18.57
1,335,642
62,363
191,828
18.58
1,678,290
43,987
'lOO,.^?
1859
1,756,950
10,354
172,446
i860
2,025,066
18,269
144,23(i
1861
2,088,713
75,784
100,384
1862
2,360,956
66,515
130,350
The total value of the imports and exports of
Victoria in the twelve years from 1851 to 1862
was as follows : —
AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA)
28.'i
,Rni, cxrlimivc ol
10 latter iiuurly all
a Buccinct view ul
Land under Crop
it ending 51it March
381
1864
Acre*
190,922
1,714
3,419
91,001
187
800
27,174
249
43(1
8,041
220
74,081
1(S,692
1,404
16,835
m05
439,895 465,430
the produce of tliU
Produce
idcd Slit March
1802
BuebclB
3,607,727
20,788
68,118
2,136,430
Tons 1,161
1803
6,142
59,364
6,262
2,731
ish. 12,295
2,552
M 92,479
Bushels
3,008,48"
l'J,7'Jii
143,".-,(
2,504,;;i)l
Tona l,4il(.
„ 8,0811
„ 50,.Mi;
Cwts. 6,54!'
Tons 4,31-1
Bush. 19,2.'>T
Cwts. 4,3-.M
Tons 110,68(1
.3,818,335 No. 4,402,942
,11s. 47,508 Galls. 91,893
the export of wool,
itoria, the same as at
1, the chief industry-,
But even the 'gold
_a very great extiMit
le occupation, as will
ible, whicli exhibits
' -wool, tallow, and
period from 1856 to
rallow
Hidei
£
£
5,980
72,103
2,303
191,828
3,987
in(i,.V27
0,3.')4
172,446
8,209
144,23(i
5,784
100,384
6,515
130,350
)orts and exports of
from 1851 to 1862
Tean
1851
1852
1H5'I
18.'4
1K.'|5
1H56
1857
1858
18.19
1860
18(11
1802
ImiwrU
F.ipnrtt
.fi
£
1,050,437
1,422,909
4,009,742
7,451, .549
16,842,037
11,001,514
17,059,051
11,775,204
12,007,939
13,403,338
14,902,209
15,489,700
17,250,209
16,079,512
16,108,249
13,989,209
16,622,891
13,807,859
16,093,730
12,902,704
13,532,452
13,828,606
13,487,787
13,039,422
Tiic immense Increase in both the iniport.t and
exports, visible in the preceding table as com-
nicnciii},' witli the year 1H.'J8, marks the era of the
Victorian K"1<1 discoveries. It will be seen that,
owinir to these discoveries, the imports lonjied
siiddi'iily from 4 to above 15J millions, and the
exports "from 7 to 11 millions, between 1862 and
18a,^. In 1830 Victoria produced 2,985,00(5 ounces
of gold; in 18.57 the quantity was 2,70 1,. 528 oz.,
in 18,58 it was 2,.528,188 oz., in 1859 it was
2,280,670 oz„ in 1800 it was 2,150,001 oz., in 18(il
it was 2,072,359 oz., and in 1802 it was 1,711,508
ounces. . ....
The following was the estimated popiuatu)n, dis-
tinguishing the Chinese, in each mining district
of the gold fields, on December 31, 1802.
Dbtricli
Ballarat .
Castlemalno
Maryboro*
Ararat . .
Sandhurst .
Beechworth
Total. .
Other than Chlneie
Chlneie
Men
31,126
13,973
39,613
7,550
13,720
13,504
Women
11,025
6,510
8,289
2,210
4,080
4,260
Children
16,516
4,924
13,2.38
2,400
4,820
4,315
Total
67,006
24,407
61,170
12,160
22,020
22,009
5,7.')2
6.183
3,304
1,400
2,740
6,447
119,515
35,364
48,212
200,091
24,880
The 24,880 Chinese engaged in search of gold
were nearly all males, there being but one woman
of the same race included in the number. The
larger proportion of the Chinese males were be-
tween the ages of 20 and 45.
According to returns of March 1863, the popu-
lation on the gold fields amounted to ?'?9,600, of
whom 88,000 were actually engaged r. mining.
They had in use 776 steam engmes, equal to
11,760 horse power. For alluvial mining there
were besides 3,256 puddling machines, and a va-
riety of other machinery, estimated of the value
of 1,486,000/. The total area of the territory of
the colony where gold had been found, from 1851
till March 1863, extended over 1,764 m. The
produce of the gold fields, however, appears to be
steadily diminishing, and agriculture is again be-
coming the main industry of the inhabitants of
Alctoria. (Westgarth Wm., The Colony of Vic-
toria, London, 1864.)
The great, but by no means beneficial, influence
exercised by the gold discoveries upon agricul-
tural pursuits, as far as regards the rearing of
live stock, is shown in the returns during the
twenty-seven years from 1830 to 1862, as given in
the following table.
It will be seen, from this table, that the extra-
ordinary growth of commerce, beginning with
the year 1853, was marked also by a decrease in
the live stock, which continued steadily for several
years, till having got to the lowest, it again rose,
and, in 1861-02, reached the old figure, showing a
healthy revival of agriculture.
Tean
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
llorwi
Homed CattI*
8hnp
78
624
2,373
165
13,272
60,837
41,332
i;:o,f4«
782,283
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
4,066
6,278
7,076
9,289
100,792
107,156
187,873
231,002
1,404,3.33
1,002.708
1,800,912
1,792,-527
1846
1847
1848
1849
1860
11,400
13,292
16,495
10,733
21,219
290,439
322,824
380,088
a40,5(i2
878,806
2,990,992
4,104,203
6,130,277
6,318,(140
6,032,783
1851
1852
18.'.3
18.54
1855
22,086
34,021
16,100
27,038
83,430
390,923
431,380
410,139
481,040
634,113
6,589,923
6,551,50(i
6,594,220
6,3:12.007
4,577,872
1856
18.'i7
18.58
18.59
18(i0
47,832
65,(i83
68,323
69,288
76,536
646,613
614,537
699,330
683,534
722,332
4,641 ,.548
4,700,022
6,578,413
6,794.127
6,780,896
1861
1862
84.057
86,067
628,092
670,001
0,239,258
6,704,851
Victoria po8se.sscs the largest railway system
in Australia. There were in existence on the Ist
of January 1863, the following lines : —
Kallwaji
LcnKth
ofUnm
Coit of Conitructinn
Average
Total Coit
&
Victorian Uailwuys :—
Miles
£
£
Melbourne Si Sandhurst
101-
4,084,080
40,430
Melbourne, Oeelong,
and Ballarat .
OS-
2,064,377
21 ,005
Williamatown Branch
S'
402,260
4'1,694
Melbourne and Hobson's
Bay ....
6-37
4.33,486
68,020
Melbourne and Brighton
6-57
234,068
36,015
Melbourne .
Total .
6-63
367,114
63,431
33,435
226-67
7,675,375
The whole of these lines were either constructed
by the state, or purchased by the same from private
companies, the money being raised by h)ans.
The total amount of the gross public revenue
and of the expenditure of the colony, in each of
the years 1856 to 1802, was aa follows : —
Tean
ReTenue
Expenditure
£
£
18.56
2,940,658
2,232,064
1857
3,272,040
2,963,326
1858
3,064,783
2,915,-379
1859
3,258,792
8,450,241
I860
3,039,035
8.311,308
1861
3,070,721
3,125,767
1862
3,217,760
2,853,121
The chief sources of the revenue of Victoria,
until the year 1862, were customs' duties and sales
of public lands, which, with some fluctuation.s,
produced about one-half of the annual income.
A new source of revenue was more recently added
in the receipts derived from public works, including
the railways, the management of which remain.s
in the hands of the government.
The debt of Victoria amounts to about nine mil-
Ui f
'::li
286 AUSTRALIA (VICTORIA)
Unnn, of which not more thnn one million is held
in the colony, the rent heing hold in (Jrent Hritnin.
Tins debt iHnluKwt entirely conipom-d of the grent
rnilwny lonn authorincd in 185K, and amountinf^
to eight millionH. Seven millionH of this sum
were made payat>le in I^ondon, and the remaining
million in MellxMinic. T le total of eight millionH,
it is probable, will l)e exceeded to some extent in
the construction of the railways, in consequence
of liabilities involved in the purchase of the Gee-
long and Melbourne line from a jmvate company,
with the object of completing the railway system
in the hands of the government. The remainder
<if the colony's debt consists of several other
sums, that amounted originally to above a million
and a half sterling. One of these items was
600,000/,, and another 200,000/., contracted in the
year IHM, on Iwhalf of the municipalities of Mel-
bourne and (leelong, and repayable by the goveni-
mcnt; another was for W20,odo/., exiwnded in the
construction of water-works for Mell)ourne. The
great railway loan is not repayable until the
years 18X3-85; but the other liabilities are to be
discharged previous to ISTf) (Westgarth, The
Colony of Victoria, Lon<l. 1804; ]{eport of <Jo-
venior Sir C. Darling, dated Melbourne, March 14,
18(i4.)
The constitution of Victoria was established by
an act, ])assed by the legislature of the colony
in 1854, to which the assent of the Crown was
given, in pursuance of the power granted by the
act of the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict,
cap. 55. This eiiarter vests the legislative autho-
rity in a parliament of two chambers, the Legis-
ative Council and the House of Assembly. The
council consists of thirty and the assembly of
seventy-eight members. I'he members of council
must be owners of freehold estates worth 500/. a
year ; and are required to be at least thirty years
of age and British bom subjects. Six members
retire by rotation every two years, and new ones
arc elected by voters, possessed of a property qua-
lification of 100/. a y( Mr. In the constituencies for
the election of members of the assembly, a vote is
given to every man of the age of twenty-one years,
iMjing a natural Iwm or naturalised subject, hold-
ing a freehold estate situate within his electoral
district, or being a householder of the anuiial
value of 10/., or having a leasehold of the annual
value of 10/. It is provided also by the electoral
act that no man shall he entitled to vote, who
has been attainted, or convicted of treason, felony,
or other infamous offence in any part of her
Majesty's dominions, unless he has received a free
pardon, or one conditional on not leaving the
colony for such offence, or has undergone the
sentence passal on him for such offence. The
members of the House of Assembly receive com-
pensation for their service. The salary of the
l)resident of the Legislative Council is 1,000/. per
annum, and that of the speaker of the House of
Assembly 1,600/. The executive is vested in a
governor-general, appointed by the Crown.
AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY OF), the nucleus
and centre of the Austrian empire, divided into
tlie two provs. of Austria above the Enns and
Austria l)elow the Enns, commonly termed Upper
and Lower Austria, lies between lat. 40" 57' 26"
and 49° 0' 30" N., and long. 12° 46' and 17° 7' E.
It contains 15,017 Eng. sq. m., of which 7,317
belong to the upper, and 7,700 to the lower prov.
The boundary of the archduchy is formed towards
Tyrol and Carinthia by the central chain of the
Korth Alps, in which the primitive formations
predominate. The highest summits are the Gross
Glockner, 11,782/ ft., Sulzbach Kees, 11,270 ft.,
AUSTRIA (ARCHDUCHY OF)
and Krummhorn, 11,104 ft. Immense glndpni
and beds of etenial snow fill the clefts and cover
the higher declivities of these mountaiiiH, fmni
which several important rivers derive their oriL'in
The N. limestone range of the Alps forms the
iKnindary between the archduchy and Styrin, ami
branches from it cover large portions of tho
country. One of these, the Wiener Wald, nit-
p taches to nenr Vienna, but it gradually ditnl-
'.lishes in elev^ation as it recedes from the f,Ti»ni|
ihain. To the N. of the Danulte the Itohc
mian forest throws out its offsets to that rivcr'n
bed, whose banks oft'er, in cons<'quence, liji'hiv
picturesque scenery during its course from IWaij
t'« Vienna. The Lesser (!arpathians and the \.vi\\\n
lills mark the frontier towards llinigary on tliu E.
The southern, or limestone, range is traversed at
several points by the affluents of the Danuln', the
Inn, Salza, Traun, and Enns, which are navipiMe
along the greater part of their course. Th ' Lcitlm
falls into the Danube in Hungarv, and the M(i-
rawa, or March, which rises in Xloravin, imitos
with that river on its left bank, a little to tlip \V,
of Presburg, after having for some distance markcii
the Hungarian frontier. The Mur, wliich rises
amongst the lofty summits of Lungau in Salzburi;
flows into StATia.
The Danube enters the Austrian territon' at
Innstadt, opposite Passau, where it is joined liy tlio
Inn, which is here nearlv as large as the stream
into which it merges. Linz being looked upon as
the key of the river, strong fortifications have been
erected for its protection. The navigation of the
Danube between Passau and Vienna is accnm-
panied ■with no difHculty except that of over-
coming a strong current in mounting the stream,
The high rocky banks confine the river in one licil,
and its depth is considerable, with the exceptinn
of a spot near Grein, where reefs of rocks occasidn
a surf which used fonnerly to be much dreaded;
but they have been so far reduced by blasting
that they no longer offer any serious obstaele to
navigators. Between this point and Presburf; the
fall of the river is said to amount to 450 ft., and
the rapidity of its current in the canal of Vienna
to be 8 ft. a second. This canal is an arm thrown
off from the main stream a few miles above the
city, under the walls of which it passes. The
main stream is separated from Vienna by the
Prater island, and one or two small islets. " The
island of Lobau, about 2 m. below Vienna, is
famous for being the spot to which, in 1809, Na-
poleon retreated after the battle of Aspem, and
from which he issued previously to the battle of
Wagram. On the frontiers of Hungary th<. Danube
is once more shut in between the fall of the Alps,
which flatten down almost to its level on the S.,
and the rise of the Lesser Carpathians on the N.
bank. This passage divides the river into the
Lower and the Upper Danube ; the former in
antiquity was called the Ister.
The lakes of Upper Austria are celebrated for
their picturesque scenery, and are eminently use-
ful as means of internal communication. The mdst
remarkable are those of Gmllnden or Traun, 7J ni,
in length, and nearly 2 m. across in the broadest
part; and of Hallstadt, 5 m. long, and about 1 m.
broad ; the lake of Aussec, which is much smaller,
is connected with the other two by means of the
river Traun, and the salt produced along the line
it traverses, with the timber and other products of
the extensive forests of the Sahkammergut (as
this portion of the duchy of Salzburg is named),
are forwarded by its means to the Danube. The
Atter Lake is 11^ m. long, and 2 J m. broad 'The
lakes Mondsee and St, Gilgen are also extensive,
but are not connected with any navigable river,
Y OF)
mcnse (jlncioni
lefts nn(i ('(ivtT
ounlninH, fruni
ve their orijrin.
Vlps f'oni\.s the
jiitl Styrift, nncl
irtioiiH of tlif
■ner Wnld, nji-
."•n<liinlly dimi-
fnim tl\e (^nml
hJk) the lldlic-
» to tlmt rivcr'n
i'quonce, lii!,'lily
THc from I'liiisim
H nntl the l.citlm
iiiKHry <>» tli(! K.
e is travcrwd at
the DnniilM', the
ch are iinviniilile
rsc. TlvLi'itlia
rv, and the Mii-
Moriivin, iiiiitos
I littUi to tlip W.
distance markcil
Slur, which rises
igau in Saliburj;,
rian territorj' at
it is joined tiy tlio
r^e as tlie Htream
!}f hK)ked upon as
icationshavc liccn
navigation of the
Vienna is aecom-
!pt that of ovtr-
inting the stream.
le river in one bed,
ith the exception
» of roclis occasidn
be much dreadwl;
luceil by hlastini;,
srious obstacle to
. anil Presbur}; the
.int to 450 ft., and
je canal of Vienna
|l is an arm thrown
\w miles above the
\\ it passes. The
m Vienna by the
[small islets. The
below Vienna, is
[hich, in 1809, Xa-
:le of Aspem, and
[ly to the battle of
ingaiy the Danube
16 fall of the Alps,
its level on the S.,
[athians on the N.
ihe river into the
the former in
are celebrated for
kre eminently HPC-
tication. Themopt
lenorTrami,7Jni.
|a in the broadest
fig, and about 1 m.
Ih is much smaller,
To by means of the
tccd along the line
Id other products of
Kahkammergut (as
Ilzburg is named),
ItheDamibc. The
l2im. broad. The
Ire also extensive,
ly na\'igaWe river,
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF)
287
except for the ptirpose of flontlng down wood.
The niiml)ef and variety of the waterfalls add
itrefttlv to the Iwauty of the mountain scenery.
Kx tensive morasses are found in Upper Aus-
tn»,M the valo of I'inkgau, or of the Salzn. In
the Mlihl circle, on the N. siile of the Danube,
and in the ncighlM)urhood of the principal lakes,
Wf tracts <jf marshy land also occur.
The climate of the archdiuihy varies according
to tlie elevation of the ground. In Up|)cr Austria
the moan temperature at Linz has licen found to
• + 7° ()' Keaumur's scale ( = 48° 2«' Fahr.) ; at
Salzl)iirg it w
at kremsmllnstcr, 7"^ 4'.
510 7'
The
<'4i'R.
At Viemia the mean heat is 8° JHI' K. (
Fdir)- in 1830 it reached + 5° .5;j' K,
L'rcatest heat in that year was + 2(io 8' 1{. (!100
4«'Fahr.): the greatest cold, -14° 4' (= 0° 2 1'
Fahr.). The mean elevation of the barometer
wan -*«' 2" 4'". In 1837 the greatest cold was
_li)°5'H. (= — l'55Falir.). The elevation of
Vienna is 054 ft., that of Salzburg 1 ,2.50 ft., aliovo
tlie level of the sea. Baron Wehlon has llxcd the
limit of forest vegetation at 5,000 ft,, that of
etennd snow at 8,000 ft.
Tiic surface of the country in Upper Austria
presents a succession of mountain tracts, whose
elevation, in the southern parts, admits of little
cultivation, but which are extensively clothed
with tine and valuable forests. As they subside
towards the Danube the country assumes a more
cidtivated appearance, but the effects? of the cold
winds from the snow-covered summits is detri-
mental to the growth of the more delicate plants.
The vine is first met with at Krems in Lower
Austria: it follows thence the course of the
Danube, and where the mountains open near the
capital, both their sides and the plains are covered
with vineyards, interspersed with fruit trees of
every description. The valley of the Enns is re-
markable for its luxuriant growth of com, as is
the plain of TuUa on th»j Danul)e, The March-
fcld between the Moravian frontier and the Danube
is also highly productive, though much exijosed
to drought.
The archduchy is distributed into ten divisions,
whereof iive, including the captain-generalship of
Vienna, are in the lower, and the like number in
the upper, prov. The pop. of the former amounted,
in 1857, to 1,681.697, and that of the latter to
707,450, making together 2,389,147.
The agriculture of the archduchy is generally
(rood, although open to many improvements, espe-
cially in the cultivation of the vine. The best
wines are produced near Vienna. Cyder is exten-
avely made in Upper Austria.
Coals, iron, and alum are produced to some,
though but a very limited, extent, in Lower Aus-
tria: and in addition to these products, the mines
of the upper prov. supply smaU quantities of gold,
silver, and copper. The salt works, at different
places in the latter, furnish employment to more
than 6,000 individuals, and yield large quantities
of salt.
Owing to the great consumption of all articles
in the capital, the province exports but little pro-
duce, while ita imports are proportionally great.
As the high roads from Trieste and Hungary to
the westem and northern provinces pass through
Vienna, the carrying business is extensive, and in
li^eneral well managed; and the communication
between the cajntal and all the provinces is very
brisk. The roods throughout the archduchy
are excellent, and the communication between
Vienna and the upper province, as well as with
Hungary, is facilitated by steam navigation on
the Danube, by means of which the journey from
Linz to the capital is p^ormed in a day, and that
from Vienna to Pcsth in eighteen hours. Vienna
is also connected by railways with all the provs.
of the emi)iro.
The inhabitants of the archduchy ore all Ger-
mans, and are distinguished for their industry
and quicknest of apprehension. As the pojiula-
tion is more sparingly distributed in the moun-
tainous parts than in the plains and valleys, there
is an appearance of well-doing throughout all
classes of the inhabitants ; and the scIkmUs for the
lower classes are both numerous and well at-
tende<l. The dress and manners of the inhabitants
of the mountainous parts, especially of Salzburg,
resemble those prevailing in Styria and Tyrol, as
the manners and customs, as well as the (K;cupn-
tions, of the Austrian mountaineer are nearly the
same with those of the neighbouring provinces.
The business of driving the cattle up to the Alpine
pastures in summer, whence in the autumn they
are brought (h)wn with festive parade, is the dis
partmcnt of the women. Ilantl-weaviiig and the
spinning of flax, cotttm, and wool, arc much
carried on, especially during the winter. Agri-
culture is the chief employment of the inhabitants
of the duchy, and is managed with considerable
skill. The mountaineer is confined to more frugal
fare than that enjoyed by the inhab. of the plain ;
oatmeal or barley puddings, prepared with the
milk and butter of his cows, being his chief sufn
port. Whether this species of nourishment, or
the quality of the water, or the nature of his oc-
cupations, be the cause of the goitre or swelling of
the neck, which commences on the mountains on
the Styrian frontier, is unknown. The lowlanders'
enjoyments are sought in the dance and in the
wine-pot, of which his libations, especially of the
one-year-old liquor {heuriger), arc both deep and
frequent. The large earnings of the peasantrj'
give a cheerful appearance to a large portion of
the lower classes, that is scarcely to be met with
anywhere else ; and the Lower Austrian deserves
credit for both earning the good things of this
life, and for enioying them.
The Gubenna at Linz and Vienna are the chief
provincial authorities for the provs. of Upper and
Lower Austria. Under these is the captain of the
circle, who unites the judicial and administrative
powers, in as far as the inhabitants of the country
are conceme<l. In towns the administration of police
is confided to a special commissary, and the magis-
tracy performs the judicial functions. The manorial
courts of the large proprietors are placed under the
courts of the circle, and may be appealed from to
the latter. The governor of Upper Austria resides
at Linz, the cap. of the prov. and the seat of the
authorities. Those for Lower Austria reside at
Vienna. The Archbishop of Vienna is the head
of the clerical authorities in the Catholic Church
for Lower Austria; the Archbishop of Sakburg
exercises the same functions for the upper prov.
Superintendents at Linz and Vienna conduct the
clerical affairs of the Protestants under the Con-
sistory at Vienna. The commander of the forces
for both provinces resides at Vienna.
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF), one of the largest,
mos.t populous, and most important of the Euro-
pean states.
Situation and Extent. — The empire of Austria is
situated in central and southern Europe; and,
with the exception of a narrow strip at its S.
extremity, projecting along the coast of the Adri-
atic, its territory forms a compact mass. It ex-
tends from about 42* to 51' N. lat,, and from
about 8° 30' to 20° 30' E, long. Its length from
Lake Constance to the E. frontier of Transyl-
vania is alM)ut 850 m., and its breadth (exclusive
of Dalmatia), from the S. frontier of Croatia to
M
288
tbo mont N. point of Rolicmin, about 4!i'2 m. Tlic
totul nrcn Is cNlimuti'd, in th« olficial rctimiN, at
I l,'2<V2'NH AiiNtrimi hi|. m., or '2.'l(i,.'ll I Mn^l. xq. in.
On tlu! H., An.striii ix iHiundtul \ty Tiirkt-y, tlic
Ailriatii! 8(>n, nnil tlu; kiiiplom of Ilnly; W. by
Itnly, Swilzcrlnnil, iinil Ituvnria; N. by I'niHMiu
nnit liuHHinn Polnnil ; and I'), by KuHxia and Mol-
ilavia. The fronticrH of tlic I'mjiiro are wfli de-
fined liy natural IxiundarieH, conxistin); princiimlly
of nnountainM anti bir^e riven*, with tlic oxcej)-
tion of a I'onNiderablu |M)rtion of the frontier of
(iaiicia, along the Ku88ian territory, which h
quite o|)en,
DivmoM and Population. — The Austrian em-
pire in coni|>o«ed of miniy HtatoH, tlitVeriuK widely
ni extent and iKipiilation. Tlie p-eater part of
these HtateH haviM^ been united under the iin^ic-
rial sceptre by |K>acenblc nieauH — that is, by ni-
lieritance or by treaty — llie boinidaries of all
remain as Ihey existed whilst they were inde-
pendent, with the exception of the reduced Italian
provinces.
Tlie foUowinR table shows the area and nop. c»f
each prov., accordiuf^ to tlie census of October .'11,
lt<(>7. Deducted from the statement are the
Lombard i)rovinces ceded to Italy in 18o9 : —
AUSTRIA (EMriRE OF)
Arra
Populaltoti
FroTlncM
In AuBtrInn
t$4uari) Mllcf
Total
To each
Square HIIp
Tjower Austria
344-49
I,<i8l,fi97
4,882
Upi»r „
a08-47
7»7,4M)
8,394
Sal/,l)urg .
124T)'J
14(i,7(i9
1,179
Styria .
JlitO-lU
l,or)(i,773
2,708
Carinthia
180-Jfi
3;t2,4.')(i
1,844
Caniiola
17HT.7
4S 1,941
2,(i04
Const Innd
i;m-H2
620.978
8,763
Tyrol & Vorarlberg
fioa-oo
8.''>1,01U
l,tl72
Bohemia
90'J-8.'i
4,li>r,,r,-2r,
6,212
Moravia .
38fi'2!)
I,8(i7,n94
4,833
.Silesia .
8!C4.5
443.912
4,903
Gnli'iia .
l,3(i4-0(t
4,.W7,47II
3,370
Biieowina
181't;0
4ri<i,92n
2,616
Dnlmntia
22-J-:io
404,499
1,820
Lombard-Venetian
430-92
2,44<>,0.'iU
5,698
Hungary • )
Servia & Temesva j
3,727-07
9,900,78.')
2,066
Croatio ii Slavonia
33'.'500
87(i,009
2,016
Trnnsylvania
9.'54-33
l,92fi,797
2,019
Military Frontier .
Total
683"00
1,0(14,922
1,827
11, 252-88
35,019,068
3,114
Included in the above total of the population
arc 679,989 men, of different provinces, inscribed
on the lists os bclon^ring to the military service.
The population is divided with respect to race
and language into the following nationalities, ac-
cording to an official estimate of the year 1861 : —
Germans
. 8,200,000
Bohemians
'
Mornviiins
• 3,000,000
Slovncks
roles
. 2,200,000
Tlussians
. 2,800,000
Slovenians
. 1,210,000
Croats .
. 1,300,000
Servians
. 1,470,000
Bulgarians
26,000
Magyars .
Italians (in-\
elusive of I
Latins and f
Friauls) j
Eastern-Bo-
mans . .
Members of
other races .
6,050,000
3,050,000
2,700,000
1,430,000
Nearly every province, aa shown in the pre-
ceding table, differs from the others in the density
and cllstribution of its populadon. In Ualicia and
Hungary, both agricultural countries with com-
paratively little trade, the villages are usually
very large and populous, but widely scattered. In
the .southern and western provinces, the inhabi-
tants are so much ditTused over the face of the
country, that the inmates of towns form but a
small proportion of the whole, and consist almost
ex(dusively of tho nobility and traders. Tli(>
(ierman and Slavonic provinceH Hhow a mediiim
iM'tween the two.
fare of the Country, — Mountu'mii. — The A ii»f rinn
empire exhibits every variety of surfaeo. '\\<i„
grand mountain ranges, branching from tlu'contml
groupof the Alps, traverse it in diHerent dircciinn^.
throwing out numerous and extensive (h'peiiilcin
branches. The first of these, which hns hoin
termed the //cm/n<>-C»rpa/Aian chain, divides the
regions of the (ierman Ocean and llaliit; fKim
those of the lilack Sea and Mediterranean, l.eavlii"
the canton of Orisons, in Switzerland, lhi)i mm\\.
tain range traverses Vorarlberg in a N. dircctinii
to the lake of ('onstance: thence it passes tliriiii;,'li
Wirteniberg and liavaria, separating the rcKldiis
of the Kliiiie and Kibe from that of the Daiiiilic,
and re-enters Austria on the NK. frontier of Hd.
hernia, where it throws off an extensive branch of
the Krz (Ore) mountains, which stretclies inid
that kingdom and into Saxony. Taking a S\'„
direction from the sources of the Kyer, this clinin
runs, under the name of the 'Koheinian F(iro>i,'
nearly to the Panulie. where it once more divcri;! ■(
to the N'K., and dividing Moravia from liohc^mia.
sends out a branch into Prussian Silesia and I,i|.
satia, named the Hiesen (Oiant) mountains, (in
the frontiers of (ialicia and Ilnngar}- it joins the
Car|>ntliians, which branch off to the Dmiiiljii
near I'resburg. The central Carpathians fonn Wv:
boundary between the above-named prnvini'cs, ns
far as tho sources of the Save and Dniester, wli(>ro
a chain of low heights stretches from them into tln'
Kussian territories, se|)arating the region of tlic
Vistulo from thot of the Dniester. The enstcni
Carpathians cover the NE. counties of Hiiiifjnn',
the Hiikowine, and Transylvania, aa far as tlit
Danube.
The second mountain range, which has muoli
more elevated summits, and covers a larger tract
of countrj', divides the regitm of the Mediterrarcaii
from that of the Black Sea : it stretches from the
frontiers of'Switzerland and Italy in three chains,
which, through the Tyrol, run nearly parallel to
each other. The central chain exhibits the pri-
mitive formations of granite and slate : \i» summits
are covered with eternal snow, above the elcvatidn
of 8,000 feet. Following the right bank of tiie
Inn, as far as the point of junction of Snlzburj;
and Carinthia, it to'ies a NE. direction through
Styria into Hungary, and subsides in the Leitha
chain near the Danube. The two accompanying'
chains are of limestone: that on the >i.covm
northern Tyrol, Salzburg, and great part of the
Archduchy of Austria, and is intersected by the
numerous streams which flow from the central
chain to the Danube. The S. parallel chain sends
its ramifications from S. Tyrol into Italy, and,
possing through Illyria and the Croatian frontier
district, unites with the Balkhan on the borders of
Bosnia. Three important branches strike off from
this chain, one of which stretches between the
rivers Kaab and Drave, under the name of the
Bahony Forest, into Himgary; a second dividw
the regicm of the Drave from the valley of the
Save ; and the thinl, stretching along the Adri-
atic through Dalmatia, is called by the natives,
from its dark colour, Monte Nero, or Negro.
The principal valleys in Austria are situated in
the southern provinces, and nm parallel with the
Alps, in the direction of W. to E. They are foiuid
in Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, and Illyria. Croatia
belongs for the greater part to the valley of the
Save ; and Slavonia to the valley of the Drave.
Large plains are also found within the empire ;
they follow, for the most part, the course of liie
principJ rivers. The plam or basin of Vienna,
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF)
wliich strptphp" from Hic T^oiUm moiiiitniiin to the
liriL'lili* "'" Mofiviii, in Iravcwrd \>y tliu DaiiiilHi
aii,l tlie Miiri'li.
, yliich liaa miieli
)ver8 a larner tract
ithcModiterrancau
stretches from the
ily ill three cliaiiis,
nearly parallel tn
, cxhibitH the pri-
slate : its sunimits
Ibove the elcviUiim
[rifiht bank of the
iction of Salzbiirj;
itUrection through
clea in the Lcitha
III lliin(;iiry I hero iire two vory
oxtciiHive plainn; one in IJ|>i"mt IliiMKiiry. xitiiate'd
IhIwci'ii the ('ari)athiniin ami tin; IJaJtody forest ;
i| . st'Cdiiil. exteniliiij? from Die K. fall of tho hwt-
iiiiih"! forest and the Matra hilU to the rino of
,li,, I'raiisylvanian inouiitaii.M, and from the oen-
tmK'arpathian eliaiii on the north, to the nioiin-
ifiiiiH of Siavoiiia on the mmth. The plain of the
Vistula and the Sun, in (Jalieia, Ih a |Mirlioii of the
L'n at N'vel which stretchen from the full of the
(.iiriiatlilaiis on the norlli to the llallie.
liinnnnd [Mkii>. — Two tliirdH of the Austrian
pmiiire arc comprised in the hasin of the DaimlM'.
I'lJ, jjrcat river enters Austria at F,ii>,'elhard's Z<dl,
near rassaii: in itH SK. course through Upper
mill Lower Austria and llunpiry, it re»;eives all
ihc rivers falliii); from the two ^raiid mountain
riin'W (lescrilied aUive ; the chief of which are, on
ij< K.|t linnit, the March, Wan^. (iran, Theiss, and
rimes, and on its ri;;ht hank, the Traun, Kiins,
Kaali, Urave, and Save. Tluwe rivers, witli many
„f tlii'ir iriliutaries, are navigable to a greater or
liss extent, and afford very extensive means of
ininmercial communication. Uohemia belonj;s to
ilif liasiii of the Klhe, which, rising; on its NIC.
IViiiitier, traverses it in a direction from N. to S.,
uiid then \V. aril NW., beinj,' navijjable for bar>;es
from Meliiik, where it is joined by its important
irilmtnry the Moldau, flowing N. bv Hudweis and
I'rnitiie. The Oder has its source in the chain of
hills which connects the Silesian Mountains with
the Carpathians. The Vistula has its sources in
tlie (Carpathians, near Jabluiika. It may be navi-
Cnted, in favourable seasons, for the greater jiart
(if its course aloiif? the N\V. frontier of Gabcia.
It receiNCS the Dunajetz, the Wisloka, and the
Sail. The last-mentioned river is sometimes navi-
pilile for a part of its course by tlat-bottomed
IkiuU drawiiif^ little water; but the trutli Ls, that
the navijjation of all the (Jalician rivers is liable
to much obstruction, csiwcially in dry seiusoiis.
Kven the navijcation of the Vistula, from Cracow
(liiwnwanls, is frequently interrupted; and the
ilillioulty of transport thence arising occasions the
extraordinary tliscrepancy that usually obtains
jjetwecn the prices of wheat and other fjrain in
Daiitzic and in (ialicia. The Dniester, which,
also, has its source in the Carpathians, runs in a
Sl"„ direction through the centre of the K. portion
(if (ialicia, beinj? oc-asionally navi^jable for barges
from Koiiiuszki, 35 in. S\V. Lember^,'. The Adij^e,
tiic Tagliaraento, and the Lisonzo, traverse the
povinces of Venice and Illyria in their course to
tlic Ailriatic. The Rhine bounds the extreme VV.
ftdiiticr of the empire for a small portion of its
Course before it falls into the Lake of Constance.
On the N. side of the Alps the largest Austrian
lakes are those of Atter-Gmllndeii or Traun,
Uallstadt, and Augsec, connected tofjether by the
Traun, and the lakes of St. Gilp^en and !Moncl
Sic. The Neusiedler and llalaton lakes, in Upi>er
Hungary, are, however, by far the lartcest in the
iniiiirc; the water of the former is saltish. On
the 8. side of the Alps, Lake Garda forms the
i wstern boundary of the Austrian dominions.
Clmutte. — Four distinct climates are found
I within the limits of this extensive empire. The
most southerly part of Ualmatia produces the palin-
I tree, and at iiagusa, the mean elevation of the
|thcmi(imctcr is stated by IJlumenbach to be
i+lPS'R., or 570 3' Fahr.: upon a line drawn
I al(ing the S. foot of the Alps, the mean tcmpera-
1 lure at Milan is + 9° 4' ; at Temeswar, + SP 2'.
I UnthcN. side of that chain, in Liiiz, it is + 70° C ;
I in Vienna, + 8° 5' (nearly the climate of Straa-
Vou I.
28!)
burtj:); IJuda, K°H'i in Klnunonburff, +80.T. In
l*riu;iie, the menu heal is -f 7° '.)' ; in Olniiilx,
+ 7°il'; in Trojipaii, +7"^ 3'; in Lcmbcr^j. +ti° 1'
It. Wine and Indian corn ihi not thrive to the N.
of the last drawn line, excejit in unusually favour-
able situaliouM; but corn ot all other <h>scriptiniis,
thix, hemp, niid hardy fniits, ntlaiti p<>rfcclion.
The oliserval ions at Vienna pve for the mean
tem|M'rature only + 7° 2' K. The air is for the
most part clear and salubrious; but the heats of
Humnier and (he odds of winter are lM)tli in what
we should consii^er extremes. The Krealest ipian-
tily of rain falls in Tyrol and VorarlU-rg, the
smalh'stcpiaHtity in the central district sof I luiigMry
and in Dalmatia, which often suffer from excessive
drought. In this last province, the fall of rain
avi-rafjes 12 in.: at Vienna the average is al)out
1(1 in. The classilication given by Frnncini for
Switzerland has lieen found to suit Tyrid with
eipial precision. — 1. The region of the vine from
7(M> ft. to 1.7(111 ft. above the h'vel of the sea.— 2.
The region of the oak, from 1,70(1 ft. to 2,Mt>0 It. —
;j. The region of the beech, 2,Ht)0 ft. to 4,|()(» f(.;
the walnut only reaches 3,r)(KI ft. ; the plum-tree
3,72(1 ft.; |i(-ar and apple-trees, 4,l(Mt; but little
wheat is grown in this region, but the mea(h>wa
are excelli'iit. — 1. The region of lir, from 4,1(10 to
U,itiW ft. — ii. The lower Alpine region, famous for
its pasdires, U,i>m ft. to (!,')00 ft.— (1. The Upjier
Alpine region, (i,.')(M) ft. to 8,200 ft., above which
is the region of eternal snow.
NutiintI Proiluct'um» and M'mfrah. — The mi-
neral riches of the Austrian empire, sii|)]iosiug
they w(!re fully developed, are probably not in-
ferior to those of any other ICuropean country.
Hesides gold and silver, considerabh' (piantities of
which are produced by the mines of Transylvania
and N. Hungary, Austria has inexhaustible sii|>-
plies of the more useful metals, with coal and salt.
Native steel, or carbonated inm ore, is found in
Styria and Illyria, in masses that require ratluT
to be quarried than excavated. Of the rarer metals,
titan is found near Koese, in Ilungarv, uran in the
Sudcsen in Bohemia, tellurium in iliingary and
Transylvania. Hesides the ojials of Hungary, the
most beautiful that are known, an inferior kind is
found in Moravia; carnelian, beryl, chalcedon,
topaz, garnet, and amethyst, in llohemia and
Hungary, of sujwrior quality. Coal has l>eeii found
in nearly every province, but the cheapness nnd
abundance of lire-wood have hitherto prevented
much search from being made after it. Upwards
of 100 descriptions of marble, quartz for tlie ma-
nufacture of glass, clays for porcelain and mineral
dyes of all kinds, are also found in abundance.
Upwards of 100 mineral springs are annually fre-
quented ; amongst which Carlsbad, Toeplitz, Ma-
rienbad, &c., attract visitors tirom all parts of the
world.
Animals. — All the domestic animals found in
England are met with in the Austrian em|)ire.
Exclusive of these the brown bear is indigenous
in the Alps and the Carpathians, the W(df in both
these mountain chains, and the lynx is found in
all the provinces. The chamois, red and fallow
deer, roebucks, wild boars, all descriptions of game
known in England, with the exception of grouse,
and several other kinds of binls unknown in our
islands, are objects of chase. The unis and elk
are sometimes found in the E. Carjjathians, but
only as stragglers. The ibex is nearly extermi-
nated. Herdis of wild horses of a diminutive size
range the Hungarian plains ; and even where the
improvement of the breed is attended to, they are
allowed to rove almost in a state of nature. The
golden eagle inhabits Slavonia, and other large
species are found in the Uhctian and Noric Alps.
200
i I M
I
4.'^ 4
J \ f ■
IIororiH nf vnrioul* kiiidx, Homo of llin clioiroNt
pliiiiwiKC', nlMtiind in ttio muriiMsoN of lliin^:.i>'yi
iiikI thiTc nUii till' liiiiil lortdifii' is riiiiii<l in ^rcnl
iiiiiiilicrH, 'I'll!' Hmiic niiiriisHcM fiiniiKh iiii iilaiiiilaiit
Hiipply (if ItM'clicN, w)u'iii'<! ttii'v lire rcKiiloHy trnim-
IHtrlt'il liy iiu'iiiiH urn wrrifM iifiHiinU, Ihal xorvc iih
iv> iimiiy NinlioiiN, to I'liriN niiil tlut \V. of Kiiroi)(>,
M'lix JH nil important product of th(> lliikownid
mid other S. provincrH, OnnthnridoH uro found in
ncvcral parts of lliinpirv; ('(M-iiiiicnl in (ialicia;
nnd iicarlM of n licaiitifiif water aru liHlicd in the
Moliliiii.
I'ei/i'tiililf I'roilurfii.—'rhvHP compriMC I lie dif-
ferent MortM of eorii aiidof ciiliivaled ^raxxcH found
in lOtirope, willi viiieH, Hax, and lienip, lohacco,
hops, Nan'ron, woad, Honio specicH of iiidipi, yellow
W'oad or rliim aitiiiim, ^'alis, and an immense variety
of fruits, Tlie forests are of vast extent, mid will,
no iloiilit, eome to Ik^ of p-eat value. The nioiiii-
t4iiii ehains of tlie northern provinces and of the
Alps are covered with tlr, pine, heech and larch.
The low frriiiinds, including the vast forest, of
IJukony ill Iliiiifjary, with others in Transylvftiiia,
the Ihikowine, (iulicin and Slavonia, proiluee
oaks of a (;i^aiitic si/.e, wii!< heech, ash, alder and
elm. Kvery jirov, is well rui.j''""-.'. with wood,
with tlie exception of Low. Austria and Hungary,
where, from iiej;lect of inanafj^cmeiit and had eco-
nomy, the stock has in many jtnrts hcen alarm-
inf,'ly HMliiced. In the other jirovs. the forests are
well maiuif^ed; and care is taken to Hii|)|)ly the
annual consimiptioii hy sowing; nnd ]ilantinf{ in
proportion to tlie quantity felled. Tlie proprietors
(if estates are oliii^ed, in Austria, as nil over
(ierinnnj', to employ foresters, who have hecn
educated in forest suliools, and have passed the
necessary examination. Their hnsinos is to
calculate the niiantity of tiniher that may he
felled without diminisliin^ the stock. The means
nt their command in hack ran^'cs of mountains
are p'lierully applied with fjreat inf;eniiity to for-
ward the felled trees to the common channels ol
commiini<^ntion. A kind of hollow railroad of
timhcr (W/(!«e»),sh)pinf; down the side of a moun-
tain, often several thousand yards in lenjjth, and
down which the trunks of trees arc precipitated,
is one means of transport. The tnniks are raisecl
from n valley to the summit of a iieighhourinK
(•hain, over wliich they have to he transported,
by means of ropes nnd pulleys, worked hy a rude
water-wheel temporarily erected hy the woodman
on a little hrook {Hnhimfzug) ; and the s))rings
n Jar the summits heiiif? led into a temporary reser-
voir on the ridffc of the hills, the burden thus
raised is received by it in order to be precipitated
into the hollow on the other side, when the sluices
confiniiig the waters are opened (Klause), The
Tyrolese arc particularly distinguished hy their
inftenuity in devising these sorts of contrivances,
nnd by their wooden fabrics. Among others they
construct houses and shops, the parts of whicn
being regularly marked and numbered, are jincked
uj) nnd conveyed hy the Lake of Constance to
the adjoining coimtrios, where they are erected
with tlie utmost facility. Ihit while this inge-
nuity is shown in the mnnngement of the moun-
tain forest-tracts of lir, the far richer wooded dis-
tricts of Slavonia, the militarj' frontier, and Upper
Hungary, in which the more valuable forest trees
nttain a size unusual in Kurope, are neglected
and but little known. Tliere nre .S,18(i'i) Aust,
sq. m. of woodland. The forests produce, on an
average, 3O,0()O,0ttO Vienna fnthoms of w()0<l per
annum, mostly of excellent qualitv. The forests
yield, besides, 500,000 cwts. of gall nuts, 100,000
cwts. of potash, 2.')0,000 cwts. <if turpentine nnd
resin, and •l.'KiO.OdO cwts. of tanning bark, an-
AUSTUIA (EMPIRE OF)
nnntly. Without rnnnting conHiderahle trnrta
within the forests which nre used for gra/iin;
purposes, there are in the empire 2,N'2tK'l w|, (,,
of grass land. These, priHiiice, nnniinllv, rUiui
m;;i.O(Hi,000 cwts. of hay, and '20(),(Mm,(i(io"owt..„f
various herbage for ftslder. Home idea of t|,,.
extent of the oak forests niny \m formed fmiti t||,.
fnct thnt nearly 200,000 hiishelM of gnll nppltxari'
annually exporte(L The diNtrihution of the fi>n>,i<
ix, however, very im-gular; and, while in ih,,
moiinlninouH trai-ts they nro of immenNiirnlili'
extent, the want of firewiMMl Is so great in ih,'
plains, that dried dung is a common sulMtitiito
for faggots. In Transylvania, es|K'cially, hiuI tlii>
military frontier, the forests are of great extent.
nnd tilled with tn-es of the finest quality, ef)inilly
adapted I'or the use of the builder and lliv imvul
architect.
HoattM anil JJnihrayii,-— The. rulers of Aiintria
have always paid great attention to the dev('l(i|>.
ment of all iiiteninl means of communii'nil«ii.
From Verona on the SW. frontier, an iiiiinicr.
riqited Mwiulamined road conducts the tnivcllir
to (V.cniowit/ ill the Ihikowine. a distance nf ii{>.
wards of 1,000 m. From the Italian frniiticr lo
Vienna there are three lines of road, and tlir(iiii;h
(ialicia the line is double. Three grand liyii-
roads from Venice, and two from Trieste, Icnil to
the Tyrol and (iemiany, and double lines nm
from each of tliese cities to the capital. I'rii),nio
is connected with Vienna by numerous lines nf
communication, which are continued to tlielnm-
tiers of Davaria, Saxony, and Prussian Sil(>i,i,
Materials for making ronds nlxiund in most pni-
vinces, though not in nil, nnd the art is well
understood. Upwnrds of sixty mountain pnsw,
varying from 10 to 70 m. in length, have Incn
made not only practicable, but commoilidiis U
travelling ond commercial purposes. On the
roads across the Alps, through Tyrol and Illyria,
the greatest sums have lieen expended; their im-
portance in a military point of view, and llie
necessity of facilitating the communication with
n powerful and not very well affected pm-
vince, rendering them indispensable. Tlie rmiil
over the Stelvio, or WOnnser Joch. in S. T\tii1,
passes over an elevation of 8,400 feet almvp
the level of the sea, and is covered in dniiKi'miu
parts with solid stone arches, over which the ava-
lanches glide into the depths below, Tliis tin-
dertaking surpasses the ronds of the Simiilmi
and Mont Ccnis in boldness and splendour of exe-
cution.
The railway system of Austria dates from the ywr
1849, when the most energetic efforts were made
hy the imperial government to raise the material
prosperity of the country. The principle adnptoil
at first was to construct the chiei lines at the ex-
pense and under the supervision of the statu; but
the financial emergencies of the goveniment sul>-
sequently occasioned the abandonment of tliis
principle, and nearly all the railways thus con-
stnictcd were given up to private conipaiiies,
formed by French and German capitalists. Con-
sidered without reference to the division amtiti;;
companies, the Austrian railway system tmim
of two great lines, running from north to sniith
and from east to west, and crossing at right anvil's
the point of junction being at the capital of tlw
empire. Numerous branches connect the outlying'
districts with these two great tnink lines; and
there is scarcely a single town of importance imt
embraced within this network of iron roads, 'ilie
subjoined two tables show the various railways j
extant in the Austrian empire, together with ilif
receif)ts and expenditure of each in the year |
I8(;,'5:—
Otuominatton o
AUSTRIA (EMIMUE OF)
IcraMc tractn
I lor ^!ym\\^:
2,H'.>(i-:i w). m,
iDunlly, rImiui
)(I,(MI() owl", i,f
i«, iiU-a (if til"
irmcd frnm ili"
Kill) a|i|iU'i> ari'
n of iJic f>ir('»i«
while ill till'
iiTiTncnHurolili'
r> ^jrent in iln'
m<m Miilwtitiiii'
•cinUy, luiil til.'
>f nn'iit cxiMii,
rjimUty, ('(juiilly
r and the naval
\en of Austria
to tllP (ll'Vclllll-
CDinmunli'aiiiiii,
WT, an iininlir-
i!tH tlio truvcllit
a (lintiincc iif u\>-
nlian frniiticr i.i
iiail, anil tlimivh
r('(' uriiiiil liwli-
n Trit'^*t(^ '''ml t'l
(l(mlil(^ linc!* niii
(■n)iil"'l. V'"'-''"'
luincrous lines nt
nucd to the friin-
I'riissiiin Silisin.
iind in mii«t yto-
A tho art in will
Tnoimtnin pawc",
length, hnv(; Ikoii
it eoinmodiiiiw f"(
urpoKCs. On the
'rvrol and lUyria,
cppndcd; their im-
of view, nii'l ^^
iinmnniratiim with
■ell aft'ecteil pru-
nsnlile. The m\
,„cli. in S.T\-n.l,
S,4(10 feet nl»ive
_,red in dmiKeniiis
vcr which the ava-
bohiw. niis iin-
of the Simiilmi
splendour of cxc-
Hrrr.ivm nr ArirrniAN nAii.wAm.
IVni'iuintilon i>( Ihn Dili**;!
i
Enilier>r rcnllniuid'M(North-
ITII)
BnllwiivH nf tho Hoiitliurn,
l/miiiiirilo-Vi'ni'tlnn, niul
(Viitnil Itiilliin Comimnli'H—
I, VIenim-Trlitito Lliiu .
V, llioiKnrinn Mmoh
3. Norfliiuid Mouth Tyrol
Line
4, Veni'tinn Lines .
Aimirlnn StutcH ('oni|mulea —
I. Niirtlicrn Lino ,
•J. SoiitlH'iiHtoni Lino .
a. Vii'iinu New B/.iiiiyer
I.ino . . ,
Kiii|in>w EllzatNith's (WoHt-
ern)—
1, Vi('nnn-Sr»IzburK-raH-
I mill ....
I 2. Ilrnnoh r.ine,LAinba(.')i-
I (Imllnilen .
! 3. Briiiu.'li I.ino, Llnz-
\ UiulweU . .
' flnw-Kiifliu'h Unilway .
1 .Snitli-Nurtli Gorman Juno-
I tioii
i Biistclirniler Unilway — with
1 im-oniotlvoH
I niiKteliriMlcr Hallway -horw)
I trnniwny ....
I Itohcniittn W<'Hteni Lino ,
1 AiwlK-Tiiplltz Lino
; IlrUnn-Uiis«itz Lino
linlldnn (('Imrh'.H-Lonls) Lino
1 I'rfnliiirif-Tlrnan Lino .
. Tliei™ Kiiilwny . ,
I FUnfkiroliun-Mobacz .
Sum total t . .
Tr»in|i<>rl
■if
Puii'iiirvri
riurlni
Total
I Florin*
,tA,«0-j,41A
;),m)n,«:ta
ui4,u:ii
47H,4:i;i
1,(l'i4,7HU
14,770,'i7«
:),:it4,iriH
l,0(;n,.'i4i
U,(i7H,(l4l ,
•j,i'in,(H8
a,r)K!i,!)7()
8,r.l2.H(12
H,4(iA,74l
us:),(i:i4
1 ,(i7U,4(il)
2,14(1,077
n,iri3,;ui8
41,2(12
2(m,298
2I,h;I4
(Ki.r.iM
ni4,i(i;i
;i7i,7;m
274,:i91
1,04(1,829
\9,r,Vi
670,7(10
in,002
28H,a2'J
H2,U(i4
22,r>22
9():i,()7«
05,()4!»
1,(>:I2,740
44,()46
nil.Hft.l
9r..'.,!m
:i(io,i'.'U
;i20,27r>
3,(140,412
14«,4i)7
2,904,8.'il
6fift,l4S
19,994,183
74,200,308
2U1
Ihiir
EXI'KNDITUIIK AND SURPLUS.
Dniominttlon of the Ratlwijri
Emperor Ferdinand's (North-
ern) Lino ....
Il»ll\vay» ot the aonthem,
Lombimlo - Venetian, and
Central Italian Companies.
Austrian Stato Hallways
Company ....
Emprexs Elizabeth's (West-
em) Line —
Vienna- Solzburg-Passau
Branch Line, Lambach-
GmUndcn .
Branch Line, Linz-Bud-
weis ....
nraz-Kiiflach Railway .
South-North German Junc-
tion
BuBtchrador Railway — with
locomotives . . .
Biistchrader Railway — horse-
tramway ....
Boberalan Western Lino
Aussig-Toplit^ Line .
Bmnn-ltossitz Line
Oalician (Charles Lonls) Line
Pregburg-Timan Lino .
Theiss Railway
FUnfklrchen - Mohacz - Ball-
way
Totnl F.i-
pcndlturo
Niirplui of
Rwfiptii o»i*r
Ki|)pn(ll
lure
Florlni
7,391,024
8,476,049
8,761,869
2,296,706
144,291
481 .306
103,748
673,076
204;864
119,764
418,(191
108,076
122,003
1,771,098
110,728
1,716,806
312,613
FlorlDi
8,370,792
14,; 56,663
9,890,194
2,866,663
66,004
112.868
210,990
373,764
306,912
64,141
637,220
192,0.13
168,272
1,8(19,314
32,709
1,188,046
843,632
The whole of the above lines, chiefly constructed
liy tlie state, became private pri)i)crty at the
(■ml of 1863. They carried in the same year
nearly fifteen millions of passengers, and returned
an avrraKd dividriid of Ft^ per rent, to
proiirictiirH.
The river Hyufom of An-'triii, though upon ii
L'rniid m'ale, is Irw* nviiilnlilf fur llic piiriii''«i"< id'
uitcniiil I'ominiinlciilion iliiiii in, periuips, ii>milly
MipiMiHod, the navigation of the greater nnndicr
of till! rivers iM'iii^ liable to Ih' Nerioiisly ini|NM|i'it
ImiIIi by tliMNls and ilroiiKhtH, csperially ihe liillir.
It In also to Ih> rei^relteil Ihnt none of Ihe iiavi-
^abln AiiHtrian, lIuiiKarian, or Croalian riverx
liiivu their einlNiiK'hiire in t!ie Adriatic ; but are
all nllliients of the Danube, which, after Ira-
vendiijf tho centre of the empire, iMiurs its wntcri
inio the Hlacl< Sen, whence only it is accessible.
To obviate this dellciency it Iiiih been prii|Misei| to
unite the navipible river the Save, one of llie
principal tribiitarieH of the lltintibe, with the port
of Kiiinie on the Adriatic; it bein^ Hup])osed tlint
the com and other produce of lliiii(;ary iiii^ht
Ik! conveyed by its means to a iniieii more con-
venient anil better market than it is ever likely to
meet with at (ialalz or other port near the inoitth
of the Danulic. lint it has not been seriouslv
attempted to realise this project ; and tboiiKh it
were realisiMl, it may, as previously stated, lie
(Unibted whether it would have the anticipated
su(u;esi\ It would cost a very lar>;e sum : and the
expense of conv(!ying so bulky a commodity ns
wheat bv its means, would 1m^ so jrreat that the
iirobaliility is it ini^rbt be broii<^ht cheaper tu
Marseilles by (ialalz than by Ibis channel.
For many years past, the Ilaiiilbe has been navi-
gated by steamers from KatislMin to Vienna, which
(beni-e convey goiwls and passengers todalal/., Tre-
bisond, Constiuitinople, and .Smyrna. Ihit its navi-
gation is subject to considerable ililliculties. Frimi
Vienna to I'resbiirg, the river is so very shallow as to
l)c navigable, in dry seasons, only by vessels drawing
from 18 inches to '2 or 2^ feet water, anil even their
nrogress is not unfrequPiitly interrupted by changes
m the channel of tlic stream, and the shifting of
movid>le sandbanks. Lower down, for a space of
about «0 m., between Jloldova and Gladova, w hero
the river leaves the Austrian territory, its chininel
is much contracted; and the water rushes over its
rocky bed with so much violence, especially at the
point called tho Iron (iatc, near C>rsiiva, that it
cannot be safely navigatiul d.<wnwar(ls exci-pt
during floods, and is nearly imjiracticable for ves-
sels ascending the stream. Various efforts have
been made, in modern times, to obviate this dilli-
culty, but with no very decided success. In consc-
(lucnce, passengers and goods, passing upiuul ihiwn
the river, arc now mostly conveyed by road from
the one end of the rapiils to the other. (See for
further details on this siibiect the art. Danubk.)
Ports and liar bourH, — Ihe principal commercial
port of Austria is Trieste upon the Adriatic. It is
a free port, and is, with Venice, which has tho
same privilege, shut out of the customs line ; the
duty on goods imported into them not being de-
manded until they are .sent into the interior.
Venice is the seat of the admiralty, and has dock-
yards and naval arsenals. Pola, in Istria, cele-
brated for its magnilicent am[)hitbeatre, has one
of the finest harbours in the Mediterranean ; but it
is HO very unhealthy that it is almost uninhabited.
Shipping, — Since the loss of Flanders, the mer-
cantile navj' of Austria has been whoUv concen-
trated in the ports on the Adriatic, lint it is,
notwithstanding, very consideroblc ; imd engrosses
a large share of the trade of the Mediterranean
and Black Sea. The oak timber of Caniiola and
the Dalmatian coast is reckoned alxiut the very
best in the world ; so that the Austrian ships,
being built of it, arc very strong, at the same time
that they arc particularly handsome. Tbev arc
U 2 ■
li!! '^
Ilii
202
mIho woll ninimoil niiil provided. The wnim'n nn'
<'X|irri, l<'rii|H'ruti>, ami ordiTly; mid the luwn for
tliK ri'^julatiiin of (hii tnvrchuiit H!r>-icu an; Miid to
Im' rxi't'llfiit.
Hv fjir tlu' Kn-ntcr iinnilM>r »{ \onM-\n of lurK<'
Itiiriicii lit'loii^ to 'l'ri<'i«l(>. Tint rcMl iMdon^ to
Vi'iiit'c, Kiiiiiit', KaKiiMn, and the Him-i-Ihi di t'at-
liiro. On lli« otiinr hand, llic xniallcr vohhi'Im
i'in|iloyi>d ill tliu I'lMiNtiii^ trade, which ix very
foiiHJdi'raldc, are inor |imlly ilivided; Venice
having, |irohahlv, an many ax 'I'rieHte, wliil(> a
pMid niiinlier hcfdiiK to the iH>rtM of iHtria, lliiii-
K'trv, and Daiinalia.
'I he forei^:ii trade of 'IVicMtt' coinprineH all voy-
n>,'CH U'vond the limits of the Adriatic; and niiiy
Ix* divided as IoIIowm: —
t. 'I'he Levant trade, incliidiiif^ the Ionian In-
lands, (ireece, ('onNlMiitiiio|ile, Smyrna, Odessa,
Ac,, the ports in Syria, Cyiinis, (;andiM,and I'-Kyp'-
more especially Alexandria.
■J. The /MiMi'/i/c or Medilerranenn trade, in the
west, comprising ili<> coast of Itarhary, Spiiiii,
France, and Italy; heiiif; principally carried on
with Marseilles, (ieiioa, and Le^diorn.
.'I. The commert'e on lh(> ocean, which the Aiih-
trian nierchanis have attempted with consideralde
Hticcess. .Several ships sail for llru/il, Cnha, the
U. Stales, Kn^land, llamhiir^', tl'(;.
The commercial marine of Austria consisted, in
.June |M(!2, of il,70Jt vesnels, of an iijfKrejyate hiir-
deii of .HID, I /i7 tons, and manned hv Kt.lidl sailors.
Only C.Otl of these ships, of 22H,H('t() tons hiirdeii,
with (!,7I2 seamen, were for the 'long course,' ami
nil IIh! rest small coasting vessels. Ilut the list
comprised 5!) steamers, of 21,;tiJ8 tonnage, with
1,70(1 sailors.
There is an important Ntoam navigation com-
pany at Trieste, under the name of Lloyd's A iis-
triaeo. They have a large numlier of steam hoals
with which a communication is kept up hetween
Trieste and V^enice, the Dalmatian harhoiirs,
(jireece, Smyrna, and Alexandria.
State of ylt/ririiltiiri; — The arahle land, con-
finiiously or intermittingly under tillage, com-
prises ii,M2 Austr. sq. m. distrihiitod among the
Hcvernl provinces, us shown in the suhjoincd talilc.
AUSTRIA (FMPIHK OK)
NumhiT of
Scali' of Pit.
Provinces
Aiulrian
crrilnKHiifthij
bq. Milot
whulu Area
Austria, Lower
141 -4
41-1
Upper
7:i-fl
3.V3
Salzburg ....
11-7
n-4
Htyria ....
8(1-.1
2'J-l
Ciirinthla ....
a:i-9
i:VH
Cnrniola ....
li:l-7
13-<i
I.lttoralo ....
a4-l
17-3
Tyrol and Vornrlbcrg
•iti'O
r.-i
Bohomia ....
4:i;i-l
48-0
Moravia ....
1!M!-1
C(f8
Silesia ....
41 •«
4(i'S
Onlicia ....
6r,r>-\
40-7
Itukowina
44-6
24-5
Dalniatia ....
'2i-i
ll'O
Lombardo-Vcnotian King-
dom ....
lfi9-8
3S-9
HuuKary ....
12(i.V3
33-9
Croatia and Slavonia
89-0
2(i-(i
Tronsylvania .
21(i-l
22-fl
Military Borderland
i;i(;-(i
23-4
The value of arable land fluctuates between 30
and 1,,)00 tlorins — 8/. and 150/. jier acre; the latter
being the average price paid in the German pro-
vinces. (Arenatein, Oesterrcich in der Weltauss-
tellung, 18(il ; Report of Mr. Fane, Her Majesty's
Sec. of Kmbassy, 1863.)
The following is the estimated annual produce,
after government returns published in the year
iHt'i'i, of the jirincipnl kinds of grain. It is i^iven
in melxen; 1 iiulzeii eipml to I'tilM bushel:—
MfffMn
. nO,IMHI,INVI
. 1IMI,IIIIII,IIIHI
. n<'i,iNNi.(iiiii
. fiD.IKNI.IKNI
44,ll)KI,nilll
• lA.iMNi.mii)
. 1»,IK)(),1KK)
Wlicnt (annual produce) .
OlitM . „ .
Ilye . „ .
Itarloy . „ ,
Miii/.ii . ,, .
MIxmI Corn ,, .
Millet iiiiil lliickwhent
The mi'iin market price of grains in Aii«tri;i
iluriiig the year |H('>I was, for wheat l-.') lli.riiu.
rve 'i'7 lloriiis, mai/e •."ll llorins, and imH h
llorins, Austrian currency. Cereals form a vitv
iinporlaiil ilein in the export trade of the einplri'.,
as I have had l'rc(piciit occasion to show in m,
fonner reports. In the year IHlil, the viilin' ,',f
cereals and fruits exported aniounled to l,'i„'i;|s,i;;i^
tlorins, iteing an increase on Ihe value of tlic v\.
ports of \H(W of r),;i(W, |M-.> llorins.
It is computed thai of hemp and flax tlun ii
produced annually il,IHIO,nilO cwts,, of hops |ii.iiiii|
i^wts,, of other <-oiiiiiiercial plants I'ltli.iiuu i^d.,
The amount of the cro))s of linseed and liriii{ip.ir.|
is estimated at •2,51(11,(100 met/en, of riipi' x, |
l.'itld.nno mclzen : the pr<Mlu(H) of olive-nil i<
11)0,0(10 cwts. The quantity of tobacco grinmin
IHCI was 1,000,000 cwts. Tobacco (like •.all) i,
an article (d' government monop(dy ; but by n \m
which has recently U'Cii passed, the gmwin i.f
this important plant are now i)ermitted to ex|H<rt
on their own account any surplus of tlie imn.
modity whi<'h may bo lett on their hands hytlit
government iiurchasers.
Hungary lias almost iineqiinlled ca[mcitio« f(,r
the production of wheat and of all sorts of {•cmi;
but these have hitherto been all but wholly m^
lected, and, with a few trilling exceptioiis, iniri-
eultiire, within the Hungarian territory, is in a
state of primievol barbarism. The country IrMin
I'esth to the borders of Transylvania, anil fnnn
Ilelgrade to the vine-bearing hills of llegyaljii, i<
a vast plain, from 12,000 to 15,000 sn, ni. iiux-
tent, traversed by the Danube, the Tlieins, aiiil
the Maros, and presenting, one should think, il«>
most inviting field for the lalnairs of the Iiii.sIjiiikI-
man. Mr. Paget, in his work on Hungary, n-
marks on this vast plain as fidlows :— ' The sdil
of the plain (Puszta), an might be anficipmnl
from its extent, and, I might ad:l, from the na-
ture of the rocks from whose debris it has Imh
formed, is various in its nature and in its ixiwir*
of production. A considerable )>ortion is a iltiii
saiul, easily worked, and yiehling fair cro]« in
wet seasons; a second, found principally in the
neighbourhood of the Danube, Thoiss, and Tcnifs,
is boggy, and much deteriorated in value from ilio
frequent inundations to which it is sulijcot, Im!
capoble of the greatest improvement at little (wt:
and a thinl is a rich black loam, the fertility if
which is almost incredible. When the reader re-
flects that this fniitful plain is bounded on two
sides by the largest river in Europe, that it is tra-
versed 'from N. to S. by the Tlieiss, and tliai it
communicates with Transylvania by the Manw,
it is almost impossible to calculttte what a simne
of wealth it might prove to the countrv'. In anv
other part of the civilised world, we should sec it
teeming with habitotions, and alive with &ffimi-
tural industry, the envy of surrounding iwwep.
the granary of Europe. Here it is the ni">t
thinly populated, the worst cultivated, ami tlie
least accessible portion of the countij'. A'ariiw
causes have contributed to produce this etl'«t.
Most of the inhabitants of the plain arc llii};vars,
whose warlike propensities induced them to take
the most active part iu the constant wars in «Iim
in. It 'm eivdi
I Imxlivl :— .
(H),0(HI,I1(V)
, nri/NMi.iiiKi
, 44,iMiti,iliiii
, tli.iHHi.imi
•aiiin in Aihlria
liiiit V't lli'riiK.
iM, mill iiiii!* I <«
•uIh I'tirin II vvry
lie III' llir ('iii|iiri',
I III kIiiiw ill inv
(il, till' Mill I'
(It'll til (.'i.r.lW/.'is
vuliu' III' till' i\
I,
anil lliix llicrr'M
H.. of liii)H |ll,iini|
\\\n '.•im.iiiMi cwi,,
i>«><l nml lii'in|>Mi'i|
/.en, III' raiii' Mr,|
IH! of tllivi'-liil il
' tiiliiK'i'" uriiwn ill
mci'o (liki' will) i»
Mily ; I III I liy ii law
•il, tin- ttrnwi'is if
^rniitliil lo <'X|»iri
rjiliiH III" till' I'liiii-
thi'ir IiiuiiIh liy llit
nllcil cnimcitiPH fur
1" all Kiirls iif ccini;
ill Imt wliiiUy iiii;-
ft (•X('<'lil'"il"'< "(.'"■
n tciritiiry, in i" n
Till' oimiitry Irmn
Isylvanift, aii'l I'rum
iJIIkoI' 111'Kyaljii.i*
15,000 Hfi. ni. in i x-
10, the 'rlifiKS mill
ic hIiiiiiIiI think, iln'
iirs of the liiislmml-
k on lliuitjary, ti-
folhiws:— 'Tlu'M'il
ijrht be aiiti('i|winl
' nil;l, from the iia-
(Icbris it hnn Iwn
■c and in its [xwirs
; portion is a ih-\>
'l(linn fiiir cro\i8iii
principiiUy in the
Theiss, and Tenifs,
•d in valiio from tlw
. it is Hulijcct, liiit
..mental little nisi;
am, the fertility of
Vhcn the reailet re-
is hounded on two
iTopc, that it is tni-
rheiss, and tlmt u
ania bv the Mans
[iilate what a wmw
le coiintr\'. 1" «")'
Id, weshoulilswit
alive with ai;ruul-
lurroundiuK ik)«W'
■re it is the w;>i
mltivated, aiul.t««
countrj'. Vaniw
,roduec this cffw-
plain arc Mn!.'yars.
uluced them to take
itantwarsinwliw
AUSTKIA (KMl'IRK OF)
1),,. rmintn' was formorly cn(,'(«tfpil, . . . Anmni;
Ihi' ,M»Kviir«, loo. the iiiiinlMT of rliildrt'ii i^* ^ene-
mIIv Kiiinll'- why llic Irish hIioiiIiI Ih< ho prolillfon
>iiirvniion. and tlii' MuKyar^i .sn miii'li llii< I'unlrary
Mil aliiiiidaiu'e. is. I innwl «'iiiilt'«j«, a mvMitTv to
iiic; lull Kiii'li is tin' f'K't. 'I'"' eafio willi wliicli
till' land is oliiaiiieil. its I'lieapneNH, the rii'hncM of
till' Miil. and the few waiiti* of the |M'ii|ile, have
„|„, n|«'ratt'il to elu'ck llie proKn'sn of iiniimve-
iiii'iil ill aKrit'iilliire. 'I'lie forinalion of roiiilK. loo,
i, niidiTi'd exreeiliii),'ly dilllriill bv Ibe iliitlunee
Iriiiii wliii'li the iieceitMirv inateriaii* would often
riiiiiire til In' conveyed; Imt xlill mori> by Ilii> iin-
{11. 1 I'haraeter of the law, wliii'b IbroWN ilie whole
liurii' II of inakin^r ibeni on the |H>af<ant, tliiiN reii-
iji'riiiL;' it iiiiiioKsilile to exjieiiil ho lar^e a eapital
a< U'Mild Ih' rei|iiireil for their llrxt fornwition in
Mirli siiiialioiii'.' (TravelH in lliin>iurv. ii. ;i.)
Willi' is n priiii'ipiil ebjeet in viirioiiH purlM of
lliiiiKary, and iniieli care Ih iiNniilly beHio^M'd boili
1,11 ilii' iMiltiire of ihe vinevariln and llie inaniifae-
liiri' of the liipior. The lient of nweet wines, To-
jjiiv, owes its celebrity entirely to llie care with
wliii'li the Ki'<*"i"' '-'* tiUed and Ibe );ra|i<'s Horli'd.
Till' vine is, also, extensively urowii in 'I'raiisyl-
Miiiia; and thmiKh notbiiiK eaii be ruder tlian tlie
iiri'ni'iit priHM'Hs of wine-inakiiif; in Ihe prov,, llie
uliii'H are remarkable for Ibeir boiiipiet and llavonr,
tiiiil liave considerable body. There are tbroii^di-
<,iii llie emiiire, accordinK to retiiriiH iniiile in I mi'.-.',
uiiilur ({overnment inHpeittiiin, 1 10 Aiislrian hii. in.
n| viniynnls, U'sideH I 10 Austrian hi|. m. of ' lielilH
hlaiili'il with vine.' The annual prodnctioii of
uiiii! ranges between Jlll.ooo.ooo and lO.OOll.lMlO
ijiiicrs— I I'imer beiiifj e(pial to lO'llll l'',ii;;'lish
-iiiliiiiH. (Iteportof Mr. CiiiiHiil Fane, dated Vienna,
Kill, HI. imi;t.) The I'lillnre of nilk is rapidly in-
1 ri'ii-iiiK, ami mi^jlit be rained in every part of
lliiii(;ary. A (?reat obstacle to the improvement
111' imrii'iiltiire wiw removed by the Diet of IXitii,
whin a law watt paHsed for lixinj; the divi: ion of
liiiul. Down to that period llie peasant only tilled
his |Mirtion for three years, after which anotlier
\Mi.i alliitteil to him by' bis lord, and the share he
|io'ist'«.''eil was either given over to others or turned
mill Kra/.iii); laml. The want of a market for
ilicir cum, and their nomadic habits, have tempted
the lliin);arians to |trosecnle, on a larj^e scale, the
raisini; of sheep and wool.
Ilniii'ia is tlironglioul an agricultural prov. Its
mm' lirt'le portion begins to the K. of the San,
ami foUiiws the course tif the Dniester, being part
.1 tlii'Kreat plain extending nearly from the Car-
lathlans to the Klack 8ea, and embracing IVididia,
iho Ukraine, and Moldavia. The soil is here
nearly as rich as that of the best jmrts of the
j,'ront Unngarian plain, and produces the beautiful
whiiii Dantzic wheat, so much iirizcd in the lion-
ilmi market. That large portion of the land,
wliii'ii in lieltl in small jiarcels by the peasants, is
ill (ialicia particularly ill cultivated and unpro-
ihiclive. The rent of the Inddiiigs of the jieasantry
iscuninKinly rated in contributions of labour (ru-
l»l). pavable to the projjrietors ; and as the latter
;'iiii'raliy insist on this labour or service being
li'tfomicd when it is most valuable, and is most
iiwdttl by the peasants themselves, it leads to
ciiiUcss quarrels and oppression; and, besides being
the lianc of agriculture, has been the priiieipal
Miurcc of the atrocities that have been committed
hy the ixjasantry on their lords. The estates of
liic nolnlity in (ialicia arc in general pretty well
liinned, and may be classed with those of ihdie-
mia, Moravia, Austria, and the provinces to the
smith of the Dannbc. On these estates regular
nilations of crops, with artificial grasses, are now
iretty general ; and many of the muchiiics ui use
89t
in KiiglMMil, Hiii'h Afi Impmvod iilongliK, xowing
and Ibri'sbiiig inachineH, iVc, have been intniibii'i'd.
A gentleman, who farms bis own estate in a purl
of Moravia, wbcre the Hoil Is of average ipiality
and the climate lias a mean temperature, has fur-
nislicd us Willi llie following deiails: —
An estate of mean sixe contaiiiN from N'lO to
1,100 Kng. acres of arable land. I 10 to IJO acres
of meadow land, and l.oooto '.',,'iOi>, or inure, acres
w I, according to llie Hiiualioii, tbat is, wlii'tlicr
near Ihe moimlains or in the plain. The estates
eonfrrring Ibe right of represent at inn (laiidtitllicbe
(inter), and which are only held by kiilgliis or
nobles, are of all si/.es, from a few acres to several
(ierman Hip m. These eslales can, Hiriclly npeak •
ing, be held also by a commoner, but only mi bis
paying a |Mirtion of Ihe taxes twice over, and mi
liis renoiini'ing Ihe rigbt to all kiiiiN of palrmiagi'
and Judicial aiilburily. The estaleN of mean si/.e
may be eHliinated at two-lhirds of Ihe whole. In
Moravia, about thirty are fmind to exceed A'^ l'',iig.
sip m. in extent. In purchasing land, a prolii of
from I to 'U per cent, per annum is generally
looked for. riie Hi/e of tlie iieaHanl's holdings is
also very various. In the plains a peasaiit'H linld-
ing may Ihi about '2H |'',ng. acres. In the billy
parts, where Ibe poiinlalion is Ibimier, and llie
soil li'HH prodnclive, it is :I0, |0, and in some pnils
70 acres. Half Imlilings, ipiarter holdings, as well
aHeoiliers willi small gardens, are also freipieiil.
Il is, however, siippnsed tbat of the peasant
families two-t birds bold land, and aliont one-
lliird may be I'misidered as mere labourers. Tlie
mode of cult ival ion adopted bv Ibe peasants in
Ibe low lauds is a rotation of three crops, vi/,
wheat, rye, summer corn, fallow; the fallow being
only partially used. In the billy parts Ibe fallows
are more used for potatoes, turnips, tlax, <^c, ; in
Ibe mountains tillage is more irregular. Oats,
|Mitaloes, and tlax are grown; and in Ibe morn
elevated spots oats and biickwlieal. On the
greater |iart of the snnill estates of the nobles a
better rotaliiin of crops, with chiver, green food,
and meadows, |ir(!vail, according as the soil or Ibe
local advimtages of common gra/.ing (wliicb is
very extensive everywhere) render it necessary.
Distilleries and breweries are commonly estab-
lisbed on large farms; and the culture of beet
having been of late years greatly extended, there
are numerous factories for the extraction of sugar
from the root.
It is not usual to let land on lease in these parts
of the empire. The few cases in which this modo
of tenure occurs must rather be considered as ex-
ceptions than as a rule, although it is the opinion
of competent judges that the incomes of Ihe largo
landholders would Ihi increased by the introduction
of the practice. In I'oland villages are often let
for short terms, that is, an estate willi the resident
lalMiurers upon it, 'who are iHinnd lo labour so
many days in the week in lieu of rent for their
lands. ' In the management of his holding tbu
peasant enjoys the liberty of turning at pleasure
vineyanls into meadows, of tilling pasture lields,
or of Converting the tillage lields into pasture ;
oidy ill the ease of wooils the landlord reserves
a right of inspection, to prevent, and punish,
their being dealt with contrary to contract. Hut
the peasant cannot let his land, nor leave it
uncultivated, nor sell it in parcels. From tbo
peasants' holdings the lord usually derives, 1st.
All that was stipulated on the original cession of
the land, whether in the slia|)c of a reiit-cliarg(! in
money or otherwise, 2ndly. The iMmli-mhim, or
line, on transfer, whether by sale or inlieritancu
(usually ."> jier cent.). 3rdly. The Robot, or )ier-
suiiul service, the maximum of which lias been
>ll
;■«
1
291 Ar.STKIA (!•;
Ilxril liy Inw, 'I'lii* rDtiNiHtii ((rncrnlly in tlircf
ilnyit' work, with it yunttU"" n"'! l><>rM«'Xi wri'kly. for
(lit> iicnMiiirM I'litiri' lidliiiMKi llio half liiililiii({
l^ivi'M iiii<> iitiil A liiiil' iliiy'x wiirk, nnil ilir ((iiiirti'r
linliliiiK Iwii iir lliri'i' iIiivn' InlMiiir, weekly ; 4'i)l-
lii^crH ^ive rroiii It'll lo tdirli'i'M <lnvN |M'r iiiniiiiii.
'tllily, 'I'lii' ri^lit of itm/.'wK on iinniltiviiii'il ftilluwii
mill mIiiIiIiIi'm; wliirli liowcvrr llii> |)riii<itill liiilV
excrrimi ii|iiiii tlie liiiiil of IiIn liinl. /ilhly. The
;;reill mill xliuill lltlieM, wllirll lire often iN'ileil til
the ehiiri'll, or lliive lieell iilherwipe trilU'<terreil,
PoinMiirHl pro|)4'rty (nlliHliiil enlateit) |)iiy. in )^e-
lieriil, nil tithe, 'I'lie |ieiiMiiiil iniiy eeiie or leiive
liv will IiIm liolilin^ III whirliever III' IiIn whin he
lilenneH; hut it Im then nmiMlly t'linr^eil with ii
mini I'lir eiirli of IiIn hrolherH anil HiNterN. The
cUNtoin lireviliUof leavillff il to the elilent noIi ; hill
it in oth'ii eeileil iliirili^ the fiilher'N life, who re-
tuiiiMa eerlain (|iiaiitniii of the |)ro<|iii-e t'orliiiown
UN' : tliiNK*'nerally haiiiieiiN when the father winheM
to free IiIn Moii from lialiility to the i'onHrri|itioii,'
The KroN.i niiioinit of the ii^'riciiltnriil ami liorti-
niltiiral |iroiluee of ilieHoil thrnii^rhunt the enipire
in eNtiinateil at an aiiiinal value of l,l)l)0,(K)t),tKIU
tloriuH, or KKi.iMMi.iiliti/.
(■real attention Ih now IteiiiK P'l!*) to ''«* lirewt-
in(;of eattle In AiiNtria. llomeH, niiileH nn<l aMxeM,
oxen, Nheep, f;*">l>*i un'l x^viiie are hreil in vant
i|iinntitieN, The value of the eiitl le of all kiiiilit now
exiMtin^ in the empire in eiliniateil at I,(I(MI,oimi,imm)
lloriiiN, anil the annual proiluee fniin them I'oin-
lirim-H l(M),(M)<),(HM) eimerH of milk ()iartly miiile
into hiilter nnil elieene) ; 'J(),()<HI,iMH)heail of yoiiiiK
tattle; IM,II(II),IJIM) ewtn. of meat anil fat' from
f^'rown enttio; I'i.lHHMMX) liiilex anil xkiim: 7lllMH)0
cwIh. of wmil : the whole heiii^ extiiimted ut a
tolnl value of toO.dOO.OllO llorlim.
The rearing of Hilk woniiN in lar^^elv practiNeil
in the Hoiith of the empire; Vciietiu anil the
Hontheni Tyrol Hiip^ilyin^ anniinlly ahoiit 270,111111
ewiN, (if eociMiiiN, eNtnnateil at a value of 2'J,(MMl,iliM)
tloriiiN, or '2,2tMI,OtH)/. (l{eport of iMr. Consul ranc,
(lateil Vienna, Feh. Itl, |Kt>:(.)
Wo refer to our urtiileN on SrvitiA, Iij.ykia,
lIuN()AitY,an(ITi<ANHYiA'AMA,form>inc iiotieeMof
the mining wealth of the Auntriiin empire. Iron
and native Htcel are fonnil in Niitrh almnitance in
•Styria anil lllyria, that the ore In merely quarried
from moiintaiiiN Hcveral thouNand feet in height,
whieli aro Holid liloekH of earhonate uf inui ore.
Yet thew! riches arc but very im|ivrfectly uwil.
The whole priMluetion of iron, in the year IHO.J,
anuiunted to 4,i)lH,ti!M poiinilH, the greater (|uan-
tity of whieh, vi/. II,1A7,!)H8 |KiunilH, eame from
the (iennnn provinces. Of Hteel, (UtiilNtl pounilN
-were mnnufacturcil during the Numo period. The
article of native Ktecl is eHpccially worthy of atten-
tion ; for though, owing lo the want of improved
means of communication, KngliNh steel be, at
)ireNent, sold cheaper at Trieste, yet not only is the
quality of the St^'rlan and Illyrian metal superior,
but it is found m such abundance, that it could
supply the most extensive demand. The mining
industry of Austria occupied, in the year IHtiil, a
total of 107,h;U persons, viz, S)8,6o() men, 4,iWJ
women, and 6,2()!» children.
The total number of factories in the empire
nmountcd to alMiut 12,(100 in the year l«o8, JSinco
that time no returns have lieen ])ublished, the old
system of government sujiervision and regiilotion,
as well as the privileges of close trades and guilds,
having succumbed to a freer spirit of legislation,
Ity an imjierial decree of Dec, 20, 1869, a new
' Gewerbe-ordnung ' was introduced, which re-
iiealed nearly all the restrictions previously incum-
bering the free exercise of the various industrial
occupations. The princijial scats of the cotton
MI'lUK OF)
mid wiHiIleii maniifiii'liin X are, Itoheinin, Murnvln,
Mih-nia, and AiiMtrin; mid there they havf iitiiijiir,|
to t'oiixlilerulilt' |H'rft'ction. ('oar)>ei'loiliMari't'M>r\ .
where mnniifacturi'il ; and large i'X|MirtN of cniicii
and wiMillen wareH, eN|M-t'ially of iiilVrior hIuihI.
and red cajM, are annually made to Tiirkt<y iin,|
the I'liiNt. l.ini'U In a leading article of iniinii
fiii'liire; Npinning and weaving furiiiiiig ilie inm.
I'itial eifiployiiieiit of the iieasaiitry diiriiiu ihi.
wlnliT, eN|H't'iallv of the woiiifii, in the iiiirtlnrn
proviiift'N, In tHilii'ia, iioi only a purl Inn uf ||,,.
rent, but, In many large eNtalilinhmiiiiM, n imrt
of the wagt'N of NcrvaiitN, In paid in lliicii. I'li,.
Nlaini'd gliiKN ware of lloheniiii ix n truly lii'iiiiiji,||
fabric, iH'iiig Nii|M'rior in the rirhiicNN and hrijlini' v
of the coloiirN to liny that is cNewheri' priHln
It In exli'iiNively ex|Mirted, Ittthemiaii pure irv -i„|
ii not, howt ver, equal to thai of |''.iiglauil.
There are a great niimlHr of wonieii ;iiiil diij.
dn'lli'liiployt'il ill the viirioiis maniifiii'liiroiu <'Ktali-
liHlimeiilN, and the goyeniineiil Iuin tViiliU'ij t..r Ihiir
iiroti>i'tion Npffiiil laws, w hich are rigidly rii(Mri|.,|,
The chief of these regiilatimm are as full. , >»,,:_
I, Tli(> earliest age at which I'liildreiii nin Ipfi'in.
ployed is at twelye years, 2, Theoivly i'xrc|illiin
shall be for rhildren'who, at nine yeai "of ii^'c, ||,i\|.
for three yearN received n religioiiN t'ducatiuti niui
attended ncIiihiI ; but as long iin these I'liiMnn
shall continue at an age at whirh they nii^'hi i„
attend Nt'hiHil, the manufacturers shall wiiiili ovir
their education, aii<l call to their u. ' ''.le iiiiiii>ii'r<
of the gosiiel, but \<i iihoiit interrupt iiig (liiir wnrk,
Ii, For children IsMween nine and iwchc yi'arx i>|.|
the iHHximum of the time they are to work \* lixnl
at ten hours, and iK'tweeii twelve and sixti'cii M'iir<
of iige at twelve hours, but tlie\ shall IsMillnHnl
an interval of one hour. -I. ManiifartiiriTit up'
iMinnd to prevent all diNonler and scandnliniH om
duct among the adults in their estahliNhint'iiis
fi. Manufacturers shall keep registers, in wliiili
shall be enlereil the names and ages of tlii^ chil-
dren, their residences, and the iieriod at wliicli II /
enten-d the manufactory, Tliis register sliiil »■
prisluced iK't'orc the magistrate and the iiiiiii-H'r
of public Worship whenevi'r it may he rciiiiircil.
IS, All contraventions of these regulatioiiH shall In'
iiunished with a tine of from '.' to IIIU tloriiiH ; ami
in case of a reiietition of the oU'encc, the (ill'iinli'r
may Im! interdicted from having any children iindcr
twelve years of age in his employment.
The Wst and surest scale for a ratio of tlio
development of factory system and priidiiclidii liy
machinery is the ciaisuinption of niiiiernl cnal,
this fuel having been comparatively little iindliii
the households of Austria. Itut the coiiNiini|iii<>n
of coals has, since 1 8iW, Increased from lotoiiwly
70 million cwts. Moreover, there is in the iii(lii>-
trial districts of the Giant ami Ore tnoiiutaiiK
scarcely any water-power left that is not availnl
of, so that lit iircsent water-works make their way
out of the valleys into the plains; and in tlic ini-
mcdiatc vicinity of coal-tiehls large industrial dis-
tricts arc rising into existence' where the works
are carried on with steani-powt^r.
Commerce, — The trade of Austria, owing In hit
central situation, and the disrance of all lier iiii'>t
important provs, from the scii, labours mulcr con-
siderable natural dittic-ulties. Notwit Imtaniliiit!
these, there )ia« been of late a steady iwrnm
both in exjMirts and imports, owing chietly to the
partial adoption of free-trade iirincipk's. How-
ever, a large portion of the revenue is still ilcrivcil
from customs' duties, d etly on iinjiorts, as will
be seen from the followiiig table, which shows (he
chief articles, and classes of articles, inipDricii i"
the year 1868, and the amount of duties levied un
them.
ArsTIUA ir.Ml'IUK OF)
301
I In, M'lTntln,
iikVi' rilliiiiii'il
lid urr IMT\ .
irtM <>r nilloii
iVriiir iilia«»l<
'I'lirkfy nii'l
I'll' iif iiiiihii
lli^ III!' |iriii
,- iliiriiiu ilii'
llii< Iliirtli>'rii
|iiirtliiti iif il >'
iniii», n iHin
II lini'ii, rill'
riilv U'liiiiiliil
iiikI lirilliiii v
liiTi' jiriKlii
III |ilire (TV Mill
i;laii'l.
iiini uiiil iliii-
ii'liii«iiu "'kIhIk
Viiin.'iir"r llii'if
jtiilly riil'Tci'il,
i> iiM lull' «»;—
Iri'M I'liii iN'i'in-
oivly I'Xfi'iitlim
llV'of IIK<'. llJIM'
I'lliicnll'iii mill
llii'Mi' I'liiMrrii
llii'y "iiwlii I'l
Iwill wnlfli "vcr
. ' ''.II' iiiiiii>ii'h
itiiiHtlii'irwiirk,
w«'l\i' yi'iir>uli|
to work in llxiil
iiKlKixtft'iiu'iirt
hIiiiU iK-alliiwi'l
uuifft''tiir('r« iiri'
HCiiiiilnliiun cmi
(<Mtal)liHliim'ni\
fmti'M, III wliiili
l^I'M of llit^ I'li'l-
(Mint wliiiliil >
r('^{iltt('r itliiil' «
iml llu- imin-:rr
liny 1)1' ri'iiuiriil.
iilntioiiH nhalllK'
IIKI llnriiix: mill
lU'C, till! (itl'llll'T
V I'liililrt'ii iiiulit
luient.
a rntiii of tlm
1(1 prixUii'ti"" ''>■
i>f niincral m\\.
cly littlii need ill
the coiiKiiniliii""
[from 10 to nearly
is in the imlii'-
Oro tnomiiaiii<
Iftt Is nut nviiilril
iniike their way
, niul in tlie iiii-
irc industrial ili>-
phcro the wiit'hs
Irin, owin^' to ht
. of nil liiT iii">i
jours niiiler imi-
P«!otwitli!«tiiiiili"t!
J Mteudv incn'ii^o
Inn I'liiotly to tlie
liiK'iiilcs. llo«-
le is still (U'rivc'l
Timiwirts, as will
Iwhicli shows llif
T'los, imiHirtcam
rautiMlcvicil''n
IMI'IIIITH.
nMUiMlliin "< <">"•■• M >lM«»i Valiidiir
"^ III ih« tMl* ImywM
('<>|niil»l Wiirwt »nil Month.
.rii Kriiiu
l',,hu< I unit Miiiiiifiu^tiin'*
,i| liilllU'M) • • •
l',.n'4tl>»nil Kriiltii
Viilmikl* . • • 1
Aiiliiml rriHliii't*
(Iriiw »'"' ""' • • •
|,l.|ii(pr«»ii'l lvll'>l''« .
llui.rliU« for t'lit'l mill Tim-
Irr . . •. ■
M»lli'nmi'tit«, Prrriiiiiiii,
liyi'liilC, 'rminliiK, iiimI
Chi'iiiliiil HtulTn
Mi'iiil", prti'iiiiin, riiw ami
hiili-iiiiiii"'"''tii'''''' .
WiitvliiK k 1.00III Miiti'rliiU
VuniK . . • . •
WciYi'ii mill Loom (IhikIk
Pii|«'rnnilHtiitloiH'r.v .
Uiiilier iiii'l U'rtlli' t'IikmIh.
WihhI, tiltuw, uiiil I'liiy
Wuri'it . . . ■
Vi.|iiI(I>kkI«. .
V.hli'liii . . . .
Miwhlnci «iiil Hurilwarn .
Chi'niU'ul I'riHUiotn.Colourii,
unit FutH . . . .
I'riiiu^l llookii und OliJooU
oi An , . . .
I lUlilMK
|I*««M«*
Sinn total
tularin*
|.l,tHit,T:i7
l'J,'ilM),im:|
ir.i'HtT.iu:
7,lNli,lMI
l;l.:).'i7,HHft
■i,./ii:l,IIU
A,)l7il,Aa4
l7,4iM,»il7
:i:i,Aim,l!iA
I7,;i';;l,fti»ti
'jl.lini.ihiH
li,iMM,Hao
I .'tn.iM
A,:i.i.i,m)0
a.'VTii.Hiiii
'i.liiil.lCiM
irji.iHHi
«.'jaH,()74
■;,UIH,44'J
6,aAl,470
'j:|-J,7il'i,AA4
florin*
A.OI'i.l'i'i
|:i,A'J» I
illM.III
l.'ii'M'iN,
llDt.IlM
H.M.IN-.
A.'>;, It. I
7,1)01)
aft7.7:ill ,
97!l.aiA
.\»,Hi\ I
I.«iu,m:.(1
l,4l'J,iH.a I
4n,'i7A I
•ioo.'iao j
liA.Hr.ii
liMi.mi
U,H-.o
4ii),4Nl)
lOH.IMH
U.IOA
l'i,AH7,70fl
The dulijoiiiwl tabln cxliihitM the cx|H>rtH of tlm
ve»r IHtJit, tontitluT with tin- iiiHioins' ruvt'iiiif de-
rivcil iherulroui, which, it will bu itt'cu, ww very
•light.
ExroitTN.
Dnlfiiuion «! UikhU u elMMid
111 Ilia I'MlIt
C'liloiilttl Wnreii
TubHot'o and Manufactures of
Tobiuico . . . •
C'l'rvals niid Fruits
AiiiiimlH . . • •
Aiiliiiiil I'roduuta . .
(iri'iiMiaiulUilii • •
Miiuoni
MaU'rittls for Fuel ii Tliiilicr
MeJlcumunts, Purf unics, Uj o-
InK, TanidiiK, and Cheinluul
Htull8
Metalii, prccloui, raw and
half-manurnvtured .
Wravlng and Loom Materials
Yiiniii
Woven and Ijoom Goods
lioudii made of Htrnw, Bast,
Paper, and Stiitiuiicry
Uatlier and Leather (Jouds
■ Wood, Glass, and Clay WarcB
Metal Uoods
LttuU and Water Vohlclos
, liutrumunts, Machines, and
hardware . . . .
Chemical I'rodncts, Colours,
Fats imd Combustibles
Printed Docks and Ubjeots of
Art
lUifuiiO, Rags ....
I
Sum total
Valiii' of
Knpuru
Plorlni
A,7»0
AHH.HOO
4A,.'.aH,li'J,S
u.aiiii.axu
4,a:iA,ij.'i
a,H4,/,(l7fl
a,!Mo,aiii)
•J4,«U7,A10
4,903,380
3»,n4 1,070
3.'),(i40.»4!»
•J,.'iNi,'JlA
48,7-Jl,Aa8
A,l'JO.a-Jt
ia,.')iiA,auo
•i'^,H7'J,4ll
10,aii-J,li74
a.uaa.ooo
ai',493,85'i
4,4Ul),938
2,4!)a,:.oo
iiio,;.')8
310,«87,'JA0
C m H w i
lUVMIIW
riorlui
41,001
V«,748
'J7,A33
aa7,0O7
37,830
404.130
-, .
ImtiMtU
1 riM>H
Y.«n
I'lutllM
ri'iiiMi
|!MI.A'^».44l
l>«AI
|.'M.nT4.M.1
IM.VV
vtio.a'iii.Hio
IIIA.MOI.MiH
IMAJI
!M7,'w;,';iM»
W».l»-il,»7l
iH-.t
•il!',lll.'i,0l7
•iJH.Uil.JOl
|h..A
';iN.JHM,|r.7
'^ll.l U.IIJ
IM.MI
aiM,i4i,avt)
'iiii,itiN,);il
l«:.7
•ilti.lMI.-i.'Jftl
•iri,aiia.7ii
IN.-.M
aiw.'jNA.ti'^t
a7ft,.'.!Mi,H7i
IM.Mt
!<iiM.'i'i7,7Ha
aifi,ioi.7Ji
iMtIO
'iai.';'jti,7ii!j
aii.*i,iii7,r»a
INOI
l/aA,H47,ii.".7
»ii7.0Mo.i;,:,
IWI'i
■iil4,UIH,4l)0
aaa,M.vi,om
The progress of Austrian cDmmerce in the twelve
years 1851-U'2 is exhibited in the sulijoined atutc-
nicnt :—
ThiM'lil(<ri'imnnoiliili'itlin|Hirleilliitiilhi' Ciiiti'il
Kiii^iloiii from Aiisiriit iiri' corn iiinl llmir, lii'm|i,
liilliiw, f(hiHN iH'iids, olive oil, i|iiirksilvi'r, I'lirriiitis,
eremii of inrlnr, liird, hci'iI, nliiimnr, h|iiiiiKi', wimkI,
and wiHil, III |Mi'i-J, iht' totnl value ol ilie importit
iiiiioiiiiii'd lo l,l7!i,Nii-.'/.! in imil, to l,-2 111,11 It)/,
mid ill INiio, to imil.aiil/.
'I'lie ih'cliired value of llriiish proiliice niid iiia-
iiufiiriiireM Hlii|i|iei| to ilio Aiislriaii iliiiiiiiiioiis in
IHiij was 7H7,.'i)il/., an nnioiiiit less by lHO,.'lto/,
ili.'iii in iMiil, anil by I'lM'i.loM/. than in iMtiii.
t'oiioii inaniiliu'iiires ami eotioii yarn iiloiie prii-
diii't'il more than a iiioiciy of the yearly Iraiisau-
lions.
The usual eoiiis in eireiilation are the diieat of
llollaiiil ^4 II. I'lll kr.; Ihe sovereiKii^- l.'IJ II. ; ihti
llorin of -^On. 1 iliii' mark, iliviihd iiilo lio kr. ; I/,
slerlin^, nl |iar--!Ml, :il kr. Hank Holes, ol Ti tl.
and u|>wnrils, eirciilate, as well an Ihe iioIcn \m-
loii^iiif; lo the di'iireeiated eiirrciii'v. of which /> H.
-I II. ill silver, ami I tl.'»'2l kr. 'I'liis is deiiomi-
iialeil I'ifniui value ; Ihe silver value is called Ihitt
of the VonrvntioH. Pieces of 'Jll kr., silver. ■'< of
which form a tloriii, with smaller jiieces of 10, r>,
and I'l kr., form the silver coiiuii^e. The 20 kr.
piece is termed, in Italy, lire Aiistrhico.
Iiiritmr unit J'J.ri>eiiiltliiri: — The liiiaiicinl system
of .\ustria has been till recently involved in iniieli
mystery. The taxes vary in ihe ditVerenl provs.,
and are seldom assesstHl on tlii! same principles.
The taxes are tlislributed iimh'r Ihe two ^reat
heads of direct and imtirevt. The former com-
prise, 1st. The land-tax, or nmtrihiition fmtcit're,
extending Keiierally over Ihe empire, but assesseil
dilVerently in the dill'erenl provs.; 2nd. The house-
tax, from which lIuiiKury is exeinpled; Jlrd. A
poll-tax, contined vbietly to the Italian provs.;
4tli. A tax on iudusiry, or rather on licences re-
ipiired to carry on certain branches of industry;
oth. A tax on Jews; and llth. A tax on succes-
sions. The indirect tuxes, which also (litter in
ditterent provs., consist principally id' excise diitiot
on lupiors and butchers' meat; customs duties, the
important monopolies of t(dmcco and salt, stump
duties, and some others of minor importance.
To the revenue of the empire the (ierman-
Slavonic population contributes about ti.j |>erceiit.,
the kingdom of llunpiry 25 percent., and l.om-
banhi-Veiiice about I! jier cent. The mono|Mdy of
the government for the sale of t(>bnc('o, one of the
principal items id' revenue, Iwi" existed since the
year 1(170. This source of income has been con-
tinually increasing of late years. Then; are several
branches of the administration, such as the depart-
ments of the interior, of the urmy, the navy, and
(d' public education, wliicb have specnil funds at
their ilis|M>sal, derived from what may bo called
endowments, and consisting chietly in lauded
projicrty.
The subjoined tables show Ihe revenue and cx-
I peuditiirc ut' the empire lor the year IM'd : —
if
■ l'-'\^'
iim;
296
AUSTRIA (E
Rkvknuh or 1803
Dihk(tTaxk«:—
Florins
C
Liitid Tiix
('.•.',4H1,'JII0
0,37:i,OH2
Iliilldlntfrt Tax
l!i,'jiil,:i(Hi
l,!li;i,tl63
Triwlo Tux
ri,KI4,!)ll()
5!i;l,l20
I'oUTax
6,a7 1,000
{i:i7,i;>0
Xji'ttiwy Tnx .
ao.f.oo
3,011!)
lufomo Tax .
16,167,700
1,840,085
TnxoH on Milltiiry Quar-
h'rx ....
1,799,100
183,610
I^•l)lll^x,T Taxks—
Kxoixo ....
87,078,700
6,923,227
CiiHtoms
ir>,'J47,616
1.656,240
8nlt ....
;i:),or.9,(ioo
3,372,079
Tobncno ....
JIO.HOI ,470
3,161,947
Stani|M ....
13,ll(i,619
1,337,884 1
TaxcH on legal i)rof08sionH
21,271,(139
2,1(19,70(1 '
Lottt'rioH
fi,().'t4,4()0
015,513
Post-oltlco
8,714,2(H)
878,850
Tolls ....
a,!»2H,(!()0
298,717
Htampinpr Motals .
(10,600
fi,783
A'unutinn Duos
100,010
10,818
Indirect Taxes on Mili-
tary Qnarters
156,604
15,807
■Revenue from State Lands
7,016,IH7
770.748
Other Ueculi)t8
'J,S74,6'.'0
293,201
KXI'KNMMTUHK OF 18(i3
Florins
£
Civil List
7,468,-00
700,787
Ueiclisrath .
72tl,6:l7
74,106
Cabinet ....
7(1,000
7,762
Cotineil of Stato . .
161,H;17
15,487
Foreign Affairs
2,480,160
263,687
Ministry of Stato .
25,727,680
2,024,213
Ministry for Ecclesiasti-
cal AfTairs .
4,724,600
481 ,899
Provincial Chancelleries
18,672,186
1,894,358
Ministry of Finance
21,584,7(1(1
2,2(H,(;40
„ of Justice
9,150,6(17
933,357
„ of Police .
2,646,C7«
209,857
Commerce
4,013,142
470,640
Other Branches
1,380,200
131,392
War ... .
107,023,000
10,910,300
War, Special Revenue .
6,777,000
689,264
Navy ....
10,481,019
1,009,125
Quotas of Interest to
Companies .
4,843,060
493,991
Interest on Debt .
113,098,760
11,690,272
Old Debts
18,870,600
1,924,791
lloilwoy Telegraphs
6,001,901
610,320
Loss on Bills and Coin .
7,1 18,420
720,079
(EMPIRE OF)
compnnying dcflcil, during the years 1851
1B03:—
The progressive increase of the revenue of the
empire in the course of fourteen years is exhil)itcd
in tlie subjoined statement, drawn up from oflicial
returns : —
Tcnr
Hcvcnuo
Florins
£
1850
197,443,372
19,744,337
1861
225,006,350
22,500,535
1862
230,110,271
23,011,027
1863
238,383,005
23,838,366
1864
250,094,220
26,009,422
1866
282,722,006
28,272,200
1850
290,189,337
29,018,933
1857
317,390,980
31,73!l,(i98
1858
315,188,865
31,518,880
1859
260,829,190
24,778,774
ISOO
301,5S9,455
28,650,998
1801
342,349,714
32,523,222
1802
321,909,684
30.687,110
1803
398,657,905
33,221,497
Tlic decline of the revenue in ISSO marks the
detachment of the fiourisliing Italian provinces.
The war of that j)eriod is still more strikiuffly
A'isiblc in the expenditure, shown in the following
table, which gives the expenditure and the ac-
I'he Austrian budget was settled, uji to the war
ISfiiJ, from the tirst of November to the Inst'd.iv
of October every year. A uhaiige was intniilnciii
in 1K(!H, wlien it was arranged tliat, for the fiiiiirc,
the iinancial nccomits of the empire shoidil run
current with the ordinary year. To acc(ini|ili>li
the change, the budget estimates for IWi.'MMwcrp
for fourteen montlis, from 'November 1, l8(i,'i, i,,
the last day of Decend)er, 1 8G4. The revenue t'ur
this period' of fourteen months was estimated nt
at 570,047,3(15 florins, and the expenditure at
r.00,447,2><9 florins, leaving a delicit of 3it,;i!l!l,tl.V|
florins, to Iks covered, with jiart of former deliciis
by the loim of 70,000,000 florins.
The public debt of the empire has grown upp^-
dually since the middle of the last century. At
the end of the Seven Years' War, in 1 7t).'{, Austria
had a debt of 1. 50,000,000 of florins, which grew lo
283,000,000 in 1781, and at the commencement uf
the French Revolution, in 1789, had risen to
349,000,000. From this period the deltt grew in
extraordinarj' proportions. From 1789 until lNi;,{,
there was not a single year in whicli the reveiuii!
of the state came up to the expenditure. On tlic
3l8t December, 1803, the total liabilities of the
state, both consolidated and floating, amoiuiteil
to 2,3C4,31(i,7()l florins, of which the fioatuigdcU
consisted of 39(i,972,20tj florins.
Form of Giwernment. — The emperors of the lioiifc
of Hapsburg, previously to the year 1848, ruled
the dominions accuniulate<l under their sceptre in
an absolute manner, commonly described as ']ia-
ternal despotism.' The revolution of the year
1848, originating among the German portioii nf
the ])opulation, put an end to this sway, by ori-
ginating a purely democratic constitution, wliich
the emperor was forced to sign on the 4th of Marcli,
1849. Tlus verj' liberal charter, however, was re-
pealed by an imperial decree of Dec. 31, 18.")1,
which substituted a more absolute form of govern-
ment ; and, during the following years, new edicts
altered the public charter. Finally, by an im-
perial diploma, dated Oct. 20, 1800, followed by
a decree, or 'Patent' of February 2(i, 1801, the
present constitution of the empire was estali-
lished. Its main features are a tripartite lei^s-
lature, consisting, first, of (he provincial diets,
representing tiie various states of the monarchy;
secondlj', a central diet, called the lieichsrutk, ur
coiuicil of the empire ; and, thirdly, a re(hiceil
form of the latter, entitled Enger Ueiclisrath, ur
Partial Council of the Empire.
There arc eighteen Provincial Diets — namely,
for Hungary, llohemia, Lombardo-Venicc, Dal-
matia, Croatia and Slavonia, (Jalicia, Higher Aus-
tria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Cariidhia,
Camiola, Bidtowina, Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol ami
Vorarlbcrg, Transylvania, Istria and Trieste. The
10 years 1851 to
Dvflcit
£
7,mi'J.(is!)
8,:«ir.,H:iH
ir.,714,SKH
ir),H3l,!t!l(>
8,1(I2,-Jil7
6,:Mi'.,!t45
r),18(i,:i82
24,:iHO,(ir)i
4,I)H1 ,t>62
3,4H2,7<)4
4,872,ia«
6,221,208
ttlod, up to tlic yrar
\\w.Y to the last dny
lUf^c was iiitnHliii((l
I tlmt,for the fiiiiirc,
3 cmi)irc should run
car. To aol•(lm|lli^ll
att'sfor lH(i;W)l\v('rf
iovember 1, I8(llt, in
34. The revcmii' fur
ths was cstimntod at
the exppiulitiiro at
, deficit of 31l,;!!)li,!i.Vl
art of former delicits,
rins.
lire has grown up gw-
he last century. At
War, in ITtlil, Austria
Horins, which (,tcw tn
the commencement (if
1 1781), had risen tu
riod tiie del)t fjrew in
From 17W» until im,
in which the rcvemn;
expenditure. On tlic
Dtal liabilities of tin'
Id lloatiiif;, nmoiinlt'il
hich the tloatuig debt
Ins.
_ emperors of the houfc
Ithe year 1«48, riilod
under their sceiittc in
ily described as 'pa-
■olution of the year
le German portion if
Ito this sway, by <ni-
|c constitution, wliitli
on the4thofMar(li,
•ter, however, was ri>-
■e of Dec. 31, IH.il,
iolute form of sovcni-
ing years, new edicts
Finally, by an ini-
'0, 18t)0J followed by
[bruary 20, 1801, tlie
empire was estali-
ire a tripartite leu'i*-
the provincial diets
|cs of the moiiari'liy;
id the Reiclisruth, ur
thirdly, a rednwd
Inger Kekhsrath, ux
iicial Difi^s— namely,
nbardo-Venice, Dal-
Icialicia, Higher Aus-
, Styria, Cariiithia.
_., Silesia, Tyrol a"'l
Iria and Trieste. 'Uic
(lietn of all tl"'*"' provinces arc formed in nearly
the snino manner, only iliffering in the nnmlter of
diimties. Kach consists of only one assembly,
t'liiiiiioHed, 1st, of the archbishop and bishops oi'
tlu! itoinan Catholic and Oriental (ireek Church
mill the chancellors of universities; 2iid, of the
ri'Tirescntativcs of great estates, eh^cted by all laiid-
owiicrs paying not less than KM) tlorins, or ID/.,
taxes; ,'lrif. of the representatives of towns, clecled
bv those citizens who possess municipiil rights;
.I'tji, of the representatives of boards of coinincrce
and trade-unions, clioscn by tlie res|K'ctive nu^ni-
jiiTs; and ftth, of the renresentatives of rural coin-
niiiiies, elected by such uihubitants as pay a small
ainiiuiit of direct taxation. The |>rovincial diets
iin^ competent to make laws concerning local ad-
iniiiistration, particularly those art'ectiiig county
taxation, the cultivation of the soil, educational,
church, and charitable institutions, and public
works executed at the publi' > . ;ien«e. lluugarv,
(.'roatia, and Transylvanih h."' -u , arate consti-
tutions, allowing somewhat greater latitiiile of
sidl'-goveriiment. The diet of Transylvania, con-
viikeil for July 1, 180;{, consisted of Kif) members,
of which number 12.') were elected by the ju'Dplc,
and 40 nominated by the cro^Ti. In the elections,
every man has a vote wlio has attained the age of
twi'iity-four, and pays direct taxes to the amount
III' 8 tlorins, or 15s. ; and capable of being elected
are all citizens of the age of thirty who ' iu:c of
irri'proachable character.'
The lieii'hsrath, or C'ounoil of the Empire, con-
sists (if an upper and a lower house. The upjier
house is formed, Ist, of the iirinces of the iin|)erial
family, who are of age ; 2nd, of a number of no-
liles-lsixty-tM'o in the present reichsrath — ])o8-
sessing large landed jjroperty, on whom the em-
)K'ror may confer the dignity of state-councillors ;
;)rd, of the archbishops and bishops who arc of
princely rank ; and 4th, of any other life-members
iiomiimtcil by the emperor, on account of being
distinguished in art or science, or who have reii-
dereil signal services to church or state — forty-
seven in the present reichsrath. The lower
liiiuse is comiwsed of .343 members, elected by the
oif,'litccn pnndncial diets of the empire in the
following proportions: Hungary, 85; JJohemia,
54; Lombardo- Venice, 20 ; Dalmatia, 5 ; Croatia
ami Slavonia, 9; Galieia, 38; Higher Austria, 10;
Lower Austria, 18; Salzburg, 3; Styria, 13; Ca-
rintliia, 5 ; Carniola, G ; llukowina, 5 ; Moravia,
ti ; Silesia, 6 ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 12 ; Tran-
sylvania, 26 ; and Istria and Trieste, (». The elec-
tiiiii for the lower house of the reichsrath is
made in the assembled provincial diets, the elected
deputies to be members of such diets. The em-
peror has the right, however, to order the elections
to take place directly by the various constituencies
of the provincial representatives, should the diets
refuse or neglect to send members to the reichsrath.
The emperor nominates the presidents and vice-
presidents of both chambers of the reichsrath, the
remaining functionaries being chosen by the nieni-
liers of tlie two houses. It is incumbent upon
the head of the state to assemble the reichsrath
annuallv. The rights which, in consequence of
the diploma of Oct. 20, 18G0, and the ' Patent ' of
R'h. 2t), 18{il, are conferred upon the reichsrath, are
as follows: — 1st, Consent to all laws relating to
military duty; 2nd, Coo/jem^/on in the legislature
<in trade and commerce, customs, banking, posting,
telegraph, and railway matters; 3rd, EMtmination
of the estimates of the income and expenditure of
the state; of the bills on taxation, public loans,
and conversion of the funds ; and general control
of the public debt. To give ^•alidity to bills ptisscil
by the reichsrath, the consent of both chambers
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 297
is required, as well as the sanction of the head of
the state. The members of both the \\\\\wx and the
lower house liave the right to propose new law.-*
oil subjects within the competence of the reichs-
rath; but in all other mutters the initiutivu
belongs solely to the goveriinient.
The linger Ueichsrath, or Partial Council of tlio
Kmpire, is formed liy the full reichsrath, leaving
out the representatives of Iluiigiirv and of Croatia
111 both houses. The laws passed by the partial
council, and sanctioned by the sovereign, havo
effect in the whole empire, excepting tliese twi»
provinces. It is with the object of giving the for-
merly independent realm of Hungary and her
dependencies a larger share of self-governineiit
than the remaining jirovinces of Austria, that tho
Knger Keichsrath has been instituted.
The legal code of Austria rci.;ains, in its most
essential points, the same as the * Gesetzbiieh,*
drawn up by a commission of lawyers by connnaiul
of the late cmjieror Francis I., and ])ul)lisheil by
his order. It is much ]iraised as a theoretical
compilation; but open to the objections raiseil
against all codes in practical respects. In Austria
tile decisions of the judges are not published, ami
each judgment iiiter])reting a paragraph of the
codes is a fresh improvisation on the i)art of tho
judge. If it be discovered that, undiir the sanio
circumstances, a former judge or another court
decided ditlerently, the case is referred to tho
muiistry of justice, which decides what the law is
In that pitrtkular ease; but its decision is not to be
taken as a construction of the law for future cases.
The judges are removable, and may be promoted
at the jdeasure of the crown; but, like all other
emphiye'es, can only be dismissed with pensions,
unless convicted of improper conduct by some
court of justice. In all cases trials under "the lato
ri'yime took place in secret, and the proceculings
were in writing: even the examination of wit-
nesses was not public : the decision was according
to the votes of the ))resident and assessors of the
court. Criminal tritils were protracted to an enor-
mous length ; and accused jiersons were often
suffered to be in prison for years before their cases
were brought on. All this has been altered under
the new constitution, by which the laws of Austria
are brought more in conformity with those of liio
West-European states, particularly of France.
However, the police is still entrusted with very
great powers, infringing on the liberty of the indi-
vidual. The political and local exercise of its
authority includes not only the preservation of
public order, but the permitting strangers to reside
in any part of the empire, — tlie allowing subjects
themselves to change their places of abode or to
travel, passports being requisite even in the coun-
try itself, and frequently only procured after
long delay and much trouble. The police of tho
provinces is entrusted in the large towns to a
board, whose olHcers are appointed by the crown :
in small towns to the magistracy : in the country
the captain of the circle united these functions
with his judicial and administrative powers.
The Austrian prisons are divided into three
cliisses: — state prisons, for political otfenders, the
chief of which are the Spielbeivc at Ilrunn in Mo-
ravia, Kuttstein in Tyrol, Munkaes in Hungary,
Lembcrg in Galieia, and Venice ; houses of correc-
tion (Ziichthailser) in'all the chief towns, in which
criminals are kept at hard labour (those in irons aro
sent to tlu! i'ortresses) ; and houses of detention,
under the care of the police, in which jiersons who
are arrested are kept Iwfore and during the judicial
proceedings. A large prison, on an improved plan,
was erected some years since in a healthy situa-
tion at Vienna. It is usual to give every needy
21)8
Itrisoner, on hU disclmrf^c, n small Hiim «tf tnrmry,
to ko«|i liim frum the tcmptutiuiiH uf muinenliiry
iiKlipuiicc.
Ihe Church and Ckrgif, — The stnto rclitfioii of
AiiHtrift if) the Hoinnii (Jnthnliu, ami next in iin-
ixtrtancc Mtandx tho Grt'ck (.Jhnroh. Calvinism and
LutheraiUHni are alHo jirol'essud by lar^re ninnlicrs
of the people ; the former mostly in llimpiry and
Transylvania, the latter in the (icrman ])roviiices
nnd in Galicia. The occlesiantical hieraichv (if
Austria comprises II Itoman Catholic tirch-
bishops, 1 Greek archbishop, 1 Greek schismatic
archbishop, and 1 Armenian archbislio)). Tlie
Itoman Church has furthers!) bishops, willi chap-
tors and consistories, and 43 abbots of ancient
endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria, lUyria,
Jtohemia, and Moravia. Jluiif^ary has 2:2 abbots
with endowments, i24 titular abbots, 41 en-
dowed and 20 titular jjrebendaries, and JJ col-
lej^c foundations. Transylvania has H titular
abl)ots, and upwards of 150 monasteries and con-
vents; and Galicia 70 monasteries. The (ireek
United Church has 1 archbishop and 1 bishop in
(ialicia, and 5 bishops in ilunf^ary. Tiie Ar-
menian Catholic Church has an urchbisho]) at
Leinberg. The archbishop of Carlowitz is head
of the Greek Church, with 10 bishops and GO pro-
topapas or deans. The Protestants are ])laccd
under 10 superintendents for the Lutherans, and
1) superintendents for Calvinists. In Iluiif^arv
and Transylvania, the I'rotcstants choose tlieir
superintendents, who are controlled by district
inspectors. A great jiartof the Magyar inhabitants
of Iliingary are Calvinists, and Protestants enjoy,
in that kingdom and its dependent lands, equal
rights with the Catholics. The Unitarians are
tolerated, or rather recognised by law, in Tran-
sylvania, where they have a suiierintendent, and
are dispersed over I()4 ])arishcs. The Koinan Ca-
tholic religion is dominant throughout the empire ;
nnd, in case of dispute, the right to the tithes is
assumed to bo vested in the parish priest. The
extent of landed property in Austria belonging to
the Catholic Church is very considerable. Though
reduced in numljcr within the last half century,
there are still nearly 300 abbej's, and above 500
convents in the empire. Some of the Itoman Ca-
tholic prelates have very largo incomes, as thearch-
bishop of Prague, the revenues of whose sec amount
to 150,000 Horins, or 12,500/. The church is, how-
ever, far from being the only possessor of the
tithes; its wealth consists principally in eiulow-
meuts of land, or revenues charged upon estates.
The richest see is the primacy of Hungary, tiie
archbishopric of Olmiltz being next in importance.
On the suppression of the convents by Joseph II.,
a portion of the confiscated lauds and revenues was
appropriated to form a fund for improving the sa-
laries of the parish clergy, the minimum of whose
incomes has been fixed at .300 fl. for a parish
])riest, and 150 fl. for a chaplain or curate. This
fund is nominally under the control of the bishop,
as far as concerns his diocese ; yet estates belong-
ing to it are constantly advertised for public sale.
The united tireek and Armenian Churches arc as-
similated to the Poman Catholic Church, as far as
their parishes extend. The schismatic Gr(<eks pos-
sess a fund, vested in bonum mitinnis, in Hungary,
which is managed by tho metropolitan and three
assistants. The Protestant confessions have no
endowed churches or parishes out of Hungary and
Transylvania, the clergy elsewhere being chosen
and supported by their flocks. The right of pre-
sentation to livings is vested, in general, in the
landed proprietors and various coqjorations, as in
ICngland. The parishes in the gift of the crown,
as lieir to the suppressed convents, are numerous.
AU8TRIA (EMI'IRK OF)
Tho emperor nominates all the bishops, with th«
exception of tho archbishop of OlinUiz, wiio u
chosen by the cliajitcr of that city.
Church property throughout all tho provinros,
except Hungary ar-' Transylvania, is very liighlv
taxed; and the stai ■ inherits a moiety of the per-
sonal property of every Catholic clergyman, it
being of course supposeil that he has no diroet
natural heirs. Put the line of policy rosppctiii);
the Church of h'ome, of which the emperor .Ios(|ili
laid tho foundutioii, has not of late l>ecn ailhcn-il
to; new religious orders having been sullVrcd to
establish themselves, and even the Jesuits Imvc
been jiermitted openly to settle in several jiroviii-
cial towns. The number of members of the, varimi.'i
religious |)ersuasions is as follows, according tn ihe
census of October 31, 1857, deduction bcuig niaile
of the provinces ceded in 185!) : —
ralliolips
2.'t,n(ia,(:ar)
Calvinists
. 2,1 fil, 7(15
(lixt'k Church
.•j,(i!»t.,-<!m
Unitarians
•'iil.'m
United (rreeks
3.1l«,t!0.'>
.Jews
. l,04!),,s;i
Lutherans
1,'J8(1,7!)U
Otlior Sects
a,:J50
The Jews, fiirmerly much ojiprcssod, and sulijcrt
to all manner of indignities, liave been not oiilv
released from all these restraints since the yiiir
184!>, but have even become powerful in the state,
owing to tlie great wealth amassed by many mem-
bers of the community.
Classes of Inhabitants, and State of the Pru-
vinres. — Tho three classes of nMes, citizens, iiiiii
peamuts were strictly detlned in all the iiniviiices
previously to the late changes. The nobility arc
ixith numerous and rich in Austria, where estates
are generally entailed ; and tho higher oilices uf
the court, the army, and the church are reserved
for this class. The memlwrs of the male sex of
the various noble families throughout the empire are
estimated at 250,000. Of these, 163,000 belon{,'t()
Hungary, 24,900 to Galicia, and 2,200 to Uolumia.
The latter country has fourteen princely families,
172 families of counts, 80 of barons, and 100 (if
knights. Their total incomes are estimated at
18,000,000 fl., or 1,800,000/. The privilege of ma-
norial rights can only be enjoyed by a noble in
Austria. These include the right of prcsentatinn
to livings and schools on his estates, and the riglit
to hold courts of justice in the first instance. Other
privileges are those of peculiar tribunals, hefiire
which he can only be cited ; the freedom from the
conscription ; and the right of sitting in the pro-
vincial estates. These immunities are also enjuyeil
by the newly-created nobility; but the court
draws a marked distinction between old families
and those recently ennobled. As the patent is
given without difliculty to all who are williiij,' to
purchase it, the price thus paid bj' citizens wlio
wish to become landholders, may be loolced on asii
tax laid upim the transfer of estates. Persons imt
of noble birth, who do not purchase a patentof this
kind, jiay a double amount of certr' i taxes. The
peasant is personally free throughiuit the empire;
and an appeal being allowed from the niaiKiriai
court of his lord to the circle court, his coiulitioii
is daily iinprovuig, and his riglits and property'
obtain more res])ect. Put the fact that, in some
provinces of thoemi)iro, tlie rent of his cottage and
land is ])aid in contributions of labour, is a j,^re.it
drawback upon his inilustry and upon the im-
provement of agriculture. On the introduction of
tho present system of direct taxation by Maria
Theresa and Joseph II., an arbitrary regulation of
the dues claimed by tho landlorils was ettiected,
and the total amount which a landlord could de-
mand, whether paid in money, service, or kind, was
not to exceed 1 / fl. 40§ kr. lor every 100 ti. whieli
tho land produced. At the same time the pea-
bishops, with the
Olmlltz, will) li
V.
ill the provinros,
ill, is very hi^lily
rtoiety of the iicr-
(lic cle^^;yInlUl. it
he UftH in) tliri'ct
jioliey resfiici'tinn
w. cin\uT()r .loHi jih
Into \)ccii aiilicrud
g been sulViTcd to
, tlie Jesuits have
in several (mtviu-
ihersof the variiius
,-s, »eci>riUii(,'ti) ili(>
action bciut; mailc
iiista
irlans
: Sects
2,1 fll ,7(15
l,04'.),.sn
iprcsscil, andsulijcct
lave been imt tmly
dut.s since the yiar
iiwerfiil in the state,
issed by many luem-
I State of the Pnh
nobles, citizens, anil
in all the provimca
Bs. The nobility arc
ustria, where eslati's
the higher olliees iif
> church are reserviil
i of the male sex nf
ughouttheemiiirearc
esc, ltiB,OUObel.«iinto
mil ^.'iGO to liohcmia.
uen V)rincely faniilits,
)f barons, and KH) uf
108 are estimated at
The privilege of ma-
njoyed by a noble iu
ri^htof pr<^^*'"*"''""
estates, and the rit;lit
e lirst instance, Otlitt
iliar tribmials, before
the freedom from the
of sitting in the pro-
iiities are also enjoyed
ilitv, but the court
between old familiis
As the patent w
Hi. who arc willitii; ''>
feaid by citizens who
'may be looked on as 11
estates. Persons udt
irchase a patent ol tins
(fcertf- I taxes. Tlic
jroughouttheemiure;
[ed from the manorial
court, his condition
rights and iimiicriy'
the fact that, in some
rent of his cottage awl
1 of labour, is a ii'Mt
•y and upon the nn-
)n the introduction (it
■t taxation by Mana
urbitrary regulation ol
indh.rds was ettecteil,
ha landlord could di-
sservice, or kind, w
[or every 100 tl.whi.'i
same time the pca-
fi^ni'n pn^fty in the land lie held, from wliatcver
liird was declared indisputable; and though the
latter may scii^c uiH)n hitt stock and moveables, he
cannot elect for arrears of rent, unless the land be
held on lease ; which is by no means common in
Austria. - . , , .
Great differences are found in the state of civi-
lisation of the different provinces. Among tlie
hii'lier classes, in the great capitals, this difference
is nearlv imjierceptibie ; the universities and the
iK'tter institutions for instruction being open to the
iidiabitants of all provinces, and being arranged
throughout on a uniform ])laii. Another cause of
this similarity in thi' larger towns is the gr,at
nroixirtion of Germans found ainorg the trailing
classes, even in the Slavonic and Hungarian dis-
tricts. The mass of t'le people are most advanced
hi the German provinces; then come the Italian
IHiiiulatum; and ne.xt the llohemians, Silesiuns,
and Moravians. The Slavonians of Carintliia,
(nmiola, and lUyria, may be ranked with the
poles or Jloravian inhabitants of Hungary. The
rude and almost nomadic life led by a largo por-
tion of the Magyars of Hungarj', will be noticed
in treating of that country. Tlie Dalmatians stand
III! the lowest footing of civilisation in Europe.
The want of a central pt)int of national interest to
which the inhabitants of the provinces might have
looked, and which might have directed the cur-
rent of popular feeling in each to the common
advantage of all, has been strikingly felt; and
eadi province having its own representation by
estates, and many having had a different form of
jjovemment from the othersj each has been led to
lool; upon itself as having interests separate from
tlie rest. The effects of this system have of late
years grown especially jierceptible in the repeated
applications made by tlie Bohemians, Poles, and
llniife'arians, to have their resjHictive languages
exclusively used in public business, and in the
provincial schools.
As ever}' province forms a separate land, each
has its pecuhar language or dialect, and its distin-
gnishing customs and habits. Of the Slavonic
languages, the Polish possesses the richest litera-
ture; but the Bohemian has of late years been
most cultivated, and forms the written lan-
guage of the Moravians and Slowaks of the NVV.
counties of Hungary. The dialect of Caniiola has
iiceii mcthoilised, and is grammatically taught as
thcwTitten longuage of Illyria and Croatia. The
Slavonian nations have all the distinguishing
characteristics of ardent feeling and sanguine tem-
iwranient which make them more easily elated
and sooner depressed taaii their neighbours the
Germans. They are fond of music ; and every
district has its national airs, which are often of
great antiquity, and usually plaintive. Among
the Slavomans, the Poles are distinguished by a
martial ilisposition and love of show. The na-
tional costume is now only kept up amongst the
lieasantry, whose winter dresses especially are
tasteful, and even elegant. In the other Slavonic
nations of the empire, the love of ornament is less
remarkable, the national spirit liaving sunk in the
long lapse of time during which they have been
dependent. No Slavonic dialect waa used pre-
viously to the late changes, in the courts of justice
or in public instruction in the higher schools of the
empire. The German peasants wear the ilress
commonly met with all over Gennany, with va-
rieties iu the colour and headgear, in nearly every
village. The Austrian women wear cajis or bon-
nets made of gold lace and decorated with span-
gles. In Tyrol the German costume is most
picturesque. The German language is used in
transacting public business iu the German and
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF) 2i»9
Slavonian provinces, and in the universities on the
north side of the Alps.
The Magyars, or inhabitants of the Iliingarinii
plains, of Tartar descent, are a high-spirited neople
warmly attached to their national language, liabits,
and rights. Though inferior in point of numbers,
they have licen the ruling race in Hungary ainl
itH sul)ordinatc countries for nearly DtM) years.
They have sometimes l>cen compared to the Nor-
mans in England; but they have not, like the
latter, intennixed with the subjugated people, and
become identilied with them. On the contrary,
the Magyars conthiue to be almost as much sepa-
rated from the other inhabitants as when they
lirst established themselves in the coinilry, towarils
the ch)se of the Itltli century. Their costume in
the most splendid in Europe, and every family
hiLH its distinguishing cidours. The rich Dolliiiunn,
or 1 liissar jacket, and the tasteful Attila, a frock-
coat, trimmed with fur, are only worn im state
occasions by the nobles ; but the tight pantahioii
and short boot is the usual dress of the peitsant,
who also wears a blue jacket and a low broiul-
brimmed hat. Though fond of music the Hun-
garians arc no musicians ; the national dances are
often highly ))antomimic ; and the Slagyar, who
is seldom seen to smile, expresses the excitement
of his feelings, whether in joy or sorrow, in
dancing. The Magyar and Latiri languages are
those used in the courts of justice and in the
public otWces ; and the law jMussed by the Hun-
garian Diet, in 1H44, to force the use of the former
on the Slavonian ^trovinces incorporated with
Hungary, has helped in no oriUnary degree to
exas|>erate the existing animosities between the
JIagyars and the Slavonians. The dress of the
VValachian peasantry, on festive occasions, is
highly omaniented. The Italian costume is both
ricli and elegant; especially the head-ilresses of
the women, which are more tasteful than those
worn on the north sjile of the Alps. The Italian
language is used in the government offices, in the
courts of Justice, and in public instruction, in the
still remaining Italian provinces of the empire.
The Komaii Catholic peasantry in every pro-
vince have a religious turn, which they not only
evince by their regular attendance at Church, but
by assembling in great numbers, at stated periods,
for the annual pilgrimages made to the cliurches
of the Virgin Mary. The chief of these places of
resort, Maria Zell in Styria, is annually visited by
more than 100,000 devotees. The next in impor-
tance is the shrine at Calvaria in (>alicia, to which
pilgrims annually flock from Bohemia, Silesia,
Poland, and Hungary. The pilgrimages are, how-
ever, said to be, like the field 'preachings' for-
merly held in Scotland, anything but conducive
to morality. The Sunday evening is everywhere
devoted to festive enjoyment, and to indulgence
in wine in such |)rovinces as produce this beverage.
Smoking is an all but universal habit iu the pro-
vinces north of the Alps.
With respect to the comforts of life, the Hun-
garian, Italian, and (iemian ))easants are the most
advantageously situated. The largest share of
landed property falls to the Hungarian, and he
receives the best remmieration for his labour.
Bohemia and Moravia rank on a level with the
German provinces. The Galician peasant is the
lowest on the scale except the Dalmatian.
Frovisioti for the Poor. — Each i)arish is bound
to support its own poor ; but as the allowance is,
in all cases, very small, the charge is nowhere bur-
densome. The large towns have poor-houses,
supported partly by revenues from foundations,
partly by voluntary contributions; and, on extra-
ordinary occasions, government supplies a sum
! I
[AUi;--
300
frirtn the public rovcntics to meet tlicir exiKcncies.
iSnvin^H' Uankn liavo been introduced into the
(litt't;rent jjrovinccM.
Anioiiff the iii.slitutions for ameliorating tlic
Mtittc of ttic poor, the iiospilals Htand in th<! first
ranli. Tlic exert ions of JoHepli II., to iniprovc
tlie medical department of tlie army, liad a very
advantaKeoii!) intliiencc over the medical esluli-
lislunents throu^liout tlie empire. In tlic AUiji;-
tne'mes Kranken llaua, at Vienna, one of the (inest
liospitalH in Kuro|)e, about 10,000 pauper patientH
are ainiually Hupported and relieved; and Ninii-
lar e.stabli>*hmeiitH are found in every provincial
town of importance. The numerous bospitaU
of the 'Hrot hers of Charity,' in the various pro-
vinces, likewise relieve a vast number of the poor.
These hos])itals arc 8up]K>rtcd by voluntary contri-
butions.
lAtvruture and the Fine ^rA<i.— Newspapers and
periodical imblications are published in many lan-
f;ua>,'cs. According to ollicial returns of the year
JNdiJ, there were at that time 'AiVl Jounnils issued
in Austria, among them l;M ]iolitical ones. Of
these HO were German, 6 C/.ecliish, 4 Polish, 2
Servian, 2 Croatian, 1 Illyrian, 2 Kuthenian, 13
Italian, IG Hungarian, 3 Kumenian, 2 Greek, 1
tSlavonian, 2 Hebrew, and 1 Trench. Tlie non-
]i(ditical ])apers comprise 100 (iennun, 13 Czechish,
14 Polish, 7 Servian, 4 Slavonic, Croatian, 28
Italian, hi Hungarian, 2 Kiitlii^nian. 1 Greek, I
French, and 2 Hebrew. At A'ieiuia alone there
were 08 periodical publications, including 15 news-
papers, devoted to p(ditical matters.
The tine arts arc in a languishing state, in part
owing to the apathy which prevails both amongst
the higher classes and the artists. The pictures
in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna arc not i)er-
rnitted to be copied by artists; and every compo-
sition which is piddicly exhibited is subjected to
<:ensorship, for the enforcement of moral and re-
ligious restrictions. Kecently there have been
annual exhibitions at Vienna. Music is culti-
vated with success, and enters largely into the
education of all' classes in Bohemia and in the
German provinces. The Bohemians are remark-
able for their skill in instrumental music ; and
not only is it common to find eminent i)erformers
in small villages, but many of these excel on two
or three different instruments.
Eilacat'wn, — The foundation of elementary in-
struction in Austria was first laid in the early
|)art of last century ; and soon after about one in
twenty-five of the inhabitants M'ere taught to
read. Joseph II. directed his energies to tlie in-
struction of youth ; but the clergy, high and low,
opposed him, and after his death succeeded in
establishui^ generallj' their own plan of educating
children. Ji3y the terms of a law passed in 1821,
it is enacted that no town or village shall be with-
out an elementary school — that no male shall
enter the marriage state who is not able to read,
write, and understand casting up accounts — that
no master of any trade shall, without paying a
heavy penalty, employ workmen who are not able
to read and vn'itv. — and that small books of moral
tendency shall be ])iiblislied and distributed, at
the lowest possible price, to all the emperor's sub-
jects. But this law, which in reality amounts to
comjiiilsory education, is far from being enforced.
The German-speaking po])iilation of the empire is
most advanced in general education ; and least
the people of the jirovinces of Slavonia, ('roatia,
and Dalmatia. At the conscription of 1857, it
was found that of 2,04!) recruits in the archduchy
of Austria, 2,323 were able to read and write ;
while in Bohemia there were among 11,213 re-
cruits only C,697 able to rea<l and write; and
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF)
finally, in Dolmatia, among 028 conscripts, only
y were possessed of the rudiments of ediicatinii.
The total number of educational estabiJHliiiii'jits
of teachers, and uf Htudeiits was as follows, in
18(il:—
NumluT of
Niinilwriir 1
EilalilUhinenta
DiUill'llll j
Suiierior Institutions
a.iB
aii.iis
Miildlu Htihools .
i\l
Vi,IVM ,
JIllltiiryH«!li<iols
bi
■ 7,U75 i
OtlitT Soliools :
i
For Uojs .
147
ll,;i:)i
„ nirls . . .
408
»:l,4ii:l
Jllxcd . . .
:i7
l.lilHi
Natlonol SchooU
Total . . .
47,270
3,73-.',862
48,(!1S
I'-lementarv instruction is not, perhaps, so much
diffused in llungary and Transylvania as in tlic
majority of the other provinces of the enipiri'.
But there is, notwithstanding, scarcely a villiij,'c
in the kingdom without one or more scIuhiIs.
' Where,' says a traveller, ' the inhabitants arc all
of one religion, there are no difflcultics to be over-
come. Where differences exist, if the scparnti!
creeds be too poor to maintain a school eai'li, the
jtoorer attend that of the more powerful, wliicli is
commonly Catholic; the Protestant chililreii, linw-
ever, not being forced to take a part in the reli-
gious instruction, which is left to the priest, (ir,
still more ctmimonly, to his capeUan, or clerk.
The education extends to reading, writing, arith-
metic, moral maxims, and sometimes a little
geography, historj', and Latin grammar. Tiicse
schools are maintained, and the masters chosen.
by the peasants themselves; the landlord beiiiK
obliged to give ground for a school-house, and .'in
or 40 acres of land for the use of the master. The
payment is for the most part in kind and lalndir.
There are normal schools in different parts »!'
the country', for the cducati(m of masters in the
national schools. (Paget, Travels in Hungarv,
ii. 533.)
The machinery for the teaching'of the lii;.'hcr
branches of education is very complete. The L'ni-
versity of Pesth is one of the richest in EiiruiH',
its revenues amounting to above 34,001)/. a year.
It has, exclusive of several more, nine theologieal,
six juridical, thirteen medical, and fourteen phi-
losophical professors, with libraries and inuseiinij,
and is attended by above 1,000 stutlents, cniii-
prising all religious denominations. Tliere arc
eight universities in the empire, at Vienna. I'rajiiie,
Pesth, Gratz, Cracow, Innsjiruck, Lemberg, ami
Padua. The number of students attending these
universities amounted, in 18(50, to 8,25(1, alimit
one-fourth of which number were at Vienna.
Next in rank to the universities st.ind the tliei)-
logical seminaries, 129 in number, with l.O,)!
pu])ils; ond the Polytechnic schools, seven in
number, with 2,072 ]ni|)ils.
Army and Nary. — The army is raised in all tlie
provinces, with the exception of Hungary and
Transylvania, by conscrijition, from which, how-
ever, the families of the nobility and titled geiiirv,
or so-called Kleiner Adcl, are exem])te(l. With
the exception of these jirivileged classes, every
man is liable to conscription who has reaclied his
twentieth year. In times of peace, the govern-
ment tmdcrtakes to furnish substitutes, at the
average i)rice of 1,200 florins, or 123/. each. The
term of service is eight years, after which the
soldier is liable to serve two years longer in the
army of reserve. During peace, a largo propor-
tion of the troops are sent home regularly on
oriRcripto, only
tf (Mlut'Utilll),
•Htal)liKliii)i'iit.s,
OS iuUuw», ill
Kiimberof
Ktuilciili
■ 7,075
11,:IM
a;t,4t;:i
1 .li'.lli
3,ri;):j,.j().|
3,73'.>,8(i2
wrhaps, so miidi
IvHiiia n.s ill tlic
of the enipiri',
carcely a villimc
If more scIkmiIs.
habitants arc all
ulties to he ovcr-
if the aoparnlf!
school each, the
jwerful, which is
nt chililreii, Imw-
i part in the roli-
t« the priest, or,
ipdlan, or clerk.
fj, writing, arith-
mctimes a little
grammar. These
) masters cliDson,
le lamllord bciiif;
[)ol-hoiisc, ami SD
' the master. The
1 kind and lalnjiir.
different parts iif
of masters in the
rels in Hungary,
ing"of the higher
mplcte. TheL'ni-
icliest in Europe,
k-e 31,000/. a yrar.
, nine theolngical,
ind fourteen plii-
ics and musennis,
[) students, com-
tions. There arc
It Vienna, Pra|,'iiP,
;k, Lcmhcrg, ami
[» attending tliose
, to 8,25(;, nbiuit
were at Vieniin.
i stand the thei>-
nher, with iM
schools, seven in
s raised in all the
of Hungary ami
rom which. Inl-
and titled gentry,
Bxcmpted. Witli
led classes, every
1) has reached his
leace. the guvern-
lihstitiites, at the
Vl'Al. each. The
after which the
lars longer in tlie
I, a large pmiior-
'me regularly on
AUSTJilA (EMPIRE OF)
AirlnttRh. It is part of the military policy of the
■joveninient to cncourajfe, by all iKtssihle means,
the re-enlistmcnt of old soldiers, for which piir-
piise the finid contributed by those wlio seek siib-
.siitiites is distributed in the shape of bounties.
Ttie pav of tlie troops, privates as well as otiiccrs,
is smaller in the Austrian army than that of any
(itlicr country in Kurope, except Uussia, Tlic in-
faiitrv are dressed in white coats, of coarse but
conitortalile clotli, with light blue trousers, tlie
Hungarian regiments licing distinguished by their
national light pantaloons. The cavalry wear the
iiMionnl dresses iicculiar to their several descrip-
tions of arras, lliingary furnishes the hussars,
and (Jalicia the lancer regiments; the Italian,
Slavonic, and German ' cavalry regiments wear
white uniforms with helmets. The men are
usually taken from the provinces in which each
regiment has its conscription de)M)t; but the
(illicers are mixed throughout the army, and their
promotion is seldom conliued to one regiment.
The tinest men of each infantry regiment are
selected to form the grenadier comjianies, usually
ill garrison at Vienna, I'esth, and Prague. The
lroo()s are well clothed and fed; and though
an annual drain of the strongest and healthiest
part of the population must be felt by the com-
munity at large, the conscription is not regarded
as a hardship by the ]M)orer classes. In Hungary
the case is different ; the regiments of that coun-
try are raised by recruiting, and the men are
usually seduced by the promise of being placed
in tlie'hussar regiments ; but in general the Hun-
garian peasants are averse from the service, though
they make excellent soldiers. Though it is ])er-
mitted to find substitutes, the conscription too
(iftcn includes persons of education, wlio, l)cing
unable to purchase their exemption, are cut off
from all hopes of advancement, as no promotion,
except in the artillery, is made from the ranks.
The colonel-in-chief of each regiment names and
promotes the officers up to the rank of captain.
The field-officers are nominated by the emperor,
and usually advance according to seniority. A
large proportion of the officers are noblemen. In
Wl!l there were 103 princes, 590 counts, 898
barons, 570 knights, and 2,826 untitled nobles in
the army ; the largest number proportionately in
the cavalry, and the smallest in the artillery and
the engineers. The upper hierarchy consisted, in
1HC4, of 3 field-marshals, 14 feldzeugmeister and
generals of cavalry, 77 field-marshal lieutenants,
125 general-majors, in active service, besides
337 field-marshal lieutenants and generals on
half-pay.
According to official returns, Austria p<)ssessed,
on the peace-footing, at the end of October 1863,
an army of 269,103 men, rank and file, with
42,"201 horses. The papers furnished by the war
office to the reichsrath describe the troops of the
empire as constituted in the following maimer: —
lUroglmentHof ffpld-artlllery, of 10 batteries,'
wltli 4 compnnioH
1 rofflment of oonst-artlllerj', of .T batteries,
witli 4 coniimidoH
1 rcKlinont of nikctours, of U batteries, with
:t companies
2 regiments of entflnocrs, of 4 battalions
(i battoliuiui of pioneers ....
301
32,87»
8.7l»7
80 regiments of infantry of the line, each of
3 battalions, witli U companies . ,
1 regiment of Kaisorjager, of 8 battalions,
with 4 companies
32 bftttnlions of Feldjiiger, of 6 companies
each
14 regiments of frontier infantry .
10 companies of ' sanitary troops' .
Total of infantry . .
12 regiments of cuirassiers, of C squadrons each
2 „ of dragoons, of squiulrons „
21 „ of hussars and ul^lors of G
squadrons . . . „
3 „ of volunteer hussars and
uklars, 8 squadrons „
Total of cavalry
124,590
3,974
23,200
8,640
1,914
1(!2,318
11,370
3,120
23,400
2,448
40,344
The rest of the army of 260,103 men, on tho
|M>ace-footing, according to the government tables,
consists of the transport service.
On the war-footing, the infantry is raised to
•I 12,003 men, the cavalry to 57,75!),' and the artil-
lery to 51,881 men, with a corresponding uicrea.so
of engineers and pioneers.
The navy of Austria consisted, in August 1861,
of thirty-nino steamers, with 639 gnus and I l,7.!l»
horse-p(»wer, and twenty-sailing vessels with 1 15
guns, manned by 13,99rsailors and nniriius.
Hi^ and Increase of t/w J'Jmpire. — Tho Hoiiso
of Austria derives its origin and tho foiindatinns
of its power from Kodidpli, count of Ilapsbiirgli,
in Switzerland. Kodolph, who wfus oik! of the
ablest princes of his age, having extended his
authority over the greater part of Switzerland,
and distinguished himself by his ability ami
bravery, was raised in 1273 to the imperial
throne. His elevation was owing pruiciiially to
the wish of the electors to have an enifieror of
undoubted ability, capable of putting down the
anarchy that had hmg prevaileil in the greater
part of the states hicluded within the limits of
the empire, and who, at the same time, was not
powerful enough to occasion any fear of his sub-
verting the privileges of the ditt'erent states. The
family of the ancient dukes of Austria, of tho
House of IJamberg, having become extinct a,
shortwhile previously to the elevation of Kodolph,
their states were taken possession of by Ottocar,
kingof Bohemia, whose ascendancy threatened tho
independence of the empire. But Kodolph, having
secured the sanction of the diet, declared wnr
against Ottocar, whose forces were totally dc;-
feated, and himself killed, in tlie decisive battle,
of Marchfehl, in 1278. Tliis formidable com-
petitor being removed, Kodolph had little difficulty
ni procuring from the diet the investiture of tho
du:;hy in favour of his eldest son, and it has ever
since continued in the possession of his de-
scendants, and formed one of the principal sources
of their power.
Albert, the 8<m of Kodolph, did not inherit the
talents of his father. The Swiss revolted from
his dominion in 1307, and after a lengthened con-
test achieved their independence. But notwith-
standing this event, and the elevation of several
princes of other families to the imperial throne,
the power of the House of Austria rapidly in-
creased, and in no very long time its dominions
embraced some of the largest and most important
countries of Europe. It has been principally in-
debted for its extraordinary aggrandisement to
fortunate alliances. The marriage, in 1477, of
Maximilian, son of the emperor Frederick III.,
with the daughter and heiress of Charles tha Bohl,
the last duke of Burgundj', brought to the House
of Austria all the rich inheritance of the latter in
the Low Countries, Franche Comte and Artois.
Another marriage opened to the House of Austria
the succession to the Spanish monarchy, including
its vast possessions in Italy and the New VVorld.
And Ferdinand I., liaving married, in 1521, Anne,
sister of Louis, king of Hungary and Bohemia,
succeeded, on the death of the latter at the battle
of Moliacz in 152(;, to these states. There is,
therefore, as much of truth oa of point in the
lines,
: «■«
'H.
■4
302
lit
11' !
" Bella grrnnt nlll, tn, follx Auntrta, niibo,
Nnm ()Uiu Mara ulilti, ditt tibi rcgnu Vpntm."
(')iiirlcH v., the most nowcrful monarch of the
House of AuHlria, concluduil, in lA'il, a trcnty
with hi» hnithiT Ferdinand, by which ho asxif^nrd
to him tlic licrcditary |K>.4HCHNi(mH of the family in
< ierniuny. And there can bo little doubt that this
nmnif^cmcnt waa fur the advantage of both
brnncheM of the hoiiHc — that of AuHtrio, properly
BO called, and that of Spain.
Tlic great power and ambition of tho princeH of
thu lIoiiHc of Austria excited a well-founded alarm
among the other European piwerx. For a length-
ened period the whole politico of Europe, itM al-
liances, and itH want, had little other object than
the humbling of the power of AuHtritt. ThiH was
the motive of the thirty years' war, terminated by
the treaty of Westphalia, in 1 048, which secured
tho inde|M>ndi'nce of the different states of the
<ic'rmaiiiccm])irc, and the free exercise of the I'ro-
testaiit rcligitm.
In l(ii)'J the Turks were finally expelled from
Hungary ; and the genius of I'rince Eugene gave
the Austriana an ascendancy over the Ottomans
they have ever since iireserved.
In 1740, the male line of the House of Haps-
liiirg terminated by the death of the emperor
(./harles VI. Itut his daughter, Maria Theresa,
married to Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of
Tuscany, succeeded to his dominions, and, even-
tually, to the imperial crown. Hhortlj' after her
nccession, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia,
seized upon tho greater part of Silesia. The re-
covery of this province was the principal object
of Austria and her allies in the seven years' war.
liut his Prussian majesty triumphed over all his
enemies, and Silesia was finally ceded to Prussia,
by the treaty of Uubertsberg, in 17C3.
AUSTRIA (EMPIRE OF)
The reign of Joseph II., the son and sucrcMirir
of Maria Theresa, is important from the refnrmi*
lie effected in most <leparlments of tho govem-
m(!nt, and the territories he added to tho eni|iin<.
It has been objectwl to tho formtir that they were
not introducetl with sufticient caution, and that he
would have accomplished more had ho attempted
less. No doubt, it must be admitted that he did
not make sutficient allowance for the inveteruvy
of ancient prejudices, and that his innovatiimii
were frequently neither appreciated nor approved
by those for whose bciiclit they were intcmled;
but there can be no doubt as to the rectitude of
his intentions; and, notwithstanding the olmtnclcH
he cx|)erienccd, his ret'onns, and the change he
intHHlucod into the minle of government, have
lieen prcMliu^tive of tho greatest advantage. He
acquired (ialicia from Poland, and the Uukuwiiie
from Turkey.
It wouUl lie unnecessary, even if our limits
admitted of it, to attempt any sketch of the tliic-
tuatioiis of Austrian iH>wer during the eventful
peri(Hl that has elaped since the breaking unt (if
the French revolution, in 1789. At certain stiiKu
of her great stniggle with France, Austria seemed
to be depressed almost to the rank of a secoud-
rate power. But the ambition of Napoleon havijii;
etfected his downfall, Austria was left at the end
of the contest as powerful as ever; the loss of the
Low Countries being fully compensated by her ac-
quisitions in Italy, a portion of which, however,
was again detached by the war of 1859, fuUnwed
by the peace of /urich.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the area
of the Austrian cm]iire at different peri(Mls since
tho death of the empress Maria Theresa, iu
1780 :—
Period!
1780
ProTlncci
1782
1791
1795
17l>7
1801
1803
1804
Austrian District
Sunbian Uistriot
Burgiindinu District
Falkenstein District
Bohemia
Moravia
Silesia
Eastern Galicia
Bucowina
Milan, Mantua, Castiglione, and Sabionctta
Hungary
Croatia and Slavonia
Transylvania
Military Frontier
Total in 1780
Subsequent Alterations
Acquired by Emperor Joseph II. ,by Treaty, In the Inn District
Acquired by Emperor Leopold,in Alt-Ostrova and Unna District
Total at tho beginning of the Reign of Emperor Francis I..
March 1792
Acqiiired by the Third Division of Poland (Western Galicia)
(Peace of Campo Formio), by which Austria ceded Belgium,
Lombardy, and Brelsgau .......
And received in return Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and Albonia
Total in 1797 .
(Peace of Lunevllle) ceded Etsch, Falkenstein, and Frickthal
Ceded Ortcnau
Acquired, Trient and Brixen
Bought, Blumcucck, Lindau, and Rothenfcls .
Total at the Assumption of tho Title of Emperor of Austria
on the 11th August, 1804
AuitrUn Square Hllet
Fnicllih
Square kII'm
_
1,766-92
37,105
—^
149-50
3.H0
479-00
lo,o.^8
_
2-00
42
902-85
18,960
—
386-29
8,112
—
89-45
1,879
—
1,420-60
29,831
—
181-69
3,81«
—
124-60
2,617
—
3,627-18
76.170
329-00
6,909
954-27
20,0,19
—
682-00
14,322
—
11,095-20
232,999
4-00
_
1-60
—
—
_
11,100-80
233,117
883-40
—
—
645-00
643-00
—
—
11,982-20
251,626
33-00
—
8-00
—
—
41-00
—
-
89-00
_
10-50
—
—
—
12,040-70
252,855
FiiKlUti
et
SquMU "I'.'m
i-02
37,10.5
)-r.o
3,140
>-00
10,0.')8
!-00
42
!-85
18,WI0
i'29
8,11-2
»-45
1,879
I0-8O 233,117
l-i"20 251,626
AUSTRIA (EMPIRK OF)
•
30.3
Ptrlodi
VmiitiM—
AuilrUn li|u»re Mlln
r.nitlUh
Rquar* Milci
I80A
(Pi'iicoof rronhnrR), rr<li><l Voi,l(-o, Vciirt.-lMtrijt, Pnlnintln,
AII)niiln,Tyrul, and Vornrll)c>rg, iiiul nil I'dhmivIoiih in ,Siiitl)ia
Acqiiln-il, SalzbiirB, norchtP>>ffmIon, Mntroi-ZlUor, nnd Brix-
i-iitlml
(Trciity o( Foiitaiiiulik-au), ctiktl Munfiilconn . .
Totnl In 1807 .
(Poftco of Vlonnft), crdwl PnlzhnrK, ■norchtoHKndoii, Jliitrol-
Zlllcr nml Urlxontlml, Inn, nnd lliilf Dtxtrlctof Ilimsnu-k,
Vlllnoh, Curnlolft, (liirz, CinuHscn, AuHt.-lBtrlii, Trifsto,
Fliimo, Ifiilf of ("rontin, Wi-stt-rn OnlUdn, nnd /.iiniopk
(Ta-nty with Buwia), ceded Tarnopul und Czortkow .
Totnl in 1810 .
(Tronty of Paris, Juno 3), recovered North Tyrol nnd Vorarl-
IwrR
(Vienna CnnBTPSH), ncqulnnl nnd ri-covorol Lomlinrdo-Vonp-
tlnn KinKdimi, Gi>ri!,(lrn<ll«-n, Trli-ste, tlio Wlioli- of Intrla,
Pnlmntin, UnRusn, Vcnet.-AUinnia, ('anilola, Finnic, Cm-
ntin, South Tyrol, Mnlrei-Thal, ViUach, TamojK)!, nnd
Czortkow
Total in 1815 .
(Trendy of Munich, April 14). recovered Salzluirg, Inn, Half
of Uanaruuk, Zillcr, and Brixenthal
Total nt Accession of Emperor Ferdinand I.
(Treaty with Russia and Prussia), Incorporated Cracow and
District
Total nt Accession of Emperor Francis .Joseph I.
(Pcaco of Zurich), ceded tho greatest part of Lombardy
Total In 1859 .
1,1 06-60
1R6'M
_„
231,497
1807
U-»4
11,0-23-68
1809
1810"
],85l-4n
1:10-17
1814
18IJi
213-01
2,116-72
212-02
21 -.13
0,042-06
18»,88;i
1818
11,372-09
238,827
18^5
1846
11,684-71
243,279
1848
18;j»
853-16
11,600-04
243,727
—
ll,'25-2-88
236,311
In 1804, Francis assumed the title of hereditary
oraiicrnr of Austria ; and on the 6th of Aufjust,
18()G, he renounced tlie title of emperor of (Jer-
maiiy. This latter event had been preceded by
tlic formation of the confederation of the Rhine,
.ind tiic entire dissolution of the old Germanic
Empire.
AUTUN, a city of France, dep. Saone et Loire,
on the Arroux, 43 m. SW. Dijon, on the railway
from Dijon to Nevers. Pop. 11,897 in 18G1. It is
picturesquely situated, partly on the declivity and
partly on the top and at the bottom of a hill. It
IS neither handsome nor regular ; most part of its
edifices are old, and have a mean appearance; but
there are several among them well worth notice.
It has two cathedrals, situated on the summit of
the hill; but neither has been completed. The
spire of one of them, 325 ft. in height, is remark-
able for its elegance and the lightness of its con-
fitruction. The church of St. Martin, built by
Queen Brunehault, and containing her tomb, fur-
nishes specimens of different kinds of architecture.
The champ de Mars, in the middle of the town,
a spacious square elevated on a terrace, and planted
witli trees, affords an agreeable promenade. The
square of the cathedral has a magnificent foun-
tain. There arc two bridges orer the Arroux, one
of which is said to be built on the foundations of
a Konian bridge. Autim is the seat of a bishop,
of tribunals of original jurisdiction, and of com-
merce ; and has a college, a diocesan seminary, a
cabinet of antiquities and natural history, a collec-
tion of pictures, tAvo small libraries, and a theatre.
It has also manufactures of cotton velvet, of
a sort of stuff described as tapis de pied, dites
marchnux, fitted for coverlets, horse cloths, &c.,
with hosiery, and tanneries. There is a coal mine
at the hamlet of Chambois, within about a league
of the town.
This is one of the most ancient cities of France.
It was originally called Bihracte, and is described
by Coisar as by far the greatest and wealthiest
town {Innge maximo ac copiosissimn) of the ^Edui.
(De Bello Gall. Ub. i. § 23.) Having been made a
Koman colony by Augustus, it took the name
of Augustodunum from that emperor, and dun, a
Celtic term for a hill. Subsequently it was called
Flavia jSduorum. The Burgundians took it in
427 ; and it was afterwards sacked and bumecl by
the Saracens, and latterly by the English, in 1379.
It espoused the party of the League, and suffered
much during the religious wars. It still possesses
many fine remains of antiquity. Of these the most
celebrated is the triumphal arch, called the gate of
Arroux, of large »limeiisions, and which, though
built wthout cement, is in exceeding fine preserva-
tion ; a smaller triumphal arch ; the ruins of an
amphitheatre, of a Roman burying-grouiid, of tho
temple of Janus, built by Dnisus, and of a temple
of Minerva, with many bas reliefs, medals, and
utensils. The ancient city was much more con-
siderable than the modern one. The walls may
still be traced, and are so solidly built as to be
almost like rock.
Tacitus mentions (Annal. lib. iii. § 43) that tho
noble youth of Gaul resorted for instruction to
Augustodunum. Eumenes, the rhetorician, who
was bom here about the year 2C1, states in his
or.-ition (Pro liestaurandis Scholis, § 20), that re-
presentations, or maps, of the tlifferent countries of
the then known world were delineated on the
304
AUXKURR
iMirtiroH or plnocu wlicro tho youth mot, KottiiiK
fnrtli their tiiiincN, Nilnalioim, the rine and courHe
lit' tlieir riverw, Ihi^ oiitlnie of their ciiiixtM, A-e. ; anil
it is worthy of remark llial. Nome portion of thix
ancient <leiiiH>ation in waid to have iM'eii rceetitly
(liHcovered. (Kneyc. der< (Jciih dti Monde, art. Aii-
tioniteM d'Aiilnn.)
The Prince de Talleyrand, who nfterward«playeil
HO many important |iartH in the polilieal drama,
VMM hixhop ol' this Umi\ at the commencenn'nt of
th(^ revolution. The AIiIh! I{(ii|uette, whom M<>-
liere is sniil to have tnlicn for a model, wm also
t>Ui'. of its iiishoiiN. This has ^iveii occasion lor
the following epif^rani : —
" Uoqiii'ttc (liiiis will tcin|w, Tnllryrand, dong lo n6tro,
Kiiri'iit Irs fvciinrH il'Aiitmi :
TftrtiilTe est It' jiortralt do I'un ;
Ah! h1 .Molii'i-ueut coniiu I'lvutrol"
AITXKltlMC (an. Aiitiimiodiirniii), n town of
]■' ranee, cap. dep, Vonne, on the h'ft hank of that
river. It") m, 8K. I'aris, with which it is connected
hv railway. I'op. ir),(»HI in IMdI. It is iinree-
nidy sitinited on a hill, and its environs art! cliarm-
iiif^ ; hut with the exception td' the houses alon^
till! quay and the river's side, it is generally ill-
liiiill, with various crooked streets, and has a
^'liioiny a])pearanec. Principal pulilic liuildin^js,
cntiii'dral, one of tho tincst Gothic ediliccs in
1'' ranee ; tho church of St, Peter; the ahliey of .St.
(iernuiin; the hishop's palace; and the hotel of
the prefect. A finely shaded promenade surrounds
the town, and it is well supplied with water dis-
triliuted from n pulilic fountain. Auxerrc was the
seat of a hisliopric which has \w.en suppressed; it
lias triliunals of original iurisdlction and of com-
merce, a college (IukI' school), a secondary eccle-
siastical school, a model school, a society of agri-
culture, a hotanical garden, a museum of antiquities,
tt jiulilic lihrary with 24,000 vcds. and MO MSS., a
haiulsome theatre, &c It has manuttuitures <d'
fali<:oes, woollen coverlets, hosiery and caps, hats,
earthenware, violin strinKx, and wine casks. The
wines i)rodiiccd in the environs are much esteemed,
particularly those of Miyruine and Chainettc ; and
a considcrahle trade is carried on in them, and in
cowks, wood, and staves. The Yomie is navigable
from a little above the town.
AUXOXNK, a town of France, dt'p. Cote d'Or,
cap. cant, on tlio left bank of tho fSaone, M m.
KSK. Diion. Pop, 7,103 in l«(il. It ranks in tho
fourth' class of fortilied toAviis, bein;^ defended by
works constructed by .'auhan. It is well built,
and the ramparts serve as pleasant promenades.
There is a tine bridge across the Saonc, with a levy
pierced by twenty-three arches to nivc a {lassttfrc
to the water in inundations. Auxonnc is the seat
of a tribunal of commerce ; ond has a collcf^e, a
school of artillery, a small imblic librarj', &C., with
manufactures of cloth, serges, and muslins.
AVA (Ang-wa, a fish-pond, so called because
one formerly stood there) ; the ancient and again
the present cap. of the Birman empire, on the left
bank of the Irrawadi, IGO ra. SW. IJhamo, and
above JJOO m. N. Hangoon, lat. 21° 51' N., long.
05° 68' 10" E. I'op. under 30,000. (Wilson.) It
consists of an outer and inner city, both fortitied :
tho outer is 5^ m. in circuit, and is snrrounilcd,
except on the Irrawadi side, where there is scarcely
any defence, by a brick wall 15 ft. liigh, and IJ
ft. thick ; outside of which, on the S., is a deep,
rapid, and unfordable torrent, the Mi/it-tha ; on
the W. a jungle and swamp ; and on the E. the
iV/y/7-r «/(?',' a rapid stream, 100 yards broad. The
inner city is placed at the NE. angle of the former,
and is surroundiid by a better wall, 1 m. in circ,
and has also some natural defences. The inner
city ia almost wholly occupied by tho palace,
AVEIUJUY
rouncilchamlior, arsenal, and tho dwellings of.,
few of the principal courtierw. Ava contaiiiH innnt'
templeN, in one of which is a sitting iina^'c nC
(iaudanwi, 24 ft. in height, said to consist of u Kiii;;|i'
block of marble ; in another all oaths of chhm..
qiience ore administered, the breach of wliicli j^
cotiNidered a heinous erinu>. The houses are giin..
rally mere huts thatched with grass: the iniirki'ii
are furnished witli llritisli, as well as (liiiicNi- umiI
I.ao manufactures; but for trade, wealth, and
prosperity, this capital is verj' far beneath Itaiigknk,
the cap, of Siani.
AV'Al.I.t ).\ (nil. Ahiillo), a town of Eraiuo, ilcp.
Voiiiie, cap. arroiid, on th(! ('onsin, 25 m, SSK.
Aiixerre. Pop, 5,5Hti in iHlil. It is lieautil'iillv
situated on a granite rock, and comniiiiidM, ojh'-
cially from tho promenadi! of tli<! J'rtit Viiiirn, a
line view of tlu! rich and well-cultivated valley nf
the Cousin. It is a handsome town, with ^im\
houses, and broad and well-kejit streets. The Irdnt
of the parish church, the hospital, the thenlrc, and
the concert hall, deserve notice. It has a "oiirt of
original Jurisdiction, a commercial tribunal, iindu
college; with fabrics <if doth, paper, mustard, \i',
The casks and ottier articles of timMrie mc in
high repute. The hills round the town |irii<ln('(>
excellent wine, of which it is tho eiitrepoi ; anil
it has also an extensive trade in corn, tiiiiU'r,
stas'es, and casks.
Avallon is very old : it owes its foundation tn a
strong castle, every vestige of which has now di>-
apjicared, that once occupied the suminit of Ww
rock on which it is built,
AVKIICHY, or AHL'RY, a parish and small
village of England, co. Wilts, 5 m. W. Marilni-
rough. I'op. 747 in 1«51, and 725 in l«OI. Tho
parish contains tho gigantic remains of what is
usually considered to he a Celtic or Driiiiiical
temple. This singular and stiqiendoiis ruin U
situated in a flat tract of country, and consists ni'
a largo circular space of ground, having on tlio
outside a bank or mound of earth, the inner sinpc
of which measures about 80 tK in width: immedi-
ately within this bank is a broad and deep diii'li;
and along the inner edge of the latter stninl the
relics of a circle of vast upright stones, similar tu
those of Stonehengo, measuring from 15 to 17 ft,
in height, about 40 ft. round, and estimated In
weigh from 40 to 54 tons each. The diametemr
this circle is abont 1,400 ft. : when complete it
contained 100 stones, 40 of which were stHiiiliiii,'
in 1722, when Dr. Stukeley examined it; hut iu
1802 only 18 stones were left, and the numlx-r 1ms
since been still further reduced. Within this outer
circle, or great temple, as it is sometimes called,
were two smaller temples, each fonned of two con-
centric circles of stones, having one a single stmie
in the centre, and tho other a group of three stones.
Some of the stonca in the two inner temples are of
a prodigious size. They are all of a siliceutis f,Tit,
and are of the same species as those tliat accomiiany
the great chalk fonnation that hero crosses the
kingdom.
In connexion ■»» '. th the circular stones, or temples,
already noticed, were two avenues each above I m,
in length, formed by double rows of vast upright
stones. One of those led in a SK. direction to
Overton, where, according to Stukeley, it termi-
nated in a small elliptical temple of similar stones:
the other, or W. avenue, terminated in a sin^'le
stone. Stukeley supposes that the SK. avenac
had, when perfect, 200, and the W. 203 stones;
but of the former, which had 72 stones staiidin;'
in 1772, only 10 arc now left, and of the latter
only 2.
'f he village of Avebury stands within the peri-
phery of the great circle, or temple, and is in part
acontaiiiHiiiaiiy
iiiiiiK ii>«ii;>' <>r
iiimittor a Miiiuli'
oatllK of t'lMlsc-
at'li "f wliii'li 'h
houNt'H art' n'lii'-
utH : the iiiiirki'i'i
1 nH tlliiiifw ii'kI
<!«>, wcaltli, ami
uiicnth liniiKkiik,
■luif Ki'aiu'c, i|c|i.
Mill, 'l'> III. SSK.
It in iH-aiilU'iilly
uoiiiiDaixl!', t's|i('-
!(• I'flit ((iHr,«, II
llivatcci valley nl'
town, Willi K'«"l
trt't'ttt. 'I'lic Iniiit
I, tlic llicatrc, ami
It lias a "iiiirt nf
inl trilmiial, iiiulii
muT, iimstaril,J([c.
t' tutttllvrie arc in
tins town ]iri«lu(c
liii I'litiviiol ; aiiil
i ill corn, tiiiiljcr,
itH foiinilation to n
,-liii'h lia« now ili»-
hu HUininit of tliu
parish and small
5 m. VV. Marlliii-
7-2r) in l«(il. Tlip
•cniaiiiH of wliat is
leltic or Druiiliral
itiiiK'Tiiloiis ruin U
try, anil consists nf
nil, having on tlw
Irth, the iniipr slope
in width : iinnicili-
ail and deep dilili;
ic kttcr stand tlin
stones, similar In
from 15 to 17 ft.
and estiniatctl t»
The diameter nl'
■when coinplete it
lich were stiinilini;
nniined it ; but in
n(i the mimlior has
Within this tnitir
somctinios calU'il,
formed of two coii-
onc a siiiRle stone
mp of three stonis.
iiier temples are uf
of a siliceous t^\\,
isethataccoiniuiiiy
,t here crossed the
r stones, or tcmpleii,
les each above 1 m.
vs of vast upriijlit
la SK. direction to
Itiikcley, it tenni-
Ic of .similar stones;
linated in a single
It the SK. avemic
Ve \V. 203 stones;
(•2 stones standini,'
land of the latter
is within the yieri-
iplc, and is in !«>«
AVEIRO
IhiIU of the Rtoncfl with wlilrh It nml the miitnr
I'inlcK were compoM>d, thonn linvin)^ lM>pn hlnsted
nivl hriikrn to piecM, tu itvrv'u for thiH and itiniilnr
liani'»«'i',
Ininuiliatt'Iy S. from tlio KTont circle or temple
nt Aveliiir-, dUt. | m., Ih the bnmiw, or nrtitlcinl
mound of' earth, called Silbiiry-hill. TIiIh hii^e
liorrotv coven, arcordin^ to tlie menMiiremeiit
B.loptc(l by Sir U. V. Hoan', 5 ncrcH and :10 |M'rclic»
of j;riiiind, lM'inj< 2,0'i7 ft. in circiimfcnMico nt the
li<'iM>: il« diameter at the top Ih t'JO ft., the sloping
lit'ik'bt of itJ* <*><le liltl ft., and itit |M>r|M>iidicular
liei^'ht 170 ft. It !m im|M)Hsible to say for what
iiiirposo this immense nuiss of earth wiu* hea|H>(l
together ; hut it seemH not unrensonalile to con-
I'lndi' that it mnv have been in some way connected
with tlic stone circlen nt Avebiirv. (Dr. Stnkeley'H
viilumc on Avehiiry, piiblished In 1 7'l:), and siibse-
iiiieiitly Sir U.V. Iloore's Ancient Wiltshire.)
However desirable, it diK's not appear verv pro-
Imhlc that nnv satisfactory explanation will ever
U' Kiven of tlie purposes for which the singular
ftnietiires descrilK'<l above were erei-ted. All traces
of their origin seem to be buried in im|)eiietrnble
(ilisnirity. The favourite theory is, that the struc-
ture nt Avebiiry, as well as tfmt of Stonehenge,
were druidical temples, where the Druids, or priests
(if the ancient Britons, celebrated their sacred
ritp.1. liut, notwithstanding the conlldeiico with
which this theory has l)cen put forward, and the
h'Aming and iiigennitv displayed in its support, it
api*«r« to Ih) entirely destitute, not merely of
iifdof, but even of any considerable degree of pro-
bability. Caesar, Liican, Tacitus, and I'liny, the
|iriiici|ml authorities with resjKict to the Druids, do
not give the smallest countenance to the notion of
their having constructed or made use of any such
tomiilcs. Ctesar (»(« Hello Gallico, lib. vi. s. 13)
m» that they retired at a certain jwriod of the
vcar lorn ctmteerato ; for which (inuviiis has pro-
posed to rend luco eotuenrato : and this emendation
1* rendered pwbablc bv what is said by Lucan,
Tai'itiis, and I'liiiy. The first says, in reference to
the Uruids,
' Nemora alta remotU
Incolltis lucia.' Lib. i. line 4fi.3.
Tacitus (Annal. lib. xiv. s. 30) tells us that the
Itiimans, having taken Mona, or Anglesey, appa-
Mitly the grand seat of the Druids, cut down their
proves sacred to savage superstitions — exchiipte
lim, tavii tuperstitionibtts saeri. And Pliny (Hist.
Xat. lib. xvi. s. 44), states that the Druids roborum
ilipnt lucos, nee ulla sacra sine eafronde coiifieiunt.
Hut no classic author makes the remotest alhision
to the Druids using such extraordinary temples as
those previously described. Hence, if any depen-
dence be placed on ancient authority, it would
seem that the seats of druid superstition were in the
n>ce9sea of the forest — in places as remote as pos-
sible from Stonehenge, or even Aveburj'.
AVEIRO, a sea-port town of Portugal, prov.
lieira, 34 m. NNW. Coimbra, on the S. shore of
the astuary of the Vouga, lat. 4()<» 38' 24" N.,
j long. »° 37'54" W. Pop. 4,913 in 1858. It is the
mi of a bishopric and of a custom-house ; and
has a good deal of trade in salt, manufactured in
the little islands in the bay ; in sardines, of which
there is an extensive fishery ; and in wine, oranges,
io. It has a college, a hospital, a workhouse,
and seven convents. The oysters on the adjoining
coast are reckoned the best in Portugal. The en-
trance to the mouth of the river is pointed out by
two stone pyramids, each seventy feet high, which,
I vhen brought into a line, show the course over the
I bar. The latter has about 15 feet at high-water
siirings, and 9J at low water do. : at ne«ps the
Voul,
AVENCnE.S
305
depths are rrspwtively 12 and 7J feet. It is ne-
••iiwnr)', however, t<i olworve, that the Itar l)eing of
shining sand, is liable to per)H-iual changes, and
that it sliouhl never lie attemjited without the aid
of ajiilot. (Totlno, Siianish I'ilot, Kng. trans., p.
07, Sn\)
AVKf-OIIKM, « town of llelgiiim, prov. W.
Flanders, on the Hchchlt, U ni. KSK. Courtnay.
Pon. 4,007 in 185(1.
AVKLLA (an. AMln), a town of Southern
Italy, prov, Avellino, 5 m. NK. Nola, in a cliann-
iiig situation, commanding a view of Naples. Pop,
r>,-.>50 in I8(;i. It is celebrated by Virgil for its
honey or its apples, it is not certain which : —
' Kt (juoi malifene dcspix^tant mieiilii AlH'lIn'.'
i«n. vll. 710.
But some MSS. read tnelif'ene,
AVKLMNO (an. /</ie//inMm),a town of Southern
Italy, cap. of province of same name, (ni the decdi-
vity of a hill, in a fertile valley near the Salmto,
'2!)m. K. Naples, Pop. I!»,'2!l5'in I HOI. It is for-
titled. is the seat of a bishopric, of the civil and
commercial courts for the prov., and hn -oyiil
college. It bos a cathedral, three parish v ....iclies,
n sniiare adorned with an obelisk, a public granary;
with manufactures of coarse cloth, pa|H>r, niacca-
r<mi, sausages, whose su|ierior excellence lias long
been admitted, anil dyeing works. It is the eii-
trejKkt of the surrounding country, and has a pri'tty
extensive trade. Chestnuts are gathered in large
quantities in the environs, but ha/.el nuts are their
most immirtant product. The latter were greatly
esteeme<lby the Romans, ami were called by thci'n
nuvea At'eOano!,
Avellino is said bv Swinburne to lie ' a con-
siderable city, extending a mile in length down the
declivity of a hill, with ugly streets, but tolerable
houses. The churches have nothing to recom-
mend them, Iteing crowded with monstrous orna-
ments in a barbarous style, which the Nea|MilitanH
seem to have borrowed from the Spaniards. The
cathedral is a poor building, in a wretched situation,
with little to attract the eye except some uncouth
Latin distichs, and shapeless Gothic sculpture.
Their only edifice of note is a public grnnar}', of
the composite order, adorned with antique stAtiies,
and a very elegant bnuize one of Charles II., king
of Spain, while a boy. The town aboimds with
provisions of every sort, and each street is supplied
with wholesome water.' (Swinburne's Two Sici-
lies, vol. i. p. Ill, 4to ed.) It has, however, l>eeu
a good deal improved of late years ; but the above
is still a pretty fair representation of its general
appearance.
AVENCHES, Germ. Wifflishurg (an. Aven-
ticuiti), a town of Switzerlanil, in a portion of the
canton de Vaud enclosed in that of Freiburg, 6, m.
from Port Alban, on the Ijike Neuchatcl, and IJ
m, from the shore of Lake Morat. Pop. 1,756 in
18G0. This town, now hardly worth notice, waa
formerly one of the most important in Switzer-
lancL According to some authorities, it was built,
and a Roman colony placed in it, by Vespasian ;
but others, with more probability, conjecture that
it was only repaired and beautified by Vespasian,
after being laid waste by Vitellius. The ancient
walls enclose a space of more than 5 m. in circum-
ference. It has some fine remains of antiquity,
such as mosaical pavements, an amphitheatre^
columns of white marble, an aqueduct, 4c. ; and
its importance is known from several Koman mile-
stones found in parts of the Pays de Vawl, being all
numbered from Aventicum. Though now at a
considerable distance from the lake, it was during'
the period of its prosperity upon its margin, the
iron rings to which the hoat& were fastened being
still visible.
X
1
S06
AVKNWELDK
i„<'
AVr,NWI'',[,I)K, n villiifto (if I*nii»»in, prov,
W«'(i»|)lmli«, n'u. Mindpii, nlNiiit hnlf-wiiv Ik'»w('<'ii
llii-lcrclil mill Winlt'iilirutk. I'op. 1. 1!)'.') in IHt'.l.
The inlinhitniUH aru cliiflly I'liKiiifcil in liiicii
niniiiiriirtiiroH.
AVKUNO (LAKK OF), (nn. Ar,Tniiii),a fnm.m«
lako in Noiithrni lliily, iiIniuI Id ni. \V. Nnplt-M,
near thn wn. The lakti iK'ciipii<N wlinf tlii-rc iM({<MNl
n>nfi<|n to think in tliiMTntcmrnn cxtiiirl volfiun),
ami in pvprywIuTt' NiirroinKU-il hy liiKli liillH,i'xci'|)t
whci* tlnn' Im nn oiitlfl, liv wliiili it lomKriy
rouiniuniciitcil with tlic Lni'riiic laki>. It Ih fnini
14 t'l U ui. in circiinifi'n'iu'f ; tin- wiiiir rloiir,
vi>ry (li>i>p, liiiil wt'll Niipplioil Willi tcnoli. During
th<> i>nrly |M-ri<Hl »{ Ittiniiin liiMlon- tlic hillN n I
thi* lakfl WITH thickly covireil with dt'iiHt' fonnlN,
which jtHvo it n gloomy nppcarani'o, anil l>y cmi-
tlninf( thn nicpliilic vniioiirs that nmc frniii the
vulcanic noil, rcmlcrcd the air cxlrcmt'ly 1111-
)i(<nlthy. Ill coDMcfpii'iico the place waH early
n'Kardcil with Hn|M.'rMlitiiiiiN awe. Tim poets re-
jireKentPd AvenniH an nacred to the iiil'eriml kimIh,
and nn lii'iii(;,inract,tlioenlraiicetiy which I'lyHHCH
and iKiieao deHuciided to the lower re^ioim !
' fnmn est AnlioroiitU ml iukIiih
rnmlorn lt<'r cn'ciw NtnRiiaiiti< voriiKlno fiiiiuiM,
l.nxiit ct horrt'iidus lUHTlt ti-llurlH liliitiiH,
IntvrUumquu nuvo iHirturbnt liiiiiiiie iiihiicn.'
Hil. ItiillcuH, .\!1.
It was Raid that no hird could (ly over the lake
vrithoiit liein^r dcNtroyed hv itx poiHoiioiiN exlinla-
tionH, and hence its name AveniuM (Aoprot), with-
out liinig). 'I'IiIm m noticed liy Virgil, in Hoine
well-known lincB (/Kn. vi. '2'.i7)'.
Hut during the reipi of AuKiiHtiw, Agrippn (Hh-
pclled the oliMcurity and sanctity that had ho hmn
encirclwl the Avennix, Ho cut down ltd f^roves;
nnd hnvinj; Joined it to the Lucrine liay, he lironght
Hhipx into itH HolitiideN, and lined it oh u harlioiirin
which to exerciHc galleys ! The Lucrine lake, or
rather hny, was almost entirely Jilled up hy the
Huhterraneoiis eruption of Monte Niiovo, in 1538.
On one side the Inke of Avemo are the remniiiH of
n large octagon temple, probably appMpriated to
the worship of Hecate; nnd opiiosito the temple,
on the other side the lake, is the o|icning of the
Niihtemmeaii conduit usually called the grotto of
the Sybil, hut which was, in fact, u tunnel leailing
from the lake to the sea. The hills round the lake
are now covered with ganlcns nnd vineyards, and
retain none of that gloomy gruiuleiir for which
they were once so celebrated. They are still,
liowcver, at certain seasons unhealthy.
AVF.HSA, n town of Southern Italy, prov. Ca-
perta, 9 m. N. Naples, nnd 1 1 m. E. from the Me-
diterrnnenn. Pop. 18,.')18 in IHUl. It is situated
in n Ix'nutifiil plnin covered with vines and orange
trees; is well built and well laid out; is the seat
of a biinopric, said to be the richest in the king-
dom; of a royal governor, and of a tribunal. It
Iins nine churches and .-lome convents; but it is
principally distinguished by its foundling hospital
and its lunatic asylum. The former is said by
lialbi, to be a nurserv of artists and artisans for the
entire kingdom. Tlie latter is exceedingly well
managed. The apartmentu are laid out and fur-
nished so as to suit the state of the patients ; and
every method is resorted to, by amusement and
exercise, to divert tlieir attention. Those that are
furious are of course separated from the others, and
subjected, if need b^ to the strait-iackct. This
establishment has served as a model to others, at
l-ieggio, MiHlena, and Palermo. A sort of almond-
cake, called torrmie, made here, is in great demand
at Naples.
Aversa was built in 1030, by the Normans; but
it was subsequently twice burnt down. Andrew,
AVKVnON
of Hungary, hiiMbaiid to .loan I. queen of ifuhU
was miinh'ri'd here in IJII/l. '
AVFSNKS, a town of Frnnrr, rl«<p dii Xon|
rnp. nrrond. and cnnton, on (he grenicr KIim-, |ii(
in. S. MaiilN>iigc. Pop. Jl,.')l(l ill iNiii. I, 'j, ^
fortided place of the Ith class, its fnrtitlciiiidiu
linving Is'eii repaired hy Vnuban. Il In ihi' «.|,t
of a siilHprefect, and has a tribunal of oriulnai
iiirisdictioii and of commerce, a comnu'rcinl („|.
lege, an himpilul for old |M>rsons, nnd nn iiKrlml.
tiiral Kocltly. It is ill built, and triitr. li,,,
cnlhedrnl hiis a spire .'luo ft. in height, wliicji h.,,
live chiinrs of bells. It has inanufactiires iiri'iiiiN>
serge, woollen hosiery, cnr)M<ntry work, wiih tan.
neries, breweries, sonp works, and di^lillcricN. \
particular kind of cheese produced here in kiiimii
as ' Marolles.' Avesnes siilt'ered severely frimi ilu'
explosion of a (Miwder niagaziiio, whcii lM'»it,;„|
by the Priissinns in IHIA.
AVKVIMN, a dep. of France, in the HniulKm
part of the country, being separated from thi' Mi -
dilerraiiean bv llie llerniilt; Uitween IIP ir;iii'
nnd -HO W ''J.V N. Int., nnd 1° M' |,V' „||,|
:»o 2(!' K. long. Area «H'2,I7I lieclares. p,,,,,
;j!>(;,025 m m\\. This is one of the most niuuii'
tainouH depls. of France. With (he exccptidii i,f
some volcanic plateaux ih'tnched from the Plunili
deCnntal, and which advance as far as ilic 'I'rii-
yere, nil the other moiinlnins lieloiig to lliciliHiu
of the Ceveiines, the summit ridge of which Um\»
its S. frontier. The mean elevation of thowiiJM
very considerable, KIhhIc/. being 'i.'JHO ft, aluw
the level of the sea. The mountains are inicr-
sected by ra> ines, and have many siihtcmiiiciin
caves. The soil of the plateaux and eicviiicd
grounds is generally verj' inferior; hut llintnf ihc
valleys is very fertile, and produces all sortu i.f
corn. Principal rivers, Lot, Aveyroii, wiicnii. lin'
dep. takes it iinme, ami Tarn. Agriculture is in a
verv ba<'kwnrd state, in consequence partly of tlh'
uiilruitful nature of the soil, partly of ilic Uyt
continuance of frostn and the fnupient occiirrcnre
of bail-storms, but principally of the wniit df ca-
pital nnd |ioverty of the iiihnbitaiits. Field lalHiiir
IS mostly perfonned by oxen. I'Mducc of (um
sullicient for the consumption. Sheep niiinpMii.«.
and their wool, which is generally line, e»tlinai(cl
nt 800,0(10 kilogs, i year. A great iiuinlior if
cnttle, horses, nniles, nnd i)igs ar»^ raised. In tlic
district tif l{o<|ucfort, where cheese is made fmm
sheep's milk, and the district of Giiyole, tlie (Iain-
is an object of great attention. In some parts the
farms nre extensive, nnd the strictest gnulationU
preserved among the lulxiurei's attacheil. The
latter cat little butcher's meat, and their {m\ b
very indift'ereiit. Some wine is made, but the
qualitv is inferior. According to the otTiciiil tiiliK
the soil of the dep. is mostly cjistribiited ni^ fnllnw^:
— (.'ultivable land 305,000, meadows 122,000, vin"-
yanls 34,000, forests 84,000, and lieatlisi, roik.<,
wastes, &c. 209,000 hectares. The exixirt of npi-
cultural produce reaches at an average 12,0(lO,iMl
fr. a year, of which the cheese of Huqucfort and
Giiyole, sheep, and woollen stuff's, enter together
for about one- fourth. The coal and iron mineii uf
the Aveyron are among the most important in
F'rance. Iron-works have been established within
the last thirty years, and they are now prosecuted
with great spirit ami success, and furnish employ-
ment to some thousands of workpco)>lc. Apwd
deal of copper is also pnaluccd. Manufacturing;
industry has made very considerable pr^Tess,
About 20,000 workpeople are sujiisised to be em-
ployed in the manufacture of coarse woollen stuffs,
hosiery, «frc. In the anKmdissement of St Alfrique
about 900 hands ore employed in the spiuninj;
and manufacture of cotton ; and there are in ll>e
upon «)f N«|il(>»,
, (It'll 'lu N(ml,
;ri'ill<T I'.IlK', mj
I im'.l. II \« t
ilD lortiDi'iitidnA
I, It U tilt' X'Dt
iiiinl of <)n)(lii:il
finnmiTcial cul-
mxl III) iiKriciil-
itnil Iritlr. Tlic
(■it{liti whicli \\M
iluftiin'Hofciiiir*
f work, Willi tail-
Ill (li«iiUcrit«, A
n>(\ liori^ \* kiiiiwii
Ht'vtTi'ly frmn iIh'
ic, wJu'ii U'Hii'Kiil
p. In i\\v KiHiilicm
riit«'tl from the Mi-
.twcon IIP llMn'
I 10 5(1' \h" uiiil
i lici'tiirrN, l'o|i,
of t\w inoHt mmiu-
til tlu' «'X('('iitinn iif
\i'A from till' I'lumli
1 iiM fur UK tlic Tni-
IwloiiK to tlu' ihaiii
1(1^(1 of wliii'U fnnm
viition of tliii diiil i*
•inn "•'•-**" f'- "'"'"
ountiiinH nr« iiitcr-
miiny Hiilttcrrmn'iin
toavix (inil I'li'vniid
rior; l>"t tlmtdftlu'
iroiluci'H all Hortu "(
Vvpyron, wliciice mo
An"iHiUur« in iiu
qnoniu! luirtly (if iW
piirtly of tlic liM«
frwiui-nt oi'i'iimiu'*
V of the wftiil »f la-
)itantH. V'u'M latxmr
I'roihu'P i)f fcirn
Shppp nimionm*.
"rally lino, putimntfl
A >,'rpat munlKi nf
;s arc raised. In tlu'
^•hppse in inixlp f" ""
of (iiiyole, the dairy
1. InHomcliartttlin
Htrictpst piiilatiim U
rc.iw attached. Tlie
at, anil their f(»"l »
. is made. l»it I'l*
to the ofticiiil tallies
iistribute(lni*f»llt'««:
.allows r22,tH)0,vin.-
and heathii, rock*,
ThePXiHtrtiifacti-
1 avera!,'e 1-2.0<IO,000
L'se of Koquefort and
stuffs, enter toj;ethct
lal and iron mines (il
moHt important in
lencHtJiblishedwiltiiij
Iv arc now pmwcuteil
[and furnish empluy-
workpcople. Apwi
Iced. THanufactiiniii!
msidcrablc pt(H,tess.
B supiiosedtobeem-
I coarse woollen stuff*,
.mcntofSt.Affrif
red in the spinm"!!
ind there are m ««
AViy.ZA.V()
>n. nlmtit *•" pini'loy'l '" •'"' •'•""'mk niitl dresK- 1
ji.l .pfjiiiilur niul tlif kIovi' inidc. rinn- nu-\
iii?,. Iii.l'irii" of hitl.t niid piiiirr, with dyr wi.rk*.
iiimI I""!"''''' «"''*''• Avi'vriiii M-iit ilircf ini'iiilii'rx
i„ ilin lri;i«l(i(i\f iisM'inlily in Mill. I'riiiil|.iil
i.iHii'", i;ii "l"''^. Milliaii. M. Alt'rii|iic, ami Villi'
Iniiicli'"'. Il'p inlial'iliiiits /ire oiild to Iw iiiihIi
;i,|,|iclril tiitlrinkiiiK mid inmrrrlliiiK; ainl as iliry
iill iiirrv H kiiil'is I'lillfd a ni/niihiiilnii, their (jimr-
f,,|, .niiii'iitin"< I'lid latiilly.
AVK/./AN'O, a town of Soiithrm Italy, prov.
Aiiiiiln. ill a lini' |iliiiii, ullliiii iilioiit u iiiilc rroiii
(III. N\V. allele of the liikc Kmi I'op. I,7J0 In
IHiil. Il i* -iirniiiiiilcd liy wiilh, wliirli, Imwt'VtT,
IIP' ill II riiiiiiiii" fiiiiilitioii. 'I'lif liiiiiHcs arc nciit'-
riillv iiH'iiii. Il"' Ihcfo "f Hoiiii' hihmI liiiildiiit,"*,
,iiii,',ii(.' wliiili a fiLsllr licloiiKiiiK til till- t'ldiiiiiia
VVI'll'IANA, a town of N'nrllitTii Italy, pmv.
Iiiriii, I.'. Ml. W. Turin. I'op. ;i.lll in lAr,!. It
i> iliiclv Hitiiali'd on a hill, liax it t'linllc, rulirics of
iiiiirH' I'liilli.ai'd liliiliirt's of ^ilU.
AVKil.lANO, a town of Sontlicrii Italy, prov.
I'JiiMiz.i, <'ii|'. <'i>i".. " III. NNW. I'litfiizii. Tup.
IJ.i'i.VJ ill iHlil. It Ik liilill on tlii< ilri'livily of n
liiil. II piirl (iC wliii'li liiiii;,' iiiiilciiiiiiird, in \HJ\,
|,v iiiiiliiiiird rniiM, pivc way. and dt'j<lrii>t'il a
,'uri 111' till' liiwii. il lias a lint' <'(ill('H;iiitc fliiircli,
Miiiilry cuiivciiis, anil a myal collrffc. Tin' Miir-
ruiiiiiliii^' coiiiilry produces th« lliu'st oxen in
Siiutliirii Italy.
AVIIiN'lN (an. Avinin), a city of Kniiico, ca)!.
ili'ii, Vaiii'liisf, on llic left liiiiik of Ilit' lilmiii', M
m. NNW. Marseilles, on the I'aris-Mediterraiieiiii
niilwiiv. I'lip. ;W,t>«l in IHill, It is the seat of
AVOLA a<»7
niPitiH! Itiiildinfi, in whieli l.ooil old stddiers am
iieniinnii'ii.'iii'il, The lloii'l hieii i<i iiIko on a larK"
"••all'. The lliriitre, II liii);i' liiilii|''o||ie edilh'e, was
eriM'ti'il ill IK'.' I. A\iniiiiii I'oiiiiniiiiiciiteH with
the iippimite hank of the river liy two liriil^'i'M, one
of Wood mill one III' lioal-i, Siiiee the o|H'iiilli; of
the railway from |>Mri'< to llie Mi'iliteriiiiiean, wlilrh
liii'< a Nlation here, the trade of the city liaHKi**''*'')'
ini|iroveil, ami it Iiiim I me the Nciit of «everal
new niitiiiirni'tiiri"). Tliev nni^ist priiieipally of
wilk stillVt mill vel\et'<. 'I here are lll'wi Home wool-
len and eotioii I'tilirieH, with it eiimioii I'oiiiidry, a
type I'oiiinlry, dye worki, nml tanneries, A ni»»\
many works are priiilvil in the to\Mi. l,m'i;'o
ipiantilies of madder lire proiliieed in the llei^'li-
luiiiriii;; eoiiiiiry, and A\i;;niiil is the eeiilre of tlio
trade ill llial dm;;.
Avi^'lloii existed hel'ore the Itolililll invasion,
and al'lerwarils liei'miie it Itoiiinii • nloiiy. In l-li>''>
n"inelit V, trilll-ri'ned lllillur the resideln'e of
the popes, who roiiliiiiied to lesjije here till I'lTT,
when tliey relnrni'd to Uoiiie; Init I wo seliisiiialieal
popes, or po|ies eleett'il liy the l''retirli ranliiials,
resided III Avi;;iioii till I Ii'im. ( 'lenient VI. Imviiij;
ai'ipiii'i'il till' properly of the town iiiid dislriit. it
I'olllilllieil to helling to llle holy see; mid tlloiljjh
sometiines litkeii liy tile [''reiieli, it was always
restored, till I T'.H, when it was llimlly ineoriiorati'd
willi I'' ranee.
AVKiNONI'/r, a town of I'Vaiiec. ilep. Iliiiitn
(iaroiine, near the canal of l.miKiicdoc, In in. NNV,
('astclniniilry. I'op. •J.'i'.M in jfiill. Mere tlvu
iiiipiisilors were put to dciilli liv the AlliiK<'ois in
I'Jl'.'. Ilayiiioiiil, Coiiiit of Toiiionse, suspected of
secretly iiislij;jiliii>; the crime, was coiidemnt'd hy
ari'lihisliopric, of a trilniiinl of orij^inal Juris- ' Innoceni III, to he stri|>|icil naked and wliip|ieil
AVILA, II town of Spain, cup. pmv. Avila, on
the Adiija, i'>l in, \VN\V. Madrid. I'op, il.ll'.) in
IM.')?. il is the seat of a liisliopric, and liiis a uni-
versity, eij4;lil parish churches, and iiiniK'rons con-
vents and hospitals. Formerly it was richer and
more tloiirishiii<; tliiiii at present. It has still
mmml'actnres of cloth, cot ion, hats, and silk,
AVII-KS, a town of Spain, Astnriiis, at tlio
month of till! river of the same name; IH in.
N. Oviedo. Top. ;1,2'.»7 in iM.'i;. There is ti
lieantifiil stoni- liriilKo across the river. If has
tunitimdes aloiif^ the walls, and its ipiavs aloii^ j Home mannfactiires of coarse cloth, and iircparcs
nil .
ilii'iimi mill of connnerce, and has a royal colle','e
hi' 111!' '-'lid class, a i>riinary normal school, a tlieo-
lii'^ical si'iiiiiiary, a school of desi|,'ii, a piihlic
liliriiry containing Hll.oon voliitncs and .")l»l MSS.,
n iiiiisi'iim of pictures, a holanical ^iii'den, with
xKiciii's of arts and atfriciiltnrc, lliiviiii; heeii
jiini; till! residcnci! of the popes, AviH;iion was
fillnl with cliiirches, convents, and other reli<;ions
limiscs, many of which have now fallen into decay.
It is siiuatt'd in a tine plain, and is surrounded hy
liiwii walls, tlanked with nnmerons towers. Its
till' river, are hoth said to he very line. The I'ity
WW fiiniierly much more jiopnlons and thriving;
iliiiiuit present, and half the space now iiiclnded
niiliiii the walls is occupied with pirdens, itc.
'Ilii' stn'cts are narrow and crooked; and the
liniiscn and hiiildiiiKs have f;enerally a f^loomy,
imiaiiolioly appearance. Mr. Iiifjjlis says. — 'I
ni'ViT saw any town that I should not prefer to
Avinmiii as a residence: its liltliiiiess is disj;ust-
iiiu', alisiihitely iiiconceivahle to he found in a
civilised couiitrv. And it is the less exciisahle as
the tiiwa is well siipidicd with water.' (Swituer-
kid, d'c, ]). IMO.) This was some thirty years
acii, and iiincc then thing's have somewhat mended,
aliliiiiifjh the ancient city is not yet famous for
I'lcanliiit'.ss. The ancient nalace, occupied by the
iHilics, stands lai the declivity of the rock called
be Dons. It is a (iotliic building, constructed at
iliti'iTtnt periods, of vast extent, with liiwii, thick
mils, and now serves as a )trison, military depot,
and Imrracks. The cathedral church of Notre
liiiiiie lie Dons is very ancient, and contains the
tmnlis of several distinj^iiished p'.r.-s>ns. The
church of the Cordeliers, of whie'ii only th j spire
now remains, contained the ♦.tinb of Laura, im-
miirtalised hy Petrarch, niiil of the 'brave Crillon,'
the friend of Henry IV., and one of the most
1 chivalrous of French wnrtiors. The Hotel des
Invalidcs, subsidiary to tliut of Paris, is nn im-
boilcrs and other utensils made of tiie copper
obtained from the nci^^lilionriii^ iniiies. It has
very little trade, the water in the port bein^c
so shallow that it is hardly accessible even to
coasters,
AVIS, a town of the Tyrol, near the Adifxe, l.'l
in. SSW. I.'overedo. l'op.";i,,j;!() in 1H.'>7. It has
a castle, mannfactiires of silk anil velvet, and a
ipiarry of lliiits.
AVIZ, a town of l*ortiif;al, ]irov. Alentejo, ,1.'iin.
WSVV. I'ortalcKre. I'op, I, oild in I H.'iH, 'it is the
chief place of the knijilits of the orderde I'Avis,
founded by Alplionso 1. in 1 1 l(i,
AVTZK, a town of France, ih'p. Manie, cap.
canton, 15 in, SSF, Kiiernny. Pop. l,H7l in ISiil.
Its territory is celebrated for its vineyards, which
produce lar^c quantities of Chumjmiine ihoiihm'h.v
of the second quality, it has an. extensive trade
in wine.
AVOLA, or AULA, a sea-port town of Sicily,
nrov, Syracuse, 12 m, SW. Synicuse. Pop. Kt,";")!
in 18(il. The town is jirettily and saluhrionsly
situated on a woody cininence, haviiifj a mariiio
village on the beach, a tonnara, and a battiTy for
defence ; anil from several res|)ectablc cdilices, tcde-
rable streets, anil a (food market-iilaee, has an air
of cleanliness and regularity. IJesides the profits
of the tonnara, the town has a considerable tratUc
in wine, corn, cheese, carubbas, alraonds, oil, honey,
X 2
84M
AVOLD (HT.)
«. ' ' ^ f"
■ikI (Villi, Ami «inie in miffar, mihic Irom Min only
r«ini |ilant«tiiin now li«ft on lh« IrIiukI. Th« ml-
Jiurnt rouiitrv ulHiiiriilit with ftnrw. itml mipiilli-n
|iii»liiriwi' Id II (.rent niiiiiU'r <il' llii.i entile, nimiy
of whitli nrv cxiiortiMl lo Mullo.
AVOJ.I) (ST.), a lown of Krniiw. .I.'p. M..h,.||..,
cap. i-niit., on ihn ItiNtavl, Iri m. W. MariincMiliifN
IW It,"iH« in \mn.
AVON, III' iinmft of iinvpral riven in KiiKianil,
of wliirh the riiimt ini|Nirtniit nr»>;—
^l. Till) ('Mn'r Avon, luiM iN Noiiri'c at Avon
VVVII, near NiiM>l>y, In Nortlminptoimliln', almiii
HOO (1|. nlM)V)> i|i(> lnvcl of llie m-h. It IIowh ki-iu'-
rolly ill a SW. ilinTtion, Imt with a vitv wiiulliin
I'oiirm', iKiitHin^ KUtJCciiKivi'ly Hut lowim olAViirwitk,
StralConl-dn-Avoii nnd Kv<>r>)iain,lill it uiiiii-H with
tim .Silvern at TflwkcMliiiry. It hiw a liirx"' iMMly of
v.ntrr; ami Ih iinvi(^alil« fiy ImrxcM for niNtiit ■!(» m.,
or Croiti tlu" Sovcrn lo StrmfonI, wlicn! It in Joiiicd
l>v till' stniiroril cnnul. Un vntiro connv may Im;
a(M>ut imi in.
'i, Tim Litwrr Avim, ha« IIm mwtct* rnnti^iioiiM
ti) Malnii'Hhiiry ami Wooton-liuHHet, in WillMliirf,
itH two ariiiN nniiiii^ near (Iroat Soniorfonl; it
tlifliK'o purxiu'N a <;ir«nlar cixiriM', |»anHiiiK Clilp-
|K>iih/un, Itriulfonl, liitli, ami HriNtol, falling into
tlic liriNtol Chanml alMiiu H m, In>Iow Itriitlol.
OwiiiK t" tHc Kwiai rine and fall of the tiilf. tlio
lar^cHt elaHd of nitnliantmi'ii oomi! up tho rivi r to
Hriiitol. Th« Kt-iwiet ami Avon canal, from Ncw-
Imry to liath, coiii/ioctH the ThamcH with the Avon,
cMtalilixliinK a water coininunicatioii acrowi thu
kingdom.
il, 'i'liu Ifampthire Avon, riHcs near Devizen, on
tho N. side of SaliHhury Plain. At Sali.Hliiiry it in
Joined hy the Wily anil th« IJonriu! ; and in navi-
KaMo from TrafalKar-homw to wliero it falla hito
the KiiKliHh Channel at ChriHtchiiroli.
There are hoiho other rivern of tliiti name in Knff-
land, Imt none of them Ncem to Iw coiiNidcrahle
eiiuu^h to require any sjiccial notice. There are
uImo three small rivem of thiH name in Hcotland :
one an allluent of the Snoy, one of the Clyde, and
another having itx embouchure in tho Frith of
Forth, near HorrowHtoiienH.
AVKANCIIKS (an, Inifena), a town of France,
dc^p. Manchc, cap. arrotuhiiHement, on n hill near
tho Suez, 32 m. 8SW. St, Lo, and 3 in. from tho
ma, on tho railway from Ar)rentan to (iranvillc.
Pop.8,r}92iiilH(il. This is a very old town. ltd ca-
thedral, consecrated in 1121, was unroofed during
the revolution, and is now in ruins. In it, in 1 172,
Henry II„ king of England, did |x!imncc and re-
ceived absolution for the miinlcr of Iteckctt. (Lyt-
telton's Hist., Henry II., v. p. 123.) Avranches
hAs a tribunal of original jurisdiction, a college, a
workhouse, a theatre, ami a jmblic library, con-
taining 10,000 volumes and 200 MSS., with'manu-
fucturcs of lace and blondes. Small vessels come
up the river to the bridge opposite the town, but
it has little tra<le.
AX, a town of France, dt'p. Arriege, cap. cant,
on the river of that name, 20 m. SE. Foix. Fop.
1,1)79 in 18G1. The situation of Ax ia very pic-
turea(}ue and romantic. It derives distinction
from ita numerous but mineral springs, the heat of
til water of some of which approaciies nearly to
the boiling point. Tlwir reputation is increasing,
and with it the size and importance of the town,
the latter being entirely dependent on the resort
to th" wells.
AX E L, a fortified lo^vn of the Netherlands, prov.
Zea'and, 21J m. VVNVV. Antwerp. Pop. 2,681 in
18G1.
AXMINSTER, a m. towu of England, co. Devon,
hund. Axminster, oji the Axe, 147 m. WSW.
JU>ndon, 16 m. £. Exeter. The parish contains
AY
fl,A!!t0 umn, and 2,ftlH InhaK, arcnnliiiK to thu
ci'tiMM of IHill. It In Irregularly built on the ii*..
clivity of a Kmall hill, hnj< wide slffei*, mni j,
elt'aii and healthy. The cliurch, a iliiiiiiiy mru, .
ture, Im In iMirt very ancient, and ilun* U » fr,,
sfliiHtl whent fiMirleeii children an^ educaUil uraii..
The inhab. are princiiMlly viigage«l in the tnanu
fat'tiire of i'ar|H>ls, in Imiialioii of thoM< of [>,tA»
ami Turkey, which are but little if at all iniVniir
to the geiiiilni' I'librlcH.
AXtIM, an ancient and much deraynl town nf
Abyssinia, prov. Tign', near one of the wiumhi.i'
the Mareli (.lufHMiji/N'x), 1 10 m. SW. Arkeikii.on
the Ited Seai InL • •°'i' N- b'Ug.aH* 'i'J' K. Tho
populalioii is variously eslinmletl at frmn nix in
ten thousand. Il is sfliiated in a mstk fomud liy
two hill'*; and is said by Messrs. ConilM'K anil
Tamisier, by whom It has Ikhmi visiteil, in Ih' tlu'
hanilNomest town of Tigrt'. The houses »»• df .^
cylindi!cal form, suniioiintetl by a cmie. In ji,
citnire is a Chnstian church, wfiich seems in w-
cupy thu site of an ancient temple, dcMTils'il hy
Mr. Salt tValenlia's Travels, ill. HH) ; but iho tra-
vellers refem-d to alM>vu say, that Salt's slntciniiiiK
with res|H>ct to it are much exaggerated. Acmnl-
ilig to them it is inferior even to wm yreuim onli.
naireti mo that in Ibis instance Hriice, who Imuc.
ciis<>d by Salt of having undervalued the > Inmli,
wouldseem to Ite the prvferable authority. (Vnyiii;n
en Abyssinic, i. 2(17.) Axum, however, wimhi nei
Ik! worth notice were it not for its ancient laiui',
and its antiquities. That it is very aiuitnt ii
abundantly certain ; and its former grealiicNH w
evinced by the ruins which still remain. Of tlio«B
the most conspicuous is an obelisk 00 ft. in hvi^lit
(Salt says, in Lord Valcntiu's Travels, H(l f(.j Imt
he afterwards rectified his mistake), fomu'd uf a
single block of granite, crowniMl with a ii(ilera,mi\
lieaiitifiilly scui|iturcd, though not with hii'mjfly-
phics. There are said to have been foniu^rly alxive
fifty oUdisks in the city; but, except the uiic imw
noticed, tho others are all prostrate.
It is known that a Greek kingdom was fiiuiideil
in Ethiopia, of which Axum was the capitnl, ami
gave its name to tho country, soiii(> time after tlic
Christian lera. The (Jreek writt'rs of ilu' later
ages used, in fact, to call tho Ethiopiiins Axumilc*;
and the IVriplus of the Erythnean Sea nl)'»n|j
authentic evidence of tho existence uf tlie iiule-
|>cndent kingdom of Axum, towards the end uf
the second century. Some light is thrown mi tliu
intricate subject by the discoverv, at Axum, of an
upright slab or stime, licaring an lll^(Ti|)tilln, ((ijiud
and translated by Mr. Salt. Tliis reiiinrkaljlo
monument records the result of a succoxsrul tttiack
made by Aizunus, king of the Axiimitos, on sdine
barbarous tribes. And it so hup|)ens that Aizoiw
was king of Abyssinia during the reigii of tlie
emperor Cimstantius, who luldri'sscd a letter tn
him anno 330. This, therefore, may fairly be m\-
eluded as the date of the inscription in quuMlimi;
but there is no evidence to show the a'ra uf the
foundatiim of tho iVxumito kingdom, or how luii;;
it existed after the above <late.
Adulii, situated at tho bottom of Anneslcy Bay,
on the Ked Sea, was anciently the jxirt of iVxuni,
and a great mart for the commmlities of Ethiopu,
Egypt, Arabia, 4c. It was the port whence Ethio-
pian slaves were shipped for all parts of tho world.
(Ancient Universal History, xviii. 329, 8vo. eA)
AY, or AI, a towii of France, dep. Mame, cap.
cant on a hill near the Mame, 15 m. S. Kheim^
Pop. 3,418 in 1861. This town is famous fur its
wine, tho best of the vins moumeua: de Champaguc.
It is said by JuUien to be fn, spiritueux, pvtilM,
di'licat, et pourvu dun jolt bouquet. (ToptifeTaphie
dcs Vignobles, p. 81.) Dr. Henderson uajs, tliat
iii|;.-
cronlliiff tA th*
Inikll on the <lr-
' uln-fU, mill l«
M I'liiiimy St rill .
I tliiri' U % frif
I nliii'nUMl Krtiln,
[kI In llui iiianii-
r tlnMM' of lVr<i«
If nl nil Int'iriir
(Ircayttl town nf
llf th» WHIM'Unl'
S\V. Arknki., 1.11
,l»MO-2"4'K. Till.
il At I'mm nix til
I ntMik fonni'il l>y
MtrN, i'oniU'H aiiit
VIHitl'll. Ill I* till'
n liiiiiM'H iin' llf a
iv a ciini>. Ill ii<
iiich w'cinH III iK'-
nplp, lU'iH'rilK'il liy
, HH) ; Imt III)' mi-
I MhU'h Htnlcinciit*
fUtTBtt'tl, Aciiiril-
( n(>» yrenitrt iirili-
Hrufo, who i* 111'-
.•nlut'il till! V liiirili,
utlmrity. (Viiyime
lowevor, wiuilil nut
r itM nnc'U'iil I'aiiii',
in v<>ry ancii'iii U
iirmcr uri'miiiKH '»
1 rumiiin. Of lhe-«
link DO ft. ill liviKlit
I'ruvplH. «oft.; liiii
Klftkc), fornu'tl of »
I with a iMiteni, iiiM
not witli liii'n>|ily-
bocn fttrnu-rly alnive
cxoeiit tlic ime imw
tratc.
u^jtloin via* fimiiilfil
iim tli« oapital, awl
[hoiiic time lifter llie
.Tili'rM llf llii' later
hiopiims Axiiniilc«;
[tlini-nn Sou iilVuriU
iHtcnic of the iiule-
owanls the cml "f
lit in thrown im iliU
TV, at Axiini, iif an
"iiiMriinioiiieit"'^
This roninrkalilc
n Hui'ccsi*ful fttiaii
lAxumiles, on siiiiiu
ijUKMis that Aizanaj
the reinii of tlie
irvmcA a letter t»
[, may fairly be coii-
ription in (luentiim;
luiw the ivra of tl"!
[igdom, or how loui!
,.1 of Anneslcy Bay,
j the portofXMinii
Imlities of Ethiupia,
port whence Ethift-
fparta of the woiliL
yiii. 329, 8vo. eil.)
k de'p. JIame, cap.
Je, 16 m. S. Khcim*.
Il is famous for lU
!««.■ lie Champagne
pirittteux,petilli'nt,
Met. (Topoijrapn'e
Lnderson says, tint
A
Vl'llf.
AYAMONTK
Ml I* nnqiiM*i»i)«l>)y on rxriiiixllx Ilquttr, tM>lntr
IlKhU'f «"•' "W"''" '*'''" •'"' ^^illi^ry, anil m m-
i*ni«l hy a <l«'ll<'»l«' Havoiir and nrumn. mmu-whal
iiii»li«otw to that of tlii^ |ilHi<«pplr. llittt which
mi'ti'lv rri'amn on th«> unrfiu-n (drmi mimiutruj) \n
hfifrrrwl to thfl fiill-frolhlnK {iimml mimiuttu)
wint'.' (Iliitorv of WInim,!). lt)i).
AVAMoNTk, a furtilh-il town of S|wln, iiMv,
Si'vill)*! "11 ''i<* ^" "''''^ "'' '''*^ rinlMiiirhiin> of thit
(laiiillMna, !ii\ m. W. Iluclva, lat. !«"° III' N., lonu.
p 111' l.'i" W. I'ojK '>.t)''>I' ill lHr>7. It NiandN on
ihr ilrt'Uvity of a hill, and han two parinh chim'him,
fiiiindliiiK hiMpilal, an nlinNhonitn, and ntrnw con-
iir<. Thf inlialiitanlK am itrlm-ipiilly I'nKaKcd
III il.<liiiiK : hut Home NhiiHlinlldln^ \» alnu rnrricd on,
ami JAi')'. >*i>aj>, and i>nrili<>nwar«i arc miiniiriii'liirt'il.
AYI.KHIIlKV, a liorotiKh, m. town, and \mt, of
KiiKlnnd, t*o, Hni'kinKham, hiind. Ayloiitiiiry, on
nil I'mineniT in th<> i'i>l<'bratt>d valt> of the name
immi', IW in. NW. London. IMJ MK. UiKkliiKhilio
Tilt' lioriiiKh Int'hideM an anta of M.'JOO ncroN, ami
ii|Hip.<)f II.IIM In iNtll. It 1h irri'>{nliirly Itiiill, hax
a miHJern market houM'.conMinicli'd after the modol
iil'ilie temple of the eiKht windM at AllienM, and a
lianilMiiiie i-ounty-hall, in whieh the Lent MHiztw
fur the county are held : the county Jail In niNo in
the town, aiid here, tiMt, the memlH<rN for the
nmniy arc nominateil, and I ho return declared.
The church ia a lar^e ancient atnictiiro, with a
liiwn vidihle many milea round. The charitiea of
AvIrnlHiry am numerouH and valnahlc. Amon^
iitliern tliere U a free achool, for the mipiiort of
which a cotiNiderahle amotint of pro|M<rly Iium Iteen
lKH|iieatli(Hl, that furniMhcii education for uImiuI
|:liilKiyN; them arc alMo a numlwr of other cha-
ritieis with almtihouHCM, Jik. Some lace in nianu-
fiidiiretl, and a number of the inl:aliiiHiitM of the
town and ita vicinity emiiloy thcmHelvcH in the
hreetliiift and fattening of duckit, of which large
iiuralierH are sent to the metropolis. Ayleslmrv
hax returned two m, to the 11. of C. since LOM,
I'reviDiinly to 1H04, the riuht of voting was in the
inliali. llf the iMirtnigh iinyiiiK scot and lot ; but in
ciiiiMHiuencu of the flagrant oorniptiim of the
electors, the privilege of voting for the memln-rs
fir the borough wa« then extended to the frt'e-
holilent of the hund. of Aylesbury. The pari.
Imniunh had 27,(»90 inhnb., according to the
rcnuiiK of 181)1, registered electors l,Htl4. The
vale of Aylesbury is one of the richest tracts in
the empire. It is principallv appropriated to the
fattoninR of cattle and dairying.
AYLESFOKl), a village and jwr. of England,
cfl. Kent, lathe Aylesford ; the village being on
the ri{;ht Imnk of the Medway, which intersects
ihe par., m. 80, SE. London. The par. contains
■A,m acres, and a pop. of 2,0.'i7 in 18G1. The
church, a handsome building. Is situated on an
eminence higher than the roofs of the houses in
the village. There is a bridge over the Medway,
anil an almshouse, endowed in 1605. Near the
iiiwii was a Carmelite monastery, granted at the
ilissolution of the monostenes, by Henry VIII., to
Sir Thomas Wyatt ; from whom it has descended
til the Fuich family, now earls of Aylcsfonl, who
have modernised the building, and made it a
I'limfortable residence. Ihit the most remarkable
iniinuraent in the vicinity of Aylesford is Kitscnty
llimM, about I m. NK. from the village. It con-
Mstd of three large upright stones, each almut
dfi. in height, with another lying on the top, 11
ft. in length by 8 in breadth,' and 2 thick ; and
there are some similar stones in the vicinity. An-
liqiiarianH difler widely in opinion as to the object
llf llii« singular structure ; but the more common
iiliinion seems to be that it was intended as a
niunumcnt to Catigcm, a British chief killed iii a
AYR SOO
fmttif, rlren A. it, 4AA, with tho fUxona under
llenglsl and llorsa, (llasleirs Kent, Hvo. rd.
vol. iv. ; Turner's Anglo-Haxon*, iMMik iii. ca|). M.)
AVU, a niaril. r f Hcothind, on its W.coasi,
Hlrelchiiig for atsmt 7i^ m. ahmg the Rliorea of Iho
Irixh Hea and the Frith of Clyde, having N. thn
< f Kenfn'W, K, Lanark and Diimfries, .SIC,
Kirkcudbright and H, Wigtown. It conlaiim
II '(0, 1 .'ill acres, of which nearly a half is siip|MHN>d to
Im* arable, U is divided into the three dislricis of
Carrick, Kyle, aniK'unninghain. The lint, which
comprises the county to the S. of the river Dikiu,
is for the most |Mri nuNirish, wild, and mountain-
ous. Kyle, the middle district, lying between thu
Dotin on Ihe .S, and the Irvine on the N., ismseMseN
a larg'' extent of low, well-ciiltivaied laiul along
the shore; but Iho K. |>art is hilly and mountain-
ous, Cunningham, though Ihe smallest of the
districts, is the most |M)piilous, U'st cultivated,
and richest. Climate molNt and mild. Agri-
culture, ihiwn to the dose of the American war,
WON, speaking generally, execrable; but it has
Is'en prodigiously improved in the interval, and
es|M<cially during the last ten or ihizen years.
The whole co, is now intersected with gtsHl roads,
ami is well fenced and subdivided. Drainage, the
most im|Mirtant of all improvements, has been
prosecuted to a great extent ; and the )irnctice of
furrow druiitinj/ is carried on with extraordinary
/.ea' and the most |M'rtect success. Improved ri>-
tations have l>een everywhere introduced ; and
lands that formerly only pnuluced |ioor crii|)s of
black oats, now carry heavy cro|)s of whent and
barlev. The Ayrshire cow is narlicularlv titled
for tlie dairy, which is extensively earned on,
chietly in Cunningham, the original country of
the Uunlop cheese. Farm-houses and oDlces, for-
merly mean and wretched, now, for the most |iart,
extensive and commislious. The ohl valued
rent was 16,007/., the new valuation for 1M04-5
amounted to 702,001/., exclusive of railways rated
at 118,777/, Coal is found in several parts, and
is extensively wrought and exported. Iron is
made at Muirkirk, (ilengarnock, and other places.
The woollen manufacture is carried on exten-
sively at Kilmarnock ; and cotton mills have Ik-cu
erected atCatrine. Principal towns, Kilmarnock,
Ayr, Maylsile, and Ir\ine. Ayr contains forty-six
parishes. It had, in IHOI, a population of 84,207;
in 1821, of 127,2m); in 1841, of 104,8.50; and in
1801, of 198,971. Of the |>op. in 1801, there were
males 90,994, and females 101,977. It sends two
m. to the H. of C. ; for the co., and the boroughs of
Kilmarnock, Ayr, and Irvine are associated with
others in the election of re|)rescntatives. I'lirl.
constituency 4,042 in 1804. (Onsiis of Scotland,
1801 ; Oliver and Hoyd, Kdinb. Almanack, 1M0.''>;
New Statistical Account of Scotland ; Uobertson's
Rural Uecollections.)
Ay II, a sea-port, myal borough, and m. town of
Scotland, cap. Ayrshire, on the S. side of the river
Ayr, at its coiiHiience with the seo. 0.'> m. SVV.
Kdinburgh, and 30 m. SSW. tilasgow. The pop.
of the burgh and parish amounted, in 1801, to
19,059, of which 9,094 males, and 10,.50,) females.
The number of families, in 1801, was 4,502, and
of inhabited houses 2,281. Ayr is tinely situated
on the margin of a broad level plain, and baa
recently l)cen much improved and enlarged. Tho
county' buildings, containing a county hall, with
apartments for the justiciary court, «l-c.,and town'a
buildings, containing a news-room, and nsmis for
dinners, balls, assemblies, &c., are lM)th on a largo
scale : to the latter is attached a tine sjtire, 220 ft.
in height. The Wallace Tower, erected u lew
years ago, on the site of an old building of the
same name, is 115 ft. high. A statue uf Sir
^.'l, .
J'ii
IBs 'I
I!
il
m
II
%
iiti
1
i
P''
M
h
•^1" AZAM
Willinm Wnllncn, l)y Tlnnn, Ims hron pincnl in
a iiiclu! ill iiH front'; Imt tlio nrdst 1ms not lu'cn
«o linpiiy in this instiiiicp ns in liis stiUiics of Tiim
O'Slmiitcr niiii Hoiitcr Jolinnic. 'I'lu'rc is an olil
nml a new church, hut licit lior is rcnmrkahle.
The ac.wlcniy is a plain liiiihliiijj. in a f,'o(i(l situa-
tion : nml no iiutonsiiicrahh' part of tiic h'ltc iin-
provcincnt of the, town may he ascrilicd \n tiic
wcll-nicritcd reputation of its teachers, whicii has
attracted a f^rcat nuuiher of families, Avr is a
very ancient hurf;h. It was chartered iii l'.'(i-2;
and parliaments have heen frequently hehl in it.
It is the seat of a synod and i)resl)ytcry ; of a
justiciary and sheritV's court; has a jiood' town's
lihrary, and n mechaiii(^'s institute; a theatre ; and
neveral charitahle iiiMitutions. Ahoiit 1.0(10 hand-
looms are cmidoyed in the weaviii},' of cotton for
the (rlasf,'ow manufacturers; and there is an ex-
tensive foundry, with two fan-works and a flonrisli-
iuf; earpet-mannfactory. The total shippiiif;, in
the year lH(i;(, consisted of 130 Hritish vessels, of
.'i2,f»()2 tons, and i;j forciijfii vessels, of 'i.OJKJ tons,
ivhich entered the jiort. The jiort, at the mouth
of the river, is formed hy twojiiers, whii'h (miject
a considerahle way into the sea; hut it lahoiirs
nnder a de(ici(!ncy of water, not having more than
T) ft. water over the har at ehh-tide, nor ahovc
15 ft, at high waler springs; and is exposed to
the_ W. gales, which throw in a very heavy sea.
This defect has, howe\er, heen in part ohviated
by the construction of a breakwater, which it is
pro])osc(l to enlarge. The aimual value of real
property, in ]«(U-i>, was •b'ijaro/., exclusive of
railways. A railway connects Ayr with (JIasgow,
Kilmarnock, and all the chief' towns of Great
Uritaiii. Ayr is joined with Campbelton, In-
verary, Irvine, and'Obaii, in the return of a mem-
ber to the H. of C. The parish, according to the
Ordnance Survey, contains an area of 7,1;}!* acres,
and the pari, constituency in 18(!4 was (iJi!, the
municipal 448, The corjioration revenue for
]8(i4-.j amounted to 2,()4(i/. The cottage in which
IJobcrt linms was born, Avith Alloway Kirk, are in
the immediate vicinity of Ayr, about 2,^ m. (listant,
on the road to Maybole. (Oliver andBoyd's luliiih.
Almanack, lUdn.)
AZAXI, a city of Phrvgia, on the Edrenos
{n/ii/ndufus), now wholly in ruins. The small
moclern village of Tjaudere-IIissar, 22 m. W. by
S. Kutaleh, appears to have been entirely built
from its remains. Little is said about this city in
ancient authors; but its ruins, which have been
carefully described by Major Keppel, show that it
had been a place of great wealth and magni-
licence. The princi])al remains are two bridges,
coiuiected by a sujierb quay, with a tcmi^le and a
theatre, the latter being 2i52 i't. in diameter. Some
of the columns of the temple are still standing;
they are of the Ionic order ; the shafts, formed of
a single block of marble, being 28 ft. in length.
And this is really only a fair specimen of the
numberless remains of antiquity in a country once
swarming with cities, an<l in the highest state of
■wealth and imjirovemcnt; but now all but depo-
pulated, steeped in i)overty, and a prey to every (lis-
order that a barbarian government and a debasing
superstition can inflict.
AZEKHI.IAN (an, Atropntena), a prov. in the
N\V. of Persia, between 26° and 38° 40' N. hit.,
and 44° 20' and 4!»° E. long., having N. the Aras
or Arsvxcs, E. a part of the liussian territories
and the Caspian Sea, S. the Kizil-Ozein, wliii'h
separates it from the other Persian provs., i'iid \V.
Turkish Armenia. It consists of a succession of
high mountains, separated by extensive valleys
and plains. Mount Scvellan towards its E. fron-
tier, the next highest mountain to Ararat in this
AZOl'F (SEA OF)
part of Asia, rises to between 12,000 and I.S.Oflo ft
aliove the level of the sea. The Sahend Mmm-
tains, ill the centre of the prov., attain to thu
height of '.t.OOO feet. The Talish Mountains niu
from N. to S. |)arallel to, and at no great distniKv
from, the Caspian. The great salt lake of rrmiiili
(see An.Mi.NiA and liH^iiAii) is one of the distin.
giiishiug features of the |)rov. It has niinuTmn
rivers, of whndi the Araxes, Ki/,il-()zciii, mid
Ingatly. are the chief. The summers arolint-
but the winters, owing to the height of the ciiiin]
try, and the inimber of high mountains covcnil
with snow for the greater part of the year, ari'
severe and long-continned. In the valicvs ainj
idains the land is very fertile, and yields ahiimlinit
cro]is. Mr. Kinneir says, ' Azerbijan is rcckiiinij
among the most productive provs. of lVr^ia, iiinl
the villages have a more pleasing appearaiu'e than
even those of Irak. They are, for the most part,
embosomed in orchards and gardens, wliicli yiihi
(U'licions fruits of almost every descri|itii)n ; and
were it not for the tyranny of their rulers, no
peojile could anywhere enjoy to a greater (1(';,tw'
the comforts of life. Provisions are clieaji ami
abundant, and wine is also made in coiisiiicralile
(piantities ; Imt the bulk of the people are too piinr
to avail themsclv(!S of these blessings ; and, in the
hope of bettering their condition, C(iiitem|ilai,:
with pleasure the approach of the h'ussians.' (.Me-
moir, p. 14!>.) The principal towns are Tabreoz,
iVrdebyl, and Uriniah.
AZiNtJHUH, an inland town of llinddstan,
prcsid. Itengal, i)rov. Allahabad, cap, distr. ; 40 m
NXE. Henares; in- 24° G' N. lat., 8;!° 10' E. ],«-,
Pop. incl. troops, 13,332. Cotton stuff's arc larstlv
manufactured here and in the vichiity. It wiis
ceded by the Xal)ob of Oude in 1801.
AZMEKIGUXGE, an inland town of India lie-
yond the Brahmapootra, jires. and prov. liciijial,
distr. Sylliet ; Si") m. X K. Dacca ; lat. 24° 33' N„
long. 91° .5' E. It is a iilacc of considerable iiilaiKl
tratlic, and has an establishment for builduig native
boats.
AZOFF (SEA OF), the Pains Mamtls of the
ancients, an inlaixl sea in the SE. qiiartiT of
Euroi)e. It communicates by the narrow Strait
of Ycnicale (an. Bosphonis Cimmeriiis) with llii"
XK. angle of the Black Sea, and is everywlicre
else surrounded by Russian territories. Its name
is derived from the town of A/.otf (see next article),
near its XE. extremity. It is of a very in-opihir
shape ; its greatest length, from the long, narrow
sand-bank facing the E. coast of the Oimca to
the mouths of the Don, being about 212 ni. : and
its greatest breadth about 110 ra. From the Strait
of Yenicale to Taganrog is about KiO ni. It is
generally shallow, and encumbered with sand-
banks, having, where deepest, not more than seven
fathoms water, and in some places mucdi hw.
Along its western shore it is marshy ; and its XK.
division, or that extensive ami denominateil the
Gulf of the I )on, is so very shallow that it cannot
be navigated, even where deepest, by vessels draw-
ing more than 10 or 12 ft. water. Durhij,' the
prevalence of easterly winds, the waters at 'I'aitaii-
rog, and other places in the gulf, recede sometime*
to a considerable distance from the shore, rushiii;'
back with great violence when the wind clianires
to an opposite direction. Iiiasnuich, liowovcr, ,i*
its bottom consists mostly of mud, vessels takitho
ground without being injured; and it is, in con-
sequence, less dangerous th.'ui might have hem
sujiposed. Owing to the vast quantity of Iroh
water brought down by the Don and other
rivers, its waters are little more than brnckidi,
ami at times are potable more than 20 m. IhI'iw
Taganrog. It teems with fish, and the lishcms
100 and is.nnofi.
IV Siilicnil MiHin-
k-., ntlnin to tlic
>li Mountniiis run
no ^rcat (listiinco
ll luUc of rrmuili
oM« (if the (li'-t'm-
It has iimiU'rniH
Kizil-Ozcin, ninl
lumiiuTs lire lidi ;
•iKlit of the ciiiiii-
noiintuins cdvcrril
t (if tlio year, iirc
n tli(> valleys mul
1(1 yields aliumlant
Tl)ijaii is rcckimi'il
ovs. of I'crMii, ami
11(1 n\))iearaii(c tliim
, for tin; most |iart,
iirdcns, wliicli yiiM
ry (Icsi'riiition : iiml
of their rulers, \v>
to a j;reater il(';,'rt'('
IOI19 are clieaii ami
ule in coiisitleralilc
3 people are ton jiimr
pssiiiKs ; and, in tlic
ilition, ('(.ntemiilat.:
the Hussians.' (Mi-
towns are Tabreez,
town of lliniliistaii,
adjcap.distr.; 10 in.
Int., KJ° 10' K. l»n^'.
toll stuff's arc lar^'dy
he vicinity. It Wiis
in 1801.
ind town of India lic-
9. and prov. lieii;,'al,
[»cca; lat. -iloXiN,.
if considerable inlanil
•nt for building iiiitivc
Pains Mteotk of tiic
the, Sl'^. quarter nf
Ijy the narrow Strait
iCiminerliis) with tlio
I. aiul is everywlurc
[erritories. Its iianic
/.I'll' (see next articlci,
Us of a very irroiiiilar
torn the loii},', narrow
[ist of the Crimea m
Walxnit ■Jl'.'ni.; ami
) m. From the Strait
uhout 1(!0 m. h is
und)ered with saml-
not more than scvoii
le places mucli l(;>*.
marshy, and its Nl!.
inn denoniinatctl tlie
[hallow that it eanmt
pest, by vessels (tov-
water. During tlic
ithewatersatTairaii-
^ulf, recede sonui mil*
\m the shore, nislmi^'
len the wind cliait'i*
lasniuch, however. a<
innid.ves.selstakelk
Ll ; and it i-^- "> ;'""■
an mi^jht have hwn
ist quantity of I"''"
Vhe Don and mli't
more than braiki-h.
,rc than "iO m. Ih1;.>v
ih, and the lislK"^'
AZOFF
iirp important and valuable. It u partially or
HJioliv covered with ice from November until
Kebriiary, or even March. The navigation of the
Sea ol Azoff generally commences the tirst week
ill Ai)ril and terminate.^ the la.st week in Novem-
l)cr. It is (tonsidercd unsafe for vessels to imdon^
their stay after that date, as thev incur the risk
i,r lieitig t'auKht in the ice. \\'hen masters ()f
vessels Observe the 'barber' llyiufr, it is an in-
fallihlc sign of apprimcbiiiK frost. There are no
iKirts in the Sea of Azoll' suitably adapted for
vessels to winter in, and Kertch is invariably
eliosen for that purpose. Uerdiansk, however, jjoh-
^eiwes on the west side of the s|)it a small bay
iftlMible of holdinj? from 150 to '200 lifjhfers, and
wlilili is f?e"C''"ll.V made use of by the small craft
(if the Azoff. The coasting trade of the Sea of
Aziilif has nearly trebled since the Crimean war.
in 1W)3 as many as 601 vessels entered the port
(,f Itenliansk with cargoes amounting to 54,20.')/.,
mid .Wa cleared with cargoes to the value of
'.'.'i/.tl')/. iliey are principally emitloyi'd in carrj'-
ins government nrovisloiis from the river l)(m to
tlie different Hlack Sea stations, coals from Kostofl",
timlicr, fruits, salt and tish. (Keport of Mr. Acting
Consid Wngstaft'on the Tra(le of Iterdiansk, dated
.Iiilv 14, l**t)4 ; Purdy'.s Sailing Directions for the
Hlack Sea,&c., p. 212.; Ilagemcister on the Com-
merce of the Black Sea.)
AzoKF, a town and fortress of European Russia,
(in an eminence on the left bank of^ one of the
arms of the Don, near the XK. extremity of the
alidve sea. This town was foiuidcd at a very early
lieriod by Carian colonists engaged in the trade of
the Kiixine; and was called by them Tajiaw, from
the river (Don, then Tanais), of which it was the
jHirt. In the middle ages it was called Tamu It
eame into the possession of the Venetians after
the taking of Constantinople by the Latins; and
was held by them till 1410, when it was sacked,
mill its Christian inhabitants ])ut to the sword, by
llie Tartars. The latter gave it the name of Azoft",
which it still retains. Formerly it liiid an ex-
tcii.sivc trade, being the cmiiorium of all the vast
countries traversed by the Don. Hut owing to
the (,Tadual accumulation of sand in that channel
(if tlic river on which it is built, and the conse-
(|uent difliculty of reaching it by any but the
smallest class of vessels, its trade has been entirely
transferred to Taganrog; its fortifications have
also fallen into decay ; and it now consists only of
a cluster of miserable cabins, inhabited by little
more than 1,200 individuals.
AZORKS (THE), or WESTERN ISLANDS,
an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging
t(i Portugal, from which it is about «00 m. distant,
occunving a line of about 100 leagues from F2SE.
to WNW., between 3G° 59' and 39° 44' N. lat.,
and 310 7' and 25° 10' W. long. It is divided
into three subordinate groups. The 1st, lying at
the WXW. extremity of the archipelago, includes
Flores and Corvo; the 2nd, or cent'il, Fayal,
I'ico, St. (icorge, Graciosa and Terceira ; and the
Srd at the ESE. extremity, St. Michael's, the
largest of the whole, and St. Mary's. The name
{llhos dos A(ores) is said to be derived from the
vast number of hawks (falco milvus), called by the
natives ofor, by which thsy were frequented at
the epoch of their discovery. These islands seem
to be of c(miparatively recent volcanic fonnation.
Their general aspect is picturesque and b(dd. For
the most part they present an irregular succe-^sion
ifbolated, conical, or acuminated hills, with table
lands rising from 2,000 to 6,000 ft. in height ; the
I'omier separated by valleys, the latter stratified
and intersected by tremendous ravines and deep
diasnis, formed by the action of rain on the soft
AZORES 311
V(dcaiiic remains composing the mountains; the
wh(dc are almost invariably lK)unded by magni-
ficent mural precipices, rising abruptlv from tho
sea, and frequently rendered inaccessilde by soft
crumbling lava and nuisses of loose tufa, of which
they are formed. The i)eak of I'ico, about 7,000 ft.
in height, is the highest elevation in the Azores.
When seen from a distance it app<!ars like an
isolated cone in the middle of the ocean. This
archipelago is sulyect to the most fremen(Uuis
convulsions, towns and villages being sometimes
.swallowed up, while, at other times, rocks and
islaiuls have been forced up from below the waves.
The last of these phenomena occurred in IMll,
when an island was thrown up that has sin('e (lis-
afipeared. The soil is extremely fertile, imd in-
dustry and intelligence ore ahinc wanting to make
it in the highest degree productive. The climate,
though im.settled and humid, i.s, on the whole,
excellent. The average annual range of the ther-
mometer is from 50° to 75°. Rains are frequent,
and often so violent as to effect consulerablo
changes in the ajijiearance of the country; but
scarce a day passes in which the sun does not, at
some period, shine forth. The dcchlcdiy fine days
may be estimated at about 200, and the wet days
at about tiO. Sudden gusts and gales of wind are
frequent ; and this, combined with the fact that
they have not to boast of a single good harbour,
make the islands shuiuicd by the navigator.
They produce luxuriant crops of all sorts of grain
and pul.se, wine, the finest oranges and lemon.s,
bananas, sugar-canes, coflec-pliuits, tobacco, the
valuable lichen roccella ; and, with a little care,
most vegetable products may be brought to tho
utmost jMirfection. Asses and bullocks are the
usual beasts of burden. Horses are scarce and
bad; sheep and goats numerous; and [ligs and
(h)gs swarm to an excess. Owing however to the
idleness, occasioned in part by the jirodnctiveness
of the soil and mildness of the (dimate, but in a
far greater degree bv the ignorance of the i)eoplc,
and the influence of' vicious laws and regulations,
industrj' is all but unknown. The lands are geiie-
rally divided int<j large estates, hehl uiuler strict
entail; and the system under which they are
leased out to the actual cultivator is as bad its
possible. The latter, being exposed to evory sort
of exttction and tyranny, never thinks of attempt-
ing any improvement. Hence the practice of
agricidtiire is but little, and the science not at all,
understood. The rude system of their forefathers
is continued without change or modification of
any kind ; and their itnplements are little superior
to those of the American Indians. And yet, de-
spite this want of industry, such is the extra-
ordinary fertility of the soil, that, though in great
l)art waste and uncultivated, it not only fumi.shes
sufKcient supplies of corn and other things for the
native population, but also a considerable surplus
for exportation. , A good deal of coarse linen is
manufactured, part of which is cxjiorted.
The principal exports are, in ordinary years, to
England, about 130,000 boxes of oranges, 2,000 pipes
of wine and brandy, and some roccella ; for which
she sends in exchange woollen and cotton stutts,
hard-ware, and wearing apparel. To Brazil the
exports are about 5,000 pipes of wine, 12,000 yards
coarse linen, and pulse of all sorts ; for which
she sends back rum, coflee, sugar, tfec. To Ham-
burgh and the N. of Europe are exported 14,000
boxes of oranges and lemons, and G,000 pipes of
wuie and brandy, the returns being made in pitch,
iron, glass, and cordage. To the United States aro
sent 4,000 pipes of w-ne, 200 of brandy, and 12,000
boxes of oranges and lemons, the returns being
lish, staves, timber, uir and oil. To Portugal are
■#v"
312
AZPYTIA
sent Im^c quantities of grain and pulftc, salt pork
and hecf, conrHe linen and chceHc.
The population of the archiitclogo wan found, by
the ccnsHs of 1858, to amount to 240,f>48, not a
Hixth part of what it might be, were the i.slands
moderately well cultivated. They are divided
into three departments, and are governed by a
governor-general and two lieutenant-governors.
The seat of government is at Angra in Terceira,
but Ponte Delgada, in St. Michael's, is the ]>rin-
cipal town. The revenues amount, in all, to about
525,000 crowns a year, and the expenditure to
nearly 200,000, leaving a balance of about 330,000
crowns to be remitted to Portugal. (Hold, p. 80.)
The men are well proportioned, strong, and well
made; and the women fairer than those of Por-
tugal. All classes are grossly ignorant ; and are,
consequently, in the last degree superstitious n\Hl
bigoted. The lower orders are temperate, and all
ranks are passionately fond of music. Tlie dress
of the common peo))le is rude, and they arc in-
tolerably filthy and <lirty in their ptirsons. The
higher classes are pompous, overbearing, and in
the most abject state of moral debasement. The
ladies possess few acquirements, have uo conver-
BAAL-BEC
sation, and load a life of excessive indolence, The
low state of intelligence and morals i» principally
ascribable to the ignorance and vices of the cler^'v.
Previously to 1832, there were numerous moiin'*!
t^ries .011(1 convents, which were suppressed at the
lost-mentioned epoch.
The history of the Azores is obscure. Thpy
were unknown t« the ancients ; but the Arnljian
geographers of the middle ages seem to have had
some knowledge of them, though it was not till
towards the middle of the 15tn century that a
Flemish merchant, who hod soiled from Lisbon
was driven by stress of weather on their constJi!
The court of Portugal, being informed of the cir-
cumstance, sent the navigator Cabral to prosncute
the discovery, who fell in with St. Mary's, in 14;!2.
In 1467 they were all discovered. At this eptioh
they were entirely uninhabited and covered with
forest and underwood.
AZPYTIA, a town of Spain, prov. Guipiiscoa,
15 m. SVV. San Sebastian. Pop. 2,335 in 1857. It
is surrounded by walls, and has some iron foiuidrics.
There ore jasper quarries in iU vicinity.
AZREK (liAHK-EL), or the BlueKiver. Sec
NiLB.
B
■&!,«
BAAL-BEC, or BAT.BEC (the HelinpoVtH of the
(Jreeks), luicientlj' a large and splendid city ;
lot. 34° 1' N., long. 3(io U' K ; 40 m. NVV. Da-
inasciis, 41 m. SE. Tripoli, 58 m. NE. Sidon, and
130 W. by S. Palmyra. It is situated in a fertile,
well-watered valley, the Cocle-Syria (hollow Syria)
of the ancients, and the Batena of the modems,
between the ridges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus,
at the foot of the lower ranges of the latter.
Baal-Bee has been declining for a lengthened
period ; but, of late years, its decay has been pe-
culiarly rapid. In 1751 the pop. amounted to 5,000,
in 1785 it had diminished to 1,200, in 1818 it did
not exceed 500, and in 1835 it barely amounted to
200. In 1810 it had a serai (the residence of the
emir), two handsome mosques, and one good bath:
in 1816 one mosque had vanished, the other was in
mills; and in 1835 there remained no trace of
cither, or of the serai. The remains of ancient
architectural grandeur are, however, more exten-
sive in Baal-Bee than in any other city of Syria,
Palmyra excepted ; and Burckhardt regards them
as superior in execution even to those of the
latter. Finely grouped together, on the W. side of
the town, are three temples, the largest occupying
a circuit of more than half a mile, and originally
consisting of a portico, hexagonal court, and a
quadrangle, besides the peristyles of the temple
itself. Of this last, six gigantic and highly po-
lished pillars, 71 ft. fi in. in height, and 23 ft. in
circumference, with their cornice and entablature,
remain to attest the stupendous magnitude and
beauty of the structure of which they made a part.
The two courts were encompassed bj' chambers,
copen towards the front, supposed by Wood to have
lieen cither the dwellings of the priests, or public
schools ; and the peristyle was surrounded, towards
the W., by an esplanade 29^ ft. in width, and ter-
minated by a slopms; •wall 32 ft. high. In this wall
are three enormous stones, of which two are (iO
and the other 63 ft. in length, their common
breadth and thickness being 12 ft. These gigantic
masses are more than 20 ft. from the ground ; and
the course immediately below them consists of
Ivlocks, less enormous, certainly, but varying from
30 to 37 ft. in length, with a i)rcadth of 12 anrl a
/Jiickness of 9 ft. Tlie remainder of this cyclopian
wall is formed of very large stones, but there are
none so vast as the aliove. Immediately to tlie S.
of the great temple is a smaller, but more jjcrfrct
edifice, of which the peristyle, walls, and twenty
columns remain. The door-waj leading into the
body of this temple is 25 ft. high by 20 ft. 10 in.
broad, surmounted by a superb basso-relievo, re-
presenting an eagle hovering, as it were, over the
worshipper when about to render homage to the
presiding deity. Both ruins are among the finest
specimens of the Corinthian order. Walls, ceil-
j in^s, capitals, entablatures, every »^i where the
chisel could be introduced, is covered with tlic
j most exquisitely finished carving and sculpture.
I Solidity, too, has been most successfully conihined
j with, and not sacrificed to, ornament. Thnujjh
I little cement has been used, the joints are so ad-
\ mirably formed that a penknife cannot be intro-
duced into them. The more ponderous masonn-
has preserved its position by the mere force (if
gravity ; the parts of the pillars are connected In-
iron cramps. When perfect, the great temple,
with its courts, exhibited 130 pillars ; the Icsjer,
00 ; and, according to Wood and Dawkius, the
dimensions of each were as follow : —
GnEAT Temple.
Steps
Portico
Hexag.Uourt
Quadrangle
Lonf^th
Width
Feet
Fcpt
50
188
48
aei
1!)0
2(j<i
404
420
Lcngihj Wlilth
Feet I Fcrt I
Peristyle . 280 | \m i
Esplanade. — | 2i)jl
Height of Ternpie from I
ground to pediment, I'iol
Smaller Temple.
I^n|i;th
225 ft.
width
118 ft.
Height
102 ft.
The smaller temple is wthout courts.
A barbarous Saracenic wall is built across these
ruins on the E. ; 300 or 400 ft. from which is tlic
third temple, a beautiful circular building, sur-
rounded by Corinthian pillars ; its extreme ex-
ternal diameter being 63 ft., and its interior 32 ft.;
most probably it had been surmounted by a cupula.
It is considered as a chef-iTcsiivre of art ; but un-
fortunately it is in a very dilajiidatcd and tottering
:!i
c indolence. The
■al» is principally
ices iif the cleri,^.
mmerouR monn»-
BupprcsHcd at the
! obBCtire. They
[ but the Arahian
Bcem to linvc hml
rh it wan not till
1 century that a
liled from Lisbon,
>r on their coastii,
iformcd of the cir-
3abrnl to prosncutc
it. Mary's, in 14;i>.
ed. At tins epoch
and covered with
, prov. Guipiwcoa,
|). 2,336 in IHoT. It
Nome iron foimdrios,
vicinity,
e Blue Kiver. Sm
itones, but there arc
ramcdiately to the S.
Her, but more iK'rfcd
le, walls, and twenty
way Icadinij into the
hi^h by 20 ft, 10 in.
lerb basso-relievo, re-
;, as it were, over the
ender homage to the
arc amonj; the finest
1 order. Walls, ceil-
evcry spot where the
is covered with tlie
irving and sculpture.
luccessfuUy combined
ornament. Though
1, the joints are so ad-
Luife cannot be intro-
■c ponderous masonrj-
jy the mere force nf
liars arc connected liy
it, the great temple,
10 pillars ; the lesser,
(d and Dawkius, the
illow : —
(•LE.
Length, Wldih
Fcrt 1 FW
istyle . 280 1 im
blanndo.l - \ _^^\
light of Temple from|
Vind to pediment, I'iii}
■mplg.
Height
102 ft.
Jiout courts.
ll is built across these
Ift. from which is tlic
Vcular building, >^"r-
nrs ; its extreme ex-
Jind its interior 32 ft.;
Imountedbyacupi'ln.
BHureof art; butim-
tpi dated and totteniii;
BAAL-BEC
itate. Lil'o '''" Inrgcr temples, it w built of com-
pact limestone, witli but little, if any, cement. In
tlic S\V. comer of the town, on the highest 8W)t of
irroimd within the walls, is a solitary Doric column,
til) ft. high, including capital and pedestal. On
the top is a batin 3 ft. deep, from which a lu)lc, cut
through the capital, communicates with a curved
channel in. wide and 6 deep, cut in the S. side of
the shaft, from top to bottom. From this it has
been inferred that the pillar was connected with
the water-works of the city : some suppose it to
have been a clepsydra or water-dial. The walls of
the city, 3 or 4 m. in circuit, exhibit a strange
mixture of materials ; the breaches made by time
or war, in the older erections, having been repaired
At ditfcrent times from the ruins of the ancient
temples and other buildings. In one place may
lie seen a large altar-])iecc reversed; in others,
stones inscribed with Greek or Koraan characters ;
hut all in confusion, and many turned upside
down. The gates are of the Saracenic period.
Without the walls, 5 or 6 m. W., is a remarkable
isolated Corinthian column, between fiO ond CO ft.
liigh, with a sijuare compartment on its N. side, as
for an inscription, but no letters remain. NE. of
the to^vn is a subterranean aqueduct, 16 ft. below
the surface, with severiil curious cliambers cut in
tlie surrounding rock. The whole neighbourhood
l(M)ks like an immen le stone quarry ; and on the
S.E., at 50 or tiO paces from the walls, among
other stones of immense size, is one worked on
three sides, larger than any used in the wall of
the great temple. It is 7(f ft. in length, with a
breadth and thickness of 14 ft. Greek, Koman,
and Saracenic ruins cover the oountrj' for three or
four leagues round, all evidently connected with
the former greatness and prosperity of this city.
No ancient author refers to the buildings at
Baol-Bec. John of Antioch, a Christian writer of
the 7th century, ascribes, in an incidental manner,
the erection of a temple to Antoninus Pius ; and this
is the only account, with any pretensions to autho-
rity, of the origin of these extraordinary remains.
Ihit Haal-Bec was a tiourishirj, city ages before
the Christian lera, and the probability seems to be,
that the Baal-Ath, built by Solomon, in Lebanon
(2 Chron. viii. 6), was identical with fiaal-Uec.
This is, indeed, the received opinion of all classes
in Syria; and though the remains of Corinthian
architecture cannot be referred io a remoter period
than that of the Koman emperors, the cyclopian
wall is evidently of a far more ancient date, and
answers to the description of the ' House of the
Forest of Lebanon,' built for the daughter of Pha-
raoh. (1 Kings vii. 10.)
That the Syrian deity Baal (literally Lord)
was a personification of the sun, as the vivifying
principle of nature, is evident from the Herodian
(V. 5), the various passages of Scripture from
Judges to Jeremiah, and, indeed, from the united
testimony of antiquity. (Calmet, Dictionnaire de
la Bible, art. Baal.) Bec, or more properly Beit,
is a dwelling. Baal-Bee signifies, therefore, the
house or city of the sun, and this designation the
town retained, in the Greek form, HdiopoUs, which
is merely a translation of its Syrian name. It
may be concluded that Ben-hadad subdued this
city with the adjacent country (2 Chron. xvi. 4) ;
and that, on the overthrow of the Syrian kingdom
of Damascus, it passed beneath the sway of the
Assyrians (2 Kings xvi. 9) ; but the silence of all
the must ancient authors, respecting so populous
and wealthy a city, ia as profound as it is remark-
able. It, of coiuse, shared the fate of the rest of
Syria, passing, successively, into the hands of the
Persians, Greeks, and Komans. It was the station
ofa garrison in the time of Augustus; but, while
BABA-DAOH
313
under the Romans, seems to have l)enn famed,
rather fur its wealth and splendour, than for ita
military importance. It made, however, a brave
resistance to the Arab arms, a.d. 635, and was at
length surrendered upon a capitulation, the terms
of which sufllciently attest its groat resources ;
2,000 oz. of gold, 4,000 do. of silver, 2,000 silken
vests, and 1,000 swords, besides those of the gar-
rison, being the price demanded aiul paid to prc-
8er>'e it from plunder. In 748 it was sacked and
dismantled in the wars of the Ommiyade and
Abusside caliphs, and from this blow it never re-
vived. During the Crusades it submitted, alter-
nately, to whichever party hapiiencd, for the time,
t« be the stronger. In 1400 it was plundered by
the Tartars under Tamerlane or Timur Bee, since
which periiMl it has l)een of no importance except
to the antiquary and historian. In 1759 it was
shaken by an earthquake ; and, judging from its
decline during the last century, the day is not far
distant, when, like many other eastern cities, it will
cease entirely to be inhabited.
Though nothing certain be known of the history
of Baal-Ilec, it is sufHciently obvious that its opu-
lence and grandeur mu.;t have Injen mainly owing,
partly to its situation in a fertile and well-watcreil
country, but more to its being a commercial entre-
pot. Any one who takes up a map of Syria will
see, at a glance, that its position is one of the best
that could have been selected for an intermediate
station between Palmyra and the cities ond ports
along the Phcenician coasts. Commodities passing
from Palmyra to Tripoli, Berytus (Beyrout), Si-
don, and Tyre, and conversely, would be most
conveniently and expeditiously carried by way of
Baal-Bee. No doubt, therefore, it was mainly in-
debted for that wealth, of which its ruins, like
those of its great rival Palmyra, attest the magni-
tude, to the trade of which it was long a principal
centre. And the desolation in which these two
splendid cities are now involved is at least owing
as much to the changes that have taken place in
the channels of commerce, as to the barbarism and
ignorance of their modem masters. (Wood and
Dawkins's Kuina of Balljec, passim; Vcdiicy, ii.
195, 205; Burckhardt'a Travels, 10, 17: Richard-
son's Travels, ii. 502-610.)
BAAU, a town of Switzerland, cant. Zug, 2 m.
N. Zug. Pop. 3,323 in 1860. It is situated in a
fertile plain, has a fine town-house, built in 1674,
and a ]>aper manufactory.
BAAKLE, a town of the Ketherlands, prov.
Brabant, 12 m. SE. Breda. Pop. 1,853 in 1861.
It gave its name to Barkens, the celebrate<l lit-
terateur and Latin poet.
BAB A (an. Lectum), a cape and sea-port town
of Asiatic Turkey, Anatolia!, 22 m. S. from the
most southerly point of Tenedos ; lat. 39° 30' 5"
N., long. 26° 6' E. Near the cape is the town,
small and ill-built, with about 4,000 inhabitants.
It was formerly famous for a manufacture of knives
and sword blades ; but, though not entirely aban-
doned, this manufacture has greatly fallen off.
The port is practicable only for small vessels.
Large quantities of valonia are produced in the
nciglibouring country. The trees, with the fielda
on which they grow, belong to a multitude of in-
lUviduals; one man being the proprietor of five
trees, another of ten, and so on. The right to
export the valonia is a privilege annually con-
firmed by a firman ; a less or greater sum being
paid to the seraskier by whom it is obtained.
(Voyage du Due de Kaguse, ii. p. 146.)
BAliA-DAGH, a town of Turkey in Europe,
prov. Silistria, near the NW. angle of Lake Kas-
sein, which communicates with the Black Sea,
21 m. S. Danube. Estimated pop. 10,000, coii-
'«f
I
«W(?
,<"..
i
'^
f
.«*
?
f
f;
31 1 BAH-EL-MANDEB (STUAITS OF)
niNtinf; of TartarR, (irpckfi, Jcwh, and TiirkH. It
is well fortified ; Btreet« pnved, but dirty ; Ims five
mosques, two public bnlhs, and a collofje. The
P'ouiid on wbich it stnuds is marshy ; and the
only wntcr fit for drinking is conveyed' to it a dis-
tance of about 3 m. by an aqueduct. It curries
on a considerable trade by menus of tbe port of
Kara Kennan, one of the outlets of Luke liussein
on the lilack Sea.
liaba-Du^h was built by the Turkish sultan
llajazct. It is a place of considerable importance
in the wars Iwtwecii ]{ussin and Turkey, and has
sometimes been the winter quarters of the grand
vizier.
UAB-EL-MAXDKn (STHAITS OF), the strait
uniting; the Indian Ocean with the Arabic (Julf or
IJed Sea. The distance across, from a jtrojectinj^
cape on the Arabic shore U) the op|)ositc (toast of
Africa, is about 20 m. ; but in the intermediate
space, though much nearer Asia than Africa, is
the small island of I'crim, and some other still
smaller islands. I'erim is in Int. 12° 35' 30" N ,
long. 43° 2H' K. The channel between Ferim an(l
the Arabic const, though narrower than the other,
and the current more rapid, is the most frequented
by Arabic vessels, jirobnldy because, being only
from 7 to M fathoms deep, it allows of their cast-
ing anchor, which, owing to its great depth, is
impracticable in the greater or western channel.
Jial>-cl-Mundcb means literally tbe gate of tears;
a designation it may have derived either from the
dangers incident to its navigation, or from those
incident to the navigation of tbe seas on cither
side. ,
BABYLON (Ba/Si/Aoii'), or BABEL (^33), a
city of Asia, cap. Chaldea, and of the Assyrian
empire, being jjrobably the largest city of anti-
quity, and certainly one of tbe most famous.
Nothing remains of the ancient buildings but
immense and sliapeless masses of ruins ; their
sites l)eing partly occupied by the modern and
meanly-b'iilt town of llillnh, the cap. of a dis-
tritrt, and the residence of a bey appointed by the
]mcha of Bngdad. This town lies on the VV. bank
of the EHphr:v:<3s, and occupies nearlv tlie centre
of tbe S. part of the old enclosures; lut^. 32° 2«' 30"
N., long. 44° 9' 4.5" E. Fop. estimated at about
(ij.^OO, chiefly Arabs and Jews. It is surrounded
liv mud walls and a deep ditch, and has four gates.
Aiodem Babylon, or Iiillnh, has a rude citadel,
tlic only public building within the walls, except
a single mosque, and six or seven oratories. The
Ivuphrates, at Hillah, in its medium state, is 450
ft. wide, 7i ft. deep, and its mean velocity is about
2J ni. an hour. The whole surrounding country
is intersected with canals. The undoubted anti-
qtiity of many of these works is not a little sur-
prising, considering the nature of the soil, whicli
IS wholly alluvial, and so soft that the turning tlie
course of the river by Cyrus (Herod. (Jlio, ^ 191 ;
Xen. Cyrop., vii. 5), does not appear to Rich an
ex|)loit of any great difficulty. (Mem. 17.) The
Euphrates ammally overflows its banks, inun-
dating the country for many miles round, anu
even rendering the district between the Euj)brates
and Tigris navigable in many places for flat^
bottomed boats. This annual flood fills the canals,
and facilitates agriculture in a siu-prising degree.
The air is salubrious, and the soil extremely fer-
tile, producing dates, rice, and grain of every
kind, in astonishing profusion; but, in consequence
of the illegal and irregular exactions of the pachas,
and the insecuritjr to which all kinds of property
is exposed, the inhabitants exert no sort of in-
dustry ; the numerous canals are left dry and neg-
lected, except when filled spontaneously by the
river; and the small quantity of land that is cul-
-17; Mignnn's Trav. in Chaldcn, p|
BABYLON
tivntcd is not half filled. (Niebuhr, Voy. en Ar
ii. 234-237; Kauwolf's Travels, p. 174, d'c; l{pn-
nell's (Jeog. Her., i. 45!), Ac; Rich's Mem. nn l!ii,
Bab., pp. 1- ■" "■■
114-122.)
Such IS the present state of a city, onrn tli(>
greatest, most magnificent, and powerful, in the
world ; 'the glory of kingdoms, the beauty dl' \\\p
C'hnhlees' excellency.' (Isn. viii. 20.) \Vp need
say little of the identity of the site occupied hy
the ancient and modern towns; this has \m'n
completely estaldislKMl by Major Hennell. It in
siifliclent to observe that the traditions prospr\-('(|
by eastern writers, the universal belief of Hie
present inhabitants, the descriptions of the ancient
historians, and, above all, the discoveries by mo-
dern travellers of stupendous ruins answering to
those descri])tions, — leave no room or ground fur
any reasonable doubt up(m the subject. (Itenncll
i. 459-511.) The magnitude assigned by ancient
writers to this celebrated city is so immeii.se ns to
stagger belief. It was a perfect square, and, ne-
cording to Herodotus, 400 stadia in cir. (Clio,
§ 178.) Strabo (p. 738) gives the circ. iit .'iS,')
•stadia; Diodonis Siculus at 3()0, on the credit of
Ctcsins; but at 3(15, on that of Clisnrchu.i, wlio
was on the spot with Alexander (ii. I.), (^nintiis
(fortius gives it nt 3(!8 stadia (v. 1), and Pliny
(vi. 2<)) at (10 Koman m. .The incNtricalOe ob-
scurity in which the itinerary stadium of the
(Jrceks is involved (see Bennell, i. 1 7-44) renclers
it exceedingly uncertain Avhctber these ditlercncos
are to do regarded as real, or as arising from Hie
adoption of dill'erent standards. Assuming, how-
ever, that the same stadium is meant in eacii case,
taking it at its least pos.sible value, 491 ft.; and
taking also the measure of Diodonis. the Icist of
the whole, the area of ancient Bal)yl()ii, witiiin
the walls, will be found to be upwards of 72 s(|.
m., or nearly 3,^ times that of London with all its
suburbs. If, at the same value of the stndinm,
the measure of Herodotus, or that of I'liny, lie
taken, the area will amount to more than 121J
sq. m., or about 5 times that of London in iN'i.J;
and finally, if the common stadium of Ilerodotiij,
fiOO Grecian or (I04A Engli.>;li ft. (Kuterjie. § 1411),
be ado|)ted, as well as his measurement, the nri'a
will swell to 188^ sq. m., or more than seven
times that of London.
Various attemi)t8 have been made, by compnrini,'
its area with the area and population of modem
cities, to estimate the population of Babylon. Hut,
on the lowest calculation, it would be found, suit-
posing it to have borne any considerable resem-
blance to a European city, to have had a po|nilii-
tion of 5,000,000 — a sujiposition to wiiich all Imt
insuperable obstacles are opjioscd. For, notwitli-
.standing the amazing fertility of the siimiundin},'
country; the fewer wants of it.s inhaliitunts com-
pared with those of northern latitudes; and tlio
facilities afforded by the numerous canfds, wliicli
intersected the adjoining provinces, and by the
Juiphrates and Tigris, to the importation of bulky
an(l distant i)roducts; still there were circum-
stances connected with its situation and govern-
ment suHicient to counter\'ail these advantapfs,
and to render it all but impossible that so vast a
|)opulation could be supjiorted within its walls.
The maj) of Asiatic Turkey shows that the extent
of country round Babylon available for agricul-
tural purjwses must have been quite inadequate
to su|>ply the necessary demands of the sujiposci!
population. The Babylonian plain, fertile as it is
is soon lost in the interminable deserts of Sinjar
and Arabia ; the marshes and lakes of Lower Me-
so])otamia tmd Chaldea make a large <lc(luction
even from its fertility; while, as if wholly to neii-
BABYLON
315
p, Vov. en Ar.,
74, *.•.; Ken-
H Mt'ni. on Hii,
1 Chalilcn, |i|).
city, oiiro the
iiwi-rrul, in tlic
> Im'UUIV (if tlio.
>{).) VVo need
to ocp\ii)ieil liy
tiiiit liiw liw'ii
Honnpll. It )»
itioiis jireson'cd
I WVwt of llifl
18 of tlip nncifiit
covoricit tiy mo-
IH answiTiiiK to
[ti or f^nnincl fur
lyect. (lU-niicU,
r;iicil l)y niicidit
imini'iisB iw to
Hqiinro, iiud, iic-
II ill cir. (Clin,
tlie c'irc. at "iX'n
, on the credit (if
ClisnrcliuK, who
(ii. !.)• Qii'"t"»
(v. 1), iind I'liny
inrxtric'iilil(! oli-
stndium of tli(!
i. 17-44) rpudcfH
r these diftercncos
uriwiiiK 'f™ t^'"
Assuniint;, how-
leaiit in eacli case,
fthie, 4'.tl ft. ; and
loriis, the least "f
, IJahylon, witldii
upwanls (if T'i wj.
,ou<l(>i» with all its
le of the Htadidii),
that of riiiiy, !«
o more than I'.Mi
L()ii(l(in in W^'>\
lium of IlerodotiiN
. (Kuteqie, § 1 t'.i)t
[urcment, the area
more than seven
.larte, by comparin;,'
liilatiou of modcrii
lofUahyhm. Hiit,
[ulil be found, su])-
lonsiderablc resem-
lavc bad a \ioimla-
[n to which alllmt
Icel. F'T- notwij''"
l>f the snrronndinj,'
k inhabitants eoni-
latitiules; and tlic
Irons canals, wlucli
linces, and by tlic
iportation of l)iill<y
liere were circimi-
lation and P'vcrii-
I these advaiitajrcs.
^ible that so vast a
within its walls.
»V8 that the extent
lilablc for aKnciil-
li quite inadequate
lis of the suiiposcd
lain, fertile as it is.
t deserts of ^mji'^
tikes of L'wer Me-
la larjie deduction
Is if wholly to neu-
tralise the natural nilvnntnRO» of the city, the
Italivlonian monarclm threw a variety of obstacles
ill the wav of commercial enten>nse. (Her. Clio,
U IX.).) 'fhe fact is universally a'lmitted, that lla-
(ivloii liossessed but fewiioints of resemblance ton
iiiiiderii Kiiroiiean town. The buiUliiiKs and popu-
liiiiiiii bore no jiroportion to its extent, and, in the
woriLs of Hich, ' it would convey the idea rather of
nil enclosed district than that of a rej^ular city."
(p 4H.) i'asture and arable land was contained
within the walls, sutlictient, says (}, L'urtius (v. I),
III supply '''" wants of all the inhabitants. This,
ii„ doubt, is an exaKKcration ; but if, as must have
Ik'CU the case, a Inrj^e portion consisted of prodiKJ-
tive (,"■""'"'• ''•■' l"''"'"'^''' mij^ht have added consi-
dcrablv to the provisions it was possible to place
ill store. Xenopbon allirnis, that when the city
w.is taken by Cyrus, it was stored for twenty
yl.^f^^—rtMovrflKoaiviruv (Cyrop. vii. 6); and
'tli(iii>,'li this may reasonably be considered as much
lievoiid the mark, yet, at a subse(|iieiit period, it
actually did sustain a sie);e by Darius Ilystaspes,
oroiie'vear and seven months, and was then, as
ill the former case, subdued, not by famine, Imt
1)V suriirise, (Herod. Thalia, liVi.) That only a
small part of its immense area was occupied by
Ijiiililiiigs is therefore evident. How much is
another question, and one which it is im|)ossible
to decide. I'erhaps, on the whole, we may esti-
mate the population of Jiabyloii at fnun l,()U(l,()()tl
to I.'.'OD.'IDIJ. This siipjiosition derives siipjiort
from' the fact that .Seleticia, with a poji. of (iO(M)OO,
is stated to have been about half the size of IJa-
livloii in the days of her f^reatest glory. (Strabo,
xvi. 7;f'J; Pliny, vi. Ki.)
Hut though a itopulation at all commensurate
to the magnitude of the city, calculated on a scale
of Kuroixian density, be tlius improbable, it does
not follow, seeing the way in which the area was
jiartially tilled up, that the magnitude itself is to
1k! discredited. The authority on which we must
iimiiily rely is of llenidotus. Not only is be the
earliest profane writer uiion this subject ; but he
alone, ol all the ancient historians, had the ad-
vantage of having visited Jkbylon in person, and
while it was stillin a state of tolerable preserva-
lioii. His account of this interesting city has
lieen, with few exceptions, amply corroborated by
the testimony of succeeding writers, as well as by
the investigations of modern travellers.
IliTiMlotus says nothing of the foundation of the
city or its founder, merely remarking tlxat, after
lliij destruction of Nineveh, it be(!aine the scat of
tlic .\ssyrian empire. (Clio, § 179.) But even in
his time it was of considerable antiipiity, and bib-
lical critics have unanimously referred" its origin
to the presumptuous attempt of the early post-
(illuviaiis to ' build them a city, and a tower whose
top may reach to heaven.' (Gen. xi. 4.) Joscpbus
(Antiq. I. iv. il) expressly says that Nimrod, the
praudson of Ham, was the originator of this at-
tempt; and to this day the inhabitants of these
parts are as fond of attributing every great work
to this 'mighty hunter before the Lord,' as those
of K^'ypt are of referring similar works to Pliuraoh.
(Kicli, 41.) Asshiir, the founder of Nineveh (Gen.
X. 11 ; Died. Sic. ii. 1), having subdued the Uaby-
Iniiian with other surrounding powers, laid the
fmmdations of the Assyrian empire. A domestic
tragedy, resembling in many points that of David
ami Bathslieba, having made him the husband of
Seiniramis, the strong mind and many accom-
phshments of his wife induced him, on his death,
III leave her regent for his son, though it would
aiipear that she governed in her own name till
lier death (Uiod. .Sic. ii. 20) ; and to her wa.s owing
most of the grandeur of IJabylou.
According to Herodotus, the city wnn luiilt on
both sides the Kiiphrales, the connection between
its two divisions being kept u)i by means of a
bridge formed of wooden planks laid on stoiin
jiicrs. The streets are described as having been
parallel, and th(! houses from three to four stories
III height. The city was surroiiiidod by a deep
and broad ditch, and by a wall Hanked with
lowers, and iiierced by 10(1 gales of brass. Tiio
wall was built of bricks, formed from the oartli
taken out of the ditch, and cemented by a compo-
sition formed of healed bitumen and reeds; tho
foniier being brought from Is (Hit), on the
Kiipbrates, about 12H m. aliove llaliylon. The
accounts of liabyhm ditler in the statements in
regard to the height and thickness of the wall
bv which it was surrounded. Herodotus savs it
w"as 200 royal cubits, or about :iOO ft. tlioa fl.ti In.)
in height, and 50 cultits, or 75 ft. tliii^k. Atrord-
iiig to (juintus (Jurliiis they were only half tho
height mentioned by Hero(h)tus (Curt. lilt. v.
cap. 1) ; and Strabo reduces them still further,
or to .')() cubits or 75 ft. (lib. xvi.) Strabo fiirtlier
says, that two chariots (Iriving in (MHitrary direc-
tions could pass each other on the summit of
the walls.
The temjde of Jupiter TWua (most probably
the Tower of Mnbel) occuiiied a central position
ill one of flic divisions of the city. llcrodotuH
describes it as a square tower of the depth and
height of one stadium, upon which, as a founda-
tion, seven other towers rose in regular succession,
the last tower having a large chapel, a niagnili-
ccnt couch, and a table of solid g(dd. The build-
ing was ascended from without by means of a
winding stair. The space in which it was built
was enchised within walls, 8 stadia in circum-
ference, and consequently comprising above iiii
acres. The gates to the temple, which were of
brass, and of enormous magnitude, were seen by
Herodotus. In the other division of the city
stood the royal jialace, which seems to have been
a sort of internal fortitication, and was, no doubt,
of vast dimensions. (Clio, § 1><1.)
It is dilliciilt to say to which of the ancient build-
ings the existing ruins are to be ascribed. Tho
principal of these are the Kasr, or palace; the Mu-
jellibe, or the overturned; and the IJirs Nemroud,
or tower of Nimrod. Tiiese are all of great mag-
nitude, and arc at very considerable distances
from each other. The most considerable, tho
Hirs Nemroud, is a mound of an oblong ligiire,
7(!2 yards in circumference. On its VV. side it
rises to an elevation of 1!)8 ft., and on its sum-
mit is a solid pile of brick 37 ft. Iiigh. It con-
sists entirely of brick-work, and Niebiilir, Uich,
and Migiian agree in supyiosing it to be the
remnant of the sacred edilice, and identical with
the Tower of Babel. (Niebuhr, ii. 23tj ; Hich, oH.
4'.t, f)l, &c., 2nd Mom. pans. ; Mignan, 202.)
The particulars given above of the ancient
state of this famous city have been mostly de-
rived from Her()(httiis, bv whom, as already
stated, it was visited after its conquest by ('yriis,
and before it had sustained any material injury.
But if credit be given to later and less trust-
worthy authorities, Babyhin had to boast of still
more extraordinary monuments than any pre-
viously mentioned. Among these may be spccilicd
a tuiinel under the Ku])hrates, and the famous
hanging gardens, containing iie.ar four acres of
land, elevated far above the level of the city, and
be.iring timber trees that would have done no
discredit to the Median forestjs. (Diod. Sic. ii.
7, 9, 10; Strabo, xvi. 738; Curt. v. 1.)
But there are doubts as to the existence of any
one of these structures. Strabo, who describes the
w
• --if'l- .1;
310
BABYLON
iyl
i.ih
i-*5 'Si*
hanninn f^nrdrnH, did not vinit liabylon, nnd cntitd,
thorpforc, prm-ccd only on the report* of othcn*. lie
reprewentA them an conHiHtinK of a Hcrien of ter-
raoen raiMed one above anntlier like neatM in an
amphitheatre, and n>Nting on an-hcH and pillarx,
Honio of the latter lH>iii^ hollow and tilled with
parth. And it iit easy to we that structures of
conitidcrable extent and altitude mi(;ht have l)ecn
raised in this way, and mif:(ht have afforded oc-
commo<lation for a (n'*'<>t variety <if plants, liiit
it is hardly possible to sup|s)se, had these j^nr-
dens been or anythiiiK like the magnitude as-
crilicd t4) them, that they should have esca|)ed the
notice of so curious an observer as llorodotiis.
It is also very doubtful whether the Hal>vlonians
were not i^iioraMt of the arch, and, il' so, the
ditiicullies they would have to encounter in the
construction of the f;ardens would be so much
the greater. On the whole, the presumption a]v
pears to be, cither that the gardens did not exist
nt all, or that they were of such mtNlerate dimen-
sions that their formation could not be regarded
as a work of any extraordinary liitticulty, or likely
to arrest the attention of Herodotus.
The tunnel below the Euphrates, constructed,
we are told, to enable Scmiramis to pass privately
lietwecn her palaces on the opposite sides of the
river, is mentioned onlv by Diodorus. Had it
really existed, it would have been decidedly the
most extraordinary work in Babylon, or, rather,
in the ancient world. But the statements in re-
gard to it do not appear to be entitled to much
regard. The obstacles in the wav of such a work,
es])ecially in the loose alluvial soil on which
Babylon stood, were not of a nature thot the
engineers of tliese days could have overcome.
Herodotus describes the bridge over the river,
which was far less worthy of notice, and less likely
to attract attention than the tunnel. But he does
not say a word res])ecting the latter, and in this
reserve he is followed by Strabo.
The great works of Babylon were all con-
structed of brick, except the bridge, the stones
for which must have been brought from a dis-
tance, since none are found in the alluvial soil
of the country. The bricks are of two kinds,
sun-dried and kiln-dried : thev arc much larger
than the bricks now in use, and generally marked
•with figures or cuneiform letters. Straw or reeds
are mixed with the courses, and bitumen, pro-
cured from Is or Hit, is the usual cement, though
mortar and slime are also frequently used. Such
is the extent of these vast ruins, that nearly all
the cities in the neighbourhood are built from the
materials found there, and the storehouse seems
to be regarded as inexhaustible.
From the death of Scmiramis, Babylon conti-
nued a kind of second capital to Assyria, till the
revolt of Arbaces and Beleses against Sardana-
palus, thirty generations later. It was subsequently
sometimes the capital of the whole country, and
sometimes that of the separate kingdom of Baby-
lonia; but always advancing in grandeur and
prosperity till the days of Nebiichadnczzar, under
whom it may be considered as having reached its
zenith. (Joseph. Antiq. X. xi. 1.) In the midst
of ita glorj', however, the voice of the Jewish
projihet was raised against it. The Median con-
quest was threatened full 1"20 years before its
occurrence ; and ' this glory of kingdoms ' was
doomed to the fate of Sodom and (iomorrah ; to
be swept with the besom of destruction ; to become
a possession for the bittern and pools of water ; a
lair for the wild beasts of the desert, doleful crea-
tures, owls, and satyrs (Isa. xiii. xiv. et pass.) ;
predictions, the accomplishment of which has been
literal and complete. In the rtign of Labynctus,
BACIIARACH
or Delshazzar, son of Xcbuchadnezzar and Nito.
<ris, ('ynis led his ormy against the city. Tnnt-
iiig to their fortiticat ion's, the liabylonians dcridn)
his attempt; but cutting a canal, he divmnl
the course of the Kuphrates, leaving its rhannrl
through the town sutliciently drj- for the pnsNiigc nf
his army. The same tiling had been doiut t,n g
former occasion, by Nitocns, to buihl the bridjfp;
but in this instance an additional work scrnu tii
have been [wrformed in the erection of looks nr
dams,, to preserve the river in its natural counte
till the very moment of attack, and thus nifvent
suspicion of his design ; for had the Hal)yl()niaiiii,
says HertHlotus, been aware of it, they might cnnilv
have enclosed the Persians, as in a trap, anil
effected their total <lestruction. Taking advaiita);i>
however, of a festal occasion, Cyrus drew ofl' the
waters, entered the town by sur])nse, and cnptiireil
it almost without resistance. (Xeii. Cyr. vii. 5 •
Herod. Clio, §191 ; Dan. v.) The sacrecl historian
gives u vivid account of the manner in which the
lost Babylonian king spent the night before hU
death, and of the awfid warning which prcceckd
his tfverthrow. Babylon remained subject to the
Bersian monarchs till the reign of Darius Hys-
taspes, when it revolted, but was again subdued
by stratagem. Darius took away the gates, and
otherwise injured the city, so that its declension
may be fairly dated from his time. Xerxes is
said to have defaced the temple of Belus on his
return from Greece ; but such were the resources
aiid conveniences of the city, that it remained the
winter residence of the Persian monarchs for se-
veral generations. It made no resistance to Alex-
ander, who intended making it the capital of his
gigantic em|)irc. He contemplated, also, tlie re-
storation of the temple ; and having employed
10,000 men for two months, in removing the liitv.
bish, the work was stopped by his death. Sclciicus
Xicator, who, after that event, became monarch (if
Babylonia, founded the city of Seleucia, on the
banks of the Tigris, and made it his ca])ital. Frnm
this time the decline of Babylon was very rapid;
but the mighty city which required ages to rear,
required also ages in which to perish. It was still
important, though in niins, at the commencement
of the Christian lera. (Hennlotus, Thalia, la'J ;
Strabo, xvi. 738 ; Arrian, xvi. ; I'liny, vi. 2(!.)
Its subsequent historj' is unknown. It' is said to
have been turned into a hunting-park by the Par-
thian kings, who overthrew the Seleucidiaii dy-
nasty ; and it is probable that the materials of its
vast buihiings served to construct the newer cities
in its neighbourhoml. It had shrunk to a mere
name in the early days of Arab greatness (Kbn.
llaukel, 70) ; and in the 49.5th Hcgira, a.d, 1101,
was founded the present town of Hillah. (Abul.
Fcda Irak, art. Babel.) The rest of this once
famous district is now, and has been for ages, a de-
solate void ; its buildings masses of shapeless niin.i,
channelled by the weather, and literally the
desolation which the prophet predicted :-^' And
Babylon shall become heaps, a dwelling place 11*
dragons, an astonishment, a hissing, without an
inhabitant.'
BACCARAT, a town of France, dcp. Mcurthe,
cap. cant., on the Meurthe, 16 m. SE. Luneville.
Pop. 4,121 in 18C1. This town is the scatofthe
i)riiicipal manufacture of fiint glass or crystal, iu
•'ranee. It was established so far back as 17(i4 ;
but it did not attain to any very considerable emi-
nence till after the peace" of 1815, when a manu-
facture carried on at Voniche in Belgium was
transferred thither. There are also cotton mills,
and good wine is grown in the neighbourhood.
BACH AKACH, a town of Prussia, prov. Khinc,
at the foot of a steep mountain, on the left bank
czznr and Nit(v
h«! city. Trudt-
yloniaiiR dcriilnl
ial, he diverted
v'iiiK itfi rhannel
r(irtiic|)i»i(Hn>;c(if
been doiK! on a
Ijuilil the hridxe ;
al work dconw in
ction of liH'kn or
In natural coume
ind thus prevent
the ItahyliiniBiiii,
they might cnnily
in a trnp, ami
'aking advaiita);c,
lyrus drew ofl' the
irise, and cnpturcil
[Xen. Cvr. vii. 5 ;
:ic sacred historian
nner in wliich the
f night before his
g which preceded
ned sulyect to the
11 of Darius Hys-
ros again suliducd
'ay tlic gates, and
:hat its (teclcnsinn
time. Xerxes is
Ic of Bclus on his
were the resources
lat it remained the
1 monarclis for «e-
resistttiice to Alcx-
t tl»e caiiital of his
elated, also, tlie re-
having emph)ycd
I removing tlic rul>-
iiis death. Scleucus
became monarch of
of Seleucia, on the
It his capital. From
on was very rapid;
quired ages to rear,
[lerish. It was still
tlie commcnccmeiit
lotus, Thalia, 159 ;
I'liny, vi. 2f..)
i)wn. It is said to
ig-park by the Par-
lie Seleucidiaii dy-
the materials of its
uct the newer cities
shrunk to a mere
■ab greatness (Khii.
Hegira, A.i). 1101,
of Hilltth. (Abul.
rest of this ouoc
been for ages, a di'-
■8 of shapeless ruins,
and literally tlie
predicted:— 'And
dwelling place for
lissing, without an
ance, dc'p, Mcurthc,
, m. SE. Luneville.
n is the scat of the
glass or crystal, iu
far back as ITW;
._, considerable enii-
815, when a manii-
in Belgium was
c also cotton miUs,
neighbourhood,
russia, prov. Uhmc,
in, on the left bauk
BACKEROUNOE
of the Rhine, 2^) m. SSK. Coblentz, on the rollwav
from Cologne to Maycncc. I'op. l,f!IH m iHtil.
flic town IS surrounded by ohi walls, strenglliened
bv eleven towers. Huch'arach is a trunsla'ion or
rorniption of Bacvhi am, or altar of liaccluiH, the
name given to a rot;k in the river, usually covered
with w'lter, but appearing m very dry seasons, or
in those most favourable to the growth of the vine.
Hence the iiomans are said to have sacrillced on
the rock tu Itacchus ; and its appearance is still
hailed as an omen of an excellent vintage. The
iH'^it wine produced here is known as ' Mus-
knteller.'
hAt'KKRGUNCiK, a distr. of Ilindostan, prov.
llengal, div. Dacco, including part of the Sunder-
Imtids, and the mouths of both the (ianges and
llrahmai«>otra ; having N. Dacca, Jellupore <listr.,
K. I'ipinrah and the Hay of liengal, SW. Jesson; ;
area :t,"ytJ !''"♦?• "I- ro- ! estimated jxip. 734,0(10 ;
land revenue '.M,!**!)/. It is mostly covered with
jungle, abounding with alligators and the largest
ila>s of tigers; but in parUs it is vt-y fertile in
rice. It has been noted tor the frctjuency of crime,
csriecially of river jiiracy or dacoity, the coimtry
iiresjeutii'ig great facilities for the shelter of the
culprits. It is subject to inundations that are
utcosionallv very destnictivc.
UAUAJOZ (an. I'u.v Augusta), n city of Spain,
caj). Estremadura, near the Irontier of Portugal, in
an extensive plain in the angle between, ami at
ilic |)oiMt of continence of, the small river Kivillos
with the (juadiana; lit« m, SW. Madrid, 13.j m.
K. Lisbon; lat. 3«« 52' N., long. 0° IV \V. Pop.
'.'3,310 in 1857. The castle, situated on a rock
overhanging the coulluencc of the two rivers,
cumniands them and the town, which is further
defended by various very strong fortitications.
'Hie Guadiana is here crossed by a good bridge of
tweuty-eight arches, erected in 159(i, and [)ro-
tected' by a strong tete du punt. Streets narrow
and crwiked, but they arc well paved and clean,
and the iiouses good. Ii lias tiv. gates, and a line
promenade alon^ ihe river. There is a deliciency
iif springe, and the supply of water is derived from
reservoiw, cisterns, &c. It is the seat of a bishopric,
and the residence of the captain-general of the
lirov. The cathedral has some good paintings,
especially those by Morales, a native of the place ;
and there are several convents and hospitals. It
has manufactories of soap and coarse cloth, with
tanneries and dye-works, and is the seat of a pretty
active trade (mostly contraband) with Portugal.'
Itadajoz is very ancient, having been a con-
siderable place under the Romans. It has always
Leeu regarded as a military post of the greatest
imiKirtanee. During the late war with France, it
was taken by the French under Marshal Soult on
the 10th of Jan., 1811 ; the garrison, amounting
to 15,000 men, becoming prisoners of war. In the
course of the same year it was twice unsuccessfully
besieged by the Anglo-Portuguese army. In the
foUowuig year the siege was undertaken by the
army under the Duke of Wellington ; and, after
icime of the outworks had been carried, it was
taken by storm, after a desperate resistance, on
the 6th of April. On this occasion the allied army
lost about 6,000 men, killed and wounded. The
glor}' of this brilliant achievement was unhappily
tambhed by the excesses committed by the vic-
torious soldiery, despite every effort to prevent
them, on the defenceless inhabitants of the town.
BADALON A, a town of Spain, Catalonia, within
a short distance of the sea, with a castle; 6 m.
NE. Barcelona. Pop. 9,525 in 1857. The climate
is excellent; and the environs are fertile and
beautiful
BADAUMY, a strong hill fortress of Hindostan,
BADEN (GRAND DUCIIY OF) 317
pTov. Ilejapoor, i>ro»id. Itombav, Afi m. NK. Dar-
war; lat. 15" 55' N., long. 75° 'lit' E. Pop. alK)ut
2,500. It consists of fortilU'il hills, with a walled
town at the bottom, containing an inner fort. It
has always been reckoned one of the strongest
hill-fortresses in India, and successfully resisted a
whole Mahratta army. It was taken by storm in
1818, by a division of the army uniler Sir T.
Monro. A remarkable chaotic distribution of rocka
prevails throughout the coinitrv amund liadaumv
HADEN ((iUAND DUCllV OF), in tJ.miany
is bounded on the S. by the Lake of Constance,
with its two arms, the lakes IMtrrUnnen and Xvll,
as fur as Stein, iK-tween which town and Eglisaii,
the territories of the Swiss cantons, SchatVhausen
and Zurich, intervene three times Ijetween thu
Khine and the frontier of liaden. On the W, tho
lihiiie forms the boundary towards Switzerland,
France, and Khcnish liaviiria, with the exception
of a iMirt of the territory of liasel, which lies upon
the right bank of the river. Tt>wards the N. tho
territory of tho grand duchy of Hesse and the
kingdom of Bavaria, and towards the E. the king-
(bun of WUrtendn'rg and Prussia form its b<nni-
duries. It lies between lat. 47° 32' and 49° 47' N.
The surface is exceedingly varied, the length of
the grantl duchy being about 150 m. fnmj N. to S.;
its breadth, in Lower Khine circle, from the Khinu
to the Bavarian frontier, being about 00 m, ; in
the Middle K'hine circle, from the Hhinc U\ tho
frontier of WUrteinberg, about 20 m. ; and in thu
Lake circle, from the s<nne river to the WUrtcm-
berg frontier, extending to nearly 115 m. ; thurt
forming a long irregidar tigure, very narrow in
the centre, but stretching out to some breadth ab
the N. and S. ends. The eastern half of this tract
of country is entirely occupied by a moimtainouit
tract extending from S. to N., undr v the deno-
minations «)f the Black Forest and Odenwald ;
while the western half extending from the fall of
these mountains to the Hhinc is partly an inidii-
lating, but along the banks of that river, mostly
a level country.
Mountains. — Tho Black Forest stretches from
the bunks of the lihine, where that river forms the
Swiss boundary, in a northern direction through
the grand duchy as far as the Neckar, and towards
the E. fur into the kingdom of VVllrtemborg, fall-
ing gradually in the latter direction with prolonged
oft'sets, but suddenly and steeply towards the
valley of the lilune. Its main stock is composed
of gneiss and granite, which form, as in the Vosges,
dome-like masses, with steep sides, rising in tho
Feldberg 4,(>50 ft., in the Belchen 4,397 ft. (this
name is analogous to the Ballans of the Vosges),
and m the lierzogen Horn to 4,300 ft, above the
level of the sea. On the granite red sandstime is
superimposed, and forms extensive plateaux, ca-
pable of cultivation to a great height ; so that not
only extensive forests cover these mountains, but
pastures, and even small villages, are found iu
them at an elevation of 3,500 and 4,000 ft. Deep
valleys, with picturesquely precipitous sides, in-
tersect the sandstone layer, and pour rapid streams,
for the most part navigable for rafts, into the
Valley of the Khine. In some hills as the Knie-
bigs, for instance, the sandstone appears to form
compact isolated masses. 2. The bed of the Nec-
kar, which divides the Black Forest (Schwarzwald)
range from the Odenwald, is also of sandstone,
which alternates in the northern parts of the grand
duchy with blue limestone and marl. The prin-
cipal mass of the Odenwald is likewise, according
to Keferstein (from whose work we take these
details), composed of sandstone, little interrupted
by the rise of the granite. The highest summit,
the Katzenbuchel, 2,180 ft,, lies in Baden; but
^--^
ii
I!
; !ti
I Hj.; ;i
i» ft
rj il
318
tlip j^calor part of tlin cliiiin IicIomj^h to llic >;ri»inl
iliicliy of llcMHP. Iiik(> till' Kliick Forcxt, tUfM'
lici^litM fall Hlt><'|ily loward.H (lie Itliino, ami iiloii);
tlu' foot of the raii),'!^ tlic HeniHtrtiHui; from llciilrl-
U'TK to Frankfort, a roailccli^liratod for |)lctiir<"4(|(i(>
nioiinlaiti Hticncry, iiiiiliii;^ with tlio rich liixii-
riaiico of vi'KC'tatioii of the valley, has Imm-ii oarrieil,
H. The Kai.serMtiihl, in the eirele of tlu^ I'piirr
l{hint>, M fonneil of a ehinip of hei^htH of volcanii;
origin, xoparatetl from tlie iUaek Forest hy the
Dreisam and the Klz, On the rock, called the
Todtenkojif (deatli'H head), n tradition tells tis
that UcMlolpli of llaiwhnrK held a court of jiisti(;e,
■wlionce the name ol Kaiserstnhl (emperor's chair)
is derived. The hi^'hest point is l,7(i.'< I'aris ft. in
elevation. 4. A ranp> of steep hills, stretching from
the l{hine, near StrhatflianHcii, alonj; the W. and
N. siiores of the Lake of Constaiice, is named the
Kanden. The dominant formation of these hills
is limestone ; the highest ]ioint is '2,/i°27 ft. in
height. They rnn into the Hhick Forest on the
W. and N., and on the NK., into tlie hilly district
of Nellenhnrn and lle^jan. The last named ele-
vations are composed of Jura limestone, in which
tlie Imsiilt and other isolated volcanic rocks of
llohendwyl, llohen^totfcln and llolieidiinvcn oc-
enr. it. Finally, the lleiliKcnhcrf;, a ron;;h and
(itcrile tract, rises XK. of the F.ake of Constance,
and slopes down towards itsbaidis ; on its summit,
*J,20(I ft. hiffh, Prince Fnrstenhcrt; has a hnntiiif?
seat, from which there is a line view of the lake
and the Swistt monntains.
Jtirem. — The principal riVer of the pranil duchy
is the Hhine, wiiich receives all its streams ex-
cept the Danube. Aft(T losing itself in the Lake
of Constance, at a distance of 100 m. from its
poiirce, it reappears as a rajiid stream near Stein,
%vhere its breadth is 2.")0 ft., and works its way
through limestone rocks to .Schaft'liaiisen, a little
lielow which place it falls over a jirecipice from
M to CiO ft. in heif;ht. Near Laufenburg the bed
narrows to a width of only 50 ft., forming a rapid
Hcarcely iiderior in grandeur of eflect to the celc-
l)rated"fall at Schaffhauson. At Kheinfelden the
rockv ravines in its bed form a violent eddy, and
all these obstacles preclude the possibility of ren-
dering the stream navigable above Uasel, from
which city onward it takes a northerly anil traii-
ciuil course. Its breadth at ISascl is 750 ft. ; but
its dejith is by no means proiwrtioiuite to this ex-
tent of surface, the stream being in many spots no
more than 3 ft. deep, while its greatest average
depth, between Hasel and Strasbiirg, does not
exceed 10 to 12 ft. At Mannheim the bed of the
river is 1,000 ft. in breadth; but its average ileiith
between Strasburg and Mayence varies between
6 ft. and '24 ft. The fall of the Khine between
Stein and Hasel is stated by Hennitsch to be 703
I'aris ft., and between Hasel and Mannheim 494 ft.
The navigation on the Ithine is the most im-
portant of all the inland water carriage. Between
Hasel and Strasburg bitats of 25 to 30 tons are
used, and between the latter city and Mainz barges
of 120 tons burden. Steamboats go up to Uasel,
notwithstanding the islands and banks formed by
the shifting of the river's bed, and the uncertainty
of its dei)th, which varies after everj' Hood. The
Hhine is spanned by stone bridges at Khel and at
Mannheim, besides several flying bridges.
The greater number of the streams falling into
the Khine on its right bank descend from the
Klack Forest with so rniid a fall that but few of
them are navigable c n for forest wfts. The
most considerable are 1 le Wiebach, which, during
part of its course, founs the frontier of the canton
of Schaff hausen ; the Wiesen, which falls into
the Khine below Basel, the Elz, the Kinzig, whicli
TJADKN (ORAND DUCITY OF)
mill
joins the Khine near Kchl, and the Miirg. Tlio
two last named streams, on which ||u< grciiti'.t
quantity of linduT anil tircwood is fliiatcil liumi,
have a fall of lU'arly M.OOO ft,, in a course niit r\!
cei'ding 00 Fnglish inilcs. The largest H((ci..i,,ii
which the Itliinc receives during its course tliriiii|,'||
the grand duchy is the Ncckar, which Ii«., i,<
source in Wllrtcndierg in the Hlack Forici, nml
al'Icr traversing that kingdom, enters hadcii ni
lli'insheim. It is mivigable for iHtats from t'linii-
stailt near Stuttgart, below which place it isji>iiii'<|
bv the Keins, the Koclier, and the .lax on ji^
right, and the l''n/. on its left bank: it full.s
the Khine near Maimheiin.
2. The Maine forms the frontier towards lln-
varia, but for a short distance, and reccivcN tji).
Tanlier at Wertheim, Its depth is not great, Imt
is regular; and its gentle fall, which is n.sNJMti'il
by the numerous windings of its bed, renders lis
current well adapted to navigation.
3. The Danube, whose sources are in the gmnd
duchy, leaves the territory before it assiinics aiiv
greater importance than that of a iiKiiuiliiiii
stream. Its most westerly source is that of the
IJrcge, between the Kossiik and llrigleiii, in tlic
Hlack Forest, a few miles NVV. Fiirtwangeii, It
is joined a little above Donaneschingen hy the
Bri/.acli, and into their united streams, wliicli
from that )ioint bear the name of Daiiiilir. the
waters fall, which, issuing from the springs in tlic
castle-yard of this town, claim the hoiuuir (jf
being the original sources of the great river. Aftor
traversing a small district of Wllrtetnherg, the
Danube once more enters the territory of Hiidcn,
and tiimlly leaves it at Gutcnstein on the frontiers
of Sigmaringen.
The natural facilities for intenial navigntiim in
the grand duchy bend for the most |iart tcuviinU
the \V. and X., and merge into one grand chamu'l,
the Khine. With the exceitlion of some cuts tn
regulate the course of this river between Kclil
and Mannheim, the execution of which is rc^'u-
lated by a treaty with Bavaria, accordiii}; id
which those on the left bank are inanagcil liy
Baden, and those on the right bank by tlie Ba-
varians, no navigable canals exist in the gruiul
diichy.
The Lake of Constance is an important fcnture
in the natural facilities for water coinmuiiicatiini.
Part of its northern bank, from linnu'iistmlt to
Mersberg, together with tlie whole shore iif its
northern branch, the fycberlhigen See, and the
north shore of the Zeller Sec, with the city of
Constance on its southern shore, belong to liadcii.
\ considerable trade with Switzerland is carried
on across it, and the introduction of steamlMi.its,
which keep ii]) a daily communication between
Constance, Lindaii, and Kolirschach, in Switzer-
land, has made it a ctmvenient jiassnge for travel
lers. The whole lake with its branches coiitniiis,
according to Hennitsch, an area of 'JJ <'''miiii'
sq. m., and its deepest j)art, betw an t'onstancc
and Lindaii, is 85J I'aris ft. Its level ibove the
sea is 1,255 ft., but at the period of the meltiiifjof
the snow its waters rise as much as 10 ft. A sud-
den swell, which takes place at other times, aiid
which is termed the Kuhss, is not easily accounted
for. The lake is not iinfreqiiently frozen over in
wii.ter, and in 1 830 horsemen and carriages passed
over it. The Ilraen See, near I'fullcndorf, in the
Lake circle, and the Miiking See, are rather lish-
ponds than lakes ; and the various meres in tlie
Black Forest, which arc found at considerable
elevations, the largest of which are the Feldsee
at 3,401 ft., the Tittisee 2,598 ft., the Miimmekee
3,130 ft., the Xonnenmattweihr 2,845 ft., and the
Eichner Sec L494 I'aris ft. above the sea, are
IP Murji;. Tlio
It I III' ^TculC't
4 fliiiitcil iliiwn.
nmrHO not (■\.
rKt'r't Hcrii.Hii.ii
coiirm' llirmi^jli
Wllil'll llll,'* ill
lU'k KiircMt, And
iitcrit lliiili'ii lit
iiitM friiiii <'aiin-
)lii('(t it i)* jiiiiiol
llir .lax on it'i
ik: it I'ulU iiitii
ior townnlH Hn-
iiiiil ri'fcivcH ilic
is not iitvnt, liiit
vliifii ii* nssisifd
lifd, renders iu
II.
are in the {jnM
V it axsunies any
of II niounliilii
ce is that of tlu'
, Uriftleiii. in the
Fnrtwanneii. It
est'liingen liy tlic
I Ktrenins, wliicli
[> of Daimlie. the
the s|)riiins in tlie
in the lionuiir ul'
threat river. Alter
VVUrteiiilierj;, the
territory of Itiulcn.
L'in on the frontiers
[>mnl navigfttiim in
most jiiirt townnls
one strand channel,
Ml of some cuts In
vcr lietween Kelil
of wiiieli is rej,'ii-
nria, iieeordui;,' to
are managed hy
t hank hy the lia-
exist in the paiul
h imiiortant feature
Iter eommnnieatiim.
Dm Imnienstiult tn
kvhide shore (if its
Ijtgen See, and the
, with the city df
u', belong to liiidi'ii.
itzerlniid is earrieil
[tion of steauihiiftts,
lumication hetwccn
ichach, in Switzcr-
]iassaf;e ftir trayei
branches contniii",
irea of 'J4 ('"mii"'
Ibetw an (.'onstaiwe
Its level ibovc the
d of the meltini; "f
Lh as 1(1 ft. A siul-
fat other times, fiiu
lot easily aecoimteil
Wlv frozen over in
|nd'carriai,'es pis^''!
IPfullendorf, mtlic
fee, arc rather lisn-
jrions meres in the
hd at considcralile
•h arc the FeWsee
it., tlic Miimmete
fir 2,845 ft., and the
ibovc the sea, are
neither iiiterestiiiK for ihcir rxleiit, nor for |)ie-
tiiresiliic scenery. The last-ineiitioiied lake drieM
inHic.iiiioiinlly, so that corn is sown in its lied;
and ill the Noiiiieiiinult a tlonliiiK island of iiirf
rises and falls with the water which Mii|i|iorts it.
iTimiitr. — The climate in the luoiinlaiiiims |iiiriN
of the diicliy is very severe, the snow lyiii^; in
mmie situations for tlie ^fealer part of the year,
jtiil in the lower distri»'ts, esiieidally aloiif,' the
jihiiic, the Neekar, and the Maine, the tempera-
tiin' is inihl and ({eiiial, heiii^ suitable for the
I'piwtli of vines, eliestniits, and even almonds.
Theopiintry is everywhere healthy.
(Iliscrvati'ins, as to the full of rain, $(ive a mruii
nt Fri'ilmr); of '2H in. iier annum. In Carlsrnhe
the mean variations ot the weather are, '2H cU'iir,
Ki'i suiisliine, Kil mixed, 12 partial cloudy, t)\
cldiidy days in the year. Kuin falls 1 Iti, snow 2t>,
(iiiil I'liK^ occur on 12 <lay». The meii:> direction
(if the winds is, in Oarlsr'uhe, S. «H° W. oi nearly
W., in Mannheim N. (i.')° \V. Tluinderstorn. ■ in
(arlsriihe occur un 2(i, at Mannlieiiii on 21 days
til'' >■'''"'• . , ,
I'rtHhi't'iona, — lleforo the nceession of the >;rund
ilucliv to the (.iermaiiie Cnstonis' Lea^jue, tlie at-
teiitiiiii iif the inhabitantH of the valleys of the
Ithiiie and Neekar was almost ex( lusively devoted
t(i agriculture, for which the soil and climate of
thiist! districts is admirably adapted. Corn is
i;ritwn with >;reat success; the average return
j;ivrii for the whole state by ISerKhaiis liein^;, for
harley 8 to 9 Add, wheat 1» i'oM, mai/e .110 to ;i.')0
harley
fiihl, iMitatot's 28 to iJO fohl. The slopes of the
hills are everywhere covered with vineyards, in
which excellent wine is fjrown, althou>;h only the
N. shore of the Lake of Constance and jiart of the
vale of the Hhino have a S. declivity ; and here
the vicinity of the Alps, the Jura, and tlie Jllack
F(irest, diminish the warmth. Hetween the vines,
the wtthiut, chestnut, pca.^'). ajiricot, jduni, ainl
cherry trees produce abundantly the ehoicest fruit ;
and the valleys above mentioned resemble one
tieautifiil garden. Tobacco, hem]), of a very tine
description, and flax, are extensively cultivated ;
and the forests send annually a large quantity of
exoellcnt lir and oak timber down the Hhine.
Mining is also carried on with partial success.
Silver is found at St. Anton, in the valley of the
Kinzig; copper at Kork and Neustadt; iron is
jirwlucedat Kundern, near Waldshut, near Hansen,
and in other parts of the Black Forest ; manganese
is dug near V'illingen ; salt in two chief beds at
l!aii|)ennu in the circle of Lower lihinc, and at
Diirrlieini, in the Lake cindc. Coals in the neigh-
iKnirhood of Ortenburg ; besides alum, vitriol, and
sulphur, form the principal mineral prodnctioiis.
l'|iwards of sixty mineral springs are counted in
the grand duchy. The thermal springs of Baden
are those which are the liest known and the most
used for medicinal piirixises.
The grand duchy is divided into four circles, the
area of which, and ])opulation, at two periods, is
sliuwn in the subjoined tabic : —
KADKN ((IHAXD DUCIIY OF) «19
l,(M»r»,8!t!>. The nnmliers nugmrnted at o rate of
rather lesN than |ii,<ii)0 souls aimiially. till tho
year |8K!, when there watt a in'riisl of decrease,
extending (ill IH.m. I'rom 18lt> till I8t<.), the de-
crease amounted to '1,712; from IHl!) to IM.V.', to
8,2M2; and from l>*.'>2 to IK,'(,'i, to the large number
of 'I2,liir>, or I4,i):<.'i |M'r annum. .Since 1855, theni
has U'en again a gradual increase.
The decline of iiopnlalion has U'en ehiefly owing
to emigration, l<rom 181(1 to 18 1<), the nnmlH>r of
emigrants was 2;l,!Mit!, and from I8."((» to 1855, it
rose to ti2,ll't. Ill the year I8'i-i, no less tliaii
I'Lltliti people left the country; in |8,'i:i, (he niim-
iK'rs were I2,'.):i2, and in I85'l (liev rose to 2l,5ttl,
Most of the emigrants were families |H>ssessed of
some )iro|K>rty, It was ascertained that the emi-
grants of Moi'l carried with them property amount-
ing to I,li2:i,!li)lt florins, or rather more than IIH)
tlorins — 8/. 7k. — per head. The great majority of
the emigraiiis went to North America; but alsmt
two (ler cent, were induced, previous to 185(1, to
go to the French stUtlemeiits in Algeria. Tho
result of this Algerian emigration proved so dis-
astrous that it has been discontinued,
Reliijiun. — The census of 18(11 showed 8!»('>,('***1
Woman Catholics; 4l5,.5!)il I'rotestants; 1,221
Mennonites; 1,741) other Cliristian l)issenters;
and 24, ODD .lews. The ecclesiastical management
of the Human Catholic Church is under the Arch-
bishop of Freiburg, who is ap|Miinted hy the pope,
and ipiite independent of the graiid-<hical govern-
ment. A standing feud between church and statu
has biX'ii the result of this inde]iundence.
Ai)ricttltnre. — Tho cultivated laiul is ilividcil
OS follows : —
Aral). I.aiifl, |
Kii(j. Atri'i
Tul. Mea- Conimonii,
FornU
1,212,901 3(iO,791 j 301,828 l,l.'i3,300
Vlne7*rdt
60,501
The produce is stated to amount to —
Total J
Proiluci) of routoca.
Corn. <iuarti'r>
' QiiiirMra
Wlna.
In Uili.
Ilrmp.
tjulntali
48,000
Tobnccn.
Quiiiuli
nopi.
Quintal)
10,000
1,728,9G5| C'20,000
13,459,236
90,000
Cireln
Arpa in Kng,
Sq. Mllt'i
Population
1858
1801
Lako . . .
Upper Rhine
Midaie Rlune
Lower Rhine
Total. .
1,.S03
l,C->'
l.t.iy
1,314
195,249
330,403
4.')7,:i27
346,911
198,160
345,913
409,782
355,436
6,904 1 1,335,952
1,369,291
The population of Baden has not greatly in-
creased since the year 181G, when it amounted to
Of the Ccrealia, wheat is grown, but in a small
proiiortion, not exceeding l-30th of the whole.
Spelt is tho grahi of which bread is principally
made. Maize is extensively cultivated, but chiefly
as green food for cattle, being sown thit'k, and
allowed to run up to a great height. Artiflcial
grasses and turnips arc in universal use in tho
vale of the Hhine, in which agriculture, on the
whtde, is carried on upon the best scale, and far
exceeding the cultivation of any other part of
(Jermany. The meadows arc irrigated in tho
Italian stvle, which the nnnierons inountain rills
assist, while the corn-fields ore interspersed with
countless fruit-trees, and even the beds are sur-
rounded with plants of hemp, sown singly, which
attain a remarkable height and thickness. The
best descriptions of wine are those of the Ortenau
and of the valleys of the Maine and Neekar. Tho
Klingenherger and IVertheimer growths are those
most admired. The produce of timber and fire-
wood is estimated ot 978,000 cubic fathoms, of
which a large pmrtion is sent down the Khiiic to
the shiivbiiilders of Holland, ond is known by the
nome of Hollitnderhoh, Masts of 150 ft. in length,
and oaks of the choicest growth, ore yearly felled
in great numbers for exportation to the mouth of
the Khinc.
The number of head of cattle in the grondduchy,
in 1861, amounted to 72,817 horses, G2l,486 horned
fif
in
m
320 BADKN (ORAND DUCHY OF)
rattlf, 177,!»W nhorp, and nO'.Um jiijf).. Of tin*
iijip<<|i, Klxiiit onn-tirih am il(>i*it(iiati>il nn 8|iniiiNli
mi>rln<M<i(, nntl the rout an iinprnvcil tircnU, Tin'
niinilM>r of lN>*'hivi«N in IHill niiiouiitfil U>2ri,Ol7,
An aKriciiUiirnl Hiw<M-inti<m at ('nrlxruhn Iiiim
lirnnchnii in Mwcral other towiiN, an<i |iri/('N ar»
annually dlittriliutp<l to rnoouraKv im|>nivpnu<ntH,
Alining and ManuJ'iirturtt. — (t(>l<l-waMhiii)< wax
fonncrly a |irint'i|inl olijfct of iniliiMtrv ii'omk tlic
lUiino, Vroin ItaM>l to Klannhnm; it U now con -
liiifti t4> tlio (liMtrict iN'lwrcii I'liiliiwIiiirK nn<l Wit-
Icnwi'ier. The mine* of T<'uli'lnKn""l yit'ldeil
fonncrly a itmaU Nutiply of hilvcr, liut which ncchim
now uxhnuNtcil. 'I he niincH of St. Anthony in
tho valley of the Kinzi^, priHliico Hilvcr and colmit
ore, Tho Halt HprinKx ant thu niont priMliiclivc
minernl hranuhcH, thu two iirincipnl onen yielding;
IIOO,(HH) cwtM. annually. Since the acceHnion of
ltH(len to thu I'ruwiian CiiHtomH' I^euKuu the nnm-
lM>r of fnctorieH hax very much inrntiiMvd. In IH2!)
the ^rnnd duchy nundM-riMl llil fuhricH, with '2,7>'><l
worlttneii. AtVho end of lH!t7 tho nundM<r wiim
2!)4, With 9,2HI worknici., and thu cpuhun of IHttI
Kh.-wcd t!,Hr>!» factoricH, cniphiyinK (II.Htl'i work-
men. The principal manufucturinK undertakin^^H
are cotton-itpinidnK and weaving eHtahliHhnientH.
The foruNt and mountain troctH, which iH'cupy ludf
the country, scarcely Hupiily fomi for their Hcanty
inhahitantH, whoHc manutucturcH of clockH, wiNHlen
toyH, Htraw liatx, laco, and cniliroidery, liavu lieen
(<ent, tVom a lonj? date, into all partH of Kun)|M>.
Tlic numl)or of wmHiun clockH annuullv exiHirted
in CHtimal«d to amount to 6U(),00U, iM'HiJen muHical
Hnutt'-boxeH, barrvl-orKann, and other articles for
whitd) the forcHtM furniHh tlie material!*.
The Hubjoiiicd table HhowH the nature of the
manufacturing establinhmcntH in the grand duchy,
together with tho numl)cr of handM employed,
according to the oiHctal returns of tho year 1801: —
FutorlM
Workman
Hpinning
WeavtnK, Cloth, Ribbon Manu-
factures ....
Metals, Iron Works, do.
Metal Wares ....
Mineral and Mixed Goo<lg for
Industrial and Domeittlo Use
Vegetable and Animal Pro-
ducts for Industrial and Uo-
mestio Ubo ....
Wooden Wares, Paper, and
Hardware ....
Articles of Consumption
Other Factories
Total ....
103
2I«
198
909
1,314
813
8,«78
«
0,210
27,382
no2
7,175
3,798
2,740
«,341
18,ft8ft
117
8,889
04,802
Of tho total number of families in tho grand
duchy about 42 per cent, are employed exclu-
sively in agriculture and the forests.
The prosperous state of the agricultural popula-
tion has necessarily acted favourably upon other
branches of industry. The building trade espe-
cially has very much increased, both in the coun-
try and in the towns.
Domestic and manual industry, which had
considerably fallen off in consequence of the
rapid development of the factory system, has
very much Te^•ived of late years. The Baden
government, convinced of the many advantages
which domestic industry possesses over the latter
system as regards the health and moral condition
of the industrial population, have done much in
the last ten years, and are still engaged in pro-
viding the best means for improving the condition
of domestic manufacturers by the establishment of
industrial schools and the general diil'usion of
Hcientitic knowledge. (He|M>ft of Mr. Ilaitlio, \\ex
Majesty's Secretary of Legation, date«i CarUniln.,
Felmiary ir>, IWii.^
t'lirm of (iuvrrnmrnl.—'Vhfi const Itutiiiii nf K,.
den vests the executive |N>wer in the grand-dnlii.
and the legixlative authorily in a hnuse of iMirlig.
nient com|K)Hed of two cliamU-rM. The upiKt
chamlH>r conipriHes the princes of the rel^imiK
liiut who are of age; the headn uf ton imM,'
fatnilies; the prnprielorH of liereiliinrv laiiil<'<| i.,.
tates worth l»(M»,(MMi HoriuH, <.r '}.t\i\ml, ; i)i,. |;,,.
man Catholic archbishop of l-'rei)iiirg; the Nii|Ht-
intendent of the I'nttestant ('hurchi two (l<>|iiiii<i
of univerNilicH ; and eight inendsT^ noniiiiiitni
b^V thu grand-duke, without regard to rank dr
birth. The Hccontl chanilM-r in conijMmed nf i;:!
rcpreHentativcH of the |M'ople, Ti of wliltli w
elected by burgensi's of towns, and 41 bvlhein-
hnbilants of rural iliHtrictH, Kvery citl/eii iK.t
convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, Imi
a vote in tho elections. To \m a deputy, it \*
neeesHary to posHCHH tax-paying pro|H'rty to iln'
amount of t(l,(HM) tlorins, or Kt;i/, ; or to Imlil a
public ofHce with a salary of not less than 1,.'iIhi
llorins, or 1'25/. The cleetionn are inclincf; ilic
('itiiteuH nominating tho Wahlmttnner, or (li'imiv-
electors, and the latter the repreHenlntivcH. Tlic
mendiers of the second chandsT are elected lor
eight years. Tho chamltent have to In; culled Ut-
gcther at least once every two yeuD.
Public Havenue and Krjicmliture, — The chief
income of the state is derived from direct taxcM.
The direct taxes are levitul as follows :— Tlie liml-
tax upon tho estimated value of all lands, cnlru-
lated ac(;onling to sales of landed pn))N'riy in
each <listrict at two periods, viz. between' tlie
years 17HO-tlO and lHO()-!», half the average prion
of the district in the one (tcriod being aililcil tn
half the price in the secoiul, and all lands Immiii;
classed, accoriling to their (pialitv, in several
classes, Tho rent and revenue tax fs h^vied u|i<jii
all dues payable by landholders to their l(iniii,
whether as rent or ser\'ice dues. The cajiital taxed
is calcidatcd at 25 years' purchase for tithes, ami
18 vears' purchase for other dues ; and the cost of
collecti<m is deducted. The house tax is rated
according to a scale of the value of each tenement,
between tho years 180() and 1809. The whole ef
these direct taxes produced above seven millions
of florins in tho year 1802. The sidynined state-
ment gives the total public income and exijendi-
turo fur this period.
In'Come I''oh the Year 1802.
Flortiii
Produce of Crown Lands
. 1,;M6,7'.'4
Forests and Mines .
. 2,.W2,!l-.'l
Direct Taxes .
, 7,(184,»t2
Salt Monopoly
. l,43i»,:i(!;t
Customs
. 3,(i;lH,!»,'.!»
Foes and Fines
7i);i,!t4;»
Mint ....
H22,l)(l!)
Miscellaneous Income .
122,071
Total
17,140,192 or £1,428,349
KxPENorruRB for tiie Tear 1862.
Florini
Civil List .... 752,490
MinUtry of Foreign Affairs . 117.200
„ of Justice . . 1,311,398
„ of the Interior . 2,134,489
„ of Commerce . . 1,335,580
„ of Finances . . 700,524
„ ofWiur . . . 2,918,318
Public Debt .... I,322,;i48
Qenernl Cost of Administration 6,504,733
Miscellaneous Expenses . 247,992
Total .... 10,411,072 or £1,367,581)
Which left a surplus of 729,120 florins, or 00,760/.
Mr. llAlllio, Htt
lnlr<l CnrUnili*',
iMltiitliiii of lla-
)iiiuM> nf (Mirlm-
T», Till' iipiMr
of th« n'l({nmu
lU of ten iiiililc
ililnry Iniuli'il i*
ir),(Mld/. ; till' Un-
idirn; lilt' ""HINT-
vli ; two (l('|nitii<
iiImth iiiiminiiliil
%ntt\ to rank nr
(•(iiiiiHiHcil iif tl:!
Ti or wliioli HP'
iiiil 41 I'y llieiii-
'.ViTV ritl/.i'll Iliil
{ IMihwIi rclit'f, lift*
41 Ik (It'imly, it i*
H |)r<)|M'rty to tin'
»;i/.; or to liiiM 11
lot It'HH tlinn \,:m
I arc iiKlin'ft; tin-
ittnHor, or (li'imtv-
n'Hcntntivi'H, Tlu'
KT nrc «'U't't('(l I'lir
ivo to Ih! eiiU'il tu-
vi'iin.
Mure.— Thf diiff
from lUrcrt taxcu.
oUoWft :— Tln" /fill''-
of all lamlH, calcu-
andwl iirojH'rty in
vi/.. botwpen tli«
f tho avcraijo price
iixl bclnj; aiKlcd tii
and all lamlnlK'inn
iiualitv, ill Nfvt'fttl
tax IS levied u|hiii
Icrs to tlioir lonln,
The oapital taxed
banc for titlios.aud
lies ; and tlie coat »f
ihousc tax iH rated
ije of each tenement,
809. The wli(dc nf
jove HBven millituM
'he subjoined fltftte-
icome and cxiHiiidi-
KR 1802.
Klorlni
k,:M5,7'.'4
b,r..vi,i)'il
r,tm4,i)t3
i,4ni),.'it>3
p,o;m,«.'i»
73;t,!t43
ia'2,071
ri40;mor£l,4M,i»»
1 Tear 1862.
1 Horini
7r)'2,490
, 117,200
1,311 ,398
fc,l 34,489
T,33r.,68()
f 700,W4
b,918,318
I,322,:i48
),.'iG4,733
247,992
1,411,072 or£l,36'.'«'
lo florins, or 6O,7C0;.
T^ADKN (OUANI) Dl'CHY (»!•)
riie I'lililii' ilfbl of lliiileii cniiniitlcd oil .Inn. I,
I'l;!, ipj—
t'lnrliii
1^.1,1, MVIiri'l "11 <l"' I'lowii
l,;iii<l', kv., iN'iii'iiiK no In.
,,p..t 1M78,MI
Ii,„r..i N'lirlnK l)<'l>t . . 2l,«!.':slim
|;„,|,. H iP.bl, (of Wllll'll
.i;;i, ;,."..M» ln'urliig no IiiUtumI fiA.T'fO.yiii
Total .... tMl,2K4,37l or«H,02:i.(IIW
ylrmv. — Tlo' «nn<'(i force of I lie jrniiiil ihirliv it
r.rnii'il I'V i'i>iiwrl|iiii>ii. Siib.-^liliitiiiii, liowcvcr, it
mIImhicI: Ibi' ^iivrrniiirnl uiidcriiikiiiK tlif rliiir;;c
,,l till' !<mii(' at a liveil roNt. In l«tl'.', ilie |irii't'
\vi(H iIm''1 by till' niiiiifier of war iil .Viii tlnrinN, or
|i;/„ fur lilt' troops lit' ilu' iiil'iiiitry ; and to liiM)
ili.riii". iir i"'/.. for ibe caviilry mid iirlillfry. Tbi'
III, f !.i'r\ii'e \* ni\ ycart in tlie iictiM' army, and
imi vi'iirn I'liribi'r iiiH<'ri|illiiii anionj; the iroo|ps nf
ilii' risirvi'. Hut, hm a riilc. iiImhii tln'i' limrllit of
llii' lime i~ (llliiwrii t'l Im' iiiism'iI ihi fii/lipiii;b.
ilie iiipniitial xlrt'iiKlh of the army coiiNisleil, in
l^l'p'.', of—
:, IliKimonts of Tnfiuitry
'.p „ of DriitfipiPiiH
I „ of Arllllcry
Hiiir, lo, . . .
TiPtul .
|ii,!"i7 men
I.N7II ,,
2,077 „ with .'18 ({tiiiR
I4,1M» iiii'ii, with ;1H ^iiliM
Thoai'lniil number of men under nniiN, 'on the
l< ii'i' -fipiptiiiK.' xeldoMi amoiinlH to more tlian be-
iwi'i'ii 7,tiiHi and H,<MI0. In the year IN.V.I, when
ilii'ticriiian l>iet ordered the ' war-fooling',' the
iimiv iiiiiNtered, on an inHpei^tion, '2i\,~2'2 men,
Willi ■),■.'••'.• Iiornes ami f)7 ipieccH of ordttanee.
I'lihlir Eiliicitliim and l'(mr-hiif». — Mdiiealion is
i.'iii|piilMPry in llaiten ; and parents are eompelled,
hvstrii'tly enforced jienalties, to send tlicircbil-
liri'ii to hcIkhpI. It is )iroliiliited also to employ
rliiUrcti in factories, until they have completed
Ihi'ir I'K'veiilli year. In |H(>I , then? was one school
l.if every i')JI(» (pf the population. The university of
lliiilellper){ has a faculty lor Ltilberau, and Frei-
hiir^'ipiie for liipman Catholic theolo^^ical students.
Tlu' fipnner had, in |M(!i», ('p.'( jirofesnors and ll.'IT
>iiiilents; and the latter, 21. J students. The uiii-
vcrsity (pf Ileidelberj; is one of the oldest esta-
llislieil ill (lemianv ; it was fouiided in UWG ; that
ol l'reilpiir>; in ll.'il.
Tliere are minierons charitable institutions for
tile |i(Mpr. kept up by private etlbrts, and, us a rule,
I'lii'li parish maintains those which are unable,
iliMiidli old af;e or illness, to {;ain their subsistence.
Miiee the year 1851, the decrease of pauperism has
Ihcu ^'rniliial and constant, owin^% in part, to
I'Meiisive eniifjratlon. In addition to the rcfjii-
larly iprjianised maintenance of the poor by their
i'«ii iiiiri.-lies, all classes id' civil and reli>;ious
liiiiiiiniiaries have subscription funds for pro\-id-
in^'fipriprphaiis and widows, and savinj^s' banks
are general, to eneoiiriif;e )irovidence amon},'st
Ilie iipwer classes. Ileyoiid tbet.e institutions no
I'i'miiil provisiipu is made for the poor, whose nio-
iliraic habits keep them from beiiif; burdensome.
hi tho larger towns, subsiiliary relief is (generally
;'iven ill the shape of food, clothiiif;) or fuel, from
yiilmitar\' subscriptions raised by the inhabitants.
The re),'ulations as regards settlement in the com-
munes were very despotic until the year 18IJ2,
"lull nearly all the ohl municipal restrict i( pus, as
ivill as the |H)wer of ffuilds, were swept away by
111 w laws, which introduced '(.Jewerbe-FreiheitV
't iiuiustrial freedom. Foreigners and natives are
ui'W at lilitTty to settle wherever they jilease, and
I" exercise any trade, handicraft, or profession.
ftxi'/j and liuilwai/s. — The grand duchy is tra-
v*ei|, ill all directions, by excellent roads and a
Vuu I.
H.MlKM 321
complete network of railways. All the llnrs of
linden are property of tin' stiile, giving a dividend,
on the eapitillexin lldiil, ipf abiPNC I.I per cent. Ill
Ilie year iHii.'. tiie grip>"< iiii'oiiie Ironi railways
nmoii ited III t;,0'.'7.ti;i7 llnrilis; and Ibe expen-
diture lo .'l.li Itl,'.':i8 tloriiis. leaving a siir)pliis of
'.VlN|,.-t!l<l lloriiis, or l!)|,i;')|/. The accounts of tliii
income aiiit ex|iendiiiiri' of the state railways, an
well as of the post ollli'c, are iiol eiileretl ill the
geiicral biidgi '. but fipriii a speiiiil fiiiiil.
//M/ori/.— HiipIi'Ii, an old prov. oi tlic tlernianirt
enii ire, was er<«'tcd into a grand duchy at I bo
('liiignsN of V i. una. ill Ih|.'.. TIh' rii).;iiiiig iMinily
ile^ii'iiiU from llcrtbipid, liiiidgrii\e i.l| /hbriiigi II,
one of the iniwt (Miwerfiil ami iiicritiprippu-i fiimilies
of the mil eelltliry, wIiohc wHI acipiired llie dis-
Irirt of lliiili'ii. Margrave Augii..tuslicorL;'' uiiiied
all the p. •"eM^iiPllN of the two bouses of ll;iili'll Mild
Diirlacb, and received, by the treaties at l.iiiiev ilUi
and I'resbiirg, as additions, the bishopric of ('oii-
staiiie; tbi' Austrian llreisgaii ; part of the palii-
liniite of the bishoprics of Spire, St rasluirg, and
llasel; Ibe county of llanaii l.ichleiiberg ; tbe
(Irtetiaii; Ibe island of IMeiiiaii in the Lake of
("oiistance ; seven free imperial cities; a inirt of
the estati'sof the Ttutonic order, and nine abbeys;
together witli Ibe Novereignly over seven inedi-
ali/.ed nobles of the emjiire. with a terriiipry of ii7
srptienn. in., and •-'■J-.'.nnn inbaiiiiants. Tbe reign-
ing (iranil Duke Frederick siicceedi'd his fallier
ill l«.V.', ami married, in l8,jli, u daughter of King
Williain of rrussia.
Haiikn, ulown and celebrated bathing-place of
Lower Austria, on Ibe F.. bank of an alllueiit of iliu
Danube, at the «ntraiice of a line valley. III m.
SSW, Vienna. Kesidellt po)i., with ibe neigh-
boiiriiig townships of (iulteiibninii and Weikcrs-
(hirf l,l."i(l in I8.'»7. It is increased during tho
summer months by Il.tltlO visitors, amongst whom
are usually tbe einiiemr and oilier members of the
imperial family. 'I'lie presence of mineral springs
here wiis known to the anciciit.s. by whom ibey
were called Aiiiki- Cutiii; from tbe neigbliipuring
mountains; and in I7lii>, when the modern baths
were constructed, Ibe ruins of a IJoinan vapipiir-
batli and other buildings were discovered. There
are It! baths, each ea]uible of at once accoiniuo-
duling from M to IlKt persons.
Th(! waters, according to ilie analysis .if Volta,
cdiitain sulphate and muriate of soda, sulphate and
carbonate of lime and magnesia, sulphate of alu-
mina, and considerable qiiantilies of carlionio
and bydrosiilphuric acid giwits : their tempcraturi!
varies" from 88° to 1)8° Fab. Next to the baths,
the most remarkable buildings are, St, Stephen's
Church, tbe palace of the Arclnliikt! Anthony, the
town-house, and theatre. Then; are many well-
built private bouses; several hospitals and other
charitable institutions; and a lunidsome park and
)iiiblic (ironu'iiade : tin; neighbourhood abipiinds
with natural beauties, and contains various ancient
remains.
llADKV, a town (pf the grand duchy of Itailen,
famous for its hot baths, usually called liadeii
Itadeii, to distinguish it from the watering-place
of the same name near Vienna, romantically situ-
ated in the Middle Khine ( ircle, 21 m.'SSW.
Carlsruhe. Pop. 7,734 in 18lil. It was foniierly
the constant residence of the margraves of liaden,
and the grand duke still usually passes the sumnur
in a \'illa here. The mineral s|)riiigs were well
known to, and apprecijited by, the IJomniis, who
planted a cohniy in if, and gave it the name of
Civitas Aurvlia A<iutnKts. The springs, thirteen
in number, burst out of the rocks at the foot of
the castle terrace. The teniperatiire is not atlecled
by the 8ca.soiis : the hottest arc i}49 Keiiumur,
V
'H'
ilu> ciiIiIcmI ;I7°, a liniiilriiini' Imllrliii;;, in form of
a li'in|il<<, \n (Tct'ti'il over I In- lr»itn>)iji, iw lln'
tiriiirijiitl KpriiiK In 4'itll('il. Dr. (iriiiixillr, K|i<'iik
liiU oi IIiIn Hjirlnt;, "/i^ >>— * 'I'lii' wairr l> |H'rlri'ily
v\vM, \u\» n t'liiiii luiiiniil Hiiifll, II IiimIc Notncwlint
NiiliiMli.iiml mIii'm ilruiik nnir i>wiii"< I'rcini ili<"<|iriii|{,
ii|i|>riMii'liiiiK to iluil of wriik lifiilli,' AiToriliiiK
to II ri'i'i'iit iiiiiilyHii*, iiD M|H'i'iii(' ^riivily ix I'Oilo,
A |iiiil of llii' wiiirr, (!(iiiiiiiiiiii^ 'I'W'xi KriiiiiN, roii
liiiim 'i;V',\ Moli.l iMMticr, rlii> iiriiicijinl iiixri'ilii'iii of
wliii-li Im I'liliiiiiry or I'oniiniin niiIi (lil^rx,); ilii'
next ill iMi|>or(iiiii'<< an- ilu- Hiil|ilinlf, iniiriitli' iiml
I'liriioiiiiii' of liiiic iii^ grH.) ; ilii' n'liiMiiiili'r con
NJ^.iH III' II '•iMiill |ioriioii of tnii^'iii'Nia anil of inni'H
III' iron, Midi alMnii liall' a I'lihii' inrli ornirl ir
mill KiiM in iiililidiin. 'I'liiri' ix lirri- no |iiililii'
liiiililiii^ n|iiiro|iriait'ili>.\rln!<i\i'ly to iln' |inr|iimi'o|'
liiilliiiiK. 'llii' watrr In ioiivi'mmI liy |ii|it'F* to ilic
ililViTi'iit lioii'JM, in wliirli lliiTi' iiri' nnnn'roiiN
tialliN, Hoiiif III' ilii'iii' lii'in^' vrry lii\iiriiiiitl\ lltlnl
ii|i. Itaili'ii-ltadi'ii U oni' of ilii' nioHt ln'iiiiii-
fillly Hiliiiilril ol' ilir Oi'rniiiii IkiIIim, ovi'II hiiiiuinm-
iii;;, in iliiH rrN|M'ri, ijir NiiNHnii llninni'ii, 'I'lii'
Hiirroiniilint; roinitry, witlioni llii' Hiilirnnity ami
Kriiiiili'iiir of Swit/rrltniil, Ih iliNtin^niiflii'il liy a
lili'iiniiip; anil roinaiitif wililni'NN, ami Ih, iim it wi'ri',
n |iri'lnili' to llir AIjm, July ami AiikiimI iirr tin-
Ni'iixoii wlii'ii till- liiiiliM ari> inimt frnini'iili'il ; Imt
vixiiorM, to till' annual niinilicr of I'roni r.',iMiii to
'20,0110, niiiii> ami ^n Iroin May lotti'iolifr. 'I'lirri'
art' II iininlii'r of lianilHoini' linililin^'s.ainon); wliirh,
ItCKiilcM till' li'iii|ili' ovi'r till' t'ru/iiiiiiji, till' Ciinnr-
miliiinnhiinn, with ilH iilaiitalioiiH, in <'onM|iii'iions.
Till' iliin^fonH iiiiilrr llii' AVi/i' SiIiIohh, or luilarf,
art* Nii|)|HHi'il III liavK Ihtii tlii< Ni'at ami priNoiiH of
Hiiiiii> Hi'iTi't mill ilrrailfiil Iriliniial; Imt noliiint;
i-rrlain ii* known of tlicir liiNiory.
IIaiikn, a town of Swit/.iTlaiiil. rant. Aari;iiii,
on tlii> li'fl hank of llii' Liininat, 1 1( in. Nl''.,
Aarini, rop, 'J,!K10 in jHDO. It is Niirroiimli'il liy
walU; bi Ilii; wat of a Irilninal of original jiiri.s-
ilii'lion ; Iuim a pmil town-lioiim', a lianiisoinr
Calliolic I'linri'li, two ronvi'iiiM, an lioM|iiial, nml a
lioiiHi' of I'orri'i'tion. 'I'lii' rivi-r is croM.-nl liy a
wooiti>n liriilK'f. Iliiiti'ii U ri'ii'liratril for itH Imt
liatliH, known to tlii> Itoinanx liy llir iinnir of
Tlurma' t/i'li't-tlviv ; llicy art' at a ftlmrt ili.-ilaiu'i'
from llic town, on lioili hIiIi's tlic rivrr: llir wiitiT
in liic liotlcst liatliM lias a li'ni|n'riitnrf of ;17°
Iti'ainnnr: tlii'V an- inni'li fri'iinintnl liy tlii' inlia-
liilantN of lliiHcl ami /iiricli. 'I'lii' I'lixiroiiH an'
vi'ry lii'iiiilifnl ; ami a ninnln'rof line rot taucs for
till' iini' of stniiiKi'rs arc nrattrri'il ovi-r tlu' m'ij;li-
lionriiif; lii'i^flilH, 'I'lic ili'imtii's of tlir Swis.s nin-
tons iiavo ofti'ii lii'lil tlii'ir ilicts at Hailcii. 'I'lii'
Iri-aty lii'twci'ii I'Vani'i' nml the Miniiiru in 1711
viiM Hi;;n«'<l In^ri!.
1IA1>IA, a town of Aiixtrian Italy, jirov, I'olo-
nina, on tlm Aili^*', l»j ni, W. liy N. l{ovi;;o. l'o|i,
4,!t7(t in iH.">7. It lias n tlni- liridfic ov«r tin' AiIIk*',
ami two I'onvi'iitH for monks; with a mnnnl'ais
fiiri' of cartliciiwarc, anil sonic traiio in I'orii, silk,
lirrwooil, tlax, and li'Htlicr.
l!AllOl-AT(t, a town of Sontlicni Italy, pro v.
Calalirin Ultra, 24 in. S. Cntiin/aro, sitnatcil on a
liill near the m-a. I'op. I.O.V.' in iNfil.
HADONVILLKIf, n town of Franrc, ilip.
jMi'iirtlic, on the IHetti-, 20 m. V.Sll. Liinovilli'.
I'op, 2.711 in IHtil. It has a mnnnfactory of
awls, whii'h proilnccs nliuut 1,00(1,(100 u year, with
falirii's of i-otton and earthi'iiwaro.
J{AK< 'A, a town of Spain, prov. .Jacn, 2(» m, \E.
Jai'ii. Poji. 11,7115 in lNa7. It is Hilnatcd on a
liill, in a fcrtilt' and cxti-iisivc jilaiii; has j;oo(l
Htrci'ts and sipiarcs, one of the latter liein^ adorned
with n superb fountain. Anions the principal
public buildings are the Uuthic cutliedral, tiie col-
hakfin'h hay
li'lfrii of the .Ji'Niiiti) and of ihc oratory, Ihe i'liii|.i|
of the am irtit iiiii\i'r'<iiy, and the priniiii, || in,,
a i'o||i'){iaie I'linrrh, xcvrral pariiili i liiinliia. „„ |
I'liiivi'iiin lor boih ni'Xi'it, iliri'c lionpit.ilii, nn iimi,,
iiileal mii'iciy, and •mine laniii'ricM, llai'i;a i< aiii,
ptiHi'd to iH'i'Opy till' site of llir limiilil llnilia ■
and It Uim the rrxidilire of ni'Veral MonrMi kliL-..
ha>iii|{ Ih'i'Ii Mri'xird I'roiii tin' liiitir in I'^.'s, .\,
this epiH'h its |Hipnlalion in xnid to have niii>iiiiit,,|
III l.'iO.iioO; bill thin !'< probably an eMiu:i,i'riiij,,|,,
The blKlioprii', of which it wni once the ovni, h.i,
triiii'<ferreil |o .lacii in 12 |M; and iim uiiiM'rhiivluii
also been siippresKi'd.
IIAKNA (an. Cimtnt r/w/nwi). a town uf Mimin,
iirciv. rordova, 211 ni, SI''., t'ordova, on tin' \|„r
liclla. I'lip. (tiixMi and districij I I,)'i07 in Im.'i;. |i
has four parish clnirches and live convciiiH, 'rii,r,
are, in lis environs, very prodnclive salt ininit,
IIAI''I''A (an, I'litihon), n sea port town i.n \\v
S\\, coast of the i'^land of Cvpriis, Int. Ill" i; ju
N., lon)f. 112*^ 2ti' 20" v., Tim iiiconsiilcriilili'iiiwn,
not coiiiaiiiini; more than l.ooo inliiih,, miiiiii, ,
Ihc site of the I'amoiiM raphim of aniiipiiiy, i>|ii,h,
after liciiii; destroyed several limes, »as nliiiili Ly
AiiKMstiis, and was thence called /I Hi/»iihi. Iinrin;'
the occupation of Cyprus by the \'i iictialii. IIhII.i
was a lily of considerable wealth and iiii|Hiri;iiiri,
It is iiow nearly deserled, and Is lllled uiih ||„.
mills of chiii'i'hes and palaces lliat are evfrvwliirc
criiniblin|{ to the (^rmiind. The bay is luru'e: Imi
the port, commamled bv a castle on the liiiiili, U
shallow and iinsal'e. ( avc . or railur dui llin;,--
places, have been cut in several of I he rnik-. in
the nci^diboiirhood, some of which are iiiliiiiijinl.
The country round Haifa is friiilhil, and prmliiiTH
considerable supplies of corn, coiioii, nml >llk,
< >ld I'liphos is supposed to have slood iilmiii i; ni,
HK. of I'aphos or IlaiVa, nl a little distanci'lriiinilii'
sea. It was the favourite residence of Venus, Itirn
/Mifi'im (I//)/-/. the place where the sea-lMini piiMi-*
lirst took lip her abodi', and was I'iiiiioih I'diii a
very remote e|iocli for its temples appropriiili'il i>i
her Worship, and for llie rites and prniiviiMH
Iierfornied l»v her votaries. Hence the i-iiillicM
'apliian ami Cyprian applied to Venus:—
' t) VeiiiiM, reifliiii (liiidl I'liiihlipic,
i^pcriu' (Id'cuim Cyprun.'- -
It is worthy of remark that, accordiiiif to Tmi-
tiis, Ihc ^joildcss was not represented at l'ji|iliiu
under the human liK>iie, but under that nl'iicuni,
(Ilisl. lib. ii, § ;l.) There Were also liiii|il(> anl
altars where sacrilices were olVered to llic j,'i»Mi"
in New I'aphos. The ollice ol hin'li ■pric^l nl' llic
I'nphian N'cniis was both lucrative aiiil ImiiiMir
able. Ill proof of this it may be nieiiliiuii'il, ikii
when Ciito was sent to Cyprii.', he reprc^'i'iiti'ii in
I'lolemy that if he snbniilted without I'lKlitinK, >>i'
should not want either for moiiev or luiiiniir*. |i>r
the Koman people would make iiini ;;raiiil |irir<i
of the raphian Venus. (Larelier, iMciiniiri! >ur
Veinis, p. 12.)
HAKKIN'S or nVLOT'S HAY, n liirKo iiilanl
sea, between (■reeiihmd and the NK. vm>l il
America, belweeii «)«'' and 70° N. hit., inuj V^'
and «0° W. loni,'. It extends, from SK. to \\V..
about Jt.'iO 111.; its width varyiiif,' I'ruiii 'Xi» m
somethin^; less than 100 ni. at its N, ciul, in
surface may therefore be estiinaied nl ill"'"'
2(!<i.000 H<i. "m., an area exeeedin^r by ninrc lli.iii.n
half that of the Bailie. In fact, hnwivir, it is
iniich hir^er even than this; its natiiral l«'iiii-
daries beiiif^ evidently Cape Farewell, tlie S. |i('int
of Greenland, and Cape Climlleij;li, on the o'l-i
of Labrador, both nearlv on the (lOth parallel, .wl
respectively in lo" aiid M° \V. loii;;. Tiikiii.'
iliese for it's dimensions, its surface will ammiiii i'
ITilsOOO sq. m.; but it is usual to take I'nr its limin
■lli:,'ll
;irl>
l.llllii
mil
llll
Mil
llllivilllllll
lofV, th«< rhll|«t
li I liiin III"), nil I
|lil,ll>, nil I'lKllr.
lllH'l.'ll i' "111'
lUirii'lit Ifiiiliii i
i MniiflOl kliv.
ti r in \t:x. Ai
I liitvt' niiiiiiiiiiul
nil rxiljfi,iriilii.ii.
lilt' llll' "lilt. W.H
itM uiiiviTKhy liiK
, (I liiwii iif S|.iiiii.
)\H, nil llir M.ir
A, Ml ill l^'iT. 1 1
riilivi'lilK. Iliiri'
livi' xitll liiiliiK,
iiiirt li>»ii nil ill"
i,H, liii.:U" i::'"'
irollHiilrnilili'tiiUM,
II) iiiliilli.. iK'nijih <
riiiniiliiiiy.wliicli,
licit, \Mi» rilmill !■>
il AmjiiHld, Itiirii .;
ir V( iirtiiiii". IliiH.i
til mill iiii|iiirl,iih'.
l„ lillnl Willi 111''
liiit lire cvrrywIiiTi'
,. liny in liirni'; liiil
lie nil llif iMiiiii. U
,r riiiln'i' ilwilliii,'
nil of till' riirk> ill
liirli nil' liiliiiliitiil.
liil'iil, iiu'I I'riiiliiiTi
'oitiiii, mill ^ilk.
iivi- hIiiimIiiIiiiiiI tlni.
lli'irwtmiii'iniiiiilii'
H'lUTIlf VllllH. /'""
;|H> HCIl-lMiril Hlvllll«-<
wm* fmiiiiiiK I'""' !»
(ilcH iiinintriiiiiil 111
Irrt mill |iriin»iiilH
llfiiii' III*' I'll"'"'*
to Vciiu^:—
II riijililuiu',
•nil.'
.^ llCfonrMlf,' toTliri
irVxrllli'il 111 I'lll'li"-
llllilrr tlllll 111' II "'II''
|-,. alnn H'lllplf' ill^'l
IVrctl I" llll' p"l'l'"
il lii^ili-)'"!'"' "' ''"■
rntivc iiml li'iin'iif
!((• nii'iitii'iii''!'''''"
;. lie ri|irri"'iii''il I"
witliiml rinliliiik'. •»'
jmu'V or Imii'iiir'' I"'
L- iiini Hfi""' I'"' "'
Ircliur, Mt'inomi Mir
r.\Y, n liirjjo iiil.iivl
Il tiif Nl'",. I'l'ii'i "'
Troo N. Int., mill •':^
, t'riiiii SK. tiiNW"
lirvinK If""' •'■'"'"
At its N. iii'l. "^
Ltiiniiii'il «t "'"""
llinij; liv miiri> Hum 11
1 fai't, liowt'Vi r. 11 w
I. its iialiiral Imiiii-
Kircwi'll. till' S. l»'ii«
lii.'i^jii, "">'»•;■'*■',
111. tioili iiJirulli'l. nil''
\V. liiiiH- ''"''"'-
Jirl'iicc will iiniouiii i"
ItotakfiWi^li"""
IIAKKIN
ihiiM> tlrvt nuiilitnril, ili<> mliliiioniil N, iwrt In<Iii^
,1, iinitiiii'ii"''' l''ivi«'t 'Hiriiii. (Arriiwiiiiili'i* ,\iiii«,
|! Ill; Itallln'n Vi>y. 1 I'lin liiiKp* rilnriiii". lii. Hll -
i.|M; 'h<»»* Kiwi >'«)>•., iM-Klli Vuny'n V\rM
\,iv.. •'-•i"*-)
JiliHJrni illKCiivrrv hnx Khi.wn tlint llii> NK. nti<l
\ ', .i«»i"< "f AiiH'ri'ii. It" I'lir iiH I '.MP" W., Mf liriikcii
jiiiH intiiiiiii'riilili' i«lmiilx, niiil iliiit Hiitlln'M Itiiy it
iMiiiii'i'inl vviili iiilicr ^rriii liiii'riiiil >(■<"''*'• "'"''>
n. I lull III' lloiii Ilia (ItiiMMH Hi ml \'iiy., !).'l-l l)i).
iiiiil llll' liirjfiT ImikIii III' lliiilMMirM Hay (I'urry 'i Sr-
i.Hiil Viiy.. ■.'•I7-.'H7), ami iil»ii with tin' I'nliir Sni,
lI'iirrVK Fir'<l Vny,, '.'H-a'.'.) 'I'lir Irrill Mnlitir
,fi»ri/N I'liiiiK'i III' ilirn I'lirr jiriijii'rly a|i|iliril in iliiii
^rnil i'\|iiiii«<' III' wiitiT, nIiii'i', liir^i' ai* il i«, il In
ii|ll\ iilK' llllliill^ 1) IIIIIIiIhT nl' I'linriimilN (.'IiII'm ill till'
•liiu'iiliiHv inrtiiniiH I'liaiiiii'l I'liiiiii'cliii^ llic N. At -
liiiiiii' mill llll' Arrlir nci'niw.
llll' wilier III' iIiIn liay ntiaiiiN n KTt'nt ilrplli, llii'
niiixiiiiiiiii lii'iii^ l.ll.'ill I'lilliniiix, anil llili wim t'niiinl
III ii'i^'ri'iit iliNiiiMir rmiii llll- liiml in lal. 7'."^ '.'.'I'
N,. Iiilltf. 7.1'^ 74' \V. 'I'lli' linllnin lllllnl, linWi'ViT,
Im' I'Xiri'iiM'ly tniiiinhiiiioiiN, Hiiiri' Mt in, I'lirilH'r N,
Il itiii ri'iii'lii'il in I'.'O ralliniiiN, 'I'liv Imtiiuii in
Ixili rii<i'K wiiM niml ; Mini tlimij^li, I'miii tlir nTvnivr
i|''|iili, iirrniirM', nriilii'r in.'trct iinr nrumiir niiiMrr
Hill iiriH'iirnl, vi'l a Hinall Htar-liNli uiim Iniiml
!,iii'kiiit( III llll' liiK' lii'liiw till' jiniiil niiirkiiiK i^oo
liiiliiiiiiK, mi t'xlrtiiinliiiary ili'|iili I'nr lil'i' in iIiIn
Int., if III*' rrt'iituri' witi' lirmi^'lit iiji I'miii llii'
|Hiilil imlirnti'il. (Kiim.h'h First Vny., ItH, I'.l'.'.) Ill
ililliri'iil |iiirlN, I'arry rninnl im lintinin in 2iii)
liiiliiiiiiii mill ''till I'lilliniiH, wliilt' ill nilicrN his Irail
ri'iulii'il tlic Kfol'ixl ill -I'll t'lltlinlllN, I'jr* rallinlilN,
mill I'.'ii ratiiiiinx, lli> iiIhii, in a IiIkIi laiitiulf
i:U°), I'liiniil till' ili'jitll til lie l.oril) till lintllH, lint
III' miiiKiiicil tliMl Ino iir 'JOO fallinins nIiihiIiI Ik'
nlliiwiil nil thin lor ilril't nnil nwi'll. (Kirnt Vny,,
oN'.'il, (10.) 'I'lid ti'inju'ratiirc of tlii' water is,
ill iiiniini'r, t'roin 'i'^tolio lower lliaii that of the
air ill till' xliaile; nnil this tciii|ii'raliirc ili'crcasi'H
niili till' ili>)itli. It. wonlil Hi'i'in, however, that
till' Imiiiim tiiiiil is iiretty iniii'nnnly at •2'.»° or
•Jli,i°. (I'lirry's First Voy., 27 ; Ifoss's First Voy.,
A|i|ii'ii., i;i;i,) The nioiith nf this liay or sea lieiiiK
iiiniinls the ,SK., that is, lowanls the a|i|iroa('h nl'
llll' liilal wave, titles are, of eniirse, ex|ierieiieeil
ill its \s liters; hut they ilo not a|i|i('ar to rise to
iiiiy ^ri'iit lii'i>,'lit, esjieeialiy towanls the N. Six
llll iirN I'eet seeins ahiiiit the averaj,'!'. (IJoss's
KiM Vov., 'II, (•< /MiHM.; Parry's First Voy., 27, et
imm,) The nieltiii)r of the vast masses of snow
iiiid ire liriiiliiees very sensilile ilitfereiiees in the
ii{i|ii'iiraiii'emiileoiM|iosilinii of these waters : iiniler
Mirli ilillili'iiee, tliev heeonie tiirliiil ami of a ilirty
liniwn I'liliiiir; their jjravity tliininishiii^, at the
Niiiii' tinie, very niateriallv,' so that the oliserved
ixirimi's in .liily, IH|;», w'ere l't)2lll anil IDMKl.
ll'iirryV First Viiy., 7, 2H.) Strong,' enrreiits. set-
tin;' luwnrils the S., are cxperieneed in Davis's
Mraiiii; anil il was this faet wliieh leil to the lie-
lirf tlint Itiillin's Hay was not lioiiinleil by land
ii|iiin the N., as marked liy its intelligent diseo-
virrr; liuf would yield a direct jiassiijie. in the
MiiiiiiU'r, to the Ari'tic Sea. (lioss'sOtlicial Instr.,
Hm Voy., i(.) ; hut these currents were found not
"Illy toiliininish in intensity with increase of lat.,
I'lit even to run N. in the uiiper jiart of the hay
li'iirry's First Voy., ill) ; while the continuity of
liiiiil rminil lliehay-liead was fully demonstrated hy
111'"*, who, in \H\H, followed very iiearlv the ideii-
iiial truck which UatKii had sailed over 21)0 v«'"rs
I'lfiire. (First Voy., 1 WA, et/MtHa.) Ualliii's liny is full
III iiiileataliims upon lioth its coasts, hut oiily one
I'liiitiimiiiis channel has heen discovered; this is the
>^irJ.Lmm!itpr'ii iSomw/ of Uatlin, to thei'oiitinii-
aiiwi of which to the I'olar Sea, i'arry' gave tlii;
•H HAY MS
imnie of narrow's .Sirnlt. (Kiml Vny., f>'I,) Il ntn*
\V. frnni hit. 7 I";!!!'.! ' N., Ioiik, "h" V \V. It !• now
in the hiuhi'si di'Kn'e iiinimlialili' ihiil ai y 'I'liir
niiili'i Nhoiild exlxi from iliis hay in any direriion.
There are Imi few ishindo in tlit'se waters, jtiKco,
nil the F. nst, in lal. 7n" N., hanr. M-> W. (iiuan),
is a I'linisli whaliiit; siatinii; and Hare or Way-
untl Isle, a little N. of the former, has a<i|iiirril
snme celelirity MS llie place M here one nf the llinxl
lllnilern eXjierlnienlt was made to determilu llie
elllplieily nf the ciirlll. The lU'eelefillinll nl the
peliilliliirn lielweeil l.nndnu mill llli-i plliee \MH
il.i'2'lMil viliriiiinns in a mean »nliir day, slmwiiin "
diniiiiiitinn nf gravity fmm pnle in i'i|iiainr, ei|iiiil
In ■iMi,'i,'i|;i!), and a cnmprensioti of the pnlar iinIh
eipial to , i||^|, (I'arry 's First Vny,, Aiijien.. liiil.)
The Imid in the tiei^rliliourhond is niniiiitiiiuniis,
and in the last de),'ree luirreii ; wood is tniidly
alisent, and the few pliiiits thai are fnuiid are nf
the Inw ^rouiiif,', hardy kind, lilted to eiidnre the
illlellse cnid nf tlie-e ri'>;inU'«, (IIom.i'h First N'ny.,
Apiien., Ill-Ill; I'arry 's Fir'-t \ oy„ /«/n».) The
cniilpni-ilinn nf llie rucks is \ery varinlls, hut uitll
ail iniiiieiise prciinuilcriiiice nf nid I'nnnaliniis
(Kraiiilc and gneiss) ; Inuevioiie is fniuiil, hiii imt
aliundanily ; and triipfi/>/i('(/n) In I'nrm a \ery elia-
racterislic feallire nf these sllnres. Itilsall occurs;
ami rnck nf evcrv kind is hrnii^hl dnwii on the
tlnatill;,' ice. (>l'('ullnch's I'lllier; l;nsf,'s First
Vny., Aliiieii., ril)-.'<2; Parry's First Vny., 2i'., it
IMiHK.) 'rlie hints and aiiiiiials are tlinsc nf the
arctic ri';;iiins neiiernlly ( lidwiird's I'liper; Ifnss'H
First Vny,, ll-til) ; ami in llie waler llie whiilo
and seal are parlienlarly iiiiiiieroiis. Parry, hy
shouiii;; the possiliilily of cin'.Miim- throii^h tho
ice, which always occupies the leiitre of the hay,
jierlnrnied an important service in the whalers,
whose tisheries had hefore heen cniililied to tliii
coast of (ireeiilaiid, where the whales are fewer in
niimlicr, and inferior in iiiiality to those met with
oil the American shore. (First Voy., |H-2;i. 2!t.)
The discovery of a NW. passa>;e to India lian
lieeii a favourite project for iiinre than three ccii-
turies. In this atleinpl. .Sehastitin ( 'ahot led the
way ill I l!»7, when he a|i|irnached this sea as nearly
as the .')r<th parallel of lal. lie was I'nllnwed hy
Marl in Fmhislier, who, hetwcen li')7ll and I.'iTA,
maili' three vnyaffes I'nr the same purpose, eiilercil
liclwcen the shores of (Ireeiilund and Ainerlca. ami
^ave his name to the strait hetwcen Itcsnlutioii
and Cumherlanil islands, .lohii I>avis, heiweeii
loM.'i and l.")«7, made three voya>,'es, and prncecileil
as liirli as l'i«° N, hit. ; his iianie is very prnperly
preserved in that ]inrtinii of the sea which he tra-
versed ; hut the tenn strait (Havis's Stuait) in
not very apiiropriately ajiplied to it, the narrowest
part of the sea lieiii); Hill m. across. Lastly, in
Kilii, Itoliert Itylot, or Hilett, commanded an ex-
peditinii, tilted out hy iirivate adventurers, for
similar discovericH. Hatlin was pilot of this ship;
and the result was the explnration of the Imv to
its very head, and the ascertaiiiini; of all its points,
sounds, and hearings, with a precisinii that has not
heen improved, excejit in the correction of somo
errors of hmf^itiidc. ISylot ami ItalHn not liavin;;
heen followed hy other navi;,'ators for more than
200 years, sus|iicions liejj,aii to he entertained as to
the authenticity of their statements ; and Ilallin's
Hay (N. of 08°), if not actually struck out of the
cliarts, was laid ihiwii in the f^reater nunilier as
doulitfiil. There never, however, was any prohahlo
j^round for this discredit ; and late discoveries have
shown how unjust it was, and have placed the
names of Hattin and Pylot in the lirst class of en-
teriirisin^,; and trustwnrthy navifjators. (Ilakliivt's
('olU'ct. Vov., iii. (;-!>, 2!»-!)li, !tH-ll!>; Purchas's
Pilyrinis, iii. 831-8'l«, &c.; Uoss and Parrv, /m.s-.«.).
Y 2
824
UAFRA
li .^
■I '■
n
-' ' i
: lii
!l
v-(i
HAFHA, n town of Asintic Turkey, pnch. SivaR,
on tliu rifilit l)nnk of the Ki/.il Kmidk, i;) in. nlixvo
wluTc it fnlln into tlic llhick Stn ; Int. 41° !I2' /i'2"
\., Iiinj,'. ;{(>t> II' I.V K. i;niinml('(ljM>p.alnMit;MI<>0.
Itluwiilinc'liridf^canil two nKtsqiius. The onvirons
an- fniiiriil of rice and Hax, ami it« bazont arc wiid
to Im" well s*ii|i|)li('(l.
1IA(JI_)A1), an ini|)ortant prov. or padinlik of
Tiirki'v in Ania, of a trian^nlar form. Ntrcicliinf^
NVV. from the iKtttom of the IVrsinn (iiilf, in ahoiil
•M° to UHO N. Int., nnd lyiiiK liclwccn the Kith and
■l«th dcf^rci! of K. lonfr.,'linvin;c W. and .S. the i;ii-
phrntcx nnd the Araliian dcsprt ; K, Kn/isinn,
mount Znfiros. nnd the I'cmiim prov. of Azcrliijan ;
NW. tlie I'nchalik of Diarlwkr; and N.. Anncniii
and tilt! territories of tlie Kurdish tdiief of ,)idn-
nK'rick. This immense tract extends over an area
of above 1(10,000 sq. m., and comprises the whole
of th(! aiieient Hiihi/lotiin nnd Untlihii, and the
j;Teater pari of Aum/riu Pro/jcr liud SiiHiiina. I'.x-
eepl where it is blinnded on tlie W. by the K\\-
phrntes, th(! prov. is traversed in its whole extent
iiy this f^reat river and its rival the Tip-is, and by
the},'realer and lesser Znb, the Dinln. and other
alHnents of the latter. It is natnrally divided into
three ])orti()iis, vi/. 1st, the country between the
Arabian desert and the Kn]ihrates; 2n(l, that be-
tween till' latter and the Ti^cris, the Mvso/Hitiimio
of the ancients ; nnd, Hrd, the conntry to tlie E. of
th(( Tigris. That portion (>f Mesopotamia .S. of
the city of Itaj^dad is now called Iruk-Aruhin. and
that to the N. of Bagdad, Ahieziruh, or the island.
The soil and appearance diHer widely in dill'erent
jiarts. At present its most fertile ])ortion is that
silnated between mount Zaj^ros and the Tifj;ris, N.
to Mosul. The tract lyiii^ botwen the two grent
rivers, one of the richest, best-cultivnted, and most
popidoiis rej;ions of the ancient worh' is now, in
most parts, an absolute desert, throufjh the mis-
pivernnient to which it has been subjected. ' The
uii;,dily cities of Nineveh, Babylon, Seleucia. and
< !tesiphon Imvc crumbled into dust: the humble
tent of the Arab now occnpie.s the spot formerly
adorned with the jtalaces of kin^fs; and his flocks
]irocure but a scanty pittance of food, amidst t\\'.-
i'nllen frnj^ments of nncient maf^nilicence. The
banks of thci Kiiphrates and Tif^is, once soprolitic,
are, for the most part, covered with impenetrable
brushwood; and the interior of the jirov., whicii
was traversed and fertilised by innumerable canals,
is destitute of either inhabitai^ts or vefjetatioii.'
(Kinneir's Persian I'^mp., p. 2.')7.) The country W.
of the Kuphrates is but of limited cxtcn*^, and at a
short distimce from the river becomes an arid waste.
'J"he climate in the S. jmrts in June, July, and
Aufjnst, is excee<lin{jly lot during the day ; but
the ni^lits are always cool, and iires are absolutely
necessary in winter. Tht prevailiuf; wind is from
the XW. The Simoom (see Ahaiiia) is more com-
mon at lia^dad than in other [)arts of the prov.;
but, in fi-eneral, it is fatal only to stranj^ers, the
Arabs beinj;, in m.ist instmices, aware of iis i\\ -
proach. It would be easy, wore the {^overnmen.,
not proverbial for imbecility and ij^norance, to re-
store some portion of the ancient prosperity of
Mesopotamia. Faw countries are bleat with a
finer soil, (tr arc capable of boinj? lultivated with
less labour. The iMiphrares and Tif^s, which are
seldom more than oO in. apart, approach in tlu; lati-
tu<le of IJat^d id to wii hin 20 in, of each other, and
nllbrdan inexhan.-iible snpplv of the linest water.
They rise twice a year (see EuriiiiATKs), and as
the water is then nearly on a level with the surface
of tlic (daiii, the irrij^ation, so indisjiensable to
countries like this, is effected with the utmost fa-
cility. But the insecurity of |>roperty rciidjrs these
Advantages of no avail. Under tl.tstupid despo-
BAODAD
tism of the Turku, the cultivators, linble nt „i)
tiiiKs to have their lields laid waste and ilnir
habitations pillaged liy the myrmidons of tlmsc ii
power, avoid, as r.iuch as possible, all Miri« ,,1
labour. Here, as in all similarly situated coiiniri(~.
the natives restrict their tilla^je to the inniicilim,'
vicinity of towns and vilhifjes; nnd it isonlvin
rare instances, and under peculiar cininnsiui'i,,,.
that cultivation is prosecuted on a lar^^i.^ sfiijc, aiiij
with anythin;^ like adequate vij{our. Tlie]irii(|ihi<
of this naturally fertile rej;ioii are alike variniis
and valnabU'. Excellent crops are raiscil uf
wheat, barley, rice, maiz>', and other f;raiii,H; ii,
bacco, hemp and llnx, cotton, itc, nre ciiliivaicij:
dates are an object of much attention, nrercckcincil
of a peciiliarlv f^ood (|unlity, and are alni(i>i i^
niiicli prized here as in Ariibia. The nKniniiiiii.
in the E. and N. jmrts of the prov. are rcvcrcl
with vast forests, consisting priiici|)tdly of onks,
whi(,'li furnish the best pill nuts brou;;h't IVdiii tlii'
E. The horses of this prov. have been Idin.' rr-
nowned. They nre small, beiiif,' seldom niori' tliaii
II hands bifih, do(tile, never known to be viciini^,
and capable of underpiiiif; a vast deal of fnli;;ii(.,
The camel, however, is at once the most ('111111111111
and most useful of the doinesti<'ated aiiiiiiMis
Mules and asses are both met with in coiisi(|ir,ilp!i'
numbers; buffaloes nre kept for the sake nf tiiiir
milk, and oxen for agricultural imriposes. Aiikhi;;
wild animals are lions, panthers, hyenas, jackals,
wolves, and wild boars. vVIl sorts of poultry are
bred except the turkey : ostriches are foiniil in i\w
deserts, and black partridp's nre common mi tiip
banks of rivers. There are no menus by wliicli id
form any accurate estimate of the imp. nf ihii
]>achalik; but it probably exceeds l,;)(M),i|uii— a
number hardly, perhaiis, equal to the )iop. of citlur
Nineveh or Babyhni. The |)op. consists of Turks
Arabs, Kurds, Turkmans, Armenians, and ,Icws
The ))rov, is only partiallj' subject to the I'urii-,
The chiefs or sheiks of the Arabs and Knnls, wlm
are masters of the whole country beyond tlu' pro-
cincts of the towns, nre frequently nt open wnrwiili
each other. They are bound to furnish the imclui
with a certain number of troops and a certain
amount of tribute; but these coiitinp'iits are al-
ways very irref^ularly paid : and, in many iiistaiicf.-.
the chiefs acknowledge only a nominul depciKlciicc
on the I'orte.
IJa(ji)AI), a famous city of Asiatic Turkey, liJiy
the cap. of the caliphate, and now of the alidvi'
prov., on the Tigris, about I'JG m. in a direit liiii'
from the junction of the latter with the Eiipliriiti's.
Lat. 'A'A° VS 40" N., hmg. 41° 24' 4.")" E. I'up.
variously estimated, but may probably aiiioiuit to
about 90,000, principally Arabs and' Turks. It
stands on both banks of the river, whicli is liciv
about 620 feet across, but the larger portimi is cm
the E. side : thu communication between its nvn
divisions is maintained by means of a hriii;;!' vi
boats. It is of an oblong shape, is surrouiuiwl liy
a high wall of brick and mud, about 5 m. in ciri.,
tlankcd at regular distances with towers, some nf
which, of an immense size, were built by the earlier
caliphs. There are 6 gates, 3 on each side tlif
river. The castle at the N. comer of the city
commands the passage of the Tigris, but is a plaoe
of no stren ,ctli. The town is meanly built ; streets
so narrow hat where two horseineii meet tliey eaii
hardly jia: s each other. The ba/ars, tlimi^'li ex-
tensive rod well supplied, are far from liaiiilsmm'.
Few o'' the ancient buildings remain ; Imt tlie-f
■ ..- .!.• I'nr .superior in elegance and solidity I" the
more modem structures. Of the Conner, tlie iii"st
worthy of notice nre the gate of the 'rnli>iiinii; a
hifty minaret built in 7)^5; the loinb of Znl'eiil.i.
the most beloved of the wives of Ilarmm-al-
rs, Vml)ln at nil
iVilHlc mill their
itlolis til' tliosc \>\
Me, nil wirtH >A
iluiilt'iU'niiiitrii-.
I) (he iiiiiiii'iliiiii'
lUiil it is iiiily ill
iir circuinstaiiii.,
I lurtjcr sciilc, mill
iiir. 'I'lif )iri"liiiis
ur« iilikc variiiiM
IS iin^ riiiw'il III'
other urains; In
I',, nri' cullivatcil;
ititm, nrc rcikmicil
111(1 lire ninitisi «>
I. 'I'lif niiiimliiiii-
prov. aro ciivircil
niu'ipnlly i>( miks.
t Imiii^lil t'mm ilie
mve Iktii Imii.' n-
; seldom niurc tliiin
iiowii to lie viiiiiiis
list (leal of fali;;iii'.
1 tlie most ciiiiiniiiii
lestifiiled aiiiiniiU.
vitli ill eoiisiiliralili'
If the sake ol' tlicir
puqioses, Amiiii;;
ers, hyenas, jaikiils.
sorts of poultry nrc
lies are fouiul in tin-
ire common on tlip
moniis liy wlii'li I'l
of the pop. of llii*
cceeds 1 ,;J(iO,ilOii-a
to thejMip. ofiMtliir
ip. consists of 'I'urKs,
•meniaiis, and .lew-,
iiibject to the I'orti'.
•alts and Kurds, \\\m
iitry beyond the iw-
iitlv atlipenwarwiili
to 'furnish the imilw
■ooiis and a ctrlaiii
contingents arc iil-
|d, ill many instanciN
nominaldeiieiukiicr
.Asiatic Turkey, kiiy
Id now of the aliovc
Vi m. in a dirett lim'
with the iMiiihraU'^.
[lo -it' 40" !•:. l''i|i.
probably amoimt m
[•abs and Turks, it
river, which is lii'i'i'
[, lar^;er (lortiim is "»
[ion l)etweeii its t\v»
lieans of a hriil;;*' "'
tpe, is surroiiiiilwl liy
[l, about i') m. in n^..
Witli towers, soiiu' "l
Ire built by the eiirlior
3 on each side t"*'
I. corner of the niy
TiLTii*. hut is a iilaeT
nieaiilv built ;str€ds
ii.men' meet they can
ba/ars, thon;;li ex-
far from lianilsiiinc.
ts remain ; hm tln'-^
"c and solidity t" m
"tlio former, tUc i"'"'
I of the Talisniii'V;'
be tomb of/..itici'i;i-
lives of Uaroinwi-
HAGNACAVALLO
llivcliid. Tlic famous Mndreimii Mtixtnn»iToi, or
(iilleije fi'iiii'l*"' '" ''-•*•' hv the caliph Mostnimer,
mill I'l'iK •''* '"'"^ attended and most ccdclirateil
.iiiiiiiary in the I'.., still exists; but ifimHtnin mii-
liitiis! It is converted into a klmn or earavansera.
anil its olil kitchen into the custoiii-hoiisi'! (Nie-
liiilir.) Nothinj^ remains of tlu^ far-famed piilace
iilllie oalijilis ; ftiain niinw /leriere ; anil the spot
wJiiTo it stood is not even Hs(;ertnined, Tlic only
ji.'iiiilsiiinc modern edilice is the tomli niid Mtnc-
iiiarv of a famous .Sooni doctor, the patron saint
iif till' town, who tloiirislied anno IIei;ira olif).
lliDidad was recently u jilace of jj;r('at trade, and
the resort of merchants from almost every (piarter
III' the K. It Hupjdied Asia Minor. Syria, and part
III' Kiimpe with Indian commodities, which were
iniiHirieil at liassora, brought in l)oats up the
'fi^rris.aiid then transported l)y caravans to Toctit,
I'liiistaiiliiiople, Aleppo, Damascus, and the W.
iiiiris of I'ersiiu The chief imports from India are
;;iilil lirocade, cloths, siipir, pepper, tin, sniidal-
ttiKiil, iron, cliina-ware, spices, cutlery, arms, and
hrnad cloth ; in return for which they send bullion,
<ii|ilH'r, pill-nuts, tamarisk, leather, and olto of
fuses. From Aleppo are imported r.uro|)ean silk
sliilfs, broad cloth, steel, cochineal, pdd thread,
anil several other Kuropean articdes, brought in
(ireek vessels to Scand(Toon, The imports from
i'lTsia are shawls, carpets, silk, cotton, white cloth,
li'Silier, and satl'ron ; and those from Constanti-
iiiiple are bullion, furs, ^(dd and silver thread,
jewels, brocade, velvets, and otto <tf roses. The
liriiieipal manufacture i.s that of red and yeUow
ieaiher, which is much esteemed; but silk and
eniiiiii stull's are also pnHliiced. Of late years,
hiiwever, the trade of the city has a j^ood deal de-
1 'lined, in consetpience principally »( the inidiility
111' ilie pivernment to repress the attacks and ex-
aiiiims of the Arabs.
The climate, notwithstandinjj its fcrw»t heat, is
ailmitled to be very healthy; but the natives arc,
wiiliiiiit exceptiitn,"thc nfj;liest jieople in the Turkish
einiiire, and art! univcrhally subject to a cutaneous
illsiinler simihir to that wliich previiils in iVleppo
(wliieli see). In this city, though the former cap.
el' the scientilic world, readin;^ ami writiiif; are
rare acconiplishinents : and when Xiebuhr was
here, there wjls ntit a dealer in bt)tiks in the town,
imraiiy means of prticiiriiifr a siiij;le volume.
liagilad was founded by Al Munsour, second
(iilipii tif the Abassides, a.T). 7(!3, and is saitl to
liave been jirincipally ftirmcd out of the ruins t)f
ilie ancient city of Ctcsiphon. It was f^reat ly en-
lar;;cd and athirnetl by the f^rantlsoii tifit.-i fouiiilcr,
liie famous llaroun-al-l!aschitl. It ctintinued to
llourish, and to be the principal seat of learning;
aiiil the arts, till I'io'.), when it \»as taken and
,-;iike(l liy llolakoo,f;raiidsont>f Genghis Khan. It
lias since uiiilerjjone various chaiif^cs, aiitl has suc-
cessively fallen into the hands of the Persians and
fiirks. The latter, however, have helil it since
ii'wM, when it surrendered, on capitulation, after a
iirave resistance. The term* of the capitulation
V ere, that the lives antl proper' v of the inhabitants
AmM he saved ; but the bh)otl -thirsty conqueror,
Amurath IV., rej^artlless of this convention, bar-
liunmsly massacred a larf^e jirtiptirtion of the in-
liahitants. It was iiiettectually besicfjed by Natlir
Miah. (Kinueir's Persia, pp. •24(;-2.J2 ; Niebuhr,
Veya^'C eu ^Vriibie, ii. jip, 2o!J-2i;7.)
liAtiXA-CAVALLO, a town tif Central Italy,
liMv. liavcnna, t)n the Siiiti, 12 m. W. Havenna.
l'"!). 13,527 in KStil. It has establisliments for
'lie spinniiiu; of silk ; aiul largo tiuautities of hemp
are enltivated in its environs, which arc also pro-
Jiictivc (if corn. itc.
IIAUNA LOUKA, or BANGALUKA, a town
BAGNKHES-EN-BIOORRE
32.'i
of Euro) lean Turkey, in Ihisiiia, on tho Verbas,
cap. sanjiak, :M m. 8. Gradiska; hit. 14° .W N.,
long. 17'':r K. IN^i. estimated at 7,000. It stands
in a fertih^ valley, is deft>iitled by a castle, and was
for some time the cap. of a pachalik. It has nume-
rous mosrpies, two public liaths, a powder manu-
factory, whi(di furnishes the best in the country,
and various baxars. The inhabitantH art^ partly
Turks anil partly (ireeks antl Jews. .Splendid
h(irst>s are bretl in the environs of the town, and
thriiiighoiit the sanjiak.
H.UiNAKA, a town and castle of Central Italy,
prov. Ilaveniia, on the Santerno, 7 ra, NNVV. Fa-
eii/.a. Pop. l,74li in !«<!!.
llAONAiiA, a sea-port town of Southern Italv,
prov. h'eggio, It) m. NK. Heggio. Pop. «..'):17 in
iMiil. It has a considerable tra(h! in Muscat wine,
]iro(hi('e(l ill the viidiiity, and in wood and tar.
IJagnara snIVered severely from an earthtpiake in
17Nlt. It is sup])osetl by some geograjdiers to be
the Portiis Orestis of tlit? ancients.
HAtiXAHICA, a town of Central Ttalv, prov.
Viterbo, Hi in. N. Viterbo. Pop. 2,H!I7 in l«i>l.
It is situated on a hill, and is the seat of a bi-
shopri(\
l{A(;XI01{ES-I)l':-LUCIIOX,a town of France,
dep. Haute (iaronne, 24 SSW. .St.tiandcns. I'op.
;{,;i7<i in IHtil. It is situated in the beautiful
valley of the Luchon, at the ftnit of the Pyrenees,
within nluiiit 5 m. of the Sjianish frontier. It is
celebrated for its mineral waters, wlii(di, as well
as those of Hagneres-en-Higorre, were known to
the Romans. The town is increasing and im-
proving, and possesses all the establishment.s ))e-
culiar to a wcll-fre(|uented watering jdace. The
II(")tcl des Thcrines is the principal e(lili(-'o. In
winter the climate is very .severe, and the town is
(h'serted not nierelv by visitors, but even by n
jiortion of its inhabitants. There are nine niiiicral
springs, all nf wliich issue from a rock at the foot
of the adjacent mountains; their tein|H'rature
varies from 2(1° to ri2° of Reaumur; they have a
fetid smell, and are said to he very elHcacioiis in
a variety of coinjilaiiits. More invalids resort io
Ihlgneres-de-Liichon than to either Bagiieres-en-
IJigorre or IJoiirges. The season lasts from M;iy
till October, and upwards of 1,500 strangers may
be accommodated. The avenues of trees leading
to the baths are as line as can be imagined. In
the neighbourhood of the town, among the- Py-
renees, is the wild s(ditarv lake of Seciilcgo.
I5AGN i:^ RKS-KX-iJlGOHRl':, a town of France,
dep. llautes I'yreiiees, can. arroiid., on the left
bank of the Adoiir, in a debghtful situation at the
entrance to the valley of Campan, and the foot of
a lliiely-wooded hill. 1;{ m. SSK. Tarbes. Po|).
il.tdit in lS(;i. liagncrcs is the Itath or Chelten-
ham of France, and is indebted for its celebrity
and importance to its lutt mineral si)rings, wbiidi
were known and resorted to by the Roniaii.s. The
waters have no peculiar taste, but are aperient and
tonic. During spring and autumn the town is
crowded with invalids and ]deasure-huiiters from
most parts of I'" ranee, aad by« many foreigners,
jtarticularly Russians and I'Jiglish. The town has
not been built on any regular i)ian, but has in-
creased according to the iiiliux of ctmipany. It
has stmie good streets, with very excelleiii bouses,
and good inns and hotels. Streets well jiaved,
clean, and well watered. The iiromenade, called
Cuimtoiis, ill the cciilre of the town, is ornaineiited
with a fountain ; there an; several delightful drives
and iironu.'iiades in the vhdiiity ; and it alsoall'ords
the liiiest excursions for i;he botanist, mineralogist,
and .be lovers of the picturesque, 'i'bere iire l><
orlwcnls' baths: "I'^acli is under tlu! direction of ;i
nieelical inspector, who muiit be cun»iilted before
^
af
C'-Tj
BAGNOLRS
iifl
iiiiv fiiip is prrmittod to rmiiloy ilio wntrrs, lie is
(laiil Ity f^ovcriiincnt, nnd thrrcfon' llH'coiisuUntioii
fd.Hls iKilliiii;;; niid tlut (>x|)<-nsR of the liiilli i.s not
more lliiin n fmiic' (Iiif^liH h Switzerland, |i. 2M.)
The |irinri|inl Imth, or tiiat eaUed JJii Salut, is
situated in a ravine about \ h-a(;)u^ from the town,
lta;^n^res lias n eourt of orif^inal jurisdiction, a
(■olle;^e, an h(m)iital, with a theatre, concert hall,
and numerous itlaces of entertuiimieiit. It liaM
also fabrics of banios (a kind of woollen stulf),
linen, ('famines, crajie, and |m|ier. On the road to
Tarbes is a moniunent in black ami white marble,
in honour of Count Se^ur,
IlAtiNOI.E!^, a Alla^e of France, d<<p. Onu',
iv> a solitary valley, lit m. K. by S. Donifront,
'i'his vilhifje, celebrated for its mineral sprinj^s,
was built in the I7tli century, tlu! spriiij^'s having
been discovered i,i tin? preceiliuf; century. During
(he last twenty vears it has been embellished with
some new and efepuit buildintfs, and in its envi-
rons are extensive plantations that att'ord line pro-
menades. In 1M22 an establishment for tin; use of
the military' was founded here, eai);d)le of accom-
modating; about 2(M) invalids, Tlu tem))erature
of the water is about 2t!° centijfrad.'. This is the
oidy mineral spring in the ci-devant prov. of Nor-
mandy.
HAtiXOLI. a town of Southern Italy, prov.
Sannio. !) m. SW. Trivento, on the declivity of a
hill. ro|i. 'l,<!(l^S in iMttl. It has live churches, an
abbey, and an hospital.
liA(;N()L(), a town of Xortlieni Italy, « m. S.
Ilrescia, on tbc hi;„'li road from lirescia to Cre-
mona, i'op. '2,«!)1 in IHdl.
Ha(1N(il(), a town of Southern Italy, prov, Prin-
eipalo ritra, on the dcclivilv of ^lonte Calvello,
!) m, SW. St. An^^elo de Louibjirdi. l'o|). 4,Hl(i
in 18(il. It has ft tine collegiate church, and seve-
ral convents.
ISAtiNOLS, a town of France, d(>p. Gard. cap.
cant., near the Ceze, on a rock 2') m. NNIO.
Nismes. I'o)). ,5.()l!(l in 1K(>1. It is generally
ill-built, but has a g I s(piare, adorned with a
]iuiili(^ fountain. It has a college, an hospital,
with (ilaturcs of silk, dye works, hat makers, and
tanners.
JiAGOLINO, a town of Xorthern Italy, jirov.
I'rescia, on the CaH'aro. 2 I m. N N I',. IJrescia. I'op.
ii.'.i'iO in 18(il. It has several forges for the maini-
f u'ture of iron and steel.
IJAGULCOT, a subdivision of (he district. Dar-
war, Kiudiistan, prov. liejapnor, presid. Hombay,
including the ])erguniiahs IJagulcotaiid IJadaumy,
Si;apo irregular; length M m., breadth 41 m, ;
arei! about 1,2:)<I sq. m, I'op, estimated at about
](I0,0()(), It is bouniled N K. by the Krishna river,
but is badly watered, as well from the want of
rntnnng streams and largo wells, iis the general
dcHciency of rain, which in some years does not ex-
reed 2(i inches, aquantitj- surpassed in one month
of the SW. monsoon near the coast. Garden cul-
ture is conseciueutly very limited, and most of
the villages are on the banks of the larger rivers.
In 1820 these perginmahs contained ."ill) iMliabited
townships, including the towns of Hagnlcot, iia-
daimiy, Koroor, Senior, and I'erwalee. Under the
Mahriittas. who obtained them in 17o;), they were
the theatre of violence and rajune; but after their
transfer to the British gov. in 1818, a rajild and
complete cli.inge took place, and they soon became
singularly noted for the absence of crime.
i!Aoui.<X)T, a town of lliiidnstan, cap, of the
above district, and of a pergunnali. Top, estimated
nt about '.l,0()(». It is the residence of the princi[)al
merchants and bankers.
15AGIjH, an inland <livision of Ilindostan, aii-
cieiitiy described us a seiiarate, though minor
BAHAMAS (THR)
prov,, l)ut more recently attached to the pmv.
Malwa and Giijrat, In'tween which it lies, in alKnii
21° X. lat., and 74 K, long. It consists of n hillv
country, tlu^ several ranges of which run X, ami >.,
decreasing in height from Malwa to Gujr.it. anii
mostly covered with thick low jungle t'orcsts mI'
teak, black-wood, Ac. It is iiidift'erently wntincl.
and the climate for a considerable jiart of iln.
year is rettkoned unhealthy. From the (Irst laiiM'
the ground is comparatively improdiictive; tlii'
digging of wells, &c.. is also attended with i;ri,ii
labour and expense, but reservoirs are sometiinis
eonstructed by throwing an cnibankmeiit acriM
the strcjim of a narrow valley. The |iop. coii:«i>is
chielly of HlieeLs and Meenas, under various iiciiv
chiefs : many vestiges of antiquity lie scnttcnil
over its surface ; but at present this divisiim inii-
tains no inhabited places of any importaiur. ex-
cept the towns of Doongurpooz, Uauswarra, aiul
Saiigwara.
HAMAJIAS (THE) consist of several hundmi
islands, of various magnitiules, extending in a
SK. and XW. dire(;tioii, between Hayti ami I'l.i.
rida, neailvtidll ni, from Turk's Island, in 2I°l',T,
to the Miintaiiilla h'eef, in 27° o(t' X, lat.. nii.l
from 70° .SO' to 7!l° .'>' W, long. They are iiiostK-
of coral-line formation, low, llat, and but siaiiiilv
covered with soil, and the greater number nt tin m
uniiihabite<l. They belong to great Itritiiin. si.
Salva(U)r, one of these islands, was the tirsi lainl
discovered by Columbus, on the 12th of Ort. 1 ,'s:.
Like the neighbouring islands, it was (IciimK
peo)iIed by Indians, who were harmless and iii-
ofFensive. The most important of the group, Iih»-
ever, from its harbour ani situation with ri'.<|iir|
to the Florida channel, is Xew Proviileiice; ninl,
as this is the residence of the governor, the seal "I
the legislature, and the head-quarters nf ilu'
troops, and as it differs from the oilier islaiil-
in no essential degree, we shall eonliiie oiir>cl\i-
to an outline of its geograjdiical features anl
general ajipearanee, deeming it inuieccssiirv li
dwell upon any of the others. It lies in lat. I'l-
2'.t' N.. and in long. 7()° .S4' ^\^, and exIciM-^
about 21 ni. from K. to W.. and 7 from X, In S.
It is nearly covered with large trees and lirii-1.-
wood, and much intersected with tnarslics :«•[
lagunes, A range of slightly elevated hills riiii<
.•iloiig a part of the island at a very short lii-
tance from the sea; and upon the face el' Ihi-
ridge stands Xassau, the capital, and the soat i!
government. Another range of bills runs paralli I
to the former, at the distance of about 2J in.; il"'
whole of the intervening sjtace Conns an exli'ii>i\i'
marsh. The total number of s(|, m, in tlio U.ilii-
mas, including all the islands from Xew I'ruvi-
deuce to Key Sal and Aiigiiilla, is, acciiriiin^' \'<
Porter's Tables, r),t24; but the ' Stali^ticalTllllIl^
relating to the Colonial and other I'ossessidii-.
l)reseiited to Parliament in 18(')."), state thcarp.i.ii
only 2,!I21 l'",iigl. sq, miles. The pop., in I"'-.
was l,ti7 1 wliites, 4,<M)!t coloured and I'loe lila(k-.
nnd !t,7lio slaves. In 18.>7 the total pop. «>
l;),'.»l;!. Ill I8(;i the mnnber had risen to :!.VK.
of whom 211.287 coloured iiersons. The iiilial>il:ii!'-
are divided into the two classes of residents ,ii;l
UTtr/tfi-s. The latter are mostly employcil in
rescuing vessels, with their crews and carpn-.
shi|)wreeks being very frequent in these iiitriiaii.
shallow, and daiigeioiis seas. They sail in siiwil
tlat-bottomed sloops, admirably titled for lli''
Wiiters they navigate. They are exc(41('nt sail"^;
are familiar with all tlie keys, shoals, .nil
breakers; and encounter danger with al.uriiy .wl
eoiiraire. Their gic;it jilaces of rendezvous an'
the Florida GulV. the Hole in the Wall. iii"i
the Hog-stics. Their vessels are very muneri'ii-.
BAHAMAS (TIIH)
Tlicv arc lironnod l)y iho Rovcnior, ninl roooivc
M siilviijrc "M nil priiptTty rcxcncil I'mni llio waves.
i'li« climate viirit's very consiilcralily, liotli in
iiiii|>(Taniri' ami Haliilirity, ncciiriliiij; ti> tlio nt'n-
i,xi|ilii('al |iiisiti(iii ami local ]i(riiliarilicH <if the
i.liiiiili*. At New I'rovidoiicc flic wcaflicr. during;
till' coM season, wliicti extends from Nov. to
Mav. is extremely jileasaiit; the tlieniioineter in
ilic ^liade liciMf; nenerallv from (!(>° to T<l°, the
miil-'lay heat tem|(cn'd liy a constant hree/e;
:iiiil the evenings cool and aj,'reealile. From May
t(i N'liv. the heat increases or decreases, as the
•.111! ailvances or retires from the tropic ot'(.'aiuer,
1111(1 (liiriiin this iieriod the ran^e of the thernio-
ini'tcr is from 75° to 8;')°, seldom risinj; aliove 'J0°,
Tlic increase of temperature is ^^enerally nccom-
|iaiii('d hy sontlierly winds or <'ahiis. which are
ill srilied as heiun very opjiressive. A consideralile
i|iiiintiiy of rain i'alls during the vear, hut we pos-
M>s no exnci measurement, ol it. The spring
ruins connnciice ahout May, and continue for a
few weeks; those of autumn conmience in Sept.,
,111(1 ;;cnerally terminat(^ in Xov. or l)ec. Dunn^i;
ilic autumnal months i'n^n are very fre(|uent in
ilic niorniiifis inid eveidnf;s; hut from Dec. to
May the weather is i^eiu'rally line, clear, and dry.
h is iiiipossihie to ascertain the exact amomil of
;i(T(s (iillivated, as owinj; to the rocky nature of
ilic islands, spots are generally selected to plant
ill, wiilidut any attention to the rcf^idariiy oli-
'fvi'il in more favoured soils; hut the ninnlicr
(.f pcisdus set down in the oflicial tallies as , ni-
pldvcd ill aj;riculture are l,"J.")(l. The chief articles
Mlprdduce are rice, cofl'ce, IndiaiianiKiiiinea com,
I'iinliies, yain.s, hean.s, peas, ])iiie-ap))les, cotton,
("lircs, casada, ])uni|ikins, arrow-root, onions (nf
\\\\wU a f,Tcat quantity are raised), oran^res, limes.
,111(1 lemons. There may he ahout 12,()0(( acres of
|i,isl«rii;;e, which ^ive supjiort to ),I!M) liorses,
-,7il.') Iioriied stock, 7,Hi)() sheeii and piats. and
:i.:l.JO , swine. The principal articles of <'xport, in
liic year IHlVi, were cotton and fruit, the value of
ihc {'(inner aniountiujj; to iitiH.til'.i/., and of the
l.illcr article to ;wr<,2l(!/. 'I'he total exjiorts in
ilio year I«(>2 were of the value of l,()(i7,77.j/. ;
ilic articles, inchulinfj coll'ec, to lh<! value of
■-'-.iwT/. • C(ip|ier, to the value of l."),HO(l/.; spoiifre,
I" the value of 1:5,721/.; suj;ar, to the value of
IM.XV.; and silk, to the value of i<,S\)\l. The
i-ial imports in 1«(')2 amounted to 1.2."Hl,.'i22/., of
«!ii(li 21.'!.(i;i7/. for cotton. This shows that a
;;T(ai part of the commercial activity was owinj:;
I" iiiterciiur.se with the so-called Confederate
Males (if America. The nuinher of tons of ]{ri-
ii>li shipping' em|iloyed inwards was h;5,i{54 in
I;^ii2. The total shipi>in}j, hoth liritish and
I '«!;,'», ainounted to lU7,4-it! ton.s. The j;oveni-
inciit ('(insists of a governor, a council of twelve,
Mi\ a house of assemhly of thirty menihers. 'J'lie
(ciirtsdf law are, the supreme court, which holds
iisi'Cssidiisiii terms of three weeks, with the powers
'I llio Cdmnum law at Westminster, and its jirac-
li'cniddelledon that of the Kiiij^'s Iteiich. The
riviime of tliesc islands fcr l.sil.'i was 7I.")1I/..
■iii'l llio expeiuliture 5;J. 10!)/. New I'rovideiice
i»as settled hi ICi2",» hy tiie Eiij^'lish, who kept
1"'-M'ssidn of it till KM I, when they were exiKdled
"V lliij Spaniards, who nuirdered the governor, and
"iiiiTiitted many acts of harharous cnudty. It was
I'viildiiiscd ill [i;M hy the Kii!,dish a seci'md lime;
"II they were anaiu' ex|ielleil hy the French and
^I'aiiiards in 17(W, and from that" period it hecanie
■ rdulczvdiis for pirates, till formally ceded to ihe
'•lylish in \7Ki, in whose |io.Nses.>-"ion. with the
"dicr islands, it has since reiiiaiiied. The pro|)()r-
a.iii di' tiie 20,(1(111.1)00/. of conipeiisation grained
y liriiaiii awarded to the inhahitaiils was
15AIIAR
827
128,310/. 7a. fi^f/;. while the relative vnliic of the
slaves was 2!IO,r)7.'l/. 1 'm. .'(■[(/.
'I'he )irincipal islands forniing the Hnhamn p"otip
are, New Providence, containing the capital, Nas-
sau ; Andros Island, tireen audi irassy Keys, (irand
llahama, and the Iterry Islands; (ireat and Little
Aliacoand Keys, llarhour Island, Kleuthera, h'oyal
Island anil Keys; .St. .Salvador and Little Island;
Watling's Island and l!um Kev ; <Jreat and Little
F.xunia and Keys; L'agged Island and Keys;
Long Island ; Crooked Island. Fortune Island, and
Aeklin's Island; (ireat and Litth^ lleneagua,
Mayagiiana; French and Attwood's Keys; tho
Caicoss Turk's Island, Kev Sal, aiul Anguilla,
HAIIAIt or ItKIIAK, tin inl. jiro. of llimlostan,
presid. Mengal, one of the largest and most im-
jiortant under the Hriti.sli dotninion. It lieschiellv
hetween 22° and 27° X. lat., and K)° and K7° l'.
long. ; Imving N. Ne])aul, \V. ( )ude, Allahahad, and
])art of (iiindwana; S., the latter prov. : and K.,
Ilengal : area, ."),'t,7l4 «q. m. Pop. CMlimated at
ahout !),U(l<MII>l>.
Th(! (ianges runs a course of 200 m. through this
jirov., W. to K., dividing it into two nearly eiinal
jiarts. The other chief rivers are the .Sone, (lun-
diick, I)iiniinodali, Caraninassii, and Dewah, all
trilmtaries of Ihe former: there are numherless
smaller streams, and Ihe (irov. generally is well
watered, especially its N. iiortion; in the S. irriga-
tion is artiliciiilly effected hy means of widls, dams,
! and trenches. Ii may he descrihed under three
I divisions; one an iiiiiiiterruiit(^d tiat e\teii(liug for
70 111. N. of the (ianges, to the forests of .Nepaul
j and Moruiig, a second, or c('iitral div. exieiidiiig
I (iO m. S. from the (ianges, consisting only in part
of plains, hut yielding nearly two-thirds of Ihe
whole annual |iroducc of opium: and a third and
more elevated region, S. of the hitler, with an area
of l«,000 s(|. in., less fertile than ihe others, Iml
.siiid to contain diamond mines, and I hence calleil
Nagpoor. Climate teniperale. hut in the hot se;i-
sons parching winds from the W. often prevail
during the day. Frosts are rare. Imt during Ihe.
cold seasons the Ihermoineler oflcn ranges from
■Jo^to 70° (Falir.) in the course of ihe (hiy. anioiig
the hills; and in this district 'he winds are very
hracing to Kuropean constitnlions. Xo diseases
are iieeiiliar to the prov., hut hroiichocele is very
prevalent on Ihe N.side of the (lange.*. Soil fertile,
and productive of the drier grains: it also produces
large (piantilies of nitre, with snliiliateand luiiriaUi
of soda, especiall}' N, of the (ianges, where nitre
is a gov. nioiiopoly. Agriculture, commerce, and
niaiuiliictnres have always heen in a compara-
tively tlourishing slate in this prov.; partly from
its central position, ea.sy internal communications,
and heiiig a thoroughfare for the trade of Ilengal
with the L'jiper I'rovinees; and partly from its
fruitfulness and natnnil litness for tillage. Here,
however, as well as in liengal, only ahout one-third
part is supposed to he under cultivation. (Ilamil-
ton's K, 1. <iaz., i. 177.) Opium, a stajile com-
modity of Ihe prov., is perhaps the liesf in India.
It is a gov. nioiidpoly, I'.ah.ir and ISciiares heiiig
the only provs. within the liengal jiresid. where it.
is allowed to he cultivated. For further particulars
see lllcNOAl..
Indigo is vcrj' extensively grown in Tirhoot,
i where nuich forest land, ami land fonnerly used
j for grain, has heen .npiiropriated to its culture,
I and where the produce is also nianufaetured uiioii
', a large .scale. The jilanters and cultivators are
now on good terms with each other; and since it
1 was agreed that mly one |ilaiiter should settle in
! a village, quarrels among the latter h.ive also
1 ceased. The people in the indigo districis are
j said to he in a much heller condition than eLse-
-1, It
828 BAHAR
wlicro. Siignr-cnnr, liotcl, tdlmoco, niul ^jrain of
nil kiiiils, iin; ciillivntcil Inr^'cly, niitl there ix n
;;ii<iil Hlnck (if nitllc. MoHt pnrt of tlu; IiiiuIh in
Itiiliiir arc held in small lots liv cullivntors or ryiih,
who |iay a lanil tax of half tlic |)r<)(Uic(t: tho pt-r-
niaiicnt Neltloniont has hcc-n hy nonicniis so widely
cstalilishcil as in Ilfiij,'al ; Ja);hires nn; tlierc rare,
lint freiinent here; while, oil the other hand, there
are in Itahar hut three larjj^u zeniiiidaries, vi/,
those of Shahahad, Tirhoot, and Tiekary, This
arises from the eircnnistanee that the zemindars
of Dahar were always inferior in ]M»wer and in-
(IneiKM- to tlioHO of licnpil, and their zemindarics
ninch smaller; so that tliey were sooner and more
easily identified with the hody of cultivators.
The chief manufactures are, cotton cloths for
exportation, essences, and saltpetre, the manu-
facture of which scarcely passes the K. limits of
tli(^ ])rov. llahar is divided into ei^ht districts or
•■ollectorates, viz. Hahar, I)hau;^ailpore, Dhurruni-
pore, l{ani;,'ur, Shahahad, Sarini, Tirhoot, and
t'atntt. The chief city is I'atna. Tho natives
have a tiner physical appearance, hut are inferior
to their Ilen^ral nci;;liliours in cleanliness and do-
mestic economy. Jn the S. jmrts apiculture is
wholly carried on hy slaves ; and many of these
t'onsist of individuals who, hy a practice ]ieculiar
to this prov., mortya{,'e their lahour until aide to
redeem a debt : n third part of the poj). are iMo-
hainmedaiiR. This prov. anciently is su])poscd to
have fonned two indci)endcnt sovereif^ntios — that
of Mithila in the N., and Ma^adlm in the 8. ; and
distinct lftnguaf,'es still continue to be spoken in
them. It wius acqiiiretl from Cossim Ah by the
Itritish in ITtJij, since which it has enjoyed perfect
tran(|uillity. The city of Gaya was tlie birthplace
of Ihiddha, hut no Budilhists now remain in llahar.
liAiiAK (I)ISTK. or Zii.i.Aii t)K). occupies the
central jHirtion of the above prov. ; beiiif,' bounded
N. bj' the (Janges ; K. by the distr. of jthauf^ul-
pore ; S. by those of IJhaugulporc aiul l>anignr ;
and W. hy Shahahad: extreme length, E. to W.,
l'2()m.; breadth, 80 m.; area, 0,235 sq. m. The jio-
]iiilation is estimated at 3,0(10,00(1, of whom about
one-third are IMohammedans. Surface generally
level, especially in the N., where the banks of tiie
(ianges are highly cultivated : there are, however,
many scattered hills, and three princijjal ranges, hi
t he heart of the distr., of primitive formation, con-
taining granite, gneiss, mica, (puirtz, jasjier, honi-
slone, silica, &c. ; but, exce|)t toward the S.
boundary, none of them probably exceed 700 ft.
in height. Next to the Ganges, the chief river is
the Sone, its channel being sometimes nearly as
large as that of the former; its E. banks are ovtr-
whelmed with sand, blown uj) from its bed in the
dry season : 'here are no lakes, and few marshes
in this distr., although in the wet season much of
thi! coinitry is under water. There arc many hot
springs in various spots ; bituminou: and other
volcanic substances have been also met with, and
in one jilace an extinct crater is distinctly visible.
About 4!)0 sq. m. are covered with woods and
thickets, including the bamboo, palm, mango, tig,
ap))le, |)omegranate, &c., which are all cultivated
(tamarisk and zisypUus bushes in large quantity) ;
the stii/rhno.i, mix voiniva, soap-nut, and the sal/iar,
belii'vcd l)v Mr. Colebrook to be the tree yielding
gum olibanum. Tiie chief wild animals are a
large and I'unniilable black bear, the spotted tiger,
icluieunion ; a few monkeys, s(iuirrels, foxes, and
(liigs; many birds of prey; porpoises, and ;i ])ro-
fiision of (isli, arc found in the (iaiiges, as w."il as
alligators; but there arc no wild elephants, rhino-
ceroses, or bulVahies ; few tigers, and neither j)ar-
rtxpiets, &c.. nor singhig birds. The lands near
tlie river yield two crops in the year, but this is
not tho ctwc with more thnrt I-81I1 part of thn
arable land in the interior, liice is by far tin-
most inqiortant article of culture, but' the cnrn
only are reaped; the straw being abandoiKMl i,,
the cattle, or left uncut, till wanted for tliatch.
Cotton has been extensively grown siui'o ilu"
connt)en(!emeiit of the American civil war, ninj
the failure of thesu])idy from tho Mississippi cuttMii
regions. Wheat is next in importance; and wiili
it, or with niilse, barley is often sown; maize is
almost wholly confined to the banks of the (laiips
Cruciform jilanls, linseed, and sesanunn,are ciiiil-
vated for their oil; ginger, coriander, capsiciini,
the potato and other succulent vcgetalilcs, arc
likewise grown. The |)lough and cattle uswl arc
both wretched, though tlu^ latter are soniewlnii
belfer than those more to the E. ; the grain is
trodden out hy cattle, atui kept by the niore iipu-
lent proprietors in hovels of mud and iliaidi.
The anliraj\ or higher ranks, pay no reul tor laml
occupied by their himses, and no landlord uiav
refuse to grant them land for building; but Kuivi-
jieans, not being digiiilied with the title of aslinif.
find much ditlirulty in obtaining it. F< \<- ol' iln.
cultivators arc rich. A large portion 1,1 the land,
perhaps about a half, is exempted fmin the iaii'l
tax ; and yet it is atlirnied, and we believe Inilv.
that the taxed portions arc the best eultivainl
and most productive. Some of the reni-lrir
estates are still large, but, owing to the ndcs of in-
heritance, they are rapidly subdividing ; and nianv
of the zemindars are reduced to the condiiinu (if
lieasants, or are but little above beggary. JIany
occupiers are in the habit of receiving ailvaiUT<
from their landlords, to enable tiiem to carry (in
their business; while others borrow money for tlic
same purpose, at 2 per cent, per mo. interest ; au'l,
ruinous as such ]mymcnt may appear, the laiicr
are universally observed to he in tlie end the best
ott'. The cultivators are not subject tft the illi'pil
exactions that press on the tenantry in lk'n);al,
and are in consequence attached to their lam!-
lords, and ready to promote their intcrcst,s. lialiar
distr. is divided into twelve perguiniahs; it cmu-
tains a number of considerable towns, one (.f
which, (laya, the birth-place of ]Sud<llia, is cele-
brated as a place of i)ilgrimagc, aiul annually
visited by nearly 30,000 devotees: there area
great many small towns, of from 1(1(1 to iViil
houses. Cotton stuffs, blankets, and cari)Cls, are
luanufactureil; with paper, soaj), leather, bricks
&c. ; and there are extensive nitre factories and
sugar refineries.
Tradesmen have very little capital; general
dealers seldom more than 25 rupees, and many >i
the dealers in grain no more than 4()U ni]jee>.
The pei>plc are of a warlike disposition, passionate,
and jealous; the habits of the women proper-
tionally strict. The great sidxlivision of iiroperiy
has banished every tliuig like opulence; and mar-
riages and funerals, by the expenses they cause,
oft(^n bring families to povert}'. The houses are
neither so well built nor so clean as those nici
with in Uengal. Drinking to excess, betel chew-
ing, and smoking, arc not, however, pursued sd
far. Among other customs of this distr., girls arc
never married till puberty: the feet of dyii!;'
])erso)is arc not ))ut into the Ganges; hul the
jiarcnts and (duldren, not of the vulgar, Ijut nf
' men of rank and learning,' are turned out of ilow
when they are about to die, exposed to .ill iIk'
inclemency of the weather. This odious cnstein,
which would disgrace a nation of savages, li.h
been in numerous cases perverted to the most ni-
famous purposes.
Ha 11 At: \Vih(ir, a monastery of Huddliists), ,1
town in the above prov. and distr., in lat, ii'-' I'J
SI-
Irv of 11ii<l(Uii''i;'1> »
TAIIAWULroOR
\., lonR. 85°;i5' K. ; ar> in. Hi:, rnlnn. It U n
iVrt'o, Hlrnj,vl'"K l>lni'<S (•'•ntniiiiiij^ nlKHit A.ddO
lidiwN. !»"l proliiilily, lliorcrorc, alioiit .'lil.oiio iii-
liiili. It '""* ^^'^^ '"' "" K"'"' flri't't.s; most (if its
iiisliii' liiiiltliiiK* <""c in n sliito of dci'iiy; mid it
liii.s a ruinous a|)iH>iirnnc'P. It is sii|)|ios(mI Io imve
liccu lit Honic remote U'rn tlic onp, of tlu- (irov.
'I he plain '>n wiiicli it stands is well watered, fer-
tile, iind well euUivaled,
ll.VHAWUI-l'OOl.'. or DAOm'OOTI} V, n tcr-
rit. (if llitiilostan, formerly lHdonf;in){ to Caiiliiil,
lull siilis('i|iientlv trilmtarv to the inaliarajali of the.
I'lmiaiili, between Int. 2H° a'ld.'JOO \., and' lon^. 70°
,iii(|'T1° K. ; lent;th NK. to S\V. 'JHOm.; K'realest
jircadtli 120 m. ; haviiij; N. the I'liiijaiih; K. the
lliiiiiiere territ. (ltaj|iootana) ; S. an'd SW. .lay-
Milinere and Sinde. Its N\V. hoimdary is for tlie
niiist part lornied by the Sutleje, but for a eertain
iji-iaiice opposite the caj). it iiiehides both banks
dl' iliat river, as well as those of the C'biiianf.
The hanks of the rivers are everywhere fertih; ;
lull the rest of the country towards the K. is n
iiiiro desert. For 4 or h m, on either side the
Sullrje, the soil is formed by the slime deposited
liv liiat river, and is annually watered by its
imiiidations : some portions of it are hi(;hly eulti-
viitcil; others ar(' ciivered with a soft turf, and
ilic rest with jinifile and coppiee of low tamarisk
irics alioiindiiig with wild hogs, wild geese, game,
Ac. hut having interspersed many small hamlets.
Till' inliabs. an' eliielly Juts and llelooelies, Mo-
liMiiimedaiis, who eame thither from the district o
Sliilcarpore, where they were settled early in the
r( iu'ii of Aurung/.ebe. They are a fair and liand-
sdiiu' race, and ajiparcntly in a better condition
l|j;iii .soiiie of their neiglibonrs. Lieut. Conolly
siv.-. • -\s soon as we liad cro.^scd the frontier (from
Miikarpore) hito Jiahawal Klian's territory, we
were struck with the improved ajiiiearaiice of the
land; the ground was cleared, and cultivated with
the lietler sorts of grain ; the people, also, seemed
iiinre orderly and respectable.' The i)rincipal
towns a'c IJahawnlpoor, Ahmedpoor (the residence
(if the chief), Jiilaljioor, Seed|)oor, and Oocli. Dii-.
riiwiil, an ancient fort in the desert, is the only
|iliioe of strength in the country. The public
revenue is about 10 lacs nip. a year. Tiie khan
maintains an army of about 2,000 regular troops;
lii't in time of war he can raise more than ^O,*'*"*
men. The government is despotic; hut not a few
(if the khans have ruled mildly and paternally,
much beloved by their subjects. This territory
wiis taken from the Moguls by the Persians,
anil, after the death of Nadir Shah, belonged to
Caulml. to which kingdom it was tributary as
l"!!},' fts the monarchy lasted. The three last
rulers have been nearly independent ; liut the
|iulitical i)ower of the country has been broken
liy the Sikhs, and the rajah of the I'unjaiib only
sjiiirpd it on condition of pecuniary payments.
(I'.lphin.stone's Caulml ; Burn's Trav. ; llamil-
tiin's K. I. (ia/.ctteer.)
liAiiAwui.iMoii, the ancient cap. of the above
lerritcin-, near the S. bank of the Sutleje. '.VM
m. W'S'W'. Delhi, hit. 2!l° 21' N., long. 72° "lO' K.;
ai the point of junction of the road leading fnmi
liiiinljay and (Calcutta to Caubiil. It is about 4
ni.in circ, but includes gardens and mango groves.
It is surrounded with a thin wall of mud, the
liuu.ips iK'ing of I'libiirnt bricks, with mud terraces.
Tlie iiilmb. consist chielly of Hindoos, mostly oc-
niiiieil in the inanuiaciiire of the silken girdles
iuiil tine turbans for which ISah.iwulpoor is cele-
lirateil. The Hindoo traders aro distinguished by
tluirenleipri.se; they deal cxten.sively in h^iini-
|iia;i j;uods, which they receive by way of Uica-
iiew, and carry these and the prwUictionij of I ndia
BAIIIA
:vi9
to Unlkh nnd Hokhnra, and nomotimps to Astra-
khan. The .Sutleje is navigable, but not used in
the transport of mercbanilise, Notwithstaiidliig
the maiiiifaetures and trade of Itahawiilpoor, the
town shows many svmptoms of general decay.
(KI|diiiistone's ("luibui ; ("onidly's Journey, ii. 2 l:i.)
ll.MII.V, a inarit. jirov.of Itra/.il, on the [''..coa-i,
rxtending from about !t° to l.')° 'bj' S. lat. It
<'om|)rises, as at present dividi'd, nearly all the
territory iiiehided formerly under the ancient
captaincy of the same name, together with ii
jHirtion of that of llheos. It derives its name
from litthia df Tixios os Sitittos, and is bounded N,
by the provinces of Sergipe and I'ernainbiieo
(from the latter of which it is divided by the l>'iit
San Francisco); on the S. hv Porto Segiiro and
Miiias (icraes ; on the W. by i'ernambiico, though
still separatiMl by the K'io San Francisco, and on
the H. by the ocean. Its length is estimated at
about 4«0 in., and its breadth at from ir>il to 201).
The estimates of its area vary from ■')4,000 to
!)7,000Kq. in. The latter, we are inclined to think,
is nearest the mark. The accounts of the pop.
are also very various, no census having ever been
taken, the number is generally estimated at be-
tween 700,<I00 and 800,0!i(). The province is
subdivided into three comarcos, viz. Bahiii, Juco-
biiia, and llheos.
The province of Hahia is traversed from SW. to
NI']. by the SerraCincora, (iihoya, and Itabayaiia.
The Serra de Moiiteipievia forms the chief ridge,
in the interior. Hays and inlets abound along the
coitst, among which the most celebrated is All
Saints' Ihiy. Numerous rivers traverse tlu? jiro-
vince, and the Kio San Francisco, one of tlu*
largest of the lira/.iliaii rivers, tlows along its
NVV. frontier.
The cultivation of tobacco is peculiar to the pro-
vince, and it,s produce is much sought after, not
only for the market of Portugal, but ;ilso for Spain
aiul the whole of IJarbary. The .soil is admirably
ada))tcd to the cultivation of the sugar-cane; and
the sugar of Ihihia bears a high character for its
excellent quality, which is sliown by the fact,
that IJahia (exports more sugar than the whole of
the rest of Hrazil. The growth of cotton exhibils
an unusual increase, and liahia is already beconu!
a formi''al)le rival to i'eriiainbiico. The other
productions are, rice, of a superior (pialily ; eotVec,
much excelled however by that of llio de .laneiro;
and Hrazil-wood, equal to that of Pernambiico.
(l{e|)ort el' Mr. Consul Morgan on the Trade of
liahia for the Year l«(i4).
The province of liahia was one of the first peo-
pled by Europeans, and it is also one of those
ironi which they Iv.vv most elVecrtiially removed
all traces of the original inhabitants.
ll.MiiA.or S.\N Sai.vadoi!, the cap of the above
jirov., immediately within Cajie St. Antonio, wliich
i'o'ins the right or K. side of the noble bay of All
Saiiils {Uiihiii (If Todos os Santon), whence the
prov. and the city derive their names; lat. (of
lighthoii.se on Cajie St. Antonio) l;i° 0' ilO" S..
linig. ;'^° 1)0' W. It was fouiuU'd about l.')|;», by
Thomas de Sou/.a. lirsi caplain-geiieral of lirazil,
and was, iiiuil 17ii;!, the capital of the colony.
I Since that period l!i.) has been acknowledged at
! the capilal, and it also has lieei! the residence of
the C(iurt since its emigration Ui Jira/il. ISiii,
Ihongh r.ow inferior to its rival in pipulaliou ami
conimercui! ini|iorlance, Hahia is one of the hirgei-t
and most imporlant "ilies of S. .Vnurica. The
esliniates of the iHipiilatiuii vary IVoin lo(l,ni)0 to
180,000, of wliii'h a third arc sii|)|)ose(l lobe nhitcs,
a third mulattoes, and a third blacks. It is built
partly along the ridge, and partly on ibc dci'livily,
of a very high and steep hill fronting the entrance.
m^
i*«:
m
■k:^^
wmM..
.■i;ii»
of I he \my,
InWII, IIk-
UAHIA
^;''i
It cotiKi.MtH of nn iipjicr niul n lower
t'linncr iiicliiilin^ llu; HtiliiirliM of Itoin
l''iiii mill Vicloriii. 'J'lic iipiicr (own sIhikIh on tlic
riil^'c liclwccii III!' Mi'ii iiikI II liikc oil llii' N.. niiit
i'oiiiiiiiiM Hi'vcriil (iiip hircct.M, ill wliidi reside the
jiriii('i|ial iiiliiiliitiiiits oi' the city. 'I'lie lower (own
IS exireiiiely ilirty, illlil iiltlioli^h the Hlreels nre
very iiiirrow, il is no iineoininoii thiii^' to see them
oi'i'ii|iiei| liy nrlilirers, with their toolsaiul Iteiiehes.
The city is <lel'eiiile(l hy Fort do Miir, mikI moiik-
other I'orlilieiitioiis, litit iioiK^ of them nre of niiy
very ureiil slreiiKth. 'I'lie hn-ill revenue is derived
from diri'i't tuxes on hind mid |irovisioiis, excise
upon I'Npiirls iind iniporls, mid hiirlioiir-diies. Lmid
is siilijeri to (I lux of one-tenth of its |)roduee, mid,
ninee the revohilioii, ehiireh hinds have also iieen
rendered sniijeet to the saiiK^ impost, and the
••ler^y are ])aid hy tin- j^overnmeiil. The taxes
on provisions, wliieli inclnde lieef, lisli, Hour, and
ve^etalilcs, are aiiiinally farmed out in separate
jiarishes. As respei^ts the iiiimher and heaiily
of its pul>li(^ liuildin^s, Ilaliia ranks lirst amoii;;
tlu; eilies of liraxil. In the upper town, amon;;sl
the chief may he enumerated the catluMlral (I'or-
liierly lliv chnrcli of 'lie .Jesuit-*), dediciited to San
Salvador, liiiilt of J'Jiro|iemi niarhie, and (Consi-
dered the handsomest, ecclesiastical hiiildin^ in
Ilra/il. The interior is very richly decorated, and
over the hij;li allar are two ]iori rails, one of Iffiia-
liiis Loyola an<l San Francois Xavier, jirohahly
the only reiiiarkahle ohjecis of art. which any of
the puliiic huildiiiLjs of Itahia have to oiler, (l)eiiis
llre/.il, p. 2.'>l.) 'J'he other puhlic huildiiifjs are,
the ancient collejje of the Jesuits, now converted
into II militury hospital and medical school; the
|iahices of the nrchliishop and the fjovernor; the
towii-hall (ca/.a de eamarca) ; the trihinial of
appeal (cazadc relacjo) ; the theatre, huilt upon a
rock ; several hospitals (part of the funds for siip-
portiiifj them are derived from lotteries); a ca/.a
lie misericordia, a bank, and other institutions.
Itahiit contains a j,'reut number of relij^ioiis
lioiises, all of them situated in the upjier town,
but they ort'er nothing worthy of observation. It
also contains between thirty mid forty churches,
scattered through the npiier and lower towns. The
(derj;y are very numerous, in consequence of its
beiiifjilie residence of the archbishop, who has the
control of the ecclesiastical alfairs of the emjiire.
In the lower town the exchange, a massive
building of modern date, is worthy of remark. It
is built in a |)eciiliar style, in -which it has hecii
atlempled to imitate the (irecian. The princi|i.ii
street is the I'ravfi, in whicli is situated thechurcli
of the Coiiceigao (coiice]itioii), remarkable on jic-
coiiiit of the stones with which it is built haviii;:
been prejiared and numhered in Europe, and
brou'iht thence in two fri^^ates; so that on their
;irrival they had merely to be arraiij^ed in the
order ])reviously allotted to t.heni. (Denis lire/.il,
p. '1'A\.) The houses arc chietly constructed ol'
stone, and, contrary to the usual mode in S.
America, many consist of three, four, and even
live stories. In the upper town arc many liaiid-
sonie houses, constructed with balconies and bliiuls,
instead of windows.
The city of San Salvador is almost destitute of
inslitutions devoted to intellectnal improvement.
Anionnst the seminaries of education is one which
furnishes a large number of ecclesiastics. There
is a imblic library, willi fnmi tio.dOd to 7(U)(M>
voluines, among which are a few ancienl I'ortu-
guese works, and some MSS, The greater portion
of tiie good works are in French.
The vehicles generally used in li.ihia are called
cadeirfis, and are a kind of italanqiiin, supported
l>y negroes, »vlio mak(! a jiractice of clustering at
the comers of llic Htrccto, to bo hired for Hint pur-
I M ise.
The subjoined stntemont, eomjiiled from tli,.
oflicial returns of the director of cnsioins, givci n
view of the rise and growth of the foreign iiniuiri
trade of llahia from the opening of the pun-, (.f
llraxil to foreign nations, wlien Itoin .John VI., (,|'
Portugal, arrived in the city in |N(I«, and the m,),-
serjueiit importance given to commerce hy ii,,,
di.scoverv of the diainond mines in thi.s nroviiuu
in IKir.:"—
Jn IHIO Viihieor Iiniiorts was. . Uh. l.tflfl.onn
1^1" „ „ . . a,no(p,(i(Ki
1"-'') ., „ . . ;i,liO((,(riHI
IKL'I Indeprndenco of Itr.izll . 4,(Hi(i,i)ii,)
1H:1I AlMJicaliiiii iif Doiii I'lslro T. <i,|."il),oiio
1UII ( t'es.-'atioii of our Coiiinicrclal ) „ ... ,
^**'M Tivafy. NcwTariir \ »•'•«'•"""
IHI.'i DiHoovery or Diiimoiid Mine.'* in,s.',:t,nno
^>*'''i „ „ . M,s.-,(i,(;.-,ii
l«"''i-'>7 „ „ . •J0,!l?ll,:i7:i
\h:,--W „ „ , 'Jl, 1117,1171
lK.-.s-.-,!l „ „ . ai.dls.icji)
l«-'!MiO „ „ . 17,ll(i,(;(;-.>
lw-l-'i» „ „ . l«,li)l',S7l
The Itrili.sli imports (tlmn- into the port of liaiiin
in twelve years, from IHlo to I KoT, increased li;;^
per cent., showing a value in IH-ll of (ilil.Ti'T/., ji,
iHli") of 7(l.'),l.')l'i/, in \HM\~i}7 of l,.')!lM,(i;!l/, in
IH,")7-r.« of 1.2ll,7(;(;/., in lM,')H-5!)of '■'•J7.1II/
in 1M,")!M1I) of it;i;f,2.W. (1,'eport of Mr. .Morgan,
Itrilish Consul, on the Trade of liahia.)
I'lie harbour of lialiiu is one of the very lic>t
that is anywhere to be met with. It may he en-
tered either by day or hy night, and nt any time
of the tide. The largest ships anchor cinse to,
and immediately abreast of, the town, in from -Ls
to .seven fathoms, N. and N\V. of the town ihc
hay expands into a noble ba.sin, studded wiili
islands, and affording safe anchorage for iiiminii-
rable ships. The traile of liahia is very extcii>ivi'.
The o.\)iort8 consist (irincipally of sugar, coiidii,
and collee; with tobuci'o, hi(U-s and horns, rirc,
dye and fancy wooiU, inits, bullion, anddi.'iiinnKl.s
The subjoined tabular stalenK^nl gives ili- vnlm:
of foreign imports into the port of liahia ilnrini;
the linaiichil year of l«,")iM;u.
From (Irent Britnin
, ,
Rs. R.:n2.":;:i
Frnnco
. ,
2-:;■'l7.^.■:•J
rnrtiiKid
. ,
1.3!)::,4I7
Haiiseatio Towns
. ,
-m.:m'.»
Sardinia
. ,
li;.',ii77
Austria
. .
."■.11,171
Uiiilcd Status
1,011.1711
River I'lato
. .
ti:i7.s|-|
Belgium
. .
U'Mll
Spain .
. ,
:i7..-i7l
Hollnnd
. .
71,-.'7H
Swollen nnd Norway
. .
17,:lliil
Coa.-it of Africa .
, .
2.-.l,(i47
Foreign Ports from
Knipire .
Port of
• •
],0;!II.S,si)
Total
Rs. 17.140,(iia
Exchange S.^Jd. per dollar
Total
. .-eLsynitKH)
Value of r.iitisli Imiiorts
. ,
. .^;ii:l:!,:'-i.'i
The most iin))orlant articles of import arc cdiioM
maimfacliires, woollen and linen stulls. li^li, tliiir.
earthenware, wine. co]i|)er, and iron; The iiii|iiirt'
of cotton, woollen and liiieii niamilncliirc.'* Irum
(ireat llritaiii greatly declined in the Id vwrs
1 H,">r)-()l, having an. "oted to 2.'),1(I0 iiackiips in
1«.".,^), and to H>27 bales in 1H(14. (l!c]iort(il' .Mr.
Consul Morg.in.)
The nature of the exportn is shown in llie f^uli-
joined comparative table, which gives the v.iliii'
of agricultural jiroduce shipped to foreign couiitriis
from the port of Bahia.
BAIILINGEN
llAUUKIX
:i;;i
r (lint piir-
from ilic
i^;ii iin|HMi
(iiiii VI.. i.r
ml ilu' siil.-
vc liy ilic
(. 1 . Kifi.nim
•J,'.l;i:i.:i:):l
■J.IKIII.IHIII
;i,(;im,iii«i
4,(1(111,1111.1
f),l.".(),()(«t
0,744,000
in,R.'):i.nnn
i.t,K.'i(i,(;.M>
•2ll,!l'J(i.:i";l
'J\.lli7,iin
•2l,(llH.lfiil
1(i,iiv.',h;i
lort (if Uiiliiii
lUTPiixi'd l(i7i
(■(;iil,7-2T/.,iii
i,,'>i>«,ii;ii/. ill
.f 1 •'•:7.ni/..
' Mr. Miirj;;m,
lilt.)
the very liol
It. miiy ill' (11-
l nt liny tiiiii'
iclior cl'wt' lo,
;n, in I'rcm >ix
tiip town tlic
MllKlllcd Willi
;c I'lir imuinn-
.vTv c'.\tcii>ivv.
j siit;ar, ('(iiiun.
1(1 luiriis, rill',
iinddiiiiiiiiiKl'-
ivi's lli- >idin'
liahia ilurini;
B?. R.TOS.'":'.:!
•I ■,.'i7.n:;-J
"!p!i.:iii'.i
lli-.'.liTT
.',11,171
1,(111.1711
(■.;i7.'<ll
U'MIl
:!7.-->71
71,'.'7«
17.;l'.i(l
251, (ill
1,03(I.SSI)
ns7Tu4ll,tii'''.'
. ~;ei,s;Jit,«i'»
iport iiri! c'lii""
tulVs. li>li, tl""'-'
,. The inii«irl-
iKl'iicHircs lV»iii
,1 tlic !'• yw^
0(1 ),iu'kn^'i'S ill
(ItqiortuI'Mr.
|n^vn in I lie «ili-
Trivl'S tllC Vlllllf
firoigiu'i-iu"'™-
intrti
1 r,'.)
Sinrni"
.Cil'.',:l:llt
£8»i'>.«7(>
Cuium .
7.'J(i(l
ii,(m;i)
I'off"!
1II7,|!I-J
l(ii,7i;i
CiMiia •
1(1, 10(1
l:i,'.'li(t
Iliill'X
71,1)10
tl.'i.lHl
Hum
Vd.'i'JO
H'.'.lilKI
'I'dbiircn .
ill). 1(10
a(17,:i7ft
ltii-rW(M)il
!I4,«00
•J1I,H(I()
JCI,:w.-..(iii!)
DInnionds
■JIMl.OOO
C(1(1,1I(K»
.e!,iiu,:i!m
jei,94&,()09
Till' Iclnl !(hi|i])iiifj wliicli nitcrcd tlio |nirt of
llaliiii ill ''*''" i'ini'"'"*«'d I" !'•">'< vcs.s.ds ofaii iiKJirc-
,,„t,. idiimiKc of 2-.'-.',liL'(i, iimiincd liy ii crew of
|.j,',i|"t. *'f lli*''«' vi'sscl.s KMi, of a lomia>;c of
(l:'!(lli'>. "I'll " '''■•^'*^ "' •'•''•'■'• wailed luidcr the
llViii^li lliiK. (lU'portofMr.Morpiiiillriti.iliCoii.siil
111 lliiliia.)
'l'li(. country roHiid nonrl.v I lie wlude Unv of
Itiiliiii, III •'"' I'Xti'i'' of from \'2 to 2(1 m. inland, is
kiiiiwii liy III'' iiani« "f 'ln' lit^concavo, and i.-* Hio
iiidsl f('rtil« and prodiu'tivc in tlio coniarca. lis
siiil, I'lilli'd liy tilt' inlialiitanls »i«.<«/y«', is Iilack,
liiiil' im fertility is iiroverliiai. In lids district is
siiiinled tilt' town of Caelioeirn or (^a.xoicra, wliicli
rank* next llaliin, as repirds extent, iiojinlation,
ami iiiiportaniH'. It carries on an cxleiiMvc trade
v.itli the interior of the iirovincc, and lias a i)o|m-
laiiiiii of aliont Ki.dOO inlialiitanls. The district
called the Keeone.ivo o(ini|irises several tloiirisli-
iiiu' villaf,""'* mid country towns, which o\v(> their
litrispcrity to the abundance of llieir Uffriciilliiral
|iriKliiclions. Amoufj th(!.se Taiiafiiiie, or No.ssu
.Sciiliera dc I'enha, may he distiiii,niislied on ae-
(diiiit (if its containing; the country resid-'iicc of
ijii' arclihisliop of the jirov. It ('ontains also a
iJcK'kyard, whence many well-lmill and sulistan-
lial vessels are constantly launched.
The i.sland of Itaparic.i, situated in the Hay of
llaliia, is the larjicst with which it is studded. It
is aliiiut 14 ni. in length and (! in its frreatest
wiillli. Fruit-trees are very extensively culti-
vated tlironghout the island. The industry con-
Msts cliielly of whale-tishiiif,', the distillation of
rum, and some roiie-makinn. Several towii'i in
llie llecdiicavo equip vessels for iirosecutiiij; the
wliali'-tisliery in tl^e ii.iy, which forins a lirancli
III' iiuliistry on this line of coast.
Ill the comarca of lllieos the chief town is San
,liirf;e dos Illieos, which was formerly llourishiiin
mill ('(iinparatively opulent and extensive, luitlias
iiinv the appearance (>f heiiif; deserted. The ex-
imlsiiiii (if the Jesuits gave the (iiiishing blow to
its inipnrtance.
llAllldX(ii:X, a town of WUrtPmberfT, circ.
IlLiik Fiircst on the ICyacli, 14 m. XK. Ivotwcll.
I'll] I. •.'.•.'!»,■) in iMtil. It" has fabrics of cloth and
(viMilleii stuffs, tanneries, and numerous breweries
,iiiil ilistilleries. There are mineral springs in the
\ii'iiiitv.
IIAI'IKKIX, or AVAL ISLANDS, a jp'oup con-
H-iiiii; of Due large and several smaller islands, in
ilic IVrsi.'iii (iiilf. .siiliject to the iniaiim of Aluscii.
iiialiaviiear the .\v,iliian shore, between lat. 2iP (.>'
and -Kfi Hi' N., and long. ."i()0 15' and 00° l'i)' W.
The largest island (liahrein) is about L'.") m. in
li iij,'ih, N. to S., by (! or 7 m. wide, and SO or '.)() ui.
ill cireiiit: a hilly tract occupies its centre ; 4-.")ths
111 its surface are wastes, but the remainder is
will watered, jiartiidly cultivated, and IbicUly
iiihahitcd. The iiii]). of the whole grou]i of islands
is, iicrliaps, (i(»,(IOO, and comjiosed of several dil-
fiTint tribes. The native Ilahreins niimber abuiit
liMlilOori'ilMlOO; they arc a mixed breed between
die Persians and Arabs, but possessing more of
the indolence and cuindiig of the former than of
the bold I'rankiiess of the latter. They are cliielly
cidlivators, merchants, ami llshenneii, and for I he
most part Miiboniniedniis, of the sect of Oiiiiir;
the rest of the iiihabiiaiils are mostly Arabs.
The pearl tisbery, fur which these islands are
cliielly noted, employs, during the sea.son, :lll,li(iO
men; and vi<lds pearls of the value of from
;i( 1(1,(1(1(1/. to ■;{(;( MM Ml/, yearly. Most of the (Isliery
boats belong to uierchiiiits possessing considerabht
capital, but the largest proprielor in them is the
sheik liiuiself, who has upwards of '2.(10(1 boals,
each nianned, during the season, with eight or ten
men : he imposes also a small la.x on every other
boat. The lisbing season is from the liei;iniiiiig
of .lime till October. The diving is coinliicleii
|irett.v niiich in the same manner as in Ceyluu
(see Ckvi.on) ; but the divers attach llieir oysler-
nels to their waists, and are m the habit of alwavs
stulling llieir ears and nose with horn or oIIkt
substances: they can remain under water nearly
two minutes at a lime. They are oflen in the
most abject circumsiances, anil generally in debt
to the nierchanls, who obtain Ihe pearls at their
own price. Ilabrein has a considerable triitlic, and
might be rendered valuable under a good goviTii-
nieiit, and made the centre of all the conimerce
on this part of the Arabian coast. Although the
only cullivalion consists of dale plantations, aiiil
a few wheat, barley, and clover (itdds, at le i-t
one-foiirtli jiart of'the soil is very rich ; and by
irrigaliiin much of llu^ rest is capable of being
great l,v improved. I'omegranates. mulberries, tigs,
and melons are produced ; and cattle, ))oultry, and
I>leiity of vegetables are obtained from the neigh-
bouring coast. Numerous small villages and towns
are scattered over the cultivated jiarts of the
island; and at its X. portion there an; two towns.
Manama and Kuffar. Manama is the residence of
the ])riucipal merchants, and contains a fort ori-
ginally built by the rortiiguese; the remains of
several tine reservoirs and a(pieducts, coiisiriicted
by the same ))eo]ile, exist on this islimd. At the
>^. end are two harbours; that to the X\V. having
a deiitli of four to seven fall loins water near the
shore. The ])rin''ipal exjiorts are iiearls to Indiii,
Tersia, Arabia, and Itussorah; dry dates, torioise-
shell, canvas, and sharks' tins, to India; and
dates, canvas, mats, and coloured cloths, to tliii
other countries. The chief imports are rice trom
lleiigal and Uangalore; sugar, pejiper, blue and
white cloths, ))lanks, iron and other metals, cin-
namon, cam|ilior, drugs, luid indigo, from India;
coffee, drv fruits, and grain, from liussorah, I'ersia,
and Muscat. T'here are twenty merchant-vessels,
of 140 toiioO Ions, belonging to ilabrein, cliielly cin-
jiloyedin the India trade. The islands of Maharag,
Arad, and Tamahoy, lie NK. liahreiii. and con-
tain 7,500 inhabitants. Maliarag is the residenc(!
of the sheik, and has a town with a pop. of (i.Odil.
The sheik of Ilabrein keeps ii]) live amied vessels;
but, in time of war, can lit out tifteen or twenty.
One of his ships is ot' Ino tonsburden. and moniiis
twenty-two go :s. Uc also ni.iintains a body nl
iroo|)s, coiisisling <•!' a few biindred men; but the
besi defence of ISahi 'in is in the multitude of
reefs s((rrinin(ling it; a id live hundred deteriiiined
men might oppose the landing nf as many tlum-
sands. T'lie sheik's anibority I'Xli-nds over a li'W
places on the Ar,ibi;in coast. These islands were
known to the ancieiils by the name of Tyliis, and
are mentioned by Anlaii. The I'lirtngiiese esta-
blished a settlement brie .soon alter < )rinu7, bad
been taken by Albiiqiienpie ; but tliey were (,'X-
pelled by the Persians suliseipiently to the fall of
Orniiiz. For a long ]ieiiod the Persians and the
Alassar slujiks contested the possession of Uali-
It- 'J
■M
^ ■ \
Jf
f.^<
■'i
If^H
-41
3H'2
tiat-t:
'B u
.' : I
'•V-.i-
3' !
IJ-,
l:'*ll
rein; liiit Hiiirc IT'.IO il lini* liccn wliully HCiiarntcil
Iriirii the I'lT^iiiii (l<itiiiiiii)iiM,
IIALK. II CiiiinMiH iimriiir wntorin^'-pl.'co of nn-
c'itnl llitiv, till' llri;^litiiii of llic Itoiniin wirM, on
tlic \V. xlmn" c.r llic Kiiy of Nilplcs, H III. \V. of
Hull I'iiv, mill 'if) ni. N. ('ii|i<' Nli:«i'iiiini. Hiiin'
^\HH iiiili'litcil for its ri^' ami I't'lclirily to u viirifty
iif rirciiiiijitiiiu'i's — to iIh^ Hoftiicss niiil Hcn-nity of
its eliiiiiitt', iIk' lujaiity of its Hitiiiilion, —
' NiilliiH III orbu hIiuih IUiIIh privliicot nmn'nid,' —
the uliiinilaiK^o of its liot H|)riii);M, wliicli pivc to
tli(> Ifoiiiaiis, who were |)a.s»ioiiat<'lv foliil of the
li.'iili, till' o|i|iortiiiiiiy of iii<liil^in)r in llial luxury
ill ivcry form tlial was inosl a<'('i<|ital>li'. it hcciiis
to liavt' ('oiiit' into fasliioii pn'vioii.sly to, or almut,
llu! era of Ijii'iiIIms, who hail a H^ilcniliil villa
ciilicr in the town or iln iinini'iliatc m'i){lilioiirhooil,
)i> iinil al!4o Ca'sar, I'mniicy, ami Ani^UHiiis; ami il
(Mntiimnl to increase in |io|iiilarily, ami to he a
favourite re.sort of the eiii|MTorH ami of the allhieiil
volii|itiiarieH of Itoiiut till the irrn|itiiai of the
liarhariaiiM imiler 'I'lu'iiilorie the (jotli. The town
was liiiill iiri<;iiiiilly on the narrow slip of ^roiiml
Jielweeii Itii- hills ami the sea; hut as this space
was Iml 111' very limited diniensions, after Itaiiv
Ipccaiiie a liishionalile resort, the foumlatioiis of its
hi reels ami iiiilaces were projecteil into the hay
ilself! This is ulliiileil to hy'ilorace: —
'Marls(|iie IJaiis ol)Htrcix?ntIa urgca
Buiiuiiovero lltl^)ru,
Panlm lucuplus cunthtcntc ripA.' II. Od. 18.
No sooner, however, had opulence withdrawn
lier powerful hand, than the sea fjraduiilly re-
^Mim^d its old domain; moles and liiittresses wiTe
torn asunder, washed away, or tiiinhled headlonj;
iiilo the deep, where, several feet hehiw the sur-
face, pavcnients of streets, foundations of houses,
and masses of walls, may still ho descried. Karth-
(pialvcs and other convulsions of nature have also
lar;i('ly contrihuted to the destruction of llaiic, of
which only a small portion of the ruins now
rcninin.
MAIHOUT, or BAIIJURDT, a to^vn of Asiatic
Turkey, iiacli. Erzeroiim, on the Tchorokhi. (12 in.
\V. hy N. Krzeronm. I'op. estimated at ahinit 4,()IHI.
It is a straf;t,dingill-hnilt town, supposed tooccniiy
the site of the ancient Variitlia, with a castle
which has some markH of antifpiity. Instead of
walls and hastions, it is defended hy portahle
towers made of h)j;s of wood. They are musket-
proof, of a triangular shape, and have raised tur-
rets at each aiij^le. If refjiiired in any distant iiarl
of the country, as not unlreqncntly hapi)eiis, they
may he taken to pieces, or, if the roads permit,
transiMirted on wheels. The accumulation of snow
in winter is here so ^reat as to cut off all coininu-
nication hetwcen ilaihout and the circumjacent
villages for four months in the year. Cow diiiif;'
liakcd HI the sun, and collected duriiifj; the summer
iniiiiths, is the only fuel the jxior can afford to jmr-
chase. The natives in this part of Armenia are
described as a short, stout, and active race of men ;
remarkalily dark in their complexions, brave and
hardy, jiassionaloly fond of hunting the slag, with
which their mountains abound, and invariably
civil. (Kilineir's Asia Minor, p. 3.>iJ.)
IIAIKAL (LAKK OF), sometimes called the
Sriatorc More, or Holy Sea, in Siberia, in the gov.
of Irkoutsk, between ol'' and5G°X. lat., and lu:\°
and 110=' E. long. Its greatest length in a NNl';.
and SSW. direction, is nearly 400 m, ; hut, where
greatest, its breadth does not exceed (!0 m., and is
in most parts mn-'' less. It is of very unequul
ile|illi, sand-banks and shallows occurring ahaig-
sido of all but unfathomable abysses. It is situ-
JUKV.W'VAJ,
aled in a iminniMinous nuinlrv, and rici'lv, i
sexeral considerable rivers, while lis Niirpliis wahr
is entirely cMrricd off by the Angara, a lar;if iiiiil
niiiid river, an alllneut of the .leiiissei. Th,. |j,|,.
eries of this bike are very valuable, (ireal innii
hers of seals, of a silvery colour, are captiiri'd, ilif
skins of which are sold to the Chinese. Stiir;;i ,
to the extent of aliniil I.IMMI poods a year; saliiimi
are also taken ; but the grand object, of tin- lUhipy
islheo/MH/, a sort of herring (Salmi) iiiitiiinnuli],,
vrl miiiriiUiriiiii), taUen in vast numbers (ab.ini'
100,1)011 poods a year) in August and Septeinlut,
when it ascends the rivers. The most sin^riilur
llsli bidoiigiiig to the llaikal is \\w giilitmiiiikd [V„l^
li/imniiits Huifiilf>isin), fripiii four to six indio in
length, HO very fat that il inells before the lire li|,|.
butter. The latter is never taken alive, bin |,
cast dead upon llie shore, somelimes in iiiiiiiniM'
(|iiaiilities, after siorms. Il yields an oil, suM tn
great advanlage to the Chinese. The siirfiiii' ,i|'
the lake is frozen over from November to t|ii> (.||,|
of April or the beginning of May. (Klii|iriii||
Mi'inoires relatifs ii I'Asie, iii. H'j-lOM; Sturi'li'
Tableau lie la Kuxsio, ii. 112.)
ItAII.LKlIL, n town of Franro, d<<p. dii Xdnj,
cap. cant., on n hill near the Meterbeci|ue, p; m,
WNW. l.ille. on the railway from Lille tn Dim.
kenpie. l'o|). 10,102 in iHiil. The town is ii|ii.||,
iiiiii is generally well built ; it has various faliricNul'
(doth, cotton and lace, paper and hats, with a liir);i'
distillitry, oil-mills, tanneries, and poiieries. \
species of cheese calhul Jiiiilk-iil, made in the envi-
rons, is highly esteemed. Ilailleiil is the naiiir
of several small towns in various parts of Fraiiiv,
but all too inconsiderable to deserve notice in iliit
place.
15AIX, a town of France, dep. Ille et A'ilnini',
ca)i. cant., IK m. S. I{ennes. I'op. ,'l,l!(0 in 1m;i.
It has manufactures of serges and woollen siiitVs.
IIAIS, a town of France, dep. and arroiid. Jlny-
eiine, cap. cant. I'op. .'KOffil in iMlil. Tins iiisii'is
the name of a town of about the same size, in the
(K'p. Ille et Vilaine, arrond. V'itre.
IIAJA, or MAS, a town of Ilungar*-, en. lines,
near the Danube, 20 m. N. bv W. Zom'bor, lat. I'P
10' 20" N., long. ;w° ;■)«' 17" !•:. I'op. lH,i;-.>l in
I MOO. It is the seat of the courts of justice fur the
CO., has a Catludic and a tireek church, a mm,!-
gogne, and a Catludic gymnasium. Tliirt' ari'
four great fairs annually.
llAKKWHLIi, a town of England, on. Dirliv.
himd. High I'eak, |)ar. liakewell, 22 ni. .NN\V.
Derby. I'oi>. 2,701 ni IHOl. Area of t(iwns|ii|i.
it.iWo" acres. The town is beautifully siliintiil mi
llie \V. bank of the Wye, 2 m. above its ciiiiiiin';i ••
with the DerNvent. The church, a spacious [Mw
structure, on an eminence, contains many iIih'
monuments. The Independents and We>i(y,iin
have each a chapel. There is a free-school, fniiiiiicil
in ItiiiO, with a small endowment, and an aliiis-
hoiise for six old men. Over a chalybiale s|iriii;'
(which had a high reputation in theSaxun limi«,
modern baths have, within a reccni pi^riml. Imh
formed; these are constantly su|)plied wiililVi-li
water, which, on its inllux, emits con,-.iilcr:ii'lt'
(liiaiililies of carbonic acid gas: its teiii|i. is ii"^
Falir. Near the entrance to the town, fnnn A-li-
ford, is a cotton manufactory, built by Sir i;ifli;irl
Arkwright : it employs about ilOO haiids, Jhiiiy
of the other inhabitants are employed in tlii' iritl
mines and marble quarries of the iieiglilMiiirlii«iil.
The town has a station on the Alidlainl liaihvay.
The weekly niarl;et is held on Friday, bnl tlieic i-
Utile business of any kind transacted. Tlicri'ar'
annual fairs held, Easter Monday, Whit Mcimiay,
Aug. 21)1 h, Monday alter Oct. lo'ih, and Tiiiirsiiay
after Mov. 11th. The petty sessions for the liiui-
', mill nrMVM
IH r<iir|ilii!< wiitir
urn, a liir^i' ami
JHHci. Till' li^li-
t<. (iri'iit iiiiiii
n* ('M|iiiir('il, ilii'
u'Hc, Sliir;,'fnii,
II yt'iir ; wiliiiuii
'I't t>f till' liilicry
ilinii iiiifiimmilif,
niMlllll'P* (itlnMll
I iind S«'|ilt'iiili(r,
ic iniwl i»iii),'iil;ir
J qohiiii/iikii [('ill-
III h'ix ilirlii'» ill
(■riirc III!' lire lilii'
ki'ii iilivi', lull is
ihnr^ ill iiiiiiii'iiM'
Ills Mil nil. NuM III
i. 'I'llC Klllllll'l' lit'
.•(•inlitT til I III- cihI
Miiv. (Kliiiiriiili,
, Hi)-U)«i Siiwli,
100, d«*p. ilii Niiril,
Icti'rlHM'iiiif, lii III.
rmn Lilli' t" Diiii-
Tlie tiiwii ii u|iiii,
i« viiriimt' I'll! irii's 111'
I hntH, witli a liircc
mill iiiiili'i-ics. \
'. mnilein llioiiivi-
ll(\ul if till' iiaiiii'
iim jmrtH nl' KrainT,
.■serve notice in lliis
ET). lUn Pt, VilaiiiP,
I'oii. a.l'.MI ill iw'il.
jiul woollen stiitVs.
|). iiiiil iirriiiid. Miiy-
'. l«(!i. Tins alsiiit
lie same size, in tliu
tre.
Uunnnrv', CO. Itnrs.
W. Zoinlior, hit. I'i^
K. ro\). l^/i-l 'I'
irtsof juslii'i' I'liriliv
eek elinreli. a syiiii
liiiisiuin. There aro
J'ji^laiiil, po, Dcriiy.
ewell, -ii m. NNW,
Area ol" tii\viislii|i.
luitil'nlly Mliiatiiliiii
lalmvc its ciiiillm;! •■
}h, aspacious (luiliii'
Icontnins many I'liu'
Ints antl We>l>y:iin
\ I'ree-se.liool. t'niiiuli'il
[ineiit, ami an alub-
la elialyheaie siirnii,'
Vm the Saxon liim-.
recent iieiiml. ''-"i
sn|inlieil "i'h I'""''
emits eoll^ill>■l':l''''•'
.as: its leiiip. isi'"^
ftlio town, from A-b-
llniilt l)ySirKiili:irl
, itoil liamls. M;niy
^nploye'l ill the li'ii'l
llienein-hhoiif'"""''
je Midlaiiil l!:"'^'''^
Friday. Iml thw '■
.msacted. Tlicri'iif
lidav, Whit Mowlay.
KMli, aiidTliiirsilay
sessions lor the Iw"-
BAKTCillSKHAI
ilrcil lire held in the lnwii. It is the ehh f |vdlintr
liiwii for 'he ^' divi-iiiii nC the loiiiily. 'I'he lis iiiK
I, n viriiriih'e, in the pulrunil^'e ol' (lie dean and
(liniiiiT ol l.iihllehl.
riifie miles NK. ol' the liiwii is Chatsworili, the
^iili'lliliil "<'l" "' ''"' 1*"'"' of Ifevollvhiri', nil a
Ji'iiili' rlM' near the liase ol' a liiiely wooded hill:
ihi' lliTWeiit, Hpaiined liy ft liaiid-uine stone hridn'e,
ijow^ piisl il>* priiieipal Iroiil, The inaiision rnrins
ft ■.iimire of I'.MI ri.,eiirliiMiii^ a spacious court, with
a rHiiiilaiii in the centre; it has n tial roof siir-
riiiiiiii'd hy lialnstrades, and is decorated wiili Imiic
iiiliiinns. " At the principal entrance, a Kfand tli;,'lit
„l slips leads to a terrace exleiiilinj; the h'lij^lh of
llir hiiililiii),', 'I'he water-Works (with the excep- i
limi III' those of Versailles) are considered the lincst
ill Kiiriipe, The present editice stands on the sile
„f ilie iiiansioii liuill hy Sir VVilliani Caveiidisli |
ill ilie Itiih century, iii which Mary, t^ieeii ol' j
S'lil^. was ini|irisoiied thirteen years. It wasimii- i
jili'ii'il ill ITiiti, lint a wiii^ and other addilions j
have lieen made to it liy the present duke, unit
iiiaiiv iinprovemenls are still in pm^jress. Allo-
L'cihir, it is one of llu" nolilest resiliences in the
l.iii.i-iliiiii, and contains a very large collect ion of
iiii ilircs, statues, and arlicles of vcrtii. Iladdon
Hall, the property of tlm Duke of Uiitland, the
iiiii>l perfect of the Hiicient liaronial mansions re-
inaiiiin;; in the kingdom, is alioiit 2 m, S. of the
iiiwii, on an eminence overlooking the line vale of
IJailileii, It wiif h'lilt "I dilVcreiit periods; the
niiiM aneieiit part in Kdw. 111,'s reign ; another, in
ihat iif lien. VI, ; and Ilie most modern, in the
fciiiii i4' Kliz, ; at which period it came into the
liiwH'ssion of the Manners family.
fill' present name of the town is n contrnetioii
iif ils nlil Saxon name, derived from the ehalylieate
siiHiig, The castle stooil on a knoll, on tlu' E,
Imiik iif the Wye. The parish in which this town-
>lii|i is situated is the largest in the co., its area
iK'iiig 4:1,(1211 acres; and it includes, liesides the
lowiis iif llakewell and Hnxtoii, eight clia|)elries,
tin townships, and four hamlets. The entire po-
|iiilatiiiii ill 1H31 wan iJ,5U3, oiid in 18G1 it had risen
Iiill.-.'.VI,
llAKI'tJlIISKKAI (palace of the gardens), a
tiiwii of Russia in Kurope, in the Crimea, of which,
while miller the Tartars, it was the capital and the
risiilt'iiee of the khan, 7 ni. SW, Simpheropol,
I'lip. estinii'ted at ahout 10,1)0(1, ' This,' says |)r.
Clarke, 'is one of the most remarkalile towns in
lliirii|ie; lirst, in the novelty of its manners and
iiistiinw; these are strictly' oriental, and betray
liiitliingof a Kuropeaii eharaotej:: seconilly, in the
hire of the town itself, oecni tying the craggy sides
111' a priiiligious natural fosse, between two high
innimtaiiis, somewhat like the appearance cxhi-
liiiiil hy Matlock in Deri lysli ire. The view breaks
nil at mice upon the traveller, exhibiting a variety
111' iilijects ill a most irregular and scattered iiiau-
niT; 'while bubbling fountains, running waters,
;;arileiis, terraces, hanging vineyards, and groves
III' the black poplar, seem to soften the horror of
nicks and precipices, and even to make them
niipcar inviting.' (vol, ii, p. 170, «vo. ed.) lint,
iiiitwitlistandiiig this profusion of fountains and
waier, llaktcliiserai is not <listiiignished by its
olcaiiliness ; on the contrary, its streets are narrow,
wiiuliiig, and tiltliy. It siilfered a good deal after
its lirsitiiccupation by the Kussiaiis, but latterly it
has improved : it is entirely occupied by Tartars.
The ancient palace of the khans has been repaired,
ami is preserved in all its former magiiilicence.
(Scliiiitzler, La Kussie, p, 734 ; l-.\all's Travels, i.
iLl'I'd.)
IIAKU, or r>ADKU, a soa-port town of the
l!iis>ian doiniiiions, prov. Dagheutan, on the S.
15ALA
»:t:i
shorn or Dip ppiiinsnhi of Abs.hnron. on the W,
coasi of Ihe Caspiiin Sea, of which it is one of Iho
best and niosl I'rcipielileil ports; lal, lo*^ 'J'J' \,,
hnig, .'lO" In' •', rii|i. r.iiiiiuicd at abiiiil (1,000.
It is ilel'riided by a double wall and deep ditch,
conslriicli'd in the nign of I'l Irr theiircat. It han
sniiie mosi|nes and caritvaiiM'ras, but is iiieaiily
bnill : the hoiixes, which are flat roofed, are co-
vered with a coating of naphtha. Its excellent
barboiir, and its central and advanci'il posiiimi,
give il great advantages as a trading slatimi. The
value of the iinpnrts, ii«ii.-,isiiiig principally of raw
silk and colloii goods from Persia, ainoiinlid, in
l«(iO, to •.',000,000 roiildes. The exports eoii-ist
principally of naphlba, salVron, and oil.
The peninsula of Abirliaroii is fanmns for its
naphtha springs and niiiil volcanoei, and bel'ure
the Mohanimcihin coiiipiesi was a favourite ri"-orl
of the (ihebers, nr lire-worshippers, 'The (|ii;ill-
tity ofnaii'itha procured in the plain lo the SI'., of
the city is enormous. It is drawn from wells,
some III' which have been found to yiidd frniii 1,000
lo 1,000 lbs, a dav. These wells are, in a cerliiin
sense, inexhanstilile ; for lliey are iiosooiicreinptied
than they again begin to iill. the naphtha cmi-
tiiiiiing to iiurease till it has attained to its foriiicr
level. It is used by the natives as a sub titiite lor
lamp oil, and, when ignited, einiis a clear light
with iniich smoke, and a disagreeable smell, I'..
of the naphtha springs the attention is arrested by
the .\la>h-Kiiilihi, or tirc-tcmple of Ihe (ihebers;
a remarkable spot, sonielhiiig less than a mile in
cire,, from the centre of which a bluish tiaiiie is
seen to arise. Here some small houses have been
erect(Ml; and the inhabitants, in order to sinoiber
the tiame, have covered the space encloM'd by the
wall with a thick loam of earth. When tire is,
therefore, reipiired for any culinary purpose, an
incision is made in the Hour, and on a light being
prodnced, the llaino inmiediately arises, and when
necessarv is again suppressed by dosing the aper-
ture ! With the lire a siillilinreous gas also arises;
and A strong current ol iiitlammable air, with
which leathern bottles are fretpiently lilled, inva-
riably eontinups after the llanie has been extin-
guished. The whole country, indeed, around llakii
has, at times, the appearance of being enveloped
in tlames. It often seems as if the tire rolled
down from the iiiountains in large masses, with
incredible velocity ; and during the clear moon-
shine nights of Xoveniber and I)eceinber, a bright
blue light is observed, at times, lo cover the wliolo
western range. This lire does not coiisiime ; and
if a person linds himself in the middle of it, be is
not sensible of any warmth.' (Kinneir's I'ersia,
j>. 'ii)[K) The mild volcanoes, in the vicinity ol'
the town, often throw up vast ipiantities of iiiiid.
llakii was acipiired by the Knssiaiis from the I'er-
siaiis, in IHOI, and along with Astrakhan caiTies
on the whole trade of the C'a.si)ian. (See Cahi'IAN
Ska.)
liAivU, or 15AKOWA, a town of Moldavi.i, on the
j liistrit/.. near its contluencc with the Seretli, hit.
I 'U)° 'M' S., long. M° 47' E. It is a poor, miserable,
lilthy place, but lias a considerable trade in cattle,
I corn, salt, and wood. It occu])ies the site of a
I city which was once the residence of a (.'atholic
! bishop ; the ruins of the cathedral still exist.
j I5ALA, a township, market, and assize town of
I X, Wales, CO, ^lerioneth, huinl. PeiiUyn, 37 m.
! NW. by W. Shrewsbury, at the W. end of the
' largest of the Welsh lakes, in a wild and moiiii-
tainous district. I'op. of ]iar., t;,352 in liSdl. Tlu!
town, which consists of one wide street, with a
smaller one branching from it, has a neat and re-
speciable ap|iearaiice. It has a chapel of ca.se, and
two other chapels belonging to ludependenls and
f^'^^^
'
iint
ItALACIINA
■^i
I u. I
If r \
< ,'S
n
I 1 I ' H r " ?
'T.
CiilviniMtic Mt'lliiKliNtH; nii rmlowi'd k'""'"""'-
mIhmiI, riiiiiiilnl ill 171'J, uhcn- lliirty Imivk iiri'
fhillinl allil riliKiilril carli I'lir I'lMir Vi-afH ; it ImioU
Mii'H'iy, «'»tiil(li"liiM| ill IM-.'H; ami a (umii liall. i<>
wlilrli iiiic lit' l|ii> CO. Iiriili-Mi'lls Ih alliiclii'il, 'I lie
lii.'irlicl is licjii III! SuliirilayN, ami is well iitlrndi'il.
'I'lirri' ari' llvi' lair'*, rliiclly I'nr lli«' kiiIc nC livi-
Hi licit, (III tlicSaiiinliiy licl'iirc Slim^ciiilc, May I tlli.
.Inly Mull (a lar^c liiiiili lain, Oct, -.'lili.aiiil Nov.
Hill. Iliila ii|i|M'iirN III liavc Ixtii aiiciciiilv iiicur-
iinralcil, lull ai |ircMciii is iiicri ly a iiuiiiiiial liiiriiiii;li
III llic jiiriKiliciiiiii of (III- I'd, iiiaKi-<lratc.i. The
Njiriii^ a.-iNi/i'M, ilu^ NiinitiiiT ami » inter (|iiartcr
HiUNiiins I'lir llic CO., arc lidit licrc, ami n en. cmnl
I'lir ilclils miller lllx. every oilier iiioiitli; all tlic
cuiirlM lieiiiK alteriiulely lielil here ami a( l)ol
),'elly. 'the loWll ami llei);'hlioiirlliiiiit have lieeil
rniiiiiiiH tViiiii II reimilc |ieriiiil I'nr the niaiiiil'acdire
orkiiiiicil siiicluii^rs ami ^liives, c-teciiicil I'nr their
yll'cli>;lh ami nnriiicMN of IcMiire; hut IIiIm Iiii.h oI'
laic yearn ilecliiieil coiiNiilcriiiily. Ahoiil fitl.tMHl
iln/.eii MtiickiM^n ami socks are nniiiiiilly inaile.
'I'hc town is coiiiiccleil with the KiiKlish railway
sysleni liy the Mala iiml l>iilj;elly line, aiithoriseil
ill \M->, of a Iciinlh of :i,\ miles.' At I he SI'., eiiil
of the town is a l;ir;;'c arlilicial inoiiml. siip|ioseil
to he of lioinaii consiriictioii, from the Mimniit of
which is a iiia>;iiiliceiit view, hiiviii;; the lofty
Arraiis on one side, ami Cailer lilris on the other.
The lake Itahl, 'l'e;;iil, or I'imlileinere, is ahoiit I in.
ill leii;;th liy I in wiillli; it ahoiimls with |iike.
pircli, iroiit, ami still nmre wilh the whitc-scalcil
nwyiiiail. The whole is the |irii|ierly of Sir W. W.
W'yiiii, who has a lisliin;;- scat on it. The l>ec
rises ill Arran I'enllyn, a iiioniiluiii at the licail of
the lake, ami eiiier;;es from it near Itala, where it
is s|iaiineil hy a liriil;;e, near which, on the I'',, hank.
II castl(> was erecteil in I'.'O'i, of which some traces
arc yet visihic. A hriiiii'li oft lo lionian Watliii;;
>St. passed tliroii^'h or very near the (iresi nt tuwii,
and at the head of the lake are the remains of u
li'oinan station. The arlilicial nioiiml aliove incii-
lioiicd was occupied hy the Welsh as one of a chain
of forts across this part of the principality, to pre-
vent the incursions of the l'ili;;lish lords marchers :
nt a siihseqiieiit period the place was a depemieiicy
of Harlech t'astle. ISula is n favourite resort of
(Sportsmen diiriii)^ the jfroiisc season,
It.VL.VCIINA, a town of Miiropean linssiii. j^ov.
><ijiii Novj,'orod, on the NVoljiU. I'o)). estimated
at I.IKM), Theru arc saline sprin).fs in tlie- iieigh-
lioiirhooil,
llAL.V(iAXSKOI,n town of Asiatic I{iissin,K'>v.
Jrkontsk, !M» m. N\V. Irkmitsk, on the Aii;,'ara,
ItALAdl'KK (an. Jivri/iisiu), a town of Spain.
Catalonia, on the Se;;re, 14 m. NIC. r^erida. I'op.
[i,\'2H in IMoT. It is siliiated at tlu! foot of a steep
nioinitaiii in n fertile plain, and in defeiidud l>y u
lt.\'LAGIIAUT CKDKD DISTIMCTS, an inl.
jirov. of S. llindostan, presid. JMadras, hctween
j:i° l.V and 1(J° 20' N. hit., and 7iP lo' ami 71)° 20'
1\. \i»\^. ; consistiiij^ of jiart of tilt! rej;ioii called
ISalimhaiit, or ahove the (Ihants (which exlemls
IVoin the Krishna to the S. of Mysore, and formed
(li(! aiic. Hindoo oinp. of Karnata), liavin;^ N.
Kiirnool, and the territories of the Nizam ; K. (Jiin-
toor, Nelloro, and Arcot ; S.Mysore; and VV.
Dliarwar: leiif^fh ahout 200 m., hrendth various,
nre.'i, 2o,l.")(J s(|, in. Pop. about 2,500,000. it is
almost fiinally divided hetweeii the colleclorates
of Uellary and Ciiddapah. It consists mostly of
flevated tahle-Iiinds stretcliini; out into extensive
]ilaiiis ; hilt larj^e tracts are rii;rjj;c(l, and there is a
j:;rcat deliciencv of wood. There are no lar;io
rivers: thi! 'i'oombnddra forms part of its N.
Lutindnry, and lillti some watt'i'eoiirses aljoul l»i-
llALAMIJANOAM
Janairnr, the anc, liindoo capital; hot i>l-«H|uti'
irrii;alion is Hcarce, and ilroiif^'lit frei|iiciiily i,f,,
\iiils. The fioil is in iniii-t p.iits eillur hlnck i.r
red mould : the I'urmer i> mosi conimni In ilii<\v
district", where it forms nil extensive iilain; it |^
ilei'ii, without ve^cl/ililc remains ; ami whrriclinhsl.
hrokcii lip, and properly pulverised, j< fnunil i, i,
exceedingly fertile, and is aflerwardi mtv la. i
cultivated, lint lliis liriii);in^ in of the hlmk m.i|
is II very e\|iiii«ive process j and, in ciinseiiiu ii,i.,
ihoiiKh the red soil lie Ic* fertile, yet, us it ihh,,
easily liroii^'lil iiii . a productive state, the iiiH.rn
clilssi •< are freiicnilly settled upon it. hrill Im
liandry is imiMTsal, li'/tiii is uncertain ; ainl il ,i
fail in >liim'. the whole crop is in daiu cr of liiinr
lost. The (//-//ciiliivalion is almost miner-al : tln'
«v< not U'in;; supposed to exceed 7 |s'r ••ciu,,,!
the whole, riaiilnlions of iiiili;;'o, liriel. Hii^ur.
cane, red pepper, luliacco, Her., are jircllv cMin.
sively SI illcred lAirtlie coiintrv. I'lii iciii|,(.rii
tiire is much ciiolcr thiiii in the siirriiiiinliii;; mni
less elevated disirictH, .ManiifaetiireH iiaoiiniilir-
ahle.
The land has iihvayslioen regarded as hehin^jiinj
to government, and the metayer system was pri'
valeiit under hoth tin- native and Miihaniiniiliiii
dynasties. Iletweeii ihe com|ucst of the lailir
and the rei.t;n of .\nriinu/.elie, the class ol /«i/i(/.(m,
who were ori^'inally either mere colleciin ,,f iii,,
revenue or heads of villa^res. Iinviii;; nii ,ilv in-
creased in miinhers and inlliieiice, withhelii ihi'
revenues, set up for pi'lty chiets, and Iuin in;; i>iii
hli^-hed a kind of feudal system, desolaieil ilu
country hy their inntnal wars, and reiluccd it tun
state of anarchy and of the utmost iniMTy. Wliiii
it came into the iiosscssion of the llritish in Isim,
its iiihali. jjeneraily were the poorest in our ilimii-
nioiis: 'they were seldom even lixed as tcMiiiii>.
hut mi^'rated from farm to farm, and from villiii.'i'
to villa^fe, where they clnhhed together to caiTv
on their cultivation.' The jiidieions ailiiiiiiiMlni-
tioii of Sir T. (theiiCol.) Mnnro.who wasappeiiiinl
principal collector, not only averted a faniiiii', in
coiiseipieiice of drought, in IMIKI, hut in sivin
years raised the revenue, without hiirdeniiif; ilic
cultivators, from t million to l,|| million pa;,'ii(la>.
The average total revenue iiaid hy each inlmli. nl
Kellary is 2 nip. H an. H pic.; and thai paiil liv
each inliah. of rmldapah, 2 nip. The villa;;i' mi-
tli'inent is predominant in this prov., espei'i,'iily in
('nddapah. The inliah. are more lahorioiis. Imrlv,
and ma ily, and their food, dress, and weiipoih
ruder tliiiii those of the jieople lielow the (diant<;
they Were never tliorciigldy snhdued hy the .Mu-
hammedaiiH, who settled in this prov. at a ri'ni-
pariilively late ]ieriod, and do not now exciul
l-ITith part of the pop. Kalaghniit forined piiri "f
the last Hindoo empire of Itijaiiagiir: alter tlu'
fall of the Delhi dynasty, it hecame separatnl inl"
several indei). stales, was compiereil hy llyilcr
hefore 17H0 ; and after 17!I2 helongedto heN'iz.iin.
hv whom, in INOO, it was ceded to the l!rili-li.
(l''or further particulars sei; Maiikas; Jliiiiiiliiiir<
K. I. (iazetteer; Madras Almanac.)
KALAKLAV'A, u small sea-jiort town of Kn-
ropean l{ussia,at the SW'.extremitvof theCriiiirii;
lat. 11° 21t' N., long. JiiJ" iil' 40" K. J'np. 2,(i7!t in
IMoH. A great hattle was fought here Oit. I'l!,
IH.VI, hptween the Kiissian and the allied .\ii;,'l»-
Frencli troops. 'I'hn town has a small hut txivl-
leiil harlioiir, land-locked, and with water .MiHi-
cient to float the Jargest ships. It has no triiilc.
and is resorted to onlv liv coasters.
UALAiVlHANtiAN, aii isl. of the K. Arcliip., Iili
division, Iving off the N. extremity of liiiniin:
lat. 7° I.VN., hdig. 1 17° ij' !■:.; 15 ni. Imig and :l
broad, but uniiihubiled. It lum a rich snil. and
I t'lllKT l-liirk nr
itiiniMi ill ilii' \V.
\f\\r 11I11.111 : it I1
illld wiirT«i'lnin>.l,
'(I, i I rnimcl lii ''I
ivunW vcrv r'n»iiv
I III' I lie lilacW Mill
I, ill CiillMCiiMrllrc,
, yd, n* it isiiii
Wllitt', I 111' lumrn
III il. hrili liii
I'lTtiiin ; mill il II
I (lull; >r "if litiiii;
list iiiiivrr-ill ; llii'
•••(l 7 i«'r '•(•III, III'
li|4;(i, lii'Icl, "liyiir
an- iirciiy <si(ii-
■\ , rill- ii'iii|K'rn
urilcd i\H licliiiiKiiik'
•r Hy^^l^•tn \\n* \itv-
iiiiii Miiliiiniiiii'ilini
|iu'st III' tlic laiiir
III' ('Inss III jioliiinrt,
ic iiilli'iiiii 111' till'
linviiin Kri :>ily in-
cliri', willilii'lil till'
's, mill Imviii^' rM:i-
tcin, (lr:<iilali'il llii'
mill rnlui'i il it tn a
iiiht iiiiMTV. Wliiii
llic liriti>h ill iKiiii.
iiiiiri'^il ill iiiir lii'iiii
i>n lixcil 111 liiiaiiiv
111, anil t'n'Mi villnuf
il tiinotlHT til I'liiry
iiliciiiiin ailiiiiiiisiru-
i,wliowrtsai.i"iiiiiiil
ivcrti'il a raiiiiiii'. in
iHOIt, lillt ill wvi'il
liiiiil Imnli'iiinn il"'
llJl niiHiiiii iiaiTi'ilii-.
il liy fiirll iuliali. "I'
aiid lliat naiil liv
hi. Till" viliairi' >ii-
|iri>v., i's|ic(iall.v in
II' laliiiriiiiis. Iiar.ly,
ili'i'ss, ami wi'iiiii'ii"
lu'liiw till' (iliaiiiv,
iiIiiIiiimI liy till' M"-
|lii« priiv. at a ("i"-
jlo not IIIIW cxiwl
|;lmiit riiriiit'il i>iiri nf
iiJHiiiifiiif ■• altiT llii'
I'liiiu' Mi'iiaratnl iiii"
iiiiliicroil l>y llyiiir
i.ii},'P(lto lii'Niz.i"i.
(It'll to till' liriii-li.
ADiiAs; llaiiiiltiiii'*
|i"'"'-) . ,.
ii-liiirt liwn III !•"-
initviil'llii'''''""''''
|o" K. I'l'p- ■-."^'•' '"
aitjlit liiTi' di't.'-"'
1(1 ili« allii'il Aii;,'!"-
a small Imt i'>"''|-
111 villi water Mi'li-
It has no trmli'.
alters.
,1'tlH! K. An-hip.. Itli
Itrcniity nl' liiin"'";
lu in. Iiiii^.' ami ••
US a rich snil. wn'
ll.M.AHOUK
fwi. liarli'iiir* nlKiiiiuliiiK In llili. A soltlomcnt,
|,,rnii'il ill \'i^^' '•>' '*'" ''"• '• <'"in|>»ny. \mii xikiM
liif ,|,,.triiMil liy till' Sniiliiiw, mill a niili'>ri|iii'iii
.iiilriiiciii |ilitniril ill lr<iM \\\\* HliirNNunU uluiii
ll\i,AMO|{l'' (ViilitiiHini), n nra imrt town of
lliiiiliihtaii. i'ri»lil. IU'ii).'nl. |iriiv. OriMa, ilii.ir.Ciit-
n,k,(il' «•>"'''' '• " ''"' ''lii'l i«irt : hit. Jl^ ll'i' N.,
j.iiii;' Hii" fitl' K. : I '-'•'» "'• '"^^V. ( 'ali'iitia. I'lip. i-.i i -
iii,.,i,,| U'twi'i'ii lii.imo uii'l I--MMHI. h i^ a laruc
«iri 'l'i'~ lili"'''- "" •'"' i^' '"'III* "I till' lli'iiri-
Hal.mi;. »'i'' I'l'"''' ' '''''II 'ill'. Kiirnnil) it wa-* 11
ll,,i,fi,|riltc timii, Willi rurtiiniii'si', iMllrli, iillil
Ij lii-li I'artiirii^. It Ii.ih ilrv ilurkn, liiit is at
iii'M'iil tri'Hiii'iiti'il "Illy liy AfaliTiM' m'««i'Ih. nail
Lulls, 11 i'l "tiuritniall iTat't : itHi'.\|iiiriM arr ihirtly
riiviiit'aiiiii I inwiiiiir.
ilAI.ATON ^lAKK OF), hi Hungary. Sic
I'l.MTi-.N Si;k.
|l,\l,lll!l(i(iAX, a ni.irif. Inwn of Inliniil, I'li.
jiiililiii, |iriiv. I.ciiiMii'r, iirar tlir iiiiuiili i>l' Ihr
Miiiill riMf l>rlvan, riirniiii^' the I'li. Iiiiiiinliiry to
iln' N,. IT '"• ^- '•>' ''■• "' I'lil'liii. Il"' '"■"' 'il
till' inwii riiiiiaiiis IMO Ktatiiti' arrci, Ari'uriliii;;' tu
ihi' ri'iisiis (if l«i'il, tlicri' wi'Tc 2,"J."iM iiilmliitaiil-.
1,1 wlniiii l.tl'l'- iii''il''H and l.'.Mii fi'iiialcH. 'I'lii'
liilal iiiiiiili'T (if hiiiiM'n was M't, nf which 171' iii-
b.il'ili'd. 'I'hc jilari' was Ihr sitiic of a Naii>,'iiiiiary
I,:ihIi', ill l''l'>"''< lii'twci'ii Ihf lii-sl I'jirl of l.iiiilh
mill siinii' of the Kilfflish srltlrrs, who iliMpiiti'd
ilii' I'laiin III Ihf |ialatini' dignity of tlir ciuiniy,
lull wcri' drl'iilrd. William III. I'licamiu'd hcrt'
III! Ills iiiai'i'li to Diililiii, after the lialllc of tlii'
lliivnr. 'I'he town is tint lii'iid-i|iiarl<'rs of the
(n. I'liiixtahiilary, and nrar it is a niarti'lio Iowit.
wiili a ('(iast-K""rd station. 'I'hcri' arr two coitoii
iiiilN lii'rc, ^ivin^ work to ahoiit 100 |irrsons, 'I'lic
ci'ii"!!^ ri'tiirns slate tiiat l'>7 families are ein|itoye(l
ill a^'rii'iilt lire, 17'.' in mainifaetiires and trade, and
'.>,'i:l ill iiilier |iiirsiiils. litM maU's and IIH females
arc ri'tiinied as memhers of the I'lstalitished ( 'liiireli,
anil 87',' Males and l,ll.'i:i females as Itoinan I'alho-
liis. 'I'lu' iiiililic markets are held on Mondays,
ill a market house erected i)i IS||, Thu fairs are
I'll llie 'JIUli April and 2!llh Seplemlier.
flic liarhoiir, which is nalurally small and nuieh
ixiHiM'd, was coiisideralily iniiiroved hy a pier
built alHiiit I7iii'>, 'I'lie (|ii>iy, wliicli is imw tiOli ft.
iiiiit;. with a linhthonse at the extremity, is fre-
i|iiciilly lilU'd with craft. At the pier head there
i« U ft, water at liiKh siirin>{ tides, hut the harlmur
liricH at low water. (The CunsiiH of Ireland for
l.'<ill : I'riv. Infonnation.)
IIAI.KAKIC ISLiV^'DS. See Majohca and
MlNOIlCA.
IIAI.FHOX, a village of Scotland, in the \V.
jiari (if Stirlingshire, in the )iarish of the same
iiiinii', lit ni. N. (Jlasjfow, and lit m. \V. Stirling,'.
I'll]), hililll in IKi')!, of whom !):{'2 males and I'i'iH
Irmalcs. lu iKtil the population had fallen to
l.'ilT, of whom (>!>!) males and HIM females. The
iiihaliitaiits are principally eniphiyed as weavers
liir the Glasf{i)w manufacturers, and in the lialliii-
(lalli"'li ('(itton mills in immediate vicinity.
KALFKOOSIl, a town of Persia, prov. INIa/un-
ilcraii, nil tlic llawool, ahout 1'2 m. I'mm the S.
slinri' nf the CiLspian Sea; lat. 'MP ;J7' X., lon>;,
iff 12' F. This is a larj^e llourishiiif^ city. There
are, llo^^■ever, no accurate details with respect to
iisiiii|ailaliim; the estimates vary from I'JO.IIOII to
:!uii.iM)(). It is situated in a low, swampy, hut rich
i'iiiiiitr\-, and stands literally in t\w. middle of a
forc.Ht, it beiiij; surrounded and intersiiersed with
line tri'c». It has an extensive trade, to he ac-
I'l'imtcd fur principally hy the coniimrative immii-
iii'y it has enjoyed frmn opprcssi\ e imposts, as I lie
riLiils Icailing to it are bad, and its port, 1'2 m, off,
HALKH .IX-i
little lirttor lliati an opin madsienil. It U, or at
least was, when \|,<ilii| liy ,Mr, Kraser. eiilinly
pi'iipled hy nirnlianlK, iiu'ihaiiio. and their de-
pi'iid)'iil->, and learned iiiiii ; and witn pruNpeniiH
and happy, far lieyniid anv I'lher place he had
seen ill I'ersia, sireeis hriifld and siraiifhi, Imi
uiipa\ed; hiiii:<eN niiiNlly coliMtriicted iif lirickx, ill
^^iiiiil repair, and ronled isiih til •», It has im imli'
lie liiiililiii^M iif aiiv ci'liNi'ipielii'i' ; the only pliii 1 s
if t.iiy interi il heiiii; the lia/.aarx, whidi eMeinl
for a lull mile in len^'th, and cniixiii of -iiliKtun-
liallx liiiill rail;;eH nf hlmps comtciI frniii the <iiiii
mid weather hy a ronliiii; nf wiumI and tiles, kept,
in excellent repair, Tlii're are aliiiiii ten principal
earax/insi-ras, several of which are aliached in ilio
lia/aars, and are parcelled out niioclinniliers I'nr ihe
mercliaiils, and waiehniHes r>ir their ^nmls. All
the lia/aars and eitiax'iiiNeras ;ire well tilled with
various cninniniliilis, and present a hciiic nf liie-ili'
mid linsiiicss, yet nl ri't;iilarily, very inicnin 1
in this cniintry, and therefnH' the iimrt' ^n'lililyin^,
riiei'e are lielweeii twenty and thirty niedrasMes
nr cnlli'p'S, llallrnni.|i III iii^ 111 ai 111 ir.llicli cell'-
liraled Inr the niiinli<'r and ' iiiii iiti'-e ■ t its moo-
lahs, nr leurned iiicn, as I'm lis cntTimerce, Tlie
river is cmsMed hy a hridjic ..(' nine .llehis. (Fra-
■'ii's Travels almin' tie.- Caspian Sea, pp. NJ-l''.i.)
MALI, liA.'XV, nr l.ll'TLi; .lAVA, an islaml
nf the F, ,\rihipehmn, W. nr ls| ilivisinii, liilweeii
n° II' and H'^ fill S. hit., and 1 11° In' and I I.V-' I'.''
F. Inii^ ; 7(1 III. Innt; hy ;i,-) m, a\eraKi' lireadih.
I'np. e.-itiinaled al frn.n iillil,IMMl in 71111,0110, Cnai-l
riiii'^i'd and withmil liarhniirs ; Mirfjice rising; ;;ra-
diially to the centre, where a cli.iiii of inininlains
stretches \V. and F. aci'nss the island, termiiialiii;^
in the peak nf llali, which is vnlcanic: ;,'l'lllll^y
the same in nt her respects as that nf ,lina. The
land is prndnclive where well walered. as arnimd
Ihe cnasts, hy numerniis streams, and elsewliere
hy artilicial means. Irri^^atinn is sn necesMiry
that the snverei>;ns nf Itali impnse a tax imt mi
the land, hut nil the water hy which il is h'rtiliM'd.
In the lower tracts rice is iniicli enhivatcd ; inai/c
and sweet potatoes in the upper lands. In addi-
linn tn lliese articles, llie llalese, lhnlij;h ninstly
llindnns, eat jiniillry, Im^^s' llesli, and even lieii',
wilhonl scru]iii', excepting; the sacerdolal class.
The chief exports are ri;e, coarse cloths itnii
yarn, hides, salted iXH'- hirds' nests, nil, iHmiiHini
(dried llesli). ////m/i/cr (catechu), Ac: the inipnris,
oiiiiiin, hetel, pild, silver, and ivory. The natives
heiiij; superior to the Malays and .lavanese in si/c.
streii;,;lh, and intelligence, are preferred hy the
Chinese as slaves. Itali was divided, in |H|,"), inin
eif;hl independent slates, piverned hy despniic.
chiefs: the villa>,'e system prevails here as in
.lava. There are hut few Hiiddhists nr Mnliani-
inediiiis; hilt Ilindnnism prevails in llali only, of
all the islands of this archiiielap). 'I'he mass of
the |M'o|ile, however, worship the elements, and
the tutelary ({ihIs of rivers, forests, innimtaiiis, <^c.
There are nn reli^iniis mendicants, hut suttees and
imninlatinns are cnKilucted on a much more a^irra-
vated scale than in India. The Sanscrit <iiii;;ne
niav he distinctlv traced in the language of Itali.
IIAFIZF. See IlosDUitAs.
ItALKII, or Itl'LKII (a\\. Baitrn), a prov. of
Cenlial Asia, now siihordinate to the khaiiat of
llokhara, chielly hetween lat. ;i,")° and ,'t7° N., and
long. Ii;!° and (!il° l<. ; ^.'iving N. the Oxus. V..
liiiduk-shini, S. the Hindoo Kniwh, and I'ampa-
niisan mountains, and W. the desert. Length, V.,
to \V., ahout •.',")(' m. ; breadth l(M» to I'.'Oin. ; area
itO.OOO sq. ni. I'op. about l,0(iO,(iiio. (Klphiii-
stone, ii. lit.").) The .''« part i.i full of stony hills,
lint has many good and well walered valleys; the
E. is mouiitaiiiuus, and mure valuable than the
*'ttf
fi^X
r%*^^ii
^
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
A
^ >.
^^
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Hiotogpaphic
Sciences
Corporation
23 WIST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM
(716)872-4503
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330
BALKH
W., vliich, ns well n.s tlic N., is sniidy nml Imrron.
It (iirmcrly ciitnitriscd Hcveral (iistrirls wlii(tli ikiw
licliiu;; to rtcpiinifo fjovcnirtu'iits, ns Kluiol'ioni,
K(Hiii<l(M)/,( and otlierx to t)ic E. ItH cHpitiil, uiid
tlic territory siihordiimto to it, hnvo. since the full
of tiie Doorniiiiee moinroliy in Cuuhul, to wliich
state it lormerly Itelonf^ed, been tukcn possession
of by tlie klmn of llokjuira,
Kalkii (tlie/f(fjri«»//« and 7?(irfra of the Greeks),
ft decayed city of Central Asia, <'a|), prov. l)elon<;-
iii;; to tlie klianatof Hokliara, lint jjoverned l)y its
own chief, who receives tlu; wlioleof its revennes;
on tlie riffht bank of the Adirsiali or Halkh river,
in a ])lnin (J m. NVV., a ran^e of (he I'aropaniisan
nionntains, IH m. S. the Oxus, and 2/jO SI'-. Hok-
liara; lat. iUP IH' N., loiif,'. ()7° IH' K. Pop. esti-
mated at about (i,(IO(l. The ruins of IJalkh ovciipy
a circuit of "20 ni. : they consist chietly of f.illeii
mosipies and decayed tombs, none of an a;;e jirior
to that of Mobamined. The city, like l!al)yl(in,
has become to the surrounding country an all but
iiicxhatistiblc mine of bricks. There are niauj-
iiie(]iiaiities on the surface of the jjlain, probal)ly
proceediu},' from buried ruins, and cliim])s of trees
III many directions. IJalkh seems to have enclosed
many <'.xteiisive gardens, but these are now neg-
lected and overgrown with weeds. The aque-
ducts, of which there are said to be eighteen, arc
drie<l up or choked, and overflow after rains,
leaving standing jiools, which make the place
very unhealthy, though Ilalkh is not naturally in
a marshy position, but on a gentle slope towards
the Oxus, about 1,«00 ft. above the level of the
sea. A mud wall, of late construction, surrounds
a portion of the present town, excluding the ruins
oil every side for about 2 m. 'J'he town contains
three large colleges, but empty and decaying; and
at its N. side is the citadel, a solid building, but
not strong as a fort ; it contains a stone of white
marble, pointed out as the throne of ' Cyrus ' !
The country round is flat, fertile, and well culti-
vated, said to contain 3()0 villages, and is watered
by eighteen canals, drawn from a celebrated reser-
voir in the Paropamisan mountains. Its wheat
and apricots are remarkablj' fine, lialkh is said
to have been built by Kyamoors, the founder of
the Persian monarchy, and is called by the na-
tives Omm-d-Biildun, 'mother of cities.' After
its conquest by Alexander the Great, it flourished
as the capital of a Grecian kingilom. In the fifth
century before the t'hristian era, Artaxerxes held
an assembly at Balkh for the recognition of his au-
thority. The Magi were expelled by the Caliphs:
( Jenghis, Timour, Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, and the
Att'ghans, successively possessed it. Within the
last twelve years it has belonged, with its terri-
torv, to the khan of Lokhara. (Burn's Travels,
ii. 204, 207.)
BALKHAN. See Turkey.
BALLENSTEDT, a town of the duchy of An-
halt, on the Getel, 15 m. SE. Halberstadt. Pop.
4,408 in 1861. The town is situated at the
foot of a hill, and consists of an Old mid a New
town, the former ill-built. In its environs is a
castle, the residence of the duke, wliich commands
a line view, and has line gardens. It has fabrics
of linen, dyeworks, and an hospital.
BALLINA,-an inland town of Ireland, co. Mayo,
prov. Connaught, on the Moy, 12G m. WNWi
Dublin. Its foiTner name was Belleek, ' the ford
of flags.' The pop., including that of Aj(hiaree, a
village on the Sligo side of the IMoy, connected
with it by a bridge, and which may be regarded
as a suburb of Ballina, numbered 6,419 persons in
18(11. In Ballina alone there were, according to
the return of 18(!1, males 2,081, and females 2,318;
total 4,39!) inhabitants. Tlie total number of
ILVLLINASLOE
houses was 810, of wliich 782 inhabited. Of the
841 families living at Ballina (exclusive of Anl-
naree) 80 wiire employed in agriculture, '.'(7 in
trades and manufactures, and 514 in other imr-
siiits; 194 males and 20(1 females belongi'd tntlio
Established Church, and 1,796 males and l.liiw
females were Boman Catholics. The town, wliich
occupies a pleasing and healthy position, cniitaiiis
several good streets and houses. The parish cliurt'li
is a plain building; the lioman Catholii; clia|i('i
which is considered as the cathedral of the Itinnaii
Catholic bishop of Killala, is a large and very
ornamental edifice ; there are also (ilaces of wnf.
ship for Ba]ilists and Methodists. The town cnii-
taiiis eight iiublic schools, in which, and in si^vcml
jirivate seminaries, about 800 children receive in-
strnclion. Here is also a dispensary. liaccs arc
held in Slay, on a fine course in the iieighbourhdcnl.
General sessions of the peace arc lii4d in July, and
petty sessions every Tuesday in the court-lidiisc, a
near modern building. Here is a stati<iii of the con-
stabulary, and a barrack. The market is held m
Mondays; fairs on Pith IMay and 12tli August.
There are two ale and porter breweries, and twd
large (lour mills. A tobacco and siiufrinantifacturv
has been carried on since 1801, and coarse linen is
woven, but not to any extent. Within the last f'e.v
years the ])rovision trade has been introduced, anil
IS now very flourishing; large quantities of pork and
bacon being cured, cliietly for the London market.
In the neiglibourhood is a verj' productive salnidii
fishery, rented at 1,500/. per annum: the tish is
packed in ice, and ex])orte<l to London. ICels are
also taken in large quantities from September to
the beginning of November; the fiy is sold ai
'1(1. per quart. A branch of the Provincial ISank
was opened here in 1828, of the Agricultural in
1835, and of the National in 1837. The cdinmii-
nication with the interior is kept up by the mail
road between Castlebar and Sligo, which jyasscs
through the town : a new line is also opened I'ruiu
Swinford and Foxford to Killala. The Moy is
navigable for vessels drawing 1 1 ft. of watiT fur
5 m. from the sea, but the further passage is
checked by a bar 1^ m. below the town. (Census
of Ireland, 18G1.)
BALLINA8L0E, an inl. town of Ireland, po,
Galway and Koscommon, prov. Connaught, on
the Suck, 78 m. W. by S. Dublin. It owes lis
origin to a castle (now fitted up as a private resi-
dence) on the Koscommon side of the river, loii;,'
consi(iered as one of the strongest forts in the
prov. The battle of Aughrim, in 1691, in wliieli
the array of William III., under Ginkell, after-
wards Earl of Athlone, completely defeated that
of James II., under St. Ruth, who was killed in
the action, was fought in its neighbourhood. Pop.
3,733 ill 1861, of whom 1,731 males and 2,(W2
females. This does not include the jiortion situ-
ated m the CO. of Koscommon, with which together
there are a total of 3,911 inhabitants. The two
portions into which the town is divided by the
river are connected by a line of road, ooiisistiii};
of a causeway and two bridges between the banks.
and an island that intercepts its course, haviiii,'
together sixteen arches ; the whole line is about
600 yards in length. The private buildings have
increased rapidly both in number and respecta-
bility, nearly a half having been erected within
the last twelve years. The i)arish church is a
plain building, with ;\n octagonal spire sprinjjint;
from scrolls, that give it a very singular api)ear-
ance; the Bom. Cath. chapel is ilso a neat iiii-
omamented structure. The Methodists have two
places of worship. The census returns of l**')!
showed 200 males and 236 females beloiigiiif;'"
the Established Church, and 1,184: males and KW
;hn1)ito(l. Of thp
i'xchisivp <il' Anl-
^riculturc. I'l" in
il t ill other |mr-
[■M l)('lim^<'(l 111 the
nink's mill l.'.i'.w
The town, whiili
position, contniiM
The piirisli churi'li
II Catholiit ('lia|i('l,
(Irtil of the liiiniau
a lar;j;i' ami very
ilrto jihu'i's of W(ir-
H. Tho town ciiii-
iiich.aiulin several
lildrcii receive iii-
[•iisary. Kaees iirc
the iieif^hhonrlKiiiil.
V. hehl in July, aiiil
I tlie coiirt-lioiise, ,i
a station of the ciiii-
■ market is held on
and I'ith Auffust.
breweries, aiul two
d snuff inanufaetery
. and coarse linen is
Within the last l'e.v
leen introdneed. ami
uaiititiesofiiorkami
tlic I^ondon inaiki't.
y productive salniim
annum : the tisli is
J Loudon. Kels are
I from Septeniher to
; the fry is sol'l at
the Proviiieial Hank
■ the Afjricultural in
1837. The eoiiimu-
kept up by tlie mail
Sligo, wliidi piissos
le is also opened fruni
Lillala. The M^y i"
ig 11 ft. of water fur
further passaf,'e is
the town. (Census
, town of Ireland, cc
irov. Connaiinht. "»
Dublin. It owes ils
upa» a private resi-
lide of the river, h'K
Itrongest forts in tlic
[m, in It!!)!, i" >*l''^'l'
lunder Ginkell, aftei-
Ipletelv defeated tliat
\\, who was killed in
|iieifi;hbourhood. l'"|'-
[■31 males and tWi
liide the portion situ-
•i, with which ti^ctiicr
ihabitants. The two
Lrii is divided by die
le of road, oonsistnii,'
Is. between the bunks.
Its its course, bavnv
' whole line is abmi
rivate buildings have
[umber anil rcsiicrta-
' been erected witlnn
B parish chureli is a
tonal spire sprins^ini,'
Verv suiiiubT meit-
2\ is vlso a neat un-
I Methodists have two
isua returns ot I'"''
females belon^'ii>H"'
,■184 males au,l l.'"'
BALLINROBE
frmalM who were Koman Catholics. The district
lunatic asylum for tlie province Htands on tho
Itoscommon side of the river. It is built in the
fi'nn of a cross, with accommoihitioiis for 214
Mtients, and is surroiiiided by an enclosed area of
I'linlen and airiiiff k""""' <•♦ fourteen acres. Tlic_
liital exiiense of tlie land and buildiiif;H was iip-
wnnls 0/ 27,0(H)/. Of tho H23 families of the chief
part of the town, on tho (Jalway side, 171 were
'iiL'accd, in 18<il, in apriciilture, 31 in trades and
maunfacturcs, and the rest in other pursuits. The
town covers an area of 140 Htatiite acres, and is a
LTvat thoMUfjlifare, a main division of the roads
leading into Galwav and Mavo branching oft" from
it. The railway from Dublin to Galwav has a
fitation here, f assengers are also conveyed by
the Orand Canal from Dublin, by boats fitted up
fur their accommodation. Tlie town is well kept;
miH^h attention is paid to cxtenial cleanliness.
U.VLLIXHOHE, an inl. town of Ireland, co.
Mavo. prov. Connaught, on the IJobe, '25 m. WW.
(ialwnv. Pop. 2,50(i in 18(11. of whom 1,172 males
anil l.itH4 females. The returns of 18(il showed
72 families engaged in afjriciilture, 119 in trades
ami manufactures, and 345 in other pursuits.
Tliere were 70 males and 57 females belonging to
tlip Established Church, and 1,099 males and
1,2(!9 females who declared themselves Koman
Ciitliolics. The town consists of a main street and
two branches of well-built houses. Near it is a
turlogh or winter lake, called Lough Shy, which,
iliiiH{;h HcxKled to 'a consideralde extent in winter,
(Inps in the summer months, and aftbrds pasturage
for sheep. Lough Mask, into which the Kobe dis-
charges itself, lies about 3 m. W. of the town. A
dispensary is maintained here. Barracks of con-
siderable ilimensions, both for cavalry and infantry,
arc now unoccupied. A brisk trade in com an(l
tifltatoes is carried on, for which a Monday market
IS held. Fairs are held on Whit-Tuesday and 6th
Dec. General sessions of the peace take place in
June and December, and petty sessions are held
on Mondays in the court-house, which is also used
as a market-house. Though the town does not
lie on any of the great lines of internal communi-
calioii, it" is in a state of progressive improvement,
attributable chiefly to the increased attention to
aj,Ticultiire in the district.
BALLON, a town of France, di'p. Sarthe, cap.
cant., on the Ome, 14 m. NN E. Le Mans. I'op.
1,939 in 1861. It has manufactures of course
linens, and some trade in corn.
BALLYCASTLE, a marit. town of Ireland, N.
coast CO. Antrim, prov. Ulster, on a bay to which
it gives name, 42 m. N. by W. Belfast. It origi-
nated in a castle built here by the Earl of Antrim
in the early part of the reign of James I., but was
not remarkable as a town until about 1770, when
large pari, grants were voted to aid the working of
the collieries in its neighbourhood. Pop. 1,626 in
1861, of whom 684 males and 942 females : that
of the parish of Kamoan, in which it is situated,
was 2,104 in 1861. Of the 421 families living in
the town, 65 were returned in 1861 as engaged in
agriculture, 134 in trades audmanufactures, and 222
in other pursuits. There were 224 males and 280
females registered as belonging to the Established
Church; 361 males and 523 females who declared
themselves Roman Catholics ; and 82 males and
110 females who were Presbyterians. The town
lies in a beautiful valley in the inner extremity of
the bay, and consists of" two detached portions, the
upper and lower towns, connected by an avenue
bordered by forest trees. The houses are mostly
respectable, all slated, and kept with much neat-
ness. The church is a handsome building ; the Rom.
Cath. chapel is small ; the Presbyterians and Me-
Voi. I.
BALLYMEXA
337
thodists liave each a place of worship. Ballycastlo
was formerly a place of considerable business,
having in it a brewery, glass-hoiisf-, andsalt-works.^
all of which have declined since the stopjMige of
the mines ; and it is now little more than a tisliin({
village, and a summer watering-place. The c(d-
lieries, from which it derived its temporary pros-
perity, lie on each side the promontory of Fair
Head ; and the discovery of ohl workings and rude
implements, in a jiart of the cliff i)reviously unex-
plored, shows that they had been ojiened at a very
remote yu'riod. The s«'am of coal, which shows
itself in the face of the cliff at a considerable
height above the sea, forms, in one part, a single
beM 4^ft. thick ; at another, it appears in six strata,
from 1 to 24 ft. each, four of which are of Haniing,
and tlie two others of bituminous or blind coal.
The workings, after haviu)^ been carried on for a
number of years to a considerable extent, have
been relinquished, partly on account of the diili-
culty of penetrating to the dip of the old excava-
tions, and partly from the want of a safe harbour
for slii])piiig. 'I'lie only existing manufacture is
that of linen, carried on in the houses of a few
cottiers. The fi.sherj' of salmon, taken from Feb-
ruary to Seiitember, appears, from the olhcial
retuni of 1836, to employ 9 boats and 27 men. The
markets are held on 'l\iesdays, that of the first
Tuesday in everj* month being so numerously at-
ten<led as to resemble a fair. The regular fairs are
held on Easter Tuesday, the last Tuesdays in May,
July and Aug.; and on 25th Oct., and 22iid Xov.
Large numbers of a very small breed of horses,
called Raghery ponies, are brought for sale I'rom
the island of Rathlin or Riighery. This island,
which lies about 5 m. oft' the main land, is remark-
able both for the singularity of its geological
formation, and for having nft'ordcd shelter to Robert
Bruce when forced to fly from Scotland. The town
is on the exteme N. point of the line of road leading
round the const of Antrim from Belfast to Cole-
raine, and out of the direction of any great channel
of trade. The liarbour, which was originally cajia-
ble of admitting vessels of large draught, was un-
safe from the heavy seas thrown in from the ocean
by the northerly gales; but, after upwards of
150,000/. of the public money had been expended
in attempting to remedy this defect by the erection
of a pier, the harbour was filled u]) with sand, and
the pier having been neglected, has gone to ruin.
In consequence of this, and of the sto|)page of the
collieries, the trade of the place is almost extin-
guished.
BALLYMEXA, an inl. Ioatti of Ireland, co.
Antrim, 23 m. NNW. Belfast, on the Braid, an
affluent of the Maine, which Hows into Lough
Neagh. The town was taken by assault by the in-
surgents in 1798, after a sharp engagement, but
was immediately after evacuated. Po]). 5,600 in
1861, exclusive of a suburb of the town call<'(l
Harryville, with which together there are (5,774
inhabitants. The census returns of 1861 give 94
families as engaged in agriculture, 569 in trades
and manufactures, and 493 in other pursuits. There
were 686 males and 654 females returned as be-
longing to the Established Church ; (532 males and
789 females as Roman Catholics, and 1,177 males
and 1,372 females as Presbyterians. The town
stands in the midst of an extensive plain of unin-
viting appearance, though pretty well cultivated,
and interspersed with low hills, marsh, and bog
The river is crossed by a large stone bridge ; many
of the houses are antique, with gabled fronts, but
those of modern erection are generally of respect-
able appearance. The ecclesiastical buildings con-
sist of the par. church, a K. Cath. chapel, two
places of worship for PreabvtcrianSj one for Sece-
Z
%^
888
IJALLYMONEY
j! tJif wr
(Irrs nnil one for ]tI('tli(H)istH. The diorpsan whool
of Connor w«h removed here from CnrrickfcTpin in
]H'2!>, and Inrge ficlioolH for hoyn nnd prlw are
maintaine<l on an endowment by John Uiiy.
(!oiirtM U'vX and baron are liohl aiuniallv; a manor
eourt monthly, for the recovery of small debts ; the
general sessionH in January and June, olteniately
with liallymoney ; and |M>tty sessionHon altc^ninte
TueHdays: there is a well-arranjfed bridewell, and
a |ioli<'(! constabidary station. Tiie town owes its
prosperity chielly to the linen trode; the lirown
linen sales average 70,()(MI/, annually ; and ujiwards
of 14,000 jiieceH are blcaehed yearly in II bleneh-
ing-grounds in the iieighbou'rhoo<i. There is a
mill for spinninfT linen yam. The market for
linens is held on Saturdays; there are also two
other markets in the week for grain and pn. visions,
)irineipally pork, large (|uantities of which are sent
to Itelfost. The mark<!t-hou8e is a well-built edilice
in the middle of the town. The fairs are held on
the 2oth July and 21st (Vt. A branch of the
Provincial Hank was (>])etied here in I H'M : of the
lielfimt and Northern Ilanks, in 1K;I4; aiul of the
Agricultural Hank, in IH.'IO, The town lies on the
mail-coach road from Belfast to Londonderry, and
has also a station on the ' lielfast and Northern
(Jounties' line of railway, from which jimctions
run to liallymoney, L'olefaine, and I'ortnish. The
line to lielfast was oi)encd April 11, 1848, and has
proved the commencement of a new era of pros-
j)erity for the town.
BAI.LYMONKV, an inl. town of Ireland, co.
Antrim, prov. Ulster, on a small branch of the
I^ower Bann, 8 m. SK. Coleraine. Pop. 2,000 in
1861, of whom 1,213 males, and 1,387 females. The
census returns showed 53 families engaged in
agriculture, 225 in trades and manufactures, and
258 in other pursuits. There were 234 males and
2t>l females returned as members of the Kstablished
Church, 380 males and 414 fenudes as Konmn Ca-
tholics, and 627 males and (542 fetnales as Presby-
terians. The town is irregularly built on an
eminence, about 9 m. E. of the liann. Its places
of worshij) are, the par. church, a Horn. Oath,
chajiel, and houses for Presbyterians, Uemon-
strants, Scceders, and Covenanters. A school, on
the foimdation of Erasmus Smith, is established,
and several others on private endowments, in
■which, including private seminaries, about 700
children are instructed. There is a dispensary, and
a mendicity association. A steeple chase in De-
cember, for a gold cu]), has been substituted for
races, which had been a favourite sport. A manor
court is held on the first Friday of every month ;
general sessions of the peace in January and .lune,
alteniately with Ballymena ; and jjetty sessions on
alternate Tuesdays. The court-house is jn the
centre of the town, and there is a well-arranged
bridewell: a chief constabulary station is fixed
here. The trade is principally in tine linens, a
species of which, called Coleraines, is in great de-
mand: there are two markets for coarse linens.
An extensive tnide is also carried on in graui,
butter, and provisiims, which has much increased
suice the opening of a lino of railway in November,
1855, connecting the town with the system of the
' Belfast and Northern Counties ' railway. The
regular market days are Tluirs<lays; fairs are held
on (jth May, 10th July, and 10th Oct. A branch
of the Belfast Bank was ojiened in 1834, and of
the Ulster Bank in 1836. The town lies on the
railway from Belfast to Londonderrj*.
BALLYSHANNON, a maritime town of Ire-
land, CO. l)onegal, prov. Ulster, on the Erne,
where it discharges itself into Ballyshainion Ba}',
108 ra, N\V. Dublin. It consists of three very
steep and inegular streets on one side of the
BALTIC SEA
river, and a poor suburb, called tlio Part, on ili(i
other: the communication between them is l)v „
bridge of 14 arches. The parish church stHndsnii
the summit of the hill on which the town is Imili -
there are two Bomaii Catholic cha|)els, twopla,,,^
of w(»rshii) for Methodists, and one for I'rciiiiv.
terians. The population was 3,197 in iNdl.'nf
whom 1,408 males and 1,789 females. Of tli(.7ii(
families, 76 were engaged in agriculture, i.V.) ;„
trades and manufactures, and 376 in other imr-
suits. The returns showtul 200 males ami '>n-i
females Inilonging to the Established Clmrcl]"
1,141 males and 1,433 females who were Kiimaii
(\itholics, and 50 males and 39 females who were
Presbyterians. An artillery barrack adioinH tho
iilace, and it is a chief constalndarv statu m. Tlic
iior. was ineoqMirated by James I., in l(il3, aiirlro-
tumed two members to the Irish II. of C. till tlio
Union, when it was disfranchised. A manor I'lmrt
for pleas to the amount of 21. is held every tlirce
weeks, (letty sessions once a fortnight. The fmirt
sits in an ui>per apartment of the markct-l >|.,
which is also used as an assemblv-rooni. In thj
immediate vicinity of the town Is a magiiiiiccni
cascade fonned by the Erne,liere 150 yards limad,
throwing its waters over a ridge of rock Id ft]
high, with a noise audible for several miles, Sal-
mon and eels are caught in great mnnbers; tlie
former chiefly for the British markets : the niiiiual
jiroduce is u|)war(ls of fifty tons. There are no
manufactures of any consequence, and the trwle U
confined chiefly to retail dealings, owing to the
badness of the harbour, which Ls impracticahlo for
vessels of any draught. A branch of the I'rn-
vineial Bank was ojjencd in 1835. Blarkets arc
held on Tuesdays and Saturdays ; fairs on the l>ii\\
of Sept., and on the 2nd of every other moiitli, A
mail-coach plies between Enniskillen and this
town every day in the week, putting it in cmn-
munication with the railway system of Ireland.
BALTA, a town of European Kussin, ftciv,
Podolia, on the Kadynia, 160 m. SE. Knmemiz,
Pop. 14,036 in 1858. Its suburb, on the S, side (if
the river, now in the gov. of Kherson, was f(ir-
merly in Tiu"key, while the bulk of the town, nr
the portion on the N. side of the river, was iu
Poland. The latter is eomi)aratively well i)uilt.
and industrious. A very extensive commcne is
carried on in grain and other produce of the
countrj'.
BALTIC SEA, an internal or meditcrranpaii
sea, in the NVV. part of Europe, surrounded and
very nearly enclosed by Sweden, Finland, Russia,
Pnissia, (icrmany, and Denmark. It is iLsiially
understood to commence S. of the Danish Islamis
(Funen, Zealand, and Laland), and thus limited.
it is the most isolated of any similar body of water
in the world. But N. of these islands the Katte-
gat and the Skager Kack can be regarded oidy ns
parts of the Baltic, which may therefore be de-
scribed as commencing at the Naze of Nnrw.iv,
in long. 7° E., and extending to St, Petersburg'
tm the Gulf of Finland, in long, 30° 28' 4,V' L
Its extreme points in lat. are Wismar, in Meek-
lenburg, 5.3° 50' N., and Tomea, on the Gulf
of Bothnia, 65° 51' N. These jioints mark also
its greatest length, which is consetpiontly alxuit
840 m. ; its width varies from 75 to l.")Oni., and
its area is estimated at 155,000 sq. m,, withdut
including the Kattegat and Skager Kack, fur
which an addition of 18,000 or 19,000 sq, m. may
be made. (Catteau, Tableau de la Mcr Halliquc,
i. 2-37 ; Thomson's Travels in Sweden, 381.)
The direction in which the Baltic penetrates
the land Ls extremely tortuous. The Skager Kacl,
the first great gulf of the North Sea, runs XE,
between the shores of Jutland and Norway, lur
L
il the Purt, nn the
wpcii them is tiy ii
ih cliuri'h HtiimU (in
I) the town Is Imili ;
chapt'lH, two (iln(C!(
11(1 one for I'rci'liv-
3,197 hi IHCil.'iif
emiilcH. Of the 711 1
nKri«iihuri>, 'i'l'l ill
I a7ti in otlicr (mr-
200 itiftlcH and 'ix:'
•>taWi!»he<l Cliiircli,
CH who wtTC Itiimau
3!t femulcH wlm vm
bftirack adjoiiiH tlic
ihuhiPif Htntum. Tire
IPS 1., in HUH, ami ro-
IriHh 11. of C. till tlio
liscil. A manor cmirt
/, in lield cvt'ry tliri'c
fortnii^ht, Tlie »mn
of the marki't-liiiihc,
temblv-rooni. In llm
own IH a mimiiilicciii
,\ierc lot) yards limad,
riti^e of rock Hi ft.
)r several tnilc.x. Siil-
II ureat nunilifrs; ilie
11 markets : the ftiimml
y tons. There nri' no
inencc, and the tradi' is
lealinKs, owiiif? to tlic
ich is impracticalilo fur
A branch of the I'ro-
in 1835. Markets aw
rdays ; fairs on tlic iHtli
' every other niontli. A
Enniskillen and this
sck, putting it in corn-
ay system of Irelnml.
European Kussia, cm,
160 m. SE. KnmPiiHz.
niburb, on the S. side (if
f. of Kherson, waa I'or-
ic bulk of the town, ot
lie of the river, wa.< in
mparatively well Imilt.
extensive commcnr is
other produce of tk'
emal or mcditcrmnwn
liurope, surrounded ami
wedcn, Fuiland, Russu,
enmark. It is usually
S of the Danish Islamls
aiul), and thus limited,
iiy similar body of water
itiiese islands the Katte-
can be regarded only as
"h may therefore be de-
It the Naze of Norway,
idhig to St. Petei>l;;iJ^
are Wismar, in Meck-
. Tomea, on the Uull
friiese points mark also
I is consequently alwi
from 7.5 tolf)Om..aiu
1,5.'>,000 sq. m.,with(|iit
and SkagCT Kack, f»t
00 or 10.000 sq. m. may
[eau <le la ^Icrllaluque,
'Is in Sweden, 384.)
Ji the Unltic pcneiratw
luous. TheSkagerKa;;,
le North Sea, rinis >■■
litlaud aiul Non»«y.tot
lULTIC SEA
3:i9
Id
rflthoT more than 150 m., to the W. coast of
Sweden ; and the Kattegat, from the Hkaw (the
\'K. iKiiii' of .Tutlanii), has a liireclion almost due
s lietwcen Jutland and Swi-dcn for about 120 m.
Vliearerrt?* width of these gulls is nearly equal
i7i)m.) ; hut •'"" f'""""''" '" niu(!li the most uniform,
the Kattegat being narrowest at its N. end, be-
iwecn the Skaw an<l (lottcnlmrg, and widening
ciiiKiderably towards the S. From I.aholm Hay
totlie opixlsite Panish coast is full 100 m. The
iwo Helts and the Sound are the three straits
wliicli connect the Kattegat with the IJnltic, pro-
iicrlv so called ; and their direction is the same
IS tlmt of the gulf in which they terminate,
iiainelv S. This sea has been so long known to
|'.iirii|i'eans, that its jiectdiar entrance has <'eased
excite attention ; yet there is not one, per-
liiiiis, where navigation is so intricat(>. The direct
ilisliincp between the Kattegat and the open sea of
llif linltic, is less than llOm. ; that between the
slKires of .Jutland and Sweden is no where more
t laii 130 m.; and in this spai^e, which would not
l„. (iccduntcd large, even were it clear, are crowded
lictwpen sixty and 70 islands, with shoals and sand
liiiiiks innumerable. Two of these islands, Funen
1111(1 Zealand, may bo called large, and some of the
(iilicrs, as Alten,'Langland, lialaml, Falster, and
Mceii, of resjiectable size, their situation in a
close sea being considered. It is the two large
islands which, with the Danish and Swedish
coasts, form the three straits; the smaller isles
ami sand banks ser\-ing to break up their chan-
nels, which would otherwise be sutliciently direct,
into many small and variable currents. The
Little Belt (the strait lietween Jutland and Fu-
mn) is, at its N. end, less than if m. in width.
It expands, however, immediately, and between
AmH!s»n(l and Assens is 8 m. broad. Still further
S. the continent recedes into a great bay ; and
the island becoming broken up into several
Hiiidler islets, the greatest width of the Little
lielt is, perhaps, not less than 45 m. Its most
i^. clinnnel contracts again to about 8 m., be-
tween the islands of Altcn and ^Kroe, The Great
lielt (between Fuiien an<l Zealand) is more uni-
f(irra in its width, which averages about 20 m.
Towards the S., however, this strait also stretches
out W. into a large bay, fonned by the islands of
Zealand and Laland, and at its S. termination it
is di\ndcd into two channels by the island of
Lan!,dand, of which the widest or most E., be-
tween Langland and Laland, is about 8 m. across,
the other not more than 4 m. The Sound, at its
entrance between Elsinore in Zealand and Ilel-
sinjjburg on the coast of Sweden, is about 4 m.
wide; but it spreads into a succession of bays
upon the Swedish shore, and towards its S. end,
into one of con.siderable size (Kidge Bay) on that
of Zealand. It is here about 28 m. across, but the
return of the land contracts its final outlet to
about half that amount. (Catteau, i. 2-2fi;
Thomson, 385 ; Carr., Northern Summer, 27, 30,
102, Ac.)
The direction of the sea from these straits is
titst E. to Memel (about HOO m.), and then N. as
far as the lat. of Stockholm, 59° 21', a distance of
3oOm. It is to these portions that the term
Baltic Sea, in its limited sense, is restricted, for
at this jioint it separates into two great gulfs ; of
which one, the Gulf of Finland, runs nearly due
E, between the Kussian territories of Finland and
Revel ; the other, the Gulf of Bothnia, a little E.
I'f N., between 1' inland and Sweden, 'fhe Gulf of
Finland is 200 m. in length, with a mean breadth
of tiO or 70 m. ; that of Bothnia is about 400 m.
long, and 120 m. in avurage width, but at its nar-
rowest part, the Quarken, opposite Umea, it does
not much exceed 10 m. The Gulf of IJign, or
Livonia, S, of that of Finland, is also an im-
portant inlet, stretching into the countries from
which it is named, about H3 m. from K. to \V.,.'nid
about 00 m. from N. to S. (Catteau, i. 27-111;
Thomson, 320.) Beyond the Danish islands the
Baltic is a tolerably clear sea, except on the coasts,
where alluvial islands are continually fonning. In
the main stream theonly interruptidns to the con-
tinuity of water are foimd in Hugen (which is,
however, close to the I'omeranian shore) ; Itorn-
holm, between the coasts of Prussia and Sweden,
but much nearer to the latter than the fonner;
(ieland, on the SE. of Sweden ; (iothland, N'F. of
Oeland; Oesel, Dago, and several smaller islands
bctwcf-n the (Julfs of lliga and Finland; and the
Aland archipelago at the mouth of the (iulf td"
Bothnia. Opjiosite to these last the S\V. coast of
Finlaiul is crowded with an innumerable (piantily
of islets, which seem as though the nuiin shore
were advancing by rajiid stri(U's to j(dn the larger
islands of Aland, as a stage in its progress towards
a JuiHttion with the opposite Swedish shore. (.See
Aland, Bohniku.m, Gotiii.anh.)
The Baltic is not, like other (dose seas, the
IMediterranean, IUmI Sea, tfrc, shut in by rocks and
high mountains. On the N\V. and "X., indeed,
the mountains of Sweden and Norway form a
sufflcientlj' <lefinite bouiidnry; but, towanls \\w.
y.., SK., S., and even SVV., its borders stretch away
in plains occn|iying miudi more than half Kurope.
On the S. tlu nearest high lainls are the llartz,
the IhdieniiMii mountains, and the ('ar]mtbians;
S\V. lie the Hat lands of Jutland. II<dstein, and
Holland; 8F. the ]dain is mibroken to the shores
of the Black Sea and Caspian ; and E. there are
no bills except the insignilicant elevations of
V'aldai, between the Baltic and the Oural moun-
tains. The basin of this sea is, therefore, by no
means well deiined, exce))t towards the N. ami
NW. In every other direction it has to be deter-
mined by the direction of the running water only,
and that on land so level that the basin of the
Baltic is constantly combining with those of other
seas; with that of the White Sea, through the
lakes of liussian Lapland; with that of the Ca.s-
l)iaii, by the close approach of many of the
afHuents of the W(dga to Lakes Onega and
Ladoga; and with that of the Black Sea, among
the innumerable streams of Litbuiniia and Ptdand.
Thus the limits of the basin are in lat. 40° and Ii0°
N., in long. 7° 40' E. (Arrowsmith's Atlas ; Von
Buch's Travels, 337 ; C'atteau, ii. 44, Ac.) With
the exccpti(m of some portions of America, there
is no part of the world more abundantly watered
than tins district : U))wards of 240 rivers'lind their
way to the Baltic ; tlie lakes in its neighbourhood
are all but innumerable, and altogether this sea
drains more than a fifth part of the wludc surface
of Kurope. The rivers which flow from the S.
and SE. run the longest courses, varying from 330
to 7.50 m. (SeeOi)KK, Vistula, NiKMKX, Dwixa,
&Q.) Some of those from the E. aiijiear at first to
be much shorter, as the Neva, which from Lake
Ladoga does not exceed 45 m. : but as this lake
is connected with that of Onega by the Svix, and
as Onega receives the Volla, a stream rising close
to the 40th meridi.an, the wh(de of this water
course is not less than 400 m. in length. The
other Finnish livers are not long ; but W. of the
Gulf of Bothnia the rivers of Sweden vary from
200 to 300 miles. The most peculiar part of this
basin is the SVV. comer, where, though the nearest
mountains are those of the Hartz, the ba.sin itself
does not exceed 20 or 25 m. in width. The Elbe,
which runs within .50 m. .',f the Baltic, and the
Eyder, which rises close to its shores, fall into the
z 2
I' 1
I i;:,
iff" I r '»*! ?-,
■r
ip.'
310
UALTIC SKA
North Sen, nnd llicir nflliirntR Wlon^ of coiimo. to
tlmt Hyxtrin ; but hucIi ih the ttntiiexH of the
country in this pnrt of (lorninny, timt tlie ditTcrrnt
wntrrH are coiistnntly iniitiii)^, and a canal of Ichh
tliiin (I ni. liiiN f4er\'e<l to I'oiinrct the JIaUic will)
tln' Klhe hy joining the rivers 'i'riive anil StricU-
nit/, helow I^ulH'ck. A niniilar jinu^lion has hceii
etli'cti'd iKftween the Uallic and the Kvdcr, a litlh!
to the N. of Kiel, Since tlic cession ot'the Scldes-
wi^-IIidstein |i(!ninsula hy Denmark, t)u> Prussian
government lias un<lertaken to coiniect the llaltic
wilti tlic North Sea, by means of a Inrj^e canal,
deep enough for sea-goinf^ vessels. The canal,
wliich crosses the southern part of Schleswiff,
where the i>cninsula iH narrowest, was commenced
in 1 «»).'),
The Baltic is extremely shallow, being not
more in its W. part, between Kiel and ("open-
hagen, than 1(! fathoms der]i, and most commonly
not more il an K or 10 (Von Ituch, 10) ; but far-
ther K. it deepens considerably, and midway be-
tween Memel and Oeland it is from (10 to 100 fa-
thoms. This is, however, its greatest depth, for
the (inlf of Finland suddenly shallows from oO
or 00 fathoms to 10 fathoms, 4 fathoms, and, in
the Hay of Cronstadt, to even less than this. The
average tlepth of the (inlf of ISothnia is not
greater than that of the rest of the sea, but it is
less encumbered with sand banks, nnd its hnr-
bours arc more convenient : none of those S. and
E. of the tiidf of Finland have more than 20 ft.
water, and but few have as much as 10. (Cat-
teau, i. 3!)- 1 14.)
The lialtic, being a close sen, with its entrance
from the apjiroach of the tidal wave, is, of course,
not subject to the phenomena of tides. These, so
very powerful in the Gennan Ocean, are found to
decrease sensibly in the Skager Hack and Kattegat,
to be barely perceptible in the entrance of the
straits, and entirely to vanish S. of the Danish
Islands. (Cnttcau, i. 11.5-118.) But though tides
be wanting, a variation in height cipial, fre-
quently, to four feet is observed, at irregidnr in-
tervals, in the waters of this sea. This ])henome-
non occurs at all seasons, but chiefly in the autumn
or winter, or at the time of heavy rains, or when
the atmosphere is chnrged with clouds, though
unattende<l by falling weather. The water main-
tains its height frequently for several days, some-
times even for weeks, produces considerable agi-
tation in the gulfs and straits, and, except in
winter, when its power is restrained by the accu-
mulated snow nnd ice, inundates the low wastes
to a considerable extent. Prevalent winds, flood-
ing rains, melting snows, and many other causes,
have been a^isigned for this very remarkable i)he-
nomenon, which continued, however, to occur
under circumstances totally incompatible with
any or all of these; but ni 1804 Schultens, a
Swedish physician, after collecting all the observa-
tions thnt hnd been mnde, found thnt the greatest
height of the water corresponded to the greatest
depression of the barometrical column and con-
versely. The extreme variation of the latter
amounts in N. Europe to 2^ in., equivalent to
nearly 34 in. of water : nnd combining this with
the fact, tliat the movement of tiie water always
preceded, by a little, that of the mercury, he con-
cluded that the former was owing to the unetpial
pressure of the atmosphere upon different parts of
the surface; the extreme height sometimes at-
tained being dependent upon local and accidental
circumstances. The almost total absence of oceanic
action in this sea leaves tlie cause, thus assigned,
to operate with full power ; and if Schultens' hy-
pothesis be confirmed, it will serve to explain
similar phenomena, observed in other close waters;
as the Caspian, T.nke Bniknl, and the Lake nf
(Joneva, to the similar variations in which -Sai,,.
sure has assigned n cause analogous to thai ofTiri'il
by Schullens in the case of the Baltic. (Mini.
Acad. Stock. 1804 ; Saussure's Voyage iluiw Icj
Allies, i. 1.").)
i'he currents of the Baltic de|)end, in a grpnt
degree, upon its rivers ; and as these exist in the
greatest number towards the N. and F,. pHrts, 11,^
general direction of the water is from XNK. in
SSW., as far, at least, as the latitude of Kmiijr,.
berg. The imiiulse from the S. Iiere given hv iho
great rivers of I'russia aids the resistance of the
land to turn the current VV., towards the DaniKh
islands, among which it of course l>econie8 brnkeu
into many parts, nil combining nt last in n gt>i>-Tal
N. direction through the Kattegat, and tliintfi
S\V. through the Skager Rack into the X. Swu
The currents of the Baltic are, therefore, outwanU;
and when a W. wind forces the water of the (wim
into its gulfs, these currents, nlwnys intricate, lic-
come extremely complicated, nnd even dniiKerouH,
(Cattean, i. l25-liJ2.) This general dircctidii (,(
the water, together with the number of rivers
which flow into the Baltic, account for the vcrv
slight degree of saltness whicdi it is found lii
possess, it is well known that the ocean Imlds
ni solution salt, muriate of magnesia, sul|iliiiic i,|'
lime, and sulphate of soda, to the amoiuit (if alioiit
l-27th of its own weight; but at Copenliaj^cii,
Von Ihich found this pro))ortion reduced tu nm-
siderably less than 1-lOOth; nnd Thomson, at
Tunnberg, S. of Stockholm, fi)und it less thmi
l-210ths — a quantity so slight as scarcely to iifl'di
the palate; and it is said that farther to the X,
and E. the sailors commonly use the water nf the
Baltic for their fiwd. The following is the relative
gravity of the waters of the Ocean and of the
Baltic, under various circumstances ; for, it in to
be observed that the latter becomes much salter,
under a W. wind, whbn tlie water of the ocean is
forced into it, and that this cil'ect is perceptible
for a considerable distance : —
Open sea at Heli-
goland . .
Frith of Forth .
8p.Gr.
1-0321
1-021)0
Sp.(;r.
Baltic at the Soaw I'Dim:)
Sound . 1'0047 to l-(Hi!H
Tunaberg . . l-iKili
In a NW. wind the gravity at Copenhagen ruse
to 1*0189; and near Stockholm the followin;'
changes were obser\'ed, under the various circiiin-
staiices : —
Sp.Or. 1
Sp.Cr.
Wind K. .
. ]M)039 ! Storm at W.
. I'OIIS
Wind W. .
. 1-0007 1 Wind NW. .
. I'lXW
Lastly, the quantity of salt procured from I.OOi)
grains of water, from the following places, was m
under : —
Frith of Forth
Scaw
On.
3(f6
32-0
Gr..
If:'
;t
Sound .
Tunabcrg .
When it is considered that all these experimont,!
were made S. of the lat. of Stockholm (6!)° 21),
and that an immense number of rivers flow into
the Gulf of Bothnia, it seems reasonable to cwi-
clude that the N. part of that gulf should be siiii
less salt, if, indeed, it be not free from any saline
mixture whatever. (Von Buch, 10; Tlumison,
.S8(i-390.) The experiments of Von Ihich and
Thomson, conducted independently, and with
every possible care, must be received as satis-
factory ; but it is, perhaps, necessary to obsene
that Catteau gives the amount of salt held in
solution by the Baltic, generally at l-30tli to
l-40th of the water, (i. 142.) It is not, however,
possible to reconcile this statement with others by
the same author: such as, that in many bays the
water is used for cooking; that in «(;«»ifr tlie
I the I-ttkc nf
H to that (ifTcrcl
Uiiltu'. (Mtm.
()yutj;u iluuH \n
end, in a Rronl
'HV CX'lHt ill \\w
nd K. \)nt\», tin-
1 from NNK. td
tiulp of KoninH-
ure j;ivcn by ilit-
rtitintunce of thn
anlH tlie Duniiili
5 l)econic» broken
, laHt in n^^'i'-ral
•jrat, anil Ibtiicc
into tlie N. Swi.
prcfore, outwards ;
vnter of tlic (K'cim
rays intriciitf, lic-
(l cvpn <laii!,'er(ius.
lucral (lircctiiin (li
uumbt-r of rivers
lount for tbf vitv
;h it is <"">""' '"
\t tbc ocean \mW
ic amount ofalmia
lit at Coiien\ii\«Hi,
)n rcdui'cil to imii-
anil 'I'liomson, at
found it U'ss ttw"
a8 scarcely to afl'trt
It fartiier to the N.
ise tl»c water of the
(wing i» the relative
Ocean and of the
(tances ; for, it i» to
Bcomcs much salter,
(vater of the ocean «
effect is perceptible
!ip.C,r.
ic at the Scaw VOJ'5
1-00-n to vm
ttlx-rg . . 1'>W'
at Copenhagen ro«
holm the followiii!;
the various circura-
Sp.Cr.
BmatW,
d NW. .
procured from \M')
■owing places, was as
nd
Or..
■A
labcrg .
ill these experimcim
Stockholm (50° 21),
•r of rivers tlow into
reasonable to coii-
iculf shoidd be still
Ifree from any saline
Uich, U); TUoni*
of Von Ihich and
pndently, and wiiti
[e received as satis-
Lcessary to observe
aunt of salt hcH m
""rally at l-30th to
I It is not, bovvevrt,
pmentwithotheisby
fat in many bays
that in mmmf^ tue
Ciilf of Bothnia yiold« only 1 ton of unit from .'«)()
.'„>H of water, and timt the Hiwcilic fjn'vity vnricH
Clecn 1-oriti, 1-0(II7, l-00d,au.l l.tHCIH. (i. I »•».)
Neither is thix (piantity of salt consistent witli the
j„|ii.wiii(,' Uible of the relative amount in !1 ll>s.
Kurman) of water taken from the N. S»'a and
Hi'illic ; wliich is given l)y Catteuu, on the autho-
rity ofllalcm anil Vogel (i. 1 13.) : —
-
N. Dm
BtlHo
Or.
•2IU
111
l-i
1
1
Muriate of Soda .
MntfneHla
Sulphate of Mmo .
Soda .
Roiicluum
Or.
Mm \
n
1 l-3d
u
746 l-3d
Total
.188
The German pound is a variable weijjht, but it
i^ no where lighter than the Knglish, and in most
nldces on the Baltic it is front 4tM) to TiOO gr.
hoavicr; taking, however, the Knglish pound of
7 (IIHI jjrains, the above resultsgivc less than l'.")th,
nlul not l-40th, far less I'JKIth, as the proportion
of salt to the water of the Haltic. The proportion
, if the N. Sea is alwut I -28th, dill'ering very little
ftoin that assigned above.
This freshness of the water combines with its
>liaUownes8 and contlned situation to render it
iiiculiarly liable to congelation; in fn(;t, it is
(vcrv year encumbered with ice, and it^t straits
nfc usually impassable from December to April.
Severe frosts made the sea passable in its widest
l«irts, between Prussia and Denmark, in 1333,
lijli!), 1423, and 1429. The climate, like that of
nil Europe, and more especially of Germany, has
ijecome more mild under the effects of better
drainage and cultivation ; but, even within recent
limes, Charles XII. marched across the Souiul
ami th^ two Holts to the attack of Denmark, and
Ml late as 1809 a Russian army crossed the (Julf
if liotlmia on the ice. (Catteau, i. HO-l.W;
Thiimson, 130, 138.) The temperature in the
neighbourhood of this sea does not appear to dimi-
nish with increase of lat. so much as might be
cxiiected: at Tornea, nearly GG° N., Von Uuch
aliirras that the season does not differ from that of
N, Germany by more than a month ; and that
the polar winter docs not set in till the end of
November.
The productions, animal and vegetable, of the
surrounding countries are somewhat modified by
tlie presence of this considerable body of intenwd
water. (See Sweden, Denmahk, Puussia, Fin-
land, (te.) The sea itself is extremely rich in
lishofmany varieties; the taking of which forms
an imiwrtant branch of industry in all the neigh-
liiiuriug countries. The larger amphibia — morses,
laiiiantins, &c., are absent; but seals are very
lilentiful, not only in the sea, but in the neigh-
Imuring lakes of Ladoga, Onega, <tc. ; they do
nut I'onn a ])art of human food, as in other less
fertile countries of the North, but are chased with
iireat avidity for their oil and skins. Whales are
stated to be sometimes of enonnous dimensions,
liiit are very rarely found : one was seen in the
i Ihilf of Bothnia, in July 1811; but this, like
every other appearance of the animal, was re-
pnled by the inhabitants as an evil omen. Of
I uther and smaller cetacea, the marsouin {Delph'mus
Phnccma of Linnteus) is common enough in the
1 Baltic. (Catteau, i. 199-251.)
Of the often asserted important fact that the
lialtic is decreasing, there can be little reasonable
ilmibt, the nature of the surrounding coim tries and
recent observations being taken into consideration.
BALTIC SEA 341
The innumeraldo lakes that lie between it and the
White Sea are nothing l)ut the last remains of ft
once contiiuioiis sea; which may 1)0 considered m
proved by the appearan<'e of similar animals in
tliese waters, tlioiigli now fresh, and the broad
l)and of tertiary strata wliich extends throughout
the whole space. (Lyell, I'rin. (ieol., i. 209.) On
the S., even within the |H'riod of modem history,
great changes have taken plm-e. LnU'ck, which
when lirst built was undoiditedly a s«'a-port, is
now 12 ni. from the shore, and incessant pains are
reipiisite to preserve itsconnnunication with it by
the channel of the Trave. The numerous lakes of
N. (iermany, like those of Finland, are but the
last remnants of the sea, which once and lately lay
upon the soil, as is incontestably proved by the
contiiuuil choking up of some, and the constant
detaching of others, from the main body of water
bv the deposits brought down by the rivers. The
llaffs of Prussia are now (pdte detached ; the Isle
of Uugen is all but joiiuul to the (Jerman conti-
nent ; while its former division into several sepa-
rate islands is attested by tlie ditTercnt names
bestowed upon its ditlercnt parts; of whicli Jiui/im
Aiisich, in the language of the country, means
Uugen I'roper. Similar instances might bo accu-
mulated all along this coast, all parts of which are
full of evidences of the same gradual and rajiid
changes. (De Luc, 200, 23(1, 243, 247, 27ti, et pass,) ;
and were other proof wanting, it would be found
in the extensive mosses aboiniding in marine
plants, which constitute so great a part of N.
(iermany. (Von Uuch, 2; De Luc, 192, ef pusn.)
In the N'., on the Gulf of liothnia, the same de-
crease is going on with eqiuil, if not greater, ra-
pidity (Von Much, 380) ; and though it is certain
that the surface of the sea cnnmit sinky this the
laws of eipiilibrium would prevent; yet, from
every observation, it is no less evident that its bed
is tilling up, ami that the surrounding land is
slowly (perhaps not very slowly) rising. Olaf
i>alin, a Swedish mathematician of the last cen-
tury, calculated the change at I inch ptsr annum ;
ami judging by the very evident alterations in
many parts, this is not probably too high, though
the hypothesis was held in scorn when lirst
broached. (Algarotti's Letters, 80.) As the same
operation may lie traced on the shores of the
Caspian and Ulack Seas (see Caspian and Ulack
Sea), there can be little doubt but that these are
the last drainings of the European plain towards
the SE., as the Baltic is towards the N W., or that
these waters were once in connection ; the very
triHing elevation between their basins serving to
determine the tlirection of the rivers, and the con
sequent deposit of new land. (See Lyell's Geol.
Map of Europe, i. 209.) One of the most jieculiar
appearances on the shores of the Baltic consists of
the immense number of granite blocks, bouhlers,
as they are called, with whicli the alluvial soil is
everywhere covered : after all that has been said
upon this subject, the appearance of these anoma-
lous masses continues a mystery. The opinion of
De Luc, that they were forced by explosion through
the superstrata, is perhaps the least objectionable ;
at all events, it is less violent than the supposition
that they were floated from a distance uiion water
or ice. (Geol. Trav., 59-70, et pass.)
Commerce. — The Oder, Vistula, and other great
rivers that have their embouchures in the Baltic,
and the many large cities that are built on or near
its shores, have made it the theatre of a very ex-
tensive commerce. In this respect its importance
wjvs much increased by the foundation of Peters-
burg, the trade of which is now of great extent
and value. Haw jiroducts, including com, timber,
Ti'*.
hemp and tlax, tallow, hides, linseed, bristles.
Hi
IIALTIMOUE
'! ?
ii» t^f.'l
B\
i'.i»m
il'V^'t
Wool, Ac, coMMtiliito tlip priii<'i|inl nrticlcM of vx-
]iort rroni tli<< Itallic porlx; colniiiiil iinxliit'tN, iiiii-
niit'iirliin'd ^ronilx, ilrv xliitt''*, wiiicN, niiU, coal, ((■<■„
lii'in^ ainoiifr ilif |iriii('i|ial iirticicN of iiii|Mirt. 'Die
Icfi'liiifr |ior(H, Hi'ttiii); oiil rnnii llit^ Soiinil, arc Co-
iii'tiliiiKi'ii, iJllicck, Wi^niar, ItuMlock, Swiiit'tnuiuti',
l>aiilzic (wliicli, iic.xl to Odi'sxa, ih IIic |iriiu'i|ial
))orl, not ill Kuni)i(' onlv l)iit in the world, fur ttic
xhiliincnt of wlicnl), Ivfininnlti'rK, Mcini'l, Ifi/^a,
I't'lcrsliiiri;. and Stockliolin. 'rii<> IJ. Kin^'doni
has liy far the lar^OHt portion of |Im> forcif^n trade
of tlu! haltic. 'I'lio vast iniportanoo of the coin-
incrt'c in wlirat nlone it* nIiowii in tlio Niilijoinod
Htiiti'ini'iit, wliit^li nWi'H t\w value of llic iiiiportM of
lliis article! from the varioin portu of the llallic
into Ihc llnitc<l Kingdom during each uf the three
yeiirw IHti"-', lmi:J, and iHtil :—
lni|Kirii of Wheat
1863
IHI)5
IHIII 1
£
2,ir)2.201
2,407,017
4:11.782
l''rotn HiifHla . .
,, I'niHsla
„ Dciinmi'k .
„ Mcekluiibiirff
!),128,0(!0
4,014,047
;i7:.,4.vi
202,472
C
2,0'1!>,281
2,.'iil 1,00(1
27-1, MIS
211,702
The vast eonimorcial intercoiirso of the ports of
the liiiltitr with tJreat Hritaiii is liirtht^r shown liy
the niivi^ntioii reliirns, which state that in t\w.
year I«(i4 there arrived H,tl2 vessels, of an ajrf^re-
pit.e hiirthen of 77(!,<>-l(> tons, from the northern
)iorls of K'n.ssia; 2,714 vessels, of .")il'J,<i!i(! Ions
from I'rnssia; l,t'>S(l vessels, of l!t|,!(tl7 tons from
Denmark; and l,2(lt> vessels, of IHl,;{!i;{ tons from
Sleek lenljiir;; and the Duchies. 'I'liis (rives a total
of nearly 10,000 vessels sailing; anmially from the
]taltic into ])orts of the I'liited Kinplom,
The ancients were hnt very slijjhtly ac(piainted
with the Haltic: it is mentioned by them under
tlie title ot' Sinus Coilaniis ((iiilf of the (Joth Dane) ;
but it was the tlieatre of those marvels which, in
ancient >;eo(;raphy, always mark imperfect kiiow-
ledf^e. Its shores j^ave forth, however, the warriors
wlio overthrew the Homan empire, and hiid the
foundations of modern Kiiropean Bociety. In
modern times its straits are more crowded with
Rliijis of all nations than those of any other inland
sea. Large quantities of amber are collected on
its shores, especially those of Prussia, and the isle
of Kiiffen. ((Jatteau, i, I8'J-25I.) The ori(,'in of
tlie name IJaltic has divided etymologists. Some
derive it from the Danish Ihit (a girdle), and
others from the word Bulla, which, in the Li-
thuanian tongue, signifies While. The great
quantity of snow which annually falls in its neigli-
bonrhodd, renders this last derivatiim far from im-
probable, though the former be evidently not less
applicable; at all (events, the name has existed
from very early times, though at present the
general designation, used by the inhabitants of its
shores, is Ost-see (I'jistern Sea), as serving to dis-
tinguish it from the Atljintic. or IVestern Ocean.
HALTIMOHE, a marit. eityof N.America, the
third in point of .size and importance in tlie United
States, and the princiiial city, though not the cap.
of the state of Maryland, on the N. side of I'a-
tapsco IJny, 14 m. above its entrance into the
Chesapeake, .^7 m. Nlii. Washington, and 100 m.
SW. I'hiladelphin, on the Baltimore and Ohio
rjiilwav. Pop. in IHOO, 23,971; in 1«,30, G2,78«;
in IH40, 1.^4,37!); in 1850, lt!9,054; and in 18(iO,
212,418. The tdwn is pleasantly situated, on
slightly undulating ground, and is built round
a basin or inner harbour, which affords a spacious,
secure, and commodious harbour for vessels of
200 tons, quite close up to the town. The prin-
cii>al part of the city is divided from the por-
tions styled OldTownand Fell's Point, by u small
riv<r called .Jones's Kails, overwhi<'h are precircl
three handsome stone bridges and four wuihI,.,,
OIK <. Ill the onler hiirboiir, near KiU's p,,,,,,
ves«(4s of r)00 or 000 tons li<! in pcrfcn Kudu'
Till' entrance to the harbour is narrow, iiml en,,.'
tnally ( imandiMl and defended by Kurt M'llvurt,
The city is regularly laid out and well Imili
streets generally spacious and will piivnl, an.i
homes neat and commodious. The priiniial
pul.li(! buildings are the exchange, coiirl~li„ii.,.
college, and university halls; threi' lioKjiitiiN, '\
jH'ilitentiary, gaol, circus, two theatres, six miir.
ket -houses, and lifty-six places of worship. The
exchange is a large and iiandsome edilice, :!i;i; ||,
by 140; the Koinaii (.'atholic cathedral is pcrliuM
the linest church in the country, and concilin
some good paintings; the rnitafian churcli, m.
Paul's church, thi^ eoiirt-honse, I'luon Itank, inni
several other of the public buildings, arc Ik>i||
spacious and elegant, St. Marv's Colligi. ^ .,
('atholi(- institution, and has a liiirary cuiitiiiulrv
ilO,(IOO vols. The me<lical ccdlege, now the imf.
versity. received that title with a new cluiriirin
I812: the city contains, besides, a nuiseum miil
a gallery of painlings. The houses are niosilv 4
brick; the principal street, about 1 in, loiij; 'ini,|
80 ft. wi<l(!, runs parallel to the water. On mi
elevation, above the compact part of the city, ;»
the Washington monument, u Doric coltanii uf
white marble, 140 ft. in height, and 20 ft. in iliu-
meter, standing upon a base .'iO ft, square, anil it ii,
high ; containing a circular staircase, by wliicli
visitors ascend to the summit, on which acdluvnl
statue of Washington is |)laced. It is by far tlie
most splendid structure of its kind in tlie Ijiimi,
The liattle inoiiumeiit, an elegant marble ()licli<K, I
it.> ft. high, is erected to the memory of fhn.se wli,,
fell in the defence of the city and Fort M'llciirv, iii
1814, and is inscril)e(l with their iiaines. Tlicciiv
is supplied with excellent water from four liiun-
tains, which are also ornamental structures. Hal-
timore is admirably situated for commerce, nml i<
a place of considerable wealth and trade; it cii-
grosses most part of the trade of Marylaiiil, t»-
getlier with half that of Pennsylvania," and pan
of that of W. Virginia and the Western states. It*
inland communication has been much cxtciiilhl
and facilitated by the construction of caiialu, ami
of the Haltimore and Ohio railway.
The subjoined statement, drawn up from oflioial
returns, gives the exports of Haltimore, in the t«o
years 1803 and 18G4 :—
EXPOIITS OP Bai.timoiie.
Artlcln
18M
1863
Bread .
packages
25,876
i9,rw
Beef .
. tierces
l,:ilii
l,l!«
,, . . .
. barrels
l,7(i!)
;i:i
Bnt;on .
lbs.
6.')7,08,')
4,74f',:i«i
Butter
• )»
i;i9,7(J«
2il.),iini
Cheese . .
• »*
222,1(19
Id.'j.iimi
Com .
, bushels
101,r,44
271,iilu
Cnmllos . .
lbs.
601,4(18
m;m
Copper
• »»
422,180
;
Flour, Wheat
. barrels
;t:i:i,042
3:'(l,J."^i
Lumber
. dollars
212,467
I.III.IW
Lard .
lbs.
2,500,564
3,5(i:,:ii«i
Pork .
. barrels
6,803
(1,1 M
Uye, Ont?, &c. .
. bushels
20,000
2i,(W
Sliooks and Heads
packages
1 25,1)70
—
Sugar, retiiiwl .
lbs.
4;<»,:186
—
„ raw
. „
i»72,00l»
—
Tobacco, Leaf .
hogshead
45,252
37.!l)3
„ manufactured lbs.
03,827
!«M«>|
Wheat .
bushels
6(;,0!)2
W.SU
The following table shows the value of tlie im-
ports and exports of IJaltimore for ten years :-
BALTLHOUE
r whi<'1i nrn <>rprtp<l
•H mill I'olir WiiikIi'ii
, lu'iir VAV* I'l.iiii,
id in |icrl'cci Kiiliiy,
iit iinvriiw, mill ttli, .
(•aiiy Fort M'lliiin,
iiiit 'mill well liiiili ;
ml wi'll (iiivt'il, iiikI
lUM. Tlic |iriinii.;il
I'liuiijj*', ciiiiri-liiiu-c,
<; tlircc lioi.|pitaU, ii
^(1 llifiitrw, »ix iimr-
•CM of wnrHliip. Till'
lilsnllU' riliticr, :itili ||.
; culllPilrill in |ht1iii14
oiiiitry, mill I'linlalm
,!iii(iifimi ftiurrli, St.
ISC, rniiin Kaiik, aii>l
; lmilllill^;N, iirc Imili
Miirv'i* CiiUi'Ki' i^ ;i
iH H libriiry t'luiliiinin;;
cdUcuP, iiiiw till' imi-
A'itU II iiuw cliartct in
L'wiili'H, a imist'iiiii iiml
hoiiMi's arc mn.Htly df
, nlxiut I m, liinn "ni
to tlu". water. (Hi an
ict part of tlieciiy,.<
it, ii Doric coliiiiiii "(
inlit, ami •^11 ft. ill ilia-
>r>(>ft. s(iimrc,ttml'.!:)l'i.
ar Htaircasc, by wliirli
nit, on which a cnluviil
laccil. It ii< hy fur tlif
its kinil ill the liii"ii,
elegant marlilc ubcli-k,
le memory of tlm-* win
V and Fort M'Ufiiirj.in
i' tlicir iiaincM. The ciiy
; water from four fimii-
(iieiital structures. Hal-
•il for commerce, miil i»
L'ahh ami trmle; it on-
trade of Maryland, t*
I'eiinsylvaiiin, and jiart
the VV csteni states. Ii-
s been much cxtciulcl
itriictiou of caiialu, ami
4) railway. .
It, drawn up from uttioiiil
lof liultimorc, in tlic m
1AI,TIM0UE.
1804
Ids
lbs.
•jr),876
l,:tlii
l,7(i9
5.')7,<I85
lili),7«8
101,1)44
6«l,4ti8
42'.',18(l
;!M;i,(l42
212,467
2,500,5(i4
5,803
20,000
12-'>,!I70
4»0,:18«
972,(M)«
4.1,252
Ca,827
tiO,0i»2
1863 1
i(i,;i«''
i,i;i-;
4,74«,li«i
2!l.i,iK"i
]ii;j,iit»'
•iTl.iili'
62;!,*»i
l.lll,"*'
3,.w;,ii'«l
2J («»i
jdl.TOI
T«n
Iraiwrta
Kiporii
_^. —
— — —
- -
I>i>n*ri
l><>lliir<
IN.Vl
7,772,f.!»l
1l,il7.''.0!)tl
IKMl
10,Mii,h:ih
l;l,:H12.2-i2
|H.-,7
ll.ii.V»,tl7il
ll,:iOH,!MO
IH.'iH
7,!I.VI,422
10,2'l'>,M!)ll
IH.'ill
ll),|(m,!M):|
8,724,201
|H<iO
l»,:t7IM21
10,ltl;l,lil»
imll
R,r,:n.4 II
11.471,7110
18112
.1,tllll,4.-iM
lo,:i4ii,ii;4
I8i;:l
fi,:mil,7m
l),007,0i):l
18(14
ll,07ll,2VI)
12,:itl2,44H
vs the value of the im-
Qorc for ten year? ••-
The lliicliiations visilile in tlie above talile mark
iluM'ivil war in the United .Stales, which Kfeatly
iilVirliil the trade of llaltiniorc. (h'eport by Mr.
I'niisiil Iteriial on the Trade of Italliniore in IHDI,
iiil'iijisiilar l{e|Mirls.)
fliert^ arc in the vicinity numerous cotton mn-
iiiil'iii'ti'ries, and llniir and other mills in npcra-
Mnii. A part of the city is low, and wiw formerly
KirKiiiiteii iiiiiicalthy ; but this lias been obviated
liv the lilliii); up of the marshy grounds. To the
N', and K. the land rises to a coiisidcriible cleva-
liim, and affords a beautiful pros^M'ct of the cit^'
mill Morrouniliu)^' conntry. The citi/.eiis jf llalti-
iiinrc are (lislin(;iiisbed as well for bold and perse-
vrriii^ eiiter|irisc, as for hospitality and aKreeabU^
niiiinuTs. llaltiniorc has had a remarkably rapid
j;ri<\vtli. It was tirst laid out as a town in 172'.);
in ITliJ it contained only about tifly houses; it was
lirst erected into ucity in 17!I7. A formidable but
iiiiMia'cssful attack was niaile on it in 1814, by a
liriiiah force under General Ho.ss.
lUi.TiMouK, a niarit. town of Ireland, co. Cork,
|iriiv.'Minister, on a bay of (he same name, near
(iilK'Clear Island; 4lim. WSW. Cork. The pop.
nliicli, in IKil, was4t'><J, had sunk, in iMIil, lo i4.j.
Ill n|ipcaraiice and accommodation it is merely a
villaf;c, and claims rank as a town only from
iiiiviiif; been incorporated, and beinj; a jiort. The
liiiiines, tweiity-si.\ in number, are built round the
rcmniiis of the old castle. lialtimure wa^s incur-
imruteil by James I., in iGl.4, and sent two niem-
Ihtk to tlic Irish II. of C till the Union, when it
ii'iised to be represented, and its other privileges
It'll into disuse. The jurisdictiim of the port e.\-
ii'iids from Mill Cove to (lalley Head, inulmling
liie creeks of Berelmven, Uantry, Uoss, CJlcndore,
uiid Castle lownshend.
liALTINtlLASS, a par. and town of Ireland,
I'd. Wicklow. The town is sitnated on the S. side
iif the Slanev, 34 m. SVV. Dublin. Pop. of par.,
in 18C1, 2,ti4!t ; of town, 1,304, The latter is re-
markable onlv from a parliament having been
mice held ui it, and from it« having fonnerly re-
turned two members to the Irish II. of C.
IIASIHAHI.'A, a considerable country of inte-
riiir Africa, the precise position of which is far
fnim being accurately ascertained. On Kennell's
map to Park's lirst exjiedition, its lat. is given
Irora 12° to 15° 22' X.; its long, from 15' E. to
ii' 20' W. The map to the last journal of Park
makes the lat. extend from 1 1° 16' to l(>o 20' N. ;
tlic long, from 1° 36' E. to 4° 52 VV, (See also,
.Vdvertisemcnt, Park's Second Journal.) And,
laitly, Caillie appears to place it between !l° 20'
and 14° N. lat,, and between 4° 40' and l)° 20'
W. long. (Travels, 2nd Map, i. 304, et sen.) A
mean among these different statements will give
alxiut 400 m. for its greatest length, from N W. t(»
SK., and about 300 m, for its greatest breadth, in
the direction of the meridian. Upon Park's map,
the area is about 60,000 sq, m. ; but of course little
reliance can be placed upon the accuracy of these
results. The names of the surrounding coinitrios
are known with more certauity ; they arc, on the
llAMIIAHKA n»3
K., rtottii, llardoo, and Miiniaiia: on the S., the
Mmidingo country and ili'»irict of Kong; on the
\V, Kaarta; and on the N. and XK., Heeroo and
the tributary kingdom of Masina. (Park, pp. 02,
I 1(1, 2l(i, kV-c., and Map.) Itainbarra is, for the
most part, a plain cunnirv, with a gi ral incliiin-
fion to the N. and K. '('he W. portion is, how-
ever, niountaiiioMs, or rather billy, and foriiis the
K. lenninatiiiu of the high lands of Kaarta, Man-
ding, d-i'. These mountains are of granite and
other old fonnalions, but of no great height; and
the soil, Istth on their sides and on the plains,
though in the iminetliate neighbourhood of the
Sahara, is generally g I. The Niger. Joliba or
Qiiorra, has its rise about l.'iO in. S\V. from the
frontiers of Itainbarra, and flows through the
whole jength of that county from S\V. to NK. It
is an iinportiint stream at this early part of its
course, but by no means so gigantic as it after-
wards becomes. At Sego, the Itainbarra capital,
it is idioitt the size of the 'i'liames at Westminster,
(Park, p. 104.) There is no other river of im-
porlanee in the eoiintrv, but the smaller water-
courses are innumerable; lliej' all overllow during
the rainy season, wliiiOi lasts full 5^ months, so
that tlu- moisture is fully siillicient to render
the land in a very high degree prmliuttive. The
climate is one of intense Ileal, es|K-cially in the
N., where the land bonh-rs u|Hin the desert; but,
upon the whole, the temperature is more endurable
in Itainbarra than in some of the neighlHiiiriiig
countries; and in the S. |iarls it is cidd enough in
the rainy season to render a tire desirable, (Caillie,
i. 327.) The rainy season extends t'rom .luiu' to
November, and is ushenMl in by violent tornadoes.
Its termination is usually marked by the dry NK.
wind called llarmattan (see Asiiantkk), which
is here, however, not cohl. as on the coast of
(fuinea,aiid, so far from being dreaded, is accounted
salubrious, particularly to Furopeans, fnmi the
rajiidity with which it" absorbs the superabundant
moisture of the air.
The mountains arc said to he rich in gold, but
less so than in Jallonkadoo and other count ric8
further \V. They also produce iron, and therecaii
belittle doubt but that a well-direct(!d industry
wouhl turn their mineral treasures to account.
Vegetation is varied and abundant ; of trees there
are the immense baobab, the boinbax (silk cotton),
oil pidtns, dates, tamarind, and a great variety of
forest trees. The earth produces, with little lalxair,
yams, cassava, maize, small millet, foigne, rice,
Ac, many of which yiehl two crops a year; and
the lotus (r/iamnus lotus of Liiir s) is an imisir-
tant article of food. The trc ■ i' fruits, so cinn-
mon in (Jninea, are, howevei, ■ > • scarce here ;
Park (p, 200) did not meet wii .;he pine-apple,
orange, or banana, excejit near the mouth of the
Gambia; and though Caillie' (i, 181) mentions
them, their locality is fixed by him also near the
coa.st, and consequently at a considerable distance
from Itambnrriu The most remarkable production
of this country is the shea, or butter-tree, a ))lant
about the size and appearance of the American
oak, the oleaginous fruit of which answers every
purpose of butter made from cow's milk, combined
with the advantage of preserving its firmness and
sweetness for the wiude year without salt. This
last, is an article peculiarly deficient in llambarra
and the neighbouring countries ; bo much so as to
be a valuable article of foreign commerce, and
bought at a high rate with the com and ^old dust
of the district. Tobacco is cultivated m many
jiarts with great success. The animals, except
monkeys, which are strangers, arc the same as
those of tropical Africa generally ; lions, tigers,
wolves, piuuhcrs, ekphants, camels, giraffes, and
m\
¥;:■?'».:
'i<:. i
^,;i*''»*i.
#1
!:*>■;',
!'» •'
I I
1 '!!., -
\r^
5^1
.'Jll nAMIJAUUA
iiiiii'l()|i('i), CiiltU^ iiri* nut uliiiiiilani, iicltlipr <lii
kIii'i'I) iir hoKNii|i|i<'nr to Ih' itlt'iilil'iil, Iml ^oiitfi niul
iliPK'< iirt- very luimiToiiit, 'I liiTc nrc liinlt of iniin.v
N|M'l'il'^<, iitiil a ^rcitt viiriciy of ri>|iiil<'r<, nnmii^
wliirli iiri' criinMlilcM, in tlit' rivrr, Itnl thi'HiMlii not
ii|i|i<'Mr (ri Ih' iinrlicnlarly (liin^cniHH ; iIh' IiiinIh of
Ipowrrfnl mill vmonioiiH him't-lH art' rf^ariU'il with
It nnii'li Kri'alcr ilc^rcr nf apiirclionHion.
'I'iif nativcH of Itaniliarra arc a iiart of tln> ntvat
l^Ianilin){o family, wliicli cxicnilH from tlu! VV.
(■oani to the riviT Nin<'r (h»'1' Mani>in«ii>) ; they
i*|i('al( tli(> Naini' lan^iiai;<', tlion);li with a |H>('nliar
iliali'ct ; am! (heir halntM, npiicarant't', ami ^fucral
attaiiunrntH an; the Hanic. 'l'\w townw nnil vil-
lik),'<'s ar<! very popnlonN, mmw of them (MtntainiiiK
nn inanv iim !lll,lllllt inhaltitaiitM; lint, on the other
hand, till' open conntry in nftcrly ilcMPrifil i for
which, two rcammH mav h(> asMi^Micil, vi/. tho con-
Htant ilaiiKcr from wilil liraNts, anil tin- conMtuiit
wars hctwccn tin- (lilfcrcnt nlatcn ami prim't-n.
From rarkV at'connt of the pop.of Scpi, SanHaml-
in)^r, Wapola, and other towns, comliincil with the
iinnihcr of niii'Ii towns whii'h apiicar on his map, it
niav perhaps lie inferreil, that llnmharra eontains
(iltiV'elher between ■J,*M)l),llll(l ami »,ll(HI,lllll) ; of
whom ■'l-'ltlis at least are slaves. In cnstoms they
do not materially dilTer from other neKroes ; they
are toleralile agrii'ultnrists, work in piht and iron,
and tun, dress, and niunufacluru leather. Thesv
are the oidy arts wiiich are held in esteem, as dis-
liiu't eallin^rs; lint spinning, weaving, and dyeing
are very dili/rently performed hy the women, and
the Ituinliarrun I'loth, though itoarse, is soil and
dnrahle, and (generally of a rich, lasting, lilne
eolonr. A jiretty extensive^ trade is (larrieil on with
llie Moors of the desert, the more rumote kinj;-
doms of 'rimUietoo and lionssii, the territory of
Kon^f, and even with Ashanteo and .Senepmiliiu.
Their exports are iron, eloth, ivory, nud slaves;
their imports consist of ttalt, with ii few Man-
ehostcr piods, s(imo hardware, and anns. In skill,
relinement, and eleanlinoHS they are far below the
nem'roes of the (iold Coast ; bnt in moral feeling
they appear tu be above them; their slaves, who
are of two kinds, native born aii<l foreipiers, either
purchased or ca]itnred in war, are iisnally treated
■with kindness; tlie dis^nstin^ crueltieH which
mark the festivals of the Ciuincn Nejp'oes (sec
AsiiANTEK) arc unknown anions them; and they
are said to be anxious (especially the women) to
assist, to tho utmost of their power, the sick and
Miilortunatc. The fijovcrnment is rather oli<;ar-
t'liical thai) monarchical ; the kiii^ is nominally
the head of the state, but he ap|iears to have
little more power than to recommend certain lines
of conduct to the (/notiei (ffovernors) of towns,
wliich recomniendatiiiii is not always attended to.
'I'he Moors of N. Africa lonjj since introduced Mo-
hammedanism ainonjr the tribes S. of the desert ;
the great majority of these retain, however, their
old faith, which, in IJanibarrt., seems to extend no
farther than a (general acknowlcdfrnient of a su-
preme being and a future state, with a periodical
assembling for Avor.thip, onlv at the time of the
full moon. The only religions buildings are the
mosques, the ministers of which are also school-
iniixtttrn ; for instruction, to some small extent, is
given to the young Negroes, but it is in Arabic, or
perhaps, in some cases, in the native language,
\vritten in the Arabic character, there being no
Negro tongue which pfisscsses an al|)habct. The
Moslem ISamljarruus are called Jiushruiis, the
I'aguns, Kafirs or inlidels. P<ilvgamy is common
with both sects; and among their marriage laws is
one which in rather peculiar — a woman may refuse
to become a wife, but should she, after that, con-
tract marriage with another, the tint suitor has
iiAMiiouorr.ri
the power ofsei/.ing her as a slave. The duini'Mio
relations are, howcMT, generally mnintaiiii'il wiili
great kindneHN, and tiie atTectioii of chililri'ti u
their mothers is touching and pecnliar, I'ln' |i„„|
is usually vcgi'table ; tlie amuseiiu'lits, iiii|.|,',
dancing, and singing; and the etVcct of i<iiii|,i|.
diet, and cheerful or rather ll-oiighllrss iliipi,.;.
tion, is evinced by the fact, that thiii>gh lln' i Ij.
mate breeds fevers, fluxes, yaw; , el»'plumti«»i.,
leprosy, and guinea-worm, the Itambarraiiit, hh n
people, innst In; described as healthy, tlmugli tint
do not iisnallv attain to any very great a;;",
(Park's Traveli, pp. IRVUl'H; Caillie. '. ■l'I-IT.m
KAMIil'.ltti, a town of llavaria. cire. ('|i|i<r
Mayiie, on a piece of uneven ground on thelmiiki
of the Kegnitz, about ■! m. abovn its eonlliit'iiiv
with the Mitvne, 'AW m, N. NureinlHTg, on tlii>riiil-
way from Nuremberg to the north of tieriniiiiy.
I'oji. 'IWM'i in iMl'il, The Kegnitz divides it luin
three parts, the comnninicati'in U'tween thciii
being maintained by two bridg< •*. It is well Iniili,
paved, and lighted, and is partially surroundi'il \\y
ramparts and fosses. Among the public biiililiii!,M
is the cathedral, a noble structure in the Ityxantiiii'
style, foundeil in l(M)l, and llnished, after Uiii;;
partially burnt down, in 1 1 HI. It (Miutaiiis inmlii
of its tiiunder, the emperor Henry II„ anil <il' liii
s|ioiise, the empress Onniguuda, with that of 1'ii|h>
Clement II., \c, St. Marlins church, erirtcd In
the ilesuits, is a line building. The chiirrli inul
old convent of St. Michael occupy a height ailjuin-
ing that on which the cathedral stands. TlD-i'im-
vent has been converted into a poor-house. TliiTf
is also a nrhloHK, or palace, formerly the reHidiinn
of the bishops, or |)rinces of Hamberg, a iiluiii
building of considerable extent, with a gallcrv nl'
bad pictures; a towii-bonse, and theatre, lliim-
berg is the resid(!nce of an orchbisho)i, and liin
numerous literary and charitable institutions. At
the head of the former may be plaecil the lywiim
and gymnasium, that have replaced the old uni-
versity, sniipressed in IMt), and which furnish a
very complete course of instruction for betwrni
7((0 and MO(t pupils: it has also a seminar}- fur the
instruction of schoolmasters, a school for mccim-
nics, a museum of natural history, a royal library
with nearly «(»,I)(I0 volumes, and numeroiis literary
societies and private collections of books and pir-
tures. The intirmary has surgical, anutomii'iil,
and 'ithcr medical schools attached to it, and iilx'-
tanical garden. Large quantities of lieer, in miuh
repute in the surrounding country, are pniiliucii
here; and there are also manufactures of jjIovpn
jewellery, wax, tobacco, iiorcelain, &c. A i^cM
deal of liquorice is raised in the environs ; ami in
preparation forms a considerable branch of liu<i-
iiess. (iarden seeds are also largely prudui'eii.
It has two annual fairs, and is the centre of a om-
siderable commerce wliich has greatly extcmlcil
since the opening of two lines of railway wliiili
place it into direct communication with Frankfori,
Merlin, Munich, and uU the important towns' "{
(iermany. Ijamt)erg was formerly the capital "I
an independent bishopric, secularised in 1801, ami
assigned in 18I)H to Havaria.
HAMI10K0U(JH, a small t«wn of England.
on the coast of Northumberlaml, nearly ojiposiie
to the Fern Islands, and 17 m. SK. Uerwick-on-
Tweed. Though once considerable, it had wily
4(t3 inhabitants at the census of 18«1, and woiiM
be scarcely worth notice were it not for its "lii
castle. The latter, which is very extensise, ami
in good preservation, is built on a basaltic rink,
150 ft. above the level of the sea, from which it w
a most conspicuous object. The castle and some
other |)roperty having lieen jmrcliaseil h^ hi'f'
Crewe, bishop of Durham, he bequeathed it, in 172f,
in
nvi'. 'I'lio (li)mntin
y nminlaiiiril wlili
iiiii iif rliililri'ii III
,H'i'iilinr. rill' IiimI
IIIIKI'IIK'lllH, lllll'-ii,
lie rIVi'i't (if i>iin|i'i'
|-()linlltlt'!<!t llit|»lM
lint thoii^h till' ili
'HW: , i'li'|iluiiitia<i<,
ii> lluiiiliarriiiiH, ii* ii
I'lilthy, iliiiiiuli \\\i\
ly very Krriii iiu'".
■('aillii', '. • 21-lT.M
luviiriii, Kirc. l'|i|«r
^ro'iiul on the liniik*
ilmvn itH I'milliii'iiiv
iri'iiilHTH, on till' rail-
• imrtli of (iiTiiiiiny.
i-k(iiitz iliviilt's il iiiid
it l III llctWI'l'Il tllCIII
l)r(^. It IH Wl^l'l llllilt,
rtially mirrminili'd \>}'
; tlu'';iulilirlmililiiiii<
un^ ill tlic Hy/,i»iilim'
tlui^<lu'||, ntd't Ihiii;;
), It rontuiiiH tiiinU
Icnry II., and nl \\\*
ila, with tliut 111' l'ii|»'
i'h fliiiri'h, orcctcil liy
\ff, Tliv cliiirili mill
rupy n lR'i>,'iit mljui"-
Irnl wtnndH. 'I'lii' I'mi-
> II poiir-limwe. i'liiri'
mnnrly the ro^iiUmi'
of Hiinilicrj;, a jiluin
cut, with a pillery if
!, and Uicntre. Itiuii-
1 nrchhishoii, and Inn
table institulionH. At
be placed the lyowim
) replaced the old uiii-
L and which furni^li :i
striictimi for k'twwi
dno a neminnn- for tlie
1, ft Hchool for meiliii-
listory, a royal libniry
and iunncroiw litoniry
ions of bookn and jiii-
mirjrical, anatontiiiil,
tachedtoit, andalx'-
titiesoflwcr, inmiuli
■onntrj', are priMliuni
janvifactures of ^hw>-
ircclain, &c. A gtm
the environH ; ami "*
■arable branch of lm'<i-
Iso largely pnKliu'eil.
is the centre of a wm-
has frreatly extciulcil
ines of railway wliuli
cation with Frankfort.
e important towns nl
jrinerlv the capital "I
culariscd in 1801, ami
in Umn of Englnii'l.
rlmul, nearly oj.|p'W'e
7 m. SK. llerwick-on-
iidorable, it haii <'« )"
IS of l«ttl, and woiiW
ere it not for its M
|s very extensive, m\
lilt on a ba.'^aUic rock.
le sea, from wlucluti*
1 The ca.stle and *«
L purchased by l^'^
lbe(iueathcdit,uiliiC.
fir chanlnblo piirposcK, In piirsiinni'iHif the Iicih'-
Mili'iil iiilciilioiii of the fiiiiiiili'r, llie caxtli' Iiiik
Ih'i'ii partially renovaicd and rrpairnl, Walrli is
,.„iiHiiiiitly ki'pl, and ni^'iials niailc frmn the tower
ill liii/v ncathcr, to wurii ships of their apprnach
III ihii' lUnp'roiis i'oa'<l ; a life-boat is a' kept in
ri'ikiliiii'SH, and the ino-.t elllcieiit measures ailoptt'd,
iiiii iiii'ri'lv for the prevention of shipwreck, but
|,ir the relief of those who have nnder^one that
nij>l'iirtiine. A school on the Mililras system is
RVMHork' 31/j
prnlilU* countries in the world. The few steriUi
sjHiis are on the smnmits of the highest nioiintaiiis,
where, deiiiiiled of soil, the bare granite nl'iisi"*,
of ciiiirse, to iioiirisb ve^'etaliie life, but in nil
other situations the vef^'ctalion is rich and \'arie<l,
almost beyond example. .Viiioiik trees, there are
the tniijcstic baobab, the banyan, calabash, tamu-
rind, everv s|M'cies of palm, and a j^rent variety of
acacias. The vine jjrows wild and in jfreat liix-
iiriance, but its fruit, like that of all the other'
iMalilislied in the castle, in which there are also a i trees, is e\tremely acid, thoii;;li eaten with htk'ixI
a\iility by the natives. \n in other coiintrii's N.
of the Kon^ nmnntains (see IIamiiakka), the
rich fruits of (iiiiiiea are absent; but the earth
produces in ^reat abundani'e, iiiid alniost without
culture, maize, two sorts of millet, maiiiiH', water
mehiim, and in^arly everv species of le^ruminoiiH
plants. Tin; low lands, also, subject to inundation,
are covered with rice of an extremely tine kind,
and which ^rows to the heif^ht of H ft, ^I'he (iuinca
fCrass is abnndaiit, which, with n ^reat variety
of other rich (taslure, serves to feed innumerablo
herds of cattle, ((iolberry, i. lOl-HI ; Voy. an
Pays Mambonc, p. Ul-I.').)' This extn^ine fertility
is straiiKel.v contrasted with th(> account f^iven by
the Abbe' I'taynal (K. and VV. ind., iii. Ilto), on the
., authority of a iiatnehMs traveller, that the soil was
Liibat, Nouvede Kelation du I'Afrlipie ! an irredeemable desert, (iroducitiK nothing; but
inetals, and wliidly unlit for the residence of man !
The traveller referred to was probably Coinpa^non,
who, according to the author of Voy. an I'avs llani-
bouc, was never iti the country, but had published /«■«
imiH>»tnrv» lenplns iilisunlet et lea /tlH»/iiiniH»ul>le», by
eonlbuiidin^ soils, |H'ople, (;ov(Tnments, and muit-
ners, the most opposed to each otli'.-r. (pp. 2, (!.)
The animals of Hambouk are those of tropical
Africa ^^enerally, and all in f^reat abundance. The
number of cattle has already U'cn alluded to; the
other domi^stic animals are horses, sheep, ^oats,
and camels. The lion is not found n|Hin the
mountains, but is very numerous in the plains,
liiiiil are scattered amoii); these mountains, and I where also wander immense herds of elephants.
tiioy ore skirted by plains of some considerable , The rivers teem with life, and, amon}r other inha-
bitants, an^ infested with very powerful crocodiles,
iiirds of all kinds arc numerous, and insects ix.-;
SiMil'jfal formiiif; the N K. boundary, and two larffc i prolilic as in other equinoctial rej^ions; bees, in
aliliiimts of that river, the Fa-leinc and the liar- 1 particular, arc so ]ilentiliil, that the manufacture
lilirarv and a dispensary. The po|iiilation of the
cattle is K'^'*''* '" ''■*' census returns of IHtil at 'M,
IIAMHOI'K, ft country in the interior of W,
Alrii'ii. in about from 1'}^° to 11^° N. lut,, and
irmi I '4° to \'i\° VV. 1(111^. In form it is nearly
a iiaralli'lo^rani, 1 10 m, in length, and Hit) in
wiiltli, and containing apparently about I4,IIIMI sq.
III. ill area; but, as the travellers in the country
had l're(piently no better means of deterniiniu^
iHisllioiis than by estiuiatinK distances and niark-
iiiK ciiiirses, the accuracy of these observations
caiiiiiit bennich relied on. The surrounding coiiu-
irli'!4 are KaiaiiKa, or (iaiani, and Kassoii on the
S\V. and I^.; Itrooko and Kooladisi on the K, ;
Wiirada on the S. ; and Dentilla and liondoii on
till' \V. (Vcyiif^e an I'ays de Itainboui;, Paris,
I7K1M). 1 "
(»(('i., iv. I ; (iolberry, Voy, en Afriipie, i. ii«(»;
I'ark, 1st .Joiirn., |). (Ill, — •2nd .loiirn,, p. 51 ;
lloiiKliton, Afric, Assoc., cap. xiii, 11, Ac.)
liambonk is a mountain eonntry, most \mt-
liahly a table-l/ui;l, near the centre of the S<'ne;;al
KVHti'in, with a );eiieral inclination towards the
,S. and XVV. In some places it is very rni;(;ed,
tliiiiiK'h the peaks do not ai>|M>ar any where to
attain a ^'reat elevation : the ni^hest are not more
than •mo It., and those- in the S, rarely exceed
.'Iiiii ft. above the general level of the laud, which,
however, must itself be considerably hi^^her than
the sciu (liens and valleys of the most romantic
•e scattered a
plains
oxtent, (Park, 2n(l Voy., p)), (50, (i,"i, A-c. ; (tol
iK'rry, i. 412, &c.) Water is very abundant, the
liii);, constituting the \V. and K. frontiers of the
I'iMiiitry, Park considers the latter to be the main
stream of the Senegal (1st Jonrn., p, 3.')t;) ; and it
h certainly much larger than the branuh which
meets it at the NK, corner of liamlHiuk, though
the direction of the latter be the same as the after
eoiirse of the river, liesides these, there are
a great abundance of rivulets, more cs|)ecially
towards the VV, ; and there is one other stream,
the Sanon ( 'olez, or (iolilen Kiver, which is of cim-
siilerablc size. It rises near the capitfti, and, after
traverHing the whole country with a NVV. course,
is received into the Fa-lcme, (Labat, iv. 20, tfcc. ;
(iolhenry, i. 3HI, 412, A'c) The climate is ex-
tremely hot, and (iolberry remarks (i. 412), that
ilie heat of the interior, which is screened from
every wind except that of the desert, is quite in-
siipimrtable. Towards the ,S,, however, cool days
are experienced, and the grass is fresh and ver-
ilaiit throughout the year. The rainy season
tommcnces about July or August, and lasts four
niuiitha: during this period the low country is
tlooiled, the whole rendered frightfully unhealthy
l«r Europeans, and probab' not very salubrimis
to the natives, since their l.iiiours seem to be cim-
lineil to the eight dry months. (Voy, au Pays
Hambouc, p, 37, &c, ; Labat, iv. 4, Ac, '; (iolberry,
i'lU;Park, 2nd Jouni,, p. 62, &c.) Hut the
t'll'ect of the heat, combined with this abundant
niuisturc, is to render Bambouk one of the most
of mead is, next to mining and dairy work, the
most common occupation of the ]ieople. This
fact alone is a sullicient proof that Hambouk must
abound in trees and plants of the richest kind,
((iolberry, pp, 405, 40«; Labat, iv, pp. 92-Ul>;
lloughton's Af, Assoc., xiii. pp. 10, 14.)
Hut that which has rendered Hambouk a sub-
ject of interest for many generations is its reputed
riches in gold and other metals. From the lirst
settlement of Kuropeans on the const of Sene-
gambia, now five centuries ago, they heard of an
interior country, the centre of all the auriferous
moimtains in that part of Africa; and, unlike
most tales of wonder, the facts seem to have veri-
fied all that was related. 8o abundant indeed is
the ore, and so numerous are the mines, that
curiosity, even when prompted by interest, seems
to have palled, and become insulKcicnt to indui;c
a traveller to ilelay his journey for the purpose of
inspecting a greater ninnlMir. (David's Jouni, in
(ioldljerry, i, p, 476,) There are four priticipal
mining, or rather gold-producing districts; but
the Avholc soil abounds with gold, which can be
collected with very little labour and hardly any
skill; it lies so near the surface, that merely
scraping up and washing the earth serves, in many
cases, to separate the metal in a pure state ; and
the more elaborate attempts at artilicial operation
consist in sinking a few pits, and breaking up the
ore, which usually parts from its matrix in such a
TVi
/no
IIAMIIOIK
't V
ItSjIr
hiiih' ilml wnxliiiii; iiiilv U iH'c-ri'iiry to rriuliT ii '
til lor tlif iiiMi'ki'l, li II iNinrri'ly Ih' ri'iiuirkrcl,
lliiil, ill Niii'h II niiiiiirv, ilii' rivrrn liirriill\' run
i>\rr Knlili'ii Hiiinl'* ; ami kIhhiIiI Kkillnl liilnmr lie
•'\ rr liroii^lil III lii'iir ii|i4iii lln' liiml, llii'ic ritii lif
liiilc iliiiilil liiil iliiii iiK iri'ii'Mirr'4 uri' itit'\liiiii'<
lililr. Al |irt'«i'iii, liiiMi'MT, III)' iirl III' Miiiiiiit;,
|il'M|ii'rl\ Hii riilli'il, In ijiiili' lilikllnwil hi lllc Mil
liM'.H, llr-<liii'H ^i;i>lil, t'\li'iiKi\i' \ritiH iil' iriiii rxUl
ill lliiniliiiiik ; mill il Im I'xlmiii'ly |iriiliiilil<' lliiil
iiiimI III' llif (illicr inrtiilx wmilil lii' rmiiiil it hiiii;;IiI
lor. (tiollii'rry, i. |i. i;il-lHn ; Vnv. an I'liyx Main.,
|i. 'Jl-.'lii; Lnliiii, iv, |i. J'll-M; I'urk'M 'Jiiil Juiirii,,
|l. .'l."!-.'!'.!.)
'I'lii' |Mi|iiilntiiiii (if llninliiiiik ii« iIi'Imc, 'I'Iii'
|ii'ii|ili' rnriii a |iiirt nl' llir Kri'iil MaiiiliiiK" liiinily,
ji'iiiii t\liirli lliry ilii mil ilitVcr in any rrN|ii'i'i mIiIi
rt'K'iril III a|i|ii'araiiri'. rrlif^'inii, nr j^rmral iiiaiincrK,
(Sec MaMHNiiii.) 'I'Iii' KiiVrrnilirlil, lliiiii),'ll llll-
tier a kiliK> an lii'iiil, a|i|irMrM in lie iili);arrliii'al ;
llii' rarliiiN, (ir cliii I'n, I'MTrinlii^^ aliiUHl nnliiiiih'il
anlliiiriiN , t'luli in liin own ilinirirl, Iml afkimw
li'il^iii^ a p'lirral ilr|icii(U'iirf (|i('rlia|m Iil lie iiiiirc)
ii|iiiii tilt' Miivrri'i^n.
'I'lit' Itaiiiliiiiikiann arc iMfiTinr in activity anil
imiunlry In tlic otlicr iMaiiiliii;;ii('r<, iiml iliry liavr
ainii ('iirrii|iti'il ilirir lan^n^i^:!' Iiy a larp' nii\luri'
III' •laloiil', l''iiiilali, ami Mnnrinli tiTiiin. 'I'lirir iiriH
art' cxlrriiii'ly lew, Iml tlicir wiiiili* nlill li'wcr;
lor tliiiii^'li llicy inaiiiirachiri' imlliin^ Init mmir
I'liilc tiiiiln anil iirnaiiK'iitM, their mily iiniiurin Mcrni
III lie I'litliin t'lnlli, tiriiaiiiciitn I'nr llit'ir woiiicn,
anil nail, of wliirli iii'ti's.nary arlicli', natiiliniik,
liki' HO tiiiiiiv iitlirr Arrii'iin I'lniiiirirH, in intally
ilrntitiiic. I'nr tlit'xt' tlii'y I'ri'i'ly L'iM' tlii'ir ^iilil
in i'\rliaiiKi'> iukI iIi>' I'ninim'ri'i! is one of ^^rvnl
lirnlil III ilii'ir Aral) iici^'liliunrn. ((tullicrrv, i. |i|i.
:1H|, :in;1-IIH; Voy.an I'ayM Ham., pp. lii-tiH ; l,a-
lial. iv. pp. -J-l', Al.)
Ilnricil ill tlii' iiitcrinr of a lairiiin^ cnnlinont,
ami niirronmU'd liy imniiitains nl' tlilliciilt piiHHaps
llanilionk rciiiaiiictl Imi^ liitallv iinkmiwii t<i tlif
ri'Mt III' tlif world. Ill till' lil'lci'iilii cciitiiry tlic I'ur-
tmjiwsv inaili- llu'iiinolvt's inaNiiTs of tlic country,
ami rctaini'd it lor moiiic <'oiiniilcralilc tinu'. All
I'ortii^nii'nr aiilliors arc nilcnl mi llic Hiilijcct, Imt
llic nativcM allirin tliat llic\ acted very lyraiiiii-
cally, lint tliat liccniiiiii;;' rc>>iiced in iiiinilicrn liv
llie iinlicaltliy nature of the climate and their
<i\vii delmiicherien. the reninaiit were net upon and
destroyed in a single day. 'i'his niory is coii-
liniied', not only Irmn the fact of many riiiiions
forts and Iioiiscm of rortii^Miese coiistrnctioii >iill
cxistuif;, lint I'mdi the km»wled;:;c which the llaiii-
lionkians have that hiicIi a people as the I'ortu-
^'uese live at a ^rent distance ; from the decp-
hcttled liate with which tliev rcpird their iinine ;
from the terror which they fe«'l lest their former
conquerors should return to lake vengeance on
them; ai'-l from the lar^e mixture of Portuguese
wiirds ill iheir lauf^ua^e. The expulsion of the
Maraliouts or Mohiiinmednii priests from their
country is another singular event in liainboukiaii
history.
Willi the exceittion of tlie Portinjuosp, who
have left no reconls of their oliservations, the lirst
■''.nropeaii who reached llamliouk was an Kii^lish
otlicer named (Jasclie, who, ascending; the (iam-
liia. contrived to reach the Damlioukian capital in
Itiilll. His stay was short, and his oliserv.-itions
merely j;eneral and incidental. Compaj^non's re-
ported visit was ill ITlli. Soon after this. AI.
Itriie. a director of the French African Company,
formed the project <if sulidiiin^' Itamhoiik, and se-
curiiif; its mines of pild. To olit.iin the necessary
information us to the practicaliility of his project,
he attempted to enter the country from Kaju'nga,
IJANAdlir.R
"II the \.; Iiiit il does mil appear thai he rim,|„
any great proKrens in tlu' interior. Mix iinpr,.
"ion. liii\«i'M'r, \\t\». llwit with a force of I, '.'on 1,1,1,
III-- plan could lie 1 nrrieil into exicniion, ii„,| ||„,
inimn nei'iiii'd to r'.iiriipcan iiidiiNirv. Il in iiiilcKJ
more than pmlialile ihiil a Ion I'nrce iiu^lii .,„
Cecil in elVei'lIn^ li fimt coiiipieni ; Iml the I'uti. , |'
the I'ortuKiicne, and the cxircine uuhi'Mllliine.n it
the I'liiniile, miike it also certain ihiil tliiirpim.i.
hion coidd lie retained only liy a l'rit;htliil niiiriii.r
of life, and the nioni inininiltiiig watclitiiii,,,,
llelweeii I Till* and 1711 lunch tvan done tniDi, '
It lietter knouleilne of thin country hy MiK'.r',,
I.eveiin, l>aviil. I'ilay, and I. errand : IhetwniirM
)<ii\crmirn, the olhem iinployen of the I'tiiu li
Afrii'Mii conipiiny al Sciie^'nl, liollierry npinU,
iilmi, in high lerniH of an I'.iiKlinh jonriiiil liiili'
linlicd in 1 7N..' ; Iml thin Work caiinoi nii\i lii>
found, Muiigo I'ark, in his llrst Journey oiiiuiirij,
readied the \\ . and N. I'roiiiii'rM of llamliouk
I lloniloii and KaJaaKa); and on hin return, iih al«i
in his mifiirluiiale Hccoml Joiiriiev, he iraverM'il a
coiisideralile pari of its ,S. divinioii: Iml the ira
velli'r from whom the iiionI perfect iiil'iirMiiiiinii
iniKlit have licen oliiaiiied was Major llnii^diiMi,,
who not oulv traversed the interior iif theruiinirt,
Imt lehided in it a consideralile lime niiilir iiriiii
of ihe clonesl friendship with the king. The miiiiII
remnants of hin papers are the immt vahialili' ijii.
cnineiitn which exist renpecting namhonk.
IIAMI'dOlkA, an iiil. town of llindosiaii, |irn\-,
Malwah. on the llewa river, l,:)ll ft, aliovr iln'
level of the sea; hit. 'Jl'^ III' N., long. 7,'i°,Vi'|:.
Ill IK'.'O, il contained I.IIIM) houses: it ponse^cH im
nntinished fort, with wcll-lmilt walls, inclimlii;; a
palace also nntinished, Imt containing a wliiir
marlile statue of .leswiint liow llolkar, hy wIum'
order the luiilding was construeted, Tlie iimii
and its territory formerly lieloiiged to Ilolkur'H ilu-
miuions,
MAMITON with n'liilil, n parish ami town if
Kngland, co. Oxford, hiiiid. Ilampion, IM ni. WNW ,
Loudon. Area, H.T.^O acres. I'op. of par,, in iMtll,
•.',Hli;i ; of which Ihe town Hli."i. The latter in liiiilt
ill a level tract of eoiinlry near the Inis, lis
church is an ancient and very tine structure; ihc
living annexed to which is apportioned aiiiiiii;{.'-i
three vicars. There is an endowed free hcIhh'!,
founded in III,').''), and a national school fur Kn
children. The chief trade of the town in I'l'li-
inoiigering, which was once eousiderahle, hiii if
late yi'ars has greatly declined; its ancient iiiiirkii
has also fallen into disuse, Imt an annual linrM' I'liir
is still held, Aug. *2ii. I'liillips, author nf iIh
.Splendid .Shilling, was a native of Itamptnii,
llAMi'TdN, a town and par. of Knglaiiil. r".
Devon, liund. of same name, on the coMliiic^ "f
Somersetshire. Area f.lJlO acres; poj). of par. i;i
IMHI, l,!mi, and in l^lil, 1,',)7I. The timii i<
situated on tlie small river Mai hern, an allliieiitnf
the Kxe, 17 m. \V. Taunton. It is Imilt in ;i
straggling maimer; and wils fonnerly ofnuwini-
iiortaiice than at present, having sent meinn. tuilir
II. of (.'. It has a weekly market on .Sitiinhy,
and fairs for cattle and sheep, which are well ,11-
li'iided, on U'hit-Tuesday and the last Thiirwlay
of Octolier.
HAN or HANOVICS. a town of llimgnr*-, Ifini.
SK. Treiiczeii, on a hill near an alllueiit efilu'
Nentra; hit. -IN° 1:1' 20" N., hmg. i*<^ .V ,"m " i:.
l'o|). •J.llM.") in \XM. It has a considerable tnultin
cattle, wood, and iron.
IJANAIillKI!, an inl. town of rrelaiul. KiiK;
CO., ]irov. Leinsler, on the Shannon, lift m, \\'>^>.
PuMiii. The river is here crossed hy a ljriil}:i''i
111 arches. Hill ft. long ami I,") wide, gimrilt'iM'y
Imttcrics on each side, this being coiisitlt'iii! .1
nir I lull III' niH'lo
riiir, lli"« iiniin •
I'liri'i' III l.'iiHi nil II
I'xri'iiiiiiti. mill iIk'
iNlry. 1 1 i'< iiiili'i'l
I I'liri'i' iiii^lil Kill'
il ; lull till' I'llli' 1 1'
H' iiiilii'iililiiiii'»i< il'
II tliiil (III Ir piwos
II Iriulilliil Hiiirlini'
linn Wlllrllllllllr",
WIIH dlPIH' III irtri .
'imiili'y liy Miiir-.
;riiiiil : till' l^^ii ll'^i
•OH III' IIk' Kriniii
tliillMTry "iii'iil\«,
d^I'ihIi jiiiiriiiil I'lili
irk cikiiiiiil iiiitv III'
rnl jiiiinii'y nuhMinl,
lllli'rM III' llllinliiillk
III liis ri'liirii, II* iiliii
riu'V, lit" iriiMFMil II
ivlshiii : lull llii' ir:!
|icrl°ri'l iiiriiniiiiiinii
iiH Miijiir IIiiiikIiIiiii.
Icriiir III' tlii'i'iiiiiiin,
ill' liiiif uiiiltr Irriiit
llic kiiin. 'I'lii' -mull
lie iiiiiHl vnliiiilili' ilii-
iin MiiiiiiMiiik.
I of lliiiiliwliiii, prnv.
■, i,:in I'l. iiitiivf iiii'
N., lotiK'. 7iiO M 1..
lOIIKI'M : il |MI>l!<l'l««l'H IIII
lill wiillf*. imlimiiiu' II
(•iiiitiiiiiiiin II wliiii'
(iw lltilUiir. Iiy «liiiw
iHlriit'lt'il. 'I'lif iiiwii
luum'il to Ilulkar'n ilii-
a jiivriuli mill lown iT
luiii|iiiiii.<il"''^VN\V.
I'lip. of iiiir., ill I'llli.
10. 'riit' liittiT iiliiiili
[V lu'ar till' 111". Il*
TV line Miriirtim': iln'
ii)iliiirlitiiu'il aiimn^^i
t'liilowi'd IVi'c mliiHjl,
iitioniil wlmiil fiif li"
of llif town U Mi-
le ooiisiihTiiliU'. lull il
|ii'il ; ilH luuii'iil iiiiifl^ii
lul lUi aiinuul Imrsi' Imr
(liillil)H. iiiilliiT 111' ilii
ilivi'. of llaiiiptiin.
liar, of Kiinlmiil- ''"•.
liu', on till' I'onliiiiv. il
acrt's; P'lp- •'' I''""''."
. 1,1171. 'I'll*' 1""" '*.
inulluTn, mi iillliii'"'"''
ton. It il* liiiil' '" "
Is fonniTly of iimri' im-
Ivinn wont ini'iiu'.li'''"'
iiuirkot oil SiitunUy,
.'(•n, whifli arc will ai-
\mA the lust ThiiMlay
lown of Him^nfy' ""","•
Icar an allliioin ul ili;'
p., loiif,'. i^'^ '>' •'•' !■■•
a cousiilf nilile tnuU' "'
l.wn of Irelaml, Ki";;
limnion. i'i>*ni. \\>"'.
.Toshoilliy iiliriilr''
ki i:. Willi', KiiM'!""''
lia buiiit; t'lHiMik'ivil ■'
lUNAI.IMI'/Mt
iiiililnry |iA'*i* of HiiMif iiii|i<irlitiii')', l'ii|t. of lowii,
ii.ii;lii Mill, mill of |iiiri'<ii, :i,iii;i. or ili<> :(.*••
liiiiiilii'K ill '111' iiivMi.il'l Mi'h' ri'liirni'il UN i'iii|iliiyi I
in inrrii'iill !■*'''• llMiii irailrx iiml itiiiiiiifititiiri'i, iiml
i;,( ill iiilirr |iiirKiiilN, TIuti' wirr rrliinnil ii»
l^|,,ii|{iii({lii till' I'lxliilili'^lii'il Cliiiri'li, I'.i:) iMr^iitiN;
ilic ri'Ki vvcri' Itiiiiiiiii I 'iiilioliiri. 'I'lii' iiivvii HiitmU
1,11 iliii Hiili' of n liill ovrrliiokintf llii' Sluiiiiinti, ami
i'iiii»i'<lN of mil' liiiitf Hirri'l of well liiiilt limiiri.
rill' I'liiiri'li iiiiil Koiii. Calti. t'lia|H'l art' iiinili'm.
\riir ilii' lii«*ii Ih a m'liool nf royal loiiiiilalioii, rii
ijiiHi'il Willi '170 arri'N of laiiil; in lliii Imvii it a
nil iiiiial Ki'liiiol ami a ilin|i<'iinury. An iiifaiilry
I irriii'k Hiaiiili iii'iir iliii liriil^fc, uiiil llii> couiilalin-
hrv Ink'" a slalimi lirro.
till' Imr. was iiiror|iorai('il liy Cliarli'i* I, in Ki.'H,
ami M'lii '.' nii'Ui. I*i lli>' Iriiili 11. of ('. liil (lie
(lliiiM, wlii'll il wan ilinlVillirliiNril. A i niM'l of
iMiiv »!'*■ ■ ■>" i** lii'l'l *"i allcniali' iMnmlayn. Il
li'ii II ilinlillrry, liri'Wi'ry, ami Hiuiit' laii yarilH. Ii
in wi'll Hiiiiaii'il, liaviiiK a Kri'iil riitiiiiiitml of iiiliiml
ninlKiiliiiii. 'MarkrlM, uril Hii|i|ilii'il wiili cnni.ari'
lii'lil on KriiliiVN, ami I'airH on .May I, Si'|il. I''i,
KJiirli ruiiiiiiiii' for lour ilayx ; '^'Htli Oil., ami Mih
N'liv. 'I'lial of Si'jil. is for livi' nlork, in wliirli il
riiiiks lU'.vl III llairiiia.sloi>.
IIANALIiri'AU, a lown of S|iaiii, Majori'ii, III
in. N\V. Talma. I'op. alimit '.'.iioil. II. m Hiliiatnl
I'll a iiioiiiilaiii I'liliivali'il wiili llii' ki'i''|I<''''I I'aii';
ilii';;riiiiiiil lH'iiiKKii|i|ioriril on icrriiri's, ami |ilaiili'il
wiili viiu's, olivi'N, An', 'I'lii'i'i' is in ilH ('iiviroiiM a
i|iiiirrv of siaiiii'il niarlilo.
jIANItlMI'liK, an iiil. town of Irclaml, I'o.
jhiuii, jirov. risli'r, on tlm Kanii, 211 in, SW. Itrl-
lii>l. I'll)!, ill ll^.'l, 1,71.'); in iHill, 'J, Hill ; in Imi'iI,
l.n.'t.i, of wlioni l,!l|il mail's ami 'J.l'i.'t foinali's.
Tlii'ri'M^iis ri'l urns ilt'Ni'rilio till fainilii's nn ciiKaKi'il
ill tiKrii'iiliiiral |iiirsuits, 1,'M in iraili's ami niaiiii-
firiiiri's, ami I'loo nllicrwiM' i'ni|iliiyi'il or not cin-
|iliivi'il. To tliti l')Ntalilii*lii'il ( 'liiirrli U'loni^i'il .^itl
iiiiili'H niiil li.ll ft'inali'.i ; lo iIk; Itoinan ('atliolir
I'liilli, INO niuli'xmiil ri:iM fi'iiiali's; anil lo tlm I'ros-
liyli'rian I 'liuri'li, IHii niairs ami MoK fi'malt's. 'I'lui
liiwii is liiiilt oil the Miinniil ami siiliis of a liill of
Miinii lu'i^'lii, ami no sli'i'p as inati'ri.illy to iin|ii'ili'
till! prii^jri'SM of licavy-loaili'il carriages. To rc-
mnly this ini'onvcnii'iii')', tlm ronlro of llui road
wuHi'iit down for a IciikIIi of 'JilO yds., lo lim di'|illi
III' h'l fl, in the niiddio part of llm sorlioii, so an lo
fiiriii a i'arria>;c-way noarly level, while the f;reat
liri'uillli of Ihe street slill ailniilled carriage-ways
III! cai'li side on Ihe oriKinul level, u eoininnnii'a-
liiiii lieiii^ inaintained lietweeii Ihe houses on the
ii|i|iiiiiiti' sides of Ihe streeln hy a lirid^e or viaduct
mrii.Hs the centre of tlieciit. 'I'liisin a neat lliriviii^;
liiwii. A handsonio church ha.s lieeii eret'led,
imrily hv volnnlary suhscri|itio!i ; there are al»o
|ilaci's ot worship for I'reHhyterians, Keinonsiraiits,
mill two for MelhodislH; a pnlilic schoo!, and a
iHilK'ii.snry. Petty sesMions are held every fort-
n:);ht, and a jiarty of the conNlahuhiry is slaliiiiieil
liiTe. This town and nei^tiliourhood is one of tlie
liriiioiiml seat.s of tlie linen niaiinfacture. Tlie
uri'uf I'lininiand of water in tlic viciinif^e adajits it
|ii'inliarly for hlearliiii};, and there are larj;e iiia-
iiiiriii'tiirie.s of union uloth and thread, and che-
niical works for the use of the bleachers. The
niiirkctH are held on MondayH, in u spacious new
liiiiiiliiijjf : there is also a separate market iilace for
inoal and );rain, and u hrown linen hall. Fairs
ari' held im Ihe lirst iMoiiday in every month, and
I'll 12 Jan., lirst Sat. in March,!! Jniie, 2i! Aiif,'.,
anil hi Nov. ; the last is a fp-cat horse-fair,
liraiK'hes of tlie Trovincial and Ulster hanks were
iijiciicrt liere in 18a;i and IWiti. The trade of the
liiwii is promoted hy lines of railway which con-
iiuct il with llelliist,* Dublin, and all ihe iuiiiortant
MANIII UV 3ir
towim iif Inlmid. Tlie llaiiliriil»re Jiini'iioii raiU
way, tlf HI. loiitf, Mhiih falls iiiin Ihe Ihihlin.
Ilcllaxl lliii', Hiis opi'iii'd III April, M.i'.i, Its ma-
niiCiirtiiri'N liaxi' imnaicd ulili a rapidily i-rlduiii
cxpi'tli'iiri'il, lie I'sliriiiil appi'iiriiiice of llie
pliiie, and ihe liiiliiis ami iminm'rH of iis inliiili,,
'■orresp I \^M\\ iliis iifiiuriis. Ihe wealiliiir
I'lasNi's hve in renpei'iiilile imli'|M'ndi'nri' ; and
Mipialid poverlv is mil piriiptilde cmii aiiioii^ llm
liiwi'sl. The liinhly iiilliwilid stale of Ihe Mir-
roiimliiiK I'oiiiiiry, and the nilni Uaiilies of iu
sieiiery. lend niinh m hei^lilen Ihe pleasing; iin-
pressiiPiis exciled hy Ihe lonliinphilion of siirli ii
picinri' of proHperniis indiisiry.
MANIII ItV, a III r., par., liml town of MnKlaml,
CO. Oxfiird, hiiml. Iliinliiiry.illl in. N\V. I.Mndiin l>y
road; 7H in. Iiy l.omlun and North 'Wesiern, iiinl
K>'< III. by (inai Weiierii railway. J'im. in IHiil,
of boriiiinh, l.o.'iii, nf parish, 11, l'|i». The lown U
hitiialed ill a fiTlile vale, on the hanks nf ilie
t'lierwi'll ; is ri'inarkalily I'h'an and well bnlli ;
iiml is paved and liKhleil by ^as. The chnrili, a
spacious sirm'liire, uashiiili in I71MI. The Frieinls,
Indepeiidi'iils, I'ri'sbyieriaiiH, \Vi"»li'yans, llapti-ii,
I nil/i.'imiH l/iiakers, and Koniaii lalholics have
clia|iels. Thi're is a blue coal ncIiooI, fniiniled in
I7ili>, and indnwed with NO/, a vear; which was
iiiciirponiled with a nalioiial seliool in |N|7, A
fi'ci'Kl'iiminiir m lioni, nmc in liiub reinile, Iiiin Ih-cii
jiiveii up fnr many years. The niarkel is held mi
rhnrsilay, ihe aiiiuiiil fairs nn .Ian. ■.'2, March ."i,
April II, May ■.'«. ■Iiiiie |K, .Inly li, Aiiuiisl l;i, Sep-
tcniber 10, Oclolier h and ;I0, and heceinber 17,
The place is in a tloiirishiii^ stale, from its niiiin'-
roiis lairs and larn'c weekly markels. all very well
allemted, a.id causing an exleiisive relail Irade,
^really increiiNed by two lines of railway which
place II in conncclliiii with Lomlnn, Tlu'OxInnl
and lliriiiili);'liani Canal passes clnse In ihe town,
and K'vcs it also a considerable carryiii;; Inidc.
Cheese of a siiiH'rior .|iialily is made in' Ihe nei;;h •
bonrbood; ami Ihe lown has lon|{ been not ci I for
a sort of cake that bears its name.
Siibs<'i|iient to the Municipal Itefonn Act llin
limits of ihe bor. have been exlended, for the pur-
poses of liM'al Ko^'i'rnmcnt, so as to include ilio
whole town of Itanbiiry, and llii' suburbs of Nciib-
ro|i, (!althor|ie, and SVaierloo, which are coiili-
iniatioiis of It; the former at Ihe .N\V. end; ibe
latteron the opposite bank of Ibe river, which Hows
N. and ^. alon;; Ihe K. side of Ihe town, wilh the
canal ruiiiiliif^ nearly parallel to it. It was origi-
nally iiicorporali'il under a charier in 1st of Mary,
granted expressly fur Ihe whole parish; but, ihe
bor. came subsei|ueiitly to be ii-<lricled to a part
only of the town. Another cluuler was obtaiiicil
ill lilh .lames I. ; and a third, in lib (ieo. I., which
was the ppverniiiK charter: under it, the corpora-
lion consisted of n innvor, twelve aldermen, six
capital biirp'sses, and liiirty assistants. It was a
close, self-elective body, with no freemen, and
lllled uyt vacancies for life, cither from residents or
non-residents. They possessed the exclusive pri-
vilej^e of returnintjC one mem. to the II. of (!. ; but
of this they were, deprived by the lieform ,\ct,
which opened the franchise to 10/, householderH
resident wilhiii the limits of the par., wliicli con-
taiiiH !<,lo0 acres. The ixipiilatioii of the i)arlia-
mentary horoiif^h was 10,2i(i in IKIil; re>;isleri'il
electors .581, Acourtof sessions is hehl twice a year.
There is also a court of record, wliich had fallen
into disuse, but has recently been revived and niado
ell'ective. The lighting, paving, and police are
managed by commissioner.s, of whom the corpora-
tion form a portion. Amount assessed to property
tax Ul,;iUH in iMIil. Banbury is the central town
of a union of tliirty-cight parishes, and has u
M
'!2*-^
lil
f utli
il
lEil
-348
BANCA
!'! f
Iii''t
t* r *\**i*
:ii
iiiiinu workliouHC. There m a (^lialybcntn spriiiK
nenrtlic town; nnd oiii.'roiicli Hill, 1 m. W. of it,
is a circular piitrcnclinu-iit, the Hite of an ciicamp-
in>:iit of the ])arliaincnt.ary army in IG'15, undur
(Sir William Waller,
HANHLV, an island of the K. or Tndinn Archi-
liclap), (irst or W. division, lyinj; tdf the NIC.
«'(iast of Sumatrn, between Int. 1°J{0' and '.i° H' S.,
liinfr l(l.")0;r, l()(;ool' K.-, IcnfrthXW. to SK. i;i5
ni., averane breadth 35 m, I'oj), ir),tiO;j in 18tH.
Its most remarkable feature is its mines of tin, a
mineral found in its c<mnnon state of oxi(L>, in
the alluvial soil between the primary granitic
mountains and a range of red inmstone, of infe-
rior elevation, in its NW. quarter, hut which is
also prevalent in other parts. About 4,(100 tons
• «if tin are annually exported, mainly to China and
Java. The inhabit'jnts are principally of two
races, one residing on the shores, the other in the
interior, with Malays and Chinese: the latter are
the workers of the mines. I'renously to J812
this ishnul belonged to the sultan of I'alembang,
in Sumatra; it was then ceded to the K. I. Com-
pany; and in 181G was transferred to the Dutch.
HAXCALF.AN, a town H the W. end of the
island of Madura, 10. archipelago; lat. 7° 2' S.,
long. 112° 15' K. It is large and populous, con-
tains the residence of the sultan of the island,
and a fort close to the palace. Its environs are
])Ieasanl, having good roads, interspersed with
country seats and pleasure grounds.
IJANDA, an inland town of Ilindostan, prov.
Allahabad, cap. of the distr. of S. Uundlccund, on
the right bank of the Cane river, 80 m. W. Alla-
luibad; lat. 25° oO' N., long. 80° 20' E. A few
years ago it was a njere village, but lias now be-
come a considerable town ; its cotton has of late
Years obtained a superiority over that of Joloun
in the European market.
Banua or Nutmeg Isi.^vnds, a group of 12
Hmall islands, Iielonging to the third or E. division
<(f the E. Archipelago (see the art.), belonging to
the Dutch ; the principal, Banda Neira, lying in
40 30' S. lat., and 130° E. h)ng., 120 m. ESE. Am-
hoyna. LantoiT; the largest of the islands, is onlj'
S m. long, and 5 broad. Pop. of the whole group
estimated at 110,000, rriost of whom are slaves.
The isles are all high, and of volcanic origin ; one
of them, Goonung Api, contains a volcano, 2,000
ft. above the sea, wliich is continually emitting
Hmoke, and sometimes dame. Climate injtirious to
Htrangers : the W. monsoon brings rain and storms
in December, and earthquakes occur from October
to April. The soil is chietly a rich black mould.
Four of the larger and central islands are almost
entirely app'opriated to the growth of nutmegs,
their growth in the other islands being prohibited.
The nutmeg-tree grows to the size of the pear-
tree; it yields fruit from the 12th U> the 20th year,
and perishes at 24 years old. About two-thirds of
the trees planted are -barren ; the produce of the
rest is said to be about 10 lbs. each annually. The
l)roduce may be about 100,000 lbs. of nutmegs, and
30,000 lbs. mace. These islands are divided into a
number of parks or plantations, each with a certain
number of slaves. The people consist mostly of
Papuan negroes, Chinese, and Dutch. Sago forms
the chief vegetable food, but the cocoa also con-
tributes a part : the seas abound with tish. The
imports are various provisions for the Europeans,
piece-goods, cutlery, and iron, from fiatavia ; sago,
salted deer, &c., from Ceram ; pearls, bird's nests,
tortoiseshell, and slaves, for the Chinese and Dutch
merchants from Arooe. The chief export is nut-
megs. The seat of government is at Banda Neira,
which is fortified, and has a good harbour. A
Portuguese, named Autonio Abrcus, discovered
BANDON'
these Wands in 1512. In 1524 the Portugucnc in
15i»'J the Dutch, and in 1810 the English, suc-
cessively possessed themselves of them. In \H\i
they returned under the dominion of the Diiidi.
BA.dDON, a river of Ireland, anciently enlhd
(llasheen, has its source in the Carberry" nitmn-
tnins, or 10 m. W. Bantry. From Duumanwiiv,
Avhere its main branches uiiite, it Hows nearly \\',
to Bandon; it then winds NE. to Inuis-Shaminii,
whence it pursues a .SIC. course to the sea, witii
which it unites a little below Kinsale, built on its
estuary. Its course is wludly in the co. Cork. It
is described by .Spencer, as
' The pleasant Bandon crown'd by many a wood.'
But most part of the timber that ornamented tlie
country in the days of IClizabcHi has been cut
down, and its |)lacc is but very indift"erently »iii>-
plied by modern plantations,
Bandon, or Banuonukidoe, an inl. town of
Ireland, ro. Cork, prov. Munster, <m th" 'London,
14 m. .SVy. Cork. It was foinidecl in the . egiiHiin;;
of the reign of James I., and having (jbtaiiiwl h
charter from that monarch, conferring several
valuable privileges, it increased so rapidly ji-
jiopulation and wealth, that, on the breaking om
of the war of 1041, it maintained four companies
of foot and a corps of volunteers; and was the
principal garrison of the English in these parts.
On Cromwell's approach, in 1040, it declared lor
the j)arl., and in the war of 1688 the inliah. ex-
pelled the troops of James II., and declared for the
Prince <)f Orange. Pop. 6,243 in 18G1, the great
majority of them Koman Catholics. The town Ls
situate(l on the declivities of the hills on each
side the river, which blend into a richly woddcd
valley, and consists of three partfl, ilLstingnished
by the estates on which they are built ; the old
town being on that of the Duke of Devonshire, the
Irish town on that of the Earl of Shannon, and the
western jiortion on those of the Earls of Ikndon
and Cork. It is watched, and lighted with gas,
under the General Municipal Police Act. I' has
two parish churches, two Kom. Cath. chapels, a
convent, a meeting-house for Presbyterians, and
two for Methodists ; a classical school, endowed by
the Duke of Devonshire ; a school for general in-
struction, on the foundation of Erasmus Smith,
and several others maintained by private contri-
butions or by religious associations. It has also an
intirmary, fever hospital, and dispensary j three
public libraries, and twt) reading-rooms, .isscra-
blies and concerts are held in a suite of apartments
attached to one of the hotels. Large barracks are
built on the hill over the town, and the constabu-
lary have here a station.
By charter, dated in 1614, the municipal govern-
ment is vested in a provost, 12 burgesses, and
an unlimited number of freemen, elected at the
hundred conrt by the general body of frccnien.
who also elect a common council of 12 out of their
own body for life. The nicome of the borough, in
1863, was 1,193/., and the property and income-
tax, for the year ended 5th April, 1863, amounted
to 866/, The bor. sent two mem. to the Irish H.
of C, and now sends one to the imperial H. of C.
The franchise is vested in const. 10/. householders,
and 8/. rated occupiers ; registered electors 216 in
18(!4. General sessions of the peace for the W.
riding of the co. are held here in October in tlic
court-house, a neat building, with a well-arranpal
bridewell. Petty sessions take place on Monday?,
at which, through the courtesy of the corporation,
the CO. magistrates sit with the provost. Courts,
holding pleas under 2/., are held every three weeks
for the manors of the Duke of Devonsliire, the
Earl of Bandon, and the Earl of Shannon.
Portiijjiifnp, in
; iCngUwli, siic-
tliom. In IMH
of the Dm eh.
Hickntly callcil
yurberry iiidun-
m DuiiiTiiinwiiv,
rtowK nearly \V.
Inius-Slmnniiii,
M the Hca, with
sale, built on its
he CO. Corlt. It
many a woo<l.'
, ornamented thn
th has been cut
luUft'erently 8iip-
an inl. town uf
on th'' '^anilon,
1 in the . ej:;illllill^'
avinR obtained ii
mferring tievcral
1(1 so rapidly ir
tiie breaking out
d four companies
!r8*, and was the
■th in these parts.
49, it declared fur
88 the inhali. ex-
id declared for the
in 18G1, the great
lies. The town w
the hills on each
a richly woodcil
art«, distinguished
are built ; the old
of Devonshire, the
f Shannon, and the
,e Earls of liandon
1 lighted with gas,
L»olice Act. I' has
. Cath. chapels, a
i'resbyterians, and
school, endowed hy
lool for general in-
)f Erasmus Sniilli,
by private contri-
ons. It has also an
dispensary i three
.g-rooms. .issem-
suite of apartments
Large barraclts are
and the constabu-
• municipal govem-
12 burgesses, and
len, elected at tiic
body of freemen,
jilof 12 out of (heir
■ of the borough, in
iperty and income-
ril, 18t)3) amounted
sm. to the Irish H.
e imperial H. of-'.
t. 10/. householders,
ired electors 216 m
peace
for the W.
~ in October in the
ith a well-arraiip«l
; place on Mondays,
of the corporation,
. provost. Courts,
■I every three weeks
lof Devonsliire, tlie
If Shannon.
BANEllKS
The woollen manufacture was carried on hero to I
a considerable extent, and was siu'ceoded by tliat
of cotton : both are nearly extinct; but a nianu-
fai'ture of tino stuffs has been lately undertaken.
Here are several distilleries, breweries, and tan-
vards, and large tlour-raills. Tlio connnercial and
trading activity of the town has greatly increased
since the opening of the Cork and nand(m Huilway,
wliich places the town in direct communication
with the whole system »>f Irish railwavs. The tirst
nirtion (if this line, from liandon to liallinhassig,
9J mile.s was opened in August, 18-10, and the re-
mainder in December, 1851. The Haiulon is
navigal)le for small craft to Collier's (juay, within
4 ro. of the town, by which grain, Hour, and other
produ(!c, is sent out, and timl)er, coal, wine, and
irroccries, received in return; but the domestic
consumption is chiefly supplied from Cork, to whi(d»
mucli oj the agricultural produce of the neighbour-
h(«Hl is sent by railway. Markets are lield on
Wednesdays and Saturdays ; and fairs on May 6,
the Thursday before l-^aster-day, Oct. 2i», and
Xov. 8. A branch of the Provincial bank was
(i|)cncd in 1834, and the Bank of Ireland has also
a branch. The town is on the mail-coach road
from Cork to Hantry, but the coaches have ceased
running since the opening of the railway.
IJANHKES, a town of Spain, in Valencia, 28
m. NNVV. Alicant. Fop. 2,1!)() in 18.57. It has
tilatures of wool, distilleries, and paper mills.
IJAXFF, a mar. co. of Scotland, having N. the
Moray Frith, S. and E. the county of Aberdeen,
and W. Elgin and Inverness. Its length, from
lien Macdhu to Portsoy, is about 5C m., but its
average breadth does not exceed 12 m. Area ()8G
sq. m., or 430,219 acres. Along the coast the sur-
face is pretty level, and the soil, consisting of a
sandy loara,'i8 in many places well cultivateil, and
produces early and excellent crop.s. But, with
this exception, the surface is mostly nigged and
mountainous, with a few valleys interspersed.
Oatd is the principal crop ; but the main (le|ien-
dence of tlie farmers is on their cattle, sheep being,
in this county, comparatively scarce. Property in
a very few hands ; tillage farms mostly small ;
and agriculture, thougli in parts much improved,
^fencrally backward. There are some thriving
plantations, particularly in the vicinity of Gor-
don Castle, the most magnificent seat in the N. of
Scotland. It is partly separated from Elgin by
the Spey, on which there are several productive
salmon fisheries. (See Si'EY.) Minerals of little
importance; but the crystals and topazes, com-
monly called cairngorms, are found in the moun-
tains. Manufactures inconsiderable. Banff con-
tains 24 parishes, and had, in 1861, a population of
<59,2ld, in 11,091 inhabited houses. It returns one
member to the H. of C. for the co. ; and the burghs
of Banff and CuUen unite with Elgin and others
in returning a member. The jmrl. constituency
in 1864 was 1,062. The old valued rent was
e,600/.; the new valuation for 1864-5 was 182,885/.
Banff (commonly pronounced, and sometimes
written Bamff), a royal burgh of Scotland, cap. of
the above co., on the W. bank of the Doveron,
near the entrance of that river into the Moray
Frith. Pop. 6,781 in 1861, with 1,181 inhabited
houses. The town may be said to consist of two
parts, completely separated ; of which the one is
inland, and lies on a plain on the river side ; the
other (called the sea-town) stands on an elevation
which terminates abniptly near the sea, by which
it is bounded. The castle of Banff stands on a
piece of table-land between these two places. The
name of the town, which is found to have assumed
different forms at different times — Baineffe, Boi-
neffe, Bainffe, &c. — is supposed to have been de-
BANFF
319
rived from the word Boyno, tho namo of the
district in which Banff is sifiuited. A stream
named B<)yn(! trnvrrscs the district, and the parisji
of Biivndie is contiguous. The privileges of a
royal iiurgli were conferred on Hanff by KolM>rt II.
in 1372, and were afterwards successively conlirmed
by James VI. and Charles II. The streets, tho,igh
com|)o.sed of hou.ses of unei|ual size, are generally
straight, and not deficient in width. Witiiin tlio
last few years, many of the (ddor liou.ses have born
])ulled down and replaced by others, so that there
18 scarcely a building now remaining to indicate
the nnti(piity of the town. The str«icts were paved
so early as 1551. The Carmelites (an order of
friars, so called from Mount Carmel in Syria), or
White Friars, had a convent in Banff, but at wliat
precise period it was instituted cannot be ascer-
tained. (S|H)ttiswood's Heligiotis IIouse.s, p. 16.)
Of the building no vestiges can now be traced,
with the exception of some scattered arches niicl
vaults ; nor is its original extent, or exact po.sition,
known. Of the castle of Bantl', alluded to above,
nothing remains but the out(^r wall and the fos.se.
It was a constabulary, or lodging for the king when
visiting this part of his (himinions; and, in his
abseiux', it was inhabited by the thane or con-
stable who administered justice in his name. It
was essentially royal property, and continued so
till the middle of the fifteenth century, when .James
Stuart, Earl of Buchan, brother of James II., was
created heritable thane, the castle of Banff' being
at the same time bestowed on him, as the otiieial
messuage of his family. Banff' gave the title of
peer to a branch of the family of Ogilvie, which
became extinct in 1803, on the death of the eighth
Lord Baiiff witi;out male issue. BantT does not
make a great figure in history. The Duke of
Montrose plundered it in 1645, • no merchant's
goods or gear,' accord'ng to S|)alding, ' being left.'
The Duke of Cumberl.Mul's troops passed through
the town in 1746, on their way to Culloden. They
destroyed the episcopal chapel, and hanged a man,
erroneously thinking hin; a spy. The names of
two persoiLS, eminent in very different walks of
life, are connected with Banff. The famous James
Sharji, who was originally a keen supporter of
presbytery, and who, having betrayef' that faith,
rose to the archiepiscopal see of St. Andrew's, was
a native of Banff, his father being sheriff-clerk of
the county. He was assas,sinated on Magus Muir,
near St. Andrews, in 1679. James Macpherson,
having followed the lawless and predatory life of
a gipsy, was apprehended (1700), tried, and con-
demned to be hanged at Banff. While he was a
votary of the Muses, he was a proficient as a player
on the violin ; and when brought to the place of
execution, he carried his instrument along with
him, and played his own march, which had been
comiM)sed by himself while in prison. This com-
position was published after his death, and has
ever since been a favourite in Scotland. Bums
wrote a new and im proved version of the song,
which is known under the name of Macphersori's
Lament, or Macpherson'a Farewell,
The trade of Banff is not very considerable. Its
harbour, though it can boast of a low-water pier,
constructed in 1816, is not so ample, so convenient,
or secure, as that of Macduff, a borough of barony
situated on the opposite side of the Doveron, at
the distance of about a mile. The entries of ship-
ping into the port consisted, in the year 1863, of
394 British vessels, of an aggregate burden of
23,849 tons, and 85 foreign vessels, of 5,538 tons
burden. The exports consist chiefly of grain,
cattle, salmon, herring, and cured pork. They
are mostly sent to London, and annually amount
to a considerable sum. The herring fishery on the
350
HANG
ii > lit r
vnnot hns not of Into yearn Ix^cn so pnidiictivp ns
forniprly. A (ircnilaiul wlinlc lislicn- co., formod
in IH1!I, and a (lircnd and stockini^ maniifactorv,
«>staliliHlu'd tit'ty years a),'o, have hvvu discoiitiniicd,
Haiift' lias no niannfacturrs, ('xcc'])t a lirt'wcry, an
iron-foiindr\', a distillery, and a small niannfactorj'
of ropes and sails. There are font branch hanking
estahlislimonts, with numerous insnrimce otliees.
The annual value of real property, m IHtU-r),
amounted to H,()(i(>/. A weekly market is held on
J'Viilay. and there are four annual fairs.
The public buildings are the town-house, built
in I79H, with a spire 100 ft. hi^'h, the jail, the
parish-church and the Kelief, Free, K))isr<ipal, and
Independent churclu'S. The Wesleyan Metho-
dists have also a small chapel, (ias was intro-
<lu('e<l in IH.'tl. A prammar-school was founded
in JJanft" so early as the year IM-i, It has, also,
an aeadcmv, founded in l7St>, at which nU the
branches ol* a learned and liberal education are
taught; a commercial school, and a charity school
founded by funds lefY. (in I HOI) by Alexander
I'irie, merchant in Hantt". TIutc are several semi-
naries for younfj ladies, and an educational insti-
tution, foiuided by a le^'acy left by the late .Tnnies
Wilson, of the islaiul of (in>nada. Several libraries
of considerable extent and value belonj; to dif-
ferent societies. Various sums have been left in
mortmain for charitable ])urposes; and a legal
assessment for the jioor is unknown.
Itnntf unites with KIpn, Cullen, Invemry, Kin-
tore, and Peterhead, in sending a member to the
House of Commons. Macduff, which is rapidly
rising to im])ortance, chietly owing to the excel-
lence of its harbour, has, since the ])assing of the
]{eform Hill, been united to Hanff in forming one
]iarliamentary burgh, the joint constituency in
1H(>4, being 2.11, of which the municipal 138.
There is a splendid bridge of seven arches over
I )overon, which connects the two towns in ques-
tion. It is governed by a provost, two bailies,
and nine councillors, Tiic corporation revenue in
lX(;;j_4 was 1,110.
ILVNO, an inl. town of Hiiulostan, prov. Mal-
wah, dom. of Scindia; at the contluence of two
tributaries of the Ncrbudda river, on the chief
road through (Jiijerat and Malwah ; 82 m. 8\V.
Oozcin, and 115 m. NK. Surat. Iron ore is fused
here, and before the present century the town
contained 2,000 houses ; at present this number is
much reduced. Bang is noted for some remark-
able cave temples of linddhic origin, excavated in
a range of low sandstone and claystone hills, about
'6\ m. S. of the town. Four caves exist ; the most
northerly of which is the most perfect, and is
reached by a flight of seventy rudely formed stone
steps, terminating in a platform overhung by the
hill, which hns once evidently been formed into a
regular verandah supjiorted by columns; and at
either end of which there is a small apartment,
containing some ill-car\-ed figures of modem work-
manship, and one of them a bad representation of
the Hindoo Ganesa. The cave within this vesti-
bule is entered by a rectangulnr doorwny in a
plastered and ornamented wall, and is a grand
and gloomy apartment 84 ft. square and 14^ ft. in
height ; the roof, which ij flat, and has been once
ornamented with paintings; is supported by four
ranges of massy columns. Around this apartment,
1)11 three sides, are a number of small cells, 9 ft. in
depth, as well as several niches, in which have
been carved, in bold relief, some draped male and
female figures : from one of the cells on the left
hand yoii enter, through narrow excavations, five
other similar cells, ench in a plnne elevated nbove
the former, ascending through the hill. At the
farther end of the principal cave is an oblong
IJANO-KOK
recess supported by two hexagonal cohimii'),
through the centre of which a small tloonvny loniN
to an inner apartment, where the tlni/op, or ' clMini,'
supposed to contain a ISuddhic relic, is s(>(>ii, ciu
out of the rock, with the jilain dome forniiii|f; it.i
summit, reaching nearly to the roof, to whicli it Is
joined by n small square ornament. The scciiml
and fourth caves of Hang contain little wcirtli
notice; but the third is nearly as Inrge, ami lias
been somewhat similar in its arrangement to tlii>
first. The whole of the walls, roof, and cnliimiH
have been covered with a fine stucco, nnd unm-
mentcd with paintings in disteinner of consiilcr-
nblc taste and elegance. It contains the <lu<ioji in
its inner apartment ; but wants the recess, ami
carved scidptures mentioned in the first cave, Ii
is considerably dilapidated, and a fifth cave is sn
much so at its entrance as to be at jircseiit inac-
cessible. (iJangerlleldin Bombav Trans., ii. I'Jl-
201.)
HANOAI.ORE, an iidnnd fortified town ofUlv-
sore, S. Hindustan; Int. 12° ")"' N., long. 77° .'is'
K.. (iOm. NK. Scringapatam. I'op. estiniatcil al
about 70,(tOO. The town is built on a table-lniul,
neiirly '$,000 feet above the sea, and is so salu-
brious that Europeans often resort thither for tin-
benefit of their health. The thermometer seldinn
rises above 82°, or sinks below HCfl Falir. Tlic
monsoons have their force broken by the (Jhaiili;
but this table-land is constantly reft-eshed by gcni.il
showers. The vine and Cyprus grow luxuriaiitlv,
nnd apples, peaches, and strawberries are raised in
the gardens. The town is enclosed with (iimlilc
walls ; but the chief fortress, which contained tlio
palace of Tippoo Saib, is quite detached from the
other, and is built in a solid manner, with a (lo('|i
ditch and spacious glacis. The palace, though df
mud, built in the Saracenic style, is still a striking'
building, and is used by the present rajah forpuMi.'
entertainments. There are good barracks, nsspni-
bly and reading-rooms, I'^uropcan shops, A-c. TIki
houses are large, some being of two stories, built of
red earth, and roofed with tiles ; the chief ba/aar is
wide, regular, and ornamented with rows of oncda-
nut trees. Most of the inhabitants are Iliiuldns.
Silk and cotton are the chief manufactures; tlu'
former, which is very strong, is made from raw
silk imported, none being produced in the noi^'li-
bourhood. Bangalore was founded by llydor Ali,
on the site of a small village ; and under liim it
became a place of much importance. It was taken
by Lord Comwnllis in 1701.
BAN(;-KOK, or BANKOK, a city of Siani,
hnving been the cnp. of the kingdom, the resi-
dence of the sovereign, and setu of government
since the destniction of Yuthin by the Rumipsc in
17*i(>. It stands on a swampy tract on both sides cf
the Menam, lat. 13° 40' N., long. 101° 10' K., loni.
N. from the Gulf of Siam. Pop. estimated at tVoni
200,000 to .800,000. The :Mennm is here -J m. wi.le.
exchisive of the large space on each side, oorn-
pied by floating houses, and from 5 to 10 fatlKmis
deep : there is a bar of soft mud at its mouth, luit
vessels of from 200 to 250 tons burden may always
rench Bang-kok without difficulty. The tratlic
nbove this city is trifling, though, from the want
of roads, all the intercourse is by water. l!iin;'-
kok consists of three parts ; the palace, the tdwii,
and the floating town. The first, built on an
island, is of nn oblong shape, surrounded by :i
brick wall of considerable height in some parts,
nnd furnished with some indifferent bastions and
many gates ; it contains, besides the residences nf
the king and his chief officers, many tc'ni|)ies,
gardens, inferior shops, nnd much waste <;nwml.
The town without stretches for some distance
along the banks of the river, but a very little way
DANOOR
3.)l
iRonnl poliimni!.
nil (Ifwinviiy loniW
liKjop, iiv ' clmrn.'
rrlic, is "cell, cut
(lonip fomiiiif; its
nof, tt) whii'li it \*
I'lit. Tlifi scciniil
tain little wurtli
n« Inrijp, niid lias
riMifjf'tni'iit to tlic
■oot', nnd ctiliimiH
stiuTo, mill (inia-
iniuT iif ftmsiilcr-
tiuiis the r/(/;/()// in
t) tlip recess, ami
the first enve. It
1 a lit'th enve is s(i
ic nt (ireseiit iiinc-
lay Trans., ii. I'.U-
rtified town of Mv-
r' N., lonK. 77° W
Pop. estiiniiti'il 111
ilt on n tnlile-lanil,
ea, and is so salii-
sort thither for ttio
iiemiojneter selilmii
)W r)Ci° Fnhr. '\\w
[en hy the (lhaiit<;
iT refreshed I (Viieiiial
IS prow luxiiriaiitlv,
■berries are raiscil m
icloscd with (Imilile
which contained the
• detached from tlip
nanner, with a deep
lie palace, thouiili of
vie, is still a strikiii;;
'csentrajnhforiiulili.'
ood barracks, asscni-
iiean shops, ic. Tin'
f two stories, built of
Is ; the chief bazaar is
I with rows of cncna-
[bitants are llindons.
i mannfactiires; tlii'
is made from raw
fodnced in the nei^'li-
luuded by llyder All
and under him it
irtancc. It was taken
)K, a city of Siam,
kinsdom, the resi-
seat of governraeiit
lia bv the Burmese in
I tract on both sidpsuf
Ing. 101° 10' E., loni,
lop. estimated at fnini
lam is here \ m. wiilc
b on each side, occu-
Srom .5 to 10 fatlmni'
iind at its mouth, lim
lis burden may alwavs
Itticultv. The tratlic
loufjh. from the want
lis by water, lian;.'-
Ithe palace, the tdwn,
lie first, built m an
Ipe, suiToiinded liy a
leisht in some part:".
lifferent bastions and
lides thcrpsidfncos"f
leers, many tomplf^.
Imuch w.istc f:r<'"wi-
Is for some di>tamc
Ibut a very little wy
inland. The houses, most of which are of wood,
(If mere huts of palm leaf, are built on ^xmis
driven info the mud, being emli providid with a
liciat. Tiie llonting town consists of a number of
liftmi««> '■«•''•''• •>eHring rows of eight or ten houses,
with a plntl'orm in front, on which the wares for
sale are ex|H>sed ; and most of the trade is thus
nmchicted on tlic river, where it. is believed that
half tlie )>oii. reside. There are mnny temples, all
iifwhicii are built in a pyramidal form, with much
L'ildiiig and paltry decorations: each contains n
ci>|>>s.sid gilded metal statue of Kiiddha, and a
varietv of others in clay or wood. The chief tem-
pi,., (ir Ka-cheli-tap-pou, which is '200 ft. in height,
iniitnins as many as l,.")00 of these images. The
iiahu'c possesses a really hnudsome andience-hnll,
XII It. long hy '0 ft, broad, and 30 ft. in height,
iiaiiited and gilded, and furnished with English
ciit-glass lustres: it is surrounded by three difter-
ciit walls, and is built of brick ; of which, or of
mild, the palaces, temples, and a few of the chief
n'sidences only are constructed. Hang-kok has
iMiiiinfactnres of tin and iron articles, and leather
I'lir matfrasses. Its trade is ])robal)ly more ex-
tensive than that of any other emporium in the
I!,. Canton excepted, not occupied by Euro|)enns.
'file shipping of Hang-kok consisted, in IHtKt, of
i-ixlv-four vessels, of an aggregate burthen of
•J l,.'il".t tons, nearly the whole of them built within
the two years I«o8-C0. Twelve of them are royal
]irii|)crty", the rest belong to C'hinese merchant,s.
Ciimincrcial intercourse is principally carried on
with China and the Malay nrchi|>elago, but mostly
with the former. The great articles of export are
siifjar (from 10,000 to 12,000 tons), black pepper
(4.0(10 to 5,000 tons), stick-lac, ivory, sapan wood,
iindhides. The trade with China employs alxmt i;JO
Chinese junks yearly, some of 1,000 tons burden.
The imports are porcelain, tea, quicksilver, lack-
soy, dried fruits, silks, fans, and other native
miumfactures from China ; with camphor, edible
Inrda' iiest.s, and other articles for the Chinese
market from the Malay archipelago ; and British
and Indian piece goods, opium, and British wool-
lens, and glass from India. Half the pop. consists
(if Chiiie.se; and besides them there arc numerous
Rirmnu, Pegiian, Laoan, Cambojnn, Tavoyan, and
llalay foreigners ; some Christians of Portuguese
descent ; and a few Brahmins, who are supported
by the king, and have a small temple of their own.
(Crawfurd's Embassy to iSiam ; Finlayson's INIis-
siiiii; Report bv Mr. Knox, Acting Consul at
l)ang-kok, 18(i00
B.\NGOK, a citj', sea-port and par. N. Wales,
en. Camnr\'on, hund. Isgorvac, on the Holyhead
rnad, at the head of Beaumaris Bay, about 2 m.
from the Menai Bridge, and 2il8 m. XW. London,
by the London and North-Western railway. It
consists chiefly of one principal street, stretching
E. and W. through a romantic vale, bounded on
the S. by high precipitous rocks, on the N. by a
more gradual acclivity, and opening on the E.
over a splendid and extensive prospect, including
the rockv shores of Anglesea and the town of
llcaiiniaris. It has been mostly rebuilt, and other-
wise very much improved, within the last few
yeiirs. Pop. of pari. Iwrough, 6,738 in 18(il ; of
liarish 10,662. The population, which amounted
to 6,338 in IS.'il, is but slightly increasing. The
number of inhabited houses within the borough
was 1,336 in 1861, and 1,228 in 1851. The cathe-
dral is an embattled cruciform structure, having a
low massive tower crowned with pinnacles. It
stands in a spacious area, with a line avenue, and
has a verj' pleasing effect, from its situation and
the just proportion and simiilicity of its architec-
ture ; near it ore .some old endowed almhouses for
6 poor persons, and an endowed (tpp school for 100
Intys, built in recent times on the site of an ancient
friary; it was founded in Eli/.alx'th's reign, audits
revenue is upwards of 2.">0/. a year. There are also
4 national .scho(ds in the parish; 2 in the town
for 8(10 boys and girls ; 1 at Vaeiud for 7."), and I
at Pentir for )!(l. The Baptists, Independents,
Calvinistic and Wesleyan Methodists have each ii
chapel; there is a town-hall and shambles in the
centre of the town, and near it, on the Lomlon
road, is the Carnarvon and Anglesea tlispensary.
The market is held on Fridays : during the sum-
mer on Tuesdays also. There are -t fairs, April 5,
.lime 2.5, Sept. 16, Oct. 28; besides which 4 large
fiyrs for cattle (called ' booth fairs') arc held at
the Meiini Bridge (which is in this parish, and
about 2 m. S\V. Bangor), Aug. 26, Sept. 26. Oct,
24, Nov. 14. They arc the most frequented of
any in N. Wales. It is accessible to vessels of
2(t() to 3(t0 tons, which may enter the buy nt any
time of the tide ; the trade, however, is compara-
tively insignilicant, and is confined to the import
of coals and other necessaries. By the lieforni
Act, Bangor was c<»nstituted one of six contri-
butory boroughs, which conjointly send one mem.
to the II. of C. ; the Imilitls of Carnarvon being
returning officers. There are in Bangor about I1I.5
houses of 10/. and upwards. It has been the seat
of a bishoi)ric from the remotest period. The s(!o
comprises the cos. of Anglesea and Carnarvon
(except four parishes), about half Merioneth, one
deanery in Denbigh, and .seven parishes in Mont-
gomery : in all 17!) par. The income of the bishop
averages 4,000/. per annum. The church is used
both for cathedral and parish services ; the former
in English, the latter in Welsh. The living is
a cons(didated vicarage belonging to the vicars
choral, the church of the township of Pentir being
annexed to it as a chapel of ease. There is an
episcopal residence and a deanery. The famous
controversy lietween Drs. Hoadley and Sherlock
took its name from this see ; the former being its
bishop from a.d. 1715 to 1721, when, on being
translated to Salisbury, the latter succeeded him.
The neighbourhood is for the most part unen-
closed, and everywhere jiresents scenery of sur-
])assing interest, having the Snowdou range on
the S., and Penmanmaur on the E., and the Menai
Strait and bridges immediately contiguous to the
town. The ojiening of an important line of rail-
way, and the construction of the Menai Bridge,
have rendered Bangor a great thoroughfare, ami
made it be resorted to in summer by crowds of
visitors. When Dr. Johnson visited the city in
1774, with Mr. and Mrs. Thralc, he complained
that they found ' a very mean inn, and had some
difliculty of obtaining lodging. I lay in a room
where the other bed had two men.' But modern
travellers need fear no such difficulties since the
opening of the railway. The line from Bangor to
Carnarvon, 7 J miles long, forms ])art of the Chester
and Holyhead railway, and was amalgamated with
the 'Londcm and North- Western ' railway in
March, 1859.
Bangoh, a marit. town of Ireland, co. Down,
prov. Ulster, on the S. shore of (Jarrickfergus Bav,
12 m. ENE. Belfast. Pop. in 1821, 2,1)43 ; in 1831,
2,741; in 1861, 2,525, of whom 1,012 males and
1,513 females. The returns of 1861 showed 677
of the inhabitants belonging to the Established
Church; 149 Roman Catholics, and 1,566 Presby-
terians. The town took the name of Bangor,
Beanehoir, or ' the White Choir,' from a celebrated
moiuistery which, about the year 820, was de-
stroyed by the Danes, when upwards of 900
monks are said to have been massacred. It is
much frequented as a sea-bathing place. The
'^^
352
JIANO-PA-SOE
\M
|iiil)lio liuil(liii>;H MO a vhurvh, two Prosbytorian,
niid two MclluNlist mFPtinK-l>«i>H('H, nnil a inarkpl-
lidiisc: llipro iH aim) a (liniM'tmarv, niciidicity in-
nliliilioii, Kaviii^M' hank, and puliiic liltrarv. It in
a conHtnliuIary and coaKt-f^nard Hiation. 'riio por-
IHiration, lUKlcr tlip eharlpr of Ktl.M, (UMiHislH of a
{inivoHt and twplvp frpp I)ui>jp(<»ph. It rptunipd two
inpmlKTM to tliP Irinh Il.of ('. till tlip I'nion, whpii
it waN (liMfranpliiHcd. A pourt Ippt iH lipid oiipc a
ypar, and a manor court, with jiiri.sdi(!tion to tlip
amount of 20/., pvprj- tlin'c wppks, and pptty hph-
MouH every fortnight. There arc two cotton fae-
toriPH; linen ii* alxo made for home eonHumption.
The linhpry Ih carried on to xomo extent, and in
the neif^hbonring villngo of Gn>om(tp«irt, where
the Duke of Schorobcr^'s army landed in ItiHO,
larfTC oystcrH are taken in abundance. Marketti
are, held on Tucwiays; fairs on Jan. 12, May 1,
Au^, I, and Nov. 22.
HAN'G-I'A-SOK, a considerable town of Siam,
cap. of a distr. on the left bimk of the Banfi-im-
kun^ river, near its mouth, .'(!) m. ESK. Ilanj^kok;
lat. 13° 30' N„ h.nR. 101° 11' K. It is iiopul.nm.
has a wooden stockade, and is considered by the
Siamese imjiortant as a plai-e of defence against
the encroachments of the Anamese. The llauf^-
pa-kuuf; river is here little inferior in size to the
Meiuun ; it has the same depth of water on its
bar, and within it from 2i to 3 fathoms. There is
said to be a ({ood earria^p road from this town to
Tuufj-yai, a distance of uparly 20(» m. The distr.
of Ilan'g-pa-soi' is an alluvial flat, very fertile in
rice and suf;ar-cane. (Crawfurd's ^lission to
Siam, p. 41 1, 112.)
HANJAIJMASSIN, or HANDKHMASSIN, a
town and distr, on the SE. coast of Ilorneo; the
town is built on the river of the same name, in lat.
3° S., long. 114° 65' E. The district, inhabited
by a ))0|)ulation estimated at 2,000,000, is under a
native chief, but tributary to the Dutch. The
river has a shallow bar at its cntnnice, over which
even a light boat cannot float till after the lirst
quarter's tlood. Notwithstanding this, the town
enjoys a considerable trade, especially with China ;
many Chinese being settled in and near it. There
is some trade with Singapore, but it is discouraged
by the Dutch, who have a factory, forts, and go-
vernment buildings in Itanjarmassin. The im-
ports consist of opium, piece goods, coarse cutlery,
gunpowder, and fire arms. The exports are chierfy
gold, diamonds, and pcpjier ; rattans to Java, cam-
]ihor, wax, birds' nests, tripnng, spices, and steel,
of superior quality. (Earl, Eastern Seas, p. 33G-
338.)
lUNN, UPPER and LOWER, two rivers in
the N. of Ireland : the first, or Upper Ilann, rises
in the plain called the Deers or King's Meadow, in
the N. part of the Moume mountains, in Down.
I ts course, at first, is winding : but its general di-
rection is NVV. After passing Gilford and Porta-
down, it falls into Lough Neagh at Banfoot Ferry.
Near Portadoivn it is joined by the Newry Canal ;
and is thence navigable by barges to the lake.
The Lower Pann issues from Lough Beg, con-
nected on the NW. with Lough Neagh, and flow-
ing N. with a little inclination to the VV., falls
into the sea 5 m, below Coleraine. The current of
the Lower Banu is rapid ; and in some places it
is precipitated over lalges of rock. The salmon
and eel fisheries on this river are important and
valuable. It is navigable bj' boats as far as Cole-
raine, but only with difficulty.
BAN N ALEC, a town of trance, d^p. Finisterre,
cap. caut., 9 m. NW. Quimperle. Pop. 4,425 in
1861.
BANNOCKBURN, a town of Scotland, co.
Stirling, par. St. Ninian's, 3 m. SSE. Stirling, on
BAXHWARA
both sides of the small river Bannock, wliicli, afipj.
a c<iurse of a few miles, falls into the I'rjtii „(
Forth, pop. 2,t;27 in IN.')I, and '2,'2iiH h, \w,\
Number of luhabitpil houses 277 in l«l>l ; o( fumi-
lies, f>3!». The nanu- of this |)lace is inippri^luilily
associatpd with one of the most nipmoralile evontit
in British history. In its immediate vicinity, (m
the 24th of June, 1314, was fought thegrent liimlc
between the English under Edward II., mikI tli«
Scotch under Bobert Bruce, which fprminalcd in
the total defeat of the former. The loss of tlid
English, in the battle and ))ursuit, is esliniHtcij hv
the best infomu'd historians at 30,000 miih, in'.
chuling a great number of nobles, and persons (if
distinction. The loss, on the nart of the Scotch,
whose army was very inferior in respe(;t of niiin-
bers to that of the I'.nglish, di<l not pn)l)al)|y full
short of K,(KI(). This decisive victory secured tlm
permanent indeiiendenco of Scotland, and esta-
blished the family of the con(juen>r on its tlirono.
About 1 m. W. from the village, at Sniicliifi
Burn, .lames III. was defeated in 1488 by liis rc-
bpllious subjects and his son, James IV.; niid,
after being wounded in the engagement, Avas
assassinated at a mill in the vicinity.
In more recent and tranquil time's Bannockhum
has been distinguished in a verj' diflerciit di'imrt-
nient — that of manufactures. 'Various fnhrips of
wo(dlen, particularly tartans, are suct^essfuliy car-
ried on in it; and it has |iriNliiced all the iartnn
worn by the llighhind n>gimeiits in the Itritisli
army for upwards of half a century jinst, Tlu>
manufacture of tartan shawls, so generally Wdni
by females in the middle and lower ranks in .Scot-
land, was long confined to it, and they are lifiicc
known by the name of Bannockbimi shawls, (.'iir-
jiets, particularly Brussels, and heartli-nigs, arc
produced here to a considerable extent; and of all
these no small portion is sent to the English mar-
ket. The manufacture of Tweedn, or coarse An\»\
woollen cloth for trowsers and plaids, such m that
for which Galashiels and Hawick are eminent, lia,s
l)een introduced into Baniiockbum, but is nut car-
ried to any great extent. Tanning is also a tm-
siderablc branch of trade. The portion of the
(larish of St. Ninian's in which this villnxc in
situated has recently been erected into a se])anite
parish, under the name of Bannockbum; and a
handsome parochial church has been built. It has
also a dissenting church, an excellent scIkhiI, a
subscription library, and an annual fair for hoiscs
and cattle on the second Tuesday of June, old
St vie.
"BANSTEAD DOWNS, in England, co. Surrey,
1st div. of Copthome hund., par. Banstead ; a tract
of land remarkable for its verdure and excellent
sheep pasturage, 12 m. S. by W. London by road.
and 12 m. by London, Brighton, and South Coa'^t
railway, on which it is a station. The Banstead
Downs are 376 ft. above the sea level. The parish
had 1,4(>1 inhabitants in 18G1. The Epsom Downs
are a continuation of these on the W. : their
geological position is between the London clay
on the N. and the chalk formation on the S. The
Brighton line of railway from the metropolis wa^
opened in June 1865. It ends at Epsum race-
course.
BANSWARA, an inland town of Hindostari,
prov. Gujerat, and cap. of a small rajpoot princi-
pality under British protection ; 80 m. E. Ahraed-
nuggur ; lat. 230 3l' N., long. 74° 32' E. It is a
handsome place for this part of India, and its walls
include a large circuit ; though much of the space
is occupied by gartlens. There are some handsome
temples, and a tolerable bazaar : at some distance
is a pool of water with a stately flight of steps,
overhung by palms, pcepuls, and tamarind-trees;
nok,wliii'1i,nflor
ito the Kritli nt'
(I 2,'2r»H in m\\.
II INtil ; of lunii-
\ it) inqirrisliiilily
u'nniriil)U' I'Vditu
lintc vii-inity, <m
It the Rrcnt rialilc
vi\n\ II., anil tlw
ch tormiimtcd in
'rh« 1«WK of tllM
t, iH I'stiniiitcd l)y
t il(),(l<)0 nu'ii, ill-
PS, nn<l porHons of
jrt of the Scotch,
1 roHiieiit of miin-
iH>t i)nilml)ly full
iotorv wcurcd tli«
•otluiul, iinil «'»ta-
:Ti)r on ilH tliroiip,
iiln(j;(', nt Smicliifi
in MHH liy his rc-
Jnmi-H IV.; and,
:iiiity.
[inn!» Unnnoi'kbum
•y (lifTi-rcnt dopart-
'Variinis fntiries of
ire succcsftfnlly car-
lU'cd nil tlic tartan
Jilts in tlic Uritisli
century v"'''- 1'"'
»o generally woni
lower ranks in Scot-
and they are hciicc
;kbum shawls. Car-
ntl hearth-nius, arc
e extent; and of all
to the KngUsh inar-
;«{/«, or coarse strijieil
1 plaids, siieh as tliat
,ick are eminent, lia't
bum, but is not car-
inning is also a con-
The portion of the
liich this villa{,'e in
BCtcd into a seiianitc
iannockbum; and a
»8 been built. It has
excellent school, a
mnual fair for \wtxn
iesday of June, old
England, co. Surrey,
ir.Uanstead; a trait
irdure and excellent
W. London by road,
on, and South Coast
ion. The Bansiead
ea level. The parish
The Epsom Downs
: on the W.: their
n the London clay
ationonthcS. The
I the metropolis wa^
ud8 at Epsom raw-
town of Hindostan,
nnall rnjpoot princi-
■- ; 80 m. E. Ahmcd-
K.740 32'E. It is;
Ef India, and its waUs
Lh much of the space
|e are some handsome
|ar • at son\e distance
Tatelv fligl't of steps,
[aiid tamarind-trees;
BANTAM
nnd l)PVond it, on the crown of a woody liill, (ho
tiiwers of ft largo <'<"*tl(', fonnprly llu? imlace of
llaiiswarn. In IW-", there were 1,000 rainilici of
llraliiniiis, ami a coiisidcridde iiiinilMr of MiihnuI-
iiiaiiM ill the (own: in the wilder dislric^ts of itH
nrritory, the iiiluibitaiitu are ohielly ttheelH. The
raiali i-i a '•""'«•' of the family ot the OdeyiMior
Hiivcn-igii, and hohlH (lie higheHt Juilieial authority
in his own linndH. In IH2I) Ik^ had a kind of feudal
iiiiliility of thirty-two siiliordiimte raj|KH»t cliitds,
who cilcli fiiniished his (|iioln of lighting men. In
the "am"' y'"' ''"' ""i"*wiira lerrilory yielded a
ri'vciiiie of '20.7H(!/., but it was then only recov* r-
iii"' from a stale of great lU'soliilioii and misery,
frnin whicli it had been relieved by the Ilrilish.
IIAXTAM, a det-ayed lown of Java belonging
III the Diiteli, once cap. of a distr., but now of no
irreater importance than the smallest residence on
tlic coast. Its bay, formerly u gn^ut rendeisvous of
Kiiro|i('an shipping, is choki>d up by coral reefs,
anil islands formed by the soil washed down into
it friini the mountains. The Dutch abandoned it
ill \xU for the more elevated stutioii of Sirang or
L'erani, 7 in. inland.
I!AN THY, a marit. town of Ireland, co. Cork,
|irov. Minister, at the bottom of ISantry IJuy, dU m.
W. I>y S. Cork. Pop. 2,141 in IHtil, of whom
LKilnialcs and 1,2H0 females. The census re-
liinis give 107 iiersons as belonging to the Ksta-
hlishcd, and 2,20il to the Homan Catholic church.
The town is ill-built: it has a church, a Homan
('atholic chapel, Methodist meeting-house, and a
neat court-house, with a bridewell, (leneral ses-
sidiis arc held in February, and petty sessions on
ahcrnale Fridays. A jiarty of the constabulary is
stationed here. Manufactures confined to that of
llimr; and there is a small porter brewery. The
(islicr)' of lumngs and sprats has l)cen unpro-
ductive since 1W2M : pilchards were oiicenbniidant,
hut have deserted the coast since 1823. The trade
of the i)ort, which was once very considerable, is
now conlined to the ex)>ort of grain.
liANTiiY Hay, an inlet of the sea, in the SW.
extremity of Ireland, co. Cork, between Crow
Point on the N. and Sheep's Head on the S. This
is 011(1 of the (inest and most caimcious harbours in
Kiinijic. It stretches inwanls in a NK. direction
alnivc 25 m., with a breadth varying from 4 to G
ni. Near the entrance of the bay, on its HW.
side, is Itear Island, st^paratcd from the main land
hy a crooked strait obout a mile broad, having
fnim 1(> to ito or 40 fathoms water, and attbriling a
safe retreat for the largest vessels. Farther uji the
hay is VVhiddy Island, on the S. side of which,
nearly opposite to llantry town, there is an ad-
niiralilc roadstead, where ships lie Kind-locked in
from 24 to 40 ft. water. Hear Island forms, as it
were, a natural breakwater, protecting the bay
from the SVV. winds. There is close to both its
shores a considerable deiith of water ; it is not cn-
nimlicred by any shoals or rocks that may not be
easily avoided, even at night ; and the anchoring
(Triiuiid being everywhere good, it furnishes,
tliMiifihoiit its whole expanse, convenient shelter
and accommodation for the largest ships.
Having no considerable town on its shores,
which arc wild and rugged, nor any communica-
tion «nth the interior, this noble bay is but little
frequented bj' shi])))ing. Occasionally, however, it
lias hccn resorted to by large fleets, and has been
tlie theatre of naval warfare ; an indecisive action
I liiivin;; been fought in it on April !H», l(i80, be-
tween a portion of the French Heet that conveyed
Kinf! James to Kinsalc, and the English licet
under Admiral Herbert, afterwards Earl of Tor-
'"ijjton. It was in it, also, that the French fleet,
I Midi (ienerol Uocho on board, luichorcd m 17UG.
Vol. I,
BAUBADO.«l .iri.l
BAPAIIMR, a town of France, di<p. Pas do
Calais, caji. cant., I.") m. SSK. Arras. Pop. 8,149
ill 1801. This town was originally fortified ny
("barles V., but having Incn ceded to Franco in
l()j'»!», its fortillcatioiis were enlarged and com-
pleted 1)^ Vauban. It is neat, well laid out, and
W(41 biiilt. The parish church and the hospital
are worth notice. There are manufactures ol
wiKdlens, cali«MK's, and other cotton stuffs, and of
the fine thread used in the manufacture of a N|H<ciei4
of la<-e carried fo flie markets of Lille and Amiens.
Ill IheneigblioiirlHKid are several beetroot factories,
lleing situated in a dry country, llapaiiine liiboiircd,
for a leiigtiiciicil period, iiiuler a delicicncy of
water, but in I72.'t nil Artesian well having liccii
sunk in the vicinity, furnished an abundance of
excellent water, wliicli, being conveyed into the
town, supplies a handsome Ibunfain.
HAl{, a town of Kiiropean Itiissia. gov. Podolin,
on the How, 48 m. N. Moghilef. Poj.. 7,8(i() in
18.')8. The town has various manufactories. It
is defended by a citadel built on a rock. If was
called How, from the river on which it stands, till
the reign of Sigisinund I., who gave it to bis wife,
by whom it was called liar, in boiioiir of her
native country, Hari. It is famous in Polish
history, from th(! coiifederaf ion established in it in
1708, by the Piilawski uiid other Polish nidde.s
hostile to Hussia.
Uak, a fortified town of France, d('i). Ila.s-l!hin,
cap. cant,, 1!) m. SW. Strasburg. It is situated
at the foot of the Vosges, surroundcil by bills
l>lanted with vineyards. Pop. I, (Klo in 1801. An
explosion of the arsenal, in 1704, destroyeil most
part of the houses, so that it is now almost new.
It has some manufactures, and a considerable trade
ill wine, spirits, corn, and cattle.
Hau, an inland town, of considerable extent
and trade, in Hindostan, prov. Italiar, on the S.
bank of the (Janges, 18 m. IS'E. liahar; lat. '2iP
28' N., long. 86° 40' E.
BAHAIIAT, an inl, town of N. Hindostan, cap.
rajah of (jiirwal, but some years since a most
wretched and paltry place, 48 m. VVXW. Serinagur.
IJAHAITCIIE, an inland town and district of
Hindostan, prov, Onde; the district divided be-
tween the King of Oiidc and the Itritish; the
town belonging to the former, and picasantiv
situated ."JO m. NE. Liicknow; lat. 27° iia' N.,
hnig. 81° 30' E. The N, tracts of the district aru
elevated and covered with forests; the more S.
jtarts open, fertile, and tolerably well cultivated.
Many of the old Patau race inhabit the Baraitcho
ilistnct.
lUHRApOS, the most easterly of the Caribbco
islands ; it is 21 m. in length, and 14 in breadth,
and contains 100,470 acres, of which it is supposed
about 90,000 are in cultivation, and that the re-
mainder, 10,470, are occupic<l by roads, buildings,
&c. Uridgetown, the capital, is in lat. 13° 5' N^
long. 69° 41' W., situated in the parish of St.
Michael, the principal of eleven parishes into
which the island was divided at a verj' early date.
The time of its discovery is not distinctly known,
but the first permanent settlement on it was made
by the English in 1<>2.'), and it has remuuicd iu
their possession ever since.
The island, viewed from the sea, ha.s nothing
interesting in its ap|)carance, and the land, as
compared with the adjoining colonies, is low, not
lieing discernible maiiy miles from the shore.
The siirl'ace is very irregular : on the J*'., S., and
\V. sides the land is h>\v towards the sea, and
rises abruptly by [)recipitous acclivities iu terraces
of greater and less extent, to the jioiiit of highest
elevation, <Jn the E. side it rises almost perpen-
dicularly from the sea to a height of 50 and 80 ft.
A A
srA
UAKBADOS
hi.'
li
Oil the windward, or XK. nido, there i« a ledfje of
rockn, c»llcd the Colihlers, nt a Hliort dist-Rnre i'rom
the Hliore, which renders (lie npproacli to llie islimd
dnnp^rouH in the extreme, and Ims donhtlexH cim-
trilnited fjrently to nroteet it from hontiie attueka
in tiio worn iu wliiuh (ircat llrituin hiu been
enfroi^ed.
It in highly cultivated : Hcnrccly an acre upon
it, on wliicli a blade of (,'raN(i ean fjrow, remains
iiii]>r<Khictive ; and a IwtterHVHteni ofafrrieiiltiire is
jiurHiied than that followed in tlu^ other eoloiiicH,
The base of the island is caleanioiis, eonsistin^ of
the s|K)ils of zoophytes, of which there are several
species. These are so ceineiited top^ther, as in
some places to form a hard compact limestone,
which is (piarried, and very extensively used for
building; and in other phhtes they exist as a dry
soft marl, on which are found a great variety of
shells, many of them in ])erfect preservation.
U])on this formation there is a deposit of a strong
HtitV clay, in some jdaces of considerable depth,
which constitutes the soil of the most fertile dis-
tricts. On the S. and W. sides, adjoining the sea,
the soil is sandy and light ; but in other places it
is strong, and admirably adapted to the growth of
the cane. In one district, on the XK. side, called
Scotland, the scenery and s(jil are strangely con-
trasted with the Hat and shelving tabU^-land of
the other parts. The scenery there is wihl, irre-
gular, and picturesque, and the soil composed of
mineral substances belonging to the clay genuH,
particiilarlv loam, i)otters' clay, and slate clay,
lleds of bituminous shale are likewise fre(|uent,
and petroleum, or mineral oil, more or less abounds
in this district. There are some remarkable in-
stances of the soil in this district becoming de-
tached from its original lied, and slij)piiig down
from a considerable elevation, carrying with it
whole fields of canes to a position below; in which
extraordinary migrations rows of cocoa-nut trees
have accompanied the moving masses. The
highest point of land in the island is !Mount Ilil-
laby, which rises 1,1-17 ft. above the level of Car-
lisle Bay,
The climate is very healthy. Except the bilious
remittent fever, common to all the West India
colonies, there is no malignant (lisease peculiar to
it ; and the island is free trom any venomous
reptile. The average quantity of rain amounts to
58 in. The range of the thermoineter, on an
average of live years, was, — max, 87, med. 81,
inin, 75. Owing to the tlutness of the island, and
it»s being open in almost every part to the sea
breezes, the heat is not so opjiressive as the maxi-
mum range of the thermometer would seem to
indicate. The prevailing wind is the Xli. trade.
It begins generally about 10 o'clock a.m., and
continues till sunset, but it is very feeble during
the night. In Jan., Feb., ^lar., Ajiril, and May,
it is strong and regular, and the climate, in these
months, is peculiarly agreeable. In June the
rains set in, and from August to October, which is
called the hurricane season, and during the month
of Xov., the heat is verv oppressive. The cane is
the chief article of cultivation, but a considerable
quantity of corn, arrowroot, cotton, ginger, and
aloes is also raised, and exported.
Barbados has been frequently visited by hurri-
canes, of which those of Aug, 10, 1(!74, Oct. 10,
1780, and Aug. 11, 1831, have been the most de-
structive iu their efl'ects. In that of 1674, 300
houses, 8 ships, and most of the sugar-works, were
destroyed, and 200 persons killed : in that of 1780
the loss in human life was reckoned between 4,000
and 5,000, and the whole amount of damage, in
buildings, cattle, and stock, was estimated at up-
wanls of a million sterling: but the fury and
violence of the last hurricane far exceeded that (f
either of the foniier: in it '2,.'»00 persons wcri'
killed, and considerably more than that nuniUT
wouiiih-d, and the loss in iiropertv aiiKiiiiutMl tn
two millioim and a half sterling, '^hc iiniiiitljenci'
of parliament, and the iiidtiHtry of the inlmhitantu
have, however, enabled the plaiiterM to ncovtr
from these heavy losses; and, except the nli'Kiiofi
of trees, which gives a bare and naked ap|Kwiiiuv
ti> the country, the eHects of this severe visituiidu
can iitiw be traced only with didiculty. flu.
island contains, besides the ]iriiiciiial town, a
smaller town to leeward, (railed Speights Town
and two other towns, which are scarcely tn I,,,'
descril)ed as such ; ( >istins, or Charlestowii. Snini
James, or the Iloletown, the spot lirst scttli'il.
llridgetown with a population, in 18(11, of Ih.ii,,;]
extends along the sliore of Carlisle Hay, mid, pn!
vioiisly to the hurricane, being skirtctd with a ImIi
of cocoa-nut trees, it presented a very prottv tiii.l
interesting appearance to the stranger. Tlic iki.
|iulution of the island in 1851 amounted to l;i,'),'.i:!:i
and although the cludcra of 1854 carried uff sonn'
20,000 people, the census of 18t!l showed a totiil
of 152,727 inhabitants, of whom 10,51M white, aii'l
the remainder coloured and black. The harrin ks
at St, Peter's, about 2 m. to the S. of Hri(l),'otii\ni
are spacious and airy, liaving been all rulmilt
since the last hurricane ; they will contain cuni-
fortably 1,200 men. There is "an excellent pnriuk.
ground, a brigade of gun'*, and a very c(jiii|ileti.'
establishment for warlike purposes. The govcni-
ment-house is about 1 ni. from the town, hitiuitt'
on some rising ground, and commands a hfuiitil'ul
view of the town and bay. The market in l!ri(i;;c-
town is well sujiplied with poultry, niiittim, iiinl
pork, of excellent quality, quite eri'ual, if ii(itsu|K-
rior, to the corresixmding productions of Kii;,'lfiiii;.
Veal is good, but not in very great plenty, liirf
is but indift'erent. Many of the esuiilunt vc;'t-
tables of Europe are common. The (piantitv nf
tropical fruits grown in the island is sniHll.'hui
the quality excellent. The supply of tisli is in
general abundant. One descriptiiin, the tlyiii;'-
lish, about the size of miihlling herrings, Imt li'rinw,
and not so fat, are sometimes so ph>nlif'ul astuliJ
undervalued by the opulent, and within the rcacli
of the ]u>orest inhabitants.
The population, as in the adjoining islands, may
properly be divided uito four classes : Crenlc ilr
native whites ; European whites; Creoles of nii.wl
blood ; native blacks. Previously to the abiilitimi
of slavery, the population wasestimated at Ilt',."i2i:
viz. whites, 12,797, c(doiired, 0,584, and sLivcn
83,140. Formerly the cultivation of siif,'ar ivi<
almost the only thing attended to, and the iidpii-
lation dei)eiidcd, in great measure, on imixirttil
l)ri)visions. Hut, for years past, this system Iim
been materially modified. Large supplies uf pw-
visions, though still far beloAv the <leniaml, are
now raised at home, and a rotation of cmps lias
been introduced into agriculture. Here, as even-
where else in the West Indies, the blacks are ex-
tremely desirous to acquire slips of land. Generally
they are not well oil'; and from their LiP„'e iiiini-
bers sup])lies of labour may usually be obtaiiinl.
Ilarbadoes is the residence of the bishop of liar- 1
bados and the Leewanl Islands, and of one of the i
archdeacons. The clerical establishment is li.xed
upon a very liberal and effective scale. In l)^i(if,'^ [
town, besides the cathedral and parish eliurcli,
tlicre is St. Mary's Church, and in the neiglilx'Ut-
hood three other chapels of ease, with a miuutei I
appointed to each, and paid by the British govern- j
mentand the Christian Knowledge Soeiety. There j
are two VVesleyan chapels, and two Moniv»|
chapels.
cxoowloil that if
00 iM>rt<(>ns wtTi'
linn tlial numlHr
rtv uuKunitcd t.i
'the nnuiitis'cni-i'
if the iiilmliitantu,
mitertt to rvcovtr
KM'\tt the al)'«'ii('(i
naked a|i|K'arHiii'i'
ix wvere vi.titiilinii
1 dittieiilty. '[\u'
i)riiici^)ul town, a
[I Siieinhts Town,
irc scarcely to 1ki
LJharlestowii, Sniut
siiot limt scttli'd.
in IWil.ol' WXu.
lisle Hay, and, im-
skirted witl\ a Ink
I a very jiretty niul
»t runner. T'he iki-
inounteil to i;i'),W.i.
iiA cnrrieil ort' winu'
8til showed a tutal
m lC,u!t I white, aiM
luck. The Ijarriicks
ic S. of Hridjjctiiwn
nf; l)een all relmilt
V will contain cimi-
"un excellent pnrmk-
md a very coiniili'ti:
poses. The fjuvcrii-
ini the town, hituiiti'
ommnnds a licautiful
he market in liriib-
poultry, nintton. uivl
lite equal, if notsuiK-
)ductioiis of Kngliiiii'i,
V threat plenty. IWcf
)f the esuulciit vf;;c-
,on. The (luantity ni
B island is sinuU. tmi
sinndy of lisli is ill
ascription, the tlyiii;'-
\H lierriiiKs. hut linnor,
I so ph'ntifulastdlii'
and within the rcadi
-idjoiningishtnils.may
lur classes ; Creole ut
lites; Creoles of niixt.1
■iouslv to the abolitimi
sestirnatedatin2,.V21;
ed, «,r)8-l, and slaves,
tivation of sufjiir \w
ided to, and the n^-
measure, on imiwrml
past, this system 1im
Lar^e supplies of (iru-
dow the demand, .ire
rotation of crops liM
Iture. Here, as evtn-
iies, the hlacksare«-
lips of land. Generally
' from their lar^'e niini-
usuttllv be obtaine. . j
•e of the bishop ot iw- 1
mds, anduf oneoltlie
. estabUshmentislwl
ctive scale. Inlindcf; !
al and pari^'^*";;'
and in the neigW* •
f ease, with a mnitM
' by the ISritish govern-
.wledge Society. Tliw
and two Morav*
BAKBADOS
Tlicre are several public establishments for the
,,,li„.„tii)n of the voiilh of thclslainl :— Codrin^jtoii
('iilli"'e, Coih'iiiKtoM Fcinnilation Scbool, lliirrisim's
!■>(>(■ Si'liool, and I he Ceniral School ; theiwo laller
nre in llridKetown. (Jodrin^ton Cidlep^ is situated
I,') or II »>• I"" "' Hrhll^etowii, and was fouiiih-d
|,v Colonel (Jodrin^ton, a native of the island, who
(I'ifil in ITI'l. Tho object of the founder was the
(dinalioM of a certain number of wliit(! youths,
anil the reiiK>ous instruction of the blacks; for
ffliifh pnrposes he be(|ueatlied landed property,
(inialilc of clearinj; il.OlM)/. sterling a year, to the
Siii'it'ty lor I'ropajiatiut; the (iospel in Knrcij;!!
Parts. This establislnneul is under the snperin-
tiiiilenre of the bishop of the dioccMe, who is vi-
sitor, a |iriucipal, ami two tutors. It is open to
all vountf nun. for whatever profession inlended,
lliriiiwliont the West India colnuies. There are
twelve theolonicnl exhibitions. T'he college ex-
iK'iisc to each connnoner is about 'Ml. sterling per
ininnm. The course of study endiraces theolofiv,
the classics, Io(;ic, luid nuithematics. All cinidi-
(jates are required to be at least seventeen yeai's
(il'a''e at the time of admission.
.U tlie Centriil Schoid about Itll* white children
ariM'ilni'ated, upon the phm of the national schools
ill |jif;liii>'h AH the (children are fed, and (he
major part clothed. From this class of boys,
master tradesmen, mechanics, and overseers are
supplied. A f^irls' school has also been i'ounded
umler the auspices of the ladies of Karliados.
The trade of the island has varied very much
at dill'erenf periods, owin;^ to the uncertainly of
the iwps, occasioned by hurricaiu's and bad seasons.
The imports amounted to 1,0-111, "Jlhi/. in 18;>!»; to
'.•41,7(11/. in IHliO; to !t2;l,«l7/. in IKtIl ; and to
'.M.'!,lt"' i" '^''-i showing a ^;radual decline within
these four year.s. The exports likewise declin(Ml
ilurinc the same period, fallinj^ from l,2-J.'»,.')7l/. in
ls:il),tol,07r),:i7l/. in IMOI.and l,0tl7.til-.'/. in I«ti2.
The r. States have, next to the IJ. Kingdom, tin;
jl^atest share of th(( trade of the colony. The
ini|iorts I'roin the V. Kinplom consist princi|)ally
of ei'ttiais, linens, wocdiens, and other manul'ac-
tureil ;;ooils, hidierdashery and millinery, hardware
1111(1 out lery, ajiparel, h'ather floods, ciml, and salt.
The imports from the U. Slates consist principally
of tloiir, meal, Indian corn, rice, timber, aiul
sl[iii(,'los. L.'UTj,'© (juantities of cod, dry and wet,
nre brought from the British N.American cidonies.
The U. Kingdom sup)>lies about two-lifths of the
iiii|Hirt.s.
The government of the island is administered
by a governor, who is also ^ov.-f;en. of the islands
oi' Grenada, St. Vincent, T'obaj^o, Trinidad, St.
Lueia, and their respective dependencies. There
is a legislative council, consistiuf; of twelve mem-
Ix'rs, and a reprcscntjitivc assembly, constitutctl
by a return of two members from each of the ]ia-
rishes— making twenty-two nu'mbc^rs. The dura-
tiim of the assembly is twelve months. If there
k'less than seven members of council resident in
the island, the goveriuir may fill up the mnnber
toseven for the despatch of business. The governor
is chancellor, but he sits in chancery with the
aumeil, who act as judges both in the court of
cmirand in equity. TTierc is a court of common
pleas held for each district, monthly, during eight
raonths of the year, hut no court of king's bench.
k ftcneral sessions of the peace is held twice a year.
The revenue of the island, previously tt) the abo-
lition of slavery, was raised by a poll-tax upon
slaves, and by duties on sj)irituous liquors an(i li-
censes; but it is now derived principally from
diiiiea on imports and exports, on the tonnage of
silip, on spirituous liquors, and several minor
anidcs. The revenue for the year 18(>2 umoutited
IJ.MUtAUY
;i.'i.'»
to On,(',K-.>/., and the expenditure to 0.1,4«l/, ; for
the year IMC,;), the nveiiiie was |0-.'..">7".'/,. and the
expenditure H) l,7'.t.'i/. Iloth revciuie and expelidi-
({irv doubled in the ten years lH."p.'t-(i;l.
The proporthin of the '20,0(11 t.OOO/. voted by par-
lianuMit for the abolition of slavery paid to the
colony was l,72l,;i 1.")/. I!t.«, "(/. T'he value of the
slaves was est inwited at .'l.Kl)7.27(l/. I'.'x. ; and the
average valiu- of a slave, from I.H22 lo IKIO, was
•17/. 1.1. •.\h,l.
HAK HANT.WK, a town of France, dcp.l'ouihes
du Ifhone, near the conlhience of the Dnnnice ami
the Khone, I in. .S\V. Avignon. Pop. :l.O.'i(t in
iHCil. T'he railway from Lyons to Marseilhs luw
a station here. The environs produce excellent
wine.
ILMi'IlAIiY, the name usually given in niodeni
times to that portion of N. Arrlcii which coirqiriscs
th(! various countries between the W. frontier of
Fgypt and the Atlantic on the one hand, mid the
N. frontier ol the Sahara, or (ireal Desert, and this
Mediterranean on the olher; or between 2.')° F,.
and 10° \V. long., and :I0° (o :17^ N. hit. 1( con-
setpu'iitly includes within its limits the empire of
.Morocco and Fez, with the regeoiies of Algiers,
T'linis, and T'ripoli, iiichidiiig llarca. I'nder the
IJonian dominion, il was divided into Miiiiritiiniii
Tliiiiiltiiiii, ciirrespondiiig to Morocco and Fez;
Miiiirifuniii <i/w(;'/c«.s/«, to Algiers; Afriiii I'rapriti,
to T'lniis; and Ci/iTiinirti and the lU'ijiu Si/rlii'ti, to
T'ripoli. Its extent may be taken at from (>.')(>,0()(>
to TOO.OOO sq. m. ; and its popnl.'ition has been va-
riously estimated al from 10,000,000 to ll.doo.ooo.
T'he. name Ihirbary has not, as has sonu'tiines
been su])posed. been given to this portion of Al'ricii
because it is occupied by a barbarous and ignorant
jieo])le. It is di'rived from tlm name of its tmcient
nihabitants, usually styled licrlwrii or Kiilii//i:i,
and should therefore, in strictness, \m called l>er-
bery. The Arabians call k Mnjihirh, or tlu! region
of the W. ; but though this name correctly points
out its situation in ndation to Arabia, it would b(!
iiu'orrcct if used by iMmijieans. If a new nanu!
were now to be adopted, it might be called the
Jii'f/ion of Atlas, inasmuch as it includes the whole
of that great mountain chain, with its numerous
rainitications. This designation has, in fact, been
given to it by .some g<!ographer.s.
In anticpiity, this i)art of Africa was distin-
guished as being the seat of (,'artliage — that great
connnercial rejnddic, that waged a lengtheiu'd.
doubtful, and (les|ierato contest with Iiome her.-Milf
for the empire of the world. After the fall of
Cartilage, it formed an important part of the
Konnin emiure. It bad many large and tlonri.sh-
ing cities, ami was long regarded as the princi)ial
granary of Ucnne. After being overrun by the N.
barbarians, it was subdued by the Saracens; and
imder their sway accpiired a lustre and reputation
scarcely inferior to that of the most brilliant period
of its ancient history. IJut the Saracenic govern-
ments in IJurbary, like tho.se in other countries,
gradually lost their vigour, and became a prey to
every sort of disorder; and this great country ulti-
mately sunk into the lowest state of barbarism
and degradation. A handful of Turks and rene-
gades acquired the government of its linest pro-
vinces, and subjected them to the most brutal and
rev(dting despotism. Heing unalilc to contend
with the liuropean powers in regular war, they
had recourse to a system of piracy ami marauding ;
which, though often partially abated, was not en-
tirely siq)])ressed till the conquest of Algiers by
the French.
liarbary has far more of a European than of an
African character. Owing to its being pervaded
by tlie great chain of Atlu.s, it has every diversity
A A 2
:\M
HAIIHAHTEH
!'»•'•''
1 1t
mm
of siirfnco, nni! is rrmnrknlily well wntoroil. Tlio
I'limiilo Ih pxcclliMit ; nml it nriHliicrx all llii>fn'<i>i<>*
mill I'riiiu of S, Kiiro|M>, in tlu^ ^TviitcHt |H'rf('<ai<>n.
Ill iiiicit'iil tiiiK't ilH Ivrlilily wim muuIi um lu Us
ulinuttt iirovcrliiul:
' Fruinontl (|uantum mntit Africa.'
Jlor. Hat., lib. 11. rat. H.
and notwitliMlniiilin^^ tlio wrctohod trontmcMit to
•wlilcli it M now siilijcrt, tho fertility of tho Hoil
continiu'H iinimpikircd, anil with no ninniirc, cxrcpt
)HTiiHioiinlly liurniii^ wtt'iU and hIuIiI>Ic, it pro-
(liici'H the niimt liixiirinnt oropH. Tho site of the
fiiniiMis pinleiiH of the lIcsperideH whh orif^iniillv
plneecl in llnrcn; but they were e/irrieil farther W.
as lliii (iri'i'kn lieeanie lietter neqiiainteil with the
const, mill with t)ie rii'hi'x anil capaliilifieH of the
eonntry. (For a full aeeouiit of thiH iiiterestini;
re;;ioii, llu^ reailer is referred to the nrtielcMon the
dilien'iit eoiinlries eompriMed within itH liinitM and
to those on Ati.ah, (.'onhtantink, Ac.)
IJAKHASTKS, or MAItHASTKO, a town of
SfMiiii, .Ara^xon, near the Cinea, 28 in. SK. IIiieNca.
i'op. T.fioO in IHo". It is siirroiinded hy wails, in
the scat of a liisliopric, and has some taiinerics,
HAKIIK/IKIIX, a lown of France, (ic|. Cha-
ronte, cap. arroiid., on tho road from Anp)iileinc
to Itorileanx, 21 in. SW. Anpnilcino. l'o[i. 'A,H7H
in IHtil. It is a(lvnntnpH)nsly sitnated on the de-
clivity of a hill, at the extremity of an extensive
and fertile plain. It is well linilt; has a court of
orij^'inal jurisdiction, a linen maMiifactnro.and some
trade in' wine, corn, cattle, and especially rxinl-
try. Tho chaixms truff'da of liarbeziuiix are highly
esteemed
IJAKIJUDA, one of the W. Indian islands bo-
lonf^iiiff to ({rent liritain, 27 m. N. Antigua, 15 m.
in length by H m. in breadth, Totjjl area, accord-
ing to odicial measurement, 75 square miles. The
census of IHtll showed a pop. of 71.'}, of whom only
4 white. There were 318 males and .'Ut') females.
The island is tlat and fertile. It is a projyrietary
of government, and belongs to the CiMlrington
family. Com, cotton, pepjier, tobacco, are pro-
duced in abundance, but no sugar. It has no har-
bour, but a roadstead on its AV. side.
IIAIMJY, a town of I'riissian Saxonv, on the
Kibe, 14 m. SK. Magdeburg. Top. 4,(!!»7 in IHfil.
It is well built him an old castle, two Lutheran,
and one ("nlvinist church, with fabrics of cloth,
cotton, and llax, auai)-w()rk8, breweries, anil dis-
tilleries.
IJAHCA (nop;»i)), n district of N. Africa, forming
tho l-;. portion of Tripoli, extending from 2f!4° to
nearly 33° N. lut., and from VJ° to 2540 E. long.
Tlie limits are, however, very uncertain towards
the S. and K., the countrj', in the former direction,
terminating in the Libyan Desert, and l)eing, in
the latter, divided from Egypt by wandering
tribes of Bedouins, who acknowledge no authority
in any settled goveniment. On the N. Harca is
bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the VV.
by the Gulf of Sidra (the Si/rti» Magna of tlie an-
cients), and the goveniment of Sert or Sort.
(Ilccchy, 210; Pacho, 11); Hecchy and Pacho's
Slaps.) It extends 500 m. from N. to S., but the
cultivated and inhabited portion terminates at
about the Slat parallel, 01 40 m. only from the
farthest N. ]>oint of the coast. The greatest width
from E. to W. is abwit 300 m., and the area may
be estimated at about 78,000 sq. m. (Heechy and
Pacho's Maps.)
A mountain range, at a short distance inland,
fronts the whole extent of coast line: this range
apiiears to have its greatest ehivation near the 22nd
ineriilian (at the town of Cyrene), and to decline
1-Jicnte both towards the E, and W., terminating,
UATICA
in tho former diroctinn, in the plain of I»wr>r
KgypI; in the latter being coiitinuiMl rniiiul ili.'
gulf I ill it vanishes in a low swainpS. of M)'xiirnt;i.
The leoxt elevation of these inoiintaiiis iscHiiniati'i
at 400 or 500 tt., and the greatest at l,Hii.-, ft, i,
is iipim tint siden and HiininiitM of these hilN that
the only impiilation and |>riNluction is fiiiind,
though the great plain towunls the S. is pnilinlilv
preserved from some of the wnmt features of |||',,
desert by a range of sand hills extending frumttjv
oasis of Ammon to that of Maradeh, which mint
<if necoHHity form «*»»« jirotection from the nHin,
of the sirocco. (Ileechv, 107, 21(1, 252, 4;)l, &(••
Pacho, 57, 83, VM. 'il'i, <tc.)
There ore no rivers, but innumerable moimtnin
torrents, and wells are also tolerably aliiiiujaiii,
though many of them contain only salt or Imicki.'i
water. On the whide, however, the »iiim/i/(i/h Iimri
is not very Imdly irrigated. Home years since, tlii>
Americans made a temporary Kettleini^nt at lli'mn,
where, taking advantage of the many IIih>i|(>.|
ravines, thev built a water-mill of very sinipli' inn-
struction, w)iich, by a little skill in dnniniini; iiji
the stream, works nearly all the year. (Paclm, '.i'.m
The ancient sacreil fountain of (Tyrone is |M'miii-
iieiit (Meoi^hy, 424.),an(l (irobably the only wtrwini
in llarca that is so, with the e\ce|itiiin of nmV
terranean rivulet, near Henga/i, which isHiip|Hw>|
by lleechy (320), on goiwl grounds, to Ik; tlii! I,a-
tl'ion or Lethe of Ptolemy (iv. 4), Pliny (v. 5), aihl
Htrabo (xvii. 83(5), and the Erceus of Srvlax,
(Perip. 1 11.) Though stretching as far as \VS° N„
liarca has an equinoctial climate. The rniiiy
season appears to commence sometimes as early m
November, and at others to delay its violence till
the end of Dccemlier, or even till Jaiutar)' : iluriii';
such delay, however, the intermediate sensun i<
showery, and when the rains descend in thiir
strength, the mountain roods become nearly, if'ina
quite, impassable. The ravines pour down lor-
rents, which, in their progress, carry with tliciii
earth, trees, and stimes of enormous size; andtmi-
vert the narrow belt of flat land between the
mountains and the sea into enormous nnimliix.
The temperature is, of course, generally hi(.'ii, Imt
the powerful evaporatiim makes that ofwintir
something lower than might be onticiimted, mul
absolutely cold nights are not unknown. The wri
season, as in other countries, is iishcrwl in liv
storms. (Heechy, 41 , 59, 247, 281, 347, Ac.)
Notwithstanding the celebrity of this coiinln-
in ancient times, it is only within the last furiy
years that any thing accurato has been kanml
concerning it. Its very outline was erroncmijly
marked in every map and chart previously id
1828 (see Syiitis) ; and every account of itosdil,
climate, and fertility was nearly the direct revcr*
of what experience has shown to he the tniili.
The ancients, with the single exception of Hwi-
dotus, have combined to represent the coasts uf |
the Svrtis as an irredeemable desert. At Iwt
such IS the impression given by Strabo, Pliny. '
Scylax, and others of all the country W. of Ilfrf-
nice (Hcngozi) ; while the modems, followinf; l.w I
Africanns and the Arab histxirians, have cxiemliil
the same description to all the land l)olwefii
Tripoli and Alexandria, till the term Barca Ix'rame 1
synonymous in European language wth barren-
ness. (Strabo, xvii. 838 ; Pliny, v. 4, &f.; |
Scylax, Perip. 113, &c.: Leo Afric. v. 72, 4c.) ,
But, to say nothing of the gardens of the Ilosr^
rides, situated on this coast, it b irapo.ssililc f
reconcile this idea of utter barrenness with tlic
pastoral life said by Herodotus to be led I'y'liM
aborigines (Melp. 'l8()), or with the snlw«iiifiit
coloni.sation of the country by thc<}rocks. N'iill»'f I
is it likely that Ilerodotiis, who so aceiuratcly Ji- 1
\\n\n of I,owir
IUImI Mlltul til"
S, of McMiroiii.
illH i^CKliniltlrA
III i,H(t:.fi. It
tlu'Hu \\\\U that
;tl(in in found,
ic S. in priilmlily
fciitiircK tif till'
;cn(UiiK friimtlu!
W\\, wliirh mu»t
from thi^ «ft'i'(it
J, 252, 431, «ct.;
lornliW". motintn'm
■raliU' nliiiiiilaiit,
ly unit iir liriicki.'i
I'liv moiintiiin liiul
fii' yciirrt Kiiici', till'
tlt'infiitnt Itiriiii,
lie mmiy lliMulcil
if very H'iin|ili' I'mi-
U in timimiinK' w\
yciir. (radio, li'.i.)
"Uyrrne in (KTma-
ly tlic only Ntrciiiii
Ki'i'iition of II xiil>-
, wliioli Ik miii|Hwi I
intlH, to Im; till- 1.11-
), I'liny (v. r)),«n'l
Erci'UH of Scylax,
iig OH far iwlW°N„
iinato. Tlic rainy
inctimcH bh onrly m
lav its violciiw till
iUJnnuBf)': iluriiv;
Brmcdiatc (tonsmi \*
A descend in ttnir
»ecomo nearly, if ml
nes pour down lnr-
»8, carrv witli tliMii
•monsiiize; ami con-
land bctwoi-ii ilio
enormous mnrslic,
nonerally liit-'li. ''"i
akes that ofwinta
lie antifiliatPd, nii'l
miknown. Tlu' wii
St, is ushered in liy
,2Kl,»47,&c.)
irity of this cimiitn-
ithin the last forty
f.Q has been kanuil
fine was cnoncmisly
chart previniialy iji
ir account of it» ^<
•ly the direct revcr*
■n to Ihj the tniili.
u exception of HcDi-
present the coasts "f
lie desert. At W
II by Straho. Pli")'
country W.-'fl^i^
.dems, folliwinc 1;^;
ians, have exieiuidl
I the land bot««n
ctermBa/-calH«»i«
nffuage with bamn-
Plinv, V. 4, w.;
,oAMc.v.7;W
irdens of the 1 f P
, it is impo&* '"
barrenness with m
'us tobclclhyrt
vith the sult^pff"
tho.drocks. N[itW|
•ho so accuracy
IIAUCA
nirilien the ' rmt mtmlif ilrtfrt ' in the interior
|Mi'l|>- ''*l)> "Ik'hI*' ^>nvt'. omitted nil nii'iitimi of
liii' tiart'ticd and barren soil, liiiil any Much existed
or. liie hi^l' '"■■'I'* ■"'"'' ''■<' coast. In fuel, the
iiri'vuli'iit dns«;riptions of Harcn have Imm-ii, for
\rnn«, li'll" f""^' ''"*" f'lbles; the S\V. ciiriur, in-
ilcct (Jiiiiiinjfon the desert), seems fully to justify
tl„i iiiriiiintH of utter desolation Kiveii of ii ; but
1.. anil N. '•'" coinilry rapidly improves, ami pre-
^,.iii-i extensive crops of corn ami lar^e fields of
lAiriU'iit paslnraKi*. 'I'he inoiinlain sides are in
iiiiiil ciises thickly wooded, and I'overed with an
, NCtlU'iit soil i and CAen the sami itself (on the
..jjcirc) is niaile, by little labour, liixuriaully pm-
(liiclive diiriut,' the rainy season. The trees consist
dl' iiiiies, olives, laurels, with a ^reat variety of
ijiiwcriii),' slirid)s and climbers; such ns roses,
iiiiiri'-'tiiias, liom^ysm'kles, an<l myrth's; but the
inr^ iniisl in esteem here, ns in ev<'ry other Mo-
liiiinmedan country, are the varicais species of
(liili'!<, palms, and lijrs, which (lourish in threat va-
riety and abunilance. The corn which this country
{iroiliiees is chietly barhiy, or dlioiirra, and oats,
laptain lleechy saw, in the nei;;libourhood of
|i'iij;azi, larjje (|uautities of oats, which he con-
fiilirwl to he the K/Hmtani'oiiM |iro<lucti(in of the soil.
I heir situation was, however, in open tracts amoii);
fircsts, apparently deserted cultivations (i>. lill),
mill the ^rain wan therefore, pmbiddy, tlie pro-
iluit of the last iieKlected crops. It is' a singular,
liiit, except in n few nccidcnini instances like the
1 resent, a universal fact, that the bread corns are n«>
wiiiiitK INDIOKNOUH. The fruit — p"apes, melons,
|nini|ikiiis, inelonrani (or ep^; plants), cmunubers,
iiniltiimatas: n peculiar plant, called linuria, is also
raisoil, though not in ;;rcnt nbitndancc; tine nrti-
eliiikes, and >;rceii and red pepper, are also very
|iltntifid. lint the idant for which this country Is
ihi'iiiost reimirkablu is the 8il|ihium, an iimbel-
liffriitis perennial reHembliuj^ the hemlock or wild
larrot, uf which the most mnrvellons talcs are re-
l.itt'il liy tlio aucic'iits. Its origin was said to be
iiiimculous ; it perished under cultivation, but
ihriivc ill the most savage and neglected deserts.
A li(|iii(r produced from it wtts esteemed nn almost
uiiiversnl remedy for inward ailments ; and various
(iintments, compimiuled of the stalk, leaves, and
nKit,wcre hehl to be equally efHcaciuus in outward
afiplications. The silphium was an object of pidj-
lic, almost of divine, lioiU)ur; it was an ottering
to the (Icitied king of the country, and its tignre was
.stamped upon the coins of Cyrene. (I'liny, xix. H ;
x.xii. 22; fheophrastus, iv.'jJ; Aman, Iliat. Ind.
xliiL; Ex)). Alex. iii. 2H, ifec.) It docs not, how-
ever, appear to ditfer essentially from other sopo-
riiic plants of the same family. (IJcechy, 40!)-420 ;
I'acho, 247-26.5.) Thus, though not very varied,
llic |inxhictions of Barca are siitBciently abundant,
and nothuig hut industry seems reqi'iisite to re-
store this country to the state in which Herodotus
k'liekl it, when three successive harvests, on the
loast, on the sides, and on the summits of the
moiuitaiiis, occupied by the (Jreek inhabitiuits
tii;ht months in every year, (lleechy, 2til, 331).
at?, etp<m.; Pacho, 51), 9<J, 163, 235, et pass.;
Hero.1. Slelp. 199.)
The domestic animals, camels, horses, oxen,
a.<.*8, sheep, and goats, arc extremely numerous,
iiiul form the riches of the present wandering, as
if the ancient settled imitutation. The hog, for-
lidilcn by the Jlohammediin law to the faithful,
is found only in his savage state ; but in this
Mate he exists in great numbers, maintaining his
gmmid against the jackals, hyanias, and other
wastjiof prey that infest the same locality. In-
>«ta are exccetlingly numerous ; anil even the
locust, which is a frequent visitor, is scarcely more
;j.)7
terrilile (to straiignrs nt least) than (he myriads of
llies, iM'ctles, liens, and other noxious vermin,
wliieli the heat of the climate and the llllliy lieg-
ligen if the inhabitants preserve in cnnsiant
strength and aciivilv. (I'aelu), ill -til, 235-2 Hi,
*c. i lleeehy, lit?, 211, '2Hi\, 301, rl imiiiii.)
The iidialiitants ariM'xelusively lleilnuin Arabs,
with the exeeption of a few Jews in ilielown.s.
The Aralisdill'er in nothing from tlieir"ountryini'U
ill other jiarts, except in being dirtier, less active,
and exhibiting the worst parts of their national
cbarai'ler in a nmre exaggerated form, The eonn-
Iry is governed by a bev, snlijeet to the pacha of
Tripoli; and the |H>))iilation, notwilbstinnling the
resources of the country, is thin. Its aiiioinit pro-
bably does not exceed l,l)iMi,(H»t». (Ueechy anil
I'aeho, /msiilm,)
The original inhabitantMof this district are called
by Herodotus (Mff/xim, /hihii.) Africans (Ai/Suuir),
a term which he seems always to distingiiiih
carefully from I'.gyplians (.ViyuirrKui'), but whieli
certainly did not mean n black race of nu'ii. Ac-
cording to Slrabo, it would a|>pearthat, even from
the earliest times, thev were Arabs following Ihu
wainlering pastoral life, whieb prevails among
them to the present day. (xvii. M35.) The I'lue-
niciaiis appear to have traded with them at a very
early period ; and from their deseriptiou of the
country probably arose the tirst fani'iliil idea of thu
Hesperian (lardeiis, which, as already ob.served,
weri^ supposed to have llieir seat in this eonntry.
It is proliable that the report of this luxuriain'i' of
the district was one inducement to the (ireck
settlement in Cyrene; but the iininedialc cause
seems to have been the. pressure of piipiihitioii in
Lacedainon, consequent to the cxiiiilsion of the
descendants of the Argonauts from Leinnos by tlin
I'ela.-gian population of Attica. After a troubled
residence of some years, these exiles threw olV ii
large body of emigrants, who, under the coiriniand
of Itatlus, and \>y order of the Delphic oracle, esta-
blished the tirst tireek colony in Africa of which
there is any nu'ord. The pressure of population
continuing in Lacediemon, and the oracle urging
the Grci^ks to foHow their contitrymen, a geiicrul
propensity to emigrate was nt last excited ; and,
about sixty years after the tinit adventurers bad
landed, a movement that might almost be called
imtional, was made toward the African shores.
The natives anil the Egyptians seem to have b(!en
equally alarmed at this irruption ; they combined
to expel the intruders, but received so decisive a
defeat that few of the Egj'ptians returned to their
own country. In the succeeding generation the
town of Harca, which subsequently gave name to
the whole conntrA-, was built. This once famous
city has now vanislic<l, and even its site is a matter
of dispute. For a generation or two, there were
now two (Jreek kingdoms in Africa, that of Cyrene
and that of Ifania; l)iitli. however, shared the fate
of their Egyptian neighbour, and, under (Jambyscs,
became a part ol' the Persian empire, and so re-
mained, till the contpiests of Alexander changed
the aspect of Eastern attairs. Under his successors
they formed a part of the (Jreco- Egyptian king-
dom; but before its fall they passed into tlie,
hands of liimic. With the iiTuption of the northern
nations, Africa fell for a while Ix'ncath the])ower
of the Vandals; but the rapid conquests of the
early Mohammedans quickly added this country
to their (Unninions. This wiis the inst important
revolution. Durbig the many centuries that the
Ureek and Koman ruled in Itarca, civilisation,
arts, and sciences flourished ; the remains of aque-
ducts, temples, and other mighty works, suHiciently
attest this fact ; but the relincmcnt was entirely
foreign, and vanished with the exotic impulutiou
il.'iH
IJAHCI
I
f* 'i.rf'1
wliii'li iiitrrxliunt it. TIip Anil) Im ii^rnin llii> xolo
|H»Hc«H(ir (iC iIk- (Miil j iiiiiI tlic il('Nrri|ili<>ii nl" the
kIii'IiIktcI, u'Iiii Iii'IiI il lii'luri' (lir llni'k iirriM'il,
voiilil ill rvrrv iiii|iiirtaiil |>Mrliriilnr ;i|<|ilv In liiiii
III llii'diiv. I'Ik' I'ilii'N III' iliin iiilrv, I'"!!! riiillv
I liii><r nC llirt'iiiri' (/'»■»"/'//('), Ar-iiiiir, Itiinii, A|i>i(
Iniiiii, mill Cvri'iir, M'liii'li ){iivi' iiiiiiii' III till' ili'<trirl
rulli'il l'l'lllll|iiillM (llii'TairoAK), nrv \rr\' IiiMiiiUn
ill iiiitii|iiily. 'I'licw towiiH, liiiwi'vrr, lVti|iiriill\
I'liiiiiKi'il tlit'ir iiiiiiii'M, mi lliiil it ift NiiiiK'tiiiii'H ilir
lii'iilt III riilliiw till' aiii'it'iit writers, 'I'Im- iiiiiih'
Iturrii liii>, llll^vt'^')'r, iiiiili'rKoiii' im rli;iii^)Miiii| I lie
\V. ilivi«iiiii III' llif (•iiiiiitrv it siill Dillcil Cvrt'-
iiitira, 'I'lic ]']. |iorliiiii \n riilicij Miiriiiorica, wjiiili
iNllIwi MM illiriclit ilriioilliniltioll.
IIAIiCI'ilil )NA, a city ami Hca-|iiirl nf S|iiiiii, iiii
till' Mi'iliti'miiiraii, I'lip. |iriiv. ( 'iitiiloiiia, on ilic
iiiiir;;iii III' a I'riiitriil |iluiii. Iiclwccii Ilic tImtm llt'siiN
ami l.liilinv'iil) at llu' funl nf Muiiiniiii'li tMium
./i,t<iH),:i\r, III. km:. Matlriii. I!M in. N K. Valcmia,
I'liiini'cli'il liv railway willi Imlli tlu'sc ritii-s I'lip.
Kili.ill l.aiiit iiu'lmliiiK the niiliiirliN |H:(,7H7,ai'i'iiril-
ill^; III lli(> cciiMiiH III' l^.')7. 'I'Ih^ town Im Nirminly
rnrtillcil, lii'iii)r KiirriiiiMilril with Hlroii;i; walh.ro^Nc.H,
and liattcrii"*. 'I'lic- citailcl to Ilic N K. of ilu- rity
Im a r(';,'iilMr oi'tiiKiiii mi llu- Nystcni of V'aiilian,
witli arriiniiniiilatiiiti for T.oiiil incn. 'I'lic I'itailcl
coiniiiiiiiii'Mtcs with tlic furl of San CarloMoii tlic
wii, hy a iloiililc I'livcriMl way, wliicli KiirrimiKlM tlu^
city as liir IIS liarn'loiirita. Tlic fnrircss of iVfoii-
Jiiiiicli. on the iiioiiiittiiii of that iitiitic, is luokcil
n|ioii, if jiriijKTly f,'ariisiim(l, as iiii)ircgnalilf; il
ciiiiiiiiamis the town mi the S\V.
The I'itv is (livideil liy I he |iriiinpiiad(>, cnlled La
Itainlila, into two nearly eijiial jiarts: that to the
N'W. Iiein;; called the new, and that to the M'",.
tli(^ olil ciiy. The ^trl•ets in the latter iirc^ nar-
rower and more crooked than in the fonner. 'I'lie
houses, which are inoslly of lirick, are j^eiieruily
from four to live stories lii;L;h, with nniiieroiis win-
dows ami lialconies. The old Itoinaii town may
ftill lie distinctly traceil, oecni>yiiiff a small enii-
iience in the centre of the city, with one of its
gates and some of its towers well |)r('served. Willi
the (•xeeption of the cathedral and cnstom-lioiise,
ami the old pahicc of tlii^ kiiif,'s of Arnpni, lew ol'
the pulilic liiiililiiiffs are worth any special not ice.
The cathedral is a nohle strneliire. in iIk^ later
(iothie style, with tinely paintiMl windows, and a
choir of n'ood workmanship and siiif^nlar delicacy.
With the exception of that of the Dominicans,
tlie convents are destitute of any nitractions; and
the records and pictures of the heretics who had
snlfered in the city from llx!> to I72ti, descrilied by
Mr. Towiiseiid as existuij^ in the latter, are no
lon;;er to he met with.
linrcelona has a myal junta of frovcniment, and
is the s<'ttt of the jmivincial authorities. A Junta
dc Coiiiercio, or hoard of trade, supports piihlic
professorships of iiavipition, architecture, iiaint-
inj;. sculpture, jierspective landscape, and orna-
mental llower-drawiiif^, ent^raviiif^, chemistry,
ex)ierimental philosophy, agriculture, and botany ;
hhort-haiid writing;, coinintTce, and accounts; me-
chanics, and the Kn^lisli, French, and Italian lan-
^ua<;es. It has a larjjje cabinet of coins, and awards
]>ensionH and rewards for stijierior attainments and
useful inventions. It also maintains some of its
^'tudellts in forei^jn parts, U> jierfect themselves in
their studies ; and has expended Itiry^c. sums in
drawing iihiiis and takiiij; levels of the f^ronnd for
canals and other public works in the iiroviiico. It
lias also four public libraries, an ecclesiastical semi-
uarv, cifflit collej;(^s, a collcjre of surj^emis, and
])roi'essorship of jiractical medicine, a collej^e of
phanriacy, academies of arts and sciences, and of
he/ks lettres, u school for (leaf and dumb, house of
;l()na
industry (Unil Cam tlr Caruliiif), luimpruiin hn<.
pilals, a fmindliiig iiintltnlion, mid sevi-riil niinr
cliarilii'M. The general hospital is a well iiiaiiiip,|
iiistiliiliiiii. The piipulation of the city Imn n,,,
ail cxrlii'-ively Spanish iippi'iiraiice. Spii'ii^li Inn,
MIC scarcely lo lie seen, and the manlillii j. |„,|
indispensable. The features of the l'i'niiili> up.
more n^'iilar, their forms Hli^liier, ilicir i.,iii
pleximis clearer, and their hair lens cmirM' ilnm
llial of the Andiihisian ladies; biil their eyei' luu,.
less exprcsKion. The dress of the jieiiKaiilrv in i,,
ciiliar, their red caps haiiuin^ n fool iIohii tlmr
backs ; crimson (girdles, and ^aiidy cnloiiri'il |iliii.|.,
I^ive iheiii a liiKhly Krolesi|ue appearaiiri'. bur
celoiia has some line public walks; the UnmUi
already rch'rred to, is always crowdnl, unil i,'
hardly inferior to the Itoiilevards of I'aris, 'linn
is also Ik cliarinlii); walk round the ramparH, \ui||
delii^'hiful views, parliciilarlv towards tlie wh.
Tlieo|H'ra hereenjoys a coiisiileralde repiiinilun;
the interior of the theatre is laru;e and haiiilMiinii
There are several valuable libraries and ciilliTiiiin,
ofMSS. ; especially the royal archives of iln' kiin;.
dom of AniKiiii, containing 2ii,iliiii Iohmi. ,Ms>^
H,iHill in folio volumes, and IKMI papal bulls Ilir
jirincipal maiiiifaciiires are those of Nilk, Ir^iilur,
lace. Wind, and cotton, but noiu! of tliein ariMviv
lloiirishiii^'.
The trade of llarcelonn has declined Hiiiic tho
emancipation of Spanish America; but it is >ii||
far frmii iiicmisidirable. The subjiiincil <.i,'ii,'.
meiit. compiled from ollicial returns, ^Ivcs Uw
nuinlier of yi/'(7/V/ vessids which entured the |H]ri
of itarcelmia dnriiijj; llu; live vears UllKMll, (i,.
f;elher w ilh the aninnnt of their toima^'e, niui tliv
total value of cargoes: —
Venn
VrlKli
Tom
Value of CargoM i
lHi;i)
170
;17,7!I.'1
isi;i
i:t:i
.•||.7H,'i
;ins,i;ii5
lH(i-2
l.'iO
4(I.!I!I2
!)il,7'J0
iHii:i
IS.',
4ll.l!iO
KiT.lll.'i
1M(14
104
•J7,<ll'>
s:i,H70
The principal imports arc cotton, siijrnr, tj.li,
llidl^s, ('ocoa, iron boojis, cinnamon, dye-wiMiils iii.
digo, staves, clieeso, bees' wax, ciill'ee, hnrii-, mil
specie, mostly from America. Cuba, ami I'lirti
Itico. Th(( exports consist of wron;;lit silks. mi;i|i,
lirearms, pajier. hats, laces, ribands and steel. 'Ihc
j harbour is formed by a mole running to a run-
I siderable distance in a H. direction, having n li;.'lii-
lionse and haltery at its extnanity. Tlie il(|iili
of water within the mole is from IH to 20 ft; bin
there is a bar outside, which has fre(|iiciit!y imi
more than 10 ft. water. When in the liarliuiir.
vessels are jiretty well protected; they arc, linw-
ever, exjiosed to the S. winds, and great ilonw^'e
was done hy a dreadful storm in 1><2I. Lir;;i'
vessels are obliged to anchor outside tho inuli'.
The Commercial activity of the city li.^s gnailv
iiii]iroved since the oi)eiiing of the lines of railway
which connect it with the capital ami tlio iiiii>i
important towns of Spain. A railway acrii.*^ ilic
I'yrenecs to I'crpignan completes the dircd in-
terconrso with the iiort hern .states of Eiirn|K'. Tiic
line from Itarcelmia to Saragossa was chiefly cmi-
striicted with the aid of French capital.
Itarcelona is supposed to have been foiimirl
about 2(1(1 years before the (.'liristian era, an(l>'i
after the establishment of the Cartluigiiiiaiis in
Spain, and to have been named after its InuiiiliT,
Ilamilirar Harciuo. After the Koniniis ami tjie
<ioths, it was subjugated hy the Aralis, iiiiii''
beginning of the eighth ce'ntiirv; ami ww n- j
coiKiuered from them by the Cataimii«iis,iiiik(ll';'
Valumf (•rgowi
HAHCKLONA (NKW)
Clmrli'inW" •»'"' I-uiliiviro I'Id, hi H(t|. \t whm
III! II ((iivi'riK'il liy I'liiiiitN, uliii \M'ri- iiiili'|H'iiil>'iit
».Mnwii'<. ••" •'"' ''•"' "' •'••' twiinii rciitiiry.
wlii'ii it »ii» ••<''l<'<l. Iiy iiiiirriiiKi'. t" ll"' <ri»vii «(
\ii\H'iii- lliiri'i'loiiit Ih ilifiliiiuiii.ilii'cl ill lilt' liisinry
,,| llll' lllilMIl' l>K>''* '■>'' III*' ''-''■■If Xl^ill' llllll KII<'<'<"<H
ulih uliii'li her rili/.i'iiN iironfi'iilcil ciiiniiu'ri'iiil
iiinlrriukiii^'H. Ml*- HJii^'ly riviilli'il llii> iiiiiritliiii'
ti,\\\[!i III' linly ill till' n>iiiiiirrrc III' till' l.i'Miiii;
llllll MMH mil' III' till' lirxl III r.'4liilili?«li riiii'iiK iiiiil
lai'iiirii"* ill ili'*iHiil I'oiiiitrii'H, I'nr thr iirulntiiiii
,111,1 Ki>i'iirily III' Irailu. ISIiii wuiilil Ht'i'iii ai^n l<> In'
iiiiitli'il til ilx^ liiitiiiur III' liiiviiif; ('oiii|iili'il iiiul
pruiiiik'itli'il ll *^ liiiniiiiH I'liilr iil' iiiuritiiiii' liiw,
known liy llic iiimu' III' till' Ciiiiiiitlulit lUI Miirf t
■M,\t\\>< I'lirlicHt itiillit'iilir iiolirt'H nf tlit> |iru<'llrr
nl iiiiiriiiciiiHiiniiu'ii, llllll ul' llii' iii'^ntiiitiiin ul' IiIIIh
„l i'.xrliiiiiK*'i uri' I" I'*' loiiiiil ill ln'r aiinali*. S\\v
liiuH Ik'i'ii >■>•'■'•' I'l^lcliriiti'il iiM a I'liiiiiniTrial tliaii an
II iiiuiiiit'ii'liiriiiK town; IIiiiiikIi ill lliiK, uliiii, licr
i,rii„'rt"<H liHH lit'cii vory rcNiicfialiU'.
llurci'liiiwi liiiH mi.'«laiii('il hcvcii rrKiilar hicuch
Miui' ill* ri'i'iivcry I'min I he Aralw. DiiriiiK lli*'
(jriiitt'r ["'ft "•' liK' war of tin- Siu'ri'(t»iiiii, it, ail-
hiTiil liriiily til till' parly of C'lmrlci; Imt. al'liir a
ili^lK'riilc ri'siHiani'c, it wtxn taken, in 1711, liy I lie
larri'H III' I'liiliji V., rniiinianiU'il liy llu! Ihir ilc
llirwirk. The Frnicli pit jinHMi'MKiiin of it in
jMM, anil licpt it all tlirmif^h tliv I'ciiiiiMiilar War,
III JH'JI it was attarkcil liv iHh' vi'llow I'l-vcr, wliirli
l-Miiiil til have earrieil olf a lil'tfi jinrt of the jinpii-
liiiiiiii. Thirteen eoinieil.H have lieen helil here,
mill alHive tweiitv-foiir asHenililieM ol' ilie ( orteH,
iImwii III the liwt, III I70)i, It ha.M hail, mImi, many
vi>iiM friini the iSpanixh niniiareliN, uh iliey were
iilill^'cd liy the law.s of (Jataloiiia to appear here
ill ihtkiiii to Ih! erowiieil anil taki; the oatliM an
Nivt'rei){iiH (if this prineipalily unil of Arapin :
MJiii'li cereniDiiv was oliservetl down to the lime of
riiilip \'. (Miiiaiio, Uieeimiario (ieoKralieo, ii,
;;:iii-;)'.)(), and Siippl., art, ' Ihireelona ;' Keport of
Mr, (.'iiiisiil llaker on the Trailu uf Itarcelmm for
iMil, ill 'Ciiiisnlur Iteports.')
IIaik.'Ki.ona (Xkw), a town of Coloinliin, cap.
prov., nil the left bank of the Neveri, alioiit ii m.
friim the sea, and 10 in. .S\V. Cuinana; hit, ltl° Ii'
M " N.; Iiiiif;. M° 47' VV. Kstimated puii. KMKMI ;
nliiiut half of whdin are Avhite!*. At the lieK'iimiiifr
111' till' present century, it had a eonsideralile trade
with the W. india islands. It is still a plaee of sonic
iiiiiinicrcc, heiiiff well situated for tlie exportutiun
III' the cuttle and other prodiicit of the liuiwn to the
W. India islaiiils. Speaking neuerally, it is badly
Imiit; the houses beiiif^ of iiind and ill furnished,
'i'lic streets are unpaved, which makes them lillhv
iliiriii;; the ruins, while in dry weather the dust is
inliilernble. It is said to be one of the most iin-
licalthy places in ,S. America. It was founded in
WU\ previously to which, the cap. of the distr.
wiiH Ciimnnn^oto, two leagues hi^rher up the river.
ItAlJCKLOXICTA, a siilmrb of ISareidoiia, on
tlicSE.hiileof the river, often considered as a sepa-
rate town. It was built in 1754, on a uniform
|ilim, under the direction of Marquis Miiiu: the
iioiiscsare all of red brick.
liAKCELONl'yi'Ti-:, a town of France, de'p.
liasses Alpes, cu)). arroiid. on the L'bave, ilO m. N K.
IliKiic. Pop. 2,42t) in 1«C1. It is beautifully
>itimted in a tine valley at the foot of the Alps,
iiUiw i),800 ft. above the level of the sea, 1 1
imisiiits principally of two main streets, which in-
tersect each other at rif^lit uncles ; the houses are
neat and good ; and, altogether, this is perhaps the
liiuiilsDmcst town of the French Alps. It has u court
•if i)rif;inal jurisdiction, a college, a iirimarv luir-
miii school, and an ji^riciiltural socmty. Above
20U silk looms have recently been established here,
UAKKIIA'
a.so
and it has also Home manufacture* of cloth, ami
fulliii){ mills,
lluri'i'liiiiette ii believed to orciipy thfl ^ite of
a Kiiiiiiiii iiiwii. Ili'in({ on the Iroiiiier of two
states freiiiM'iiilv al war, it lias beiii re|M'al«'dly
liikeii and reliikm : but was ilelliiilively cedrd
III Friiiici' by the Irialy of Itiecht. It was the
native plar'e of Maniiel, the lllieral deputy, In
wliiisi' mi'iniirv a nioniiiiK'nt has been cniisirui ted
in the priiK'ipal sipiare. It <'iin->isis of a fountain,
Niiriniiiinii'd by a fiineriil urn, and haviii){ on one
nf its siiles a bust of Maiiiiel, with the insrriptioii,
tiikeii from lleran(rer, ' Uras, lete el cu'ur, tout
I'lail |M'iiple en liii.'
IIAlit I'lLoS, or HAHCFI.LOS, a town of I'or-
tiipil, pMv. Minbo, on the Caviido, I'm in. N.
Opiiriii. I'lip. i'l.'.'oii in iH.'iM. It is surniiindi'd
by walls Hanked with towers: Klreets broad and
HtraiKht, hniises well built : it has a line bridge
over the river, ii griimiiiar-schoiil. a hoHpiliil, and
a Workhouse, The town is verv ancient.
IIAIIDSICV, a small island of N. Wales, in Ihn
Irish Sea, near the N. point of Cardigan Hav,
CO. Caernarvoii; hit. fi'J° l.j' N., loiif;. i*^ 111' \\ .
l.t'tiKlh about 'J III.; breadth I in. The pop. in
IN.'II was HI, but had decreased in IHlil toNI. The
island contains ;i7(> acres, one-eighth of which is
a inoiiiitaiii ridj^e, feeditit; n few shee|iiinil rabbits;
the rest a tolerably fertile clay f dl, Krowiiin piod
wheat and biirli'y. Its rciiliil dues not <'\>"ed
KtO/. a year, in three distinct holdili;{s. It in ac-
cessible only on the SI'',, side, where there is il
small well-sheltered harbour for vessels of ihirty
or forty Inns. On the N. and SV.. it is sheltered
by till' proiniiiiliiry of llraich-y-l'wll, 'i^ m. distant.
In the chtinnel between them is a very rapid cur-
rent, rendering it unsafe, exceiit to experienced
bands. The perpeniliciihir ami [inijectinK dill's
are a great resort of |iuliins and other migratory
birds in tin- breeding season, and their eggs form
a considerable trade, being gathered by men siis-
iw'iideil from the Hiiimnits oi'tlie pronioiilory. There
IS a lighthouse on the island (with lixed and re-
volving liglils), established in IH'II, under tliu
Trinity House, having the lantern eli^vated 141 ft.
above the sen. It is said to owe i's iireseiit naiiiu
to its forming a refuge for the last Welsh banls.
It had an ancient and celebrated abbey, the nniiual
revenue of which, at the general suppression, was
•Hi/. \s. 4,Jrf. The site is traceable only from nu-
merous walled graves, and a building called the
Abbot's Lodge. In a ruined antiipie oralory, with
an insulated stone altar at the F. end, the cluin'h
service is reail on Sundays by one of the iiihab.
to the rest, when the weather does not permit them
to resort to the parish church of Aberdavon, on
the promontory.
IIAHFILV, an inl. distr. of Ilindostan, prov.
Delhi, mostly between 2«° and 2!)° N. lat. ; having
N. the distr. of I'illibheet, F. and SF. Sliahje-
han])orc, and VV. and S\V, Saiswan and l^Ioraila-
bttd: area t!,i)llO so. m. ; surfuce generally level
and well cultivated: the Ganges bounds it VV.,
and the liamgnnga and many small streams inter-
sect it. In summer the heat is intense, but during
winter, with N. winds, the thermometer fallH
below iJU° Fahr., anil water freezes in the tents.
A few years ago there were said to be 4,4,")«,il80
kucha begas of hind in cultivation, assessed with
a land-tax of 2,2(i(),2S() nijiees, or a little more than
H annas per bega. jNIost of this is realised, though
the gov. not resorting to sales of land for arrears
of taxation, as in the lower provinces the land-tax
has always been diflicult to collect, and much
depends upon the decision and judgment of the col-
lector. 3,31)2,022 begiis are lit for culture, but not
in actual tillage ; and 3,558.{jU<J bcgas are reported
I
.'»(I0
IIAUKILY
I't <■
, i
[0
h'
'I 'l^
(W wMtc, To the N. lluni U tniirh JiinKli', nml
lirluri'ii lliiri'ily rltv HH'I Ain>|i''ln'r I'Hifiinlvi'
Miifli'N jiri'Viiil, niiiKlHlliii; III' IhiiiIh mIiIiIi vivtv
(iiriMi'rly riilliMilnl, liiil lire imw rnviTcil with
UiKKtftn^f, wliii'li iniri'lii'M mill iiilliiiiii't In niiiiiiiii'r,
mill ntMiniit* Miili liixi'M, Jiirkiilx, liii^M, Mini ^iiint',
lli'<liii|i IIi'Imt Kiiyx, lliiil till' Hull iihil I liniiili'Ki'iK'
riillv iiri' very liiii'; in miunI |iikrlH ilnii |ialiiin iiml
|ilaiilitiiii4 nrv ('iiiiitnnii, hm will mm wmImiii, ii|>|ilr,
uiiil pnir iriTFt, xiiii'H, Af. 'I'IiIh i|i«ir. U imiril li.r
a lliii' N|K'i'ii'N iilriif riillril /'i/iim«/(' (|irri^'iiiiiil with
iHrl'iMiir), Hii|i<'riiir tn the ImhI nl' riiiii.i, IIiik
liiiiiilry, III Ki'iii'ritI, in Miiiirrinr In llml nl' (hnlr,
iiMil llii' iirlii'h'N iiriiiliirril nl' ii lu'iirr i|iiiililv : Ihi'
"iiK'ir, rii'f, niiil cnlinii iirc Ihc hi^'InKl jiri'ri'il in
liiiliii. Till' nuiilH Mini liriiiui'M iirc lii'ilir lliaii in
innxt piirlH III' till' |lrili'<li jirnvincrN; iiinl ilu'riirl
t'niiiiiiiinlv ill MM' in n liiru'<'r luiii innri' cniivi'iiiriil
vi'liirh' lliiin iliiit III' ili'iii^iil, l''iirinrrly n utt'nt
iIi'mI III' will, rillli'il hiiniih mill, wum inililr Cnllali'
rnlly with iiitri', in lliiN ilitir., ami cNjinrlcil in
hir^)' i|iiiiniilii'M, 'rhr iin|>nriN I'min Ihc Inwir
liriiv.ariM'liiclly ('liint/.i'H,nni|jiii'!<,Hiilt,i'iiiir"«'Hni:nr,
mill I'lith'rv, t'litiiiiiM, rhciii) triiil\i'lH, I'nriil, IicuiIn,
mill MJiivc-^irlH: arlii'li's Iniiii (he lull ri'^inii, ami
<'\'i'n I'mni 'I'hiliri, wcrr rnrincrly iniiinrli'il lliilhcr
nil I III' liai'liH III' ^nalN, 'I'lic iiilial). m\' pri'lly
ri|iially iliviilcil iiiin lliniliin.miinl Mnhainnicilaiis :
lliii Irilic III' lliiiijari'cM (rarricrn lunl Imllnrk
iliiviTM), cxlinialctl iil I I.IHhi, liavt' hi'i'ii all cnii-
sii'lril rrmn lh<- rnrinir In the Inttrr I'ailli. Not
Iniil,' Minn' llarrily ilistr, was nvcrrini liv (.'Imi.t nl'
Miihainnicilan warriors, nr ratlu'r liainliiti, rriiily
III Join any h'ailt'r who chuNt' lo hire tlu'in, anil
many ihnnsanilH of whniii Ncrvcil iiiiiIit llnlKar,
•It'swiitit Wow, <kc, : llii'v Wen- lii-iatVri'tril In llii'
llrilish pivt'riiiiK'iil, ami for many years iliHiiirlicil
Ihc i-oiiniry hy rolilicricH ami other eriineH : lliey
have at lennth iinmlly either itisjierHed or nettleil
liowii into iiion* <|niel. livcN: lint Itureily is still
a ilistr. froiii which Jiiilieiala|i|icalH to theHn|irenie
eoiirls art! very l're((neiit. There are 1(18 I'erNian
ami lllo Hindoo sclionls in thiH ilistr,, eiilirely
siipiiorted hy the jinpils. Ilimlnns ami Miissiil-
iiians have no Nerii|ileM as to mi.\iii(( to^i-ther in
these estahlislitnents: reading, writiii)^', aril liinetii',
and I'erHian eoiiHliliite the |irinei|ial hranclies of
tuition, 'I'lie original Sanscrit name of this terri-
tory was Knttair, till incoriiorated with Uohilcnnil ;
with which it was cimIciI, in 177-1, lo the nalinii nj'
Omlo: since IKDI it IntH been under the Itritish
]iri sill, of Iteiifrnl,
llAitKii.Y, a city of Ilindostnn, cap. of the above
district, seat of a court of circuit and nppeal, bead
of a judicial division, and one of the six chief pro-
vincial cities in the lleiipil presidem;y ; on the
banks of the united .lo.inh and Sniikrah ;"lat. 2H° -''X
N., loii^r. 7!lo Hi' K. ; 42 ni. N\V. of tlie Oaiif^es,
and 7(10 in. t/jVV. (Calcutta. Total area 2,!i;t7 sij.
III.; pop. l,37«,2(iM in isiil. The principal street
is nearly 2 in. loiif;, and tnleralily well built, but
I be hniises are only one story bij,'h. Then! are
several inos(|ues, and an old fort ernniblin^ lo
ruin, 'i'be Itritish civil station and (tantouiiu'iils,
coiisis(iii)^ of a quadraii^^nlar citadel, Hurroundeil
by a ditch, stand S. of the town.
The chief manufactures are brazen water-pots,
decorated with varnish and a remarkable iinitatimi
nffjilding; other household articles; witbMiiddlery,
cutlery, carpets, embroidery, and hookahs. Tlierc
are till rersian and Hindoo schools in Hareiiy,
;)(•() seminaries, attemUtd by alioiit .S,((()0 puiiils,
and an established Eiifrlisli coIU'ku with (JD stii-
<leiitM; II persons teacli Arabic, and 2 others me-
dicine, and in the vicinity there are 9 liindoo and
13 Persian schools. In IS 1(5 an alariniiifr insur-
rectiuii broke out in tlila eity, occattioncd by an
IIA1U<>I><
nllempt to Impose n |Miliii< \nx, whirh wv n.it
ijni'lliil willmnl limcb dilllciilly and lili>ii,|,|„,,|
'I'be lanil.-t In the vlrinily are but k ii, iil„,t,, ,)„',
watern III the KaniKiinKn, utid are uiimialj^ in,,,,
duled.
IIA l{ I'.NTt tN. n town iif I'rniice, d.fp. r,« Miiiii I,,.,
cap. cant., 7 iii. Mi. .Mnrlalx. I'np. 2,Ii|m In |mi:i]
IIA lil''l,l'',l'lt, a x'li jinrl iii«\ii nf Kritiii'i', i|,,,[
I. a Maiirhe, III m, i;. ( 'hill Hiir^. I'np, |;iii| j,|
iMill. Its harliniir, whiih tMM otien cniiaiitirulili'
\» nntv choki'd lip with siiiiil.
II.MKiA, H fnwn nf t'eiitral Italy, iimv, l.iiivn,
near the .Serrbin, It! Ml. .N. Lllri'll. I'np, III' ,11,'
(riit 7,7!Mi in iMiil. There are tine Jns|K'ri|iinrrii»
ill its eii\ irnim,
llAiHiA, a tnwii nf Nnrllieni flalv, priiv, Ciiiij
•in III. SSW. I'urin. I'np, .'I.'.khi in' ixiii. |, j^
nillialeil at the I'nnl of the Alps, lieiir the jil't |,|,„|,
nf the (Hiitidnii. It has a maiml'ai'tury nl' iiriiK,
and a pnlly active cniiimene. 'I'lieru am njut,'
ipiarricH in its vicinity.
llAlttiKMOM', atnwii nf France, dep. Vnr, ;
III. NM'l. Iira^ui^min. I'lip, I,n7ii in Iniii, |,
siimds nil a hill cnvered with vines and iiliMH,i)ih|
shellered bv mniinlaius. Mnreri, tlie aiitlmr ,,r
till' fainoiis bistiirical ami bin;^ni|ihii'iil ilirtjiiiuirv
(I.e (iraiiil Itiriiuiiiiuire lli.siorii|iii'), was ii,,/;,
here in Ml ill.
IIA III (an. HiirlMin), a Dcn-pnrt and riiy n|
Soiilhern Italy, cip. prnv. nf Himie ii/mii', mi il,,
Ailrialic, .Oil in. NNW. 'i'areiitiim ; lal. IP 7',',''
N., liiiiK. M° '■>;»' 2" i;. I'np. ill,;i27 ill l>*i;i. Tl,,.
Inw'ii oci'iuiies a toiif^iie of laud of a triiiii;;iii,ir
form, and is defeiided by dmil'le walls aiiij a lil.i
del. The views from the ramparl alinve ilie li,',r-
biiiir lire «'Xtreiiiely line. Streets iiarrnw, iTnnki'l,
and liltliy; bniiscH ninstly mean; water lirmki-li
and bad. rrimipnl public buildings, — ivitliiilriil,
with a steeple 2li:l ft. lliiil; the old iirinry of Si,
Nichnlas, founded in 10^7, resorted to hy iIIhiixhikIs
nf pilgrims; the college, fminded In iHI7 fur il,,;
education of nobles; the lyceimi, the new thi'iitrc,
and lite vai^t building of the ilinceNan seiiiiimr\,
which admits 120 sclmlars fmm fniir priiviiKVN
who are fed, lodged, dnilied, and iiistriii'ti'il I'.r
ei;,;ht iliicatH u month each. It is the seat ul' im
ari'hiiishnpric, and of a civil and criiniiiiil loiiri,
Ite.sides t he eat hedral it has several parish cliiinhi <,
and cnnveiits for both sexes, an nrplian n-yliini,
two hospitals, and a lar^e arsenal, iiu liuiiiiK wiiliiii
it enrii ina^'a/.ineM and a monl tk pii'li. It Ii;i4
fabrics nf cottnn, doth, silk, hats, snap. (,diiss, \i\
The iiviiiia stomufliiiii, a liijiior made of licrli.'* mil
spices, and used all over Naples as rlinnne ciijj' . it
iirepared here in (;reat perfection. The jmrl.wliiili
IS encumbered with sand, only admits siniill vrit-
stds ; but in the roads there is i^ood aiirlinrn^'c in
from 1(! (o IK fathoms. Nearer the shore, in CrMiii
Id to 12 fathoms, the ground is foul ami riKiy,
A railway, opened in \Mi), eoiiiiecls the town «iili
Traiii and Aiicoua, and ma,v possibly cniitrilmli' in
raise tli<! fallen fortunes of the place. Itiirii-ii
very ancient city. 1 1 is referred to by 1 birace, Hmi
iiiiiiiiii /lisroHi. (Sat. i. T).) In mor(' nuideni tiiius
it fell successively into the possession of tlic Sara-
cens and Noriiiaiis. It has been three times nearly
destroved, and as often rebuilt on the same |iia<'<'.
liAiilLK, a town of Southern Italv, prnv. 1'"-
tenza, 4 in. SSK. AlelH. Pop. 4,272 in W<\. h
stands on a hill, and has three elmrches. It wm
founded by a (Ireek colony of the Lower Kmpirc.
IJAIMAO, a town of France, dep. (iarii, cii|'.
cant., Ill tn. K. Alais. Pop. 2,523 in IHlil.
HAli.IOLS, a town of France, dep. V«r, cup.
cant., 12 in. NNW. HriKnolles. Pop. 3,43.hii
l«(!l. It has a lilatiirc of silk, with fnliriis "I
paper anil earthenware, distilleries, and laiiniric.
•n-|i()rt iiinl <iiy "(
' Hlltnc llllllll', (Ml \\u
turn; Im. IP 7' .VJ'
H,;l'J7 in iwil. 'Ilir
laliil iif II lriiiii;;iil:ir
iIiIm Willis ami II liia
Huirl iiliiivc ilii' liiir-
I'l'lH iiarniw. cninki'l,
I'liii ; wilier liriicl.i-li
iilililinHC— <'fill»'ilr;il.
llu- olil iiriiiry "f Si,
iiirU'd t(ilivlli"ii«nM.U
imlcil ill JHWIiTili.^
iiin, (lie new lliciun,
• iliipi't'Him (ifiniimry,
I'miii I'mir |iri.viii.i-.
jl, and iiiHlriirti.l f.r
ll in I lie will "f m
anil criiiiiiiiil ri'»ri.
vcriil \mrisli eliiiriln ',
, an orpliiin ii--yluMi,
nal.iiu lulling wiiliiii
\oiit ill- piiti- I' !'■'■'
lirtts, sdap. kIiiss, h:
ir iiiiiiU' (if hcrlpi* "11 1
lies iw i7i"»fi«' <"J)' ., i^
iim. TliciMirt.wirnli
iilv ailinil!! HiniiU vc*-
|i«'pK«l niicliiirivi; i"
iriT the A\uxv, in rp'ra
1(1 JH foul luul riHy.
miurlslhclDWinviiH
ii(.ssil)lv iiiiilritiuli'i'i
till' iiliiri'. Hiifii-'l
0(1 to liy ni>riu'f, /I'l'i
n inoro iniMlcni liim*
(Msos.«ioii of the Sara-
ten tlirec times mnrly
lit. oil tlifi xamc plai'.
[hern Italy, iimv. 1'"-
:.,,. l.'iT'i in l«f-l. it
Irec churclie». It wm
If the I^owcr l•:ml)i^.
jiiee, iltV- •■""'' ^''''''
2,r)-23 in lXt'>l.
•aiicc, lU'p. V«r, onp.
lUcs. I'op. '^<^^' ";.
silk, with f«l>nis,"'
illcries, iiiul tiiiuHTi'-.
TIAHKINO
f),, ^iilttrrrnnonn rhii|M'l of tlin riihvttnl vt\n\M\\
,,l lilt' iMiri'fiHileil (.'aritii'lili-H \\t\n Noiint very tiirioim
jIllllM'lil''"'
|IAKKIN<i> A lowii nnil (mr. of Kiit^liinil, eo.
\:.«\, llllllll. Ik'Hi'iinlril, on llie UiHJiii;;, M III, I'',,
{.iiihlmi, I'll" |>o|iiiliilliiii, wliirli Mitit :{, till in
IH.II, llllil ri^ell III ,°i,ii7il in iHlil, 'I'lic wluile \M
rl<li liil>l n I Hip. of IM.tllHl in IMIII. Till' Inwil IH
Miiiiilnl itl till' III''*'! "f Harking {'tt<i\ las tlui |{it-
ilnu, U'lotv I III' loMii, i!< nxniilly <iille,|. ' liere il
HJilrli* «"'• r<'eelve» llio liile of llie 'I'liniii. ;. i in.
iiIhivi' ill illllnx illlii lIlill river, 'I'lie ItiHllllKCoK
irinliMiiii'li illlineiliiili'ly iiIkivi' till! t<i\wi, ImiI Iiiw
Iniii itiinle niivi^iilile for niiiiiII eriil't li> tiforij.
'riiccliiirili w«» fiirinerly altiielieil (otlu-rnleUNIf-''!
iiMxy, i»iiil lii»« iniHiy eiirionn inoinif||enti«. 'I'lif
li.iiiit in II vii'iiriine, with two elmpeU \^,/*v at II-
Tiril, llie oilier III Kpjiin^ h'orein iinnextiji it \*
,11 ilie piitroiiiiKe ol Ail Souls Coll., {txti^\,
ihiri' is a free wlnml niiil market ImiiHe, A courl
j. Ill III liy tin lonl of llie liwillur every lliinl week,
wlirn' I'lllisen of IrespitHS, anil of ilelilM iimler l*k
;irr irii'il. 'I'lli^ inllilliilillltf* ar(> ellielly tislierinell,
i.r i'ii|{iweil iiH liiirKenien ami market carriers to
1,1,11(1 '{'lie parish coiitainM 10,1 70 acres, nliont
|,.'iilM(if nliicli are occnpieil Itv llie fori'sl of lliii-
iiiiiili, Mliere is the fanioiiN kiiirlop Oiik. rontnl
hIiIiIi an iinininl fair Ih held on Ihe lirsl I'Viilay in
.liilv. .\nollicr portion, calleil the Level, is sn low
ihiii liif;li tides art' only kept out liy an emliank-
iii('iit; and it has lieeii Hitliject in foriiier times to
rri'i|iii'nt inniidiilidiis. The last HcrioiiM one oc-
curred ill 170", when I,000 acres of rich land were
lii't, mid Ik Hnndhank fonned at. Ihe lireach, I m.
Iiiiit,', Niretchiii>{ half across the. river. After an
iiiiiiiccessfiil attempt liy the propriittorM, parlia-
nicnl look it u|i as a national (uinceni, and a fresh
('Miliiuikmeiil. was made, which cost. 10,000/. This
liim Ih'i'Ii since kept in repair niider commissioners
ii|i|i(iiiited for the i>iir|Misi'. The hank is from M to
II ft, lii^h, and lias a pathway on its sitmmit.
(In'at ipiiiiilities of vcftetahles arc siipiiliud from
iIiIa parish to the London markets, heiii^ I'or-
wiinlcil tlnelly hy railway. Under the I'oor Law
.\mi'ii(lineiit Act, tlio whidc parish is pineal in the
liiiMifiird iniioii, and has v'n!,\\\ Kiiardinns.
Tli(< ahlH^y waH onu of the richest nnil most
nnciinliii thu kingdom; it was founded alioiit Ii77,
I'liriiinisuf tlui nenedictinc order, and several of
lis ubls-s.ses were canonised. In K70, it was de-
^l^lly(<l liy thu Danes, and in the lOth century
riliiiilt and restored to its former Hpleiidour hy
I'Mpir, Snlisc(|iient tu the Conquest, its piveni-
niciit was frennently assumed by thu Kii^lish
iiucciis. Its abbesH was oik! of the four who held
Urmiinl rank, and lived in ^xvnt state. At the
)!i'ii(<ral HiippreHsion, its annual revciuie was, ac-
mriliiin to .Speed, 1,0H|/. (in, -lht.\ according; to
l)u;;ilnle, H(i2/. I"2.<. itj*/. The alilx'.ss and thirty
mills were |M'ii.siiincd oil". There is scarcely a trace
lift of the liiiildin}^.
lt.U!-LK-l)L'C, or HAIl-SlIU-OI{NAIN,ntown
111' Fmiia', cap. de'p. Meiise, on the Ornain, 1 J,S m.
!'., I'liris, (111 the I'aris-Strasbourj; railway. I'op.
Il,!)'.'2 in 1«(U. It stands jiartly on the summit
anil declivity, and jtartly at the foot of a hill. Its
riiitle, nf which only the ruins now remain, was
liiirnt ilmvii in KJi!), and its fortiflcaticms were dis-
raiiiiileil in l(i70. The lower town, traversed by
the Oniiiin, over which there are three stone
Iiriil),'e8, is the best built, ami is the seat of manii-
ladiircs and trade. Anions the public buildings
arc the hotel of tbe itrcfect, the town-house, col-
li'SP, ami theatre. In one of the churches is the
rclclirated moiiumeiit of IJenc' ilc Chalons, I'rincc
of Orange, hy Kiehier, [lupil of Michael Anfjelo.
Dwides the college, the town has n nunnery, a
lU'lMOl'TH
301
norntnl M'h(Hi), n siH'iety of ii^ricultiire nnd of
arts, ami a public librikry ; It i« also the seal of
tribunals of original Jiiriidiciinii and ci>minerci>,
and of aciilincil of /irw>/>K himimr*. The eslabli^h-
iiii'iilM f(ir s|iinniiit( coiidii priNlnce annually abdiii
,'(00,000 kiliiKs, yarn J and there are fabrics of
ciitiiiii Mliill's, handkeri'hiefs, hoKJery, hats, and
JeWidlerv.Milh lanneries, works fdr dyeing Turkey-
red. riii< railwav, iks wdl as the river Orintin,
which is iiaviKHble fniiii the town, furnish threat
facilities fur fnrwardiiiK tiiii'ier, vine, and oiber
arliiles, fur the supply of Taris. Its ntn/iluriM ilii
ii' '' ire highly esfeeined.
I r.V, a sea |«irt town of Honthern
liiilN, [,1 ,, I ,i-irta, on Ihe Adriatic. Ill m. NNV.
JJiirti hit. U" I'.l' -JH" N„ hiiiK. \{fl IS' 10" K.
l'i,p, m.V-l in iMtll. It is ei ipassiil by walls,
and defeiideil fiy a citadtd ; streets wide anil widl
piiveil, l)ut slipi"iery ; l|iiu«',s lar^e and Infly, bilill
»vith hewn stone, which, (i,,iH .tge, has acii'iiind a
piilidi liltle inferior to that ut' inarliif, I'riiirlpal
pnblitr liiiililiiii;— tli(> catlu'driil, a linthic -ilriic-
tiire, reniiirkalilr I'ur its hi^ii steeple, (■|e;^iiut e\-
leriiir, and the aiillipic ^'lanili' cnlmnns in lis
interior : ihere are also several other chiireliiM and
eoiivenls fur both seses; ail orphan asyhiin; a
ciille^r,,, |°,„, ,,,!,,, I |,y |<',.rdiniinil IV.; and'a haud-
siiine ihiMtri'. ,\riir the cbiirch of St, Siepheii, in
one of the principal streets, is a eolos.sal bron/.e
statue, 17 ft. .'I in. bi^h, npretcntiiij,', as is siip-
piisi'd, the jjiiperor lleraclius. Ilailetta is the
resiih'uce of a siib-inlcudaut, and an in«peciiir-
^eiieral of Ihe adjoining salt-works. \ inap:iiilicent
Kiilewav coiiimiinicales from the luwn to the Imr-
boiir. riiis is formed by n mole runniii;; out from
the shore with a breakwater lyinn beliire it. On
Ihe latter is a low li^dit-house.' The harbour only
admits small vessels; but there is jjood anchorage
in the roads, with oil-shore winds, at from I to
.1 m. N. by \Y. of the li;,'lit-honse, in from H to l.'l
fathoms, soft mnddv Isiltom. It carries on a con-
siderable trade Willi other ports of the Adriatic,
and the Ionian Islands, I'rincipiil exports — wine,
oil, salt, corn, wool, lamb and kid skin.., alnionds,
and liipiorice. Mr. Keppid Craven says that llar-
letta a|ipeared to him intlnitely superior to most
N'i'apolitan towns. In winter the climate is e\-
ceedin;;ly mild; but iliirin;; (lart of the hot months,
it is unliealthv. Ther(( are very productive salt
springs about t m. N. from the town, manajfcd on
account of f^ovcniment. (('raven'H Naples, p. «li.)
n.VI!,MlCN. See l'',I,liKltKKI,I»T.
lUKMOirni.or AllKKMAU'.fttownmidsi.a-
jiort of N. Wales, CO, Merioneth, hund. Kdoriiion,
liar. Corwen, ;■),■> m. W. Shrewsbury; lat. f>2° l.'J'
N., loiif,'. 4<' 2' W. I'op. of re>{istrar's district,
7,lil.'lin IHlil. The town issiluatedon tlieN.side
the entrance of the Maw, in Cardi^'an liay, where
that riicr opens to an estuary (of about 1 m. in
breadth at hi^jih water), whiidi forms its harbour.
The hoii.ses are built in siure.ssive ranges up the
steep acclivity of a bare rocky mountain, from the
bii.-^e III about the sumniit, and are shidtered on the
N. and K. by other mountaiiiH. The wlnde has ti
sinf,'ularly ronumtic appeariinco. There are seve-
ral churches of the established worship, and the
Independent.s, (Jalvinist.s, and VVesleyans have
chapel.s. ISarinouth ranks hi^'h, as a favi'iiirite pliici!
of resort, anioiif^ the waterinj; towns of this coast.
There are excellent hotels, with .sen-water balhs,
billiard and nssembly-room.s, and numerous re-
spei^table h)(l^;inf;-house.s. The entrance to the
harbour is partially dosed by the small island of
Yn.s-y-Hriiwil, or f'riar'H Island, and by a fjravel
bench, on the S. There are shift inj; .sands, called
the N. and S. bars, which make the entrance dilli-
cult ; and it hs acccssiblo only to veu^cL) of any
362
HAKNARD CASTLE
Uront burden at BpriiifX titles. In 1K0"2 it wan im-
]irovGd by buildin|; a Htnnll pier, on wliich tlierc in
u Iwacon, There are weekly markets fMi Tiiewlays
and FridayH, and four fairs, held on Sbrove-Tues-
(iav, Whit-Monday, Oct. 7th, Nov. 2I.st. Miiif)-
biiilding and tanninp: arc earried on to some ex-
tent in the \\art. Previously to the last Freiieh
>var, it traded with Ireland and the Mediterranean,
but the eoasting trade is now the only one. It
exports timl>er, bark, cop|M>r, lead, and inan^'anese
ores, and slates ; and imports eorn and Hour, coals,
limestone, hides, and groeeries. The ri\'cr is navi-
gable for biirjjes of 20 tons to within 2 m. of J)ol-
jjelly. Then' is a larnc turbary in the vicinity,
throtifjh which a walled canal is formed, and by it
and the Maw fuel is conveyed to both towns. Har-
mouth is a creek of the port of Aberystwith :
Ahermaw is the Welsh name, indicative of its
localiiy : the Knjflisb one was adopted at a meet-
ing of'nnisters of vessels, in 17(W. From the har-
bour to where the Astro joins the sea, there is a
smooth sandy Iwach, the view from which is mafj-
nilicent. On the W. are tlie opposite shores of
(,'aernarvon ; on the \. hi^'h mountains protrude
into the sea; above which, in the distance. Snow-
don may l>e seen in clear weather. The line of
road to l)olp'lly, 1(1 m. K. of Harmoutii, comi)rises,
jierhnps, the most maK'nilicent scenervin Wales.
HAKNAIM) CASTLK, a mark.-t-to. of i:nj;-
land, CO. Durhnni, on the Tecs, 227 m. NNW.
London, and 2 m. SW. Durliam. I'op. 4,177 in
IKiJl. It derives its name from its founder, Har-
nard, an ancestor of John ISaliol, and a native of
the place, who erected a stron;; castle, which after-
wards iMjcame the property of Kich. III. wlien 1 )nke
of (Uoucester. in right of liis wife, Anne Neville.
During a rebellion in the time of Elizabeth it was
taken by the insurgents, after a stuliborn defence.
The town, situated on a stee]> : < ;iivity over the
Tees, consists principally of one street, nearly a
mile long, well paved, and supplied with water,
and of a very cheerful ajipcarance, from the houses
being built of a white freestone. St. ]Marj''s church
is an ancient structure, with a square eml)attled
tower. The Wesleyan and Primitive Methodists
and the Independents havt i)laces of worship. It
has, also, a national school, formed and supimricd
by voluntary subscriptions ; an hospital for widows,
foimded by John lialiol ; and a mechanics' insti-
tute, with a library. A jury, chosen at the court
banm, of Darlingt<m manor, which has jurisdiction
for del)ts under Wn., together with the" steward of
the manor, have the government of the town. It
is a station for receiving votes at elections for
members for the 8. division of the co. The manu-
lacture of Scotch camlets, which was carried on to
n considerable extent, has lately declined ; but the
maiuifacturo of carpets, hats, and thread, for spin-
ning which there are several mills on the river, is
in a thriving state. N. of the town was iMarwood,
once a considerable town, and giving name to an
extensive tract of country, but now to be traced
«mly in the ruins of the church, which is converted
into a bam. About 2 m. dLstant there is a chaly-
beate spring. The corn market, which is one of
the largest in the N. of England, is held on Wed-
nesdays, that for cattle on alternate Wednesdays ;
fairs on the Wednesdays in Easter and Wliitsim
Avceks, and on St. Magdalen's day.
BARNAUL, a mining town of Siberia, gov.
Tobolsk, circ. Tomsk, on the river Obi, near the
Altai Mountains, lat. 5;;° 20' N., long. H'd° 2G' E.
I'op. 11,635 in 1S6H. The town is the seat of a
board for the administration of the mines, and large
f|uautities of gold and silver ore are melted here.
Considerable quantities of gold are obtained from
the latter.
BARNSTArLE
llAUNET (CHIl'I'ING), a i)ar. and town nf
England, co. Hertford, bund. Coshio, 11 m NNW,
London. I'o]). of parish, 2,!)K0 in IHtU. It rniwin
n hill on the line of the great N. road from the
metro|Milis; and, Iwing n considerable thorDu^li.
fare, and having a station on the (treat Nortliorii
railway, has usually a bustling a|>pearance. The
cliurcb is ancient, with an cnd)attled tower, lliere
is also an inde])endent cha[K'l ; n free grnmtnar-
school, founded by Eli/.abetb ; another free sciiiMil,
foimded 172,') ; and two sets of almshouses, each for
six iM)or women. A weekly market on Moii(l«v
and fairs April 8 and September 4: the latter
being one of tlic principal cattle fairs in the kiii^;-
dom. It is the central town of a poor law uniun
of nine parishes.
(Jn the 1 1th April, 1471, the decisive battle took
])lace between Edward IV. and the Earl of War-
wick, on (iladsmuir Heath, in the vicinity of tliU
town ; when the latter, at the head of the Lantw-
trian forces, was totally defeated and .-ilaiii. An
obelisk was erected in 1740, in commcmorntion nf
the event.
HAHXSLEY, a market-to. of England, W. rid-
ing CO. York, on the Dearne, 155 m. NW. l>y\
London, iil m. SW. York, and 9 m. S. Wakeli'eM,
on the (ireat Northern railway. The popnlatidii.
which was H,2H4 in 1H21, and 12,310 hi 1«4I, hnil
risen to I7,K1I0 in IHtll. The to. (in Doinesduv
Hook culled Berneslei/e) is situated on the side of
a hill. Streets generally narrow, and houses old.
but latterly it lias been much improved, niid is
paved, liglited with gas, and well supplied wth
water. It has two episcojjal i)laces of worsliip,
with a Hoin. Cath. and several dissenting cliapcls
A free grnmmar-school was founded in \iVii>, it
has also national and other schools, a siibsiTiption
library, and a scientific institution. A court baron
is held annually, under the Duke of Leeds, luni of
the manor •, a court leet, for the honour of I'mitc-
fract, with jurisdiction to the amount of .')/,, every
third Saturday; and petty sessions on Wednesday.
The meetings are held in the new town-hall. Tlii?
is one of the places f(jr receiving votes at general
elections for the riding. Linen is extensively
manufactured, as is also steel wire for needles.
There are three foundries, in which steam cnxiiici
are made, and bleaching and dyeing are carried on.
The place is surrotiiuled witli coal-pits, a gre,it
])ortioii of the produce of which is sent by rail to
the metropolis. M arkcts on Wednesday and Satur-
day ; fairs on the last AV'ednesday in Feb., l:!lli
May, and 1 1 th Oct. A canal, connecting tlie(,'aldiT
and Don, passes by the to^vii.
i>jVi..''iSTABLE, a sea-port town of the Unitotl
States, Massachussetts, cap. co. same name, on the
narrow isthmus bounding Cape Cod Uav, to the
S., 63 m. SE. Boston. Pop. 5,590 in imi It
has harbours on both sides the isthmus ; that on
the St. side, called Ilyannes Harbour, is pni-
tected by a breakwater, formed at the expense of
the general government. There are extensive suit
marshes in the neighbourhood, whence lar^'B
quantities of salt are obtained, and the inhabii-
ants are largely engaged in the fishery and coiu-it-
iiig trades. The jiort has about 80^000 tons I'f
shipping, one-half of which is employed in liis
coasting trade and in the cod and mackerel fish-
eries.
liAHNSTAPLE, a port of entry, bor.,and tmii
of England, co. Devon, bund. Braunton, on the K.
bank of the Taw, where it is joined by the Yen,
and at the jwint where it begins to expand intn
an estuary, 172 m. W. by S. London, by road, ami
233 m. by (Jreat Western Kailway. The j)«pii-
lation, which ainoinited to 11,371 in 1 .Sol, hail
fallen to 10,738 in 18G1. There were 2,116 iiiha-
iPd town nf
11 m NSW.
. It criiwiH
lail from the
le t)ii)r()U){li.
•at Ndrtlicrii
irance. The
Dwer. llierc
ec urommiT-
T free Hcliiinl,
luses, each f(ir
un Mdiiilny,
I: th« latter
I in tlic kii\(;-
9ur law uuiun
vo, battle took
Karl of Wnr-
icinily of tliLs
of the Lantw-
ivl .-tlain. An
mcmuration of
Uland, W. rid-
in. X\V.l>vN'
. 8. Waketielil,
lie populntiini,
10 in 1841, hmi
(in Doinesdiiy
on the niiU' nf
mil lu)une« i)hl,
Hiroved, anil is
1 ttiipplieil wlh
t-es of worxhip,
suntint; ehaiitls,
(led in HJli-'). it
*, a subsoription
A court liarun
of Leeds, hird of
lonour of I'oiite-
unt of f')/., cvcrv-
s on Weilnesdny.
town-liall. This
^otcs at <^mm\
is extciij-ively
ire for ncedUs,
:h steam eiifjiius
iji are carried on,
|Oiil-viit8, a great
lis sent by rail to
icsdavnndSatiir-
av ill Feb., loth
ecting tlictaldcr
Ivn of the Unitfd
\me name, on the
[Cod 15av, to tlie
boo in Wfi- It
Isthniiis; that mi
jiarbonr, is pro-
tt the expense ot
^re extensive sih
, whence laivc
.md the iiihahii-
ishery and coibt-
It 8tl,000 tons "f
lemploycd in the
id mackerel fisli-
W, bor.,andtnwi
tiinton. on the K.
lined by the Yeis
L to expand into
flon, bv road, ami
Iway. "The imp
b7l in 1«J1. I*'
Iwcrc 2,116 mha-
BARNSTAPL?:
bited houses in 1851, and 2,187 in 18(11. Tlic
town is situated in a vale, sheltered on the 1%. hy
a (Hwicirde of hills, and eoiitainH many good
(irion streets and well-built houses; it is adeciuately
siippliwl with water, and jiaved and lighted under
n hical act. The comniunication with the oppo-
sltc side the river is kept up by means of an
an<'ieiit bridge of l(i arches. Ucsides the estab.
clinreli (a spacious old structure with a spire), the
IJuptistti, lnilei)cndents, and MetluHlistH have each
n ehapeL The guildhall is a handsoine modern
huildiiiKi the under part of which is occupied as a
niiirkt't-place. There is a pood theatre and bil-
iiiird and assembly-rooms ; a tree grammar-school
endiiwcd in lt!4!), in which the poet (iay, a native
(if the vicinity, and some other distiiif^uisbed in-
diviiliials, have been educated; two other en-
(hiwed charity-schools : in one 60 lioys and 2(( girls
lire c'litlicd and instructed, in the other 20 girls
are tnuftlit to read and knit ; with national aiul
(itlier schools supported by sid)scription. There
lire three sets of almshouses in the town for aged
|K«ir: I'aige's, founded in IfwiJ; LitchtUm's, in
1(W4; and Horn wood's : they provide for about tiO
individuals. 'JTie N. Devon intirmary is near
ItaniHtaple : it is an extensive establishment, siii>-
portcd by sid)M'ripli()U, for the medical relief of
the district. The town has a weekly market on
Friday; monthly cattle-markets on the same day,
wiiil'li are numcroiislyattended; two great mnrUots
im the Friday im-ccding April 21st, and the si>-
I'ond Friday in Uecembcr; and a large anniuil
fair for horses, cattle, and sheep, held on the l!)th
Sept. and two fidlowing days. In the to>vn are
manufactories of serge, inferior broail cloths, and
laie; and in the immediate vicinity, six or seven
laii-yards, a i)aper-mill, and an iron-foundry:
considerable quantities of earthenware, tiles, and
hrieks, are also made in the neighbourhood. The
quay is only approachable by the smaller classes
of vessels ; and the only deep water within the
l«ir, for vessels to ride in, is at the Pool of Ap))le-
dore. This bar, which is at the outer entrance to
the estuary of the Taw (7^ m. VV. of llnrnstaplo),
has, at low water springs, not above 2 ft. ; at high
water ditto, 27 ft, ; and at high water neaps, about
It ft. The shipping, on Jan. 1, 1«(>1, comprised
l.oiil sailing vessels, of 42,058 tons, and 210
steamers, of 17,405 tons, which entered the har-
hoiir. The clearances, in 18(i;{, amounted to a
total of 407 vessels, of 23,047 tons, inclusive of
207 steamers, of 10,508 tons. The imports of the
town consist chietly of timber and deals from
Canada and the Baltic, coals and culm from Wales
and Ilristol, and groceries. The exjjorts consist
of the manufactured and agricultural produce of
tiie town and district. The town is connected
hy railway with Exeter and other towns in the
west of I'^ngland. The new pari, borough com-
prises the par. of nornstaplc, and portions of that
of I'ilton, on the N., and Jlishop's Tawton, on the
S.: it is divided into two wards, and governed by
a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen councillors.
Courts of pleas, and sessions, are held quarterly,
in the guildhall ; and a county court is cstablisheil
here. Bamsta])le has returned two mem. to the
H. of C. suice the 23rd of Edward I., the right of
flection being in the remaining old freemen and
10/, householders. Kegiat. electors, 7!t3 in 1864.
Barnstaple is of great antiquity, having been a
liHr;,'h in the reign of Athelstan. " It had a castle,
Imilt in the reign of William I. : at the Domesday
survey there were forty burgesses within, and
nine ivitliout, the borough. It furnished three
ships against the Spanish armada, and, in the latter
part of Elizabeth's reign, it is mentioned as a
considerable depot for wool, and as trading largely
BARODA
303
with France and Spain. It had a monastery of
(Hiiniac monks, founded soon after the Conquest,
which continued till the general suppression.
IJAKOACII or UKOACH (Hurigoshu), a marit.
Itritish district of Hin(h)stan, prov. (Jujerat, pres.
Hombay, chiefly between lat. 21° 25' and 22° 2(»'
N., and hing. 72° 50' and 73° 2.3' E. ; having N.
Kairah distr., E. Karoda, 8. Surnt, and VV. the
(julf of Canibay : area 1,000 sq. m. I'op. esti-
mated at 260,0(")0. It is one of the Iwst cidf ivated
and most popuhuis tracts in the VV. of India; its
aspect is however rendered rather uufdeasant from
the absence of trees, and the ill-built villages of
unbunit bricks. Cotton is one of its chief pro-
duces. Three-fourths of the |)op. are Hindoos;
the rest MohammeiUuis. It has formed since 18((3
part of the liritish d(miini()ns.
liAKOACii (an. Barygaza, tratvr ofweiilfh), cap.
of the above district, on the N. bank of the Ner-
budda, 25 m. from its mouth ; lat, 21° 40' N., hnig.
73° 14' E. Pop. estimated at 30.000 in 1«20, and
at 20,000 in 1858. Town poor and mean; streets
narrow and dirty; climate hot, and considered un-
healthy. The Ncrbudda is here two m. across, is
very shallow, and aboinids with carp and other
iish. Uaroacli maintains a considerable trade in
cotton, grain, and seeds, with iSondiay and Surat,
Two-thirds of the inhabitants are iIiti(Uios. The
Itrahmins have a hospital for sick au(' iulinn ani-
mals, siqtported by V(duiitarv gifts, taxes on mar-
riages, (fee. The vicinity of linroach is very fertile.
It was taken by storm i)v the Hriiish in 1772.
BAIIODA, or UKtJDEHA, an inland district of
Hindostan, prov. (Jujerat, between lat. 21° 23' and
22° 40' N., and long. 73° 12' aiul 74° 8' E. : area
about 12,000 sq. m. ; estimated pop. 140,000. Mr.
Forbes (djserves, 'If I were to decide upon the
most delightful part of that jirovince (Gujerat), I
shouUi witlKuit hesitation prefer the pergunnahs
of Brodera and Neriad.' It is fertile, generally
well cultivated, and, down to 1821, was decidedly
(jne of the most flourishing tracts in India. ' The
crops in other districts,' says Mr. Forbes, ' may be
equal hi variety and abundance; but the number
of trees whiidi iuU)ni the roads, the richness of the
mango-topes roimd the vilhiges, the size and ver-
dure of the tamarind trees, clothe the country with
uncommon beauty.' The sugar-cane, tobacco, in-
digo, com, oil, jiulse, opium, flax, hemp, and cotton
are grown ; the latter being the staple commodity.
Provisions are abundant aiul cheap; deer, hares,
l)artridges, quails, and water-fowl extremelj' chc^ap
and ])lentiful. 'I'lie fields are divided by high
green hedges. Tlie numerous villages look more
HI the European than the Indian style; and large
stacks of hay are jiiled up and thatched ; a cus-
tom which increases a resemblance to European
scenery, and is not found in E. India.
More than half the inhab. are Coolies; the
wilder tracts are i)eopled by Bheels : the remainder
of the popidatioii are a race of HaJ))()ots, Hindoo
Banyans, and a few Mohammedans around liaroda
city. Agriiudture is the prevailing occupation,
especially of the Coolies ; who, though a turbulent
race, ranging themselves under dill'erent chiefs,
yet, when ])roperly restrained, are not bad tenants.
They wear a petticoat, like the Bheels, round the
waist, a cotton cloth round the head and shoulders,
and a quilted kirtel, or lebada, which they cover
with a shirt of mail ; they are anned with sword,
buckler, bow and arrows, and the lorsemen with a
spear and battle-axe : they often undertake secret
nv)ctunial marauding expeditions. They are but
little subject to the laws ; and the magistrates are
obliged to oppose force to force, by maintaining
large bodies of armed men in their employ. The
local administration of justice, and the collcctiuu
m
^
m
2 n-t ■
i
lit
'<!
304 BARODA
of the revenue in liiirnda arc in the handH of
wamlHtdur», or hcad-rarmcrH, Hul)ject to the con-
trol of the prince or hin ministcrH. Uolh iHsnton
and pniperty are more secure, nnd the cultivation
in a iMittcr Htnte, in the adjacent districtH, which
liave l>cen ceded to tlie ItritiHh. Of late yenrs the
produce of this district has K'patly diiiiiniKhed,
the land lost a third part of its former value, anil
the revenues l»cen considerably depressed, throufjli
the misRovernment and rapacity of the reigninj;
jirince, Syajeo Kow Guicowar. In 1«02 the tur-
bulence of the Arab soldierj', and the involved
state of the finances, induced Anund How to beg
the assistance of the Krirish government of Horn-
bay. It contimied under Kritish protection, and
in a comparatively flourishing state, till 1820,
when Syajee ascended the throne.
IUkoda, an inl. city of Hindostan, cap. of the
above district, and of the (iuicowar dominions,
and the seat of a Kritish resident, with a bo<ly of
froons; hit. 220 21' N., Icmg. 730 23' E. ; 46 m.
NNVV. Ilaroach, and 230 m. Uombav. The pop.,
in 1H1«, was estimated at 100,((00 it stands in a
marshy situation, on the left bank of tlie Vis-
wamitra river, and is surrounded (says TiefTen-
tlialer, who calls it a handsome city) by a double
wall, the inner existing under the Mogul dynasty,
the outer built by the Maharattas, wheii they
took the city, in '1725. The walla are low, of
mud, have round towers at iaitervals, and several
double gates. It is divided into four eqiml parts,
by two spacious streets, which, intersecting it at
right angles, meet in the centre, in the market-
]ilace, wliich contains a square pavilion, with three
ar(;he8 on each side, and a flat roof, adorned with
scats and fountains. This is a ISIogul buihling,
and, like some othei-s of that kind, not devoid of
beauty ; but the Maharatta structures are all very
poor. In the reign of Aurungzebe this was a
inrge and wealthy city, and still enjoys a consi-
derable trade. In its vicinity arc many gardens
and groves, the latter adorned with the remains
of Alohammedan mosques and tombs. In the
vicinity is a stone bridge over the Viswamitra,
remarkable as being the imly one in Gujerat ; and
some celebrated wells, with hiuidsome iiiglits of
sie|is and balustrades in the environs ; the largest
of these, Soliman's well, is famed for the purity
of its water, though that obtained within the city
is said to be unfit for use.
15AR(iUESnMET0, an inl. town of Venezuela,
South America, at the extremity of a table-land
enclosed by still higher eminences, 92 m. VVSW.
Valencia, and 90 m. NE. TruxiUo ; lat. 9° 5.?' N.,
long. 69° 25' W. In 1807 it contained 16,00()
jicrsons ; but it suffered severely from the tenible
earthquake of 1812, which scarcely left a house
entire, and buried 1,500 individuals in the ruins.
The jjop. of the town and its environs is now
l)erhaps 10,000 or 12,000.
liAIillA, an island of Scotland, one of the
Hebrides, being the most S. of the Outer Hebrides,
or group forming what is called the Long Island.
1*0]). 1,669 in 1801. (See Hkbuides.)
JiAHKA, a village of Southern Italy, 3 m. from
the city of Naples. Pop. 8,170 in 1801. It has
many country houses belonging to inhabitants of
Naples.
BAKRACKPOOR, a seat of the British gov.
gen. of India, and a military cantonment, in a
beautiful and healthy siRit, on the E. bank of the
Ilooghly river, KJ m'. N. Calcutta. IJishop Heber
ol)serves, ' It has what is here unexampled, a park
of about 250 acres of fine turf, with spreading
scattered trees, of a character so European, that if
I had not been on an elephant, and had not from
time to time seen a great cocoa-tree towering
LAUIIOWS STRAITS
above all the rest, I coidd have fancied myself on
the banks of the Thames instead of tiiu fianLri,.'
The park grounds are four miles in circunit'creiiiv
contain an aviary and menagerie. The cuiium-
nient is a large military village, with suiieriur
bungaliiws for the otlicers.
KAKRAMAIIL, a sulwliv. of the prov. of Salun,
Hindostan, presid. of iMadras. (See Samcm.)
KAItREAH, an inl. towi of Hindostan, pmv.
(Juierat, cap. of a small indep. principalitv, 7;') m
KNK. Cambay; lat. 220-14' N., h.iig. 74° K. [',
stiuids near the right bank of a tributary of tlw
Maye, and is neatly built; many house's arc of
brick. Its territory is wild, covered with jiinnli.
and inhabited l)y only a few wandering andiircdn'
tory ISheels : the revenues of the rajah are almost
entirely <lerived from compensations from liLs
neighbours to abstain from plundering, togetlicr
with certain moderate duties on trade.
IJARREHiES,or BAUREMiES LES BAIN'S.n
watering-place in France, dcp. Haiitcs Pyniurd,
12 m. SSW. Bagnf-res-de-Migorre. It is "tiituntdi
in the narrow valley of the Bastiui, in the cwiirc
of the Pyrenees, about 4,200 ft. above tlie level df
the sea. The valley is gloomy and desolate, bcinf;
anmially devastated by the torrent, or (inve of
Bastim, which frequently threatens destnictimi to
the town. It is frequented on account of its liot
baths, the most celebrated in Europt? for the ciin'
of scrofula, gout, rheumatism, and the eflkt oi'
wounds. In consequence of this latter pnipcriv,
Barreges is much resorted to by the militiiry, luid
an hos()ital is provided for their use ca|)iilil(! of
accommoilating 500 ofHcers and men. Tiie Imllis
did not attain to celebrity till the reign of Lmiis
XIV., when they were visited by Madame dc
Maintcnon and the Due de Maine. Tlie spriiij;:!,
like those in the other Pyrenean de'ps., arc iiinlir
the control of government. The sujiply of waiir
being sometimes insufticicnt for the demand, it h
distributed with the strictej^t impartiality. Tlic
temj)eraturc of the water reaches 10° Rwuimiir;
it has a disagreeable smell and taste. The seiuson
begins at tlie end of May, and ends at the be-
ginning of October. The' town is then entirely,
or all but entirelj', deserted. (Joveriuuent incurs
a considerable expense in the annual repaint uf
the roads and baths
BARROW, a river of Ireland, l)eing, next to
the Shannon, the most important in that iijlnniL
It rises in the Sliebhbloom mountains, baruny of
Tinnehinch, Queen's co. : its course is first XF,
to Portarlington, then E. to Jlonastereven, nnd
thence nearly due S., past Athy, Carlow, (Jraifr,
and New-Ross; about 8 m. below which it tlilLs
into the estuary of Waterford harbour, of wliich
it forms the right arm. Considering its miidtriitc
magnitude, the Barrow is navigable to a fjreat
distance ; large ships ascending it as far as >iew-
Ross, which is its port, and barges as far as Aihy
(above (iO m. in a direct line from the sea), wIhtc
it is joined by a branch from tlie (iraiul Ciuiiil.
This length of navigation has been partly I'tVcdnl
by artificial means, that is, by removing obstruc-
tions and deepening the bed of the river : iiikI
notwithstanding it is occasionally liable to im-
pediment, It has been of singular advantajje in
Kildiu'c, (Queen's co., Carlow, and Kilkenny, liv
giving them access not only to the iinporlaiii
markets of New-Ross and Waterford, but also to
those of Dublin.
BAiaiOW'S STRAITS, in NW. Amciiea, tlic
Sir Jamks Lancastku's Sound of Butiiii, is the
connecting channel between Baffin's Bay, on ilie
E., and the Polar Sea, on the W. It lies, iii a
direction parallel to the equator, between the lat.*.
of 730 45 and 74° 40' N., and is considered by
\
I'll mywlf on
tlie iianj^ts,'
irMtinl'en'nci',
Tlic I'lmuui-
vith suiit'riut
rnv.of Siikm,
Sai.km.)
kUisUiii, iiniY,
^ipalitv, 7.') m.
IK. 71° K. li
iliiitnry of the
lumwH lire of
I with jiiiink',
\\\fi unil))ri'ila-
jiih lire uliniMt
I Ills t'roiii \m
;riiig, togothcr
kdu.
LKS l}AISS,a
,utc» I'yri'iiW'ii,
It 1H Hitlllltlti
1, in tlic ccmrc
)ve the level uf
desolate, beiiii;
mt, or (lave uf
» (U-Htniutidii til
l!OUllt of its Iwit
'ojie for the cuw
id the ell'ect (if
latter pniiierly,
iie military, 1111(1
r use c!nmlil(! "f
neii. The liatlii
B reign of Lmili
by Madame dc
,e. The »iiriiit;s,
deps., are uudir
suiiply of waiiT
ihe demaiul, it is
Hmrliality. The
1 10° Iteaumur;
»te. The soiusdii
ends at the be-
18 then entirely,
ivcriunent incurs
unual repairs uf
1, Ixjing, next to
-it in that island,
iitiuns, l)ar(inv(if
urac is lirst NK.
lonastereven, and
r, Carlow, tJraic,
fVf whieh it falls
[arbour, of wliich
ring its raflderiile
gable to a poat
it as far as Ntw-
■8 as far as Aihy
... the sea), where
he (irand Canal,
en partly etVcctid
lemoving obstriu-
if the river : and
Jly liable to im-
[lar advantage I'l
lid Kilkenny, liy
;o the inipiitlaiit
•rford, but also to
I W. America, tlic
t, of l$atliu,istlic
lffin'8 Bay, "" '''«
Iw. It li«». '" '
1 between the Wn
' is considered by
BARSAC
r«rry to tcrminnte nt Wellington Channel, in
liinj;. 91° 47' W., the mouth, in llntHn'8 Huy k-ing
ncnrlv on the HOtli meridian. It m therefore ubuiit
2(«i IT), in length from K. to W., and lictween »>(»
and 70 m. in average width. IJoth Hhores (ire
hnikon by a great number of inlctx, and that of
the I'riiiec Uegent, on tlie 8., is of very conHider-
olile extent. It wan found by Kosh to terminate
ill n great gulf, called by him litrathia. Welling-
tiin Channel ia even wider at its mouth than
i'rincc Itegent's Inlet. It divides a large tract of
land (North Devon), the VV. continuation of
(iroenland, from Cnrnwallis Island, the first of a
MKU-essiiin of islaiuls terminating at Melville Island.
The coasts ore generally niggetl, consisting of
lii^'li mountains and sometimes table-lands, with
Ihi1(I bluff headlands, but in all cases extremely
sterile. Ttie stratiHcation is horizontal : thccom-
|)(isili(in generally limestone, but mixed with older
fdrmations, as dayalate, hornblende, and granite.
Th« water of this* strait is exceedingly deep, the
sdiindings frequently giving upwards of 2()0 fa-
thoms, and very often no bottom can be found.
Tlie tide ujion the shore rises about 3 or 4 ft,, but
of current there is very little appearance in any
(liri'clion, and what there is does not seem to l)e
nnifdmi in its t,et. Perhaps the most remarkable
circumstance connected with this strait is, the
slu;;f;ishne8S of the compass in its waters. This
is su great, that after advancing a short distance
\V., no alteration of course produces a change of
more than three or four points in the direction of
the needle; a fact the observation of which led
first to the ctniclusion that the magnetic pole
would be ibund in its neighbourhood. Whales
and other natives of the northern seas ore very
abiimlant ; but in this respect, and also in general
productions, the strait docs not differ from BatHn's
Itav, which see. (I'arry's First Voy., 29-52,
2ti4-2t>9; Purchos's Pilgrims, iii. 847.)
ItARSAC, a village of France, de'p. Girondc, on
the (ioronne, 21 m. SE. ISordeaux. Pop. 2,959 in
IHfil. It is famous for its white wines : they are
of the same class, and sell for about the same
price, as those of Sauteme. ' lis en different,'
says Jiillien (Topographie de Vignobles), * par iiii
iicii moins dc finesse, de seve, et dc bouquet ; mais
lis sunt filus spiritueux.'
UAK-SUK-AUBE, a town of Franco, ddp. Aube,
cap. arrond., on the right bank of the Aube, 28 m.
v.. Troyes. The pop. numberetl 4,727 in 1801. A
line of railway connects the town with Paris and
with the eastern de'ps. of France. It is agreeably
situated at the foot of a fountain, in a tine valley ;
hut is generally ill laid out and ill built. It was
fiinnerly much more considerable than at present,
as is e\'inced by the numerous remains of thick
walls, and fosses not yet entirely filled up. There
is a fine promenade along the river. It has a tri-
liunal of original juristUction; manufactures of
cotton, cotton hosiery, and serges; with nail-
works, tanneries, and distilleries. The vineyards
in its neighbourhood produce white and red wines
in considerable estimation. An obstinate conflict
took place here on the 24th May, 1814, between
ilie French, under Mortier, and the allied forces
under Prince Schwartzenberg, when the latter
were repulsed.
BAR-SUK-SEINE, a town of Frwice, ddp.
Aube, cap. arrond., on the Seine, 19 m. SE. Troyes.
I'op. 2,770 in 1801. The town has a station on
(he railway from Paris to Mitlhouse. It is situated
in tlie middle of rich vineyardsi, .it the extremity
•if a narrow valley; is well built and well laid
(IIII ; and has some line promenailcs on the banks
'd the Seine, which is here crossed by a handsome
"lone bridge. It has a court of original jiaisdiction;
BARTIN
365
and has fabrics of paper, cotton, hosiery, cutlery,
and tanncri(!s. Its ])nncipal trade consists in the
corn and wine of the neiglilMinrlKHxl.
This town was formerly fortified, antl was, in
coiisetiuence, re|M!atedly taken and retaken in tho
Hurgundian wars. In 1590 the inhabitiiiits de-
stroyed the fortifications, and it has since enjoyed
comparative tranquillity.
MARTEN, a town of Prussia, prov. E. Prussia,
10 m. N. Kastenburg. Pop. 1,085 in 1801. It ia
well built, and is defended by a fort.
UAltTENHTEIN, a town of Prussia, prov. E.
Prussia, on the AUc, 34 m. S^]. KonigslKirg. Pop.
4,*i95 in 1801. It is the seat of a court of justico
and of domains, and of an ecclesiastical inspection ;
has three churches, a c(dlege, an hospital, tanneries,
and faljrics of cloth, linen, and (Mttery^.
UAUTFA, or UAKTFELO, a free town of
Hungary, co. Sarosch, on the Tope, at the foot of
the Caqiathian Mountains; 15 m. NNE. Zelien;
lat. 49° lt>' 10" N., long. 21° 18' 51" E. Pop. 5,300
in 1857. It is well built, has several Catludio'
churches, and tho Lutherans have a church and a
school. It formerly enjoyed considerable distinc-
tion as a seat of learning ; and in the Kith century
several esteemed works proceeded from its presses.
It has a valuable collection of ohl records, and is
tho residence of several noble families. It has
some trade in wine, linen, and woollen yam. In
its vicinity arc two chalybeate sjirings much n;-
sorted to, and the waters of wliich ore carried to
other parts, like those of Seltz.
IJAItTH, a sea-port town of Prussia, prov. Po-
merania, reg. Stralsund, on the Binnen-Xec, which
communicates with the Baltic, 17 m. WN W. Stral-
sund. Pop. 5,757 in 1801. It has a chapter for
ladies, founded in 1733, and three hospitals. It
carries on some trade in corn, wool, and in ship-
building.
BAUTHELEMY DE GRONIN (ST.), a village
of France, ddp. Isere, 15 m. SSW. Grenoble. I'ltp.
750 in 1801. Near this is tho ' burning founttiin,'
one of the seven wonders of tho ci-devant Dau-
phine. It is a spring issuing from a calcareous
plateau, about 8 ft. long by 4 in breadth. Tho
water, though at the temperature of the atmo-
sphere, is always bubbling and iKiiling ; and when
it is stirred, or a burning body is approached to it,
it takes tire, as it sometimes does s|Hmtaneously
after summer rains. This phenomenon is sup-
posed to be produced by the escape of hydrogen
gas, generated by the decomposition of iron. The
gas is easily collected, and is at lirst verv inflam-
mable, but speedily h>8es this quality. There are
no volcanic phenomena in the vicinity. Of late
years spontaneous combustions are said to be rarer
than formerly.
BARTHOLOMEW (ST.), one of the lesser N.
Caribbee islands, belonging to Sweden, 30 m. N.
St. Christojiher's ; lat. 17° 65' 35" N., long. 02° 60'
W. It is of an oblong shape, its greatest length
being from E. to W., and contains about 26 s({. m.
Estimated pop. 10,000, of whom two-thirds are
blacks. It IS abundantly fertile, producing sugar,
tobacco, cotton, and indigo ; but it has no springs
nor fresh water of any sort, except such as is suj)-
plied by the rain. Being surrounded by rocks
and shoals, it is difficult of access ; but its harbour,
Lc Carenage, on the W. side of the island, is safe
and commodious. Contiguous to the harbour is
the principal towrn, Gustavia. This island was
settled by the French in 1048, and was ceded by
them to the Swedes in 1784.
BAK'riJM, or PAUTH IN E,a town of Asiatic Tur-
key, Anatolia, near the muittii of the river of the
same name (the an. Parthenius), in the Black Sea;
lat. 410 33' 52" N., long. 32° 14' E. Estimated
\i
Mi
360 BAKTOLOMEO IN OALDO (ST.)
pop. 11,500. It iH Hurnmixlcd by a riiinnuH wall,
hns twelve mosqitust, livu kliui)!*, aiul tour baths,
Tlipro i« (Ifi'i) water in the bay at tlie rivcr'M
mouth ; but there bein^ no mure than 7 ft. water
over the bur, small vchhcIh only can cume up to
the town : thexc load with timber, truit, c^^f^H, &c.,
for ConHtantinoplc. The principal import in ttult.
IJAKTOLOMi:() IN GALDO (SI.), a town of
Soiitiicrn Italy, prov. Foj?Kii»! '^7 m. WS\V. Vohki»,
I'op. 7,it'J7 in IHtil. It IS Nituated on an elevated
hill to the E, of the Fotoro ; hit/* a coUej^iate and
some other churclieH, and a diocesan seminarv.
HAHTON-ON IlUiMHICK, a markel-towu of
ICnulund, co. Lincoln, N. div. wap. t»f Ya^borouKh,
on the 8. side of the Ilumbcr. It include!) the
parishes of St. I'eter onil St. Mary: area, li,710
aciis. Toj). J),7'.»7 in l«t)l. The main body of the
town is about 1 m. from tlie river, but a portion
called ' liarton water-side,' is (pute contiguous to
it. Formerly it was a place ol' very consiilenible
importance, and was surrounded by a rampart and
fo8.se ; but at present it is j)rincipally known by
the well-fre(|uented ferry on one of the great N.
roads, leading hence across the 1 lumber to Hull.
There is a branch line of railway to New llolhuul,
which places the town in comnuinication with the
eastern counties railway sy.stem. It has some
jtretty good streets and inns, and two churches,
St. l'etei''s and St. Mary's; the former being very
ancient. It has some trade in corn, and a con-
siderable portion of the inhabitants are engaged
in the making of bricks and tiles, ropes and sack-
ing. The weekly market is held on Monday, and
another for cattle is held <mce a fortnight.
BAUWALDl':, or UAUENVVALD (that is,
• Forest of tl le Bears ') , a town of Prussia, prov. Bran-
denburg, on a lake, 32 m. N. Frankfort, on the
Oder. Pop. 4,015 in 1801. (Justc.vus Adolphus
signed here, in l(i31, a secret treaty with France.
ilASELlCK, a town of Southern lUd}', jirov.
Benevento, cup. cant., 21 m. SE. Campobasso.
Pop. 4,508 in 18(il. The town i.s situated on the
declivity of a mountain, has an hospital, and two
mo7its lie piiti; established to portion and marry
poor girls.
BAS-EX-BASSET, a town of France, dcp.
Haute Loire, cap. cant., on the Loire, 12 m. N.
Issengaux. Pop. 3,181) in 1801. It has manufac-
tures of blond lace, ribbons, and earthenware.
BASIIEE ISLANDS, a cluster belonging to the
E. Archipelago, 5tli divisiem {Craivjurd), lying
due N. of Luzon (Philippines), between lat. 20°
and 21° N. They are rocky, and live in number,
with tour .smaller islets. Dampier visited them,
and called the largest Grafton Isle ; it is about 13
leagues in circuit, and has good anchorage on the
W. side. It produces line yams, sugar-cane, plan-
tains, and vegetables, besides hogs and goats in
plenty. Good water close to the Ijeach is found
in abundance. Gold in considerable quantities is
washed down by the torrents in the Bashee Island,
which the inhabitants work into a thick wire, and
wear as an ornament : iron is the favourite metlium
of exchange. The natives are civil, inofl'eusive,
and social. These islands belong to Spain; the
governor resides on Grafton Island, with about
100 soldiers, some artillery, and a few priests,
BASEL, or BASLE, a canton in the NW. of
Switzerland, the 1 1th m the Confederation, between
47.° 25' and 47° 37' N. lat. ; having N. FVance and
the g. d. of Baden, \V. France and Solothurn, S.
the latter canton and Berne, and E. Argovia :
shape very irregular ; the greatest length is 24 m.,
and the greatest breadth from 13 to 17 m. : area
8 G., or l(jt)"ti E., sq. m. The Jura chain runs
through the country, its surface displaying, of
course, mountains and valleys, with a level tract
BASEL
in the vicinity of the city of Basel, The miinn.
tains reach an elevation of from 2,000 (n :i,(hhii>
obove the level of the sea. The most elcNati'il li
the ilauenstein, over which there is a miicli iVc-
(luented excellent new road, leading from Hnxul to
Aarau and Zurich, The Rhine tlows tliroii);h tlic
N. part of the canton, separating a small dlxtrii
from it** main body. Near the city of lluscl tl,,.
IJirse, which rises in the canton of Ilerne, lulls Jni,,
the Bhine : it is not navigable, but teems with
tish. Besides this, there are various rivulets dc-
scending from the Jura chain to the Ithitie. Cli-
mate niihl. Since 1831, when the country |mi|>ii.
lation revolted successfully against the aristucniii ■
rule of the^city, the cant, has been divideil intn
Basel city and liiisel country. Pop., cant, of Iksci
city, 42,251, in I8ti0, and of Bast'l country r)l,77:i
at the same census. The territory of the I'drmcr
comprises, besides the city of l!a>el, that piiriidii nf
the canton lying on the right bank of the Ulijn..,
The valleys and the plain near the city are wili
cultivated, and the country produces corn eii(iii;;||
for its consumptitm. There are 32,.')()0 acres of
arable land, l(i,817 ditto meadows, 3,410 ditto viiK -
yarils, and l.'),520 ditto of wood. Wine is niaile ul'
pretty good ipiality, the best being that of St,
.lacob, called SchweitzerliliU (Swiss blood). JIii-
nufactures form the principal employment (if tliii
people, Bibbon mulung had, so early as tlie coiii-
inencement of the 17 th century, become an iin-
|M)rtant business in Basel. After the revoeatiim
of the edict of Nantes, great numbers of Freiuli
emigrants settled in the town, who gave a t'resli
impulse to the manutacture. In 1840, there were
3,550 ribbon lixmis, 2,050 of which were in liiiscl
town and liOO hi Ba.sel country. In iHOil, the
number of looms had increased to 4,500, There
were 78 great manid'acturers in 18C3, employing,'
about 12,000 hands. In addition to the ribluiii
manufacture, silk thread, tatletas, with sntiii.s ami
cotton ribboiLs, are made on a small scale, Pai-
teriis were li)rmerly introduced from France, hut
now 14 or 15 i)attem-drawers are kept to pniviije
designs for the manufacturers. The value of the
ex])ort8 of ribbons amoimts to about l!(J0,0(Hj/.,
nearly half of which goes to the IJ. States, aiul
the other half to Germany, F'rance, Ilollaiul, Den-
mark, and Sweden, Salt-springs were discovered
in 1838 in Basel country, and salt-works citlicr
have been, or are to be, established. Each of the
two ilivisions of the canton has half a vote in the
Swiss diet ; and each has its independent govern-
ment, consiiiting in both of a grand coiuieil and a
petty council, the former with a president, and the
latter, in Basel city, with a burgoma.ster, aiul in
Basel country, with a president, at the lieaii.
About D-lOths of the uihab. are Prot., and !-l(itli
C'atli. Primary and secondarj^ schools have been
generally established. I'reviously to 1832, tjie
only university of Switzerland was in Basel, It
was founded in 1459 by Pope Pius 11. ; but at
present it has no great reputation. The revenue
of Basel town for 1803 amounted to l,'2;iD,l(iJ
francs, or 4!),578/,, about one-eighth of wliicli was
derived from excise duties, including tax for sale
of beasts. The public debt amounts to !t.'),070/.
The canton contributes 22,950 fir. to the treasury
of the confederacy, and furnishes 918 men to the
federal army. The communes are obliged to pM-
vide for those poor persons who have the right ol
citizenship; but, as charitable institutions and
private subscriptions commfinly suffice for this
purpose, a poor-rate is seldom necessary. The iu-
hab, of Basel city are aristocratical, and attached
to their ancient laws, customs, and manners ; those
of Basel country, on the other hand, have demo-
cratical tendencies, and instead of being averse
riio miiun-
tii ;i.oiH( It,
I'Icsntf'l i-,
I iiimli frc
iin Itiwel til
J)roii);h till'
lull (tistrii,
it' Uiiwl till'
ic, I'ulU illlu
tOCUKt Willi
rivulets (Ic-
H\\\\w. (.'li-
untry |iii|iu-
.! iiristticniii'
lUvidiul iiiiii
lint. Ill' Itii.x'l
iintry ril,77;i
t' tlio i'dimiT
lilt )Kirtiiiii III'
)t' till! Uliiiii',
city art' will
(.■urn eiiiiii^li
,iM) iicri's (jf
10 ditto viuc-
ue is niiule of
; tlmt lit' St,
blood). Mii-
yinwit of the
[y as till! colii-
;ci)mc nil im-
lie rcvoentiDH
ers of Frpiii'li
) gnve a fresh
4(i, tliiTe were
were in liiiscl
111 IWii!. the
4,500, 'I'here
Ca, employiii};
to tlio riljliim
vith siitius ami
II scale. Piit-
BASEL
from, ore prone to, IniiovntionH; violont nnimosi-
ti('nlittvi' oxistfd lifitwctiii tlui two ilivi>ioiis.
The I'oiiiitry wliich forms tlio caiifoii of riasol
iK'hniL'cd, in the times of tliu lioinuiiH, to the tvrri-
tory of il'c Bauraei. In tlie niiitillc iitjes it formed
part of the Burfcundiiin empire, till lO'.'G, when it
lame into the p<tHse»8ion of the Gemiaii emperor
(Vnrad II. Hn^el wns siilisequently povcrned l)y
an iin|H'rial luiilitV; Imt the liishoj) of llasel shared
with till' eiti/eiis in the povenimeut, Hy decrees
the I'itv ni'iiiiireil the same iiiiniiinilii's as a free
(ilvdf the empire. Basel assisted the Swiss in
till' Itiiriiiindian war, and was ailinitted u memher
of the confederiu'y in ITiOl, (Dr, Howriiin's Ke-
■Kirt on the Mamiliietures of Switzerland ; Iteport
hv Mr. Ihirnley, Secretary of Legation, lUited
June 2!», IHtiH.)
lUsKii (city of), one of the principal in Swit/.er-
Inml, Clip- «'f f''p ahovo canton; lat. 47° iio' it(l"
X., 1(111^. 7° Jl'' K. i ■'•> m- NNW. Heme; on both
jii'les the Khine, where its course turns N., near
the French frontier. The portion on the S. side
the river is called (Ireat, and that on the N, Little
jtascl, the conimunication Iwtween them heinp
kept 11]) by a bridge liOtt ft, long. Poji. of city
;i;,!ll8 in IMtiO. This is the jiopulation of the city
jmipcr; that of the canton, going by the name of
lia-tel-city, being 42,251. The city presents to the
vi.iit(ir a jieculiar mixture of the gaiety of a French,
with the sombre CJothic air of a ( lermaii town ;
' It looks,' says Dr, Ueattie, • like a stranger lately
arrived in a new colony, who, although he may
have copied the drcsH and manner of those with
wlimn he has come to reside, wears still too much
(if his old costume to pass for a native, and too
little to be received as a stranger.' It is sur-
runnded hy some unimportant fortilications, and is
tolerably well built. The cathedral, built IJU!),
on the spot where the Uoman emperor Valentiniiin
orijjinally erected the strong fortress called Btmlia,
contains" the tombs of (Ecolampadius, Erasmus,
and the Empress Anne, consort of Kodoliih of
Hapsburg. The other public buildings are, the
arsenal, the town-house, with some tine stained
ulass windows, and the hall where the Council of
liasel was held. Tliere is a university (sec pre-
ceding article), a gymnasium, and numen)us other
public schools ; a public library, with .53,000
printed vols, and many valuable MSS., medals,
ami paintings by Holbein; a botanic garden;
museums of natural history and anatomy; literary
and philanthropic societies, &c. Basel is the rich-
est town in Switzerland ; its inhabitants are in-
diistrioas and well instructed. About one-fifth
part of the state revenues are applied to public
ediiciition. Its trade is flourishing : manufactures
consist chiefly of ribbons and other silks ; those of
leather, paper, gloves, and stockings, are compani-
tively inconsiderable. Basel was a distinguished
city throughout the middle ages ; near it, in 1414,
a few hundred Swiss made an heroic resistance to
an army of 40,000 French, It was the birth-place
of Holficin, Erasmus, and Bernouilli.
BASILICATA, a prov. of Southern Italy, in
the farmer kingdom of Naples. Pop. 520,789 in
l>t()l. In the reorganisation of the kingdom, in
IMS, it was named Potenza.
BASINGSTOKE, a par., bor., and town of
England, co. Hants, div. and hund. Basingstoke,
45 m. WSW. London. Area 3,970 acres. Pop.
4,263 in 1851, and 4,(it!4 in 18C1. The number of
inhabited lioiiscs in 1851 wab 892, and rose to 938
in 18G1. It is a neat, respectable town, in the
midst of a fertile, well wooded district, at the
junction of five roads, one of which is the gTcat
W. line from the metropolis. The line of the
London and Southampton railway also posses
BASS
367
close to the N. of the town, and has a station
tliere; so that it iisiiiilly wears the npiioarHiice of
much bustle and activity. It is well paved and
lighliil, and has had many new houses added to it
within tlie laxt few years. A stream, called the
Town-brook, Hows past it to join the Loddon, of
wl)i(;li it is a principal branch ; a canal, fonned in
179(1, at an expense of 180,000/., exteiiilH from tho
town to the \Vey, which river coinniiniiciites with
the Thames, and so completes the water-line be-
twixt Hasingstoke and London. The church is a
siiacioiiH structure of thereigii of Henry VIII. The
triciids. Independents, VVi'sleyans. and followers
of Whitllehl, have cha))els in the town. There i*
a free grammar-schoid, in which 12 boys are edu-
cated; a l)lue-coat school for the same number,
supported by the Skinners' (^mi|iaiiy. of London ;
and a national school, for20li boysaiid girls; thern
are idso almshouses for 1 1 (Kior iHiople, and several
charitable benefactions, the principal being an
estate left liy Sir James Lancaster, the annual
proceeds of which aiiioiiiit to 250/. a year. Near
the town is a tract of 108 acres, on which every
houseludder has a right of jmstiire, from May to
(:hristinas. There is a good town-hall, Imirt in
1829; at which period the niarket-idace was en-
larged. The weekly tniirket is held on Wediies-
dav, and four annual fairs on Easter Tuesdav,
Whit Wednesilay, 23rd Sept., and lOth Oct.,
chielly for cattle. On the first introduction of tlio
woollen trade into the kingdom, this town obtaiiii d
a good share of it, and was for a hnig jieriod notcil
for ilriiggets and shalloons ; but at present there
are no manufactures. The malting and com trades
constitute its chief business; and, being the centre
of a rich agricultural district, its markets are vi^ry
well attended, and its retail trade considerable.
Under the Municipal Reform Act there are four
ahlennen and twelve councillors; and the bouii-
dnries of the borough, which were previously co-
extensive with the )iarish, arc restricted to the
area on which the town stands. It was incorporated
by a charter in the 20th James L, cimlirmed by
another in 17th Charles I. Courts of iietty and of
quarter sessions for the bor. are held, and there in
a court of pleas, which has now scarcely any busi-
ness. T^be revenues of the corjioratioii are derived
from lands and tenements in the parish, and ave-
rage above 1,000/. a year. Under a local assess-
ment for paving, lighting, &c,, about 350/. are
annually cidlected. It is the central town of a
poor law union of 87 parishes, and a pidling town
for the northern division of Hampshire.
The town is mentioned in Domesday as having
a market. From 23 Edward I. to 4 Edward II. it
sent two members to the II. of C, but thenceforth
the privilege ceased to be exercised. John do
Basingstoke, a distinguLshed scholar of the 13th
century; Sir James Lancaster, the navigator; and
Joseph and Thomas Warton, were bom in the
town.
BASQUEVILLE, a town of France, dep Seine
Inferieiire, on tlie Vieiine ; 10 m. SSVV. l)ieppe.
Pop. 2,974 in 1861. It has fabrics of linen and
serge,
BASRAH. See Bussora.
BASS, a rocky islet of Scotland, frith of Forth,
about 3 m, from Tantallon castle, coast of Had-
dingtonshire. It is of a circular form, about 300
ft. in diameter, and nearly 400 ft. high. Some
parts, not less than from 200 to 300 ft, in height,
project in lofty terrific precipices over the sea.
The summit resembles an obtuse cone. The con-
tinual beating of the waves has opened vast exca-
vations all round the lower sides. The sea is of
great depth on the N., E., and W., but shallow on
the S. ; towards which also the rock declines, and
808
BASS' STRAITS
in acccHHiblc in calm wcatlior. It is perforated hv
a ravcni, running N\V. and SK. ; it iH quite dark
in the centre, wliero tliere iH a deep |M)t)l of water,
W'henre it widcnM towardH lH)tli apertiircH ; that to
the SK. iK-inft the hifrlieHt. There in a Bpring of
water near tlie centre, ninli on tlie roclt, and grasH
for a few slieep iiept on iu Various corallines and
fiii'i arc produced in the surrounding sea. VaMt
quantities of solan geese resort to the liass in
Alarch, for the purpdse of breeding, and depart
in fSeptcnilwr. There was here formerly a castle,
afterwards converted into a state prison, where
various individuals have lieen confined. After the
Kc'volution, a i)arty of the adherents of .lames
VII. hiiving obtained possession of the castle, held
out after the rest of the kingdom had s\irrendered.
Hut their boats being at length seized or lost, and
not receiving any sunply of [)rovisions, they were
compelled to capitulate, when the fortitlcations
were destroyed. This islet is a very conspicuous
object, and is visible from a considerable distance.
UASS' STHAITS, the name givcsn to the strait
«ei)arating New Holland from Van Dicmcn's Laud.
It is so colled from Mr. Hans, a surgeon, by whom
it was explored in 1798, while on a sealing voyage
from I'ort Jackson in an open boat. Where nar-
rowest it is about lOo m. across, luid is much en-
cumbered yvitli islands and coral reel's, so that its
navigation requires great attention. The prevail-
ing wiiuls are from the W. The tide rises from 8
to 12 ft,, running at from IJ m. to 3J m. an hour.
HASSAIN, a marit. town of the Ilirman em-
pire, caj). of a prov,, and residence of its governor;
on the left bank of the Birman river (the right
branch of the Irrawadi) ; lat. 10° 49' N., long.
J)40 45' E.; 100 m. W. Rangoon, and 300 m. SSVV.
Ava. I'op. estimated at 6,000. It is one of the
three principal [wrts of the Birman empire.
BASSANO, a town of Austrian Italy, prov.
Vicenza, on the left bank of the Brenta, 17 m.
NNE. Vicenza, 21 m. N. by W. Padua. Pop.
13,100 hi 1857. It is situated in a salubrious hilly
country, suitable for the culture of the vine and
tlie olive ; is surrounded by walls, and well built
of stone. It is joined to a suburb on the opposite
Hide of the river by a fine bridge, 180 ft. in length.
Some of its churches are handsome, and adorned
with pictures by Giacomo da Ponti and his son,
natives of the town. There are here four con-
vents for nuns, a hospital, a mont de picte, and
barracks. The mineralogical cabinet and botanical
gardeR of M. Parolini deserve the traveller's atten-
tion. Bassano has manufactures of cloth, straw
hats, and copper utensils, with extensive silk fila-
tures and tanneries. But the printing establish-
ment of Kemondini is not merely the most im-
portant work in the town, but is one of the most
extensive establishments of the kind in Northern
Italy. It emjjloys 60 presses and about 1,000
hands, and has attached to it paper mills and
an engraving department, which has produced
Vol|)Rto and other distinguished artists. The town
carries on an extensive trade in silk, the produce
of its territory, cloth, wood, iron, com, wuie, and
rattle. A great deal of charcoal is sliipped here
for Venice.
BASSE'E (LA), a town of France, ddp. du Nord,
cap. cant., 14 m. W. Lille, on the canal of the same
name. Pop. 2,985 in 1861. It has establishments
for spinning cotton, combing wool, with soap-
works, distilleries, and potteries. Owing to its
position, it is the entrepot of the arroiidissements
of Bethunc and St, Pol, and has, in Cf)nHequence, a
considerable trade. It was formerly fortified ; but
Louis XIV. having taken it from the Spaniards,
uiadc the works be dismantled.
BASSEIN, a luarit, town of Iliudostan, prov.
BATAVIA
Aiiningabad, ilistr. N. (.'oncan; separated fr„in
Halsette by a narrow channel, and about 20 m \
Bombay ; lat. 19° 20' N., long. 72° 5(i' E. It Viw
taken [xmsessioii of by the Portuguese in l.Mi
who fortitlcd it with ramparts and bastions, nii<i
Bujiplied it with no fewer than seven churclivM, ]t
was captured by the Mahrattas in 17j)(); m'„| ;,
was here that the peace with the peisliwn, wlii,|,
annihilated their federal empire, was signed l)(v
81st, 1802, since which it has belonged to the
British.
BAHTIA.a sea-port town of Co^Hi<•a,cap.arrnnlI.
on its E. coast, within 23 m. of its N E, extrcinifv"'
lat. 420 43' N., huig. 9° 2(i' K P..p, li),;!oi in'
I8tn. This town, which was formerly the can. df
the island, is built amphitheatre-wise on a risiiiL'
ground, and has a fine appearance from tlic .hch.
But on entering, it is found to lie ill-bniit, niui
the streets narrow and crooked. It is defended |jv
a citadel, and by walls and bastions ; but these
are of no use, except for the defence of the port,
being commanded by the heights, at the font „f
which the town is built. The Iwirbour, fonned Ijv
a mole, is fit only for small vessels; its entrance is
narrow and difHcult, and vessels are ex|M>seil to
the land winds, which sometimes blow viulemlv
from the N\V'. There is anchorage out.side the
mole in 10 or 11 fathoms. It is the seat ofarnvul
court for the island, and of tribunals of commerce
and of primary jurisiliction ; and has a commminl
college, a model school, a society of public instruc-
tion, and a theatre. It protluces soap, Icatlur,
liqueurs, and wax ; and exports oil, wine, pont-
skins, coral, wood, and hides. It was taken liv
the English in 1794, but was soon after recovered
b^ the French, in whose possession it has ever
smce rcmahied. At the entrance to the port m an
insulated rock, called Jl Leone, from the strikiuj;
resemblance it bears to a lion cmtchant.
BATAVIA, a sea-port and city of Java, cap, of
that island : seat of the gov. of the Dutch posses-
sions in the E., and the principal emporium of tlie
E. Archipelago, on an extensive bay on the NW.
coast of the isl. ; lat. 6° 8' S., long. 106° 50' E.
According to an enumeration made in 1861, the
town had 136,000 inhabitants, of whom abnut
80,000 natives and 27,000 Chinese. Batavia is
built in a marshy situation, at the mouth of the
Jaccatra river ; several of its streets being inter-
sected by canals, crossed by numerous bridges, ami
their banks lined with trees in the Dutch fashion.
But these canals, being receptacles for the tilth of
the city, contributed, together with the nature of
the ground, to render it very unhealthy. In this
respect, however, it has been materially improved
since 1816, partly by building a new town on the
heights, a little more inland, where the govern-
ment functionaries and principal merchants have
their residences ; and partly by the demolition of
useless fortifications, the filling up of some of the
canals, and the cleaning of others, and the widening'
of several of the old streets. The older pans of
the town are now, in fact, principally occupied
by Chinese and natives, and though iutcrmiltent
fevers are still said to be prevalent, we doubt whe-
ther it be much more unhealthy than most otiicr
places on the island. The existing fortificatiom
consist only of a few small batteries and redoubts
in and about the city. The houses, of brick and
stuccoed, are spacious and neat; the ground tinors
in the principal houses are f :"'\ of marble tlag-s
the chief street lies alon{, ! lii)'. sides of the river,
and consists of the office-': and warehouses of the
[iiincipal merchants, none of wlunn, as already
stated, imssthe night in Batavia, The Stadthaiis,
in wliicli the coiurts of law are held, is on the S.
side of the city ; at the opposite quarter is the
»,cnp,nrmnil.,
'«extn'iiiitv;
111). l'.),i!Ol "ill
■ly the oni). of
Hc on n risiii;;
from the sea.
ill-l)iiilt, and
in defended liy
His; but these
ce of the port,
at the fiMit nf
our, funned liv
its eiitrnnce i*
ire cximsed tn
blow violently
^e outside the
; seftt (if aroynl
Is of commerce
las n communal
' public iiiKlnio-
9 soap, leather,
oil, wine, n'Wt-
t wns taken hy
I after recovered
ion it has ever
to the port in an
ora the 8trikiii|;
hunt.
of Java, cap. »(
le Dutch posses-
emporium of the
bay on the N\V,
mg. 106° 50' E.
ftile in 1861, the
[of ■whom about
|ese. llatavia u
le mouth of the
jets beint; uitcr-
frouB bridges, and
|e Dutch fashiim.
>s for the filth of
ith the nature of
lealtliy. In this
terially improved
lew town on the
lere the govcm-
merchant8 have
[he (lemolitio.1 of
1 of some of the
ind the widening;
he older parts nf I
cipally occupied
igh iiucnnittont
t, we douht \^h^
than most other
|,ing fortificatiom
ies and raloubu
lujes, of brick mill
prhe ground tiftors
h of marble llai.'.s
iides of the river,
areliouses of the
liDin. lis aire*')'
TheSladthaus
hclil, is oil ^hei'.
,e (luarlei is inf
lUTAVIA
riiadel, a snunrc fortn-sn with a bnnfion at cncli
aii'le, coiitaiuiug the rcKideiicc of tb<' gov. aiiil
«iim«iiri'liou.H«>.s: there arc tlircc churcbos. mid a
tlicatre. Till' Jaccatra is nnvigablt' fur 2 lu. iuhind
for vessels of 'III tons buntcii; tlu> barliour, or
niilier road, which is very cxlciisivt', is protectcil
liv n range of sinall islands, and all'ords gond
(liiilioriige for shins of from .'KHI to 50(1 tons, about
I A in. from the shore. Itatavia is llut depot fur
tiie iiroiliiee of all the Dutch possessions in the !•'.
nr(lii|K'liigii; inc. spices from the Moliieeu islands ;
(iilVee aiul jM'pper from Celebes and .Siiinntra;
I'ldd-ilust and diamonds from Korneo; tin from
llaneu; tortoise-shell, bees' wax, and dye-woods
ffdiii Timof "'"' ' '""'"'^^"' Originally no Dutch
ytiin was suffered to proceP<l homeward witlionf
li^t touching here. ]Many Junks from I'hiiia and
Slain fomicrly traded thither; but since the estu-
iilislinieiit of the Ilritisli at Singapore, their trade
with Ilalavia has greatly ih'crease(L Th(^ mimii-
fiii'tiires, inc. those of leather, lime, earthenware,
Mipir, ami arrack, are mostly in the ban<ls of the
(liiiiese; their c«/h;>«h//, or |K'culiar quarter, is the
chief seat of bustle, and activity; and tlu^ trade of
ilie town, except in the articles inono|Milised by F,u-
ni|Raiis. is wholly in their hands. Alany of them
are wealthy ; they are governe<l by tbeir own laws
imd magistrates." The llritisb, according to Mr.
Kiirl. form an important body of merchants here,
and possess about '2,000 s(|. m. of land on the
Wand, much of which is cultivated with sugar :
iliere are said to be about 200 Knglisb subjects in
Itatavia, including those serving in the Dutch
mcreantile navy. (Temminck, Snr Ies I'osscs-
Moiis Xeerlandiiisca dans I'lnde Arcliipelagitiue,
1, m.)
l'erlm])s no colony in the world, not even cx-
oc|itiiig Cuba, has made so rapid a progress as
Java during the last twenty years, in the prodiic-
timiof all the great c(donial staples, but especially
in those of cnflec, sugar, and imligo. The trade of
liatavia has, in consequence, been very greatly
imreased; but the recent statements of the im-
i^irts and exports that wp have seen refer to the
i<l,iiid generally, and we have no means of spo-
(ityiiig exactly how much behnigs to Itatavia.
Tile total exports of Java during the year 1 >H\i
ainnmitedto 105,923,884 florins, of which 4r),;)2!l.ill 1
tiiiriiisfor account of private trailers, aiul .")7,i5!tl,.")4;i
lldrins for the Dutch government. The imports for
the same period were of the value of (i;i,(>24,o()l)
tiorins, two-fifths of which for government account.
The far greatest portion of this extensive conmierce
passes tliruugh liatavia.
Mr. Earl gives the following account of the
manners and habits of the Dutch : — ' The mtKle of
life pursued by the European residents at liatavia
u rather monotonous, but is ea.sily 8upj)orted by
those who have great pecuniary advantages in
view. Early rising is generally practised, the
Diiinihig being b)' far the most agreeable part of
tile day. The time before breakfast is spent in
riiliiij,' or gardening, according to the taste of the
individual : and after a substantial meal at eight
"Vloek, thev repair to their town oflices. At
the eonchision of the business of the day, they
retire to their country houses to a live o'clock
Jiiiiier; and a drive roinul the suburbs occupies
the interval between that repast and the cUising in
j tifinght; when they cither return home, or pro-
eeed tu ?pcnd the evening at the llarmonie, an
I e>taljlishr,!eiit formed upon the same ])rinciple as
i tjie larg;- clubs of London, the majority of the
I liiropean residents, Dutch and foreign, being
1 memlwrs. The regulations arc particniarly fa-
viiurnlile to strangers ; a resident, who is not a
nieinlier, cannot be admitted : but a visitor, after
Vol.. I.
UATII
860
Wing Intnxluced by a member, may resort to it
whenever he pleases diiriii|{ bis stay at Itatavia.
The evenings at the llarmonie are spent in con-
versation, or in playing at cards luid billiards, and
it is perhaps the more fretpiented by thegi'iitle-
luen from their having little intellectual liinuse-
luent at liome. The greater number of the Duicb
females have been born on the island, and are
rather dellcieiit in (Hiiiit of education, 'i'hey ari^
often remarkably tiiir, owing to tbeir being seldum
exposed to the weather; the heat of the cllniate
renders them extremely listless, and they somi
attain that eiiibon|H>iiit which we are apt to asso-
ciate with the iileii of Dutch beauty. 'T'liereare
few public aniuseineiits. On Sunday evenings a
military band performs on the Koning's I'lain,
which attracts the residents, who attend in car-
riages or on horseback; and tlu^ coniinunity is
occasionally enlivened by an aiiinteiir play, or ti
grand ball given by one of the iiublic functionaries.
The anmial races, which are always well attemled,
were established and ant |irincipally supported by
the Knglish. Some very good half-bred .Arabs aro
occasionally run ; but the race betwi'cn the coun-
try horses, riihlen by native Jockeys, is by far I ho
most amiishig, and the riders Jockey and aro
out-jockeyed in a style that wonhl not disgrace
Newmarket.' (I'jistern .Seas.)
Itatavia was built by the Dutch, in KilO; in
IHIt it was taken by Sir S. Aucbinuty, and be-
longed to t\w British till ISK!, when it was re-
stored to its former possi'ssors.
ItATAViA, a town (d' the C States, New York,
(ienesee co., 4(1 m. NK. Itulliilo. I'op. r>.27tl in
IMiin. This tlonrishiiig ttiwn was laid out in ison.
It has a court-house, gaol, and other public build-
ings, and considerable trade in agricultural pro-
duce.
IIATK ISLE, an island belonging to Ilindostan,
prov. (iiijerat, and off its \V. extremity; hit. 22°
•_'"' N., long. l>l)0 19' E. It has a good barlxnir, and
contains al)out 2,000 houses; but is cbielly noted
for a celebrated temide dedicateil to the god l»un-
chor, and much frequented by |(ilgrh.'.v
llATII, a city id' I'.ngland, NK. jiarl ,■ ■. Somer-
set, 102 m. W. by S. London by road, and UMi m.
by tireat Western railway. The city stands on the
Avon,ahmg which its buihliiigs extend for upwards
of 2 m., ascending the acclivities, and crowning
some (d'tlic summits of the adjoining range of hills.
Pop., in ISOl, Jtit.loO; in 1S4I, u2,;tl(l; and in
lHi")l, M,'iAO. The pop., after this perhxl, began
slightly to decline, aiul the census of IHCil showed
but f)2,i)2« inhabitants. There were 7,744 inhnb.
houses in 1851, and «,021 in 1801. Hath is dis-
tinguished for its architectural elegance, and tbo
lM?auty and extent of its public )iromenadcs. The
fineness of the freestone, of which its edifices aro
mostly built, and the noble scale and symmetrical
arrangement of the ground plans, fully equal the
taste dis]daycd in their elevations. Amongst the
most prominent places are the Circus, in which
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders arc com-
bined, and from whence three spacious streets, of
corresponding character, diverge ; the N. and S.
parades, which have noble terraces, raised on
arches, and commanding extensive views; King-
ston Square, and the new streets and line espLmado
formed along the river side, beneath the terraces
last named ; Queen Square, of the Corinthian order,
with an obelisk in the centre ; the Koyal Crescent,
with Ionic columns springing from a rustic base-
ment, and crowned by a rich entablatiu-e ; with
LansdowQ and Cavendish crescents; Belle Vue,
Portlan'l, and two or three other places; Paragcn
buildings, llelvedere and Jlarlborough buildings ;
ill the level plain, extcudiiig ou the NK. si<le, ara
BU
370
BATH
i
f
mm
m
the flnp rnnRPn of KcnxinRton, Oronvonor Placo,
and Wftlcot 'IVrmco; Inntlv, tlio HtriictiircH in the
new town, <»n thi' rivpr. 'tUv liilfi-r, wliiili wimlM
tliriiii);li, nnd iiiIdH K^'Ully to tlii! U'lUity ol' tlii>
rily,ii4croNHv<l livnint! bridKcN, throPHiiHiNMiHidniiiid
two railway hridKCH; the moHt r<'nmrK»ir>p lM>in){
rull(tn«y liridKP, <>■■ thrra an'hoH; Hiitiiwicli iMii
hridui;; Norlli l'nnidf> hrid^e. Klf) I). Hpnn, nnd ihv.
Old l)rid|L;c, Tli(> rivor \n iinvi^iilitp to llriNlnl.iind
communicnlc'H with lh«> TlmnicH, iit Kciidin);, liy
the Kcniict nnd Avon cunnl.
'I'hi- I'mnoiiM Ihcminl Hiirin^H of Dnth riMO in tlio
niidNt ot'lhit limited plain Hkirtcd on tlif K. nnd S,
hy the Avon, from Ihrci- diNiiiict HoiirccK. nl nNninll
iliHtnnco from ench otlu-r. The wntcrw of cncli nrt-
r<'(u>ivfd into four extensive renervoirM, to which
Knitahje ImiiIim nre attm-lied : Ihiil eiilled the KinK's
Until in the principal, nnd in xiiiiplied liy n sprinj^
ri^in^nl • lod ft.SW.of thenhltey. Thef^ieen'H
linth, which \n nnich Nninller, ndjoins this, luid is
Huppiied from the nnine source. ' Tiie Cross Kiilh
is supplied from n distinct sprin^^ rising nt n short
<listnnce NW. of the former; and th<< Hot Hath
from another, l"2(» ft. further on, in the snnu> direc-
tion. The nriuu\ punip-rooni, connected with the
Kiuff's Hath, a verv handsome huildin^- erected in
17!t7, Conns the prmeipal centre of attraction dur-
ing the fiishionnhle seas<m : it has nn orchestrn, nnd
a line stnluo of Nnsh. Like the Kin^^'s, the Hot
linth hns n |uimp-ro(im, on n smaller Rcnle, nnd
ench hns n |)id)lic pump connected with its spring;,
of which the gratuitous use is allowed during the
dnv. lU'sides the pnhlic halhs (which are princi-
pally used hy the hospital jiatients nnd the poorer
einss of invniids), there are jjrivnte bnths, iM'lon^j-
iun to the corporation, and others, called the Aliln-y
Jinths, U'longin^ to Knrl Mnnvers : these arc
fhietly resorted to hy the wenlthier elnsses, nnd
are amply provided with Rudatorios, and every
accommodation. The medicinal waters of tln'se
HprinfTs, when fresh drawn, are quite transparent
nnd destitute of e(donr nnd smell, the temperatures
iK'inn— <(f the Kin^^'s Hath, I ll>°; of the Cross Hath,
1 12° ; of the Hot Hath, 1 17° Fnhr. They contain
carbonic ncid and nitrop^cn gases, sulphate and
muriate of sodn, sulphntc nnd cnrl)onnt« of lime,
and siliceous cnrth, with a miiuite portion of oxide
of iron. l{es]>eeting both the gross amount and
relative quantities of these there is much dis-
crepancy in the numerous treatises on the subject,
by which occasional variation may be inferred:
the impregnation, both clmlvbcatc and saline, is
greatest in those of the King's and the Hot Hath ;
the water of the Cross Hath hoH most earthy con-
tents. Large quantities of gas pass up with the
water, in bubbles of considernble size. Tnken in-
ternally, the woters act as stimulants, raising the
pulse considerably, and exciting the nervous sys-
tem : they are considered peculiarly efficacious in
cases of gout and of biliary obstructions ; as baths,
they are used for various chronic and cutaneous
disorders; their topical ap])Iication, by forcing a
stream on the diseased part (called dri* pumping),
is also much in request. The morning is the usual
time both for drinking and bathing. The reser-
voirs ore discharged, at regular intervals, through
channels connected with the Avon.
The principal buildings devoted to religious
purposes are, — the abbey church, 210 ft. long,
lighted by fifty-two windows, a beautiful structure,
once called, from the lai^gc size and number of its
windows, the lantern of England ; it was founded
on the site of a more ancient church, A.n. 1495,
nnd was completed in 1I506 ; its tower is 162 ft. in
lieight: St. Michael's Church, a Gothic structure,
with a handsome spire, erected in 1836 ; St. James's
Church, rebuilt in 1708 ; that of Walcot, a very
HiMirlnuH building, with free slltingR for the ponr;
thrist Church, n fliu! stnicture, erected by nnIi'
wriplion in I7!)H; with other churches nnd i'IhiikU
connected with the ('Htnltllshed church, and nKmilv
rnised within the last centurv. The Jdnnaii
(!ath<dicM, Mornvinns, Kriends, f{Aiitisi.<<, Imlctit'ii.
dents, Methodists, nnd IJnitariniis, have uImi |t|iuv,
of worship. Of the establishments devotnj t„
chnritnble purposes, thi* iirincipnl nn%— llntli \\m-
pitnl (completed in 1712), for the nx-eption nf niik
|Mior from nil |>nrts of the kingdom (except ilic
city itself), who come for the iH'nellt of the wiitcN;
it IS incorporated by n chnrter, nnd HMpiHirtiil |jv
doiuilions and snbsi'riptions : the Itntli riiiicil
Hospital, coiidiining the same objects nn the im..
villus dispensary anil those of n casualty iiiliniwn ;
it is supported' like the last. Itellntt's lliiM|iiiii|'
endowed in the reign of .las. H., for the saim |i{ir.
])ose as the linth Hospital, but for men (jiiIv; ii
provides lodging and bathing for alioiit eij^'liiiTn;
lllack Alms, endowed by Kdw. VI., for the sii|i|i(irt
of ten poor i>ersons of the plactM St. .Icilm's, wi-
dowed in Hen. II. 's reign, for the snp|Hirt i>( *\x
jMtor men nnd ns nnmy women : I'artis's Cnllcp. i;,
large (pnidrangulnr rnnge on the upper romi to llri^-
tol), for the support of thirty (UTayedgentlewdiiicn,
ten of whom must be widows of clergymen; ciiili
has a house, garden, nnd bnntlsome nnnnitv. 'I'lic
chief estnblislmumts for educntion nnd litemiiirc
nro, — a free grmnmar-school, endowed by Kchv. VI,:
its mastership (which carries with it the rect(ir\-iif
Chnrh'ombe) is in the gift of the coq)orati(iii:'ilio
nine Coat chnrity scIkhiI, founded a.u, 171 1, fur
clothing, nnd teiiching fifty boys and fifty prN
reading, writing, and nrithnietic; two (itli'er free
schocds for girls only; one for the instnicfjim nf
poor children of Hntli nnd Hnth-foriim; n nntidiial
s<'ho(d; theCntlndic nnd theMeth(Mlist free scIkkiN,
Th(! Hath nnd West of Knglnnd Societv,estnl)li.'(li(tl
in 1777 for the encourngement of ngricidtiirp, nns.
mnnufnctures, nnd commerce, has devoted iiscli'
chiefly to the first of these objects, and palili.iluil
several volumes of trnnsncf ions : the Hat h Fiitf .n-
and l'hih)so|)hical Institution, established in IK:<ii;
it is a handsome Doric building (occupviii); the
site of the Lower Assembly I{(M)ms, wlilcli were
then burnt down), and comprises a liiirory, mu-
seum, laboratory, and lecture-room : the I'uUic
Subscription Library, established in 18(10, lias an
extensive collection of books ; and there arc many
circulating librnrics. A mechanics' institute km
estnblislie(t in 1828. The public buildings oppn>-
priated to business or amusement are,— the rmilil-
hall, the seat of the quarter sessions and the Cdurtj
of record and request ; the two first named by tlie
corporation, the last by commissioners appointwi
under an act of 45th Geo. Ill,, for recovery A
debts under 10/. ; its juris<liction extends over the
city, and several parishes in the hundreds ofltath-
forum and VVellow : this court, which sits even-
Wednesday, has nearly absorbed the business if
the court of record. 'Hie prison is a spacious irailJ-
ing in Hathwick, chiefly occupied by debtors, and
by delinquent* previously to their being fully
committed. Commercial r(M)ms were establisliell
in 1839. The market-house is an extensive niiif.-e
of buildings behind the Guildhall; market iUv.4
Wednesdays and Saturdays. The theatre, in the
Grecian style, finished in 1806, towers over the
surrounding structures, in the central part of llie I
city; thp Freemasons' Lodge (built in 181') tf I
also consjiicuous. The Subscription Club House, f
and the Hath and West of England Siibscriptinn I
Rooms, are establishments similar to the Ix)iiili'ii|
club houses. The Upiwr Assembly RooDisare«l
superb suite of apartments, in which tlicsiibscnp-l
tion balls and concerts of the season oiv Wr
HATH
m
for thf poor;
flctl \iy will-
■N itnil cliniii'U
ll, Itllll iniMlly
Tlio Itiiniiiii
intjt, IikIi'JK'ii-
»vc ulroi \\W\»
IH (IfVdtl'cl til
1% — Until lliM-
n>l)liiin of »iik
III (CXCCJlt till'
(>l'lh('^vllt('^•,
I muHMirtiil liy
Itnlli I'liitcil
H'tf* III* till' |iri-
iilty iiitlnnnry;
Intt'i* ll<i^'|iil'al.
r tin' Hiimi' |mr-
r men nnly ; it
iltmit cii^lilci'ii ;
, for till' siiiniiirt
; St. Jiiliii'n. 111-
I suinmrt III' "JK
iirti«'!*('<illi'p'i;i
)|U'rriiailtiillri«-
('(lUcntlcwiiiiicM,
•Icrnymcii ; fiii li
icftnimiiv, Tho
HI niitl litcmliiri'
iWdlliyKilw.Vi.;
I it the m"tiir\'iif
conx"""''""' ''"■
led A.i). 1711, U
ys ami lifiy prl<
f! ; two olluT I'rir
the hiHtrui'tiim 4
•forum ; a imtimwl
lUMl'lHt Irw Sl'lllml*.
<Ol'U'tV,t'>ltl|l)li«lKHl
if ft>j;rii'ultiiro. arts,
ilinH ileviilt'd ilscK
>ctt«, mill imlilii'liiil
; the Hatli Lite r;
rttnbliolu'dinlWi;
\^r (occuiwiiii; III*
OOltlS, wllicll VfWC
scH a lilirary. mu-
■room : the 'I'uUic
!(l in IWIO, hw an
md there arc many
inics' institute w,«
c buildinRs nri»i-
iit are,— the GuilJ-
ions and tho cwim
tirst named liv llie ,
issioncrs aiipoinlod
',, for rcfovcrj- I'f
I extends over the
hundreds of liath-
_, which sits even-
jcd the business"!
isaspaciousliuiU-l
ed by debtors, and
their being Wlv
,3 were establisliw
I an extensive rot-e
Ihall; market (lavs
The theatre, in tilt
)5, towers over the
central part of iH
(built in 18b) B|
intion Club Hoiise.j
.gland Subscnptwl
ilnrto thcUmkiiij
embly Booms area I
IwhichthcsubscnH
c season arc heWJ
n
nnilef tho dirrrtlon of fho Tnn»tor of the rrromo-
iiii'n. The city nxHomblicM nro oi'ciiNionally held in
Ihi'lNiiiqiii'tlnK room of tlic (tiiildlmll. TIionc
riiiiei'rts and nsm-niblicH <-oiih||(mIi> the chief amiiM'-
nii'iitstif tho pbi't'; iM-nidcn wliiidi, howovi-r, then-
nre two s))A(!ioni« riiliiiK-Hi'hiMilH, for oxcrciNtt in
liml weather: when tine, l^iinHdown ntnl Chiverlnti
piiwn are tho favourite oi|iieMtrinii resortf*. There
nri' annual rneeH on tlip fomier, the week Hulwe-
iiiieMt to those of AHOot, nixl a Npriii^ ineetiiii^ in
April for half-bred ninreK, llesnU'M the varioim
jiriimriiadcs, and the Siiliu-y (lardeiiH previously
ini'iitiiiMed, leu acres of the lliith eoininoii huve
In'i'ii Inid out ill iiulilic wiilks anil pleasure ^^roiiiids,
niimiil the l{oyal Victoria I'ark.
Itnili no louder bonsts its ancient )iro-emiiienee
ill till' ;:ay world as a rasliintialile resnrl. it is
iiiiw ^iir|iasscil by llri;;btou, ami, |ierlia|iH, also, by
Clirllciiliain, wllicll altracls a lar^e portion of the
iiiii|iniiv
bv which it used foruierlv to be visited.
ll \i still, however, iiiucb resorted to during its
w.,.<iin. It is faviiiirably situated for trade, the
(Imil Western railway bavins a station here, oil
till' main lino to llrislol.ainl (be Avon beiii^; iiavi-
pililc to llristol oil one side, and the Avon and
KriiiH't Canal on the other. Two lirancbeH of this
niinl extend from llatb into tlu- coal district SVV.
iif the citv. Hut business and ]deasiire do not
iifii'ii ninaij;amate; and the oiilv manufacture is
thiM'imrne woollen cloth called flath coiitiii;;, and
kiwytnere, made in the immediate ii('i;;;bbour-
liiniil.' There are two fairs, one held on the lllh
Fill., the other July l()th, but they have lost most
(if tlieir ancient consequence, which was mainly
ntiriliiitablc to the woollen mnnufncture, (Irst iii-
triMliiced here, under the aiispiceH of the monks,
ill the reif,m of Kdw. T., who (rrnnted the char-
ters liy which the fairs are held. Until stands on
till' liiis and (xdite fomintions; in the latter (which
ImiiiiiiIs it on the NK. and a inirtion of the S.) the
nnlile freestone (inarrics <H'cur whence its building
niati rials are iK'rived ; both formations also afl'onl
lime and fuller's earth, and nlioiind in fossil re-
mains, lis well a« in line sjirinns, which rise to
williin 40 or 50 ft. of the summits of tho siir-
rdiiiulinK hills, and funiish an amnio supply <if
Mater to every part of the city, conducted thither
friim various reservoirs, by piiios, the greater part
(if which have been laid by the corporation, llath
claims to l)e a borough by prescription, contimnul
liy cliarter : it is now divided into seven wards,
aiiil (jnvemed by a mayor, fourteen aldermen, and
fiiriy-two councillors, under the Municipal Keform
Act! It has sent two members to the II. of C.
since the reign of Edward I. Tlie constituency is
fiirmed by 10/. householders; there were ii,\Hii re-
pstered electors in 1804. Previously to the Kc-
fiinn Act, the elective franchise was exclusively
vested in the mayor, aldermen, and commim
eiimicil, who were also self-elected. Conjointly
ifitli VVcUs, Hath gives name to a (licwese, co-
extensive (excluding Hedminster) with the co. of
Siimersct, The sec was fixed at the latter a.d,
Wi.i. and has since been transferred, successividy,
III Hath and to (ilastoiibiiry, and again restored to
Wells, whose dean ami chapter now elect (nomi-
nallv) the bishop, (( libsoii s ed, Camden's IJrit.
pp. 186, 187; 6 & 7 W. 4, c, 77.) The bishop's
revenues amount to about 5,000/, per annum.
The present city may almost be called a crca-
tiiin of the last century ; for previously it was
j comprised in an area of about 50 acres (on the
limited plain amidst which the hot springs rise),
•ml siimninded by walls in the fonn of an irrc-
pilar pentagon, its suburbs consisting then merely
I if a few detached cottages; so that the parishes
now forming its most important portii,us ha<l, at
the close of the 17th rcntnri', urnrrrly nn Inha-
bitant; whilst the three sin'nll ones within tho
walls (judging from the cbiirch n-gisters) could
not have contained a foiirib parr of their present
numlH'rs. Its rapid extension, celebrity, ami
former miiguilicence were due mainly to two in-
dividuals: one, the clever person known as lieaii
Nash; the other, Mr. WoimI the architect. The
former was elected master of the cerenionies in
1711), and theri>at\er ruled as arhilrr rlriiiinlinriim
for uiiwanls of .''lO years (the most tlonrishing
|H'rio(l of its fasbioiiable annals); using the iu-
lliience bis peculiar talents gave biiii iu the pro-
motiiiii of objects of pcrmaneiit iinporlain'c to the
city. Till' other coninienceil bis an liiti'ciiirnl
labours with (Queen's Si|uari', tlic fiiiiiidiilioiis of
wllicll were laid iu I72!t. Ibis, and llie streets
ilivergiiig from it, as well as the N. and .S, pa-
rades, be lived to tiiiisli. and al'o to plan and
coinmeiice tint Circus. All these remain asnioiiu-
mentsof bis genius, unexcelled by any sulmeipiont
aidiievenit'utfi.
Itatb was founded, and its first walls built, by
th<> h'omans, in the reign nf Clauiliiis: tliey
named it Aipuf Sul'm, and netaiiied the place be-
tween three and four (centuries. The walls ami
gates (which remained till the Iwth century)
were built during \\w later .Snxoii period, on liiii
Itoinau fiiiiiKlatious, nm*. partly from \\w ruins of
tlu'ir temples, arches, &c.. Camden gives iiiaiiy
inscri|itions from fraginenls thus imbedded (Itrit.
pp. 1HH, 18!)); and, ill Warner's History of Hath
(|ip, 2.'l, '.>!), il'i), the remains of Itomaii temples,
baths, coins, d-c, that have been discovered at
various times many feet beneath the present
Murfiice, are tigiired and described. lland-milU
of stone, Ac, relics of the llritisli ; and codiiis,
coins, il'c, of the Saxon period, are also given by
these authors. Its tirst chartc r, making it a frt^o
iMirough, was granted by Iticbtinl I, 'V\w. inaiiii-
facturo called Hath iK'iivcr had nttained miiidi
repute at the close of the 15tli century, at which
time three guilds of artiticers — weavers, tailors,
and shoemakers — existed, to whom Math owed
its then importanceo, (Leland's lliii. ii. 07.) It
was tirst made a corporate city by a charter id"
32n(l of Kliz, This and the charters of !»th and
H4th Geo. III., extending the limits of its jnris-
dicti(ni, were the governing ones, jirevionsly to
the late municipal act. The gross revenue of
the corporation, in 1848, amounted to 10,057/.,
chiefly derived from the rents and renewals of
their estates, water-rents, market-dues, nnd prolits
of the baths, (Miinicipnl Conimiss, IJoport, 18;t5,
App, pt, ii. p, IIO'.I, ctxef/,) The immense tliick-
iH'ss of its walls must have made it a strongboht
in the earlier period of its history; but in later
times it has never been a statiim of anv military
importance. It was fortified and held for tlu!
king at the outbreak of tho civil wars ; and after
lieiiig taken and retaken several times, was ulti-
mately ceded to the jiarliament in 104.'), ('hris-
tojdier An.stey, author of the New Hath (Jiiide,
and John I'almer, author of tho plan for convey-
ing mails by coaches, with other distingiiisheil
jicrsons, were natives of Hath, (Sidiniis, Polyhist,
c, 22; lien, of }Iuntiiigd<m, lib, ii. ; (iildas, caj),
nit. ; Leland's Coll, v. 2 ; Dugdale's Koiias. tome i, ;
Maddox's Hist. I'^xchcq, c, 13, may be referred to
for the earlier history and trade of the i)lacc.
The Fourth lieport, pp, 309, et seq.; and the
Eighth, pp, 507, et sea,, of Commiss, on Charities,
contain an account ol those of Hath,)
Uatii, a town and port of the U. States, Maine,
CO. Linc(dn,on tho W. side of the Kennebec, about
10 m, from the sea, lat, 43° 55' N,, long. 0!»o 49''-
W. Pop. 4,700 in 1 800. It is pleasantly situated,
» u 2
m
X,
372 HATIIOATK
nn<l iit Olio (if tlin rmmt cDiiinn'rcinl towim in Itio
Mt/irr. Tlir rivir, wliicli in wldom tnwn over,
niliiiitN vchxcIm of c-diiHiilrralili' hiinlt'ii, lliilli in
tlH> iiniiii' of M-vfriii oilit-r lowiii«, aiul ulmi of
Mwcriil I'uuiitii'N in tlii! IJ. SIiiIcn,
ItATIKiATI'., A town nnd |inr, nf Sfotlnnil, <'c>.
LinlitliKow. rii|). t.N'J? in IMtt|, nl' wlii>ni 2,.'il!)
mitlcM mill '.',27H IVnmii'N. 'I'ln' nunilxT ul' inlin-
liilcil iiiMiNt'N unKMiiili'il to 7'IH in I hi; I, wliilc
lliiTt' went i.ori m'pnriitt' fainilli'M, 'I'lic town iM
nilnnti'ii on tli<< niiililli' rout! Ix'twccn iMliiilHirKli
mill (iliiHpiw, IH ni. WSW. the 'orniir, iiiiil It ni.
N. Liiilllli^'ow. It NtmiilN on tin- ;H. ili-clivity of ii
riilK*' •'•' liilln «'xtrii(rnin hitomh tin- on., ninl i-om-
prini'M nil olil mill n iii'W portion; tin* lonin'r coii-
hIhI iii^ ol'iiiimiw crookcil Iiiiicm, on ii Htccp ilccli vity,
mill till! ititli-r of nion^ inoilt'rn nml iH-ttcr hiiill.
lioiiNi'H, on niori< Icvi'l f^rnniiil. 'I'lic MircctN nm
well piiviMl uiiil ligliti'il, mill it ix Hl>iinilniitly xiip-
itlicd with ^riHitl water, liroiif;lit from a ilixiaiirc,
rite chiiri'li, a cliinisy eililifi', wai* cri-rti'il in
!7<'l!), aiiil tliere arclliree orfoiir ilixMeiitiMgnici'tiii);
hiiiiHOM, Itatliptto wiirt eri'iitcil a free liiirf;li of
linriniy in IN'21. Tlic inliali. arc jiriiicipally eni-
ploytMl in the wcaviiiK of eottonx tor the (ilaxpiw
niannfaetiirerM, anil in the niljaeent coal ami lime
workH, It has an excellent academy, liherally
endowed l>y a native of the town, who ai'<|iiired a
fortune in the \V. Indies, which furniHlieN ediica-
tioii, of the iH'Ht flort, ^ratix, to all nativex of the
liar. It liiiH Hix annual fairx, two of which, at
Whilmintiiie and MMrtinniiiM, nreof ver\'(:oiiNid»'r-
alile iiii|H)rtance, as cattle fairs. A weekly market
Ih held on Wednesday. The par. in generally in
n hi;;li xtate of cultivation.
MATIIUItsr TOWN, a town of W. Africa, on
till! S. Hide of the month uf tlio river (iainliia;
cap. lit the KritiHli |iosHexHiiiiiH on that river, and
Heatof acivillientenant-Kovernor; hit. \H° 2H' N.,
li.iitr. It>° !»2' VV. It HtniiilH on the K. end of St.
Mary'n Island, a fertile, hut low and swampy
H|Mit, alMint 4 in. in len^'lh, and ii m. in hreadth.
Top. (of the town and island) (>,\W, of whom I'.M
(inly arc Kiiropemis; the rest being lilierated
At'ricnns, Mnndingoes, •lidofs, &v. Of the I!) I
uhile inhaliitants, there are 177 males ami M
fi'inales; the coloured population comprises :i,K(M
males and 2,!M() feinalcH. The main street facing
th<^ river is iHTii|)ied with Kiiropean warehoiiseM
nnd private dwellings; the iitlu'r streets are laid
out ill straight lines, hut nnpavcd, and are lined
mostly with African huts, inclosed within small
gardens. The (Joveriiment-hoiise, like the other
Kiiropenn liiiildings, consists of one tliior, raised
upon brick ]iillars, fiiriiisheil with veranilaiis, nnd
approached by a long llight of steps. There is u
Hpacioiis liDspitiil for lilierated Africans near the
Idwn; there are three Wesleyan ehajwls and a
missionary school. Most of the Kiiropean settlers
arc merchants, trading chietly in giim Senegal,
luW wax, hides, ivory and gold ; the otlier prin-
cipal exports are tortoise-shell, . rice, cotton,
African teak, camwood, palm-oil, cmmtry oloths,
«tc. The imports ninounted to 7.'(,I.'W/. in JHtiO;
to 10!t,r)81/. in IHOI ; and to !)!),H2.')/. in lH<i2;
wliile the exjiorts were of the value of I0!t,i;{7/.
in IWiO; of i;i<;,«8«/. in IKtil ; nnd of ir)l,4l;{/.
in 1H()2. There entered the river 157 vessels, of
!<(!,.'<:{!) tons, in 18G2; of these, 75 vessels of 2I,:)32
tons wore Hritish, nnd 7;i vessels with lil,<)!)5 tons
were French. The settlement was estahlisheil in
IHIti ; it was several years ago threatened by the
iieighlioiiring Itarra, chieftain, but friendly re-
lations have since been entered into with that
nation. (Alexander's Voyage to the Coloiii(;s of
*VV. Africa, in I«;i5, |ip. 05-72); Martin's History
8iul Statistics of the (Joloiiies.
IIATTMUHKA
liATINDAII, A large inland town of nin,|.,.
Stan, prov. |{a||HMilaiia ; lat ;iil° |-.'' N., Ioiik, ;p
IM' \'„ Its vii'iiiitp lilts iM'eii ccli-hraleil fur w,
breed of horses.
HATI.ICV, a town and par. ot Kiigland, \\. )[
CO. York. The par. contains It.lltM) acri'H, u|||, ^
iMip. of 25,278 ill IHill. It is priiicipnlly in ||„.
\Va|M'iilake of Aggbrig, lint partly also in ||,„| „f
IMiirley : the town, wliicli has 7,2illi inlmli,, j, ;„
the former. 'I he |mi|i., IhiiIi in the town n\\.\ [\„.
colli igiioiiM district, is iirincipally eiigageil h, |{„.
woollen trade, especially in the niiiiiiilnriiiri' u\
what is called white dolli. The cliiinli, Imili |„
the reign of Henry VI., has several uioniiiiiviii,
of the Kit/william, Saville, and other priiiciiiii
fiiinilies in the vicinity. There is here also uuill
endowed free hcIiooI, founded in the rciun „|'
James I.
HATOHM, a seA-iiurt town of Turkey in \m.
'iiv. Trebi/,iiiiil, neikr the Itiissinn frontier, mi \C
K. shore of the lllack Sea. 4 in. N. I'rimi ilir
nioiithof theTcliorok, lat.4l°:m' II" N., Inn^', ip
!I8' 55" K. It is built in a straggliiig iniiiiinr,
and is not fortilled. The harlHiiir, which U i,{kii
to the KNK. and N., is defended on the W, hy ,i
jirojecting tongue of land, and has deep wnhr
large hIiIim michoring within a few fiet ul th.'
shore. '1 he coiitigiioiis coniitrv is fertile in fmit.,
corn, mid rice ; but ithas very little triiile. (Kluii^
roth. Tableau dii Caiicase, p. Iti2,)
llATTA(iI-IA. a villageof Austrian Itnly.pn.v,
I'adiia, on the canal of Monselice, 10 ni. S, liv \\',
I'adiia. Top. 2,151 in 1857. It has Imt-wiuir
baths, which, with ciimmodious biiililint;s imi
agreeable iiroincnaihm along 'lie uuiinl, uttnui a
uoiisiih-rabi(> iiitliix of compaiw',
MATTALAM (!'«/«/«), ,% Ifli re town iiflliiKlo.
Stan, prov. Lahore, considired I .; healiliiist |il,iri'
in IIk* I'liiijab; in an i,,> >i plain, 21! in. NF
Uniritsir; hit. ;il° 48' N., long. 7'|0 ti' M.
MATTWOIJ.AII (Bitmiila, the nniiid (owiil,
a maritime town of some size in Iliinlostaii, |iniv,
Canara ; lat, \n° 5tl' N., hing. 74° ;i7' K.
HATTKIkSKA, a par. of Knglaiid, liiiiiil. llrix-
toii, CO. Siirrev, 4 in. SW. St. Paul's. I'np,, M,
4.!>!»2; 1831, '5,540; I8(il, 24,til5. Area :1,m:'ii
acres, Tl • pMrish coniprises n low level tnici mi
the S. ba li. <>f the Thames, and I'liniis m I'
the siiiiiirb" to the metropolis; a winHleii lirlili;i'
connects it with Chelsea, and a siispeiisinii lirii|;'i.
erected in 1857, with I'inilico and the wi'siini
parts of the metropolis. A park, called UniKMa
park, was formed in l855-!t on some low irrmiikl
near the river. It contains many ri's|ii'(talil('
houses anil detached villas. The parish rliiir.li
is a modem brick building, with tower ami f\i\ti;
iK'side the river; another has been erected Ipv ilir
commissioners aiipointed for such piir|MiseH. tliin'
is a fre*' school (or 20 boys, and a nationnl Mml
for 150 boys and girls. The parish is iiitcrwriiHl
by railways in all directions; the I.iiikIuii aii<l
South Western line jiassing through its wlmli'
length, and the London, Chathani, and Dover. t
London, Itrighton, nnd South Coast, ami nilnr |
railways crossing and re-crossing it fnim iidrlliin
south. A portion of the ]inrish, which, linwrwr,
is y(>arly getting more restricted by the liiiililiiii; j
of new houses and * villas,' is still liiiil »iii ia
market-gardens, for the supply of vegctalili's in
the metropolis, for which the parish is luilfij:
esjiecially asparagus, said to have been lirst ciilli-
vated here. The place is called I'atriiw in I
Domesday, and the manor was given tn lluMMify ;
of Westminster, in exchange for that ul' Winil-
sor, by William I.; lie.nce the )ircseiit imnir, It [
was granted by the crown, in Iil27. to I lie St,
John family, mid the celebrated Lord llniiiigliriJ^i; I
»/i< l«im
Ill.Hflll, I
IIAilL
Sii«TX, rii|
l.iilKJcill, ni;
nlili'li liai I
IM.I. The
MlNHJV kiiiil
iiiiii liii'liise
M.I, III llaxi
ill Irlltflll) in
H.'iy ipf the
iiiihIitii slrii
liiiihi"! are Ml
rlilirrli, jKirl
liiilliir Ktyle,
Kla« I if il« w
(iir .10 girls ai
I'liyx, siippoi
iiiiirki't is he
till' wiMie day
Wliii .Miiiida;
iiiily iiiaiiiifai
lAli'MHJVe lull
>iirj iLisi'il only
i« the central
|i,iriilics. 'I'ht
l.'|>it<iii; its pi
(,'niit liiitlle I
.VMriiiiiiKJy, in
III the fiilldwin
iiMht, ill coiiin
i<l'»hii'li still K
iiiliiTiice. On
ili{><iiiiiei| ill ji I
III' III! the leaili
llii- ex|M>i|iiion
Mill extant, ilm
iK'iiik' iiiterpiiln
iiiiiiikH fnun \<i
tlii'ir iiIiInii was
Mil' alils'v wns
li"'l>iii),'« due e
ivai cililiiwed w
timml, liesides
"tliiT ciiiiiities.
I'rivaic iliiiialiiiii
il'iwiiH'iit, and 1
"iTc placed on
Christ t'liiircli, (
wrillll. leave w
At the general
"as acciinliiig ,
il'ih' mokes it 881
|irll'<iiill«l oft". T
iifs Inige qundri
ilaJd'i iMonas. ; p<
ISii*«'x.)
liATUinV, a
vimnifliit of Tuh<
''if f^im, an atll
nwied at 5,500.
fa>tlc in its vicin
miifiiki, who has e
iiimi(ift'liithaii(l
, ''•U?GK',atowi
! "p. immd., on tli.
f-M'.. Angers. J',
^yrcwibly situated
m hmises, but it
P'l'irity. It has n
Mcifcc, or high
™'h ami coarse I ill
M"; 'iik(,,if(,'h,rei
I '"'WilHiiirlioud (If tl
•illc'd,
•^■«i fur from Lmi
l'\irUcV ill c\-l;l,
rnmiicr, mi iln'
1. N. In mi I lie
U"N..l"nk'. IIJ
HHliiiH iimiinir,
, wliicli it 111" II
IMI lllf W. liv ;l
liilM ilt't'l' wiitir
I'cw fi'i'l "I ill'
i fcrtili' ill iVuii-,
If, triuli'. (Kliiiv
itriiin Itiilv,]*.!,
., |(»i«. S. liyW.
It lu»M tiiit-wiilir
IH lluil(lill^"* mil
) uaiml, utinu'i a
:c town of Uinilii-
.•lH'ulMiirst|iliiii'
(liiin, '.'f, m. NK,
7r,o «' K.
I t1i« nmucl tiiwnl,
IlindoKtaii, |>ri>v,
\° ;»7' K.
^liiiid, liiiiitl. llfi^-
lull's. Top., INJI.
11 15. Area ll.'i'^i'
iiw Irvcl trad "ii
1111(1 I'liriiis III"' "I
n wDoilcii hnh'
xiispcii^iiiii I'fi'l-''
mill till' wi'siirii
, I'lllU-ll lllllllM.1
Kimif low 1!""""'
tniuiv rcupwtiilili'
l'iu< piiriitli <'l"ir.li
li tower ami hI'IH'.
p('i\ crectcil liv iln'
1 a imtimiftl m'lii«'l
nrisli is iiiHTsn'ii''l
tin- l.i)iiil*"i »'"'
hrmiuli its wlii'li'
un. iiiiil Diivi'Mlii'
Const, Mill iillnt
<r it I'riim iiiirilii"
" wliirli. liiiwi'v ■'■
,1 l.y tlip Iwil'l"'-
, Bti'U liiiil ""' '■' 1
of VPK'""*'''" '"
. parish is wM'V.
[vc bopii lirst I'll'"-
illpil riitriiH'r;- in I
i;iveiitotlic:il'l''y
for tlintiin^ii'-,
..rcsciit uiiiiif- 11
h 1I1-27. totkSi.
li hi.rti iJoiiii;;'"'*''
IIATTI-K
wivi Nini nm! ilit'il in iliiir niniision (kiiirc ro-
iii.iMil). It is iKiw ilii> |irii|ii'riy of I'.arl S|m'iu'it,
HAT I'M'). Ik pnr. ami lowii of I'ji^'lniiil, I'o.
Sii»<'x, ni|H' llanliiiKN, liiiinl. Ilaitli', Ti'.' in. St''..
I.oiicliiii, mill "" '"• ''.V Soiiili I'laslrni railwav,
uliK'li lias a statioti Iiitc. I'op. of oarlili, :i,'J',t:l iti
|Mil. i'liv town is plcasaiiily siiualcil aiiiMsi
mikhIv Ittiolis, wliicli liniiMil it oh the ,S. ami SI'',.,
ami i'ihIosi- it in n vail' wlilrli wimis on to tin-
m;i, lit lliksliiiKM. 'I'lii' priiiriiiiil slrrt't (alioiit ^ in.
ill li'Uk'tli) is li'nninalt'il liy tin- niH^'iiillri'iii nMv
Hiiv of till' old nlilx-y. 'I'lifri' an- n ft'w n I
niiMli'ni Hiriicliiri'H, Iml tlii' jxrcalcr part of the
liMiiM's arc aiiricnt, ami of iiu-aii aptiraranrr. Tin-
I'liiinlii |>arlly in tin- |{oinan ami partly in tlu'
iMiiliir Ktylc' lias niaiiv aiitiipic ili'vit'os on llic
I'lii's iif itii wimlowN, 'hii-ro is an cmlowi'il school
I'or Ito ^'irls ami hoys, ami a charity mcIhhiI for In
l«ivK, Hiipportcil hy siiltscription. A weekly
iiw'irki't is liclil on 'I'lii'silay ; a nionlhly one on
ihi' sHinc ilay, for cuttle; and two aiiiiiial fairs on
Whit .Miiiidiiy, and Nov. "J'J. (iniipowder is the
iiiilv niaiiiifiii'tiire, for which there are several
(Ati'iitive mills in the vicinity ; its excellence is
Miri iisM'd only hy that niinle at Harifonl. Itattle
I* till' ceiitriil town of a pour law union of I I
|iarithi's. 'I'liv ancient iiaine of the town was
|'.{iiliin ; its present, name is derived from the
l,'ri'iil hiitlle helween Harold and William of
Niiriimiiily, in HttJii, of which it was the arena.
Ill llir l'iilli»viiii( year the Compieror founded the
ahU'v, ill conimeinoralion of his viclory, the ruins
III' »iiii'li still siillicieiitly attest its ancient nia^'-
iiilii'i'iu'e. On (lie eoniplclion of its church, lie
i|i{iiiiilti'd ill il (he fanioiis roll in which the names
III' nil tlie leaders who had accoiniiaiiicd him on
llii' cxpedilioii were inscrihed. ( opies of it are
siill extant, though not free from the suspicion of
U'iii;; interpolated and falsitied, Iteiiedictinu
iiiHiikH from Normandy were its first occupants ;
ilii'irnlilNit was mitred, and a jieer of jiarliament.
Till' iililwy was hiiilt on a gentle acclivity, over-
liii'Mii); aline e.\teiit of woodh and meadows, and
\\i\n ciiiliiwed with all the lands for a leiipie
niiinil, Upsides wkriotis manors and eliiirclies in
other ciiiinties. Many siihMcipieiit. royal and
|iriviilc donations were added to the ori;.':iiial en-
iliiwiiiciil, and its prerof^atives and iminunities
were jilnced on the same fnotin;; as those of
(liri.itCliiirch, Cantorhnry. In the reiiin of Kd-
wiirillll. leave was ohtained to fortify the ahU-y.
M tlic (general suppression its annual re.veiiuc
\w, ai'c'iiriliiif; to Speed, !IH7/. ttn, lltjf/. : Duj;-
il.'iK' iniiki's it K80/. lU. ij^d. Si.xty monks were
iHiiKiiiiH'd off. The remains occiiny three sides
iif II liir};e quiulran^le. ^Oamdens llrit.; Dii^-
ilalc's .Monos. ; I'cimant'a Tiuir; (Silpin's Cuoat of
SunHi'x.)
H.VTUinX, a town of I'liropean Itit^sin, p»-
vcniniciit of Tuhcrni^iitt", lieautifnlly situated on
tlic Scim, an aflluent of the Desna. I'op. esti-
niiiliMl at 5,5110. It is ehiotly remnrkalile for the
ca.»llc in it« vicinity helonpnn to Count h'ason-
innfuki, who has established maiuifaeturcs in the
tiiwiiiif cloth and wax candles.
M.VUGl'V, a town of Franco, de'p. Maine et I.nire,
np, arrond., on the (!ouanon, or Conernon, '2i{ m.
KXl'l. Anf;crs. I'op. a,5Ki in ISIil. The town is
ii;'ri'('iibly situated in a line valley, and has some
pKiiihmiscs, i)iit it is Imilt with the fjreate.st irre-
iniliirity. It has a trihiinal of ori;;inal jurisdiction,
a ciillc){c, or lii^h 8(dio(d, and maniifaetures of
I'liilli and coarse linen. The Kiij^lish forces, under
till' Duke of (:;iarciice, were totally deh'iiled in the
I i"'i;;1ilHiiirlioud of this town in 1121, and the duUc
' Mlli'il.
.Not fur fnira Dau.i^c is the village of Bange-lt-
373
lie iliat formerly
I of I iiiiIomIiik.
the r .nil trn
''iliioad, 1 1 ■»
I tilde, ami is . :U
Villi, with the ruins of an <
liclmi^i'd to the dukes i<( .V,,
IIAn.l'.AM, an iiilniid i.
prnv, Helical ; on the N. slili
of the t.anjti's. •io 111. \K. M,„
liirp', popiiliiii'., lias ciiiisii|rralil>
scat ol a ciiimncrcial resident on the part of liio
K. I. Ciiiiipaiiv.
MAC.MAN.'^llllllM'".. a reld.raicd cavern in
the duchy of llriniswick, mar lllaiikcnlnir^', It
ahoniids with stiilactilcs, and is iiitcrcsiinK to the
p'ol(ij{is| from the variety of fossil Ihhics fnuiid in
it ; aiiioiiu which are Ihiwe of the ;;ri'al cine hear,
now e.xtinct. The cavern was naiiicd iifier »
miner, who discovered it in IHtlO.
II.U'Mr.KAN.orHArMIAN.ali.wnofCanhiil,
the Thelx's of the K iintry of the lla/iiiircliN,
on the facu of the Koh-i-lliilia raii),'e of nioiiii'
tains; lat. .'II'' ill' N., Ioiik. <>«" «' I'.., 5'' m.
\VN\V. Caiihul. The valley, un one dedivitv of
which it sliinds, contains many caves, dii;; In a
soil of indurated clay and pcltldcs, and in which
riiif^s and relics, coins, Ac, hearing' Ciilic insci-jp-
tions, are found; hut llaiiineean is chiclly cclc-
hratcd for I wo i;i^'iiiilic male and female ti|;'uri's,
cut in iilti) rrlirro, on the fai'e of the nioiintaiii.
The male tigtire is the lar^fest, and ahoiit r.;n tl.
high; il is without much symmetry or eli';,'ancc,
and is considcrahly mutilated, the Moliamnu'diins
that pass that way nlwavs tiring a shot or two at
it. The lips are lar;;e, tlie cars long and pciidiiiil,
and there iippeiirs to have heeii tlie resinihlanco
of a tiara on the head; the Imdv Is covered liy
the remains of a mantle, which lias hecn foriiu'd
of a kind of plaster, and lixed on with woodcii
)iiii.s. The female ligiire is more ]icrl'ect than tlio
other, and has heeii dressed in the mime manner:
it is alsiiit half the si/.e, and cut in the same hill,
21)11 yards from the former. The niches in which
liotli are situated have heen at one lime plastered
and ornamented with paintings of hiinian liKurcs,
hilt these have nearlv di.sap)ieared. These images
arc supposed to he lhidillii<% Mr A. nnmes .says
the head of the lari;e one is not unlike that of tiie
great trifaceil idol of Klephantii, and near the
cclehrated tope of Manikyala (I'lnijah) he found
an antii|uc exactly resemhling this head. Another
anliipiary, from an inscription iiltove the head of
oiu^ of them, has Ixdieved them to have heen cut
about the ilrd century of our era, while the Sa.ssii-
iiide.s tilled the throne of Persia. They are not
mentioned hy any of the historians of Alexander
the (ireat; but both the idols and excavations of
Hanmeean nrc referred to by those uf Tiinour or
Tamerlane.
HAUMK-LES-DAMKS, a town of France, dip.
Doiibs, cap. nrroiid., on the Donh.s, IN m. NK,
Mcsan9on. I'op. 2,577 in iMtil. It is a liandsome
little town, tinely situated in a basin formed by
liills planted with vines; has a court of original
jurisdiction, n college, and a small public library,
with paper-mills and tanneries. It derivt's its
name from u rich and celebrated convent for nniis,
founded in it during the 5th century, .iiid <le-
stroyed at the Kevolntion.
IIAUTZKN, n town of Saxony, can. I'pper
Lnsatia, on a height at the foot of which is the
Spree, H'.i m. KNK. Dresden; on the railway from
Dresden to Lobau. I'op. 1 1,237 in 18(11. The town
is surrounded by walls, except one of its suburbs
on the left of the Spree, and is well built, with
straight, broad, and well-paved streets. Its ca-
thedral, dedicated to St, I'eter, founded in !I27 by
the Kaiser Henry II,, has u lower .'i(lO ft. high.
I The Oili'i/liiiri/, formerly a royal piihice, is now
ii.-<('d for public ollices; il has also a line town-
hall, a luiidhiiuscr or house »»f assembly I'or the
f.
371
1IAUX
iRi
?f
|l
•inU'*, All nrphnn ■nyliiin, and roiiroihrr liim|iiinlii,
H lioiiMti iif t'urn'ciiiiii, ilicalrc, Ac, with n ttviimn-
hIuiii, a cniliiilir clwtpli'r liuuitr, n mirinnl hcIkniI, n
iiifrhniilt'M' mi'IkhiI, •ml olIitT ('••lnlili'<liMiriilH I'lir
llii- |iiir)Mmi' iil't'iliit'iilloti, mill two |iiililli- llliriirii'N.
'I'licri' iiri' ('iiiinliltTiililii iiinniil'iu'tiiri'N uf wiinlli'ti,
liiirii, mill I'liUiiii Mlutl'n, liiliii ), Yiiw, |in|M'r, iitul
IiiihIitv ; a lir/iKH wurk, with lirfwvricH mul ili»-
lilli'rii'N, mill tmiiirrli'it. Tim town In tli(< criitrn
• ilH iiiiiHiiliriililtM'oriiriM'rvr, iHirtii'ulurly in wiMillcn
itiiil lliii'ii nrtii'li'N.
Near Itmil/cn.iin th«i 'Jillli mul 'iUt Miiy, IHI.'I,
will* I'imikIiI till* lialtic wlili'h iHarH Uk nmnc, Ixi
twiM'n the hVi-nch nmiy nmlrr Naiiolcnii, ami llii'
ciiinliini'il fiirrcN ul' ItiiKNiii ami l'ruN><ia,lMi,(MH) ini'ii
Htriin){, and ninininmli'il by lln* inniiarilm in pir-
luin. 'I'lu' Frrnrh wi-rc victoriiaiM; tlio cnruimv
on lioih KiilcN wiiN ^rial, ami IIm> allii'N cni-clcil
llicir ri'trinl in K'xhI I'nli'r. Dnmc, tin' intiuiatn
I'riciiil lit' Na|Mili'iiM, waH killcil liy liin mIiIi' in iIiIh
«iiK«K<'ini'nt. y\lMnit 7 ni, K. Iiy S, from Kaiit/.in,
\h lliirlikircli, llic Hntit' of iinii iif tlui greut liutth'it
111' I lie Siivcn Vfars' War.
IIAlIX,n Hniall town of Franco, ili'p. Uiinclii'H
ilii 1(1 «', 10 ni. M-:. Arli'H. I'lip. lili) in Imil.
1 1 HiamlM on llm Ninninh nf a nIi>i'|i hill, ami Ih rn-
niarkalilc for tlio rniim of iIm caHtli', fonmrly tlic
ri'Niili'iiri- of tlui conntM of Ituiix, wlm conti'Hli'il
tlid Hovor<'ij;nly of I'rovciirc witli tlm countn of
lliircrloiia.
KAVAIMA ((iinn. liujifrn; Vt. Ihirirn'), n
I'oiiiitry in the S\V. of (icrmany, aiuii'iitly a
tlurliy, aficnvanlM an rlrrioratc, ami now raiMcil
Id IIu' rank of a kitiKiloni, licin^ oim of the iiriii-
cipiil of llm Hcciimlary Kiiropcan HlalcM, ami llio
tliiril in nink of llii> Htulcs coinpriMiii); (lie (icnnan
confi'iliTalion. Itavaria \n coniiKiHiMl of two iIIn-
(inrt piirtfi, cominonlv ilcHifriiatcd lliti ''IVrrilory
of llin DanulM^ and ^failH',' and the ''IVrritory of
llm Kliine.' The fornnr, which conipristM ahont
7-Mtlm of the monun'hv, i^xtt-mU from 47° lit'
»(i 00° 'ir N, hit., ami from HO ftl' to i:J° 11' K.
ion^;., ami Im iMiundcd N. hy tliu kingdom of
Saxony, the principiiliticH of Kciihh, mid thv
(Inchit'd of Snxo-C'olmrn-dothft and Siixe-Mi'in-
in^rcn; K. and S. hy tin! HtatcH of tln' Au»lrian
4'mpiri'i and W. hy the torritorit-H of Klwtonil
ilcsM-, llcNHc-DarniMtadt, lladi'ii, and the kingdom
of Wllrtrnilitrt?. Tim Kliiiic territory lien on the
\V. Hidn of that river, hv which it Im |iartly
iHMindcd, and m completely NCparated from the
rcHt of the Kavurian chiminionH hy the inter|)o-
tiition of the territorieH of Uudon and lleKMC-
Darintttadl. The kingdom extends from IM^ r»7'
to WP bO' N. lat., and from 7° G' to «" 31' K.
lollf,'.
Area and PoimUitUm. — The total area of the
kingdom amountH to 1,;WI (ierman, or '2!t,()l7
Kii^'.K(|.m., wit ha population, in 18(11, of ■1,GH'J,837
iiihahilanls, or \i)H on the square mile.
The kinploni is divided, lor administrative piir-
jioHes, into ei^lit Kreisc, or circles, of thc! foUowiiifi
extent and population, according to the census of
Uccemher 18(il : —
ririloi
Upper Ttiivnrirt
Lower linvmiii
1'nliUiiiiitu
KpiHT I'lilntiiinto
lIpiHT rriuicoTiiii
Middle I'Vancoiiiii
Lower I'l'uiicoiiia
i;tmblu
Arr 1 in Rnirllih
Popwlnllon
Squart* Mill's
ill IHIil
(;,(it4
77N,r)r,i)
4,1 i:i
r>7r.,;i:is
«,-.'0(i
OIIK.IMi!)
4.1!»8
4Hri,S!t.'i
a,'.'-.'ti
Mf;,7i:i
a.7!IH
Mri.'JSfi
;i,);ii4
«10,7:,H
3,S.1«
r.7K,l!IO
Total
29,017
4,C8!),8«7
Tlic census of December 1801 stated the ex-
iiitenuc uf 1,131,0.31 runiilicM, su lliut each family
HAVAUIA
ronxiNteil, on the ■vernKC, of Utile rmirr than fnur
heitilit.
SHrJ'llrr.—^flt^4ntlliH$. — ^^n\■(kx\^ hiw on Hi,.
whole n miiiintalnoiii« chnracler, \w\\\\i imi ,,„{y
walled in liy lolly moiiiitainM on the N, imd >,
hut liaviiiif exietiNivechaimt running llin>iit(li ii^
inli'rior. 'I'lie loftiest nioiiniaimt are the N„fi,.
Al|w on the H., whieh NC|iiirute it from llie Tvnil
their lllimt elevated |M)iiltM are llii> '/,n\i»\;\iil
circle of l«»r, ll.tWIt ft,, mid the Wetterxclin.ir.n'
1),1<H7, The AllKnii AljM), in theimiv. of Ihi I'liiNr
naiiiilM', extend from Kemiiteii, in a NK. ilireriinii,
to iiearMindelheim. The NiK'JivoKel in tliinrnii^'ii
ix H,|7ii, iiml the TeufelfCsltsH, in the Kniiii' iiriv
|i..'n:I ft. The hi^h lumlH on the N. iti<|e i,i ii,i!
I >aiiiilN< contikiii the tiiicly-wiMNled chain nl' tin.
NiH'NHarl, which cotnini'ticeN on the Maine, m ih,.
place where that river sepuralen it from tint , luiln
of the Odeiiwald, and IritverMeN the prov, of l.ciwir
Maine from N. to .H., eovi-rliij^ an ana nf 1 17 m,
m. The InfiieHt mimmitN of this raii){e, niiih ^
the KnxelNlierg and thi^ (ieyerslN-rK. rine to tin'
height of alHiiit 2,000 ft. The miwi iumttioii
riH'ks in the S|M'HHarl are Kfanite, Knein.N, wyeniii.,
and poqihvry, which Hcrvii as a support frjr "hihi!
stone, M\t\\ and calcareous rocks, M, of i he .Muiiic,
and ailing the frontiers of the Lower .tiid I'liint
Maine, and the Itezikt, is the miiKe of the V>Uxvt-
W'alil, which reaclii'N nearly to the cliajn nf h,,.
Spessart, ikiid is onlv separated from it hy iIm.
course of the Maine, 'I'he l{|iieni'-lti'l>ir^'e, aliliuk
and desolate chain of imiimtains in ihe circli' uf
Lower Franconia, unite on the W. wiili tliecliaiu
ofihe Von<'lslierj{, and on the K, with IheTliii-
rinni^r-VVald : they art' more extensive liiid mnn'
elevated tlian the range of the Spcssiirt, mul art'
covered half the year *vith snow. The Kirhiil-
(ii'liirg«% which connect the Hhniie miiiininiiii
with the Itiehmer-Wahl, lie in the XK, part nf ilic
lJp|H'r Maine. Tliey consist i'hicflv of ^Tiiiiiii'.
gneiss, quart/, and elayslate. The )iigliesi |H'iiit
in tli(^ range is the summit of the ()cliseiikii|i|'iir
Ox's Head (r),2N0 ft.). The chain of the Ituhtnir-
VVald, whi(;h commences at the sonrceM nf tlu'
Kger, and running along the i']. cuiiIIiipn of ll:i-
varia, terminates at tlic Moravian indiiiitnins
throwing out several hranches into the circlisuf
the Lower Ditiiiihe and Itegen, may Im' nlHuit I'mi
m. in length. The most elevated ^'unlmitHlln■lll(■
Asher, 4,821 ft. ; the Ifocher, 4,720 ft. ; aiM ilic
Dnigell, l,or»4 ft. The Havariim minmtaiii.i nri'iii
general well wooded. In I lie Hat country iiliii;'
the DaniilK- there are some very extensive I'na^ll(■<.
River*. — liavaria is watei-ed hy the laigcut riven
of (iemiany. The most considerahle of tlutn'lj
the Daniihe, which, on entering Kavarin fnmi iIk
Wllrtcniherg dominions, is of siillicieiit xi/.n to Ik'
navigahle, and aftcrwanls Hows through tliu liiari
of tlic kingdom, making, with its wiiuliii;;'', n
course of about 270 K-njir. m. In its course tliriiii;'li
the Itavartan territory, it flows pa.st tlic tiiwii<"i'
(iilnsburg, IIiecliHliiilt, Donaiiwierth, Neiilmr:,',
Ingolstadt, liatishon. Straiibing, Vilshiifcii, iiiil
I'assau, and receives no fewer than 38 rivers; llie
chief of these, on the right hank, are the IIItT, llie
Lech, the Isar, and the Inn, all having tlieirsiiiire
among the Alps. The lUer, before its |iiiirii"ii
With tlie Danube, receives the Illeilmeli; the i>ar
is joined by the Loisach, Ainper, and VVilmi, mil
fails into the Danube below Deggendorr: the in'i.
which rises in Switzerland, (lows lhr(iiif;li il«'
Tyrol, and is niivigable before it enters Itaviiri.i:
it receives th(! Alz, the large river Sal/.n, *i'., aivl
joins the Dannbc near I'assau. The streiims mi ilif
left or Franconiaii side, which arc by iiomPiw**'
large as those mi the opposite bank, are tiic Mur-
iiitz, the Allmiihl, which has Its simrcc w\it\
TIAVAUIA
.17A
Siri|{<'r WmM ikii*! M\» iiniii till' DiiiiiiImi iit'iir
Ki'hli'iiii t l'><^ liohrlMti'li, urnr llitlM'tilu'lin i tlm
NmU wli'<''* •I'^M'riiilH rmiii lliit Fii'lilrl (i<<liirKi>,
,,„| ilimliAr^i'" iUt'ir iiil>' ilii> DiiiiiiIm' aImivc
liiiiinlmti : MMil tli« Iti'Ki'ii., I 'int lliiWN friiin llio
|lii'limi'r-\Vi>l>l<tti)<l< lrnvi>i"<iii.; ihi< rirclo Id which
jiifivi'Dimrni', JoiiiH iIm' Piuin <• ii|)|MHtlii> ItaiinlMMi,
rill' iiiiW I'liimlilfruhlii rlvir In th« N, |Mirt of
lUviiriit in ll>*' MaiiK*, riimii')! hv llio JiinctiiMi of
ihi' H<'<1 xikI Wliilit Mniiii^, Ihx fiinnrr oriKliintiiiK
iMihi'vii'iiiliy iif Noiitinii. hikI thi<lntri'ril('Nn>ii<tiiiK
Iroiii Ih'lim'iikitiif, part iif 1 1 FI('lit«'l-4i<'liirK«s ill
iiiiM'iri'lt' of llu> rpiMT haiiiiiK', TIm^m* iiiiiiv iiriir
HiIiiiInwIi. hikI trnvcnto Km )iiiii in a W. iliri'i'-
iiMii, n'i-('iviti»{ in thi'ir iimKri'M Ihn KimIiu'Ii, tlii>
l.itin, mill llx' Frniu'onian Mnnl<>, wliifli Mow I'mui
ilii< |(liii'iii'-< it'ltiruo, till' tli'i lit/., mill many nniullir
■in'iiiii^ 'III*' liniiin funi tlui K. iNiiinilary nf
till' Ikivariikii pMviiice wlii lM>nrM ItH iiiinio,
l^ikef,— '\'Uo luki>N nn< iiinicMiiH, anil itoinit of
ilii'iii lurKc Ih'niilt'N lhi> liikt* iif CoiiNinnt'i', only
viii/iii |K>riioii iif wliii'li Ih Hiiuutt'il in liavarin, tliu
itiiixl fxli'imivt' nr«' till' Ainnii'r, nlMiut \'i ni. imiK
uiiil '.'7 ill I'irciiil ; tlii^ Wiinn, 11 ni. in ion^ili aii<l
liiiliri'iiililii mill III)' Cliifin, niHiiit !>/> ni. in cir-
iiiil. Till" SliirtVii or Stulli'l, tlu\ Wiili'lii'ii, tlm
K'hIii'I, mill III)' KiiiK'i or llartliiiloiniiMiH lakcM, nro
||l«l of I'OIIHilUTullltl I'Xtl'llt. MllHt Uf tllCNO Itlki'M
iiUiiinit ill IIhIi, niul M>v(>rul vahinbUt tlNliurii-H liiivc
Iktii I'nlnlilixlii'il nil llifin,
It/ivariii iHiHMi'HMi'H Diiiiii'riiiiK cnnnlH, A cnnnl vriu
tniuli'iii IH(I7 iK'twiM-n Kn.'M'nlu'iin, T.IIKI I'l. liiii>t
niiil.'lli n. Iirnail. Aniillu'r raiial wun liiiiMlicil in
|N|M Ijc'lwt'i'ii WOrtli anil KniliiiiKc-n, HMl-.'t n.
Inii^'uiiil li'J ft. Iiriiuil. 'riii^ru In a canal in lliii \V,
pnrtiif lliiu-iri'li' «( tlio Inar Kl.lliMi ft, in length,
Hliich HMvcH a iliHtancu of ti in., iiriil avuIilM tliu
iliini^'roiiH navijriition of the Ainiiu>r Lako. A
^Tiiiiil canal, callcil tlu; I.tiilwi^'H Canal, after the
lull' kiiiKi^vli it'll JoiiiM the Duniilie with the Uhiiie,
wih ciiiiipletoil in IMtiO, It cxtenilM from Diet-
fiirtli.im tlie AllmUhl, a navi^alile utHuent of the
HiiiiuIk', til Hainlier^ on the Maine, a iliMlance of
'.':i||iti'riiiiiii, or alMint ll'2 Kii^r, m. It m on a
hri^i'M'nlv, mill Iiiim iH'.en conHtrncleil ut an expciiHe
I'f almve a inillion Hterliii^. This ina^nilicunt nii-
ilirtiikiii);, wliieh luw eoine to realise lliu project of
Cliarkiniii^'iiu for Joining; the lilack Sen to the
iKTirmn Ueeuii, wuh earrieil out at the iimti^atimi
mill Willi the aHNiHtnnee of the llavnrian govern-
ment. It is liferent iin|H)ftaiiee to liavarin.
(YtnMfc— The cliniatc of liavariu is in (general
U'm|K'rato iiiul saliilirions, hnt the teiii|H>rature is
I'liiiKiiicralily mollified liy local diflereiuuts in the
I'li'vatiuii III the soil. In the iniiiintaiiions regions
it LH colli mill hleak,biit inililer in the low country :
ill till! jiluiiis and valleys tlio Huiuiner heats uru
wimi'linifM oimressive.
Aiirfd/s.— 1 he Hnvarian forests nro very ex-
ifiwivc and vahmlile; a considerahle portion of
ihr kin^filiiin heiiif; still covered with natural
»i"kK The most coniiiniii trees are oak aiidlieecli
ill liiv plains, and pine imd tir on tint niiiiintaiiis.
i'lic iiiiiHt extensive furots are .sitnated on the
SjH'sunrt and h'hiene nuniiituiiis, and in the nei^h-
l«iuriiiK«l ipf Keinpteii, where they cover a surface
if '.'.i.'ljl 1.1 acres. The annual priidiict of the Ha-
\iiniin forests is estimated at •2,;i7tt,00() klafters;
aiiii timlMT is one of thi' most important art ides of
i\|Kirt, However, in recent years, the trade in
this iirtii'te Ims rather fallen oil", owiiij; to the
I'lcarinj^iif ttu' forests in the more fertile provinces
"f thi' kiiiplom, especially those in the territory
iif Ihc llhiiie. The greater f|iiniitity of the. exports
"fiimlioris now derived Irom tlie mountainoiis
4i»lriti!i, I'riini which the niimcroiis rivera and
I'TOiUH carry it down in rafts.
The fiillowliiK Inhle exhlhils nil approxiinati)
view of the extent, in acres, of the fnreals in the
ililTerent circleo, dislrihuted oinoiiK the ehuMui lu
which they livlmiK i—
1 r.fnia
CIniM lM.l..i.|(lii«
1" in«
MUM
T" T..»i..,
Iliirirh,,
«lll««,-.
a >"i
tll.'iia
T.I liMU Th«I
«f Ai-rwt
lunr . . , A-il,A(lil
Iti'tren . . ■/^M,ll|ll
, Lower Iiiiniilm I7:l,.vi:l
l'|i|H'r liiiniilHi •JM.ml
1 Lower Miiliio . vaa.iill
'■ PINT .Maine . tlil.MA
ICi'Xilt . . ■i-iA,:iNtl
tllihio . . :iiMI,tNl7
Total . , 'J,l\i;mi
IIII.OINI
lyii.imi
7m;i
ino.iiim
'M7,r>n
|iNl.:l|'i
lAI.-iilt
■iHH.AAII
I,'./|I1,H1IH
MLI/iA.'l 1,|:lli,'i<l1l
4ll.7a;| 7mi,|o.t
iH\:ir,.\ «.•„•,, .-.(lU
;i7i,Mm 7.vi.i7.%
ll»o.A7tI 7lll,7ll|
Ill7,ftil» 711,7111
lll.^.o«t7 Ati.iiiNi
7o,NHI» 7iH,7o«
J,7oi,tmiii,.'Mi:i,M7ri
The KroMN anniinl value of the wimmU and fon>sta
lielonuiiiK to the slate anioiints lo nearly ll.'iO.oiiii/.;
hut. III coiiHeipience of the heavy ex|M'nNes at-
tending; their inaiia^emenl, the net produce re-
ceived iiv the stall! aniiMiiitH only to little moru
than haff that sum.
Minrrith. — The mineral priMliiets of llavaria aro
ini|Hirtaiit and valiiahle; lint iiotwithslandin^ the
eneonra^einent held out liy pivernment, Ihey liavo
hitherto lieen coinparalively neglected. The prin-
cipal products are sail, coal, and iron. Salt is a
royal monopoly, and produces a considerahle reve-
nue. There are a coiisideriilile mimlH'r of iron-
works and eoal-miiies in operation; they helon^
partly to the crown, and partly to private indi-
viduals, lilack lead is ohtained in some places ; and
small ipianlilies of copper and ipiicksilver are also
iiriMluved. There are an immense variety of inar-
iiles. The porcidain clay of ituvaria is pmhahly
the tliiest in Kuroiie.
AgrivultitrK. — llie soil of nnvnria, where it in
not covered hy nmra.sses or miiiintiiins, is f;ene-
rally ^oimI; and in the plains and valleys it Im
deeji, fertile, and capahle of producing' all kinds of
crops. A ^nreat deal of waste land has recentlv
Ih'cii rechumed ; and an improved system of cnf-
tivation has lH<eii inlrodiiced into various districts,
and is (litriisiii^ itself over the whole country,
(loveniment hiw i:eulou.sly exerted itself to pni-
inote improvement, not merely liy the refonns it has
etl'ected in the svstems of administration and edu-
cation, hnt hv tfie draintiKi! of extensive marshes,
and by itH clTorts to improve the breed of sheep.
There went, in IHtil, according to ollicial esti-
mates, l,!i:i(i,l)OII shee)), !I70,I)(MI horses, :i,2:{li,ll()U
horneil cattle, r>Wl,i>l)*> piK'!*< »>i*l l<)''>><>i><) Koats.
Agriculture is most inniroved in the valley of
the I)annlK>, the circles of Ke/.at, and of the I'pper
and Lower Maine. The plain lyiiiK t<> I be S. of
Munich has, on account of itspriiiliictivene.M,H, iM^eii
styled the f^ranary of ticnnany. Principal cro|is
— rve, wheat, oats, and liarh-y; but rice, niai/.e,
anil buckwheat are also partially cultivated. No
accurate estimate can be fonnedof the productive-
ness of the crops, varying?, as they niiist necessarily
do, not only accordin){ to the iiiialily of \\w soil,
but also accordiuf^ to the skill with which it is
(Miltivated, and the nature of the st^asons. Kiit
Kn^lishmen who have been in llavaria state, that
under |iro|ier culture, the produce of corn and
turnips is eipial to what it is in the best cultivated
districts of Kn^land; and notwithstanding the
vast consnnijition of corn in the breweries, llavaria
has invariably a lar^^e surplus for exfiortation.
From ollicial returns for the year lK(i2, it apjienrs
that the land under crop tlurunghout the kingdom
was as t'ulluws : —
370
UAVARIA
Cra|M
Niinitipr of Aercf
UlhllT <'rn|i-
Bavurtan ' Mt -Rrn '
Amount of Produce
Wheat . .
Uyu .
Unrlcy
OntH mid Millet .
PotlltOOH ,
],4.1(),0'J9
2,;W(t,:i74
i,i'j.'>,(in9
l,H7tl,(l.'i4
013,H27
12,4IiM2H
14,707,'JIO
8,l.!ll.4lH)
K),17l,:i7.')
6o,7;U»,(M7
Tlic nvcrnfjo prwlnce of v'>fint, per Unvnrinn
arrc, is !) Hclu'tlul ; of rye, 6 Hclieflt-l ; of ImrUiy, 7 ;
of oats and millet, HjL ; and of potatocH, 55 HfliefVcl.
The Uavnrinn acre is equal to ()'(ir> Kng. acre, and
the selu'ffel e(ninl to 7(il imp. quart.
The hop-j)lant is cultivated to a coriHidcraMe
extent, particularly in the circles of He/.at and the
Upper Danuhe: the qu-uititv raised varies from
51((,0(>() to 4(),(»()() cwt, a year, of which ahout a half
is exported. The culture of the vine is well un-
derstood in Havaria, The best vineyards are in
the circles of the liower Alainc and the Kliine.
The former jiroduccs the wines of Franconia, known
by the luimes of the Maine, Were, Saale, and
'I'auh.'r wines. The famous Stoinwcin and F^ics-
tenwein are jiroduced on the banks of the Loiste,
not far from Steinberg, in the mark of WUrzburg.
The best wines in the circle of the Hhinc are those
produced near Deidesheim and VVachenheim. The
average yearly produce is estimated at about
XdO.dOO eimers. Jlemp and tlax are grown in
some districts, but the sujiply is not sulHcient for
home consumi)tion. Madder and liquorice arc
very extensively produced, and form considerable
articles of export. The culture of the potato has
rapidly increased during Inte vears, particularly in
the N. ))rovince8. Beetroot is raised in consider-
able quantities, and there are several factories for
its conversion into sugar. Tobacco is grown in
considerable quantities in the circles of Kezat and
llhine. Silk has been raised of late years, but not
to any great extent. Considerable portions of
ground have l>een laid out in nurseries and llower-
gardciis, and large quantities of fruit are exported
from the territories of jNlaine and the lihiiic.
It is estimated that the produce of hojis in 1801
amounted to 224,000 Zollvcrcin cwt., representing
a value of ll,0tlO,(J0O tlorins; of these G0,000werc
consumed by the Havariun breweries, and 144,0(10
cwt, exported abroad, valued at 7,770,000 Horins.
The i)roduce in barley for the same period was
ctpial to 9,500,000 cwt., of which 5,600,000 were
devoted at home to the fabrication of beer. The
beer of Havaria therefore (estimated for ISfil at
8,500,000 eimers, with GO measures to the eimer)
costs annually circa 19,000,000 florins, paying
(),000,000 florins malt tax to the state, and further
2,000,000 florins for municipal excise, showing a
total cost of 27,000,000 florins.
From the 5th of August, 1801, to the 9th of
May, 1802, 185,208 schettelof malt were emphiyed
in the breweries of IMunich alone; one single
brewer having paid 300,0(H) florins (25,000/.) malt
t<ax in the course of the year 1801-2. The con-
sumption of beer per head of the population
is reckoned at 2^ cimer yearly in Franconia,
the Palatinate, and Lower liavaria; at li^ eimer
in Upper IJavaria; and at 4^ eimer jier head of
the populatiim in the capital, (h'eport of Mr.
Consul IJonar, dated Munich, July 15, 1805.)
The immense quantity of beer consumed in
Munich ah i ?, is forcibly illustrated as foHows by
a journal of that city of Juno 180.-! : —
'According to the most authentic returns, the
brewers of Atunich alone have now laid in a stock
amounting to no less than 082,754 eimer, or 01,900
more than iii 1802 ; each eimer cunUiiniiig 00
measures (each mensure being equal to between
4 and 5 pints English).
' A tlowing spring, yielding two measures per
minute, wouhl recpiiro to flow unintcmiiiieillv
during the s)iace of thirty-six years and a liiilf i'u
order t«> produce the above quantity,
'That amount of beer would till to the lirim n
pond or small lake, of a surface equal tn |ii.i.
Itavarian acres, and 4 ft. in depth ; or, ngniii it
would form a river of 32 ft. wide, 4 ft. avcrii(;e
depth, and 2A m. hmg.
' The barrels required to contain it, and such n^
are commonly in use in this country, if laid liesiilc
one another, would occupy a space of 12 J leufjues
in length (or nearly 32 English ni.),aiid siipiidsinj;
the al)ove-said amount of beer to cover the ex-
pected demand during the coming siiinmcr (wliiclj,
liowever, is seriously called in doubt), it wmilil
average IJ measure per head of the whole p(i|iu.
lation of Munich irresi)cctive of age or sex. In
Munich alone 212,308 schettel of malt have Ik'cm
emjiloyed in the manufacture of beer from AiiL'tw
1802 to May 1803.'
Hut some portion of this large stock in hnnd U
consumed out of the ca])ital, for the Miniieh beer
is largely exported to the most distant markets.
Austria and France consume it in considerable
quantities, and it tinds its way across the Atliiiitii;
to the Hrazils, and traverses the Atlantic and In-
dian Dceans to Java, Borneo, and other coiiiiiries.
I'rofessor Biirckhardt has declared that whil.st in
1859 Itavaria produced <mly 72,000 cwt. ofiinps,
the yield in 1802 amounted to no less than ir)0,(NNi
cwt., whilst others compute it even at 1 80,0(10 cwt.
As in Kngland, however, so also in liavaria,
there is a notable dittereiice us to quality in the
produce of the various soils. Among the best
m Bavaria are the districts of Spalt and Hetx-
bnick : the former having produced, in IXii:',
11,108 cwt, 13 lbs., yielding 1,119,347 florins; tlie
latter, 27,409 cwt., fetching upwards of 3,00(i,(H)u
florins.
The above statistics, then, show the vast imimrt-
anco to Bavaria of this branch of lier agricultnriil
jjroduce, and of her commerce in hops, of wiiicli
Xurnberg is the chief emporium. The totjd har-
vest of hops in Bavaria during the four vears
1858, 1859, 18G0, and 1801, amounted to 2ri,(Wi;
cwt. 53 lbs., sold at 22,453,398 florins. (Kcpurt
of Mr. Consul Bonar, dated July 15, 1863.) 'The
establishment of llcrr Pschorr, at Munich,' says
a traveller, ' almost rivals the works of our' liar-
clay and I'erkins'. In every comer of the eilv
you And beer-houses ; and when you sec a Wavari,.,.
peasant not working, you are sure to find him with
a can of beer in his hand.' (Germany in 1831,11.
377.) It may be supposed, perhaps, that this
enormous consuin])tion of beer must be injiirimu
to the labouring population; but this d(ies nut
seem to be the case. The desire to ])ossess this
luxury stimulates their industry; and notwirh-
standing their indulgence in it, they tae well
clothed and well fed ; there is no apjiearanee of
abject poverty amongst them, and beggars arc
never see ,i.
Next to beer, the staple products of manufac-
turing industry are coarse linens, woollens, coilniis.
leather, paper, gl!».ss, earthenw.are, jewellery, irini-
ware, basket-ware, and wooden articles, (.'eiir-i'
linens are manufactured to a considerable cxtoni ;
l*it the supply of woollen stuffs, worsted hose, ami
cotton goods, is inadequate to the consimipticm.
The leather manufacture is extensive and ini|Hir-
tant, and leather is largely exp<irted. There are
above lilO paper-mills, about 50 glass-houses, i'lC'
saw-mills, many establishments for the nianulV-
turc of wuudcii'clocks, and toys, and of purcelaiii
BAVARIA
377
unl to between
:> mcnmirc!! jkt
iiiiintcmiplcdly
,rH luiil u liiiir ill
V.
rt to tlie liriin n
c eq\ial to liil
h ; or, n;;iun, ii
le, 4 ft. iivtrimi;
I it, nnd meh a*
try, it'laid licnidc
C of \'i\i It'llUHCS
,),nii(l Kiniiiipsiii);
;o cover the px-
siimmcr (wliicli,
il(ml>t), It wiMiliI
the whole puim-
Ufro or sex, hi
r innlt hnve liwii
jeer from Au(;ii>t
! stock in hnnd h
tlie Munich Ik'it
(listnnt mnrkcts.
it in cousideriilili;
cross the Athiiitie
I Atlantic and hi-
1(1 other coiiiiirii's,
rod tiiat whilst in
>,0()0 cwt. of lm|is,
less than li'iO.tKiii
xnat 1X0,000 wvt.
also in Havftria,
1 to quality in the
Araonf; the lifst
f Spalt and Ilers-
iroduced, in W>i,
.19,347 tlorins; the
,)war(l8 of 3,000,000
)w the vast impurt-
of her iit;ricult\iriil
in liops, of wlikh
The toUil liar-
ii<; the four ycaw
.unted to 211,ti'.W
Horins. (KcpiTt
Iv 15, 18G3.) 'The
•," at Munich,' cays
works of our' liar-
comer of the litv
you see a Havari,...
ire to lind him with
ermany in l»Sl,ii.
perhaps, that tliis
must be injurimis
but this dues nut
;sire to jwsscss this
itry; and nt)twi;h-
it, they are well
no appearaiu'c nf
and beggars are
oducts of maniifai'-
s, woollens, eottuiis.
are, jewellery, ircn-
n articles. C(iar>e
onsiderahlc extoiit :
worsted host', i""'
the consimiiitii'".
aensive and imi»'r-
<norted. There are
»};lass-houscs,-.'.iiii'i
s for the niiimihu-
and of piircelaiii
inA partlicnwarc. But Homo of thcuc trades ore
on the decline, and, to judfje from the census rc-
liirns it would a]i])enr that the industrial popiila-
ticii) in (tcneral has l)cen decren»in>j between the
vciirs I><10 and 1W>1 very nearly nine ju-r cent.
'fills is ascribed to the system of industrial pro-
trctlon prcvnilinj^ to the jiresent day, nearly all
trades beiiiK united in guilds, possessing great
privileges and monopolies.
The occu|iations of the people were, according
to the census, in every thousand inhabitants,
duriiii,' two periods :—
1810 1861
Atrriciiltiiro .... CM C79
Industry and Commerce . 2')7 '227
Civil Service, Finid-holdors, &c. fi4 RH
Military Service ... 14 19
I'lUiiKirs, on Public Charity . 18 20
Certain industrial occiii)ation», however, are,
iiotwithstainling the system of protection, in a
liighly llonrishing state'. Ironware, especially nails
nnd needles, is extensively manufactured, and the
exports are considerable. The optical, mathe-
matical, surgical, and musical instruments, made
lit Munich, arc highly prized cm the Continent,
os|M.'cially the telescopes of Frallenhofer, which
arc suijc'rior to those made anywhere else. There
arc also foinulrics for cannon, and manufactories
ol' muskets and other small arms, &c. ; and con-
stderui)le quantities of jewellery are exported to
most iMiropean market.t. Tlie princi]ial maiui-
facturiiig towns arc Augsburg, Nuremberg, Forth,
ijeliwabach, Ilof, and Hayreuth.
Commerce, — The <;cntral situation of liavaria
renders her well suited ^or the transit and carrying
trade; and to this Augsburg, Nuremberg, 15a-
tisbon, and Spires, owed the greater part of their
wealth and celebrity during the middle ages. But
in modem times the means of profiting by the
natural advantages of the country in this way
have been comparatively neglected. Within
recent years, however, they have begun to attract
the attention they so justly deserve. Besides
the great canal uniting the Danube with the
Kliine, a joint stock company established in
IK38 a regular steam communication between
Katishon and Linz, in Austria, which was ex-
tended in 1839 to Donauwerth and Ulm. The
lirst railroad with locomotives introduced u])oii
the Continent was that between Nuremberg and
Fiirth, ojiencd in 183,5. Bavaria has a great re-
source for commercial undertakings, in the credit
enjoyed by the bankers of Augsburg, which is
still one of the princiiial places of the Continent
liir the tiegotiation of bills.
The ex])ort8 consist chiefly of com, timber,
wine, cattle, sheep, and hogs, butter, salt, iron,
leather, glass, hops, fruit, Ijcer, wool, optical and
mathematical instruments, wooden toys, jewellery,
maps, and artistic objects, of an average annual
value of 14,000,000 ti., or 1,225,000/. The quan-
tities of the pruicipal articles exported arc at an
average : —
Homed Cattle
190,000 to 200,000 head
Horses .
1'.
,000 13,000 —
Sheep .
22.'i,000 —
Hogg
6(i5.000 —
Clicusc and Butter .
100,000 cwts.
Wool .
l!t,000 —
Hops
22.O00 —
Dried Fruit .
3:1,000 —
Wheat .
200,000 qrs.
Wine (value) .
. l,'.»ri0,0O0 fl.
Timber (value)
. 2,500,000 —
of cattle arc also extensive, and those of horses
exceed the exiMtrts. FiirtluT details as to Ibo
commerce of Havana arc given in the statistical
returns of the trade of the ZoUvcrein, or Gennaii
customs' league, of which it forms a part. Its
proportion of the joint revenue of the league is
l(i"!t4, or 17 iier cent. (See Zollvkuisin ; also
Prussia.)
Until the formation of the league, which has
oix-ned a vast extent of country to the products
of liavaria, its natural facilities for commercial
intercourse were defeated by its own prohibitory
regulations, and those of most of its neighbours.
Sounder and more enlightened views, as to com-
merce, are now, however, l>eginning to prevail all
over (Jermany ; and it is but justice to add, that
the Bavarian government has given a powerful
impulse to industry by establishing mechanics*
scboids, annual exhibitions, and prizes; and still
more bj' the abolition of the jiemicious privileges
of guilds and cor|>orations. But a vast deal still
remains to be elfected before industry can niako
any real progress in this and most other (iennaii
states. Numerous p<dice regulations still interfere
with the free exercise of industrial pursuits, and a
great manv things which ought to be left to the
working of" the great laws of demand and supfdy,
such as the number of labourers permitted to re-
side in towns, the number and distribution of
trades, the prices of bread and meat, and even
the introduction of new machinery, arc all deter-
mined by artificial arrangements, dc|)en<lent on
the calculations and estimates of the minister of
the interior. The wonder is not, where such re-
gulations prevail, that industry should be in a dc-
]ircssed condition, but that it should exist at all.
And, in point of fact, the progress it has made is
principally ascribable to the fact of Bavaria having
within her limits Augsburg. Nuremberg, nnd other
towns that, l)eing formerly free imperial cities,
have been but little injured by these preposterous
regulations.
Money and Measures. — The Bavarian florin, di-
vided into 00 kreutzer. is equivalent to 21</. ster-
ling ; the eimer, or measure of wine, to 9^ gallons ;
and the schetfel, or measure of corn, to '761 imp.
quart.
Population. — Considering the lengthened period
of tranquillity that Bavaria has enjoyed, and the
stimulus given to industry by the secularisation
of the property of the monasteries, and the aboli-
tion of guilds and corporations, the progress of
population has been slower than might have been
expected. This slow progress would seem to be,
in part at least, accounted for by the law which
enacts, that 'no marriage bettveen people without
capital shall be allowed without the previous per-
mission of the poor institutions ;' that is, of the
principal persons in each provincial district elected
to superintend the management of the poor, v Wo
are boimd to refuse such permission, unless they
see a reasonable pros|)ect of the parties being able
to provide ft>r the children that may be expected
to spring from the proposed union. To insure
their vigilance, it is enacted, that the members
of poor institutions neglecting to enforce this
law ' are to answer for the maintenance of the siiid
families, should they not be able to maintain
themselves.' Undoubtedly, a biw of this sort
must tend powerfully to prevent improvident
unions ; and it is stated that it has retarded the
increase of population, and had likewise a cer-
tain ett'ect in averting extreme poverty and con-
sequent misery. (Sec Apjicndix I . to Poor Inquiry
Ketiims, p. 22.) The siilyoincd table shows the
slow progress of po|iulation.in the course of very
noarlv half a conlurv: —
'I
.^1
378
BAVARIA
Clnln
1818
Popultlion
1855
744,161
664,013
687,334
471,»(H)
4n!),UI3
633,687
680,070
601,670
1861
Upper Bavaria .
Lower navaria .
PalatlimU! . . ,
Up))cr I'alatlimto
UpiKT Frnnconia
Mldille Fmnconla
Lower Franoonia
Suabla ....
Total . . .
68.'i,4«7
46(t,H!)6
4tt;,i)m
403,481
3!M.!».14
437,838
601 ,21 a
487,U61
778,659
675,338
0()H,(HI9
486,896
610,748
645.^88
001,758
678,190
4,089,837
8,707,906
4,541,460
The soil of the kiiifrdom is divided amon^
947,010 proprietors: the division hi-mg greatest
in the Palatniate, namely 228,976, and smnllcsl in
Up|)er Bavaria, viz. 109, 195. (Hermann, Dr. Von,
IJcitrlltfe zur Statistik von Bayem, 1«G3.)
In Bavaria all destitute iHirsons have a legal
claim to relief; and no doubt it vim, the wish to
])revent the abuse of this right that led to the
institution of the law above cited. That it has
been effectual to this end, is universally ad-
mitted; but difliirent opinions are entertained ns
to its iuHuencc on public morals. We are not
sure, however, that it can be successfully im-
])cauhed on this ground. At Munich, indeed, half
the births are illegitimate ; but the residence of
the court, and of a numerous garrison, and the
great intiux of strangers, seem sufficiently to ac-
count for this. In the countrj', we believe, the
morals of the Bavarians are, in this respect, (|uite
on a level with those of the other Gennan states.
The proportion of illegitimate to legitimate births
is, however, very high, being as 1 to 4'4.
Character and Manners. — The Bavarians, though
all Germans, differ essentially in character, accord-
ing to their descent from the different tribes of
that people, and the different circumstances under
which they have been placed. The inhab. of the
Khcnish prov. are the most lively, active, gay, and
enterprising. The Swabians are remarkable for a
certain good-natured indolence, which has exiiosed
them to much undeserved ridicule. The Fran-
conians are diligent, intelligent, and steady, but
vary in their social habits according to the influ-
ence which Protestantism has exercised upon the
inhab. of the Upper Maine, or the dominion which
the Catholic prelates of the empire have had upon
their brethren in the fertile valley of the lower
]iortion of that river. The population of the provs.
S. of the Daimbe retain more characteristic pecu-
liarities ; and the Bavarians, though equally brave
and well disposed with the rest, are heavier, more
superstitious, and less active, though not less in-
<lustriou8. In the valleys of the Alps, the dress
and manners of the Bavarians and Swabians bear
a great resemblance to those of the Tyrolese ; and
the climate inclines them to prefer ]>asture to ara-
ble husbandry. The women are here more in the
lields, and partake more of the out-door labour of
the men than is the case in the N. provs. They
drive the cattle up to the hills in summer ; and
their robust health manifests itsell'in the zeal with
which they johi in the waltz, and hi their peculiar
manner of singing, called ' lodvlii.' The character
of their songs is not unfrcqucntly rather free ; but
the indispensable requisites of "a I'avoured lover,
according to the ' ScfmafJcrkvpfel,' are superior
agility and skill as a sportsman and wrestler,
which must be proved by tlie [mssossion ol" sundry
trophies of tlie chase, such as chamois beards or
feathers of the rarer birds, which, when worn on
his pointed hat, ft)rm a challenge to rival heroes,
who not unfrequently attcnijit to wrest them from
their owner by force, according to the hiws of vil-
lage chivalry. The wealth of the largo towns on
the iiavigublo rivers in the middle ages, and the
expensive habits which it producetl, may yet ho
traced in the costumes of the wives and (laughtcrg
of tlic burghers. The hmxl of rich gold lace, and
the bodice ornamented with gold or silver chains
from which a numl)er of medals hang, form tlie
common dress of the richer portion of this clntia
and arc ambitiously displayed by servants and the
poorer trades-people on Sundays and holidays.
Roads and Bailways, — Bavaria has excellent
roads, and 250 (ierman m. of railways, of which 1«2
belong to and are managed by the state ; together
with the iK)8t-office, telegraph, the Danube and
Maine Canal, and the Danube Steam Navigation.
The revenue of these public undertakings, hi the
year 1S62, was as follows : —
RccelpU
Eipenici
Not Rwninr
Flnrini
FInrlni
Florlni
Railways . . .
11,003,680
7,067,604
4,000,1116
Post Offlce . . ,
2,691,109
2,076,763
615,;j,',6
Telegraph .
180,806
174,743
6,0«!i
Danube and Maine
Canal
100,080
127,629
62,457
DanulMi Steam Navi-
gation . . .
Total . . .
383,061
302,800
20,185
14,408,631
9,798,555
4,610,076
The 162 German m. of railway belonging to tlie
state were constructed at a cost of 1 •20,000,000
florins, while the 94 German m. of private lines were
made for about 86,000,000 florins. Of ths jtrivnte
lines, the Eastern railwa}', jbining Alunich, Kntis-
bon, and Nuremberg, is the most important. Tlie
state railways, in 1862, carried above 4,000,000 of
passengers, and 21,631,000 cwt. of goods ; but pni-
duced only a net return of four ond a half per cent.
on the capital disbursed, while the private lines, un
the other hand, paid a dividend of from five to
six per cent. But these luies are ncitlier so well
managed, nor so free from accidents, as those under
state control.
Constitution and Government, — The present con-
stitution of the kingdom was promulgated May 25,
1818, but underwent various moditications, in a
democratic sense, in 1848 and 1849. According to
this charter, Bavaria is declared an integral part
of the Germanic confederation ; the domains of tlic
state inalienable, and the crown hereditary'. The
executive power is in the hands of the king, wIkksc
person is inviolable ; but his ministers are re.siMiii-
sible for nil his acts. The legislative finictiouH are
exercised jointly by the king and parliament, the
latter consisting of an upper and a lower lioiisc
The npjier house— chambier of reichsrathe, or coun-
sellors of the realm — is formed of the princes of tlic
royal family, the crown dignitaries, the arcliliisho|i.<,
and the heads of certain old noble families, all
these being hereditary members; to which are
added a Homan Catholic bishop and a Protestant
clergyman nominated by the king, and an un-
limited mimberof othermcmbcrsnpiioinleil by ilic
crown. The lower house, or chamber of rcprcscn-
tnl ives, consists of deputies of towns and univer-
sities, and \'arious religious corporations. To k' a
deputy, it is necessary to be past thirty, and to W
in jiossession of an assured income, from fiiiidsa
trade, or profession ; to be on the electoral lists, it
is re((uire(l to be twenty-live years of age, and i"
be rated at a minimum of ten florins, or His. >*'/.
per annum. The representation of the country i»
calculated at the rate of one deputy to 7,U00 fami-
lies, or about 35,000 souls, of the whole ]iopulatiiiii.
The members are chosen every six years, tiiibs
the king dissolves the chambers in the interim.
BAVARIA
370
I Net Revenue
Thev are generally convened once a year, and
must be asHcmblcd at least once in three yean.
The session usually lasts two months, but it may
be extended or adjourned. In case of a dissolu-
tidii, a new election must take |)laco within three
moiitlis. No taxes can be levied or aiiffmented,
iukI no law be passed or repealed, without the
junction of the legislature.
The cabinet is composed of seven members — the
pn!!>iilcnt8 of the departments of foreign affairs,
justice, home affairs, finance, army, public educa-
tion, and commerce. The ministers are not ne-
crj<sarily members of the chambers, but they have
g rifrht to be present at their deliberations. At
the commencement of each session, they must lay
bcfiire parliament an accotuit of the appropriation
of the public revenue; and the national debt
cinitot ue increased without its consent. The
privy council which is at the head of public affairs,
consiatii of the king, certain princes of the royal
family, tlie ministers of state, the field marshal,
ami SIX counsellors appointed by the king. The
kin^ has power, to grant pardons and mitigate
imnishmcnts, but in no case to stop the progress
of a civil suit or criminal inquiry. The code Na-
poh'on is in force in Klicnish Bavaria; but m
other parts of the kingdom there is an extreme
ililt'crcncc in the procedure as to civil matters;
mill a new, improved, and uniform code is much
wanted. The jienal code, introduced in 1813,
nii);ht be much improved both in itj< regulations
and in the form of its procedure. There is a high
court of appeal and cassation at Munich; and in
each of the provs. an inferior tribunal, to which an
appeal lies from the coiirts of primary jurisdiction
ui the towns, and the scignorial and cantonal
courts of the country districts. A law has been
poiucd providing for the purchase of the scignorial
junMlictiona on paying an equivalent to their
proprietors.
Each of the eight circles into which Bavaria is
divided is under the superintendence of two pro-
vincial boards ; one for the management of the
|)<>lice, schools, &c. ; the other takes charge of al
linanciol matters. Each circle is subdivided into
districts, which have assemblies, whose duties are
to decide all local questions respecting public
burdens and district rates.
According to the fundamental principles of the
constitution, all citizens are eligible to th* different
oHices of the state, \vithout any regard i .> birth or
rank in society ; all are liable to personal service
in the national defence ; religious liberty and free-
dom uf opinion are practically granted to all ; and
no one can be imprisoned or coinlemned but by
the sentence of a judge. All religious and cha-
ritable endowments are placed luider the superin-
tendence of the state.
Religion, — Kathnr more than two-thirds of the
population of Bavaria arc Boman Catholics. In
tlie census of 18G1, as well as the preceding owe of
1^68, the religious ])ersuasion of the inhabitants is
not stated ; and in the lost in wiiich this has been
tlie case, that of 1852, the numbers stand as fol-
lows:— Catholics, 3,176,338 ; Protestants, 1,233,8!)4
— subdi\ided into Lutherans, 90(5,38() ; Oalvinists,
'2.131; and Unitarians, 325,(177 — Mennoiiitcs avid
(ircek Catholics, 5,5(iO ; and Jews, 6(5,033. The
kingdom is divided into 2 Boman Catholic arch-
liishoprics, those of Municli and Bamberg ; (i
liishoprics; 171 deaneries, and 2,756 parishes.
Tlic administration of the Proti-stant Cluindi is
under a General Consistory — Ober-cousistorium —
and four provincial consistories. Of the three uni-
versities of the kingdom, two, at IMunich and
WilrzbiirK, ore Boman Cath(dic, and one, at !•>-
liiiigen, Protestant. Among tlie Boman Catholics
there is one clei^gyman to 404 bouIs; among the
Protestants, one to 1,013. The Boman Catholic
Church is richly endowed, poHscssing, according
to semi-official statements, profierty amounting to
above 100,000,000 florins, or 8,500,000/. A largo
pro))ortion of this wealth consists oi" landed estate.t,
winch are annually increasing in value. Thus,
the property was stated to l)e worth 7!),000,000
florins in 1838, and 92,000,000 in 1851. The state,
besides, pays 1,502,000 florins, or 130,000/., annually
to the clergy. The archbishop of Munich has a
government salary of 20,000 florins, or l,(i(i7/.,
and the archbishop of WUnburg, 15,000 florins, or
1,260/. Three of the bishops have an allowance
of 10,000 florins, and the other three of 8,000, ex-
clusive of episcopal residences. The constitution
guarantees complete religious liberty to all inha-
bitants of the state, and Protestants as well ait
other dissenters enjoy unrestricted freedom of wor-
ship, and are eligible to all civil offices and military
appointments. (Hermann, BcitrUge zur Statist ik
v«>n Bayem.) In the Palatinate, wliich was left
in possession of many valuable ])rivileges at tho
jxjace, the I'rotestant church is a completely orga-
nised body with Presbyteries and Synods as in
Scotland.
Education. — Of late years the Bavarian goveni-
me"t has made the most priuscworthy effort* X»
diffuse knowledge among the mass of the ]ie«])le.
The system pursued is similar to that of Prussia.
A schtKd is established in every parish, under tlio
superintendence of the ministers and ciders. Over
these are the inspectors of district schools, who
are subordinate to the chambers of the interior, in
the several (irovincial governments. The superin-
tendence of all the educational institutions in the
kingdom is committed to a boanl entitled ♦ Tho
Su^Hirior Board of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs.' Attendance at school is im]M!rative on
all children who have not received {lermission to
be instructed by private tutors. Bavaria has one ly-
ceum, twenty-tive gymnasiums, thirty-four gram-
mar schools, seven seminaries for tlie education
of teachers, thirty-one local school commissions,
and about 5,000 primary schotds. There are nine
seminaries for educating Catliolics for the minis-
try. In the year 1861 there were in the kingdom
7,126 schools, with 8,205 teachers. Elementary
schools — Volhs-schulen — exist in all parishes, and
attendance on them is compulsory for all cluldren
till the age of fourteen.
Bavaria has three universities — those of Mu-
nich, VVUrzburg, and Erlangen: the two former
are Roman Catholic, the latter Protestant. Tho
university of Munich is attended by above 1,300
students, the others, respectively, by about 400
and 300 each. In 1828 a new and improved sys-
tem or study was adopted in the Bavarian uni-
versities, and a number of injurious regulations
were supjiresscd. Besides these seminaries, there
are in Munich numerous literary associations:
such us the Boyal Institute ; an academy of arts
and sciences ; another of the tine arts ; an agri-
cultural society ; a military and veterinary scbii(d,
Ac. ; and there are a number of literary and scicn-
tilio institutions in Wilrzburg, Erlangen, Xurem-
lierg, KatLsbon, Augsburg, &c. The National
Library in Munich, formed chiefly of those be-
longing to the suppressed monastic establishments,
contains 510,000 volumes, including an extensive
collection of curious manuscripts, pamphlets,
itc. ; and the university library contains 160,000
volumes. In this city there is also an extensive
Sunday school, in which there are upwards of
1,600 scholars, with sixteen masters, who tench
their pupils morals, the principles of physics, gco-
gvaiihy, natural history, chemistry, and geometry.
i
''I
aso WW
'I'lioKuiu votoil l>y \\w HnviiriMn li'irixliinin't'itr ili(<
Kii|<|M>rl <>r I'lliii'iiliiiii ill t)ii< l>iiil|;'i<i lor INi>l'-V
uiiiKiiiii.4 III l.l.'iil.or.'l iloiiiii, or !)i!.os<.i/,
/Vt.<ii>M iVwd/im.— riii'HVHiiMii iHiiNin'il ill llu< jiri
Kiiii of Miiiiicli in (ii'i'iiliiirlv wortliv ol' iilli>iilii>ii,
'I'lio |iriiioi)'li' ol llii' ^•^'< liriKliiiii'iil JM llml i'\rr\
«iiii< ill iii'i.Moii hIiiiII riii|i|iorl liiiii.'i'ir. |'',\ orv |iri
soiirr, lli<'n<ron<, in oliii);iMl lo Hork ill \\U own
lriiili>; mill |Iiohi< wIio Iiii\i< nol 1i>iinil ii iriiili< in-"
|H<niiilloil III iiiiiko i<lioii-i< of Olio, \vliii'li in Itiii^lii
lo llii'in, Wlmli'vrr llio criiiiiniil riini!* Iiy lii.s
liilioiir nioiv iliitn iNxiilllrii'iil lor liix iimiiili>iiiini'i<,
IN Ki<|)i mil it tlio li'i'ni of liix iin|iriMiiiiiii>iil <>\
pirx'x, mill is llioii f^ivrii lo liiiii, (li'iliicliiur ii i|iioiii
for ili«< <<N)ioiiNi>.s of llii> i>Mtiilili.'<liiiii'iil. I'lii> Niir
\>\»* llnis nn'MTVi'il for llii> Ih-iioIIi of iIio (irixonorN
lIll'IIINI'lvi'M, llOcr I III' l'\)l|'II.M<'M of III!' CSlllllliNll
iiii'iit tiitvo lioon ili<l'riivi>il, iiNniilly miionnl.i to
Hourly Mi.iHHi iloriiix ^l.i'iri)/.) por miniiiii. In
."imu'oi* liiivo Ih>i'Ii Kiio^mi of |>^>l■^^olls m ilio i'X|iiry
of tlii'ir li'ini of iniiii.Hliiiii'iil n-coivinn; no Ii>s,m
lli.'in MOO lloriiiH ^^■0/.) upon Iriiving' llio prison.
'I lio iiniiilior of persons roniinod in ilio prison is
(Voiu'iiillv liolwi'i'iM'iOO mill 700, li isK'rtilifyin): lo
Inirn lliikl ilio sysioiii liiisiiroiliii'i'il llio iiiosi smis
fjii'lorv n'Mili.s, In Iml low oiisos mi' olloiiiloi-s
iMniniilloil II soooiiil linio, ami llioso wlio liiivo
lioon ilisinissoil with tlio Imp'si sinus liiivo in no
iM>(,nioo ii'liirnoil. Mmiyof ilio yoiiiiij, «lio liiivo
li'on liiiij;lil Iriiilos in Ilio prison, li.ivo nflorwrnds
Ihh'oiiio rospooliililo liiiiiiliviiiflsinon mnl Irmios
iiii'ii: mill oriiiii' is yonrly on llio (loori'.iso. 'I'lio
pixporiioii of oiipiliil |iiiiiisliiiionlN in l!a\iiria is as
I lo "JO.OOO poi-soiis,
/I'li'iHMi' iiHil /■'.ii>rniiilnir, — Al llio ooni'liision
iif llio wjir in I St,') llio linanoiiil iilVaiiN of Itaxaria
^M'lv in H vory oinlmrrassod slalo; Iml lliroii^li
tlio Jiiilioioiis ivoiiomy miiiI uioHsiin>s of llio sovo-
n'itii mill llio logislaimv, llioy iin> now groally
inipiMvoil, In IJSI!', llio i xoosx of tlio o\poniliinii>
ovor llio iiiooiiio was •J,ii07,,'<00 llorins; Iml in
IN.'il-^'t'J. llio rovoinio aiiionnloil lo 'J1V.M7,00!»
llorins, wliilo llio o\)>«'iiiliiim« was only '.'7.0!t,i,,'<,'^;i
llorins. Tho Iiinlp-IN of ilio kiiiu'doiii mv voiod
liy llio olianiluTs for llio loiifjilionod torni of six
yojirs, wliioli oouins as a liiiaiioial jn'riod. Tlio
jiToss annual rovoinio for llio poriod, fiMiii IM('>1 lo
ISii7, was oali'ul.iiod al l(!,7'Ji>,.Mi7 florins, or
.■l,s;»;t/>!>7/., and ilio oNpondiiuro al llio sjiiiio sinii,
'llio national dol>t, niiioniiiinu' lo KICOOO.OOO
llorins, iiu-liidos tlio loans lakon up for llio ooii-
>(riu'tion of llio sl«io niilways. In llio liiidp>t for
IStil-7, llio proo«><>ds fi-(>in din'ot laxos mv osli-
niaioil at i>.;»;t;l,o;i7 llorins. and llioso from indiroot
t.-ixalioii Hi IS.'JtiO.;M;l llorins. Tlio dinvt Inxos
aio lovi»><l as follows;— For llio land lax, ostalo.s
.•iiv soKvIihI for V!iliiation in ovory distriol liy
rovjil oonmiissioiiors mid l.ix assossors, naniod liy
llio distriol it.solf, Tlio ostiilos tlnis olioson an'
Mippo!*«>«l lo ri'pr^'sonl tho fMomiof tlio siirMundiiijx
lands, and aooontiu>r to tlioir pntdiioo tlio tax is
loviiMl. I.mid of all kinds is dividod into olassos.
ilitloriiiji fniin oaoli otiior, in tlioir asoortaiiiod (iro-
diiolioii, l>y almut ono Imsliol )ht aon>, and oiio-
lliinl iH'iiijf dodiiotod for fallow, a rato oallod a
simf>l>ini, of 1 kriMit/.or in llio tlorin. or li( por
oont.. is oaloiilaloil on tlio romaiiidor. h'onls.ront-
olijirgvs sorviiH's, iiiu' liilios, arc oonsidorod as
p;vri of tlio priHlnoool tlio land, and tlio ralo is ap-
portionod iH'twiH'ii tliolmhlorsof tliosooliarp's and \
llio onltivalor of tlio land, who pays a sinallor
Kliari'. ill proiHirtioii to ilioltoaviiiossof liis Imrdons.
Tho valiio of lioiisos is ostinialod aooordii'ij to ox-
i^liiijl ooiiiraots of iviii : wlioro no siioli ooiitracls
o\i>t. tho valiio of a 1ioiim> is foiiiul liy .•ippr.'iiso-
Jlioiil. in tho s;vnio way ;is ilio laiid. Tlic lol;il
RUo al pivsont loviod on l.iiid and hoiisos is ■')
AKI.\
)•»'(»/>/«;, or 8 I oili por ooiit. on ilio pMdmv, Tln>
family, or ratlior oapllalion tax. Is paid iiy ii,].
wliolo pop. in I'.' olassos. 'I'lio llrst olass I'lul'irm , I
llio widows of lalioiii'orH living on llicir julmnf'
who an' ralod al lo kr., or almiil \,t, aiimwilh !
lalioin-orH pa\ iii({ Kil.\ llio IukIiohI oImsh |„|,, i/
|ior aiinnni. Tho imhistry lax Is paid liv ivirv
individual or oonipmiy oarryiii); on iradi' or \m\\i\
faolnn's, aooordiiirt In llvo oIiishos. oaoli with lij,,
I snliilivisioiis, Tho olassos iw llxod aoonnliiii} |„
j llio nmiihor of inliah. in llio plaoo wlion' ilu- iniii,.
I IS oarriod on. I'lio lowosi ralo is l.«. iior Himmn
I lor ooimiion lahonr in \ illiip'K ; llio hi^lioxt ix |,'i/
I por amiiiin, paid hy liatikors, nion-hants, » lioloi.iii,i
doalors, and innkoopors. in iftwiis ooniiniiin^ iii,in<
than VMlOO fainilios. Tho din'ot laxos aro Ir^
lioavy in (lavaria than in most of tlio otlii<r ii,t
man stalos. Tho htrjjco inooiiio of Iho snvori'iKin
of llavaria, ftinii privalo domainH, miil nilur
soiin'os, has Im'oii oxtoiisivoly om'lailod of Juic
iindor Iho oonsiiiiiiional pivonimoiit. 'I'hr ,>ivj|
list of tho kin>{ and Iho ollior iiionihors of i||,<
myid family amoimls at pn'soiit. to 'Jl!>,i;,'i;i/„ ,„„|
siriol snporvision is oxon-isod liy Iho olinnilHT i.f
ropn'soiilalixos that this amoinil ho tiol oMTrdiil.
In IMlJl, it WHS disoovon'd llial ox Kiiin Lnilwij-
had lakon .miiiiis amoimliii)!: to l,;'i'..'<),ooii llorins, lir
I '27, loo/., fnun tho pnhlio oxohoiiiior Miilioiii «,•
ooimiiii^ for llioiii; wlion'iipon tho oliaiiilur ili'
inandod llio ro>litnlion of tho nionoy, wliicli \[\^
majosly was fon'od lo j;ivo from his privalo |iiin.,
^Kolh, llandliiioh dor vornloiolioiidoii iS|alii.iik
l.oip/i^v, i.si;-.*. p, •.••j;i,)
.Imi/.— Tho arniod I'on'o of Iho kiiijiilom cnni
prisos Iho pormanoiil armv, Iho army of rcMTvc,
and Iho landwolir, or militia. All iiion, iVniii iho
an'o of twoiily-otio, iiro liahlo In sorvo, wjili ili,.
oxooptioii of Iho nppor iiohilitv— /lo/ic (i,/,/_iv||„
an' oniin'ly Ih'o fmm ooiisoriplion; wliilo tho suns
of llio lowor noliility ami siiporior omplovos in [U
sorvioo of tho slalo liavo tho privilo^o ol' niii'iin:;
tho military soliool of oadols. The poriml nf m
viooissix yoars. 'I'lio pm'ohaso of siilisliir.icsis
pormiltod liy law. and lakos plaoo vory oxlcii
sivoly. Pnriiifj; tho yoars lH."il-(!l, tho tnufsi'i'
Iho kiii|vdoin miionniod to Iho lixod niiiiilH'r ><l'
MI.70,Smon,of whom ril.rid'.l won' in Iho pi'iiiinnciii
army, and 2.'I,I',MI moii in Iho army of ivsitvo,
This niniilior was lai^oly iiioroasod'in Isill ; the
ohamliors, aAor loii^ and sloriny dohalcs, Imviii;;
^raiitod funds for tho maiiiloiianoo of |ii,'i,7,'i;
tniops, miinoly, Kl,;t;i7 for Iho pormaiU'iit iiniiv,
and 'J l.l'JO for llio army of n'sorvo. Iloslilos ilir
|H>rniaiiont army, tlioro is a n'sorvo ilosliin'il in
n'infon'o it. Tlioro is also tho AiHi/icc/ir, or niilili.i,
oomjio. oil of all Itavarians (oxooptiiifj imlilcnu'ii
and olor^rymoiil, hotwoon flio ajjos of l!t mnl (*\
who liavo mil lioon dralU'd into tho army or iiil"
Iho rosorvo. In oasos of omor>?oiiov. Ilioy iiiiiy In'
oallod upon lo roinforoo Iho anny, \n\t iiiily in llu'
iiilorior. Thoiv is a corps of p'lis d'aiiiics, I'l'iii-
posod of iiino oompanios, making; in nil iiIkiiI
1.700 moll. Not nion" than a thinl piirt of llio
tniops aro poniianoiitly omiiodiod, tlio rest boiii;
dishaiidod aftor tho drills in spring, roliini liomo
to tlioir fainilios. Tho pay of a oavalry soldiori*
10.^ kr.. alioiit Ul, a day. with rations; iliiil of an
iiil'aniry soldior is !>J kr.. also with nilioiis, rriii-
oipal fortrossos: Landau, oin'lo of Iho liliino:
I'assan, on tho Danulio; Wllr/.luir;;. with iln'
I'iladol of Marii'iiliorfj; ; and Iiip;oNtadl, ill llu'cmi-
tlnonoo of tho Sohilllor and Iho Daniiho.
J/isiori/. — Tho oarlii'st inhaliitaiits of llaviiri:i of
whom liadilion has prosorvod any aocoiiiil «oio
llio lloii, a Irilio of Collio on;j,'iii : fnnii lliciiii.s
old l.aliii namo liiiiuia, and Iho (hiinim ":""''
Itaioni, aro dorivod. Alionl tho loi^u iir.Viii,ii.-li:'
i> iinny of n'stivi',
All www, IVkiu ihc
III wrvc, Willi llii'
• — ^|((/((' (l(/(/— Wllil
III) ; \vl\ilo Ilii' sons
or «>n»iiUivo(i in iln'
iviloffo ol ctiii'tiii;;
|'riu> )«'l'ioil nf MT
I" siiliMid.lt'n is
iliuv very I'Xion
-I'll. I ho troopsii'l'
llxoil mmilu'r of
ill llii'iH'rnmiii'iii
miwy of loMTvc,
iiisotlin l!*<''l : til''
(li'lmti'H. Imviiii
'iimico of lii.">.T.i"
jicniiniu'iil iiniiv,
TV«>. llosiilos till'
.'servo (li'Klii'cil in
Hi/ici'/ir. orniilili.i,
vltlinn iiolili'iiicn
ip<s of ll> mill liii,
tbo iirmy or iiit"
H'liov. llit'v imiy'"'
y,^»il ""ly '•"'"'
;oiiM <riirii>0K, I'l'iii-
'Uinn ill "11 "'"'''
(liirtl imrt of iIh'
iod, tlio rost I'l'iii^'
iriiiK- rolurn lu'im'
. oiiviilr\- soUliiT is
•i»t\or,s;'lliiitol'aii
ilU riitioiis, Trill-
.. of tlio liliii"'!
tlr/.liiirt;. willi ''"'
oNtiitll, lit till" foil-
Uiiiiiilio.
(iiiilsof Uiiviiniiof
Huv ai'i'oiuit "'."'
t;iii : from IIh'ik '•*
tin- (ioiniiiii ":""'■
voi-iiofAupi^l':^
liAVAY
ii wAi* niiInIiioiI liy (lio KniiiiniH, niiil InniiiMl |iiirt
„l wliiit tlioy loriiii'il Itliifliii. Viiiilolioiii, inul
^orioiMii. AHor llio ilowntiill of lli(< Koinini
I'liiiiiro, llio UiiviiriiiiiM foil iiiulor llio iloiniiiioii of
llioOMro^olliM niiil (''riiiikM, ninl iiflor u |iroli'iioloil
n'^iitaiii'is il iioKiiowlodnoil I ho Novoioignly of
I'liitrloiniiKi**'- Allor Iho iloMth of Ihitt inoiinrcli,
llii< kinK" >'• <'"' l'"i"i>i'k^ »i»l Ooniiiiirs ^{ovonioil
Hiiviiriii l>y Ihoir lioiiloniinlM, who lioro lhi< lilloof
iiuiruritvo. till "•''■-'''• whoii tho ruling niiM'Kriivo wiim
niixoil to I ho I il lo of iliiko. II Im niii'oo?v4oi'h ooiiI iinioil
In JH'iir Ihi^ tillo till lii'.'M, whoii Ihoy woro riiiMoil
III llio olocloriil ili^lDily. Ill 1070 lliivnriil lniNinl
iiilii llio |>oM!*OHNioii of Iho finiillv of Iho <)iiol|ili-<,
mill ill 11''^" it ^^''1^ triiii.Ml'oi'roil liv iiiiporitil Kiiiiil
liilMllo, I'oillll of W'iltoUliiu'h, wlioNo iIonooiiiIiiiiIm
liriiiu'lioil oiil iiilo lu'o fiiiiiilioM, tho l'iilitlir.i< or
i;o(liil|iliiiio, iiiitl Iho Itiiviiriiin oi l.iiilovioiiiii ; Iho
I'.irnior iiihoi'iliiif( Iho |iiihtliiio of tlio Ithliio, tho
hitler llio iliii'hy of lliiviiriii. IliiKo i\lH\iiiiiliiiii I,
uih oloviiloil to Iho riiiiK of oloi'lor ill Iho 'I'liirly
VoMP<' Wiir, ill roooiii|ioiiNo for hix o|i|ioNiliiiii to
I'l'iiloxtiiiitiMiii, l>iiriii|i; llio >vMr of llio Siuiiiith
MiivosNioii, lliiviirin milVorod Hovoroiy from lnllnw
iii(; llio nilvorso forliino.-* of Kriiiioo; lull it roooivoil
II ^'.n'lit tioi'o^»ioii ill 1777, wlioii, upon iho o\
liiii'tiiHl of Iho yoiiii)!;o|- lino of WiltolNliiioh, (lio
|iiiliiliiiiilo, iiflor II short foiilost with Aiistriii, wns
iiiiili'ii til llii< lliiviiriiin lorriiory. Purine tlio Into
»nr with l''riiiio(<, Miiviiriii, lioiiiK loiiK tho linn
,illy of Nii|ioU'oii, WHS rowurdoil with liirno iw-
I'i'-isioiiH of lorritorv l^imi tho mihiIIh of AiiNiriii itiid
I'niKsiii; iitid Iho )liiviiriiiii iiioiiiiroh hiiviii^c omi
irivoil to ohiliiKo sIdoH iil it orllii'ill ilioiiioiil, ulioii
tlio furl iMioM of Ntipolooii u'oro slill doiiliifiil, wan
nnillniiod ill IiIn oxIoiimIvo iu'i|iiisilioiis liy tho
In'iiliosnf JHI I mid IHUi; for though Aiislriii ro
I'livon'il lior iinoioiit iioN.soNsions in llio Tyrol iiiid
till' liiHtriotx of tho liiM mid lliiimriiok, lliiviiriii
nvoivoil oiiiiivtUoiils in Kriinooniii mid Iho vicinity
of llio Kliino, Mloolor Miixiniilimi .loMoph wmm
raisoil III Iho rmiU of kiii^; liy Niipoloon I., in
ISO,'), mill tho now tillo iiinl dif;iiity wiis rooo^nisod
liv all llio l''.iiro]ioikn powors uf llio ('oii){rosH of
\ ioiiiia,
UAVAY (mi, Ihiijiu'iim), u town of l-'riinoo, ilop,
ilii Noril, Clip, oiint,, l.'i in. I'',SI'',. Viilonoionnos.
I'liji, l,iUl! in ISdI. 'I'lio stroolM itro iioitl mid
I'ioiin; and it Iiiim fiihrios of iron plntos, njrrionl
luriil iniploinonlM, with tminorios, 'riiis is ii vory
aiii'ii'iil town, liiivin^; Ik'oii inado Iho oiip. of a
jiniv. hy Aiifiiislns, and dostroyod liv tho linns in
;is"i, it was forinorly siirroninlod liv walls; mid
ill Ijui iiiiildio of tho niarkot'iilaoo is an oliidisk
niiji w'von t'aoos, iiidioatiii)( tlio diroclion of Iho
llomaii rimils that loriniiialod at this point. This
olK'li.tli is iiiodorii, lint it roplat'osa Konian oolninn,
v.liii-li in said to liavo oxislod in llio t7lh oonliirv.
Tlii< n>ii)aiiiH of A ciruuH and an u(|uodiiot nro still
ilisi'iivorahlo.
ItAWTKY. m> inland town of I'liiKland. W. U.
on, York, on tlio liordor of NiilliiiKhioii.shiro, !l in.
Sl'„ Doiioaslor. Pop. 1,011 in ISi'il. It issitnalod
III Aijcolivity, slopiiii; to tho Idio, whioli is navi-
Ciililo for Imr^fos, and is Iravorsoil liy llioKroal .N.
Mild from Iiondon to York, II. has a national
si'limil. Tho (Jroiit Norlliorn railway has a sln-
lioii horc. Markot day, 'I'linrsday.
IIAVAZID, a oify of Arinonia, ca)). sanjiaok,
fi.Mii. NNK. Van, mid W'l in. SSW. Mount Ararat ;
liil.llllO'il' N., loiiK'. It" •-'<)' K. It stands on Iho
iMivily (if a liiKh hill, at tlio top of which is Iho
riinilol, ooiilainin^ a wolUlinilt nio.s(pio, and tho
|':iliic(> of tho paolia. It is siirronndod l>y a wall
■I'lil riimimrls; and, liosidos lliroo nio.s(|nosmid two
I'^ri'lios, lins tho nioiiastorv of Kiirii Kiloosoa,
ivlilmiioil for the liomity ofilw iircliilci-turo, an-
IIAYLKN .IHl
liipilty, nnil«raiidoiir. Mossrs.Sniitliand DwIkIiI,
Iho Aniorioan inissionarios. liy wlmni II wnsvlsitoil
in I Mil;!, roprosoni tho town as lioiiift in a inisorMlily
rninoiis siulo, and w ilhoiil ono doconl honso o\oo|it
llio pacha's. ' Most of ihoni worn const mclod liko
Iho iindorM;roiind cahins of Iho vilhiM^os ; ih« strocM
wori> olisirncloil hy every s| ics of llith; and
Hourly all ihoNliopsin llio lMi/,ar, ori|{iiiallv very
few, weio desorletl,' (ii, lli'i,) Kiiineir oNliinalos
Iho po|i. nl !Ut,000 (Mem. I'ors. Kinpiro, p. !l?i),
lull this, diiillitlosN, is now K*^''itlv lieyond llio
mark. The missionaries provinnsly referred In
eslimale Iho Moslem inliali, al UOO or 100 lumilies,
and Iho Armoniansal 100 fmnilios; nml if so, Iho
pop. ninsi lio coiiHideralily under •'i.OOll, l.ar^'o
nnmliers of tlii< Arinenimis have enii|(ralod to llio
lerriiiirios now occupied hv Itiissia,
IIAVI',l{S|l(U{|'', a lowiiof Havana, circ. Uo/al,
near tho IJe^rnit/., I I m, N. Nnromliern:, on tho
niilway from Itainliortv in Niiremlieri';. I'op, l,0',i.'>
in IHOI. The l.nihvi)^ canal iinei^'iinK iho
Uhino with Iho llminlir (see IIavaiiia), piiHHcs
near the town. It is well linill. In its vicinity
are coiisidoralilo copper works.
nAVI''.U\, a town of France, dt'p. Calvados,
cap. arrond.. 17 in. \V. liv N. Citeii; lal. lit" 17'
N,. lonn;. O'J I r \V. I'op.O.lN',! in IHOI, llayenx
is a Very ancient city, and, with the excoptiini of
the principal street. Is meanly Imilt, with iiiirrnw
and crooked streets. The fortillciitiiins hy which
il was formerly siirronnded have almost eiiiirely
disiipiieared ; and it has lieeii enlarged liy the
iiiiiction of several siiliiirhs. I'riiieipal piihlio
liiiildiii^; — the calhodral, a hii'i^o and veiieralilo
(iolliic edillce, in the fnrni of a cross, In tho
/mcieiil episcopal palace, now Iho lirnel do Villo,
is proMorved the famous tn/iiHHfrif ilr llni/fiu; rv ■
pre.soiitin^ the principal incidents in the hislnry
of Iho coiiipiesi of l',iif{laiid l>y William the I 'mi
ipieror. Il is Hllpposoii to have Itoeli executed hy
Nliitilda, the ('onipieror's wife, or liy Ihe empnvi.-i
Matilda, daughter of Henry I. It Consisls of ii
linen well 21 1 ft. in loii^rih mid '.!<) in. Iimad ; and
is divided into 7'J eiim|iiirtnienls, each having an
inscription indicating its sniijecl. The ll^iires iiro
all execiilod liy tho noedio ; and it is valiialdo
alike as a work of art of |lii> iieriod referred lo,
and as correctly reiiresentin); tlio coslnmeof llin
lime. This remarKalilo monnmonl imrrowly os-
capod doslrncliiin (hiring the freii/,y of the I'fovo-
Inlion. (See an i^xcellent article on Iho llayenx
Tapeslry in the Penny Cyclopiodia.) llayenx is
the seat of aliishopric, and has I rilmnalH of original
Jurisdiction and (Mimnu-rco, a collof,(e, and a pnlilie.
lilirary coiitainini,; 7,1100 volumes. Tho lace ma-
iiiifai'lnres in the town and noi^'lihoiirlioiHl eiiiploy
H lar^o nnmlior of femalos ; and lliero are also
iiimiiii'netnreH of talile linen, calicoes, siT^es, hats,
oartlieinvnre, ^c, with eslalilislmieniM for eoltoii
spintiiiiK, It has n station on tho railway from
I'aris to ('herlionrf;. The (Minntry round is nndn-
laliiif(, and alVords ^ood pasture. I.ar^xe <|naiitiiics
of ex(;elleiit hntler an- made in the vieinilv, sent
partly to Paris, and partly shipped for tlio I'Vencli
colonics,
llayenx existed previously to tho invasion of
(iaiil \>y,' the Komans. Under their sway it was
successively called Anriiriiiiii, Iftijoni, and ('irilnH
lliijocnmum^ whence, its modern name. It l>i-
lon)i;ed for u e<iiisideralil(> period to the l'',n;;lisli,
and was \\\'\n\ linriiiMl down in the contests of tlu!
laller with tli(> hVeiudi : it. alHo snit'erod severely
during the reli)j;ions war.-i.
MAVLKN, or IJAILMN, n town of Spain, pr«v.
.laeii, at the foot of the .Sierra Moreiia, 2'2 in.
N'. .laen. I*<ii. T.K.'II in |s;>7. It is siirroiindeii
liy ulil walls ; coniniuiiilx I liu road leudini^ I'rotii
S82
BAYONNE
Ciwtilo into Andaluitia; hnn a parish church, n
palace lMiloiif(in)t to Count liaylon, an<l a hoftpitAl.
It han alxo numnrouM oil millx, with manufactureH
of coane cloth, k'mh, Itrii^kM, niid mmp.
Ilaylen derive* ittt princl[ial uonity, and which
event* which tcMik place in itx vicinity, and which
led to the catiitulatum of Baijlen, nx^wA the 20th
,lune, 1808, by which (jlencral Uupont, and almut
lfi,000 French tr(M>pfi under \m conimnnd, Hurren-
dered to the Spnniardit on condition of their l>einK
conveyed to France l)y the Spanixh p<)vemnient ;
but the latter part of the capitulation watt not
carried into cBt'ct, The inciiimcity of Diipont wah
mninly iimtrnnuMitnl in briiifriiif; about tluH remilt,
which inspired the Spanianlx with conlidence, and
waH always ro);arded bv Na|Ni1eon aH the princiiuil
source of bis disnxterH in the I'eninsuln.
HAYONNK, a scn-iMirt town and fortrow) of
Franco, dop. JinHHCH I'yroiu'es, cn|). nrrond., at
the continence of the Neve with the Adour,
about 4 m. from the cmboncburo of the latter,
and 58 in. WNVV Pan. Top. ->r),(Hl in 18(tl.
liayonnc has a ntation on the yreat lino of rail-
way, opened in 18(M, which leads from France
acroHS tbo Pyrenees into Spain, Tlio town is di-
vided into tiirce nearly ecpial parts, which com-
municate by brid(joH. On the left bank of the
Neve is Great Mavonne; on the rijcbt bank of
that river, and the left bank of the Adour, is I^ittlo
Hnyonnc ; and on the ri);bt bank of the Adour,
in the ddp. Landes, is the suburb of St. Ksjmt,
joined by a long wooden drawbridge to the rest of
the town. Bayonne is a flrst-clasa fortress; the
citadel, one of the finest works of Vauban, in the
suburb of St. Esprit, commands the town and
)uirl)our; and recently the fortifications have been
still further augmented and strengthened. It is
well built ; the streets, without being regular, are
broad, and set off with good houses. There are
some fine public places, of which that called dc
Grammont is the best. Ita quays are superb, and
though a little interrupted in parts by the new
frirtiflcations, afford fine promenades. Princijial
public buihlings— cathedral and mint. Bayonne
IB the seat of a bishopric, of tribunals of original
jurisdiction and of commerce ; it has also a chamber
of commerce, a diocesan seminary, schools of na-
vigation and design, a public library, and theatre.
A mint is established here, the coins issued from
which arc marked L. : attjiched to the mint is an
assay office. About two-thirds of the population
of the suburb of St. Esprit consist of Jews, most
of whose ancestors had been, at different times,
expelled from Spain. They have three syna-
gogues, and there is one in the body of the town.
There are here yards for the building of ships of
war and merchantmen, with distilleries, sugar re-
fineries, glass works, and fabrics of cream of tar-
tar, chocolate, and liqueurs. Exclusive of these
articles, the Adour brings down supplies of timber,
masts, pitch and tar, cork, and other articles, from
the Pyrenees, many of which are largely exported.
The haras of Bayonne have long enjoyed a high
celebrity, and its wines and brandies are also much
esteemed. It used formerly to fit out a consider-
able number of ships for the cod and whale fish-
cries, but this trade, though not abandoned, has
latterly fallen off. It is the seat of an extensive
contraband trade with Spain.
The river is rather dangerous, at least in rough
weather, or when there is a strong current of fresh
water. It can only be entered at high water,
when there is from 13 to 15 ft. over the bar at
springs, and from 9 to 1 1 at iieajis. The sea with-
out is usualljy^ rough ; and as the bar is liable to
shift, a jnlot is always required.
The military weapon called the bayonet takes
BAZA
its name from this city, where It is Mid to linv(>
Itcen first invented and brought into uhc iluririL'
the siege of 1523. Though often besioged, Hn-
yonnc has never lieen taken ; and hence the motto
nunitunm piiHutu. It was invcste<l by the Hrili.sh'
in 1814; who sustained considerable loss fnrm n
Hortie made by the garrison. At the cnntlc i,(
Merac, in the vicinity, the transactions took jilncc
lietween Napoleon and Charles IV. and Fcnliimml
VII. of S|Miin, that led to the invasion of tlii>
Peninsula by the latter. Mr. Inglis was liiclilv
])loased with Dayonne, which, ho wiys, ho kIuhiIiI
l)re('Hr as a roMideiice to almost any place in the
south of Krnnco.
BAVPOOK (Vai^Mxn-n), a maritime town (if
Ilindostan, prov. Malabar, 7 ra. M. ('nlicntj im
11° 10' N.. long. 7ifi t,-J>' K. Trak shipH „( .{m
tons are built lu-re.
BAYHiaiTII, or BAIREUTII, a to^vn of !)„-
vnria, cap. circ. lIpiK-r Mavuo. on tbo Hoil-Mayiic
2f! m. E. Bamberg; lat. 4!)* 57' N., long. I |o .nV | ]
Pop, 18,2H0 in 1801. It is jiartially surrminddl
by old walls, and has six gates and two Imdncs;
is well built, with broad well-paved stroctH, fipiin-
tains, and promenades; but it has notwithstandin;;
a (!heorlos.s, deserted character, the absence of tlic
court, on which it formerly «le|)ondod, not Uw^
sufficiently compensated by mnnufacturos orconi-
merce. It has two palaces ; the oldest, burnt doHii
in 1 75.1, but again rebuilt, is now convorttd into
public offices : the new jjalace, a handsome cdilicc,
the residence at times of members of the roval
family, has a gallery of indifferent pictures :' ir.
the s<iuare before it is an equestrian statue of thi-
Margrave Christian Ernest, and iKshind it is ii
public gar<len. Among the other public biiildinpi
18 the opera house, the manege, or riding school,
the gymnasium, founded in lfi(i4, Ac, It has
several churches, and a synagogue ; with a iiid)lic
librar)', hospitals, a hinatic asylum, dc. In its
suburb, called the Georgam Sec, now a dried Inko,
is a penitentiary, where a great variety of mnrlilos
from the Fichtelgebitge are polished and wrought
up. Besides being the scat of the administmtion,
and tribunals for the circ, it has a Protestniit con-
sistory. The geological cabinet and collection nf
fossils, belonging to the family of Count Minister,
is one of the finest in (Jermany. There is here an
extensive manufactory of porcelain, and ti)l)Becn-
pipe heads; parchment, linen, cottons, d-c. ore
also produced, and there are breweries and tan-
neries. About 2 m. to the E. is the Hermitage, a
fanciful building erected in the early part of last
century, at an immense cost, with gardens con-
taining temples, terraces, statues, and fountains;
and a fine park, now much out of order. The
Margravine, sister to Frederick the Great, wrote
her celebrated memoirs, so often mentioned in
Mr. Carlvle's history of the Prussian hcro-kinj;,
in the rfermitage.
Bayreuth formerly constituted the cap, of an
independent principality — the marpfravint of Itay-
reiith. On the death of the last margrave without
issue, in 1791, his possessions devolved on the Kini,'
of Prussia, who ceded them to France in 1807. In
1810, Napoleon transferred them to Bavaria; ami
their possessicm has been confirmed by subsequent
treaties. (Carlyle's History of Frederick II. of
Prussia, called Frederick the Great, 18(!3-,5, which
contains some interesting notices about Bayreuth.)
BAZA, a town of Spain, Granada, near the
Guadalquiton, in an extensive, well watered, and
fertile volley, 54 m. E. by N. Granada ; lat, 37" 30'
N„ long. 2° 60' W. Pop. 7,276 in 1857, including
2 cants, in its jurisdiction. (Minano.) It has
a cathedral, .S parish churches, 6 convents, an "'-
clcsiastical seminary, and a hospital. The '^''-
BAZAS
are Mitifpiv dependent on ni^citUure. nnzn if*
citlifron the nile of thn Bimti of the Homnnt*, or
yets nrar it-, and vOHeii and other intoreHtinK Ko-
iii«ii n'mniiiH ar«> dii^ up in itM vicinity. It wim
ukini from the Mmtnt nttcr a lon^ Hiege, in 14H!),
HA/AS, a town of France, den. (linintle, cap.
tm>n(i.i on a roclc 83 m. SSIC. lionloaux. I'op.
4,ri4lll in 1801. It iH old and ill-built. It was for-
incrlv the scat of a blxhopric; and the ancient
catlietlrnl. now the ])ariHh church, though not
lar);i!, ik n reinarkaldn monument of (iothiu archi-
t(>t'ture. It hat* a court of ori^final juriHdiction,
niiilniinffriculturnl Hocietv ; with a roynl miltpetre
nmiiiiruclory, a ({lnHM-work, and launt^rioH. Huzum Ih
vcrv niu'icn't. It is tho country of the piK't Au-
Hiiniui*. who ilouriHhed in the -tth century, and waH
nisi), f(ir a lon>^thened jteriod, the residence of the
dukes (if (iaseony. Tlic country round was lonj;
kiitiwn iw tlie BazndoiH,
|1AZ(M'I1KS-G0N KT, a villnjce of France, di<|).
Kiirc et Loire, 16 m. SSK. No{^ent-le-l>otrou. I'op.
'LWi in IHtil. Hn/.oches iH tho name of several
(itlicr sinidl towns in France.
IIA/ZANO, a town of Central Italy, prov,
Kinilia, ir> m. VV. liologiia, on the ISuinmof^Kia.
INni. 1,'.)7.'> in IHtJl.
IlKACHY HKAD, a conspicuous bold promon-
tory on the S. coast of Kn(>;land, co. Sussex;
lat. /iOO 44' 24" N., loiiff. 0<9 18' E. It is formeil of
flmlky white cliffs, that project jM!r|)ciidicularly
(ivcr the lieach, whence it derives \H name, to the
heiffht of 504 ft. A lighthouse of the first class
was erccte<l, in 1828, on the summit of the second
cliff to the VV. of the head, 2«5 ft. alwve the level
of the sea, and caverns have been cut in the cliffs,
Ictwecn the Heiwl and Cuckmore Haven, in the
view nf affording places of refuge tu mariners
wwckwl on this dangerous coast.
IJEACONSFIELI), a market town and par. of
EiiL'laml, CO, Buckingham, hund. liurnham. Area
of the \M. 3,7 1 acres. Pop. 1 ,«()2 in 1 «(i 1 . The
town is situated on an eminence, on the high road
from London to Oxford, being 24 m. W. by N. of
the former. It consists of four streets, arranged in
the form of a cross, and its houses are mostlv con-
etnicted of a mixture of Hint and brick, 'f he re-
mains of Edmund Burke are deposited in the
church, formerly a part of the monasterv of Bum-
ham; and the church-yard has a marble monu-
ment in honour of the poet Waller, to whom the
manor belonged. Builstrode, formerly a celebrated
scat of the Portland family, is withm a short dis-
tance of IJeaconsfleld. Market-day, Wednesday.
It has fairs for the sale of cattle, on Feb. 13, and
iloly Thursday, at which a good deal of business
ia (lone.
BEAMINSTER, a par. and town of England,
CO. Dorset, hund. Beam inster- Forum, div. Brid-
port, on the Birt, 123 m. WSW. London. Area of
par. 4,350 acres. Pop. of par. 2,014 in 1801. The
town is surrounded by hills, whence the springs,
forming the river, issue. It has a clean respectable
appearance, and is paved, and lighted by gas. The
church is a large stnicture, on an eminence on the
N, side, being a chapel of ease to that of Nether-
bury, A free school founded in 1084, educates
100 irays: the ann. amount of its endowment is
1601 a vear. There are almshouses for six poor
women. 'The weekly market on Thursday, and ann.
fairs Apr. 14, Sep. 10, and Oct. 9. 'There is a
manufactory of sail cloth, and tin and copper wares
ue made in the town. It is the centre of a union
nf 26 parishes. Beaminster is a town of consider-
aUc antiquity; but it has been several times
■'holly or partly destroyed by fire, to which its
moiVrn appearance is attributable.
BEAU LAKE (GKEAT), a very in«gularly-
BEAUFORT
88t
shaped and extensive sheet of fresh water, In the
NW. part of N. America; lietweeii about ti'»o and
07° N. lat., and under the i2()th deg. of W. long.
The WvM Lake river Hows from it to the Mackenzie
river. lu waters arc very pure, and it is said to
be well supplied with tish.
BEAT (ST.), a town of France, ddp. Haute
(•aronne, on the (iaronne, 13 m. 8. St. < iaudens.
Pop. l,Htm in IHOl. Tho town is entirely built of
marble furnished by the neighbouring quarries;
but l)eing situated in a nam)W valley, l)etween
mountains which conceal the sun for a part of tho
dry, it is nt^vcrtheless very gloomy. It is tho
eutrv/tot of tho contiguous valloy of Arran, in
Spain.
BEAIJCAIHE (an. fTV/emwrn), a town of France,
dep (iard, cap. cant., m the right bunk of thu
Khone, opposite to Tarascon, 1-! m. E. Ninies; hit.
43° 48' 32'' N., long. 4° 3H' 50" E. Pop. 9,544 in
IMOl. As n town, Benucnire is not remarkable, and
has no jiublic building wortii notice; liiit it.s com-
mand of internal comnnniication, AtlitnUMl by tho
railway from Lyons to Marseilles, with the branch
line to Otte, as well as the navigiilion by tho
Hhone and the canal of Itenucaire, which unites
with tho canal du Midi, make it fitvourably situ-
ated for an entrejiot Its chief consequence and
celebrity is derived from its fair, which commeneen
on the 22nd, and tinishes on the 2Kth Julv. This
was formerly the greatest of European fairs, and
though much fallen off, it is still attended by a
vast concourse of people, not from France only, t)ut
also from (Jermany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and
the Levant. Almost every sort of article, whether
of convenience or luxury,' is then to be met with
in the town. It is said that the influx of visitors
still amounts to nearly 100,000, and that tho
business done exceeds 150 millions of francs; but
both these estimates are probably exaggerated.
The accommodations in the town and at Tarascon,
not iKiing nearly sufficient for the great and sudden
influx of strangers to the fair, large numbers of
them arc lodged in tents and other tem|)orury
erections in the meadow where the fair is held,
rlong the Khone. All bills due at this fair arc
presented on the 27th, and protested on the 28th.
A tribunal, instituted for the puqmse, takes cog-
nisance of, and immediately (settles, all dispatea
that grow out of transactions at the fair. De-
tachments from the garrisons of Nimes and Ta-
rascon assist in keeping order, and everj'tbing is
conducted with the greatest regularity. The j)rc-
fect of the dep. is always present, and entertains
the leading merchants.
The communication between Beaucairo and Ta-
rascon used to be kept up by a bridge of boats, but
this has been replaced by a suspension bridge of a
total length of 441 metres, or nearly a mile. Tho
bridge is alike substantial and handsome. Thcro
is at Beaucaire a public library, of 14,000 volumes.
BEAUFORT, or BEAUFOUT-EN-VALLE'E,
a town of France, d<$p Maine et Loire, near tho
Couesnon, 10 m. E. Angers. Pop. 6,200 in 1801.
It has a college, or high school, two w^orkhouses, a
large market-place, and manufactures of canvas
and coarse linen.
Bkaufokt, a small sea-port town of the U.
States, S. Carolina, on Port Royal Island, 75 m.
S. Charleston, and 58 m. N. Savannah ; lat. 32° 25'
N., long. 80° 32' W. Pop. 2,500 in 1800. It has
a deep and spacious, but little frequented, harbour.
This also is the name of an inconsiderable sea-port
town of N. Carolina, on Gore SouncL Its harbour
admits vessels drawing 12 ft. water.
Beaufort, a town of France, ddp. Savoy, near
the Doron, 30 m. ENE. Chambery. Pop. 2,750 in
1861, In the neighbourhood arc extensive mines
IS
\p^\
I
■-'■ 1
"i 1
'a I
384
UEAUOENCY
BEAUMONT-LE-VICOMTK
of coal, cop|)cr, ami lead, tlio latter contniiiiiiff
«ilvi>r.
HKAUGKNCIY, a town of Franro, <l«<p. Loirrt.
cap. cant., on tliti ri^lit bank of ihc Loire, Hi ni.
H\V. Orleanii, on the railwoy from I'orii* to ToiirN.
I'op. fi,(»iV2 ill IWiI. TliiH in a very aiieieiit town,
ana occnpiex a eoiiNpieuoiiM place in the history of
tlie foreign, civil, and reliKioim wan* of France.
It fell HUt'ceMHively into the IuiikIh of the IIiiiih,
iSaxonH, Nonnans, and Kii^liNh ; but it mitlered
nioMt from the reli^ioiiN warn of the Itilli ceiilurk'.
It waH Hurrounded by walln, tianked with towcVit
and boMtioiiH, part of which are Ntill Klundin^, IIk^
rent having been pulled down, and converted into
promenades. It waH almi defended by a castle, of
which nothing; now remaiim bnt a nuiHHive tower,
115 ft. hif;h. It haH a bri<l(;e over the Loire of
22arche>*; with fubricit of cloth, diHtilleriei*, and
taiinerieH, and a considerable trade in wine, cum,
aiuf wool.
UKAUJKU, a town of France, di'p. Rhone, coi).
cniit., on the Ardiere, JIO ni. NNW. Lyoiw. I'op.
8,\m in iMtil. It in Hituatcd it the toot of a hill,
on the top of which arc the ruiiii, 'if an ol<l citMtle.
It ha!* mannfactnrea of cawkH and lanli>ni)*, and in
the eiitre|iot of all the ])ro(luct8 exchanged be-
tween the Saonc and the i^oirct.
BICAULIKU, a town of France, <h'p. Corrcze,
rap. cant., on the Dordopie, '2'i m. S. 'riillc. I'o]).
"iJW) in 18)11. It hat) some trade in wine. Ilean-
lieii in the name of 24 other i*mall townH in France.
UKAULY, a sen-port and village of Scotland,
CO. InvenicHf*, on the N. side of the Ueauly Water,
-where it falls into the bottom of the Ueauly Frith,
9 in. \V. Inverness. I'op. 1)17 in IHtJl, of whom
4.'I4 males and 483 females. The |)lacc is tinely
situated. The Ueauly is here crossed by a bridge
of live arches, and the village has some trade.
I1KAUMAHI8, a bor. and sea-jMirt town of N.
"Wales, CO. Anglesey, hiind. Dendaethwy, near the
H, entrance to the Menai Strait, in lieaumaris
Hay, 4 m. NNK. the Menai bridge; lat, bii° 17'
N., l..ng. 4° 6' W. Pop. of bonnigh, 2,668 in 18(11.
It is tinely situated near the etlgc of the bay, in n
low level tract, which, however, commands some
of the lincst views in Wales. It is neatly built.
The castle, erected by Edward I., though ui atli-
lapidated state, is a tine ruin : it is surrounded by
n fosse, tianked by twelve circular bastions. The
building is nearly quadrangular, wivh a roiiiul
tower at each an(^lc. The par. church is at Llan-
defan, but there is a cha|)el of ease in the town,
in which service is performed in English and
Welsh. There are four chapels, belonging to Cal-
vin ists, Independents, Baptists, and Wesley aiis, all
well attended; a free grammar-school, well en-
dowed, the head master of which must be of the
I'^stablished Church and M.A. ; a national school,
for 240 boys and girls, in the town, and another
in Llandagvan (endowed by the late Duchess of
Kent), for GO scholars : each of the religious sects
have also large Sunday schools ; and in all the
English language is now taught. The town-hall
is a commodious modern structure, with rooms
for the bor. business, courts of justice, and a spa-
cious ball-room. There are also a co. hall, a co.
Ijrison, and a custom-house. The weekly markets
are held on Sat. and Wed. : annual fairs on Feb.
13, Holy Thurs., Sei)t. 19, Dec. 19, all for cattle.
No particular manufacture or trade is carried on
in the town. There is good anchorage in the bay,
opposite the town, in 7 fathoms stitt' clay; or ves-
sels may be grounded near it on soft rtiud. The
W. passage may be entered at any time of tide.
Vessels often resort thither for security in hard
gales ; and occasionally some are repaired on the
beach. In the year 1803, there eutcicd 2,220
.•cssels, of 2!U,(tlft tons, and there clenrfd (!•.'«
vcsmpIh, of 136,99.'! tons. AlMtut one-half of t|",,
shipping coiiHJNted of stcanicrH. Itfaiiiiiiirix in Hi,.
chief port of the island ainl of llie Mt'iiiii Siraii
and compris(>s in its jiirisdiclion those of Conwnv'
Amlwch, Ilolyheail, Twlhely, HarniiMilh. mni
(.'aeniar>'on. What trade the town ititclf poHMsxi:,
is chii'tly coastwise. There is a stcani-pai'kct (•(^ni-
niiinii'ation between lU'aiiinuris, LivcrpiHjj, aiul
Dublin, but the latter has almost ceascil Hini'(> iiu'
erection of the great Menai britlge, and ilu' vmuU.
lishineni of a more direct mail coinniiinli'ntliin via
Ilolyheail. The pier, (piays, and wariJiouxcMir.'
protected by extensive sea walls. The p|;u'i> d,.-
rivcs considerable advantage from visitorH Innu
l.iverpotd.^i'ho resort to it for sea-bathing, in w||j,.||
resp«'ct it can sc/ircely be surpassed, 'riicrc an'
many bathing machines, and the tine linn samls
of the l>each form a <lelightfiil promciiailc, Iruni
whence, as well as from the green, a nint^niiiccni
(•rosiM'ct presents itself. Haron llill, the scut nl'
the llulkeley family, is on an eminence iiciir ilu'
town, and its tine grounds sIo|K! towards it : iIk re
are several other gotsl mansions in the iioiglilKiur-
hood. The hotels and inns in the town arc ex-
cellent. There is a tine road from the town in
the Menai bridge (4^ m.), which also ciinmiunds
splendid views.
Since the Municipal Reform Act, the limils nf
the boi. have iM.en restricted so as to comprise oiilv
the town and its immetliate neighlMiiirhdiHl. Tim
ancient bounds included its own parish, and |iarii<
of six others, for an extent of upwards of |(i ni. ;
it has now four aldermen and twelve councilldrs.
Its governing charter, jireviously, was granted in
the 4th of Eliz. ; this quotes, by ins/;ej'/»iiM, ten
others, the earliest l)eiiig in 24 Ldw. I. The an-
vernment was vested in a self-elective bmiy, wm-
sisting of a mayor, 2 bailitfs, and 21 biiigesses, who
ho'' the privilege of returning 1 mem. to the II, df
C. The Reform Act divested them of this privi-
lege, and made Beaumaris the principal of 5 von-
tnbntory iMtrs., which jointly return 1 mem. in
the II. of C. The Ueaumaris district, coni]iriMn;'
Amlwch, Ilolvhead, and Llangefni had 617 n'nu-
tered electors in 18G4, the constituency luinnfiiniKil
by a few members of the old coqM)ratiiin niid l(i/.
householders. The ' influence ' is tliviiled hetwecu
the Alnrquis of Anglesey and the Stanley ami
Bulkelcy families, fhe coqioration revenues are
derived frf)m rents of lands, tenements, oyster-
beds, and harbour dues : they average about ajiii
The town derives its origin from Edw. 1., who,
after founding the castles of Caernarvon and C'uu-
way, built that of lieaumaris, in 1295.
BEAUMONT- DE-LOMAGNE, a town of
France, ddp. Tarn ct Garonne, cap. cant., on tlic
Gimone, 21m. SW^. Montauban. Pop. 4,670 iu
1801. This little town is alike remarkable by the
regularity of its plan, the neatness of its hunsnt,
and the beauty and fertility of its territory. It u
built round a spacious square, and its streets, which
are broad and straight, intersect each otlier at
right angles. It has fabrics of coarse cloth, Imta
and tanneries.
BEAUMONT-LE-VICOMTE, or IlEAU-
MONT-SUR-SARTHE, a town of France, dep.
Sarthe, cap. cant., on the Sarthc, 17 m. X. Mans.
Pop. 2,184 in 1861. It has manufactures of dnif;-
gets and other descriptions of woollen cloth ; and
has a considerable trade in com and fat f;w*
The town has a station on the line of railway fnim
Mans to Caen and Cherbourg. There is a line
promenatle on an adjoining hill. Beaumont, cither
singly or with some addition, is the name of ava.'^
iuunl)cr of small towns in France. The mosf""'-
bidcrable is Beaumont suu Oisk, dqi. •*'"' ''
K
cnrcd flW
init' III' till-
iiirin in tlu'
imi Striiii,
f ('iinwny,
ii>ul)i, mill
ni'kct t'tim-
'r|HHi|, unci
'd itiiU'c till'
I till' I'Htali-
iiit'iiliiiii viii
I'liiiiiiti's, nw
{> ))lari' (l-
ihitorn IVdin
\\\i, ill wllirli
'I'ticrc iiri'
! firm ("imiln
icimilc. Irmii
iiiiiKiiili<'''iii
I tin- scat of
nci' iHMir tlic
nlH it : tlicri!
c iU'i;,'tilMiiir-
:iiwn nro ex-
ilic IllWIl Id
10 comnuiiids
thp limits of
i;(iiiHirisL' imly
iiriiiiiHl. Tilt,'
ixli, 1111(1 iiarii*
inlHiif 10 ni.:
re cimiicilliirm
ras urmitcil in
mpeximiiH, h'W
V. I. TliP !!"-
ivc ImhIv, wm-
biirncsscs, who
m, to till! ll.'if
1 (if tliis vrivi-
cipnl tif .") t'on-
ini I mi'iii. 1"
ict, coniiirisin;,'
liiul 517 ri'cis-
jylK'innftiniK'il
•ration tiiiil !*>'•
ivitli'il lietwecu
B Stniili'V and
n nivemit's atB
meiits, (lysti't-
ipc about iM
Eilw. I., wli'i.
irvon ami t'oii-
:'J6.
;, a town ot
p. cant., on tlic
Pop. 4,.")70 in
larkable by tl.c
of its hottsw,
^crritorj'. It w
[9 strct'tn, wliitli
each otlicr at
le clotli, liats
or BEAU-
Lf Trance, tliT-
^7 m. N. Mans.
icturcsofilni!,'-
ilen cloth; ai'*'
land fat gM*«'
lof railway fwni
Irhcrc is a tine
leaumont,cithM
■ name of a va?"
J The most"'";
Ldqi. >-'«'"«"
T1K.\UNE
OW. 2! m. ^'- Purix, 011 tlio Nortbrrii of Krniiro
niilMiiv. I'op- -<'■'" '■■ i>**>\. It Miiiuli on It lilll,
and liiM );lai4M-wiirkM, itml 11 iiuiiiufm'lory of hiiIi-
KlIAI'Nl''. a town of I'Viiiirp. di'p, Coti^ d'Or,
1,111. lirnmil., in an aKri'i'iiliio country, at tlio fnul
(,( I'l hill wlih'li prodiu't'H oxi't'lli'iit wiiio, on tho
Miiaii rivii Hoiii^colsc, 'i(» ni. SS\V. Diioii. I'op.
Id.TI'.i ill l**''!' 'nn'fi' i'* a Mtiitioii on tli<> riiilway
iriiiii llijon to I.yon. Tim town is well liiiill ;
strrcti I'lroail. Nlriiljflit, and watornl liy llic I'oiiii-
nin ill- F.liii'tc, Tlif I'liiircli of Notre l)iiiiit' is
liiiidsomc: lint Ilic tincsl linildiiiK in the tmvn is
ilic in,'i;:iiill('<'nt hospital, funiidcd in I II I, and
(iidiirtidliy Nifliolas Itollin, cliaiit'cllor lo I'hilip
liukr of liiirtiondy. Iloniiiif is tin- scat of Iri-
liiii.iU of coiiiiiicn'o ami priiiiiiry iiirisdii'tion ; Idis
a ciiiiiniiiial college, ami n piildio lilir;irv uilli
alidve 1(1.11(1(1 volnnu'S. Its raiiipiirts, wliii'h arc
pliiiilfd. iilhird lim'lironioniidcs; and it lias an c\-
i,.ii,jv(' piililic pirdcn, pnliiic liivtlis. and a theatre.
It iiriiiliiei''* clotli. cutlery, leather, vim'f;ar, casks;
iiiid Ims dye-works and hiri^c nurseries of fruit
tnis. lint the principal cclelirily of ISeanne is
.irivdl friitn its liein;; the centric of ijie tradi' in
ihc wine that hears its name; that is, in the best
oi'ilu' second (growths of IhirKnndy.
jll'Al'NIvNA-KOLAN'DK. a town of Frnncp,
(li'|i. i.iiiret, cap. cant., Hi in. W. by N. Moiitaif^is.
I'np. ■.',M!l,"( in IHtil.
liKArrKI'-AlJ, a town of Franco, (h'p, JFaine
ft Leirc, cap. arroml., on the Kvrc, W ni. S\V.
Aii;.'('rs. I'op. .'l,Wt in IHtil. It has a court of
iiri'diuil jurisdiction, with dye-works and tanneries.
IiiIT!)') the Veiideans obtained, in the vicinity of
this town, a conijilete victory over the ropulilicaiis
under (ieiieral F.i^'onnior.
lil';\l'SSI'"T, a town of France, de'p. Vnr, can.
rant., !) m. N\V. Tonlon. I'op. ■>,'.)'.)■> in l«(ll. It
lias lid irics of hats and tiles, with tanneries, nj-chiss-
work, nnd a considerable trade in oil, wine, spirit.s,
juaji, mill coarse cbith and linen.
IIKAI'VAIS, a town of Franco, rap. (h'p. Oisc,
(in tlic Tlicrain, where it is joined by the Aveloii,
iiiavailov surrounded by wooded hills, i'i m. X.
liy W. I'afis ; hit, 4!»° 20' 7" N., loiiK. 'i" .V K., on a
liraiu'li line of the railway from Paris to lloiilo^nc.
rii|i, l.'v'Kil in IWil. This is a very luicicnt city,
andlms underf;oiie many vicissitudes. So late an
isn;) it was Hiirronmled by rani))art.4 and foss-'s,
but tliesc have been since partly levelled, ami <•. li-
vened into a^'reeable promeiiadv-s. It is ill built,
lliL' liiiiises consisting;, for the most jiart, of wood,
fkv, and mortar : the streets arc not narrow, nor
dirty, but they arc badly planned. Had the ca-
'k'liml been liiiished on it,s ori^final jilan, it wiaild
have been the linost (iothic cditicc in France, but
ihi' duiir (inly is complete. It coiitnins a tine nio-
minicnt of Cardinal de.lanson, bishop of IJeauvais.
Tlu' church of St. Ste|ihcn, erected in 5197, is cele-
hratpil fur its fine painted glass windows. The
(■|iisc'(ipal ])aliice, now the lifitel dc prefet, is very
lar^'ii ami ancient, and has the appearance of a
llidiii' castle. Previously to the licvolutioii there
niTc ill Heauviiis, besides the cathedral, (5 ccdlc-
fiiiic cliurchcs, 12 parish ditto, with (! convents
k men and 2 for women. Now, however, the
ciiiiveiits have ceased to exist ; and nil the churches,
savi! two, and two chapels of ease, have either
Iwn inilled down or applied to other purposes.
TliiMither public builiUngs are the college, theatre,
liiitd dc Diet!, with 40 beds, and an Imperial ma-
nufiu-tnry of tapestry. It is the seat of a bishopric,
^f I'durts of prcmiire instance, and, besides the
i tiilli;;e lias u diocesan .seminary, witli 145 iiupils,
I pratnitdus courses of geometry and niccliaiiics aji-
\M to the arts, and a public library with 7,500
Vm,. I.
nncci.F..**
38A
vidnnios. ricnuvaii Iuh con^idorablo advantnges,
in the command of water-power, and in the cheap-
ness of turf fuel for the prosecution of niannfac-
liires; but Ihiiiigli those carried on in the town Ih>
considerable, they are not llourishing. The prin-
cipal is that of a sort of tlaiincl (molhtim) ; at
present, however, it is said to Im! in a retrograde
condition, owing to tlie want of capital and eiiter-
iirise in those engnged in it. A good deal of cloth
IS iiiadi^ of a medium (pialily. There is iiNo u
royal iiiannfaclory of tapestry, established in Hit'il;
but these cslablishinents are of little or no use,
except as works of art, their prodiiels being loo
dear to culm! into general deinaiid. 'I'lie fabrics
of printed cuttiiiis are innch fallen olf; but the art
of dyeing is still sii ssl'ully iiracii^ed, and there
aw extensive lilcai'b-tields. with llonr-niill'i, and
tanneries, T'he triiiU' of Ucanvais is e\teii>ive.
Large rpiantities of corn, and of linen, called ih'ini
lloll,iiiili\ inaniiliiclnred in its vicinity, aro dis-
posed of in its markets.
lieaiivais existed under the I'omans, and hiiH
since been held by the Noruiaus nnd \\w I'.nglish,
from the hitter of whom It was wrested in the l.'itb
cenlnry. In I 177 it was besieged by Charles llio
Ilidd, duke of Ihirgnndv, and thongli wilhont a
garrison, tlie citizens, led on by the famous heroine,
.leaniK! lliichette, repelled I luM'tiemy. An annual
festival is still cehdirated in hiinonr of this event.
HKAl VOIK, or ItKAl'VOl.S-SlIK-MKK, a
town of France, d('i). Vemh'c, cap. cant., opposite to
the Island of N'oirinulier, about .'( m. from the sea,
with which it is united bv a canal. Pop. 2,titti in
IMtil. Vessels of from sixty to eighty tons come
up to the town, to load with corn and salt, iiro-
diiced in the salt marshes in the vicinity, I'ho
sea, in ancient limes, came u|) to the walls of the
town. It was foniierlv fortitied, and had a castle,
which was besieged liy Henry IV. in l.'iHH, who
having fallen into an ambuscade, was involved in
the great(!st danger.
lil'X't'LKS, a bor., par., and town of Eiiglnnd,
NK. border, co, SntTolk, on the VVaveiiey, '.ti') m.
\K. London, 13 m. SK. Varinoiith, on the (ireat
Eastern railway, fonnerlv the I'^astern Ciamties.
Pop. 3,403 in i«2l; 4,(mi) in 1«41 ; nnd 4,220 in
IHtil. The towii is well built on the S. side of tlio
river, and consists of several streets, diverging
from n central area where the market is held.
The church, with a modern detached steeple, is
an ancient structure on the edge of u cliff, over-
looking the level pastures through which tho
Wavency flows. There are two dissenting chapels;
a free school, founded under .lames I., for 100
boys; a grammar-school, endowed in 1713, which
ha.s ten cxhib. to I'^mauiud (Ml., ("ambr. ; a na-
tional school; a new town-hall, theatre, and as-
sembly-rooms. The weekly-market is on Satur-
day, Annual fairs are held on Whit-Mondav,
.June 2'J, and Oct. 2; tho last being n horse fair.
There are no manufactures, but malting is carried
on to a considerable extent. The town has been
rendered accessible to vessels of 100 tons burden,
jiartly by deepening the river Wuvcney, anil
partly by tho aid of the NorAvich aud Lowestoft
navigation. It has, in consequence, some coasting
trade, in the importation of <Mials, timlicr, i^iic., ami
in the exportation of com and other pnxluce. Tho
shipping belonging to the trade is inconsiderable,
and IS includeil in that of Yarmouth, of which it
is reckoned an out-port. The railway from Ilcci'len
to llungay, opened March 2, 1803, has given in-
creased facilities of commercial intercourse.
Since the Municipal Reform Act tho limits of
the bor. have been contracted so as to include
only the part on which the town stands, an arcn
of 350 acres. It was previously co-cxtcnsivc with
#1
nsn
nKDALR
the imriHil, iiml whh llrNt iiitoriMirnlcil in :Vt Ilcnry
VIII., when llci'clfM Km iiNiHiiiiK ol" l.|(Mi(i('ri'.><
III' |iiiHiiirr, w;iM f^ritiilcil. Thi' mivcriiiiiic cliiirlfr
>viiH ^Tiinlt'it ill -J .liiiiii'M I, Tilt' priNiliv.'!' iif ilr-
|iM.''liiriii^ HliH'k im llic It'll I'xti'iiilN tucvfrv limim'-
lioldi'r; mill, til' Hki tiri^niuil K'"'!'' I"*' lU'riN ri'-
iiiiiiii iiimlit'iiiili'tl, 'I'liii oiriitirHliiiii iiInii iitmm'KK
nil I'Htnti', t'liiitMl till' lliiN|iiinl Hill, niid ii Ii'iihc hI'
the IiiIIh tif innrki'lH and I'liirit, in;; making; llif
nvcrnKo nmtuiiit nl' ilii-ir annual n'v*'iim> u|iwnriN
tif l,H(Mi/, Tlii'irliUNini'NM in trniiNiu'lt'tl in llii'lnwn-
liiill, wlicrn (|iinrtt'rly HCHHitniM fur tint iii'i{;hl)tiur-
liiHiil arc niKii licld Ity lli<> t'ii-niii;;iHtmti'M,
Ml'! DAM''., n nuirkt'l lnwn and piir. id' l''n;;liiiiil.
N. I{., t'ti. \'iirk, nil an alllni'iil of the Swalf, III ni.
N.NW. Viirk. Art-a III' |inr. 7,(170 atTi'M. I'ii|», id'
liiir, '2,Xi'M in IHiil ; til'tnwn, I,l.'i7. 'I'Iip Inun in
M't'll liiiilt, and tlii'clinrrli \h n lari^caiul lianditmnt'
I'dilii'c, t'liiiNtriii'li'il in llii- rfi^n nl' I'.ilward III.
'I'lit' livintf, wliirli in a ri'rlnry, is mu^ td' tin' lii'.tt
in llif I'liiinty, liaviii^ lii'i'ii wtirtli, at an avi'raM:i'
III' lilt' ilirt'o vj'arH I'lidiiiK willi IHitI, '.»,(mmi/. a ynir.
It liUH a ^'niininar-m'liiinl.and hoiiii' rliaritii'N. 'I'ln^
t'tinnlry roinid in very I'ertilo, mid it htm u widl-
iiii|i|ilii'd niiirkct.
HKDAUIllL'X, ntiiwniif rrnncc, di<|). IFi'ranU,
lap. cant., nn tliu Orl), '.'(I ni. N. lU'/.itrs. I'mi.
!l,l)H7 in IHliI, It iH neat, and well linilt, and ih
imo III" llm must inilnxtrinns Iiiwiih ni' itn si/.ii in
1'Viini'i>, It IniH niannrai'tiiroH of lino and I'narsc
I'ltilli, III' Htnlt'N, III' Hilk anil wind, wtiollcn mid ont-
tiiii Hlti('kin(;.H, liatw, nil, jiapfr, anil Hna|i, with ilyct-
works and tminiTii'H. It liiui a utatinn nn tlio
liranrh linn nf railway rrnmCirniitHCHHao to lli'v.it'rH,
wliii'h I'liiinct^tHitwitli the gcnoral railway oystoni
of till' wnntry.
ItKDFOIil), an inland <>o. of Kn^land, having
N. and NW., Ilnntinplnn anil Niirthani]itiinsliir('M;
K., Iliintinf;iliin and Cmnhrid^'c ; S., llurtfnrd;
mill W., nnrkin^hain and Nnrlhainptnn. Ar.'n,
'i'.HiJ'H'i aiTCH, of which altniit 2."i<l,0(H) arc nnp-
ptiHi'd tn he arahlo, nicadiiw and piiMtnrc. Surface
divcrsilii'd with Inw liillsi, vallcyst, and cxtt'ii.sivc!
k'Vi'l traclH. On the S., the Chiltcm hills rise Iti
a coiisiili'ralilc elevnlioii. I'rincipal rivers, Oiise
mid Ivell. It has every variety nf snil, fmni the
utirt'i'st flay to the lif^htest sand. In the vale nf
Ucdl'iird, the snil is clayey ; the sandy snil is well
Hiiited fnr the tnmip hiislmnilry mul garden cul-
ture; mid, on the whole, the co. may lie said to he
nf aliiint an average degree nf fertility. It is
chietly under tillage, which is in a medium state
of iniiiroveincnt — iint so far advanced as in some
comities, nor so backward as in others. Wheat
mill heans arc the principal prndiice of the clays,
and tnriiips and Imrley of the saiitly soils. Large
qnaiitities of vegetables arc raised in various
places, for the supply of the markets of London
and Cambridge. Cuttle of a mixed breed. Stock
of sheep estimoteil at about 20(»,00(l. There are
some large estates ; but property is notwithstand-
ing a good deal HnbtUvidcd. Average size of farms,
150 acres ; average rent of land, in 1842-43,
'2.5/1 SjiJ. nn acre. I'lillers' earth is dug up in con-
Hiderable quantities in the vicinity of VVobuni.
Excellent straw platt for ladies' hats is made at
Dunstable: the manufacture of pillow lace, once
widely diffused through the country, has much
lU'clined, and there is no other mmiul'aeturc of any
impor'ai'ee. I'rincijial towns, Uedford, Higgles-
■wade, Leighton-lUizzartl, and Luton. Bedford-
shire contains hundreds, and I'iit parishes ; and in
1H41 had 21,23.5 inliab. houses, and 107,930 inhabs.
The census returns of 1801 showed a moderate
increase of population, there being 27,41!) iiihab.
houses, and a jiop. of 135,2(15, of whom (i3,780
males and 71,485 females. The co. returns two
UKDFORD
momliers to the II, oti'. The cnniitilmiirv c,,,)
Misted, in 18)15, of I, "01 regisleri'd I li'ilnrt." ||,.,{
I'linlMliiri' WHS part nf llie Siimhi kiii|.'diiin „( Mipi.)
Walling iSini't may be Iriii'i'd in tin' iliri'i'iimi ,1
the riiiili' I'mni l>ntl^lalllt' In Stratrunl.
Ili'iirtiiiii, a Imr. mid Inwii of I'.ngiiiiiil, rn|i. 1,,,
lli'dliird, nn ihi'diiM', 45 m. NNW, I.i>iiiIoii,imii|ii
Midland raihvuv. I'op. 5,|(i(i in |K'.'|; '(.ithjii
I8lt ; ll.litKI 111*1851 ; and I3,4l2in I8i;t. N,„„.
berof inhabitttl hnuses 2,:i07 in I85|,aiii| '.>,7,',| |„
I8t'i|. The town is siliiati'd in a pleasinit vali'. en
iMith Hides the river, which is Mpanni'd liy n lijin,|.
snine llve-iirchi'd stone liridge, built in iMjo, ||
foiiHists chit'lly of a wide strt'el, iM'twi'fii | mul •>
in. long, inlersei'led by several sinalliT sirii'i. »i
right angles. The hniises on the S. nIiIc i,f iI,,.
river are handsonie niodern Ntriii'tiiri's; ihv ri".i,
an inlerinixtitre of ancient and innderii, Imt ninsilv
well built and neat; the wlinit' is paved, li^'litdl
by gas, anil anijily siipiiried with wairr. 'TIkiv
are live churi'lii's : St. I'eter's, the niimt iiiKiint,
has a Nnrinan porch and a line tower; Si. .IhIhm,
St. Mary's, and St. I'anl's, are all in the t^iihi,.
style, with good towers. The lliiptists, Iiiili'|iiii-
denls, Wesleyans, .lews, and Mnravian-i, liavcini h
places of worshiii ; the last have also a rcni'ili'
eslablishinent. Then' is a lloiirisliing graiimnir-
schonl, I'onnded in 1551!, which edncatt's lii'hvdn
70 and 80 of the town boys Iree; and alHuil tln'
same number who board with tin? Iicul niii;-tir.
and jiay : it has 8 exiiib., of 80/. a year carli, h\
Oxfonl, Cambridge, and Dublin: nimllu'r (nv
school, founded in 1727, for 10 boys and IllprU;
and a bine-coat school, founded in I7ii0, fnrclinli-
ing and educating 25 boys: this last is now iiiiiicl
with the national sidiiml, but the einliminciii in
kept distinct. The charitii's, cnnipareil wiili ilu'
si/.e of the town, exceed in nmoiint tlidse nf iiny
other in the kingdom. The prini'i|Hil oliiiritycmi-
sists of iiroperty in Itedford and Lniiiliiii, li'I't liy
Sir William llnrpiir, who was born in llie liiniuT,
and became lord mayor of the latter. Tlio Irii*-
teesare — the Inrd-lieiit. ; the ineniliers fur llu' ru.
mid the bur. ; the lirst and second niiisters nf the
graminar-school ; eighteen jiersnns elmseii by ilu'
inhahilants of liedfnrd; and the ciir|iiiriitinn; llic
last being, hi fact, virtually its niaiiaj;iTs. Tim
revenue is distriliuted amongst the free graniniiir,
Knglish, national, and conimereinl sclmnls ; .'iS
almshouses; and in marriage porliniis, a|i|iri'iitiri'
fees, ])remiunis, and donations anmngst tlii' |<ii<ir,
Besides this, the |irinci|ial charity, there istliclui!'-
pital of St. Jtdin, founded in the reign of Kilwarl
IL, for n master and 10 poor brethren ; anil n
nlnishonses, endowed in lfi71t, for ilecayoil siii^'li'
folks of eitlier sex. There is a sessicnis-liniiM', a
theatre, and a imblic hlirary ; reading, Icitiin',
billiard, mid asseinbly-rooins, all in one liaiulsuiiit
structure, recently built. There is also 11 new
building in the 'J'udor style, erected by tiie trus-
tees of the Hedford chaiity, with niiinis t'nr the
Knglish and national schools. The co. gnnl nml
house of correction are at the N. entraiu'c tn iln'
town. The co. lunatic asylum, and tlic en. iinir- 1
mary, are also near the town, on the Amptliill
road : the infirmary, a large line biiildiiif,', «:w |
erected ui 1833, chi'eflv from funds hoqiicatlicil liy
the late Samuel Whitbrcad, Ksq. ; hut tlic Mar-
quis of Tavistock subscribed 2,000/. townnls iis I
completion. The penitentiary (a large cstnli.) mi I
the Kettering road. The chii'f market is lidil ""
Saturday : the weekly sale of wheat averages almiii
(iOO quarters. There is a smaller ninrket nn JI""- 1
day, chiellv for pigs. Annual fairs arc lidil lir-t j
Tuesday in Lent, April 21, July 5, Aug. '21. 'W; I
12, Nov. 17, and Dec. 19. That in (Vt. iMal •!
the statute fair, ami is the most iuiiMirtJiiit : ilitl
IIKDI'OIM) \.\:\'V.\.
S87
mil, rn|i. ru.
iiiliiii.iniilii
.'I: '.MThiii
H'.l. Niim
mill '.*,7.°il in
tant \:ili'. nn
I liv II limiil
in'lHjit. It
W'I't'M I »l|i| i
ilcr It reel -i ill
"<, hiilr iif llif
res; I lie rr>t,
11. Iiiit niii>tlv
lllVCll, li^'lltl'.l
^viilcr. 'I'liiri'
liiiist Hiiiii'iil,
■r ; Si. .Iiilin's
III the dnllii,'.
tUts. liiili'imi-
illii", Imvri'iirh
iiIhii II I'i'iii.'ilr
iiiK i;riiinin;ir-
liUltt'S lii'twirll
mill iiliiiiit till'
I' Ih'iiiI inii-lir,
II yt'iir fiii'li. t'l
; 'miiitluT trir
,-n mill l(it;irl»:
17(10, fur I'liiili-
St is iiiiw unitiil
;! i'iiili>\viiii'iil ii
iimrcti witli till-
lit tlmsc 111' iiiiy
i|Hil cliiirity cim-
LiihiIdii. li'lt liy
•11 ill till' fiinuir,
ittor. Till' iru"-
iilicru fur 111''
.(I iiinstcrs of llii'
[is I'lioscn liy till'
Icdiiioraliim; llif
iimiiaj^i'r^. 'll«'
|i(" IVci^ (,'riinimiir,
rial .st'lmiili* '• ;'''*
■tiiiiiH, aiiiiri'iitiii'
lUdiiH^I till' l"«'r.
tlii'rt'isllii'li'"-
ri'iniidf Kilwiif'l
lircthri'ii •, mill *
[t lU'i'iiyeil siii«li'
si'ssiiais-liiiii>i'>''
reaiUnn. ''''''""''
|iu oiu' liaiulsi'iiii'
is also n •"*
Iteil Ity tlietnis-
h riio'ms lor ilif
"he I'o. Ri*"' "'"'
.. entraiu'PtdilicI
ind the en. inW; '
(in tlie Anil'ilii"
ic ImililiiiK. ^'"* I
Is lionueatliiil I'V
1. ; Imt tlic Miir-
100/. towaril* iis
, larpo cstftli.) I'll
iiarkctislioM""
at avi'riiKWi*""' I
\ niarUi't on M"""
lirs arelieW'f'
.^, Alls. .21. ';^':
,in Oi't.i^'*'
t iiniHTtnni'''"'
i,tlii'r« nro ralili' fairH. TIicOiiko Isiimn 1),'iiIiI(' frntii '
l„,„'i' til I. Mill Itrui^- oiiil <i niii^iilcr'ilili' irallli' is i
i.irri'il "I' )>*'l^vri'li tlic Utn Iiinmii«. cliiilly In iiiiill, I
ivils liiiilx'r. ami iron. I.ticr niakiiiK' loi'iin'rlv
,,„|,|,,\('il a UTiiit iiiaiiv i<( llic wiiiiii'ii iiml rliil ^
iln II, niiil «<>^>' Mlra\v-|iliilliti^. 'I'licrt' iiri' im olln'r
iii.iiiiifaitiiri"*. Till' li'wii has Kf'*' I'iK'ililii''' fur
iMilf. '»'">{ "'" ''"' <'r<'SHiiij{ iif iwii frrnit liiii'suf
nilniiv, till' Miillaiiil, ami ii liraiii'li iif tlii' ^rrat ;
|,,,iii|(iii ami Nnrlli Wcslrrii liiir, Tlir Imr. is
(iii\lrii''ivi' with lln' live iiarir-lii's nf Sts. I'drr.
I'liiil, Ciii'iln'rl, iMiiry, ami .lolin; tlic ana nf tlio
vhiili' i* ■' "' ' in'ri's, (111' Inwii ln'iii;i in ilir iiiii|>l,
>tiili a fi'iiili' I'll' "I laiiil all t'liiiml. It is ili\ iilcil
liiid two warils, ami pivmii'il liy ii mayor, six
iiMiniii'ii. ikkI >'i;;liii'i'ii coiim'iMoi's. Tli<< aiiiiiial
rivi'iiiii' of llx' *'i'rp<<r'iiii>ii, ilrrlvi'il from lainlsaml j
h.iiiTi in tli<' lior.,aiMoiiiits lo al ( l,,'i(io/. a yi'ar.
Tliiro arc local I'oiirls of (icily ami i|uiirlir sessions,
,111,1 of picas. The I'D. Hcssioiis ami ussi/.cs arc also |
ii,il ill (he town.
liiilcrilic I'oor I,nw Ainciultncnt .\ct llcilford
i< till' union town for 11 ii,'iri>lics. It is rc|in'-
M'liii'il in llic union liy six ^'iiiiiiliaiis. The liur.
Ii:i<ri'liirnci| two incnilicrs lo ilie II. of ('.since (he
'.':> r.ilw. I. I'rcvionsly to the llefurm Act lliev
«Yiv ciccleil hv the liiir(,'csses ami frccincn, liotii
liiiiiii's ciilisistniK of an imiellnite iiimilier. Ill
|f*i'i|, the coiistitnem y eonsisicil of '.IM('> ri'Kislereil
I'li'i'tors, of whom IH remaining 'olil freemen,'
mill '.'10 'iMit-walhi|i('rs.' Iteilford is also tin;
|iriiiriiinl iMiIlinf; town of the co. A strong; cnstle
»ni liiiilt here soon after the ('oiu|iiest, which in
siiliwqiieiit reijrim eiidiireil many Hie;;es; [mrt of
its ('iitreiichmeiits may still he traced, •lohii
liiinynn was im|irisoiicd in lledford f^nol from
|i;riii till KiT'i; and in it he wrote the lirst |iortioii
(if till' I'iltjrim'H y'm/rci.v. lie siiliseimelilly coii-
liiiiii'il, for the most part, to reside in the town
till Ills demise in IIISW. The K'lissell family
iliiivc tlii'ir title of duke from the town.
Ili;i)I''Ol{|) I-KVI'.L, a distr. on the K, coast of
Kii^'liiiiil. comiirisin^ the ^{renter jtortion of a Hat
miirsliy tract, called the Fens, which (extends into
MXi'iiiintii's, and is huiinded on the NK. hy that
;wit iiili't of thetiennaii Ocean, known as the
Wash; niid in all other directions hy ranges of
iiillslliat enclose it in the form of an ellipse. It
iiuliiili's alioiit -liVVlOO acres of this fen country,
niiii I'xteiuls N, and S., from Tydd .St. (iiles to
Miltim, ;!il ni. ; and from l'eterlioroiif;li to nrandoii,
ill nil v.. and W. direction, '10 m. Its houndaries
an'ifft'Kiilar; hut, conimenein;; from l'eterl)oroii;;h
iinrtiiiTly, the line extends hy I'eakirk, (.'rowlaiid,
\Vliii|iliiile I )rove, I'arsoii Drove, (iiiyhirii, .Salter's
LkIi'. anil Methwold, to Hranilon ; and thence, on
llii'S, side, hy Mildenhall, Milton, l'',arith, K'am-
siy, Wmid VValtoii, and Va.xley, to I'eterhoroiigh,
This com|irises the whole Isle of Kly (the N.
liiv, of Cainhridfjesliire), and n few parishes in
the S, ilivisioii of that coiiiitv; ilO,(H)() acres of
Siitfolk; G;t,000 of Norfolk; i")'7,000 of lliintiiif,'-
il"ii; between 7,000 and 8,0110 of Norlhamptoii-
>!iiri'; anil the 8K. )iortion of Lincolnshire.
'ihc wliiile tract aiipears to have heen gra-
iblly formed, hy .sedimentary de])ositioiis, in
an iiili'l of the ocean, brought thither by the
tiihl I'lirronts, from the dthria of the coast, and
I'v torrents from the surrounding ii]ilan(ls. I'Mglit
jiriiuiiinl rivers, or drains, originally traversed the
Wl, three of which had their outfalls in tliS
w; the Welland, in Foss Uyke Wash; the
W. in the Sutton Wash Way'; and the Oiise,
«i Lyiiii iJegis : of the rest, the (Men joined the
Wiiliiiiil, near its (uilfall; the Wislieiich was a
Iwmh of the Nciie ; the Cam, the Larke, and
il'tlilllo OiiHe, fell into the tJreat Ouse on its K.
side. The Uotnnns ap|M>ar to have Iweii Ilie tlrst
who formed sea ciiiliaiiUnii'iiis, and shut out the
liile: Kiili^cipieiitly to wlilili, \'«r a prolonged
jMriod, it was a >cry fertile and po|iiiliius iriici.
The outfalls of the streams, and the depths of
their chiniiieN, ri'inained ailei|iiale to carry oD'
the sii|H'rthioiis water, iiml elVeci a pro|H'r drainage,
allhoiigh it is a well ascertained lact lliat the
average lc\el of the surface was fonnerly M'\eral
feel lower than at present (at Spalding liiid Wis-
lieacli not less iliaii lo l'l„ ami at rctcrhorougli
.") (t,). The mots of large trees, grass lying ill
swathes, as when tlrnt inoweij, hoals, and shoes of
a palleni wiirii in Iticlianl II. 's nigii, have been
discovered in \iirioiis places al the depth of several
feet iiuiler silt or peal. Al the M tting down of
Skirbeck sluice, near llosloii, a blacksniilirs shop
was fiiiind nmler 10 ft. of silt. These changes,
iherct'ore, were occiniolied by the continued
operalion of the siinie causes to which the for-
mation of the district is originally allribniable,
and which are still in ccmsiIcss action on the
coast, liy shntliiig out the tide also, its seoiiriiig
actiiiii would be greatly limited; and, eoiise-
ipiinlly, the channels and outfalls of ilie streams
would silt up and eonirael more rapidly, iinlesH
prevented by some artilicial means. 'I'his pro-
cess, however. Would be gradual; and. down ti»
the time of .Stephen, we Iiml the district round
'i'horney described bv Henry of llinitingiloii as
most hcaiilifiil and lertile; whilst at the period
when Francis, I'.arl of lledford, and his coadjutors,
undertook the drainage of the great level that
is named from him, (his tract, comprising |N,l)ilO
acres, was an iniindaled morass, with the e.xce|)-
tioii of a small hillock on which the abbey stood.
As early, however, as the reigii of I-'.dward 1., the
silling up of the rivers, and the want of tiilei|iiate
drainage, had become an evil of great magiiitiiite ;
and as a large projiortiou of the fens ilieii be-
longed to rich religious establishments.they made
many vigorous etforls to obviate the increasing
evil. Hilt it was not till the era of Fli/.abetli
that the drainage of the fens was viewed in its
true light, that of an important national eoncern ;
and an act was passed for elVecting it in the I Itli
of her reign. In conse(|ueiieeof Iheiiueen's death,
nothing was attempted till Kill t, when a charter
was granted by Charles I. to Francis, l'!.arl of lled-
ford (who had succeeded to the propiTty of T'horiiey
Abbey), and III other adventurers, who iiiiderlook
to drain the level, on condition of being allowed
l).1,000 acres of the reclaimed land: this was par-
tially accomplished within three years, at the
cost of 100,000/. T"he ]trineipal cuts then made
were, the Old lledford Ifiver, (1 in. long, ao ft.
wide: .Sam's (.Jut, of the same length and size;
Itevil's Loam, 10 in. hiiig, and '10 ft, wide; and
I'eakirk I)raiii, of the same length, mid 17 ft.
wide. The old drains were also rejiaircd anil
enlarged, and four sluices fonneil to keep out the
tide : two at Tidd, one at Wisbeaeh, and one at
Salter's Lode. After all these works had U'cii
accomplished, at so great a cost, by the eor|)ora-
tion, the contract was set asule, at the instiga-
tion of government, under the pk'a of the drains
being inadequate. An offer was then made by
the king to undertake the drainage of the fens,
on being allowed ir)2,000 aeres, which was 57,000
more than were to have been allotted to the cor-
poration for ett'ecting it. This disgraceful attempt
to swindle the latter out of the advantjiges likely
to resnlt from their outlay and exertions was,
however, defeated by the national disturbances
that .shortly after broke out. Hut the neglect
conseipient on the distracted state of the country
rendered what had been effected in a great measure
c c 2
-J 3
nAR
UEOFonr) T,Evr:L
iixi'lcKH, »<) llial till- ilUtrit't rrtiiiiiiinl n wnxtc, till
Hilt), wlii'ii Willliiiii, r.iirl i>( llnll'oni, Imil all
hin riilhrr't ri^'hlN rc-lori'il liy tlir ('niivi'iiiiini
iiiirliiiliiriil : iiiiolln'r rO'iirl miik lliril iniuli', iimlir
iIh illrnlioii-, iMiil at llii< rii«t nl' .100,000/. tlit'
■■rJKitiiil iiilvciiiiiriTK wcrf cniililt'il to I'liiini tlirlr
!).'>,ooo lurrH, 'till' |>riiic'i|>iil <iit liinl iiiinli' miik
that of till- Ni'w Ili'ilt'onI rivrr, joo it, \tii|f, n
hlmrt tllManro IVntn, ami niiiiiinK nearly purallt'l
Willi, till' old mil'. Ill lllliH n ('orpiiriilioti was
« "faliliHliccI liy an lU-t (I'l ('. II. <•. I"), tn prnviilr
lor till' iiiiiiiiti'iiani'i' ami rcoair nt' the worlvM, ami
to levy iiNM'Hnim'iitH III! lilt' |iri)|irii'tiir>< tor llic
MiiU'< iii'ct'HMiry lo (IcCriiy llir <'X|irii'>("<. 'I'lu' vnt-
|i<iriiiiiiii I'diixiMtHiil' M «ii\('riiiir, tJ ImiliirK, '.'0 cnMHcr-
\aliirH, mill ii I'liiiiiiiniiiilly, t'iiii«i>liii^ nl' all who
piwwMH loo ami wjlliiii llir li'M'l, Till' rmiHir
valiirs arc ri'i|iilr('il to liitvc '.'oo, tlic liullilVM ami
HoMTiiiir loo each; the (illlrrri arc eleili'd
nuiiiially. Several KiiliMei|m'lit ails havi- lieeii
|la^.■<ell to explain, alter, ami aiiienil llie iiri(;liial
one; hill ilM main lUilliiieH have lieeii |iri .•,i'r\ei|,
nml I'onliiiiie In ruriil llie liaMiM nl' the piverilllielit
III' llie Ken, III lli!)7 the level >va-< iliviileil illtii
three parlM — the N., Miilille, ami S. leveli*; the
tlr>t I'liinpriseM the lamU helweeii the WellamI
ami the Nene; the xeeiiinl, those lielweeii the
Ni'lie ami Ohl lleiU'ord rivent; the lliiril exleiuls
Ironi Oil! Iteill'iiril river to the Noiitherii liniilH,
in IT'.l.'i, an ael piihxeil fur iin|iriiviii^ the oiitrall
of the Oiise, anil for niiikin^' a eiil I'miii I'.aiiliriiik
tn l.yilli ; iIiIh was not ell'eeleil till IN-JO, ami Iuim
proveil lil|{hly lienelieial. To eninnerale the
variiiiiN K'lils ami ilraiiiH that have heeii inaile al
varinlix times wmilil he teilimis nml iiseleN'', The
water, ill the rivers ami f;reut iirlilirial enis, is
imislly ahovo the level nt' the laiiils lliey piiss
thi'niiK'h, ami is ennliiieil hv eiiihankim'iits ; the
valer, Ihereliire, enlleeleil in llie similler laml-
tlraiiis anil ililehes, has to he lifleil into these
main ehannels hv |iiiinps, whicli are mnslly
wnrkeil liy wimlnnlls, lint in a few instaiires hy
hleain-en>,'iiU's. The must n cent, nml by far the
innst ellii'ieiit, iniprnvcnient llinl has heen iimile
in the ilrninn^e ami iiavif;iilinn nt' the Fens, has
lieeii ueeninplished under nets )inssei| in \H->7 nml
IH"J!I, M'nr improving the niitCnIl nf the Nene;
fnr draining the lands whieli diMclinr^e tlieir
wnters into the VVisheach river ; and for ini)iri)vin)r
the navinntion of tliut river, from Kimlerslcv cut
to the sea; nml einlinnkin^ the snlt innrshes. A
new tidal ehnniipl was eul for the disi'harjjo of
the Nene: this hejjinsahoni 11 m. helnw VVisheneli,
mill extends to Craliholo (l!^ ni.) ; thenee the
river has shuped fnr itself a natural ehnnnel (I A m.
in leii^;lli) to the Wash. The surface width of
the new eul varies frnm '200 to IlOO ft.; ils dejith,
from the surfnce nf the ndineeiit hind to tlio hed
of the stream, is '2-1 ft. tliroU(;hnut : the spriiiir
tides rise about 2'2 ft. nt the end nearest the sea,
and IH ft. where it joins Kindersley cut. A
liriilfie lins heen thrown over this channel at Sut-
ton Wnsli, H in, below Wishcach, and an cmbunk-
nient made across the snnds, fonniii}; a new nnd
safe line of road between Xorfolk nnd Lincoln-
shire. ]?et.wccn 7,000 nnd K,()00 ncres of mursli
have been reclnimcd from the sea, and broufjht
to n eiillivnted stnte by these ojierations. An un-
iiitemiittfd commiiniention with the sea from
■\Visheneli (the emporium of n larj^e ilistrict) has
been ett'ccted for small vessels at all times of
tide, and in nnv weather; and at springs, fur
large vessels; where, previously, those drawing
G ft. cnuld only rencli with a spring tide nnd
favourable wind. IJut the most important result
is the improved drainage that has been etTected,
Jii this new channel the tide ebbs nearly 10 ft.
UHEDKU
lower than in the old one, lininedin'ely npfWMii^
llie S. Ilolbiml and N. Level nIiiIii n, hIii.Ii „,,
ll iiiIi'Im fnr ihe water of iiIhmiI Ioo.oimi „,,.,, , j-
I'eii laiiil. A new loitiii drain ami aluire hiii> lu,|,
funned, lo take till' priijH'r advaiila^i- nl'ilil.; „,, |
alMo several loimir driiios. The Ni lU' lutlali ^.,,
llniHhed ill \h:\:>, a! a iukI nf -JIMSOIHI/, Tlir.lriili,
agi- of the N. Level, iimler an lul nhlnim,! m
|n:II), eiml l.'iO.OIlO/. Knlhiwiiig Ihe exaiii|i|,' „| 1 1,
aneeNlnrs, ihe lliiki' nf lledfiird liiis I,,, n |i.,
chief Hiippnrler nf hiith lliiiHe iiiiili'rlakiii|{<., wlil, h
have ri oilerid piiioplog, liihir by wind nr ttiiini,
iiiiiieri'Nsnry in Ihe N. I.evil; and priivcil, ii,,!
hy due skill ami exerliiiii, all Ihe wnliTs i.f ||,
iio|Mirtiiiil tract niiglil have an ad<'i|iitiii' im
; full crcali'd fnr Ihi'lll, The wale nf tin' |i,rin>
I liii';d prndme nf Ihe di.'<lrii'l bus lucn , ■
! ftlcililall'd bv III)' enllslrilclinu nf si'Virii! in. i
i riiihvay. Tlie Iniigcht nf ihise, llir Ii,„ i,-,,,,,
j l'elirbnriill(;ll lo Iln>tn|l, vvllli a lirailrll In S|.iu,|.
iiig. was made by llic Ureal Nnrilirrii I'luiij ,,,,,
ai'iiiig under parlianuniary powers niiiiniii'il In
|N|M. A new line nf railway, right a('ri«i \\„.
Itidfnrd Level, fmin I'elrrbnrniigh I I riiDrihv,
\\'islii'acli and Siillnii, was niiemd in IMII,'),
ltl'!l>NOltl''., a tnw'ii nf llimliistiiii, cnii, nf n
iliBtricl of Mysnre. lat. 1:1° nO' N. ; Iniig. -:fity |- .
loO m. SW'. .Seringiipaiam, IH'iO in. \VN\V. Mn
dras. It is siliialeil nil niie nf the IickI mai^ in
the \Y, (iliaiits, which leads finiii Miiii;.'ii|..r..,
When llyder Ali Innk it in I'l'^I, it w i" »iilil i,i
be H III. in eire. : it ntVnnled him ciiiii.iiiiti.'Ii|i'
pinmler. In \~M it was taken by tlie l'.ii;;li<|i;
iiiit in Ihe fnllnwiog vear the trmips in |Kih!<i'>'M»M
were eilher ilolmyeil or dislodgid by Tippno. .\i,
bis death it had but l.oOO hiiii>ics; hiiiiii' nildiiii.ni
have, however, been made to it since. lt,s trmlu
is increasing, but it has no maiiufactnrcs,
IIKDWIN (lilti;AT),a b.,r. and par. of !■ i:;'-
land, CO. Wilts, liiiml. Kimhvardstniii', iM m. W
bv S. Lniidnii. Area nf par. I0,l'2(l acrcH. I'u],.
par. •2,l'.l| in \K\\, and •2,'2(;;t in IWil. Tlio {m ,
which is <dd, stands nil an elevati'd site, mi a
chalky wiil. Its church exhibits spci iimns di
the style nf variniis eras (frnin Ihe Nnriniiii tn
Henry \'lll.),aml is a erucifnrm structiiri', i\lilia
liiU! embattled tnwer riHing from the iiitirsi'iiimi,
The market-place is in the principal slrecl ; liiit llic
market litis long been disused. Fairs arc licli!,
April '2!l, and July '2(i. The place is in the jiiri>-
diction of Ihe county niagistrntes, heiii:,' merely ;i
nominal Imrongli, with a portreeve, luiilitlii, Ac,
elected at the manor court leet. It sent Iwu iiniii,
to the imrliainents of Kdwnrd L; Ihcnei', wiili
some interruptinns. to nine Henry V., and tlii'iiii',
cniitinuniisly, till ihe li'efnnn Ai-I, liy wiiiili It
was disfranchised. There is a lliw^ relic nf Siivmi
earth-wnrk, called Chisbiry CaMle, iiliimt n iiillo
N !•;. nf f he tnwii ; it encloi es an area nfaliiuil lirtcm
ncres. Snme Komnn remains l-.ave also lici'ii fmiDil
abnut half u mile SW. of the li>wii. Dcilwiii Imsa
station on the Hnngerford hrjiii. Ii of the (iruit
Western railway, nnd the Kennel and Avmi t'lui.il
pnsses through the ]iurish, and furnislii's oitil.-.
riie living is n vicnrnge, wiili the cliapel uf I'-i-t |
Grafton annexed.
liKKDKIi, a considerable prov. of Himlnstan; |
pnrt of the Deccan ; chielK between lat. l'°iiiiil
20° N., having N. AurungaOnd nnd lieriir; K. Ily-
dernbad and Gundwana ; S. Ilyderalmd, and W.
Hejapnor and Aurungal d: it is incliiilcil inilit|
nizum's doinin., and di\ .;!ed into sevwi ili.«trirt;;
viz. Calberga, Naldn-ig, Akulcnttn, ('alli.niy,
lleeder, Nuiidere. nnd I'atiec. It is hillv liiitH'i I
mountainous, nnd watered by many riven, "f I
which the Manjern .'nid Godnvery are the clii
nnd is genernlly fcrtl.L'. It is but thinly inlmbiicil. j
III' IlimliHM I
(..Hill'.' Iii'lnr
,. iii|i.iriinM'b
iWiiuii, ,Maf
iliK |>r<iv.,nm
I, liiTi' ill llic I
i:,.'.lir. The
;,II.T III!' .Mllhl
luri' xiiImi'iiiii
lixi'il ill Ik'i'di'
.(iiiri'il it at tl
I idy ill tliu
i',l»iiy» hw'ii II
liillc'r,
Ilm OKii, A r
irnv., Ill lat. I
MV. l/yderabi
Miiiln ill an o|
; ri<lc nil grnll
liy a niipiii' wal
lire iliii'li ; has
mill WHS frirnicrl
IIKI'lf AI,.S|
lllinl. Itiilinrnllg
I.iOhIkII, I'np,
XxM iii'ri'H. Tl
liivyiiiid Taniai
N'lil (iiir (graiili
Kihlllllll'll. Silv
rri,'ll nf Kllw. I
I'Hr,-. wlini jrnpn
liny are imw ills
|in<iri|Kinn, hut
r.lill llie reign
ttiri' rcgiilarlv i
I.VIunn Act, fiy
ilii' iiiii'ii'iit chi'in
I'fllipnjil tiiinilie:
llliKKIIIIIlO.^
I.linliif liernes), a
rliiellvliclwceii l/i
i">^ u'imI hho |.;. ;
|"iri'; K. iMnnrshe
iiii'l the Jungle A
''."ril (<f|. tn. I'll
.Miu'hiifit is hill,
iiiliiiliited ; there'.
illljH'lll'H its ciilti\
mill liridgi's r.re k
'■|||ivii'is,andiis
•li««l dial und !r
""rki'il ia niitncn
M I'riitn exteiisi
|>irt,iiit prndncisni
't'jeiiiio in the ,
liif,'liway ilepredal
''('■["'".vliillehii
"'' llic judicial es
I'llitrtliit'f inwtiH
|>ir,'.
"I'^KIM.'Klif.S,
ni'irliet town nf
Miiii' ii.'llnc. I'np
[M. The Inwi '
I'l'lil'i', 7 in. XW
'■'""■''It, with some
Wi| on \ViMiilhiirv
!"«iii>fi|ays, ii.ioirt
I'li'iL'"'". fnr the SI
tiill very CDiisidera
l!i;i';S (,ST.) Ill
iwniiBit weslerh
'il»'iit 3 in. S\V. \V
l""K' 30 37' 21" \\
j"«li, rocky din's; ,
''""*• oxiiihiiin.r, I
Mvaied m ft. nbo
ke
\
si
1
p
IMIII H,Tl. ,(
I'C llUi> Ih'i II
lll'tllia', nil I
liiiHall v«i\i>
'riii'ilnuii
iililiilni'il III
:iiiii|ili' ot'liii
ll» Ix'UI llr
Uinux, wilt, h
illil nr itli'iiiii,
|iriiV('ll, lli:ii
uitrrs i.r III
llt'lllllltl- <lll,
I lie Hi^rlni.-
Iici'li ;i;ri'illl,'
rviriil liin-« "(
lit' lUio Ifiim
null til S|>nU-
urn nun) 1,1.,
rn Kiiliiiiii'il hi
;lil iicn** till'
I I I I'lKiriuy,
ill l^t'i'i.
■iliiii, I'nii. iif II
l..ii(.'.7:.«>r. T..;
11. WNW. Ml
!• llCht rillllU il!
Hill Miin;.'iil"r".
,, it w >' mill I'l
lIU ('dllMlHTillili'
ly till! Kii;ili-li ;
I'm ill iiiifM'^oi"!!
Iiy 'l"niiiiiii. At.
; HIlllU' llllllilii'lH
*iiu'i'. Itn triulii
iictiirc^.
11(1 luii'- "f '•'•'•
intiiiif, I'll 111. ^^
IllTl'M. I'll]'.
Mill. TIlclMW ,
Hti'il fill', I'll i
its s\ic(iim'iH I'l
the Ntiriiiii" ti'
striu'tiiri', Willi II
tin- iiitiwiiiiiii.
lalhtrci't; biitilii'
Fiiint lire iifj'!.
It! iH in till' jiiri^
|(<, lii'iiii,' iiK'f'l*' •'
I'Vi", liailiffK, Si'.,
lit hi'iit two num.
I.; thcnci'. Willi
•V v., mill tlii'iW'
.Vt, liv wliiili it
i- ri'lfi! of J*"'*;"'
lo, iilimit ft iiiil^'
i.ii ot'aliiiiit tilti'"
■(. also lii't'ii f'liii"'
hi. liodwiiilii":'
I. U of the (ir.at
t ami Avon I'luml
I furnislii'.'* i'i«l''
|ie clmiii'l uf 1*"' I
„. of Himl"'''™',
Li'Oii lilt. 17° a'"l
l„l Hcrur; K. Hj;
Idi'ratiad.ai"! V'
is iiidiiileil ill 'I'l'
I) seven (li^triot'il
llctta, ('iilfei'J'
It is hlU.v li""'"' I
many rivi'r-. ';!^
l.rv ari! tlu' '-I'l' •
1 tliiiily iiilmlii"^^'''
ItKKDKIl
iti. Ilimloo* U'in^ III llio Miiliniiiiiii'ilaDii a* ihrvp
I I iii'liiri' tl iiiii|iuil liy iIh' laltrr it y\m
,,„i|hiriiiiM'lv |Hi|iiiliiiii<, Tliri'i' likiiK'ii'tK''"! Ill*'
I', llii;.'ii. Miilii>r>klln. nnil < 'iiiiiiri"«', nrr xiHiki'ii in
ilii< priis., mill llM'ir iiiiiliial |Hiiiii iiriiinli {.oti'iiii'
V. iii'D' ill till' ii<'i»{lil><i<irli<Hiil III' till' |iriii<'i|>iil tiiwii,
|:,,.i|ir. 'I'Ik' llliailli'liri' ilyiuinly rri'^'lli'il liM'r
uiiirtlii' M"li't»i iii|ii>'xl, mill III her Hinall ntali'i
n,.ri' i<iiliNi'i|iii'iilly I'liiiiiili'il, mil' nl' wliicli >vik'<
lixi'il ill lli'i'ili'r IIH III!' I'lipiial. Till' Mii(;iiIn run
.iiii'ri'il it lit ill*' •'>■•) <>l' tin' I'tlii '»i<l till' iii/.Min
, irlv ill tin- l^'li •'■'iiliirvi Niiiro wliirli it liiix
iilwiiv* bci'ii in'cupicil l>y tliu Nuri't'iitiirH of tlu-
liitlr'r.
|li.;i';iiKit, n rllv of lllmloMtnti, cup. of ilip nlmvo
,,r„v., in Int. \'^ lH' N.. \>>»K. 77° HI' K. ; 7:i in.
\\V. Ilyili'raliiiil, ninl .'I'.'.'i in, KM!'',. Iliniiliiiy. It
1,'tiiili* ill ikii ii|M>ii plain, I'xri'pt. til the \'„, wlicri'
II ri'ii«ii>» Kf'""*'! li't^'iiiR n (Icrlivity ; \n I'nrlilli'il
|,v a KtiiiK' Willi, with many niiiiiil Ihwitm, ami a
lirv iliii'li; lio'* ri'iiiaiiiN of miuiii' ^ihhI Imililin^"*,
aiiil nii^ I'linin'rly tinnniiH fur it'* liiti'iia){ii(< ware.
Ill';i',lt ALSTON, 11 liiir. iif Miij^liunl, n>. |)i'Viin,
IiiikI. liiilHiniiiKli, par. JlciT Kcrrix, 211 in. \VS\V.
I lull. I'liji. iif till' par. '2,H\7 in iNi'il ; arra,
.'i.K.Vi iii'ri'K. Till' villa^i' i.>i sitiialcil liolwi'i'ti tlio
liivvniiil 'raiiiiir. I in, rrmii tli<< latter: itH inarkct
iiiiiltiiir (^raiili'il in l'.",l.'i) have Im-i'ii Imi^ ili^<>
iniiiiiiiK'il. Silvitr-lciul niiiicN wcm opi'iicil in I lie
rii.'ii iif l''.ilw. I. ciiiitiijiioim to the pliicc, wliii'li
iiwi',-. wlint iinpiirtaiicc it pusMcs.'^'il to tlioiii ; lint
liiiv lire now ilii*('iiiitiinii'il. 'I'lic lior. rliiiiiicil liy
{,riM'ri|iliiiii, lait iliil imt return niein. to the II. of
(Mill llu' rein" of Kliz,, fmni uliiili period two
wifi' rc^iiilarly eleeteil. till the pa«.'<iii;; of tin-
ilifunn Act, liy wliieli it was ilisfranclii.seil. In
till' iiiii'ii'nt I'liiiri'li are some ciirioiis nioiiiiineiits
iif Ihc iilil I'aiiiilies of Cliainperiiowiie anil Ferri'r.-i.
JII'.KIIIIIIUOM, or IIIKIKID.M ( |'imM»fn/, the
liinliil'lieriK's), niiistr. of lliiulostaii, prov. IteiiKiil,
iliii liy lictween hit. '2:1° •-'.')', ami "2 1° '.'iVN., ami loii;;.
Ml-' u'liil W>|° \'..\ haviiij,' N. the ilistr. Illiaii)^'iil-
;>iri". K. Miiorsheilaliail niid Niiddca; S. Ilurdwan
mill till' Jiiii){le MelialH; and W. Ilam^iir. Area,
:i.»rtl s(|. m. I'op. csliniated at ahoiit l,00(i,(l(M».
Miii'ii of it Ih hilly, covcri'd with jnn^'le, niiil thini v
iiilialiiteil ; there' are no iiavivcalile streams, wliif)i
iiiilH'ilcs itH rnltivation and trade; Imt the road.H
ami liriil),'es r.re kept in (^ood order liy government
niiivicts, mill its |iop, and prosperity are increasiiijjf.
IIiiihI ciial and iron ore are found; the latter is
wiirkcil ui iiiimerons native forf^es, supplied with
fiiil I'riiin exteiixive forests. 'l"he other most iin-
l«irt,aiit prudiiets are rice, siipir. and silk. The land
t'wmie in the year IN2'.t-;iO was tilil,H7)i nip.
iii;'liway ilepredatioiis are freipienf, esjieeially liy
ilu'|K'tty hill chiefs in the W. ; the head-quarters
if ilie jiiiliciiil esialilishmeiit are at Soory ; the
I'llunliicf towiiH are Naj^ore, Nooiiy, and iScram-
IIK.KlMJKiaS, or HKlMvlJKOIS, n par. and
market town of l''.ii>;laiid, ro. Dorset, liiiiid. of
mine iianic, l'o]i. of par. I,(i2l in IHlil ; of town,
1,1.111. The town is siliialed on an atlliient of the
i'iilille, 7 in. N\V. Wiireliinii. It has a ^cooil
I'lmri'li, with some nioniinients. Its annual fair,
lull! oil WiHiilhiiry Hill, INIh Sep. and three fol-
li'iviiiijilays, n,«'d to lie one of the most important
ill the CO. fur the sale of cattle und horses, and is
siill very coiisideralile.
ilKKS (ST.) III'LM), a rapr, of luifjland. Iicins
till' niiLit wt'slprlv point of the eo, of Cumlierliiinl,
alKiiit » in. S\V. "Whilt'liaveii ; Int. 5 1° .'III' .'lo" N.,
U\g. 3° 37' '21" VV. It is composed of aliriipt,
lii^li, rocky clifls; and is snrnioiiiited liy a lif;lit-
lupiLse, exliihilinfi a tixed lifjhl, having; the luiucrn
citvateil 333 ft. above high waler mark.
nKliniNd'H .STllAIT
.181)
lU'.l'.SKDW, a town of rrnisla. prm. nrindin-
liiirw:. on the Spne, IH m. S\V. Kraiikfurl on tho
O'lir. Top, 1,277 in Mtll. The town ix the nrnl
of a court of Jii'tlce, and Iwii* nmnnla'tiironf di'i'i
ami linen, Mitli lircwericN, inimerii'K, and Uine-
kiliH.
lir,l''01{T, or ni'.l.KoHT, ft town of Fram-e,
di'p, lliiiit Itliiii, Clip, arruml., on the Saviiiiri'if«e,
!W m, SSW, t'nlmar on the railwav fnun Mul-
hoiise to lli'«am;oii, I'np. H.inl in iMi;|, Winn
tliii town was cided hy .\iintria to Kraiiie, in
lillN, it was not fiiriitli'ii; Imt the iiiipnrtiini'i' of
its piisiiiiiii fur the ili'fen f tile plain to the V.,
of the VoNHi's Ih'Iiih olivioiis, works ^^^re coii-
siriicteil on a new iirinciple, liy Vaiilnin, which
niaile it a forireis ol the scioml difs. It coii',i«ti4
of two parts — the Iliiii and low town; is well
liiiili ; has lur^'c liarracks, a haiidsunie I'luirch, ii
collej,'!', a piililic liliriiry,ciiiitiiiiiiii>f 211,'iiiKviiliiines.
and a triliiinal <lf fimiiiiri- iimliiiiir, llell'orl lia-*
iron-loinidrii's, wiili fahrics of iron wire, printed
caliciH's, hills, iiaper; and is the entrepot of it
^'reat part of tlie iradi' of I'Vance with Alsace,
I.iirriiiiie, lieriiiaiiv, iiml Swit/eriaml.
IIKti (LOI'lill'), asmall lake of lr"1anil, Mlioiit
2 in. Irom the NW. corm'r of l.mc'li .Neimli, with
which it ii« coniiected liy the rivir llaiin. (Sen
I.OIIIIII Nl'AllM.)
lll''.ti.Mtl>, a town of Kraiice, dep. Cotes ilit
Noril, cap. cant,, :i iii. NW. (iiiiii^iiiinp. Top.
I,|H2 ill iMtil.
IIHII.MIAN, a town of Persia, prov. Pars, on
an e.vti'iisive and fruitful plain, alioiit :i in. I''.,
from the ruins of the am leiii citv of .Xra^nan, iind
130 in. WNW. Shiriiz. .Mr. Kiiineir says timt
the Willis are alioiit 3 m. in eirciiiiifcrcnce, and
that he was iiil'orincd liy the pivernnr that llm
pop. iiinoiiiiteil to alioiit" Kl.iMMI. It is till resi-
dence of a IIi'kIi rliei;, (Kiiincir's I'er-in, p. 72.)
ItKlllilNli'.S SriJAll", the channel which se-
piiratcs the NK rner of Asia from the NW.
eonier of America, ami which eoiiiiects ilu> N.
I'acilic with the .\rctic Ocean. It is formed, in
its narrowest part, liy two reinirkaMe lieadlanils,
the extreme )iiiiiils I-'., and W. of the cuiitiiieiits
to wliieli lliey lieloii^; (,'aiie I'rince of Wah-s, on
the American coast, in lat. (i.')° 'Hi' N., loiif;.
l(i«o l.'t' W.; and P'.ast Cape, on the shore of Asia,
in lat. li(i° Ii' N., loiij,'. Kill-' 3m' \V. The distaiico
lietween these points is alioiit 3li m. ; Imt N. and
S. of them, the land on liotli sides rapi'.lly recedes,
and, on the N. especially, it trends so sharply
that the name of strait is not very ii|>plicalil(! to
any part lieyoiid the capes in thai direction. It
is usual, however, to re;^ard it in I'Xlendiii;,' aloiij^
Asia from Tchiikotskoi Noss, in (il° 13' to Serdw
Kiiinen in (i7° 3' N., which ^jives it a len;;tli of
•ion m. : its width lietween Tchiikotskoi Niis.s
(173° 21' W.) and Caiie Uodiiey, on the o|iposito
.shore of America (l(!(i° 3' W.), is alioiit 2.")0 m.
The land on lioih sides is coiisidoralily indenled,
tho Asiatic shore especially exhiliilin^; several ex-
teii.sive and commodious Imys. as St, Lawrence,
Metchickina, and others; Imt the coiiiilry is not
of a kind to tempt iiavi;;atiirs to its coasts, which
are p'lierally steep and rocky, very liarc of w I,
and not at all nimiidaiit in other vejjelat ion. Tho
water has an equal Imt not ^i-cat depth. Cook
remarks, that on both sides of the slr.iil the
soiimlin;{s are the same, at the saiiie distance Ir.nti
the shore; that near land, be never louiid mure
than 2;i fathoms ; and by bis chart it appi'iirs that
bo iimrlivre found more th.-in 3(1. Shoal water
appears to be principally confined to the bay.s
and inlets on the Ainencaii side. There are a
few small islands scattered here and there aloii;^
the strait; und one of soiue size, >St. Lavvreiico
300
BEIIRING'S ISLAND
<ir Clerkc's ImIiiikI, Hoh at a sliort (lintancc S. frnm
itrt I'litmiico. Tlio tciiipcratiiro w low ; by iIh> end
ofAii^iiHl Iho thcnmniu'tiT Hiiiks to the fm/iiin
])oiiit, ami N. of tli«> two <'n|io» tlicrc ih alw.iys a
Htorn of ice which the lieat. of Niiinnicr is (|uite
))owcrlcHH to tliMiitTttc. Tlie strait is frozen over
every winter. l'oj;» and hazy wcallier arc very
eonunon, almost iierpetual; for thoti^^h the Hum-
mer snii is above the horizon for a very coii-
KiiU^rahle time, yet lie seliioni shines for more
than a few hours, and often is not seen for
Feveral days in succession. The animals on both
sides the strait are similar; they consist of tlie
connnon fur-bearinj; tribes and biirds of the arctic
regions, but not in f^reat numbers. A corresiwnd-
inf? similarity does not exist in the human race
on each side of the channel; the 'rdiutski
(Asiatics) are loiifj-faccd, stout, and well nuule;
Avhil'" the Americans are of low stature, with
round cludil)y faces, ami hi^h cheek bones. The
Asiatics, also, appear to possess more arts, to be
more refined — in short, to be of a superior race. On
both shores, the ]irinci]>al occupations are limiting
and lislduK, for tiie latter of which the waters are
well titled, l)eing much more aixiiulant in life than
the barren land. Whales freciucnt the strait, and
the walrus (morse) seems to be more abundant
here than in any other i>art of the world. The
Hesh of the latter creature is (it for food (Cook's
Third Voyajfo, ii. |). 1.')"), and it api)ears i)robal)le
that the natives of the coasts feed also upon the
wiiale.
ill 1728, Titus Uehrinj^r, a German in the ser-
vice of the Empress Catherine, sailed from Kam-
tschatka, in the view of discoveriuj;' whether Asia
were or were not terminated by tlie sea towards
the NK. He reached the Serdre Kuinen, and laid
down the Asiatic coast in a manner to call forth
the iinqualitied approbation of Cook. In a second
vo}'afi;e to explore the American shore, he unfortu-
nately perished under circumstances of threat
misery, liehrlng; may be considered as haviiij^
settled the fact of the existence of this strait, and
therefore it is most pro) lerly called by his name;
but the complete discovery was reserved for Cook,
who in 1788 surveyed the whole leiij^th of both
coasts, with a jirecision and accuracy which left
iiothin;^ for after voyagers to jierfonn, and which
has made the ffeoj^rapliy (jf this remote and bar-
barous region as jirecise as that of our own coun-
try. It may, perhaps, be interesting to know, that
a very old Japanese map of the world, now in the
liritish Aluseum, lays down the leading features
of this strait with suqirising accuracy. (Hiissian
Voyages and Discoveries, p. 48; Cook's Third
Voyage, p. 4H8, 4li7— 175, &c. ; iii. p. 242.)
UEIIKING'S ISLAND, a small island in the
Pacilic ; lat. 55° N., long. 1G5J° E., the most W.
of the Aleutian chaui. It is rocky iuul desolate,
without inhabitants, and only remarkable as the
place where the great navigator, whose name it
liears, breathed his last. After suffering great
liardships in his attempt to explore the coast of
America {see hat article), the scur\'y broke out
among his men, and in the attempt to return to
Kanit'-chatka, he was wrecked on this barren rock,
where was neither food, except marine animals,
nor covering, excejit line sand, in whicli the cap-
tain and crew attemiiteil to screen themselves from
the effect of a Northern winter, and ui which the
former died worn out by disease and (lisjip])oint-
ment, Dec. 8, 1741. (IJussiau Voy. and Discov.
p. 97.)
IJEILA, or BEL A, an inland town of Beloo-
cbistan, cap. jirov. Liis, on an elevated rock on
the N. bank of the Poorally, lat. 2<)° 11' X., haig.
00° 3()' E., and 5U m. >.'. of the Indian Ocean. It
' BEJAl'OOR
contains alioiit 2,000 houses, UOO of which Ijclonr
to Hindoos. Tiie streets arc iiiin-ow, hut d,"
ba/ar is neat, anil the town generally cleim an,!
tidy: on the X\V. it is protected by'a tiilcralijv
good niuil wall; elsewhere it has no exleriml dii-
fence. (I'oltiiiger's Travids, p. lit.)
IIEILAN, a town of Svria, near tho sea, !)ni
SE. Iskenderoon ; lat. 'M'P 2!)' ao" X., long. ;i(;o i;'-
E. Pop. estimated at 5,000. The houoes uri' (jf
stone, with Hat rotifs, occupy Iwitli sides <,f n monn.
tain gorge, and are so disposed that the terriui's i,f
the lower buildings serve as streets to those aliuvc.
A large stream rushes through the middle nf n,,!
town, and in winter (lascaih's j)our down on cvitv
side. A consideralde number of acpiediicts, s(inie
of them very ancient, conduct this 'ibinuliint
supply of water to the houses of the iiiiial/i.
tants.
Itcilan gives name to the mountains nnidii"
which it stands (an. Aiiiaiius), the S\V. tcnnimi"
ti(Hi of the Taurus. The summits of these nmuii-
tains are usually snow-topped ; hence the winiir
cohl is very severe, but the summer climate d,.-
lightful, and, at all times, the atmosphere is |iurc
and salubrious.
The town was formerly much frequented bv tln'
inhabitants (especially Europeans) of Aleppo and
Iskenderoon, as a refuge from the burning lioais
and iinwludesome va]iours of the jdaiiis duriii^'ilie
summer. Tlie deeUnc of these places has allVi led
Ileilan, but its natural advantages have drawn in
it a great many wealthy Turks, who lind a fiiriliir
inducement to reside here, in the fact, that, tli(iii;'li
nominally a part of the jiachalic of Aleppd, thi;
town is really governed by a sheikh, electcil liv
the inhabitants from among themselves. In \Kii
licilan was the scene of a ilecisive battle betwcm
Ibrahim and Hussein, )>achas. (Volney, ii. lij.V
I3li ; Uobinson, ii. 27'.I-28I.)
IlEJA (an. Fcuv Julia), a town of Pnrtiij;al,
prov. Alentejo, cap. Comarca, 85 m. SK. Lisliiiii.
Pop. G,275 in 1858. The town is surroiiiuicd liv
walls, flanked with 40 towers, and defended liyk
castle. It has a cathedral, a rich hospital, n Latin
school, a fabric of earthenware and taniierios.
PEJAPOOK, a large prov. of the Deccan, lliii-
dostan, comprised partly in the British dom. mid
jiartly in those of the rajah of Sattarah and the
Nizam, and containing the Portuguese torrit. nf
Goa. it extends from 15° to 18° X. lat.. and \k-
twecn 7it° and 78° E. long., having X. jiriv.
Aurungabad ; E. the same prov. and that of Hy-
derabad ; S. the Toombuddra and VViirda rivers,
and distr. of Canara; and \V. the Indian Ocean;
length 320 m., by 200 in. average bn^adth.
Its VV. districts are very mountainous, being
intersected by the W. Ghauts ; and there are nu-
merous strong hill positions on isolated eiiiineiiees,
with perpendicular sides, often crowned by tk-
tresses. The principal rivers are the Krisiiiia ur
Kistnah, Toombuddra, and Beema. The Krislnu
is remarkable as forming the boundary between
two regions in which distinct languages iiiul
species of building jirevail ; N. of that strriini
tlie Maharatta tongue is spoken, and the riMifs I'f
the ordinary houses are pitched and thatclied: >.
of its banks the Canara language prevails, iiiid
the houses arc llat-roofed, and covered with iiiiiil
and clay. The Pamooses, a tribe reseinbliiii,' ilie
lower castes of the Maharattas, with the tliievyi
habits of the Uheels, but more subdued and ei\i-
liscd, inhabit the hills joining the Ghauts in .Sit-
tarah, b(!tween Poonah on the X., Cohipuur >.,
and Bejapoor E. They are robbers by triide,
plundering the country when not kept in siilmrii-
nalioii ; addicted to hunting, and neither tilliii,'
the grountl, nor disiiosed to any lixcd or laburiew
BEJAPOOR
employ""'"'" They do not cat beef, but arc with-
out I'WtC.
\fitr the (lifsolution of tlie Bhnmencc empire of
lliu Di'ccaii, in IIM!), Adil Shnli estAliliNlieil a
,lji,„.,ty in IJcJapoor, wliifh lasted till 1 (WD, and
wiij HiiiK"!"' '" conierriiif; Hindoo titlen of diH-
liiictiiiii, which, amon^ other Mohammedan ^o-
vfriimcnU, were alwayH Arabic. It next l)ccnme
„i,„iiiially suhjeot to Aurun^zebe; then really
Milpji'ct to the iMfihnrattas: after Hufl'eriii^ all the
evils of anarchy from 1«04 to 1818, most part of
it liecamc, in the latter year, Hubjeot to tlie
llritiKh ; hut portionn of it have Hince that period
Ik'1'11 iHtai" eiitruHtcd to the rule of subsidiary na-
livi> princes.
1!k.ia1'oor {Vijayapura, the impregnnhh cUi/),
llic aiic. cap. of the above prov. under the Adil
>liiili (lynnsty, stands near the right bank of a
iriliutarv of tiie Krishna, 115 m. SK Sattarah, hit.
](fl Hi' S'., long. 75° 47' E. In 'hy b •.'....iiif,' of
the 17th century it was a city ot ^- ".1 . i.ie and
jirciiKtl' ; '^"* "* present it consists merely of an
iiiimeiiso number of mosques and other public
liiiililiiigH, many of which are in a state of partial
(liciiy; anda scanty populati<m scattered among
iliiif niins, and occupying miserable huts. ' As
ilii' traveller approaches the city from the N., the
jTiiit dome of Mahomed Shah's tt)mb is discerned
Irmii the village of Kunnoor, 14 m. distant. A
iitiiriT view gives the idea of a splendid and po|)U-
Iciiis metropolis, from the inmimerable domes and
v|iiri's and buildings which meet the eye.' ' On en-
loriiif;, the illusion vanishes; jungle has shot up
ill the partly obliterated streets, anil the visitor
iiiav now lose himself in the s(ditude of ruins,
hIiItc crowds were formerly the only impediments
III a free passage.' It comprises an outer fort, or
iilil city, and an inner fort or citadel, partly en-
closed by, and lying E. of, the former : the space
Iftween'the walls of these two is said to have
lurii sufficient for the encampment, in 1089, of
l.i.iiiK) of Aurungzebe's cavabrj'. The walls (if the
iiuier fort are 8 m. in circ, and but little dilapi-
(lateil, though the outworks be in great part de-
simyed; the inner fort, on the contrary, is fast
onaiibling away. The olil city (besides a stone
tear, its only frequented spot) c(«itains the
ninusoloum and mosque of Ibrahim Adil Shah,
liiiilt on a basement 130 yds. long, by 52 yds.
liroail, covered by an immense dome raised (m
arelies, and so elegant as to bear a favourable com-
|iiiri»un with the most celebrated Mogul sepul-
tlirts of Upper Hindostan. This structure, as
well as others in IJejapoor, is distinguished by
rich overlapping cornices, and small minarets pe-
culiar to this place, and terminating in a gh)be or
liiiinacle, instead of the open square turrets com-
iiiim in the N. of India. The inner fort, the S.
imlLs of which bound IJejapoor in that direction,
iiicliises the ruins of the palace, the great mosque,
an imposing edifice in good re|)air, the celebrated
inausuleuni of Mahomed Shah, and a multitude
of uther tombs and mosques. Sir James Mackin-
tosh, who visited this city, says, that the elaborate
stonework in some of these is exquisite, and not
siiqiasscd by that of any cathedral he had ever
sci'ii. Here, also, is a low Hindoo temple, the only
huilding of the kind in or about Bejapoor , it is in
tlie earliest and rudest style of art, and popularly
lliouj;ht to have been raised by the Pundms (a
inytlidldgical race) : the militiiry Khajoos {treu-
mi/) has massive stone chains cut out of solid
Uocks 8HSi)endcd from its angles. Excepting the
palace, little wood having been used in tlic con-
structiou of the public buildings, they arc in tole-
rable preserwUion. Two))arallel streets (one nearly
3 m, long and 50 ft. wide, paved throughout and
BEiin
391
regularly built), intersect the inner city, the most
nopulotiH |)art of which adjoins the great moscpic.
Miul hovels are stuck up here and there among
the ruins, but the space within the walls is mostly
a wilderness covered with grass and shrubs. Thero
are here some enormous l)rass guns, formerly be-
hinging to the fort, one of which would re(juire a
ball weighing •2,(>4t> lbs. For 5 m. W. of the fort
the country is stuihled with ruins, chiefly Moham-
medan tombs. (Mackintosh's Memoirs, 2nd edit,
i. 4(i;i.)
IJliJAIl, a fortified town of Spain, prov. Sala-
manca, 18 m. S. Salamanca. Pop. 1(>.()8;1 in 1857.
The town is distinguished by its woollen niaini-
factures, which have been much improved and ex-
tended since 1824. It is also famous, throughout
Spain, for its hams. There are mineral waters in
the neighbourhood. A lnrg<! fair is lu !d here oa
the 25tli Sept. and the two following days.
BEJETSK,a town of Russia in Europe, gov.
Twer, cap. district, on a lake near the Mologa, <12
ni. NNE. Twer. Top. 3;2!>0 in 1858. It is an old
town, of sombre aspect, with thirteen churches and
two convents.
BKIIiA, a prov. of Portugal, which see.
BKIT-EL-FAKIH (vulg. Beetkfackie), a town
of Arabia, cap. of, and giving name to, one of the
six depts. of the Tehama of Yemen Proper, about
100 m. ESE. Loheia, ami i)0 m. N. Mocha; lat.
14° ar N., hnig. 4;to 23' K. A large and strong
citadel (the residence of the dola), and a mosqvu',
arc the only public buiUliugs, A few of the houses
are of stone ; but the majority are mere huts of
wicker-work or clay. It is unwalled. There is
no account of the pop. ; but it may, perhaps, bo
estimated at from 7,000 to 8,000. It Is the groat
centre of the cotTee trade of Yemen; the berries
are brought from the neiglibouring mountains half
a day's journey distant ; the best in May, but tho
general supjdy is almost constant throughout the
year. The ports of Loheia. llodeida, and Mocha
are supplied from hence (the last taking annually
about 22,000 tons) ; in addition to which, caravans
from El-Hedjaz, Oman, Persia, Syria, Egypt,
&c., resort to the town, in which merchants of
almost every trading nation are settled. All pur-
chases are made for ready money.
Beit-el-Fakih (that is) honse of a saint), derives
its origin and name from a famous sheikh, whose
tomb in this neighbourhood became an objeei, of
veneration ; and to whose memory an annual fes-
tival of three days is observed, during which mi-
racles are sometimes said to be performed. The
town, which rose in consequence of pilgrimages to
the tomb, gradually drew to itself the collee trade,
which before had centred in Zebid, a town about
20 m. to the S. (Xiebuhr, Descr. de I'Ar. 107,
198 ; Voy. en Ar. i. 253-25(!.)
BEiril, a town of Scotland, in the co. of Ayr,
!) m. SVV. Paisley. Pop. 3,420 in ISOl, of whom
1,051 males and 1,769 females. The town is plea-
santly situated on a rising ground ; and has grown
into importance since the early part of last century.
It was at one time famous for its maiuifacture of
linen ; it was afterwards no less eminent in the
department of silk gauze ; but cotton has of late
constituted its staple manufacture. It has also
two Hax and three com mills. A great nund)er of
the female inhab. are engaged in tambouring and
flowering muslin for the markets of Paisley and
Glasgow. The line of thetilasgow. Paisley, Kil-
marnock, and Ayr railway passes through the town.
In the neighbourhood are (puuTies and mines of
limestone, freestone, ironstone, and coal.
The parish of Bcith, which borders on that of
Dunlop, is famous for its dairies; and the one
parish produces as much of what is called UtiiiLip
302
LEKES
diccHO 08 llio other. Ik'ilh ImHa town lioiisc, liiiilt
l)y siib.scription, a parish churcli, niul two disHeiit-
iti^ chnpelH, two branch haiikH, ami a uubMcription
lihrnry.
nKKKS, a town of Hungary, cap. of an oxton-
Bive CO. of ihn Knmc name, at tlic coiilhii'ncc of thn
IMack and White Konw, 40ni. SW. Grosuwunlein ;
lat 'Kio 4()' Ui"N., hms.'iio 7' iU" K. I'oi). ^((.l.W
in IH57. The town has tlirce cluircliPH, and at'on-
8idcrul>Ic trade in cattle, corn, ond wine, the ])ro-
•luce of the surroiniding country. TIutc im, cIohc
to the town, a Htntion on the railway from I'chth
to Arad. The jjhicc was formerly forthied.
nKLAT.CAZAU, a town of Spain, prov. Cor-
dova, 4H m. NNW. Cordova. Pop. 4,420 in IMfi".
HKLASl'OOH, on inl. town «if N. lliiidostan.
rap. of the Caldorc rajah, on the left bank of the
Siitlejo, 1,4(55 ft, above the level of the wa ; ISOni.
N. Delhi, 300 m. NXVV. Agra; hit, 31° 19' N.,
long. 7(i°45' K. The town has about i?,0(l() houses :
it is rcgnlarly built ; the houses of stone, cemented
with morlAr, and the strcc-l.s roughly j)pved. 'I'he
Sutlejc is here about 100 yards broad, when its
waters arc low(!st. In 1H22, this town, with the
rest of the Caldore territory, devolved to the
liritish government, on the ilcath of its previous
Bovereign.
IlKLIJKIS, a town of Lower Kgyi)t, on the most
AV. arm of the Nile, 2'J m. N K.Cairo. It was
occupied in 1798 bv Nap(deon, wlui repaired its
fortilicationa; but tfiey are now of little impor-
tance, the walls consisting chielly of mud. It is
ill built, has several nioscpics, and its pop. has been
estimated at 6,000. It is sujtposed by D'Anville
to occupy the site of the ancient Pharbmtus ; but
the preferable opinion seems to be that the si'c of
Pharbu'tus is identical with Ilorbegt. IJeUwis is a
place of considerable importonce, from its situation
on the road to Sj'rio.
IJELCASTKO, a town of Southern Italy, jffov.
Catanzaro, 15 m. NK. Catanzaro. Pop. !J,9-I2 in
lUtJl. The town is situated on a rock, is the sent
<tf a bishopric, has a cathedral, a diocesan senii-
narj', and a mont tie pii'-ti: Large quantities of
cattle are bred in its vicinity.
lU'vLIi^M, a suburb of Lisbon, which see.
HKLFAST, a sea-port town and pari. bor. of
Ireland, cos. Antrim and Down, prov. Ulster, at
the confluence of the Lagan with Carrickfergus
IJay; 102 m. N. Dublin, and 78 m. SK. Lon-
donderry. At a very early period Belfast was
known as a fortified station, and on the aiTival
of the English it was further secured by the erec-
tion of a castle, of which, however, no trace now
exists. It owes its present importance to its com-
merce and manufactures, which have raised it to
Ihe first rank among the great marts of Ireland.
The town comprises an area of 5,<J87 stat. acres,
whereof 4,i{ IS are in Antrim, and 1,HI9 in Down.
The population has very rapidly increased in the
course of half a centurv. It aniounte<l to 37,277
in 1821 ; to 58,287 in 1831 ; to 75.308 in 1811 ; to
100,301 in 1851 : and to 121, 1)02 in 18()1. The
census of 18(!1 showed 55.842 males and (!5,7(!0
females. The same returns stflted the total num-
ber of families to ix; 24,981 , of whom only 308 were
engaged in iigriculiure, while 10,951 were eni-
]i!oyed in trailcs and mauufactiu-cs, and 13,722 hi
otl)i'r |)ursuits.
'I'hough lying low, a great portion of the town
not being more than I't. abovi' high water mark, '
it is very healtliy. The town is about 12 m. from
the sea, at (he inouth of the IjMgan, which bounds
it on the SK., and Hows innnecliately into Holliist
Lough, which is 12 m. in length, and 5 in lireadtli
at the entrance, gradually inirrowing as it aji-
proaclics the town. The river Lagan, which scjia-
BELEAST
rates the COS. of Antrim and Down, is crossed liv
three briilges and two boat ferries; the t^iicon's
bridge, built of granite, on the site of the (dii
long bridge, which h-ul twenty-one arclio», is „
sphtudid structure ; ;(1 Ormeau bridge, nf f,,iir
arches, opened in 18((3, at a cost of 17,()()0/., j, ^
magnificent work. The houses, mostly of nimli.ni
constructi<m, are of brick; the streets arc wid,.
airy, well paved ami tlagged, clean, and lii'luci
with gas. I'nucipul ecclesiastical buililiiij;s tiii'
parochi'il church, wiih a tower of the Ionic order-
St, (leorge's Church, or chapel of ease, with a vcn"
line portico, and Christ Church : it 1ms in all |'|
places of worship for the adherents of the K,<ii|.
hlished Church ; 1 Homan Catholic clmpols; ji
Presbyterian places of worship, one of very elcj^ani
arc4iitecture ; 3 meeting-houses for Unitariiiiis ; :j
for Covenanters ; 1'2 for Methodists; 2 for linic.
l)eudents ; and 1 for (Juakcrs. The inhahitnniM m
very nearly e<|iuilly divided between the time
forms of worship jirevalent in Ireland — the Ksta-
blished, the I{oman Catholic, and the Preslivtcriau
('hurch. According to the (census of ISti}, tlicri'
were 14,151 males and 15,929 females Ixdon.'iij.r
to the Established Church; 18,285 males "nnd
23,121 females adhering to the Roman Catiiidii-
faith; and 19,859 males with 22,745 females re-
turned as Presbyterians. There were, Iwsidis,
4,94(i Methodists'; 323 Independents; 230 Ita]^
lists; 202 (Juakers; and 1,800 ))ersonsadiierln{,' In
other forms of religion. Only 1 1 individuals, |o
males and I female, were returned as Jews.
Of the educational establishments, the ])riiiH|i,il
is (Queen's College, foimded mider the 8 it !l \w\,
c. fit), and oj)ened in 1M49. It is divided into Fa-
culties of Arts, Medicine, and Law, and has a
president, vice-i)resi(lent, and 20 jirol'essors. I'li-
pils of all religious denominations are admitted.
It has 30 junior suholarships of 21/. each, ainl 10
seniok do. of 40/. each. Professors' fees vary friDii
50s. to 30». for each class for the season." The
building, in the Tudor style, comiirising a niiisiuui
and library, is outside the town, adjacetit to tlm
Botanic Gardens. The Koval Acadeinica! Instim-
tion originated in a subscription of the inlmliilanis
in 1807, by whom a fund of above 25,0l)(i/. was
raised for the erection of the biuldings, and \\k
endowment of professors and teachers. It was
aftcnvards incor|H)rated by act of parliament, ainl
receives an anmml parliamentar}' grant of l.lliHi/.
It consists of a cidlegiate or higher, and of a mli-
ordinate or elementary department. In the lir^t,
the professors of natural philosojihy, moral pliilu-
sopliy, logic and belles-lettres, anatomy and pliysi-
fdogy, mathematics, church history, Ileiinnv, anil
(Jreek and Latin, receive animal salaries of l.jn/,,
besides students' fees ; two professors of diviiiiiy
receive 100/. each, wth fees; while the prcd'c.-snrs
of chemistry, midwifery, materia mcdica, siir^jirv,
botany, and biblical criticism, are left to (!o]i(ii I
on fees only : in the school depnrt..icnt. tlierc are
classes for Latin and Greek, mathematics, Knirlish,
.ind French. The number of ])iipils in both divi-
sions amounts to about 400. The Helfast aciidcinv,
founded in 178(!, co)n)>rises an assemblage (d' hij,'ldy
etlicient classical, mathematical, and otiicrsci k
There is also an extensive Lancastrian sclii«'!.
Among other literary and scientilic institiitiurs,
supported by the contributions of the monilurs,
are the Society for Promoting Knowledge, I'duii'lil
in 17.S8, with"a library of about lO.fMlli v(ds.: \h<-
Literary Society, for the discussioiKd' suhjccisnf
general literature, science, and art, founded in
1801 ; and the Natural History Society, foiimii'l
in 1821 : the meetings of this institution are Ik!!
in a handsome building, erected at the cost uf ilie
yubscribers, who have also fornicil a large hi'iaui,'
BELFAST
393
ciirilcn near tlic town, Deirnst hns four puljlic
ncws-nKmiH, ftiid tea iie\VH|iuj^ m, wmie of which
lire iilily c(imliii:t«l. The {general state of cihica-
tidii (W nhowii ill the cciihuh returiiH of 1«(»1, is
iK'Vcrthelesi* not very fuvournble. JCnunii-ralinj,'
nil tliB intliviilimlH live years olil and npwanls, tlie
nlurns nivf- H'2,v!l2 males ami '2H,H77 females as
UiiiL' able botli to read and wTite ; wliile there
wire f*.'!"-' niiiles and l«,.')03 females aide to read
„iilv and ",lit'-' males with 11,231 fenialca who
tiiu'li'l neither read nor write.
Tlic iMxT honse, for the Tcception of aged and
iiilinn i)ani)ers and destilute ehihlren, a larj^e
l,iiil,|iiijr, ill nn elevated situation at the N. cx-
,„,n,i(y(if tlie town, niain<ains ahout 700 inmates,
(if wliiim those capable ol work are employed in
uscl'iil manufactures, or tu its domestic arrniifjfe-
iiiriitH. Attached to it are useful medical and
Hip'ii'ftl hospitals. The house of industry is now
jmiKPcdetl l)y the nnion workhouse, esiablished
unilcr the new poor law'. The fever hospital,
with II ilisjiensary attached to it, has acconnnoda-
limi Ibr !i"iO patients, and an annual income of
alnmt l.(MM)/. A lying-in hospital is maintained
liv pill ilic subscription. The district lunatic asylum,
|'('ir the COS. of Antrim and Down, and the town of
Ciirrickferfr»is, situate about 1 m. from the town,
ill nil enclosed area of 33 acres, has uccommoda-
liiiii for 250 inmates. The new deaf and dumb
ii.*vliiiii is an elegant building. There are also
m female penitentiaries. The only jdaces of
nnmsemcut are a theatre, occasionally oi>ened for
ilriimiitic j)erformancos, and u suite of rooms in the
Idiiimerciftl Uuildings for balls, assemblies, and
CHiiccrts. The excliange, erected by one of the
Jliirqiiiscs of Donegal, is now used only for the
clcctiiui of magistrates, and other corjiorate jiitf-
]Kiscs. Adjoining the town arc barracks for iu-
fiuitry and artillery.
llclfiist was incorporated bj' James I. in 1613.
Uiiiler the late act, it is governed by a mayor, ten
iillermeii, and thirty councillors. The borough
rfliiriicil two members to the Irish jiarliament : at
tlic Union it obtained leave to send one member
to the H. of C, and in 1H32 the Heform Actagahi
I'oiifcrred on it the privilege of returning two
members. The right of election, which had been
|ircviou8ly conlined to the memlK'rs of the corpora-
turn, was'at the same time given to the 1 ()/. house-
liiilders, and, later, to HI. rated occupiers ; and a
ni'W anil somewhat more extended boundary was
liiiil down for elective purposes. The pari, con-
fiituency, in DSCl, consisted of 8,503 registered
(lectors, (ieneral sessions for the co. arc held
liwe four times a year : there is also a court of
rcciird fiiv pleas of debt to the amount of 20/. ; a
niiiiior court, a court leet, and a lietty scifsions
cmirt twice a week. The town is a constabulary
stiHiiin, and is the residence of the stipendiary
ma!,nstrate for the county. The properly and iii-
fiiiiie tax for the year ended otb April, IH(>3,
aniouiiteil to 3r),741/. The valuation of property
ill IStIO was 270,!)30/., and in 18()3, 2iK),H3;i/. Tlie
jHilice and borough rates in 18(13 amounted to
aliout 32,(M)0/. The assizes are held here; also
iliiarter sessions, and daily petty s(}ssions, at
wliieh the mayor presides. The jwiving, lighting,
mill cleansing are vested in a |)olice conmiittee,
I'liiiseii by the town comicil.
l!ell'a.st is the nucleus of the Irisli linen mauu-
fiii'tiire, and the country spinners iind manufiic-
tiircrs meet those of the town on Friday in the
('"imncrcial liuildings, which is the public ex-
clmnjjc. This trade is now in a liourishing coii-
(litirni, and r;ipidly increasing. The other cliief
liraiiehcs of industry are linen and cotton weaving,
iron tbuiiding on nn extensive scale, and blench-
ing. Tliore are also print works, (Itnir mills, rhe-
micftl works, oil mills, alabaster and barilla mills,
saw mills, breweries, distilleries, several tan-yards,
patent felt manufactories, tlax-steeping work's, K(!.,
five large ship-yards, with two patent slips, niui
yards for manufacturing ropes and sail-cloth.
There is nn iron-ship building yard on (jiu'cn's
Island, employing 1,200 hands, "from which has
been launched sonic of the linest ships alloat.
Markets on Friday, besides daily markets for do-
mestic purposes.
The incroasc of trade and commerce has kpi>t
pace with that of manufactures. The situation of
the town — nt the bottom of (Jarrii-kfergns Hny —
has made it the chief mart for the circulation of
foreign prodin^e through the most ))opulons ami
wealthy portion of Ulster. To improve this ail-
vant;ige, a line of inhiiid navigation was eoni-
menced in 1 7«7, to connect the town with Lough
Xengh, partly by still water and partly in the bed
of the river; but the unavoidable casualties at-
tending this latter mode of conveyance have so
retarded the progress of the vessels employed in
it as to render it comjHirativcly useless, and tlie
inland trade has in recent times been nujstly car-
ried on by railway.
The lirst line of railway from the town, the
Belfast and Bullymena, now called the IJelfast
and Northern Counties railwav, was opened on
the 11th of Ajiril, 181H. The ISelliist and (.'ouiity
Down line was o)iened, in its lirst |)ortii>ii, to
ll(dywood, on the 2nd of August, IS 18, and in its
completed state, on the 3rd of June, 1«()1. The
llelfast, llolywood, and Uniigor railway w;is
opened in February, 18i!5 ; and the IJelfast (Vntriil,
incorjiorated July 21, 18(>1, and intended to
connect all the other lines, is to be opened in 18li!>.
All these raihvays, together with regular steam-
boat communicatiun with (Jlasgow and Liv(;r-
pool, have greatlv contributed to raise the trade
of Helfast,
Previously to 1037 Belfast was a creek of the
port of Carrickfergus ; but the privileges of the
latter having been,i)urchased in that year by the
crown, the custom-house was transferred to Bel-
fast. The bay is |)eculiarly favourable to the
jiurposes of commerce, being safe and easy of
access. Large vessels formerly lay at the pool
of Garmoyle, about 4 m. from the town. But the
channel thence was so much deepened and im-
jiroved in 1810, that vessels drawing 10 ft. water
reach the quays at neaps, and those drawing
18 ft. at springs. The superintendence of the
harbour is vested in the Ballast Corporation, es-
tal)lishe(l under an act jiassed in 1831, which
gives it large powers towards the improvement
of the quays and harbour.
The commerce of Belfast is extensive ; in 1 8(J I
the im])orts weren]>wards of 10,000,000/., and the
exjiorts alnmt 8,000,000/. The number of vessels
entered inwards from foreign parts in 1803 was 318
— tonnage, 87.10 1 ; and cleared outwards 100 —
tonimge, .30,320. In 180-1 there entered the port
from foreign coimtries 130 British vessels, of a
total bunien of 24,390 tons ; and 1 95 foreign
ves.sels, of an .aggregate burden of 34.020 tons.
There cleared outwards, in the same yeiir, 21
Hritish .ind 21 foreign vessels, the I'oinier of a
total burden of 3,958, and the latter of 7,5'.l.'>,
tons. On the 1st of January, 1805, there be-
longed to the jKirt of Belfast 153 sailing vessels
under 50, and 320 sailing ves.sels above 50, tons;
besides 11 steamers, of an aggregate tonnage of
1,305.
The following table shows the quantities of
llie |>riiicipal imports and exports for 1802 anil
1803:—
304
BELl'AST
linimrK
K>|M>rla 1
ArtUlM
1809
I80S
1861
18)13
Alt! iiml I'lir- 1
7a!1.17(!
7.10,182
—
—
lllicnii , owtH.
h:i,h.||
l.'i2,00!t
88,271)
H(i,000
Hurley , toim
1,(17.'.
1,8.'. 1
.'.I
10
lli'iiiiM . tniiH
428
401'
Href . fwtH.
1 ,:.7!t
2.000
M),iM\
.10,7110
llriiiidy . Ki'll"-
lll.liUI
I8,!)H8
-- 1
llutlrr .cwtH.
120.20'i
117.04:1
t'littlu . Ili'iul
—
—
80,!t00
7.'.,li:lO
CdlU . tllllM
4;iH,:l!):i
441,442
—
„ 1
('(illDHS mull
MllHllllH.llkH. (
1H,7(;!»
1(!,.'.24
14, CM
1!),4!)4
CottollWlH'lllw
1)00.141
08:1, l:i(!
—
- 1
l''llt . tllllH
"
_.-
II.IIIO
11.817
KIlIX . tilHH
io,miri
(1,200
;.,1I7
0,084
KluXtK'Pll tiPllH
:il!i
2(i.'>
V,:,
(120
Kloiir . tons
in,.s(io
(1,210
1,402
1,018
lluaiiu . tons
l,n|<i
1,740
— \
llimm . c'wis.
•2.i,\r,:\
ri;i,82l
»;i,04.'i
120,7(18
llcrriuHH lirls.
I7.'.>0I
l(i.:i(i:l
—
-- 1
lliiU'.'* IiiiikIIcs
l»,-jv.t
18,l.'.(;
20,1)48
21),!)0(i
ImlluuCorn '
Urns.
41,017
42,(i.'.0
—
—
Iron . tons
l!),71i>
l(i,!);i8
—
—
Ore tons
11.202
!».2o:i
l.anl , c'wts.
;i'.'..M 1
41,(181
21,8;17
2.1, .'.1(1
1,1'jillicr liiilcs
4.I1!!.-.
4,017
-
- ■
Mncn . yils.
:i,7i! 1,(1110
4,018,000
(1.1,08(1,000
7a,47.'..ooO;
Miu'liincry tns
!l|4
1,2114
1,214
1.48:i!
Oiitnu'iil tons
—
—
2,471
2,100'
():itM . tons
—
2,2r.8
1 ,420
Oil , ei'ii".
'.'!)!»,!)8()
32(l,(lilO
—
—
IMk's
-
_
10.114
U>,7fl(l
I'ork . owls.
—
2:1,8(10
]8,:i(lir
Potiitors tons
7(iJ
801
4.(17(1
1 ,0-'(li
UiiV's . tons
—
—
1,8110
1,(102
Ivuni , (Tiills,
•.'0,:ilin
24,:illO
—
—
Suit . tons
—
—
87.''.
30(1
Sodii , tons
4,f.(iH
0,8.-,0
—
—
Stanch . cwts.
—
—
;i0,220
41,380
Snuiir . owts.
2(11,(110
27.'.. no
—
—
Tiillow . c\vt.s.
fi'.',4!l!»
/..'..llll
■ '
—
•Pi'ii . lbs.
•-•,(101, .Ml)
2,800,7 i:l
41,808
4.'.,87(1
'riiroivl . lbs.
—
—
1,128,900
l,183,.'il«
■riMibor . loiuls
l(i.:!(12
Id. .107
—
—
'robiicco lbs.
»'.'4,8!lti
920,080
, —
—
'I'ow . tons
—
—
1.100
8.1:1
Wlii'iit . tons
r.4,42fl
4:i,!)7.'>
7,;io;!
3,811
Whisky khIIs.
;i.l'.>,:i:i:)
r.2ll.410
147,0(11
201,1.12
Wino . Kails.
l(>.'.,(i48
lf>!),8:.2
—
—
Wool . lbs.
—
—
177,120
18.1,280
Yam, Linen „
(!,4'.>0,400
.'1.787,(100
1. I ,(1,8.1 .(100
20,(i22,.1(iO
Cotton „
2.417,250
2,170,0.00
f);j:i,(i40
(11)0,4.10
Til tlia nppoar.inpc of the town, nml in the
Iniliits of the iH'ojile, the character of IJeH'a.st is
jiinio.st exclusively I'onnncrciulaiid inaunfuetnrinf;,
Tlierc are in it few of tlie liiiidetl arisiocracy; it.s
hijfher ehisses arc formed ehielly of those who
liave attained an elevated |iositi<.n in society by
their jiersonal exertions, or llio.se of their iiiinie-
diate ])ronenitor.s. There, is, therefore, little of
external show, but nnich of intenial comfort, in
their d(>niestie arrangements. The middling
classes enjoy all the comforts, and many of the
luxuries of civilisalion ; the workinj^ classes have
siitVered less from the iiressure of distress, arisiiifj
from temporary stoppafAcs of trade, or manufac-
tiiriii}; employment, than those of most of the
other ureat towns similarly circumstanced: on
the whole, there is to be seen here little of the
aspect of destitution which marks the suburbs of
most other Irish toAvns. The otlicial and other
documents, which h.ave sui)plied the data alreaily
given, slu.w, by a review of it.s condition at dif-
ferent jieriods, that it is stciulily and rapidly ad-
vniicin;;' in nianul'acturini,'', commercial, and
literary improvenu'iil.
lti.;i,FAsr, « sea-jiort town of the U. States,
Maiiie, on the IsW. angle of I'eiiobscot Day,
UKLOIUM (KINOBOM OF)
221 ni. NH. UoHton. Top. 7,0,V2 in IHC.l), It 1,11,
tin excellent harbour, ami is a thriviiif; town.
l(l',l.l''C)|{l), 11 market town and par. of V,])f(.
land, CO. Northumberland, llandiorouf{li wiml.
The par. I'oiitaiiiH '.),.'IH() acres, and liiul |,72|
inhab. in INtil, and (he town, l,()(>7. The lattir
is linely Hilnaleil on the ni'cKt •'"•ad from Vurk in
Kdinbnr^h, and has a siatioii on the Newiustlv
and Iterwick railway.
III'lLtiAlil), a town of rrn8sia,i)niv. ronicrnnia,
cap. circU', l(i in. SSW. Coeslin. Pop. l.ll.VJ in
\H{\i, 'I'he town is situated at the coutliu-nciMir
the I.eitnit/, with the I'ersante, and is ahnost en-
tirely surronmled by water. It has an old cibtlc
.'I churches, 2 hospitals, and fabrics of clotli,
liKKtiAUiM, an iiil. town of lliudostiui, |iri,v,
llejaiioor, presid, lloinbav, dislr. Darwar, in hsiiiiiII
subdivision of which il is the capital, 10,') m,
S\V. Ilejapoor, a,j in. N\V. Darwar; lat. I.")°rj2' N.j
h.iij;. "1° 12' I'".. Po^i. estimated at K,(loo. || i,
str(Oif;ly fortilied. with nia.ssive and solid walls,
ram|iarls Hanked by bastions, a broad ami dci'ii
ditch, and is surrounded by an esplanade. Its
interior is extensive, but covered with niiiis uf
native buildings, anion;{st which are two aiu'icnt
temples. This town is w(dl siiiiplied witli whIit,
and held out aj^^aiiist the Itritisli hxi^er than anv
other fjarrisoiied by the peishwa's forces; it was
however, taken in IHI.S. Th(> subdivision nl'
llelKiinm has a healthy (dimale; but idl eMenial
tnule is stopped for six months a year liy tlic
violence of the rains. A third jiart of the inlial..
are Maharallas. and about one-sixth Molianoia.-
dans, one-eighth Jains, and one-niiilli Itraloiiins.
ItKI.tiKliN, a town of l'riis.-<ia. prov. Saxdiiy.
on the l'".lbe, 7 ni. SK. Torf;au, 011 the railway
from llerlin to Dresden. I'op. ;i,2li2 in iS'ii.
The (own is very nncient, has a hospital, ami a
town-house, before which is a trium|ilial coluinii.
It has some trade in corn.
JJKLOIOJO.SO, a town of Northern Italy,
prov. I'avia, ca]!. distr., '.) ni. E. I'avia, and il
111. SSK. Milan. Pop. il,(ili» in 18(!2. The b.wu
is situated in u fruitful plain, between the I'liaiid
the Ohaia; it is well built, has a innnmlici.iit
atpiednct, and a line, castle, in which Francis I.
spent the night subseipient to (he battle of I'avia.
IlKI.tUr.M (KlNtiDOAl OF) is situated k-
twcen F' ranee and Holland, and has been esia-
blished since the separation of its provinces from
(hose of Holland by the revtdiilion of l.^liO. is
territory is small as compared with the p-cat
European states, being only about one-ei^'liili el'
that of (ireat ISritain, while its ]iopulati(.n is
not nearly live millions. However, the iin)i(iri-
ant posi(i<.n which (his country has oeciipied in
the political, military, conmu'rcial, and ft,i;riciil-
tural history of Europe — its former celeliriiy in
inamifact ures and the line arts — and its present
rapid progress in every industrious jmrsuii ami
social imiirovenient, give it a iiecnliar interest.
Edtcitt. — Boundurivs. — Arm. — ludgiuni ex-
tends from 4i)0 27' to h\° Hi' Js'. lat. and I'n.in -P WT
to (i° E. long. On the N. the boundary line is
formed by Holland, along a line of .'iH(),(IO0 metres;
on the E. by Prussia, J{77,(I00 metres; ontlieS.liy
France, .^)!)iy(IO() metres; and on the E. by the
North Sea, tID.OOO mede.s.
The general outline of the lerritorj' forms a tri-
angular ligure, of which the longest side extcnth
on the frontier of F'rance, from a point midway
between F'urnes and Dunkirk to one t) 111. SL el"
Arlon, or b V.. from Loiigwy. 'J'he greatest leni;iii
of the territory t.f lielgiuni from N\V. to ISK. is
(!t leagues, of ■'),0I)0 metres, about ISI.'i Enj,'lisli
miles ; and the grciitest breadth from NK. to SW.
is 12 leagues, or about 127 miles. The whole area
fwitnins 11,313 Engl. sq. m.
BKLGIUM (KINODOM OF)
or 7,3(Ja,U«2 KiikI.
lUTW.
riio kiiifftlotn con.slMts of nine proviiuws — Aiit-
Bcni ii» till' N., KnNt niid WcHt Fliiiulem nii<! Ilai-
iiHiilt ill till- \\'., Mrulmiit in lliu (■(intri', Liinbiir^
aiiil I<i<%'v '" ''"' ''"• ^'"■■■»*' ■<> ('■<' •^•1 'tii'l I'Ux-
,mliiir>f '11 '1'" '^''^ 'I'l"'''*' fomn-rly roiiHtiliitud
the iliicliv of llrnlmiit, tlin iniir((iusul(Mif Aiilwcr)),
tlicpriii('i|)ulitvof Liryi', llu!HiMf;iU'uri(!of Mffliliii,
ihr iioinU'!* of* l''laii(l(TH, Ilniimiilt, Loiivniu, and
Niinnir, and tin: dncliics of hindiurg and Lnxcni-
Imii. At the tinn'. of the Itiflgio revolnlioii, in
\KW, tliK nine provineeM of Kel^iuni f'tirnied, in
tciiiiuiK'tlon with tlioHo of Holland, the kingdom
(if I'lic Netherlands, which hy that, event was dis-
yiilvcil into the present kingdoniH of llolluiid und
D('l|,'iiini.
llninNclH is the capital, and seat of government,
fdf tiic nilniinistralion of which the kingdom is
iliviilc'il into the SI provinces ahove ennnieritled, 11
iirrdiiiiinsi'menlH, 98 towns, and 2,(ill) rural ciim-
iiiiiiics. For military pnrjioses it is divided into !(
(■iiiiiiimndcres, corresponduig to the 1) jmivinces:
,iiul, liistly, for judicial imiccediiigs, it is divided
iutii '-'!' iirrnndisseineuts, and '2.'(7 (lantoiis.
Gtinriil Aniurt of the Coiinln/. — The north and
wpst prcivinccs of V.elgi.oii, in their tialness, fcr-
lilitv, ilyUcH, and canals, may be regarded as a
('iiiiiiiiiiiitiiin of Holland, This portion of the
liiiyil'ini is HO densely peoph^d, that it jirescnts lo
Ik iraveller the a|)peHran<:e of one vast coiitinii-
(1118 village. The south and cast |)roviiu^es have
III! opiMisite character: they are geni^rally more
iliiiilv peopled, and less cultivated, and exhiliit a
inost'irrognlar, mountainous surface, with tracts of
marshy land, and extensive forests. With the
rxcrprion of these hilly districts in the south and
oiisljllie whole territory ))resents ii series of nearly
lovi'l plains, traversed hy numerous streams, de-
li;'litfiilly diversilied by woods, arable lauds, aiul
iiiiwlows of brilliant verdure, enirlosed by hedgc-
riiw trees, and thickly studded throughout with
itmnis ami -villages.
Ill surveying the general face of the country, and
[irwccding from W. to JC, we observe that the
I'liiKt is uniformly tlat, and fonncd «)f line loose
xiiiil, which, by the fretpicnt action of the sea
wiiiils, is raised inln gcntlj* undnhiting downs, or
rfiiMM. These banks of sand extend, nearly with-
out interruption, from Dunkirk, along the entire
cii;ists (if iJelgium and Holland. In breadth they
vary fnim one to three miles, and rise in the
lii;,'hpst parts to 40 or ftO feet. They are formed
oiiiircly l»y the operation of the sen winds, in elc-
Talinj;'tlic deep sands of the shore ; and since they
»r\'e as a natural barrier to the encroachments of
llic ocean, it is an object of great importance to
ilu'ck their constant tendency to advance inland.
Fur the purpose, therefore, of rendering the sand
ounipact and stationary, the dunes arc sown with
a jpocics of reed, arundii arenaria, until a sutHcieut
stratum of vegetable mould is collected to snjiport
lilantation's of iirs (Pinus iiiaritimiis), with which
mdst of the Hclgic dunes are thickly covered.
Though no part of the surface of Hclgium be
actually below the sea level, like that of Holland,
yet, in common with the latter, its shore, in some
larls, is defendecl from the encroachments of the
sialiy bioad and elevated dykes; and whole dis-
tricts, which formerly were alluvial moriusses, have
been ilrained and embanked, or have been gained
fiitirely from the bed of the ocean. Theemlianked
enclosures of this descri|)tion are called polders. On
ilicsca coast, and along the lower baidvs of the
Scliddt, they arc very numerous, anil some con-
win above 1,1)00 acres of rich alluvial soil, which
is appropriated with great advantage to the pur-
395
bu
jiosea of ngricuUurp, innler which liea<l will
found some further iicconni of thi^m.
To the SI'",, of the dimes the provinces of West
and I'last Flanders, and llninault, fnrni a far-
stretching plain, of which the luxuriant vegctii-
liiiii indicates the indcrutigiilde care and labuiir
bestowed upon its ciiltivatiiin ; for the natural soil
consists almost wholly nf barren saiol, and its great
fertility is entirely "the result of very skilful
management, and judicious ap|ilicatioii of varioiiB
mamires.
The nndiilatio'is in the surface of tin? northern
districts are so slight that, from the lofty top nf
the cathedral of Antwerp, the view, on aclearday,
exti'iids on every side over a radius of nearly M
miles, including, on the, !•',., the city of Tiiruhiuit;
on the W. that of (ilieiit; and on tin; S. the city
of Mechlin ; the whole panorama towards the W.
and S. displaying a beantil'iil succession of vividly
verdant (ields, varied by masses of wood, streams,
and pietiiresone villages. Around the cities of
Antwerp and ivlechlin are great nuinbers of elegant
and highly oniainented country mansions, lielniig-
ing to the wealthy classes. The northern parts
of the provinces of Antwerp and liimbiirg ari^ h'ss
varied and fertile! than any others. Tlie soil is
for the most jiart composed of pure sand, very
partially mixed with argillaceous earth. The
largest unbroken plain in the kingdom is called
(.'anipine, and comprises the NK. jiortion of Ant-
werp, and the NW. of Limbiirg. It consists of
marslies, desolate moors, pi^it bo^s, and extensive
tracts of sand, covered with heath, broom, and
stiintiMl Iirs, Some jiarls, however, contain nntiir.il
nrairies, and serve lor pasturage to herds of excel-
lent horses; and the portion of I/nnliiirg, near tin;
•maks of the iMeiise, is fertile and can^l'nlly culti-
vated. The scenic character of ISrabaut resembles
that of Flanders, with respect to its bimiitifiil
fields, and gardens, and luxuriant trees; but lliu
surface is more varii'd by hills and valleys. In tho
province of Liege the \. bank of the Mouse over-
looks a fertile plain, ]irodiicing all kinds of grain
and vegetables, and allording excellent pasturjigo
for cattle, and for ihiiry husbandry; but tin;
country on the S. bank of the river belongs to tb'j
mountainous district which constitutes the pro-
vinces of Luxemburg and Namnr. A part of this
comparatively wild and rugged region is covered
with dense forests, which still furnish an asyliiiii
for the wild boar, the roc-buck, the bear, and tie,!
wolf. 'I'hc surface is very irregularly varied, in
some jiarts by large tracts of barren heath and
marshy lands, ami in others by ridges of hills,
mantled on the sIoihw and summits with masses of
dark woods, and by precipitous rocks, whose bare,
escarpments form a striking contrast with tho
brilliant verdure of tho well-cultivated valleys
they enchise. The hills are often intersected in
dillereiit directions by deep ravines and rapid
streams; and the romantic beauty of the scenery
is much heightened by numerous ruins of old
feudal castles. The course of the Meuse, from
Dinant to Maestricht, olFers some very pietiiresqiiis
combinations of landscape and rock scenery. The.
river is closely shut in by h)fty dill's of various
hues, some of which are snrmoiinteil by ruins of
modern villas. Here they overhang the river and
are beautifully shrouded with bushes of box, wild
myrtle ami ivy; there they slope away to its
margin, or verticiilly are cleft asunder, and jireseiil,
through the chasm a delightful view of highly
cultivated farms and villages half hidden by trees
in the distant uplands. T'lie wild state of nature
ill iS'amiir, Liege, and Luxemburg; the various
fossil and mineral products; and the charms of the
scenery, have long made this piut of the country
III:L0IUM (KINGDOM OF)
•MO
a lavourilo rcMirt <if tliti nntiinilist, llic jfOdloKUt,
tiiiil tint naiiitcr. All nniiiiiil llit- city of liicKc, ninl
till! (■i'icl)riilc(l HpniigN (if S|iH, (iriwiiiiciiliil villitH of
tlui rii^li nri> thickly Hlationcd, wlicrc vincyiinlM
«i(Tii|iy the tIcclivitii'M of tlio hillK,uii(l liop-^ttriluiiH
lloiirHli ill lliu viillcyH.
< 'li unite, — MftmroliMiif, — 'riu'Vlimnto of nclKiiiin
iM Ifss t'liilly iiiul (liini|i, mill nmro l<'ni|)*'rat(> and
faviiiiraliUt to health, liiaii tiial of lloliniul; Imw-
Hvcr, it in certainly hiiniiil, eoin|iarei| with l'"raiice
mill (iemiaiiy, ami may he eniisiilereil aM very
Hiiiiiiar to I'jiKlanil, except that it is Ntill nmre
Hiilijccl to freciiieiit varialimiN, with a teinieiicv to
tiXi'esM. 'I'lie jirovinces ililVer coiisiileralily in the
fliaracler of tlieir ainiospliere. In ^a-netal, the
nir in the mont elevated ceiitiiil and Sl'^. dislricls
is clear, fresli, and HaliiliriiuiH ; lull in the low
N\V. ]ilainH it is damp and ha/.y. In the Pro-
vinces of rianders and Antwerp llie N\V. winds
I'niin the sea produce a cold and nnp'iiial tenipera-
lin'e Ihroufrhont iIk; M'inler, which is loni; and
ol'leii wet ; and their iiilliionco npnii the currents
«if the rivers, which are wholly nnslieltcrcd hy
liills, renders tlu- adjacont eonuiry liahle to dis-
astrous inundalions. The ^'reat ntmospherical
luimiilily produced l>y fogs from the sea, and the
iinwholesonie miasmata exhaled from exteiisivo
tracts of low marshy and alluvial hinds, enclosed
bydvkesinid dili'hes, and from almost stagnant
••anals, occasion aininal visiialions of daugeroin
fevers. The neighliourliood of Fumes, in West
J'Manders, is rendered especially sickly by the
malaria from these sources. The )>rovinces of
liainaiilt, Namiir, and Luxemliurg are accounlcd
most worthy of iireferencc, with regard to healthi-
ness; and the two Flanders, though tirst in culli-
\alion, must, in point of saluhrity, he placed last.
'I'Ik^ air of the ladders is generally mihcaltliy, and
all'ecis those not inured to it with fever and ague.
Sjieaking of the whole kingdom, it may be stated
that the winter, or rather the rainy season, iifteii
comes on ])recocionsly and coiilinues late ; and
that the summers are either very hot and <lry, or
••xtreuiely wet. November and April arc nearly
always rainy ; the transitions of temperature are
frequent and sudden, so that in the same day arc
('xperieiiccd o]iprcssivc "xtremes of heat and tiold.
The most violent winds are from the SW., ami
the most frequent from the X.aiid the W. A W.
•wind most freipiently, and F.. wind most rarely,
brings on rain. From observations made at Hrns-
sels (luring three successive years, the medium
height of rain which fell in one year was (ililJ
millimetres; the extremes were 7(!I and .'ill.
The number of rainy days averages 170. The
medium temperature of the year is lO'iVi centi-
grammes, and it is well represented by that of
October and Ajiril. The temperature of the
lioitest month is HP 'M', and of the coldest 0°
JS.V; dilference, 10° .M'.
Jtloiivluiiis. — No elevation in Ik'igium is pro-
perlv entitled to the appellalion of mountain. A
nnnitieation of the chain of the Ardennes ex-
tends in a Nl']. direction through Luxemburg,
Naimir, and Liege, and forms a mountainous
«rcst, which separates the waters of the Meusc
from those of the Moselle, towarils each of which
it gradually descends. Another oli'shoot of the
Ardennes rises parallel with this, on the N. banks
of the Sombre and Meuse, between Slons and
SLiestricht. The highest iioints of elevation are
about 'i.'idd ft. above the sea; and one of these is
the hill which overlooks the celebrated springs
the eoMimoii trees of F.iiropc nro nhnndaiit; aiih,.
oak, poplar, pine, llr, larch, ash, beech, h,,,.,!,.
aspen, plane, linden or lime, eheslinil, hirrli, d,,,'
alder, and numerous others. I'hmlalioiis li>rli(i||]
poles, oak bark, and lirewood, occur fri'iiiKntiv
throiighont tlu; western provinces, liainaiilt lui,
several !'orests of line oaks; but by far tlii> im,,!
thickly wooded provinces are N'amiir and l.iixiin-
biirg ill many parts of whii'h the soil is Ic^ fcr-
lile, and bi'lier adapted for the growth of limiH,.
trees than for the cull ival ion of corn anil gra,-M«,
The forests belonging to the stale, to thr niin-
innnes, and public iiiHiitutions, occupy |<t|,iiiii|
hectares, and are siibmitted to an e'siaMi>|i(.,|
svsiem of public management. From ihc n.ii;
liliiberof the forests of Luxemburg are ileriviil
iiinneiise supplies of charcoal for the irnii-wurki
ill that part of the country. The bark fdrim a
eonsiderabli! branch of commerce, and is priiici-
pally exported to l'',nglanil.
The forest of Soignies, iM-tweeii Ilriisscls nnd
Waterloo, so interestingly associated with tlic n,,..
morable battle in that locality, is !l m. in li ii<;i||
hy H ill breadth, and contains II,!IH:I hi'ctiiri's%r
2!>,l>l I acres. The timber is valuable for iMiiUln.',
and n thousand acres of it are ]iossessi'il hv thi'
family of the Puke of A\'ellington, granicil in ih,.
late duke in connection with his tide of I'rim'oof
Waterloo. The forests in the )irovinces nf Nuiniir,
Liege, and Luxemburg, are remains ot llic m'.
liiense aiieieiit forest of Ardennes, which cnvcn',!
a vast extent of the country between Ituini mi'l
IJheims, aswe learn from the great Itomaii iiiiilidr,
'Sylva Ariluemia, ([iiie ingenti magniiiiilinc ii
Ihnuine Kheiio ad initinm Iihemoruin |ii'riiiii'i.'
(Cies. (."oiii. V. it.) The romantic forest of St. Hu-
bert, on the W. side of the province of Liixcm!iiir„',
between Marche and Nenlchateaii, is the scene (.f
Shaks])eare's ' Forest of Ardcn.' A general wikmIv
appearnnce is given to even the most ciiliiv.itcil
parts of lielginm, by the custom of philitiii;; lrii<
in the hedge enclosures of the tlelils; the prinii|iiil
roads are also lined by double rows of iniije>tii'
lindens, and the canals are usually sliadeilliy"riiw<
of ])oplars, beeches, and willims. The liel;,'i,iii
liroprietors of land derive a large and seeiiu' in-
come from the produce of timber anil iuiiler>\(n»l,
independent ol rent ; and ]dantiiig is, tlieret'nrc
sometimes prosecuted to a greater extent by ilie
landlords than is consistent with the ciiiivenienii'
and advantage of the occupiers of furnis. Tho
latter, however, are re:nuneratcil by the use of a
certain share of the wood.
F.xtciisive arlilicial woods of Scolch piiip .in'
created by sowing about six jioniids of sceil in.iii
acre, generally on the ))oorest soil, which is pre-
pared by burning the heathy surface, and sciiiiir-
mg tlie ashes. ]n six years many barron tnun
are coiivcrled, in this way, to tloiirishiug |i1iiiim-
tions of lirs, from 5 to !) ft. in height. Tlie pri-
scrval ion of trees is very strictlv eiij' liiicil, not i.iily
by ]OMin-ieti)rs, but by the goverinneiit. Kviry
farmer is compelled t\> destroy caterpillars, mil
remove every other cause of injury to tliclreesin
his ))rcinises. All the trees on tlie piiblif roads.
besides those of the numerous royal forcsls. IhImi','
to the govctninent, and the laws fur their iii.-iniiu'i-
ment are enforced with great vigilance liy in-
spectors appointed for that purpose.
Jiircrs. — nelgium is one of the most eflioieiilly
watered countries in F.nrope. All its .•ftrcaiiH 1k-
long to the North Sea. The Scheldt, in tlieW.,
ami the lleiise, in tJic F., can alone lie |irii|pi'riy
denominated rivers. They traverse the kinploni j
goner.illv in a direction from N. to S. Tliero m \
and town of Spa.
lort-sts and lyimh. — A space of nearly f>,")0,OnO
hectares, or one fifth tif the whole .surface of the ' about forty rivers ami rivulet.s, which fnnii l!:i
kingdom, is covered with forests and woods. All j lateral branches of these two principal streains
Innt i t» till.
I, l)irrli, , lin,
idiis fur li(i|i.
r t'rc(|iii'iitly
liiiiiimlt \uU
I'lir llic iii.i-i
anil l.uxciii.
lil is li'>s I'cr-
ili III' rnnl»r
ami j,'ra>«(«,
Ik llii' I'din-
•upy I'.il.nou
1 «'stalili>ticil
"rum ilic iiali
; arc ilcriviil
u^ irciii-wiirU
liark fnriii'* ,i
mil is |iriiiii-
HrnHsrls and
I wiili tlic nii'-
.) ni. ill li'iiKth
<'.\ Ill'l'tlirt'S, nf
If lor Imililiii;,',
MscsM'il by till'
(^raiilril III llii'
U'. Ill' I'riiii'c 111'
ii'os 111' Niiiiuir,
ins 111 till' ini-
wliirli riiviTr.l
ci'n lliiMii uu<l
INiinan iiutlmr,
niaK'nlluiHiic ii
oruni iHTiiiici.'
iri'st 111' Si. llu-
ol' Lnxiailmr^',
is I he sci'iii'iif
V jicncral womly
must I'lillivatcl
if iilniitinj; Inv.
s; the imm'i]i;il
)ws of iniiji'stii'
lailwl liy rim<
'I'lie lii'lt;iiiii
anil si'ciin' iu-
iiiiil lln^U'r^VlHlll,
i-i, tlifri'l'iirc.
c'Xtoiil liy ilie
convi'iiifiirf
farms. Tin'
ly tlie use III 11
I'otrli iiiup an'
of si'i'd til ail
wliii'li is jTc-
iT, ami soalKT-
liiuTon Irarn
-liii'.^' iilimia-
{llit. Till' pn-
linril.iioti'iily
lUKMit. Kviry
atcrjiillars, mil
to the trees I'll
imlilio ruails,
1 fori'sts.lieliini
r tlit'ir iMiiiiiip-
p-ilaucc by in-
most nliolenlly
its streams i*-
jildt, in theW..
Ine lie iif"!"'")' i
lie the liin.u'doni I
1) S. Tliere arc |
\]\\v\\ fimii I'lo
icipal stream';
BELOIUM (K
Imt ihotiK'i •'>*'••■ "lility, in ftTlilisinj; the noil liy
irriptii""' "ii<l '"^ lt'<'il<TH of cMnals, is liiKlily im-
if,„„i, tiny <'aii lianlly l>o cutit It'll in s|icri/il
iiiilii'i' ill )> ji*'"*''''^ uccoimt of iliu iiliyHical I'l'aluri's
„f the territory.
The Sehclilt risps In Frnnro; Hows tlir.Mi|;li
t'liialiniv, N'ali'iieifiines, unit CoiiiUi; ami eiiliTs
llcJL'iuiii on it« eontliicnee with the Scariie, n (v\\
niili'sS, of 'loum.'iy ; tlirouKh which town i( imssi's,
anil imfsneH a iinrtherlv eiinrso to (Ihi-nt, where it
p.,i'ivi's the l.yi*. 'rfienee it Hows torlnonsly In
'|',,|.,iii,nil(', wheiiee, Inrninj; nnrthwanl, it is aiii,'-
„ii,iii(.(| liy lar^cc Iriluilary slri'anis on faeh siilc,
jii,| ln'iiimes, lii'fore the walls of Aniwi'r|i, a nia-
ji.|ie river. i."i"> I'l. in width, anil iia\ lj;alili' for
'llirlsijf llielai^resl shi|is. Till' IciiKth of its cunr-ii' i
ill lli'l^;iiim is "Ji".'.'!!'!) nictri's, anil the npiicr lialf,
;iiiil seviral of its allhients, arc iiavi;,Mli'il liy lioais [
III •jiiil lulls. The Mi'iiso also rists in France, ami i
(iitirs lli'li;iiini on I he S. of l>inant, thriMi;;'li whiili !
tiwii it ijiiws III Nainnr, wlu're it rccci\t's ihc |
..iiilire; then lurninjjcastwanl it passes Anileniif
iiml Iliiy. Ill Ihe eily of Lici^i': there rcsiiininjj; its ;
iiiirllieriy eonrse, it eotitiniii'.s through Maeslricht, j
aiiilwiiiil^ across the N\V. of Liniliiir^^ into llol- '
land iiial f'e Nurth Sea. 'ITie len^lh of its course ,
ill |li'l},'iiim is almiit lili.OlM) metres. It is iiavi- j
1,'ateil liy lar^'e stroiij,' Imats, from 100 to 150 Ions.
Ffiiiii llie^'e to Venlno the lnlvi^^■ltilln is parlicn- !
|;iri\ililUeiilt. The allhients of the Meiise at hicfre j
licOTiiil in some iiarts of iheir courses at an aii^ile |
(,l 'liio, anil Ihe loiiK narrow lioats, which shoot
lUii with the velocity of an arrow, are ilrawii «|i
l,vrii|ieH anil pulleys. The |irineipal iitlliients of
till' Sehelilt, on the K., are Ihe l)enilr<>, and the
S'liMo, Dyle, Geete, Donior, and Net he, which
miiie lieliiw Mechlin, and How into the Scheldt,
inlheeliannelof the linpel. On the W. it receives
tlie Lys and Dunne, mid cointiuinicateH with .se-
veral canals.
(If these rivers, lieliinRinfc to the liasiii of the
Silu'lilt, the followiii}; are each navi^^ublu to the
fxteat expressed in metres: — '
Tlii'Domcr, In LimlmrR and Uniliant . , 31,000
Jii'iiilrC', „ Hulnaiilt ami East I'Manders . «7,tir)i>
Dunuo, „ West rianilurs .... a'J.'JOO
Dyle, „ Brttliant nml Antwerp . . 22.20(»
Seholdt, „ Ilainanlt, K. Klaiiil. & Antwerp 21'.',ooo
Lys, „ West iiiul East FIiiiulerB . . 'JO.OOO
Nctiie, „ Limbnrg and Antwerp . . 1!I,(M)0
Riipcl, „ Antwerp 12,000
Tlio Mouse on the E. is joined by the Semoy,
Lf<sp, Ourthe, Amlileve, Vesdre, and K'uer, ami
im the W. by the Sanibre, Jaar, and several
smaller streams.
Tlie rivers beloiif^ing to tlic basiii of the Mcuse
are navigable as follows : —
Tlie Mcuse, in Namnr, LieRC, and Limbnrg . 12(>,000
Ourthe, „ Luxcnibiirtr mid l.ii'Ko . . 102,000
Snmbro, „ Hiiimiult and Uamur . . !M,:i--)ii
Veslre, „ I.ieKO HO,OIIO
Ambleve„Lieb'o 10,000
Tlie Our, Sure, and Azelte, in Luxembiirfi;, flow
into the Moselle, near the town of Treves, and
kloiig to the basin of the IJhine. The Sure is
iiavi;;iible in Hcl^inin 52,000 metres, the JMoselle
;i:.ii(ll). and the Yser 41,510. The total length of
naviftiihlc rivers is !)02,7'l(i nit^trcs.
Gtihyy.— Mineral Froducts. — West nnd F.ast
Flanders are composed of horizontal strata of
ivliite, yellow, and prey sand, and olay, separate,
Mil mixed in different proportions. >Vheii the
siratum of sand forms the surface, the soil is arid,
ami of lUIHcult cultivation ; and it is rich and
firiile in proportion to the depth at which the
FamI lies helow the vegetable deposit. N unionms
tills of turf prove the liucicut existence of marshes.
INdDOM OF) 807
The only minrrnl product of these pn>vinren In
clay, for Ihe manufai'lnre of tiles, bricks, |Miltery,
and pipes. In some localities it contains oxide of
iron. The sand Ml rat iim, in \V. and K. Flanders,
is dee|i, and constitutes one fourth of the area. In
deep wells, desccudiug to the priiuilive granite,
allcrnnle bi^ds of sand and clay are foiiiKl mixed
with nnirine shidls, which are evidently deposits
of ih)> iH'can, and prove that, in remote ages, (bin
whole region was submerged under its waters.
Four or eight feet below the surface, where it i^
of clay, are the beds of neat or turf, varying in
depth from T to 12 ft, I'o the i rer classes it
supplies a chcaji fuel, and its ashes, mixed witli
sami, are much used as a very siiii'i'^sfnl in; niiri!
for I'luvcr and grains. Turf is also produced |)|imi-
tifiilly in the proviiici; of i.uxciiiliiirg, and ill
several other parts of the Uiiigdoin. Silicioiis
pi'bblis, agates, chalceiliins, and red enrnelians, are
foniid in the snihI and clay of F. FlamU'i's, and
many vegetable and animal pitrifii'tinns. .\nmng
the lallir arc large anileis of deer, and horns of
oxen ; with bones of tlic horse, ox, dog, and wolf.
Vi'gi'tablc fossils, consisting of various pro(|uctions
of the soil, are frcipiently olilained by the pcjiiantH
for fuel. They include iiumerous trunks of the
oak and ash, which are hard, black, and polisbable,
and yield red ashes in combustion. The geolo-
gical character of the ]irovince of Antwerp and of
the N. part of Itrabant, is similar to that of tin)
western region; and the ocean apparcntlv onco
covered the whole northern half of the kingdom, a'l
well as the jilains of the W., for the hill on which
Urnsscls is liuilt contains many marine remains.
The rock strata of Ilainault exhibit three suc-
cessive formations : the tirst, or lowest, is com-
posed of por|diyry and quart/, ; thi! seioiid of
calrareous earths, coal, and schist i ; and the third
comprehends argillaceous earth, with deep dcpuf'itH
of sand, and various liebris.
Ill the high soulh-eastern disfrii'ts strata of red
sandstone and limestone, containing organic re-
mains, are incumbent u|ioii rocks of granite, ipiartx,
and slaty scliisti. which have generally an incli-
nation or dip from NF. to S\V,' Descending
thence towards the NW,, the rocks of samhtonc,
limestoiio, qiinrtz, nnd schisli, containing vast
beds of unthraeite, form a basin extending about.
40 m, around tiie city of Namur, The strata of
these rocks are often nearly vertical, so that tins
large coal pits in the vicinity of Namur and SIoiis
require to be worked by shafts resembling welis.
Namur produces, besides coal, abundance of car-
bonated lime, silex, excellent clays for the maiiii-
factiire of imrcelain, comnion pottery, and pipes,
and n sand from which crystal is obtained. Pebbles
susceptible of a beautiful polish are found about
Fleurus, The S. and 1''. portions of Helgium,
coinpreheuding Ilainault, Namur, Luxemburg,
and Liege, arc cs]iecially interesting to the mine-
ralogist, as containing almost every article in the
geological inventory, especially iron, coal, marble,
various kinds of stone nnd slate, copper, lead, zinc,
manganese, calamine, sulphur, alum, »S,'c. Curious
animal fossils are found in the province of Liege,
where mimeroiis caverns in the hills furnish bones
of the hear, hyiena, elephant, rhinoceros, nnd frag-
ments of the human skeleton. Near Maestricht
is a subterranean labj'rinth, extending several
miles in length and breadth, in rocks of soft
yellow stone under the hill of St. Peter, where arc
foimd the shells of large crabs and turtles, and
the bones of gigantic lizards above 20 ft. in length.
The numerous rocky valleys, by which the south-
eastern half of the territory is intersected, have
apparently been formed, not by the coiTosivo
action of water, but disruption of rocks, which
308 HKLOIUM (K
Hiiliwqiirntly nn'iirilrtl clmnDoU for tlio prcMcnt
rivcrH iiiiil KimiiiiN, At lhi> villiif^o nf linn, mi llj<>
rivtT Lc^Nr (llaiiHiir-l.cM.Hc). in llif SI'l. nC Nunnir,
iin iinnicnM' nivcin cxIcikIn nearly ii niili' ilirniiuli
the liint'HtiiHo rock, anti lornis ilii> hiililcrrani'ous
clianncl of the hextc, 'I'lut nMnicroim anil N|itii'ionrt
<-oni|iartni('ntM of this rcinarkai)lt> eavern are nalu-
rally ornamented with chixters of ^'listenint; Hta-
hii'tileH, mill otter eoinliiiiiitionH of the )^'riite.x(|ue
anil wonilerfiil that reinimt the H|ieelatiir of the
ri'Irliraleil i;rotto of Antl|iaroH, Seieiitilii' lie-
Ki'ri|iliiiiis of it have heeii ^rivvn hy (^uetelet, Kikx,
anil Vanilennaeleii,
The wiirkin^j of minex eoiisiitnteH n most ini|ior-
tant |iiirl of llie nalioiiul iiuhislry of ItelKinni.
The ininiii;; ilistricts fiirni Ihrer (livi^<i()nH of the
terrilory. 'I'he llr^l is in the |iniviiice uf llainanlt;
the seconil, in the iirovinics of Nainiir anil Lnx-
(iiilinr^; anil the liiinl, in the ]iro\ine('.s of Me^e
iinil Liniliiir/^r, The total nnnilier of inineM, in the
year iMti'.', anionnteil to I,,'in;|, of uhicli iiniiiher
I'.li'i weri' eoal inineH, 'I'hey eoveran area of lll..'iHI
lieetareH, and n'lw. oei'n|ialioii Id 77. ".".'.'t workers,
iiu'lndiii),' lv!,720 voiiien. In estiinalinj; the rela-
tive value of the mineral iiroihicls of Itel^rinm.eoal
nnisl lie eonsidereil lirst in order, and of the lii^hest
iiuliunal im|ii>rlani'e, as fnrnishin^ the greatest
amiiMiit of ailvantap'stotlu'i'onntiy, Thishranch
of indnsiry is in full |iros|ierity, and its immense
]irodni'e ani|ily sniiiilies the maniifaetnrin;; and
duniestio eonsiiinpliiin of Ilie kingdom, and is
Jarp'ly exiiorted to Franee. The anniiul (iiiantit^'
extracted from the eoal tielilH of llainanlt alone im
]ar;;er tlinn tlic whole ])roiluce of Franee. The
three ;;reat centres of the coal mines, wliich are at
]Miins, Charleroi, and the city of Liege, iiroduce
annnally ahove '1,()II(I,(|(||| tons.
Snhjoined is u comparative statement of IIk;
f|nantity and value of the mineral and iniiicralnr-
f^icjiliirodnceof liel^inin during the year IJSli'i, The
(|ii.'intity is given in 'metrical' tons, each weighing
tliirly-six ponnils loss than an I'jiglisli ton : —
I'ruUuGO
Coal . . .
Iron Ore, wnslicd
Pyrites .
Blende . .
Calamine , .
Galcno.LcailOro
I tons .
1 francs .
J tOI18
( francs .
( tons
t francs .
J til • .
( francs .
( tons
( franc
J toil
tfra
rancs ,
' tons
raiica ,
Total Value of Minerals
Tax on Mines
Iron, Cast and
Wrought
Steel . . .
Lead . . .
Copper . <
Zinc . I •
Alum .
Glass
Total Mineralur-
gical l^roduco
J tons .
( francs .
( tons .
I francs .
( tons .
francs .
tons .
aiics .
( tons .
1 francs .
J tons
1 francs .
francs.
■ tons
(to
tfv
Jlincral & Jfinoral- 1 -
nr-iculTi)tal Value, ™"^
Year IHU2
0,(!I0,8!tr,
107,1-.'7,L'82
«ll!t,17(!
7,74H.(i:):l
4-.V.I:t
l,-jr>:l,10!)
17, 284
8:i4,-J(i;J
4H.857
2,i'.M,m!i)
!»,!t.HO
l,B0(i,2L'8
l'.'(),(l!J3,484
495,844
r.!)l.(i:i;i
81,ll7a,8(i7
;!,17-i
84!»,(HK)
4, 1 OK
1,801,!)87
1 ,004
2,n94,:j80
4r),4.'>7
24,5:i4,(i7a
1,172
2:i3,20(i
18,ril2,0IH)
12!),C!)9,n3
2.'',0,292,:.97
I NO DOM OF)
MincH of iron are nnmerniis, rf>p<<rin1lv in tih-
district Ix'tweeii the .Saiiihre nnd the Miiih'; m,,!
many are worked in the |iriivinccs of l.uMiniinr'
l.iige, and l.imlmrg. In (|nalily the iiuiaj nwm
hies that of France, lint the price is lower, Cniiur
is found in the (irovineeM of llainanlt ami Lie,.,, .
and lead in I, lege, Naiiinr, and I.nxeinhiir;;. T||,,
lead mine of l.ongvilly, in Liixeuihurg, i^ |||,.
largest in the kingdom. Zinc is olitaineil i,,
Namiiranil llainanlt; manganese in l.iigr; aii'l
liyriles. calamine, milphur, and ahiin, in .Namui
and liiege.
The region inehideil botwoon tlio fViintlir i,f
France and a line drawn from Ostein! to Arlmi, jn
the ,S. of I.nxeinlinrg. alioimds in exiclleiu inji-
tcrials for Imilding — freestone, liinesione, graiiii,.,
paving slalis, slates, A-e. : there are also niiiiiv
iinarries of excellent marlile of various kiii,|i..
The lilack marlile of Diiiant is highly valind, himJ
a species called /hYiVc (/niiilti; in \vhicli arc tniiini
many mariiu' organic remains. .Snperinr lar .•
slates ari' (piarried in the provinces of Nainnranil
Liixemlinrg. At llerliemont, a little to tlie\V,i,|'
Dinant, is the most important slate (pairry in ili>'
kingdom, prodncing annually ahove 8,01111,111111
slates. Sandstone is quarried in I. lege ami Ijni-
hnrg, hill chielly in llainanlt. Ample siippliisni'
excellent millstones, grindstones, and wlicisinnis
are furnished from the stone quarries of l.iep. and
Lnxemliiirg: nnd the hones from the quarries ni.;ir
.S]ia are not exceeded in (juality hy any in Kiiriiiic,
to all parts of which tliey are exported.
Atinvrul WaterH, — Itelgiiiin possesses wvpral
springs of niedicinnl mineral waters. TIiom' of
Spu on the ^SVV. of the city of Liege, are cclp-
lirated tlirongliont Kurope. They issue fmni seven
dill'erent sources, of which the one iinmeil ilm
I'onlion is the principal. The water is pcrt'eelly
clear, hut gives, after standing, a slight deposit nf
ochre. It has un acid, ferruginous taste, and Imli-
hles of gas continually escape at the siirliice. Tln'
qinintilies of iron and carhonic acid which it Imlils
in solution are greater than in any orhcr known
mineral water. Its tcmiierature is.'joo Fnlir., nml
the sjiccilic wi^ight l-OOdilH. Niimennis maliiiliei
are believed to lie removed by using it for drink-
ing and bathing. About a thousand hottlesnf it nn^
daily sent to foreign parts, nnd the anmial nnnilKT
of visitants at the spring amounts to hetweeii two
and three thousand. The establishments for tluir
accommodnt ion are coiivciiieiit and elegant; ami
the Hcenery of the vicinity affords ample aiiinsc-
nient for the admirers of the picturesiiue ; Imt as
Spa is the favourite resort of speculating ami
reckless votaries of fashion, it is too true tliat tlic
aiithorised system of gambling produces a great
amount of evil to op|)ose to the good tll'ecteil Uy
the virtues of the water.
The hot sjirings of t'haudfontainc, in the same
locality, but nearer to Liege, are also much visileil,
and others at Alorimont, near Nannir. At the
ancient town of Tongres, near Maestriclit, is a
mineral fmintnin of a temperature almnt (io°.
riiny thus describes it, and it still retains iti
ancient properties : — ' Tinigri, civitas tiailiiv,
fontem hnbet insigncm, ])lunlius hullis stillHiilem,
ferruginei saporis quod ipsum iion nisi in line
]iotiis intelligitiir. I'urgat hie corpora, tcrtianiij
iebres discutit, calculorumque vitia.'
Animal Prvdurtitms. — All the domestic animnl!
of the other countries of luirojje arc found in I'el-
giiim. Among the wild animals are a few Imars,
roebucks, bears, and wolves, which still find refu^'e
in the immense forests of Liixeinburg. Foxes are
not numerous, but all the common kinds of pinu'.
quadrupeds, .ind birds, are ])lentiful in the wihkIv
parts oi" the country ; especially in JJamur, Lux-
'inlly in tli.'
I-iiMrii!iiirL'.
iii'iiil ri'iicni
iVIT. rnl,i»r
t mill l.icp ■,
iil'iirn. Till'
il'iirtc, U 111,.
tilitaiiicil ill
l'i<W : iiivl
I) ill Niiimir
> friiiiliir (if
I In Arliiii. ill
.sTcllcnt 111,1-
liiiic, uraiiiii',
' iilsii iniiiiy
iiriiiiH kiii(|«.
k' viiliK'iJ, niid
iiii iii'c t'liiiihl
ii|«'ri(ir lar^;.'
il' Niiniiir ami
!■ Ic. IllcW.hf
(|mirry in tin.
iVl^ X',(HIII,IIIII|
I'K*' iiii'i l.ini-
|ll(' Sll|l|llil'S (if
111 \vllClSllp|||,<
i u( Licp' ami
[• (iimrriis ni'ar
mv in Kumin',
•tod.
iHcsHoa wvor.il
i'W. TIkisc (if
,it'f;o, MV ci'le-
siic from seven
lu- iiiinu'il till!
cr ift iicrfeeily
ijilht (U'|iiisii iif
lastp, anil luili-
ic siiriiii't'. The
wliicli it lidliU
iirher kiiuwii
fjOO l''nlir., nml
rinis mnliiilii.s
1}; it fur ilrink-
liottlfsiifitnn'
iinuial niinilKT
o lift ween twn
incuts fur their
(•li'j;aiit ; nml
ini|il« amiise-
ircsiiiie ; but iw
it'i'iilntiiij,' ami
|o true llialtlie
(iilut't'« a great
mil ctl'ectcil by
|c, in tlip .«,imc
iiuiidivisiieil,
Imiiir. At the
laosiriclit, is a
Ve aliDiit liii°,
iill rctaiiw tU
nvitas tiallia',
llUs stillanU'in,
li nisi in line
jpora, tertiaiub
J )
Incstic animala
■ t'liund in liel-
Iro a f(W liiiiir*.
Itilllinilrcfiyi'
nrj!;. Foxes are
Ikiuilsof^'aiiii'.
Il in the woikIv
iKamur, bix-
BELOItTM (K
i.mhnrc, M''?*'. i""' I.iiiiliiirir. 'Vht' ln'iittiM of
ViTviiTi. in II"' priivinii' nf I/k'j;p, art! liclirvnl to
li,, the iiulv "I"'! !'■ I'°<iir>i|ii- wlii'rc iIk' ^'riiil. Iii'iitli
nick, V"'"' ''"'/ ''•' /"'",'/' '"'i "'"11 l'<' r<Miiiil.
H„'r»e*. — {''liiiiilcr.-* lias Imi;; liccii rainoiis tor its
lirei'il III' ivork-lioi'st's, ami liy llirir l'r('i|iii'iit ini-
i«irliiliiiii ill*"' KiiK'l"ii'l. "i" l'".iiH;lisli ilraiinlit lioi'si'
iree'l 111!'* '"^'''" ii>ii"'li iiii|iriiv('il. 'I'liii SiitVolk
.,iiii,.li.|iiirs(i very lU'arls' rcsciiilih'M tlif siicrirs
„„i,t I'liuinioii ill FlaiiiliTs, 'I'lu* colour of llic
Kieinisli lior-ics p'lii'rally Im clM'stiiiil, in nil its
shiiih's, ami roan. 'I'lirv ani of ilic triii' working-
rliiiraiii'r. ninarkalily ilncilr, iiiiil iinsscssfd of ,su-
prriiir Imilv mill slrciiKtli. 'I'lic cliicr ilclcrt ih'cu-
.ii.iMillv iil)si'r\al>lt' ill llii'ir I'nnii i.s ii wiiiil ul'
iliiiih'in till' K'irlli. and a ilip lii'iiind llu' withers,
liiit in all iitluT rt's|M'i'lH tiny nrc llni'ly (*lia|i('il.
A -mall lii'iid and |irii'ki'il ear, rising' ||,,,,k and
,.r,,sl. slmrt liiirk and roiiplrs, uri-al stri'injtli ovrr
Ihi'h'liis, riniiid liips and li'iij;lliy i|nartrrs. opin
ehe-t, a Kiind arm, slmrt li';^s ol' powrrl'iil ,siii('W,
.h,,rt jiasti'ms, si'niii'irriilar liool's, with a niiiiul
frii^' anil iipi'ii li"'''l — tlu'sc points, coniprisi'il in a
I'liiiiii.'U't riiriii, with a h<'i<:'lit of ahont I,') liaiuls,
(•iiiistiliitc a work-liorsi' of firi'.'it iiu'rit, wliii'h,
vlien llirri! ypai's old, can lie piircliascd at "-'It or
;;ii/, Tliey arc kcji' in cxcclli'iit coiidition, and
are shiiil with so ninch care that ii defective fool
iirhnnt' horse is never to he seen. A dii'tarv sys-
tiiiiisnliservcd with ;:reaf precision and r ;;ularity.
('Iiii|i|i"'il straw iH iiivarialiiy ^iveii with oats, and
the water is always well whili'iied with meal of
•ve, outs, or harley. ( 'lover i.s the cimiinoii foddc^r
ill siiinnier, and carrots in winter, never omitting;
the ehi II iped straw and meal water. Of late the
jlelnic horses have heen materially improved hy
|iniliiij,'atinf,' 'f""" .select lireeds, and jiidicions cross-
111),'. Kvery farmer in Flanders hrecds his own
wiirk-liorses ; Imt the Inisiness of lircedin;; is only
nsiilKinliuatc and acces.sory liranch of linshandry.
The piiklers and jirairies of Antwerp alVord pa.s-
liinifie to nuineroiis Flemish liorses; and there
are in K. and W. F'landers a (,'reat many fairs, at
B'hieh tlicy are .sold for e.\|Hirtali"ai t"> France and
Kn;;laiid. Jtel^cinm prodnce.s .several other va-
rieiie.sof the horse, nmon^ which the Lnxemhiir^;
t"hin 11 valiiahle lireed, and ha.s heen imported
iiitii Kn;,'lnnd for its ex(!ellent ((iialities, as ii very
oiimpact and iiowerfiil little horse, .short-lefif^ed,
well-lMiued, aliout li{ or 14 hanil.s in heij^ht, and
(i|iial to carrying tht; licavieist rider, as well as lit
fur linril work in harness. The llelgio k"'^'''''"-
mint, with the view of improving the native
hreeils of horses by erossiuf; them with those of
Kn;;lan(l, has formed, at TcrvuiTen, a beautiful
Miiiliif about 10 stallions, and npixiinted stations
fiirthemin all the proviiutes. The beneficial re-
sult uf this expedient, which has been in oiterution
hinee IKIU, is a]>parent in the production of a very
siilU'riiir race of liorses. The f^ovcrnnient al.so
awanls premiums to the proprietors of winuinjj
horses at the public races.
In Flanders, the ea>;er thriftiness of the farmer
iniliices liiin to put his colts to hard work often at
lliea),'e of eighteen months, which is hnifj before
the requisite stren};;th is acquired ; and the con-
soqiienep is very injiirions. llor.ses are employed
f'lr all kinds of work in harness ; but the peasantry
ciinimonly prefer making use of as.sos tor riding,
tsiwially in the sandy di.stricts along the sea
hill ire,
llorned Cuttle. — The breeding and management
I'fall kinds of live stock in IJelgiiim arc much less
cxemphiry than the culture of the soil. The cattle
.TO the sliort-horned Dutch breed, but they are not
ill !;ener<il so well fonned as in lliilland. Indeed,
l''ii little attcutiun apiiear.'i to have been devoted
INODOM OF) 800
lo the niceties of breeding, and the ndvnnlAge^ of
seleclioii. The colour is. I'nr the iiiohI pari, black,
and lih'irK ami white. Flaiidirx. \V. and F., con-
liiiii inure ihan •.",iii,immi, niaiiy of which are fal-
teiied and sold. The oxen are larger Uiiiii the
ci.ws. and weigh, when falleiii d, from d to M cwt. ;
but the same eagerness fur gain which occii-ioiis
the loo early working of the horses, induces the
farmer to hurry bis oxen to market at about two
vears of age, befon- fbiv are perfcclly falleued,
ITie .same penurious spirit is appareiii in the prac-
tice of lia\ ing, in general, only I bull In l.'iii cows;
and in some loialiiies to upwards of 'joo. Nu-
merous herds of caille are reared on ihe wild
herbage of llie large forests m llie central. .S., and
I''., pans of the kingiliiii). and aie ibially latteiied
on oil-cake, at a very small expeii.ie. No pan of
Ili'Igiiim priidiiees better oxen and calves than lliii
prairies of the great ('am|iine plain, between -Viil-
werp and Maesiricht. t'ows are kept in great
niiinliers on tli"' pa>lnres aboiil l''uriies and |)ix-
niude, ill W. I'Taiiilers. and a large ipiantily of
butler is made for exporlatiiin. In ilieir
stables, the Flemish farmi rs preserve the tem-
perature of the month of May; indeed, so much
altentiun is paid lo ihe stale of these places, that
Air. liatclilt', in his Aiiriciiltiinil Sum// uf I'lun-
i/i-rs, speaks of having taken eoll'ee in one of Ihein,
with llie proiirieliir, in the middle of winter, wiili-
oiil having been in the least incoininoded by cold,
dirt, or ollciisiv*' odour. Fur Ihe preservation »['
cleanliness, they adopl an odd expedient, which is
very common in llolland, keeping the cows' tails
erei't. by means of a cord wliiidi passes over ii
)iiilley ill th(> roof. The usual food in summer is
cliielly clover; and in winter, turnips, which are
rather poor and small, with carrots, potatoes, a
very little bay and straw, and the while soup
which isgiveii lo horses; consisting of tepid water,
thickened with oat, rye, or barley meal, and a
small portion of oil-cake. Ilowi'ver, not only the
breid, but the treatment of cows in Flimders is
regarded, by Fnglish writers, as very inferior.
They are constantly conlined to the stalls; innl
as the clover luid otiier forage- crops tire there (ton-
sinned in Iheir green slate in the summer, a d(!-
licieney of roots in the winter reduces their diet to
dry straw, so that, as M, Vandermatden remarks,
they are often so emaciated in the month of May
as barely to be able to walk ; and Mr. I'ry.se (lor-
(hin, in his work on Itelgium, states, that their
wretched state in the sjiring is almost incredible ;
that they resemble those of .Shetland, which, in
scanty seasons of the year, are fed on dried stoek-
lish ; or the cows of the X. ('a])c, which are occa-
sionally keiit alive on pickled salmon ! In the
forest of Soignies, and other parts of lirabant, the
cattle are large and coarse. Flic Belgians, in fact,
do not yet appear to be generally aware that ani-
mals ol a moderate size are more nrolitable tlniii
those of largi^r dimensiims; that light, comiiact,
mill short-legged horses are most enduring for
work requiring not strength alone, but activity ;
and that small and slight-framed cows, such as
the Aldcrney, Sull'olk,aii(l Ayrshire breeds, pro-
duce more and richer milk than many larger
kiiid.s.
The llelgic government has, for some years,
tak<tn much ])ains to introduce suijcrior breeds of
cattle ; and the iiroprietors are gradually becoming
convinced of their interest in elfecling a change
in their kinds of stock, though the characteristic
tenacity with which they cling to old-established
notions, still greatly retards the benelicial accom-
plishment of the government plans of improvement.
On an avenige of the hist fourteen years, the,
aniuiul produce of cattle ia the whole kingdom
•loo
wiiH H1iH,07(t ; mill, (III till" nniiip iivoriiK"', ••"'«' wrri-
111 I'lU'li |iri>viiu'(! Iliti t'lillowiii^ iiiiiiilicrN :—
Aiil\nr|) . . HH,l|-i l.li'ifi' . . HM.nTtl
llriilMiiil . . nH.'j.ll l.liiiliiiiK . , liil,:uo
W, I liiiKlrn* , l;i'j.ii!MI l.iixi'iiiliiirK . IV<i,:iiiii
v.. I'liiiiili'i'M , I'.'ii.;ll7 Nuiiiiir . . tiH.Ail
llaliiiiiilt . . U'.MIl
III IHti'i ili<< iiiiiiiImt of ilriiiif;lit oxrii I'lniiloyi^d
ill /if^rii'iilliiriil liilHiiir wiin .'llillT'i.
SliiT/i. — (III ilu> riiriim III' Iti'l^iiim, the hIii'c|i
hliH'k JH p'licrully a m inlnrv olijcri <if iiiii'iiiinii,
'riicrt' art' tun |iriii('i|ial iiulit^riiiiiH lircnlK, llir
l''l<'ini>li ami I lie Anli'iiiit', 'I'lic iiiili^i'iioiiN I'lr-
iiiinli ^li('<'|i ii* u lali, lliiii, liiii^'-cari'il aiilinal, I'lir
iii.->liiiipt a ruaiNr Imi^; wcml, illiil (lie wi>r-t Uiiul ii
iiiiilliiii. Till' Ai'ilciiiii' liiiTil i.H ."iniilitr, ami, IVoiii
r.ili;;itl;X "ViT lilt' swcfl wild ln'lliii;;i' til' llic liilU
t>r \,'\fiiv ami l.iixt'iiiliiiu;, lilt' iiiiiiioii ai't|iiirt'n an
I'M'flltiii llaviiiir, Iml ilu' wiml is imt nf Nii|it'i'i(>r
i|ujlil,v. 'lilt' iiiiiilc III' lirilin^' hlii'i'|i ill !''lMmlrr.<<
at niiiiils I'lir mm li nl' tlicir liail i|iialiiii'.-> : tln'v art'
l.iiii'cil al iii;',lit, ami iliiriii);' tlii' ilay art' I'lillnwi'il
liy lliii ^lii'plii'ril ami liin iIukh, aloii;; llit> laiit'H,
{lalliwiivs.aiiil inarniiin iit'araMc llilil^, wluri' llit'v
lari'lv pirk a siilisisifiift', ami iifVfr t'lijny llif
raii^i' III' a Hwct't ami wlnilr^nim' |iaMliirt', hi
MiiiitT tlii'y art' It't mit, for u hlmrl I lint', Imt tiiii'c
a ilav, ami art' I't'tl ii|iiiii ryt', .sliaw, ami hay ; anil
tliiiii);li lliri't' or liiiir yfart wniiM lie riiiiiircil In
I'mii'ii iliiiii, llit'y art' ilaujjlitcnil al niic ycarnlil,
III a I'liiiilitiiin, says Mr. |{alriiir, vi'ry nearly llial
(if carriiiii. Tlif iilit'cp wliicli an' I'fil mi llic
(iraiiics III' tilt! ('ain|iiiu' plain priiiliit't; tlif lic^t
wiiiil III' lilt' kin^iliiiii ; ami lliat tit' llu> Anlt'iiiU'
liri'fil i.i iifxt ill ipialily. 'I'lu* wiml ami inutlmi
of I 111' (liH'ks til'Nainiirarct'iinsiili'rcilt'iiinparalivi'ly
friiiiil. Siiiiit' lint! hpt'cinu'iis t<r tlu' l.t'it'csti'v ami
('titswnlil liri't'ils, wliii'li liavt! rt'fcnlly lii'fii iin-
pi.rlril rrniii KiiKlaiiil, nrv ('xpcclcil In prniliifc u
niui'li inipriivril rat'c, that will Mii|it'rsi'tli' tin- prc-
Hciit liil'iTinr kiiiils, 'i'lif tiital niiinln'r tif .slit'i'ii in
tilt' kiiiploin is aliiivt' l,(H)l),0(l(); iiIhuiI mit'-liair
111' ilitiii aiv ill llic priiviiici's of Lii'K''. I/miliiiix,
!,llXl'nlllllr^^ anil Naiiinr. 'I'lu' iimviiifi's uf I'.ast
anil West I'lainltTs liavc oai'li almiit •lo.OtHt slit't'p.
Sirim; — The Ik'lixic swine are similar to llii»s«'
tif Kraiu'o. ami have niiire rcscinlilaiK'o to tlui
({rt'yiitiiiiuls than the liti^H ot' KiiKland. Their
IniiJ^' ami thin iKidioH are nxMiiitotl u|H)n Heel ami
U'liylhy It'ffs, and the ri(lt,'e tif their backs deserilies
(he arc of a circle. Herds of these animals are
tiinit'tl into Ihe forests, where they I'ceil almndantly
npoii Ihe licccli mast nnti acorns that strew the
^^roiiml. They make very piod pork ami hacon
after having hccii loii^ ""d well fed; but this
kimi of meat is the tU'iirest in tlie market. liettcr
breeds have been imimrted from Kii^'laiul; and,
from the ])roi<tic nature of the animal, they will
]irobably soon li-yoine iiiiineroiis ami benetieial. A
few iiin's arc reareil by every farmer in Flanders
for tltiiiieslic siiiiply of pork, which is the common
animal food of the workin>; cl,is.'-?»; but the mar-
kets are sti|iplicil by tlistillers ami iiiillers, who
have firoiU facilities "for feeding with the refuse of
their estaMislinieiits.
/■/,s7(. — Fresh-water fish nbonnd in most of the
Inr^cer streams. Those of the lincst quality are foiintl
in the S. iiarls of the kingdom. The principal
kinds are \)iko, trout, carp, perch, tench, eel, 1am-
prev, stur};;con, salmon, barbel, shati, gml^'eon,
whitebait, anchovy, and ecrevisse, or I'resh-watcr
hibster.
In the fishery off the sea-coast, and in the mouth
(if the Scheldt, arc taken skate, jilaicc, bret, soles,
tiirbot, dab, aii;;els, whiting;, smelts, lobsters, crabs,
pilclinrdsaml sliriin|is; and from the deep .'..i (isli-
ery are supplietl cud, herrings, oysters, and muscle;:*.
llKLdlUM (KINonOM OF)
"" Wllrli
I he doK-lMi (rhirn ih mrr) rommifn „.. „,„„
injury to the llHliery of the .Scli.lilt, i|,„i ||,„ ',
veriimeiit Kives n reward for IIh deHiriietiiiii \r
,11111 1.....*^ ..« I I 1.. .1 . ' ''ii'ii
•Jiio boals are eniplu.M'il in iIh' end hihI hrrtin .
Ils|ierie», the prtHliit f wlileli |i,m aUiiv.l,,?!
the Niibjecl of u eoiihiilrralile eiiiiiimni'.. n,,
nalioiiui linhery U rapidly inerea.sin^f, ,ni,'| ,,^/
iiiiuniH, imionnlin^' lo lii.rMMl francs, art- niiiiii',|i.
nwardid by Ihe Koveriimeiil for its proninii
_ Aiiriiulhirr, — In eoiiNeipii'ii f d,,. ||,,,y' ,„,
litieiil system adiipteil in MilKiiiiii >,iih'r ||„, |i,,[,''
liitioii of IMIIO, every br.iiieh of in lu.in Iiiih'ik,,J
Hreally iiiiprnved and exieiuleil. Tl in-tnin
of niiiiierons roads, railways, and e.'iiialK, Ihh ..r,,'
iluei'd an eminiiiiiis imrease in the \,il )■ i^i^ j
and liiiildinins. aimiiiiitiii):, in hcm ml nlinli. ,|i .
Iriels, to iim'-fnnrlh of fnrmer esiiimitis; nmi d,,,
piveriiiiient has e.ilablislied an evp.Tiai tiniinil
ehaitcedwilh the care of ascerlaiiiiiij; ihr iiiriiii,,|
jiroimiiiii;;the inlercNts of aKrieiiliiin'. .\t |lni«<,i
nils been fiii'inetl a veterinary and ii^riiiiliiu ,|
colicp' on a lar^e and liberal' seali'. Hlijili.i.,,.,.
peetetl to elVect many beiielieial iiii|ircivt'iiiin|l
es|ieciiilly in the breeds of live sliiek, Tlie iiiiinnil
soil of Itelj^iiiin is compo.sed of mere saiiiliiiiilrlin,
coinliined in various proportions. The dav ni,',,,,!
contains the nutritive properlies re(|iiirei|'|i,ri|„,
support of venelalinn, but without a tiiit' uiiini\.
lure iif sand, to render it pormis and I'rialili', it i,
perfectly sterile, from its too >;reat iullie»iviiu>.,
retention of water, ami liabililv to benmie liiil:i,|
by the sun. The artilicial soil, in Kiainlio iiinl
many other hiKhly enllivated parts of the nMintrv.
is rich, black, anil loamy, and possesseil nf i^riiit
ferlilitv, tliroiijj;li the vast t|iiaiitilii's of inaimro,
veKelalile ami animal, which for af,'es luivt' \m\\
eoistanlly inlermixeil with Hit! natural sand ami
clay. Althoii^li in r.el;,'iiiiii the ciillivatimi i.|'
the earth is carrietl to n jjreat exti nl, almiit nni'-
twelfth part of Ihe whole surface riniaius still im-
eiiltivatetl; oiie-ei|;litli consists of f;niss-laiiils, tin'
best of which are in Hit! two Flam'.er-ii luid tin'
arable Iniitis occupy oiie-lialf. The best are in tlii>
two Flaiitlers, Ilai'naiill, and Krabant. In tlicsc
jirovinces no waste land whatever is to he wen;
l)ut in Antweqi, Limbnrf;, ami I.iixeiuliiirj;, ii
covers a coiisitlerable extent of country. Assmia-
tions have recently been formed for "tlic purjniM'
of eiiltivatinj; the waste lantis of the ureat ('aiii|iiiii'
plain in l.iniburf;, and fur ulearin}^ duiiio uf tliu
forests of hiixembnrfr.
Ai/riniltnre of Ihe PoUlvra. — The iinme pnMi'Pi
is (;iveii to trat'ts of hiw alluvial soil, iirtiiicially
gained from the sea or the Scheldt, by Inl'ty ciii-
baiikments, and tirained by numerinis iiitei'Hciiiii^'
ditches, fmm which, in some instaiiees, the m\M-
lliions water is continually piiinpc d by the iim'iiev
of windnulls. These embanked eiielnsari's aro
hifflily eiiltivalcd, and form an extensive eliaiiiiif
s(|u»rc iiKvn ishintis nhnv^ the muddy liniiks uf
the Scheldt and its atllneut Ihe 1,'iipel, in tli(!|irii-
vinces of Antwerp ami K. Ffanilei's, and im the
santis of the sea-shore. Twice a day tlit; tiilw
reach the broad and liijfh tlijiues or eniliaiikiiiiiiis
which bound, on each side of the Selieldt. a widi'
extent of alluvial j^nnind, and ]iroteet Ihcailjaiciit
country from inundation; anil while llic walcrs
remain upon this surface they tleposit a liiienru'il-
laccuus and calcareous mud, the dchrU of varimis
vcfjctablc and animal substances, collt'otpil in
their tlrain.ij.je of the loose and rich soils of Flan-
ders, and broiij;lit from the ocean. Those alluvia!
accretions, when tirst enchised by dykes, bccnnK!
naturally covered by a fine tender jiriiss, niul aw
called ill Flemish Hrliorn, They .ire iil'st suwii
with co/rd ; that is, olea;,'inous colcwirt, //mMivi
ulcracca arvviiiiiii, not the Britssiru Xiiimn I'l'
UKI/ITl'M (K
IJnniPii'- '"'' ''"' Tlrumlrn iinn/iriittiii nf |>i> ('mi
ili.lli', il"' •T"!"' "•' 'I'i" V('i;ftiil(lr nil llif imliltTN
ah' iilwiltii vrrv lllillllililllt, W'hi'iillii'Si' I'lirliii^iiri'H
lin,. Ik'iii <'iiiii|ilrii'ly liroiiKlii iiiin cull i\ III iiiii,
vilijrli ri'iiiiirr^ ffVfriil yi'iirx, llicy i-iiiisi.'.i |iiiril\
„i iiiiiiiriil iiiciitliiw, iilVnriliiii^ I'M'i'lli'iii |iiiHiiiriiKi'
l„rimiiii'ri'ii^ IhtiIn ureal lie. iiinl jiitrllv nC uriilili'
l,,ii.ls oil wliirli lire riiisnl ilii> lliicNt I'MjiM ol' all
kiiiil<"f uriiiii! I'cix'i'ially liiirli'v, H or lo i|iiarl<'i'M
.,,,11,11', mill '•III'* Ml (ir I'.' i|iiarli'rs iKTiii'ri', 'I'wn
,rii|i<4 ill ill'' y>'i*f '"■'' <'iiiii>; .iiily nlilaiiii'il ; no
ri|»«i' in ^'ivi'ii to flu* »<oll, ami ii iici'ilt iii> nui
niiriii^; l»>' ■■) I'"' ''oiirsc of iiiii(> ii Im'i'oiiii»< too
,Miii|iint mill M<lli''-ivf, ami jjrnitlv ilriri'iinrft in
liftililv, if not ri'miviitcil liy arlilii'iiii ii.->!<i!,|am'i<,
nitliiii till' olilrr laiiiN of this ilcMiiiiiinii arc I'al
|„«,'i| iiiiri' ill '•ix yi'iiix, ami tlir nitalinn is winter
Uirli'V. iH'mi". wheal. Iliix, elnvrr, ami |Mi|iiiiie».
Iliiciiiiiir of the soiJH, in their |irliiiiti\'i> Mlale, !•*
jhliii'li irri'v, wliiih is owini,' 'i' '•"' i>reHeiiee of a
(iiii>i<li'riilile i|iiaiiiily of the o\iile of iron. The
riiiliiiiikllieiits are Miaile ill mimr iiiMlaiiees hy the
pitirilllli'llt, i>l olliern, liy eoiii|iailies, or iliilivi-
iliiiiN. iimier II ^'raiit ami leiinre of the eiieiosureM,
Iriiiii ;{iiviTiiiiieiit, for alioiit twenty years, either
Mil friT.or for hiiiiiII atiniial |iayiiu iii.s. Il is eal-
ciiLiliil lliiil "hoiit l-"ttlix of the Niirfaee whieli,
ill ilii' sixteenth eentiiry, wiw Niihinerp'il hy the
Slicliit ami the Hca, now proilneeM au:rieiil'tiiral
cri>|M, mill i'* Htiitlileil with iniiiieroiiM I'lirin eNliih-
li.iiiiirnlii. The area of eaeli pohler, the eheniieal
iniilysiHof their Noil.M, mill various other imrtienlarH,
wjlivi'ii ill M. Vamlerinaeleirs (ieoj;. |)iet. of the
rn'viiici'H of llel^iiuin. Tliev vary I'roiii 'Jtl, fid,
111(1 IIMI iieres, li|i to l,<H»0, 'I'lie polder of Sniiers-
liirkiiii llie .s'a-eoiist,iiear()steml,eoiiiaiiiM l.lliMl
mnMliviileil hy ditelies into reetiiii;;iilar lleliJM of
|:; luri'.s earli. The hank or dike is I.") ft. hi^'li,
liiill, ill lireailth at the liase, and 111 ft. at the lop.
The I'litiil ilevastntions whieli have heeii oeeasioiu'd
livtiii' t'liiii'iirreiiee of hifrh winds and tides in rii|)-
liiriii;; till' dikes that are reared as harriers to the
rivcMiiiil the sea, render it an olijeet of (,'reiit iin-
{»niim'v with the piveriiineiit to superintend the
niiiiiiti'imiice of their ellieieney, A systein of
|iiililii' ri'Kiilalii'ns lortliiK purpose is therefore eii-
lunril with ^reat vi^ilanee and proiii|ititiide,
Aijrkuhurr of the BriiyvreH, — 'I'lie sterile heaths
«liirli I'xtcnd over the NK. parts of the ]ii'oviiiees
if Antwerp, and the N\V. of l/mihiirK, as well as
(iviT iimiiy s(|. m. of i\w surface of the SIC. iiortimi
iiftk'iiiiiKilom, arc called hniiiircH, from the fact
(iftlu'iri'liii'tly prodneiii^ the heath-phiiit, hriiyen<,
AViiri Brabiiiilica, It ^;rows spontaneously and
ilKiiiilantly in the inoHt arid sands, as well as in
hiimiil miirslies ; and it naturally poss<\sset4 so iniieli
viialiiy mill prolilieiiess that its complete erailii u-
li'iiu'iuiiiiitlK'etleeteihvitliontconsiderahletronhle.
In Miiiiincr its profusion of llowen* very ajtreeahly
virii's tlie (Irciiry aspect of the level wastes on
wliiili it tlimrishes : mid they also afford plenty of
f'<«l lor the Ih'c ; hnt the honey it ])ro(hices is not
(fapiiMl (loseription. The ]>lant is hrowsed by
^rp; tfiitlii'i-ed for litleriii;^ cattle; used in taii-
niiii,': anil aiiplied to several other useful purposes.
Ttif ^rout ohstade to the cultivation of the heath
lanils or bniyerps, is the frequent occurrence of
W* »f fi'rni(,'inous turf and stiff clay near the
Niriaa'; linwever, many extensive tracts have
Wii briniRlit into prolitahlc cultivation hy the
j'lfiiliful application of rich mnniin'K, and the la-
Wious attention and niaiia};enicnt for wlii,.li tht
IWjnchusbaiKlnian isso proverhiallydistii-.f^uislied.
The siirt'uec iin which lie lie^ins "to vipcrate is a
W- thill external coat of black mo'.ild, coiisistiiifr
<'v(-„'('talilc putrefactions. This, in some parts, is
sffiwnt ly ileep to rccouipcnsc the liibour of phjui'li-
Vui. i.
INdDOM OF)
401
inuit into tin 'iibjaceiil snnil, wllli eopioiiit ipiaiiti-
ties of dunghill manure; and from tliiicoiiihinalioii
are ohtailird iTops .if polutoe^, Imrley, oals, clover,
and liiickw heal. .Shci'p are reimirkaldy fond of the
scattered hhides of natural ^rii'vt on the briiycn's,
and cattle are fed in i^ri'ikt iiumlH'rN on those part <«
of ilicin which arc laid out in pasture, coii'<isiin»;
for I he most part ofspurry, S/ierijiilitiirrvHiiix, which
is their favourite I'otHl.
AijrivHlliintl I'niilurr and I'nirlirr, — Com, llax,
hemp, and timlN'r, constitntn the nio-i| important
matcriiils of the auriciiltural wealth o| Itcli^'liim.
'I'lie soil, artillcially enriched, produces coiniiioiily
morethiin doii!de the ipianlilv of corn reipiircil lor
the cniisiiiiipiioii of its Inhaliitants, which is com-
puted at ti.iiiHi.iMin hectolitres per annum. The
average produce of the sidl in the various provinces
is shown in the suhjoined table, which ({Ives the
results of |H(U — It niediiim year in every respect.
rriitliii'i't
Antwerp .
Ilriiliuiit
KliiiiilcrH, West
l''lti<Mlci°s, Kast
llllMIUllIt .
I. live . .
MiiiliiirK
biixiiiilmri;
fiiuiiur ,
Avernffo
Wheat
AiiiiMint ftf
l*r<iilllri' INT
Ili.'Urn
n>'<'lnl.
IS-.'l.')
17 •.Ml
a I'll J
•i-i
1!)
Ill
l.-.-l)9
ID
IM
18-IH
ll;n
lUrlijp
Amottni iif
AniiMiiit „r
rrHilui-,. p.-r
I'rixliwc |i«.r
11,'I-IUM'
n..i«r..
lli'i'iiil.
lllH't.ll.
I!IH
Vli-U
lit- fi
111
•J;i-7U
:i7
•J.-i
•M
'.(II'HO
:m
IH
•Ji
lll-tl.'i
a.'i
IM
'ii
\T00
w
1II-HH
»9'7U 1
Protlnc*!
Alnotiiit itf
rulMon
Aiiiiiuiil ,tf
rimi
Aiitniint Itf
l'r<>«lit.-i- 1I4T
I'rtMltu'i' |N-r
I'I'IhIiII'I' |M»r
Hi-vttiru
lli'vlitru
lli-ctHru
Kllix.
llralnt.
Kilol.
Antwerp . .
:ili'HU
H.HMO
:m:i
Ilriiliaiit . ,
42
7,'Ji,l
A ill
Fliiiiilcrs, West .
-fj'lli
7,liL':l
;ii)»
I'liiiiilcrs, Kiist .
■lit
N, IIIII
fillO
Ilaiiiiiiilt .
Ml
ri,|:lii
47r)
l.lcKe .
m
11,110(1
--
l.iiiihiirK .
:i4
T.WIIl
Ulil
Liixciiiliurg
ill
(1,'.':17
—
Nuiiiur . .
:i(t
7,.'>».'»
Averoffo .
ilUs'iS
1,7-J(l
40:)
Tim hectare is eiiiilvnlciit tt) 'i'l71 1 till Kiii,'llsli acres ;
tlic hectolitre to •.'■7.''il'.'iix.'> KiikHhIi hiislids ; luiil tliu
kiUiKruniiiie to 2'2(llli'JIU Kngllsli lbs. avuirUupols.
The nverat;e, prices, for the whole of llelf^iiim,
of the ahove-inentioneil kinds of corn and potatoes,
diiriii;; the nine nioiitliM ending .September lit), listjl,
were as follows : —
Fr.
«.
AVhcat, pcrlOO kilogrommca .
:i'.'
84
llye »
•Jl
1)
Hurley „ .
'JO
H7
OlltH „ .
r.i
77
rotatocs „
10
00
(IJeiKirt of Mr. Tlerrien, Tier Majesty's Secret.nry
of Legation, dated Ilruss<ds, Ma'rtdi 1H(!2.) Tin;
kinds of ngricnlturnl produce in Iklgiuni are very
numerous, including the foUowing gmin.^ niid
plants, all of which are cultivattnl in Flanders: —
Wheat (white and red), rye, barley, oats, col/n,
buckwheat, hemp, flax, potatoes, tobacco, hops,
turnips, red carrots, {larsnips, jH>as, beans, clover,
spiirry, lucerne, madder, saiutfoin, chicory, beet,
wo.-id, and )H)ppies.
The central part of the kingdom, contained
I)U
:'I\^
Ii
4{Yi nv.i/ni vr (KI
wlililn n liitc pnxKin^ ihriHiKli Miiliix'i), '!'< nnmiil,
'INitirniiy, Moiim, Nitintir, nml l.oiiviiiii, iiilinlt'ii
inili'll III' till* rirlli'nl |ii rliiiii iiC llir M4ii| ; liii. it iliK'N
iiol, iiti ilic wliiilc, i'si'i'imI iIii> iiM'rii((i' I' riili(> ol'
ttir ililiiiiili'DiiiilU'Miit' |'jikI/4IiiI, mill liitial Ici'lilcilly
Ih> riiintiilcrt'il iiilrrlor In tlii' ricli itlliiviitl Mill* ilf
niiriiiniilcil llit< riirM'H, In Mniilainl, 'Dn' liiinl in
ifi'nt'riil N nnl wt nr.-tilv tillcil iim in (In- U'mI V.uu-
liMli nifrii'ulliiriil c" intli-x. 'I'lii' linxliuMiiry <>l° tlir
n'litriil itnriM dillirit <'iinHiili>riil<ly |p<itn tliiil »(
KliniiliTN. 'I'll!' t'imim itrc litr^rr, iiml \vnn ciirct'iilly
cnltivilliil. Till* N|iiiili> In Ii'sm iisnl in tint llrliU,
anil llii'y linvr I'lHiwiiiu'iilly not llir xiinii' rcHi'in
lilaiii't' III ^ar<ll'llH. In llaiiiaiill Mini Antwrrp tin-
riiltlvniiiiii III' lilt X anil Iiimii|i in iH'coniin^ aiiriiiiary
i>li|i'i't; Iml Itit'rn' valiiiililii iThih iiri< |iriHliif<'il to
liir KTf'ntfr rxtnit in lln- twn rlanili'!"*, tin- airn-
cniliiri' of wliit'li In mi lii)^lily ri'|<iili<l ii^ to ri'i|iiir)>
a m'|iiiiati' i'i>iii'<'i wliicli lirrriit'tiT Im ^'ivcn. In
tin- rirliiT iiiirtM ul' Itraliaiit, llii\, lii'iiip, ami nii/a
art' t'Xti'iiMivcly ciiltiviitcil, mIiIi iniirli nianiiriiiK.
anil a Mnrt'CNniiin of wheat. Kyc, in lliii* provinrr,
iH nlwayi* n lar^n I'Mp, tor lirniii iinil iliNtillaiioii,
'I'lii* iilraK'iii'iiiM planlH lloiiriHh in all Ilir provinn-N,
anil till' ciiltnrr III' hiaiM iw vrry Niiit'CHNl'iil in llra-
liant, Fliinili-rN, ainl alon^r tin* vaMry of IIk' iMriiMc,
in the pruvini'i' of Mi'gi', Mai/c Imn licrii imrtiaily
inl roiliw-cil, anil t'ontnl In •-iifi'iicij, Mmlilrt \* ({fowti
rliii'My in KlaniliTx anil ilii' pniviiit'e ol Antwerp
MiMt ol' tlie prilii'ipal laniis tlirnilKlioiit the kiiiK-
<iii poMxesii i|istilierii>, anil the ntalleil eattli^ are
It'll upon Ihe ret'iiNe wiiNh, Willi the exeeptioli of
l''liiniU'rN, no pariinilar nitatioiiM of eroiw are ail-
hereil to. The lieliN are eroppeil a riling' to Ihe
wiinlNof the fanner ami tlie Ntutc of tlie lanil. An
aliiinilitiK'e of niannre allows of rapiil retnrtiN of
white Kiraw eropx. All the elover, ami nlherforuKe
crop'*, iiri^ nseil ^reen, in the nIiiIIi ami ntaliles, mh
foiHl for I'liltle ami horses. Utile hay in innih>, in
)ii'opi>rtion to the iniinlM'r of entile kepi Ihriiii^hoiit
Ihe winter; no that, on tiie failure of <{reen fooil,
tli(> eliii'f reeunrNe In to roolN, namely, tnrniim,
earrols, ami iHilatoes. TheNlall-feil rattle fiiniisli
ample snpplieN of manure, the liiiiiiil part of whieli
is eollei'teil in lar^e lailkn of liriekwork, nnd in
either earrieil out and poured over the land, or is
us<'d to nioiNten and accelerate the ferineiitalion
of the dry dnnn-lii'iipN nml cinnpoNtN,
t'lvmiuli /limhtiiiiln/. — FlaiiderH, in conNOfpienee,
of ilH (freat conniiercial prosperity , whm reinarkalile
fur the advanced Ntnte of it> a^'riciillnn' lon^ liefore
iniproveinent in IIiIn important art waH ohservalile
in any coiiiitry N, of the Alps and Pyrenees,
ltrnKc*-< mid (ilient were important commercial
towns in the lllh century, and mipplied the va-
rious courts of Kiiro|K! with the rich silks and ta-
])estrieswhich then were their chief luxuries. The
c'liininerce nnd aKrlcnltnro of KlamlerN ^rew to-
fjether; nnd in oriler In nccmnit for the remnrkniilu
excellence of tlie Flemish hnsliamlry, which has
lieen cidehratcd for upwards of tilMI years, it is
necessary to keep in view the close connection
which in that country exists between the farmer,
the ninniifacturer, nnd the Tncrchnnt; nnd the
etTorts of n contiiiuully incrcnsiiit^ ]i<>pulution, in
8litiiid:i' tifi the exertions of those who provide the
ii(;>i .iiH'soflife. In FInnders, as in every country
densely populated, where Ihe villntres are thickly
scattered, nnd where, by means of water cnm\)<;i'.
on rivers and canals, maimre can be transported
to the la :d at n trilin;; expense, fallowin;i; and
layin;^ down to pasture arc nei'cssarilv superseded
by increased tillnK(' nnd manuring, it is remark-
able that, in (jliina, where n similar density of
]iopulation exists, there jtrevails the same anxiety
ns in Flanders to colhtct every sidwtaiicc uml liipiid
that can {xisMibly serve to increase the fertilising
N(H»OM OF)
power" ol the wiil ! and thni In IhiIIi iheto nmiiifi,,,
onlnre i i all Nurls Ix carefully ciilli'ciiil, m,\,\ „,',,
inimt viitiialde arlicle of I'limnierii', nml ii|i|,ii,i| n.
the Ih'liU and ({iirilen'<aN the «c <</«« «/^<ii,i .ij,,,,,
latliitf manure. Were the wlmli' ,<( Hmuiir, Ijn i
■lilt III \nrnv farms, and a third or tmittli imri |,||.
lowed every year, or a half lefi ni tiiiinrul ,;t,i.,
Ilii' |Ni|iiilation could not Im' frd; ami IikIi'h,! ..f
exporting iiKriciillnral priNliice, im nt |ir.H,.|it. ',
Kri'iil importation would Im- ri'i|iiliiti', ti, .in.Uv
the ilemand of inleriial connumpti'iii. ll,..),!, .
the piHir Koili of Flamlers I'uiilii niMr L' ri'i'miini
bv such a coiiise. Without ri'|M'alr'l iniiiiiiriii >
ifier iild be no viuiirniis ve((i'iiitioii; ainl ||",!
land left to niitiiri' would ri'liirn In iti 'irik'in.il
state of heath. The nei'e»Nity of iiroviiliin{ riprmii
slanlly increasiiiK numbers of mhnli. |irin|iin.,| i|„
iiKriciillnral |H'rfectioii for which Klnnilcrslmsjiiii^;
been renowned; inid Ihe demainls ni niiiiiiiiri''
Mild manufactnri's have so miiliiplinl tin. niiji.,|,
of ciillivation, that llax, lii'inp, tin' iilci^lnnn,
seeds, and various oilier pliiiils ri'i|iiiri'i| l'i,r i||,.
arts, verv orten proiliu e a nfc'ilcr prnllt tn iii,,
farmer than the l'ariiiai'i'iiii-< uriiii-'. lln' vrs
liir^it priNliice oblaiiu'd bv tlic l''lriiiiH|| rarimrif
solely attributable to imieliitl^'iilili' imliiHtrv, lur
th(^ Noil In nntiirally poor, ami tlic climati' IaIiviim
means es|M'i'ially I'ihmiumIiIi', the wiiitiTi lii'in;;
longer nml more ncmti' iIimm in l'',ii){liuiil. Thnr
or four (iloii^hinus, and two or tlirei' linmin'iM;;>,
are ciimnioiily Ik'sIowciI iipnii each crii|i. '|h,.
collection and npplicaiion of inaniiri' is itlsn u ^rim
principle of Flemish husbandry. In KIiiihIi'in n,,
thin;; can lieelt'ectcd williniil abimilaiici'iiriiiatiuri':
and, coiisi'ipiently, the greatest cure is lakiii Ih
procure it. The maxim is, no fnriiu;!' iin raiili'i
wilhonl cattle no inamire; and witliinit iii;iiMir"
no crops. The stall-fed cattle arc the |>riiiri|al
source of supply; but every expcdii'iit ii rv^nriiil
to, in order to increase Ihe (|Uinitity nml ini|irnvi'
the ipiiiliiy. All kinds of aniiiial ainl vi';;i'iiili|.'
matters are carefully collected in pits walliil wiih
brickwork, where they nnilcr^'o the |jiilriliirtivi'
process, by beiiif; mixed with substiiiu'cs ainiuly
partially ilecomiHised. Amither inili-|ii'iiMilili';iii<l i
universal auxiliary of the Flcniisli linm r, i> ih''
tank of liipiid manure, eollecleil from iln' ilniin
in^s of the stableN, cow stalls, and iliiM;;liill>, nml {
from Noiirces which in F.n^land till llic i'i's^ihh.I
(rii/tiiijif). In lilient, the sum reccivi'il liy hmi-c
servants, for liqnidH collected for niaiinri', uliiul
nmonnts lo ns much as their wa^cs, Tlic lii{iiii|j
manure is carried to the tield in waiir r.irts. uinl |
carefully dislributed over the siirfaci' nf the Ininl
shortly previous to the sowing' of sicil, i -iiciial
that of llnx. Fvery fnrin-yard po»cs.s('s niu' ' l'|
these tanks, which are commniily of lnr);c ili-
mensions — about -Kl ft, in length, by It in liwiiiili,!
and >* in depth; and usually coiistriictcil ln'iicntlil
the stalls for cows. An acre of land ile^liiiiHll'iifl
llax receives verv coiunninly 2,")0(i ;,'alliiiis of 1I1I4I
animal liiinid snWipient to an abunilant u|i|<lii'a-l
tion of solid manure, which is deejily |i1iiiikIhiI iii'"l
the soil. The elHcacy of the liijinil is nftcii liii|,'lil-|
ened for flax, bv dis.-'olvinf;- in it lar^'c i|imiiiiiii*
of ra|(e cake, I'^very distillery of inmlcratc I'xliiilij
has lifty or sixty head of cattle constantly Miiiliil.
and fed' upon the grains nnd refuse wash, lli
establishments were formerly \ery niinu'rous: hiin
the duty on spirits, and the iiilcrl'iri'iicc ul' 1
fjovcrnn'ient, have much rciliiced tiu'ir niiiiibi'rj
and consetpiently occasioned a (lelicieiiryiitiiiaiiurr
and of cro|)s; as it is estimated that fwry IickI
produces annually ten or twelve tons nl'suliil. iinil
twenty-six hojrstieails of liipiid niiimirc. Liir-i
(|uantities of peat ashes, imported I'limi I lnH'ii"'!
are used as u dressing; for clover; ami liiiu', i**'^
, »ilc| l(> It
ii|>|'lii'il III
lol «liillll
lIlili'N likl I
It (uirt l.il
iirul ^'tii<-,
lii<ti'ii.| „1
|iri"<i>iii, ii
, til »iiii|iK
. Il<'.|,|...
U' mTiiiii.l
llllllllirill;,',
III', ami [\w
ill <irii,'iii.il
liii(( I'lirinn
irinllli'l'il llii
IcrslmHlnii).'
il I'liiniiiini'
ll till' iilljirl,
I' iilfiluitli'ili
iiircil fur till'
prnllt III till'
. Till' virv
lUh liirmcr m
iiiiliiAtrv, lur
iiiair i* liy iiii
vintrr'< liciii^
;laiMl. 'I'lirn
«' liiirriiwin:-,
ll (Tiili. 'Ill'
In iilHiiui;ri'iii
I KlamltTH u>i
iii'i'iirinitiiiiri':
ri' il* taken hi
aiii' im I'iilil'';
itliiiiit niiiimr"
I' llic liril\iil':il
liciit is rt'^nrinl
y iinil imiinivi'
" ami vi'P'tiiMi'
its walli'<l Willi
lie |iulr('l'iii'ti\i'
,luii('i''< alri'iiily
ili-li('iit>alili':iii'l
II riiriiiir, i-ih<
Iriiiii iIh' ili^iiii
ilimnliills. mill I
11 lllC 1'I'>>1«'"1 I
■civi'il liy lii'iiM'
iiiaimrc, "ii'H |
[CS. Till' liiiuiil
■atiT curl!', mill I
IH'C 111' I 111' liiii'll
(iccil, ('sirt'ciiillvi
wscKSC!* mil' '''1
Iv (if larnt' ll
Iv 11 in liri'iulilij
riii'tcil ln'111'iiil'l
iml (li'slini'il I'lirl
(rnlliiiiMif ilml
iimlaiit ii\iiiliiii-r
[vplminlwl""".
■isiift('iilH''J.'',"l
arp' niiniiii''''
IlllullTlltC l'Xll"1
iislaiitly Miillf
wasli. Till'
I miim'nms; 1'"^
I'rlVrciK'e "f I'l^
their nuinU'rl
|ij.,„yiifni!iiiiin
Ihat every lifii*!
Ills iifsiirui. I'll'!
Vamire. ^■•"^
I iViiiu ili'll'iii''!
[anil liii'^'i 1"*1
IIKI.dllM (Kl
1^,1 Imne", trtiirl, ninl llm iIiiiik of |ilj<i'iiim, «rt>
„,,liaii«riiiiil"r ili'lrirtn.
|li,< Kiiiiili' il "iii^ III' lli<< iniiKt iiiiiHirtiiiU ill!
I,.„„,iil, III I'lriiiinli iiKririilliirc, ami is uinl in a
Ll' ll icri'O'i'' *'''(l*'iit ''■'II* '■* '*">' i'IIk'!" I'Kiinlry.
|{„.iri'iieliiii^ "P'kIi' '* I'liiixtaiiilv I'tiiiiliivcil nii all
ilii' liiilit laii'l"' "I"' ""' '■I'xl*' III' III)' Vli'iiiixli liiH',
,„i,,Kt I'tlliii'iii iiiNtriiiiit'iii, rrNi-iiilili'N ami ii|H'raii's
,„;i.iili"ii(iil<' '"■' ''■'*' "' !'■'' Kjxxli'. Iiiili'i'il. till-
.i„/,n ||||4 I'viili'iillv lii't'ii tin- iiri^'iiial iiiimIi'I t>l'
ill,. Kleiiil"'' raniiw, ainl llinsc oCl'iirtv or lll'lyaiTi's
„,ii.i niill l»' ri'pinli'il n* I'lilaruni ^arilrii'*. In
mmi'iiriiik' ili''*'"'''^''"'"" "I'I'iikI '■> I'laiiilcrH uitli
iliai I't Kii|:l'>mli ^1' '''III "iilv ailiiiii'i' llir lar^r
.fipli'iiA ill till' ii<'i»{lil>i>Hrlii><ii) of Ltmlmi, wlicn-
ll,,. ,111111111111 KimU III' vi'Ki'talilrit arti raiscil I'nr
,i,.,,,lyiiixtlii' iiiarki'is; wliiTi' ^ri'i'ii rrmw an' fiii
mrh I'lir Imrsi''* anil niwH lii'|ii in l.iiiiilnn, ami
«|ii'n< the siiil ix I'liiiliiiiially I'liriclit'il witli llii'
g^miiini |,iiiii|iiii Nii|i|ilii'K. Ily till' iiniN'riiiliiii of
•laili' liiisliHiiilry, an iiiilusiiiiniH Mfininj,', with
tiilnii luri's III' uiiml Iik'iI laiiil, liriii;;!< ii|i IiIn
i„„j|v ill ili'i'i'iil iiiili'|i<'iiili'iiri', anil in llii' cuiirsf
„l lij'n life ni'riiiiiiilaK'M Miilliciinl inraiiM lo |iiit
,l„„, ill |Missi'>Hiiiii III' ll liltli' rami «( their own.
I'liiTi' nre iiiiiiiy hiiiiiII |irii|iri('tiirs wlm liavi- risen
,|„«|v liy ilic llllllllirill' llieiriiwn liaiiils; ami llieir
li;iiiiiiiliiiiis sliiKv, liy llie (freiit care ami iieiilnesH
.jiM'rviil iiii'very partii'iilar, tlial an luniesi priile
i) ii'li ill piisHi'ssin^ thin rewanl ul' iiiiliisiriniiM
,^irtiiin, liii'esHanl liibmir til'llu> Imily, ami iiceii-
<iiiiiiii iif tlio iiiimi, arv imt reKanleil liy the
Hiiiiiuli iH'iisaiil uilh tlisiiiiileiil, I'nr to the one
ilii'i are I'liiiiiil ti< Hci'iiru i;iiiiil heultli, ami to the
iiiliiririiiii|iiilliiy.
[he fiiriiis III the I'ayn <lo Waen, lM'twe( ii (ilutil
mil ,\iitwer|i, are eiillivali'il with aMioiilMhini^
iui'iIiikI ami iiinliieHM, ami alloril the nmst pcrl'd't
firiinii'iia III' lii'lil enlliire on the |>riiu'i|ileH nf
tufliiiiiit;. T'lie soil i^^ artilieial, ami the result of
rHiiiirii'siit'systeiiialii' inaiiiiriii^', whii-li has eon-
vrriiil a liarri'ii naiiil into a rieli hliiek loamy
nimilil. Till' lii'lilM, as in all |inrt.i of I'Tamlers. are
MiiliiM'il hy Iii'iIk^'") iiii'l tiit'.v an' remarkalily
mill-friiin liall'an acre loan aere; every part ol'
iliiiii is kept perfectly tree from weeiU, and they
uii'levuleil ill the <'eiitre, ho iih to have a gently
iiiliiiiil nIiiiki towards the tixtreinities, where
iliiiliis earry oft' oxcessive rain, and prevent in-
jiir)' mill rciliii'lioii of the noil. Nearly similar
firi'.iiiil lU'eciseiiess arc olisorvalile in the whole
ill W. 1111(1 K. Klnmlers; Imt, while the Flemish
fimii'M are uri'atly sniiorinr to tlio I'Jit^lish, in
niniiti' Alteiitiiin to the (plaliti(^s of the soil and
iiiiinumstuiitial particulars of cnltivntion, in the
Mmntie ecoiiomy of land and the Judi('i(ais
HiOTn^iiiniiferopH, they are much inferiorin aiiioiint
I'lcajiilal, in varied and improved impleinentH of
I iilLi;'i'. aii(lcs|K>eially iu tlto chuico and breeding
iiffiittle ami slieei).
Win ertent off a niiH in Flanders, and tliroiighoiit
I Cili.'iiini, very rarely exceeds 100 acres. The
tiiniU'r eontniiiiiig fifty acres is not great, Imt
I ihiM' of twenty, tiftet'ii, ten, and live acres, es-
I'ially lietwecii ten and live, are very iiiimeroiis.
ikc fxtenaive ninniifact tires which formerly
I iwheil in llelgiuiii collected a dense population
I «f artisans in tlie neighhoiirliood of the great
liwiis; liat when the Imsy si^^iie of maniifaet tiring
iiiliisiry was transferred to other countries, this
I |>i|iiilati(m was deprived of its means of handicralt
I wiiliiynicnt, nnd w^as oljlig(!d to resort to the ciil-
I livatiiiii nf the soil for subsistence. Such npjiears
I ll have liecn the chief, though possibly not the
li»Kiirij;in of the still prevalent system of small
I Ims.wliioh nre generally cultivated by the holder
I iiiii Ills family without any other assistance.
N(UM>M OF)
<'n>i» in /'AiNfArn,— (irciit nitrntlon U tM'stiiwril
li|Hin the prepiinilinn of the soil, so as to M'riirit
the iiiost alMiiidaiit crop Irmn the niniilleit ipiaii -
lily of need. Alinlll olie third h'ls \h M'^fii ill
i'liiiiiU'rM, for briiadciisl, than In Knglaml lor
drilling.
Hifr is a very liixiiriaiit, and a prliu'lpal crop, a*
it forms an iniiiorlaiit article of ciiii>-iiniptliiii fur
bread among ilie working cliisKes. The cmpH of
wheat are iiiiiti>niity line, and free frotn smut ami
mildew, whii'li are elfeciiially preventrd by care-
fully selecting the seed, by changing it every
second year, and by Nteeping it in a nnliitinn nf
blue vitriol, or eiiiiper (Hiilpliaie of I'lippcri -, four
ounces in four gallmis of water, fur three lniHlieU
of grain. Alter tliorniighly stirring, skinimiiig
oD' the light grains, and reimiiniiig half an Imnr,
the grain is slraiiii'd otf in baskets, wiisheil ill liiiro
water, .ind when dried, is ready lor sowing. It is
steeped by snine in brine, and dried by silling limit
U|Hin it. < Hie bushel of seed wlieill pl'oiliiees abiivo
twenty bushels, llarley is a ri'o|i of niiii'li iiiipor-
taili'e, nilllt liipior being the couimoll beverage of
all chisM's of the |iiipnlatiiin. The winlt-i barley,
or snerion, is the liiMnirite kind. It is sown in
autumn and reaped in .Inly, Oats thrive well,
with little manure, in alinost everv soil of l''laii-
ders. Ituckwheal is niiseil chiilly as foiiil for
poultry and pigs, and fur distillation. I'eas, bciins,
ami tares, are ciiiiiimuily nilliMiled as fodder for
cattle. Clover is the glory of I'leinisli binning,
and in no ciiiintry is it finiiid in such perfect
luxuriance. l>'i'|H'ated ploiigliings, rich manuring,
and a vigilant prevention of weeds, serve to pro-
duce a vigour and weight of proiliiee whieli Is
surprising. I 'eat ashes fn mi llnlliiMil, about hirty
bushels per acre, are invariably used as a dressing
for clover. From Flanders this vahrible grass was
lli'si introduced into Fnglaint, ll is a cropof great
value, and indispensable to the Flemisli biriner,
who ploughs all his land, and feeds his cnws and
horses on green food brought to I he stall. The
coinnion red species is more eultivaleil in Flanders
than the other varietits. The liijiiid inamire from
t\w tank is believed to produce a strong tiist(>,
with which the cattle are disgusted. The potato
crop, nt the season of its full growth, also exhibits
n remarkable luxuriance. The stalks exceed n
yard in height, and their tops lonn a surfaei^ as
level as the land from which they rise. Tlu' pro-
duce is often ten tons iier acre, and it constitutes
one of the principal artich's of food of all classes of
the poimlation, and of the farmer's live stock,
esjiecially cows and horses. This useful root was
introduced into Flanders from l'',iiglaml at the end
of the sixteenth centnrv, and it has long appeared
in each rotation of the Flemish crops, Turni|is
and carrots are extensively cultivated for stall-fed
cattle, after rye and barley. The turnips, in size
and weight, are much inferior to those of .Norfolk,
and the carrots also yield a comparatively noor
return. The cultivation of the white and yellow
beet, for the extraction of sugar, is continually
becimiing more extensive, and several large fac-
tories have been established for the manufacture of
this im|)ortant article of commerce. The chicory-
plant, of which the root, %vhen pro|>erly torrilied,
IS a very good substitute for cott'ee, is raised in
large rpiantitics in Flanders, where establishments
nre formed for its preparation. The tlax crop is
nn object of the greatest care nnd exertion. Its
cultivation is thoroughly understood, as well as
every jirocess of its preparatiim for the loom; and
the land w liich ))roduces this idant exhibits nil the
neatness nnd iirecision of a carefully maimged
garden. FTux is n staple commodity in Flanders,
it serves to employ a great portion of the pojm-
i> ij 2
t
^:y\
EELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
404
Intinn, nnd It is Inrpely exported. Tlic finest
(Uwcriptidii i» rnined in tlicncijflilMnirhoodof (Joiir-
triiy. CropH of tliix |)r(Hliiwd I'rom nntive wed are
found to be HUperior in (|Miiiility, lint inferior in
cpiality, to tlinsu ))rodiK'ed from the Heed of llipt,
wliieli i>i tlierefore procured by the KlemiMb farinern
every year. Hemp in enltivated witli f^reat care,
but not to the Hanie extent aH tiax. Colza (liriis-
aica cumpestrh) and a Hpecies of poppy, the uiktte
iPiijuwtr somntf'enim), are extensively enltivated
or the oil contained in their Heedn. VVoad is raised
for its dye of blue, wehl for yellow, and madder for
red. The two Flanders, and the provinee of Ant-
werp, prodnee a eonsideralile quantity of nuidder,
but the wliide annual prodnee of the kinj^dom is
insutlieient to supply u fourth of the quantity eon-
pumed at one of the larf^c factories of cotton and
woollen : those of Ghent alone make use of madder
to the value of six millions of francs per annum.
W'oad thrives best on gravelly and sandy soils;
but madder requires land of the best descriiition,
and abundance of mainire. llic cultivation of
tobacco was common several years ago in nearly
all the provinces, but at present it is eonlined to
Flanders; and the produce now is reduced to about
one-tenth of its fonner amount. 'J'he best tobacco
is raised and prepared at Werwick, in the neigii-
bourhood of Ypres. An acre produces about 4,(11)0
lbs. The culture of this plant requires a great
amount of labour, attention, exjiense, and manure.
Hops are grown in small patches on almost every
farm in Flanders. Pastures of grass are scarcely
to be met with, except in the polders, and the vi-
cinity of Dixmunde and Furncs, where they are
most luxuriant, and atiord grazing for numerous
cows ; 8tall-fee(ling, however, is iniiversally i)rac-
tised. One beast for every three acres of arable
land is a common proportion, and where s|)nde
luisbnndry prevails, a larger number are found.
(3ho))ped turnips, carrots, and potatoes, boiled up
with the meal of beans, rye, or buckwheat, consti-
tute the usual food of cattle, and it is called bmssiu.
Large quantities of good butter for home consum])-
tion and exportation are produced from the milk
of cows thus fed, with the addition, in summer, of
clover and other green fodder, cut and brought to
the stalls. The churns are ingeniously worked by
a horse. Cheese rarely is made in Flanders, almost
all the demand for it being supplied by impor-
tation from Holland.
Tlie land in Flanders is generally freehold, or
the jffoperty of civil or religious corporations. The
estates are small, and if not cultivated by the pro-
prietor himself, which is more frequently the case,
they arc let on leases generally of 7, 14, or 21
years' duration. The occupier is bound to live on
the j)remises, pay taxes, etfect repairs, preserve
timber, not sub-let without a written agreement,
and to give certain usual accommodations to the
next tenant at the end of the lease. The farm
establishments are always convenient, and gene-
rally more amj)le, in proportiitn to the extent of
the land, than in England and Scothmd. In ad-
dition to the usual accommodations, the larger
farms are commonly provided with a distillery, a
crushing-mill for the preparation of oil from the
colza and poppy, and sometimes a mill for grinding
corn.
Peasant Farmers. — The small farms, between
5 and 10 acres, wliich abound in many parts of
Helgiiim, have much resemblance to the s^all
holdings in Ireland ; but while the Irish cultivator
exists in a state of miserable privation of the com-
mon conveniences of civilised life, the Belgian
peasant farmer enjoys, comparatively, a great de-
gree of comfort. His cottige is built substantiallv,
with an upper tloor for sleei>ing, and is kept in
good repair : it has always a Rmnll colInrnRc f^r
the dairy, a store-room for the grain, an (ly,,,^
an outhoustt for potatoes, a roomy caltlc-stnll, ,i
piggery, and a lofl for the poultry. The I'liriiiii'ir!:
IS (lecent, the bedding amply siilliciciil, aiid aii air
of comfort an<l propri(!ty jjcrvades tlie wlmli:
establishment. 'I'hc cows are supjilied with simw
to lie upon ; the dung and its drainiiigs arc rari'-
fuUy collected in the tank ; and a coinpi.Mt licaii is
accumulated from every possible source, 'fhc
l)remises are kept extremely neat, with a euTistant
observance of the most rigid ecououiy, indiistrv,
and regularity. No member of the fninily is cvir
seen raggt^l or slovenly; but all are iltronilv
clothed, though it be with the coarsest matcriali.
The men nniv(!rsally work in linen canvas frmis,
and b(»th women and men wear wooden A\w\
Kye bread and milk often conNtiinte tliuir dii;,
though recent lywheateu bread has beconKMinioiv
geiu'ral an icle of consumption. The great mi|ic.
riority of the Belgian over the Irish i)ea.saiit farim r
is owing not to any advantages of soil orclitnati',
but to a better system of cidtivation, andos|](Tially
to established habits of sobriety, foretliounlit. anil
priulent economy. The points of his su|icri(irilv
consist — 1st, in his keeping as many staij-l.il
cattle as possible, to secure a sup]>ly of maniin ;
2n(l, in carefully collecting, and skilfully apiilyiii;',
manure ; 3rd, in adhenng to an advanta>;idii.s ri-
tation of 6 or 7 crops, by which is obtained ilic
utmost amount of produce without any fallciwiii-
On farms of 6 acres are found no horse, pliiiii;li,
nor cart : the only agricultural implement, hcsiilis
a spade, fork, and wheelbarrow, is a liglit wnodiii
harrow, drawn by hand. The whole of the laiiil i<
dug and deeply trenched with the sjiadc, and the
whole farm work is carried on without any a>.si.-t-
ance beyond that of the family. The live stml;
commonly consists of two cows, a calf or two. mn-
or two ])igs, a goat or two, and some jHiullry. All
the different kinds of crojjs which have alrcaily
been noticed, are cultivated upon tlipsc sniiill
establishments with the same care and sucwss m
on the tinest farms in the kingdom. (Mr. Xichulis
Keport on Holland and Belgium, ;>«.ssfHi.)
Hortkulture. — Numerous and extensive fjardcin
are cultivated in various parts of the kingdum Ux
the supply of the town markets with culiiiiiry
vegetables, and the common tardy fruits, wliirli I
are produced in great abuiulance and excelicnci;.
The annual value of this kind of iiroduuc is isti- j
mated at a million sterling. Apples and clicrrii i |
are especially good and plentiful, and arc fouiiil ii
every farm-house garden in the kingdom. Tin
culture of the vine is attended with consideralile j
success in several elevated localities on the banks |
of the Meuse ; and some of the wine there prodaccl
is far above mediocrity. From Belgium Eiiftiaiul
obtaine<l the cabbage, lettuce, and goosiel)erry.
Floriculture. — In Belgium the culture of tiimw |
is an object of as much gratitication as in Ilollaii i
and the climate is far more genial for briii;;iii.;
forth the beauty of these amiable ornaments nl j
civilised life. The last cLvsilication of tlie IWpc 1
population in 18.50 shows that, in the whole km^'- j
dom, there were then 113 professional florists, .1 j
whom two-thirds were in E. Flanders and linilBiiii. I
The tulip, carnation, and wall-tlower,werebr()ugiiU
into England from Belgium.
Manufactures.— Wool, in Belgium, is tlie oli|fctl
of an immense industry. The manufactures ct allj
kinds employ a qnaiititv of foreign wool, tlif "i-
port of which, in 1862. amounted to lH.OUtoiiS" I
the value of 66,259,000 francs ; in 1863, to UM\
tons, valued at 43,70.5,000 francs: an<l in 1»;^|;'"J
21,586 tons, valued at 66,8<J2,0()0 francs. 1 to|
the average annual value of the ivoci iinporicJ i
collttrnftfi fi,r
lin. nil ovdi.
(•altli'-stiill. u
Tlic I'liniiuiri:
III, aiiilun air
'M lllC Wlliilc
I'll with siriiw
iiiiH« (ire I'liri'-
)iniM.nt hciiii is
sdiirec. 'i'iic
•itii a I'imslaiit
liny, iiidiistry,
I'ninily in cvir
MV (Iccciiily
wcKt maicriiik
caiivnti IVuclis,
wimhIcii s1iiic>,
uti' tlioir ilic;,
lit'ciime aniuri'
'lie Kfi' ^ii|ic-
(icasuiit rHniii r
.soil or cliiiiaii',
i,niiil('siiwiiilly
ii'ctlioiiKlit. lui.l
liis su|icriiirily
many si.ill li'l
])ly of mamiri ;
ilfiilly aiipiyiiiu.
ilvnntaj;cmi,s 1 1-
i» obtaiiu'il ilio
t nny fallniviii;'.
() horsp, )ilnu;;li,
plemcnt, Iw^idi >
1 II lifjlit W(khI(1i
Ac of tiic lanil i*
e sjindc, ami tin'
hoiit any awist-
Tlio live stml;
, calf or two, mif
(tic iiiiullrv. All
h have alromly
on tliost' .sniiill
e anil hiu'('P.«< in
(Mr. Nichuli's
sim,)
tensive g.irdciH
ic kiiigdiim i"r
with culiiiiiry
fruits, wldcli
and excellfinv,
|iroduec isi-ti-
■s and cliiTrin 1
(I are fomul in I
iii^diim. 'flit
ith considcralile
ics on the lumk* \
there produc(-4 I
Igiiim Eiii;!:"!'!
gooseberry,
ultnreof tliiww]
matiinllollaiiU
ial for briii,u'in;'l
ornanuMits of I
onofthclUi'i':]
the whidckin;;-!
ional florists, il [
ersandliriibaiii.
er.werebruui'litj
,m,istlieobiort|
nHfacture.stit»ll|
,1 vm\, the iiii-l
o lS,(;i4ton-,"lj
18G3, to 1 l.:i'*i|
anil in WM. t')|
francs. 'llii|*l
,v„(.) iiniiortcd \i\
BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
(tvivc two millioiiR Btcrlinp. Ft in inrtported from
Siixoiiy, I'riiKsia, SilcKia, I'olnnd, Holicrniii, Iliin-
L'lirv, Moravia, and th« soiithorii i)riiviiicc.<» of
Ji'iissiii. The annual prodiicfiou of the imiigcnous
KiMil. of pure and mixed breeds, Hcarcely ainuiints
in value to '20t»,f)00 francs.
U'liollcn cloths form one of the mn.st important
kiiiiehcH of manufacturing industry, and they arc
triiitly superior in quality to tliose produced in
France. 'I ho dye ol the black dotlis, which arc
niiide in larfje quantities, is considered to lie more
l>niiniient, deep, and beautiful, than that of the
iitst KiiKl'^h cloths. The casimirs of the Heinle
Iniiiiis are also as excellent as t hose of France. The
ihitf scats of the woollen manufacture are at
Vmiers, Liege, Dolhaira, Limburg, Ilodimont,
Stavelot, Tluiin, Yprcs, and I'operingbe. The
wiH.iitn mamifactures of Ver\'icr8 and its environs
(■!ii|iloy alone a population of 6(),()(l() oiKjratives,
Hiiiiiiel, coverlets, serge, Iwlting-chttli, camlet, *c.,
life made in all the provinces of the kingdom, but
irimipally in Antwerp and Ilainault. The caqiet
naiiiifactory of Messrs. Schimiacher and Co. at
liiimiay is the most extensive and important in
Kiiriiiie! It priMluces all kinds of what arc called
iJroiBf/s carpets, from those which adorn the sum|)-
iiiiius palaces of kings, to such as are used for the
iliiiirof the cottage. Besides the principal manu-
laciiire at Toiiriiay, there are several others of
>.Tiindary rank in the same town ; in Brussels,
Aiitiverp', (jlient, Bruges, and Coiirtray.
jlil|,'iuTn jiroduccs a large quantity of flax. The
vnrioiis manipulations to whicii this product of tlie
Mil is subinitteil form one of the, most ancient and
iiii|Hirtant sources of the manufacturing wealth (if
tlic kingdom. The mode of culture, tlie order of
(Tiilis. the preparation of the soil, the system of
iiiamiriiig, the careful cultivation of the plant, and
ilic |Toces3 of steeping, are so well understood in
ll('l;;iuin, that its flax is always in great demand
tlirnigliout I'hirope. Fngland and France buy
marly all the flax which is produced in the pro-
vini'Wdf Ilainault, Brabant, and Xamur. The two
FLnnilers supply a very large quantity to the Eng-
lish market.
Linen manufactures have been long extensively
I rrii'd on in Belgium, and their products have
iH deservedly celebrated for their excellence. Of
liif years, however, they have been, for the most
|art, far from flourishing. The Imsinosses were
(iiffiisal over the country, particularly over East
ami We.st Flanders, and were carried on in the
oitliisos of the peasantry much in the same way
as the Irish linen trade was formerly diHiised over
ll-ter, and the lace trade over parts of England.
Hut since the successful ap)>lication of steam to the
s|iinning and weaving of flax anil the jiroduction
iif lace, the foreign demand for the linens and laces
iif Flanders has greatly declined; and the popu-
kidn deiieiiding on these branches of industry has
Iwii exposed to the greatest privations. In l8ti4,
tliiTewere no fewer tlinn 12(),(H)0 female spinners
ill K. Flanders, and 'J.0,OO() ditto in W. Flanders,
exclusive of a large number of weavers, all of whom
«iTt! in a very depressed an<l impoverished con-
iliiiim. There can be no doultt, that here as else-
»liw, the old domestic manufacture of lini'iis and
kfcswill Ijc extinguished; and that the manii-
405
II
fii'.'iure, if oanied on at all, will have to be carried
wi ill factories.
The productiim and manufacture of silk has
iwiitly become an imjiortant source of lUdgic
iinlustry. The breeding of the silkworm was
i!iin«liiced into Itelgium in I82t!, and this (lc]i!irt-
ffl'iilol' business is continually increasing under
fc tWtering care of the government. The mul-
Irrry nnpoofs to thrive in the soil of the couiUry,
and the number of young plantH now cullivaled
exceeds two millions. In the opinion of the best
judges, the Belgic silk is niiite as boaiitifiil and
valiialilo as the ciioicest kind produced in tho
French provinces of Piedmont and I>auphin«>,
which, ill fact, is tlic finest in the worhl. Tho
most extensive establishments for rearing the silk-
worm arc at Meslik rEveqiie, near Ath, and at
llccic, near Brussels. Antwerp, which is tho
principal centre of the manufacture, contaiim
establishments for the production of various kiiuls
of silk fabrics. Velvets, satins, gros do Naples,
and other stuffs, obtained formerly from Naples,
arc made with a l)eautv of tissue and tints that
cannot be surjiassed. 'I'hc silk factor^' at I'ccle is
remarkable for excellent dyed and printed fabrhis.
' Briisscds lace,' the thread of which is mnile of
the finest Hax of the country, is superior to every
other ticscription made in iielgiiini or in foreign
countries. Its peculiar (pialities arc delicate line-
ness, and a great elegance and variety of design.
The |)atterns are all worked sejiarate, and are
stitched on. The flax employed grows near llai,
and the best at liebecquc. The finest ilescription
costs from 3,000 to 4,000 francs a ])ound, and is worth
its weight in gold. The spinning is performed in
darkened rooms, with a beam -.if light admitted
only upon the work, through a snuill a|icrturc.
The lace of Malines is second in rank, with res|)ect
to richness and elegance. It is made also at
Antwerp, Lierre, and Turnhuut. The cities of
Bruges, Menin, Ypres, Courtray, (Ihent, Alost, and
,St. Nicolas, employ a great luimber of hands in
the manufacture of Valencien point. Jlons con-
tains a school for special instruction in the art of
making the fiiur kinds of lace.
The i.rincipal tnanul'actiires of tiillv are at (ihent,
Tennonde, Aleidilin. Itrussels, and Bouillon. The
excellence of the Belgic enibroiilery on tulle is
universally acknowledged, and a great number of
females are em|)loved in this department, tho
earnings of each being about .OO cents a day.
The manufacture of gold and sileer lace, was
fonnerly a considerable source of wealth, but it is
now much reduced bv foreign competition. How-
ever, the (pialities of' this article still produced in
Brussels arc fully e(|iial to those of the best tlc-
scription manufactured in Paris.
Hililmns of every sjiecies are made principally
at Aiitwer]), Toiirnay, and Vpros. This branch of
industry formerly emidoycd 1,000 looms and
12,000 persons, and produced annually about three
thousand million j^ards of ribbon; but the muiiii-
facture, in conse(iiience of largo importations of
cheaper kinds from France and Gcrmanj', has very
considerably decreased.
The manufacture of hosier)/ emjiloys about
fiO,000 jjcrsons. Its principal centre is in the
arrondissement of Toiirnay, where 2,.")00 looms an;
kept in activity. About the same number are
found in other parts of the kingdom. The coarser
articles are more succes>fiil, and are partly ex-
])orte(l. Finer kinds arc imported chietly from
Saxony. At Arciidonck, in the province of Ant-
werp, about 220,000 pairs of woollen hose are
annually mamifactured, and the most beautiful
articles of knitting and netting are produced at
Brussels and Tournay.
JJats of felt, or beaver, are made sufficiently
good to meet the (.'oinpetition of foreign maiiu-
fKjtiirers, — and those of silk are of very superior
([Utility. The latter kind are made in nearly
every city in the king(b>ni, .so that the manufacture
of beaver hats has consequently much dccrea.sed.
Straw hats are abundantly made in Brussels.
Ghent, and Antwerp.
The prci);ir?.t ?.<•!! <\iv\ various manufactures of
400 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
loiither arc rnrricd on with iindimiiiiKliPil succpsr.
The |iriii(^i|ial tnnnorics (ire nl Sliivclot hikI l/icfje;
tluTe are aUo mnny at nnisneln, Nniiiur, Aiitweq),
(ilicnt, Vjires, and Touniay.
I'ltper factDries cxint in every province, and tlie
nwmufaetnrc of tliis iini)ortant article is prof^res-
HJvely improvinf.', and in recent vearH nnicli has
lieen'cxported to Kn^laiid. It wan stated, in \HM,
tliat a jiortion of tlie large stip))l.v reipnn^d for the
' TinieH* newspaper was made in Heljfinni.
J'rintitiji is carried on extensively, formin^j an
imi)ortaiit tlepartinent of national industry. The
))rinting of llelginni is in no respect inferior to
that of Paris, in heauty and neatness of execution,
or correct nes.( of text, ()iu!]irintiuf;estal)lislinieiit
at Hrussels now produi-es more than all the presses
of the country in the time of its suhjection to the
French (iovernment. Tins remarkable increase
arises from the reprehensilile system of pirating
the hest works of I'aris, which immediately apjiear
in Itelgiinn commoidy at ahout half the origiinil
price. Thev can he sold at this reduced rate, the
]ia|ier used in their manid'acture being nsiially in-
ferior, and the publishers having no (lopyright to
jiay. It need scarcely l)e said that the system is.
notwithstanding, most injurious to the interests of
literature, and Ls discreditable in the extreme to
the Helgians.
/,/7/i(«/w/;/iy liaa attained a high degree of ex-
eel Icnce, and some of t he productions of Brussels
will bear a comparison with the finest specunens of
Gennan artists.
Ciihiiiet-ma/iim; is a source of employment to
numerous skilful oi)eratives. Hrussels is its jirin-
ei|)al seat; and it exports various articles to (jcr-
many and America.
The oidy establishment for the manufactnrc of
cloclm is at (Jhenee, near Lii^ge. The machinery
is moved by steam. Hut all kinds of tiine-iiieces
are supplied chiefly from France and Switzerland.
With the view of promoting the home jmidnction
of these useful instruments, the government an-
nually awards premiums and nic(lals for the most
perfect specimens produced by native artists.
Mehilliirgy. — The al>undance of metals and com-
Imstibles in IJelgium has occasioned the establish-
ment of several extensive forges for the melt iiig
and manufacture of iron, copper, and tin. There
are three principal groups of forges, — 1. On the
l)anks of the Meuse, extending from its entrance
into Ilelgiuin to the limits of Nainur and Liege ;
2. ISetwecn the Meuse and the Sambre ; and a. At
(Tiarleroy. Hesides these principal groups, there
arc ninnerous forges, foini<lries, and tin-works
along the banks of the Hoyoux, theOiirtc, and its
ulHuents. All the mines, tpuirries, steam-engines,
and metallurgical establishments of Uelgiuin are
under the supervision of an insi)ector-genenil and
eight insjiectors, all subordhiafc to the ' Dirccteur-
Gene'ral des I'onts et Chausst'cs et des Mines' in
the Ministry of I'ublic Works. They are divided
into two directions and eiyht arronilisscments, as
follows : —
liherafive atfribntions, esiwcially referring to mn-
cessions and extensions of mines. The ornniiisntinii
and taxation of mines is maiidy regnlaicil |,v tin.
laws of the 21 St April, IMlO, aiid 'iiid May 'ls;i7
All mhihig operafioim must be previouMly mulm'
rised by a Koyal Act of ( 'oncession, wliich confcM
periM'ti'ial property in all (ieposits of any Kpeoitiiil
miiH>ral within a certain delined area on tju. imy.
ment of certain dues to the owner of the laml 'h,
well as to the Treasury. Tlu^ concessiim in alwnv«
refused if the existeiuie of the mineral is luit iirnvlil
to the satisfaction of the ('oinicil of MIuch. If, in
the process of working, anoiher miiu'ral sliinilii !,(,
discoven^d, a fresh concession must be a|i|iii(M| U\t.
This is generally, hut not necessarily, granted iii
the sanui ' concessionnaire.' The tax on niincn i>,
ilivideil info the ' redevance fixe ' and the • rcdc-
vance proportioinielle,' the former ainoinitiiig td In
centimes ))er hectare (217 acres), the latter to i.i,
per cent, of the net produce. IJoth of these (;lii!r«c'i
go t(( the Treasury. There are besides two »iniiiiir
charges which vary in ditl'erent concessions, pnv-
ableto the owners of the surface: a lixed cliar^'c
g(!iu'rally amounting to I franc per hectare, and a
graduated rate of from 1 to 3 per cent, of the iitt
produce.
The importance of the metallurgical indiisirv
of Ilelgiuin is shown by the subjoiiied statcimiii,
which gives the (dlicial of the several branclici
during tlic years iHiil) aim IHUO.
Dirwtliiiu
ArrondliBcniciita
1. Hainault . .
2. The otlicr eight pro-
vinces .
( 1. Mens and Toumay
; 2. Cliarleroy
'3. Nninur, piovincc of
4. Luxenihurjr. province
5. I.iego, left l)ank
• (). liiej?e, right l)ank
7. Huy
8. Tlie five Korthem pro-
vinces
There is, moreover, a body of live members, called
' Conseil nes Mines,' invested with certain de-
JletalUc Ores .
Coal , . , .
JlctiUs, Glass, & Alnm
Slm'ldes, .Stones, and
Slates . .
Total . .
Total in & sterling
Frnnc«
14, ()(!!, 707
104,('.im,'.'01
121,'J07,878
15,070,444
1860 I
Frnnci j
l!!,W(l.l'02 !
in7,lL'7.:'S-j i
l'.'ll,ti!W,ll« I
17,a!)3,.'.74 I
•J.'>4,346,2<!0
10,173,848
•ifi7,71)li.l7l
10,711,844
The royal cannon foundry at T^ioge has tlic
recpiisite api)aratu8 for manufacturing the laru'fit
pieces of artillery in iron and bronze, wliicli it
l)ro(luces of the hest quality. Kstaldisliici'iits
for the constructiim of steam-engines are priiici-
jially at Mege, ISrussels, Cliarleroy, Tilleniont, ami
Ijruges.
Na'd-nmking is an important branch of mctal-
lurg,y at Liege and Cliarleroy, In the liiiicr
l)lace, aliout j"),j')(H) hands are employed in this
Imsiness throughout the winter. Liege is .iImi
the centre of a inanufacfure of Jire-iiriiis, tlic pm-
duce of which and of various other facturics i^
exported to America, l'^g.\'pt, Turkey, (iormuiiy,
Italy, and Spain. The principal kinds niaiiii-
factiirod are,— I. Single and double barrt'lKil
guns for sporting; 2. Jluskcts for military iw;
3. Common guns for various purposes; 4. Pisinls
which, as well as the liest description of guns, are
made and finished with great care uiul tikill.
The wages of pitmen in Ilelgiuin average ftl2
francs per annum, or 3 francs 4 centimes per day,
reckoning 300 working days in the year. In
liainault a collier cams an average of 1)1!!! I'r.ains
j)er annum, or 3 francs 23 centimes per day. Tlif
average earnings of all ages and sexes enipldycpl
ill and about the mines amounted in 18(!0 tn 7iwl
francs, or 2 J francs per working day. Diiriiii,'
the same year the operatives jiaid on im averii::!'
.5 francs per head to the ' caisses de prcVoyaiur.' i
and 11 francs 48 centimes to the 'caisses lif
secoiirs;' total, 1(! francs 48 centimes, or '.'i jht |
cent, of their earnings.
Ample provision seems to be made fur tlic j
IIKLGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
407
la-
matirinl wcUaro of tliu iniiicr. 0{ all tlic K!t,87«
ii.ririM'K t'WKwl >" ''''" i»<l"8lry, H(»,7h;«, or
'' iie-tiiitli'', lire iilHlintetl to the 'cniKHCs «lo
,„iirK ' Biiil to tlie ' caisscH dc prt'voyaiice.' The
Lmr arc iiiiulH ostaldislied at every mine for tlie
' .„,rftn' relief of wounded and sick miners; the
hti'r «rc fnndft created by tlie assoeiation of all
,1, „,o,,t i>( the mines belont^inK to each of the
>ix LTiiiiP^ ''"»'■ '•>** purj)"!*'' <i'' K«vin(^ oermancnt
Mill til (li-ahled miners, or to the widows of those
l^ilkil l)V ai'fidents, and temporary relief to their
AMren. Alliliatiou to these latter 'eaisses' is
niaili' 11 condition of all concessions ^jranted since
'I'li,. pDworful Society of ' La Vieillc Monta^nc'
nc.s.if.'Mt iiumerons cdiieessions of calamine, lead,
ivrili'K, and coal in ditferent parts of Helnium,
|'riis4ii, France, and Swe<lcn. it employed in
istlii. ."),t'p27 o|)erativcs, representing', witii their
lamiiicn, 17,00(1 individual", of whom ll,7r)(! live
ill lli'L'ium or Moresnet. The wa^es paid liy the
i„^.i,.iv in the same year were ;{,(i.JH,«!tG francs.
>i(, .*K'ii>tv has made greater (^ll'ortii to amtdiorate
ilic niDriii and material condition of its servants,
it ha." a(lii|ited the plan of encouruj-nnf; their zeal
liv I'liMiriiiH to each one, in a<!dition to his fixed
Mii'cs, ail eventual share in tlm result of his own
lahmir, calculated on the task-woric jffinciple,
aiiiiliid cither individually, or to the squiul of
iiHiiiL" attiii'hed to each furnace or workshop. It
fiiuiKied a 'caissc de secours,' a 'caisse de
|,[tv»yaiu'e,' and asnvint;s bank, for the exclusive
lnMolit <pf its own operatives; built dwelliu};-
hdusi's, churches, schools, butcherh' and bakers'
slidiw; off^anised choral unions, archers' and ritle
c'.iiii|«iiiies, and tm annuid festival. 1 ts production
if raw zinc anionnteu in IMtiO to the enormous
aniiiiiiit iif •iH,'J2.') tons, principally maiud'actured
at AiiKli'iir and Tilif, near I.iese. The net
hfotiis (if the society, notwithstandiuf,' tiie con-
>iiint fall in the price of zinc, were in 18(i0,
;;,lix,132 francs, allowiufj a dividend •*' 25 per
Ml nil the paid-up capital of !),000,(IOO francs.
k'sides liberal allowances to the directors. Their
ziiic-wdfks at Ant;leur are the larfrest factory in
tlie kiiipUiin, and a model of order, (lie)iort of
Mr. iiarion, Her Majesty's Secretary of Legation,
(iaiwl llnissels, April 15, 18()2.)
in (irdor to encoura{,ie and facilitate imi>rove-
incut in manufactures and industrial pursuits, the
giivemmcut has instituted i>uhlic exhibitions
wiipre only the products of the country and its
inhaliilaiits arc admitted.
A very considerable part of the revenue of
Ikl},'iuni is derived from a tax on jiateuts, no one
Iwiig alKiwed to exercise any trade or profession
withiiut a patent, the price of which depends upon
tlie amduiit of profit obtained, lieports of income
are required from each individual en>,'aj,a>d in
liusiiiess, antl the ftovernment assessors exercise
in(|ui.iiuirial jxiwer in assigning the citizens to
iliiiscs (if (lifterent degrees.
Trade and Commerce. — The commerce of Hel-
puni extends its relations to most parts of the
iviirld, and includes every species of indigenous
ami foreign production, its average annual value
niayliccsthnatedat/l millions sterling, of which
;!!i millions imports, and 35 millions exports. In
Will, the total imports, including transit, were of
the value of ;W,!)52,«10/.; in l.S(i2, of the value of
^l.lM,771/.;inidinl8<i3,ofthevalueof42,7.-i7,l«'.>/.
TIk! total exports, including tnuisit, amounted to
:ill«2,;)51/. in IHGl: to 37,51)4, 1 lo'- i» l*^""-^; '">'l
i'i31Mifi7,70l/. in 18(53. The foUowiiig table gives
till: total real value of the imports and export."
H'xdiisive (if specie) of ISelgiuin, in I8G0 and 1801,
iliidi were, in many respects, average j-ears : —
iMroiiTH.
1860
271),8<)'i,8fi7
U,ll».'i,71/)
(iim,ii(iri,0)i8
a4,iir.8,uao
H8H,8n8,r.:t;.
;).'i,.'i54,:J4l
i'in,s7-.>.inn
4,8'i-.'.M8K
!il!»,.'-.:i!»,4»i;i
ia,781,&78
440,11 1,(!(!-2
17,(i04,4li(i
4f)1,(l.')(i,78r,
18,U4J,271
n:)fl,ii«i,iin
l;i,4.'i4.44«
r)87,4.'i!i,nio
2U,4!l8,a(ilI
[)T\,n-2i),-i:o
!((!,'J.M',810
'J'otul Iinimrts (lucluiliiig
transit) : —
llySea . . { *'™"\?
„ Land & River |^^'^»"^^r
Total. . {^"^''^
In Trnnslt : —
DySoa . . { ^'•""^^
„Lana&nivcr ^^^""""^
_ . , J Francs
Total , . -1 ^
Entered for lloiiio j Franc^
Consumption t X,
llfi,871,1(i:i
4,(174,8 H!
•2<.>■2A•2'■K•2•■'^
11,(11)7,172
4(MI,:llHl,4(i>l
l(i,:>7J,(ll8
r>l(i,(i8ll,ri{l4
•20,(1(17,4(14
EXl'OUTB.
Total Kx|H)rt8 (including
transit) :—
By Sea . . { ^'''•'""'^
„ Land & River | ^'■'*"^|
1800
IHfll
'.'or.,2ns,!)7:i
11, 8 11, !»:.!»
.■i8i.'.'."i:t,8ii4
'2-i,:i7»,-i»2
87i» ,.'1.18,777
;).'i,182,:l.'il
4(>!>,:i(»0,4(10
l(l,37i,018
470.'.>.-,S,:il7
18,810,:j:l-J
•2ir,,nr,(\,4r,H
ll,04-i,(iriS
.■i77,:!"L'.4.'.7
•j:j,0!ll,8!»8
Total (Francs 8.-i:t,4:!S,!i|.^
lotal. . j j^ ;i4,l;i7,r..-.(i
T,„„ u (Francs 440,1 11, (Kl-i
Transit . | ^ I7,(104,4(i«
.Belgian Produce \ j^, i«,r,aa,ouo
The commercial intercourse of Ilelgium with
other states is exhibited in the following state-
ment, showing the value of imports and exports
from and to the seven principal countries in the
vear 18(i3:—
Germany — ZoUvurcln
FrniK'o . .
Netherlands .
Great Britain
Russia . . .
United States .
Brazil
Imports
Franc*
204,7o:i,ono
•i(IO,.1-i8,()()0
17.'i,(K»8,O00
140,8(13,000
40,ti!)l,000
40,070,000
1(1,003,000
Exporti
Franci
(iL»,4l7,O00
!17.3-.'!t,nO0
1 14,4,19,000
<)l, 3211,0(10
3.1,343,(MIO
'J(1,!)!)(1,000
10,(177,000
The articles which Belgium suiiplies to England
are bark, flax, cattle, madder, clover-sexjd, linen,
spelter, books, and sheeji's wool ; in return for
which England sends various kinds of East and
West India iirodnce, with cotton fabrics ami yarn,
earthemvare, salt, and coal, A portion of the
cotton yarn, cotton cloths, and hu;e which are
exjiorted from lingland to Helgiiim, are smuggled
across the'French frontier. The commercial and
manufacturing cities of Belgium are, Brussels,
tJhent, Liege, Namnr, Touriiay, Ypres, Mons,
Louvain, Verviers. Mechlin ; to which arc to bt;
added the maritime cities of Antweqt, Ostcnd,
Nicnport, and Bruges. Some notice of the great
extent oi' the Belgic commerce in the middle ages
is given under the head of History ; but for more
particular accounts of its astonishing jirosperity
at that remote period, reference must be made to
the articles ANTWKitr, (iiiKNT, and BitutJKs.
Shipping. — Belgium communicates with the sea
by Ostcnd, by Antwerp, by Nicnport, by the canal
oi' Bruges to Oostburg, liy the canal of Dunkirk
*f]
408 BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
1o KiimuH, by the caiwl <>f Glicnt to TcmciiHcn, liy | of Urnhnnt is wortli 1 frnnc fll contimos, and it in
the cimiil of Tcrmondt to IIiilNt, by the Hohchtt | dividi'd into 20 huus, cuuh mtu l)ciiig n^aiu iliviilui
from FlesHiiiKiie to Antwerp, by the Hciieldt and " ' '•' ■ -■= -
t\w oannl of VVillebrocl< from Ilriissclx to Antwurj),
A'ld by the eanal of Louvuin and tliu Sulieldt from
Louvaiu to Antwerp.
Tlie princi|ial |M>rts are Antwerp an<l Ostend.
Tlie former is one of the finest in I'jirope, and
nH'ords reception to vessels of tlie lar>;est toniia;;e.
The situation of Antwerj), between the X. and S.
coinitries of Kurojic, and tlie establishment of a
railroad commnnicati<m thenco to Cologne, make
it a |H>rt of ^reat importance.
The number of merchant vessels bclonfiiiif; to
the ]M)rt.s of Jielpum, cxcludiiif^ those in the
fisheries, is but tritling. And this, notwithstand-
ing premiums arc ((iven by {government for the
eonstniction of ships for sea navigation.
Steam-boats are cstnblislied on al) the nrineipal
lines of commnnication by water, as well within
the country as to foreign iM)rts. Jtv far the largest
])roiH>rtitm of the foreign trade of Jlelgium centres
in Antwerji. The annexed statement shows the
amount of shipping frequenting that port.
NallunaUty
18(12
083
18(55
784
Great Britnhi
Franco
120
112
America ....
85
110
lirazils
35
43
Metliterrancan
!»7
87
iSpiiiii
155
178
luilin
30
21
Cuba
47
40
8t. Dominpro
37
■30
Hio lie la IMnta .
128
123
Turkey and Ulack Sea
105
113
raciflc Ocean
35
63
DEl'AUTrUKS.
Yiari
Wllh Cargoci
1,091
1,752
In Uatla^t
Total
2,309
2,571
1802
1803
018
819
BlUTISII.
Ycari
1802
1863
With Cargoci
657
759
lu Dallait
Total
103
149
702
908
The following was the number and tonnage of
merchant vessels of the kingdom at the close of
l«(i2 :—
Dec. 31,
1802
Sailing vessels .
Steam „
Total . .
Number
Tonnage
39,279
6,771
138
7
146
45,050
The number of vessels belonging to the Helgian
mcn^hant service, at the close of 18(il, was 111.
At the end of 18(>() it was 120.
{.)steiid is principally a packet station ; and
Bruges, which in the iiii(klle ages was one of the
greatest emporiums in the N. of Europe, is now
of very inferior commercial importanuc as com-
pared with Antwerp.
Mmiey. — The franc is the monetary unit of Bel-
gium, and its divisions are made according to the
<lccinial system. There arc eleven different Belgic
coins ; namely, two of gold, — the piece of 40 francs,
and the piece of 20 francs; live of silver, — pieces
of b francs, 2 francs, 1 franc, half a franc, and a
qiifUter of a franc ; four of copper,— i)ieces of 10
centimes, of 5, of 2, and of 1 ccutimc. The lloriii
into 12 deniers.
The value of the Knglish sovereign in Ilel'lc
money is 25 francs 20 centimes ; and the KiwIUi,
shilling, 1 franc KS centimes.
Banks ami Commirfinl Snrii'fieii, — IlclL'iinn
possesses several large financial estalilislniKiin
devoted to industrial and commercial openuiinis'
which render an immense service to tli(> miniu-
facturcs and comineive of the c(Huitry. At Itriis-
sc'ls an association was formed, by royal aiithnritv
on the 2«tli of August, IH22, with a clinrtcr fi,r
27 years. It is entitled the Socii'ti- (Inuralt mur
fitmiriier PJnihiHirk, and its object is to devi'liMic
the resources, and ]iromote the prosperity (if nuri-
ciilture, commerce, and manufactures. Its caiiiiiil
consists, 1st, of .^O.OIH^OOO fiorins (I O;),820,(i(Mi fr.'),
of whicii 20,000,000 a* vested in real iimtnTtv'
and ;10,(I00,000 in 00,000 .■ bares, each of :m Wmnl
at an interest of 5 ])er cent. , 2ii(l, of a rescrvcil
fund, formed of a third of the dividends. It 'w^wtx^
notes to the :ini()uut of •10,()()0,000 francs, fiirsnnH
of oO, 100, .')00, and 1,000 francs; and its j;pn(r,il
operations consist of the discounting of cdninn'rcinl
bills, receiving deposits, making loans and aii-
vaiices, and in various ways affording ncwimnni-
dation to facilitate commercial transactidiis. 'flu;
administrative body is formed of a govoriuir, wlm
is nominated by the king, six directors, ascerctarv,
and a treasurer.
The Bank of Bvhjitim, at Bnis.sol», was institntpil
by a royal decree of the Pith of Feb., I«;i,'). with
a charter for 25 years. Its ca)iital is 20,iHi(),ii(n)
francs, in 20,000 shares, each of 1,000 rrancs. 'i'lio
rate of interest is 5 |(er cent. It operates «t mn
as a bank of deposits, of circulation, of discdinn.
and of accommodation to the commercial I'lasws
similar to that ii Horded by the society just de-
scribed. A director and four aduiinisiratiirs ure
nominated by (he king, and the ac(;ounts arc an-
nually audited by a general assembly of tlic
holders of ten shares.
Among the dependencies of the Soc'u'ti] Gi'nhnk
are the Sockti/ of Copitulistn, with a capital iil'
50,000,000 francs; the Socit'ti/ of Commem; n-
pital 10,000,000; and the NatioiuU Sodeti/, mih
a capital of 1.5,000,000 francs.
Tlie liank of Belgium lias formed a Stm-htii nf
United Shares, with a caiiital of 40,000,0(10 fraiK-.
Under the same patronage was established, iii
1835, the Ba7ik of Liege, for 40 years; it lias a
fund of 4,000.000' francs, in shares, each ef I.mihi
francs. In IK."}?, a great financial society was
fouudcd, under the title of the Cummerviul Bank
of Aiitwerf) ; its term is for 25 years, niid its ca-
pital 25,000,000 francs, in shares, each of l,(iiiii
francs. Numerous other institutions of this nature
exist in difl'erent )iarts of the kingdom. The
amount of capital possessed by anonymdiis sci-
cieties authorised by the goveniment cxci'eils
100,000,000 francs, or 4,000,000/. The condili»iis
()'' success to these societies are that they ciiiiliae
their competition to such industrial operalimbas
the manufa jturc of the metals and other siibsiiuiow
of intrinsic and i)erinaiieiit value.
tyeit/hts and Measures. — lielgium has ado|it(il
the weights and measures of the French tnolriial
system ; the fundamental i)riuciple of which is the
measure of length, its unity, the metre, is ili''
ten-millionth jiart of a quadrant of the mc^ridiuii.il
circle of the earth. The length of the metre is
neiirly an inch less than an I'JiiglLsh yard ami half
a quarter; that is, i}'2«lil)i)2 ft. The unit (if su-
perficial measure, the are, is a square, of wliicli tlie
side is 10 metres. The unit of the measure of ca-
pacity, the litre, is a cube, of which the side is ihe
HELOIUM (KINGDOM OF)
. and it in
ill (UviiM
in \H^K
11! Kn(^li,U
- Ili'Icium
ilisliincnn,
ii|i('ruiiiiib,
tliv niuiiii-
At ilriis-
l aiitliiirity,
I'liiirtcr lur
iiiriilt jtmir
to (\fiVl'lll|lC
■ity tif ncri-
Itscaiiilal
H-2(l,(HHirr.l,
111 iimiK'rtv,
I'.jdtllliiriiU
f a ri'scrvcil
Is. It issues
ii's, tnr Slims
. its ^'fiiiriil
' oomniitciiil
ins niiit nil-
(i ncconiniii-
ctions. Tlu;
Dvcrntir, wlui
i, a secretary,
ras instil utpil
)., is;ij. Willi
is 211,111111,111111
I Iriim's, Tlic
■rati'.H at kawk
, ()f (liscduni.
crcial I'lasMS
icty just ilc-
iiistriitiirs ur(!
imntH arc an-
inlily of tlic
Vii'ti' Gi'ni'rak
tt cajiital 111'
'ommem; ca-
Sucieti/, willi
h a Siieiilij iif
|00,(l()() franc'-.
itablislii'il, ill
|ar.s; it lias a
kacli of im
society was
\mvrci(il Blink
rs, ami its I'li-
[acli of l,ii(«)
of tliis iiamrc
igdom. 'flic
loiiymous sii-
lu'iit exci'i'iU
\\\v. coiiditiiiiis
tliey conline
lojicralioiis as
ler siibstaiicfs
I has a(lo]ii(il
Inch meiriial
r which is tlic
liR'tre, is il"'
lie meriiliii";;!
Itlie mtVrc is
i-iird and half
unit (if sii-
I of which llic
leasurc uf i"i-
lie side is il'>=
fmth part of a mMn\ The ntfre Ih a cuhic mM re.
The unit •''' '''" """"""O "f woinht is a cvntimPtre
rulie of dislilled water; that is, n cube of which
II side in tlic hundredth part of a nietre. The
itincrnrv m(?nHures are the iteramitre, kihmvtrr,
mill ,«ynVi«ii''r« ; that i«, measures coutuiuiiiK xe-
vcndlv ll>, I.O'MN and 10,0(10 metres. Measiireji of
i,,„jjth arc the iiu'trK, or lineal unity, the flvci metre,
irnlimelre, and millimftre; whi(;h seveniily repre-
sent the tenth, huiulredth, and thousandth partH
of a metre. Land is measured by the hrctare,
oinlainiiiK 10.000 Hqiiaro m6tres; the are, con-
laiiiinf,' l"0 square metres ; and the ceutiare, which
is I square metre. For liquid and dry measure are
used tiio litre, which, as aln^ady described, is a
nilie of which the side is the tenth part of a
mi'irc; anil the decalitre, hectidilre, and kilolitre,
ilrtiniat multiples of the litre, or 10, 100, and
l.iiiHI litres. The di'calitre is a tenth part of the
litre. For s(did measure are used the sterc niiil
(lirislere; that is, a cubic metre and its tenth part.
Fur liie measure of wt^ijjht are used the yramme,
already explaiiHMl ; X\w.dt'<aujramme,i^x I Of;rainmcs ;
lli('*i7i*;n""""'' or l,<KMt grammes; and tUi' (jiiiiital,
fif IIH) kiloj^rammes. The di'rayramme is a tenth
iiart of tlie (jramme. It may lie useful to add the
ciirri'sivindent value of a few of these inea^iures
with those of England.
BelRlo
Ilcctaro
Litre
UC'ciilltro
lliM'tolitro
Qriiiiimo
1l<'l|!ic
Mirre =
JlilliniMro =
(.'.iiiliiii'trc =
liwiiiicHre =
MyriiHiiMre =
.Mitre carr6 =
.Ire =
F.nKlUh
OMi:il) Inch.
(f;l!t:l inch.
i)-t):17 incli.
(i"2IHniil.
l-liitiwi.yd.
O'OIIH rood.
F.nKlliill
2' t7;l acres
1-7III) iiliit
a-^'oi {.'111.
2'.''0II!» pil.
l.'.-l ISj,'. tr.
,.., ( iMJSOlhs.t.
Kilograminp= j :...
2l).')lbs.n.
Tlie ancient provincial measures, which are still
pariially used, arc too numerous for explanation.
TliHuU and Railifays. — Noada of the first cla-ss,
jiaveil or macadninised, and numerous otliers of
HCiiiuliiry character, intersect the IJelj^ic iirovinces
in every direction. After 1<^ngland, IJelfiiuni, \n
fact, is the next country of Kurope in which lines
(if road e.xist in the greatest number, and are k(!pt
ill the iKist wnidition. The.v are broader and more
Vi^nkt tliau thohC of England, and are better
niaiiafted than the roads of Eranco : they are al.so
cajmhle of sustaining the greatest extremes and
(■lian},'(>s of weather, without undergoing any in-
jury worthy of notite. The highways of the
state, of tiie first class, have a Midth of 11) metres
."ill I'piitinietres ; those of the second cla.ss arc made
i;! metres (id centimetres in width, if ihey traverse
viidds and thickets; if not, 11 metres 70 centi-
nii'ires. Provincial roads have a width of metres
?."i cpiitimetrcs. In these dimensions the lateral
iiaiiks or ditches arc not included. The whole
surface occuiiied by the roads of llelgium is esti-
iiialed at 7(),(l()0 hectares, or 210,000 Englisli acres.
Tliiise of the first and secoiul class arc made and
niiiiiitained by the state ; the jirovincial roads arc
tlie affair of the provinces ; and the smaller by-
ways li(dong to the communes. It i.s cah;ulnlc.d
iliiil.in Helgiiim, a league of road, or 3 m. English,
f"-ts in c(jnstruction 150,0(10 francs. IJesidcs se-
veral new state roads in course of execution, alioiit
.'ill new provincial roads have been ]ilann(>d and
iiiiilertaken ; and a company has been formed for
llie oi)cning of .300 m. of roads and canals, on the
jiian uf the Campine.
lielffium is the lirst state in Europe in which a
Ccneral system, of raihcays has been planned and
fxeeuted by the government at the ))iiblic cost,
Tlie uiideniiking was first imijectcd in 1K1;{, and
(iliject proposed was to unite the ]irincipal
llir
I'limniercial towns on one side with the. sea, and
n the other with the frontiers of Friince and
I'nissia. hi this respect Belgium is most I'avour-
•109
ably situated for n general system of railroads. It
is C(>m]iact in fonn, of moderate extent, is sur-
rounded on three of its sides by active conimercial
nations, and on tlie fourth liy the sea, by which it
is separated by onlv a few hours' voyage from
England. On'the W. side are the two' large and
commodious ports of Antwer)) and Osleiid, and its
E. fn-iitier is distant only a few leagiuw from the
Itliine, which atl'ords a connection with the nations
of central and S. Europe. It is therefore in pos-
session of convenient markets tor its productions,
and of great facilities for an extensive transit
trade. The physical nature of the country is als(»
most favourable, being for the most part ilat, and
retpiiring but few of those costly works of levelling,
tunnelling, and embankment, wlii(di servi; to in-
creasi! so enormously the expense of similar und(!r-
takings in England. The government lirst em-
phiyiHl skilful engineers to survey the kingdom,
and to determine the main lines, with regard not
only to the i)liysi(!al circumstances of the surface,
Imt to the interests of the large towns and their
various relations, internal aiul foreign. In May,
IM.'U, a, law was passed for the iirosecution of I bo
jdan iirojKJsed, and the city of Mechlin was made
the centre of the system, with four principal bran-
ches extending, N. to Antwerp; E. to Louvain,
Liege, Verviers, and the frontiers of Prussia, to bo
contiimed by a private compau}'- to Cologne; S.
through I{rus,s(ds and the province of ilainault, to
the Erench frontier lu'ar Valenciennes; and \V.
by Denderinond, (jlieut, and IJruges, to ().st(-nd.
l{ya(h)pting the lines that concentrate at Meclilin,
a larger ninnber of towns are passed than by
tjiking Brussels for the central station, and tlio
distance from Antwerp to the E. frontier is con-
siderably less. The subjoined table gives a view
of the railway system of Belgium as existing in
the year 1H()1, distinguishing between lines built
by the state and by private companies : —
Llnoi of RaUway
l.onfftI) of
Lines
BV THK STATK.— NollTll.
llriissels to Miilines
Maliiies to Antwerp
Branch Line of Lierre .
Total
12
Mrtros .
iiglLsh Miles
West.
Malines to Tertnondo .
Ternionde to (ilient .
Olieiit to Uriipes . . .
Urngcs to (Jj-tend . .
Branch Linn towards LlUo
and Tonrnay.
Olient to I)e.vn/.e-retef?hem
Deynze-I'eteglK.'iii to Courtrai
Coiutrai to the French |
liYontier ... J
Mouscron to Tournay .
JlCitres
•ii>,!iS2
2(l,:i:'i)
(i,17.5
Ji;l,177
Total
( Metres .
t English Miles
K.\frr.
Malinos to Louvain .
Louvain to Tirlemont .
I Tirlemont to Waremmo
j Wiirciiune to Ans
Ans to Meuso . .
Pont du Val-Itenoit
I Meiiso to the Prussian
j Frontier .
i Landeu to Saint-Trend
Total
f S[(^tres .
1 English Blilcs
2(!,2-'il
SI.SSS
4-1 ..".••,8
24,G72
43,060
1. '5,002
]0,l:i'i
Co«t of
Conntructloii
Franca
;i,(nil,.VH
4,yi2,7!U
3Sl.H(i4
8,8r)0.2ll2
£ ;iii-l,:!(i!)
3,402,4.'iO
.'>,2!)l,.'i8!)
.'),!181,!»:t8
3,82a,(ioa
5,240,474
3,3-'>(i,-"i:i")
;!,127,0'.'()
20.5,220 I :iO,2r)0,(l-.'!)
PJ8
23,.583
10,071
27,024
18,09(1
6,G10
30,.').S0
10,220
145,084
90
£i,2io,;i(;i
4,300, |:!7
(i,07').(;:!-.'
.'),():!9,:i)r,
3,184,9:13
7,00], .0.50
23,C7.5,7.-.fi
1,228,80.')
.50,80(1.708
£ 2,03.5,808
'.:::m
410
BELGIUM (KINGDOM OV)
Llnot of Hlllwajr
llY TllK Htatk.— Soi-rii.
llnisst'lH t4> Tiihlso
'I'llliis*' Ut Holtfliloa ,
Sniniilcw t(l MiillH .
Moim to tlio Kit'iicli Frontier
llritiK'li Liiii> to llriiKMt'ls
l!riiiii('-li!-('oiiit(!ti) l,'liurU;roy
Churluroy to Niiuuir .
l.llii'i I roiiilrni'llnii
Total
Total
Ik
Matron .
f JIcMros .
1 UiiKllHli Mllcg
Tin'Ai, Ots-r : ■Iiiclmliiiff )
BiilUUiit;8& otliur K\i>uiiHV!t j
llY riUll.K; COMI'ANIKH.
I.liTrc to Tiiniliout
Kiist ll('l).'i!iii . . .
AluimK'c to Wavro
WcNtiTii I'liiiidcrs . .
Mclitcrvi'ldi' to I'liniOH
Ktitri' Smnliro mid Mcu^n .
Niimnr to l.icfrc and Cliiir- )
liToy to KniiU'liniius J
IVpiiistcr to Spa .
I laiiiaiilt and I'latidc^rn
AtitwiT)) to Uottt'vdaiii
Antwerp to (ilii'iit
Dendrt-UMil-WaeM and I
Jlru.sjiels lowanlH flhent i
Tonrimy to Jnrliisu and)
Laiiden to Hiusselt . J
T.anden to Aix-la-Cliniiello .
Carrieivs ile tjiieiimvMt .
lipiH'rand I.owcr Tlenu
Alons to llautnunt and St. )
(Ihislalu . . . /
Chiniay ....
Centre
tirand IiUxein1)ourg and )
Ourtliu Canal . . j
WetreH
ID.MO
I7.iih;i
'2i,r,x\
111,-. I.'.
•J,7H-J
4l,t)(Kt
;w,iHi
l''raneH
4,!):n,IMI
ri,:i(i:|,ll<ll
4,7f.','J7:t
l(i,;i!Mi,4;|(i
7.H7.'i,t)l8
l(i:i,-.'.'|.t I :i!),Miri,i!)!i
101 i.C I,r.!i'j,ti(i7
fiC7,0'.>t 1 |-.'l»,N.!il,|:i!»
;).V2 ,£ r),i»;i,2o-i
1!lit,7H'.',n:l4
,C 7,(;:ll.:ll7
Totol
( Jl^trpst .
t KngllBh Miles
Totalbytlie State
anil by rulilic
Companies
MMroH
Eiig. Miles
!17,:17:)
!lli,(l(l.'>
41,11111
:i:l.si7
l(i.s->ll
y!»,!M4
V.MI!)
V.'o,ii7l'
llll,V!l(!
4!I,IIIM|
1(17,111)
!);i,((io
7, .Mill
(iil,7l>ll
/■.•j,4(;i
3ii,4-.'(;
i)/i,7i7
207,11 a
l,.''AI(i.'ill!t
!»3U
a,07;i,'.'.'i:t
1,2M8
4,:im»,n{m
'Jll,H!l|,77.')
!t,.''iH7,fillO
11,ll'.''l,2fU
.'> ,111 !,•.'(! 1 1
•-(7,:i(i:i,lH7
48,H(I1,U)6
'.',777,:i(il
Iii.ll7'i,-Jlll)
M.!l'.'7,7-Jll
4,!litl,2(l4
aa,O0(),0()0
l:i.74n,'.'(),')
LMI,7!N!,-'iS0
;i(l:|,S.-|.'.
4,f.4ii,'i7:t
17,a.VI,oi:!
'i,!in!(.:i.-i'.>
10,!»NH,l.s:)
(l(!,(n4,a.W
;i'i:l,S(l.'-,,77!l
.<il'i,il.')2,'Wl
.'>14,.'iSS,7i;i
i:'jo,.w;i,c4S
It is worth V of remark, that tho netual cost
incurred in Helf^iuni has exeeeded the estinintc of
the eiif^fiiieers l)y only 10 per cent.; while in Kiifj;-
laiid (lie estimates, for instance, of thi; London
and lSirmin;.;ham, and t(f the (treat Western rail-
ways, were exce.e(Utd in the cost l>y more than
1(11) per cent. In cheapness of fare.s, the liel^'iaii
railroads far snrpass tho.sc of lui^land. The len}j;th
ol' the line between Antwerj) and IJrussels is 27J ni.;
the fare, in a first chi.ss carrin};e, 'i.<i. (!rf. ; while a
nearly similar distance in England, from Liver|iool
to jManchester, is 5s. i'xl. In Uelfiiiim there an-
lonr kinds of railway carrijifjes ; — the IScrlin, ilili-
j;ence, char-a-hanc, and waj^on. The charf^c in
the two first is at the rate of \M. a mile, and they
answer to the Knulish mail and coach, for which
the rate of cliarj^e per mile is nearly doidile. The
chars-ii-hanc, which are used by jjreat numbers of
the poorer class, are but three farthings a mile,
and the wagons are only one halfpeimy.
The gross receipts of the 352 m. of railway ad-
ministered by the state amounted in lH(i2 to
<1.'J, 178 francs jier kilometre, or '2,K(!2/, jier mile, of
which sum aliout 57 per cent, was ])ro(hi<'ed by
the goods trallic, and ilH jier cent, liy jiassengers.
It is mentioned, to tlu; credit of the State Kaihvay,
that not one jiassengcr was killed in 18(il or
l»(j2; and tlml of l(lb,(JO(t,(IOO passengers carried
since Ik;15, onlvsix were killed bv neriikins f^
suiting from tlie service. The net rev..|iii,. |J
doubled williiii the last tell years, and has nim
risen to H sum ecpial to l,5(»K/. per mile. N,.„f|,.
all the lines conceded by I'.ie (loveriuneui w,,;.
constructed between |H|(I and 185(), l,v Kn^ij,!,
compaiiicH. I'rivute lines that compete in n,,,
slightest degree with that of the Hiaif nre »ul,.
jected to very onerous teniis. 'I'hev are li.r the
most part branch lines, and allhoiigii eosiiinr i,..,
than the Stale K'ailway, which includes the 11^1/
cipal Iriiiik lines of the country, they proihin. a
much smaller net n'vemie. The law" nlili;;(., Hi,.
Slate Railway to redeem itself with i?» i,,,,,
capital; in other words, to purchase ilscllwith its
own surplus revenue. The year 1n(11 was i|„.
first year which showed an actual protit uii the
whole operations from the coinineneemcnt, irre-
spectively of the charge for the reileinptimi „|' n,,,
debt. It is expected that the State liailwiivwijl
have iMMight itself up in the year 1881, l,y \vhiili
lime it is calculated the net revenue wiiriniininit
to 2-I,()(I(I,()()(» francs, ov <.»(i(i,(KI(l/, per aninim. or
enough to pay the then reduced— thnniKh tlic
sinking fund— interest of the national deht. As
each conceded railway lapses gratuitously ((j the
state in ninety years from the ]period of'ii.siuii-
struelion, the entire system will, by the ctllux uf
ime, become national property.
Caiittln. — The length ol the ci
„ iiiiiils in licljrium
amiMints to 1(1(1,220 metres, and that of the imvl-
gable rivers to 1H;2.7I(1 metres. Hence the tmal
extent of inland navigation is I,I22.1M>(; mitre*,
or 854 Kiiglish miles. The facilities thus ail'nnlcii
for the transport of heavy merchandise anil lyri-
cultural jiroiluce between the principal phicis^in
the kingdom is a great advantage to the pmswii-
tion of all industrial and commercial luisiness.
Popiihitioii. — The population of llelgiiiiii, hy
the census of Oct. 15,185(1, amounted to 4,.V.".),,j(;i'i,
divided as follows over the nine provuices.
Prorlncot
Antwerp
lirabant
Flanders
Ilainaiill
l.iiV'e .
Liiiibiirg .
Luxemburg
Niuiiur
Total .
( West
Area
Hrctnnt
•JS:l,:llO
;!-i:l.4in
l'll!l,7S7
;i7'.','.'ii(i
•.'S!»,:U!»
«41.:;i.'i
441,7(14
o(>(>,l,Sl
'J,!)45,.'->!);t
En^;. Acres.
7,H(i:;,!)S2
Po)iiilatlon
IMll
4:14,1s:.
7-IN,S4ll
(i-.'l,!M-.'
77ii,lii;ii
7ii!l,iiil.'i
.'iiKl.w;:'
1111, 711s
l!l:l,7:.:i
•j.si;,];,-!
4,n2!l,ai0
More recent calculations, made on the Imsisul'
the I'fiit-cii'il, or registry of births and dcatlis
state the numbers of the population on the Isi (f
January, 18(14, at 4,8!)1,(I71. This gives Mil suuls
to the .sq, m., jiroving llelgiimi to be the dmsot
iidiahited country in Europe, About two iiiul a
half millions of the inhabitants arc Flemish, tlio
rest Walloon and French. The Flemings, ivlm
speak in general a dialect of the Dutch hiiipiaps
form the po|)ulation of the aiTondisseinfiiis I'f
Jlrussels and Loiivain in ISrabant, and that of tlir
])rovinces of Antwcq), the two F'landers, ami iln'
greatest portion of the ]irovince of Linilmrf,'. Tln'
Germans occui»y a jiart of the jiroviiu'es nl
Luxemburg and Limburg. The WalliKiiis, iilm
.xpeak a dialect of the ancient French, inhahit the
jirovinces of Liege. Niiinur, llainault, the arriii-
dissemeiit of Nivelles, in Hrahanl, and a part uf
the province of Luxemburg.
Tlie French
anil hy all tli
Aiiiiiiix the t'
iii'iirlv all speni
ii. the (Htpilhl
iliriiii){liiMit the
rirhi'sl and licsl
l>rii|iiirtiiiii to ii
IKTMiiin. The d
1,'n'Ot IIS that ii
finater than Iha
l.uxi'iiihiirg, T
ili».<i'iiieiit of Te
Ciiiirtray, eontai
III' round ill any |
111' surface.
The |H)piilatioi
(•trwiily since llu
|i«.)ii. Tiie follow
I'l' ihe pi>|iiilatioii
ilicliirlhs and di
ik'iisiiy uf popiilai
Tfir
;^'5, Poimlitlon
I
\m
isll
I |S.'«
ls:l:l
; li«4
' |s.i:j
I ls:l(l
1 1S:I7
|s:il)
I«lil
IS) I
\W>
I im:l
I 1^4
1 1*1.'.
IIKlli
4,(i(i-«,;i;i,'i
I 4,llSH,(i;>o
I 4,lii;i,.'.tii
I 4, 1. 'II, RSI
4,l(i.".,!».').J
4,:'(iH,si4
4,1^7.1, 1 7«
4,.'1I7,!)44
4,iliH,(l77
4,II7.'!,IC2
4,I.W,:i82
4,I7-.',7(I(!
4,2i;i,«(i;i
4,M8,4iO
4,'.'!IS,n(i2
4,:);l7,048
h
The decrease of ]
fiillmviii)? years wan
iif iiiie-half of the |
lliinl of the provin
piiin, and the aiine
.V'lherlamls. The
piiiM anioHiited to !)
iiiik place ill coiifor
'i"", signed April 1!
I''l'"«iiig, which (U
ilie kingdom.
The tendency vi>
'f«'S of an agglom,
laf;'fr tim-ns, in als.
Iliii linissels is the n
We, ill im), only
';'ivii, and I().l2!lin t
tiic iiiimher at theei
■''.'"^ i; the suhjoi,,
"I |«'|)ulatioii in tlie
.vear mo :—
I'fjr Dm. 51
j 18:10
I 1810
I8.',0
I 18(10
I 18(13
Tota
08,27
1(1(1,14
142,i8
17r>,H-2
l8o,»8
.feiilca Bni.ssel3, tli
Piim, with a ),o,,ulat
i'l,'"", namely, (Jhent,
'•'•'b'e, 1*7,5-14; Hruge
Fo|iulallon
1X5(1
4:U,IM
74H,Wil
tl'JI.!M-J
J"(1,1P(10
7ii!),(ii;.'i
Mi'.i,i;i;'i
liii.iiw
l!i;;.7.-.;i
i,r<i»Jii»
\\ the liiisisiif
1111(1 <li'iitlis
I (111 llic U "(
livi'S Mil so"l*
^ the (U'lisc.-i
lilt two 1111(1 il
Ik'niiii}.'!'. wli"
Ttfh liiiifliiai.''''.
Ilissciiieiil!' (il
1(1 that (if tlr
Idei's. iiml i'"'
liinhiirt;. 'I'li'',
|l>rovim'L's I'l
I'lllldllUS, Willi
Ji, hihabit tlic
lit, the iirr 'II-
[,,1(1 a imtt (if
Till' Frcnrli lmi;;iin)xn U umciI in piililii; afFnirs
mill hy all thu t(liii'ali'<l ami wi'iilihy (■)»'<.>«•«.
Aiiioii*; ili*< FIciniMli and (icHiiaii inlial>itatits,
miirlv all »iK'ak Kri'iu;li, or at loa.xt coinpn-ln'iiil
it. I'Ik' |«>P»l«t'"H Im vory iiiu'ihimIIv iliwlrilmtrd
ilirdiiKlioiit tlio li'rritory." Ka^t FlaiidiTs, tlu-
ridiist niid lie.st ciiltlvalVd ]iriivin<'c, coiitaiim, in
|irii|«irtiiiii to itM extent, tlui f^reatcsl nuinltcr of
icrwiiin. 'I'lin ili'iiHity of itM |Mipiilalion i.s twice an
^wit iiK llii't of Antwerp or Lie^e, four tiineH
ifniiltT than that of Namnr, and si.x times that of
Liixiiiihiirn. 'I'Iki I'ay* !«' Waes, in the arron-
ilk*iiu'Ht of Terniondo, in tlie iiei^lilioiirhood of
(diirtray, containH more '.nlialiilaniN than are to
lie Idiiiid in any part of Furope on the name extent
(itKiirtiu'e.
Till! |M)piilation of HelKiniti ha.s inerensed very
.Iciidilv xince the c.stnhli.simient of the kin;;diiin in
|k:|ii. The foUowing taltle hIiowm the aiinnal Htale
i.| the population on Deeeinher ;H, tonelher with
llii'iiirtli.i and deaths diiriiij!; the year, and the
(Idisiiv of population per sipiare kilomeire: —
BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
W}i
IKillt
! ivii
I is:l2
j in:;:)
. In:I4
1 \m
I l»:Mi
1 1S:I7
IK:iX
|s:;il
isjil
ISII
! \>m
1 l.*J:l
MlU4
j \m:>
Drniltjr of
It..
Dio. 31
Drnilly of
Po|iulatlon
Poll. i.cr .
»|. kllu.
Poimlatlon
I'lip per
•i|. kilo.
4.0l!-t,2lt5
118
1847
4,:t;!8,447
147
4,IIS!l,(12»
11!)
1848
4.:i5!l,ll!HI
148
4,llia,.'>(il
120
1841)
4,;).HI),2:i;t
14!)
4,|;il,HSl
120
IM.M)
4,|-Jli,2l)2
l.'.O
4,l(l."«,!t.''.a
121
18.-. 1
4,47:!. Iti5
151
4,2IW.NI4
12:1
18.VJ
4,5lti,:l(il
15:1
4,242,fil»8
124
18.'>:i
4,548, .'>07
154
4,'i7:l,17(;
125
18.Vt
4,5.S4,822
Lit!
4,:U7,!II4
120
185.'>
4,(ill7,IM>(l
157
4,il-.'8,ll77
i:m
i8.-i(;
4,.52!I,.|(1I
154
4,"7:l,l(i2
138
1857
4,577,2:l(i
155
4,l:lS,:l82
140
I8.-.8
4,(i2:l,l!»7
157
4,17-.',7(l(!
141
1851(
4,ti71,22(i
15!)
4,2i;t,N«:l
14!)
18tll>
4.7:ll,»57
Kit
4,W8,l2(i
144
I81;!
4,.-8J,25(!
l(i>
4,'.'IIS,.')()2
141!
18(;2
4,S:I(i,.'i(H:
Hit
4,:l;!7,048
147
18U-J
4,8!) 1,071
Kiti
h The ilecrcasc of population shown in 183!) and
fiillmviii)* years was oceasioned hy the separation
iif (iiie-haif of the province of Linibiirf^, and onc-
lliird of the province of Liixenil)iir>; from Hel-
piim, and the anncxntion of this territory to the
.Ndlierliiiids. The population thus lost to lUd-
(.'ium iimmiuted to a.JD.oOO souls. The seiiaration
liKjJi iiliice ill conformity with the treaty of Lon-
ilMi, signed Aiiril lit, l«3!t, and ralilied on .June «
I'niiowiiif;, which detinitely settled the lliiiits of
iliu kiiij;dom.
The tendency visihle in most Kuro|iean coun-
Irics, (if an .i};i,'lomeratuiii n.' the pe</)ile in the
l!ir;'ir towns, is also aiiiiareiit in l!etjj;iiiin. ^ Of
this linissels is the most slrikiii^^ example. There
we, in ISdO, only t)(i,2!'7 inhahitants in the
i.iwii, and l(l,|-2!tiii the sniuirhs of Hriissels, while
till' imiiiher at the end of IHlii} timouiitcd to above
;i"ii,(Hlii; the subjoined table shows the increase
III' |Ki|iiilatioii in the town and suburbs since the
vcar 1831) :—
Tw !>(«!. 51
Total
Suburb!
Total Pop. of
Bruiti'li
120,081
144, 021
222,424
27:f,!)48
;iOO,:J41
1S:10
1»4()
IB.W
ISliO
18G3
ns,27!)
in(i,i4a
142.280
175,82!)
185,i)82
2-?,702
88,478
8i),i:i5
!)!).! 19
114,357
Ile8i(le.s Brussels, there arc eleven towns in Uel-
piiim, with a populatitm of above 'id,!)!)!) inhabi-
laiiis, iiamelv,(iheiit, 12(),i;M ; Antwerp, J It.dC.!);
Liege, |J7,5M; Hruges, 6(1,280; Maliues, 33,«o5 ;
411
F,onvain, .'12.ii2ti; Toiiriiav. .Tl,17'i; Verviers,
28,(il)| ; Mons. 2i;.7'.il); Kaninr, 2.V.)K!t ; ami
('(inrlrav, 2:i,22H inhabilants. In the eoiinlry
|Hipiilali(in, till! two sexes are very nearly e(|ual
in iiiinilier; in the towns, there is a iiniforni ex-
cess of feiiiales. The ]iri>p<irlioii of the married to
the whole iiopnlalion is as I to 2. The pruportinii
of iinniarried to married, in an equal number of
each, is conipiiratively Krealest anions iniiles in
the eoinitrv. The nnniber of widows is Uoiibli!
that of the widowers ; and this excess is much
lar^'er in the town than in the country popiila-
lions. In III*) hoii.ses in the couutry there are |ii*i
families. In the towns there are tliii pcrsuns |i>
100 families, or something above ij to each
family; in the counlry, f'lli.'l jiersoiis to 1 1)1) fami-
lies, or III each family. The births to the whidii
iiopulatioii are, in the country, as I to 2'.)'!); and
111 the towns, 1 to 27'7. 'I'lie (h'jilhs to the wliolii
population are, ill the country, I toll'-'l; and in
the towns, I to .'ll'!). The total marria^;es to the
total ]io|iulati(iii areas 1 to l.'ll-',); the number di-
vorced, as 1 to 2H2'M. The proporiioii of the
|i(>pulatiiiii <if towns to that of the counlry is ax
1 lo il'22. The niarriajAcs in the towns arc, to
tho,se in tlii' couiilry.as .'ll to lOO. or 1 loll: whi(di
proportion is idenlical with that betweon the two
idiids of population. The averaf^e ]iroportioii of
births to marria^^es, in the whole population, is as
d'ti to I ; and of deaths lo births, 1 to l'|8 in the
country, and 1 to l'2(i in the towns. The ille^ili-
mate births are to the le^^itiinate as I to 12 in
I'jist Flanders, the richest |irovince; and I lo .'III
in Luxeinbur^, the poorest province in the kinj;-
doin: the j;eneral avenine is 1 to 21. The iinmbcr
of paupers (Ics iiulit/intii) conslitute tl'H per • "lit.,
or I in 7 of the whole ]iopiilatioii ; and it is re-
markable that in those provinces where industry
and commeniial enterprise have produced thu
f,'reatest wealth and improvement, the proportion
of paupers exceeds 21 jiercent.; while in Lnxeni-
biir;;, the poorest province of the kiiiphmi, it is
only 0*7, or less than 1 percent. The operative
classes form tliree-fonrtlisof the whole populatinii.
The numlicrof insanc'persons, of whom more than
one-half are paupers, arc us I to l,<)00of the whole
population.
The jfovernmeiit census of the ]iopiilatioii of
]Jel;;nmi is conducted with the most exemplary
attention to systematic method. All the iisel'iil
jioints of iiKpiiry are included, so that the results
exhibit a most valuable asscmblafre of scienlilic
data, which in satisfact^iry completeness and iire-
ei.sion are not siirpa.s.sed l>y similar documenls of
any other country. A |iarticular of j^reat iniporl-
aiice in the calculations of life insuraiicc — the
aj;es of the liviiij,' and dyiuf; — which in niaiiy
enumerations of the iiiluibitunts of other count ries
has been omitted, is ascertained with great care in
the population impiiries of Itelgium.
Manners and Ciistoinn. — The Jtel^jians have been
successively subjected to the intiueiiee of so many
ditt'ereiitudvernments — French, Austrian, Simiiish,
Diitcli — that they po.s.sess no distinctive and jiecu-
liar national character. The apathy and in-rse-
veriiiK industry of the Dutch is blended with ihe
vivacity and self-assurance of the French, without
|iro(lnciiig an af;reeable compound. The ditVerciil,
provinces exhibit some variety of characler and
inanners. On the borders of Ibdlnnd the people
are generally similar to the Dutch, and adopt,
their customs, amusements, and dress; but in the
southern districts they dill'er but little from the
French in ap|iearaiicc, habits, costume, and lan-
guage. The Helgiau burghers have always dis-
)ilayed a iiassioiiale foiidiie.ss for social liberty —
an impatience of control that embroiled llieni
412 HKLOIUM (KINO pom OF)
Willi their riiloni, mill iiivolvcil llit'tii in riiiiioiiH | mul llic iriMpliiy (T miiHicnl il^ill Ik qnltn dMinni^li
(li'^UNitTN iliiriiiK HiK'ccMMivn t'i'iiiiirlcH. WrilcrM of ! iii(,'. TIu-m' coiiii-HtN (-Xfito tlii> ^rcnli'M. iniin'it
III! iiKi'N liitvc iif^rccil ill ilrxcrililiiK llicin tut ri'MllrHN in ilic lociililii'M of tin- ilitVcrcnt <'iini|H-iiiiirii, wlii
mill iiiiriilv ; hIwiivm treat iiif; llieir lier>t riilerH the j lire a('i'oiii|iiinieil to the plneeM of iin'ciiiiir |,v
vorsi, while the Itiul overaweil them. Ill the IiIh- i proci-HitiiiiiN. Miixie, in faet, in ho (■onininiilv iiiul
tory of no other couiilry <lo >ve liiiil no much j enrel'iilly learnt, even liy the laliniiriu); ,.|"„.
lilierly with mo (XTrat a iliHiioHiliini to itn ahiise, *' ' '' ' '' "' • •• •
'I'litiy no Hooiier eiiiani'ipnteil tlieiiiMelve.M from tin
(IrMpotiitui of their femlal loriJH, iluin jealousy of
eacii otlierV power eii^'ap'd them in fri'(|iieiit anil
fatal hoMtiiiliex; ho that * liherty never wore a
more iiiiamialile eoiiuteiianre than anion;; the^ie
liiir;;hi'ri', who aliufeil the rttreiiKlh nhe pive thrin
liy eriielty ami in.'<olem'e.' (llallam'H iMiilille
Aki'") i. l-~i eil. IMIlt.) They i-tmlirmeil every
riiiiipaet with eeremonioiiM oiiIIik, ami hroke thein
tiniler the iiretenee of enerimelimeiitH heiiij; miiile
upon their liliertieH; ami it is allcp'il that their
tli'scenilantN are Ntill rjitherilelirieiit in ); I faith,
' A fai'ility for making proniiMen anil hreiikiiiK
them is saiil to mil throii;;!) tiie Itcl^^iaii people,
ill all the channels of llllsine^s, wholesale or retail,
of the hiireaii or in the workshop.' Ihit it is at the
t«aiiie time saiillhat ' this general want of veracity
lilies not extend tu great milimial trunsuctioiis,
imr to the itriieeeiUngs of iliplomacv.' The most
olivions iieiHiliarity hy which the Kelgians are now
tlistingiiished is their devout ohservaiicc of ndi-
gioiiH rites and cereinonieN. Long and imposing
jirocessions of the iiriesthoml in their sacerdotal
dresses are freipieiitly parading the streets of the
]ii'incipMl towns; and it is eviilent in the whole
conduct and customs of the llclgians, ns descrilied
liy writers of every jiarty, that tlus higher classes
iii'e greatly inthu'iiced by higolry, and the lower
classes hy superstition. In the rural districts the
t^lcrgy are regarded with great veneration, and
they* exercise, and endeavour to maintain, a
jiiiwcrfiil doniiiiioii over the great mass of work-
men and peasants. The churches are opened at
live or six o'clock every morniiig, when every
guild Catholic attends to repeat his prayers hefure
eiilering upon the business or pleasure of the day ;
but the afternoon and evening of every Sunday
lire enlivened by the enteriaiimieiit.s of tavern
gardens, grounds for shooting with the cross-bow,
ball-riKinis, theatres, and other |iublic places of
iimnsement. Another remarkable trait in thi^
Jielgic character is a pertinacious adherence to
long-established mil ions, habits, and customs, with
an aversion to proposed improvements, howevia'
Worthy of consideration and adoption. This, how-
over, is more especially true of the rural popula-
tion; for the miiUlle classes of the towns are dis-
tinguished by a spirit of enterprise, and reudiness
to act upon every suggestion of advantage, in the
iiroseciition of industrial and coinnicrcial business,
Jli-nce, while the ajiathy of the former, and their
|ircl'ereiicc for what has been established, are fa-
\iiiirable to the cause of order and of public tran-
(piiliity, the entfrjirise and iugeiiuity of the latter
I'liuspiire to develojie the national resources, and
eiiiible Itelgium to maintain her position iii the
Kitropean commonwealth. The wealthy inhabi-
tants of the cities have very generally adopted the
language, fashions, dress, maimers, mid amuse-
ments of the l'"rciich, so that Jlrussols may be re-
garded as Paris in miniature — with much of the
(liilness of a mere jirovincial town.
^lusic and dancing arc very favourite amuse-
ments, especially with the middle and hiwcT
classes. On every line sii iiner evc^iiiug, balls
are given in the tavern g .nleiis, which arc iiu-
nicnius in the outskir' of every large town.
Musical festivals are anniKiily celebrated at
Jiriiges, Ghent, and Antwerp, by amateur per-
ibrmers. I'rizcd arc given u;i these occasions;
that till! harmony of the airs which are Kimir |,y
groups of iieasantH while at work, is ultcii il,:.
liglithil to the moMt cultivated nnisiiid mr
The national taste for imisie is fiirtl<i'i' mani!
I'ested ill the nuiueroiis uiid singularly exrclli'iit
ehiineN of M) or IIHI bells, called riir/Mmx, which
are placed in the chitrcli steeples and toworsut'ihi-
town-halls. 'I'hime in the large cities are iii,i
always iilayed by nieaiiH of a revolving harnl
worked liy machinery, but by keys, Niinilar id
those of an organ, though cf far greater iliiiiiii.
sioiis, 'I'lie perfonners are paid a cinisiihralili.
salary for aniiising the citizens, during an Imur
or two everv day, with the finest nnisiiul (nni.
iHisitions, riieir hands are cased with ihjrk
leather, and the physical force reniiireil in nh
severe as to exhaust the strength ol a pnvirriil
man in u quarter of an hour. In some Incaliiiis
the iliH'erent chimes are ho iiieoiiveuientlv iiimn-'
roiis, ax scarcely to leave an interval ol' sikiKi,
dav or night.
In general the Ijiliouring classes in nelgiuin nri-
ruder and Icsm instructed than in Ilollaiiil, Imi in-
diislriouH and provident habits are observalih' iii
every part of the kingdom, especially in l''laiiihTs.
SficHiTH anil yi lis, — Since the provinces ol' liil-
gitim have fornuMl an iiidc|ie.iiileiit nntinii, a ^ipirii
of emulation and desire of impriivenu'iit liiivi-
arisen among all classes of the popidalinii. Tli«
government eiicouragcH the progress of seiciiii',
learning, the line arts, and literary tiuste: |iensioii.H
are given to vouiig men of talent to eiialile ihcm
to develope tlio powers of their genius in furci^'u
countries, by studying the works of tlu> fjnal
masters; and a national exhibitimi is opciKd
every year, in which are displayed the |i«iiitlii;:-,
sculptures, engraviiigs, and designs of the l«>t
artists. It is alternately held at llnisscis, Ani-
werp, and (ilieiit, so that each of these cities lic-
coines a centre of attraction to the hivers of art
every third year.
ArrhitvftiirK has been carried to a high de-
gree of jierfectiou in the coustrinMiciii ef die
cathedrals and town halls of lielgiiiiu, which
display the tinest specimens of the iiriianicnial
Gothic style of the middle ages. The cailicilnils
of Aiitwer|), (iheiit, and Meehlin, are iiiaciiiii-
ceut (iothic structures. The open work tirair
of me latter is of the 12tli centiirv, ami though
imlinished, it is higher than the diuiie (jf M,
I'liul's. In JCnglaiid, Gi.thio archilivliire is
cliielly coiilincd to churches, but in licigiinii it
has been successfully apjilied to civic uliiiccs
and jirivate houses. Fronts richly liccnratril
with quaint and fanta.stiu sculptures 'nl'ty sl(i|i-
ing roofs, full of windows, ]iointed giil.ics. i-.v-
tellaled towers, battlements, and prnjcciiiig '.in-
dows, combine to produce a general clfccl, wliicii,
from ils grandeur and intricacy. (Ieli;;lits iiii'l
amuses the spectator. The town halls, or railnr
municipal ]ialaees of Brussels, Louvaiii, (ihciit,
Yjires, and ilruges, are unequalled in inagiiiiink'
and elaborate ornament by any similar ediliocs in
Kiirope,
llelgium possesses several public ///(rHr/ej!, cim-
taiuing rich collections ; and the gdvcriinunt
exerts the greatest care to increase and prcMrvo
them. At Jlrussels, the library of limir^'n;;!!!',
foimiled about lulit), consists exclusively nt acul-
huition of l,i)UO AISS, 'J'lie Koval Lihrarv li:i<
2U0,UU0 printed ami 18,000 MSS, vols. The "iuiwi
iii;i,r:iuM (K
I.ilimrv if nriiKO'' lins 10,000 voN. At l.iiiivuin,
iiic I'liivt'r-'ily l.ilirury liiis |(i,'i,(i(iO |iriiil<'il volt. ;
,11,1 tliiH I'l' il"' .It'Kliiirt 'J-iJIOO vi.ls. At l.ii-r.
ihi' liliriiry «( tin- univir->il y Ii.\h To.imii) |iriiih'cl
vmIhiih"'. it"'"l ■••''^ MSS. Till' I'liiviTMity l.ilmiry
,1 (;ii('iit liiiH tio.itiio (iriiitfil tiiiil •'t.'iti MS. viiU.
'I'll,. I'lililir l.iliriiry in llic litwuliniiMc nl' Aiil
mrji fiiiiiAiiir> ;tii,tii)0 vi>luiiit>M. At Toiirimy, ilic
liiHii l.iliniry, o))»'n<'(l to ilu! piililii' in |h|h, (mhi-
i„ins i7,<Mi(r|irintt'(l voliinicri, unit i>H A(SS, 'I'iic
,(;,((. iiIm) lHlHH«'MHt'M Ht'Vcral Vllllllllllo (l('|lot.S of
nriliivw. I'liiit nl l,it';,'i- ini'Inilcs tin- iircliivis ol'
ilir iim'icMl i)rinci|iniily <>r l/u'^'c, wliicli urc very
iiiiiiii'niii-< tinil intiTi'Miin;;, in ilic ili'|i<'it nf Mouh
;iri' till' iircliivi's III' tlii^ siivtTcl^'n cunri ul' lliiinault,
gild iiiliiT rtiriouH anlii|nMriitn ilni'iinicnlM,
l.ciinit'il micit'lii's lU'viili'il Id ncnrriil or parli-
riiliir iilijci'lH nti' very nuniiTiius, 'I'lic innsl ini-
{>>riniit, Ul* wi'll IIS llic most anrioni, is i!'o
,\iiiili'my 111" Scii'lircs nnil licilcs i.cllrcs ol' llrus-
iM'h, tli(!° iipiTatiiiiiN ol' wliiuii coniiuunccil in liic
rii:,'M iil'.Marii! 'I'lii'ivsc.
t'lililic limlrmliim. — llcl^nnm possesses founinl-
vi'i'sitii's ili'Voteii to tlie liij;lier ran;,'e of seieiitilie
mill liti'rary stiiiiii's; Iwo lieionnin;^ to tlie state,
at lilii'iit anil hio^c; tliu Catliolie university of
j^iiiviiiii, liiiindeil liy flie clerfjv ; anil tlie free
iiiiiviT^ity ol' Hrussels, t'oninleil liy assiieiMlioii.
Ill till' llltli century tlii! uiiiversiiy of l/mvain
wns tiiv lii'st in l'airii|M; as a, seliool of Catliolie
tlii'iiln>;y, ami was atlenileil hy (l.oito sliiileiits.
ili'.«iil('.s the tisiial faculties of law, iiieilieine,
mii'iu'c, ])liili>sopliy nnil literature, tlu^ university
III' Lic^P eiinlains a seiiool for teaeliin;; the u-iiful
nrts, niaiiiifHet\ires and mining. That of (ilieiii
jjjvi'H 11 I'liiirse of eivil t!nKiui!erin;^ ; anil the nni-
virsity of liOiivain a eoiirse of tlieii|ii;,'y. I'Jieli
III' the universities possesses ii cheniieal laltorii-
tiiry, I'illiiliets of iiliysieal scieiii- , of iiiiiieiiilo};v,
ziiiilii;,'y, ami comparative anatomy, a thealre of
uiiaiiiiiiy, liotaiiii; pirilen, ami cliaiiiliers liir cliiii-
imI liriu'tii'C. The liuiiilier of stiiilents who atteiiil
tlio I'lillcfiiate courses at Lie;;e is usually alioiil
fiiiii, At (ilii'iit .'too, anil at Itrussels aliout toil. The
Inrfjcst classes are those of law and medicine.
AlHiiit -t'.'!) students of divinity aMund the (.'atholic
university of himvain, which is upitused to the
liJH'ral university of Itnissids,
Tlicrc are two do,i;rees in oacli dopartniont of
iiii(iwlc'ilf,'e — fuiiditliite, or t;raduato, and tlovtor,
wliii'li is nmierstood and ap)ilied Niniply in it.s
(irit;in»l and nlistract si<{iiitication of n person
ciimjietcnt to tiNich ; tliat is, learned. The class
III' moral and mental |iliilosophy, and that of polite
liioraturc, have each a jury appropriated to ex-
amine and confer defjrees, as havo also those of
Iwaiid medicine. The meniliers of the examining
ImiIv arc ap|Kiintcd for one year : two of each jury
are nnminatcd hy the ehainher of representatives,
tiiii by the senate, and three by the ministers of
the government. In the liudj;et of IMtJI, the sum
set down for public education amounted to
■l,.^ilil,il(l() franca, or 1MO,000/. It M-as placed to the
crwlit of the minister of the interior.
A military sriinol at Brussels annually fniniislics
wll-iiistructed olli(i;rs to the army ; and the K"-
veniiiieiit has taken nieasures for the re-ort,'anisa-
timi of tins establishment, in order to form it into
a polytechnic academy.
Tiicre are two velcrinart M:lumh, one at nnissels,
tlie other at Ijiej^e. That at Hrussels beloiif^s to
the ({ovcrnment ; and although it is designated a
veieriiiary school, its arranjAcments aHord the
ineaiis of cumplete instruction, not only in that
ili'liartment of science, but in all the din'ereiit
liraiiclics of agricultural knowledge, thcoa-lical
and practical.
INODOM OF) 41S
Itesiiles these oslnblishmrntx, which nro Hiip-
porti'd liv the state, or by the commiiueN, some of
the proMiices liave I'nllhiir nilliiiis, which, as well
as the iiiiiver'<ily of l.oiivaiii, arc iiiiilir tlic direc-
liiili of the clir^'y. I'mir of tliese eiidesiiisllial
iiistitulioiis ari^ posscsscil liy the ciirporalioii of
.lisiiiis; naniely, one al ilrusscls, one at Namiir,
one at .Most, and oii(> al lihiiit. There is also a
theolii^rical seniinarv in ihe ilincoeofi'iicli ( 'atholli!
bishop; that is, at Slechliii, Ih'iij^'i's, lilient, Ijc^ic,
Naniiir, and Tnurnay ; and smaller scl Is of the
same natiiri! in each diocese; at .\b<rhliii, Itonlers,
.SI, Nicolas, Koliinc, ItiiliiiC' Mspiriince, llaslo^ue,
and I'liirelVe, llel;,num may. theri'l'iirc, be con»i-
ileri'd as amply provided with Ihe means of main-
taiiiiiiK and propa/^'atiii); ecclesiastical doctrines,
Iiiitiistriiil unit iDiitiiiiiriiil m liiHil.i are cslablishi'il
at Itrussels. and al Vcrvicis, w here cour.scs of in-
.structioii are i^iven in niathematics, mechanical
science, cheiiii^ny, (^eoi^raphy, book-kci piim; in
Short, in every di |iartmciit. of science and practical
kiiiiwlcil)^'e that is or may be siibser\icnt to Ihn
jMirposes of commerce and the niainial arts. At
roiirnay, a school has been especially forinnl for
teaching the most useful arts ami trades; and In
the ciiies of Mons and Nainiir, schools are oiiciieil
for Ki^'oi).? iuslriictions in the various operations
aii|iertainiii;; to miiiiiij^. The line arts are slill an
object of much emulation in llel^^iuni, and acaile-
mies of paintini; are very numerously atU'iideil in
llriissels, Antwerp, Liege, (ilient, j.oiivain, and
To 1 1 may.
The iioyal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp
is the priiici)ial school nf paiiiliiii^s and it proiluces
every ye;ir sevi:ral artists of the lii;;liesl ilislinc-
tioii. It is snpipurted by the public, and is usually
attended by at least a tlioiiMiiid stiidints.
Itcli;'iiim is remarkalili' for its lar>;e ami nume-
rous schools of music, called lou.^ci nilnins. Tlii>
most im|Hirtant is that of Itrussels, which is com-
mniily alteiiileil by 100 pupils; and the most
aiiciiiit is at Licfic, with "JOO pupils. The, (ihent
Ciiiiscrvatory of .Sliisic, tlioii;,di a \ery receiit csta-
blishiiieiil, contains above KiO |.;i|iiis. 'i'liere ari!
several others, numerously alteiiileil, at Moiis,
Louvain, and Namiir. The (irand Harmonic So-
ciety of llrii.ssel.s, which is accounted the tirsi of
the kind in existence, includes amoiit,' its best
performers many who were taught in tlie Itru.sseln
conservatory.
J'riiiiun/ iiistrmtion in Itel;;inm has made no
lierceptible progress since the revolution by whi(;li
the Itelgic provinces became independent of the
Dutch government, an event which, however be-
iielicial and desirable for other national objects,
has donlitle.ss been greatly injurious to the cause of
national edncntion. The coin/tiils<iri/ and iionitul
.system of Holland was then rejected by the Itelgic
authorities, who.-idopted, in its stead, the volimtarii
principle; but this has not secured either the com-
petency of teachers or the attendance of scholars;
so that general eonfiision and iKiiorancc have suc-
ceeded to that order and intelligence which was
steadily extending under the (hnninion of the
Dutch. The Catholic clergy and monastic orders
have made energetic and very successful exertions
to pos.se.ss the ground which the Itelgic government
left unoccupied, especially the brotherhood of the
Christian Doctrine.
I'ublic instruction in the Belgic provinces, down
to the time of their union with those of Holland in
IKIT), was in a very backward and depressed state.
Triraary education had been systematically and
very successfully established in Holland since 1«0,'),
and it is due to the government of that couiKrv to
acknowledge that its anxious attention wa.s at
once bestowed upon the great deliciencies and
'j ■
^lll
•Ill
iiImim'k of ilio M'iKMtl NViitrtn III' lk'l(;iiiin, (Ml ilx
iiniiiii ullli lliilliuiil. Ill |H|7, llic Ihilcli iiiiriiinl
(iMil rii||i|>iil-iirv h_\kI4'|ii IIi'nI Iii'uiiii In ii|ii'nili'
^'1 nrrtilly lliriiii^liiiiii ilii' HniiiJH'rii |>rii\ iiifcn nl' ilir
killKiliilll of itir NcllKrllllliU, lliiw riillnlillllillK ll«'l
f;iiiiii ; Hiiil iliirin^ llii' Iwi-Ui' vimifh Irum ilml liiiii'
III iMi'll, ili(> |iri>Kr<'N'«aiiil viiliii' nl' |iriiiiiiry iiiNiriit'
liiiii wuM fiir ^rt'iitcr than at aiiv |M'riii<l lict'iiri' nr
hiiirc, WrII arraMK''<l Kt'lmiilM, ami alilc Irarlicrx,
^viTc I'MtHlilinliril ill aliiiimt every einniiiiine, mil
iiii|iriiveiiieiil waH ra|ilill.v nml iiiiiverNally exieiiil
iiiu:. ,Viitii|iialeil anil awkward rmiliiie waMre|ilaee<l
liy iimre ralimial anil ailvaiilii^''eiiiiN iiiethiiiJH nf
leaeliin^' ; iiiiiriiriuily win* nliNerveij in the ii^e nC
clasi IiiiiiUm ; niirinal ni'IiuoI.'* were i)|ieneil fur I he
inNiriii'liiiii ami Irainiii^' of iiiaNterN; eonpies of
lei'lnri'M were (.'iven in (he |iriiiriiial tnwiiN mi the
■ e(|iilreii i|iialilii'aitiin^* ami iIiiIuk of leueherH;
fiimlH were sii)ijilieil ill ailvanee fur tlie eoiiNlriie-
(iiitl of Hehiiol-hiiiiMeH ; Hoeietien of iiia»ters were
foriiieil for eireiilatiii); iiKefiil liiiokHainl tirnfesNidnal
kiiiiwleilp'. Nntw ilhslamnn^' the oliMniis ailvan-
lai^'t'M of til!'* n'Htein, a Hjiiril of oiiiiiif-ilinii lie^'an In
he ^jeneraliy inanifesteij in iH'JH. ami it appears
to have lieeii mainly attrihiitahle to cecleMiaitieal
pMrtiHansliip. The people anil iiftltutiiiiiM of llol-
hunt are ihlelly I'rolentaiit, while tlioxe of llel-
(.'iiiin, with little exeept ion, are Catholic. The
ltel;,niiMs are, niorenver, most ri;^'ii| adherentM tn
the ri^^litM ami i|np;nias of the Cliiireh of lioine,
anil are reinarUahly Miilijeet In the inllnenee nf
their ■■pirilual paHlnrn. They i'onNi'i|iieiitly never
lieartilv enneiirreil in the extiililiNliineiit of the
eilneatinnal Nvstein intrnihu'eil liy the Piiteh, ami
eventually tiiey ehllr^;el| it with lieiii;; inslrii-
ineiital in propattatin^ I'mlestaiit i|oetrine.<<, at
varimiee wltli those of Ihi- Catholie elnireli. The
refusal of several ('athnlit'ennnre<,'at inns In stilmiit
In (he rules res|ieclin>; exaniinaliniis ami eer-
tiliinles, whirh led to their proseriptinii liy the
piverinnent ; the relielilons disposition nf teachers,
who would not, nr cnnld mil, nnder^'n the re(|nired
proof of their (inalilications, ami the olVeiice often
iinavoiihlhly ;;iveii hv the district inspectors in the
i'xecntion (if their liniclions, served at Icn^ctli to
i'reate an aimiunt. of nppnsitioii and periilexily
that induced the );;nverniiieiit tn prnpnse, in IM2!>.
Iiefnre the revnlntinii, a return tn the principh^ nf
* freedom of teachiii),'.' Since IH.'tO the ailnptinn
<if that principle, ■whatever may he its ultimate
eU'ect, has lieeii prodnelive of fjreat inimediate
injury to the primary sehnols, n larjje iiumlier nf
■wiiicii have fallen hack to the ustt nf had old
methods and the emjiloymcnt nf misernlily incnni-
jieteut teachers. A few jirimarj' schnols receive
snlisidies frnm the ])resent ptvernment, hut most
of the excellent societies which arose iiiidor the
iiornial system for the encnnraf,'ement nf pind
teacluTs, the use nf siiperinr hnnks, and the ndop-
I ion of improved methods, have ilisappeared, and
the pivernmcnt neither exercises any siiperiii-
teiidence, nor makes any insiiecdnn, even nf the
mode nf niiiirnprialinfj the insntlicient simis -which
are voted liy the lenislaliire for the schools still
ile])endent upon the iiatinnnl funds. There is hut
little ednciitional iirni^ress visihle, and the nnmher
nf schnols and scholars was scarcely hir^jcer in
]X(11 than in iX'.W, In IH.")I, there "were .ViiO
schools with 511, ()',>(■. |)Upils ; and l^tll, the niimher
of schools was .'vilit with oitH.T.'il jmiiils.
The nuniher of scholars is far frmii heiiif; equal
tn that nf the individuals requiriuf:; elementary
education: with reicard tn which tlu^ ])n])ulatioii
may he divided into fourparts. The. first consists
of children under the a^^e of 2 years, who form
nhoiit ««('-c//;/i/('<7///i of the whole |io|iulation. and
whose education Ls merely maternal. The second
IlKI.tiM'.M (KlNOItO.M or)
connlHiH of chililn'ti U'twern llie n^ro* nf •> .^,1
tl years who lorm al».iit „„.(„; l/l/, ,,««, ,u„| wi,„
nii>{lit In he lor the iiiimi part innniniicd |„ ,t
^'iiardiaii or asyhim mcI I., i,, |„, |,r,.i„„|.,| ."
receive iiiHlructioii. St] U "I' this ,|,.I.,.ri„,;, !,'
are III present eslahlished onlv in -MMiie i,l tl '
larKe lowiiH, and the Intal inim)H>r of cliililr,,, \"
lonKili^ In them does not exceed .'l.lion, wliiil, i,
scarcely ii Inimlredth part nf the reqiuMie niinMiiii'
The thiril part cmisiHls of chihlrep iietwi i u i; i,,,,!
IT), who form ahoni nnr niith of ihr ,vlii,|(. ih,,,
and shoidd nil receive the iiiMiru.iinn wliiij, i'^
allordeil ill primary scIiooIm, hut it appears tint
only ahoiii one-half of this class have ihnl ,i,U„J|.
UiKi'. 'I'he f'oiirlh and last part compri»i.. n||
ahove the a^e of I,'). In iH.'Hi, more tlimi |,„||
the youiiK' men who were enlisted for ihr i,ii|i,|,,
ill the melropolitan province of Krahaiit wcrl)
entirely iinahle to read.
Of the yoiiii^' men drawn for i •.criptinii in
the three perioiU IM.jI, Ih;.!!, and iM.V.t, i||,,r,.
were :—
In |H,M In inr.fl
Not alile to renil nor write . I4,'j:i;l l;i,:ii:i
Alile only to read , . 4,'.'l:l ;|,7"M
Alile to rend and write . Il.sl;) ll,7|n
or nnperinrednriltliili . , |0,li,'i:| 1'J,!MI|
In IH.Vi
la,!i:;:|
II,'.' II
II, Ml
11,11)7
In iKtn
In !«■,!
:,;.()
Ttiiii
mr,
'.>i;:|
l:iil
l.'.7
IH
II
Of every Ihoiisaml convicts who (•ntereil tli<.
prisons in IM,">0 and IM,'),'), there were:
Not nlile to rend nor write ,
AMe only to rem! . . .
Alile to reiul aiiil write . ,
or Hii|HTlor eiliicatlun ,
It appears that the tolnl mass of iiidiviiJimlH
desiilute nf iirimary instruction, eonsi,-.iiii;; nf
adults and children idiove two years of a;;c, Ts i,,
the whole pop, as M In llill, or more than niu'-
half, Tlii^ instruction >;iven to children i^ t';u-
from hein^; adei|uale to llieir wanis; it is limiii.i
lorcadiiiir, wriliii);, and a very little nriiritlMiaii',
The scholars are nl'len merely kept in cliarnr, arnl
learn nnlhin^; and, cnnnnnnly, in the cuiinirv
districts, the attendancu nf more than oiie.|i;|{|'
is diseonliinied throughout the siiniiuer. in unlcr
that something may he eariu'd hy their sirvins
in the lields, 'J'lie editealioii of (;irls is mnri'
ne;;lected than that of hoys, and hoili sexes an>
generally tniiKht lo(.'ether on the same IiciicIks
hy male teachers. Two-thirds of all the sd I-
masters in the kiiifriloni are self-appointcil, ami
unwarranted hy any certilieate of conipeteiicv.
I'atholie vSiinday schools for religious iusiriiViidii
an? very numerniisly attended in the provincis
of Flanders and Antwerp. Kveniiif; sclinols \'<,r
the wnrkiiif^ classes are estahlished in sc^vcral nl'
the princi)ial tnwns; and also some excellent ia-
stitutioiis for instructing the deaf anil dinnli.
J'lililic Clidritivs itml J'lni/M'iisiii. — licluiiini
possesses ii jfrcat nnmher of charitahle iiistitii-
tioiis, eiinsistinj; nf richly-endowed hospitals anil
almshouses, for the relief nf every kind of ini<-
fortiine, misery, nnd want, and for iiidiviiluuLs ul'
all aj^es,
Kach enmmiine has its hureau of clmrity fur
the (listrihution nf mnney, food, nr dotliiii;:. |ii'r-
manently, to the sick poor, and occasionally lo
those in health. Private cstahlishnients arc
fonned at I'.russels, Verviers, and Mcfie, I'nr the
employment nf indij,'ent artisans, AUliin tlf
Cliariti'; at Antwer)), (ihent, and other oiiii's
afford work and maintenance to imincroiis ilisii-
tute nperatives. 'J"he one at (ihent cunstaiilly
contains, nii an average, 4r)0 inmates,
Numernus hospitals and asylums for liiiintiM
are estahlished in the ]iriiieipal cities of the kini:-
doiii ; and in general the arrungemciitii and tlii'
nKLOlI'M (KINODOM OF)
11.^
In li.M)
l:i,!t.i;l
ll.'.MI
1 1 .'Ji:il
11.1117
JO In If,.!
.'iilil
•Jii.l
1 I -.7
I II
iiidlviiliiaU
ll^i.-.lill;; cil'
r iip', is 111
tliiiii liiii'-
ilrcii U liir
il \x lilnilril
nriiliiniii'.
liiir^;r, ami
fijiiiurv
iiiic-lialf
ill nnlir
r si'nicis
is iiinri'
Hcxcs arc
liclli'llis
• SclllMll-
iiU'il, iinil
U'licy.
iiistnirlioii
iriivinci's
M'lnHils fur
srvcral 111'
client iii-
iinili.
l!clf;iiim
instilii-
lilnis n>iii
ml of iiii'i-
liviiUiult uf
['linrity I'^r
lliiii}:, !«'r-
sidiially lo
mciits (ire
■;(', lilt till'
4t,lien ilf
ihcr dlios
Irons (it'sii-
1 coiistaiiily
lir liiiiiitios
If till' kiii^'-
Its aiui till'
lie
iBitmciit, pliy<irnl nnd mnrnl. nrr viry jiiiliriinm
,1 rolllliK'Militlili', 'I'lirrc iiri'si'MTiil inirii'iil
^"ijiiHiil liiKiiliiii""" •ill" iIk' iniiiiiii'iimirf uf
!'ri,liiiii»; •>!"• '" ^'i^wirp, Kliniiliri, Itrnlpmii,
,1 lliiiiiiiiilt. nri' HcMTiil I'liimilliiiK liiis|iitjils,
"' llcluiiii'i li«s live ,'ri'iit wiirkluiiisi' i'<l(ililiKlilii('iilM
, till' riri'tiiioii, ('iiiilliii<tiii-iil, iiiiil inniiiti-iiiiii I'
i|„. iMNir. Tl'<"> "»'•' Hitiiiilt'il lit la Ciniiliri', lU'iir
llf,i,.M.l<, fur tin- |>ri(vin((' of llriiliiiiil ; lit Uriip'*,
l,,, III,, nvi) I'IuiiiIitm; iit llon>;MiriH'lcn, l'i>r t'lc |ir>i
viiiiicif .\iiiwti|i; lit Minis, liir llniiiMiill, Niiimir,
iiiilLiixi'iiit'iii'tli ••""' '" l>i'i<'l<lu'iiii, for thi- prii-
(iiiiTii 111' l-ii'C'' •""• I.iiiiliiir^; hihI llicy arc iml
„iilv nsvliiin* for Imlijii'iii |i< r^nis ritlnT siiU ur In
liilili, lull iirisi'iiN '"!■ I'liiiili'iniH'il >iiniiliiiiiiU riiil
ll'.'Mr's. It !■ "-tutcil liy .Mr. Nirliiills, in his
"ri nil tliiMuiiilitiiiii i>t° I III* |iiiiir ill lloliiiiut iiinl
"linp, ri'l'iTi .ry, iini!_ ilomiltnfv. Tlic lnnmii'i
mIi'i'Ii ill llilliirili" ki<, mill lire rlinl III a vrrv riwirxK
iiiiilnnii. Tlii'v liiliiMir wiili iIk- >|i.'iilr In llii' tlrlil-',
iir ill iiiiikiiiir lirirkn, nr ai iiiaiiiilariiir<"< in tlii<
liiiiisi', iiiiiliT till' sii|H'riiiii'iii|('iii'i< uf III) ill^tll riiir.
Ml iiariiriil ''s ri'KiH'i'tiiiL; tli<> wnrk, I'miil, iluilii"*,
anil fxiM'iiwn ofiiiii'li iiiiliviiliial arc I'littTi'il ilaily,
ill iHiiikn kept In till' military tiiaiiiii'i'. iMhiiiiIimI
i;iiiiriU pairiil tli<> iHiiimlarii'M of llii Imiy , In prc-
vriil llir rsnipc uf lii'-MTtiTM, iiinl ri'warih ari' >,'iv«'il
fur lirill;;ill^ liiirk lfiiMi< wlio siirrri'ij in ^I'lllii^
auay, lur carli N i'iiiii|ii'llnl In ri'inaiii at li'ii«t ihh'
\riir. 'I'lirt' riniiripiis nirnsnrrs fur llic sii|i|in'!»!.iuii
lA' niriiiliriilii'y liiivr lii'rii ailupti'il in tin' alisi'iii'i>
uf any arkiiuwIi'ii^iiK'iit of a rij;!il lu rrliif. ami
iiotwitlistMiiiliii^' Unit a lar^'i> portion of tlii' nlicl'
111 liiiilly iiilniinUtrri'il arist's I'roin i'IhIuh nniits niiil
Miliiiiliiry roiilriliiilioiis, Nu rii^'lil to rclirf i'\i-U
1 iilirr in llullaiiil or lli'liiiiiin,
A( nliiij,' 111 an ullli'ial Klati'nii'iit innilc in IH."i7,
lliiTi' wire at that linit< !MlM,llllO raiiiilirs in lld-
^iiiiii, of which N'.t.il.'lii wiTf in nuoil liriiinisiniiri'^i,
;t7.'l,iiiHi in straiti'iM'il (/n nihil] roiiilitiiui, ami
llii.oiiil fiiniilii'M III iiuvcriy. Stati'il in pirrrntii),'!',
(his ^ivrs !) Ill llii> lirst, I'j to ihi> si>roiiil. ami I'.i In
the lliinl rIasN. Tlii'Nuciiii runililiuii uf thi' pioplr is
fiirllifr (Icsrriliril liy ii rrtiirn of Ort, I, IMli,
whirh Mtali'M tilt" iiiiiiiliiT uf 'known hi'^i^ars' in
ainoiiiit liixs,ii|<.lini|i\iiiiiiils, uf whirh iM.nll wcri
of the male M'X. Of the lixii inilliuii iiilialiilaiiU
111' Itt'li^'iiim, iihuiil line million ami a half li\r
in xil lowiiH, mill tlircii inilliuns ami a liiilf in
•J, I l.'i I'oiintry parishrH.
I'risoii.i mill CriiiiiiiiilH. — In llclijiiim, lilt' piinixh-
nu'iiiH uf lii'iith. ami uf liramliiii;, allhiiii>;li siill
writti'ii ill till) laws, iin- priu'lii'iilly iiliuli-hcii.
Criminals ari' pltiri'il in i'uiir ri'iiiral prison.-;
naiiii'ly, III < ilii'iii, for iIiomc conilfmiii'il to tiirrril
liilioiir; at Xilvonli', solrly for ronlinrini'iit ; at St,
Itoriiiinl, near Aiitwi'rp, Cur rurri'rtion ; ami at
.Most, for iiiilit.'irv olVcni't's, 'I'lu'rc is ;ilsu in Iho
I'hirf town of carli prov. Iiaviiij,' a ruiirt of aMsizi",
ami of I'.'irli arruiiil., a pri.suii for prrsoiis arrrstnl,
or romlcmni'il lu Irsn than nix niunths' ninliiu'-
nu'iil, ami tor ilclitors, A scparali" ]ii'iiiti'iiliiiry for
I'cniali! criininals is cstalilislu'il at Namiir, 'I'lin
Hiipcrinti'iiili'iu-canil instruction of I'l'inalc pi-isuiicrs
arc cunliilcil In Ihi' rrligiou.s (inlcr of tlii' .sisters of
I'ruviilcncc.
In jjciiiTiil, lliorc is in Hclfxiiiin, 1 por.'«)n nrrtiHcil
ofcriinc ninon^' 'i,IIOII inliahilaiit.s, aiiit I of mis-
ilcincanoiir ainoii^ 170, In lllll acciiscil of criino
nj;aiiist llm person, 20 nre acipiitteil; ami of the
same niiniliiruccnseil of crime ii;;aiiist proiierly, l."»
are aeiiiiitti d. The nniiilicr of crimes ULcmnst pro-
perty IS three times j^reater than thai of crimen
af^ainst persun.s, Frum the ri'iiurts i<{' the central
pri.suiis in the years isrill ami Wth, it appears that,
in ItiO imli\ iilii;ils there contiiieil, i^Mvere iillerly
ignorant of readin;^ and writing;, 2'.> conlil read
unly, lint were otherwise extremely ij,nior:int,
ami III could read and write with .some de;i;ree of
facility,
llovvrnmvnt. — llelf^inm is governed liy a eoii-
stitiitiuniil inunarchy — niider a dynasty elected liy
the constituents uf tin? nation. Its independcnc'n
was lirst ]iruclainied, in an alisulnle, nimiiier, hy a
lirovi.siunal f,'oveniinent, on the Itli of Oct,, IMiid,
and on the IHlli of the following; Nov, it was attain
pruclaimod liy the national coii^i'ress, liv tlu!
lermsof the treaty of the loth of Nov,, IM.!!', Itel-
ninni furtns a state iierpetnally mntcr with rc^'iird
to all other stales. The Hi lj;ian cunsliliilioii,
decreed liy the national congress on the 7lh of
Kel)., IM.'il, places all j;"Verimieiital powerinthe
ttiirkslKips, stores, and macliinery for spinnin^^and j nation, oiicraliiij^ hy means of tin- representative
"ciiviii;;. Oiiu ward is iisud ill cumniun as work- .system. It u.stabli.slios individual lilierly, the
llil-iiiiii. that, under the prcse'il ri^iilations, these
,,r.i"nniid wiirklionses. or ili/tiil* ilf miiulii ilr, are
lirvileleitive ills! il illiulis, — lliirsiries of idleness
.,iii| iiniiiiolers of paiipcri-'tn ; and llial heceeihe
iiiiwitv aruse fur ri"<"i'tiii(; to niurc i\._;uruiis
i,i,,i.uri's. which ended in the cstaliliihmeiit of the
,,„r iiikiiiies, to which all persons finind he^iudn;,'
Iri' •I'lit, if aiile to work, and are eoinpclled to la-
l„iir fiir Hiihsislciice, under strict discipline and
1„»' ilii't. lie remarks that, had the old work-
liiiiiii's Ih'cii reildcre.l ellicient liy the introdiictiun
„l n'u'uliiliiiiis calculated lo make tliein tests fur
ilhiiliHilishillU iM'lweell fHii'vrtii and ilistitiitinii —
|,riiviiliiit: iiiily for the latter — there would have
Ini II" iiee»'''sity for the pour eiiluiiies, where the
ii'.i of litrict discipline, hard lalimir, and scanty
,:i,.|, is sii applied as fii lie ludd in the H''<'a»<'st
ilnail liv the vagrant diLsses, AH lie^Kars arc
;i|,|iri'lii'iiileil l>y the |Hilice. If aide to wurk. they
iiri'M'iit to the penal ciiluny ; if aned ur inlirin, ur
iiiialile to |H'rl'uriii ont-dnor work, I hey are sent to
ilii' Hiirklmiises; and alllioii;,di the discipline of
ihc liiller is defective, and llieir malla^'^nlent in
many riMpects faiilly in principle, they serve, with
ihi'iiiilof the coercive colonics, to secure lliere-
|,ri'»>ioM of piihlic invndicity. The esial'lishincnl
HI la Canihre', near Ilriis,sels, is superior, in its
inlitiwil nrran}:einent.s, to the i,'reat workhouse at
Anblcriliini, pariiciilarly in the .separate classilica-
tliiuiif the a^^eil, the children, and adults, and also
in till' piod arrall^'emelll and cleanliness of the
i.|(i'|iiii^'-roiiiiis. The sexes are strictly Keparatcd
ill all the Ik'lpc iii.-titiitions of this nature. My the
|«nal whIo, a incmli(^ant once condemned to the
Hiirkliiiiise fur pnlilie lie^j,'in^; may he kejit there
iliiriii;; the rcnminder nl' his life; Imt in practice
111' i^ allowed tu leave it whenever the eommission
lifiiilieriiitelidenee are .satistied that he is dispo.sed
mill alile to liihonr for his subsistence without
nsuitiiiK iijjaiii •<> inendicancy,_
Tlie imiipcr colony of I!el),diini is near lloo;;-
jiriu'lcii, ill llie N, extremity of the ]irovince of
Anlwer]!; it was <'stali!isheil in l«2;!, liy a ehari-
tiililc siciety, which entered into a contract with
ilu' (.'iiveriimcnt at that time, to provide for 1,000
iiiiiiilii'iiiits, on receiving for each d,") liorins per
iiiinum, or 2/. 1!>.h, The tract of hrnyere, or ]ioor
linitliy land, which the society ))iircliased to form
till' coloiiy, extends to alimit l,H00 acres in the
ciimmiiiics of Merxjilas and Itykevorsel.
The cultivation of this land is carried on hy the
IMuiKTs, and its croiis of ]iotaloes and other vegi^-
talili' iiriiduce are f;cnerally as aliiindaiit as those of
the nurrmmdiiij; conimniie.s. The liiiildin>;s are
.■■liacimis and well ventilated, and the arranj,'einciits
mill iliseipline nre, such as to .secure the jj;encral
k'iiltliiness of (he inmates. There is a .•school for
iVnicniary instruction, an inlirinary, with varioii
■■Nr
f1
41«
iii:r,<mrM (KIN(iih)M ok)
iiiviolnltillty of pvpry mmrH hoiDut niul iiriiiirrly,
llli> (MTli'i't IIImTIV NIIiI il|i|i'|H'lli|i>llr<> III' rrlluioili
wiir^liiii mill ii|iiiiii>iii, lli>' riK'lit nl' iii-iriiililiiiuiniil
n'<v>riuliiit{, llir ijIpiTty 111' till' I'rrii, ihr liU'rlv nf
li'iii'liilii;, liiiiiixli'rial ri'-<|Hiiiniliility, iiiul llii> linlf
JM'Mili'iit'ii III' ilii' jiiillrlal |iiiMi'r, Nil nliiif cliiin-li
I* ri'i'iiKiii«i>i|, Hint iMi mil' fiiii U' <-iiiii|ii'||i'i| lu fun
ftinii ill iitiy way wliiiii'vcr In tlu> i'linni* ami t't'ri'-
niiiiiii'it III' any I'rili'Niaxtii'al nyHitMU, 'I'lii' nIhIii
liait no riulil fo inlrrliTii in llic iiiiniinallnn or
ii|i|iiiinlnii'iit III' llii' nilniilt'rx nl' any rrli^ioiii ili>
liiiniinaliiiii, imr In jiri'vi'iil llii' |iiilil(ritliiiii nl' llii'lr
lU'tt, 'I'liii I'linn lit' iniirrinKi', at a rivll riiiii|iiii'i,
U ri'i|iiiri'i| III |iri>i'i'i|i' ilii' ncl nl' ri'liKiniH lirni'ijii''
linn. llrl;{lllll-< luiM' llic li^lll In ll'iHrniliir jK'Hrr-
ntily ami iiiiarnii'ij ; Imi anHcnililaKrN In llic n|ii'n
nir arr niiIiJi'i'I In Ihr |a«Vi hI'IIm' |Hillri', All linuir
t'liiiiniilrM li'iini llii' iii'ii{ili-, ami niiiii Ih- fxiri'Linl
ill ilii' inainii'r I'ltaliliilnil liy llii' I'luiNiiiiKinii,
'I'lli' IrK'^I'l'IVi' llnwrr Ih I'MTrJii'il nilliTlivcly
liv llii' Mn^, llic rliiinilii'r nl' rc|iri'Hi'iiiativi"<, iiimI
llli' M'liati', I'JIrll lirillirll pnKNi'N'M'H ||ii> |iiiVM'r III'
llr'l niiiviiii; llii' aitii|illiin nl' lawt; Imt mii'li at
ri'lali' III ilii'Hitaii' i'\|M'nsi's ami n i|iiM ihumI Im'
lirit Milnl liy llic cliaiiilicrnl' rc|ii'c.«ciilativcM, 'llic
iiil('r|ircialiiiii nl' llic lawH, wild rcr^iii'i't In aiillin-
rily, ImIiiii^^s only in llic lc)iiilaliirc. The cxicii-
livc piiwcr in cxiTciwil liy tlic kiiij,', an dircclcil liy
the I'liiiNiitnlinn, ami llic |iiilii'iary |inwcr liy Ihc
cniiriH ami IrilmnalN. All iIcci-ccn ami Jml^tnciit.H
ni'c cxci'iitcil in the name nl' llie kin^, l^iicxIinnM
ri'latiii;{ exclusively In |irnvincial and enniiniinal
mat tern arc ileieriniiieil liy thu cniinciU of the
limvinicH ami cniiiiinincH,
The iiienilK'rn nl' the Iwn chanilierM re|ireNent the
iiatinii, ami mil merely the |irnvineeiirniiliiliviMinn
(if a |irnvim'(! hv which they are niMninateil. The
KiltinK^nrilie elianihcrs are |iulilic,liiil each cliani-
licr can I'lirin itself inin a Hccrct cniiiiiiittcenn the
tieiiianil nf iiH |iresiitenl ami ten mcniliers, Alein-
liers nf either ehamlicr cannot receive any (icnsion,
or linlil any paiil nliici- iimlcr the ^nvcniincnl,
ami iliirin^ the NCHsimi ihey caniint lie arrested nr
detained, except for any Ihi^'rant inisdcineannur.
The chamher of rc|ircsentativeK i.s cninpnscd nf
deputies chnseii directly iiy citizens whn pay taxes
tn the ainnniit nf at least 'JO llorins, ahmit :i:i sliil-
nnniinatf hi* mieresiior, with ilir nxDrnl nf n,,
Iwn ehaniliers, and if im nniiiinaiinn U. , |, n^
llirnlie In >acaill. The ihtwiIi nf ||||. Ijiii^, ,,'
\inlalile, lll'< ininixlcrs almie arc ri'i|Hii|iij|,|,., \,
act nf the kin^ is valid illdens ciiiiii|eriii|{iiii|'|,t
lllilliNter, Willi llicnliv liccnnieH re«|iii||,i|,|,,_ 'Ji],
kiiiK II ilialis ami di-inisHeN his iiiiiii,i',„ ,1,
will, cniilcrs >{radaliniiH nf rank in Ihc iinnv, iii„|
aplMiinlM all |Mrsiimt einplnMil In tlie uin. rnl imI
iiiinisiratinii, with sniiii' except iuiiM, inilii'itii.,| |,v
the law, lie siinciinim Ihc laws, ami in.iii'i ii,,,
ordeiN and decries I'nr their exeiiiilMii, wiili,,,,!
imsMssillK any pnwcr cither nf siixpemliii;; Hic \n\\ ,
tlli'inselvcs, nr of dispensing; with thiireMuMlinii
He cnmmaiids the land and sea fnrres, di'iliirii
war, ncniiiiates ircalies of peace, of aiiiiinir, imi
of cniniiici'i'c ; lull treaties III' cuiiiniifie, iiinl,, III, f,
illMilvill^ illlpnrtant cnll-^cipicncen. are nf iiii III,, ,
willmnt the «aiictlnii of ihc cliaiiosrs. Tin. |,j,, ,
may especially coiivnkc nr adJiMiiM ami ili«(,lJ,
Ihc chanilM'rs, ami he can inilin;ale or ninii ih,.
seiilenccs of piinisliinent prniiniiiiced liy Ilie iml,', ,
He can alsn innfer lilies nf linliililv, liiil lie'liii, n,,
piiwci- III attach to them any pri\ile),'e« vvIpmIi vt,
all llelKiaiis heiiiix alwolntely eiiiiul in tliiM'M'.i
the law. The iioliilily enjoy niilva |i4T!.iiiiiirtil|,
williiiiil cniisiiiiitin;{ a sni'ial orilir, Nd imniliir
of llic royal family can lie a minister, ami ii>
who is lint a IJelKian hy liirlh or iialMriiliMii..M.
Ministers have no dcliherativc voii'c in ilii'i|||||,|!
hers itiih'ss ihey are ineinlH'rs. 'I'In'y can ciiicr.
Iin\\e\fr, and deniainl a heariii;; ; ami ilie rlianii
hers can demand their preseiici> when ri'(|iiirii|.
'Ihey arc lijilile to he accused liy the climiihirol
representalivcs, who can hrin^'tliein iM'llirc ih,'
cniiri nf cassat inn, which ainne is eiiiiinwiriil |.>
jiid|j;e them. The kiiii; eaiinot wiilidniw a mj-
iiisicr frnin respniisiliilily, iinr pardon him \t||,ii
cnndemned, withniit a deiiiand I'nr panliiii Irnniniii'
nf the chaiiiliers. There are live iniiiisiirs; imimlv,
a minister of justice, of ihe inicrior, of I'diiiju
alfairs, nf pulilic wnrks, of war, and of linaii',..
The kiiif; is dcclarcil of a;,'c at ci;,'li(e(ii _viiir«,
llel'nre he can «'xercise the fnncliniis nCroviiliy, lu'
must take the fnllnwin^ natli in the ]ircMiiiT (.1
the two legislative chamliers: — ' I swear tn i.l).
serve Ihe constitiilinii and the laws ol'ihe lli'l;.'iaii
liiiKH, The niimher iifde]iiitics caniint exceed Ihe pcniilc ; to maintain tlii^ iiidcpcihiciiic ut' ili
"■ * '" '' ' ' ■' '" ' nation, ami the intct^rity nf its territory.' .Iiiilyci
receive their appointments directly I'loni tlic kin;',
and hold them for life, so that tiiey (.'aiiimt \k
superseded hnt hy their own cnnseiit,or liy a jiul;'-
menl and for reasons pronounced in (iiicii cuiiri.
Th« trial hy jury is eslahliHlied for all critiiiiiiil
and political cliar;^'es. and I'nr nIVciiccs of tlir |lrl'^^
No extranrdinary Judicial comiiiission, or Iriliuanl,
can he created under any deuoiniiiatinii wliatcvrr.
No taxes can h(^ levied liy the .stale imiiMnr-
dained hy a law nf the Icffislative chiniiliiTs; ainl
all taxes, as well as the extent of tlic army, tiiiih
he vnted anminlly. The civil list is lixcii I'iprthe
duration of each rei^jn. For tliatof UiiiK I jmld II.
it was lixed at ■^,7r)l,;i-_>;i francs, or lUMilii/.,
hesides the appropriation of the royal eiiiliccs .'iinl
court oxpensos, raising it, tof;ethcr witliallnwiiiirrH
to tho inenilM'rs nl the royal family, to l,'.'!!!,;!!'"
francs, or l<in,0.')(i/.
Ill each iiroviuco a governor is n|i|i<'iiit('il. ili-
rcctlv aincualilc to the tiiinister of th« iiitcrii"',
for tfiR pur|i(isv of superintending and securing' tin'
due, execution of the laws, and each fiiliiiiiii>tra-
tive arrniidissemeiit is superintended hy n onm-
niis.sary, under the prnvincial gnvernor. Tlic ex-
clusive interests nf each |irnvince arc wimiiiiiii'l
to n provincial council, elected hy the cilizi'iH,
who elect the national representalivcs. The iium-
her of ouuiiL'illors in each province i.s frmu liliy tn
prnpnrl'iiin of I to'll),l'lltl i ihaliilanls. To liccmm
n deputy, it is necessary In he ii itclgian liy hirth
or hy naluralisatinii ; to lie in pnssoision of the
civil' and |iiilitical riglits nf the kingdom ; tn have
nttained the age of 2.'); and to he resident in llel-
giiini. No other condition nf eligihility can he
rcijuired. The representatives are elected for four
years, and one half of the whole are renewed every
two y<'ars. On a dissnlutinn, the whole cliamlier
is renewed. Hacli representative, except tliosi!
Avlin live in Urusscls, receives 2(M) florins (l(i
guineas) each month of the session, as imlemnity
of expenses. The seiuiti! is cninpoHcil nf half as
many mi'inhers as the chamher of representatives,
ami they are elected hy the same cili/uns for eight
years. Half are renewed every four years, and
the whole on a dissolution, 'i'lic (^iialilications
are the same as for the representatives, except
that the age must he at least forty years, and the
amount paid in direct taxes must he at least 1,1)00
florins (N I/.) The senators receive no payment,
on ac(uinnt of indemnity of expenses. The session
<if the chamlM'rs must last at least forty days. The
iiumherof represi'iitatives is 102, and of senators
fll. The cniistitiitiniial powers of the king are
licrcdiiary in a direct male line, natural and le-
|ritimatc, in the order of iiriinogeniture, to the
]ierpotnal exclusion of females ami their (U'scend-
iints. Jii default ui' mule i.'jsuc, the king may
the n*m\t „( i),f.
iiiliiii lii> tiiniii., ||„
III' llii> kliii; l« ill.
irr ri<|Miii'.il(||., \,,
riiiitili'rMiu;iiii| t.\ .1
* ri'«|«iii«ililc, ii„
H liii niiii^uri III
k ill III!' iinii\, iiihi
I ill III)' iri'iiiriil n<\
|ilii>liM, iiKliinli'il l.v
iiWK, mill tKKiii'i ili.>
t-xriillioll, will t
Hlisiirmlill;;!!!!' Iim,
villi lllfir I'MMMlll.ill.
m'U Inn T", ili'ilariH
lire, III' llliiillli'i', nil. I
iillllllirri', iiintiilli. r.
iii'is, iiri- III' 111! ill. II
limiiU'lM. 'Ilir kill.'
iiliniiiii mill il|..>iihr
iliKitif 'ir niiiii i!m
iiiiirtil liy till' jiul;,'!..
• IlililV, lull III' lllln III
|iri\ il«'K'''> wliiiirvT,
I'imiil ill III)' I'Vi' ' i
iiiilv II |H'r''iiiiiil ilili
oriii'r. Nil iiii'iiiliir
miiii^tcr, timl im hh'
'til nr iiiitiiriilixiiinii,
■(' viiicr ill till' rimin-
■rn, 'I'licy cmi i'iUit.
riii;{ ; iiml iIk' iliiini-
iclli't' when ri'i|uiri'il,
'il liy till' t'liiiin'K'ri.l
rill); tlii'in U'liiri' ilu'
liiiu' i^ i'iii|Hiwi'ri'il t'l
limit williili'iiw II mi-
imr piirilnii liiiii ^^lll'll
iiill'iir |iiirii<iii Inuiiiiiii'
ilvi'iiiiiii^urmiiiiiiiily,
I' iiitiriur, ol' I'mci^ii
war, mill m' lliiiiini'.
at cifiliiccii yi'iir',
I'tiiiiiM 111' riiviiliy, III'
ill till' iircM'iiii' 111'
; — ' 1 '4\vi'ar 111 nil-
laws 111' till' lll'l^'iiUl
uli'|ii'll'l('liri' 'il' II"'
s icrriKiry.' .Imlu'i"
rci'tly rriiiii the kin;'.
Iiat tlicy eiiiiiiiil Ik'
iiisciii.i'irliy ajiiil;'-
lll'l'll ill "l"'!! '■"""•
lii'd I'lir all iriiiiiiiiil
. otVoiii'i'M 111' till' ll^•^s
iiiiiii^'sioiii IT Iriliiiii'ili
ininiiiialiuii wliiiU'vir.
tlu; stall' iiiili'>^ 111'-
liitivc cliaiiiliiTs; mi'l
lit III' tlu'iiriny. iii">i
il list is lixi'iil'iirilii'
liatof kiii^'I-i'iijiiiMll'
friiiH's, nr 1111,111"'..
till- royal cililii'ti. mul
-■('tlu'r'witliulliiwiiiiiH
"l I'aiuily, tu .l,-.'iil,:W"
Tiior is niiix'iii'i'ili'l'-
iiistcr of till! ill"'"'"''
uliiiH anil si'ciiriii;; Ik'
mill each iiihiiiiiii'ira-
rintctuli'il by ft t'""'-
il fTovoriior. 'I'll*' '•"•
oviiK't' arc wmiiiiiiU'l
[•('tcil liv the •■it"-i'"^
scntiitivcs. 'riicniini-
Vovincc is i'miu HHy '"
IlKLdll'M (KIN«U)(tM OK)
linx llNii 111 riiiiiii'jl (
417
.fiiif
H'll-H
»«r.nh'. Vi^''" •'"nimiimi iinn (U'o iin rniim
«.««){'■ ''"' '<•'"''''' *'''■''' ln'lolIK <'Xi'lllnlVclv lo
,, iiiluliiluiilK, Till' inrinlK'rK ari' cli'rifil iiKiiiiwo
^ihr iiTiiNiiK'i'kl i'oiiik'iIk. ill till' |irii|iiiriliiii urniif,
m 111 nviTiit.'''. •'• I'*'' ItilialiilaiilK. Karli I'liiii.
niiiir hitK Iroiii two lo lour liiiilltt'K, aiiil it lnirKo-
i,.i.ii'r, wli" i" •''•* |'riiii'l|ia! Imal oilli'iT for llir
i,„„|,iriitiiiii of Jiinlli'i', mill iIki iliri'i'lioii of
,,.li,i' urt'iiirs.
Jmliii"! •>',v»''''". — •* trifi'ioiil ill" fotii' !•• ••m'M I'n'i-
i.n » Iriliiiiiiit *''■ /'rrmiiry innlniur in riii II nr
fi;,l|,M.iiiiiil, ami lliri'f loiirln of it|i|ii'iil, — iil
|;r,,.,|., (ilirlll. mi'l l.ii'W;''. — f""" •'" ll'^rtTX
„i,imI liiriHlii'lioii. Misilciiicai r» Ih'Ioii^miiix lo
III,. ,i,rrr''ll"i"'l |iollr«. an- jmln'il I'V a mTiioii ol'
ih, iriliKiuil ill' /irfiiiiirr iiiiiliiini>\ rrillK'M iniil
iiiiKili'inraiioiirH, |ioliiii'al olli'm't'M, ami
iif till' iiri'sH, iini Jiiil^'i'il liy n coiirt of
i,.i/i.. Ill I'Hili iirovinn', with a jury of riii/.ciis
...MM'liiit I'lTiaiii i|iialillratiiiiiH iiiiliralt'il liy tlio
ijw.
\ TiiMr lie VimiMtllim, or aiiiiiiliiii'ilt, at llnii*-
iils iji'i'iilrii iijHiii ili'iiintiil.'i a^aiii.'^t Jiiil);iiit'iiiH
iriiiiiiiiiii'il ill llx' oilur niiiriK ami triluiiiulH,
I iiiiiiirrini all'air» art' jmlKi'il 'ly tliirtrrii trilui-
ii. lit iMiiiiiirrri', in III*' |iriiiri|iiil riiiiimcri'ial
>iiii., .Miliiary Iuwn arc ailiiiiiiiiti'ri'il liy I'ouii-
ril<.il'nur. mill liy n liii;li rourl ut llrtiHMclM for
ill.llllCI'i'illllH.
Ilii'i'iiiirt iif CnHxntion prottouiicoH only ii|ioii
ilii. valiiliiy iil'l<'K''>l forms, ami tlu'ri'lorc rclVrs all
iyi« iif vinlalioii or niir<a|i|iliratiiiii of ilic luw
i.i:iii'itlii'r triliiiiial. 'I'lir foiiris of aiijical ilcriilf
uioii n|i|M'nls ri'K|i<'i'linK iIk' ,iii<lK'ii<'»l'* li'iuli'rt'il
llii' iriliiiiials »/r firimiirv itialuiiie in fivil
I Miiim, anil ulValrx of i:oiniiiL'rri' iiiiil I'orrcctiiiiml
I i»'ii'i'.
Till' iriliiiMHiK f/c ttrrniirri! inntnnrr n;i vo ilollnil ivo
I il;iiii'iit.t iijiiiii all t'ivil atl'airs invnlviii;; hiiiiin
iiiirr n tliiiiisaiiil francN ; ami (lie IrilanniN >/•'
I «!> hlimiiiu' raHCM t'Xicmliii); to hi) fr, or to
I l«i fr. KJili ii|i|K>al lo hU|H'riiir coiirtH, 'I'lio tri-
ItoiU lit' iniiiiirijiul pnlii'ii arc* ('oiiiimisciI of n
I jiHJiv iif jM'iK'f, a coiniiiinxarv of iioln'c, ami of
litii'liiir^'iiniiiKtcr or liailiU'of tlii< foiutiiiino, 'I'lui
hyliH ilcjiri't' of jmlii'ial proccciliiins is <>x(>rriH('il
Uy ilu' iiiiirtH of asxizc, wliicli, in llic ritii'H of
to'sK (ilii'iit, and \Ae\H', ar« <'oni|i<isinl of n
I jd'-iili'iit mill I'liiir nH.soHHors, cliimun from tliv uuiiii-
|(ill.iMif tlic oiiiirtN of ajijical.
iliti iitlier rliii'f iirovincinl citioM llipso coiirlx
lin. I.imied of four jiiilj;t'« ile jtri'inii'-n iiiHliiiuT,
litla riiiiiicilliir of tlu! courlM of n|i|ii'al lis iirc-
lii'lfiit, Twelve jiiryiiii'ii urc i'Iio.m'ii for oarli
Ills' liy I ml lot, from iiiialilU'il citizens, unil deeiile
|ii»ii iliii i|ii('.stiiin ol ^iiilt ; and then, aeeordin;;
ll'iilii'irdi'i'i.siiiii, tlu; eoiirt a('i|iii(s or applies tlie
mi'limeiil u'liicli (lie luw declares. It is culcii-
»'! that till' liiisiness of the eiuirts reciuires an-
liiillythe sicrvices of 2,1(10 jiiryineii, and that the
liiii).'ili<ni riiiitiiiiis 2li,!i5!l citizens (|ualilii'il as the
ll» ili'inamla fur thu perronnuneu uf (hut inipur-
|llilt llllilO.
iimiiifi.—'l'he pnhlic ineomn and expenditure
|i(IW;;iuin lias averaned fur the last few years
llWMiinnl' 15(1,(1011,(10(1 francs, or C,000,(lOO/.'ster-
WH' Tlie revenue for (he vi'iir IKOI nmoiinted to
|lWil),lli(l francs, or r),!li:)",l(i7/., mid the expeii-
'im' fur tlic same vear to l-ll,77(l,'l«7 francs, or
>'M%; (lie revenue for INOi' was l."):i,2ll.4!IO
Ihii's (ir (i,|-2K,r)7!l/., and the exiieiiilitnre
|li.i;i;,;}lH( fram-s, or .''),807,0."i.")/. ; niid the revenue
I' iw;:) was 1;W,2I1,I'.)0 francs, or 0.1 l4,:iX0/..
Kilellifcxpeiiiliture animnitedto but I1,'),I70.:I',M)
Til'*, or .'i,«05,-J,>S!t/. The following were the chief
fniMif the revt'uue uiul expenditure of the year
|n';|;—
Vol I.
Ill \ I M i: ii»' INlin,
I Kriini'"
1.iin<f Tn< . , . , ' iM.HMii.'jiNi
llll'ollll' 'I'lK , , , |ll,/'lll.^,INNI
'lax on Iriule MtxinrM . 4,i)IA,uki
rilalillllll .... M,:l7'^,IIINI
K<rlM. Until'* , . . ■,fil.7A.'i,iMK)
' Kiiri'trlitniiu'iit' il ('Ini'N ilii,.l'./(i,iiiMi
1 1)1111111114 , , , . 4,.|>lll,ll<KI
l'o»liillleii . . . '^.mio.iMMi
llulUll)* .... yil,.1N.'k,IHMI
Hlalii|M. iiV, . . . IO,7liM,.'iill)
MlM'i'lliMiti<ni>i ItPin* . I Uii.iiH)
I
Total liiciimii . . IMI,';il,4lHi
Kxi'KMini'iii': oil' iMii;i.
C
7.-.-.,l.'.'i
4-J0.'./IN>
||<II,'.^MI
f.77,;'N»
l,ii7ii,Joo
l,if;,wiii
1711,700
IIH.llHI
I,Im:|.|in)
4'.(H,:l|ii
'./l,IIM
11,11 l,:iMil
I'lilille Di'lit .
Civil 1,1st iiiul Crown
Dotiitloiis , ,
Ministry ut \''iri\un AlTitlrs
„ till' liilerlur
„ KIlllllHI'H
,, >l list leu ,
„ I'liliile Work*
War
MlMCvllaneutiH It<'int ,
Total Kxix'iiilltnru ,
Kriiiii'K
«
•HMJ-.'.ojO
I.IIIII.MNII
4,'J0< ,.'IIHI
KlH.II.Ml
ll,:i.MI.Hii'.J
1.1 1. '.'Ill
IMN'i.N.m)
il7ll,:ll.'«
l'./,77.-.,ii.M>
fit 1,110a
i;i,':mii,ii7
Aai.'jo.-i
■J.*.,7.M»,Mil!l
1 ,ii:iu,;lll'.'
HA,WJ,\.i'J
l,:i:ll,iiH.-i
•i,lllMI,';iM»
|lli,-(HI»
Ii.'i.i7ii.:m(i
fi,HII.'i,'JW»
The Itelfrjan huilf^et is nl lirst si^^hl calcnlaled
to appear larger than it is in reality, all the ^rnss
receipts of the post-ollice, the riiihMiy, and the
l('le^r|.,||,||M lii'in); recorded as reveiiiii'. while the
workiii;; expenses of those estalilisliiiiiiils are in
scrihed in the IiiiiIkcI of jinlilic works, and swell
the apparent ainoiint ol expenditiire. (If Iho
whole revenue reeonleil for \Ht'<:\, alimit 'lt),(l(l(l,0(IO
francs are derived frmn siimlry and patrinionial
sunrces, and 1 12,000,000 rraiics frmn taxation.
The national deht of lielgiuin wot uh foUowH in
the vear lUliU ;—
DtMrliillon of D«bt
Part of Dutch Debt .
CiuiiilB, HouiIh, niiil UnlUvnys
llalhviivs, Orltfliiul
Aiiiouiit. . r,ii,s,-,n,Kiio
War Imleiiinltv, Orl-
kIiiiiI Aiiiiiiint 7,(i-Jl,(tOl)
Town of llni.-i.<els
Ciiiiversliiiior.'i "'„of IH.l'Jniul
Treasury Iluiiils .
Ueiiiiliurseiiieiit to Ilollanil
of u iiiiiiiiiinl CHpital uf
lil!»,:l 1 2,11110 lit 'Ji "/„ .
Conversion of the •'> "'.1 Loiilis
of IHIO, IHI'i, ISIS, uiid of
Treasury lionils .
Conversion of .'i "'0 r.nnn of
IS.'ii.niul i.ssiieot ■l.'i.llllll.dllU
fr. Loiui for i'libllo Works
Total
Nnmln*(
Cupltkl
llati'i uf
lnlrrt.li
Kraiici
ll!,li:ll,-.'(in
Pur ffiit.
2'.'il,lll.-i,i;:l'.'
|l!,lllti,IIIIO
4
;io,77ri,:i:i3
il
fi,(IIIO,IIOO
:)
r,
7l,7ti7,(lH2
4i
7-l,5-7,ri00
-14
l.'iO,4.13,70O
^
08,879,000
4i
(I.').'),4«(!.()'I7
£-Jll,-Jltl,442
The debt is paid ofl' fjradimlly by tlie surplus of
iiiconie over expenditure, and the operation of the
sinkini; fund, or ntisse il'iimortissemmt. ()i\ ^•ep-
teniher 1, lH(il, the total debts had been reduced
to (;;{!M10(),0()0 francs, or 2;"),,")(!0,U(I0/. It is calcu-
lated that, in the year 1HK4, the net income of the
s(«te railways will be sullicient to pay the entire
interest of the debt.
Army and Navy. — 'I'lie quota of the Belff'c
anriy is determined every year by a law. 'I'lic
1*
.:;. lit
41S
BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
oxponsos of the war <lcp(irimpnt in 18.10-!!! wcro
«(i,ti4i»,27") franc«. In ]h;<H it, lind fiillcn to
42,07h,7H(i frnnr.t, or Iphh lliiin half; iind it coii-
tinut'dtodccrcasc till, in IK'17, it ninoiititnl to only
ti7,482,()07 frnncH ; hut in conspqiicnccMit' Iho revo-
lution in France, and thccominotiimH in the other
l)artH of the Continent, hy which the trantiuiility
of Dclpuin was seriouslv threatened, the wnr ex-
penditure for ISIH rone t"o ahout 3H,0(MI.0(MI friincs.
It was grafhially reduced, however, and in I lie
year IHtJJl amounted to hut iW,"J'J2, 1 1!'-' francs, or
],i}3l,r.«.')/.
Accordinj; to the law of June 8, \H'>ii, the stand-
ing anny of Itel^iuni is to consist of KlO.ddOmen,
distrihuted over Hixleen rcf^iments of infantry,
seven refjiments of cavalry, and four re^'itnents of
artillery. The actual nnniher of sfddiern nndei
arms, at the end of W',->, amounted to 7i},7l8
rank and file, comprisiiiK ."»'',•')•'><' infantry, S,2(I2
cavalry, (i,700 artillery, l,()'.l(l eiijiineers, and o7()
train. The artillery wius possessed of IViiiieccs
of ordnance.
The anny is formed hy conscription, to which
ever}' ahle man who has completeil his ninetcnth
year is liahle. Suhstitution is pennitted. The
le«al period of scTvice is cij,dit years, of which,
howe^-cr, one-half is allowed, as a rule, on fur-
lou(;h. A comparatively l.-ir;;e nnniher of men
are on service in the eleven fm-tresses of the kinj;-
dorn, Antwcrji, Mons, Charh'roy, I'liilippevilie,
Tirlemont, Ash, Touniay, Menin, Ypres, Ghent,
and Namur.
The navy of IJelKium consists of seven vessels,
namely, a hrig of twenty guns, a sloop of twelve,
and two gunboats of five guns each, with three
transport steamers. Itelgium,on herseiinrationfiom
Holland, was left entirely without an .'xrined navy.
History, — In the ages immediately preceding
and suhsequent to the Christian era, much of the
great jilain which now comprises the provinces of
W. and K. Flanders and Antwer]), was partially
overflowed hy the ocean. The soil was so marshy
that an inundation or a temjiest threw down
whole forests, such as arc still discovered helow
the surface. The sea and .ivers had no limits,
and the earth no solidity. Many of the inhalii-
tants of this low plain li^ed in huts placed ii]ion
the mounds of sand, or elevated above the reach
of the tides upon stakes. They had lish for food,
rain water for drink, and peat for fuel. (Pliny's
Nat. Ilisi. lib. l(i.) The higher S. and K. parts,
forming at present the AValloon country, were
covered hy the immense forest of the Ardennes,
which extended from the IJhine to the Scheldt,
and afforded shelter to numerous tribes of the
German race (Ca's. lib. ii. 4.) who lived by hunt-
ing, and by rudely ciilti -aling the earth. They
formed a part of the third ;livision of (iaul, which
by the Romans was called iJelgia, Belgium, or
(iallia Belgica, and were the least civilised and
most courageous of all the (iaiiic nations. (Ci.'^-.
lib. i. 1.) They had cities, surroinuled by loft/
stone walls and fortified gates, requiring "the use
of the Roman battering-rams and moving towers.
Their armies contained troops of cavalry; the
country produced sujiplies of corn, and abundant
herds of cattle. The peojile consisted of two
classes, chiefs and slaves ; and Druidisin from
Britain was universally predominant.
In the ilrd, 4th, and oth centuries, the charactei'
of the Belgic pojuilation was greatly changed by
successive invasions of Salian Franks from the
north, whose progress westward terminated in the
establishment of the Frankish or French emjiire
in (iaul, and under whose dominion t'.ie ancient
inhabitants of the Ardennes were either destroyed
or reduced to slavery. Christianity was intro-
fliiced, and monasteries were founded in the jm.
mense forests and solituiles of the liiglirr coiinirv
In the time of Charienuigne. a.d. 8(Mi, i||,.]i|)v,j/i
slate of the country had become uun'h irniirnviil
In the W. embankments were raisil ii;,'iiiii.| ii,,.
encroachmenls of the sea, and in tlie K. lare
tracts of forest were cleared ; but the ticriv u,„|
valiant warriors who fonnerly ocni|iic'il tlic ^n
wen! succeeded by an abject" race of serfs win,
cultivated the domains of' haughty I'TiIs an'i i.,,.
]ierious priests. The clergy enjliyed innticn,,.
possessions : 14,000 families of vassals l)cli,iii;t,||„
the single Abbey of Niv(41e, and the intiuiic i.f
th(' Abbev of Alne exceeded l,:!ll(l,(lli(i ,|„i|,,r,^
The Flemings I'onned iLssociations called V,tlih
(the Knglish guilds) for protection iifrajnst ili»
desjHitic viidcnce of the Franks, as well a* U
sociiil assistance. These were the (iri;;iii cif i\
the ancient nnniici|ial (corporations, and within;!
century after the tune of Charleniagiic. Flanl(r*
was covered with corporjtte towns. At ilicciKlif
the 11th century, when all the stales (Siiii
Fhniders were reductid, by the lierce (piaiTiN i,f
the feudal lords and prince bishops, to a climlK*
waste of bondage, the finuitical |ilireiisy nf the
crusades induced many of th(! noliles to [lari wiili
lands, and to grant great jirivileges ami imiiiicii
jMiwers, in order to obtain the means of (■(jiij|,|,iii;j
annies to fight the Saracens, Tlieir \\m\\\,\
vassals, the Flemish burghers, were tlins (imlW
to purchase independence, and a jiirisilictimi dfj
their own. They consequently formed tlienistlvN
into communes, electe<l bailiffs, directed tlicin.ini
affairs, and biiilf magnificent town-halls witli iin.e
belfries, as temples and trophies of their iiUTtiisj
Tlie peojde, conscious of their jiower, (.Tailiiallri
extorted from their rulers .so many cDiice-MMiiJ
that the provinces formed, in reality, a (IciiKimJ
and were only nominally subject to tiio iii(iii,m'li|
of France and his nobles. When the rc-t
Kurope was subject to desjiotism, and iiivdlvtdii
conqiarative ignorance and barliarisiii, tiu' oiii
of the counts of Flanders was the chosen re-iihiii
of lii)erty, civilistition, and nsel'iil kiuiMlnl^'f
and when tin; ships of other nations scarcely wii
turcd beyond the sight of land, those of the I'lcnii'
merchants traversed the ocean, and lini<,'c.> iii
Antwerp jiossessed all the comnierccc and wialii
of the north of Kurope. In this state tlic i*
vinces long continued, until they caiiie iiniliriii
dominion of the Duke of Burgiiiniy, aljuiit
mi(Ullc of the lolh century, rrevieiis t» tl;
event, we hnd only nncoiiiiected duchiis, cnuiiiki
lordshipr, towns, with iiinumerahle ri;,'ht.<. claiiTi
and ])rivilegcs, advnnccd and enfinTed imw
subjects ami vassals against each other .ir ii;.',iiii;
their birds; and now by lords and vassals &im
the monarch, without the exiiressioii nf an; r
lective idea of Belgium as a nation, Uiul.ril
Biirgtindian dynasty the commercial and niiiti
faclii'.'ing towns of the low country enjuyoil a
markable ])rosperity. The famous order iJ il
Golden Fleece was instituted in I-I.'IO; aiuiiiff"
the end of the 15th century the city nf YpnTii
4,000 looms, and the city oitilient oi;i,(IU(l wcm
Bruges and Antwerp were the great niiirla "HI
connnerciai world, and contained cacii A
200,000 in ,ial). In the 1' lemisli court of the Hal
of Burgui ilv, named I'hilip the (iooil, almui 11
Inxiirioir. livhig was carried to a viiidii*
foolish jxcess. The wealthy were clad \\\¥."K<
'■Lets, satins, and Jewellery, .and their li.iinii'
were gi\(.'n with almost incredible sploiidmir.
This luxury jiroduced depravity and friine
such ail extent, that in one year 1.4ih' niiin'
were committed in (ihent, in the ganililin^'-li"i
and other resorts of dcbauchcrv, Tlieari.-w
fimndod in tl\c im-
iil' tlu' lii^liiT ('(lunuv,
'. A.I>. HIMMlic|ih\>i/,;l
I'oint^ iimrli iiii|iriivi.l.
crt' rni-i'il ii^jaiiM ihc
, and ill llii^ 1'.. lart«
.(I ; Imt tlic tierce ai,4
urly (MTiiiiii'il till' <.,il
|c<'t race uf serfs \hm
lumnlity I'nls tmiWw-
yay *'iij"y''ii iiimiiii-o
>s ("if vassals licliiiineiliii
■lie, and tlic imome i.(
i.ili'd l,:i(l(l.("lll (liilliir..
iH'iatioiis called (iiWn
|irot<'cti(iii afiain-t ilie
Franks, as well iis fnf
were tlic origin iif all
riKiratiiiiis, and \vitluii;\ I
i CliarUnia^'iie. Fliinl(r<
te towns. Attlieeiul"(
» all tlie stales exKH
l)y tlie licrcc (|imrrel< i.f |
;e l»islio\is, to a clieetli>
fanatical )direiisy of ti;
)f tlu! noliU's tiiiuirtwiilil
t iirivil('H'''< "'"' V"li'i"i|
11 till! means of e(|iiiiiiiiii,'j
iiraccns. 'I'lii'ir weahl.y
rglicrs, were thus eiial*!
ICO, and a jiirisilieti.iu ■■
incntly furmod tlienwlvH
bailitl's. directed tlieiriM
icent town-liallswitliiiiul
tropliies '<( tlieir liUrik
of their (I'^ver, ^,^illlu;lilv;
ilprs so many cimee.M'ii-,]
,c(l, in reality, iulemmriiy,
.Iv siiliject to the iiuhimA
.bles. When the ka 'f
.despotism, and iuvolnHlii
and liarlmrism, tluMiut
rrs was the chosen re>iili«"
1, and nscfiil Uno«lfVf:
lotlier nations scarwlyvdi
jfland, those of the riinif
|lie ocean, and llni;:i- »
the commerce ami wi«
,e In this state tlic vm
until theveameiiiiiliTM
|c of IhirKundy, ali""' 'l
■cntnrv. Trevioiis t» tl:
.uneeted diichii s, cnimiw
liiimimeralde rit;his, dav
ifcd mill enforceil »<*
gainst each other ..r ajinm
,v lords and vassals ns:*
'the exiiression ft «")•'■•
n as a nation. LmUii
■ he commercial ami ^rx
[ low country ciijiiyoil a 1
'J'he famous order i^l |1
.itutedin 14:50; iiiulLj
nturv thccityof M'"-"'
,tvoHihentM).tW"««mi
verc the ureal nwrt* > "
l„d contained eai'l.
, riemish court of till- M]
'hilili the (iood, iil""'"^'
earned to a vui»u^ »
,althv were clad uipT^v'
kcdlerv, and their l^'lf
It incredihle splenil-u'-
•od depravity m\ "im
in one year 1.41"' 7;
.e.,t.inthe!;nn.hl"V-l"
ichauchcry. 'H''^ ""'^"
BELGIUM (KINGDOM OF)
raliiv.itod with lircnt Nnceess. Van I'.yck iii-
y,,iic(' the henutifiil oil colours fur which the
niiiii'li school is renowned. Paintinic on jjlass.
i.ilivjiiii;: diamonds, lace, tapestry, and chimes
Inre iilsi) invented in llel^'imn, at, this period.
Mirf of the tnanniliceiit cathedrals and town-halls
ill ilic ccniiitrv were hnilt in the i:ttli and I Itli
itiiiiiries. iiistory, poetry, ami learninj,' were
iiiiicli cultivated ; and the university of I.ouvain
lu* die luii'^t eelehrated in Kiirupe. In I 177
jM^ium jiassed under tluf dynasty of the empire
i.|' Austria ; and after many vears of contest he-
iKira the despotic .Maxiniiiian and the deino-
[ critic Fleming's, the noveniment, in l.')l!l, de-
5,yii,|eil to his grandson, Charles Y., Kin;; of
I ^miii anil Kniperor of (HTinaiiy. In his rei;j;n the
jifliKiK'o of tlie Flemish hiirKliers attained its
liL'lit^t point. The city of (iliciit, contained
i;.,.(iiiii inliahitants, of whom KlO.diM) were ein-
iji.vcii in weaving and other industrial arts.
I |;rii,vs annually exported stntl's of l.iiglish and
k.flilMi wool to the value of )^,(MI(l,ii(Ml tloriiis. j
Iflio S<liehlt at Antwerji often contained 2,.")tM> \
v,>*ls waiting their turn to come to the wharl's : i
liit;;ales were daily eiitereil hy olH I loaded waggi nis ;
Isiiil licf exchange was attended, twice tx day, l>y ■
I'lil merchants, who expended 1:1(1,001) gcdden
|cr"\vns in a single hampiet given to I'hilip, the
liiin 111' Charles V. The value of the wool an-
Imallviiniinrtcd from Kngland and Sjiain exceeded
lii»«i,iH)0 ))ieces of gold. This amazing pros|)erity
|(!;|it'rienec<l a rapid and fatal deidine under the
Itraiiiiv and higotry of I'hilip II., son of Charles V.
Iflie iliietrincs of the protestant reformation had
Itaiil immerons adherents in lielginm. Lnther-
liniMii was preached with great zeal hy several
itl'iimicni, who drew anmiid tliem crowds amount-
to 111,111111 or lo.i.'OO. I'arties of iconoclasts
1 a|iiH'areil, and demolished the ornamental pro-
^«!v III' 4(10 churches. I'rotestant pers"cntion hy
ibeii;(|uisitioii had heen commenced liy Charles V.;
«ii liy I'hilip II. it was cstahlished in its most
JiilNilical extravagance. He tilled the country
iS]ianish soldiers, and commissioned the Duke
f Alva to extirpate, without mercy, every jiro-
isiant heretic in Iklgium. Knin and dread of
Ml in its most liideous forms drove thousands
ifanwins to Kngland, where tliey introduced the
^aiiiilactiiring skill of IJrnges and (ilient. Com-
wpaml trade in Flanders dwindled away, many
(ilie rich merchants were reduced to lieg for
lisiil, the great cities were half deserted, and
liMit wolves often devoured the scattered inha-
|uut$ of desolated villages. iJelgium remained
k Spanish dominion until the tnernoraljlu vic-
/iif Kamillies, in I7U(i, after which it was sidi-
|n again to Austria; and having been several
Hits cimqnered by, and reconipiered from, the
luii'li, it was incorporated, in 17;i5, with the
Imiili repnhlic, and divided into departments.
lythis union, lielginm secured a suppression of
lihiolil feudal ]irivileges, exemption from ter-
k'lrial cimtrihutions, the abolition of tithes, a
He extensive division of real jiroperty, ". repeal
ilie;,'ainc laws, an admirable registry law, a
[ta|i system of tax collection, the advancement
eilucation in central schools and lycennis, a
pm »y.stem of legislation by the creation of
imblicity of judicial proceedings, trial by
.ami the general use of the French langn.age.
f ilio eonjiress of Vienna, the ]irovince» of liel-
iwre annexed to those of Holland, to form
|( tiii^'i'iim of the Netherlands, which existed
(til ilic revolution in IH'M), wlu'ii lielginm be-
an inilepeiident nation. Her union with
iii'l was oiiu of convenience on the part of
• liywhoin it was negotiated, and not altri-
EELORADE
410
luitable to any congeniality of tlio people joined
together, who differ in national character, in re-
ligion, and, to some extent, in language. The
Itelgians complained of being f.irced into a imion
which they would not havc^ sought, and that its
terms were uneipial. The French revolution of
ls;l(l excited the predisposition to insiirrectiimary
movement, and the result was ik deelaralioii,
and, linally, a general recognition, of independence,
leading to the election of I'rince Leopuld of .Saxi'-
Cohnrg-tJotha as lirst King of the ISelgians.
Aiitl(iuitii-s.— }\u\)i\rt of I'.nropecontMiiis, within
the same extent of area, so many object-, and fur-
nishes so many associations, to interest the aiiti-
(piarian, the iiolitical, ecclesiastical, or military
historian, the artist, and the poet. Numerous
ancient cities and towns, some of which existed
long before the (Christian era, still are ailoriied
with magnilicent (iotliic strtietiires of the miildle
ages, that recall to the iinngination the gorgeous
jiageantry ol' the days of chivalry; and on many
alone hill, and forest solitude, stand the ruins of
castles, abbeys, and chateaux, whose lordly ov.uers
have been the heroes of roinantie legends. In the
S. and K. provinces ;ire foiiiid litlmi, tumuli, and
other remains of the Celtic Druids, to whom is
attribntid the excavation of lunnerous apartments
and passages in several subterranean caverns,
particularly that of the hill of St. I'eter, near
Alaestricht, which contains above 100,000 ditl'erent
avenues, 12 ft. in width, and from ("> to 21 in height.
Nnmerons coins and medals of tlu; Komaiis have
been tbnnd on the sites of their <'aiii]is and roads;
and lioman masonry, containing inscriptions in
honour of the JMenaiiiau diviiiities, has been dis-
covered among the relics of amdent towns, in
places imwoverHowed by the sea. NearCharleroy,
m the midst of beautiful scenery, an^ the ruins ol
the celebrated Abbey of AIne, the cloisters of wliich
were formed by ;>Oo" columns of the finest marble.
The old castli^s of the loth centnry, in the neigh-
bourhood of Liege, are described in Sir Walter
Scott's novel of C^uentin Durward.
'J'he number of eminent and remarkable indivi-
duals who were born in lielginm is very great.
Ihdgium is the country of birth of tlie Finperor
Charles v., of Scaliger, Lipsins.and \'an llelmont;
of the geographers Ortelins and ilercator; of
John of (lannt, or (ihent; of I'erkin W'arbeck
who was the son of a Jew of Touriiay; of the
painters Van Kyck, (.hientin jMatsys, I.'nhens, A'an-
dyke, Teniers, .Jordaens, Snydcrs, and many other
painters of the Flemish school.
I'.KLtiKADF (an. Sim/iiiunKin), a fortified town
of the principality of Servia, on the right bank of
the Danidje, at the point where it is joined bv the
Save; lat. 44° 47' 4(i" N., long. 20° 'oil' K. "Pop.
estimated about ;!0,0(l(). From its jiosition, on tlu;
limits of the Austrian and Turkish empir»', at the
continence of two great rivers, its great strength,
and the nnmerons sieges it iias sustained, nitnh
interest has long been attached to Ucdgrade. its
citadel, on a steep hill, 1()0 ft. high, near the centre
of the town, occupies n most t'ormidable position.
It has been very strongly fortified; and if it were,
l)ro])erly repaired and garrisoned, with the forti-
fications on the low groniul at the junction of the
rivers sweeping as they do every Jipproacli by land
and water, it would be all but impregnable. Lat-
terly, however, its works liave been neglected,
and they are now going fast to ruin. Witliin the
citadel are the arsenal and magazines, the jirin-
cipal mosque, and the palace of the jiacha ; the
latter constructed of wood aiul mud ! The town
lies principally to the W. and SVV. id' the fortress,
partly along tlie Save.and partly on higher ground,
and is siirrunnded by walls and jialisaiU's, gene-
I
m
m
It. t I
:. i
I:'
■ ;iii.
" ill I ■
...:.J.»-
420
BELIDA
rally in a niinouH stnto. Tlie nituntion of the town
in no b(;ttcr than that of the citadel. I^lany of itn
houws are in ruins ; most of them are. of the moanost
posnililc (IcHpription, Mvotnc evni tliaii (lie cahiiiH
of the Irish ; ' anil tlic sftrects are ilis-^ust inul y lilthy,
and inf'^Hted with herds of half-starved d<i|js. The
bazar consists of oevcral rows of miserable wixKlen
booths, entirely open towards the street: their as-
Hortment of goods corresponds with their ajjpear-
ance. The reifpiing Prince of JServia formerly re-
sided at Krapigewatz, but he has built here a
liandHomc house m the upper part of the town, a
(ireck church, and barracks. The manufactures
are inconsiderable, consisting principally of carjiets,
Hilk goods, some descriptions of hardware and <-ut-
If.v, with saddlerj', Ac. It has a goo<l port on
the Danube, and it is admirably situated for trade,
of which, in consequence, it still preserves some
small share.
The Turks, under Sol\-man the 'Rlngnilieent,
took Uelgrade in l/)-22, and held it till 1(;«8, when
it was taken by the Imperialists. Two vears after,
it again fell into the bands of the iSirks; and
though it has since been repeatedly t iken by the
Imperialists, they have, in most instances, soon
after restored it to its Ottoman masters, of whose
miserable government its present al)ject and de-
graded condition is a striking, thougli, unliappily,
not a rare example. It was taken, in 1807, by
the Servian insiu-gents, who, on being obliged
to abandon it in 1KI3, burnt the suburbs, and
[tartly destroyed the fortifications. The town was
])laccd, in 1 H 1 .5, along with Sorvia, under the sove-
reignty of I'rince Miloseh ; but its citadel, nerording
to treaty, is still occupied by a Turkish garrison.
UKLIUA, an inland town of the regency of
Algiers, prov. Titteri, at the foot of the Lesser
Atlas, near the plain of I\re.tidjah ; 25 ni. S. Algiers,
and 10 m. XE. ftledeali; lat. ijlio IH' N., long. 2°
45' E. It is surround((i bj- a wall 12 to Iti ft.
high, which has four gates, one at eacii of the
cardinal points. Its streets are wider and more
agreeable than those of Algiers : tlie town is well
suitplied witii water, and contains many gardens.
It suffered mucli from the violent earthquake of
1825, since which the houses have bevn with only
a ground-floor, lielida hass<pnie trade in grocery,
spices, and other natural produce; its vicinity is
fertile and pictures(|ue. In July, 18.'J0, the in-
habitants invited the French to defend them
against the Kabyles ; but after their arrival the
Bedouins couipelied the citizens to take up arms
i.gainst tlieni. Next year, however, the Erench
took Helida.
liELlNZOXA, or HELLEXZ, a town of Swit-
zerland, cant. Ticlno, of which it is the cap., in a
deep valley on the banks of the Ticino, 5 m. above
where it falls into the Lago IVhiggiorc, and 15 m. N.
Lugano; lat. 4(1° 10' 35" N., long. 8° 55' 3(1" E.
I'op. 2,ll)G in 18(i0. heing situated near the S.
extremity ol' the great road from Italy tfi Switzer-
land, by the St. (iothard puss, it is a depot for the
merchandise passing between them. It has a
handsome church, and a bridge over the Ticino,
714 ft. hing, and 24 ft. wide.
BELITZ, or MELZKi, a town of Prussia, prov.
IJrandenburg, 12 ni. S. by W. Potsdam. Pop.
2,(!74 in 18()l. It is sun-oniKk'd by old walls and
fosses; and is the seat of a iioard of ecclesiastical
inspection. Flax is grown extensively in its
vicinity, and it has manulactures of linen and two
paper-mills.
15ELL V, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Po-
teiiza, cap. cant., 15 ni. S. by W. IMelti. Pop.
5,4*)0 in 18('il. It is situatid on a hill; has a col-
legiate and one other ehmxh, a hospital and three
cliuritable foundations.
BELLEVILLE-SUR-SAONR
BELLAC, n t(.wn of France, dep. Ilnnto Vicni.-
cap. arrond., on the declivity of a steep liJH ii,,,,'
the conlhience of the Viiicou and flio (iiirttmr'.
24 m. NNW. Limoges. Pop. .S,(i;!,i ji, jhci u';
town has n tribunal of original jiirisdiitiiiii hJ
agricultural society, with various nianiilaitiiri ,
and a (considerable trade in cattle, oak tiniljiT.aiiil
chestnuts,
IIICLLARY (r«/«/irtrO. a distr. or oollwtorntc „f I
Ilindostan, presid. Aladms, jmrt of the IWayhaut
ceded ilistr, (See IlALAfiiiAiiT.)
\U:i.i AUY, the cap. of the above colloctorato, an,]
the head-(iuarters of a civil estah. and a niilitan-
division, 280 m. NE. Madras; lat. I.")0 ,v \' I
htiig. 7(i° 51t' E. It consists of a »(niare fnrttM
on an isolated rock, with a pettah or small Um-n
below it, containing the best military- hazar Id I
India. Tliis also is the name of a ruiiiVd town (f|
Allahabad, f,>nnerly of groat extent, iiiul liavhi'
some line Hindoo temples in its viciiiitv. ",
BELLE-FONTAINE, a village of K rnnro, .lii, |
Vosges, 7 m. W. Heniiremont. Pop. 2,.")(;(; iii'lMiil
There are manufactures of cotton guuds aii'l"
cutler)-.
BELLE(JA1!I)E, a fortress of France, d™. I'v.,
re'nirs Orientales, on the S|ianisli rrmitifr. is in.!
S. Peri>ignan, close to the railway from l'(T|ii;'ii;ra|
to Barcelona, across the Pyrenees. It is a lni"ri,«J
of the first class, constructed in tlie reign u( ij,iiij|
XIV., to command the pass of Pertlins. It «,i
taken in 17!t;i by the Spaniards, aiiil retaktii
following year by the French. liellci;arclo is ,i,.„
the name of .several small towns in (iitVercnt iwrta
of I' ranee.
1{|';LLEISLE, an island at the X. eiitramc t(i
the straits of the same name, between tlie cuuiit
of the Esquimaux, or New ISritaiii. and tlu' N.ini
<>[ Newfoundland. It is 21 m. in eirciiii. ami Mi
from the coast of Labrador. On the N\V. -i(|.' i|
has a harbour for tishing vessels or small iraft
PELLE-ISLE-EX-MEK, an islaml ..nVn'iioel
in the Atlantic. 8 ni. S. of (Jniljeroii I'niiii, I
include<l in the di'p. Jlorbihan. It is aliiKisr cvirvl
where surrounded by high si ee[) rocks. IlsN\\'J
end is in lat. 17° 32' N., and its S. jiart in lat. W
It!' N. It is about 11 m. in length, its };rra!isl
breadth being about (! m. It is accessilile imlvsl
three havens or ports, all of which arc dry at In
water. Of these Pahus, on the K. coast, is
principal, as well as the cajiital. Pop. ;i.li:ll
181(1. The haven here is formed liy a stimc|iifi
200 ft. in length, .'nid is |iroteeteil liy a siren
citadel. It has only 5 ft. at liigli water, liiii til
road is generally sale. The two oilier arris-ilil
points, Sauzon and Loc Alaria, are also liotlillii
tided. The island is fertile, proiliiciiij; excilklj
wheat and horses. The inhaliifiiiils arc 'xti'il
sively engaged in the sardine fishery, ami inalq
excellent |)ilots.
This island was purchased in lt'5S hy I'diiqiia
intendant of finance to Louis XIV., iiiidwas oj
changed hi 1718 by his descendant fur llii' d'li
oftJisors. In 171!) it was taken by the Kii;,'li
but was restored to I'' ranee in 17ii:i,
BELLESME, or lil'.LLKMK, atimn ef Trand
dc'p. Oriie, cjip. cant., on a hill wliieli eimiiiiaiij
the environs, near the forest cf the same iiaii
22 m. F;SE. Alcn^oii. Pop. .3,15(1 in Isdl.
houses are well built: streets sliai;,'lit, mat.
well iiaved. Tlie w.'iiil ofrnnning water is -uiii
by wells. It has fU'iries of coarse linens aii.l oillcf
and a considerable trade in wood anil ImrM'''.
B1;LLEVILLE-SI;1!-SA0NF. a Knvi.nfl'nn
d('p. lihone, caji. cant., on the lilimie. si iii.
Villefranche. Pop. 3,052 in IWll. H liii-:' "W
factiire of stufts, called cutim liniflu'i', anil mill
A good wine is made in the neighl)i.inili"i"L
SAONE
rp. llniiloVicnip,
n sttccp hill, i|(;ir
1(1 tlio (iiirtnin-.
\Y.\^ in Ixiil. Till'
111 jurisdii'tinii, ail
ims niaiiiifacturc.,
le, oiik timbor.nml
r, (ir (•olli'ctiirntf of i
of the lJala);lKmt
v« t'dlloctoratc, nml
lit. nml ft niilitiin-
f, lat, l^o ,V N„|
f ft >»\\\UK fortrij*
ttiib or Hinatl toun I
military tiazar in I
i)f ft ruiiH'd town if |
extpiit. ami liiivin;;
ts vicinity.
llnf;i! (if Kranoo, il(|i,
I'd]). 'IfiWi in iMll.
cotton goods anilj
of rranco, dcp. I'y-I
niisli rronticr. 1h ni.l
way from lVriii;;ii;in|
IOCS. It is a fiiiJnsil
in tlip rcinii nl biiii.^
(if IVrtlins. It win
nis. and ivtakin
. lii'llc^,'arde is al-(
ms ill different parta]
t the X. entraiii'i' ti
lictwecli tiie ciiuiit
ritain. and tlic N.iiu
I. in rircnii. nmlM
On tiic NW. >iil.'il
scls or small craft,
an island I'f I'raii
Inilicron I'liiut, l-nni
II. It is almost cvii-yl
•j> rocU IisN^'Vj
s S. part in !at. 4i
IciiKtli, it^ '^m'A
IS aivcssilile iiu'ys^
lioli are dry at 1
tlic K. coast, is t!ij
1. Top. ;i.'.':!l
ncd liy a stiim'|iie|
ilcctwi liy a •■■ii'i'i'
liiiili water, Imt ill
wo otluT acivvilil
I, arc also \iiM\ik
prodncini; cxnlltll
ahitiinls arc ''Ni''
lie lishcry, ami mal
in IdriS by ruiiqiia
XI v., mid was 01
ndant for tlie o'lnl
iMi by tlie KngliiT
1 Tl'io.
MK. atowni'f I'raiil
lill which niiwiiiHl
t cf tiic sami' iianl
i,15l! hi lf<i'il.
ts strai.u'ht, nMt.
mini; water is-iiii'
rsciiiiciis:"'''*'"'''"!
vood and hnrM'-.
INK. a town "fl'""^
the lihiioc, >'\^M
IhCl. llha-am:iH
hivch'i; .'111(1 1""-'
iicitcbhoiivli'""''
lit
l\^
BELLLY
HELLEY, a town <)f France, dcp. Ain, cnn. nr-
fiiiil,, lietweuii two hills, within 4 m. of the Kliono,
ji III K. I-vonH on the railway from Lj-ono to
l,,n(.va. iMt. 4tfi W 29" N., l.mf,'. o" 41' 1!)" K.
|',.n, l.'Kt! in IH(il, It i.i tiio Hcnt of 11 liishiip; htiM
jinliiiiiiil o' '•'■"'^ instnniT, a dircctur of customs,
j,,iiindar}' fcdcsiHstical school, a piililic library,
iml a niiisciim of aiiti(|iiiti(?M. The ('pi.scopal palace,
;ai-lic'l only a few years licfon? the Itevohition,
j.oiuMif the "most reniarkaltle edilices in the dcpart-
niiit. The bishopric was founded in -11 2.
1IKM.IN'>1IASI, a market town of Knf;Iand, co.
Niirtliumberlaiid, on the Tvne, 22 ni. W. Morpeth,
inil iX in. WNVV. Newcastle. J'op., in IH2r , 4(tl ;
lKil,4ii4; in IWtil, 8<)G. The parish, in IHtll, luul
i|iiiliuli»tioii of l,(!(i2. The town is supposed to
„vii|iy the site of a Honinn station, aiul several
lifiular intrciichmeiit.s of the fortilied villages of
ilif liritnns are in the iK^ifriibourliood, The entire
Kiridi lii'lont,"'(l t" 'he Karl of Derwontwater, and
\in<;;iven to (.ireeiiwich Hospital, with tlu; other
piaiis ol thftt nobleman, on his attainder in ITIo,
Tin iliurch, dedicated to Si. Ciithbert. is small
niMiiM. There are places of worship for Seceders
,i,,,l l,'(iman I'atholics; a free school, ]ioiirly eii-
ijiwiii; and ftlioyk chil), formed in l«tll>. It is a
-ifliiijifiir rcpeiviiijLC votes at elections for members
ir die S. (liv. of the co. Blarkets an' held on
^lill^llays; fairs on the first Sntiinlay after l.'itb
N'|ii.. ami till! Wednesday before (iood Friday:
,;!■.'• Iiiriiifjs' for servants on llie Saturdays licfnrc
i.'iii .May imd I'itli Nov. (An interestiii','' iiceouiil
,1 ihc piirisli of Ikllin^'liani was read by .Mr. Win.
111. Cliarlton, of Uesley.side, before the i>rili>li
.Wiicialion. at Newcastlt^, Auj;ust 1m;;!. The
liiicnviwpnlilisbed in the ' Joiiriial of the Slatis-
liral Siiciety,' Dec. lK(;;t.)
lii;i,I/-l!()t'K, a (lanjienms ledj^e of rocks, off
Ik'i'nast (if Scotland, ill the (Jernian Ocean. dp-
I'lHlc to the Frith of Tay, 12 in. E. liiittomiess
IViiit. The l(ul{;e is about .s,")(l yards in lciij,'tli,
h ,iliiuit llii in breadth. At low water, some of
i-'iminiits appear from 4 to S ft. aiiove the level
lithe sea, but at high water they are always
ii.vcri'il. Many vessels have been lost on this
r "k. (ivor wiiich the sea breaks wit ii tnniieinUnis
III}. Ti) lessen the chance of siicli disasters, a
niMii icent li;ihtlioiise, constnicted on the model
"(•!ii' Kildystonc, was erect(Ml, on one of its ]ioiiit.s,
inlmw-IU." The total hei.ijlit of the Imildiiiff, iii-
diiiliui; the li!,dit-rooiii, is 1 1 .') ft., the lantern liein;f
tkvaU'il 911 ft, aliove tiie sea at liifrli-water mark.
T!!oli;,'iit is revolviiif;', the flashes succeediiifj each
I'llior every two minutes. Lat. of lij;hthouse
•lifi if) X., Ion;;. 2^ 2:J' W. 1 )iirin_i; logf^y weather.
Wis arc tolled every half minute.
iilll.l'XO (an. JMIiiiiiiiii), a city of Northern
!ia!v, ciip. prov. .same name, in tlu; valley, and on
iheS. hank of the I'iave, at the place where it is
I jiiii'.'illiy the Ordo, on the f^reat road comiectiiif;
Vieaiia with Venice, 4H m. N. of the latter; lat.
I*? 7' 4«" X., hms;. 12° i;r.')l"K. Top. l;J,ti(M)
I ialW. The town is surrounded by an old wall ;
i-will hiiilt; has a cathedral, desi';iied by I'al-
I biii. and several chiiivhes and convents; a rich
Wfiial, a frymiiasiiim, with various other ediici-
iMi.ilcstalilisliineiits. and a valuable jniblic library.
I ^Utor L« conveyed into the town from a distance
halhic iuiucdnct. It is the .se;it of the provincial
lAiwriaiii authorities, ,'iiid h,as fabrics of silk, wax,
I lAr.iiats, and earthenware; with a considerable
ll"J'lc ill timber, and large fairs in February and
■^iTil Napuleon conferred on Marshal Victor tiie
|lillo"fl)iikeof ISelluilo.
iil'.LMON T. a town of France, de'p. Loire, cap.
I mt.. Ill m. NL. lioaiine. Top. ,V>'.i t in \M\.
iil^UIONTE, a town of Sjuthern Italy, prov.
LELOCCIIISTAN
431
Cofipnza, nn n mountain not far from tho Mediter-
ranean, 14 m. W.S\V. Cosenzn. I'op. 4,142 in
lH,'i!), Tho town hofl a castle, four churclica, and
some trade in silk.
H i; L0( )VU I STAN (an. Gedronia, and the, coun-
Iries of the Ichthyophagi, (^riUv, Arabitie, tS'c.,
Arrinii), i\ country of ,S. Asia, lying between
24° ,■).")' and .')()° 15' N. lat., and .")7° .^O'and (i!>° I.V
K. long.; having N. Afghanistan, Seistan, and
the sandv desert of Caulml; K. Upper and Lower
Sinde; \V. I'ersia; and S. the Indian Ocean:
length, K. to VV., 7(K) miles; lireadth, on either
side, !<,'>l> in., and 11)0 in the centre: area 2(((),(t(l()
Fnglish sq. m. Pop. has Ikm'u estimated at
.'i,(Ml(),tll)0: this, noiUinlit, is far beyond the mark;
probably, l,lll)l),lll)() woiihl he nearer the truth.
IVIr. i'ottinger describes the country under tho
following divisions : —
Ch. T. No.oflnliab
1. Prov.
of .Sarawan .
• •
Kolat ao.ooo
—
Jlialawnn .
, ,
/ilhi-eo 2,000
2. —
Miikrau .
, ,
Keiljo
—
Lns
, ,
Helii 2,nno
;i. —
C'ntch ()iiniln\
a
CimulavB (Hur-
(and ilni-ru
III Daju
rund)
•1. K<dii.-
tan
• •
Pulira, Snrliud
'i. 'I'lie Ucsert.
ti. ."-^inde
The first four divisions only will be noticed in
Ibis article; tht^ ."ith belongs properly to Caubul,
and the (illi will lie Heated of .separ.itely.
By far the greater part of I'.eloocbistiiii is moiin-
laiiioiis, and especially its F. and W. divisi iiis,
which consist of two table-lands; (buseof Kelat
and Kohistan (///c hind of inonii/<iiii.i), wliosc
ranges run mostly X. ;iiid .S., and commiihicate
with each other by several other extensive ranges
rinmiug E. and VV. across the ccuiral prov. of
Mnkraii. Those in the I'',., whicii separate lie-
loochistan fr( ni Sinde, and bound Ciilch (jiiiidava
\V., are -i lateral bniiich from the llindoo-Koosli,
by whicli the country is so intersected in various
directions 'as to resemble a )iiece of network:' it
varies greatly in width; in lat. 'MP lieiiig 27.') in.,
but jitCape llonze, which is foriiu'd by it, it is
only 4(1 m. across: the licight of the range has not
been measured; hut Kelat, the most elevated
jioint, is thought bv I'ottinger to be f<,(M)0 ft., ainl
liy lieil (Xotes on Hidlin's Anc. Hist.) to b(^ 1(1,(100
ft. above the level of the sea. These ' Hrahooic
mountains ' terminate SVV. in a remarkable r,iiig(!
rumiiiig XVV. toabiait 2H° X. lat., where it divides;
out! arm iiassing XE. toward the Algh.an hills, the
other, the Wusbat(?e, or Much mountains, direct
W. for two degnH'.s, li(ninding the dc'sert .S., and
then uniting with the W. table-land, or that ol
K'lhistiin. Tills latter communicates X., by a
long chain, with the I'aropamisan inoiintains W.
of Herat, and after cnchising the deserts of Ihiii-
poor and Hiishkurd by anotlicr chain, VV., with
tlio.se of Kermaii (I'ersia). A consideralile range
passes in a waving manner E., to meet the Hra-
iiooic mountains, varying in its distance from the
sea from 25 to 10(1 m., and dividing Miikraii into
two parts, the coast and tho interior. The ludgbt
of the W. is S(nnewhat inferior to that of the E.
mountains.
Excejiting those of Lns and (""iiteli (Jiindava,
which jiriivs. aie entirely flat, and that of Wiidd.
ill ilhalawau, liiere are but few plains of any fer-
tility. The coast divisitm of Sliikran is covered
by Hat lianx'ii sands destitute of water, and, ex-
cepting date trees, of all vegetation, 'i'he desert
of llunpoor, a sandy waste, I,");") m. long by W ni.
broad, is a continuation of the deserts which pre-
vail in th(! mid lie of I'ersia and tlie SW^. of
Afglianisi.au. It was tliroiigli the i>lains of Muk-
rau and the succeediiig desert of IJunpoor that
1 ..
■I'
i
v4M
i:fj
-1- ,3
422
BELO0CHI8TAN
Alcxniidrr llic (Irrnt led lii» nrtny into Porwin,
(liiriii^r ^vliicli ninri'h ho iiuii-h wan Riirt'crod from
tljinst iiiid t'lirninc. I( is not, now liolicvi'd tlint
lu.s loss of men wiis so f^rciit iw lins been rciiro-
fpntcd. Iiiit tlio troops kcjit loo nonr tlic liills; imd
tlicy hccn cIos(> to the sliorc tlicy woidd tinvc.
fi>uiu\ fh'nh wiitcr <in di^^ginf^ a foot or two bidow
tlio surface.
('utcli (iiindava. intprspctod by some of tlip W.
triliiitarii's of tlip Indus, is tlio only wcll-walcrpd
|irovinc(.. Tilt' rpinaindcr of Hploocliisuni siilfcrs
from want of water, exeeptint;, jHTliaps, a few
rii'p ;;rounds in the jirov. of Ijis. 'I'liero is not a
rivulet in the N., and only a few alon^ the coast.
which, althouj^h sometimes swidhn in a few
niiinites to torrents, hy jirofnse niins, are fur the
most part of tlie year nearly dry. The ]irincipal
stream is the l>ust or jMoolecdanee (prohahly the
Iloodoiir (jf the desert, and, if so, rising; N. of the
Wnshatee mountains, and rnnniiif; a t'ourse of
l.tHIO ni. Iielure reaehiuH' the sea, in t>l° IT)' !•;.
half,'.) ; the I'oorally (an. Anthh), (lie second in
.-•i/.e, rises in Lus, N. of Itela, anci falls into the
liay of Somneany : for 2.") in. this siream is navi-
j;alile for small lioats. (l'oltinf;er, ji. •_'!•".)
The f^eidof^y of this re^vion is nearly unknown :
the rocks in the mountainous |)arts are f^rcy or
lilack ; tli(^ soil is <'oinmoiily stony, Imt consisiinj,'
mostly of a lilack loam in the valleys; in Rohislaii
some of (he. lofly hill tracts are covered hy a
vep'tahle mould. Former volcanic action is evi-
<lent in this ]irovince. which yields most of the
minerals fduiid in Iteloochistan, viz., sal am-
moniac, hrimstone, alum, nitre, rock-salt, lead,
iron, copper, tin, naphtha, itc. (I'ottinpT, p|). Wi'i,
iV'c.) (hild and silver are foiiml only in Jlialawan,
l.'iil m. SSW. of Kelal ; antimony in vast (|uan-
lily S. of Kelat, sulphur, alum, and a red ai>erienl
salt in the nills hetwcen Kelat and ("iitch Gim-
dava ; white and j;rey iiiarhle near Xooshky on
the horders of the desert ; salt in etUorL'SCCiice on
the plains of Liis.
Tlie climate is healthy except in '^rnkran. In
the inoiintninous provinces there are fimrdifl'erent ' parts of Sarawan and.lhalawan the I'unniTi'
Lionn mid tijjprs nrc rare, but both ore Uvm
on tlie K. border; liyenas, wolves, and jmkai)
jirpvail over the whole country, and wiM ,|,' ,'
whi(^h bunt in packH of twenty or tliirtv. |,,J
pards, wild eats, and otlier uppcies of tdg f,i|
tribe, infest the jnnjjles; and wild as.>.M, n.||,,.
lopes, elks, red ami moose deer, hares, in,,,,.
^rooses, and nKumtain piats, arc conniinn; (,n,|,.,
kites, nniKpiPH, are found rotmd Kelat; wmit!
fowl, herons, (lamiii>;oes, bustards, pnrlrii|;;fs
lapwiiif;s, and snipes, are natives: ilsh j,||,,||||j
on the coasts; where they form the :liict' fmi,! ,f
both man and beast, but not in the rivers; ('/„.
Iiiiiiii and 'J'fstiirrK are also abundaiil ; vcriniii,|i|,|
venoniipiis animals are by no means so ('(imnicnaj
in Hiiidoslan. (i'ottinf^er, pp. iV.'H, :l'_'il.)
Pasture beiii},' considerably more nliiiiiilniii tl,,!,,
arable land, end the population I'oiisistiii^ iij,|!,.
of wandering' shepherd tribes, the iiiinilicr iit(iii;;|. I
is considerable. The slice]) are of the tiii-iuij,.! j
kind; the ),'oals have i-oufih and hhick liuir: il,. j
larf,'e cattle are mostly of the hlncl. Iinv,|. ,,
bull'aloes. The horses of Cutch (inn lavii.aiiil;!,
coiintrv S. <if Kelat, which are those cliicllv si,[
to liidi/i, are larj^'e, stroii-;, and bony, hut viii,ii,'
tlios(! of iMukran anil Lus are small iiii(ln]iiriili..'
there are mules and asses; but camels luiilur,,.
medaries are preferred as beasts oflainlin. (';iii;il.
urass and straw arc (he chief food of llii. caiili.;
in the S. of Mukran and Lus there are tvnirHiiil
of the former yearly, owiiifi to the (wowct .<(,imiii.,
I'lxceptiii); in Cutch (iundava, wliicli is fiTiilc,
well cnltivaled, and said to be capable (ifpniiliiiinj
enoiif^h of ^rain for all the inhabitants ul' h],,'.
chistan, not a hundredth part of the (■(nmm is
cultivated; the table-lands yield only tlKMv.iMr
|iroiluce of Al]nhanistan. All the kiiuls nf ijaiii
known in India are, liowcvci, f;ro\vii ; viz., riir.in
the marshes on the coast (but it will nut tlirive
in Cutcli (iundava, though it he. aljiiiiilaiiiiv
moist), wheat, barley, llolvim .tpicatitaww^XfmiiU?,
mai/.e, sesanmm, ttc. The wheat ami Iwriiv <\«
not ripen so .soon a.s in Hritaiii ; in tlic a;i|.r
seasons ill the year, as in Europe; the sprint; from
the middle of February to the middle of April :
the summer thenceforward to the beijiiinin;; of
Auj,^nst, the beats of wliiidi are intense only to-
wards the latter end; the autumn lasts till the
October snows; and the winter, which is very
severe, for the rest of the year. In the spring;-
there are snow, li;iil, and viident winds, and the
weather is fpiite as tluctiiatins generally as in
Enivland. In iNIukran and Liis there are four se;i-
sons; two w"t, and a cold and a hot ; the cold om-
is miiidi milder on the coast; the hot one lasts
from March to October. In Koliistan the .Inne
rains are often very jiarlial, and a fai ■iiic not tin-
freipiently ensues from droiif^lit. (Jutcli (iundava
piijoys a much milder cliniatc than any other
|)rovince, and is re-sorted to in the winter by many
iieii^libourint; chieflaiiis.
Tlii^ best timber is that of the Zhtjphiisjiijiihn,
which is similar to teak ; the palm tree (,'rows in
the W, ; the tamarind, iieem, peepul {l-'iciis re-
lifliosd), sissoo, chinar (J^l)it(iniisorienlafi.i), mantfo,
walnut, and sycamore, j^row in this and other
li.'iris of the cnuniry. Fruits of almost all kinds
known in iMir.ipe, as apples, pear.-t, apricots,
peaches, pistachio, nuts, mulberries, pomegra-
nates, with the plantain, ^iiava, A'c, ari^ iMnimon
in many districts. Jliikniii is famous for its dates.
^ hich are e.x]iorteil in 'lar^n' quantities: N. of
Kelat the alnmnds are so line that they may Ik^
blanched with a dry cloth; ami melons often
ffrow so lari^e tinit a man is scarcely able to lift
tliem. (T'ol linger, pp. .'i-7, ■>->•'.)
m .\iij;iist and iSepteniber, and reaped in .)i!i:>
barley sown a month later conies id iiiiiiurini
in aliout eij^lit months; maize, in wmii aiilf
sheltered jilaccs, in three or four niiPiillis, ln|
Ciilch (iundava, Lus, and a jiart of MiitoiiJ
wheat ripens in six months, barley in live iiiiiiiil^l
and oriental jjraiii in from two to live mimtli-T
Cotton, indigo, and madder, are grown, but iliii»-|
digo (hies not thrive : all the jiiilse and v('(,'ct;iliin|
common 'with us are grown near Kehif.
linger, pp. it'Jl-iVil! ; Klphinstone, C'aiiliiil. |i.Mj
Alanufacltires are very few and ruilc; raii!^
the articles, beyond what an? absolutely nn'iwir^
to the support of life, being imported inun iiibii-j
bonring countries, in exchange for the fewiiimira'
products. Sugar is iirejiareil near Hela, tlu'imifjl
lieing jiressed in a mill, the juice hiiili'il in I
copper jians, and the article aftenvanls luiikcilii
bags of palmyra-leaf, and ex])orted : tlicspiliiiwii
is used for manure, (ium assafietida is I'.Mr.ntif
from the stalk of the Fenilii ussnf., hy iiuiii*
near the root, which i)crmit the escape lifthJ
Juice ; about 1 lb. is obtained from each I'lanJ
The gold and silver ores are never workeil. i<(j
pass into the hands of the Iliiuloo trmkrs i
their rough state. At Kelat there is an ariiiiniil
belonging to the khan, for .swords, spcani. ai,^
mati'lilocks; but their workmanship is veis
clumsy and inferior. (I'ottinger, pp. itJ-Hl'AI
Till! jirincipal e.\|i(a'ts are horsi's, ami "ilijl
cattle, skins, dates, grain, some rice, coltdii, mb
oil, indigo, salt, borax, nitre, itc; from l,ii,».!.™|
felt, and coiirse cariieis, are sent into Miikniiunj
BKLOOCIIISTAN
423
\Mliin. From tlio liitfrr country iiIiiioikIm nnit
( iiil'n' .hIiivi'h nro imitortcil, tlic (Jail ri-H liciiiK (Iccnii'd
vcrvvnliiiililc; froiti Iiidiii, iron, tin, Ittad, Htvtd,
,,.|i|ii'r, iiiilijio. Itt'tol-iiut, c()<-liin(<nl, nn^ar, sjiiwH,
mIU ({old-clotlis cliintZPH, and coarso woollunM ;
miiii Cniil'i'l '""' Khoruxsan, stocl and i-oppor;
Iriiiii S('Ltlai)i white cloliis, loonf^irx, tnrltans; troin
.><iiiil('i Sliikanioor, iSic, porcelain, loliaeeo, coU'ec,
jiiiiliiimiin. Kniad eioth, Scotcli pinid.x, and otiivr
'i;iini|H'aii niannt'aetnres are lii;,'lily prized.
rill' peiipie are nearly erpiallv divided lietween
iKiiilisiint't nationM. the Itelooelie.s oeenpyiii;; the
W., ami tlie llraliooes. inhaliitin^ tlu! I'!, division
i,i' |||(> oiinitry. The I'ornu'r art^ desirons to lie
iliMiiKlif ileseendants ot" the Arahs, l)ut are not
|,|i\>iciilly like them, and are eonsidered Ity I'ot-
liiiViT til have lieen originally Seljnke.s, They are
l:ilUnn),'l'aceil, hut with not unpleasant features,
im,l liiivc j;euerally stronff, aetive, and athletic
Iriini's. They are sulidivided into tlirei^ trihes;
till Slmrnoes who live VV. of the (!reat liesert,
;r,ii| l!iiiil-< and Mn^hsees, in Cuteh (iinidava, and
iii.ir till' l>e>ert of Kelat. 'I'hey are hrave, ini-
|i,liiiiiis, inured to fntiii^ue, Ireelii inters, ahhorrinj;
iiilv lliet'ts, hut ai>pl;m(linn wlioloale plinider;
iliiii wastin^c <"id deslroyinii' whole distriels, yet
iiiriiiusly hlendinjf an ' inf;einious hospitality with
this |iri'iliilory IVroelly.' Jiike all pastoral nations,
liuv liave no permanent residence, hut live in
tleiln, .r societies of (our or live tents, moving
;i!,iiiil as pastun^ is found suitalih; for their (locks
iiid liiTds. Their fond consists of wheatcn and
l.irii'V cakes, rice, dates, cheese, sweet and sour
milk, l('f,'iuiie soup, (/.lions, ijarlic, assadetiila, red
iriiiiir, ami occasionally (lesh. All the Hclooches
,iri' Mii»;idnians of tlu^ sci't of Omar, and their
I hliiiiis are those of other Mohannnedans, niixcil
witliHiMie plainly derived from the ancii'Ut Jews.
I'iil\','aiiiy is allowed, hut they treat their women
uiiii roi'i'ct and attention; they have often nn-
iiiiriMis slaves, and in many respects liehave to
lln'iii wilii ureat (iindness. They are aruu'd with
a inati'liliick, sword, spear, dau'^^er, and shield,
«'iiili (licy connnoidy i.erive from foreiuii traders.
lin'V an' V'ood nnirksmen. invariahly liitdn;^ a
tau'it II inches s(piare, while on horseliack. at full
..;'.M|i. A jiopular s]iort with Ihem is to renmve
ami carry away on the lop of a spear, while at full
;'allii|i. li stake <lriveii dee|) into the ti'niuiid; .'in
i'|iwaliiiii which reipiircs much dexterity, (.'iidj^cl
I'laviiii;, wri'stliii;,', warlike exerciM's, and iield-
>l«irt.<, form the rest of tlu^ir annisements. The
lirss (if the men is a white or hlue calico shirt,
laitluued louni! the neck, and reachiii;^ lielow the
kiitrs; triiwsers of the same, ])uckered round the
ankles; slippers; a close quilted cotton cap or
liirliaii,anil scarf. The women wear loiifj; pirments
iilmldr brown cotton, reaehini.'; to tlu! aidvles, hut
ii|«'ii ill friiiit from the liosom downwards; very
wiik' tniwsors of silk; and the hair either parted
ill Mjiaratc locks in front, and then tied up together
iiiiikiKit (in the crown of the head, or covered liy
a liaiiilkcrchief. The lanj;na,uc of the Jfelooches
i* ii ilialect of the I'ersian, corruptly pronounced,
Ijiitfriim which toiifiui^ half the wordsare horrowed.
lI'iittiiiijiT, pp. oi'i-liT, "270; Klphinstone, p. I'.lo.)
The liralioiies are inferior in heij^ht to the He-
1'«kIii's, have short thijA'h-hones, a round face, (hit
I I'laliires, and often lirown hair and lieards. Their
iialiils are still more nnsettled than those of the
lloliiiiciii's, hut they are not so predatory, ra|iaci(iiis,
avariiidus, roveii),'efiil, fir crnol. I'ottinfier ]ire((Ts
Nmi' neiieiiil character very imndi to tliat of the
I'uniicr. iiml re|iresents them as active, industrious,
lil«iriiiiis, quiet, hospitahle, faithful, iind more
ninl arc ndmitt<><l by tlio Ilnloochi's to ho. Iwttcr
marksnu'ii than themselvoH. 'I'hey live «'ither ill
tentM, HlMiut 12 ynrdd loiij; t)y an tnnny feet wide,
hiiilt of NtickM, and covered with coarse blankets,
or ill hon.s<.!H, which in the towns, nx well as tho
open conntry, nre built of tamarisk or other wooden
framework. Hanked with innd, <ir hriekx of iinbiiriit
clay, and ill-thatched with fjrass. The men arc
iM'cnpied in thu outdoor and the women in tlin
indoor employments, but the latter are not kept
secluded, and all mix and eat tof^ether. Their
reli>:;i(in is Mohammedan; their dress very similar
to that of the Helooches, except that felt for caps,
and pirments of felt, are often worn by llii^ men.
Their lan^rnaKe is like the llinduo uf the I'nnjali.
(l'ottiii>,a'r, pp. I'.'-.') I, 70-71'..)
A race called Uewahrs inliahit diO'ercnt parts of
the country, who are pndiably descendants of the
(liiehres, driven from I'ersia by the Arabs in tho
.'iHth yearof the IleKira; they are below themiihllo
hei;iht, with blunt features and hi^jh cheek-bones;
are civil and obli^inf^c, though not hospitable ;
beiiij^ faithful and trustworthy, the f^nard of tho
palace of the khan of Kelat is entirely composed
of them. Their Ian};na4;e is jmre I'ersian; their
Ireatmeiit of females lietterthan that uf any other
Jloslem peo|)le. (lliid. pp. f(l)-274.)
Hindoos are tolerateil. and niono])(dise most of
the tradi! in Kelat and the neif;hbonrinji provinces,
but they are not allowed to settle in lieloochistan
with their wives and families. There is a con-
siderabU^ infusion of Hindoo blood and mannerH
amoii^ the inhabitants of C'utch (iundava and
Lns, when; the peoph^ arc imhiK'iit in their liabils,
and incessantly smokinu;. In Miikran the ]ieo|ih!
are larger bnilt and darker in colour, from inter-
iiiarria'4-es with Cad're slaves; the women in this
pi'ov. are ill-favoured, and none of (hem long-lived.
(Ibid. pp. ll_;in, 7.s-;ni.)
The liovcrnmeiit is nominally under the khan
of Kelat, but chielly in the bands of tiie sirdars of
each individual tribe. The khan, however, can
oblige each sirdar or cliief lo furnish him with a
colli iiif;'eiit of troops in case of need. The public
revenues are jierhaps about ;!.')n,(ioO rupees a year
(;iri,()Ol)/.), a larjre jiart of which is paid in produce,
which the kb,-.' afterwards disposes of to thu
Hindoo nierchaiits. The taxes are moderate;
l-"_'Oth of tli(! jirodiice is paid for lands reiinirinj^
irri;;'al ion and much labour; from l-llith to l-ll)th
for other lands ; the respective sirdars stoji a part
of this, in payment of collection. Five rupees is
paid for a camel-load of f;oodscnteriu|.c Kelat, and
\h jier cent, on ^fooils sold, "xceptiiiff cattle. The
khan generally sits in judj^'.'.ent in cases of murder.
This crime may sonielimes be compromised with
the friends of tlie (h'ceased, but in the event of tho
murder of a foreigner, inimediato execution waits
upon the crimiii.'il. Ailiiltcry may be punished by
the death of both, by (he hand of the oll'endeil
[larty. nurf;lary and iiiulit robbery are capital
crimes. L'etty dilVci'eiices are iidjusted or disposed
of by the sirdars, and minor otlcnccs are ]innislied
by (lo,L;;;iiii;and iiiiprisiniiiicnt. (Ibid.pp. "if^il-'iltl.)
Almosi all the iiihaliitaiits of Hcloochistan arc
nearly barbarous and uncivilised: ncilher the He-
loocheekce nor Hr.iboiK kee arc wriltcii toiij^nes,
and he is j^rcatly bmuiuicd, and called • nioollee,'
who can read the Koran. They are ((iiilc i;;no-
rant of all the coiiiilries in their neiglilioiirbood,
and fancy (lu; Uriiish I",. I. ('(iiiijiany (of which
llii'V have heard from the Hindoos) to be •an old
woman with jilenlv of money.' MediciiU! they
;ii"e totally imacipiainlcd with ; and to cure a i'f\ cr
they will shampoc or tiinmi) the body all over.
nii'lprliiiiciimnd of their chiefs. They live chielly I (Ibid. jip. "JlJ-l 10, itc.)
DU animiii food, of which they aro very voraci"ns, This country was (juitc unknown to Kiiropcans
421 TIKI,!'
iiiilil tlic time iif Al(>xiiiiili'r tlio (tn^at: t\w liills
Vii'W llicii inhal>itril liy a racti of huvh^cn, tlic
ulinrc liy iiiMipIc who (*iilisislt'i\ a« nt nrcxfiit on tlnli,
lliciicc called l)y tlu- (In-i-kn li'liUiiiophiiiji, For
iKMrly Ifii I'cntiiricN ul'trrwanlH IIutc arc no rcconln
III' ItclocM'lii^'inii. A caliph ol' lln^ilail, in Ihc year
ti'_' of the llc;;ira, led an army lhriii^;li it to Siiide ;
it uas al'tcrwanlH taken poMHCHxlon of liy Miisiiiirl,
H<in of the l''.ni|i, Mahniood, and reniaineil governed
liy his dynanly till I7lt'», when Nadir .ihidi havni^
(■oni|nerc(l it, licMlowed it, with tlie title of he;,ler-
licft, on an ancestor of the present Khan of Kelat.
I'ntil IT.JH it WM>' trilinlary to the khan of <',inl)ul.
1!I'',I<1', avillaj^v- of Swii/.erland, caiii. -.'rue, on
the (iiirlien, at the foot of the Itelper;;, near die
S. liMiik of llu! Aai, 5 ni. SK. Iteruc, Top. l,Hti7
in \MW.
IIICM'KCII, a town of Kran(H>, dcp. \Mde,cap.
cant., at the continence ol'tht; Lersand thi^ Vixie(,'c,
I.", ni. SW. Casteliiiiiidary. 1 'op. 2,482 ill iMlil.
Th« re is a nianiiiaclory of cloth.
It|'',LI*KI>. a market town and ctiapelry of Knfj-
land. CO. Derhy, jiar. l)ullield, and hnnd. Applelree,
H m. N. Derhy, ol m. SI'l. Manche.iter, and l.'tl m.
N\V. London. It has a station on thenorth hrunch
of the Midland railway. I'op. \>,HH:t in IH-II, and
!t,.'i(i!( in IHOl. 'I'Ih) town is situated in a valley,
throuf^h which the Derwent Hows. This river is
crossed, at the N. end of the town, by a stone
lirid^f(^ of three arches. The town, llionnh irre-
(,'iilar, is well Imill. The market-place, in an (de-
villed situation, is siirroutided hy liandsoMU! simps.
Courts leet an^ held here at I'.aster and Michael-
mas, when the ollii'crs of the town, comprisinji; a
conslaiile, and other piihlic olHccrs, are elected and
sworn. Helper is one of (lie jilaces for takin;.; vi.tes
lit the election of M.I', for the S. division of (he
CO. The livinji is a curacy, in the arclideaconrj'
of Derliy, diocese- of Lichtield and C'lvt'iitry: |ia-
tron, vicar of Dullielil. There are pljices of worship
for (lisseiilers, and also Sunday and infant schools,
and almshouses. There are some cotton works,
fjivinj,' employment, to 2,0(10 people. The. manu-
lacturc! of silk and cotton hosiery in the town and
neit,'hl»iurhoo(l is very extensive. There an- also
ill t he neifi'iliourhooil. pott cries, hleacliinn-f{roiini Is,
and coal-works, Tlu^tlroinford Canal jiasses within
2 m. of the town ; hat its iiuist important channel
of co'mnnmication is the North Midland K'ailway.
The smrouiulinjjf scenery is very hcantifui and jiic-
lure.sipie.
JiKl/r ((il{KAT AND UTTLK), tw., of the
entrances into th( Itallie, which see.
Itl'W/l'LTilM'yr, a town of Ireland, oo. Cavan,
on the Krne, (il m. NW. liy W. Dniilin, O.H ni. \.
hy \V. (,'avaii. I'o]!. l,7!^!i in iMtil, ahout one-
third of whom are rrolestants. it is il (Mirporiite
town, has a piod market-house, and a spacious
i'hnrch ; but it has no staphMnanufaclnre or trade,
and is not incrcisin^. 'J'liere is i\ considi'ral;U'
distillery within the limits of tlu! Iior. It iclunicd
'2 mem. to the Irish II, of ('., but was dislVan-
chised at the I'liion. Its trade is injured l\nm
then' bein^ a rajiid or fall in the river on its one
siile, and a shallow on the other.
HKLVKDKl.'K, a town of Sonllicrn Italy, prov.
(!osenza, on a hill washeil h\ tluv Mcdilcrraiieui,
ytim. NNW. Cosei-.za I'op.'iViOO in 1.H(;2. It has
,i fort, several churches andconveiils, and .'t iiiuiiln-
ilv-pirtv, the reveinies of which arc iip|iriiiirialed
to ;lie iMiltioniiif; of ]ioor f;irls on their .iiarria^c.
Its wine and raisins arc in cousiileralile rc]iiite.
Ill'^LVKS, a town of France, di'p. I)onlo;a;n(',
cap. cant., 14 m. S\V. Sarlat. I'op. 2,.")(t(! in Ixill.
It has mills for extractiii','' oil rroni nuts; and its
iairs aii'l markets arc well frequented,
BELVOIH, an extra-parochial district of I"ng-
BKNATIE-S
land, partly In co, F^eicester, partly in that of
Lincoln, in Inind. Kramland of the funncr, anr|
soke of (irantham of tln^ latter; i»H ni. N. iiy \y
Loiuhm. I'liii. lori in IHIll, and 171 in lH(!i,|,f,,.|
170 acres. The inhahitantH are coinici'tiil k;i|,
the establishment at llelvoir Castle, the i«|i||.||,||4
seat of the Duke of lEutland, which iruwn, ii,,,
summit of an eminence overlooking ihe U'limiiui
vale whence its name is deriveil. The »\w «,„
first occinaed by Kobert (h? Tod('iii, Niiiii,lar,i.
bearer of William the Conijueriir, ami rcmaiiH,!
with his lineal descendants till tllerei^;ll nl'llinfj-
III., when it passed, by marria;;e, to ihe Miuini.r,
family, in whose possession it has since rcniiiiiic.i,
The structure, which had been destroyed in ili,.
wars of the lioses, was rebuilt by the lirst l;,,,!
of l.'nil.md, whose title dates 12 lien. Vljl. I,,
Ihe I'lst civil war it wasaUernalely jjarrisdiicil |,v
the royal and parliamentary forces, and wii.-. nnuii
injured: after the licstoratiin it was «};niii n-
paired hy the lirst Duke of llnllaiul. (Irt'ni iu,.
provenients and additions were niiiili' tci tni,
mi<,!^'iiilicent )iile by the fifth duke, iiiiilcr ilic
direction of Wyatt, Whilst they were in pnicrix
a tire nearly destroyed tlu! whole : the irn'|iiiniliif
injury was the destruction of the rinc |ii,iurf
gallery, in whicdi were several of Sir ,1. lIcyiinlcK,
paintin^^s; and amon>;.st others that of ilic X,,.
tivity. '\'\w castle is now restored to ninrc ihan
its former imi^;iii(icence, still preserving tliu hvIc
of an ancient baronial residence.
HKNAliKS, .\ pr<iv. of llindoslan, formerly in-
clnded in that of' Allahabad, presid. nf runpil;
coiilainiiij:; the districts of llenares, iMir/ii{HTi.
(ihay,epore. and .hianpore; chiellv hetwccii in:,
2|0 and 2tl° N., and hmf,'. H2° aiid W|o :W j,;
haviii^j N. <loruek|ior(! ; K. Ihihar; S. tlm ilinr
ceded distr. ; and W. the territory of ilic Hajih
of l.'ewah, and the districts of Allnlml«il m\
.Inanporc. Area H,i!70 n|. m. i'op. <'siii!i;ii(.,l a;
alioni .'1,000,000. It <oii>ists, lor the inost |i:in,
of a cultivated flat, on Imih sides of the tiaii^c
and is, besides, well matcrcd by the (iiminin, l
Sone, Caramuassa, &c. It chielly priHlunr.- ri,o
drier f{riiin.s, as wheal and liarley, leuinuts. tLi\,
itc., iiiditfo, suj^ar, and lai|;e f[nanti(ieMil (i|iniii,
The latter is ;i fjfoNcrnmenl monopoly, .'iriiil iJniiur
and Henares are Ihe only provinces in (lin- .lVu:,','ii |
]iresid. in which itis )icrniilted to beijriiwii. Tins
|irov, is amon^'st the most tlourisliiii;,' in In.li.i,
and increasing; j^reatly in trad(? and prii>|vn:y,
)iarli('ularly since the estalilishineiit nf riiilwai I
i coinniunication, ina'i^;iirated by .!ie (ipt'iiiii:; >f )
j the f;reat I'Jist Inrian line, from ('al<'ii(lii I" llit I
inciitliern province.- Muslins, gauzes, liriKsiliN I
' and some salt of an inlerior kiial, are miikhii; ilip |
inannfarinres. l-lOih of the pop. in flic ciiii.,
and I-2(iih iu the rest of tli,; prov., are Muljaimin-j
: <laiis; the judicial and otherre^nlationsnf lit..
i extend to this jirov. liefore 1775 lU'imrcs I
loiipd to tlu^ nabob of (Jude, who, ia tliatyiar, |
; ceiled it to Ihe llrilish.
liKNAKKs ( VaraiKixhi, Sanscr., or A'lwi, ilie j
.■Iileiidiil), a larj;e and celebrated cily nf lliml'i- 1
I Stan, jircsid. lienpil, c,-.;,. prov. and disir. »! iliej
I same name, seat of a court of circiiil ami a|i|K,il.[
; and one of the six chief jirovincial dries in ii»
presiil. at the head of a judicial 'livi.^inii. U'^
2o" ;iO' N., lonfj. KP r !•;.■; on the XW. Iiaiik .t|
; the tianws, about i^'" '"ct nbove the level »!' it
i sea ; i;.")Vn. H. Allahabad, and 400 in NW.Cil
I ciiita, on the H.-ist linlia-.i raihvav, tVniii l'nlriii;a|
' li- Dclh; I'op. eslimated at (KMyilKi. It i> It
• nios* Holy' city of the Hindoos; tlieecck'.MiMMll
'..(Ctropcdis, in fact, of Iiidi:i, and is reserteil t"lyl
'■ pilgrims from all (|uarlers, esji.^'cially iVum m
I Maiiaralla countries, and Irom even Tibet aiiJ
ly in tlmt of
■ fiiniicr, ainl
111, N. I)y \\,
ill iw;i',i,r,,;,
iniicctinl v\iili
, lllf Klllrllilil
I'll ITilWIl^ III..
; \hv iK'iimiiiil
'I'lu' !<iic win
m\, Kiiiiiiliirl
mill ri'iiiiiiiii.i
rt'i;;ii nl' lliurv
:o llic MiiiniiTi
iiiu'c rinuiiiiiM,
'striiycci ill ilii.
• •111- liM \'m\
Icii. yill. li,
.' ^jarriwiiicd l.y
, mill wib nuii'li
was iinniii ri-
iitl. <lri'iu iiii-
limili' tn tiii<
iilu'. iiiidcr ilii'
were in prdcr-i
: I lie irrc|iariili!f
I)h' liiii' jiiiiiiri'
••ii" .1, II('yii(il{K>
tlmt 111' ilip Na-
mI III iiiiirc tliaii
icrviii^' llie Myk'
nil, fiirinprly in-
■(•sill, (pf l'i('iii;:il;
iiiri'h. MiRn]ii'ri,
tlv Ik'Iwi'cii la;,
aiiii Hio ;;ir i:.;
iir ; S. till', llcrar
iry (if till! Ilajali
r Allalialud mil
I'oli. I'sliliwtnl a'. !
ir till' Mill"! jiai!,
I'S (iC till' tlill;:'!-.
till' (iiii'ir,|iy,
ly |iri«lll.r,- I,,.'
l(';;i.iL—. '.IN. I
iitilii'i- lit ii]'i':iii.
liiily, iitwl iituiiar I
's ill !li«- lV':;al I
lit'i;rii\vii.
rir^liiii;; ill I'i'i* I
anil |.rii>|vn:y.
iiiii'iil. (if riiilway I
,!n' diioniit' "(I
('al''iiltii I" iliel
ji'auzcs, Imica.l
!ir(! aiiiiiii,^' I
ill till' eitir-. 1
.", ari! Miilwiiimi-
atioiisi'fl!i;.::il
TT.J lii'iiiin's U-
rlid, in t!iat ycir, j
r.. or A'dsi. ilif|
•t( city III' lliiiil"
and ilisir. »li!ie|
rciiil. aiiilii|'|«jl'|
icial cilii's in '"
liviMiia. U'.j
ho X\V. lniik"1
IC Icvol III' At
100 III XW.Cal-
|iv, I'niiii l'iilnii:i|
iiymii. Ithili'T
the ('cilcfiiMi'"'!
is rosiirti'il i"
laiaally I'rum 'i''|
even' Tibet and I
i.p.
IIKNAKES
]',irmi»h. A'-ciiriUiiK •<> Ili^li"!! llclior, ii ' i^ i-or-
i.iiiilv ''"" fi'''"'"'! "" wi'll "ill* iiroliiililv till' iiiipst
' pu'lmi-i, city in llu- iicniiiHiilii. Iin lir.it vit'W in
'xirriiK'lv lint- ; it t'Xii'iiilH ulHnit 'I in, iilniif; the
liiiik lit 'li'" fiver, wliicli i.H ('iiii.Hlilcriiliiv fli'viiifil,
iiliil iiil'irni'il Willi larKe Ki'iuits, or liiiuliiiK-iilm'es,
villi l"ii^' '""' liiinilmnii' llii^hlx ol' Mlejis, 'lis
|iiiMiii(i^> wliii'h lire I'mwilcd, liiiilt nl' .■^lonn or
luiii, ami iinii|iii'ly Inl'ly; licru uiul lluri' the
>iul|iiiireil |iyraini(lal tii|iH of hiiiiiII |iiik<iiIm.s; and
till' K't'i''!' iniix(|iii' III' Aui'iiii){/.i'li<<, with its gilded
,l,,,ii,. ^'litteriii^ in tli<> sniilicain, mid I w<i niinari'ts
i..»i'riii){ oix' iiliovc the oilier, t'onii a ^raiid iiiid
iniiiiisiiiK '■""/''''"' ''•' '"'•' "'reels are extreniely
iiiirriiw, and the (iii|i(iHii(' sides a|i|iriiaeli in Home
.,;irt,4 so near eaeli other as to lie niiiled liy k"'-
liric.i; the only o|it'ii spaei^ is the iiiarket-iiliiee,
(i.ihtriii'led hy the iircsenl j;ov.. Inir the eily is
will drained and healthy. In IHOl there were
iiiiwiirilK of rj,000 lioiisch, from one to six stories
liHi, laiill of hrii'k or stone, nnd Ki.dOd more of
iiiml, with 'il«''l roofs. The former li)dj;e, at an
nvvriif,'!', alioiit I.") |iersons on a lloor; those of .-ix
mimics iil'ten eontiiiiiiii^ from l.'il) to I'dO indivi-
iliiiils eai'li : they are linilt round a eourl -yard, and
liiivc Miiall windows, many \erandalis, ;;all('ries,
(n:\ iiiiieh |lainlill^^ earviii^'. aiulelahoi'aleslone-
\viir!<; and are 'ol'leii not unlike those re|ireseiiled
iul'iinaletli's " N'iewsof N'enii'c,"' The eaiiseways
i.rc imu'li lower than the lower lloors of the.
JHiiisc.i, wliii'li have mostly arehed rows in front,
villi link' sliojis liehiiid Iheiii: eaeh slieel, or
liii/ii:ir, is devoted to a separate trade. The priii-
liiinl |iiil>lie linildiii^ is the iiiosi|iie, hiiill liy
Aiinaig/ti'he, on the hi^liest point, and in the
(Tiilrctil the eily, wliieh it eoniplelely overloo'is.
A lliiiili") leniple was destroyed to make room
j'lir it. Many other mos(|iu's, wliieh reniain, are,
liiiilt 1)11 equally holy spots, iniuh to the aii-
liiivaliee of the Hindoo |io|iiilalioii. Then.' are
imincriiiis Hindoo temples; and fakirs' houses,
iis llicy are ealU'd, adorned with idols, occur at
(■very iiirii. Ilenares is erowdetl with mendicant
|irii"-ts; there arc .said to lie M,(l()() honsi^s occupied
liv IJraiiniins, who live upon the alms and oll'er-
iii^'sdf llie pil;;riiiis ; only l-lOlli of the |iop, are
.MiiiiiiiiiiiK'iians ; anil i'lnropcans, wlio are few in
uuiiiliir, reside not in the city, 1ml at Sendi, a
liillc way oil', 'I'nrks, l'ei-,-.iMiis, Ariiieiiiaiis,
iailais, iVc, are settled in lieiiarcs. Its irade is
(iiii-idiTalile in shawls, diamonds of r>iiiiilleciiiid,
iNiiia and other innslins; in silks, (Mtlons, ami
line ivniilk'iis of its own niaiiiii'actnre, and in I'^ii-
iii;k'iiii arlides. The Hindoo Sanscrit colle>^e of
iliis city is the chief .seat of iialive learnin^c in
liiiHa. It is attended, on- ilie average, hy ;iO0
jiiiiiiis: .ill Kiit',lisli ijoUejj;!', eslahlished in lM;i2,
lin> I'riiiii 110 to l.'iO pupil.-. Nnmeniiis Christian
ini.>siiiiis have heeii estahlislied here, and there
ari' |irivate teachers of lioih the iMohamniedan
end Uiiiiliio law. O le of the tjreatesl ciiriosilies
ai Ufiiares is an niiciviit oliservatorv, linili hel'ore
iSt .Mussulman coiuiiiest, liy Iheet'lehraled Ifajah
.lili-.Miigli. It is of stone, and contains a Ian;*'
Mj'iare liiwer, in which are preserveil iiuiny iiistrn-
iiHiii.-i, cliietly of sione, some of tluin having- lireii
iviili'iitly used for judicial astroioj^y : a lew miles
liillie I'l. there is a solid stone ruin, similar in ap-
l«aiaiu'(' to the J-itddliist temnles in the \V. of
l:iilia, called the .Saranatli. The coiiiiiry aroiiiul
I'siiares is fertile and ".veil cultivated, Inii hare of
inKid: fuel is, therefore, very dear, and sntlirs, in
tiiibc(|iicnce of this scarcity, arc said to have hei n
Ic-sc'iimmoii than in many par's of India. 'I'hc
limit! of this city has much imreascd since llie
ojwiiiiH of a line of railway to Calculla, wliii-li
twk place on December 22, 1802. This city is
iniN'MVKNTO
4SA
iMdicveil liy the niiidoo.s to form no piirt of (lie
terrestrial glohe, hut to rest upon the point of
Sivii's trident: lience, they say, no carthiinakti
ever all'ectH It, In HUT ii was taken hy Sullaii
Mahmoud, and from ll'.lll followed the forliines
of the Delhi sovereigns : since l77o it has eiijoyed
tr.'iDipiillity niider (he Itritish, interrinited only on
one occasiiHi liy n religions conllict iietweeii tlio
Hindoos and ,'Vlussnlinaiis, on the latter lireakiii^
down a |iillar, called 'Siva's walking-stick,' 'I'ho
rajah of Ileiiares.is a pensioner on I'ji^lish honiily,
and without anv poliiii-al power,
ilKNCOUI.l'i.N, a niarit, town of Siimalrii (M.
archipelapi), and the principal settlement of lliit
Diilcli, as I'orinerly of the Itritish, on thai island.
It stands on the .S\V, coast, in hit, ;i° I'.i' N.. loiij,'.
10-2° Hi' K, The town, which is small and wi'll
liiiill, is said to he unhealthy; hut l<'ort Marl-
horonj.;li, orif^'inally coiistriicleil hy the llritish, in
IM't, slaiids a little farther, inland, in a healthier
sitiiatioii. Till! pop, is composed of Dutch anil
other I'iuropeans, or their descendants, Ooloos,
Chinese, llarniese, and INIalays, The trade ol'
Iteucooleii had^'reatly (U'clined )irevionsly to the
cession made hy (ireat llritain in IM2.'). Tim
imports consist chielly of cloths, rice and salt,
toliacco, sii^ar, liandkerchiel's, iVc, from Italuvia;
opiiini and various fahries from lten;;iil and tlio
Coioniaiidel coast; iirinlcd cottons, cutlery, and
mclallii! arlides, from l'',iirope; and salted lisli,
rocs, e;;,t(s, poiiliry, oil, and timher, from ollu-r
parts of the island. The l''.ii)^'lisli endeavoured to
ciillivali! the clove and niilnie^ here, hut the.
produce was very infiriorlo that of ,\nilioyiia and
till! Itaiida Islands, Ilencoolcn was always an
miprolitahle seltleiiu'lil to llu! llritish, tin; ex-
penses of its piveriinielit liaviii;;- uiiifnrmly ex-
ceeded its revemic. Diirinj,' the live years prc-
cedin;; its cession to the Dutch, the exi'css of
expendiliire over revenue aniouiited to iihont
«.").(I(HI/. a year. It was ceded in |M2.") to Ihe.
Dutch, ill |iiirt exi'haii;;!' for the town and fortress
of .Malacca and other settlements.
r.KNDi'lli, a town of l-.m-opean Itiissia, prov.
Ucssariihia, on the Dnicsler. ahoiit oM m. from Iho
lllai-k Sea. I'op. IH.IiMl in l.^.'i.s. The town i.4
fortilied hy a wall anil ditch, and has a citadel on
an emiiiciicc. In 1771), the Kiissiaiis took this town
hy storm, and reduced it to aslie-i. They a;;-ain
took it in ll'iO!!, and it was linally ceded to thi-iii,
with the prov. of llessarahia, liy (he treaty of
liiichorcst in IM12. It was formerly a place of
much ,t;realer consequence than at present; and i.s
said, previous to its capture in 1770, to have had
.'iO,OliO inluiliitaiits. In its vii-inity is Varnil/.a, lli»
retreat of CMiailes Ml. after the "battle of Tollava.
ItKXK, a town if Northern Italy, prov. ,Moii-
dovi, on a hill hctween the Stiira anil Taiiaro, Hi in.
NK. Colli. Top. (1,127 in l.SC-i. It is defended by
an old castle; has a collegiate church, and a
hospital.
I!1':NI';VKNT0 (an. liinrvenhim), a city of
Soiilhern Italy. cap. i-f province of (he saini! name,
'•!i ihe declivily of a i;ill helweeii and near Ihe
cii'.ilhieiice of the Calori! 'ind Siibato, ;12 m. N f,.
Naples; on the railway fiom Naples to Ko;;i,qa.
I'oii. lH,H.s-_'in lS(i2. ll'iss irriiiindedl'v wall.s,aiid
dcfendeil by acaslle. The modern town occupies
the site of the aiicienl one, i iid is almost entirely
constructed oul of the ruins if the latter. In fad,
with the exception of liiin.e, hardly any (taliaii
town c;ui boast of so many leinaiiis of aniiipiily as
Bi'iievcnto. Of these the most perfect, and by far
(be most worlhy of iiolice, is the arch of Ti-.-ij.iii,
now the f'intii Anna, erected in honour of Ihe
j;|-eal emperor wlmse n.-iinc i( bears, .iboiii a.<'. I II,
'i'his siiiLiiilarlv bciuiiiful s(nictui-c is of white
:ii
\V
I,-
k«
I- ' u
5 .'!||J
xit'
•I'-'fJ
tiiiirlilo, of tliP ronipoMito nnlrr, nn<l ctmHiHtM of a
hin^lc iiirli, ItH tottil Iic'ikIiI ih ^>-' I'r., t\u' iiitt'N
t'liliiriiniiitionN nml frifZcM hciii^f fovcrcil witlilnwini-
rclii'voN, ri'iircHcntin^ the liitlili>N aixl iriiiiiipliH of
llin Daciiiii wiir, 'I'Iicno, wliicli iin\ of tlu^ most
<'.\f|uiNi((' workiniiti.slii|), artt nK<>iiil<l<'itl iniitilati'd;
Imr odicrwisc this iiolilc falirii^ w iirarly ciitiri'.
'I'lic (•alln'<lral in a cliiinny ('(liiicc, in ilic walls of
tvliicli Ihu lliKNt rcniaiiiH of aMti(|iiity an; liiultllcil
toKcilicr witlioiit any rcKuril i<> order. 'I'lu' i'ii|ii)la
of ilie (rliiirch of Sl.'Sojiliia tvmh oii a circular I'o-
loiiiiade of aiiti(|iu' mai'lilc ; ami .scarcely a wall U
lnli(> Nccii thai is no) lillcduitli fraKinciilH of altars,
nKNOAL (PRESIDENCY OF)
OlMrtaU
.MiiiiKliyr
I'nonirllh
'I'lrlidot
I !• .• I II- Miililuli .
foiiilis, coliiiiiiis, and otiicr rclicn ol ilits old city. I ciiitack
lU'ii(!V('iilo is the scat of an archliish(i[iri(', anil has
n line jtiiliizzi> puhlkii, or lowii-hall, a sciniiiarv
villi a ^;(i(mI lihrary, a collc>{0, an or|ihaii hoHpilal,
tlircc iiilicr hospitals, and two iminliili phln. Coii-
hiihraldc fairs arc lu'ld at dill'crcnl ncriods of the
year. It siitVered severely from the plague in 1()6(!,
and from an carllapiaki^ in IllNH,
Kcncvciilo is verv ancient, its ori;,'in lieiiif; as-
<'vilpcdto |)iomcil. It was lirst called .Slalcveiitnm;
litir, on lii'in^' taken and eidonised hy the Itoinans,
it wascalled I'.cneventnm. In its vicinity, in I'Jflti,
was loiinht the f^rcat hallle hctwccn Charles of
Aiijoii and his rival .Manfred, in which the latter
vas killed, and his army totally defeated. Diirin;,-
the ascenilaney of Napoleon, iieiievcnto was furmed
into a principality, conferred on M.de Talleyrand;
hut, on th(^ downfall of Napoleon, it aHain reverted
to the pope, till, in l«(iO, it was alnu^vcd, toj^ether
Avith Naples, to the kingdom of ftalv.
lH:N(iAL (I'ltKSIDKNCV Ol")", atrnitory of
Asia, the most important and extensive of the
nine ;;reat provinces into which the Itriiish do-
niinious in the Kast are divi(U'd. 'Iho presidency
extcntis helween lat. 20° and ;il° N., and haij,'.
71° to !ll° !•;., having; N. Itootan, Xepaul, and the
iniliis; W. the tatter, the territories of the .Sikhs
and Ifajpootana ; S. the territories of Ilerar, the
SI adras presidency, and the May of Jlenj^al; and
I',, the IJirnu'se dominions. The total area of the
J!en;,fal presiiU'iiey amounts to 'JCil, •'!«(> luij,'. scp
III., iiiliahited, according,' to relurns of the year
Jnii-.', hy a population of .l(),l(i(!,ti'.l(l souls. (Sta-
tistical'l'ahles relatiiif;- to the ('<doiiial and other
J'ossessioiis. I'art ix.) The troops staticaied in
r.eii,i;al on the IMIth April, 1802, numbered 87,122,
divided as fidlows: —
■leiworp ....
Twenty- Four rerf(uilliuhil
llarilwari . , .
llooKlily . . .
NiiildiMi. . . .
lliincoorHll . . ,
lluraxct ....
llliuiiKul|Hiro , .
lihiajiMiru . , .
SUitTniid StiifTCoriJS .
Miit-'iiiccrs, .^iiiiiK'i-s, and
.Miners.
llor.-o and Foot Artil-
lery . , . .
Ciiviilry
liifiiiitry
liivaliila and Veterans .
Total .
£
g
5*
■£.
-■9 -
£
i = "
O
■?...
|.isg
1
i.\
i-5?
3
.S-3
H
i.
1
r-
9
cc
73
—
lao
i l(i
171
090
877
;;o7
(!,48(»
88
0,87:)
:«.
4,0(!t
l),:!8-.> |:),7(I7
l,.|:il
:U,7!ai
l'!»,0.')0 {;."),'.>77
4:i
144
— 1 187,
2,184
lo,728
39,210 87,122!
1
Tlie presidency is divided into the Upper or
AVestern, the Ceiit".il, and the Lower provinces;
the former including Delhi; the Central, Allalia-
l),id, IJehar, and othc" • and the Lower prov.,
Iienj;al. and the rest still farther E. These jirovs.
are divided into lil'ty districts, of the Ibllowiii;^
area and poimlation : —
Too nil
llalasoio
.Miiliiii|Hjro and llidgelleo
Koonlah . , .
.M(i<irslieilab(Ul , .
lliiKoorah , , .
ItiniKpoi'u
Itujslmyu . , , .
I'aiiiia
IScirliliuoin . . , .
lau'ca
I'lnrecdporo niul Dcccan 1
.l('liil|ioru ... I
Myniiiiiiiiff . . . .
Sylliet, inclailiii^' .Fyiitea .
l!aki'rKniij.'e, iiiilMillii({ I
Dcccan rihaljaziwro J
Slialjaliiul ....
I'lilua
IMiar
Sunni, wit^li C'huniparaii
L'lilttaKont; . . . .
Tipperali and Oulluah .
The Suiiilerhuiula . .
(,'ossya Hills ....
Cacliar
Lower ( ';'">-■'•""? • •
-^'""" (I'uiranK.
I'Diier ( J""'''""^ (Seebpoor)
.''„,„ I lau^kiiuiiour .
As-iun ^ Hud^n^ j,,^. jintniek
(ioalpara ....
Arracaii ....
TcMiis-erim Provinces .
Suiiilailporo ....
llaniRurli or Ifazareclmh
Loliur- ( C'liotta Nagjjoro
du|.','ja ( I'aluiiiow .
Kiii^liljouiii ....
( Biu-bliooni
Itq. Mlll't
ii.flia
l.tmi
2,224
2,081)
2,lt42
1,47)1
1,424
n,8iiii
n.82(t
2..V18
r..8(8
7,402
1,11011
il.util I
1.7(18)
1,87(1
r),il2!l
ll:ll)
l,8.'.(l
2,1(111
4,|:ia
2,084
2,(10(1
4,7:111
1,9(111
2,(l.V.'
4,712
8,421
il,794
:!,721
1 ,S'J8
/•>,(!!( I
2,.'i(;o
2,.'aio
4,8.-.0 I
729
4,01111
2.7SS
4,1(111
2,1 "10
2,l'(l'>
2.9:,ll
(1.942
11, -'.(Id
ir,,iii.i
29.1(18
4,(19:1
8,.V.'4
ri,:i08 1
H,l(i8 )
2.914
4,792 1
8(11) )"
F"|iul4Ui)ii
••IN 1, 744
2MH,IN|(|
1,8.V|,|,-,J
I I'i'Jii.Mn
2!iN,;:i(i
4)4(I,IMKI
'>22,(l(Nt
2,a(>i>,iHiii
1,2(III,IHNI
SIWI.IHHI
l,(lllll,IHIII
2,41111,111111
4:11, IMH)
1,(MIII,IH|I|
)l(l(i,:|;>il
•>'i\.\m
9IKI,1|||||
2,'i.vi.iiiin
(171,. Ill
(illll,|IIHI
l,(Mii.»;ii
(l(MI,(ll)i)
8.V>,I|(((J
1, is; .{Hill
;i»(i),(Mio
7:1:1,8110
l.Cllll.lliill
l,:'i»i,iiiiii
2.,"iiwi,l«iil
i,rii(i,iiiiii
1,(1110,111111
8(I(1,!(.V)
(>U(l,ll(IO
1,(1(111,01111
lll,!l:i:,
(111,111 III
;iiHi,iiiiii
70,01111
8(1,0(111
200,111111
iJO.IIIllI
:io,iiiiii
400,111111
:i-.'i,r.j'j
li:.,i:;i
SIIO,(
;i72,:'iii
4S:',!IIW
2(io,oi»i
77;',:)li)
The principal cities are Calcutta, the PriiiOi
cap. of India; |)(dlii, the Mohamiiicihiii c(i{iii;il;
with licnares, l^loorshedahad, Dacca, IJeliur, I'aliui,
.Ulahaliad, Af;ra, and Lahore.
Th(^ s.irlaee of this vast territor\' has, in dilTcr-
ont )iarts, every variety of elevation ami ;is|iiri.
Hut hy far the larger portion c.aisists, iioiwiili-
slan(iiiif.j, of immense ]ilains, iiichidiiif; lliiw if
the (iaiigcs and ISrahmaputra. Mxcl.isivc ol' iln'
Himalaya and (iarrows mountains, wliicl. Imiiiiil
it iN. and K., it lias no mountains of any im|ion-
aiice, with the exception of the Vimlhyaa r:iii;,'i',
iS. of the (iange.s.
J'/ii/sical Fiuturcn. — No part of India is an ivoll
watered, or lias so many great rivers. The (iiinu'i<
llows in a SK. direction tliroitgh the whole cxuiit
of the iiresideiicy, being joined in its |ir(ifrrr>>lA'
numerous tributaries, some of them, as the •hiniiia,
Cliumbiil,< iogra, (JiinducU, and Sone, of great iiw;'-
nitudeaiid importance. It is also traversed in its H,
parts by the I'ralimapiitra, which, as well as tin'
(iaiiges, falls into the N. part of the liay of ISciipil.
near each other, lioth of them, but especially ik'
(Janges, divide into iKinieroiis arms heliircriailiii:;'
the sea ; and their united deltas form a tract of iillii-
csf
)■.' I
(HI )"
P«t>uUUM [
'il«N,llll(l
l,M,|,Vi :
1 ,'Viii,s4ii i
4>lii,(Ki(i
r)W,iiiiii 1
l.'JIHI.IMHI
1,11110,1111(1 :
■,<,4IXI,II(MI I
mm
1,<HIII,IMI*I I
ri.'iil,:ili:, I
iit;i;,:i'js '
>'>;i,|r,(i I
1,IU'..IHHI
tlllll.{|M(l I
•.',.*i."i!l.(HKl I
(i71,.iii i
tiOII,(«H) I
l,(Mii,«7il 1
UOII,IKII|
l,4H7.(Kin
awi,iHiu
7:i:i,(iiw
1,01111,11(1(1
1 .'.M1(I,(H(0
•J..'i( 111,11(10
1,711(1,(1(10
l,(((i(i,((((i) !
WI(1,H.V)
(■|ll(l,(l(M)
l,(i(i(i,(»iii
l(i,!i;;.'i
CiD.ddd
;i(»i,i>(i(i i
7l(,(KM)
HU,(MHI '
2(III,(I(NI
li(l,(HI(|
:i(i,()tii(
4(1(1,(11111
li:.,li;i
Sll(l,((iiil
;i7-.','.'l(j
2(KI,M(III
77l',310
till, the WmA\
iincit.'iii a\\M\\
, iichar, Taiiu.
rv lias, in dilTcr-
tum and iih|ici'I,
insists, iKiiwiili-
•liidiii;; lliii^i' ' i
;x(dusivo ill' ilii'
wliicli liiiiiii'l
(d' any iinin'i"-
,'iiulliyaii riuiy.
India is so wdl
■rs. The <liiiir'i'
lie whdie exii'iit
1 its iirivrf>>l'y
u, nstlii'.liiiii":!.
ne.ol'^'reatma;;-
raviTscd in its I..
, US well as llio
[> liny ol ll<'ii^':il.
Jut csiiccially the
licl'dn'ri'iu'lii"-
Imu tract ul'ii'.lii-
IJKNGAL (I'liKSIDKNCY OF)
vIaI iMi'l "f hIh>v(i .'KMXIO ^q. m. in extent, and
I'n'iit natiiriil fcrtiiiiy, liiit nioNil' iivi'rrun witi
iiitiirlc, 'I'licro ar<« no laki'N NJnillur to IIiomk Ii
JdMK
»'27
NliiilldW iilliivinin in tlio dclla of ItiMif^al. In lli>-
liar, and clufwluin', it alVurdrt (•lllori'HCfnci'.iol' niini
and niiiriatc ol' hoiIm, In ininiciiMi' i|iiitnlili(>ft; thii
IIIn'I, or otiu'r |iarlM of .\Hia: lint many cxti'UMivt' I former in i^rvnU't aliiiiidiiiii'e than in any other
|;ii;iiiiei*. or^i'''/*, eH|HM:ially in the lower |irov., and I part of the world. The annual exjiorl of niln!
uIhiVc all ill lli<^ distriel.H of llaeen and Ifiijeshiiye. I from Caleiitla has, of lute yearn, Iteen ahoilt
Kvcry kind of Mcenery is met with in this |irei|- ! •Jo(l,lilin \tnnn\ senl ehiellv to (ireat llritain, China,
ili'iK y. ' KimiMoii, the most N. |iart, is a ' vast and I America, and !<' ranee, 'i'lie niaiiufaetnre of salt in
iiiiiiiilliioiii* ocean of mountains,' elevated in sue- | a ^niv, monopoly, within the provs. of llen;{iil mid
lleliar, and the district of Ciittack. 'I'lu- upper
provs. are supplied with suit, partly from the lower
ones, and piirily from salt tniiies in the \V, of
India. Diamonds are found in Ihindhicnnd, llm
matrix Udnu u eoiiKlomeriite hed, with (iiiari/osn
peMiles; silver, anil Hold dust, in manv rivers.
'/'/ic Cliiiiitli; in MO wide an extent of eoiintry, is,
of course, very varied ; at Ciileiitta, tlu^ aiiunal
menu temp, was found, hy three years' oliserva-
tioii", to lie TH° ;t!l' I''.; at llciiiires," for two years,
77°HI'; and at Sahariinpore (Kelhi), 7.'l«' .')': ihn
liarometer, at each of these places, for like p(>rio(ls,
lliinduli and part of Kalpe(> districts, jimidlecuiid ! avei'a;;('d rcspcciivtdy •-".••"til, 'JK-ltll, and '.iM'Ttili
ami llie ceiled districts on the Nerhudda form |iiirt of j inches, .luiic. is tli(Mlampest, .laniiary tint driest
tliclii;ili central talile-landof India; they aliound in | moiitli; dronnht is often experience(l in the upper
ilccp ravines, fertile valleys, and extensive tiirests; i prov., where the depression of the moistened tlier-
liiit lire in many parts sterile, as are also some of I mometer sometimes exceeds :i.'i°; Imt at ('a.cntta
ihcdi'tr. even in the neinhlionrliood of the (inn- | the iivera;j;e fall of rain for three ri'cent years was
^'('S 'I'lic ceiiiral provs, are iindnlalinj,', (ith'ii w(dl . "lilt's;! inches. Ileii^al prov, is snliject ti> foK>*i
(iiliivated, intersected liy rivers, and iidoriie(l in I from these 'ririioot (llehar) is free, and t(>m|iei'nti>,
iiiiniy parts hy htovcs and forests. lUdiar, N. the | prodnciiij; nlmost every l''.ur(i]iean t'riiit anil vejje-
lliiiiijcs, is Hat and waste; hut is very fcrlile on'Inlilc; tiie upper provinces are also temperati',
lilt' S. side of that river; its lieijflit also increases ' exceptiii;; in the hottest season, when liiirnin<j;
iisii iidvaiicos more to tlie S., so that in liani);liur winds prevail, occa-'ioiially (ildij;inj; the inliali. to
wi'liiid a mounlainous and riiid<y country two- resort to iiniler;;roiiiid liahilnlions. In Kiimaoii
the surface is wholly covered with snow from Sep-
temlier to April. allh(iu|;h, during llic rest of tlm
year, the tliermom. in thu siiii often rises to llO"
,'i'..>ive ri(lKi'>* to 7,11110 ft, in heiixlit, hacked hy the
.iiiiwy rlilK*' of the Himalaya, and covered in
(;ri>,it jiart with an nninterrnpteil forest of hoth
,\,iiilic and Mnropeiin vegetation. The \V. parts
iil'llcllii trench on the Indian des(>rt, and have an
urid Idiik, and thirsty soil; other portions of this
iiriiv, an' also tint, Imt fertile and liiKliiy cultivated,
I'lic |)(iah is tint, and ahonnds in lon;r urnss, hut
ii ^iiiKidarly delieient in tiniher. Allahahad is
iiiiiiiiij.'st the most productive provs. in lliiidostan;
it, •dirl'iice is nneipial, the S. part ri^iit;,' pro-
^n^i^lvely into a hill tract, wdiieli extends tlirou^h
tliirils waste, parlicipatiii<; in the lialural features
i.f tliii (inndwanah districts, jidnin^c those on the
Ncrliiidda. Orissa, near the sea coast, is low and
<wani|iy; hut its interior contains cultivated plains
mill (leiise juii);les, hacked W. hy a nKuniliiiudUs
I'arcst region, which desrends gradually through
tiii'.hin^de .Meh:ils and neerhhooin, into the low-
l;(Mils (if lieiif^'al. 'I'lii! latter are enclosed, lioili
Inward the sea and the N. horder, hy immense
lulls (if jungle, and have K. the nolde valley of
ilic Ih'alimaputra, wliiili constitutes the jirov. of
A-siin. Fi'din Sylliet to Araean the interinr is ex-
iniiuly hilly, the coast swamiiy, hut tint surface
iliiii very fertile and well cultivated: the other
mlcd liinnese ]irovinces have dense forests and
jimudcs, rice-plains, and a rocky const, preceded hy
Iiiw i.-lands.
Ciintiiijij and Jifhiernh. — The Himalaya, in Kii-
nwdii, is cdiiiposeil of ;iranite, j,'neiss, p(ir|ihyrv,
i|ii;irtz, mica, and hornhlcnde ; and its lower
Riiiircs ciintain sandstone, lirecciated limestone,
("lijicr, and iron ores. The Vindhyau mounfaiiis
liclray a V(deani(r elinracter throu^choiit, and the
(iiimiwsmiiuntains, on theop|iosite side (if thedi Ita
(if the (iaiiffcs, exhihit a similar structure. Ter-
tiary lii'ds are met with in Sylhet and where the
liniliinaiiutra issues from the Assam valley, coii-
tiiinin;; drf,'anic remains of crocodiles, '/'< .si'i/civ/. itc.
The Itliiui^jtilpore distr. is ]ieculiarly ri(li in
inm, and considerahlo mines have fdrmcrly hecu
wnrkcd; the ore is nodular, and yields 'JO to l'o per
Fahr.
Vvijvtiililc J'rof/iirts. — Teak, Haul, sissoo, hanyan,
ehony* rattans, hiimhoos, and n lar;;'e nninher of
trees, yieldiufx material for cordage; oaks and
pines in the hill forests; and along the coasts of
the Itay of IJcngiil, cocoa, areca, and other palms,
are met with in profusion. (.See IliMxisrAN.)
The lower iirovinces nrv highly favonrahh? to the.
production of rice, t!ie stapit! article of food, and
eonsc(iucntly of production ; tht^ central and upper
provs. to that of the drier grains; I'luropean pro-
ducts, and those )ieciiliar to the tropics, being
raised in alternate seasons, (irain forms a valtialile
export from li"iigiil. Indigo is cultivated from
l)acca to Delhi, and occupies nion- than l,no(l,i)(M)
statute acres; its animal produce hcing worth from
:! to 4 mill, sterl., half of which is expended in its
production. There are !)(H) indigo factories in the
presid., and the exjiorts to Europe of the article
amounts, in smne years, to !»,IIIMt,ltOI) Ih.s. The cul-
ture of o]iium is moii(i|i(ilise(l hy the governiiicnt,
and is carried on only in pjirts of ISeharand llenares.
Tlie opium grown in these provs. is considered hy
the Chinese, liy whom it is mostly all made use of,
to he lunch superior in flavour to the opium of Mal-
wali. The average annual produce of the I'afna
and (iha/eepoiv, or llenares (State opium maiiufac-
lories, is iri.ddi) chests, e.icli sold at 1211/. The
(lit. metal. In the Sylhet hills there is a line! produce is siillicieiit to liiir competition in China,
(;Taimlar iron ; and in K'ainghur, on the lianks of and the price iiroportionatc to the lioniliay
ihc .linniia, and in the Iliiiial.iya, ore is found i drug, which pays till/, duty. On an avera;;i' of
jii'hliiig ill) to 111) (ler cent. Coal, in coiij unction i years, Itengal has never sent less than live iiiil-
v.itli ii-dii. is found ill consideralde (luaiitity hoth
ill liitrdwan and Sylhet; that of the former
lii^tr. is preferred, and is largely consumed at Cal-
I'lilta; sdine has receiitlv heen discovered in the
lions sterling worth of (>piiim to China. Cotton
also is largely grown, and the cultivation has in-
creased imineiisidy since IHlil, owing to the dearth
occasioned hy the civil war in the United .States.
Saii;,'(ir distr., on tlu> Neriiiidda, which .showed near i Th« soil of lienarcs is especially adapted to tliu
the . surface. The upper soil is dry, light, and | sugar-cane, and sugar might, pcrhap.s, he produced,
sillily, in tlieNW.: clayey in the i)(i;il) and its j were siiHicieiit care taken in its luaiiufMclure, ot' as
iiiigliljunrlioud ; !<aii(ly again in Allahabad ; and a I good (urilily a- tli:;t of the W. Indies. Coll'ce,
42H nilNdAL (PnESIDKNCY OP)
|ii'|i|n'r, anil loharro, tlio Intfrr rlii> (ly in Hhininiil- ! of ('alrnttii (lo wlinfii tlic 'illicr l>iilio)ii jii |n,fi|,
imrt' (iiiil Itiinillci'iiiiil, nri' N(a|ili' cxiMirit; thi- riirc
'jiici'tt <>r till* v., nri'lii|M-lnK<i liuv(> U-cn iiiitiiriiliwil
III (iili'iittn, mill n niiililiiuli' »( tirv*. fniits (iml
iitluT vt'ficta'ilcfi lit' Cliiiia, Cauliul, I'.iiripiii', iiml
Aiin'rii'ii, arr Kfiiwii in ilill'iTi'iil |iiirts(it' itu' |irr^<iil.
Aiiiiniih. — AlliKHti'tH aliiiiiiiil :ii llii' <Jaii;.';i'< aiiit
ltniliiiiM|iUlra ; iIki'Ii iiiri.'<l llu' |iiiiK'i<'M: aihl we
iiH'cl wirli will! t'li'|iliaiilK, rliiiim rnwc!*, li'iipanlM,
wiilvcH, liciirH, jarkaN. a j,'ri'al varii'ty nf lariln, a
iiriil'iihiiin III' li-'li, anil illlVirinl H|ii'rii'^ ol' ■criii'iilK,
IiipIIi inniiri'iil and iiiisiniiM, (Sit IIimiu^tan.)
,Silk is |iriii'urn| I'l'iini liiitli llir iialivr ami llu-l'lii-
lU'Nc iir iiiniiilar woriii ; llu' niiilliiTrv ami i-a--tiir
oil jiIantH li'liif^ I'liltivatnl I'lir tin' |iiir|MiHi>. 'I'lu'
|iriiilnro in, |ii'riia|if<, iiirrrior li> that nf Italy,
tliiiiif;li till* lii'Ht Inilian MV f'l'tclicM a vi-ry liiuli
iprirc: llii-NJIk ili:<lr'<. lie rliii'lK between 'i'iP iiud
l!r," i»t.,aml«(;Oanii 1)"'^ ImiK. "
Itncfx iif Mm. — A niiiniiiT of uiilrly ilKTcmn,
Iriiii'M inliiiliil till' ti-rril. iiiiilcr this jirc^iil. : lliii-
iliHis, ililli'riii^' in jiliyiiral ami ini'iital i|iiaii(ii'!4 in
aliniwt cvi'ry iiniv. ; llii^ liiil-|M'ii|ili^ in Itliaiinnl-
)Miri', anil tiniuls in (iuinhvaiiali, of wliiili irarU
tliiy arc liiliivfil to lie the almri^cincx ; .MaliratlaK,
MiiKiiU, Scikd, l>aj|iinils, ('siK'i'ialiy in i)i'llii, llnn-
lilcriind, anil Omlf; (IimisIich, KhyciiH, (Jarrov.s,
Ciiiisyalis, and iMn>ili»*. nlira (tan;,'i'iii' natiniis, all
a|i|ia"ri'nlly iit'a ilitVcrcnt family rr^in llu- Ilindi'iiH,
niili iinit'c ilill'tTent uHaKco uiul rclif^im. (Soo.
IXKIA.)
I'lililiv Hirfnm: — Tlio total rcvi'inu^ nf tlic prr-
sidriii'y, ill till' llircc yiars IHIiO-Ol', as well as llif
(■\|i('iiiliiiirc diii'iiijr llui HaiiK! iicrind, is f^ivfii in
tliu sniijiiiin'd utali'nii'iit : —
ycnrii ctnltiig
April .'<il
18(!0
n«rpnuu
l'.',Hii:l,'.'U
ll,M!IS.iiJ.l
l;i,"ti(l,(lll7
FxtiTDitltura
4,l!lii,a:U
4,^!ll,IHl
4,H;i(I,li7H
'I'lic rcvt'iini'of llic iiri'sidcncy is cliii'lly dcrivrd
frimi liiri'c f;rcat Himrci's. iianndy, the land-liix,
iiislonis, ami the iniaii)|ii)ly ol' iipiiiin. 'I'lii' land-
tax, inclndiiiK <'Xi'is(', 'Sayrr' (variahlc iniimsls,
hiirli a,s town diitirs. lulls, and lici'iuu's), and 'Mo-
liir;ilui' (tax on Ikhiscs, shops, and trades), was
lirodnrtive ol' a rnvcniii! of ;i,«;.'iMI«(i/. in i.Si;();
of :i,'.)0(i,:t'.m/. in l.siil ; and of l.;!|-.Mll'.l/. in
\Ht\-2. Till! customs iirodnccd 2,(»i;'.,0tt;»/. in 1N(!(>:
l'.--'(i(>,2l-/. ill 1*^''' ; "'"' I,".i77,!iiiii/. in 1«(ii'.
I'iiiallv, o|iiinn was iirodiiclivc of a net rcveiino of
!l,li:;ivi.');U. in IK<;i); of :<,:'■ 1(!,(; lit/, in iKCil; and of
l,(;();t,70."i/. ill 1«()2. It will 1)1! seen that the latter
iniiiortant soiirci! of revenue .sull'ered ii ureal de-
cline. Of the minor items of revenue, stamps
]a-odnccd (i;!7,7H'.l/. ; salt, l,l!0.'i,70;)/. ; income and
a-scssed taxes. iJ7(i,.'l('iN/. ; and llii! post-olHce, mint,
mill miscellaneoiia items, 105,101/. in thu year
Jtvllffion, — The Hindoo and Molinmnicdan are
tlic priivailiiij; religions. In tlic |irov, Heiiffal,
the Moliamniedans constitute about one-scventli
of the pop., but their disiribniion is remarluible,
as in the \V. of that jirov. (and in JJaliur; they
are to the former but as I to 4, while tliey equal
their numbers in tlie K., althouj;li more distant
from the original scat of Mohammedan iiower.
The Mussulmans live mostly in the cities and
towns, where they sometimes even outnumlier the
Jlindoos. liiiddhism is conlined to Aracan and
the Hirniese provs. There arc niiwards of i'»0,(l(lO
native Chrisiians, attemliiif; the ditrerent I'm-
teslant cluirches staiioned in the iircsid. The
church eHtablishment. con.^ists of the Lord Bishop
are Nubordiiiale), an arclideacon, and 'IT riinnliMii*.
There is alxi a siiwill public CHtablishiiii'iit ii| tin'
Scotch kirk. The limnan ('aibolic eniali. riiTui^
the coiinleiiauce and support of ^ov. ; ili inrmlitr*
are Hiibordinale to a vicar apostolic at Aj;ra, wiih
direct anthorily rniiii the pope; ami a Ii'kdIi' in
('ah'Ulln, under Ibe auihoriiy of the I!. C. Iiis||,,|,
of Madras. < 'hristliiiiiy is said to be iii('ri'ii'<|ii ,
Itililliuii/t, — There are three ({real lines nf mil.
way in the pre-'idincy, chIIimI, respeclivi ly, ihc
KasI Indian, the l-'.asiirn IIciivmI, and Ihei .iii'Miiii
and Sonlli I'.asii'rn, Of the iHirlion ol iIki |',;i„|
Indian, siinatcd in ibc lleiiKal division, i;7t niiloi
were ojien in iMiil, The i;a»lerii Iteiiniil, incMr|»..
rated Ann, -•"'> l*^''", consists of a line I'min In.,
ciilta lo I la I'll, I'iti riibiia, with ii braii' li tu
•lessorc ; toi.il iiiij^'lb, ll'l miles. The rnlwav
was opened I briMi'liont No\. !.">. IH(;2, 'I'liiMal.
cnlla and Sniiili I, astern, mniiporaled ,liily ;|,
|H,"i7, iind opcncii .Ian. 22, lNii:i, consists uf (ijiii,.
from liitally lo the .Miilla, 2h^ inilis Iciii;^. .\ll
these lilies were conslrmli d bv I'ln^lish eii^tinnr-,
and with I'liii^lish capil.il. 'i'be l''.aslerii lleii'.'.il
railway was made al a cn-i of l,r,ii,21f.7,, ami iho
t'alciilla and the ('alciitla and Soiiih lia'-lerii :.: i\
cost of oiai.iion/. The land reipiired for Ihi! Jaii r
line was f^iven by tlii! Inilian (;ovcriiim'iit,
ll'mtori/. — Xw 1707, Calciilla. which liiul pn'-
viously been snburdiiiale to Mailras, was inaili' .i
separate prcsid.i and in 1721', a ibiirleruii-i),'riiiiii'il
to the couip. eniiblin^ llieiii to csliilijish :i pim;!
coiirl there, as well as al the other pre-^id. la I'lln,
by a treaty willi Meer ('o>ini, Ine sniilialiilar i.f
lii'ii^Cal, the reveinies of liiirdw/m, Mii|ii.i|iiirr,
and t'llilla;J;onJ.^ were assi;;ned lo ihe K, I, ('iini|i.,
and in I7ii,i an imperial ^raiil from Shah AIImi',
to the l",ii(.jllsh to receive the revenues of Hic (!■.
waniiv of llen^j^al, Itahar, and Orissa, pive tlinn
the virtual soverei^jnty of those provinres, wliirli
ihey aciiially assiimed in 1772. in 177;! ii j,'iivir
niir-!.;-eiieral was appointed lo reside in r.enf,'al, to
wliich pr. sill. Ibe I wool hers were made Miliiiriliiiatc,
and a .•-iiprenie court of judicature e-.l:ibii-lieil. with
Jiiil^;es appointed by the crown; in 177.') the i'eiii|i,
becauie possessed of IJciiarcs and its lerriliiry. in
17'.i;i, nniler the adminisl ration of Lord CiiriiwiilliN
the I'erperial Seltk'iiicnt was inlioduid iiiii
Itenjiiil ; prov. courts of apjical were at llii'sanii)
timei'slablished in Calcutta, I'atna, Mnursheiliiliad
and I)aica, with the courts of siidilir ilcwanny,
and ni/imut ada-.vliit ; in 171IH. the i;ii;;rHli i(«ii;
possession of .Mlahabiid; in iMill, the MnilialiilMnl'
( >iiile relinquished nohilciind, (■ornckpiMir, ami llii'
Doab, lo the lirilish; and in 1MU2, the iialiulnit'
Furriickabad ceded bis territory ou r.i'eipt. nf il
pension. In l^'i;'), the empire of Delhi liiially t'dl
iiefore the ]!ritisli arms. Kiiiikioii was ol'iuiiii'il
from Nepaiil in 1«15: Saiigor and Ihe terntnriis
on the N'erlindda were ceded in IHbS; in isjl,
Siiif^apore and MahuV'a. Ibe latter ceiled by tin'
Diilcli, were aeqiiired ; and in IM2I>, liir;;e ilistr, in
(rumlwauali were ceded by the rajah of licrar;
Aracan, Martaban, Ve, Tavoy, and .Mirt,'iii, wir>'
ceded also in lH2li by the Hirmese, as will as nil
dominion over Assam. The capital nf lleiipil
has always been the scat of the Itritisli fjnviTii
ment in India. The governors-yencral, siiicclTJl*,
have b(!eii as follows : —
17.^.8 Col, n. Olivo.
17(ii) ,1. L. llolwell, Esq.
I7IIII ]1. Vansittart, Ksq.
I Till ,1. ''Spencer, Esq.
l"ii') l.oni Ulive.
I7II7 Harry X'i'ivlst, Esq.
17i;!» .1. t'iu;ii!r, i:;-i|.
ITTl' War. Jlasthiiis, Esq.
178.") .=iir J. Macpliorson.
l7S(i Marq. CiirnHallis.
I7!l:l Lord Tiii|.'iiiMiiiitli.
I7!I,S itiirii. Welh'.-lcy.
ISa.'i Marc|. Cnrnwnlli'.
l.so.") Sir (r. liiiiiow.
18.17 Earl of Miiito.
IBia AIurciuisofllUjtiiiE*
BF.N(U/,Y
I i')in|>Um-.
iii'iit III ilii'
nil. riTcvvi'i
ittllll IllllCft
A^'rii, nllli
a li'unti' III
!. <'. lii-li'S-
iiiiri'a«iii„.
inr< 111' riiii-
I'livrly, ihc
llifi ali'iitlii
(it llii^ Y.M
n, <i7J niiiVs
,'nl, iliriiri" ■
ic rnuii ( ;i ■
I liraii> ii til
riic rilS»:lV
I. 'I'll.' ('ill.
itcil .liilv ;i,
i.stn ur II liiii'
It Inn;.;, All
>li l■ll^;im•l'r•,
♦lirii llriii:;il
If.'/,, ami 111..
I'.ii>ii'rii . I
ur tlio liii. r
ni'iit,
ell liiiil |iri'-
, wii^ luaili' a
rwiiinniiiii'il
ilili.-.li a I'lii;:!
iT'iil. liiKii'i,
H.Miliiilnlar I'l'
I, Miiliia|iiiri',
■ r„ l.t'iimi'.,
Shall .Mini'.
Ill's III' till' il' •
'!i, (iavc limn
iv'mrrH, wliii'li
177:1 !i ;,'iivrr
ill rirlijiill, III
I'Miliiinliiiatc,
|iilili-lit'il, willi
r7."i lilt' i'iiiii|i,
lorriliiry. In
nU'iirinvalli-,
iti'iiiliii'il iiii'i
, at till' i'aiuii
iliiiirshcilaliail
|iUr ilcwaniiy,
l''.iij,'li^li iiiiiii
-uiilialiilMrir
k|;iiiii', ami till'
Ihc mil 11 ill 111'
r,'i'('i|it, (if II
llhi tiiiallyriU
IwilS nl'Mliili'il
Itlic ti'rritiirii"i
<1,S; ill \!^-il
li'i'ili'il hy till'
lliir^cili'-iriii
Ijah iif HiTiir;
.MlTjJlli, WlT''
las wi'll ii.'^i'"
111 111' lleiipil
Iritisli (,'iiviTii
fal, siiicc 17.J!<,
I l\Iacplinr«)n.
J ('(iniwiiliis.
irci^'iiiiiiiiitli-
Wi'ili'^icy.
, ('(iniwalli-'-
lliirlow.
lit Miiito.
tiisol'llU't>"S^
IS 17 Mlll-|. I)nl1inll-ll>,
|M.^.^ |,iir.| riiiiiiliitc.
INti'j L.iril I'.luli .
lmi:i Hir Jxliii Lnwrrmic.
1«)1 l.i.ril Amti»'i'"t.
\Ktn Ijifil W. Ilfiiiliii'k.
l>n l.nnl AiK'KliiMil,
Hij liinl Klli'i|li.iiiiii(;»i.
i<ll .--ir lliuiry llin'illiu'i',
(Kiir fiirtliiT (It tiiil.t r(•^,'l»rllin^; the |iri'nl(|pnoy t>f
llciiKal. "••<• In'i>i.\.)
11KN<'A/V (nil. Hiitivriii mill Hfrrniri-), n
•i.jrit, tiiMii (•!' N. Al'ric.'i di-dricl llarcii. r<'«. 'I'ri-
j,i,|' (III tlu' I'".. <'<iii«f (if llio (iiilf ill' .Sidrii (Mil,
S<^ti> Miijiyr) ; ImI, ;IJ0 7 ;i'l" N,. I..ii>,'. W '-'' K.
K.stiriiairil |)"|>, il.ixio. It ih lltii'lv Niiiialcd (ni tlii'
„|.,fjtiiHif an cxtt'iisivc mill very Icriilc |iliiiii, Imi is
niiwrulily liiii'n, I'l'hy In thi' fxtrcinc, ami iii('i"<tiil
In nil aliniist iiiliili ralili> fxlclit >vl(li llli's. I'lic
lijirlKinr. wliicli hcciii- to liavf I'liriiirrly liad il<'('|>
water, is lllliil ii|i, sii ilial it raiiiiiil imw linfiitcrcd
liv vessels draw iii;fiii(ir('tliaii 'i (ir H It. wiilci'; and
ijiat iiiily ill iiMiilcriitf wi'iillu'r. At tlit- ciiiriiiict'
til the piirt Is a rasllc, the residence (if the liey, liiit
Knrllilcss as a means uf dereiicc. Niilwillislaiidiiii;
ii» |i(iverty, and llic iiidnleiici' tiC its .\riili iiilialii-
i.iiits ll('ii|,'a/y lia.sHiiiiie trade, |iriii('i|ially carried
nil liy .lews. The value nl' the f,\|i(irlH, cnnsislliij;
|irlii('i|iallv (it'wiidl, dxeii, and hIii'I'|i, salted liiitter
.mill ciiriii aiiKiiinis, (Hi the average, to ahniii
I'i.iiiHi/. |icr anniini. Tlip trade is niosilv carried
iiinvitli the iiilier Itarliary slates and Maila,
It is helii'veil that Kennii/.y (ic('ii|iii's tlie site
nl'ilie ancient Itereiiice, which liad the gardens nt'
till' lli'H|i<'riiles in its vicinity. It is sinf^nilar, that j
iliiiii^;li its walls were cniiiiilctcly rcjuiired iinder ;
.liiKliiiiaii, hardly a trace (if tlieiii is imw to he j
nicl with. In fact, scarce a veslinc of the old city I
istii he I'liiiiid nliove the surface of the jilaiii ; hut
viTV extensive remains are found tin di^'f^iiij; a
I'lMit iir two helow the surface.
UMNtiOlfl'', IIKAI). a |ironiontory of Ireland,
\. t'liiist, CO. Antriin, adjninin^c the ( iiant's < 'ausc-
w«v: lat. f)i")° 111' H>"'N., lonj;. i'fi t.V '.Ml" \V.
This reniarUalile iiniinoiiiory is made np of n
luiiiilicr (if capes. Of these the most perfect and
MrikiiiK is I'leaskin. 'lis sniniiiit,' to use the
wiinls of the Kev. Mr. Ilaiiiiltoii. 'is covered with
niliiii );ras.sy sod, under which lies ihi^ iiiitiiral
ruk, having,' generally a iinil'orin hai'd surface,
Niiiicwliat cracked and shivereil. At the dejith of
liiiir 1'.' ft. from \\w simiinit, this rock lie-ins In
aNiiime a oolninnar tendency, and fnriiis a raiiKe
(if mas.sy jiillars of lia.salt, which stmid pcrpeii-
iliciiliir to the horizon, presenting;, in the sliarji
fiu'ii (if the ]irimioiitory, the appearance of a nian-
nitiiTiit ^jallcry or colonnade, of upwards of (it) ft.
ill licijiht. This colonnade is supported on a solid
l.n>c (if coarse hlack, irrej^ular rock, nearly (10 ft.
ihii'k, alioiiiidiiiii; in lilclisorair-lioles; hut tlioiiKit
cninparalively irrej^nlar, it may Ik? evidently oh-
N'ncil til affect a iH'culiiirli;;nn', tendiiif;, in many
places, to run into rej^ular forms, re.seinhliiij,' the
sliiHitiiifC of salt, and many other Mulwtunws,
iliiriii;,' a hasty crystallisation.
'Under tliisf,'rent hed of stone stands n second
raii^'o iif pillars, hetween 40 niid ."id ft. in lieij,flit,
lif^s p'dss and more .slinrply delined than those of
I 111' upper story ; many of them, tin a close view.
cnmlatinj; even the neatness of the colunins in the
liiinit's Caii.seway. This lower raiii^e is lioriie on
a layer of red oclirc-stone, which serve.s iw a relief
III simw it to /.Teat advantdf^e.
'These two admiralilc natural fcnll<'rie«, topetlier
with the interjacent ma.ss of irrcH'iilar rock, form a
licilK'Hiliciilar' licMnlit of 170 ft.; from the haseof
^^lik'li, the promontory, covered with rock and
^TU-'is, sliipes down to tlie .sea for the space of "JtM)
fi.miire, niakini;. in all, a mass of near llio ft. in
|i''if;lit, which, in beauty and variety of colonriiif;,
ii' elegniico and novelty of arrangement, and in
IlKNdl KI.A 490
ll,e rxir.iordinary niiiKiiltudc of its oliJivtH, enniiof
re.'idily Ih> rivalhil \>\ niiMliiii)X of the kind at
pn'st'iil known,' (LeliiTN mi X\w i't»»\ of Antrim,
ll'nio, ed, n. HI.)
IlKNt.l I'.I.A.acountry if \V. Afri.n, the rnnil<<
of which are nsiially considered In he ihc Cnawr'i
riM'r on Ihc N,, the Ciiincne river en the I'!,, the
iiioiintains liehind Capi^ .Nei^l'o on the S,, and the
sill re from Ihiil cape to the nioulli of the I'oawr.'t
on the \V. .\( rdin^ to this onlliiie, il exleuds
from H'-" to ltl<J N. hit., and from \'.ou> 17'^ K.
loll;;., Iiil\ inp; a mean leii^'lh of I'll) m., a hreadtli
of '.'70 111., and an area of cotisiili riililv nior(> than
1,11110.1111(1 Mil, III. (I.ahat, Ilt'hil. Ilisi.'de ri'.thiop.
Or., i. 117; lilirliol. Voyage lot'oiino Hiver, p. ffOl.)
t'licv Iff t/iv Citinilrii. — ilen^iiela appears to lie
liioiinlainoUH lliroii|;hoiit its whole exlciit; the
land rising someliines so high tli.'il, if ii do not
adiially reach the snowline, a very ureal dej^ret!
of cold is experienced. (Iliil (el, I'lirci i^' I'll^jriiiis,
li. -'i.i ; liowditch's riirtU(;iit's(i |»isci. , . ries, p. (ij,)
Tlie.se mountaiiis conic dnwii t., live sea, are in
^'I'lieral very dilllciill of iwisHat;i', Iml, like other
Al'riian elevations, ri.se in luasses ntilicr than
jieak'', and alionnd in i erraces, talile-lainls, and
valleys, to their very Miminils. The rivers are
iiiimeroiis and iniporianl, and as the direction .if
the moiiiitaiiis i^ from N I'l. to S\\'., the chief of
them run a NW. course to the .Vlhintic. This is
the case with the lar;;e river, withuiit a iianie,
which falls into the ocean at ('ape Nc'iro. an. I
with the Colial, Coporiio, Catiiinliela, and ('iivo.
Ilcsides these, which are very larj^e. there arc an
iiiiinense niiinlier of small sireains rnnniii;; ^liorl
and alinosi sirai>;lit acmss fimn the W. Ilanks of
llie nioiintains, and the various allliienlM of the
principal rivers are alinost. iiiniiiiicrahle ; in addi-
tioii to which. spriii;,'s of swcc: Wilier are SI) aliiiii-
dant, thai in iilinost every part of llie (diinlry,
lliey may la- found hy (li;.';;ill^,' In llie depth of two
feet. The natural conseipicncc of this aliiind.'int.
iiioisliire in tro|ii('al countries is oli<erved in lieii-
giiela, and nowhere is vej/ctation more aliiiinlaiif
or more varieil. Kense forcsis of cedari. palms,
liooliash, date-trees, latnarinds, with every oilier
tropical tree — and some tli:.i lielmie; t,> mure leni-
|ierale cliiiiates, clothe the sides and lops of llin
monniains, iiitcnnixed with vines, lianaii.'is,
ananas, and all the linest species of tropical fruit.
I j(>ns, ti;;ers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami,
and other lai^e animal.s, are extremely nnmeroiis ;
ill addition to which, the zehra is verv cdiiiinoiily
met with, and, in short, every wihi animal fiir
which Africa is noted is found within the liiiiiisof
l!eii;.''iiela. The elk (whicli is also a native iicre)
is iiarticularly ))ri/.ed. from its heiii^; supposed that,
one of his hoofs has power to cure the epileps)- ;
(leer aiKl antelopes, of course, are ahundant.
("altle, sheep, and K""*"! •i"' verv nnmeroiis. The
ostrich is al.so found here, wild all the reptiles,
daiif^eroiis and harmless, for which this part of
Africa is so much reputed; crocodiles lieinj; e..|ie-
cially iiiimcrous and jiowerful. The monntain.'i
are known to yield copper, sulphur, ]ietroleiim,
and crystals; and are Hup]iose(l to possess jfold ami
silver. Some of tht; rivers iinipiestionalily hrin;.;
down the former, bur pr.ibnhly in small fpiaiitilies,
which the iiative.s work ini./ the liaiidle.s of their
halcliet.s.
The rainy season is accounted, in BeiiKiiela, to
last thiiinKli Jlay and June; hut it is extremely
irret;iilar, and .sometime.-i no rain falls for the spac(>
of three years. (Howditc'i, vol. ii.) The coast is,
hy all aceoniits, excessively unhealthy; hut the
interior is .saliilirioiis, and a]>pareiitly well lilted
for cultivation of all kinds; every dejfree of tem-
perature seems to be experienced at dilfereiit
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WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
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■4^
430
BKNGUELA VELIIA
clpvntions, niid it priilmlily is not ox|miso(1 to tho
iinccrtftinly of ruin, wliicli exists on llic coiist. Miil-
t<'l, wiio r('siil('<i ill (lill'crciil parls of llic iiitcriur
for a t'oiisidcraliU lime, never, uiiioiigst all liis
miseries, <'oni|)laiiiH of the cliinate.
ISeiigiiela IS inlialiiteil liv a iimnlier of jiotty
trilies of iii(le]i('iiilent liarliannns, wliose lialiitsaiid
manners do not dill'er from liiose of other negroes,
■\vitli tlie exee|itioii of one — \\n'. (Jagas, or (iigas,
n wandering herd of roM)ers, wliieh appear lo ap-
))roxiinate, nearer to jierfeft l>arl>arisni than any
otlier, even of (lie African races. Tiiey are of no
trilie nor nation, destroy all their own children,
nnd keep up their strength and innnliers hy steal-
ing those of twelve or thirteen years of age from
the countries which they oveiTiin, They are hold
lliid skilful soldiers, hut ruthless caiinihals,willioiil
the slightest idea of art or industry, so that
vherever they encamp, they destroy all around,
lind then depart, to iiillict the same desolation on
iumw. other district. They appear freriiieiilly to
«;aiis(! a famine, where such a calaniKy would
otherwisi! seem to he impossihle, verifying the
iinimated descri))tion of tlu^ locust : — ' Itefore ihein
is a garden, heliind them a harrcii desert.' Itattid,
who was their jirisoner for more than two years,
lias left a full and curious account of these sa-
vages, which carries the inijin'ss of iriilli on every
line, lieiigiiehi was formerly suliject to Angola,
lit least nominally, and was accounted one of the
M^venteeii provinces of thai kingdom. Tii(^ Portu-
guese have hmg had s(!ttlenients on the coast and
the interior, but their jiower does not, seem to ex-
tend far beyond their forts. See An<i<»i.A. (liat-
tel's I'urciins, ii. 974-1177; liarhol, p. oOI; Me-
rolhi, pp. ()(Mi8; Labat, i. G(i-70; ISowditcli,
]»]). 2G-C4 ; Cnjit. Owen's Nur, of Yoy., ii. 271-
27r).)
Isr.NOTTF.LA VELIIA (Old Bengmla), the
native capital of the country above described, lat.
10° Ah' S., long. 15° 5' K. "it is well situated on
the coast, between the rivers Cnve and Loiija, in
a very fniitful champaign country, and about
SI m. to the S. is a convenient harbour, called by
the sailors Hen's I5ay, from the number of do-
mestic fowl which are collected about it. There
are no aceoimts jn-eserved of the poji. or other sta-
tistics of Old IJeiignela; its trade, if it ever had
imv, having long since be?n transferred to
liKNtiL'KLA (ST. I'TLU'l'E 1)E), the Por-
tuguese caiiital of the same country, lat. 12° \t'
S.j hing. 15 E°., about 100 m. S. of the old town.
I'op. aliout ;!,(I00, the greater ))ortion being free
Llat^ks or slaves. It is a wretched place, built of
lialf-baked bricks, and so slightly that no tene-
inen«s are ever reiiaired, but as soon as thej- begin
to decay, others are built by their sides. It stands
on an o])eii bay, and is watered bj* a tolerable
stream, formed' by the junction of two small
rivers. lt,s site is a marsh, full of stagnant pools,
and so extremely unhealthy, that the Portuguese
adirm none of their countrywomen could entlnre
it three months. It was once nearly destroyed by
nn invasion of elephants, a mimber of them having
entered it in search of water during the dry sea-
non ; and danger always threatens the inhabitants
from the alligators and hippopotami in the river.
UENICAKLO, a marit. town of Spain, in Va-
Icncni, on the Mediterranean, 25 m. S. Tortosa.
Pop. (;,i)50 ill 1857, The town is defeniled by
walls, a ditch, and an old castle. Streets narro^v
nnd dirt}', and the houses mean. The surrounding
territory is very fruitful, ptirticularly in wine ;
large qnantilies of which, of a dark red colour,
considerable strength and flavour, are shipped from
this town, whence it has its name, i)rincipally for
Cetle. It is thence conveyed to Bordeaux, where
BENIN
it is rmploj-ed to give body and colour to tl;,-.
clarets, especially to those exported to tjic i;,,,,.
lisli markets, (jleiiderson on \Vines, p, |ii|,|
l!l''.MN, a <'ouiitrv of Africa, near the IC, ly.
tremitv of the (iiilf of (iiiiiiea, between P ami ip
\. lat"., and 1° and H},° E. long. It has S. tii,.
tiiilf, W. Dahomey, NW. ^'arriba, and Nl'.. and i;.
the lower Niger, whi<'li separates it from the statis
of NytVe, .lacoba, Fiiiida, and Calabar. It Ims a
triangular form, is about :M0 m. in lengili, |,v ;;ii i
III. ill extreme width, and coiitains probalily ii,,|
less than 50,(100 s(|. m. (Adams' lleiiwirk> h;i
Coast from K, Palmas to X. Congo, pp. I(i;i-|j.s;
Clapperton's Second Exped.. ])p. 1-;17 ; Lainlcrs
Travels, p|). <i;t2-01tl.) On the coast, tlu' coiinirv
is level, but it rises gradually, till, in the rciitr.il
parts, the continuation of the Korg nmiintiiins
attains an elevation of 2,500 ft. It is well walcriil.
for the delta of the Niger coni))rises nKirclliiin
l-IO m., that is, more than 7-loilis of the whulc
sea-board. The \V. braiu'h of this delta is iju.
stream which has alwavs been called the river i.r
lleiiin ; the farthest 1'^. is tln^ main liinb, funnerK
called the Nini ; but demonstrateil by l.iuKlcrtu
be the Niger. (See Ni(ii;i;.) Itesides (Ikvc, tlnro
are several other streams upon the coast, iinrcan
there be jiny doubt but that the nioiiiitaiiis i;ivc
forth many allliieiits to the great river in tin.
interior. (Smith's \%)yage to (iniiiea, |i. 227;
Lander, \). 4i<7 et .lerj. ; Adams, |)|i. lO'.l. Il!l, ii',)
Under the intliience of abundant irrigation, ami a
tropical sun, the productions of the (arili arc vcrv
numerous. They do not, however, did'er frui'n
those of other jiarts of the same coast, except tliat
wood is rather more abundant. (Adams, p. Ill, i
The hippopotamus is morc: common than in ntlur
countries of (tiiinea (Lander, p. (i;t'.»),in projuirliuii
to the more magnilicent scale of the liydrogr.'i|iliy:
but in other resjH'c^ts, the animals of Itciiiii are
also describe^l in those of Guinea generally ; aiul
the same remark will apply to the habits aiid cus-
toms of the natives: the same arts, with tlio
exception of gold working, for gold is not fMundiii
IJenin (A(hims, )). 170) ; the same goveriiinciit;
the same religion (Eeticism) ; the same festivals,
marked by the same disgusting cruelties, arc nh-
served here as iii Ashaiitee (see Asiiantick). wiili
one additional aggravation, namely, the aiiiinal
sacrifice of human victims to the powerof tlic sea,
(Adams, p. 115.) Pt'iiin is well jieopled ; the
capital contains 15,000 inliab., and tlie town (jf
W'arre 5,000. (Adams, iii. 12;>.) Claiipeitoii alsu
found the N. frontier, on the Akinga river, very
poimlous, as did Lauder that of the E., upon tlio
banks of the Xiger. Previously to the nominal
aUditioii of the slave-trade, this country was the
great theatre of that trallic. An amiiial fair is
hehl at Honnv, on the coast, iit which nut f'cwtr
than 20,000 slaves are S(dd, of whom it is allc.i,'!'!
10,000 are brought from the single district of
Heebe or Eboe, a port of Ilenin, on the right liank
of the Niger. Some few of these are sohl lo
native masters, as the kings of New and Old
(.'a^abar, but the vast majorit.v are disposed of to
foreign traders, and are shipped principally fur
Itrazil and Cuba. (Adams,]). 121) ; l{uxtoii,/K;.«iw.
&c.) A more harmless trade, and to a considcrahle
ext(!nt, is carried on in salt, palm oil, and blue
coral.
Benin, a large town of Africa, cap. of thealmve
kingdom; lat. 'oo lo' N., long. 5° 5;{' E. Top,
estimated about lt!,O0O. It stands on the ri},dit
bank of a large stream, hitherto called the river
of Benin, but now known to be one of the .iiime-
rous mouths of the Is'iger; it is built without any
order, t he houses being detached from each other,
and consequently occupying agreatdealofgroiiiul.
BENIN (inOTIT OF)
Thcv nrc hxr^c, cinistriictc'd oC clay, nivl ncnlly
tli.iti'lK'il Willi rcc(ls, ^traw, or leaves. 'I'liere is iiii
iilniii.'*! ciiiilimial iiiarkel I'nr catlle, sliee|), j;iials,
!,j;^fs. piiiillry, yams, (•(iiimi. ivory, ami |jir(i|ieaii
liaris; it""'* "1^" f'uriiierly (lie ^reat eiii|)oriiiiii
l',,r sliives ; lait the river not Iteiiij,' imvi^jaUle fur
lar'c sliipH liij(lier tliau 40 in. Ix-low lleiiiii, this
inMKi' if 'X'W enrried on nearer the coast, and
iliiclly at Hrass, tlie outlet of the nniiii hrancli of'
ilii' Si^'cr, IJcnin lias a system of municipal
.'iiviriinieiit resemhlinf; (hat of more civilised
riiiiimiiiilies. (iatto, or Apitton, is the port ol'
lliiiiii; it lies about Id ni. down the river, or
,;iiliir oil a lar;;e creek which the I'ornier ^ives
lilt Iriiiii its haiilv, and is aci'cssihle to craft of the
liiinli'ii "flit* tons. It is said to he larj;er and more
l„i]iiil"iis than Heniii itself. The surrounding;' couii-
irv is well wooded, fertile; hut low, thit. swampy.
ai'i,l very imheallhy. It was hen? that llel/oiii
iliiil ef liyseiitery in IH-Jlt. on his road to lloiissa
iii;! Tiinhiictoo. (Smith's Voyaij;e to (ininea,
u.'l'M: Adams's Ifcnnirks on the ("oiintry from
(';i|ic rnhnas. p. 1 1 1, &c, ; Nouvelles Aniialis des
Viiyii^'cs. xxii. ll'J.)
liKNiN (liuiiiT oi'). The coast of IJenin is so
mIIciI. It is a coii.siderahle indcnitation of the
(liiir iif (iiiiiica, extendiiifj from the Akin;,'a to
till' Nifjcr. It is an iron-lxaind coast, ofi'eriiif^ no
(■iiiranic to vessels, except at the mouths of rivers,
•111(1 scnrcely there, if the vessels be of much
Uir.lcn.
1)|;nin' (liivKi! ok), called also the Foioiosa),
fulls into the tinlf of (ininea, aliout 181) m. below
lliiiin, ill hit. f>° 10' X., Ion;;. l>° K. It is a deltoid
liniiiili of tlie Nij;er, commciicinfi at Kirrce, about
liiii 111. above Heiiin, and its whole course, in-
clusive of windings, may be about 210 m. (See
,\'|(1|-,1!.)
liKNlSUKFF, a town of K^ypt, cap. prov. same
niiinc. 1)11 the W. bank of the Nile, (!1 m. S. Ciiiro.
I'lip. estimated at 7,000. It has a line of railway
t(i Cairn, which places it in direct communication
ivitli Alexandria and the ^lediterranean. IJeiii-
suctf isa pretty, well built, im)iortaiit town, beinj^
tlu' entrepot for all the jirodiice of the fertile
valley of Kayoum. It has a cotton-mill, and
Mvcral other manufactures, and is well su|iplie(l
ivitli provisions of all .sort.s. (Quarries of nliibaster
liii\e hcen discovered in its vichiity. (Scott's
li'V|)t ,111(1 Candia.ip. 2(1.5.)
I'.KXXia'KKXSTElX, or BKNKEXSTFIX,
atiiwiiof I'russia, prov. Saxony, reg. Krfurth, on
llic Kaphode, at the foot of the llarz, in an enr/nre
i-itiiatod in the duchy of Ilrunswick, 1;) ni. XNW.
N'lirilliausen, Pop. 4,22;) in 18(;i. The town has
an iron-foundry, u nail-work, a brewery, and a
iiiaimfactory of baskets.
liKX NKVIS, a mountain of Scotland, in Dnni-
liartiin.shire, the -second, in pohit of altitude, of the
liriiish mount.iin.s. It lies immediately to the E.
Ill Fort William, being separated from the Gram-
jiiaii.s hy the desolate tract called the JMoor of
iiaiiiuich. It rises 4,370 ft. above the level of the
sfa; licing only 20 ft, lower than Hen Macdliu,
tlip hijjliest mountain in Scotland, while it is 70!)
11. higher tliiiu Snowdon, the most elevated of the
Wdsli mountains. Its circumference at the base
(xcecds 24 m. Its oulline all round is well de-
linwl. Its N, front consists of two grand ascents
<ir terraces ; the level top of the lowest of which,
at ail elevation of about 1,700 ft., contains a wihl
luni or mountain lake. ' The outer acclivities of
tills, the lower jiart of the mountain, are very steep,
tliiiiiftli covered with a short grassy swanl, inter-
niixwl with heath; but at the lake, this general
vctfolalilc chithing ceases. The surface of the
upper and higher part of the mountain, where
r.KRAR
431
not absolutely precipitous, is sfrowod with miRular
fragmen(s of stone, of \(irious siz<'S, wedged toge-
ther, and forming a siiii;ulfirly rugged cuveriiig,
ammig which we look in \aiii fir any symptoin of
vegetable life. On the NM. :dde, a broad, lerrilic,
and tremendous precipice, comnieiiciiig at the
summit, reaches down to a depth of not less than
I,,"i00ft. The furrows and chasms in the black
beetling rocks of this preci,iice are constantly lilh'd
with snow, and (he brow of the mountain is al>o
encircled with an icy diadem. From (he summit,
the view is remarkably grand and sublime: it
commands most of the W. islands, from the I'ass
of ,lura to Cuchnllin, in Skye ; ami on the I'!., the.
view extends to Schiehallioii, (.'airugorm and IJeii
^laiMlhii.' (.Anderson's llighhinds, |i. •M't.)
lien being a term used in tbetiaelic to sigiiifv.a
high summit, is applied to several of the Scoicli
mountains, as lien Eonioml, on the li. side of Loch
Loiiioml, ,'),l',l."i f(. idnivc the level of llinsea, and
the best known of all the iligblaml mnuiilaiiis ;
lien Maidlui, on the cuntincs of riaiilV, Inverness,
and Aberdeen, l,;!',»0 ft. jibove the sea, being, as
already stated, 20 ft. higher than Hen Nevis;
lien Sawyers, lien (iloe, lien Wyvis, &c, (Sec
Scotland.)
liENttlT (ST.), a town of the Isle de lionrboii,
on the I',, coast of the island, at the mouth of (h(t
-Marsouiiis. Estiiii. jiop. 4.000. The products of
(he district are slii[(ped in small vessids at (hi!
creek, or bay, for St. Denis, (he cap. of th;;
islaml.
lilOXSITEIM, a town of the grand duchy of
llcsse Darmstadt, !;"> m. S. Darmstadt. I'op.
4,177 in lM(il. The town has ft church, a c(dlege,
and an hospital.
liKliAH, an old province of the Dcccaii, India,
comprising Nagpoor, and a considerable porlioii
of (iuiidwanah ; between hit, 17° IS' ami 22° l.'i'
N., long. 78° 20' to 80° 48' E. : greatest leiigdi,
N. to S., ;i;iO m.; breadth oOO m. ; area ;")(!. 72.'i s(|,
m. (('apt. Sutherland.) Pop. about 2..")00.000.
In the X. its boiim'.iry is a high table-liind : its
SW. limit is for ti;-' most ))art identical with the
course of the Wurda. The other chief rivers arc.
the Piiiii-tinnga, its tributary the Khahan, and
the .Midianuddy. The land is fertile in dry grains;
peas, vetches, llax, sugar, betel, and tob.-icco, are.
also raised ; and, since the outbreak of the Ameri-
can civil war, it has become a gr(\'it lield i'or cot-
ton. The Nagpoor wheat is n^ckoned tlu' most
nutritions in India; it comes to ))erfi!cliiai in three
months, and with mai/.e, which is sown after it aM
a second crop, forms the chief subsistence of tli(>
inhab. A large jiroiiortion of the land has been
brought into cultivation since the IJritish have
had the government of this eountrv; the capital
of the culliv.'itors generally has increiised, and
irrigation and the state of (he wells are better
attended to. Sugar, betel, an<l tobacco are largely
manured, but not with cow dung, which is used
by the Hindoos for the floors of houses, and f<ir
fuel, though plenty of wood suitable for the latter
jiurpose is scattered over the country. Indigo
grows wild, but is not cultivated to any extent,
and opium very little. A great portion of the
country belongs to zemindars, who pay nothing
but a quit-rent to goveniment, and are in other
res])Octs independent of any .superior authority;
but the.se are less numerous in the central districts.
The revenue is collected under the village set-
tlement ; the chief farmer of (he village being
the jMitail, responsible for the payment of the ryots
under him ; receiving their rents ; advancing them
money when necessary, and receiving for his own
remuneration one-sixth part of the wlude sum
collected. CoAvbi, or agreements between the
i.M
I
r>
433
T5ERAR
f;ovprninpnt nml llin ixitail, nr liofwcon tho, potail
mid llic rvot, tliat only »o iniicli hIiiiII lie i;olli'ct(Ml
from tlic linid in n certain term (Kfiu'riilly live or
pcvfii yt'iirs), uw very coinnioii, and were iniro-
diii(Ml "liy the MnliruttaH wliiii tlu-y cdiKpuTC'd
tills tcrritivry, in order to itroniote cnltivarioii,
wliicli at tliat liinc! lia<l been greatly nenlecK-d.
The system is said to he advantageous; and if
the, as'sessaiit were iiio<lerale, and the Icriii of
n^reement extended, and the eonditions aliiihd
liv, it perhaps wonld he ns j^ood a system as the
liriiieiple on whieh it is hottoined will admit of.
The otlieeof i>olail is nsnally eonsidered heredi-
tary, hut is dependent on the pleasure of the i;o-
veriiment. The revenue is ahont -1(1 or 17 lacs,
mill the eivil exiienditure seven or eifiht hies ru-
jiees a vear. The aseeiidiiif,' ranks of judicial
niilhorities are the iiotail, the native iierKunnah
collector, the souhahdar of tlie district, and the
rajah himself, who holds all the souhahdar jiiris-
diclion round tl'c capital. The /imirliiii/ct, a hody
of live jiul^jes, two of whom are chosen hy each
of the coiiteiiiliiiK iiarties, and the tilth hy the
jiotail, decides most civil suits, and its decision is
tiiial. This system is said to work well, exce))t
near Xa.upoor", where corruption is common, it is
alwavs, however, resorted to ; for, wlu'U the rajah
decides, he exacts ^ of the sum in dispute as a
line from the loser, and another ^ as a comjiensa-
tioii for the decision from the winner. There are
no statute laws: succession to iirojierty is com-
monlv determined hy the Hindoo code, and there
are a'few iiii^n of leaVniiif; in the caj). versed in
this ; hnt where one of these is not called in, most
matters are determined hy the piiiiclidi/et. I'Jluca-
tion is not much countenanced; it is mostly cmi-
liiied to the chihlren of the IJrahmins, and mer-
cantile classes, and amoiHist these extends little
bevoiid readiuf,', writinj;, and accounts. All other
clar<sesare very illiterate, and it is rare that a cul-
tivator can write his own name. Previous to the
introduction of railroads, there was little com-
mercial intercourse; the puhlie roads were lew;
there were no canals; and communication was very
tritlinir generally. The opeiiin^r of the railway
from Nafjfpoor to'lJomhay, aloii},' the valley of the
Ta)>tee, yavc an enormous impulse to trade, par-
ticnlarlvas furnisliuif^ the necessary means of
conveyance to the sea of the produce of the cotton
districts.
After the fall of the SIoRul empire, the ^Falirattas
overran this coiuitry, and under the second ^!ah-
ratta rajah, Jeniec,'who lived about, the middle of
last century, it is said to have been in a more tlou-
rishiiiK condition than at any other period. The
rajah of Najjpoor, however, at the hej;iniiin<r of
the present century, having become hostile to the
Urit ish, was deprived of the prov. of Cuttack, which
had previously belonged to him, and some terri-
tories adjoining Hvderabad, which were given to
the nizam. In IH17 the rajah was again in arms
against the English, who then took upon them-
selves the administratiim of his territory. This
continued for Hi years, during which time much
imiirovcment, to the general satisfaction of the
people, was etiectcd. The annual revenue hi\'\
risen from 37 to 47 lacs of rupees, when the central
parts were delivered up to the voung rajah Bajee
Ifao r>ooslah, on his majority m l«-2(i, at which
time he ceded to us a territory on both banks of
the Nerbudda, and parts of Gundwanah, together
vith im annual tribute of H lacs; the whole of our
acquisition by this treaty being estimated at i!()
lacs nip. a year. In 1 .si!) the rajah was put in
po.ssession <it' the rest of his prov., with an agree-
ment that histead of a force of ii.ODO hor.se and
2,<)0(» foot, he should, for the juture, maintain a
BHRDIANSK
standing army of l.tiOO Imrse only. This nffrco-
ment remained in lone till the year lN.'):i, wIk.,,"
on the death of the- rajah (Dec. II), hi^ |(.|Vit,,rii.<
were added to the Mrilish piisses.»ions in hulji
(Hamilton's K. I. (la/., i. 2I7--J-JI ; l!i.|,„rtH on th,'
All'airs of the K. F. Comii., Kvid. of Air. Jeiikiiiv
p]). I lO-l'iO; Appenil., vi. UVX)
IIKKAT, a town of J'urkc'y in Europe, in tho \
liart of Albania, on the Tiiherafhi (an Apmiin. '.'s
111. XE. Aiilona; hit. 'UP ■)«' \.. Inn;;. |<|0 -,._)' f,.
It (consists of an acropolis or citadel, on iht sinmiiii
of a pretty high hill, and of a lower town. Tin-
former, which was repaired and strengthcni'd liv
Ali I'acha, is very extc'iisive. and cuntinn.s witlii'n
it the iialace of liie \ izier, several (ircck clinrfliis,
and about 'IM houses. Ileing connnainleil hv the
neighbouring heights, and without either s|lrin"s
or cisterns (Pouijueville), it could oppose im cflir
tual resistance to an invading anny imipcrly hiu-
|)lied with artillery, or strong enough ell'irtnallv
to blockade it. The lower town, at tlu' fiiipt nfiliV
acrojiolis, is intersected by tlic^ river, over wliidi
there is a good bridge of eight arches. It ]»■,
numerous mo.sipies, and a large and liaiiilsiniic
bazaar. Merchants import llritish aiidotlu.r tiirci"!!
goods through the jiort of Aiilona. Sciiiiilirl«"
failed in an attempt to take this town, wliicli lias
always been regarded as an important post, aiiij
the key, in fact, of this part of the conntrv. (pnu-
ipievilie. Voyage de la (Jrcce, i. oOl, c'd, Ih'.'ii;
Hughes' Albania, ii. 'AHiy.)
If Mli'AUN, a walled town of TJohemin, rap. circ.
.sami- name, on the Herauii, 20 m. \VS\V. I'ra.'m.]
on the railway from Prague to Pilsen. Pup. Ijilil
in isr)7. It has fabrics of earthenware ami ilrc-
arms; and in its neighbourhood ari' {(iiarrics of
marble and coal mines. In the vicinity ol' this
town, the Aiistrians, in 1750, gained "a .si^mil
victory over the Prussians.
IJEHHEHA, a sea-port town of Africa, in tlio
country of the Smnanlis, on the Sea of liali-cl-
Maiideb, at the bottom of a narrow and dcepliav
hit. l(|0 -Jt' X., long, -lao H' K. It is rather an <ii'
camiiment than a town, the inhab. dwelling mustlv
in tents or lints constructed of a few sticks, aiiil
covered with skins. It has few )>ennaiieiit roi-
dents; but from September to A]iril, during wliicli
]ierioil a great annual fair is held, there is a larj;('
concourse of visitors, sometimes to the ainiuinl of
7,0110 or 1 (>,('••**■ 'I"he Somaulis bring with liiciii,
from the interior, ghee or butter, colfee, slieo)!, va-
rious descriptions of gums, myrrh, ostrich feathers,
gold dust, hides, and slaves of both sexes, which
they exchange for iron, load, cotton, elotli, rice,
ami dhonrrah, brought irom the Arabian purtsnf
Mocha, Ilodeida, and Makullah. The trade U
almost wholly in the hands of Hanian nMrchants,
who are said to realise large prolits. (Wellsted's
Arabia, ii. 3(i0, &c.)
P.EinUCE. SecfiuiANA.
Bkiida, a small river in South Kussia, gov. Tau-
riila, falling into the sea of Azof. It is not luivi-
gable, and very often, during the sumiiHr nmnths,
partiall.v dry. On the eastern banks of this river
stands the little town of I'etrofsky, the princiiial
station of the Azof Cossacks.
Hkudiansk, a rising maritime town of South
Hussia, gov. Taurida, at the mouth of the river
Herda, on the N. shore of sea of Azof, 1.^0 ni. NL
Simferopol. Pop._0,-l!l8 in 1849, and ll.;)."il in
1H(J4. The town is built upon a low samly jilaiii
of one mile wide and several miles in length, iiii-
mcdiately underneath an accli\ity which rises ali-
rnjith' to the steppe, (iO ft. high. P is a steren-
t.vped edition of all Ifussian towns— the .streets
running at right angles to one another, 'fiie
houses, 1,424 in number, are generally of one stun-
ll„.'hiiiiscs are v
"••Vt, wIkmi,
i tcminriii
' ill liidiii,
iiriN on ilic
r. J('iikii'.>,
', ill the N.
ApmiH}, 'IH
. 111° :>•>' v..
ilie siiniinit
<iwii. Till'
illlCllcd liy
ains wiiliiii
U ctmrflK-.
icU'il lpy ilic
llicr K|)riii;;s
ISC no cIVcc-
rnpcrly mi|i-
1 cITccHmlly
I' flKlt lll'lll'l'
over whicli
hcs. It lias
il Imiiilsdiiii'
itluT t'lirci;.'!!
ScaiKlcrlii'i;
I, wliii'h lias
lilt iKist, anil
iiitrv. (I'liii-
l, ('.1. iM'.'li;
nin, cap. circ.
S\V. l'ra!,'uc.
,. I'd]!, i.mii
are anil I'lrc-
•(' (jiiarrics i.l'
■iinty III' tliis
iK'il a Mi;,'iiMl
\frica. in tlio
•a III' I!ali-(1-
iiul (UH'iiliiiy;
rather an cii-
i-('irnif,'niiislly
w siicUs, aii.l
rniancnt roi-
(liirin;; wliiili
ore is a lar^'c
ic ainiiinil I'f
|if; with them,
'(■(', sliocp, va-
ricli fwitliors.
si'xcs, wliiili
1, chilli, rii'i',
liliiaii jiortsiil'
riio traile is
in nicrcliaiits,
(WcUsted's
lsia,,£;ov.T.iu-
jt is lit it niivi-
linicr miintlis.
this river
I th.c princiiuil
Iwn of South
of the rivir
If, irjdni. Ml.
liul ll.o.il in
Iv saiiily lilaiii
In lrn};"t!i, ini-
Ihioh rises iiIh
w is a stovi'ii-
1— the streets
liother. Tlie
[vof one slut)'
hkli. anil priiiciiiiiliy imilt »( liricks; some nrr
,vii.|'riii't<''l with a soft sort of Htoiir hroiij^lit froiii
r ,f,i.|i, wlicrc if is foil III I in iiiiincnsc (|iiaiiliiii's.
n,i, kiii'l "f stone, owinj; to its iiiiii-'niliirahiiity,
j, V rv iiiisiiiialile for Imihiiiif; piirjioses; iiever-
ll„|,.,'s, nil at'rouiit of the ^reiit faeilily in worldii;;
il iiitii ilithrent shajies, wliieh liiissiaii inasons (hi
(j.ijv with tiieir axes, it has heeii hirjfely em-
iiliivi'il ill '■''<' soiitli jmrt of Itiissia, The walls of
Iheliiiiises are very thickly hiiilt, to eiialile them
li, mist fill' Hivere colil. Ihsiiles the fore;;oiiij{
iinnilicr of houses, there are IK'.I ^rraiii iiia^;aziiies,
iihii'li are eapalile of holding; alioiit t'lO.OdO ((iiarfers.
Ihc liiiaiility of wheal exported from this port in
ll;i. vear I'^ti;! amoiiiiteil to l;!7,.'!.'i') (piarters. The
(V'lrt-' W'l'e hir;?('st in I Hill, when they rose to
;,| ii,'i7 ipiarlers. (I.'eporl of ( 'oiisnl \V!ifj;stnlf on
iktrmle ol' Iteriliansk, daleil .Inly II, IHCt.)
I'.r.lIlM'rCMKI'". a town of Itnssia in I'limpp,
,,,v. Vnlliyiiia. on its SI'), eontines. '2.') m. S. Jito-
mir, if i^ liirty iinil ill Imilf, and is iiriiieipally
iiihaliileil hy Jews. It is, however, tlii^ centre of
;i (iiibicleraiile trade. Its fair, called UmmJ'iiiJ'
(rirfskii'i'i. is iiiiieh freqnenleil.
' liKi!K/lNA, a river of Knssia in Europe: il
ij-cMii tli(' district of Dissna. jljov. ^linsk, which
il traverses from N. to S. : after reccivinj; various
jllliieiils, and heiiij,' Jniiied hy a canal with the
[liiu, il falls into 'hi' I'nieper a Utile lielow
lliiil.itzn. This river has hecoine celehrated from
tlieilillieiiltiis and liisaslcrs attendiii^; fh<' passaj;e
Dvr It of till' army under Napoleon, when re-
IMliii;; from Moscow in ISl'J. The nliove river
iiii-t iiiif he eoiifoniided with another and smaller
river of the same name, which also rises in the
I'l.v. Minsk, and which, haviiij:' divided, duriiij^ a
|.;irliit'its course, the j^ovls. of (Jrodno and Wiliia,
lai'sintii the Niemeti. at Nikolaef.
i!i',i;(;AiM(), a town of Northcrii Italy, cap.
ir.iv, and distr. same name, on low hills hetween
the Serin and the Ilreniho, '21) ni. N 1",. Milan, on
liie railway from Milan to Venice. Top. .'i.").'.'!!!)
ill iKiy. The town is surrounded hy walls, and
li;is (in old eastlc; but these are useless as means
nl'ilefencc. It is Well built; has n massive eathe-
ilral. 14 cliiirches, 12 monasteries, 10 nunneries, a
l;ir;e lii)s|iital. a immt-iU'-]iiiti'; an orphan asylum,
:i;ii ether charitable iiistilutions, a lycenm, and a
miiimrio; the Carrarese school, founded by Count
larrara, where griitnititus instriiction is };iven in
mii-ie, iiaintiii;;. and arehiteetnre ; a )inl)lic library,
\tiili (iii.Odii vols., and two theatres. There are
(Mi'ibive estahlishinents for the sjiinniiii; and
wiviii;; of silk, f,'reat quantifies of which are
irmlueed in the vicinity, with woollen and eottoii
falirics. and iron-foundries. The trade of the town
las iiiucli increased since the ojieiiiny of the rail-
way to Milan; it is now a chief station on I he
liiir Irom Milan to Venice. A is;nmt fair is aii-
iiially lield on the 22n(l of Aujiust, and fourteen
t !l"»|ji},' (lays, in a larj;e qiiailiaiif;iilar lmildiii<;,
nlleil i\\c fitni, containiiiff TjIO booths or shops.
Al! ilie |iro"diicts of Loiiibardy are exposed to sale
at this fair; but silk is the staple article, and next
iiit iron and wine. It has also a considerable
iriile in grhidstones, quarried in the neij^hhoiir-
1 1 Tlie value of the floods disposed of at the
fir is said sometimes to amount to l,2(IO,()ll()/.
it lias also other, but less considerable, fairs,
sail lattle-niarkets. It is the seat of a bislioiiric,
•if the iiroviiicial assembly, and of a judicial tri-
kiiiil,
i'er(;anio is very ancient, having existC'l under
tl.i' Unmans. In 1-12.S, the iiihab. placed thein-
!ilves under the protection of the republic of
^iiiieo. of whicli it continued to form an iiifef;Tal
l<mtill the subinersion of the latter in ITDCi. with
Vol., I,
BERGEN
433
the oxceptioii of about seven years after tlir battle
of A);'nadello, in l,")()!t, when il was taken bv
I.oiiis .Ml. |)uriii;; the French ascendancy, it
was the cap. of the i|e|). of Serin. The town fell
to Austria in iHir>; but, in conseiiucnce of the
events «.f 18(10. wiw iiicoqiorated with the new
kinplotn of Italy.
IJerpimo has j^iveii birth to some very rmi-
nent men, amon;c "Ihers, to Iternardo Tasso, the
father of Torqnato (a colossal statue has been
erected in the I'i4i:z)i (Irnnilv, in honour of the
hitler) ; Tiraboschi, the author of the learned,
elaborate, and valuable work on the history of
Italian literature {Stunn dvlhi I.ctliniliiiu Iln-
litiiiii); and to the .Mibe'Seras>i, author of the Life
of Tasso. The l!er;;amesqiie dialed is peculiar,
and one of the most corrupted forms of the lan-
j;ua<te spoken in Italv.
liKIMM'.DOIM'". a'towii of the distr. or ter. of
IIanlbnr^^ at llu! contlnciice of the Itille with n
canal that joins the Mlbe, !) m. SIC. Ilambiir)^.
!.")l ill iMdl, Il is connected by railway
with Ilambiir^^
lll',li'<;K\,a town and sea-iiort of Norway, caj).
of the diocese of S. rier;;cn-^hnus, al the boltoni of
a deep bay. If!.') m. WNW. Clirisliania ; hit. <iO°
21' N., lonV. .")0 20' K. Pop. 2il,.") Ill in 18(10. The
town is built on a )iromoiilory, and surrounded on
every side by water, excc]il NI'".., where i; is en-
dowed by inouiitaiiis cniisiilcnibly above 2,00(1 t't.
ill beijilit : and is )irolei ted, besides, by lofly walls,
and several forts, nioir ;iim in all about lull ji;iin.s.
The harbour is safe ^md couiniodious, and the
water deep; but the bay all rotmd is so beset with
rocks as to render its iiavi;ration dan^'crous with-
out a )iilot. licr^cn is f^enerally well built, thoiif^li
some of its streets be narrow and crooked; viewed
from the st'a, it ajipcars remarkably |iictiiresqiie,
beiiijf buill aiii|ihitheatrewise round the harbour.
It cont.'iius a cathedral and four other chnrche.s,
three hospitals, a prison, a house of correction, six
establishments for the jioor, a national mn.senm,
live |iublic libraries, a naval ai'ademy, a superior
collcf^'c. established by lii^lio)) l'oiito|ipidaii in
17i")(i, and v.-irious schools. It is the seat of a tri-
bunal of sei'ondary jurisdiction, the residence of
the Iiitii slierilV and bishop of the diocese. Ono
of the fhre(! ]iublic treasuries of the kin^'ihun, and
a division of the National liank, are established
at lierj^en. It has a i;overnor, and a Kfiffison ot
iJOO men ; and a s(|uadron of the ii.'ivy is .stationed
here. There are manufactories of tobacco and
porcelain, many distilleries, and some rope-yards.
The lishery is the principal business carried on
here; but both the internal and forei<;n trade are
considerable. The imports from the N. provinces
consist of codlish, rocs, lish-oil, tallow, skins, anil
feathers, which are brought by a fleet of above
100 small vessels, twice a year during the snin-
mer; and which tiike back in return the other
necessaries and some of the luxuries of life. The
articles brought from the other parts of Norway
are less important : they consist chiefly of iron
manufactures, gla.ss, tiles, millstones, and lir tim-
ber; but the )ilaiiks and deals of IJergen are not
equal hi quality to those of Christiania. The
foreign trade is chielly -with the Ualtic, Denmark,
Sweden, Holland, Ilambnrg, England, France,
and the Mediterranean. The imjiorts from llam-
' burg far exceed the exjuirt-s thence from Ilergcn,
and consist of fabrics iiiid colonial goods of ever)'
description. I'^ngland stqiiilies her manufactures
and colonial i>rodncts; but the trade with thi.s
' country has much decreased. France sends thither
' salt, wine, and brandy; and receives most of the
I salted fi.'ih rocs. The dried cod, oi sto'jkfish, a
I .stajile commodity of the place, is sent to most
!<■$'. f
M iiji
484
BERGEN
^1
iVb
(^atholic countrips. The dhipplnff of the port of
Hereon in considcrntjle. There entered, in the
yciir IHCil, iK'fdrilinK to ofliriiil returns. .'Ml Nor-
wi'niiin ve.KHeltt, of 1M,'!()7 tuns, nnd -I^M foreign
vesnelH, (if 14,-IH7 tonn. all with ciirpt. litiKideH
tliew, there cnmc 10 N'onvepiin nnd Hit forciftn
vessels in liallnst, ftivin^ n total of 8(i"» vesseln, of
nn iif,'nref;nte burden of ii(!,55'l tons. The cleiir-
nnces, during the snnic year, consisted of Htl
vessels, of 34/) I !{ tons; a rather lar>;e in'rcentiiye
t>f them in hullnst, nanielv, (i4 Xorwej^inn vessels,
orH,l44 tons, and 47 foreign vessels, of il,M!> tons.
The nierehant nnvy helon^in^ to ller^'cn con-
sisted, nt the end of imil, of tlit'2 vessels, of ii
burden of l(!,r)H(l tons, miunied l>y a erew of .'1,1(12
men. During; the yeiir IMOI, there were 41 vessels,
of 1,001 tons, newly built.
The iuhidt. of llerffen are industrious, and seve-
ral of the mercantile houses are believed to be
wealthy. The modern town was founded by one
of the kiufjs of Norway in the llth eeutiin,'. In
the i;ilh, traders from ttu- Ilanse towns bc;;an to
sellle; and, in the succecdiiif; centuries, ac(iuired
an almost soverei;,'n sujiremacv in llerp-n, until
checked by an act of the l>anish ffovernnient in
l.'JtJO. The principal part of the trade is now in
the hands of natives. (Hoard of Trade I'apers,
and Report by Mr. Hamilton, llritish Secretary
of IvCf^ation, dated Stockholm, Aug. 31, IHO.'t.)
Hkkokn, o town of I'russia, Ctt|i. island of
Huffen, li) m. Nl'". Strulsund. I'op. 3,tli5(» in l«(il.
It stands almost in the centre of the island ; has
a court of justice, a castle, and a convent of noble
ladies.
BKUGEN-OP-ZOOM, a strongly fortified town
of the king, of llollanil, prov. lirabant, 23 m.
WSW. Hreda, near the left bank of the E. Scheldt,
■with which it communicates by a canal, and on the
railway from Antwerj) to Uotterdam Pop. 8,890
in 1H(!1. Besides its fortifications, which are ex-
ceedingly strong, it is surrounded by marshes that
render the access to it very difficult. It has a
grammar-school, and a school of design nnd archi-
tecture, with numerous fabrics of earthenware.
Its ancliovies, taken in the river, arc in consider-
able demand.
This was one of the first towns occupied by the
States General. In 1(122 it stood a memorable
siege by the Spaniards, who were compelled to
retire, after losing 10,000 men. In 1747 it was
taken by the French by stratngem. In 1814 it
was nearly taken by the British by a coup de
main; but they were finally repulsed with con-
siderable loss.
BEKGKHAC, a town of France, dt'p. Dordogne,
cap. arrond., in an extensive and fertile plain, on
the Dordogne, 27 m. SSVV. rerigueux. Pop.
12,110 in 18(il. The town is neat, well laid out,
generally well built, and thriving. It has a mag-
nificent bridge of five arches over the Dordogne,
a theatre, and some fine ])romenades. The fortifi-
cations by which it was once surrounded were
demolished bv order of Louis XIII., in 1621. It
has a court of original jurisdiction, a college, and
a secondary ecclesiastical school. Excellent paper
is made here ; and there are manufactures of dif-
ferent sorts of iron and co[)pcr goods, serges,
hosiery, hats, and earthenware; with tanneries,
distilleries, and iron-foundries. It maintains an
intercourse with Bordeaux and Liboume, and is
the principal entrepot for the trade of the dep. A
branch line of railway places the town in com-
munication with the Paris-Bordeaux railway.
15ergerac sufl'ercd much from the religious wars,
and still more from the revocation of the edict of
Kantcs.
BEKGUES, a town of France, d(<p. du Nord,
BERKIIAMSTEAD (GREAT)
onp.cnnt., at the foot of a hill, on the (■..imr r «
S><E. Dunkirk. Pop. 0,022 in 18(11. 'tCuli,
strongly fortified \>y Vaiibnn, and Ikim H,,. ,„„„,
of Inynig the adjoinmg plain under waiir. T1i„|,m,
old. It is pretty well built. In one .,f it, „,,||
are two high towers, the remains of two nmi.ni
churches destroyed during the rcvohitiun. jt ),.,
a communal college, a hospital, and n. »inill
public library. It has distilleries, refincriiM .,f .lilt
and sugar, with jMitteries, and fabri<H of soap „ii,|
tobacco. A canal, 8,701 metres lon^., odilncru
Hergues with the |>ort of Diuikirk. ami it
likewise a station on the railway from Dunkirk i.i
Paris. Owing to its favourabh' situation, it i« tlii'
entrepot of (he corn, cheese, and lace, pMilun,! in
the adjoining country.
BERKELEY, a bor. and par. of Kn^flan,!. m
Gloucester, hiind. Berkeley. Area of par. 1|,i;hiI
acres. The pop, of the parish was :i,s!)i) i'„ ix;j|
and 4,310 in 1801 ; the |mi](, of the lHir(iii(;li.„rtli,'.
'Old Borough,' as it is termed in llie diisimn-
f urns, was 1,011 in 1801, The town is situainl
amidst rich )iasturc lands, in the vale of licrkiliv
on the Avon (which joins the Severn H in. ImIhwiI
l((l ni, W. by N. London. It con.sists ni(istlvi.|'
four streets," diverging from the inarket-|,|;i,|.;
hmises but inditterent. The cliurcli is a liir-,i
handsome building, in the pointed style, wiiha
modern tower at some distance from it,' Tlnrc i*
also a chapel of ease at Stone ; four disswitiii"
chapels in the town, and two in the tiihiiif;. 'fliirii
is a free grammar-s(!hool, endowed with nhual In/.
a year, in which 20 boys are educated. The tmn'.
hall (a handsome structure built in I82">) is nnw
used as a chajtel by the Inde|)endents; tlieniarkot
house is beneath it. The market is held on Tiicsdav,
and two annual fairs on May 14 and Dec, 1 : ihw
are also cattle markets on the first Tuesday in S(|ir,
and in Nov. The < Jloucester and Bcrkeiey (.'anal
(navigable for vessels of 000 tons) has its tiitraini?
24 m. from Berkeley, but the place can (uily !«
considered as a large agricultural village, Tlio
corporation exists bv prescription only ; tliprp are
no charters, nor has it now any duties'tii ]iorl'nmi.
Berkeley Castle, on an eminence SK, (if tlii;
town, is amongst the most perfect sjiccimons uf its
kind remaining in the kingdom, being in ('(im)ili'ti'
repair, and occupied : it is an irregular jiile. with
a keep and many castellated buildings, cnclosiiif;
a spacious court. There is a fine baronial hall, a
cha])el, and a dungeon chamber 28 ft, deep, The 1
other apartments are numerous and gloomy ; in
one of these Edward II. is supposed to havt been i
murdered, in 1327 : this castle is nearlv surroiimlid
by a fine terrace. The date of its fcunilalimi is
uncertain, but it was granted, in 1150, by llenrjll.
to Bobert Fitzharding ; and in the last civil war it [
was garrisoned for the king, and for a time awn!
the surrounding district ; it was subsequently i
surrendered to the parliamentary army, after a I
nine davs' siege.
BERKIIAMSTEAD (GREAT), a par. and town I
of England,' CO. Hertford, bund. Dacurum, 2ti ni, I
NW. London. Area of par. 4,250 acres. I'up. I'fj
par. 2,309 in 1831, and 3,585 in ISfil. TlietomiJ
IS in a deep vale, on the S W. side <if the liullwm I
and the Grand Junction Canal, which here nin in j
a line together, parallel with the high road, which!
passes through the town. The London and Xnrtli j
VVestern railway also has a station here. Thej
principal street is about half a mile in lenjjlh; aj
smaller street branches from the church in liiej
middle of the town, towards the old castle. Hoiisf?,!
irregular brick buildings, but many of them very I
respectable. The church is a Gothic crucifurmj
structure, with a tower, and several small chan-
tries, and curious monuments. There h a free
(GREAT)
on thcCiilmo, r)m.
IHCil. Tlif tiiwn iit
mill \\n* till' mi'Diii
lllllTWallT. 'nillllt'll
II iiiii^ iif its ii(|ii;irii
laiiiH of two iiiiiiihi
I' rcviilutiiiu. It has
|iilnl, mil) a xiuall
•ricM, rcliiu'rics iil'silt
\ fiiliru'K iif Nim|i Hiiil
li'trt's liiiij{, (•oimi'cts
)unkirk. ami it Iwii
wny t'rnm Dunkirk tn
Jilc situatiiin.il \* tin'
mill luce, jiMiUiii'il ill
par. of r.nftliuiil. in.
Area of jiar. 1 I.i'.mi
ish was ;i,s'.i'.t in iKii,
, of tlif linriinnli.nrtlii'
iicil ill tilt' niiMK ri-
'I'lio town is sitMiiii'l
1 tlu' valr of llrrkiliv,
ic Severn I, J, in.lii'liiwi.
It eiiiihists ninslly uf
m till' inarki't-|ilaiT;
'ho eliiirch is a liir^'i?
; pointi'il style, with a
nice from it. Tliiri' i<
SloiH' ; fiiur ilisseiitiii;;
:o in tlie tilliinn. 'I'liir^
ludoweil with nlMuil I"/.
re piliieatoil. The tnwii-
B built in IH2i"i) isimw
idpppiuU'uts ; theniiirkit
iirket is helil on 'I'lii'siliiy,
[ay 14 anil Dee. 1; iluro
;he first, TiU'silay in Sipl.
stcr ami Berkeley Caiiiil
00 tons) has its eiitraiio'
t the place can (inly l.i!
icuUural villa);''- '■"'
icription only ; there are
|v any duties to iierfnrm. |
oinincncc SK, of tlii!
, perfect sjicciineiis nf in
igdoiTi, heiiiK in eomiilcte
[» an irrofjular pile, with
ited buihlinK», enclesiiiu
is a fine Imronial hall, a
lamber 28 ft, deep. The
|mcri)U8 and gloomy : iii
is supposed to have liocii
istle 18 nearly summiulnl
ilate of its foundalieii n
.cd,inll50,l)ynenrjll.
id in the last civil war it
dng, and for a time iwi4
It; it was suhscqiieiiily
lanientary army, uftet a
iiRE AT) , a par. ami tomi
H, hund. Daeuriira, '2t! Ul-
nar. 4,250 acres. Pup- "'
fans in \m. Tlicti«
[SW. side of the liullKfli
lUanal, whiehherenmral
Uh the hish road wiiKhl
The London anil >i>rth I
has a station here. The!
I half a mile ill le"!!"'','' I
I from the church m m
Ids the old castle, lhwsf',1
I but many of thoni vcrvl
I is a Gothic crHoinrml
land several smnUchm-l
Qcnts. There 13 a free!
PERKSIIIKE
,)„«,1. pstalilisheil ill the rciyn of Henrv Vlfl. ;
■nil, mil"""' "*" •'** revenue, <l;il/. ; but it haw loii),'
l„.ii iiiinviiiliilile to the town. All .Souls ('iille)j;e
lii< llie |>atriinaKe. Aiiotlier school, fiuiinied in j
1 ;■.'", till'' an ann, revenue of 27!t/. : in it '20 hovs ]
.1^1 1(1 L'irls areelollieil am! ediicatcil. The castle,
„ii nil emiiii'"''*' 1''-"' ""' 'own, eni'liiscil a spm-c ol ,
lliirn's and was very stroll)^. It ori);iiiateil in '
i!icSiixiin period; was strenf^'lhcneil in the rci^ii
,l^\',„. |„ and reliiiilt in that of Henry II., who i
,1 „iii' time held his court in it, and cmirerreil
miiiiv JirivileKes on the town. ('ow|ier. the poet, i
,;is'lK)rn liero, lii« lutliur lieiiifj rector of the
Kiri-h.
' iii.liKS, or TlKIiKSlIIltK, an iiilniid eo. of
fii^'laiiii. liaviiif; N. (txford and Bucks, from
wliiiliit is separnleil by the Tliaines, K, Surrey,
■i, llaiiipsliire, and W. Wiltshire, and a jiart of
(lliuiri'^tershire. It is very irregularly shaped, and
o.iiiaiiis l'>l,-'10stMtiit(' acres, nlmut twn-thinls of
iiliiih lire under tilla;fe. Nearly ■ii'i.OOO acres, iii-
(Imliii;; part of Kn^^sliot llentli, arc ivaste lauds.
\'f!i* i* a ^''ry beautiful co. ; has every variety of
(iiiliinil siirlace, and is well stocked with timber,
|i,,riiiiilarly oak and beech. I'^xclusive of the
i'liaims it is watered by the Keiinet, I.oililon, Ock,
mill (itlier rivers. It is about eipially divided be-
iwifii tillage and stock and dairy husbandry.
Tlip Ikrksliire breed of iiijj;s is much celebrated.
A^riiiiltiire is in a rather Imckward state; four or
livi Imrses are;;enerally yoked tothe plough ; and,
frm the want of proper covenants in 'eases, land
biififii left in a bad and exhausted state at their
ifmiiimtiiiii. I'ro|K'rty much divided ; a third jiart
ffilieco. is supimseil to be occupied by small jiro-
iriciors. Farms of all si/.es, under 1,200 or 1,400
jiTts; but few above .')00 acres, or under .50/. a
vcar. Averajje rent of land 30.i. an acre. Windsor
ii-tlp. the ancient and maf;ni(iceiit residence of
llii' Kii({lish sovereiji;ns, is in this co. This was
fi'traiTly one of the ]>rinciiial seats of the woollen
iMiiiiradure ; but it has entirely disapiieared, and
tlieniaiiiifnctures now carried on are but of triHing
iin|Hirtancc. Principal towns, ]{eading, Windsor,
siiil Abingdon, IJerkshire is divided into 2()
knikami li'il para. The census of 18()l stated the
[.i|i, at 176,2.')("), of whom Sti.STo males, and «!),;}« 1
(email's. The number of tamilies, at tlic same
fctiml, wa.s 40,()5.5, and the number of inhabited
house* 35,"()I. The county returns three members
to ilic House of Commons. The constituency
Msisted, in 1804, of 4,847 registered electors.
BEKLEBUHfi, a town of the l^ussian States,
pw, Westphalia, cap. circ. Wittgenstein, 27 m.
SSE. Amstierg. Pop. 2,0()0 in 18(11. The town is
the rosiilcnce of the I'rince of Wittgenstein. It
[ b a castle, a haras, and some forges.
lIKllLlL'HINtJKN, a village of Wirtemberg, on
1 thclaxt, 9 m. WNW. Kunzelsau. Pop. 1,407 in
V''<\. It has a castle, a Catholic church, and a
I !yna;;npue.
DKIiLIN, the capital of the Prussian States, and
I ihoiirilinary residence of the monarch, on the Spree,
I ti'(\, above the level of the sea, in the miiUlle mark
»f liraiulcnbiirg, and on the line of railway from
Paris to St. Petersburg. .Streets broad and
straight, some of them ornamented with rows of
tms; squares regular and spacious; houses all of
[iinck, and mostly stuccoed over; ])ublic buildings
I Hii raomimcnts numerou.s and magnificent ; so
ikat, notwithstanding its sameness, the want of
' Icaiiil liveliness, and the poverty of its en-
Ijin'ns. Berlin is one of the finest cities of Europe.
'uasfoiinilcd about the middle of the 12th cen-
lini)'. I11IG88 the population was about 18,000;
ImllOOitwas 29,000; in 177.5 it had increased
IdISmOO; in 1810 it was 182,387; in 1838 it
herlis
486
t
amounted to20ft,7!t7; in I8|(i to 408.,')02; and in
|8('(l to rtl7.-">7l. 'I'll!' latter ligiirc is exclusive of
the military pop., iiuinbcring '.''.'.)'i2)i in IHtiJ. 'riii>
pop. was calculated, from the returns of liirths and
deallis, to amount to ri.V.'.O'JOou the 1st ol .laniiarv,
1 HO I. T'he town is siirroiinilcd by a wall, nearly
circular, 7 F.iigl. in. long, opcucd by 17 large and
2 small gates — the largest of them being the
celebrated Itraudenburg gate, surinoiinted by 11
gigantic car of victory. T'he wall and ramparts
serve only for purposes of police and revenue, and
are useless as mcMlis of ilel'ciicc.
Iterliii owes much to the taste and munilicenco
of its sovereigns. The i|uarler called the new
town (Ncustaili) was built by the gn-iit elector,
Frederick William (lOlti-IOHM). who also planiicil
I the UnUrden l/imliii street, and oiherwisc greatly
enlaigcil ami licaiitilieil the city. The siiceeediiig
inoimrchs, especially I'Vcilerick I.. I'reilcrick the
(ireat, and Frederick Williiim III., aildcil many
new streets, sipi.-ires, and suburbs, and ciiilicHislu-il
the city with many splendid liiiildiiigs ami niniiii-
meiits. Among the iirlucipal of these is llie royal
palace, imposing by its miigniiude, having almiit
tioo saloons and cbambres. It is smiipliiously
furiiisbed ; one of the saloons (the White Hall),
was litted up at a cost of I20.(HH)/. The muscuni,
begun in l«2.'tand tinishcd in IH.'IO, is one of tho
finest buildings in the city. It is in the I'oriu of 11
parallelogram, 2H0 ft. in length, by 1X2 ft. in
width. It has some noble apartmeiits, and very
exti'iisive cillections of iiicturcs, vases, statues,
coins, and other works of art. Opposite the grand
entrance is an immense granite vase, or basin,
22 ft. in diameter. It was fonned out of a huge
boulder, or isolated block, found about .')0 m. from
the city, to Avliich it was conveyed by the Spree,
The ojiera-house, burnt down in 18l;i, has since
been rebuilt ; and there are .several other line
theatres. The Koyal Library is a large heavy-
looking building. The colh^ction of books com-
prises about .')00,000 printed and 5.000 MS. vols.,
many of the former, including Luther's Hebrew
Hible, being both scarce and valuable. This
library is entitled to a cojiy of every work juib-
lished in the Prussian states. The arsenal, one of
the greatest in Europe, forms a square, each side
of which is 208 ft. m length. It was formerly
reckoned the finest buihling in the city, and con-
tained, previously to the revidutionary disturb-
ances, in 1848, a very large sttKik of all sorts of
warlike implements. It was then, however, taken
possession of by the mob, who carried off largo
quantities of the fire-arms and military stores with
which it was furnished. Among the other public
buildings may be specified the Hoyal Academy ;
the ' Konigswaehe,' built after the model of 11
Koman castrum; the university; the old jialace,
formerly belonging to the Knights of St. ,lohn;
and the palace of IVIonbijou, occupied by Peter tho
Great when he visited the city. The lirandenburg
gate, already mentioned, one of the most colossal
structures of the kind in Europe, was erected in
1790, after the Propyhciim at Athens, but on a
much larger scale. It is surmounted by a statue of
Victor}', in a chariot drawn by four horses. It was
carried away by the French in 1807, and brought
back in triumph in 1814. The monument to the
brave men who fell in the campaigns of 1813, 1814,
181.5, is immediately outside the Halle gate. ( )iipo-
sitc the guard-house arc the statues of Scharnhorst,
lUilow, and Marshal IJlHcher. A monument erected
in honour of Frederick the Great, consisting of an
equestrian statue in bronze, by liauch, stands at
a conspicuous place, at the Unter den Linden
street, opposite to the University. It is one of the
grandest monuments of its kind in Europe. The
1' I- 2
I!'
it
I
\l-^
. Ui,ii
! y 1
': i^^'S
: l! 1 1
' ': \'J
iW
IlKKLIN
liorHP, 1(1 ft. hi^li, NiniiilH on n pofU'Htnl, atnl nt omli
of itn roriKTH is nil «-<|ii<>»triiiii Hliitiic nf oiif of
Froili'rick'H ^rt'iicritlH. I'lic cliiiri'lit'.M, mImcIi nrc
vrrv iiiiiii)'niui«, nrv p'litTiillv infrriur; tin' priii-
<i|iMl iiri' I III' ciitluMlriil; St, MiirvV. wiili a si((|ilc
21)2 ft, ill lit'iKlit ; tilt! cliiircli of St. NirlioiiiM, coii-
M'cnitt'il in t22''l; the ctiiiri'li of the ^riirrif<oii ; uiiil
tli« cliiiri'li of St. Ilt'ilwi^,'!'. Tlif Spree, wliii'li iii-
|cr««'t'tM l)i(> city, niiil iiiNiiiiitcs one of iln (|iinrti-rH,
in croHNcil l»y nlioiit 111 liritl^cs, |iriii('i|ialiy of Mtoiic,
liiit partly ti\ni> of iron. Some of tlieiii arc liaiul-
Hoini! NtructiircH, 'I'lic ' Loii),' llri(l),'c,' of Htoiic,
lias a line ci|iicstrian Hiatiie of tlii^ Mlrcat lOlector,'
The UiitvrilvH IJiiiliH Ntrcet is tlic (inc>i in llcriin.
and one of tlie linest in Kiiropc, It is •{ in. in
leiiKtIi, from the ltnni<ienliiir^' K"'*' to the royal
palace; the live avenues in tiitt centre lieiii); coiii-
poseil of chestnuts, iiiKlen, aspcii, acacia, anil
plantain, whose varicil foliage contrasis lieantifiilly
with the nnineroiis elepint pahu'cs anil pnlilic
liiiildiiif^s that liiHM'ach side of the street. It is
the corso of Iterlin ; for here the fashionalile and
the wealthy exhihit theinselv<'s and their cipii-
ItiiKf". Mere are several palaces ; the seminaries
«if the artillery and enjiineers, theAciidemy of the
l<'iii(^ Arts, (he opera-honse, the arsenal, and the
kind's palace. Another splendid thoriin;,'hl'!ire,
Frederick Street, is aliont 2 in, in leiijrth. The
SchlosH I'latz, or sipiarc of the piilace, the (ieiis-
d'ariiH-s-market, Willielin I'lat;^. the most fiishioii-
ahle s(|uare in tlu^ city; the sipiare of J,n JMIv
AUiinin; and a iminhcr of other piililic places, are
Avell huilt, and most, of them hij;hly ornameiiteil.
lint few of them are jilanted inside, and conse-
qiiontly, notwithstaniliiiK the linenes.s of the
biiildin','s, have not half the effect they would
have were they properly laid out,
Hcsides its military and judicial estahlishments,
Herlin has to Imast of many celehrated literary
institutions. The university, estahlislied in |H(I!I,
enjovs a liij;h de>,Tce of reputation, especially its
medical school. It has niaiiv dislin^uii^lieil ]iro-
fessors and teachers; and is atteuilcd, on the
nverafje, hy nhout 2,(ill<) students. The lihrary
has above (i(ltl,OI)0 vols. There are also seven
royal fjj'iniiasinms or hifih schools, with ininiy
inferior academies and (nililic schools, amounting'
to 51! alto^;ether. The niilitarv seminary has
above JiOO |)uiiils. The hospitals and other
charitable institutions are numerous ami well
conducted. The orphan nsyluni supports about
400 children in the house, exclu.-ivc of about
700 boarded out of (hiors.
Iterlin may be ref^arded as the ])olilical and
literary metrojKdis of N. (lerniany ; and is dis-
tinguished alike for the number and celebrity
of her statesmen, jihilosopbers, scholars, and
artists. Her press is very active and annually
{jives birth to a great many books, scicntilic and
literary journals, newspapers, and mafjfazines.
About 3,000 i)ersons are eiijtaf.^'d in literature,
niul the various trades connected therewith, .such
as printers, paper-makers, and bookbinders,
lierlin is one of the principal mnnufacturing
cities of (iermany, Amoiifj other branches are
included the manufacture of steam cnfjines,
■woollens, silk stnlfs and riband.s, cottons, jiorce-
lain, cast-iron floods, )iaper, coaches and light car-
riages, jewellery, watches and clocks, hat.s, snutV,
and tobacco, relined .sugar and sjiirits. The
great steam-engine factory of Messrs. Borsig,
one of the largest on the continent, furnishes
locomotives for nearly all the Gennaii railways.
The cast-iron goods, manufactured at the fouiulry
outside the Oranienbiirg gate, comi)rise all sorts
of articles, from colossal pillars and statues, down
to the minute furniture of a lady'a toilet. In
delicacy of impression they arc
those made in aiu' other i
lliiriirliiri.,|
llhl^l l\.
bus II |;ir^.,.
lilill;,' III ||„.
iiii''1imllr,| I
I'liumrv. 'I'll,. , ,, , .
relief of some of I be lini-t pictures mv „;,r,i,,
larly admired, i he porcdaiu is ,,c n,,,
ipialily. Part of it is ibe iiroducc i,f
mainifactory ; biil the best kind i. ma
at a private c^labli.shiiii'ui in ihe \.„||,|i
Moabit, Then; are numerous ci,ii..n-«„i,„'ii '!
establishmenis in the cii v, ' '•
All the great roads of the kingdom n,itr.. i,,
Merlin, I here are live great lines „(• r,|ii„,,'
with their chief slatimis. The lirsi runs i„ rii
ward, towards Stettin and the Itahic : ih,. .„,,,, 'i
goes, bv way of rranklori-on-llie-OijiT. i,, K„iiiV,
berg, Wilna, -lud St, I'eicrsbiirg. wiib lir;inilM..rr
Warsaw and Cracow ; the third runs ilinn .„i,ii,'
to Dresden, Prague, and Vienna. ihruMi, ,y
arms towards Havana, WllrtemlHrg, jimi ^i,,.!
(ierman slates: the fourth line sirehlics wiMw.r,!
towards .Magdeburg and Cologne, n,iuieciiiii;ii;,.if
with the llelgian and French railwav svHiinr
and, linally, the lifth line runs in a imrili w,,i, rlv
direct ion towards Hamburg, with pml
into .Scldeswig-Holstcin, iicsidcs ihj
tensive network of iron roads, llrrlin
cominaud of inland ii.ivigati e\i|.|
Fliie and Hamburg on the \V.. to .Sicni,, ,,„ |
.Swincmunde on the \„ and to the Visiula ,„
the v..
Owing to the llaluess of the ground i.im|,i |,
it is built, the ilrainiige of ilic ciiy was iMrin.riv
very imperfect ; and, instead of niiuiiii;,' ntV, ij;',.
water in the streets, in wet wealiicr. sli.p|iii| aiul
stagnateil on the surface, lint this iliUvi |,;;,
been remedied in recent times, bv the cstuhlj.ij,
ment of a system of draiiiiige. T'Iiitc arc iiimr-
rolls hackney coaches and other slncl larriii v.
placed iiniler jiii'.iciousregulatiou.s. Ail tiicsirirK
are lighted with git-i.
There are numerous )ihices of amiisiimiK i„
and near lierlin. The largest audniost rilil,r;i:i,|
is Kroll's (lai'deii, ne.'ir the r.iiuiileiilnir;,' ■su,'.
capabh- of ai'commodaling o.dmi pirsiiii\ ili,'
theatres, dedicated to the drama and ii|iir.i. ,iiv
generally well attended. With the exopiinn „i'
Vienna, there is no city where iinisic is niurc uni-
versally patronised, or' wiicre the ii|iera is Inthr
lierformed or more heartily aiiprcciatcil. tli.iii in
Iterlin. The t'o/if/zYorc/c/j iire iiiiuli fii(|iii'iii(i|ln
the ui)]ier classes. They resemiik' our idnrir-
tioners' shops ; but are far nmre spaiimis. nii.l
litted up with greater attention t nilnri wvA
elegance. Itcsides refnwbmeiiis of all suris. ilnv
are well su]iplleil with ihnnestic and forci;;!! inw--
papers and literary and scicntilic jimriiiiis IVa
and cofl'ee constitute the favourite beviTaiieif tlm
higher classes ; and the latter is pii|)iilar wiili all
rank.s. Chicory and roasted acorns are imt im-
frequcntly used as substitutes for colliM'anidii;'!!!'
jioorest classes. The taverns of lierlin aiv imiili
frequented by the middle classes, 'flic I'avnuriic
beverage is a thin kind (d' ale. cuntainiii^r Inn a
very small |)erccntage of alcohol, caliiil -wii"-
bief,' or white beer. It is drank out of tunililin
of iininen.se size, and being very watiTy, a ^'n.ui
quantity of it may bo consumed with iinpuiiiiy.
The custom of smoking prevails among all da.-*|i
and the coiisunqition of tobacco is imiiiciiM'.
Jterliii is the seat of an extensive ciiiiiiuoot,
and the centre of the pecuniary traiisaciiniis (
the miniarchy. The IJoyal liank was tiiiiiuli'
in 1705, Hiion the model of that of llaiiiluiri
and so it existed until 1810, when it \vii< rr
organised undiir a new charter, by >vhicli nmrccX'
tension was given to its o]ieiatiims. liiamirilam
with this new con.stitutioii, the i.ssue nf ll»tl■^ll3i
been raised since 1850, to 21,000,000 tlialci
TIEUMRO
(\ ihiiVr Ix'iii;; equal to -'.t. Iil^i/. 'I'lic rn[)itnl
, iiii' liank it iilwiiys to lie, in |)rii|i(irti<iii to
, . n"ii" ><> •'irciiliitioii, '.* (iilis ill ^ilvl'r, :i titliN
i, i,jll, (liii'oiiiiicil, mill till- rcMt ill liiiiiis on hc-
iniii*. Ill*' liiliik iiolcM arr I'mm •-'.'» to oil
,; ,l,rs nii'li. 'I'Ik' .Hliarc of the ki'V'T'i""'"' 'I'
r|ii liiiiik iiiiioiints, lit iiio^t, to 'iiiii.oni) tliiiliTN.
IV oli.'iri'liolili'rs arc ciilitli'il to mi aiiniial iii-
. ^,,,t ,,t' ;l,^ jicr ('('lit. ii|ioii till- ('a|iiial, ami. al'tcr
l„]ii,.ii,iii III' ilic Kiiiii si'i apart lor ilic rcMTvc or
f,.t. wlii'li ''• ""' '" <'M'i«'il ;ii( per ri'iil. Ill' till'
,;i|,iiiil. I'IK' iiioifly i)( tlif iiiir|ilus iirolitN is a|i-
liirtiiiiii'il til tlii'iii ill nililitioii, miil tlif otliiT i;o<'k
i,i ihc tri'nHiiry. Tlic liaiik liii.s liraiii'licn ni a
rial niinilicr of I'itit'K, an hrt'slau, Kiiiiiuslicru,
ihuiizii'. Stettin, Ma^ilclmrn, MuiiHtiT. ('olojxiic.
Vimil. r'wi'. Stolpc, KIIktI'i'IiI, 'rrfvcs, Aix-
i.|.( li;i|ii'li(', Uiissclilorf, Colilciitsf, Miiiili'ii, l'!r-
liifi, Frunkrort-sur-Oilcr, St^uI^ullll. Ko^tiii, \.\i'H-
iji2. mill (l|i|i)'lii, ami thus ruriiis avast iicluork
f linniiiial ii|i<'ratioiis tlinui^'li all tli(> kiiiKiloiii.
Ilrfi. iil^"- >'* ll>*' ^''''i' "' l'"' associiitioii for iiiari-
..,;(. I'liiiinicrcc, calliMl tli(> ' Scclimiillnii;;,' ami of
jiiii.TiMis insurmii'c ami other olliees. 'I'he town
r,niui(saiiiiiiinleil, in the year IHli-J, to 2,HH-J. ||0
i:,;iliT4, lull the cxiiemlitiire was iiiiieh greater,
living' rearhed the sum of .'I,r);|-J,:il4 thaler.s.
Ill, ilclirit WHS niaile up liy loans ami inereaseil
l.al laxalioii. At the enil of IHII-J, the iiuldie
1,1 if tilt city amounted to nearly t),0(M),(lOll
lIlllllT'f.
diiisiile the town, altout J m. from the Hnlle-
.aii, nil a liiw sumlhill. whieli. however, is almost
I , i.iilv eiiiiiieiiee near llerlin, is the • Natioiial-
iiskin/il,' People's Moinmieiit. it eonsists of a
i,,lliii' criiss, do fl. Iii;;h, ererted to coiiiiiiemorate
l^,■l•x|^ll^ilm of tUi' Kreiieh, and the recovery of
: .!■ iiHiinnal indepemlence. It is of east-iroii froiii
t:,.' rival fimmlry, and was designed hy Schinkel.
Ih, ■^lilllu•s in the niches are tlu- work of iJaiich
,vi,l Tiirk. (Keller, Der I'rciissiM'lie Sta"" ; l!it-
iir.lii'i),trra|iliiscli-Stalistisclies Lexicon, I mi!!.)
lil'.liMKO, a sea-port town of Spain, on its \.
ii-t. jifiiv. lliscav, on a ruthersliallow liav, Itini.
M;. UillMia, I'o'p. iJ.!»i:i in Im:>7. The" inhah,
ij' |iriiiripally dependent on the lisherv, which
iL'Aiiirry onto acoiisiderahle extent. This town
:\n liirtli to the disliii>;iiislieil epic jioet Don
AiniizoirKrcilla, the author of the Aiaiii-unu, who
mUm here in li)L'H,
i;i:KMri)AS(TIIi:),orS()MKI{;SISF-AXI)S.
nTiiiip iif Mnall islands, alioiit :i(lll in iinmher, in
r.,p X, Atlantic Ocean, lieh)ii;>;in^t to (ireat Itri-
ijin, stri'tohinj; XK. hy K, and SW. hy W. ahoiit
;" 111., the lifjlit house on (Jihh's Hill liein^' in
l.it.;i2« ir 54" N., hmfi;. 1)1° iVJ' W,, ahout ooOm.
>F., Iiy K. Cape Hatteras, They arc estimated
iiicniiiiii ahimt JiO s(|, m. The census of ISt'il
:avi' ilie pop, at 1 1,451 against 1(>,!I«2 in 1M51
A!<iiit iwii-lifihs of the ])op. of the islands are
»liii('s, When viewed from the sea, their eleva-
li ill is iritliiif;, the hif^hest land scarce altainiiii,'
1 1 II licifjht (if "iOO feet. Their general aspect is
>i!iiiliir Id the West Indian islands, except that
iliiy remind the voyager (from their proximity,
iin! tilt sea Howiiig hetween them) of the lake
"t.Kry (if Kuropeaii climates. They are almost
I'Tiwiicrc surrounded by extensive coral reefs,
il.,- diiiniu'ls llirongh which are extremely intri-
fiic. aiiil can only be sal'ely navigated bv native
lijils.
Ihe princip.-il islands are those of Bermuda, St.
'*'r!;e, Ireland, and Somerset. The protection
sSiiriliil to shipping by their numerous bays, their
I'Hiiiiii ill the track of the homeward-bound W.
iMiii'liips, and in the most advantageous locality
t'lMluiiij; the ships of war employed in the \Y
ItllKMl'DAS (TIIM) 437
Iiidinn and American xeas, have led to the con-
virsioii of the llcrmiidiis into a principal maritime
station. The liarboiir of St, (ieorge's i-iland, oiii^
of the inowt easterlv of the group, has water
enough to tloat, ami sjiacc to accommodate, thu
whole llritish navy, toruirrly, its eiitrmice was
so narrow and euciiinbered with reel's that it was
rendered ill a coiiNideralile degree useless; but by
the expi'iiditiire of largi; sums and n certain
miiount ofciHivii't labour, the channel leading to
St. (Icorge's harhoiir has been greatly improved;
a dockyard, with a breakwater for its protr'clioii,
have been ironHtructed on Ihe I'., siile of Irelmid
island; and nome very strong fort itieat ions have
been erected oil it and St, (icorge's, for the
security of the islands mid of the shipping,
neriiiiida, the principal island (or main land, as
it is called), is about l*im, in length, hit it rar<4y
exceeds I .^ III, ill wiillh. In the centre of Ibis
island, and on the N, side of a beautiful bay, is
the town of llmnilton. now the seat of govern-
ineiit. The town of St, (Jeorge's, on the island of
that name, is. liowe\-er, the largest on the gronj),
l.'epre-.ciitative government was introduced in
the Ilermmhis as early as irr.'il. In Ili'JI tlu^
llerinuda t'ompany of.Iiomloii issued a sort of
charier to the colony, the liberal nature of which,
together with the favourable reports of climate
and soil, attracted a considerable number of
llritish emigrants, Itiit the charter, nevertheless,
met with op|iosilioii, and was aiinnlled by thu
home goveriiineiit in ir)M5, Siiuie then, the go-
vernors have been app.ointed by the crnwn, ami
laws for the' colony enacted by a local legislature,
in concert with the executive.
'i'he legislature is composed of 10 nipmbefs of
council, limned by the crown, and .'It! (d' assembly :
each parish, of which there arc nine, returns four
of the latter, who are idected every seven years,
or whenever a new sovereign ascends the throne.
There are numerous churches and chaiiels. The
Admiralty have established a school on Ireland
island, and there are various (irivate schools. The
niinilier of piiblii^ schools, or ' free schools,'
amounted to IM in IKIiO, with 021 pupils, :),)7
male and 'ill 1 female.
The cultivation carried on in the islands is
rather horticultural than .-igricultural. Most sorts
of fruits and vegetables may be raised. The
arrow--oot grown here is said to be superior to
tli;it of any other place, and large tpiantilies of it
are exported. The oranges ar(! also very line;
and sweet potatoes, onions, and other articles are
exported. They derive! their siipplie:! . ;'our,
rice, Indian corn, &v., from the L'. Stat . • d of
manufactured goods from the II, K. i. • ..cas
around the islands abound in lish, and the i.'iabs,
are expert lishemien. They possess about I HO
sail of vesscds, of from 100 to 1,")0 tons burden.
All inc(aisiderable whalc-tishery employs a few
boats and their crews three months in the year:
the nnniber of whales stddom excee(ls 20 in the
season, yielding abdiil 1.00(1 barrids of oil. The
islands abound in )ioultry of the best kind, liecf
and mutton may generally be procured, but the
only meat that is )ileiiiiful is veal. The climate
almost realises the idea of a pejietual spring.
The islands are celebrated alike for their salubrity,
and for the beauty and richness of their vege-
table products. The air, however, is extremely
(hiin]i, especially during SW. winds, which are
the most common. i)uriiig the winter seaium,
which commences in Xovemhcr and tenniiiates
in April, the islau'ls are subject to strong gales
from the XW., which often do great damage to
the .shipiiing in these .seas. The total value of
the imports in 18U0, amounted to 152,888/. ;
■ f I""
■1 ^^''i
u
\
M li
lU,
i ' I
il'
■ ' H\ ill
.13H
IIKUN (CANTON OK)
«'\|MirtH, ■.';i, lt!7/, Tliprpvfinip in IHiidwim l.'i.Cild/., | nwuli' in tliit ciiiit. in, ncxi to ilim ,,f |.,.j|
mill till' i'\|M'i<i|iliiri', I7,l0(i/. 'I'lic liifKi-t itrm llic IichI in Stvil/crlinul ; (hi' iiMni'c iif,,,!.,', ,'^''
■^
iii ilic cNiicncliinrc, t,-"^"'/.. wmm t'i>r
j;civiriiiir mill |irhiri|iiil ntlirciM.' 'I'lic IrnMliitiin-H
111' tlii'Mp i«l;iiiils mill Anli^^im wire ilir mily ni-
liiniii! Ii'irinliiiivf liiiilli'H lliat iiIhiII'<Iii'i| Mliivi-ry
nilliiiiit tlx' iiilcrvi'iiliiin nt' ii|i|irciilir<'s|ii|i, 'I'lir
|in>|ii>rlii>n ol ilif 2l),<Miii,noo/, voIimI liy |wirliiinn'nl
I'lir i'iiiii|><'iwiiliiin, rci't'ivcil liv ISmnnilii, uiin
fiii.;.«|/.. Iicinn. Ii>r (.•.Mi.l «lii\i'!»,'.'7/. U. 1 1(/. imli.
lli:ifN O'ANroN Ol'), till' liir^ixl mill ili.-
^ III! in rmik in tlir S\vi«N ('unrriliriiliiin. in the
ci'iilriil ;iiiil \V. ji.'irl nf Swil/crhiiiil, hrlwci'ii
Im. lil'J lit' mill \:° ;lo' N., \„\\^;. r.o .'.n' mnl n° -Jx'
!•'... Iiiiviiij; N\V. Kraiiff; N. mnl Nl''.. I he rmil.
i>( IliiscI, Siiimri-, mill Aiir^jmi ; K. l.ui'iTiii',
riilrrwiiliirii, mill I'ri; S. the N'liinis; S\V.
\'mii|; mill \V. Krihiiiir^ mill N'ciil'i'hiiti'l ; h'li^rlh,
N\V. Ill Sr,., K> m. ; Krciilc^l hmiillli iil Us S.
jiiirl i'rJt ni. ; iirni •_','iti'.' w|. ni. Thi' |ii>|i., m ril-
ing' III the ccnNnft nf iHtiii, wa.s •|(i«.."(l('p, ur I7N to
lilt' Ni|, ni., In'iiin .snnicwhal iilmvc the iivcrii^i'
ilcnsiiy (if |iii|i, in Swil/.crlmiii, wliii'h is \it7 iii-
hiiliilmils per hi|. in. 'I'lu'scxcMiin' nciirly ('i|iiiiliy
liiviili'ii in Ihc rmiliiii, Ihcrc hcin^ mily .'!n°.' nmri!
iniih'M Ihmi rciniilcH, 'I'lic^rri'iil iniijnriiy ol' Ihc iii-
hiihilmils. nmiicly, |l),°i,.'i'.)',i, lire I'roicHlmit.M, Must
|iiirl iil'lhi.s mill, isiniinnuiinnns, ('spcriiiliy tlii'S,,
which i.s iiiicrscclcil hy the Mcrncsc AI|im, to
which hciiiii^' the l''insleriiiirlii>rn, Miincli, Aiwu-
IVan. Schrccklinrn, Ac, hihiio ol' the lii;;liest siiin-
iiiils in Swil/.eriaiiil : in the N. the raii^'es lieluiiK
to liie .(nra. mnl are consiileralily lower. The
re>;iiin hetween tliese two nionnlain systems con-
tains the valley iil' tiie Aar, the Knnnentlial, and
other I'ertile valleys, hnt in no part presents nny-
lliin^ like mi extensive |ilaiii. S. of the lakes of
Tlinn mill llrien/, lie^rjns what is caileil tiie licr-
iiese Olierlanil, a nionntainons re^'imi, iiiclnilin^
the t'onr celeliralcd vallevs of the Siinnien,
l.mit('ri)rnnnen, (irindclwalil, mnl llasli. The
chief rivers are the Aar and its trihutaries, |)irs(\
and Donlis: tiio lakes those of Tliiin, Itrienz, and
nieniie; hetween tlie two former of these is tiie
small hnt hij^'lily ciiltivatt'd plain of Inlerlachen.
'I'lie elinnile varies with the elevation, and is,
liesides, snhject to sudden <'haiif;es of teiiiperiitnre :
even in thi' Interlachen, where it is tlu^ mildest
after a warm day, very severe- frosts often
occur at ni;;ht. Ilaiiis and fo^jsare frcipient ; lint
the CMiilon, as a whole, is j;enerally healthy. It
is divided into 'J^ prefectnres, nnder four principal
<livisiiin.'t; viz., tint Olierland, country of Item,
Kininenlhal, and the old hishopric <if l!asel. Iron
ore is found in arvnt abundance in the Jura moun-
tains; pdd dust is met with in the sands of t)u<
Aar and the Kniinen, and crystals in the (iriinsel
rocks; and there are many niiuerul sprin^js, some
used as liaths. and miu'h froipiented. The soil is
ill jiTv.it jiart stony and barren, and the arable
land occupies but a snnill ]iroporlion of the whole
surface, and, though well cultivated, the |iriidncc
of corn is insullicient for the sn))i)ly <if the inhab.,
and larf^e (|nantilie.s are iiniiorted. There are in
))arts |ilantatiiiiis of fruit-trees ; white mulberry,
ilaries III I estimalci
r.ninicnihal intn iHrMimc
at Nii.oiin cwt.
"••'I' •f'"" III' -.cnnmiv inl
Italy. Thi' hoii'^es in the Olicrliiiid ari' uhmt.'iIK
of wood, but in the .liira, and ro'iml i^f,, , ■■
stone: the IJcrnese arc, for ihc iiinii nan, 1,11
loil|^r,.,|. 'I'll,' eslale of a father is evirnil„r,.
iliyided into cipial shares aniuii^' UU I'liiMr,,,
without re-iiecl to sex or scniorilv, exii'|it ji, ii,,,
Knimeiilhal, where, hv a | iiiiar law, |aii,|,,'|
|iroperly descends to the yonnKcsl »ii,i. ' ||,.||,,
III the K'realer part of the caniiiii, laii<| i,, v,,J
much snlidividcd, and .he iioldcrs in |„„,r, i|,„in,j|
not depressed circumstance, . 'rhcrc are imi v, r/
few estates that reach to I.Vl acres, iiii|i!.i. il,,,;-
lieloii^r (,, villa),'!' or town I'omnniiiitic..,: j,,,, i],;,
jiosscssions of the latter are frei|llelitly "iilliciiiii'y
larp' not only to defray the ainn'ial i'\|,..h„.(
of the coimnnnity, iiicliidin;; the rili. f uf (i,,,
poor, but sometimes to yield a snriiliis ri'Miin
after all oui;{oiii),'s are dedncled, which i.., ,|ivi,i,,|
ainonjfst the citizens. I'.acl niiiiiini' i»iilili-,,|
to support its own | r, who do iml iMrnmc
charp-able upon other coinniiiiies, or ii|hiii ih,.
slate; they yienerally receive out-dnnr reliil. Inn
if siibseipiently prosperous, are lioinnl tn niiirii
what they have received. Maiiiifactiins m[
trade are of con>ideralile importaiici' ; lini'n uii |
wiiollen cloths are made in the Kiiimi'iiiliah
jiaper around Hern ; watclies, jewellery, iiml tin-
arnis are made in Kern and I'orciilriii Mhreail aihl
printed calico, near Iliemie; silk, c>|ii'riall\ f.r
nnibrellas, and leather, in the fornnr liisliii|.rii' „f
lliiscl. There is also an extensive inaiiiirHcl'irvni'
aKricnltnral inipleiiieiits at llofwyl. 'I'lie ix|M'ri^
consist chielly of (tattle, cheese, inid lunicr; inpii
from the .Jura, and a few maiiiifacuiriil •,'i««|.;
tli(| imports are corn, salt, i-oloiiial priMlmi', aii-l
articles of luxury. The revenue, in Im;-.',
amounted to 4,7(11,178 francs, and the expcmli-
ture to •l.!t7l,«:il frain's.
The pivennnent of the canton is entribtid t" a
(,'rand and an executive council: the furimr i"ii-
sists of 1 10 members, chosen by the pcuplc in lli'
primitive assemblies of the •27'piefectiiri'Mini|iH
presided over by the lanilamann, wliii is tin' liw
inaj;istrate of the cant. It nn'ets unce a iii"iiil„
if necessary, but detcnnines on nolhiiif; willmiit
the co-operation of the executive cipuiicil, wliiili j
consists of !l members, chosen frmn iiiiiniy i1m
former for the term of four years. Meniliersuriln' |
^'rmiil council must be 2'.t years ulij, ami liavc
landed property to the valne,'at least, of .i.iiini Ir.,
or 2<ll»/., execptinj; professors of the iiiiivir.-iiv, I
advocates, and physicians, of whom siu'li qidi-
licatiiin is not required. The salary nf tlic iaii-
dam;inii is IjlHIO fr. ; that of a ineniiier cif lli"
executive eomicil ."sdllO fr. a ,vear; meiuluTsnl'ilii'
f^rand comicil are allowed •_',j fr. a day liiiriii:; llu
lime they are assembled. Every male frnm U' hi\
."id years of aj^e is liable to serve in tlie army.
eontin^rent of troops furnished to the ciiiirtdt'r.iiyl
is '1,108 nien. There is n Judicial tribiniiil in f.uiij
distr,, and a court of appeal in lierii; the laiiir j
consistilif? of II nienib., witli n president, Siiviiu-'l
chestnut, jieach, and lij;, and a few vines are raised
on the shores of Lakes Thnn and Hienne, hut mit i banks are f^eneriil, and education well attondoil 1 '.
to anv considerable extent : in the Lanterbrnnnen, I At the city of Mem there is a university, in-iii'S
wheat is treated as an exotic, cultivated in small
beds, and trained on sticks. Cattle of a superior
breed form the chief wealth of the canton, and
breedin},', urazinjj, and (lairyinj; are the priiu-ipal
branches of industry. The |)!istnres in the Olier-
land .ind Knnnentlial are excellent, and produce
the linest cattle; the latter valley hasalsoa stroiij,'
and active breed of horses, exported to Kranee for
draught and heavy-armed cavalry. The cheese
two upper schools, and a school of iiuliistrv. :ia'l|
' f^ymnasia,' or npjier schools, arc alsn at iliil
Thnn, Neucnstadt, I'rnntrul, and DcIsIkT);. fi"-'!
university has faculties of theolof^'v, jiiri!i|iniili'iui
medicine, aiul phihisophy, each haviiii,' tlirccunli-j
miry, ai\d from two to live extranriliiiary jinil
sors ; the salary of the former is frnm •.Mimii)!
;!,(HI0 francs, and of the latter from l,-.'(MH,i l.l'»l|
do. There is also a vetcrinarv scluml, ami * ol
UKUN
^,.tlii(f)il«ho(l privntii iMliirntiimdl pNtnMiMlimrntK,
,.i<'iiiillv il"»t <••' M- Vim KrllcnlH'rn, at llnl'uyl.
|<|il>'llliiil> Ih lllliviTHIll ; ill iHI'iO, tlirn- Wlinllnl ii||)>
,„liiil>ir;int, iintivi! ol' tlif ciiiitnii, iinnlil<' to rcml
,ii<|Hritt'. I''.\r<>|it iilHiiit ri(i,(Mio iiiiliviiliukU (>r
)p,.iiili cxtriirliiMi, ill ilio aiit'iciit liiMli<i|irii' oi
IbiM'l, till' iiiiiiili. ar«> lit' (ii'rniaii Mtm'k ; nml (icr-
„,,„|, llif |irt'vnii'iil laii^'iiii^'t', 'I'lir tii'miaii part
i,l till' |Mi|). arc K«'"«'raliy iiiiirli f<ii|H'riiiriii ilifirjiliy-
•i.!il ii|i|«nriiiii'<' III the l''rt'iii'li iinriinii, i'»|M'ri«liy
il„»i' III ill*' OU'rlaiiil. Till' IdTiii'Mi' ikrc liravf,
h..{iii»l>li'i iiiililic-Kliiriti'il, ami rrally ^immI tcni-
i,ri>l. iii>l>viiliKtaiiiliiiK llicy aro Niiliiri't tn liti* of
i,ii.riiiii, wliii'li Hiiiiii'tiiiii'H ii<'<'a'*iiiii llio I'ti'iihion iif
lil.aal, CatliiilirH arc U'l^s iiuliiHtriiiiiM tliaii tin*
I'n.ti'stftiii^. T'li'* t'aiil, ciili'ri'il ilic Swiss Coii-
lolcTiiiiiiii ill I •'*'••'' ! "• "fl •'>* ti'rriliiry wan very
liiiiiii'il, hut al'lfrwarilfi, liy ('iiii(|iii'>it ami piiri'luiNi',
iiii'Uiiiri'il iK'arly llii' wlmli' nt' the now existing
,,,111, III' Vaiiil ami Aar^'aii, which, in aihlitimi to
ii, yrvM'Wl cxtt'iit. it liclil till I7'.)H, when it was
ukrii liv the Kri'iii'li. In |N| 'i, in imlcninitiralion
„i Vuuil mill Aarpiii, tim ( 'on^frcss of Vienna
j,Mi'il 10 its (loin, tlio town of niciini' with its
irrriiiiry, nml the greater part ol' thii ancii'iit
lij.|iii|irii'iir lias('l,otlu'rwisv luititled the liaillia^cs
1,1' ilii' Jura.
llKKN. n town of Switzorlaiid, rap. of the alMive
(]ii;„ mill, allcmatclv with /iiricli ami Liiccnu*, of
ilii' Swi.iH ('oiil'i!iU'ratioii,(iii tlu' Aar, i>2 in. .S. llasd,
ainKiOin. SW. Zurich, on the railway from Ziirich
i.ii;t'iipva. I'liiuilation 'J!),OHi in IMiiii. TIki town
,.iaiiil:< l,70H ft. ahovc tlm level of tlu* sea, on a
liill, which, except un the W., is snrroiimh'il on all
.iibliy the Aar. A stone liriil^je 'itid ft. loiiff, is
inricif over the river, ami three nates leail to the
iiiiiriiirof the town. The furtitications, liy which
ii vm formerly siirrininilcd, were! ileinolislieil in
l»;;.'i, Three principal streets extend in a parallel
line fmm K. to W., and are intersected hy a niini-
Ur iif lateral streets. The houses are massive
Finii'tiirc.H of freestone. I'ia/i!aH run aloii^ the
Ikhwh on hoth sides the principal street.s, which
iri'iilso adorned with liamlsomu fountains. I'rin-
ii|inl|iul)lic edifices : — The cathedral, a line (iothic
Mnicturc, founded in 1421, and liiiished in l.")(t2,
lilii ft. loiij;, and «(• ft. broad ; the steeple, tlnnifih
iiiiliiii.'iheil, is l',)0 ft. lii^li. It has soiiie line ^liiss
{aiiitinps, and various trophies and nioniimeiits.
Ilic church of the Holy Ghost, founded in 1722,
biilso a line structure, as well as the mint, liiiilt
ill IT'JO ; the fjeneral biirgvmpital (liosiiital of the
ciiizdis), liuiltfrom 17*10 to 1710; another inaf?ni-
liif lit liiispilal, called the Iimd (island), founded in
i'lK, (ircuiiyiiiK one whole street, and aH'ordin^ a
j|ili'iiili(l prospect from the Aar; the s'tate-liousc
Hi' Ilic avoyer, previously to IHJll the residence of,
anil now partly occupied hy, the Krencli embassy ;
ilic house of correction, the largest building of the
kiiiii ill Switzerland, and one of the best contrived
in KiimiM', tinished in IKW, at an expense of
i. Jill 1,1 II lu fr. ; the corn ma^a/.iiie, a lar^c and
massive editice, having on the floor an (extensive
"|i(ii hall, with forty-three iiillars, in which the
wni market is held" twice a week. Hem has also
an iirseiml and a larije town-hall, iMitli old cditices.
Tin' charitable institutions are, — two large hospi-
tals; two orphan houses, one for boys and another
I'lrjjirLi; a fund for the support of poor students ;
a lunatic asylum, situated about- tn. from Hem;
ami an asylum for old poor person The univcr-
>ii.v and gymnasium, noticed iu the preceding
article, arc situated iu the town. There are also
a Swiss economical and n kSwiss historical society ;
»ith switties of natural history, medicine, and
arts ; a botanic garden ; a public library, with
valuable MSS. relating to tiwiss history, and a
IlKUNAItl) (ORKAT ST.) -JSO
rollection of Itoinan, <ireek, (iolliii', and Swi»it
incilals, Itoinnii aiitiipiities and portraitH of tlio
llernese nvoyers, Ac. There is also a niiiseiim of
natural history, with bas reliefs of the ilenieso
Olivrlitiul, of tde cantons of Vaud ami Valais, ami
•if St. lioihard; and many jirivate si ieiil ilic col-
lections wi'll Worth notice. I'lie trade of the town
is of Home iinportance. Two fairs arc annually
held; oiu' after I'.itster, and another in N'ovi'iiilier,
There are miiiiiifiiclories of oilks, straw lull'-, wmil-
leii chith, and Nlockings, and aNo laiinerics ami
breweries. Almiit 2 in. from Mem there is a gun-
powder mill, the jHiwder made in it being forinerly
reckoned the best in Murope. The corporate pro-
perty of the I'itixiiis is large, amounting to abovu
:ill,llilO,IIIIO fr. ; and the revenue, bi sides delraviiig
the municipal expeiulitiir.'. supplies every riti/.en,
gratis, with fuel, and leaves, over and above all
this, a surplus sum, which is annually disirilmti'il
among the citizens. 'I'he inliab. are serious ami
reserved, and ]iroiii| of ihe ancient glmy of their
citv. The aristocracy, or the ' patrician.-,' as the
old families are called', liveseclmled from the other
classes. Item is the birth-place of llaller; it has
not, however, to boast of so many distinguished
men ils /urich, llasel, and (ieneva. The town
has Is'ars for its arms; ami some of these aiiiinals
are maintained in a place <'alleil llHrrmjruhni
(bear's ditch), on funds apiiropriated to that special
pur|iose.
Item WAS founded in tlDl, by the Duke ller-
thold V. of /aehriiigen. Its history is the saniu
as that of the canton. The environs are beautil'ul,
atl'ording the most splendid views of the Aljis, on
one hand, and the .lurii on the other. There are
many tine public walks; amongst which are I ho
filnttform, a terrace near the cathedral, IKO ft.
above the Aar ; and the h'lii/i, a magniticent walk,
atl'ording a tine |irosi>ect over the river, the, city,
and the lower mountains, to the high Alps, llof-
wyl (which see) is alMiiit l m. from Item. There
are also several mineral baths in the vicinity, such
as Itlumenstein and Ciiirnigel.
Mr. Inglis s|)eaks very favourably of the advan-
tages of Item as a place of residence. ' it is,' says
he, ' greatly sujierior to Hasel, Lucerne, ortJem-va.
It is a pleasant thing to walk in wide airy streets,
and at the same time to have the advantage of
shade, if required. Where there are arcades ono
may always choose between bustle and qiiii^t —
bustle under the arcades — quiet in the centre of
the streets; and in the wjninentx k\( a city, Item
has decidedly the advantage of its rivals. It
possesses all those public establislmients which
make a place agreeable as a n'sideiice. It has
excellent libraries, excellent academies, delightthl
promenades, convenient and well onh'red baths; a
theatre ; concerts and balls during winter; clever
lecturers upon most of the sciences ; eloi|ueiit and
pious clergymen of almost every deiioniiiiatioii ;
and to this list may be added abundance of shops,
where all that contributes either to comfort or
luxury may be found.' (History of Hern, by
Staiifer, late Minister of the Helvetic Itepublic ;
Inglis's Switzerland.)
HKKNAKI) (GKKAT ST.), the name given to
a famous pass of the Pennine Alps, leading over
the mountains from Martigiiy to Aosta. In its
highest part it attains to an elevation of above
«,(IOO ft., being almost impassable in winter, and
very dangerous in spring, from the avalanches.
Very near the summit of the |mss, and on the edge
of a small lake ; is the famous hospice founded in
!)(i2, by St. Hernard, and occupied by brethren of
the order of St. Augustine, whose especial duty it
is to assist and relieve travellers crossing the moun-
tain. In scardiiiig for travellers who have lust
M
"'I
, 'I
iti
•*'' L
•f*iil
rvv
no iti;i{N\r
llirir \Miv, or lircil Imriiil in llif hii<i\v, iIu'V iixiiil
llltlll->«'hiN n| llir ll-»i-lllllr«' «( M |i<rillll(' lifrril iif
iliipx III' I'MriiiiriliiiMrv ^i/4• innl »iij;m il v, Tlit'
liM'lliri'll llll\l> tllltlirilllv lli'o lllll'ui'il llli' tirillliilln
illltirn illl|Hi>.i'il mi lllrin, mill liavi' tr<i'llri| llllll
limit III iriiM'lli'rM Iriiiii a iiniiiiiiiiri' ilitiili. Tlii'
tiiixpii'i' '\- a iiiii'«'<iM' i-liiiii' liiiililiii^ ; il iiii-Hi'B-i'K
hiiiiir. lull Mill iinirli, iiiilr|H'Mili'iil |irii|ii'rl V, iiiiil !'<
|irliii'i|iall\ ili'|ii'nilriil mi riillri'tiiiii'< iiimlr In llir
^«i-<^ 1 iiiiliiii'. aiiil "(lirr wlalr-<. ami nii ilmiiilimi'<
I'liiiii ill)' rii liir i'Imh,'* III' inivi'llrr'*. In iMio, tshmi
llii' rmiil \\i\H iioi iii'arl> mi );im>iI iih il Iim'< r-imi'
llllll iiiailr, \a|iiili'mi l<'<l an iirni\ nl :iii,iiiiii inin,
ultli In ailillrrv iiml iiiMilrv, inin Italv \>\ tlii»
|ia'<«. I 111' railuav at |iri-.rnl cslrinl- In Slnrlii^'My,
ai llii' I'lKil III' llir (ileal SI. Ilrrnanl, ami, mi llic
llalian niili', In llirlla, hh iliat llir niiiiinlain in
ra>ilv rri<'<'<ril, Tlir liiMiiiii' rniilaiiiK a inmnnnrlil.
(■nihil li\ nnlir nl Naimliiin, In Inimiiir nl' l>i—<iii\,
uliii It'll al llii' li.'illlr III ,Maii'ii)4ii. (Itriirknlmi'rt
|'a,«M'S v( till' ,\I|1S,)
ItJ'.liNAI', a iiiwii III' I'ni'-xia, |<rii\. Ilnimli'n
linr^r. mi llu' I'aiikn, l.'i in. Nl'.. Itrrlin. I'liii.
.i.iUO in iMil. Il in in |i.'irl t'lirillii'il. am! has
I'alirirN nl' >ill>, mKi'I, raliriir^>, ami limn, \\illi
nninrrmis miiiI rrlrliriiliil Iniwi'iirM. In llirrlnirrli
anillnwn limi''r arc Ii'IiIk, Iiiiwh, mitiiwn, tit*., tnkrn
tmni till' llii-.-iii"<,
|l|'JiNAV,a in«n nl' I''rnni'i', ilnp, I'.iiri'. i'a|i.
iirrmiil,, mi iln'Cli.iniilmim', 'Jil in, W \ W. I'.\ ri'n\.
I'n|i. 7,.'iiiii in iHiil. 'I'liis Im a lliri\iii;,' tn\Mi,
mill lia.1 lallrrlv Ihtii a pnml ilral iin|>rnM'il, li
lias a rmirl nl' |iriniar\ jiirlMliriinn, a rninniiTiial
liiliinwil, a I'nninninai rnlji';;-!', uiili niannrarinri's
III' tMinllcn ^'iiiiils, linrii-i, rnilmi yarn, |ia|irr, Nva\,
t\r,. Mini lilrarli licliU ami imimrio. 'I'lirir is a
slaiinii lirri', on ilin niiluaN I'rmii I'liris turinr-
linni';,', ami a liraiu'li liiii' rnns Irmn llirnay lo
{.IImii'IiI' ami lioni'li. 'I'lin (;'n'alr>l il'llii' I'ltiirli
lairs I'nr limsi's is In M lu'ii' nil llii' WoiliirMlay nl'
llii' lilili Mri'lv III' l.cni. Il is ^,'|il| to III' aili'iiili'il
hy I'mm liMioii to .■|ii.iiii(i jnclM'ys, ainali'iirs, ami
nllirr imli\ iilnals, smnc nl tlnin Irmn f.:iral ilis-
tmii'i's, Tlu'it' is an iinnii'iisi' slinw nl' Nnrinamly
linlM'S.
i 1 1, 1! N III '!>'(!, a ln»n nl' (ii'rniany, in tlir ihicliy
nl' Anliall, nn tiic rivir Saiili', liy >\liirli il i-
iiilrr-i'i'inl, iM 111, S, .Maj^iii'lini;;. I'np. 7, '.'Oil in
iMiil. 'I'lic town I'oiisisls nl' llircr )',irls, i\mi mi
the Irl'l, ami llii' oilier on a liill mi llie riulil liaiiU
nl' till' river, uliiell is here crnssed liy a liriil;;i'.
The lirsl iwn |i,'irls iire surrmniileil liy walls; llie
other, or till- Mminl tnwn, has ,'i e,'istie mi its
siiniliiil, ami is o|ieii. .\ hr.'ineli line nl' railway
ennneet.s the town with Ciillieii, ,'iml the railway
Irmn llerlin In Keip/.i;;, rieriilmrj^' is well Imill,
well imviil, ami ehjiii. It is the siat nl' the ilni'.il
lu'nvi'rniiienl, ami has several literary ami eh.'iri-
tahle institutions, wilii koiuc niiumraelnrcs and
trade.
liKIJNCASl'KI,. a tnwn nf the rrns-i.in
Stalls. |'rn\. j.nwir Ii'hine, mi the Aloselh', lM hi.
M".. Treves. I'np. ^.'IXi ill iMll.
HKKN'STAUr. a mwn of rriissia.)iinv. Silesia,
n;:. I'lreslaiunli the W ilia, '.'I 111. !■;. riieshlli. roji.
;t.7;tli ill li^iil. It lijis an old castle, two ehiirelies,
11 hos|iilal. and iiiaiiiiraitiires nt'clnlh ,'iml linen.
lM'J\lil'', II tnwn of l''r,'iiice. dep. llmielies dii
lihoiie, <'ap. cant,, on the I', side of I he laiifinic
of the same name, lii in, N\\', M.'irseilles. Top.
•J.uiM in IMiil. It is ajLcreeahiy siinaled. and
is regularly hiiilt, Inil the vieiiiily of the lajiiiiie
makes it nnheallliy. It was I'Dimerly fnrtilied. and
its ramparts still exist.
liKKTIIori). or Hri;(;i)(li;F, a town of
Swit/.orland, cant, lieriic, on a hill on the hank of I
tlicKmmen, 1.'! in, NK. lieriic. <.ii llic railway from !
r.i.uwirK
Hi rill' to Aarnii, j'np, l.'j.Mi i„ |nc,((. 'i'i,^,,. .
iiiililii' hl.rary ami a caMle. In w|,i,|, p,,„„|, ,
llllll the Imimlatimiit of hi* rslali||.|iiii,.||| ii
loiiniiereiiil linsim« „f iiie plaii' i, r„i|,'..r j„"
pnrtmil, it l.eill« III,, ilepnl |.„ ,|,„ |,„„|.. ,„|,„1
rllle-e,
lli;ifll\(ii:it, M town of Cenlnil tl.ilv. ,,r„v
I oili.nii a inniiiilain ha\iii r the linnni m i(, i,,,,'
7 III, SI'., I'nrli the railway Irmn II..I ,/,'
Anemiii, I'np, 11,01 I in IniI.'. || j, n,;, ., ^,
nl a hishopric; has a lailnilral, ami fmr |„iri.|
ehlinlli's, Ihe wille-1 priidni'i'd 111 il, eiiMiuiH
ha\e a lonsiderahlc repntniinn.
lll.lfVIK, nrlNV|.li|ll.l;\Tl..arm,i||,„r.,„,|
Kcii purl nl'Sinilniiil, CO, Kineardini', nil iIm,,,.,,!
mail Irmn liinidcc to .Mienleen, mi llie ,s. |„||||( .f
the small river llirvie. where ii |i<iiis'ilir ., i
I'np, li.'iJ in l.-^i'il : inhaliiii'd h vn, \h\, |, „„;
cie.iied a mval liiirirh in Lli;-.' hy haviil ||,, u|„,
aller haviiij; iiairnw ly escaped shipvvre.k im i|;,
co.'i-.t, and haviiiij heeii kindly tnali'd liy llir ni
lialiilMliI I nf this Miiall tlshin;;' v illat;e, ti'stiliiil j,,,
;rialllliili' hy cniif, rrili;;- nn it the linlhiiir in <|iii .
linn. The inhaliitaiits have linni llie r.irli. .i
perind lieill elllplnv id ihirtly as ll,|iers, Tlnv
eiijiituc not only in the salinmi and vvliale ti-liin ',
in ihi' n ih ol the river and mi the cii,'i„t, Inn j',,
the herriiiL; li>heiy mi the \, shuns nf S.iitlnii.l
Mainil'aeliires, aUo, have heeii iiitrndiii'i'il iniu il,,"
liiir;;li : namely, the duck and dowlas IIiumi \\,:\\
iiiK. This epiplovmcnt is I'lirni-hi'd liy iiiiiinii',,,.
tnrers nf Mmitrnsi', .Vrhrn.iih, and .Minti m. In
addilimi to periodical markels, there is a ^.Taiii
market, which is well allciided, Tlie ipuiniiiv „|'
^'rain annnally pnrcha--ed Inii' is nlmiii |ii,iiiiii,|r,„
of which nearly the whole is shipped at llminlMi.
a port iilimil I m, S, of the town, vvluie tlniv.nn
lar^e ^riinaries. The harl rat the iiiniiili ei'ij,,.
Ilervie is very inferior to th.it at <iouri|nii. iiml n.i
mils only small vessels .'iml Imais, Th,. ,.|,.,|,||.
hnsiness nf this latter place, hnvvever, is liKkiii-
Ml rvie Jnins wiili Mmiirose, .\rl m.'iili, l''iirl'iir, wM
Itiechin, in scmliii;^- a mem. In the ll.i fC. \U<:\,.
tei'ed electors, oii in iMi'il. Ainiiial value i.f ival
properly, l,7'>/. in iNCi-;, ; eorporalimi ri'vi'iiiii',
1(17/.
l>l'.li\VI( 'K, a m.'iril. co, of S('ml;ind, liavin'.; N,
and SW. I'!ast l.othian and the (ienn.'in (i,v;iii,
and nn the Shi., S., ami \\'.. part of I'.ii-lanil, iiiid
the ens, nf li'o.slinn.li and .Mid-Lniliiiiii, Arii,
;iO',l.,'!7.'t acres, of which alinni mie Imlf is ar:ilili',
The N, parts nf the CO. are occnpieil hy thr mill,
lile.'ik, miprnilnciive ran;;i' of the I„iiiiiiiernii«ir
hills; hill the Merse. m level porlimi, l\ in;; ImUvuii
the l.aniim rinoor hills and the Tweed, hy wlilih
the en, is separated from l'.ii;;l,ind, is mii' nf llic
most fertile and hcsi cnliivaicd ilistrids in the
( inpire. The farms in the Merse are l,ir;;i', ll:o
farnu'i-s opnlenl and ililelliLCeiil, ami tlie Inii'l
cultivated accnnlinu; III the innsl apprnviil priiii i-
pies nf modern hnshandry. Wheal ami iiinii|'<
are here the ;;'re,'it nhjecls nf allcnlinii ; lint linrliy
and ii.ils are also r;ii'-i d in cmisiilei'.ilile i|ii.inlilii's.
Steam povveris employed in sever.il tlir.i'^liiii;;-niills
ill this CO. Few sin.'ill, hnl no very larj^e e>t,'ilr\
The old valued rent was I I, sill/. ; ihe nvw viilii.i-
lioii I'nr IMI l-.'i was, cxchisiv e of r.'iilwfiys. ;i'jll.'.'n.;/,
The I.atiiinermoiir hills are principally ili'iuisiiiriil
hy sheep of the Cheviot hreed. Tlie en, is rallur
sc'intily supplied with wood, hiit smiu' pni|iriiliir-i
have made cmisiderahle plantatiniis. Maiiiuiu'-
Inresand minerals, of no impnrlatiee, rriiiiii'.il
rivers, Tweed, Whit I adder, UlackaildeMiiKli.i'iiili r.
l!crwicksliire cniitaiiis ;>;{ pars. ; aiul liail liil.iH i
i'lhahitaiits in lM(!l,willi i'<.:Wi) inhah. liiiiisci. flic
CO. rctiirii.s one ini'iii. to the il. of t'. He(;i.sli'riil
electors, 1,1'I8 ill l.stil. (Jreeiiliiw is the w. tovm.
.aiiiiniTiniiiT
It' i|ii;inlilU'
new v;\iu:i-
ni;uwirK-ri'r>Nvnvi;i:i)
lillJUK'K I I'itN 'rWr.l'.M. II turdil.d l.l^v^
I .i;i|"'rl III' r.iitrliiinl, M'.. I'slriiiiilv nl' llir
.,|,,l|l, nil llll' N. Illlllk 111' Ihf Twiril, mill clii r
iilmi li\ riMiil,
IIIMnviriC (NOUTH)
in
mill. :ill)l III. N. Iiv \\ .
ftiitn Niirwiiv mill ilii- lliilili
.r
Mini iir ijriM'iririi
I r-iK
1*1' •(Iilwiii'! llll- ('\|iiirl'. Ill' xilllilnll, niril, Wiiiij,
Mini niln r ii|,'rli'iilliiriil |iri>i|iii'l'<, ikhU Iu Lninliiii
MMil II li'w iitliir ji'iris rmi.lHiit', In ihr \nir
ill:' III. Ii> <lii'iil Nnriliirii riiil\Mi\. I''i|i. hI i IniI t ilu ri' I'lilirr.l llir |iiiri llo m-ukcIi, nl' •.M,iMli»
li, |:l,'.'iiri III iMi'il, llrruli'k i< liiiill nil llll' lull'' liiinli'ii, iiMil llll ri' I'lriiml '.'imim'kii'U. nl' 1 1,1! Ml
\ mill lllll Kiiiiiiiill III' Mil I'lrviltinll ri-illu' liillt. 'llll' mIiiiIi' III' llii'iii wrri' Niiitjiitr M'NHi'l^,
i\\ Irniii llll" riliiMiv III' llll' rnrri iiimiiv i'I' willi Ilir i'Mi'|iiiiiii nl' luii Hiiiall '«li'Miiii'r", nl :ll
irrrl" iiri' iiiirriiw Mini Irn'KiilMr. Iml lln' jiriii { Imi'', wliiili iiiIitiiI lln- |i'irl, lit ii IpmIv iH'hvrrii
I nlll' i« N|iMriiill-', \M'II jiUMil. Mini liulllril >v illl {'.ilxMllll \l. ,llli| .Miirv II, nl' Si'iilliill'l. Iti'r\tiik
: mill, nil llll' wllnll'. Illr liiWIlllMMI l'i'-<|ii'i'(Mlilr U Mi IIIMiJl' M I'l'i'i' InWII, illil<'|ii'n< tl'lll nl Imlll Uill^'<
mill rniil'iiiiH iiiMii> ^M'II liiiill limii
llir h
i|nin'<; lllll. Iiv llir Miiiii' ipiil It'i Inriii Ail. Il In
111.' I'lll'll
riur; m
ml In lirrt'rrn^^<ril liy iliri'i' liriiUri"< : iiii nlil rmi-tilnliil iiii l'',nL,'li-'li rn. I'nr nil |inr|inMi'i, i'\i'(i|i|
r 1,'Miri'lirN, Imlll ill llll' ri'i|;ii III I luirli'i 1 1.: i |iMrlimiii'iiiMrv rli >'tilm■^, |t< iiri'smi iiiiniii'iniil
nil Sllilll'll-inll liliilui', hiillll' lllilli III) till' ! liniili riini|i|l-i' llilll liiirlinll nl llll' liMI'. nil « lllrll
It
11
III Iiv .S|i'|ilii'iiNim''< IIiiMil llni'ilir railwiiy tin' Inuii nlmnls mnl tiin F<iilinrli-< nl' Twi'i'ilinniilli
'JN iirrlii'H. I'Jil I'I. lii;^Hi, mill '.'.Mill II. I MiMJ S|iitiiil. rNi'linliii',' nil llll' ii;;rii iilliir.'il |inriinii
II' HiiiiiiriM
rtM'i'illlliiiilll Mini SiiIiImI. Ii i'< ili\ iilril iiiln 11 waril', Mini luii M rniiiii'lllnrn.
llll' S. !-iili' III llll' rlsrr, Mfi' ini'Miily Imill \il
Tl
II' li'M'iiiir III lln
ir|inr,iiiiiii Is iji'riM'il rmiii
, llll' iiiliiili. Iii'iii;^' alinn'-l u Imlly i iii|ilii\ I'll In { tnwii mnl li.irliniir iIihn ; riiiliil nl' Ilii' llNlnrii'^,
..lirrii'i^. nr llir lMi^>ini"'>''<i'N rnniii'iiril » Il II ! (I'liriiniiN, mnl liilii'i III lliTwirk; Imnli nil llic
llll III.
S|iillMl. llnvVi'ViT, \H nriM.ili lllilli V ri'mllril . W. -iili' nl' lln' rivrr, liml a llll
mIIi'iI Mi'miIi
lln vi"iinri Inr -I'li ImlliiiiK, mnl il Iiiim ii I'rw ri' mnl Siinis, 'lln' inni lii ■< in'iir llin Inwii, mnl «mh
ii.'ilil
Inillilli;; IniiiMi"*
Til
il' 1 1
li'ii' Kl'aill''il In III r|iiil'illiiil
Iiv .III
I. hi" ili
.il.iirlii nil' illi'linlril ill llln |iMI'l. Iml'. 'I'lli' iiM \iilril illln Iliri'i' |in|iiiiii : llii' llr^l ii Irl ill I'tll'l
I MHii'lllinll'* nl' I ll'IW irk « ITl' lll'lll'il ill I III' l'l'i;',ll ' Mllil Mil' tl'lll ll|i|i|ii|il illl li| III lli'lrilN llll' Hl'llrUll
,1 |Ji/;ilii III. Mini mIiiiiiI I -f III. ill riri'.. rnriiiiiii.',' mi I i'\|irn>i'^i III' llll' rnr|>iii''ilinii ; tlm hi ml i-i kiiIi-
•,ri,iil,ir |iriitMi;iiii : ii IimIIitv nl' ■.'-' hiiiim nun I ilivi'li'il in |i,'iiri'K nl l\ In l'^ iirii ■<, « Inwi' \Mlni'
niiiiliiijr III'' I'^iiuli-'li ^iiln. Mini M Iniir mnl nIn ixuw \ Mniri rrnin I/. I l.i. In li/. : llimr urn '.'.il nl' iIu'mi'.
|,:iiiiTV ilrriinliii:,' llir I'lilrmii'i' nl' llin liiirlmnr. ' imIIi'iI iiiimiIiun-i ; llir lliiril i-* imrii'il in iMniH nl'
|iiii!iiii|iiirls Inrni Mil Mf;Tri'iili|i' jirninriunli'. 'lln' iilimil Ml iirri's iinli, llm riiils nl' wliiili mn imiI:
i-i iiiivI^'mIiIi' mm far tis ilin nU l>riilL;i', lii'- | ili\iilril in II nr '_''.' i'i|iim1 jimi'
liirli llll' liili' llnws mIhhiI 7 111. Till' linrliniir , llniHi'. lln n
illi'il >tiiii'
.1'
.'Mil, TIk'M' ini'Mi|in\N mill .••iIiiIh
iliinlril Iiv 11 iiiiT hull' a niiln in li'iiyili, wiili [ iiin iillniinl in tlm Iiiii';;i'-.m's I'nr lilr, Willi rrinnin-
iliiiiiM' at llll' lii'Mil, |irnjri'iiii<; in a M',. | ilir in llirlr w iilnws; a:iil. as wiriinii'-i nmir, m
11 lull
ilinrlinll I'l'nlll till'
I'Mnniilv III' till' I'ivi'r's mIIhIIi'iI In nilinrs i
ill!
miliinil |iiililli' iiiri'lin^s Ii
rn
III
iiiiilli. lllll iinlwillislainliiiK llll' |iriili'rliiin at'- | I'nr llm |inr|insi', mnl ralli'ij ' ini'.'iilnw mnl slinl.
lufliil Iiv lliis liiirrirr. Mini lliniin'li llnri' Im IH I'l. i ,','iiililM
I'll
il rivriini' nl' llll' linrnii:;li, in
»,llrr IIVIT
oriii'.'s
>iiiiiii'
llll' I
lar at n
riiinnrv li.l"-i, mnl ','ii ill ! I^'l'>l, iiiiinniili'il In lii.i;;!:!/.
^rnsM Minn iihsi >si
.1 II
till' liiirliiinr is vrry iinlilViri'iil. 'I'ln' ' | r rah', II,1»1h;/,; nnl riilriilili' viiliii', I I.Jil.'i/.
I i:
s vrrv liminw
iMimi nt' llir I ;iiiniiinl ms'^i'hsiiI in |irn|ii'rly lax, .'Hl.HHi'V, 'I'hr
liiirliiiiir, jmriiiiilarly mi llin llnwifk siiln. ilrii's al j lirsi l';ii;;li-*li rliarlrr nt' jlirwiik was in .'liiili |'',il\
I'lU' wiili'r. mill is rni'ky mnl inrMjiiilili' nl' liin^j;
I., I<
\ wliirli it was iiiMili' a I'ri'i' lii.rnii;;li. willi a
I'lrr lii'.'ivv rains llin fhslirn run nuirkcl mnl Tair: nllni's, in .'lillli i'iilw. III. ami
iiiiwilli ;j:ri'iil xinli'iii'i'. 'I'lii' rliirl' |iiiMn' strnr-
Mri'^iiri'. Ilniy 'I'riniiy ami .S|, ,Mary rliiin'lii's; a
niiilirr lit' ili.'-si'nlinfj; cliMpi'ls; a I'ri'i' uriininar
..,lii«il! liml si\ nllnr I'p'I'm'IhihI.s, hii| jMirli'il liy
l!ii'i'iir|iiii'iilinii, anil riliiralin:;' in all iiliniit I'mi
I -r
'.'nil I'.ihv, I \'.. I'niilinn tlic laws mnl |irivili';;i's
nri;;iliall\ I'lljny I'll illiili'f Ali'.Mlinlrr I. nl' Srnllmnl.
Till' Mnvrniiiin rliMrlir, |iri'\inii>ly In tin- Miinirl-
|imI li'riiirni All, was ;.:raiilri| in 'Jinl .lainis I,
I'lnlir llll' I'
I,
,\ini inliiii'iil Alt, li'rwirk is
liililri'ii.
Ollmr lliil.'llili' lillililill;iS mi' I lu' Inwn- I llm ri'lllnil tnwil nl I illiinn 111'
tail, ill llll' ri'lillc nl' llic lii;;li sll'i'i'l. willl 11 spil'i' : Inwil has ri'lnnil'il l\
Illln
jiar
'I'll
IS III llll' II. nl' ('
,iii4 rill
III' lulls; tlici'nril lll.'irki'l, lillill ill \K.'i
mIiii'i' llll' ri'i'^n lit' Marv. Trrx imislv In llic li
ilic iMihii'-liall : a paiiiar liinaiii' a:\lniii; a ilis i liirni Ail, llir |iri\ iln;,'!' >vm- n >lriil .il witliin ilm
llimn^li wliii'li iiiciliriil ri'lii'l' 'n all'nrili'il limits nl' il
I" ihi
nr rrsiiiciil williin 1.* ni.
hli.' lilir.irv : mnl iissi'iiililv mnins.
Ilnali'i' ; a
'I'liiri' arc
imiiial rail's in .Inly, the cnni'M' liriin;' al {.ainlii r-
111, .1 iii,ilisliilil. I'lici'i' is a pinil sii|i|ily nl' xvjilir,
lfi''i;;lil rnuii a spriiii; \S in, nil'. In llic .scMrnl
iniilii'i'iiiiiliiits. Al the NW. I'liil nl' llic ln\Mi arc
iiilliiiii'vli.'irrarks. 'I lie lislicrics rnriii ilii'iiriiiiijial
I'l-llll'.-.S 111
TlM'l'il
I llll'
1
Tl
l.'IVC IiiIIl; IiccII milnll'
111' sal
^t tl
ninll III I ill'
ic niiisl
lr,iiril anil
IjiUitIv, llll
lililU''ll siil
iilllrii
vc 111 any i
II tl
IC ciii|iiri'.
liiii'L
if 71
■I'I
iciM linmii'^li, mill In ilic Inc
IC l'niis|||||rili'\'. II.
I Kill,
^islcil
) re
islcrcil cli'i'lnrs, i,( wliiuii "JM" nlil I'rcc
ri'il, linlli liicir iii'iiiliicc mill rciilal, mic nf the I'linr rnyal
linn, ami ilic nsi In/. Iiniischnlilcrs.
The lirst unlhenlii' iinlicc nf l!i'rw'ii'k nceiirs in
I he early luirl nf the Il'IIi I'diliiiy, when it lic-
Iniin'i'il III Scntliiml. ami was the chief Inwii nf
l.iiihiaii. Muring' the reigns nf .\Iex. I., |)aviil I.,
ami iMali'iilin l\'., il hiiil a lasllc ami .several
cliiinlics ami nlipiiniis csliililishimni.'i. Ii was al,
that )icrinil the chief M'a-|inrl nf .Scntlaml, ami
Imr;:
II
verv ('nnsiilcra'ile,
have
inliieil In l''.n;.^laml in 1171, nin
s casi Ic was siir-
ler a Irc.uv fur
il.i' |iriin'i|)al lislieries arc \viliiiii a .slinrt ilisiancc i the ransniii nf Win. the Limi; snliseiineiiiiy to
il IVrwick : ami the lish, cNceplin;; a siniill |iiiriiiiii ; which il
. ri'peiileillv taken ami rclaken, heiii:
MaliiciH'iir Iniineeniisiiinpliiin. isall packeil in ice, ! I'mni ils fmiilier siliiatimi, alinnst invariably llic
aiiil sliippcil I'nr llio inctrnpnlis. (Sec T\vI';ki>.) : lirst olijeel nf altaek at every renewal of linsli-
T.Miil mill wliiliiiif also ahniiiiil in the Twcei I. i lilies, till nii the lU'cessimi nf .I;unes VI. of .Senl-
llu' M'a fishery of llic hay eniisists ehielly nf coil, j lainl In the. Kiij^lish thrniie, its iinportance in this
Imlilmt, liadilnek, ami vvhilinj;; crahs anil , re.-peet eeaseil. |)iiriiit; the last civil war it wa.s
i-iirsaUii ahniiinl, ami tl
List are fnrwanieil , pirrisniieil liy the p.'irlianicnlary I'nrces.
M till' hiimliin niarkel. Iicrwick has ship-yanls. j liKUWK.'K (NOIM'II). a royal lmr;;li, par.,
Wil
I p 11 111 eoastiii;^ trailc. Tiic import
sist land sea-pnri nf Scollaml, co. Ilaililin^flnn, ai tin
tliiilly of tiiuher. slaves, iron, limp, ami t.illoxv, S. eiiir.iiiee to thu Frii'i of Forlli, ".'_' in. E,
1
II
'
ii«,':i"^"'"""
■h r
1|
442
BESANCON
J",ilinlnirf,'h. It was crcnlcd n l>llr^,'h hy .TamrH VI.
l'i>ti. of liiir){)i 1,1U4 ill IHCl ; inliabitt'd Ikuinoh
170. Tlic InirKli consiHtH of two main stroctH, one
nnming E. nnU W., tlie otlu-r leading N. U) the
liarlxiiir. It in a place of little or no trade, and
linH no maiiiiractiireM. It^ ]>ier is good; but itH
liarliour, which in dry at low water, i.s difHcult of
iiccpitH. A branch line conncctH the port with the
KdinlmrRh-Henvick railway. From its being in
the n('igld)ourhood of one of the best corn-growing
district* of Scotland, grain in a considerable article
of export. It is a good deal fre(|uented in sum-
mer as a bathing-place. It Joins with Hadding-
ton, Dunbar, I.audcr, and Je<lburgh, in sending a
inemlter to the 11. of C IJegistered electors, «7
in lM(i5. Corporation revenue, JIW)/. About 2 m.
to the E. of the burgh stands the famous castle of
Tantnllan, one of the strongholds of the Douglas
family,
1J1'!SANC0N, a town of France, cap. dj<p. Doubs,
on the river of that name, by which it is inter-
sected, 47 m. E, Dijon, on tiic railway from Stras-
bourg to Lyon. Po)). 4(),7Hti in l«(il. The town is
very strongly fortified, and is one of the bulwarks
of I'Vauce on the side of Switzerland. The works
were improved by Vauban ; but they have been
since much extended and strengtheneiL Exclu-
sive of the fortilications round the city, it has an
extremelj" strong citadel, on an almost inaccessible
rock, and outworks on some of the adjoining
lieighls. The town is generally well built; but
its streets are narrow and gloomy. The part
called the city is almost surrounded by the Doubs;
the communication with the suburb on the o\)po-
site bank, called Arenes, being kept up by a
bridge. There is a station on the railway from
Midbousc to Lv(m. Princijial buildings, the ca-
thedral, hotel oi the ])refect, hall of the courts of
justice, the royal college, erected in 1607, the
arsenal, hotel de ville, barracks, theatre, public
library, containmg 64,000 volumes, exclusive of
manu'scrii)ts, and several tine public fountains.
The hospital of St. Jacques is a vast establLsli-
ment, with oOO beds, and is said to be extremely
•well managed. A Koman triumphal arch, though
a good deal mutilated, still exists, and serves as a
sort of portico to the cathedral. lJesan9on is the
sent of an archbishopric, of a royal court for the
deps. of Doubs, Jura, and Haute Saoue, with tri-
buiuils of primary jurisdiction and commerce. The
university, which existed ])reviously to the revo-
lution, has been replaced by an acadvmie univer-
sitaire, or/avnltii ties kttrea; and it has also a royal
college of'fhe second class, with about 'liM pu]iils;
a diocesan seminary, a secondary medical school,
ft primary model school, two schools for the in-
struction of deal and dumb, a royal academy of
science and belles-lettres, a lyccum, a society of
agriculture and arts, a nmscum of antiquities, and
a free school of design and sculpture for 120
jiupils. There is, adjoining to the town, a house
t)f correction and refuge. VVatch-making, intro-
duced from Switzerland at the beginning of the
iiresent century, is the most important branch of
mdustry carried on here. It em|)loys above 2,000
hands, who annually furnish some 80,000 watclies.
About 200 work-people are employed in the carpet
manufacture, and there are besides fabrics of jewel-
lery, hosierj', hats, hardware, including coach and
carriage s])rings, and gloves. Its breweries and
tanneries are both on an extensive scale ; the ale
of Itesamjon is noted all over France. Among
.other articles, it annually furnishes about 000,000
bottles of Seltzer water : it is also the seat of a
considerable and growing commerce.
llcsanfon is very ancient. It was laid waste by
Attila; and has since undergone many vicissi-
llETHLEHEM
tudes. Tt came, along with Frnncho Comto' im,,
the possession of France in 1(>7I. '
UESSAISAHIA, or EASTEUN MOLI)\vi\
the most south-westerly prov. of KuKsiu ii, Knr,, ,;,
having E. t)-.e Dniester, S. the Uln.k Sen n'lid tl„'.
Danube, W. the I'nitli, an.l N.Cialli.ia. 'IV ' 1
is estimated at «:»« geojf. sq. miles, while tl,,. „,„
am(.unted to 702,000 m IMtd, and to 91<i 107 ,i
l«ri8. Exclusive of the greot rivers by wiii,!, if
IS neariy surrounded, it is intersected "in- scvcnl
considerable stream.*, most of which, lidwcvir
are either wholly dried up or greallv (limiiiisl,,,!
during the heals of summer. Tlie S'VV. |ii>rti<iii
contiguous to Gallicia, is hilly, or rather moim-
tainous, and is (»cciipied by extensive forests • Imt
elsewhere the surface is neariy flat. Snil nimii-
dantly fertile, and, with the exception of the trmi
along the Danub?, which is marshy and cik imi-
bered with lakes, it is suitable for most iif;riiiil-
tural puri)08cs. ' No trees, a few shrubs oiilv arc
ohser\'ed near the rivers ; the lakes, or slairii •
waters, are covered with reeds; and in the ola, s
between the marshes, the ox, Imfl'alo, and l,i.s.,i,
wander among pastures where tlie herbage risi s id
the height of their horns. In the ciiltiviitpd Iiiiul
millet yields KM), and barley (JO fold. Tlie Imrsc
and the sheep exist in a willl state.' (Multo-ltnin
vi. 370, Eng. trans.) Hut these returiis seem ex-
aggerated. Wheat, barley, and millet are liic
only species of com that are raised. Accnnlin'
to official accounts, 130,141 chetwerts iffdiluotd ii
return of 6.51,820 chetwert-s, that is, of ahdiit i ti>
1. Hemp, Hax, and tobacco are produced in con-
siderable quantities. The breeding of tattle is
the principal business of the inhabitants; and tlicv
are largely exjiorted, with hides and tallow. A\iiii
the exception of tanneries, distilleries, and tallim
and soap works, there are either no manui'actnriii;;
establisliments in the country, or none worth no-
tice. Large (]|uantitics of salt are produced frmn
the lakes contiguous to Akerman (which see). A
good deal of inferior wme is made. Education is
not much attended to, though great proirrcss in
this respect has been made in recent years, par-
ticularly since the accession of Alexander II. tu
the throne of Kussia.
BESSE, a town of France, de'p. Tiiy de Duino,
cap. cant., 20 m. SSW. Clermont. I'oj). l.iibl in
1«61. The town is built of basalt, in tlie iniddk' 4
a volcanic country ; and the eiiviroiig offer several
natural curiosities. It has some trade in cattle
and cheese.
liESSINES, a town of Franco, de'p. llaule
Vienne, cap. cant., on the (iartenipe, 10 ni, li.
Hellac. Pop. 'i,.50O in 18t!l. The place has some
trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
BETHLEHEM, (Beit - el - Lehw, Ilnune of
Bread,) a famous town of Palestine, ti ni. S. Jeru-
salem : lat. 31° 44' K., long. 35° UY E. I'lip,
from 3,000 to 4,000, of whom by far the jirciiiir
part arc Catholic, Greek, and Annriiiaii (,'hristians
A sidendid church, erected by the enijircss llcli'ni,
stands over a grotto or cave, said to be the birth-
place of Christ. Connected with the churi'h an'
convents for the three sects of Christians noticel
above, of which that belonging to the Latins is a
line building ; but more resembling, oxtemally. a
fortress than a religious establishment. Sonic re-
mains of an old aqueduct, fonnerly K! or 1>< in.
in length, exist on the \V'. side of the town; but
the chief buildings consist of chapels, and otliir
memorials of holy persons, and of the events fur ,
which the place and neighbourhood are celebrateil
in sacred history. The houses of the iiiliabitanis
arc mean in the extreme.
The country round Bethlehem is extremely
fruitful, yielding figs, grapes, olives, ami sesamuiu
BETHUNE
BEVERLEY
443
CTfBt nhundnnoo; lint licro, ns in otlior parts masques, three baths. ei!,'ht Arnioninn chiirclies,
„f this neglected luiiil, cultivation is wantinj?,
TluTP is "" <ii'll<'i»'ii<!y of water ; tliree extensive
ffvirviiiri*, called the pools of Solimion (Kocles. ii.
I'll mill ft opious fountain, said to lie the ',<«'«/(•(/
/;,»ii/(iiii ' of •''« *"•""' prince (Sol. Son^r, iv. 12),
Ii,, ,111 the S. ; on the NW. is n larp- cistern of
rain water, said to he the 'well liy the pite,'
whence David's mighty men drew water, while
ihe pliice was in the hands of the I'hilistines
(jSmn. xxiii. !*>) ; and the whole neif^hbourhood
aUimlH in siirin^'s and rills.
The tract lietweeii Hethlehem and .leru.salem is
thcviiUcy of Hephaiin ((liant's Valley, .losh. xv.
1*1, tlic si'euc of many condiats between the Jews
aiiill'hilistincs. ('iSam. v. 1«, ft «/.) Here are
.Ii,nvii many jtreteiuhKl relics of the Hcriiitiiral
]f.if, as the hou.se of Simeon, the tJinib of Haebel,
tile villai^e of Uama, the cave of Kngadi, the well
ill wliii'h was seen the star of the Messiah, and
inaiiv (ithers. The original name of IJethlehem
M." kplirath (tien. xxxv. I!t) : a term which, like
ii,4 present designation, referred to the fertility of
it,<siiil. It was never very considerable in respect
of size (Micah v. 2), Imt seems to have been
always regarded as important; and being the
H'onc (if the pastoral tale of Kuth, and the liirth-
plHoe of I)avid and Jesu.s Christ, it has acquired a
trli'lirity hardly surpassed even by that of .Jeru-
nkm. ' It was fortiHed by Rehoboam (2 Chron.
xi. t'l). and, in a subsequent age, the -imperor Ila-
ilriaii is said to have built a temple het-^ to Adonis.
Ofihi.i, however, no vestige remains. Ti:c present
iiihiib. enjoy a considerable share of liberty : they
an.' liiiltl and hardy, and succcssfidly re.siHt every
aiiciiipt at opjiression by their governors. They
are cnnsequcntly stigmatised, liy tlic Turks, as of
a rt'kllious spirit. There was formerly another
iWthlchcm, more to the N., belonging to the trilie
(.fZabulon (Josh. xix. 15). (Maundrell, 110-123;
Vohicv. ii. 270, 271.)
liETHUNK, a town of France, dc'p. Pas dc
falais, cap. arrond., on a rock, at the foot of which
i.«tlic Krctte, 1« m. NNW. Arras, on the railway
fnnn Paris to €alai,s. Pop. 8,2(>4 in 18t!l. The
idwii is well forlilied, by works jiartly constructed
liv Vauban. Its plan is that of an irregular
irian};lc; the citadel, which is isolated, occupying
iiw iif the angles. It has a tribunal of iminary
jiirisilii'tidn. a communal college, two hospitals,
raamifactiires of linen and cloth, breweries, and a
(iiiisiilerable trade in linen, cheese, and rajie oil,
ilie canal of the Lave, which unites with the Lys,
ib well as the railway, greatly fjicilitating its
■r.ido. It was taken by the allies in 1710; but
WHS restored to France by the treatv of Utrecht.
ISKTLIS, or HIT LIS, a town (if Turki.sh Ar-
nn'iiia, W m. VV. from the W. extremity of Lake
Van, and about 13«) m. E. by N. Diarbekr, hit.
;>" 115' N., hmg. 42° 50' E. It stands in a wide
ravine, open to the E., but closed by high moun-
laiiis to the W. ; the houses being dispensed over
ilic-'teepbaiiksof a stream which runs through it,
ami (in several of the neighbouring hills ; it is,
lIuTcforc, most irregidar. 'I'lie houses are built of
reil stone, and are generally of two stories, with
patcd windows to the streets, the latter being
Iflvpil with round stones. The houses being much
scattered and intermingled with gardeius, the
imvii covers a large extent o{ ground : it is not
cuclu.sed by a wall, and this is hardly necessary ;
each house being, in fact, a pretty strong fortress.
It is said to contain 1,500 houses, of which 500
Won); to Armenians; and if so, its pop. may
aiDiiunt to about 9,000. IJy some, the pop. is
estimated at 15,000. The' town contains four
caravanscra-s, three large and twelve small
and iiue Ncstorian. Tht^ most remarkable object
ill the town is the old castle, in its centre, on a
rock 30 ft. in height, and built up with thick walln
to an elevation of 100 ft. There are n consider-
able number of butchers, bakers, gunsmiths, and
silversmiths; but the principal manufacture con-
sists of coarse cotton cloth, and tobacco. Tho
territory iirodiices fruits and vegetablt« in |icr-
fection. The army of the Turkish sultan, Soly-
maii the ^lagiiiliceiit.siistaineil a signal defeat by
the Persians, near Hetli.s, in 1554.
Ul'U'TllKN, a town of Prussia, prov. Silesia,
reg. Oppeln. cap. circ, 35 m. NIC. Ifatilior. Pop.
4,004 u\ IHtil. It has three Catholic churches,
thnu! convents, with fabrics of coarse chitli, pot-
tery, zinc, and calamine, and breweries. There is
another town of the same name in Silesia, reg.
Liegnitz, on the Oder, 12 m. W. by N. (Ihigaii,
on tlie railway from Kreslau to Posen, The latter
place, with a population of 2,M5(t, is commonly
distinguished as Alt-Beuthtn, It has fabrics of
cloth, earthenware, and straw hats, and some boat
bnihling. Its environs are verv fertile.
HEVEHKN, a town of IJelgium. prov. K. Flan-
ders, (( m. W. Antwerp. ]'op. 0,000 in iMtVt. It
stands on the road from Antwerp to tlheut, is well
built, and has a tine ehiirch, with a lofty spire.
About 2,01)0 women are employed in the lace
miniufacture, and there are several breweries, tan-
neries, and distilleries.
PlCVEULl'^Y, a pari. bor. and market town of
England, E. riding co. York, of which it is the
cap., near the Hull river, to which it is united by
a canal, 157 m. N. Loudon, 2« m. ESK. York, and
9 m. NWV. Hull, on tli,! railway from Hull to
Sciirborough. Pop, of municipal borough 'J,(!54,
and of pari, borough 10,8()f< i'l IHOl. The town in
believed to owe its o.-igin to ai' ancient monjjsterv,
which, after having been sacked by the Danes in
8(»7, wa.s restored by Athelstan, who granted tho
place several privileges, and made the monastery
a sanctuary for criminals. It is a ^'ell built, hand-
some town. The great glory of iJeverley is tho
minster, or collegiate church of .St. ,Iohn, which,
in size and beauty of architecture, is far superior
to many catbeilrals. This splendid structure,
which has been erected at diHerent period.^ in
what are called the decorated and perpendicular
English styles, is 334 ft. from E. to W. ; the
length of the great cross aisle is 107 ft., and the
two towers at the W. end arc each 200 ft. in
height. Near the altar is the seat of refuge, with
an inscription assuring criminals of their safety
wlule there, and a tablet with etfigics of St. John
of lleverley and Athelstan. The ])arishcs of St.
John and St. Martin have the minster as a church
common to both. It is kept in excellent repair by
the rent of estates appro]iriated to that purpose
by (Jnecn Elizabeth and Sir Michael Warton. St.
Mary's church is also a magnificent structure in
the old Norman style ; and lands n'-.hicingalxive
8(H)/. a year have been left for its support. The
Primitive and Wesleyan Methodists, Indepen-
dents, liaptists, Koman Catholics, and Society of
Friends, have chapels here. The sessions-house,
and house of correction for the E. riding, are
situated in the immediate vicinity of the town :
the latter, which is a very large establishment,
and constructed on the most ajjproved principles,
cost above 40,000/. Here also is the Kegister-
ofBce for the E. riding. The endowed schools are,
a grammar-school, of great antiquity, to which is
attached two fellowsliips, six scholarships, and
three exhibitions to St, John's, Candjridge; a
Hlue-coat School, founded in 170!); (Jraves's
School, founded in 1804 ; and schools on the sys-
K »■
i r
:lf:
!■■■■'<■,.-
AH
< ■ t:
411 JJKWDLKY
(cms of Lnnrnstcr nnd llcll. TIutp nrp nlwi rovc-
riii iiliiinli(niy('M, (111 liiis|iiliil,<Ii.s|)('iiHiiry, nu'cliniiics'
iislituto, iml)lii^ r<'iiiliiif,'-riMinis, a savings' hank, u
llicatrc, tipcii <)(•(•a^^icp|llllly, and asM'tiilily-riMPins.
l.'ai'cs arn liclil near llic town cN'cry tlnnc. Tlie
('iir|ii>ratiiiii of llcvcrlcy cniKiisIs ()f a mayor, rc-
<'(ir<li'r, six aMcniicn. and ciLclitccii councillors,
«'li'i'lcd by the lnirf,'i'sscs and iVci'incn, 'i'lio lior.
receipts anioiinl to al)out ■J,(MI0/. per anniini. The
corporation liold n criininal conrt, willi power of
life and dealli, wiru'li. liowe\ cr. is never exercised ;
a court of session, called t'le I'rovost's Courl, lor
all ideas to any anionnt, except those for landed
property; and a court of recpiests for (lel)ts under
W. The piililic^ Imsiness is Iransacled in tlio llall-
H-arth or (inildhall, where the (jiiarter sessions for
the riding arc held. The elective franchise,
frianted liy I'.dw. I., was not exercised till the l)e-
^iiining of l''.liz., since which time the horonf^li
has coiitiiuied to return two nieinliers to tlie II. of
('., the rin'lit of tdection. previously to the lieliprm
Act, heiii;;- vested in the freemen, win ther nsi
• lent or not. 'I'iu' electoral houndaries comprise
the ])arishes of St. Mary, St. Martin, ami St. Ni-
cholas, and the jiart of St. .lohn's within the lihcr-
ties. Tlie constituency, in IHtil. eoiisisled of 1,"JI.'(
rcfiistered electors, of whom (il:> old freemen, and
the rest 1(1/. householders, 'i'lie election for the
meiiibcrs of the !•',. ridini; is luld here. The town
is situated in a fertile country, and has an exten-
sive retail trade ; tanning is also extensively car-
ried on. Near the town is a larj;'e factory for
liaints. cement, and J'aris white, whicli last is
made from the clilf-stoiie raised at (^hieen's (late,
and found to he peculiarly adapted to the jpurpose:
there are also iactories for patent wroiii;hl-iron
wheels, nnd for fancy ironwork and aiiriciiltural
imiilements of all descriptions. A hrisk corn trade
is carried on, Markets for {,'<'"''''"1 purposes on
Saturdays, and for cattle on alternate \\'ednes-
days, held in an enclosed area <if four acres, orna-
mented hy a stately cross resting' on eif;lit columns.
There are here eif^ht great cattle fairs. Two ])ri-
^ale haiiking-houses. a liraneh of the Hull 15ank-
iug Co., and n savings' hank, have been oiieiied
liere. Fisher, bishop of Ifochester, who sutVeri'd
martyrdom under Henry VHI., was a native of
the town.
UKWDLEY, nil unoicnt market town, bor., nnd
ehajielry of Kiiglaiid, co. Worcester, 14 ni. NNW.
AVorccster, 111 m. S\\'. ISirmingham. KIH m. NW.
London, on a branch of the < ireat Western railway.
iNiji. of municipal bor. '2,'.Wi), and of pari. bor.
T,iil^4, in iMlil. The town is locally in the hinid.
of Doddiugtree, hut has separate jurisdiction. It
is built on the descent of a hill, on the W. bank of
the Severn, over whicli tliere is a line stone bridge.
The more ancient part of the town was built at
some distance from the river. It had formerly 4
gates, 2 of which were standing in 1811, but
they have been since pulled down: the jirincipal
street is well built and paved. The town-hall is a
iiue modern building, erected on 3 arches, with
handsome iron gates leading to the market-place.
The church is a neat stone edilice, with a tower.
A charter was granted by Kdward IV., hut the go-
verning charter was given bj' .lames I., and con-
lirmed by Anne. The corporation hold a court of
.session annually, and a court of record for all
])'i'as, and for the recovery of debts not exceeding
JOIl/. The lord of the manor holds an nnnual
court leet, at which constables and other oiKcers
are appointed. In the reign of Henry VI., liewd-
ley enjoyed ninny ]irivileges; among them, that of
being a sanctuary for persons who had shed blood.
This town has sent 1 member to the H. of C.
since 3 James 1., who, previously to the Keforni
BKYROUT
Act, wnH retiinicd hy the corporation „ „,r
elected body. The new boiindarv act ,|,!|„|,,, .
limits of the bor. to be the p„r. .,t' |;ihlH.s|„nl ai.'l
the hamlets of Wribbenhall, Iloarstdiic. |(i.„a
stone, Netherton. and Lower Mittoii. wii'i, |'j,V
hill, which together had a constituency of .;7i') r,,
gistered electors in I XII I. There ar.' icvcriii \u'\'\
endowed charities. 'I'lie maiuifactiire of WHrJIiii
caps, called Dutch caps, formerly tl(Miri>li,.,| i|,,r,.
but has many years since disappi'aicd. Tlic hrin'
cipal trades and manufactures now existing; |,rc in
malt, tanning and currying leather, and makin'
combs: besides which there are some nip(.-«„rli^
and a brass- foundry. There is also a eoiisidcralili.
carrying-truile, connected with (he Severn; ii,..|r
the town is a mineral spring. Alarket-day, Siiiir
day. Fairs, I'ltrd April, -.'Ith .luly, and I'lili l)(v
for catth; and pedlary. ''
lll'.X, a town of "Switzerland, cant. Vaiid, cm,
circ, in the fertile plain of the Ifhoue.oii the Avci'i
9011, "iO m. SI';. Lausanne, on the railway fn.m
Lausanne to.Martiguy. roji. iM:,;i in \xai. 'ri„.
town is chielly celebrated for the salt spriii's ami
salt mines in its vicinitv.
UKVliOl'T, or HKlIiOUT (an. lim/t,,,,
nripuTO!), a sea-port town of Syria, on the S,'>i,|c
of an extensive hay open to the N., Is n,. ssW.
'I'ripcdi. l!l m. XNW. Siihm, and about ;; m. |;[
from (,'a))e Hevront. the latter being in hit Vr^
4!t'4-)" N., loiig. .-'.oo -27' .'i4" K. l'„p. |-.MMi(i'„r
iri.dOO. There are here no public Ipnildiiijrs „|'
any beautv or ini|iortan(x>, nor are many rtinaiiis
of anticinity to be met with; for tliHiioh tlir
modern town occupies the site of the jiiuieni oin',
the latter was long since destroyed hy re|i(aliii
earlhipiakes, and tlie modern builijings areereciiil
over the ruins of the ancient ediliccs. .\l(in^' ilic
shore, however, and in part under tlie water, m.-
some mosaic pavements, IViigaieiits of coliiniu-.
and (W. of the town) a thick wall, stipiiiiscd in
he of the time of Herod tlie (Ireal. 'I'lie hnzaars
are large an.l well fre(|uented ; but there .seems in
be a deticieuey of jirivate shops, and tliesliceisaiv,
in general, narrow and crooked. A |i!eMiiriil sup-
]ily of water from a tolerably lar-c river (.\iilir
Jhi/roiif), and n great number of wells. iniidilV,
in some degree, the heat of the atmnspiicre, ai'ul
render the town much cleaner than tliegciicialilv
of those in the F. The walls (of a soft saiidstomj
are about it m. in circ, ami tlie sulnulis are ]i(r-
liajjs equal in extent to the town itself. Tlic
neighbourhood is very fertile, )irodueiiig all kiiuls
of fruit; but the chief arlii'le of cullivaiiun Is ihc
mulbeiTV tree, an extensive and iniporlaiit niiiwi-
facturc being earned on here of silk gomls, csiii--
cially of sashes. Jteyrout had formerly a small
port, formed by a strong mole, hut its prisinr
m(de or jetty is of very inferior diiiieiisiuiis. ami
is scarcely suflicieut to shelter boats, 'flitvc i>,
however, good anchorage j^ m. from the tnwii. in
six or seven fathoms; and large ships inayanclur
a little farther out in 10 or 11 faihoiiis. Alirr
centuries of neglect, it has in recent times a:::iiii
become a place of some imitortanee. Tliice liiiis
of steamers French. Austrian, and liiissiaii.cumml
Ueyroiit with the chief ports of the Mediterranean.
while there is a good carriage-road, conipldcd in
IHlii"), to Damascus, and a line of telejjraidi i"
the same jilace. The imiiorts and ex|Kiiis, ,is
well as the shijiping, in the tive years lM,"iii-('ii).
are shown in the subjoined statement. Tlic srcat
decrease of the exports in I «,")!!, and, mere still, in
lK(iO, was owing to the failure of the cmps in many
parts of Syria, which entailed great privati(iii.<
n))on the inlial>itaiits, (l{e|)ort by Mr. Moure,
ISritish ConsuKieneral at Bevrout, in ' Consular
Keports,' 18U2.)
Niiiitbr
y«r.
\ riK'
I.tVl
02
II..-.7
(III
js.'.S
7:1
l,s.-,!l
(M
j. Still
(ii)
BR2IERS
li.:.7
is;.!!
ISIill
NumblT nf
Vnlun i.f
viiiiiiM.r
\('iiicla
I'fHinii^o
lin|iitvt*
F<|<irti
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c
ni
nr.,nn;i
ni»,4r>ii
.f.'.-ll.'i
tilt
'.Mi,:isi
'i'li.lT'
tili.lll'.'
7:1
!1ii,h;i7
•|:fJ,!tS7
:il,:llH
<!:i
•J.'.,(i(!l
!!tll,71ll
8,ii:.-i
(i:j
ill, 'III
:ii>:i,r<Hri
a.iiD'j
The fXimrlH <'liicHv ciiiiHi.st of giillx, iiiiulilcr, |
mm*. "'"* C"^*' '""' wroiifilil), wiiK! iiiid oil. ■
III,, imports arc — niiisliii.x, cuifoiis, tin, liardwiirc,
ildili!., mid Wfsl India iinidiu'c.
Iltrviii^ wi>« » viTv iincii'iit town of tin- I'lin'- ]
„|,.iiiiis, (ItTiviii); ilH iiaini', nciMirdin;,' lit Stcplifii '
i,l |:vzimliiiiii (art. HijpuTo?). from the nimiluT of ,
ji, w'cll^, till' prdix hcrr siniiiryin^ a ircll in tin; j
liii;r|iiifr(. of iIk! fiiiiiitry. I'lidcr tlu^ lionians it
r,..o li^Kf'"' cniincnri'. noiwitlisiandin^ it liad '
Uciifiitircly dcslroyrd in tlii^ war.n of Alexander's
,ii,w->iirs. iilioiit Ni) years liefore the, l.'oinan eon- j
,|iii.st 111' Syria. An;iiistns planted in it M eoloiiy, |
^'hvc it lii'* daiifilitcr's name, willi tlie addition of
ill,, opitlii't Felix (Ikri/tiis Coloniii Julia Fflix). 1
I riiii. V. ■-''•.) A seliocd of law, eslalilislied lieri^ I
iiiilic lieiiiiiniii;;- of the third <^enliiry (prohalily ;
liv Alexander Severns). eonlinned for iJIKI years, :
iiMill ll"' lown was overwhelmed hy an eiirlh- j
(iiiakc ill ''"'I. to lie the most eeleliraled institution
„l till' idiiil ill the empire, (tiilihon. eap. 17.) iiiil !
lln. Iiiwii iiKaiii revivecl ; and, under the Saraeens, ;
jilaiiK'd to consideriihle imporlanee. It was fre,-
(iiiiiitly caiiliired and recaptured durln,!f the Crii-
siKat wliii^h jieriod the mole, forminj,' its jiort, 1
\v,is (lestroyiid. In the sevenleeiith eeiitiiry it 1
was. fur a short while, the eapital of the famous j
llrii.se Kinir, Fakr-ed-Din, and latterly it fell into j
ilic liiiiids of Djezzar, pasha of Aere, who laiilt^
iisiiri'si'iit walls, cut a (s'ln.'tl from tlie river to tin
iiiwii, creeted several foimlaiiis, and otherwise im-
iifivid and heanlilied the |iliiee. At jiresent. it is
ihc lapilal of a small paslialie, the |)aslia liein^ a
Frnuli r('iii';;aile, formerly a colonel in Napoleon'.s
army. The. I'h(eiiieiaii deity llaal-Iteeritli (Lord
iilU'ells) is said to have heeii iiamed'frotn, or to
have j;iven name to, this place, which is also
faiiiiius in Christian lej;'ends as the scene of St.
tiinr„'i''.f victory over tlii^ drafi;on.
liKZIKIfS, a city of France, di'p. llernnlt, eap.
amiiiil., a;;Teealily situated on 11 fertile liill, in a
rioli country, at' the jniiction of the Vaitul da
.Vii/i Willi the (.)rl>, and of the railways from
I'ttto to Toulouse, and from Xarl)oim« to C'arcas-
s.iim', oH ni. S\V. iMoiitpolier, and •!() m. K.
Tiiulmisc. Pop. 'Jfi-iTlt in IMOl. At a distance
the city has a line apiiearance, but on entering;
the illii.-iiiii vanishes. The lumses are mean, anil
the siri'cts narrow and crooked. Its citadel has
hwii ili'molishod ; Init it is still surrounded hy oUl
Mils, llaiiked with towers, round which is a newly-
jikitcil iironicnadc. The cathedral, a (lothie
liiiiWiii};, has a nolile interior, and its shaqi towers
ami castellated walls give it at a distance the ap-
liiariiiice of a superb Gothic mansion, T'he view
inmi its terrace is extensive ami delightful. The
aiuieiit episcojial iialace is the seat of the courts
ami (government olliees. Its convents have all
Kill abolished. IJeziers has tribun.-ds of jirimary
jiirisilietion and commerce, a communal collef;e,
an ii(;ricultural society, a i)nl)lic library with 5,01)0
viilumi's, and a theatre. It ]>roduce.s silk stock-
ays, diniities, parchment, verdif^ris, starcli, {i'l'ves,
t;lass, and liif,dily-estccmed .sweetmeats; but it is
imnciimlly distinf;'uished by its distilleries, which
arc extensive, and jiroduce brandy, little, if at all,
iiiltrior tu that of L'offnac. Its siluatiuii makes it
ilie centre of a considerable trade.
lUIAUaULPORE 445
lle/ier'* is very ancient; and tlip remains of
an amphithealre, and of cisierns and other Ko-
nian works, may still be recoj^nised. In l'.;0!i,
diiriii)^ tin; first crusade apiinst the Albiirenses,
l(e/.iers liavin;,; alVordeil protection to numbers
of the fugitives, was besiep'd by the Cathidii!
army, wlio, having carried it by assault, com-
mitted, at the instigation of the impe's legate,
an indiscriminate massacre of those found within
its walls, whether heretics or not. It alsosnil'ereti
severely during the religious wars of the sixteenth
century.
Harbeyrac, tli<* learned translator and annotator
of (irotius and I'lilfeiidorf, and K'iipiet, the en-
gineer of the Canal du Midi, were both natives of
Ite/ier.s,
IIIIADI.'INATII (Vtidarinat/„i). a small to, in
\. Hiiidoslan. prov. Kumanii, in a valley of tin;
llimalava, mo m. N. Alinorah, and lo,-_".l| fi.abovit
the level of the sea; hit. '.UP V.V N., long. 7!P liW
\'.. It is remarkable for a temple, much veiierat(Ml
by the Hindoos; and visited iiiiniially by oO.OOO
pilgrims from all parts of India. It has warm,
siilplmreoiis, and cold springs.
lillA.MO, or IIAN.MO. one of the chief towns
in the liirmiin emp., ca|i. of a Shan iiriiicipality,
and chief seat of the ('hiiies(> trade with itirmah;
on an elevaleil bank of the Irrawadi, 170 in. NN'I",.
Ava, and :'0 m. W. the Chinese I (h'r; lat.-JP 10'
N.. long. Wfl M>' 1'",. Next to Ava ami llaiignon it,
is the largest place in the empire, and contains
2,000 houses, inhabited mostly liy Chiuese ; is sur-
rounded by numerous well-peopled villages, and
del'eiided by a wooden stockade. T'he houses in
llhanio ami its dislri<'t iin; better tlijin tliosi; in
most |iarts of the liirman doiiiiiiioiis; those of the
Chinese are built of brick, ■■iiid t\u.M' of the natives,
of reeds, thiiiclieil with grass,aiid separately railed
in: there is a good ba/ur. The tradi- in woollins,
col Ions, and silks is wholly in the lianils of the
Chinese, who moslly arrive here in caravans in
December and .l;iiiiiary, but .'(00 of them live con-
staiilly in the town, as well as many other fo-
reigners.
T'he Shans, Singplios, and otbers, piircbasp salt,
pmi/iir (dried lisli;, ami rice, in large qiiaiitilies,
especially salt, which fetches a very high ]irice.
The people appear opulent ; have adopted in great
part the Chinese costume; and wear more orna-
ments than in any town in liirmab. The revenue
of the distriet, which is of no great extent, is said
to amount toJJ lacs of rujiees a year. Old I'diamo,
tli(! original Shan town, is situated two day.s'
journey up the T'ajjan, the nearest tributary of 1 he
Irrawadi. (Crawfnrd's Embassy; Asiat. journal,
Calcutta, No. Ixiv.)
lUIAT'(i()N(i, a city of N. Ilindost.tn (N'cpmd),
said formerly to contain l-2,ooo houses; once the
.scat of an inde]i. chief, and though much ilccayed,
still the favourite residence of the Nepaiile.se Hrali-
miiis; H m. KSIC. Catinandoo; hit. 27° 'Kl' X.,
long. H^P «' K. The palace and other buildings
have a striking apjiearance, owing to the excellent
([iiality of the bricks and tiles.
HllATNElilJ, a to. of IIindostan,prov. Kajiwo-
; tana, the mod. eap. of the IJhatty country, and tlii;
j most !•;. town ill the presid. liengal, 1'.).") in. \VS\V.
; l)(dhi; lat. 2!l° 3(;' iN., long. 71° 12' K. It was
: taken and destroyed by Timour, in 1;{'.)M, and again
taken by the rajah of IJicanere in 1807, who re-
tained possession of it for .several vear.s.
ItllAlKUJLl'OlM:, or HOtiLrroOK, a distr.
of IliiKhistan, iirineipally in prov. liahar, but the
E. portion (liajemahal) in ISeugal, between lat.
23° 4' and 2;")° ■4!l' N., and long. «G° 1 ;"/ and 87° 81'
K., having N. 'Tirhoot and I'urneali distr.; E. the
latter and Moorshcdabad ; S. that of IJeerbhoom
'f< ll
I '
t •"
'I'll
'K :■!
410
iniAUaULPORE
BlIOOJ
nnd W. Hfthnr nnd ISnniKliiir: ItiiKth, NW. toSK.,
I.'t;( in. ; Itrcnillli, 8(1 rn.; nrcn, H/J-i;") nq. ni. I'op.
'2,<t-.MMH)(). It (MmipriNCM a territory on Im'IIi huIvh
lli(< (ianfrcH, IH divided into '22 tharnniliM, and
conlainH (lie (owns oi' Alini^uer, Kajeinalial, and
Itlianf^nlpore. S. of the (iani^'cx it iH Idily, and its
lulls are conneeted with tlu^ V'indhyan chain ; they
are in tw<i Hei>arat(( clnsterH, one in tho K., the
other in the \\ ., and eonnected hy n third lateral
ran^e : the K. hills a|i|>roaeh iieanT than any other
to the (ian^es. Ilesides this river, whieli runs
through Khani^idpore lor (id m., Ih(> ehiet' rivers
are the (iii(;),'ree and (iandahi. To the S. of the
(Jaiif,'es the streains are nient hill torrents, which,
tlion^'h wide, are usnally fordahle. 'l'\u' jliirls, or
marshes, are ncidier lar^^t- nor iiiunerons. In the
dry season their heds ar*^ often partly over^jrown
>vilh the wild rose, a si^n of the fertility of the
soil, which is. however, not nniversal, innch of
Illi.'iii};'Mlpore. even in the plains, liein^ stony and
liarc. Tlie climate is warmer than in I'nrneah.
the hills hotter than the plains. K, and \V. winds
are the most prevalent: in^'lit frosts with the latter
often occur to the S. of the. (ianges; hnt, for a
■warm climate, the \V. part is reinarkalily healthy,
mid levers are common only in the K. Vej;etaliim
very similar to that alioiit Calcutta. There are a
few wild ele))liants on the I). Iiills, hiit the most
reniarkalile (luadruped is the llanmnan ape. which
nhoimds in nnniensc numbers. (Some tribes of
jieopli^ inhabit the K. hills, dirt'erini^ f;reatly from
the rest of the population, and thouj^ht to be de-
ticendants of the aborifiincs. In person they re-
hendile tlu'other tribes oi'tlieVindhyan inhabitants;
their faces are oval, bnt not lozeiifjje-shaped, as in
the Chinese; eyes similar to those of Kuro))eans;
noses obtuse, seldom arched, but not flat ; lips full,
but not like the nefjro's. They call themselves
Mulir,ai\i\ number about .')8,00(); divided into two
«eetions, called the N. and S. mountaineers, who
differ materially in many of their manners and
customs, and do not intermarry. They are jjood-
natured, bnt not hospitable; less civilised, but in
quite as comfortable a condition as the inhabitants
t)f the h)w country; their houses are neater, and
the ornaments of their women more rnmerous and
valuable. Their chiefs were formerly much ad-
dicted to predatory descents, but have been pcn-
(iioned by the government to refrain from them.
They respect Urahmins, although of a different
religion : their own deities have neither images
nor temples. Another rude tribe, called Maiyas,
of about 100 families, live on the W. hills, and
subsist by felling and selling timber. The land
in the E. parts of this district is more fertile than
that in the VV^ : rice, wheat, garden jirodiice, at
IMungger; legumes, ricinns, cotton, and sugar-
cane, are the chief objects of cidture; about 3,000
sq. m. are under tillage. The high rice-lands are
niaiuired, and tlrill husbandry practised ; and some
of the implements of agriculture are a ilccided im-
provement upon those of liengal. The farms are
small, and sometimes cultivated by several farmers
clubbing together : most of the zeniitidar:) cultivate
their own estates, employing their poorer relatives
in the ojierative duties. 234,000 begas were once
purchased by government, to afford a land settle-
ment to veteran and invalid soldiers ; but the plan
was not found to answer, and has been given up.
Cottons, mixed cloth (silk and cotton), sugar, fire-
arms, and metallic and domestic articles, are the
])rincipal manufactures. The establishment of the
line of railway from Calcutta to the northern and
north-western provinces, which runs in part through
IJhangnlporc, has given a great impulse to com-
mercial transactions.
Portions of the four ancient countries of Augga,
(Smir, Rlithila.nnd Magadlm, are rntnnriKod in ti i
district, which contains many Hiiddhic. Itml, ,
JUS
cal, and Mohammedan antiquities.' In [ii,!"JImi
century \V. Ilhaiigulpore was seiz,.,! hv tlif M,
ems and the K. by the Hengahsc, and .Imv,', ,",",
the time of Uritish supremacy both were in ,, .,„
of constant anarchy. Cossini All iiitreiul,,.,! him'
sell in this district; but after bis works wcro ,
stroyed, in ITtlil, the Uritish don.ini,,,. w«h „ „;
H" 1 !'>'',„')' (M«'-<">'« Hist, of K. I,„ii,"
IJiiAUOui.roiii.: (the nho,h of nf, „„,.,), vixu ,.r
the al.ov(. distr., seat of a gov. nsidc'nt and ,',,'nr.
ol circuit; beautifully situated, •> ni
(iaiiges; 11(1 m. N\V. Sloorshednbad : -J
Calcutta, with a station on the I'a
30,(1(10, chietly IVIohamniedans. Tlie <ii\ nivcrs
a great extent of ground, but is nieiinlv Im'ili nm
sisting of scattered market-places, hnd'ly Mi|,'|,li,,|
and inconveniently placed on decliviiics ((,'
greatest ornanieiits are the lluropemi and mVsI,,,,
idaces of worship; the hitler are of l.ri.k, ami
amongst the handsomest in the prov., aid'
small and some of them niinoiis: the
Miirl
S. .it 11,,,
-lOiii. N\v.
■■*! Indian niii-
;;»
nioninnciit
of lloseyn Khan, a sqiiaa' hnilding with live nnt
domes, is worth notice. There are a. gaol and
hosiiital, a Mohammedan Arabic college, and an
English sehoid. The Homan Catholics, |)artlvdc-
si'cndants of the Portuguese and partly niitivn
Hindoos, have a small church. A nioiuiincnl in
the memory of Mr. Cleveland, by the couinil i,|'
liengal and the iiihab. of iJliaugulpore, has Ihch
erected about 1 m. from the town. A little t(i tlu'
NW. are two remarkable round towers, respcciini'
which no tradition exists, but they continue in he
visited by the Jahi sect. Uhaiigidpore is cnilHH
somed in groves of palmyra, tamarind, and niaiifin;
its vicinity abounds with swelling hills, and is ix-
treniely fertile, well cultivated, and healthy. Its
trade has much increased since the o)icniiig (jf tho
line of railway which connects it with Calcutta,
which took place Nov. 1, 18(!1.
lUIOOJ, a city of llindostan, prov. Ciitoli, of
which it is the modem cap.; built about two cen-
turies ago, in a jilain S\V. of a hill called HlKiojan,
60 m. NE. the Indian Ocean ; lat. 2;$° liV N.,liin"
G1)0 o2' E. Pop. about 20,000. From the N. the
city has an imjmsing ap|)carance ; its white build-
ings, mosques, and pagodas being intennixcd with
plantaticms of date-trees ; but the interior has a
very different appearance. It is surrounded by n
liigh, thick, and ^vell built stone wall, Haiikcil wth
round and square towers, mounted with artillen-,
Streets narrow and dirty, and turning at shiirp
angles : houses generally within strong walled en-
closures, provided with loopholes, and each form-
ing in itself a complete fort. The ]ialace is a well-
built castle, adorned with sevenil cupcilas, and
domes covered with enamel in the Chinese style;
temples numerous, many of them large, and present-
ing a multitude of elaborate decorations. Kvcry-
wliere are seen memorials of suttee and (itiier
immolations : the mausoleum of l{ow Laeka,
grandfather of the present niler, and of a lady who
ascended his funeral pile, is the most remarkable,
and would be considered a beautiful ornament in
any I'^uropean city. Some others are in Mixirish
architecture, worked up with stucco to resemble
marble. The hill Bhoojan is surmounted by ex-
tensive but ill built fortilications, which are no
protection to the town; they enclose a temple de-
dicated to the Nag, or cobra-de-capello. This fdrt
was taken by escalade by the Uritish, in 1819.
W. of the city, and close to the walls, there is a
large tank or pool ci^ntaining an elevated terrace,
formerly a place of recreation for the chiefs; but
BlIOPAUL
ihobHililinK* "''*' ""^ '" "''""• B'looj is cclcbrntcil
(,, ii.H ^r(,l(| and Hilvcr workH.
llllOl'AL'I,, a Htnt« of IlimlnHtan, trihiilnry to
,h» |(ritiHl>> |>rov. Mnlwn niiil (iiiiiilwAiiikh ; Ih>-
,,,*ii lft«. 'i'^ a"' »•'"• '^'^° ■*"' N., and limfj. 7(10
411'Hml "It" '"'M JiBviiiK N, mill W. Sfiiidia's dum, ;
1' ami S. tliiwe of tlie |)rcsid. of Itcn^nl ami tlic
\Vrliiiil'l« river, wlii<'li furms ilM piitirc S. Ixmn-
JirM lt:n(,'th, K. to VV., 145 m., f^'rontcut brciidlh
iiiin.i »ri'i», (),772 Hq. m. The country is full <if
jiiiij;],.!!, and imeveii ; the chief rniine of the Viii-
JliviUi iiioiintftiiiHiiiterMcct>iits S. portion ; but the
Miil is ncncriiUy ftirtile, cspeeiiiUy in the viillcys,
aid watered liy nnmcroim HtreiiiiiH. The rulinfj
Niiiilc lire I'litunH, e.stiihliHlied here hy Aiirunnzelte
laflv in the IHth centiirj', luid of course Mahoni-
iniiiiiiH. In \M2, the vizier Mnhotned made a
vi;'iircpun ilel'ence iiKainst Sciiidia, the rnjah of
Itor, and the I'iinlarrieH; hut on his death, in
l.sli;, llie Uritish interfered to protect his doni.,
aiiil iIk' Marquis of Hastings conferred on his suc-
ii.^,iir, Nussecr AFahonied, in 1H17, a coiisideralile
|,art lit' the jireseut territory in reward for his
li,.;iflv co-operation with the Itritish. It was then
iiliiiiatcd that in live years the revenue of the
fiiah would increase to nearly iJO lacs a year.
lliiimiml continues in a tranquil, and evidently
BICANERE
447
|,t,i.i)('roiis condition,
Diioi'AiJi., the cap. of the above state, placed on
the Ijtunulary between Malwa and (iiindwanah,
lai. 2:|0 17' N., Ion;,'. 77° ;}()' K. ; 1 10 in. K. Oojein ;
3111 m. t<W. Allahabad. It is surrounded by a
>iiinc wall, but is in a dilapidated state, as well as
usiilmrb, and a Hindoo fortress at its SVV, ex-
iKiiiitv. There are two considerable tanks im-
mediately adjoining it, from which two rivers
tale tlicir rise.
lillUKTl'ORE, a small territory of Ilindostan,
pifiv. Affra, including the small |>er^unnah Tanna ;
shape somewhat triangular, having NE, the Uritish
(Imn.; SK, those of .Scindia; and W, the raJptKtt
ftateof Macherry: area, 1,!»4G sq. m. It is ndia-
hiiwl by Jauts, who migrated from the banks of
the Iiuiiis, ami settled here alnnit 1700, and \vho
have assumed to themselves the title of the mili-
tarr caate, and their chief that of rajah. The soil
(if lilmrtpore is light, but well watered and culti-
vated: cotton, corn, and sugar, are the chief agri-
fiiliural products. Wood is very scarce and dear ;
ihehduscs are all of red sandstone, and the villages
in good condition and repair. Wells are nume-
twis, and constructed by building the masonry
first, wliich is afterwards undermined and sunk.
The (icacock is an object of veneration. The chief
towns are lihnrtpore and Deeg. Large quantities
iifsalt are produced from brine springs atCombher,
liilTliK this territory was at its greatest extent;
arotching along the course of the Jumna river,
friim near Delhi to Etawah ; but the greater por-
tiuii was soon after conquered by Nudjiff Khan,
In 182(), having been usurped from its riglUful
sivcreigii, the British interfered and took the
capital, since which it has been under their pro-
te('ti(in.
BiiuitTPORE, the cap. of the above territoiy. and
seat of its rajah, 31 m, NW, Agra ; lat. 27° 17' N.,
1 ng, 77" 23 E. It is about 8 m. in circum., and
w formerly surrounded by a mud wall (!0 ft.
thick. Hanked by many bastions, and defended by
a stmii),' fort ; but the.se fortifications have been
mostly blowni up and demolished. This city was
Ut with part of the spoil pillaged by the Jauts
trim the baggage of Aumngzebe's army during
iitlast march to the Doccan, and l)ecame after-
wards a celebrated mart for military stores. It
resisted with great vigour the forces of Lord Lake,
vhulost, in 1805, 3,100 men under its walla ; but
it nt lost capitulated to him. In 182r> it was
stormed aixl taken by Lord Coinbennere from thn
usurper l)tH)rjun Sfil, wlit-ii the fircscnt rajah Mul-
wtnit Sing, was establislied in its jMmsession.
(lleber's Narrative, ii. ;jr)7-;j(>0,)
HiAtiGIO (ST,), a ti>wii of Southern Italy,
l)rov, (iirgenti, 3 m. W, Xicustro, I'op, 2,107 !ii
1802, Its situation is insalubrious, ami it sutTcrcit
severely from an earthquake in 1783, Its terri-
tory produces good wine, and has some mineral
springs,
IMALYSTOCK (Huss, Bji'huUwk), a circle, or
administrative! division of Russia in Kurojte, form-
ing part of the goverutniii toft irodno. Area, ',\,VM\
s(i. m. Top. about 2i>0,ll(l0. Surface! Hat, with
some slight undulations; soil gciuTally sandv,
but fertile. It is bounded on the S, by the \V.
Hug, a navigable althient of the Vistula", which is
its principal chauiu'l of comiuiuiication. Forests
extensive and valuable, but much dilaipiclatcd,
through want of proper regulations as to their iiia-
liagcineiit. Agriculture is almost the only employ-
nu'iit; and considerabh! i|uaiitities of corn, espe-
cially rye and wheat, with linseed, hops, ami
timber, are sent to Uanlzic and I'llliiiig, 'I'liit
nobles are very numerous, being estimated to
amount to 0,000 families, or nearly .50,000 indi-
viduals ; but the great bulk of them are steeped
in jHtvert}-, many being compelled to cultivate
their little patches of land with their own hands,
or hire themselves to others. Manufacturing in-
dustry is all but unknown, and only th(! most
common and indispensable trades are carried on.
(Schnit/.ler, La Uussie, p, r).'»7,)
IJiAi.YSTocK, a town of Russia in Europe, cap.
prov, same name; lat, W.]P 7' 35" N., long. 23° 18'
E. I'op. 13,)!30 in 1858. It is a handsome town ;
houses of brick, with the gables to the streets,
which are straight and well jiaved. The castle of
Count ISranicki is the distinguishing feature of
the town.
lUAXA, a to. of Ilindostan. prov, Agra, territ.
Hhurtpore, 50 m, WSW, Agra, lat, 25° 57' N.,
hmg, 77° 8' E, It stands at the foot of a hill, the
ridge of which is covered with the remains of
buildings, including a fort and a high pillar, con-
spicuous at a great distance. The town is large,
contains many stone liouses, and a good bazar.
It preceded Agra as the cap. of the prov. and is
often mentioned in the memoirs of the Em p.
Baber.
BIBERACn, a town of Wllrtcmberg, circ.
Danube, cap. bailiwick, in a fertile valley, on the
Kies, 22 m. SSW. Ulm, on the railway Irom Ultn
to the lake of Cemstance. I'op. 5,720 in 18(!1.
The town is encircled by walls flanked with
towers, and has four churches, among them the
parish church of St. Martin, with some fine fresco
paintings, a college, three schools, and a well
endowed hospital. Some branches of the linen
and woollen manufactiu-es are carried on, and
there are numerous tanneries and breweries, and a
bell-foundry. The mineral waters of Jordansbad
are at a short distance from the town. It is the
birthplace of Wieland; and in 17!)(j the French,
under Moreau, defeated the Austrians in its vici-
nity.
BICANERE, or BICKANEER, a territ. of
Hindostan, prov. Rajpootana, divis. Marw.-ir,
chiefly between lat. 27° and 29° N. ; having N.
the Bhatty country ; S. the Jondpoor and Seypoor
dom. ; E. Hurriana and the Shehawutty country,
and W. Jesselmerc and the great desert, of which
it forms a part : area, 18,000 sq. m. The surface
is elevated, but fiat, sandy, and destitute of water
where not irrigated by wells,which are from 100 to
200 feet deep. The crops are very precarious,
ij I
; i'
! 1 A\
449
UICANMKK
mill ^'rrillly ilrpi'llilrlll till lllf lirrioilii'iil niillM ;
mill wnltT is riircriilly |irisrrvrii in ci-.
II
iliiiith iiml nlllrr lllil
Iv lll'lii'lrs I'liitMl, till
mil |iiii'<i' nil' iiiiiiiiN
I III
11 r IK crNxjirirs 111 iiiir siiii
lllillilil'iirliir\ , iillil
\\llirll llir NlllilllrrrliisM nf \
I'liril I'i'Kiii I III' roiili^iiinis |>riiv. ('I'lir-'i' iiiiil liiir
riri' lire iiii|ini'|('il rrniii IjiIiihi' ; wliriil rrniii Jcy
piicir; Hiill rinni ( 'onililirr; HpiiTM, rii|i|>i'i', iiml
I'lMii'Mt' I'Intli t'riiin •li'.'-Nrliiii'ri'. 'I'Im' ullirr iiii|ii>rl'4 ! '•iiijili' luir (nit IIaksstai'm'
ilri'H. mill a mi'IiumI Hii|i|iiirli'i| liv u,,, ,|
Am i'iiiIiiwmI liiiM|iiiiil iiiiiiiiliiiiiN kimii
l<i>|M's, NiiiJH, mill M niiiNiili riilil
'""I'llllTM,
"k'lil
<• i|iiiiiilii\ (,('
I r,
null <'iirlliiii\Miri', lire iiimiiiriKiMri'il ; ij |
I'l.Hl'ls
Iiiiili
111" III-,
\ iiiiiilv Mil' lull yiirils. 'I'll.. |,nrt i, widij,', |,
ii(;"f. "I'"""' "'"' ''"'"K" • liiTNi'smiil IiiiII(ii'Km I lur m'xm'N uI' 'Joii Ihhh hm |„r
Mil'
oC mi inrcrinr lirrril mr iiriirh llir snli- <'\|Mirl
I, mill is
II n I
in'ri's-ilil,.
ml 'J,\ 111. iiliiiM' wliii'li ||||. 'I
lis III,. |,r|,|.
lliiiiiu'ii' mill ('Imnri) me llir rliii llnw lis. Ill l.'^IH nil Ill's uitli III). riviT, Ships ,\f lar
llii. riijiili Mils iiiliiiitlnl iiiiiirr Iti'ilisli |iriilri'liiiti, i til Applriliirr. lis priiiripul iinpuii
nrriiiH
KIT
Inn (
l,'i' ;
:immI
l/i' lllll<>:i,|
llu.VM.Ili:, llii' I
III' llir illiiiM' ilol
il ; tiiiilirr. I'l'iiiii I III' II,
rrsiilniiT III' its riijtili, in llif linlitni iIi'sitI ; °J|i) ' tVniii llrislul nml W'nl
Hill' mill Irmii ('.'iimii
mill
misi-i ,,r
.'111-.
Illl.
W.'sW. Ui'llii, mill I l.'i Ml. NNW. Ajliinr; , rulmiiiil piuiliirc. rinm llrislul uiiil nil
UniriTlis iiliil i.ili,
N., 1.1
;(0
II r iiiirt^.
!■',. Il is I'liriilinl liy II I iliirf I'xpnrls mi. snils, tiirilii';!.. mul uriirl
Niroii;; Willi slii'ii^;llii'iii'il « illl iiiiiiiv r.iiiiiil lii«rrs, ).;(iii'iiil supply, Inr Ilii' Nrwrniiiiilliiinl ii.,||,
mill r.iiilriisis iiiip.isiiiM|y wiih ili.. ilrs.iliilinii luiU luiiK, In Iri'liiii.l ; I'liiilii'Mwnr... i.. \\'
mil il. \\ lli.'ll is IIS ^iTiil lis lliiil .if Illl' \\ ililrsi I'ni'ti mill llnnr, in Itnslnl, '11
iili'>
IS |i|
illhl
Ir.'icl 111' .VfJilii.l. I'M'i'pl nil ils N. siili', wlnlr lliiTi' ' purl, ill |Hli;i, iiniiiil
is II WiHi.lr.l \;illr\-. IM.isI nl' llii- ilwillili^'s ill lli<
ili;^
I'I'I' I'llll'IVll III
Inwii III'.' III. '11' iiiiiil lulls piiiiih'.l r.'il : iIiiti' mi'
mhih' l.illv «liilr liniisi's nil. I l.'iiipl.s ; nml nl niir
t'lirili'l' 11 .illlil.'l lllinill \ III. s(|.. |.||.'(i||ipils-.(.i| liy II
>Mll
I'lls.
;i(i r.
Il{;ll, till. I II |..,.
il .In ilil.'li, ti ('.Hi-
ll' I nw CIS III 1. 1 li.llll.'llirllls. n\. r
Inpp.il liy .rnW.I.'.l lliill :.'s. Ils In si si'Clirily is
ill III!
silir.ilv 111 \Mllrl' III I lie .•nilllll\ lirnlllli
IIU'I'.S ri'.li, ti pnr. till. I liivMi 111' i'luvlninl,
()\liiril. Iiiiiiil. I'l.iii^.,lil.'y.
NW. Il
Knililii
uiiy.
ill l.'^ll
nil iIh' 1,1111. Inn nil. I N.iilli W'.'sl.'i'ii iiiil
Mss.'ls .il' (I l.ilnl
l<> nlli.'inl nlii
riis
loiiliilKr II
r ;;."..i;i;!
I linn wiTc ".111 sl.'iiin.'rs. .il' li.r, l-j
\lllU||;,
I'Mii'il, ill lilt' siiini' ycnr, •..'•Jl v.'sscis, .if {•_>(
Inns lllir.l.'ll. Illl'lll.llll;^
sli'iinii'i's.
III.'
Il
liirllnn.l
I.'
•mill' iiiiiiiliir i,f
piii'l iiprnis III. IS.' .i|' (I,,
ill ils jiiris.li.'ii.in. jis
tilVtiiis nr.. iiitiiiiij;iil I'V ii intivnr. Ilii.
IMIll IWcUt' .'.llllll illnl'-
IV
iiiiiiii.i|i,'il
I' iililiriiii II,
i'\ inllslv In II
ripnl II. 'I (."i iV (1 W. IN'. «'. Til), il wn's
II' iiiiiiii
liiirl.r .i|
Hi .III
I.
r'liilinnin^j iin.l ,.m
Ar.'ii 111' pnr.
t ; 111' liiwn.
Jilni'i'i's.
'I' pnr. II.OP.l
II pri'viniiM mil' (III I'ili/nlii'lli). 'I'Ik
\ 'I'll.' low II is will liiilll
on ji siiitillslntiin. llinl j.iiiis lli.. ('linrwrll nl Islip.
ii'i'h. Iiiiill ill i It'll, nil Illl' sill' nl' nil ol.l.r
'I
mil'. I'niilniiis iiiniiv muiriil iiiniiiini.nis. mul Inis
I.'
Ill
ri'M'iin.' .Incs n.il I'x.'i'ci
r.o/.
inillll'.;
iir|iiirjiii..n
ti ycnr. ilrnvcil (
l.'ii.iiuiils ill 111.' Ii.irnnuli : Hi.. ,|nny ilii.s li.l
111 I lie I.inl nl'ilii' iiiminr. nml nr.' r('j;iiliii..(| \v
II. I pnssi'.l in \X->H. Ititl.l'.iril issl\l..|| nl
r.'iM
ill I III' SlIMHI ll'.'nfll
II
II
Inl'lv (iiwcr, 'I'licri' i
S 11 .
Iinril\
,'li<
, wll.'ll
s.iil in.'iiili.'i's
',\0 li.iys nr.' .'I.illir.l nml r.ln.nli'il : iiinl nnnllirr
I'nr till' insiiiirii.ni nf I'.O uirls, 'I'll.' w.'iKlv innrki'i
I'l.l
I'
w. nml iinnnnl I'nirs mi hinslcr
Triilny, I si I'riilny in .Inn.
III. I iMii'lini'lnins. tin. I 'J Inlli
;•. ."i. I''ri.ltiy iil'lrr
i''riilti\s. mill Illl'
Isi |''riilin' ill Di.'. : llirv iirc I'nr .'tillli'. mul Imlli
I'liirs till. I intiiKi'l tiri' wril till..|iil.'.l
h-^
>rn\llllll V
IIS 111), rnilwtn .
;i\ ('
to (III' ONl'.ini ('mini, ns wi
il s.'iiii' liiisini'ss ; lull iin pnrii.'iiltir inminl'n.'lnrcs
lire cnrri.'.l on. I'xi'.'pl lliiil nl' limii' Itici' liy ii I'l'w
I'l'iiinli's. mill Illl' liri'wiiii; nl' iilc iinlc.l l.ir ils cx-
ci'll.'ii.'i'. Till' |>tir. is (Ihi.l.'.l inln l«.i Inwnsliips,
Kind's Mini, nml MiirKtl I'.ii.l. In lln' liillcr lln-
town is silnnl.'.l.
lUOAt'll I'.. 11 liiwii nf l''rmi.'<'. (Ii'p. Ilnsscs Pyre'
II. .il'C. iliiriiii;- 111.' r.'i;;ns nl' I'Mwiml I.
lilll f;rili|i;ill;,^ llin I'Np.'l
iiir.iii^li
1 llir
tlllll II.,
I"-!' Wllli'll tills (il.';|,.i,,
il ji'il nlii'vctl rrmii wlinl wns linn d
lii'iivv liiiiili'ii, nil. I litis 111'. 11 (li.l'ni
crllii'ij II
III l'J7l il nliliiin.'il 11 innrl
'Xpi'.liii.iiis iimlcr l.'nliirli nml i;
I mill liiir,
riivilli'
'I'l
Ctirnliiiti, iipp.'iir I.I litivi' .iriL^iiinlnl ils|',.ivi-
.•.iinnii'ii'.', SilU wctivii'^ «tis iiili-.i.iiiiril in \i
mi. I in l('i.s,'> tiimiv rrciu'li ri'l'i
mill in.'rctisi'il iis trtul.'
A I
Ifi'i'i's s.'lllri
II.' .'IllM'
III'I'S, Ctl)
r ^
g'.iiul .|iiiirrii'?
. .'tinl., nil Illl' 11
i/c, \S III. I'",. Hiivmint'.
idti in l.'^dl. In ilio lu'iiililiniirli.i.i.l
iiri'
Iill)i;i"Oi;|). II son-pnii. linr..
Imiil,
IV
li
in. I )iiir. n
r I'.iiij
(■.'iiliirv ils Ncxvrnini.llmi.l Innli' Iiml In
l..|isi\('; iiii.l I'.ir Illl' lirsl li.iH'nriln' iNlli .'.iiinrv
ils illlpnrls 111' Inlini'.'n wire Hilly I'X.'.'iijcil liv
tlinsi'nr |,.in<l<iii, |>r, Sln'lili.'jirc. nrpniiiplil.ic.r.
iii^V iinlnri.'U-, AMIS n iinli\.' .if |ii.|i('nii|,
llll)S('IIO\\',,irllll)/n\V, nl.mii.il'li.ili.ini;,,
cup. rirc. mi (lir ('/i.llinn, II! in. W. K.iiii;:r.ilz,
r.ip. .''i.rj.'l in \H:u. .\ vmicly ..l' pr^■^■i.l|ls^lllll(S
nr.' t'.iiiii.l ill Illl' iii'i'^liliniirliii.iil.
IHKLKK, n lown nf liii-jsin in V.
Slii'lilii'tirc. mi III.' 'I'nr- 'rmilti. .in I he Okn. .M! in. S\V. Tmi
ridp', iilinnl 1,^ 111. iilinvi" wlicrc il iiiiiics wiili ilu'
j'sinnry of llio '\':\\\ : \Xi^ in. \V. liy S. Lmi.l.in. mi
«i lirtuuli nf ill.' Tiiw \'nli' niihMiy. Pup. ;"),7I'! in
I.'<i'il, n^niusi .VJI 1 in l.*<ll.
I'll:
rri'tili'r imrl nl
the lown Sinn. Is mi nn ncclivily on llic W. of llic
riviT, mill is f.iniu'ilo.l willi ils K. .li vision liy n
^lono liri.lm" .if 'J I nrclii's. liiiilt in tin' lllli ccn-
tnrv.
Il
lllO 111
iiisisi.s cliiclly of two spncioiis sircils:
llionjili iinprnvcil, nrc. for llu' ninsi
jinrt, lint iinlilVi'rcnt slriu'inrcs. Iti'si.K's ilv
cliiircli (in llio I'lirlicr (inlliic slylc'l. tli(> lltiplisl?
Iii.li
<'|ll'Illl01IIS,
(I W'l'slovmis, litivo cliinK'Is.
'riu'iv is a 11. 'Ill t.iwii-liiill, nil. I minllior litill. wiili
a si'liool. is nltnclu'.l. lu'lmif;inj; to llio trnsicos of
lilt' llriilf^o I'sinlc. Hciii^' a plnco of frctpii'iil iv-
ssiirt frniii Ilic lU'iulilioiirinj; ■\vaU'riiij;-ln\vn of
AppU'ilnro. it litis juilili.^ assciiilily-rootiis. 'I'lic
river is i)wcd liy a line iiiiny. I.L'IIU t'l. in li'iif;lli,
lirna.l mill (■.mvcnicni. ll lins an iiiuii'iil cmlowi-.l
grannntir-si'lionl, ii national si'lmol for ;((J(I cliil-
W
in l.'s.i.'^. This nm'i.'iit l.iwii is, iifi.'r 'rniilii. ilu
most iinporltiiil in tl
11' pivcriiini'iii.
Tl
cnrrv nn n .'onsiilcrnhlc ('niiiniiii'i'.
I!'IK1J';I'"I':I,|). n town nf Prnssimi Wi'..<l]iliiili,i,
cup. lire, ll.s 111, I'",. Miiiisi.'r mi 111.' itiihvtiy rrmii
Dilssi'l.l.iif to llmiovcrmi.l llnnihnn^ l'ii|i. hi.sjil
in iJ^iil, cxi'liisivo of n ^'inisnii nf ii'27, 'I'lic imvii
is mn< nf tlio inost lliri\iii,i; in NVcsi.'rn l'ni»i;i,
hin iii^' more than ilmililcl its p.i|iiiliiliiiii in tin'
cniirsc of I wciily yciirs. It litis cxcclU'iil lilcniliiii;'
jrrniin.lsmiil oxii'tisivi' iiimnifncliir.'s .if Iliri'iiiliin4
linen. It is ilef.'mle.l liy a rninpnrt nii.l ilili-
liii.l, liesi.U'sC'nlhnlie anil Prnleslniil elniri'lics, li;is j
a syntipifitii' anil mi orplinii tisyliiiii. Ilisiili'-
lirnleil for its tohneeo iiijies nin.li' ..f (■.•irliiiitiin
ninj;nesiM. and known in e.iiniiierec hy llii' ii:iiiio
of iriiiiiv lie iiiir. nr mivrsvluiiim,
lill'.l,<i(,)|{()l) (Hiiss. Iij,hiori)il), 11 liiMii iif
I'".iirn|H'nii linssia. ^jov. Koiirsk, cap, .lisiricl, mi
the D.iiiitz. m 111. f>. Koiirsk. Pop. f<,l'JUiii 1K>.
It inn«i^tK of mi
.,',iirl>K, linns.. H
Whilr tiiirn, is ilcr
i:,i lil«ilirllii.lll,
iiii:i,ri'/, II loM
.sili'.iii, Illl llio Kiiili
,.,;ioiii iM^i?. 'I'll!
u'li I'f n PnilcNliiiii
II. iiirixilii'liiiii Alorii
|III:M,A, n (own
Mill iiiiiiiil,, on llir
mi,! |iiirtly mi (lir il
\i;, Ivrril, nil (I liril
liiriiilii Milmi. Pi
j, ||||. ni'tll nf 11 liiNiin
lnHliiH|iiliils, mill a
,>ill,Mlliil pnper,
lilKl.n (»/l',i:o.
|;ii--i.'i in Miirnpi', f>
i:. I'iIiisIiiiikIi. 1 1
^T'lil'"! Il'll,l,'lll lleill;
lifl'lllllll '.'11 III. lis I
f|;n, wliii'li. ihiriiiy;
niiiiiii';ili"< ils I'niniir
ji". In iiiiiim' is ilm-
mimII 'iv.'i's ; ils Miirp
llirCllrXIIII, till iilllni
illl! p'tiiTiillv liiiipi.
i'li.
lliliUt/MI.'SK.n
piv, Xiivpirnil, S, sii
laii.'ilHliicli, liy iiK'iin
slili'>ltiiti, iiiiiii's till'
l'.|i. I,:i;il ill lNr)7.
Iinml. in liirlilicd, ami
IIIKOK, a town i
llillvslnk, 70 111, S,S1
I>'i7, 'I'lic (own is w(
fmv riisliiiii-limisi', i
HiLiliiitili' of Iticlsk, o
no, 'fills is mi)> of
an i'\riiiili.i|,
lill^NNI':, or IIIKI
m\. liiriii', ill n ferlih
liii'.'iiM, iirnr llii. lake
«a> lr„iii N'(.||fe|„|(,,| (,
ir, 'I'lic .Siizi' llowHilii
«<WI). 'J'lic railway
iliciiiijiiirltiiii lowiiN("if
cininiisjiiiii, with six
likirv, H-liicli was pi I
r.'iiiiiin,^ III pri'scMl, on
i'lvry iiiii'ii'iii : prcvii
mill iiiil(.|ii'Mi||.n( ciiv ;
uiiiii'il til Kniiicc, aiiii
Unii',
Illl' Itikc of Iliniii,.
fluill; ll('i||>r iiIhuiI, I
'"■■"Illl. It is mil, pi
XI "cry, tlllll owes ils i
l*"if:wiiliiai( tin) i^i
"I l.'"ll>.S('tl||,
""■•iAIt, a villa^r,
'; I". .SW. Kilinliiir^li.
wliHii (1117 iiitili's ami ;
'■nii;:i;,.ir, in whieh |h(
"rri'iiiiiri|.s li(.,.|| (ii( ,
f"niiirly I'jirls of WjJi
mn piiri, „f it, .stiif
>W.Mlii..||y „(• ,„„, „.i,|,
« I'llipliiyiiiciif nf III
"■'■iviiif; llir 111,. (;|,,SK.
jl'i'^'li is ft vonoral,!,.
''''!'• lliiTciirc also (1
'f'W' bank, ami ||
lilUil.KSWADi.; a
Vni.. I.
'l'
IIIKMTZ
{I ctiii"!^!''* "f in cilil iimt iH'W louii mill lliri'o
,,!iiirl«. lliiiiHcM iiimhiIv 111' uimhI, Ii-* iimiih',
]l hill III"'" > ^^ iltrivnl trniii 11 t'liiilk liill in (lir
|„|_|||Hll|flll"lll.
IHI'.I.IT/. '• •""■'• "'" •'"' AiiMlriini SliitrM, in
y,;,<l;i. III! lli*< Kiiilii, hi Ml. I''.\l''.. 'ri'Tlii'n. I'oii.
.,:ii)in l^''>7. 'I'l«' town i.s well Imill, luul U I lie
„.ii il n IViiIohIimiI I'lMiHiNliirv, wliirli Iiiim iiiiiIit
:i. iiirisilii'lion Miiritvi/i iiinl Ansiritin Sili'Miii,
IIIKM'A, iHiiwn of Niirdirrn lliilv, ritp. priiv.
luiil iniiiiil.. on llir Crrvo, juirlly mi llii' Hiiiniiiii
111,1 {iiirtly I'll (Ik' ilcrlivilv nl' ii ninnnliiiii, 12 in.
M. jvrrli.iin a liramli line nf ilir riiilwin' t'lniii
liniilii Miliin. I'i.|i. ".i.mihi in \h:,h. Wn'. town
i. ilii' .ii'iil III' II liiHliii|iric ; liiiN I'lMir iiiiriMJi rlinrrlicH,
!»., |iM«|iiliilH, Mild a <'<ill('|{)'; anil iirmlncrH linciiH,
.ilk-, mill piii'iT.
Illjl.O (i/i;i!(>, iir Wlirri'', I.AKI',. h IuKi- of
|;ii..|ii ill l'!iir(i|M'. C'V. N<i\j;iiriiil, iiImhiI 210 m.
{. IMiT'-liiir^'.ll. Il i^ <>r (III rlli|ilii';il .sli,'i|ir, il-i
r,,!'-! Ii'ii;;lli liriii;j liriirly 'Ml, iiliil i(M );ri iilrsl
limiillli '.'I' ni. llH liiitliiin cun.-iHl.M nC ii wliiliMli
ol;n, wliiili. iluriiiy; (i'Iiiih'mI s wiiiIIht, rum
ii;iiiiii';il('s ilsriiliilir to llir wiiirr, ulii'iicr, ilmilil
li... ih iiiiiiii' is ilnivi'd, 1 1 n riivcs iiiiiiirrniis
Miiill 'ivci-' ; ils MiiriiliiH wiiIith iiri' nirrinl nil' liy
ihi'l'lii'Miii. ini iillliii'iil III' llii' \\'uli;ii. It is il('i|i,
)iii| p'liiTtillv liin|iiil, ami is avcII sliirKnl with
li.h.
jliKLdZI'.Ii'SK, a town of l.nssia in iMiriiiic,
tiiV, Siivpiroil, S, sidi' nl' tlic nlmvc lake, iiii a
i;iii,il»liicli, liy iiit'iiiiN of till' rivers Knwska and
slili'sknn, unites the llallic Uliil tlie <'Ms|iiiiii Sea.
|V|i. I.lilll in iHi"!?. 'I'lie town liMs a ensile, or
Lri'iiil, is I'urtilied, and lias snine trade.
jllKI.SK, a town of iMiropeaii IJiissia, )irov.
Hi;ilysliik. 7(1 III. SSW. (Iroilno, rop. .'(,177 in
1m;. 'i'lie linvii is well linilt. paved, has a hand
yiiii' rilsldin-honse, and ^'ave its iiaiiie lo llie
{«li!iii!ili' III' Itielsk, ol' wliieli il wnsti ap. till
i;:Ci, 'i'liis is OIK- of the towns rnun wliiih ,le\vs
an r\('iiiil('il,
jlir.NNK, or llll'.l,. a (own of Swil/erland,
i^iil, Itiriir, in a t'erlile little plain at the I'!. I'liot ol'
llii' .liini, near the lake of ISieiine, and on the rail-
«;iylriiiii N'ciifehalel lo Heme, It! in. W.of tiie lut-
I r, Till' Siize Hows throu^li the town. I'op. .''i,',»7;(
in ji'iid. 'I'lie railway eoiiiieets the place with all
ilii'im|iorl,'iiil towns of 8wit7.erlaiid. It has a K'x'd
LMiiiiibiiiin, with six |)rofessors. The pnlilie
lilirnry, wliirli was plundered in t1i<^ revolution,
Mihiiiis lit present, only 2,.''i(IO voliiines. Ilieniu'
i-viry iiiu'ieiit : previously to \7',)H, it was a free
iiiil liiili'|H'iiileiil city; lint in that year it was
liiiiii'il Id France, and, in iMiri, to ihe cant, of
jlnic.
Till' Like of Itiennc extends aloni; (lui Jura
(liiiiii: liciii^r iiIniiiI. Ill ni. in len;;th liy ',i in
kaiilli. It is not. pre-einiiieiit for lieaiily of
Nvmry, 1111(1 owes its cclclirily |iriiicipally to its
liaviii^rwiiliiu it the isle of !St". I'cter, the' retreat
111 lliiiisscmi.
llllKIAIi, n villajje of Scotland, co. Lanark,
'J: 111, SW. Milinhiirgh. I'op. 1,118 in isill, of
»liiiii Ilil7 mules and 7Ml leinah's. 'I'lie haroiiy
"f ill,i,%'iir. ill whicli the villaf^e is sitnaled, has
Ir iriiiiiries hecii the property of the l''leniiii/.,'s,
("niiirly Marls of \Vi.i,'loii, to' which family the
(.TiMlM part (if it. slili l)elon(,'s. 'riic, iilace! coii-
*t,< I'liicliy (if one wide and spacious street. The
iliifl' ('iiiiikiynicnt of the iiilialiilant.s is cotton
»favlii),' I'lir the (Jlasj^ow market. Tlie parish
iliimh is a veiiprahle (iothic edilice, hiiiU, in
Ui\, Tlicre are also two dissent iii^ cliapels, a
!jviii|,'s' bank, niul three puhlic; Mul)scri[)tion
rarii'^.
lil'itil.KSWADi;. a par. and town of Kiiglnnd,
\(ii,. I.
lUJANAnru
440
CO. Medl'onl, hiitid. Ilip;leswade, Il "1. NNNV.
I.oiidiiii on the lirial Nnrtliirii railway. Area
111 par. I. ■.'■.'(! aires; pup. of par, \X>'-'>\, of Inwii
l.oj; in \Hi;\, Thr town is sitiiali d mi the ixrvnl
North mad, hy the Ivel, over which there is li
stmie lirid;^;e. IIoiim's chielly hriik, Mild have n
neat, niodern aiipearaiice. The ehiirch isa<iollii<!
liitildiii);, loiiiiiicd in I'illo, and extensively re-
paired in IH.'I'J. There are two free h.'IiooIs, oiin
for twelve, tl thi'r for cinlit hoys: a elmrily,
prodnciii^r .'Iliii/. a year, supports them, and is ap-
plied also in viirimis other specilied inodi's. The
river is imvi^alile to the town, liy which means, iiiid
the railway, it is siipplinl with coals, tinilier, and
corn. The weekly market, mi Wednesday, is oik^
of Ihe lar^',csl in" l'',iif;laiid for corn. There urn
live aiiiiiial fairs; l''eli. II, .Saturday in l'iii-<ter
week, Whit IMmiday, Am,'. '_', ami Nov, K. Tliire
is a .>-mall maiiiil'.ii'liiri' of thriiid lace, enipliiyiii;^
sonic fciiiali's, and a Mt(aiii llmir mill. A petty
se.'^siolls fur I lie three iiei^;lilioiiriii^' hiimlreils m
held ill the liiwii.
III.I.W.Mil'li (rijiii/iiiiiifiiini, Ihe <'ily of
Iriiiiiiphi, ,\nn \i!ii(iM>Y (I 'anarc-'e), or Ai.I'a I'NA,
an aiie. and cileli. city of I liiiilnsiaii. jirnv. Ilcja-
piinr, iiCcilpN ill;;' liiilll liailksiif t he Tiinlli' ''ililltl ;
that part of il mi tlieS.I',. Iiaiik only liciii;^ prn-
pcrly called llijaiianiir, and li(l(iii^,'iii(C to the lliit-
i.-^li (Imn., iircsid. ,^lallras; 117 in. SSI''.. Ilejiipimr,
27 III. NW, Itellary; lal. I.V^ I I' N., ImiK.^t'.'^ 117'
v.. It wiis forinerly the inetropolis of It kiii|;'diim,
which, in li'ilj, comprised the two ('anilities,
aliove and liclow the (ihaiits, and is said to have
then lieeii 21 III, ill circ, : this portion of the tMiii-
Joiiicd cities IS now alimit K in, in circ, nearly iiil-
inhaliiled, and in ruins; these, however, are all of
K'l'aiiile, and fan xccl in exiciil and grandeur I lio.se
of any other Hindoo city, llijana^iir has a iiiost.
rcniarkalile site, 'It is Imill,' says llainilton,
'in a plain, enclosed hy and enciiniliered with
stiipeiKlmis nia.s.'ies of ^^raiiite, wliicli, in hoiih^
places, swell np frmii the surface to the form iiiid
ni.'i;;'iiitiide ol'hills,and in others present detached
liliicks of various forin.s, piled over oik! another in
all sorts of fantastical cmnliinations ; occaNimially
siirrmiiidiiif^ little isolated valleys, and elsewheni
olisiriiclin;; all iiassap^ except through the narrow
windinvc deliles which s(>parate thefraj^ments, Th(>
coninninications from street to street, and in smiie.
cases the streets also, follow the ma/.es of tlie.sn
ehasnis,and in oneipiarter the principal I horonj^h-'
fare is under a naturally covered passage! formed
hy the rocks; tlie ancient hatUeuieiils, turrets, and
Haleways are still in a U\jj;\t slate of preservation :
the main streets paved with iniim^nsi^ lla^s of
granite, are intersected at intervals hy aipieilncts;
and tiniks and wells are excavalcd in Ihe rock.
Temples, elioiiltries (hotels), and niuiiy other edi-
lices, piililic and private, of the jinrest style of
llinilooarcliil<'ctiire andKi'cat dimenstons, are seen
perched on the most, ciinspicumis eminences of the
naked rock,or raiip'd in hm^ lines on the plain. . , .
There is a continued sneeession of (laved streel.s,
now nearly uiiinhaliited, for threes miles, from the
Tomiihiiddra ferry to llumpa, at IIh^ W.t'Xiremily ;
and the appearance of the ruins alimit (Janilapoor,
on the S\V., indicate that they also were oiici^ in-
cluded within Ihe city limiiidaries. . . . The. walls,
pillars, arches, and i!ven tliu Hat. roofs and heams
ofall these structnrtw an; composed of f^ninite. . . .
Some lilocks are from 12 to lij fi^ctliroad, and thick
ill iiroportion ; and thon^li of uneniial hulk and
various shapes, are universally well cut, lilted to
each other with the greatest nicely, and display al
this day iiii exterior lustre Hur|iassiiif,' that of most
buildings of 20 years' standing,' The TiMtmlinddrii
is ahmit one-third of a mile broad, but at the uinicr
(; (i
ft
I;
- ii
,r 'ill
•.:<'-1i
4M lUJNEE
part of flip oiJy ronfrnetH KrciUlv, nnd horo Hioro
wftM once* a Hloiip l)ri(lf(i> : itn bed in r'ld^KiMl liy <li'-
tnrlipdKrniiifP ■■•"•l<'<, wliirti rinp oImivp Iih HiirCiicp.
mill nr" RPiirrally Miirinoiinfpd l>v mmip rplijfiium
t'dillcp. It fornin" tlic N. and !•",. luiiiiKliirv (if tlif
rity, whicli in pia-limpd S. and I''.. |mrily Ity its
iwitiiral l)arriprn, partly liy utroiijx Htnnp walln. Tlic
••liit'f cdiliccM arc — Hio t('iii|ilp olWiltuba (nii in-
rarnafion (if Vinlinii), nearly in iIip ccntrp (if the
city, which conniHts of oiip central and I'mir unlior-
dinatp linildinp<, siinroinidcd Ity ncvcral stnalh'r
pa(f(MlaH and niimprnnn cells, nnd dcciipyinn an
urea KXt ft. lonfjhv'JO wide; thin lcni|)lc cnntainH
n chariot cut entirefy out ofuranitc. on which the
iniaj^'pof thepid iHex|M)Hed on liolidayH : the tcin|ilc
of Mahadeva, at llunijin, with ii jtyranudicnl por-
tico of 10 stories, and 1(10 ft. hiiih, well endowed
nnd attended hy many llrahinins, faces a (ine
Hireet !tO ft. wide, lined with hinidsonin stone
l)nildin;;s decorated with scnliitiires, runnin^Miearly
par'illel to the Tooinlmddra, from which it is yeiia-
rated hy rows of trees, ami Iciidin;; to another
teirT'-" where there is an iinii^;eof Iheliull Nundy.
12 ijrh. carvccl out of tlu' >^i<Vu\ mcU. Itelwci'U
11- a nnd Cnndapoor the roi'ks are studded with
1 „ i.iax, the )irincipal of which are the jrri'at
teini)le of Krishna, and a smaller oiu- dedicated to
(ianesa, Iml which contiilus also a colossal fxranite
ima/^c of the fonner. Mi ft. hinh hy 10 ft. hroail.
The inner city near this is the residence of the
rajah, and contains the remains of four iliHercnt
pidaces. Ilijana^rnr has a temph^ of llama, with
pillars ofhhiek hornlileiule, and amon;^st a ffroup
c>f temples near the ferry is a ^ipintic li/^ure of
Huniinan, carved in has-relief. This city was
built hy two hrofliers, hetween A.i>. Ili.'Ki and
lilllt : in 1.')(>4 it was taken nnd completely sacked
bv the Mohammedans.
■ ni.lNKi;, or KIHNTAOIIArT. a territory of
British Iiulia. prov. Menttnl. It lies on hoth sides
the Itrahmnputra, extendm>^ S. as far as the ({ar-
rows moinitains, nnd consists eliielly of a level
country, well fitted for the produce! ion of rice, esiie-
cially that i)ortion S. of the l<rahmn|iutrn, which
is the most valuahle, nnd besides wheat, jiroduces
barley, mustard, pulse. Iictel, suf^ar-cane, and mul-
berry-trees. The villaf,'es are {^eiu'rjilly neater
than those in Ik-n^al, nnd have su^ar-cane niul
l)etel iilantatinns. For a considerable period
llijnpc w.as not known to be included in the I)e-
wanny territories, but was considered to belonj; to
liootnn; ])resents of elephants Avere, however,
made yearly to both the Deb. rajah and the ISrit-
ish pivernment, and a kind of depenclence on
either or both oftheni, ncknowledf;ed by the I5ijnee
rajah. In 178.') the payment in plephants was
comnnited by the Hritish pivernment into a tri-
bute of S.OOO rupees. The ]ieopleare divided into
two sections, the ISliakat, or worshippers of Krishna
and the Gornmi, who eat pork and other meats,
aiid drink liquors.
Ut.jnkk, a town of Hindostan, cap. of the above
rajahship, 23 m. N. (Jonlpara ; lat. 20° 20', lonjx.
90° 47' E. It contains a fort dcfeiuled by a brick
■wall, the residence of the rajah, some small brick
tem)des, and about 100 thatched huts.
IJILHAO, a sea-port town of Sprin, the ancient
cap. of IJiscay, in a fine plain, on *he Xcrvion or
Ibaizabal, about 10 m. above its conriuence with
the sea at Portugalete, nnd 45 m. W. of St. Se-
bastian. Pop. 17,649 in 1857. It is the ter-
minus of two lines of railway, from Madrid, and
from the French frontier. The town is said to be
healthy, notwithstanding the climate is remark-
able for humiditj'. Houses loft\% uniform, and
well built, with projecting roofs, that afford shelter
from the sun and rain. Streets well paved and
UHJUO
IpvpI; (.pvprnl of them may be wnMiod nt t.U.Mm
with water ..onyeyed by an aqueduc f.," 1',^
lain a league distant. No wli..elc,| cirrj '
allowed to pnss aloiiK tb.' sire.t,, h,,, „|i ," " ,"
are carried in panniers on nudes, „r in hIi i" '
">h llicv ,.,,||.
which have a trivaiice bv wl
stautly moisten their path with water Ch
a line pniinenade hv the river's nLIc. „v,.r wl.i i "
suspension-brhlge is thrown in Ii,.,, „| n,,. ,'f
wooden one that lonnerl v existe.l. T|„,r,, j^ , ' "
stone bridge of three arches, nn.l a hni„ls.,nM.,-,.,i',',"
WoiJi"""!';'' ''•'' ""' '•"n""-ation. at nn exp.,,.,. „r
.10,000/. ( onveiits anil monasteries are her,, v, rv
< s|iicuous. They arc iinineiise piles .,r i;,,!
ar<4iilectiiral beauty, having strong graihii;. In ,,ii
the windows. Some of theni are verv ri.li ■ „',
a nun must take nliout .'Io.imh) reals ckmi/ I'ji,,'
the convent (.n adinissioii. The «//«,//,„>, '„'
slaughter houses, in the Tiiscnn sivie, in ijieri'mr,.
of the town, are well ilrived, "well veiiii||i,,i
anil copiously supplied with fresh wiiii r 'n,,!
corjioralioii is extreinelv rich. ( hi ll e,ii,i„„ ,'(
the visit of Ferdinand Vll.no less ijian u.in,,,!!,,,,
reals, or about 20,0(111/.. were expeinleil ii, i,..,.,
ilecoralions, and bull lights. Their funds aris."
from oclrois. or tolls, upon the varimis iieeessnrii^
imported by sea or land, and the riioiiupnlv „| ||, ,
supply of beef, wllieli is fiuined li> llie Ip'ut, j,, f.
They maintain an eleuieiiliiry sclio.,) fur te,iilij|i^
reading, writing, and Latin', by an iiiipnM „] "i
Ideals |ier ton on foreign vessels" entering the i,,,!-;
''••■■inierfo, >ii|i
The ('onsulado, or Tribunal of I'imui.
|H>rtsschoi>ls of drawing, architecture, inalluinaiir
and the French and Kiiglish languages, U ti,
children of I li(^ town and neigliliourliijiiij, Tim
is a hospital calculated to accipiiuniiilaii. -.'.ji |
patients, 'i'lie bank of llillmii. Inuinled in Is;,:
with a capital of 10(I,(M(0/., does a very exliUMvi'
business, and circulates notes to tlieaiiiiiunt nfl
treble its capiliil. The mamifaclures e.iii>i.t „f,
various descriptions of hardware, auclmrs, leailiir,
paper, hilts, toiiacco, and earthenware, 'i'licro in'
several docks for building nicrcliiuit vcsmIs, iin.i I
two large rope manufactories. I.illiau is ilii. |iri!i-
cipal port for the N. of Spain. The cximrls priii- 1
ci|i.illy consist of iron and steel, wnol, li^ll, iVuii.,
and sometimes largo quantities of corn Criiiii ilm
interior; but the trade of the jiort has ilcclincil
ever since Saxon wools began to he iirdirriill
to those of Spain in foreign luarkels. The slii|i-l
I ling ill the two years 1859-GO is reprcsciittil in the |
following tigiires : —
Year
Entered
(■Ifurcrt
]fi.',n
18(i(»
Shipi
4(ir>
M-2
Tont
.siiliM 1 Tom
ii:),:U7 4:u; ilMl
47 ,.^"0 623 4.'i,a.i»
The \alue of the exports in the two years 1859-(!0|
was as follow.s : —
Year
ISliO
Wheat iinil Flour i Gt-iieral Rx]H>rti
£
r>,K:19
123,403
£
21,(i.V.>
fi3,7SS
The total value of the imports in KifiOnmoiiiitcil
to 8;!9,747/., divided between the following' iimii-j
tries : —
&
Great Britain SW.IM
Norway TifiJ^HI
France Uo.slf!
Venezuela liiii.ni:'
Cuba and United States . . , Sf^.M
Holland, Belgium, and Germany . W-''i
mi,
ri;p imfiorls eoiisi
«.. 11,11 f/ilprics, n
ifsNiiMially stop
.iilii'riM'r. or at (
1 nil. .'««priiig ti,|i
i;i»iiih''iilvaiitage o
liinliii iiccasi,,nall\
>i.;ini I'liiiitriiinicatii
l.dnrii the port niii
<..|, ll,'ir,-el,ina, ]ln\
jlill'ii,, was liiiindi'
I IipI iif lliscay, in
..I'liii;,' s,i\ereigns, i
IV riiiMilaiio of III
II ilii'i'iiil uf I lie I, "it
,Mii,niiTs,il'ciiniineri
,Y:iiii, (in,| r,'garilei|
ll 'III. ll has bcei
(liifiTi'iit viciiirioiis I
Ihinnl illll a I'l (h'i
i)lr. Viiiiiii:, lliiiishi
l,V|-rH, INC:.',)
iiii.i:i>n.(;i:i.'in.
.ill' iitrihiry of Ai'n
iiiii;.' JHtwei'ii the .S.
>:il,:ir;i, nr (iivat l»ese
iti'K., .'iinl C'lpe .N'liu.
ll miwtly ciiii>|.i|s (iC
lililrrrmn the (J real I
iiiiii'il. In |i;irts. Imw
I Hi<'ii>ivi'|ihiiiialionso
*..iri<lii'.s III gn.jii luxi
>ai.| li.v siiin,. tluit its
iJiiii iiilry of the
' ini"ii:,Mvlii,iii In .Sjijnv,
I Miiiiw dry or parched
f.1. Iliici.)
IIIU-Kli'lCAV, nch,
i»'l Ilssex, Imiiu
foMiiiii, L'l ni. i:.\|.;.
I"'l. The li.'iiiilet is (»
I riili viilc, ,'uiil cnnr
^'& liriiiil and hic-s ni
iiiilllii'siMiriMleciiiiiiig.
III-., mill fairs. Aug.
ll"' I'lirisli eliurch is „|,
l":l iliirc is an episcopi
IV l.iHii, mill three dis
I i!-M Miiall school, Jjii
»!a|"»,runiiiii of l»(! p,jp
iM"fI.Vi;il iiihab. A
»• ccnnli- works, cii
i' iii.iii nnuiins Imve bee
I 'pTON.arockvst
•UlJ„.|ajr„, i„.,„.^.,,„'».|||
J'l'iiiniilarforin. about
IkM. The populntion
I 111- X'll to exceed 2.000,
Plr-liicaleeniitries is iisi
iBiwialmiiihnice, and .
I«i;>.iiilt,.beiifexce!l(.|i
I';n,'cisnotsn)licient eve
\'^\y. The Dutch ma
p*l, ami some cruisers ,
I m iilKo. The interior
'■'^ "'[vover. believed to
WU.OJI, a town of Fr
l«pwnt..onahilI. 14 m
■™n,lK«,. This is,.
|,^","' -^'ivfrgne. The
P'riy surriMuiileil. !,,.,,
|-"«'!i^i''iiiros nnd commei
t.l,o.,esni^,b,:.L
III
Tiinl
^•ciirs
\m-m
Tutal
e
loo amnunt((U
lluwiiij; C"U«^
£
34r,,lW
•J'Jil,.',!!'
lio.sic
lilil.'.il2
1U,S»T
mT.FDrLnKini)
T^iP imfxif*" cniiNiwi |iriii('i|iiilly nf ruttfin mid
,,.i|l>ii liiliri<''*i '"III riiliiiiiiil |iri'iliii'iH. I.nr^'c
ii.M'liiiMiiilly hIiii) III I'lirdiKitli'lc, Mt'iir ilir iiicmili
.nlii' rivi't' 'T »l < *liiviii;;ii, mIhuiI I in. Iicldw the
I 111, S|irin« tiili's ri-f iilniiif l.'l I'l.; iiinl liv
.i!,iin;iiilviiiil'in(' <i( them, vcssclx nrfipii^iilcralilc
liifliii nci'iiNimiiilly rcmti ilic tnwii. 'I'Iutc in
,i,:iiii (•iiiiiimitiii'iif'mii, liy r<>;iilar liiii'Mofstcnincrs,
i.tivi'cn till' port iiikI I<iiiiiIi>ii, AtiiHifnliini, Mvor-
... 1, lliiri'('l<>iiii< llayiiiiiic, Srvillc. mihI Saiiliiii(l<'r.
' Hilliiiii war* roiiMilcil iiiiilcr II I'liiiricr ^'nniit'il liy
J |,.rl 111' lti-<ciiy, ill Moo; Irmn wliuni, nml »iir-
i lilH; KiiViTciniH. U iililllilliMl SCMTill |iri\ ilry:('S,
IV ( (jiisnliiil" "I' MiirKii'' "M" lniii'<ri'm'il tliiilicr
,1 ihi't'iiil III' llii' l'>lli rt'iiliiry; iiiiil itn il('i'i>iiiiis
jiiimitiTsiil I'liiiii'ii'i'i'i' wci'i' rcCcrrril in lliriMi^liniil
> liii, mill rrtriiriliil at nl' llir liij;li("-l iiiillinrily
iiMlit, II li'iK '>•'*'>■ alliTiiali'ly iii'rii|ii('il liy tlif
,{iif,rriil vii'tiiriiiiis |inrtii'H in llir laic cixil war.
Iiiiripiliiri'iiiii a In ( ii'iii^ralia ilc la M^^iinfia; IJi'imrt
I Mr. ViiiiMu', llritiNliI jiiisiilat liilluin, in Cunsiilar
i;,|.TH. r-^i'.'-M
IHi.Klil l''<l'"l«"*' I'l'' iiinn(';;ivi'n In an cxlcn-
,!'.! irrriinry nl' Ai'rii'a, rmlirMiiii;:: 'li< iiiilrv
;,lii.' Iiitwcrii till' S. (I('('li\ily 111' Alias lunl llic
vil,:ir,i, iir (iii'at I'cscrt; iinil liilwcni I'tz/annn
ill' r.., iiiiil ('a|ii' Null, on I lie At lain ii-, on I lie \V,
li iiiii«tly niii^ists III' vast (Ic-irls. ililViTiii;,' Imt
iii:!c Ifiiiii till' (ircal PcsitI. with wliirli il is cnn-
tiiiiil. In piirts. Iiiiwcvi'i*. w liiTc tlicrc is water,
f^Mi-ivc |ilaiiliUions ol' the (luH'-|ialin. \\ liicli licrt'
itiiri-lii's 111 ;;i'i'at Inxiiriaiirc. art' met with. It is
lail liy siiinr thai its real iiaiiic. Illaiil-il-Jvr'ul,
11,111- ciiiiiitry 111' the (lati'-|ialiii ; while ntlicrs,
inii'ii;; will nil is Shaw, iiilfrpnt Itlniil-vl-Jiiiil as
{[■■:iniii;,'ilrviir|iari'li('(l I'Diniiry. (Shaw's 'I'ravcls,
f,l,lliiriL)
lilLLKlMCAY, a cliniiclry and Imtnlct of F.n;;-
kil, I'll. I'.sscx, hintd. liariislalilc. par. (Iicirt
lliiMiail, -J I ni. KM'",, l.iinilini. I'liji. l.-'ilHl in
lUil. Tlic lianilct is im an (iniiicncc ovcrlnnkini^
I riili vale, aiiil ('niiiinaniliii;; extensive views.
i !>i!k l<riiiil and laies are the mily niaiinraelures,
ui'lllii'sonri'ilei'liiiiiij;. 'I'licre is a weekly market,
Tir-., mill lairs. Auj,'. 2 and Oct. !•. I'or cattle.
liii'l'arisli cliiirch is alioiit 'J in. fnmi IJillericay,
k tlii'tc is an episcopal cliapol in the centre ol'
ilie limii, anil three dissenting cliaiitds; there is
1 iI-iiaMiiall school. Jtillericay is the central town
i'ia|iiiiiriiniiiii of •_'(! pars., and of a rej^islrar's dis-
iriitiif iri.tlol iiilial), Alioiit I in. from tlio clinrch
1 iTsiniei'arlli- works, called Hhint's Walls, where
li'icaii remains have lieen dn^ ii)i.
r.ll.LrroN. a mcky sterile island of the Kastom
Ar.liili('lii),'i), between Sninatra and Itiirnco. It is
jiiaririularl'orin, alxmt Tid in. in leiifflli and t.") in
If ailtli. Tlie |iopulati(iii is very scanty, not lieiii;;
si|i|r-cil to exceed 'i.OlU) (ir;!,lH)it. Iron ore, which
lir.irii|iiial ciniiitries is usually scarce, is found here
liiiTiat almndaiice, and the metal jirodiiced from
|iIi-^aill III be of excellent quality. Tlic^ produce
lifriic is mil siillicieiit even for the consumption of
Ii!k:|»i|), The. Diitdi maintain a jfarrisoii in tlic
Iwil. anil some cruisers on the siirruundinj; seas,
Iinlii'i'k the jiiracy in which the iiiitivcsare nroiie
It'iiiilulfje. The interior has not hecn explored.
likliimover, believed to contain mines of tin.
iill.LOM, a town of France, dep. I'uy de Dome,
|Hr.cant.. (Ill ahill, 14 m. KSK. Clerniont. Top.
It'i'Hi in IHOi, This is one of the most ancient
li'iis ill Aiivcri;iie. Tlic walls, by wliiMi it was
ll'ani'rly surrounded, liave disai)peared, and its
Itaiiiiiai'tiires and commerce have also declined.
lAtiiivowty, fimiided here in M.").'), continued to
iMiriih till \hi)b, at which epoch it was made
Iwiiitlio.lcsuits, by whom it was administered
|i the suppression id" I heir order, when it also
niLSTON
tol
coaxed tn exist. At present the town liax n
dcparlnienlal colle;;c, DnriiiL; the period of tlui
League, llilloin was a priiii'i|>al fuciis of the dis-
orders thai agitated Aiiver;,'ne. Stnriiis are very
frci|uent in Ibis di^triil; and, in conseipien if
the prevah'lice of rainy wciillier, the lowii has
sonielinies been called fn/iiiiti/ild Hiin.Hr Aiivinim;
IIII.SA, u lown of llindostaii, prov, Malwa.
lieliin).Mn;; to Scindia, on the \'.. side of the lletwa,
near its conllnencc with the Ifiiss, IIJ m, NK.
llho|iaiil. It is surrounded by a slmie wall, and
had, in IM".M», o.iMin hcuises. T'lie <'oiiii^tiiiiusiouiiiry
is celebrated for the excellence of its lobar
lilLsl'iS, a town of lli'l<:iuiii, prov. I.inibur^',
cap, cant., on the I >enier, 7 iii, \V. .Mactrichi. mi
Ihe railway from .Macsirichl lo lla:.<ili. ro|i.
:i,.'iiMl in IH,')!;, It produces eartlieiiwan^ and
cutlery.
HII.STOX, a iiiMrket town and chapcdry of
l'!nt,'hiuil, CO. Stalliinl, N. div.. bund, Sei-doii, p.ir.
\Viilverb:iiiiptiiii, '1\ m. Si',. Widverliiiinptnn, 1 1 in.
N'W, Itirniiiinhiini, iiiid In? in, S W. I,iiiii|i>ii, T'liti
|Mi|iiilatiou aiiiiiuntcd to '.'ii,|s| in iMlKand bad
ri>eii to °_M,,'iiil in b'^i'il. The town stands on
ri-iiii; ground, and is very ini';;ularly built, Tim
|iiiiiri|ial streets contain Mune siib^tinilial and
iianilsiinie biiusc'i, and. wiibiii the lii^i b'w years,
its appearance bus been iiiiiih iiiiproved ; lliiiii;;h,
from the luiinbir of fiir;;('s and cnllieries, it li.is a
.Minilire aspect. On this account the cniintry all
ariiiind is ii>ually de>ii;iiati'il the • liliick Coiintry.'
The )irincipal buildings are — the pari.^h eliurch ;
St. .Mary's, a line slrncliire, built in the liothic
style of archil I'ct lire, in isiiii; niul the lium. I'alli.
chapel, a handsouie structure in the same style,
erected in IH;;,t. The ]nov. nf the town is vested
in twocniislablcs, ;i|i|iiiiiiled annually at llu^ court
leet held by the lord of the uiaiior. I'lider the
Kefnrin Act, IJilstnn fnrnis |i;ni of the boroujih of
Wolverhampton, with which il is iiiliinalely cmi-
necteil ; but for all pai'oeliial purposes, it is inde-
pendent. I'clty sessions are held on T'uesday ill
each week; and a court of reipiests. for the
recovery of debls not <'xccediii;j ,")/.. is held every
second month, alternately with Willenball. Tli(!
living' is a curacy, within the Jurisdielioii of the
dean of Wolverhaniptoii ; the patroiia;;e is in the
iiiliab. iit lariu'c, every hoiisehoblcr, wliether male
or female, beiiij; enlilled to vote at Ihe election of
the minister. There are places of worship for
Indeiiendents, ISaptists, rriinilivc and Wesleyaii
Mclhodisls, and llonian Catholics. There is a
blue-coat school, founded and endowed by Iliim-
jihrcy I'erry, l'',s(i., of StalVord. for cloiliiny; and
ediicatiuii six boys ; since extendeil lo tlu^ admis-
sion of two or three more, by additional small
heipiests; two schools under the liritishornatioiial
system; and an 'Orphan Cholera .School,' erected
and endowed in l«;i;!, for the instruction of 'I.")!)
orphans, left destitute by the cholera, which pre-
vailed in the iircvioiis yetir. This disease ra;jed
here with such de.solatiiifj; elfect as nearly to clear
entire streets of their inhabitants, and to obliicc-
many larj^e manufactories to stop workinj; from I he
number of hands that fell victims to its violence.
Jtilstoii, which, down to a com|)aratively recent
jicriod, was Imt an inconsiderable jihicc, is wholly
iiidehtcd for its growth and iirniortance to the iron
trade carried on in it and its immediate vicinity.
Its advantnf^es in this respect are not surpassed by
those of any other place. Koiiiid the town are iill
but inexhaustible mines of coal and ironstone, the
main bed of coal bein^ ;!0 ft. thick, with strata of
ironstone both above and below ; and larf^e sup-
plies of the tiiiest sand used in the casting of
metals, are also found in the vicinity. Dilston h;is
the farther advantage of being connected, by
O G 2
f ■•
v#:^
\ \
\i 'i
4li2
luxrirK
iiMinorniiH rnimU nml rivrr imvl»jnfinn, nn well n«
liy Ncvcriil liiicH of niilwiiv, with Loiuldii, Liver-
iiiHil, ItriHiiil, Hull, nijil (lii> rlilcf Inniis nf (iniit
llriiiiiii, 'I'lir liii|iiirtmi<'<'iil' ilirro' iiii|iriiM'il iiii-aii.i
ot'ciiiiiiiiiiiiiriiiidii limy Ix' Jiiilp'il III' Iriiiii tln' I'lu'l
Ihflt, |irrviiiiiMly r<i the ii|>i'tiiiiK nrtlif llrf«t ciiliill ill
I77'J, tlicrit wiiH iitilvfinr IiIiimI riirimt*' Inr miiicIiImk
iriiii at ItilNioii, 'I lii'ir niiIih<>i|iii-iiI iiicrciiiu* Iiiim
Im'i'ii i|iiii«> i-xiraorilliiarv \ aiitl tlirri' an' imw irrcat
iiiiiiilHirM of riiniact'N, lori^cH, rolliii); ami Hlitliii)r
III. IN, wliii'li, Willi till comI trail)', t'lirniMli )'iii|iliiy-
nii'iit to a lar^'c |iii|iiilatioii. 'I'lu' iiuiiiiit'acliirc of
Ja|iaiiiii'il ami riianii'llril piodM in vory fxlciiHivi'ly
r/irrii'il on in the town, of wliirli il ii'iay lio niiiil to
III* till' htiijili' Iraili'. In tlic iici^lilioiirliooil i^ ii
rciiiarluililf ipiarry, llu' hIoiu's in wliifli \'h' ii|ioii
t'lH'li otliiT in rj iliMtiiirt ItiyrrM, iiuTi'iisiiitj in
tliii'kni'HM from tlir Niirriut', ilii' Iowi'.hI, licin^^ alioiii
;i It, thick. 'riiisNtoiif is iixcil for various |piir|Mi.-*i'H,
mill in foriiinl inio ^riml.-'liinc.i, wlii'i.->loiii.-i, mill-
hlonr.-i, MMil lii-lmis. At llrMcllry, iiMinail ailjoiniiit;
villa^i' (ill I he W. div. olCiitili-it.Mc liiiml!).a lire
ri^'N from a htraliiin of coal almiit I ft. l!iick iiml
!lll fl. ilccp, wliicli lias liccii liiiriiiii^ for aliovc lialf
II ci'iitiiry, anil linn rnliici'il xcvcrai acres of laud
to a calx or cinder, used ill the niakiiij,' of roads.
This place formerly lieloU','ed to the |iortioiiists or
jireliendaricH uf \Volverliain|iton, and in their
rliarter was called llilsreton. It was a royal
ileniesiie at llie time of the ('on(|uest ; and in the
reiyn of |'',dward III., under the naiiR' of ' llilles-
tiiiie,' was cerlilied to Ir' free of toll. In \H->\, an
j\cl of I'arliament was olitaiiied for a market, now
]ield on I he Monday and Sal unlay of each week,
indc|i('mlently of the toll-lree markets, or fairs for
catlle, which an' held on Whit-Monday and the
Monday next befon' Michaelmas-day.
ItlNCilK, a town of IS('l;;iinii. imiv. Ilainault,
cap. cant., on the Ilaine, 1) in. I'lSK. Aloiis. Pop.
(!,/)(l() in iH'iC). It produces earthenware and cutler%-,
nml has tanneries, nUiss-works. and tile-works,
with neonsideraliie trade in lace, iiaper, ami uiarble
and coal iirociired in the vieinitv.
lilNDltAlllNI), a town of' llindostan, prov.
A;;ni, on the Jimina, .'lo m, NNW. A^ra. The
jilacc is famous in the liistory of Krishna, to whom
iiiany tenmles are dedicated. ' The principal patcoda
JK one of tile most elaliorate and inawive works of
Jiraliminieal an'liiteetnre. There are also nnmenm.s
t<acnd pools, where iiil^rinis jierforin ali'ntioii.
IMN(iKN, a town nt the uraiid duchy of Ilesse
Darmstiidt, pmv. liliine, cap. cant., at the coii-
lluence of the Xalic with the IJhiiic, 14 in. W.
!Menl/, Oil the railway from Meiit/, orMayence, to
Coh^ne I'op. (i,(»2() in IW!1. The town has some
iiinnufactiires, and a consiiU'rahle trade in (uirn anil
wine. Near it is the liin^fcrloch, a rapid in the
liliine, which is ilan^enius when the water is low,
mid on the removal of which larfjc sums have been
flt ditlercnt times expended. Iliii^en is very ancient,
liaviiiff exi.sted under the liomans.
lUNMJLKY, a market town of England. VV. K.
CO. York, 178 m. NW. by N, London, ;(2 m. W. by
»S. York, near the Aire, on a branch line of the
f Jreat Nortliern railway. Pop. .5,'28« in 1H(!1. The
town consists chiefly of one lonj^ street, tolerably
built, and well Kiiiijilied with water. All Saints
(^hnn'h is a neat edilitc, in the later Kiiglish style ;
the liaptists, Independents, and Methodists, have
plfu-es of worsliip, A free ^anniiar seliool was
endowed by Henry A'lIL; there is also a national
tichool and some alinshoiises. The worsti^d, cotton,
and paper manufactures are carried on, and there
is some trade in malt, which is conveyed to other
]iarts by rail, as well as by the Leeds and I.iver-
jjool canal, tliat passes bv the town.
Jill;, or BKKIJ {an, iirtha), a to^vn of Asiatic
nruMAii
Turkey, on the declivity of n ntopp hill, m, n,,. p
bank of the I'.iipbraieH. 7A m. NK. Ak'i ,,1.1 '\h
ni. WSW. tiria ; lai. :ii;'^ :,!•' N., loi,-, ,;mo ;■ Vy.
i:. Pop. cMinniledal .'..oiMi. |ii.. ^irr i,.,|,','
the land side liy a Wi'll-biiili wall. Wiiliiii ||„.
town, on a ulecp mck, in the eiimlrl ..r ni,il,., imw
ill a Htate of dilapldaiion. It has wvirul ini.riniu.
uiHiblic bath, and a earavaiisera. The riPik, , ,1
wliicli the town is Imili couNist of elwill, ; ,„|,| ||,,.
houses lM'in>; also formed of this material, ii« wliit,'^
ness. ihiriiiK sunshine, powerfully atl'cei, the .viV
which an' also injured by the iliist ilim i. Mmh,,'
alMint. Itir is the iHiini at .which trav(||ir» an. I
caniMiiiM between Aleppo, on the .me niilr, j||„|
<»rfa, Kiarbekr, ^le., on the other, iisimily'cr,,.,
the I'.nphrales, which they do in boaisoiii p,.,,,.
liar description. It is also the neansi poim ,.i|
the Kuplinites to Iskeiideiuiin, ami Ims lutnrlv
tu'ipiind coiiKideralile ccli'iirily I'roiii w* In im; ||„,
jioillt at which Cnlolielt'licMiey ban |iri'|ius",| |„
ipcuiii and lerniiuale tlie iiavi^jaiiipii of iln. j;,,.
plir.ilcH by sicani. {See I'.l'rilli.vn.s.)
l!li;KKNIII'.Alt. a sea port (own i,f Knylnml, j
CO. Cbcsler, bund. Wiirall, on the \V. slmri' nl'i!,,.
Mersey, lo in. K. of ('heeler, and lll'.t m. \\\\\
London by nuid. or llili,|, m. by Loniloiiaml Nmi'I
Western railwav, of wliicli it is a lenninal ^lal;.|^
The pop., wliicli was but 11(1 in iHOl, imtiihul i„ j
2..")(ilt in 1H;1I ; to «.-.'L';i in 1nI1; to ■.\-;.:,\:; i„ j
1H,")| ; and to .")l,(ilil in lHi;i. This i'Xlraoriliii,ir\
incn'ase has taken place partly from ilie »iii|,Iih
pop. of Liverpool coming; here to reside, iuiil|iarily
iVoni till' coiisiruclion of ducks for the airiiiniiiM-j
ilalion of Ibe shippinj,' freipicntiiiK ilie .Mcr-n, I
The Itirkcnhead docks were lirsl projccteil, in |>
by the late Mr. Win. Laird. 'Ihe eiii|Hiratl I'l
liivcriMiol, ill IH-.'H, purchased the ueceKsarv l.iii.||
to prevent the selieme ; iiotwithstaiuliiif; \vlii,|i.i|
bill was carried I liniii^jh )iarliameiit. in lull, an.
tborisiiif; the scheme, and by another act, iiii",||
in |xr)7, the docks on both sides of the Mnivf
were placed under the mamifrenient of mic in;.
called the Mersey Docks and llarlmiir I'Mianl. Isl
liirkeuhead docks alto},'ether consist of liiHihrnl
of water sjiace, including; the (ireal I'luat
acres, with a niinimnni depth of water ur.':' lij
The total cost of these works has been u|iwar(i<
;{,(l(i(),()()(l/. Then" an! several larf;e inaiiuraci.rirj
on the niarj^in of the (ireat Float, iiicliuliiii,' il
(.'anada Works ofMe.ssrs. Peto and (Jo., nml M-'fi
Lo^an and Todd Xaylor and Co's extciiMvc urn
crusliiiif,' works; and frontiiij.? the river, ilisiiyf
adjoining; the docks, are ten private KravinKil"
four in the o('cu|)ation of Messrs. .loliii Lainl. S'lJ
and Co., and six in that of Me.ssrs. Clnvi r ,ii;J
L'oyle, and the V\^^odside (Jraviiij; l)iKkt'iiiii|iiiiiyJ
Two of the docks at Messrs. fjiirds' works an !ar,'4
enoiijjh to take in men-of-war of the liw nk-i^
and at this establislmieiit are emjilnyod heiwni
2,<M)(I andft,0()(l nu^ii, in ship-l)uildiii(;,cii;;in«Tiii;^
and boiU^r makin^r, 'I'he coininuiiiwitiini iKtwcn
Liverpool and Itirkenhead. by means of steam IVm'J
boats, is extensive ; so imich so that, in fact.it im|
be considered as but a suburb of LiveqKinJ.
keiihead returns one member to the 11. oft'.j
ref?istered electors i!,r)8'J in 18Go. (Fur I'urtkr li"
tails see Liviinrooi..)
HIKMAH, or THK BlUMAX OPII;!:.!
extensive country of India beyoiiil tiic liaiii'i
formerly the most powerful state of that pcnill^lll^
and considerablv larf,'er than at ]ir('seiit; f.xifiiJ
iiif; between the lat. of 1)° and il° \., ui>w,inls/
1,(100 m. in leiif;th, and nearly (itiO m. in ImJiT
At present it com|)risos the territnrv betiveiiil
150 45' and 27° 2-2' iJO" N., mid loii'. Hi'Oii'siJ
!)!)° K. ; haviiif,' W. the liritish i)niv. uf .Ar:M
Chittagong, and Pegu ; N. rpptr AsM
ril*i j ¥.. tho c
iiic r"iiiitry of III
V.irliiliiia Im'Ioii^'
uii.'iliilii of Siaii
jvji, Area, abou
,1 jilllll.llOO.
}lii«Hltiiii» unit I
inil \S. liy Hvo pi
'j\n rliaiii : ill 1 1
, iiiiiry lliiTcan' ii
nnci'S miming iin
I.I ilii'Mi dccreasi
ii.S. Frnin hit.
l;,cAMil[il'Cllinioo, I
•liiiite (lie VV. boil
:ii. iliit ran>{e is 2ii
|.i,i««M't. ill hei^;
I ji-iilenilily Kn'ale
iluiiiii's, uiid the II
n.ii, in I r° lat.. it
in.iai leniiiiiates in
M;, till' Hay of lleiii
iiiM iif niiitfes,
•lilijirleil tribes, stre
I. ilirCliiiiese Iroiiti
I'l |»>iiil iif Ihe sou
mmre tliaii .'1,000 |
I It k'tweeii lat. I«>
i.i.'air, and in the
i^'valiiin, ilie I'linn.j^
N., iiMil l»70 LV \'„
.iivrnl Willi perjieti
Kil»i, till- iMiiriiiw: ra
a; i Miiiiiiee|ioor ten
. lilraiiKPs extend in
ii!nrS., enclosing' tl
Kliyi'iiilH-eii, Moo, ai
nniiint; K. and W. ar
J :'"" X. lat., about
-inallrdiiKe, the (tail
.v.. Iiiiiiniiiiij,' \, tin, J,
llirreare many phj
oxi.ibive. 'I'liu'larj,'
ill i.'ii' .v., ."lO ni. loiij,^
ttiiilireaiiihi bouiuU
I'fi'I'alily. like that .
finiKil iIk' bed of an .
Lvoc|itiiij; these, then
!'iiiinimcn)iis valleys
i«iiiy, a.s Kiibo, '..
rivif*: these are chietl
"I 'lie ciiuiitry ; in t
Aiili'.<,(ir narrow st('|, I
llif jirincipal rivers
»illi its ndliieiiis, ih,
liiiwii; and (ho 'J'hai
Irawiii, an Asiatic ri^
lilut, and nnis ;,reiii,ri
"I 'III: liirinaii empire
""ra-iiilothesea, I
i«ilii.'liriti.sli province
"f fiiiiihieii, is also a ri
r.'MnTilit'i.bevoiid t
If 'li-<'eii(ls in li near
"■mint all its course, bi
I ;••■«'(! falls into the
I ■'l;|iilniciii ill Siam.
. lie .Si-taiiir rises froi
'»k2U0 2(fN.,runs^
>f"iiiiiciit about 200 I
ffl.v usele.s,s as a h.'
I«iaii.^e bliicked lip by
^''.'iisshiiuls, with no
■«"'« the ediux of tl
7 'iiiv .vessels draw!,,
^iinNmeates by ,..,,,,,
™va(hmidTlian-lwei
nn till- I".
iM, itihl .;>
K^i 7' i;,'
iniinlnliMi
^'illiin tl.i'
IlKllr, lli.w
1 iiiHKiino,
11' rmU-. I II
'. : mill till!
1, ill* wliiii--
!■« till' ryi'<,
at i< liliiwii
vt'lliTu nii'l
I' l>ill(', lllhl
Miiilly I T'l-^
In 111' II )»rl|-
'>! |inllll nil
liiiK liillrrly
lis liiiii'^ till-
liri'iiii'i'l 111
111' till' llll-
.)
Ill' r.ii-iiiiiii,
. i.liiiri' 111' till'
I'.i'.im. N\V.
iiiiiiiMil Nnri'i
n'liiul >iat'i<>ii.
I, illlTI'IMll li
In ;'>7.'il:! ill
i'Xlriiiiriliii:iry
m llir siiriihh I
iilc, i\iiil;iurlly
till' iii'i'iiiiini'i-
^; llii' M«T»iy,
ji'i'U'il, iiil>.:7,
('iir|iiirit'iiiii i>f I
iu'i'('>snry i.iiiill
miliii}; wliiili .tl
lit. in liMI,;
llirr net. im-
i I if I lie Mu-iyl
jut 111' mil' tru-i
iiir I'liiiiril. 11 111
lint III' Iti" ill''
lilt I'llUlt nl' !jl|]
water iif il I1.J
IKMl \l|lWliril*
;f muniil'iii'inriii
., iiii'liiiliii',' il'9l
l(j)., aiiilMivr*^
's cxU'iisivi' iirej
river, eli'si ill
le |;TavinK il'-t^
(ilm La'ml.S'
JMsrs. Cliivir :\i:il
Diiekl'iiiniianyl
i'\Yiirksari lariT
tlie, liP-t o'a
hliliiyeil liftvii
fmH.oiifniiwri'ia
hicatimi Wwwi
[nsiifntcamlirryl
at.infai't."iyia]f
Liveniiiiil
tlie ll.ofC.
(ForfurthiTilei
Ix EMriiir.. !
l,ml tlie tiiiiir''
liif tlintiieni"'"'J
fiireseiit : M'""!
l70N.,uii«'H
loo m. ill If^''"
Itnrv lielKiHii
|loii'.l''-'0 4;l'aK
Ipriiv. Ill •"'""''
Biicr Asiiiiii
filifi ; I'". •''•■ fliiiirKo prov. of Yiiii-nnn, Laim,
III, I'liiiiitry i>r lliii iiiili>|i. SliiiiiH, anil ilio (irov. of
M.irUliioi 'lx'l"i'K>i>>{ to ')«' llrilUli, uiiil S, tlir
>,ii.'(l>iiii III' Niiini ami Ilic llrlti?<li |irii\liirt< til'
ivji, Ana, alxiiit 'JiMi,ii))i) mj, in, I'liji, cniiiiialcil
,,"',11(111,11110,
]l„MHUt'm»iinil Itivfr*. — Kiniiah \* I'licliiHod K,
mil \V, liy iwi> iirinriiial iill';<t'ts rmm ilic lliina-
uiii rlinl'ii : ii> I'x' N- <i»<l I'l'iitrai |>artN ul' ilic
/iiiiirv llii'rt'ari' aNn iiiaiiv Hiilii>riliiia(i' iiiniinlaiii
r.iiii:i'N riiNiiiiiK ■iiiixlly iiaralld In tin: rnriiiiT, ami
j.Mhcin ilerri'it^iiiK Kro'loxHv in lu'iKlit lnwanl
,.,>, Krnm lal. Iil° ;('a|ic S'i'),'rais) to -.MO .N„
i;„. ,ViiiM><'i'i*»i>i>*>i "C \ ixaiiailiiiiK iniaiMlaiiiK cnii-
,:,iiiii. itic W, iMiiinilary. At llm laticr |Hiiiii nf
,1. ihii tmm' ix ''^11*1 »i, i>> l)r(>ailili,aiiil rnun °J,o(mi
j„;i,iii>o ft, ill liiM^lit : ill lal. i\° tlu< t'lrvaiinii i-*
„.ii.i.|eriilily ),'ri'ati'r, Imt tln'iirrlnrwanl it rapiilly
jM'liiH'*, III"' ''"' liri'iiiltli liiMMinu'j^ HO niiu'li Ickh
ii.iii. ill l^° '"*•• '• Hcarrcly oxccciIh •-'(> in, ; llii.s
riiiiiii teniiiiuitt'M in a rocky |iriiiiiontory. Iiniiiuliii;;
»i;,ilie Itay of lU'iipil, On tlu' V.. linnUT a kih--
i„a III' raiiK<'^< inlialiiti'il liy wilil iiml liall'-
.uiiji'i'ieil trilii'M, stri'Icli I'roiii tlicliiiH' of iMarlaliiui
i.il'lii'tJIiim'st' frontier. Xiniii/rt-Tlioicn;/, tlic lii;;li-
i.i imiiit iif till' Willi lu'rnino.it of iliesi' ranj;es, Ih
;,! mure than •ItOllll It, aliovc tlui level of the nea ;
litlK'twceii lat. IH'3 mill l'^*^ N. they tImi iiiiieli
i.i.'liir, anil in the N, attain a very conHiilerahle
ti'i.iiiim, the I'liniiicaii iiioiiiitaiii in alioiil 27° la'
N„ ami 117° liV K,, liein^,' 12,171 It, liiKh, anil
,„vi'riil with perpetiiMl i<nii\v. W, of Ihi; vale of
Kilm. llie Muring raiine "ow homnl.H the llirinese
iilMiiinieejioor terriiorie^ ; ami K, of these, four
l;ili-raii(,'es extenil in iiaiallel liiien, fur a lnn^fdis-
WKi' S., t'lielii.-'iii;; three extensive valleys of the
Klivwiiiwuii, Miio, ami Irrawaili rivers. Kaii^cs
Miiiiiiil! K, anil W, are iinfrei|iieiit, hut there is one
jiJiio.N', lat„ ahoiit i")0 in. Sh',. of Ava ; ami a
.iciill ran);c, the (ialhiil/.d hills, in alioiil IH° 20'
NJimimliiif; N. the ^,'roat phiiii of re^jii.
IJii'ru art' many jihiins, lnit none of them very
osliibive. The largest is the valley of Jliikoiii,'.
iiiilie X,, •")<• 111. long, ami varying from ir)lol,")
m.iii lirwiilth ; hoiimledon all sides liy hills, which
|ifiilialily, like that, of Munneepoor, at one period
(iraiiilthi' lied of an alpine lake. (Asiat. Joiirn.)
txiTiiiiiif,' these, there are few plains of any size;
!iutniimeniiis valleys, of the highest fertility and
Itaiiiy, an Kuho, I'l.umo, and those of the larger
livi'M these are chietly in the Is, and central jiarts
iUlic couiitiy ; ill the N, they uro mostly rocky
iJdiKdr narrow stcppen,
llii'liruicipal rivers are Ihc Trrawadi (I^rlwalc),
»itli \U allliiciits, tlio Ningihee, Moo, and Liing-
ii'iiuiMi; and tho 'I'haii-hvcng, and Si-tang. 'I'lie
liTiWiuli, an Asiatic river of the liist class, rises in
IiIk/I, and runs generally S. through a gic.it part
ul till; liirinau finpirc, falling, aficr a course of
w»ini.,iiilii the sea, hy a great iiiiiiilier of inuulhs
iiilho liritish jirovince of regii. 'I'he 'I'han-Uveiig,
«r ;^alllm'n, is also a river of the lirsi tdass, and
li.'MuTilif I, beyond the sources of the Irrawadi:
1! iksoeiuls in a nearly iiniforni S. direi'tion in
I ilniiist all its course, bounding tliu riirniaii itnipiru
L anil falls into the sua bclwuon Murtuhau and
Miiihncin ui Siam.
The Si-tiuig rises from the Lake of fluanngrue,
j iu lat. 2(1° 20 N,, runs S., and disgorges itself, after
Kiiursc iif about 200 ni., by a large inoutli, but
I iwriy useless as a harbour, or for navigation,
Waiise bliioked np by an island and many dan-
t'tiiiis shiials, with no more than a fallioiii water
'iiriii;; the ellliix of the tides, and not iivailable
I'll any vessels drawing tJ ft. water. This river
h'wnunii'ates by cross braiicbcs with bolli the
lirarali and Thiin-lweiig. The >;ingthi;c rises in
UlUMAir 4M
the raiko! chain, on Ihr iMffder* of Ai«snm ; ami
riiiining in a .S\V, direction, lalU into the Irra-
wadi, oppowitc Yaiidabo, in 21" I"' N, Int.. under
the name of Ihc Khviii dwcn. It is navigable for
Ihc largett class ol' boalH as far as Kingiwio, in
2;i-' I')' N, lat.; almost all the streaiim which fall
into ii on the K. side are auriferous,
T'he largest lake is that of Kaiidangyec, or thii
(iriat l.'oyal Lake, 2.1 m, N. Ava, which is ;io m.
long, M i.r'.t III. broad, and iravcrxed by the .Mon
river, a tnbittarvol the Irrauadi.
Miiiiiii/.i.— ['\\f N. proviiiiTs are the richest in
valuable minerals, llcsides line marble, scri«'ii-
tiiie, and nepbritc, and ainlMr mines arc worked
by the t'bimsi.. Aniliir is fmiiid in large ipiim •
lilies in the vallev of lliikong; gold to the value
of 1110,0011/., and' silver to that of I20,ooti/. |ier
aiiUiiin; all the varielies of the sapphire, wilh
spinelle rubies, ari' found in great abnmliinci' at
al I live days' journey I'.Si;, from the capital,
and arc an imporiani article of csporl ; to|ia/cs,
a few cni'eralds and diamomls. though of an in-
ferior ipialilv ; iron, cupper, tin, lead, anlimoiiy,
arsenic, vitriol, sulphur, and iiilre arc found. I'e-
trolciim is obtained in largi ipiantitics on tho
irrawaili, above I'mme, near the frontier of the
llritish inoviiice of Tcgii, The wells, about 2 in.^
from the river, iiroduce each a daily average of
l.'iO gallons, winch sells on the spot for about
U. Hil. per <'wt. The gross aiiiiual prnduce is about
NO.OOO.OOO lbs. It is used for lights and pav iug_
boats, and is said to have the vahiiildc properi' of
securing wood from the attacks of iiiM'i'ts, t'oal
is iiicl with in various spots, T'he govcrniucnt
has ainiiiiopoK iif gold, silver, and prrcious stones.
(Crawhird's .ri.urii.. pp. III, 112; IVtiibi rton, pl>.
Ill, l;!;i-ll2; .MaliMiliii's'l'ravels, i, ICi'.i.)
Till- Climiitr is generally healthy, especially ill
the hilly tracts. The extremes of beat and cnlil
are seliluni experienced, exce|it bcfurc the perio-
dical rains. From I'minc to lat. 'ICP i>r27'^ N.,
there are iliree seasons ; a cold, lasting from Nov.
to rd). ; a hot, from March to .liiii"; and rain
falling iLiring the rcniaiiiing iiiouths. Ilcavy
mists occur in Nov. and Dec, but no snow hill>;^
and oniv a little liail in April or the beginning of
iMay. i'^arthipiakcs are not unl'rci|uent, and ol'icii
usher in and eoiicludc the wet season. The tran-
sitions of the sc.'isoiis are exlreincly siiddi'ii ; ihu
greatest heats arc in March and April; the trccH
shed their leaves in May, but only to be inime-
dialely clothed with new ones. In .Innc. .Iiily,
and August, the innndalioiis froni the mountains
raise the river at A\a to ;t2 ft. above its lowest
level (Feb.); but all the waters are drained olV
again liy Oct. (Sangcrmauo's Descr., pji. Kil, Hi.*;
I'emberton's IJeport.)
I'lyifiililr I'niihiilK. — Sixteen tlKinsaiid dilVerclit
species of plants, iialivcsnf the liirincsedoiuiniou-,
were collected by Dr. Wallicli, when he visited
the empiie in 1n2i'i: .■inioiigst Ihcin were the leak.
s.iiil. 7 kinds of oak. 2 kinds of walnut, .'! spniis
of willow, a ruse; the alniosl unique AiiiIhik'hii
mitiilis, a maguiliccnt species of Lninmiiiomi, 20 II.
high, handfiils of who.sc tine deep scarlet llowcr;(
are olVcrcd by the natives before the images of
IJoodh; the JJiliiiviis Liiullfi; many new genera
of Orehidea', Scitaminea", and l-iliaceie. (Wal-
lich's I'lantie liariores.) The teak-tree abounds in
forests along the hills skirling the Irrawaili, and
ill the N. provinces, both lai hills and in valleys;
ill lat. 2;{° iiU' it aiiproaches closely to the banks
of the river. T'he most eoiiveuieiit and accessible
forest in the eonntry is that of S;iraw,idi, whicli
riirnishcs nearly the whole of what is exported to
loi-cign I'oiintries. The li'ak of Ava is said lo be
le.3S durable thuii that ut° the cikiijI of Malabar, but
I
!♦
■•^^tf^'-'
i^> W'-K
4ul
llll»M.\ll
il liili lii'i'ii am'irlililli'rl liy i'N|H'rillirill til In'
plrniiu'iT limn llir IukI, iiihI tliirrlnrc lilirr liir
iiiiirliiiirrv. In till' Mill' III' Kiiliii till' fiiiil mill
\;irni'<li irri' iiri' niii^l iilrniiliil ; luinil ^rii\\-< In
ihi' rirrilliilrrrliri' III '.'I in. ill llli' jlllU.'li'N, mIiIi'Ii
• iiiiliiiii »liiili'\rr iiilirr iinilrrwiiiiil't iiri' |iri'\ii
Irlil in lliiliii. Tlir mimiixi iiiliihii, Mn^'aC riilii'.
imli^ii, iiiiil I'liltnii |iliinl, lire rninniiiii ; iiinI
llii' (I'll |iliuil. III It K*'i>i<>>ii' <'liiiriirii'r, l>i"<ii|i'H
inlrriiir '•iiri'*, lliinri'<lii'N nn ilir liciuliU ol' tin' N.
mill rriiiriil |irii\ iiiri'i, Mmtv ninnlli |iriiiliM'i"<
Munt' rri"<li Iriiil : tlir limimiii, riirmi, |>iilni, piiii'
ii|i|ili', i;;iiii\ii. jmiiliii, mill niiiii'^n iiri' iil>nnil;iiil, l>nl
rilriPH", |iiiinrnrmmtr:', mill iirmu,'i'<, arr llii' miK
iriiii Nliarril in rnnininn uilli I'.mi'ii|ii', I'lil'r ul'iill
Uiiiil:', wlii'ai, niai/r, niilli'l, rlrr, ami niiiny |m>I
IutIm, iiir ii-'iial ariirli's nl" cnlliiri'. l''irH an' nirr,
lull |iMii|M'ri, rliKiliiilrnilriin, ami hIIht l'',iirii|iran
|ilaiil'<, ^Tiiw III! I III' n|i|H'r ri'^'inn nl' Muiint I'liiiyt'ii
ami III her ninNlilrralili' liri^lit't in llir N,
. lMi'iiiii/fi,--l',li'l>lianN III' iliri't' ililVrrriii \ iirirlii"*,
llic nini^'lr liiiriiril I'liinui'i'rn'*, uiiil liiiar, liuiT-
li'iiparil, tVr„ iiili.'iliil ilir Jnii^'li'K; liniralin"<, imr-
rii|iiiii'.'<, rivi'l ami uilil raN, ami ^Tral iiiinilirri nl'
api'M, ilrrr, anil aiiirlii|ii"« an' liiiinil. < )i'i'a-iiiiiallv
a «\liili' rlrjilianl i^ nirl \Nitli, wliirli is innrli
|iri/ri|, anil lUii' ii alwavx ki'jil n> |>ai'l ul'ilii' nival
("tialili.ilinirnt al Ami, wlirn' lie is Uralt'il uilli
(in'nl lan' aiiii atlrniiiin. 'I'lirh' an' no jai'l»aN nr
I'liM's, lint iIiik;'^ mi' iinnu'i'iiii't. (ianii' is mil nh
alinmlMiil MM in IliiiiliHtan ; ilii'n'i'^a Nniall "]»•
<'ii"< III' lian', lint mtv inl'i'iiiir, anil rniinii milv in
I III' hiu'li lamls, Sni{ii"', iinail", |ii:;riiii'<, nnr
ciiiiinioii tiiwl ill llii' wild niali', ilin'r '^prriri* of
lii'al'uwl, with niic r<|irrii"- iif |ilii'a.-<aiit, an' I'linml :
|iarn>l.'<. ami nllur Innls nlrirli |iliinia;;;r, an' jilrii-
lil'iil; Mil' ),'a\ial. in llii' Irrawaili, cliaiiii'liKii.
many li/.anis ami r<>i'Miiilalili' si'r|ii'iii.s, an tlic
intuit ill -I ii/ii 11:1, idlirn II rim; liirlniM'M, tlir iiiailpi-
linli, Halilc. mill many oiIk'I'n; Mi'iirpiniis, >|iii|ri''<.
ami rriiliiirilr". Ii'i'i'lu'i, w liii'li alinnml in ilan^cmiiM
iminliiT'i in llic iiiar>lir», mnsiiiiiincH, ami a vrry
Niinii'inii?* am, ili'Hirni li\i' in Imiisc I'liniiinn', ari'
amnnj; the aniinalH. (('r.iul'nnl, |i|i. I."il-|."i7.)
I'lii/ili: — Several ili>iinil Irilies iiilialiil llie liir-
man lerritnriis; vi/. I. Ilie Miuiimn (lliriri.in^i,
lielwei'ii I'.t^^aml •-'1'^ N. lal. ; •-', Tulnhi. Iielwirn
llie Than iwi'iif,^ ri\er ami llie ( iallaii/el ami Aiin-
|ii'rliiiiiiin liills; II, Slums, vvilli mnn' alliliily In
till' SiameM' I hail nllicr raees, ami ••pnailin^ hmt
llie 11. ami N. |irn\ inres; I. Cussuj/rrs, chielly in
llic eapil.'!! ; .">, Klii/nis, a mile |ii'n|ile, jrailireil
miinii!;; liie nthir pn|iiilalinii, liiit lixiii;;' In ihe
milili'si |iariHnrihe eiimitry ; (i, the I'li. pmhalily
a < 'hille^^e Irllie whn ha\ i' aijopleii liinm se I'li^lniii'',
n'^iilillf,HieI\M'eii the latter anil the liravvaili; 7,
Kiiii/iiin, inlialiitiiij;' an e\ten>ive liilK trael lie-
lwei'ii tlie'riiaii-l\veiiy;aiiilSi-tiiii;;.t;iHiil . nllivaliirs
liiit iiii>nliieeteil. miil heariii;,' ;rieal eiiiniiy tn the
Uiniiese; l\w Xiihulinis. 'ra.iii.u-Mii ; the Khaniti,
Siiiu'plins, ;iml niher rihetan nr Tarlar trihes in
the N. Mii.it nrihcMe ii.'itiniis. Iliniif,'h ilitVeriiij; in
]aii;,'nat;e ami manners, an' of Ihe physii'al type
eiiimiKin tn all thnse .--ilnateil lietweeii Imlia ami
("liilia. They ilill'er Inmi the iialiniisnr Imlh these
ri'Lciniis ill eertain partieiilar.i, anil resemlile iiinri'
Ihe Malays. The Itirmeseare shnrt ami sinut. Imt
well prnpnrtiniU'il. with I'liarse lank lilaek liair.and
an nlivo enniplexinn; the wnmeii are fairer than
tlie men, whn have iimri' lieani ^'eiierally than tiie
Siamese; the |)liysinf;iinmy of lintii sexes is open,
I'heerlul. ami iKit mipleasinj;. ami Very few nf
them lire in iiiiy way (lel'iirmeil. They are nilnisi.
aelive, itninisitivc tint detieieiit in emirate, and
fiirm a tntal eniitrast tn their ii('i;;:hhonrs nf lien^al
ill liahits ami disposiiioii. They are lively and
impatiunt ; uiiieli aiKlieted to theft and iyin^.
deiilihil. Mfiile, and prniidi Imii at llii. .niho
lime eiinrliiiii'«, liem'Vnlint, and n li^jimi,. ii
fiiriiniii'r'* I'liiisixt nf aliniii iri.niMisi, .!■ iim,.,',
l.niMI All.imexe, lleil'l'llilanls i>| •'Une wi,,, ^ ',
fiirnnrly in a -late nf ulavery ; nl i ;i.iiiiii||^,
iirie, iliiiil\ I'rnin ^ imiian. •litlnj ni llie i,.«ii, ,„
unrkin^ the miiie'< ; inaiiv llnidni's rrmn llm,,,;.
Miilimiinii'ilaiis, and a few Ijiri'Muiix, I'Ihui .ij
fund 111' npn-e, whin an iiidiiieiin'iii In i.\i.rii,,|,
nllir'<, Ihe llirmi-ei'xiiillit mil mily ^riiil Mriiimi,
lint eniiravci' ami pi r-t \eram e, and iilien ii,,,,,,,'
pli-li what we shnidd think miihi'In i ji,!,,
Ilnl the mildness nl the rliinale, the I'lTliljIv nj
llie SI li I, and the liadm ■.snf the unviTtlliuiil. riii.|, r
these valnahle i|iialilirs nf liitle avail, hi i,,ini
tries like llirinah, the eii-tninary Ktaiii|;iri| i,|
eniilpeleliee is easily altailied, The pniin^i cla....
iilitaiii Ihe nil I'ssarii's whieli they n'i|iijri> mil,
i'nniparaliM'l\ lillle lahmir; iiid thn'-e ulm dimilii
^n further, and aiiiiiipi in innki' a ili'>plii\, i>r in
impnive llieir lands and hniisrs, wniild i'Xihi.i.
iheinsehes 111 esiiirtinii, and perhaps in |ll■^l,l|,■||
danger. Slnth i^, in enllseipienee, the niIii f
the pnnr, and the priliripal ellJiiMiii'lll nf tlii'rii'li.
(Crawfiinl, pp, ;17I.:17J, Itlii-I.i), A'l',; Miiloilni
i. •j--'ii. A>:)
.liliiiiill>iir.— \'.\rr\i\\U]S near the InuiiH, ii|,,.i
nf the I iiid is wii'te and miapprnpii.itnl, iml, ,,
nieasintially hy wamlirin^; Irihes, whn raiiii i ri ih
with little laliiitir nn the vii|>in snil, Tlii'nilti
\ated land- an' assigned, with their iiihaliil.ini-,
hy the sii\eni(;ii, ill larue di->lrirls In Ins viiri"ih
lavnnriles, whn an' iinl iinapily einiiliil ihiir
'eaters,' and whn irriiid dnwii the inhiv :iliir. Ii\-
the inn-l oppn's-ivi' e\aetiniis. The I'ariiis ^'|.||,'.
rally <■llllsi^t nf mily a few iien's i aeli : iiinl ,i;;rl-
I enltiin', exeept, perhaps, ammi:,' the Karyrih, ii |
' ill its rmli'-t and mll^l imperl'eit -tale, Itire i» i|ii>
I chief artii'le nf pnidine. and fnriiis the iiiaiii |'<n.,|
nf the people ; it is iiin-lly tcniwn in the S,. Mliirc,
alllinn^h the plnnM'h is -eldnin used, ami tlir
niilv tniililen hy eatlle, a siiit;le ernp is siilr| |,i {
I yield .'itl nr t'lO fold. Ill the N. piuviin es « |iiii||M
similar In that of India, is used, and the m\ U\
iil'lerwanls pulverised hy means nf a wmiileii niiii-
der, and a rnii;;h liarmw dra;j:i,'ed ever il ; '.'nr :l {
imps a vt'ar are here nhtaiiied. hiii liny are imi .i
' pniilneliveas the sinj^leenip nf ilie lower |lrll\ill^l•^
I'liNe nf vai'inns kinds, Indian iiiillel aiul iiiai/i,
an' irniwii in the N. pniv,, the latter yiililiii;; il.iitl
siieh stateinriils an' aliiin.-t always >'\a;;;,'i'riitrMi f
Inn I'lild. timid wheat is ^niwii in the iiei^liliMir-
hnnd of the eapilal, hut il is lillle Used I'nr l>ri;i.|, |
1 Sisiiiiiiiiii is universally enllivaied I'nr its nil aiii
! nil eake, wliiih is ;^i\cn to the eatlle. l'iilinii|
((iiissi/iiiiim livrl.,iniiiii, W'allieh) ol a llna iiiii
silky lextiin', hut of short slajile, is f;i'iiwi; iiij
\ every part of Ihe empire and of its depeiiiliini'N
. Imt jirineipally in Ihe upper provineis, liiiiipil^
also o(.|ierally uniwii, ami is iialnr.illy nf ;; I
ipiality ; hiil the inltiire and iiiaimliiii.iiv el ik'
plant "are Imlh so very rude, its to n'lnler llii' pni-
ihiee wholly mitit lor exporlatioii. 'Hit' |i"liil'i
i and pot-lierhs of I'ainiiic an' iinile iiiikiiowh; Imt j
I vams. and a species ol sweet pntiilo, art', ;i> «(!'
I lis tnliai'eo, vei'y p'lienil arlieies of ciilliiri' in tin
' N. There are mi melons, eiii'iiiiihers. nr r:;-
plaiili'; hilt the hanaiia .'ind tiiiiiinind iiri' I'Mm- 1
sively ;;niwn ; and in some iraels the iiiinii'iri'l'f
fruit trees forms the hasis of taxation, 'flu ^"-;i'
: cane is enllivaied, and the stalk eaten wlmi n|"
i llie. maiinfaelnre nf su^'ar, except a very ri'.iN'j
i sort, heiii^- iinknnwii. An inl'erinr kind ol I'.i.I
with a lar^re leaf, is ^niwn nn the hills, ami wii ii f
; liv the iiative.s with y,;irlic and oniiiiis. wliiili 'i^'-
I also pnidiieed there. Capsieiiin, lu'Xl I" "ail.:
' forms the eliicf coiidiiiit'iit ; fmin the higliwt tul
llir liiwrnt, nil M'n
mil ii« niiisninpiini
inti«r/ii»i'd lor lioii
l.lillirillllvaleil III
III iMlililinll III rlie,
mill nil riiin|Hw)< (I
iiiutli'i' i^ made III I
.[•'illlili'd inln II I
1^ iMil III lii'inine I
III rijinimrie hy Ihe
|>«d lu'liiir pmlliliilei
mini ((iiierally ear
nliii II have died a n
mill ik'naiias, hy tin
-nil' iinlividiialN pi
inl«'< i|n lint, liiiwevi
kill liiilliicks and iitl
till' In till ir ileilii'N:
numw nr ntlier, evail
Miaul nf aiiiiiials, or
niKii iH'VeraK'' of the
tliiiiii;li iiriiliiliiied, II
ri.r, iifiil tiiildy IS II
,^illiivril, dale, nr enei
l'ii»«, liiill'aloes, ffi
ifi' lti'|il ; hill lieilh
iiMM are used mil)
iiiii'ily ill the upper
liii'ti' ('iillllllnll ill the
i. iimI iiiiiri' than lliirt
a mr, I'sleellied ill III
'ill' nailille. The eh
ii-il liir earria>;i'; il
li'iHii. Ilojfs an- pf
ii.k IM waveiijiers.
.[rin anil Miniiifiiil
«:iri| utilti'. l'loli;,'hili)
'niniiH.'. and dyein^',
I mil 1 1 liy Wnlllell nr
li-nliilike that nf Iti'i
:iri' Wnvi'ii, Ihe Uiyw^i.
Ilir ilir;.'!' low lis in il.s \
I'llin'i'iif India and
'If, lliiiii;;|i eoiisiden
llimii'.ic, surpass them
I'l -ilk, mid pniihice si
imlimiilereil with ;;oli|.
Kliviii liiniiis can mil
iiliilv tliiise of the Itirii
l'i'»in wiilili, I'riniii
'ill ilyiiii^' with indie'i
aii'lllic niliiiirs of I hi
*liiiirn| tlir their hril
niiiriliiiint ii.sed. \,, |j
mill llriiish i;iiods nf a
iinji'irliil, and .snld eliea
''"' iii'l'Vt's. .Some c,,,|
Willi Hie porcelain ii.s,
llii' llirmesi. east he||^
►"'M mill silver respeei
'' '"nrk Well in iiit
■i"'l niiiK'liliK'ks arc inai.
""iliii'tly liiiiijjlit from I
"""' "'« l':n!,disli ; (ho
■"«. Willi, while new II
'.m.
'■"ii'iili'rcil Worth
»'l Ih'IcI hi.xes is ainni
!""■•"' 'i'lieir paper i.s „C
'".'"'"1'' "f hainhoo lihr
"'iMiiri' nf charcoal and
'^1 "'111 n piece of sleati
■^'■iflv nil their iiianiifa,.
"{''"W «'«r|K'iiters, si.iit
►■"I'r", will, ,vork for t
l"'''l».lhc'reiiri,huf,few'
['"'1'^ '"il.v ill the l,irK(
("sisiremcrecaiiocs, do
Ill II M Air 4Aft
,i,r liiwfut. nil wn'oii tlicir t\i'c with flii< |iliiiil, i iiinl |iiirily i-nvmil in wilh mnl<, wllhoiir li«inlM«»
Inr II mil"! mill iitnillirr I'nr It viiril
1,^1 jl« niliniiiii|>lli>ii H * inrri'ililily umil ;' lirlil
,1,1 i<rnl«i'il li>r lioiiu' i'iiti<<iMti|ii|iiM ; miil ihi' |>l|ii'r
l,,,|i,rnlliviilril Inrui'lx, Mini ul'rxri'lli'nl i|iiiilllv.
Ill :iiMllli>ll III rill', |illlll|iltiMN, llllil lillUi', i/HK/iri'
,„,l oil iiiiii|"iM' till' iiiiilii IihkI 111' ilii' jH'iiJ-niilry.
iHiitj"''' ''' »■'"'*' "' |>rituiH, HlirinijM, nr iiiiy lyinip
i(,|i,{.>iiiiilril mill M r<iii»i'<li'ii( IIIIIM1, mill rri'i|iii iiilv
lllnVlril III l'i'< "><<■' luirlillllv |illlrii|. Il H kllMM
.niiiiiinii'i'i'i' I'.v <'»' iiiiiiii' 111' HoliulutHfi, AiiIiiidI
i,,.| Ik'iii;; |iriiliiliiii'il liy ilii- llinlilliiiiii iil ri'llKlnii.
, I (.'iMiriill.v riilrii, I'MTjiiiiiif ji'iiiliry iir li-li
tiii.li liiivi' ilii'il 11 iiiiliiriil ili'iiili, li/.iirilx, M(>r|ii'iit'<,
mill lu'iiiiiiii*. I'.v llii' liiwiT i'lii"'<i'Hi iir niiiiii' liv
Miiii' in<li\iiliiMl'* |irivtili>ly, Miiiiy nl' tli, liiil
ip|,4 ilii mil, IliiWi'Vrr, rrK'H'il lllf illjlini'linll, miif
kill liiilliii'Kn iiihI iitliiT I'Miili' I'lir I I, or in niu'ri
n,,. In llliir ilfitil'H; iniillV hIIhts iiInii, liy iiiif
nii'iuiA nr iitliiT, fviiili' llii' lii«v 111' iiiil i<|iilllii)r tlii'
M,».| III' aiiiiiiiil'i i>r ii|ii'iily lirriik il, Tin- rmii
iii.n lii'ViTiini' "I ll'i' pi'iiplr i« uiilrr; Iml w|iiriN,
il ;.'li iiriiliiliiii'il, itri' iiii|iiirli'il nr iliKillliil linni
[>,'. .'iiiil tiiilily IH tiiiiili' Imni |lii< jiiiii> nl' llu'
;iliii\m, iliiii'. iir ciifnii iri'i'.
i.iw-, liulViiliH'M, ^iiali'. ikiiil II vrry I'rw .slii'i'|i,
iri JM'pl; ImiI iirilliiT I'nr tlirir IIimIi nr milk.
M\,n ari' ii!<ril niily I'nr ilriiii^vlil, Mini jirrMiil
,'irily in till' U|i|irr I'lmiilry, liir Inill'iiln luiiij;
ii.ri' ininillnll ill lllf InWrr, 'I'llr llirillllll llnrni'
.iiui ninri> tliiiii lliirtirii liiniiU lii^li, Iml Nirmi^',
;i mi'.i'nli'l'inril ill lllf rniiiitry, nilil ll^cil nlily i'nr
ill' rilililll', 'I'll!' I'li'|illlllll i'l linllli'^^di'Mtrii mill
ii,.il I'nr i'iirriii);i> ; Ilir riiiiii'l is iilin;:i'i|ii'r nil
I "»ll, lli>|;s an- lill'lltil'lll, Imt I'olllliiniily iixmI
ii,l\ w* w'iivi'iij;rrM.
Aria mill Miiiiii/'iiiiiiiTs iiri' in tin- iiinst Imrk-
n;ir I ^lllti', l'liiu;;liili^, rlrilliill^ I'lil lull, .s|ii||iiiiii.;,
«r;i\llii.', ailil ilyi'ill^, tirr nju rnliniiN liin-<|lv {irr-
I nmil liy wniiii'ii nr rii|ilivi' CiiNMiys: ihr Inniii
liHlJi liki> llllil III' jlril^lli. Silk llllil I'lillnii ;^r,„H|,s
jfp wiivrll, llii' runner rliirlly in I Iir i';i|iitiil iliiil
iiul.ir;,'!' Iii\vii> in il.1 viciniiy, Imt nri' \i'i\ inrrrinr
I'llic r liiiliii anil Cliiiia, 'I'lii' Kliyriis, Imu-
i.ir, llinii^'li rniiKiili'ralily li'.ss i'i\ilisi'il limn iln*
llimii:'!', »iir|iafis ilirni jfrially in tlii< iiwinnraflnri'
lif-ilk, ami |iriiilnri" koiih' Mipfrinr iTiniMin srarfs,
inilirniik'ri'il wilh pilil, anil niirmw nIiiiwN, '|'|ii<
Klivin Iniiiiis ran mily iiiiiki> Ihlirii'i iini> rnliil,
«liilr lliiisr 111' llii' liirini'.M' jirnilnrt' mhiii' Iwn rn-
liil in wiillli, I'riiiliii^r nil rnllnii is iinkiinwn;
I'll! ilyi'iii}; Willi inili;;n ami liirnnrii' is |irMi:li-<i'il;
,11!'! llif riiliiiirM 111' llii' Itirnu'sii lalirii's arr niiirli
I'liiiiri'ii I'nr llicir lirilliaiu'y : ainiii \s llii> nnly
m<\;\m iiM'il, Nil Hill- lini'ii is inMiinrai'lnri'il';
Mil liriiisli liiiijils 111' ail i|iiiiliiii's ari' I'uininnnly
ini|Kirliil, ami miIiI ciicaiH'r llimi iiiiy |iriiilni'i'il liy
ilii' iiiilivi's. .Siiiiii' fnarsc rartjii'iiwari' is inuilc";
luiiill llii' piirrclain iisimI is iin|iiii-li'il rnnn Cliina.
ll«' IlirmcMi casl licils, anil cxcfiili' liliij;ri'c in
;!(! mill kIIvit riw|K'i'ialily ; Imt nilicrwisi' lliry
'i'l mil work wi'll in metals, Snine mile cutlery
ainlniiitcliliKiks are inaileal Ava; Imt their swnnfs
«n rliiilly Imiifjlit rriini the ,Sh«ns. anil olil muskets
tnm thi' Kiif^lish ; the latter I'eleli frnni ;i7/i. In
"•.Willi, while new Jlinnese muskets are nnly
I'li-iiliTi'il wiirtli 'I'lu. Lai'i|iiereil ware I'nr lray"s
m4 IkIi'IIhixcs is anmn^fsl their lies! maniil'aV-
"inx. Their paper is nf three snrls, one of wliiih
!• niiidi' of hainliiio lilires, cnvereil over with ii
"lixiiirc III' I'liaiviial ami rieiswiiler, ami written
'* "illiapieee (if sieatite, as we do on u slate.
Ni-arly all their inannl'uctnres are iloniesiic, J-'.x-
"ji'iiil,' carpenters, smiths, inasmis, earvers, unil
inlWs, who work fnr the jialaee, temples, nnil
l-nMs, there are but few pnlilie jirtisans, ami tliese
Mc only ill the larger eitie.s. 'I'jie eommnn
Mis sre mere canoes, clcckcd with split bamboo,
f>Hi'lliiiii».—'\\\i> nrillnary linii«epi eniinUt wlmllv
of limiiliniiH mill nnitiiiiu, limlly (hiiiilieil with
h'liM's nr i^raxK, verv mmn liiiill nr niiiiiMil, iiinl
in the liiwif Niiiiiiilniis riilMi'il ,'i nr I It. Imm ihe
Umniiil nil wnnili'ii pnalH ; ihniie nf the jirieNtx liril
nf n "iiperinr kiml, ami snm"»hii( Kliiiiliir In ilin«<\
•'( llie (liinexe, nf Ihnse nf the .SIiIIIIh III the N.
I fnvmee-, havin^t a Inii^; rnnf rniimled at the end",
llWlltifl^ WIiIIm, uml lieill;^' divided illln ■I'MTIll
c"iiilmHW''|iK 'I'll'' nrdinary linU nf the |M'n|ilii
iiHUki.tl of nm'fli -"inall mat laid nii the (,'rniiml,
Th«'' Miii|)les nn- ij .lilferenl i.tyle« in dillireiil
|ir(ivi«''<s Ht I'li^nn iImx are heavy, hrnad, and
Hiirmniiiiieil liy i» sni'ill spiri'; In the Mniiihern prn-
ill'-- jiyraiiiidal, ami ndnrmd with many llunri"*
lit ^MHIiix. --iihiiiM's, and >T..riM|il<s. 'I'liev are all
miieh if|i ' and ill rated, and nfi. I "I'.tniii \iry
snlid inaMiiiry : nimiy are, linwever, in riiiM->, i-inee
ninst nf theiii are Imilt and endnwed by ueiilthy
iiidi\ idiialn, and il is ili rimd iimre inerltnriimN to
liiiild a new than In repair mi i ! ' 'lie,
('iiiiimiiii. -Ill the Inwer pmviines the Irallle it
alimisl w linlly by W liter iniiveymiee ; ill ntlier pmlH
Kiinils and piisseiip'rs travel by earls nr wiiy:nnnH
drawn by n\etl, nr mi the biliks 111' Ihrse miiiiials;
the upper ili-trii'ts send til the Inwer petrnlelini,
nitre, paper, laniiieied wiiri", ^ilks and cntinns,
iiillery and nirtal wares, paliii sii^car, unions, la-
inariml--, \i',, and reeeive frniii l>miK<>i>n, 'rnii'^lm,
and Itiisseiii, wliirh are the iliief Inidln;: phnes,
rii'e, salt, piikled iind dried li.«h, and lni'ri;;'ii enin-
nindilies, 'I'lie Sliaiis expnrl eiittnlis, silks, ivnry,
bees' was, sliik-lai', varnish. l:iri|ileleil wares,
swiinls, and nieliils. in Avii, and lake lunk xilt and
dried lish. The primipal fniei^ii trade is wilh
China, and its rhlef seat the Inwii nf llhaimi,
whither the I hiiiese earavans eniiie and meet t liii
llirniese and iMnlianiniedan inerehaiils ; and I'miii
l>ee. Ill April this tnwn presents a most aniinaled
seeiie nf ailive imlii^lry, and a greater viiiiitv of
tribes than is, perhaps, I'mind at any niher fair in
Asia. The principal artieles nf iiii|iiirl I'rnin Cliiint
are silk (in the ainniinl nf abnnt '.'7,tMMI bimdies,
wnrlli Ml.OIMI/. II year), enpper, carpets. I'nr Jackets,
nr|iinienl, ipiieksilver, vermilinii, verdigris, ilrii(;s,
lea. fresh and dried fruits. The expnris to ('biim
are cliiellv raw cut Inn (averii;^iii,LC I l,lMlll,(Mlt» lbs,,
and wnrtli •J'.'M.tMMi/, a year) ; feathers, ivnry, wax,
edible birds' nests, rhinncerns' and deer's linrns,
sa|i|iliircs,aml smne jtrilish imiiuifactni'es; ehielly
brntiil clntiis and carpets. The Intal value nf llin
trade with China is variously estimated at frnin
100,0011/. to 700.000/.
Mi'iimirfu mill Cniii. — The chief measure of »■«-
/iiirifi/ I'nr rice is the basket --i'lXij lbs. avninl, ; nf
Iniiltli. thv tin<,M'r-breadtli,liaiid-breadtli.span, enbit
C2 spans, or I'.t'l I'.ii;;, inches), bainbno -'.'H cubits
(I 1.^ yds.), Iaiiij,' = 7,000 cubits (2m. 1 furl., nearly) ;
the chief weiijIilH, the lical (nearly J oz. avninl.),
viss -; loo ticals, or .'I catties (H lb. 2 oz.).
Then! is no coined inoiiey, exce|itin;,' some of
very base quality, and of lead, struck at Amara-
piirn; k<>I*I '»iiI silver ingots, of a tieal wei);ht,aiiil
various de^trees of purity, form the rest of the cnr-
n'licy. (iold is valued at about seventeen times
the worth of silver, a lical of which latter, nearly
pure, is worth 2.s. M.'y.
Jirirniii- iiiiil Tii.viitiim. — Ono-tontli part of tho
jirodiiets of the ciiltiviitor, which is often taken in
kind, and 10 ]ier cent, on all imports, o per cent,
on exports and on the petnileimi collected; tho
innnopoly of marble, amJier, the precious metals,
and xems abnve a iHTlain size, of wrecks, nnd the
pniperty of certain fnreij;ners dying in the country,
all belong to the king. Tlicre is no direct laiiii-
1" •
'1!
A
^^.. iVK ■ I
' .. .: I
466
BIRMAH
tflx, l)Ut the people arc nHHOHsed in proportion to
thrir siipposril mean!*. Most of the provinws arc
cnnMldcred I ho property of the royiil family or prin-
ripal roiirf favoiiritcH ; the kiii^; assesxe.s eneli of
hi« vicerovH in a certain Hiini ; these assess their
Hiihordinnte distriet pivemorsfora larj^j'r sum, and
these apiin foree still more out of the nnliappy
peasantry, who p'ni'rally are made to pay donhle
the sum originally demanded hy the kin^. The
f{old antl silver that thus reaches the royal treasury
is never, except on urf,'ent occasions, dishnrsed
iipiin ; the only channels of its (■xptMiditure are in
presents to favourites, ^ildin^ lempleH (for which
most of the pdd in the coinilry is used), and
making ornnmentH. The olili;;ation to make [ire-
sents to olilain favour or Justice prevails univer-
Hally, and from the to)) to thc^ hottoin of the Hocinl
scale, there is one nnifonn system of extortion and
rapacity, which has so completely crushed the
sjiirit of the ))oo|)le. that. altliou/.;h lew arc in ItOf;-
f;ary,all fear to he rich, lest they slioidd he marked
out and impoverished hy the harfiies of the Htate.
((.'rawfurd's Journ., pp. Ho—lili.)
The Gtwernmrnt is an hereditary and ahsolnte
desjMitism, the sovereitjn i)(iiif; 'lord of life and
limli ' over his suhjects, who style hitn 'fjolden ; '
speak of informing' the 'f,ndden ear,' throwing
tliemselvcs at the 'p)lden feet.' They approach
him with their hands joined ahovc their heads,
inid even nnikc ohcisancc to the jtalaoe walls,
liel'ore which all musk dismount and take oD' their
shoes. The soveri'i|(n is assisted hy 1 woonjjees,
or chief |)uhlic ministers; ■! atween-woons, or pri-
vate counsellors; 4 woon-docks, ministers of the
interior; •) state secretaries ; l reporters ; 4 otlicers,
til rc^idat« ceremonies, and 9 to read petitions.
Their several ranks are determined hy their dresses,
coronets, and number <if pdd chains: t>iemonar<;li
himself only heiuf,' privilepul to Vicar 24. The
whole nation is divided into the royal liimily,
nobles, and commonalty, and none dare assume
the dress of a superior gTade. The ISinnese have
no farther distinctions of caste, as in India, nor
any hereditary dir.tinctinn.s; although, in other
respects, a kind of feudal s -stem jirevails ; and
the king can command the appearance of lii-
iiohles in the (ield, with their quota of va.ss;il>.
(Hamilton's IJa/.., i>p. ln-,'j(); Saugermano, p. it^ ;
Wilson's Docuni., A))i)end., p. i!8; Crawfurd, p.
41)1 ; 'J'rant, pp. 247-2(;h.)
Armed Force. — The iSirmeaearcnot, as a nation,
n niilitarv people, but would make f;ood soldiers
under able otlicers. There is no regular system of
eonscripiion ; every man is liable to serve; hut
nil large force is e\er disiiosahle ; and it is believed
thai tlie whole levies riiised to o|)])ose the British
troops in the war of IX.'il*. iliil not amount to more
than r)(»,(in(l men. ICxcepting a small oody of
(_';issay horse, and one of ariiilerj', all are iid'antry.
and aimed with long spears, two-handed swords, old
nniskets, and the jinjal. a kind of (carbine, carrying
large halls, which, as they are good marksmen, is
a fonuidable weajion, excojit in close combat.
They arc adepts at raising stockades, which they
do wherever they take up a position; hut these
are not generally defended with nnicli vigonr.
However, the great stockade of h'angoon, erected
by the Birmesc in January, ]8;V2, withstood the
operations of the llritish troops for nearly three
months, and wfis captured with some loss on the
Mill of April of the same year.
Jiirlspriidenve. — Each large city has its judicial
tribunal, and townships {myu) have each a gover-
nor, called myo-sn-yi, who is assisted by iidcrior
|)olice oilicers, placed over the several wjirds :
from the decisions of the Wfyo-.sw-///, there is appeal
to the provincial governors, and from the latter in
a higher law officer in the cajiital. The ooi|i nf
laws is derived from the * Innlitutes of Mcmi,' nini
contaiiiH many salutary regidations; hut ilirniidi
a most corrupt administration, the aims nf ju^d,.,,
are frequently nervertcd, ond the greatest, tyraimv
is exeniised. The slavery of a debtor, or li'is , liil-
dren, in discharge of a debt, is comnimi ; nn'l
females, in such a case, may \k\ used as coiuiiImik.,
Trial by ordeal often takes place, and in eriminii
cases the punishments are marked hy the jrrciihH
ernelty. The Ilirmese seem to have taxi'il i||,.jr
ingeniiity to invent territic ami revolting; niiKiM
of death. These they bear with an intn'pidiiv or
indill'erence cuinmon to all Asiatics: hut mvii,'
to the extreme corruption of the llinnesc ofHcirr
there are very few otteni^es that may nut he cx^
liiated, or their punishment materially allcviiui,!,
by a pecMiniary sacrilice. (Crawfurd, "pii.li;!, i;i|'
Ac. ; Hangermano, jip. 05-70 ; Wilson's Mmm',
Append., p. 44.)
lieliyiim is Ihiddhism, believed to have lifpn
introduced by Gaudma, the chief deity, hiiiiscll, in
the (5tli century n.c. This faith is iniivcr<al \ivw
except among foreigners ; individuals wlio have
been C(mvcrted to Christianity ; a few 7m\\,
believed by Wangermano to be Jews ; mid mm.
hill trilies, as the Khveiis, Karyens, and (;hs>;iv.!
in the lowest stage ot idolatry. Tlu! priests, caiii.!
Hhahaans, are much respected; they arc lircd ni
like monks to their calling from an early iifjo, aiM
observe celibacy, but may at any time rciiuuiKv
their vows and maiTy. They 'are vuliintariK
maintained by the population, and not suH'iml in
engage in manual labour, their chief nceupatidii
being the instruction of youth. All fondiiiuTs an;
allowed the fullest exercise of their rclij;iiui, ^in.j
may build places of worship anywhere, iind liaw
their )inbliu festivals and ]iriicessiiins wiiliuiit
molestation. Hut, though thus tolerant to straiigir-,
tlu'v are most intiderant to their own people. \,>
Iiirman dare join any of these religions, undir tlic
severest iienalties ; and the most rigorous incaMir' i
are ailopted for suppressing all religious iiiiuiva-
tions.
Education is so far diffused that almost even-
male Hirman can read and write; and this is \U
case with many of the females. The Khycnslia'M
no knowledge of books or reading, and Imld iiinii-
cine in contempt ; the iiirmans tlu'uis('lvc< ;ir'
grossly ignorant of physic, and whether fur IVht i
or rheumatism, theyshamiioo the iiaticut, trcadiii;'
him till he is in a ])rofiise perspiration: anviiie
may practise this profession. Diseases of tlii' di;'(s-
tiv". r;'; -'s, anil of the skin, cholera, and li'iirii>v, j
are the most fre(|uent; intlamniatimis arc ii't
generally acute, and wounds of a very stwre |
character are said to heal with singidar ra|iiili;y.
The liinnese are possessed of some kniwleii'.'i'if I
the heavenly bodies, and the signs of tlieir z<«Ii:ii.'
are the same as ours: their year cmisisis of iiJI |
days, the errors in which computation they par-
tially rectify every third year. Tliuy liavc I:'
months, of 2i) and 30 days alternately, and Jilavji
in the week, named from the phiiiets, in the imt
order as ours. There are 70 hours between mib-
rise and sun-set, calculated at the cajiital hy ili- j
successive tilling of cups by dropping water: Imt I
as the length of the days changes, these cniisiiiii-;
of course, be also continually changed. Tlnirj
(•ommon epoch begins from the year .\.d. (io\ I
making our year 1)S.'?9 the liirniese year 1201, I
Lanyiniye, — The language spoken liytiicWs|
of the 1 ieo])le is the Jiirmese. IJesides tills, \\m '■■
the Pali, or sacred language, which liasadi-lii: 'j
written character. In the coinnion Jiirmese. vx
lettersare formed of circles and segnieiilsiit'tir;!'--
[ii-ubalily derived from the I'uli iilpliakt. H''l
simctiirc of t
Tlierc is no in
tloii, innnher,
|iri'li\ing or ii
liilliiw each oti
iiiiiil iiiiiispei
(iriiiieial. ((,'r
J)rnis mid f
(•(pveriiig from
llie leg; over
all the WHY to
liaiidkerclnef c
lira turban of I
«ear a soinewl
ihat ijf the met
tr.iiit, pennits i
liny wear no h*
is wiirii long, ai
lii'ad; the men
|iniLliee of hlac
it Hits formerly,
iiaiiiiiis; sanda
.■.tiifkings, are w
nioslly black ; i
iiseil l»y the pri
jacket is some
Chinese costum
ilie niiliilily is h
III' iJDwerwl satin
iiiili an open col
with gidd circlet
(hewing betel
sal, even with cl
iIjiv, viz. early in
iliiir food is sttrv
|j|ates and small
iiiiieli as lingers ;
ilio peojde are
.Mars, (iclieve in f
mans, and practi
liieir small comi
clianre to die, tli
lic'ti taken posses.-
.silllemeiir, and
when aa earthqu!
liuiises, to expel t
Shivery, and es
general; po]yg„in
a mere civil coiitr
llii; .sovereign him
jiareiu a married
i'lirly ciannion.
lilierty, usually, a^
wrt.s cd' drudgerv
iiiiiilellty ainimg" t
iii"n;;li clm.stity at
jraciised or appret
liie seizure of the
.■"line beauty, the
•iistoni of tattooin
lii;' of their bodies
vails amongst tlu
liiirned or buried;
"lit ill state; am
C'lniiulence and pr
vivurs of decea.sed
'0 play before the
fondueted with as n
m afford. The fu
'i*als, and many a
Mil other heavy bi
on those occasions,
fceted; the Kliy
w imhhc rejoicing
■•"""iiKst the Uirmc
'^wonc 1ms to t
«™teverrank,durit
RIRMAII
457
stnioHirc or tlin lan^tujiRC is cxccodinRly simiile,
Tlii'tc it 110 iiillecluiii (tf iiny part of Hpfecli. Hda-
tinii, mimhcr, nnxle, and time arc all iiidicatctl liy
iirilixiiiK or alHxiiiK wrtain artiidcH, 'I'lic words
I'l.lliiw I'acli other in their natural order, nn arraii;;i'-
iiHiit iiidiflieiii'ahly iicoessary to a dialect ho iii-
nriiiiiial. ^Oawl'iird's .loiirii., p. itHT.)
Jjnmi itiid StM-ial IlabilH. — That of I lie men ia a
civi'tiiiK Ifom the loins rcaeliiiif^ luill'-way down
ilicU'Ki over this a I'rock with wide sleeves, lied
all the wav to the knee; on the head, a sipiare
liiiiidkorcliief of Knj,'lish or Alailras nianul'acture,
i>r ii turhaii of Kn^lish hook mnslin. The women
w(':ir a somewhat similar dress, hut shorter than
iliiit (if the men ; antl the petticoat, liein;^ open in
ffiuit, iiermits the tliijjh to he seen at every step;
ihcv wear no head-dress. The hair of hoth sexes
iswcirn loll};, and tied in a knot on the to|) of the
lii'iul; the men plnck out their heard; hut the
iiniilit'e of hiackening the teeth is not foUowt^d as
it WHS lorinerly, and still is, hy some nei},dihourinj;
iiaiiiiiis; sandals, but neither hoots, shoes, nor
>tiH.'liiii},'s, are worn. The dress of the peasaiiiry is
niiisily hlack; yellow is a sacred colour, and only
iiseil iiy the priests and upper classc^s ; a (piilied I
iacki'tis sometimes worn, and in the NK. the
(hiiH'^o costume is adopted. The court-dress i>f
the iiiihilily is handsome, consistiiif^of a hnij; rohe
(if lliiwereil satin or velvet, reacliiiif; to the aiiides,
with an open collar and loose sleeves, velvet ca|i:i
witli fC'>ld circlets, and many ornaments.
I'liewing hetel is common, and suiokin^; univer-
fiil, even with children. The Hirmese eat twice a
iliv, viz. early in the niorniii};; and in the eveniuf^ ;
ihiir food is served up on trays, in red lac(|uere(l
pliitcs and small cups ; spoons are used, hut not so
much as liuf^ers ; knives and forks are unkuowu.
Till! people are very superslitioiis, consult the
>tar.s, believe in fortunate or evil times, wear talis-
mans, and practise alchemy. If any meinher of
their small communities of four or live houses
dwiioi' to die, the Khyens helieve the evil spirit
liits taken possession of tiie place, break up their
soilk'moiit, and remove to another s])ot ; and,
wlu!ii an earthquake happens, shout and beat their
liuiiscs, to expel the liend.
Slavery, and especially the selliiifr of women, is
(leiieral; polyj;'ainy is allowed; marriage, althouf;h
11 mere civil contract, is universally respected, and
llii; sovereitcn himself has no rif^ht to seize for his
luirein a married woman. Divorc;es tire exceiid-
iiyly common. Females arc allowed as imieh
liliirty, usually, as males ; they are ciij^aiced in all
Mirt.s (if (Irudjfcry and cinitinual occupation, yet
iiiiidelity among those who are inanied is rare,
lliiiii;;h chastity among the others is a virtue little
I'racliseil or ai)preciateil. To uvoiil, it is jiretended,
tile seizure of their females, who have naturally
smie beauty, the Khyens have long adopted the
nistomof tattooing their countenances ; a tattoo-
ing of their bodies in all kinds of tigures also pre-
vails amongst the ISirinese. Corpses are either
biinu'd or buried; persons of rank are i)ublicly laid
nut ill state ; and amongst all classes visits of
Condolence and presents are received by the sur-
vivors of deceased persons, and musicians attend
to play before the body till the funeral, which is
conducted with as much mtigniHcence as the friends
can afford. The funerals of priests are public fes-
tivals, and many accidents are caused by timber,
and other heavy bodies that are fired np in the air
on those occasions, falling on the crowd that has
ciiik'ted; the Khyens also treat deaths as matters
of imblic rejoicuig. Many curious customs prevail
amongst the Birmcse, si'ich as the i)ri\ilege that
wyonc has to throw water over any others, of
ivluteverrank, during the last three daysof tlu- year.
lloxing, cockfighting, foot-ball, throwing a quoit
of bamboo, tt few games of chance, chess, and
dancing, are among the chief recreiilions. The
llirnu'seare good mimics, and very fond of acting ;
their drama is by far the best aiiioug tlii! liuio-
I'hiiiese nations. Their ininic possesses decided
melody ; they are much attached to it, and nsinilly
sing at their work. Their |)riiicipal iusirumeuts
are, a drum of bamboo or cane, covered with skin,
a kind of hurdy-gurdy, oboe, ami liile. In their
dances they exhibit many contortions of tln^ body.
'I'he.y have several epic and religious poems, be-
sides some other literary productions.
llistori/. — The earliest records go back to tlin
year n.c. i)l;i. The first kings are said to have
come from lialiar, and fixed the seat of govern-
ment at I'roine, where it continued for iloii years.
In A.i>. 1117 it was removcid to I'ugau (I'agahni
Mew), where it remained for \i centuries, and
where are still to be seen extensive ruins, iiiclud-
iiig many temples, and some relics of Hindoo wor-
ship. In |.">2-', the court was removed to Sa-kaing ;
in i;'>(il,to Ava ; in IToi', Alompra transferred it to
his native place, Mouchobo ; oiieof his sous carried
it back to Ava; another to Amarapura : from lHi2
to 1«;>7, Ava again became the capital, when thii
revolution that i)laced the Trinceof Sarawadi on
the throne, restored tluit honour to Jlouchobo.
In the iHth century the, liirmese bee, me flie
most powerful nation of the K. peninsula of Asia.
Ava had been governed by the King of I'egu for
some time previous to 17.');i, when Alompra, the
founder of the ])resenf dyn.isty, e:<pclled the I'e-
giians from Ava and I'rome, and in l7o(! ellected
the coiii|iiest of I'egu. The Shan ccamtry was
conquered by his son in 17(W; Cassay in 1771;
Aracan in M^'A; in 171H), theTenasserim jirovinceH
taken from the Siamese; and Assam coiupiered in
lM"2ii. Emboldened by these successiw, the court
of Ava entertained <lesigns on the neiglibonriiig
Ikitish territories; our frontiers were subject to
continual irruptions, and our ambassadors to all
kinds of coutemi)t and insolence; until, after ii
hostile invasion of Caehar, a state with which wo
were alliiMl, and reni^wed outrages on our posses-
sions in Chittagong, Sir A. (,'ainpbell was sent with
an army up the Irrawadi. After a vanely of en-
gagenieiits, in which the Ihitish were always suc-
cessful, a treaty was concluded Feb. il, lH-_'ii. at
Vandalxi, ;J() m. from the capital, by which the
))rovinpes of Aracan, Ye, Tavoy, ^lergul, and i>art
of iMartaban, were ciided to tlie Kriiish, together
wiih ij,()l)().i)(l(t rii|)ees to defray the (^x|icnses of
tli(! war; aiid the King of Ava ceased to have do-
minion over Assam, .lyiitea, t'atdiar, and Cassay.
In April', lfi.'!7, the I'rince of Sarawadi. brother to
the former king, seized the throne; jiut to death
or otherwise disposed of the courtiers who had
been opposed to him; aiul remove<l the seal of
governuieiil from Ava to Mouchobo.
Another dispute between the Ih'ilish govern-
ment in India and tlu! ruler of liinnali hioki; out
towards the end of the year |.s.")l. On tli('-_".i|li
of October, a ]>ritish naval force, arrivi^d belore
llangoon, and, after some delay, broke through llie
stockades, ami forced the passage of the river Irra-
wadi. Martaban was stormed on the iitli of April,
lH,j2, and thecity of Uangoonon the 1 !th of April.
On the 4th of .lune foUowing, I'egu was captured,
and on the 9th of July, I'nmie; and iboiigli both
had to be evaciuited soon after, they .vere recaji-
ture.d in October and Xovember. Finally, on the
2ltth of December, M'ri, by a iiroclamatioii ol' the
(iovernor-General of India, the province of I'egu,
Avhicli formed iiarl, of tlic Hirman enipin', was
annexed to the liritisli jtossessions. The icnniiia-
tioiiof the war with Hirinah wasiiroclaimed on llio
>?.
468 lUUMAll (HIJITISII)
2(»th of June, 1863, by the Governor-General of
Indin.
IIII.'MAII (inMTFSll). SoelNi.iA.
ItlliMINGIiAM, n purl, bor,, nnil tlic principal
linnlwan; niuiiuractiiriii^; town of I'ji^land, co.
W'lir^vick, nt the NW. cxtrcniity of (lie co., mid
nearly in tliewntrc of tlie kingdom IH miles NW.
Covi'iitry; 57 NXW. Oxford; (I!) SSI'-. Mnn-
«lu'Nl('r;'l(l2 \W. London liy road, or 1124 "'• ''.V
Jjindoii and North WcHtcrn railway, of wliich it is
a principal stalion, 'i'lie pari. Iior., wlddi includes
till' contiguous townships of Aston and Kd^liaston,
extends over an area of IS.TWI acres, and had in
jKdl a jiop. of 7:i,('i7() ; in IKil, of 1 HMiHti; in IHII.
of iH2,!»2-'; in 1S51, of •_>a2,Hll ; and in IMCI, of
2!)ti,07(), iiilialiilin^ &!),(m;() houses, liinnin^hani
stands on midnlatin^ ground slopiiij; down to the
river Uca. The older jioriion of the town, in a low
situation, exhibits some curious sjieciinens of an-
cient domestic architecture. Ihit the more modern
])art,oii hifjfhertfroinid, esjiecially the ceiitn; of the
town, contains nwniy mannilicent and costly build-
inj;s, a j^reat nnndier of spacious and well laiit out
streets, with houses, priiicipuUy of brick, though
many of tlmsc! more recently erected have sloin;
fronts. At a distance fheiipi)earau('e of iiirmin^-
luun is not )ire)iosse.'sinj,', from the immense num-
ber of tall chinnu'ys beloii;;iiij; to its various fac-
tories, the smoke with which tlu; atmosjdiere is
loaded, and the dirty blackened colour of the
buildings.
Amoiij;' the public l)uildiiif;s may be specilied
the town-hall, modelletl on IIk; temple of Jupiter
Stator at liome. It consists of a rustic basement
about 20 ft. in beij^ht, on which is raised a second
fitory havinj^ V.i Corinthian colunnis on each side,
and « in the principal front. It is built of brick
facc'd with Anj;;lesea marble, the cobtnnis bciiiK'
of the latter; len^jth externally, lit.) ft., width
1(12 ft., and height M.'> ft.: the j^rainl saloon, in
vbicli the musical festivals are lield, is a noble
apartment 110 ft. in leii;,^th, (io ft. in width, and
<!.> fi. in lieijj;ht, with a very powerful orj;an, and
sitliiif; room for about 4,0()O visitors. The market
liall is one of the tinest of its kind in the U. Kiu)^-
dom. Leiif^th 2(iO fi., breadth lOH ft., heij,rht GO
ft. The i'ree (irammar Scluxd referred to below
is amonj^st the finest jiuldic buildings in liirming-
liam ; and the i)ublic prison, the luiiiitic iisylum,
ticiiool of design, and general hospital, are all
worthy of notice. The churches and chapels are
]inrticularly handsome; that of St. I'liilip, on the
nummit of tiie highest eminence in tint town, is
admired for its arcthilectural beauty; the church
of St. George, in the early English decorated style,
lias 1,100 free sittings; other notable churches are,
St. .Mary's, built in l^\7 ; the Holy Trinity, 15or-
ilesley, and St. I'eter's, nearly destroyed by lire in
l^;il,'lmt since restore(l. The barracks, erected in
17!);!, at the XK. extremity of the town, cost
1 ;!,000/. The theatre, on the site of similar fabrics,
burnt down in 1791 and 1820. isaliandsoinc build-
ing, well suited to its purjioses. The buildhigs
connected with the railway station cover and en-
close 20 acres of ground. There iire some very
tiujierior hotels and shops. A bronze statue of
Nelson, by Westmaeott, staiuls nearly opjiosite
the market-hall.
liirmingliam is but newly incorporated, and)iro-
viously to 1(J7() it was not even ii market town.
It was formerly governed by two cjnislables, a
liead-borough, a high and low baililf, with other
inferici officers chosen annually at the court leet
of t he lord of the manor. Under its present charter
of incorporation, granted in iM^nS, it is divided into
i;i wards, and is governed by a mayor, a recorder,
1() aldermen, and 48 eommon-couiii'ilnien. The
UIR.MINGIIAM
charter constitutes the corporate body n rmirt f
record for the borough, to !«■ hel.l (,u"\\V,ln,>,|.!v
lor the recovery of debts mider 20/. A n„iri r
(piarter sessions is, also, helil in it; and ii js ti',',,
seat of a CO. court. There is » board „( ,,111,,,,.
under a hical act. for tlui administraticpii of rcli,.| 1'
the poor. The streets are all paved, draincl, auii
lighted with gas. '
Trior to J7.M. Itirmingham formed only nne
parish, and lor all civil puqioses is still n'. con
sidercd. In that year, however, a iiortioii of tlm
parish of St. .Martin was formed into that of st
riiilip; and in l82!t two other parishes wir."
formed, viz. St. (ieorge and St. Thdiiia!-. Tlic
census returns of I8(il enumerate fourteen ("mtIcm
astical divisions, the largest of which, St. rii,„n,i/
had 27,1 17 inhabitants, and the smallest, St. [\u.r
4.;i.")(;. A number of district and other cliiinlics
have been built by the parliameiitarv eoiiuni^l
sinners with several <:hapels of ease. "Tlnrc arc
many jilaces of worship for Protestant dixMiii,r/
Itonian Catholics, Swedenborgians, rre.-.liyti.|i,iii<'
rnitariiuis, and other dissenting bodiis. 'li,,!
Ivoman Catliolie cathedral, built by I'lmiii, and
consecrated in 18;i8, is a very large edilile.'wiil,
jialace and nnnnery attached. 'There are iniiMcnm-,
charitable institutions, both medical and ednni
tioiial. The (ieiieral Hospital, (Queen's lbis|,ii,'i|,
andtieneral Dispensary are Mi|iported liv volun-
lary contributions, legacies, and other dmiiitioiis.
The cost of erecting the General llos|iiiai ex-
ceeded 10,000/. It was begun iii 177(1, ami idin-
pleted in 1778; but in 17!ll it was eidar;;ec|ln-
the addition of wings : it is divided iiilo 11 wnnK
and h.Ms 105 beds, thieen's Hospital, (oinulcil iii
1840, was completed in 1817 at a cost of s.Tn;/.
The (ieneral Dispensary, instituted lor the im-'
dical assistance of poor, sick, and inidHiiiic
patients, at their own houses, was estalili^nd iii
17111. Itesides these benevident estaMi^llnl(■nl-.
there is an institution for the relief ol' IjudiK-
<lefoniiily, an inlirniary for diseases (d' fiu'eve.a
iMagcljilcii asylum and several sets uf aliiisliiiii.i<,
founded by W. Lencli in the reign of Henry Vlil.
The schools of ISirniingham are exceediiiLrK-
numerous. The twentieth report of the cliiniiv
commissioners contiiins 114 closely printed I'.ilio
pages, s<d(dy u|ion Ihecdiarities of the town. Tlic
graiiimar-scho(d was founded in l.'i.yj, -t'lir llm
education, in>titutioii, and instruction of luiysaml
youths in grainnijir,' and cnidowed with tlic nvi-
iiiies (if the ancient guild of the Ibdy t'rii»;
which, with those arising from other sciirio,
amount to from 8,00(1/. to'lO,000/. a year. It liiis
tell exhibitions of oO/. a year each. Tlicy iiiv
given i'or four years to the most (listiiij,'iii>l!..l
sch(dars, and are open to any college in ciilicr
university. The building attached t<i the sclmipl
having become nnseemly and dilapidatcij, tlic
governors were empowered by an act i<( IS.il in
ex]iend iJO,000/. upon a new and suitable scluml-
hoiise. Uixler the powers so given, Jlr. Itarry, tlio
architect of the new houses of i)arliaiiient, oriricil
one of the most complete and extensive strui'tiircs
of its kind in the United King<loni. The eliisi-ical
school is attended by about 240, and tlie cmiiiiuT-
cial by about 300 boys. It has also live liiaiiclicr
subsidiary schools to which girls as well as licys
are admitted. In the Wue-coat school (I'diiiiilcl
in the early part of the last century, and sM|i]ioriiil
by voluntary contributions, rents of liinds, iiiiil
I'linded stock), about oOO children of botli mm <
are taught writing, reading, sewing, and otlur
useful arts. The other principal schools are— the
Birmingham and Kdgbaston I'ro)irietary Scliccl ;
various National Schools; the I'rotestant l)i>sin-
ters' Girls' Charity-school, the Koyal Laucastriaii,
15IIIMINGIIAM
4.yj
the Ft'ni.'ilo Lnncastrinn, niul Mailrn.<* Srlidol, on I licnvy iron f;iiiiil.><, nluTni.t tlio ))riiici|ml cxi.siing
tin- |iriiii'i|ilpH of Dr. Hell's systt'in.nnd St. I'liitip'M umnutiictiiri' of ltirriiiii};'li!iin is Imnlwiirc. The
liidiisiriiil School. Tlu-re iire iil.-^o infant, rii;,',i,'i'il, ; ^tFi'jit ;;rowlli of this iraiU' innv hn <l(it<'(l fnun
■iikI Siinilav schools ; n school for deaf and dunih; j al»mt. 17l'i, at which I'lKich llic quantity <if |iin
iii'iilli';;i' for the education of yoiiii^; men, esta- iron made in i'.nnland ami Wales amounted to
|ill.>lieit hy till! Iiide|ienilents; a phitosojihical imly alioiit 17,(10(1 tons, whereas it has since in-
iii^titiitioii ; an athenu'inn, for the diU'usioii of , creased to at least l,'J(M).(MIO tons. The j^^rowtli
liuriilurt^ and science, ; ji society of arts ; and a ! of itirmin^^ham to its present hei;rht of opidi'iice,
iiiii'lianios' inslitnle. An important institution, felehrity and niMKnitiide, is principally ascrilndili!
calli'il f^icu's CoUetie, estalilished by suhscrip- | to the invaluahle resources of inm, stoiie, and coal,
ii,in,«'as incorporated hy royal charter in INII!, Iwilh which the district ahounds, aided hy the
improvements which have prof^ressivelv' heeii
etl'i'cted in the means of irausii, and in sonic
ile;,'ree also hy its freedom from corporation
re-.iraints. The manuliu'ture of the l;n-;;cr de-
scription of articles is carried on with iucreasinj;
vi^dur and elliciency. Most sorts of cast-iron
articles are nuide; and the lart;est manufactory
for steam eii;,'ines in tlu; world was otahlisheil
at Stdui, ill the immediate viiiuily of the town,
thou;;h in the co. of StalVord, liv lioulton, tli(!
partner ol'.iauu's Watt, the ^reat nnpri.ver of the.
slenm eM,i;iue, Tlie>e works consist of I Mpiares,
wiiii conuecliu'j; liulis of shops. 'I'hev are no!,
however, reslrictcd to the inaiud'aclnre of those
j;i;;inilic •stciim-lahourirs,' hut tilso ]iro(luce im-
mense (pumtilies of vases, candelahras, and other
descriptions of j,'oods in hron/.e. and or-niolu, of
excpusite workmanship, with articles of )ilale and
llirmin^hain wan; generally. At tliese works,
too, the principal l)ail of the copper C(>inai;<' of
the coinilry was wont to he executed. There are
many iron and hrass foundries in the neij;hl»our-
hood, and thi^re are metallic hot-house inamd'ac-
tories, Caslin;,', niodellin^^, (lic-sinkiuLj, en^iia-
vinj;, stainini^C and cuttin;;; ^lass, and many other
branches of manufaeiure, liave heen hroujihl to
j;reat ])erfeclion. 'J'liere are no means <if statin;^
the total value of the articles produced, inasmuch
as I he manufacture of plated floods, which is carried
on in Shellield and l>inninj.;-ham, is one of those
branches of industry the iiroyress of which wo
have no means of ascortainin^j;. It appears, how-
ever, that the exports of hardware from Kn;;land,
principally from these two towns, have risen I'mni
less than a million to close upon four millions
sterliuf; in the course of "Jd years. The returns of
the Hoard of Trade j;ive tlu! exports specilied as
value of
ii.H(l!i,-_'.V)/. in 1X;V.»; of ;>.77(),(i(Ml/. in l^(l();
;J,l-'.),(il()/. in lUtil ; 9,;il(l,;;i2/. in l,s(12; and
of the value of ;!..s,i;i,|.|li/. in lt<(i;f. The value
of llie material, it is to be observed, in most of the
I!innin,i;ham floods, hears a viTV suiidl proportion
to that of the labour ex)icnded upon tliem ; as, Inr
tiirnislies complete courses of academical in
Mriiciion in laii^Mia^^'s ; natural, moral, and poli-
tiiiil philosophy : nu'dicine; civil-eii.i;nieerini; ;
l.iw, nnd theology. It occupies a handsome build-
in:,' (ippiisite the town-hall ; and has accommoda-
lidii liir seventy resident students, with nnisenms,
1111(1 libraries. liinninj^ham has two public libra-
ries, The old library, a neat structure, has about
;m(| subscribers ; and u etdlection of books com-
iiri-iii},' upwards of ;!.j,()()(l volumes. The new
liliniry is a smaller buildin;,', containing about
lii.iiiii'i volumes.
Tliiiiif,'!' so distiiijLCuished by its population, iii-
(hislry, auil wealth, Ifirnrni;;li;nn did not, till after
llic piissilif; of the Keform Act, enjoy th(? jirivilen-e
III' st'iidinj;' re|ireseiitatives to the II. of (,". Hut
the siiilMte referred to put an end to this an<imaly,
iiiuU'iiiiti'rred on it the rij;ht to send '2 mems. to
|i:irliiini('nt. The ])arl. bor. coinprisi^s a coiisider-
iihliM'Xteiit of country, including' thg jiarishes of
IlirminKbaoi <»id I'-d^'baston, with the lutndels of
Ihritciid and llordesley and Dnddeslon cum
Nirliills. Pari, const, iii 1 1, :{:>(» in l«(il, bein;,'all
III/, householders. Animal value of jiroperly
a-.-('ssc(l to the poor rate, !).s,«,rj(;3/. in l«(;i. The
ammiiit assessed to property tax aveniyes l,;i(l(t,()(ll)/.
Tlii'^'ross annual value of real propertv, imdudiiij;
railways and canals, assessed to mcorue tax
miller Schedule (A) amounted to l,lOM,Gii-l/. in
1SJ7, and to 1, 2711,7^7/. in lS(l-.>.
Miinufaitiires. — As a )ilace of innnufacture P.ir-
niin^'liani has loni^ held an important ))osition,
ami lias never been snrpassed in the production
iil'iirtick's of in{,'ennity and utility: most articles
in ^iild, silver, iron, eo])per, br.iss, steel, mixed
incliils, and jjhiss, are )iroduced here, from the
iiiii.it tritiiiif; trinket to the most jiondenais and
I'liwxrfiil machine. Of the early history of its I ' hardw;ires and cutlery,' as of tlu
iiiaiiiifiicl ures we know nolhin;^' certain. It is
>ii|i]ii«'d, and with j^reat probabiliiy, to have
liirii the jilace where the arms with which the
larlv iiiliabitants defended their shores IVom the
iiivaikrs under Julius Ca'sar were mamifactiired:
a MipiHisilioii favoured by the I'aci of moulds i'or
>|iar, arrow, and axe heads luniii;^ been found i example, in ;be ariidi! of walch-spriiij^s, where
citliiT hi the neijihboiirhood, or at no ^reat
ili-tjiiice from it, added to the proof allorded by
ihc I'iKinnous mountain of calx or cinder which
l«irikTs on the parish of Aston, and with re|,,^'ird
1" wliich lliitton (Hist. Hiniiiiif;ham) remarks,
'i'riim an attentive survey the observer woiilil
MililiDse so prodigious a heap could not accimm-
laie in a liiiiidred generations ; however, it shows
110 iKTccptible addition in the age of man.' So
larbackas the 12th century it was noted for the
I'.iiiiiiig of leather; but "this branch of trade
l,Tailuully subsided, luitil at length it became all
I'ut extinct under the advance of other and more
ixtfiisive enterprises, so that in 17'.).'> there was
liiit one person who followed that ancient occiipa-
tiiin. Leiaiid, hi his ' Itinerary' (lo 1(1), describes
ilii' town as a jdace inhabited by ' smithes that
u.<wlto make knives and all manners of culling
iKilis, lorimers that make bitles, and a great
many nailours.' Previously to the revolution
ijtiliii) the articles chiefly niannl'actured were
the value of the raw material is not, a
■.>(i(»,b(l(ltli jiart of the value id' the tinished article.
It is from tlie extreme subdivision of employnicut
that the superior skill of the workmen and the
excellenc(! of the manufacture is mainly deiliicible.
Of the pres<!nt manufactures, thai of muskets is the
most ancient, having been introduced in the reign
of William ill. Since that epoch this branch has
been gradually, but greatly, augmenting; and of
late years the m.Miufacture of fowling-iiieees has
been aiUled to it. Until the close of the gre;it
war with France, the government contract for
muskets extended, upon an average, to o(t,()()() per
month. On the cessation of hostilities, this de-
partment seriously declined; but it is still of
great value and importance. In 1)SI3 an act of
parliament was passed, re([iiiring the giin-makerH
to raise a proof-house ; in which, under a heavy
penalty, all lire-arms, after being subjected to a
severe test, are stamped by the masters and
wardens, luider whose inspection the business is
400
BIRMINGHAM
comluotcd. SwonlH nlso nrc n iiriiicipnl nrlido of
inaiiiiCautiirn. In tlio aliovo HlfttiHticH of ox^HtrU
of ' liitriiwnrcH niut cutlery,' arniH niul ntniniiiiition
itru not inclii(l(Ml. Tliu value of llicsu cxixirts in
aliove two niillionH stcrliiij; per niiniini. '1 he ex-
ports of ' nmall lire-anns ' were of the value of
IM,->'.)71. in IM.-)1I; i(,JM,«l7/. ill IKiiO; 5l").;j(;i/.
in l«til; l,.')7;J,7tMi/. in IMi;-.'; and H.'>(i,(l()!»/. in
IMOJJ. It will he neon that the foreiijn tlenuinil
for these nrtiele.s is very tluctuntinf,'. 'I'lie metal
liutton anil buckle traiU^s were iutrmlueed into
ISinninf;liain shortly after the revolution, and con-
tinued to llourish for nearly a century, llut
these trades have heen f^n^atly iniiiaired ; ]>artly in
conseiinenee of the emij,'ration of arli/ans to tlu^
(Jontinenl, who carried with llicni a kuowledj^'e of
the art, and pnrtiv, and principally, from changes
of fashion. The luilton mauiii'acture is still, how-
ever, extensive. The mainifacture of Florentine
buttons lias also been introduced, and is now ex-
tensively carried on. The decline of the buckle
nuunifa(.'ture may be dated from 17MI, at which
period shoe-ties bepm f;en('rally to be worn; and
niptwitlistandiii^ the ellorts of (icMirj^e IV'., when
I'rincc of Wales, to stem the tide of fashion, it
proved too St roiif; for him, and the manufacture
was (gradually, but completely, destroyed. The
iile-trade, which at one time flourished in JSir-
min^hnin, has nearly all t;one to Slietiield, in con-
sequence of the superior advaiita!,'e.-i jiossesscd by
the latter for that manufacture ; ■while, on the
other hand, and from a similar cause, nnich of the
lilatcd trade of Shetlield has mi^riited to iJinniuj,'-
liam. The making of silver pencil-cases is carried
on to a j^reat extent, and the innnbcr proiluccMl is
increasing every yvixr. The manufacture (pf pxiils
in brass, or brass-fouudin)^, introduced about 17-IH,
lias been (greatly extended and improved within
the jiresent century, and comprises a large number
of articles, both useful and ornamental ; including,
among others, lamps, chandeliers, candlesticks,
vases, fenders, lire-screens, handles for locks, doors,
knockers, and many other articles. It may, per-
haps, be now reckoned the stajile tradeof the town.
Of hmijis and chandeliers, liirminghiim has almost
the exclusive maiuifiictiire. In 1772, in conse-
(pience of the great ninouiit of her plated manii-
iactures, an act of parliament was passed, aiiiioint-
iiig wardens and an assay ma?ter. The tiuaiitity
of silver plate made is comparatively small. Like
silver, gohl is extensively used in gilding the
various articles before cniimeraled. Indeed, to
such a pitch had the art of gilding been carried
as early as the year 1818, that, according to liut-
ton, three iiennyworth of gold was sutlicaent to
cover a gross of buttons. There is a considerable
trade, too, in the manufacture of pins, and a still
larger one in the maiuifacture of steel pens. The
exact period when jiens made of steel began to be
Kiilistituted for quills is not known ; but down to
isiH, the manul'acture was coniined within very
narrow limits. Shice tjien, however, the quality
of the pens has been vastly inqiroved, and their
price very greatly reduced, and the demand has
in consequence been extended in a (k^gree not
easily to be imagined. It is stated that above
.')()tt,(JOO,()(JO pens are annually manufactured in
liimiingham. The art of making nails by hand
will keeps its ground; those so made beuig con-
sidered siqierior to those made by steam power.
Japanned articles, of great beauty and variety,
arc cxtens-ivcly manufactured. The best trays,
baskets, and other articles of similar descrii)tion,
are made of pupicr muchc, the manufacture of
which is very largely carried on. The glass trade
is also very extensive.
Mr. Burke said that liirmingham was the ' tov-
shoft of Knrope,' and the statement seems to lie
perlectly well founded. An immense (|iiuiuiiv „f
very beautiful articles, as seals, brooehes, cii^sp,
and other trinkets, are made of gold, silvor, r-iii
and plated metal, and polished steel. This \xl\,\^.
which has not existed more than liflv nr sixtv
years, has greatly increased within tlie'last iliin'v
years. The toy and trinket trade is astoiiisliiiii;|V
gniat ; and the transactions are often imineiisv in
articles of (Munparalive iiisignilicance.
The mannfactnring district, of which HimMn"-
liam is the centre, includes a considerable trmt ^i
the N\V, of the town, embracing the Hdiiilicru
jiart of Slatforilshire, with the extreme norilKrn
border of Worcestershire and a detached part of
Salop. Within this district are the pnpuldm
towns of iJiidley, Wolverhampton, IJilston, Wal-
sail, Wedneslniry, and JStiairbridgc. liKleinn.
(U'litly of the jirodiiction of the crude material, in
which most of these towns arc cxteiisivelv en-
gaged, ditlerent branches of the hardware liiami-
faclure arc carried on in them, an the nail ainl
japan-ware trade, bridles, and stirru)) iilatiin;,
coach and harness urnamcnt making, ami saij-
dlers' ironmongery. The japan-ware is movih-
confined to Ililston and Widverhampton, as is tlm
lock trade to the latter, and the muMUts' imi:-
mongery to Walsall, Wolverhampton, and Wivi-
ncsbiiry. Ihit all these dc)iartinents are carricil
on in Itinniiigham, though ntit to so great an ex-
tent a.s in these separate placcH, The iiiliabiiaiiis
arc distinguished by industry, ingenuity, and in-
vention. The mode of conducting l)iisiiics.H in
Jiirmingham has undergone a considerable cliaiyn
I'rom wlijit it formerly Wiis. There arc now Ijui
few large capitalists. With the exception of tin,.
Soho works, and a few other large mamifactDriu^,
the business is conducted on a small scale ui in-
numerable divisions. The system generally ai'tnl
upon is as foHows : — The workmen, each iii tlni,-
particular line, undertake to execute the (inicrs
received by the merchants and agents settled in
the town, which they accomplish by the followiii;'
means : A building, containing a great nunilKt
of rooms of diftcrent sizes, is furnished with ii
steam-engine. These rooms or shops being al!
su])|ilied with siiafts, lathes, benches, and such
other necessary conveniences as are requisite f.r
the work to be done ; and when an order is jfivcii
to one of these workmen to execute, lie hires
such one or more of these rooms as the occasion
requires, and stipulates for a certain amount nf
steam-iiowcr, an<l continues the occiqinnt of this
aiiartment till the order be (inished. (Porter, in
the Progress of the Nation.) h\ 17Hli there was
only one steam-engine at work, wliirli was if
2o horse-power, anil was used for griiiiliiis tioiir.
In 1803, there were ten engines, prmlucin^' Ii7'.i
iKprse-jiower, of which '2(50 horse-power was nsnl
ill manufactures. In 182;{, the number of eiijriiioi
was (It), the horse-power 1,222. In 1h;1,j, the iiuni-
bor of engines was Kit), and the horsc-imwir
2,7(10; of which 275 were used in griniiiii;'
tlour, 1,770 in working metals, 27!l in piim|>iii„'
water, 87 in glass grinding, 97 in workiiif; wi»«l.
4-1 in pajier-making, 37 in grinding chiy, lil
in grinding colours, and 50 in sundry other occu-
]iations. In 184!t, the steam power empkiveil iu
the town was estimated as equiil to o,l()0 Iwrsis.
and, in 18tio, equal to 11,500 horses. Women aa-
extensively emidoyed in polishing the gimiis :"
the glass toy branch, and in all jiartsof the iiii'.iiu-
factures of the town except brass-foiiiuliiif,', 1«';'
are principally engaged by the out-wnrkmeii iiiul
unjerlakers, as apiirentices ; and receive a ]*-
gressivc ainouiit of wages, varying from iis,to !".'■
jicr week, according to their ages and occllllatiou^;
they get their
wi>rk ill the h
small niaiiiifai
tiiiu'.". The CI
whiili', favour
average of the
are HIP very vi
el' Ipiittons, a f.
—as, the piei
\i\Wr, and th
lireiit wages; i
The town p(i
niih iiiiiiieroiis
iiiite.i of the lia
hi till' town.
liiniiiugham
ilay-liiMik, in \
niitite if the pi
liistiirv, ])reviii
extreiiicly nbsi
Cliarles l'„ lit til
H'iiiii'ly any :
niiiiiari'ii it tool
warmly defeiidc
nrlCCii, the jilji
III 17!ll, high ,
liiivo been \-fcry
iirisoii out of a'l
i'lviiili revoliiiic
iiii'iuiiiiigthelioi
hat then obiiox
liutton, (he hist
aniuiiiiiing to (Jo,
llie slitl'erers bv
of prosperity oi" t
years ago, with i
nilway sysfc'in.
l.'aiiway, now oik
the kiiigiiiiin, m-,%s
ill lN)i). It was (
The next line con
Ji'iiiiway, meeting
ai\\'arriiigt()ii, ,if
miiisjlinm to Mai
htter was ojiene
iJinningliani is no
way travelling. I
ixiiis hy the (Jrea
ti> -(J hours, and
liOniik's— in abo
Huliliii ill from 1
Wffh and Glu.sg
Jliirkets on Mmuh
ami fairs on the '1
"II the TJnirsday r
Mttle, sheep, i,oi
->"lwitlistaiiding
furnaces and forge;
til the drv sandy s
nciitly s.alubrious.
tile nimilior of the
i'ivcqiDol or Mane
in the vicinity, su
fwerasjiace of 14
Mill out. Themes
■Ife Hagley, the se
'!ist.iiit; Enville, t;
'«;aiKltIieLcasoA
" miles distant.
lilSACCIA, a zi
•^vellino, on a hill,
'•'Wi. rop.'i,540ii:
f "'••>" '"'-^Pital, an.
01 the ancient Ifon
•^•- rap. 17). The!
frnicrly the seat, 1
•"«c4o de' Lo.-nbart
H1.«^ACCIA
ihfV fTf t llifir fooil nt linmo, nml in Homn iiii-l.'inoPH
wiirk ill llii' Ik'II'O''* "I" III* ir li'irciits. .Sonic nl' tlic
jiiiiill niiiiiiifiul livers liiivc lu'ciiiiiiiliitcil ]i\rj;c lor-
tuiii'.". "»' I'omlili'ii' "I 'li*' wiirk|iniiilc is, on tin'
whuli", )'iivouriil)li'. It. in ini|io.Msil>le lo pvu iiii
aviriW*' <il'f''<' wa^^i'n (luid in (lillVTciit tradcM, tlu'V
ye Hovcry viirious; for iiiMtancc, in the mnkiiiK
(if liiittoim, n ifTviit nninlKTot' liiimls nr« cmiiloyi'tl
—a.", tiic iiicrcer, the cutter, the stiinnifr, tlu'
I'ililcr, aiul tti(! Inirnislii-r — who nil rccoive (lil-
tVrciit wa;,'i'.s ; ami so also in the other (Icpartinfiits.
Tlie '""n )(oss('ssc's live larK<'.i'>iiit-.-<t<i<'k banks,
villi iiiMiioroiis IxMlifs of |iro|iri('tors. They issiit-
null's (if thu IJaniv of England, which has a brancli
ill ilic town. . . , ^
r.inniii^'lmni IS of };rcat nntuiuit}'. In Donios-
iliiv-lioiik, in which occurs tlio lirst aiithcniic
iiiilicc if the jilacc, it is s|iclt l>crnicii)icliani. Its
lisldi'V, itrcvioiisly to tlic Norniiin coinincst, is
fxtrciiu'ly oliscnrc. Inilccd, iiiilil the liiiio cf
Cliiirli's i.. little is rccoideil of it, and lliat litll" of
fiMivily any interest. In thi^ reit;ii of tliiil
miiii.irili it toiik the siiU; of tlur I'ailiaincnt, and
iviirnily defended the cause it e,-|ioiiseil. In ICiil.")
i,r ICiliii, llu^ jiliiiCiie coininitted frifililfiil ravaijes.
In 171H, hi^c'i church and Tory |ioIitics sccin to
liave lieeii very iirevaleiit; and a riot havinj;
iiriM'n imt nf a festival in coniinemoratioii of tlio
Faiu'li rcvohitioii, nnidi iiro|irrty was dcsiroycd,
iii/liiiliiif; tlie houses and lilirarii's of (hecelclirated,
lull llicn obnoxious, Dr. I'riestley, and of Mr.
llutteii. the historiiui. 'Die loss on this occasion,
animiiitinf; to (!(!,( 101 >/., was partially made j^ood to
the sulVerers by Act of J'arl. The threat increase
of )ir(is|ierit3' of the town commenced, about forty
vwirs Dpi, with the estaljlishnient of the modern
railway systi^ni. The London and Jiinninjiltam
lliiihvuy, "now one of the most imporlant lines in
till' kiiij^doni, was built by a company incorporated
in \K>ii. It was opened throughout Sept. 2n, Ifi.'ifS.
Tlip next line constructed was the tJrand Junction
Hallway, niectiiif; the Liverpool-Manchfster line
at Warriiifiton, after which the railway from I'.ir-
iniiii;liam to IMauchester came to be built. The
latter was ojieneil throughout in Aui^'ust, 1HI"2.
llinniiiftham is now become a gr.ind centre of rail-
way travelliiifi;. It communicates with the metro-
[Hilis by the Great North-Western line in from 3
to 4^ hours, and by the Great ■\Vestcrn — distance
120 miles — in about the same time ; as also with
Dulilin in from lOJ to 13 hours, and with Edin-
liiirgh ami Glasjrow in from 9 to 10^ hours.
Markets on Mondays, Thursdays, and Saturdays,
ami fairs on the Tliursdav in VVhitsun-wcek, and
on the Thursday next before iMichaclmas-day, for
cattle, slioo]), horses, and liardwarc (:;cne"rally,
Xoiwithstaiidinj; the smoke of its innumerable
furnaces and forfjes, liirmingham, owinj;, [icrbajis,
til the <lry sandy soil on which it stands, is emi-
nently salubrious. The deaths, in jirop.ortion to
the immlier of the inhabitants, are fewer than in
Liveqiool or Manchester. The botanical gardens
in the vicinity, supported by public subscription,
C'lvcr a sjuice of 14 acres, and are extremely well
lalil out. The most celebrated seats in the vicinity
are Hagley, the .«eat of Lord Lyttleton, 12 miles
ilistant ; Enville, the seat of the' Earl of Stamford,
If ; and the Lcasowes, the creation of Sheustone,
6 miles distant.
lilSACCIA, a town of Southern Italy, prov.
Avdlino, on a hill, 12 m. XE. St. Angelo dc' Lom-
I'arui. Pop. (i,o40in 18(il. It has several churches
and an hospital, and is supposed to occupy the site
•if the ancient Komnlea, mentioned by Livy (lib.
X. cap. 17). The bishojiric, of which IJisjiccia was
fmierly the seat, has been united to that of St.
Aiiyclo de' Lo.'nbnrdi.
r.ISCAY
461
lUSrAHI, n town of Soiilhont Italy, island of
Sicily. )irov. Syracuse, 10 m. N'W. Modica. 'I'he
iiopnlalioii is declining. There were about ll.noii
niliabilanis at the bet^Miinin^ of llu^ century; 2,117
in 1h;1I, and l,'.il.j in l.s,')7. The town is of mo-
dern date, hnviufrbeen founded in the l.jthcenlury.
mSCAY, a district in the N. of Spain, coin-
jirisin^ Itiscay I'roper, (iuipuzcoa, and Alava, the
three Ilasipie provinces, called by the Spaniards
Pais Vasconpidas, bein^ jiurt of the Human jirovs.
of Vascumin and l.'antabria. These provs. extend
from 1° W to 3° 20' W. loiif,'.. and from 12° 2o' lo
'1.')° 27' N. lat,, having; E. France and Navarre ; \V.
and S. Itur^jos, and other parts of Old Castile; and
on tlie N. the Hay of Uiscay, Their mean length
is alioiit till III., and their breadth about r>0 in.
Area. 2,',t7l \'.»ii\. s(|. m. The country may be
considered as a ]iroloiif;ation of tli(^ declivity of thi!
ryrenees to the boundaries of Castile, It is broken
into highly pictun >ipie );lcns ami valleys, inter-
spersed with siiiiie I'eriile plains. The ilistriel has
marble of various colours, lime and sandsioiie, a
]inifiisi"ii of iron ore, and some copper and jiypsiini
of ^cihmI (pialiiy, as well as salt-mines, ami saline
and siilpliiiroiis coM and hot springs.
The subjoined table shows the area of each of
the three prii\inees, loj;etlier with the iio|iulation,
according lo the census of IBlt), and of May
1«57 :—
Prorlncoi
Ana III til. m.
1.(182
1,'.'(I7
an
Pop. 1840
07,523
llM:m
I(»J,1!I1
Pop. 1857
Kill,.'-.-!*
lW,VJ:i
313,470
Alva , .
IJIscay . .
Ciiiiinisuoa
Total
2,071
283,450
The largest of these three provinces, Biscay
Proper, or the lordslii]> of liiscay, has on the X,
the ocean; on the E. Cinipu/.coa ; on the S. Alava
and Old Castile; and on the W. also Old Castile,
l/niler the new division of Spain, made by the
Cortes in 1822, it forms jiart of the province of
IJilbao. The city and territory of Ordiifia, which
are insulated by Alava and Old Clastile, belDiig to
it. Bilbao is the seat of government; and tlierc
are also iJurango, Gnernica, Halma-seda, and a few
other small towns. Some of the mountains look
as if they consisted of a congeries of hills heaped
on e.icli other, (iorvega is of this description : it
has, on its summit, a considerable extent of h;vel
land. Principal rivers, Xcrva, Ansa or Ibaizabal,
Ciidagna, Mundaca, and Lequeitio. The coast is
abrupt, and (lee|i]y indented bj' bays formed bv
the months of the rivers, and by a number of small
harbours. The iron mines, which arc frecpient,
and jmiduce some of the best metal hi Europe, |iar-
ticnlarly that at Somorrostro, the ore of which
yields above a third part of iron. According to
Antillon, the annual produce of this mine used to
be MM),t)(l() (|uintals. Climate humid, but not in-
sa'nbriou.s. Houses good, and conveniently built;
the upjier parts, wiiich were anciently of wood, are
now of stone. There arc many very ancient cha-
teaux, mostly flanked with strong towers, that
behnig to the heads of families. With the excep-
tion of the towns named above, and a few others,
the inhab. live dispersed in cascrios of live or si.-c
houses each, wit h lands attached, which are mostly
cultivated by the owners, in whose families they
have remained for centuries, it being reckoned dis-
creditable to jiart with the paternal propertv.
AN'here land is hired, the rent, which is paiil in
money, nsnall}' amounts to about a third part of
the value of the produce. The soil is mostly a
stilV clay, and would produce little but pa.stnrago
I or wood, were it not for the patient iiidusiry of the
i
11
4fl2
IJISCAY
inlmliitnntH, wlio hronk it ii]i with a PiirioiiMly
t*liii|)0(l iiii|i1(')n('iit cnllcd a /«//"; Itiit in liKlitcr
HolN. wlicrc wliciit only is (imwii, llii'v iimc n ulriiiifi-
|ili)ii'(l). Ax iinililt' iiniil ix Hcarci', tlii>v lirciik ii|i
|)iilrlics KM the mI()|i<'s ol'tlic iiiimiilniii'*, wlicri' tlic
j,'i'()uii(l, not hi-'uni (lc('|) (>ni)ii;;li for I lie f^rowlli uf
liirfif trt'cs, i.s cdvcrcil wilii lliick HJiruliH. TIicmi'
tlicy f;nili ii)) niiil liiini, and spri'iulin^r out tlic
nHlicM, fTi't fertile crDps of wlie/it llic (Irsl tiirc(^
yenrs; Imrli-y.dr rve, lliefiiiirt)i; tlax, llie(it\1i; and
Ki"'<l |ia>^liira^'(' till tlie fiminid Itc a;;Hiii overf,'rciwn
liy liraiiililcH, They do imt. however, iiotwitlintaiiil-
iiij; llieir industry, reap jrraiii eii(>ii;;h for their coii-
siini|itioii, Imt .supply the dedeieiiey liy iiuporta-
lioiiN t'roiii Alava, Next to aKrieiiltiire", tlu^ chief
cniployineiit of the peasuiilry is in the making; of
charcoal for the iron foinidries, from the wood cut
ill the forests, with which the sides of the inouii-
(Jnipiizcon yirldH to no part of Spnin in tli
mnK"'lii'''"''<' "•' its ecclesiastical and other liiiil,r
iiiKs. The roads are wcdl paved, ami kepi {„ „,„ ,,
repair; the inns coniniodions, and well eoii,|i|^|,,,'|
Cliinale soft and temperate; hut. like the etliir
provs., it is suhject to heavy rains and violiin
storms, hoth in summer and winter. The i.mv
produces most kinds of grain and oiIut nen.J
sarics, hut not in nearly suHicieiit f|imnilties f,,,
tlie supiiort of its iuhah. Fruits and other imtiird
products nearly the same as in Hiscav. The ij.ii
includiiif; salmon, are exc<dleiit; and" tiiiinv. mvs'
and sardines, are snp|ilieil to the iiei:ri,i„',|irj|„;
provs. The nr'MX'*' though iiidilVerent, hirnisil
the lij;ht wine called rli)ir<iH, A ti<««\ ijeid ,,|'
cider is also produced. The f;rowih of liinlier in
the woods and plantations is not ecpial to i|ie ,.,„,
sum|iliou of the iron works. A{,'riciilture iiearlv
till' saiiK^ as in liiscav.
tains are covered. These contain plantations o
ex((dlent white oak. and in the jjrieiis and valle>s I [ron may he hail in any quant itv. Aecdrilin-
are numerous groves of giafled chesliiiils, which ' to Alitilloii (( Je'ographie I'hysi(pu'. ]i. 8,")), 1110,11110
furnish a I'onsiih'rahle an icliMifexport. Tliegnipes I ipiiiitals used to he aimiially wrought up inii,
are not good: there is a great iirofii^ioii of apples. | hinges, nails, horse-shoes, hollers, kilejicn inen^ij,
with pears, cherries, tigs. itc. Caltle siiiall and ' arms, anchors, working tools, A'c. Tliev inukc
liiirdy: shee|) dilliciilt to rear, fi'oui Iheir getting ; also, lishing tackle, riggiiirr. laiiiied leallier.cd.ir-i'
nitaiigKil in the hniinhles ; the wilil hoar is occa- : clodis of goafs' hair, coarse liiieu and Miil-iliii|.
Ship-liiiilding has lost itsadivity. hiil some vom'K
are (Itted out for the cod and whale llsheries.
(luipiizcoa imjiorts what grain it wniiis Irem
Alava; wine, from N'avarre and IJioja; soap, ejl.
flax, itc, from Castile ami An.lalusia. wooHins!
cottons, cloths, silks, jewellery, and articles el'
sioiially seen, as are wolves iuid hears: tie nigh
hotli are very rare, especially the last. I'ish iiiuin-
daiit and exeellenf.
The staple hiisiiiess of niscay Projier, and the
other two provs., is tlie maiinlacl lire of iron, which
is made into a great varietv of tools and imiile-
inents; hut owing to the suspension of work in j fashion, from Ijigland, Hollamj, and iMvince. |i
the royal arsenals, the loss of the Aniencan colo- exports little native produce hut iron, lianlwarc.
liies. and the inlrodiiclioii of foreign iron, as well as I and IVnifs; Imt wool, and somefiines eorii. ^irc
the long wars of which this coiiiitrv has lieen tlu^ ! Iiroiighf from the interior to its port for sliipiiuiii,
theatre, this iinportanf hraiich of iiidiistrv has ' P'orinerlv, it had a considernhle coasting trade ti>
greatl.v fallen oil'. The S|);inish Acadeinv of Ilis- | tlie shores of the llediterraneaii. ami a large slmre
toiy say that, in 1H02, when their ai'coiint of i of the whale lishery ami the cod li.-hery at Xcw-
lliscay was compiled, there were |si) iron works, [ foiindland. The faimais Caracas Coiiipiiny eri::!-
iiafcd here. Its commerci! has falleii nil' mikv
IHOi). Jieiug a frontier jirov.. it admits the mviil
troops to garrison its strong posts. (Diceioiriri.i
jior la Acadeniia, i. JJ'Jl ; Miiiaiio, iv. ; Aiifillon,
p. H5.)
The third and smallest of the three province?,
jiroiiiicing anmiallv KO.IKIO ipiintals of iron, of
1.").") Ilis. each, which, when Minaiio wrote (If*!'!!"),
■were reduced to 117 works, yielding only I"),n0()
qiiiiifals. Cop)ier hollers were also made at I'al-
maseda. and factories for cordage and rigging,
made of hemp hrought from Aragon and N'avarre,
were estahlished in various jiarts; and tanneries I Alava, has the seigiiory of Hiscav and (!iiipiizi'<i;i
at I?almaseda and Bilhao; hut tliesp, also, arc ' on the X.; Xavarrc on the K. ; ami Old Castilo,
much fallen off. The other manufactures are those I from which it is divided hy the Khro, on tlic S.
of coarse porcelain, table and other household linen, : and W. It now forms a principal part of tlm
line and coarse liats, hrazierv, carpentry anil I ]>rov. of Vittoria, the name of its chief t'lwn. The
joiners' and cahinet work, straw and rush chairs, ■ other towns are Salvatierr.i, Lecpiiana. and (liim-
tallow candles, A-c. The yieoide near the coast ; boa. It is snrroimded and intersected hy meiiii-
occiijiv themselves a good deal in fishing, and the i tains, similar to those in the other Itascpio prnvs.,
exports of dried lisli are sometimes verv consider- ! and afi'ording the same pro(lnct,s of iron,hlaek am
able, (l)iccioiiario ])or la Keal Academia, ii. 487 ;
Mifiano. x. -ll-M.)
The secmid largest of the three llasnne pro-
vince's, (.luipiizcoa, has the seigiiory of 15isca,v on
the \V. ; Alava on the S. ; Navarre and the lii-
(lassoa, which separates it from Fra'U'e, on the K. ; fogs, and mists ; but it is healthy, and the inliali.
and the liav of ]}iscay on the N. Since 1&22 it
has been called the prov. of St. Sebastian, The
country is rough and mountainous. The highest
tnmnitain on the frontiers of Alava rises 1,K(I() ft.
above the sea, and contains some salt mines and
saline si^rings. The prov. is watered h.v the Dcva,
Urola, Oria, Ac, and the IJidassoa, which all run
N. into the liay of IJisca,v. The coast is rocky,
and the ports insecure, with bars at their entrances,
except I'as.nges, which has deep water, and is
spacious and well fortified. At Mondragon, on
tlie iJeva, is a celebrated iron mine; the ore yields
no less than 40 per cent, of metal. At Yergara is
a cidlege, where the young nobility arc edncateil,
and other useful institutions. On the N. of this,
at riaccncin, is a royal manufactory of lire-arms.
red marble, g,v))sum, &c. They are covered with
oaks, wihl apple trees, thorns, box, yews, limes,
hollies, Sic, 'ihe crops of grain exceed tliiMleni.wd
of the iiiliab. Climate cold and (laniji, with hm^'
winters, frcfpient and bcavy rains, snow, fmsis,
strong and long-lived. Agriculture is the chief
pursuit. In some parts they plough with oxen,
as in Navarre ; and in others, use the Iw/a, as in
ISiscay and (iiiipuzcoa, weeding the ground re-
peatedly till it looks like a garden. The irmi'
works are greatly reduced in consequence of the
destruction of the forests which supplied them
with fuel, and of the weight of the duties jiaiil mi
iron taken into Castile. Themanufactoricr ,.f hatN
shoes, boxes, &c., are also in a stn*e . i -y; hul
agoodmany handsare oecupiedin . '.. ir.raiufaefiirc
of table linen and coarse cloths. Tliey also make a
good deal of salt. (Uiccionario por la Acadeniia.
i. 13; Jlinano, i. .54; Antillon, p. 92; Juiimal nf
the Hritish Legion by a Staff (MHcer, p. 155.)
The Basques have a peculiar langiingc, wliicli
niHOAY
AM
|nr/,i'n;i
tlic S.
(if till'
Ci
rn.
Tlie
il (iam-
iii<mii-
lircivs,,
iliu'k and
rwl with
linv'S.
(U'nianil
itli \'<K
w frnsis.
e inlial>.
lie c'liii'f
h oxen,
i/a, US in
iiiin\ rc-
he irmi-
C (if till'
1(1 tllCIll
paiil I'll
sfliatN
-y ; bill
u'factiirc
1) niaki' a
adcniia.
unial of
1"5.) . ,
[0, whu'li
rxlrn tnxps imponoil diirinR thn Fronrli invn-
^\in\ were Miv^ riTiimli'il lo tlio rimiriliiitnrH.
Fi)r('i;,'ii('rs, imt of tlic Cailiolif ri'lii;ii)n, caminr
fsiiilili'li itii'iiiM'lM's ill niiy line <it' husiiicss in
tlic llisciy |pr(pviii('cs, (liiccinimriii ticdjjniliin
|iiir III Itt'iil Aciulcinin dc la llisdiria, Muilriil,
jMi).!, ii. ISH-MO; i:i iMicn. |'rivilc!,'i<w. Ar., iln
Vizcaya, Mciliim ili'l ('ain|)(i, li')7.">; Spain, I'a'-t
and I 'resent, Monthly Clironiele, NViVcinber, 18;]is,
|..lli>.)
'Pile Hisenynns hoincc devoted to n(,'rlpuUiire,
navipition, and CDinmerce, and linvin^' little in-
eiliiality of (•oiidiliiui. posseHs those virtues that aro
seMoin found nnited with ease and riches ac-
(piired nitlioiit toil. 'I'liey are hoiioiirahle, hrave,
elicerful, and courteous, without lieiii}; mean.
They are also docile, when well treate(l; hiil. if
rouse(| hy ill-usa<j;e. are sliilihorii and inllcxilile.
Ill ireueral. they retain the dress, customs, and
Niinplicity of luaiiiiirs, as well as the insiiiiilioin
of the l:Uh ceuliiry; and jiriile themselves on
their independence, and the nntiipiity of tin ir
liiiea;;('. 'Hie women, who are rohust, assist tlm
men in their severe-l lahonrs. Not only the in-
door, hut the oui-door. Work of (he house is donci
liy female servants; and even seuoras, delicately
hroujrht up. may lie '^(•(■n in llieir walks clinihiiii;
the riM'ks with no other pro(cc!ioii than a jiarasoj.
(I)iccionario por la lieal Acadcmia, ii. iKt; Mi-
Tinno, i. ."i".'<I.)
Thev are vcrv fond of dancin;r. and assenddc
every Sunday atleruoou to enjoy that amusement.
Sonic of their dances are of a j^rave, majestic, and
eeremouioiis characler; other-', j^ay and lively.
They also dclii;lii in hull-li;;hts. and |ilay nuich at,
a LfaiiK^ with a l)all, calle(l pc/dtn, lor which ituhlii;
s. to vote the supplies, and to determine the j siles arc everywhere ajiproprialed. At their wed-
i, uniloii'if f 'llv orjrrent nntiquity. T^'clusp, in liis
'ilranittiaire (lasipie,' endeavours to trace it to the
llilircw, ns ft dialect of the I'lni'iiieiiin. hrouy;ht to
I'liflliaite. mid thence lo Spain; and attempts liy
it< nieini'* •" interpret the speech of llainio in
I'lautiis! From the supposed prevaleuc(>of llasqiie
iwnit's "f mountains, plains, forests, rivers, iiihI
i„\viis ill every part of Spain and rorlii^al, it has
l,.,ii coiicUideil that the Hus(nies once jiervaded
till' hIii'N' peiiiiiMiilft. They have no alphahet of
tlii'irewii, hnt learned men write the laiitiiiaKe
wiili lldinan letters. Its chief characteristics are
In :.iniilarity to the Ilunptrian and Turkish, in
il* inversion' of the; order of its particles, and its
iiiinaralleled variety of verhal inllcclions. 'I'heir
„iilv iMioks are the New Testament, printed at
liiiilicile in li')71, some devotional tracts, cate-
diisms, national poetry, dictionaries, and vocalm-
liirirK, They count hy twenties up to a hundred.
aiiil!<pcni oriniually to have had hut three days in
tliiir wi'ck. there not hein;; ancient niniies for
niiiri', I'cw natives, exci pt I he ;;eutry, know any
liUt'iiiifte other than the liaM|Ue. Il is also
>l,iik(ii. with some variation, in ]iart of NaNarre,
a* well as iiv the French Ihixpics, (hcclii-^e.
'uramniairc liasfpie, p. •>. :i, II. --Ml, ■_•«, -Ji;); W.
llMinlieldl. I'rllfiinn- der L'ntersnchun^^iii ilher die
Irlicwdlmcr llispaiiiens.)
Tilt' p)vernnient of these |irovincps has had.
frmii the earliest limes, a rcpnhliean form. 'I'lie
]iiii|il(M'lioos(' the memhers of the iii/initaiiiiviitus,
nr umnieipiil corporations, who. a^'aiii, (deet the
ilcliiities to the iiroviiicial assemhlies, which meet
(viTvtwo years in lliscay, once a year in (iiiipu/.-
f(i;i. ami twice n year in Alava, to provide for the
iiitcriiir ndminisiration of their respective jiro
TiiicO;
a|i|irii|iriation of the money ji'ranted. F.ach as-
smililv chdospH ft maijistraie, in whose hinids the
fxnutivc jioworis placed when t\\i' juntas are not
Miiiu^', and who tre.ats on e(iuftl terms -vviih the
wm/iV/orcs, <)r amliussadors, apjioiiiled hy the
kiii;;iif Simin to reside in each jirov., hut win
(liii;;s they dis(har;;'c j;uns and pistols, on entering
aiiii ([uilliuu' the church. Some villa;;('s distrihiite
hn ail and cheese, wine and waluuls. at their I'nuc-
rals ; some hep,' money for masses for the soul of
the deceased. They arc sober, hut are fond of
f^ood liviiii;'. They dress with a hlue cap, ri'd sash,
nius^t not," on any ncc'ount, he natives of these I and til/iiiniatr.i, or hempen sandals, tieil < • with
ITiivinccs, nor exercise any authority in them. | hlne or red rih.'iuds; and in wet wcnither, c.t//,. "//o.v,
Tlic peiiple (ilioose, alsii, the tax-collectors, and | or hrof^iies of hide. The women dress as in Cas-
|i;iv tlioir civil ollieers moderate salaries for their tile ; tluMnarricid wear a thin muslin hftndkerchicf,
tied on the head, like the Irish ; the girls wear
their hair hraided down their hacks. There are,
theatres at Uilhao ftiid Vittoria, where plays and
operas are performed ; and the ujiper classes follow
the fashions of France and the rest of ICurope,
(I)iccionurio por la Keal Acadeinia dc la llistoria,
i. i>'i(!; Bowles, p. 80(1; lIcMining.son's Campaign
mmccs. Their taxes nre light, and levied ac-
(Mriliiif,' to a valuation, which is frc(|nently modi-
tinl. Their ancient privileges, or fiieros, order
ihat tlicy shall not be taxeil hy the Spani.di go-
ummoiit. except in a small sum. paid by <ini-
fiuzcoR aiul Alava, continuing at about 51(1/. ster-
ling', the amount jiaid in the Mtb century. Hut
lii<cay is free from this, and l)ays a larger sum
every four or live years under the name of ^/ohu-
(Iro, (ir gift. They have no monoixdies nor ciis-
tura-luiuscs, every article being imported duty
free. They are also free from the conscription and
imiircssmciit, to which every other part of Spain
i>sal>i(?ci; hut, in case of foreign invasion, they
ate lidund to defend tlieir frontiers without the
king's troops. Another of their important )irivi-
k'h'cs is that of being exempted from torture, or
ilireat of torture, direct or indirect, on any ]>rc-
wice whatever, within Bisciy or out of it. (Fuero
^it. Ley, xii.) On the other hand, they have
always been prohibited from trading directly with
llio Spanish colonies, and are shut out from a free
trade with the rest of Spain, by heavy duties and
a line of custom-houses all along the Khro ; and
arc also obligee' to resort to the court of chancery
at Valladolid, i'or the decision of their lawsuits.
Tlieir financial system seems to have been well
managed, shice the jjriee of the Alava il per cent.
ilflit, Wfore the breaking out of the iires-eut civil
wr, was 93 ; and in Biscay and Guipuzcoa, the
in Xavarre ami the IJasque Provinces, j). 72.)
Little is known of the early history of the
Basques before the time of the Ifonians, or during
the ascendancy of the ( ioths ami Saracens ; by all
of whom the country was partially ovenain. The
Spanish Academy of History say.s, there is no
reascm to suppose that .any family ever had that
absolute sovereignty over it that has been suj)-
posed, but that its rulers were subject to the
Spanish kings of Asturias, Navarre, and Castile,
like the rest of the principal sefiors of the kingdimi,
with the exception of that difference which arose
from the great power of the family of Ilaro, who
helfc the lordship for many years. In l.'i:i2, the
deputies of the three jirovinces offered the dignity
to Alphonso XL, king of Castile, who accepted the
hirdship; but before the grant wa.s executed, the
most formal reserves were made of their franchises
and privileges, and the king was obliged to sign a
treaty, one of the articles of which was, that the
Castilian monarch should never possess any vil-
lage, fortress, or house, on the Basque territory.
Their country has been the scene of frequent and
464
ll|S('i;(iLIA
loii^f-coiiliiiiu'd wiirs Willi l'iirci(;n nniiniix, aiul Im
liiiw llic |>riiii'i|i.'il lliciiln' ol' ti ilr^tnirlivr i'i\'il
fonllu'l, riiiiii!;li rr|>iililiriiii ill nil llnir iii-lilii-
tiiiii-i, tlicy iirn iiiurii aliaclicil in llic ^|lMlli'^ll
(|i<iiiiiiiiiii,
lllSCI'.lil.lA, n Hill iHift town of Siiiiilicni
Iliily, |iri>v. Iliiri, on a nx'ky |iroiiioiilory, on
(lirAilriiiiic. I.' inili'H I'.M'.. Ilarlclia, anil I.'lniili-N
SK. 'I'raiii. l'ii|i. Il(,7iri in iMi"-'. A railway con-
nt't'in llisct'^lia willi llic (iiill'or 'raranio, on ilu*
one liaiiil, anil Aiu'oiih ami llii' I'cniral anil nnrlli
Italian linrx on IIiimiiIiit. 'I'liclown in KiirronniU'il
tiy lolly i«loni' walls, anil Ih ill linill : it is tlii' nrat
III' a liislio|iri('. lias a I'allirilral. two colli'i^iiiti- ami
Hoini' oilier I'liiiri'lirs, ronvt'iilH lor liolli srxrs, n
(lulilii' sriiool, a liospiial, a iiitinl-i/f/iii li\ ami a
iiiii' llirairi'. Its port ailniils only .miimII vi'sm'Is,
mill il lia-^lilllo liaili'. ll lias iiimuToin rrsrrvoiis
anil I'isirrnsriil in Ilii' solid locU, ami arilinl omi",
for llir c.'llrriiii- ami |nr>rr\ aiinii ol ilio rain
vaiiT. I 111' |ilai't' liriiif,' I'liiiic'ly di'si iiiiii'ol' ;.|iriiiir'-.
It is r.ii|iii(.M'd liy Hoiiii' III In' 111!' .Xiilidtiiiii of l!n'
Ti'iiliii^'i riiiii lal'lrs, Iml oiIht criliis h'IiIcmiI iIimI
its aiiiiiiu iiiiiiu' was ]'i(iiliii; Sw ImImmih' says
thai il is dcsiiiiili' of any riinaiiis of aiilii|iiiiy.
(Swiiiliurm''.s I'wo ^i^■ili^•s, i. I'v'i. Ilo. rd. ; I'raM'ii's
Kiildis.)!, '.i;! : hii'l. «ii'o^'ra|diii|iu', i\i'.)
LlMlKil'Sril'liti. a vill;i,mor I'nissia, jirov.
I''.. I'rii'-sia, on tin' Piinimr, l.i ni. NSW, l.'osscl.
l'o|i. ;!.|.'s;i ill If^iil. 'I'lii'iv arc laitorii's of liiu'ii
and llii'i'^ul.
I'.lSCIloKSTKlN. or lUSCIIS'rKIX.n town of
I'mssia, |irov. !■'.. I'liissia, r.j;-. Kijiiitr-lirr^', on a
marshy laUr, I" m. S. Iiy I'). Kiiiiif.;slni>v. l'o|i.
i(.'-'7l ill IM'il. 'I'lirlown has l\Mp( nlliolii'ilmr>'h(s,
n lii;,'h school, thhrics of cloth and siuilviii^s, with
«li''tillcrics and hrcwcrics,
lilSt'llWll.l.KK', a town of France. di''|i. Has
li'hiii. call. *"""•• on the Moder. l."> ni. N. Siias-
liiirj;. on ilic railway IVcni Slrasliiirj; to Mayciice.
ro|i. S.TMl in IMil. " 'I'lie town was once fortiticd ;
liiit the worlds were destroyed liy the linperialisls
in 17(1(1. It nianiifacturi's coarse woollen and linen
••lot lis. woollen gloves. iiottery. tiles. and hricks, ami
has woollen mills, madder mills, .•iml tanneries.
lilSKN'l'O, Il town of Soiitlurn Italy, prov.
Teranio, cap. cant., in a valley, 10 ni. NW. ("ivila-
«li-i'eniK>. I'op. i»..")i;t in iMtl'J. The town has
HcMral clinrches, ii dyework for cloth, luiil fairs on
Alav Iti and 17.
l!lSlI()l>S-Ar(M\LAXI>. a markct-towni and
township of Kiinland, co. Durham, NW. div., Dar-
liii;;ton ward, par. St. Andrew Auckland. Id ni.
SW. Durham, on the South Durham and Lanca-
hhire rnioii Itrauch railway. I'o)). (l.lMd in \M\,
'i'he town, which is well liiiilt, stands on an cmi-
lunce, haviiif,' the Wear on the N., and the (iaiin-
h'.ss on the SH. The par. church is ahoiit 1 ni.
«listaiit. Imt there is a eliaiiel of ease in the town,
and the Methodists, Independciit.s, (^)uakers, Ac,
liave also chapels. There is a Hrainmar-school
founded hy .lames I., and farther endowed hy
several ]irel«tes: a school on the Madras system
for "JOO hovs, and a school for prls, holh founded
l)v 15isho|i" liarrint;ton. The town, owinj; to ^;reat
facilities of railway communication, is lloiirishinfj.
and the population on the increase; hut the place
owes its iniiiortance. to its havinj; at its NK..^id
the mapiiticent eastle or episcopal palace of the
liishoi) of Durham. The Iniildint,' is of great
extent, has a line chajiel Imilt hy ISisho)) Cosiiis,
and some j;ood pictures. The park includes about
81 Ml acres.
lilSlIor'S CASTT.E, a par., hor., and town of
r.imlaiid, CO. Salop, hnnd. raislow, Illm. NW.
hy'W. London. Area. (;,(M10 acres. I'op. of jiar.,
1^21. l,-'<70; IUJI, 2,007; aiur2,083 hi ISOI. The
lURinXANo
(own stands on the slope of a hill, nrar n ,ni.ill
hninchof ihe nare. 'I'lurc are ^,,iiie;; | i,,,,,,,
ill ditached siliialioiis; Imt the Knaiir pnri >,U\'.
town is irregularly and im aiil\ ImiIIi of umIm.,/,,
stone. The cliiirch (rriKiiiallv a line Hirihiur,. „r
Ihe Norman pi'riod) was iiarily di«ir.,y,.(| ii, n,,.
civil war, ami »iilisei|iienily restorcil. Tlu.r,, J,,
Hcveral dissenting piaceH iif worship, nii<| n fr...
school, ediicatinj,' fiO lioys and ^'irls. Tin. tdwn-
hall, liuilt ill I7.III. coniains prisouN f,,r (rimin.iU
and delitors. A weekly market is held <>ii Iriiliu
and annual fairs, l-'eh". i;i, Fridav hiinre t;,,,'.!
Friday, Friday after Mav 1, .Inly .'i, Scpi. ;i, |„„|
Nov. I.'l. That in May Is a pleasure, Hiidtliiii In
.liily a wool fair; the rest are fcircaiile. Ailmriir
of the 2(illi of Fli/alieih conferred mi tin. ccirin.rii
li<iii the privih'jre of retiirniii;; two imni. h. il,,. |'i
of ('..which it exenised lill llie pn-.-iii;,' „f ||„'.
Iii'foriii Act. when it was di>riiiiirhise(|. "lu |,ici|
liniils were e\lrll>ive, h'lviii^,' a rir.'. of l,"i 111, II,
name is derived IVoiu an amlriil ca.slle nf i),,,
hishops of Hereford, whii'li has liein loie,' dcniu
li>h( ll ; ihe site of il, hiiueMv, niiix siilj lii'iric,,|
ItlSllOl-'S STOIMHUII), a par. .'iiiil t„H,i „r
l'.ii^;laiid, CO. Men ford, hiiml. liraii'iluii. en ii,,,
Slorl. '.'ll 111. NNI'',. I.omlon on tlntireal I'.iisicni
railway. Aicii, il.OMii acres. I'op. of pur., ri,;;:!!!- ,,|-
town. I,ri7;t in iMi'd. The jrrealer part nC tin.
town slaiiils on the slope of a hill, mi iln' \\\ ^j,|,,
of the river, and cmisisls of two lines of >irrii, in-
tcrsectiiif^ each other at rif,dil aii^des, and feniiiii'
a cross. It is, on the whole, well imiii. Tli"
church stands on an einiiience. and lias n lin,.
lower. There is a national school for "iiiiicliildnii,
ami a piihlic lihrary. It has an excellent iiiiiiliii-
house ^hiiill at Ihe intersectimi of the slri(l,<, in
IM'JH, with an Ionic tnnit), which contains n liir(,'o
hall, used as a corn-exeliaii^;e, over wliiih an'
asM'inhly and niagistrales' rooms. 'I'lie wriklv
market is on Thursday, and three aiiinud fiiiis urc
held on Holy Thursday, 'i'liiirsday after 'friniiv
Siimlay. and 1 0th Oetohcr. 'I'lie nialiiii;riiiiiliii;ii
trades constilnle the chief hiisiness of llie inwn,
for which there arc convenient wharfs alimi; tlic
river and the I'linal (holh of which are ciiiiii;;iiiiiij
to il) ; and lieiiig in the centre of a t^oinlcnni iji'.-
trict. the trade is considerahle. Tliere is alsn a
silk-niill. which employs many hands, I'ihIitiIh'
I'oor Law Amendment Act it is the iiiiinii tnwii
for 20 jiars. ; its own rates averaue l.'.'IU/. Is.
I'l'ttv sessions are held every fortnight hy llie cm,
mafjistrates; it is also a poUiiij; to>\ii for Herts.
IIISUOl-'S WAI.THAM. a imr. and t.ma if
F.ngland, <'o. Soutliam))loii, div. I'ortsilnwii. Iiuiid.
of llishop's Waltham, ('.2 m. SW. hy W. Luiiilnii,
on the liondon and South We.-icrn raihvav. I'up.
of parish, 2.2(i7 in IHdl. The town is sitiiali'il liy
the Hamhle (a srjall stream risiiij; 1 in. fnim ilio
town) in (he vicinity of Waltham Forest. It lias
a jfood church, an endowed eharity selionl fur iitl
hoys, and a national schoid for li!0 hoys iiiul ),'irl.s.
It has a weeklv market on Friday, and iiiiiiiiid
fairs on .second Friday in M.ay, July .'!(l, and Friday
followiii),' Old Michaelmas-day. Leallicr-dn'.ssin^'
is the chief trade of the town, which is iiinslly
disposed of at ils own fairs, and those nftlit'iu'l^di-
hoiirhood. There is also some mailing; liusiiu'ss
carried on. It is a polling town for (he iiortliini
division of (he coun(y. The ivy-covcrod niiiisin
a line old e.istle are in the immediate vicinity. Il
orifjinated in (he reign of S(eplien. hut nwi'd iis
subseijiient magnitieence to William of Wykcliam.
The eastle was demolished by the imrliiimeiitary
annv in the last civil war.
lilS1101'-WKAl{Mt)UTII. (Sec Slxdep.-
I.AN'D.)
lUSlGN ANO (an. Susidiw), a town ef Soiithcni
insHAOoa
ill |<)1). 'i'lx' town ix ilcroriiliMl liy It I'lkxlli' xilii-
,l(i|iiii t\»' liiulii'Hl iif I III' m'vcii IiIIIn \>y wliicli it
i, •iirniiiiiili'il; iMllii'Nt'iil ofiiltiNlmitric; liii)* » liiu'
,'jilu'ilriil. tiiinicriiiiH cliiiri'lK'K, a iiiiniu'rv, m'vtTiil
iviivcntH, lwi> lioNpilnlM, niiil n lioiiw uf rrl'ii^'i',
Un;)' ((iiiinlilU'M of Hilk-wnriiiN nni ri'ttri'il in iIk>
wiiiiilv.
|l|SSA<i<>S, n K'''»'p <M Hmnll vohrniilf iHl/iiitlH,
on lilt' VV. I'l'iiNt of Africa, o|i|ioNii(< ilic I'liilHiiicliiirt'
„l'ilii' liio (iraiiili', Ih'Iwi'cii III'^ ami l'J° N. iai.,
iiiil I'i4° '""' "'4" ^^- '""W- '''"' litiRi'Nl i'* aliiiiif
I'liii.iii lt-ii);ili,aiiil NiiiniMif (limi art' iiiiiiilialiilrd.
I'lii' iuliiili.. wli» nro ilrNi'rilM'il an hravt- Itiil Irca-
rhiriius nuKt' hoidc niai/t', luil aro iiriiii'i|ialiy di'-
iriiilciit nil tlit'ir caltli', ^oatM, ami liHlicrv.
jllS/rifl T/ (Sla\ . //«•((i^ ; ic l'i,l,/t<),'n lowii of
Tn»i'«vlvitiiia, AiiMlria, i-aii. iliMlrift, in a liiii' viilii-v,
„i,ilii.' Ilis/.iritz ; laf. 17° ,7 IC." N., loiij;. '-' P ;i-.'' I«"
H ro|i, (i.NlId in IK"i7. Till' town is fori ilicd, lias
ip'tiiiiAiiiiiiOi two hcIiimiIk, mill two lio.spiiaU, with
1 ii'iiiMilornlilc Iradi- in calilc.
itjTClll''., a town and forlrcMH of Kraiiro, lU'p.
]t|iM'lli<, cap. canl,, at lliv foot of ilu; Vort^^cH, 15 in,
KSK. Snr^'iii'iniiit'H, I'op, •i.iMij") in INtil, Tlu'
l«i|iuUtiipii ii« dofliniiij;. 'I'lic forlrc.is or ciladrl
Miiilx oiiaii nlniosi iiiacci's.sililo ro<-k risiiif; from
iho miildli' of •''«' town, Tlui interior of (Iw roi'k
111 vaiilti'il ikMil oast'inatcd ; tlui fort, mounts HO
jiJivcHiif I'liiinoii, may lio ^arrisoiit'd liy 1,01)11 men,
'tnt'll siip|ilii'd with water, and is looked u|Hin lis
iioxt 10 iiiiprepialile. The town, formerly railed
Kiilii'uliiiii'M'ii, is liiiilt at the foot of the rock,
siimiiiiiiiti'il hy the citadel, near n lar^e shallow
liko or mere, where the Home has it.s source.
Ii |iriiiliicos (lilVereiit. sorts of tiiio |iotlery,
Tlu* (jliLSM-works of Miinsthal, in the vicinity,
funmli tliiit (iflutis uf thu value uf OOD.OUU fr.'u
viar.
' lUrKTTO, ft town of Soiitheni Italy, prov.
Trrra di Hari, in n fertile plain on the Adriatic,
1" m. S\V, IJari. Top. . '),««.") in l«:>!». Thu town
b till' scut of u liishoprii; ; has ti cathedral, reiiinrk-
ilile for it« pictures and uiarhlus, and ouveral
OHlVflltH.
lU'l'ONTO (an.Biitunfum), a town of Southern
lialy, |iniv. Terra <li Hari, ca|). cant,, in a thic
|iUiii, 10 m, \V!S\V. Unri, on the railway from
llari to Turiiito. I'op. 2'l,'i2l in IH5!). lUtoiitoisa
tine town, mid the inhahitantti ore said to Ih; much
ei<ii'rin their fortunes, and more polished and im-
l>rivc<lin tlieir iniinners, than those that dwell in
the cities alon^ the coiLst. It is the seat of a
liMiiipric; has a tine cathedral, twelve parish
churdies, convents for both sexes, a iiospital, and
I nunncr}'. The environs prodiico a wine called
tfrnllu, Mtid to bo excellent, and in which the
tdwu trades extensively. In ITiM the Spaniards,
iinilcr tlie Count dc Mortcmar, gained, in the vi-
cinity of this town, on important vict*)ry over the
AnstriaiiK.
RITKITTO, a town of Southern Italy, prov.
Ttrra di Uari, 7 m, 8. Hari, on the railway from
Bari to Tanuito. Pop. 3,771 in 18r)9. It has a
iiieiollo|,'iatc church, and its territory is celebrated
(or ii.< wines and almonds.
IllTTllUlitJ, a town of Prussia, prov. Lower
Rliiiie, cap, circle, 18 ni. NNW. Treves. Pon.
iii'i ill 18«1. The town has a castle, two Catholic
ctiiirchcs, and gome trade in corn and cattle.
lilTTEKFEL D, o ! own of Prussia, prov. Saxony,
tec. Mersebour};, cap. circle, 1(> m. S. Dessau, iit
thejuiiition of the rtiilwoys from Uerlin to Halle,
wdfrum Dessau to Leipzijjf. Pop, 4,'J«4 in 1«G1.
The toOTi, which is in a flourishing condition, was
louiiilwl by a colony of F 1cm iiifpi, whose dcscend-
>iiu iiold their proiierty in common, oiid ore go-
Voi,. I,
llLACKIJirRN
4fl/S
vemcd by peculiar laws. It lian fabrict nf cloth
ami cartlii'iiware,
n!/i;i!TA. or lir,N/A!:'l' (an. //(/ym Di.irr-
hi/hiH, or /.iirihini), iisca port town of 'I'liiiis, at the
holloinof a deep ^lilf or bay (Siitun llii>/MiHiiinh),
on a rliaiiiii'l iiiiiiiii); the ^iilf with aiiinlrrnal lake
or hiKooii, 10 III. N\V, Tunis; hit, .17° 17' io" N,.
loii>{, \P Till' iliV K. I'op. variously esliinalid at
from H.OOO III 11,000, It is abou'i t m, in circ,
and is dcfi'tidi'd by walls, and two castles; but as
the latter are coiiitniiiidi'd by a height witliiii n
short dislaiii'c, it could oppose no I'tii'ciii.il rcsi^t-
aiice to an army atlackin^r ji hy laud. Thiiii),'li It
has a piisl appearance at a •li.-<lance, it is, liko
most other Tiirkisli towns, r«'ally niraii iiiid dirty.
Its |Hirt, which now only adinils small vessels, was
formerly one of t lie best in the McililcrraiieaiMiud
ini^dit easily be rrslorcd, in Ibis ri'specl, to its
aiicieiil pre einiiiciice. The cliaiiiiel on which the
town is built has in parts live and six fatlioms
waliT, and it iiii^dil, with iiof^real liiboiir, be cvrry-
where deepened to that CNleiil. The hike, or inner
harbour, is of ^reat extent, with a depth of water
varying; from ten to lil'ty fathoins, and is lapiiblii
of iiccoinniiidatiiiK the largest navies. The coiitilry
rniiiid is also exceedingly fertile; so min'h so
that, notwithstanding its neglected stale, large
ipiantilies of corn aro occasionally exported from
llixerta,
lUiACKHUKN, a market town and pari, bor.of
Kngland, co. Lancaster, bund, and par. of Itlack-
burn, on an allhient of the liibble; Ik;{ hi. NW.by
N. London, ;il m. NK. Liverjiool, '21 in. N\V. by
N. Manchester, \'2 m. N. by W. Kolton, and !• in.
K. by S. Preston, at the junction of the railways
from Preston to Murnley, and from Itidlon to (Jhal-
bnrn. lllackbiirn isoiie of the great manufactur-
ing centres of {''.iigland which have had an extra-
ordinarv development in the course of half a c«'U-
tiirv. 'riie population of the bor. nunibered b'l.OH;)
in ixil ; rose to 2I,<M0 in IN-21 ; to .'III,)'.-.".) in IHll,
and to Ii.'l,l2)! in IHill. The parish, which had
;)*,),K!)!) inhabitants in ISII, counted no h-ss than
!10,H'I',) in iHCil. The town, situated on a rivulet,
called in Domesday Hook • Hhickebiirne,' was,
with the snrrounding district, a manor during tho
reign of William the Coiupieror, who granted it to
ibiiert de Lacy. A castle, of which no tra<:e exists
at present, is said by Whitaker to have been a sta-
tion of thu Homaiis, and of the Saxons. Camden
and Hlomu both notice it as a thriving market-
town in their days. The eminences in the vi(;inity
are naked, and in winter the jilace has n dn'ary
aspe<;t. It is irregularly built, owing partly to its
anti(piity, and partly to the intermixture of glebe
and other lands, the tenures of which interfered
with a liettor arrangement of the avenues. Tho
parish church of St. iMary, originally' built before
the Conquest, was rebuilt on a new site in IHI'.I, at
an expense of '2<i,0()0/. ; it is in the (iothic style,
contains 2,000 sittings, of which 700 are free; and
in boldness, symmetry, and correctness of design,
is said to be suqiassed by but few ecclesiastical
structures. It sustained some injury, which was
soon after n^paired, from a lire in IttiU. There are
ten other epiacoixil churches in the town and 21 in
the )>arish. The Methodists, Haptlsts, Independ-
ents, liomnn Catholics, Swedenborgians and So-
ciety tif Friends have all one or several places of
woriNhip. The educational establishments com-
prise a grammar school founded and endowed
temp. I'Mi/.abeth ; Leyland's school for the eihica-
tioii of girls ; with National, Hritish and Foreign,
and other schools. The ])ublic buildings, with tho
exception of those applied to theological puriwses,
are few in nninbcr, and consist principally of a
small nvnt theatre, and a cloth-hall. It lias a
nil
400 nUCKMKATII
• liHIM-nnnry nml n lyinj^-iii iimtiliiliim, a horllnil-
liinil Mdcici y, mill two wt-ckly iwiiiith.
'I'lir Hcl'i.mi Act coiiffrri'il uii liliu-kliiim Iho iiri
vilijrf iif rrtiiriiiiiK "2 nu'iii. to tlu- II. oCC. 'i'lu'
l»'r,, whiih In iilmticiil with Iho tdwimhip, roni-
priNCH .'l.tiMiuiri'Hiiiiiil linil \,~M rcKl". •'I<il"n« in
\xi'>l, l)<iiij{ all ii('t'ii|iicrM of Id/. lioiim'M. 'I'lic no-
vcrmiiciu of III)' lowii ix vcmIciI in (■oinini'<Nioii(TH ;
iiiul llio iiiMKiHirnlt'N of the liiiiulml liolil iicily nch-
HioMs ill it. A cniiiity roiirt in i'Mlalili«lu'il "litrf.
'I'tic iiHNCHsniciil for nil' rt'liif of Ihc poor in Itlaik-
liiirii I'nioiiaiiioiinicd in iMtll lo |2<i,:<7:i/. ; ami the
(niioiini aNMCNNcil lo properly Inx to I7H,!MIH/.
The nianiifai'tiirc of n 'kind of cloih inailc of
linen warp ami eoiioii woof, eaeh partly of ilyeii
llirend, K'viiiK tlie well n i'he(|iiered appearanee,
mid Iheiiee called lllat'klMirii ehetpie, was earrieil
on here in Iliad. || was aflerwardn NiiiierNeded liy
thai of lllueklMirn Kr''.'*'!*, eonMislinj; aUo of linen
and coitoii, NO called from their hein^ printed in an
iinlileached .stale. .lanieN llar;ireave!<, a working
carpenter, the inventor of the Npinniii^jenny, lln'
lirsi jfreat step in that woiiderfnl carei'r of inven-
tion and discovery that has raised Iho cotton
iiianiifactiire to its |)rcse!it unexampled state of
jirosperily, was a native of llhukliiirii. In I7<i7
lie produced the Jenny; liiit instead of meeting'
with the coiiiilenance and support due to his sin-
Unlar deserts, he was driven out of the town, and
event iially out of the county ; and it was iiol till
alioiii MJdiir IM|-.> that the people of illacklairn
lie;;an largely tnoinliark in th<> cotton traile, ami
lo avail themselves of the discoveries that had
originated in their town. Now, however, spinnin^r
of the coarser kind of calicoes, and their weaving
l>y the power-loom, <;onstitul(> the staple trade uf
the place.
TIk^ ahnndanceofciml rniNoil from tho coal field
a few m. to the S. has larj^elv eontriliuted to the
pr<i(,'ress of mtiniifactures. Tliev have also been
iiincli facilitated hy the Livcr|ioof and Leeds Canal,
which passes elost^ to the town, mid hy the opening
of railways. Markets are hehl on Wednesdays aiul
Saturdays, in an inconvenient place; fairs for cloth,
in the cloth-hall, on Kaster-Slondny, llth, I'Jtli
Hay, and I7tli Oct.; and for cattle," on the alter-
nate Weilnesdays from the ln-^rinnin^ of Fehriiary
to Michaelmas. The hanking estahlishmenis are
hraiiches of the Manchester and County Hank, of
the Manchester and Liverpool District Itank, and
n private baiikiii;;-h(uisc, called the Old Itank.
' in the early stafj;es of the cotton niminfactnro,'
says Mr. Dailies, ' the inhahitants, in general, were
indigent, and scantily provided (und this is still
the case so far as tlie hand-loom weavers are con-
cerned) ; l)ut decisive proofs of wealth now a[)i)ear
in this place on every hand; liandsomc new erec-
ti(aisarti continually rising up; pnliliu institutions
for the improvement of the mind, and tlie exten-
sion of human happiness, are rapidly in(!reasin):f ;
and this place, at one time proverbial for its rude-
ness and want ofcivilisalion, may now fairly rank,
in point of oj)ulencc aiul intellijcence, with many
of the )irincipal towns in the kinplom.'
IJLACKHEATII, an elevated moory tract, in
the vicinity and fonning a suburb of the Uritish
mctro|)olis, which ^ivcs name to the bund, in
which it is situated, in the latti of Sutton-at
Holme, CO. Kent. The gicater portion of the hun-
dred of Hlacklieath is in the ]iarisli of (jreenwich,
but it also extends into those of Charlton, Lcwis-
liam, and Lee, and is IJ in. in an K. and W. di-
rection, and about half that X. and S. ; from St.
I'aul's to the nearest part is about 5 m. SIC. The
]iopuhition, according to the census of 18GI,
amounted to 10,473. The district is intersected
by the youth Eastern and Korth Kent railwuj'.
HLACK SKA
It romninndf* many line pros|iect^ and lmi» mini"
rous elepint villas. There are scv. ral diurd,,.,
and chapels, and a ureal iiiimlsT nfprivntc -kIi,„,|
On the K. sidi' is Mordcn College a iiiimlriiii,'„l„r
Hinicture, founded in I7(»H, for decayed nicnlmt,!..
its revenue is alHint .'(.ddd/. a year, in ih,. imufi^
of seven iniHtees, who iioiniMiilc the |«n»i.Mi, r.^
and apixiini the IrcaMurer and iliMplain : tlicn i,r"'
about id Niipporled, each of wlinni rcreivcit .")/'■,
month, and has a separate apiirtiiiiMt ; Inn iii,.v
eal at a coinmon luMc: none arc admi^Milil,. nn,!,,,.
Till years of ap'. A Itoinan road (\\ iiliiii^;SinTii
from London to l)ov<'r, IravcMes ihc licaih, ncurlv
in the dirrciion of Ili)> modern line: tliirc iir<'
some lar;;i> ancient liiniiili on it. In ||„, ||,|,
ccnlnry thellMlies (whose licet lay olMireriiwicIn
were eiicainped on the heath soiiie'iiiiiiulis, wImim,.
they made many excnrsions; in one nl' «|ii|.||
Cant<'rbury was sacked, and the arc'!ilii.||i,i, ,.„f.
ricd off, anil afterwards killed. Wal Tylir, iiiiil
subseipicntly .lack Cade, tonk U|> poKiijoiHwitli
their followers on it; as did the ('iiriii>li nliil-,
under Lord Andley, ilefcated with ureal nlmiyliiir
by Henry VII. 'I'hil her also, in fipriiieniiiiis, ih,.
lord mayor and corporation, and occasiniiiillv iIh'
kiiiK a*id his (Miiirt. were woiil to ^o, when iilih-
trii'us personages were to be \ elooined to the I'lihi-
tiil. (Ilastcd's Kent.)
ULACK SKA (the Knxine. or Iloirot r.u,f,„«,
of the (ireeks and Kiiirians), a lar^c iiileniiil m;i
lyin^ l«'twei'ii the S\V. provinres of l!iH,ia j,,
I'Mirope mid Asia Minor, exlcndiii); frnin |ii'^ jii' |,,
■Itjo I.V N. hit., and from 27° -J.V lo Ufi W i;. ji.n...
It is boniided on the N. and N\V. by the l>ii>.i;m
provinces of Taiirida, Khcrsou, an' Ites-iarulii.i;
on the NE. and V], hy the Caiica iaii (■iiiiiiiii-i
Circassia, Min^^rclia, and Iineriti'\, >ii tlu: si..
and S. by Arinenia and Asia Mi.mr. .i ,il mi ilic
W. by the Turkish pivernineiu.-. ..i iiiiniclia u:'!!
Miilfraria. Its extrenu! len;;th from V., tn \V. U
upwards of 7dl» m. ; its (^realesi width, mi lliciiUi
meridian, -IdO m. : E. from this it narrows hy iIr'
projiH-lion of the Crimea, and the advance (il'ilic
opposite shore uf Asia Minor, to l.'il in.; nnim k
widens to 2tir» m. between the Strait of Voiiikiili'
and the (iiilf of Sainsun, lint from tiie lii^t imint
it constanlly and ri|)idly diminishes, till its !'..
coast (running di \ N. and S.) does not exiToil (lo
in. in width. Its surface is estlnialed at jiIniiii
100,000 sq. m., and its coast line, iiichiiliii;; lis
sinuosities, considerably exceeds 'i.OdO tn. (Ciu-
valicr, Voy. dc la I'ropon. et dii I'ont. Kiix. p,
.'{20; Jones's Travels, ii. 383; lienncU's t'iiiii|i.
Geog, of W. Asia, ii. 277.)
The lilack Sea is connected with the Soa of
Axoph by the Strait t)f Yenikale (an. Bonitlwrm
Cimmeriiiii), and with the Sea of Mannara, iiy tlif
Cbaniud of (Constantinople (an. Boitphoriis Tlirn-
eius). With these exceptions it is wholly i.^uliitci,
It is also much more compact in forin timn nm^i
other large bodies of water; giving offnoKn'iit
limbs, like the Haltic, Mediterranean, ic, n:'il
having very few even moderately-si/eil pill-.
The most important, that of Kirkinit (tiie Cmri-
tiitua Sinus of the ancients) lies Ixitweeii tlii' NW.
shore of the Crimea and the op))osite slmrcot'S.
Kussia, extending as far E. as the Fstlimiis nf j
Perekon. The coast of the sea is, however, liy i
means iron-bound ; small bays and hnrbmirs iiiiiii- |
merable occur at short distances, thnuijrli all ''■* ,
circuit, but none of them is in the least coin|Kiralil',
as to size, with the Gulf of Kirkinit, unless, in-
deed, the Sea of Azoph and the Sea of Manrnirii l«' j
reckoned gulfs of the Itlack Sea. The sirniis it f
the lilack Sea are very remarkable; tliey si-arccly
break the continuity of the hniil, for nt tlicir ii^ir-
rowest part, that of Yenikale, is not niuro tliaa
Im. (icMM, nnd
I) ni. (I 'a lias's
I lii'tnlier, p. M.)
Ill liiwaiid swamp
1,11, tlii'i^realesl
iimIv, in aliiiiii
lliriii'iaa llospjui
Iriiu'tliiif alioiil 17
iHi'i'ii niiiiiiitaiiioi
,1 wiilth of more t
■IIM
Ihe ileplli of wa
till' vnrialiiiiiM api
i!i|ii'iiiliiig general
M: HI) iniich no,
I'll llll' llllllllllS of
.li<tain'e of the Nlior
ffiiiii the siinndiiigi
ilii llliii'k .S'a, p. (I.)
<!{>ili, in its shalli
II It., nor in its i|e
I'lii imsHJiig iIiIn III
ii't'lilHiiirliiiod of I
'!i|'ili of ■» falhoiii
LitliiiniH or more;
iiiliiiiiiH are foiiinl ai
li'-l'liiiriiH; an cipia
IV. KJiiire, at a Huh,
,^' till' inmiiliH of ii,
sa liilucen the It,
ilii' ( riiiiea, no bolioi
iiiiij liio faihiiiiiN, 'I
fri'iii ('i)iiHtaniinopl,)
("Imilily ileej); thein
mly Hint vessels of
ii< waters; and the >
I'liiHis mill Kuban, n
tiiiiivn III Eiiro|s'ans.
ti'i'j.'. Journal, i. p
Diiralty Charts, sect, i
ilie Kiixiiie is eiic
MV. hy high moiinit
'" it.s margin ; even i
aiiprnai'li its .shores to
ilic .\'\V. and x\., it ,
."viutlicrn Enrojie. \,
M ill the,se (lirectioi
111 the S. of tlie t.'rinie,
liieliasin of the Ei
'liwtinii, from about
•* in. ill width ; hut i
IW.II1 niininlain, it siii
till' .sea receiving, thri
111'' water that Hows j
'ai'i''isii8, and hv varioi
jiH.v the larger part of
'* mill sHamjiy land
'■*?'.Ax Ska.) On i,
iw'iivps the waters of n
Nil rivers from a (lis
fl'*'*. (i^vo Don, Dnii
"j'lfi'il, (alls into the s
j'li.ysieallv considered
•"'I.V with which it is CI
!ii'«i remarkable ])art ol
I* that towards the A
f'Wcli, in this direction,
|;>rt(btanceofit8.sho
'H the Danube, aftt
""iiiitains at Orsova, rei
Yl ?'.' «'« H"n)lU8' W
«)ntie8oftheAlp.s,tl
Wiv'ticsofthcCaUtl
f^'>lcteH,„„dthcX.
;'er words, the whol
"* Austrian empire, w
wiaaiulLombardy. i
m.XCK HV.X
'.>m. RcritMi, nnil ilmt i>rroni4tnntln<i)il(< Iinm limn
it ni. (I'lillni*'*) 'rriivcU in S. KiiMHin, ii. 'JnN:
t lii'Mili<r, |>. It.) 'I'lit< ConniT, liuli'i-il, Npri'iiilit out
,1, liiwunil itwnn)|iy K^iMinilN into nkiml tit'niiirHliy
l.'i\. ilii't,'ri''il<-Ml wiilili nl'wliirh, nii'iiMiri'il trim-*
t,r«lv, U iiliniil III ni. (I'ikllikH, ii. .liMii; Imi the
rhriK'iiiii lliiM|ili(iruH lliiwH ilirmiuli iix wlinjii
li'iiL'tli I'l'iili'iiii 17 in., lilic It niiiKnillccnl river, Ix'-
iwii'ii niKiinliiinniH liiml^s iinil in im juirt iitrniiiH
] wlilili "f iiiiirv ilian '2 m. or 1'^ ni, (.lomvi, ii.
■IIM
|lii< ilfplliiif wntcr in tliin hoii 1^4 vnriiilili', liul
tlii< vnritiiiimH ii|i|M>nr Id I)<> cxlri'ini'ly ri'^'iilar, | uurlil in tin
ili'iH'iiiliii^' ^'I'luTitlly n|iiin ihc |iriixiiuily nC ilir
|,n,l: Ml niiu'li nu, inilcfil, llmt in nitiiiy jiliu't's
i„l1 ilii' iiioiitli.H III' ihi' liiiiiiilii' in pariiciiliir) tlii<
,|,.iiini r till' Nliiin* niiiy lir known wltliin ^ in,
Ipiin till' Honnilin^H only, (Mioii, Ccuniui'rri' of
ilii'lllai'kSi'ii, |i.ii.) In llii'.Strait of Vi'iiikiili', llii>
,{.{illi, ill ill* nIiiiIIowi'nI litirl, ilm's iiol rNcrril
II |'i„ imr in itn iIccim'nI ih it niori' lliiin '.'■-' ft,;
I.III luiKdiii^ lliix IIk^ mi'h itscir in loniiil, in llii'
iiii;;lilHiiirliiHiil of ihc Htniit, lo liiivi' a p'tiiTiil
,l,.|iili III' 4 rallioniM, ili'i'iH'tiiii;; ra|iiilly lo '_'o
liihiiniH or niori>; wliilf, in llic S, |iartM, •!«
i.iiliiiiiis art' I'oniiil at the I'litranrr of the 'I'lirai'lan
{'■'•|iliiirii-i; an r<|iial or ^rratrr ilfitli nlon;; ilic
W. »li<iri', at a lit I If ilintai rroin tiir laiul, m* far
;i« till' iniiiilliK of tlic l>aniili(>; ami in tlii' main
m;u lii'lwi'*'!! tlic lloH|iliiirii» anil Si'lmsiopol, in
ilu'Criini'ii. no liiilloni in foiiiiil al HID, l'J*l, III),
mill H'lO fatlioinx. 'I'lii' xca n|ion Ilii' S, coaMl,
fruni ('iinstjintino)ilii to Sinoini (loii^, '.\'fi), is
iiijiriilily iti'r|>; tlii'iii'i'lollie K, coasi, it iskiiown
iiiiv lliiit vessels of any (lraiit;lil iiiaj' navi(,'ale
ill waters; anil the NI",. slmre, lielwei'ii llie rivers
\'\\M* mill Kiilian, may lie repinleil as yet iin-
liiuiwii III Kuro|K'nns. (Vov.of the llliinile, IN-.'ll;
lii'ii^'. Jiiiirnal, i. lOli; t'',loii, |i)i. 7-tf>; Ait-
niiniliy Cliaris, mh'I, iv, jil. ";i.)
Till' EiiNiiie is encloseil on the NK., KS,, nnil
SW. Iiy lii),'li nionnlaiiis, wliieli run ilown elose
III itn inarf^iii ; even on Ilie \\'„ the ("ar|iatliians
a{i|iriini'li its shores to .tithiii 170 m. ; but towarils
4(17
, W. I III!
tnore iinii
n| I heir
liii'n'<ii'iii,
mlili'il the
of llial of SoiiMieni (termniiy, if*,— -
'I'hesi Iinlries exletlil aliove 1,110'
the Itlai'lt Hea ; Iheirsiirfare iMei|iiiii
l-lllli |iarl of Ilie wliiili' of I'Inri'iM
riiiniin^Mviiler loalniiisi l-Nili|iari. (I
('iisiinn,'. i. .'I'J'^ ff lu-ii.) When lo ihix i
sii|i|ily friiiii the N I'., ami S., it will In eviilent
that the luisin of the l''.ii\ini' is of \ery ^real
extent. The miii'h larixer |iortiiin lielmi'^'s to
l''.iirii|ie, of whirli it ilriiins alimiNi |-,'lri| part ;
ami the iimiiiint of uater rreeiM'il hy the mii is
eijiial to that ^'iM'ii frmn the kmiih' ili\i-liin of the
Mi'iliterraiiean {i/imt) ami llaltii!
Ill^,'|'lher, I' is iiiil I hy far the larf,'est of Ilie
European hasins, imr is there anywhere ii siinilar
Irai't ofi'oiintry no ahiiiiilaiilly irri„'Mteil,
'there are no liijis in this eliisi' <<i'a, hut fi'oiii
the X\V. ami N., it opens on tho t^Totit )ilaiii of
Nuitlii'm Kiirojic. Not n moniilain rises near its
M ill these ilircctioiis, except the uniuU raiif^c
ill the S. of the Crimea.
The basin of the l'',nxine expands, in a westerly
iliru'lion, from ahiait '10 m. to nearly or ipiiti;
'JiiiMn. ill wiiltli ; but imineiliately N. of the Caii-
iiH'iii niiiiintnin, it smlilenly streielies K, it'.M) m.,
till' si'ii rei'eivinjj;, throii^^h the Knbnii, nearlv all
ilio water that tlows from the NK, face ot* the
(ai'i'a.sii9,anil hy various other cliannels, coiisider-
alily the larj;er part of all the drainage from the
l'« and swampy lands W. of the C'tispian. (See
Caspian Ska.) On it.s N. eonst, the lUaek Sea
reciivcs the waters of some of the first class I'',uro-
jKaii rivers from a distance of 7l)(t m. from it.s
f\m% (S<>c Don, Dnikstis, I)Mi'".rif.) The Don,
iiiiW, fulls into the sea of Azopli ; but this is,
I'liysii'allv considered, only ii part of the larger
Iwlywitfi which it is coniiei-leil. Hiil by far the
niiisi remarkable ]>art of the basin of the Knxiiie
i* tliat towards the W. The Can>uthiaiiH a))-
Iinia(li,in this direction, to within a comparatively
>liiirt distance of its shores ; but, notwithstaiidiii;^
iliis, the Danube, after breaking through the
mmintains at Orsova, reaches the Eiixine charfjeil
»iih all the suqiliis waters of the E. and XE.
telinties of the Alps, the S. and jmrt of the NE.
diclivitie.s of the Carpathians, the S, declivities of
ihcSudetes, and the N. declivities of the Halkhan;
in iithcr words, the whole water of N. Turkey, of
llie AuBtrian empire, with the exception ol' l)o-
biia anil Lombardy ; together with a great part
the vit'it iiiiantity of wiilir rereiveihthe eiirrents are
very marked, powerful, and regular: a little \aria-
limi is caused by w iiids, ami '<omi' iritlingciiiiiph'X-
ilv near the iiioiilhs of ri\ers ; Iml in gitwral llio
direeiion is from all points inwards the Channel
of Conslanliiiople, Ihrongh which a very cniistant
llow is kepi up to the sea of iMiirniara. Within
this strait, however, the enrrents lienmie rather
more variable, being llirnwn from siile In side by
the ineiinalities of the ciia.sts, ami the iiarrnwne^s
of the elwuiliel. (< 'hevaliei', p. I'l; .lone-i, ii. Il'.l I,
•117; I'lillas, ii. 2««; (ieog. .Imini. i. lo7, Ac.)
'I'he water of the IllaeU Sea appears to contain
more sail than could have been e.Npecled, under
existing eireiinislances. It liaM been observed,
of the constant aelion of the St, Lawreme mi llie
N, Aineriean lakes, that it has been eontimied
long enough to make them sweet and clear, e\'i il
had they originally been tilled with ink. Itnl an
operation, not less powerful, has been at work
fully as long upon these walers; and llimigh the
Sea of Azopli has become potable, except when a
SW. wind prevails, the lllack Sea itself is said lo
be onlv about l-7lh part less salt than the Atlan-
tic, ami fully 1-ll)lh salter than the Itallii-.
(Cliardin, )), l.'i.'i; .Jones, ii. I l.'t, ite.) 'i'his is,
in all probability, attributable to the saline nature
of the sea-bed. The N. coasi is iilinost one cnii-
tiiiued plain of salt, and the numerous lakes, with
which these steppes ahoiiml, are, by the action
of the summer sun, covered with a thick white
crust of the siune mineral, perfectly crystallised,
and having the appearance, and ahiiosl the con-
sistency, of ice. (I'alhn, ii, ■lii(i-177; Mrs.
(iiilhrie's Tour through the Taiirida, pp. o.')-."!'.!,
&c.) It is very improbable that this peculiarity
of soil should be continued to the very edge of
the sea, and then suddenly cease ; and on lluj
other hand, if it be farther coiitiiiiied to any
distance, it will necessarily countervail in a great
degree the inlhience of the immense sujiply of
fri'sh water. The fact is, however, that but very
little is known, with anything like certainty, of
the chemical composition of the Black Sea. Tho
Kiissiaii observations are limited to the N. shores ;
the few French and I'^iiglish travellers who have
traversed its surface, have done so only jiartially
and hurriedly : among trading navigators there
has been no Jonas Ilanway; ami the statements
of the Turks exhibit nothing but igiinrance and
niisrcprcsentation. However, many old prejudices
with respect to it arc fast vanishing ; and tho
Ei'xine is no longer regarded as a dark and deso-
late region of storms, danger, and shipwreck.
That such an opinion should have ever ]irevailed,
is not a little remarkable ; but it did prevail in
ancient, anil in modern times till a comparatively
late period. Tournefort was the lirst who at-
tempted to disjiel the ])rejudices and misrepresen-
tations referred to ; and who ventured to represent
II II 2
im
AirlN iM h«< fiiimil Ihrm, an<l not m Ihoy hnil Imm-ii
iliKKuiM'il liy the |HH'lM of niilii|iilly, nml liy liliml
niitl ii^'iioriiiil. i'lirkinh imviK'tiorK. ('riiiiriii'l'urt,
ii. 1)1 1.)
Tilt' |ir<'viiiliiii( wiml in ilii* iMixiiic 'in fruin llir
Nl'!., iitiil III* it liliiWN iiMT n K"'"l •'Xlt'iil III' Mill
mill NWiiiiiity I'liiiiilry, il Ih liitlrii vviili iniiiKtiiri>;
mill Im'Iii^ riiillilli'tl liy tlic lii);li liiiiil mi llir I''..,
S., mill SW„ lirnvy fnu* nrv iHTiiMloiially iiro^
iliH'cil. I>r. Cliirkc itrati'N iliul, 'in wiiiiir tliixi'
fii^N, mill ilii< t'allint^ hiiow, riitiiti> Niinit'linicN ii
liarliiii'NM Nil Ki'<''>li tl>'*) niiiriiii'rH arr iiiialili' li>
ili^iri'rn iilijci'lM at ilir iliNtaini' nl' a rahli-'N IciikiIi
I'rntn llirir vcnncIm.' ('rriivclN, i. It 1 1.) lint iIun
iiiciiiivciiii'iirc iiiviilvi'N Ni'ari't'ly any lui/anl, t'nr
till' ili'|iili III' watiT In alwavN Niillirii'iit to allnw of
lyiii^' III wiiliiiiii ilaiipT ul' ilririiii^ iiimii iiaiul or
riit'k ; mill witli tlit> IciimI lirrak in llic wrallicr,
lanilniarkN lit' llii> very \n-M kiiiil I'lunti iiiln view,
wliicli inav Im> Nffii at W, niiil olU'ii lio ui. iliMlnnci'.
(Kiiin, |.|..H, It,)
Kriiin till" riiiiliMcil I'xiciif of the wntiT, a Nliort
ami iroiililcNoiiic m'a In raiiNi'il liy anylliiiiK lik(> a
Kali* ; liiit it Ih lint ilaiiKiToiiN ; anil NtiiniiH, to
which the Klack Sea In nut niortt Niilijuct than
ulhi-r Nt'aN, ari' rarely of Ioiik iliiration. (Ktmi,
II. t!.) While tliry IiinI, the eloNt' (K'tit up water
lieiii); (greatly a^ilateil, aeriilentN, of eiiiirm', Hiniie-
tiiiieN iici'iir; liiit il wuiilil, perlia|iN, he rather
(litlii'iiU to iMiiiit out any M-a of liiiiileil iiiiiieiM<iiiiiM
where, iiiiiler Hiieli eirenni^latieeH, they ilo nut
oeeiir, 'riiii N\V. Nlmre ii* low ami wimly: a
mimlhaiik ■') in. In extent lie.s near the entriiiire of
the Channel of C'oiiNtaiitinople; ami on ihc couNt
of Crimea two rockM lie eloM^ in Nliore.
There Ih alno an o|)eiiiiif;, caUeil yalnn Bokiir
(fnW month), a little to the N. of the Cliunnel of
CoiiNtantinople. aiiil verv I'oiiNiileralily re.xeinlilin^
it, though eiiNily eiioii{rfi iliNliiifriiiNheil when the
ImiilinarkM are vinilile. Ignorant iiilots freipienlly
comliii't their Hhiim into tUia inoiitn ; miilaM it riiiiH
n|Nin a low ami daiiKerouM Nliore, the eoiiNeqiieiieeei
are niontly fatal. TlieNe are the only known mil
<laiiK<'>''* of tliiH Hen. (Kton, p. 4-!); .JoneN, ii.
iJ«7-H'J7.) On the other hand, the Kiixine is deep,
and Hin^iilarly free from rock.H and HlmalN : there
are but two iNlnmlH in its whole nren; the iNle of
iSerpentN, uff tliu mouth of the Daiiiihe, and Kerpo,
or Car|iali,on the shore of Ama Minor, The iiavi-
(ratiiiii M therefore of the opcncst kind, and even in
the worst of Htornm there is no want of sea room.
The larp'st ships may sail close to its hi^fh Nhores;
the anuhorap' (rrouiulH arc ynH»\, and hold well ; and
nian^ of it8 ports ant excellent. In tine, the
Kiixinc may be descrilK-d as a clear open sea,
whose navigation is as easy ns possilde to skilful
mariners, the bad character which it has so loiiy
undeservedly borne lieiiig wholly ascribable to the
bail eonstriiction of the vessels, their wont of
charts and compasses, and the utter iiica]>acity
of the sAilurs by whom, till recently, it has been
navifjated. From the ir)th to the latter part of
the iMth century, the Turks excluded every other
nation from its waters. At Iciif^th the Russians
fuii^ht their way to its shores, and in 17<J9 it was
partially opened to Krilish and otiier Kiiropean
traders. Conventions to the same effect were made
with the Turkish Roveniment bytiiieen Klizabeth,
James T., and Charles i., &c. (Treoty of Adria-
nople, Sept. 1675), but they seem to have Imjcii
without any effect ; and it is only, therefore, since
the latter date, or from the beginning of the present
century, that the Ulack Sea has become known to,
and been justly appreciated by, navigators.
The climate of the Black Sea and its neigh-
bouring countries is subject to great extremes, but
at an average ia lower than would be supposed from
iii.ACK mx
llji Iftlilnde. T1»U would ii«>i«in (o Iw iMc»|»i«l,ir
primipnlly to its want of nhelter on ilir N.. n,,.
IiiiIn from the |Milnr ri'irinim renrhitiK il.ci.H.V ,
binning oxer its "iirlare, iiiimiiiuiiii'il i-n,,,
iierii
U'imls I'rmn ibe M,
ihime from the N., mill having I" elimli ||„, ,„„„^
wIiiiIn from the |Milnr rritinim remhing il»ii.ii.i,g,„|
the temiierillnre iif the pliiin lilliil iiviT whii l' ||„'|
pass, NViiiils I'riim ilir M. are U-h* (r,n»,u, nj,,,
.... ' ''"' '
heighlN of till- liiiiruN U'l'iire lliey nm li i|„' ,,,„,|
Ihev arrive llnre materially rhilli.l. [..y,,,, „„ j,^
S.HliiireN. the N. wind Hiiini'l lines iireventmniviHin,'
even in the mmith of .May. ('Ii«iiriulciri, iij. i\- .
Its N. niill« ami ba> s ari' in certain ki'iiaiiuh in,/.!',,
hard en. High to open a passage I'nr trnii|m; imii it
is recnr.led by Stralin (lib. vii.) that tlie i.iii,||,.r, „f
Milhri.laleN eiigiip'il tliiiNe of the Taiiri.' (In ^„.
nesiiN (Crimea) in the winter, on a pari nt ii,,.
llimphnriiN where, in I lie preceding Nimiiiii'r.iiiinvj,!
actinii bad been fought. In |ii<i,'i, the wiilih c,| Hi,,
strait was iiieasiired on the ice ( I'lillax, ii. Illlii) ; m,
eipiiil degree of cold has been expiriiiiiid in
several winters williin the present cciiiurv; iin.l
altliniigh Niich extreme inclemency In iint vi'rvi i'.
moil, naxigalinii is always siisjirnilid wiilu'Virx'
return of winter in the sea of Aasnpli, ainl in...i
* slisjieliili'il y,
ea of Aasiipli,
whole N. Hliiire
eiimmonly along tiie wiinie N. HJinre i>r n,,
Kiixine. On the oilier hand, the HinniiurK w.
iiNiially hot, the tliennonieter in the NJiaili' („■.
(pieiitly standing lit !IH°, 1(10°, and even Hr.'o l-niir,
It often, however, varies in the same iliiy |r„iii'
•-'•JO to 27°, lintli in winter and summer, itihl° in ii,,.
former the barnmeter partakes of the irn'Kularii\,
but is subject to fewer changes in tin. i,,!!,;,.]
Thiiiiiler storms are rare, but treniciiilniiH hIhu
they do occur, Is'iiig frcipiently acciiiii|iiiiiii.|| liy
destructive hailstones and wate'r-spnuls, riic ill-
mate is accounted healthy, except in the aiiiuinii.
when bilious fevers are prevalent. The ^<l'll|lr);|.(>|'
Mohammedan countries, the plague, is mure iirli^
common all round the I'nasi, but this |.. ii njnM.
ipieiice of the tilth of the inhahitants. and imi ..I'
the climate. (I'allas, ii. a7l!-;(«(); Mrs. (Julliric,
pp. :i:t, .'i.'i, ^c. ; Toiirnel'ort, iii. Iii, il'o.)
The Kiixine teems with seals, pnrpniitON, ntiir-
goons, dolphins, mackerel, miillel, lirenni, aii'l
other lisli, mostly of the same kind as tliiiHeemi^lii
in the Caspian and Sea of Aral (see ( 'asi-lvn Ska :
there are, however, few lisheries oLililislieil nldn^'
its shores, though, where tliev do exist, they nn'
extremely iirodiictive. (I'lillas, ii. .M, I, '(•.'," :'n;i,
l()l-'lti;i ;"( )livier, Voyoge dans I'llinpire Otlioiuaii,
i. I.Sf), Ac.)
There are many conflicting o]ii!uiinfi i» in
whether the Kuxinc be or be not of iHTninitfiit
magnitude. It was a commonly received (i|iiiiiMii
among the ancients, that it was formerly sciinrainl
from the Mediterranean, and that the 'fiiraiiaii
liosphorns was burst through by a coiiviiImihi nf
nature, or by the deluge of Deucnlinii; and Ariv
totlc even believes that this event did not Ion;'
precede the time of Homer, (.loseplius, Aiitiq, i,
il ; Diod. Sic. v. 3 ; Aristotle de Met. xiv, ; I'linv,
vi. 1, &c.) Without supposing any great (le),T\t of
physical knowledge on the part of the Grwks, it
may be supposed that the iiiliab. of the cdiiiitriivi
bordering on the Euxine would have a vivid n-
colle(;tion of such a catastro|)lie, had it ncciimil,
and that, consequently, it would scarcely have bcm
an invention or hypothesis of the writers. Add i"
this, that geological appearances strongly cmiiinii
the supposition ; and the fact, thougli sneond at
by some, will appcor not a little pndialilc, (Pallns
i. 8(), «3 ; Touniefort, ii. 84()-3it(); Olivier, i, 1:':';
Diireau, de la Malle, Geo. Phys. do la Mir Xoire,
pp. 19(>-225.) It will be observed, that anmnjillie
ancients only historians and naturalists have l«u
cited, but it may be added, that the same revolu-
tion is dwelt upon by their iwets and fabulisu.
W.KVK SKA
(v<> in pnriiciilnr l.ucnn, vl. (>.) Il wiw, in n wonl,
ilii' iiriivi'rxAl lM>lii>r iif nil rniil< mul nnliTM. Itiii
,l'thi»i»'ii wcnM'viT iliiiN i'iinilii4 (I, iiN mirl'iiri' inimt
{,„vi> Inm'II coiiitlili'rnlily liitthiT ll iii nt |in'Mi'iit ;
jii.l tlii« nlto ii|>|H'»rM III Ini till' I'i'i, rriiiii Ihc itf
iiiiniilatioii of mill liikcM mul iimii Ih'k in llii> plain
loiiiitry i>r ill N. iMinliTN, |i i-* cvlilfiii, iml I,
ilml A ri>*** "C '<'*v liiinilri'it I'lTt in ili« Nnrtiirr
itiiulil In> qiiil*' NMllli'lcnt III lliMitl tli(> f(ri'iil('r part
,.i «.iitlii'ni Kniwiit, till' wliitli> iif^^ liirli, i'\fi>pt till'
iiiMdiitiiiii'* ••f III*' Crinii'ii, lii'iir tiili'iii iiiurkx nl'
|i:iviiiK In'I'M Iniil liiirit at n •'•iii>|iitnilivi'ly ri'iriit
i.riiHl (^alla^ /nmii'm) ; niul tlir wliiili<Hi)|H'ariiiii'i'
..I'll* S. "Iior*'!* i* lliut III' a •liininiNlii'il In'iI, I'n-
hliliiA KiipiHim'K till' Kiixiiii' III III) Krnilnally ilr
,fiw\nn ', mill ll*' hiiN iittt'ri'il rt'i <ini<, in Niip|Hiri ul'
ililHiipiiiliiiif fiinnt'tl on nmnt Hit prt'Miiiw'H than
iiii'li'iit writiTN iil'it'n ilt'jM'ml >ii (iv. f>). In
tlii«, liiiwcviT, III' ap|M'arN in h t\< In'«mi niiHtakcii,
I'lH' I'liMiuc in I'Xti'iit, it' any cvi-r iliil takr plnrc,
lucmitliiliaviiiK'i'urrt'il nt ntin' with tlm miliMiilcnrt'
„f till' wnliTH, hy the iipi-iiiiiK ••>' Ihu 'riiriirian
||iM|iliiinin. Siiirit lh« a^c ni' I'niyliiiiN no chan^i'
Hriiitlo have lakdii plarr in ihu fi/v of thi^ Nca;
liiiiilintit hiiM iM'ciinx' cli'iircr, in cviili'iil I'min twn
l',ii'tH; lint, that n lmiik,riillril liv I'lilvliinx Strfln-
|!ri|*i|)i forincil at the iiHMitliit ttt thi' l>aniilH', ami
miiri' than liiO in. in Ii'm^iIi, lia^ wholly dinaii-
jHiiri'il i ami that tht' ('yiiiicaii InIi'n, at the inmith
..f thi' lliMphiiriii*, MO ('I'lt'liratcil in llic vnyaKi' nt
III!' ArKiinaiitM, arc now rciliii'i'il to low anil iiini^-
iiiiii'Aiit prohin^aiionH ot ihii two dpiioniii' HliorcH,
lUcd, .liiiirii. i. Ill/) ; .Iciiii'N, ii. lit ; OliviiT, i. I'J2.)
NiitwitliHtHndiii); tlu' horror cntcrlaiiicil liy thi'
llrfiki, or rathitr tlu; (iruck pociH, of thi.i H<'a, iiH
tliiiri'iarcfninunx in Iheirlriic ami I'aliiiloiM liiHlury,
I'lilriii^, thu Tcmiild of tlu' Sun, anil m't'iii' of the
Art'iinniific (!.\|K!(litioii, were on itM K. coast; the
I iiuim'riHii Iniiil of ('vcrlaHtin^ (larkiu'SH wiih ori^'i-
ii.illy lixcd npiiii iti* N. Nhori'; and in iiinrc hi.t-
wtnl tiini'.'*, tho Lydiaii, I'l'mian, and llv/antiim
|i<iHW,uiiil iht! cxphiitH of MilhriilalcK, illiiil rated
III S. and S\V. horderN. At an early period many
(in'ck coloiiieH were planted on its Mhor's. Itt
comnii'ri'e wax aim) reekoned of llrxt-rute iiniiort-
mii'i'. Athenn drew from it her iirineipal supplies of
iiirii nnil naval stores; and it tnrnished the favmi-
riti' slaves to the markets of Oreeee and Koine,
<i\iil iliiMt ill exile somewhere on its Imrders, lint
uliiilicr on the Daiuihe or l)niestr is disputed.
('riiiiith(> time oftNinstaiitinu till the ITilli eentury
it I'linni'd tlie eeiiln' of the Itoman world, and
iliiriii); this period, a jiart, at least, of the Indian
iniik' wa» earricd on lhrou){h it: the Venetians
will Genoese were the coiKluctors of this tratlie,
Skiii after the fall of (Jonstaiiiinople in I't.'i.'t, all
Imt Tiirkisli vessels were excluiU'il from the
Kiixiiie; and it was not till after the treaty of
Kiiinarilji, in 1771, that the Kiissian ea^lc was
ilijpiayi'd on its waters. I'.ver siiieo that time,
ihiTii has Ik'SIi n powerful Russian tleet of war
M.iiinneil in the IJlaek Sea. In conse(|nence of
ilio war iH't ween Htissin and Turkey, the latter as-
si'iwl by Kn^'land and l<"raiiec, the Czar bound
hiniKolf, hy the treaty of peace concluded in iNJli,
III limit Ills tleet of war on the Kiixine to ' six steam
vessels, measuring 160 metres at their wat«'r-liiie,
«ik1 four other lijjcht Hailing vessels, not nliove two
liiimlrpil tons each.' Kiit it is helieved that this
limiiatiiiii is not strictly adhered to by the liiissian
piivcnimoiit.
flic iianie of this sen, Eiwine, is only a mo-
ili'niiseil form of the orif^inal (Ircek word afn'o?
(iiiliiispitahle), bestowed upon it for the imiiffinnry
nasfliw previously nllnded to. It apjiears, liow-
'W, that subsequently, the (ireeks imbibed a
xmewhat better opinion of it, and changed its
ULANDFOItr) FOIM'M
4(19
denii^nntlim to v,v(„yn% (hiMpiiablc) ; il wn* Mime-
tiini's hIno I'nili'd simply iioyro^ (the sea), 't'lin
'I'lirklsh nnme is I'aca l>i'iii»i, and the Itusninn
t'/orno More, IkiiIi U'Iuk literally trnnslnled in llm
term I Hack .Sea.
ill,.\«'K\VAI,l„ a hninh'i of Knulnnd, co. Mid-
dlesex, par. Stepney, nl the conlliii'iu'i' of the l,e«
with the 'riinnies. .'i ni. K. St. Paul's, Is'liitt in
fact a suburb iif I.ondnn. Here are the I',, and
W. Iiidiu Docks for an account of Mbich see
I.ONIillN.
lil.AIN.alowu of France, d)ip. Loire Inferii'iire,
can. caul., near the rit{bt bank of the Nac, 'J'J tii.
NNW. Nantes, on ibc railway fmm Nantes to
l.'Orii'iit. Top. tl,7H| in lm;i. The caMlc, of
which only a smnll piirt now remains, was fnrmcrly
one of the Klrontti'si in llreta^ne. It was partly
demolished in lll'it), (.,'alviuisni was early intro-
duced into this town, n synml having U'en held
here in l.jiio, nt which there were reckoned above
1,21)0 I'rolesianis.
III.AMON r, a town of France, di'p- •!<' I'l
Meurlbe, cap. cant., on Ihe Ve/.ouse. I'on, '.*,MO(l
in iNiil, The town was burnt down in l.i°.'7 and
|ii:iii. It produces yarn for hosiery, mid Iion con-
siderable tanneries.
MI.ANC (I. I',), a town of France, di<p.Indre,
cap. armnd., on the Crensi', in a pleasant situaiinn,
!t;i m. \VS\V. Chateauroiix, on the railway froiii
I'aris to llordeaiix. I'op. .'lMMJ in IHill'. Tlio
town is diviiled by the river into two parts, called
the liiKh and low towns: ImiiIi arc ill built, piir-
licularly the former, the streets of which, besiilcs
beiiiK narrow ami crooked, are also precipitous.
It is the seal of a tribunal of orii^rinal iiirisiliciiiin.
Tben^ now remain but few traces ol its ancient
fort iticat ions, which, however, were once slron^;
anoii^h to resist several sie>;es. This is a very
ancient iilace, aiul was often frciinenied by the
lioman legions. The road from I.e Klanc to St,
Savin is still called Ihe Lrrrn //»• (Vsiir.
1ILAN(;(> (CAI'K), a celebrated cape on Ihe
W. coast of Africa; lat. 20° Hi' -2(1" N, loiii;.
1 7° 4' 10" \V. This cape, which was discovered
by the I'ortupiese in MM, forms the exiremitv of
a rocky ridjje, called the (Jeb-el-reid, or Wiiile
Mountain, proJectin(( into the sea in a S. direction.
Inside the cape is n spacious bay, which has on
ilM SI''., side the bank and town ol Ar^iiin.
MLANDFOltl) I<'0I{(;M, a par., Imr., ami town
of I'ji^'land, CO. Dorset, bund. Coomirs Ditch,
Itlandford (orN.) div., IW m. S\V. I.omloii, on the
London and South Western railway. I'op. of
parish :<,.'{ ID in Mil, and :i,!M)0 in iHi'.l. It is a
neat litlK'town; is situated on a bend of the Slmii',
amidst mu^ of the linesl tracts of sheep pasture in
in the kingdom; n six-arched liriil;;e crosses the,
stream, and there are two others to facilitate the
communications of the town during occasional
Hoods. The houses are uniform brick structures,
arraiifted in reKnlarly-formed, and well paved anil
li;;;hted streets. The church is a modern biiililin;^
in the (ireeian style, with n tower and spire.
Tli(\re are also nn Independent ehaix'l, a free gram-
mar school, and a blue-coat mdiool, each with
small endowments; almshouses, supporting ten old
people ; a charity jiroducing 120/. a year, for a|)-
prenticing poor boys; and another, now producing
HOO/. a year, originally left for the pnrposi' of edu-
cating V'lur poor children. There is a liaiidsnmo
town-hall, and a neat theatre ; and on a tine down,
near the town, annual races arc held in AugiiMt.
The weekly market is liehl on Saturday, and tlirec
annual fairs on March 7, July 10, Nov. «: tlicy
are for horses, cattle, and cheese. A manufacture
of sbirt-bnitons employs many women and idiil-
dreii of the town and iicighboiirhuod, but it is
\
ll
111
470 IJLANKENHURO
imirli IcHs Pxtoiinivo limn fomiorly. The Imron^h
wiis in('nr]iiiriilc(l l)y clmrtcr of ilrd of .InmoH I.,
vliiiii nisii frrnntcil tlin iimnor. I'liilor the; Miini-
cilKiI I!(.'fctrtn Act llicrc are f.)iir nldornion nnd
hvclvocdiiiiciliorM, and llic limilHul'llu'. iKiroiif^liarc
rcslrirlcd to t\w town, wlicn- !l!t of every 1(10 of tlie
|M)|i. of the par. r<^side, The revenue of tlie coriiorn-
lion in derived from lolls of tlie niarkct and fairs,
lands, nnd <|nitreiits, and nvernp's about 'J'J.V. a
year: tliey li<ild a eourt leet annually. A court
of record was granted Uy tlie tir>; charli'r, which
has lonj^ lieen disused, Petty sessions for the
lllandford div. are held in the town, hy the co,
ina>;istrates; and numlhly courts of the hishop
and archdeacons of the dioeesn. It is also a poll-
in^ town for the count}', nnd the centrnl town of
n union of It.'l jiarishes, under the Poor Law Act :
it has three );uardiaiis. Its rutes amount to l,il.")()/.
Archhishop Wake was n native of the town ; and
it f^ives the title of marquis to the Marlhorouj^h
faniilv.
miAN'KK.XniTljr., a town of the Duchy of
Ilnmswick. cap. distr., nnd formerly of the pnnci-
jiidity of Klankenliurj;, on a rivulet of the same
name, .'17 ni. SSK. Ilrunswick. Pop. ;!.!»«(» in IHIil.
The town is surrounded Ity widls, has some piod
liuiidin^s, in(dudin;; a j^ymnasiimi nnd n school of
industry. On n hill inimediatelv adjoininjj; the
town is a large heavy-lookiufj palaci^ of the duke
of Urunswick : it had n fjood collection of pictures,
hut the hestof them have been removed. On the
summit of the Hejjenstein, also at a short distance
from the town, are the remains of a larf^e castle,
ciiustructed liy Henry the Fowler, in !Ui), con-
sist inj; of chnrnb(Ts cut out of the rock.
nr^ANTVKK, n parish of Scotland, (!o. Lanark,
in which manutactnres have made fjreat progress.
The Itlantyre mills, in the village of lUantyre, on
the Clyde, 3 m. W. Hamilton, and 8 m. SK. (ilas-
gow, were erccte<l in 178o, for the s|)inning of
water twist. In 17',)1, another mill was built for
mule twist, both moved by water power. In IHJil,
a cotton-weaving factory was established, which
employed soon after nearly .ODO hands, the moving
power being |)artly water nnd partly steam. The
dyeing of Adrianople or Turkey red on cotton
yarn has lieen carried on here from the year IHOO.
The total number of hands em])l(>yed in these va-
rious works, exclusive of the hand-loom weavers,
is about 1, <)()(), of whom considerably more than a
half are females. There is a scliixd connected
with the mills. There is .ilso a library for the
use of the workmen, a funeral society, and a so-
ciety for religions pur[30ses, all established by the
workmen.
HLAYJ'], a sen-por! and fortidod to'wn of France,
(li'p. (iironde, cap. arrond., on the right bank of
the (iironde, 34 m. NNW. Uordeaux; lat. -l')" 7'
N., h)ng. 0° •!(>' \V. Pop. 4,972 in IKOl. A rail-
way, which has its terminus on the op|)ositc bank
of the river, connects lUaye with Bordeaux. The
jtort is divided into the high and h)w towns ; the
i'ormer, however, is merely the castle or citadel,
built <m a rock commanding the (Iironde. The
river is here about 2,J m. wide; and for its defence
Fort Pate has been constructed on an island in its
channel, about 1,000 yards from lUaye, and Fort
jMedoc on the opposite siilc of the river. All ves-
.sels inwnjd bound are required to anchor in the
))ort or road of Blaye, and deliver a manifest of
their cargo, and many of the outward-bound ships
call here to tnk m board provisions, and complete
I heir cargoes. The town has also a considerable
tlircct tra<le, exporting -wine, brandy, com, oil,
soap, timber, ap])!es. &c. Many of the pilots, so
indispensable to slii])s navigating the (jironde, re-
side in Dlayc. It has tribunals of original juris-
ItLKNIIEIM PARK
diction nnd of commerce, nn ngrieulturnl wicipiv
n theatre, «S'c. In the centre of the town is a linn
jiublic fountain. Ulaye is very ancient. In i:,i;»(
it was taken by the Protestants, and more rwcntlv
by (he Leaguers. The extensive marshes by wliich
it was formerly surrounded having been (lrnini(|
by Henry IV., have become very friiitfal uf inni
and other pnxliicts. In IH32, the Duchess nf ilcrri
when contined in the castle of Uluyc, was hrnufjla
to bed of A daughter.
HLI;K;HKI{0DK, a town of Prussia, pr„v.
Saxony, reg. Kri'urth, between the IJode and tlid
Wijiper, 10 m. SW. Nordhuiiscn. Poj). 2,«;)(i in
l«(il. The town has some oil-mills and fiilirics u(
serges and other descriptions of woollen clntii
HLHNHi:iM,or IJLINDHKIM ((ienn. 'Home
of the lilind'), n small villngo of Havnriii, circ.
ITpiKT Dnniibe, on the Danube, near Mi'Mlisicdi]
Pop. 7*2.5 in l«(il. This village is famouK in imJ
dern history as being the scene of the great Imtilo,
fought Aug. 13. 1704, betwc'cn the Fiiglisli ninl
Imperialists, under the Duke of Marlhiiriiiifjli nnd
PriiK-e Eugene, and the French and liavariim^,
tiiuler Marslials Tallnrd and Marsin nnd the F.loi;.
tor of Itavaria. Kach army consisted of noarlv
«0,000 men. The Kiiglish nnd their allies j;«iiicil
n <'om|)letc and decisive victory. Their eiicmiis
left above 10,000 men killed nnd wounded on ihc
Held ; a vast number more were drowned in ilio
Danube, nnd nluive 13,0(Mt were made prisdiiors ;
among the latter were Marshal Tallard (whiisc smi
was killed) and mnny other otWcers of distiiiclinn.
All the artillery, baggage. Sec. of the Frencdi niul
Uavarians fell into the hands of the cniiqtiordK
The loss of the latter, though severe, wns imt
greater than might have been cxi)eeted, tiiiviiii;
amoiint<Ml to about 5,000 killed and H.dOO wnundcd.
IILKXHFIM PARK, an extra-parochial dis-
trict of I'^.ngland, co. and liberty of Oxford, (10 m.
VVNVV. London. Area 2,700 acres, being thedi'-
mesne attached to lilenheim House, an edilicfi
erected in the reign of Anne, as a token of ilio
national gratitude for the public ser\'iccs rendered
by the first Duke of Marlborough : for which piir-
|)ose .')00,000/, was voted by parliament, nnd the
queen added the honour of Woodstock (an ancient
]>roperty of the crown) to the grant. It was caliod
lilenheim from the great b.ittle noticed nlmve.
The usual entrance to this sidendid domain is
from the Woodstock side, under n triumpliiil anli-
way of the Corinthian order, erected by the lipt
duchess. Fronting the palace is n fine sheet if
water, partaking of the character both of a hiko
nnd river, and winding away through a deep vale;
this is spanned by a magnificent bridge, nnd mi
nn eminence beyond the bridge, in the midst uf a
fine lawn, is a fluted Corinthian pillar, 130 ft. lii!;li,
surmounted by a statue of the duke in a Hwiwii
dress ; on one side the iiedestul is an inscriiitimi
(writ ten by Lord 15<dingbrokc) reciting his piililic
services ; on the others, the acts of parliament
declaratory of his services, and abstracts of tlie
entail of his estates nnd honours. The mnnsien
occupies three sides of n |)arallelogram. the jiriii-
cipnl front ''eing X., nnd the K. and \V. siib
forming wings for the domestic offices, stables, &(■.;
a terrace with several flights of steps gives (Iiid
eflcct to the elevations. The north or priiit'i|«i
front extends 348 ft. from wing to wing ; it Im
five compartments, nnd is highly enriched, es-
pecially the central one, which has a Coriiitliiiui
portico and fine pediment at the height of twn
floors ; over which is nn attic storj'. The south
or garden fnmt is of a plainer character ; but its
compartments corresporul with the other, and a
flight of steps leads to n portico, over the enta-
blature of which is a colossal bust of Louis Xl\.,
lakpn from the patowny i>( Tournny. Tlio info-
rior is inaKiiilitMMitly tiiUMlKMl, niid CDiitaiii.s ii liiu>
(nllo('tii)ii of wiilptnrcs, |)iiiiitiii;,rs, and tap<'Htry.
A wcll-l«iH>wii Hntiriciil ci)ii|il('t raiscit n iirujiiilicii
.i::;iiiisl tlii" iiiil>le pilf, wliicli prcvcMitcMl, fur n
iHiflthi'iu'il ]K'rio(l, a fair estiiiuite Ih'Iiik fortnc'd of
in merits. The delaiis liavc^ liccii wviToIy criti-
ciM'd; and wnno of tlicm may l)« open to wiKturu.
Hut whatever may he the defeetM of particuhtr
|.;irts, tliev are hist in the tout vnseinhle. 'J'he
:;i'iu'ral erteet. of the hiiiliiiii^ in excelU'iit; it.s
iiarii* seem to l>e admirahly eomhiiied, and it lia.s
■\ must ma(;nilieent Appearanec. It is now, indeed,
ailinitted hy genera! eonsent to he a noble proof
III' the jjenius of it.s nn^hileet, Sir J, Vanhiir^'h, as
well lis an ' illnstrions monument of Marlburougli's
itlnry, ami of Hritain's gratitude.'
ItLKKIv, a town of Frnnee, <lep. Indro et Loire,
cap. cant., on tlic (3her, 17 m. KSIC. Tours, near
the railway from Tours to lJonr>;es, Pop. 3,477 in
is(il. The castle of Chenoneeanx, onee the
iinipcrty and residenec of the celebrated Diana of
riiiiiers, is situated in tlie immediate vicinity of
llliie. Diana, haviiifj hwn (lispossessed of the
(iisile hy her rival. Catherine de Medici, the latter
siirrmiiiiled it with n sniierh park. After many
vioi.isitiides, it was accpiired, in 17!i'(, hy M. Dupin,
a dcntleinan distin^^tiished by his wealth and
|pamin{,', hut more by the wit and beauty of his
wifp. Under it.s new master Chenoneeanx be-
came the resort of some of the most illustrious
|Hrsniiaf;es of the IHth century, incrlndin;;, anionic
iiilicrs, Voltaire, Montesquieu, liutfon, I<'ontenelle,
anil lltilingbrokc. Housseau wrote several piecc-s
fiiflhe theatre of Chenoneeanx, and it was here
iliftt the Devin de Vitlfit)e first a]i]iean'd. Chenon-
ccaux escaped the revolutionary frenzy, and con-
liiiiics to be one of the most interestiiif^ objects in
tills part of France.
IlLKTCllINGLY, a par. and town of England,
cii, Surrey, hnnd. Taiiri(l;ie, 1(! m. S. of London,
(III tlic South- Ka.stern railway. I'oj). of ])arish
!,01 in IHt)l. The town is situated near the end
of t';e chalk raufje that traverses the Co., and com-
mands extensive views. The church is n line
spfcimcu of the earlier (lotliic! style : there is ail
ciulDWcd school for 20 hoys, 1 1 almshouses, and
N'Vtml small (charitable (lonations. There are '2
annual fairs, held June 2'2, and Nov. 2; the hitter
is for liorse.s, pij^s, and lean cattle. Its ancient
weekly market lias been hinj; di.scontiniied. The
iiiiuil). are chielly eiiga{;e<l iii agriculture : the
upper part of the ^lar. (in wliich the town is
(•iiiiiituil) is a sandy and clialkj' soil, the lower part
ilay, HIetchingly returned 2 mem. to the 1 1, of
('.from the 23d of Edw. I. till the iiassing of the
llefiinn Act, by which it was disfranchised ; the
n;'lit (if election was in the IkiIiKts of burgage
Ivmires, amounting to 130. A castle, built .soon
aflor the Conquest, formerly stood on the brow of
a liill at the W. end <if the town. There are some
vostigcs in this parish of the rcsideiuse of Earl
(iiiihvin, who retreated hither when his Kentish
('>latcs were inundated : the railway passes through
it. nil the N. side.
liLOIS, a town of France, cap. dep. Loir et
I'lior, on the acclivity of a hill on the right bank
I'f the Loire, 35 m.'SSW. Orleans, on the rail-
My from Paris to Ilordeaux. I'op. 20,231 in
Wlil. IJloi.s is neither a large, a well-built, nor a
iMilsome town; on the contrary, many of its
liimsea are mean and its streets narrow, crooked,
ami sumetimes not accessible to carriages; but it
i> remarkable from the beauty of its situation, its
mitiiiuity, its monuments, and the historical events
"iwiiidiit has been the theatre. At one cxtre-
niiiyufthe town is the castle, and at the other
nOTlROV
•171
the rntlirdrnl. The former is an immense pile,
built at ditVerent epochs and in diU'crent styles of
architecture. Louis XII. was born in this castle;
and in it also Margaret of Anjou was married ti>
the Due d'Aleii(;on, and Margaret of Vulois to
Henry IV. lint it (h^rives its principal interest
from events of a very dill'erent character. Here,
in December, loHS, the Due de (iiiise, and his
brother the Cardinal, were basely murdered by the
onU-r, and almost in the presence, of Henry 111.
This also was the sct-ne of the imprisonment of
Mary, and of the death <if Catherine de Medici.
The last rays of glory fell on this casih; in IKM,
when Maria Louisa held her court in it at\er the
capitulation of Paris. It is now occii|iitMl as a
barrack. The cathedral is a handsome edifice;
but the tiiiest building in the town is the hotel of
the prefecture, formerly the epi.scopal palace. The
view from its gardens is extensive and line. In
the church of St. Vincent are line monument.s to
(iaston, Due d'Orleans, and a daughter of that
jirince. A suburb on the opposite side of the river
IS c<iiinected with the town by ii handsome bridge;
of 1 1 arches, begun in 1717. The most ancient
inoiiument in the town is a su]icrli a(|iiediict, as-
<-rilied to the L'omans, cut in the solid rock. It is
in excellent preservation, and conveys the waters
of s(!veral spring.s, a distance of about half a mile,
toareservoirclo.se to the town, whence they an;
distributed among |iulilie fountains disper.se<l in
different parts of the city. lUois is the .s«cat of a
bishopric, a court of original jurisdiction, a ile-
partmental college, a diocesan seminary, and a
secondarj" ecclesiastical school; a botanical garden,
founded by Henry IV^. ; a public library, with
I !(,000 volumes ; a myal society of agriculture; a
departmental nursery, &e. It has also a port, well
frequented by the craft navigating the Loire; ii
theatre, an abattoire, and a Ui'/i6t d'i'fal(ni.i. It
|iroduces .serges, hosiery, and gloves, cutlery and
hardware, and leather, and lias a eonsi(U-rabh-
trade in wines, spirit.s, vinegar, lirewood, and
staves, liquorice, and other articles. IJernier, tin;
celebrated Eastern traveller, wjis a native of
l(hii.s.
IJLYTIIE (S.) or BLYTII NOOK, a sea-port
town of England, co. Northumbitrland, on the
IJlytli, 12 m. N'E. Iiv N. Newca.Mle-on-Tvne. and
« m. 8E. by E. Jloriietli. Pop. in 1«0I, l',2W! ; in
1H31, L'.lll"; and 1,!».)3 in l«(il. It will be seen
that the pop. is almost on a standstill. The town
is situate on the S. side of the river, where it dis-
charges itself into the (iermaii Ocean, and con-
sisted till lately of a few narrow ill-laid-out streets;
but mo(hTn inqirovenieiits an; giving it a new
aspect. Its church is a chapel of ease to the
pari.sh church of Iv'irsdon ; Methodists, Presby-
terians, and other di.ssenters have ]ilaces of worship.
The coal trade is «'arried on to a considerable ex-
tent, and iron from the nedlington works is largely
exported. The harbour is excellent for ships of
small burden, affording free entrance and safe
aucliorage in all seasons; and the coa.st for some
miles is peculiarly adapted for bathing. There is
here a dry (hick, a custom-hou.se d(!pend(!nt on
that of Newcastle, a lighthouse, and a beacon-
light.
liOAVISTA, the most easterly of the Cape de
Verde islands, whi(;h se(!.
HOBIJIO, a town of Northern Italy, prov.
( Jenoa, on the Trebbia, 34 m. NE. Genoa. I'op.
4,.')30 in 185K. The town is surrounded by walls,
and is the seat of a bishopric, and of a tribunal of
original juri.s(Hcti(m. It was ceded to Sardinia in
1743, by Austria.
IM^HROV, a town of Knssia in Europe, gov.
Voroiiege, on the Uitioug, 52 m. SE. Vorouege ;
I'
11
l»l
472
BOBRUISK
lat. 50° 5' N., lonp. 40O 10' E. Pop. 3,502 in IflSfl.
Tim town has two churctics, nnd incliulcs a larRC
npare laid ont in (cnrdcnR. It derives its name
from the niimljcr of l)eaver8 {hobry) fomicrly found
in its vicinity.
HOHHUI.SK, or BOniMSK, a town of Knssia
in Europe, (jov. Minsl<, on the llol)ruia, where it
(nils into the Here/.ina, cap. dist. 00 m. SE. Minsk.
I'op. 22,055 in 1H58. The town was strongly for-
tified in IHIO and IK 1*2, and was ineffectually
attacked bv the French during the last of those
years. It has four churches nnd a gymnasium.
HOCHNIA, a town of (Jalicia, cap. circ, near
the Haha, 25 miles ESE. Cracow, on the railway
from Oracow to Vienna. I'op. 5,500 in 1H57. The
town has a gymnasium, and a Imard for the ad-
ministration of mines and salt-works. For an
account of the latter, which are very extensive,
see VViEijcZKA.
IlOClKJI.l), or noCKHOLT, a to^vn of Prussia,
prov. Westphalia, reg. Munster, on the Ahe', 15 m.
ENE. Cleves. Pop. b,\m in IHfil. There are
rich iron-mines in its vicinity; audit has some
trade, in corn and spirits, with manufactures of
cotton and silk.
]K)CHUM, a town of Prussia, prov. West-
phalia, reg. Anisherg, cap. circ, 25 m. NE. I>ils-
seldorf, on the railway from DUssoldorf to Milnster.
I'oj). 9,855 in 18(il. The town has three churches
nnd a college, and manufactures of cloth, steel,
iron, and jewellery.
UOCKlX(i, a par. and village of England, co.
Essex, liund. Ilinckford: area of par. 3,800 acres.
Pop. 8,555 in J8(il. The village, almost con-
tiguous to Hraintree, nnd 31 m. E. by N. London,
consists principally of a single street, extending
along the high road from Ix)ndon to the E. coun-
ties. There are 8(!vcral com and fulling mills on
the river Drain. It has a free school, endowed by
Dr. (iauden, bishop of Worcester, for the education
of 30 boys ; an almshouse, founcled in the reign of
Henry VI. ; and some other charities. (See
Bkaintree.)
HODMIN, a bor. and town of England, co.
Cornwall, bund, Trigg, 25 m. W. by N. Plymouth
on the (ireat Western railway. Bodmin is nearly
in the centre of the county, is built on a gradual
acclivity, between two hills, and consists chiefly
of one main street nearly a mile in length. The
houses are an intermixture of low irregular
ancient structures, nnd neatly built modem ones.
The chiu'ch (rebuilt about a.d. 1472) is a spacious
structure in the later (lothic style, situated in the
vale of the E. end, whence the town gradually
ascends. The Calvinists, Wesleyans, and Brj'an-
ites have each cliapels. There is an endowed
grammar-school, founded by Elizabeth, and a
national girls' school. The town-hall was origi-
nally the refectorj' of St. Austin's Priory ; each of
its ends are fitted as courts of justice, and the in-
termediate area used as a corn-market ; over the
whole are grand jury and public assembly-rooms.
The population of the municipal borough was
4,4()6, and of the pari, borough 6,381 in 1861. The
pari, boundaries comprise the entire parish, and
als the adjoining parishes of Hclland, Lanivet,
anu Lanhj'clrock, in all an area of 16,300 acres. It
has returned 2 mem. to the H. of C. since the 23d
of Edw. I. ; the right of election having been
vested, previously to the Reform Act, in tlie cor-
poration. In 1864 thv>re were 408 registered
electors. The market is held on Saturday, and it
has several fairs. The chief manufacture is shoes,
of which a considerable number are made, and
sold at the different markets and fairs of the
county. A brunch railroad, commencing at Wade
bridge (at the head of I'udstow harbour), about
BOGNOR
(> m. in a NW. direction, tcrminntrs nt the hack of
the town, by which coals and other artiolcn are
brought to it, as well as lime and sen snnil to tlic
agricultural district through which itpasws. lt(H|
mill is governed by a mayor, 3 aldermen, mu| \'>
councillors. It is a stannary town, and Imil at nil
early period the privilege of stamping tin. The
summer assizes, 3 of the general (lunrtor sessldns
nnd the electitm courts for the E. division of Corn-
wall, are held here.
BCEOTIA, a famous region of ancient, nnd now
of indep. Greece, prov. E. Hellas, nnd fnrniinL' the
N. part of the monarchy of Attica antl Iki'ciiii
between lat. 38° 9' and 38° 44' N., long. 22° ;,';('
nnd 23* 49' E. ; shape triangular, having X\v
Phocis, N. the Opuntian Locris, NE. the clmiinclil
of Talanda and Egripo, and S. Attica and the
Corinthinn Gulf; length E. to W. about 42 m.-
greatest breadth 27 m. ' '
Its mountains, the most celebrated of wliirh Ls
Zagora (an. Heliam) mostly surround or divide it
into two principal basins, those of the (lepliisus
and Thebes. Its chief rivers arc the tiavrins
(Cejihisim) and the Asopo (Agopun). It oontainn
three lakes, those of Ttpolias (Copaui), Sarzina
(Hi/lira), and Paralimni; the first the largest iii
Greece. It is a high, but well-watered region ;
and as many of the streams find their wav, nnd
the lakes a vent to the sea, only by menus Iif siih-
terrancous courses, marshes abound; nnd tjic
atmosphere is damp, foggy, oppressive, nnd un-
healthy in some places, as at Livadia, whore inter-
mittent fevers are prevalent. The fertility of
B(eotia is, however, such, that it has alwayi, nn
abundant crop, though elsewiiere famine sIkhiM
prevail. The land is well cultivated, es|)e<iailv
with wheat, rice, madder, cotton, maize, hemp, and
tobacco. Helicon is clothed in its lower parts with
evergreens ; above these there is a forest of pines,
and its top is often capped with snow ; kermes oak
grows abundantly, and 6,000 okes (258,00(1 lbs.) of
gall-nuts are collected yearly. Tlie lake Topolias
still produces the reeds anciently so celebrated for
rustic Hutes, and Boeotian pipers are still in hidli
repute. Most of the cottnges in the neighiwnrlKKid
are built of these reeds. Flocks of bustards inhabit
the banks of Topolias ; and its large eels, dried and
salted, form a considerable article of trade. Many
spots in BoMitia present striking scenery. It forms
two eparchies, those of Thebes ( TTiiva) and Livadia,
which are its two principal towns.
BOGENDOKF, a village of Prussia, prov.
Silesia, reg. Liegnitz, 18 m. WSW. Sngan. Pop.
1 ,750 in 1861 . The village has in its vicinity
mines of the precious metuls, and of copiw and
lead.
BOGLIPOOR. See Bhaugui.pore.
BOGNOK, a marit. town and chapelry of Eng-
land, CO. Sussex, rape Chichester, hund. Aldwick,
par. S. Bersted, 56 m. SW. by S. London, at the
terminus of a branch line of the London, Brighton,
and South Coast railway. Pop. 2.523 in IXtil.
The town is situated on the coast between Selsey
Bill and Worthing, amidst rocks that extend in a
curving direction 2 or 3 m. into the sea, and make
it inaccessible except to the smaller class of coasting'
vessels ; there is a good beach, and evcrj' accom-
modation for bathing. Previously to 1780 it was
a small fishing village, and this is still the occupa-
tion of its resident population, who send tlicir
produce to the London market. In the above
year Sir K. Hotham commenced building a villa
and some good lodging-houses, since wliich this
watering-jilacc has continued to enlarge, and forms
a favourite resort for those who seek retirenicnl,
rather than gaiety, in occasional change of scene.
It is sheltered on the N. by the South Down hill-,
BOGODOUKHOF
n ranpe extending from P<irUtl(iwn to Dover. The
l>(irti<mouth and Arundel C'annl pasMeH within 3 in.
There arc Episcopal, Iiidc|)cndcnt, and WcHlcyan
chaiiel^i <( school, in which 20 ^irls are clothed
ind educated ; another ^founded hy the late I'rin-
ccds Charlotte) for 50 fjirls ; and pwid hotels and
liHli^n^-houHes for the accommodation of visitors.
The regulation of the town is placed under com-
niuwiuncrs (by an Act of Parliament), who meet
monthly, and levy a duty of '2s. a chaldron on
(■(paK to defray the exjienses of re|>airing roads,
lie. Weekly markets are held, in a spacious modem
iiiarkcl^phice, on Thurs<lay and Soturday, and on
aninial fair on the ftth and fith of Julv.
ltOG()UOUKIIOF,orlK)(iODUCtlOVV,atown
of Kussia in £uropc, gov. Kharkof, ca)). distr., on
ihe Slerlo. 60 m. NE. Poltava ; lat. 50° 2' N., long.
3,^0 50' E. Pop. 10,000 in J 858. The town is
mirrouiuled by a rampart and a tlitch. The in-
habitants arc principally employed in tanning and
(Ircs.'tin); leather, and making it up into boots and
nhijes ; they also carry on a considerable tratlo in
cattle and hides.
ItOtiOKODlTSK, a town of Russia in Europe,
gov. Tula, cap. distr., at the conHuence of the
licmioi-t Mipert and the Viarkova, -JO ni. SSE, Tula.
I'op. 4,51)4 in 1858, The town has an Imperial
castle and four churches. The country round is
iinHJuctive of corn, hemp, flax, and honey, which
furm the principal obiects of the trade of the town,
llOGOTA (fonnerly Santa Fe de Bogota), a city
of Colombia, of which it is the cap. aiul the seat of
the government, on an elevated plateau at the foot
of Mount Chingasa, 8,615 ft. above the level of the
m; 225 ni. E. the Pacitic Ocean, 50 m. E. the
river Magdalena, C5 m. SE. Hondo, and 131 m.
NE. Xeyva; lut., 4° 37' N„ long. 74° 10' W.
Pop, from 30,000 to 40,000. Owing to its elevo-
lion, the city enjoys o line and equable tempera-
ture; tiie climate, however, is exceedingly humid,
though not unhealthv. The first a[)i)earttncc of
the towi from the J^W. is very imposing: being
huilt on rising ground, it forms a sort of amphi-
theatre, and the white towers of the cathedral and
the monasteries of Montscrrot and Guadalupe are
mn seated on lofty peoks behind it. Streets gene-
rallv narrow, but regular, intersecting each other
at nght angles, and some having a stream of water
constantly tlowing down the middle ; oil of them
are paved, ond the principal ones hove footp* ihs.
The cliicf street, or Calle Real, has at its extrei^iity
the plofa mayor, or principal square, where the
market is held ; it is formed by the cathedral, the
palace of the president, and the custom-house,
Ikiguta being subject to frequent earthquakes, the
houses are low, with thick walls, elegance being
commonly sacrificed to solidity. Nearly half the
area of the city is occupied by religious structures ;
there are 26 churches, besides the cathedral, 9
munasteries, and 3 nunneries ; ond four-sixths of
tlie houses in Bogota ore said to belong to them.
The cathedral, built in 1814, ond distinguished by
the simplicity of its interior, wos destroyed by an
earthquake in 1827. Most of the other churches
are more remarkoble for gorgeousness and gilding
than for taste ; gems ore lavished in profusion upon
the statues. The palace of the former viceroys of
New Granada, now occupied by the president of
the republic, can boast no architectural beauty.
The mint is a large plain building. There are
three sets of barracks, two quarteh, and an artillery
ilriwt, where all military equipments are made, and
itticles of European monufacture repaired ; some
•if tlic convents luive hospitals attaclieil, but they
are wretcliedlj' conducted, and very dirty. It has
a imivercity and three colleges, the principal of
«liidi belongs to the Jesuits ; a school of chemistry
BOHEMIA
473
and mineralogy; a Lancastrian school on the most
liberal principles ; a national academy ; and a
public library, 'fhero is a theatre, a well-con-
structed building, and well attended ; but the per-
formances ore bod. The private houses in liogota
ore constructed of sun-dried brick, wnitewashed,
and tile<l ; latterly their style has been considerably
im])rovcd. licams are now concealed by a ceiling ;
glass has been introduced into, and barricades re-
moved from, the windows; the street doors ore
better painted, and light balconies have liegun to
supersede enormous and heavy galleries. In gene-
ral, the houses ore built with o court in the centre,
round which nnis a gallery or a covcreil terrace.
The furniture is simple, but European carpets ami
other manufactures ore now in verv geiU'rul use.
There are no chimneys, stoves only being used.
In the principal streets, the ground floors are
occupied by shops ; these arc, however, dirty and
dark, and the only admission for daylight is by
the door. Almost every inhobitiuit, not in the
employ of government, in the church, or in the
umiv, is o shopkeeper. ' Seated upon his counter,
smoking incessantly, and giving laconic answers
to his customers, the Colombian merchant in many
respects resembles those of Smyrna or Alejjpo.'
The city is very badly lighted; tliere ore no com-
m<m Sf'vers; and the filth being cast into the
streams that nm through the streets renders them
hifectious. Owing to tlic scantiness of the popula-
tion, and the want of carriages, some of the streets
ore overgrown with grass. 'I'he market is well and
cheaply supplied with provisions; but European
manufactures are said to be extravagantly dear.
There are no carts or vehicles of any description,
traffic being carried on exclusively bv m»des. The
environs of Bogota are agreeable, but little fre-
(juented, the favourite promenade being the
alameda, or public walk, at one of the entrances
to the town. The costume of the females is pecu-
liar. Rich and poor dress alike otit of doors : the
mantilla is worn ; a piece of blue cloth envelopes
the head, and covers all the features excepting the
eyes, reaching to the waist; aiul the whole is
crowned by a broad-brimmed beaver hat. The
women of Bogota are generally acknowledged to
be handsome ; their comj>lcxions are fair and
clear; their physiognomy is S]>anish. Visiting,
evening parties, balls, masquerades, and religious
processions are their chief amusements; as bull-
fights, cock-fights, the theatre, and gombling are
those of the men.
BogotA was founded by Gonzolo Ximencs de
Quesada, who built twelve huts here in 1538 ; in
1548 it was created a city, and made the seat of a
roj'al audiencia; and in 1.5()1 advanced to the ho-
nours of a metropolitan see. It was the capital
of New Granada, while a colony of Spain ; a dis-
tinction which, since the war of liberation^ it has
changed for the greater one it at present enjoys,
as the head city of o free state.
BOGWANGOLA, on inl, town of Hindostan,
prttv. Bengal, 8 ra, NE. Moorshedabad ; lat,
24° 21' N., long, 880 29' E. It is built entirely of
bamboo, mats, and thatch ; but is a place of con-
siderable trade, and from hence the cap. of the
district is chiefly supplied with grain.
BOHAIN, a town of France, de'p. Aisne, cap.
canton, 16 m. NNE. St. Quentin, on a bran<!h line
of the Northern of France railwoy. Pop, 5,051 in
1861. It has a fabric of Germanclocks a carillon,
and produces shawls and gauzes.
BOHEMIA (German Bohmen, Boh. Czech)
(Kingdom of), an inland country, occupying the
centre of Euroiie, and forming an important por-
tion of the Austrian empire, between lat, 48° 31'
and 510 3' N., and long. 12° 5' and 16° 46' E.,
;i:<i
471
BOHEMIA
Imviiif^ NE. rnisKUin Silrsin, X. nml WV. Snxony,
iS\V. llnvnrin, nn<l 8. niid SK. tho nrclidiirliy of
Aiistrin and Mornvia. Sliapo. nil irregular riiom-
Ixiid ; Kri-fttcHt Ini^'lh, E. niid VV., '2<l(> in. ; j^rrntcst
brcnilth, N. tc H., 170 m. Tho total area of tlic
kiiiplom amountH to SI02'85 ^ ixtrinn, or '20,2wr)
Kii^HhIi Hqiiar(> milrH. The po|iulation luimborod
i!,H->H,749 ill 1881, and had iiUTcascd, at the fjcnc-
ral census of Oct. 31, 1857, to 4,705,525. Aliout
two-thirds of the number hi)fak th<! Slavonic, and
the rest the Cierman lanf^iwif^c. liolieniia is more
densely po])ulatcd than any other part of the
Austrian empire.
Mountuinx and B'wem, — Hohemia ia a 1)anin,
surrounded on every side by nioiintain-raiiK't's,
which in some parts rise to upwards of 5,000 ft. in
height. l"'r(iin the I"'ichtelnel)irne (pine mountains),
noiir the W. extremity, the chain called the Erz^e-
hirge (ore mountains) runs NE., forminp the
liiiiindary between liohemia and Saxony, as far as
the exit of the Elbe from the first-mentioiu'd
eountrj'. The highest point of this range is the
Schwa'rzwald, about 4,000 ft. above the sea;
]iarallel to it is the Jlittelgcbirge (midland moun-
tains), which runs as far as tlie 1. Iinnk of the
Elbe. From the r. bank of the Elbe, E. and SE.,
forming in part the frontier against I'russia, run a
scries of chains entitled successively the Lannit/er,
Iser, Kiesen (giant), and Sudetengebirgc, the
loftiest point of which, the Snow-cap, is from 5,200
to 6,400 ft. in height. The SW. border is formed
by the Uiihmerwald, or lloheniian forest moun-
tains, included in the llercynian forest of tiie
ancients, and a branch from the Fichtelgebirge:
tiicy are wild and precipitous, and contrast re-
markably with the Moravian chain in the SE.,
which is of gentle ascent, varying from 2,000 to
H,{(00 ft, in height, and separating the atlluents of
the Elbe from those of the Danube. Within these
boundaries, Uohcniin presents an undulating sur-
face, with an inclination for the most part towards
tlie N. ; its hills are sonxiiines steep, and even
])rccipitous, but rising generally no liigher than
aimiit 600 or (i()0 ft. al)ove the level of tlie sea.
ISohcmia forms, in fact, an elevated plateau,
sloping towards the N., and drained by the Elbe,
which traverses two-thirds of its breadtli, aiul
receives the numerous brooks and streams that
descend from its lofty barriers. The sources of
this great river are in the Uiesengebirge moun-
tains, whence it descends, in a S. direction, to
I'nrdubitz, and thence W. as far as IMelnik, where,
after receiving the jMoldaii, it becomes navigable.
In its course to tlie frontier of Saxony, it is joined
besides by the Adler, at Kiinigiiigratz, the Iser,
and the Eger ; the Wattawa, Sa>!awa, J{eramika,
and LuHchnilz fall into the IMoldau before its
junction with the Elbe. Tho Moldau is navigable
from Budweis, and a railway between that town
and Linz, on the Danube, completed as early as
1824, forms a connecting link of communication
between the German Ocean and the lilack Sea.
This lUidweis-Linz railroad was one of the lirst in
J'',urope ; but being only adapted to carriages drawn
by horses, and having to pass over considerable
lieights, which occasion much difficulty and ex-
j)cnse in transporting goods, tiie atlvantages it
ntl'orded were insuilicient to divert the course of
trade into this new channel.
Minerals. — The mineral riches of Bohemia are
of considerable importJince and value. From the
liUh to the J 7th centuries, considerable quantities
of gold and silver were obtained ; the first is now,
however, no longer met with, except occasionally
in small quantities, in the beds of some of the
streams ; but above 20,000 marks of silver are still
obtained annually from the lead mines. The latter
produce about fi0,00n cwts. n year of load nn i
litharge. Iron is found in most jiarfH of the kit"
<iom, but the prodiu't is but trilling, not eMvoilim,
from 15.000 to 20,000 tons a vear. There ar( nU^
tin mines fthe only ones in the Austrian (l(,mi'
nions), with mines of copper, zinc, f.i„„„| "
arsenic, cobalt, *c. Coal is prettv nbundanf i.nr
ticula ly in the N. parts of the kingdom- niiil il,c
prodi'.co, which has increased verv rapiiDv nf lit..
yean:, is above 100,000 tons a vear. TliVre arc a
great variety of mineral springs, those of Tiipii,^
Carlsba(i, and Seidlitz having a Eiironcaii rfimii'
tioii. Aliout 800,000 bottles of water from tl','','
springs are annually exported. All the salt iiw.l
in Bolemia is imported. The Mdrking of ih,.
mines is superintended by two mining commix-
sions, at .loachimsthal and rrzibratn, Indcr tlu i'
are 23 inferior mining courts and Imuiches liu.
miners having their own codes of law and onikt: li
courts of justice ; the whole is controlled hv n de-
partment of the niinistrk- of liiiance at Viciiiia.
Climate ycry healthy, but, from the elevation of
the country, it is, on the whole, rather cold, in
the mountainous regions, the snow, whicli often
lies 12 ft. deep, does not disapjiear until A|iril-
the mildest climate is that of the valley of ilu'
Elbe. At Prague, the mean temperature of tho
year is about 47° Fahr. The prevalent winds iire
M'esterly.
SoU and ApriruUnre. — The soil of Bolicniia rnn-
sists iirincipally of a clayey loam, but in i)nrls
sandy loams and sand jiredoniinate. In sonic of
the mountainous circles there is a good deal of
waste land ; but, speaking generally, the vailcvs
are vcrj- fertile. The finest land is in the eirclcnf
Saaz. Of the total area of the kingdom, amoiintin-'
to 20,285 Eng. sq. m., or 12,!»«2,0O0 Eng. aires, ft
is estimated that 1 l,050,(i73 acres are iinilcr culture
or other^vise productive, being distributed as fol-
lows : — Arable lands, 5,5;i2,5(/9 acres ; comniiiii
pasture lands, 8G!»,()(i2 acres; woods, 3,H!t;i,2l.')
acres ; vineyards, fi,357 acres ; meadows and pnr-
deiis, 338,1)30 acres; the rest being Imrren mdiiii-
tniiis, water, roads, and other uiicultivalile lands
Here, as in all the rest of tiermaiiy, rje forms tlic
((rincipal crop, and next to it is'oats, and then
barley and wheat. Potatoes are now very (Xteii-
sivelv cultivated, particularly in the niou'ntainouj
distncts, where they fonn the greater ]iart of ilie
food of the people. Flax and liemp arc |)riiiii|iid
(dijects of attention, and supply the materia! U
the staple industry of the coiintr>'. Hops, which
are excellent, arc raised in considerable (|tiantitiis,
about 12,000 cwti being annually exported tn
Bavaria only. The culture of beet-root, with a
view to the manufacture of sugar, has of late years
increased very rapidly; there were, in ISd.'), almvc
100 factories in operation. Some wine is made,
but the quality is very inferior, and beer If tlio
national beverage. Until recently, hut little
attention has been paid to stock lui>l),'in(irv:
latterly, however, considerable ellorts have Ikim
made to improve the breed.*, and these have lutii
very successful, jiarticularly in the ease of the
sheep. The siqiply of cattle is iiiade(|niite for (lie
consiimiition, and there is annually a large imiier-
tatioii from Poland and Hungarj'.
On the whole, agriculture in Bohemia, tlinu;,'h a
good deal improved, is still in a very baciiwatil
state. This, no doubt, is ascribable to a variety df
causes ; but principally, perhajis, to the dciin-.-id
state of the peasantry, anil the want of lcii.«es
Most of the land is parcelled out into iinniiii>e
estates; and these are cultivated, either liy |di-
sants employed by, and working on account of. the
landlord, or by petty occupiers, paying a laln'W
rent for their land. Mr. Gleig has given siiuc
UOHEMIA
175
airiniis details in rcrcronrc to thi.-* Milijcrt in )iis
TriivclH ill (icrinnny, lltilicinin, Ao. ' ( )l" larj^c
iirtvns,' he says, * tlifre hpi'iiis to Iip, in lioiicniia,
vpn' few ; but every valo and strulli is cniwilctl
f)it)i human dwullinf^H ; village suctrcfdinn villas*',
and hnnilct trending on liainlct, witli tin; most
nmarkaMe fecundity. On tlu; otlicT hand, you
niiiy strain your eyes in vain in scarcii of those
M«i('» of haltitations which pve to our Knfrlish
Liiiil-cniicH their peculiar chanii. There is no such
iliint; '" "" Uoheniia — I tiuestion whether there he
ill all Germany — as a jmrk ; antl as to detached
l';imi-liniises, they arc totally unknown. The nobi-
litv inlialiit what they term 8chh)sses, tliat is to
•av, eactles or palaces, which arc invariably planti'd
iliiVn cither in the very heart of a town or large
\illas,'e, or at most a gun-shot removed from it.
Xiixwccping meadows surroun<l them with their
iihtoful swells, their umhrageous covers, and lordly
;ivonue8 ; no deer troop from glade to glade, or
rliislcr in groups round the stem of some giant oak,
ilu'ir favourite haunt for ages. But up to the
viTj- linll door, or at least to the foundations of
ilic wall which ginlles in the court-yard, perhaps
{•> cif 2tl ft. wide, the ]>lough regularly passi's. A
fwkn, the graf generally possesses, and his taste
in tiiiwprs is good ; but it almost always happens
ilia' liis very garden affords no privacy, and that
his tlowors are huddled together within some
namiw space, perhaps in the verj' court-yard of
Kliicli I have already spoken as alone dividing his
niiinsinn from the ojien and cidtivated lields. With
Kfffvt, again, to the condition of the cultivators,
that i», in all respects, so dilTerent from the state
iifoiir agricultural gentlemen at home, that, even
ai the hazard of saying over again wliat has been
stated a thousand times already, I must describe
it at length. In the lirst jjlace, then, there is no
class (if persons in ISohemia corresponding to our
Kiifjlish I'armcr. Nobody hires, land in order to
tiiake a firotit out of it, at least nobody for such a
|iuq)ose hires a large tract of land ; but each indi-
viihial cultivates his own estate, whether it be of
\ri(le or of narrow extent. Thus the graf, or
iiriiioe, though he be the owner of an entire circle,
IS yet the only farmer within that circle. He docs
not let an acre of ground to a tenant; but haWng
liuiltwhathe conceives to be an adequate number
if buucrin-houses, he plants in each of these a
hiiiifT-inan, and pays hmi for tilling the ground.
Iliese buucrin-houses, again, are all clustered toge-
ihtr into villages, so that the bouer-man is never
witliout an abunclant society adapted to his tastes;
ami very happily, albeit very rudely, his days and
lights a|)pear to be speirt.
' Tiiclaud in liohemia docs not, however, belong
exclusively to any order in the community. Many
biiiier-men are owners of their farms, some of them
ti; the extent of 100 acres and more ; while almost
even- township has its territories, which, like the
ooble'a estate, are cultivated for the benetit of the
Inirjj'h. Hut in all cases it is the owner, and not
the cultivator, to whom the proceeds of the har\'est
Woiif;. These are, indeed, gathered in and housed
fur him by his representatives, who, in addition to
ioine tixcd money payments, for the most part
mjoy the pri\-ilege of keeping a cow or two on
tk' wastes belonging to the manor ; but all the
n>k and trouble of converting his grain into money
attaches to the proprietor of the soil.' (ii. 19.)
Hut though by far the larger jjortion of the land
rnultivated in "the way described, by hired labour,
siill it is certain that a good deal is let in Bo-
liHiiia, as in all similarly situated countries, not
iiirmuney or a quantity of produce, but for a cer-
tain amount of labour to be performed on the estate
it the lord, which amount is regulated by a law
called the Ii<>hoth-))ritrnt. IMr.IiOPve. in his Sketches
of Itobeniia, has the fnllnwiiig ..Udiinent as to the
relation subsisting between the lords and those
o(!cupying their esuitcs, under this system : —
* The subjects, as they are termed, are all regis-
tered in the books of the "states ; the h>rd collects
the king's taxes, iM'sides his own dues, ami seiuls
an aninuil su))ply of recruits to the iuip«>'rial army,
lie has the power of ex|)elling nits<lemeanaul8
from his estate, and ho exercises a certain con-
trol over his subjects ; but the peasants are by no
means attached to the soil ; and they niav alwaya
appeal to the courts of justice against tiicir lord,
with a proverbial certainty (such is the jxdicy of
the government) of gaining their cause. On'tho
other hand, the h)rd re|)resents the goverinnent to
!iis peasants, and the peasants to the govennnent ;
and whilst he is accountable to the justice of thu
country, he has it in his jwwcr to exercise a bene-
ficent nitluence over the lower orders, lie provider
for their instnuUion ; he introduces improvemc^nts,
and encourages trade ; he increases their commer-
cial relations; he arbitrates in their disputes; aiul
in pro])ortion to his fullihnent or neglect of theso
functions, the estate is prosperous or poor. It often
ha|i|)eiis that the iiobdity and gentry have ac-
quired a purely (ii'nnan character, in accordance
with that of the Austrinn government, but very
much opposed to the national spirit and national
wants of the Bohemian jjeople. All the ancient
seignorial rights which were not legalised and
regulated by Joseph II., as the Kobotti dues, &e.,
were abolished by that monarch. But the tradi-
tion of feudal attachment and of feudal obedience
still exists amongst the jieople : thus, although
the consent of the lord is not legally required to a
marriage between his peasants, it is generally
asked, and considered indispensable. The jiosses-
sious of some of the Bohemian noblesarc immense ;
Prince Schwartzenberg owns one-eighth of tlie
country ; and the estates once held by the great
Wallenstein were so vast as to have formetl the
ap])anage of six great families after his death and
attainder.' (Metropiditan Mag., April 1837.) This
state of things still exists in part, although modern
political and social reforms, originating in the revo-
lution of IS-iH, and the subsequent introduction of
constitutional government, have brought about a
great change, particularly as relates to the Koboth
system.
Here, as in most other countries, industrv flou-
rishes most where it has to contend with the
greatest difficulties. The rich level lands of Bo-
hemia, histcad of being the best, are the worst
cultivated. The occupiers »>f the mountainous and
jioorer districts display, speaking generally, not
only the greatest industry, but the greatest skill,
and the most improved methods of cultivation.
The forests, as alreaily seen, are very extensive ;
they are mostly situated in the W. parts of the
kingdom, and especially in the lUstrictof I'rachin.
They are estimated to yield annually above
2,000,000 cubic fathoms of wood.
Maniifucturtts. — With the exception, perhaps,
of Moravia, Bohemia has long been the most cele-
brated of all the Austrian states for its manu-
factures. It long produced the finest linens and
linen yam of any country in Europe. 8piniiing
is the universal and favourite emph>ymeut of the
women ; and no fewer than 500,000 females arc said
to iirosccute it as a subsidiary business. About
55,000 hands are supposed to be still employed in
hand-loom linen weaving; and the total annual
value of the produce of this branch of industry,
including that of lace, may be estimated at about
1,200,000/. a year. ■ 'fhis branch of industry is
said, however, to be on the decline, in consequence
.1,
I . 'I,U
■Xkt
W
47rt
BOHEMIA
of tlio prowth of tho cotton mnnufiirturc. Tlirrc
nr(! about ftOO blcncliiiiK CMtnbli.HliiiK'iitM in full
work, and the. manufnoturn of potaNli is vory con-
didcrablc. The woollen mannfnrturc in vtTy ex-
fcnHivo : in 8(iinnin)(, only h.'>,iM{i IiupiIh aw miid
Id l»c cn^OKi^d ; and in wpavinj;, from 15.0(10 to
It't.OOO: tlic weaving of woollen Htookingx i-uiiilovH
from 2,0()() to 8,000 hands. The hat-mitkorN, fur-
ricrx, dbc, arc cHtimatod at alH>ut 1,200, and the
leather mannfacturerx at 4,000. There are nhoiit
1 00 papcr-millH ; and the imperial tohaeco manu-
factory at Seidlitz supjdicH tho wh(do country
with that orticlc, through tho agency of obove
7,000 retail Nhopx. The nianufaclurc of nietaln
and minerals and of bcct-root sugar, huH already
been alluded to.
Hut of all the nohemian manufactures none is
nearly so well known in foreign countries as that
of glass. Itohemian glass is not so pure as that of
ICnglan<l or France ; but the art of staining, paint-
ing, and gilding glass, is much hotter untlcrstood
hero th)m in other countries, and articles of Bo-
hemian manufacture ore unequalled in point of
lightness and richness of appearance. Altogether,
from l-Ath to l-4th part of the inhab. of Hohomia
are engaged in manufactures. But nearly all the
liand-spinners and weavers combine with their
business that of cultivators of potches oi' land, and
other employments.
Owing to the want of capital, many of the great
landed proprietors are obliged to engage in manu-
factures. Thus, Prince Kinsky, ancl Counts llor-
raeh and llucquoy, are the greatest glass manu-
facturers ; Prince Auersberg manufactures sulphur,
vitriol, and colours; Count Urbna and Prince
Windizhgratz, tin plates ; Count Thun, porcelain ;
Prince Lobkowitz, earthenware ; Prince Wallen-
stein and others, beet-root sugar, and so forth.
Jiacea of People.— Of the 4,700,000 i)eople in
Kohemia, about 3,000,000 are Czeches, of .Slavonic
origin, and the rest Germans and Jews. The
(Jermans, to the amount of 900,000, principallv in-
habit the capital and tJie circles of Klbogen, Aaaz,
Leitmeritz, Bidschow, and Kttnigratz. In these
circles German is the more prevalent huiguage,
though even in them Bohemian is often the ver-
naiHilar tongue of the lower classes, as it is that of
the middle classes, and even of the higher ranks
in other parts. Tlie German pop. is more indus-
trious, intelligent, and enten^rising than the Sla-
vonic. The Jews have been settled in Bohemia
from a very remote epoch. Here, as in other
coinitries, they are mostly engaged in mercantile
and pecuniary transactions ; and they are also ex-
tensively engagetl in the business of distilling and
brewing.
Heligion. — Notwithstanding Bohemia may be
truly said to be the cradle of the Reformation, and
the determined and long-continued stand her
inhabitants made in defence of the doctrines pro-
mulgated by Huss and his followers, she is now
become one of the princijial strongholds of Catho-
licism. The spirit of tiie ancient Bohemians has
been entirely subdued; and they have become
amongst the most bigoted and superstitious ad-
licrents of a faith imposed on them by the sword
of the conqueror and the rack and gibbet of the
inquisitor. The church hierarchy consists of an
archbishop (of Prague), 3 bishops, 7 deans of chap-
ters, with numerous canons, 1 1 archdeacons, i;-53
deocons, 1,107 parish and 505 minor cures. Though
the monastic institutions were much diminished
by the vigorous and salutarj' reforms effected by
Joseph II., there are still no fewer than 75 monas-
teries and 7 convents, comprising about 1,0"20
monks and 150 nuns ; these are, however, obliged
to do the duty of parish clergy, or to cn)ploy them-
selves in education, or In tho care of the hnspitnlH
Jos«'ph n. granted full toleration to nil mIrtM nf
religions. The Lutherans and (Jalviiiists toL'otlu.p
amoimt to from (i(»,000 t.) 70,000. The 1^7
amounting to nearly 70,000, are under (he Ltaml
rabbi at Prague. ^ ' '
AV/Mcah'o/i.— Hohcmia has a great number of
cduimtionol establishments. The institutidiis o„|,
sist of a university at Prague; a iM)lytec-hiiic
scho(d; 20 gymnasiums; 3 philosopliical Kcmi
iwirics ; 8 theologicial seminaries ; 1 military n.ii
demy ; 3 convents for female education ; 1 Jcwinh
cidlege; 40 grammar schools; 2,500 Catholi,. ;it!
Protestant, and 20 Jewish, schools; ami therc'iire
alst* schools for music and drawing, un ob!ier\at()r\-
and numerous libraries and cabinets of nnturiii
history, arts, and sciences. The Academy of I'raL'iio
though not long established, enjoys considfimlile
celebrity. But notwithstanding this iniposinir
number of educational establishments, the wliun-
ti(m of the people is, in reality, at a very lowcMi.
There are detailed oflicial returns on the siilmci
but the general state of education in llohcmm iniiy
bo measured by the fact that, at the cdiwcriptidii
of
rcftd
of 1857, it was found that in the arciiduthy
Austria, of 2,f)4'J recruits, 2,323 were able to re
and write, while in Bohemia there were, ani( ..
11,213 recruits, only G,597, or scarcely onc-haif,
able to read and write.
During the reign of Joseph II. the use of the
Bohemian language was forbidden, not only in tho
courts of justice, but also in tho colleges and liij;hir
academies. But, instead of suppressing tlie lun-
guago of the people, this seems to have occasKJiud
a reaction in its favour; and during the prpsent
century Bohemian literature has been a godil deal
attended to, and made considerable progress.
Poor. — The number of hospitals and cliaritalilo
institutions in the capital and principal towns in
very considerable, and in the towns the poor are
carefully provi<led for. No regular poor-rates arc,
however, collected ; where the foundation tnmU
and voluntary subscriptions do not suffice, the de-
ficiency is made up by government. But the cmi-
tributions of the latter are atforded very sparingly,
and begging is, after all, the great resounc of the
Bohemian poor, as it must bo of the poor of every
country where a compulsf.ry provision is not es-
tablished. It is here, in fact, universal ; and all
travellers arc disgusted with the numbers and im-
portunity of tho mendicants.
Manners and Customs. — The Bohemians are pas-
sionately fond of music and dancing, and have
attained to great proficiency in both. The iiatiniial
airs are nearly the same with those of the Slowaks
of the NVV. part of Hungary, and are generally
plaintive. The waltz is the favourite dance: and
two of its most fastiionable varieties, the Hedouvk
and the Galoppe, have been borrowed from the
Bohemian peasimts. The men are generally rohiiiit
and well proportioned ; and the women are cele-
brated for their beauty. The dispositions of llie
people are more mercurial, and their manners ni(ire
gay, frank, and open, than those of their Saxna
neighbours. How much soever the objects of their
veneration may be changed, tiiey are still, as in
the days of Huas and Jerome oi*^ Prague, zealmu
defenders of what they believe to be right and
proper. There is a nearly total want of a middle
class — an intermediate rank between the lords ami
their vassals. With the exception of Prague, there
are no great towns, none of those ybci wheaee
intelligence and civilisation are diflfused over a
country. But, however ignorant and prejudiccil,
the character of the Bohemian peasant is most re-
spectable. In point of morals, he is quite on ii
level with the peasantry of other nations. Crimes
aiis nrc pas-
, ami have
"he until mal
he Slowaks
e generally
itaiicc; and
_ Htdimik
A from the
rally rotmst
■n arc celc-
ions of tlic
jnncrsnwre
;hcir Saxmi
ccts of their
still, as in
;ue, zealiius
' right and
of a miiWIe
he lords ami
raj^iie, there
foci wheiioe
isod over a
" d,
is most re-
quite on a
Crimes
BOHEMIA
of vinlenco nro of rare ocrurrcnro. The proportion
(,f lllc^'itimiitn to l<>^it!mntc liirthH iit nM 1 to H ;
but in the cnpitnl it Ih an hi^h nH I to '2.
Oiirrrnmeiit, — lip to the year IHt'.t, tlio cliicf
politii'nl iM>wcr in KoliciiiiH wan in the IuuiiIh of
the niiiiilitv, Honiit 'i.'JtiO in niiinlicr, inclmlin^ 14
prince!!, 17^ conntH, KO ImronH, anil more tlian lot)
liereilitnry tini^litH nit IicuiIm of fimiilicM. Tho total
n'Vt'iuu'M of the iioliilitv worn i^Hiiniatcd llftv vvar»
a;;,, at |KO,()(M>,n()(» ofltoriiiH, or lH,(Mi(i,()(lo/.
The yt'ar iXH), which pivv a consliiiiiion to the
Austrian emiiirc, ilcHtroyod to a ^^T^'at extent the
iiitliu'iire of the noliility, by Kivin^; to Itohemia,
a.4well ai* to the other iirovineesof the monarchy,
i^ii-ealleil Provincial DietH. All thcxe DietH are
fiirmeil in the name manner, only ditlerin^ in the
numlior of tiepntie.s, Kaeli conHistN of only one
nisenilily, eonipoHed, Ixt, of the arehliishop and
lii.ho|M'of the Itoman Catholic and Oriental
(Ireeii Church and the chanceUorH of iniiversitics ;
'ind.of the reprewentativeH of j^reat estates, electeil
liv all landowners paying not less than KKMIoriiis,
iir 10/., taxes; ijrd, of the representatives of towns,
fleeU'il by those (titi/enA who possess municipal
ri;;hts; 4th, of the representatives of boards of
fiiinmerce and trade-iniions, chosen by the re-
»l«'ctive members; and 6tli, of the reprcsenta-
lives of rural communes, elected by such inha-
liitants as pay a small amount of direct taxation.
Ilie rn)vincial Diets are eonii»etent to make laws
(dua'niinf; h)cal administration, |)articularly those
all'ectiiifj county taxation, the cultivation of the
jtiil, educational, church, and charitable institu-
ti(ins, and public works executed at the public
exjicnsc. The executive is directed by the dif-
ferent sections of the ministry at Vienna ; the
|irini'ii)al <)f which is the im])erial united chancery,
under which is the Gubemium at Prague. The
C(iurt of appeals at Prague is under the mii.istry
of justice at Vienna ; the receiver of taxes is under
ihe linance minister at Vienna. To these central
authorities the various branches in every circle
arc subject ; the courts of justice of the circle
liein)( at the same time courts of appeal from the
manor courts of the nobles, who exercise judicial
authority over their estates. The city and town
magistrates hove their ovm civil and criminal
courts, from which appeal lies to the court of
appeals at Prague. Tlie military have a peculiar
jurisdiction. Indepem'nnt of all authorities, judi-
cial or administrative, the police forms a branch
anart, being in the towns confided to es|)ecial
cimiraisitaries, and in the country to the captain
oftlie circle, in whom the three functions, judi-
cial, administrative, and those of police, ore
united.
History. — After innumerable mutations, Bo-
hemia, with Hungary ond Transylvania, fell, in
15?6, under the dominion of Ferdinand of Austria,
brother of Charles V., who had married the sister
and heiress of Louis, king of Bohemia and Hun-
1,'ary, killed at the battle of Mohacz. Bohemia
vas at this epoch in the enjoyment of a com-
paratively free constitution, and three fourths of
the population were attached to the reformed
futh. The attempts of the Austrian sovereigns
to undermine the free institutions of the country,
ud to lay restraints on the exercise of the Pro-
testant worship, provoked a desperate contest,
which continued till l(i20, when the Austrian
troops totally defeated the Bohemians at the
hattle of Weissenberg, near Prague. The i^erse-
cution which followed has seldom or never been
equalled for atrocity. Many of the best and
noblest Bohemian citizens lost their lives on the
scaffold, and thousands upon thousands were
•Iriven into exile, and had their estates and pro-
BOKIIARA
477
porties confiscated. The free constitution of the
kingdom was entirely annihilated; the Protestant
r<-liglon all but extiqiated ; and such was Iheroni-
bineil inlluence of massacre and exile, that in
lt;:(7 Ihe pop. did not exceed 7H(),(H)<). Subs«>-
ipicntly the govemnutnt gave every encourage-
ment to the M(>ttlement of (icrman cohmisls in
the country: and in the reign of Maria Theresa
and Joseph II. a new era U-gan; and Ihe mililer
and more lil>eral system of government which they
introduced has since Iteen followtul up.
IK)lS-LIvl)|JC, or H KK km; KNHOSCU. a for-
tified town of Holland, cap, prov, N. Itrabant, in
a morass, at the confluence of the Doinmel and
An, '27 m. 8. bv K. Utrecht. Pop. 'i,'),:)!)!! in IW.I.
Th(( town is about 6 ni. in circ,, is defended by a
citadel and two forts, and in case of need tbu
environs may be laid under water. It is a wcdl-
bnilt handsome town, and is intersected by several
cainils, over which there are a great manv bridges.
It is the seat of a vicur-general and trii)uiukls of
original jurisdiction aiul commerce, and has a
fine town-hall, on the model of the Stadt-houso
at Amsterdam; six churches, of which the cathe-
dral church, or that of St. John, built in the end
of the tilth and the beginning of the 14th cen-
tury', is one of the finest in Holland ; a grammar-
school, in which ICra-smus was partly educate<l ;
an academy of painting, sculpture, and archi-
tecture ; two hospitals, an oryduui asylum, and a
house of correctiim. Its manufactures, which are
considerable, cinisist of linen and thread, needles
and |)ins, cutlery, &v., with distilleries, glass-
works, d'c. It is well situated for, and has, a
considerable trade.
Bois-le-l)uc was founded, in 1184, by Godfrey
III., duke of Brabant. In lO'iO it was taken by
the Dutch, after a lengthened siege. It was
held by the French from 1794 to 1K14, when it
surrendered to the Prussians, by whom it was
again made over to its old masters.
IMJJADOK (CAPE), a celebrated promontory
of the W. coast of Africa, desert of Sahara ; lat.
26° 7' 10" N., long. 140 2!*' 5" W. This headland
fom.s the W. extremity of a rocky ridge, called
the Geb-cl-klml, or Black Mountoins. It was
long the limit of navigation towards the S., and
was first passed by the Portuguese in 1433.
BOJANO (an. Boviuntim), a town of Southern
Italy, in the former kingdom of Naples, prov.
Sannio, cap. canton, on the Bifemo, in a deep
gorge, at the foot of Mount Matcse, 16 m. £SK.
Isernia. Pop. 5,249 in 1862. This town has suf-
fere<l severely from earthquakes, the last calamity
of this sort having occurred in 1805. It is the
seat of a bishopric, and has, or had before the
earthquake, a cathedral, with several churches and
convents, and an hospital. During the early
period of Koman history, Bovianum was a very
important place. In the Social war it was one
of the strongest holds of the confederates. It
was taken by Sylla, and afterwards retaken by
the Marsi. Under C»!sar it became a military
ctdony. Strabo says that in his time it was
ruinous and deserted.
BOJANOWA, a town of Prussia, prov. and
reg. Posen, 9 m. NW. Rawiez. Pop. 2,367 in
1861. It is divided into the Old and New towns ;
most part of the houses are of wood ; it has a
large to^vn-house, and fabrics of coarse cloth.
BOKHARA or UZBEKISTAN, a country of
Central Asia, comprising considerable portions of
the anc. Sogdiana or Transoxiana, and Bactria,
forming the most powerful state of what la
named by the modems Independent Tartary, or
Turkestan. It lies between the 37th and 43rd
degrees of north latitude, and the 80th and 88tb
7;| ■
; (
'f;!,i>l,*'i.
■■■' >
■ r
v:*' t^
\¥
iT-i
478
BOKHARA
(Ic^rccM of OMt InnKitudn, )mvlnf( N. tho ilcHcrt
and tho ktmnat of Kokan; K. tho moiinlainoun
rei;iiinM nf HiMKiir niul Knoniloo/, ; S. CiiiiImiI ; and
\V. tho klmnat of Khiva or Khoroain. Arua,i)ri)-
bahly niNtut '2Hr),(MH) w]. m. l'o|i. CHtimntod nt
2,(l(M(.(MM). Only oiip-lcnlh of flip Ic'rritory in
iiilinl>il(Hl hy a Htntioimry poptiliitioii; tho r»-
muinih'r coiiHiHtH of Ht<'|i)io or iloNi^rt, on wliicih
ihv. wandcrint; trilicx piti^h (heir nioviihle dwol-
lin^H, and t(>n<l llicir tlixkN of horNCH nnd Mlii>c-p.
J'hy»kal A»fK:ft, — Itokhnrn w niountalnouH only
in the K,, wluTt! itM tnonnlainM ant norlhcni Hpurit
from thp Hindoo Kocmh, and on ilH H. frontior,
■whore they »w,m to ladon^ to the (Ihoor or I'aro-
])nniiHan ranfje, cxwpt a few low-lyinj; hilln abont
t^huhr-Nubz, iSainarrand, and Hokharn. The ht^i^lit
of the fonner rnn^'t', in about lat. i<!)°, ix HoppoNed
to be at leaHt Ih,imM) ft. The plain region which
comjiriKeH all the rest of Hokbara, is notbinfj but
n Handy desert, with a few (hisvh, slretchiiif; for a
few miles on either side tho banks of rivers ; in
which arc planted the chief cities and towns; and
which constitute tho only cullivu'>lo lands, and
are densely peopled. The rivers areof tli , iiij^hest
im]iortance : there are live, viz. the Jihon or
Anioo (Oxns), Kohik or /er-afclimi, Kiirshee or
Karclii, /ourhab, and Italkb, Tiio Oxus inter-
nci'ts till' coinitry SK. to N\V., dividing it into
two unccpuil portions, and varying in width from
JlOl) to upwards of WHO yards. Tiie course of the
Zer-afcban (river of fjokl) is entirely within this
fountry; it rises in the hi^^hlands K. of Samar-
cand, runs N. this city nnd Jtokbara, nnd afli^r a
course of about 450 m,, chietly K. to W., falls
into the lake Den^'hiz. The Kursliec rises in
the same highlands as the Kohik, nnis NK. to
SVV., by Shulir-Subz niul Kursbee, and is lost in
the desert. Tho Zourhat runs from N. to S., nnd
is similarly lost. The Kalkh river rises SW, the
Ilnidoo Koosh, nnd runs N. to llnlkh, where its
waters are distributed all over the surroinuUng
country by means of canals. The lake Dengbiz,
or ' the sea,' is liO m. NSW. Rokhara, surroundccl
on all sides by sand bills; 25 m. long, and very
dec)) : its water is salt, and it appenrs neither to
increase nor decrease at any season of the year.
The fertility of the country is said to have been
anciently much gronter than at present; the valley
of Sogdiann has been spoken of ns a paradise by
l)oth (ireek and Arabian WTiters; but it is mostly
destitute of large trees, and the banks of the
Kurshee entirely so. The desert is varied only
by sand hills, 16 or 20 ft. h'.gh, raised by the
■wind ; of a horse-shoe shape, the bow towards the
K,, and always resting on a base of hardened claj'.
Some stiuited herbage, low brushwood, aiul the
camel-thom, are the only signs of vegetation ; and
a few rats, lizards, beetles, nnd solitary birds, the
only permanent inhabitants. 8. of the Oxus,
however, it is not quite so bare as elsewhere.
Curtius 1ms well described the present state of the
region round Balkh, in bis glowing description of
anc. liactriana. (See IJumcs, ii. 211.) Many re-
mains of former splendour, aqueducts, temples,
Ac, are to be met with in various spots, as be-
tween Khooloom and Maznr ; the ruins of Bykund,
20 m. WSW., and of Khojouban, 25 m. NW.
Bokhara, &c.
Geology and Mineralogy — N. of the Oxus, nnd
from the bnse of the mountnins to Bokhnrn, there
is a succession of ranges of limestone, oolite, and
gravel, altemating with vast and hardened plains
of argillaceous clay of qnartzose sand : the pebbles
in Aliankal are sharp and angular, and look very
unlike having ever been subjected to the action of
■water. There is more gold in the sand of the
Oxus than in any other river rising in the Hindoo
Koosh; Imt other motnlii nre not found in nnv
quantity in Ibis country; silver, iron, and r.mi-.r
are all im|K)rted from ItusNln. .Snl-nmmi.nili • i^
native near Juzzuh, and tliere is n k-d » ni I.
circ. of dnrk-eolonred, inifwrfectlv cr^■Htftlli., ,1
salt, near Cluirjooee, 5<M) lbs. of wliiili hViI r„r ;,
in Bokhara city. Tho water in the wells (,|' t'l'i,!
desert is 'd'ten f(umil brackish nnd unlit to .irini,
especially S. of the ( )xuh ; iK-twe.-n that river inM
Uokhara tho wnt('r is good, and exudes thrmiiri,
the sand. ^
tVi/««<<'.— Tlio I'limato of the elevated K. fn.nti. r
is very different from that of the rest of the vunu
try. In the plains it is generally dry nnd wilii-
brious; in the winter sometimes so ei.ld that ilu'
Oxus is frozen over, and the snow lies fur i|,r,,.
months at Bokhara: in the desert in sinmi.r
tho heat exceeds 100° Falir. The hcnsdus iirc
very regular; nt tho begiiming of M„r,|i ||||.
spnng opens, the hcut soon increases to nil iphpns-
sivo degree, being seldom relreslied l.v sli«,H.r*
and for lour months tho bed of the Ko'liik is drv
at the city of Bokhara, and tho country mWm
from drought. The summer lasts till Ocinbcr
when a fortnight or three weeks' ruin sets iii|
siKJceeded by frosts, nnd these again bv rniiis Irmil
the middle to tho end of Feb.. wbi("li iir« hIkh
very heavy, but evaporation is rapid. Violent
tornadoes someiimes arise, blowing from tlic
XW.; but n steady wind from the N. IjlowsncmsM
the desert in the hot season : the atmosplicri! is
remarkably clear and cloudless at Itokimrn, mil
meteoi-s are frc(piently seen in considernlilfl miin-
bers at night. At Uiilkli the summer heat is vcrv
o|ipressivc, nnd tho climnte unhealthy. I.'liciiiiia-
tism is a fretpient disease there ; and ojilitlmlrniii
and blindness are the scourges of the ilcnrt;
fevers are rare, but leprosy is common.
Vegetable Products. — There is but little Inrpo
timbci-: willow nnd poplnr. arc the princiiml trees
HI the i)laiiis, and the latter is used for ium:.o-
bnilding: tamarisks and legimiinons plants are
the most frecpient shnibs. A bastard inili;,'»
flourishes jirofusely on tho banks of the Oxus,
but neither the true jjlant nor the siigar-cnno
grow wild. 8ome Boraghieo' and Crurif'cr(r are
found universally ; lilies, asphodels, and euphor-
bias less commonly. The Gakniu aj'rimm, the
favourite food of the cnmel, covers many parts of
the desert: rhubarb grows in Kurshee; hut tlic
gigantic Ferula perxica (which produces assafd'-
tida) is the sole member of the umbellil'oroiis
family. Bokhara is celebrated for its frtuts; it
is believed to be the native countrj- of the melon,
which grows here to more perfection than any-
where else ; and most of the fruits familiar to us
grow there in great perfection.
Animals. — Wild animnls nrc few: the lion is
not now found, though Alexander killed one in
Transoxiana. Diminutive tigers on the banks
of the Oxus, ■wild hogs, nnd asses, deer, antelopes,
bears in the E., wolves, foxes, jackals, cats, mar-
tens, rats, and marmots, are the chief JI/n»im«/iM;
ostriches in the S., eagles, hawks, owls, crows,
storks, pigeons, plovers, and water-fowl, are
common ; but there are no singing birds ; and all
kinds of game are scarce. Tortoises anil lizanls
are found in the desert; but there are neither
alligators, nor mnny snakes. The fish in the
Lake Karakool are good : those of the Oxus are
the same as in other Asiatic rivers ; a large do;;-
flsh is caught there often of 600 lbs. weiplit.
There are few insects ; locusts sometimes infest
the neighbourhood of Balkh; the scoriiion is
common, but not dangerous ; a kind of cochineal
insect lives on the bastard-indigo, but the dye it
produces is very inferior, and the proper m^dc of
liOKIIAKA
trMlinn it i" unknown. The nilkwortn in almn-
ilnntiiiitlif iMiiikHofthuOxuM, where iIip miillicrTy
i,|iUiite<l for it in gretxt qimnlity ; nnd the Turk-
nitniti" tliu ituinnivr inontim nru ncnrly nil iicuu-
ninl in the pru<liiction of Hilk. Thf minllt>[ of
thi'wntcr, or Honin other caiiM! in Hokliiini eily,
NnxluiTS the rinlitn or (iiiiiieii wurui, iiiiil \ \mrl
„l'ihu|M>|iulnlii>n are siiiil to healtnckcil annually
will) n iminfiil (lineaxe, owin^r to the t'nrination or
,-niwtli of thcMe wnnns liencalh the nkin. When
i,lwcrvi'(l, they areextriicted liy means of nec'dlcM ;
nil ii|iiriition in which the iloklmresc uro very
tx|n'rt.
Iliur»i>f Mi'ii, — Ihiron Meyemlorff eMtiinatesMie
Nip, mill tiie (lirt'erent riiee.s of which if. is made
up, III iilMive 2,0(MMM(0, reckoning the Uzlieks at
ijiitl.iMHI, the Tadjiks at r)()(l,<ltM), aiideninneralin^;
a'llozi'M hnialler trilies, of a few thousand souls
fiulj. Humes, on the other Imiid, eslinuiles the
iiitiil ))<)|i. at nu more than aniillion, halfof whom
111' tliiiiks arc wamleriiifi trihes. The Uzln'ks,
llipM race whocomiuereii this country, say they
iirviiially came from the neinhliourhood of As-
imkhiin,'nnd are divided into a numherof trilx's,
i,f vliicli that of Mauptut is the principal, and
tlii'kliiui always helmiKs to it. In their physical
a|i|K'iiriui('e they resendile a mixture of 'I'artar
ami Kalmuck, hut those of tlu- caiiital are scarcely
,1 lip reconuised as helon;;in(; to either of tliest-
luniliw, from their fjreat intermixture with I'er-
MH liliiod. The Uzheks are ehietly cstahlished
In till' jirincipal towns, and in the valley of the
Zcr-nfi'liau : the> arc all warriors, and the govern-
ini'iit iitlices are for thcs most |)art tilled by them.
Muiiy are employed in trade ; they are avaricious,
ami iniicli ad<lict"ed to de(H'it. They are naturally
piiil, and have n f^reat contempt for the other
rate*, csiMicially the Tadjiks; but are also said
to lie often well-disposed, and are sinii)le, and
tasilv suliject to imposition.
The Tadjiks are regarded ns the aborigines, and
(liMiiidants of the ancient SoKdians. They are
similar to Euro|)can raccH in both features and
wmplcxion, the latter beiiifj much less brown than
that (if the Persians ; their hair is black ; thev
are active, laborious, and intellif^ent, but pusil-
laiiiraoiis, and never take arms : they therefore
iliffor in numerous particulars from the Uzbeks.
They do not lead a wandering life, but are iMilti-
vaiors, artisans, and merchants ; in the latte
capacity, like the Uzbeks, they are greedy aim
«variciou8. Most of them know how to read and
mtc; and, excepting the clergy, they are the
most civilised j)eoplc of the country. Their
physiogiiomy expresses mildness and tranquillity ;
iiiit they are deceitful, and unfeeling towarils
Ihfir slaves.
There are about 20,000 Kalmucks in the coiin-
trj'i a large portion of them descendants of the
honlesof Jenghiz-khan; the remainder are Tor-
Cout Kalmucks, who in 1770 abandoned the banks
iifthe Wolga, to return to their original seat.
Tlie former are- to be recognised only by their
Vtiysical appearance ; they liavc almost forgotten
their original tongue, and have adopted the cus-
ttms of the Uzheks, amongst whom they live, in
villages of their own.
Another tribe, the Turkmans, or Toorkmuns, in-
Writ chiefly the region S. of the Oxus (which
forms part of Turkestan, or Toorkmania) ; they
Wong to the great Tartar family, and differ from
tlic Uzbeks in being exclusively a wandering tribe,
jiaving the face larger, and the figure more stptat ;
in these particulars resembling the Kalmucks.
They cultivate rice on the banks of the Amoo, but
lave many herds, and live much on their milk
•nil flesh. Their horses are excellent, and have
470
lM<«>n ('clehrat«d since the time of Alrxanilon Tho
TnrkmnnN are by profession dealers in Mhives ; they
have chiefs of their own, named lM>gK, but all pay
tribute to the khan of Itokharu.
The ArabH, numlM'ring pnibnbly almut 50,000,
have been established here ever since the age of
the caliphs. They are immediately recognised, by
their swarthy complexion. Some lire wandering,
and others deini-nomadic triU's; a third section
live in villages, some of which u.i near Itnkhara;
others are cultivators, and possess llocks in tho
step|)es: it is chielly the latter who furnish the
lamli-skins, in such general deiimnd. The I'ersiain*
Mi' mostly slaves, who have been ca|itured by the
Turkmans; and a pro|Hirtiiin of eight individuals
in every village of twenty houses is perhaps a fair
averagi* tliroiighoul the country, (lUtrnes,) 'I'ho
Kirghiz are a small wandering horde, found espe-
cially N. the vallev of the /er-afchan. Some of
the Afghans ami kirghiz are descendants of tho
hostages retained by Timour : there are soiiin
Chinese who have a similar origin. The Hohe-
mians, or /ingenues, here called iMazane, are of
unknown extraction, and live in dill'ereiit I'oni-
paiiies ill every part of the country; they tell for-
tunes, and have all the of her occupations of gipsies.
The .lews live almost entirely in Itnkhara city;
where there are also ItOO llindoi's, who are not al-
lowed to build temples, have idols, walk in pro-
cessions, bring their families beyond the Oxus, or
jiurchase female slaves, and are pri'scrilied a par-
ticular dress. They coine chiefly from Siiide; are
very sober and onlerly, industrious and devoted
to trade, in which they often amass considerable
wealth.
Ai/rifidture. — This is the principal source of tho
imtiiinal wealth; rice, wheat, barley. Jowaree, se-
samum, maize, moong, melons, and beans, are the
chief objects of culture. S. of the Oxus the wheat
tiehls, when sown, yield crops for three successive
years. When the first harvest is finished, the
cattle are turned in upon the stubble fiidds ; and
next season the stalks grow up mid ear; and ii
third but scanty crop is veajied in the same way.
At Karakool, in Bokhara Proper, the return is said
to he sevenfold; at lialkh the wheat ripens in a
month ; the crops are very good, and the stalk as
high as ill Kngland. AVheat is usually sown in
autumn, ind rca|)ed in July ; and the fields are
after^vards phnighed for peas, which arc gaflienul
in the same year, llarley is sown early in March,
and reaped before wheat : it comes in the place of
oats, which are not used in Itokliarn. Jowareo
{Holciis mccharatim), which, with wheat and me-
lons, occupies most of the surface, comes to matu-
rity in nearly the same period as i)arley : it grows
to five feet in height, and aft'ords both grain for tho
poor, and, by its leaves, good forage for the cattle.
It is commonly surrounded by to««6sof hemp ami
cotton, from the seeds of which oil is extracted.
A considerable quantity of cotton is grown ami
exported, both raw and manufactured, the greater
part of it being sent to Russia. Trefoil is cut
seven or eight times a year; ma(hler is grown,
and tobacco ; the best of which is from Kurshee.
Beet-root, turnips, carrots, abound. Kurshee is a
' sheet ' of gardens and orchards, but most of tho
stone fruit is inferior to that of Persia. There aro
many kinds of gr.iiies, and the raisins prepared
from those of Bokhara are unrivalled for size and
flavour, and beautifully transparent. The mul-
berry is largely grown for rearing silkworms, and
much attention is hestowed upon them. The vines
are not jiruned, as in Europe. The wines have
little flavour, and will not keep long. The most
celebrated fniit is tho melon, which is of several
Idnds ; one ia oval, with a green or yellow skin,
II
4 so
UOKHAUA
BomrtlniM 4 ft. in Hrrtimfrrrnrp, and of a mont
tli'licioim flavour. VVinrcr rnclniiN iin^ Diiiil to xiir-
pitxN nil till' othtTN. Cnt'iinilM-ri almi iitlain ^(rfut
NJ/t' iiikI i'M'c]|('|ii-i>. 'I'Iio iriH, timv, HHlcr, ami
HiiiiHowiT, Mil ciillivntcil a ntvnl doal in lliit Kur-
ili'im, wliit'li art! vi'ry larp' and niiincroiix. Tin-
IIi'IiIh art! |>artcil into tanub*, each of wliii'h coiii-
|iriiM>M n Nurfacv (ir:i,(i(H) hciiiart! ynnlH ; tlu>ir liinitH
art! fomicil liy ilitrlicN for irriKniion. 'V\w want of
Milter in tlut ^rcat liindrani't' to ili« pni^TcHH of
nKric'iilturo, aw, whcrcvi'r llicre an- lu'ithcr rivcrH
nor canalN, the Kroiiml is inK'tiltivatcil. Property
in lanil ix of live kiniN : Int, The Ktatc iiroperty,
wliich Im the most conMiileralilc. 'Jmllv, I'lie hha-
rtiilj, tlie ri^lit to wliieli wiih formerly doulilfiil
between tlie ^ovcrnnienl anil rertain |'iro|irii'tors,
and lias lieen ceiled to tlie hitler, on payment of a
lij^ht tax. ilrdly, V'uU, hextowed lor niililary mt-
viei'd. -Itlily, I'ropertiri* of iiidivIdiialH. 'And,
/ithly, I.eixacieM for relii^ioiiM piirpnseH, The Htate
territory, uh well an other projieriy, is let ; K"verii-
nieiil receiving as rent two-llfths'of its ]iriidiioe.
Viittli; — itokliiirn is rich in cattle; the sheep
and ^oats claim the lirHt notice, since the one yields
the celeliralod skins ami the otiu'r a wool, only
inferior for shawls to that of CaMlimere. Tlu'sc
tioeks j;ra/c on furze and dry (,'rass, and their tiesh
is sweet and well-tlavoured. All the sheep arc of
the variety with lar^o tails, some of which yield
us much an ir> Ihs. tnllow. The description of
whcep which pnidiices the jet black curly llecce,
made into caps in I'ersia, and so much esteemeil
everywhere, is jieculiar to Karakool, a small can-
ton between Bokhara and tlie Oxuh. The animal
will thrive nowhere else, and has liecn transported
t«i I'ersia and otiicr countries without success:
wlicn removed it loses the jicculinrity in its fleece,
and liccomes like other sheep. The annual export
of skiiiH amountH to about 20<),(l(l(), the liest of
which arc sent to Constantinople. The ^oats
yield the shawl wool, and arc about the common
size, of a dark colour ; and many belong; to the
wandering Kii^hiz tribes. The oxen arc neither
large nor strong, and beef is eaten only by the
poor : mutton is tlic food for which there is the
greatest market. The horses of Toorkmaiiia are
large and bony, and more remarkable for strength
and bottom tlian symmetry or beauty. The Uzbek
tribe, of Kurubeer, possess the most matchless
horses in the Kast : the breed was introduced by
Tamerlane, or Timour, into the country round
Saniarcand and Shuhr-Subz. All the tratHc of
liokhara, however, is carried on by means of
camels : these have a sleek coat, as fine as that of
a horse, and sheil their hair in summer, from which
a tine waterproof cloth, of close and heavy texture,
ia manufactured. The liactrian camel, with two
humps, and tufts of black hair on the neck and
thighs, abounds S. of the Oxiis, and can carry a
burden of G cwt. ; the dromedary is common in
liokhara ; the asses are large, sturdy, and much
used : there are no mules.
No considerable manufacture is found in Bok-
hara; none employing more than four or five
workmen at a time. Cotton thread, silk stiiifs of
diiTerent colours, leather, excellent sliagrccn, good
sabres, knives, and other steel articles, locks, hard-
ware, gold and silver mountings for knives and
sabres, rings and other jewellery.articles of turnery,
and tire-arr.is. are amongst the chief productions.
Women are often employed in embroidery, and
especially in divesting the cotton of its seeds,
wiilch occupies many hands. No further use is
made of hemp than to procure an intoxicating
drug ; sugar and confectionery are made from the
tnanna found on the camel-thorn. The Jews and
others excel in the art of dyeing, but leather is
generally bad, and the rut1er\- inferior fn i|,«i „t
i-ersia. The canals are large ; nii.l all the vi||,.,,.
are situated on the banks either of a river or .nn. I
and consist generally of about a liumlrcl |,„„, I
limit ol earth, Hometiines walled ruimd, aihI int.r
seeled liy |Mil)lic ways not so iinrrnw im i|i.,hi' , f
the towns: in their centre it couiiiiomIv a i.ul.li .
fountain, or Hiiiall rewrvoir. There are very 1.
towns; they are all built on rivers, Hii.|Hi,mmi„|,,i
by cultivated fhdds: Hokliarn, HainHriaii.j Kiir
slue, Karakool, and Itaikh are the nriiicinal' ti,
rest are but large villages. ' '"'""' ""'
('.i«i/H»Tcc.— liokhara, though poliiicullv (,f ,,,
eondary importance, liolds a pretty liini,',„„i,|'
in the coniuiercial worid. l-'ruiilul in ih,. |,r,„|,„,
tioiisof the earth, where all aroiiiul is i|.s(,liiii,,ii
it is u central mart, where the ci,iiiii„„|it„,, „|'
Kiirope, t'hiiia, I'ersia, India, and (aiiliiil. nniv Ir
exchanged with advanUige. IVlcr the (ina't „i
Kussia wished to open a commiiiilcaiiiiii hciwiru
the Caspian and the banks of the (»xiis ; he xn,
leeded in opening mads from the S. of Aiiiiii,'
Kiissia to the K. of the Aral Sea ; and fur mun-
than a century they have been aiimiallv triivillnl
by the caravans of Itokharn, wliich briiig lunk tin.
mannfactiiresof Kiissia. The tirst caraviiii Icuvcs
the city of Mokhara about the venial eiiiiiimx. Tlie
river Sir is crossed when -frozen. This cariiMin
reaches Troitska (lat. M° N., long. (!|o -Jo' |;,) i„
alxiiit (15 days. The second starts a month later
but does not reach the Sir till May, the nierelimiu
Joining it in the interim. Its destination is (in n-
burg. The third and largest leaves aJHint tlic
middle c»f May, and reaches the Itiissinii fnmlier
at Novo lietsk in 45 or 6(1 days. Its eimrMc Ih hv
the NK. extremity of the 8ea of Aral, and over tli'u
Miigajar mountains to the sources of the Ilek.
The cara\ ans from Russia set ofl'from the miililln
of SeiitemlMir to the miihllc of Novemlter. Tli.u
from Troitska, with ironware bought in the pp-
vernment of Orenburg, is the eariiest. Jlrreliniils
who have attended the fair at Xijiii-.NovniiMij
send their goods by the great caravans wliicli Unve
Orenburg and Orsk in the tirst half of Novcmbir.
The want of fuel obliges them to scatter in the
Hiissian steppes, but elsewhere the saksaiil (jmws
abundantly. The Kirgiiiz are the princi|ml ear-
riers. There is a caravan route from liokhara to
I'etropavalosk, or Kizziljar (lat. 54° 30' N., Ion;,'.
Hip E.) on the Issim, by Tiwlikaiid. This ia"a
journey of 90 days. Kussian iron is bmught by
this route, and is sent to Iliasar, KadakliKhnii,
Khulm, and Maimanna. Two caravans arrive
yearly from Khokand with Chinese giMKl», ami
three from Mashhad. (Mr. Davics's Kcport mi
the Trade of Central Asia, published by order of
thell. ofC, ofFel). 11, l«t)4.)
The exports from liussia comprise silk, cotton,
wool, coarse chintzes, cotton-thread (which is iii
much request), lamb-skins, and others. The re-
turns are paid in Dutch crowns and ducats, .Span-
isli piastres, and Russian silver roubles. The total
exports to Russia are valued at 3'2(),000/, Silk
and cotton are sent in large quantities to Caubiil,
and even into India; and wool as well, wliii'li
fetches from 6 J to 8 tillas (4/. to 6/. 7s.) per2oti lbs
Eng. The lamb-skins of Karakool are i aid for in
ready money by foreign merchants.
The imports fnira India arc the same as those
into Caubul ; a half of the 2,000 camel-loacU that
reach the latter country yearly from India |wss on
into Turkestan. Muslins, Benares brocade (about
500 pieces),white cloth from the I'unjabfur turbans,
sugar, and shawls, which pass through to Kussiii,
are the chief imports. Till within the last 5«
years the trade in European fabrics was with Ku.<-
sia only, through Orenburg and Troitska ; but it is
Bdw carried on m
in.l I'aiiliiil, Till
.ImiIi. iiiiisIIiin, cfi
|;ii«i<iiiHiiil Kn^li'
I Hi II I'iiIIkIi or (ie
Miiki'cii, jfolil ihr
ruillery, leather,
•ii.'iir, Ike, Not les
ili'lriiiii Kiissin (
iniiiri'. Itritish c(i
•" jNTcenl., and I
Hriii'li inaiiiil'iiciiii
'■iM'niiliiil and Ik
lii-'m,
llic miites to Ci
iLiiiiir (ire hy the
I'awi'n, which unit,!
inw, The distaiici
l:'i mibs) to Caul,!
I" xtl miles) to III
l<iii^' li» ilnys' jdiirii
«li;iii IVi is th'rce d
fnin lliikhara to K
iliiiiri' til Kashgar li
Klivliiir I'ass is gen,
Till' ACriiJis even wh
frill pliiiiiler, and tin
iririieiilly ilisciniiji
pitiitheiii; otherwi
M-ii'l route. The (
)l"iiiiinil ehief of I.hI|
llii<riilii|i||(,li ; at th
li'Niiieii and foot i
ffliiiniir to Caubul j
iihl |)(i.i.<esses the gre
nV.ilili' thriiiighoiit th
mvi'l ill the months
HnivmiCaiihiil and 1
llijW«l«(ll.7(»0 ft.), 1
ill traversing tlu-se, i
lliis imrtion of the Hi
lulc of trees ; camels ;
Nimmcri Imt the form
be only come into u.-
"I" this naite caravai
««'"'>'. (Mr. Dttvief
(iiirral Asia, 18(14.) '
luliwts little; and if]
llritaiii fimiinands the
ikfliniiKes and the I
[lifCliiiicso territ. ofC
« derives coarse imii
'L't; raw and manuliu
»|«'l. The Persian tra<
mil sliawls, sugar, and
Ks: the latter is re-t
Mm are received w
'W'Ictlmnthoseof It
mlinor quality. The <
Mi'l'o employ a,000cai
";mnes as many more
'ite merchants an3 p,
«r frequent and sever
I ikf wamloriiig tribes.
i'mi-y.-Weiyhts.—l
i^'i'l, worth lH8.Ad.; t
h'l tlie ;»«/ (copper) = .;
*«=1.SM04 kilV (2
* duties on European
H"»'ly2i per cent?;
w. pay 20, and a llin
«,ons are derived
^"".""^^"'•^"fcsstri
'"'•'•mlasthepeoDle
JP^innoMldir™
I *h safety and frcedon
or
li Ifiive
ovcmbcr,
ill tim
lUll K"'*''
ipal wir-
kiklmra tu
N., Inn;;.
'riiiit is a
irouftht liy
ilakhshiui,
uiH arrive
mkIs, awl
.{cptirt 1111
)y order of
ilk, cotttm,
■hidi is 111
The K-
;at8, Span-
Thc Uital
)00/. Silk
._ Caulnil,
ell, wliiA
)cr25611»'.
jaid fur ill
|c 88 those
l-loadt that
Idia pass on
Tade (about
|for turban*,
^ to Kusaiii,
Ihe last 5U
1 with Ku.f-
[a; but it is
jfiw ("orrloil on nmro oxfoiixlvi'ly iJinniKh Imlifi
iii.U'aiiliiil. 'I'll)' iin|iiirlH rmiii IIiiH->iii iir<< wliiir
.ImiIi. niiixliii'*, I'liiiil/i'M, mill lirunilclnlli, Ixilli of
|;ii<«iiiiiaiiil I'Iiii^IInIi niiiiiiiriii'tiiri', iiiiilllif i'IiIiiI/ch,
,.iirii I'iiHhIi or (iiTiiiiiii, iiiiittitioii lirni'inlc, vclvri,
iijiiki'i'ii, ti"\i\ llirnid, liiirilwnri', iiii'IiiIh, ciilltTV,
.wi'lliTv, li'iillicr, |ia|i<'r, Kiniii/. ilvf, rrilnt'il
,ii.qir, <l(i'. Not U'HH tlitiii llin't'-liuirtliH nl' (lie iirli-
,1,'. Irnni ItiixMiii anil liuliii iiri' of MritiMli nmiiii-
fiaiin'. I(riti-<li i-lilnl/rx, wliirli ri'iili^<<' Niniicliiiii'M
ii ur i'ihIm Hiiil itniuilrlolli iiri', liki' iiionI oilier
llfiiWi iimiiiif">'l"rrH, viilin'il liy the fi'inali'M of
'.diCiiiiliiil aii<l Itukliara (frcally uIhivk liiimi! o(
Ilii-Mii.
riio riMitcH to CaiilHil nml llokliarn from I't'-
■iiwiiriiri' liy Itu- Klivliiir, 'rairii, ami Alikiiaiia
Y-fM'*, wliicli iiiiili' at Dakka in lliclalalaliail ilis-
m<i. Ihe ili.»taiiri< \h alioiit I ICi kns (i'(|iial to
l;<.! iniii'H) loCaiilinl; ami in all t'.l'-' kos (I'ljiial
i„ x'.",) niilcH) to lliikliara liy I lie llaniiaii nuiii',
l.iim' III iliivd' Jonnii'y, 'I'lic nnili' liy tlie Kmi-
(liiiii I'll."''* i* tlircf ilayNNliorter, lint more ilillli'iilt.
lY,m lloklwira to Kluikaiiil is 15 ilayn' jnnrni'v,
iliiniT til KaxliK'H" "^. "III' '"1 •"• Yarkiinil T), 'I'lic
Klivliiir Tass iw >;riu'rally aNoidfil liv raravann.
Till' Afriilif even wlien siiliMJili/nl will not ri'I'rain
f^l^l |>liiii<lrr, ami the Aniirof Caiilinl lias tliere-
tonn'O'iitly ili'41'oniiinii'il the allowaiu'i'M liitlierto
jijil III tlii'iii; otherwise the Kliyliiir ih Ity far the
ij.'u^l rmite. The olherH are |iriiteeteil liy the
m.iiiiiiiid I'liief of Lalpoora, wliii IioIiIh his lands on
iliioniiditiiiii ; at the passes tolls are levieil on
linNiiii'ii anil t'oot iiassen^ers. The roinl from
Ffjliiiwurtii Canlail is lit for eaniels throiiKhoiit,
mil inisswsos the ^rent ailvantii^e of lieiii^; iirar-
lidili' thniii^hout the year; lint kalilas seliloni
invi'l ill the months o! .Inniiary anil Fehrunry.
IViivi'i'iiraiihiil anil Khnlin thO highest )iassrH are
iliijipik (11,700 ft.), Kalii, ami Unnilan Shikaii;
in iriivcrxiii^ these, provisions nnist he earrieil,
'lliis|Mirlioiiof the lliniln Khnsh is entirely ilesii-
luic of tn'os ; eamels and ponies are nseil in the
wimir; Imt the former, accunlin^ to Khanikotf,
bu only Clime into use duriii({ the last -fU years,
(m (his route caravans enjoy a lair dep-ee of
Mrurity. (Mr. Davies's lte|Mjrt on the Trade of
I'ciiiral Asia, 18(!4.) The trans]iiirt through (!au-
Wi'iists little; and if Russia navitrate the \Volf;a,
Britiiiiu'imnnands thetwo^^eat thoroughfares of
ife(iaiit,'ps and the Indus. Hy the trade with
ihdiiMioso territ. of ("ashlar and Turkund, Ilok-
liira ili'rivcs coarse ]Miri'eliiii), miisk, hullion, ten,
>&» raw and manufactured, rhuhurb, and Tibet
wimi. The Persian trade is inconsiderable ; Kir-
nan shawls, sii^nr, and (i]!ium, arc the cliief im-
("ifts: the latter is nvexported to China. From
Ki'kim are received white cottons, silks, more
ilnniliic thnn those of liokhara, and a raw silk of
iiilirior (|iinlity. The commerce with liussia is
wiiltcicm]ihiy 3,000 camels ; that with all other
piuntries as many more: but it is said that none
i^he merchants are possessed of 40,000/., from
ikeir freqiiPiit nnd severe losses by the pillaj^u of
ilif Kaiulcriiif; tribes.
ilimrj/.— fVeiijhta, — The coins in use are the tillii
!«iiM), worth Vis. 4il. ; the trnga ^silver) = /'(If/. ;
mil the poll/ (copper) = "iTtW. Weifjhts : the Init-
Mn=l»P104 kUog. (291 lbs.); seer (3.5§ lbs.)
Tic duties on European jjoods arc very moderate,
Wng only 2J per cent.; a Christian must, how-
I TO, pay 20, and a Hindoo 10 per cent. These
mjiuictiims are derived from the Koran ; but as
'lit Koran inculcates strict protection to the mer-
tli»nt, and as the peojile are strict observers of its
piwpts, in no Mohammedan country is there so
iiioh safety and frceilom from exaction for the
taller,
Vui.,I,
IIOKITAIIA '181
Thf Piifillf Itfi'rniie is profennedly dpont in tho
siip|H>ri of niiiKipies and innidlaliM, but the pri'M'iii
khan is HiippiMed to ii-<e a t'lHiHidrralih' imrtion in
nialnlnin Wu armed fiirce, TlieKe revenues are de-
rived ehii'lly I'riiiii hind, which in TiirkeNtan lit
valued ai-i'o'rdiii^ to the water whirl) feriiliHCM it I
the tiiiiil anioiint is eHliinated bv .MeyemlorlV at
alMiiit 100,0011/, (by lliirni's, at :ii'>!i,:i.'iO/,') ; but h.ilf
the land is enjoyed bv the ehnrrli. Other taxes
lire llione on n'lerrliamlise, wliii'li III Ihe late khan's
reiKii were lint levied until the pMiiU were Hold;
taxes on the fanners' priidni'e,iiii Kiinlriis, ori'lianls,
and melon beils; on ilrii'd friiils, iiiiiiina, amlskiiiK;
enstiiins on ^'uods entering' the capiial ; a eapiia-
lioii'iax on all the inliabilanls of the roiintry not
iMohainmeilans, ami in lime of war a tux on each
honseholiler. The land reveiim's are received by
the hiikimii, or pivernors of di^iricls, who pay the
vrnpliii/i* and troops eantoned in their prov, liil'nre
HirwardiiiK the collertinns to Ihe roviil Irea^nry;
the adiniiiislriiriiin of Ihe lliiai ?< is entirely in
the hands of the khan himself mid his vi/ier,
7Vii- (iorrrumviit is a eoinbiiied monari'hy and
hierarchy: the kliaii is de^polii': but ilnes iiiiiliiii>{
without the advice and aulhorily of the inoolltilis,
or priests. This arises from no iiiabilily on hin
part to assert his power; but from the cmisiiiiiiioii
of the nionarchy, which is exclusively based on
the laws of the Knraii, here more sirii'tly enforced,
iH'rliiips, than in any other Mohainmeilan country,
riie order of succession to Ihe throne formerly re-
(piired only that the khan should \h\ of the family
of .leiifrhix, whether by the male or female line ;
but that family is not now on the throne. I In
takes the title of uiiivit mtl tiittomiiHcvii, or 'com-
mander of the faithful,' and looks upon himself as
one of the heads of the Mohammedan r*di;;iiin,
paying, however, a respect to the sultan of Con-
slantiiiople, of whom he calls himself 'the bow-
bearer.' The hiimh hryn; or vizier, has fjreat ill-
tlueiice, and his lii^h oilice has latlerly \n nui
hereditary in his family: all the local p>vernmenls
are tilled by his dependants or nominees. Kvery
town or village is ruled by moollahs, the descen-
dants of the first caliphs, and, excepting; the khan,
the vizier, and priesthood, there is lui other body
hnvin^r any weight in the country: there are no
subordinate khans, nobles, or rajahs, as in India;
nothin;r, in .short, In-arinj^ any seii'iblance of a feudal
aristocracy. The court disjilays no maniiilicence:
the same system of (^ovcinnient has existed in
liokhara from the earliest ages of Mohammedanism.
The tiimans, or districts, are fjovemed by hakims,
who are in direct communication with the khan;
each is assisted by three functionaries, viz. a super-
intendent of j)<)lice, a receiver of imposts, and a
secretary. All the chief towns have a fufli, or
judKc; the smaller ones only n commissary of
IMilice : the cadi is aasisted by a mufti, and in the
capital by two : the police is strict and ellicicnt,
and the roads in the interior are free from robbers.
Justice is summary and severe ; (guided wholly
bv the Koran, and often capricious and contra-
dictory; but nowhere in Asia is there so miicli
protection attbrdcd to all classes. The most trivial
oH'enccs are punished with death ; fines, imiirison-
ment in dungeons, an<l blows, are also employed.
The Anneii ^'orre consists of about 20,000 horso
and 4,000 foot, levied from the <litt'erent provs,,
but without discipline; independent of a militia
of 50,000 horse, 10,000 of which arc from llalkh
and the countries S. the Oxus; and which are
seldom called on to ser\'e, and when embodied n;-
ceive no pay. The regulars are paid in grain, each
soldier rec-eiving 8 maunds of 26G lbs. yearly; their
chiefs have assignments of land. The regnfar force
consists wholly of Uzbeks, who, though not good
II
%-'iv:'U
4 Hi
IIOKIIAUA
(•olilicw, «r«' KUjM'rior, am Irrotfiilnr rnvnlry.
witli ctirviMl
Tli.-y
nri' nnni'il with I'lirvi'il Miilircn, \ituu kriivi'M, nml
lii'iixv M|iriir'< 'J*l 11. Ill IfiiKlli, wllli It Nlmrt liliiilt' :
iHiiiii* wi'iir II Nliorl riiiii III' iiiiill, II lii'liiii't III' Iriiii,
or II nuiiiil hIiIi'' I of IiiiHiiIh IiIiIi> ; III!' iiit'iiiilry
riirry iiiiili'liliH'kN, liiil uk<> tlii'in very iiiillDrrinlly.
'I'lii'ri' iin< III) niilivi' iirlllK'ryini'ii ; tlii' iiriillrry
iMilliiHlit lit' II lii'lil jili'iTH, Mliii'll lii> llr((lrrti'i| ill
till' I'lliiili'l III lliikliiirii, Vvw iriHi|M lire ilruwii
fViiin llic S. Ill' lliii (Kiiit; llit< AraliN nrc ^ihhI
MililiiTN, liiit I III' 'riirkliiitiiM raMiiol Im' i'imti'iiI.
Itrliiliim, — Tilt' |M'ii|il(' iiri' nil .SiMiiiilc Miilioiii
iiii'iIiiiin; their rrliKinii Iihm ^mit iiilhii'iir<> nvrr nil
tlii'ir iinii){i'fi ; mill till' ititiili'riiiirc III' llii'lr wrt
rmiNi'N iiii'i'MMiiiil liiilrt'il liiMiinlH tlii'ir Shiitc iii'l^'h-
iMiiirM, the I'i'rMiiiiiM, liitnlrriiiiri' iiiul hiijittry lire
IIIIIiiiiKhI till' liiiiMl |iri'Viili'lil iiiltlniiill virnt, iiiiil
III) ri'li^rimi ittlirr tliiiii llic tiiitiuiiiil inii' iiiiiy he
piihliriv |iriiri'NNi'il ; iIiimikIi IIic .Ii'\vi4 IIiiiI iiii'iiiih
to iivolil Ihf iiijiiiirtiiiii. Diiily inililic iirayiT in
«'iijiiiiii'il, »ii<l in till' I'lijiiliil iinthiiit; ■'^ ulliiui'il In
Ih' noIiI iliiriii); tho liiiiir mo i'iii|iliiyi'i| ; iiiiil IIh'
iHilit'c oDIccrM i'X|H'l with uliiiM |i('r'<oiM Ihrii ex-
lioniiiu tlii'ir tiii'rt'hiiiiiliM' in liii- niiirki>lH. Thfi-c
nrc I'liiit'i^rt'M Hi lliikhiirii, luii ihniloKy iilniu' in
Nliiilii'il, anil |iroNi'lytisni iK^rnitly riirniira^t'il hy
tli<^ pivrniiiK'nt. ANtroloKy ix hoiioiiri'il hi;;lilv,
Air miiHTstitiiiii ix very |iri'vaioiil ; iiiiiirii' \n liriniy
bt'licvi'il in, anil ilN origin rt't'crn')! to liiilia.
l:'ihiriiliiin iiml StH-iiif Lifi: — Kiikhnrii itwll" for
n lull;; pcriiMl wan ronsiilcn'il a Icnriii'il ax wri! ax
n holy jilai'i'; 'riinonr aiitl IhiU'r I'liconrairt'tl liic-
ratiiri'; which Iuih, Ikiwcvit, ^really ilccliiii'il Hiiicc
Ihi' I'/ht'k i'oii(|ii('xt. NotwitliNtiiniliii^' a htvhI
nniiilit'r of collt'^cx in the caiiilal, ami hcIiooIx in
the country, iiioxt of the imi|i. know neither how
to rciitl or write. The chihlren of the Tiuyikx
aci|nire tliexe hranehex, ami xonie knowieil^rt! of
lifjiirex, to xerve I hem ax iiierchanlx. xince they are
very rarely ineinlierx of the chief cler>;y : the xoiix
of ilie iiioxl o|)iileiit |H>rxoiix /jeiierallv learn only
to read, write, ami ^et the Ki>ran hv heart. Still
n rexpeet for knowledf,'!' anil iti pmlexxorx ix jtene-
rally prevah'iil : to foiinil xchmiix ix an act of piety,
ax Well nx to feeil poor xi'huhirx; ami Ihexe often
«-iitiie iiniiiviteil ami unknown to the mi'uaiivs of
the rich, mill receive money, (ieojjraphy, axtro-
iioniy, liixtory, mid inediciiiu arc neverl IicIchm in a
very low xtnte.
'I'ho diet of the p<>o|)lc ix very simple: rftcr
mnmin^r prayerx, they lake tea, mixed with milk,
wilt, and oily Huimtancex, of which mixture they
are very fond. At four or live o'oUick they dine
on rice,*camit8, tuniipx, &c., with mutton, or other
meat. The Uzliekx HometinicH eat horxetlcxh, hut
it ix cx)ienxive; rheoxe, milk, and fat are much
iixed ; a xlieep ix killed, and the entire tail, how-
ever larjjc or fat, ix melted up with the meat, and
cooked ill a xiiif^le Ijoiler. Immediately after dinner
they take tea, prepared ax in Kiiropc; coffee ix not
iixed. They eat with their lin^erx, kiiivex and
forkx Ih^ii^; unknown. Drunkennexx, if piihlic,
would be ])erhapx |iunixlied even with (lealh.
The drexH of the men coiixixtiii in one or two
lonfT robex of cotton cloth ; the under loiif^er than
the uii|)er ; and a white cotton turban ; or, amoiiKs*t
the llzbekx, a cap of red cloth, bordered with
martenx' xknix : here, as well a» at Conxtanti-
nojilc, the form of the head-covering indicatex the
dixtinctiona of rank. All M'cnr large white trow-
sers, ami close short drawers: the ridi public
t'unctiouariex are often habited in Caxhniere shawls,
and cloth of gold. The dress of the women differs
little from that of the men; they wear the same
])eli8xex, but the xleeves are tucked together, and
tied behind; riclilv (h'coriiteil liootx; and have
always a black veil uvcr the face : Uie Turkman
women are, however, not vrilrd. n.,||, ,m«xo, ,f,
ilnin the nnilx red with heiinn, mul il„. p,.,', '
llxe Ihix herb to d>e their U'linl..; ||„. ^,"
braid their hair mid blink,,, ili.ir ..v.lM, ,„';;
eyebniwx with pliiMibiigo. The laiiKiim;,., |,, ,
are the IVr.iaii and riirknmn ; tin Imtrr i, ,,.,1, ''
by the L'/.lxkx and wandiriiii; trilxH s It ii
KxiiM, and ix remarkable for iix riidi m,,,. "
iirticlex of luxury in iixe are very I'lw;
and borxex conxiiiinc neiirlv nllthe iHrmnml ,,,,
perty of the people; their hoiixex are
niniimt dcxiiiiite of fiirniliire : they Imve mill,,.,
|iliite, ghiHx, nor chM'kx. and very Hi'lilnm ,1 w,„,,|,
I'he rich haye many xlayex,whi'. ar,. liMiiyhi ir,,'
( (rKiinje', am! are niimlly I'erximix, mldum lti|..iii,s
ortbiiiene,
//I'Wori/.— Alexander |icnetrntrd Inln Ik>iI
Iriaiia and TranHoxiaiin, which wire nii,,
ileiith rilled by hix hiii xxorx, Tlie AriilH
i|iicreil thix country at tl ml ,if Hi,. 711, ,
the early part of the Ntli, mid .l.nghi/, Kliiin ,
yiixlated it in the l.'llh century : it wiih ilic
country of the next great eiixteri iiniiiTHr, ji
liioiir, wlioxe xiicccxxorx were ili.i|HiNHeK'.,'i|^
I'/.bckx, in the iM'giiiniinf of the |i;t)i <
■||„.
Ilifir l|rl^■.
1 |.rn-
liiiilt,
III,,,
,1, .
' iiJilivi-
ll.V III,.
I'liiiirv,
Nadir .Shah, early in the IMih century, ti»,k ||„i,
liara; but the gnyernineiit moimi nli'ir liil ,^.M|,|
into the haiidx of the I'zUkx mid of the .Iimih.
ilantxof .lenglii/, : tlim family hax, iMiwivir,,,.,,.,,,!
to reign xince iMdO. I'he laic khiiii ileyoi.,) lil,,,.
X4'lf wholly to religion, and died in Ih.Vi, ..
a kingdom that had Hiiffcred iiixultNnmlciiir,in,li.
nientx on every xide, from hix own want nt luin,.
lion to temporal cnncernx. The prcHcni wivir, ifn,
hix xon, ix oil ainicable tennx with the iii'i(;lil,iiiir!
ing statex of Khiva mid Caiibiil. and the inipinn |
of China and Turkey: with the IVmidiiH
I'/.tickx hold no communication; and in Kukaii '
the inlhience of liiixxia |ireili,iniiintcx. (Iliirii,
Travelx in llokhara in IM.'I'.'-IM.'tl, ;( y„is, »n ,, ^
INJIi'i; Meyemlorff, Voyage d'OrenlMnirg li ll,,,,!,' !
Iiiirii, I'arix Is-Jii; Khanikotl', UeiKcii in jtuk-j
liiira, iHiilt; Vainlx-'ry, Travels in Centrul A^i.i,
Loud, |N(!.'); D.iviex'x Ifeport ,111 the 'I'raiic' ,,|'|
('eiitral Asia; and oilicial paper>,.)
IhiKIIAHA (Ihf trmmri/ 0/ lu-iriiirii), ftpolclir.ii,! I
city of Central Asia; clip, of the above Mujm/.J
ami xeat of the khan ; on the left hank, ami «lil
in ** or 7 ni. of the Zer-afchan, at the \V. ciiil „l iii|
valley; llo m. WSW. Sainarcaml, niiii i,")!) in.l
NVV. Ualkh; lat.8!»0 4«' N.,loiig. (i|0 2(;' K. l'„|,,|
cxtimated at from l(H),l)IIO to I.'ill,l)(l0. 'riii> t,i«n|
ix M m. in circ. ; of a triangular xhapc, mul m-[
rounded by a wall of earth alxiiit 2i) ft. hi^'h,!
flanked by rouinl towerx and baxtiotix, niid iiiinnll
by t>yelvo gates, with brick miixiJiiry. Ittikluinil
ix surrounded by a tiat but riirh <'iiiiiitrt-, aii,l iJ
quite emboMomed in trees, giviiii; it a lK'iiuiiliil|
ap|iearancc at a distance, which however viiiii<l
on entering it. The streets are «> iiumiw thai 1
laden camel tills nji even the LarKcxi, and in I
smaller ones two |M>rxonx have ililli, iilty in|ia.',siii|>
each other: they are also extremely diriy, anil
always crowded with camels, horses, anil an'f,
The liouses are mostly small, and of imp Hturvj
the common ones built of Nuii-dried bricks on 1
frame-work of wood ; others of a superior kiiul
|iaintcd and stuccoed, witl. .Saracenic iir piiinlid
arches set off with lapis Uizuli and giiiliii);; thi
roofs of all are flat; and they have bat a '
wall without windows t .ing the public ivayd
except in one building, there is no glass wlmteveu
About 100 ponds and tountaiiis, constnioted 1
squared stone, furnish the jjopulation witliivaierl
the city is also interse<cted by canals .•dialled bjl
mulberry-trees, which firing water from the Zej
afchan ;' the main can..! from which is (>\m\d cvfrj
ilftf<in (liv«. Til
im: tn^iiiiid wiihii
hi< wiiy iniioiii^ li
111,1 M'l-K each I nil
,iiv ; here the chii
III' »rillile t||||.d
1 1, n where he tt
l.,iiMiii|.'*, I'olle^en
llie |irillci|Hll Mil
piUir, nearly in 1
n^liirol eh'yalion
•iinniiiniled by a br
iiiirniii'i' of brick if
ii'li'. Tliix I'ortreHr
•luri'igii. hix hiirei
l.v ,1 ({iirilen, loget
iMir, mid hix publ
lumii'k*, lire.; thej
(III , niter city, are «
(\im\ niiiiiiited. Ti
• li.N.lii And collegeM
il>,.,i ;iiMi iiioollaliH,
l<'ih nligion and ed
I'Vinilhe til lex of In
ii.liidlegcM are gei
,ifirr, mill have a f
inliiliTtiire: ilml of
I'll' |>riiici|Md inoMipie
U'lhanA eii|Nila ri.xi
ill,! (iivired with hj
iliiM' hiiililingx an>
"nii'imvedwith mIoii
ill lliikhiira ix a colle^
I'''". «liicli hax a I
ImiiiICuI enamel, ami
the JarKcxt college hi
'Umm roiibi,.„ i„
nne /I. "f Ihixxia. A
i<.il)riik tower, or ni
Iimiiiir, ill jr,„H| pp,,j
I'wdiii iiigenioiiH pat
ifl-irvtttioii. Oiniii
i"«i/; bill, excepting
ixviids it but the liij.
I'lrayerx; and he oiil
l'«'li.H iniixt of the pi-iv,
iliemiiHt scrupulous ei
flmle the women in
wr)' (traiigcr. W
»m, the .Segixtaii,
WiliiiKX, collegex, sho
fftliecity CDiixixtxof i
jfWeUery and cutlery 01
ife »W of India, tl
•'«»l» of Caxhmere, a
wroniament, mayb,
Benhaiiis remain iiiifl
, ^ntfiio other habitat
Myo|M.n everyday,!
pni«,iuid other Mich
tat twice a week, Thei
7< which is proiMirti
Ijereaatem ci'ty,' am
Wto treated here than
«wntined to a rexid
I "WW, are subject to h
I ""«l to build a new sy
* the crowd which a
•"giioLse, andone is
ir .1 I'""""' bein.rs.
J«of,,hefruite
p*S melons, apricot.s
1U)K
ilftH'ti il«.v«. Tlirrr In urnro-ly n (rnnlm nr Imrv
^^> )(r<>iiii<l willilii iliii whIIh ; ' ilii> irnvi'llrr wimU
hi) WAV HiiiiiMK liilly mill nri'lii'cl liii/nri* •>)' lirii-k,
1,1,1 M'l'N riii'li lrnili> ill liM iu'|Htrnii> i|iiiirii>r of ilii'
riiv : tii'n* llii< I'liiiitz-Ht'llrrM, tlitTc llic HhiH'iiiukrrN ;
inr tri'iiili' lllli'il with KilkN, niiiitlirr wllh rlolli.
fvi'nwlii'n* >i)< iiit'clii wild iMiiiili'miix ninl iiiiiMxy
liiililintcs <'<ill<'K<''*i nii)m|iii>M, mill loflv iniiiart'ix.'
]]\f |iriiii'i|Mtl Hlnirluri< ii« thr Arri, or kliiin'M
mIaii-, iinirly in llii> iM'iiirr nf llii> riiv, liiiilt iiii n
n^mrul I'IcvHiioii iH'iwi-t'ii 'i.'iO mill .liM) fr. Iii^li,
lurMiimli'il l>y n l>rirk wnll Tii It. \\\k\\, with ii lnl'iy
(iiiroiK'i' >>t lirii'k ili'i'nriiti'il liy ii iiiiiiiiri'i mi I'iilicr
mil', Tlii" t'lirtri'HM cdiiIiiIiin tin- rciiili'iio' nC the
•i\iri'i){ii. Iii'* liiirciii, mill ii iiiiihi|iii>, nil riicircicil
U » );iirili'ii. Iiit(i'llii'r with tlic ri'Niilfiicn ol' ilii>
vi.'iir. mill hii« (iiililii' ruiirlM nl' mitlii'iiri> ; MtalilcH,
Urrilii". il'<'-: ihr^alcN, hotliot'llii- |Mlhl<'<> hiiiI nl'
!li,' diili'r city, nri> kIiiiI Ht twiliKhl, iiml a ilmilili*
pmti\ niiMiiili'il. 'i'h<>ri< an' iltiO iiiiini|iii<m, ami ,'lilii
nliiailKnnil I'lilIrK''" ill Ikikhnra, Hii|M'ritili'i)il<Ml hy
il.i„t :iiHl iiiiHilliths who iiiiiliTliikc llii> I'liar^i* nl
l»<ili ri'llKii'ii 1111*1 *'<liii'iitiiiii ; Idikhara alwavH ni-
i„\n| ilir tilh'M III' holy mill Icanii'il, 'I'hi' iiiom|iii's
j'ul I'lilli'^i'H nri< Ki'iii'i'iilly HitiiaU'il ll|l|Ml^it<' I'arli
.iliir, mill liavo a Htrikiii^ n-Huiiililaiiri' in llnir
inliilcrliiri' : (hal oniii' lomuT in the niuNt varii'il ;
ihf |irim'i|)al nioHi|iit' rovrrH a H|>nri' llOOj't. Hi|iiiiri',
inilliiin A (^ii|Hila rising III unit- tliinl that hfi^hl,
tiiil (iiM'ri'il with lilii(> t'lianielli'il tiloN : iiiimt of
ihiM' liiiililiiiKi* nrn of lirii'k, ninl IIip cmirtH of
iinHMiiivi'ilwitli Htoiu>, Thi^ hniiilsonicNt Nlnii'tiiro
inllokliikra \n a i'iilli>f;i> of Kiii^ Ahiloolla, liiiilt in
lil'jii, wliii'li liiiK a lofty nrrlu'il I'ntraiifc, .sonir
Iniiiil'iil I'liaincl, ami a whitit inarlilo |iavi'niciit :
iW ktin'M ('olli>jt«i liiTo wuj* linilt at an cxiu'iimc
,.f4ii.iM)0 roiihU'N ill n|i('('ii', ilcfrayfil hy Calhi'-
liiic II. (if ItiiHHia. Atlachcil to tlio ^rc"' iiiosijiio
t<.i lirii'k tower, or minaret, 21*) ft. hif;li, hiiilt hy
Tiinniir, in K'^xI |iro|HirtioiiN; the niiileriiils iliii-
[•iM'iliii iii^eiiioiiH iiatteriiH, anil the whole inpiml
{'H'M'rviilioii, ('riniinalH are thrown from this
timir; lint, exee|itin^r on theMc oiraHioiiM, no one
myiiiIk it hut the lii^h-prieNt, to vail the |ieo|ile
In iiraycm ; and lie only on FriilavH, wince it over-
Imlu 'mmtt of the |irivatu ^'inh-iiH in the city, anil
tlirmiiiit Dcnipulous cniicavourH are maile to nc-
(luile the women in liokhara from the ^azo of
tvm' ttran^^er. W. of the |>alacc u a Hmatl
Hftm, the S<>)i;iHtan, surrounded with maxxive
MiliiiKS vollegeH, hIio|i8, and stalls; a third part
ifiliFcity conNiMts of shops and hotels; and the
jfWtUcry and cutlery of Europe, the tea of China,
ibe sii^'or of India, the spiecA of Munilla, tlie
ihwis of Co/ihmere, and every other article of
Moriinioment, may be purchased. Many of the
nenhaiits remain ni^ht and day in their shops,
bivini; no other hahitation ; the bazars are uene-
ally oiicn every day, excejit inn those for smves,
pnm, and other such luxuries, which arc open
1 W twice a week. There are 4,(HI0 Jews in Uok-
Wi, which is proportionally more than in any
«her easteni city, and they contend they are
l«tier treated here than elsewhere, though they
» tuntincd to a residence in three particular
nKlii, are subject to hi);h impo8t«, anil not (n^r-
•ilted to build a new synogogue. Sir A. Humes
TO a graphic description of the daily scene in
Mhara (Travels, ii. 237-239) :—' From morn to
lishl the crowd which assembles raises the hum-
«iiig noise, and one is stunned at the moving
MM of human bein^js. In the middle of the
I Jtt. the fruits of the season are sold under the
Wile of a square piece of mat, snpiiorted by a
i^At pole. One woiulers at the never endiiif:;
J nplinincnt of the fruiterers, in dealin}; out their
mx'S tnclons, apricots, apples, i>caclics, pears,
IIAUA
mill plums, to n rontlniird KiinTxsion of piirrhnspn).
Il In witti dilllriilly Ihiit n iHimnKi' cnn Ih> fnri'rd
thmtiuh the Niri'i'tM, ninl it is only done nt tlii>
nionii'iiiary rUk of lM'iii({ ridden over by minie oiui
on a horiti' or donkey. The latter aniiiinl' are ex-
< liiiKly line, and nnilile nloii^ nl a ipiirk iinee
with their ridim am' ImnleiiH. CnriN of a li({lit
romilrui'tion ar« aUo driving up niid ilnwii, Hlme
the MireetN are not Iimi nitrniw lo ndiiiil of whi'i'led
rarrinues. In every iinrt of tlie bn/nr there nre
|M'iiple making lea, wliirh U done in lnru;i< Kiiro-
liemi iiriiH, iiisti'iiil iif li'ii|iotN, mill kept hot by i\
iiii'tnl IiiIh'. The li>\e i>f ilir Itiikliuri'Ki' for leu i>,
I U'lii've, withiiiil parnllel; for they drink it nl nil
tiini'M nnd plnreN, ninl in hnlf a ilo/m wsvm : with
and without tumnr; with nnd witlioiil milk : with
Krenite; with sail, Ike, The dny is inhered in
with ^u/ielinK and lea-drinking, nnd hiiiulreiU of
Isiys and donkevs, laden with milk, linNlen lo the
busy Ihriiii)^. The milk is hoIiI in Niiinll IiowIm,
over which the eri'ain tlnats: a bid will bring
twenty or thirty of these to ninrket in kIhIms
siip|Mirteil and siiNpelided by a stirk over bis
shoiililer. Whatever nuniber may be broiiubl,
speedily disiipjienr milling the tenilrinking pnpii-
Intion of this great city. Next to the vi'iiilers of
this hot beverage, one niny piirelinse " nilnit ijnii,"
or" the delight of life," grnpe Jelly, or syriip mixed
up with chop|M'd ice. 'I'his nbuiulniire in ice is
one of the greatest luxuries in Itokhnrn, and it
may Imi had till the cold weather makes it un-
necessary.' Another and more recent traveller,
Armenius VamU'ry, a llungarinn, who visited
the city of Itokhn'ra in \H(V,\, dem'ribes a seeiie,
to which he was led by a native, as I'oIIowh: —
* lie condui'ted me through the Tiinlche Tchny
Fnrushi (Tea lla/.ar) to the renowned place I.ebi
Mail/. Divanbeghi (bank of the reser\-oir of the
llivanbeghi). For Itokhara I found this a most
attractive N|Mit. It is almost a perfect sipiare,
having in the centre a deep reservoir, 10(1 ft. long
and K(l broad ; the sides an; of square stones, with
eight steps leading lo the siirl'nce of the water.
About the nmrgin stand a few tine elm trees, and
in their shade the inevitable leu booth, nnd the
Samovars (tea-kettle) looking like a cidossnl cask
of beer. It is manufactured in Kussia expressly
for liokhara, and invites every one to a cup of
green tea. On the other three sides, bri^ad, fruit,
confectiimery, aiul meals warm and cold are ex-
iiosed fur sale on stands shaded by cane mats.
The hundreds of shops improvised for the occasion,
around which crowds of longing mouths or hungry
customers hum like bees, present us with a very
characteristic s|)ectaele. (jn the fourth side, that
to the west, which is in the form of a terrace, wo
find tho mosque Mesdjidi DivanlM'gbi. At its
front there are also u few trees, where Dervishes
and Meddtth (public reciters) recount in verse ond
prose, and actors represent simultaneously, tho
iieroic actions of famous warriors and prophets, to
which performances there are never wanting crowds
of curious listeners and siicctators,' (Vamls-rv,
Travels in Central Asia, Lond. IHtif).) At liok-
hara, the htanicd, or would-be-learneii, arc seen
poring over the tattered poges of Toorkee or I'er-
sian hire, at book-stalls, aiul at the doors of the
colleges the students are often seen lounging after
the labours of the day ; ' not, however, so gay, or
so young, as the tyros of a Euro|)can univenity,
but many of them grave and demure old men,
with more hypocrisy, but by no means less vice,
than the youths in other quarters of the world.'
Each of these resident students has a fixed allow-
ance, as well as the professors; the colleges are
well endowed, and possess many of the surround-
ing lauds, which have bccu purchased by piuua
I I 2
4R4
BOLBEC
indtvidunlH for tlmt purpose, ns well a8 tlic wlmlo
of the Imznrs ami l)atliN. The hathR, of wliiili
tliere arc eighteen, ran accommoilatc 27(>.iiiH>
people yearly, anil brinj; an annual rcveniu^ of
1,H(MI/. : Nome are vcrj' large. The colleges are
Hinit for Hix months in the year, when the students
work in the lields for a su'lisistence; their course
of stuily generally lasts seven or eight years :
they come from all the nciglilxiuring countries
exce|)t I'ersia. 'With the twilight, the l)usy s<;enc
in ISokhara closes, the king's tlnim lieats, it is re-
echoc<l hy otiiers in every part of the city, and at
a certain hour no one is permitted to move out
without a lantern. From these arrangements, the
jiolice of the city is excellent; and large hales of
chith are left on tlie stalls at night with perfect
safely. All is silence until morning.'
The origin of liokhara is uncertain, hut it is
believed lo have heen at first but a collection of
<lsli(!rmeii's huts, its site having ahounded with
small lakes. It is sup]iosed to be at no great
distance from the ancient Tn/hni-tm, but which
I'tolemy i)laces on the o|)posite side the Zer-
afchaii, or river of Sogdiana. In a.d. 70.") it was
taken l)y the Arabs, and between «!!(! and !)!1H w.-is
very llourishiiig, and the seat of the Sainanide
dynasty. Jenghiz Khan Immt it in I21'.>, audit
was not rebuilt till near the end of his life : it
was threatened, but saved, by his grandson. Un-
der Timoiir it lloiirished anew ; but since the rule
of the Uzbeks has rather declined, though it be
still the most renowned city in Central Asia.
(IJurnes's Travels, ii. 22!t-2(!l ; Meyendorff, Voy.
])p. 104-188; Vamhery, Travels in Central Asia,
18(15.)
liOLBEC, a town of France, dep. Seine Infe-
rieure, cap. cant., at the foot and on the declivity
of a hill washed by the Bolbec, 18 m. ENK. Havre,
near the railway from Koiicn to Havre. I'op.
!),.')74 in 1801. 'fhis is a handsome thriving town.
]Ia\ang been almost entirely burnt down in 170.^,
it was rebuilt on a regular plan. Houses partly
of brick, and parti j' of hewn stone ; streets wide
and well laid out, the principal being ornamented
with two fountains surmounted by statues in mar-
ble. In the environs are a number of country
houses. It has a chamber of commerce, and a
council of prud'-hommes ; and was early, and is
now, very extensively engaged in the spinning
and manufacture of cotton. 'Bolbec,' says M.
Dupin, 'is advant.ageously situated for commerce,
bringing raw cotton from Havre, and coal from
Fecamp and Ilarfleur, while she sends her products
to Itouen — the great mart for all sorts of cotton
goods. The manufacturers of Uolbec unite a spirit
of order and economy to activity and entcqirise:
their establishments are on a level with the pro-
gress of industry. The workmen are not all con-
centred in the town ; many of them live in the
adjoining country; they are in comfortable cir-
cumstances and happy.' There are in the district
of which IJolbec is the capital, above 20,000 work-
people employed in the spinning and weaving of
cotton, producing goods of the annual value of
above 25,000,000 fr., or 1,000,000/. sterling. Ex-
clusive of cotton, it also produces various descrip-
tions of woollen and linen goods, and baa tanneries
and dye-works. There is here no local tax or oc-
troi on the goods imported into the town.
BOLGAKV, or OUSPENSKOI, a village of
Russia in Europe, gov. Kaaan, on the right bank
of the Wolga, 10 m. SVV. Spask. Pop. 900 in
1858. In the vicinity are the ruins of the ancient
city of Boulghar, the capital of the Bulgarians.
It was visited by Peter the Great in his expedition
against the Persians in 1722, and has since been
visited and describctl by Erdniaiin and others.
BOLIVIA
BOLT, A city of Asiatic Turkey, in Xntolin rnn
sanjiak, 8.5 m. NAV. Angora ; hit. 4()0 ;i,V \ V,,,"'
31° 1!)' E. Estimated pop. 10,000. h i., sii,|.,tHi
on an eminence, at the W. extrcinitv oT « ri, li
and fertile plain, on or near the site i.f tlie aiK i,.|it
city known to the Komans by the name of //„,/
rinnn]M)lk. The ruins of a castle stand on Hn'
summit of a small hill. It is a lioor place, (on
sisting of about l,0(tO houses, principaliv iiihiiliit,.,^
by Turks, with a few Armenians, but" ii<, (Invk-
It has twelve mosques, a sipiare or market iila.c"
a public bath ; is the residence of a pacha of t\n,
tails, and. as it lies on the direct road from !>/.,..
roum to Constantinople, is a considerable tlinriiii.li.
fare for caravans. There are niinend baths within
about 4 m. of the town, to which the Turks rt^,rt
in great numbers.
IIOLIVIA, a republican state of S. Amcrici
coinprise<l between hit. 8° ;{(»' and 25° 10' S nini
hiiig. .080 and 7io\v.; having N. mid N\V. ||„,
states of N. and S. I'eni, E. Itrazil .•mil l'araf;iiiii
S. La Plata and Chili, and \\. the I'ariii,. o,,,;,,/
Extreme length, X. to S., above l.liMini.; din,]
breadth, above 750 m. ; area. 47:i.2!iH En^r. s(, |||_
Pop. l,()87,a.V2 in 185H. Included in flie p(i|inla-
tion returns are 245,000 Indians. The re|iiilplii' U
divided into nine provinces, as shown in the miK-
joiiied table : —
ProTlncr*
Inhahltmu
La Paz
-IT.l.Tja
Coolinbomba .
ai!l,S!»2
Potest
'JSl/Ji!)
Ciniqiiisaca
a-.'.i.fids
Oniro
ll(i,!i:il
Santa Cruz .
\W.\,Wi
Tarija
KH.IUIO
Venl .
0:!,!I7:1
Atacnma .
r^-m
Aborigines
245,000
Total .
1,987,352
The capital of the republic is Cliuqiiisiifa. in I
the prov. of the same name, with l!t,7()U iniialii-
tants. But there are three larger towns, iiaimlv, j
La i'az, with 70,372, Cochabanibn, with 411.(17%
and I'otosi, with 22,850 inhabitaiit.s, all aecuniiii;' I
to the cen.sius of 1858. There is only one (Hiiidf j
any importance, Cobija, on the SouthPncilic, \s\\\\\
a population of 2,380.
Stirface, — Mountains. — The country present,', in I
its various divisions, very dift'ereiit conilitioin nfl
surface, elevation, and climate. On the W. itijj
traversed by lofty mountains, while on the K. it|
stretches out into immense plains. The Aiuio
which enter Bolivia at its S. extremity, ^wn ntlj
near lat. 24°, a lateral E. range of no great elevii-f
tion, which forms the boundary for a considcralilej
distance between Boli\'ia and La Plata. AluintJ
lat. 20° the Andes divide into two great eliaiiis,!
which run parallel to each other to between liit.f
14° and 1.5° S., where they again unite. I'liol
farthest W. of these chains is called the Cnrdillcra]
of the Coast, or of the Andes ; and the fartiio*!
E., the Cordillera Real: including the intemiediatel
country, they occujiv a breadth of more tii.in 2K|j
m. N. of lat. 18°, and S. of that parallel d i
wards of 300 m. ; and cover at least lOO.O'W-i
m. of surface, which, however, is partly in I'eniJ
Many lateral ridges, sent off by the Cunlilkr
lieal, cover the deps. of Cochabaiiiba and Clmquij
saca, together with a part of those of P»tosi aiif
St. Cruz de la Sierra : the priiici|)iil of tlicsc traiisj
verse ridges branches off from the Cordillera al*'iil
lat. 17° 10', and running N. pa.^t the citycf t'"*j
bamba, terminates within a few lea^nics nf ilij
town of St. Cruz de la Sierra. The siuuuniM
BOLIVIA
•185
(ho \V, CdriHlIrm RPiiprally nppcar in tlio form ' Hnjnmilpro, 13,000 ft. bImivp tlip IpvpI of thp spa, it
is Uni)H'nitP, mill hikiw TiiUm in Nov. niiil April, nt
tlip bpf^iiinin^ nnil piiil of lliu Mumnipr hpiixoii.
Tlip wiiitpr, from Mny to Nov., in the Dpsnpin-
(Icro vnllcy, i.s pxtrenioly dry, and alllioiigli tlic
ni;;lifs are ctdd, the HJiv is rn'rene and cloiidlcxH.
Tremendons hail and thinidpr-HtorniH arp freqiipnt
on the niountainH, and earthqiiakcH on the coast.
The reflection of the 8un on the Nnow pr<ldll(■(>^4,
in the higher regions in winter, a temporary
hIindnpKH : few remarks aH toconij)arativp Halnhrity
have met our eve ; Init the banks of the Heni have
been partipnlarwed as remarkably healtliy.
Mineruh. — (Jold is found in many (iIhcps, cspc-
cinlly on tlio E. declivity of the K, Cordiib'ra, and
in the sands of all the rivers wliich fall from that
ranf,'e into the IJeni or its branches. Kvery one
haM heard of the riches of tlie silver-mines of
I'otosi ; but it is supposed that they are nearly
exhanstp<l, and at all events they are now
eomiiarativcly npjjlpctcd. (See I'otosi.) Co|))ier
abounds at (^irucuero, itc. : ores of lead an<l tin,
Ifv the Heni, Maniore, Ubahy, I'ilcomayo, anil j salt, brimstone, nitre, and other volcanic products,
citlicrnf a tnmca*ed cone, or of a dome, ami nr*
iiltHi volcanic: those of the K. Cordillera, as seen
Irmii the VV., otler a sticcpssion of sharp rii^'f,'cd
|,;ikH and sprrated ridjjcs, and are not volcanic,
l.iit in many partH highly mctalli't-rous. The de-
clivity of the Kolivian Cordillera is rapid on either
i.i(lo, but particularly »o on the K. : the prini^ipal
(Ifvntions of both (>irdilleras are alniut lat. 1«° to
U" S., where that of the \\. chain is 22,3r)(» ft.
iSnIiiima) ; of the K. 2l,'JH(i ft. above the level of
lilt; spa. Many of the passes across both chains
awlKtween 15,000 and l(i,000 ft. in elevation, or
iii.arthe limit, in this rpf^ion, of peri)etual snow;
Millie bpiU'Hth the peaks of the Illimani there is a
t'(in.'e, or valley, pprhai)S |H,000 ft. below the iiei^jh-
iKiiirinj; sumrriit, probably the (greatest ditl'erence
III (Icvntion that has ever yet been bserved be-
iwci'ii any two similarly contiguouf (>c»l\ . (See
AMlKS.)
Ill the E. the cotmtry, which is, in many parts,
vprv little above the level of the sea, is watered
.I'llicr eonsidprable rivers ; a few isolated ranges of
liilN nre scattered over it, and if its S. part is the
watershed between the sources of the Amazon and
l.;i Plata rivers, both of which receive considerable
aiHiioiits from Holivia; but neither this last-named
;r;id, nor the isolated hills previously mentioned,
;!ii|H'nr to rise to any great height above the sea.
I'lir whole region is extremely fertile; but it is
nciirly in a state of nature, and covcTed with vast
ITOiicval forests. The desert of Atacania occupies
ilii' nmiitry betwcpn the Andes and the I'acilic : it
Mtoiiils for about 2i')0 m. along the coast, having
avariahle breadth of from iiO to GO m. It is never
nfri'slied by rain, and is almost as sterile and
mirililww as the Sahara. The surface, which is
iiiululHtiiig, and in parts hilly, is covered with
I.K1SC sand ; the only habitable )iarts being the
narrow strips along the banks of the rivers.
Tlicre are numerous valleys in the Andes ; the
[iriiuiiml is the great valley of Desagiiadero, be-
iwci'ii the two Cordilleras, extending from hit, UP
Id l!to 30' S., having an area (including the Lake
olTilicaca in its N. jmrt) of 18,500 scp m.
Kiirrs. — Lakes. — The princijial rivers are the
liciii, Mnniore, and the others which unite to form
liic Miulpira, the largest aflluent of the Amazon,
.wilwhicli run mostly in a X. direction ; and the
I'ik'iiniayo, one of the chief branches of the Plata,
«hich waters the S. part of the country, llowing
iii^ilym an E. direction, liolivia includes the K.
and S. shores of the largest accumulation of fresh
vaieriin the S. American continent — the lake Ti-
linii'a. which occujiies an area of 4,000 s'p ni. at
ilieliei^'ht of 12,847 ft. above the ocean, an cleva-
liiin siiju'rior to that of the highest summits of the
i'ya'iices. (See Titioaca.) It contains nume-
rous .-mall islands, from one of which, celebrated
I'l s(imc Peruvian ruins, it derives its name: the
"Illy outlet for its waters is the river 1 )esogua<lero,
niiMiiiiftfrom its SVV. extremity through the valley
Id ihe small lake of AuUagas; which latter, having
ii'ii>utli;t,is kept at the same level by spontaneous
tva|iiiniti()ii. In the E., lakes are numerous, and
''lucof them, as those of Ubahy ami Grande, 50
TiiOm. in length; but they have been little ex-
ll'ifcil by Euroiicans.
C/i'mnif. — IJiiin, as already stated, never, or but
«T\- rarely, falls on the coast ; in the plains to
il* K. (if the Andes, the rainy season, which is
ikiilical with summer, lasts from October to Aiiril,
i.iiriiij; which the rains are almost continuous, jiud
i1k' rivers inundate the country to a great extent.
In tlie plains, the climate is excessively hot, and
lai from healthy ; but in the valley of the De-
are also found.
Vfiietahlen. — The mighty forests which cover
the banks of the E. rivers abound in the liiiest
timber, tit for every piirjioseof shii>-liuilding, car-
jientrv, &c. The cocoa of A]iotol)anilm, Jloxos,
&c„ IS infinitel}' superior to that of (iiiyacpiil
(I'U'iiador) : it is used by all classes, and is cele-
l)rateil for its nutritious and restorative (pialities.
Tamarinds, the chirimoya, oranges, lemons, tigs,
sugar-cane, pine-apples, ))lantaiiis, &c., llourish in
profusion on the banks of the Heni.
Cascarilla, indigo, cotton, rice, cotfee, grain, cin-
chona, co])aiba, sarsaparilla, and other valuable
drugs : gum-elastic, vanilla, dye-woods, tobacco,
and canes of various kinds, are all iirodiiced in
an extraordhiary abundance E. of the Andes,
Amongst other products, there is a s]iecies of
cinnamon, called vnneladc vhwo, said to ditt'eronly
in the greater thickness of its bark, and darker
c(dour, from the true cinnamon. The vegetation
of the Uesagiiadero valley is peculiar: it has no
trees ; but the Uiwer districts, if uncultivated, are
coveretl with a very tine turf. There are liere
extensive plantations of quinoa (Chenopoi/inm
ijvlnua, Linn.) and of potatoes, which are found
wild on the adjacent hills ; but it (U>es not ripen
the drier Euro)iean grains, nor are there any jiccn-
liar seasons for sowing or lian'csting. both tlu^sci
operations being carried on consentaiieoiisly. In
the narrow strips of land along the rivers that run
through the desert of Atacania, maize is riiis<'(l,
with excellent fruits, cotton, sugar-canes, and the
plant called Anniilo ili)iiiir.
Animals. — The tapir, jaguar, leopard, and six or
seven sorts of monkeys, inhabit the banks of the
ISeiii ; giianacos, alpacos, a kind of hare, and a
small .Hiiinial of the family of Uot/i'iitia, whose
burrowing often renders travelling on horsebjick
unsafe, are found in the l)csnguader(> valley. J'ar-
rots, a bird of bcautil'ul plumage, as well as a
multitude of singing birds, including the tli/nsh
and whistler ; several k'luls of turkeys, itc. ; se\ eral
species of Amphiliia, and an abundance of line river
lisli, are met with in IJolivia: the \L. plains are
infested with myriads of annoying reptiles and
insects. Vast herds of horned cattle feed on tlu;
banks of the rivers ; horses, asses, and mules, are,
the other domestic animals: the climate of the
])lains is too hot for sheep.
rmrfde. — The inhabitants of Bolivia arc of mixed
race, with, on the whole, more European than
American blood in their veins. Only about one-
seventh of the population are aborigines, or, as
they are commonly called, * Indians.' The latter
486
BOLIVIA
nri! divided into a ffTPn* varioty of trilics, prcRcnt-
iiifj conxidcrablc differoncos in thoir physical and
mental endowment*!, disposition, and progress in
civilisation. Some, on the Dcni, are wild and
warlike, and go naked, even the women wearing
nothing hut a few leaves tied round the waist ;
another trihc, the Maropns, in the immediate vici-
nity of the former, altliough also a warlike and
proud race, evince considerable ingenuity and apt-
ness for many sorts of work : they manufacture
iH'autiful cloths ; are pretty good carpenters ; and
are said to show a marked tiiste for music and
painting, in which they were initiated by the
Ji'suits, The Indians are excellent sailors on their
own rivers, and very dexterous in the manage-
ment of their canoes, which are often 60 or (>(» ft.
in length, and of considerable burden; in these
tliey frequently make long inland voyages, sub-
sisting wholly on the wild animals and vegetables
they may happen to meet with. Some of the
Alosctenc tribes on the Heni display a remarkal)le
acquaintance with the medicinal qualities of plants,
which they administer in cases of sickness, fhese,
as well as some other tribes, are peaceable, friendly
to strangc^rs, and free from stiperstition. Not a
few Indians, especially in the Desaguadero valley,
and on the coast, where the (Juichua language is
spoken, have been converted to the Catholic faith :
such as have embraced Christianity, instead of
going naked, or leading a roving life, wear a light
dross of cotton, have fixed dwelling-places, and
ai)ply themselves to agricultural pursuitfl, though
in these they are said to make but little progress.
The foreign settlers are mostly of Spanish descent
in the mining districts, and the valleys of ''o-
chabamba an(l Cachy I'ilco : those of the pure
African race are few ; but those of mixed blood
arc numerons on the coast.
Maniifactures chicHy consist of cottons, the best
of which are made at Oropesa, almost exclusively
l)v women ; woollens, of the hair of the llamas and
aipacos, the best at La Paz ; hats, of the wool of
the vicuna, at St. Francisco de Atacama ; glass at
Oropesa ; vessels of silver wire in the mining dis-
tricts ; fans, parasols, and plumes of the feathers
of the American ostrich, by the Indians.
Commerce. — The commerce of Bolivia is at pre-
sent not very considerable. This does not arise so
much from the low state of industry, or the apathy
of the people, as from the difficulties they have to
encounter in bringing their produce to market.
They have not yet learned to avail themselves of
tlie means afforded by the great rivers of S. Ame-
rica, for ojiening an intercourse with the ports on
its E. shore. At present, nearly all the commodi-
ties brought from Holivia to Europe come through
the ports on the Pacific, to reach which they have
to be conveyed first by toilsome passages against
the currents of the rivers to the foot of the Cor-
dillera, so fatal by its rigorous climate to the
Indians of the plains ; and then across the Andes,
the passage of which has been considered by Con-
damme as equivalent to 1,000 leagues of transport
by sea. The country W. of the Andes, besides
being a desert, has no really good harbours, and is
traversed by but one road, that from Oruro to
("obija (the only Bolivian port), and that is prac-
ticat)le only for mules and Hamas. Cobija, though
it has been made a free port, is, owing to these dis-
advantages, little frequented. The arrivals, in the
year 1863, amounted to 126 vessels, of 20,745 tons
burden. The total value of the imports was
3.861,!193 piastres, and of the exports 2,500,000
piastres. The exports to the United Kingdom, in
the year 1863, were of the total value of '^59,196/.
They consisted of copper ore, 108,147/. ; regidus,
62,024/. ; copper lunvrought and part wrought,
BOLOGNA
8,524/. ; guano, 76,784/. ; tin, 2,7.16/. ; and other
articles to the value of 981/. The imporU from
the United Kingdom into Bolivia are altoLrothor
insignificant, not am. ■ iting, on the avcraL'i- to
l.tMlO/. per annum. " '
The E. and most fertile portion of nolivin is
traversed by the Madeira, and other navJL'nl.lp
affluents of the Amazon, on the one hniul, and liv
the Pilcomayo, and other affluents of the Para-
guay, on the other ; so that, if the extraordiiinn-
facilities which these great rivers aflurd for iwno
trating into the interior of S. America be ever
made use of, the pro<liicts of Bolivia will moot
with a ready and advantageous outlet ; ami |,or
all but boundless capacities of prmluction, wliiih
at present, can hardly be said to be in any donroc
availed of, will receive a stimulus, of the inHuence
of which we can form no adequate idea.
Within the Brazilian dominions, not verv far
from the Bolivian frontier, a short break, of a m
only, separates a tributary of the Amazon fmnl
one of the Plata river : were these streams con-
nected by a canal, there would be a continiions
water communication, for the most part navi^ahlo
through the heart of S. America, fnm Hiioiios
Ayres, in lat. 35° S.. to the mouth of the Orinoid,
in neariy 9° N. The Bolivian govenmicnl is
endeavouring to promote internal traffic, by offor-
ing grants of land to persons settling, ami con-
siderable premiums for the establishment of atcam
navigation on the S. affiiient of the Amazon.
The public revenue in 1862 amounted to 1 ,<)7fi.n0(l
piastres ; the public expenditure to 1,739,(100 y,ia>i-
tres. The public debt in the same year was only
about 1,500,000 piastres, inclusive of a 'war loan '
of 1,000,000 piastres raised in the year 1857.
The standing armed force is limited to 2,000
men, and there is a navj' of three small vessels
with 24 guns.
History ami Government,— TioXma., under the
name of Upper Peru, formed, previously to tlie
battle of Ayacucho in 1824, a part of the Spanish
viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. The republicans,
under General Sucre, having then defeated the
royalista, the independence of the countrj' was
secured. Its present name was given to it in lUi.i,
in honour of the liberator Bolivar, who, on living
requested, drew up a constitution, which was
adopted in the year following. This constitntion,
which w-as exceedingly complicated, vested the
executive power in a president for life, with the
privilege of naming his successor ; and the Icjris-
lative functions in three bodies, a senate, tribunos,
and censors. The code and constitution of Holivar
were soon after abandoned ; but the Icffislative
powers are still, nominally at least, vested in the
three bodies above named ; and the cxpputive
power is in the hands of a president elected for
life.
BOLKHOF, or BOLCHOW, a tov . of Russia
in Europe, gov. Orel, c;.p. distr., on the Xongra.
36 m. N. Orel. Pop. 19,400 in 1858. It is well
built of wood, has numerous churches, with manu-
factures of hats, gloves, and stockings, and a cnn-
siderable trade in hemp, linseed oil, tallow, ami
hides. ,
BOLLENE, a town of France, d^p. Vauoliise, |
cap. cant., 24 m. N. Avignon, on the nulwav fmm j
Lyons to Marseilles. Pop. 5,007 in 1801. The
town stands on the declivity of a hill, and has
filatures of silk and dye-works. Various reniaiiis |
of antiquity have been found in the vicinity,
BOLOtiXA (an. Bononia), a city of N. Italy,!
cap. of the province of the same name, k'twopii j
the rivers Keno and Savena, on the verge of the
valley of the Po, at the foot of the liills forming'
the commencement of the Apennine chain; ainlj
and ntlipr
iportfl friim
altonrthpf
average, to
f Bolivia is
r navinahlc
and, ami liy
tyf the Parii-
xtradrdiiiarj'
)rd for )M'm'-
rica be ever
la will Dieel
let. ; and licr
etion, wliii'li,
11 any denrce
tlic intiuuncc
Da.
not ver>' far
ircak, of 3 m.
\inazon from
streams ooii-
a cnntiniinus
art navi);al)lo,
from liueiios
if the Orinoco,
;nveniment is
ratfic, by offcr-
inj?, and ooii-
ment of steam
Amazon.
;edtol,!)7G.nno
l,7it9,(l<IOj,iaf<-
year was only
)f a ' war loan '
ear 18.i7.
[iiited to '2,0(10
e small vessels
via, under the
dously to tlie
of the Spanish
lie republieaiis,
defeated tlic
countrj' was
toit inl»-.'o,
who, onlieing
which vrna
is constitutiim,
vested the
life, with the
and the l('f.'is-
eiiate, tribunes,
ition of lWi\ ar
the leRislativo
vested in the
the executive
ent cleeted lur
tov . of Russia
in the Noupra.
58. It is will
ies,withmanu-
ngs, and a om-
)il, tallow, ami
dep. Vauchise, |
le railwav fmm :
.. 18«l. The
hill, and has
arious remains [
^ vicinitv.
itv of X. Italy.
name, lietwfi'n
le verge of tlif
„ hills formiii;' ]
ine chain; ami
in
BOLOONA
on the railway from Milan to An^onn, 22J m. HK,
MiHleiia, 2.') m. SW. Ferrarn, aim iVMh, above the
level (if the Adriatic. It is nearly \^ m. in length
bv !;( m. in breadth, and 4 m. in ciro. ; is walled,
jiiil divided into fmir quarters. I'op. !)(i,(><;0 in
lUili. Kxcept one Kqiiare, it is iniliU'erentlv built;
sirefts crooked and narrow; houses mostly three
.oinrics hi){h, in a palace style of architecture,
ihietly of brick fronted with stucco, with deep
linijectiiiK roofs, and generally surrounded with
arcades. Tlie Puitza Mitggiore, or principal
wjiiare, boasts of many (ine buildings; amongst
ihi'in are the PuUizzo I'ubiko, the seat of the
ciiurtsof justice ; in the ccitre of the square is a
fduntain, adorned with t. statue of Neptune,
wkoiied one of the best niodem statues in Italy,
the work of (iiovaiini di 'tohigna. In the middle
(if the city stand the two leaning towers, inclining
ill dilfereiit directions: that of Asinelli, 320 ft.
hitrh, inclines about !U ft.; Garisenda, 145 ft. in
lieiglit, 8 ft. It is said that from the top of the
I'litmer 103 cities may be seen. Hidogna has 74
cliurehes, 35 convents for monks, and 38 for nuns.
Ihit many of the convents have recently iK^en
ciiiscd, and the inmates dispersed. Tlie cathedral,
built A. I). 432, has the nieridiiui line by Cossini
traced on it>' floor, and posse-'ses the Annunciation
iihe last work of Lodovico Caracci), and other
tine paintings. The church of Madonna di San
i.iica, 3 m. distant, has a covered walk to it the
iiliiile way from the city. The universitj', one of
ihc oldest and most celebratetl in Italy, owes its
iiri;,'in to the Emperor Theodosius, A. ij. 425, mid
was restored by Cliarleniagne ; it has a library of
'JiHl,000 vols., and was formerly attended by many
thousand students: but it has declined in cele-
brity, and at present is not attended by above
1,(100. There is another public library, the legacy
(if a clergyman, containing 83,000 vols, and 4,000
MSS. : there are also cabinets of mineralogy, na-
tural history, and other physical objects ; acade-
mics of .sculpture, science; music, and the fine
arts: the whole city abounds in pictures, statues,
and other works of native artists. There is a pub-
lic 8clio(d for the poorer classes, where the nidi-
nients of education, with Latin, arithmetic, sing-
iiiS and drawing, are taught gratuitously; nine
iuispitals; a monte dipicta; and many other be-
nevolent institutions. The manufacture of crape,
fur which the city has been long famous, and
wliicli was at one time very extensive, has de-
diued within the liist thirty years. There are
nianiifacturcs of silk, glass, sul|iliuric acid, nitric
ditto, kid gloves, wax caiullcs, musical instru-
ments, paper, cartls, mortudvlh sausages, cele-
brated all over Eurojie, exclusive of preparations
dl wine, oil, hemp, flax, and other natural jiro-
(luce. it(dogna is an archbishop's see, and has
liccn so since the 4th centurj', ami the court of ap-
]ieal for the four provinces of ISologna, Ferrara,
liavenna, and Forli, sits here, and consists of six
judges. The Bolognese are courteous and aft'able^
independent, and remarkable for their love of
lilierty; industrious, quick, ingenious; ardent
alike m their friendships and enmities ; the women
liamlsome. The middle classes are well infonned;
tliey are fond of the casinos, or reading-rooms,
conversazioni, and theatres, of which there are
three. The higher classes are wealthy ; the lower
Wld, turbulent, and noisy. The prevailing dia-
Ifrt is not in use elsewhere ; there is a tendency
III proiioimce words with masculine terminations,
and ill other resjiccts it is the coarsest in Italy.
The proi)()rti(m of illegitimate births is as one to
seven. No Italian city, Florence excepted, has
iroduced so many celebrated men in science and
tlie line arts. Bologna always assumed the title
BOLSENA
487
of 'learned,' and had the motto //()««««< iIdcH »n.
its money and public buildings, as well as the
word lihirtfiK. It lia'^ given birth to eight iii>|m'8
(including Ilcnedict XIV.), nearly 200 cardinals,
and to more than 1,000 literary and scieiitilio
men and artists; amongst them, the naturalists
(iaivani and Aldrovandi; tho anatomists Mondino
andMalpighi; the astronomer Marsigli; the ma-
thematicians Manfredi and (.'aiitcr/.ani; the bro-
thers /aiiotti, (fhedini, and (iiiercino; and tho
painters Francia, (tuido, Albiuio, Karhieri, Dn-
menichino, the three Caracci, /amlnrcari, ami
/. Iiliiii. The air of lUdogaa is pure, but subject to
siuhlen changes, which produce frequent inflam-
matory diseases. Its enviMiis, both on the hillit
and in the plain, are studded with a number of
country residences in a richly productive sidl.
This city, originally built by the Ktrusrans, was
anciently calleii Felnina; it w'as subsequently oc-
cupied by a (Jallic tribe, the Boii, who designated
it Bommia, It received a Itoman cidony A. u. o.
(i53. A ('hristian church was built here so early
as the 3nl century. Alaric besieged, but did not
take it : it escaped Attila, and formed a portion of
the exarchate of liavenna. Pepin gave it to tho
Holy See, to which it belonged during the Carlo-
viiigian tlynasty; after whicli it was governed by
its own magistrates; it was next governed by
feudal nobles ; but these having abandoned their
pretensions, and been admitted as private citizens,
it became a republic, extending its rule over all
Hom.igna as far as iiimini. In the 13th century
it fidl again under the H(dy See, to which it was
tinally annexed in 1500. In 17!Mi it was taken by
the French, but restored to the Popedom in 1815.
'I'he city and provinces remained under Papal go-
vernment till the year 1 hOO, when it was annexed
to the new kingdom of Italy.
HOLOTAN'A, a town of the island of Sardinia,
Ital\', prov. Alghcro, 10 m. W. Ilosa, near tho
centre of the island. Pop. 2,822 in 1858. Tho
town is situated on a hill, and the air is said to bo
good. The contiguous country is productive of
corn and pasture.
BOLSKNA (an. Vuhinium), a town of central
Italy, prov. Viterbo, 11 m. VVSW. Orvieto. I'op.
2,170 in 1858. The town stands near the N. shore
of the lake, to which it gives its name. It is sur-
nmnded by a high wall, flanked with towers and
a deep ditch ; but is remarkable only for the ruins,
in or near it, of the temjde of the Etruscan god-
dess Nortia, a granite sarcophagus, ornamented
with bas-reliefs, and other remains of i\iiti(|iiiiy.
This was anciently a idacc of great wealth and
luxury. I'linj' says (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv. § 7)
that when taken by the liomans, anno 20(i ii. c,
it contained no fewer than 2,000 statues. Having
been destroyed by the conquerors and rebuilt, it
was noted at a later period as the birth-place of
Sejamis, the minister of Tiberius.
The lake of Bolsena continues, as of old, to be
surrounded by finely-wooded hillf*—
Aut positls ncmorosa inter jupa Volsiniis.
■inv. Sat. iii. 1!)1.
It is of an elliptical shape, about 12 m. long, by
8 m. in breadth; its depth is various, but near the
banks it is generally shallow ; it is well stocked
with fish. It has two islands, which, in Pliny's
daj's, were believed to be floating. Its superfluous
waters are carried oft' by the river Marta, to
which it gives birth. The country round this lake
is now become exceedingly unhealthy ; a circum-
stance which ha.s most probably occasioned the
decay of Dolscna, as well as the total ruin of seve-
ral other cities, tliat once gave life and animation
to its banks. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, i. 221 ;
Couder's Italj', iii. 84.)
.|8S HOI
IM)I,T()N',.)rlM)M'()M Lr.-MOOIiS.nlli.nriHh
in;; l)iir. ami tiiiiiniriK'liiriii)^ town ul' Miif^liiinl, t'n,
l/iniMHicr, liiMiil, Siiirnnl, luir. Hnllnii, on tli«
('riMilt', an allliiciil of ilit> Irwcll; 170 in, N\V. I>v
N, Lonilun, ill in, KNI''.. l<ivi>r|)ool, ami III in, N\V.
Manclii'stcr, im llu' London an<l Norili-NVfsliTii
lailwav, 'I'lif pop, of the iMiroiiKli wum IH,.'iH:I in
IHiil ;'il hail risen to i<2,'.)7a in IH2I ; to ri-2,;i!)l) in
IHII; and to To.ilti.'i in ISill. Tlir pop. ol' tli«
iiarish wti.'* •>\K»>i\ in IHOI ; r)ll,l!)7 in \Hil ; 7:i,<.)ari
in ISII ; and !I7,-.M:> in \M\.
'Tin' np|H<aniiuTor the town xoarwly rom'mxmdx
>villi ilN real oimlcnco and iniportanct^ a coiiHitlt'r-
alilc portion ot tlu> honsoH Itriiif^ rrowdi'd in iiar-
rnw irn'^nlar lancH, wliifh art* but iiiiiilVrrcnllv
paved and Ncwercd, Morn n't'ciillv >;rcal iinprovc-
iiicnls have licen elleetedj lla^'p'*' lootnatlm have
lieeii loriiied in inoHl of the Ntreetx, ami the wliide
town haH been eoinpletely li^lited with k<>>*<
varioiiM new sipiiires have heen forined; and a
eonsideralih^ nninlier of handxoiiu^ houses and
villas have lieen ereeted, mostly near the S, eii-
Iraiiee. It is well Nii|iplied with exeellent water,
from a reservoir eoveriiij; an area of \h aeres,
plaeed al siieli an elevation as admits of this in-
ilispensalile lliiid lieiii); eonveyed into the upper
iMoms of every house in town. This iin|iortanl.
improvement was etVeeled hv a eompaiiy, under
an aet obtained in IH-.>|. at a "eost of KMHill/. The
parish ebnrehof.St. I'eier's, on aneinineiiee at the
l''„ end of llollon, is n plain aneient sirneliire with
a low tower, built of the tiark reil s.'iiidstoiie of the
district. There are, besides, ei>;ht other ehnrehes,
and the Aletbodisls, Itaplisls, liide))endents, I'lii-
l.'irians, ("alholies, Friends, and Swedenbor;;iaiis
have all t>iie or more plaees of worship. The free
graminar-sehoid, founded in l<!'ll,lias an animal
revenne of about IH.V. : Ainsworth and liemprii're,
eompilers of the well-known dictionaries which
bear their names, were masters of this school.
Mere, also, are National and liritisli and Forei;^ii
scluuds, and Sunday S4'liools. Anioni; either en-
dowed charities are — (iosiiel's, whiiOi consists of
lands proihu'iii}; NO/, a year, two-thirds of which
i^{ appropriated to a elmrch lecturer, one-si \tli to
ilie fjranimar-sebool, Ihti rest, to the poor; lliil-
tim's, lands and houses producing 277/. a year, for
a church lecl\irer,appr<'iitieinj; poor boys, and pro-
viding a classical teacher; and donations left by
Mr. l'op|)lewell, who died in \H'2'.\ and bis sisters,
amounting to ■.'7.7tHl/, ',1 percent, consols, for the
promotion of relij;'ioii, learning, and ehariiable
purposes.
Iiiiltou has an exchange, a town-hall, twocloth-
lialls, a theatre, asst'inlily and concert -rooms, a
dispensary, estnlilishcd in lS-_'o, and three public
libraries, all well-built modern struct urcs.
The jirogrcss of Kollon has been greatly pro-
moted by its im|>roved comniuiiiealions. The
Itolton ("anal extends to Manchester (12 m.). and
a branch from it to llury; a railway from llolton
III 1-eigh (S m.), and thence to Keuyon, where it
jonis the Liverpool and ALauclicslcr Itailway, was
'opened in IM.'U. .V niilway along the canal banks.
rill llury, to Manchester, was opened as «'arly as
\KV,\. Since then the great London and North-
western line, with all its branches, have come to
form a network of railways in .•uid around tlie town.
<'.onnectiug it in live dilVerent directions, with all
the centres of industry in Lancashire, as well as
tlironghoiit Kngland.
The entire consequence of Itoltoii is derived
from its manufactures, which were carried on at a
very remole iierioil. As early as lUlSr, some
FU'inish clothiers established tlieinselves in the
town; and in the reign of Henry VIII. it was
famous for its cottons, that is, fur a jH'culiar ilc-
-TON
Hcripliou of «v»(i//('/i goods that went by that nnino
t'ollon piodsjhowever, began to be "priHlurnliii
Itolton, in considerable ipianlilics, alniui ihe niiiMle
of llie last century. Hut the real proHperiiv nl' i||i>
town dates from 1 77(1- 1 7H0, when tlii> wmiili rfnl
inventions of Arkwright, himself n naiivc „(
llollon, iM'gaii to come into operatinn. Krcmi tlmt
epoch its progress has U'eii rapid in Ihe eMreini"
and it is now ii principal seat, ot the eolion iiinini-
faelnre. The iirticles cliietly prodiiecil are— nms-
lins, siiperllne |>rinting calicoes, iiuiliiiij^s mid
eoiinlerpanes, dimities, salteens, jeans, cniioii
shawls, ilo. The principal inamilaiiiirers luivi^
warehouses in Manchester, where iliey gciierallv
attend on the Tuesday, to elVect the sale of llu ir
goods; but sales are also elleeted on oilier ilavs.
though not to Ihe same extent. The cuitoii I'lif-
torics are on H very large scale. There are ii|nvaiils
of 70 mills, which employed, in iHiil, mIiom' IT.iiimi
workers. There are also exli'iisive lileacliiiij;
gronnils, besides ^mper mills, inaehiiie works, and
large iron-l'onndries, where sleain-eiigiiies, mills,
and machines of various sorts are ciiiisinicii'il, A
great many coal mines have been opeiied in dilVcr-
ent )iarts Iif the par,; and iheprosperiiy of llollon,
like that of the rest, of the disliici in wliiili ii in
sitiialed, may be said to have originated in, aiitlio
deiM'iid upon, its su)iply of coal.
There is a joint stock banking ccnii|miiy jit
Midloii ; a )irival(> banking company, ami lirainlies
of some other banks. The savings bank liiKJ, uii
the 201 h Nov. \HiH, !)|,(!;U1/, of deposits.
■Sir l{. Arkwright, Ihe inveiilor, or al all evciii,',
the introducer, of the spinning frame, wasa iialivt:
of Itolton. lie was the yonngesl of a niiiiiiTniis
family, and wiis brought np to tlie hunilileiii'('ii{ia-
tion of a barber, itolton, also, was the birili |>la(T,
of Samuel ('roni|iton, the inventor of llie nnilc-
jeiiny, and one of tlm founders of the niiinii
manufacture. .\ broii/.e statue to his ineiiuiry was
erected in IM('i2 by the inhabitants, at u ciist nf
2,0111)/.
The licfomi Act conferred upon llollon the pri-
vilege of reluming two mem. to the II. of ('. rii(>
limits of the parliamentary bor. and iiuiiii('i{>al
bor. coincide, the pop. of boih, in IHt'd, hiinu'
70..'lil.'>. The <"onstiluency, in IHiil. cmisislcil ul'
2,l;>l registered tdeclors, all III/, hniiselnililers.
The bor<>ugh is governed bv a mayor, 12 iililcr-
men, and ;il> councillors, assisted by a recurilit
The mayor is chosen by the aldermen ; tlicse, liy
the councillors; and the councillors by siicli nlllic
burgesses as are ipialilied to vole for meiiilHTs nl'
parliament, IVtly sessions for the bor. are luM
every Monday ami Thursday, llnlicm is ilu'scal
of a count V court, and the centre of a union iiiulcr
the Poor Ijaw .\mendment Act, which cnnijirlMs
2t! oilier townships and chapelries. The rcMialav
sessed to poor r.'ite amounted to 12(').."i7;)/. in iMll,
and the capital assessed to properly tax lo 17S.li|W/.
The jiarisb within which Ihe bordiigli iscoiii-
priseil extends over .'tl,:lllO acres, and ImcIikIis HI
other townships, chaiielries, and lianiU'ls: llie en-
tire iiopulal ion, in 18(11, being '.17,2 1. 'i. Tiie|iari>li
is geologically situated in a large coal forniatioii,
and its surface is for the most part of a iicaiy
nature. It contains numerous quarries, seme ul"
excellent tlagstones, a few of rooling slaii' m\
veins of leatl; but of these none are at iinsciii
wnnight. Three small streams (the Tdiige, Iruiili',
and llradslniw) take their rise in the liills iliiii
overlook the town. It contair.s a few h(11-w<iiiiIii1
and romantic valleys, but its general as|urt is
barren and cheerless, with scarcely a Irce vi.-ilili'.
About one-fourth part is under the plough: olllu'
rest no iuconsidenible imrtion cinisisis nl iniri'-
claimcd mosses ; and thougli Ihe land inmascs in
nOMUA
vnliio ncnr tlic tnwn, Niirh U not tho cnno in its
iiiirllit'rii towMxIiiii, Ittillon is ii |ilii('c orciiiisiilfr-
i,li|i> liiMlorii'iil iiitcri'Ni : iu iiiliiiliiliint.M I'min n
rciiiiitf iM'riiiil were iliMtiii|riiiHlii<il I'lir lliflr iirchcry,
nliii'li U Nlill I'onliiini'il iih a N|iiirt, llii<ri> liriii^ ii
tiirjjcf ),'roiiii<l near tim V.. <-nlranc(t of the town,
I'lirllir iiw '••' ft Noficty of arclitTM, who xlioot Cor
|iri/,i>H iliiriiiK till* Niiiniiu'r. Thi* lal>oiiriiiK 4-lasH<>H
were lorinfrly acciiNloiiKMl to Hctllf llicir <|iiarrclM
liv sin^U' coiiiIniI, or liy wliiil \h fallt>(l an ' n|> nnil
(liiwii ' tl^lit. Ihtalli oftvn followttd from tlu>M! Iirulul
omli'Kl.t.
At tlm (MiinnicncmiKMit of tlio i-ivil war, tlio in-
liiiliiliuilM took i\w. iiarliMnicntarv xiilf, ami liclil
mil till KIM. when, al'Icr a t|cs|M'ral(^ Hl^n^,'^;lt! ami
w'viral n-pnUcM, tho town was at li'njjth taken l>y
till' Karl of lU'rIty, who hclil il till al'lt-r lh<^ lialtiV
III' Wiiro'Hlcr. III! wax Nul)H('i|ut'nlly taken anti
liiliiwlcd h('r«\
jt'tMKA, ft villaj^o of Son thorn Italy. |irov.
Cliirti, <'a|). (Mint., on the IVIont*^ rallano, walcrcil
In llie Sanjjro, IH ni. WSW. VaNio, l'o|(, il,l7'.>
ill JSi'il. I'Ik; parish chnn^li is one of the liaml-
■LiinwM. in tlio province. On thi! inonnlain on
whirl) lliinilia is xilnalcil arc^ the niinn of wallH,
p[W», and towers, on li.e most, frifrantie scale.
Tlicy are formed of enormous bloeks of stomi,
iiiiikMlwilhont cement, after the lOlrnscaii fa.><liion.
I.;ir;;(' caverns have also heen excavaleil in the
rmk, nnd coins of the most renowned cities of
Mii^'iiii (inecia have Immmi fomid amon^ the ruins.
Niilliin)^Mnithenli(; is known with respect to the
lii^tiirv of these extraordinary ruins. (Del K(!
Ih'ii'ri/ione de rAhni/./o. ii. p. I-JI.)
ItOMIlAY (I'UKSIhKNCY Oh'), tho sec.md
liir'cst in extent of tho nine j^reat provs. of Uritish
liulia; hetweon lat, 11° l«' and 2S0 m' N., and
Imm;'. 07° and 7t!° 'JiV K. ; havinj; VV. tho Indian
iVcmi, and lleloochistan ; N. (inndava and the
i'linjiilt; K. tho Nizam's dom.; and S. Mysore. imd
the Madras presid. ; area ir2,(ll.'l s(|. tn. ; pop.
r.',Sll2.;VI I in IM'2. (Statistical 'raldes relating,' to
ilii' I'liliinial and other possessions of tho ('nited
Kiiipiiini, Part ix., jiresonted to Ixvlh lionses of
Parliament, lM(il.) 'I he presidency is divided, fur
nilministralive pnqioses, into fonr f^reat territorial
illvisiiins, exclusive of ilondiay Island, whicli is
iiiiiliT llie direct control of the (Jovernor. Tlu'.
ilivisiims are :
1. rooiiah, romprisiiifj; tho <'ollectorates of
Taiina, also called Northern Konkaii, Satara,
Aiimcilnufr^jar, and (^andeish.
•.', Tlio N. divisiini, including tlio eollectoratos
nl'Siirat, Haroach, Ahmedahad, and Kaira, andthe
prnviiiccs of (injrat and Kattywar.
;!, The Siiidh division, in which aro tlioc(dlecto-
riU's of KiirriK'hee. Ilydrahad, anti Sliikarpur, tho
I'Mvincp of t'utch, and the territory of Khairpiir.
I. The S. division, comprising tho ct)llccloralcs
111" i!iitii!ij(herry, also called Scnithcrn Konkaii,
i"I„'imm, Shtil'ipore, and Dlmrwar, and the pro-
viiii'o (if Kolapore.
I'lii/xiral Asiwcf. — 'I'ho N\V, parts of tho |)resid.
nri' more level than the S. and K. : Ahmcdaliad,
Kiiini, and Haroach aro well watered, and sonu^
|wt.s amoiijj;st the best cultivated and ])e(>|iled
iaiiils ill India; Snrat is moro nndulatin^^ its K.
I'.irt hilly and jnnf^ly, and mn(;h of it waste; Caii-
i!i'i-ili is interspersetl with low Imrrcn hills ; some
s;«il3arc in notxl cnltivation, Imt much is covered
with juiif^Ic ; Alm»edmi};f;aral)onndsin rocks, hills,
ami waters; I'oonah is irrcHular and nionntniiious,
t'lit with many fertile valleys; Darwar is an oU'-
vaii'd table-land ; nnd tho Konkan a lonj; narrow
inct .strctchinfj for "li't ni. alonj; the soa-coa.st,
Iwinj,' K. a chain of rocky hills, formerly crowiicd
!')■ a number of fortresses, and \V. a low, strai^h;
I'.OMMAY (I'KKSIDKNCY OF) ist)
Hhoro, broken into numerous bays and harbours,
till lately alVordinj^ a resort to pirates, by whom il
hail loii^ bei^n inlested.
Tho mountain ranges in tho S. boloni; to tho
VV. (ihants; in Candeish to theSydaree (a con-
tinuation of tho former) and Santpoora ranges;
mill N. tho Nerbudila— they are branches from the
Vindhyan ehaiii. The principal rivers are tin' Ner-
bndda, Taptoo, Mhyo, and SanU'rinntlee, falling;
intothe Oiilf of <!aml)ay, in tho N.; in tho central
parts, tho earlier branches oft hot iiHlavory and Itee-
niah ; nnd in tho S. tho Kislnah and Toombuddra.
I'orphyrilic trap forms the inliuid hill raii(;es;
sandstone, with many shells, itnd con^loinerales
containing fossils, nti mnion in N. Koncan and
the N. parts of tho presid. A priinitivi^ ran^e of
red sandstone fonnalion, extending from |)elhi,
terminates at the head of tho (iidf of Cambay.
Tho f^reat basalt ii^ district of India, which cmn-
inences at Na^poor, occnjiies tho whole coast from
between tioit and llomiiay' to the head of the
Cambay Knlf; which coast has been llie theatre of
volcanic phenomena, earthiinakes, and trenicudiiiis
whirlwinds, even within the last few centuries.
Itasalt and amygdaloid, yellowish porphyry, and
f^rcen daystono, aro found at Salsctte and l'',l(!-
phanta. and near Kattanpoor an aiiundance of cor-
nelian stones, embedded in red gravel. A blink
soil, well suited to th(^ cidturi^ of cotton, is widely
dill'nsed tlironj^bont thccentre of this presidency.
The mean temp, at llombav, about tin-, centro
of the pros, is between 81° imd HIP Kahr. lint
Ihoufrb Itombay Ix^ ratluT unlieallhy, the Koiicaii
and Malabar coast p'nerally is by no means so, ex-
<'opt in thi^ marshes below the (ihants. Tlie<'liniato
of the N. distr. is reckoned amon^'st the worst in
India: t\w tlu^rmoin. in tho hot season cises soino-
tiines to 1 1<!° Kahr.; and iMinmeans are all'ecied
with fever, a^no, and other tropical complaints.
Vfijv.ldhit' I'rtxliiftH Itnd AnimitlH. — Teak ol verv
plod (pialily ^rows on tln^ (ihauts and lower hili-
ranp's, and in some parts |ioon is plentiful; \\w.
district of Snrat abounds with tin; wild date and
bal 1. (locoa ]ialms cover an iinmens(> (riict of
sandy land, bordering tho coast of the Koncan;
and various other trees of tlic^ same family aru
abundant. Tin; N. part of this presitleiicy is rc-
murUablo fortlu^^xn'H' varii-ty of fruits il produces;
the district of Ahmedabad, in particular, is iinled
for tho size of its manpi-trees, and their Iriiil.
I'ice, cotton, and the other chit^f articles ofciillurc,
will W\ mentioned jircsently.
Wild oleplmnts an^ met with in the (Ihants,
that is, in the woody chain of mountains ruiiiiiii;^
alonj^ tho VV. side of Southern fiidia; and tip'rs,
pant luTs, leopards, and hyienas, iiri' nuiiierous in
tli(^ Jungles ami wooded parts; bntraioes, wild
boars, deer, antelopes, jackals, j;eiiei'ally so, and in
the N. the llyiuj; macanco is found. Ilirds in f^rear.
variety inhabit this part of India.
1\(>/)I(: — IJesides Hindoos, Alahoinmodans, I'iir-
sees, .lews, and Kuropoans. many distinct tribes,
some of whom aro supposed to be alM)ri;;iiial, in-
habit this ]iresiden(!y. Hhcols live K. of the
(ihants, from the hills near I'oonah to the banks
of the Nerbud<la and Taptoo ; the K'ainooses meet
those S.oJ' I'oonah : \V. of the (ihauts, and around
tho (iiilf (d' t^'ainbay, Koolies, a very barbunms
tribe, rt'sido ; (Jalties, Aheors, and Halirceas. are
found in Kattywar; Dhooblas nnd Kooinbies in
(injrat. The .Iain sect is very nunieroiis in tli(!
(injrat districts: and nearly all the I'arsees in
India have settled wilbin tho limits of the lioiiibay
presidency. A tribe, called Moras, resides in the
district of Snrat and its neijjhbourhood; these
]ieople aro Maboinmodans as to reli^^ion; but in
all (ither respects are similar to Jews.
■Ml
i^iii'Wv.
i
490
Aeirindture and Cattle. — Rice anil cotton arc
till' cliiitfarticlcH of culture; ciimpnrcil with tiiexo,
tho other ^rcitt !)tii|il(>sof Indian produce nre ^rown
only in inNiKiiiticunt <|iun)titicN, liice w lar^fcly
urown in the central partx of the oreNJdency ; mid
in 8. Koncttii it conHtitutex 4-r>th!) of the wliole
crops. Tho culture of cotton in extonnivo, and tlie
priHluco M nil ini|K)rtnnt article of export. 'I'lic
cotton of this Hide of India is decidedly H\ip':ri'>r
to that of tho other; that j^rown in liroacli Im |)ar-
ticulurly good. Kupir anil indigo are cultivated
in CandeiHh, where the tirst occu))ict4 a conxideralile
extent of country, and where late reports sijcak of
an intention on the part of government to erect
Hu^ar-inills. Tho indigo of Candeish has l>een
siud to be as tine as that of Bengal, hut wanting
in depth of colour. The mullierry-tree );rowH in
Rome parts with immense rapidity, and great ex-
ertions are being made by various private in-
dividuals to introduce the culture of silk, and to
render it important as an article of trade. Wool
has lately been imported in considerable quantities
from Bombay, and efforts aro making by the
government to improve the breed of sheep, bv
miporting stocks into the presidency from C^aiibul,
iSindc, and C'utch, and crossing them with Merino
and Saxon breeds from the Cape of (iood ]lo|)0.
U'lie cattle of (iujrat arc of a remarkably large
sixe, and in great request throughout India; at
tSiirat there is a diminutive species of ox, 2 ft. only
in height. S. of Surat the ox supersedes the horse
for both draught and carriage: IhjIow the(ihauts,
the only other domestic animal is the buflalo.
Poultry are not generally kept by the natives.
Public Revenue. — The total revenue and ex-
pi'iiiliturc of the presidency in the three years,
1«00-1«G2, was as follows : —
BOMBAY (PRESIDKNCY OF)
Yean cn<|pd
50ih April
RrTcnuo
Expenditure
18(i0
IKIil
1802
&
7,277,6(14
8,407,lli7
8,612,633
&
O.fiO'J.fiU
7,712,041
«,30(i,542
The revenue is derived cliicfly from three great
sources, vi/. the land-tax, opium, and customs.
The land-tax, including excise, and Sayer and
Moturpha — Sayer being variable imposts such as
town duties, and Moturpha taxes on houses and
trades — brought a revenue of 2,«"2,7-l()/. in 1 «(!();
of 2,970,8(14/. in 18(!1 : and of 3,(182,918/. in 181)2.
Opium realised 1,633,325/. in 186(1; 2,441,(i79/. in
18(;i; and 2,438,458/. in 1802. Finally, the cus-
toms were productive of 1,0(>0,2(!1/. in 18()(); of
1.034,701/. in I8(;i; and of 920,732/. in 1802.
It will be seen that while both the land-tax and
opium increased during the triennial period, the
customs decreased in productiveness. Ik-sides
these three great branches of revenue, there are
several minor ones, such as stamps, income and
assessed taxes, post-office and mint profits, imposts
on salt, and tributes from native states. JStamjis
jjroduced 281,517/. in 18t!2; income and assessed
taxes, 407,28(i/.; post-otEce, &c., 480,781/.; salt,
340,802/. ; and the tributes and contributions from
native states, 101,390/. By far the largest item
of expenditure is that for military charges, w^hich
amounted to 5,399,581/. in !8()0;'to 3,313,024/. in
1801, and to 2,372,431/. in 1802. The extra-
ordinary decline of this military expenditure, in
the short space of three years, is a very remarkable
fact.
Trade and Roads. — This presid. is much less
favourably situated than that of Bengal for com-
merce and internal communication. It has no
large navigable river, like the Ganges, intersecting
itfi richest provinces; tho utronmn of the DecoRti
are too impetuous for navigation, and the intenial
trade is thus whollv depeiiileiit on land cnrrini-c
Until within the last ten years, the iminirv
suffered greatly for want of goiKl roads; hm \\^\^L
now being remedied bv the estabiiHliniii.t of n
complete network of railwavH, The chief line in
the presidency is the Bombay, Baroda,anil('iMitr,il
India railway, which connects the capital wjili
Agra and Central India, by way of Siirut, Har.Hli,
and Neemiich, and the valleys of the Mhve and
the Chumiiiil, and throws off branchcM fnun Siirat
along the valley of the Taptee, into the unat
cotton districts of Candeish and Ilcrar, ami tlic
coal and mineral districts of the Nerlxulda. Most
of the ordinary roads arc impassable for curriiiL'is
and merchandise has therefore to bo coiivivi i
chiefly by pack-hullocks ; indeed, the only g'lKKl
line of rood is from I'anwell to Ahmcdniilfi^nr, a
distance of 105 m. ; and it is Ijoth unioniacicil
with the S. of India, and at a distance uimvuilulilo
for tho produce of Candeish and Berar.
For an account of the foreign trade of the prcsi-
dcncy, see Bomhay (City).
llutoiy, — In l(il7, Bombay was created a re-
gency, and made supreme over all the coin|ian_v s
establishments in India; but in 1707 Calcutta wnJi
declared indenendent of it. In 172(i a charlcrcd
court for penal causes was established: anil in 1775
Salsette, Ilassein, and the revenues of l!ari)Mili,nni|
other places, were acquired by treatv with a
Mahratta chief. In 1780 Dobhoy and Aiinudnlinii
were taken, but restored to tho Mahrnttas in 17Kj.
In 18(13 Baroach and Ahmcdnuggur liistriits wire
acquired, and the latter, with J'oonah and Alimc-
dabad, were formally ceded in 1817. Koinnii,
Marwar, Candeish, and the remainder of the ex-
l)eishwa's dom., fell to the British in 1818. Tlie
seat of gov. was transferred from the city of Sunit
to that of Bombay in 1080. (For further particu-
lars as to the historj', government, army ami nan-,
trade and commerce, Ac, of the presidency iif
Bombay, see India, and also the following art.)
Bombay {Bumi Jiuhia, Portuguese, a i/ood
harbour), a marit. city of liindostan, prov. Aunin-
gabad, cap. of the above presiilencj', and, after
Calcutta and Canton, the greatest ein|)iiriuni of tiio
East. It is built at the SE. extremity of tlic
small island of the same name, contiguous to the
Koncan coast, 050 m. NW. Madras, l,Or)0 m. S\V.
Calcutta, and 150 m. S. Siirat; lat. 180 flti' X.,
long. 72° 57' E. Pop. 500,119 in 1801. Bmiibny
Island belongs to agroup, iiU'luiUng Sal«tto, idincil
to it by a causeway, Caranja, Elephanta, Crlalilin,
Butcher, Woody, and Cross L<lanils, wliicli. In iiij,'
disposed in a crescent manner, enclose ils liarlionr.
The island itself is of an oblong slia])c, 8 ni. in
length, N. to S., by about 2 or 3 ni. wide ; it is tiir
the most part low, swampy, and barren, and wns
formerly very unhealthy ; but in this resiKJct it lias
been much Improved, by means of drainage ami
embankments. The city consists of two portions:
the old town, or fort, and the new town, or Dun-
garee. The fort stands on the SE. extremity nf
the island, on a narrow nock of land imraeiliateiy
over the harbour; it is surrounded by extensive
fortifications, which, however, are somewhat iifj;-
lected, and would, probably, be of little use in war.
The old castle stands about the centre of the fiirii-
fications, on the sea side ; while a long semi-circu-
lar line of ramparts stretches along the land siilc.
Tho Portuguese began to build the town witiiin
the walls in the same style that has ever since
been followed : the verandahs of the houses arc
supported on wooden pillars, and shut up witli
Venetian blinds ; the upper storeys project Leyond
the lower, and the roofs are sloped and tiled.
nOMRAY
491
Rombnv l)oar« no <>xtrmal rMcmblnnco tn f'nl-
riitta or Al:i<lrnn, nnd its Wni ntrectn urnwcW fqunl
Ihfir Kiilnirbfl. There ih no Astatic nin;;iiitliTiico:
evprythiiiK liait an air or a^;^ and t'cononiy, MioiikIi
the ithopH and warclioiimm arc luiilt on an cxtoiiHiN «
wale. 'I'lie new novemment-houHP, a lar^p ntnic-
tiirc, Boniewhat like a {Jemian fn-p-city Ktadthiiu»,
in little nwd cxwnt for holding rouncilH, and other
|iiil)lic buHinesn; tliero Ih a cantle, now occn]ticd m
an awcnal, and near it am the oaiiaoious doek«.
nipnhle of acconinnMlatinK Hhips of any mze. These
o»tal)linhments to^etlier witli tiie harracUnand the
(itlipr huildinpH within the fort, have cost very
lar^e siinw. Tlie dupreme iudieiul court, or milder
atUiwlut; the cathedral; the Elphinntone institu-
li(in and great medical coHcRe; the town-hall,
il«ii(fnetl i»y Colonel (."owper, and Iruilt at an ex-
pense of 60,000/. ; and the office of the gov. aecre-
tjiry, on the green, an open irregular area, are
amongfit the chief edittccs ; there are many I'ortu-
pnese and Armenian churches, hoth within and
without the wallH, some synagogues, and a vast
niimlKir of mosques and temples. The new town
of Unnibay is larger than that within the fort, and
ill a low, wet, unwholesome situation, N. of the
latter, and separated from it by tlic esplanade ; it
extends in one part from the harbour, on its K,,
quite across the neck of land to Rack Hay, For
wvcn or eight months of the year the inhab. suffer
fnim inundation, or its effects, few of the ground-
tioors of the houses being above high-water mark.
Tlic most remarkable structure in tlie new town is
a pag<Hla, the largest in Uoml)ay, (Udlicatcd to the
worship of Mrnnhii Devi. Substantial buildings
now extend to 8 m. from the fort, outside of which
most of the jioorer classes live in huts of clay,
nmfed with mats of palmyra leaf. (J round ni
the city is very valuable, especially within the
fortress. Most part of the island belongs to
I'arsees, who form a wealthy and intiuencing part
of the population, and are comparatively more
mimerous than in any other large town in India,
Tliey are the descendants of the Gbebers, driven
out of Persia by Shah Abbas: a comely, tall,
athletic, active race, fairer than the other natives ;
mild in their manners ; bold, enterprising, intelli-
gent, persevering, successful in the pursuit of
wealth, and contributing greatly to the prosperity
of the place.
It is said that there is not a European house of
trade in llombay in which one of them has not a
share; and generally it is the Parsee that pro-
(hices the larger part of the capital. In every
department connected with shiinbuilding and the
docks, the Parsees have the chief interest; the
whole N. quarter of the fort is occupied by them ;
their country houses are furnished with European
decorations; and they make no scruple to eat,
drink, and hold constant communication with
Europeans. They have many temples for the
adoration of Fire, and moniing and evening all the
males repair to the esplanade, and prostrate them-
selves in worship to the sun ; the females do not
join in these devotions, but of whatever rank, con-
tinue, as in patriarchal times, to fetch water from
tlie wells. The Parsees are firmly attached to
their original customs, amongst which is that of
exposing their dead to be devoured by vultures, in
buildings open at the top for the purpose. They
are dirty m their persons, but their women,
although enjoying more liberty than any others
in India, are certainly the chastest. The Parsees
provide for their own poor, and not a single cour-
tesan of their sect is to be found. Of the rest of
the population, about two-thirds are Hindoos, one-
fifth part Mohammedans, and one-thirteenth part
Christians. The floating pop., besides the native
and Uritish Kpamon, consists of AralM, Persians,
(Joa- Portuguese, Parsers, and the crews of vessels
brUmging to most otlier nations (mpn-nting the
iMirt. The harbour of lloml)ay is one of the
largest, safest, and most commiMlious in India; it
is H m. in diarn,, nnd affords good anchorage and
shelter for tieets of siiijis of the largest burden. It
is also the only great nilet in India wliere the rise
of the tides is sutlicicnt to |H'rmit the construction
of wet-d(H-kH on a large scale, the spring tides
ordinarily rising M, and occasionally 17 ft.
Frigates and ships of the line may Ih; built at
Ilombay in a very durable manner. Prt^viously to
IMl!», a considerable fleet of small armeit vcascls
was kept at liombay, to check the piracy which
had ])revailed on the Malabar coast ever suico the
time of Alexander the (ireat; but at this e|M>cli
the nuisance was finally abated, by the capture of
the strongholds of the pirates in the Arabian and
Persian gulfs.
Hombay has a more extensive trade with China
than either of the other presidencies ; tlie rest of
its commerce is chiefly with (Iri^at Itritain, the
Arabian and Persian gulfs, Calcutta, Cutch,
Sinde, and the I\lalal)ar coast. The imports from
China consist principally of raw silk, sugar, and
sugar-candy, silk piece-goods, treasiurc, Ac. The
principal articles of cxiM)rt to China are, raw
cottim, opium, principally from Malwn, pearls,
sharks' fins, fisli maws, sandal-wood, Ac. The ex-
ports to China being much larger than the imports,
the returns for several years past have been ma<lo
to a largo extent by bills on London, drawn by
American and other houses in China, and in bills
on the Indian government, drawn by the agents of
the E. I. Company in China. Tlic trade with tlio
United Kingdom has been regularly increasing
since the abolition of the restrictive system. The
chief articles of import thence are, cotton and
woollen stuffs, cotton yarn, harilware, copper, iron,
lead, glass, apparel, fur, stationery, wine, and somo
minor aiticles. The total value of these imports
— exvbiitive of treasure, which is very large,
amounting to from 7 to 9 millions \v>t annum —
was as follows in the years 1861 and 1802 : —
MercliandtM
Importi from
1801
18C2
X,
£
United Kingdom
7,3.17,434
7,380,879
Aduii ....
11.1,072
1.50,976
Africa, Const of
13:1,337
191,223
America, North
43,212
43,698
Arahinn and Persian Gulfs
41'.),«()3
490,189
Batavia nnd Java .
3,188
—
lielgiuni ....
38,(i.'>0
18,916
Cn|)0 of Good IIoiic .
528
1,070
Ceylon ....
7,032
3,976
China ....
919,2(i7
821,760
France ....
74,12(i
78,500
Gcrninny ....
3,22()
11,305
Gibrnltnr ....
—
—
Hamburgh
—
—
Manilla ....
—
—
Mauritius nnd Bourbon .
4,613
14,491
Mcditorrnnean Ports
—
—
New South Wales .
64,071
42,851
New Zenlnnd .
1,139
117
Penang, Singapore, and )
Malacca . . )
161,719
97,.'i98
Saint Helena .
29,862
3,926
Siam and Burinah .
s.s.ii;
43,(i41
Sonineanee and Mcckran
l«,2-.'l
16,249
Suez ....
54,014
43,989
Sweden ....
Total
13,336
13,605
9,448,210
9,468,965
t!"/i:ibl'^
r-r^" 1
wr
The principal exports to Britain are, raw cotton,
402 UOMllAY
raw nilk from China mid IVrsin, Ivnn', iic|)p<'r nnd
^|li(•('H, iiircc-pMMN, colTi'i', anil wixil. 'I'Ik^ Jofnl
valiui of tlii'Nc <>\|HirlM, ill tlitt two year!* IHtil ami
IMi, In mIiowii ill tliu .'tiiltjoiiicil lulilo: —
Riporti to
IHOl
met
«
«
TTnltol Kingdom .
n,'JIH,747
!n,;)lM),«:i.t
Aili'ii ....
i IIII,:I7'I
|:i.'i,tioo
Al'rloo, Count of
' (l<J,:|(ll)
W.\,iir>r,
A-ri-ia : :
I 1I0,;|.'.()
M.ur.
Arnliliin ftinl I'lTxInn OiilN
H0H,.'W7
841/.7H
.\imtrnlln. New .S. Wulo;* .
IJ7
li'i-i
Ilntnvin ninl Juvu , ,
n,:i.-i(i
4.iim 1
IVvlon ....
l(l,ll:ll
l:i,ill!l
Cliiiiik ....
8,ll!IS,;i!(l
0,(11 o,7.'.H
l''runuo ....
•J»7,:m
I71,l-il
ni.many | other I'oru .
1 ;i7,«»7
—
(liliriiltnr.
—
—
Ilollimd ....
17,7:in
—
SIiiiirltliiH and Hoiirtmn .
H'j,rm
fill.H'JS
MtKlitt'rraiiran I'urtH
—
17,MI4
New Zealand .
(W)
—
Nor^vay ....
7,h:)i)
14,4(IH
renaiiK, HiiiBaimro, and 1
Malacca . . [
lf»«,!».'.2
ns.n?-')
Slam
1 1 ,.'iH2
4'2.mi)
Sdimicanco and Meckraii .
•JI,I77
1I,HS7
SlH'i!
l'J.-.,HMH
(14,l.'.»
Swaloix ....
■n
1H,«2-J,4fl2
Total
17,K)0,843
Tlipre entered, at the port of Itomlmy, 8,l(iiJ
vc.HfU'lH, of .1 total biinlen of l"0,«(!il toiitt, in tlio
vcnr (ondinj^ iJOtli April) l«t!l ; and 2.MI4 vt-sfscls,
of l(!!t,r>J(5 toiiH, ill lH(!-.>. Tlicre cleared 3,;i!l()
vesMcld, of l.Oi.ltiJ!) tons, in IHOl ; and 3,U52 vchhcIm,
of ir>(!,4-t!) tons, in m>2.
At liombay, wn^cH are hif^lier than in Beiipal ;
' .It provisionH ore also dearer. The markets are
not e(pial to tlioHe of Calcutta, but superior to thoxe
td" Madras. Tlicre are fewer ICiiropcaiis at Hombay
tlian at the other presida., neither are their salaries
8o high. The Hombay Native Education Society
have their central schools here, whitdi ore well
attended by native pupils. Several literary socie-
ties, nnd many charitable and religious institu-
tions, have been establisiied. lionibay is the seat
of a Protestant bishoi). Komnn Catholics are
numerous; one of tiie four vica. -apostolic of Fiidia,
•with direct authority from the I'ope, resides at
jiombay, where tlie ("atholic bishop has five dilfe-
reiit churches, all of which, except one at Ccdabba
Island, are endowed. Tlie jurisdiction of the
sii|)reme court is contiiied to the island of Hombay,
and to Euro|)eaiis in the rest of the presid. ; the
<'ivil and criminal laws are those of Englaml, but
this court is not one of ai)])eal from jmivincial
courts, like the suddc.r aduwliit at Calcutta. The
j;arrison consists of about 4,000 troops, one-fourth
of whom are luiropcaiis.
IJonibay is, next to Madras, the oldest of our
jiosscssions in the I'jist; it was founded soon after
the cession of the isl. to the I'ortuj^uese, and wjis
ceded to Charles II. as part of (iueen Catherine's
dowry, in l(i(!l ; but the l'ortu>;uese j^overnor re-
fused to deliver it up, and it was not until 1()(!4
that it came into our hands. In l(J(i8 the city nnd
island were transl'erred, by royal letters jiatent, to
the E. I. Company. The seat of j^overnmcnt was
removed thither from Surat in 1(!«(>, and two years
after llombav was besiej^ed by the Mojifiils. These
■were ordered to withdraw by Auriiii;fzel)e, which
they did in the siicceedin}^ year ; but pla^^'iie,
piracy, and rebellion continued for many years to
devastate and disturb this coloiiv. The first line
of railway in India was opened in 18ri3, between
HONIFACf'IO
n<mibaynnd Tnimah, '.'<» m. NN'R. At prr«>n»
Hombay rules the whole N\V. eoa„t of |,„|i„ „|,,|
Its iiilliieiice is felt aloiiK the shores of IVr^ii m,,
Arabia.
IJONA (an. A/>/)riu/iniiiiii), rnlird hvjho nntiv...
AiihiiImiIi, I.e. place of jiijiilies, a nuirit. ejiv „(• \
Africa, n-K. Algiers, jmiv. Consianiina. oiia'tciiKue
of land project iiifx into a spaeimiH bav (tiull „r
Hona), near the mouth of the Selli..Ms."ii. „ n„i,|,.
•vhat unhealthy country ; hit. :W0 M' ;i()" \ |,„. "
7O|H'-20"E. Vop.ab.mt 12,0(10. ItiHHumM.n.M
with walls ;I0 ft. ill heiiLcht, and nearlv 2 ni jn
circ, with four pites. The town and hiirlMiiir" are
commanded by the citadel (AW«/), on n hill i„
the N. of the city, havinj,' thick walls and a cirniii
of about n quarter of a mile. The citadel was
much injured in l«;t7 by an acriilental explcsi,,,,
of >ruiii)owder; but it has since hi>en renaired. hihI
made stronger than ever. Hona has Immm nnieli
impn)ved since its occupaticm by thi^ Ereiicli, fi,,.
streets arc narrow nnd crooked,"hiit there are h(\(iJ
ral K'xxl houses, a jjood market, with shops, rcinj.
iii>;-rooms, c(dfee-liouses, and even a theaire. '\%,
road of Hona is far from beiiifj sale, the N I',, and i;.
winds throwinjr in a heavy sen. The Seiboiis was
iiavij,'able when the Homans possessed Hona, and
it mi^'ht he rendered so a^ain by clearing' awav a
bar which has accumulated at its mouth, wlicrn
there are but .S or 4 ft., whereas, within this, tlierc
are IH ft. water. Kona is the seat of a Frcndi
judicial court ; has manufactures of lienidiiH and
other >,'arments, tapestry, and saddles; experts
corn, wool, ox-hides, and wax. It was forincrlv
the ceiitn! of the French trade on this coast, and
is at jiresent the principal seat of tin- coral lislierv.
(See Amiikhs.) The Kasha was taken March ■>:!,
|H!t2, bv a few French soldiers and sail(lr^ tlu'
Turks left in it, heiiiK <lissatislled with their
leaders, having o|,ene(l the gates to them. Ileim
was afterwards pillaf,'ed nnd burnt by the Aralis,
but the French, havinjr received reinforcenienl!*,
took jjossesidon of it. nnd captured ll;1 iiiecesuf
cannon. About a mile to the S. are therenmiiis
of llipjjo I'cfrins, once n residence of the Xinniiliim
kings, nntl aftenvards the e])iscopal see of St.
Augustine. It was situated between the rivers
Hoojermah and Seihous, being about 2 ni. in eire.
Its chief relics are some large (isterns and part (jf
the Hcmian walls, A swampy lra<'t extends
between it and Hona, probably its ancient haven.
Ilip|>o was taken by the (Jot lis, and rniallydestriiyiil
by Otliman, the third ealijdi. Its niatcri«l.sser\i;d
to build the moilcrii town.
H( )N A VISTA, one of the Cni)C de Verde islands,
which see,
UON'DENO (an. PatUnum), n town of ceiilral
Italy, prov. Ferrara. at. the eonlliiencc! nf ili(>
I'anaro and I'o d'Argento. Pop. 2,072 in isili,
The town lies at the mouth of a delile which leads
across the A])eiiniiies.
HON'EFl.'O, a town of Southern Italy, in tlic
former kingdom of Na' los, prov. Sannin, caii.
cant., on the declivity in a moniilain, t! ni. SSi;.
Lariiio. Po]). 4,7t)!t in lM(i2. It has a line jialine
and a magnilicciit parish church, with fourlimws
of refuge.
HONIKACCTO, atown and sea-port of the island
of Corsica, cap, cant., on a small ))eiiinsnla at ilio
S. extremity of the islaml, on the silrait wl.iili
bears its name, 45 m. SSE. Ajaccio; lat, 41° ■-'■>'
11" N., long, flo 9' 1(3" li. Pop. ;U .",,•{ in lw!l.
The town is well built and fortilied, but imt,
strongly. Its port, which lies between tlie penin-
sula on which the town is built and the main-
land, stretches nearly I m. inwards, hasdeepwarcr
throughout, and is one of the best in the Medilir-
ranean. Its entrance, however, is not more than
from «0 to 9(1
little dilllciilt <
IIOMFATI
Ciioi'iiza, 4 III. ;
The town has
A great iiuiiiIh
ciiviroiiH.
iioNhon, f
must others in
linil its astroiioi
On lieiiiKdl's r
jijiieed between
jjchveeii long,
nm|i to Park's
niiailered, but t
III the N„ with
in order to ma
iilwervaiiiiiiN wli
aiiiiiiig its barl
state. III 'I exce
r** in., nor in wi
ever, very cnnip
l>aldy not less
lllllillMII til I,. Mill
K. Iiy Hamboiik
Mniliaiii Wilderi
ilie same wildi'i
'liiria; and on
lulenihly elevate
III' iniiiintains, ai
iiiliieiinsiderabU
the \, and VV,, ii
rivers, the Fo-le
.S'liegal, and the
'flic snb-tributari
nms, that thmigl
(Senegal and (.
there are few dis
ivaterwi. As a
'\* III' a most vigf
with thick woods
i-i mil siirjiasscd
ilnclioiis are the
liiiuriiig (Miuiitrit
Ac) ; but a wiiit(
mil q lite peculiai
remarkable to ati
The corn, called
Irmn the dependi
aliont November,
DecenilKT, and i
Jamiary, It is e
til hear a strong ri
mh. In climate
agrees also with t
appcnrs to possess
healthy, and seen
firocitms animals,
tiaily in comple:
immediate neighbi
fiiiilah familv, ne:
cenoiilcrable of all
liave tawny or ..,
features, and soft
npf,'riies to be the
"'f different races,
nfttc people. Tlu
distinctive marks
many of them spc
twigue hears no r
nnr have they any
farther IC, than F\)
»f theFoulahs'), r
III iiidiistry, eiierg
pcrior to their negro
pxl agriculturists,
'" gr.'uiiig and dt
r
IJONIFATI
fmrn HO 1" 00 ynnlM Itroad, wliioh romlrn it n
litilr ilidlt'iilt ot'iii'ciMM.
IIONIKATI, n town of H.oiitltom Italv, prov.
('(iM'iua, t III. SK. lU'lviili rr. I'liji. .'I,:i'.",i'iii iNti.'.
'I'lio town linw M'vcriil rliiiri'licH, ami a ronvt'iit ;
a ^Tfat niiinlHir of Milk-woniii aru rairti'il in itH
cnviriiii".
lloN'IXHr, a cdiintry of \V. Africa, wliicli, like
niiixi otiu'rs ill till' Mann- part of ilic wuriil, Iuim not
hiicl il^ aslroiininii'al |i<Miiiciii |iri'<'iNi'lva-<<'i-rlaiiuMi,
(III lli'iini'irx ina|) to I'ark'rt I'MrNt .^niinicy, it in
|i|iii'('<l liotwiTii tlic lals. ol \:\h° ami I l,^° N., ami
IkIwc'ii Inii^r. 1(|0 |i)' ami I'l" '.'0' \V. <»ii Ihf
Miii|i to I'ark's Hccoiiil .loiirncy flic Ioiik. remains
iiiiiilicrcil, but the lal. is rciiiovcil one dc^^rcc iiion^
1(1 the N., with the whole of the Iravcllcr'M route,
in (inlcr lo make tlial route a^rce with the few
(ilwcrvalioiiN which were taken. 'I'liou^di powerful
aiiKin;; its liarliaroiiH nciKhlxiurx, it is a Hiiiall
ftiiti-, ml pxcec(liii;{ in len;,'lh, from !•',. to \\'.,
7S in., nor in wiillh. i'miii X. to S., 7((; it i-*, how-
ever, very c<iiii|i.ict in form, ami its area u ]iro-
lialilv not lesi than a.iioo sq. m. Its |iii|i. may
iiinninit to l.rillil.lllMI or -.'.IllHl.lilill. It is hoiimlc'd
L liy llamliouk; SIC. and S. hy Temla and ili<^
Siniiiaiii W'ilderne.s.s (wooded, not desert) ; S\V. hy
ilic same wiltlerncHM and Woolli ; \V. hy Foota
'liiria; ami <ai the N, hy Kiijaiif^a. Ilondon is
Idlindily elevated amon^ th(! Senepiiohian Hystem
III' iiiiiuiitains, and mime parts of its surface rise
iiitii considerahle |ieaks. The land slopes towarils
till' \. and \V., as is shown hy tlit^ direction of the
rivers, the Fo-le-ine hoUliii;; n N. course to the
St'iii'j;al, and the Nerico a S\V. one to the Citmihia.
The siih-trihiitaries of these allliirnts are so niiine-
niiis, that thou^'h neither of the tirst-class rivers
iSciu'pil and (ianihia) |iass tlinm^h Ilondoii,
tliiTc are few districts lietler or more ahundantly
wiilcreil. As a iintural consecinenee, ve|,'etation
is iif a most vipiroiis kind ; the hills are covered
with thick woods, ar.d in native fertility the soil
i< iiiit siiqiassed liy any in the world. The jiro-
iliutiiuis are the same with those of the neif{li-
lioiiriiif; eiumtries (see ItAMnAitiiA, Kamhouk,
Ac.) ; hut a winter or dry season harvest, thou^rh
imt i| lite peculiar to this country, is suiliciently
rcinnrkahlc to attract the attention of travellers.
TliP com, called hy hotanists, Jfolnis rorniiiis,
IVdin the (le)iendin^ position of its ear, is sowed
nlioiit Novemher, is in full vi^^oiir by the end of
DcccnilKT, and is reaped in tlic early i)art of
Jiiiuiary. It is exceedingly prolilic, and appears
til bear a strong; resemblance to the Arabic dhoiir-
rali, III climate and division of seasons, Itonduii
ajjreps also with the surrounding countries, but it
iqipenrs to possess the advantage of being more
healthy, and seems to be rather less inlcsted by
ftnioions animals. The inhabitants differ essen-
tially in complexion and manners from their
imniciliatc neighbours. They belong to the great
Fiiuliih family, next to tlie jSIandiiigoes the most
ciin.,i(lcrahlc of all the W. African nations. '1 hey
have tawny or rather yellow skins, with small
features, and soft silky hair. They hold the
noj,T(ios to be their inferiors ; and, when talking
iif (lill'erent races, always class themselves among
u'hite people. They have, indeed, most of the
ilistinctive marks of an Arab race; but though
many of them speak a little Arabic, their native
tiiiijjue bears no resemblance to that language,
nor have they any legends that trace their origin
farther K. thixn Fooladoo (literally, ' the country
of tiie Foulalis'), near the sources of the Senegal.
In iuiliistry, energy, and resources they are su-
perior to their negro neighbours; they are tolerably
(.'(hmI ngricultnrists, and are said to be well versed
in grazing and dairy luisbaiub-y, though they
nONN 40.1
make no cheene. Cattle is their chief wealth, and
they posMois also a hainlMimc breed of horse-i.
'I here an', indeed, hut few African countrien wheni
so many of the iiecesiiaries, and even conveniences,
of life are enjoyed, and that not by the rich only,
but by the greater pari of the popiilalioii.
Centrally hitiiaied between the Senegal and
(iaiiiliia, lloiidou has bei'inne a high road for
tralllc; the slave dealers from the coast usually
)iass Ihroiigli it, and by their means a consider-
able commerce is carried on with the neigliboiir-
ingand even distant eoinilries. The nali\e exports
consist of <Mim, cotton cloths, some sweet-smelling
gums, and probably sometimes cattle. I'he transit,
trade consists of slaves, sidt, iron. Shea butter,
and gold-dust. The government is inonarchical,
and the king is often ut war with his Maiidingou
neighbours.
The Mohammedan religion is very generally
|iri>fi"'sed, but not e\('lii-i\ riy ; the king hiinseif
IS a k.ilir (inlidel),iiiid it iloes not appear that any
intolcr.iiice is pniciised by either se(;t ; •■ ' 'ho
nia.xinis of l.-^limii-ni seem to liii\ehiid s,...., iii-
lliii lice over the Itondoii Foiiliihs, wlm are less
liiis|iiiahlu than the poorer or more ignorant
negroes.
Si hools are established in the different towns,
where children of all persuasions are taught ii»
read and write. The character used is Arabic,
and the instructors the Mohammedan priests;
by this means Mohamniedanisiii possesses a strong
hold over the people.
Customs and duties on travellers are extremely
high. An ass load of goods pays a bar (two
shilling.s) at all places; and at ^''atheonda (the
royal residence) a musket and si.\ bottles of
gunpowder, or the value of them, are exacted aH
the common tribute; besides which, neither lliu
king nor any of his chief ollicers are delicate in
recpiesting presents, which reipiest.s, under tho
circumstances, arc, in fact, demands which cannot
be evaded.
IIONN, a very ancient handsome town <if
Frii.ssia, cap. circ, jiruv. Khiiic, on the left bank
of that river, about 16 m. S. Cologne, on the
railway from Cologne to Mayeiice. I'op. 20,«,")7
in IMtil. The ])rincipal celebrity of Ilonn is de-
rived from its university, founded in IKIM, niiil
intended to replace that of Cologne, suppre.s.sed
by the French. Nicbuhr, tho historian of Home,
was one of its jirofessors; and it has still to boast
of some very distinguLshed names. There are, on
the average, some COO students. The electors of
Cologne formerly resided here ; and their castle, a
building of immense extent, is now the university.
The library that behiiiged to the university of
Cologne, comprising from 80,000 to 100,000 vols.,
has been wmoved thither. In the museum of
Hhenish aiiti(|iiitics, in tho university, is an
ancient monument, inscribed iJea: Victoria; Sa-
crnm, supposed by some to be the identical Ara
Uhiorum mentioned by Tacitus. (Annal. lib. i.
§ 39.) This, however, is doubtful. The cathe-
dral, or metropolitan church, in the older (Jothic
style, with a high tower, has a statue of tho
Kmpress Helena, and is said to be built on tho
site of a church she had founded. There is also
a good town-hall, theatre, &e. A fine avenue of
chestnuts conducts to the Castle of Popfielsdorl^',
a])pro])riatcd to the use of the university, con-
taining the museum of natural history, and
having attached to it a spacious and well-kept
hotanieal garden. The situation of Honii is de-
lightful. It is one of the most agreeable towns
on the Uliiiie as a place of residence. IJeethoven,
the musician, was bom here on the 17th De-
cember, 1770.
iff>. Iif*.,
404
BONNAT
IIONXAT, n town of FrniuT, difn. rmiw, rnp.
rniil.,<>iin hill iioi f/ir IVntn t)ii' llllli>rri'iiNi>. I'lip.
*J,7l'Jiti iNtit. Tlir ^ilncti Ih iliittiiit;iiiHlivil liy tliv
olil caxlli' of lli'miviiiN,
llONNKT-LlvCllATKAlJ (ST.), n town of
Frnncc, ili'p. f^oire, ont). emit., 17 in. M. MtnilliriMon.
Vt>y. '2,'ilW ill iHiil. TIiIh Im a |ilii<'t' or^riiit iiiill-
i|iiily ; it in Hitiiatt'ilon a Konniii ronti, coiiNiriictfil
liy AKri|i|Mi, uml iK'ciiiiifH n |iirtiin'M|iu! |Hmiliiiii
on tint Niirniiiit of n hill, Niimionnli'il \>y a forin'HH,
Haiti to Ih> of the i^v of th(^ KoiiiaiiH, I'art of tint
nii<;ii'iil waIIh and Iowith, liy which tho town wiim
foniu'riy NiirroiiiidtMl, hIIII ixiitl. It han a liaiid-
Koint^ (iolhic uhiiri'h. LocUh of viirioim HortH an;
niadi' htTc, and Nonic lace; and lli<> placo liaH n
('oiiNJdcraldo trade in liinlHT, fonvardvd tu the
|jiiildiii((-yardH at St, ItanilxTt,
IIONNKTAHI,!',, n town of l-'ranrc, di-'p. Sartho,
rnji. cant,, on the Divi', 111 ni. NIC. iMaiis, near the
railway from I'arix to MaiiH. l'(i|i. 't,!)i'iii in iHlil.
It hax a ciinlUs conHtriu'ti'd in Ihtt ir>tli ccntiini',
'\'\u' iiihaliitaiitH are princiiially ciipigcd In the
(Milton inaiiiil'iictiiri'.
IIONNKVAL, a town of I'Vanco, <lt'p. Kiiro ct
Loiriu <>a|i. cant., on tlie Loire, in u fertile valley,
roll. it,t
It. it wa
lirimd and well laid out. it wax formerly forlitied,
and had an ahhey. The rhiireh in Hiirmoiinled hy
a very hi^'h st('e|ik>. It Iuih a cotton mill, with
niMiiiifactiireH of calicoex, caqielH, coverleto, 4e.,
niid Home coiiMiderahle lannerieM.
nONOKVA, a town of the isdand of Sanlinia,
jirov. SasHari, IH m. KNK. Unm, in a healthy
hiliiation, on the declivity of a mountain. Top.
A,H7\t in 1 858. The town haM two convents, one
of them for .fcRiiitM. AharaH, or dijiot U'iIuIohk,
•WiiH estahlished here in ISttJJ,
MOODIiOOM, or HODKUN, a son-port town
of Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, coast of the Archi-
iielapi, op]iosite the iHland of Coh, llH) in. S.
Jiniyrna; Int. iJ7° 1' 21" N., lonj,'. 27° 2.V 18" K.
I'oji. estimated to he 12,(H)(). The town is heanli-
fullv mid conveniently situated on a rising; ground,
at llie bottom of a deep hay, commanding a view
of the is!a:it1 of Cos, mid the siaithern shore of the
Cerauiiic f^uW, as far ns Cn])e Krio. It has n small
but well-sheltered harbour, with from two to three
futhoms water, resorted to by Turkish cruisers, and
having generally a ship of war on the stocks. In
the hay outside the harbour there arc from 10 to
2U fathoms. Houses of stone, and irregularly
scattered along the shore of the bnv, being inter-
spersed with gardens, tombs, and cultivated tields.
Streets narrow and dirty, and the bazars ■\\Tctclied.
The castle or I'ortress, situated on a projecting
rock on the K. side tlie harbour, was liuilt by the
Knights of iiluK.es in 1402: it is still in tolerably
good repair, and mounts 50 jneces of cannon. The
serai, or ]ialaccof the nioosellim ir governor, and
some small mosques, stand along the western mar-
gin of the harbour.
It is supposed that IJoodroom occupies the site
of the ancient Uulwarnussux, the country of Hero-
dotus, and of Dionysius the historian. Above the
town are the remains of a theatre, 280 ft. in dia-
meter, and which seems to have had 3G rows of
marble scats. Old walls, exquisite sculptures,
fragments of columns, and other relics, evincing
its ancient splendour and importance, abound in
the town and its vicinity. (Beaufort's Karamania,
p. 96 : Turner's Tour in the Levant.)
BOON DEE (Bundl), arajahship of Hindostan,
prov. Kajpootana, distr. Ilarnotee, under protec-
tion of the British ; estimat. area, 2,291 sq. m. It
was formerly much more extensive, but Kotah mid
its territory have been separated from it; in 1817
more than half the revenues were usurped by
BOOUO
Keindla and llolknr, and tlui iiennantrv, impovrr
ished liy endless exactions ; but in ININ tlu- rai„|!
received a coiiHiderable nccesslnn of doniiiil.iii niu\
the town of ratlin, from the hiiniN of ||„. Urifj,!,
Although small, this state is im|Hiriaiit, as i( ,.,m'
tniiiN the principal pasMs from the S. into ||„K.r
Ilindiwtmi. The natives art- of the llara triL
which has produced many celebrated men, nn.i
amongNt others one of Aiirting/.elH'',( hest rfriiCriil.
IkNiMiKK, n town of IlindoNtan, prov. llnjiH,,,'
tana, cap. of the alsive ri^aliNliiii, and reMideiirc ,,|
its NOV., on the.H. ileeliviiv of a long ranue of hilN
90 ni. SK. Aiineer, 200 in". SW. Agra ; hit. •J.-.o ..^^
N., long, 7.j° iJO' !•;. h is divided into New „^„|
(tid Boondee: the foniier is Hiirroiiinleil by « hi^i,
stone wall, which extends up the acclivity to mmw
fort ilicat ions which crown the hill; the lidUMeN iirc
most I V of stone, and two stories high. The pnliKi'
is half-way up the hill, and is a very strikiii'
stone editlce, sii[i|H)rl«d partly by a periieiKlJcuhrr
rock IIMI ft. higli, hut principally by solid picnt i,|
masonry. This city is also reii'ihied picHircmniif
hy its numerous temples, niagnitireiii fdiiniain...
and spacious nniin street opening to the pidiici, m
the lower extremity of which stands a (;n,u
temple, dedii'/iletl to Krishna, with many grtPupH
in bas-relief, ami other sculptures. Old It^KMnlii'
is \V. of the Conner, covers a considerable siirl'in c,
and contains some line fountains and piigiuliiN, Imt
is in a stale of general decay. The pHs«e^ N. ,if
Boondee are strongly defeniled, and nlioiiiiil in
natural beauties, in royal and religious edlliccH,
and oilier works.
BOOIMIANI'OOU (/?«r/.«n/M/ra),n towniifili,.
l)ec<'aii India, ]irov. Cmideish, of which it was Ilii<
ancient cap. ; built in a plain, on the NW. Iiaiiknr
the Tiiiitee, l!l.") in. SSE. Oojeiii, and 'Hit m, i;.
Hiirati Int. 21° 19' N., hing. 7ti° 18' K. This is
one of the largest and best built cities in ilut
Deccnn, though, as a whole, devoid of nnliiicciiirul
beauty. Most of the houses are of hrii'k, inaiiv
three stories high, with neat fagndes, trained in
wo<i(l, as at Oojein, and universally niofed uiili
tiles ; but the fort and palace of its ancient xnw-
reigns, and many Mohammedan mosques, eliapels,
and tombs, are tiea]is of ruins. Home of tlie strcctx
are wide, regular, and paved with stone; mid tluru
is a square of considerable extent: the liiicxt,
building is a mosque, called •lumma Musjud, a pilu
of grey-stone, with a handsome facade, uiul otia-
gonal minarets, but destitute of a cupola, the usual
appendage to Alohammedan structures. Tiiv l\n>-
tcc is a clear and beautiful stream, hut here of nu
great breadth, and easily fordable in the dry sensoii.
Boorhanp(Kir is supplied with water hy niiucdiicls,
which bring it a distance of 4 m., and di.striliule it
through every street below the pavement, whciu'c
it is drawn up by Icatheni buckets. 6(10 (if th';
best houses arc occupied by Bokrnhs, a Mnliani-
medan sect, who arc the great merchants in tliis
])nrt of Hindostan, wear the Arabian costume, and
call themselves Arabs by descent. This city was
conquered by the Mahrattas in 1700, since wliicli
it has jmigressively decaye<l. It was captured hv
the British in 18U3. Ihe grapes grown in it^
vicinity are said to be the best in IiKlia.
BOOBO, an island of the E. Archipelago, in the
so-called 4th divis., between lat. 3° and 4° S. and
long. 12G0 and 127° E., 50 m.W. Ceram ; length, V..
to W., 76 m,, breadth 38 m. Bice, sago, a pnit'u-
sion of aromatic mid other woods, tropical fniits,
and the best cnjcput oil, are found here ; tlic intt-
ri.ir is peopled by Horafooras, who subsist on sag(i
and the chase. Some of the other inhnliitauts aa-
Mohammedans. Chinese junks mid S. Sea whalers
visit it, and the Dutch have a settlement on the
island.
nooRooniRi)
nOOItOOOIHl), Rlownof IVr^ia, prov. Frnk-
KrmiNiiNlmw, nin. ^ovcnit, in n lini' niul rniltt'iil
vnlloy, lt)i) III, NW, lN|uiluin. I'.Mtiiiiiitcil |iii|).
I'.'.IMHI, It liiiN a tine I'ikHili' aiiil (u'vinil iniifii|iirH.
The town and <liNl. ntlnclit'il lo ii Im'Ihii^ to ilif
trilH> of Lurk, who do imt wmiilcr I'lir from th<>
ii|Hiti« to whii'li tlii'v nri> luirtiiil, Imt wltU' in vil
hmi'H, iiikI i>in|il(iy i Iu'iiincIvcm in tliu iiii|irovviii<'ii(
i,rtlii'ir cKtatt'M,
IIOOTAN, or miOTAX. an iniltp. ntnto of N.
IliiiiloHtnn, iN-twi'cn Int. 'JH'^ III)' iiml -.'mo ;ii)' N.,
niid lont^. HMO ;i(»' uiiil !l|u K., hiiviiiK N. the
llitiiitliiyn, which iliviilcNil rroiii TiU't ; [•'.. iinil S.
.V<i*iiin mill lU-iiK'il; niul W. the river Ticstii,
wliii'li Mt'parntvH it I'roin .sikkiin : Iciitfth, K. to VV.,
itliiiiit llftti m., hy I'roin '.Hi to KiO in wiillli; hut ilN
liiiiilN woiilil (frcatly I'Xi'oi'il iluM cNliinatt' were it
ili'M'rilicil UN ('oin|iriHin^ all Iho c'oiiiitry iiiiinc-
illiili'iy ailjoiniii^ the lliinaliiya on holli niiU'it,
fruiii ('itMliincrit lo China, which In tcniu'd liy ilic
IIIikIooi* lihote, and itM inhaliitanl!* Jlluitj/iin.
A.srtiiiiiiiiK it lo inciiidc. the dlHtriclH now referred
III, ill* urea haM liceii estimated at ahoiit iM.'iiMi
M|. ni., and its |io)). at l,allO,OlM), Th(> exicriial
ii|i|«'iirniice of llootan is the very reverse of tliiil
III' 'fillet, which is a level talile-land, whereaM it is
iiJiiiiist entirely niountainons or hillv.
MoutiliiitiH. — Its N. |>ortion, which is the S. ile-
I'liv'ilv of the Himalaya, consiitiiles an almost iin-
|iii>niil)U', frontii-r, roiisistiii); of lofty nioinitaiiis,
rilher covered with snow, or lihickand ih'stitnte of
nil verdure oxceptinj; towards their base, where
!<li(irt and acanty herlia^e, a few hushes of ludly,
ami occasionally a stunted pine, arc all the signs
til've){etation existing; in this region,
AlsMit II) in. from this lioundary the aspect of
the ciiinitry changes, hecomiiig, although still
IhiIiI and lofty, more |iictnresque and smiling; the
liills lire cultivated to a consiih'ralile hei<;ht, or
ciivcrcil with verdure often to I heir sununils, hav-
iii); (in their slopes luxuriant forests. The valli'vs
nrc iiii're wedge-shaped intervals, or waler-ct)iir>es,
iH'twcc'ii th(! hills, and their vegetation is similar
III llint of the temperate parts of ICurope. The
ciiiintry continues of this character for nhout
fill ID. from X. to H., gradually hecoming less
Mrikingin itsfeatures as it opproa<'hes the trrriauo,
wliicli divides it from Itengal. This is a tract of
marsli-lnnd, 2!i m, in width, and covered with
jiin);lo, being the only plain belonging tu liuutun :
itH uliinatc iH moHt pestilential.
Tlic principal river is the Tchinchicn, whic'h in-
tfrscct« the country N. to S., passing througli the
vallcv of ToHHisui'on, receiving the waters of the
I'atciiicn and llafchien, and after a turbulent
course of about liA) m., during which it forms
several cataracts, and rushes over vast masses of
riick, fulls into the lirahnmputra, n few miles be-
liiw Hangamutty, where it is called the (iadawlmr.
'ITiere are several rivers of less consideration, siii)-
I«isod tributaries of the lirahmaputrn ; but the vio-
lence of their course prevents the simplest form of
narigntion being practicable.
The primary rocks in the mountains are chiefly
Rranite and on imperfect quartz, having the aji-
[learance of marble, but employed in the manufac-
ture of a s[iecies of porcelain ; good limestone is
abundant, but not used either for agricultural or
other purposes. It is conjectured that tlie moun-
tain ranges contain much mineral wea'.tii, but they
remain almost wholly unexplored. Iron and cop|ier
are the only metals liithcrto discovered, aiul the
fonptr alone is applied to aiiy purpose by the
natives.
The climate exhibits every variety, according
^ elevation, and summer heats and Winter ccild
"* ""cverally felt iu places tvithin sight of each
HOOTAN
40tf
I otiior, In tlic mountainous rrglonx it U not itn-
healthy, and rcsemldeM the climatic of tho S. of
Kiiro|t.% not iM'ing mibjected either to ijie liiirnin;^
HuiiH or |i»ri«slicrtl rains of lUngal. Snow prcvaiU
ilt4rinf{ a greul part of the winter, except in sonm
few districts; nhowerM an- frequent in iiummer, and
III consequence of the exhulal ions arising from iho
numerous springs and cataracts, a certain hiimidiiy
IMTVudcH the nlinosphen-, even at this seas.in. I'tU
iiiikkn, although but a few niilen distant from
Tassisuiloii, has a climate so much milder than
the latter, that it has U'cn chosen as the winter
reiidence of the sovereign,
'I'he nioiinlain forests alsfuiid with iH'ech, ash,
maple, birch, vew, pine, llr and cypress, but contain
no oaks. Numerous fruits cominon to Kuropo
nourish; as apples, is-urs, apricots, (H-acheH. wal-
nuts, melons, mulberries, strawberries, raspbcrrieii
(the two latter fruits growing wild), oranges, and
!«> granates, which are excellent. In the cidder
districts, the cinnamon-tree, and u sjH'cies of rhu-
barb, are found.
Tho marshes of the S. abound with elephants,
riiinoceroses, tigers, Imll'aliK's, and other furinidablit
wild animals; but, excepting in these parts, iliey
are not abundant. Captain Turner sjx'uks only id
a kind of monkey, which inhabits its vicinity, iimi
the yuik, or grunting ox, which is fouiiij liminig
the inimntaiiiH of the N. boundary, but descends
into the lower country- for pasture during Iho
winter months. The 'langun horse, a species p«!-
eiiliur to llootan, almut 1:1 hands high, well-fornicd,
short-bodied, dean-limited, deep in the chest, ex-
tremely active, and well suited to mountainoim
connlries, is an object of considerable trallic with
Ilengal. These have a tendency to becoiiK? pie-
bald ; thus*' of one colour amongst them, althongli
rare, mid less vaba^il by tlu; natives, are much moro
esiceincd ity the Hrilisli merchants.
I'lii/il)-.— Ill |)hysi<al fonnalinii tlioiieo|)lc ditfer
greatly from the Itengalese, being hardy, robust,
strong, and occasionally, in the mountaindislricts,
attaining a height of more than ti ft. Their skins
are sii th.and often not darkerthan those of thn
iiihub. of the S. of luiroiH? ; faces broad, andcheck-
Inmes high, from which point the face rapidly
narrows downwards ; the eye is small and black,
with long pointed corners, looking as if extendetl
in width by artiflcial means ; they have scurccdy
any eye-lashes, licard, or whiskers. They are ofteii
greatly attlicted with goitre, espe<iially those who
live near rivers subject to inundation. Though
not deflcient in courage, they arc ix-aceably inclined
and inexpert in the arts of war: the Ikiw and
arrow (in the use of which they are skilful), sw^ord,
and falchion, are their chief weapons. No mili-
tary discipline whatever is maintained, and ambush
is more tire(|ueiitly resorted to than open contlict.
They dress in woollen chith ; use animal food and
spirits. Tea is the usual beverage, but so prepareil
as to suit few palates but their own. Their dwell-
ings seldom exceed one story in height ; the palace
of the rajah, at Tassisuihm, consists of several, and
is magniticeiit, as compared with the other edilices.
Much ingenuity is displayed in the construction
of their bridges, wliich are composed cither of
timber or chains of iron : there is one of the latter
kind across the Tchinchicn, at Chuka, deserving
of admiration ; the founder of which is unknown.
Their aqueducts are formed of the trunks of trees
hollowed for the purpose. Uoth polygamy and
polyandry are in practice ; marriage is not ratified
by any religious form, and it fretjiiently happens
that one female becomes the joint |)roi)crty of
several members of a family; the dead are burnt,
and their asht^ plunged into a river, on which
occasiou certain ceremonies are performed by the
am
HOOT AN
UyVmfpi, h niiniiTiiiii* ncri of rvrUiiten, who niii|ily
tlu'liim'lvi'NcxrIiiNivcly lnndiiiiiiiiilrriiiu tlii> iliificN
ol' ri'li^'iiiii, 'I'lirri' iin' iwn iiiiiiiiiil It'NiivnlH ; iiii«>
ill III)' Hlirilltr.l'lll It'll iIk' /|<i<>//, t'llllnlnljll^ llf ilin'cri'iil
KIMirlM, HI wllii'll lllimi> !•( nil rillikH, xt-X, llltil il^r,
mix with iiiiri'HiriiiiK')! I' loin; ninl nii aiitiiiniiitl
ft'Hiiviil, I'lilli'il miilhium . (nilirmiii^ ii iiiiiIIiIuiIk of
IliiiiliMi iillt'^nrirH,
.li/riiiittiirr.— lu t\u> ciilliiro of thi> liiiul till' iin-
livcN tliHjiliiy iiiiliiNiry ninl rari', Kiiv, Mlinit,
liiirlcy. mill ii njM'i'irM of iriiiii^iil/tr timI l«'iiriii){ iiii
lllllliily III III!' |Milypinuiii of l.iiiiiit'ilN,iiri' tlii' rliirf
a^ririiiliiritl |iriiiliir|M, 'I'lir viillfv of I'tiKniniiilnii,
mill '•iiiiM' of I III- luiiili Mkirilii^ I III' ri\«'r, yirlil i wn
rro|m llllllUlllly : llir ^'rnuilil oil Ihi* ■•lolN'H of llli>
liilU JH ii '^ 'llni l>\ riillin^ ll iiilo hIii'Ivi'h, Iiii>iiiiIiIi>
it to III' iri'iL;<il('il l>\ ilii' iiiiiiiiiiiiiM >lri'iiiiiM, 'I'lio
lliiixl liilioriiiiiH iillii'i"! of liiislimiilry I'mII Io ilir Inl
of till' fi'liiiili'i, .\i>l\villi>laiiiliii^ llii' rliiiiali'
ntforilN ({ri'iil ailvaiitiiKi'" f<>r llir |iruiliii'iii>ii of nili-
li.'iiy vrp'laiilri, llir liiriii|) in llir only olii' riilli-
V;ilril willi iiliii'li Hiircrsi ; riiiiiriiliri>, ►'IiiiIIoIm,
Mi'loiiM, Ar., uri' jrrowii ! Iml iMiiaim'-^ havi' laili'il, i
ami arr imu loially lii').'li'i'lril.
Till' traili' »ilii llir Niirroiiiulin); cviutitrlcK is ii
fnoiiii|iiily ill III!' Iiaiiij,'* of ilic ;,'iivi'riiiiii'iit, CoarM'
wiMilJiii liiii ill, linrsi's, wax, ivory, gi>lil-iliiM|, hIIvit
iiip'' ■, iiiii.ik, llii' \ariiiii» I'niil-i of llooiaii, ami
Cliii .I'M' Miaiiiifai'tiiri'M, forrii tlii' rliirf ai'tirli'.i of
i>N|'-<>rl to |ti'ii;;'al; aiiil tlio Haiiii' artii'li'M, willi llic
nil' illoii of roi'k'Hall, Icallicr, loliari'o, pajn'r, riri',
til I'ilirt. All aiiiiiuil caravan is si'iit liy llii' ilrlt-
rajali into tlu' lti'ii;;al jiri'Miil., wliirli rrliirn- l,'i>lrii
>vitli iiiilipi (i'oiii|ioMiii^ half Ihc i'arf^'ii), l.n^^lish
wooliciis, linen riotlis, rot tons, Maiiilal-wiiiiii,K|iii'('x,
nhHiilii'tiila, Nlii'i't-('oii|ii'r, tin, ^iin|io\vilrr, oitiT-
HUins, horiiM, IuiIcm, tlic wlioli' UHiially aiiioiuilin^
ill valtKi to alioiit .'111,(11111 rii|i('('i. A Hiiiall trallir
witli llic I'!, iliviHion of tlii' l!iin^'|ioiir ilistrirt is
hImi iiiainlaiiiril, A liasc niUcr I'oin, worth alioiit
l<i(/.,slriu'k iiiCoorh Ilahar, Ih ciirri'iit tliroii^hniit
Iloiitaii, wliiTi' tlicri' is no nihit.
MduHf'iiitiiirK, — 'I'lii' |iriiiri|ial i« impor, tniiilp
from t III' hark of a tree, from wliich matrrial a kiiiil
of silk ami satin is also inailo. I'am is the only
market in Itootaii, ami here are niaiiufaetureil idols,
nwonls, iliif^f^ers, ami the harlisol arrows ; the latter
are i!i|i|ieil in a )ioisiiii iiroeiind from n tree iiii-
knowii to Kiiriipeans, which, lutwever, 8cl<tom
|iri)ves mortal.
JMIt/lon, — niiililhism, of the Lnma noct, is the
jireviiU'iit reli>;ioii ; hut n (iitt'ereiice of o|iiiiiiiii
exists on certain points, one sect pemiittiii|; the
use of fooil eiiiisiilereil impure hy tlie Drahiniiis.
No intemnitiiiii whatever, of a iU]ili>mntic or other
t'hnracter, is alloweilto interfere (luring the)ierii>(l
(if the ceiehration of sacred rites: there arc many
Himihirities in reli^ioiiH custom« here with thone
ofTihet.
(ioviTiiiiicnt. — Tlic sovereifin power, though
vested in t)ic hands of the dliarmn-rajah, who is
ren'arded as possessing divine attrihiites, is exer-
cised only I'v (lie deh-rajah, who resides at Tas-
Kisiidoii. ,n' several )msses into the country are
under the Jurisdiction of otlicer-i called nuhii/is, who
usually iiihahit the fortresses of their pevniiar dis-
trict.s, except in winter, when they visit the hiwer
conntr}', to escnjH! from the rigour of the season,
nnd for the ptiqiosc of estalilishing their autliority,
which is uncertain in its extent.
The interior and S. fiarts of the country are di-
vi'leil into ditl'ercnt domains, each controlled liy a
resident functionary, whoso duty consists in the
exaction of the gov. dues, and general administra-
tion of his distr. The most suhordinatc of the
puhlic oflicers are called moohceit, which situation,
however, afiurds an opportunity fur considerable
noKDRArx
prefenm lit. The n'veiiiii'K of ihr Mjnh urn imi I
niiwlly in nMlilex of proilnce ninl men liiinilj,,
TawiHiHlon, \Vaiiili|MMir, rnniinikka, <ihn»n, nni
.Miirii'hoin, are the chief Iowiin ; hm, niih llii. , ^
ci'piioii of the ilrst two, they are no U'tter tlum
Niiiall villagi'H.
///W/i/y.-Of IhiN inlry.rnlled hy the aiiiliMt
llraliiniiii Madra, no early record liax U'ln inm,
milled, nor was pnlilic I'liiintioii muih diriri.4
towards it until the di h nijali's iiivai.inn ,,f ih,
"eighl ring territory of t'l.ocli llaliar, in 177'
which the llriiish governniiiit i.|i|K.i.e.| ; i.m'
iliroiigh the liiii rveiilinn of i!ii' limia i,| TiUi, .J
peace was ell'iited : the disputed distriil U'lul:
awarded to the lliiotaiii'se.
It is extremely ilillirnlt, and in some parti im
|Missilile, to iletirmine the exact I iidarv ol tln'
coiiiiiry; a renular system of eniroarlinien't mi ||,|.
siirroiimliiig stalls having liein long practi.eil I..,
the lloolanese, who have at ditVerciit |>eriiii|i nil.
hropriated to themselves coiisidiTalile pos..i ..,i„i„
ipeloiigiiig to lleiiiral and Aisain. dnat alami
was created in iMlli hy a sii|i|ioNed tlireatilleil III
vasiiHi of the Chinese, who had enlerni \i|niiil;
and the deli-rajali was excited hy his (ears to i|. '
chire himself amicalily towards the llriiisli, in (li,.
ho|,c of gaining assistanre, if nipiireil. lint a vi rv
serious ilispnie iM'tweeii Itootan and the guviiii-
iiieiit of Calcutta limke out in the autumn of Ixill.
An Kiiglish envoy having lieeii insulted, ami -.'iti- !
fail ion and redress heing refused, a force iiini|i.i>|.,i
of H.iMinmen.all natives of India, exceni l'ii llriii>li
artillery men with two guns, were sent niio Itoi.iiin,
They took several fortilied places, hut were at-
tacked at Kewangire on the ;trd of Kehriiary, Isilj,
and driven hack to Koomrchatta, the Ileiignl na-
tive regiments living in utter coiifiisioii. On ihr
news of I his disaster iH'coiniiig known, the (invirnnr
(ieneral at once despatched a siiHiiient innnliirnl'
Kiiropean troops, who took possession of the U^i
ground. 'l\w low country of llootan at the siniie
time was declared annexed to the Itritish ims-
ses-ions in India.
UOOTOX, an isl. of the K. Ardiipcla-.i. '.'inl
division ; lying off the .SK, extremity of ('ilcln.;
length, N. to S., N.5 m. ; average hreadth iilinut Jh
m. ; hetween hit. 'l°and (1° .S., long. |'j;i<J K. h
is high and woody, hiit well cultivated, yiililiiii,'
rice, irui/.e, an ahundance of tropical fruits, |iiiiilliy,
Ac. The Duti'h had formerly a settleiiK nt lure,
and sent an olllcer annually tu destroy all ilic I'luvit
trees on the island.
UOrrAUT (an. Biimlnliriga), a town nl' ilu'
Prussian States, prov. IMiiiie on the lel'i Imnk nl'
that river, !> m, S. Cobleiitz, on the railway rnmi
Cologne to Mayence. I'op. 4,102 in istH." 'I'liis
is a verj' ancient town, its walls appearing to lio
hiiilt on the fonndationH of a fort constriicii'il liy
Drusiis. In the middle ages it was an imperial
city, and several cmmcils have heen held in ii.
The lioiiscH arc mostly of wood and plaster, wiili
projecting U|)|)er stories; and the streets are nar-
row and ill-paved. The large convent of iMuiicii-
hnrg, founded in ll'iii, and some similar esialilisli-
nieiits, have heen converted into cotton factiirirs.
The parish church and the old church of ilie Oir-
raelites are worth notice.
JtOKDKAUX (an. liurdifiahi), an imiiortnnt
commercial city and sea-port of France ; cap, (li'ji.
Ciironde, in the centre of an extensive plain, mi
the left or \V. hank of the (iaroinie, bh in. .SK.
from its embouchure, 102 m. NNE. Ilayoimo. uinl
iJ07 m. S\V. I'aris, on the railway from I'liris to
Madrid. Pop. 1(!2,750 in 18G1. Tiic (inruiiiie
here describes a semicircle, along the outer side
of which the city extends for about 'J.J ni.. wilii ■<
breadih of about 1 in. in its greatest iliain^'if'
< ■' I III 11.
h\ti\\A\ nielro|iii|i.H.'
"'I llie oiiposite si'di
"iiliiirl) iif |,a it„„,j,'
i»i'in the ciiv and
il'H'anioiis hri'dgi. of
"I I'lWili (or iL'tU \
lliil-c), by .[H it,'
l*r« lieing of Ntoiie,
;J>i""eaiid partiv of
'" ''^1"' 'llM ennn,),.
-"^'MiiH'/. Owing |„
.'■■''"■rent, it was a 1
""' l"il>lie hiiildiiiirs
""■ willieilral, the cl
],""v. .St. .Senrin, I'ai
^^■^;(l;.xc!iaMge),('n
I "■'""' -bisiice, I'al.ti.s
f ;.'"<'. and iHihlii; bath
"""iliiiisheil, (;„„,ic
""1- .«'"! continued, I
'•['•"'lliat am! the 1
«lii,li circmnsiaii,',., „|
" l"""'^, 'mrniony and
'«l««th; the height
l™';l.thecrossi,rwl
'"" '• "> height. At
■tol.s the annent bi'llr
r, ''""'"' it is m
l^d,»rdn,r.st.AIi,.hd
>'isma,m,re,ierfec
J'^ fatiiclnil; but lik,
S'lVr'"^'^'^""''
roKDKArx
107
Pii- I'iiy i" iliviilcil iiiti) 1 1 Ill mill iir\> i|niirti'r'<;
ilii' I'liriiKr, nr niiiiiIk'hi |Hiriiiiii, mIiIiIi iiu'liiiliH
till' iiiii'iciil liiitniin tnuii, riiiiliiiiiH iiiiiv iiiirrow,
,riH>knl. mill tlirly hiri'ct', wiili III Imili nIoiic
lii'iiM'it; nliili'tlii' Itillcr, t'iiiii|iri>in^' IIh' \, |>itrl
,|'llii' I'iiy, li;iM iiio'^ilv riH4'ii ii|i xini'i' 171.1, wlicii
ilii' Intriiiliuit M, lie 'riiiiriiy t'oiinin'iiri'il Iih
iiili^'liii'iiol iiiliiiliii^lritlliiii, li U I'NirriMi'lv
li,lllil'«'ll>i', mill <li'Hi'r\i'i||y rt'li'Li'iilril. 'I'lic wiilr
|;iii' (III Cliiiix'Hii Kiiii);i', uliirli, Nviili its iiiiiiiiiii
,iiiiiii*, iliviili'M llir city into two Mi'.'irly i'<|iiiil
|iirl<, liil'< iMUllv rli'^itiil nliii|iN, mill Hiiiiic iiiilili'
iiiiilr<"<. iix iIk' lloiirMi', mill Urmiil 'riiriitri', 'I'lii'
Alli'iK mill Ciiiiri ill' 'i'liiiriiv, I In- ('mirs ilii
.l.inliii I'lililir, till* CiiiirH irAiliri'l, mul Hrvrral
iihir ^ln ri» mill Miiiiirrn, iin- rriiiiirUiilili' I'nr lli. ir
l.iuiiy nr hIzc. rill' Kuiiliiiiirt,' ilrs ('luiririiii«,
nhii'li niiililiim till' .liirijiii riililir, tviii N|iiiki'ii uC
.1. {<i'rliii|ii till' llni'ii -iiliiirli in l'',urii|ii', till ilir
i\ii'ii.'>inii III' liiiiliiiii^' iiitiili' it |iiirl III' till' rilv.
liii' iipiiriiiirli til llnrili'iuix liy wiiirr U vrry Mirili-
i.i,', 'llii' riMT, ill itM imrriiwi'Ht |i(irl, ii|i|ni:«iti'
ihc rimi' iiiiyiilt', in "•.'O yiirilt iutu^i, wiili a
.!.{iili III' lit I'l. Ill Inw, mill iii'iirly •'> riitlunii-i nl
Ii„li ttiiiir; till' li'ii;;tli of till' I'liri, rrmii mii' cinl
1,1 ilii' iilliiTiif tlic city, iM rrrkiiiuil ul ii|i\vnrilN
ill ;l lrii;:lli' ; it i.1 i'lk|i!llili' III' III inilliiililtili;^' 1,'Jllll
.Iii|i4 ; mill Miii'li iiM ill) Hill I'xi'l'i'il ,'i(iil or lion loiiM
IIIIIV I'litir il lit nil liiiics iirtlic tiili'. 'i'lir (ianiiiiii'
i. Airiril iiliiii^; till' rily liy ii Miii'icssinii iil'.HU|ii'rli
ijiuiyK, wliirll ili'.icrllil, li\ iip'lilli' ilirlillill inn, In
ilic Hiiirr's i'iIhi". iinil iirsiiU'M ilmir ntiliiy, hit
11 ii^'<t till! |iriiii'i|ial uriiaiiiciilM nl' tin' Inwii,
Mm; liiii'il with liandHniiii' luiililiiiK^, wIium'
fiiiiiilivi Iwivi! an ini|HiNin;r clVri'l. ' < hi vii'wiii^,'
•:i\ii Mr. Itif^iin, 'tlii.s ina;;iiilii'i'iit ircsi'i'iil rrniii
:iiiy ii|i{.ii.iitii |iiiiiil I'l'iiin wliii'li Ihc im' iiiiiy ciii-
It;ii'i' ilM wliuiii extent, one eaiiiint lii'Mitate in
nvriliiiin to it a (leriilei|Mii|ii'riiirity nvermiy niii/i-
liiiil prcM'tili'il til 11.1 either in the French nr the
Iji^'ii'li iiielriiiinlis.' (Swil/.erl.'iiiil, iVe„ )i, .'ll.j.)
Oil tilt' iiii|iii!<iie mIiIii III' the river there is the
'iiliiirli III' j.a llii>-liile, 'I'Ik^ eniniiiiinii'alinii he-
iwi't'ii the city anil ilH Hiihiirl) it* inaiiitaineil Itv
ill' raiimiis hriil;,'!' nl" lliinleaiix. It is iVi'ii yanls
ill li'ii^'ili (nr I'JO.^ yiinls lnn;;cr lliaii Wiiterliio
lliiili,'!'), hy -iH it. Iirniid; has 17 arches, the
|iiirs lieiiit; 111' stniie, aiiil the ii|i|ier parts partly
i'i'«liiiii' ami partly nl' hrick. It \mis cnninieiiciMl
ill l'<10, aiiil cnnipleteil in 1 1^2 1, al a cost i.f
:":iMl(Mi/. Owini; lu the ileplh ami streii;illi of
tlri'urri'iit, it was a iimst lalmriniis iinilertaUin^.
'I'Ik' |inhlic liiiililiii^^s must wnrihy nf noticit an^
ii«' I'lilliedral, the churches nl' .St. Michel, St.
In/ix, St. Seiirin, I'aiil, llriinii, ami nlliers; the
ll'iirM'(Kxchaiijf('),('ii.-itniii Ilniise,(iraiiil 'I'heatre,
Hall III' .liisiice, rahiis Ifnyal, Fort ile lla, syiiii-
;';'iii', ami piihlic hatlis. 'I'hc! catheilral is aline,
Im unliiiisheil, (tnthic eililii'e, coninienceil in the
llili, ami cniiliiiiieil, hy several ilitVereiit arehi-
!• Is in that ami the siicceedinj; centuries, I'nini
I «liirli I'irciiiiistaiice, altlioii^h licaiitil'iil in jiarls,
ii wiiiils liarimiiiy and rej,Milarity. It is ll.'lil't.
iiik'iiKth; the liei},'ht, of its nave is Hr> I't.; that
I inn 111' the cross in which its grand entrance is
liiui'il is ndnriied with two spires, each nearly
1 1*' It. in liei;j;ht. At a short distance from it
'laiiilsihe ancient liellry, formerly nearly ."i'-'O ft.
I'i'li; liiit having been much dilapidated during
|ilic lU'Viihition, it is now reduced to little more
iliaii liio ft. hiirh, and serves as a shot tower.
IV dmrch of St. Michel, Imilt in the l'2th ceii-
I'Jry, isiii a more perfect arcliitecliiral .style than
Ike liith&hal; hut, like other ehiirchcs in Hor-
faiix, it is dark and gloomv. It also lias an
h-ibicil helfry, which was iil'O ft. high until
"iiiiilati'il, anil in part iluslrovud, hv a" tempest
nil.. I.
■ i-iiiiiri', i> II o II ^|Mi-iiiii<i ^uiirrie'e,
ci'lllri'. IIH.^ II. ill h i|m||i. hy li/il
I'll liy a large gla/.i'd itniiie, 7x1
lonieil uiih a gallery Mip|H>rteil
In \'M, lU'iientli il is n cnvini In wliich deail
iHNlii'M liiive hi'i-ii pri'Ki'rxeil for a lengthi'lietl
pirinil. The rhlircll nf .M. Crnix i< the llioit
Miii'iriil nf all. having hciii Imilt liifnrc the niiildle
111 the 7lh ii'iitiiry, and ri'-lnriil hy t 'harh'iiiauiie.
'Ihc chiinhi's nf .Notre lliiiile. St. I'aiil. mid lhi>
I'nlli'gi' li'iiyal, are nf iiiinh hitenlale. 'I'hoyiia-
gii'.MIi' is a li!|l|i|sn|iie lillihlillg, eri'i'tcil ill the liiili>
nf Napoli'i.ii. 'I'here are iwn i'mlr-liiiii chiirihi'*,
hill Ihiy prci'iil iinthiiig nnrihy nfniiiMrk. 'Ihii
llnur-<e il a large ediiiie, with a Npli'iiiliij ^lairi'iixe,
mill a hall in its ci'iiirc, W), fi. in
I'l. Iirnail, liglitei
I'l. high, anil luli
hy i» ilniilile rmik of arcades. In the npiier part
nl'ilii' hiiildiiig are IheCiiiiiiciU hmiiher, 'i'riliiiiial
nf ( oinnierce, ami rniiins used fur other piihlic
purposes. 'I'he ('nstoiii l|iiii'''e, hiiill on tliii
cnrropnlldillg side nf ihe riare Itnyale, is, ex-
lernally, like the llniirse, 'riii'tirmnl 'I'lieatre,
lillill in the reign of l.nllis W'l., at mi expelive nf
170,111111/,, \\\\\ acininiiinilale I, lino | crinns, ami
has a line cniicerl rniiiii, a i-paiimis hall, calii,
and nihiT apiirtiiH'iiis, 'rhirf arc t'cveral niher
iheains, Iml iiniie pariii'iiliirly di'^iiiigiiisheil. Thu
riilais, or Chmeaii li'oyal, Iniili in 177'^, ami
fornicrly the resilience nf the ari'hhi<hnp, is mi
cMi'iisive mill line striii'tun', wilh a large i|miilri-
lalcral court in its centre. Najmli'nn |, made it
ail iiimiTial palnic. The I'alai-i dc .lii-tii'i', Ihe
seal III the myal cniirl, ami civil Irihinial, has ii
mariile statue nf .Miillti'M|uli il, 'I'lu' lllnilcril InWII -
hall is III (inlhic archil eel lire ; nf Ihe aili'iclll line,
Imilt in the l.'lih eeiiliiry, iiolliiiig at present
ri'iiiaiiis Iml an nval lower, Niiriiioiinieil hy a dniiie,
llaiiked hy two I iirrels, called Ihe 'I'lmnlv I' //iirlni/i;
llni'ilcanx was fur a Imig pcriml furl Hied; hut
the streets planned hy ,M. ile rniirny I'nr tlie must
part occiijiy the sites of the former works; thii
Furl tie lla, coiisiructed hy Charles VII., is now
coiiverleil iiilii Ihe prison : the ( 'hiileaii 'rroiiipetli',
hiiilt hy Ihe same Sovereign in I l.'^i.'l, was de-
molished in 1^*17; mid its site, which now forms
till! IMiice i.oiiis I'hilippe, l.'iidoiil asa proiiienaile,
and |ilmileil with trees. 'I'here are sniiie nniaiiis
of antiipiiiy in Itorileaux ; the principal is what is
ealleil Ihe ' I 'a lace of (iallieiins,' a vii^t aiiiphi-
theatre nf lirick and stone, helieved to have heeii
erected alioiit ,\.ii. '.'lio, Iml now niiich ilihipidatcil.
It stands ill the .\. half nf the city, ahniit •{ m.
from the ancient liiniiaii town. Jt appears to
have heeii of all elliptic form. II I \ yards Imig, hy
nearly liriyards wide, and eapalile of accnmino-
datiiig l."),(iili) sjiectators; it hiiU'ered greatly dur-
ing the revolutionary phreiisy in I7'.Il' (when tlio
I'alais d'Oniliriere, or Caslriim rnihrariu', another
Ihinian edilice, was alMt. for the most part, de-
stroyed) ; hut its two jiriiiciiial entrances, 'JM^ ft.
high, hy 1!) 1-tItli ft. wide, and a part of its cir-
cumference, are still nearly perfect. Jlost other
relics of the Itoinan dominion have disappeared.
The Temjile of Tutvlli; supposed t« have heen
dedicated to the tnUdary divinity of the place,
and to have heen erected early in the first century,
was HS I't. in length un each side, and containeil
■Jl enormous eolnmns, 17 of which were standing
towards the end of the 17lli century. It was
much mutilated in llM',), and totally deinolisheil
under Louis \1V., in 11)77, to make room for thu
glacis, constructed hy Vauhan, rouiiii the I'hnleaii
'J'rompette. No trace is found of the Temple of
Diana and Fonntain of Divona; and the stream
Dk-itia, now La Devise, niuiitioned hy Aiisoiiius
(t'lanii L'rhe-s, xiv. 15.),
I'or iiioiliiiniiino v.rbls foiitniii fliiminls nlvciim :
Qiiom pater Occnims retliio eiini imiileverit leolu,
Adlubi tutum spcotubis claiisibu.^ icqiiur—
Iv Iv
•/*■■. iftf '
408 IJORbUAUX
iii.stcftd (if siipporlinfc floctH, \a now ftrcluid ovor,
niid 111) vr.Htii,'<'M arc oxtaiit of its dock.
Itordcaux liiw iimny strinhircs devoted to trade,
nrls. and iiiaiiiiltu'tiireH. 'I'liere iw. M'\'eral Imild-
iii^-doeki4, ill wiiieli l)ri>,'H, frinales, and even siiips
of the line may Im' eonstnii'tcMl, lint wliieli are
ordiiiarilv ('inployed only foreoinniereial iinriiose.M,
tSliip-liiiildin^' isearriedon exien.sively ; tiieininilier
of Nailing vessels constnieted in (lio year IH(i;i
aiiioiinted to l"i, of a total tonnage of l(i,()2r), Ije-
hides 'J steaiiKTs of o(ll) tons.
Oil the .'tlstof Deeeniher, IHIi.'!, lluMinniher and
lonnap! of vessels heloiifiing to the. port of Uor-
dcAUx were as f(dlows : —
y.Mi.ixd Vi;ssKi.s.
Tnni
8 of 800 tons and uImivc, mcnsuring 1(l,|!iri
1 from 7fio to Mini
II
^j
(lllll to 7110
•JH
jj
CilHI to (IIHI
tlH
»i
<IIMI to .'Oil
)i
7:1
t»
:i(ii) to nil)
>>
Kia
»»
'.'1)11 to ;i()i)
11 11
(11
i»
llll) to •.'()!)
>i 11
41
,»
(io to 100
87
,,
:i()to (io
■1
G
i»
•JO to ;i()
»» i»
44a vessels, measuring
Sri;A\ri;its.
1 yso horse-power
1 U21)
,,
] 1 8.iO
«i
.'i.ciir.
7,l'2.'-.
iri.oj!)
;t(),-.'lti
•J.^,(l7l
^■■..7JH
!M •-'.".
:i.i7i)
1 /uii
li;:i
laa.i'Jii
tugs mid river pas-
sengurs' boats.
Vessels . l;{ l,o50 „
Hoaidcs its mnritimc industry, Hordenux has
many other important niannfactiirrs. There are
iiniiierous hrandy <listilleries, siij^ar retineries,
vinepir, frhiss-hoitle, shot, and cordaj^e faetories,
iron ami steel forf,'es, potteries, and tanneries,
vitli manufaetiires of cottons, woollens, kid gloves,
honnets, corks, playinj^-cards, litpieurs, musical
instruments, barrels, turpentine, and other druj^s,
soda, alum, vitriol, mineral waters and other
chemical preparations; and in the neighbourhood
of Itordeanx some j^nniiowder fabrics.
The trade of the port is considerable in tlie jiro-
duce of these manufactures, and in K"""'") <'iittl<'»
and timber; but the chief articles of export are
the famous red wines of the (iironde and brandy.
A lartce jiortiou of the inliab. of the (Juartier de
Chartroiis arc wine merchants, and a great jiart
also of that (jiiarter is occupied with cellars, some
of wliich arc cajiable of (Mintaining 1,000 tons of
wine. The quantity of wine exjiorted to the united
kingdom from Bordeaux has been jirogressively
increasing, ever since the conclusioii of the treaty
of commerce between France and (ireat ISritain,
in lISGO. Subjoined is a statement of the quantity
exported in the two years IKli'i and 18(53 to the
United Kingdom aiul colonics: —
Quantity exported in 18(i2
„ „ 18(i3
Increase in 1803 . .
2,n71,()n;3 gallons.
481, '.'CO „
Besides wines and brandies, which are furnished
to every country with which Itordeaiix has any
trade, the chief exjiorts are liqueurs, walnuts,
chestnuts, dried fruits, vinegar, tartar, skins, flour,
cork, ami various drugs to England, Spirit of
wine, tartar, molasses, and colonial produce to
the X, <if Euro])C; fruits, verdigris, aud a few
manufactured articles to the U, States ; to Spanish
America and the W. India colonies of France,
French manufactures, furniture,cattle, and flour; to
the S. Seas, the E, Indies, and China, all sorts
of manufactures, (urniture, silver, &c, Uordeanx
ila the chief port of Southern France for colonial
produce; it receives from Anuricn, Iii.lin. nn,|
Africa, colfee, sugar, pepper, cigars, caiiclla l.nrk,
indigo, (piinqnina, tea, rice, coina. hIuiis. ijvc-
woods, Ac; iron, lead, and other nielals are im-
ported, especially from KiiKland ; fish, glue, ,iiiil
tallow from Kiissia; timber from the Itjdiic;
metals, oil, liquorice, sMU'ron, iVc fnini S|,;iiii'
zinc and steel from (iermany; cheese and stniK-
lish from Holland; linens frinn I'jiudaiid ami ilie
two last-named countries, 'I'lierci arrived, in n,,,
year I.S(;:{, in the port of Bordeaux :i.:!,si vcsmIs,
of ;"iOS,r)l4 Ions burden, while the deparliircs cuii-
sisted of '.\.:>7\ vessels, of o-il,?'.';") Inns. 'flu.
inimber of Itrilish ships which enlered ilie pnrt
in iKIi.'l amounted to II 1, of I'JO.'.iT.'i Inns luiiilcn
while the departures were .'iii."!, of lld.i'iil tmis!
(K'epoit of Mr. Consul S<'(itt on the trade of IJor-
deanx for the year IWll;").)
'['hf trade of Itordeaiix with the iiitirinr is
greatly facilitated by llm three lines ol' riiilwnv
from I'aris, from Madrid, and from M.ir-iilli'<,'
wliich converge at tln^ city, as well as liy iln'
chief water communication of the Canal dii .Midi
(See Fhaxck,)
Kordeanx |)ossesses several diaritahle insiitM-
tions. ''I'hoNew Hospital, erected Io rcplac;' that
<if St. Andre (built in I.'J'.IO). is,' says Mr. lii;;!!-
' upon a scale of magnilicenee and coiiifnrt Iic\"iiii|
what is to be found in any other (own in Mn'ruiii'.
r d(>dicatcd tlu! second of my days at linnlciux
to a visit to this hospital, and was ei|iiallv sur-
prised at its extent, and delighted willi the ail-
inirable arrangements that pervade every part i.r
it. There is nothing that tliis hospital dues in (
contain. It includes 710 beds for sick persdih,
and IK chambers for the accommodaliniuif |icrsiiiis
who jiay ttir the attentions they reicive. It inn-
tains baths, bakehouses, courts, an apolliecarv's
shop, water-reservoirs, gardens, and aicoiiiiuiKlii-
tion for medical men. There are also in tin.
hospital iM reservoirs for water, as a prnvisinii
against (ire, containing 1,-110 hhds. I neeilscarcily
adil, that, in the I'leaniincss of (!verv (lepiiriiiiciii,
the hospital is ))erfect ; and that in the siiialli>t
minutiiv, everything is found that can cdiitrilmtf
either to health or to comfort. The lioidclais arc
Justly ))roud of this noble institution,' (Swiizcr-
iaiid, ic, p. iWH.) There are, also, hospitals fur
aliens, foundlings, the aged, insane, itc, Imrrmu-
de chariti', a </('p6t ile vwiiiHviti'\ and other similar
establishments. There are two buildings iicarilic
river, each .'it! yards square, devoted to piihlic liaili<;
their exterior is crowned with an agreeable Icrraiv,
and the interior of both is fltled up with all tlii-
various kinds of baths, medicinal and nthcnvl-t'.
The vineyard of the former monastery of the Car-
thusians is now converted into a public ccinotcry:
there are three others iu liordeaii-x, two licluiii;in^'
to the I'rotestants, and one to the Jews.
Bordeaux is the seat of an archliisliopric, nf a j
royal court and court of assize, and trihiiiials "I' |
jirimary jurisdiction and of coniinerco. It lias
numerous scientitic and scholastic iiistiiiitiuii*.
The Museum occiqiies a large extent of firmiml,
and comprises the public library, cabinet »f naiiiral j
history and antiques, a picture-gallery, scIkhiIsi!'
design and painting, and an oliservatory. Tin'
public library contains 110,000 vols., amount 1
which are some rare works, and several valiiaMc |
MSS. ; the other departments are not very ritli
the iiicture-gallery, however, boasts of some ;;iii«i
paintings of the' French, Italian, ami FlomiAj
schools. There is a botanic garden, at wliiili al
conr.sc of lectures, recognised by the I'liiviT-iiy "fp
France, is annually delivered; a uiiiver-ity aoa-i
demy, royal academy of arts, sciences, iiiiil IhIi
Icttres, a royal college, a faculty of tlicolii|j:y,i>i'l'j
"-;..■ 01 a Day o
ut. Helsingfors; 1
;• J'"!>- 2,78!) in ^
, l''^'i"l>ri«, ami has i
[■"iiiijlcrent, and it
I » that the emper
I '^l" "<• fidelity ten '
f'nilCl|l!llily.
liOitGO-JIANERC
Pi^v^ .Noyara, cap. ai
, ■'■^». Auv.ira. l>oi
^'""'fcd by avails, a
I fro, several conv
"'■yi'/c.
I ';W;<iO-SA\-DO
™M»tlie former
« ilie Siirune. 2-> m
'N
1 JO ur. I. V
jclinols of iinvi^nlioii inn I iiKMlirinc. n iinniml
.,'|i<jiil, H MiHiiiol I'lir deal' anil iliiiiili ; an Adicnii'mn;
l.liiiuwin, |iliili>nia(lii(', and nifdii'n-cliinir^ical sn-
liilii'.-'. a royal Kociety of nictlicinc, a sucicly of
(Hinincrrial ciniilatioM, A'c. In llx^ vii'lnily of llic
iliv is an ('X|H'riiii<^ntal farm, and a ract'-coni'M' or
hi|i{iii(lniin(' : tlu> counlry round is cirully a|i|iro-
iriatcd to llio cultiiri! of till' villi's; hut, from its
ilaiiicss, is devoid of nmi'h |iii'tiir('si|iu' licanly.
Since |m2"), tliis eity has been li;;liled with f,'as.
Till' iiihaliilants an^ p'nerally o|iiileiit, and live in
II slyU^ sMjierior to that coiinnoii in any other
Prciiili <'ity, I'aris excepled. 'l'h<! Jnrisdielioii
i.f the royal court of liordeaux extends over
ilii' iti'ps. (iironde, Cliarente, and Dordo^iie : its
arililiislioprie, which orii,'iiial('il in tlie third ren-
lury. has for sutVraj^ans the bishops of A^jen, An-
i;(m!i'iiie, I'oictiers, I'erigiieiix, l^a Uochelle, and
l.iiV"ii.
llistori/. — The epoch of the foundation of lior-
ilwiux is unknown. It was liie capital of the
Riltir'KjiK Vivkri, a Celtic nation of (iaiil, anda
(lUliriited conniiercial city in the lime of Siraho,
It was taken hy the Itonians in the rei;,'ii of
Aiinusliis: and lladnaii made it the metropolis of
ihc sci'diid A(|uitaine. In tin- rei;;n of (iallienns,
[iirii'iis, the governor of this prov., one of the so-
died thirty tyrants, assumed the ptirpU^ here, and
ii is must i>rol)al)lc (Ilnn'o) that it was he who
liiiiit tliecelehrated amphilheatre. In '117 the \'i-
;i;,Mliis, in ij(t!( Clovis, and in 72!) the Saracens,
|.i>f('ssi'd themselves of it; under ('harlcnia};'ne.
It was jjoverned hy a coniit of its own ; in the
iiiiitli century it was mined hy tlie Xornians. It
siliscqiiPiitly became the caj). of (Jiiieniie, and fill
with the rest of that duchy uniler the kings of
Kiinhiiid, to whom it almost uninterrniiledly be-
liii;'i'il till the Knglish were hnally expelled from
France in the reign of Henry VI. (ieiierally s|ieak-
iiw, this city has in later limes been attached tu
lilt interests of the liourlion family ; but in l«:!(l,
I'll tiie ])ul)lication of the ordouiutiwc.i of t;harles
X., the standard of revolt was hoisted here before
news arrived of the same occurrence in I'aris. l!or-
ili'mix anil its vicinity have, in all ages, prodnceil
nliliratcil men : amongst others, Montesipiieii and
M'l.taigiie; the Latin poet Ausonius, in the I'onrtli
nnmry; Chaptal de iJuch, I'^ilward the IJlack
rriiiie. Jay, Deseze, &c. ; Pope Clement V'., and
Hiiliard II. of England, were also utitives o*" this
city.
iiOIJGIA, a town of Southern Italy, i)rov. Ca-
taiizarii, cap. cant., in a plain (! m. \V. Catanzaro.
I'lip, 4,8.')() in 185!). Having been almost totally
dtstniycd by an (;arth(}uake in 17M."!, it was rebuilt
k I'l'idinand IV., King of Naples. Its environs
|iri«lu«! highly-esteemed wiues, and large quaii-
tiiits iif silk-worms,
llOKCiO, or IJOHfiA, a sea-port town of Russia
in Kurope, prineip. Finland, gov. Nvhmd, at the
liiitom of a bay of the (iuif of Finlanil, iJa m.
KXL Hclsingfors ; lat. 00° 22' N., hmg. 2,")° -liV
I I'o]). 2,78!) in 1858, It is the seat of a
lifhdpric, and has a gymnasium. 'I'he harbour
I i-' inilitlerent, and it has but little trade. It was
tero that the emperor Alexander I. received the
wth iif fidelity teiidereil by the states of the
Iirinciiiality.
liOKfiO-JIANERO, a town of Northern Italy,
I l*iv. Xovara, cap, aiTond., on the (iogiia, 18 m.
pxw. Xovara. Pop. 7,81)5 in 1m12. It is sur-
iimuled hy walls, and is well built ; has a line
siiuaie, several convents, a hosiiital. and a iiiont-
liUi;(iO-SAN-DONINO, a town of Northern
Wy, ill tlie former iluchv of Parma, cap. distr.,
|« the Stirone, 22 ni, SK.' Placentia. I'op. i),!li)2
IJOHNEO
4!)9
in ISCr.'. It is surrounded by walls, has a (lalace,
a caiheilral, four parish cbiirclies, a cullege, a semi-
nary, a worklionse, and some fabrics nf silk and
linen, It owes its name to ,St. |)iiiiino, who was
beheaded here in 'MH.
Ilorgo is prelixed to the name of various small
towns in diirereiit parts nf Italy.
HOliMSSOF, a town of lliissia in l''.urope, gov.
Minsk, on the left b.ink of the lle'n'/.ina. I.'i in.
NI'). Minsk. Pop. 5.n_'5 in I.h.')8. ISori^sof has
acquired celebrity from the disastrous passag(M)f
the liere/ina, ell'eiled near it. by the remains of
the French army under Napolenii. nii its nlri'it
from .Moscow, on the Itlthand I7lli .\o\., |kI2.
ItOl.'ISSOtiLKltSK.atownot I'.uiMpeaii l.'ussia,
gov. .laroshif, on the riglit bank of the Wolga,
opposite to Itonianof. Pop, tl.CiOl) in iM.'iH. The
town is picturexpiely sitiiiiteil on a hill declining
towards the Wolga, and siirronnded willi dense
forests. It is also the name of anotlicr 1,'us-
sian town, gov, 'I'anibof, on the left bank of tlie
Voroiia.
HOKKHUM, a small island in tlii^ North Sea,
belonging to Hanover, olf t!ie mouth of the I'.nis,
aitoiit !) III. from the nearest point of the niaiiiiaiid.
Pop. 1x5 in I8(!l. 'I'he isliind is iiicluded in
the bailiwick of Pewsiiin, and is so low that
at high water it is di\ided by tlie sea into two
pretty eipial parts. The iiihabilants are mostly
seanieii, several of tbeiii being employed as liar-
])ooiiers in the ships engaged in the iiorlherii
whale-lishery. They also raise corn, fruits, and
cattle. It is an established cnstoiii, that a third
part of all articles saved from shipwreck goes to
the indi.'idual on whose land the disaster took
|ila<H!. liiirkhum is a |iar., with a church and a
school. The spire of the clinrch serves also as a
lighthouse. The lantern, which is furnished with
rellecting lamps, is 150 ft. above the level of the
sea, and is in lat. 5.')° ;!5' 2i)" N.. h)ng. (1° 10' 2il"
E. (Coulier, sur les Phares. 2ndedit. p. til.)
POIIMIO, a town of Northern Italy, prov.
Soiidrio, at the eonlluence of the Fredosso with
the Adda, ;i() m. NK. Sondiio. Pop. l.tWl in
I8li2. A large cattle fair is aniinally held here,
from the 22iid to the 25lli of October; and in its
vicinity, on the declivity of ^Mouiit liraglio, are
celebrated mineral springs, niiich freipiented by
))atieuts from the N'aileliiie and the (Jrisons. This
town was formerly much more considerable ; but
being sacked, burnt, and its iniiab. )iiit. to the
sword, in ltJ21, it has never recovered from the
disaster.
POHNEO (called by the natives Tmimi K/e-
mimUin), the largest island in the world, Australia
being reckoned a eoiitiiient, occupying nearly the
centre of the E. Archiiielago ; between lat. -1° 10'
S., and 7° N., and hmg. 1011° and 1111° 20' K. ;
having N. and W. the China Sea ; E. the Celebes
Sea and Straits of Macassar; and S. the Sea of
.lava : form compact ; length. NK. to S\V., 750 in.,
breadth ;!50 m. ; area 2(iO,OilO stj. m. Estimated
pop. ;!,000,()0(). The coasts are less indented by
deej) bays, or creeks, than those of most islands of
the Archi]). ; notwithstanding which, it has seve-
ral tine and spacious harbours. The shores consist
usually of mud liauks, with numbers of minute
and rocky islets around them; the land for several
miles towards the interior conthiuing marshy and
a'luvial, interspersed with gentle acclivities, co-
vered with underwood. In the niajis a chain of
mountains, running NE. to S\V., were long re-
))resentc(l as passing through the centre of the
island; but Mr. Farl. who visited the interior in
I8;i I, saw no traces of these, nor does he believe
in their existence. I'^xcepting the volcanic chain
of mountains passing through Java, and the S.
K Iv 2
600
IMirls of tho ardii|ic'laf;o, to the E., nil tlic liill
run^cH (if tlioHC LsIiukIh run N\V. and SI''., and
8ccni to Ih> continnntioiis nf (lio (;r(<at raiip's wliicli
nni in that dircrliun throiifrU tho ullra-danp'tif
poninsiila, and of which I he rocky ishind I'ido
Condor and the Natnnas seem to lie connecting;
links. They arc all of the nanii' KcoloHical cha-
racter — granitic; and in Itorneo |iriitiaJily ternii-
iiate in a range which line« the SK. whore for
i)U m., called tint Ilniidred Moinitains. There are
ninny isolated hills in Itorneo, and a range stretch-
ing 'nh)ng the N\V. const, of ahont it.OOO J't. in
height. (Sec Karl's Ma]), &c.) There are ninne-
rons and extensive ]ilains, cs|K>cially in the N. ;
but the most important yet known to Europeans
is that of MontraiUik, near the W. coast. There
arc sai<l to lie u|iwards of 100 rivers, many being
iinvigalile, and some of considerable size. The
]irincipal is the Hanjarniassin, which has a S.
course nearly throngl'iout the whole island, and
falls into the sea not far from the town of the
same name on the S. coast. The I'assir, Coti,
and many others, are met with on the K. coast ;
on the W. the Sambas, I'ontiana, Landak, Snc-
cailan, are the ])rincipal ; the lirst is I m. wide at
its month, and nnich more a little farther inland.
]t has been ascended in snuill vessels l)y the
l)ut(;h for 80 m., and beyond that is said to lie
available for canoes to within two days' walk of
liornco Proper. The larger ri\-i'rs, which come
fmm the centre of the island, apjiear not to have
tlieir origin in any mountainous region, as they
rise no liigher during the rainy season: they sel-
dom contain any saixlbanks or rapids.
Ntithing satisfactory has been c<immunicate(l
respecting the geohigy of Borneo, except the gra-
nitic character of its primary mountains; its soil,
in the neighbourhood of the European settlements,
vies in richness with that of any other island <if
the Archip, In the NE. it is said to be superior
to all other parts. Itorneo is rich in valuable
minerals : it is the only island of the Archip.
where diamonds are found ; the chief of whi<'h
are from Landak, in the Chinese territory : one in
the rough state weighing JJOT carats, and worth,
according to the common but absurd method of
estimating such articles, ■2t'i!),i}7H/., has been Ibund
there, an<l was, in IHIT), the projK'rty of a jietty
chief. Diamonds are most numerous in the allu-
vial soils, in which gold is also found ; and are of
go<id water, though usually small. The plain of
Alontradok is said to have f<irmerly yielded HH,l!(i2
o/., annually of pure metal (Hamilton); the soil
in which it is found is still", and the veins lie from
« to 1.") ft. below the surface. It is met with chiefly
in small jiartides, nearly as tine as sand, although
sometimes in irregular jiieces of the size of a six-
pence. There are inexhanstibh; mines of ore of
antinumy of very superior quality at Serawak ;
I,-100 tons of which, at ICis. to Ws. jier ton, are
annually exported to Singa|iore; tin is plentiful
in some parts, and a little iron is procured from
the interior.
Climate. — The climate of the N. is similar to
that of Ceylon, and not subject to the hot land
winds that prevail on the coast of Coromandcl ,
the W. coast has no rainy season in particular,
but is refreshed bj' showers all the year roun<l.
Europeans have had but little intercourse with
the eastern parts, and little respecting them is
known.
Borneo is generally very fertile ; but, except in
Borneo Projier, the grain jiroducedis not sutHcient
for home consumption. Timber is often very
large ; but not generally of the kinds suited for
fihip-building. No teak has been yet discovered :
^langrove and rattans are plentiful on the banks
I50RNE0
of (h(
rivers : iron-wood, ebony, cani]iliiir. il;ii;|.
mer, and tiiithdnwin trees (from ihe latter of wliici,
wood-oil is obtained), cocoa-|iMhu, lieid, ciMiia-
mon, sago, in:, are amongst the |irin.i|ial inrs.
The <-aniphor-tree grows to 1,5 or li; fr. In ,ir('.
and proportionally high : it is cut down, split liui'i
jiieces, and the jiroduce (whi(!h is pmlmlily the
iM'st) found in tlu! tissures : none of cither tin;
Borneo or Sumatra c.unphor is importeil intn I'.ii;;-
land, which is supplied with that nrtidc friim
China only. Hice is excellent; but the Dutili
are very jeahais of its exportation, except tliroii;;li
themselves. Maize and the sugar-cane are ciihi-
vated, as well as the plantain and many titlicr
tropical fruits.
AnimitlH, — The elephant, rhinoceros, and Icd-
pard, arc contlned to the NE, corner of the i^l, ;
the ox and wild hog are natives of the l(iri'>|.i';
and the jungles furnish an endless variety of tin;
ape and monkey tribes; amongst whii'li'are ilic
orang-ontnug, and a s)iecies of balmoii, tlionglii li\-
Mr. I'jirl to be hitherto undescrilied, ;) It. In
height, tailless, with short, glossy, brown hair, iiiiil
an tupiiline nos(> projecting lA in. from the I'acc,
The tapir, numbers of deer, and small bears, nii
larger than badgers, but with shaggy hair, iii'c.aliji
Borneo, The Sooloo Sea is much frei|iientei| liv
English whalers for the spermaceti whale. 'I'll,;
seas abound with turtle, and plenty of lish, oysters,
and other tvstavi-ii,
Ffo/ile. — The interior and part oftheXW. cunst
are peopled by Dynks, and by a race with w<iiill\-
hair, like the Papuan negroes; the W. cciasi liV
Malays, (Jhinese, luid Dutch c(donists; tlic NW.
by half-caste descendants of the Moors of W. liiii-
dostan; the N. by Anamese; 'SI], bySiduks: ['„
and S. coasts by Bugis, of Celebes, liesiiles tlicM',
three tribes live in small craft, in a wainliriii^'
manner, about the shores; viz., the I.ainnis, frniii
Magindanoa; the Orang-Badju, and Oraiig-ii-
dong ; som-cc unknown.
The Dyaks (Orang Itenua), a savage race. Iip-
lieved to be the aborigines, an! scattered all nvrr
the island in dill'erciit small tribes. They are nl'
a mi(hlle size, and, except when cramped up liy
being constantly in a canoe, are invariably straiu'lil-
limbed and well-fonned, muscular, lliimgli iiileriMr
to the Chinese in ability to carry linrdciis; I'lit
short and broad ; toes turned rather iinvanN;
cheek-bones high ; forehead broad and tiat ; eyes
rather long, and the outer higher than the iiiiiii'
angle ; faces prominent, with a jileasaiit ex|ir(>ssiiiii,
and more like that of tho Anamese than etlur
Asiatic nations ; hair straight and black ; iin licanl.
The women are interesting, often goinl-liKikiiiLr,
and sometimes even fair; many are married i"
Chinese, and make, it is said, good wives ami
mothers. Their manners are mild and |ire|iiissesy
ing, but as they dread the ^lalays. IVmn wIkhii
tbey have sutt'ercd formerly, they cdniiiumly
avoid strangers.
In the NE., and near Banjartnassln, tlieir cmi-
dition is the most ameliorated. At the latter iiliur. |
and on the S. co.ast, they are said tn jiesscss a
written character. Bice is their chief fnii<i, wiiii I
pork, fish, deer, and other wild animals, wliicli
they shoot by means of arrows blown tlirmiirhaj
tube. This is their general weapon, Imt tiny
sometimes use crooked bows and arrows, tin
latter of which are dipped in jioison. Tlioy spciiill
much time in shalhiw canoes, about Id ft. ImiL'
and made bv hollowing out a single tree: hiitmij
shore inhabit thatched bamboo himses. elevatol
on jiosts, and entered by a Ladder, whicli is abviiy^j
drawn up at night : these habiuitiaiis are I'ltiuj
collected in small villages, ami del'emliil by sti«li-|
adcs. The men wear but Utile cluiliin;;;
r>OIlNKO
/iOl
lor. iliir.i-
(ifwllirli
■1. fiimii-
. ill lire,
, s)ilit iniii
Imlily 111''
I'illiiT till'
iiilii I'.iii;-
liclc Irmii
Ihc Diitili
(it lliroiij,'li
(' lire nilti-
lauy tiilicr
s, nnd lc(i-
of till' i>l. ;
till' r(ir<'>t.-';
rifty lit' till!
licli lire till'
, tliiiuyilit liy
I'll, ;i It. in
wii liiiir, mill
III) till' tail'.
nil lii'iirn, iiii
liair. iui'.,iliii
■l'i|Ui'lltril liy
wliiilr. 'I'lu;
riisli,iiystir>,
huNW.riiast
e with wii.iUv
W. I'liasi liy
sts; till' N\V.
irsiit'W. lliii-
ly SuliiU^ : 1"
iil'Silll'S tlllM'.
11 wiiiiili'riii;^
■ Lrtuiin;', ftiMii
nil Oraiit;-ri-
:ivaf;o rai'p. tio-
Itti'i'i'il all iivi'V
'I'lioy ari' "I'
raniiii'il iip ''>'
|vialilystrai;;lil-
liim^rli iiifrriiT
liiirilriis; iVit
tliir iiiwariU;
ami tlat ; I'Vi's
tliaii the iiiii'f
jUiit exiirossimi.
li'se than otlur
,larU;iiiihf;if'l'
jriHid-liiiiUinL'.
fnri' iiiarrii'il t"
till ill wivi"* nii'l
anil iiri'ims*''^^-
... IViim wliii'i'
liey coraiuoiily
Jissin, tlifir cmi-
Ithe latter I'laii''
liil til lii's^t'^^ ;'
Thief ti"«l. ^"'''
laiiimals, wlml"
lown thrim.s-'li :i
ipi.n, hut llii'V
liil arriiw?. tin'
|i. Thov sjii'ii'l
lout 111 i't. 1"";-''
Trie tree: 1)"""'
Jioiises. elevatc'l
Iwhi.'li is ahviiv'"
litioiis are nlli'ii
leiiileil hy >t'«'l<-
clulliiie': tlic|
ivnmeii miirli morn, nnd nro liii'lifiil niul iiunli'st;
l.i'lli M'xcs liivii (liiiTv, <'s|ii'('ially IicmiIm niiil fea-
iliir,'!. Tattiioiiig is iii iimc mnuiig some (if I lie
irilii'.''.
|'|iiin tlip Imnks of the larger rivcM mniiy f rilios
il'ii'ii unite tngctlicr, iiiiiler the rule of niiestrniiLcer
ili;iii the rest ; liiit ill the fnrests tliey keep si'iui-
r;it'', mill H|ieak ilinleels »i) ilill'ereiit as to lie nl'teii
iiiiiiitellijjilile tii eaeh utlier. The mure eivilised
liiive ailiipteil Miiliaininetlaiiisiti ; cithers less eivi-
ll.t'il lielieve in n Supreme Iteiiif^ iiiiil n future
•liili", hut suppose that, in the latter, the owner of
II human heml will have the former wearer of it as
Ills slave, u lielief wliieh has naturally led to n
uiili'ly-exlended system of hiiniaii saeriliee. No
iinpi'iui marry without the head of some one liav-
i;i,'lieeii lirst ohiaineil liy himself or liis friends;
ami at the funerals of persons of eiinsei|iience, or
iriiiiii's of peiii'e lietween chiefs, slaves or prisoners
jri'ili'i'apitated toolitain these trophies: the heads
;iri' ilrieil and liuiif; up in the houses; and pirati-
cal exjieilil ions are ofini iiiidertuken with no other
niiii'it than toolitain them. "^ "•■■' — ■■
ihji'i
lietter river, liiit ronliiiii.i is the lirlter town. 15e-
Iwet'ii t4ielwi>are the Chinese si'ltlemeiits of Mon-
tradok and Landak. The gold mines near Iho
former plaee are fjenerally worked liy ('ompanies
of nieri-hiiiits eluliliiii^ toj;i'ther. Spailes ami mat-
loi'ks are the only ininiiii:; instrumeiils in use.
The ore is liroughl up in liiiskets, then washed
(fur the Chinese have no other method of freatin;;
it), nnd the gold-dust mtvde into little paekets,
eaeh weighing two Spanish dollars. Aliout il.SOd
oz. troy « year are sent to Singaiiore, wliieli may
he nlioiit one-tenth of the )ireseiit (irodnee of the
island. The Chinese ajipear to lie of iielass like tho
lowest atCanton. Previously to the Dutch settle-
ment here in 18-J,'J, Il.dOl) of them arrived annuully
as settlers; hut emigration has now ceased, owing to
the treatment they have received from the Dutch.
In IH.'M. the tlhinese expressed a great desire to
trade with the Krilisliat Singapore, hut the Dutch
interdicted all communication between them and
foreign nations, except through the medium of
SamliiLs and I'ontiana; nnd, being in ]iossession
of the west coast, they were enabled to prevent it.
The iiorlh-east coast, liowtn-(T, siioii rose into a
far more llonrishing condition, chiefly Ihruugh the
exertions of Sir James Hrooke, who established
himself as ruler here, under the title of Hajah of
Sarawak. The W. co.ist was ceded to the hutch
by the King of Kaiituin in 17M(t; but the cession,
for some time afterwards, was resisted by the Sul-
tan of Siiccailan. In l«2:t, the Dutch" settled at
lin'iii the most valuable of all articles, (.'liinii jars ' I'ontiaiia, and (lurchased the monopoly of some
ari' valued, and from some superstitious motives , diamond mines from the JIalay sultan. Finding
an' Ml highly ]irii!cd that they have been kwown | these nnprulitalile, thev endeavoured next to tJiko
tnlVteli 2(t(»(. or mure. A curimis circumstance, forcible possession of the (Miincse mines, but being
>inti'il liy Mr. J'^nrl, is, that if any <ine drink tho i repulsed, they blockaded the (,'liinese between
-iiiiillostqiiaiitity of the blood of a Jioniese in a i their two settlements, obliging them to trade by
oii]i of water, he, by doing so, binds him by ties ; their ports, and guarding the coast by several ves-
(Lwrtliiiii those of consanguinity. The liMiiuiis ; sels. The Dutch revenues are chielly derived from
art a piriitieal people, who infest the NW. coast -monoijoliesof salt and o)iiiim, the furnier of which
U'MM ni., and cruise in other jiarts of the Arclii- ! is imported from Java and other colonies in vessels
|iil;ii,'ii, iilmideriiig villages, and often "irryiiigofi': chartered by government, and sold at seven times
ihirwliiile population into slavery. Sometimes ■ the import price, the interior being entirely de-
ilic |)yaks join with thcni ill these predatory ex- pendent on the coast for its supply. Other re-
|r>litiiiiis, iind bring away the iron and human sources are from capitation taxes on the Chinese,
Iniils, while the Lannns aiiiiropriate the rest of the and imposts on their entering or leaving the I »ntcli
The Oraiig-liailju are a kind of sea gipsies, ' settlement. The pop. of the Chiiiesu and Dutcli
territories arc estimated as follows: —
Chinese
Some Dyaks arc oc-
(iiiiu'il in washing gold, and ilis|iose of the gold-
ilii.t til the Malays fur red and blue cotton cloths.
l„.:iils, lira^s wire, salt, and other necessaries of life,
ami tiiliaeeo, of which they are extravagantly
f.inil. Til avoid more intercourse than necessary
iiilli the Malays, they oblige them always to dis-
],,s(' of their merchandise at ihe nearest Dyak
iiiwii. Next to hiimnn heads, which ajipear to
iiilnTsim like theMahiys; living at the mouths
iifmiist rivers on the E. border, in families of about
ailiizi'n or fifteen, in boats of from eight to ten tons
tai'li. covered, when in harbour, with a roof of
i.iattiiif;. They arc emidoycd chiefly in fishing,
iikiii;,' tripling, and making salt from burnt sea-
i.ifil, They are generally JMohammedans, but lij'
iH means rigid in their tenets. The Orang-Tidong
live til the N. of the latter, and cruise among the
l'liili|i)iiiH'8 and Sooliio Isles, where they dispose
i'l'.>.ij;ii, oil which they chiefly subsist. They are
a harily race, aiid arc saiit to be occasionally
(nniillials,
Tiie Dutch liavc two small stations on the W.
fM,ist, ^illnlllas and rontiana, about !K) m. apart.
The town iif Sambas is meanly built, and contains
ciilialiitatiiin of stone, or other substantial mate-
rial; the liimses of the government ollices arc low,
wiKiili'H, tliafchci". buildings ; the huts of the na-
livcs are eliieily raised on iiusts, ascended by lad-
liirs. but many are built on tluats un the river, as
iiSiain. The Chinese caiiipoiiti is the only street ;
ini' I'lirt is a mere enibankment, siirnninded by a
iin'kaile of pules, anil mounled with a few iiiiie-
'nuult'is; it cuiilains the barracks, with agarrismi
I l.rty men, half uf whom iire Kiiroiieans. Jle-
f'liii' Diiti'li settled here, the |ilai'e was a nest
lliirali's, dislruyeil by the JJritisli in I.SI2; the
liiiiiiue is nut unhcaltliy, tliimgh the coast is cu-
itMl with sv.amps and jungle. Sambas has the
i.'.n.nno
rid.duo
10,11011
4111)
].-,o
80
Jfalays
IJiiKis
Ariilis
Javanese nnd AmboyiiL'sc soldiers
Dutch
Uyaks 2'i0,n(i()
Total . , . 4<>n,(J30
Exports. — The principal exports of the 'SV, coast
are gold, diamonds, antimony, cam|ili(ir, bees' wax,
deer's horns, tUtmrner, ebony, wood oil, rattans,
pepper, bezoar-stones, and iron, to Java, (iir the
manufacture of krises. The iron of the interior is
cither exceedingly good, or the Dyaks are able to
temper it astonishingly well; for their steel scimi-
tars are capable of cutling throiigh an iron nail or
wire without ditficiilty. The total exports I'rom
niirnco to the United Kingdom, in the year US(>:>,
were of the value of X'i^iw^l. Tliey mclinled .'ill
tons of ore of anlimuny, value ;i,4ri4/. ; l.H.Vl cwts.
of giitta-iiercha, value "iO,?*!.")/. ; '2 1, (Hi.') cwts. of
sago, value ir),.")S8/. ; and 1,218 luads of lii^wn
wood, v;ilue 5,i);}2/. The exports from lioriieu to
the IJiiileil Kingdom (prulriipled fi-um l.s."*!) to
IMIiu, having been lint of the value of ll,2l.s/. in
the iirst-numed year.
liouNKo rKiu'Ki!. The stale next in impurf-
aiice to the culunies is Hunieii IVuper, a Jlalay
suvereiguty in the N W., probably the mo.^t ancient
ili^i'
M2 BORNEO
of nil in the i.Mlnnd, nml from wliifh llio Inftcr hns
(It'rivi'd its imino : it is IioiiikIi'iI N'K. l)y tlit^ Soii-
liMi, ami S\V. Iiy the Dutch territory, iiml i'Xtcnds
from Mil) to l.'i('l 111. inliiiKl. 'I'hi- Maliiys here arc
(listiii^fiiisluMl for tlicir haii$;htiii(>ss and iiidcdcm'c;
aii<l lh(! Nidtini, who I'lijoys u lii;,di voiifration.
maintains more state and diKnily than most Ma-
lay princes. 'I'iie chief town has heeii nmch re-
duced hv piracy and intestine cominotion, wliicii
lia\e driven away foreign settlers : it is on a river,
mid in appt'aruncc liki- other Malay towns, hut
not so lari;(! us eitlier of the Dutch settlements:
tlu^ inhahiiiints an^ chie.tly Mohaniinedans, The
i'.\|iorts are cainplior, sca-slu^c, tortoise-shell, liirds'
nests, clov(!-b«rk, pepper, fjold-diist. sandalwoocl,
raid rattans. There is iiiu(;li line tiniher on tlu^
hanks of the rivers. There was fonnerly an ex-
tensive trade hetween liorneo l'ro|)er and l.'hina,
as well as soiiK! commerce with the Kiif^lish in
piece-;;oods. Since the estahli.shment of the Sin;;a-
jiore colony the IJrilish trade has reconiinenced.
The Malays are not destitute of sonic arts, ainon^
■which is that of castiiijj; cannon, in which they
mv very skilful.
I'appal, Malliida, Sfaiifiedura, Pnitnn, nnd Ti-
riiii, in tlie Ml., are mostly Siiliik settlements.
The country here nliounds in forests of lofty
trees; extensive plains, covered with herds of lar^'c
cattle, from hreeds introduced hy the Spaniards
two centuries aj;-o; many rivers, and much miiii'-
ral wealth, (jold and diamonds are collected with
little troiihle; tin-ore is Konietiincs jiicked upon
the surface. Sap), rice, hetel-niit, cocoa-nut oil,
camjihor. wax, a little pepper and cinnamon,
pearls, rattans, dovi'-hnrk, and fj;rain, in Malluda;
hirds's nests, lacka-wood, and tortoiseshell, in
iMan;;edara; tinilu^r, limestone. eaf,'lcwoud, and
sea-sluff, in I'ailan, arc the chief products. Tirun
yields more hinls' nests than any other rcf^ion of
"the K. ; its coast is f;-enertilly il low swamp over-
f;rown with ii;anf;roves; its rivers are numerous,
larjje, anil often navi.ital)lo ; itn interior is covered
with sa^o-trees, which fonii the chief suhsistence of
the jicople, ami yiu ids besides, canes, rattans, wax,
lioney,lje/.oar, lupoid, and, it is said, saltpetre. Many
Anainesc have settled on the Nl'« Coast; emi;;ra-
tion from Cochin China, in consequence of na-
tional (listurhances. haviuj;- prevailed lately to a
ffreat exlent, \'oyiij;es hence, to and from Anain,
may he made at any time of the year.
'i'he chiel' slate on the K. coast is that of Coti,
or Coti-Lama. heloiifjinjr to ISiif^is, from Celehes.
Coti town stands .'lU m. up the river of that name,
the hani>- of which are inhahitcd hy nearly 300,000
people. It is the chief ]ilace on this coast: its
people are commercial, and many annually visit
Sinfj;apore in their /;/■«/(«» or trading-vessels. I'as-
sir stands on a lar^^e fiver a little S. of the former:
it is a den of pirates, lianjarmassin, on the hanks
of the river of that name, is surrounded hy a terri-
tory iiroduciuf^ rattans of the host description in
aliundance, as well as pdd, diamonds, and iiejipcr.
Th(! ])op. are mostly lluj^is, who occupy nearly
every river and creek on the K. and S. coasts.
They have had some trade with Sinpipore, hut
which is discountenanced hy the Dutch authori-
ties; all the .S. coast hiung claimed hy the latter,
who, ill 1717, established a factory at lianjarmas-
sin. On this coast there exist the remains
of temples, iniaf;es, and other relics of a more
civilised peojile fonnerly iiihahitinij; it; hut no
detailed history of these has been f;ivcn. (^Iv'irl's
Eastern Seas, in liS;!2-.'i— 1, pp. 2r)-2-312; Leyden's
Sketch of Honieo; Crawfurd's Jiid. Ai-chiixdapi ;
I'rivatc Letters of Sir ,)ames lirooke, l>f.");l ;
Annual Stalement of Trade and Navi^^ilion for
18(i;3.)
I50RX0U
noUXIIOLAF. an island belonftiiiL' to nonnnrl
i" Hie llallic. about 21 m. K. by S. IVou, themi
iir-
ll
est point ol Sweih'ii, and !l(» K. fr„ni Zealan,!
is ol a rhomboidal shape, beint,' about 20 in i,,
length hy 14 in breaihh. I'op. 2N,!HI() ji, is,;,,
Itornholm ditferH considerably from the (,t|i,r
Danish islands: it rises IukIi above the level ,,f
the sea. Its shores are formed for the niosi pari
of strep h)fty rocks, surrounded bv reel's. wiii,.|,
render their a|)iiroach not a little 'dan^jeroiis |i
is welt supplied with freestone, which is laiveh
exported to Copenhagen and other places- and
with limestone, blue marble, various siieciVs <,f
clay, ochres, and coal. Thc! clay is suitiibl.. |i,r
the making of coarsc! and tine pot'len-, and Is iMd
in the china-factory at Copenh(i;cen. Cliniaii.
drier and more sahibrious than that of Zcaliiiid
The (!entre of the island is occupied by an eMeiii
sive heath; hut elsewhere the soil is'niodcraiclv
fertile, produciiif; all sorts of (jraiii, but espeiian'v
oats, with llax and hemp. Cattle inferior to thnsV
of the other Danish islands, but the horses iiro
stroiiff and active. Timber is scarce; lar(,'e trcis
being, however, fieqiiently found in a statenf pcr-
fect preservation imbedded in moss. There are ;i
great many rivulets well stocked with lisli, wliieii
are al.<o very abunilant round the coast. Kxdii-
sive of agriculture and lishing, brewing aiiii ^\\<.
tillation, tile nnd brick-making, the mni.iifiioliiio
of coarse and line earthenware and of clucks arc
carried on to a considerable extent. An iiigcirhnis
niitive of the island having accidentally taken li.
jiieces a wooden clock imported from abmad, iiH.k
it for a model, nnd set about making aiioilicr.
His example was followed by others; and smli
was their .success, that wooden docks soon hoj.'an,
and .still continue, to he a principal article ol'^ex-
port. Linens, siniii and prepared in the Inmses nf
the jieasantry, are also exjiortcd. Coffee, sn:;iir,
tobacco, and si)i<'es are th<! ])rincipal artiilcs c.f
import. IJoenne, the capital, and the reside, no nf
the governor, is situated at its S\V. angle. It is
defended by batteries, has a considerable trade,
and a number of vessels and boats engaged in tlw
lishing; but its harbour is shallow, having only li
or 7 ft. water, Ni'xa'. on the SK. shore, i.s lamiiiis
for its beer, A lighthouse, having the laiiteni
elevate<l 272 it. above the level of the sea, liiis
been erected on Cape Ilammerseii, the nioM N.
j)oiiit in this island. The feudal system nevir
obtained any fooling in ISornhohii. "l'e^s"n^ .'n-
oiised of ])oliiical offences used to be hanislieil
thither, but this has now ceased.
IlOIiXOU, a kingdom of Central Africa, in frmn
lOO to 15° N, lat., and from 12° to l«o K. lenf;.;
it is hiuinded on the N. by Kanein and the Mv.
corner of the desert; on the E, by Heghiirnii: on
the S. by Mandara ; and on the \V. by \i\nm
small tribes extending to Iloussa and the Felhta
country, liornoii appears to have been fiirnierly
more extensive, both hi lat. and long.; at presiiit
i^ may, perhap.s, he about 400 ni. in leiigtli. Irmn
h. to W., the .same in extreme width, fnmi X. lo
S., and its area is probably not less than P.'O.imil
si|. m., of which, however, more than 2it.iiiM iiro
covered by the waters of Lake Tchad. (Deidiom
and Clai)|)erton, j). iU4; Lucas, Afric. Assoc, i. Kll.)
The surface of Honioii is an inimense plain, ilie
greater |)orlion of which is subject to annnalnvir-
llow, from which circumstance, joined to tlu'i;ri:if.
heat of the climate, the soil has every capaMliy
of abundant jiroductioii ; owing, however, pariiy
to the want of industry in the people, and p.irily
to the slate of warfare in which the iiiuriMl
countries of Africa sei'ui constantly to live, liiilc
ailvanlage is taken <d' Ibis favoiiralile stale
tliing.s, and the inhabitants are nut nuicli suin'iii'tl
'■"Wing. I'elic;ini
'II"*-- g<'ese. and,
«iilerlow|,ai-eabuii(
'I"- (islrich traver.s(
BOKNOU
AOS
A4 ajiridilturists to otlior iio;,'r(ic.s. Clnijiiorton
i.liiiiriKtv Ironi Koiikii to Siikkiitud, p, I'.i) liniinl
ihi! iiativi's of il(iii!<sii riii.siiiir n si'coiiil tTop of
nliC'it, liy irri^taliciii ; Imt .micIi iii^tiuicrH, while
ihcy provo till! imtiiral li rtility of the land, arc
(xtri''U''ly riiri! in Kornoii. Tlio |irinci|ial rivers
;ir.' tlie Miary and the Veoii; the lomier a|i|i(i-
iviitiy ri-'in^ in thi^ mountains of Mandara, tliu
liitiT ill those of Ilonssa, 'I'he smaller streams
;irc verv iiuinerous, but all are reeeived into Lake
T.liiid.'
■fill' climate of Uonum is one of very ^jrcat hut
iKitiiiiiroini heat. In t^ummer, that is from March
IdJuih', the thermometer stands at lti."»° to 107°
III iiiHin, and even at iii;,dit is rarely lower than
|ihP, except before sunrise, when it sinks to «(1°
iifHH'^. 'I'he winter temperature is, however, lower
ilmii the lat. would warrant the expectation of —
riircly higher than 74° or 70°: it fre(|ueiitly falls
inn iniiniinf; as low as .5H° or tiO°. Tlii^ N W. wind
i, rnld. the S. and SK. hot and sntVocatiiiK; which,
iMiisiiieriiif; that the lirst Mows over the Sahara,
aiul till! others over the hif;h mountains of Koiii;,
i^a reniarkalilu fact, which seems to reipiire ex-
|,l:iimtion. 'I'he seasons may he divided into irct
anil drv, hilt the (irst can scarcely he denominated
riiiiii/, ill a tropical sense. Ahoiit April or May,
iiiili'cd. a short jieriod, varyiii;,' from three to nine
il;i\>, is marked by violent tempests, rniii, thunder,
lii;litniii(r. iiikI wind; but the remainder of this
wet period, exteiidiiif; to C)cfober, by no means
iiitcrt'cres with outdoor labour, except in June,
ivlii'ii there is another burst of fallinj; weather, at-
iiiiiii'd with a most op|)ressively siiltrj' utmo-
,.|ilirro. At this time it is that the lakes and rivers
i.vitHow their banks, tloodin^ the laud in their
mi;;lilioiirhood for many miles. The dry and cold
HiiMPii iistiallv coniineiices in October. (I>eiiham,
|,|., Isl-.'-i."), ;j|-l ; Lucas. ]>. l.Hl.)
Ill a iiiiintry devoid of inoiiiitaiiis there arc, of
ciiiirM', no minerals. Iron is procured from the
iiii;;lili(mriii;? state of Alandara, in the hills of
whifli it is ver}' abiindaiu , and }^old-diist is a jirin-
liiml article in JJornoiiese trade ; lint whether the
I;i.«t be broiif.cht down by tlie rivers, or jirocured
Ir iiii a distance, does not ajipear. (l)enhani, jip.
11(1, id 7; Lucas p. 155.) 'J'rces are extremely
Kiirce tliroiif.fhout the country, except here and
iliiTi' upon the banks of rivers; though the iieiyli-
li piiriiif; states of Kanem, Maudara, lloussa, &l\ a\>-
|i(iir to be well-wooded. The soil, which is chietly
alluvial, is liifjhly productive, but its |iroductioiis
an' by no means varied, eonsistiiif; chietly of
millet, barley, beans, Indian-corn, cotton, and in-
(lii,'o. The Hooded lands on the shores of liake
Tdiad are peculiarly well adapted for the growth
III' rice, hilt none is cultivated; and there is no
imiiical country nor desert so destitute of fruits
mill edible root.s. (Lucas, p. 134; Dciiham, pp. 50,
111'.', iilt'i, ttc. ; Clappcrton, p]). (i, 15, &c.)
Tlie wild animals of Tropical Africa are all com-
iiiiin in liornou ; and the ferocious kinds, lions,
|i;iiitherfi, and Jackals, which in the wet season ap-
priiadi the walls of the towns, are particularly
(l™;,'(!ri)iis. The buffalo, giraffe, elephant, liippo-
|Kiiaiiiiis, and crocodile are animals of chase; the
llcsli of all of them is eaten, and that of the last
ilirce accounted a great (h!licacy. The civet-cat
\i ennmiou, and the animal itself, as well as its
MiTctioii, is an important article of trade. Of do-
lui'sticaiiinials the iiuniber is immense: cattle ami
Imr-cs arc of line breeds, and iilentifiil ; camels are
rail', iiiid slieep hfive a hairy instead ofawimlly
iMvcriii);'. I'dicans, spoonbills, cranes, siiiiics,
liiii'ks. i^ccse. and, in short, almost every species of
iviui'iluwl, are abundant in the extensive maislies:
ilif iistricli traverses the plains, and partridge.*,
grouse, giiinenfowl, and other game nre also very
iinmeroiis — as are the domestic fowls, which con-
stitute the cheapest kind of animal food that can
be jiiirclmsed. lieptiles are niimeroiis, consisting,
besides crocoililes, of scorpions, centipedes, enor-
mous toads, and many varieties of serpents; one of,
which, measuring 1 l" or 111 ft. in hiigili, though
said lo be harmless, is jirobably of the boa or py-
thon species. In such a climate insect life "is
naturally abundant ; bees are so numerous, that
Lucas (p. i;t«) allirins the wax is often thrown
away, as an article of novaliu! in the market; ami
Denliam remarks (p. .'li'd) that the honey is only
partially cidlected. The curse of tropical coiiniries,
the locust, is a frequent visitor; and. though a fa-
vourite article of food, is regarded with dread, since
desolation always follows in its train. The rivers
and lakes abound in lish, of many dilVcreiit species,
most of them peculiar. (Lucas, p. 1;J7; Denliam,
pp.2-21t, -iM.:!!!*, ;t21,«;c.)
The inhabitants of Hornoii eoiiNist of two classes,
— the Shoiias, desceud.-ints of Arab settlers from
tlieN. ; and Kaiiowry, or Kaiiiiri, as the native
race is called, who arc true negroes. The former
are the dominant people; they have line, open,
aquiline eounteiiaiices. large eyes, a light copper
complexion, and bear a siroiig personal resem-
blance t) the best specimens of Knglish gipsies.
They an; divided into tribes, and still beiir the
names of some of the most iiowerful liedouiii
hordes. Their language is Arabic, and to them is
owing the iiilroiluclion of the arts ol wriiing aiid
reading. They are shrewd, active, and courageous,
but these are almost the only good trails in their
character. Deceitful, arrogant, cunning, and dis-
hoiiesl, their superior attainments are used bv
them only as a means to rob and oppress their
black neighbours. These last ]inseut, in their
]iliysical appearance, all the usual negro pecu-
liarities — Hat noses, large mouths, and inexpressive
countenances. They are peaceable and orderly,
but destitute of energy, and appear to regard the
Shoiias as a superior race of beings. At least leu
different langiuiges or dialects are spoken in
itornou. No estimate can be made of the popula-
tion of this kingdom ; but as towns possessiiigi!0,OU()
inhabitants are met with, and markets are said
to be sometimes atteniled by ^i(l,(MlO or lod.ooo
persons, and the Shoiiah po|iulation aloni'caii raise
an army of 15,000 men, the number id' inhabi-
tants must be ven,- considerable. (Denliam. ]<\i. 71i,
KO, ;{2'.), &c.) The religion of the court is Ala-
homnieilanism ; but no disabilities appear to
aUend the professiim of feticism, which is tho
faith of the bulk of the negroes. The government
is absolute, and till lately was elective. The laws
arc arbitrary, and punishments summary, but
usually administered with justice; and there is a
kind of insolvent act, whicli relieves a man from
his debts on jiroof of his p ivcrty, leaviiig any
future property he may acquire at the nicny of
his creditor, without furl her jiroccss. In other
respects the IJoriiouese resemble the negroes
generally; their arts are few, and apparently in-
troduced, in most cases, by the Arabs. ISiit the
Arabs also introduced the slave-trade, which was
unknown before their arrival, mid is said to bo
reluctantly submitted to. The floors of liarb.'iry,
however, prefer slaves to anything else; and
as ISoniou is dependent upon tliciii for all the
comforts and many of the neccssaiies of life, the
slave-trade is carried en to a great extent. It is
siiidthat the luitives are very anxious lor a direct,
trade willi lliigland; but considering thai lluir
country is situated full (itiO m. from tlic coast, ;iiid
in a climate destrnclivc to Kiiropcaiis, we conlV.-s
we are not of the number of tliotc who entertain a
M0
fiAji;!|
'fit
ii
i\i
S04
ISOKODINO
HiuiKiii>"'''-'<P^''l"l'"" '!"»• iiiiy HiK'li lr.i:l(Mvill cvrr
l)c carrii'd oil to niiy cxlt'iit or toiiiiy (irolit, (l>cii-
liiim,|i|». .'l"i I -'J- '>,<•</«;.«». ; l.iicn.i, |i|i. I lli-lolt, tSic.)
The tiiiiiK^ Hornoii Im Ariiliic. If in lilcriillv Uurr-
AiMt, ' tlir I.iinilof Noali,' the- AriiliM lidifviii^; tlmt
til)! nioiiiitiiiiiN in its iit'i;;lil>oiirliiioil ri't'civi'i! tlic
nrk lifter the (Ic1ii),'p, ami tliat liic imlriiircli lir>l
o.>4tiililiF<lii'illiiiii.-4('iriii ilsi'xtciisivd |iliiiiis. (Ijicai,
)i, l.'ll,) Tlu! iicf^ro iiiuiu' ii|i|i('arf* to lie Kaiuiri.
(I>r. ISartli, ill .loiiriiai of tiie lioyal (uMij^ra|iiii<'al
tsoi'ii'tv, \cil. xxx, IMCid.)
JiOllOhlNO, a vilia^'o of Itii^sia in rnropc.
pov. Moscow on tlio KoloffM, Id III. W. MoJaiMk.
Tliis vilia),'i! will lie for c^vcr nii'iiioralili', from its
lu'iii^ llio scciH! of one of tlic iiioh, niiii),'iiiiiary
roiiliicts that lias taken plaec in modern tiiius.
On the Till S('|it, IHI2, llii! Freiidi army, iiiidcr
Ts'aiioleoii, in its advance iipoii Mo.-eow, ill tucked
(It this )>oiiit tlie eiitrencliments of the ^rand
It'iissiaii army, I'_'(i,(l(i0 stroii;;, under KiitoiisolT.
The Itnssiaiis iiiaile a des|K'rat(! resistance, lint in
llie end their position was I'lirried, The slaiij,diler
■was iminense: tiii' IJiissians haviiifi lost nliovi!
'|n,(IOi) men, killed and wounded, and the Freiieh
nearly ;!(),(MMI. Few iirisoners were iiiade on either
hide.
liOK'OFSK, or IU)1!()VVSK, n town of Iliissia
ill Ihirope, piv. I\)ili>iij;a. cap. disir., on the I'rorva.
r,:> ni. SW. Moscow; lal. .")."»° Id' DO" N.. h.ii^c. .'liio
:;•.'' l.V H. I'op. il.KIll ill \x^>X. It is an old
Inwn. celeljrated in 1,'iissiaii liislury for its defence
liy rrince \'olkoiiski, in Mild, against, the pre-
tender Diniilri. ll has 1 elinrelies, a inaiiiifacliirc
of sailcloth, and its environs prodiicu excellent
onions and pirlic. At a short disiance is the con-
vent I'a'siiontief-Iiarofski, founded in Mil, coii-
tainiii;,' .') eliiirchcs and a considerahle treasure.
lt()i;< )!■(.; I! nil IDCi;, a hor.. nuirUet-town, and
township of Kiif;laiiil. \\. It.co. York, Claro wapen-
take, par. Alillioroiif;Ii, on the S. hank of the I're,
J 7 in. SIC. York, on a branch-line of the York
and Newcastle, railway. Pop. !ld!t in IHCl. The
town has sonic good lioiises. Imt is decayinj^; its
fornier iniportnnec, that < f lieing on the posting-
road from London and York to iMrnilnirgh, having
lieeii lost, liy the iiilnidnclioii of railways. The
town enjoyed the |irivilege of seiicling 2 mem. to
the II. of C. from loriiJ down to the passing of the
Iteforin Act, liy which it was disfranchised. It
lias several fairs; oflliesu the most imporlaut is
held ill .luiie, for the sale of liardware. JMaiiy re-
mains (if Mrilish and h'onian anti(|iiilies arc found
ill this t'wn and ils immediate vicinity. Of these,
the most eelelirated are the ohelisks, called the
Arrows, ahoiit, ^ ni. S. from the town. A heaiitifnl
tesselated iiavenieiit was iliscovcred in iMoIja little
to the \V. of the town. At this town, on tlie KUli
of March l.'5:22, the army of the rehelharons, under
the Karl of Lancaster, was defeated hy the troops
of Kdward IL, in an attempt to cross the river;
and their le;ider, heing taken prisoner, was iui-
medialelv beheaded.
J{Oi;()A'lT(TIl, a town of Ivussia in Knroiie,
gov. Novgorod, eai). distr., on the Msta, 10(1 m.
l-;,S|';. Novgorod; lat. o«° K!' N., long. ;i:i° .jd' K.
I'op. .S,727 in 1H5H. The town lias 4 churches, a
convent, and a good deal of trade. In the iieigh-
lionrbood are cataracts, that iiiternii)t the course of
the river; hut the obstacles to its navigation,
thence arising, have been successfully obviated by
w<>rks undertaken for that purpose.
HOKIfOMKAN ISLANDS, a group of sm.nll
islands in the Lago JMaggimv, Norlhern llaly,
in the former kingdom of Sardinia.
liOUnoWSTONNKSS, or ISO'XKSS, a biirgli
of barony, and seaport of .Scotland, co. Liiilidigow,
on the .s'. side of the L'ritli of Forili, 17 m. \\. by
UOSNA-SKUA'i
N. r.dinbnigh. Top. of Iiiirgh, iiielndinK Cur-
bichall, ;i.Hi I in iMdI. of whom I.KM'.i malis /m,!
1. !>:'.') females. Morrowstonness is one of the oM(..i
Scottish seajiort towns, and its iiaiii(> ipfii n ,,(TiirH
ill history. The harbour is safe iiiid eiiiiiiiinrli,,,,^.
but the reveime which it yields is iiisuili.i.iu ,,|
keep it in repair, even though an imposi of j,/.
(Scotch) has been levied for the imrpose for in arlv ;i
century (17 (Jeo. II,) on every Scoii'h pint of ale
or beer brought into the town. IIo'iu-h carries imi
shipbuilding to n small extent, and has soim.
liltle trade with the Ilaltic, It en;;,,^.,,^ priiiv
(•xiensividy in the lierring-lishery, and has imi mj.
freipunlly of late years sent one, two, or iii'ire
vessels to the N, wliale-tishery. The town is Un,
seal of the most extensive saltworks on the Triili
of Forth, and it exports ab<'Ut ;id,(Mi(i biisluls cf
salt a year. Here are two distilleries, an earilicn-
wari! inanufaclory, and vitriol ami soap-wnrks.
rrodnctive collieries abonn<l in the innii('(li;ii('
iieigliboiirhiMid, and have been wrought for cin-
tiiries. The mines extiiiid nearly a mile In l„\v
the bed of the I'Vith, so as alinosi "to mcit ilio-c of
Ciilross on the opposiie side, which run in a S,
direction to the disiance of 2 iii. Near Mo'iics, \l
Kinneil House, a seat of the Diike of Hamiltdn
ami long the residenci! of Dugald Stewart.
liOSA. a seaport town on tlieW. coa.>l of Ujn
island of Sardinia, prov. C'agliari, div. Sa-suri,
near the mouth of the Termo: imiiiKliaii'ly o|i|iii-
sile to the latter is the islet of Uosa, lal. Ili'J p;'
•I0"N., long. H° 2.V ;U" L,, between wliidi ami ilii.
shoresman vessels lie in tolerable srciiritv. Wit,,
i>,2'M in lK(i2. The town is beaiililiilly"siiiiat((i
in a line valley between two bills, is tolenililv
clean, and has scvctjiI jiaved st reels; but in Mim".
incr it is ill-supplied with water, ."iiid is then alsi
very unbeiilthy. It is a bishop's see; li;is ;i
churches, a convent of Capuchins and one of t'ar-
melites, willi a seminary for the sliidy of pliiln-
sophy and iheidogy. On a hill iminediniely iiiruvp
till! town are llie reniaiiis of a casth! or a("ro|i(ili<,
where the principal families used foriiiiriy In n-
side. The natives are very active, carrying tiicir
|irodiice all over the island ; and most jiiiri al.-u (,f
the I ravelling pedlars belong to the town.
I!OS('( )-TI! F-l 'ASI';, a village of Souiherii Italy,
jirov. .Naples, at ihej'ootof Vesuvius, 12 ni. I'.Si':.
Naples. I'op. '.i,ll« in \M-2. It is one of fmr
villages situated at a little distance from caili
ollu'r, I'oniprised under the general term Jiniiu;
has several churehes and convents, a royal niaiiii-
faclory of arms, a powdermill, and airexteibivc
fitbric i\f jx'ite tf lliilic,
liOSIlAM, a small village and parish of Ijii;-
laiid, CO. Sussex, Jt^ m. \\'.s\Y. Chichester, eii liio
London, lirighton, and S(ailh Coast raiiwav. I'liii.
of par. IjloS ill iMiil. The village is of histdrital
interest. It was a place of some iniporiaiicc in
the earliest times of which we have reconl, and is
more than once mentioned in the old Saxdii
chronicles. The Saxon kings lived here, ami t\n'.
remains of an old forest still jiasses hy the name
of Old I'ark. (.'aniite's daughter was biiricil in
Jiosh.'im ehiirch; audit is more pmhalile tli.ii if
the story of (,'aniite's lecturing his cunriiiis mi
the seashore be true, the incident took pl.'icc luro
rather than at Sontbiimplon. This was i lie lir>t
|ilace upon tlu; Sussex coast in which Chrisliaiiily
was langlit ; i'or when Wilfrid lauded at Sciscv,
aiiout llie year Osd, he found a ))oor momisiiTy
already existing at JSosham. ]t was from iliis
place that Harold started when he visitcii Xm-
maiidy, and lioshani cliurcb makes a coMs|iiiii"ii<
fe;il lire near the commencement of the liayiaiix
tapestrv.
liOSNA-SFl.'AI, or SKHAJKVO (an. Tlhmu-
IIOSNIA
nJi:i), n rlly of TiirUry in I'lirnpi-, r;ii). ("""V. I
llci.llill, on llic N. Iilltik of till' Mi;:liil/./.;l, 'J It) III. !
><. I'liiiln, and <ui') ni. NW. rmisiiiiiliiioiil.' ; lat,
i;;o !i\' N., li>ii^'. IH'^ •.'•;' K. Kyiiiimlcd \v<\>.
rn.iiiii), 'I'lu' (own \n wi'll-liiiiil, anil liiis an
ii.i-ir'a!ilo ii|i|i('nraiiri', owiiii,' to llic iiimilicr of
iiiiimri'ts, towers, inul ^rariii'iix wIi'hOi ii ciicluscf*.
ji I'liiilains a.«r"», or |i»lat'('. Iiiiill liy Miiliniini I!.,
i,i wiiicli tlu' <'ity owes its name; alioiit lOil
ii:ii-i|iH'r'. soiiii' of wliicli iiri' ('li';;Miit slrnctnrrs;
-('Viral (ircck ami lloniaii Cutliolic clinri'lii'^i. \\illi
,c.11i'l;c.i anil lia/.arM. MosI of llic lioiiscs arc of
wiiiiil; III!' MiKliaz/n is licri' (TomsciI liy a niassivc
'lull' liriil),'!'. I'lii' cily 'vas foniu'rly ciiroiniiaiMcil
\ iili walls, lint llicsc ar" now ilccayi'il.Minl lis only
iM'ciu'n foiisists in a l.irp- I'itailcl. laiilt on u nn'ky
lii,'lit at its !•;. cxlri'inity, and iiKiiinlin;; h(l
riiniiiiii. The inlialiitants ar(! iiiiinstrioiis, and ciii-
lliiyrd ill tli(^ niainifactiiro of arms, iron, and
i,ili|icr arlii'lt's, Imrscliair lin;;s, nionn'i'o and
iiliir kinds nf Icatlicr, and colton and ivonllcii
Miitl's. Near liosiia-Scrai arc (In' |irin(i|ial inm-
niiiii'sin Itosnia. it is tlu^ cliicf mart in llic jimv.,
(hi' renin' ol' tin- I'liinnicrcial rclalinns liriwi'i'ii
Tiiri\('y and Diilmatia, Croalia and S. OcrniMiiy,
Slid lliis (!oiisiil('nil)l(! Inidc willi the cities of
Niliuiiki and \'iiiiiiia. 'llic most wealthy liiinilies
ill Imi-iiIii nsidc in tliis city ; two-tliinls of the |i(i|).
I ri' said to lie Turks, lint tlic Jews nioiioiiolise the
cliicf piirt of the trade.
iJOsriroTius 005
mill foxes. Iliey Iiavi' every facility fur rarryiiiL' it
on. The iiihali, eiinsi.>.t of sc\cral races, disiiilmieil
as follows : —
iUl ] |iaii •■. .... .....1. .
li()>NlA. or li()SN.\, tlio most westerly piielia-
ii' iir eyalet of 'J'lirkey in Mnroiie. eoni|irisin^'
HiMiia Troiier, Turkish Croatia, and ller/.c^oviiin.
Ii lies hctweeii lat. -12° .'JO' and 1.')° I.V N., aiul
l,ii^'. |,")0 III' and •>\<^-r K.; liavin;,' NW. mid N.
ilio Austrian jiniv. of Croatia mid Slavunin. I'^.
Sitvia, and S. and \V, Alliania and Austrian Dal-
inatiii. the latter sciiaratiiif:; it froni the Adriatic.
Ar«i varimislv estimated at from lO.iKMl to •J-_'.IMI0
-.;, III. Toil.' from WMi.i'o?) („ i.imo.doii. it, is
iiliuiisi entirely occn|i';(l hy the Dinarii aiid.liilian
All^ which, wirli their oli'sets, scii.irate it iiUo
■ivcr.d wi li-marked divisions. l'riiici|ial rivvrihe
>:iv(', fiirniini,' the X. Iionndary of llnsnia, with its
nilini'iits the I'lina, which in iiartsep.arates Turkish
fmiii Aiistrinn Croatia — X'erhaz, |)rin, and liiar
fi'niiin^c its i-;. Iioiindaries. 'I'he lin.-na traverses
l!iMiiii I'loper, the .Sauna, Croatia, ai:d the Xarciit.i,
llirzcf^iivina. It lias nnmeroiis fertile valley. , Iml
roLiki's of iiiiporlanee, and only one jilaiii of any
<iT, that of I.ivno in ller/.e^'ovina. Tliisennntiy
i-sii]iiiiised to lie rich in minerals, lint only the
iri'ii-miiies and u few lead-inines are wronnlit. (Jold
.Till silver exist in various |ilaces,and mines of the
liMiif these metals were wori.ed under the liom.nis;
mii<t nf the laru;e aliliients o/ the Save liriir;- down
;iM-iliist. (^lieksilver is also found, and there
ari' i|iiarries of niillstone, freestone, alaliastcr, and
iiisrlile, coiil-niines, and mimerons minenil s]irinus,
M^ic (if which furnish salt, tlionj;h not in snilicieiit
iiiniitity for the sii|i|i!y of the eonntry. The
iliimite is f;enerally cold, but not nnhealihy ; the
Viinter snows lie on the ground for a loiiu; time.
ai.iltlie spring' is .short. In tlic S. violent winds
iri'vail ill winter, and the summer is extremely
li"t. The moiintain-ehains, esju'cially in the N.,
wiM'iivored with dense forests of ])iiie, oak, heech,
liiiikii, cliestnnt, ite. ; hut the S. liranclies of the
l)iiiiiric Al[is ]irosent a reinarkalde delicieiicy of
I'lTtation. The greatest elevations are the Kain,
\i"iMt., and the Dormitor, 7,li.S() ft. high. The
I'st siiil ill the valleys is devoted to |iH,stnre, and
r»'>iiia is generally lietter adapted for the Icediiig
'liaitlc than for agriculture. The liosniaks, liow-
ivir. seem to jircfer the ehase to more settled |ias-
("Kil iiociipatioiis ; and as the woods alioiind wiili
«iKl aiiimals, iis deer, wikl-buars, boars, w uhes,
NaiI..,
j Bi'll)tl"ii
Turks . . .
•jKi.onn
Moliniimiediin
j'n.nnn
liosiiliiks . .
.i.'iii.iiiiii
(ircck (.liiircli
■i:iii,>Mi()
Scrviiiiis . .
IJII.IIIHI
Morlai'lilaiis .
7. ■.."Mill
Itolll. Ciitliollos
l.'.l.imii
Clnllls . . .
411.111111
lilpsieH . . .
iri.iiiiii
(llpsles , .
IC.IMIO
.lews . . .
•J ,11011
.lews . . .
•J.IMIII
Ariiiuniiiiis ,
1,111 III
Arnicntiuig .
1,111111
Total . .
8.".(),(I00
Total . .
M.''ll,llllll
It is only in the valleys that any enltivation in
carried on. Wheat, barley, mal/c. and legnnics
are grown in snUicient ipi;iiilily for home cmi-
sinnption. iiiid llax and tiili.'iccn near /vornili ami
Novilia/ai. A great variety of fruit is niel with.
A li|nenr is niMile froio plums, and a sweet drink
called pi'/iiiiis from pears. The olive and vine ,'ire
both eiiltivalcil; the wines an? stn.ng and licry.
I'.oMiia has a breed of strong horses, but it is iniicli
lieglecled, except by the Turks; there are largo
herds of line cattle, and Hocks of sheep, the wnol
of which is greatly esteenied in the markets of tho
Levant. <!oats, liogs. and poultry arc everywhero
plentiful, iind in CruMtia many bees are k"pt,
which yield good hiiiiey. but iiifcriur wax. Tho
manufactures of liosiiia are limiled to iron articles
ol'commoii use. leather, coarse woollen stiill's, sall-
|ielre at .Iiiic/.a, cainion-ball-i at Kaiiicii;;rad, gini-
powder.lirearins. and other weapons, 'i'he principal
eypiirts are li'alher, bides, wind, go.iis' liiiir hoiiev,
cattle, dried lisli, timber, and minei',il waters; the
chief imports, linens, woollens, silks, lace, glass,
and metallic wares — jiaper. eolnnial produce, salt,
oil, drieil fruits, iind silver coin from Dalmaii.i.
'I'he transit trade in Levant produce is not incon-
siderable; (he chief seals ol' coiniiu'rce nw tho
towns of I'osna-Sera'i', Xovibazar, Zvoriiik, l!agn;i
Loiika. Mostar, and (Jradiska. 'I'lie mjids mio
generally very bad, and iiupracticable for whcel-
c;irri,'igcs. The total go\erimieiit revenue deiivcil
from Ibis |iroviiu'e is estimated tit about a million
sterling a year.
liosnia is under tho government of n ])aclia of
three tails; it isdividcd intosix sanjiaks or eirch's,
and again into forty-eight subdivisions, each of
wbi'.'h is snboniiiiate to a milii;iry governor ;ind 11
rnili. or judicial ollicer. liosna-.Scr.ii is the capital
of the jirov., but Trawnik is the residence of the
liacha. This (>Hicer is changed generally- every
three years; he has under his orders a niilitarV
force of from ;>,l)ilil to I.ddd men. The liosniaks
iire of Slavonic origin, though mostly .Mohaminc-
il.Tiis. They dillcr from the Turks in many usages,
and are not addicted to ]iiilyganiy.
liosnia w.'is anciently included in Lower I'an-
lionia. In tlu^ middle ages it lirst belonged to the,
I'^astern Kmpire, and afterwards became <i separ.iie
kiugiloin, dependent iiiion liiingary. The Turks
eonipu red it in 1 ISO, after a war of 17 year.;; biiL
it was not till l.V_'-J tliat Solynian the Magnilicriit
tiiially annexed it to the Turkish diiminion-!.
(Cannabich, Lehrlmch der Ceog., )ip. JliJ, 71(i;
Von Zedlit/, Hrief Siirvev of iioMiia.)
r.()Sl>Il()i;rS (more proiierlv iiOSrOliUS)
OK ■nil!ACl';,orClIAXXi:L OF CON.STAXTI-
XOI'LIC, the strait wdiicli eoimects the lilack Sea
with the Sea nf Mannara, and separates the V..
corner of Thrace from Asia .Elinor. The length of
this remarkable ehaimel is about 17 ni., its width
Viiryiiig from A m. to 2 m. ; its course slightly
winding; its direction very little W. of S., and its
I
fWI
5(10 Tiosi'iiours
('iii)iiiii('litiro ill lliu Men (if Marniara Ih in '11° N,
Int.. -.".lo K. Iiiiij,'.
A riirrcnt xctM nmstniitly from flic Illnr'k Sen
(liniii;,'li tln' IliiMiilinrii?*, Iiiit. lliimu'li trt'iicnilly very
^l^llll^;■, il is Miliji rl tci ri'ii-iilrriililc riiiiililli.iliciii-;
u i(iii^,'('iiiiliiiiicii wiiiil (Vciiii tlic .s\\', ninlcrH it
Miini'liincs uImiiikI ini|H'ri'r|itili|<' ; wiiili', mi tlic
oilier liiiiiil, n lircrzc rripiii ilic N !■'.. so iicicU to lis
lorcr tliiil it is aliiioNt iiii|iossil>lc lur a vessel, iiinler
Hlirli rireiiiiistaiiei'S, to make lieail apiiliHl it, 'I'lie
iiiei|iialil ies nf ciiast cause sex era] eliaM;,'es ot'ilirec-
lioii ill tlie set, as the water is liirowii from side to
Mile iiy the iiiiiiieroiiH Ixilil promontories lliat |iro-
jeet from liotli sliores ; lint lliese iln not atfeet the
fjeiierai course, exeejil liy making it mor<^ tortuous;
that course temliiif,' constantly towards the S. and
• he Sea of Marmara. Tlu^ depth of water is coii-
Hideralile: there is hut one hank in the channel ;
conse(|nently there is no danpT in its navigation,
nor any diiliculty, except in an upward passa^'c
apiinst its current; this is, however, siilliciently
halllin^ to the uiiNkilled Orientals. At ils N,
month, oil tlie Itlack Sea, are two groups of islets,
one. on tin; ICiiropean, liie otiier on the Asiatic
hhore ; these are the famous ('yaneiin Isles or
SynipU'pides of the ancients, which it was once
lielieved no vessel ever jiassed in safely, except hy
miracle. (Apoll. l.'hoil. ii. v. Wit, *c.) 'I'liey are
now quite liariiilesH, heiiiK, in fact, iiothiii^^ hut low
K'ontinnations of the respective nhores; they are
in a continual state of decay, and nii;;ht easily he
overlooked, did not their ancient celchrily induce
the modern navigator to search for them. In its
freedom Crom all danf:;er, its narrow channel, the
sireiifjih and constant set of its current, and, in
.'ihort, ill most of its characterislics, the liosphoriis
ri:-eml)les a maifiiilicent river morc^ than an arm of
the sea; and this resemlilance is hy no means ini-
jiaired hy the hraiich which it fjives olf at its S.
end, and which, enclosing; ("onstaiitiiiopl(! on the
N„ forms what is called the (ioldeii Horn, one of
the tine.st harhours in tlw. world. The coiinlry
Ihroiifih which the I!os|)liorus Hows is unrivalled
forheaiity; animals and vejxetahles <if almost every
variety ahound, and the f,'eol(ijfy is )K'ciiliarly int(;-
reslinj,', from the unequivocal evidences il exhihits
of iKiHtoiis action. The cliffs, which arc. stately
and ahriijit, consist of jasper, ajjate, comaline, cal-
eedoiiie, porphyry, trap, and calcareous spatli, in
very fireat hut jiicturesque ronfiision. They are
nil more or less in u state of deconiiiosition. and
traces of metals are seen in the colouriiifi; of the
v.'irious stones. Appearances seem to warrant the
conclusion that this strait was opened hy a con-
vulsion of nature, and this helief was very f^ene-
rally entertained hy the ancients (Sec Iti.Aciv
Ska.) At ahout half-way hetweeii the two seas,
or rather nearer to that of ISIaniiara, at the nar-
rov est part of the channel, stand two castles, one
on each hank, named, from the Turkish provinces,
Anadoli and liumeli (Asia Minor and Tiirace).
They form almost the only defence to Constan-
tinople on the \., and, if well manned, would he
very dillicult to pass. These appear to he almost
the only puhl'tc htiildiiif;s. hut private houses and
{gardens extend alon^ lu^arly the whole leiif^th of
the strait, csjwcially on the ICiiropean side. (Che-
valier, V'oy. de la Prop. y\\ ■\^^~\\) ; Olivier, Voy.
duns TEmpire Otli. i, 120-121 ; Jones's Trav.
ii. H-l-lol.)
The name Hosporus (Bd<r»ro >?), ■which has hccii
improperly comi]ited hy mr .lerii orthoij^raiihy to
llosphorns (Biiai/iopos), is i' '.cative of llu' narrow-
ness of this channel, and comes from H'";, an ox,
and Topot, a ford. The j)assaj;c across it of I'Ji-
ropa, home hy Jupiter in the fonii of a hull, is a
well-known Greek legend, and thence the ancients
IIOHTON
called Ihcodiannels Ihwpi.ri, which wire nnrr..w
eiioinjli to allow of kiln swimniiin,' niri»s ih,,,,,
Two especially were so di.sliiiKiii-h.d, imimlv, i),,",
sirail now iind>r idusiderninn, and llic finiiii.'riiin
ilospuriis (Sirait of \ ciiicidci, Kruv( n,,, i.-jij^j,,,.
and the I'aliis .M(c.ilis. Ovr the Tliriiciaii |i,,s
poms, Darius llystiispcs threw a hiiil^;,. ,,f \«,n\\
when he passed from Asia to his disii.Mri.iis «i,r
wilh the Scythians; and the pillars of marMc
which he erecti'd to comnieniorale ilmt evnii ,irc
siipposeil, with ureal reas i<> Imve si I n,
the spots now occilpicil hy tlic Tiirki-li ras||(>
(Herodotus Melponi. pp. K'i-^n ; Stralm, vii ,)•>())
I'lolemv, iii. II ; I'liiiv. vi. I.) ' ' '
iiossiNi;v-\vrrir-Ti;i:vi:\A,ni„,r.„fK„,;.
land, CO. Cornwall, hnnd. l-esiiewlh. par. 'i'iiiia'ej
20« m, W. hy S. I don. Its area is ido urr'is'
its pop. is reiiirned with that of the pa., wliidi. in'
IKll, was I.imk;, hut ill iNt'.l only lion. |t j, ,,"„ ,,
riinK<'d exposed part of the N.i'oast of tin nv,
ami consists of two small villnj;es \ ni, aiiaii'
There is a town-hall now iipicd us a cluiniv
school: an annual fair is held the liisi Muihl.i'v
after llHh Oct. It claimed to he a lior. |,y prr.
Hcriplioii, and returned two mcmhers to the ||. ,,f
(;., under a charter of 7 i'.dw. VI., tilldisCraiirliisci
hy the liefonii Act: the elective riglii was in
hiirfjesses holdinj; freehold properly in the Imr. ;
of whom there were 21. The area of ih.' wlicikl
))arish is it. '.Mid acres. The remains of Kin;: Ar-
thur's cisile are on the tahle simnnit of a^lm-c
ro<'k, ))rotriiding into the sea, and coniK'ci.'d, liv"v
narrow isthmus, with the rest of the parish.
KOSTAN (KL) (an. r(;m«/i«),alo\vn ofTmkcy
in Asia, Natidia, pach. Marasch, at the N. foot of
Mount Taurus, in a line plain, on the Sylioiiii (an.
Siiiiih), no 111. N. from the hottoni of ili(> hav nf
Iskenderoon, and 1 15 m. S. hy W. Sivas. lat. ilso
N.. hni),'. .'tlio 2tl' ]']. l'o|i. h",ii(MI or K.iiim. ,Mr.
Hriice (Appendix to Kinneir's Travels, p. .'iCii) say,<
of I'A Itostan that 'it has forty dependent vil!at;(s
in the adjacent jilaiii, surroiiniled with line trits
and cultivated fields and meadows. Kiw spots
ill Asia Jlinor offer n si^^ht more jii^ireeaMc. 'I'licro
is a ^Tcat trade in wheat, sold to llie Tnrkinaii-,
who carry it even as far as Ale|)|)o. When fcarli;!
of heiiif; attacked, the inhahitants lay ilic envi-
rons of the town under water. It lias fmir
mosques, one of which is siqiposed to he vcrv
ancient.'
In antiqnitj- Comann was famous forthe wor.^liip
of Ma, the Cajipadocian Itelloiia. The popiilaiinn
consisted, in a ^Tcat de;;ree, ofsoollisaycrs, )iri(si.<,
and . ...ves helon;;'in;; to the hi;;li-|iricst. and i-ni-
iiloyed in the service of the temple. The laiiir,
in the time of Straho, are said to have excccilid
(),(H)() of liotn sexes. It received a lloinan cdlLny
in the reij^n of Antoniiis I'iiis, and, jierhaps. al-n,
in that of Caracalla. ((,'ranier's Asia Minor, ii,
i;5!).)
HOSTOX, a sea-port, m. town, ami i nr. "f
I",nf;land, CO. Lincoln, on the Witliani, 102 in .v,
London hy road, 2M m. SI".. Lincoln, and Iii7^ in.
from London hy (ireat Northern r.'iihvav. on wliirh
it is a station'. I'oi)., 18(11, ."),!l2tl : i^'.ll, ll.-JIH;
LSI), 12,!tl2, and IHCl, 11.712. The town is sii|h
posed hy some, from antiquities found in its in i;;li-
lioiirhood, to have been a lloinan station. !niil in
have taken its name from a monastery liiiilt \iv
St. IJotolph, A.l). (i.")l, destroyed hy the Daius iii
870. That it hecame a place of coiisidorahlc nur-
cantile importance, after the Norman ('onf|iic.i.
appears fnmi the. fact that, in 12(1 1, ils as.sc-.-nii iil
towards a tax of a liftcciith, impo.-^ed on the ]<"<"■■•.
amounted to 78(1/., -while that of F^omlnn. llic "iily
jiort taxed hiji'lur than it. was hut KKI. In l-"^!
it suH'ered hy fire, and iu 1281! hy an inuiiilalii'ii.
I'liiler nn net ol
l<ir Hool, woolfr
Miini' tiiiK- iiH
iiK ica.sed hy m-\
in il, who, how
jitiir, in consei|ii
iiii'ii, which tei
the iiiteniiediali
'idrralile thai it
t»Hiirds an arinii
;iiiil ranked the
aiiiiiii^' tlie 82 I
111 I off rapidly i
vatic inercliantH
icrics hy Men.
(iini|iciisatioii, in
ii^raiit of 511 IU
iiliiTwards siillen
ilalioii.s, to which
lialile. During
liiiii' the head-qii
The town, siti
I.cliind the Ijm/
imil divided hy it
iiirti'd toj,'etlier h
111' n sinj^lc arch
rcill.si'ts of two II
.•.tniiiii, from each
will hiiilt, eoiitai
nnilshops, and oxt
Tlio l)oroiij,rh is wi
|iriivisions of n ],|
with water. Its i
jiiiri.sli clnirdi of .'■
i^tliclar^'ostchiin
UiiiK .'182 ft. hy !»^
cilllcd ' Itosfoir Sti
Kiiiii' plan as that
(it'tii;,'oiial traiispai
t"ii.''lriiction, and
on this low coast,
Ailiiipel of ease v
trjiccs of St. ,hihii
tivii centuries a^^o,
ii^i'il as a place o
iviir.~liip are those
New Connexion, ai
wl and I'articnlai
IIiiMniii Catholics.
('iiinilcii in l,"cM ; ]
Iriiaii'ii, in 170"; i
■ill Imys and 2o jrirl
Iiiliint school, tof^e
I'il^ 'if hoth sexes
iiiiii a very handsor
'iiiiiiin' under the
jiiililiciiIaccsarelJie
'lirce suhscription
thwitro. and a pii
'iiiriluiis. Since tl
li'eliirm Act the toi
wards, and is Roveri
mill 18 councillors.
'" tlic IL of C. sir
I'rcvinnsly to the J
"i^li'il ill the mcmh
till! freemen who res
111 the honaifrh. Ti
parishes of Uoston a
?i"l fen allotment <
'I'K ill nil over 7 !!•'
rT."fl7,8!l;!. 1,'ei.-
"I which 174 rem;
l'"'liiif,'-place for the
PiiMs, both relifrioii,.
*" into desiieiu,;
"itssed Virgin Murv
IJOHTON
.V.7
•I'W s] II lis
rUcn;
rkMi;iii-,
11 1'ciirlV.l
ciivi-
iiis I'liiir
lu very
■ wdrsliip
i>|iiilatii>ii
mill I'lii-
!»' lillUT,
l'X<'l'('ill'ii
lilll cnliiliy
hiilis. iiImi,
Miimr, ii.
ill i or. i>f
102 111 .<'.
1 liiT^ 111.
(Ill wliiili
!1,U.-M"-.
wu is >\\\>-
1 its w ii:li-
iiiii. mill I"
•V built \>\-
'■ Dams in
Till lie ""■r-
I <Minqiifsi.
l^^(-^ll»nl
I till' j»'i>,
111. Ilic "•ily
|/. Ill i:>i
miiulaiii'ii.
riiilor nil nrt of 'J7 I'.ilw. II[, it liccmnp n Hin|ilc
{„)' uiiol, wiMill't'lU, lent licr, mill Iciul. Almiit (lie
>aiiii' time iIh iiicroiiililc |>ri>y|M'rity wiih iiiiii'h
iiiri'i'a.''<'<l l>y Hi'viTiil lluiiHciitii' iiii'ri'liMiiiH ^<('tllill^
in il, will), liiiwcviT, riiiiKniti'ii al>iiiit ii (•ciilnry
aliir. in t'iiiiM('i|ii<'tii'(i of n (iiiiirrcl with llir luwiis-
iiicii, which trniiiiiiitcil ni lil l--li('il. I>iiriii^
ill!' iiitcniu'flialt' iicriinl its ,H|ii|)|iiii^' wiih wi nui-
.jilrritlili' that it riiniiMlicil 17 xliijis, iiml :i<il) iiicii,
iiAvaril.x i>ii ariiiiiiiii'iit tor the iiivasii'ii of llritiany,
mill raiikt'il Ihii Iwt'll'th, iim to iiiiiiiliiTor vchm'Is,
auiiiiitr lh(^ H"2 ports which were hmschsciI; liiit it
I'i'll nil' rik|>iilly lifter the ili-|iarliiri> of the lliiii-
.1','iiic incrchitiils, 'I'lic dissohitioii of the iiioiias-
iiriis hy llcii. VIII. iiijiircd the town, though
iiiiii|iciisiitioii, ill Noiiii> ilc^rroc, was made to it hv
II i;riiiil of Till acroH of tliii sciinL'stcrcd lands, (t
aliiTwards siillVrcd hy the pliiKue, and hy iiiu'i-
ilatiiiiis, to which this Hat country was |inriiciilarly
liable. Duriiifj tlm civil wars, it was for some
liiiii' the head-quarters of Croniwell's army.
'file town, situate on the Witliam, called hy
I.claiid the LiiitHs, ahout Ii ni, from its mouth,
ami divided hy it into two nrnrly eijual jiarts, con-
iii'i tcil together hy an iron hrid^e, hiiilt hy Iteiinie,
III' 11 siii^jle arch of MliJ ft. spun, openeif in \K\7,
i'i>iisi>ts of two loii^ strei^ts, one on each side the
Mrcaiii, from each of which others diverf^e. It is
will built, contains many nood dwelling-houses
auilsliops, and extensive f,'ranaries and warehouses,
llic boroiifjli is well paved and li/^hteil under the
|irnvisioiis of a local act, anil also well supplied
Willi water. Its most remarkable hiiildin^; is the
parish church of St. Uotolph, erected in i;ti)!». It
is the larj,'est church without aisles in the kin.i>;dom,
JKiiif,' i!><"-i I't. hy !'« ft. within the walls. Its lower,
laili'il ' Iloston Stump,' 2li.') ft. hi;;'h, built on the
Hiiiic plan as that of Antwerp, i^ cap]ied with an
iiotii^'iiiial transparent lantern, oi' lery beautiful
I'liiisiniclioii, and forms a remarkabh; laiulniarU
nil this low coast, heinji visible at Id m. distance.
A (Impel of ease was erected in 1K'.'2. The only
iraics of St. .John's Church, taken down about
Iwii centuries ap>, are found in il.s cemetery, still
ii-('i| ns a place of burial. The other places of
wiirsliip are those of the Unitarians, Weslcyan
Niw CiPiinexion, and Primitive Methodists, (ieiie-
ral iiiul I'articiilar liaptists. Independents, and
iliiiiiiiii Catholics. A free f;ramniar-scli(iol was
I'lUiiiiled in 1.>H; Lniinhton's, for the sons of poor
liwiiuii, in 1707; n bliie-iuiat sclioid in 17i;t, for
ill) liiiys and '2<> ^irls ; and a national liritish and
liilaiit school, tof^elhcr educatintc about MH) ])u-
]iils iif both sexes ; there is also a disjiensary
ami ft very handsome Union house, this liein^ a
•iiiiiini' under the new I'oor Law, The other
luililie places are the com exchange and athenu'iim,
ilirce subscription libraries, assembly-rooms, a
iln'iitrp, and a public promenade at Vauxhall
(Jiink'iis. Since the passiiiji; of the Municipal
IWiirm Act the town has been divided into two
Miirils. and is f^overned by a mayor, six aldermen,
ami 18 councillors. It lias returned two members
t" the II. of C. since the rei;,'n of Edward VI.
Previously to the Jteform Act the franchise was
vested ill the members of the corporation, and in
liic treemen who resided in aiul paid scot and litt
in the hormif^h. The purl, horouffli includes the
]iarislie» of Boston and S.i.heck, aiul the hamlet
ami fell allotment of Skirbeck quarter, extend-
ing ill nil over 7.!t2;! acres, and had in l«(il a
imp. (if 17,H!i:!. l.'egistered electors, l,illl» in l,S(i4,
I'f which 174 remainiiifir old freemen. It is a
l«illiii),'-place for the county. There were several
piilds, both reliffioiis and civil, all of which have
lallen into desuetude; the hall of that of the
liltssed Virgin Mary, which was one of the most
important, is n»eil hy the corporation for their
lllllllliipill niectint^'s, I'llly Ho.ioiis arc held oil
Friday. A court hci fnrihc ImroUKh sits annually :
its principal duly is lo pnxiit iiiiisiinccs, A court
of record, which decides pleas in all actions, real,
mi\i'(t, and pcrsiinal, sits on Wciliicsiiitys aiul
Saturdays. It is also the scat of a county cnurf.
The K'oss estinialed rental a-scssed to poor rati)
was ■M,ll7<>/. in I Hill, mid the anioiiiit iissessed tn
proiierty-tax 7It,7i;i/.
'I he maiiufacliiri'sof Iloston are mostly conlineil
lo sailcloth, cainiis and sackint;; Ihirc are iwo
iron and brass fnundries, iiiid three ship-yards,
with patent slips, where vessels of -'IMI inns are
built. .Markets are held on Wednesdays and
Suiurdays; fairs for cattle and sheep arc on May
I and .''i; for fat cattle on Aiijr. II; for liorsen
about Nov. IH and ;> days al'ier; and lor horned
I'atlle only on l>ec. II. Iniinense numbers of
il.e tliiest cattle and sheep are sidd at these fairs,
the town heinj; in the centre of one of the richest
Kra/.in)r districts in the kin^'dom. The haiiUin;^
establishments are — the Nalional and rro\iiiciiil
Hank of I'Ji^Mand ; a branch of the Slainford,
Spalding' and Iloston Itiiiik ; with two privatn
banking; houses. The principal dniiiia^^'cs in the
vicinity are those of the llidlaiid fens niaih' by a
cut of 12 III. from the town to I(o;;ilyke, n'ear
Tattersall, by which 22, 'Mid acres were reclaimed j
and the Wildmore fens, ll.iMiii acres, drained in n
similar manner. ( iwiiiff to the nenlccl of keepiiij^
the river clear, the trade fell otf soas to be almost
extinct. In 1721, vessels of 2.'iil tons could dis-
charjjeat the town ; in 17.')l. sloops of (1 ft.draiinht
coiihl not come up, except al spring's. 'I'he driiii;-
a^jes, already mentioned, reviveil attenlion to llio
state of the river, and under special acts of [lariia-
meiit, have improved it so far ibal \-essels of 120
Inns come up lo town, whence the navigation is
continued to Liiicidn by small st(ainers and
barges. A sluice was also erccteil to retain the
water abovc^ the town. The navipitioii to Lincoln
is extended by the Fossdyke Canal to the Trent,
at Torksev, and thence, either by still water or
river naviffation, to (iaiiisboroii;cii, Nottinnhani,
and Derliy, thus openinj; a vent for the export of
the mainifactnres of the miillaiid coiiiilies. Tho
forci;,ni trade is chiclly conliiied to the importa-
tion from the llaltic of timber, hemp, tar. iiitcli,
and iron. The coastiiij;' trade is eliidly in the
export of corn, woid, and other ai;riciiltiiral pro-
duce, the return carp;oes consisting' of coal and
nianufactured j;oods. The sbiiipiiii,% in the year
iMdl!, consisted of (!()(! vessels, of 2H,71li tons
burden, which entered tlu^ port, and.'! 17 vessels,
of l'J,',)2il tons, which ch-ared. The f.creater mini-
ber of these were sailiii;^ vessels. Of steaint'i-s,
there entered 4.'J, of ;1,-II0 tons, and there cleareil
;W, of iJ,OlO tons. There is a j^ood ciisloni-house,
and a pilot establishment of a master and 12
pilots. Kxtensive powers are vested in tho mayor
and Imr^fcsses by two local acts for iiiqirovin^,' the
portaiul harbour, iiiiderwliich they are empowered
lo colle('t tonnage, wharfaf^e, and lastap'. from
vessels that enter; the receipts to be applied to
its improvement. They are also cmjiowered to
make bye-laws, to which all vessels are to bo
subject. I'art of the jiort dues are eidlected at
Spaldiiifj and at Waintleet, to each of which llu;
jurisdiction of the corporation extends. On the
;>Ist December, IHti.H. there heloii<;-ed to the porl.
of Iloston. iS2 sailing; vessels of and under 50 tons,
the whole of 2,1)20 tons burden, and -17 sailiiiii
vessels above M) tons, of a total burden of ;t,;f,")(i
tons. There were, besides, 2 small steamers, of
ii.'> tons hiiriU^n. (I>iii;(lale's Hist, of I'jiibaiikiii;;
and Draining; Koble's (iaiscttecr of Lincidn ;
.1 ¥,H
I
m
Alts
IIOHTON
'riiiitiiiiKoii'H IliNii TV (>r Itimioti ! nnniiiil Hinlt'iiu'iit
III irmli' mill iiiin i^iiiiuM fur tin- vriir IhiS:),)
l!ii>|iiN, II iniii'ir. rity of lln' I'lillril StntcK,
Die j>rili>'i|>ill pliirr III NrW I'.ii^^liiliil, illl'l lll(<i'il|i.
<<r ^l.l''-ll^ll'l'•t'tl'* ; oil M ^mimII |ii'iiiii'<ii!,i III the
Inilh
.Ml
l.v
[|rllll-rlt< Il.iN . cciilIKi
\Mlll llli'
IIMII'iiW iilliiillls, I'lillril llii.ll
.N'rt'k, '.'lir III. N r; NlwVnrk; lill. nl li);lltlliill''«,
•|-.i" I'j' •II" .v., li.HK. 7(|0 .1:1' 1:1" W, .ViriinliiiK'
III Mil' <'i'ii'<u~iit I'^iio. IliiHtiiii \\i\s till' I'l III rill liirur.-t
iiiiiinr iiHriiiTM. mill llio pxntniii.itliiii of
I'lilir;;
I'l ; 11.1 wr
MM II iiiiiiiii'||inl luiirr, lirjii I
niniiifil
kIii>;Ii'JiiiIui', wIiIi Jiiri iliiiimi In nil 1 riiiiimil
iiiii r.'i|>iliil. Till' iiiiiiiiiil I'vin'iiiliiuri' III' tl
iiiiiiiiiiii.t III uliiiiii mill, nun ildllnrx,
llii-tiiii it riiiiiii'iifl with fill' inti'riiir Imtl
riiiiiil'', niiiwMVM, mill rivir iiu\ i;;'iilinn ; umi |
> 'I
I'llll.rH
H'CIIV
viTv r\ti'ii^.|M' Iniiii' liiiili Willi I'ciri
I liy
III' II
I'ilV III llll'
I'liiti
Sliili
mi iiUo with till' S. htiili'H III' ihr Ti
liiWII in W'linlly illilrliti'ij In till' lllltrr,
I i;,'ii riiiiiiirj,.
'Ill
iliili.
hiili'l|iliiii, mill Knlliiiiiiri' liiiviii;; 11 liir;;rr |ii>|iii-
iHily N"W VnrK, I'iii I ri|iiilly In Nrw Vmk, .M;ir> Jmiil.mnl I'iiiuhvI
Inlinii.
'I'lirri' wiri' I77,N|-' iiiliiilutniiu in iMiin
ii;;aiiiHl i:u;,Hh| in IH,")!!.
'I'lic liii\', whii'li Im nitv cxlciiMivc,
Nllllllll'll
I'nr hii|i|ilii'N III' lliinr mul w lii'.it, mul I'nr I
tilii'M of iiniK, rye, Imrli'v. iiinl nllii't ;,'riiii
priii-
viiiiia.
(IS I'nr rntlnli. liiliiii , iut, nIiim'n, mill null
ri'lnrii-* iiri' iiiinli' |i,irlly in niiti\(' mw |iriiilii
I'M'' i|llllli-
I I lln Wi'll
Till
Willi iiiiiiu riiiiH Kiiiiill iMliinil><, wliii'h |iriitrrl Ihr licrr, |iiirU, liinl, iVr. ; piirlly in tlii' iiriKlin'i- 1,1
liiirliniir I'rKiii lln- wiiiil.'<, mul iilliiril rnnvi'iiiiiil ; iiiiiiiiil,'ii'inrin;r iiiihi.''try, in' whirli Slii\'<iii'|iii'.. ,
^ilnlltill|lM I'l-r I'lirlM rnliinimiiliii;; llic ii|i|iiiiiii'lii"< tn ' in ilcridcilly Hil|H'riiir In I'Ncry nthiT ntiili' in ||i,
iJK'iily liy wiitrr. 'I'lir liiirlHiiir i^ t'Xi'i'lliiit, liiiii;,' ^ rnimi ; mul |iiirlly in llu' iimilnri' nl' li»liirii'N mul
Hit
Ml-CtI*
nl' ^Ti'iit j<i/i', w'uli watrr Milliiiini in lulinii ilic ' riiri'i(iii triiili'. Hit I'NjKirH
ri>rii;;il Miih'M i(,||.
l.'ir;;r»l chlpH, .liul nii <'niii|ilr(i'ly liiiiil Ini'lvcil, that [ r-'iM |iiiiiri|iiilly nl' thi' kiiiiic arlirli'n ^•hl' ni'IhU i,,
Ihc M'Ms)'!,' ill it iiri' hIiihinI mm ^-('^■nl■|' as i|' tiny i ihc .S. htntrs; Imt nln- iiImo ri- cxiMirtH a lure
uirc in ilnrli. At tin' niitrr t'litrmiri' tn llin hay mnniinl nl' ihc liiriij;ii |iriiiliiri> hIic |iiii| iircviniisiv
i* a liirhlhiiiiHi' ri.'i It. Iii;,'h. with a rrvnh inn li^iht. iiii|Hirii'i|. H'T iin|iiirl.i rrniii I'nri'i :n riuiiiiriis
'Ihc liriiln'i'M, Minic nl' whiiliiili' nl' ;;rriit li'iijjl h, | rnlisiil |i|iiiri|iiiily nl ri'ltnii, wniillni, ninl ^j||.
cniinrrtiiifi till' lily villi its iiiljiu'riil siiliiirlM mid ' ^cniiils ; liiirilwaii'; Mi;.;iir, ti'ii, cull
llic cniitininl, arc all nl' wiMiil ; Imt it i-^ jninril hy 1 hraiuly, inili^n, ami iiilicr ilvc htnll'
cc, Willi"' mill
p N Ar
ii-i'\Miy 111' I'll rill tn llrniiklyii. mill the W. The Hiihjnincil htntmirnl hIihwh the ininiluT uf
j\vi'inic, IIS it U I'lillcil, liMiiiii;;' aiTiws the hay In' m'mscIs, w illi Iniinaj;!', wliirli ciitcr'il i|
h'nxliiirv, i.s al.sn iif iiu'th, Imt in partiv niilv arti-
iK'ia
I'in;; I'l'iircil nii iiii'li niilc hv ua
lis III'
Hi I inc.
This avi'iiiu^ serves the ilmililc pnr|in>e nl'a l<riii;;e
mul a ilaiii, mul, wiih the lulililiiin nl' a cinss ilani
I la similar cniisiriii'tiun. hiriiis iwn iar;;'*' liasins ;
(llic nl' which lieiii^' llili'il w iili every Ihiml, ami (he
niiiir eiiiptieil with every chit tide, a perintiial
current I'nr llic use nl' mills. Ac, is c.siahlidied.
The wlmrl's arc very cxliii.-.ivc : the l,nn;.f Wh.'irt'
is I.d.'ll I'l. in Ieii;;tli. liy L'lllU't. wide, niul ciiiit'iins
iieveiily-six hirp' waieluiii-cs ; the Central Wluirt"
is I.^J.iDl't. 1iiIi;a', I'.V l.'ilM'l. wide; mid there are
rllicrs iiciirly as exteiisi\e. The wliarCs, as wi'll
lis iiKiny nther parts nl the city, have liceii Imilt mi
hilcs I'uriiu'il liv laisi:/;; urniiiul nri.cinally co\'ered
liy the tide. ^Inst nl' the streets nn.' iiarmw and
ci'niiked ; Imt the liniises, which arc j;cm'nilly nl'
hriik, lhn!it;li inmiy nl' ri.eiii arc nf grjiiiilc and
hicnitc, arc larine and well Imilt. 'I'iic jirincipal
Itnsliiii ill the I'niir vears lMi;ii to lKi;:l:—
iirt III'
IHliO,
Imildi
the sfatc-liiiiis
en, eiiiirt-
tlic Faiieiiil-hall. in which piiMic incctiiiLfs
|iiililic a-
ililiesarc held; the iMassaclinsctts
(iciieral llnsiiital ; and the inarkct-hniise. 'ihc
Hlatc-luinse, a hricU Imildin^':, I'nints the coniinnn,
a line park nl' 7.") acres, and the princip.'il piililic
npiarc in the city, nf which it neciipies the must
<'lcvatcil part, loil It. alinvc tlicliav. The rnarket-
liiinse is a lianilsninc j;ranitc cdilicc, two sinries
lii'li, i'l 10 ft, ill leiii;tli, and nO ft. wide ; the cniirt- !
Anicrlcnn
J'lirclKli
Xutul
Anicrlcnn
Ton It;! I
Total
Amrrii'au
i'urclKii
TutuI
A Illl'l lean
I'melKii
Total
V('«iirU
KIH
'J,IIHI
'J,!l|!l
IMd.
if.'i;
Mill)
:i,iiii
isi;:'.
7h:j
3,-j:il
;i,iiii
]sr,:
1',II.SH
.■1,1171
Tiiiii
lllJ.ll;':!
."II, I'M
:i71.:lliil
'.'17,11111
;iNil,lil:l
»i:l:l,li;7
1 1 ,H-.'S
!I,|I17
The value nf In. Ill im|inrls and cxpnrls, in iIk
Iwn years iMi-iaiid \W.\ w,'is as I'nliiiws :—
lmns(' is alsn nf f,'raiiiU', 171) ft. Initjir, n? It. hi^;li, : d,,. |
iiml M ft. wide, adnriied with massive Dnric pnr- '■ Impori
Auprrpratc
iiijr .'-|ic(
' xpui
liens. The W'licral hospital is a handsnnic ji'ranit
el
mill ISiil
18«S let'
^of Tniimrts.incliul- )
•Ic and Uiilliciii . )
rts, liiclmllii|»(lo.
•xelusivo of Sjiccio 1
linn . . . /
xcIiikIvo of du, , .
Dulliir> 1 Dull
•.'•'M:ifi,Sii:; •.'7,'.'-.'
1Ii,:M4,:|ii:. 17,17(
'.'i),301,(illi 27,(1!)!
l«,8fl«,7fl«| H,m
i,iit;;
(;,i:ii;
,«lii
laiildiiijr. siirrnnndcd liy n)ien '^rninids nf I'niir acres j j Kxports,
ill extent. Treniniil-hnnse, tlic fmiit nf which is
Imilt nfj^rcy sicnite, in the Unric nrdcr, and several I Uostnn is the sent of the Aincricnii ice Ira
ninpanies en;;-,'i};('il in till
(if the 1)1
linildiiiLrs. arc rendered <lcscr\iii;r nf ! and llierc are niiniemns c
Iintice hy tlicir arcliitecliirc. 'I'liere are ahnve sixty i Imsincss of shipping,' ice for the suntlicrii piirls nl'
(•hnrclics, two theatres, an ndcnii, Ac. ; an eye and ' tlic I'liion, the llavannali, &c. Jtostuii ice is
c.'ir iiilinnary ; with liniises nf industry, refnrnia- I fniind in every part nf tlie wnrld, iinineiise quaM-
tinii, and cnrrcctimi ; fi cmiiiiy t;anl, Ac. Itnstnn, I lilies liciiifj; slii))pL'd fnr S. America, the K. tiiul \V.
■willi llic small tnwn nf Chelsea, cnnsljfutes tlie j Indies, and (!liina. It is nmstly called • W'eiiliain
cniiiity nf 8iitfolk, which is reiirescnied in the I Lake," lint, in reality, only a very nindcralo quaii-
.seii.'ilc nf llie state hv six senators. The city is | tity is cut iiii that pond. It is so much an ariiiic
divided into twelve wards ; ihe niiniieipal ^nvern- | nf neccssily with nil Americans that iiniliiiii,' siir-
nu'iit is vested in a maynr. cif^hl aldermen, and a ' prises /mdannnys them mnrc on their travels tlia'i
cniiimnn cniincil nf forly-ei^ht memhers, all nf the par.iinnniniis iis(' of it in Kiirnpc. Tliey In'-
whnin are chnsen annn;illy hy the ciii/ens. There (inently s.'iy that the lirst rin^; nf it au'ainst tlii'
is u police court of three justices, fnr the trial of! tumbler on their return is like a sweetest, ami
iiiii»t liomc like
iiuTi'a'in^, and '
Til Ciiliiitl/i
„ llmitf K
,, lliilllliay
., Mum us'
,, I'UIN' III'
., Muiit'iili
„ Kliii{ntiii
,, iliirliii'liM
>, lluviiiini
.. >-t. TliMii
„ All otiiei
TotiU
(lii'imrt hy Mr. f
('iiiniiierce of .Mni
lliiston liasiilwa
liv licr allcntinii 1
.S'lirlli Ainerican I
iiri' jiiililislicd he
lilhlii'd aliniii ;t n
iiKiiii'ilical depart
lli;,'ll M'hnnI ; mill
ill;;!<i'liniils, ill wl
lii'lnry arc tini;,'lil
Al'rii'ini schnol ; a!
liiiiiiif n school col
.ililiriiieii, and iw
iiiiiilly. 'i'liere is a
1.1 ItM.'iiiHi vols., a I
I'm' li'itiires. The
liliiiil, I'oiindcd ill
iii'll iiiiina^ed, T
mill .Sciences, the
Mii'ii'tics, arc ainoi
iiiis alsn a Iniinaii
IlllMliTiills nllier I'll
iifiliiilv, tri-wcckli
iwriiiilicaljniirnals,"
There arc a vast
mi'iils at llnslon,
wliii'li is shown in
I'nr.N'iiv. ;io, i«i;;ii.
j IIULlllll
Caiiifnl .'^tnck
I'ii'ciilallim
llrpii-lls ,
One to oilier Ba
Total Llaliili
N'otps and Bills ]
S)HH'il'.
iJiie from other 1
Total Ilosoiin
Ilimtoii was found
llwtiiHii in Kn}i;lan
iiwiiyof its inhahitti
iiiit tlie whole perini
ilis|ilaycil ffreat cnei
Mill took the lead in
.\nioricaii colonies ii
ciiiiwiliicnce of wlii
I'liw'il, hy an act of |
piiTisiiii was also si
lisii'^Td hy the An
lirilisli were jit last .
i* tlip hirthplace of
Imni here on Hie (111
I'iipers, pnlilislied li\
'"'■iiiae, l«i;4; I!ep,,'r
'I'l' Trade of Mussae
\m.)
nosToy
m(i"f tiomc liki' uri'ciiiitr. 'I'lip r>\|><irt In ntcnillly
iioTinvKF.r,
AOO
Tint*
Til Ciili'iitti* , ,
7,17 J
,, IliiiJtt KuiiK , ,
•J/Wl
„ lliitiiliuy . . .
il.i'i.'i
,, MlKlllls . . ,
l,.'H.-t
,, <'ii|H' iif tiixiil IIdihi
:|iiii
„ Mllllt'ltilM
l.:i-.o
„ Klim^liiii, Jiilimlrik
a.'.'.rj
,, lllll'lllMllH'it , ,
l,;uii)
,, lljiviiiitiah
H.l.ll
,, >^l. 'I'l Ills , .
\:j»i
„ All lithcr |<i'itd ,
7.-i.l:l7
Tot 111
INIII .
lHit:l .
lii|,:IAll
71, 'J in
llli'|ii>rt liy Mr. CdnHtil I.oiihiiiIii on tlic 'rriiilc iiiul
('iiiiiim'n'c 111' MiiMHiii'linHfttN Curl III' yi-iir Ihi". 1.)
IkiKtiiii liiiHiilwiiys Ihm'II lavoiiriilily iliHliii;^ni<<lii'il,
liv her titti'iitiiiii III I'ljiiratiiiii <iiiil lilcriiiiii' . 'I'Ik'
N'nrdl Alliri'ii'llll lii'\it'W llll.i hIIut VhIiimIiIi' Wnl'kH
iiri' |iiiliiiiliril Ihtc. lliirviM'il I'liivrr-ity is est n-
lilhlii'il aliiiiit I't III. I'riiiii till' city, wliirli riniiaiiiH
itiini'ilical ili'iiartiiit'iil, ll liasiilsua Latin ami ii
Iii;;li M'liiiiil; niiiiiiTiiii.i piiliiii' f^Taiiiinar aiiil wril-
iii;; M'liiiiiN, ill u'liii'li arillinii'tir, Krii,';i'a|iliy, ami
lii^inry arr tiMi;^lit ; many |<riinary st'linnli, ami an
Alrii-aii Hrliiiiil; all nl' wliiili arc ninlcr tln' iliri'i'-
ijiiiiiira Hi'hiiiii ciiininitlrc, t'iinsixtiii<;'iil' tlii' iiiayur,
.■ililitiiicn, anil fwi'lvc utlicr niiMnhrr-*, I'lrih'il aii-
iiiiiiily. 'I'lu'i'i* is al*"!) an Alluiia'iiin, with a iilirarv
iil'.Mi.'iiiM) voIh., II |iii'tiiri' ^^ailt'ry, anil a iiiililic liail
flu' li'i'lnrcM. The ncliiiiil fur llii' insinicliKn nf tlir
liliiiil, I'liiiiiili'il in iHil.'l, iM Miiil to III' I'Nlri'iiii'ly
wi'li initnaKt'tl. 'I'lic Anicriran Arailriiiy of Arts
ami Si'ii'iii't'H, till- IliHtiirical ami Natural II istnrv
Mii'ictii'^, arc aiiion^^st its Icarni'il aMMiiiaiioiis: it
liii'i iilsii 11 Ininiiiiic siii'ii'ly, orplian asyliuni, anil
iiiiniiriMis otlirr rliarilalili* I'stalili^linicnli, A Im.st
iililiiilv, tri-wi'i'kly, ucrldy, inuntlily, ami otlior
|K'riiiiliraljiiiirnal.s, arc |inlilislicil.
'I'luTc arc a vast iminlicr ul" liaiii.iii}^ cstaMisli-
nii'iits lit lliistiin, the I'linililiiiii tiinl activity nl'
whicli in sliown in tlic sniijoiiicd HtUtullU'llt. it is
furXiiv. ;ii», lH(i;i:—
II01.I011 Uaiikt
Caiiltnl Stock .
Ciri'iilalliiii .
|ii'|iiisir.i ....
Uiiu to olliur Bniika .
Total I.laliilitios .
Kiitps ami Bills Diticomiti'il
S|iccii'
Uuu rrom utlior Banka
Total nesourcpfl .
Uiillari
:!8.0:ll, 7(1(1
!»,7l"i,ii!)t
I ;)'j,:)i;i;,'.',s7
ll,.-i77,(ill
OI,7a(l,72.-)
i.l.CV.'.lKl:!
7,7'.'!l,7lW
ll,!l|."i,lil;t
9.'i,'.'S7,(:S4
liiistoii wns foiindcil in Ki.lO, anil so iianicil fnirn
liietiiwii ill I'^iif^lanil jircviunsly ilcscrilicl, wlicncc
inanyiif its inliiiliitaiits liiul cini^^ralcii. 'I'liroiij;!!-
imt tlir whole period nl' its liistory, its iiihali. have
ilis|ilayc(l {jreat ciiert,'y in asserting; popular rights,
miittiiiik the lend in opposing' the taxation of tiie
Amoricnn colonies in the rci>;ii of (icor^-c IH. ; in
ciiiisi'i|iieiue of which, the ji.irt of l{ii>t(iii was
I'libwl, liy an net of piirliainent, in 1771. A llritisii
purisiiii was also statinned in the city, luit liciii^^
iKsii'fied by the American army in 177.")-7(!, the
iiritisli were at last ohlij;('il to e\;icuatc it. Iio.-.fiiii
i-i tlio hirthplace of Dr. lienj, Kranklin, who was
l«ini here on the (!th of .lannary, I7(ii>. (Ollicial
I'apers, |inlilished liy ContiTcss; 'I'lic Natinnal Al-
iiiaiiac, iKiil; Kepurts of Mr. ("oiisiil Lonsada on
ilu^ Truile of Massachusetts, in Cunsiilnr Heports,
18G4.)
TIOsWuliTll (M \|;KI r>, n p.ir, nml f.ittii nf
I'JIKkniil, CO. j.iin.iir, liiiiii'. .S|iarkciiliiie. ,\rril
of par. 7,'Ji'i> aires. I'np. ..1 par. ■.',.i;l'.i in |H||,aii I
•.'..'ini ill iNi I : imp. i.f tiiuii 1,1.1,, in l« 1 1, mill ',•'.•(•
in l.'^iil. It will In' M'ciiiliiit tlu'piip. isiliiicinin^f.
It is a mat little tnwi an .ininiiiir, in tlic
centre of a Iciiilc district. It lia- a will iiidnweil
Kraiiiinar M'hool, ill which Dr. .Iiiliiisnii was o
an iislicr; lint its pi.iperty, al"ive 7n(»/. a year, has
liciii the -nlijert of u Imi.; ihaiiiery suit! It has
•J l'cllii\\..liipsanil I Kihiilai-ship-. in I'.iiianinK 'ainlir.
'I'liirc ate •.'cattle liirs held aninially. May H nml
.Inly Ml. The Ashliy Canal pii>si'.<i within' a mile,
and ciiiiveys coals. Ac It is the ci ntral town of
Ik poor law iiniiiii of -.'s parishes ; h.iH •.» ;.nnrdiaiis,
and its uveraKc anniial imut rates arc 7ii,"i/.
The decisive liattle lietwcen llichard III. and
the I'.nrl of iJichimiiid. aftciwards llniiv VII.. in
whicli the I'liiiner In-t his iiuwii ami his life, and
which terininalcd the Imi- cuntinned st^ll^'^;lll
lietwecn the Iioiim's of Vnrk and l.amnsicr, lakes
its name Irnin this luwii, in tlic viciiniv iif which
it took place, on the -.'Jiiil of An-ii't," 1 l^.'i. In
the lialllc-lield is a well, iiaiiied fmiii lliihnrd III.,
with an iiiMripii.in Sy the late Dr. I'arr; and an
elevation, called Cinwii Mill, where Lord St iiiley
is >.aiii to ha\e placid l.'icharir.scriiw n nil the I'.arl
of liiilini I's head. (Nichol's l.ciccsti r-h. ; llnt-
tlill's IloMVell riild.)
I10S/|;A, a town of Syria, ririnerly the cap, nf
the .Vinaiiiies; ."ill 111. .S. Dania-ciis." Ml m. Nl''..
.lenisalcni; lat.:i-."-' Id' N., ion^'. ;iii'';tn' K. Thiinj;h
iiiiw almost ileserled, the ruins are e.Mciisive and
majiiiilici nt : the principal of the:.e, oral lia-t the
most ^acrcl|, in Miihaiiimedan e>iiiiiaiiiiii, is the
Deir-llohaira (llimse of IJuhaira), so called from
lieiii;i coiiseir.'iti'd to a inoiik of I hilt name, who is
said to iiave proclainied the sacred 1 liaiactcr nf
Mohaninicd, when the prophet, in his |;;ih Near,
visited Syria with his mude. 'j'hi' ^^reat imi'Mpie,
u viTy aiicicnt temple, a triumphal arch, a cii-tle
of ^^reat streii'.;th, rcinnanls of the city walls, mid
a reservoir ."lOn ft. Ion;;-, ;io(i wide, nnd'i'ii deep, nre
niiioiifi; the remains of ancient ;;rani!eiir; in niidl-
lion to which the whole tow n and iis environs an-
covered with pillars and other ruins of the liiiest
workmanship, lioszra is very ancient : it is meii-
tioiied in the Sacri'd \\'ritiii;;"s as one of the cilic.'i
which the half tribe of .Manas.seh, heyoiid .lordan,
Knve tothe l.evites. (.losh. xxi. •J7,) At this time,
and for ii;;'es snbscipiently, it was cclehraled for its
vineyards, whicli are coiiimemoralcd on the (mccI;
nu'dals III KoAorm Hoar,,!)?, but of I he.se no vesliL(('
now remains. After the establislnnent of Chiis-
tianily, it was an anhliishop's see. wiili 111 bishop-
rics under its jm-i.-dictioii. Its stroni,^ castle was
built by the Sarncens. between whom and the
Latin kinj;s of .lenis.ilein it several times changed
masters, and under Italdwin IV., .\.i>. I l.sii, it wiis
entirely rniind nml depnpiilated. (Abnl-Kcda, Vil.
•Mali, c.l; Tab. ,Syr. pp. ;".!, !lll ; Adrichoiiiiiis,
Ter. Sane. 71», «(); Ihirekhurdt, Trnv. Svr. pp. •_".' 1-
•2-M.)
liOTANV HAY. Sec Au.stk.m i.v and Ni:w
Smirii \V.\i.i:,s.
I!<»TIINIA (fiULF OF), the X, arm of the
llaltic, wliich see,
IIOTIIWIILL, a par. ami vi!la;rf of Scntjaml,
county Lanark, on the N. side of the ( 'l\-.|c. The
villa^^e lies on the ro.-id from (ilas^ow to Ilaiiiillon,
K 111. I'l. of the former, and ;i NW. of the latter,
near llio K(!inburf;li-(;ias^iiw railwjiv. Pop. l.(l,V,'
in l«lil, of whom l.iit males and (ilM females.
About a mile from the villaice, towards the .S]'].,
the road to Hamilton is carried ovi r the Clyde by
Jlothwell-brid;,'!', the scene of one of the most
nicnuirablc events in Scottish liistorv. The
6
AlO
llOT/KN
I
rovrimnli'rH.hiihi' iiiiiiilH'ri>r l.iMiOnrrt.doo, ImviiiK
l,iki II |Hii<»i^<liiii III' III!' Iirnl^i', ilii'ii iniirli iiitrriiHrr
lliiiii III jiri'xi'iii, wiTi' iiiiii'ltt'ij, nil ilii< '.'.'nil III'
•liiiii', liii'.i, till' liriil^i' riirritl, iiinl ilirir arniv In
lallv rmili'il liy llic rnVlll I'nri'cn, lltlili'r till' hllkr
til' Mniiiiiniilli, (l,ulii;('i« St'iiilaiiil, Iv, III I.) Near
till- villllKi' in llit> llliltfllillirilt mill III' hnllnvrli
< 'ii'-lli', mill' nil iiiilinriiiiit St'ii|ii>|i I'nrlri'HM, 'i'lic
|llir, ii« Wt'll Hnilill'll mill Ui'll niltivillril,
II0T/|;N, iir ll(l|,/A.\0 (nil. /'<//M IhuMi), ii
Inwii n|' lliK Aii^lriiiii Ntnii'M, 'ryrni, vn\t„ rirr. in ii
|ili'llf>aill Wi-ll xliclltTcil vallrv, III ll inilllli'llri'
nl'ilii' I'.iMirli aiiil 'riill'iT,a litiiii alinvi'wlii'rr llii'ir
iiiiiii'il waiiTs I'all iiitii IJM' Aili^t', :iti m, NNJ';.
'rniii. I'liji. H.-.'iMi III |h;)7. Ii Im a ihriviiin wi'll
lillih Inwil, III llif llilliail nI yl)'; Iuim 11 ranlir, ni'Vi'l'ii!
rnliM'lIti, a riiil<';^i', and niillli' lliaillll'lli'tliri"* nl'^ilk
ulnrkiii^M A xirniiLf ilykf "I niainiiry, iirarly "J
III. ill li'iiutli, aiiil in |Mirlr4 '.'I I'r. iliirk, liii.i Ihtii
Cnllnlrilrlril III llrl'lllil I lie tiiNMI rinlll llll' irril|lt inllM
III' a iii'i;<lilinnriiiK' iiniiiiilain Inrrriil. Ilciii^ iii-
liTi^ri'ii'il liy lii^li I'niuli li'iiilinu III Swil/rrlaiiil,
Aii-<iria, ami llal'>, >viili a Ntnlinii nti tlic railway
nVrr till' AI|iK, I'loMi llill'iliriirk III N'rriilia, llnt/rn
liiiM an I'sii'iivis'i- traiinii iniili'. It in iiNn vf\v-
lirati i| Inr iu fairs rntiiiiii'iii'iii;; tin' I'^ili .Maii li,
lilli .ll , lull N'liii'iiilicr, aiiil UOili NiiNi'iiiliir,
rniiliiniiii;;' ra'li rnnrliin liav, wliiili art' atlriiilnt
liy a K'i'<'»' I'nnrniir.it' nl' I'irnrli, tii-rinair", anil
llaliaiH. Till' I'niiiilry nuitiil iii'ihIiu'I'm cxri'lliiit
uiiii', anil I'niils in aliiiiiilaiu'r. Itnt/i'ii in >n\\i-
|iii-.i'il In nri'iniy lilll HitU ol' tllO Ullcitlllt Itolliail
lilaili'l, J'liiiH hnmi.
llonilAIN, a rnitili(>i| inwn nl' FraiK')', ilc'^i.
till Nnnl, rap, cant., nil llic .Si'liclilt, liy wliii'li it H
iiiti'rxi'i'tcil, IL' III, SK. jlnnai, nii the railway Irmii
huiiai to Ciiiiiliray. I'lip. I,.")!)! in INi;i, 'I he I'nr-
iilicaliiiiii arc nl' very cnii.siilcralilc rtlrciiKlli, aiul
the iiiljaccnt cniintry may In* laiil umlcr water,
'llic liiike nl' Marllinrnii^'l'i tnnk it in I'll, alter ii
liieninralile ."ie;;!'; lint, lieiii^ retaken liy MarMJial
Villars in the rnllnwin;;' year, il was linally ccileil
t<i Krance at the treaty nl' I'lreclil, It wan niic of
the frniiiier fnrt ressci* ucciipiud by the allit'H after
llic |ieaee nf \H\,'i,
llOl'CllKS-Dl'-lMIONr., a niaril. dep, S, nf
I''ranee, Kilnaleil,aM ilM iiaiiie iiMiilles, nl the iiiiiiiIIin
of llie lilin.ic. It is liiiiinileil I'., liv the (lep, nf the
Var; N. and \V, liy the hiir.ince, lilimie, and the
\V. arm of the latter, wliicli separate it I'miii the
tli'pts. nf Vaiicliise and (iiird; and S. liy the Me-
diterranean. Area, tiOl,!M;(( hectares, or 'j,.'i:i I Km;;.
Hi|. III. ]'np. •'107,1 12 ill lisiil. Snil and snrliui-
variniis, liiil the former f;ciiei'ally inferior. The
last oH'sets fmm the marilinic Alps oeenpy the 1^
piirlH of the dep., but they are not remarkable
either for their hci;;iit or appearance. The hifrhest
(luiiimit, that of St. Victnire, is I,()1'2 metres (!l,l2il
ft.) above the sea. The plain of Le (jran and the
isle of (.'iimar^nes occupy a lar>{e imrtioii of the
surface. The lirst is of Hreat extent, stretchiuj^
I'rniii Aries to the laKmni nf llcrrc. It has very
little ve;{etable iiiniild, and is fnrmed principally
(if Hints anil ntlicr small .stniies; diiriii;r winter it
furnishes pasture to \nv^c tincks of sheep and
ffoats; the former beiiij; driven in siiminer, when
it is arid and waste, to tin- mountains. It is sii])-
]insed by many that this plain was fnrmerly a nii'A'
<if tlu! sea, and varinus circumstances cimspire to
htreii;,'tlien the snppositinn. The island of Ca-
inarf;ues is the delta or alluvial land lyiuji between
the K, and W, arms of the Itlinue, and is partly
cultivated and m jiasture, and partly nccu|iied by
marshes and la;;'nons. 'I'lie latter, indeed, make
due of the |iriiicipal features of the ile'p. The priii-
»'ipal are the la{;ooii of N'ulcarris, in thn island of
Camarj^ues, uiid that of Bcrre or Jlarthii, 12 111.
N'W. MnrwIlleN. Tluv ami ilu iiminii<m«rHtin
occupy a Kfciil exleiit of latid, and in »mi,i„, r
are very iinliealili> . Principal riviri, liliuni iii„|
I'liraiice; the latter rii»lies iilniiK with j;riiit \i,!
Iciice, freipinilly iiverlliiwiiiK its banks, iiii,| iiih-Ihi,
ureal daiilllKe. 'I'licre are also »nnie «iiiiil|,.r tWvtH,
and ibedcparlnielll in inliTnecleil bvneviriil I'lm,,!.'
t'liiiiati' generally Iml and dry, iiml ihc muiiirx ni
niinimer liana barren parrhed appeariiine, .\uri
culture bad, a cuiiseipience ascribiiblc, parilv Intli,.
minute ili\ Isinii nf property, iiihI the altarliin, m
nf llic little prnprictiirn to routine |irartiri'i. III, I
more, pi'rbapn, to the nnbivnurable nature i>|' i|„.
nnil iiiid cliniatc. In the iiiiiuniaiunus |iari< in i|ii'
!•'., and NM. there in a k I dial of >paili' Im..
baiiilry: in the S. and N \\'., niiilin are ciii|i|iim,|
ill lleld-labiiur, and bor<es in the W. imd llie i',|i|,ii|
nf ('.'imar;;iien. 'I'lie prnihiie of corn i-i ilHiilllrii'iil
for I be collnlimplion ; bill the prnijii, e nf w inr |,
eniiniati'il at al I H2",imi(( heel nlii res, h ii\ Iu^; k
larne niirpllln Inr expnrt.'llinn. The priiiluce iiffill,
is estimalcd at iibniil ;i;ili,(MMI kiln^'. (Hivin ari'
largely ciiliivaled; and the nallicriiin nl kirims
Clint illiles to be a ^'ooil deal nllelidcd In, '|||,,
dried fruits nf the dep, are iiincli enleciiicil, jlm.,^
and cattle are few in number, and imi nf ^ |
ipialiiy. The ureal weallli nf the ilc'p, ciiii>i~t<i in
its sheep, nf which it pnsM'-'Hen abniit Mlll,iii|ii
I'min Hiii.iimt to .Vhi.imhi nf tliese ,h|i,.|.|, „r,. ,,1,!
niiallN driven, iibniil the bi'^iuuiuK of >|iriiiu^. in
the iiiniintiiiiis nf the Driime, tlie Itirre, aihl ilu'
hiuli and low Alps, where they are ili|i,i.iiir,.||
during the suinmer. When ilieperiuii I'nr Mitin;;
nut arrives, several pmpricinrs jnin their llncU
tn^ether, to the iinmiier sonieiinies nf •.',",,111111.
Previously tn the llevolutioii, the iui(rralnrv llnii^
enjoyed privilep's Komewhat similar to iliii>r (,|'
the Mvnta ill Spain, but they were then iibnli>||n|,
'I'be la^oonN are resorted In in winter by iiivriiiils
nf aipialic fnwl, which, when the lrn>t sits in nri'
taken in vast nniiibers. Mineral-i, nl little ini|inr
lance, 'I'here are brine springs, and Mill l> iii.iili'
in several places. This is mme nf a ciiniiin'iri;i|
than of a iiiaiuil'actiirinK dep, With theexci'iiiimi,
indeed, of fabrics of soap and ntnii/r finiin; hii>i(r\ ,
siiunr rellnerii's, some eslablisbnieiils for ilie inii-
nufaclure of cutlery, coral-wnrks, oil-iuill-, timl
silk lilatnres, with ilistilleries, tainicries, A'c., immuh.
faciiires are of litth^ importance. Tin iiuiiiri'i'
of the dep, is, however, very extensive. MaiMillis
luivin^ been for several years past at the licailiif
t he coiiimcriial cities of France, (See M.viisi:ii.i,i;s.)
'I'lie berriiif^ and anchovy lishcriesare e.\ieii>iv(ly
carried on. I'rincipal towns, Marseilles, .\rlcs
Aix, Tarrascnn, and Aubaj;iio, The dep, is ilividi'd
into three arronds,, namely, IMar.seilles, Aix, iiiul
Arles-snr-Klioiie,
ItOL'IN, an island on the mast of France, lio-
tweeii the de'pts. of Loire Infcricure ami l,ii \'eni|ir,
belnii};iu^ to the latter, from which it is si'|>ai'iiiii|
by a narrow channel. It is nf a triaii;;iilar sli;i|ir,
low and marshy. Area, .'t s(|, leamies. l'u|i. •.',s||
in IHCl, It prnduecs corn and cattle, but cspccinllv
salt, obtained in lar^^e ipiantities fmin llic silt
marshes that surround the vill.'i^e of lloniii, in tliu
centre of the island. Accnrdin^ tn sninc liishiriiiiis
it was here, in H20, that the Nnrmans luado their
lirst descent on the coast of France.
liOl.'LOtiNIC, or, as it is snmetiinos callcil.
HOL'LOCiNK-SL'K-AIKI.', a seaport tew
France, dep. Fiw dii Calais, cap. arrmui.. mi tin'
l,.iaiie, near where it falls into the l''ii;;'li!'li Cliaiinil,
20 m. SSW. Calais, and i;t!» m. NNW. I'iiri>, hy
the Nnrllurn railwjiy, l*np, .'>(!, 2(i.''i in iKiii. Ilmi-
Inj^ne is divided into the upper and lower lnwiis.
'J'iie former is pretty well-built, but 'n irrei;nl:iily
laid out. It iios two squares, ornaiueiital with
UDl'LOONK
|',iiilllliill'<; Mini rolililili't I III' riitlii'ilrill, tlic lllirli'lll
i{ii<ri>|>al |ialuri', till' Imlrl ilr mIIc, Mini llir rniiru
,,|' jii-liir. It iiUo nililiiiiit llir liiiiiNi' wlii'ri' I.I'
llii' itiilliur of till ltlii>, li\ri| mill ilii'il. Till'
liv \sliirli till' ii|i|ii'r liiwii wiiM lor
I niii
til .•iii(iii'«, liv uliii'li till- ii|i|irr liiwii wiiH lor-
« ill li iiili'il, liiivf lii'i'ii iiiiiaiIv ili'iimlUlii'il, llir
,4i| i'ii'<lli' mill llii' >\ulU i>iily n iiiiiIiiIiik. 'llir
i:iiii|iiii'i-< liiiM' III > II |>liiiiiril »iili Iri'i's mill iilViiril
iiili'liuliiriil iiriiiiii'iiiiili-, riiiiitiimiiliii){ It virw lliiit
, \li liil:« III tllii ri>il'<t-> III' i'JiixliilliI, \\llirll liri* ili-<
mil liv N i'ilili'. Till' liiurr i>r ih'W Ihwii ii Hiimiiiil
„i llir liiiiii'iii III' till' liill,miil U iiiirr'<ri'ii'il liy tlii'
l.iiliir : il IH till' llliist |ii>|illl<>llN, IlliiMl rnlilllirrrial,
mill lir't liiiill. It il rrKuliii'l.v liilil mil, iiikI liii''< |
.I'Viriil |>iililii' liiilliliii^'M, miinii^ wlilrli tuny In'
.prilli'il Mil' lillllis. till' p'llrral lliiH|iital (rnllllili'il !
ill li'i'.!..'), till' lim'riirk-4, li jiulilii' lilirary ruiilainlii^
;iii.iiiiii MiliiiiirM, ami a lliiairi'. A iiiai^'iillli'i'iil
iiiliiliill. ili'ilii'illril liy llir i^Tallil liriiiv rulli'ili'il
liiri' ill l^"'' to NM|iiilriiii, liiil iiiil lliii^lii'il till
h.'l, '•iiiiiiU nil a hill iirarly it iiiili' Irmii Ilii- tnwii :
II jxruwiiril liy a K'lillrry NiiriiiininU'il liy a ilniiii'i
mill il Mil II. Iii;j;li. Till' liarlmiir, wliii'li was Im-
imily ilry at lii\v->\alrr, anil iii'iirly nIiiiI ii|i liy I lie
|>,iriii I III' rivrr'n iiiiniili, lian lii'iii viiMlly iiii|irii\i'il,
iIiiiiil;Ii il Nlill laliiiiir^ iiinli'i a ilrllrii'iii'y nl'walrr,
Il il I'liriiii'il III' iNVii lMr;;i' liaMiiih, rniiiii rlril liy a
i|ii;iy. Slii|isiiiay aiirliiir at li'inii h In ■{ iii. ulVilir
liiirliiiiir. ill Iriiiii li In H l'allllllll^«, IIiiiiIukiii' is llii'
Mill <>r iriliiiiiaiN III' |iiiiiiai'y jiii'isilirliiiii ami rntii-
imrrr, ami has smii'lii's iiC aKriiiiiliiri', I'lHiiiiirrri',
iirt". ami Nrii'iii'i's ; a iniisi'iiiii nf aiiliiiiiilii's aiul
iiiiiiiral liistiiry ; a I'ri'c si'liiinl I'ur iiavi;;nliiiii, Ar. ;
nilli niiiiuirarliirrii nl ruarsii wiiullrii hi nil's, sait-
ili rili.i'iirlliriiwai'i', ami lioiili'-^'lass; iiiul lannrrii'x,
rii|ir'WiirKs, aiiil lili'-uiii'ks. A pmil ilral nl'IraiU'
ii'il on rriiiii lhi> Inwii, ami llir hrrriii]
■aiTii
„ si'iil III Paris, th
is aluavs ulitiiiilaiit. aiul
' ■' •' ...i, .... 1^,
imu'kirri, ami mil li^lirrii's all \ i;,'i)riiii>ly iirnsr-
niiril. Niitwilhslamliii^ Ihi' lar^i* <{iimiiiiii's nf
liOiiliul iiri' t'liiislaiilly lii'iii;;
..ii|i|ily ill llir tiiwi
ilii':l|i.
Iliiiiliii;m' has ri'i'i'iilly lircii lum'li rcsiirtcil In liy
l'.ii^r|i>li visilnrs anil riiiiiiliis, ami many nl' Ihi'
liiiiir liavf inaili' il a |iiTiiiani'iit ri'siili'mr, par-
timlarly sinri' llir ii|iriiiiiK nf llir railway In I'aris.
.Vi'iiiislanI rnniinniiiralinn is kr|il iipwilli l.niiiliiii
mill FiilUi'slnlir, liy lliraiis nrsirainlinals; ailil llir
riiiii' Iniin Lnmlnii In I'aris liy Itniiln^^nr is nnw
Irniiii'iillv prrlrrri'il tn ;lial liv Calais. In rniisr-
i|iii'iiri< III this inlinx nf Mn^lisli visiinrs and rrsi-
lii'iils, llir |iii|iiilaliiiii III' Ihr town has innrr than
ilmilili'il ^iiii'r IHIa, and it liasiinw innrh nl'tlir a|i-
|iamiu'i'iit'an l''.iiKli^h tnwii, Nimii'mns Imarilin^c-
mI.iihIs liavr lirrii iipi'iiril, ami hails, hmsr-rarrs,
mill liazaiirs havr hern olahlishnl fur the instriic-
lidiutnil aiiiiisriiirnt (if Ihr Kn;;lisli.
Iiiiiilii;;iiu is a iilarr nl'ffrrat aiitii|nity'. Dttriiifj
till' iliiininiiin III" thr Itiiniaiis it linrr sticrrs-ivrly
llii' iiaiiu's of CvHoritirum Niiiutli; ami Jlomiiilii,
Mlii'iireit-i iniidrrn iiaiiir is drrivril. Dnriii;; llir
iiiiilillc ii^^'s, and in nmrr mndrrn tiinrs, it has
iiiiili'r;;iiiir iniiny virLssitiidi's, having lirrii frr-
i|iuiiily hrsirp'ii and lakrn. In the rarly part nf
iliis iiiitiirv it rnse iiitn j^rrat rrlrlirity, fniin Na-
{iiik'im having I'ollrrtrd a lar^^r llntilla in its pnrt,
mill niaile it the headqiiarlrrs of the army avowedly
iiiU'iiilcil to invade i''.n^daml,
IliiL'i.iiuNK, u vil, of Kranre. dr'p. Srine, hotwrrn
till' Seine and the wimd of I5oulof;nr, I in. \V.
riiri.i, and fiirniinj; a snlmrl) of thr Kronrli nir-
Iruiiiilis, hy ini'iuis nf thr I'hrinin-dr-frrdi'reintiirr,
T 'pnlle railwav.' I'op. (i,(tli; in l.sil, ami
I'ii'.'il in |H(!1. 'I'hr iiirrrasr of |inpiilati(m has
kill entirely ii\vin;Lj to thr intliix of rrsidriils from
I'urls. l!iiiilii;;'iic is handsninr : thr ailjniiiin<r
ivuixlis, ill the line season, the favourite promenade
of the I'ari-'iiiii l'a'<liiiinalilrs. 'I'hr ('/nUitin r/i*
Miii/riil, ill this wnod, liiiili hy rrainit I., wasilr-
iiinlislii'd III till' niuii nf l.oiiji W'l.; and only it
sinall part imw riiiiaiiis nf ihr ('lnUniii ilv la
^/wi'f/c, Noiiut time iicriipiril hy LiiiiiM .\V, (Srr
r.VlilM.l
IIUI JMKIN (ISI.K OF), also lalli'd iSl.r. IH'".
I, A l!l'!l MoN, an islaml In Innj^'iiiK In I'Vanrr,
ill llir imliaii < li'ian, hriwi'iii lai. '.'ii"^ 'in', and
•IV J I' S., hriiitj '.Ml ni. W'nW, thr inland nf .Mau-
ritius, ami till III. I';, Madauasi'iir. Shapr n\al;
uri'iiii'si li'iiHlh, NW. In Si'",., 10 III.! nrraii'Ht
lirriidih, '27 III.: arm 'ill'.'.nnii ht'i'larrs, or iinirly
liiiii j'.n^. Ml. III. Mstiniali'd pnp. iHii.iioii, of uhnni
alinill nlir llllll whiles, mid llir ri'sl llrprni's and
innlii's. 'I'hr island is m'nioyiially foriiiid li\ two
sysli'ins nf vnli'aiiir nioiiiilaiiis, oiir at rilhrr I'X-
Inniily: Ihr nnlral point of ihr iiio^i iiorihrrlv
syslini, thr /'l'/(iM »/(■< .Xiii/is, thr hi;,'lir«l sliliinill
in ihr island, is:i,|,'iii niiins, nr |ii,.'l.i.'i II., iilinvr
Ihr Irvil nf llir sra ; Ihr hi;;'llist poiiil nf thr
sniilhrrly syshni is ihr I'itim ilf I'liiiniiiiiir, ail
arlivr Milriinn, 7,-lH fl. ill liiit;hl, 'riu"-r two
Mihaiiir I'l'iilrrs arr roninilrd liy a rliaiii nf
niniiiilaiiis riiiiniii!.c N. and .S., wliirh divides the
island iiiln twn parts — that mi thr !■;. sidr Iniiu;
rallrd Ihr wimhMird, and lliiii nii ihr W. Ihr Ire-
ward divi-inn (I'lirtiiH ilii I ■(/(/and Smis Ir I'liit),
in i'oiisi'(|iii'iirr III the privailiii^' winds in lloiirlmii
hriiiK fioin I'".. In S. 'I'lirrr are im plains nf any
si/.r: allliiiii;;'li thr island is walrnd hy many
sniall rivers, iinnr nf whirli arr iiav ipilili' ; llin'r
aresrveial lakrs, niir iirrnpyiii),' an rxlriit nfalmiit
■III ai'l'i's. 'I'hr shnri's arr mil j^iMi rally hi;,di; hnl.
thr island has nn safr rnads, iior any harlmiir —
cirriiinstanri'H wliiih havr always hrrn frit an
serimis drawhai'ks. 'I'hr rlimalr is healthy and
ilKrrrahlr, espeeially that nf Ihr V.. pari : llir air is
purr, Ihr sky elrar, thnnuli this Irampiillil v he
Mimeliiiies hrnkni hy vinleiit hnrriiaiir.^. frniu
Der. In May is Ihr hut and rainy wjison, when this
mean Irniprralnrr is i^W^ Falir". ; diiiiii;^ thr rr-
iiiainin^ or trniprralr inmilhs, thr iinaii is 7ifi
Falir. 'I'hr soil is vrry frrlilr, p.irliciihirly in Ihr
vii'inily of iIk; shorrs, wlierr tlirrr arr e\lrn-ivr
alluvial ilr|insits, wliirh, like Ihr snils in nihrrparls
nf Ihr island, eniisisi hir;,'i'ly nf vnlranir niallirs.
Thr siirfarr is disirihiitrd as fnllnws : rnltivalrd
lands, ri.">.702 herlarrs; pastnrapr, 11,0 10 dilln;
woods and forests, u."),'.»2l ditto ; waste lands, !),'i,m,s7
hectares.
Thr eiiltiyated lands fnnn a n'mUf round Hie
island, and in Hoinr parts asernd Ihr inmiiil.'iin-
slnjirs In emisidrrahly nmrr than ;t,000 I'l. almvu
thr Irvrl of thr ocraii. They are estimated to ho
divided as follows : —
Arilt'lci of
Culture
Ilrrtnri'ii In
CiiUiiru
I'ruilucI
Sugarcane
Pnirre . .
t'invrs . .
Cariio . .
'I'oliiu'eo
(iruiii.itc. .
14,. 1:10
4,17D
ii.ilHO
m
471
4:1,014
i
Raw ."^iipar •.':l,:iHI,I HI kilns.
.MlllllSSL'S.io. 1 ,l|.'iM,H III
llinii . . ,',;|.-,,,s I'j litres.
Coffeo . . il-.'s.'jiiiikllofe'.
rioves . . lii:i,.-||i(
Ciieao . . jii.iiiio
Tobarro . H-J.liilll
Oraiii(valiie)2,i;.-((;,!M7 fr.
Total .
nr,,H)2 heet.
The ,siif,'areaiie is mostly of the Hatavian va-
riety ; it was iioi very exirnsively riiltivalnl
liefore 18 1«, lint, is now larn'rly grown, esprciallv
iii the r;. division of the island, where it has jij-
iiiost entirely superseded eolfee. The i;olU'e-|ilaiil.
was iiitrndiieed from jMoclia in 1717, and was
snhseqiienlly mneli cultivated ; Imt having hern
found to sillier severelv from luirrieanes ami in-
111
I
Mi
ii.-|
t-
i| i:
r)i2 nouiniox (ISLE ok)
HPcts, its cull lire- lins liccii in f^rciit part discdii-
tiiiiicil: llic licst I'lill'ci' is |iri)<liici'(l nil llic lcc>v;ii'il
i.iilc 111' llic islaiiil. 'I'iic cloves arc chiclly -ciil In
liiilia, where llicy arc (•xcliaii;;cil lor rice: (he
liiliacco oliiaiiicil is mil ciiimi^Ii lor lioiiu! coii-
suiii|iliiiii ; mill llic wlical, rice, iiiaixc, ami oilier
^raiii raised in llie islami, iloes not cxcccil oiic-
liiiirlli ]iart. of ilu! rci|iiircil sii|i|ily, I'otalocs,
licaiis, and otiicr lc;;iii)iinoiis planls, a gi'cal va-
rici y of friiils, At:, succeed reiiiarkalily well. The
eulliire (if collon has lieeii all lull aliandoneil;
uianiiic, iiilroilnced into the island liy llie cele-
liruted M. de la I'loiirdoniiais, forms ilio slaplc
food of the blacks, I'astnra^c lieini; deiicieiit,
oxen are iin|iorlcd from Maihif^ascar : n ^reat
iminli(:r <if the calllc! are fed f.ir six months of
the year upon the leaves of the siij;iir-cane. At
the period at which liourhon was lirst occupied
liy the Frencli, the sides of llie inoiintaiiis were
eovercd with I'oresls, which reai'hcd even to the
idiores; th(^ \vhole of ihe lower lands have licen
cleared, hut (lie ccnireof Ihe i.-land is slill covered
■with its primitive veicetation. wliii-h all'ords fnrly-
one dilfcrent species ol' woods serviceable for arts
and mannfaclnres. The coasts abound wilh tish
and lar^i'c tiiri les, and rurnisli also coral and ainbcr-
f;ris. The tisiuries occupy aliimt Idil individuals,
who take alioiil I. 'ill, 01 II I kilo;;', of lisli aiinnally, two-
liflhs of wiiicli are coiisnined by theniselvcs and
lliiir families, and ihe olhcr Ihrce-lifliis sold in
the islami, realising- about ;!iin,(ll)l) francs a year.
The island is dixided iiilo Iwo arrondissenieiits,
eallcd ' i)u \ent,' ami ' Sons le N'ent,' ;-ix canlons,
and Ihirteeil coiHiniiiiev. ; and coiilaiiis Iwo towns,
those of .St. DiMiis and St. I'aiil, Therc^ are eiijlit
market-towns, heads of (aiitons, most of which
arc built (111 the coasl. The chief manufacturing;
establishmenls arc brick and limekilns, tanneries,
funics ami foumlries, I iii-xvan- factories, a brew(M'v,
and nianufm i iries of ba^J^ (if palm-leaf {sacs <fc
v(iioiin). Nearly all the exports no to, and nearly
all Ihe ini]iorts come from, France. The conniierce
wilhtircat [Irifaiii is iiisiunilicant. The total ex-
)iorts to llic I'liitcd Kingdom direct .'iimiuiitcd, in
the year l^ifll. lo U,U\\\I., represeiuin;; ()."-'7I cwts.
(if unrcliiu'd sii'^ar. In ]N,")!(, jis well as in 1^(12
and l.-ti;!, Ihe commerce \vilh Vircnt Ihilain was
nil. The (•liief imports I'nini France are rice,
wheat, oil, Aviiies, callle, timber, salt, ^;'lass, porce-
lain. &.C., wilh coltons and olher ma'mfactnreil
l^iiods. The total ini|iorts from France, in I.Sli.i.
■were of the value of oIM;.") l.lxi; fr., or l..").si;,|C7/. ;
and llie total exports to France ammmted to
'JS.IT^.I.V) fr., or ],I.'JS.N1'!^/. The pi\enimeiit is
similar lo that of Ihe other Fri..'li colonies, and
is administered by a ^covernor. and a council of
thirty members, electcil by llie don. iciliated French
folonists iiayinj;; a direct coiitribulii.:' of •JOO I'r.
annually, 'i here is a royal court, wilh two courts
of assize, two Iribiinals (.f primary J- risdiction,
and a justice of the peace in each canloii.
liourbon contains a colle.i;e and numerous schools,
.sixteen churches, two liosiiitals, I wo establislimeiils
for the relief of llie ]ioor, and Iwo jirisons. Four
newspapers are published in it. and Ibere is a jinb-
lic library at St. Denis. The island was di 'oxcred
ill l.ila by M.'iscarciilias, a I'oriiijjiiese navigator,
■\vhos(! name it bore, ♦ill the French took possession
of it in the next cent iry. The I'jifilisli look it in
]HII); but it was restored to France in 'Slo. 'Ihe
]iriiK'ipal towns are St. Denis, St. Paul, and St.
Jienoit. St. Denis, Ihe caj)., is situated on a pla-
teau on tlu! X. coast of the island, at the mo'ith
of the river of the same name; hit. '20° ."jI' ;!0"
S., loii^-. .V)0 .'111' F. It lias about Il'.OOO iiiliab.
It is mostly of wood, the Hold <lu iliiufi'niciiient
Lcint; the (July luiblic bui'diny of any importance.
I]OURr,ONNIvLHS.p,.\T\,^
Ft is tlu! sear of a royal court, and of a c rt , f
primary jurisdi.lion. and bas a colle^r with alii.ui
I till pupils, a hospital, at. arsenal, and a ,(1,.
bralcd lioianiciil -ardeii. Si. I'muI, the .s,,,,,,,!
town 111 the island, on its W. coa.-t, has Ki.iiiiii i,,
habilaiil.s, wilh a tine church, a nilmiiid of I'lH.'in ij
jurisdiction, and a lios|iiial. Neither St. Dcii^
nor St. t'ani have liarbours, but onlv open iiii,|
exposed roadsteads, (Notices Stalistiiiucs sur h ,
Colonies Fram;ai.ses. p. 1-1 |0; KtuU do la l'„im-
lalion lies Colonies Iraiicaises.)
Il()l-|!I{()N-I-.\NCV,'a town of Fr,,,,.,., ,|,:,,
Saoiie et F.oire, cap. cant., on the dcdiviiv of j
hill near the Loire, 27 ni. WNW. Cliarnlle.s' I'„i,
•2.S1 t in |H(il, It is (iommaiided bv an oldciwl"
(Ml iIk! summit of a sleep rock. Tin's town is cele-
brated for its mineral siiriiiirs, of which ilnr.'
are se\en, six cold ami one hot. Tjicv m-,,
employed ill nervous atl'ections and rheiiina'tisins.
The.-e spriii'^s weiU' known to the K'omaiis l,v tl,,'
name of Atjiuf Xisiiwi \ and remains of th,. ||.,|||,
tlicy had erected are .said slill to e.\isl, while ik,,
meroiis Itonian medals and an entire and hiaiiiiriil
st.'ttiie have been dn;; up. The present baths w,]-,.
be^;un by Henry HI, and linislicd by Ihnrv 1\'.
and Louis .MIL
r.()ri;i!ON-L'Al{CIL\MI5Ari). a biwii ,:!■
l''rance, d('p, .Mlier, cap. cant., l.'i in. W . Miuiiin-,
I'op. ;i,2.');i ill isiil. The town is siluaicil ill III.'
bottom of a valley, in a rich •iin! tiiiely variiuim.l
country. The lowers are all that now icin.iiii nt
the famous Chateau de liourbon, rebuih in ilu.
Ihirleenth century. 'J'he Holy Chapel, eicctcil in
the lifteenth cenliiry, by Anne of Frai .'c, ainl sn
much admired, was destroyed at the Ii'iviiliiiii.n.
The town is now celebrated only for its iiiiinr.ii
s)iriiij;s and baths, known to the aiicieiil h'diiiiins,
and said to hv. of ^Tcat ellicacy in cases of ]ianilv-
sis, rheumatism, and ^;un-s!iot wounds. 'I'Ikv arc
l're(piented from May to Seplciiiher. Tin Vc i.<
^^(lod accommodation for visitors, and a lidspital
for the iiidi;;eiit.
This town had for a lengthened )ieriod lunls nf
its own, who bore the title of barons. Aiiiiar,
who lived in !I21, in the reij;n of Charles ilic
Simple, was the lirst of these baroiis of whiim
there is any authentic account, llaviii:; liuii
succeeded by his third son Arcliambaud, his nauui
became that of all his successors in the sciL,'iiiiiv.
Archanibaiid IX., the hist of the name, liaviiii,'
accom|ianied St. Louis to the Fast, died in Cypnis.
licatrixof liiirniim'y, his f;rand-dam.'htcr, iiiairiiil
liobert of France, Count of Clermont, one of ilii'
sons of St. Louis, briii^in^' to him in doniv the
lordships of Jionrbon, Charolai.s, and St. .Iii,-t, iu
Cham|ianiK'. 'J'lieir posterity, ;iccoi\liii^- tn tlic
(Mistom of the bouse, took the si.rname of limir-
boii ; andsubse(|ueiitly iilled the Ihrones of France,
Spain, Xaples, and Lucca.
I'Ol'LliOXNIvLFS-nAIXS.atowiuifFrniirc.
d('p. \laute Marne, cap. cant., at the cdiilhiciuci I'
the liorne and the Apaiice, 21 in. l^NF. Lanpi-.
I'iip. •l.(|^il) ill iKCil. The town is a^'ivealily silii-
ati'd on the iilatean and acclivity of a hill: auil
havini;' been nearly burnt down in 1717, lias liccn
rebnill on a rc;;nla' jilaii, and has sonic liiii' |im-
! menades and foil ilaiii.s. It owes its celclirily I"
its hot b'lths. wh; 'li occu]iv the site of a lliciini;!
eslabli -Ip lent of I iie liomaiis. The nicidcrii ImiIW-
iiiLts comiected ".illi Ihe baths, inclndiii^' llit' Ihiiil
de \'ille, a re. cut erection, most |)arl ol' wliioli i-^
appropr...'' •' ... 'he use of the company usiiii; tho
waters, arc aiming- the liiiest of the kind in Fiaiui'.
A lios|iital, fonniied here iu 17.'J2, fur tlic ii.<cii'
the military attending; I Ik; baths, has ban niiuh
enlav;;ed since 1^■|^), and is now capable of amim-
niodatiii;' oOO sokliors and 100 oliiccrs. Tbe lieai
tt poiirt c r
williiiliuiii
ml a rclr-
tllC MTIilnl
' iH.iMtll iii-
i ol'iirijiiiiMl
• St. Dei, is
i' iipfii nn.l
HUcs siir li ,
lie 1:1 I'dim-
'r.'iiicc, (li'ii,
■divily (if 11
riiUcs. l'ii|i.
Ill iilil casllc,
iiwii is cclc-
wliii'li thcri'
'I'licy 111','
lii'iiiimlisiiis.
iniiiis liv llh'
(if tile Ii;iiIh
;|. wliilc ii'.i-
lUlil li(':liltir>il
lit lllltlis Wi'H'
ly llcury IV.
, a tiiWM I'i
\V. ^l.Milin.-.
iluali'il lit llh'
'ly v;irii"4iiii',l
iiiw remain >'l
•(■l)uiU ill llii'
|)('l, erected in
i"'l'al ee, 1111(1 Ml
le Ui'Viilinii.ii.
iir its mliii'Viil
eieiit lldiiiiiiis.
asiis lit' imraly-
iils. Tlii'y arc
KT. Tlicrc is
iiul a lidsiiiiiil
lu'vidd Idfdsdf
rolls. Aiiiiiir,
if Charles ilic
li'diis (if wliiiiil
Having Ikcii
lauil, liis uaiiu^
tlic seiiiiKiry.
iiaiiio, liavin;,'
lied iuCyirnis.
|i:.';liter, liiaiTicil
[lilt, (iiie df llie
ill (Idxvry tlu;
1(1 St. .Inst, ill
ir.liii,i;' td lli(!
Iiiaiuo (if I'ldiir-
•iiii(!S()fi''raiK'(',
(iwiidf l'"raiifi''
Ic cdiilliu'iicci'l
\'.S\L l-aii-ivs.
|at;ivi'alily situ-
I'lf a liill : aii'l
llTlT. liasliccn
I siiiiu' line lif"-
jitH c-eU'livity In
l(> (if a tlierini;!
tiiidilcrii linild-
ldill^-tll(.'il(Vdi
lart df wliU'li '^
liaiiy iisin.;; tlie
dii("l ill France.
f(ir till' n^'' ' '
lias liucii "hhIi
lalilc (if aiviiin-
lerii. Tbu lieiii
110ITR150N-VENI)KE
of tlic water vnrii'M frmn -UP to .')2° llcmiiniir, or |
fr„in alxiiit 12U° to l.'iCi" Falireiilicit. 'I'lii'v arc'
|,riiici|iHlly ciniiloyi-'il iir t'u.scN nf paralysiti uiid '
rhciiniiitisni.
H(»ri!IU)\-VKNI)i:'K, or NAror.K'OX-
VKNI>K'I'^ » town (if France, i\t'\}. A'ciidc'c, <if
whic'ii it i-** t1i(! cupital, on llu; ri^'iit bunk of I lie
Villi, nearly in llie centre of llie dcp., -Id ni. S.
Niiiites, with wliich it is connected Ity railway.
i'di), .<.".".IH in l«(ll. This town occii|iies the site
III Koclie-siir-Yon, ii stronj; feudal castle, haviiifr
iicir it n niiseralilc little town. The castle, after
iiiiiierKoinf,' many vicissitudes, was dismantled
|iv I.diiis XIII. .'and linally destroyed in 1711.'!.
After the estahlishmeiit of the imperial ^'ovcrii-
nu'iit. and the jxicilicalion of Vendee, it liecanu^
necessary to select a place for its capital, and
llidie-siir-Von was tixed iiiion. Napoleon k'.'ivc
the tdwn, which had to la^ entirely created, his
dim name, which it bore till iM."), when, with
the restoration of the lloiirhon, it recovered its old
niiiiu'. Ihit the accession of Napoleon III. once
miire hronf,'ht back the imperial prelix, by which
the lilac.e is still ollicially known ; thoiij;h the
l^npie mostly adhere to tlic^ orijiinal name. The
1,1,1 tdwii occupies the ravine helweeii the barracks
,ii;il the new town. The town has a tribunal of
iiriiiinry jurisdiction, a departmental c(illej;e, a so-
,iiiy (if aj;riculture, sciences, and arts, a luiblic
liliriiry with .5,000 volumes, n hospital, and a
theatre.
IIOL'HIJOUIJG, a town of France, de'p. dii Xord,
cap. cant., on the canal of Colme, comniunicatin;^
with Uunkirk, !) m. S\V. Dunkirk. J'op. •J.tilT in
iwil. Its name is derived from the miry nature
ill' the soil (bonrbeux) on which it is built. It has
fiihrics (if tobacco, potteries, and tile-works. I'm-
viiiiisly to the rcvolf.tion there was here an abbacy
f„r iKi'lile ladies, of which the unfortunate Marie
Aiitiiiiu'tfe was patroness.
ISOUK*;, or 150L'I!G-i:X-l!l!ESSH, a town of
France, dep. Aiu, of which it is the caj)., on the
fovssinise, 21 m. ESE, Macon; on the railway
friiin Macon to Chambery. Pop. 14,052 in l«(ii.
Situation pleasant; streets narrow and crooked:
fiimicrly almost all the houses were built of wood,
jnd many of them are sc still, but within the
last liftlf-century the use of stone has become morc!
fineral. It is traversed by the little rivulet Cone,
mill 1ms several tine fountains. The ditches by
which it was surrounded were dried in 1771, and
iiavc lioen converted into {f.irdens. Principal imb-
fc huihliiiRs — the cathedral or hif?h church, the
klle-aii-ble or grenette, theatre, Hotel de Ville,
prefecture and a monument in honour of (ien.
Jmiliert. It has a court of primary juris-liction, a
i!(|)artmental collcf;c, a jirimary normal school, a
fiiWic library witli 18,1100 volumes, a society of
Hniilatidii and agriculture, a departmental mu-
mim, a botanical ;;arden, and several f^ratuitous
ftiurses of instruction in difi'erent departments of
kifiice and art. Six hif;li roads meet here, besides
f railway, which on this place rnuH a branch line
til iiesan<;(m. The celebrated astronoiiyr Lalande
«ii<aaative of Uoiirf;. Adjoining Hourg is the
ekrch of IJrou, a vast edifice, begun in loll, and
cnntaininft some tine tombs. There is attached to
I it a (liiicesan seminary, with 1 10 scholars. Itourg
is very ancient, being supjiosed bv l)e Thon to
wciipy the site of the Forum .Segusianoruni of the
iKiiiiiiins; but according to D'Anville, Feiirs on
ilie Loire is identical \vith the Forimi .Scgusia-
1 H'lnim. After being long .subject to the liouse of
I Siviiy, IJdurg was united to F" ranee in 1(501.
lioUKO, or HoUHC.-SUIl-tilKONDK, a town of
I France. (l('ii. (Jironde, cap. cant., on tbe Uor-
k'lie.iioar its contlucnce with the (iiironnc, 15 m.
V(ii,. I.
roUROES f.l3
X. Ilordeanx. Po)!. •.'.7h1 in IHCI. IthasasmalJ
port, where the corn, « ine, and other imiducts of
the environs, are shipped,
ItOl'IMiANKl'F. a town of Franco, ih-p. rreuse,
ca)). arrond,. agreeably situated on the Tliorion.
l« m. SSW. (luerct. "pop. :).■.'•_'•; in \Hi\l, It has
two porcelain-Works, and ii pujier manufactory.
This town was, for a coiisiderable period, tli- resii-
deuce of /ixiin. or Djcin, the ydunger brother of
Itava/.id II.,eniperorof the Turks, win i was conlined
in It and other places in France, in consciiueiici! of
adishonourable treaty negotiated in IIM-J between
Itaya/.id and Pierre (I' Aiihiisson. grand master of
the Knights of St. .lohn. lord of liourganeiif, who
had given /i/iin a safe coiidiict. \ large tower,
in which the latter is said to have been coiiliiied,
still exists. Having been liberated from his im-
prisonment ill this place, the iiiifortuiiale prince
was carried to Italy in 11x7. where he is said to
hav(^ been poisoned in I 1115. by an agent of his
brother and the infamous Pope Alexander \T.
i;(»I'I!(iAS, or I!(H'l!(iIIA.S. a sea-port town
of Turkey in Iliirope, I>(iiimelia,on the ISlack Se.-i,
at the bottom of the gulf of the same name. 7o m.
NE. Adrianople; hit. 12° 2!!' 20-' X.. long. 27° 2«'
I',. Pop. (i.diio. It is built on a iiromontory of ;i
moderate height, and has a neat clean apiiearaiice.
Its foriress is in ruins. It has a I'elebrated nianii-
faetory of pottery. 'A tine clay is found in the,
neighbourhood, which is formed into pipe bowls,
cups, and other utensils. These are nngla/.ed. but
highly jndished, and ornamented with gilding.
In this state they are exposed I'orsale in the shops
of the bazar, which forms the principal street of
the town ; and as these shops are matted, and kejit
clean and nciii, the whole has a rich iind showy
apiiearance. They pridi' themselves on this little
nianiifacture, ami sell it proportionally dear.'
(Walsh's .Journey, \). 120. -1th ed.) The town has
also some trade in corn, wine, butter, cheese, iron,
and other productions of the contiguous country.
The Gulf of liourgas is open to tiie E. : the aii-
clioragc is to the S. of the town, and has a dejith
of from 12 to 5 fathoms.
l!OUUG-DE-PE'A(ii:, a town of France, de'p.
Drome, caj). cant., on the Isi-re, 10 ni. X E. Valence,
Pop. 4,2G4 in iKtil. The river sejiarates it from
IJomans, of which it is jiroperly a suburb. It is
neat and well built ; and has manufactures of hats
and coarse silk, with dye-works, rope-works, and
tanneries. (See K'omans.)
liOLTftJ-D'OVSANS, a toivn of Fr.ince, dep.
Isere, cap. cant., on the Hive, near where it falls
into the liomanche, in a (k'e|( valley at the bottom
of a steep hill, 1« m. SE. (irenoble. Pop. 2.71MJ
in ifitil. The town jirinciiially consists of two
long streets, with ill-built luuises. many of which
have their windows fitted up with oiled p.iper in-
stead of glass. The valley in which tiR town in
situated .seems to be on all sides enclosed by
mountains, and was for a while completely sub-
merged and formed into a deep extensive lake.
This inundation was occasioned by the course of
the Pomanche having been obstructed, in the 1 1th
century, at the jioir.t where it escapes thim tlio
valley, by rubbish brought down from the adjoin-
ing mountains. This natural mound, having "been
gradually undermined, at length gave way, and
the waters of the lake made their escajie on the
15th Seiit., 121!), sweeiiing all before them as far
as (irenoble, which was laid under water.
POl'KGKS (an. Avarkvin),a, city of France,
de'p. Cher, of wliich it is the cap., in an extensive
idain at the coniluence of the Aiiron and the Evre,
124 m. S. Paris, on the railway from Orleans to
Lyons. I'op. 2iS,004 in IKtil. The town is agree-
ably situated on the dcelivitv of a hill, and is
E L
iliP
!!"i;
611
IJOURGNEUF
Hurroiindpd hv ft thick wall tinnkcd nt rcRiilnr
(li.slimci's with lofty towers; lint the housps are
incaii-lookiii^^ liciiif^ low iiinl liavin|{ their pihlcs
to the streelH, hiir^'o traclH, occiipieil hy (gardens,
niirserie.i, and iironieiiaiU's, are emdosed within
tiu! walls, HO tiiat llie striiet.s have a deserted as-
pect, though less HO at present than formerly, the
iiopulation having; increase<l rapidly during tiie
last ten years. Honrges containH Home line old
pnhlic buildingH. At the head of these is the
cathedral, one of the nohlcst (iothic edifices in
France, Ix-gun in (Slo, but not linishcd for some
centuries afterwards. It is .'IIS ft. in length, by
12;{ in breadth, and has several towers, thehigliest
of wl'icli has an elevation of 221 ft. The palace
of the archbisho)) is also a line edilice; its garden,
laid out by F.e Notre, has an obelisk in honour of
the Due <le (Jharost. The Hotel de Ville, built by
Jactines C(enr, fanu)us alike for his skill and suc-
cess as a merchant and tinancier, his immense
wealth, and the injustice of which he was the
victim, is a splendid (tothic mansior., that cost a
vast sum. liesidcs the mayoralty, it furnishes
accommodation for the courts of law. Tiie ]irisons
are Itidlton the ruins of the ancient palace of the
<lucs de Herri ; and the remains of the old tower
that fonnerly commanded the town, and which
was demolished in Idol, serve to enclose the
courts of the prison. There are also the Hotel de
■prefecture, formerly the Hotel de I'lntcndance,
barracks, a small but elegant theatre, a college,
two large hos])itals, and a public; library with
l;5,(i(i() volumes. Itourgcs is the seat of an arch-
bisho])ric, of tribunals of ])rimarj' jurisdiction and
conmierce, of a royal college with about 210
])upils, a ))riniary normal school, a diocesan semi-
nary with above 10(1 pupils, and a secondary
ecclesiastical school; it has also a society of agri-
culture, connnerce, and arts; a course of geometry
ami mi'chauiis applied to tlu' arts, and a school of
midwifery. It has inaiiufactures of line and coarse
cloths, and hosiery, and its cutlery has been long
in high estimation. There are in the town two
mineral springs.
liourges was formerly the seat of a celebrated
university established by Louis XI. in 14(1.'!; but
this having been sujipressed at the Revolulion, its
])lace has been sniiplied by the royal college already
alluded to. Louis XL was born in this town; and
it is also the birthplace of the celeliratcd jireacher
l!ourdaloue,Jiic(HiesCieur, and other distinguished
persons.
To mark his respect for his native place, Louis
XL not only gave it a university, but, also con-
ferred on its mayiirs and magistrates the ]nivil<'ge
of nobility. Tiiis, however, was anything but an
advantage, inasmuch as it served only to liU the
town with poor gentlemen, .and to discourage
manufactures and commerce. The clergy were
also exceedingly numerous. Ihit most of the
religious establishments were su])pressed at the
reviilulion, when the jtrivileges and distinctions of
t\w. nobility and gentry were also abolished.
Hourges is one of the most ancient cities of
Prance. It was taken by Ciesar, amio .52 u.c,
anil was for 47.") years the capital of Aquitaine.
It has sntl'ered much at dift'erent periods from war,
tire, and pestilence. Several coimcils have been
held in it; anil here, in 148*!, the ecclesiastical
constitution, denominated the Pragmatic Sauc-
ti( n, was ai'ceiited by the French clergy.
UOUHtiNKUF, a sea-port town of France, de'p.
Loire Infi'rieure, ca)). cant., 23 m. SW. Nantes.
I'o)). 2,H'.>.'i in IHdI. The port dries at low water;
and the bay, which is extensive, is gradually lill-
ing up witii sand. A branch line of railway con-
nects the town with >,'aiitcs and Ijourboii-V'endcc.
BOURN
There were formerly in the vicinity very extm.
sive Halt marshes, the |)roduce of which wr.s
largely exported; but these, though still virv
consitierable, are now materially dinnnislieil.
There are on the coast large bc^ds of oysters.
HOI'RdOlN (an. Iirrguniiim), atownof Francp.
de'p. Isi-re, cap. cant,, on the Hourbre, in a line
situation, surroiuuled by beautifid hills, () m, \V,
La Tour-dii-I'in. Pop."4,«')l in lHt;i. The timii
is neat and well built; has a tribimal of origiiml
jurisdictiiin, and manufactures of calicoes, wiiii
puper-mills aiul tloiir-mills. It is favoMraliK-
situated for commerce, being traversed by tljo
railwav from (irenoble to Lvons.
l!()i:i;(;-.ST.-ANl)i:()L,a town of France, dci,,
Ardeche, in an agreeable situation on the Illiiiuc,
!> m. S. Viviers. I'oji. 4.(1:17 in IH(11. The timn
has several good buildings, and neat well-kc|it
streets; a <piav along the river, and a haiKisniin'
suspension bridge over it, with some trade in
corn, wine, and silk. It is named from St.
Anilc(d, who sntl'ered martynUim in the Viviirais,
in the beginning of the .'ird century. Within a
short distance of the town is a remarkalde mimii-
ment of anti(piity, Hcul|itured on the fac(; uf a
rock, but now a good deal defaced. It has lucn
very variously inter|ireted ; some anti(|iiariH
having sitpjiosed it to be Diana in chase ol' a
slag, and others that it represents a sacriliee in
honour of the god Mithras.
liOUIKU.'KlL, a town of France, de'p. Iinlrc-ri-
Loire, ca|). cant., in a line valley on the Doi^'t,
!) m, NNW. Chinon. Pop. 3,41'! in iKdl. It
has a connnunal c(dlege, and is surrcauided iv
fruitful gardens, where anise, coriander, liiiimrin',
and other plants, are cultivated to such an cxtiiii
as to siii)ply nuiterials for a pretty extensive
trade. Its vicinifv also jiroduces tine red wine.
^ IIOUIJLOS, or P.t )0I;L()S, a lake or lagium „f
Kgyjit, between the Damiettaand Koseita branch^
of the Nile, parallel to the Mediterrauc'Ui, frma
which it is everywhere separated by a iiarrnw
neck of laiul, excejit at one i)oint where it cuni-
niunicates with the sea by a narrow chamiel, an-
ciently the Sibbenitic mouth of the Nile. It is
about 88 m. in length, and 17 m. in its grcaii-i
breadth. It is connected with the Nile liy scvcimI
canals ; and is mostly shallow and marshy, kin;,'
navigai)le only ahmg its N. .shore.
I!()UKN, a par. and town of England. O",
Lincoln, |)arts of Keste\en, wapentake Avclaml.
91 m. N. Linidon, Area, H.HIO acres, rup. .t'
par., 1H21, 2,242; b'^.'il, 2,589 ; 18(11, i),7;!0. \\>.
of town, i5,0(i() in 18(11. I!oum is situated in a
level district adjacent to the fens, the town imi-
sisting chiefly of one long street of wcU-lmiii
modern houses : the clnu'ch is the remaiiiiiy
jiortion of a much larger structure, hi the Noniiaa
style with 2 towers. There are liaptist and W-
leyan chapels; an endowed free school for :W
chihlren ; 2 almshouses, one supporting (i iM
men, the other (J women ; and a town liall. a I
bandsoine modem edilice, on the site id' imc Imilt
by Lord Hurleigh in the reign of ICli/aljetii; it
has a m.irket-idace under. The weekly niarkit
is ((11 Saturday. Annual fairs arc held April "
May 7, and Oct. 29. A navigable canal cxtiiil
from the town to Spalding and Boston, by wliiihl
coal, timber, and other commijdities are supplicl
The Great Northern railway also hiv< a ."tatiuii I
here. The chief trade of the plac;;- is in leailicT
and wool. There tire several large tan-yariis.
Petty sessions for the [larts of Kes'eveii arc :il-i>
held in the town, tnid it is a jiolling place liir ili it 1
district and Iloliand. The name is deriveiilr"'ii |
a small stream of remarkably pure water, wliiili
gushes from a source near IJouni, Kuiuaii cuii.s |
:y vpry oxton-
)f which \K»
ii);l> still virv
V (liniiiiishi'il.
ftpysitcrM.
[own of Franco.
ritrc, ill n tin.'
lii\ls, 9 m, W,
<til. The town
mill 111' iirit;iiiiil
cnlii'iicM. wiih
is favonriilily
ivcTMcd by tlic
I of Frnncr. (W|i.
1 oil till* lillnlii',
■iCil, The tdwii
IK'llt W('ll-k('|it
111(1 a hnnilsdiiii'
some tradi' in
nmcd friitn St.
in till! Vivnrais,
(ury. Within »
mnrkahle mmm-
III the laic 111' II
>il. It has liii'ii
mio niitifiiiiiriis
a in chase nf a
Its a sacfilicc in
cc. (U'fi. Iiiilri'-it-
■y on the Doi;:!,
,41(i in l'<('il, i!
s surronnilcil I'V
riandcr, liiimiriiT,
to such an cxiiiit
jirctty cxlcnsivi,'
s line reil wine.
lake or lapmii I'f
1 Itoscilalirauclii-
■ilitcrraiic:ni, frmii
Itcil liy a iiarnw
lit where it om-
'ow channel iin-
thp Nile. It i>
in its fjrciiii-i
Nilehy sevcml
1(1 marshy, Iteiit'
f Eiifiland. C",
eiitake Avcliiiul.
acres. INiii. "f
St; I, ",,TMK l'",'.
is situated in :i
, the town o'li-
cl of well-lmiii
the rcmainiu;
re, in the Nunniiii
l!;i)itist and W-
c school fur •)''
uiiportiii^' ti i!'l
a town hnll. ii j
site of one Imilt j
of Kli/.aheth; is
le weekly nmrkc't
lire h(dd" April .
U: canal cxt>ii'l'
Boston, by wliiiii I
ities are su|i|ilii''l.
Iso has a flam j
acr is ill leatiiit |
liirf^'e tan-y,ink
Kest.eveii are a!-" I
liiii;- place fur ito
le is dcriveil iP'iii I
urc water, wliitli
n, Koiiiaii cuii^s |
IS
r.OURTANr,
and tessclntod iinvenioiits have Ix'PU found on the
site; ireiichi'S uiid nionnds of n Siixoii ciislh' iirc
iracealilc : ii priory of Aii^'iisliiie monks was
fiiuiideilin Will. II. 's rci^'ii, whose revenue, ill the
(.'(■iierul siipiiressioii, was )i»7/. \7s. iul, Wm.
Cicil, Lord nurleif^h (Kli/.iilietli's minister), was
liiifii in thin town in ITi^O. Dr. Dodd, oiic(! cele-
lifiited us a popiilnr preiiclier. Imt now principally
ihcred liy ■ " "
tiiitive of Honrii.
I50VA
rAo
fHiicnihcred liy his disgruccful death, wiis also a
■in,
a Is
liOlJUTANli, n fortilird villnnje of the Netlior-
inails, ])rov. (lronin(,'en, in the extensive morass
iif tlie same nnme, JM in. KSK. Groninj^eii. The
iiiiiriLss, though it increases its streii^jth, renders
it unhealthy. I'o)). .'ICO in l«(!l. The |ilacc was
taken hy thd Spniiiard.s in 15!);i, and by the
Fronidi in 17itr>.
ItOirsSA, a city of Interior Africa, and rap.
iif ft prov. of the same name, on an isl. of the
Xi^'cr; lat. 10° M' N., loii>,'. (1° II' K. roj). iic-
(iinliiiK to Olapjierton, |(),0'l<> or |-2,(I(MI; hut,
acinrdiiif; to Lander, l(i,(>"(l or IH,t)(i(). Thecoiin-
tr}' in i\w neif^hbonrliooil isbold iiiid rocky, wliiidi
n'mlers Itonssa a place of considerable strenf;tli.
fur its w.ills (which are tolerably well built, and
ki'|it ill fiood repair) extend to, and are united
uilii, llie two extremities of a nxdiv precipice
whicli skirts the W. branch of the enclo>iiii;' river,
i'lip liiiiisesnrc, however, built in detacheil p.it(dies,
ami (111 not occupy more than a tenth part of the
nailed area, iiresentiiifi the appearance of several
>mall villages, rather than of one coiiliniious
luwii. The prov. of Houssa extends about oO m.
N. Iif the river, and is about the same length from
X. til S., the city lying about 1.') m. from its S.
ixtreniity. The soil is very fertile, especially
that iif the isl., producing corn, yams, cotton, rice,
tiiiilier trees, and other African vegctiition, in
'.Tiat abundance: it also abounds in i\w. usual
.African animals; ele]diants, hippopotami, lions,
and tigers. Ilonssa is considered, politically, as
]iart of the great kingdom of Horgoo ; but it
a|i]iC'ars as if the ditl'erent states were ]ierfeclly
iiiiii|ien(leiit of each other, though all speaking
• 'same language: at all events, the coininuni-
caiii. IS of the Sultan of Hoiissa with Clapperton
anil liaiider seem to have had no reference to
aiv ciiiitrolling jiower. Of the liorgoo states,
I'onssa is, if not the largest, the most populous
am! most iiowerful. ((.'laiiperton's 2nd I'^xped.
I'll. ".KUlOCi ; Lander's liecords, i. It 1-1 lo.)
liiiiissa )toss('sses a inelaiudioly interest from its
luiii;,' the s))ot where the enlerprising Miiiigo
i'ark met his death. After his first successful
(xin'dition ill the service of the African Associa-
limi. that adventurous traveller was employed by
pivernmeiit to complete his own partial discovery
I'f the course id' the Niger. This commission he
iliil nut live to cH'ect ; after traversing a far larger
I'lirtion of Africa than had before been traversed
iiy I'.ny Kuropeaii, his boat was attiud^ed by a
native army at this place, where the river is shut in
livtwii high ro(dis, leaving barely iiassageroom for
till' current, «,s- tliroiu/li ii tliior. (Ailami Falouma's
'J'inriial. p. •211.) Assailed from the top of these
Ticks, Park (Ud'eiuled hiiiis(df for a long while.
iliniwing all his jirovisions overboard to lighten
liis Unit; till, finding all bojie of successful re-
*tancR at an end, he, with his remaining cnm-
I'lmions, leaped into the water, in a last attempt
1 1" escape by swiniming. and was drowned, or, as
[ is more probable, dashed to jiicces by the mis>iles
krk'd down upon him. The boat snbse(|uently
iWrtcil (111 a reef of sunken niidis, not half a stoii(,''s
tliriiw from lloussa ; and a slave of Park, the only
living; renmant of his unfortunate expedition, was
niaile jirisoner. The cause of this murderous
attack IS reiirosented by Isa.iccn and Adnml
Fatouma, Turk's native fricndi. to have been
owing to the knavery (d' a chief, who. secreting
the |ireseiits entrusted lo hitn bv Tark for the
king, excited the indignation of' the latter, bv
telling jiim, ' the white men hal left nothing fcir
him.' The cxplanatioii given to Lander on the
spot, twenty years later, however, was, ihat flio
natives took the ad\-enlurers for a partv of Fella-
talis, which iiatimi had Just llieii comnienced that
series of usurpations which thev have since carried
j to an exlieme height. He this as it mav. the
destruction of the traveller was signalisi'd bv
feastings and rejoicings ; but before the revelri('S
were ended, it so ehanced that an infections dis-
order broke out among the Moussians, swcepiii;'
ort'the sultan and a great number id' his subjects^
among whom, it is reported, the murderers of the
jiarty were included. The ell'ect of this u|ion a
superstitious people may be conceived; pravers
and sacrifiix's were ofre'red to the white nian'.s
god, and an expression grew into use am 'iig the
surrounding nations, of wliii'li subse(|ueiit travid-
lers have felt the full beiielit, ' I)i> mil hurl the
white men, iiiilesn i/tm u-oiihl perish lihe the /tni/i/e
of lioiifixu.' 'i'lie Moussians thems( Ives share f'ullv
in thisfeiding; they are ovenvlKdnied with shain'e
at a reciirreiKe to the subject, and plead their
youth at the time, or their pcrsdii.il innocence,
wifliiuf allemiititig the ■.lightest exculpation of
their fathers. (I'ark's Journal ; Lander's Jiecords,
i. I ll-!l.) '
liOI'SSAC, a town of France, de'p. ('reuse, cap.
arroiiil., on a step lo.'k, near the conlluence of the
Veroii. and the Little ( 'iciise, 21 m. NF. (iiieret,
on the railway from Aloulius to Limoges. Pop. i),i.'J
in iMlll. ItoiissMc contains fewer iiihaliitanis than
the capital i.faiiy other arron li-em lit in r'tiiiice.
It Stan is on a rock, and is alnio-il inaccessible td
carriages; surroimded with walls Ij.inked with
bastions, coinmaiiiled hy an old einliallled castle,
from which the view exteiids along a (h'lile formed
by arid and wild inouiitains. The town is as
gloomy a residence as can well be imagined
l!()L'XWILLFI!. or I'dSt 11 WKl i.Ki;,a town
of France, lU'p. lias l.'bin, cap. cam., near the
Moder, snrroiinded by mouiitaiiis and forests, -JO iii.
NW. Strasbnrg. I'op. .'(.Ml'.'. in ISCI. It is coin-
maiided by a fine (dd (hitliic castle, and has ma-
iiufactures of cotton, linen, arms, and braziers'
ware, with bieweries and bleachllelds.
IJOVA, an inland town of Soiilhern Italv. prov.
l.'eggio, cap. (;aiit., on a niountaiii. 17 ni. KSl],
Itcggio. I'o).. -I,(I20 in lm->. This town sufl'ered
severely from an earthipiake in 17«;i, but was re-
built in better taste under the patronage of FYt-
dinaiid IV. U is the seat of a bishopric; has a
cathedral, and several ehiirches, a .semiuarv a
hospital, and 2 moiits-de-pii'ti':
This, as well as several other towns in the Nea-
politan states, is b(dieved to have been founded,
or at all events to have been occupied, by fugitives
living from Kpinis and the .Alorea to escape tlio
eniidty of the Turks. The I'oiiiiilatioii of jiova is
ascribed to the great imniigralioii whiidi took
idace ill 1 177. when .John Castriot. son of the
famous (ieorge Castriot. or Scanderbeg, was ex-
pelled from his hereditary dominions by the Turk-
ish coiuiueror, IMahoniet Ii. At later periods
similar immigrations took jdace from Corona and
Maiiia. The immigrants and their desceiidaiits
have continued to be a distinct race, and have
preserved the language and dress, flioiigh not the
religion, of their forefathers. Tli(>y occupy several
towns and villages in dilfcrent jiarts of the king-
dom, their total number being at [iresent supposed
to amount to about .02,000.
1. 1. 2
' «i^fiii;^i'3.4i
.1?
fil6
HOVEY TKACEY
;
HOVKV TIJACI'.V. (I imr. and town of TuiRlnnd,
rii. |)('Viin, liiinil. 'I'riKnl'ridfic, I 'Hi ni. SW. Iiy W.
J.Diidon. Area f.. |H(l lu-rvn. I'cp. nf par., |H2I,
J,(iH,"); IH.'il, I.C.'.i;, and •_*,fiH(l ill IMII. The lnwn
Htan<l^ on llic .slope ot' a liill, at I lie liaw of wliicli
tlic liovcy llows, ami is tTosscd by an anricnt I
lirid^fc ol' llircc arclics, 'I'licn' is one main strci't. |
■\vliicli lirani'lu'H oil' at tin- ancirni niarkci-piarc
like a V, one |iart <'ontiinnn},' up the nscrni, tiic ,
otlK.T extending; to tlic liridni'. 'I'IkH' arc a ti'w |
respcctaliic modern lionses, lint the ^rrealir |)arl i
nre aneieni, and nn'anly Imilt. Tlie clmnli is a
(iolliic stnu^lnre, Willi a K"'"! tower, at the I",, end
of the town ; there are also Itaiitist ami Wesleyan
rlia|iels, and an endowed tree hchool for twenty-
four eliildreii. Annual eallle fairs are held on
J'lasler Mon., Holy 'I'lnirs., 1st 'I'lnirs. .Inly, 1st
'i'lnirs. Nov. The" :narket (^'ranted in I'.'.V.O has
lieen disc<iiitiMneil wilhin the present ecnlnry.
There are two |iotleries. whieli employ many of
tlie iiiliahitants : the reniainder are en^'a^ied in |
n;;rienltnre ; ser^^e wea\ iiij;' and wool eoinhin^ j
were once carried on to a considerahlc extent, anil
liave hccome extinct only wilhin a reeeiit period.
A jiort reeve and liaililf arc annually ap|)oiiiteil at
u court Icet held hy the lord of the manor.
'I'lic liovcy hcathlield, cxtendiiif; at the liase of
the town, is a low nioory tract, hel ween 7 and >< m.
in eirc.. snrronndcd hy hills which open to tli.' SI''.,
in which direction ihe Teif;n flows after hein^'
joined hy the I'.ovey. The (granite hills on llu^
oiitskirls' of l)arlinoor rise on the W. side, and
the f^rei'ii sand ran^;(^ of llaldon on the K. The
]5ovey coal and tday formations traverse this
]i1ain in a SI'-, direi'lioii, their outcrop heinj; at
the foot of the hill on which the town stands.
Tlicrt! are seven heds of li;;iiite, in all forming
coiiiiiiuons strata of ah<iiit 70 ft. in thickness,
and ilippiii,^ at an alible of -''.i ft. at the part
■where they ari' worked for the use of the pot-
tery, which stands on the spot, and which is
almost the tally i)nr|H)se to which the fuel is a))-
propriated, the imperfect eomhustion and lari^e
jiroportion of ashes reiideriiif; it nnavailahlc for
f^enerid pnr])oses, tlioujj;h oecasitamllv nsed in the
cottaj^os of the neif;hhourinfj poor. 'I'lic clay heds
overlie the lignite: there are live in all, runninff
jiurallel with eat^h other, and alternatiiiff with
beds of sand and f^ravel ; the four western beds
are plotter's clay : the other pijje clay: .shafts are
Hunk on and throui^h them, at intervals, for (1 or
7 m. along their course, at such parts as are fcamd
siilliciently pure for the market; they vary in
depth froin -10 to !M) ft., the lignite being always
arrived at in sir'ving through the four western
beds, and a tine sand under the eastern one. From
.On.ddli to GD.tlDO tons of this clay arc shipped
aimually at the port of Teignmouth for t'i.e Staf-
fordshire ]iottcrics, the greater portion of which is
excavated in the parish of Kmgsteinton, and con-
veyed thither by the Stover Canal, formed through
this inland basin, and locking into the Teign,
about ii m. above the place of sliiiiment. This
canal ellectually drained the greater part of what
had previously been an unhealthy mor.i.ss, and
lilted it for cull ivation ; a railway from the llaytor
granite quarries traverses the hcathlield, and ter-
minates at the heail of it : both were creations of
the Templar family, >vhosc mansion and property
have since been irausferred to the Duke of Somerset.
1!(>\TN<) (an. Vihinnm), a town of Southern
Italy, )>rov. Foggia, (_!apitanata, ca]). distr.. on
the declivity of a mountain, watereil by the Cer-
varo, 111 in," SSW. Foggia. I'op. <;.7!m'i in 1m;2.
It is fiirtilicd. is the scat of a bishopric, and the
residence ol a judge of jiriniary jnrisdiclion; it
lias a cathedral, two parish churcheH, and several
BHA
ronvpnfs. A battle took plnco near this (own in
I7.'lt, between the Spaniards ami the Inipcriali>i^,
in which the former were defeated.
ItO.XTI'.L, a village of Ihe Netherlands, |ir„v.
Hrabant, on the Donimel, 7 in, S. liois lc-|»iii',
I'op. ■1.211.') in IHIil. Here was fought, u\\ il,,.
Mill Aug., I7!ll, an obstiiiale action hchMin
the French anil tlu! allied Uritish ami Uiit.i,
troops, nnder the command of the !)uUc uf Vurk,
The latter were defeated with coiisiilciaiilc io>>,
and obliged to retire behind the M;iese.
li()\I,l';, an iiil, town of Ireland, co, ll.iscuni-
nioii, prov, ('iinnaught, on the Itoyle, il I iii, WNW.
Iliililiu, on the Midland (Ireat U'cstcrn raiUv;i'-.
I'op. :!,l;i;! in l)<;!l,aml ;i,li'.IM in UsCil. Tlic icn'-i'is
of iHlll gave IIKI males and 'Jill fciiiiilcs as ire.
longing to the Fslablishcd ('liiirclsaud I.'-'iIkmim!!'
with I,lt7,'i female b'oiii.'in Catliolics; the p-t
Presbyterians ami Mclhodisls, lioylc isiiivi.|i-|
by the river into two portions, whiili arc cm:.
nccted by a line nioilcrii bridge; and tlicrc ;ii
two other bridges near the town. The pulilir
buildings are the parish ihiirili. two Ii'oui, Ciiiji.
chapels, and llaplisi and Jlclhoilist iiKiliiii;-
lionscs; n new in.'irUcl-housc. a lictiire-ri.iiiu, ii:i,|
large barracks. Il is a constabiiliiiy slalimi; ninl
has a dispensary, bridewell, .savings' bank, iiml
loan fund. The chief articles of trade, wliiili ]-.
wholly carried on by land carriage, are ;ii;iiii,
biitli r, and llax : some coarse woollens arc iiiiiini-
fiiciurcd. The butter-market is on Moinlays, Imt
tlie jiriucipal market-day is Saturday: I'.iirs mi
March (1, .\pril ;i, May !l and oO, July D ami 'i.'j,
Aug, 1(), Oct. 1, and Nov. '25.
The corporation, under a eli.irter graiitwl liv
.Tames I., in Kilo, consists of the borotigli-iM.'isiir.
twelve burgesses, and an imleliiiite iiiiiiilnr n|'
freemen. It returned two mem, to llic jri-h
II. of (J. until the I'liion, when it wa'^ iliM'riiii-
chised. (ieneral ses,-.ions are held every nine
monilis, and jietty sessions on Moiidiiys. A scni'-
schal's court in the town has jurisdietiou in scvcnil
niljoining baronies, but none in the liiiriiii;;li.
nranche.s of the Belfast and Agrieultiirnl banks
were oiiened here in 1«;5.') and !«;{(;.
HOYNI'v, a river of Ireland, which linsitssnnrfc
in the bog of Allen, near Carlierry, in Kililari',
22.') ft. above the level of the sea. ItllnwsNi;.
by Trim, JCavan, and Slanc, to Tullnglialliii.
wlienec it follow.s <in ]•>. course to Driif^luila.
uniting with the .sea about 2 m. lower down. Tin'
bar at its month has only 2 ft. water at low spriii;;-
ebbs, and fn/in i) to Itl ft. at high water: luiin'
only the smaller class of vessels can eoino iipi'i
Drogheda. It h.as been rendered uuvigable I'nr
barges as far as Navaii.
The ]5oyne will be ever memorable in ]iriti>li
history for the important victory gained ini ii<
banks, about 3 m. above Drogheda, on the Islif
July, 1()',)0, by the forces under the eoniniaivl nl'
Wiiliam III., overtho.se of James II. This vii'-
tory, by securing the triumph of the liberal iiriii-
eiples of government established at the lievnlii-
tioii, may be said to have been one of the caiisi'.- if |
the subse(pient progress of the liritisli ciniiiri' in j
wealth, power, and population. In 1 7dli, an clu'li
loO ft. in height, was erected in coninu'innrati'iii j
of this great event, on the point facing the funl 'it
Olilbridge, 2 m. W. Drogheda, whore Kiii^' Wil-
li.im was wounded in the arm on the eveniugiirc-
vious to the battle.
I11;A, a town of Xorthern Italy, prov. Ciinc".
call, niand., near the N. bank of the Stiirii, :'2iii.
N. Mondovi. I'op. 12.1ll(i in l«(;2. It lias time
parish churches, a hospital, willi fabric.'' of .•^iIk
and linen, and a eonsiderab'e triide in rum ami |
cotton. It is reckoned particularly licallby.
1JRA15ANT
RK.UIAXT, \. iiiiit S.. j.rov'.irfs r>f tlic low
(■imiilrics, tlK! (irsl iimkiii;,' purt oltlic Uiiinilcmi of
the NctlioiluiidM, and tlio latter of timtof Ui'lgiiini,
which ^('c.
III;A(;('IAN'(>, a town Om. S<i/,„/r) anil Like
(nil. IjiiriiH fiii/iiitliiiis) (if ('cntr.il Iialv, -J.", ni. N.
Kdiiic. I'op. '.'..'idO ill |Mtl2. 'I'lic t.iwi'i is sitiiiiliil
luitlic W. nidf of ilic l;il<(., JM \vi.ll luiili, lias a
llijiiri'iliin^' paper maiiiifiictory, and an appearance
(irijnisperity. It has a ina^iiiiliceiit feudal castle
iH'l.iiiKiiiK' to the Torlonia family, now diikcs of
liracciano.
'flic lake is nearly circular; its rircnmfereiicc,
ivitlieiit lollowiiij,' ail the windings ol the shore,
b.'iiw aliHiit 2(1 111. It is not ^;enerallv deep, Imt is
Htll stocked with lish. The .Moiit'e lloeca l!o-
iiiiiiia, covered with wood, rises on (he Nf;. sideof
the lake, and it is in most parts Imrdered hy hills.
l)("<itlc.-< Mracciaiio, it has on its margin 'Vrivi^'-
iiaii'i (an. Trihoninmim), Anj,'nillara (an. Amju-
km), \'icarello (an. Vifiis ^Liiri'lii), San .Stefano,
iipiir which arc the ruins of several IJianan villas.
Ac. ll i;'ives rise to the river Anaie (an. Am),
ivliicli falls into the sea alioiit M m. \. fnan the
niiiiith of the Tlhcr. 'I'he scenery rcaiiid the lake
isdt'lhc most pleasiiii; and sylvan kind.
liKACKLKV, ;i Ixir. and "town of l",iii;lar.d. eo.
Ndrtliainptoii, hniid. Kinir's Siittun, oil m. N\V.
I.tiiiiioii (Ml the London and Norlh Western rail-
wiiv. I'op. 2,2;!'.l in l«i;i. The town stands on a
vl(i|i<', (ai the N. hank of the On-^e, which is here
cnKserl hy u two-arched liriil;;'e. lloiises mostly
iiC unhewn stone. There are two churches of
(.TPitt aiili(|nity ; a national school; ■ilinshoiises
I'liiiiiilwl in Hill;!; anil a ;;'ooil town-hall. A weekly
market is lield on U'cdnesday, and an aniinal fair
nil St. Andrew's day. I'mlcra charter of •_' .lames
II. it had a mayor, seven aldernieii, and 21! capital
liiir;;i'sses ; and these, until the |)assini^ of the
kVtnrm Act, when it was disfraneliiscd, had the
cxclusivo jirivilej^e of reliirniiii; two inein. to the
11. nfC. Tlie charter aiithin-ised conns iif record
ami iifipiarter sessions, hill they have Ion;;' heeii
iliriiscl. The iiorontili coiiiprises two distinct
[lari-^lics, lady ecclesiastically nnitiil, lirackley St.
.Ian'"s, and IJrai-kley .St. I'cter. It is the niiiiai
timn of M(l parishes.
HH.VDFOIJI), n par., market town, and pari.
anil municipal bor. of Hiij;land, W. ridinj^ co.
Viirk. 31 m. VV. by S. York, and Xh m. W. Leeds,
I":! in. NNVV. London by roail, IIX! ni. by
Ureal Northern railway, and 'l\ih in. by the .Mid-
iaiiil railway. The iiar. contains .■>;(." in acres,
mill hail, in 1S41, l(l."),-2.")7 inhai)., and !.")(). O.'i.'! in
iJ'iil. The township ot Hrailford had. in IMOl, a
|iH|). of (!,;!!>3; in I«-2I, of LJ.OtM; in \H\\, of
;ll,.)(;0; and 1801, of -lf<.(il(i. lUil in aihliiion to
tlif tiiwnshii) of IJradford, the townships of Man-
uiii;jhain. Howling and Ilorton. inclndini,' the
llaiiilotsdf Great and Little liorton, are ineliidcd
ill tlie jiarl. and munieipal bor., which had, in IfSlI,
aiiiip. of (;(!,.")(IK; and in l«lil, of l(lt;,-JlS.
llriiilford is situated on an allliient of the Aire,
at tlic junction of three e.\tensiv(! valleys. Tboimii
till' streets in the older ]iarts be in {general narniw,
!li«so of a more recent date, wliicli are by far the
must extensive, are sntlicieiitly broad, and they
are all Well jiaved and li^^iited. The town is well
Mi|i|ilieit with w.ater, broni,dit from a distance! of
U|i\varils (if 20 miles. Houses wholly of stoiii'. and
"I'll supplied witli water. The town has a iliri\-
iii;.' apiu'aranee, iiidicati\e of its hi'.;bly lioiirisli-
iii;;' ciiiKlition. Tlie )iarisli church of St. I'etcr is
a >tructiiie in the ]i(iiiiteil style of archilecliire.
liiiilt ill tliereii^n of Henry \\.: there are I7('!hcr
iliiirelics. The Wesleyan and I'rimilive Mclho-
ilijij, L'iiit;u-iaiis, Independents, JJapti.sts, rre;by-
JJKADI'OKI)
■'>\7
' l(-rians. Iloman Catholics, and Society of Kricnds,
have all places of worsliip. A free j;raininar-
Hchool, fiiiindcd in ihe ri;;n of Ivlward \l., and
eharlered and, in part, endowed bv Charles II.,
was rebuilt in iH.'ln. It is open to all boys belon;,'-
1 iii^C to the parish, who may bccdiiie candidales fur
i exhiliilions to (Queen's (folic;;!', Oxford, Here,
also, art! national schools, with Lanca^irian schnols,
schoolsof industry, and infant schools. The Map-
lists and Independents have eacli a colle;;-e or aca-
demical institnlion within ,^ m. of the town lor
the preparation of candidates for their respective
ministries; and the .Mitliodisls have a school for
the sons of their preacliers at W'oodlioiise (irove,
•I III, distant, 'I'he l'',\chaii;;'e, a handsome biiild-
inj;, ill which assemblies are sometimes held, has
attached to it a library and news-room, A me-
chanics' institute, founded in |M.')2, Inis a library,
readiii;^ rooms, and leclnre rooms, .\niiiiii; the
other notable biiildiii;?s are — Ihe Coiirt-honsc,
bnilt in l.s:i|, where the sessions are held; Tiece
Hall, III ft, limjj;, for the saht of alpaca and oiher
sdilfs; and St, (icor^c's .Music Hall, in the Italian
style, with a hall e.ipable of accommod.-iiiii;^ ;;„'i;,()
persons. Thcrt! is also a line park, called I'eel
i'ark. for |inblie use. A 'lispcnsary is lilievallv
snpporled; and there are numerons other cliiirl-
lable iiislilulions. The lirst leinperance society in
I'ji^iland was cstablislied here.
'I'he town was iiiciirp(irate(l in |S|7, and divided
into h wards, ;;-overiieii by ii mayor. It ald"rnieii,
and 12c(iiiiicilliirs. 'J'he parliamciii.'iry and muni-
cipal bounds are co-exteiisive. The boroiijudi iii-
eonie was !»,()liiS/. in |(Sll|. The ainonnt ;issessed
to propertv tax, in ISiil, was l.s(l,(i21/., ■•ind the
net r.ateabli! value 21MI,l)lil/, The l.'eform Act
made liradford a |i,irl. bur., and conferred on il for
Ihe lirsl (ime the priviK;^!' of reluniiii;;- Iwo inein,
to the H, of C, The nuinber of re;;ist» red electors,
in ISdl, was ;!,,s,s(i. I'.radfud is also a poliin--
jilace for the West liidin;;' of ^drkshire.
The present iinportain-c and rapid ;;towi1i of
Lradford are wholly ouiiit; to tiie spirit and suc-
cess wilh which the inhabs, have eni;ai;cd in
inannfacliirin;;' iiiduslrv. The pro(hiclioii of
worsted yarn ami stiill'scniistilntcs the sljipie busi-
ness ofilie town, Norwich was formerly the ;;rcal.
.seat of the worsted inannfactnre, which, iiidee(l, is
supjiosed to hiive derived its iiainc Irom the par.
of 'iV(n-ste(l in Norfolk, into which it li.ad been
early introdnced, Itnt the superior facilities for
the proseciilion of tiie mannfaclnre eiijoved b\'
ISradlbrd, chielly in conseipicncc of the iiiilimiled
coniinand of coal, lia\c }. neil il, in this respect, a
decided advanla;;e over .Norwich,
'i'here were in the par, of Bradford, and princi-
pally in Ihe town, in bsill, I. "ill worsted, woollen,
and coltiiii mills, Lar^c iron foundries ;ire esla-
blished at liowliiii; and Low .Moor, At Saliaire,
on tlie Aire, is Ihe exicnsive factory of Messrs,
Salt, ill which aliiive l.oiii) bands ;uv. employed.
The enlirc par. of liradford is very densely jieo-
pled, ;iiid aloii;,' all the principal roads there is an
•alniosi iininlernipled succession of towns and vil-
la^^'cs. licsiiles the Worsted and uooljen trades,
whii'li are ihe principal employmeuls, ;iiid others
inon! receully iiilr.idiiced. the iron Irade has ex-
isted from lime iinnieniorial. as is proxcd by the
discovery of a number of lloniiin coins, in the
midst of a mass of scoria', the refuse o| an ancient
bloomery in the iieiijhbourliood of ihe low i. The
supply of ore is aiiiiiiil;iiit : but the works, tliou;.;li
coiisiderable, are not so extensive as iiii;;lil. per-
haps, have been anticipated. The cnmnianil of
nnliniiled supplies of co.ii has, .-is slated above,
liei'ii one of (lie |iriiicipal causes of (he rapid pro-
greb.s of the niaunlactuics of the town. 'I'liii
]m.
m
!
(■/:
fil8 IMJADFOIU) (OICKAT)
|>r(>;;rr«!4 lins, nlso, Ix'cti urciiily promoird Ity tlir
I'liciliiy of ('iiiiiiiiiinicaliiHi willi iIk' iinrts nii tlic IC.
mill \V, ciiiiNtM 111' iliii kiiiKdom, liy tlic |jvcr|iiHil
mill Lt'cilMcmial, a liraiicli I'nini wliicli i.s cMrricil into
(111' liiwii ; ami liy Mio iictwiirk of railwavM, which
I'oiiiH'ci llraiU'oril wiili all parts of the coiiiilry.
_A fi'silvul iiiiiiicroii.sly altcmlcil, ami ci'lclirati'il
with iniii'li piicty, is hcliliit It/ailfonl cvcrv .seventh
year, in lnuioiir of llisliop ltliii<(', said to lie llieiii-
vi'iitor of wool-coniliiii;^. Markets are held on
'I'hiirsdays ; fairs on Mareli Itnl, Itli, .liilv 17th.
iHth, l<)|h. mid Dec. mil, Kilh. Ilth; the liist is a
>,'reat mart for pi^;s. The hanks are the lira.lfonl
llankiii;,' Conipany, llradford District Hank, Krad-
hiril Coniniercial Hanking' Conipany, hranclies of
the Leeds and W. I>'idiii;c and of the Yorkshire
hanks, a jirivati^ hankiii;; house, and a niiviiij,'s'
hank. A cnstoiii-honse and inland hondiiiK wor^'-
lioiise have heen estahlished here under the pro-
visions of the Ciistoins Act of iMild. The eiistonis
revenue, in |M(1-.', amounted to ."l-J,?!"/.
IIUAI>KOItl> ((iUKAT), or I!llAI)Koi;i>-()N-AVON,
a par. and town of l''.ii;;lanil. co. Wilts, hnnil.
llradford. on the Avon, ',>;> in. \V. hy S. London hy
road, and lO'.i m. hy (Jrcit Western railway and
lirancli line. Pop. of town ■l,2',il, and of jiarish
>*, (•;!•_' in M(!l. The river divides the town into 2
parts (called the Xew, and Old towns), and is
crossed hy •_' hriiii;!"^. iin(^ ancient, with It arches;
the other modern, witii 1. The old town ronsists
i'hielly of ."{ streets, eacli aliove the other, on tli((
HJope and hrow of a hill, risiii}; ahruptly from the
N. hank; most of the streets are very narrow, hut
in this res)iect many iniprovemeiits have heen
made within a recent jieriod. The houses are all
of stone, nnd many of them very '.espectahle
Htriictnres, Tlu? church is an niicieiit huildin;.c 'd
the foot of the hill. .Six of the iirincipal sects of
dissenters have pljices of worship in the town ;
there is a charity school for (10 hoys, founded in
J7I2, and 2 sets of almshouses, one for men, one
for women. A weekly market is held on Saturday,
and an amiuiil fair on Trinity Monday, There is
also a ciittli' fair at l!raiil'ordleij;li, a hamlet in
the par., the day following;- that of St. ISartholomew.
'I'he chief mamifactiires of Hradfonl are tine hroad-
dotli.s and kerseymeres — t<)r these it has heen noted
for a very lonj,' period. The stone quarries in Wins-
ley titliiiif^ employ ahove lUil men. It enjoys an
extensive water communication with the towns to
the K. and VV.. hy means of the Avon and Keiinet
(Jaiial. A court of reciii— ts for dehts under u/. is
held every third I'liesday : its jurisdiction com-
prises ;> adjoining; hundntds, and it is held on the
intermediate Tuesdays, at Trowliridfic and iMcdk-
sliam. IJr.'idtiinl is a union town, under the I'oor
J<aw Act. The area of the whole piirish, 11.74(1
a(^res, comprisinj;, heside the town, I cliapehies
and 1 tithing. There is miich picturesque scenery
alonj; the winilinj,'s of the river and the dells of its
wooded hills, and many line old mansions. The
town must have heen of some consecpieiice in the
Saxon Jieriod. for St. Dunstan was elected hisliop
of Worcester at a synod held in it. llradford sent
members to one parliament in KdwiU'd i.'s reif^n,
but never since; nor is there any record of its
liaviiij; ever heen incorporated.
lil'ADlNG. a par. an<l niarit. hnr. town of
Knfilaiid, CO. Hants, div. Isle of WikIu, liberty K.
Medina, 7;> m. SAV. London. Top. of parish ;!,7i ill
in ISlil. The town is situated at the head of
llrjiilin^ Haven, at the K. extremity of the island,
and consists of one loiiH' street of irrciiular Ijuild-
iiigs. The ciiiirch is said to have been built in
701, hut it must h;ive iiiiiteri;one exteii-ive altera-
tions and repairs. Theri! arc; also two dissent inj;'
chapels, a luitioual school fur litj children, and a
IJRAOANZA
small town-hall, under which is a market-iiluii,
hut the market has ceased to he held. Tliere an'
still annual fairs, May I, St'ptember 21. TluTe \^
a ipiay for the lu nimodation of siiiall vcsmU
the place heiii;; approachable by such at lii >|'|
water; but the tract which forms the csiiin^y
(about !)tHi acres) is imcoveri'd at every tide. .\ii
attempt to embank it, and shut out the sea. wns
made by Sir JL Middlelon (the projector of i||,.
.New liiver), but unsuccessfully. Tlie town ^m
iucorponited, and a market and fair i^^ranteil in ||
I'.dw. I.; tlieri' was another in (! Mdw. VI., uiiilir
which the town was piverned by two baililfs ainl
two ma^istrales, thi! former elected aiiniiailv' tlic
latter were the bailill's of the preceding,' year.
lUiADXINCH, a par and hor, of Ln),'laiiil, id.
Devon, hund. Ilayridf^e; l.')(( m. W. by S. LmiiiIuii'.
Pop. of parish l,'7!t() in lM(il ; area LliiO hiti<.
The town is pleasantly situated on im eiiiinciui''
surrounded by higher hills, except on the ,s„ uikJ
consists, for the most part, of a collection of neat
thatched cottaj^es. The church is an aiiiiint.
structure; and there is a guildhall, with a f,'a(il
under, built siibseiiueiitly to a lire that nearlv de-
stroyed the |ilace a few years since. It mice liail ii
considerable woollen trade, but this has ccasnl
and its ancient weekly market has been ilivcim.'
liiiiied. 'I'liere arc still two annual fairs lielij.
May (■> and Oct. 2. It had a charter of iiicer|iiira-
tioii, f^ranted by Ife^inald, Karl of Cornwall, wliicli
was renewed and extended by •lames Land .lainis
II. ; under it wen; a|ipointed u mayor, reciipliT, 12
masters, 2-1 inferior biir;?esses, A;c. ; and cmiris of
(piarter sessions and record were held, wliiili have
been abolished by the Municipal IJeforiii Ait. ||
ri'tiirned 2 mem. to the 11. of (j. from I lip rei^'ii nf
Kdw. II. to that of Henry VII., when iiialiility to
jiay their waj^es was pleaile<l, and adniittecl, on
paying " 'i>i»-' of o marks,
I!K*A(;A (an. Aiij/ustu Brartira), a city of I'ur-
tu^'al. ca|i. prov. Kiitre Doiiro e Miidio, iindnf tliu
eomarca of the same name, od a hill in the iiili|ill('
of a larj;'e and fertile ]ilaiii, bclweeii the ('avail'
aud the Dieste, .'V2 m. NNK. Oporto, lat. 41° 4r'
N., loiifj. «o 20' W. Pop. I7.l,r2 in lHi)H. IV
city isilefeiided by a citadel, and is siirroinulcill v
walls Hanked with towers. The streets are rariiir
narrow, and the houses old : it is the scat nf ,iii
archbishopric, and has a larf;;e cathedral, several
parish churches and conveiiis, an arcliic]ii>(ii|ial
IMilace and seminaries, and seventy-ei;,dit linni-
taiiis, some of which are hitchly oruaineiitcil. k
has f;;reat numbers of silversmiths, harness-niakirs.
and hatters, who supply with their wares all tlh^
fairs in the adjoiniiij,' Portii;,'uese districts, as well
as most of those in (iailicia in .S]iaiii.
i!rat;a is a very ancient city, its finmilatinn
beinn' ascribed to the Cartha^'iiiians. Duwntua
recent perioil it had the ruins of a lioiiiiui a.n|ilii-
theatre and aqueduct, but thest^ are now nearly
obliterated, and it possesses few nieinorials nl' its
ancient jj;raiideiir, exce|)t some coins, fmiiiil in llii'
vicinity, and some Roman millstones. .Vlxiiit |i
m. K. from the city, on a hill, is the rcimwiKd
sanctuary do Sentior Jesus do Monte, annually
resorted to by crowds of piljirims.
Hl.'.\(JA>iZA, a town of Portugal, ])rov. Tras-
os-Montes, caj). eomarca, in a fertile plain, nii tlie
Ferrenza, 'A,'} m. NW'. Alirandella. Poji. 5.2.ji' in
iMi'iH. The town is partially fortilied, has a s'liml
citadel, is the seat of a bishopric, has two cliualii >,
a colle^fc, and some maiiiifactiircs of silk aiiil
velvet. It was erected into a duchy in 111".': ami
in Kilo, .lohii 11., ■'^ih duke of Ihauaiizii. aMciiilfi
the Portii;;iiese throne under the title of .hiljii i\,
His descciidanls continue to enjoy the iriiwii ut' ]
Portugal, and have also aeiiuiii.:! thai of Brazil,
|k('t-|ila(c,
'I'Ihti' lire
TliiTc is
11 Vcsm'Ih,
ll lit lii-li
It' I'sliiiirv
liilf. Ail
K' sea. Wiis
•liir 111' llir
tllWII WiH
lined ill II
VI., miiliT
lailill's mill
iiiiilly; tlif
year.
iiiKliiii'l, ('II.
■ S. Liiiiiluii.
I,;V2(I aiTcs
I t'liiiiiciii-i',
tin; >., aiiil
inn (il'ni'at,
all aiii'iint.
witli a piiil
t nearly ilc-
l iiiu'i' liail a
liiw ccasnl,
Ipccii (liM'uii-
I'airn hi'M,
)!' iiiriTiiiira-
iiwall. wliidi
l.iiiiil .lainis
, rei'iiriliT, 1.;
mil cimris nf
, wliirli liavi'
uriii Ai'i. It
1 llip rci^'ii of
I iiiiiliilliy til
lulniitled, mi
1 city (if I'or-
iii), and III' tlie
II till' iiiii|ill«
the ('a\ail'
.lat. 41° 4-
IHitH. Ihr
iirrmiiidcil ! y
ots are riitLir
lie seat nf ;i?i
edral. several
ireliieiiiscniial
-eiiilit tiiiiii-
lameiitcd. it
Inu'ss-niakers.
waves all tln'
triets, as well
('iiiindittioii
l)uWll Illil
|(iiiiiui aiUiilii-
niiw nearly
liiKirials III its
I'lMind ill till'
s. Alxiiit U
Itlie reiiiiwnril
lute, amiualiy
[l, prnv. Tras-
|)laiii, "II ilic
I'OJ). .'K^jlt ill
I'd, has a s'"'"l
Itwii elnil'i-l" ■^
III' silk ami
ill lll-J:iiiia
lii/.ii. (isi'ciiilf4
Ic (il'.Iiiliii IV.
the cMWii iif
Ll ut' Brazil.
IIU.MIILOW
llltAfllLOW, lll{AII,()l'r, (ir Iin?AIL;\. n
liiHii (if Turkey in Kiiriipc, in Walliichia, on the
lilt hank (it'flK^ DiiMiiltf, I '2 in. .S.SW. (JaliKZ. iiiid
iiIkiiii III."> ni. Ity wiilcr fnini liic Itlnek Sen, I'liji.
(..iJiiialeil at !),IMMI. llriiihilV niav he nniil In he
the si'a-|i<irt (if Waliai'hiii, mill in it all the furcii^'ii
iiaile (if the province eentreM. All vcmncIm caiiahlc
,.| I'litei'ili^ the l>aiiiilH! may am'eiiil to Ihaildtf;
;iiiil its jinrt, (in one of the amiH of the ri\'('r, heiii^
iVIeiKled liy a mimll iiland from Ihi" drift ice car-
nal down iiy till! I'lirrent in the Npriii;;, ships may
winter here in perfect Mnfely. lIoiiseM ri'j,'nhirly
l,iiilt, principally from the ruin.-* of the ca-dle,
wliii'li has lieeii ilemolislipil ; ami the imiiortance
i,| the town linvin;; increased with the nidepen-
ilciice of the jiroviiice, and the iiicri'asiii(i com-
iiicne and iiavi>;alion of the I )aiiiihe. neveral haiid-
-niiie new KireelH and editici'!* hav- heen recently
iri'ded. The warelionse.s are capalile of coiitainiii).;
iiliiive ;!()(),()(M( ehetwert.s of com. The threat, arli-
iles (if export arc the raw|irodncts of the country ;
iiiiliiiliiiK wheat, mai/e, and liarley, with tallow,
liiili's, hei'f, wool, timber, tobacco, and yellow-
lnTries. These exports, especially corn, have lately
iiiiii'li increaMed. The ((iiality as well as theipian-
tiiy (if the wheat shipped from this port, and from
(iaiacz, has almi greatly improved. It was for-
miTly, for the most part, damp, with an earthy
t,i<le iiiid .smell, ori^malin^r in its beiiijr nsiiallv
k('|it in holes in the ground; but this practice is
ii»\v very p'lierally aban(hined, and the j.'raiii is
,.lii|ipi,l in comparatively jjood order. Tallow,
wliii'li is an im)ioriaiit arlicle, is .livided into
talliiw and chervice : the latter, consistiiif,' of the
l:it nf the carcass and marrow boiled t(i;;('tlier, is
ill much reipiest at Constantinojile. 'I'lic trade
Muuetiine since was principally iiiana^ed by (ireck
liniises ; hilt merchants from Mii^liiiid and other
liTcij;!! countries have now estiililished themselves
lure and at, (ialac/. (Sec the art.s. IJa.nuiiI';,
(Iai.ac'Z, and VVAi.r.AciiiA.)
llh'AllMAPUTHA (Hif son of nnihmu), \u]t:.
lliUKAMfoOTKit, one of the lar>;est rivers of .\sia,
I'Tiiiiii^tthe proper K. iKamdary of llinilostan ; the
IKiiiiisiila beyond which should, therefore, rather
I*' called ' India beyond tlic ISrahmapiitra,' than
'lii'voiid the (iuiiges,' .-incc the former separates
two repoii.s, for the most jmrt unlike, not only in
tlicir tiipo^jraphical features, but also singularly so
ill the races of |)eo))le who inhabit them, their re-
li;'iiiii, customs, &c. The Hr<'ihma])iitr!i has three
M'jiarate sources, viz. the Dilioiig, Diboiig, and
l.iiliit rivers, which unite in I'pper Assam ; the
lirst has been traced by Cajits. Hcdl'ord and Wilcox,
.iiiil Lieut. Ihirlton, tlirongli the Himalaya chain
111 lat. ix° 1,5' N., and hmg. '.l.')"^ !(>' K,, lind is in
all jirnliahility a continuation of the great Saii-po
f'liliet. (ScoSan-I'o.) The Dilinng, at thi'iHiint
III which Lieut s. Wilcox and Hnrltoii penetrated,
was .'idli ft. wide, had co isiderable dejith, and coii-
laiiii'il many raiiid.s ; one of wiiich being found
iiiiliassahle, and the adjacent country wild and ilif-
liniit in the extreme, prevented the future jiro.sc-
(iitiiiii of the survey: the Dihoiig carries twice as
iimcli water a.s the Loliit into the ltrahma|iutra.
Till' bilxing is the central and .smallest of the three
rivers: it rises X. the Himalaya, near lat. 'iH^ 10'
N.,aiul long. !)7°, and p<is.scs through the nuniiitains
into Assam, near lat. 28° 15', and long. !M;o. The
Liiliit, called by the Assamese ' holy stream,' and
^"n^i(lered by the llrahmius as more especially the
uriljiii (if the Hrahmapiitra. is fnrnicd by the iiiiinii
'I till' Taluka and Taliiding, two streams rising in
ilio liijr' ni(iiintain region of Tiber, between lat.
'^' ami -i'lo X.. and long. !t7° and W° V... wliicli
i'sviiii; juincd, the river thence resulting tiikes a
I'W, I'liiirse. penetrating the Lang-tam chain of
JIHAINTUKK J19
moimlains (a continnalion of the IlimalayiO. and
passing ihrough a remarkable basin of rocky hilU,
a place of pilgrimage often freipieiited by Krah-
niiiis, ill which it is aiigincnled by the waters of
the Itrahmakund, a Imly | I fabled tn owe it.s
origin to an intrigue between Itrahuia and the wife
ofasautmi. .At its exit from this basin the river
receives the name ol llrahmapiiira, and is '.'nil ft,
broad: hir the next (Ut m. its course is mostly W, ;
I.") m, below Siiddva, ill lat. about I'T" oo' N.. ami
long. It.j'^ ;tl»' V... at a height of l,l."iil (Paris) ft.
alxive (he level ot the sea, the streams of the hiliong
and Diboiig join it. It now tlows in a SW. di-
rection through the centre of Assam, with a very
variable widtli, since its channel is continually
subdividing to enclose a prodigious nimibcr of
islands, the largest of which, that of .Miijiili, in
central Assam, is nearly 70 m, long, and In m. in
its greatest breadth. While in .Vssiiin the Hrah-
mapiitra is said to receive as many as sixty tri-
butary rivers. It enters Iteiigal in the liiingporii
distr., and soon after changes its directioii, tlowiiig
at first .S. and SI'',., encircling the W. extreinily of
the (iarrow moiintains, and tinally, SSW., to fall
into the Itav of Itengal by a mouth .'i m. wide, in
lat. -'-'o r)l)'"X., hdig, !it)°' III' K.. in conjiiiiction
with the largest branch of the (laiiges. The chief
tributary streams it receives in lleiigal .'ire, the
.Soormali, llarak,and (ioomty, on the left, and the
(iadada. Neelcomer, 'I'eesta, and Mcgiia, on the
right hand; the latter of which rivers, though not
oiie-tenth part its size, ciimiiiiiiiicat( s iis own nanm
to the Itrahiiiapiilra after their Jiinction. The af-
tliients of the ISrahniajiutra bringing down vast
ipiantities of iniid, its waters are usually extreiiiely
thick and dirty, and its surface, during the ll Is,
is covered with foam, intermixed with logs of wood,
large masses of reeds, and carcasses of men and
cattle. Its rise ciiinmonly begins in April; it
attains its greatest elevation at the begiimiug of
August, towards the end of which moiilli its in-
nndatioii subsides. Some rise, but no overlhiw, iH
experienced in Septoinber and (Jctobcr. In l!('iigiil
it IS not fordabic at any seasoii, but it is by no
means so readily navigiited as the (ianges; the
direction of the wind, which blows for so many
months contrary to the course of the latter river,
is commonly coincident with the direction of the
Itralimapntra, and adverse to all progress upwards.
Its banks are mostly covered with Jungle or marsh-
land, iind in many places quite destitute of tracks;
and its current is so strong, that I in. a day against
the stream is, for a canoe, considered a tolerable
advance. (Ifitter's Mrdknnde von Asieii, vid. iii. ;
Hamilton's K. I. (iai;. i. --'HC-^W.)
HI.'AINTIH'",!''., a par. and town of l''iiglaii(l, co.
I'^ssex, liiiiid. Hinkford. lit! m.'Nl'i. London by road,
and \\h m. by the (irjal Kastern railway, on which
it is n station. Area 2,000 acres. I'op. ol' par.
■1,|120, and of town I,;!!!."* in IKIII. The town is
built on an eminence, .'iiid consists of several narrow
irregiilar streets, in which a few good houses, of
niiideri' date, arc dispci-scd. but tlic greater part
jir- ancient mean Imildingy maiiv of them wood:
the ^■illage of liocking, in tin parish of that name,
is a continiiation of this town on its N. side, ami
consists of one long street, in which arc many well-
built houses. IJocking parish I'ldudes ,'),«(M) acres,
and had a ]iop. of ll,.')'!;") in IMIil. ISraintrcecbnrcli
is a s|iacioiis (iotliic stnicture with a tower and
spire, on the elevated site of ii still older encamp-
ment. There are several diseining chapels; an
endowed school for 10 boys (in which L'ay, the
naturalist, was eilnc.ited) ; iiikI several charities:
the priiici|ial one |iriiiluces .'!.")0/. a year, which is
shared by the poor of this and two aiijuiiiiiig pa-
rishes. A weekly market is held on Wediiesilav ;
mm
M\
W$\M
r,-H)
ItUAKKF,
ll
niid two niiiMuil liiir-i, cin'li ln-'liii;; tlirr'c diiv.'*,
wliii'll I'litiiillt'lirc .M;iv 7 mill Orliilicr 2. Tilt' III-
liiiliiimit.H wi'rc ruriiiiTiy t'ii;;(i;,'ri| in Wdullcii iiiniiii-
f'licliiri', ImiI iliis liMs iMiw Ikc'iiiih' i|iiiti' rxiiiiit,
ririiiiiiri'i' JH iiiriiliiiiii'il in liniiii'siJiiyliiMik iiiidrr
llir iiiiini's III' li'Miiii'4 iiiiil Itrtinrhi'tri'ii. \t is a
liiilliny; tiiWII I'lir till' N. ilivifinll nl' I'iMHi'X,
ItliAK l'!l<, II tiiwn III' I'riiMxiii, jiriiv, \V('si|i|iiiliii,
ri';;, Minilcii, <'M|i, riri'li', mi llii^ ItriU'lit, iirnr ilH
riiiidiiciii'i' Willi till' Ni'ltc, ;i'J 111. NNW. ('••issi'l.
I'ii|i. '.',7ol ill lH(i|, 'I'Im^ Iiiwii tins a ('iitliiiiic
jiiirith I'liiiri'li, a Im^iiital, a wiirkliiius(>, and
i'lilirii'M III' lini'ii, luluH'ro, iind a ^JM^i^-wiirk,
llliA.MIti'ilt', a par. and Imr. nl' l'°.n^'laiiil, en.
SiiMsi'.N, hniid. Slcviiinj,', oil tlir Adnr, wliirli in
navi;^oililf I'tir sniail vi'mncIs I.') ni. S. Iiy W. Lmi-
iliiii liy mad, and .'i.'l in. Iiy Liiiidnii, llri;r|itiiii, and
Siiiiili ('nasi niilvvay. on wliirli it is a .staiinii.
I'lip. lit) ill IKiil, llraiiilicr riaiiiis lo lie a Imr.
Iiy iircMTiiiliiin, and was nl' siilliriciit iiiiportniiri-
to ti'wv its naini! lo llic rape, in wliirli it is siiii-
atcd. It sent 2 incni. to tlio II. of ('.from tlic
2.'l I'ldw. I., witli iircasinnal oinissions liclwccn
that diiic and 7 I'jIw. IV.; and siiliscniicntly,
vitliont inti'rrii|itiiin. till it wiis dislrancliiscd Iiy
the licliirni Art ; tin' rinlit nt'clcctinn was in linr-
^'afic tcmirc voters payiii;; scot and lot, of wliicli
tlicre wcri' iiliimt 2ii.
llliAMl'TON, a parish and market town of
l'°.n;{lanil, CO. ('innlicrliiiid. I'',skilal(! Ward, on the
Ncwcasllt' and Tarlislc r/iilway. Area of par.
Hi, '.1711 acres. Pop. of par. .'I,.")H."(, and of town
2,;!7!l in \Ht;\. The town is situated 10 in. NK.
i'arlisle, in a deep narrow vnllev. It lias a towii-
lnill,liiiilt Iiy the I'.arl of Carlisle in |MI7, in which
coiirts are lield for tlie lianuiy of (iilslaiid. The
)iMr. chnrcli, now in rnins, is at the viihif^e of
Irthin^rtoii, alioiit I ,[: in. distant ; hut it has a |ta-
rochial chapel, linil'l in \7W, and repaired and
enlMr;ied in IH27 : it has also I dissentiii;; chajiels,
a f;raniinur-sch(iiil, a national school, erected Iiy
the I'.arl of Carlisle, an infant school, and 12
ahnshoiises for (i old men and as many women.
At the !■',. end 111' the town is the moat, a conical
moiinl, rising' .'(till ft. ahove the level of the streels.
The weavini; of checks. >,'in;,'haiiis. and other de-
scnplions of cotton ;;ii(ids, on account of tli<'
Carlisle niamifactnres, is carried on to some extent.
ni!AN'l)r.N'lil'l!(;.Mn iniporlant prov. of I'rns-
sia, consistiiif^ principally of th(! ancient mark
or iiiar(|uisale of lirandeiilmr'', haviii;^ N. Aleck-
Iciiliiirj^ and I'omerania, K. tin- provs. of I'rnssia
niid I'oscn, S. Silesia ami the kinploin of Saxony,
and W. rriissian Saxonv, Anhalt, and Hanover;
lielween i>\° I"' and r);io;i7'N'. hit., ami ll°|;i'
and l(i° 12' K. loiiff. Area lo,.')!!.') .sq, miles; pop.
2.l(;;),.')l;') in lxi;i, of whom 2,niH,l(M) civil inhahi-
tants, and ."iri.tl") military. The iiMvince is di-
videil into two rcj^encies and I! I circles. l'rinci]ial
towns, I'.erlin, I'otsdam. Frankfort. iSraiiflenlinr:;,
and Spandan, The province consisis principally
of an imnieiise sandy plain, watered Iiy the Oder,
Spree. Ilavel, Warta, Net/., and other rivers, and
liy mimeiiius lakes. Soil generally ]Mior: in many
jiiirts indeed, it consists of vast tracts of liarren
sand, diveisitieii with extensive heaths and moors:
Imt in other]iarts. particularly alon^ the rivers and
lakes, there is a ^ood deal of meadow, marsh, and
other ciimpiiratively rich land. Forests very exten-
sive. Ivstimatinj,' th" whole extentof the; prov. at j
iri,.s(ii),(li)Omori:en, or Cierinan acres, it is supposed I
to he distrilmteil as follows: — water, ;)(I(),()(MI mor-
p.n; w Is, ;i,.')(IO,0OI) lo. ; aralile lands, (•|,7(m,IMlO
(III.; Kiirdens, (i,j,(MIO do.; waste lands. ii,2.jll,0(H)
do.: Iiiiildiiif^s, roads, Ac. ri.Vl,(li)(l do. Corn of all
sorts is raised. TiucUwiieat, however, succeeds
lietter than any other sort of j;T,iin on the .siiiiily
T.IlAN'Do.V
soils, and next (o it rye, I'otatoeM are now vfr\'
e\len:<ively cnllivateil. The other principal iim.
ducts lire Wool, hemp, and llax, toliacco, tinilicr
and hops, Aj,'riciilture, thou^^di liiickwanl, hi,,'
made ureat ad\aiices siiH'e IXI.'i. The linedi i,|
horses and sheep have lieeii materially iiiiprnvid ■
particular attention is paid to the raixin^ nrwiinl
which has liecome u most important prniliiii!
Itrandeiiliur^, in fact, produces mori' wool tiiaiuinv
other iiroviiice of till kiii>;doiii. With lliecMiii.
tion III lime and gypsum, the minerals are nl mm jm.
portance. Manufactures were iiilrodiiceil liv iIm'
rel'u;;ees frniii France, sulisei|nently to the reviKii-
tion of the edict of Nantes, and are very exti'M«ivi'.
They are principally carried on at IJerlin (wlii.h
see, and I'lit'H.Hi \). There are mamifaciiiriM nf
steaiii-eii)^nnes and iHfricultiiral implcnieiii.H, i,i'
woollen, silk, and cotton stnlVs, of optiial iiini
matheinatical instruments, and of chenhcnl iirn-
diice, liesides numerous lireweries, diNlilleries,H],i«s-
works, lirick-kiliis, tanneries, potash, charcnal, aiirj
lime inannfactories. The internal trade nl' ijk.
prov. is very eoiisiderahle, and is much lacilitaiiil
hy railways, rivers and iwtvi;;alile canals, 'jh,.
railways centre in llerliii, eoniieetin;; every im-
portant town of the province. The sy>ti'iii nf
water communication likewise is very eomplcii.; ji
owes its ori;;inchielly to Fleetor Frederick Willijiiii,
snrnamed the (ireat ICIeetor, The iirnvinci' nl'
ltranileiiliur<4 formed the miclens of all the siaii",
now united in the I'riissian inniiarcliy. It uiis
fiiveii in 14111 liy Kaiser Si^^ismnnd tn" Frcdcriik
VI., Count of llolien/ollerii and nur;.'raveiif Nllrii-
lier^', anceslnr nf the present kiiif,'s nf I'russiu.
Itii.vMiKNiii^iiii, 11 tnwii nf Prussia, priiv. Niiiii!
name, re;;'. Potsdam, ea|i. eirc. \V. llavcilaiid, liii
the Ilavel, ;i,') m. WSW. Merlin, and IlM ni. Nl:,
Ma:,nU'liur^s lat. r>i° 27' N., Illn^^ 12°;12' K. l'i,|,,
2o.H0tl in INtil. The town has a station eii the
railway from Merlin to iMay;ilel)ur;,'. 'I'lie rivir
divides it into thre(^ p;irts ; the old town mi ilii'
ri;;ht, and the new on the left, hank; wliile im mi
island hetweeii them isliuilt the ' Cathedral Thhii,'
which, from standing; on pile's, is also (hIIi.I
' Venice.' Streets of the old town narrow iiinl
crooked; lint those of the new town are ennipMrii-
tively liroad and slrai^^ht ; liotli arc walieil iiiiil
connected liy a hrid;;e. On the island is tliiT,i-
thedral, a structure of the 1 Itli century, the cd-ilc,
and an eipiestri.-in academy. It has ei;;ht chiinlu-,
li'.o hospitals, a (•oiiin;il-hiiiise, with n imMii;
lilirary, a f^ynmasiiim, a citi/.eiis' school (Bvrijn-
sr/iiiln}, II superior female school, witii iumiiitipik
elementary and charity schools; a workliuuM'. ,i
theatre, and three piihlic sipiares, in one nf wliiili
stands the Itolandsai'ile, a column liewii mit nf
a sin;;l(^ Ithick of stone. The font and nuimiiniiits
in St. C'atlierine's elmrch ariMvorfhy of iiniiic, ,h
are also the works of art in the cathedral. I'lufi'
are inannfaclures of woollens, fu^tiiuis, liinii-,
stockin;;s, paper, itc. ; with iiuinemiis lnowcrii-.
distilleries, tanneries, and some hoat-liiiildiii::; nu<[
it has a liri.-.k trade hoth liy land and water. Ii
has heen several times hesie^^ed — liy Henry llio
Fowler, Allirc'cht the Hear, and (Jiistaviis Ailnl-
plins. It was the l)irth)itace of .Julius von Vciss,
MnANDKNiiintu (Ni;\v), a town nf the f:r;iii4
duchy of IMecklenhiir;,' Strelitz, on a rivulet wliiili
falls into the lake Tolleii, 17 in. N. Iiv E. Ni"'
Slrelitz. Po)). ."),!ir)(l ill l,st;i. U is wiille.l. am!
well liiiilt; has a casfle,n ;;ramiiiar sclinel,s(lii"il>
for the sons and dan;;liters of townspeiipie.inviirli-
honse, and some woollen and cotton tiilirics; Imi
the hnsiiiess of distillation is the must iiniinrlaiit
carried on in the town.
Pili'AXDON, a i)ar. and town of Kiiirlaini, r".
Sull'nlk, Imiid. LacUford; 7;> m. NNK. l/iiiil'Hi I'V
IlItANTo.MK
rn.'iil, ninl HH 111. Ity <irt'itt I'.HHlirr. failwMv, on
ttliii'li It liiM II Hlaliitii. I'll)), of pariili '.'.JlH, iiinl
„l'liiwii, -'.'.'((.'I ill |H»;i ; iircii (if piirisli, ,"),.">70 utrct.
Iti.H nil tlic S. Ititiik 1)1' till' l.iiilc ()iis(<, or llraiKliiii
river, whii'li I'liriim tlir N. Iiminilarv iil'tlit' (Mninty,
mill i.-i luTf criiH?*!'!! Iiy a neat stimc liriilKc (iiiii-
iliiilH art' iiiailc in tlic town ami Nciit to variniis
|iiirt^ III' till' kiti^iloiii ; tlii'V arc iiniiliiccd iilioiii a
mil;' \V. iiril, rriiiii linl.t lrav('r.■«ill^,' a rliiilk Hiratiiiii,
mill alirrnaliiiK with otlirrs of |ii|ic-clay : many
lalHiiiriTM ari^ I'lnitloycil In quarrying' tlit'xc llinis,
llicrc i* nUi> Hoiiic trallic carried on in rorn, malt,
I'uiii?!, anil liiiiliiT. Ill till' iii'i^hlioiirliooit an* t'x-
iniiivc raliliit warrciit. Fairn lire Hiill Iclil, Kcl).
||,,liini> II, Nov. II; lait llu' market has lieeii
iliM-iiiiliniied. 'I'liere is an ciuloweil frei! mcIiooI.
llmiiilDii ('atTi|i, a si|. eartlnvork in the vicinity, is
«ii|ilMiM'(l to III! tlie Jirnriiiiiiin of the ItoiiianH. The
jiiikc of llaniilloii and llrandoii durivuH Iiih Kii^-
li.>li title from thiH town.
KliANTt t.Ml';, a town of Krancp, de'p. Dordi^iic,
lap, cant, on the Droiiic, near itx conlhiencc with
ilicCollo, 12 in. N\V. IVri(,'iu'iix. I'oii. •_',.")« I in
IMill. Ilrantome is a^reealily Niliiated, and is a
iii'iil lian(l.'<iim(' town. 'I'lie walls and ditches hy
wliii'h it was formerly siirronnded have heeil dc-
niiili.-heil. It has some fahrics of woollen stntls,
iiii.iicry, and coitini. Near the town is an aliliey
nrtlie Iteiiedicliiu's, the foundation of which is as-
irilii'il hy soiiK! to ('harlema;;ne, and hy others to
].iiiii'»-le-l)e'hoiiiiaire. This ahhey was held in
rmmniddin hy the liislorian Ilrantome, who re-
liri'il thitlier after the liattle of .larnac, and eoin-
imM'il in this retreat a imrt of his works.
llliAUNSHKIiti, n town of I'rnssia, prov. K.
I'riissia, cap. circ. on the rassarjfc, almnt .'1 in.
almvc where it falls into the I'Visclie. Halt'. Pop.
tii.Hil in IHtil. TIk' town is very thriving;, and
li;w a station on the railway from llcrliii to Kii-
iii^jslier;,'. The river is navij^ahle as far as the
liiHii hy vessels of small hunleli, and it has some
siii|i|iiiiK, and exports corn and tinihcr. It is the
ri'.-iiiciice of the liishop of Ilrnielaiid. the seat of a
fiiyal court of jnstice, and has several chnrches, a
inmiaslery, a normal school, and four hospitals.
Until derives its )irin(;ipal claim to notice from its
s'lniiiary, the Li/vviim llimatiiim, for tin; ediica-
liHii »f Catholic clerjj;ymen. It is so called from
its liavinj; Uieii founded and endowed hy the
liariieil Stanislaus llosins, hisliop of Krmeland.
it has six jirofessors, and ahoiit .'iti students.
ItKAV, ii township of Kiif^land, co. lU-rks, liund,
llrav. Top. 2,'.>;t(i in 1H(!|. The town has acqnireil
Mime celehrity in connection with the well-known
'Vicar of llray.' It appears that the person who
licjil the livinj,', a vicara^^e, in the reif^ns of lleiirv
VIII., I'ldward VI., Jlary, and Klizaheth, was
jjiltcilwith a most accMimmodatinji conscience. lie
I'liiinu'iiceda Papist, then heciiine J'rotcstunt. next
I'ajiist a^ain, and then Protestant a^ain. (Jn hein^^
taxcilwilh inconsistency, he defended himself by
suing that he had always adhered to one ]irin-
ri|iii', which was ' to live and die Vicar of liiay ! '
rile well-known sonj; repri'sents this worthy vicar
as liviiif^ in the rei^n of Charles II. and his snc-
('(•ssiirs ; hilt the ahove is Fuller's account of the
imiilcr (vol. i. Tit, ed. l«n).
lliiAV, a niarit. town of Irelanil, cos. Wicklow
anil Diihliii. prov. I,einster, on the Hray or Darjrle,
I'.' 111. SK. hv S. Dublin, on the railway from
liiililiii to Wicklow. I'oi). 4.IK2 in M\\. The
iiiwii, which takes its name from Itre, or Hrcc^, a
lii'(iillaii(t at the foot of which it stands, is divided
iiitiitwii portions by the river, which also separates
tlie ciiiiiuies of Wicklow and Dublin. The part
I'lillieX., or Dublin side, is called Little l!ray:|
tl"! cuiiiiiiiiiKcatioii between the t^vo ilivisioua is 1
\\\{.V/.U,
wn
keiit lip by an old briil;,'c. It lias a pariih church,
a lar^'c and elegant I'onian Catholic chapel, it
I'l'i'sbyterian ineetin;; hniisc, and several sciiooU,
one of which, an inl'ani mIiouI, is a spiicioiis
building; it has also u saving's' bunk, a loan fund,
an hospital, Mild a dispensary. An old castle in
Liltle llray has been converted into a barrack. A
constabulary and a coast unanl force are nln
lioiied here, and near the (own is a martellu
tower. The town is neatly built, and is iH'coine a
fashionable watering -plare. It was formerly in-
corporated, and lilirliikinenis were held here, but
its chartered privile<;es ha\ e fallen into desuetude.
A manorial court is held inoiithly, and ju'lty ses-
sions on nltcrnale Mondays. It inamifactnreH
small (piantiiies of linen and coarse woollens.
iMarkeis are held on Tuesdavs and Salunlays;
fairs for friezes on ,lan. 12, Slay I, .\ii^;. '>, and
Nov. 12; and for cattle on March I, May I,
.July I, Alt;;. I'l, Set). 20, and Dec. It. The hnr-
boiir is barred by a lied of shingle, which >;reatly
obstructs the iiavif^ration. A considerable lishery
of cod, haddock, and herring was formerly carried
on, which has been completely annihiliited, Tlui
salmon lishery has also declined,
lilt A/I I., an empire of S. Aiiiericn, nnil one of
the lar^jest states in the world — very nearly the
size of the whoh; of Kurope — stretches almi),' twi>
thirds of the I'',, coast of that continent, while itM
snpertlcial area occupies nearly half its whole ex-
tent. It lies between 1° 1 7' >i. and .•12° WW S. lat.,
and Wifi and 71)° W. hm^;. The leii;;th, from X.
to S., is between 2,t'iiM» and 2,7lHt m., and its
breiidth, from K. to \\'„ between 2,tMl(i and 2,.'tO(»
m. Its extent of coast alon^' the Atlanlii' Ocean
exceeds 'l.tMIO m. ; its area has been esliiiwited at.
from 2,r)i)li,lKMI to :t,ili)ll,tlllil SI), ni. It is bounded,
S, and V.., by the Atlantic' Ocean ; N. by the At-
lantic Ocean, French, Dutch, and llriiish (Iiiiana,
and the repiililic of \'eneziiela, and W. by the re-
publics of I'^ciiador, Peru, Itolivia, and Piira;;iiay.
A liir;;e proportion of lirazil consists of hin'h
land and mountains, and the extent of cultivated
land bears but a very small proportion to (hat of
the whole country. The subioined table jjives the
area and )iopiilation of the twenty |ir<>vinces
into which the empire is divided, accordiiifj; to a
snpertlcial enumeration, or rather estimate, of the
year I Not! : —
Provlnci'l
Area
OuuK. Sq, Milci
Piipulalion
Minns Oernos . . ■
11,11')
l,'jiiii,no()
Uio .raiiLiru ....
Still
l,'.'OII,(l(M»
' Daliiii
(i.Ofll
1,11111,1111(1
1 I'erimiiiljiico . . .
•J.IKIH
!l.-iO,(liiO
,^an I'aiilu ....
H.D.'ill
.'illll,IMI()
Cenru
l,7:il)
:is."i,:mi)
Maninlino ....
(;,7.-.!>
liliO.IMH)
I'liniliyliii ....
1,1 :)H
•Jii!),:li»i>
I'an'i
5-1,0117
•J07,lili)
Alii(,'(ins
■i.'IO
am, ■-'110
Itio (Iranileilo Sul .
4,o.-,!»
'Jill,:llH)
Itio (iiiiliile ilo Norte
Wi
l!lll,lllll)
Sii-^'ipu
.''•-'S
lS::.(i(MI
tioyn/',
1 :),:.!»!
1S0,{HII)
I'iiiiiliy
4,f!»7
I'lO.tOd
.^aiitnCntlmriiia . .
li!»4
lll.'.,IPIHI
JIntto (li'osso . . .
28,711!
n.'>,(m(t
Parana
—
7-J,ll)(»
Kspiritii Santo . . .
(i43
ril,:|ii(l
Amu/.uiins ....
Total ....
—
42,(j(l0
147,(I-.>1
7,li77,8"0
or ...
3,l<Hi,l(ll Enf
'lisli sij. miles
- --- . .-
Hff!!
il'^
'■r,:ii
According to these returns, the density of po]i.
is less than three per square mile, on the averaf^e.
Other estimates, more recent (Almanak Admiiiis-
trativti par liSlJ.' jtute the imniber of the popuiu-
m^\
m
1,12
IJHAZII,
liiiii lit mIhiV(> H,0(M),000, rnni|i(n)'i| i,(' rn"rt< lliiiii
ri.niio.oiiii Iririiicn, ■J„'iiiii,imm) hluvcH, tiiid iiliniii
riiMi.iioii nf iiiitivi> liiiliuiiM. I.ur;^i> triii'U iif hrit/il
lire iiniiilmliilril, nr |ii'ii|ilnl only liy a xt'iitli'ml
|iii|iiitali<>ii, iiiiil (III' iiiunNi-i III' iiiliiiliiiiiiitN ciiii^ii
^ali' iirar llii ast, aiiil arniiinl iln' rliirl' McaimriM.
All tlic |)riiii'i|ial cilii"* arc mi llir riiii«t. 'I'ln'
liarliiiiirH an^ aiiintif; iln' tini'Ml in the wnrlil : ami
miiiic III' iIk'Iii ari' I'liiinrrti'il wiili llic iiiii'rinr liv
lar^'l• rlMTH, iia\ l^'alilc lur ii nrvtO way liilitinl.
'I'lic |iriiii'i|ial rivrrn nrv. — tlii" Aiiia/<'ii, (Xiin'-
nilly niiiNiiliTfit ilir larKi'it rivrr in tlir wurlil,
Inrnicil liy tin' jiinrlinii nl' llii' iiiiiiliTii ManiMiiii
(TimniiranMM) with tin- I'rayali', iir aiiricnl .Ma-
raiKiii. It tiiiii'hi's Itra/.il mi ilir N.al its Jinn timi
with lilt' Mailrira in alimit .V.)*^ W. Imi^'., ainl nitiT-i
it at aliiiiil tlu' i'lTlli (III. ; ami ihcii tlnwiii^' ilirniiKli
till' )iriiv. 1)1 I'araaiiil ruriniiif; lui iiiiiin'ii-ii' I'stuaiy,
it iliNrliar^'i'M iiHt'ir intu tlir Atlaiitir Oiraii iiinlt'r
Mil' t'i|iiatiir in almiil .'id" W. Imi^. Il rcrcivi'K in
its ciiiirst' tliriiii^li lli.'i/il I'min the S. .iniiic nl' its
|irini'i|ial Irihutarii'M, iiirlinliii^ Ihi' Mailcira, tin'
liirKi'Mi iit'lhciii all, wliirli liirniH a iMirtiiiiiur lint W.
liiiinnlary of tin' riDpirc, with l\w. rajiaJiH, ami lli<>
\inL>'n : Ilic atllui'iilH ol' llic Aniii/nu t'rnin tini N,
ill ils ('iiiir.'>i' llirmijrli llra/il an; cnniiiiirativt'ly iiii-
ini|iiirtaiit. Ol' the other rivcrx the |irirn'i|ial arc
tlu' 'riiraiitiint nr I'ara, an iiinnriisi' xtrrani I'lirnii i|
liy the Jniii'tinii nl' tlui Ariif;iiiiy (llii> |iriin'i|ial
liraiicli) ami 'rnraiitiiiM iimptTly mi calli'il : it has
its Nonri'CM in the S, \mrtrt nf the iirnvH, nl' Mattn
<il'os^«l ami (inyax, ami llnwiii^ S'NW. lulls iiitn
Ihc Atlantio inaliiml 1° S. lat. ami INO \V. Iniiy;.
At tin' inniith of the I'ara, the |ilii'ininn'iinii nl'thi'
liiirc, to wliicli the linliniis liavi' ^ivcii the nanicnr
jmrtiriuii. niaiiilr-'ts itself in a very Ntrikin^r nninmr.
I'lircc (lays prcvinn.slv tn the ii".v or I'lill iinmn,
when till' tiilcs an- iii^^licst, an ininiciisc wave,
u|iw'ari|s ol' I.') ft, ill iicrpi'miicniar ln'i;;'lil, riislics
I'riiin slinrc tn Nliorc with a trcnicinlnns inii.sc, ami
is siu't'ccili'il ininirdiati'ly liy a si'i'innl ami a Ihinl.
ami snnu'tiini'H liy a rmirih. 'I'lic tiilc, iiiMtcad nl'
o('cii|iyiiiK six hours to llnw, attains its ^^rcatcst
ln'ij;lit ill a I'i'W niimitcs, 'I'lic rn.irinjfol' the pnro-
mca is heard at a distanee nl' nearlv two leagues,
(Denis, IJresil, p. l'!):!, Paris, Ih;17.)' The llio San
Francisco, one of tlui largest, of tlio lira/.ilian
rivers, rises in tlio S. part of the prov. nf Minas
(icraes, near the sources nf the I'arana. It is the
only river of iinpnrtaiiec lietween llaliia and I'cr-
nainlmco, lint its navipition is interrupted hy the
caNcade of I'anio AtVoiiso, The l{io (Iraiide do
Sul, in the jirnv. of San I'edro, is anolhcr larKc
river, as is the I'arana, of La I'lata, separating;
Jlrazil from l'ara;;iiay and the slates of I,a I'lata,
and fnrmiiifi alsn the li(niiidarv-line iK'twcen the
prnvs. of San I'aiil, Matio (i rosso, and (inyaz:
the l{io I'ardo, the Ivuliy, and the Jgimzu empty
themselves into it.
In addition to the aliove, wc may snccinetlv
('iiunicrate the I'arahylia, separating the prnvs. nf
Alaraiihain and I'ianhy; the Itapicarii; the Itin
(irandc do Itelnionte ; the llio Doec, ami ii host of
(illicrs. Many of the riviTs of JSra/.il, especially
the Mnraiion, overtlow their hanks, and snhject
tlio country to extensive inundations. The na-
vijjation of some of the lnr>;cr rivers is intomipted
by falls and rapids, and the mouthsof some ol the
smaller rivers are suliject to winds and currents,
■which render their imvi^ration dillicult.
The lake, or rather limooii, Lnyou doa Patos, in
the ])rov. of IMo (irandc do Sul, is the niost exten-
sive ill Uruzil. It stretches N. from Kio (Jrande,
at its S. extremity, where it communicates with
the sea, to I'nrto Ale^re, a distance of abnve 1 15
111., Iieiiifj ill parts ahoiit 40 m. in breadth. Thniif^h j
tncunibert'il with shoals, it is navigable by vessels
nf cniinlilcrnlile liiirdiii. ft rrccive* nrrrral I ,r^»|,
rivers, Ml that its waiern in llie N. parl», .r il
lartliesi IrnMi the sea, are lint sliuhlly l>ra> ki>li.
There are aunni inaiix nilier laUcs iiidilTi'rciii (lori,
of the 4'mpiri', but innic nl llntii are very i \ti nnivc.
Tliry lire inoKi niiiin'roiiN in the prov. of I'urii,
/'////>..(// Jn/M./.— The f"nn of Ilra7.il niiiy U
said alninsl in li'^crnble til. It of a heart, of Mill, Il
the urculesl diilinelci iVntii I,, to W., in a »lriii.;lii
line I'rniii < llimla in the territnrii's claiimd hy I', ru,
may be alidiil ;iO decrees. The V,. sident llrii/jln
liaMTseil, Irniii N, III .S., at iimre nr les~ di'-limri'
Iniin the rnasi, by a ninuillaiilnlis ran^i, n|' hIiJi ||
the avera;;!' Iniulil i« ahniit ;t,IIIMI ft,, kimMn |,y
the name nf .Serra <\'t Mar, its j^rcalcst Iiik^'Ji'i
liciii'C l.tHHM't, This \:\\\\n> serves In iii\ii|i' in.
enust lainl t'l'nn llic liiu'h land, cniisi>iin^ i.| ( ;,,||.
pi'«, nr trails deslilnli' of w I, the :ueril>.'i 111 iylit
of whiiii is aliniii '.',.'iOO I'l. It i^radiiallv I'immih^
InWer ill the dilii inn nf I'm i^fnay, linid it is |u.|
ill iIk! Iiiw and nmslly iiiar.-hy plains iiilialiiini
by llie ImliMii iiilii' of (iiiiiyciiriis. Many l''"-
^raphers lia\c fallen iiitn the error nf siippuMn^r
I hat the pro\. of Mattn I ii"^>o contains the lii^hi.t
inoiintaiiis, and ihni llir\ I'nrni a Jiiiictlnii witliilii]
Cnrdiilcras nf rem and Chili. Mill Kscliw.;'!-,
wlin resided in the cniiniry fnr ten years, (jiir-njj
which pcrind he visited the ^'realcr part nl ii,
cniil'ntes this siipposilinii in his llra/.iliin die lU'iii!
Well (vnl. i, p. |i;."i, llraiinsch. 1«.'1((). Me hI.mtvis
thai bmad ami extensive plains lie beiwciii. ainj
that the sources nf the Mad'ira, which tlnw,, m n
iinrtherly dircciinii tnwaids the Aimi/mi, ninl i.r
the I'lirn^iiay, takiii){ a sniithcrly cniir^e tiiHanli
the l,a I'lata, are Imth within a few miles of cinli
niher, and that their elevation is iiicniisiijcralili'.
The hiuhesl raii^e of the lira/ilian nniinitaiii'> is
that which traxcrses the ceiitre nf the cdiiniiy,
and ils (greatest altitude is abniit I'i,immm'I, TIh'
nininitiiins nf I'lra/.il may be subdivided into tlinr
dill'erciit raii;;es : I, The cnasi raii;,'e, nr .Serra iln
.Mar, abn\e niciitinned, 'I'his is by far the iii">l
piclnresipie nf the Itra/.iliMil chains, and in skiih'
parts approaches within Hi or \H in. of llie mji.
while in others it sweeps inwards to a disiaiirci.f
from I'JII to I III m. At a distaiiec, and in tlii'
vicinity of the mountains, are fuiiiid ancient tiiri'M'i
(matto virj^ci.i), whose ^jiant trees and cmiiiilr-s
plants and sh.'ubs, nf Inxuriant ^^owtli, so tliiiMy
interwoven as almost to defy the attempts nf iiiiiii
lo force a pass,;;,'!', siillicienily attest the oxcil-
lenee of the soil on which they >;rnw. On ('riis>iii;'
the Serrn do Mar, we meet with a barren talilr-
laiid. called t'ainpns (icraes, with lew tnicc.'Mf
cullivation. In the valleys, ^old and ilianniiuls
are fre(|iicntly discovered. The Scrra lin .Miir
chain commences in the Campns de N'acaria, >iiik''
abruptly in the direction nf the Hin Doec, ami Ihms
itself cnmplelely at Italiia. The cclebrateii .Umili'
rasenal, which was seen by the early iiavi};ali^,
fnniis a part of the Serr.'i do Mar. It is knnwii liv
various names in the districts tlimii^li wliiili ii
runs. On the I'}, side it is styled .Serra dos Ayiiim-o,
while ill the neighbourhood of Uio it is sty Icil .'si rra
dos ( )rf;o('s. It is worthy of remark, that tlic |ilaiiH
growing in the CumiMis are altogether distinct frmii
those on the other side the Scrra do Mar ; niid llw
zoologist may discover quite a new ract! of uiiimal-.
as well as birds, in this region. '2. The central cliiiiii,
called in some parts Scrra do iMantegneira, ainliii
others Scrra do Kspinhaco, is more extensivi'liuin
the fnnner, and compri.ses the highest pdiiits i)i
Hraxil : viz. the Itacoliimi, near Villaricii : tlu'
Serra do C'arassa, lU'ar Callas Alias ; ami tin'
Itanibe, near Villa do I'rincipe. This raii;,'i'
traverses 'he prov. of Minas (icraes, rniiiiiiif:. in
its uorthtrly course, through liuliia and rtriwui-
Iiiicii, iiml ill ilr4 Moiitht'iiv I'liiir^i', tliriMiKli Sitti
I'lnilci unit Hill (tr.'iinli'. b U iidI imly nniiirlt
iiMi' iiM <'iiiiiiirif<iii^ ilii> jiiulimt iiiiiiiiH ill ilii<
(■iii)iir<'. I'nt IH lii^iily iiiti'rr-.iiiin In n (.'cn^jtuK
lii'iil, iNitiiiiiriil, mill /.iiiiliiuiral |i<iinl nf vii'W. In
MtT'iTi'iil |>iirlN, it lii'iirH llii> MiriiiiiN int'iil iiaiiicH
1 Mrrii ili> l.ii|ii, Srrrii Snliiulo, Scrra dr Snu
(Mf.iliiii. Nirni iliH i;«iii(r:il'l(i«, nml nniiiy utjnrs,
I, (111' Sirrii ilii't N'crli'iili^. or llii' W'ltirr Hr|ia-
riiiini.' Mi'imiuin, (<"> calli'il I ■ rauMi' li iIin iili'n ihr
I, iril itiirioH ,>t' ilir ri'tfH Aiii'i/."n iiml bi I'lalu
Iriin 111'' vucrSan l''iiinri'<<'i>, riii.Hrliain inmiiiK'-
liiij' • luUfil tlu' llra/iliaii l'.vr('iii'i'<<, lis lnHii-nt
, i must rrliiark.il'l'- lioiiit^ iin- IIupmi' nC Srrril ilu
I tiiiistra ami .Mali<> i ."nla, Hlirrc, mi mir -tiilc. ilir
Kin Sun l''raii<'i'<rii, ainl >ii the ntlitT, llir inoMt iin-
|Hirliint triliiiiarii'H i>r till' Kin (iriiiulc, tak)' tluir
ri.i'iiiinl ill'' I'yriiii'ips, ill till' |iriivliii'(' of (iiiyii/,
uliiri' iIk' Iriliiitarii'M nl' llic I'liraila iirr rmiiiil,
I'.xi'lusivi' III' iiH iiiiiiiiilaiiiiiii'tatiil hilly ili.-irii'tM,
iiiiil III' itP4 talili'-laiiilH. I III' |ilaiii<« of Itra/il arc nl'
\i<t I'xtriit ; till' )iri>N. Ill' I'lini, iiit'lmliii^Mi |iiirliiiii
.<! till' I'liiili^iiiiiis |iriiv. Ill' Matin (iroMHii, ci mi priors,
II fart, the wlliilc nl'tlic liiwcf iillil lilnsl level |Hir-
iiMii III' the ^'ipinlie jilaiii nt' the Aiiia/,iin. I Miring
ihi' iiiiMiilatiiiii.'*, Iiir^e Iraetn ul'thiH iiluiii are niiIi-
iiirfKeil. llH Hiiil in Niil't, alluvial, ami nf ilie ^reni-
i.i I'ertilitv. It is imistly I'nvereil liy iinineiiNe
|rliii:i'val liiresls. There are al»i> sniiie very e\-
ti'ihiveiilaiiiH ill Maraiihaii ami nlher jiiirtM ul'ilie
iiii|>ire. 'riiat whii'li im'luile!< the hn^iia dos I'atiis
rxtriiiW I'lir aliiive "JJOni. ailing the slmre.
Soil. — The soil of llra/il is nt' viirinii.s (leserip-
liuiiN. It is cif ureal fertility in some pMrls. hut hy
in means thniii^'hoiit, ami llieol'ten re|iiiilei| story
111' the sii|peraliiimlaiit wealth of the soil in every
I'lirt III' the eiiimre iw ileeiileilly erroneous. Mr.
( MiiMil ('o\v|)er, 111 one of his re|iorts to the llritish
(iipvcriiiiient, alliules to this in saving; : — ' I believe
till' fertility of the soil of llra/.il to he iihsiirilly
i'V;i^;;,'erateil. I have lieanl iniieh hill seen little
I'I'its I'xtraoriliniiry jiowers of|iro(liietioii, I have
Iriivi'ileil a ^reiit ileal in this eiii|iire, ami as a
1,'riitiiil rule lia\e foiniil aloiiK the coast ii samly
iiii|iri)iUictive soil ('overeil with eoeoanut trees ami
niiiiitiriives, vuri<'(l oceasioiially, near theenihoiich-
iiri'rtiif rivers, hy alluvial (le|)osits, liaril us a rock
ill »iinnner ami iin|iassalile nnid in the winter;
liirtlicr iiiliiml, umlraineil valleys, formin(,' niiiilily
iiikrs ill winter, ami very iireearidiis eaiie tiehls in
Mimiiu'r; the|iro(hiee of the hills, in coininoii with
Iliat nf the whole poimtry, lieiiij; a jirey to timt
^Tiiil ilestroyer, Ihn ' Fonni),'(i ile IJnea,' or 'red
;iiii ;' and in the very interior sterile inoiintains
iiiiilvasl iiastnrt' lands, hiit so snhjeet tndroiii^hls,
lliiit imt only cattle, hut hundreds of the |io|iiila-
limi fall victims to them.' Senlior Liii/. ("arvalho,
Ailing; Insiiector of Customs nt I'ernainhiico. in a
|iaiii|iiilet imlilished with u view to the reconi-
iiii'iiilrttiipii of certain nieiisures for the henetit of
till' afjriciilt lire ami trade of the province, siiys: —
'I'liinpnreil with the vastness of territory, ni its
^Tiatest |)iirt uncnltivnted, our |)o|uilutioii is in-
liiiiii'iiiinal (diininiitissinia). Its slow natural iii-
cTcasc, jieriodicully checked hy the visitation of
MdiirKos, droii;;lits, yellow fever, and cholera, cer-
liiiiily does not satisfy either the necessities of the
liriiwnt or the. aspirations of the future.' The
Nunc cniisos, in fact, which rcndereil iinpossihlc
ilie foundation in lira/il of a civilisation nnahi-
t;iiii» to that which was established in Me.vico,
''intral America, and I'crii, a^cs before the dis-
iiivory of this continent by I'^uropeaiis, are still in
flrtioii ti)-da\', and in iimliiniiiished force. Not-
wiilistaiidiiiK, '• would be; impossi'tle to overrate
llItAZIfi ASS
Hill lie .lain Iro ill the •lonlh, A reretil writer mIi-
mtm's will) iiiiirh iriiili, tliiil ill estiinatin^ the
phyii'al comliiioiis whii'li ilitirniiiie ri\ ilixation,
we have to look tint nierily at the exiilieraiice,
but tilsti at what may Ih' riillnl the niaiin^eiibllit V
nf i.iallire. All the o|H'riklii>ii< of iiature proieed
here, how, 'ver, on the jframleit ■•lale, Swaniisof
insects dispute with the lllbnurer the po>se'<s|o||
of llistleld. l>roii);;llts ale Irnpient mill III liilli;
rniitimiiime. I'loiiils ill winter i»erruii coiiNide.r-
alile tiai'ts of country. Latterly epiiliiiiies have
swept otV larue iiuiiilHrs o, the inhaliitaiils, All
these things naturally conspire to elieek tlii' I'lVorlN
of llie ciilii\alor, iiiiii the dniiht is NiF:;L;e^leil t" the
niimi of nil observer whether any ri .il pro;;ri -h i«
actually bein^; inade. iltcport by ,Nlr. Consul
l.eiinoii Hunt nil thcTrailc of i'ernainbiico for the
Year b'^ll;!. Ill '('oiisiitar lb ports.')
Cliiiiiih, — The Krertl extent nl llrii/il will, of
course, aiconiit for a consiihr »li|e vari.iiinn of<'li-
lliate. Aloll^ the eousl, the ordilWHA I' n|iierni|lirt>
is from 111'^ to ■Jii'^ lieaiiiiinr, with -um,,. rnmluieu-
tioii>, according' to the ImalilicM. Ihiis, while tlit>
therinoiiieter seliloiii rises alwive '.*<ij|" lit Ituliia, It
siiiiietj s stands us lii;;li as '.'li'^ and 27'^ at b'in
rlamiro. Winter is severe in the S. pro\iiices, iiiid
it even free/.es at llioliraiid de San redro ami
San Catharimi. The climate in the vicinity of
Sim raulo is usually accoiiiiteil the most a^rec-
iihle, and the teiiiperaliire |ieriiiilH the ;;'rowtli of
I'inropcan fruits. The west wind, in (lie interior
of lira/.il, is uiiwliolesoine, as it passes over vast
marshy forests. The sea coast, Iroiii I'ara to
< Hiiida, appears to possess a similar climaii' to
(iiiiaiia. Nolw ilhsttiMilin;^' the po>ilioii of llr.i/.il
between the eipiator and the tropics, the air, ow jii;^
to the lieiM;|it of the ^;reater port loll of the country,
is in general temperate rather thiiii hot. I'er-
nanibiico and a few of the other provs, sutler occa-
sionally friiiii driiuf,'ht, to which, however, tlio
coast laiiils are .seldom subject.
The seasons may be properly reiluced to two,
the rainy ami the dry, altlioii;;'h some diside them
into four ; vi/,. thi; spriiitc. coiiiinencin',' in Sept.;
the summer, in Dee. ; the autumn, in NIareli ; jiiid
the winter, in .June. The '"liiiy season usually
sets in abimtOct. or Nov., an. I is preceded in some
parts by f.i;{s, thick groups of clouds, ami siiddeii
Unsts of wind, as well as by occasional showers,
and the temperature is also extremely variable.
This season freiierally lasts till March. The period
of its eonnnencement and teriniiiation varies ac-
cording to latitude and natural position.
Prince Maximilian observes (Iteisnach Hrasi-
lieii, ii. Itil), that in the region of Campos (ieraes,
Feb., Murch, April, and May are usually the
rainy inoiitlis; ,June, .Inly, Aii^c., and Sept. an;
called the cold season; ami that during Oct.,
Nov., Dec., und .Ian. the f^reatest heal jirevails,
M. Von LantrsilortV, formerly 1,'ussian consul at
Itio, makes the followin<; remark upon the seasons
in Itrazil, ilia letter to a friend, given in Kschwent 's
.lournal (ii. Ititi) : — 'Winter, in this country, re-
sembles Hiiniinerin the N. of Kiirope; summer a|i-
jiears one contiiimais spriiif^; while spring; and
aulunin uru unconsciously lost in winter and
summer.'
Proilurts.— The most ccle^irnted, thniiRh far
from the most iinfiortant, of the natural pro-
ductions of Itrn/il, are diamonds. They have-
been found in Miiias (jeraes, i'uiyax, and Alatto
(irosso; but it is supposed that other provinces
nre furnished with these hij^hly prized f^ems.
Those of Minus (ieraes arc ('enerulb.' the lar;:('st.
m
m
m
I' I
riie most celebrated mines arc thos(! of .Serr;i
INC extraordinary fertility of those vast tracts of I do Frio. These mines were not niaimlly dis-
Imd uf which I'liru is the capital in the north, aiul I covered until the tjovcriiiucnt of Don Lorcngo
^,
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
1.1
11.25
lii|2£ |M
Ui l&i 12.2
:s lio 12.0
mi*
Photogra{iiic
Sdences
Corporation
4!^:^
23 WiST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0
(716)S72-4S03
'^
.V2I
BRAZIL
<l'.\liiK'i(ln, nlthoiii^h dianiondH wcro kno^vn to
liiivc IxH'ii ill the iios.scssioii of tlio iio,rrors, wlio
iiit't with them nccidciitiilly while eni|)h(yc(l in
^oihl-wnHhiiifT, and other imtsoils ipioriuit of tiieir
value, loiiK before that j>eriod. Tliey were lirst
lirouKlit from lirn/.il to I^islMui in 172H, l)y Iter-
iiardo da Silva l^oho. He showed them to the
Kiiteli resident consul, who reeofriiised them as
diamonds, and informed liini of his important dis-
t'overy. The mines of Serra do Frio are also
known by tlie name of the Arraynl Diamnntiiio,
or diamond distriet properly so called. This dis-
trict is surrounded liy almost inaccessible rocks,
and was formerly guarded with so much vigilance
that the governor of the province could not enter
it without the Hpcciul permission of the director of
the mines.
The diamonds are songlit by accnmulatiiif; the
cascalhao, a kind of ferruginous earth (in which
the diamonds are found mixed with tlints), and
washing it. The former o|)eration is generally
performed during the hot season, at a time when
the l)eds of the rivers and torrents are dry. and
the diamond-sand can be eaHily extracted. When
the wet season arrives, the operation of washing
commences. It is fwrformed in the o])en air, and
frequently under sheds, where the action of the
sun is least likely to injure the negroes. At the
bottom of the shed glides a small stream, which
occupies one of its sides. Seats, raised, and with-
out backs, are arranged along the shed, in sucli a
manner that the subaltern officers (feitores) are
enabled to watch the negroes at work. One
ofHcer superintends eight negroes. Each negro
works in a compartment of the shed, separated
or walled off, as it were, from the others. The
cascalhao to be examined is placed in troughs
<dose to the stream, and the negroes are intro-
duced entirely naked, excepting in times of ex-
treme cold, when they arc allowed a kind of
■waistcoat, but without either ])0ckets or lining.
They are furnished with an alavanca, a kind of
liandspike, by means of which they separate the
earth ironi the Hint, and then, taking the largest
stones in their hands, they ])roceed to search for
the diamonds. Notwithstanding the precaution
of making the negroes work naked, robberies are
of frequent occurrence. When a negro discovers
a diamond, having first shown it to the ofticer, he
deposits it in a large wooden vessel suspended in
the middle of the shed. If any negro is fortunate
enough to discover a diamond weighing 17 carats,
lie is purchased by the government, and receives
his liberty. The discovery of a stone of less
weight also confers liberty upon the finder, but
with some restrictions. Various premiums are
distributed, according to the value of the stone,
even to a pinch of tobacco, (l)e'nis, Bresil, p.
345.) Notwithstanding every imaginable j)re-
caution, negroes find means to purloin diamonds,
which they sell to smugglers (contrabandistas) at
a very low price. The latter dispose of them
chieflv at Tijuco and Villa do Principe. Work in
the diamond mines is most unhealthy ; it is esti-
mated that the Brazilian mines have cost above
100,000 lives. (Kloden, Ilaudbuch der Erdkuiide.
18(>2. 111.(540.)
Diamonds difler greatly in size. There are some
so small that IC or 20 would scarcely make a carat.
It is rare that, in the course of a year, more than
two or three are found weighing from 17 to 20
carats; and two j'ears may ]ias8 without discover-
ing one of the weight of 30 carats. The largest
diamond of which we have any account was found
in the Kio Abacte in 1791 : it weighs 138^ carats.
The iidministration of the diamond mines is regu-
lated by a law of the 2nd Aug., 1771, entitled ' Kegi-
lal l';xtrae(;Ifo dos Diamaiitcs ,i„
CO, do Serro do Frio,' <;onsisiinLM,l'
mento jmra a IJeal
Arrayyal, do Tijuco, ,.., ,iv.i., .■., nm, consist mirc.f
.tI ar^icl(^s. Down to the date of this law, Hi,.
right of working the diamond mines was fanned
<int ; but from that period the government have
taken it into their own hands, and they are alj
under the Huperintendence of a board. Junta liml
para a AiliiiinintrfU'fio lios Diamuntes.
Kschwege (Hrasilien die neue Welt, i. 120) gives
the following table of the weight of the diniii(iii(|<
extracted from the lirst discovery. As liitln is
known respecting the weight of those discdvcri'il
during the lirst ton years (from 1730 to 17401, he
commences with the latter year : —
Carsti
From 1740 to 1772
177-i — imm
In the years 1811, 1-i, Ifl, and Ifi
Durintf the 11 years of which tliero
are no stntiHtlcal accounts to
which he could pain access (i.e.
from IHIH! to ]82a,(l«lnctii)gtho
above), and during which tlio
])r(Kliico reniarltably decreased,
it caniioi;, at an average, bo
cgtimutcd at more than .
I,fifi«,f)(i9
»IO,51lJ
74,147
|»T vwir
aii.Sili
18,M7
232,000 12,n00
Eschwege estimates the total value of these, nt
the rate of «,000 reis the carat, to be 23.8(lt».5;M,(Kii(
rcis = 69,673,«35 criizadoes = 39,7«2,5r)ti I'riissinu
(Udlars, or 3,475,537/. The estimate is, prolmbly,
rather above than under the truth. Accordiiif; iil
(Jastelnaii, whose statistics come down to 18511, the
productivity of the mines continued decrensiii"
enormously of late. 8o that it follows that the
total value of the diamond-washings, (lurinf; n
period of above 100 years, was hardly equal to in
months' export of sugar and coffee.
(iold is found in Brazil throughout the district
which extends from the neighbourhood of Sim
Paulo and Villarica, as far as the confines of the
river Ytenes. The most celebrated mine is that
of Congo Soco. in a beautiful valley, about 4i)
leagues from Villarica. It was begun to Ik>
wrought in 1740, the proprietor having in a short
time amassed a splendid fortune. In conscquencp,
however, of the want of care and activity on tiie
part of his descendants, the mines ceased to U
productive, and were disposed of, in 1825, to a
company of Englishmen, known as the ' Xwgh-
Brazilian Mining Company,' for 70,000/. stcrliiifr.
The operations of this company extend also to
other places. About Villarica gold is sometimes
found in the form of powder and fine dust, in
crystals, and sometimes, though rarely, in hini|is.
Spix and Martins (Eng. Trans, ii. 182), mciitioii
an instance of a massy piece weighing Iti lbs.
having been found.
The produce of the gold mines was most con-
siderable in the first half of last century. Towanls
its close, from 70 to 80 arrobas were ainiuiilly
smelted in Villarica; while, previously to the
arrival of the English company, the quantity liad
dwindled down to 40. The actual produce of the
entire gold and silver mines and washiiiffs in
Brazil is not supposed to exceed from 1,501I,U(I0 to
1,600,000 dol. a year, being little more tlian
adetpiate for the wants of the country.
Iron-ore is found in great abimdance in various
parts of Brazil. At Ypanema, in the prov. of llio
Grande do Sul, the ore is particularly rich, lint,
though known to exist, this mine was" not wrought
previously to 1810, when it was commenced, mi
account of government, by i party of Swedisii
miners. 'J he works have since been consideriihly
extended ; and, exchisive of the articles niaiiii-
factured for government, orders have latterly bocii
executed for private parties. But a work of this
kind, carried on at the expense of goverument, is
BRAZIL
ff2.'i
)00 12,fi0fl
raroly Rurrpwfnl ; nnd mniiy privnto iron-works
liavi' siiK'c lu't'ii eMtalilislicd in dirt'croiit imrts of
ilie (>tn|iirR tlint tiro, of {L^rcatcr iiiiitorianir tliiiii
tliii-'u of \'|iaii('nia. It is jirobalih', indeed, that
pivcriirnont will, at no distant period, roasi- to
biinlcii itself with tlic oxpciise of tlic; latter, Not-
witlistaiidin)r the midtiplieation of iron foundries,
tlic fiuantity of iron produeed is still far lielow the
wniits of the eoiintry ; niul, alonj; with hardware,
it is larj^ely ini|)orted.
The workinj^ of iron mines was, for unknown,
Imt eertainly had reasons, lonj^ ))rohihit('d by
jjdvernment ; hut that |irohihition no loiifjer ex-
ist.-i, having; l)eeii n'peided soon after the arrival of
the cimrt in lirazil. As cvineiiiK the iniporlanee
iittaclietl hv the llra/.ilians to the openinjLC of the
iiiiiieH, a fjifjantic i)yraniid has been erected ujion
till' Mnnmit uf the Garasoava, in eoinnieinoraiion
(if the event. In sineltin-^ and other operations,
the Swedish method is jmietised.
Itdok-salt has not hitherto been discovered in
lirazil; but this deticiency is, in jiart at least,
supplied by the numerous .inll-lirku and salt-
sprin^is that arc found in ditt'erent parts of the
country. Salt steppes also arc haind, two of which
are very extensive : one of these is situated partly
in the prov. of I'ernainhueo, and jiartly ui that of
lijiliin, on both sides the San Franeiseo, the other
litiii;; near the W. boundary of the ein|)ire, in the
pruv. of Matto (Jrosso, The salt, which is found
(in the surface after the rains, is obtained by wasli-
mg the earth and leaving the water to evaporate.
.Salti)etre and alum are, also, met with in various
parts.
Among the other mineral produotiona of Brazil,
may he mentioned platina and eoi)i)er, found in
the prov. of Minus (Jeracs. Precious stones
al)i)iinil, especially topazes, of which there arc
many varieties.
Vegetable Products, — Among these are sugar,
coffee, cotton, cocoa, rice, tobacco, maize, wheat,
maiulioc, l^unanas, ipecacuanha, ginger, yams,
oranges, figs, and sarsajiarilla. Of these tlie most
important, in a commercial point of view, are
sugar, cotton, and coffee, wliich are now, in fact,
the staple jmiducts of the empire, and the culture
uf which is increased with almost unexampled
rapidity. Sugar is principally raised in the prov.
of Uah'ia, the soil of which is admirably suited to
its growth ; but it is also extensively produeed in
some of the other provs. The value of the sugar
exported from the different parts of the empire to
Great Britain amounted to 1,237,990/. in 18G2,
and to l,lC-2,779/. in 18()3. The culture of cot-
ton is of more recent growth, and its extension
owing in great part to the American civil war.
The exports to (Jreat Britain, in 18()2, were of
the value of l,67(i,741/.; and in 18G3, of the
value of 2,077,088/. The coffee of Brazil was
formerly not liked in Europe, owing to defects in
its treatment. The merit of having introduced a
ttettcr system is due to Dr. Lecesne, a planter
from St. Domingo, who, having established himself
in the vicinity of Bio, instructec' the cultivators
in the most approved methods of treating the plant.
The effects of this liberal conduct have been most
striking. Coffee is still piincii)ally produced in
the vicinity of Kio ; and so rapidly has its culti-
vation been extended, that while its produce in
1818 only amounted to 74,215 bags, it at present
averages' 2,000,000. The exports to Great Britain,
in 1862, amounted to 1.3,080,877 lbs., valued at
387,401/.; and in 1803 to 9,409.720 lbs., valued at
290.4.50/.
Tobacco is principally grown in the islands in
the bay of Kio Janeiro, and in that of Angra dos
I'cys. on the lowest coast-land ; it is inferior in
quality to that of the IT. States. The exports of
tobacco are very tluctiiating. Those to Great
Ihitain amounted to l.79;> lbs. in ISo'.t, to 9ii."),(li:»
lbs. in 18(12, and to 173,328 lbs. in |Ntl3. liice is
largely cultivated in some placets, and is exported;
but the principal de]iendence of the )io|iulation is
on the mandi.ic, nninioc, or cassava (.latropha
Mttnihot), regarded by the Indians as a beque.<t
from their pro]ihet Sinie, and which, on that
account, has sometimes been snppost^il not to be
indigenous. But, if connected at all with the
plant, the fimction of the prophet was most pro-
liahly conlined to instructing the Indians in the
mode of its use. And this, though a most essential
service, was by no means an obvious one; for, in
its natural state, the root of the plant, which is
the oidy part that is maih? use of, is extremely
dangerous, the juice being a deadly poison in
which the Indians were accustomed to dip their
arrows. When, h.owever. the latter is ex|)elled,
the residinnn, or farinaceous (lart, is perfectly
wholesome, and makes a highly nutritious and
excellent food. Long before the discovery of
America the Indians were in the habit of ex])elling
the juice, by first peeling and then beating the
roots into a coarse powder and subjecting the
latter to pressure and to the inilueiice of heat
ill bags made of rushes. On the estates of the
planters the roots are now ground in mills, pressed,
and the jierfect exjiulsion of the juice ell'ected by
heating the residuum in vessels placed over a brisk
tire. Manioc is found on every t.ible in Brazil, and
sujjplies a great number of excellent dishes. Tapi-
oca, so well known and extensively used in Kurojje,
is a iireparation of manioc, and is almost wholly
brought from Brazil. The imports of this article
into Great Itritain amounted to «,335 cwt., valued
at l:i,8;!8/. in 1802; and to 2,01)0 cwt., valued
at 4,193/., in 1803. The culture of the manioc is
said to be most unfavourable to the soil, exhausting
it in the < mirse of a few j'ears. This, however, is
of com], '.ratively little consequence in a country
where waste land is so abundant as in Brazil. A
sjiecies of sweet manioc (Munihot Assim) is also
found in Brazil. It is boiled and eaten in the
same manner as the potato ; but it is not service-
able in the manufacture of flour.
Notwithstanding her fertility and extent, Bra-
zil is indebted to foreign countries, and especially
to the U. States, for large supplies of wheat Hour.
This has been said to be a consequence of the nn-
suitableness of the soil for the culture of wheat ;
but this does not really appear to be the case, that
species of grain being found to succeed extremely
well in the southern provs. and on the tablc-luiuls
of the interior. The importati(m of llour is rathe
a consequence of the indolence of the natives.
The prov. of Para is particularly fitted for
the growth of rice, and might supply it in any
quantity.
The culture of the tea-plant has been tried in
Brazil, and the soil and climate have been found
suitable to its growth; but its culture has not
made, and could not rationally be expected to
make, much progress, inasmuch as it can only
be successfully carried on where lalKinr is abundant
and cheap ; whereas it is here both scarce and dear.
The forests of Brazil, -which are of vast extent
and luxuriance, furnish almost every variety of
useful and ornamental wood ; their products being
adajited alike to ship-building, carpenters' work,
cabinet work, dyeing, &c. The cocoa-tree is
plentiful in the sandy soils along the coast. It
is thicker and taller than in the E. Indies ; coC(ja
is in general use among all ranks, and forms one
of the chief articles of the internal trade, and also
supplies considerable quantities for exportation.
f)26
BRAZIL
y-A
■:a\
I
Tho cnrnHcnto, or cnstor-trco, is nn indlKcnous pro-
duction, niid is much cuUivatcd for the unkc of the
nil extracted from itHsccd, in jjcnornl use for himps
nnd otiier purposes. The jacnrniidu.or rose-wood,
is peculiarly valuable for caliinet work, and is
extensively exported. One of the most valuahl(^
woods, the CicKalpinia Bratiletli), or Urazil-wood
(called Ihiripitanga hy the natives), prodncinfj
a heautiful red dye, has been already referred to.
It is found in the f^reatest abundance, and of the
best quality, in the prov. of iVrnambuco; but
bein^^ a government monopolj', it has been cut
down in so imjjrovident a manner, that it is now
seldom seen within several leagues of the coast,
There are also cedars, lofovootl and mahogany.
The forests of Itrnzil, particularly those in the
prov. of I'ara, along the Amazon, yield vast
quantities of caoutchouc or india-rid)ber, tbi! uses
of which have been bo very greatlv extended
during the last thirty or forty years, 'riie exports
ol caoutchouc to (Jreat Uritain are jjretty regular.
Thev amounted to i{(),i;2(5 cwt., valued at*272,;M!t/.,
in l"wi2, and to iU.J^JVi cwt., valued at 2i)'.>,(i41/.,
in 1H(!3. Nuts arc also extensively exported.
Animtih. — The Brazilian forests are full of rapa-
cious animals : among which are the tiger-cat,
the hyena, the saratu, an animal about tho size
of a htx, but far more ferocious, the jaguar, or
tiger of S. America, the sloth, and the porcupine.
The planters are much annoyed by ounces ; wild
bogs are common, and the singular animal called
the anta, or tapir: the latter rcscntblcs the hog
in shape, but is mucb larger; it is, in fact, the
largest of the native quadrupeds, is timid and
liannlcss, feeds like a horse, is amphibious, and
capable of remaining for a long time at the bottom
of lakes without coming up to respire. When
killed, its Hesh is generally eaten, and is said to
differ but little from that of the ox.
The useful animals, as the horse, ox, and sheep,
are all descended from the stocks brought from
Europe by the early settlers. Their increase, cs-
peciallj' that of cattle and horses, has been aston-
ishingh' great. Vast herds of wild cattle are met
with in all the open parts of the country, par-
ticularly in the llanos, or plains of the S. provinces.
Hides, tallow, jerked beef, horns, and bones, have
long formed, and still continue to form, leading
articles of export from lirazil. In 1HC2, the ex-
ports of hides to (ireat Uritain amounted to
i;{l,238 cwt., valued at 420,053/., and in 1803 to
127,192 cwt., valued at 347,523/. It is only in
particular situations that any use is made of the
beef, which mostly becomes the prey of vultures,
•wild dogs, and other ravenous animals. Sheep
being less able to defend themselves from attack,
and being probably, too, not so well suited to the
country, have not increased so rapidly as cattle
and horses. Horses are of middling size, strong,
active, and fleet.
The emu, or American ostrich, is found in the
Brazilian plains; and the forests swarm with
innumerable varieties of birds and monkeys. In
the marshy countries the boa attains to an enor-
mous size, and they arc also infested with the
corral snake, and other venomous reptiles.
Manufactures. — These, unless we call the pre-
paration of sugar a manufacture, can hardly be
said to exist in Urazil, and are restricted to the
production of the coarsest species of cotton cloths,
the tanning of leather, and a few of those that
are simplest and most necessary. In the interior,
as in the provs. of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, the
mechanical arts are in the most backward state
imaginable.
In the cities, however, a great number of trades
are necessarily carried on. 'The European
stranger in Rio,' says Dr. Von Si)ix, ' h ns-
tonislied at the number of gold and silversmitli.H
and jewellers, who, like the other tradesmen, livi.
together in one street, which calls to niinil tlH>
niagnilicent mas ile Guru and (h Pruta of MnIkiu.
The workmanship of these artisans is, iiidccil',
inferior to that of the Kuropean, but it is n»t
destitute of taste and s<didity. Many trades
which are very necessary in Kurope are, at present
almost superldious in the interior of tins coiinirv!
on account of the cir<'umscrilied wants of tlu'
inhab. In the ea|)ital, however, and the otlier
towns on the coast, joiners, whitesmiths, ainl
other artisans are mimerous; but tanners, (i(in)i-
boilers, and workers in steel are scarce. There is
a great demand for mechanics, to build siifpir .iikI
other mills, to construct machines for workin^'
the gold mines, &c. ; and very high wnges are
paid them. Hitherto no glass, china, clntli, ur
iiat manufactures have been establislied in the
caj)ital ; and their erection would not beiidvisalile
in a countrv which can obtain the pnxluclidiis (if
European industry on the lowest terms, in ex-
change for tho produce of its rich soil.' (Travels,
i. 198.)
Commerce. — The extremely circumscribed ox-
tent of her manufactured products, on tho mie
hand, and, on the other, the large amount of lier
coffee, sugar, cotton, and other tropical (jniduels,
give lirazil a powerful motive to engage in, and
the means of carrying on, an extensive comniera'.
Her commercial pcdicy has, also, been character-
ised by considerable liberality. The duties on
imijorts and exports have been mostly moderate;
and have been imposed more for the sake of re-
venue than of protection. Her imports com|)rise
most sorts of manufactured goods suitable for lier
population and climate, particularly cottons, linens,
woollens, and hardware, from Englamt; flour,
coarse cottcms, beef, pork, &c., from the U. States;
wine, silks, salt, brandy, olive oil, »tc., from France
and Portugal; linens, lace, pitch, itc, from Ham-
burgh. Great Uritain enjoys the largest share of
the trade of lirazil. The total value of imports
into lirazil from the United Kingdom amounted
to 3,840,904/. in 1859; to 4,571,308/. in 18t;(); to
4,690,875/. in 18G1 ; to 3,860,342/. in 1802; and to
4,082,641/.in 1803. Cotton manufactures fonn the
largest item of these imports. Tliej' arc of the
average value of 2,000,0t)0/. sterling ])er annnin ;
during the five years, 1859-()3,' thev fluctuated
bet^veen 1,70(1,000/. and 2,400,000/. Next to cotton,
but far below it in value, are the imports of Hritisli
woollens and linens, each class averaging aiiout
250,000/. per annum. The rest of liritish imports
consist of miscellaneous manufactures and co-
lonial produce.
The articles of export from Brazil have been
already enumerated in our account of the prodnc-
tions of the country. The principal are coffee,
sugar, and cotton : that of coftiee alone avcrafjin^'
more than one half of the total value of all exports,
and that of sugar nearly one-fifth. Next to tiiese
staple articles of export follow hides, bones, horse-
hair, caoutchouc, gold, diamonds, cabinet and dyo
woods, drugs, gums, nuts, and other agricultural
produce. The total value of the exports iu the
three years 1861-3 amounted to: —
Yean
Export!
1861
1802
1803
MllreU
90,199,735
100,782,222
112,950,011
10,822,470
12,013,000
12,700,876
The imports, during the same period, amounted
to:—
BRAZIL
527
Tt»r«
lin|)orU
IHfil
lSti2
iHiia
Mllrcli X
no,:lti!,:.7.') 14,(ill(!,ni4
iy7,IHl,l!t:| 14,;iii7,MS4
lii,tW2,i;M4 Vi,r>r>i ,:,r,\
The imports were tlivided as loUiuvs lu'twoni
the vnridiw couiitrieH in tiie two lu»t-nunic(.l
years : —
Importi from
isoa
1843
Mllri'li
Mllrcli
Gront Britain niiil British 1
P0l<l^C^«io^l8 .
C7,.'il)I,015
64,000,474
Franco iinil French Pos- 1
sessions ...
18,441, V74
19,353,461
Hniiso Towna .
6,f.90,910
3,828,250
rortuRnl iind Vortiigncso 1
1 Pt)ssc»nloiis . . )
7,i4 1,070
0,957,494
8pain nnd Spanlsli Possus- )
1 fiionH • . . 1
I,fi09,2.'i9
1,755,679
'Bplgium . . . .
l,94a,.').'i8
2,424,161
1 Sweden nnJ Norway
r)n;l.918
312,561
Italy
812,914
(i9(!,:i55
{ United States .
l3,32H,:ioa
12,889,591
IChill
l)02,<Mi8
663,963
Jfpxico ....
2fl2
—
' H(o do la Plata .
6,407,253
4,921,198
1 Uiiwiia . 1 . .
33,279
12,005
! Austria . . . .
1,244, .'.2(1
1,484,867
Dmmnrk ....
44,r)09
77,082
Holland and Dutch Pos- )
1 sessions ...
129,756
177,361
'Eqimdor . . . .
22,845
38
Ports of the Empire .
l,03(i,l.'ifi
645,540
„ not siiecifiwl .
61,9(!3
626,506
FisJiorica ....
5,990
6,470
Africa ....
Total . .
321,870
249,027
127,2(18,19(1
111,622,687
£14,317,072
£12,557,551
It will be seen from the above table that Great
Britain furnishes about one-half of the imports of
Itrn/.il. Of the exports of lirazil, (Jreat Uritain
lakes about onc-thurd, as shown in tlie statistics
kforc given.
Populuthn.—Oi th- 8,000,000 inhabitants of
Brazil, 5,000,000 are estimated to be freemen,
2,500,000 negro slaves, and about 500,000 native
Indians. As already stated, the masses of the in-
habitants congrefjate near the coast, and around
the chief sea-ports ; thus the district of the muni-
cipality of Kio de Janeiro comprises about 450,000
inhabitants, and the slaves in that district are
rather less than half of the number. In the pro-
viaee of Kio de Janeiro, the slaves exceed in number
the free population. Bahia contains but a small
proportion of whites, and the black inhabitants are
80 numerous that it resembles an African city.
Out of 125,000 inhabitants of Bahia, seven-eighths
are said to be blacks, and nearly all the negroes
ate slaves. Pemambuco has a population of about
*W,000, of whom one-third are estimated to be
skvea, one-third coloured free blacks, and remain-
ing one-third are Brazilians and foreigners. Wiiilst
Brazil remained a colony of Portugal, but few
women accompanied the emigrants to Soutli Ame-
rica. The earliest European settlers intermarried
and mixed with Indian women ; afterwards an ex-
tensive intermixture of race occurred with the
Africans who were bought for slavery. The mixed
population increases continually and rapidly in
Brazil. In the northern provinces the Indian ele-
ment prei)onderates. In South Brazil the negroes
are numerous. The greatei part of the population
of the Brazilian empire consists of mixed breeds,
each of which has a distingidshing name ; thus
Mulatto denotes the offspring of a white with a
ucgru; and Mameluco that of a white with an
Indian ; Cafii/o denotes the mixture of the Indian
and negro; Ciiriboco, tiie cross between tlie Cii-
fiixo and the Indian; Ailiiiro, that between the
Cafiizo and the negro, and ho forth.
The 2,500,000 of negro ulavos belong to about
40,000 proprietors. A law for the Hiipprrssion of
the trade in slaves was sanctioned liy the eniitemr
on June 5, 1«,"»4. The iinniigration of sfttiers
from Kurope, parliciilarly (ieruiansand Swiss, has
been greatly eiicourage<l by the (loveninient for a
number of years. According to an otlicial report
of the year IWtil, there existed in tlie empire 55
colonies of these settlers, inhabited by ;1H,!»70
foreigners. Tlu) nucleus of these settlements, re-
garded as an antidote to slavery, is in the province
of Kio (iraiide do Sul.
In lira/.il, unlike the Spanish and English co-
h)iiies, there is hardly any jiolitical division of
castes, and very few of those galling and degrading
distinctions which have been made by all other
nations in the management of their colonies. This
was not intended by the mother country, but has
arisen from the circumstances connected witii the
colonisation of this vast territory, wiiich rendered
intermarriage with the natives "inevitable. It is
true that, according to the old code, jieojile of
colour are not eligible to some of the chief odices
of government, nor can they Ix'come members of
the priesthood ; but, from the mildness of the laws,
the mixed classes have gained ground considerably,
and the regulations against them are evaded, or
rather ii;ive become obsolete. Marriages between
wiiito men and women of colour are by no
means rare; and the circumstance is scarcely olj-
served upon, unless the woman be decidedly of a
dark colour, for even a considerable tinge will pass
for white.
Tiie diseases and the vices introduced by Eu-
rojieans are said to produce a feart'ul mortality
amongst the natives. At the time when the
Jesuits, Anchieta and Nobrega, exerted themselves
to introduce Euro])ean civilisation, an ejiidemical
small-jiox suildenly carried off two-thirds of the
pop. (Southey's Brazil, i, 204.)
The Brazilerois, or native Brazilians, bom of
Portuguese parents in Brazil, inherit all the idle-
ness and inactivity of their European ancestors,
Weech remarks, ' that the very narrow comp.xss
in which the necessities of the poorer classes are
confined is almost incredible. A hut, constructed
of thin poles of wood, plastered together, as it
were, with earth, and covered with straw, is ample
security against the sun and rain ; a straw mat
serves them as a bed, seat, and table ; a dish and
pot complete the house and cooking apparatus; a
couple of cotton shirts, a pair of linen trousers, a
calico jacket, a pair of wooden shoes, and a coarse
straw hat, com^ilete a wardrobe that furnishes them
handsomely for a year ; and a kitchen garden, a
few fruit-trees, and a mandioc field, furnish them
with a plentiful subsistence. Give them but a
viola (a small guitar strung with metal strings),
and some tobacco to make their much-loved paper
cigars, and their dearest wishes are gratified.
Smoking the latter, and stmmming on the former,
they can beguile entire half-days in a state of
enviable forgetfuluess, vegetating like the plants.
A few fowls, sent to thecity from time to time, furnish
the necessary supplies ; and thus live thousands of
families, whose annual income does not exceed 20
milrcis, or about 4/. 10s.'
The number of negro slaves in Brazil is believed
to be on the decline, although the importation of
them from Africa has never entirely ceased. In
182G a treaty was made between Great Britain
and Brazil, providing i'lat at the expiration of
three years from the exchange of ratifications, the
I
W'
fi28
BUAZIL
!!^'
ciirryirif^ on of the nlnvo tratlci l)y nny Rrnzilimi
Hul)J('ct hIioiiUI lip uiilnwriil, aixl hIiduIiI I><^ lU'cinnl
iiiiil irciittMl lu* iiii'Hcy. During tluwc tlircf ycai.-',
tcriiiiimtiii); in IHilO, a C(in!4i<l('ralil(> increase of thu
traili* ill Hlav(\s tin>k plao^; iniicli Ilrn/iliaii capihil
'wax cniharliod in tlicNlavn tratlic, anil the ^rpatcst.
iiiiMHil>l(> UNO of Jhat source of profit wa» nmtlc as
lon^ iiH it WMH |H>nnittt>(l,
In 1K2H the niiinlifr of slaves imported into
Itio amounted to A'iijt^to; and during tliu twelve
months eiidiiiK SiOtli .June, IK.'IO, llie same port
received .")t!,777 negroes, besides wliieli, there were
'21, />''>! imported into otiier parts of Itra/.il, making
u total, ill that year, of "X,;!;tl imported slaves.
For twenty years, after WW, tiie slave traile
continued without ahntement, and duriiifr that
period n million of slaves were ini|iorted into
Jlra/il. honl I lowdeii, minister at K'io de.lnneiro,
reported an importation of upwards of (il),(lill)
nejjroes in 1MI7. Shivers were sei/.ed in IH'jd hy
onlers of the Kritisli (iovernment in the Itra/.ilian
|iorts and rivers, and this decided measure led to
Hiich active efl'orts on the ]iart of the Kraxilian
(iovernment to sii|)])ress the slave trade, that, in
IMol, Sir James Iludson reported that only 4(iO
nlaves had hecn imported into lirazil during the
(irst quarter of that year. The slave trade; has
not been continued in lira/il since iHiil, liut there
iiH! upwards of three milliuna of slavca now in
that empire,
CoflCce plantations have been so profitable, that
they have much increased in nuinlicr, and many
Blaves have been liroufiht from the northern or
etiuatorial pi-ovinccs of Itra/.il to the cott'ee (grounds
of the more southerly provinces. ChieHj' on this
account an internal slave trade has been fccjit up,
involviiif; some of the worst cruelties of forced
remo\-al of slaves from homes and separation of
families. Mr. Westwood, the Consul at IJio de
tianciro, wrote to the Earl of Clarendon, 22nd
January, 1M,")7, ' Diirinfjthe last year, the value of
ulavcs nicreased so much in this province, that
large numbers were purchased in Bahia, I'ernam-
Liico, and other jiarts, by unfeeling speculators,
and brought to this city for sale. Many of these
unfortunate beings were brought from estates
•where they were bom, and torn away from rela-
tions and old associations in the most inhuman
and cruel manner jiossible,' ' Amongst the slaves
transported from the north,' said a Brazilian se-
nator in the senate, ' 1 have seen some in the
market of J{io de Janeiro, who are children of ton
and twelve years old, who have left their parents
in the north, and are sold here. A slave from the
north told mc that he was married in the province
where he was sold, and that his wife remained
there, and h« was sent here.' Mr. Scarlett, minister
at Kio de Janeiro, made a strong ajipeal to the
llrazilian Government to stop this tratHc in 18M,
but without effect. According to recent rejiorts
from Mr. Christie, about 6,000 slaves a year have
been imported in this way for sale into Kio de
Janeiro during the last twelve years. (Consular
Keports, 1864.)
'riie planters of Brazil are very similar to those
of other countries. The possession of an engenho
(sugar plantation and manufactory) establishes,
among the cultivators, a sort of nobility. A senhor
tTengenho is always spoken of with respect ; and to
attain this rank is the object of everj' one. When
the senhor is in the company of his inferiors, or
evjii of his eijuals, he is reserved, holds his head
high, and speaks in that loud and command-
ing tone, that betokens a man accustomed to be
obeyed.
The mulattoes (commonly called Pardos, signi-
fying of a brown colour, for the term mulatto is
regiinled as a reproach in Brazil) are the ofTspriiii;
of r,iiro()eaiis and iiegroeH. 'i'liey hImhv ,.,„|,i.
deralile ingeiiiiily and perseveraiiVi' in Hk. „„,,
clianical arts, and are said to display a tiudc |»r
|iaiiiting.
There can bo no doubt of the oft'ectiial inlluiiK >
of the niula|to in the political afl'airs of Hie iciim
try : a physical organisation essentially eiier^jctic
and which tits him to bear up against "the luat (,('
the climate, his activity and his iiitelljp.iici'
point him out as a person likely to make a idii-
spicuoiis figure in a revolution, ii' not to orj,'aiiiM! a
movement.
The Oroides are those honi in Brazil of Afriiiin
jiarentN; the Mamhicos are the ott'spriiignf whit,.,
and Indians; the Curibocos, of negroes iniij In.
ilians ; and the (,'ubros of miiliitto(>.s and nc^Tiics
The- African negroes form, as has been seen, » vcrv
large proportion of the ii(ij)nlatii)n. Their cipii-
ditioii, though not equal to that of the slaves In
Buenos Ayres and the adjacent countries, is hihiii
a far lietter footing than in many other c(il(ii,i(»,
It varies, however, in the dilleren't provinces, nmi
is best in those situated in the interinr. In tin.
])roviiices fonnorly inhabited by the less wnrlike
races among the' Indians, who formed enrlv al-
liances with lMiro|K!aiis, the introdiu^tion orne'^rrm,^
has been less necessary. Such, forexainpl", is the
case with Ifio (Jrandeilo Sul, San I'aiild, ami the
countries traversed by the Amazon. The iicto
]io])ulation is most numerous in the pruviiiecs
devoted to the raising of sugar and <'oll'ee,as liahia
and Itio Janeiro ; and in these probably they have
the greatest facilities for obtaining their liliertv,
The negroes brought to Brazil belong generallv to
Angola, Angiiiz, Bengiiela,Cabinda, Mo/.ainliir|iie.
and Congo. Since the attempts to rejiress the trade,
Koromantines, or negroes from the (jnld ('nasi,
who are thought to possess a greater degree of in-
telligence, are not so frequently met with. Tlicro
are three modes by which tlie negroes of Krazil
obtain their liberty : it may be granted ilicm hy
their master while living, or he may beiineatii
it to them by his will, or they may obtain it by
ransom.
The Brazilians divide the Indian races into
'Indios mansos,' civilised or converted Indians
speaking the Portuguese language, and Tai)iiiosur
Gcntios, nnciviliseil hordes.
The general opinion has boon that the whole
American race, from the polar regions to the Straits
of Magellan, ottered no distinctive traits, and that
it was almost impossible to subdivide it, Ijiit a
closer inspection has shown that there is as great
a ditterence amongst them as among any of the
other great varieties of the human race.
With few exceptions, the natives of Brazil ap-
pear to belong to the grpat family of the (Jiiaranis,
the diftcrences in the tribes resulting from ttie dit-
ferent situations in which they have been placed;
and originating partly in physical and partly in
moral and accidental circumstances,
Sjieaking generally, the natives of Brazil are ef
a bright yellow copper colour; short, robust and
well made ; hair black, lank, coarse, and dcticieiit
on the chin ; face round ; cheek bones not particu-
larly prominent ; skin soft and shining ; nose sliert,
nostrils narrow; mouth middle sized; lips thin;
eyes small, oblique, and elevated towards the ex-
terior angle, Tliey are in an extremely low state
of civilisation ; their industry being coiitiiied, in
addition to the arts of hunting and lisliiiig,an(l the
gathering of wild fruits, to the culture of manioc
and bananas. In some tribes clothes are wholly
or all but wholly unknown ; in others the women ^
wear a scanty covering round their middle; and in
others both sexes are partially clothed. The prae- ^
TKAZIL
fi2f»
liop of pniiitii)^' flic hIciii in imivcrsftl; nii<l sntncnf
ilii'in wcri', mill, inclccil, xtill nrc, in rlir Iniliit nf
jiiiiTliiii,' "(inili'ii ring's liy way (irnriuiiin lit in ilii'
iiiiiirr li|i. AltiiiiNt ail till' li'ilir.s were uiillirii|iii-
|iliaKi"'''t "U'Viiiiriii^; ilic (•!i|iti\('H tliry hail liiKcii
liiwar; liiit lliiM Imrriil ciiMtinu, if ii iliii not t'li-
lirily ccaHc at tin- ciiiicli ol'tlit' ciiikiiichI, lias Hiiicr
fiilli'ii into (lisiiHr. 'I'licy arc in Ki'in'rul Kf"^''' '""I
imiiiiis; lint tliov ar<> notwitliMtainiiii^' rmiil »(
fi'M^ts anil paNliincs; anil, lil\c tlic otlicr IinliniiH,
nri' I'liiiil, til t'xi'css, iil'H|iii'itiiiiiis lii|iiiirH. In mhiii'
irihrH llii'V ailniil of a |iliirality of wives; ami tlir
nii'ii,i'ii;;''i^^<'<l ■>> I'liasc or in waf. i>r>iiiiU in :i|>alliy
luiil iilcncss, (lovolvi! on tlu'. woiiicii tlie iniiiripal
c'iri' of the ilonicstic conccriiH. It is ilmilitl'iil
wlii'iluT .•<iini(' of till! more liarliaroiis trilics liavc
aiiv iilca of 'I Suiircinc lU'in;;; Imt llicy mostly all
klicvo in the existfiifi) of niali^niant tlt'nions,
wliiiiii tlicy aro anxious to conciliatf. Amon;; f he
trilii'calK'il Tn|iiniiinl)as. the fliicf was at tlicsanu^
linio (>lrctivi! anil liiTcditary ; tlial is, n iircfiTciu'c
iviis nciicrallv is'wvn to tlu? son as his fatlirr's siii--
ri^Hiir, tlioii^li the custom dot's not apiicarto liav(;
Iktii iniinntalilo. ]Montai;:;ni<, on nicetiii;^ an In-
iliiin I'liicf at Havre, iiuinircit thron^li an inter-
liri'liT, what was his ri^^ht anion;; liis trilie; n|ion
whirli the latter rciiliecl, ' It is that of niarehiiif;
f.in'iiiiist to battle; nnil this iiii!;;ht lie said to ('x-
pri'ss sui'ciiictly theoxteiit of power assi^^ni'd to him
livliis people. TheTniiinaniliascliielly inhaliit the
(lastfrimi the river Cainaina to the San ['"raneiseo.
IIh' I'lirvados, fonnerly very nnmonms, are now
MJiio'il to ft nnmber I'lmijiaratively insi^^'iiiticant.
Tlii'V dwell eliiellyon the banks of the ItioXipoto,
in Minas (ieraes. They have one trait that ilis-
tiiifjiiislies them from most other Indian tribes, i.e.
thoy liiiry their dead. The Corvados, it appears,
have liwt mneh of their )iriinitive ferocity, and
nlili it also much of their furincr courage ami in-
toili^'ciice.
The Cafnzoa, a mixture of Indians and iicproes,
are a very singular raee. What f^ivcs them a jie-
ciiliarly .striking; appearance, is the excessively
liiii(,'hnir of the heud, which, especially at the end,
is half curled, and rises almost perpendicularly
fniin the forehead to the hcij^ht of a toot or a foot
and ft half; thus forming? a prodi^^ious and very
u;;lv kind of peruke. (Spix and Martins, i. iJ'Jl.)
the I'uris, at the commencement of the jiresent
CMitiiry, were very troublesome enemies to the
llrnzilians. A j^reat many fa/.endos have been
fnmi time to time destroyed by them. The L'io
Diii'o, the S. banks of the Paraliyba, San Fidelis,
and the country watered by the Uio Pomlia, in
Minas, are the chief points ex))0sed to their in-
cursions. This race is more implacable than any
of the Indian races of Brn/il.
Tiic Uotocudos, descended from the Aymores,
occupy at present the territory lying between the
lliu Diice and the Hio Pardo. They inhabit the
recesses of the forests ; are little addicted to agri-
cnlt'ire; and are exceedingly fierce. The name
given to them by the Portuguese is derived from
|Kitii(|iie or botoquc (literally the bimg of a cask),
fmiii the circular ornament tliey wear in their ears
and lips.
The estimates that have been formed of the
nniiilier of Indians in ISra/.il differ in the most
extraonliiiary maimer. Thus, thev were estimated
liy Humboldt to amount, in i«19, to 'ioOjlOO
(Voyage aux Regions I'^quinoxales, &c., ix. 179;
xi. Ilii) ; where.is thev have since been computed
k Veloso de Oliveira at «0(MtflO, and bv the
Visemint de Santarem at 1,500,()0(). (D'Orbigny,
L'llmnme Americain, ii. 291.) The latest, and,
in all prill lability, most trustworthy estimates,
give ilio lunnber'of Indians at half a million.
Vol. I.
I'lihlir Tiicomr iind E.rjwfullhiri: — ron.^idering
the small and mneh seattertd popnlatinn of the
empire, it has a eoiislileralile revi niie, but ft still
more euiisMeralile expeiiiliiiire. Tin' actual in-
eonie during the four tinaneial years IN.Vi-tiO was
as follows : —
The actual ex[)cnditure during the Bumo porioil
was as lolliiws : —
Yi«ri
F.xiM'nilllur*
lR.',(i-r,7
1h:i7-.'m
Is:.s-.19
lS.-.!»-tiO
Mllri'lfi
41,!l-.'il,7l9
W,ill'7,:i7!»
rM,l!i;!,4i-.'
r)4,lMI'i,'JS9
£
4,71ll,7"i.">
<5,(l7M.liSlt
(!,-Jllll,ll9
t),ll7.''>,fi9.1
riut n very small portion of the revenue is de-
rived from taxation. The great bulk, amonnting
to iH'arly two-thirds, is derived from import duties.
Snlijoined is u statement of the revenue for two
periods; —
Itrtinc-liei of Kfvrnuo
Import DntlpR . . .
Slii|))iiii^ Diie^ . . .
Kxiiort Duties , . .
Iiiliiiiil 'faxes . . .
AIiiiiiri|iiil Taxes . .
Extraonliimry receipt.''
Loans
Total
General Total
iHa»-.'>7
Milrrln
3'.>,wr,(i,'.>fi3
•J4!M4r.
(),!l 1(1,9119
7,iMi.'i,7:i7
l,.'i;tl,-.'i4
ri4-J,-il(l
49,lfill,414
3.r.99,«9,>
.VJ,7.1(!,1(I9
185»-t)0
MllrrU
27,24li.'.'9.'i
'.',sii,(i'j:l
r>,f..".!),(i73
H,18.'i,(l:)4
l,773,.'ilB
43,nii,.')n(t
3,4ri9,'28.'i
47,070,791
A:.0,'J9.-..4(i4
The expenditure during the same two years
was as follows : —
BraiichM of Kx|K>nitituro
1858-57
1850-00
Ministry of Interior .
„ Justice . . .
„ Foreinn Affairs
„ Marino . . .
„ War ....
„ I'lnauco . . .
Total . . .
Deposits i)aid off . .
General Total 1
Mllrols
fi,(i:.(i,a27
3.:i(i9,7:i3
0:19,374
0,r.lo,4r.7
10,041,708
1.1,010,403
40,373,903
l,5-)2,7.'>0
MllroU
y.H-.'O.'.'.'i.'i
4,:.17,7(l'2
8(;4,:!3-i
9,'.'17,4'il
1'2,0«7,047
14,7.'iO,043
01,293,400
2,711,889
41,9'.>0,719
.■C4,71(i,7o5
fi4,00r.,289
£r>,()'rj,r,'.)r>
The annual deficits in the budget, shown in the
above tables, were covered by loans, raised both
at home and abroad. The ]iublic dtfbt of Urazil
amounted, at the end of the year IHtU, to about
lH,(m(>,('*W/. sterling, of which 10,9(;."),0(tO/. consti-
tuted the foreign debt — chiefly held by nrilish
creditors — and tlie rest the funded internal debt.
Ihit besides this funded debt, there was, at the
same time, a floating debt, consisting of tnuisnry
bonds and government jiaper-money, to the
amount of 4,500,000/. sterling. The total amount
of paper currency in circulation throughout the em-
pire was estimated, in June, IHlU, at «(V)21, 950,000
milrcis. or rather more than 9,000,000/. sterling.
Railwni/s. — The; great want of internal comnui-
nicaliou within the immense area of the empire,
JI M
/).')()
URAZIL
liHs licfM rcriicilir'd to Home extent, in reecnt yearn,
liv the esiiililiNlitnenl of niiUviivH. 'I'liey eon><i^l
ciiiclly of liiur lines eon-lruiled liy jiiiMile roin-
)iMnie.-<. unci, in llii' iniiin, wllli Itrilixli eii|>iliii,
)>nl uitli tile nil! mill Miliveiiiioii ol' ilie Itrii/ilian
pivernnient. The t'oiir lines are known as liie
l>iin I'eiiro II., tlie llaliia ami San Friineisni,
llif I'eriianiliiii'n. ami (lie San raiiln raiUvays.
The lir.st-naiiii'il is a main line, which is to esteinl
into the interior I'roni Itio ile .Ifiin-iro, and is in
tended to lie the (Inind TrnnU iVoin wliieli many
liranehes will raniilVon either side. The llrst sec-
tion (ahont Id ni. ni extent) was comnienccd in
|H."(7. 'I'he second section was ofVercd to con-
tractors in llie hitler part of tlie same year, since
which lime this section, 1 1 m. lon^, and contain-
in^^ the Innni'l of Meiidex has hceii linished. The
■whole mnsi he comiileted hy 1st .lamiary, IHCH,
hilt it is likely to he o|ieneil from Santos to Jiiii-
(liaky two years hefore that dale.
The second line, the llahia and San Francisco,
77 III. Ion;;, \vas huill liy an I'ln^lish coni|iaiiy.
under the 'Limited Liaiiility' Act. and o|ieiied
Jan. ill, |H(;;t. The line tra\«'rses the snpir and
toliacco districts, ind o|ieiis n|i tin Hon field of
tlie iinportant |irovince of the llahia. It coni-
inenccs at San Salvador, the chief port of that
)iroviiice. and the second largest city in the empire,
and terminales at or near the town of .loa/.eiro,
on the ri;;lit hank nf the ^reat river San I'rancisco,
the iiavi;;'atioii of which is free and niiiMierrnpteil
from that town for l.oiMl m. into tlu; interior of
Ih-a/.il. This railivay cost l,K(Ml.(l(Mi/., on which
Slim an interest is ^niaranteed of seven percent.,
namely, live per cent, by the l'>ra/ili:m govern-
ment, and two per cent, hy the provincial lej,'is-
latiire of Hahla.
The third line runs from the city and nort of
I'ermimliiico to the (own of Apia I'reta in the
interior, a distance of 7K m. It is intended to
iirolonj,' tliis railway nliimafely to the river San
i''raiicisco, at the jioiiil where its waters hecoine
iiuvi^rahle. ISolh this I'ernainhiico. line, and th(>
fourth llra/iiiaii railway, that of Huliia — a work of
extraordinary ditUciiUy — were constructed entindy
liy Kiit;lish entfineers, as well as with Kiij^lisli
capital, on wliicli, howev<'r, there is in every cjise a
f,niar!intee(l interest of seven percent. Hitherto,
neither of these lines have proved commercially
remunerative. lhoii;;h they liave been, unduubt-
cdly. of vast bciielit to the coiinlry.
Jielii/iim. — The established relif^ioii of Ura/il is
the lidinaii (.'atholic; but all other reli;;ioiis an^
tolerated, and tliere is not now, wliiituver there
may have been formerly, much intolerance amoii^
the Itrazilian ("ntholics, except nm(m>; the lowest
niul leant instructed classes. Iiidceil the others
are generally distinguished by ii want of zeal in
reli^fioiis matters; and arc more occupied with the
outward ceremonies of religion than with its spirit
<ir practical inthience. Some of the clerf,'y jiosscss
the virtues and acquirements that are suitable to
their station ; but, sucli is not {{("'"'''ally the case ;
the majority beiiiR {{'uurant, bigoted, and not un-
freqiiently immoral.
Kci'lesiastical ati'aira are under the direction of
an archbishop, at liahia (orifjinally a bishopric,
being the I irst founded in Brazil, in 1,~)2'2, an(i
raised to the archicpiscopal rank in l(!)i7), six
bishops, viz. at liio, Pernambuco, Maranhao, I'.afa,
Mariana, and San I'aulo; and two 'prelacias,' with
episcopal powers, tiz. Goyaz, and Ciiyaba. The
cliurch of Brazil has been for some time engaged
in a dispute with I'ome as to the a])pointinent of
the bishops, the pope claiming the sovereign right
of nomination, which the church rejects.
Monasteries and nunneries are, or rather were,
iiiiini rolls in many |iart< of Bni/il. The unints'
(lavs are saiil to be celehraled in a inanner in
siiiendid as at lioiiie. A rc.cnt writer iiliMrv.i
tiiai neither the carnival al N'eiiice, niir ihe dr.
cliiii'ig masi|neradi's of Paris, can cmivi y an cmk t
idea of the tiimnit and extreme ahiiirdiliis wliiili
prev/iil during the days of the ' iiilnnln,' iinjiriii
\'al, not only at Ilio, but throiighiiiil ihe riiirs ,,!'
Brazil. I'cccntly measures have been taken fr
lessening the number of monasteries ami mm.
iieries. The revenues of many of ihcin h.ne
reverted to the crown, and their huildings Imve
been applied to other purposes.
(inrrnmii'iil. — The coiislilnlion under wliirli t],r
empire is governed was I'rameil iininedialijy iil:. r
its separation from I'ortiigal, and hears date I )ii',
II, IK'J.'I. Il r guises four jiowits in the stall']
namely, the legislative, Ihe execiiiivc, the jmliixil,
and the 'moderating' ]iower, or the royal iircmgii-
tive. Tlu^ legislative power is vested, fur the
aHairs of the empire, in a general legislative ai-
sembly. and for provincial alVairs in Ihe prnviiiiial
assemhlies. Thegeiienil legislative assenihly ((in-
sists of two lloiLses, the Senate and the Coiign-s
The members of both Houses are elected hv the
people, but under dillerent fonns. Senators are
chosen for life at electoral meetings e.\|ire.->lv
convened, each of which has to noniiiiale tlinc
candidates, leaving the choicer hetween ilieiii t(i
the sovereign or his ministers. A senator inibi
he forty years of age, a nativt'-honi liiay.iiian, iin<l
possessing a clear annual income of Kdii niilni-,
or about ltd/. A salary of .'l.lidd niilreis, or Inii/^,
for each session is paid lo every senator.
The members of the Hiaise of (,'(lngl•e^s arc
chosen bv indirect election, for the term of f.mr
years, lor this purpose, the country is diviilci!
into (dectoral districts, where every 'Jdll voler-i
ap|iiiint one (dector, and u number of Ihe lnlter,
varying according to population, noinimile ilie
deputy. The qiialilicatioii for a voter is an ,'mini,'il
income, of any .sort, of Idd milreis, or a lillle iiiere
than Id/. The electors must have an iiiconie nl'
2dO milreis, or a little more than 'id/, a yeiir, a^ a
qiialilicatioii; and the deputies must have nn in-
C(mie of 4dd milreis each, or about I.V. per ainniin.
All voters, inscribed on the lists, are hoinid to^'ive
their votes, under a jieiialty. Minors, nioiiks. nml
.servants are not allowed a vote ; and natiirjilixd
foreigners, as well as jiersons not |irofessing ilic
h'oman I'athtdic religion, are incajiahle of lieini;'
elected deputies. The latter receive a salary el'
'_',4()d milreis, or 270/., each session, besides travel-
ling (!xpen.ses.
TIk! annual session of the legislative as.spmhly
has to commence on Jlay .'{, and (irdinarily e.\tcnils
over four months. Each llouse nominates itsimii
odicers. The two Houses sit in general assemlily
at the opening and close of the session for the dc-
liberation of iinportant measures; and on these
occasions the president of the Senate takes tin-
chair, and the senators and deputies sit in iiiixcl
order. The two Houses sit ajiart during the rest
of the session, in the execution of the (inlinary
duties of legislation. The C'hainher of Deputies
has the initiative in the assessment of taxes, in
matters concerning the army and navy, and in tlio
choice of the sovereign of the realm, should tliu
latter act become necessary. The Senate hiis tlie
exclusive privilege of taking cognizance of (itfeiiocs
committed by members of the Imiierial fiiniily,
and by senators and deputies, if committed during
the si'ssion. It is also invested with the rii;lit el'
convoking the legislative assembly, slimiUl tlio
emi>eror fail to do so, within two mouths after the
period iixed by law.
The executive power is vested in the sovoroifrn,
TUJAZir.
All
iv«i«lf(l liy his miuistcrs nnd n rdinicil of siittt',
rill' miiii-lciN lire rroiimwililc iWr trca.-i'ii, nirrii|i-
ijoii, iiliiisf III' |iii\vi-r. mill III! mcIh rniilrarv in the
iMii.'iiiiitiiiii, iir till' lilicrly, scriiriiv, iiinl |irii|H'riv
1,1' till' clli/.cii.s, Krniii (liH rojiiiii.xiliilily llu'V
i.iiiMiil )'Ni'iiii(' ii|i<>ii the |ili'ii III' iii'ilir-i rrmn I lit'
vivcrcitrn. riic fxcciilivr riiiirliniiM cnii-.isi in llic
,iiiivi«'iitii>M ol'tlio iinlitiiirv iiii'ctinns ol'llif Icj^is-
liiiivi' iiHTiiilily ; III)' iiiiiiiiiiiiliiiM III' lii.-<liii|i-<, iii't'Ni-
(|,.iitn, anil jjiivcriiiirs ol' iiroviiircs; llm ilrfliiriiliiui
1,1' |ii'iici- or war; ami llio p'licral cxi't'iiliiiii ami
.ii{i<'riiiti'iiil<'iii'i' of all iiicasiircs vnlnl liy ilir
li'.'islaiiirc. 'I'lit' ' iMiHlcralin;; ' powiT, liki'\vi?<f
vi'^tcil ill tli(* r*iiv<>r('i^'ii, f^Nvt's liiiii llic aiiilmrily
III si'Iri't iniiiiitcr ami Hi'iiators; lit ti'iii|ioi'arily
ttitjiliiilil his Maiiflioii from lc;,'islativt' iiifaxiiri's, In
iMiiviikt' cxtraoriliiiary lt'^ci.-<lali\i' a.HMciiililics; tn
,|issiilvi' tho Chainlti-r of l)('|iiitit'H ; niiil In ^rrallt
iiiiiiH'.slii's ami jianloiis.
Till' ministers arc assislpil liy a coiiiicil of NtatP,
oiii-iitiiiH (if Iwclvc oi'iliiuiry ami twelve extra-
i,ri|iiiiiry ineiiiliern. all iiatiieil liy the eiiijieror I'nr
lili'. The twelve onliiiary iiieiiiliers an iistaiilly
iKiisiilteil on matters of ailministnitnui ami iiiler-
n;itii>iial (jm'stions, ami I'nrm jiarl of the ^^nvcrii-
iiii'iil. The wholly Iweiily-fonr are emiveneil mi
.|i('i'iiil occasioiis, 'I'he eoniieillors of ritate, onli-
iiiiry anil exiraoriliiiary, are imistiy ex-ministers.
Ihi' heir to the throne, if uf iig(!, is liy right ii
imiiiriilnr of state.
At the heail of each provinep, is n iiresident ap-
{mintcil hy the central piveriinieiit ; ami in each
|iriiviiii'(^ there tire (list rid chamliers and a ;;eneral
(iiiiiiiil, called the Lcf^islative Assemlily of the
|iriiviiicc, the iiieiiihers of which are iinminateil liy
the saiiH! voters who elect the de|inties and se-
luliini. These voters likewise elect the justices of
ilii' pcacp for tim iininicipal disiricis. All these
|iroviiicial electinns are for fniir years. The l,e;;is-
klivft Assenihlies of the provinces exercise the
simo power within tluur disiritts us tliu Congress
fur liu! whole empire.
Aniii/ and Nari/. — The land forces nmiiiiiit no-
miiiully to from (i(l,(IOI) to (i."i,0()(( men; of whom
tlJM were iindor arms and n^'cived |uiy in IHIJ-I.
'ty retiiaiiider of the military force consists of
nirular nnd local militia: the former may he d(!-
fiuitciu'd on foreign service, while the latter do
nut leave the. place of their ahode. The local
militia, in which every man from sixteen to Mxty,
who is nut already enrolled in the regular militia
orilib ti'iio|is of the line, may lie called upon to
servo, coiistifntes an important defence, and is
iliii'lly eniphiycd in maintaining internal order.
iiiic (,'rpat use may he saiil to he that of keeping
ii|i n certain military order ainuiig the iHuiple. Its
iliiif iitlicers are the 'capitao mors,' or colonels.
The navy, in 18(i4, ntimbered 15 sailing vessels
and •>{ steamers. The former comprised 1 frigate,
li iiir\-ottes, and 5 brigs; while the latter were all
small vessels of from 121) to '2M horse-power.
Disruverij and llistoricid Sketch. — It is generally
I'licvwl that the lirst discovery of IJrazil was
Mile (in the 2()th of ,Janiiary, luOO, hy th(! Span-
iaril.1 under Vinw^ntc Yanez l'in(;on, a iiutivi! of
hliis, and one of the companions of (Johmibns,
lif issaid to have touched at Cape St. August in,
I sinllo have subseqneutly coasted along the shore
i< far as the river Amazon, and thence to the
I niiiuth of the Orinoco. His discovery does not
il'licar to have been attended by any important
i^ults, for he made no settlement, but merely
tlaiinwl the country for Siiaiii.
Ill tlic same year, I'edro Alvarez Cabral was
I '!il«iiiit('il admiral of a large lleet sent out by
I'liaiiiiel, king of Portugal, to follow up the suc-
I to-l'iil v<i\;ige of Vasco dc Gama in the east.
Adverse winds dnive the cxpcdiliHii sii far W .
that, nil till' J.'ith of April, Ciibriil fill in with tlic
I'lillst i<\' Itra/.il, wllii'h III' '<llppii'>nl at lil'^l In be
an idiiml; and nii (i | |''rida> Ihr Ihrl ca^l an
clior ill a (■oiiiinnilions Imrliniir, to which he ga\(i
the liaiili' III rorln Scgiii'ii. I lii\ iiig liikell piisM's-
siiiii of the country for the crnwn of I'lirtiigid, bv
erecting a cross, and giving it the naiiu' of Tiirra
de Saiila (rii/, Cabral pnicccili'd on his voyage,
taking care, hnwcvcr, in the lir-'t pliicc, to send
infnriiialinn of his di--i'nvcrv to iiis suvercign.
Sunn after Ibis iniilligi'ni'c rearhed I'lirliigal,
' I'.llilllllli'l lle^'pall'h('ll a siiijill Mpi.'iill'iill til evplure
the country, under the ciiuiinaml of the fiiiioiis
Aiiiirigo Vespiii'ii. who bad lii'in invilcd Irnni
Seville for that piirposi', in l.'iti-J, and who made a
s mil voyage in a snbsi'ipieiii yenr. In l."i(M, he
I again relurned to I'^iinipe, bringing \\\\\\ liiin a
cargo of llra/il wood, Ac
It was not until l.'inH that a third voyage of
discovery was nnderiMkeii to IJra/il, as the adviiii-
tages which had accrued on the fmnier vovagcs
did not appear to have .'iiiswei'cd Ihe expcclaliuns
of the priijccliirs, Aincrign N'espncci was then
di'spalcbed by the king of Spain, to whose service
he had relumed, to take p.issi-'sion of the country.
Mnt this produi'i'd a rriimnslrMice frniii I'lirtii^ai ;
and a dispute having arisen ainongsi soiuc of I he
leaders of the expediliiui, it ri'lunicd In Spain
without elVectiiig anylliiiig of imporlance. In
lol.'i, another expedition was lilted oni frnin Spain,
the cnniniand of which was assigned to .liiaii l>ia/.
de Snlis, with the ostensible |iurpnse of linding a
jiassage to the great I'acilic ( (ccan. To this navi-
gator is supposed to belling Ihe bniiunr nf having
discnvercd the barlinnrnf itin .lamirn, on the 1st
of .Ian., li'iKi, though ihe |irinriiy, in ibis respect,
has been disputed by tiie I'nrl ngiii'sc admiral,
Martin Allinisn de Souxa. 4Mi the return of the
expedilioii to Spain, the I'nrl iigiicse gnveniniint
claimed the cargoes, and again renmnst rated mi
this interference on the pari of Spain.
Ill the reign of Joan 111., the coast was divided
into captaincies, many of which exlended Till
h'agiies. It is needless to I'ollnw step by step the
rising fortunes of the Mra/.iliaii Icrriimy, N'iiriniis
towns sprung up along the slini'c, whidi were sub-
ject to the vicissitudes tliat then usually jiwaileil
newly fonnded colonics. They were successively
taken and plundered by the I'reiich, Dutch, l'".ng-
lish, <"tc„ who, if lint expelled, usually contented
themselves with a short possession, anil abandniieil
lliein, after l'rc((ueiilly cum'" "Ming the most bar-
barous atrocities. NolwitI • .,'diiig these calami-
ties, the (tolony continiicd ^ase in prosperity
and importance under the si ■ -iutcMidence of the
Portuguese government. I!ut, it exiierienced a
severe check on the annexation of Portugal to the
crown of Spain in \MH. during tlie reign of Philip
II. As the mines that had been discovered, down
tn that period, yielded less weal'li than those of
the Spanish iiossessimis in S. America, Ih'azil did
not receiver much favour IVmu th.-it luoiiarch. The
Dutch took advantage of this indill'erence on the
part of S|iaiu; and it was not indeed until they
had made considerable inroads, that an expedition
was lilted nut, in Idllt, to expel them frnin the
territory. About this period, the house of lira-
gaiiza was restored to the throne of Pnrlngal.
After a Iniig and desperate struggle, the Dutch
were compelled to evacuate Itra/.il in Idol. Ilencc-
lorwnrd it continued in the iiossessimi of Portugal,
but the latter country being in a very abject im-
linverished state, instead of rendering assist.ince
to its colony, was compelled to rest its |irincipal
hopes of being able to maintain an independent
existence on the wealth and resources of Hra/.il,
-M M 2
r,n
lUfAZZA
li
wU'ifh It HiilijiM'Icil to nil tlM'Kiillini^niul vcxfttioim
ri'iiniiiilt of tlii> (ilil ('iilniiiiil MVxtciii.
Ill iHim a iM'w ITU lM';,'iin in llni/.il, '''he Kri-nrh
Imviii;,' iiivitilril I'drlii'ciil in ll iir-c ..!' ilic pri'-
\ iiiiis year, llic iiiiiic'i' ri';;i'iit, •Inlm VI,, iiml liii»
niiirl, ti<'i'<iiii|iaiiii'i| \iy n liii^r ImkIn- nl' ciiil^jnilits
Hcl Miiil I'ur llia/.il. wImti' tlicy arrivccl mi llic -'•"iili
of .Inn., IHtiH. Mra/.il iiniiiiiliMti'iy rra-^cil to Ih>
trcal'il as a coliniy. In tint conrHf of tin- Hanic
year, her ports were Itirown o|(cii to all t'riciiilly
anil iii'iiiral nations; and Itv a iIimtim- ilati'il tlii'
loth of Nov., IHII, all natioiiN with allowcil to
ti-.idi' I'ri'ily with tlii'in.
Till' nviiliiiion in I'ortiij^al in IH'JO was vrry
n|i('i'ilily (ollowi'il liy a ri'voliilionarv inovi'ini'iit of
tilt' saini' ili"'(Ti|iti'iii in I'itiimiiiIiiu'o; ami to rc-
^ton- tr,'ni(|nilliiy, ami aiilifi|iati> tlii' riirtluT pro-
Hrrss of ri'voliitioii, till' f;oviTnnii-iit, in IH'.'I,
proi'laliiinl till' ailoption of tlii^ I'iirtii;.:iu'si' ronsli-
tnlioii. Soon aflir this, tlir kiiij; liaviii;,' li'fl
Itra/.il for rorlii','iil, a strii;;i;l(' I'oiniiii'iiri'.l lictNM'rii
tile l'orlii;,'ili';<i', who wislinl to riM'o\i r llicir forilHT
nsi'i'mlancv o\i r hn/.il, am! tin' llra/iliaiis, who
W(Ti' ri'soKi'cl to pri'siTvi' llirir newly aripiin-il
liliiTlii's, wiiirli I'liili'it in Ihi' I'oniplrti' separation
of all i'oiiiiiTti<iii, other than that snhsisiiii',' hc-
Iweeii imlepeiiilent states, lietween the two eoiin-
tries. The pi\eriiiiieiit. of llra/.il linvin;,' heen
<'iilriisteil to the erowii priiiee, Don I'eiiro, he re-
fused to admit the troops .sent out liy I'lirtiijidl to
Hiipport her anthority, or to ohey the instriietions
of the kiiij^, his father. In the fcdlowiii;f year,
IHl'-', Itra/.il was deelared to he a free and inde-
pendent state, and Don I'eilro nssinned the title
i)f emperor. AftiT several stormy ileliales, the
project of (i eonstitntioii (see iiiiti'), siilmiitted
liy (111! empiTor, was neeepted; Imt the disputes
lietween the emperor and the ehamher of de]iiilios
liaviii'^eontiniied, the former ahilicated the throne
ill favour of his son, a minor, in \K\\, and, sin^'ular
as it may seem, the ri;;-hts of the latter have
hitherto heon preservcMl; and some attein|)ts at
insiirreefion Iiy the repiihliean party Imve lieeii
Mippressed will t miieli dillienlty, and internal
trampiillity has heen pretty well niaiiitaiiied.
t 'onsideriiifj; thi^ leii^'tlieiied piTiod during whieh
lirazil has heen eolonised; its vast cxti.'iit and
fertility; the variety of its iirodiiirtions, und its
thvoiirahle situation for comment', its jiroj^'ress in
the neeiiniiilation of |iopiilation and wealth has
lieen nxtroinely slow. This apparent anomnly
may, however, he easily explained. The .slow
j>rii;;.ess of lirazil, like that of the contifjiioiis ri-
ilfviint Spanish colonies, is cntindy owiiif; to the
vieions principles on whieh it was pov<Tneil by
the mother ('onntry; to the rij^id exclusion of
foreipiers from the country; the ojipressivc restric-
tions laid on the trade and industry of the colonists ;
and more than all the rest, to the if^norance of
the I'ortiiffiiesc, and their inferiority, in res|)ect of
science and art, to most other nations of Kurojie.
I'ortii^Cal could bequeath iiothinc; tn her colonics
but pride, superstition, and intolerance. But since
the downfall of the old colonial system, consequent
on the emigration of the court to Itra/.il, the foun-
dations of a new and lietter order of things have
lieen laid. The settlement of foreigners in Hrazil,
and the unfettered intercourse slie now carries on
•with all the most civili.sed countries of the world,
have already had the best effects. And though it
will require a lengthened periwl to counteract the
joint influence of ignorance, slavery, and a de-
nasing sujierstition, lirazil is rising, not merely in
the scale of wealth and population, but also in that
of civilisation.
HKAZZA, an island of the Adriatic Sea, near
the coast of Daliuatia, dependent on the circle of
UUKJ'IIIN
Spftlafro, It JM nboiit *2I ir». long, by ttnm ft to"
broad, and conlains a hinall markd town nihl ;>:|
villages, with (in IMtlil) |."),l'.ir iiihaliilaiii.-i. jt'i.
very inoinilaimHis anil nii'Uy : in thr iii<i-<l i'li'\:it,.,|
parts there arc large Irads ipiite Hinny.aml liurilU
jilt III bear the wildest plants, (irrai laliniir auij
expense are nrcesNiiry to bring the groiiinl tn a in
slate for tillage; vet the inhabiliiiits go mi |ir.i
gressively increasing their eiiltivaled hnul, ui|,|
coiiseiptenlly their vintage, and ilimini-<)iin^r ilu.jr
woods and catlle. Its wine is ni-iiiiinii'd llii' iii^t
ill Dalmatia; the other vegelabli' priidiictiun-i m-,,
nil, tigs, almonds, and satl'riin. The cnrii irimii
extreini'lv scanty, scarcely allordiiig sllll^is|(.l||■,.
to the iniialiitani" fur three moiitliH in tlii viiir:
hence they are obliged to import to a large i'Miih
from the inainland. The stony iiiitiire nl'ihc .nji,
and the scarcity of fresh watiT, subject the i«iiiii<|
to fi'i'ipieiit droughts, Hra/./a was famous in niicii.iH
times tbr its kids, which still enntiniie in i||,.i|
tbriner perfection. The pastures here give in ih,.
di'sh not only of kids, but of lambs, a ji.'ii'iinil n'
delicacy of taste; the milk loo of this islauil it \ny
superior to that of the mdghboiiring coiiiiiriis, >,>
that its cheese is in great repute in Dahmilia, mA
wherevtT it is known. Itees luid silk are ciiltiv,iir(|
with some success; and the berries of ilic Ii'mMnI,
furnish the |ieasaiits with oil during a scnnitv ni
olives. This island b(dongeil formerly In ||ii."r(.
public of Venice, and was ceded to Austria ut iIk..
peace of Camjio Forinio.
Ill{ ICCI 1 1 N, a royal burgh of Scotland, en. Furfur.
on a sloiiing bank on the left siiU^ of the S, K-k,
"i m. \\ .from ilsjnnction with the sea at .Mimircw.,
pop. 7,I7!» in iHiil ; inhabited houses 7«J. ih,.
main street, which runs nearly N. and S., is nliuut
a mile in length. Some porlions of the inwiuin'
very steep, particularly about the Cross. It wm
formerly walled, and was also a bishop's see: tlu'
bishopric was foiiniled by David I. about llii'iiiiililk'
of the 12th century; and the portion of tin: n-
ihedral which now forms the parish cliiircli .iiill
remains. It was originally n stately (lotliic struc-
ture, but its architectural beauty and syiiiinctrv
have been defaced by the bail taste displuyi'il iii
modern repairs. It is surmounted by a sijii iro
steeple 120 ft, high. In addition to the pari-li
church, which is collegiate, there are four I'n^liv-
teriaii dissenting chapels, one Kpiscopal ch,i|ii!.
and a plaice of worship in connection with thi'is-
tablished church. In the churchyard, iiciir li!'
cathedral, is one of those round towers, nfwliicli
there is only another in Scotland, at AIktiii'IIiv.
and which, it is supposed, wen; built by the I'icts
but for what purpose is unknown. It is I(W It.
high, is .surmounted by a conical roof of grey lilaic,
and has no staircase, either without or within. In
another jiart of the town is nil ancient liiis|iit;ii, j
called the Mamm Dieii, now used as a stable: imt )
certain funds which belonged to it atl'oril WH'kly
allowances to jKior inhnb. being the widows nr |
chihlren of burgesses. The Ifcd Friars scorn to I
have had a monastery here, but all traces of it
have (lisajipeared. (kcith's Scot. Itisliops, edit.
1824, p. 3!>7.) Itrcchin is a busy maniifat'tiiriii;;
place. Its staple manufacture is linen, pnrtk j
bleached (hence the number of bleaching gniiiiuls I
in the immediate vicinity), and Osnabiirghs,.«k-
cloth, coffee and cotton bagging. There is niiiili I
commercial activity, greatly favoured by the Alter- 1
decn railway, witli which the town is cimnecKil
by a short branch line. The annual value iifnvilj
property nmnunted to 11,211/. in 18ti.4. lirtcliinj
unites with Montrose, Forfar, llervie, aiiilArimiatlij
in sending a mem. to the II. of (". lieiijistcri'll
electors, 27;J in 18(13. Of the eminent men ivliiclij
this place has produced, Ur. John (jillio.", auilmcj
country; and
i/it Ili<tiiry of (irccci', n iriiiisliilidii oCtlir I'nIiliiN
,.[ Ari'lolic, mill rnyal lii<<iiiriii^ni|ili('r lor Sciilliiinl,
,1,^'rvi'H Npcriiil tiii'iiiimi,
llni'liin ('iinllr, wliirli lins I n I'nr iimiiy ••••ii-
i,irii''« till! n'Niili'iii-(> lit' ilii' Miiiiliw of riiiiiiiiiri>,
■ .iil'l'< III! n |in'i'i|iiri' iiVi'i'liiiiUili;; tlir ^U, mill U
., iiiirilfil Criiiii till' tii\Mi liy a iliiji niviin'. 'I'lii-i
, liili' wiiJt CiiriiuTly II liirlrr-1. In i;iii;i, it with
.ii»hI II lU'fH' III' lut'iitN ilii) M liv till' Kii^H.'^li iiiiilrr
Kilwiinl I.; miilHiirrriiili'ri'il iiiily ulit'ii Nir'l liiiiiiii.>t
Mull*', ilM liritvc 'iiiiiinmiili'r, was killi'd.
llltl'iCON, i>r ItUKCKNOCK, mi iiiliiml co. nf
S. Wiilt'i, liiivliiK N. till' ciis. (if CiiriliKmi iiiiil
K.'iiliKir; W.('iirili);mi miil ('iit'rniiirllK'ii; S, (iln-
iiiiirK'iiii niiit .Miiiiiniiiitli ; iiml M. the liitlrr ami
llcrcriiril. Ii Ih iilioMt ll.'i Ml, ill li'ii^'ili, liy iiliniit
:;iini. in lircaillli, mul ciiiiiaitis ItiiMi'iM urivH, It
j. iHTvaili'il liy two |iriii('i|iiil inoniitain clialiH,
ifliicli, with tlii'ir offm'ts, oi'iMijiy a liirni' |iiirlioii
,1' the hiirfiifc. 'I'Im> liij_'ln'Kt Nntniiiits arc the
|«,'ii'iiiii« of ilrct'kiiock, ('aiK'Hantc, ami Criulli'
inoiiiitaiii; rt'fijK'iiivi'ly '2,sil_». •2,:W\, ami '_',.'il."i ft,
iilinvc lilt! It'vt'l of tlic Nca, 'I'liiTo arc, however, a
iiiiiiilN'r of hcanlifnl mill fertile va I leyN, 'I'lie U'vc
.ki'lH the CO, for a eonsiileniliie iliHimire on t)ie
N\V., niiil it in tnivcriseil liy the TnU, Tnaf, ami
nihiT leaser Nl reams. Cllinale rather heverc ami
liiiiiiiil. 'riiiiii^li a ^oiid (leal itii|iroveil, ai^rricnl-
iiiri' is still ill u liaekwanl stale; ami im iiniper
[iiiiiiiin of crops is oliscrveil. Oats ami liarley are
I'll' jiriliripal (ilijeels of alleiilioii, liiit a pmil deul
il wlieal is also raised. Turnips are more exteii-
>ivi'iy cultivated than formerly, mid iIk^ stock of
iMiile 1111(1 shecit is mIso improved. Farms inosttv
•iiiiill, and ^ri'iieratly oeeiipied liy teiimitH at will,
Till' principal 'iiaiiiifactnre is that of woollen eluih,
ilii'|ir(Hlii(H! ofdonicstii; industry, 'i'lierc are lar^jc
iMii wiirU.-<at Heniifort and Clydach, neur lh<' eoii-
iiiii'.i (if Moimioiillishire, 'I'lie priii('i|ial towns arc
jlri'i'iiii, C'rickhowell, and Itiiiltli. 'I'lie Welsh
'Miik'nii^c, thon^li Ntill spoken in dilfereiit |iarts of
llic I'll., is falling rapidly into disuse. ISrecoii is
iliviilcil into li liiiiid. and tit! par. In iHiil it had
LMHiliiihah. Iioiises, and tii,(i27 iiiliah. Il returns
'.'iiicni. to the II. of C, I for the co., and I for the
Imr, of Ilrecon. Ke>,'istercil eletrtors for co., 2,oO;i
ill l«ii.'), The ninoiiiit assessed to property tax
\y,'h 'W."),!)")'!/, in I ^<*) I, and the gross rental assessed
i.i|iiKirrnte, 2l)l,H,J!i/.
lliti'X'oN, or HisKCRNOCK, tt hor. and town of S.
Wall's, f«p. of the above eo., at the uoiilliieiiee of
Ik' lliiiiddil and Tarrel with the IJsk; 141 in. \V.
liV X. London. I'op, within the pari. Iioiinds
.'i,ii:l'.>, and within the miinieipal hounds 5,*J.'iri in
{''^ril, Ilrecon Ih an ancient, irregiilarlv Imill town,
Ml 11 very beautiful and picturesque site ; there are
llirce principal streets, which diverge from the
liyli street, and contain many well-built houses;
till.' mcuiiest buildings are towards the approaches,
I'lU'itlicr siilc; which, however, on the line of the
vliiil thoroughfare, have been much widened and
iiii|iriived within a recent jieriod ; it is paved, and
yiloil with gas. There are four churches — St.
J'lliu's, originally attached to the priory; St.
Jlnry'n, a chapel of ease (both (iotliic and nearly
niiiiilt in Henry VIII.'h reign) ; St. David's, built
■i«iii after the concpiest, and one of the oldest in
ilic ciiuiitry; and Christ (.'liiirch, a collegiate
iliiiri'li. ostablished by Henry Yl 1 1.: it is extra-
I'iiriicliial, and has a graiiiniiir-school atlaebed toil.
iliiTc is an endowed fi scliool for fill boys, and
llircpnr four small charii ics (the principal of which
aiiiouiits to ;j(i/. n year, for apprenticing jioor
fliililri'ii), and a boroiigli and county hall, rebuilt
ill 177(1, a good spacious building, in the high
^mt't. with the market place under it. There is
a iTiimoiiade along the L'sk, under the old town
i!i!i:i)i: (T,.\)
M.I
wall", whii'li coiiiinand-'a noble rmigcof moii.itMiii
Hcemry ; and a niiiri> retired one iliriiii;;li the priory
WiioiIk. The Ih'i'ckiiiick and .Miergavcniiy 4 'anal
(I'l.'t III. loii)^) eiiiiiiiienccs at I his town, ami Joiiis
the .MoiiiiiMiitli'-liirc (anal i In m, loou), wbicli last
joins till- Isk near Newport. Iicfcular imssage
and irmliiig Imai'i ply on llic canal. Weekly iiinr
kcts are held on Friday forciitle; Satiirdiiy iind
\\\iliieHihiy for general provi-ions ; and .'> miniiMl
fairs, for slock and auricnlliir.'il iiroduce (ciicli
prcceileil by a leather fair), I -t U'eilnesday in
Niarcli, Itli May, .'ith .Inly, tub Seiileinlier, and
Kith November: those of May and AoM'iiilier are
also statute fairs, for hiring servants. There aro
no inmiiifactures; and its tnide chielly ('oiisisl.<i
in the supply of articles of general consninptioii
to the neighbourb I, which comprises the greater
part of the CO, 'I'iie limits of the pari. Iioiongli
coinprisi! the par. of St. David's, St. .lobn's. Si.
Mary's; the Castle, and Chri-t Chiirch precincts,
and the ward of Trecasilc, which is III m. olf, and
only comiccled with it for election purposes. Its
pri'seni niiinieipal limits are resiriclcd to alionl
one-third of the former, am I comprise only the town
and some small portions immediately ciintignoii'<.
The town is governed by a mayor, I iililcrmeii, and
I'.' councillors, Aiiioiint assessed (o property tax
'.'ii,''^iii.'i/., and gross estimaled rental assessed to
poor rati! \H,~7iil. inlwiil. 'I'Ik' assi/esaml ipiaricr
sessions for th(! eo. are held in Ilrecon. Ilrecon bin
returned I mein. to the II. of ('. since the reign of
Mary. I'n^vionsly to the liclorni Act the privilign
vested in II burgesses. There were .'il.'^) rci;iitcrcd
electors ill IMtil.all III/, hoiiselioldcrs. Ilrecon is
the chief polling town of the tro. The castle of
Itrecon was built in lll'.M, from which period the
town also dales its origin ; many Nnrinmi fimiilies
llieii settled in the ito., whose descendants still re-
main. It was surrounded by strong walls: tlieso
and the castle were (U'stroyed in the last civil war,
by the inhabitants, to prevent a siege, or being
saddled with the maintenaiiee of a garrison.
Klfl'.DA, a fortitied town of ihe kingdoin of
Holland, prov. lirabaiit, can. arrond. and cant., on
the Merk, 21 m. WSW. i»ois-le-Dnc. and ;I0 m.
NNF,. .Vntwerj), (Ilia branch line of the railway
from Antwerp to Hotterdam. i'op. iri.Kloiu IHlii.
It is OIK' of the strongest places in the kingdoin,
being regularly fortitied and defended by a citadel
rebuilt by William HI., king of Knglai'id; its po-
sition, in the middle of a marsh that may be laid
under water, contributes materiiilly to itsstnngtli.
It is Well built, with broad and well-paved streets;
has 4 sipiares, a line ipiay, several canals, an
arsenal, town-hall, 2 I'mteslant and 4 Calholic
churches, an orphan hospital, tin;. The principal
Protestant church has a spire ;-lG2 ft. in height.
The ramparts arc planted with trees, and all'onl
line promenades. It is the seat of tribunals of
primary jurisdiction and of commerce; and Ini.s
some manufactures of woollen goods, linen, hats,
with breweries and tanneries.
Ureda was taken from the Siianiards by I'rinco
Maurice, in I.O'.IO, by means of a straiag'em sug-
gested by the master of a bojit who sometimcH
supplied the garrison with fuel. With singular
address, he contrived to intnidiice 70 cIiosihi sol-
diers into the town, iiinler a cargo of turf; who,
having attackt^d the garrison in the night, and
secured the gates, their comrades came to their
assistance, and gained possession of the town. It
was retaken by the Spaniards, under the M:ir((iiis
of Spiiiola, ill lli2.'i; lint w:is linally ceded tu
llidland by the treaty of Westplialia,"iii l(14K.
HKKDK (LA), a' town of France, di^p. (;i-
roiide, ca)!. cant., near llordeanx. I'op. I,(i21 in
ISOI. Ill the neighbouihoud of this town stands
AS I
IIUKMKV
till' t'hi'tliiiil ilr lit lliiilf, Wllrro llli> itiliilriiilli
iMillmr III' till' Utiirit iliH /.III* wilt liiirii. Mini wlnri'
III' iiini|ii>>nl (III' KFiiiIrr |iiirtiiiii of liii iiiiiiinrlal
Wiirk^. It i< II liirKi' ^'I'liiiiiN liiiikinu; liiiijiiin^', in
till' llliililli' lit' l'\lr||r<i\r lilllill'* mill llll'lhliiMx, ,il|i|
!■« Hiirriiiiiiilnl liv 11 ili'i'|i ilili'li tillnl with uiiIit,
UNIT wliirli JH M ilrti»liri<lu'i'. In I lit' rluiniln'r iionl
liy .Miiiili'ni|iiii'ii, till' riiniitiiri' liiii liri'ii I'lii'il'iiliv
pri'MTvi'il ti!t ill lii'< liiiir: It i'iiii'<l'<t'< III' II pliiiii lull,
n I'rw rilHy rliitirt iil' II (iiilliif hIiii|ii', iiiiiI niiiiii'
liMiiily |ilrliin">: tin' iihhii In wiiiii-<i'i>iii'i|, imkI
iVillll till' uillllliW llllTI' \* a lllll' \ ll'W llMT ill)'
Kiirriiiiiiiliiiu; riuiiitry. Mi>titi"'i|iiii'ii \vii-< iiiiu'Ii
ailarlii'il III lliJM rriri'iil, '.li' |iiiin ilirr,' xayt Iii>,
'i|iir III Itri'ilr t'-l nil ili's llni\ iiiir<«l inifi'iililrs
ijii'll y nil I'll {''laiii'i' ; an rln'ilriiii |iri'?<, lii iialnrr
m'v Iriiiivi' I'll mill' lie I'lianilirc, t'l |Miiir iiiiiNi iliri-
III! li'N'rr illl lit.'
llltl',.MI'.N. mil' III' till- three Tree (ieriimii Han
Hi'aliii'itii''<,iiii till' Wi-er, liy «liiili il i> inier-iri'ti'il,
till III, SW. jlaniliiii'uli, ami almiil 'M in, ilireet
IViiiii jlri'llierliaN'i'll, lit I lie niiuilli III' I III' W'i'M'l' : nil
(lie raiUviiy I'roin llniinxi'r tn llnnifi'liaNeii, I'lip,,
in |M l!i, .'i:l,l7''^,anil, ai'i'iiriliii;^ III the lale"! reii'^nH,
ill iHi;-.', '.iK„"(7,'i. 'I'liei'ltv III' llnini'ii '{•' lli'ii'iii (n r
man iir aliiiiit 'Seventy {.imli'^li iiiile-i ilislaiit rnmi,
iinilaliniil tliiity (iit almvi'llie Nnitli Sen. 'I'lierivir
\\'e-er, >liiirlly lieliiri' it ii'ni'lii"< Itreineii. se|inniti"<
inlii two iliHrreiit iii'in-*, the lirnailir ul' wliiih i'*
ealleil the l.ni'ue Wiser, ami the iitlier Die l.itlle
Wi'icr; llie l,ai'(;i' W'e-er runs iliriiiii;h the tuwii
III' llrenieii, ili\iilini; it intn twn iiarl-i, whieli are
eiiilliei teil liV a ^Imie liriil^e. jieinw the town the
twn amis III' the river rennile.ami I'lirin the l.nwer
N\ eser, whieli at this |iiiiiil is mily ileep emiii;;h
I'nr vessels ilrawili;^ Iriini seven to ei;;lll lei'l water.
Sea-nniii^ ships are, theiel'iire, in ^teiieral nnalile tn
I'niiie n|i III the eily nl' Itreinen, anil lia\'<' In inilniiil
their ear^^oes at snliie piirt InWer liiiwil the river.
Ilirnre the vear IN'_'7 ninst vesselH iliseliarj;eil their
t-arirnes at ISraUe (in ( )|ileiilinrK'), at tliiit lime the
mily pnri nreDllseipieliee nil tile l.nWer Wiser; lint
ill that year llreiiien iinrehnseil t'rniii llamiverd'nr
I he siiiii of 77,'-'nii iluilnrs piM) a pieee nl' K'n'mnl
nn the ri^'hi lianknr llie mnnlh ni' the Weser, ami
I'linnileil thepnri III' riremerliaven. wliii'h Imis sinee
lieenine a llniirlshiii!;' tnwii nl' ahniit K,l)IMI inhalii-
Iniits. The lar;;er pnrlioii nf the eily, ealleil the
.(//s/ki//, iir lllll Inun, lies nn llie ri;L!;hl< iliiil the
Siiistiiilt. nr new tnwn, nii the lel't lialik III' the
river. The .streets in ihe latter are i'ninparati\i'ly
straight anil limail, Inil tlmse in the I'nrnier are
iiinsily narrow ami ei'iinkeil, ami the hniise.s heinic
hiiili. liiey have a i;Inniiiy iippearanee. An isiaiiii
in Ihe ri\er is iiielnileil within the eity; tlu m-
ninniealinn helweeli its twn ureal ilivisimis heiii;^
kepi np liyil liriil;,'!', whii'li ernsses this islaml. The
ramparts hy whieh the tnwn was rnrmerly snr-
riiiinileil havelieeii leveileil. plaiiteil, amlcnnverteil
intn line j;arileiis ami pmmen.'ules. It has l.'l
einirehes, nl' which llie eatlieilral, linilt in I llil), i.s
Ihe prineipal: the I'hnreh oC .St. Ansirariiis Iiiih a
spire ll'in I'l. in heiejht. The new tnwii-hall. fnr-
inerly the ari'hiepisen|)al jialace. is a linililin;,' nf
Ihe same elaliiirate eliaraeter as the tnwii-halls
in linmes, ami nllier cities nf the .Vetherliimls.
Tiiere is alsn an nlil tnwn-hall, liiiilt in iKl.'i, he-
iie.'ilh which are the famnnsw iiie cellars, cnntainiiif;'
vats consiileralily mnrc than IhO years nlil. It has,
alsn. an exclian;;e, with I'lmcert. iiinl hall-rniims;
a iniiM'inn, hnih in IHiil, enntainini; a pnlilie
lilirary. lecliire unil reailiiin'-rnnins ; a iheatri': a
liiiililiniT called the Svhiitfiinj. or place ni mceliiij,^
nf the elder inercliants (( V;(r<'«^'cM/"//i Sciiioritiii) ;
a wei;;hini;-hiiiise ; a /Kii/iiiiiii/iiim (fnr scienlitic
instrnclinii), ^ymnasinni, lii^h sehnnl, hiiIiuoI of
cuinmercc and ii.ivij^atinii, school of design, 2 I
I nrphaii msnIiiiii^, nml iniini runs other i'linriiiil|,>
iliitillllinlis, Itnlh xiili'M Ihe ri\'er are |||||>,| y)j,{,
hiimlsnine and cnnM'iiieiii ipiay*.
I The liiitlinl'iietlireN nf lln lliell are ei iie.il liriiMi'.
The primipal are tlmse fnr the prepiiriiijni, ,,|
sinilf and i'i;{iirs, which einplny a ureiit iniins
hands. There are nUn many ili»lil|irii'«; m,
nierniis faetnries fnr wia\ini,'. ami esinlili^lniii'iii,
fnr hh'iii'hill^' linen; uilh lliclnries fnr the »|iiiit|j,|^.
of cnllnli; nllKlir rclllleries; lailllerleM, nuil ,||,,|
eiin\an t'aclnrii'H! Miiap and candle dn. ; i'iiri|iii:i'
lln.: llil wnrks. A'c. A ennsiderahle iriide in uj,,,
carried mi in the Imildiii^ and lining niii nf vi'«»i'|,,
The siinalinii nf Itreinen at a iiii\ i^rahle ri\ir,
and cniinecti'd hy railway with all the iiii|n>ri.iMi
tiiwiisnf (iermaiiy, renders her the priiicip/il ,t„
piirinm of lltiiinM'r, llrnnsuick, llose. hihI niiiir
ciiiinlries traversed hy the Wiser. Ill cnii«ei|iii.||,,.,
she has an extensive and increasing irmle. siiji,.
nf lar(,'e si/,e Hliip at llreinerhaven; \eh,-ie|-,i|rii«|||_-
I'miii l.'l tn I I li. water ascend the river Its I'iir m
^'e^csaek, l.'l III. Iii'lnw lln men : lllld vessels Mill
drawing iimre than 7 I'l. water cnnie up i,, ii,,.
ciiv. The ^^reat articles nf iinpnrt are liilmivH,
cnlVee, sn^ar, and nllier cnlniiial prndiiets: mIi;iIi
nil, enttnii, and enllnll yiiril, Ve^'clalile nil, cJiiini ,
lllll ler, wine, tea, rice, irnii, Kpiees, and ilyi'-\\inii|..
Of the arlicleHiif I'Xpnrt, linens ncciipy liy I'lr
the must prnmiiient place; and next In tliini m,
siiiill' and ci^'iirs, with hitniM and haenii, mik liiirL.
r.in's. Iiniies, ehienry, nil-fake, relllied mipir, i|iilll ,
snap, lend, and \ ilrinl,
Ihe Inllnwill;; tlllile, cnlllpileil friiin iilliriiil ri
turns, shnws the irniiimeree of llreliieii willimlur
mil inns, ill the year IKH.'I ; —
iMI'OII'I'H I.N 1MI3.
From
Total liiiiHiru
Uiilil llollirt
The States nf the Oernmn Ciw-
, tnllis' rilinll . , ,
1
'Jil.iiii'i.imi
(Mliir purls 111 Kiirnpe .
lfi,:i'/l,;W7
(Ireiiiliiiiil mill llrilUli N. Ainericii
Mll.iisi
I'liileil Stiitcs nf America
lo,!w!i,;iii
.\le\icn ml reiiti'iil Aiiierleii
:l!is,!ili7
Siiiilll Aliiericil . . .
!>,7ii'i,ll|ii
West 1 miles • ■ . .
4,71fi,i«il
Al'ricii
I77.7'.0
A>lii
4,:iJI,7sii
Samlwleh Islnnils .
AI7,II);>
Total . . .
.
07,145,141!
KXI'llllIM IN IHIi).
ro
TiiUl El|ioni
Cliili! l)i<ll»ri
Tlin .States of tho (lornion Cim-
3(l,l!li,liS0
tiiitis I'tiiiin
Other jiarts ol' Knrniio ,
17,i!'J.''..n'j;i
j liritisli Nnrtli America .
■i-2;m
1 United .states of America
8,iW:l,li|'.'
' Mexico ami Central America .
TS'K'-2>>
Sniitli America ....
H7li,H:'(i
West Inilie.s
!M4,l7:i
Africa
•Jllll.l'.li
A^ia
•Jl!»,:lli;l
Aiistriiliuii nnil Snmhvich Isliiiiils .
34!),In:)
I'Vir tlie t'liiiipinoiit of ilercliiuit 1
t^hipd j
Total ....
7;}8,r>.w
liO,4«ti,li'Hi
I'reinen lias ii eoiisidcralile inipnrttnu'p ii» tin
chief purl nftierman emij^nilinii. The miinlitri'l'l
emi;;r;iiits which left (iermany fnr traiisiiiliiiiii';!
cnniitries, viiV Hremeii (Itrciiierhavctil, (iiiiniiiMiil j
ill the year IXM tn l«,175 ; their viirioii.s ile.itiiia- 1
tioiis were as follows : —
ni?i:MKV
niJKNTI'oiM*
liM
llrtlliii>ll<iii
IJIII'Ik')! • • I •
New Ycirk . . .
Iiiiliiiiiiiru I . ■
Mixli" ....
\rW liriXIIMllI . .
\l'lll'/lll'llk . . ■
liriull . • . .
Hiicih'" AyrcK . .
Winl ItlllliX • . •
Wi'.t Cnin-l ipf Afrloa .
IVI"' !>' tllMill |||||H< ,
llurniiili, I'liliiii, ulul Axln
Viialriillit . • .
Itiiiii<liil>l • • •
Tutikl
of Mil|ia
■J
71
II
I
•J
;i
t
k
11
;i
I
I
I
■J
I'il
r."j
l.iiilifr>iiit
KI.I.'M
I, till
1
'J
II
III)
7i
H
li
I
:i
III
IH.IT.'i
AivonlliiK t" their nnlliinitlity llio uIhivo nhipM
UlmiKfil Iti: —
Iln'inrii .
llrllUli .
Iliiliiivrriiill ,
(llili'hliiii')f
IKIicr llrriimii ,
Oilier CoiiiitrtitH
Ti>lul ,
IIIH
:i
u
J
litl
'I'lii^ Ni)rlli-(icriMmi Muyil MicmiitTs cniivcycil
I'l,.';)! ('itiinrantM ; all the ri>l were »lii|i|inl In niiil-
jii;; vrH!4t'lM, ('iiiii|iart'il will) ilic iivcrap' iimiilit'r
i| ('ini);raiilM ciuivfvi'il rnmi itrt'iiit'ii iliiriii^ llic
liu'tlcii ynirn, llii> iiiiiiiIkt in l^^ii:! win* niiuiII. M
li iirixif III' tim ini|iorlanri> to tlii' llri'iiicii Hliiji-
iiHiH'rs and mcniliaiilH nl' making; llri'ini'ii a |iiirr
il ciiiliarkalliin I'nr ('ini;;'rantH, tlio cirriini^lancf
limy l)f iiii'iitiont'il, thai a (Micicly has rcfcnlly
liTii i'.Nlalilit«hril, ('lln^islinf; |iriiiri|ially of Nliip-
cwiicr^, for ciu'iiiiraKiiif; ciiii^ratiiin, ami Iiiih piir-
(liiiM'il an iininciiMf hiillilin^ at, ilrt'iiirrhavi'ii,
lar^'l' i'iiiiii;;h to alViiril shelter In ahove 'J.IMIO enii-
;:riiiitM at a time, anil proviileil with a ('ha|iel, a
lii^piiiil, anil all olher rei|iii.site aeeonnniMlatlnn.
Aiv(iriliii;C tii an nnlinaiu'e issueil hy the Senate,
I'll March 'J.'ith, IKt'i.'), all eirii);raiilH nni^t lie eon-
viynl triiiii llremen to Ilreinerliaven nr (Jeesle-
iiilliiile, either hy railway nr hy .steaiiierH (which
ii 11 ^'reat iiiiprovenient nn the olil ciiKloin nf
Miiiliiif,' Iheni in Hiiiall boats ami liarf{es I'roin Itre-
iiii'ii to the out ports), ami other re;;'iilalioiis are
iiiiil iliiwii relative to the ((iialily of food to he
^'ivcn to the eini);ruiits, and to their treatnieiit
iliiriiiff the voyit;;e, (lieport of Mr. Ward, Uritish
("iisiil, on the Trade of llreinen, in Coininercial
Kcports received at the Foreinn Ollien, iHtij").)
Itrenien is possessed of a tract of territory lyin^
rmmd the city, on both sides the Weser, coii-
liiiniiif; in all uhoiil 74 si(. ni., with a )iop.. exclii-
>ivu iif that of the city, of :!l,:!r>2, making the
Inlal pop. of the stale, aci,'ordiii>; to the census of
lNi2, DM,.')".'). The land, which is low ami marshy,
iiiliTsecled hy canals, and very fertile, is mostly
iil'liriipriated to pasture. The iiiliah. of the city
mill cimntry are all Protestants, with the excep-
lii'iiofa small mmilier of It. Catholics and .lews,
Tlie executive j,Mvernment is vested in a senati!
if II liiemhers elected for life, and the Icj^'islativi'
nuthurity is in the hands of the asseiuldy of liur-
IJi'ssos (liiiiii<-rsifiiij't), composed of l"J(l memlicrs,
diiiseii hy the nienihersof the I'J colle^jes or j^uilds
fil tile city. A committee of lil) hni;;i'sses, pre-
siiktl over by a cluiinnan electeil for two years.
hiiM ihi> ilnlv of repri'seiitiiit{ the nnsi'nihiv in llm
intervals o|' tlie ordinary sesKions, At I lie head
of the cMTiitive are two lMiruomaster'<, who hold
olliie for iwo years each ami retire In rotation.
'I'he piililic reM'iiiie lor the year iHi;.' anionnii'il
lo l,)il.',r<i:i thalrrs, or .' Hi, I'Jii/., iindihe expendi-
ture to l,i.ri,:.','il ihiih r<, or .'.iii.ilwr/. Very nearly
one half llie reM'iiiie is riiiseil liy imlireci ta\es(
while alMiiii the same amoiuit is expended lor in-
terest ami reihictioii of the public debt. The
lalterainouiited, in iMir.', to II. 7:1 1. Hi') I balers, or
l,7iiii,l '.'I/, This sum includes a railway loan of
1,11011,111111 tluilers, at Mi tier cent uolialed ill
iH.'i'i, \ peculiarity ol Itremeii Is the pa,\iiient
ot the llicouietax a'<se..sed al I per cent, ol lIlH
income on all properly above .'lUD I balers, or 71*)/.
per auuuiii. Only the lli>t lUe I balers, or l.i.t., am
paid publicly to the tax ^'atlierer; and wbaievef
sniii is due above this amount, the lax payer bai
to throw secretly into a clo'.e box with a ^lit on
the lop, in such a manner that it is impoHsible to
discover what each imiividiial has actiuiltv paid,
NotwithstamliuK ibis facility for fraud, it is foiiinl
that the Slims annually paid for iiicouie lax sur-
pass Considerably the ^overnnient estiuiates.
To the rrmy of the Coufederatioii Itremeii has
to contribute 7lHmen, if which |iil are cavalry
The whole of the troops of the iiil'aiiliy are en-
listed for a term of lUe years, at a bouiiiy of •.'ml
Ibalers, or :iii/„ wilb an aiiiiiial pay of In ibiilers,
or li/., be-'ides board. 'I'he cavalry is couiribiited,
according to the terms of a miliiary couveiilion, by
( llileiibiii';;, which slate also furnishes imist of
the coiiimi-sioueil ollliers,
llremen is said to have been founded in ~^^K,
She was !on^ one ol'ibe leading towns of the llall-
seittic league. In llilo, she was summoned to tho
diet, and allowed a seal ami vole on the liheiii--h
bench, ill the eollep' of imperial cities. In HIIH,
at the treaty of VVestpbalia, the archbishopric to
which llremen had. ;{iveii name wiis .leculiirised in
favour of Sweden, who held il till 171.', u ben it
was taken possession of by lleiimark, by wlioin it.
was ceded to Hanover in I7.'ll. Ilremim ai iinired
I' .
Irom the electors of Hanover a full recofrnitioii ol
its indepcmleiici^ ami other prerogatives, which
had soiuetimes been disputed iiy the Swedes, In
iMiHi, it was taken hy the l''reuch ; anil from IMHI
to |M|:l, it was the cap, of the department of the
Mouths of the Weser. In \X\^> th>Mild repnblicaii
form ol'goveriimeut was restored liy the congres.s
of Vienna.
HiniNTI'l )l;l). a town of Kn-laiid, co. Middle-
sex, liiiml, ( l.ssulloii iiiid I'.ltliorne, at the juiiciioii
of the Hrelil wilbtheTliaiin -■>'ni. W. by S, London
by road, and 10^ in, by Soiuli Western railway.
I'op. '.l,iV.il ill iMiil. The town consists of one
long indill'erently-built street, on the great W.
road I'roin the metropolis; a modern stone bridge,
connects it with the .S. bank of the Thames, ami
another (built in IH'JI.on the site of one very an-
cient) spans the Hrent, which divides the town
into Old and New IJrentford; the former in the
parish of Haling, the latter a distinct pari.>h. The
clnirch at (lid lireiitford is dependent on that of
lulling; that of New llrentl'ord is a chapel of ease,
tollanwell: both are modern struct iire.s. There
are several dissenting chapels, tbrei^ endowed free
schools, and two national schools. A wi'ckly
market is held on Tuesdays, and annual fairs 17th
May and I2tli .September. There are llour-mills,
a distillery, and an iron foundry in tin; town; the
malting business is also carried on to some extent.
These employ many of the inhabitants; the mar-
ket gardens of Haling employ others; and tho
trallic arising from its thoronglifare is coiisiiU'rable,
and uccn[iiei» another portion, 'Ihc Grand .liinc-
iiii-it
5;iG
ItlJKSCIA
I
«i<in rmiiil joins tlic Ilri'iit iili(tlel)rl()W llanwcll,
imkI i(H tMiniiiuinicatioti is nintitiiicil liy it to tlu;
'I'ImiiioH, till wliii'li tlicrt' arc Hi'vrral wliiirfx, lio-
twi'cii (ho town iiikI Kcw (iiinlciis. llnMiirunl is
usually fiiiisidcrcd tlui co. town, liiit il liax no
piililii! Iiall, nor separate jurisdiction. Tlicrc is a
court of rc((iicHts lor dclits under 'lo.t. held duriiif?
Ilie siiinnier half year in the, town; duriiiK tlie
oilier at llxhridf^e; its jurisdiction extends over
the hundreds of Klthorn'e and Siiellthorne. It is
the ehii'f (lolliiig town, wlierc the co. members
are iioiniiiated,
IIHKS(!IA (an. 7?/mVi),aeity of Northcni Italy,
raj), prov. same iiHine, oiitlie (iarza, and near tlie
left hank of the Mella, at the foot of the Alps, on
the ninrj^in of the f^reat plain of Lonibardy, TjI ni.
K. Milan, and M) m. NNK. Cremona, on the rail-
way from Milan to A^eniee. Pop. 34,!m2 in I«ti2.
The city is surrounded liy walls and ramparts, and
Jias a castle on a hill on an eininonee within the
walls : the streets are broad and straiKbt, and its
iiiimeroiis sipiares, |mblie buildings, palaces and
fountains, j^ive it an air of ;;randeur and mafjniti-
ecnce. It is the seat of abislio])ric; and ha.s aline
modem cathedral of white m.aihle, befjiin in l<!(t4,
and tinislied only in IH"2ji; an elepint modern
episno|)al jialace, and many churches and convents,
some of wlii(!h are ornamented with pictures by
the masters of the Venetian school. The ]'alace
olMustice {Palazzo PiMwo), built on the site of
an ancient temple, is curious, as exhibiting that
mixture of (lothie and (Jrecian architecture to be
found in so many of the edilices of Northern Italy.
\t has also a line museum of antiquities, a larj^e
theatre, amontc-ih-jtieta, a|)ublic library, lyceum,
gymnasium, an at lienieiim, or academy of science
and belles-lettres, with numerous hospitals and
eieemosynary establishnients, and no fewer than
72 imblic fountains. It is distiiifjuished by its in-
dustry ami trade. Nojir it are larjjje iron works,
and the arms and cutlery of JJrescia have been
louf,' reckoned the best in Italy; it has also fabrics
of silk, llax, paper, itc, -.vith numerous oil-mills j
and tanneries. A fair commences annually on the
tith of Au,','tist ; and a larjje buildinij is constructe<l
outside for the accommodation of those frequentinj^
the fair. JJrescia has |)rodiiced many eminent
men, amonj^ whom may be speeilied Tartaglia,
Mazzuchelli, and A^joni.
This city is very ancient. It is supposed to
have been the cap. of the Cenomani, and it siihse-
qiieiitly became a Komaii colon}' an<l municipiiim.
Il was sacked by Attila. lieiiif; declared by Otlio
I. a free city, it was governed for nearly .SOO years
by its own consuls; but beiuff distracted by the
contests of the Guelphs and (Jhibellines, it ])laced
itself, in 142(i, under the Venetian government,
It was taken by tlic French during tlie League of
('ambray, and having revolted, was retaken by
them by storm in lol2, wlien it w-as given up to
military execution. On this occasion, the (Jhe-
Niilier Bayard, the knight sans peur et sans re-
proc/ie, was severely wounded. It has also been
repeatedly laid waste by the plague and small-
pox ; and was in part destroyed, in 1 7(i!>, by the
cx))losion of a [lowdcr magazine. During the
asceiulancy of Napoleon, it was the cap. of the
dep. of Mella. The congress of Vienna restored
it, with the whole of Lombardy. to Austria ; but
the war of 1859, followed by the Treaty ofA'illa-
franca, united the city, with the surrounding i)ro-
vince, to the new kingdom of Italy.
The chief interest of iirescia is derived from its
a,ntiquiti(>s. During excavations, begun in 1K20
and continued till 182(!, there was discovered a
beautiful temple of white marble, fidonied with
columns of the Corinthian order : and under the
LKKSLAU
pavement wna found n bronze statue of Victi)r\-
iietween 5 anil (i ft. high, represented as a very
line specimen of art,
IJ!!l''.SLAlI, the second largest city of I'riissin,
cap. ]irov. Silesia, and of a regency' and cjrc. i,f
same miine, at th(^ eontlueiice of the small rivir
Olilaii with the Oder, iind on the railway I'roiii
Itcrlin to (Vacow. I'op. M5,ijH!» in iNCd, excli^ivc
of a garrison of (!,!»;!« men. The city of lircslim
comprises the old and new towns, with viiridiis
suburbs, some of them built on islands of tin;
Oder, and nnitcMl to the bodv of the town Ijv
numerous bridges. Streets in tlic old town iikwiIv
narrow; but tliose in the newer jmrts are hniaij
and the bouses good ; while the number and nia;;-
nilicence of the squares and public buildings (,'iv(!
it an air of splendour. Among the latter nmv
be speeilied the cathedral, founded in lll«; tliV
church of St. Klizabeth, with a spire SOt ft. in
height; and several other churches; timci-deeniit
convent of the Augustines; the ...ice, now tlin
governineiit-housf', built by Fredcrurk the (ircnt;
the archiepiscopal palace, town-house, mint, ('ji-
tholic gymnasium, theatre, Exchange Ihiililiii};s,
university, and barracks. A colossal statue in
cast-iron of Marshal Ulncher, by liaucli, was
erected opposite to the Exchange ISuililings in
1827, to coinmeinorafe the decisive and iniportaiit
victory gained by the Marshal and the I'riissiaii
landwehr under his command ovi^r the Frcnoli
under iMacdonald, on the Kalsbuch, in 1K13. Tin;
university was founded in 1702, and has, on the
average, from 700 to 800 students, lireslau is tlic
seat of government for the province, has a conrt
of apjieal for the latter and for the regency, a
supreme council of mines, and other admiiiistrii-
tive establishments. Besides the university, i»,
has ft school of industry, of deaf and dunili, of
surgery, one Catholic, and three rrotestiiiil, gym-
nasiums, a seminary for the instruction of scIkioI-
masters, a school of architecture, a school of arts,
and an immense number of inferior scIkhiIs. TIu;
library of the university contains above 200.(1(111
volumes, and there are several smaller colleclinns
all open to the public. There are a great nuinlicr
of richly endowed hosjiitals and other cliiiriialile
institutions, among Avhich may be specified me.
for faithful servants. It has numerous breweries
and distilleries, with manufactures of linen, cotfiiii,
wool and silk, alum, soa|), jilate, jewellery, and is
the centre of a vcy extensive eommerco, being in
some measure the entrepot of the iiroviiice. Kx-
clusive of its own |!rodiicts, the greater jLirt of tlie
linens, cottons, and cloth manufactured in Silesia
are disposed of at its fair^. Metals from the
mines, and timber from the forests in the iijiper
jiart of the province, are also brought here in larije
(jiiantities, with Hax and hemp, madder, and oxen
from the Ukraine and Moldavia. Exclusive ef
its other fairs, two great fairs for the sale (if
wool are held annually in .June and Octelier.
The lirst of these is the greatest fair of its kiiul
in (iennany, the quantity sold being usually almut
(■>,000,000 lbs. During its continuance, the town,
owing to the number of persons in the Oriental
costume, has a good deal of the appearance of an
eastern city.
The fortilications with which TJreslau was fur-
merly surrounded were demolished by the Freiieh.
The ram]/arts have since been levelled, iilanteil.
and laid out in jmblie walks ; the bastions have
been converted into terraces ; and the difch iiiin
an ornamental sheet of water, to the great einlie!-
lishment of the city.
Hreslau is one of the most animated towns in
Trnssia. The inhabitants are evideiill}' wcaliliy;
and the increasing luunber of new buildiiiys
r.RESSAY
nmnmcntcd villnH, and |)linsiirc-(jToiiinls in (lie
vicinity, 111 li'Ht itH ^rowiii^ |iri)s|H'rify, It is salu-
lirimis; (irovisiiinH iirc iilitnuliiiit iind t-lu'iip; pdii-
catiiin (■xccllont ; tho pi'iiple infi'lit^c'iit, trunk,
liiid Kocialilv; tiio litcriiry inslitntionH numoroiiH
and ('iiHily afcwsihlc ; nnd tlie I'ountry round
licinitit'id, nil! cimflittiiris, (ir CdrtV'o-lumsi'H, are
very Hplcndid. Dram-drinking is prvvnlcnt, and
(.piritM constitute tlio prin(-i|)al beveriii^e of the
Inv.cr classes, altlioui;li of lute tlie vonsuin])tion
(if malt li(|Uors, [larticnlarlv of llavarian Ix'cr, or
uliJit is known at) Inger-beer, has greatly in-
crciiM'd,
Itresinu was taken from Austria bv Frederick
tlie (ireat, in the course of the Seven Vears' VV'ar,
niid has over since formed part of the kingdom
ol' I'rnssia.
ISUIiSHAY, one of the Shetland islands, which
niiESSUIHK, n town of France, d(<p. Deux
Si'vres, caj). arrond., on n hill, at the foot of which
U the Doio ; 1!) m. N W. I'artenay. Top. 'i.lMi:! in
isdi. The town is the seat of a tribunal of i)ri-
nmry jurisdiction, and of an agricultural society,
il, w'.is formerly fortit'ed and defended i>y a castle,
liiit which was destroyed in ITJ'.i, when the town
ttiis burnt to the ground, with the exception of
the church and of a single house,
HlvKST, a strongly fortified marit. town of
France, dep. Finisterre, caji. arnuid. of the same
name, occupying the foot and declivity of a steep
liill, on the N. side of a spacious bay, near the
t'xtreinitv of the peninsula of Hrittanv; iJO m.
NW. (jumper, 1:12 m. WNW. Kcnnes,' and 314
in. WSW. I'nris by road, and 32.') m. by Western
niilway, of which it is the terminal station. I'oj).
()7,y;l3 in IMGl. The town, inclusive of its suburb
Kecouvrance, from which it is 8eiiarate<l l)y the
river I'enfeld, is about 3 m. in circuit, and of a
triiiiigidar sh.ipe. llrest projier ^situated on the
K. as Hecouvnince is on the \V. sale of the river)
is naturally divided into the upper and lower
town: in the lirst, which is the most ancient j)or-
tiiin, though containing a considerable number of
gmi\ nioileni editices, the streets arc irregidar,
iriKjked, and narrow, and the houses so unevenly
placed, that the gardens of some arc on a level
with tlie tifth stories of adj.-xcent ones. In some
places the declivity is so ra|)id, that the road to
the lower town is formed by flights of steps. In
the lower town many of the streets near the port
arc well laid out, clean, and healthy ; elsewhere
(liey are quite the reverse, llccouvrance, although
improved latterly, offers but an unfavourable con-
trast to Brest. The ramparts which surround the
tdwn are planted with trees, and fonn a jileasant
]ir(iinenade, with line views toward the harbour.
The port, or inner harbour, formed by the mouth
(if the I'enfehl, is lined by good quays adorned
with large ancl handsome stone buildings. It is
lanillockcd, capable of accommodating .')!) frigates
.111(1 other vessels, and is protected by formidable
hatterics, and by an ancient castle on a rock at its
entrance. A large portion of llrest is occupied by
marine establishments. It has a noble arsenal
('stal)lished by Louis XIV., excellent docks for
l>;iil(ling and repairing ships, large rope walks,
and \arious magazines for the stores necessary to
the titling out of a nav}', with marine barracks
iinil a hospital. In the upper p.irt of the town
i.< the Baffiie, a buihling for the reception of con-
victs sentenced to the galleys ; and the largest
cililice of its kind in France. It is 277 yards in
li'ii;;th; its centre and extremities are occupied
by I lie various oflicers having charge vd" the con-
victs; the intermediate spaces are separated into
four divisions, each capable of loilging 500 men.
HRETir.NY
037
It comliinps sceurily with Miiubrity. Tint despite
the severe (liM'ipline enforced in this prison, it is
siud to be rather demoralising than rcl'onnalory.
Among other |(ublic buildings are the parish
church of St. Louis, with n handsome altar, the
town-hall, and the tlmatre. There are several
public fountains, one of which is ornamented with
a line statue, liresi is the seat of a tribunal of
original jurisdicrtion, and tlie residence of a siili-
iirefect, a maritime prefect, and other functionaries,
t contains two public libraries, a caliinet of na-
tural history, botanic garden, nnd observatory,
schools of naval artillery, navigation, medicine,
surgery, and pharmacy, societies of agriciilturu
and emulation, a tribunal of conmierce, and an
exchange.
The outer harbour or road of Brest is one of the
finest in the world. It is of great extent, being
capable of accommodating the larg(!st navies, anil
has deep water throughout. The channel. La
Gimlet, by which it communicates witli the ocean,
is only 1,H0.") yards across, defended on either side
by very strong batteries ; and it is further
strengthened by having a rock in its centre,
whicli obliges ships to pass close under the guns
of the batteries. Several small rivers discharge
themselves into the outer harbour, by one of
which, the Chateanlin, there is an inland coin-
nniiiication with Nantes, Brest has some tan-
neries and manufactures of gla/.ed hats; and ti
fleet of fishing boats for ]iilchards, cod, and
mackerel, It.s commerce is comparatively trilling,
and mostly conlined to supjilying provisions to
the marii>e : there is, however, some trade, in
grain, fish, ,'ind salt ; and a fair for cattle, leather
cloths, and similar articles, is held monthly.
This town is aftinned by some authorities to bo
the Brl-mte.1 Pwliis of the Bonians ; but of this
there is consideralde doidit. It was of little eoii-
se(iuence till it wiu>' fortified by a duke of Brittany
in the lltli century, It was assigned to the ICiig-
lish, in 1372, by John IV, duke of Brittany, and
was held by them till 1307, In 1189 it was'taken
by the French ; and was soon after permanently
united to the monarchy by the marriage of Charles
VI II, with Anne of Brittany, Cardinal Bichelieu,
being sensible of its great natur.^.i advantages for a
naval station, began, in Kiol, the construction of
the fortiiicatioiis and magazhies, which were coni-
jdeted by Vauban, in KWI). In 1094, an English
and Dutch force that had attacked Brest, was
defeated with great loss. The space included
witlun the fortification was considerably enlarge(l
in 1772. The Emperor Napoleon 111, visited Brest
in 1858, when orders were given for the construc-
tion of a new commercial harbour between the
Chateau and L'ance de Kerhuon, The new ]>ort —
intended to be an outer naval harbour in time of
war — was comjileted in 18()5,
BliETi;UIL, a town of France, de'p. Euro, cap.
cant., on the Iton, 1(! nv yW. Evreux, Pop. 2,108
in 1801, The country abounds in iron mines,
the working of which, and the smelting, itc, of
the ore, afford abundant employment for the
inhabitants,
Bki;ti;iiii>, a towni of France, de'p, Oiae, cap.
c.int,, at the source of the Annoy. 10 m. NE. of
Beaiivais. Po]>. 2,9(14 in 1801. The town is ill-
built, ill-paved, and dirty. There are manufac-
tures of woollen stufl's, paper, and shoes, for the
use of the troops and hosjiitals of Paris. It is
very ancient, and was once fortified and hail a
castle ; but few vestiges of the latter or of the
fortiticatiims now exi.-it. Its ancient abbey still
remains. There are some fine nurseries in the
environs.
BKETIGNY, a hamlet of France, de'p. Eure et
o;;.s
ER12TTEX
I-<iir, (■> ni. SK. ClmrtrPH. It in roinnrkalilo lor n
trciily (if pciipp, ('(inrliKlod lictwccii l-'nuicc iiml
l*".ii);lnii<l ill l.'i'Kl, wliicli r<'>li)r(Ml .luliii, k\ujx «(
Fiiiiifc, to Inn IVccdoiii, lost nt the lialllc of I'cii-
ficrs, ill JUijti, wliuii lie was made prLsoiier liy the
UnK'ITi:X, or UlMrrilKIM, a town of the
j;r«iid diicliy ol' lladcii, ea]). Iiailiwick, l'_' tn. l'„
(,'arl.sriilie, oil the railway I'roiii CarlsriilK^ lo Stiitt-
pirt, l*o|), 3,'2(Mi ill |N(!I, The town is n'liiark-
ahle nn liein^ the liirth-place ut' the learned and
aininble rel'ornier .Melancthoii. Tin? house where
lie was horn, in 141)7, is still to he seen in the
inarket-|ilai,'e, with n slatne and an inseriptioii
creeted to hisiiieniory in 17(15. This townsullered
mniOi (hirinjf the wars of lti;i2 and Iti.S',).
l!l{IANr()N,aNtroiit?ly I'ortilied town of Franro,
d('p. llaittes Alpes, cap. arrond., on the Durance.
.Mlm. KSK. (irenohle. I'o)). -l.oK) in IHtil. This
is the hif^hest town in France, lieiiif; 4,2M0 metres
ahovo the level of the sea. From its coniniandinjjc
n ]iraeticalilc dedle, leudiiifj from I'iednioiit into
Fiance, it has always heeii looked upon as one of
the keys of the kin;j;dom on the side of Italy. In
eonseqiieneo no expense has lieen spared on its
fiTi'lilications, which an; now deemed nil hut im-
))refj;n(il)le. They consist ])rincipally of stroiij? forts
Ixiilt on the contif^uoiis heights, and whicrh t'oni-
niand all the approaches to the town. The two
]irincipal forts, Tnih-Tvtvs and Hunduu'ilh't, com-
niniiicate with each other and with the town by a
l)rid};e of a sinj^le arch Hid fl. (Id metres) in spun,
thrown over a ilee)) ravine. With the exception
of a siiiffle street, the town is ill-hiiilt, jjloomy. and
dirty. It has a trihuiial of primary Jurisdiction,
and a departmental college; with fabrics of cotton
goods, hosiery, steel and cutlery.
I5KIANSK, ft town of Russia in Europe, gov.
Orel, cap. distr,, on the Desna, 6ft m. W. Orel;
Int. 5ao Ifi' N., long. 34° 24' F. Pop. 12,3!)lt in
\Hi}i<. The town is very prosperous, having doubled
its population hi the course of less than twenty
years. It has numerous churches, a fonndrv of
cannons, tanneries, and there is in the vicinity a
manufactory of arms. The neighbouring forests
supjily tine timber.
lUiIAKIC, a town of France, de'p. Loiret, ca]i.
cant., on the Loire, at the itoint where it is joined
by the canal of IJriare, 25 m, S. Jloiitargis on the
railway from I'aris to Lyons cid IJoaiine. Po)>.
i),!i27 in 18G1, The canal, to which the town is
indebted for its importance, is the oldest work of
the kind in France, having been begun in the
reign of Henry IV., though it was not. (inished
till i74(). It establishes, by means of its junction
A\ ith the canal of Loing at IMontargis, a commu-
nication between the Loire and the Seine; and
conveys the various products of the prov. watered
by the former to I'aris.
15KICQUEBEC, a town of France, de'p. La
IMaiiche, cap. cant., 8 m. WSW. A'alogues. Po]).
3,!)()!) in 18G1. It has in its environs a copper
mine.
UHlDGEXOliTII, a bor. and town of England,
CO. Salop, bund. Stottcsden, on the Severn, 125 m.
NW'. Londim by road, and 14!) J m. by (Jreat
Western and West 3Iidlaud railway. Pop. of
)iarl. bor. 7,(>!)!), and of municipal bor. 0,240 in
l.siJl. It is divided by the river into the upper
and lower towns ; the former is built u]) the accli-
vities and on the summit of a rock, rising abrii])tly
from the W. bank of the stream to tlie height of
I c'id ft. Kanges of detached houses, many of which
are handsome modern structures, are built each
over the other, so that the roofs tif one range are
lower than the foundations of the next above it,
Irom the base to the siunmit of the precipice ; with
nRIDGENOUTil
these arc intermixed other dwellings, excavatpil ni
the rock its(4f ; rude caverns, gardens, and trees,
Crowiiiiig the siiinmil, nt the S. end, is the Kiiiiiirii
ruined tower i>f the uncient castle, Ic^aniii]:,' nm-
siilcrablv from the |ierpeudi(Milar ; and the eluinli
of St. Alary Mag., a hamlsome structure, with n
lofty lower and cupola, built in I7!(2. At tlie N.
en<l is the ancient ehiircdi St. Leonard, with n
s(|uare iiinnacled tower, built in Ills. Iliil|-wav
between the two chiirclies is a reservoir, laiscil (ui
lofty brick columns, and looking nt a distance likit
a handsome portico: to this tank, water is loried
by machinery from the river, to supply the iijiiier
town. There are several good streets leading iVdin
the high street to the churches; and parall(4 over
these are others of a like character. A cnrriii(,'e
road winds round the rock, and several tiights (,f
almost perpeudicnlnr p(4)l)led ste))s, seiuired iiiirmi
framing, lead up through the rock into the inte-
rior of the town. The whole has a siiignjariv
pictiirescpie elVect, and from the palisaded wiiil
round the castle hill, extensive and diversiiieil
views are commanded over a fertile and rDinnnlii;
district. A handsome stone bridge of six aniies
connects the h)wer with the upjier town. Its
streets have an intermixture of ancient and mo-
dern houses. St. Leonard's cliundi is eiuluweil
with Odd/. ))rivate benefaction, and 1,100/. imhljc
grant. St. Mary's, formerly the castle chapel, ami
exempted by king John from nil ecclesiastical
jurisdiction, is eiulowed with 200/. private, ami
l,5dO/. public grant: both nre curacies in private
patronage. The I'.aptists and liidependeiiis liavc
each a chapel. There is a free graniiniir-silnMil,
founded in 150;>, which educates 10 scholars, ami
has three exhib. to Christ C'hurch, Oxtord ; a liliie-
coat scho<d, in a building over one of the ancient
gateways, where 30 bo3-8 are clothed, educated,
and ajiprenticed ; and a national school, supjuirted
by siil)scriiition, for 200 boys and 150 girls. 'I'lio
hospital of St. Leonard supports 10 aged widows;
niid endowed almshouses, with 158/. a year, main-
tain 12 burgesses' widows. The town-hall, in iIk;
middle of the principal street, erected l(ll(>, is a
spacious old building of timber fraine-wdik ami
lilaster, raised on brick iiillars and arches: tlie
corporation meetings anil courts are hekl in it,
and the market in the covered area uiulerncaili.
There is a gaol, built by the coriioraticni in I82,'i.
A neat theatre, built about the same period, stands
in the castle moat, and there is also a public library,
with a good collection in general literature. The
weekly market is held on Saturday ; ami there arc
seven annual fairs. There is a carpet innniifactury,
and another for tobacco-piiics, in the town. Its
iron trade has declined, but nails are still made tn
some extent ; and vessels are also built for the
navigation of the Severn. The greater part of its
labouriug pop. are emph)yed ujion the river. It
has a spacious line of quay X. of the bridge, and
otl'ers every facility for the transit of goods, so that
large quantities of corn, malt, beans, itc, arc sent
thither from various parts of the country, and it
has become a thriving inland port : its retail tradu
is also very considerable.
I'reviously to the Municipal Iteform Act the
government was nominally vested in 2 baililVs. •>\
aldermen, and the whole of the burgesses, whose
number (including the former) was (i.'i4 ; hut la
reality it was a self-electing body of 14. It is now
governed by a mayor, 4 aUlermen, and 12 coun-
cillors. Horongh income, ],!)!I5/. ill 1801. Amount
assessed to property tax i54,!)5 1/. ; gross rental
assesseil to poor rate, 32,.")(').';/. Petty sessions Inr
the bor. are held ever^' alternate jMoiiday, iind
general sessions once a year ; but no feliaiies are
tried. A court of record is held on the same da.vs
ijRiDGEPoirr
an till) pi'tty sossions which takes (•((■jiii>imrf' (if I
lU'tioiiA to liny nriKiiiiit ; l)iil not more tliiiii thri'o
a yciir nrci'iitrrcd,
"Hricl>;o|iortli hiis rotiimcd two mem. to the II. of
('. from the 'iilnl Kdwiinl I. Previously to the
Iteform Act the ch-etive franchise wiv* vested i:i
ilip coriioration iind freemen, of wiioin there were
(l.!l. Ill IMtil, the constitiieiiey consisted of (io(>
ri'^'istered ehu'tors, iiK^hidinj^ .'Hi.') old freemen.
Jlruyeii was the nncient name of the lionnij^h,
from a Saxim hridj^e over the Severn, whicli was
destroyed to prevent tlie incursions of the Panes.
A new hridfxe was snhseqiiently erected, 1^ in. N.
(if tlie old site ; and heix^e the jiresent nauu* ori-
^'iimted. The Karl of Shrewshury imilt t!ie walls,
ill v/hich were six jjates, in the reif^n of Will. II. ;
the castle was Imilt in that of Hen. II., and it has
since nnderpine many sie^ces. Dr. Percy, bislioii
of Dromore, was horn here in 172M.
HI{ll)(;i;P01!T, a town and sea-port of the U.
States, Connecticut, on Lonjc Island Sound, at the
miiuth of the Pequanock, 17^ in. S\V. Xewhnven.
I'd)). 8,l(l."j in 18t)(». The town has a consider-
able trade. Amoiif; the principal hiiildinns is the
church of the Analiaptists, who are numerous here.
lilMUCJKTOVVM, the cap. of IJarbados, which
Sl'P.
llmnoKTOWN, or IlitinaKTuN, a town and «ea-
p(irt of the IJ. States, N. .lersey, on the C(dianzy,
2tl m. ahove its entraiure into the Delaware, and 'iCi
ni. S. Pliiladel|iliia. Po|). ;!.:;uit in IHf.O. The
tiiwn has a fjood trade, with a foundry, and nianu-
factnres of j^lass and eartlieinvare.
llIMDdEWATKK, a hor., par., and 8na-])()rt of
Kn};land, co. Somerset, liuiid. X. Petherlou, on
tlie I'arret, aliont 7 m. in n direct line, and 12 m.
hv water, S., from its emhoiicluire in lh-iil;;e\vater
liay, in the IJristol Channel, 28 m. SSW. Pristol ;
aiullolj in. W. London by (ireat M'estern rail-
way. Pop. of borough 11, .'320, and of parish
12,120 in 18(U. The town is situated in a fertile
Mi'll-wooded plain of cinisiderable extent, having
K. the Mendip, and W. the (iiiantock hills; it is
limit on both sides the stream, Imt ehielly on the
\V., the 2 parts being conneotiid by a handsome
inm bridge of 1 arch. That on the W. bank has
a reniarkalily neat ajipearance, the houses being
well and uniformly l.uilt, and the streets spacious,
clean, and well paved; the other (Kastover) is
iiiferior in these resjiects, but has also of late
years been niiieh improved : the whole is lighted
iiy gas, and well supplied with water from many
line springs. The church is an ancient (Jotbic
structure, with an embattled tower and lofty
spire; there are chapels for Baptists, Friends, In-
ilt'ixiidents, ^^'esleJ•alls, (Quakers, and Unitarians ;
a free grammar-school (founded by Elizabeth in
li"i(il), and two other endowed schools, each of
which educates about 30 children; almshouses,
with an endowment of about 18^. a year; and an
iiilimiani', established 1813, and suiijiorted by
siihscription. Tliejndge's mansion is a handsome
miiilcru edilice, in which the courts of justice are
held; the market-house is also a good recent
Imihling, with a dome ami Ionic portico. There
is a sjHicious quay, accessible to vess(ds of 200
tons ; but the entrance to the harbour is dilHciilt.
The tide in the river frequtnitly rises to a great
lioight, rushing forward with a pcriicndiciilar
trout ami with extiaordinary velocity, There
are 3 weekly markets : Tuesday, for vegetables ;
Thursday, corn and cattle ; Saturday, general
lirovisions. Fairs are annually held on the (irst
Monday in Lent, July 21, Oct. 2 (the priuci|ial
one), and Dec. 27 ; they are for linen and woollen
),'0(k1s, ciittle, and general merchandise. The
imports from foreign parts consist chiclly of
P.KIDLIN'dToX
660
winrs, hemp, tnllow, and timber. The imports,
coastwise, enn.sist of groceries, general merchan-
dise, and coals ; the exports, of agricidliiral pro-
(liK'c. The shipping of the port, in 18(I;I, consisted
of3,')8!l vessels, of I(i2,(il() tons, which entered,
and 2,312 vessels, of (Hi,! 1(1 tons, which cleared.
.Among the vessels which entered were 213
steamers, of ;M,;18H tons, while the clearances
included 212 steamers, of 2l,2liti tons. Tlu;
ciisi.ims duties ill I8ti3 ainnunted to 7,7'.'!/. The
Taunton and Pridgewater Canal couiiects the two
places. Considerable quantities of Welsh coal
are conveyed by it inland, and the agrictultiiral
jirodiice of the fertile district round Ttumton,
iirougbt for shiiimeiit to ISristol and other port.<,
A great quantity of bricks are made in the
vicinity, both common and of a peculiar kind,
and large size, resembling Itatb-stone. The town
is divided into 2 wanls. and governed by a mayor,
aldermen, and 18 councillors. Courts of jileas
and of jtetty sessions are held every Monday, ami
of general sessions quarterly, for the bor. It is
the seat of a county court, before which 7.'i2 plaints
were entered in 1818. The general rpiarter
sessions for the co., in summer, and the co.
assizes, once in 2 yejirs, are also held in the
town : at such times its gaol is usually crowded,
otherwise it has few prisoners. It lias sent 2
mem. to the II. of C. since th(' 23 I'.dw. I.; tlu!
right of election, ]ireviously to the lieform Act,
being ill the iiihabitants paying scot and lot,
and having resided in the town for a c<'rtaiii
jieriod ; the eonstituency in I8l'il consisted of
i'lDl registered electors. The revenues of the
corponitioii are derived from market and fair
dues, tithes, and I'lits, and iiveragc ab'mt 2,00ii/.
a year. Tlu! living is a vicarage, united with tlm
rector}' of Chilton Trinity, anil in the gift of the
crown. Pridgewater is a polling place for the K,
division of Somerset, and the central town of ji
union under the Poor Law Amendment Act. The
net rental assessed to poor ral(! was 28,1 18/. in
ISCil, and the amount assessed to projierty tax
3!),!I31/.
The town derives its name from Walter do
Douay, to whom it was granted by William I.,
and is sjielt ♦ Ihirg' and ' ISiugge' Walter, in tln!
(dd records. In the great civil war it sided witli
the king, and lieiiig well fortilied and provisioned,
was the depository of much valuable property,
sent thither for security; all of which, together
with 1,(100 prisoners, lell into the hands of Fairfax,
aft(!r an obstinate resistance. The ill-fated Duke
of Monmouth was )iroclaiiiied king at Pridgewater,
previously to his defeat and capture at the ISattle
of vSedgenioor. The famous Admiral IJlake, one
of the greatest of the naval heroes of F.ngland,
was a native of this town, having been bomi here
in ir)i»!>.
PPIDLINGTON, a market to. of England, K.
riding co. York, 37 ni. ENE York, 24 m. N. by I'"..
Hull, I'.Mi m. N. London by roiid, and 245 m. by
(ireat Northern railway. Pop. 5,775 in 18(ii.
The town, which is about a mile from the sea-
coast, consists of one long street, with some
smaHer streets narrow and irregularly built. A
priory, erected in the early part of the reign of
Henry I., at the E. end of the town, is, thinigli
much decayed, a venerable andmagniliccnt siicci-
men of the (dd English church archit('ctiire. It
was endowed with very large estates : its last
prior being cnnvicted of high treason, wasexecuted
in 1537. A part of it, used as the jiarisli church,
accommodates above I,ilOO persons. Tlu; other
lilaces of worship are those of the Wcsleyaii and
Primitive jMetlmdists, Paplists, Independents,
Presbyterians and <iuaUcrs. The schools arc, a free
K'
£40
BRIDPORT
^r'lnimnr-wlinnl, foiiiiiUMl in l(i.')7; two Inrpc nn-
liiiiml kcIiihiIh, an iiil'iints' hcIhioI, nnd » xcIhmiI of
iiiiliiMirvi t<iiiii(l('<l in I'M, to iuslnin ]iii()r (^liildrcu
in carding', knitting, iinil wool xpinninf^ A il(!-
Inclu-d hnildin^, wliii^li lonncd piirt of tlio ]iriory,
is iisvd for a town-liiill inid iiriNon, IScsidt's ii
Itrink rcUiil trade, an extensive corn Iriidt; is
<Nirrii'il on. Tiio hnsincss in traiisuctcd in tlii!
J'lxi'liang*^ a neat connnodions liiiiidin);. Hals
tin' also inaniifactured Iiiti', and in tlic n('ij{lil)our-
liood nre M'vcral wind and waitT mills, nnd a
hli'nm-niill for griiidinj^ l)oni>s, T)in malt trado,
wliiiili was forini'rly very extensive, is nuich
fallen ofl'. Aiarkets are held on Saturdays, and
n <uUtlc market every fortniKlit; fairs on tlic;
^loiiduy before Whitsunday, and Oct. 21. Urid-
lington is ii station forreeeninf? votes at elections
i'or the E. Itidiufj;. Tlie banks are, a branch of
the York Union, and a |>rivate Imnkinf^ house.
Iiridlington (^uay is a lU'at vilhif,'e, aliont a mile
from llridlin^ton, and forms an eel. district, with
i\ |iop. in 1N(!I, of 2,077. Its principal street,
wliicii is very broad, leads directly to the harbour.
Aviiere there is excellent anchorage : it is defended
by two batti'ries. Here are hot and cold baths,
«nd a chalylwatc spring, whose medicinal pro-
jierties are highly esteemed. An ebbing and
flowing Hpring, discovered in 1811, supplies the
inhabitants with abundance of excellent water.
The port is a member of that of Hull, and has a
neat custom-house on the (puiy. It is mucii
frequented in sunnner by visitors for sea-bathing.
UlMUrOKT, a bor. and sea-port of England co.
J)orset, lumd. Bridport, 127 m, WlSVV. London
by road, and KiJJ m. bv (Jreat Western Kailway.
r'op. 7,719 in IMtil. ^riie town lies in a fertile
vale encircled by hills, between the IJrit and
Aslier, which arc crossed Iiy several bridges, and
nnite a short distance below the town. It eon-
nists chietiy of three main streets, well lighted
nnd paved, with many handsome modern houses
on either side. The church is a cruciform struc-
ture of the later Gothic, with an embattled and
]iiunaclcd tower in the centre. The Eriends, In-
de|)endents, Wesleyans, nnd Unilarinns, have
tacli chapels. The town-hall where the council
meet, and the borough sessions are held, is a hand-
some muderu edifice in the centre of the place;
there is also an endowed free school, founded
17(t«, anil an almshouse, founded U't'Jii. The
jiier linrbuiir is about one m. S. of the towni, be-
tween Lyme and Portland, and is safe and com-
modious^ though rather shallow. An act, passed
in 1722 for restoring its piers, and forming a sluice,
■was carried into ell'ect in 1742, the corporation
being trustee. In 1822 another act passed, by
•which several private persons were joined with
the corporation in the trust, nnd the harbour was
then materially improved and enlarged, at an
exijcnse of nearly 20,000/., and is now suitable
for vessels of 200 tons ; since which the increase
of its trade has been progressive. In 18:52 it was
made independent of Lyme, within whose juris-
diction it had previously h'.-cn, and established
as a bonding port. The customs' duties amounted
to 2,7o!)/. in IHtiiJ. The manufactures are — twine,
linos, anil lishing-nots, for the home aiul colonial
fisheries, and sail-cloth and shoe thread : these
employ several hundred jiersons. The cxiuirts
consist chieliy of those manufactures, and -of
butter and cheese, the jiroduce of the neighbour-
hood. The imports conii>rise hemj), liax, and
deals, from the ISallic; talhiw, skins, coal, culm,
t-l.ile, wines, s|iirits, and gripccries, coastwise,
'i'liere entered the port, in IHOii, 100 sailing
vessels, of 8,845 tons burden, and there quitieil
15 sailing vessels, of 075 tons. There are 2
URIEL
weekly markets (Wednesday and Satiinlay), ami
.'i fairs (April (1, Holy Tlilirsdaj-, and Oct. lii;
cliiflly for horses, c;dlle, and cheese). The Imr!
is divlili'd into 2 wards, inid governed by a niavnr,
IS aldeniu'n, and 18 coimcillors : the revenue 1. 1'
the corjioration derived from market iIuch and
rents ninnunted to 4'.I0/. in jHiil, l)rid|Hirt h.is
sent 2 nu'Ui. to Ihe House of Commons sinrc -j:)
l'".dw. I. Previously to the Keform Act the ri;;la
of election was vested in the householders |iMviii"
scot nnd lot, Ihe nnnd>er of voters iK'ing neiirlv
ilOO. In 18()5 it had 4lil regist. electors, inehidiii^;
111 Hcot nnd lot voters. Amount assessed to
property tax l!l,27iV, in 181)1. Uridport was n.
Iioroiigh during (he Saxon period : at the time of
the Domesday survey it had 100 houses, a mint,
and an ecclesiastical establishment. Its stiipli!
manufacture is of remote origin ; Camdeu not ires
n siiecial law of Henry the Eighth's reign, \>v
which the mivy was to be exclusively siipplicij
with cordage made at Uridport; and (iibson, in «
in)te on the imssage, speaks of the failure of ua
attempt in his day to form a harbour ((iihs. Kd,
Urit. 170.) It confers the title of viscount on the
Hood famil}'.
IllME-COMTE-KOISEirr, n town of Frame,
dep. Seine et Mariie, cap. cant., near the Yitcs,
10 m. NNW. aielun. Pop. 2,8,sl in Ihiil. Tiiu
town was built by I'obert of Erance, count nf
Dreiix, to whom his brother Louis VII. gave the
hirdship of Brie. Its old feudal castle has beeu
demolished. The |)arish church, founded in tlie
loth century, is remarkable for the heiglit of its
tower. The Hotel Dieu is nearly of the same age
(US the church.
lUilEtjl, a fortified town of Prussia, prov. Sile-
sia, cap. circ, on the Oder, about half wnv lif-
tweon lireslau and Opjieln, and on the railwiiv
from Hreslan to Vienna. Ptij). ]2,!)70 in Iw'ii.
The town is situated on an elevated bank of tlie
river, over which it hits a wooden bridge, and is
well built and thriving. Principal imblie Imilil-
ings, a gymnasium, fonnerly a nniversily, to wliiiii
is attached a good library, a luinitic asylum, wiili
several churches ami hospitals. It has extensive
manufactures of linens, woollens, and cottons, ami
carries on a considerable trade.
HKIEL or IllJlELLE, a fortified sea-port timii
of the Netherlands, prov. S. Holland, cap. ammil.,
on the N. shore of the island of Voorn, near I lie
mouth of the Macse, 13 m. W. Kotlenlain ; lal.
51 o 54' 11" N., long. 4° 9' 51" E. Pop. 4,;i()4 in
18(!1. It is a handsome well-built town; is
strongly fortiiied; has a good harbour, a Irilmiial
of ])rimary jurisdiction, and sends a deimty to the
states of the province.
The Uriel is remarkable in Dutch history fur
being the place where the first foundation oi' the
re])ublic was laid. The exiles from the NetliiT-
lands, who had taken refuge in England frdin tlic
lierseeutions of the Duke of Alva, were onleroii In'
tineen Elizabeth, in coiiset|iience of the iir^'ciit
representations of Alva, to leave this kii)Kil"i".
Being thus driven to desimir, they asscmliled a
small licet at Dover, under the comnianil iil' M'il-
liam lie Lumey, Count de la Marck, and resolveil.
if jiossihle, to get |)ossession of some jilace nl'
strength in their native country. Their ori^'iiial
intention was to make an atteni|it on I'jR'liiiv.si'ii ;
but the wind being unfavourable, they cast aiii'lnr
before Uriel, of which they took possession on tlic
1st of April, 1572. Thus was struck Ilie first hhw
in tlnit apparently most unequal nnd iim;;-iiiii-
tinucil struggle between Holland and Spain, iliat
endeil in the independence of the former; astniiC-
gle rt'hich, whether we consider the sacrilices and
lierseverancc of the weaker party, or the benilicial
BRIENXE
fonspqiioncps of thoir hupcpss, im. iirrhnpn, thr most
cxtriiiii'iliiiury iiml iiii|i()rtiitit of which liiNlnry hiiM
|iri"H'rviMi imy iicckiiiiI. (I''iir nil iiccnimt of ihv
,ii|iliin' tif llrii'l, Ni'i! Wiitsou's I'liiliit II., i. p. 127,
«VI'. I'll.)
Itricl wa.i tho hirth-|)Iiu;o of tho heroin Aflmirnl
Vuii 'rromp, who iV-tl in iiti <Mi;^M;;('iiu'iit, with (ii(>
KiiLjli-'li. under liliiiio, oil' Uic Tuxcl, on llio «l.ii of
An';;.. I <!•">;».
ItlMICNNK, n t^wii of France, (U'p. Anlm, cnp.
rant,, on the f^reiit road from I'aris to Ciiiinincint,
Ifiin. N\V. itnr-snr-Aiihc. I'op. 2,(l.-)7 in IWll.
Till' town luiN u lino cuitle, cri'i'tcd u HJiort while
pri'Viously to the [{(evolution, hy the minister
hDUU'nie'dc Hrienne. it st.inds im nil nrlilie'iiil
|iliiieiiii. and eoniinunds an extensive view. Na-
|iip1(m>ii I. received the lirst rmliineiits of liis edii-
tiiliiiii in a military academy that formerly existed
ill this town, lint which was snppresseil in 17111);
mid here, in l«l I, in aii ent^aj^enient with the
Russians and I'ruHsinus, he wits ill imtiiinciit
(iniijtcr.
lllilHUC (ST.), a sen-port town of France, d(<p.
O'ltcs-dii-Nord, of which it is the capital, on the
(idiict, near its emhoncluirc in the May of St.
Itrifiii;, iW m. \VS\V. St. Malo, on tlie"^ railway
I'niiii Paris to llrest. Pop. ir>,:Ul in l«(!l. The
jxirt of St. JUieiio, nt the month of the river nt
till! vilhifje of J-iipmc, has a liandsome quay, and
a eomniodious harbour, accessible to vessels of HM
tmis. The town is ])rctty well built. The cathe-
<lriil, a tiothic cdilice, was bcj^un in 1220, and
liiiishcd in 1231 ; there are, also, a hotel dc ville,
nil liosiiital on a larf^e scale, a workhouse, and a
tliwitre. The bridj^e over the river is a handsome
ftoiie structure of three arches. There are some
piml s(pmres and line promenades, St. Hrienc is
tlioscat of a bishojiric, and of tribunals of primary
jurisdiction and commerce ; and it has a depart-
mental colle<;e, a diocesan seminary with 1(10
]iii|iils, a school of arts, and a jmblic library with
24,000 volumes. There are in the town fabrics of
linen, serjje, flannel, and paper, with tanneries
nnd breweries. The inhabitants used to employ a
considerable number of ships in the whale and cod
lislieries, particularly the latter, but this industry
1ms ureatly declined of late years, chiefly, it is
stated, on account of the strict laws of maritime
ciinscription, which impresses the greater part of
the risiiifi generation for the Iinjierial navy. The
wiiist tishery, however, is still carried on to a con-
siderable extent. Horse races were established
here in 1H07, and are kept up with great sitirit.
HUKiHTON, formerly llKIGinTIKLiM-
STON K, a fashionable niarit, town and pari, bor,
of England, co, Sussex, rape Lewes, hiind. Welh-
btmnte, vulg, IFhaleshone, 47 ni, S. London by
road, and &0 m. bv London, Brighton and South
(Joast railway. Pop. 24,429 in 1821; 41,!)!)4 in
1831 ; 4C,(J0rm 1841 ; G<»,67JJ in 1851 ; nnd 87,317
ill 18H1, The latter is the pop. within the bounds
of the pari, borough; that of the niiiniciiial
iKirough was 77,693 in 180 1, Brighton— the mo-
dem IJaiic — is situated on the coast of the British
Channel, between Beachey Head and Selsey Bill,
It is of an irregular shape, being built along the
shore, and on the slopes of a gentle valley, the
centre of which, the Stei/ne, a long, narrow slip of
land, lying N, and S,, divides the town into the
E, and'W. portions. In this valley are the I'a-
vilion, and St, Peter's Church ; a statue of George
IV. by Chantrey, and a handsome fountain con-
structed in 1840. The town E. the Steyne, has
been wholly built within the last eighty years.
Aloii}; the clitfs, which in this part rise high above
the sea, has been formed a very beautiful marine
liromciiadc. A wall of iinmeuse thickness (at the
raiOIITON 611
foundation 30 ft. wide), and from CO to 70 ft. high,
formed of concri^te, jirotects a line pavement, and
a road upwards of l(M) fi. in width. From the
exircmc K. eiiirance of the town. Ibis miigiiiticenb
itromeiiade and drive is skirlctl to the Sleyiie liy
large mansions, nnd lodging-houses of the llrst
<lescription. Among others arc those of Kemp
Town, and its sipiares, a splendid range, forming
three siilcs of a (piadrangli!, and having a row of
houses, of similar architectural chariK-tcr, diverging
fnmi either extremity : the spacious area in front
is laid out in walks, and has an nrcluil passnge
commuiiicntiiig with the bench, the crescent, ami
various spacious streets, opening from the line of
dill" to the norihward. West of the Steyne is the
«dd town, consisting principally of old and irregu-
lar biiililiiigs. Many of these have, however, iM'en
inilled down, nnd on the sites of some of them, a
new market was constriicKul in 1H29, and a town-
hall in IM31; but the latter, though large, ami
making n good ajipearancc externally, is not well
adapted for public meetings. In every direction
round the old town new streets and s(|iiares have
been erected; particularly aUiiig the line of coast,
called the King's Road to Hove, where, facing tlio
sen, are some line ranges of mansions, including
Bedford Sipiare, liegeney Square, nrnnswick Ter-
race and S(iuare, Adelaide Terrace, l£oyal Crescent,
Palmo'ra Scpiare, and numerous others. The elitl's,
ah)iig this part of the coast, rise only a f(tw feet
above the highest part of the beach : iii their front
is a tine promenade, and, below this, a levtd space
of green sward reaching down to within a short dis-
tance of the water. On the Lewes road are I ianover
Crescent, Kichmond Terrace, the (irand I'arade,
and Park tJrescent, recently erected on thesiteof the
IJoyal Gardens and Cricket Ground. On the London
road are York and St. George's Places, and many
structures in the cottage style. The palace called
the Pavilion, was begun by George I V.when Prince
of Wales, in 17«4, and completed in 1827; it is
in the oriental stvlc, being copied from the Krem-
lin at Moscow ; its stone front extends 200 ft. ; it
has a circular building in the centre, surmounted
by a pillared dome. The Chapel Koyal is (m the
W., nnd l)ehind is a circular range of stables in
the Arabian style, lighted by a glass dome. The
palace is shut out from the view of the sea by the '
Albion Hotel aiid other buildings ; and little can
be said in favour of the taste displayed in its
erection. This building and the ground attached
to it, eomjirising about seven acres, hnve Im'cii
purchnsed by the town, at a cost of 53,000/., and
the place has been converted into reading anil as-
sembly rooms, and a sort of refuge for miscella-
neous entcrtahiments. The old church of great
antiquitj', a mean fabric, partlv in the ornamented
and partly in the later Gothic style, has a low,
massive, square tower, which, as it stands on a
hill 150 ft, above the sea, serves as a landmark for
vessels, St, Peter's church, an elegant Gothic
structure, completed in 1827, at the public expense,
has upwards of 1,100 free sittings. Besides these,
there are 19 other churches, and 28 eliapels, for
Roman Catholics, Huntingdonians, Quakers, In-
dependents, Baptists, Scotch Seceders, and Wcs-
leyan and Whittield Methodists, There are
numerous free schools, partly supported by sub-
scriptions and partly endowed, with orphan, na-
tional, infant, and ragged scho(ds. Among the
other educational establishments are Brighton
College; the Diocesan Training College, on the
clirts; St, Jlary's Hall, for clergymen's daughters;
and the Dissenters' Proprietary College, The
County Hospital, in the neiglibourliood of the
college, is a large and well sn))ported establish-
ment. There arc baths of all kiiuls, constructed
A 12
IMUOHTOX
■with ovjTy rct^nnl to comfiirl and cnnvniiicnrc, ns
well as niitncriiiis Imtliiii;,' iiiiii-liiiic.i. 'I'lic (HTtiiiiii
N|iii, ill II vitlli'V riU'liii; ilic Kt'M, at the lunl nl' tin:
llipw Mill, \\t\x csliilplislicil ill |M-.'(!, I'cir the pri'-
|iiiriitii>n (if artilii'iiil iiiiiicriil walcrn, in iinitutioii
of tlio niitiiral HpriiigN nt Carlsbnil, Knis, Miirion-
bact, anil I'vriiKint.
All cla^ssfM of visitors tlnil miitnlilo nccomtnniln-
tion lii'iv, in fnrnislicil lii(lfrin;;M, inns, and IioIuIh ;
of all wliifh tlicrc is t^vcry variety, from I hose of
tlic most Hii|)('rii and <'X|it'n.siv(! cliaractor, to the
)ilaiiu'sl and inonl ('conoinical. On the Downs isa
v.cll ki'jit course, where races are lield the llrst
M-eck of Anfiiist, Tliere arc nniny llno|ironienadcs;
amongst tliein, a very favourite one is the sns-
j.ciision cliaiii-|)ier, constructed in IH2I, at an ex-
jH use of ;m,()(l(l/. : the pier head is CO ft. Iiy 20, and
has seats and nwniii^^s, with galleries and lli;chts
<if steps, to facilitate landing and emiiarkation at
dilferent sialics of the tiih' ; the \)U'r itself is l,".'00
it. in Ien;,'lh liy II ft. in wiillli ; and an esplanade
v( the same leii>;tli, -10 ft. wide, connects it witli
the .Steyiu;. Itri^htoii has no liarhonr, and no
iMaritiiiie traihs lint uhont l.'iO l)oats are employed .
ill lisliiii);. Mackerel, hcrriiijjs, tiirhot, soles, and I
skate arc caught in considerahle quantities, and in '
]iart supply tlu! liondon markets. Tlie intercourse f
•with tlu! metropolis, formerly rll'ecteil hy fast i
eoaclu'S has increased immensely since the oiienlni; j
of th(! railway, hy which frequently 20,(100 persons
iiri' carried down in u day, in so-called 'cxcnrHion'
trains.
The licform act conferred on Brif;htoii the jtri-
vilci^e of returninf^ two memhers to tint II. ofC
'I'he piirl. hor., inc. the parishes of l{rit;hton and
Hove, extends over 2,(520 acres. l!ef,'istered cou-
nt itnency, .">,()27 in iHO.j, J{y n cliarler dated 1st
April, lHh\, ihe municipal lioroii;^h is divided into
(> wards, and piverned hy a mayor, 12 aldermen,
and .'!ti councillors. Itoroii^Hi income, ri!l,)'.t|/. in
iHlil ; amount assessed tj property tax 5(11,20,")/.
llri^jhton has three Imnknig estahlishments, and
ft Savings' iiiink. The town supports seven news-
jiapers.
For some centuries Hrif^hton was n mere tisliing
villnfje, and was frequently attacked and )ilnndereil
liy the French; to iirevent which, Henry VIII.
erected some fortilicat'oiis. which were streii<;th-
ened and extended hy I'Aiz, I'ut it has suH'ered
more from the action of the sea undermining the
dill's, than from anything else. ' In tlic reign of
lllizaheth the town of Hrighton was situated on
lliat tract where the chain-pier now extends into
the sea. In KKi.'), 22 tenements had lieen destroyed
Tinder the clitf. At that period there still remained
under the elift' 1 13 tenements, the whole of which
were overwhelmed in 170iJ and 1705. No traces
of the ancient town are now perceptible.' (Lyell's
(ieology, i. 413, ed. 1H35.) The great sea-wall,
noticed above, was constructed to prevent the en-
croachment of the sea on the eastern cliffs, on which
it was making the most serious inroads.
Brighton began to come into repute in the reign
of George II. as a watering and sea-bathing place,
jirincipally through the writings of Dr. Ivichard
Kussell, an eminent physician of that day. In
1700 the chalybeate sjiring was observed, which
tended to increase its growing j)opularity. Js'o
<louht, however, it was ))riiiclpally indebted for its
rapid rise, and for the high rank it has hnig con-
tinued to hold among watering and fashionable
places, to the zealous and continued patronage of
(ieorge IV. when Prince of Wales, and when re-
gent and sovereign. It has nearly quadrupled its
]iiipulation in the course of lialf a century, as will
be seen from the census returns before given ; and
the advantages it enjoys in its situation, and in its
BRIOUDE
being the nenrest |)ort on the S. ponst to London
will probably insure its prosperity.
llliI<iNOlil''.S, a town of France, d«(p. Var, raii.
arrond.,on the Ciiraini, 22 in. NNI'",. Tiiiilnii.'j',, ,'
(i,ll3in IKOI. The town is neat and wcHbiiili.
and is finely sitiialed in a fertile basin, siirriiinidi I
Willi high w led hills. Its principal oniaiiii'iu h
its magnificent public fountain, in t|i(> M(|ii^ir>'
(!arami. It has a tribunal of primary jiirisdictiim,
a ]iriniary normal school, a secondary eccloiasiirai
sciiool, a public library, anil a society of ngriciii-
tnre, with liliitiires of silk, fabrics of wiiie.ciiiKllis
and tanneries. A considerabl(> trade is carricil dii
in olive-oil, wine, liqucuirs, brandy, and excellent
imines, known by the name of hrh/iiolli-n,
ItlMLLON, a town of Prussia, prov. West-
phalia, reg. Arnsberg, cap. circ. 24 in. SI',. Soc-t.
Pop. 4,;>00 in iNCil. The town has two (tluircli.i'
a cidlege, an hospital, and fabrics of linen (m,!
brass. In the environs arc mines of silver, lead, mid
ealaniine.
lilMNDISI (an. /?rMMf/«»iM»»), a sen-port nndcitv
of Southern Italy, prov. Lccce, cap. distr., at ilic
bottom of a bay between capes Cavallo nniKicilld,
and on the niilway from Traiii to I.ecce ami tlic
gulf of Taranto. Pop. H,«44 in ]H&>. In niili(|iiiiv
this was one of the most ini|)ortaiit cities of IinU',
and was the jiort whence the intercourse between
Italy and (irccce, and the I''ast, was usually carrieil
on. It owed this distinction as much to ilie ex-
cellence of its harbour as to its situation : but in
modem times it is sadly clianged for the worst. It
is still of great extent within the walls; but tlie
inhabited houses do not occupy above half the in-
closiire. The streets are crooked anrl nnigli, and
the houses ])oor and in disrepair. With the ex-
ce]ition of the citadel, a large heavy-looking ca-
thedral, and a few remains of antiipiity. there is
nothing in it that dci.erves attention. 'I'liis
melancholy change has been iirodiiced by tlin
nearly total loss of the inner harbour. Tliis, wliiiii
encompasses the city on two of its sides, and is
dee)) and capacious, was united to the outer har-
bour, or bay, by a narrow entrance, like thai
leading to Portsminith harbour or the Ilavaniiali.
Unfortunately, however, this entrance having been
nearly shut nji, the inner harbour was in conse-
(|iience rendered inaccessible to all but the snuillesl
vessels, and in summer became fetid and nii-
healtliy. Julius Ciesar, who attempted to bkuk
up Poinpey's fleet that had met in the inner har-
bour, by running mounds into its outlets, may \n\
said to have commenced the ruin of ih'iiidisi, which
was completed in the 15th centurv by a iirinec of
Taranto, who sunk vessels filled with earth niul
stones in the passage left open by Civsar. The
destriietio.n that was thus brought on the town
and it.s oflsets roused at length the attention of the
Neapolitan gov., by whom a vigorous ett'orl was
made in 177<j to obviate the cause of the misi'liief,
by cutting a new channel between the two liiir-
bours. Ihit owing, as it would seem, to sumeile-
fect in the plan, the project has only piirtially
succeeded; tlie new channel soon lilled iip,aiultlie
entrance to the inner harbour became nearly ns
much encumbered as before. The canal is now,
however, kept open by dredging and otherwise tn
the de))th of 10 or 12 palini, .so that vessels of this
draught of water may enter the inner port. The
outer harbour, or hay, is deep and capiicions, and
has good anchoring ground. It is (lartially |irii-
tectod by an islanil, on which a fort is built ; hut
it is exposed to the easterly gales, which throw in
a heavy sea. A vast plan for the recoiistrnetinn of
the old harbour was approved of by the Italian
government in 18()5.
liKlOUDK, a town of France, di<p. Haute Loiro,
mill 15t,o<i:t ill l^
TiniSACH (NEW)
rap. nrroncl., in n vnut )iliiin Ticiir tlic AUicr. 30 in.
N.W. I'nv, nil tlic raihviiy (Vom ( 'liTininil to I'liy.
|'(i|>. I, !•■'•<) ill IHi'.l. 'I'll)' (own it old, ill limit, and
(liriv. liJ* iii'wt rciii.'irkiilplf cilil'ii'iM arc tlic cnjlcjjc,
Mliiiilcil on II hill, anil (■oinniiiiuliii;^ ii line view,
and llic (diiircli nf .St. .Iiiliaii, n vciicralde (iotliic
I'iiliric, fiiiinili'd in tlie !i|li century. Ilcsidcs the
(■(illcjic. It if* tlie Hcat (if a cnnrt ui' iiriiiiury jnris-
ilii'iinii, and Una a xniall |iiililic liliniry, iiiid ii mi-
lii'ty 111' ii;;riciili lire. Itricmde was the. Iiirtlijilace
III' llic Miir(|iiis de I.arayclle, who acted no con-
!.|iiriiciiiH a part in the Anierican and Frencti revo-
liiiiiiiis. At Old llrioiide, ahonl .'t in, SSI'), of
llrimide, in n hriilj^e over the Allier, hnill in IHl.'i,
inii-i><lin),' of a sini^le arch lH-i I'l. in Mpaii.
KIJISACII (N!;W). a furtilied town of France,
ijc'p, liaiit. lihin. ca|i. cant., near the left liiiiik of
the Ithiiie, (i|)|io4ite to old Itrisach, '.I in. SI'",, ("ol-
miir. l'o|i. Il.l.")!; in \H{\\, The town was liiiill in
jillMi hy I-oiiis XIV., and fortilied liy Vaiihan. It
is 11 rcjC'ilar ncla}j;oii, niid is rej^arded as one <if
the liiiest. works eoiistnicti'd hy that i'elelirated
fiiiiiiu'cr. 'I'he streets all terininate in a /»/«!•(' in
the centre, and iUv houses are all of the same
iu'i;,'lit. It is of no iiniiortancecxcept as a fortili-
ciiiiiiii. I'eiiif,' without trade or eoininerce.
ISlMS'I'OIi, a city, co.. pari., hor., and sea-jiort
(if Kii^daiid, at the coiilhieiice of the Avon and
Friiine, H in. SI'",, of the einhouchnre of the former,
in the jlristol ('haiinel, KIH m. W. Loiidun hy road,
anil IIH.i ni. hv (ireat \\'esterii raihvav. Top.
li.i.r^'iS in l«-'l ; 'iKMriM in ISll ; i:!7..'!2H"in 1K.")I ;
ami li")),(t'.»;i in iNiil. The city extends over 7
Mils mill their intermediate valleys, amidst a
]iiiliirpsiiiie and fertile district. In the older por-
limi, nloiijj file river side, forniiiifj the inieleiis of
tlio modern city, the houses were ori;;iiiaily of
wiiiid uiid plaster, with njiper stories )irojectiii;,'
over narrow streets; Imt these are iiov/ greatly
(liniiiiislied. In the more inoiU'rii and elevaled
i.iirliiiiis of the town, the streets and sipiarcs are
i.]wiiitis. and the houses are mostly well hiiiK, and
Milistiiiitial, Those of Kiii^;sdowii, St. Miehaers,
aiiil Clifton liills on the X. and W., rise, with their
tcrraies nnd j;ardeiis each ahovfi the other, like an
nmpliithentrc. Iiedelille, on the S. has narrow
strw'ts and densely crowded houses, resenililiii,i;
Ihiisoiif the older part of llic city; lint the process
iif wideiiin^j; them has lieeii iiii(lertak(!n liy the
InipriivoTnont (,'ominilfee under Ji local ai:t of
jiariiaiiient, liediniiistiu" is mostly occupied hy
iniiiU Jiiodern tenements for the workin;;; classes,
and tiin-yards. The whole city is well jiaveil and
scwored, and is lit^lifed with coal tjns, supjdied hy
two public conipanios. Water is conducted by
|iip('s to several public conduits and public ]inn)))s,
and also by waterworks, estiiblishcd under an
ini'orporiited comjiany, which fetches its siijiplies
frmii springs risinpf in the Dnndry and IMcndip
Hills, The cathedral in CoUejje < Jrccn, of the iifjo
iif .Stephen, and anciently part of .St, Aiiu'iistine's
alikv, is a venerable edilice. It was orij;imilly in
the i'lirin of a cross, nnd dis)days the diti'erent
styles of English church arcliiieclure; length 17."i
frt't, breadth of transept MX, and of nave and
lisks 7i3 do., height of tower, I 10 do. The nave
Mas destroyed during the civil war in the reign of
(ImrlcH I. The Cliaiuer House vestibule is re-
markable for it.s simplicity and the beauty of its
ciimpnsifion. Among the other churches, belong-
in;' to the establishment, the prinidiial are St.
JIary's liedclilVe, crowning the summit of that
lii!l; St. Stephen's, with its richly decorated tower,
the beautiful ])innacles of which, being in a dilapi-
ilateil state, were removed some years since ; All-
Siiuts, which has a statue of (Jolston, by liysbrack ;
llic Mayor's Chapel, formerly culled tiaiint's
TIRI.STOL fin
("linreh, and St, Michael's. The disnonters of
various di'iioiniMati.nis furiii n very numeriins and
iniportaiil part of the ciiniiminity, and Iiiim' a
priipoi'tioiial iiunibcr of places of worship. Thero
are about a do/en endowed charity schools. Tim
free grainmar-school, founded in r.'i:il'. has several
exhibilioiis, and two fellowships, each of ltd/, a year,
in .St. .lolin's, Oxford, The eiidowineiits of </neeil
Fli/.abelh's Hospital, founded by .John Carr in
loMti, produce about .1.(10(1/. a vear. They are
ein|loyeil to ediiciite, clothe, maintain, and after-
wards apjirenlice about 2(i(» boys, who are lodged
in It noble building lalciv erected in the I'.li/n-
bethail style on the XW', side of lirandon Hill.
Alderniiiii Wliitsiin's Ited Maids' school, foniideil
in Di'-M, bus an income of about l.iiliii/. a year; it
inainlaiiis, clothes, and educates 120 youiig girls,
daughters of freemen, from eight to eighteen years
of age, who are then phiccd in snitablt^ sitniitions ;
and, if they conduct tbcnisidves with propriety,
they lia\-e a small portion when they marry. This
school has also been re'.iiiill in the l'',li/.abethiin
style, and, with the preceding schools, is iiiider
the maiiageineiit of the Charily Trustees. There
are also, the li'edclitl'c freegrnminiir-scbool, founded
ill the llltli of l'',liz..and Ci "ston's. in I70H. f,,r the
inaiiitcnaiice, clothing, and ediicalioii of 1 00 boys.
Kesides these, there are many other schools, sup-
ported either wholly or iiarlially by beiiefailioin
and public subscriptions, in which ii|iwarils of
:).000 children are educated, and upwards of |ii,U00
reci'ive instruction in the Sunday schools of tlio
various sects. There? are '21 nlms-honses, which
receive in all 110 old men and '2.'i(! old women.
The other charitabli! inslitntions comprise the
Inlirinary, established in 17:!."), capable of accoin-
iir.idiiting 200 patients; it has an aiiii'iiil average
of l.iiOO ill and ."»,0()l) out jialienls, who are snp-
|iiiried )iiirlly by its own fuiidcd |iroiierty, and
parlly by subscriptions and doiialionH: the (ieiieial
Hospital, a smaller estiiblishment than the furmer,
and )iarily on a self-supiiorting iirincipU': the
Dispensary, which gives medical relief to I lie poor
at their ov.ii dwellings: asylums for the blind, the
deaf and diunb. and for orphan girls: a feniiik!
penitentiary, and between '10 and 50 other chari-
table societies, which distribute in various ways
very considerable sums. The poor are maintained
under a local Act. The gross sum assessed to poor
rate was .j;io.H7.")/, in IXCil.
'i'he iirinci|ml public bnihlings are, — the Guild-
hall, a modern structure in the florid (lothic style,
on the site of the old linilding: thet'oiincil Hoi'ise,
built in 1827, at a cost of about H,0()(i/.: the (iaol,
a large well-arranged structure, built in 1820: the
llridewell, rebuilt after the riots in 1881 : the J'^x-
changc, an extensive building of the Orinthiaii
order, was erected by the corporation in 17(iO, but
not being adojited by the merchants as a place of
meeting, the interior is (K-cupied as a corn market,
and its back forms part of the spacious qiiiidrangle
in which the principal market is held. The Com-
mercial Itooiiis, built in 1811, and used as an
exchange, have a handsome dome, an Ionic
portico, a large hall, reading room, and various
aiiartmcnts for the despatch of business. The
branch of the bank of Fnglaiid, a modern build-
ing, in the Grecian style, adjoins the (jiiildhall.
The IJristol Literary and I'hilosojihical Institu-
tion, a handsome edifice, opened m 182.'1, has ,i
reading-room, library, theatre, and museum : in
the latter are gooii collections both in natural
history and the fine arts, among them IJaily's
statue of 'Eve at the Fiuintain,' Courses of
lectures are given, philosojihical papers rend,
and it has occasional exhibitions of paintings.
The Mcch.inics' Institute, built in ]8;12, has a
m
TlKISTOTi
Till- nrint"! F,iliriirv.
Alt
Iccliin' mill a rrniliii^'-room
fNtiililislicil ill I77'J, liiirt n I'lillcctiuii of iiImhii
r)i),(i(lo viiIh. ill f^^i'iicriil lili'i'tilun-. 'linn- arr iil.-oi
liiw mill iiiciliciil iilii'iirii'H ; ii iiicdii'iil mIumiI, ch-
tiiliii»lii'il ill INIII, ill wlilrli ciiinpli'tr ciiiirM'H ol'
Icctiii't'S lire jfivrii, the nTlltlnilcs oC ilN ijrol'chMorM
liriii^ ri'cii^iiiHt'il III A|i>iili('i'uri<'s' Hail; an cii-
(linvt'd ' AciKlriny for (lie lulvaiict'iiu'iil u( ilic Kim-
i\rls; ' ami an iii'iiili'iiiv fur the ('iliicatinn iil'yonn;.'
iiicii fur llic lla|lli^t niinisirv, In wliicli an cx-
ti'iinivc^ liltrary ami iiuimi'mmi arc attai'lii'd, 'I'lirrc
IM a liuMilsoiiii- ciiilicc III' llic ('iiriiilliiaii iinlcr in
I'rinci's Street, in ilie ki""'"' I'lmni ol'wliieli I'lnieerts,
li.'ill^t, ami other eMlertaiinnentN are NonietiiiieH
>;iveii. 'I'lic Vielorifi asseinlilv rooms liavc ii
saloon 117 I't. in length, liy !i,t lio, in widtli, and
4H do. ill lieiirlil-. 'I'lie theatre war* Miiid liy (iarrick
to lie one of the hest oC its si/c- in i'jirope. At
i'lil'ton are hatlis and dniii|i-rooins; and eoniieeted
Willi tlie hot wells in a haiidmaiii; ediliei! ul' the
'I'liseaii order.
The Itristol clinnnrl is celehrated for its liij^h
tides. 'I'hey rise at Kinroad, at the mouth ol' the
Avon, from IN to I'.l ft, at sjirinfrs, and '.M ft. at
neaps, while their rise at the entrance to the
lliiatiii).c harlHiur at It'owiihain, varies from .'III to
.'W ft. In eonNe(|iieiiee of this extriiordiniiry rise,
the Iar;;est ships come up to the city. The lidit
sets with fjreat rapidity in the river, csiieeially
between the precipitous rocks of < 'iiftoii and liciK'N
W'lii(!h seeiTi to Ik^ rent asunder to ailiiiit its
passa^fe; and to obviate the risk of daiiiap* to
Mhippin^' froiii this rapid How of iIk; tide, and from
fj:roniidiii)rat low water,a spacious lloatiii^^ harbour,
('(|uivalent to a wet dock, has been constriieted.
This important work, be^iin in IK(M and completed
in IHOlt, was ert'ectCMl by chan^ciiiK the bed of the
river, lint the original entrance" to the harbour
iM'in;; too small to admit steam sliiiis of the lar-
f^est size, a new entrance of the reiinisitcdimensions
W!is made to it in \M\). The harbour extends
about ft mill's from the entrance loiik at Kownbain,
to the dam at T(^mple Meads, occii|iviii}; the old
bed of the Avon, and the bed of that brancli of
the Frome that lies between hit. Aiiffustine'n and
.St, Stephen's quays, and cost in all a very larj^'e
num. The quay is upwards of n mile in length,
and so constructed as to admit of any further ex-
tension that any increased trade may reipiire.
There arc two basins for the temporary accomo-
<lation of vessels entoriiifj or leavinj;; one at
Itownham for lar^e ships, the other below the
iron bridge at Uedinin.ster, for vessels under /j()(l
tons. There arc also several cajiacions f,'raviiif>;-
<locks, and ship-yards suitable for vessels of any
(iimensions, Tlic(Jroat Western and (Jreat Jtri-
tain steam-ships, with the Severn, the Avon, and
others of inferior size, were- built in the jiort.
Five brid}:;c8 connect the opposite sides of the
floating harbour and rivers, viz. Hristol Jiridf^c, of
<{ stone arches, built in 17()8, spanning the Avon,
jiiiil coiinectiiif; the central part of the city with
l{cd<ditle; 2 iron bridges, each with a sin{{le s]ian
of 100 ft., one on the Hath and Wells, the other
on the Kxeter line of road; a swivel iron bridge
(to admit the p.isstige of ships), connecting St.
Augustine's and Clifton with the rest of the city^,
and a fine suspension hndge, completed in l^!(ii,
and connecting (,'lifton ...th the co. of Somerset.
The latter fomiorly sjianned the Thames, and
was known as Ihmgerforil J fridge. Having been
]\iirchased from the South I'.astern IJailway com-
jiiiny, the bridge was brought down here, and in
Its new situation forms one of the most picturesque
and striking works of its kind in the kingdom,
tli(! roadway being HoO ft. in length and '220 ft.
above high-Avutur mark, with precijiitous rocks at
both ends, on each of which a tower is orootrd 'n, ,
Avon, above llris|..| llridge, is navigable l„ri,n,,,,''
to llalh, whriice the <wiler4'omiiii,i,i,.„|i,„| j,|.^||
tinned to l.oiiiloii bv the Avon and Knuiei ,.,||, i
and the Tha s. 'I hree railwavs, vi/. iIk. jiriMi i
and (iloucesier, (ireat Western, and the |iriM,!|
and Kxeter, have Icrinini in the citv, wliicli nui
seipieiilly, iiiis a rapid means of coininuiil.'mj, n
wilh the metropolis and all imrts of ih .iintr
Tin- Kxchange market, and llial of S(. .hn,,,., ,ir!
open daily for general provisions; thi^ clii,!' sii|',,,|v
being on Wednesdays and SaluidavN; curu iln,!
leather markets are liehl Tuesdays and Thiirs,l/n,
The I'attle-niarkei. is held on ThiirMlavs. in i, ,v,||i,,^j
area of l acres, outside the citv. at Temple M,.||,|,
at the junctii f the (ireat VVcMtern and l^u'r
railwavs. At the great market on the Tlin'r^in-
preceding Christmas, the show is nxiiallv vcrv
line. Two aiiuual fairs, coiiiineiicing Isi 'Mimi,
and 1st Sept., that were fornierlv resorted i,, |,v
clothii'i-s, hosiers, and cullers, fimn all imrts .'.f
Kiighiiiil, having fallen into desuetude, w< n-
abolished ill lis;i7; but fairs for entile, horses and
leather, are still hidd on the above davs. '
liristol was, f.ir a lengthened period, Kcnpinl
only to l.oiiihai as a conimenial eniporiiiMi; Imii
though its comparative importance has, iii iiiis
respect, greatly dediiieil, it continues to he i),,.
seat of some imporlaiit niannlacliires and „( an
extensive and increasing triuh!. The piiuciiml
manufacliires are those of rellued sugar; hra^s
and copper wares, for the prodiicti.ai of'whiili
Hristol was formerly famous, and in vlii,.|i iju.
town still maintains her reputation ; soap. ^'Iii«s
bottles, crown and Hint glass, chain cables, ancliurs
steam-engines and other inachinerv. toliacc,,!
earthenware, floor cloth, brass wire, fiiiis, patiiit
shot, shevt lead, zinc, saltpetre, tin jiipcs, Imt^,
<lrugs, colours, dyes, starch, bricks, Hritish spiiiiH'
nialt liipiors; with extensive soda works, 'riicio
is also a cotton mill, which cmplovs about l,7(Hl
hands. Alany of the iron foundries arc mi a
large scale, and are increasing both in ihcir
number and the extent of their exports, fhc
establishments for glass, sugar, brass, thmr dniii,
and earthenware, are also on an extensive scale.
There were W,7H2,U()0 letters delivered in |si;i);
i),!)i};t,()00 in IHtil; and, lO,l«i),Oi)0 in 18(12. TIm;
jiostage collected amounted to ilL',.")!;;")/. in isdi);
it;t,8(io/. in IWil ; and, i{5,720/. hi istii. There is
a savings' bank, established in IKlii, and 7 othor
banking establishments, includhig the brunch of
the bank of Kngland.
Itristol early possessed, and continues fnpnii)v,
a large share of the trade with the West Imlics;
and among her foreign imports tlie most iin]mrlant,
are those of sugar, molasses, rum, tea, and cmoa ;
the next most imjiortant are those of tolmccd,
timber, wine, braiuly, tallow, fruits, wool, lump,
dye stutt's, oils, saltpetre, and hides. The t'xi«iris
consist principally of the produce of the varicuM j
manufactures of the city, with salt, iron, oials, |
and culm, in part the produce of the neiglilHuir-
hood ; and cotton, linen, and woollen goods. In tlifi
y(!ar l<S(i;i, the ]>riiicipal exports consisted of railmail
iron, valued at 10o,28()/, ; cotton maniifiuliirc-,
44,141/. ; wrought cop[)er, 17,227/. ; and iinwrniiirlit
copper, 13,4!)9/. The total value of the cxpints
in 18(jiJ was 341,074/. The customs' duties during'
the <<ame year amounted to l,l,")(),5y!»/., against
l,;tl7,:77/. in 18()2, and 1 ,;!3(),2.J3/. in IHid'. Tlic
shipping which entered the port in the year 18(1;!,
consisted of Dr)4 vessels, of 242,»79 tons. Of the.'*, j
.528 vessels, of 13'.t,()t!(i tons, were llritisli, and 4l'(j i
vessels, of 103,813 tons, foreign. The larf;('>t i
tonnage, .Ofi.'JHO, in 107 vessels, came fnmi tin
North Auicriuau colonics; the next largest, 2(vlll I
inns, in 52 vpmo
flie total niimli
\x>'<:i. was il.i'i.'i,
thi'iii I.'hOkIiiii,
litinilier of vessi
|iil.!il2 ton...; ai
:';'l,|ii;i tons bunl
III' Itristol, on the
viHM'ls and II nI
WK of .'),:ii;:i i,,i
mill 1!'7, ofi)|„'||>i
\K wi-ri' iniiler, an
riiniiiiuiiii'atiiiii b
tiHuli aiiil passenjj
larly as iN-.'ii, and
iraile with that pai
the lionoiir of bi.iii
("fahlish a regular
till' I'. States. 'I
Western sieamshii
Tlie pari, and iim
Tlie horiMigh i.s dj
viriied by a iiiav(
I'ri'vioiisly to tiie
iriivennne'iit was vi
'llll'llllllllOII COIIIKM
aiilernian : they wei
ii|i their vacancies fi
Kirc.'t.lOll register!
(.Tinted in the 8th
mil of lien. If. A
livery (except for
(lliiiicesler), is heli
Till! tolzey, or she
aitiiuis in cases imd
at liristol for part
liristol has, also, a
mill a court of assiz
«('('k after the Sor
jiiib'oii the westeri
ilie county jiirisd
llic Avon, from 4 m.
Ill the steep and tli
MiiT-inark, on the
frmii Anst's Passage
limi are conservators
bve the [lower of 1
ciiiil'crred the excliis
vessels passing iqi o
Miiiul, except Irish
|«irtsof Itristid, New
oiirilie. iiiid llridgiuva
JNris<liction. A boarii
llierate-jmyers, hastl
jilting, and cieansi
iiiiiiiial assessment on
varying from 11,0(10/.
^vwiiies, derived froii
ri'iits (if hoiisi's and I
I'l'iirhdiKl, as well a
*IM')I. ill |«(i|, „f w
rato. Hie Dock ('..,
siiactof-iatJeo. III.;
transferred from then
'lie rates have been
Miingemeiit of the p
Ilie city, was vested in
'&«VV.III.c. .■12.an<
>;
•I)
l«sscil regulating the
pianliaiis consist of tl
tlwtcd aiiiuially by tl
"«iil)iMly. the senior ch
jiifislies, the senior ove
Slid 48 other hihabitan
'» I«i"r rate was 035,
mieable value, 469,(io'J
my tax, 805,446/.
>0l., [,
iiHiHTor,
31.-)
tons, ill 5*2 voftddM, ,nino from tlio I'liitiMl Stntrn,
I'll)' tiitiil iiiiintH'r ol' vi'KNi'ls >vliicli I'litcrnl, in
|Hti;i, wax <'>,r.)>'i, ol' Itl'l.Til I iiiiiM liiinlcii: niiioii;;
thi'iH I,7ho Hii'iiiiicrx, lit' :iii7,'i.'il tiuix. 'I'lii' lotnj
iiiiinlH'r III' vi'.swii* wliii'li ricnrni wiih 1/J."iL', nf
lill.'.M'i tiiiiH; iiiiiiiiig iIh'Iii 1,77°.* Nli'iiiiu'ri*, nl'
■j;i|,|i':t tons Imnlcii. 'I'licri' liclniim'ii in ilii> iMirt
,i|' llriMiil, on ilic.'tlst Di'iTtiilit'r, lm;;i. :iNii»iiiliii^r
vi'iscls mill II Hti'iiiiuTM. Ol'ilii' Miiiliii^ v<'»>i-l^,
\h:\, 111' ri,;Ui.'l iiitiM, wrn- iiihIit 'iO Iihh Imnlt'ri,
mill I!t7. iil'iil.IHIl tuns, iilmvc ."lO, orihfHii'iiiiH'rN.
|M wrrr iiiiiliT, mill '.';i nliiivi' T)!) tmiM Imnlrii. A
oiiiiiniiiiii'iitiiiii li\ Ntcmii I'ur tlii> rmivi'viinri' nl'
PhkIh mill |iii.sscii>,'iTs til iri'lmiil wit.sc.xliilili^ilu'il lis
iiirlyii^i iN'.'ii, 1111(1 Iiii,s It'll to II i^rcat iiicrciisciil' tlic
imili' willi tliiil |iiirl III' the ciiiiiirc. llriHtnl iil.in liail
Iht' liiiiiiitir of lit'inu; tlii' llrHi jiiirt in tin- ('iii|iii-(> to
I'-.tiililixli u ri'^iilar I'lnnniiiiiiratiiiii liy Htraiii with
ihi' r. Stiitt'H. 'I'lu- lirst viiya^'c Ity tim tirwit
Wi'sliTii »i('aiiiNlii|i was iicrrnriiii'il in Im;w.
Till' pari, anil iiiuiii('i|). liiniis nl' Itristol cnincitlc,
liii' liiiriiii;r|i is iliviiU'il into 12 wanU, ami is pi-
MiMi'il liy a niaviir, Ifi iilil,, ami IN iiinncilliirs.
I'ri'vloiisly to tii<> Miini('i|ial licrnrni Art, tin
Kriitol lidN NiMit '2 iiiiMU. to (lie IT. of {', Himo
|-.'Kl; pri'viiiimly to Hit- IM'nrin Art, tin- riulil ol
(•lection was in llir frrclmliliTs ami I'ri'riiini onh.
Uf^istcri'il I'liM'tors, i;i,;iii-.» in ixiil, inrliuliii;: I,. •(.'it
t'n'i'iiirii, anil 'J.OII srnt anil lot votn-i. llri'<lol
was niailc tlu> kiiiI nl' a liisliii|irii- in l.'ill. |i is
now, ill ronrorinity In the art <1 A 7 W. I\'. r. 77,
iiniti'il with (iloiiiTsifr, in a sn' i'iiiii|iri^iii^' llir
rily III' llristiil, tlir ilfanrrit's nl' t'rii-klaili' ami
Malinslinry, in Wills, ami tin- jirfvimis ilinccsi- of
(ilnllCI'slcr.
'I'lir llristni Imt-wi'll, uiiilcr tin- Clirion roi-ks, is
nincli ri'snrlcil to liy invaliils, its waters liein;;rnn-
siilereil elliraciniis in i'iinsiini|itive eases, '|'|u<
teiii|), ol' this saline H|iriii|;, wlien I'resli rmni the
|iiiin|i, is 71° Kalir,. anil ii tlien evnlves Tree ear-
liiinie aeiil. h issues rniin llie elilV, lielween the
liiuli ami low water-mark. Tlie lintwell Imnse is
liiielv sitiialeil liesiile ttie Avon! a earria^je mail
wimis I'riini it, lieliiml the rucks, tn Clil'ion |)nwii ;
n slmrter l'niit|iatli at the hack alsn leails to thai
siiliiirli, which is the rashioniilile pjirt nl' llrisinl :
the scenery, hy either line, is singularly inlerest
lUii. The acclivities are occiijiieil hy hamlsoine
;;iivi'riinienl was vesteil in a mayor, l'2 alil., ami ! edillces in s(|iiai'es, terraces, ami ere.-'cenis, rorniin^c
iliiciimmnii ciiiiiK-illors, the recnnler liein^ seninr | line |ii-iiinenitiles ; the most niaKnilicent of tliesi
ranges are York Cresceiil, N'icloriiiS(|iinre, ami Cu
iililcriiian : they were a sell'-electeil hoily, ami tiUeil
up llii'ir vacancies frnni the I'reenien, ot'whoin there
wire ;l,l'i'.l registered. The piverniii^f charter was
i;niiiti'il in the Htlinf Anne; the earliest in the
'.i||i of Hen. II. A court n|' sessiniis, or jfanl de-
livery (except fnr cnpitiil cases, nnw tried at
(liiiiiVesler), is lield fiiiartcrly hy the recorder.
Tlif tiil/.ey, nr sheritl's cnnr'ts, for nil kinds of
ariiniis ill eases under M)», A cimnty court is held
at liristol for part nf the county of (ilmicester.
llristni has, also, a district court nf hankruplcy,
ami II court of assize lor nini />riiis eases, held the
«M'k after the Somerset a»si/es, by the senior
juil^ji' on the western circuit.
The county jurisdiction hy water, extends over
liic Avon, from I in. almve the city : and sea-ward,
til tiiu steep niid tint Ilolnies, and to the lii^li
mliT-inark, on tlie Kiif^lish side of the Severn.
frmn Aiist's rassa},'e to (!levedoii. The enr|iora-
liiiii are conservators of the ]iort and linrhoiir; and
h,iv(> the power nf licensing pilnts, on whom is
fiiiifi'rreil the exclusive privilege nf pilnting all
vessels piissin;^ up nr (Uiwn tn the K. of I.unily
Isluiul, except Irish and coasting traders: the
imrtiiiif liristol, Newport, Cardit!', Swansea, Ilfra-
ciiinlie. and llridgewnter are coin|irise(l within this
jiirisdictiiill. AlMiurii of cninitiissiniiers, elected hy
llie rate-imyers, has the exclusive power of paving',
linlitin);, iiiid cleansing the town ; they levy an
aiimial nssessnient on the iiiliah. fnr these purposes
varjiiif; frnni I l,(HIO/. to 12,000/. The enr|)oratinii
nwiuies, derived frnni towns and market dues and
niits (if hoiis<<s and lands in the city and iieigh-
Imiirliiiiiil, as well as from rates, amounted to
i<l,r)15/. in I «(i I, of which sum 2.'(,000/. was from
ratcii. llie Dock ('iiinpanv was incorporated hy
!!! act of -liJ (ieo. 11!.; Imt in !)•< IM, the docks were
transferred from tliem to the incorporation, and
tlic rates have been since greatly reduced. The
k'llniiia I'hice. Another spring higher up theclilV,
Imt proliiilily from the same source, has liaihs ami
a )iiinip-riioni attached to it. The geological fea-
tures nf the place may he thus hricliy dcsirihed :
— If the entire area he divided N.and S. iniothreo
unequal port inns, that on the I''., will fall wiihiii
till! limits of a coal formatinii, which exlcmls N.
and .S, of the city, hut chietly to the N., almiit Ito
III.: its heds are thin, as cnmpared with tlmse nf
ntlicr cnal-lielils. The central nr largest pnrtion
is chietly occupied hy the new red sand, in which
saurian remains occur; the western part is chietly
niniintain lime. Snine nf the summits in tli(> N.
and \V. parts nf the city are 2.')0 ft. almve the hcd
nf the Avon. In the mcks nf Clifton, and the
np|insite niies nf St. Vincent, quartz crystals of
great purity occur, known as Itristnl diainniids.
There are reinains of three liomaii encampinenis
at Clifinii, liiiwiiham, and Alihnts-heigh.
According to Camden ((Jihson's cd. of the Mril.
i. 71), liristol tirst rose into notice towards the
cliise nf the Saxnii dynasty. It is noticed hy
Willimn of iMalnishiiry as a place of great trade,
frequented hy ships from all parts nf luirnjie. It
had then, as nnw, an extensive intercnurse with
Ireland; hut xliivcn were a principal article nf ex-
pnrt to that (uiiintry. (Henry's (ireat llritain, vi.
2(IM.) Its castle was hiiilt, nr, at all events, en-
larged mid strengthened, hy the Karl nf (Jlonces-
tor, hmlher to the enqiress Matilda. During the
wars of the ISoses the town was comparatively
undisturhed and tloiirisliing ; but in the civil war
of the aeventeeiith century it sutl'ered severely.
At the eomtnencemeiit of hostilities it wos garri
soiled by the parliamentary army ; subsequently
it was stormed by the king's forces, and surren-
dered to Prince liupert. The fnllnwiiig
year
(during which it sutVered under the united evils
manflj^'omeiit nf the ]ioor, within the old limits of | of ])estileiicc and war) it was again stunned, and
ikcity,was vested hi a eorjiorate body by an act I retukeii by Cromwell, who subsequently demn-
i&H\V. Ill, c. ;(2, and siihse(|iieiit acts have lieen j lished its castle. In 1247 a great improvement
passed regulating their number and jinwcrs. The | in its jmrt, was completed, by cutting a new cliaii-
pianlians consist of the mayor and 12 members I nel for the river, and fonning a ilouhle line of
tlcctc'd annually by the town vnuncil out <if their quay between Bristol and Hedcliffe: a bridge, on
mnhody.theseniorchMrchwardensof thedifferent I the site nf the jwesent, was built at the same
period. Thence, to the sixteenth century, its fac-
tories siipiilicd a large portion of the kingdom with
wuulleii goods, soap, uud gloss. In the reign of
Edward III. it was made a staple of wool ; and it
then traded extensively with Ireland, France, and
N N
jiarislu's, the senior overseer nf the castle jirecincts,
and 48 other inhabitants. The gross sum assessed
to ))ii()r rate was 5iJ5,873/. m 1801, and the net
rateable value, 459,Gi)i)/. Amount assessed to pro-
perty tax, 805,445/.
Vol.. I.
!|l
\'"t
m
ItiiKxIil. Ill llip Itinrniiy of llotoiirr nro ilftniU
of iH Irmlr /iiiil Nlii|i|iiiiix in tin- lll'l Iti niiliiry,
Wliiill lirii\r its I'Mi'Milirl rdiiiiiHTrc iiml t'l'i'iil
rnicriiri-i' ill llml iicrloil. Ncur ilir rlnsv ul' ilir
tll'lniiili I't'iitiiry, llciir.v VII. Kniiitnl iliiirtcr'* In
.Idllll I'lilml MMil llJM two xiitIN, wllicll ri'Niilli'il
hlmrtlv nt'tiT in tlii' ilificdviTv i>( Nctvl'iiunill/nhl,
mill II liir^'c (iiirl til' llif AiiH'rirun ciiiitiiiriit. In
Oc'iiiliiT, IH;tl, II iiiiitt ili^^'riii-i-l'nl rint iMTiirnMl
IliTi'; whii'li, iiwiii^ til II wiint iil' ilrciKiiiii mi the
jiiirt III' till- t'ix'il mill niililiirv tiiillinrilli"!, whn
iilliiwi'il til iiltiiiii III II iiiiMl iiliirininv; lii'i;;lit. 'I'lir
niMiiNiiiii liiiiiM'. I III' i'|iisi'ii|iiil |iiiliii'c, mill Hcxcml
priviiti' liiiiiMCM, wcri' liiinil iltiwii ; uihI a liirnf
iiiiiiiiiiil III' |irM|i('rty ili'-dniycil,
Aniiiji^ till' ili-tiiiifiiislinl iiiili\ i'liiiiis timl llri-«-
liii liiis |iriiiiiir)'il nil — W'illimn nf Wnrrolcr. tin-
t"|'ivrii|iliir ; Win. Cmmyn^'i'. Ilii' iiui'*! emiin'iit
ini'ri'limil iiml Nlii|i-iiwiii'r nf ln-< iliiy: .Sdiiistimi
<'iiliiii. till' iii-c(i\(.rrr 111' Nrwt'iiiiiiillmiil. Imrn iit
llri.iliii, III' \'i'ni'timi iiHri'iiU; l'',ilw. ('uImIiiii, a
iiii'ri'iimil raiiinim I'm- liis lu'iii'vnli'iii'i' miil liic I'X-
Iciit 1)1' h\» cliiiriiii's: .Sir Win. l>rii|M'r. ilistin-
^niiMlii'il liy iiis ciiiitrnvi'rty with .liiniiis: ('liiittrr-
Inli, till' piii't, wliiwi' iinrli' WHS scxtiiM III' I'l'drliirt"
clnircli, wlitTi' till' Itiiwlcv iMSS. Were iillcni'il to
liaM' lifi'ii (lisi'iivcrcii ; Sontlii'v, tlic |iiit'l anil
littiriitriir \ .Sir 'I'liiiiiias Lawrciii'f, llu; ciniiii'iit
painliT: ami llm ii'v. Ilir Hriii|iiiir,
IIKITISII KMI'IlM". (TIIK). ..nr i.f tli.. inoHt
piiwcrl'iii ami ini|iiirlanl stairs of I'liirnpt', ciiiisistH
of till! isiiimls of (irciit Itritairi ami Irclaml, willi
till' Hiiiiilicr iHlmiils I'lintiK'iioiiN to liii'in. mul tlicir
lii'pcmlcnrics in various parts of tin- woriil, (ircat
Itrilaiii, liic lar;;i'sl. niiil liv far the richt'st ami
inosl |iopitliiiis of lilt' llrilisli Islamls, iiicliulcs what
vcri' fnrnicrly tin' iinii'pi'mli'iit kiii^iioiiis of Kii^-
laml ami Scotlaml; lhi> foriiii'r occiipyiii;; its S„
most cxti'iisivc anil fi'rliic, ami tin' iattcr its \,
mill iiio.st liarr'.'ii portion. Tht'si' two iiiiifrijonis,
liavim; lii'cn nnitiMl, forni witli that of Iri'ianii, tlu<
IntiM KiiKliliiin of (iri'iit liritiihi iiiiil Irrliiml.
wllicll i-onstiliitcs not only tlii' iiiiricns ami ct'iitrc,
lint the main hoiiy ami Hcal of the wealth uiul
jiowcr of the cnipiri'.
Tile isiamis of (irrat llritain ami Irplniiil nrn
Kitnatcii in llm N. Atiantii; Occ.'iii, oil" the W.
shores of I'ontincntai Miiropc. opposite to the X.
parts of France, liie Nctlicrlamis. tin; pi'iiinsnia of
•Intiiniil, ami tlie S. parts of Sweilcn and Xorwnv,
Im'I ween ."ilP ami i>'.)° N. Int.. ami 2° K. ami 1 1° W.
lon^^ (ii'cat llrilaiii, wliicli, from its superior
m«j,niitn(le ami importance, {jives name to the
IJniteii Kiii;;'(loin ami the empire, is not only the
liirp'st of the l'',iiropeaii isiiimis, hiit one of the
larfjest in tiie world. It lies to the I'', of Ireland,
and approaches at its SI''., extremity at Dover to
witliin 21 111. of the oiiposite coast of France. Hut
lus the const of (Jreat Ilritain stretches XNW.
from Dover to Dnncanshy Head, the extreme NK.
))oint of the island, while the opposite sliore of the
Ciaitineiit recedes in n XK. direction, the iiiter-
venin}^ space, called the Xortli Sea or (iermaii
Ocean, is of very considerahle diniensions. To
the S. of the Ilritish Islands we have the Kiifrlish
Channel, and W. and N. the broad expanse of the
Atlantic.
(ireat Uritain is very irrepilarly shaped, beinp
deeply indented liy mimerons fjiiHs and amis of
the sea, hut on tlie Avholo it approaches to the
lifTiire of a wed;,'e, lieiiifj narrowest at its N. and
broadest at its S. extremity. The loiifjest line not
intersected by any considerable arm of the sea
that can be drawn in (ireat Britain, extends from
Kye in Sussex (hit. 60° .57' 1"X., lonj;. 11° 44' K.),
to Cape Wrath in Sutherland (hit, r>HO 'M' N.,
long. 40° &»' W.), a distance of about 580 m. ; and
imiTI'SH KMI'IUK
Ifn (patent breadth from the Lnmrx F.nd (Int
MP V H" N.. loiiK. :)° ir HI" \V.). to a point ifur
I.oweiiton'l, on the const of Norfolk (lal . ,i;."J .)^'
;in'' N.. loiitr, I" til' i:.), Is about ;it;7 III. "ll'it,
owiiii; to the indentations already relcrri'il in, it^
breadth In Moine places Is miieli Icsh, bi'iMi;lii'iui.,.|,
thetVithsof Forth amH'lyile iimlir In, ,iim| |„..
tweeii the Moray Frilliaml the Miiich umiIit :iii|,i,
froiii slNire to Hhore. Its area is I'slinialiil at
N!»,ll.t.'( s(|. III,, of which F.iitclmid and Wiilis |.
tain '''iH,;i-.'<i,aml Scotlaml lincluNiveof iisi|i'i» inji i,i
islands) ;in,7l."i sip m. The area of ilie S,niil,||
islands is roughly estimaicil at abniit l.diio '<ii. m,
Ireland lies to llie W. ofdrent llriljiiii, Im'-
tweeii the parnllelM of r.|o '.'.V and r,:P -'X \. i,,,
midofr.°aiid IP W. loiiK. lis lii^inv is rlhim'
boidal : and tliou^fli il has iiiaiiy niible iuivs tiinl
harbours, it is less indented by tcnll's ami nrm.' (,r
the sea, and is decidrdly niori' compact tlnin
(ireat Ilritain. It is i-very where surrniiiiiii'il l,v
the .Mlantic, except on its l''„ shores, whiili nrc
separated from (Jreat Hriliiin by St. (iror^c'sriniii-
nel, the Irish Sea, ami the North ( 'liainiel, l-'ruin
St. David's Head in Wales to Cariihore I'ciini, tin'
disiance across is about 47 in.; fnini Tori I'ntri'k
in the Kliynns of (ialloway to l)oiia;;lin<|i'i', tjn'
dislani'e is '.''i in. ; but from the Mull of Cniuiri' tn
Tor I'oint in Ireland, the distance is only |:|i, m.
The lonirest line that can be drawn in Iri'lainl. In
nbont the snme meriilian, extends from lln' llM
Head of Kiiisale in Cork to the Itlomly Karlaml
I'oint in I >oiieL;al, a distance of about 2.17 in.: ilic
longest line that can be drawn crosswiHc in |ri.-
laml, in nearly the same parallel of lat.. cxIi'ihL.!
from ICmlaHfli Hash, on the coast of .Mayu. tn
(jnintin I'oiiil.at the month of Loii;;li Siraii^'roni.
on the coast of Down, belli;; about IH-.> m, : Imt in
other (ilaces the breadth is a ;;i>od deal less. .Sn
ci|nveiiieiill,v is Irelami Hitiiiiteil in n'spcct i,f
water conimimication, that there is no part iiinri'
than '"lO or th> ni. distant from the sea, or I'miii mn'
of its arms. The uren of Ireliind is estiniuleil at
ii-2J>\'i si|. m.
l'ln)»kal Aiqx'ct. — Perhaps no eountrj'evor px-
isted mori' favourably situated, or placed iiinlcr
more ndvanta;;eoiis physical circumstanccH. tlmii
the United Kiiifftlom. It is suHiciently extensive
to be the centre of a mighty empire; ami lu sup-
port, independent of any extrinsic resdiiriTs, n
wry largo population, and, eonseipieiillv, piis-
sesses that native and inherent power tlint is iic-
cesHiirv to secure the lirst condition of pnliticnl
importance — national independence. Its insiiliir
situation is also of immense advantage; it nWiva
well-defended frontier, on Avhiidi there can lie no
encroachment, and about which there can lio mi
dispute; and M'hile it remains companitivi'iy w-
(^ure from hostile attacks, art'ords iineipniilcii fmi-
lities for commerce; everv iMirt of the frmitiiT
being, as it were, a terminus to the 'great \\\n\\-
way of nations.' The surface of the ciinnlry i"
ngreeabl.v diversified with hill and dale, innun-
tains and plains; and while the soil is not sii vm
fertile as to yielil crops with little lalimir, ami sn
to encourage sloth on tbejiart of the ciiltivitor, it
is in general siifficientl.v productive, ami yiilil* i
abundant returns to the laborious and skilful liiis-
bandmaii. It has been well obser\ed nf (irciit I
liritain, and the same is ecpiall.y true of Irelftinl,
that ' it is not fertile enough to make men iiiilii-
lent, nor barren to such n degree as to dciiygriitr- 1
fill, if not ample, returns to the industrious ciilii-
vator. In a word, it enjoys the fortunate iiuiliuni I
between fertility and barfemiess, orbetwwii onsy
uiul dilHciilt culture; inclining rather to the siilej
of (liiUculty, and affording opportunity siitticiinl |
for industry and improvement.'
BIIITISII
All tin' niimf viiliialilo <4|irrir<* of ()ii' t'lmilln, ^
II4 wlirilt. iiiiIh, Mini luirli'V, Hliri'i't'il ijllilc IIm ut'll i
III iIk' llrili-'li I'^liiiiil't MM ill liny nilirr loiiiiirv.
|'iiiiiiin"<. 111", ami It vii'<l N.irirly <•(' iiMrliil vi'Kc- I
U\h\f>* mill IriiiiM, lire riiiKiil in ilii> tfriwilc-it iiIhiihI |
llliri'. 0\vill|{ III llic |irrillilir ll|ilill|ili' III' III)' Mill '
niMJ riiiniili', iiii t'lmniry run riiiii|iitri' wiili llir
I'liitril Kiii){iliiiii in llic liiMiriaiii'c nl il^ viTiliin'
iiiiil ili<' rirliiK'HH III its iiattiin"^. In riiiisciiiiini'i'
{iriniipally i>t' liiin t'irriiiiiMtiiiii'i>, Iml |iai'lly, uN<>,
i,f llii' ciiri' Ih"«Iii\\i'i| nil lli(> -tt'ln'tiiin iiriliiv liiiisl
iiii|>riiv('il ntiirk, till' Imr-o's, riiiili', mIii'i'|i. anil uiliir
ihil'iil aniiniils, arr all ri|iiai, il'iinl Kii|ii'riiir, Id the
liiii"-! IiM'iIh III \){\ riiniiil ill any titlicr |iart i>l' llic
wiirlil.
Till' llriliHli iNlanils ari' al.MiiMiii^'iilarlv riirtiiniilc
ill rr^pffl 111' I'liniMlc, 'I'IiiiiikIi rxpiixt'il tu hihIiIcii
i'hMn;.'i'x. it ix cxciiiiitiMl rrniii all vinlt'iii i'\lri'iin"i
III lirat anil I hIiI. 'riir ^rtwil ili'l't'cts in tlif rliinalc
,'iri' llic |irr\ali'tir<> nl' I'niil lili^lilin^ I'', wiiiiln in
A|iril ami May; anil imt iiiilr('i|iifiiiiy, nl' rainy
MiMiiliir ill An^riiNl ami Si'iilcnilirr. Il Im lint
run Iv lliat frn|ii* miiII'it iVniii cxrcss nf ilrnn;;lil ;
lull they iK'ra-iuiially niiIIit rrmii liai'Uwanl .tiiiii-
mirx, anil aulnninal raiiM. On llic ulinlc, Imw-
I'vir, tlic cliiniilc of tlic llrilinli JMlitinis is,
iiiilwitlistaniliiiK ilM ilcl'cci.^, oiiu ut' lliu lit'st, if
nut tlic Very \\vM, in I'.iirniic,
Aiimnit llic oilier pliystical rlrciimslnncpM lliat
liavr prmiintcil, in nn nriliiiiiry ilc^rcc, the |m\vcr
ami |iriw|icrlty of the ciii|iirc, niay lie sjiccilitil llic
iiiMiilicr anil cxt'cllciicc nl' llic liarliniirM, ami the
iiiiiiilur nf rivcrx, llicir ilcpth, ami tlic luciliiicH
tlii'V alVnril to internal eninniniiicalinn. In this
ri"^|H'rl, tli(> iiliynicitl aspect nf (irciit llritain is
Mrikiiij^'ly ilillcrcnt I'rntii that nt'nthcr countries mi
till' I'ai'c of the ^'Inlie, lircat Itritain ami Irelaml
iMiijjislamlx, with no part very rcnintc rmni the
»i'a, it ini^rht lie Hiippnseil that their riverN woiilil
Ih' iil't'iiiiiparatlvely sinall ina^'iiitmle, ami of lint
liltlo use in navigation, Itiit the tact is ilistinctly
anil ciiinplelcly llie reverse, 'I'lic 'I'liaiiies, Trent,
anil Severn, in KiiKhiml, ami the Shannon, in Ire-
l.inil, an^ all navi^'iilile to a very j;rciit ilisiancc.
Tlio lirst, mitwithstamliii^ its liinitcil length ami
vdliiiiic of water, ranks, ns a imvif^ahle I'lianiiel,
iiiniin;,' th(^ lirst rivers of luiropc ; its mouth is iiii-
inciinilxTcil liy any har, ami it is navixateil rroiii
tlic sea to Lomlnii Itriil^rc, n distaiiee of li'i in,,
liv tlu^ very lar;;est ships, and to a much K'r<'<iter
ilkniice liy bargees. The Severn, 'i'rent, and
Slimiiiiin linvc liet-n rendered iiavii;alile tor hnrfjes
ami stcain-hoiitH lor the f^rcatcr jiart of their
murse; the latter, which Hows tlirnu>;h the inte-
rinriil" Irelaml, almost to its very source, 'I'lu!
niwiiis allorded liy the rivers for facilitating inter-
nal niinniiiniention, have licen vastly extended
liy the cniistruction of canals; and, with the
sin^'lv exceptiiai of ilolland, the I'nited Kingdom
has It jjreater t'Xtent of artificial navigation than
any other country.
'I'lic mineral riches of (ircat Itritain are n<it
merely ecpial to those of any other country, Inn
su|i*'ri(ir. Iron, the most useful of all the metals,
isfimnil in the greatest ahundance, and of an ex-
wilingly good (luality, in most |iarts oftheem-
|iire. The tin mines are the most ))roduetive of
any in Kuri)))c; and there arc also very productive
niiiica ofcopjier, lead, manganese, and other mine-
tnls. Salt springs and beds of fossil salt are alone
Mitlicicnt for the supply of the whole world. Jhit
(iiiil is hy far the most important and valuiihlc of
all tlie mineral treasures. It is hardly, indeed,
I«*sil)U' to overrate the advantages (irent Itritain
ilcrives from her vast, and, to all practical pur-
ptises, inexhaustible beds of coal. In the northern
tliiiios, fuel ranks uniung the principal necessaries
of life ; and If U to coni mincx that fJrpnt Itritain
owes aliMiiiliint iiiid cheap siipplii's of so imli'pcii-
salilc an iniiilc. Ilml iluy iml cnLii d, Mnnd imist
lia\e been Used as lllcl; and it is ipiile illlpos'<ibl(>
that any attention to the gmwlli i.f limlier cmild
have fnriiisheil a supply eipial In the wants nl the
present pnpnliiiinn of (ircat llriliiin. cmu tl gli
a large jimpnrliim nf the cnllivalol land had been
iipprnpriaicd to the riiising nf trees, jtiii, how-
ever grciii and signal, this is not the only iiiImiii-
tage derived I'ri'iii enal mines: they arc tlic princi-
pal snnrcc and I'niiniliiiinn nf the inaiinlaeiiiring
and coinniereiiil |.ros|Hrily nf (ircni Itriiaiii. Since
the invention nl the steam engine, cntil has be-
cnme nf the highest iinpnrtaiii'eas a ninving pn«er :
ami no nation, however favniirably sitnateil in
ntlier rcspeels, not pleiilililllv siipp'lieii with this
mineral, need hope to rival those that arc, in
ninsi branches of iimiinlailiiriiig imlusiry. To
wliiil isihc aslnnishiiig imrease nftiliisgnw, Man-
I'licstcr, llirininghain, Leeds, and Shellield, nml
the cniii|)iiraiively stalioniiry or declining tiuie nl
Canterbury, Wiiicliesier, Salisbury, ami ntber
towns in the smith nf I'.nglaml, in be n.-irilied V
It eaiiiiol be pi'elcmlcd that the inhiibilants of llic
fnrnicr are naturally innrc iiij;ciiimis, cnierprising,
or imhistriniis ihnn those of the latter. The abiin
dance nml cheapness of cmil in the nnrlli, ami ils
scareity, and cniiseipieni high price, in the smith,
is the real cause nf this striking discrep.iiicv. The
citizens of .Miinchcsier, (ilasgow, and niher bee-
hives of industry, are able, at a comparatively
Miiall expense, to put the most powerful and cniil-
plicaied machinery in inntinii, and in prndiicc re-
sults (|iiite bi'ymiil the reach nf those who have
not the same cmnmiiiid over coal, or, as it has
been happily deliiicd, hoarded labour.
The siibjoincd luble gives, al'li'r nllicial returns,
the ipiaiititics of enal ami other mincriils and
metals produced in the I'liited Kiiigdoin in the
year In*!:.', together with the I'stiniatcd valiii; at.
the |ilace of production : —
Mlncrali anil Mi'lnlt
Quantitlpt
Valus
Tnllil
4
Conl ....
8l,():W,;l:i8
ao,4(ii),ri84
CiipiMT, Vhio .
11, SIM
1.4!»:i,'.Ml
Ir I'in .
;i,ll|:i,|lii»
!i,«.'.M.il7'.'
Lead, Metallic-.
i;ii,iii.i
I,|:lil,:|.|.-|
'Jill, Wliito
7,:i78
H7!l,il|H
Zinc ....
•.',ll,-.l
4S,I!I.S
Silver from Loiul
(iHii,l',j:t
IWI.Otl
(Idkl.
f>,-."Jl»
20,:i!l(l
Other Mutala .
Total of Metals
—
yfiu,tiuu
—
14,174,I);15
Total of Conl &MctnU
—
44,.'.84,r.lU
Of the SI.(;:tH,:i;iS tons of coal iirodiiced in iHtl-J
in the rnited Kingdom, (l-J.tl^ri,:!**;! tons were
raised in Kngland, W.KMVI.I.') in Wales, I l.(t7(!,lMMi
in Scotland, and l-_»7,i"i(K) in Ireland. (Miscel-
laneous Statistics of the United Kingdmit,
Part V.)
IttiifKofl'nijih: — At the earliest period to whirh
history ascends, the British islands were oc<'iipieil
by Celts or (iael, who, it is probable, had passed
over into Itritain from the (Mintigiions coasts of
riaiice, ami from liritaiii into Ireland. To the
(Celtic population of Itritain succeeded the (Jothic.
At a period long preceding the Christian era, tlm
(iotlis or Scythians, advaiu'ing from the east, had
occupied a large |)ortioii of the N. and N\V. parts
of Kuropo. Tlio Low Cotuitries and the N, pro-
N N 2
■•'liiii
r;:'V,,'''lf
AtH
it'MTisii KM run:
vini'o* III' Friiiii'i' were in ilic imv Mfl'ii'Mir ,m'ii|i|i'i|
liy (iiilliM, wliii hml iiri|iiirt'il llii- ilinlhirllM' n|i|><'l
liilioti III' llrli/ir; iiml i( n|i|><'iirt Inirii rii-piiir, I lint
liiiiX |>ri'\ ii>u->l\ III llii iiiMi.-iiiii III' llriliilii, niliiiiii'it
of llrlKilllln tlinl |iiii»in| iiViT into il, llllii tlli'll
iH'i'ii|ili'i| il . iiiiiriiiini' mill iiiuhi frriili' imrliiiiiK,
(l)i' Itrlli. liiilll.'.i, III,. V. li l-.'.i 'I'll!' Ilnllllllix,
iIiiiiikIi iIii'V "iiIiiIiii'iI (iri'iil llriliiiii, <lii| iiul Nilllf
III urnil iiuiiilii'r'< in II ; iiiiil llir ili'l^ir, liy wlimii
It llllil lirrn riiliihix'il ||| |||i< <'|iim'Ii iiI' llit'ir illMI-
xiiiii, limy III' ri'^iiriii'il nn ilii- |iriiii'i|iiil |irii|{i'iiiliir-t
of I III' l'!ii;;liKli iiiiiiiiti; I'lir, iliiiiiu:li till' variiiiiH
(iiilliir iiilii's uliii iiiinNi'il iixcr itiiii llriliiiii iit>i'r
llii' ili'|iarliiri' nl' liii' Iiuiiiuiih witc Hiitlli'ii'iidy
IHiucrl'iil lii^iiliiJiK' il, iiiiil mil' III' ilii'iii (ilic Aiujlrii)
Hllrri'i'ilc I ill Kivili;,' iu iiiillli' In llii' Kri'airr |iiirtii)ll
• >r Itrilllill, lliry wrrt' I'lir Inn I't'W III lliilillirr III IlllVi'
iiri'il|iii'ii il I'lilly, nr kIvi'II it il new liiiiK>l'l){r, lillii
tlit'ir own ijillirril iiiiiii'riiilly Iriiii iliiil |iri'\ iiiii«lv
ill iiM'. (I'iiiki'rtiin''* I it'll),',', tirt. I ji){liiiiit, iiiiil Iiim
DI^MTi. nil ilii' {'iiA\\n, f)iiii»iiii,) Hut iIm' Hinii'iif
llliil lIlc limri' rri'I'lll Slk\nll IIIhI llriliiiii fnlnlliHlM
liciii^ t'.-'^^•lllilllly till' Niiiiit' |n'ii|iii', rriiilily iiiiinl'
ptniMlt'il. 'I'll!' iiiviiilcr-t liiiviiiK <'\|ii'lli'il ill)' nri
Kiiiiil nr (I'liir iiiliMliitiiiiiH Irmii ilic Inwtr iiml
iiinrr I'l'iiiU'iil |iurtH 111' ihi' rnuuiry, the ImiIit wvtv
i'nill|ii'lli'il In ri Niirt In llic t°ll^<llll<Mhl'M nl' Wllli'H, till'
lli;;lllllllil.'< nf Scntlllint, llllil tllf rrlllntt- |itirtN ill'
|)i'Vnii iiiiii I 'iiriiwiill. Till' I'ariliiii'N «vliirli iIii'nc
cniiiiii'ii'H iiiVnnli'il I'lir ri'KiMiiiifr mnl cliiiiiii)^ iiii
iiiviiiliiijr I'nrcr. pri'vciiti'il iliciii liciii^ nvcrniii liy
till' (inlllH, Tlii'V WITI* Ili'Vcr riilliiillril liV lllf
Kiiiiwiii I('){1iiiin; mill at llii-< iimnii'iit we Iiml tliriii
a ili-'iiiii't rare, «|uakiii;; tiu! laiij,'imni' nl' tlicir
rt'iiinlt* aiii'CHtnrH.
Till' t<'iii|inrary rniiiiiicMt of Mii^rlaiiil liy tlic
DaiH'-', ami its hiiIihi'iiiuiii hiiliju;:ntinii l>y the
N'lii'inaiiM, linwi'vrr iiii|iiirlaiit in nilicr rrN|i<'rtM,
inaiii' Mil Hi'iisililc I'liiiii^i' ill tlii' nlnrk nl' llir iiilia-
liiiaiiis, 'I'lic NnrinaiiH, lliiiiif;li Imi;; Hctlli'il in
Fraiiri', wliiTc tiicy Iiml iu'(|iiircil llii< iisi> nl' tlic
Kri'iitii laii(;iia;;(', ni'i;;iiially t'lni^ratcil rrnni Nnr-
wiiy ; ami licinii^^L-d, uit wi'll mh the Daiii's, to tlin
(iniliir rainily.
'Ilic lliiinans iliil imt iiivnili' Irclanil ; ami tlu;
(intllH iln lint lllijii'ar In liavi' )iaxsi'(l over iiiln it,
lit Icasl in any t'lniMiilcralilc niinilii'i'H, llciicc its
|iii|iiilaiii>ii, in so far as it is iml iilinycil liy ciiii-
^crtinls frnin Kii^iaml, siiin! Iliit invnsinii iiiiilcr
Henry 1 1, ami ilu'ir (icsi'cniliiiits, nuiy lie rcnarilcil
as nl' C'clliit nri^in. In fact, tlii' Irish laii);nii;;c, ii
(liiilcct III' llu< (iai'lii', is iil tiiis innincnt s|ink('ii to
tile aliiinst tntal cxciiisinti of l'',n(;lisli, in variniis
Ki'i'liiilcd ilistrii'ts nf Iri'lnnd; ami it is (rcncrally
cnn.-iilcn'il tliiit nearly twn-diinls nf the |ieniile nf
that islniul are desccmlcd I'rnin the aneiciit occu-
imiits of the eoiintry.
I'lipulutinn. — The |irof;rpss of popnlntioii iiinrent
llritaiii and Irelaiul was Inii^ very slow. Latterly,
hnwever, It has increased with extraordinarv ra-
pidity, chictiy in consecinciu'c of the wonderful
rise of nianufactiires niid cnniinercp.
The pniiidatinii of Kii^;hind and Scotland was, fnr
the lirst time, deterinined liy actual emiineral ion in
IHOl ; since which a census has lieen taken every
ten years. In Ireland, an incninnlele census was
taki'ii ill IHI.'t ; hut it was not till IM.'l that the j
pnpiihitinii of that jiart of the empire was exactly |
ascertained. The rcfjistratinn of hirtlis and deaths, '
an almost iiidis|ieiisahle basis and accompaniment I
of the census retnriiH, was not introduced into j
Ireliiml till the year IKII 1, while in EiiKhinil it :
eonimenced ill IHilT, and in Scotland in IHi'w. j
'I he strikiiifif prof^ress of the population of the j
United Kinj^doin in the course <if a century and ,
II half will be seen in the following coiulonsed
Statement : —
In
TMn
I7IMI
17 ''•11
INOI
INM
iNtll
Iml Hliig4ani
!*n|tHhlltrtll
T.'tAO.IKN)
|i,il7ii,iio<l
|A,HINI,INNI
i^7,7^.^,lMl»
!«»,:UI,';hH
In I'liKliind nml Wnlr^ diiriii;; ihU itrrlml, tlu'
pro^rea.l was as I'nllnWH ; —
I'.iiK •ihI aii.l WkiM 1
Tmm
1 IIIHI
I7III
I7:i0
17. Ml
17IIII
I7NII
INIII
MM
iNlil
A, I'll 111,111 III
n,IHIli,:|;l7
fi,(.H7,mi:l
tl,il:lll,tlNt
tl, 1711,7:10
7,Hll,sj7
1MN7,I7II
l7,lt'J7,iliHi
20,,/VN,lll7
III Scntliiiid, nM will Iw Necii rmni the Kiilijuini'ii
table, the ratio of increniiu was fur less sirikin^' :—
PMiiUnii
VMn
rn|Milalliin
1707
17fift
INOl
IN.M
iNlil
I,0.'i0,ll(l0
l,2tl''i,:IN0
l,filll»,ll.-iN
a,HNN,7 12
ii,oiiii,Nim
The increase of population in In liind, nml tlip
decrciiM' in llie last deceiiniul period, slinwit mihu:
notable fealiircM :—
IrtUnil
—^ — ^ -
Yftr*
l*i>l>ulatlon
III72
1,100,000
1712
2,0IH>,0!M
I7.V4
2,:l72,(l.l»
1777
2,(llMI,.'i.'ill
l7N.''i
2,H|.-i,l):l2
INII.'i
ri,:i!»''i.i;ii;
IH.M
ll,lilil,s:lO
iHtil
fi,N;iO,:i(i!»
Subjoined is a summnry of the censim retiinis nf
IKlit, tof^ether with Ihe proportion of |iii|iiil»tiiiii in
eitch uf tlic diviiiiuns of the United Kiiifrdmn :—
•
T.)l»l
Poiiulallon
Proimrtlon of !
|iu|Julalioii
100-0 j
69-1
10','i
iD-n
•5
! United KlnRdotn
Kn(f1nni1 ami Wales ,
Si'iitliiml ....
Ireliiiiil ....
IslniulH in tho Itrltisli Seas
2U,U21,288
20,228.407
:l,ll!lli,SIIN
0,«.'iO.:|ill>
14.'i,(i74
It will he seen from the jirecediuff tabiilnrstate-
ments that the pop. of the United Kiiiplinii in-
creased by almiit thirteen and a half niillinns in
the course of the sixty years, from 1«(11 to IWil.
This increase, however, was not resnlar, fur wliili!
it amounted to full til'ty per cent, during' tlie limt
half of this |ieriod, it was not more than twi-aty in
the second half. This serious retardation in tlie
rate of (irogrcss has been ascribed, partly, to a
vastly aiigniente<l emigration, made possible by tlic
perfection of all the means of international com-
IK^lllllKllnll of Rilllum
InlttHl State* .
lirltUh North Anicri
Aiwtrftlian Colonies
; Other I'lnccs
It will bo seen th
cmisidorahly more tin
>"liimary exiles who
'Iwriiited Kingdom,
'irimscr from certaii
Ifuni others. The g(
w tlic following tabic
TiuiTiMn r.Mi'inK
A4f»
miinii'Alinn, nnil pnrtlv, miil to n xlill k'''''*''''
ixii'iii, lo lilt' f'iK'i. (Ifiiiiiii'iriUnl l>.v I'XiM'rit'iiiv
ilml n* Koon no ilu* ili'tinltv <>(' |Mi|iiilnti<)ii rt'«>« l>) n
ccriiiiii |Hiiiit, ilif iiicrrii'M' III' |Hi|iiilittti)ii U'ciitiK'i*
);rii<liiiilly li'Mciii'il,
Ai'<'<)r>llll^ lo till' connllit III' INCil, tlll> lllllli' |HII).
(if till' I'liiti'il KiiiKiliMn, iiii'liiiliii;^ (III' ikliMi'iii Mil-
itirrx nixl KnllurM, wmm I l,;iMo,ii:i| ; tlir I'l'iinili' |<<>|i.
*H« I (,!••"' 1. I'll i Mir li'lilitli'x, lliiTrriirc, rxri'iMlnl
ihf iiiiilr" liy />7ll,ri.'Hl, (ind ilii^ ivvi i;'-<"l' mnri' ilinii
Imir II iiiillioii U liirKi'ly hirn iimit i cxi'luiliiiK
ihi' IIMMI NcrviliK iMit III' till' riilllilry. In H'vcf)'
imi iiiiili'M in ilii> llrili->li ix|iiiii|i« iImti' wi're )"*>
I'l'iimlrK. N'l ilmilit llir il^iirnimrl I'lii uf «lii' !«i>\e>
i'\i«li'il l"ii>f iH'I'iiri' it \vii» iiiinlc niijiarrri' liy tin-
llrnt rMilMiimliiill ill MOl, III ' "I lull' y«»r« if
liiw Ihm-ii itirrriixiiiKi >*» ll>«' fuliwwif^i; IlKuros will
fliiiw : —
V... I'r-ipif il'.n of ri>mi»««» *" ••"T '"O
1041 loi'll
IM.M lii^'l
INIIt Kill".*
Ill (iron! Uritnlii. of iliililrrii Itnrii nllvi>, lO.'i
Uivit iiri' liorn i<> I(mi ^irJH, ami tln' |ir<i|iiirtiiiii in
Kriiiirc U iicai'ly iIh* miiiih', 'I'Ik' imili't riniiitiiii'
1(1 |iri|Min<li'riiti' until tlif Hcvriiln'iilli yriir, wlini
ihi' iiiiiiiImt III' I he two hi'Xi's an- iirarly ri|iiiil ; at
nil milwi'iiui'iit ii^c'H I In- I'l'iiiait'M ari' iti cxri'Mi* ol'
ilii' iiialcH, till' I'liiiiik;!' ill lliii |iri>|HirtiiiiiM liriii^
iimiiily iliii' to a ililViTi'iicc in lii'urri' of ilicilan-
j;ir« til wliii'li tlii'V art' rxposcil, to ii lowiT riitt' of
niiirtaiily ainoii(;.M I'rnmli'H I'roni ilisca-"!'!* an wi'li
lb I'rotii violent caiisi's ami to cniiKrHiion. Tlii'
ili*|mrity of tlie hcxi's Iwih al\vayn licrn ri';;iircl('il
li.iiniMif till' Irani Kiilixfactorv coniliiionx of tlii'
|i(i|iiilation of till! rnilcil KiiiKidmi, lint in ai:iiunlry
whi'D' nioru than tlirci* inillioiiN of luliilt wonii'ii
iiri' witliilrawii inori' or Ii'n.h from ilonicMtiiMlnticM
til fiiiiow ('inployniintA in tlui ilitVcri'iil tniinnftii'-
tiircH and tradi'H, tlio evil ii ii'>t witliinit hoiiic
inilination. At tlu! Hiiinc! liini", it innul not lie for-
piili'ii tliat in AiiMtraliit and other Hriti.sli colonii'M
ilii' |irii|Hirlion of the nexen Is reversed to hiicIi an
ixli'Ht an to render a well-orKimised MyMteni of
li'iimle eininration from the mother conntry liiKlily
iWruiili'. (.See AtJHri{Ai.A.-.i.\.)
Ktiiiiimtiim.—'VUv nnmlier of pomons who nn-
iMialiy'fjnit the IJnileil Kingdom to I'imnd a lionie
in iillier eonntrii'M is very eonHideralile. fSiiliJoined
i< a utatement of the e!ni(j;ratiiin for the three
vi'iint I«ti(l-ti2, with dent inulioii of the emigrants : —
porti of finltarkadon of tiuii{rntii<« in ihe year
iMIl'ii—
r ii<iiiii<iii . . t (
l'l.\iiiiiiiMi , . ,
In Knulnml , \ l,lvi<r|a>iil . ,
H<iilllii|tii|iliili
I, oilier I'ortii .
til N<<ntlAnil I
111 Iri'Iniiil
Tolnl .
(llivirow iiml (irerniH'k
Oilier I'liru .
Tut III , , ,
llplfimt , , . .
fork
l|f«4»-n!r . , .
1.1)11(1.11 Irrry
Ollivr I'orU . I •
I ' Tiilftl .
i Tiilul rroiit UiiIuhI Kliiudoni
t.TIT
M,iiU
MIA
•IM
0\,Wi
N.lMtl
|:l
Ill
lt,IM:|
|.-.:l
ft.OT'i
•Ni
lll,lltl:l
I3l,tfl4
'riie tolal niiinlier of ein!i;ranlH who Irft the
rnited Kingdom in the Mixiieii yeiirn, InI'.i lo
iHiil, aniiiiiiiteil III iieiirly four niilliniis, 'I'lie ri:«e
and fall of eiiii^niliiin diiriii;; tlie'<i' sixli'i'ii yearit
is coiii'isely shown in the Hniijoini'd liilde: —
NiitnltiT "f
Yfori
KiiilKiuiii*
IMII)
^l)!l,'IIH
IH.MI
'.'NII.MIIt
|H-||
:i:l'i,!iilil
IMW
illlH.Tlll
IMVI
:l'i!Mi:l7
IHAi
•.u\.r:\>
1H.V1
I7i;,.s(i7
IMOO
17I1,.'..V»
Nll'iilnT nl"
^liiiiiiraiiu
|n:.7
ai'.'.M'.'i
IM.'.M
Ii:i,!i7-i
IH.-.II
I'JO.Il'.'
ISDil
I','M, 11,11
isill
III, 770
\Hi;-i
12I../II
jSlil
'rr<i,v>H
IMlll
tKilliimlaii of Riiilgriinlt
Viiltcd Stntcn . . ^ I
lirltiuli North Aiiiprlea ■
I Aiutraltan Colonics .
Other rioccs
I
Total .
It will ho seen that the United States attract
cnnsitlcrahly more tlian one-half of the nnmher of
viiliintury exiles who fliinnally quit the shores of
tlie I'nitud Kingdom. The stream of enii}j;ration is
strnnjiicr from certain jiarts of the conntry than
Itiim others. The freiieral direction is exiiiiiited
w llic following lublc, which bhows the principal
Yfm
INIIO
IMlil
IHli'J
iNliO
IWil
IKIl'J
ISllll
ISIil
IHifJ
INIill
IHIil
l8Ui
NiimlxT— !
I I'lilli'il KliiKilom
87,r>K) I
4lt,7(14
riH.7lMI '
ll.7Hl>
1-J,707
l.-.,.V.'.i
«4,:liia
a:l,7:l8
41,H4:l
(i,8HI
r.,:piil
r,,u:i
Of the 22;i,7')8 omif^rants who left I he I'liilrd
Kingdom in the veiir IMI'.M, there wire— I'.imlisli.
(il.'.'l:!; S.'oteh. I.V-Mll; Irish. I lt;,:tl»l ; foiei'jiiers,
7,H;t,'t; not distiiiKiiisi-ed, '.'.'I.Olll.
In till' twenty-three yi'Mri ending; IHi;;i, tliere
were ■.'7ii,'<.'17 ihiiHTunls sent mil Id AM>lrari;i liy
the (iiivenimcnt Ijiii^ratinii Itmird; Il^i, I'.'O of
them Were iiomiiiMtcd in virliie of (umtriliiitioiis in
till' cuiiiiiy fi'iHii private soiirce-i, aniniiiiliii); to
Ki l.'-MM)/. "The tiitfil passaj,'e money was ;i,r.i;il,()HM/.
ll'riillh of thf I'ii/)iil(itii>n,~T\w assiiined value
of real |iroperly in the I'nited Kingdom i-i shown
in a I'ariiamentiiry return issued in the sessimi of
IXtil, The inforinatiiin. exteiidiiif; over the live
years, IH.')? to lHC,->, is Kntliered from Schedule A
of the income-tax returns. The ^mss animal
value in IH")7 of real pro)iertv in IJi^land w.ns
lo;t,l'.H!,-2,-i:i/. It had increased in iHi;2 to
iL'O.lHilV.ltilJ/. As respects Scotland the ti;,'nros
were, in IH.')7. 1 2,i-i«2.74".t/. ; and in I «t;2, 1 .'>, 1 •-'H,.V'W/.:
and lis re;;ards Ireland, in IH,J7, 1 l,!>l;),2H(l/. ; and
in |H!2, l.'l,lll(l,r)l(i/.
The followiii;^ return. piililiHiied in jnirsnance to
an order of the House of (.'oinmons of .Iiiiie 150.
IMIiiJ, shows the po]inlation, the f;ross receipt of
the revenue, after dediictin;^ repayments, allow-
ances, diseonnts, drawliacks, and lioiintics of the
nature of drawliacks, and exclndiiij^ therefrom mis-
eelhmeiitis receipts, and the rate per head of the
populalion of such revenue; also the aniounl of
property and pmlits assessed for the income tax.
the amount of iiicnine per head of the population,
and the potuidagc of said inxation on such income,
i
'hi
£,;
<: ';■
AfiO
BRITISH EMPIRE
for (iroat. nritniti and Ireliiml, in the year ending
the UlHt day ut' March, IK(i2 :—
Ore*! BrlUln
23,128,518
.£61,360,719
£2 \'.ii.
£301,380,730
Inlanil
5,798.967
.t:(i,792,606
£1 3«. M.
C2I,038,975
Popnlatlon
dross llevenno .
Amount of gross revenue 1
per head of |K>|)iilution j
Ainonnt of pro|MTty niiil )
profits assi'ssed to In- r
eonie Tax . , )
Amount of income jior |
lieml of iMipulation )
Amount of revenue for )
each X, of inooiiiu . /
JEISO*. 7irf-
4*. OJ,/.
£3 14ji. 7i</.
0*. 3|r/.
Anotlirr I'orlinmontnry return states tliat in
Great Itritnin the anniinl avcrnfje amount of pro-
jierty and income tax contributed per lieud of
population in tlic quinquennial period ending
March iJl, \MH, waK 10». 4Jfi., and in Ireland
'2». U)^rL The annual average in (Jreat liritain
in the quinquennial period ending March 'M, IKC,'),
Mvanlii. 1 \\f/., and in Ireland 2». 4)^(1. There is no
country which can hIiow Kiniilar rcHultH as regards
initionul wealth and individual pros])erity.
Agr'wultiirv. — Attempts have heen i.iade at va-
rious times, hoth by the govcniment ond private
persons, to get agricultural statistics for the United
Kingdom, hut tliesc attempts, from various causes,
liave always been unsuccessful. The general state
of agriculture can. therefore, be only estimated.
One of the best estimates, though many years old,
is that given in the subjoined table, giving the
extent of the cultivated (including meathiws and
arable pasture grounds) and uncultivated land in
th(! different divisions of the U. Kingdom. The
Htatisti(;s have been derive<l as follows ; viz. those
for Knghind and Wales, from aetateinent furnished
by Mr. Coiiling, land surveyor and civil engineer
to the Emigration Committee of 1827 ; those for
Scotland, from the General Report of Scotland
(III. ApjHind. p. .5) ; and those for Ireland, from
the statement furnished by Mr. GrifHth to the
Lords' Committee on Tithes : —
I <.'iittWalnl
UncultlTntcil
Total
Acres
32,217,680
4,752,000
18,944,000
19,944,209
1,119,159
England
Wales .
Scotland
Ireland ,
British Islands '\
(Jersey, Guern- -
Fcy, and Sinn) j
Totals .
Acrcf
25,632,000
3,117,000
5,043,450
14,603,473
383,690
Acrpi
6,615,680
l,ti35,000
13,900,550
5,340,736
735,469
48,779,613 28,227,435
77,007,048
The figures for Ireland and Scotland, in the last
column of the olwve table, are exclusive of lakes.
These returns, even at the period when they
were framed, had no ])reten8ion8 to accuracy, and
could be considered merely as rough ajiproxima-
tions. And considering the lime that has since
elapsed, and the rapid spread of agricultural im-
jjrovcment, there can be no doubt that the pro-
jiortion of cultivated land has since been mate-
rially augmented. I n Scotland, only, this extension
has been supposed to amount to about a million
of acres ; while the immense number of acts passed
of late years for the inclosure and division of
wastes and commons in England and Wales, shows
that there, also, the extent of the cultivated land
must have been at least as widely extended.
At the close of the war in 1815, the produce of
wheat in England and' Wales did not amount to
iS quarters, or 24 bushels, an acre. Hut such and
so great has been the ))rogress of improvement in
(he interval, that its produce at present exceeds
34 quortent, or 2H Inishels, an acre. This, tnn.
iMising there are 3,(»0(),()0(» acres under whcnt in
England, makes an addition of 14,400,000 liuDhris
to the produce, exclusive of the farther quuiiiityiil'
other grain furnished by the greater breadth of
laud under tillage. And it is material to observe
that the ^)rogr«^s8 of ini))rovemeut has been even
inore rapid in other itarts of the U. Kingdom tluui
in England; the produce of all descriiitiniis el'
crops, and the land in cultivation, having keu
everywhere increased in a degree that could not
nrcviously have been anticipated. Accordiu),' to
l)r. (!olquboun, the consumption of corn in tliv
U. Kingdom, in 1814, amounted, ex. seed, to
3i'),l)00,0()0 quarters. And the annual average eon-
sumption may at present be estimated at aliuil
tiO,000,000 quarters, of which about u0,0U0,0U0 ire
of domestic growth.
It must be rejjeated that the above linuros nre
given only as the roughest apprii.viinatioiis, \n\\,
ilecidedly rather under than over the mark. The
only part of the United Kingdom where nuri-
cultural statistics worth relying on have been nil-
lectcd, is Ireland, and a few of these, i)r(?seiil((|
in the subjoined tables, may serve as useful com-
parison with the more or less unreliable estimntes
of Jiritish agricultural produce.
The produce of wheat in Ireland was as follows
in the vear 1802: —
FroTlncei
Total
Produue
Pruduce iwr
Avru
ItarrrU
9U Sluiia
3'3
3-0
3-5
3-0
3-2
Leinster .
Munster .
Ulster .
Counaught .
Ireland .
Qn.
252,021
248,881
147,041
35,105
683,048
The produce of oofa in 1802 was as follcws:—
1 Prorincei
Total
Produce
Produce \m
Acre
Leinster .
Jlunster .
Ulster .
Cunnaught .
Ireland •
Q".
1,825,245
1,400,527
3,016,8(!2
1,040,766
7,283,400
Barrcli
11 Stoiio
6-3
5-9
5-7
6-8
5-9
i
The produce of barley in 1802 was as follows ;—
Provincct
Total
Produce
Produce |*r
Aero
LcinFtcr .
Munster ,
Ulster .
Counaught .
Ireland .
Qr».
420,509
168,729
41,295
31,300
661,833
Barri'li
10 Mnlio
ti-5
6'7
6'0
5-9
6-2
The produce otjMtatoes in the year 1802 wasas
follows : —
Provlnccf
Total
Produce
Itarrolfl
2U Stone
3,996,387
4,395,713
6,(i62,()97
3,132,418
Produce i«r
Acre
liarri'l)
20 .SKillO
20'a
17-3
15-8
14-7
Leinster .
Minister .
Ulster .
Cunnaught .
Ireland .
17,187,215
16'9
Based, to sor
af;rieidtural statii
an yet obtained i
nil estimate of th
Kingdom under tl
with the iiroduce
1
Cropi
' /Wheat
Hnrley
Oats and
Ryo
^ . lleniis and I'eas
a / I'ofatoes,
Tiir-
1^ nips, it
Itaixi
a Clover
,
Fill low
,
I Hups .
^
VOardens
•
/Wheat
•
Hnrley
Oats .
1
Ucnus and Teas
s ' Fallow
,
5 ) Totatoes
^ Turnips
,
^
Clover
Flax .
Vuardcns
•
rWlieat
■5
Barley
, ,
Oats .
^
^ .
Potatoes
,
i
Fallow
,
' '
FIny ,
.Gardens
Totolg ,
•
The total net rer
in the United Kit
tiimiicittl year 1801
This amount does 1
land Imng the jiropc
nut assessed. l{y A
be raised in the U
:',03r,«27/. ds. ^d., w
England and Wah
8eutland
The total lantl taj
March, 1804, amoiin
Englniul ond Wait
Scotland
Total
A certain amount
(icomcd but not exi
la.\ is still charged
l*ing paid into the
person on whose bell
made.
Rent— The first
fettanl to the rent o
ubtauicd under the 1*
friim the returns mac
missioiiers, that the
Males amounted, in
iliat of Scotland to
rapid rise of prices,
subsequent to 1810,
and Wales had incre,
and that of Scotlam
no authentic inforn
i'he only approximat
BRITISH
DiiHed, to Rome extent, upon the preceding
af;ri(.'iiltiirnl HtiitiHticH of Ireland, the moxt reliable
it yet obtained ih the following table, containing
an cHlimate of the extent of land in the United
Kingdom under the principal descriptions of crop.t,
witli the produce per acre : —
Crop*
, Wheat
(IJarley
OntH and Ryo .
■3 UninH and I'l'iw .
a ) I'oiatoes, Tur- )
u^ nipi4, ji Iliiix) )
a I Clover
Knllow
I Hops.
! VUurduna .
/Wlteat
Unrley
OntH .
''3 Ucnns nnd Pens
AcrM In Crop
8,fion,ono
1,200,000
2,400,000
500,000
2,500,000
1,300,000
1,000,(100
50,000
250,000
-12,800,000
Fallow
rotntoes
Turnips
Clover
Vlivx .
VUardcns
nVTieat
Biirley
UatH .
I'otntoes
I'alluw
Klajc .
Gardens
Totola
350,000
450,000
1,200,000
50,000
100,000
200,000
450,000
450,000
5,000
35,000
3,290,000
500,000
320,000
2,200,000
1,400,000
300,000
140,000
15,000
4,875,000
20,965,000
Prot'uro p«r
Arre
Qnartm
i'l
5
11. ijer acre
1 5/, per acre
15/. poracre|
Qunrtcri
H
4
5
a
7/, per aero
15/. per acre
15/. per aero
Quarter*
3
3i
a
8/. per acre
i
15/. per nere
12/. per acre
The total net rental value at which tlio land
in the United King<lom was assessed in the
liiiaiicial year 18(51-02 amounted to 54,078,412/.
Tills amount does not include crown lands, nor
kiid l)eing the property of charities, all which are
nut assessed. By Act 38 Geo. 111., the land tax to
be raised in the United Kingdom was fixed at
2,037,(527/. 9». \d., which was apportioned thus :—
England and Wales
^'otland
£1,989,073 7 lOJ
47,951 1 2
The total land tax redeemed up to the 25th of
March, 1804, amounted to^
England and Wales
bvotluud . .
Total
£760,842
12,977
5 lOJ
6 8i
£779,819 12 7i
A certain amount of land tox has been ' re-
ilcimed but not exonerateil.' In this case, the
tax is still charged anil collected, bu( instead of
Wing paid uito the exchequer, is bonded to the
person on whoso beholf the redemption hos been
maile.
ifenf.— The first outhentic information in
regard to the rent of land in (;reat Britain was
obtained under the Property Tax Act. It appears
fnim the returns made bj' the i>roperty tax com-
missioners, that the total rental of England and
Wales amounted, in 1810, to 29,503,070/., and
that of Scotland to 4,851,404/. Owing to the
rapid rise of prices, in the years immediately
subsequent to 1810, the gross rental of England
anil VVales had increased, in 1815, to 34,330,402/.,
and that of Scotland to 6,075,242/. Since then
no authentic information has been published.
The only approximative statistics ou the subject
EMPIRE 651
arc found in the official rotumn of the value of
the lands, houses, and other lixed property, as-
sesHcd to the existing property and income tax.
But this tax does not utfei't tiu)se holding lands
and houses whose gross incomes are under 100/.
a year ; and in consequence a considerable num-
ber of the snudler class of proprietors were not
assessed. As there is no accoimt of the precise
inmiber or value of the pro)K'rties thus excepted
from the assessment, there are no means of
arriving at the exact amount of the total gross
annual value of the land and other lixed pro-
perty. However, u sunnnary of the returns in
question nuiy not be without interest, as sliowiiig
the constant progress of the volue of real property.
The subjo.ined table exliibits the gross annual
value of real i)r()perty in buroughii, assessed to
income tax under Schedule (A), in the two years —
April 5 — 1802 and 1857. The striking increase
iu the value of jjroperty in England, and tiie very
slight increase in that of Ireland, is remarkable.
18(W I 1817
&
England . . 60,534,457
Sciitlund . . 5,854,474
Ireland . . 2,443,195
United Kingdom 68,832,126
X.
42,!»«2.193
4,569,744
2,089,191
49,621,128
The stdijoined table gives the gross annual
value of real jiroperty assessed under Schedule (A)
in aiuiitiea for the same |)criods : —
1803.
1857
England
Scotland
Ireliuid
United Kingdom
&
69,535,500
9,274,064
10,957,351
89,706,921
60,534,060
8,013,005
9,826,095
78,373,160
Adding together boroughs and counties, the
summary will be us follows : —
1863
;e
120,069,963
15,128,538
13,400,546
1H57
England
Scotland .
Ireland
&
103,41(6,253
I2,5.<2,749
11,915,286
United Kingdom
148,590,047
127,994,288
1
Supply of Food. — Down to the jieace of Paris,
in 17(53, England was in the habit in ordinary
years of exporting large quantities of com. But
notwithstanding the astonishing improvements
made in agriculture, and the consequent increase
of {iroduce since that epocli, there is now, owing
to the still more rapid growth of our po|)ulation,
a necessity of importing supplies of all sorts of
grain. The imports depend, in a great degree, on
the produce of harvests; being comparativel.y
large in bad, and comparatively small in favour-
able seasons. The quantities of corn imported in
the United Kingdom in the two years 1802-3 is
given in the subjoined statement : —
Quantities Imported
Wheat .... Qrs.
Other kinds of Corn and i
Grain . . (,irs. I'
Whoatnipal & Flour l'\vt,«.
Other kinds of Meiil nnd )
I'lonr . . Cwts. f
18U2
9,469,270
6,905,921
7,207,112
17,935
1803
5,022,501
8,234,898
5,218,976
14,812
562
BRITISH KMI'IKK
The Slims paid for these mi])i)lies of food from
abroad in 18H2-3 were as folhuvN : —
Vtiiie of Imimru
«
2.'l,'Jit:),8(MI
9,172,(iao
H,«1»0
IMU.) j
Whent ....
Otlior kinds of Com mid 1
'Iriifii . . . /
Wliciitiiicul nnd I'lonr
Other kinds of Mcttl ond 1
Flour . . . ;
.€ i
li',nir,,n(ifi
10,411, 745 \
.■),.VJ'.',i):ll
6,2.J7
of t)ie United KinRdoin, exported in IHG:' nm
186B, i» given in the following tabic : —
For her Hii|)plieHof uoni from abroad, tlie United
Kinj^doni is happily not dependent on any one
country, but relies upon a fjreat number. In the
two years l8(12-;{, the import* came from tlie fol-
lowiiiK countries : —
From
Rnssia, Nortliom Ports .
.Southern Ports .
Sweden . . . .
Donmiirk and the Diiuhicit
Prussia . . . .
Hanse Towns .
flerniaiiv (Other Parts) .
Holland . . . .
Franco . . . .
Spain . . . .
Italian Rtato<i .
Wallucliia and Moldavia .
Turkish Domiinons, not [
otherwise specified )
Egypt . . . .
British North America .
United States .
Other Countries
Total
18IM
On.
477,:W7
1 ,*i:v.',0(i4
.^7o,7■i!)
in:,,-2-2i
l,sr.4,.''.(il
4"!»,-MS
liM,8<i4
2ni,io.->
787,142
74.101
2;«(.019
358,470
i,02.'),nn4
i.^oo.Hn-i
],fi4(i,I46
e,SM,7l2
3.34,442
I8U3
Qri.
M t,228
l,l!».l,lfil
H.-|0,;i!l.-i
1,07<!,071
1,7 1,013
37!».8t5
20H,:||!t
lli-.',7:ll
1,0!(!»,7.".
2.llli0
144.007
437,(180
1,450.020
1,070,31 1
020,071
3,807,084
245,471
18,441,791 15,303,362
Down to a late period various restraints were
laid on the trade in corn ; the tendency of which
was to fetter importation, and artificially to elevate
the home prices. All these restraints were re-
pealed in 1«4(!, when Parliament decided that on
and after Feb. 1, 1840, only a nominal duty of
one shilling per quarter was to be levied on com.
Much of the actual prosjierity of the United
Ivingdom dates from this period.
Manufactures. — The manufactures of Great
Britain are more extensive and important thon
those of any other nation. The kingdom may,
indeed, be said to be purveyor of most descriptions
of manufactured articles for all the world ; and
there are but few nations, how remote or barbarous
soever, that are not indebted for some considerable
portion of their comforts, and sometimes even of
their necessaries, to the skill and ingenuity of
liritish artisans. A very large propf)rtion of the
j)eople are engaged in, and directly depend upon,
manufactures for their support ; and they supply
the materials of that commerce for which the
United Kingdom is so peculiarly distinguished ;
and which extends to, civilises, and enriches
almost every country of the globe.
There are no returns from which the actual
produce of the manufactures of the United
Kingdom can be ascertflined; but the magnitude
of this industrial activity maj' be measured, to
some degree, by the exports sent to foreign coun-
tries. These, in all probability, embrace not more
than half the actual i)roduce, the other half being
retained for home consumption. There are live
principal articles of export, namely, cotton manu-
factures ; woollen ditto ; metals, chiefly iron and
steel ; linen manufactures ; and haberdashery and
inillincrv. The total value of these manufactures
Arltctcri F.x|iortiKl
1. Cotton ninniifiicturns:
Piece KOdds, white or |)lnin .
Do. priiit(!d,elieeked,or(lyiHl
! Do. of other kinds .
( Cotton yam ....
I Total of cotton manufactures
I 2. Woo'len nnd worsted m;inn-
factiires :
ClntliH, coatiiiff.'i, &o., un- )
nilxcil and iiiixe<l . f
Flnnncls, blankets, blanket- I
U\i!. and baizes . . )
WorstiHl Ktuflfs, iiinnixcd and [
mixed. ... J
Carpels mill drajfifets .
Of all other sorts . . .
Total of woollen and woryted )
uianufuctures . . |
.3. Metals:
Iron, pip nnd puddled .
„ bar, aiiKle, bolt, and rod
„ railroad, of all sorts .
„ wire ....
„ cast ....
„ hoops, sheet and boiler I
plates . . J j
wroiiplit, of nil sorts .
„ old, for re-niaimfiicture
„ steel, iinwrouglit .
Total of iron and steel .
4. Linen maiinfnctures :
White or plain, damask, &c.
Printed, eliccked, or dyed
Sailcloth ....
Of other aorta
Total of linen manufactures
6. Haberdashery and millinery
ISC'}
1803
lfi,21(;,3!)!l W.'.MII.ISI
12,34(1,(1(171 14.-.':,ii,iKi|
I ,i»8(i,-.'(i:i I ,ss;/ .•,■>:,
(i,202,21() 8,ll|!);!).vi!
3«,7.'.0,971
47,44:),!l(it
4,425,1 -Ji; 4,nn«,()i2
1,388,5!)2: 1,411,W)'
0,881,780 8,3:';,7;':i
(!71,-.'15 8lo,:i|;i
781,71.1 !)(,;i,*.i
i
13,148,431
1,203,011
2,250,!ill I'
2,817,877
3l4,8!l.v'
074,142
1,318,917,
1,937,317^
98,4(141
848,933'
l'>,51«,8|;>i
I,'.'!m;,:1(;i
2,"iiiii,-.':;;i
3,-.'llii,:i|l)'
3:iil,DS;i
7-ii',:''i:i
l,(182,tl8.V
2,171,111):
51.(114
935,U(M1
11,.3(15,150! 13,111,477
4,192,359
200.(1(15!
258,078:
482,834!
5,:i-.'!l,lii|'
•.'ill.-.'il'i
08s,iiilii
0,133,936 6,5U!»,'jro!
3,573,(122 4.3C-.>,:!l!l
The following estimates represent the approxi-
mate value of Hritish manufactures in 1840, m
drawn ftom property assessment and custoni-himsi;
returns : —
£
Cotton . . . .
35,o(iii,nnr)
Woollen . . . .
2(1,000,(100
Iron nnd Hardware .
22,(W0,OOil
Watches, Jewellery, &o. .
. ' ;i,(ioo,oiio
Leather . . . .
13,<50ll,lllill
Linen
8,11011,0011
Silk
10,0110,1)00
(rlass and Earthenware
4,250,000
Paper
2.500,000
Hats
2,000,000
Comparing these figures with the preecrtins'
table, and admitting the value of total export.s of
each article as amounting to about one-half the
actual prislnce, it will be found that the manu-
facturing industry of the United Kingdom has
progressed somewhat unequally in the course of ii
quarter of a century. While some brimclics nl"
industry, such as the making of cotton goods, hnvc
apparently more than doubled, others have grown
but little. However, the estimates of maiiiil'ac-
tnres in 1840 ore very vague, and may be wide ni'
the mark. But they exhibit, if nothing else, the viw
extent and importance of British manufacture.^. Ii
would be desirable, on many accounts, to he alilc
to separate the sums mentioned above as coiisti-
tutmg the gross annual value of the principal
manufactures into tlieir constituent parts, thai
is, to show how much of the total value ef any
branch of mam
(luce, or of the
manufacture en-
xists of th(! wii
eiice, and how i
tear of capital,
next to imjiossil
care and circut
falling into the
eessary also to i
always required
the gross value (
the addition real
wealth of the
trross annual val
to be about iJ(),(l
into the greates
posed, as is comn
niial addition of t
of the couutrv,
nearly a half, 'or
of the value of t
liritish wo(d, whii
of the whole, beiii
mate of tlic aiiiiiu
be reckoned lwic(
the estinialc of tli
factiirc. The sat
almost every case
leiiiled to, 'none
fereiices iiucd he In
('oinparingthetfl
one. giving the val
bread-stiiffjitwillb
manufactures alone
of food derived /ni
imports of corn int
year 1802, were of
the totiil exports of
to .S(i,7;JO,<>71/. T
year, there having
tlie next annual ]i
result, ill the vea
corn imports aniom
exports of cotton ma
The statistics of tli
whole, a fair avcnig
as sucii may be tak
filiations on the m
United Kingdom.
The progress mad
factures, since tlie in
quite unprecedented
"I irim produced ii
•""liposed to ha\-e e
wit the ap|)licatioii
"1 iron having soon
tlie maimfacturc bcfj
pnirtucein 1788 bein
l;!)ti at 125,000 t(,iis
Nnce this last ineiit
the iron trade has
plated, thei\! were in
iron produc(!d in the
MOW become of the V(
■' employed with the
"iiys for which it w;
Wat all suitable, sue]
And it is to the ciic.i
supply „f ir„i,, -Ls n„i
'Ijefuperiorityofoiiri
"' most brai'iciies of
a-'criijcd.
Hut the progress o
factiire, since 17(10,
wtraonUnary pheiioi
^"sfy. in 17(;4 ih^
a,-J!)ii,;ii!r
1i-i;2ra
/il.iiU
) 5,3l>!l,llM'
i\ H'.'7,!i;s
jircccilin;;
exportmil'
lic-hair the
f the iiiaim-
lijTdom liiis
Icoiirse (if II
T)raiu;hes ul'
piive fjrowii
f niamilk-
I be wide nl'
Jl»e,tlicva.-t
Ifaotiirf!'. 1 1
\ to lie alile
as cnibti-
le |)riiicil«'l
I]iart8, tliiii
line t'f m>y
nRiTiyii
hriiiifli (if mnniil'iiotun! is made up of raw (mi-
(liicc, (ir of the vftliic of hoiiu! otli(^r lirniicli of
niniiiifai^tiiri* cnilxidicil in it, and liow iniich (.'(in-
difttx of tli(! wa^'cM of labour mid HUiHiriiitciid-
ciit'c, and )iow inucb of Ibc iirotits and wear and
tear of onjiita). lint to do tbis is, in many cascn, [
ni'xt to irn|iimHible ; and in nil cascM, tbe f;rc'HtPMt, i
can^ and I'lri'innspcction ar« rc(inir('d to avoid |
falling into tlid must sorious errors. It is nc- |
ccssary also to obscrvo, tbat considcrabli! ttarti is
ftlways rc'(|nired in ilrawin^ fom-lnsions from
the j^ross valni' of any niannfacturo, in rc^^anl to
tliu addition really inad(! by it to tin- n^f,T('^rnto
woaltb of tliu country. 'I'lins, ass<iniini; tbn
(;mss aiuiual value of tlic woollen manufactiiru
til be about il(»,(l( 1(1,0(10/. ft year, wo slionld fall
into tbe (greatest inia^^inable error, if we snp-
IKisrd, ns is commonly done, tbat it made an an-
nual addition of tbat amount to tbe ^ross jiroduce
of tbe country. Of tbis sum of !((),( 100,000/.,
nearly a balf, or about ir),()()(),00((/., may consist
(if tbe value of tbe wool ; and tlic value of tbe
ISritisb wool, wbicb is by far tbe lar;;est portion
iif tbe wliole, beini; already iiududed in tbe esti-
mate of tbe annual iiroduce of atjriciilture, would
1)0 reckoned twice over were it also incbided in
the estimate of tbe prodnce of tbe woollen mnnu-
tk^ture. Tbe same caution must be used in
nlmiist every case; and unless it be carefully at-
Iciuled to, none lint tbe must misleading in-
I'ereiices need be looked for.
(Joniparinp tbe table of exports witli tbe presoding
one. iiivinj; tbe value of tbe imports of corn anil
kcad-stntf,it will be seen tbat tbe exports of cotton
ninnufactiircs alone more tban pav for tbe supply
(if 1(10(1 derived frotn forei<;n nations. Tbe total
imports of corn into tbe United Kiuju^dom, in tbe
year 1H(J2, were of tbe value of ;J7,772,104/., wliile
the total exports of cotton manufactures amonntcd
to 3(i,7.jO,!»71/. Tbis wa« a very unfavourable
yoar, tliere liaving been a deficient harvest; niul
the next annual jieriod showed a very different
result. In tbe year 18G3, the total value of the
com imports amounted to '25,9,").'j,itH!)/,, while the
oxiKirts of cotton manufactures reached 47,443,'J(!t/,
The statistics of tbe latter year showed, on the
whole, a fair averajte of imports and exports, and
as such may be tnki'.n as a basis for further cal-
culations on tbe manufacturing industry of the
United Kingdom.
The progress made by Great Britain in manu-
factures, since the niiiblle of last century, has been
(luite unprecedented. At that period the quantity
(if iron proihiced iiv iMigland and Wales is not
suiilMised to have exceeded 18,000 tons a year;
hilt the a])|ilicati(in of iiit-coal to the jffodiiction
(if iron having soon after become pretty general,
the maimfacturc began gradually to increase, tbe
])ni(luce in 1788 being estimated at 08,000 tons, in
1790 at 12i),000 tons, and in 180() at 2r30,000 tons.
Since this last mentioned period, the progress of
the iron trade has been such th.at, as already
stilted, there were not less than iJ,'.t4;{,4()!* tons of
iron produced in the year I8(i"2. The business has
now become of the very highest importance. Iron
is employed with tbe greatest advaiitjige in many
ways for which it was formerly sii[iiiosed not to
lK;at all suitable, such as the construction of ships.
Ami it is to the cheapness and abundance of our
Mipply of iron, as miicb as to anything else, that
the superiority of our machinery, and consequently
iif most branches of our manufactures, is to be
ibcribed.
Hut tbe progress of tbe British cotton manii-
fiictiire, sHice 17liO, is iindoulitedly tbe most
ixtraonUnary phenomenon in the history of in-
dustry. Ill 17()4 the cdiisuinplioii of raw cotton
EMPIKK .V)3
did not amount to 4 million llw,, whereas the
iin|M»rts, in the year I8(»:t, reached i'i.078, |-.'2 cwl..
valued at .■)(i,277,!).'»!t/. It is diHiciilt to give any
very satisfactory explanation of tbis asloiiishing
progress. Much, no doubt, must be ascribed to
the intlnence of tbe gcni-ral causes already speci-
lied, but much also has been owing to what may
\h' called accidental circiiinstiinces. The cotton
mannfucture may, in fact, be said to be wholly the
result of the inventions and discoveries of Ilar-
greaves, Arkwrigbt. Watt. Croinpton, and a few
other Kiiglislnnen which gave to tbe coiintry tbat
|)rior!ty and e.irly superiority in tbe mamifacture,
wbicb a favourable situation in other respects has
(>iiabled her to mniiitain. It is seldom an easy
inatler for new rivals lo come into snccessfiil
compeiition with those who have already attained
to coiisiih'rable iiroticieiicy in any art or manu-
facture ; ami they rarely succeed, unless tbey have
some very material advantage on their side. But
in this instance, besides having tbe start of
foreigners, tbe natural and moral circiimstaiK^es
iiii'ier which British niaiml'actiirers have been
iilaccd liiive given them advantages not enjoyed
in anythiiii,' like tlie same degree by the manni'ac-
tiirers of any other ciuiiitrv. Were niiv change or
revolution ellecfeil in inacliinery tbat slionld admit
of coal being advantageously {lis|)eiiseil with, it is
ditliciilt to say what etlcct it might have in the.
long run on British niannfactiires. While, bow-
ever, coal continues to be as indispensable in
industrious undertakings as at iireseiit, and while
the kingdom retains her free institutions, there is
but little ground for supposing that her maniifae-
tiiring prosperity will be impaired. On tbe contrary,
it is reasonable to cx|ieet, seeing the incn-asing
wealth of foreign customers, tbe greater competi-
tion at home and abroad, and tbe greater att ^ntiou
paid to scientific investigatitms, that it will go on
increasing, and that the discoveries and progress
to be made in the next age will surpass tliose
made in the present, wimdcrfnl as they bavel>eon.
Commerce. — Neither the comment! of Tyre or
Carthago in antiquity, nor that of Italy in the
middle ages, nor of Ilolland in the 17th century,
coubl compare, for tbe variety and value of the
products which it distributes, and the all but nii-
limited range which it embraces, to tbe existing
commerce of England. British jiroducts are found
in every country, and tbe British flag floats over
every sea. And as all commerce is based on a
principle of reciprocity, and is sure to stimiilatn
the industry and to add to the wealth of all who
engage in it, it m.iy safely be affirmed, that while
tbe people of Britain arc piirsning only their
own interests, tbey are contributing in tbe most,
effei^tnal manner to dill'iise the lilessings of civili-
sation, and a taste for luxury and refinement. It
is impossible, indeed, to overrate the beneficial
influence of that commerce of which the United
Kingdom is tbe (!entrc a'ld niaiiispring. No on;;
aware of its vast extent can have the smallest
doubt tbat it is by far the most important means
of civilisation aiKl improvement ever brought into
active operation. And it may be concluded, tbat
instead of liavhig ap|iroacbed its zenith, it will
CAiiitinue to increase with the increasing wealth,
and consiMpiently growing wants, of the various
nations it is now rousing to activity and eiiter-
iirise ; and that it will derive new vigour, and have
its foundations widened and consolilatod. byeverv'
circumstance cab'iilated to iironmte tbe industry
and to add to tbe riches of tbe nations of tbe earth.
I'bilosopbically sjieaking, iill organised society
resolves itself into a series of excbangt^s; every
individual is in some sort a merchant ; and tbe prin-
cipal business of life consists in the exchange of
A.') t
BRITISH EMPIRE
one Wirt of wn-ico or nrliclo for nnoHior. IIpiu'c
ill nil coiintricH the merciiiitilv iransactionHciirrii'il
on nt lionic, or in the home tniile, intlnittily px-
(!c<>(l ill niiinlii'r and viiliiit tlioxn carried on with
lorci/iiiors, or in th« forfii/ii tradr, 'I'he latter,
however, is not on that aceoiiiit the less iin)iortMiit
or vuliinhle. lint, tor llu; intereoiirHe eiirried on
with loreiKiiers (Ireat Jtritain would Imi wliollv
destitute of nianv most desiral)k! prmlnets — siieh
n.H tea, colVee, wine, the preeioim metals, ite., as
well as of the raw material of many most impor-
taiit nmniifiictiires, inchidiiiK those of cotton and
silk. (Jeiierully, loo, nmniifaeliiresnre improved and
perfeeted aceordinj; to the sealti on whieh they are
earri(^d on ; so that an extensive eommereu is nt
once a (:oiisei|uenee and a eniise of maniil'aeliiriiif;
|>re-einiiienee. The cotton mills of Lancashire
and Lanarkshire could not have l>een constructed
had the demand for their imxliu'c lieen contiiied
to the em))ire only : they have not heen hiiilt to
sii|)ply the limitcil consumption of (ircat Hritain
and rrelaiul, but the unlimited consumption uf the
world.
It is impossible to form any estimate of the
extent of the home trade carried on in any ^ifreat
country, or of the exchaiif,'es efl'ccted amongst its
citizens. Kormerly, accurate accounts were kej)t
of the cross-channel trade between tireat Itritain
and Irelanil; but, with the excei>tion of corn, no
otticial account is now kept of the iiroducts con-
veyed from the one to the other. However, this is
not (he case with the trade with foreijjn countries.
Duties heiiif^ laid on most articles imported from
abroad, it is necessary for liscal purposes that their
umonntshuiild be ascertained with as much accuracy
as jiossible ; and it is believed that the ileclarations
of the real value of the exports made by the
exporters do not ditfcr materially from the truth.
The trade carried on witli coUmies, or the
colonial trade, thoiif^h conducted under diti'crent
regulations and duties, is substantially the same
•with the foreifjn trade; and may be, and indeed
generallv is, considered as a branch of the latter.
iSiibJoined are a few (j;eneral statements re-
gpectiiifr the jirineipal articles imported irom and
ex])orted to the c./iintries isitli which the United
Kiiij:;dom has the j^rcatest intercourse.
Hiissiii — Imports from : — Tallow, com, tlax and
hemp, tlax aJid linseed, timber, bristles, ashes,
liides, iron, and wax. Exports to: — t'otton twist,
woollen fabrics, salt, coal, hardware, colonial
products, Jl'C.
StfvdtH and Nortfmj — Imports from : — Timber,
iron and bark. Exports to: — Cottons and cotton
yam, woollens, earthenware, hardware, coftee, iu-
ilifjo, tobacco, siif^ar, iVc.
Denmark — Imports from :— Com and rape-seed,
butter, bristles, wool, hides, and bark. Exports
to: — Coal, salt, iron anil steel, earthenware,
machinery, cofl'ee, itidif:;o, &c,
rinssin — Imports from :— Com, oak and tir tim-
ber, bark, bristles, wool, spelter, Hax, Ac. Ex[iorts
to: — Itclined sugar, salt, cottons, hardware, earth-
enware, &c. t)ur trade with I'nissia is principally
carried on through Hamburgh.
Uennaiiy — Imports from : — Wool, com, wines,
butter, linens, hides, clover, raiic-seed, smalt/,
sjieltcr, zaftre, furs, wooden clocks, &c. Exports
to: — Cotton stiitls ami yam, woollens, relined
sugar, hardware, earthenware, iron and steel, coal,
salt, indigo, coifee, rum, tobacco, cotton wool,
spices, itc. A good deal of the im|iort8 from and
exports to Holland and lielgiuin arc on (jcrraan
account.
Netherlands — Im))orts from: — Butter, cheese,
corn, niadckr, g(!neva, tlax and tow, hides, linens,
seeds, toys, Ac. Exports to; — Cotton stutfs anil
yarn, woollenn, hnnlwaro, earthenware, Halt, cnal
and colonial produce. '
I-'ritnee — Imporis from: — nrandy, wine, niik
(raw and manufactured), gloves, liiadder, e;;i;s
skins, and fruit, Ex|M>rts to: — VVoid, liiieiiN ami
linen yam, brans and copjK'r mamifaciures. nia-
chinery, coal, horses, Ac. Large qiiaiiliiieN of
Nottingham lace are smuggled into Kraiice, niul
brandy iiilo Kngland.
J'ortiii/at and S/ttiin — Imports from : — Port niid
sherry wines, barilla, wool, raisins, dried fmiis
lemons, oranges, olive oil, quicksilver, Ac, Ex-
ports to: — Cotton sliitTs, woollens, liiu'iis, liiinl-
ware and cutlery, iron and steel, soap, caiidles
leather, and cinnamon.
Itali/ — lm|iorts from : — Thrown silk, olive oil,
straw for plaiting, straw pliiit and hats, ciirraiils'
lemons, oranges, wine, liarilla, shiiniac, bark,
cheese, lamb-skins, liein|), *c. l^xporls to; —
Cotton sliiIVs and yarn, relined sugar, woollen
manufactures, hardware and cutlery, iron and
steel, coffee, indigo, tobacco, pimento', Ac,
Tiirkei/, Greece, if-e. — Imporis from: — Silk,
opium, madder, liga, raisins, vnlonca, oil, cotion,
currants, senna, Ac, Exports to: — Cotton maiiii-
factiires and twist, linens, hardware, iron and steel,
cordage, woollens, earthenware, indigo, and coffee.
Eijyjit and AJ'riea — Imports from : — Cotton wool,
flax) linseed, senna and other drugs. Exports
to: — Cotton manufactures, iron and steel, arms
and ammunition, and machinery.
FtrreUjn fFent Indies — Imports from: — Sugar,
coffee, cotton, cigars, Ac. Exports to: — Coitoii
manufactures, earthenware, linen nianiifaeliireii,
hardware, iron and steel, woollens, glass, maclii-
nerv, Ac.
United States — Imports from : — Cotton, tobacco,
wheat Hour, wheat, rice, maize, skins and fur<.
hides, staves, Ac. Exports to :— Cotton, linen,
and woollen magnfactiires, hardware, cutlery,
earthenware, salt, brass, and copper, apparel, books,
Ac. •
South American States — Imports from : — Cottnii
wool, sugar, coffee, bullion and precious stones,
cocoa, hides, fruits, bark, dye-woods, furs, &e.
Exports to: — Cotton, linen, and woollen inaim-
factiires, earthenware, hardware, soap, candles, &e.
African British Colonies — Imports from— Cajie
and Constantia wines, hides, ivory, skins, aliH'.s
palm-oil, teak, timber, wax, dye-woods, su^jar
from the Mauritius, Ac. Exjiorts to: — Cotton,
woollen, and linen manufactures, apparel, enrilicn-
ware, hardware, iron and steel, soap, candles, sta-
tionerj-, lire-arms, salt, machinen", Ac.
Asia and Australia — Imports iVom : — Tea, wool,
indigo, cotton, sugar, silk, coffee, ])epper,saltiictri',
piece-goods, rice, lac-dye, cinnamon, mace, dovps,
cocoa-nut-oil, whale-oil, ivorj', tin, and tlic pre-
cious metals. ExjMirts to: — Cotton stuffs niiil
yarn, woollens, linens, earthenware, cop|)er, linril-
ware, iron and steel, leather, glass, machinery, in:
American British Colonies — Imports from :—
Timber, furs, tish. corn, ashes, skins, tiirpenliiip,
&c. Exports to : — Woollens, cottons, linens, hard-
ware, iron and steel, soaj), cnndles, earthenware,
apparel, glass, cordage, coal, butter, cheese, A'c.
British West Indies — Imports from: — Siijjar,
coffee, rum, cotton, pimento, molasses, nialiogan,v,
logwood, fustic, cocoa, cochineal, ginger, liiili'.<,
Ac. Exports to : — Cotton stuffs, linens, woollens
apparel, soap, candles, hardware, iron ami steel,
lish, eartherware, cordage, beef and pork, arms
and ammunition.
The declared real value of the total imports ami
exports of merchandise into and from the L'liiteil
Kingdom for the years iS&l and l«ti3 is alwwii
in tile following tdllc • —
I
I Imports . ,
I f Tlrltlsh 1
Exiwrts ] t'oreiKii
( Coloiil
! Total Kxport
Total of Imiwrl
ExiKirta . ,
The various co
amoii^' them the i
(liiin III the follow
»ii<l mv.i. The \
rciiirns of the Hon
are placed in the
liiirlaiicc in the yei
Vai
Ilritish rossossions :
India
Driiish North Ami
Australia
West liiiliii Islands
CV,vloii
Italiaiiins. ,
Mauritius
Ca)M! ami Xntal
Siii(faporo
Uritihli Oiiiniin
lloiiKkoii);
BeriiitiiliLS
Clianiicl Islaiuis
Deliiiu .
luiiiim iHlaiuls
Western Al'ricii
Malta .
, Oihraltnr
I Fulklaiid lalauds
I St. lluleiiu
j Aden
j Ueliguluiid
j Total of British I
' France
i Vidtwl States .
Gerninny :—
i llauso Towns .
I Prussia .
! Muoklciiburg .
' Hanover
I Oldenburjf
! Total of Gcmiaiiy
Cliiiia
Itiissiii
Ketliorlanda
'fiu'licy
lit'lgiuai . . [
!<|)nin
FmijriiAVi.st Indies'
lirazil
■Swwion and Norway'
Peru ....
Portugal .
D'uniiu-k .
Mexico
Cliili . . . .'
ttCstcni Al'iica !
I'liilippiuo Islands .
Jii|iau
Ar(,'entino Itcpu'hlic '.
I'nitfuay .
(irceco
BRITISH EMPIRE
r>u5
1803
t«as
«
24H,!)sn,D42
Iiii])<)rt8 . . 1 .
821,71(1,070
Tlrltlsli rrndiicu
ExiwrtH I'diTiKii iiiiU 1
( Coloiiiiil • j
l-.';i,!M('.',-.'l!l
42,17.'i,S7U
i<in,iiiK,t;i4
aill,.S83,ltO
14(l,l.s!»,7liH
4»,4H,'i,U0:>
Total KxporU .
10«,O74,77i«
Total of ImiwrtH ami )
i;xiM)rt» ... )
444,lt.'ir.,7l.')
Till! vnrious countries of tlio world ilividcil
among tlioin tlio. iinport.s into tint United Kinf;-
iliiin ni tlie lollowing manner in the years \H{\-J>
and ind.'l. The vuhic j^iven is after I lit! ollieial
rci urns of the Konrd of Trade; but the eonntries
art> |iiue(!d in the order of their coninierciai iin-
l«irtance in the year 1H(!3.
Vai.uk ov Impouts.
18(1!)
1803
Ilritish rosscHsloiiB : —
A
A
India ....
JM.Kl.l/i-il
4S.4;14,.';i7
Ilriiish North America .
H,41l!l,:llt:l
s.iii.'i.ddo
Australia
7,I(I!I,NII!)
7,l(i(i,(i:lS
West liiiliu iHlands .
4,1S(),S70
!l,!l!IH,:iri4
t'oylon ....
2,1SH,-J(i2
;i,7oo,,s(iii
Bidiamaa.
4<i:i,i»7-.>
2,2S2.7i:i
Mauritius
lMi7,714
l,!l.S(l,27(>
(,'ii|M! anil Nntal
1,.M7.,s.-,|
l.!M!»,H4:l
Siupiiioro
'i,;i7.1,SI:t
1,H:|(),;)22
Uritis-U (hilana
!,;.(> l.iV|:|
l,.'il(t,:,()0
llouKkonif
ir.4,7-.'l
l,2S«,!t(»7
Boriuudas
7H.li42
H2(l,:ll4
t'liftuuel Islands
(i4r>,.S()l
»i4H,ri(IS
Ik'lizu ....
2!»!»,74(i
2!W,017
1 Ionian Islands
H^K.'jril
l!t2,«7!)
i WystiTu Africa
2;l4,774
lit 1.207
; Malta ....
lI(),Hl!t
ir.2.Wi2
1 Gibraltar
ill Mi
(l!»,i;)0
1 Falkland Islands .
2(l,l:il
17.114
1 St. Helena .
, 2,424
l(i,2ri.') 1
Allen ....
;>;)
2,11«:) 1
Ai-conslon
1
12
Uoligolaiul
Total of British Toss. .
! Franco ....
0G8
84,G9!),72()
fi.-),28:),2.n
21.(!7r.,.1I«
24.024,(iH) 1
i United States .
27,7ir>,iri7
l!t,-'i70,Sir,
ligjpt . . . .
I2,22r>,7«;t
l(i,4!t'>,r.;n
Gernmny :—
— -
— —
; lliuisc Towns .
f>,!».'.7,2(in
(i,!llfi,213
j Prussia ....
7,.s;!:l,»27
«,2:il,717
Mecklenburg .
2II(»,!)77
2 lit, mis
' lliniover . .
27(i,2:.3
18!t,(;4:l
OlUonbrng
1 Total of Germany
China . . . .
2(l,9i-i2
:M,«r.«
14,:14!»,:)(I!)
l:i,.'.91,734
11.1)S2.:174
12,nO(!.(!42
Uussia . . . ■
K.,101. (».'.!)
12,41!t.!M()
Netherlands
7,Hli;l,0:ll
«,(!(iO,278
Turkey . . . ■.
,'>,02U,474
ri,()2.'),ri4')
Uclgiuni ....
4,S7Ci,212
r>,17t,221 i
Spain ....
;i,n:!i,i!n
r),070.8:)8
Foreign Vr est Indies
4,):!!>,rd(;
4..")S0,(;(i:)
Brazil ....
4.414, 1.S7
4,491, (ion
Sweden and Norway
;),,SUt.l,S!)
4,4(;:;,2I2
IVni
2,:i!t4,i)ll2
:i,-')(i">,:i28
Portugal ....
2,4(14,212
2,(i72,7:l2
IXnnuirk ....
2,1 (!">,(> to
2,42(l,.M:l
Italy
2,r>l>7.:!.Vt
2,:i.->r.,r,H;(
Mexico ....
(illt.odS
2,294,:):17
Chili
2,,S(i:!,4:U
2,2S8,8(i:l
Wi'stcrn Afiica
1,7I!»,S(M
1,412,284
I'hilippiue Islands .
70S,,S(i(!
1,:192,19S
Jn|iim . . . .
fi!i|..ssr)
l,2S:!,(i;!l
Ai(;entiuc Ucpulilic .
i,r;:t,(i7i
l,2:i9,(i:.|
Cniguay . . . .
!l!l2,:i2S
1,220,(129
Cireece . . . .
7a7,&tiS
9811,4^9
VAt.uB or
iMPnllTH.
18(«
lK(n
Anstrian Territories
« 1,1 79,8 14
JEH79,4.'.7
New (iniMiida .
811,:104
771,111
("eiitcal America . .
492.:UO
4s.-|,!'iM
Alnrtieeo ....
4:i 1,071
427,8;l4
Ilii\(i and Kan l)oniin(;o .
l.M,719
2711,010
Bolivia ....
:i 1 1 ,IIM2
2.'.9.1!I0
h'reneli I'osHc.aKlonH In India
Itl(;,l7(i
117,0110
Algeria ....
47,2(14
101,204
Northern Whale I'isliery .
102,(12:1
72,1198
r.cpnulor ....
9."i,02:l
(18,0(18
Ilorneo ....
112,212
4.'.,."p.').'>
KaMcrn Africa .
—
;t4,|u.'i
rer-inn (lult . ,
!ini
111,001
Venezuela ....
9,:!!t7
211,707
■lava
l»(i,02ll
22,417
Siaiii
;i7,N2t
20,710
rneiflc I.slands .
lil.d.'lil
19,907
Tunis ....
1 ..M^.'
10,1114
ralugoida.
2,200
2,2:. 1
I'ap.d Torts
9.-.7
1,099
Anil)ia ....
—
2
Tripoli
0,078
—
iVT.-ia ....
j
—
1 Total
22r,,71(l,P7«
248,980,942
The value of imports into tlie United Kiiiji^dom
inereii.sedfrom2l7,4H."),(l2l/.in l><til.to-24M,!t.s(),iM-.'/.
in l.s(i,'t, showini; a dilferenee of ."il. i'.i'),!'IH/. Tlie
whole of tiiis inereiwe was in Cidoniul prodiu'e,
the au^inentiUion of which in the two vcjirs was
;(2,(II7,71(I/. First in tlie list of foreij^n importers,
in the jdaee formerly occupied hy the United
Slates, stands FrancH-, which, in the year isii;!,
fiannl in the people of (Jreat Jtritain custoiiu-rs for
the i)rodnets of her industry to tlieannuint of more,
thiin 2 l,OIMt,l)lM) sterlinj;, or aliont a tenlli part of
the entire total we take fron) all the countries of
the wtu'td. Next comes K;vypt, which in tho
course of a few years has douhiedher import trado
with the United Kingdom. Turkey, although
she is lower in the list, likewise continues to nnike
progress. From Japan the imixirts more than
douhled in iKtill, compared with the preceding
year. Among the remaining comitries, the (irin-
cipnl of I ho.se which present an increase are(.;hina,
the Netherlands, Uelginm, Sweden, Portuf^nl,
Denmark, the l'hili|)pine Islands, the Argentine
K'epuhlic, Uruguay, Greece, and llayti. Those
showing a decrea.sc are (iermnny, Kus.sin, Italj",
Western Africa, New Uranada, and IJolivia.
The exports of ISritish prodin-e during the years
18(i'2 and 18(13 were divided between the following;
IJritish po.ssessi(nis and foreif^n coimtries. The
returns arc those of the lioanl of Trad<! ; liut the
cmnitrics are arranged in the order of their im-
jiortancB as buyers of Britisli produce.
VALUR op EXPOIITS.
18G?
18(33
British Posses-^ions : —
e
A
India ....
14,017,07,1
19,99.-.,0.-.7
Anstr.alasia
1 1 ,944,.'->O0
12,f>00,illl4
Briti.-li North America .
Il,9'l|,010
4,819,0110
West Indies .
2.:!01,917
2,0110,104
^;iiigni.oro
1,004,081
1,480,8111
llongkcjiig
1,1111,224
1,4711,4111
(iibriiltar
990,911!
1,207,911
Cape of Good lloiK!
I,(i.-.I,.'-.1U
1,2110,">18
Ceylon ....
.'i7H,9:t8
1,070,02.1
("linnncl Islands
8r>l,.M8
800,210
Malta ....
4112,7111
0211,144
Heruuida
2l8,8.'i9
012,442
Mauritius
.M!).8(18
f)21,8;18
(iniiina ....
4 SI, 2:, I
,';iit,:i.'i7
Ionian Lislnnds
282,1149
40.1,177
Western Africa
1149,01!»
;i28,.'i.11!
Katal^ ....
240,202
281,982
656
BRITISH liMl'IKE
•
MM
1863
Urltl"h I'oKii. continued;—
A
£
lloiiiliiriM . . •
]0H,V73
l)ltl,0(l2
^ilcil ....
47,;oi
4.-.,ol7
Ht. llclpna
4II,M-J
aii,.'i4A ;
I'liirriiria
ai),A17
11,851 I
FalkliUKi iHlamU . .
1»,7HI
ii.aoa
AMI'llHiull
li,4ir>
7,03(1
Lnhimii ....
4,tll>4
1
llullguland . . ■
Totttl of nrltUh I'OM. .
Uiilte.1 Stnteg . . ■ .
IIA
6o,oiD,aM :
4l,8Mft,1140
H,;W7,M7»»
iA,:i.'>l,ii2((
(icriiiiuiy : -
—
llaiiHu Towns .
0,74n.!lim
10,OUA,012
I'nishia ....
!/,(t4.'.,()79
l,oio,))m)
lliiiiiivrr.
7.'.H,:iy4
6«8,4',»7
Mcokloiiburg .
H1,H4I
72,fil7
Uliifiiburi; . .
4I»,710
f)4,8i(8
Total of Germany .
vifiihflm
111,278,334
Franco . . . .
i),aoi),a(i7
8,fl(l7,l(l2
Ni'thorlaiuls
(l,lM(l,'.M-.>
6,317,545
Turkc'y ....
4,244 ,8«r.
«,88l,4:i8
Italy, uxclml. Human .StatoH
r.,iP.-.(i,lt2!»
5,003,233
KKypt . . . .
a,iiir,,i»H2
4,410,240
Jlra/.il . . . .
»,7iir>,7HI
3,004,557
Spain . . . .
a,OII(),IH)H
3,033,151
Fon-iKn West Indies
a,ll74,4-J«
2,057,704 ,
Uiissia ....
a,ii78,«;w
2,701,040
I'liina ....
•J,(Ci4,118
2,412,058
Portugal ....
l,fi7(>,!»()4
2,382,043 i
lielgium ....
l,H-JH,(i2i
2,100,234 1
Mexico ....
7/17, H'^H
1,077,022 1
New Uranada . . .',
7Ka,10A
1,570,002 '
Cliili
WAM'i
1,433,110
Argentine Republic .
8.'>4,*ii:i
1,331,138
I'eru
824,685
1,027,950
llcim\ark ....
1(41,771
1 ,(M)5,321
Austrian Territories.
787,0.58
1,002,307
Western Africa .
1»:)9,208
055,238
Java
77«,fi«4
052,029
Swollen ....
«o;),oi3
005,591
Norway ....
50ti,U&9
568,149
riiilippinc Islands .
4.'.8.404
550,803
UriiKuny ....
45a,7i)0
fi;i4,741
llayti and St. Domingo .
473,4(10
62H,9(»4
Venezuela ....
'in,mh
389,301
Greece ....
'H»,i-a
341,091
Morocco ....
)fl5,iafl
174,.'550
Islands in the raclflo
24,402
141,119
Central America
10U,a7(!
140,799
■Tnpnn ....
21
108,807
Cocliin-China .
247
30,597
Papal Ports on Jleditcr. .
4B,!)»1
27,005
<lai)C Verde Islands .
18,487
20,522
Eastern Africa .
24,2a5
15,289
Madagascar
—
13,08>1
Siam
21,007
11.958
Algeria ....
4(i,2.')3
11,732
Kquador ....
1,076
9,878
Portuguese Poss. in India
—
7,211
Tunis ....
l,3.-.8
4,924
Arabia, Native Territories
—
1,189
Northern Whale Fishery .
IfiO
23
Persia ....
22,f.I7
—
Paraguay ....
l,7ti4
—
Bolivia ....
Total .
004
—
123,!)U2,2(>4
140,489,708
It will be seen from the preceding table that
the three best ciistomers of Grent liritain iu the
year 18(i3, were India, the' United States, and
(lennany. In the total exi)(irt8 of Hritish and
Irish produce there was an increase of 18 jierccnt.
in 18()3, compared with that of the preceding
year. The increase was chieHy due to the largely
niigmcnted shiiimenta to liritish possessions,
which took about 51,000,000 of goods, or con-
siderably more than one-third of the sum total of
all the exports.
Tlio Huljjoined tahlex exhibit the growtli cif
Dritish commerce in the couno of the century. Tin.
flgurcN given arc itfficial value, differing, as i» well
known, greallv from real or tierlarrtl value. The
tal)leH, compiled from ofHcinl returns, give the
value of the Uitnl import and export trnile nf
(ireat Hritain willi foreign countries ami llritisli
IHiHsessions abroad, arranged under triciniial
periods.
TrlcnnUI Periods
Yearn ending 5 Jannary 1799
1800
1801
■}
Annual Average of the Trl
cindal P(a'i()d .
Years ending 5 Jannary 1819
1820
1821
Annual Average of the Trl- 1
ennial Period . . J
Years ending 6 Jannary 1839
1810
1841
Annual Average of the Tri- )
ounial Period . . /
Years cndingSl DceombcrlR58
1859
1800
TntAl ImiHirii Tiii«IKi|».rir
I
Official talui OIHcM nlm
25,122,203 27.317,0871
21,000,700 2'»,.'i.'ill,i;:l7
28,257,781 :i4,:iNI,iii7;
25,815,501; 30,418,1.171
.15,845,3 |fl' 52,:M,:iv,'
20,081,040 42,8(1J,|K-|
31,515.222 48,3 1.-),:)!!)!
32,.147,401| 48,001, w'
59,878,005 104.80.-.liHH.
00,;l40,(Mlli 10!t,7IH,l||l
(i5,873,411 ll(i,(i:lil,44.V
02,032,794 110,184,7ar
Annual Average of the Tri-
ennial Period . .
Years ending 31 December 1801
1802
1803
1.32,033,799 3l)5,250,fifl:i;
140,229.7.'4 334,(i:ll,.Wi
158,452,924 3.'i8,8(i.'.,5Cfii
J ,143,772,159 332,713,94),
Annual Average of the Tri-
ennial I'eriod . .
103,904,004 339,253,7r.7
152,813,458 291, 3,!B,441
104,240,563 312,888,774
160,339,338 3I4,4S9,fi,'i7
I
The official values here given arc no more ap-
plicable to the present moment ; nevertheless, as
they constitute the old ollicial records, they alone
can serve for comparative purposes. The rates
by which the official values are estimated wcrp
fixed in 1696, and, owing to the increase of
manufactures and the cheapening of nearly nl!
goods, they now are much above the real value,
although they at first were as much below.
The subjoined two tables give the real or rfc-
clured value of the total import and export trade
of the United Kingdom with foreign countries ami
British jiossesaions abroad, in tltc two triennial
periods 1«58-G0, and 18(il-()3.
Triennial Prrlodi
Totallmportf TutsIKsj'orti
Itfal Vttluo
Heal Vtlur
'*''■ I : 178,870,950 152,919,i(i:.
£ I £
Years ending31 December 18.-,8 159,351,301 ]39,4os,(;29
1859 173.852,015 I5:,,20l>,17":
18(!() 2(13,408,030 l«4,2;)(i,9S!l.
Arnunl Average of the Tri.
ennial Period
Years ending31 December IbOI 209,871,962 159,4(i2,10S
„ „ ,(-,2 217,773,030 l«5,95(U.i7
„ „ 1803 242,202,958 19fi,70!l,(«
Annual Avrrngo ci the Tri- ) '.,.,, .,„„ „r,n'i74 m-> 479
ennial Period . . \ ,iii,iS^fi->OUi,02.,hJ
The relative importance of the twelve princir.1l
ports of the United Kingdom in regard to tlio
value of ex|K)rtH
<li(>wn in the f
returns of the in
rx|K>rtM, made 01
imlJt. The llgun
Krilish and Irish
[Kirled Iroin the r
tries and liriiish j
18(12 and INU!) :—
Poru
Liver|)Ool ,
I.oiiilun .
Hull .
OIllKgOW
Southampton
Nownast le .
Lcith .
(Iroenoek .
Bristol
Cork .
Dublin
liolfust
Total
It will l)e seen
Uritisli exports, Li
ill Ihc ports of tl
chandise passing tl
to tliat of all the
However, the relat
the quantity of i/ii^
ijof of iiiward-bouii
iiifr, ill this respec
with that in the lo^
of page 5.50.
RtHuta and railit
communicuiion in
superior to those e
The ordinary higli
half of last cent
hecn signally impi
American war ; and
of the practice of
contidentlv pronoui
Europe. \Vith the
liclgium, no couni
canals ; and by the*
by numerous liavigi
the bulkiest articles
and cheap. It is
railroads ore destii
methods of coiiveyai
transit of passengers
valuable species of
wonderful speed wit
canriages are impel
these roads, is ami
utonishing results
cover>', liy facilitat
m\A not, a few yer
possible; rendering 1
empire easily accessil
raotcst districts ; obli
customs ; reducing tl
mass; and producing
l«tion and competiti<
communication are e
most powerful kind,
highly appreciated.
Subjoined are some
the United Kingdom
'Hand 1862.
BRITISH EMPIRE
r>67
value of PX|)ortH or IlriliHh nnd Irii«h prmlucc l»
<hi)wn in tliu followiti); tahio, ouin)iilcil from
rftiinm of the lnn|ip<'tor-f{«mrrnl of itnportH niid
PXiHirtM, mndo on Jnnu W, IHti4, and in June
[m'tX Till) ti^iirt'H cxldliit tlio <lcvliin!d vtiltut of
llriti.'*)) mid lri»li {inMliiou nnd nmnnfuctiircs I'x-
imrlt'd from tim n'HiMrtivu portii to fori>i){n I'oun-
tricM nnd Itrilisli pottHVNMiunH ubruud, in the ycum
m;i iind iHOi) :—
Porn
Kiiwrla
IStlt
I88S
X.
A
I,lvor|)ool . ,
r.n,9!»7,l:i5
flf.,lM,2M
Liiiiilun
•.\\,riT-\,n\-i
:i<i.'.'ll,.''ilo
Hull ....
ii,!tn;,;i7.'i
i:i,:).'ifi,'JM
(lliicfrow
f>,77(i,(Mm
(i,77(),;mH
Sniitlmniptun
3.:i7i».r.0!i
4,071,111)1
Newcastlo .
1,!HiH,ll8
1,WM,'J«1
Lcith ....
l,\.'!)S,(l!tl)
l,r.,V.>,K!»!)
(irccnock .
;i'j()/i'j/i
4:..'.,o2l
Bristol
*J!»H,a»()
;i41,«74
Cork ....
1:1'.M:!o
lim.io'j
Dublin
4H,777
;18,I!H1
Belfast
Total .
4,1M8
12,1141
lilO, 1(1(1 ,A*>!)
It will be seen that as regards the ralne of
liritixh exports, Liverpool xtiinds at the head of
all the ports of the United Kinplom, the mer-
chandise ])aM8in(; thron^h it beinj; equal in amount
to that of all the other eleven ports totjother.
However, the relation is very diflerent as regards
th(! quantity of thijuinntj, and especiiillv the.inmi-
bcr of inward-bound vessels. It will be interest-
iii(t, in this respect, to compare the above table
witli that in the lower part of the second column
of pa^e 559.
Koad» and railways — The means of internal
mmmunicution in (.rent llritain are probably
superior to those enjoyed by any other country.
The ordinary high roads, which, during the liwt
half of last century, were execrable, have
been signally improved since the close of the
American war; and since the general introduction
of the practice of macadamising, they may be
contiilentlv nrononnced to be the vcrv best in
Kurope. \Vith the exception of Holland nnd
Belgium, no country is better supjilied with
canals ; and by these means, and the aid afforded
by numerous navigable rivers, the conveyance of
the bulkiest articles has been rendered both easy
and cheap. It is now, however, obvious that
railroads are destined to supersede the former
methods of conveyance, in so far at least as the
transit of passengers and of the lighter and more
valuable species of goods is concerned ; and the
vondcrfid s))eed with which lengthened trains of
canriages are impelled by steam-engines along
these roads, is among the most valuable and
astonishing results of mwlem science nnd dis-
cover)', lly facilitating travelling to a degree that
could not, a few years ngo, hnve been conceiveil
liossible; rendering all the great markets of the
empire easily accessible to the products of the re-
motest districts ; obliterating local prejudices and
customs ; reducing the country to a homogeneous
mass; and producing everywhere a spirit of emu-
lation and competition, these improved means of
communication are exercising an influence of the
most powerful kind, and which cannot be too
highly appreciated.
Subjoined are some statistics of the railways ia
the United Kingdom, in each of the years 1860,
1861, and 18G2.
Rcllwiyi
llnllril
Kliifldom
CAi'rrAl.. krt, Totnl Pnid up for linns
In ciirhdlvliilrin of tliu KiiiK<lijiu to
:ilHt Dt'ct'nilHT ill ciioli yuiir.
StmruH uiiii titock ;—
Onliimry .
rrcfcrenco
IHliO
■ Mil
i IHtlU
IKllO
ISdl
inn
|!l:l
I If.'
»!7
7;i
H7
C
110,
,'.i'l,
,077,
,H7:i,
,7s».
,7l»'i
,S(I7
,!'!»l
,."iM!»
S|0
,:i:i(!
,1180
Total
(18(10 ' «"pS,(i(; 1,707
J. IMdl , •iii7,:l7(i,;l'J7
I 18(iJ •J84,HII!»,!)(1!)
Loans and Debenture Stock
18(10 8l»,t(i.|,4'.'0
IStil »t,!l-.l,(l|l
18(i« i IOO,:ll8,4(i!t
Total
(180(1
. \ 18(11
i 18U-i
800 I !llH,l:10.|-.>7
1 :i(:'J,:f.'7.;i:i8
1802 il8.'),'JI8,|:l8
Lknotii ok Lines :-
Totnl OpoiicHl f(.r trnfflo up
to yut Due. in eucii yuur
Total Passenoeiis Conveyed
OooDS Conveyed :—
General Mcrclmndiso
Minerals ....
Live Stock Conveved—
Cattle
Sheep
Figs ....
Total
Rbcfipts from Passenoeks.
ist Class : —
Total Receipts .
18(10
I Kill
18(i-i
1800
1801
180-.'
18(!()
18(;l
1802
IKOO
I SO I
1802
( 1800
\ 1801
( I8(i2
( 180(1
J 1801
{ 1802
I 1800
\ 1801
( 1802
( 1800
\ 1801
1 1802
( 1800
\ 1801
(1802
Proportion from 1st Class (1800
to Totnl Ilcclpts from -^1801
Passengers . . . ( 1802
Average per Passenger
( 1800
J iSOl
1 1802
(1860
Average per Mile of Menn J „",'
Length of ilailways . | JgJ:.^
2nd Class :—
Total Receipts
(1800
\ 1801
(1862
Proportion from 2d Class ( 1800
to Total Receipts from \ 1801
Pasiiengers . . , ( 1802
Average per Passenger .
1800
1801
1802
Average per Milo of Menn
Length of Railways
•(i
860
1801
1862
Miles
|o.i:t:l
10,80!)
11, Ml
lo;!,i8:i..-,72
17:1.77:1.218
I8II,I.S.'..727
Tons
2!l.l70,!i:ll
;io.(i;i8,K!i:i
;io,2:.o.i»i:i
0II,:18(1,7S8
(;;i,oo.»,|:;4
0:l,40.'<,8l!4
No.
2,OI(l,80.'i
2.!)2O.870
;i,0!t4.183
7,:i.-.7,r.(M!
7.!»:i:i.!t01
7,80(l,!)28
2.I()!».1!I2
2.ni.-..8.-.2
l,y8'J,8«2
12.n8:i,.'.n3
12,870,08:1
12,88.'>,(IO:i
.1,170,0.3.')
3.14:l,2")0
8,:i:!2,:W0
Per <'ciit.
27-45
2(!-7.'>
27-10
({.
so-s.i
34-42
34-72
£
313
2!).")
288
3,044,713
3,!»:i:i,ll!)
4,018,2-.'l
Per C<iit.
;u- 1 •■.
33-47
32-08
(/.
19-30
18-40
18-59
&
380
3(i8
348
MS
Ruiiwiiri
I'nllMl
KliiKidiin
artl Cliuw niHl I'urllauuMitury :
( IHOO
4,1«2,1«(r
Totul . . . . -^ IMiil
4,:iMii,7ii(i
I ISlii
4,(l.ltt,2.')0
I'lT Clllt.
rrnix)rtlnn from ;!niriiww ( lnti(l
iDl'dl
loToliil ItttvljiW from j ixiil
!l7-:i:i
I'liHi-uiiKLrb . . . I \M-2
a7-7il
il.
l(i-(l.')
I IWliO
Avcrngo per rnsscngor . J isdi
10' Id
llMti'.'
l(i-.")(l
£
AvrrnfrcporMlli'of inciin .^,!'|
407
412
401
LoiigtU of JtullwuiH . 1 ,„,,,_,
IWll)
272,807
rcrlodlcol Tlckcte . . iwil
287.828
imi
aOfi,422
nm)
11. •'..■0,0 12
ToTAi.niJCEirTsfromrAsssoiifl. \ iHiil
11.7.'o,!io:l
llHti-J
12,20.'i,27!J
noLMNO Stock:—
N>..
18(10
fi,80I
LocomotlvoB . • . •
lH(il
(1.1. '.(1
18(12
(1,I1!I8
Cnrrlnjro^ iwhJ for Convoy-
unco of riiKnoiife'L'rH only '
18(i0
18(11
18(12
1.1,07(1
14,(10!)
1S,))(10
MiLEAdK TIIAVEI.I.KI) HY TtlAlXH .—
MIIm
i8no
■12,8I(1,.170
By ruBsenRcr Trains . ■
18(11
CI,0.'..1.I7(1
18(12
r)7,.142,8.'ll
18(10
4I>,427,113
By Goods Trnins . . •
18(11
Bl ,08.1,0(14
1802
60,518,0(1(1
18(10
102,24!l,f.n2
Total . . • l«(il
10.1.141.440
18(i2
NuJiiiEU OF Tpaish :—
10H,O«l,7!)7
No.
18(10
2..'lKi,S.18
rossengcr
18(11
2.:i.12,:till)
18(12
2,.ir,:{,!l!ia
18(10
1.. 140.402
Oooda . . . . '
18(11
1 .r)2o.(i.ii
, 18U2
1 ,(100,7(14
(isnn
a.sod.odo
Total . . • JHiii
3,881. !)!)()
(1802
ACCIP1WT8— /"row all Cavset :
4,M4,7fi7
Persons Killed ; —
(IfifiO
2.S
Bassengcra . . . ' 18(i1
79
18(i2
3.1
IHdO
Servants of Companies.&c. • 1 sti 1
20.1
(1802
181
Persons Tnjnred ; —
1800
3.11
Passengers . . . ■ 18(!l
78!)
18(!2
r>8d
IHCO
aa
Servants of Companies.&c- l«(il
!)4
1 18(12
04
Jiy Arddenlf to Trains: (In 18fi2)
From Collisions be- ) Persons killed
twecn Trnins, &c. ) „ injured
2(1
421
From rnnninK off \
proj)er Linos by Persons killed
1.1
Points being f „ injured
100
wrong, &c. . /
From Breaking o* ) persons killed
parts of Engines ■^''\„-^Zd
and Carriages. &c. " '"J""^"'
47
imiTISH EMI'IUE
tniiioit, JiulKinf; from the fnct tlint Knmc lines rlw\i';o
twice nr fvt'ii llirce liincN om niiicli ns nihcrs I'nr
I'linvt'vaiici*. Till* siihjuiiieil liihic mIkius i|ii. tivi'-
rii^o litres III! the principal rnilwiiys iit' the t'oiti,!
Kingdom, for each iit° the tlin^ UHiial clanxi's ui
IMWsenyen), in tlm yvai ivni'i : —
iind rionrrd nf port
lifteon jenrH iMl!)
The clicapnoss of the transport of both (foods
and pa.s8enpcr8 by railway has been one of the
main reasons of the enormous ])rogress of this new
means of locomotion. However, it is probable
that a minimum of cost has l.eDn by no means at-
F.iiKltnil itnil WiilM
r\nt
Cliu
rf.
Hpfninl
CIlIM
Tlilnl
(|<M|
llrl^<tol nnd E.xeter . , .
2-28
1-70
O'lin
Cornwall
2-di
1-77
(l'!l'.)
(irciit l''ii..'ti'rii ....
2-.10
2-00
l'(HI
(iri'iit Northern
2-1 a
l-(lo
(I'IPII
1 (hviit Western ....
2MI8
I'.V.
O'flll
l,iiiicanliln' iind Yorkshiro
DflO
l-:l.1
• l-Tll
I.oikIoii, llrlKhton, nnd S. Const
2'04
M7
(I'M!) 1
T.oniloii, Cliutlm.n, nnd Dover .
2-14
I-.Vi
!C!l:|
London nnd North Wentern
1-II7
1-1.1
(I'K.'i
London nnd .'^oiith Western
2'42
1-72
ll'IIM
Lonilon nnd UliK'kwnll
2M4
|-(l!l
(l-llll
London, Tlllinrv. nnd Honthend
i-oa
0-(lS
(I'TI
Manchester, .Shcllli'ld, Jk Lincoln
2Ma
1-80
(I'llH 1
Manchester, South Junction,!
nnd Altrlnchnm . .
D44
1-14
(I-7H
Midland
•i'Hl
1-72
O-DT
MonniouthHhIro llnllwny nnd
Canal ....
2-47
1-48
O'lM
1 North Limdon ....
0-71
0-12
(|.|5
North KaFtem ....
2-27
I-.17
O'NII
North .'^talTonlsldro .
2-00
1-.10
I'llO
Booth i:ii;<tcni (including Lon- )
don anil (lr<.enwiclO . f
1'73
1-28
0-78
South Yiu-ksliiro Uaiiwuy nnd
Itlvcr Dun ...
l-8d
1-40
0-94
Stockton nnd Dnrlington .
2-2d
1-(I1
M7
South Devon ....
2'f.7
1-72
O'llf)
St. Helen's Cnnnl nnd Bailway
1-0.1
I-.1S
(i-!l:l
TnfT Vale Itnilwny .
2-0.1
1-.1-.
MKI
WestMldlnnd . . . .
2-73
1-77
0-1)9
Scotland and Ireland
Scotland.
Cnledoninn . . . .
Dw'sldo
Dundee. Perth, nnd Aberdeen 1
.Innetion ... J
Edinburgh nnd Olnspow . .
Cilnsgow nnd South Western .
Orent North of Seotlnnd .
Inverness &. Abenlecn Junction
North British . . . .
Scottish Central
Scottlsli North F.nRtern .
IltELANO.
Belfast nnd Northern Connties .
Belfast nnd County Down
Cork. Blnckrock. nnd Passage .
Dublin nnd Belfnst Junction .
Dublin nnd Droghedn
Dublin and Kingstown, and )
Dablin, Wicklow. & Wexford J"
Orent Southern nnd Western .
Irish North W^estern .
Midlnnd Great Western of Irlnd,
Ulster
Waterford and Limerick .
FIril
CUm
rf.
1-20
1 43
2-00
1-00
1-70
1-7.1
2-00
1 •!)d
2-18
2 00
1-89
1-24
i-(ia
2-ao
l-«2
1-00
2-20
2-10
2-M
l'!)7
2-28
Scrnnd
Tlilril :
Clan
Clui
(/.
rf.
1-19
n-71
—
O'S!)
1-37
n-!)c
1-20
0-!)7
1-33
«•«!)
—
(l-llll
—
n-iw
l-.lfi
n-oD
1-.1.1
(l-!l()
1-uO
0-9I)
l-.Vi
fl-8l
n-fl7
(|.:i!i
1".'2
(I'S.I
1-72
(i-i«
1-21
0-78
1-.10
0-98
l-fi.1
n-!W
l-(!0
1-00
1-70
1-iin
1-48
n-wi
1-liC
1-00
The immen.se importance of railways, while it
haa induced many continental govemmoiits to
make them state institutions, like the PostOftk-o,
has also led the Parliament of the United Kiiii;-
dom to a distinct assertion of control.
Shimnng. — The mercantile marine of Orciit
Britain first began to attain to considernhle im-
portance uj the reign of Elizabeth ; and it liiw cini-
tinued progressively to increase with the incrpflsiii!,'
colonies and commerce of the country'. The siili-
joined tables give a view of its present maf;"itii'l''i
and of the navigation of the empire. Suhjoiiicilis
a statement of tlie total toimage of Uritisli ami
foreign vessels — sailing and steam — which cutcreii
Tmf*
1811)
18.10
18.11
18.12
18.13
18.11
18.1.1
18r,d
18.17
18.18
18.11)
18(10
18dl
I8d2
18(13
llrill
Toil
4,881,
4,700,
4,!l:l8,
4,1114,
fi.O.I.I,
1,371,
A,'270,
d,30ll,
(l,8.l:|,;
«,4:IH,'.
«,r,s.1
(l,88lt,i
7,721,1
7,8.id,ii
H,430,l
Teart
Brtllil
Ton«
1819
4,78.1,1
18.10
4.742,3
18.11
4,882,4!
18.12
6,0.1 l.K
18.13
n,2l'2,9)
18.14
1,370,2!
18.1/1
fi,d48,<)
I8.in
0,5.1.1,0.'
IS.17
fi,8IO,4(
18.18
fl,4.12,2f
18.19
«,7-2(!,7!
18(10
7,02.1,91
18dl
7,099,49
l«fi2
8,090,22
18(13
8,r)8'),2t
The subjoined tab
tonnage of registerei
p.xclusivc of river sti
(Intn, employed in th<
the nnmoef of men, i
Employed
Ib tke Itnme Trad*
1849
18.10
1851
18.12
18.13
18.14
1855
18.1B
18.17
18.18
18.19
18(10
ISdl
isn2
181)3
Pirtty In tlie Homo
and partly In ilia
Forelirn Trade
1849
18.10
1851
18.12
1853
18.14
18.15
18.10
18.17
18.18
18.19
1800
ISdl
1802
1863
BRITISH EMPIRE
fiOO
II'
7.;l
(I'NIt
!!•
i:|
(I'
i:i
II'
.IM
(1
III!
(1
it
ind donroil nt porU !ii the United Kint(il<im in the
tifU'Oii yenrn IhI'.i tn IH(i;J:—
T«««
nrltUh
Tnni
I'.niinil
rOfHfn
T.il»l
Tnni
Tom
IK II)
4.Hs.i.-iin
2,n:i:i,(iiii)
fi,!)|!t,!tlMt
IH.V)
4,7lMt.llH»
•J.I(Mi,'J77
7.100,1711
IH.'.l
4,|t:|H,asil
«,l):t:l,70H
7,H7V,0)ll
lS.Vi
4,1)1 1.N(i:l
V.IIVi.'iM i
7,HS7,447
IRM
r),().-..'i.:l4:t
;i,HM7,7li:l
H,!l|:l,|0il
IH.M
r.,:l7l,'ifil
:i,7Hii,HI.'>
l),l(ll,:ilill
IH.W
r.,27(»,7lfJ
;i,(IH0,ll7
H,l):il, •.':!!)
\HM
ll,:l!)0,7iri
4,lili.4l!)
lo..',.'i:i,|:H
IM.'iT
(l,H.'i:i,7ll.'i
4,tWl,4l)l
11, 47.'., 10!)
|m:>H
(l,4:ll),-Jill
4,V«,I!I1)
10,001,7(10
IX.'il)
(l/iW.lia
4,(!:lll.H|(l
\\,Ti\.W-J
IHliO
(I.HMII.IMM)
fi,2S:l,77il
yiMl,-nr,
l«(ll
7,7-il.(l:tn
r.,4riM,.'i:ii
i;i,17!t,.'.s!)
iwi-i
7,H.MI,li:l!)
f.,-J:U,4r>l
1:1,01)1,01)1)
1H03
8,4:10, 14«
4,H'J5,!»17
V,i,-j:M,m\.i
Tf»ri
ClmriHl
BrIlUli
Forrliin
ToMi
Tc.n«
Tnll"
Tnni
181!)
4.7H.-.,CJ8
2.2!l!),0(10
7,081,188
IS.W
4.74'i,:i4'.
2.11(12,24:1
7,40I,-W8
IHM
4,882,4110
a,22.-.,(114
8.108.101
IX.Vi
fi,0.'(l,l(m
3,ini,.W(l
8,212,702
IHM
/>,2 12,080
4,2:14,121
0,147,10 t
1S.'.4
r>,1170,2l)H
4,1:17.42:1
O,r.o7,721
IH.'ift
r>,fi48,!)40
a.NS!),2!)l
I),.'.:l8,2:ll
IH.'irt
fi,f>r..'.,0.'.(l
4,480,8."iO
ll,o:ir.,01.'>
1H.'.7
(1,810,402
4,8(i:i,ini
ll,70:l..'.o:l
18.'p«
fi,4.'.2.201
4.8!)(1.077
11,:148,28I
is:.!)
fi,72tl,7:ll
4,o.'.r.,(imi
Il,(l82,:i:l7
INflO
7,02.'-.,!)l4
r.,4f)o,'i!):i
12,ril(i,ri07
18(11
7,<iO(),4l)7
B,71(l,M'>
1:1,41 fi,0.V2
18(12
8,000.22 1
r),:i.'.4,12« .
l:t,44t,:140
I8II:)
8,.'iH'),2l(l
4,K|):i,424
i;),482,fi70
The giibjoiiicd table fjivos the total mimlMT and
tonnaco of refn*<tered sailiiiff and steam vessels —
pxcUisive of river steamers — of the United Kiiifr-
(lom, employed in the home and foreign trade, with
the number of men, in the years lH49-t')3^—
Employrd
In tke Ilnme Trad*
1840
]8r,0
18.11
18.V2
]8fl3
18.'4
1855
1856
18.S7
1858
1859
18110
18fil
1802
18(13
PiTtly In tlio ITomo
und purtly in tdo
Fotelfrn Tnule
1849
IS-W
1851
1852
1853
IS-U
1855
185rt
18.';7
IftliS
1859
1860
18(11
18(12
1863
Vciteli
Tom
Mon
F.miiliijri'd
(l'«t'lll«lTO
of MailiTi)
O.filO
0,150
9,2(10
0,134
8,851
8,778
8,590
0,707
10,0fi4
10,085
10,409
11,250
11, .508
10,915
11,133
1.917
1,507
1,507
1,105
098
1,211
1,281
1,012
1,1«4
059
007
1,440
1,308
1,572
1,810
710,815
721,153
7(i4,4«l
7(18,400
774,813
748,714
748,543
787,476
800,406
878,852
808,280
913,:t!13
935,500
875,.S46
859,592
287,490
227,(i:t9
247,582
1(W,111
104,050
221,259
222,070
178,.5!)0
182,971
159,:i03
1.53,801
256,359
244,446
275,942
317,960
44,650
43,018
42,054
40,075
42,740
88,3.50
35,470
88,665
43,600
44,186
41,022
45,579
40,0.50
43,400
43,815
12.977
10.087
8,8.-.2
7,819
7,694
9,427
9,:i2a
7,448
8,207
0,7:15
0,431
10,431
0,(198
11,0.52
12,524
Mm
F.m|»1i>7ril
VriMll
Tom
r.miilov***!
In Iha FoMgn Trwia
— - — — -
Ur MltiKTII
1810
0.00 (
3,080,037
01,084
185(1
7,235
2,lHH.l'iO
97.725
1851
7,411
2,:I48.S!I./
nil. 131
l8.Vi
7,580
2.IIO.;|(i4
110,709
1«.VI
K,;i57
2.791 .224
122.091
1851
7,118
2.7511, 1 •.'()
lll.(l:19
1855
7,957
:i,01H,li51
12:1,7:13
1850
8.551
:i, 190.011
127,8(5
1857
8,100
:i. 108. 105
121,5H()
1858
8,427
:1.2X7.087
12(!.!ill
18.50
8.25t
3,21(1,029
121.15:1
18(10
7.:123
3,08J,017
115.582
18(11
7,:170
3,170.(18:1
115.00!)
18.12
7.1105
:l,:i22,oo(l
110.105
1803
7,934
3,017,727
128,:1SH
1819
18,221
3,090,312
152 '111
18:,()
17.802
3.1:17.212
151, 1:10
1851
18,181
;i.:l(10,9:l5
141.0:17
18.- 2
17,810
3,:18(I,KH|
l.-,9..',03
1853
18,200
3,7:10.(m7
172,525
1854
17,407
;i,72ll,09;l
1(12,410
1855
17,828
3,990,170
108,5:17
1850
19,270
4.150,1177
173,918
1857
10,328
4.211,182
170,:i87
1858
20.071
4,:125.2I2
177,h:12
185!lf
10..57O
4.2(19.109
172,5110
1800
20.019
4,251,7:19
1 71. .5:12
ISCl
20.285
I,:i5!l,005
171.057
18i;2
20,002
4,47:1,291
17:l.H(!l
18(i:l
20,877
4,705,270
184,727
The relative importance of the twelve priiii;ipal
ports of the United Kingdom in regard to Hhi/i/iiHi/
IS shown in the following table, which tjives the
number of vessels and toiinaj^e entered inwards and
cleared outwards from tliesc [>ort8 during the vcar
lHf.;i:—
Entorrd Inwards
Clvarcd Ontwardi
Porn
London . .
IsrtS
1U03
VcBWli
Tom
V.>ieli
8,167
Tons
11,008
3,441,-510
2,590.821
Ltvcriwiol ,
4.082
2,058.732
4.004
2,(113,:i91
Nc\vca.stlo .
4.402
702.104
8,040
1,. 500,208
TIuU . . .
2.959
723,901
■2,2;is
.591,:iol
Sontlmrapton
1 ,209
,3.55.515
1,121
3)1,(107
ILoith . . .
1,091
291,721
.588
178,845
illristol . .
O.VI
242.879
203
84,910
|Glasffow . .
620
188.:103
928
317,128
lOreenock .
470
181,770
208
125,271
nnhlin . .
478
135,.500
19(1
72,084
Cork . . .
.375
]15,o:i4
03
28,091
Belfast . .
Total . .
318
20,808
87,401
106
3(!,:l20
8,520,303
9,185,105
20,021
In the year ISfiS, there were huilt in the United
Kingdom 1,10.0 vessels, of 3(!0,!)87 tons. Of these
881 were sailing vessels, and 279 steamers. Of
the sailing vessels, 142 were built of iron, and of
the steamers 240. Ixmdon, Sunderland, Newcastle,
Liverpool Hull, Yannouth, and Bristol, are the
principal building ports. Ships built in London,
Liveri)ool, Bristol, and other western ports, are in
higher estimation than those built on the Tyno
and the Wear, at least for those branches of trade
where the best ships are required. Within the la.st
ten years the building of iron steamships has been
immensely extended on the Tyne and the Clyde.
Money. — The metallic money of the United
Kingdom consists partly of gold, and partly of
silver and copper, coins. The standard of gold
coin is 11 parts fine to 1 part alloy: a pound troy
of this standard gold is coined into 4(i sovereigns
and ^"ijths of a sovereign, or into 40/. 14». Grf. ; so
m
Is* II
A0O
IJUITISII KMI'IIJK
tliiir IIh' HnviTcitfii coiitiiinM II.'I'IIOI ^riiiiiH .line,
niiil r.'.'(".'7 I ^rnliiM xiiiiiiliiril, ^nlil.
'I'lif ^liiJiiliinl 111' hiUcr niiii in 1 1 oz. 'J dwt. line
til |M (Iwl. iilliiv. Siiiri- Mir,, II |iiiiiiiil of lliin
Mtilllillllil xihir iiMM liri'll I'liiiicil illlii tin ,<lii||ili);H,
HO lliiit iiu'li ^^llillill;;■ riiiitiiiiis Hd'T'.'T ^'riiiiiH imrt'
xilviT, iiml H7"-'7 uniiiiM uliiiiilnril. Silver niiiit
roiiii Ik imri' Milixiilinry iiirrciu'y, ami art! Ic^al
It'iiilcr III llii* cxlciii only ol |i),4,
<'o|i|)i'r roiiis lire iMiii'li oMrMiliK'il in I'lirri'ncy,
niiil IIH' U'Kiil H'nilcr to ilu' cMcnt only of l».
I'm liy Cur ihc uniiti r piiri of ilic ciin.siili'rMlilc
trini'-iicii'onH In ihc rnirnl Kin^nloni liavin^ rc-
frrciirc 1(1 nmnry, lire jtIiIiiI liy llir inliTvcniion
(if pai'ir; llml i.-<. liy llii' Hf^cni'V of the notes of
till' ililVircnl litinluiiu; i'oin|iaiiii'i'. or of IiIIIm, In
Kii:;lanil anil Ircliniil, no liank note can lir i^>Nii('il
for li'>M tliaii a/., lint in Sroilaml they niny lio
i^>nl'll HO low iiM I/.; llii'V iiri' all nimli' pnyaliir to
lii'iirir on i|i'nianil,i-ltlirr in coin or ni notes of the
Hank of Imi^ImikI. 'I'lie latter, with llic lianki* of
iSciiiliniil anil Inlanil, arc the |irinci|ial liankiiif;
i'-lalili>lnnenlM, liillM vary in every |iossililc way,
ill re;;iiril to anmnnl, lime, and |ilace of )iayniciil.
('niisllliitiiiii, — Fur full ilctiiil.H in re;,'aiil to tliis
iniiiiirlant lieail. the reader in relcncd to the
articles l'',N(iiAM), Si'oii.ANK, and Ii'.I'J.And.
It is here Kiillicinit to ohserve, that, the llrilish
eonHiilnlioii a|i|ieiirs to liave heeii at its outset
Hiilistantially the saiiK^ M'ilU llii^ coii.>litulion
oriKiiially I'stalilislied in iiiost of the other luirii-
)ieaii .tales foinied out of the ruins of the Koiiiiiii
<>in|iire. Ihil I'iii^daiid aloiu; has had the ^ood
fortune to |,res<'r\(( that dislrihiition of power
uinoii^ the dilfereiit orders of the eoinninnity
■which at one time |ireviiiled anion^' the Kri'iich.
Spaniiirds, and other continental nations, 'I'lie
(roveniinenl. is mixed, liein^; iiartly monarchical,
partly arislocralical, and partly democrat ical. The
executive auihorily is vested in the Mivereif^n, or
rather in the ministers clmseii liv him, while the
h'^i.-lativo aiilhoiity is shared liy the sovereifxu
and liy the houses of Lords and Commnns. The
former of IIicm' houses coiisisls of the heads of the
cliiirch, and of uohles whose di;;iiity is hereditary,
and who are neiierally possessed of larne fortimes.
In 1K()5 it consisted, inc. minors, of —
rrrrs of the blood royiil ...
Aiclihihhoiis (1 Jii.sli leprcseiittUive) . '2
Dukes 'JO
Jliirqulses 1!)
Karls 11(1
Vhcoimti? '.'■.'
liiirons '.'Oil
Niitdi reiircfcntatlvc I'ccrg . . . Hi
JriMi (lillo 'JS
Kim'lish liisliups U
Jri.-li repiestmativc ditto ... 4
Total . . AM
The House of Commons — the prodonunatin^
power in the state — consists of li.'iS represenla-
tivos chosen hy electors in the ditlerent comities
and represented towns ; tiiid thoup;li the Hovercif^n
lie not, his ministers are, respoiisihh^ to it and to
the H. of Lords for all acts done li.v them in their
piihlic capacity. Acconiiii}; to the theory of the
constitution, the H. of (.".is elioseii hy and repre-
sents the wishes, fceliiifjjs, and prejudices of the
liritish people. But if hy jieople lie meant the
fnll-tcrowii male pop. of the L'. Kiiif^dom, this
statement is nlto}?etlier erroneous. IJy far the
greater portion of tlie jiop. has not, and never had,
anythiiif; directly, and hut little indirectly, to do
•with the choice of the meiiihers of the H. of C.
Down to the passinj; of the IJeform Act in M.S'J,
the niemhers for counties in England were chosen
by persons having a freehold, or a life interest in
freehold properly, worth 111*, n year; mid in |iiw,h
the riKhl of idection was nsually'in llie corporiitliin
or in the corporalioii and freemen, Tlmi li<i<iiiiij
to the old system that pllM'd ihe wav fur thr It,
form Act uas not oci'ii-ioned ho much liy iIm' I'auli'
mode in which i'c|ircsentaliM's weie i liMni'n ji,
towns entitled to send them to till' II, off, „.,
Iiv the decayed condition of niMliy of t|ii'«e tnwn,
'Ihe iiarl. lioroiiKhs had all I n hj i|||.,| .,,,.'
vionsly III the llevolnlinn i and no priivNiiin \v<i<i
made in tin iislitiilinn fur admilliii;; ri'iircM'ii-
talives for such new lioroiiKhs iih mi;.'lil iil'iiTwanl,
attain to importance, or for Ihe di-<fr,'nii'lii-i-Mii'iii
ofsnchiif the |iarl. lioron;,dis as miKhl liii|i|i('ii t,,
fall into iiisiunilicaiice. Ilince it cinne in i,j,,.,
Ihal m.'iiiv connnircial and inai'iifaclnrini; inwna
such as Nliiiicliester, ltirinini;ham, I'nisk.v, Mini
others, which had attained to vast wealtli im,!
importance after the iiarl. horiuiKhs were sciei ti>i|,
wereexcliidcd from all share in the rijinsi'iiiiiiidn'
while, on ihe oilier hand, iiiaiiy lioroiiL;lis that lnhi
hei'ome ipiile nnimportant ciinlinned to eii{iiv iIik
valiiahle privile;,'e. A disiinciion of this Hnrrniiilil
not he lon;j; endured ; ami hut for th i^.th.^mh^'
excitement occasioued hy Ihe late Kmicli war!
it would, most likely, have hcen ohviatcil Munn'
twenty year* sooner. 'Ihe Itel'urm Act, liv ili .
Iriiuchisiiijr a piod many decayed imij rrilliii:,'
liorounhs, and enfranchising,' the |{reater om s, anri
uiviii); the riKht of volute at the elect ion iifiiuin-
liers to the holders of III/, hotiricH, rendered ilic II,
of ('. more democratical than fonnerly, ami, ((ni'
se(|uenlly, made it coircspond hetler wiili ihi'
theory of tlnr conHtiiii;ion. This teiiilenry Utn
also lieeii strentttheiied I y the changes tliat wire
at the same time \w,.iW in the comity rc|iri>ni.
talion. Till' total iniiii)<; ■• of
Ihe lloiise of Comino' s was
session of IMdli : —
fepreseuiaiiviM in
IIS follows, ill tin:
TlnRlnnd .
.^lotluilll .
Ireluiiil ,
Total
Of (Niilntini
:ia
U4
'.'■ill
OfCllk. »,.,!
ll"rMii|.|,4
.■i:ls
41
T..U1
riiiii
.'i:|
111.',
(i.'iS
Thf: iiropcrlv qiialilicntion for iiiemliers was imt
distil.' 'leii hy l)ie Iicform Itill ; it amoiiiited tiiC.dii/,
for th .uiy;hts, and Itllll/. for the Inir^esscs; Imi It
has hc-«n aholislied hy 'J\ & '2'2 Vict. c. •.'(i, of .lime
•_'S, iHuX. The other ffroimds of excliisiim iiavc
remnined, and have even heeii partially iiicrciMil,
No one can sit or vote in parliament who liiis imt
attained the nffe of tweiil,v-one years. Nnexii-c,
custom, stamp, or other reveinie odiceris (■li;;ilili'.
Smce IH-lll, the Jiidjje of the Admiralty Cnii'l is
excluded from heiiiji' elected; the siiine hnlil.i^tdiHl
with resiiect to all the later judges. TlieniibliT
of the rolls nlone iselinihle. Jso I'jif^disli nrSciilrli
jieer can he elected to the lloiisi! of Coniinnns, liiit
an Irish peer may ; liiial'v, forei;;uers, even wluii
naturalised, unless the rij^ht he cniicedeil in c.n-
pre.ss terms, as well as persons who have 1h.tii
convicted of trea.s(iii or felony, are inelif,Mlili'.
To ])o.sses8 the franchise in a lioroiifjli, n iicr.'fiiii
".niist occiip,v,as owner or tenant, a house of tlic flinr
yearly value of not less than III/. 'J'lie rifjlits nf
the old hiirffcsses or freemen to vote liave Iktii jiri-
served. All persons who as hurj.,'csses or as I'rcf-
men winild have heeii entitled to vote if tlio licfuriii
Hill had not heeii piwsed, arc still peniiittcil t"
exercise the francliise. If a person have |irii|ierty
which would qualify him as a horouj;h eltrtnr, lie
cannot, instead of heeoming a horoiigh cleitor,
choose in respect of that ]irojierty to fjualil'y ii" ii
comity elector. The fiualilyiii}; estate liir liie
county must he either — tirst, a freehold of inlie-
ritance of the clear yearly value of not kf^ tluiii
>
My iihillin((K i kp
<iiiiii' value, pmvii
tillf IH'CllpHlioll of
'hull have lN>eti a
.I'ltleinenl, deviNe,
iililre. If the free
iH'ciiiintion, or shall
wi'M' than ill the n
liiilil imist iN'of th
ihnii III/. |H>r aiiiiii
KJiii held freeholil
yiarlv value of fi
Villi' irrespective of
nnil wilhoiit Ihe iii
siii|iinlilled to vote
nri' Ntill |H'rmilled
liiii^' as they coniin
Thirilly, copyhold
liiilil tenure, provliN
any larger «'state of
li'w llian 111/. Foil
nurlv value of III/,,
ii'XH tliaii sixty year
111' .ill/, or iipwards,
Ipsii than twenty
iliiii of any lands'
iiimiit payH a vein
Thi'* latter (jiialitica
ralli'il ChaiidoH clan
iiicnts for electors hii
|*rsiiim under fweiii
siiiiiil iiiiiid, in recei
vlcled of iu-rtaiii olVe
No line can vote- who
111 liini merely for th
III vote. The .Indies,
Willi are eonce'medin
arc iiis(|iialilied.
I'll presm-c the iin
11. (if C, it was emu
it any memher shal
Iriiin the i-rowii, his i
new writ insue, hut 1
'llii« pro-ision has I
lii'viiiK a nieinlter froi
ri'siKii, hy his accep
Ihe Cliiltem Hundred
if the chancellor of t
IiKHIi only alMint th
liwii ({eiierally accpiie
III all jiarlies, thoiiffh
far the oflieo can no
the disqiialifyinp woi
in the construction ol
(iitice hos not been Iiel
«P|K)intment of a succ
"llice, no appointmcn
« seat. Further, tha
army or navy vacates
iiii.''»ion8 do not.
I'erliaps the groates
the free constitution ^
iiiilircct rather than di
"li«t no other JCun)))!
fally free press. Ac
'rea.ied in wealth and
f'Tjijipulons places fou
imlilic opinion, it becti
I" have their sjieeches
[lie country. Hence,
kites be a breach of
l«tised, with the coii
«it*, in fact, speak less
mtters, and, throng
Mfi the censures and
«re accustomed to iiali
Jh apology for siniilui
Voul.
TmiTISir'FMTMHE
Am
flirty uhlUltiKK ! dcrninlly, n frrohoM for lil'i- <iC iln> •
.iiMii' viilur, iiri>vi<li'(l h Im ill I lie nt'liml ami '><>/«! j
liilf iM'('U|)att)iti of ilii> pnrty cliiiiiiiiitf to voir, or I
'.Imll liiivi' Im'i'ii nfi|iiiri'il liy iiiarriiiK<'< niiirriii^i' |
.I'ttlriiii'iil, ili'ViNc, or proinotioii lo miy iH'iictiri'or
iitliiT, If lli«> frt'i'holiliT for life In noi in lu'tiinl '
mrii|>nlioii,or nIiiiII liiivr nt'i|iiirnl liJNi'Nlnl)' oilirr-
»i^' iliiiii ill III*' inoilf aliovc iMi'iiijoiK'il, liiH free-
hiilil iiiti'*! iH'of tile rh'iir yrarly valiit'of not Icm
ilinii III'. (XT aMiiiiin. Itt'fori' llic Itrforiii Ad all
kIio Ik'IiI fri'cliolil proiMTlv for life of ilic cIcMr
viiirlv valiii' of forty xliilldi^N, were ml it led to
Villi' Irri'Mpt't'livc of ilir niaiiiu'r of \t» ai'i|iiiHitioii,
m\ willioiit lli<< iit'ccHNity of occiipatioii, PrrxoiiH
«ii|iialitli'il to vole at llii' linii' of (lie lii'forni Act
an' Hiill |N'niiitl('il lo t'xcrciNc llu* franclilMc so
liiiiL' iiM tlicy conliiiiu* Nci/cil of llicHaino fri'i'liolil,
Tlurilly, j'opyholil or ollii'r property not of IVcf-
liiilil ii'iiiir<>, jiroviilcil ilic intercut lie for lil'i', or for
iiiiy larger cHlaln of tlit> clear annual valine of not
li'iw llian 10/. Fonrtlily, IcaNcliolilH, of llif ilcar
vi'urlv valiHi of III/., if the irrin wiih ori^Hiially not
li'iiii lliaii Hixly ycafM, amlof llii< clear yearly value
III' .'ill/, or iipwurilH, if ilie term was originally not
IcsK llian twenty yearn. Kifllily, liy llie occiipa-
iliiii of any laiulN or leiicincnU for which the
ii'iiaiit payH n yearly rent of not Icxh than titU.
riiis liiller (pinlilicatioii was introiliiceil liy the ho-
riilli'il ClianiloH cItiiiNe. 'I'he oilier lepil reiiiiire-
iiii'iilM lor electors have contiiiiieil in force. Aliens,
[ii'Miiis miller twenty-one years of ap', or of uii-
.iiiinil mind, in receipt of jiarocliial relief, or coii-
vli'ti'il of certain olfences, an; ineapalile of volin^.
Nil line can vote who pos.scHseH a freehold conveyed
III liini merely for tlu> puqiose of enipowerini; liiiii
III vdtc. TlieJiidK<''<, constaliles, and many olllcers
wliii are concerned in tlio cnUuutioii uf the ruvenne,
arc ilis(|iialiliud.
'I'll preser^•c the indejiendencc of momliers of the
II. (if C, it was enacled, liy Htatnte l! Anne, that,
il' iiiiy meniliiT shall accept any oltico of protit
fmm tlio crown, his election hIwiII he void, and n
new writ insno, hut he Ih eli)rihle for re-election.
Thin pro'ittioii Iioh hern innilc the means of re-
lii'vinj; a nicinlicr from his trust, which he cannot
rf.«i|;n, liy his acceptance of the steward.'«hip of
llio Cliiltem Hundreds, a nominal ollice in the ^'ift
iif tlic chancellor of the exchequer. The prai^licc
U'i;nii only aliout the year I Toll, and has since
ii«'ii ^rpiierally ac(|uicsced in from itH uonvenience
tiiall ]iarlie.s, thoii(;li it is open to question how
far the otHco can now he 8tri(!tly deemed within
the disqualifying wonla of the statute of Anne.
Inlhc construction of this act the resi^pialion of
(lice has not been held to be complete until the
sp|iointnicnt of a successor, and the resumption of
iilhce, no appointment intervening, not to vacate
a licat. Further, that u first commission in tlie
army or navy vacates a scat ; but subsequent coin-
mmons do not.
I'erliaps the greatest advantage resulting from
the free constitution of the II. of C'. has been
iiuliruct rather than direct. The people owe to it
«lmt no other Kuni])eaii nation has enjoyed — a
really free press. According as the people in-
ireasod in wealth and intelligence, and memhers
f'lr ixipulous (ilaces found it necessary to conciliate
imblie opinion, it become of importance to them
lo have their sjiecches printed and circulated over
ihe tountrj'. Hence, though the reporting of de-
lates be a breach of privilege, it has long Iwen
wactised, with the consent of all parties. Mem-
KM, in fact, speak less to the house than to the
reporters, and, through them, to the country;
wd the censures ond comments in which they
>K accustomed to indulge become a warrant and
>ii apology for similur censures on the part of
Vou I.
e liceii wilivrrKlve of
punii-' ilie latter for
with iipiinii^ ' y llin
Omi .nlloti i really
1 hC \iresit^ll
il sMfi'uiiard
the Villi''*, II
is, for
riglilH
lo tllll
Jiiiinuilists, It woiil) ),.,
every principle of Jiisiu
what had Iseii prorlaiu
former. Ileiue it In III,
indeliled fur the freedom <
the palladiiiin and only i
and liliertii'M — imi xn nnu'li
deliiiirs carried on in the II. of C. Frei'.l"iii of
di'liiile iiroiliieed (r loin of iirinting ; and, loti-
si'ipieiitly, gave llie only etl'ei'tiiiil security for
g I governnieiil, and the only real cheek u|hiii
iilm-te. It Is iioi too niiii'li tosay, that the iieople
of till* rniled Kiiigdiiin are mainly indeliled ti>
this free press for the high place iiinong tho
niiliiiiis of the earth,
Ne.Nt to the security alfiird<'d by the I'reednni
of the press, hint />// ,/"'.'/ has lieeii the griiiid
lilllwark of the liberlieM of the people of l'".ng-
land. This iiisiitiitioii is of very remote origin,
and, like representative assenililies, was at oiiii
time introdiii'ed into several Kiinipetin eoiinlries.
It is expressly laid down by the great charter,
that ' ««//mk iilwr homo aijiiiitiir, nl imiirisoii-
rtiir, mil rxiilrt, uiit iiliijiin olio vimlii ilexlnnliir,
nUi jnr Iri/itlr jm/iriiiiii /Miriiiin nwinnii, nl /ii-r
Ifijvm trrnv,' 'The founders of the l'',iiglisli laws,'
says Hlackstoiie, •have with excellent forecast
contrived that no man should be calli'd to
answer to llie king for any capital criiiie, iinli'ss
npiiii the preparatory aiTiisatiou of twelve nrnioro
of his fellow Niibjei'ts ({hv i/riiiiil jiiri/) ; and that
the truth of every ai'i'iisatimi, whether preferred in
the shape of indii'tinent, infiirinalinn, or appeal,
shoiild be afterwards ciinlirnied by the unanimous
snIVriiges of twelve of his equals and neighbours
(\\w iwtty jury), indilVereiitly chosen, and superior
lo suspicion. So that the liU'rlies of I'lnglund
cannot but subsist so long as this jiulliiiHiim re-
mains sacred and inviolale, not only I'nim all
o)ien attacks, which none will be so hardy as to
make, but also from all secret macliliialions,
which may sap and niiilenniiu; it, by iniroducing
new and arbitrary methods of trial, by Justices of
the jieace, commissioners of the revenue, and
courts of conscitaiee,' (Hook iv. cap. 27.)
With the exception of Kngland, trial by jury,
in most other countries, was not long in being
either suppressed or perverted ; that is, juries
were either entirely dis|iensod with, anil the
jiower to try prisoners entrusted to judges a|i-
iiointed by the diH'erent governments, or the
mslitntion was kept up in name only, its object
and spirit lieing totally changed. Instead of
Jurymen being ' indiffcreiitly cho.sen, and free from
suspicion,' which is of the very es.sence of jury
trial, they were not unfrequently selected by tho
crown, or its creatures.
In England, the selection of jurjmen having
been always, or at least very generally, made on
fair principles, jury trial has been deservedly in
the highest degree popular. The charge has to be
referred to twtdve inilividuals fairly selected from
among the freeholders of the neighbourhood;
and unless they are nnanimmisly of upinion that
the charge is well fourukd, the accusation falls to
the ground, and no farther legal proceedings can
be instituted against the accused.
The signal benetits derived from jury trial in
criminal cases, and in charges of trea.soii and
sedition; and the fact that, were it given u|i in
one class of cases, it might gradually fall into
disuse in others, seem to be the ])riiicipai causes
of its being continued as a means of trying all
descriptions of civil suits. The fair iiresumjii ion,
however, would seem to be, that a large class of
civil cases might be us well or better decided by a
judge or judges appointed for that purpo.se.
O O
ii4r .,
A(12
lUMTISir KMI'IHK
Till- ptiwiTM iif iiiirlininriil nrv iinlilii'iilly ninnl
|Hili-lll Milliill llic I llili'il Killuiliilll mill ll'* riiliillirN
mill ilt'|ii>iii|riirit'i4, ll niii iiiiikt' iirsv Iiimm, iiihI
t'liliir^)', iiltrr, nr rrnriil lliii'<i' txUiliitt. Iin mi
tlmrilV I'Xtl'lliln III nil I'ri'li'Killnlli'ltl, ll'lll|liirikl, fix il,
nr iiiilitnrv iiiiittiTN, ami ilM ihiwi'M in iillrriiit; nr
<'hiiri({illt( lU nwtl I'lillitllllltinli, It Im III)' lii^lii'Mt
cniirl, iiMT >vll|rh nil nllirr lilIM llirltilirllnli.
'I'lic fiillnwiiitt \<* II liilili' III' ilic iliiriitiiiii of iMir-
lilltlli'lllt nl' tilt! L'llitol liillKiloKli Iron) llH' IXTiml
nl till' Iflllolll—
Rfliiti
I'urllii.
IIIMIlt
Whvii
inil
Wbaii ill.MiltiHl RiUtMl
Y. M. n.
(iMirKK III.
\»t
UT Hi'iit.
I7III1
•ill .run. iHii'ift II IM;
It
Villi
<ll Anu,
\H,I-J
■H (lif. IHIHH 1 v.l
Jlril
l."i liii'.
INIIII
•2I> Apr. 1 HI 17 II ■» Ifl
II
till
TJ .hiiiti
IWI7
■Jl Hipt. \H\jr, ;t 7
II
ruh
■H Nov.
\H\J
lil.lniii' ININA )| III
titli
1 AiiK.
|M|N
•Jl» I'lll. IHJill II l/.l
QwirKu It.
7tli
■J-i Apr.
iH'jii 'j.iiiiiK iMviiii t n{
• 1
Nih
1 1 Ni.v.
IMJII
il .fiilv INDIUM H 10 1
Wllll.imlV
mil
•Jtl (»i't.
iM.'ln
•JJ Apr. Ik:I1 A -jui
,,
mill
1 1 .tiinii
IMMI
■\ I>I'<1. INM'i 1 ft •Jl>\
,,
iitii
Vii.liiii.
|M:|:|
■W lire. IN:II 1 II 1 i
„
I'jiii
Ill I'Vli,
|N.|:.
IM.Iiilv IH:)7'J ft
VIcturlii .
null
1» Nov.
|H:I7
'^;l.lniii' Mil :| 7 11
iitii
II Anif.
IHII
■j;l,liily IMI7ft It •»
It
i:>tli
'.'1 Hi'iK.
IN 17
1 .llllv IHVJ J II 11
tt
imh
4 .\ov.
IN.VJiii Miir. IM.-I7 4 1 III
If
I7tli
.10 Apr.
|M.'.7i:l Apr. IH.-.II I 1 1 r.]
If
IHttl
:ll May
|m:,!i uJuly imi-Mi i u
fi
IDtll 1
<I I'lili.
IHIlll
1
'l'lii< iiiiinn of Iri'liinil with KiikIhikI wiin cnrrioil
iiilii ('lli'i'l .laiiiiiiry I, iHilll, /mil the iitirrniiiifiit
wliirli Hill tlif HitlMii liioiitli, ami wlilrli iiirlmlcil
llic ini'inlicrN rrniii iri'laml, is HiylttI tlic lir»t
lMi|ii'riiil I'arliaiiit'iit. 'I'tii' |iarliaiiu'iil wliirli an-
Hi'iiilili'd .liimiiiry -2!l, IMIli, U Mlylvil tlin lirxt
lit'liirim'il I'arliiiinciil.
Hflii/hiii. — 'I'Ih' imiKt iicrfci't toli'rnlinn ix jjivoii
In llic iirnfi'ssorM nl'ilill'cri'iif r('lii,'iiiim cri't'dM in the
I', Kinplnni. Iliit, I'rnni tlic Itcvnlntinll ilnwil In
|H-.''.I, Catlinlii's wi'ri' t'xclmlt'tl t'rniii iiarlianicnt,
anil were im'a|inlili> orimlilin^ iiioHt ntlircs nl' trust
ami cinnliiiiu'iil. 'I'litw! iiiijiiNt anil ilc^railln); ilis-
alilliticH were, hnwdver, rcinnvcd at the ('pnrli ri'-
fcrri'd to; and CallmlioH may now Itc clccttMl
nii'iiilicn* nl' tlin h'irislittnrc, and n\v flij^ililc to
almost all olHccs, Tlu^ rt'|i«'al ol'llio trst nml cnr-
)ioratinii acts, in I K'iM, rcinnvod sundry disiiliiiiticH
under whicii dissenters previniisly lalioiired.
The Hstahlislieil Church nt' I'ji^iaml lias retained
tile e|iisco|ial fonn of church pivernment. witli
its Nuiiordinatioii of ranks, and is a very riclilv-
endowed institution. Its tenets, which are jiartly
Lutheran and (lartly (.'alvinistic, are endindied in
the t'ainniiN 'M Articles. The Kirk, or ostahlishetl
church nt' Scntland, which is I'rcsliyferian in fnrni
and (!alviiiistii; in principle, is moderately well
endoweil. The f^reatest <'(piality sulisists amon);
its meniliers; and, on the wliolv, it may liu Haid to
be an essentially popular hndy.
The Church of Kn^^^land enjoys tlio conlldoncc
and support of the j^reut hulk of the people of
Kn;;'liind, and such also was the case with the
Church of Scotland previoitsly to the disruption,
in IM4;i, occasioned hy the, disiuite.s relatiu}; to
)iatrnnagc, which led to the formation of the Free
Church. Hut it has always been <piitc ntlierwi.se
with the Kstablislied (,'hnrch of Ireland, The
latter i.s identical with the Church of Knglaiid,
Inasmuch, however, a.s the doctrines of the He-
forinatinn never made any considerable progress
in Irehind, and as tlii; great bulk of its inhabitants
have always been Woman Catholics, the Estaln
li.slied Church has been thut of u small minority
I niil> , mill has never |HMseiw<i>i| the rii|i<«>ni of ||„.
I pie. Oil the ciiiilrurs, they lia\i' alwiivi ri
Kiinli'd il UN a iisiirpiilinii.as being nrluiiuillv r,,r, i,|
ll|iiill llielll by the iirmH. and llplield by llir |HiH,r
I of l''.Mglani|| ami as Udiig liiini'ile uliki' i.i \\„„
I religiiiii mid Ihrir Mcriibir inti'ri"<ls. Mmli nl' i|„.
. iliHiurbaiice ami ilixaU'eciinu I hut always prevnil in
Ireland may Im' asirllH-d In ibis iiiiha|ipy i'iiii.,tj
tiilinii of the Ksiabllsheil Church, 'i'lie liiriii.<|iii,,,
of ri'ligiiiiiN iiiHiriH'liiiii to the bulk nf ilu' | |,|,^
til tliiiMC ubii are Inn pnor In be able easily In liir'
lii'<li it fur Ibi'mselxes, has always Ih'cii liilil i,, |„.
a priiii'ipiil iili{i'cl of mi e^tablislu'il rhiirili. ,\ihl
it is ill triilli liltle bi'iler llimi a cniilnidii limi iiii,|
an aliNunlil)', In make the cbiircb nf a iiiuilj nii.|
opulent iiiimirily the miliniial cliurib. uikI in up
prnpriille In ils excliisixe use I'liiiils thai ini-hi
limply prn\ ide fur the religiniis iiiMtnicii i ^i,,.
wliiile pcnlile. It is nut to be sinipusi'd llmt III,.
malnrily sliniild tmnely ai'ipiicMc ni nihIi ji >i„|,,
nf tilings; they caiiiinl but ri'gnril il ii^ im iri,|,t(
In their religinii, and as an niitriigi' upon ihilr
sense nf justice, Coinilinn seii'-c wniijil Mi;;;ri.f,
either that llie Calbnlic sbiuild be iiiaile llic iki.iI,
limbed religion nf Iri'lnml. or II imt, iliat tlie I'n-
tlinlic clergy sliiiiild piirl icipiili , ill prii|iiiriiiiii i»
the iiimilier of their adberciils, m the eiiiliiwriiiiiN
now excltisivelv enjoyed hy tin,' clergyineii of iju'
Church nf I'lngland',
Hvmiiir iinil f:'.r/H-iiilihiri;—'\'\mt |Mirtlnii of the
natiniial revenue that is wlllulrawn frnin tlie imlilii'
by means nf taxes, and apprnpriated in tlic ii.cdi'
gnverninent, ainniinlN in minid nuiiibers in iiIiihii
7(t,<Ml(l.il(iii' sterling. The rev<<iiue inrn'iiNcil In
•i(l,(lim,(l(lll/„ nr forty percent., in the rniir-ie nl' u
(piarter of n I'entnry, It w.i-- aliniii .VI.oiiii.ihiii/, in
the vear |H|(i, and 'mse In .'r.'.imo.niMi/. in |N|;;,;iii,|
In .i;t.(Ml(l,(i(Mi/. in INI.-., rrnni iML-iiill IX.VJ. Ill,
revenue remiiined stalinmirv ; but in iH.'i.'l ii |i;i,|
risen too 1,000,11(1(1/., in \h:,\ in,')i;,oi)o,iHi(i/„iii |s.',.,
tnti:),(l(MI,(IO(l/.,in IK.''ilito(;s,0(lll,OOII/.,iiliilili js.'i'.ihi
the 70,0(H(,()0(l/. where it now stiimis. This j, a very
hirgesiim; but it must not thence be iiil'i'iTiil ili.ii
tuxatinii is herecnmpariitively heavy, lis jirivun'
is nnt In be estimated by the acluill iiniiiiiiit nf Ilie
sum taken from the |iei>|>le and lodged in iln'inll'ir^ j
of the treasury; hut liv t lie inoili- in which laxcMirc
iinpnsed, and the ability nf the iienple to licartliini.
In snme cnuntries taxes are iinpnsed mi rirtiiin
classes only; and even where this gross iiii-i|ii,'ilitv
lines tint exist, they ar(> nl'ten imposed on crrniii'inh
)irinciples, and in a way that makes their asM'ss-
ment and colleclioii jieciiliarly dillieiill ainl iiijii-
rioiis, Ihit in the L, Kingdom taxaiinii pri'-MS I
eiiiiaily, or verv nearly s n all classes; iiml.
Without pretendnig to say that this s_\steiii of tax-
ation is perfect, or that it might nnt bo iiialiriiilly {
improved, it a|i|iears, speaking generally, lo Ik'
founded on sound principles, and is priii'lically iii
little injurious as il could well Ix- reiiiliTnl. riii:
intliience of taxation in (ireat Itritaiii ll.^<< imi |
been hostile to theincrea.se of public opiilciiiTaiiil
jirivate cnmfnrt. To the desire nf rising in iln'
world, the increasing pressure nf taxiilioii (liiriiy
times nf war superadded the fear of lieiiig liinnvii I
down to u hiwcr station; and the two tn^ccllMfj
]iro(luced results nnt to be looked fur I'mni ili''[
unassisted agency of either. Oppressive taxi-j
would have had an n|tposite etTect ; ami iiistculii'l
jirnducing new displays nf industry and (riiiiinn^.
would hav(! proihiced only despair and imtimial
impoverishment.
About two-thirds of the public rcvoimc aroilo-j
rived from duties of customs and excise; nml the j
rest from the property and income tax, tliediilirtj
on stamps, the a.sses.sed taxes, and the pust-dlliccj
The .subjoined statement is the ollicial awoimt I
(I llip griwi* piibH
ill iImi y«<ttri'iidei|
I'll
('n«ioni« , ,
K«rl»» . .
Hunilis
Tmi- ( I.«iii| mill Al
I'Mln 11 V Tim ,
(•iLt I ifflii.
Crowii l.miils (Ndt)
Mi-ii 1 1 l.ANKnis ; .
rriHlnreiif Ilie Hiilr
i.r liM .Mfnres Mil, I
"lilt r. Military iiii.l
Niual I'xtru II.-.
ril|i|s . , ,
,\li.nuiil, riTeh«^|
frniii (lie Itevi'iiiinii
nl IimIIu nil Hii.
n.iiiitiif I lid \'',IT,,u
liii' anil Null.
itTii'tlve riiiirifca
"I lirltlxli TriMiiHt
-rvlii)/ In eiiiit
iiMiiilry (Iiii'IihI.
liil/:lii)i,NH(l/. |mj7,|
iirniir cliiirtfes) .J
Allnuaiice nnt nfi
I'mlllH of |;<Mio
nii'lviil frntti tlie '
llniik nf Kliifliiliil, I
IktAcI'-'I Viet.c.lll
Ml-ri'llaii M He. \
ii'lplH, liiiiiidlnul
Inijin'stiiiiil other [
Mniieys , , f
( liliiii War liiileni- 1
iiHy . . .;
Total nc
Tlin public expen
aci'iitiiry, has kept |
ew\i items nf cxpi
till' .Natinnal Debt,
■iniiy inid navy, whii
mure than twn-thir
l>y tnxation, leavin>i
L'liii'riil gnvernment
ilii' otHcial nccnunt <
liin' nf the L'nited 1
lliL'3l)th June, JwtMi
rtmuc K
Inlermt nml ManaKcmc
niBtipiit Deljf, ,
Ti'miliialiU. Annuities
Intercut of Kxi'lie(|iier I
;ui(rci.t of KxclHHpier I
ChnrKCHon (.'oiinolli
'M\ blst ,
AnniiltiuH nml Ponslons
Wiirtps mill Alldwaiicei
I'iplonmtic .Salaries and
''"llfH of ,Iiistlop
ULicclliineoiis CliarKOH
fiupply Services :—
•^nvy , , , '
'liwcllnnroiis Civil Serv
f»larliv., &c. of llevemK.
lai'kct .'^iTvIco .
Kfrt'li mill 'i'eniknlo Pri
SthclUt Toll Iloleinptlon
Total Expcn
Tlie following table
jf the actual revenue
liiiteil Kingdom dnri
1 accordance with tin
I talttct estimates have
IJ'nofI up tn the year
*pnl, and subscqiieiitlj
imrTisir kmpthk
fin.i
(Yllio KriMM piiMli' imciinii' of llii< I'nltol Kiii^^ilnni
ill (III' >«ar t'lnlnl il !■ ;Uiili ility nlMiiin', IhiU; —
I'l'IIUH' (M'OMK, iNlli I.
IIIKI r
Ciiitnnm f • « ■
K»i'l«i • • . •
Knniiti" . . . .
JhXi- I I.IIIkI IUhI AMM'MOtt)
l'rci|»it V Tux . . .
|'ii.t ( >m<i' , , ,
I rimii l.tiiiclK (Nflt.) •, ,
Ml* II l.ANKiiiK ;
|'ri«liii''<'f ttiii Hiil<'
i>r olil Htnri'M nil' I
nili. r Mllltiiry I
Niuiil I'Xtru
I'l'l|lli4 .
Aiii'PiiMt riT('l\>i|
fri'iii tlx' Ui'Vi'iiiii'it
(,l llllllll nil l»l-
(i.iiiitiif I ho I'.ITti'
live mill Nriii-
iiTc'i'tlvi- Cliiirui'M
,1 llrltlnti Tri».|.-i
nrvliiK 111 Unit
i-ipiinlry (liirlml
Iiik;ii;!i,nhii/. ih,;,/
iirniir i'liiir>fi'») , )
MlnwiliU'c lint of
rrillllM <lf iMMItl
nii'lviil from I lie
llHiik of Kiitfliiiiil,
|rrArl'.'IVi<l.r.:l
Vi lllllll'llllH Ul'-
ii-lptH, liK'hiillntf
lni|>n'Htiiii<l (itlicr
MllllI'VH
(liliiii War liidem
iilty .
t. <l.
<M4,0IM I I
Vi,H7l,<"tO
iN.niiii.iNiii
il.VnO.IMMI
H.ll l"i,IIIN»
il.H'^II.IHNI
i|ll<'>,'i<HI
I,|II4,NHI( IH 7
":}
ini,A7H
<l4R,ini 4 4
4:14, 747 n
;i,(rj;i,.i(;n 4
Total Tlovrnnn . (I!i,!MI-.',!MI(I 4 l»
Tho piililic cxiK'ndiMirc, for the Inst qunrtiT of
ncciitiirv, liiiM k('|il iiiK'c with tlui rcvciiiii'. Tin-
jrn'dt items of i'X|i('ii(liiur(> nrc iIk- iiilircul of
the NatioiMil Dt'lit, iiml tli<> iilllinti'iiniu'c of llic
aniiy iiml iiiivy, wliicli tom'tluT lake coMsidiTnlily
nmri' th/ll) two-tliinlH of (In- wliolr niiiii riiiscd
liv tiixalioii, It'MviiiK li'Ns timn oiio-lliinl for llic
t'iiicriil (,'"V<'niniriit of tlu^ realm. Sulijoliied is
llic iillii'ial aceoiiiit of llie ^m,ss |iiililic exjiemli-
liiK of tho IJniteil Kingdom in the year iiiuloil
ilio 30th June, l«t;4:—
rimuc ExpENDrrunit, l8(>3-4.
£ t. <l.
Interwit mill MnnnKcmcnt of tlio Pcr-
mniioiil Debt S3,714.8in 11 7
TiTnilimlile AniiiiitloH . . , •i,174,:i.Mt !•,' 4
IntcTi'Ht of Kxeliecnier nniids . . \>>i,r,im
'.ntcrcxtof Kxeheqiier IlillH . . 3U./..'.H fi 10
ClmriffH on ('oiiwltdnted Funil :--
rivlllM 4nf!,nir) 14 n
AnniiltiuH nnil PonRlons . . . i\T2,iM Jl 1)
("alarios mill AUownnces . . . 17(l,y'>0 ft 1
Iiililnnmtic Sill nrlc's otid Pensions . 17ii,:i'.'7 'i 1
(Vrar'M)f Jnstlee .... OSd.iidl i:i 11
MUi-lliinooilMCliaWM . , . lKl,43;t l.') II
Supiily Scrvlci's : —
Army 14.(l.'in,lM fi 1
Xnvy 10,II0!I,(;0'.» 7 it
MlnccllnnPonH Civil HcrvlroH . . 7,:I(!ii,h:i:M!) 1
."alarles, &r. of Ilevemie Depnrtmcntg 4,r.lH,HH;i 10 1
hi'kct Serviee »i71».:t!Mi IH -2
Kmrh mid Yeniknlo Prize Money . Hfi.nar, o n
Scheldt Toll Uedoinption . . . 174,.'.iiH 1« I
Total Expcndltnro
C(i,(i4;),o78 2 a
Tlie followinj; tnhlc cxhibitH the total nmonnt
<'[ the actual rovenuo and cxiieiulituro of the
United Kinplom during tlio 16 years 1850-04.
In accordiitu'c with the nystein upon which the
tiiiilcet estimatCH liave Ik>c>ii framed, the linancial
Kfiixlup to the year 1854 ended on tlu? M\ of
April, and subsequently on the last day of March.
'I'lie Hrt ninounlii of ri<vi<niH< nnd rx|M<Mditiiri> arc
kImii u|i Io It nd >i|' ilir iliinMriiil year |r>.h>-iHl,
and the ffnui» ntnonnlH nller Itwt |ichiMli—
Mil *iniiuHU
<
C
April ft.
IHM)
ftj.niii.niii
«".:17M,417
1 II
IH.M
ft;i,»'.7,<i.'iJ
a\>.»»-j:wj
II
iN.Vi
Ai,4)tN,:i|l)
fto,V!>l.:iV:i
It
iHftJI
ft:i,'J|:l.';iH
M.T^JMi*
• •
IHM
AI,774.INiA
ri{.-iw,\ji\
Mureh »l
iMftft
Ali,llMi,|:<l
ti;.,iiti.,>,iitij
i»
iMMi
IHftT
Uft,7il-t,4tM
NH,t'JH,tl4A
11M4,'i>nj
Tfl,r,HH,Hli'
IM.'iH ,
HT,»l»l.ft|!l
tm.i'js.H.Mi
II
INftI)
llft,477,';H4
iM.tKl'I.NMi
II
1N«|I) ,
7 1 ,)IN|),lltll)
•:ii,f.i»'J,7W>
II
IHfll
7».'iM:l.il74
TJ.7wj,M,\i
II
IMfi'i
rili,tl74,47I»
71,1 HI. I"'"
IMIIII
7n,tio:i,fttll
lili,:lii',j,lioN
II
IWM
70,'i0M,IHIt
(l7,llMI,'.'Ntl
Hulijoined is a slalcinent exhihiliii^' the ^riisM
revenue, after ilediieliii|{ reiiMyiiicnts, iiliuwiiiirrs,
diMi'ountH, (Iriiwliaeks, iiiid lioiiiities in tlir iintiire
of drawliaoks, for (ireat Itrllain and Irejnnil, for
eurh year from I8P.'-.'I to |8(I|-"J, enliiilated ill
iierioils of live years eaih. The re(ei|iis of the
rost-otilee, erown liimls, and of all otlur smirres
raised in Ireland towards the revenues of the
I'nited Kinplom, are included in the revenue of
Irelinid.
Tmt
UrMt Britain
IrrUnd
K
C
lH4•^-l^
4<i,oii,!i;ii
4,'.'iiH,(;!H
1M:I-I4
ftl.l.'ill.Slll
4.IIH..IH7
lH4l-4ft
f.;i,'Ji!i.7i2
4,tiii>,'.>l8
|M4f, 1(1
:.! .:!•.' i,r,;,7
4,7ii.s,2ll|
lM-lt;-47
ft'i,:ia.'.,ri7H
4,».'.l»,013
•J.'.4 ,0112,737
22,48.1,700
1K47-4H
ni.4<in,r.4fl
4,4f.4,4ll7
IK|8-4!»
ft2.:iM ,»».'.
4,ft7l,ti!i;l
IS4!l-r.(»
ft'J.fi.'pH.H.II
4,:i:i.'i,207
IH.MI-:,!
M,4IH,ll!l
4,'.'(il,.',(ii
IMftl-M
ftl, SI 1,11111
4,:!'.'l,8(ift
2flo,ri00,i/in
ft'.',tOII,(l.'ijl
21,!)47,7(i:i
4,i(:fi,mi3
lHr.a-ft:i
1Hft:l-.'i4
(ir.,|(ni,(i.',s
^>.»84,f.27
lMft4-.'.ft
ft7,4f.:i,2mi
ft.imii.THfi
18fif.-rifi
fi2,tUi:l.2(m
(!.71!t,:im(
186«-ft7
(14,721, 0811
fl,!t77.8:il)
802,044,801)
fin,n2;i,34!i
30,()ftfl,ft44
fi,7;i7.ifti
1(W.7-ftS
IHfiS-.'iO
ri(i.K|!l,!l77
0.|.'18,H70
IHftiMIO
(12,224,(i:i!t
7,07ii,7:i2
ISdO-fil
02,4!i:i,7|:i
ti,0'.".MI8
18«l-(ia
61 ,!i(;0,74»
o.'y.'.ciMi
302,822,461
83,«(17,607
A return moved for in (inrliament in tlio session
of I8(;H, shows that in 1801 the >;ross revenue col-
lected in (ireat liritain, excluding niiscellaneous
receipts, amounted to itr»,'J18..''i26/., and in Ireland
to'2,!)ll»,'JI7/. In the tinaiicial year 18)ll-(;2 the
amount, as seen in theahovc table, wasOl.iUlO,"!!)/.
rceeivecl of (ireat liritain, and {>,7*J'2fiOi>/. of Ire-
land. Therefore, in 1801 the gross revenue re-
ceived in Great Kritain amounted to .')/. ".«. per
head of population, and in Ireland, II.1. 2r/.; while,
o o 2
Mi
BRITISH EMPIRE
ill \Hn\-n2, the nmo'int per honil wn» 2/. liJu. in
(Iridt Hritain, niul I/. ;U. M. in Ireland.
'I'll!! Hiilijdiiicd (alili! (>xliiliitH tlu; total nmouiit
iinkluced l»y ••ach hraiicli of the revenue, in (Jreat
Wtain and Ireland reHjiectively, after dednetinj^
ri'ttaynn-iitH and drawbackH, tfec, for the year end-
inf,' iMarchai, l«tJ3:—
Customs :
(Iroat IlrltaiH
Irulund ....
Unital Kingdom .
Inland Uuvkni k : Excihk—
Orcat lUltaiu
Iroland.
ITnltoil Kingdom . .
Stamps—
ttrent Britain
Ircluiul ....
United Kingdom .
Incomk AM) PnoPEriTY Tax—
Urottt Britain
Ireland,
United Kingdom .
Assessed Taxes —
Urcat Britain .
Land Tax—
Grout Britain ,
Total Ixland Uevenur—
Great Britain
Ireland .
United Kingdom .
Post Office—
Great Britain ,
Ireland .
United Kingdom
Woods, Fouests, and Land Revk
hues—
Great Britain • ,
Miscellaneous —
Groat! Biitain
Ireland .
United Kingdom
TOTAt—
Great Britain
Ireland .
United Kingdom
A
2I,7HI»,HI«
2,'J.-.S,ii77
24,oija,H!»;i
]4.4ni,n22
2,722,1161
17,174,28:1
8,418,971
557,768
8,976,739
9,808,299
674,289
10,482,588
2,038,981
1,100,354
85,824,520
8,954,419
39,778,945
3,423.254
271,950
3,695,210
432,048
2,717,782
35,779
2,753,661
64,178,426
6,520,231
70,698,657
Subjoined is the account of the total expendi-
ture, including charges of collection, of the United
Kingdom, for the year ending March 31, 1863 : —
CiiAnoEs AND Expenses op Collectino
TilE Re\'knue :
Customs
Inland Revenue ....
Woods, Forests, and Land Re-
venues
PostOfllce
Total
Public Deut :
Interest on Permanent Debt
Terminable Annuities
Management ....
Interest on Exchequer Bills
„ „ Bonds .
Total
£
971,187
1,474,489
152,152
3,004,804
0,698,632
23,624,367
1,910,363
201,260
371,917
123,760
26,231,657
Civil Ooveii.vment :
Civil l.ixt and Allowanecu to
lluyul Kaniily , . . .
Civil Dopartmcnte ( Including
LonI Lieutenant of Ireland,
and hlH KHtablUhinont, and
Printing, Stutionory, and Post-
age for Public iJepurtiiieutH) .
All other AnnultieH, Peniilons,
and Buporannuation Allow-
ances separately provideil for .
Heueditakv Pensions formerly Paid
out of the Hovenuo from the Ex-
cise, Post Offlce, and Woods and
Forests, in Its Progress to the
Exclieciuor
Total
OtIIEB PEnMANENT AND TE.MPonAKV
Civil. SEIlVIt'ES :
Expense of Establishment for
administering the Poor Laws .
Secret Service .] porolgn" '.
Civil Government, Isle of Man .
General Superintendent of Turn-
pike Roads in Wales, Salaries
and Expenses . . . .
Miscellaneous Chakues .
Total
JUOTICE :
Courts of Justice
Police and Criminal Prosecu-
tions
Prisons and Convict Establish-
ments
Total
Diplomatic :
Ministers abroad, Salaries and
I'ensions
Consuls abroad. Salaries and
Pensions (including Services
in China, &c.) . . . .
Extraonlinary Expenses and
Outata
Total
FoncES :
Fortifications . . .
Army, including Ordnance
Navy
Total
Public Wouks t
Education :
Great Britain : Public Edncatton
„ Grants to Uni-
versities
Ireland: Public Education
„ Grants to Universities
and Colleges, &o. .
Schools of Design, Fublio Mu-
seums, iiC
Total
Colonial Charges :
Certain Civil Establishments
and Salaries, &c. . . .
M1SCELI4.VNEOUS
Total ExpENDmmB
.C
4H6,88:j
l,30,'),ll.',
20I,!I96
7,860
l,99!),3r,3
231,12;!
111,0(11)
30,HIII)
lU.S'JU
1,223
2I,U15
305,317
1,003,068
1 ,079,1)79
822,473
3,565,520
173,23(i
248,470
89,000
510,706
1,050,000
16,264,7110
11,370,588
28,685.378
844,222
782,119
27,563
33(i,281
58,430
1,204,393
227,219
l,431,oI2
213.993
1,077,679
70,464,069
The National Debt of Great Britain, the inten
on which consumes more than one-third of the r
venues of the United Kingdom, dates fromthJ
time of the Revolution, and from that pcriwl luT
been increasing in the following proportions :-
Debt at the rovol
in 1689 .
ExocMsnf dnbtcont
(luring the reh
William in.
debt paid off .
Debt at the access
j Quoen Anno, in I
Debt contracted d
Queen Anne's rei|
I Debt at the access!
I George I., in 1714
j Debt paid off durin
reign of Oeorgi
! above debt contra
1 Debt at the accessir
' George IL. In 172
Debt contracted fron
ncccRMlon of Goorg
till the peace of 1
in 1763, three j
after the ncccssioi
I George III. .
.Debt in 1763 .
Pair! during peace, f
1763 to 1775 . . .
Debt at the commei
ment of the Ameri
war, in 1775 .
Debt contracted dm
the American war
i Debt at the conclusini
j the American war
I 1784
i Paid during peace, f i
, 1784 to 1793 .
iDebt at the commer
I ment of the Froi
1 war, in 1793 .
jDebt contracted dur
the French war
Total funded and
; funded debt on the
{ ofFcb., 1817, when
I English and Irish
j chequers were consi
I dated .
I Debt cancelled from
IstofFeb., 1817,toi
I of January, 1836
Debt, and charge there
! 5th of January, 18;J(
The stat« of the Nj
from 1«50 to 1864, ha
Financial Tcara
j ended
April 5,
1850
n
1851
»
1852
„
1853
ft
1854
March 31
, 1855
))
1856
)i
1857
»
1858
»»
1859
It
I860
)i
1861
'i
1862
If
1863
»
1864
Fund<
fi
773,16f
769,272
765,126
761,622
755,311
752,064
776,730
780,119
779,226
786,801
785,962
785,11!)
784,252
783,306
777,429,
BRITISH EMPIRE
66li
Debt (it the rovoliitlon, \
in 1689 . . . f
Exfl''"* "f il"t't c()iitriu!t<Hl \
(InrliiK tlio rulgn of |
William III. above r
(lubt paid off . . )
Debt nt the ncceiwlnn of )
I Qiiccn Anne, In 1702 )
' Debt contrnctc<l during )
I Queen Anne's reign /
j Debt nt the accession of )
j Ooorgol., in 1714 . I
I Debt pnid off during the ]
I reign of George I., [
I above debt contracted )
I Debt nt the accession of
George 11.. in 1727
Debtcontrnctc<l from tbe"
nccc«<ion of Oeorgo IT.
till the peace of Paris
in 1763, throe ycnrs
after the accession of
j George III. . .
Debt In 1763 .
j Paid during pence, from )
j 1763 to 1776 ... j
I Debt at the commence- ^
mcnt of the American \
i wnr,Inl775 . . I
Debt contracted during)
I the American war )
1 Debt at the conclusion of )
the American war, in ^
[ 1784 ... I
Paid during pence, from )
, 1784 to 1793 . . J
Debt at the commence-'
j mcnt of the French
I war, in 1793 .
Debt contracted during
the French war .
Total funded and un-
funded debt on the 1st I
ofFeb., 1817,whcnthol
English and Irish ex-
chequers were consoli- |
dated
' Debt cancelled from the )
1 lBtofFeb.,1817,to6th ^
I of January, 1836 . )
Debt, and charge thereon )
i 5th of January, 1836 j
Prinrlpal
fiinili'it ami
uiifuiuUtt
£
664,863
16,730,439
liilrmt
aiitl MaiiiMfe.
mcnt
£
»9,8S6
1,271,087
16,394,702
37,750,661
64,146,363
2,063,125
62,092,238
86,773,192
138,865,430
10,281,795
128,683,636
121,267,993
1,310,942
2,040,410
3,361,368
1,133,807
2,217,551
3,034,600
4,862,061
880,480
4,471,871
4,980,201
249,851 ,628
10,501,380
239,350,148
601,500,343
840,850,491
9,451,772
243,277
9,208,495
22,829,696
63,211,676
787,638,810
32,038,191
2,894,074
29,143,817
In lH(!t tho sum of fi.OOO.non/. of (ho uiirc-
ilcrmcd fiintled dclit was cniuu-llpd, nnd n tcmiin-
a1)le annuity created in lieu thereof, under the L'dlli
Vict. cap. 2"), sect. 2.
Under a ]ircviou» Act, 48 (Ico. I II., rap. 142, tho
conmiissioncrs for tho reduction of tho National
Debt wore etnpowcrod to convert consols into lifo
annuitioH. The coinmissionors have to presout
annual aocountH to parliament, in respect to idl
trunsautioiiH in connootioii with the public debt.
Tho balancoH in the oxchoquor at the end of
each liiiaiu:ial |K^riod, duriiij; the 10 yooru from
1841) to I8t)4, w(!re an follows : —
The stat« of the National Debt for the 15 years,
from 1850 to 1864, has been as follows : —
Financial Yean cnilnl
Amount
April 6,
1849 .
8,105,562
1850 .
9,748,540
1851 .
9,245,676
If
1852 .
8,381,637
It
1853 ,
8,841,822
„
1854 .
4,485,230
March 31
, 1855 .
3,!»49,775
fi
1856 .
5,600,621
,1
1857 .
8,668,371
»»
1858 .
0,657,802
tt
1859 .
7,789,083
i»
18(i0 .
7,072,8(i4
1861 .
6,672,132
»
1802 .
6,288,676
1863 .
7,263.839
)t
1864 .
7,352,548
Financial Tcan
Detcrlrtion of Debt 1
ended
Funded
Unfunded
Total
April 5, 1850
i „ 1851
1852
„ 1853
1854
1 March 31, 1855
„ 1856
1 „ 1857
i „ 1858
! „ 1859
i „ 1860
i „ 1861
i „ 1862
„ 1863
„ 1804
£
773,168,310
769,272.562
765,120,582
761,622,704
755,311.701
752,064,119
775,730,994
780,119,722
779,225,495
786,801,154
785,902,000
785,119,609
784,252,338
783,300,739
777,429,224
£
17,758,700
17,756,600
17,742,800
17,742,500
16,024,100
23,151,400
28,182,700
27,989,000
25,911,000
18,277,400
16,228,300
16,689,000
16,517,900
16,495,400
13,130,000
£
790,927,016
787,029,162
782,869,382
779,365,804
771,335,801
775,215.519
803,913,694
808,108,722
805,130,995
805,078,654
802,190,300
801,808,609
8(tO,770,238
799,802,139
790,665,224
In the financial year ending with March 1802,
the amount of property and profits assessed to iii-
corno tax in Great liritain was 301,a80.7i}0/., beiiiK
IH/. 0». 7Jrf. per head of the population, takiii}?
this at the same number enumerated at the cen-
sus in April 1861; in Ireland, 21,638,975/., or
3/. 14ji. 7irf. per head. The (ifross amount of the
public revenue, excluding miscellaneous receipts,
was in Great Hritain 2/. 13«. per head of tho popu-
lation, or is. (i^d. in the pound u{)on the inconio
assessed to income tax; in Ireland, 1/. 3s. M. per
head of the population, or 6«. 3,\(/. in the pound
upon the income assessed to income tax.
Army and Navy, — The formation of a standing
army being long regarded with extreme jealousy
and aversion, its establishment in Kngland is of
comparatively modem origin, not dating farther
back than the reign of Charles II. It is annually
provided for by a vote of the II. of C. ; so that it
IS always in the power of the latter at any time to
reduce, or, if it see cause, totally to disband, the
army. But the old jealousies of which it was the
object no longer exist ; and there can be no doubt
that the establishment of a properly trained regu-
lar military force is indis))cnsable to guarantee tho
natiimal indeiiendence from hostile attack. The
British army has been employed in every <;uarter
of the world, and has cv(!rywhere oxhiuited all
those qualities that go to form a perfect military
force — the most unflinching courage, combined
with the greatest patience and fortitude under pri-
vations and hordships, and the constant observ-
ance of the strictest discipline.
The British army is recruited by moans of
voluntary enlistment only ; and it is to 1)0 hoped
that all attempts to introduce the conscription
into this country may meet with no better success
in future than that -which has hitherto attended
them. If soldiers could not be procured by other
moans, necessity would form a valid oxciiso for
the introduction of a conscription. But no such
necessity has ever existed. No coimtry that
chooses to pay fair wages to its troops, and which
treats them as men employed in the service of
their country should be treated, can ever want for
660
BRITISH EMTIRE
a supply of voluntary rocniits. The annual
Mutiny Act, and tho ArliclcH of War iwHucd l>y
the crown, und Hulijoincd to the Mutiny Act, con-
Htitut<> the code of martial law in force in the
British amiy.
According; to the army cstimatcH laid before the
H. of (!. ill ttie Hcssion of lK(i4, the total force of
the United Kinploni, during the year IHO-t-Ho,
consisted of IKi,7(!<5 men. This force was com-
posed of the following regiments, de|M)ts, and
training cstablishmentH : —
Tear 18C4-05
Olllcers on the Qeno- 1
rul ytiitr . . .J
REdl.MKNTS : —
Hoynl Horse /Vrtillery .
LifcGiinrdsaiullIortio |
Guards . . , i
Cnvnlry of tbo Lino
Itoyal Artillery ,
liidinp Kstablishment .
Itoyal EiiKiiiecra .
Alilitary Train
Foot Guards
Infantry of the Lino .
Army Hospital Corps .
Coinmissariat Stuff )
Corps . . /
West India Hoglments.
Colonial Corps
Total .
DepOts op Indian Re-
OlMKNTS :—
Royal Hoi'se Artillery .
Cavalry
lloyal Artillery .
Infantry
Totol .
REcnurrnJO and ornEii
EsTAnuSlIMENTS :—
Cavalry depfits . .
Infantry ilepiits .
Recruiting Establish- )
aients . . )
Instruction in Gunnery
„ Engineering
„ Musketry .
Total .
Tratnino Schools: —
Cadet Company, Wool- )
wicU ... J
Royal Military Col- 1
lego, Sandhurst j
Regimental Schools
Total .
Recai'ituiation :—
Totol General Staff
„ Regiments .
, , Depots of Indian
Regiments
„ Recruiting and
other Esta-
blisliments
„ Training Schools
Offlcon
103
80
44
381
4.56
18
180
36
27
261
12
14
26
103
6,613
4S6
261
26
Total
Nnn-commii.
OIRcrra,
Truniivtcn,
and
Druiumeri
132
09
1!I2
r>7H
1,001
mr>
l,71i>
4
13
401
374
107
200
2.57
446
3,849
7,1.56
1
220
1
112
240
839
isr,
303
6,613
12,203
8
3.5
143
71
770
1,019
23
176
54
30
1,5
.55
3S3
21
35
215
271
12,203
1,019
353
271
7,459 13,846
Hank and
Filo
1,720
1,029
8,432
14,724
205
3,918
1,534
fi,(iOO
71,7,50
759
488
3,7.50
3,582
117,491
404
627
1,341
5,500
7,872
48
38
86
12
12
117,491
7,872
86
12
125,461
Subjoined is an account, taken from official docu-
ments, of the regular troops (exclusive of the ord-
nance) at home, in the colonies, and in foreign
countries, In 17fl2, 1815, ond 1853. The stntc-
inent may serve as a comparative table in regard
to the actual strength of the army :— .
1703
ISIS
18DJ
At Homo and In the Colonlei,
Hoiifx^liold Cavalry .
779
1,504
l.iUIS
Foot Ouanls .
3,766
9,612
•5,'^l|{|
Cavalry of tho Lino
3,409
16,477
7,'iS:|
Infantry of the Line
36,508
138,701
78,.>)ll
Garrison liattalion .
—
1,823
Veteran Ilattalions .
—
2,922
West India Hegiuients .
—
8,798
3,117
Colonial Corps
—
7,147
5,.574
Fcncibles
—
3,268
Foreign Corjis .
—
21,314
Augmentation in progress
India.
40,652
9,148
-
220,714
101,7^3
Cavalry of the Lino
512
5,565
3,1 (K
Infantry of the Line
10,188
24,045
27,144
Totals .
67,252
250,314
132,032
The British forces in India, exclusive of depots
in this countrj', comprise the following troops,
granted by parliament for the year I«(i4-(i5 :—
Royal Horso Artillery
Cavalry of the Line .
Royal Artillery .
Infantry of the Lino
Total .
Offlcert
202
352
C93
2,200
Nnn-commlfu
■loncd Ofllfcra.
Truni|H.<ttTR,
and Drummon
3,445
244
674
874
3,825
6,617
Rank and
Fllo
2,fiHn
5,(IS2
9,'.'|l) .
4fi,7.')(l i
63,722
Tlie troops here enumerated do not constitute
the whole army of the United King(h>ni ; hut tlic
army estimates for 1804-().5, as well as tlie pre-
ceding years, contain votes of money for live
classes of auxiliary forces — namely, the militia,
the yeomanrj', the volunteers, the enrolled jieii-
sioners, and the army reserve force. The total
cost of the above forces amounted to 14,844,888/,,
which sum includes the charge for non-effect'm
services, that is, for half-pay and pensions to olll-
cers and men, which amounted during the year
to 2,100,157/.
The pay and other emoluments of the officers
and men depend partly on the length of tlieir
8e»",'ice and partly on the department of tiie ser-
vice to which they belong. In the household
troops, the pay of privates varies from Is. fljrf. to
2». OJrf. a (lay; in the cavalry of the line it is
Is. Ad. ; in the foot guards. Is. Id. ; and in the
infantry of the line, Is. \d. Soldiers, however,
are not entitled to receive the whole of this sum
in money ; when at home and in barracks, tiny
are supplied with certain rations, for which (Irf. ii
day is to l)e deducted from their pay. The greater
part of their clothes and accoutrements arc fur-
nished at the public expense ; but certam deiiuf-
tious are made from their pay on that account.
Pensions are panted for casualties in action, ami
to soldiers discharged after certain periods of
service.
The volunteer force, which, though of old date,
has been newly reconstructed, forms a very im-
portant body for the defence of the kingdom. Tlic
total force enrolled in the whole of Great Itritaiii
was 119,283 in April 1860, 161,400 in 1801, and
162,681 in 1864; this last number being composed
of 662 light horse, 23,363 artillery, 2,904 engineers,
6.")6 mounted rifles, and 134,096 rirtc volunteers.
There is no volunteer force in Ireland.
Rilled the Board of
fc, in fact, vested ii
has the supcrintcndc
,ip|)ointnient,s of con
rant officers with s
linnoiirs, pensions ;
cvfiything relating t
Those who enter tl
tain commissions, b«
serve as midshipmen
cliarncter, and attain
ps» ail examination
the lowest commissic
ment of a commissioi
arc entirely at the
Certain advantages
have completed their
naval coUej .; of Por
tiie navy is maintaii
sot-s of parliament.
voluntary enlistment
they may be obtained
of the government to
is of such ancient dat
the common law. It 1
tion, though the prea
c, 4, by its recital oi
manners for the king'
at that time a well-kr
fiice has also been iiK
wal later statutes. 'J
tice lias been warrant
wvice, to enable tlu
ith speed on nn em
^1rIlamellt in the coi
exercised in 1661, bv i
ll,. passed to regulate
BRITISH EMPIRE
hdl
1803
7K,r.m
6,f>74 :
101,7i3
:i,lfi.-.
27,1+1 ,
Rank and
Ftio
nrt
U,fi8n
!»,-.>10
4(1,7111
63,72-2
\( old (lato,
very ini-
hlom." Tlie
lat Britain
1801, ami
; compost'il
I'ciih'iiic*'''''
I'oluiitcerj.
From n return made to the IIoiiho of Cmnmoim
Bt till- pihI <if the ,MCs.Mi(iii of lH(i\, it npppnrs tlint, in
April IHCil, there wen- |01l,7(i(> iion-(M)niiniNsinnt'(l
dliiccrs and men in Her MiijcMty's innd fiirwH who
ili'clarfil thonisi'lves K|ii)«'o|iaiianN, '2(l."!t« I'rcrtliy-
icriiMi!*, ,5,2!M» other Protestants, anil M.hOH Itonian
('atimlicH. 'I'he nnnilierof Kfnseopftlian.s is rather
ilccreasinj;. The K'omaii Catholic^s in tlic artillery
iiu'rcnse; in IHtll they wore hnt .'J..'M4, hnt hy
April l«(i4 they had increased to «,Hil. Ont of
ili(. :)H,!}OH Homan Catholics in the army, 4(i,;MH
were in the infantry; of tiie l.'lo.HlX I'rotestants,
(Piily H-J,.')|«. In the royal marines there were in
the lirsl quarter of ]«til, 12,:!!IH ICpiseopalians,
4I(; I'r('si)yterians, 2,.'l"t> otlier I'rotestants, and
1,1 IK lionian Catholics.
Ill round nnmhers, every soldier of the Hritish
nriny costs the country l()l>/. per annum. Ihit this
mill includes all extraneous military expenses, as
ivcll as the disbursement for the non-ellective
services.
The navy of the Unitc^d Kingdom is a perpetual
o.<tiil)lishnient, and the statutes and orders hy which
it is j;overned and its discipline niaintaiiied — un-
like tiie military laws, which the sovereij^ii has
alwilute power to frame under the authority of an
Ai't of rarliameut — have been pemianeiilly est..-
lilislieil and delinod with j^reat jirecision by the
lf;;islature. The distinction also prevails in the
mode of votiii}? the charge for these two forces.
F(ir the army, the tirst vote sanctions the nninher
of men to be maintained ; the second, the charge
f(ir their pay niid maintenance. For the navy, no
vote is taken for the mniiber of men ; the tirst.
vote is for the u'wji-s of the stated number of men
and liiiys to be maintained ; and though the result
may lie the same, this distinction exists both in
|iriictice and principle.
The navy is governed by the lord high admiral
for the time being, or by n body of conimissioners
Killed the Hoard ot Admiralty, of whi(!h the jiower
t. in fact, vested in tlie tirst lord. This board
lias thr superintendence of all naval matters ; all
apiwintnients of commissioned oflicers, and war-
rant officers with some exceptions; jtromotion,
linnours. pensions ; and the general control of
cvfiything relating to the discipline of the fleet.
Those who enter the service with a view to ob-
tain commissions, begin a.s volu eers, and then
serve as midshipmen ; after six years in the latter
ckracter, and attaining the iige of nineteen, they
fass an examination for the rank of lieutenant —
tlic lowest commissioned olficer. But the attain-
ment of a commission, and subsequent promotion,
arc entirely at the disposal of the admiralty.
Certain advantages are enjoyed by those who
have completed their education aa students at the
naval coUef ■•, of Portsmouth. The discipline of
tlie navy is maintained by articles embodied in
acts of parliament. Sailors enter the navy by
voluntary enlistment ; but in eases of emergency
they may be obtained by impressment. The power
of the government to impress seamen for the fleet
is of such ancient date that it is said to be part of
the common law. It has no direct statutory sanc-
tion, though the preamble of the stat. 2 Kich. II.
c. 4, by its recital of the arrest and retention of
mariners for the king's service, shows that it was
at that time a well-known practice, and its exist-
ence has also been incidentally^ recognised by se-
veral later statutes. The continuance of the prac-
tice has been warranted by the necessities of the
service, to enable the admiralty to man a Heet
irith speed on an emergency. The authority of
parliament in the control of the navy wits tirst
exercised in ItJGl, by an enactment of 13 Charles
II., passed to regulate the government of the fleet.
This act was repealed by the '22 CiPO. II. c. 2.'1,
which was explained and amemled by the lit CfCo.
III. c. 17. Tliese two latter statutes contain the
articles of war and the rules for iioldiug naval
courts martial, and form the permanent code under
which the navy is governed. The laws relating
to the pay of this navy were consolidated and
amended by stat. It (Jeo. IV. c. 20.
For a number of years the navy of the V. King-
dom has cost, on the average, about |(l,(lll(i,t)il()/.
per annum. The parliamentary grant for the na-
val force, for the financial vear IW(J4-i), amounted
to 1 It, 1 1 «,:(«(>/., divided as foUows :—
WiitfcH to Soniiien and Jfarines . . . .^E2,N7 t.flIT
Victuals anil Clottihig fur ditto . . . l,:illl,n!)
Ailmiralty Ollli'o Itis.uo:)
Const Ciimril .Service, Iloyal Naval Coast
Volunteers, anil lloyiil Naval lleservo . n(in,71S
ScientlHc llrniicli 7l,27(i
Her ila.iesty's Kstnlilishment at Homo . 1 !»'.',-')74
Her Majesty'K EHtalilishmeiits Atiroiid , ;i7,titi<i
Wascs to ArtificcrH, ice, einiiloyiil in Iter
Majesty's Kstal)lisliinents at Home . 1,275,.110
Wages to ArtlHcers, &c., emi)loyeil in Her
Majesty's Estat>lisliments A liroail . . G!),205
Naval Stores for tlie lluililinR, Repair, ami
Outfit of the Fleet ; Steam Machinery,
anil Sliips built l>y coiitrai't : —
Section I. Storekeeiier-Cleneral of tho
Navy I,l(!4,in0
Section II. Controller of the Navy . «(j2,21J
New Works, Improvements, ami llopalrs
in tho Yards. &c 449,2ns
MiHlioines ami Medical Stores . . . (i4,:i.")0
Miscolluucoua Services .... 102,^120
Total for tho EfTootivo Service ' . £8,73li,4()«
Half-pay, Ueserved llalf-])ay, and Itetir d
I'av to Oflicers of the Navy and Koyal
Sfarines 6!>7,7n()
Military Pensions and Allowances . . 4!»o,'201
Civil Pensions and Allowances . . . l!);i,98.1
Total for tho Naval Service
*10,118,:t80
The navy of Great ISritain, on January 1, 180.5,
numbered !)".") .ships of all classes, including 'non-
effective sailing .ships.' The list comprised 72 ves-
sels ranking as Ihie-of-battle ships, mounting from
74 to UU guns each; 3!) of from 60 guns to 72
guns each ; (i'.t frigates of from 24 guns to 4C guns
each, most of which were of a tonnage and horse-
power equal to a line-of-battle ship ; 30 screw cor-
vettes, each mounting 21 guns ; and U|)wards of
(iOO vessels of all classes mounting less than 20
guns. In addition to the above, there was a Heet
of 185 gunboats, each mounting two heavy Arm-
strong guns, and of 00 horse-power, besides a
numerous squadron of iron and wootlen mortar-
vessels, built during the Russian war, and laid up
at Chatham. The number of line-of-battle and
other steamers composing the squadron on the
North American and West Indian station was 2i).
The squadron in the Mediterranean numbered 28
vessels of all classes. The J'2ast India and China
sqnailrons consisted of 01 vessels, including gun-
boats. The number of ships stationed on the
west coast of Africa, for the suppression of the
slave trade, was 22. The Pacific squadron num-
bered 13 ships, and that on the south-east coa.st
of America 1 1 ships. There were 8 line-of-battle
and other ships stationed at the Cape of Good
Hope, and 7 ships were attached to the Australian
station. The Channel squadron consisted of 5
shi])s, all iron-plated.
The iron-plated or armour-clad fleet, built or
biulding, consisted, according to a return ordered
by the House of Commons on May 3, 1804, of 27
shii>s and 7 floating batteries.
Cokmies and Dependencies. — The colonies and
dependencies of Great Britain embrace about one-
third of the surface of the globe, and nearly a
«08
BRITISH EMPIRE
fmirth of itfl popiilntion. The aron
!){ these pos- i
BPMsioiis covers 8,IUi»,(!4!) nquare niiloH, or nenrly
thirty times the extent of the United Kiiif^ilom.
KxuliiHive of India, liy far the most important of all
the lo.MHessionH (f Great Hritain, the colonies may
Ih) (I vided into tour principal f^roups, namely, those
in North America; m Central America
,ortl,o West
Indi(ts ; in Australasia ; and in Africa.
At uresent,
the North American j;''""P takes iirecedeu'cu over
the others in rejrard to iM)pulation ; but there is little
doubt that, in the course of another Keneratioi', or
perhaps two, it« growth will be outstripped by
that of the much younger colonics of Australr.sia.
Official returns, calculatc<l for the year lH(i2, idate
the area and pupulatiuu of the British possessions
as follows : —
Pofifisioni
Area
PopulHtlon i
Numbrr
India
NOIITII Amkuica
033,722
135,034.244
('nnoda ....
242,482
2,507,057
New Brunswick
27,037
193,800
Novii Scotia
15,020
277,117
I'rince Edward Island
2,173
80,857
Newfoundland ,
35,850
122,(!38
British Columbia .
Total of North Aincri- )
can Colonics . j
Bermu'la . i . .
ilonduraa ....
West Indies :
200,000
No return
3,182,009
523,102
20
10,982
25,035
17,000
Bahamas ....
3,522
27,019
Turks Islands .
—
4,372
Jamaica ....
0,400
377,433
Virgin Islands .
94
0,051
St. Christopher
08
20,741
Nevis ....
20
9,822
Antigua ....
108
37,125
Montserrnt
47
7,053
Dominica ....
291
25,005
St. Lucia ....
300
27,141
St. Vincent
131
31,755
Barbadocs
lOti
152,727
Grenada ....
133
31,900
Tobago ....
97
15,410
Trinidad ....
2,012
84,438
British Oinana
Total for West Indies .
Falkland Islands
AusrrnALASiA :
70,000
127,095
980,347
89,389
13,000
500
New South Wales .
478,801
348,546
Victoria ....
80,944
540,322
South Australia
300,000
120,830
Western Australia .
45,000
16,593
Tasmania ....
22,029
89,977
Now Zealand •
95,000
139,908
Queensland
Total for Australasia .
Hongkong ....
669,000
.30,116
1,687,434
1,291,351
29
94,917
Labuan ....
50
2,442
Ceylon ....
24,700
1,919,487
Mauritius ....
708
322,517
Natal
18,000
167 ,.183
Cape of Good Hope .
104,931
207,090
St. Helena ....
47
0,800
Gol(i Coast ....
0,000
151,340
.Sierra Leone
300
41 ,024
Gambia ....
—
0,939
Gibraltar ....
1«
17,047
Malta
General total .
115
147,083
144,499,701
3,319,0493
The prowtli of the British colonial
empire — re-
suit of three centuries — of peaceful am
l warlike en-
teqirise— is illustrated in th
c subjoine
l1 table :—
Colonlri and Driivnflvnelti
IHIoanilMoileorAciiulililon 1
ElIllOPF :
Gihrnltar .
Capture . . 1704
Hrlignland .
Cessicm . . iHii I
Alalta and Uozo . .
Capture . . isDii '•
Asia:
1
[
Coylon ....
Capitulation . 1790 |
Ikngal.
Bombay
MailrnH
N. W. Provinces .
Tunjaid)
Settlement and con-
quest at various
periods from
1026 to 1 849
HouKkung .
Treaty . , isj;!
Labunn .
Cession . . isiii
Al'uu'A :
Cape of Good Hope
Capitulation . I8iiii
Gambia
Settlement . lii:i|
Gold Coast .
„ . Kiill
Natal ....
„ . ls:ls
St. Helena .
. ici 1
Sierra Leone
17H7
Mauritius .
Capitulation . isio
Ameuica :
Bermuda
Settlement . ICOS
British Columbia
,, • —
Canada, Lower . )
Canoila, U|)iH!r . )
Capitulation and ( 17.'.!)
Cession . ( 17fiU
New Brunswick .
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
Settlement . 1497
I'rlnce Edward Island j
(fuiana, British .
Capitulation . 180,1
Falkland Islands .
Cession . . 18;J7
Wiwr Indies:
Antigua
Settlement . \m->
Bahamas
„ . ltffl»
Burbadoes .
. IWtt
Dominica .
Cession . . ITiiit
Grenada
. . 17(1;;
Honduras .
„ . . 1H70
Jamaica
Capitulation . 1(!55
Montscrrat .
Settlement . WM
Nevis ....
. ltil'8
St. KitU
„ . 1023, 1«5I)
St. Lucia
Capitidation . isn:)
St. Vincent . • .
Cession . . I7(i:l
Tobago .
. 17(i:i
Tortola, &c.
Settlement . Iiifi5
Trinidad .
Capitulation . 1797
Turks Island
Settlement . im
AUSTUAT.A8IA '.
Australia, South .
Settlement . 188r,
Australia, West .
. 18'J9
New South Wales
„ . 1787
Queensland .
. 1859
New Zealand
. 18i!9
Tasmania .
. ]8in
Victoria
. 18:)«
The total exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures to the colonies and depcndciieic!!
of the kingdom were of the value of 42,246..'i77/. in
1801, of 41,895,349/. in 18(!2, and of 60,9iy,(iW/.
in 1863. (For further details see the names of tiic
various colonies and dependencies.)
History. — A sketch will be found in the article
England of the principal events in the history
of that most important part of the empire. The
leading epochs in the history of the latter arc;—
I. The invasion and establishment of the Eng-
lish power in Ireland during the reign of Hcnij- II.
II. The union of the crowns of England ami
Scotland in 1604, on the accession of James, kin/,'
of Scotland, to the tluone of England, vacant by
the death of Elizabeth.
III. The great civil war in the reign of Charles
I., followed by the execution of that monarch in
1649; the establishment of the Commonwealtli;
and the restoration of Charles II. ui 16C0.
IV. The Revolution of 1688, which expelled
the family of Stuart from the throne; ilclinai
and firmly established the principles of the consti-
tution : and introduced a liberal, tolerant, and
ronllv responsi
William III., 1
V. The cstal
of Knglaiul and
VI. The accei
VII. Ihe A.I
VIII. The wf
iKir>.
IX. The legii
land and .Scotln
A'. The pass!
X I. The ab(di
XII. Thotrai
to the Imperial
ItlMT'lANY,
considerable of
(Mcupying the
Atlantic. It is
of Loire Infer]
Morbihan, and (
imiVE, or B
of France, dep. (
niid fertile plain,
Pop. 9,8,54 in U
houses being all
slates. It has a
nuts, and cattle,
trulHcs and mluil
Dubois was a iial
UKIXHAM, a
Devon, hum!. J I
road, and 22,'j m.
of town 4,390 in
Pop. of par. 5,981
a narrow ravine (
the din's im|)endi
divided into the \
latter the buildin
irregular streets i
contains many f^
an ancient structi
numents ; ui the
which has 300 fre(
affc in the gift of
and a VVesleyan cl
corporated with j
which educates al
w a pier harbour
consisting of an
communicate with
commodious. The
the pier-head. Th
connected with the
120 vessels, of 20 t.
are engaged; there
of tiO to 120 tons, 1
engaged in the c(
There are extensiv*
bourhood. The mt
connected with thii
landing of VVilliai.i
November, 1688.
. BROADSTAIKS
"ig-place of Englai
Tiianet, half-way 1
Kamsgate, 69 m. E
'1 m. by London, (
Pop. ofeccl. distr. 1
ral good lodging-lu
hbraries, good hot
episcopal chapel, bu
pier (formed in the
H accessible for sm.T
BKODV, a town
part of Galicia, circ.
ii|Ulilllan
IKll 1
IHIII)
17»G i
3on'
loUB
6 to 1S4!)
1K4;1
IHIO
\m i
iwii 1
ih:is
l(ir,i I
17«7 1
1810
1C09 1
and ( 17M
. \ 17fi;i
1497
1R03
18^7
. Ififfi
Kl'Jit
IWIS
17«:t
17(«
1870
lfi55
lfi;w
WIS
1623, 11)50
180;)
17«5
rt'.:i
li»i5
1797
10^9
18.1fl
IS'.'lt
17X7
185!)
1S:!;I
18ii:)
18:)«
rish produce
ilepcndcncicti
246.377/. ill
50,'.il9,<!a4'.
nanips'of the
the article ]
the history
mpire. Tiie
iter arc:—
of the Kn;;-
ofHcnr)lI.
England and
James, kiiy
d, vacant by
n of Charles
monarch in
imonwcalth;
GGO.
ich expelled
one; ilcliiK'l |
,f the consti-
,olcrant, aud
BRITTANY
really rpuponsililo HYstom of Kovcnimcnt, under
Willinin [II,, iVincc t>f ()rnn>;e.
V. The. cHtnMi.Hhineiit of tlii! Ic^inlntivc union
of Kn^lnnil and Scotliuul, 1707.
VI. Tlio nceetwionof tlie Houseof Hanover, 1714.
VII. 'liie American war, I77(!-I7X4.
VIII. The war with revolutionary Trance, 1793-
IHI.').
IX. Tlic Icjjislntivc union of Ireland with Kng-
laiidand .Scotland, 17»!).
X. Tlic passinp of the Heform Act, l«a2.
XI. The abolition of slavery in the colonicH, 18.'J4.
MI. The trauHfer of the adminiMtrntion of India
to tlie Imperial government, 1858.
HlilT TANV, or nHKTACiNK, one of the most
considerable of the ancient provinces of FrainT,
(H'cupying the peninsula of that, name on the
Atlantic. It is now dihtribnted among the <Iepts.
of Loire Infe'rieure, lUc-i't-Vilaine, Finisterre,
Miirbihan, ond (^'otes-du-Nord.
lUJIVi:, or HHIVK-LA-GAILLAIJDK, a town
of France, dep. Corri'zc, cap. arrond., in a beautiful
and fertile plain, on the Corrb/e, If) m. SW. Tulle.
Pop. !>,8.54 in 18(il. The town is well built, the
hoiiHCit being all of hv.wn stone, and covered with
slates. It has a considerable trade in wine, chest-
nuts, and cattle, and is the centre of the trade in
triitilcs and volaileea truffeen. The famous Cardinal
Diilxds was a native of Brive.
IIHIXHAM, a sea-port and par. of Kngland,co.
Devon, hurul. Haytor, 18(! m. WSW. London by
road, and '2'25 m. by (ireat Western railway. I'op.
of town 4,!J!iO in l'8(U. Area of par. 5,?1() acres.
Po]). of par. 5,!»84 in 18G1. The town is built in
a narrow ravine opening towards the sea, and on
the clill's imiiending over it on either side, an<l is
divided into the upper and lower towns. In the
latter the buildings arc nuich crowded, in narrow
irregular streets aiul alleys; but the upper town
contains manv good houses, as does also the
immediate ncighbourliood, which is remarkably
picturesque. Tlie church in the upper town is
an ancient structure, with some interesting mo-
numents ; ill the lower town is a idiajjel of ease,
Avliich lias .400 free sittings , the living is a vicar-
age in the gift of the crown. It has also a I)a]>tist
and a VVesleyan chapel, and a national school, in-
corporated with an endowed one founded 1634,
which educates about 400 boys and girls. There
is a pier harbour at the end of the lower town,
consisting of an inner and outer basin, which
communicate with each other, and are safe and
comiuodious. The spring tide rises about 24 ft. at
the i)ier-head. The principal trade of the place is
connected with the lorbay fishery, in which about
120 vessels, of 20 to 4.5 tons, and 70 smaller boats,
arc engaged ; there arc also upwards of 120 vessels
of 60 to 120 tons, belonging to the place, chicHy
engaged in the coasting trade of the Chiiniicl.
There are extensive marble quarries in the neigh-
bourhood. The most remarkable historical event
connected with this place, or with Torbay, is the
landing of Williaia III. at its pier, on the 5th of
November, 1088.
BROAUSTAIRS, a small sea-port and water-
ing-place of England, co. Kent, E. coast. Isle of
Thanet, half-way between the N. Foreland and
Karasgate, 69 m. E. by S. London by road, and
77 m. by London, Chatham, and Dover railway.
Pop. of eccl. distr. 1,378 in 18()l. There are seve-
ral good lodging-houses, warm baths, two public
libraries, good hotels, assembly-room, and an
episcopal chapel, built in 1828. There is a wooden
pier (formed in the reign of Henry VIII.), which
is accessible for small vessels.
BKODY, a town of the Austrian States, NE.
part of tialicia, circ. Zloczow, near the coniincs of
BUOMLEY
AOO
Russia, 52 m. E. bv X. Leinlicrg; Int. ."lOO V N.,
long. 25° 18' K. I'op, 1K,74I1 in l8,-)7, Nearl/
one-half the inhabitants are .lews. The town m
situated in a marshy |)lain; and Iho houses being
mostly of wood, and the streets iinpnved and lilthy,
it is well entitled to the iiamo it bears — hrndij
meaning a dirty place. Hut, notwithslanding its
unimnnisiiig a|ipearaiice, it enjoys a very coii-
sideral)le trade. In 1779 it acquired the privilege
of a free commercial town; that is, a town into
which coininodities may be imported, and from
which they may be e.vjtorted free of duty. This
franchise has rendered it an important eniporiiiin ;
and its fairs are attended by dealers from the
Ukraine and Odessa, Moldavia and Wallachia, as
well as the conligiioiis Austrian and liiissian pro-
vinces. The ]iriiu'ipal articles brought from (he
S, are cattle, especially horses, with hides, tallow,
and wax, which ore exchanged for ctdonial jiro-
diice, manufactured goods, hardware, imrticiilarly
scythes, furs, and jewellery. There is a regular
exchange with Odessa. The greater part of this
important trade is in the hands of Jewish mer-
chants settled at Hrody, of whom many are very
opulent. The annual commerce of the place is
estimated of the valm of 30,000,000 ilorins, or
3,000,000/, llrody is the .seat of a mercanlile
tribunal ; has a Cathtdic and three < ireek churches ;
one large and two or three smalU'r synagogues; u
convent and hospital of the Sisters of Charity ;
grammar and commercial schools, with peculiar
schools for Christians and Jews; a theatre, in
which, during the fairs, jdays are alternately re-
presented in the (rcrman and Polish hmguages;
and a Jewish hospital. The town is on the estate
of Count I'otocki, who derives a princely revcnuo
from it, and has a large castle within its precincts.
IJROEK, tt village of Ihdland, C. m. NK. Am-
sterdam. Pop. 1,4(!6 ill 18(U. The village is
celebrated for the wealth of its inhab,, but more
for the extreme cleanliness of its houses and
streets, the attention to which has been carried to
an absurd and ridiculous excess. The entire jiop.
cim.sists of retired merchants and their families,
who amuse themselves in killing ilies, and keeping
their dwellings free from every speck of dust.
IU{t)MHliH(l, a town of I'russia, prov, Posen,
cap. circ. same name, on the Itraa, (i m, from it.s
contluencc with the Vistula, at the junction of the
railways from Uerlin to Warsaw, and from lierliii
to Kiinigsberg. I'op. 22,474 in 18(il; excl. 1,970
military. The town is one of the most thriving of
eastern I'riissia; it more than doubled its pojiula-
tion in the 20 years 1841-61. The canal joining
the Vistula with the Netz, an aflluo.nt of the Oder,
runs between this town and Nakel on the Netz. It
hius a court of a)>pcal for the circ, a gymnasium,
and other literary establishments, several distil-
leries and breweries, chicory and tobacco works,
and a considerable and increasing trade.
BROMLEY, a par, and town of England, co.
Kent, lath Sutton-at-Ilonc, liund. Bromley and
Beckenham, 10 m, !SE. London by road, and 12 m,
by South Eastern railway. Pop, of iiarish 5,505 in
1861 ; area 4,630 acres. The town is on the X.
bank of the Ravensbourne, and chieHy consists of
one street of neat respectable houses, extending
for some distance along the line of road from the
metropolis to Tunbridge, The church is a spaciou.s
structure, with an embattled tower; the Inde-
pendents and Wesleyans have each a chapel ; a
national school for both sexes is supported by
siibscr. ; there is an almshouse for old people, rent
free ; a charitable estab., called Bromley College,
founded in 1666, and enlarged and endowed by
many subsequent benefactors, supports 40 clergy-
men s widows, who each receives 38Z, a year, with
:,Ht UUOMHOUOVE
ciimIm mill raiiillrM*. the rdilicc ptiirKmrH twoqimil-
raiiKnilar arciiM. mid Iihn ii (■liii|)cl : the i-hnritv ih
iiiiili'r the iliri'ction of 11 triiMti-oM. Thcro is a
wci'kly iiiiirkft on 'I'hiirHilny, a iiioiithly one for
(•III lie, every third ThiirMlay, and aim. fairH Keh.
1 I, All),'. -I, ehielly Cor live utock. It is the central
town (ifn (loiir law iiiiiuii of l(i parx. ; its own rateH
average l.'2ll<)/. The inliali. are ehielly engajxed
ill iit;rieiillure. From the M\ ceiitiiry the niaiior
haw vested, with little interruption, in the liishops
of Itocliester. Tlu! prefent palace was reiinilt on
an ancient site in 1777; it in a plain lirick Imild-
iiifT, on an eniinencc ^ m. from the town; an
ancient Hpring in its gardeiiH Iiiih medicinal pro-
jiertieN similar to those of Tiinhriilf^e : after lieiiiji
nej;lected two or three centuries, it was reopened
in I7.''iti, andeoiilinues to Iw nitich resorted to. Its
weekly market was ({ranted to the town in 1477.
nnOMSGirOVK, a i)ar. mid town of Kngland,
CO. Worcester, liunil. Ilalf-shire, KIH m. IS'VV. Lon-
don hy road, and 1'27^ m. by London and North
AVeslern railway vin IlinniiiKham. Po]). of town,
f),'.'<'.2, and of parish \{),H22 in IHfil. The town
is situated on the W. hank of the Salwarp, in a
fertile and well wooded vale, and chiefly c<insists
of one spacious street ahoiit a mile in len^rth. Its
church, on a Reiitle rise, has a tower mid s])ire,
tof^ether 18!» ft. in lieif^lit, and considered the liiicst
in the co. There are three dissenting chajiels; a
free (j^rammar-school, founded by Kdward VI. (in
which twelve hoys are clothed and educated, with
Bevi^n H(;holarshi|)s, and six fellowships in Worces-
ter Collef,'e, Oxford); and a town-hall, with a
market-place under it. The weekly market is on
Tuesday; two animal fairs arc held, June 24 and
Oct. 1. Nail-making is the chief business of the
place; there is also a large button manufactory.
In the adjoining ]iarish of Stoke Prim* there are
large salt mid alkali-works, in which some of the
inhab. of llromsgrove are employed: the linen
manufacture was formerly earned on, hut is now
extinct. The line of the Himiingliam and (llcm-
cester railway passes near the town. It is the
central town of a poor law union of nine parishes;
its own rates average 3,000/. : it has five guardians.
A court of requests for debts under 40». is held in
the town every third Wednesday, llromsgrove
Liekey, a lofty range, in which the Salwarp, liea,
and some other streams, have their source, lies on
the N. of the town.
UUOIMYAHD, a par. and towni of England, co.
Hereford, hiind. Uroxash, 110 m. NW. London.
I'op. of town IfSHo, and of parish 2,!)95 in IStil;
area, 9,i{10 acres. The town, situated near the
l''rome, in an orchard district, consists of several
irregular streets, which are paved and lighted;
many of its houses are of wood. There is a spacious
eliurch, in the Norman style; an Independent
chapel ; a free grammar-school founded by ICliza-
beth; a national school, for 1*20 children; and
almshouses for seven old women. The weekly
market is Monday; corn, cheese, and butler are
the chief articles. Petty sessions for the hund. are
held in the town. The par. comprises three town-
ships and one chapelrv.
hKONTE, or BKONTI, a town of Sicily, Val di
CatAnia, cap. cant., near the Giarettn at the W.
base of Mount ^tiia, 22 m. NN W. Catania. Pop.
11,(>29 in 1861. The town has several churches
and convents ; is healthy ; has manufactures of
woollens and paper; and the adjacent territory
produces com, wine, silk, pcstachio nuts, and
almonds. Lord Nelson was created Duke of Bronte
in 179!>, with an income of 6,000 oncie a year.
HKOOKLYN, a suburb of New York, on Long
Island. See New York.
HKOSELEY, a market town and par. of Eng-
nilUOKS
land, CO. Salop, hund. Weiilock, 127 m. NW.
London, on the Severn, by which it is separaicj
from Madeley. Area of par. I,r)."i0 acres j |ii]|,,
4,7"24 in I Kill. The town (Consists iirincijijilly nC
one long street, with smaller ones braiicliinn; oiv
to lh(! dilVereiit collieries and other works. Ii Jms
a parish church, and chapels for different deiiniiii-
nations of dissenters ; and then^ is a chapel i)f ease
at .lai^klield, within the parish. It is within tin.
jurisdiction of tlu^ hor. of Wenlock. Courts Icit,
for iIk! manor are held in the lowii-'aall in Aprij
and October, at the latter of which four consialijcs
are appointed; and a (^ourt of requests, fur |||(>
rec'overy of small debts, is held generally evcrv
alternate Wednesday. There are here exieiisivc
coal and iron niiiies, with large iron-foundries; aiiil
it is celelirated for its extensive mimufacliirc dI'
tobacco-pipes and garden-jiots. A burning sprinj;
or well was discovered here in 1711, which (Hm-
apjieared on the sinking of a coal niiiu' in IT.")').
Owing to the depresHioii of the iron trade, iIk.
town declined considerably previously to the cciimis
of IHJtl, there having been a falling off in tin.
|)opiilalioii, since IKll, of nearly an eightii part;
the pop. at the latter period being 4,oN0; but in'
1841 it had nearly recovered its old level, and in
1861 showed a slight increase.
UKOUACK, a town and sea-port of Franco,
dep. Charonte Infe'rieurc, on the strait dividinj;
the- Island of Oleron from the mainland, H m.
SSW. Hochefort by railway. Pon. 1101 in ixill.
Its port admits only of vessels of small biinlcn.
Around the town are extensive salt marshes, fnini
which salt is obtained in great quantities, andOf mi
excellent quality. To facilitate its shipuu'nt, llic
marshes are traversed by a canal running from iIk
Charente above Kochefort to a littie below Itriniajic.
lUiUG ES, a city of Helgiiim, cap. W. Flainlcrs,
and of an arrond. and 5 cantons, in a vast U'vcl
plain of sandy soil at the junction of the cnnnls
from (iheiit, Ostend, and L'Kcliise, and at ilio
railway from Ostend to Aiitwer]); 7 m. from tin'
N. Sea, 12 m. E. Ostend. 24 m. WN W. Ghent, ainl
GO m. N W. Urussels. Ilriiges is the seat of an epi.ioii-
pal see under the archbislioi) of Mechlin ; the sout nf
a court of assixe, of a high court of justice, aii<l ol'a
court of commerce. Pop. in 1830,42,198; in \K',h.
44,374; and 4^,673 in ly.')!!. This last emumTa-
tion showed a decrease of 63.') in the prci'odinf;
decennial period, the pop. of 1846 having liccn
49,308. The city has a circ. of nearly 4^ ni., niiil
is entered by six gates. It has six large sqiia'cs.
in which are held weekly markets and niimial
fairs, and above 200 streets and lanes ; sonic are
wide and handsome, and all are generally clean.
Many large and noble ancient mansions, ami
spacious public cditices, present their ])()inte(l
gables to the streets, and atVord interesting spe<'i-
mciis of the ornamental Gothic architecture nfthc
middle ages, reminding the spectator of the f,'raii-
deur and opulence of Hruges in the days of cliivalrv,
when its gorgeous halls and courts were scenes nf
regal pomp and pageantry. Bruges, in common
with all the towns of W. Flanders, is destitute of
spring water, so that the inhabitants are oblifjeil,
as were their ancestors in the time of Pliny, to liave
recourse to supplies from the clouds. ' For tliis
purpose every house is provided with a cistern for
collecting rain from its roof; and that wliicli
gathers in the ditches of the ramparts is conveyed
by means of hydraulic machincrj' to public foun-
tains and tanks, whence it is distributed in jiipe^
throughout the cit}\ There are 34 briilgcs uitoks
the numerous canals, by which the streets arc
intersected, of which 12 are of wood, and rotator}',
and 42 of stone or brick : hence the Flemish name
of the place, — Brilgge, that is, bridges ; in Freiith
11UU0E.S
571
nniKPn. The OhJoikI rnnnl prosonfn an oxpaiiMc of
Hnrliicc timt rcHcmlilcH n stately rivtT, nnil in hiiIU-
cifiitly wiilo luiil (k'vy t<i niliiiil th*> |iii!4mii^«' of sliijM
III' m() toiiN from tlit> M'n, 'l'\w cmiiil to (Ihi'iit in
nlso navigable for lnrf,'c niul heavy vewseln. Its
/ri'^«<7iM''<i or |)aNsa^e-lioat,i.M a Iiiiko tloiUiii^ hotel,
itlVortUii^ overv uceiuninodatioit ; lint delicate
paM.Meiiffent are liable to iniieh aniioyuni'e from the
hiale of the nearly Nta^niant water, which often ix
nearly hiack with pntriilitv, and covered with dead
llsli, owiMKi it •'< ""id, to tiie extensive steeping; of
IIhx ill tlie, river I,ys, which joins the eainil at
(ilicni. The level character of the conntry is
hliown liy the fact, that between llruKesan<l(ihenl,
II distance of nearly llo m., this^reat canal has not
n sinj^le lock. The (H'litral basin or dock of llrnp's
is cajiable of eoiitainiliK above 100 vessels always
ntloat ; and thi^ convenient quays, stores, and spa-
cious warehouses by which it is siirroiiii(U'd, atl'ord
jtreat facilities for the des|iatcli of business, Tlu'
city is advantageously sitiialed for both maritime
mu'l inland commerce; and thoiifrh its commercial
triinsMclioiis are now inlinitoly inferior to those of
which it justly boasted in the loth century, they
nrc jierseverinnly carried on with most of the
jirincipal ports of France, Spain, Holland, Italy,
Kii^liwid, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Kiissia.
The leuiliiif; manufactures of llruK<!« consist of
Ince, linens, woollen and cotton goods, and of salt
and HU};ar retininf^. Breweries arc numerous ; and
several establishments are in operation for the
nmiiiifactiire of Hoa)>, (lottery, leather, tobacco, and
especially for bleaching, distilling, and dyeing.
The bine dyes of the st lifts of Uriiges are believed
to derive their peculiar excellence from the (pia-
lity of the canal water in which they are r.coured.
The lace manufacture is the most important. It
employs 7,4<IO persons, or more than one-sixth of
the whole populntion. Children are taught to
iniike lace in at least 200 schools established for
tliispiirpo.se. The exports comprise corn, cattle,
and other agricultural produce of the soil, and
the iirodiicts of the various manufactories. The
imports consist of wool, cotton, metals, dye-woods,
(lnigs,wines, and miscellaneous foreign productions.
Among the most remarkable public cdilices are
the cathedral of Notre Dame (Onser Vrouw), the
tower of which is so lofty, that when tho atmo-
sphere is particularly clear, it is visible from the
numth of 'he Thames. The interior contains an
exquisitely carved jjiilpit ; a marble statue of the
Vir;5in and (Jhild, attributed to Michael Angcio,
and for which Horace Wali)ole offered ;!0,0II0
rtdrius ; and two costly old monuments of (Charles
the Hold, Duke of liurguiidy, and his daughter,
the wife of the Emperor Maximilian, in richly
pidcd bronze and silver. The old (iothie hospital
of St. John, and the elegant cathedral of St.
Saviour, have several celebrated jtictiires by Hans
llemling. Van Dyke, and others. ' In the great
hall of the Hotel de Ville is the public lilirary,
containing many curious illuminated MSS., a
miiisal of the 14th century, and the scheme of a
lottery drawn at Bruges in 14-15. These, and
other Gothic buildings in the city, belong gene-
relly to thj 14th century, and are ornamented
with windows of rich coloured glass, sculptured
monuments, and. paintings by the old Flemish
masters. In the great square is a lofty Gothic
tower or belfry, the most beautiful in Europe, and
its chimes or carillons are esteemed the most com-
plete and harmonious in the Netherlands, where
only sujierior qualities are approved in this species
of musical instrument, or rather machine. In this
tower there are forty-eight bells, some weighing
six tons : they arc played upon every quarter of
an hour commonly by means uf an immense copper
cylinder cominiinicaliiig with the clm'k, and weigh-
ing about nine tons. Its surface is pierced by
:ill,.')00 s(piare holes, so that an infinite variety of
airs may he set upon it, by merely shifling lh(>
iron pegs that lift tin* hammers. On parliruhir
days a iiaid professor of music performs tlie liiiesl
Iiieces by striking with great elVort upon huge
;eys with well-guarded lists, and upon pedals with
his feet, Watchmen are constantly posted at the
top of this tower to make alarm signals of tire, by
ringing a loud hell, ami exhibiting in the day, a
Hag, and in the night, a lantern, towards the |ioint
whither the engines are reipiireil to hasten, which
is furl her indicated by a speaking-trumpet, Tlie
city lire establishment consists of nine engines and
110 men. The ancient abliev of the Dunes is a
vntt and solid building, in vviiich is held the epis-
copal academv. The .leriisalcm church is a i'ac-
siuiile of the Jloly Tomb, There is a Iti-guiuage,
or convent of Ke'guin nuns, and also a convent of
English Augiistin nuns, possessing a richly orna-
mented church. The city is divided into seven
Catholic ))arishes, and contains one Protestant
church. Several other public editiciw are worthy
of notice, as well as ancient private mansions in-
tereslingly associated with important historical
events and personages. The counril chamber of
the I'alais de Justice ciintains an immense chim-
ney-piece of wood beautifully carveil. in I. ")•_",•,
with ligiires of (;harles V. and his liimilv as largi!
as life. There is a small theatre, a botanic garcU'ii,
a museum of natural history, several literary and
scii^ntilic societies, a well-attended athena'iiin or.
collegiate school for the higher degrees of edu-
cation ; a good surgical si'hool, alteiicled commonly
by fifty students ; and a very flourishing academy
of painting and sculpture, in which, besi(U's tlu;
student's course, gratuitous instruction is given to
others in architecture, design, and drawing. Its
gallery of paintings comprises several by the
celebrated Van Eyck.
Few cities are better provided with endowed cha-
rities and asylums for the destitute and alllicted,
and with schools for instructing the children of
the poor. The average number of persons in a
state of indigence witliin the city is estim.'ited at
."),()00. The iioor-hoiise is a central establishment
for the two Flanders, and will contain o.'jd |iaiiiiers :
the number of inniates is generally about o(H). The
prison is kept remarkably clean, and the walls of
Its cells are rendered drv aiul secure by a casing <if
thick boards of oak. T^here is a mt>nt-(li^-jiii':ti'\ or
benevolent institution for lending money upon
))ledges. The temperature of the atmosphere about
IJruges is subject to sudden and extreme tran-
sitions ; and opjires.sive heat of the mid-day sun
in summer is often succeeded by very chilling
eveiung damps. Health and hingevity aiipcjir,
however, to be kept up to the average points, ainl
those who jiossess the means of choosing their
|>lacc of residence often prefer this locality ; so that
the spacious mansions of the opulent burghers of
former times arc now tenanted by many of tlus
highest families of Flandei-s, and by retired inde-
pendent merchants, to whom this old city would
seem to have peculiar attractions. The adjacent
rural districts to the W. display the most exu-
berant specimens of the Flemish farmeries; and
orchards, which abound in every part of \V. Flan-
ders, are esjiecially numerous in the vicinity of
Bruges, protlucing excellent cherries, apples, pears,
walnuts, plums, and, less commonly, apricots and
peaches.
The history of Bruges commences at a very early
date. It was a prosperous seat of manufacturing
and commercial industry long before (ihent anil
Antwerp rose to the same distinction. In the 7 th
r,Ti
imuoKs
<'ciitiirv it wn» rni)i(lly iic((MirinK itiiporlnnrc, mid
uiiilrri'lmrhiiiMKiK'. »> *!•« ••mlof tin- Nili (•cntiirv.
\\H wi'iiviTs wiTf highly (lii*liii);uiMhcil. Piiriiij,'
llir ),'ov('riiin('iit nf t\w rich nnd iMiworl'iil ('oiiiitMiir
KlimiltTH, wilt) rcNidcil nt llriiKcK Ironi ilic '.tili ti>
(111' ITitli cfiilurifH, ItM wdollfii niamifiuUiircH ^row
mid tloiirishfd to an aina/iiii^cxtc-iif, mo tluit IMiiliji
lit Itoii, ill I l!lt>, to coiiiincinoralt! itH ^riiit imi-
MiM'rity, iiiHlitiilcd tlu' cliivalrit; order (if ilicdoldt'ii
H('cc<>. At llu! FU'IIUhU court of tliisontciitatifnis
i)iik(' of HiirK'iiiidy, wluwe hypocrisy, and not hit
«'xciii|>tion from |>rid«'. and cruelty, procMin-d him
the cognomen of (iood, a auniptiioiw H|)leiidour of
papaiitry wan dinplayc(l, which no Kiiropcmi mo-
narch coidd imitate, and an alwcdiite |io\vcr was
exerciHcd, which none dared dispute. '1 he na'onlH
of liixiiriouH han(|uetM and appand at thix jieriod
are almost incredible. Not only the dresseM of
men and women, hut the hoiisnifrH of their horses,
were of velvet, satin, mitl ^old, profuscdy spaiiKJed
. with hrilliant iewels,— an extrava>,'aiice which
Charles V., in the foho-.-'Uifj; century, was obliged
to suppress by enacting siimnti'r.y laws. The
wealth and splendid attire of the citizens of llriiKes
had loiiK been subiccts of wonder ; for when the
(pieeii of Philip le llel, of France, visited this city
in liUlt), she is said to have exclaimed with aston-
ishment, ' I here see hiindre<ls who have more
the aiiiicarancc of queens than myself.' The imblic
and private lnlildin^,'•^ of the city were worthy to
disjilay such courtly magnificence ; so thatSouthey,
jndKiiiK from the existing architectural remains of
that ancient grandeur, says, in bin • I'ilgrimagc to
Waterloo,'—
• Wlion I may rcail of tilts In days of oM,
Of tourmiys graced l)y chieftains of renown,
Fair (Ininos, ({rave citizens, and warriors bold —
If fancy would pourtray some stately town
Which of such pomp fit theatre niifrht bo,
Fair liruges! I shall then remember thee,'
This noble city, throughout the 14th and loth
centuries, was the cential emjiorium of the whole
commercial world, ami had resident consuls and
ministers from every king<lom in Europe. In the
llanseatic l^eague,' or confederacy ot the great
I'iiiropean ports for the promotion of commerce,
Jlruges was the leading city, aad the grand depot
of naval stores. Her quays were crowded with
foreign ships and merchants, and her piles of mag-
nilicent warehouses were filled with the wool of
ICiigland, the linen of Flanders, and the silk of
I'ersia. Her weavers were celebrated for making
the most beautiful tlescriptiini of tapestry mf>re
than a century before the Gobelins manufacture
was commenced under the directitm of their dc-
scendiints. The wealth of the citizens of course
was enormous : a single merchant gave security
for the ransom of Jean sans I'cur, the last Count
of Flanders, to the amount of 400,000 crowns of
gold. The annual exports merely of stuffs manu-
factured from English and Spanish wool amounted
to H,000,000 tiorins, and the Horiii was then quad-
ruple its present value. This amazing prosjierity
continued undiminished during the dominion of
the dukes of Burgundy ; but under the Austrian
dynast}', at the close of the 15th century, the
rebellious conduct of its inhabitants, in forcibly
imprisoning the Archduke Maximilian, induced
his father, the Emperor of Germany, to visit the
city with such destructive vengeance that hence-
/"orth its greatness died away, its trade was trans-
ferred to Antwerp, and the religious persecution
and brutal ferocity of the Spanish under Philip II.
and the Duke of Alva completed the process of its
ruin, at the end of the 10th century, by compelling
its artizans to escape for their lives to England,
where they found a. hearty welcome from Quceii
mil} NX
Eli/abcfh, and bccaiiic the menus of oslnbli.<liiii(»
the woollen inaniifacturcN, for which thix ciiimtrv
has since become so diHiinguishcd. Tlii> hiiImi'-
(|Ui'iit history of llrugcs, under the doininicincirnii.
Siiiiiiish, Krench, and Austriaiis, iit comparative! v
of little interest.
liruges, during its gcdden age of coinnicrciul
iis<'en(laiicy in the middle ages, was the niilivi'
pbici> of numerous eininent scholastic and philn-
sopbi(^ aiitliors, classical commentators, nijitlicina-
tiv'ians, jurisconsults, theologians, physicians, and
paiiit(Ts.
llltiiGGEN. a town of Prussia, prov. Kliliic,
reg. IHlsscddiirf, on the St^hwalmcn, 10 in. ,S\V.
KempiMi. Pop, (i70 In IKtll. The town lias a IIik;
('ath(dic,aiida('alvinisichundi,with linen fabrics,
bicach-liclds, oil-mills, and a tannerv.
IllflKilJifCIM;, or LA nHlKirihUE, a town
of France, de'p. Tarn, cap, cant., on the Tliore', I m,
S, Castles. Pop. ;»,(100 in iKiil. The town has
manufactures of flannels, coverlets, and other de-
scriptions of woolh'ii goods,
KUDllL, a town of Prussia, prov. Ithiiie, rcj,',
Cologne, 4 m. \V. the If bine, and m. S, ( !oinf;iic,
on the railway from Ccdogne to Honn. Po|). •J.ikIii
in IHtil. It is surrounded by walls, is well Imjli,
and has a seminary for the instruction of siluHil-
masters ; but it derives its principal conseiiiiencd
i'rom the magnificent castle in its vicinity, com-
menced in 1725 by the elector Clement Aiigusliis
of Itavaria, and finished by Maximilian Frederick.
It is splendidly lifted up, and has extensive
l»lcasiirc-grounds and gardens,
HHUMATII, or lUUJMPT, a town of Frniirp,
de'p, Ilas-lJhin, cap, cant., on the Zorn, 12 in, NNW,
Strasburg, I'op. 4,80;i in IHOl, The town is sii|i-
posed to occupy the site of the ancient SnmmuiguH;
and the medals, marbles, and urns, which have
liceii found here prove, at least, that it had been
inhabited bv the Itomans. Some hard tiglitiiifj
took nlaco in its vicinage, iii 171)3, between the
Frencli. and Austrians.
HKUNN, a town of the Austrian States, cap.
ISIoravia, at the confluence of the Schwarza and
Zwittawa, 70 m. NNE. Vienna, on the ruihvay
from Vienna to Prague. Poj). BUjOOO in 1857. The,
town is built on the declivity of a hill, having thd
cathedral on its summit, and the suburbs at lis
foot; is encircled by walls, bastions, and treiidn's,
and was formerly defended by the citadel of Spiel-
berg, on the liiil of that name to the \V. of flii^
town ; but the defences of the latter having hccii
destroyed by the French, it was subseqiieiitly uswl
as a state prison, and has more recently been cmi-
verte<l into barracks. Silvio Pellico was shut up
ill the Sjiielberg for above eight years. Tlioiinh
narrow and crooked, the streets of the town arc
well paved, lighted, and provided with foot pnvo-
ments. Among the public buildings are,— the ca-
thedral, remarkable for the height of its nave ; St.
Jacob's church, built in 1315, with a tower 27(1 fi,
in height, a bell weighing 1 15 centners, and s(inie
monuments; the episcopal palace ; the /-«/wM««S
formerly a rich Augustine convent, now the re-
sidence" of the governor, and the place of mcetinj;
of the states of the prov. ; the town-house, a (Jothic
structure, built in 1511 ; the barracks, an eimnnous
pile, formerly the Jesuits' college, having seven
courts, a line church, and a riding-school; the tlica- ,
tre,with its assembly-rooms ; and the Maria solinol j
for young ladies. Many of the nobility beloiijc-
ing to the prov. have here fine palaces, which give j
an air of grandeur to the town. The (piartercallcil j
the Fraiizensberg is very picturesque; in the f,'ar-
deus a marble monument was erected ui IS\><, m |
honour of the late emperor Francis I. The Aus-
garten, a nark laid out as a garde.\ was opened to I
BRlfNSVVICK
tlip piiMic liv Jont'iili II. nrlliin im tln> ni'iit of » |
lii<iliii|irii' mill III' llir i^'umtiiimi'IiI nl' .Muriiviii ami '
AiiHtriiiii SiU'sia.iit'a I'mlcHtaiil coiiHintiiry, u niiirt '
iif a|i|i)'al, IiikIi criiiiiiml miuI military cniirlH, llu;
liimlrtTht, or iiiililcs' ciiiirt I'nr tlic priiv,, aiul ix llif
|ilm'c (if iiicclini; of the iiruviiicial cHiiitcn, ami llic
ri'Miilt'iifc (if ilicir i«tamliii(; ciiiiiiiiittcc. It liax a
|iliiliiHii|)lii('al iiiHtitiitc, a ^yniiiaHiiiin, a |iriiii'i|ial
iiiirinal xciiool; hcIkmiIm fur vmiii^ ladic", Irailc)*-
nicii, ami inccluinicN ; a llicolui^'ical Ncriiiiiary, niid
iiiiiiicroiiH pariKli ami infant hcIiiuiIm; an imperial
Hiicicty fur the onconraKcmciit of ii^ricuitnrc ami
of the natural liistory and p'o^craji'iy of Moravia,
to wliii'li is attai'licd a valiiiililc museum, a Imta-
iiical K»r(l<'>>i i>iid " pidilie lilirary. It luix p'lU'ral,
(ir|ilutn, and lyin^-iii hospitals; a lunatic asylum;
with mmieriius institutions for the relief of the
|iiiiir. 'I'lu^ inaiiufactiires of Hrtlim are of very eon-
fiilerahle vnliK^ and iinportaiu-e. Those of woollen
plods are the most extensive in the empire; and
the town has thence heen culled the Austrian
heeds. The woollen manufacture occuiiied |K,ll(l()
iiaiulsin lNi;i,and the annual value of tlie prmluce
is estiunited at >JI),)MI(MIII(I Horins, or '.>,00II,(IIHI/.
The cotton ntanid'acture has lieeu introduced, and
lifls made consideralile profrress; and silk, ^Mass,
winp, tol)ac(;o, and machinery, ar(( extensively jiro-
(laced. ItH trade is \ery extensive ; and has heen
much iiuTcased liy the opening of tlu; Kaiser Fer-
dinand railway, which connects it with N'iemui,
I'rafjue, Dresden, and all the important towns of
(icrinnnv. There are seven animal fairs.
lUM'S'SWICK (Oer. liruiiimhwiUi), TFIK
ni'CIlY OF, in (iermany, consists of live de-
tached portions of territory on the rivers Weser,
Seine, OcUer, aiul Aller, hetween lat. oP iW and
,52° iV.)' N., and lon^. !»«> Itt' and ! 1° -li' K. It oc-
cupies part of the vast plain which stretches from
tlic foot of the liar/, mountains, and their coiiti-
iHiation (the Sollinf^) to the (iermnii Ocean ami
the Ualtic, with a portion of the rise of those chains
on the N, side. '1 he largest portion contaiiiH the
districts of Wolfeiiliilttel and Schiininfjen, in which
the cities of Itrunswick and WolfeiihlUtelf and the
tdwns of Konij^slintter and I lelnistadt, arc situated.
The district of VVolfenhUttel is traversed hy the
Ofker, whi(-h rises in tlie llarz mountains, and is
mit naviKahle. The Aller traverses the district of
Sclil}nin};;eii, hut is not iiavigahlc in that part of
its course; nor is the Seine navijjjabk, which tra-
vptwes the district of that name. The Weser,
which forms the houiidary of the duchy towards
Prussian VVestidmlia for a considerable distance,
att'orfls an excellent water communication with the
sea and the harbour of Bremen on the one side,
and with the states of Hesse and Thiiringia, in the
heart of Germany, on the other, by means of the
Wcrra and the Fulda, which unite near IMinden,
and thence take the name of Weser, This river,
uliich forms the main outlet for the waters falling
fnim the N. and W. sides of the llarz, and the
Thuringian forest, ultimately receives all tlie smaller
streams which previously unite with the Aller, ex-
cepting the Bode, which falls into the Saalc, a
trihiitarj' of the YAh2, and which traverses the third
and most southern detached portion of territory,
the district of Blankenbarg, Of the Harz moun-
tains, which, with the Thuringian i'orest, separate
the tributaries of the Elbe from those of the Weser,
a considerable portion, valuable for minerals and
fiirests of vast extent, belongs to Brunswick. The
mmmit of the Brocken, and the rude and almost
impassable Central Harz, in which granite, mica
slate, and primitive formations predominate, belong
to Hanover, while the I"], and W. falls of the range,
in which the transition and secondary formations
prevail, form part of the Duchy of Brunswick, A
(DITIIY OF)
r.73
portion (if this mountain chain lielongs Jointly to
the two ^iivcrnmcnls, ami is di^tiiignishcil by tht*
dcnomimitidii of I'ltmmiin'nm llitrz. The highest
summits within the Duchy are the Wurmlicrg,
2,NMll ft., and the Ackernianshiihc. 'J.TiMi ft. in
height. The next conHidcridilcimiuiitaiii, or. rather,
forest range, is the Snlliiig, which lies between tlie
rivers Seine and Weser, and is covered with ex-
tensive and valuable woods of nak and Ik h. The
summits of this chain are of no great elevation.
Iron is found, and sandstone, known umh'r \\w.
name of Sollingcr stuncs, is (|uarri('d in them.
The lOlin, a sliglit range of heights between the
Ocker and the Aller, is covered with womls of oak
and beech, and contains veins of irmi and beds of
coal, with occasional mineral springs.
Two small detached portions of territory, viz.
the circuit of Thedinghuuscn on the Weser, to the
NW. of llameln, and that of Kadcnburg. are en-
closed by the Hanoverian territory, and form pari,
the foriiler of the Weser district, the latter ot the
Seine district. Finallv, the detached circuit of
Kalvorde, inclosed within the I'riissian province
of Saxony, belongs to the district of ScliJHiingen,
The diichv lias an area of l.tVJti sijiian! miles,
with a )iiipiiIation of 'J><'J,I(H) inhabitants, accord-
ing to tlu! census of IKlil. The population num-
bered 2()!>,iV.'- in Ifllt; had risen to •>:>\\:1\V1 in
IKU; to 2li!),2-JM in IN 10; ond to 27;{..T.II in IHi'iH.
There are only two towns with a pop. of above
llt,(HH), namely, Wolfenbl\ttel, and Hrunswick, the
capital. The great majority of the inhabitants are
engaged in agricultural and mining (i|)(Tatioiis.
With the exception of 1,107 ("alvinists; 2, LOS
Homan Catholics, and l,l)7H.Fews — census of iKtil
— all the inhabitants adhere to the Lutheran faith.
The most perfect toleration and erpiality of civil
and religions rights are shared by all the Christian
persuasions.
The hilly parts of the duchy are covered with
forests of tir, oak, and beech ; about JHH>,l>ltl) acres
are arable and meadow land, 2!M,(l()t) a(Tes, forests,
and 22H,tHH) uncultivated moors, water, &c. The
plain at the N. fall of the Harz is mostly of a
limestone soil, alternating with beds of loam, ami
is fertile ; the districts along the Weser and Seine
are also fertile ; but the predominant feature is
sand in those jiarts. Towards the N. part of the
duchy, these fruitful ]ihiins merge into the arid
and unproductive sandy heaths of Dolgen and
LUneberg. The average produce of corn, of all
descrijitions, is estimated at about .'J75,(M(I) qrs. ;
oil from linseed, rape, and poppies at 1,2(10 tons,
flax 4,500 tons, besides tobacco, madder, and
hops, in each of which articles, the produce con-
siderably exceeds the consumption. Cattle breed-
ing is carried on successfully in the river districts;
and improved breeds of cattle and sheep are found
on all the larger estates. Hogs are very exten-
sively reared ; but the sausages and hams of
Brunswick enjoy so much reputation, that a large
importation of hogs takes jilace from the neigh-
bouring states, the produce of which is sent to all
parts of the Continent. Horses are not reared in
suiiicicnt numbers to supjdy the wants of the
duchy, and arc annually brought from Holstein
and Mccklenbui'g.
The extensive forests, which had suffered, from
many years of neglect and wasteful management,
have of late been improved under scientific direc-
tion, and are divided into four inspectorships
{Fortmeisterekn), and 61 foresters' districts. Tim-
ber, of valuable quality, is annually Hoated down
the Ocker, Seine, Inne'rste, and Weser, especially
from the Harz and the Soiling forests, and forms a
considerable object of export trade. The game
in these forests is not very abimdant, consisting of
r.7i
llUUNSWirK (r)lTCHY OF)
ml (leer, riM'liiickH, linri'H, niiil rnliltilN, with orcn-
Hiiiiiiil wild IxiiirH, A H|H'i'ii'H of tliroittli' (Knimmlit-
riH/il) riiiiK'lil liy tliiiiixiiiiilN in tin' wilittT sriiKnii,
is I'Ntt'i iiii'il a uri'iit (It'lit'Hcv. V'Mt not \rry
iilmniliuit, nor ol' riirc mirtN, 'J'Im< iiiincral rii'licN
of the Mar/. niountaiiiH, altliouKli no lon^iT »o
lirolilic aM ri'p<irt('il in I'onncr litni'H, alt'onl t'lnploy-
incnt to nliont 7/il> |H'n|ili>, working in tliirtrfii
inini'M, or the latter, tlircc an- |irival(', ami tlu>
oiliiT ^ovt'rnini'iit inulfrtakiiiKM, nnnia^ctl partly
in ('oiijniM'liiin xvitli Hanover, and partly liy llrnn^^-
>vi<'k alone. Tlie l!aniineU iier^;, lu'iir liohjjir, of
vliii'li .'l-7tliN iH the nliari' of llrnnM>vi('k, and
'l-TlliH that of Hanover, in the inoNi ini|ioi'tant of
all the inineH, prodncin^ antimony, lend and
copper, together with hiumII tpiantilieM of pdd —
alioni a hundred oniu'es a year. Iron In the ehief
proihice of the ininen worked xeparately hy limns-
wifk in the three dinlrielM of the Harz, Wei«er, and
Itlankeidier^. Mont of lliein, as already stated,
are worked on pivennneiit aeeount, and as well
as the salt mines, stoin> enttiii^ mills, four ^dass
houses, and the poreelain inamd'aetory at Fllrslen-
lier;;, are under the direeiion of a mining' hoard itl
llruiiswiek. '[he salt wurksare very eonsiderahle ;
they are estahlished at Sal/dahhim and .Sid/lie-
lienliall, in the district of Wolfenhilttel, and at
Schihiiiip'ii, 'I'hat at Sal/.dahlnni has lieen worked
since tlii^ l!Uh century. 'I'lie liriiu' spriiifj at
Julinshall \n worked jointly with Hanover. In
tlic llrninieidiolx, near Helmstadt, there is a coal-
niiiu! with two slud'ls, and another near Walken-
ried, where alahaster and amines are foinid.
Mineral sprinf,'s occur in several piirts; lhos«"
near Helmstadt and Seesen are frei|uented hy
invalids. Aspliallum and other hituminous snh-
slances are foinul in many parts of the Harz
mountains, especially at the liaininels herg and
Iher^'.
licsidos the irfin-works, linen wrnvinp is the
i'hief article of mamd'actnre, which, however, has
(greatly di'clined of late years. Camlets are the
only description of woollens woven within the
<lnchy; « spimiiiif^-mill for woollen yarn has
been' estahlished at lievern ; aiul s)iiiniing is a
source of imlnstry amon^ many of the small
ix'nsnnt proprietors (llaiicrn) of the country.
JrewiuK is extensively carried on in nil the
I)rinci]inl towns, hut the heer is had, and does
not prevent the nniversal use of hrandy amoiifcst
the lower classes. 'I'he INInmme, a heavy dnuij^ht
extracted from malt, is now |iriiicipally used hy
(lersoiis ill delicate lionlth, and is exixirted for
that ])iirpose to all |)arts of (iermnny. Oil iiiid
pawing mills are fomid on nearly all the i)rin-
cipal streams, anil the preparation of the root of
chicory as a substitute for cotVee, which nttaineil
to a groat extent during the exclusion of colonial
produce luuler the continental system, is still
favoured by high duties on such [trodnuo within
the limits of the customs' league or Zollvorein,
Trade, especially the transit trade, is a great
source of emolument lM)tli to the town niul duchy
of IJninswick, and is principally transacted at its
ancient fair, which, in spite of railways, still keeps
lip its importance. The government wisely directs
its attention to the encouragement of the <litt'erent
industrial resources, and has preferred establishing
a li'jerally-eudowed and well-conducted system of
tdi'.cation to the imposition of protecting duties,
by which one class of the jteople is aided at the
cost of the others. The foundation of the ' Keal
Institute,' which unites witli ))ractical instruction
in agriculture and the management of forests the
scientitic information on which the higher branches
of these occu])Utions, as well as mining, and the
mechanical and chemical arts, ought to be founded,
marks an epoch, even in (Jermany, where Miniiuli
care is shown for Intellectiiiil imiiroveineiii, \,,r
are the higher hranrhe-* of knowledge iii'(;li'i'ii'i|.
The l.vceiiin, forinrrly the Caroline ('olli'^i'; \s\,',
normal schools for teachers ; and six gviiuiii-iii,
all'ord ample nieaiiN of cultivating them. Tin!
uniNcrsity fonnerly existing at llelnistadt, iii,
revenues and lilirarv of which were traii«firrii|
during the Westphalian regime to (iJittiiigen. inn
not been re-eslalilished, but (lUttingeii is reKnnlnl
as the uni\erHiiy of the duchy. Tliere uri' i;;t
burghers' schools, and .'t(i!t elementary mIiih,|<,
giving one to nearly every village. The re\eiMii.i
of nine secularised convents and religious fniiiiiln-
tions are applied to support a number of im-
married young women and other persons on iIm'
presentations of the patnun
foundations are o'J in niimher.
pen
'lie
cliariialili'
The inhabitants of the duchy are mostly i|(>.
scendanis of the ancient ' Hrokinaiiner,' a liraudi
of the Sasseii or .Saxons, and the l.ow-dcriimii
language is universal among the villa;,'crs, ex-
cept on the Har/., whose mining populiiiiim was
ilrawn from I'jiper (iermnny, and speaks lli;;lj.
(iernian. The names of some villages, as Wcinjfii,
are perhaps the side remains of the anrieiit Wi'ii
dish or Slavonian inhahitaiits of the nortli-easicrii
parts of the duchy. The higher classes of \\u-
towns speak High-(temian, which, ns all hvit
(iermany, is the language of public business anii
of the schools.
The constitution of Itrunswick bears date (Ic-
tolx'r 12, 1K,'I2, hut was modilied by the I'liinlii-
inental hiw of November 2'2, |H.')I. Tlie legisinlive
power is vested in one (,'hamber, consist in;; «(
forty-three members. Of these, nine are elected
by the highest-taxed landed proprietors; ten liy
the magistrates of the chief towns; three hy lliV
I'rotestant i ii-rgy ; ten l)y the iidiahiliiiils of
towns, and eleven by those of rural distriris.
The ('handier nu'cts every threi! years, and iln'
debilities hold their mandate for' two sessimis
With the exce))tion of the members of ihc
clergy,%which must be chosen, no distiiii'tiim i>f
rank or property inlluences or limits the iIkiIi'i'
of this last portion of the assembly. The nii'iii-
liers chosen for the towns and for the cmnitry
must, however, hehaig to that cla.ss of each wliii'h
pays the highest amount of taxes, and wliicli is
lixed to include one-tenth of the houses in town.
and one-fourth of the landed holdings, 'flio
budget is voted for three years, and the ChiiinlKr
has the right of controlling the ex|K'nses uf ilii'
state. The public revenue for the years IKdl-;!
was 4,9Hi»,()()() thalers, or 747,4.^(1/., iind the ix-
penditure of the same amount, giving an aiinnal
income and ex|ienilitiiro of 'i4!t, I ;')()/. Nut, in-
cluded in the budget is the very large revonui'
from the State domains, out of which the fivil
list of the Duke, and a variety of subventimis to
educational establishments, are paid. The snr|i!iis
of this fund only is paid into the geiieriil cx-
(Oieqiier, and set down at 432,01)0 thnlers. or
ti4,300/., for the peritxl 18<!l-(!;!. The Duke
further derives a revenue of 17(t,000 tlorins fnun
the duchy of Gels, in Silesia, and a ineiliatiscil
principality under the sovereignty of I'mssin,
which is an n])pannge of the second branrli nf tliu
House of BruiiKwiek. Finally, the estates of tlio
convents and religious foundations secularisoil at
the period of the reformation, and then destiiioil
to support the clergy and institutions of eiiiiia-
tion, fonn a separate fund, which does not enter
into the budget, yielding the sum of 340,ti0j
dollars annually.
The military organisation of the duchy is tm
the Prussian system of general liability to the
f
sen ice of flfins,
iiii'ii are raisi il I
IIS I'ontribiitioii I
Till' troops aiiim
niiiiibering ahoi
lilegnanls, sunn
^'iiiieiit of light
lirigade of artill
I'liniier times 1 1
nmre numerous.
Itriiiiswick had
under anus. In
try raised above
The present I
desri'tidant of H
liiiiise of W'elf, \
Itavnria ikiid Sax
Sniiliian house of
tiirv, the jiarly of
in Italy than in (
taini'd of their
I'linsed all the pri
the Kinperor Fre
liicni. Henry the
(■ni|H'ror in his w
iiiiil the pope, wa
diet in 1 1 HI), of |
|Hissession of his
mill Mhiehiirg, wh
iniiiierous branchi
still reigning lim
and llruiiswiek, w
such, the crown
to this liii<>, win
ilangliter of Menr
lliiuse of Stuart, I
al'tiTwiirds (ieorge
iif Klizaheth, Coui
.lames I. of I'jiglai
yiMiiiger line. Tn
exist iM'tween the
wiek, and the siici
side when legitimn
mate family <;oiiiiei
suhsisted between t
rei),'iiiiig families i
engaged the priiici
niliaiices with thes
Friince, and occasio
nmiy, at the outset
ixtH'i, WHS comniai
William Ferdinand
Imttlc of .Jena. Al
liueliy neutral, anil
with the Prussian
mediately seized b
|iiiratcd "with the k
ycinngest son, Freih
iif liis eldest, and I
brother, the sole rei
lime ill the Priiss
Austrian army. In
raised a small corps,
tioii with the gram
ilivcrsion in the iioi
hi.i cause ruined hy
Wagrani, he crossei
tlift head of a small
men, and marched
to the sea coast ii
alternately tighting
ivliieh crossed his pi
lime and brovery, In
tnglaiul, where his
anny, with iiermissi
"•inn which their bra\
aiiil served until 181
lUtrNSWICK (DrcilY OF)
/I7rt
wnicc (if nmiH, I'mclii'iillv, liiovcvrr, im iiniri'
nii'ii (ire riiiKi'il liy ciiiiMiiiiiiiiii ihaii iir>' ri'i|iiiri'il
ti<< I'ltiilriliiilinii III till' iiriiiy nf iIm' ('iiiil'i'ilcriiliiiii,
Till' rriii>|m iiMioiiiil III mil' ri';;iiii<'iii nl' inriiiilrv,
iiiiMilM'riti)< itliiiiil 'J.iMio iiii'ii ; mil' lialdilimi nl'
liri'triiiirilM, Honii' Hivvi'ii liiiiiilri'il itrmii;; niic n*-
l^liiii'Ml III' li^lil ilriiKiiiiMM, III' I,'I7 iiirii i and (inc
hriKailt' III' iiriillcry, will) .'li)| niiik ainl lili'. In
liirnHT tiiiicM the army i>( tlic tlin'liy was Car
niiiri' nnnirrniiH, |)iirin^ llii> Si'Vi'n Vfarn' War,
ItriiMKuirk liail ni'ViT Ir^x lliiin r.'.niio mm
iimlrr ai'ins. In ilu' war ul' |n|:|-| I iln' cmin -
try ralHi'il almvi' In, nod iriHpjw.
Till' |iri'm>ii( l>iiki' III' ItriniHwii'k 'im IIu> jiiit'al
ili'Mi'i'iiilant III' lli'iiry llii' l.imi, llii' hiHl nl' tlir
liiillM' i>r Writ', Wllii lll'lil till' liniti'il lln^llit'^4 III'
Itavaria uml Saxmiv. In tlii'ir rivalry uilli llu'
Siialiian Iiiiiihi> of llnlit'iiHtaiil't'ii in tlit* I'.'tli ccn-
tiirv, till' imrly nl' llir iiowcrCnl WcII'm was ntn>nf,'i'r
ill Italy liiaii in (ItTinaiiy, ami llir jcaliuHy ciilcr-
iiiiiii'il III' llit'ir piiwcr in llic riirnicr rminlry,
i'aii«('<l III! till' |iriii('('s of till' i'iii|iir(' to unite willi
till' l'lin|ii'ri>r Frcili'rii'k llarliiiniHsa in lininlilin^
ihi'iii. Ilciirv till' Lion having ri'l'iist-il In iiiil timt
i'iii|H'rnr in IiIm wars with llii< t'rcr Italian ritics
mill the iM)|i(', wiiM (li'|iriv('il, Ity a ilccrt'i' nl' the
ilii't ill llHO, of lintli (Ini'liii'M, anil niilv left, tlii'
IHiisi'ssinii nl' IliN alloilial (inniaiiiH of itninswick
mill Mln('l)iir^, which wen; Miihscniii'iilly Hplit into
iiiiiiK'rmi.H liraiii-lii'M, but nii'r;;i!<l liiiallv in tlio
htili rci^niiii); liiit'H of Khni'luirf; (or llaiiovt'r)
mill ItriiiiHwick, which Im th(> otilrr hranch. Ah
siirli, the crnwil nl' I'Jl^Iaiid wniil'l hlivc <l<>vnh'(<il
ti) this liiii-, which cltiini!* lU'sccnt from llio
iiaiif,'hti'r of lli'iirv II. nii tiio cxlini'tinii of the
llmise of Stiiarl, iiail not tlie Duke of MliielMirj^,
iiltcrwariLs (ieor;;-c I., by marrying the (lan^htcr
III' l'',lizalietli, Coinitcss I'alatlne, the ilaii^'hter of
.liiiiu's I. of Kii^'lanil, iirnciireil a |irinrclaiiii tn the
jniin^jer line. TrenlH's of inuliial inlieritiiiice
i'xist hctweeii t\w hnii.ses of Hanover ami Mriiiis-
wick, anil Ihi- sm-cessinii only |iasses to the female
MiU' when legitimate male heirs fail. Tlie ilili-
iiiiitn family eniinectioii which in the last ceiitiirv
.siili.sisted hetweeii the House of Hrnnswick and tlie
ri'i^'iiiii^ families of (ireal llritaiii and Prussia,
diUii^rc'd the princeH of llrimswiek in political
nlliaiict's with these two powers, in opposition to
Fraiu'e, and occasionally to Austria. The I'mssiaii
amiy, at the outset of the disastrouH eampaifrn of
isiii;, was commanded hy the Uiike (Iliarles
William Ferdinand of Urimswick, who fell in the
Iwttlu of .leiia. Althoiijjh he had declared his
(liioliy neutral, and no llrimswiek troops were
with the Prussian army, yet his lands were im-
nu'iliately seized l>y the coni-|iieror, and incnr-
|iiirat('d with the kiii^dnm of Westphalia. His
yiiiiiiyest son, Frederick William, after the death
III' his chlest, and the itlxlicatioii of his secnnd
Imitlier, the sole remaining heir, served for some
time in the I'riissian, nnd afterwards in the
Aiistriun army. In IKtlO, this adventurous prince
raised a small corjis, and attempted, in co-())ieni-
tiiiii with the (jfrand Austrian army, to excite a
diversion in the north of (Jermimy; hut lindinj;
his cause mined hy the victory of the French at
Wajjram, he crossed the whole of (Jermany, at
thfi liead of a Hinnll body, not cxcecdiiif; 2,1)00
men, and marched from the liohcmian frontier
til the sea coast near ISremcn. Kluding and
alternately fighting the various French cnri)s
viiicli crossed his ]>assagc with equal good for-
luiie and bravery, lie succeeded in embarking for
England, where his troops joined the Hritish
amiy, with iiermission to retain the black nni-
fiirm which their bravery had rendered celebrated,
aiul served until 1814 in the pcuinsula. Having
ri'gaiiii'il his dmiiiiiiniis, innlrr the Ntipiilalinim
nf the iri'Miy nf Vii'iiiiu, Fnilcrick Williuni fell
lit the hi'iiil nf his irniipM \Nhili> inaintaiiiiiig the
iHiiitinii of l^iialre Iti'iis, t»n days U'lnri' the
iialtle nf Watirlnn. His Hilirissnr, <'llarll'^ WON
driven away in |h;io, and ilie ihrniie made nver
to his brother William, the prest'iii duke, and tlm
last of the line. He iM'iiig withmit h'iritimiklii
heirs, the diii'hy at his iliaih will fall to Hanover,
in coiil'nrmily with ancient treaties.
MiiliNsWK'K, a I'ity nftienmiiiy, cap. of the above
iliii'by, nil the Oi'ker, H III. SI'',. HiiiiiiMr, mi Ihn
railway fmm Hanover tn llcrHii. Pnp. r.','.'0',l in
iNi'il, due llriino, who appears abmit the year
NI'J as |)||kl> nf ()-<tlillrll, is said tn liitM' llril lillilt
«valls miiml the little town nf Kriinswick, tn prn-
ted it I'rniii the iiiciirsimis nf till' Nnrniaiis. Henry
the I, inn, iMike nf Saxony and Havana, and the
graiiil champion of ChriMliaiiitv and tn'riiianic
civilisatinii against the Slavmifc nut inns nii the
Flbe and the llaltic Sea, Inwards the cinse nf the
twelllth century made llriiiiswick bis place nf re-
sidi'iice, and extended and ailnrneil the citv. lit)
linished the cathedral 4'liiircli nf St. Illai/.e, all
iiileresling inniiiiment nf the Ity/.antiiie (■ntlii(r
style, endnweil it with lands and relics bronght
from ('oiistaiitiiio|de and the Holy Land, and
erected a broii/.,' Ilgiire nf a linn, said tn liavo
been cast in the (ireek capital, ii|Hin a pedeslal ill
fmiit of bis palace, on the site nf which a barrack
nnw stands. Frmn this |M'rind llriiiiswick bccaiiiu
niie of the most important cities in N. (Jermany;
ami the wealth of its dukes, wlin were nwiiers nf
the exteiisivi- mines and salt wnrks in the Harx
mniintiiins, and in the vicinity, was jirincipally
expended in lli(> cities nf iJliU'lierganil llriinswick,
the seats of the chief lines nf the Welf family.
In the Ihirteenth century llrimswiek, which, nwiiig
tn these r(^snllrces, bad advunceil in cniiiiiicri'iiil
prnsperity, became a mi'inber nf the llanseiitit;
League, and tlourislied as one of the leading cities
of Lower (iermany. On tlu^ decline of the leagno
the increased power of the territorial )iriiices ex-
posed the city to the vicissitudes which their \h>-
iitical speculations drew upon thi^ country; and
llriinswurk sull'ered in cominnii with other N. ciiies
upon the advance nf the liii|ieriiil iinnies under
'I'illy and Wallenslein, in the thirty veai-s' war.
The division of thi^ reigning house into many
branidies was also, at that period, disadvanlageoiis
to Brunswick, which saw the rival cities of Wid-
fenbiittel, (!elle, Hnnover, and (liittingen spring
lip and prosper as so many diniiniitive capitals,
each the seat of a petty cniirt. The city was
further almost drained nf its small remains of
wealth during the French occupation; but thrmigli
the industry of its inhabitants, and the celebrity
of its fair, held in Feiiriiary and August, and fre-
quently visited by *J(t,000 strangers, it keeps up its
importance as a commercial city. The railway from
Itrimswit^k to the font of the Harz mountains,
opened in IH'M), is one of the oldest in Gennany.
The fort ilicat ions of the city have been levellecl
since the peace, and converted into agreeable plan-
tations, with walks and drives ; and the city, al-
though bearing rather an antiipiatod apiieafaiice,
has snme good streets, and abounds in interesting
remains of the middle ages. The cathedral, and
chu/ch of St. (Jiles, which has been fitted np os
a repository for works of art, the bronze lion
before mentioned, and the town house, with u
curious gallery adorned with the statues of many
of the (liikes in niches, and the bronze fountain
in its vicinity, are deserving of notice. A sjilcndid
new ducal palace, built at an enormous expense,
to replace the residence of Diike Charles, destroyed
by the mob iii 1830, was burnt down in 18G5. 'I'he
A70 nUI'NSWiCK
rliiirfli "f Si. AnilfcwK, wlili Iih hIiu'IiIck, iiiii- of
>«liirli !■< ;ilM I'l. ill liii^lii ; mill tliiil <il SI, Cidlii'
riiH', will) iniiiiiiiiKit liy nii'lirii'li, iiihI xiaiiii'il
^[\l\»l> wiiiiliiWH Iroiii ili'HJ^iiN liy i 'riiiiiirli mill liiircr,
iiH ut'l' MM till' I'liiirrli III' St, iMiirliii, III IIk' (Hiiiilfil
liiilliii' xlyli', iirr iiiliriHiiii^ III liivirN III' llii' IliK'
nriN. Ill ill)' iiniMt'iiin, mimiiK'*! 'i iiiiiiilM'r i>l' lu-
ll rinr |illillllllK!*< 'IC)' HiillK' of |||{;|| Vltllli' of llli'
I'lriiiixh mill Ihilt'li Ht'lioolii, hy Itt'iiiliriiiiilt, Jmi
Mi'i'iiM, N'miilyki', iiinl IIiiIh'iik, lo^^i'lliir v\illi a
|Mirtriill of ItiilViit'lIt', Hiiiil lo Ih> Ii\ IiIm own hmiil;
mill otlit't'M liv (iiiiilo, liiorKimii', Ifir, An !''.<'<'<'
Iloino, liy .MIktI DiiriT, u rriirilix, liy lli'iiM'inito
Ct'liitii, wlili a t'olli'i'iloii of miiii|iic nIiiIiii'n miil
roiiiH, iirr wortliy of iiihiit'clioii, 'I'lic I't'lcliriilctl
Onyx viiM>, |iiiri'liiiNt'il' iiv one of ilic tliiki't of
llriniHwIi'k, who m'cnri'il \t iis IiIh Hliiirc of liooly
wlirn Miinliiit wiiH mickril, in llic t'oiirHc of llic
lliirly vciirH' war, luKctlicr wiili Hcvcrul oilier oli-
JcclHol' value, were earrii'ij olV, and are hIIII re-
liiiiieil Iiv l>iike CharleH, 'I'lie <'aroliiie eolle^',
now iliviileil iiilii a iyceiini or elasHical eiilie);e,
Willi a f^yiinui.iinin or p;rainniar ncIiooI, anil a 'real
hcliiile,' <ir iiiei'limiirH' aiiil eoininereial inxlilnte,
witli a liraneli for at^rieiilliiriNls ami foreHterN, a
rollene for leaelierw, Neveral elenienlary hcIiooIh,
a Keiieral and a lyin(;-iii liosjiital, willi MelioolH of
Hiirt;ery, orplian and deaf and dunili aMylniiiN, an;
llie |ii'ililie iiiNlilnlionM for ednealion. Tlie lown
luiM aJHo nianiifat'tiireM nf linen and woollen hIiiIVh,
mid hardware; and luuni'rouH charitahle iiiNlitu-
tioiiH.
MiMtNMWicK, a town of Ihe l'. Slatcx of Anie-
riea, Maine, on llie Androm'o^tjjiii, '_'(> in. SW. An-
irnHla, anil ;tO in. NK. rorllmid; \at. W M' N.,
Ii.n(,'. <!!»° ;"(.V \V. ro|i.(l.lltll in IWiO, Itin iiplaee
of eoiiHiderahle trade. On the o|(|io»tife fide of llie
river is 'ropHhain, with which town il isconneeted
iiy two liridK<'x. The falln of the, river afford a
convenient Niipply of water power, which in used
lo Home extent, l(> givi) motion lo corn inills, and
V'oolien and collon I'liclorieH, llowdoin College,
founded in 17*.)t, nwiiiiIh on an elevated plateau
near tiie town, li poNsesses a philoHophicnl mid
chemical apparatus hiboratory, eahinet of mine-
rals, pillery of paiuiin^H, and a lihrary containing
til,!»f)tt vol's. A medical Hchool, connected with
the colle^'e was estahlished in IWO. In l«(;2, the
colle^re had H professors, and <.)■'!!) sliidents.
IliiUNHWUJK (Ni;w), a city of >'ew .lersoy, in
the llnited Statesof America, jiartly in Middlesex
and partly in Somerset cos., on tlu! SW. side of
li'arilan river, '22 in. NK. Trenton. Top. 10,!(!tO in
jMliO. The town lies rather low; hut is considered
healthy, and Iuih a p>od deal of trade. Il luw a
<!onrt-houKO, jail, niarket-lioiise, two hanks, a theo-
lofjical seminary, and several places of worship.
l{ul;iers Collep', foundetl in 1770, under the nnnie
of (Queen's CoUc^^e, is a liandsonu! stone hnihlinj;
three stories h'mU, with lihrnries containing \i]>-
wards of I "2,000 vohmies. The h'aritan is navi-
jfahle as far as New Urunswick for aloops of 80
tons hnrden.
HuiJNswicK (Nkw), a territory helongin}? to
Kn>rland in N. America. See Nkw Hui'Nswhk.
HKL'SSKLS (I.at, Jinixelltc, Flem. JiriiHuvl, Fr.
JJnixelkn), cajiital of the kingdom of Itcl^nim],
and of the prov. of Itrabaiit, about M) m. li. hy S.
from the sea, <m the Senno, a small river, which,
rising: near So)K»ics in Ilainanlt, and tlowin^ X.,
falls into the Schohlt, throufrh the Hupel. Pop.
177,Kr)4, aocordiiifj to the census of IMWi; and
})00,3-lI, according to an enumeration of Dec. fil,
IWCil. The latter number comprises the jiop. of
ci);ht surrounding parishes, not included m the
census returns. 'J he scenery of the adjacent coun-
try it) beautifully divcrsilied by sloping' heights,
nmssKi.s
and Krren valleyn refreshed liy Hie wntrm •>( ih#
Senile. A hir>{i' jiorli f tlie cily liiii;, |,|,|||
on the acclivily III a hill, Il prcNcnls,' win , .ii'n,.,|
fniiii the \V„ a pii'lnre>M|ueampliitlicalri<i>t hiMi.in;
and the ^real inci|nalily of the elcNaliiui i,( u„
sill' has ofieii induced a coinpaiison willi Nuiilia
and lieima. The llt;ure dencrils'il by llii- imi|||,„i
of the Hiirroniidiii^' wall rescnibli's lluit of a iH'ar,
Ihe KinalleNt part poinliiiK SSW. 'I'lie L'niit,.,i
ixleiil of Ihe cliy, from N N K. to SS\V„ is iilmiit
It ni. ; and the extreme width, from N\V. In s\-,„
iiboiii ".'J in. Itriissels, a ceiiiiirv aK". was inu,.
piclely surrounded by xirniiKly lorlili' I riiiii|ijiri«,
with salii'hl antics, and ditches or iihmi^, f<ii|i|>lin|
fr-iin the river Senile. 'I'liese fort illcai ions amniH
idiniisl wholly renuived, and ihijr «ile is I'lirini.l
into spai'iiiiiN boulevards, plant ni with rnw', ..f
stately linden trees, that encircb' Iwo-iliirilsiii i),,.
cily, on Ihe N., the I',., and the M. The city wnll
is overlooked by the l>iinlevards, w Mch ciiiunuiiiil
exlciisive views of llie coiiiiirx, and alVunJ mi
agreeable promenade, exlcinliii^ about .'i m, iri.-ii
the I'orl an liiv/ige on the N'„ lo Ihe I'lirlc iji'
Hal on the S, 'I'liere are uiiii< of these iinrlm'T
mural gates, several of which are line old niilii
leclnriil arches of great strength. Tli(\\ iiniiii
nicale with, and bear the names of, Ihe I'llgli r,<iuU
that traverse the kingiUmi and centre in ihc
ciiiiilal.
Ihe Senile enters Ihe city on the NW. side liy
two braiii'lics, and forms, within tlii> wiill.^, rmir
islands, ol which the iiriiici|ial are named St.liirv
and lion Seconrs, 'I'liis rivulet is oily almiit ;;o
ft. in width, and from I to il ft, in depii., ukI U
not na\ igable in any part of its eoiirsi>, JlriivM'l.*,
lioweviT, besides being in llu^ network of ilip
lleigian railway svslem, possesses the ailvjinliimi
of water commnnicaiion with Charleroy mi tln'S,,
and with Mechlin, Vntwerii, and the cceaii, mi lln'
X,, by means of two ca|iaciiins and Wi II apjiniiiti'il
canals. The width of tlu\ Antwerp > iiial is l.'i It,
Il was opened in l<*).'il, and cost nearly '2,<iimi,(I(iii
of llorins, or lt!(!,0(»0/. Five locks ovenniiii' ii
desi'cnt of TiO ft,, in n course of 17 m,, liet«ii'ii
llrusscls and the town of Iloom, where llic I'lmiil
Joins the 1,'upel, a large alllueiit of the Siliclilt,
The head of this canal, in the NVV. fpiartemf tiu'
city, is furnished with several commodious liii»in't
and ipiays, whence goods arc conveyed in liiri;o
barges to the Junction of the Hiipel. The Cliiirli-
roy canal cost •l,!l.')0,20ij florins, and was iiiiciiiil
in 1h;I0. It is carried along the W. boinularv of
the city, in the ancient ditches of the forlillcntiniH
to the I'ort ail Kivage, where it ctminuniii'iiiH
with the canal to Antwerp. Fifty-live luck,; iili-
viate n fall of 4;i2 ft., in its course of I.'* in, lo
llnissels. It passes through a tunnel of 1,17.")
yards, and is crossed by flt>y-flve aqueducts mi<l
I hirty-six bridges. Th»- soil of the elevated gniiiinl,
occupied by the S. and K. jiortions of the cily, is
sand, interspersed with fossils, marine substmici's
calcareous stones, aiul layers of ferruginous ciirlli;
and that of the lower N. and \V. section ci>n!'i,<i«
of a sandy marsh, mixed with marine stibsiniici's,
and covered with a deep bed of jn-at or turf.
The highest jiart. on the S. extremity, lictwciii
the ])ortcs uf Hal and Namiir, is about '220 II.
above the level of the sea. The upper town, kimwii
as the (jiiartier Leopold, contains the royal nmrt
and government ntlices. the jiark, the linest sqiiiircs
streets, and hoi l.s, ami the mansions of tlic lii^'lirr
classes. The <-cntral and lower town coniprisis
chieily the tr.uling and operative portion of tlic
))upulation, aud has generally a more crowded ami
mean appearsuice, though it still abounds in tiiic
old ornameii-ed buildings, once occujiicd liy the
ancient nobics of lirabunt. The Rivaye, at the S.
rxireinity, U lr
irrscnls a ciiii»h
riii'iily isabnm
liv nieaiiKiif pljH
trniii ihri'i' Niibi
lii'inillfiil \il||i({).
iin> IsKides ii'ii
foiiMtains, and »!
iiiiiis are nrnatii
):niii|iM of exi|iiiN
Till' liiiml reliiiirki
ill llic coiiri of 1 1
KikIs in while n
ilu' timtiiini> ilf ,
Nllllllll, COIlKivlill
ill tUiiie marble,
.\ylc«biiry, in mii
liiiliiiants, after n
mill the Mitnitiki
ill tlu litre of
liriiii/.i> llgnre, nbi
l«iy who dischargi
iiiiniiicr. (ireal \
llltarlied III Hum
liti/cim of llriisM
linr soljciliule as
llie ancient purl
iimiiv line s|M'<'inii
iirrliilecliire of ||i
niiKlcrn part exhi
iliX". erected abi
iii'wly-bnilt dwelli
iiiK'nnth form and
f/irli'ries, and are
inl'criiir bricks, nn
llie lofty lileil roi
IK'iirance too i.s
piiiiitiiig the front
liMirs, Hiich as ye
I'ltfii produce a gl
iiiiliilcd inns or fan
II metropolitan city
mill line Montagne
'liii|M, and these a
iniiNl frei|iienled nIi
IN'iiraiice and biisi
iiini|iared with I'ar
ni'M in general foni
iiiiiiiiig the French
lUjiital of Helgium.
Mirriuind the large |
iwinely, the Kiie l{o
iwrison with Mome
KiiniiM'an caiiiials ;
llie palace ot the I'l
coneert riMim ; the 1
kiiilf's pala«o ; and I
"f which is the pal
jwliament. The (.
I'l'iec, in the centre (
iiiteresting square,
'"itliic llOtel de Vi
'"'Illy other tw\\ spi
"iHiial architecture.
mill lloriie were beh
ll'o Duke of Alva,
[I'm and death in
ilrusscLs. 'I'he PIm
Ijalaee, is perhups tl
I'lo houses around
jii'ilregulnr. The I
wuest square, ami it<
ll'W-'cde la Moiniai
l"»ittclied by several
;j'>' theatre, the min
llie (iiiest cafe's in i
•Wielicl, better kiitwii
Vol. I.
rxln<iiill,v, I* inhnlillPtI hy rii'li mcrrliitiil", iinil
rriKi'iilK II I'liiioiiiiii Mi'i'iii' III' I'liiiinicriiiil ii<'ii\ii\.
Mil' lily iit iiIiuiiiIiiiiiIn iiii|i|ilii'i| niili •|irlii({ miiIit.
ft77
liv iMi'Miix III' iiljH'N Mini luiwiTl'iil liyilniiilir I'liuini'N,
Iriiiii Ihn-r NiiliiiTriniriin ravt'x iil Iliii'rlH'rrk, n
lii'iiiilil'iil >illii({i' III till' Moiillit'rii vii'iiiily. 'I'liiTi'
iin' iHxiili'K till N|iriii){N uilhiii lli<> wiillx, lliirly
rniiiiliiiiiN, mill mIhiiiI iiiiii'ly |iiiMi|m, Si'Vfriil rniiii
tiiiiiN iiri' i>riuiiii>'iit<'il Wy I'lrumil nU'llnkN iiml
^'riiii|M III' rxi|iiinili' liriiii/<- iiiiii iiiiirlili' i<riii|itiin'N,
'Ihi' iiiiinl rcllliirkillili' nri< /.m t'tmhiinr* i/m h'triiri»,
ill till' riiiirl III' ilii< lli'ilcl ill' Villr, I'linni'il i>l' rivrr
I{ih|n in w'liilt> iiiiirlilf, mill iluljiliinN in linin/i' ;
rill' I'ltnUtiHr ilf MinriTf, In llir IMili'i' illl (irillnl
Sililiiti) i'iiiiKi'<tinK III' 'I li<*iiiiliriil Kriiii|i III' li^un'M
ill uliilc iiiiirltic, iTci'li'il in 1711, liy lli<> I'.iirl nl'
.\yli"<liiiry, in iiilcHlatinii nl' IiIm ri'ii|M't'l I'nr llii'in-
liiiliihinlN, nUvv rfniiliiit; mining llii'in I'lirty yciirM;
mill ilic Miitinikin l'i», nt'iir ilif lli'itrl lie Villi',
ill till' I'l'iilrc III' llio rily, 'I'liii is an t'Xi|inHltii
liriinxi' liK*)<'*'i nliiinl 'J I'i. in liciKlil. nf an iiri'liin
Ihiv wIiii ilim'linrKCH n Niri'iini nl' walcr in ii niitiinil
iiiiniiii'r, (irral viilui> anil liiNinrirtil inlcri'Ht arc
iiitiirlii'il Id lliiN aniii|ni' lililc IlKiirn liv llii' nlil
I'lii/i'iDi iif llriiMNciN, who ri'Karil it >Mtli iktii-
linr niilii'ilnili' ai* a kiinl nl' iniiniri|ial jiallailiiiin.
Till' ancient jiarl of llrnxHcN in iirnanicnti'il liv
niiiiiv line N|H'rinH'nM of llic llnriil mIvIc nl' <iiilliii'
ari'liiti't'tnrii nl' llii' Nixti'i'iitli century; anil llie
niiHlern jiart exIiiliilH niiincriiiiM excellent linilil-
iii^'H, crecleil alHiiit lil'iy yi'ars iipi ; Itnr tlie
iii'wiy-linilt ilweHin^-liiiiiHCN have cnintnnnly the
iiiii'iinth form ami raHliion of KtanarieN or inann-
fai'tnrieM, nnil are ol'teii eiiiiNtrncleil with very
iiifcriiir lirickn, ami with titnlierM tiHi Nlemler I'ur
till' liil'ty tiled riKirN, 'I'lieir iinirnniiity nl' ii|i-
{H'liriitice tiiii in ileittriiyeil liy the ciiKtmn nl
{iiiiiiiin^ thu frnntM with Mtrnnf;ly cniilraHteil co-
l>iiir!<, Hiich an yellnw, ^'reeii, anil white, which
ilti'ii iirniliicu a ({hiring etVect, more Niiilahle I'nr
i'liliiteil iiiiiit or fancy clltlll^e^* than the HtreetN nl'
iiitii'lro|Hililaii city. In the Hnii ile la Maileleine
mill Kiie iMnnt(i);ne tie la Cnnr are many elc^Miit
»liii|»4, anil Ihi'Ne are accnnnteil the livelicHt and
iiiii!it l'rei|nented nI recti* in ItriiHselH, though in iiji
{H'ariincc and liiiKineN.'* they arc eertainly dn '
r>iin|iiireil with l*ariHnr liniidnli. Indeed, tiie ilnl-
ni'HK in f^eneral I'limiH a cnniiiinii xnliject nl' remark
iiiiintiK the Frenoh and Kn^lish residents in the
I'lipitui III' Itcl^inm. I'mir iinirnrmly-linilt HtreetN
Mirrniiiid the larp; |ialace f;ardeii called the I'ark,
iiatiu'Iy, the Itne Kiiyale, which will admit of cum-
{itirimiii with miine of the lincNt NtreetH of the
Kiirii|M>an caiiitals ; the Knc Dncale, in which are
ilii^ )ialace of the rrince of Orati^^c and the f;rand
roniH'rt room ; the lUic Hellevnc, enntniniii); the
kiiiK'x )ia)a<;u ; and the line Hralmnt, in tlie centre
of which w the palace of coii^rcHH, or houxeM of
imrliiimeiit. Thu (irandu I'laee, or ((rent market-
I'liioc, in the centre of the city, is a noble and very
iiitrrcMtiii^ minare, eontainin^ the pirp^eons old
liothiv Hotel de Ville, thu Maison dii Hoi, and
immy other rich 8|M'ciinens of the ancient oma-
nii'iitul architecture. Here, in tr>(>K, coiinttt Kuniont
ami lldrne were lieheaded liy the S|mniMli vicemy
the Uiiku of Alva, whoxe iieneciitioim broii^^ht
ruin and death into almoHt every hoiiHC in
lirusaelM, The lMac;e ]{nyak', near the kin^'H
I'lilace, w |>crha|m the lineHt nqiiaru in llriiHHels.
Tiie liiiiiHCH around it are reniarkahly lmiid«oine
amln-giihir. The IMacc du <irand .Sabloii is the
Inrufcst Hqiiare, and is used as a marKet-)ilace, 'I'he
I'iiicc lie la Mnniiuiu is also extensive, and ii|i-
jirnacliud by several spacious streets : it contains
Illl! theatre, the mint, the exchange, and some of
ilie tiiicHt cafe's in the city. The I'lacc dc St.
Midicl, better kntwii since the Kcvulutiun as tiie
Vol. I.
Ii;
I'liicc ili'i Miirtyrx, \» I'lnnled with rnw* nf linden
iri'i'", ami Kiirrinindi'd liv Mtiilnnn iiiid eli'unnt
bnililiiiKx nriuinii'iiti'd wiili hnrlc inliiniiiR, Tliiit
M|iiari' wan rliiMcn lor the xcpuliiiri' nf Ihiwc who
I'i'll in n|i|HiMiii^ (he royal lnri'i"< diiriti^ ihc rcvn-
hiiinnary HtriiKKle in Hi'pti'inlM'r Im.iii, There am
I I nthrr m|iiiirt'it nf lexx ilixlitirl inn, lull whh'll lit
nnce nrrve ihc |iiir)ioMcit nf hi'iillli iiiiil nrnameiil.
The park i* an n|M'ii nblniiK Npai'cnf niHiiit I I acrcM,
on the Iiiiil eanlcrn Hide nf the city. Ill NiirfiU'n
\» I'livrred with Ninnnth verdiiiil turf, and U Inf-
inally laidnnt in bmad Htriii^lit wiilkx and winding
iiatlin, which arc nvcrMliiidnwcd and nlii'licrcd by
Infly licci'h and cheHtniit Irecx and planiiiiinn<t of
acaciiiH, There arc several fniiiitainH, and tnany
exi'i'llcnl inarldc staincs, busts, vases; and KCniii'is
nf pcrsniH and persiiniilcaiiniis from classical
mylhnln^y and hislnry are dislriliiili'd alHiut thu
Kmnnils. The walks cominiind a ^rcal variety of
inlcresiinu scenery, inclndiiiK the old (inlhic edi-
llccM of the lower town and the snrrnundini<
cniintry, which is very iiictiiresiiiie. In Ihc NK.
corner of the park is 'Vanxhall,' cnniprisiiiff n
small theatre fur vaudevilles, and a liall-rnnni.
Alnn^ the banks nf the Antwerp Canal, issuing
fmm Ihc N, iioiut nf the citv, is the iK'Hiiiifid
pmmciiaile called the AlUv "I'rrtr, that is, llie
tireen AUcy. It is fnrmcd of a bmiul carria^e-
nuid, and nn each side a I'nnl way, divided by four
I iws nf nmbra;;ciius elms, cxleiidin)( alHiiit n mile
and a half. Mere the royal family, and mnltiludes
of all classes, arc seen every line evening cn|oyiiiK
the freshness of the ennnlry air, and the pl'easiii)^
views nf nnmernus villas and rural scenery. In
fact, the environs of lirnsscls are in general so in-
teresting;, that thev form Ihc snliject nf a lar^'o
purl ion of every full description ot the eitv. I(e-
siiles the excursion to the hiittle-llcld of W'^atcrlon,
and its surronndin^ localities, still exciliii); to thu
cnriiiiis, about iiri villaf;es in the more immediate
vicinity of llriissels are well worth Ihc atlcntioiiof
slraiifrers, Amnn^ the objectN of interest are— the
splendid royal palaces nf Laecken and Tervnereii,
and Ihc ^reat worUhoiisc and penitentiary es-
tablishments of X'ilvorde and La Cambre.
The royal palace at the .S. extremity of the)iark,
prescnis 11 l'ai,'ade of I'JO yards in len){th, with a
central portico and arcades. The styh- of urchi-
tectnre is plain, and the general aspe<;t of thu
structure not at all remarkalile. The interior too
oilers little wnrthv of inspection beyond the usual
suites of rnyal salnnus and apartments, which aru
very superbly furnished, and cnvered with rich
velvet, satin, and ^ilt. The paint ilia's are neither
numerous nor very valuable, with the exception of
Vandyke's Chnjir'mi th Velimrt, The Palais du
Conjcrbs, at thcN.emrof the park, is umaKnilicent
bnildiiif;, oniamentcd with tinted Doric columnn
and appropriate sculptures. Marble stairs on each
side of a spacious hall ascend to the two chamlM>rH
of parliament, which are elc^aiilly tilted up for
the rece)ition of the members. The public are ad-
mitted into Inith chambers during; the debates,
females as well as males ; and for this accommo-
dation, the Chamber o' Deputies contains a capa-
cious gallery. C)n the K. side of the park is n
palace, which, before the revolution of 18,10, was
occiiiiied by the hereditary I'rincc of Oranj^c. It
was built in 1K'2(), The exterior is nobly siin[ile,
presenting a fayailc 230 ft. in length, with a hifty
central dome and cupola. The interior it) not sur-
passed by any Kuropean palace in sumptuous
t'liniiture and elegant decorations. The paintings
are not numerous, but of the Jiighcst order, com-
]irising some of the most choice productions of the
Flemish and Italian schools. The Hotel do Ville,
in the tirandc Place, or great central market-place,
PP
«78
mUISSELS
in (iiu! (if the larj^CHt nnd most roninrkMlil(> of »Ii<imii
civil' puliit'CM, ill till! tliiriil (iolliit; hIvI<', lliat lire to
Ik- s('«'|i ill |ii'rt'ci-tiiiii only in the Ncllii'rliiiiilM. It.
viiiH vTvvU'il ill I'HmI. The nrfliili-ciiiri' is l.,<>m-
l)iirilii-(i<illiii', with 11 ^rpiit |irorii>*i<iii of i|iiiiiiit
Hi'iil|itiin's, |Miii)tcil liirrctH, and oMic^r fHiicifiil niul
iiitricatn ornaincntH, In tli<^ front ant -10 windowH.
mid in the lofty Hlopiiif^ roof Ht) nion;. At a (loiiit
rcinarldiltly distant from llio ci'iitrt; of tlio front,
an dahorati'ly oriianicntrd pyraniidal tower, open
tliroii^lioiit to tlie siiniinit, rises to tlic liei^lit of
'Ki'l ft,, andeoniniands a iuw view of tliesiirronnd-
iii;; country, ineliidiiiir the battle-tiehl of Waterloo.
It is siimiouiited liv a eolossal eopper ffilt stiiliie,
17 ft. Iiif^h, of St. AJiehael enisliiM^adrapin, whieli
• tiiriisaliout toserveforaweather-eoci*. The interior
of the hiiildiiif; is entered Ity a N|iaeioiis tli);lit of
Ntep.M, and the lofty halls and saloons exhiliit many
eurioiiH <dd paintin;{H, lu'ilded enrvin^s, and Hiie(;i-
ineiis of tine tapestry. Opposite the town-hall is n
veneralile (iothic editiee, built about A.i>. KHH),
called the Ilrood Iliiys (bread house) or Maison
(III l{oi. The i'alais de Justice is a lar(;e building
containing the courts of law: its front displays a
noble portico, imitated from that of Agriiipa's
Temple at Kome. Tlu! I'alais dii ("oiiseil d'ktat,
the ll('ilel des Monnaies, and several other state
ollioes, are structures more or less elegant : also the
theatre, which was opened in IHIl), and cost
f)(!,(IOO/, Its interior displaj-s very commodious
arraiigenients and tasteful decorations. The stage
in front is of greater width than that of the (irand
Opera at Paris. Near the Place l»'oyale is the
large and handsome old Palace or Const, founded
ill I. '{()(), and rebuilt in I7'1(J. When this was the
residence of the Npaiiish and Austrian governors of
the Netherlands, it was one of the richest p:ilaces
in ICurope, It now contains the public librarj',
lecture-rooms, museums, and galleries of paintings
and !<ciil|itures. The Palace of Industry js a large
adjoining building for the exhibition of the manu-
factures of the kingdom, mechanical models, and
new inventions.
Itriissels contains several grand and venerable
cathedral churches, erected in the middle ago-.
I'oiir only of 1(! are considered |>rimary,and lielong
each to one of the 4 arrondissements into which
the city is divided : the others, although little in-
ferior in apjienrance, are st^coiulary in rank. The
cathedral of ISt. CJudule, the largest and tinest in
llriissels, was founded in 1010; and here the tirst
chapter of the cbivalric order of the Golden Fleece
was held by Philip le Hon, in 14i(.j. There is an
as|)ect of imposing grandeur in its spacious front,
surmounted by two large sijnare towers, from the
top of which Antwer]) is disliiictly visible at a dis-
tance of 27 miles, alid one coiitnins a bell that
weighs 14.500 lbs. Against the ])illars which di-
vide the lateral aisles from the nave, and sujiport
the lofty roof, are jdaced finely sculptured statues
of the twelve apostles, 10 ft. in height, at an ele-
vation of 25 ft. from the floor. 'I'he jailpit is
fonncd of wonderfully carved groHi)s of figures the
size of life, representing the expulsion of Adam
and Kv(! irom paradise. The glass of the jirincipal
window displays a magniliceiit representation of
the last Judgment, by the celebrated Flemish
painter, Francis Flors, and several other antiijuc
painted windows of this noble cathedral are ex-
ceedingly brilliant and beautiful. Its altars and
siimi)tuo'us mausoleums of sculptured marble, and
numerous line paintings, are objects worthy of
especial notice.
The cathedral of Notre Dame de la Chapelh is a
beautiful Gothic structure, founded in 1134, and
but little inferior in dimensions to that of St.
Giidule. It.s paiiitint^s and sepulchral monuments
are even more numerous. The interior (irnamciitH
of this tine cathedral consist of iiuinerous paini-
iiigs, statues, and monumental sciilpliires, by cini-
iieiit artists; and a very curious carved piil|ili,
representing F.lijahfeil by an angel iinderacaiiiHiv
of palms. The cliun^b of A'litre Ihiiiw ilin I'ii.
loirmia a profusely oriiameiit(>d (iothic slriiciurc
of the i:ttli century, displaying the iiiost cxnri
symmetry in its plan and proportions. It is orim-
meiited by niarbU^ statues and sculptured IihiiIm;
its windows are brilliantly painted ; and the imics
of its organ arc exceedingly grand and harninniiius.
Niitrc Itnme. ile Itim SiToiirs, built in the 17lh cen-
tury, is the iM'st attended cburcli in llrussels. Its
handsome front fa(;ade is siinnoiintcd by a Infh
dome, and the ornaments of tint interior arc cx-
liii)ited t(» great advantag(> by the fre(|iu'nt pcr-
fomiaiic(> of high mius with peculiar saccrdntal
pageantry. St. Catherine and St. Nicholiis iirc
verv irregular and uncouth Gothic edifices of tln'
I2tli century, adorned with numerous line ii|,|
)iaintiiigs. Tlu- chiirclies of (^aiidenburg, St. Aii-
gustiiu% and Notre Dame dc Finisterre, are Iwiini-
some specimens of the (irecian style, and were
erected in the 17th centurA-. A convent of l!c'j;iiiii
nuns, called Lc Grand Bi'ijiihuKje, built in lil."i7,
at an expense of ,'i;i2,000 llorin's, has a licjiiiiifiil
(diurcli, which contains many line paintings. 'I'liirc
were here formerly a thousand nuns: at prcscni
the number is greatly reduced. Then- are twit
other iiunneri(!s, the convent of Ilerlaiinont, nnd
that of Les Sa-urs A'oires — the Ulaek Sisters, 'flic
Church of Kngland service is performed in .several
Protestant chapels, for the acc(mimo(latiein of (Iw
numerous English residents; and the .lews, el'
whom there are 10,000 in the wbide kingdom. Iiavo
their general (Mnisistory in liriissels, and a liaml-
some synagogue; but the great mass of the |xi|iu-
lation arc zeahmsly attached to the riles and
doctrines of the church of Koine, while tlicir l,n-
tlieran king. Leo|)old, attends the Protesiaiu
service in his jirivate chapel. Previous tip llie
siip|iression i.f religious houses in lielgiiuii l)y llic
French republican goveriim(!nt, at the (rlose of llie
last century, Ilriiss(>lH contained .'SI nionasleiics,
2 convents of Itc'giiins, 2 of ICnglish nuns, ami IX
oratories; and during the middle ages, the extent
and magnificence of the monastic establislimentj
ill this locality were truly amazing.
The two |)riiicipal medical hospiliilsof St. Peter
and St, .lobii are admirably regulated. There is
also a well-managed lying-in hospital, and a mili-
tary hospital attached to the barracks. Xnlliin^;
can exceed the care and cleanliness observed in
every ])art of the hos|)itrtl of St. Peter; iiulceil in
this remarkable attention is attributed the fact
that, in the calamitous year of cludera, nut ime
case of that dreadful maladv occurred in the ■wanls
of this establishment, amongst a miscidlanenns
assemblage of (>00 patients. The hospital of Si.
.lohii contains between 200 and JlOO beds, and in-
cludes a conimunily of the Sisters of Cliaritv.
The earnest piety and genuine benevolence wliiili
induce these and other exemplary females of tin'
( 'atholic religious onkTS to go about doiiif; nood,
by visiting the sick poor, esjiecially in the lius|ri-
tals, often excite the admiration of stranger wlm
justly appreciate virtue and goodness, aiKleoiivev
a tacit rejiroach to the pious Protestant ladies I'l
Kngland. There is an excellent society for j;ra-
tuitous vaccination, which is efKciently supported.
and is very bencticial to the poor.
The civil and military prison of Brussels i.' an
apiiropriate modem building, having !t or 10 open
courts. It is situated very healthily in the liif;li
SW. (|uarter of the city, and is under excelltnt
management. The ])art for civil offences will con-
BRUSSKLS
679
will 500 priHoiiors. Tliorfl nrc tlirro iniMic ccim^-
U'TU'H iiiilMi<l(! tlio iKMileviiniN, ailjacciil to the pilcM
ol'tliR Hal, Loiivnin, aiitl FlandurH. Tjic KiikHxIi
n.'Niil(!ntH in ItriixsolH liuvcnlsotwo Ixirinl-KroiinilH
on tliftronilH to Ucclouiiil l^oiivniii. Tln! iiiarkoN
(if ItriiHHcJH nmoiiiit lo iiiont than 20, and arc all
wfll anil abnnilimlly Niippliotl. Tlie prini^ipal
(■orn-inarket. in I lie lowt^r N\V. cpiartcr, lonns
iiiiu of (ho tino.st mpiarcs in the city. It m Hnr-
riiiiMilcd hy liandMoniu Ikmihcs, and planted willi
ildiihid rowH of lol'ty tnu's, Adjoinnif; the lisli-
nmrkct, which is one of Ihc Ih'mI in the kingdom,
is till! market for poultry, in which are exhihited
Imskets full of the hinder lef,"*, or yUjofs, of larnc
l'ri)>,'M, neatlv twisted and skewereil up ready for
lircsHiiif^. 'i'heir appearance is brij^ht and plump,
iiiid hy no meanHso(li.sn"'rcealilcaH to increase the
iiiifavoiirahle prejudi.": o ;•. Knt;lish palate.
llriisselH is amply Hupi'!'' ' Ji culinary vcf^e-
tahles from market-fjardens. (Jainc in rather
|ili>ntifiil, and jionltry aliundant. Fresh-water
lisli are «;hcap, sea-tish rather dear.
The climate of ilrussels is tcin|)eratc, moist, and
pxtremcly variable. The inhabitants of the upper
town enjoy a warmer and drier atmosphere, and
,1 greater exem|)t ion from diseases, than those of
the lower town, from which the epidemics that
occur most commonly arise. In (general the city
is healthy, and rarely visited by malignant or
|K-stil(Mitial fevers. The air is genial and mild,
iiril the sky often serenely blue, liefreshiiij;
lircozes blow from the sea, but fof^s not unfre-
qiu'iitly descend in the morning and evening.
Tlie temperature of Hrussels, compared with that
of Paris, is colder in winter, and less warm in
summer ; compared with London, it is also colder
ill winter, but warmer in summer. The dry nature
(if the soil in the higher jiart reflects the sun's
rays ill summer, so as to render the heat extremely
(ippressivc. In general, the weather is more damp
and variable than in Paris, and less so than in
London.
For the instruction of 3'onth of both sexes in
all departments of scholastic knowliulgc, and every
clonant nccomplishnieni, there are many excel-
lent academical institutions, public and private.
The modem collegiate establishment, called the
Free University of iirussels, offers every desirable
facility for prosecuting a complete course «)f study
ill science, language, anil literature. IJesides a
mn^'niticent library, it possesses a chemical labo-
ratory ; museums of natural history, mineralogy,
geology, comparative anatomy ; an anatomiital
ilicatre, and chambers for clinical ])racticc. The
lioynl Atheiueum is a highly useful and jirosper-
(iiis institution, established on liberal and rational
lirinciples, and kept in full operation by 1.5 jirofes-
sor» and masters. The attention formerly devoted
to the ancient languages, so as to engross exclu-
sively the whole jieriod of youth, is jiroperly di-
viilod between aiuuent literature and the more iin-
jmrtant modern experimental sciences and iiulus-
Irial arts. In the former deiiartment there are
usually from 150 to 200 ])upils, and in the latter
from ioO to 300. 'i'lie hall for lecturing will hold
1,"2()0 persons. There is a tine veterinary and
agricultural college, with 150 students, a military
si.hool, and a school for instructing boj's scientiti-
cally in the principlesof commerce, and the opera-
tinns of the mechanical arts. Several societies
anil ostablishinenta for the promotitm of science
and literature have a high and well merited repu-
tation. The Koyal Academy of IJrusscIs was
founded in 1709. The (ieographical Establish-
ment, in the Faubourg de Flandres, was founded
in IHitO, by M. Yaiuler IMaeleii, an atHiient and
latriotic gentleman. On the boulevards, at the
V„ allele of the city wall, is the Obsen-atory, a
iieatand appropriate edilice, with two lowers coin-
niaiiiling an ext^-nsive horizon. Its site is l!Ml ft.
alMivethe level of the North Sea. Thiseslablish-
meiit is fnmished with an apimratus of very supe-
rior phihisophical iiislrnmenls, and serves not only
for the prosecution of aslroiioinical and meteoro-
logical observal ions, but for the promotion of all
the kindred mathematical and ex|H-rinieiital
sciences, es|K'cially that of horology. Near the
(.Hiservatory, on the outer side of the city wall, is
the Itotanic (iardeii, which is generally allowed lo
Ik' one of the linesl in F-nrope. An iiislitiile of
line arts awards prizes to distinguisheil students
of painting, engraving, sculpture, and architecture,
and affords Ihem the means i.f professionally visit-
ing lionie, and the other celebrated schools and
repositories of art. Prizes ariMilso distributed by
an acad<^niy of ]iainting, sculpture, and architec-
ture, which is numerously attended by students,
whose productions form an animal exhibilion.
There is also a society of friends of the liiii? arts.
A royal conservatory of music Is attended by -100
pupils, many of whom iK-come eminent nerfonners ;
and iiilinn and aged musicians are assisted by an
institution called the Society of A{Mdlo.
For the promotion of mercantile and mechani-
cal knowledfte, there is a (Munniercial society, and
one for the encouragement of arts and industry.
Two nuMlical societies comprise very numerous
bodies of learned physicians, and other distin-
guished men of science. In the old court, or
Palace of the Fine Arts, is a musenni of natural
history, that siirjiasses in extent and value every
other in the kingdom. The departments of
zoidogy, ornithology, entoniohigy, and mineralogy,
arc especially rei)letewitli rare and jidmirable spe-
cimens, including animals from the Dutch Fast
Indian colonies, liiissian minerals, and all the vol-
canic products of ]\[oiint Vesuvius. Another |ior-
tion of the edilice (-ontains the great public liltrarv
of iieariy 150,1100 vols., and 15,0(10 historical IVISS.
and niinerals. The latter wen; collected at a very
early period, by the dukes of Hurguiidy, and are
of extreme value ; uiany being richly adorned wit h
miniature ]iaintiiigs of exquisite beauty, by tin;
early Flemish artists, and the greater part an;
splendidly bound in crimson Morocco. Abov<!
2,000 vols, of the books were printed in the I5th
centurj'. The third division of the jialace is occu-
pied by a collection of about 500 ]iaintings, by the
great Flemish masters from Van Kyck to Iviibens,
and his numerous ])upils. The library, museums,
and gallery, arc constantly ojien to' the jiiiblic.
This spacious building serves also for ])ubli(! lec-
tures, which are ilelivercd gratuitously every day,
by the most eminent jirofessors, on geidogy, bo-
tany, chemistrj', architecture, doctrine of chances,
idiilosophy of history, history of the sciences, his-
tory of lielgium, general literature, hygiene, indi-
vidual and public, and industrial mechanics. IJe-
side;! the great literary treasures in the old palace,
there is a national library possessing (!0,000 vols.,
and 1,100 MSS. ; and several of the jmblic insti-
tutions have large and choice collections of scien-
tilic and literary works.
The manufactures of Brussels consist princijially
of its celebrated lace and tulle, and of carpets, line
linen, hosiery, jirinted cottons, hats, paper, soap,
candles, chemical pnKlnclioiis, painted iiorcelaiii,
leather, fabrics of horse-hair, and caoutchouc, arti-
cles of iron, brass, gold, silver, bronze, and cut
glass ; clocks, lam|>s, mathematical, o|)tical, and
surgical instruments. The eslablisliments are
numerous and of the highest description for brew-
ing beer, refining sugar and salt, cabinet-making,
carriage-building, lithography, type-founding, and
p !■ 2
fiSO
BRUSSELS
priiitinpc and l)iiiiliii^ IkioUs. In ailditiim to the
commerce urisiii)^ from itx maniifuctiiroH, and tliv
(■oiiHiim|>lionl)y the inhaliitnutH, ISrusNulH (lOHHeHHcs
nil ini)Mirtniit transit trade, l)y meniiH of itH rail-
wnys and two ciiiiuIm, conHistiii^ of nil kiiuU (>f
^rain, cohIh, timber, iron, stonen, lime, bric-itH, and
various otlier |)rodiicts of tlie soil, and of foreign
(umntricH. KHtablixhrncntH connoutud witli com-
mcreittl operatioiiH are — the ComniiKHioii Siiiic-
rieure d'Industriu ct de Commerce, Tnl)unnl tie
Commerce, Chambre de Commerce, Societe Gi'ne-
rule pour favoriser I'lndustrie, Societe' tlu Com-
merce de Bruxclles, six insurance companies, the
Kntre|)6t, Koyal Exchange, Custom House, and
very commodious public rooms called the llnissels
Lloyd's, where merchants meet for the transaction
of business and perusal of the daily |)apers. There
arc two large annual fairs for the sale of all kinds
of merchaiulise ; one of 12 days, commencing May
22d ; the other of 14 days, beginning the 18th Oct,
The munici])al authority tif Hrusscis is vested in
a burgomaster and four sheriffs. They constitute
the city regency, whose sancticm must be obtained
to all measures affecting the rights and interests
of the citizens. The supreme court of law, and
other national tribunals seated in the capital, arc
noticed in the article on Delgium.
Urussels is believed to have been founded in
fiOO, and to liuve been walled in 1044. A code of
municipal laws was formed in 1229, involving the
principle of trial by jury. About 1300, sixty
trades were incorporated in nine classes, to repre-
sent the citizens in all questions of taxation.
Lilieral notions of government continued to pre-
vail, and the population and extent of the city
were much increased. In the general persecution
of the Jews during 1370-71, hundreils of that
race were put to death in Brussels, and the
amount of their confiscated property in the pro-
vince of Brabant was nearly 13,000,000 tlorina.
Under the Dukes of Burgundj', at the commence-
ment of the 15th century, Brussels became a dis-
tinguished seat of leaniing and the arts, and was
the residence of a magnilicent court, which greatly
)m>motcd the progress of science, literature, com-
merce, and manufactures, especially the weaving
of linens and woollens, and beautiful tapestrj'. In
1481), during the dominion of the House of Austria,
the city was desolated by a dreadful i)lague, which
ilestroyed 30,000 inhab., and produce<l a famine,
whose effects lasted 4 years. Brussels was highly
prosperous under the emperor Charles V., who
often dwelt in its jialace, and made it the scene of
his final abdication in 1555. The intolerant and
oppressive proceedings of Philip II. kindled that
rebellion in the Low Countries which ended in the
establishment of the independence of the United
Province. In 1668, the martyrs of freedom, Counts
Egmont and Homo, were beheaded in the Grand
Place. Alva's violent exaction of exorbitant
taxes at length excited a general revolt of the
citizens, and after many changes and party con-
tentions, and the loss, in 1578, of 27,000 inhab. bj'
the plague, the Spanish governors, in 1698, gave
up the place to the Austrian dynasty, under which
the arts and sciences again revived and prospered.
Brussels, in 1695, was unsuccessfully besieged
and bombarded by the French, under Marshal
A'illeroy, when 14 churches and convents were
destroyed, with 4,000 houses. In 1706 the keys of
the city were delivered to the Duke of Marlborough,
and in' 1746 it was again attacked hy the French
under Marshal Saxe, to whom it capitulated after
a siege of three weeks. In 17'"4, after the storm
of the French revolution had burst upon it, and
Belgium was annexed to France, it became the
chief town of the department of the Dyle. In
BUCHAREST
1803 Napoleon entered the city with great pomp,
at the head of 10,000 troops, with a body giiiird „f
the citizen :n splendid uniform. Twelve yeiirs
aftenvards, on his return from I'.lba, llnissils win
the head-quarters of the British army, mid ncnt
forth the troops who, on the plains of Wuiorldd.
put an end to the amiiitious career of that exira-
ordinaiy individual. From that period Ilriisscls,
ponjointly with the Hague, was the capital of tin'
kingdom of the Netherlands until the Helgic ro-
voliitioii of Sept. 1830, which miule it the lapital
of llelgium,
BKU TON, a town of England, co, Somersei,
hund. and par. Bruton, on the IJrue, 24 ni. S. Iiv
E. Bristol, 120 m. W. London liy road mid iL'tln'i.
by Great Western railway. Pop. 2,232 in l«i;i.
'Ihe town is well built, consisting prineipnll'- i.f
three streets, havhig a common centre, witli a kihmI
market-house, where the sessions for the K, divi-
sion of the CO, arc sometimes held. Here is a
well-endowed hospital, founded by a native cif ihw
town, for the sui)port of jMior men and wtmin,
and tor the supjiort and education of a ccrtaiii
numlier of children. There are manufiictnns «{
silk, which employ some hundred jieoplc, Mariitt,
Saturday ; fairs for cattle, 29th of April and I'Jtli
of Se])t.
BUCHAREST, or BUKOKEST, a city of Wnl-
lacliia, of which it is the cap,, being the residcint.
of the hosiiodai, and of a Greek arciibisiiop, m
the Damboritza, over which there is here a l)ridf,'f;
37 m. (direct dist.) from its contluencc with the
Danube, and 280 m. WNVV, Constaatin.)ple ; lat.
44° 26' 45" N.; long. 460 47' E. Pop. estimated
at 80,000. It is situated in a vast swampy ])lain, is
divided into above 60 quarters, and though of com-
paratively recent origin, is not built accordiiif; to
any regular plan, and presents a curious display ef
barbarism and civilization in its mu<l ealmis,
brick houses covered with shingles, and spaciuii.s
hotels ; and in the vulgar finery of the "joyars, er
nobles, and the rags and filth of the other Vlasse.s
It also presents a curious mixture of EiiroiK'.'iii
and Oriental habits and costume ; half tiie inliali,
wearing hats and coats, and half calpaes ami
pelisses. Some of the streets are paved; but lliey
are mostly boarded over, or rather covered wiiii
trunks of trees, or other large logs laid transversely.
instead of a pavement ; and, from the ilatiie.s.s iif
the ground, and the slovenliness of the inlialj.. all
the filth of the streets collects under this riule
fioor. The streets arc thence called punti, (ir
bridges, and, according to the testimony «( a
recent traveller, they 'are really bridges tldaiin;,'
on rivers of filth. In winter this is contiinially
splashing up through the interstices, and in sum-
mer it rises in clouds of black dust ; and at all
seasons is attended with a foul unwholesome odour,
generating putrid fevers : nd the plague,' Tlie
palace of the hospodar, or prince, an immense old
pile, and the metropolitan church, arc in tlio
largest square in the centre of the town, Near to
them is the fire tower, 60 lieet in height, wiieuce a
full view of the city is obtained. It has a vibi
mumber of churches, each with from 3 to (i spires.
or towers ! It has also about 20 monasteries ami
convents, and 30 khans, or Oriental inns, witli
several hospitals, one of which, for the military,
managed by German physicians, is said to be very
well conducted: another hospital, founded in 1(*3'),
by a bequest left by I'rinco Brankovnno, is also
stated to be worthy of notice. There is a wooden
theatre, where French plays and Italian operas
arc sometimes jierformed. The other prinei|Kil
buildings are a largo bazaar, and the Kisideiurs
of the consuls, or ambassadors of the diflereiit
European powers. Since 1834 improvements nl
BUCKFASTLEIOH
oil kinds Imvfi Ik'kuii to lie wt on foot, nnd cfl'orts
Imvt! ;)0('ii made towupply nil cIhshch, cuiiccmlly in
till! capital, with tlio incanH of edunution. In this
view tlie college of St. Suiivoin haw been organiMcd,
which funiishes instruction to 600 piipilK. Tlie
Frenuh langua^^o has l)een adopted as the ImniH of
instruction, nnd the institution is under the direc-
(iiiii of Frenchmen. In addition to this, four other
Hchiiols have hecn opened in the city, where in-
htruvtion is afforded gratuitously to all who choose
to accept it. Theie is also a Ij-ceum for the (ireeks ;
«ml a public liornry, a socu^ty of belle, hittrcs,
and an agricultural society, h.ivc been established.
Formerly the boyars used to ride on horsebaiik ;
Ijiit about f>0 ynirs ago they adopted the practice
of rilling in crirriages, and now would hardly cross
to the opjKwite side of the street without using
one of them. The number of carriages is estimated
at-!,00l). Ihicluirest is principally ilistinguished
liy profligacy of manners. ( iambi iug-houses are
nmst abundant; and i)rostitutes are said to be
more numerous hi it than in any other European
fity of till! same size.
'i'he trade of the town is very considerable.
Till! cxjiorts consist of wool, butter, wheat, hides,
)cllow berries, tallow, honey, and wax, sent by the
Danube, or by Varna, to Odessa, ConsUmtinoiile,
ic. : they also export immense herds of liornetl
laitle nnd hogs to Gennany, whence they imjiort
almost everything they have, from the cheapest ne-
itssaries u)) to the most expensive luxuries. Then!
are considerable nundiers of German artizans, jjarti-
c'ularly of watchmakers and jewellers, in the town.
Uucharest was visited in 1H47 by a tremeiulous
fire, which destroyed several churches "and khans,
aiut a great muny privntc houses. It has since
ken rebuilt on an improved plan.
The old cap. of Wallachia was Tergovest ; but
in 1()98 the seat of government was transferred to
the jiresent city, then only a miserable village,
belonging to a boyar, calleil Buchor, from whom
it has taken its name. At the union of the two
jirovinces of Moldavia and Wallachia into the
semi-independent state — tributary to Turkey — of
lioumania, Hucliarest became the capital.
llLCKFASTLEKill, a par. and town of Eng-
land, CO. Devon, hund. Stamborough, 172 m. H\V.
liy W. London. Pop. of jiarish, 2,544 in IStil ;
area, 0,720 acres. It consists of one main street,
on the line of the great western road from London
to Plymouth ; and of another, branching I'rom it
on the VV. side down the incline, and called the
Lower Town. Generally speaking, the houses are
meanly built. The church is on an eminence
overlooking the Dart, on the N. of the town in the
meadows beneath which there are some remains of
an ancient Cistercian abbey. The inhabitants are
cliiclly cmi)loyed in wool-combing and weaving
serges, for which there arc three or four manufac-
toncs in the town. There is also a copper mine ia
the parish ; and limestone is (|uarried and burnt
in considerable (luantities, for maiuire to the sur-
rounding district. There are fairs held, for the
sale of live stock, the third Thursday in June, and
second Thursday in Sept. The weekly market
has been long discontumed. There are the remains
of an ancient encampment in the p.irish.
BUCKINGHAM, an inl. co. of England, having
X. Northami)tonshire, K. the cos. of liedford, Hert-
ford, and Middlesex, S. Berks, and W. Oxford.
Miape very irregular ; area 4G(j,932 acres, of which
about 440,000 are supposed to be arable, meadow,
and pasture. The vale of Aylesbury, one of the
richest tracts in the empire, occupies the middle of
the CO., and has, on either side, ranges of hills. It
U about equally divided between tillage and i)ns-
ture. The grass lauds arc partly used for the
BUCKINGHAM
581
dairy, nnd partly for fatting. Agriculture but
inditferetit : there is a great waste of horse jiower,
and a projjcr rot^ition is not always observed.
Sheep ore an im|H>rtnnt stock, and the average
weight of tlieir Hecco is Hui)|)o8ed to have Imjcu
increased, during the present ccnturv, from 3 to 5
lbs. ; many hogs are also kept; anil largo quan-
tities of ducks are raised at Aylesbury and other
places. There are some large estates! Farms of
a medium size average about IHO acres. Leases
pretty common ; but they are not granted for a
sulHcieiitly long term, and are defective in not
laying any restrictions on the tenant as to crin>-
ping. Cottages generally good, and most of them
have gardens. The manufacture of pillow laco
has greatly declined ; but a good deal of straw
idat is made in the jmrts of the county next to
Bedford. Minerals of no importance. The Thames
bounds the co. on the H., and the Oiise partiv
intersects it, and partly bounds it on the N. U.
contains 8 huiids., and 202 parishes. Pop. l('i7,S>tt;{
in 1801, of whom 83,023 males, and 84 .f 70 females;
inhab. houses 34,!)01» in 18(11. It returns 11 mems.
to the II. of C, viz. 3 for the co., and 2 each for the
lioroughs of Aylesbury, Marlow, Buckingham, and
Wycombe; registered electors for co. r»,t)37 in IX^jf).
The gross estimated rental assessed to poor rate
was (i()r),!)02 in 18G2 ; the gross annual value of
real projjerty assessed to income tax amounted to
U(J7,410/. in 1857, and to 700,510/. in 1802.
BuoKiNGirAM, a pari, and municipal bor. of
Eng,, CO. Buckingham, hund. of same name, on
the Ouse, 50 m. Js'W. London by road, and 01 in.
by London and North Western railway. Pop. of
municipal bor. 3,84'J, and of pari. bor. 7,020 iu
1801. F^xcept on the N. side, the town is sur-
rounded by the t)use, over which there are three
stone bridges. It consists chiefly of one long street,
which is jiaved and lighted ; houses of brick, and
neatly built. The church, with a gowl tower and
spire, was built in 1 780, principally at the ex))cnse
of the Temple family. It has a free grammar and
green-cout school for 20 boys, and a national school
for 300 boys and girls; two ancient hospitals sup-
porting green-coat and 10 blue-coat pensioners;
and a few minor charitable benefactions. The
weekly market is on Saturday, and there are ten
annual fairs for cattle and sheep. A branch of the
Grand Junction Canal extends to the town. No
particular manufacture is carried on : in the neigh-
bourhood are ])aper and corn-mills, and a few lime
quarries. Under the Municipal Kefonn Act there
are four aldermen and twelve councillors, and the
limits of the borough, which were i^eviously co-
extensive with the par., are restricted to that por-
tion of it on which the town stands, and which
comprises about three-fourths of the pop. The
town was incoqiorated by a charter in 1st of Mary,
for services rendered by its inhab. in the Duke of
Northumberland's rebellion ; the corporation was
a self-elected body, consisting of a bailiff and
twelve chief burgesses, who, till the passing of
the Reform Act, returned two mem. to the U. of
C. The last-mentioned act not merely gave the
suffrage to the 10/. householders of the bor., but
included with them the 10/. householders of the
par., and those of several of the adjoining parishes.
Kegistered electors, 373 in 1801. There is a court
of gen. sessions for the bor. held twice a j^ear. It
is the seat of the summer assize for the co. The
gaol was built in 1768, by Lord Cobliam, through
whose influence the act for holding one of the
assizes here was procured ; both having previously
been held at Aylesbury. The revenue of the cor-
poration amounted to 972/. in 1801. Under the
Poor Law Amendment Act it is the central town
of a union of thirty parishes. Buckingham is a
Pii'i'"
I-'ii I 1
M'2
IHIDA
polliiif^ town for the ro. Till witliiii a remit
iMTiixl, the miinuriu'tiin' of liu'c l»y liniid fiirniHlicd
(>iii|iliiynipiif to niniiv of llio women )"i<l children
'I'lie diiriil title of the Temple family is derived
from the town.
Hm>A {Slur. nUDIN ; Gi-rm. OFKN), aroynl
free eity of Hungary, of whit-li, in eonjnnction
with PeHtli, it \» the cnp. and sent of iroveniment,
on the TiiiUt hank of the Dimnhe, nnmediately
opposite to I'eHth, 111! m. W. Dehret/.in; lllft m.
KSK. Vienim l)y road, and Itil ni. hy Sonth Aus-
trian railway, I'op. ftaj^Kt in IMf)?. The pop. of
IVstli,at the same censns, was li)(>,r>(t(i; so that, if
we re^tarrl them as one eitv, its pop., exchisive of
the military, will he nhont l!)(V)*)0. Itnda is hiiilt
on and roiuid the last hill ol a ran^e whieh decreases
in height oh it approaches the Dannhe, and is
divided into six ((narters. The upper town, or
citadel, occu)iiesthe centre and hi)j;hestpart of the
city, the Schlossheri:; ; it is enclosed hy Imstioned
Avails, hnt is no !on;;fer of any importance as a
fortress. Althraigh the smallest division, it con-
tains most of the (inest hnildings. The royal castle,
or palace, he^mi in 1749, is a qiiadrangnlar stnu;-
tnre of j;reat extc^nt, containing 'JO.'I apartments,
xoine of which, as the throne-room, niidience-hall,
and drawing-rooms, are extremely magni(i(!ent.
Ill this hiiiiding are kejyt the regalia of the king-
dom, to which the Unngarinns attach an extra-
ordinary degree of importance. A large garden
Hurronnds the palace, and the view from one of its
halcoiiies, elevated on n rock ahove the Dannhe, is
very striking. The chnnJi of the Virgin's Ascen-
sion, and tlie garrison church, hoth (iolhic edi-
lices, the state's palace, high judicial chamher,
town-hall, residence of the commandant, arsenal,
jiost-ollice, and many other military and civil
]iuhlic liiiildings, are situated in this quarter. To
the N., and at the hasc of the rock on which the
citailel stands, is the lower, or ' Water town,'
which in some |)arts vies with the former division
in elegance. It contains the church of St. Anne,
and several others. The Lamhtrasne, a well-hnilt
(piarter; the new town, a cheerlul siihurh toward
th<' K., reaching to the bank of the Danube ; the
Kaizeiistndt, or Tabim, to the S., (he most |io|iu-
loiis ((iiarter of all ; and the ' Christina town,' to
the !SW., extending into the rich and beautiful
Christina valley, are the other divisions of Ihida.
The chief remaining buildings deser\'iiig notiee
are the churches of the Ca|iucliins, the Elizabethan
nuns of 8t. Fhtrian, the CJreek cinireh, the syna-
gogue, several monasteries and convents, the palace
of the primate in the Landstrasse, with the palaces
of Counts Sandor, 'I'eleki, Knlticly, Zichy, I'echy,
Uatthyany, and other noblemen. A well appointcil
observalorj', attached to the University of I'esth,
stands on the Bhicksherg, an adjacent hill, to the
S., .'{00 ft. Jihove the level of the river. Copious
hot springs, strongly imiircgnatcd with sulphur,
issue from the sides of the hills on which Ihida is
parti}' built, and especially from the lUocksherg.
The succi'ssivo occuph-rs of the place, Itomans,
Turks, and Christians, have taken advantage of
these springs, and have converted them into com-
modious baths. Of those constructed by the Ho-
maiis, only broken fragnicnts now remain ; hut
the Turkish baths are in a perfect state of pre-
ser\-atioii, and the largest, appropriated to the use
of the town, is a tine specimen of Saracenic archi-
tecture. The finest of the modem baths, that of
the ' Emperor,' in the vicinity of the Landatrosse,
is surrounded by gardens and pleasure-grounds.
These numerous hot baths have jtrocured for the
city its Gcnnan name of Ofen, which is ' oven.'
Among the many establishments devoted to science
and education in Ihiila, are an archi-gymna»iuin
(high college), n high school in each of the dif-
ferent quarters of the city, a school of design. Illy.
rian female scluxds, a |iublic library, cahiiu'ts Hi'
mineralogy and (!oiich(dogy. Many oi° the noliilitv,
the Franciscan friars, and other iMtdies, pnsM^s
good libraries, to which lilieral access is jiemnt ted:
in the royal palace there is a gallery of paintin^rs.
There are various charitable institutions, includiiifj
four hospitals.
A magnilicent suspension bridge, three qiinrtcrs
of a mile in length, spans the Danube, coiiikmIiii;^'
Hilda with I'esth. It was built at a cost of 701 1,111111/^,
after the designs of an English architect, Mr.
Clark, and was opened in IHlH. The bridge, nin"
of the Ihiest of its kind in the world, has a I'lcnr
waterway of 1,200 t't., the centre span or opcniii"
being 070 ft. Tlu! height of the suspension timers
from the founilatioii is 'JOO ft., being founded in , 'id
ft. of water. The sectional area of the suspcinlin;;
chains is irH) sf|uare inches of wrought iron, juid
their total weight I,J10() tons. This is the lirst
pennanent bridge which has been erected over lljc
Danube, below V'ieima, siiure the time of Trajiui.
Its solidity was exjiosed to a severe trial very sum
after its completion ; for it was crossed on tiic ."iih
of .laniiary, IKIO, and the imniedial<dy foliowiij^;
days, by large divisions of Hungarian and Inipiriiil
troops.
The summit of the lUocksherg commands n (iiic
view of the snrrouixling country, and especially nt'
the river and the op|H>sife city. A recent travclliT
describes it as follows : — ' ( >ii this side is Itiiila,
full of architectural anomalies, yet, from that vcrv
circumstance, an object of peiuiliar interesi : nii
the other, I'esth, laid out in all the regularity ol
street, and s(piare, and mall, and public ganlcii.
There is not a greater contrast between tiic oM
and new towns of Edinburgh than between liiidii,
the ancient capital of the JIagyars, and rcstli, a
city of yesterilay's growth. The one wanders fnmi
terrace to terrace, in dark and dingy masses, (ir
stretches in a hing line wherever, between i\w
river and the basis of the hill, a space of level
ground can re«'eive it: the other, a series of streets
which cross each other at right angU's, shines in
all the spleiuUtur of a plan rigidly adiiered to, and
materials the best calculated to preserve an appear-
ance; of unilomiity, even in separate editices.' Adil
to this striking contrast the vastness of the river,
the passing of barges, ships, and sleiini-paekets, in
the very centre, as it were, of Eiu-ope, ami tlie
scene and the associations connected with it inusi
be admitted to be of no common kind.
Huda is the usual residence of the govenior-
general of the kingdom, the seat of the viee-re|,'al
council, and the highest administrative aiillupr-
ities. It has mutdi less of a bustling ami einn-
mercial character than Pesth. There are a lew
manufactures of linens, woollens, silks, vehci,
leather, gunpowder, earthenware, and a caniinn-
foundry; but its principal trade is in its line
wines, of which about "iilOjOOO einicrs are pru-
diiced annually from the vineyarils around llie
heights m its neighbourhood.
lUida is believed by some writers to be eillier
the Ciirta of I'tolemy, or the Aquinciim of llie
Itinerary of Antoninus. It was held by the
Komaiis till nearly the end of the 4th ceiitiirv.
Attila made it occasionally his resi<lence. Aqiail,
the Blagyar chief, made it his head quarters in
!)00; and" it then became the cradle of the Hun-
garian monarchy. It was enlarged and impmved
by succeeding Hungarian monarchs, and nnide a
free city by llcia IV., in 1245. It was taken liy
the Turks, under Scdymaii the Jlagnilicenl. in
l.')26; but was recaptured bj' Ferdinand \..,V\\\f
of Bohemia, brother of the emiicror Chwles V.
UUDUKIISIIAN
in tlio followiiiR year. It was njjnin tnkon hv
Siilymnii hi t5'ii), uikI woh held l>y I lie Turk)* till
U'tM, wluMi it wiiM taken hv the Iiiii)crinli.sti', nftcr
II (Ifxperate resisiancc. ioMpph II. removed the
^out of Ihe llun^ariaii piverniiieiit thither in
|7h:<. Ill IHH), liie 'ralinii quarter, ami a part of
the Water town, were dentniyed hv lire. The lity
siill'ereda jcreat deal in the revoiiitioiiary war of,
IKl'.l. A nionunient in honour of (ieneral Ileiitxi,
niid the troops under his eoiinnand, who fell in
this war, was erected in the 'llentzi-siiuare' in
IN')!.
lU'DlTKlISIIAN, n prov. of Central Asia, now
a dept'iideney of the khan of Khoondoo/,, ln'tween
lilt. ;i(i° and 3«o N., and lon^'. 70° .10' and T^ ilO'
K, ; having N. and NK. n ehain of mountains, in
BUENOS AYRKS
ff83
upwards of 2 ni., with a hreadtli in its eentre of
alMiut 1^ ni. It is Imtit on a uniform plan; tliu
streets, whieh are all Htrai^ht, intersect each other
at ri^ht anKU'8 at every 150 yards, dividing; it into
a nuiiiher of stpmres, each having an area of ahout
•I KiiK- acri's. The principal streets, which were
formerly all hut impassahle in wet weather, while
in the <lry Heasoii they were ohscured with clouds
of dust, are now tolerahly well paved, and provided
with foot|iaths on either side. The houses and
other huildiii)^s have also heen greatly improved
within the last few years, and their interior ren-
dered much more comfortahle ; upper stories are
now (generally a<lded to them ; chimneys, that were
formerly all hut unknown, are connnon; they are
supplie<l wil h Kn^lish ^fralcs, and with coals carried
liubited liy trihes clainiiiif^ a Macedonian ori^^in ; (ml from Liverpool as ballast. ISIost sorts of Kn-
SI'l. and S. the Itohir-Ta^h imainlains, aiul the
lii;;h eoinitry of the Oiudrs; and \V. the other
tcrrilorics of Kooiulooz. It consists of the valli'y
(if the Koocha, a irihiitary of the Oxus, which
rincs at its SK. corner, and soon heconu's a coii-
siilcralile river, imfordahle even at ISudukshaii
(Fy/ahail). The scenery of this country, and its
iia'lural productions, are spoken of in lii;;li terms
liv all who h. ,>! visited it; it contains ruliy mines,
iiiiil dill's of lapis lazuli. Near the (ixiis the
luriner are still worked hy the khan of Koondooz,
and the latter article, much of which was for-
merly scut into ('hina, is ohtained hy ti^'htin^ a
lire linder the clill's, and, when hot, dashing cold
water upon them, which causes them to fracture.
The ruby mines were well known to the emperors
iif llelhi, and at a much earlier period: they are
lit a i)lace called (iharan, (Mi the vcr]Lce of the
Oxus; are «luf; in low hills; and the ncms eni-
licdded in limestone like nanul pierces of pebble or
tliuts. The iidiabitants of Ihiilukhshan are Tad-
jiks; very social and hos|(itable; speakiiif; the
IVrsian lan^uaj^e, and retaiiihi); the inanners and
customs prevalent N. the Hindoo Koosh before
the Tartar invasion. Neither Uzbeks iiorToorkees
had settled in the country before the chief of
Koondooz overran it, by whom its own chief was
(Ictliroiied; since which its peasantry have been
driven out, and a rabble of lawless soldiery quar-
tered in their stead. The capital is also called
liialuklishan, or Fvzabad, and is near the K. bank
iif the Koocha, in"lat, 'Si'P 2«' N., lonj,'. 71° -'o' K.
It is said to have been i)eopled from lialkh, and
most of the inhabitants are of the Shiak sect. This
country suH'ered much from a territic eartlupuikc
in .lamiary 1«32, which appeared to exhibit its
ciiief violence in this valley, and destroyed many
roads and villages, and a great part of the pojju-
Intion.
bUDWEIS, a town of IJolicmia, cap. circle of
the same name, on the r. bank of the Jloldau, 75
m. fS. Trague by road, and 15!) m. NW. Vienna by
railway. Pop. i4,Mll in 1«57. The town is well
1111(1 regularly built, and partially fortilied. Con-
tiiiiis a cathedral, seven ciiurches, a court of jiiris-
iliction for the circle, gymnasium, phih)soidiical
academy, and diocesan seminary. Has manufae-
tories of wocdlen cloth, muslin, damask, saltpetre,
ami musical instruments ; and considerable trade
ill horses and com.
HUKNOS AYKKS (Goad Air), a marit. city of
S. America, cap. of the Argentine confederation, on
the SW. shore of the estuarj' of the great river
l.a Plata, 125 m. W. by N. Montevideo, and 90 m.
N\V. I'oint I'iedras ; lat. 31° 30' 2!)" S., long.
iJKO 23' 34" W. Pop. estimated at 100,000 ; from
15,0(10 to 20,000 of whom are foreigners, chiefly
English and French. The city is built upon a
liaiik, from 15 to 20 It. above the level of the river.
Including its suburbs, it extends N. and S. for
ropean furniture have found their way into the
residences of the upper classes. Almost, every
house in the principal streets has a garden both
before and behind it; and many have latticed
balconies in which (Hloril'inius shrubs anr reared.
Though on the edge of oiu' of the greatest rivers
in the world, water in nueiios jYyres is both scarce;
and dear. Thewcdls, though numerous, atl'oril no-
thing but hard, brackish water, iintit for culinary
jiurjioses. There are no public cisterns ; rain-water
IS, indeed, tarefully collected in a few jirivate
tanks; but I be mass of the people have to pay
liigh for their daily supply, which instead of being
raised from the river by lnachiner^', and conveyed
in conduits to public pumps, is carried about in
butts mounted on bullock-carts. The quarter of
the city inhabited by Mestizos and negroes is
wretched and lilthy in appearance, and strongly
contrasts with the opulence and taste dis|dayed in
the other jmrts. The I'lnza, or great square", con-
tains the cathedral, and the town-hall, a haiKlsniiie
stone edilice, built by the .Jesuits; and a whole
side of it is occupied by the Kvviivn, a range of
piazzas, 150 yards long," and above 20 in width,
enclosing a double range of shops. In the centre
of the sipiare is a small obelisk, erected to com-
memorate the declaration of independence. The
town-hall is chietiv used as a prison, but meetings
of the inunicipahtj' are sometimes held in the
upper rooms; and from the balcony the citizens
are harangued on public occasions. The cathe-
dral, a large handsome edilice, with a cupola and
porticos, has its interior profusely decorated with
carving and gilding, and its dome painted in com-
partments, representing the Acts of the Apostles.
The church of the Franciscans, and that of the
convent of Mercy, are next in rank, and have
steeples and cupolas ne.arly in the same style as
the cathedral. In the former there is a painting
of the Last Supjier, well executed by a native
Indian artist. There are many other Catholic
churches, several convents and nunneries, a Pro-
testant cliureh, Presbyterian cha|)el. Ac, a found-
ling hospital, orphan asylum, and ol her benevolent
institutions. These edilices are all built of tine
white stone, found in the plain not far from the
city. The fort, which ceaitains the residence of
the supreme director and the government oflices,
is a square brick and stone building, near the river.
The iiniv<!rsity, one of the most celebrated in S.
America, occupies a very extensive building, which
has been recently fitted up at a great expense : a
suite of six rooms in this building contains the
state lil)rary, a good collection of about 25,000 ^■ols.
The estuary of the Plata is ver}- broad, but is
also in most (larts shallow, encumbered with sand-
banks, and infested with sudden gusts of wind
called jMimperos. It,s navigation is consequently
attended with a gofnl deal of difticulty, and ships
bound fe)r liuenos Ayrcs generally- take piltits on
\\
\
i
684
BUENOS AYRKS
mil'FALO
lN>ar(l. Thpit! Ih iio ImrlNUir, ami vi>HHoIfl drnwiiif;
1*1 or 17 ft. water niii^linr in th« (iiitt'r nmU, cnllcil
the Amamtdero, 7 or H in. from tlie Hhore, loading
and uidoadin^ by mcantt of li^litorH. ThiH, too, ii*
an_ o|K)ration l>y no niuanH free from daii^or, lioalh
\mn^ Homctimi'.s Hwumpcd in rroHHin^ tlin liar
lH!twvcn the ontor and inner roadn. From ilie
want of a iiior, and the hIuiIIowiicnh of the water
on the beai'li, even the Ixiatn arc not ahle to eome
eloHO to the Hhore, lint arc met at a little diNtan(;v
IroHi it by a rude nort of ox-cartH, into which they
dcpoHit their ^o'hIh, at no little risk, and HometimeH
much loH». TliCMt' unfavourable cireuniHtaneeH o|K!-
ratti as u drawback on the trade of the city, and
tend proportionally to augment that of Montevideo,
which in more easily accexHible. Hut notwith-
Ntandin); the competition of the latter, and the
^rcat increaMc of itu trade of late yearn, liuenos
AyrcH in Ntill the |irincipal outlet for the ))ro(iuce
of the vast countricH travers«!d by the La JMata,
and cNpecially for the provinces Mituutcd un itH
ri^lit. bank.
Within the last few years the trade in wool, in
consequence of the great improvement etfected in
the breed of sheep, has Iwcome of considerable and
rapidly increasing import antte, the exports amount-
ing, on the average, to above a million sterling )ier
annum. The trade in hides, both dry iiisd salted,
is of equal importance, the exports iH'ing above a
million in value per ainnim. Subjoined is an ac-
count of the quantities of the principal articles of
produce cxporteil from the port of Ituenos Ayrcs
diuring the year ended the auth of June, 1SG2 : —
ValunI at
£
454,303 snltjd ox liidcs 'ir>». ouch
6fi7.878
],!il7,771 dry „ 'H)». „
1,217,771
'JHr>,0'M salted horse hides Ki. „
114,059
(10,048 dry .. r,s. „
15,012
] 1 ,f.»3 pipes of tallow £-jr> per pipe
2;Jl,8(iO
8,757 Ixjxes „ £l(iperl)ox
140,012
48,7ti8 bales of wool £-ir, per bale
1,21!»,I50
3,046 „ of horsehair £-.0 „
15-J,300
8,»r.l „ of sheepskins £:w „
21)8,530
49«,788 quintals of jerked beef 1U». per quint.
24»,8y4
£4,17«,44(i
The total value of the imports averages
2,r>00,000/., of which those furnished by (ireat
liritain amount to near a half. The importjs
chiefly consist of cotton, linen, woollen and silk
manufactures, hardware, cutlery, earthenware of
all sorts, glass, leather, and hats. France supplies
Uuenos Ayres with jewellerj-, perfumery, an<l
other articles of luxury; the imports from the
U. States consist chiefly of coarse unbleachetl
cloths, spirits, soap, sperm candles, dried and
salted jjrovisions, tobacco, furniture, and deals.
The Mediterranean trade is |)rincipally in Sicilian
and Spanish produce, jiarticularly cheap wines,
brandies, olive oil, mucearoni, tiried fruits, and
paper. Sjianish gooila are in little demand,
though some serges, velvet, sewing silk, and
snutt', are imported. The annual importation of
Spanish ond Sicilian wines is from 10,000 to
12,000 pipes, besides about 1,000 pipes of brandy.
The i/erha mate, or Paraguay tea, fonnerly an
export article of some consequence, has now been
nearly superseded, even in Buenos Ayres, by tea :
the other Chinese imports are silks, crapes, nan-
keens, porcelain, antl numerous minor articles.
The tratle with Chili and Peru is insignificant.
The markets of the city are well supplied with
butchers' meat and fish. Poultry is dear, a couple
of fowls selling for as much as an ox. Vegetables
and fruit generally are also dear ; milk in quality
ond price is much the same as in London, and ail
the butter used is imported.
The inhab. of Buenos Ayres are said to be ob-
Korvnnt, intelligent, and desirous tn impnivo,
Kducation receives a eoiisidi'rable share of alti'n.
tioii. lltmideM the university, a su|K'rioraca(lt'iiiv,
and a military college, there an; 10 public scIhhiIs'
for whose support the corporation contrilnitoH
alMiiit 7,000 dollant aimually, and A other scl U,
exclusively for the benellt of the poor, under tlic
charge of ditVerent monasteries, and supplied with
iMKiks and stationery at the public expense. ||
is rare to meet with a boy 10 or 12 years of ii;;,.
in the city who cainuit niail and write. Tluri!
are several daily and weekly journals.
Mueiios Ayres wiu* founded by Don Pedro i|i>
Mendo/ii, in ITilM, but, in conse(|uence of tin.
opposition of the Indians to the setllemcnt, it
was obliged to be abandoned at two subsciiucnt
periods, ami was not permanently colonised ii||
l<'i8(), after sonu! shar]i actions with the native.',.
In l(!20, the «;ity was erected into a bisli'iiiric,
and in 1700 contained lt!,000 inhabitant.. ,a
I77(i it became the seat of the vice-royallv of i,n
Plata; and in 177H, when the trade 'of liie rivtt
was thrown optm by Spain, its trade and con.',)..
queiice began rapidly to augment. In ,)uiie Isim;
it was talen by the British, but retaken by iliv
.Spanish in the same year. In IHIO the ri'vnlu-
tioiiary movements began that ended in tlic
emancipation of Buenos Ayres and the stiilcs of
La Plata, from Old Spain. The decliiratiiMi (,t
independence ajijieared on the !(th of ,Iidv, 1810,
and by the terms of it a confederate repuiilic wan
established iiiuler the name of ' the United I'm-
vinces of the Bio de la Plata.' In .lanuary l8,(|,
a constitution creating the ' Argentine CoutVilcr-
atioii,' was promulgated, but on various niodiii-
cutions, tending to greater union, being introduced
in it, the city and province of Buenos Ayres
seceded in 1854. However, it again joined' the
Argentine Confederation in 1800, thn oiipoiieiits
of the re-incorporation having been dcfcted in
the course of a short civil war.
BUFFALO, a city of the U. S, of Amprieii,
New York cap., co. krie, at the W. extremity of
Lake Erie, where it contracts into Niagara river,
203 m. NW. New York, and 22 ni. S. Ninniirii
falls. Pop. 2;),(ill in 1840, and 81,1;10 hi iKCii.
The town stands jiartly on a h)W nnirshy iraet.
intersected by Bntlalo creek, which fomis its
harbour, and partly on an elevated terrace, kfid-
iiig to a still higher plateau. The principal streets
descend from the high ground over tiie terrace
towanls the creek and harbour, and are crossed hy
the others generally at right angles. According
to Captain Marryiit (Diary in America, 18:tli),
' Butlulo is one of the wonders of America. It is
hardly to be credited that such a beautit'iil city
should have risen up in the wilderness in so siiort
a period. In the year 1814 it was burnt dinvii,
being then only a village ; only one house was
left standing, and now it is a city with 2J,ii(iO
inhab. It is remarkably well built ; all the houses
in the principal streets are lofty and sulistaii-
tial, and are either of brick or granite. The main
street is wider, and die stores handsomer tiiaii the
mnjo'ity of those in New York. It has very
line churches (now 18 or 20), a handsome theatre,
town-hall, and market ; and 3 or 4 hotels, one uf
which is superior to most others in America;
and to these we must add a fine stone i)ier, with
a lighthouse, and a harbour full of shipping, and
magnificent steam boats. It is almost incom])rc-
hensible that all this should have been acccm-
plished since the year 1814. And what lias
occasioned this springing up of a city, in so short,
a time as to remind you of Aladdin's magic palace?
The opening of the Erie canal, from Lake Kric to
the Hmlson river and New York, passing through
milTALO
tlifl iM'iitrc, of till) iiiodt, |Mi|Miloim aixl fcrJiln ntnlox.'
The cily now m not <U>|h>ii(I<'IiI for itH <'<iiiiiiii'rct^
till iIk' nuinl, Imt is cihiiutIciI, liy HcvtTul linen ^>f
riiilway, wild nil iliit inori' ini|H>.iiuit Iowum of tlii!
I iiitiMl StuU>H, It uIho conliUHH » lilcrur^v aiul
Ht'ii'nlilic ucuilciny; n lyccuin, having n liliriiry
mill clu'niii'ul u|>|iiiratnH ; and ihu nnivcrsiiy of
\\. Nt'W York.
Iliiiralo iTcck, fornu'd liy tlin pontliu'iict' of
Hi'vcral Hniitll HtroninH, ix navipiliU< I'ur alioul H ni,
A Itar at its niunlh has iM'on i1Is|«tsc'iI, so as to
iiilinit vessels ilrawihf; H I't, water into the liar-
JHiiir; anil n pier, l,r(00 ft. in Ivnjrtli, with a li^'ht-
liiiiise upon it, has lieen carried out into the lut<e,
to t'aeililate their inf^ress and ejfress. Still, how-
vver, the harbour is not aecesMible at all seasons,
nil aecoiint of the aeeuiniilalioii of ice hroii^^ht
down liy the \V. winds, and a ship canal hiis
lii'cii cut from it to the lake W. of the town,
wliieh has (Uiiic a jrood deal to obviate this iii-
coiivenienee. From its )>ositiim on the best
('liiinnel of interconrse between the W. rv'n'ions
1111(1 the Atluntie, an well as its being the only
jiiirt of entry for the Niagara district, lUill'alo is
n place of great and increasing trade. Subjoined
is an acct'iunt of the number of vcshcIs owned in
Jliill'alo, and their tonnage, in the year IMtib: —
HUIXJAUIA
A8A
Craft
Number
13
m
ia,5
Tonnage
3!l,-.'.'..'i
•J,774
4,m:)4
;i:),47.')
Sti'iuiiors
I'wiK'Uurs
TiiKs ....
Ilaniuea ....
]iii(,'s ....
Kchooiicra .
Total . . .
aiis 1 9o,if)«
The inimbcr of vessels engaged in the naviga-
tiiiii of the western lakes during tho year lUliU
was a» follows : —
Cr«lt
Number
li)8
I!»7
as
y74
Tonnage
til.-Vil)
a;),4i7
•.>:.,(( 17
]ys,(i(ji
Stoamoi'H
I'miielliTs .
ISaniut'S ....
Uii(,'s ....
ScUuonera and Sloops
Total . . .
1,457
377,8-J5
The chief trade of liuftalu consists in shipments
of wheat and llonr.
Buffalo was an inconsiderable place previously
to 1812, in which year it was made a military
station. Its destruction in 1814 was (dJ'ccted by
B party of liritish and Indians; but in 1817, it
a(,'ain contained more than 100 houses, many of
iviiich were largo and elegant. In 18.'t2 it was
incorporated as the ' City of lluffalo,' divided into
live wards, and the government vested in a
mayor and common council chosen annually by
the citizens.
IIUFFON, a small vil. of France, dep. Cote
(I'Or, on the Arman9on, 12 m. N. Semur. This
village belonged to the illustrious author of the
HUtuire Naturelle, (ieorges Louis Lc-Clcrc,
created, by Louis XV., Count de IJuftbn, by which
name he has since been distinguished.
BU(l (an. HyiMiih or lio(/iis), a river of Euro-
lioan Kussia. It rises near iJlosysko, in the S\V.
tonicr of Volhynia, and pursues a SE. course psist
Hratzlatt", Oliviopol, Vosnesensk, and NicolaelT.
2.) ni. below which it falls into the testuary of the
Dniepr. It is navigable from Vosnesensk. The
tntraiice to the Bug is without the bar of the
Dniopr; happily, too, it has no bar of its own,
ami has deep water as far as >«icolaeft'.
lUMJIA or lUMJJr.lAII, n sea-jMirt town of
Africa, reg. Algiers, on the ih'cliviiy of a inoiin-
taiii, at the mouth of the Aduse, 122 in. K.
Algiers. The jnirt, which is large, is formed by ti
projecting ii(!ck of land, great iiart of which was
anciently faced with stone. There is goiHl aii-
cliorage olf the town in H or H) fathoms, but NK.
xviiids throw in a heavy sea. Treviously to the
French occupation, the town was protected liv
half ruinous walls, and by a casth^ on the Hiiminit
of a hill, which also commanded tlut roadstead.
The inhabs. nianiiliicture ploiighshiires, mattocks,
^c. of the iron obtained frmn the iieighboi,i:iig
inoiintiiins, and great quantities of oil and \;n.:
are brought down to this place by the Kab\ les,
tor shipnieiit. The town is biiilt'of, and sl'iiids
upon, the ruins of a more considerable ancient
cily. It was bombarded by Sir lidward Spraggs,
in IU7I.
lil'tJl'K (LK), a town of France, de'p. l)or-
dogne, caj). cant., a little above the conlluence of
the Vezi-re with the Ifordogne, 1(1 ni. WNW.
Sarlat. I'op. 2,'.m;<» in IHOl. The town is ad-
vantageously situated, well built, and carries on
(lill'ereiit branches of the woollen nianiiliictiire.
It is also the eiitrejiot of the wines and other
|iroducis of the surrounding cantons, whiidi are
shipped thence to Ilordeaiix, and has a consider-
able trade in cattle and hogs.
JU'IS (LK), a town of France, den. Drome,
cap. cant., ,>ii the Oiiveze, 10 ni. SI';.*Nioiis. J'op.
2,:i70 in I8I'>1. The town is ill built, but has some
line ]iroinenades and a handsome square, siir-
ronniled by a double row of trees, it has some
trade in wool, cloth, hats, olive oil, and Jewtdlery.
lUJJALANCl';, a town of Spain, Aii(iu!-.:.,ia,
prov. Cordova, being 22 in. l\. from the city of
that name, and 7 m. from the (iuadahpiivir, on the
railway from Cordova to IMadrid. I'op. 8,!)17 in
1857. The town is well built, with broad streets,
has two cimvents for either sex, two hospitals, a
C(dlege, and a foumlling hospital. It has some
woollen fabrics, and a large fair which conunem-es
tin the 2<;tli of August. Though its modem iiamu
be of Arabic origin, it is believed that this town
occupies th(! site of the Oil/ivrniu of the Ifomans;
and il has various inscriptions, and other antiqui-
ties of lioman origin.
lUJKIIlJK, an island and fort in the Indus, 1C.5
m. N. Ilydrabad. The fort, which is constructed
of brick, is about -lOO yards from the left, and 3.jO
from the right bank of the Indus. Hut it has no
strength in its works, and is ibnnidable only from
its position.
HIJKOWINE, a ci-devant province of the Au-
strian empire, now included intiallicia, which see.
l?L'L(jiAKIA (an. JMw.iia Inferior), a large prov.
of Turkey in liurfipe, included' in the beglerbeglilc
of Houmelia ; lying between lat. 42° 8' and 41° 10'
X., and long. 22°' 14' and 2ito JIO' E.; hnviiig N.
Wallachia and Uessarabia, W. Servia, S. Houmelia,
and K. the lUack Sea. Length, N K. to S\V., about
.'{.'JO m. ; breadth varying from 40 to 100 ni. Area,
estimated, from 30,000 to 34,000 sq. m. Poji.
3,000,000. The country is for the most part
mountainous, and eminently so in the S., wlieio
the firincipal chain of the Ilalkhan mnts. fonns its
boundary: the Daimbe constitutes its N. limit;
but excepting that river, Bulgaria j)ossesses none of
any magnitude, although sufficiently watered by
small streams. Its climate is tcm|)erate, and ita
soil Icrtile and well adapted for the culture of corn,
vines, the mulberry, and other fruit trees, and
tobacco. There are but few marshes ; the pastur-
ages are extensive and rich, and feed numerous
herds of cattle i the higher lands are often covered
with forests of pine, oak, uud beech. The Bulga-
rm mrNi)i,K(;uNl)
riiiiiH nr<> ilcmTiiilcd from n Slnvonic luirdr,
fiiniii'rly iiihiil>itiiiu the liiinkN ofllic VVolpi, wlio
iriMHi'il the DiiiiiiIk' iiiiiI t'NiiiUliHiicd lliftiiNclvcN in
iliis t'oMiitry in (lii^ 7tli I'cniiiry, mwl litivi* Hiiicc
)xriiiliially H|in'ti(l lll^ln^4*'lv<'H tivcr a liir^o part <>(
till' rcKiidi S. of tin- llalklian. The pri'Mi'iit raco
liavi' laid n»'u\t' the inililary <:liarncl('r of llicir
aiio'MlorN; llicy arc u paMloral |i«'<ipU', living in
^<lnall lintnlt'tH of alNiut -10 or M Iiomhch cai'h, and
oci'npyin^ ihcinKclvt'M I'liirlly in afjricnltnr*' and
('attl('-llr('t'din^^ with xoinc niannfachirrH, an iIiohc
of coarnf wotdU'n clolli, rillc-liarrclM, morocco
icatlicr, and altar of roncM, Larp' ^mrdciiH arc de-
voted to tlic cullnri' of roftcH; and wc arc indebted
to tlic Itulpn'ians for tlic tincxt and moNt. elegant
of pcrfunicH. 'riic people arc kind, lionpitalde, mid
lienevolcni. 'I'hc women, who mix freely with the
men, arc liandxonic, indnslrionr*, and drexH neatly:
all wear trinkctH; and llu^ ^'irls liavi^ their lieailH
nni'ovcred, ami their hair hraided and ornamented
with dilVerenl eoinn, hh amon^^nt the Allianianx,
The male peasantry drcNH in lirown xheep-Mkin
caps. Jaeketn of innlyed hrown wool, which their
wives spin and weave, white cloth trowscrs, and
handals of raw leather, and carry no weapons of
otfence. They live in houses of wickerwork
plastered, the interior licin^ clean and cond'ortalile.
'I'heir lanpia^e is a dialeel. of tlic Servian. i'Acr
since the Ittli eentiiry their religion has heen that
of I he tireck chiireli; hut they liav*' few places of
Worship, and in those they have the service is
performed in (Jrcek, a tongue which they do not
niidcrstand. Schools and hooks are equally rare
with churches, and except, the shop-keeper and
priest of a villaf^e, scarc(dy any one can read or
write; yet, notwithstanding this ^oss ipiorance,
crimes are siuffiilarly rare, and travellers in their
country are not secure <'iily) hut ex|ierience the
kindest treatment. Itulpir'ia is diviiied into four
saiidjaks. vi/. those of Silislria, Ituslchnk, Wulin,
and Sophia; its chief towns ar(^ Sophia the capital,
Shumla, Silistria, Kiistchuk, Nikopoli, Widin.aiul
Varna.
lUJ N I >LI''CUN1"), a lnr(;o division of Ilindostan,
prov. Allahahad, hetween hit. 21° ;!' and 'Jtio L'tl'
N., and long. 70° W and 81° .'i;i' K.; havinj; N.
the .lunula: S. Ilcrarand Malwah; K. Ito;irilennd;
and W. Scindia's jlom.: area 2I!,MI7 s(|. m. I'oj).
2,|(I0,(HI(). The country is moiintniiious, and im-
perfectly cultivaied; the mountains belong to the
Vindhyan chain, and run in parallel ranges through
the <listr., each successively buttressing a table-
land ; the country is nnturall)- very strong, every
hill bi'iug a natural fortress, and often crowiie<l by
an artiliciiil one; but the highest summit is no
iiiori^ than 2,(1(1(1 ft. above the level of the sea. The
Cane, iH'san, and Uctwah, are the chief rivers, but
none of them is of miidi importance; there are
several arliticial reservoirs or lakes, formed by
masonry, crcctetl across the currents <tf various
^lrcalns for the pnqioscs of irrigation. The soil is of
cvt'ry variety, from the rich black loam to the nU\-
rile conkar; the valleys and lowlands arc generally
of the former, and, when properly watered, yield
abundant crops; the summits of the liills, although
mostly rockv, arc covered with small coppice-
wood: tlic lace of the countrj' often presents de-
tached pieces of Jungle, but there arc lu) forests,
and a few scattered and stunted teak-trees form
the only large timber. lUnidleciind is celebrated
for its diamond mines in the table-land of I'aimah,
where they are said to be found wherever the soil
is gravelly. This soil is from 2 to 8 cubit.s deep,
mostly very red, but elsewhere of a dark hrown ;
it contains many small pebbles, with which the
diamonds are found intermixed, but never adher-
Lig to any other stoue or [icbble. The workmen
nUNKKIVH im,L
lift nil the gravelly earth ; throw it into n shallow
pit tilled with water; anil, after washing out ilii>
earth, examine the pebbles on a JHiard. Much limi'
is frnitlcHsly lost, but a very few diamonds foiind in
the course of the year repay the workman, hiiiii' lie
ret'eives j, the value of those above the si/e uf u
lllbcrt. \ the value of those as large as a pea, Ar.
Very few are now found worth more llinii Km/.,
and their protits are comparatively insigniticam.
The mines arc the exclusive property of the rajah
of I'annah ; thcv are supposed to be identical with
the I'anassa of I'tolemy.
liundlecnnd is now substantially Itrilish terri-
tory, though partly under native chiefs, who,
since IMn;i, have retained the internal adiiiiniM.
tralion of their doiii., on an ackiiowleilgnieni nf
allegiaiK'e. Hindoo usages have been less alVeiiiil
here by foreign rule than in most other paris i.l'
India; tli<! people generally are indiisirioiis, ami
obedient to tim constituted ailthoiities, Ihimuli
their chiefs are restless and turliiilenl. Their
language is n dialect of the Sanscrit. They arc
usually possessed of but lillle personal pmpVrlv;
there is litth^ trade or capital stirring, and llii'sc
circumstances, together with the bare and i<|ieii
character of thi! country, are probably the caiiMs
of (Iticoiti/ or gang-robbery being so inuisiial.
Atrocious crimes are rare; footpad robbery ami
vozziniliii, or robbery on horseback, are the enlv
serious oirenccs, and tbesi; arc most common mi the
skirts of Scindia's jirov., whence small parlies el'
I'indarries ixu'asioiially enter on ravaging excnr-
sioiis; burglary and theft arc not ('omindii, 'I'hi;
/.emindars consider it highly disreputablt! locnii-
nivc at such outrages, ami frc(|nenlly expel IVeiii
their villages or estates persons of siispecicil
character. The pnncliayet, or arbitration sysieiii,
in the settlement of disputes, has been idways very
much resort(Ml to here.
At tlu^ fall of the Delhi empire, the Mahrattns
under All itahander, possessed thunselves of |inrt
of this ])rov., hut were unable to eslablisli their
authority in the villages and hill fortresses. Itim-
dlecund was occnpieil by tlu! lirilish troiips in
IMOl, ami erected into a magistracy uiiiler ilio
Itenares court of circuit. In IKI7 that imrlieiKpt'
it now belonging to the Bengal presid. was tiiially
ceded by the IVishwa, to whom Ali llaliuuder hail
been nominally subordinate.
lUJLSAlIK, a scii-port town of llimlnslan.
presid. Ilombav, on the <iulph of Caniliiiv, 'hMii,
SW. Surat; lat. 2(P ;«;' N., long 7;!° ;"/ K. lis
trade is (lonsiderable, chielly in grain, Jaghirv,
and limber; its mannfaetiires are niosdy enarsi'
ginghams and other cloths. Hicc and siigiir-cniiu
are cultivated in its vicinity.
I51IN<JAY, a town of Kngland, N. border, en.
SuHolk, bund. Waveney, on the Wangforil, OS iii.
NK. London by road, and 1 12iJ m. by (ir. Kasterii
railway. Pop, ;!,M(l6 in IH(!I. The town iimsi.-t.s
of 2 par., having together an area of 2,(i!i(l arris.
JIaving I -eii almost whidly destroyed by tire in
1(!M8, it is comparatively new, well laid out, and
well built. The market-jilace, said to be the kst
in the co., has two line crosses; and the town lias
also a neat theatre, and assembl.v ronnis; : Crec
grammar-school, with two cxliih. to Knianiicl
(Jidlege, Cambridge, and several other si'luinls;
the remains of a Henedietine nunnery: wnne
manufactures of hemp; and a considerable tnulp
in malt, corn, coal, flour, and lime. Here is also ii
large printing establishment. The triide "f lln'
town is promoted by the Waveney, being navi-
gable thence to Yarmouth. Market, Tliiirnilay:
fairs, Mth Alav, and 2.0th Sep.
ISUNKKir.S HILL, a steep hill 110 li. in
height, Massachuseltu, U. Status, in the ccntri- ul
IJl'NI»()()|l
llii> iMMiitiNiilii iin wliii-h till' town or <')inrli<i«lown
ii liiiill, mill iiIhiiiI I in. N, ItiiHiitn. Ilfre on ihc
ITlli •Inn*'. t77.'>, wiiH roii^lit one oC llic nirlicNt nnil
nioxt rciiiiirkMl)ln Italilt-N nl' ili<< Anu'riciin n^voln-
lioiiiiry wiir, 'I'lii' iirovinriul iroii|m Imviii^ (■■•inli-
II.sIk'iI llicinxclvi'i* on ii iiorliini ol' tliirt Iii'IkIiIi
iliirin^ till' iiiKlit< n llrili.'<li I'orrc lulvniiriMl In ilin-
|i>il);f ilii'iii; litil IIioiikIi iIic latter iillinialcly
ctlcctfil llicir |inr|ioN(<, llu> ri'Mistaiit'i- niailc liy the
AiiicricaiiM wan hiioIi, lliat the llritiMJi lost lO.VI
iiicii killed anil wonmlt'tl, while tlie Aineriran Kwm
wiis only IMI, killeil anil wonnili'il. In iH'.'-'t tlie
iTi'i'tion of a granite iil>rli.>il«, intenileil to lie 'J'JII (t,
lii^'li, was (■oinnieiu'i'il on the hill, in iiieiiiorv of
till- ai'tion; lint in ix'M't it wmh only onu tliinl
tiiiixlieil.
ItrNI'OOli, atown or village of IlclooehiMtan.
('ii|i. prov. KohiNtan; 11 in. N'.tlie llnshknnl iniils.;
int. I'TO 17' N.. loiiK. tm° •.'<»' !•;. It irt Hiiiail. anil
ill-hnilt; at one lime it hail lieeii Hiirronnileil liy a
niiiil wall, lint the whole ix now ^oiie lo ilei'a\'.
'I'lie ijtailel of the eliief, Htroii^ enoiit^ii lo reniMl
iiiiy altai'kH troin the I'l'miaiiN, i» Imilt on the
Niinnnil of an eNlraonlinary inounil of earth, saiil
liy trailitioii to hav<- lieeii artilieially rai^eil liy an
imnieiise anny of (ilieliers, who at a remote |ierioil
iinsHeil this wav. The iK'i/^rhhoiirhooil of Ihiniioor
iH lie.solale ami impoverisheil, ileHtitnte of a^'ricnl-
liire, anil even of (late-treeH. The inhali. are IIk;
Itiikh.Hliaiiee Itelooches, the leailiiif; Irilie ainon^Ht
(lie Nharooe'H; tlu; laii]i;na^e Hpoken at liini|i<ior is
IVrfian and l(elooeheeke<- mixed,
IIIHtDVV'AN (I'lirtliiiiiiaii, |irodiietivo), a distr.
Ill' llinilostan, presid, and prov. IteiiK'il; hetween
lal.l''-'°aiiii 21° N., and hin^c.H70 20' and ««« '>ii';
liavini; N. ll(>crhhoom, IC, Nnddoa, S. Iloonhly,
mill VV. the Jungle MelialH distr,; area, 2,IM)(l si|,
III. I'op. estimated at l,riliO,(Mll), It is one of
llii'inost productive territories of India, and lieiii^
rnvironed liy jimmies N, and S„ appears like a
pirilen snrronnded liy a wilderness. The iinenl-
livated are lint l-Hlli part of the extent of llieenl-
liviited lands: the chief articles of proihici; are in-
liifjii, snpir, cotton, loliaeco, and mnlherry-lrecs,
A principal part of the wealth of Kiirdwan consists
in its coal mines: the (uial-lield appears to he very
extensive; the coal is of (rood (|nalily, and pre-
' I'lTred to any other at (.talent la. .Several mines,
iiliiiiit lid) III. from that city, are worked liy an
l'ji){lisli company, which employ from 2,l)il() to
.'t.lllHI natives in mining, and illtO or ■Hill hoals in
I'diiveying the t;oal lo Calcutta, the mines heiiij^
nil the hanks of a river connected with tlu; llouglily.
Fine iron-ore is found in the neif^lihonrhood oi'thu
(•mil, and a ^jreat deal of stone, IJnminerce has
ken jfrcatly facilitated liy the opening of the Kast
liiiliiin railway, the great iron highroad from VmI-
nilla to the Northern provinces, which runs right
tliriiiigh the district. There are, hesides, good
riiaiis to Ilooghly, Culna, and ('utwa; the zemin-
liiirs are oinilent, and many of them resiiU' in the
capital of the prosiil. The proportion of Moham-
iiK'ilaiis to Ilindoos is iilioiit one to live, Itiiril-
wan iK'camc snhject to the lirilish. with the rest
of lieiigal, in 171)0.
ItuiiKWAN, atown of Ilindostan, iirov. llengal,
cap. of ahove dislrict, and seat of a /.illali court;
•ill m. NNW. Calcntta, on the East Indian rail-
way, which has a station hero. Lat. 2.'}° lo' N..
long. 87° .57' K. Pop, about .'Jl.OOO, 2-7ths of
wTiiim are Mohammedans. Tlu! Ihirdwan rajah
lia.s here a largo palace, an luiglisli siimnicr-liousc,
iiiiil spacious gardens.
IIUliFOKl), a par. and town of Kngland, co.
Oxford, luind. Hampton; i\'.\ m. WNW, London.
I'op. of town l,i;{5, and of ])arish t.dl!) in iHlil.
The town is |ilcas.iiitly situated by the small river
lUMMIOS AS7
W'indnish, lint is very iiiditVerentlv built. 'I'he
chiirch is fMirlly in the Norman, partly in the later
(iotliic style, and has u very line spire, surmount-
iiiga lower. The llapiisis, Krieiid.", and Wesley-
ans have chapels. There are aliiiNlioiises for l*>
poor widows; ii free school, with an endowment
producing Nl/, ayeiir, held in the lown-hall, where,
till |ti:ilt, the CO, assi/,i"4 were held. There is a
weekly market on Saturday, and fairs held the
last Saturday in April, and .Inly >'ith. for live stork
and cheese. Saddlery was otice a cniiniilerillile
branch of manufiiclure: there was also a large
trallie in wool and corn; bolli have greatly lie-
cliiied; and the properly of the town has been
sllll further depreciated by llie alleralion in llie
line of road froiii Oxford to ('liellciiliain, which
previously passed Ihrongh and now avoids it,
I'ldgehill, where Fairfax beat the rovalisis, ii in
the neighbourhood. The celcbraled \Viliniit, I'jirl
of liochesli'r, was educated in its school. It gives
the title of earMo the Duke of S* Mbans.
miMi, a town of I'msoia, I .Saxony, reg,
Magdeliiirg. on the Hie. I.'l m. NIC. Magiieburg,
on Iht! railway to Iterliu. I'op. I.''i,l20 in iMiil.
The town is walled, has three gales, four refuruicil
clinrclies, a grammar school, aii hospital, and ii
workhouse. It is also ilu> seat of a provincial
conucil, a board :if revenue, and a dislrict coiirl of
Justice. A very exleiisive woollen maunl'arinre
is c.'irricd on, and it has some dyeing establish-
ineiits and sniilVfaclories.
llUlktiOS, a city of Spain, cap. prov. same name,
on the Arlaiivon, at the foot of a inonnlain, i:i|
m. N. Madrid, ^!l in. SW. of Vittoria, on the rail-
way from Madrid, across the rvrencK's, to I'aris,
Pop. 2ti,<IMH in 1^07. The city is of an irregular
shape; streets clean, and handsome, particularly
that leading to the ealhedral. It has a inoderii
sipiare, surrounded with u port i(!o, supported by
large coluinns, with houses upon a unil'orm plan,
but small. There is a bron/.i! statue of Charles
III. The catlu'dral, a well-preserved chcf-irien vrii
of (iotliic elegance, is about itOO f|, in length, by
above 2.J0 in width. Its exterior is inferior to
noiu! ill Spain: bin the interior, though remark-
able for thelK'aiity of its workmanship, is inferior
to the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville. Having
been the cradle of the two most renowned captains
of Spain, Kerdiiiand (lon/.ales, and thi^CidCain-
peailor, liiirgos contains a triiiniplial arch in ine-
mory of the former, and a niouuuicut lo the latter.
There are three liiu' slone bridges over the Arliiii-
<;oii, in the s]iace of half a league. Two of tliciii
conimnnicate with the suburb of the citv, on tliu
opposite bank, called Vega, and the third, with
the royal hospital, remarkalile for its cleanliness
and salubrity. Tlieru are some line meadows on
the banks of the river, and there also is the famous
convent of Las llnelgas, whose abbess iiosscsscd
almost royal privileges. Close to llu! city is I ho
monastery of Mirallorcs, where .lolni II. and his
iiueeii have magnilicent tombs, and where also
there are some paintings reinarkable for thi'ir
colouring. There an; three military roads from
Ihirgos, one to (.)vicdo and (lijoii, another to Agre-
da, and n third to Saiitiiila. Tlu^ approaches to,
a.id promenades of, the town are well ornamented
with trees. l'"ornierly the greater ]iart of the wool
exported from Spain used to pass through liiirgos,
and it still hiis some mannfacliiros of leather,
woollens, and hats, and two lavaderuit, or Wiushiiig
pools for wool.
It is believed that Ihirgos did not exist in the
time of the lkomaiis,fi'om its not lieiiig iiieiilioneil
by Ptolemy nor any other ancient geographer; iis
wan.l of any ancient moniiTiients, ;inil its behig
insulated and out iif the line of the ancient inili-
6M
mimjrNDY
tiiry mnil. I'riilinlilv, ilH riMiiuliiiioii cniinot Im^
riirriril tiirtlKT liiick itinii ihi> rciKii of AI|iIiiiiihii I. ;
it Mils AI|ili<iMNi) III. mIio Drdcrctl llii< ciiMlh; ti>
Iw liiiill. It M'lut foriiicrly ili<> rcsiilriii'it nC ilu>
ciiinitM (il'Ciintilc, mill ninny of the CiiMlilinii kiii){N,
tiMil WHS tlii'ii I'clclinitnl fur itNwcnIlli ntiil primiH'-
rily, mill fur its wimiIIcii iiimiiifiu'liin'N niiil fairN.
Mure rcri'iitiy, tlic oin'iiiii^ of tlu> ^ri'iit lint! of
rnilway friiiii Miulriil to I'/irin — .liiiiiiiiry, IMtir)^iin
W'liirli llur^'iM IN II |iriiii'i|)iil Ntatimi, Iiiin nptiii
liriiii;,'lit n (iiir shiirt' nf priwiicrily to llii' rily.
HI'IMirNhV, iiii(> of till' olil I'Vi'iu'li priiviiiri'N,
now liiNtriltiiti'il niiioii^ llii> iIi'|iIn, of Coic-iror,
Saoiii' I't Lnire, Yoiiiie, Nicvri-, Aiiltc, Iluiitt!
Aliinii', mill Aiii.
HI IIIIAMI'OIM:. Sco lli)i)itiiA> on.
lll'l.'MN(iT()N. a town of tilt' U.S.of Aiiii'rira,
Vrriiiiiiit cap., CO. ('Iiittciiilcii.oiiiiliay of the Name
iiaiiic, a nliort ilintaiicc H. of tlic cii'traticd of the
Onion river into l.aUcClimiiiilaiii, iiti in. WNW.
AlontiH'lliir, ami KM) in. S. Alontrcal. Lat. 1 1<3
'.'N' N.; loiiK'. 7;io I.VW. I'op. T.'JIIO in |8(I0.
llnrliiiKton is tint chief cuniiiiercial Inwii of the
State, mill hiiH a coiiHiilerahU^ traile with N. Vork,
with which if is connected hy railway. It con-
t aiiiH a coiirt-house, Jail, hank, acaileiiiy, anil various
jilaces of piiltliit worship. The I'liiversity of \'er-
niDiit, estahlislieil in I7!)l, is ^itllatell on mi ele-
vatcil split ]',. of tlie town, anil I in. from the lake.
It WHS partly ileslroyeil l>y lire in IM'il; Imt has
heen rehiiilt, ami consisls of tliree hrick eilitices,
contuinin^' a chapel, -Ki romiis for the stiiih nis, a
liliiiiiHophical apparatiiH, ami a lihrary of aliove
I".',(I00 vols. Its fiinils aro cliietly tierivwl from
lanileil emlowments.
lU'lt'NIIAM, a par. nml vilhiffc of Knylaiid, co.
Ihicks, hiiiid. Itiirnham ; illl in. \\'. London. I'op,
of parinli, 2,2.'i;t in 18(11; area, 4,110 acres. The
villap! is u short distance from the Thames: its
church is an ancient Mtruetnre; and there is a na-
tional school. Fairs are held l<'eh. 'J.'l, May 1,
and Oct. 2. Its ancient market has been lon>^
discontinued. ISurnliam is a jilace of Kf^'Ot anti-
(piity. The inoaled site of a palace of the kiiif^s
ofiMerciais still traceaiile. A nunnt'i'y, founded
lltiri, existed till the j;eiieral (»ui)pression.
liritNLl'^Y, a municipal horoii^ii of Kn^land,
Lancashire, huiid. Itlackhurn, i)ar. Whalley, on
the hum, 180 m. N W. hy N. London, JtO ni. SK.
liy S. Lancaster, mid 21 m. N. i\Imichester on the
Aliilland railway. I'op. (;,;{78 in 1821; 1(M;!I!i in
1841 ; and 28,700 in 18(11. Its name is derived
from the river Hum or Urun, on which it is sitii-
a'eil, which unites with the ('alder immediately
bel'iw the town. It stands in the middle of a
iiprr;'wvalley, and lias been f^reatlj- improved and
ciilarf,'ed within the last forty years. It is mostly
built of freestone, and is well paved, lij,'lited, and
ubniidantly supjiliid \vitli water. There nre four
churches, the oldest of them St. I'eter's, ii former
]iari)cliial chni)el, built shortly after the (.Conquest,
lint reiilaccd by a more rcicent structure, of dif-
ferent periods. It has in it the burial-place of the
Towneley family, where, among other monuments,
one has been erected to the memory of Charles
Towneley, Ksq., whose collection of marbles is in
the Hritish Museum. The Independents, Ihiptists,
Weslevan and Primitive Methodists, and liijm.
Catholics have places of worship. A grammar-
school was founded in 157S, to which the sons of
tradesmen and others nre admitted on paying a
lee of 2/. 'In. a year, the fee paid by the sons of
the higher classes being SI, 3s. There are several
other schools, and numerous charitable eiidow-
nicnts and institutions. The borough is a station
lor receiving votes at the election of members for
the N. division of the co. The woollen nmnu-
UrHSA
factiiri', which vian once cnrrieil on i<xlriiiilvt>lv,
and which Mtill exists here, has U'en nearly Kii|H'r-
Hi-ded by that of cotton, which ix carried im ii|i,,|,
a great scnle in the town miiltieighbiiiirhiiiuj, T|,„
artii'U'N produced are tirinclpally cominon priniiil
calicoeN, There nre nlso (•xteimive hlcai'hiiig aiul
printing works, with iron mid braits foiiiiilriis,
machine inamifactorieN, brewerieH, taniii'rii"<, miil
rope-walks. The town is mainly indehii'il I'nr Iih
rapid growth and progress In nimiufactiiri's in tin.
abundance and cheapncsH of the cotil foiitiil in ji^t
iminediate vicinitv, or rather direrlly helow ji;
for here, as at Whitehaven and sume other |iliiri'^,
parts of the town have sunk, from the roof uf iln.
coal iniiicM not being properly Hiipporli'd, It j^
also Well supplied with freestone, slali', &i: |t
has an easy coininimication with the siirruiniilin;;
districts by means of seNcral lines of railwiiy, hi
wi4l as the Liverpool and Li-eds canal, hy whirli
it is nearly encircled. Markets are held lin Mdii.
day for corn, and on Salurday for geniTiil \i\\r-
puses : fairs on Mar<4i (>, I'lastiT eve. May H ainj
l.'l, ilnly 10, mid Oct. 1 1 ; ulsu for cattle mi hIiit-
iiate Miiiiilays, for woollens on the second Thnr>i lav
in •lulv, and for horses on the third I'lnirHilav iii
Oct.
lU'L'NTISLANI), n royal burgh mid HeM-|iiirt
town of Scotland, co, Kile, mi the N. shure nl' ilm
I'Vith of Forth, tt), m. N. (iranton on tlie I'.ilin.
burgh-l'erth railway. I'op. l,8iV.l in 18||, aiul
3,1 i;i ill 18(11. The town is clean and well-hull;,
having a main street running nearly al ri;;lit
angles with the harbour, and some Niilmnliiiali'
streets. It has a town-house, a parish cliiiri'li, a
Presbyterian dissenting chapel, and agoiulM'hiinl-
hoiise. Its harbour, though the iK'st on the N,
side of the Forth, nearly dries at low water; Imt
this serious defect lias been to a consiilerahle ex-
tent obviated by the extension of the piers iniuili'i'ii
water, so that railway passengers and others arrive
and depart at any time of the tide. The liarlmiir
revenue amounted to 1,127/. in 18()3-'l. Miiriiii.--
land is much resorted to in summer by sea-lialliiT-i,
It has long fornu'd one of the principal HiaiiniH
for the landing and embarkation of |iassi'ii<;i>n
crossing the Frith of F'ortli. Itiinitislaiul iiniiis
with Kiiighom, Dysart, and Kirknldy, in siiiiiiii^'
a mem. to the 11. of C. ; pari, constituency Hi;! in
18(i3. Animal value of real property Ui.rii'ilt/. in
l8(')3-4. Corporation revenue r>78/. in lud;!-!,
The burgh is governed by a provost and twelve
councillors.
In ItJOl, the fJeneral Assembly met at liiiriit-
island, when .James V. renewed his vows as a
covenanlor. The existing quays were hiiilt liy
Cromwell.
ItUliSA, UnUSA, or I'UUSA (an. Pnim ml
0/i/mpuin), a city of Turkey in Asia, Xatolia. iiip.
Sanjiack, (12 m. S. CoiiHtantinopIe, lat. 4(1° !)' ."n"
N., long. 2!)0 4' 45" K. Pop. estimated at Cli.niiil.
It is beautifully situated, at the extremitv iil'a
fertile, well-watered and well-wooded |)laiii, mi
the Uiwer acclivities of IMoiint Olympus, Iii-
cliuling the suburbs, which are more extensive
than the city properly so called, it extends 2 ni.
from K. to \V. and ^ m. fnmi N. to S. It is imt
well built ; the houses being iirincipally of wiiml,
on the model of those of ConstantiiKipIe, ami.
therefore, very subject to fires ; and the strrcn
are, for the most part, narrow. However, it is
one of the cleanest of the cities of Tiirkoy;
for ft great number of streams that have tlicir
source in the upper parts of the mountain llnw
down several of the streets, and sujiply alniust
every house with a fountain. The casllc, on a
peqieiidicular rock near the centre of tlie tinvn,
most probably occuiiies the site of the atreiiiiliti uf
uri{si,i;>r
tint mirlonl I'riiwi. Witliiii U* whUm It n mrmqiir,
InriiHTly n (irrck cliuri'li. In wliirli iiri' the loiiilit
III' Siilliiti Orclmn, IiIn wil'r, ninl rliililri'ii. 'I'lit'
i-liii't'iiriiiiiiM'iilM ot'lhc cliy art' ili« iiiiiHi|ii)'fi, wliicli
itH' ('\('('«'illii^ly niiiiU'riiiiH. 'I'lii' umiM iniit;iuliri'iil
nrt' lliiiHt* of till' KiillaiiM Achiiirt iiinl Ohuuiii, iiihI
till' Oiilitli, or ^Ti'iit iniMi|ii<', In llit> (■ciitri' nl' ilit>
I'iiy. Till- wariii InkIim nC ili'Mxa iirc ramonH all
iivtT till! I'iaMt : ili<> ])rinri|)al U thai nf Ka|iluli'lia
llairinuin, aliout 1^ in, NW. rroni llii> city. 'I'lii'
lii'al of tlin water, which U Hli^lilly iniiirc);nal<'il
with Niil|ilinr, tlucN imt cxcccil liio° I' all, 'I'lic
water in ri'ccivcil into a line Imililin^', where there
is every accnniinoilalioii for Imlher.t orimth nexes.
The ItrnrMtniH, a larpt liuililint; with Hhii|iM anil
warehonNex, niiil tht( ha/.aarn, which are i-xten^ive,
lire well Hiiiiplieil with iiierchandixe, |iiirticiilarly
with raw Hilk ami nilk i*tnl1''>. (ireal (iiiMiiliiies nl'
nilk are |iroi|iiceil In the ail|ac<'iit jiliiiiiH ; and very
t'M'ellenl nilk ami Hilk ami cottnii siiilt'sare inaiiii-
I'lii'liireil ill the city, ami riirniMh, with raw Nilk,
cnriielH, ami velvets, the |iriiiei|ial artielen of ex-
iHiri. The khaiiH ami colle^ex, or ineilresHe:*, of
ItriiMa are iiiiinerons; ami may vie with those of
any other city of the Ottoman (loininioiiM. Allo-
Ijeiher, voimiileriiii; the fertility of the Hiirroiimlini^
I'liinilry, the heaiity of tho Hitnalioii, and it.-* <Mini-
liiinilive cleaiineMH, it u uno of the numt a);re(!al)ln
(if Turkish cities,
I'nisa waH founded hy I'rnsiax, the iirofeetor of
llaiiiiilial, and was Ion;; the cap. of llilhynia.
Little of it is kmiwii till after it eanie into the
)iiissession of llu; Itoinans, tliouj;li it was always
i'liinous for its haths, and admired for tluHieauly
III' its situation. It was one of the most eoiisider-
alile eitJis of tluHireek oin|)ire. It was taken
liy Orehnii, son of Othmaii, the founder of tlu^
(itlimaii dynasty, in l.'ir)ti, and liecaine the seat of
tilt! Turkish power and the ordinary resiih'iiee of
the HullaiiH till Amurath romoved tho seat of
^'overiinient to Adrianoplc.
IIUKSI.KM, n market town niid \mr, nf I'jig-
liiiid, CO. Stalt'ord, N. division of I'irehill hiiml, 2,^
m. NW, Newcastle-uiider-hine, 1!( N. SlatVord,
iiiiil llio-f in. NW. liOiidon, hy London and North
W'psterii and Trent Vallev railway. l*<ip. f'f town
I7,.s-.M, and of parish ■>-I,:\27 hriMiil, Hursleni
sIiukIs on a gentle eininenco, near the Trent and
Mersey canal, and is the |)rincipnl town in that
iin|Hirtant district called the. I'otteries, the prin-
i'i|)iil seat of the earthenware manufacture. It
oiiitains many well arran^^ed maniifaolories, neat
and eimvcnient dwelliii^j-hoiises for the workmen
ami overlookers or su]ierintendant.s of works, and
Slime handsome, lionses for the proprietors. It.s
|iriiiciiml buildin;;s arc, a nent inarkct-honflc or
Uiwii-hall, an cdilicc of modern erection nearly in
the centre of the town : the old church, dedicated
1(1 "St, I'eter, built of brick, with a stone tower of
iniii'li greater antiquity than the body; and a
district church, erected in 1828. Hur'slcm was
orijjiiially a cliapelry in the parisli of .Stoke, but
was formed into a separate jiarish by act of jiar-
liamciit, in 1«07. It has a police force under the
pnivisions of a local act. There arc places of
wiirsliip for ISaptists, Inde])cn(lent.s, Primitive,
Wcsleyan, and New Connection Methodists, and
Itnmau CatholicH, all of which, aa well as the
churches, have Snndav-schools attached to them.
There is also a national school, ami a free ^p-ammar-
si'luHil. At a very early period Bursh^m ^^•as
ilistinguishcd for its clay, and for its tnannfacturc
"f earthenware and pottery, for which, in the
ITth century, it was the principal place iii the
kiiiRilom. The greater part of the inhabitants are
fiijjaged in the potteries, and in the earthenware
iiiamifaetiu:c, which has been brought to a high
nrin'sfiiKi!) «ro
state of beauty and eMTllrliee. In l'omi"«day
Itoiik llii" town IsHritii'ii llarcanleiilini,
liriM'oN (IN -I'lilA"!", a itmrUii town and
tiar. <if Knglaiiil, jiiirlly iti the N. ilivi-<ionof Olllow
liniid., CO., Siiilliiril, and parily in the bund, of
Kepton and (iiesley |)erby, •-'2 in. I''., Slalford,
and I2H in. NNW. London liy the Midliiiid rail-
way, I'op. of town 1:1,1171, and of parish |)>,h2I in
IHtil, The town is sitiiati'il in a fertile vale on ilui
N. bank of tlie Trent, uml eonslsls ciiielly of one
long street runiiing from thi< place where the alibev
stood to the bridge, and of another intersect itig it
at right angles. The town-hall, erei'ted al tho
expense of the Maripils of Angle.-tea (the loci of
the manor), who owns the greater part of ilio
nriitierty in the neighboiirhnil, is a handsome
building, and contains, in ailditioii to the usual
ollii'es tlir Iransai'ting public business, an elegant
snile of assembly-rooms. Tin- old church, dnli-
ealed to St. Marv and St, Modweii, fornn'rly con-
nected by a cloister, with the abbey founded ill
lillll, was rebuilt in 1722. The new church, erecteil
in |H2:i, in the liothic style, is a handsuiueedilice.
Hilt the most relebruted structure ol the town Im
the ancient bridge o\er the river, erecii'd prior to
llie eoiiiiiK'sl, and sultstantially repaired in the
reign of lleiiry li. It has 117 arches, and is \,,')\:t
fl, in length and was aliout llfly years ago con-
sidered i\w longest bridge in i'.nglaud. The
government of the town is vcsteil in a high and
low steward, and a baililV, a|ipointed by the lord of
the luaiior. The baililVis also Jiisl ice of peace and
coroner. The mhabitants, by virtue of tlie letters
patent granted in the I Itliol Henry Vlll., are ex-
ein|(t from serving the otlice of sherilV, and from
being suminom>d as jurors at the assi/.es and
sessions for the (!o. There are various places of
worship for Independents, Wesli'van Methodists,
and iteneral and Particular ISaptists, There arc,
also Sunday-schools, attached to the (Iil1'(>rent
churches and cli.'ipels; a iialional school, and
a free grammar-school, founded and endowed
in l.rJO by th(! then abbott, William Iteaiie, In
the tiiiK' of L<'laiid, Ihirton was famous for its ala-
baster work.s, but how long they were contiiiueil is
not known. The principal mauufacturiu'arrieiloii
at present is that of ilsjiistly famous ale, Coiilrary
to general usage, the brewers pret'er in its jiri^pa-
ratioii hard water to soft; and though the Trent
ruii.s close by, they u.se that water only which they
obtain from their pumps, Ihirton has also I'abricri
of hats, cotton, tammie.-', and light woollen stutls;
with iron fiiriUKU's and manufactories of tools; two
or three rope-walks, tanneries, and cotton mills.
The Trent and Mersey canal (or (iraud Trunk)
|)asscs Burton, and unites with the Trent about
1 m. lower down ; and the Trent itself, Avliich falls
into the Ilumber, is navigable for vessels of souk!
burden from (iainsbro' up to the town. The old
abbey, a once niagniliceut pile, of which now
scarcely a vestige rcmain.s, enjoyed many privi-
leges; the ablMits occasionally sat in |iariiaiueiit.
Ihirton sutleretl greatly during the civil ooinnio-
tioiis in the reign of Charles 1., and was several
times taken and retaken by the contending
parli(!s.
HUKTSCIIKID, or riOUCKTTK.a town of the
I'rus.sian states, prov. IJhine, reg. Aix-la-Clmpelle,
of which city it is almost a suburb. Pop. 7,i>01 in
18('>1, The town has broad streets, good houses
and promenades. There are important manufac-
tures of cloth: cassimeres, and needles. The last,
which i.s condu(;tc<l on a large scale, employing,
with the needle manufacture in Aix-la-Chapt lie,
nearly 1,000 workpeopU', is principally carried on
by Protestants driven from Aix-la-Chapelle. The
place has several hot springs ; they, however, dill'cr
A9<)
lUIRV
iwnt-ntiiilly Ironi tlio Kiiriii^M ni' |Im> iiriKlilxMirlii^
I'iM , mill n'Hi'inlili' lhi»)' nl' W^'nImuIi'ii.
lll'liV, II |iiir., |iiirl. In>r., iiimI Inwii «( I''.iiuIiimiI,
I'll, I. nil iiiliT, iliv, lliilliiii, tiiiinlH, Siilliiril mill
lllip'kliiirii, M III, NNW, IMiiiirliiniiT, mill Itxl m,
N N \\ . I 'iiiliiii, liy l^iiiiliiii mill Nnrili WrKiirn
nillwiiy. rii|i. Ill' |>arl, linriiiiKli :i7,.'iit;i, mi'l nl'
iiiiriMli, Mti./i.'iH ill iMtlj, lUirv U nilimhil mi ilii'
li'tl liillik III' llii' Irwi'll, '.' III. iiImivi' IIm t'lilllliK'liri'
^Niili llii' liiirli. Till' u;i'iii'riil ii|i|i<'iir;iiin> III' III!'
Iiiwii lull liriii tcri'iiilv iiii|irii\i'il 111 lull' vriiri, liy
HHJi'iiiii)^ ilii' Hiri't'lt mill ii|i|ii'iiii<'lit'ii, mill ilir
fri'i'iliiii III' limiilniiiiii' >ii iili'rii Niritriiiri'H, 'I'lic
pmiili rliiirrli Ik n Im'tA'i' liiiiiiliiiinr Miriiriiiri', rr
iiiiih ill I77'l; llirrt' nrc I ullii-r rliiii'rIirN, mill
iklioiii 'JO ilitMi'Miiii^ )ilii)'i'H III wiirNliiii. A rrrc-
Mt'liiiiil. liiiiiuli'il ill ITji'i, liiw ',j t'xIiililiiiiiiM, I'lliicr
III SI. ,IiiI||i'm ( 'nil,, ( 'itlilliriilKi', nr l(ni/.i'lillnnt' I 'nil..
Oslnnl, Allnllli'r K>'l I, rnuililci' ill I7M, I'nrMI)
Ihivh mill !l)i Ki*'!") Ixii* li<'''i) climiKi'il In ii iiiiiiniiiil
Hrllnill, mill II H|illi'inllM m'linni rnnlll llllH Ixi'll Imill
I'nr it. Ilcri' is, ul^n, n iliNiiriiMiry. ii jiiililic liliriiry,
M iiM'rIi/iiiii'H' iiisiiiiih', ~^'V('r.il imlilii' iicwNrnniiift,
mill II linrtlriillnrill Hill ii'ly, 'i'lir ucrkly iii.'irki't
in lii'lil nil Saliiriliiy; Mml lliri> I'liii'* nil Miirrli Ti,
Miiy II, Si'|ii, IM, Till iiimiiiliirliirr.'* iiri iiiiiiiiiilly
iiii'rt'iiiili); III aiiiniiiil mill viiliic. Till' |iriliri|iiil
lirmirlii'H i'iiii'.i»i III' I'litliiii mill wnnllcii N|iiiiiiiii^
mill wravillU', Imlll liy llllinl linwrr-lnnlllM ; Willi
('alit'ii'jiriiiiiii;;, lili'iirliiii^', mul iiiarliiiii'-iinikiii^'-
'i'liiTi' arc iilinvi' 10,1100 liaiiil-i i'iii|ilny('il ill llu'x
iiimiiirai'lnrirM, iiiili'iicinli'iilly nl' llnwc t'iii|>liiyririii
iillicr ncriijiiiliniis, aiiil ill t'linl iiiiiicM, wliirli lalli'i'
^(\\■^< wnrk In iiliniil a llinllMaiiil llli'll. 'I'lll* ailiniiill
us^t'MNi'il tn |irii|ii'rly liix wiih I III. I;im/. in |K.'i7,iiiiil
1 11 1. '-'7'-'/. ill \Hi;\>. Kiiry t'niiiiiiiiniratcM Imlli liy
raiialH iiiiil rail>vu\>« witlLMmiclicstcr, Itnllmi, mid
nllicr InwiiH ill llii' vii'iiiity. Il in llic licail nt'ii
|iniir-law iiiiinii. <'niii|iri>iii|{ l'2 |iiiriHlii's ami Inwii-
(tlii|w. Tim urnsH hiiiii a.-tMi'.HMCil In |innr rate was
ll-J.HKI/. ill iHii'J, mill llic iH't ratcalilf valiii'
ill, '217/. Tlircc ciiirls-lrct I'nr liic iiiaiinr arc
jii'lil miiiiiaily, in Ajiril, WliiHiiiiliili', ami Oil.:
Ilicir jiiriMilii'iinii is rn-rxli'iihivc willi tlu^ jitirisli.
Tin- ({I't'nnii Ai'l riiiil'i'rri'il nn lliiry llif privili'^ii'
of ri'liiniiii); I iin'in. In ilic II. nt'O. Il liiul l.'.'tiO
r('(,'isi('rt'il L'U'elnr> in IMIlL', luiii},' all 10/. liniisL'-
llnlilt'rs.
Till' iiarisli cxliiiils nviT 'J'.'.iioo niTcs. I.,'siiU's
tlint nl lliiry, it cniiiiirirxs 1 InwnsliipM, ami ;i
rliaiH'lrics. 'i'lin^'rcatcr part is a siilVlnuni, varyiiij?
ill I'lTtilily; a siniill )iiirlinn nnlv is iiiiili'r tlu;
pliiii;{li. It cnntiiiiis ^jnnd (piamcs of linililing
stniH', anil llinai! nl" llnmclill' pmiliicc pxccllciit
lla;;s anil slates. There are u ilnzen enal-mines
wrniii^lit, sn llial till' raelnrics ami iiiliali. liiive an
aliiiiidaiil Niipply nl I'liel williin tlii^ liinilsnt' their
nwii (larisli. I'lie lirsL distinct iinl ice that ncciirs
nl'tlie inaiiiiraelnres nl" lliirv is in I.cland's Itine-
rary, in the rei^,'!! nl' Henry VIII.; they were then
e.\elnsively nf wnnlleii, which is slill carried nn tn
snine extent. In I7;IM, Jnliii Kiiy a native nf
lliiry (thniif;h at I he time residing in Cidchester)
invented the ..,-shultle; and in I7(>0, Itnhert, a
snii nfthc I'nrinJr, the drn|i-linx, by which iiatterns
of varinns cnlnnrs are wnven nearly with tlie same
facility as )ilaiii calico ; the settiiif; nf cards by
machinery also nrif^inated in the same family, nnd
ill Uury. In ITill, Henry Whitelieud, the post-
master" of IJiiry, siifj^esled the mode nf pieiinf; the
enilsnfbrnken yarns, in spinning', without stoppin;,'
the machinery, us had jireviously been ii(*cessary.
lint the circiimst.incu w hi(;h chielly contributed tn
brini; Jhiry into repute, as the seal of any peculiar
brunch of " the cotton inannfactiire was tliu estu-
lilishmont of lar^^e print-works by a tirm, of which
Sir I'obert IV'.' the tir^t bart., w^us at tlio head:
III RY HT. HUMIfNICS
the iH'rli'i'liiih In wliii'li caliin priiiiiii(( wai Oirp'
bniii^lil, mil niily eiiriiheil I he |N»rlli'N, lint aililnj
liirKi'ly III ilii' ui'itlih ami iiii|Hiriiiiici' nf ihe inwit.
TIiIh <'sialili"liiiii'iil, willi In iinniirniiN niirk>liiiii.'
uari'hniiii'H, mill ilwi'lliii|{ii, is slill in lull ai'ti\ii\ ;
as lire aUn Ihe htrite Mimiiifitcinrli's nl ihc ..im,'
I'oiiipiiny nn nllier ilri'iiinx, iinlwillisimiilin^' th,.
niiiiiy I'haiiKi's ihut have liikeii place In tlnir
n>Mierslii|i. Mr KiiIhTI I'i'i'I, the lelebraleil nliili'>
niiin,\Mi< liiini nl t'liainlier Hall, in Ihe iiiiiiiidiiui.
vicinity nf ihe Inuii ; II IdtKe slallie III lli< ini'iiii.rv
was el'ecleil in ihe iiiarkel place snnli iiI'liT lii«
death.
IIIIIJV ST. r.DMrNK'S. apar. Iinr. amliMHii
nf l''.IIKllilld, en. .SiiD'cilk, hiillil. ThillKne, Oil m, M;,
l.niiilnii by mad, mill Niij m, by liniil KiiMitii
railwity. I'n|i. I'.ViilN in iNll.mid I;i.;i|h in |m;|.
The tnwil is sillialeil nil II penile eininelici', nil Ihr
\V. side nf Ihe l.iirke, lllllidsl a richly eiilli\,'i(ri|,
diluvial dislricl. Sireels brniid, well imimiI. iniil
li<.;lili'i|; hniises innsily nnil'nnii and well Imili ;
Ihe wlinle tnwii lias II cheerful, Ileal a|i|ii'iiraiiri',
Si. Mary's cliiirch (llnished in I l;i:i) is a lim
(iiiibic hiriiclnre, with ii Inw Nnrnimi Inwer. ,si.
•lanies's chiii'ch, liniNhed after the Itcfnrniiitiiiii. i.
II haiidsnine biiildiiifx. lis iN'Ifrv, at smiii' liilji'
dislmice. was nriniiially Ihe uraml iiiir.iiiir iniu
Ihe burial ;;rniinil nf the nld liiniiaslcry : it il lit II
i|iiailritii^rolar shape, HO fi. in lieiKliI,' reiiinrkalili'
Inr slreii^rth and Minplieily, and I'nrnis niie nf tiir
lineal extant relics nf Siimiii ariliilccinrc. Tlun'
are twn Iiiili'|M'iideiil cIiii|n'Is ; and the ('alliiili>'!<.
Friends, Itiijilisls, Metlmdists. and rnilariiiiiM Iuim'
each a place nf wnrsliip. There is an aiirinit
Knildhall. in which the bnr. cniiris are lielihu
shire- hall I'nr Ihe assi/.e cnnrls; a cniinly ;;iiiil, mi
a rudialiiif; jilan, built in iMO.'i; and a briiliwill.
slia|ieil mil nf mi ancient Nnrinim bnildiii^', 'I'lii'
flee (j;ramiiiar-sclinol (founded by I'Mwanl VI, i
has six exhibilions r> either of Ihe niiiversiiii's
a sclinlarslii|i in Cnrpns Chrisli. and aimllirr in
•lesns Cnlle^^e, < itnbridt^e : il ediieutes Ion Ihi\>,
Il hasalsn a clmrily si'hnnl I'nr I'nrly buys; lun
nlliers where Till ^^irls are I'lnljied and inslriirli'il:
and Naliniial, I.miciiririan, and oilier si'liimU.
Tlieri^ are !tH almshouses, endnwed by varimis \«'-
iiefiK'inrs, and under the miina;;'enienl nf tnisliTN
wlin have tibnnt '2,000/, n year in llieir hiiiiils I'nr
varinns eharitabh^ piir|Hises. Clajiloirs Ilii>|iiiiil
supports six widowers and >i\ widows, ilei'iiynl
housekeepers; thetieiierul I Inspilal accoiiniiniliili'i
forty palteiils. Here is nlsn a lliealre, with ciiii-
eert, assembly, and billiiird mnms ; a ^'ihuI siilh
scriiilinn librnry, a iiii'i'liaiilcs' iiisliliite, ami Im-
tanical ptrdens, snp|inrled liy siibscriptinii. Week-
ly markels are lield, niie nn Wednesdays fur nini.
the nther nii Saturdays fnr ;;cneral prnvisimis
Annual fairs arc held nn I'.aster Tuesdiiy; Si.
Rlatlliew's day, a pleasure fair which iisciIIdIk'
attended by all tliu Hnrrnniidiii); nnbilily mul
gentry; u fair, Oct. I., fnr linrses, ealllc, InittiT,
andclieese; aKreat fair, comniemMii^ Oct. in, mul
last iiif; about three weeks ; nnd Dec. 1. Alimit ii
mile from the town the I.arke beeoines iiiivi^'iilili'
to Lvim for barges, whence coals and other cinii-
modities are bron^dit. Spinning yarn was fur-
iiierly a j^'reat source of employment to tlie | r
of the town, but at iirusent it has no luauuliic-
ture.s.
The bor. is co-oxtcnsive. with the two parisliw
of St. James and St. Mary, the area bciii^c .''.I'l"
acres; it is divided into two wards, and pivcnii'ii
by a mayor, six aldermen, and eif^htceii cmiiicil-
lors. Petty sessions fnr the bnr. are held every
Thursday; and enurts of jjcneral sessions thrice ii
year, in l''eb., .June, and Nov. The (luarter ses^illlli
and assizes for the cu. arc also held in the tuwii,
\<llf' llliT'
lint ikI.IxI
' III!' tciMM,
>M>rk>llii|.<,
I lirhMU ;
till' nilllll'
tliiliMt; till'
I' til llii'ir
ill'll nIiiIi"
illllllnlliiti
\in iiii'mnrv
I lll'tiT lii«
', Mini lc>»l|
, t'lO Ml. NK,
at Kii^lirii
ilH ill iNlll,
•lirr, nil lllc
I'lillivali'il,
|lll\rl|. mill
Wi'll lillill ;
ii|>|i<'iiriiiii'i',
I) In a lillr
Iciwcr. Si.
iiriiiiili'iii. !•
Mllllll' llllll'
iiraiii'i' into
y : it i" iilii
ri'iiiarkalilr
IH llllC lit' till'
iirr. 'riiiri'
i(> ('alliiilii^.
ilai'iaiw lia\i'
at) aiH'irni
nri' liclil ; a
iil.v ;;ai>l. mi
1 a liridrwi'll,
ililiii^'. Till'
l'",(l\varil Vl.i
iiiiivrrsiiii's
I aiiiillii'r ill
t'H 1*111 lu>\\
V Ikivh ; Iwii
iiisiriirli'il I
IT sl'llliliN.
variiuii I"'-
III' Iriisico,
haiiils liir
Ill's llosiiiiiil
H, (Ici'H.VliI
IllltllOllllll'S
Willi fiiii-
^IBlll siili-
Ic, anil l»i-
1)11. Week-
ly s (lit eiirii,
jirovii'idii'i.
uusday ; Si.
iiseil I" lie
liiliiy mill
itllc, iilllter,
Oct, III. mill
Ali'iiii "
iiavi;,'alili'
I otlitr ciiiii-
urii was I'lir-
to tiie |"'i'f
no luaiiul'iK-
two pariilii"*
beiiiK •'.'""
.11(1 p)venii'il
tecii coiiiieil-
held every
,ioii» thrice !i
after ses^i"»s
ill the tuwii.
II
III)
rin' |irii|M'rly «( i(i<' <'<«r)>. riiii-Uiii nf lninN ainl
lii>iii<4-H III ilii> Ixir., llii> liviiiu-t mill liilii'H III' IhiiIi
iiarixhrM, luitl till' tiilla III' till' iimrki'l^ hikI I'liirx 1
iKiriiiiKli iiii'iitni', :i,;t',i'.'/. in tNilj. 'riii> niiiiiniii
iiNnrK'O'll III |irii|ii'rty laN wax 'I'.'.'ll/. in iMi'ij ; ami
ilir uTimn ri'tiial aNMi'-iNi'il i4i imnr rate. I'.), I7<°i/.
Till' JHir. liIlN rrtiiriicil Iwu IlieinlH'rH in (lie II. nf
1, kIiu'i' till' I'.'tli III' .laiiic'* I, I'ri'N iiiiixly In iIh'
Kil'iiriii Ai'l, llir ri^lil nl'i'li'i'tinii wa* in an iililrr
man anil lliirl> six lnir^i'N'H'K ; llii> rnriniT liinl a
ia<iin(. Mill', anil \siiit nlnriiiiiK <illl<rri it wa-<, in
liH'i, a iiiiiniiuitinii Imr., ill ilii< IimihIh nl' two iH'i'rx
iiri>|i|Kiiiii> iiiiliiii'iil |iriiirl|ili'?<. Till iiMtiini'iii'v
I'lillNiHli'il III 71'.* rr^ixterril vUi'litrH ill iHlil, tlliMlly
iiii'n|iii'ri4 III' jtt/. Iiiiiiwin,
A iiiiinaNi(>ry wan I'niniilril licrc In <i.'i:i, to wliirh,
III !Mi:i, iliii liiiily III' Si, {'.iliniiiiil, Ihc Saxi'n U'iwu,
wat Iraiinl'irri'il ; lieiii'i' llie iiaiin-. Caiinii' i'\-
{ii'lli'il till' 'ti'cniar inniikM, ami IraiiNl'i'rri'il iliillii<r
II I'liiivi'iil III' lli'iii'ilii'ilni>N, rriiiii Nnrl'iilk ; lii«, ami
iillier HnliH<'i|iii>nt cmlntvinriilN, tiiaiU' iIiIm alili<>.v
liireriiir only to that nl' (ilaNtniiliiiry : it ihixmi'nmi'iI
ilie rraiH'liiNeM III' iniiiiy NC|iarali' IiiiiiiIm,, ami tli<^
riu'lil III' <'niiia^i' ; IIn alilNil huI in iiailiaiiii'iil, ami
hull iinwer In iiitlict rii|iilal |iiiniNliiiii'nt, ami ilc-
nrtiniif all civil MiilM within tlii' lili<'rly. 'I'lii'
,'ililH-y ^'ali'H'uy iiinl liriil^r, ami |iiirtiiiiH nl' the
«iill^<. Hiill ri'iiiain. 'riicrc win' a I'rw other rsia-
lilixliiiieiilh, III' iiiinnr iiii|iiiriam'c, in the town
iire\iiiiiH It) the general HU|)|iri'ssiiin, Sir NichnJaH
liiiinn, liiMliii|M iianliner llllll I'retlvinaii, itml l>r.
Illiiliilielil (the late liiHlin|i nf l.iimiiill) were linrii
ill till' liiwii. It I'liiilerN the title nl' viNiniilll nil
llie Kejipel family, lekvnrtli. the iiinKnilii'eiit
»eiit nl' the tiiar(|uin III' llriHiiil, is within ;i in. nl'
llli' Inwil.
lirSACO, a eniivent nf I'nrlnpil, |irnv, lleira,
nil the riil^e nilleil the Sierra IliiHaen, l7 in. N.
Iiy 1'^. ('niinhru. Mere, mi llii! 'J7lli S('|ileiiilii'r
ji'lii, a Kreiu'h iiriiiy nl' tiri.imo men, iimler Mar-
ulial iMassena, were repulsed with ^'real hiss in an
altai'k nil the pnsitinll tweupieil liy the All^ln-
I'lirtiiKiiese ariiiy, ahmit KV*"'! slmii;;, iimler tlii^
Ihike of Wellin^'tiili. Mill, thniiprli nnalile tn
liiree this pnsitinii, Masseiia sneeeeiK'il in tiiriiiii^
ii. when IIk! iillit'M retreated iipmi thu liiius at
'I'lirres V'edras.
ItUSIIIIJK (innre properly AHOHSIIKIII!, or
AUI;SIIAIII{, Aral), tin. futlwr of vifivs), i\ m'h-
IHirl tnw'ii of Persia, prov. Fars, and, exeeplin^
IliisNiirah. the principal port of the I'crsian liiilf,
on llie Nl'^ coast nf which it is hitimled; l'.2(l in.
\VS\V. Shira/., and'jrir) iii. S. hy W. Ispahan; hit.
■i'fi N., lull},'. fidO IN' K. I'op. variniislv estimated
ni Iriiin K.IMIO to lo.llOI). It is bnill at' the N.cx-
Ireiiiity of n low sandy peninsula, nhont 1 1 in. in
li'ii;,'tli, hy 'I m. ill lireadth at its widest part, on
its K, side enclosiii^ a deep hay or harhnnr. The
iiiwii is thus siirronnded nii nil sides hy water, ex-
lept Inwards tlieS. where n mud wall ahniit ■} in.
in leii;;tli, has Ixieii hiiill acrnss the isthniiis he-
Iweeii the hay and the s<'a. Viewed I'min the sea.
ii lias rather a hundsonie appeurniuui. It is, how-
ever, a mean place, without innvoinentof any kind,
'lilt' liuuses are built chieliy of a friabk' stone, cnni-
imaed of sand and shells imbedded in ehi.v, and
the iK'st of tliein arc constructed of burnt bricks
'iriiiif,'ht from itiissorah ; but excnptiiif; the Indian
factory, tlie residence of the {{overnor, and a few
pK)d (hvelliiif{s of the merchants, there is scarcely
one e(inil'ort«l.ile, and certainly not one handsome
wlilice in the jilace. Sonic of the principal houses
Imvc buudyeera, that is, wind-catchers, or spires of
iDKinare form, ojieii at each side; and which, act-
ing lis a funnel, and admitting tlic air from every
<|Miirter, ventilate and cool the houses. The streets
are so luuiiy narrow uiipaved alleys, without order
ni'SIIIKK A9t
ornirnlnrilv, or snllh ii nl hi ikIiI of wait nmiiher
xide III Mlielttr Hie pasMcii^i'r frmii I he sun. The
innsipies are all npi'll bllildili^'*. ami ild'erinr III
Hume Mceii ill the snialli'sl \ illa|.;e« nf Aiilbia; then'
are bill I'i'W rnlli'i' bniixi'H, iiml the Military bath U
mmill, liltby, ami badly atti'iiili'd. W'liiir iiex-
t'oKively bad ; iIimI III I'nr driiikiiiu; ba\ iii^; In Im<
brniiKht in ^'nal skins a dlMtami' nf hi in. In dry
llllll windy Weather, the dust ami llies emi'-iitiilc
an alinnoi intnli'mbli' niiiiiime. On tbe S\N'. -idi'
• if the Inwil, filling; the outer mad. the beai'h,
which is level and sandy, is Ih'mI by an aliiiimi
CnliNlnill Slirl, tbiillKll nnt »>> vinlclllly as tn pre-
Vent the landing nf bnnis in nindiriile wentlier.
The Nl''.. side, fiiriiii; llie inner liarlHiiir, has a
wharf nrlwn fur lamlinu piod'<, ami isbi'ttcr sliel
teri'd. Owin^ In the iiiiinerniii sand liankN, Ihe
inner harlNinr is nnt always eiiMily iiiiissibli' even
fur bnals; lint it is always iii'i'l'i'rri'd lis the sah'st
and Ih'sI lamlin^ place. Ships nf iiinre than lloi)
Inns burden lie ill the niiler mads Ii III, frnin till'
town, where there is ^nod am'hiirili.>'i , Hllb|i'i't,
hnwi'ver. to all the fury of violent N\V. and S\V.
winds, which are very prevalent, nfleii obliKiiiiC
ships In part their cables. Ships nf :iimI tniis Imr
den niiiy anchor in the inner mads In ihi' N. nf
the Inwii, but still II III. distant. Hy reasiin nf a
bar, the inner liMrbniir is only aceeKMiblc at liii^li
water spriii;,'s. in ships draw iii>{ |H ft., and al oilier
times In vcsM'ls draw iii^; « nr !• ft. The wjiter iin
niediately tn the I'',, nf lliishire is deep; and it ap-
pears I'rniii thenlder desrriptintis nf the lilai'e, thai
cruisers were I'orinerly able to anchor clnsc up In
the NM. side nf the Inwn ; biil the channel leading;
lip tn this will iinw scarcely admit nf small dnws,
except they he li^fhli'lied, .Some i^l.'lllds in I he
Nl''„ part of Hie bay ^ive siillieieiit slielti r to
native bonis and other sniitll craft.
Iliixhirc is the principal ciitre|H'it for tile Hiipply
of Persia with Indian gnmls. It has a consiilir-
able IraiU* with llombay and Calciitia, i's|H'cially
lli(> fnrnier; and lhrnn;;h them receives iiio.'hI nf
the piods broiii^dit to it from Miinpe, China, and
Ihe K. Archi|H>higo. Few ships loiicli at Ihishirc
withonl also touching at Knssorah, and conversely.
The imports I'miii lieiigal are rice, sugar, iiidign.
pep|K'r, and s)iiees, with a small assortment nf
muslin and pieee-gnods. From llnmha.v are
brought iron, steel, I in, lead, woollen cloths, and
cutlery, with sugar, siigar-candv, preserved ginger,
porcelain, i(.-('., the prisluce of China, and casiia,
cloves, milmegs, and other prndncliniis of the K.
Archipelago. The deniiind for F.iiglish cotton
prints is saidtn be increasing in Persia, while llial
for tlii^ fabrics nf Itcrmany and Swit/.erland is
diininishiiig. ('nlVet; is siip|ilied from .Mocha ami
other Arabian ports, but to no great aniounl, as
itis not ill verv general use in IN-rsia. The returns
to India are mostly in horses for cavalry ser\ ice,
dales, and dritul fruits, assal'ietida, carpets. Casli-
mi're and Kerinan shawls, Kermaii wool, tobacco,
old eoiiper, tur((iiniscs, attar of roses, and rose-
water, liiit cliiell.v in inniiey. TIk^ other exports
of Hiishire are raw silk and silk goods, Shira/ wine,
grain, gall-iiuls, pearls. ycHow-d.ve berries, and
various drugs. The Kussiaii provinces on the
Casjiinn derive their supplies of indigo from Persia
b.V wa.v of Ilushire. The trade of the port is
crippled by the iiniHists laid on goods passing tn
the capital, and the unjust and injudicious iippro-
Iiriation of goods on the part of Ihe government,
•'ormerly it was much injured hy the jiiratcs :
hut. owing to Krilisli interference, these are now
all hut suppressed.
The merchants of rtushire arc about equally di-
vided between Persians and Armenians; the latter
are the more active, intelligent, and wealthy.
m\
!« !l
M>
IJUSSORAir
Tlicro ari" no .Ipw« of niiy note, n» at IhiHsornli ;
iKir llMiii.'in.s MS at Muscat. Tlii' |>ii|>. p-iirrally is
a iiiixliirc iiftlic I'lTsiuii iiml Arali racrs,
m :sS(»I!AII,.(iII(mI alsi. IJALSOlfA. HASI.'A.
nnd IU'SSKA (Aralt. « iiiiin/iii), u cily »( 'I'lirkcy
ill Asia, pasli. Ita^ilail, tlii^ must 10. place of note
in llic Tiirkisli iloin., ami llu; |iriiici|ial pnrt of liic
l*crsiaii (iiilf, on t\w. ri^lit or SU.Itank of ilic
I'liipliratcs, or, as it is here called, the Sliat-iil-
Arali {i-hvr of Ihf .trtilm), 7(1 in. from its inoiiili,
ami ')'> m. Iielow its jiiiiciion with (lie 'I'ii^'ris, 2711
in. SK. Ma^'ilail, ami" -22(1 ni. WNW. niisliire : lat.
;ioo ■_'!>' ild" .\.. loiifi. ■17°;tr IT)" !",. l»o|(. estimated
at .OOjOdO, 'V\n' form of I he city is an irrc^'iilar
oliloi));, lyiiij; \',SK. to WS\S'., or at rij,'ht angles
with the, course of the river, from which it is a
few hundred yards distant. Length alioiit :i in.,
Iireadlh opposite the river altoiil 1 in.; circuit esti-
mated at from 7 to it ni. The spacfMK'tually occii-
l)ied by linildiii^s does not, however, comprise
aliove a fourth part of this area, the rest lieiii^' laid
out in eoni-lields, rice-f^rouiids, date-f^roves, and
pirdeiis, intersected hy a iiumlier of iiilh? canals.
Itussorah is surrounded l)\' walls, hiiilt of sun-dried
lirieks, with a parapet at the top. Iiaviiij^ looi)holes
for musketry, and occasional ports for cannon, hiit
of these, very few are mounted: it has live nnles,
and is divided into 70 imilitilk; or ipiarlers. Two
canals, cut from the, river, surround the city on
cither side, within a few yards of the walls, and
unitin}r beyond the W. wall, form a complete ditch
to the forti'lii iitions. A third canal leaves the river
nearly midway between the other two, and is
carried through the whole lenj;tli of tlie city,
hervinj; at once to siiindy the iiihab. with water
for domestic purposes, to irri;;ate the fields and
gardens within the walls, and to admit of the
transportation of floods. These canals are tilled
by the tlood, which usually rises It ft., and left
nearly dry at ebb-tide. They are mere channels
duf; out of the soil, without beinj; line<l by ma-
sonry; and the few brick-built bridges thrown over
them in dilfereiit i)arts of the city are of the
meanest kind. ISussorah is wretchedly built ; the
streets are narrow and unpaved; and, notwith-
standing the facilities alVorded by the <'bl) and How
of the tide in the canals for tlu( removal of impu-
rities, it is most disgustingly lilthy. No stone of
any kind, and scarcely any wood, excepting that,
»)f "the date-tree, -which is verj- unlit for carpentry,
are found within many miles of the city, which is
mostly constructed of sun-dried bricks. The lOiig-
lish factory, the ncmi of the MuU'st'lUm (resideiu;e
of the governor), one or two of the |)riiicipal
nios(pies, and (lerhaps half a dozen mansions of
the richest iiihnb., are the only bnihlings of kiln-
dried bricks, and in fact, the only decent cdiliecs
in the place. There are about forty mosques, in-
numerable kluiHH and coft'ec-houses, and a wretched
bath: the ba/.aars, though stocked with the richest
merchandise, arc not arched, a.s in Hagdad and
other Persian cities; but are miserable structures,
covered only by mats laid on rafters of date-trees.
IJussorah is a place of considerable trade, being
the grand eniporinm of the Turkish empire for
Indian and otlier eastern ))ro(luce. Its situation
is, in this respect, so favourable, that notwithstand-
ing the ol)sta(des arising from bad government and
unsafe access, both by land and sea, it continues
to command a considerable trallic; almost every
inhab. being in some way or other concerned in
trade. At the mouth of the Shat-ul-Arab there is
a bar which has commonly only about 1 2 ft. water ;
but the ch.aniiel within is deep, and ships of MO
tons burden, jirovided they cross the bar at spring
tides, may, without dilUciilly, ascend the river as
far as the city. At an average, live or six British
nUSSOKAlt
ships arrive in the course of llu^ year from Iiidjii-
but the principal pari of th(> trade is carried on jn
Arabian boltoms, particularly in thost- beloii;,riii,r
to Muscat. The imports are muslins and picn -
goods, pepper, and other spices, drugs, rice, siij;iir,
indigo, silk, <'otloii yarn, iSiirat inanufacliiris,
shawls, ('hiiia-ware, and i>aper, dye-woods, eiill'ir,
lac, bead.s, sugar-candy, and other arlielcs, ih,.
produce of India ; with lead, iron, steel, liii,({iiii'k-
silver, cochineal, &e., exported to that coiinirv
from luirope. The returns to India are iiKistl'v
made in the |irecioiis metals, Arabian Imrsos
pearls, dales (a stajih^ prochict of Itussorah), cupper,
gall-nuts, raw silk, gold fringe, coral, giiin.s, rmv-
water, assafo'lida, .dmonds, dried fruits, itc. (if
these, gold and silver coin and horses coiisiiinii^
th(( principal arli<'les. The avi'rage (-ost of t\w
hor.-ies sent to llengal is, on their arrival at Cnj-
eiitla, iiiclndiiig all expenses, about 2,001) riiiiccs,
or 200/.; that of those, sent to lloinbay is aliuiit
HOO rupees, or HO/, each. From Persia, lhi.<.s(iriili
imports shawls, assalietida, and fruits, and a I'fw
horses from Ihishire: coll'ee, dates, and gums, Irniii
Arabia; ))earls from Itahrein ; coral from the iMc-
dilerranean, by way of Aleppo. Amongst the re-
turns to Persia, through Ihishire, are n good iiiaiiv
Knglisli cotton prints, received at Hussorah frnin
the niack Sea, Smyrna, and Oonstantinoph-.
The trade with Aleppo and liagdad is coiuhictpil
by means of caravan.^. The naval force of llns-
sorah was once snlHciently powerful to coninimid
the wlnde of the Persian (iiilf, nnd to sui)pressili(!
maranding expeditions of the pirates who liavn
infested it. It has now, however, dwindled to
almost nothing.
The boats used upon the canals are of ninny
dirt'erent kinds, two of which may be worth iioticp.
The lirst is a light canoe, long, narrow, and drinv-
iiig only a few inches water, and impelled fdr-
wards by two boatmen, who stand at tlie licml
and stern, ami often use short paddles alteriiiitcly
from side to side. The second is a circular kind
of boat of basket-work covered with bitiiiiicii, df
shallow draught, capable of containing six nr
eight |)ersons, and which are paddled or spMii
along, making a circular motion. The elih liihs
occupying always twice as long a time as tin'
Ihxid, and the chief canal being miicli too .'^iiiiill
for the convenient passage of the vessels einplnycil
on it, great activity and corresponding eolll'll^i(;ll
takes place for a short period only, after wliiili
most of the craft arc grounded till next tide.
About half the iiihabilants are Arabs, oiie-fiMirlh
Persians, and the remainder a iriixlnre of Turks,
Anneiiians, Jews, C.-itludic Christians, and K(icir(l.<.
The Turks are few, perhaps not above .500 ; tlioy,
as well as the .\rabs, arc of the Suiiite sect, ex-
cepting a small body of Arab Christians, wliii call
themselves Subbees, or disci|)les of John llu^
ISaplist, The Persians, who are of the scot <if
the Schiltcn, engross moat of the interniwiinle
stations in commerce, as those of clerks, slidp-
kee])crs, mechanics, and, while among the Aralis
a man is either in easy circumstances or a iiicr^
labourer. The Armenians do not exceed iiH
families; they arc chietly, merchants and bnikers;
they have a small church, with two or tliroe
jiriests. The Jews iimount to about |O0fiiiiiilii'.<;
they arc similar to their tribe elsewhere. The
Catholic Christians are about 20 families; fimw
are natives of I$ussorali, others are recent settlers
from liagdad and Aleppo. The Subbeca are a
singular sect, scattered over the plain of the
Kuphrates, very limited in numbers, and < -
stantly intermarrying. They practise no fnsis.
but ba[itism is fretjtiently performed on the Mine
individual; their places of worship arc all tem-
BUTE
|iiirnry; tlicy nrc v«>ry imrticnilnr ns to tlic (uirili-
I'liliiin (iftlK^ir Tood, miil nrr Htiid to )iol<l a lircacli
III' triiHt. ill iihliorroiu'c, TUi'.y aro niontly iik;-
I'liiiiiicH mill liaiidicraftMiioii, rspccially NiiiitliH
hihI workers in nictalrt. 'I'lic Iiiiliaim in IliiMHorali
nro cliipfiy Itaiiiniix ; and tlie w'poyH of tlu! liritish
fiictory giianl an; inoHtly Hindoos, Soiii« few
liavu tiioir wom<>ii willi tliitiii; altn^otlu'.r, tlit'v
may anumnt to 2(10. Tim few Koords arc iniwlly
ciipi^cd iiiidcr t\\v TiirkH in inferior ollircH of
IruMt, aii<l in the aniiy. HiisHorali formerly eoii-
Miliited a separate ])aNlialie ; lad its jjovernor lias
fur a liiii^ (leriiid been sent from Itagdad, tu the
imclia of wliicli li<^ is siiliordinate.
The eoiiiitry around ({iissorali lias no lieniitins
to rccoinmend' it. It is for the most part a dead
tint. < 'orii, dates, olives, ponie>;raiiates, and otiier
Iriiit, vej^etaliles, aiidpot-herhs, areirultivaled, and
lliere an* whole lields of roses };rown for the dis-
tillation of the attar, and rose-water. Wlu'rever
imrlionsof this plain are eiu'losed near the city
walls, and irri^jated for a few years froip tlureaiials,
line (garden ]ilots are soon iirodiu^ed ; and iiikUt a
jjniid >;overiimeiit the whole of it would no doiiht
ln'ciinie of the most exiiheraiit fertility. At pre-
spiit, however, few villa^ces or jieople are to Ixt
si'cn without tlie walls of the eity ; a monotonous
1111(1 filoomy silence |»revails ; and on the \V. and
S. iiothiiif; is seen hiit a dreary desert extending;
iw far as the eye can reach, with no ohjcct to break i
iliP line of the horixon but the tops of the houses |
iif Zobeir Just seen above it, and the ranf^e of
(icli-el Senam. For six months of the j'car Ilns-
wirnli is (piitc surrounded by water, like an island
in the midst, of a sea. Summer is extremely hot,
anil in autumn the cily is unhealthy. Wiiitc^r
and spriiif? are deli^'htfully (toid, refrcshiiijj;, and
yahihrions ; and Itnssorah is at these seasons
resorted to by invalids from India.
In the Eufjlisli factory, establisheil in 1(> 10, there
is an Kiifjlish resident ; but with this exception,
there are no iMimpeans in the place. The French
fiii'torj' has merely a nominal (!xistciice ; the otiiccr
uiiiler'wliom it is jdnced resides tit Hii^dad.
Hiissorah oripnated from a town now called
Zobeir, « m. to the SVV., founded by the caliph
Omar in (!35 or (lH(i, on a canal sn])poseil to be the
iincioiit Pallacopas. In a few years it became one
lit' the larjjest and most tlonrishiiif; cities of Arabia ;
liut the canal beinj^ neglected, and liecomin;? use-
less, the ancient site of the city was abandoned.
The present city \yas taken by the Turks in KKiS,
liy the Persians in 1777, and by the Montelik
Arabs in 17H7. A few months after the latter
iimcpiest it was retaken by the Turks, to whom it
lias ever since belonged.
lUJTE, a CO. of Scotland, consisting of the
islands of Untc, AiTan, the Ciinibraes, and Inch-
mamock, all in the Frith of (Hyde. Its total area
eomprises 171 sq. ni., or l()!),37r) acres, of which
about (iO.OOO are cultivated, 40,()()(» improvable,
and the rest nnimjirovable. It contained in 1M(!I
a pop, of 10,331, living in 2,!{'2"2 houses. The (dd
valued rent was 1,2,")3/. ; the new valuation for
IHIH-,"), exclusive of the burgh of Hotliesay, was
•10,128/. The county returns one mem. to the II.
iifC. ; registered electors, 513 in 1<S(>,5.
liuiK, the island whence the above co. takes its
name, in the Frith of ( !lyde : it is separated from
tlie district of C'owall in Argyleshire by a narrow
ending channel, called tlie Kyles o." ]?ute, is
almiit 5 ni. W. from the nearest ])oint of the Ayr-
shire coast, and is about 19 m, in length (NXK.
and SSW,). by about 4 in breadth. Pop. »>,"j03 in
imil, of wliicli 5,,'ji},") belonged to thebor. of Ifotlie-
say. Its N. extremity, towards Argyle, is bleak
and rugged, but its central and S. parts consist for
Vol. I.
nUXTON
MS
the most part of undulating grounds, with mode-
rately j^ood soil, tit either for tillage or pasturage.
Tlu? climate is riMiiarkable for mildness anil salii-
brily, but is jiarliciilarly humid, whii-h renders it
not so Miiiluble for agriculture as for the raising of
cattle. Agriculture has, however, been materially
improved of late years ; and a good deal has I n
done in the way of <'onsolidatiiig fanns, building
improved houses, opening new roads, Ac, The
town of Koihesay, on the K. coast, famous for its
old castle, once the residence of the Scottish innn-
archs, is now iK'come, in the summer seasons, a
favourite resort of the citizens of (Jhisgow. The
principal part of iIk^ island belongs to ilie Manpiis
of llute, whose seat, Moiinlstuart, on the K. side of
the island, a little to the S. of ISolliesay, is itschief
ornaiiieiit. Most part of tin- iiihab. speak (iaelic ;
but tli(^ use of F.nglish is daily iiecoming niore
prevalent. Keaii, th<^ eminent tragedian, had a
scat, ill a secluded situation, in thi^ interior of the
isliind.
Itl'XTON, a town and fashionable watering-
place of I'jigland, CO. I)erlty, hiinil. High Peak,
par. Ilakewell, I."i0 ni. XW. iiy N. London by road,
and l'.)3.^ m. bv London and North Western rail-
way. Pop. 1,211 in IKII, and l,H77 in l«til.
The town stands in a valley surrounded by hills
of considerable elevation, except at one narrow
opening, through which tlie Wye (lows. The idd
town stands on niiich higher ground than the
modern one, and consists of one wide street, in
which are a few respectable inns and lodging-
houses, but the greater niiiiiber are low aiutieiit
buildings : it has a market-place, with an old cross
in the ci^iiti'. The new jiart, commencing with
the (Jrescent, extends along the Hakewell road,
Tiiis is an elegant range, in the (in'ciiui style,
coiiiprising two hotels, a library, news and assem-
bly-rooms, baths, and some private houses; the
wiiole erected by the late Diiki- of Devonshire, in
l~Hi, at a cost of 120,l)(l(l/. The adjoining sipiarc
has ail arcade, continuing that of the Crescent,
and funning, with it, a covered ])romenade of con-
siderable exti'iit. ('oniiccted with the ninge of
stabling at the back, is a spacious covered ride ;
altogether, there is acconnnodation for about l..')0((
visitors ; and (hiring its season (from June to Oct.)
from l2,(M)t» to l."),(l(M) nsnally resort to the town.
The church is an elegant nioilern structure, also
built by the late Duke of Devonshire. There are
several dissenting chapels ; an endowed school, on
Hell's phin ; and a ' IJath Charity,' supported by
siihscription, for poor invalids coming from any
part, with a jiroper testimonial from the minister
of their parish : they have the gratuitous use of a
bath, and maintenance for a month. From 1,I()I)
to 1,200 are thus annually relieved. At thr W.
end of the Crescent stands the old hall, built by
the Farl of Shrewsbury, in the reign of Elizabeth,
in whose custody llary Queen of Scots w;is jilaceil ;
who, being occasionally jiermitti^d to visit lUixton,
occupied apartments in it. It is now an inn. The
public and private baths are numerous, and fitted
u)) with every attention to comfort. St. Anne's
Well, wluire the waters are usually drunk, is a
handsome (ireek building: it sup])lies both hot
and cold water from springs that rise nt a short
distance from each other : the temperature of the
latter is W° Fahr. ; that of the Huxton hot waters
is, in all seasons, invariably 82° Fahr. liesides
these (which are properly the Buxton waters),
there is a chalybeate spring, issuing fmm a chalk
stratum behind the Crescent, which has a building
over it, and is occasionally drunk : when mixed
with that of the other springs, it forms a pur-
gative. These mineral waters rise on tlie western
edge of the limestone range which occupies that
«»♦ nUZANCAIS
imrtionof IVrliyttliire chIUmI the Prnk Forost, px-
toiidiii^ friiin Ciu*tlflrin mmiliwardH, niiil (■(HiHixliiif;
of nitoriintc! ImuIh of liinvNioiie niid aiiiyKdiilniii
(road-Htont'), tlin fonncr nlxMiiidiri^iii )Mily|iif<'riiiiH
iind ollirr fossils. A lnr>;(' f'liult iravt'rsfs tlic
mIioIc, and in tliisdylic tiic llicnnal s|irin>;H, liotli
ofiMatloik and IJnx'lon, riso ; tlii' laltcr Ixinj,' at
tlie S. end of tlif out-('ro|i|iin)r of tlic lowest liinc-
hloni' l>cd. Itiixlon wnlcrH have liccn ci'lfbratcd
for tlicir iiicdicinal virtues from tlielioinnn piriod.
The water is hard, in eoiisei|uenee of the caleareoiis
matter, hut ))erfe('tly clear; nor does it heconie
ttirhid by any loiij^tli of exposure. It is iised as
baths, or topically, liv ]iMmpin^ on])articular parts
of the liody ; and isa'iso taken internally, in (pian-
tilies varying from J pint to IJ jiint. in' tlic! course
of a day : it is considered henelicial in dyspeptic
eases, and as a hath in cases of {{out aiid rheu-
matism. The chalylieate spriiij; lias A {irain car-
bonate of iron in 1 pdlon : it is very soft water.
There is a weekly market, on Saturday, and
annual fairs on Feb. ',\, April 1, May '.'.and S'e))t. « ;
this last is for cattle. The sale" of the nnnoral
]iroduclions of the district, and the manufacture
of ornamental vases, from iluor ami alabaster,
occupies nuniy of the jieoiile. About half a mile
AV. of the town, lime is quarried aiul burnt to a
considerable extent, and conveyed along the Jligh
CACHAO
I'enk railway for some distance. Tlierc nre mnnv
|iublic walks laid out with great taste, and tlic
neighbourhood in all ilirections is most interesting
and rolmnlli(^ Near the lime quarries is l'(i(,|\l
Hole, an innnense natural cavern covered wii),
stalactites, which have a very brilliant appeiiraiici^
when lighted by the guides who show tlu'cavc-
beyond this is the !>iamond Hill, so named frum
the profusion of well-iU'lined hexagonal crystiils
dispersed through the soil. Five miles in tjir.
direclioii of Oastleloii is a curious inlennittint
spring. Ihixlon was a Konwm station, and iwn
great military roads intersect near it : vesti^jcs i,(
a K'oinan bath, and many Koman coins, have Ucn
discovered.
MUZANTAIS, a town of France, d<<p. Imlrc,
cap. cant., partly on thc! hanks of the Indre, iniij
partly on islaiuls in its channel; the conneciicjn
between its different divisions being niaiiilaiiicil
by means of five bridges, 1 I m. XVV. Chafeaiiriiiix.
I'op. r>,()lt! in 18(11. Though the situation he ex-
ceedingly good, the town is very ill built, ami
presents a confusi^d nuiss of old houses, inUr-
sjiersed with luirrow, crooked, and gloomy ■iirecis,
There are in its environs some considerable I'miii-
dries. and some trade in wool is carried on by iliu
inhabilantH.
rjAlU'.S, or OAHES, a sea-port and city of Tlnr-
bary, reg. Tunis, at the bottom of llu! gulf of
the same name (Si/rtin Minor), near the foot of
]\loiuit IIancara,on the right bank uf asmall river;
lat, a;!° .'J3' .55" N., long. HP 44' 1" K. Pop.
estimated at 20,000. The city is defended by a
castle, in )>retty good re|)air. Streets regular, but
narrow and filthy. Ownig to the gradual filling
lip of the bay, its port is now only accessible to
vessels of small burden. Thc chief article of ex-
port is a jiowder made of the odoriferous leaves of
a i)lant called lifiimtli, raised in the surrounding
gardens. Thin powder is used as a pigment by
the ladies of thc East, and is, consequently, in
great demand.
Cabes is said to be the Eji'iiiim of Scylax, and
thc Tacupi- of other ancient geographers. U'uins
of the ancient city, among which are several
Kipuire granite colunms, 12 ft. in length, are met
with on a rising groiuid, about h m. from the new
city. The lillle river which runs through the
city (the Triton of tlie ancients) is diverted into
a great number of chainiels, for the pin'posc of
watering the hennah gardens.
CA151XDA, a sea-port town of Lower (iuinen,
cap. En-(lovo, on the Atlantic, 50 m. N. from the
mouth of the Zaire, lat. 5° ;i;!' S., long. 15° 10' K.
It is distinguished by its beautiful situation, and
the fertility of its territory, whiiOi have obtained
for it the" title of the paradise of the coast. Its
Imrbour is safe and commodious. Theex)iorts are
slaves, ivory, honey, and wax. Th(> natives are
uncivilised." "ud ditlicidt to deal with. The Por-
tuguese have frequently attempted, but without
success, to get a footing in this jilace.
t'AIJK'A (an. u'l'ijiihrnm), a Xuw'n of Spain, prov.
Cordova, near the souhh! of the river of the same
nanu'. i)artly on two hills and partly in a \i\s\m
planted with vines and olives ; 2« m. SSK. Cor-
dova. I'o]). 11.071! in 1S57. Some of the streets
ore wide ami straight, with streams of water run-
ning through them, and good housc?( with magni-
ficent fronts. There is a large, but irregular
square ; many public and private fountains .-inil
promemides; some ancient nios(pies, and oiIut
ruins. Here is, also, a college, with classes for the
study of grammar, philosoi>liy, mathematics, ami
design. The town lias manufactures of tiles, bricks,
white soap, coarse linen and hempen ch)ths, wiiii
wines, bnmdy, vinegar, oil, and Hour. There m\
nearly 400 gardens attached to the town, wliicli
sujiply most parts of the district with fruit ninl
vegetables. 'I'he neighbourhood produces Miariiip
of varimis kinds, gypsum, and clay for bricks and
pottery. The crater of an extinct volcano is
situated in the itrecincts of the town. It was a
l)lace of consideration among thc Komans, and
also with the Moors.
CAMREK'A, a small island of the l^leilitcrra-
neaii, belonging to Spain, 9 m. S. Cape Salina?,
Majorca.
(-ACCAIVIO, a town of Sicily, prov. Palennn,
caj), cant., 24 m. SE. Palermo. Pop. 7,211 in
1«(T2.
CACEKl'^S, a town of Spain, ]irov. Estrcmadnri;,
cap. district; 41 m. N. Jle.rida; on a niounlain
ridge, washed by three rivers, along one of wiiicli
there are nearlj' .'< miles of gardens; 24 mites \\.
Truxillo. Poj). 14,800 in 1857. The town lias
an episcojial palace, some good public biiildiiifjs,
with many good private houses. It lias, also, a
.lesuits' college, the most sumptuous in the pniv.:
a public school; a seminary, or college, with pm-
fessorshipsof gramnijir, and the Latin and Orioiilid
languages, i)liih(so])hy, divinity, medicine, ami
Jurisprudence ; a hospital for infirm porsinis,
widows, and orphans. Jt was formerly iiiiilcd in
Portugal, and was then of much more censidcra-
tion than at iircsent. It has some (loiir-niilK
fulling-mills, with tanneries, lavaderox for wasliiiij;
wool, dyeing-works, and manufactures of earllicii-
ware. Cacercs appears to have been a Itoniiiii
station, some magnificent ruins having l)e('ii dis-
covered in and within a short distance of llie
town.
CACIIAO, or KE-CIIO, often called by Hio
CACHAR
natives Bak-thiin, tlie InrKcat city of the empire of
Aimm, cap. of its N. tliv. or Tonqiiin, on the rij{ht
hniik of the Tonqiiiii river, nhout 80 in. W. the
(iulf of Tonquin, and 325 m. NNW. Hue; hit. 21°
N.,hmfc. 10/)0 34' K. Top. cutimiited at !IO,()00.
The city is of f^reat extent, but defended only hy
a hai)d)oo stociiade. ('hief utreets wide, nndmoHlly
paved with brick or small Htonea ; the olhern
narrow and unpaved. Some lioiiseH, ehietly thoHe
liclonpn); to foreif^nerH, are built of briek ; but
llie greater number are of only mud and timber.
I'ldtlic edilice.s Hpacious, especially one royal palace,
nnil the ruins of another; the walls surrounding
each of which are reported to be of vast extent.
It has a considerable trade, and had formerly iHith
Knglish niul Dutch factories. The imports are
lung cloths, chintzes, and arms ; the exports, gold,
fine silk fabrics, and lacquered wares, the best of
the Kast. The N. brancli of the Toncpun river,
which once admitt(^d much larger shins, is said, in
consequence of the accumulation of sand at its
mouth, to be now impracticable for those above
'.'(10 tons burden. The city being composed to so
threat an extent of intlammable materials, is vcrv
subject to destructive tires : and a rigid ))olice is
always on the alert to prevent the use of those for
(liinu'.stic purposes for more than a few hours in the
(lay. It was nearly burnt to the ground by some
incendiaries in the course of the 17th century.
CACIIAK, or IIAIIIUMIR), a territ. of India
beyond the (ianges. formerly governed bv its own
rajah, but since 1H32 a IJritif.h gov., suhordhiate
to the presid. Bengal. It lies between lat. 21" and
27° N., and long. 92° an<l !I40 E. ; having N.
Assam ; E. Cassay ; S. Tipperah : and W. Sylhet
and .Jynteah ; length, N. to S., about 140 m. The
iirca embraces a territory of (i,500 scj. m., with an
estimated pop. of 70,000. Cachar is surrounded
on three sides by mountain chains: on the N. the
Naga mountains cut it oflT from the Dharmpoor
district and the valley of the Brahmaputra ; on
the W. the boundary is formed by the same chain,
whii:li, running S., forms the E. frontier of Cbit-
tagong and Aracan, and opposite Svlhetand Mune-
lM)or is from 2,000 to 4,000 ft. high : on the S. is
an elevated chain running E. anil W., and inha-
Ijjted by the Kookies. Another range runs parallel
to the latter, in about lat 25° 20' N., dividing
Southern from Central and Northern Cachar, and
from 4,000 to (>,000 ft. high ; all these ranges arc
covered from base to summit with vast forests.
The plains are mostly in S. Cachar, where their
height above the sea is about 200 ft. The chief
rivers are the Barak, Kapilee, Jumona, and Dhuu-
scrce. The lirst rises amongst the mountains be-
tween Cassay and Assam, in lat. 25° 30' X., and
long. 91° 20' E., and flows with a very tortuous
course for 180 m. through S. Cachar, which it
leaves at Banga (Sylhct). It varies considerably
ill width, but is sometimes 150 or 200 yils. across,
and is navigable for boats of some burden to 20 m.
above Bauskandee : during the rains it has 30 or
40 ft. depth of water, and the country through
which it Hows is inundated from June to Novem-
ber. The mountain-streams afford ready access to
the forests, and are of farther service in tloating
down timber, rattans, bamboos, A-c, from which
much revenue has been realised by the former
rajalia. No lakes have been enumerated. During
the S\V. monsoon there are frecpient and long-
continued falls of rain, beginning in February or
March, from which period vegetation proceeds with
fjreat rajiidity. The excessive moisture renders
the climate unhealthy ; and ague, dysentery, aiul
diarrluva, arc frequent : but it modities the heat
ill summer, reducing it ibur or live degrees below
the temp, of Calcutta. Iii the cold season tires,
CACHAR
595
morning and evening, are foiind ossential to com-
fort. 'I'he fertility of the soil is very great ; rice
and other grain, sugar-cane, and cotton, the latter
especially, \. of the central hills, grow luxuriantly.
Tindier is very abinidant in the mountain ranges,
and has always Iteeii an important source of wealth :
in other parts a tlense and lofty reed and grass
jungle rapi<lly springs up after the rains, affording
cover for vast numbers of wild ileer, buffaloes, ami
eU!|)hants.
S. ('nchar is a valuable addition to our eastern
jiossessions ; its fertile ])lains, which are eonUiiuous
on the W., with the well watered ones of Sylhel,
extend E. as far as the .leree river, a tributary of
the Barak. There are 1,850 sq. m. of surfact; S.
the Barak ; 1,700 of which are a fertile plain, now
almost wholly unwcupied, although the traces of
numerous villages abound on the banks of the
rivers. N. of the Barak there are 1,000 sq. m. of
surface, 480 of which are estimated to lie aralile
land of a very tine quality. This tract is daily
becoming better inhal)ited, and immediately ulipiig
the banks of the Barak there is a belt of rich cul-
tivation not sur|)assed in any part of Bengal, and
the tracts contiguous to it are in process of being
cleared : aconsideralde emigration appears to have
taken place thither from Bengal. The \w\\ of S.
(Jachar consists of three or four different classes,
viz. 1, Cacharees ; 2, Mussulman Bengalese, who
are the chief of the petty landholders; 3, Hindoo
Bengalese; and 4, mixed tribes, as Xagas, Koo-
kies, and Cassayers : the lirst two have long in-
habited the S. and E. hills, but tendered little
homage to the Cachar rajahs ; and the Cassayers
have been settled thereby the liritisli government,
antl, by their bold and military qualities, form a
valuable protection against the other hill tribes to
the inhabitants of the plains.
From the central ridge, looking N., is seen a
vast mass of dark and dense forest, bounded by the
Kopili, Jumona, and Dhunseree rivers ; extending
for about 70 m., and broken only by a few s))ecks
of cultivation, and the scattered lints of a few
Cacharees and Kookies, who earn a livelihood
(irincipally by the cultivation of cott(m, which
they barter for other jiroduce to the iidiabitants «if
Assam and Dhurrumpoor. About (>,OIIO of tho
pop. in Central Cachar arc probably aborigines ;
the remainder are Kookies and Loloongs, most
likely from the S. and SE. Emigration from
Sylhet into Cachar has been greatly encouraged
by the assignment of lands at the low rate of three
annius per bega, to be held rent free for 1,000 days,
at the end of which time the quantity of land
cleared was to be assesseil. The i)eople of the
central hills bring cotton, ivory, wax, iron-(<re,
and bamboos, into Central Cachar ; about 2,00()
jarool timbers are sontcbwn the Barak into Sylhet,
for building largi; chiuuim boats. The other exports
are salt, coarse silk, and limestone.
Three routes through Cachar into Cassay part
from Bauskandee near the E. extremity of the
cleared jilains : viz., those of Aquee, Kala Naga,
and Khongjnee. By the foi-mer, or most N., tlic
distance from Bauskandee to Jaeenngur, in the
Cassay central valley, is 80 m. ; the tirst 30 in.
of which iiass through a dense forest abounding
in swamps, and intersected with small streams,
which rapidly become impassable after rains. The
Kala Naga route is in all these resjiects jirefer-
able, anil also crosses the Jurec river 8 m. from
its conHuence with the Barak, up to which jioiiit
the latter is navigable for boats of 500 maunds.
The third route ])asses over the hilly country of
the Kookies, and is useless for militarj- puqioses.
(See Cassay.) Several roads toward the central
hiUs traverse S. Cachar, which all unite in one
ti ti 2
Wi
1*11
/iOO
CADEROU.SSR
viilloy, find thciico run through tlic wntriil and
X, (liviHioiiH towiinl AxMniii, info wliiuli tUt'tv iirc
throo tM'pnnitc ronton tlirmi>;h Cndinrrnini Sylhot.
('osp<H)r in flic nno. nipital, but Hilclmr, S. the
linrak, h the prcNcnt reNiilenvu of the chief au-
tlioriticN. The CacliareeH are Htron^;, roliust.
fairer tlian the HenKalexe, anil like the Chinese in
featiireH. The original Ilairunihian dialect is
(*ai(l to have hcen nion<wyllahi<-, hut is now nearly
extinct, the lan^na^e and written character of
Jten^al having' iisur])ed itH |)lace. The Kookiex,
who have lieen for years (fradnally advanc'lnj; it,
are siqiposed to l)e of IVIalay origin; ihey are
wldoni much more than .") ft. ni hei^jht ; their
complexions nearly as dark as those of the
llenjijaleHe; voices soft, andlan^nui^e harmonious.
Small parties, of from Id to ltd of them, formerly
made i'reipient secret incursions within our fron-
tiers, in search of hinnan heads, v/liich would
seem to lie necessary articles at the performance
of certain of their relif^ious ceremonies.
('acliar was unknown to tht; liritish initil t'dll;
wdien ftlr. Verelst led a small force into it. In
1774 it was invaded hy the Hinnesi^ and some
time after rendered trihiitnry hy them. In IHId
they ]>laced the Kajah of Munepoor on the throne
of Cachar; and, from INIH to l«2.'l, a civil war
for su|)renift(!y hetween that chief and his two
lirotliers devastated the jtrov. IJy the treaty of
/andalioo, in IM2(i, Cachar was (ilaceil under
Itritish protection, and the rajah re-estahlishcd ;
hut ou his death in 1«H(), without any heir, it
became, in 1«;12, an integral part of tlie Itritish
territory.
CADKKOUSSR, a town of France, dep. Vau-
clnse, on the left bank of the Khone, which at
this jwint encloses a cinisiderable island, 3 m.
SVV. Oran^'c. Pop. .S,l<!d in 1«(!1. The town
has some silk filatures, and its territory is produc-
tive of corn, silk, and madder.
'lADIZ, a city and sea-port of Spain, in An-
dalusia, on the Atlantic, (iit m. S. Seville, and (iO
m. NW. Gibraltar, on the terminus of the South
Weste... railway from Madrid. Pop. 7d,Hll in
1857, The city occupies the rocky and elevated
extremity of a long, low, narrow tongue of land,
imijeuting about 5 m. NNW. from the Isle of
Leon, and enclosing betweeii it and the main-land
a sjjacious bay, which has everywhere good an-
chorage. The harbour is about !• m. long, from
Hota to Carr.^ca, and three miles broad, from
Cadiz to Port St, Mary's, or to Port K'oyal, The
]iort of Cadiz is formed by a mole projecting from
the city into the bay ; but it is accessible only to
Hmall vessels, ships of large burden anchoring
^ m. otf shore. The bay is divided into the inner
and outer bays by the |)romontory, having at its
extremity the fort of Matagorda, The isthmus
joining the city to the main-land is in ])arts not
more than from 200 to 300 yards across, and is
very stronglj' fortified: the access to the city
from the sea is in some jdaces rendered imprac-
ticable by the steepness of the rocks, the occur-
rence of sandbaidc and of sunken ledges; and
being everywhere defended by ramparts, bastions,
and detached forts, it would, were these kept in
projier repair and well garrisoned, be all but im-
jiregnable ; so that, as respects convenience and
security, Cidiz, with its bay and dependencies,
is probably unmatched, and certainly not aur-
jiassed, as a naval depot. Streets straight, and
though rather narrow, are remarkably well paved,
clean, and lighted with lamps. The houses, in
general loftj', have a court in the centre; they
are mostlj- built of white freestone, and some of
them are ornamented with painted balconies.
There are several squares; but, with the excep-
CADIZ
tion of that of San Antonio, in the centre nf ilm
city, they are all of very limited dinu'iiNions,
The ramparts atford the finest marine promenndi',
the view on the K. side extends across the bay to
St. Mary's and the other towns by which it Is
lined, and to the mountains in (he distance: i»\
the W, the eye ranges over the iKiundless expaiiHu
of the Atlantic.
With the ex(!eptioii of the fortifications, Cadiz
has no public buildings of any importance. Th(>
most conspicuous is the lighthouse of San Sebas-
tian, on the bastion of that name, having tlie
lantern elevated 172 ft, above the level of tlu:
sea. There are two cathedrals — an old and a
new; but the latter is unfinished. There is u
custoni-hons<!, several hospitals, chundies mid
convents. The town labours under a great dc-
ticiencv of water, having none that is potalile bin,
what IS brought in vessels across the bav fnuii
St. Mary's, or what is collected in cisteriis.
Iteing almost surrouinU^d by the sea, the cliinaie
is comparatively temiierate; the summer licais
are less violent than in iMadrid, though it be mi
much farther south, while the c(dd of winter i^t
not nearly so severe. It is not unhealthy; but,
like most other tciwiis on the S. coast <if Spain,
is occasionally visited by ejiidemics. There is ii
tolerable theatre, where Italian operas are sonic-
times |ierf(irined ; but those who wish to cnjov
the national diversion of bull-tights must cruss
the bay to St. Mary's. Morals here arc said to
be, if possible, even at a lower ebb than ia
other Spanish cities.
The Caracfu, or royal dockyard, is situated at
the bottom of the inner bay, about (i m. from the
city, im the channel separating the isle of Ia'mx
from the main-land. This usecl formerly to lie a
verj' complete establishment; and as inanv as
6,0()0 men were kept constantly at work lu it.
Now, however, it ia all but deserted.
The commerce of Cadiz was formerly vorv
extensive. For a lengthened period the city
[lossessed a monopoly of the trade with the vast
possessions belonging to Spain in the New World
and notwithstanding the abidition of the mdiiii-
poly in 1778, she continued to engross by far the
larger portion of the trade with these countries
down to their emancipation. This event gave a
blow to the commercial importance of Cn<liz,
from which it has not recovered. Its intliieiii'e
might, no doubt, have been in a great mciiiiiin!
obviated, had the Spanish government adopted
a more liberal policy in relation to its intercmirse
with other countries. But oppressive duties and
restrictions went far to destroy the foreign trade
of Spain. To raise the commerce of Cadiz from
the depressed situation into which it had fallen,
government made it, in 1829, a free port, that is,
a port into which goods might be imported, and
from which they might lie exported, free of duty.
In consequen(;e of this privilege, it immediateiy
became a pnncipal depot for the foreign pniducts
destined for the Spanish market ; and the sinuf;-
gling carried on from the town was so great, that,
in 1832, government not choosing to reduce tiie
duties which occasioned it, and being unable
otherwise to rejiress the abuse, withdrew the
privilege, so that the trade again relapsed into
Its state previously to 1829. It has still, however.
a larger share than any other Spanish town nf
the trade with Cuba, Puerto Kico, and JIanilla,
the only remaining colonies of Spain ; and it, or
I rather its dependency, St. INIary's, is the centre
j of the sherry trade, all the wines of Xcros Mh<j
shipped either from the one or the other.
The principal articles of import are fabrics o/
linen, wool, silk, and cotton, of which, however,
I'
CAEN
a Inr^c proportion U dcHlincd for rp-i>xi)ortnfion;
HiiK'ir, (.'(Hioii (oC wliicli tlicrt! in n v»Ty urcut con-
Niiniption in Spain), (.■otl'ct-, ami otluT colonial
iroducc; tiniliur, tobact-o, liiiU-H, ami milled lisli.
iVino fornw l>y Car tin- principal article of export ;
the (|uantity Nliip|H;d from i'tuVu and the ditl'erent
jiortH round the Itny amounted, in l«tM, to (i7,U.")H
liiittH, of (!4(t ICnjfliHli bottlcH each, of a totn' ewti-
mnted value of 1 ,;J'2(i,724/, la IBti;! tlio shipmcntH
were (i(>,U2l huttH.
The shipping of the port of Cadiz i» shown in
the fidlowin^ table, enibracin|r the comnuTcu of
nine years, Ironi 185(5 to 1804:—
Vein
8|«nlib V«iMl>
Foreign VnwU
18fi6 . . .
it.osa
7fi9
ISAT . . .
3,770
All
IHftS . . .
;i,71i)
Hli7
]h:.» . . .
»,UIA
ni'i)
IH(il) . . ,
4,():)(i
iM)2
]«fil . . .
;i,7(!«
1,11).'.
lHt!2 . . .
»,H(!1
1,015
iH«;i . . .
y,8:i:.
l,o:)4
18B4 . ." .
Total . .
3,7(i4
1,07«
8,«01
:i»,oi8
The foreign shipping of the year 18r>4 was di-
vided between the foUowing nationnlities : —
No. of
8hl|»
Crew
Tom
107,426
British ....
;188
6,1 .'.5
FrciKili ....
'J 13
3,353
60,019
j Swe(li;'h and Norwegian
125
1,865
40,770
\ ItiissiiuiH
1)0
810
20,023
I'ortiiBueao .
f.!»
544
4,155
Dutch ....
55
686
3,.529
Itivliiin ....
48
571
10,957
Americans .
32
374
15,818
Hnnovcriiins .
1!)
1.57
2,705
Bremen ....
16
256
6,467
Vrus-iions
16
163
3,917
Divnish ....
10
ill
2,056
Mecklenburg .
9
107
2,845
Belgian ....
8
94
1,373
Hamburg
8
79
1,939
AuHtriau
7
88
3,0.')4
Orientals (Turkish)
3
40
902
Olilenlmrg .
'2
18
364
lUver Plato .
Total .
1
11
141
1,070
14,471
287,490
CAKULKON
ft97
There are several lines of steamers between
Cadiz and England, as well as to Gibraltar, Lisbon,
SInr.ieilles, Ilavrc, Amsterdam, and Hamburg.
The Spanish mail-steamers start from Cadiz for
Cuba, I'orto-Hico, and the ('anaries.
Cadiz is very ancient, having been founded by
the l'h(L'nicians. In 15'Jti it was taken and sacked
l)y the Knglish, by whom it was again itu'llectu-
aily attacked in 1(>23 and 1702. In 1801) it be-
cnmc the asylum of the Cortes, and was blockaded
by the French till 1812. In 1823 it surrendered
to the French under the Due d'Aiigouleme.
CAEN, a town of France, dcp. Calvados, of
which it is the ca[)ital, in an extensive valley be-
tween two large meadows, at the conlluence of the
Odon with the Orne, about 8 m. from the em-
bouchure of the latter, 30 m. 8VV. Havre, on the
railway from Paris to Cherbourg. Pop. 43,740 in
1861. Caen is a well-built, hnproving town. The
streets are generally broad, straight, and clean;
aiid' the houses of freestone luive a good appe.ir-
aiice. It was formerly a place of eoiisidcra'ulu
strciiglli, being dclended by a castle, and sur-
rounded by massive walls. Hanked with towers.
The latter and the walls have almost disiippeared :
the castle, which was of great size and strength,
was partly demolished at the Kcvolutinn ; the por-
tion of it that still remains is now used as a prison.
There are four sipiares, of which tlu^ Place Itoyale,
ornamented with a stiitne of l<4Miis XIV., is the
linest. A roKm, or public walk, shaded by magni-
tieent elm trees, extends for nearly a mile ahnig
the banks of the rivers. There are some line old
churches, of which the most interesting is the
AbbuyeniiT Ilttmmes, built by William the (Con-
queror; it is a large, plain building, with two very
high spires; and contains, among other interesting
monuments, the tomb of the (.'oncpieror; but the
latter was violated by the Huguenots, in I,'iri2, and
the boiU!s dispersed. The Alihni/e iiiLr /''i'liiiiivn,
also very ancient, is now the Trinity Hospital, one
of the best nunniged establishments of the kind
nnj'wIuTe to be met with. The church of .St.
Peter has the tinest spire in Nonnamly ; and .seve-
ral of the other (dnirches de.serve noti<'e. Among
the other public buihiings are the hotel of the pre-
fecture, the Hotel de Ville, the Palace (d'.lu.stice.
and the Hotel Dieii. Caen has been long cele-
brated for its university, founded in 1431, by
Henry VI., king «d" England. It was nunodelled
after the lievolntion, and now exists under the
title of an acntlrmie universitttlre. There are here,
also, a royal college, or high school, with from
4.50 to .JOO pu)iils; a secondary scliool of medicine;
a jirinniry normal school ; a school of hydrography ;
a public library, containing 47,000 volumes; a
botanical garden, with agocxl collection of plants ;
a school of architecture and design ; a deaf and
dumb school ; museums of pictures and natural
history; with numentus societies for the promotion
of literature, and the line and u.seful art.s. It is the
seat of a royal court for the depts. of Calvachis,
IManidie, and Orne; and for tribuiuils of original
jurisdiction and commerce. The manufactures of
the town are important and valuable. They con-
sist principally of laces, and of thread and silk, the,
making of which employs a vast number of jieople ;
stockings and caps, table linen, a variet}' of cotton
fabrics, coarse and line earthenware, cntlerj', hats,
l)ai)er, and leather. At high water, vessels of loO
or IGO tons come up the river as far as the town,
where they lie alongside the quays. Since the
opening of the railway which places Caen in direct
communication v.itb Paris, the commerce of the
town has nuich increased.
Several large fairs are hehl for the sale of the
products of the town, and of the horses, cattle,
butter, and fowls of the .surrounding country'. In
conisequence of its excellent establishments for
education, and other advantages, (Jacnisa favour-
ite resort of English families. It has produced
several distinguished men ; among whom are Mal-
herbe, the father of French poetry; the learned
Huet, bishop of Avranches, Tannegui, and Lefevre.
Caen is not very ancient. It became of imjiort-
ance under the dukes of Normandy, by whom it
was fortitied. It has undergone several sieges,
and fell tinally into the possession of the French
in 1448, when it was taken from the English by
Dunois. It was taken by the Protestants in lo<J2,
when it suffered severely.
CAEKLEON,atown of England, CO. Monmouth,
bund. Usk, par. Llangattock, on the Usk, 18 m.
SW. iMonmouth, Pop. I,2(i8 in 18G1. Caerleoii
was the Iscn Siliirinn of the Anglo-I{omans, and
was. then of great imjjortance, being the cap. of
the prov. of Itritannia Secnnda. At a Inter period,
il was celebrated as a sent <if Icariiiiig, and, in the
12ih century, Girahlus Cambrensis gave a lively,
though jierhaps exaggemted, i)icture of its wealth
and magnilicence. Several Itotnan antiquities
have been dug up in the town and its vicinity, and
in several parts the Koman walls are still visible.
•II, '.HI
;'"'! 'a
008
CAERMARTHEN
An dlipticftl concavity, the lon^c^t (linmptor mon-
BiiriuK 74 ynnlH, nnd the nhortc'nt 04, and (! y/iniM
in depth, JH Hitiintml in n Held cIohc liy thcUtik,
ncnr the HVV. nido of the town. The country
iK'ople call it ArthurV Koinid Talile ; but no doubt
It iH the rcmainH of an ainphitboatrc. \Vitliin tlio
course of last century stone Heats were discovered
on openinjj the sides of the concavity ; and, in
17(M!, an alalinstcr statue of Diana was found in it.
It has a well-en(iowed charity scliool for mainlain-
iufi and educntint; 80 I)ovh and 20 )xirls.
CAKKMAUTHKXorCAKMAUTIlKXSIHnE,
nniarit.co.of S.Wales, liavinKS.Caermartheii Hay,
which unites with the Uristol C'hainu4, K. the cds.
of (ilamoryan and Hrecon, X. Cardigan, and \V,
Pembroke. Area, (W!{,iJtiO acres ; pop. lll,7!)(i in
IHtil. Surface various, in part mountainous, and
in ))art cunsisting of low tine vales: the lar)j;est
nn<l most celebrated of the latter is the vale of
Towy, stretching for about .SO ni, along tlie river
of that name, by which the co. is intersected, with
an average breadth of about 2 m. ' Ystrad Towy,'
or the Vale of Towy, was tlie ancient Welsh name
of the county. Lxclusive of the Towv, (.'aer-
marthen is separated from Cardigan by tfie Taafe,
nnd in part from (Jlamorgan and I'ombrokeby the
Longhor and the Taafe, The portion of this co.,
S. and K. of the 'I'owy, adjoinnig (ilamorgan, is
included in the great coal-lield of S. Wales : at
Llanelly there is also an abundant supply of iron-
stone, and considerable iron-works. Soil of the
arable land mostly a sandy loam, easily wrought,
admirably adapted to the turnip husbandry, and
in general very productive. Hut agriculture here,
and indeed in the greater part of Wales, is in an
extremely backward state. The occn|>iers are, for
the most part, iiniustructed, and strongly attached
to ancient j)ractices. Drainage, though the first
and most essential of improvements, is almost
■wholly neglected ; tenants are not usually untler
any restrictions as to management, and the com-
mon practice is to take corn crops in uninterrupted
succession from the land till it be completely ex-
hausted. Manufactures, unimportant. Principal
towns, Caermarthen, Llanelly, and Kidwelly.
Carmarthenshire is divided into H hundreds, 72
whole parishes, and parts of 4 others ; and 6 re-
gistry districts and poor law unions. The co.
i;onstitutes an an^hde.iconry in the dio, of St,
David's, It returns 2 mcms. to the M. ofC. for
the CO., and 1 for the bor. of Caermarthen, Ifc-
gistered electors for the co., 4,337 in 1WG6. Gross
rental assessed to poor-rate 33ti,18r)/., and net
rateable value 28!),3(i3/. The gross annual value
of real jiroperty assessed to income tax amounted
to 35l,K0(i/. in l«o7, and to 374,721/. in 1H()4.
Cakrmauthen, the cap. of the above co., and
a pari, oiul municipal borough, situated on an
irregular acclivity on the NW, bank of the navi-
gable river Towy, 7 m. N. from its embouchure in
Caermarthen 15ay, Bristid Chainiel; IHO m. W. by
N. London bv road, and 24i)| m. by (ireat VV'estern
and South VValcs Kailw.-iy. Pop". 0,52(1 in 1841,
and !t,!»!>3 in lUtil. A few of the streets arc tole-
rably wide, well i)aved, lighted with gas, and
contain many respectable houses ; but the rest are
narrow and crooked, and those leading to the
river steep, and the pop, much crowded : the best
houses arc on the Rlilford line of road. The sujiply
of water is inadequate. There are two churches,
several dissenting chapels, and a grammar-school ;
a Presbyterian college for young men intended for
that ministry (of which the corporation nomi-
nate the master and (i scholars) ; a Lancastrian
.ind a n.itional school. The guildhall, a handsome
eililicc raised on iiillars. has under it the market-
place for corn. It has also a tlieatre, and bor, and
CAERNARVON
CO. gaols; the latter is on part of the site of die
old castle (of which some remains are still Icfi),
on the brow of the hill rising abru|)lly from the
river ; along which the quay extends. The rivir
is crossed by a line bridge of 7 arches. Markets,
Wednesday and Saturday; and cattle fairs, April
15, .lune 3 and 4, .hily 10, Aug. 12, Sept. !i,
t)ct. !», Xov. 14 and 15, 'There are np maniilnc-
tures of any importance in the town; but, as It
furinshes the po)>ulous district in the vicinity with
articles of general consumption, its trade is cdii-
siderable. Principal exports (all coastwise), burk,
marble, slate, lead ore, leather, corn, butter aiuj
<'ggs; imports, general cargoes of Hritish and cci-
lonial prodiu!e, and mamifactures, and timlsT niul
deals. At an average, 10 cargoes a year an:
imitorted from abroad, the vessels sailing outward
in Imllast. About 40 vessels belong to the port,
and vcss('ls of 50 to 150 tons are built here. It
is a creek, comprised in the i»ort of Llanelly.
Vessels of 200 tons may ascrend to the bridge iit
springtides; but many obstructions are sulVcrcil
to accumulate in the river, so that they are Irc-
(luently obliged to discharge 2 m. below. TIk:
salmini tisher}', which was once very extensive,
has much decreased. Haces are aimnally held in
Sept., 4 in. up the vale of the Towy. It is the cou-
tral town of a poor law union of Hi pars.; gniss
rental assesscMl to poor rate .58,405/.; net raleulili!
value 40,773/., in lHtJ2.
Caennarthen has retunicd 1 mem. to the II. nf
C. since the reign of Henry VIII. The liniils nt'
the present pari. bor. coincide with those of tiji'
ancient bor., but Llanelly is now Joined with it, as
a contributory bor. Previously to the Itclorin Act,
the elective fraiKdiisc in Caermarthen was exur-
cised by persons admitted de jiint burgesses, iiiidcr
qualilications of a freehcdd estate within the lior.,
e.r flratid, and servitude of apprenticeship fur 7
years. Kegistered electors in l)oth bors., ^^.'l5 in
'lWi5. Tlie election of a mem. for the co. tJikis
place here. The limits of the municiiial bnr. nrc
now restricted to the town and a small space ronnil
it. It is divided into 2 wards, and governed liy ii
mayor, (> aldermen, and 18 counsellors ; a slicriH'
ami rcconler. Ccuirts of petty sessions are held
weekly ; fortnight courts, for the recovery of debts.
and courts of general sessions twice a year, for the
bor. : the assizes and three of the general quarter
sessions of the co. are also held in the town.
Its ancient castle, in the last civil war, was ni
first garrisoned for Charles L, taken subseqiicnily
by the Parliamentary forces, and dismantlcil iiy
order of Cromwell, in 1048. Caemiartheii iniisi,
on the whole, be considered a nourishing and in-
creasing town. A column has been erected at its
W. end by i>ublic subscription in memory of tlic
public services of SirT. Picton, who fell at Waior-
loo, and h.ad previously represented this Ixir,
More recently, there has been another miiutniiPiK
erected to the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers. The latter
stands in Lammas-strcct.
CAliKX AllVt )N, a inarit. co. of N. Wales. sepa-
rated from Anglesea by the Menai Strait, extriidiii;;
from Conway, on the N., in a SW. <lirc(li"ii
along the shore to the extremity of the itcniiisiila
of Lleyn opposite IJardsey Island, having 10. i«irl
of Cardigan IJay, an<l the cos, of Merioneth and
Denbigh, Area, 348,100 acres; pop. 95,«ltl in
1801. This is the most mountainous co. in tlieprin-
cipality, being traversed in its whole extent by the
Snowd'on range ; it has, however, some liiiiiteil
tracts of comparatively low fertile land The
Conwaj', which has its sources in the co., and Inrms
for a considerable distance the line of dcniarcaiion
between it and Denbigh, is the principal river;
but there are several streams of inferior diuieiisiiuis,
CAEUNAKVON
mill Hnmo Htnnll liikon. Lmd niid coiij^r orcshnvo
Im'cii foiiiiil within Iho ('o„Hiii| Imvc liccn wnmnlit
tiiHiiiiii-cxrcnt. 'l'li<'sliii(>i|iiiirri(Mli('loii|^nii^loliiiril
I'cnrvliM, iitar llmipir, «'iii|iiiiy alxnil l,)>oi) riicii
iiiiii imyn, mill art' iiimiiifr I lie iiiu.sl cxIciiMivc nnd
valiiithit' ill the ('iii|iirc ; mid other siiitc i|iiarri<'M in
thiHCo.('ni|iliiyalti)p!th('ralMiut I.TddiiiciiandlMivH,
Soil of the ^crcatcr part nfthc araldc land ha/.cllv
liiiiiii. Afrrii'iiiliirc, Ihoii;;!) a pxid tlcal iiii|iri>vci1,
i.t Htill ill u ('(ini|iaraliv('ly liat'kward Ntalc; h'asi's
are citluT not ^raiiti'd, or they coMtaiii no |ii-oiH'r
rt'^nhitioiiN as to iiiaiiap'nifiit ; a proper rotation
(if crops is II >t f,'oncraiiy oliscrvcii ; the land is not
(rcncrally el >aii and in ^ood heart ; and llie iinph'-
iiH'iits are ^'(ill, in many inslaiiees, defective. Oats
!:< the pri.icipal corn-crop, ltree<| of cattle small
and Imrdy. 'I"he older class of farm Imildin^^sand
cotta^'es, es|M'ciaily tlie latter, are liail; liut they
have lieen in inanv parts replai'cil liy others of a
new and improved cliara<'ter. Mnnnl'a<'tnres nn-
irii|H)rtaiit. Principal towns, I'<anf;'or, Caernarvon,
niidConway. Caeriiarvon is divided into lohnnils.
and fin whole parishes, with parts of ,'> others ; and
•I registry distriiUs and poor-law nnioiis. It sends
1 mem. to the II. of ('. for the ( and I for tin;
town of I'nernarvon and ils contrilintory hors.
l!ef;istered electors 2,'27l in 1H(!'). The j;ross ren-
tiil assessed to |ioor-rate amonnted to \H{),i\.r>(, in
IM*'i2, and tlii>aiiiinal valneof real property assessed
til income tax, 2H;(,ti7.'j/. in IM.')?, and ;iiV.»,22 1/, in
(Iakunakvon, a Hca-|)ort nnd pari. bor. of N.
Wales, cap. of the nliove co.. on the SK, side of the
Jleiiai Strait, at the month of tlu' Seiout, 7 m.
SW. from the Menai ltrid{,'e, aii<l 2(15 m. NW.
I.iinilon by road, and 2'l(> m. by I^ondoii and North
Western railway. ]'op. 8,(l(»l in 1« 1 1 ; and H,r)l2 in
ISiil. This town, with its mti^nitlcent castle, was
liiiilt bv Kdwanl I., between 12«'* and 12Kl,asa
place ol streiif^iii to sev-nre his ii.'wly achieved con-
quest of Vv'ales. The walls, constructed by t he Con-
(jin^ror, round the town, arc still nearly entire. They
nre Hanked with round towers, .iiid had orif^inally
2 jirincipal f^ntcs, but others have been since added.
Within the Avails, the streets, though narrow, arc
regular; but of late years, new streets and build-
ings have been erected without the walls, and the
wliole town has been much improved : it is well
supplied Avith water, nnd lif^hted with yas. I'en-
iiniit says of it, that it 'is justly the boast of N.
Wales, for the beauty of its situation, the pioilncss
(if its bniUlinu;s, the regularity of the plan, and,
alidve nil, the grandeur of the castle, the most
magnilicent i<adgo of our subjection.' (Tour in
Wales, ii. "401, Kvo. cd.) The prr. church is i m.
from the tow.i ; but the latter has n liandsomc
ciiapcl of ease, and 4 dissenting chapels, and a
llritish and a national school. The town-hall is
over one of the ancient gatcAvays, and one of the
iild toAvers is littcd up as a iirison : there is also a
('!>. hall, a small theatre, and a modern mar-
kfit-liousc for jirovisioiiH, the (dd one being uoav
used for corn. Many o)>ulont families reside in
llie neighbourhood, and the toAvn is much resorted
til in the season by sea-bathers. There nre hot and
cold baths, assembly and billiard-rooms. Outside
tlic Avails is a line terracse Avalk along the Menai.
There arc no manufactures of any importance.
The harbour, Avhich lias of late been n good deal
improved, admits vessels of 4(10 tons, but the trade
of the jiort, Avhich is mostly Avith Liverpoid, Hris-
tol, and Dublin, is |)rincipally by small coasting
vessels and steamers. The jirincipal export is
slate, brought from the quarries by a raihvay. The
removal of the coast duties on slate occasioned a
KTeat increase of demand here and in other ports
whence it is exported.
CAl'FA
ftOO
Prpviously to the Kiforni Act, (^nemnrvon re-
turned 1 mill), to the 11. of (' iijointly Avitli
the contributory bors, of ConAvay.Criccicth, Ncviu,
and I'wlhcli, the right of voting being in the
resident and iion resident burgesses, 'I'o thcsi!
contributory bors. the l.'eforin Act adiled Uangor.
The limits of the ancient bor., «^ith which the pari,
bor incidcs, are about H m. in cin-. licuislcrcd
electors in all the bors, !l2t'i in ixtl."). <irn<s anniial
value of real properly a^iscssecl to incninc-tiix
firi,r».W, in IH.'iT; and C.'l.s;!!/, in iNi'iJ, The liniils
of the municipal bor, extend about 1.^ m, round
the town. The assizes and general c|uarlcr sc>.>iioim
for the CO, are held here. Market -dav. Saturday ;
fairs, March 12. Mav If.. Aug. 12. Sept, 2il,
Caernarvon Castle is one of the uobleit and
most magiiiliccnt ruins of its kind in the eiupirc.
The walls, which euidose an area of about :i ai'ics,
arc 7 ft, !» in, thick, have Avithiu them a gallery
with slips for the discharge of missiles, and are
tlaiiked by IK strong |ieulagoual. hexagonal, Ac.
towers, A narrow chainber in the l'".a;^le Tower
Avas the birthplace of I'.ihvard II., the first Saxon
prince of Wales, Near the steep bunk of llui
river Seiont,at a small distance from the casile. is
an ancient lioman fort, the walls of which are
still pretty entire. At a small distance from this,
and i\ 111," from the Menai, is the site of the ancient
Jioman statitm of Si'i/Diitiinii, Aviieuce, it is most
jirobalile. Kdward I, derived |iart of the materials
for building the castle and town of Caeruiirvi....
CAi:i!l'llll<I-Y, a town and chaiielry of S.
Wales, CO. (ilainorgaii, bund, Caerphilly, jiar.
Kghvvs-islan, between the Taaf and the Kumnev,
7 in, S', Carditr, Pop, of the jiar, 3,!t7:i in IWil.
The toAvii is an irregular collection of ancient and
inodern houses; but it has a }' . id ap])earance, and
being surrounded by mountain ranges that open
on the l"„ and W,, the sceuerv is grand and ]iic-
turesque. It has a neat chnrcii, and three dissenl-
iug places of Avorship. Market, Thursday, and
fairs for cattle, corn, and cheese, April o, Trinity
Thursday, duly 1!>, Aug. 2.j, Oct. it, and Nov, l(i.
IManufactnres of cheques, and linsey-AVoolsj'y shirt-
ing for miners, employ about KM) jiersons; the rest
nre engaged in the mines and quarries of the neigh-
bourhood or in agritMdturc, It Avas anciently a
bor,, but lost its privileges in the reign of Henry
Vlll. Its castle, whose maguiti(!ent ruins show
that it must liaA'c been one of the linest in the
kingdom, AA-as of Norman origin, and enlargeil at
successive periods, but chietly by the favourite
of K.dward II,, Hugh De Spencer, for wlnmi it
Avas Avrested from tlie Moriiniers, its ancient pos-
sessors,
C/KSAIJEA, a ruined nnd deserted const toAvn
of Palestine ; lat. iii° 23' 37" N,, long, 31° 44' 45"
1'^. Under tlie Romans it Avns the cap. of the dis-
trict in Avhicli it stands, nnd the residence of a
proconsul. An artilicial harbour, n castle, the
Avidls of the city, and tAvo aqueducts, are among
the most jierfect remains, but a great extent of
ground is coA'cred Avith the ruins of iiublic and
private buildings. It owed its existence, or im-
portance, to Herod the Creat, who named it Grm-
reii, in compliment to Augustus, it.c, 22. It ligures
in the early history of (Jhristianity as the place
where Peter conA-ertcd Cornelius and his house
(Acts X. 1.), and as the scene of Paul's memorable
speeches to I'elix and Agrip)ia (Acts xxiv., xxa'.,
and xxA-i.). Vesjiasian maile Cicsarea a Koman
c(dony, under the name of Flavia Coloiiia, and it
continued to flourish till a.d. (135, when it f(dl
into the hands of the Saracens. In 1101 it Avas
taken by the Crusaders, and in the Avars of this
jicriod it sank ncA'cr to rise again,
CAFFA. See Kama.
600
CAOLI
CAOLI (nil. Calllii), n town of ('ciHrnI Italy,
nn>v, Driiiiii) iiml I'c.tnro, nt tlic tixit nC Monnl
I'l'iraro, at the I'oiilliiciict' of ilii> Caiiliiiiio ami
JliisMo, I I in. S. rrhiiiii. I'ii|i, !>,'it'>(i in |Nt;i. It
liMM a callicdral, and I'mir convciilM tor inonkM and
four for iiiiiiH.
('AtiMAItl ^an. Cnlnriii), a inaril. city of Sar-
dinia, of widt'ii It if* till' rap., on a liay of'ilic Haiiic
name on llu> S. Nliontof tlic ixland, lal. 'MP I'.'' 1:1"
N., loiiK. !)0 d' 1 1" K. I'i.|). ;t(»,!Ul(l in m>H. 'I'lio
city, in llm middle a;;cH, appourit to have lieeii re-
■Iricted to a trian);'ular H]i.'ifc, on (ho, Hiiminit of a
hill aliont 401) ft. above I lie lieach, now called the
'CaNile,' which \h walled round, and han a citadid
on iiM N. nidc'. To this wen? NiicceHnively addeil
the Marina, a jxirtioii extending down the W.
face of the hill I'roni the ciiNtle to the Hca, which
In Niirroundc'd liy a Hlij^ht wall, Ihinked hy nouk!
IxislioiiN, and farther defended liy a wide hut nIuiI-
low ditch; the (|uarter of Slainpace, to the W. of
tlie castle; and that of Villanova, to llie K. The
modern city connistH of these- four portions: there
in he.sidcH a Hiihiirl), iiearlv a mile in leiifrth, called
St. AvandroH, ('nfj;liari lias an imposing appear-
nnc(! from the wa. The Marina is tolerably well
liuilt, hut Villanova quite otherwise ; and the
i*t reels j;encrally are narrow, irre;ciilar, dirty, steep,
and paved with round pointed sloniw. There are,
however, some exceUent and even s|)lendid public
buildings, and many spacious private houses. The
cnstle is the part in which the nobility and state
odicers reside. It contains the vicere^jal palace, a
line edilice: the cathedral, built by the I'isans,
with ft front in preat part of marble; a handsome
mansfdcnin of Martin, kin^' of .Sicily; a celebrated
cryptic sanctuary ; the citadel, and three larjje
Hipiare towers, pxid specimons of I'isan art; tlie
iiniverHity, with its four faculties of theoloj^y, law,
medicine, and philosophy, and between 200 ancl
HOO students ; and other public seminaries. The
Marina is inhabited chietly by nienihanfs, and by
the foreifjn consuls; it contains a n<"'<l bonded
warehouse, an arsenal, lazaretto, and mole. In
Stampace are the corn-market ami storehouses.
Caffliari contains, besides about thirty churches,
twenty-one convents, to one of which, bclonj^in;;
to the .Fesuits, there is a very handsome and richly
ornamented church attached; two hospitals, a fe-
male orphan asylum, a pidilic; library, with lOjOOO
V(tlnincs, innsenms of antiquities and natural his-
tory, ft coUcfje of nobles, a sciiiinnrio, a small the-
atre, and mint. At the S. an^lc of the Marina
wall there is a very commodious ilaracno., or pier-
hiirbour, capable of containin|j; fourteen or sixteen
vessels of a tolerable size, besides small craft.
The jiort is one of the best and safest in the I\[e-
(literranean. Ships usually lie about a mile S\V.
by S. from the mole, in six or cijjht fathoms
water, on an excellent bottom of mud. The (Julf
of Catfliari, which extends from I'ula on the W. to
("a]ie C'arbonara on \\w. IC, 'lA m. across by 12 ni.
ilecp, has^ood anchoraj^e everywhere, after f,'cttinfj:
into soundings. The city being placed on a hill,
is healthy, notwithstanding; the immediate prox-
imity on its VV. side of the .stagnant lajL^une of
(.'aKliari, <i or 7 m. loiifj; by IJ or 4 in. broad. This
lake abounds with lish and aquatic birds. To the
E. of the city there an; some good salt-works.
Cngliari possesses a royal niaiuifa(;t<iry of tobacco,
and has manufac'^ories of cotton fabrics, cake saf-
I'ron, soap, chairs and other furniture. Its trade
is chietly in c( m, legumes, salt, oil, and wine.
From the pori.,in of commerce it cnjo3's, (Jagliari
lias, on the wh(dc, a busy appearance, Provisions
of all kinds are chea|i an<l plentiful, except water.
The castle is sup))li('d from cisterns ar.d extremely
dcoji wells. Extensive remains exist of a line
CAIIOHS
nticient aqueduct, which might bo restored nl a
comparatively small expense. There are Ncvcral
other Itonian an(i(piiticH, iiichiding u liiml) i„
tolerably good preservation, and an aniphithcairc
excavated in I he rock near the city walls, Vi.,.
ligcsof the ancient (ireekcity may Ix; slill trai'iil
beyoiul Stampace, A good carriage road of rcri'iit
conslruclioii connects ('agliari with Sassari,
Cagliari is the scat of a royal nudiennu, or lieiul
tribunal, ami of the vorle*, or states-general of tin'
island, of a Iribunal of coinmirce, an inlendaiii-
general, a general-commandant, and an archlil.s|iii|i
with the title of primate of Sardinia,
This cily is verv anci(Mit, its foiindalion hcin);
carried back to the fabulous ages. It was ili(>
residence of the king of Sardinia, from ITIIN i„
1K| I, during the occupation of his contiueiital ijn-
niinion by the French, The latter bonihardeil it
unsuccessfully in 1 T'.t.'J,
t'AIIICI!, an inland town of Ireland, co. Tip-
jHirary, iirov. Miinsier, on the Suir, '.Mi ni, S\V. liy
S, iMiblin, on the railway from Limerick to Wii-
lerford. Top. 2,ll2(i in IHtil, against :i,l(m in |n:||,
and ,'I,2HM in IM2I. The whole of the inhabitants
are Itonian Catholics, with the exception, in |f<i;i,
of iOH members of the Established I'luirch. Tin'
town is well built. There is a market-house, liridc-
well, fever lios|iital, dispensary, schools on llic
foundation of Krasnins Smith, ami large caviilry
barracks. The stalf of the Tipperary militia, ami ii
party of the constabulary', are stationed here. Tin'
Earl of (ilengaH's mansion is in the town. Iiuccs
take ]dace annuallv in the neighbourhood, \
manorial court is held every six weeks; |ietly sc-
sioiis weekly. The linen and straw-plat inamirac-
tnres are carried on upon a small scale; nnuli is
done in the corn trade. Markets are held on Tri-
(lavs; fairs on Htli Eebrnary, 12tli April, 2(itli ami
27th May, 2()th July, l«tli and I'Jth Seplenilur,
20th Octiiber, and 7tli December.
CAHOKS, a town of France, dc'p. Lot, of wliidi
it is the cap., on the Lot, <i0 in. N. Toulinbc,
on a branch of the railway from Paris to A;,'i'ii,
I'oj). Ji;i,Hl4 ill IKtil. The town stands on iin
eminence, almost surrounded by the Lot, and is
for the most (lart ill built, with narrow, cmokcil
streets. It was formerly defended on the laixl AAv
hy towers and ramparts, that stretched across ilic
isthmus ; but of these only the ruins now reniaiii.
It is traversed by the groat roatl from I'liris in
Toulouse, and has three bridges over the river,
one of which, built in ihc twelfth century', is sur-
mounted by three enormous towers. Tlie catla'-
dral has been supposed to be partly of lidiiiaii
construction ; but it is pretty curtain thai tlic
most ancient part of the building is not olilcr
than the sixth century. With the exceplitm dl'
the hotel of the prefecture, the ancient c|)isci)|)al
palace, few of the other public buildings deserve
notice. It is the seat of a l)islio|)ri :, and has tri-
bunals of jirimary jurisdictii.ii and of coinuieree.
Cahors bad a university, founded in i;fil2: llio
famous jurist Cnjas was, for a while, one of its
professors, and i''enelon was of the iiumbor of lis
pn])ils. The university was united to that nl'
Toulouse in \~tt\. At present it has an ucdf/nHw
uHiversitiiirv; a royal college, or high school, with
about 250 piqiils : a diocesan seminary, with IJil
pupils; a primary normal school; a public library,
with 12,000 volumes: a theatre ; and a society »!'
agriculture. The manufactures, which are. nut
very considerable, consist principally of some de-
scriptions of wocdlen goods and )mper, Tliere is
contiguous to the town a departmental nursery.
The excellent rc<l wine called the viti <le s/riiee is
raised in its territory ; and it has a good deal el
trade iu that and other wines, and in oil, heiup.
OAIPHA
lliix, niKl iiiitrt, largely urowii in tlui nri((liliour-
lllHlll,
CiiliorK u Niin|ii)Ncil to lu' tlio nnciciit Dlnma,
»lu' caitilnl 1(1 tlu! Ciiiliirii, 'I'lm Ii'imiiuiim ciiiIm'!-
lislicd it with novituI i\\w iMliliccM, of wniic nf
wliii'h tlicrt! Niill ri'iiiiiiii a Ccw vcsti^trs, Tlu-
liriiK^ipiil of tlicMd iiri' ii portico, HiiiiiHirteil to have
niailr a part ot'tlut pultlio hallis; with (lif riiiiiH of
a larKo llHUitru or (•inns ami of an ai(iic<|iict lor
I'liiivt'yiiig water into the (own. Tiien^ have alno
licen iliif{ up frii^iienis of cohininM, inonaii'M, and
ninnerouH iniMlalr* of 'rilxTliis and ( Ijaiidinx. In
more inodern times it Iuim inidergone nuiiiy viein-
(iiludes. In ir)M(» it waM lienief^ed hy lleliry IV.,
anil Ix^ing taken, after an ohslinate re.-tiHiani'e, it
was, despite Henry's elVurts to the contrary, jjiven
til) to military execution, Cuhors is tii'e hirtli-
piace of three tainous men, wi.'ely dilVcrent in
tlieir spheres of life,— of I'ope .loini \.\ll., of the
poet C/lement Alarot, anil of Napolei.. 's itashing
p'ueral Murat, king i>ro tern, of Naples,
C/All'HA, or KAIFA, a small marit. town of
ralesline, at the, foot of Mount C'armel, on the \V.
side of the Hav of Acre. Tluf harhonr is one of
llie hesi along tiie coast (see A(j|{K), and the ancient
river Kishon tlows past the town. It has a furircss
with a garrison; hut the most important and in-
teresting bnililing in the place is u liospice main-
tained hy the monks of Mount Carmel, wiiere
Hiraugers of nil nations and religions are ludgi'd
and entertaiiH'd. Tlu' Kishon is referred to in the
Hiingof Deborah and Itarak (Judges v. 21,). It is
finniius also as the place wluTe Klijah slew the
Ijfophets of liaal (I Kings xviii. -10.)
CAIKO.or KAIlIkA (El Clinliir,li,Arnh., ' the
A'ictDrious,' called liy the iidiahitants Miisr), tlu!
niiideru cap. of I'-gypt, and the second itity of the
Alohammedan world; chief resilience of the I'aclia,
nuil seat of his go/crinnent, near the right or K.
bank of the Nile, about 12 m. above tlu? aiiex of
its delta, 1 12 m. SIC. Alexandria, !)7 m. SSVV'. I)a-
inietta, and 7.') m. VV. Sue/, ; on the railway from
Alexandria to Suez. I'op., including the port of
IlDiilau and Old (Jairo, about 2-10,0(11) ; of whom
about l!)0,000 are ICgyptian Moslems, 1 0,000 (N.pts,
froMi U,000 to 1,000 Jews, and the rest strangers
from various comitrics. Shape oblong, being nearly
.'t in. in length, by l^ to 2 m. in breadth, on sloping
Uround, midway between the Nile and the K.
niiiuntain range of Mokattem, and occu|)ying an
area of about '.i sq. ni. The distance of its N. ex-
tremity from the Nile at Itoulac is u|)wards of a
mile; but from its S. extremity to the bank of the
river where (Jld Cairo stands, is somewhat less
tliaii }j m. 'I'lic intervening tract is laid out in
pinlens or otherwise cultivated, and watiiriKl by a
canal. Viewed from a distance, Cairo has a mag-
iiiliccnt and interesting a]>|iearance ; but, like most
other K. cities, its interior ba.s a very dilferent
aspect from its exterior. It has, however, though
still susceptible of much improvement, been, wit bin
these few years, quite changed from the wretched
place so often depicted by travellers. l'"ilth, of
every descriptiim, putrid ditches, drains never
clwncd, unbtiried carrion, fragments of vegetable
matter, all in various states of decomposition;
want of free circulation of air, clouds of iliist, aiid
multitudes of deformed beings, are amongst the
nuisances .oiiiicrly complained of; but, according
to more recent observers, the rigid |)olicc estali-
lislied hy the viceroys of Mgypt has already ellected
so ilosirabic a. change, that, for cleanliness, as well
a.H order, quiet, and the absence of crime, Cairo
may iu(w rank with the best governed capitals of
liiiriipo.
('airo contains 2-10 principal streets, 46 public
places (squares), 11 bazaars, liO schools for the
CAIKO
flOl
inslrni'lion of children. :ii)0 public cisterns, l.liiti
eolVee-honses, ii.'t public baths, lOO mosques, and
several considerable hosiiltals. The whole city Is
enclosed by a stone wail, Icrminatcd on the SI',.
by a detached and scarped rock rising more than
200 ft, above the level of the Nile, on which stands
the citadel. 'I'his lortress, with the city walls, was
built or restored by Saladin, about IITil. The
walls havi* battlements, and lofty towers at about
loo yards apart. They are, however, of little
strength, and have been siilVercd, in many parts,
to fall to decay. There are four gales, praised lor
their grandeur and magniliccnce. The «i reels are
partly iinpaved, and mostly cruoked, narrow, and
irregular. Though deprived of a great deal of
light, lliey are rendered cool, by the upper stories
of the bouses projecting over them, so as not nnl're-
i(Uently to meet each other. The .lewish quarter
is. as in all other cities, the liltbic-il ; the Copts,
Franks, and other nations, generally speaking, in-
habit distinct (piarters, though there is no restric-
tion in this respect, llu' whole city being tree to
all. Ill the Frank (piarier, where also many of the
Armenian and Syrian (,'hristians reside, the streets
are rather wider than elsewbere. The houses are
solidly constructed and lolly, being mostly Iwi
stories high, and freipiently more; their li'Wer
parts are built or eased with the soft calcareous
stoiKt of the Mokattem mountains, the layers of
which in front are often painted alternately red
and whitit; their upper parts are cominoniy of
brick; their roofs, which are llal. starve for many
llom(^stic pnr|ioses, and are the resort of the family
in the cool of the evening. Mo>t coiisideralile
houses enclose an o|)en nnpaved court , into which
tlu? doors and the windows of the principal apart-
ments open. The windows of tlu? iipiicrapiirtincnls
generally project I J ft. or more, and are coinniouly
formed of wooden lattii-e-work elo.ii? enough to
shut out much of the light and sun, and to screen
the inmates from observation, while they aibnit
the air; occasionally glass windows, which some ■
times are linely stained, are made use of. The
front doors of the larger houses are banilMimely
carved, painted, decorated with Arabic inscriptions,
and furnished with iron knockers and wooden
locks. The conrl-yard and ground floors com-
monly (Mintain wells, fonntaiiis, pools, stables, and
other domestic ollices, and a hall sometimes very
handsomely fitted iqi, in which the master of the
house receives his visitors; the upper apartments
are those of the woiikmi and children. Lodging-
houses or caravanseras, called wi'knlilis, and de-
signed for the reception of merchants and their
goods, are somewhat dilVcrent ly laid out ; and such
persons as have neither a wife nor a female slave
are usually obliged to take up their abode in one
of these buildings. There are several open spaces
or squares : KsbehUth, the ))riiici|>al, is surroundeil
by many of the tincst palaces and other slrnctiires
in Cairo; its centre is laid out as a garden, and is,
like some of tbi? other sipiares, annually overtloweil
by the inundation of the Nile. Tlu? waters of that
river are conducted into the city by a canal, be-
lieved to be '.lie Amnis 7'iajiiniis\rv\l\^0^ ilOT-
A.MO:i) of I'u.lemy's (leog. (lib. iv. c. i>), and which,
commencing at Old (Jairo, runs through the wholi?
length of the modern town, tilling a number of
))nblic and |irivate basins, and irrigating numerous
gardens planted along its banks. The citadel is,
ill many respects, one of the most interesting mo-
numents in Cairo. It is believed to stand upon
the spot once occupied by the Acropolis of ilie.
I'^gyptian IJabyhm, erected byCambyses upon the
site of the still more an(?ieiit Latoijolis, a city almost
as old as Memphis. This miicli seems c(?rtaiii, that
a similar structure existed here i)reviously to the
•>i Hl':iil'
002
CAIKO
liriic i>r Siiliiilin, tn wliom ihn rrKlornlinn, rnllicr
lllllll III)' t'liiinlrili'liiiii, iif I||(> I'illlilrl xlinulil lit'
iixrrilH'il. 'I'lii- riH'ky hill mi wliicli if in Imiil Im
xi'iuiriitnl liv II rliiiHiii iiliiiiit loo yiirilN wiilc iVoin
tilt' Mnkuiti'in lillN, lit wiilU an- iiiiiMijvr, rcti
on n fiiiiiiilnijiiii i)rHriir)i<'il nick, ninl liiivi' I ii |iul
iiilii II r<'H|ii'i'tiilili- hIiiIi' III' ri'|iiiir; Init, Ikmii^ coiii-
iiiiiMih'il liytlii' Miikiillciii liill, nil w' It'll u I'lirt Iiiih
lit't'ii |ilii('i'il, Mini lii'inu; iiiii'ii lllllll (III ||ii> I'l, mill
VV, III llii' lire iirnriiili'rv, II I'miltt mil Imiil mit I'ur
iiiiv li'MKlli III' lllllll ii^'iiIiinI a l'!iirti|i<'iiii I'lirri'.
WilliJii itH pri't'iiit'l iii-i> till' |iiiliirc iiiiil liiiri'iii III'
I lie |iurliii, I III' mini, till' I'liiiiK'il rliiiinlMT or ili villi,
II iiiii)<i|iii' liiiili liv Mi'lii'iiH't Ali, 11 iiiilitiirv iirti'iial,
mill Vlll'iiillrt ntliiT |illlilii' iilHi'crt mill WiiriiS ni' lilt'
Miiiiicliiki' niiiiiiiri'liM, Tlif ihu'Iiii'h |iiiIiii'(> iiihI
Imri'iii lire |ilnin Hliilc-wiixlii'tl liiiilillii;{H, iircsi'iit-
in^ iiiitliiii^ rc'iiitirkiilili', mihI iIii' new iiiiiti|iii' Iiiin
t<iinii> liiiN-ri'lii'I'M ill iiiiirlilt' iiii|iiirl('il rrntii (icntui.
Till' iirHciiiil ciHitaiiiM rniniilrit'H t'nr liriiNH mul irmi
<'Miiiiiin, niiiniiriit'ttirii'M of Hiiiiill-ariiis, ami work-
hli(i|iH I'nr llii' »ii|i|il_v (if all utirlH ot' iiiiliiary ('(|iiiii-
iiii'iilK. 'I'likt'ii allii^ii'tlicr, il i.s I lit' lincsl CNlaii-
li.Hlinii'iit ill l'".Ky|il. Itiil iIki f,'rt'iili'Hl cnritiNlly in
tliii I'ilaili'l it .l(if<i'| ill's W'i'il, ,sii|iiiiiHi'i! Ill Imvc lii'i'ii
liii^ liy Salailin. ll is la It. in cirt', at its inoiitli,
licili;; ml lliriiiif;li miI'I cali'iiri'iiiis strata In the
ilcjitli 111' '.^rii ft., or to the Ii'Vi'l of tlic Nile, frniii
U'liit'li its water is iiiost prtilialilv ilcrivcil. A winil-
iiiK stairi'nsc ciinilnctH to its linttoin, l'"rtini llui
raiiiparls of llic cilaiicl is (lis|iliiyi'(l n iiolilc |iaiio-
riirim. 'I'o tlii' I'l. ari' seen tlic olii'lisk of lli'liti|iolis
ami tlic toinlis of tlui Maini'liikcs, litirkcil liy an
ariil desert; lo tlie S., the lofty qiiarries of Mount
IMokalteui, with ruined enstles, iiioiilderiii^ domes,
mid the remains of oilier edillees, aliove, lielow,
iind siretehiiif; lieiieatli the liei^hts far into the
jilain: SNV. and W. are tlii! ^irand aiinednct,
iiiosi|iios, and minarets, tlii^ Nile, the ruins of Old
Cairn, and the island and (troves of itlioda; lieyniid
the river, on the ISVV.. the town of (ilii/eli, amidst
jjroves of syeatnore, llj,'. and |ialni trees; still more
reimite, the pyramids of (ilii/.eh ami Snccara; and
beyond these the f;reat l^ihymi desert, N\V. and
N., may lie disenvered the ureen iilains of the delta,
HprinUled with white edillees; and N. to NI';., at
tlie feel of the speelator, is the city of Cairo, siir-
I'oimded in the latter direction by heaps of sand,
in lull, tliis fortress was the scene of the niassacro
of the Mamelukes, by order of Melieniet Ali. In
]M2I, '1,000 individuals, and a j,'real portion of tlie
«'itadel, were destroyed by the explosion of a
powder inaf^azinc.
Much yet remains in Cairo to evince the success
with wliieli the dynasties of IMiissuhnan princes,
who f^ovcnied Kf,'y|)t previously to the Ottomans,
strove to beautify thiseitj'; and we mij^lit look in
vain Ihroiij^hout tlie modern Jsaraceuic world for
any works at all npproacliiiif; in excellence the
inelro|iolitan mnsqiie of Kl-A/.har, with those of
Snllaii Hassan, the Mnristan, Hassan Ain, VA
<!hnree. and Zittezenab, the j^ate called l!ab-el-
iS'asr (duttt of Victory), and one or two of the
other gates; the acincduct on the road to Old
Cairo, and the tombs of the Mamelukes. The
])rincii)al mosque — that of El-Azhar, or Lazarus —
IS in the middle of the rtlo.st jiopuloiis quarter.
That of Sultan Hassan, said to be a work of the
l.'Jth century, is the larj^est mosque; its dome is
considered the finest in Cairo, and beneath it, in
its ir.terior, is the handsome tomb of the sultan
•whose name it bears. The body of the mosque is
closed by a bronze door beautifully inlaiil with
silver, and is siirroumled by a large 0])en square
court, with shrines under line bidd arches. This
mosque is also remarkable for the height of its
two minarets, the variety of mafblcs used in its
coiiHlriu'liiin, ilH nrnlK'nqiie nnirtitientu, iniwaii'..,
and inscriptioiiN, The iiinNipic nf Tiigliniiin is ili,.
iminl ancieiii of all, Imviiig been cri'ili'd iilmiii
NH7, by (he siilliin Acliiiied Kbii Tiigliniiiii, ilir
founder of it new ilyimHly In i'igypt, iieiiriy u
century before the city of Cairo was Imili,' ||
coiisisiK of a \t\M o|Mii court Hiirriiiimleil by it
colniiiiade of marlile and granite pillars, xnppiiri
ing a diiiilile row of artlies of I he liilesl Sariiniiif
style, and beiiring a greiii ri'ti'inblanee in iIh'
I'alio lie Ion NMriiiijns adjniiiing the riiosqni' at
Cordova. It coiiliiins rich iiiid tleliriile iiir\iii^',
but is now iniit'h neglet'li'd. The miiii|iii> i,|'
lliissmi Ain, nil the cmiirary, is greatly llii-niigfil,
being cniiMidtrid by far llie niost hnly in l'.gy)il,
and siirpiissed in smictilv by few in the iMnliiiin.
medan slates. Iliitsiile t)ie walls nl' the cit\,aiiil
between them and the Mnkatleiii hill, arc tin'
celi'bniti'tl lniiili:< nf the Mmiielllke snvereigii^
sniiii' of which are line bold spei'lmciiN nf iln'
i\rabi<' style nf iii'ihileitiire nf the Uttli and I lili
centuries: they are chiflly nf white miirlili'. iiii.l
aliiiiind with tine araliesipie nrnmiieiits ami ciir\ iii^.
There art' several niher eenieti^rleH in dilhrini
parts of the envimns.
Old Cairn, which is believed lo have snccccdiil
lo the town and forlre-<s of the I'.gypliiin llidiylnii,
is cliiclly occupied byCopIs: it cniitailis twelvi'
Clirlsiiaii churches, sniiie of Iheiii hirge tiii(|
siimplnniis biiililings; the ancient granaries, lienr
ing the inline of .loscph; a gmtto ciisilc, and ii
iniichine fur raising the water of the Nile inin
the ancient aqueduct. This, which is excliisivclv
a|iprnpriuted to the supply nf the eitmlel wiili
water, is raised nii arches, and prnceeils fmni Olil
Cairn bv a winding cniirte, and a h'liglh nf alunii
2 m. Ijoulac, the ]iort of Cairo, cotilaiiis ilic
)irinci|iiil inmiiifiiclures, ami is thi! seal of nmst
of the Iraile. Along llie banks of the Nile, iie-
tweeu lloulae and Old Cairo, embnsdnicd in
groves of orange, sycamore, and acacia, .'ire ;i
iinmher of handsome ]ialaces, the most cmi-
spicnoKs of which is that belonging In Ibrjihim
I'.'isha. 'I'liis palace is built in the Tiirki>li
style, and eniitains some handsnme aparlnifiih,
gamly furniture, ;iii<l ti large cnllectiniinl I'.gypti.iii
antiipiilies. Its extensive gardens and |ilaiii.'i-
tions oceiqiy the jihiin behM'eii it and C.'iiru;
towards the Nile the grounds are laid out in
terraces ornamented with statuary, which giw
them (piite a I'lnrnpcan api>ear,'incc. In the Nilr,
immediately opposite (,'uiro, are the two cmisiilt r-
able islands of Hoiilac and Itlioila; the latlcr.
Avhich is nearly 2 m. in length, is almost ciiiiicly
the prnperty nf Ibrahim I'asha, ami is laid mil iis
lileasiire-groinuls open to the )iublie. Its S. ex-
tremity, however, between Olil Cairo on one Imnk
and (iliizeh on the other, is ocenpieil by powder
mnga/.ines and mills. Here also is the celeliriilcil
Nilometer, a gradiiateil pillar in a large sqiiiirc
well, having a subierianean comnimiicatimi willi
the river. From a court leading to this stnnlinc
a tlight of steps descends to the water, callcil llii'
Steps of Moses, from n tradition of that being Ilic
spot where the deliverer of the Jews was ftuiini
amongst the biilrnshes.
Most of the higher class of Turks, and imli-
vidiials holding chief public em])loymeiits, liiivi'
their residences in Cairo, where tliey live iniinuli
siileiiddiir. These are iirincipally in thi! tn\\\\\xv nl'
El I'.shvkiiih; il was in the garden of one of tlicst'
that the l<"rench general Kleber was assassinatcil.
.Some of the public baths are very spacious. ;iiul
greatly ornamented ; and several public fmiiilaiih
are worthy of notice. There are about twenty
stone bridges over the canals of the city .iml
plain, but none worthy of special notice. Tlic
CAIKo
ruffi'o-lioiMM HT« Ri'iiiru'ly vi-ry |>li»ln, nnil tho
»liii|M lint incri'ty Miimll rcci'iMCM ciiinilili' nl' linM
iiit( two or tliri'i' |M'rwitii4, |'!iti'li <u'|inral<' \nuar
In iiHiiJiily ili>viili'(| III )'iii< kiiiil III' corniniKlily.
Wilhin till" city Iho lute vlnmy, Mi'lumi't Ali,
t'NlaliliNlii'il ikii l'^t(<lHl^<' I'oMiin t'tirtiiry ; a ^iiii
liii-liiry, I'lirnlMliiti^ iiiiniiiilly jo.dtiii iiiii-<lx<'i'« ; n
iiiitniilm-lnry nf xmlilh's, liriilli">, l<iin|isiii'kM, Ih'Ih,
niiil t'vcry nllicr li'iitlii'r i'i|iii|inii'iit rciiuiriMl I'nr
llin iiriiiy ; « coiiiicr mill, ami iniirlmirry fur
liiiriMK Kiin-linrri'lN, liotti ilrivi ii liy MltMin ; a
liapcriiiill mill ullirr fai'turii'!', wliirli have cuii-
lilllM''l to rioliri.oll llllilcr till' |iatroiui^;r ol' IiIh <>iii'-
1 iMS(ir-<, 'I'licrc arc alNo larp' ^iiMpowiIrr ami null
l'< Int ract'irii's in ilir lu'l^'lilioiirliooil, .iihI a lar;^^'
tun yard on llic rnail to UhI I'airo. 'riictc i'ttnU
lisluiiciilN Nii|i|ily tlid cliiililti^ ami nn'niiiri'nK'MN
rrt|uiri'il for llu' army ami navy of K^yi'l an wi'll a^
most arlicli'xiMiMiniinoniiMfilirunKlionl iln iintry,
Cairo has always Ii(>i>m, aud still Is, ili(< scut of
(lie lu'st wliMols lor Araliii- liicratiin' aiiil Moliani-
laiilan Ihcolu^ry, 'I'lic inosi|ii(> of \',\ A/.linr lias
Httat'lii'd toil a lilirary ami collc;^'!', where leclliri's
till llie Koran, law, <>tliii's, niatlieiiialii's, iiii'l
iiii'iliciiut are ilclivcreil In HimlentN, 'I'liere are :i
|iriinary Heliools in Cairo, vliieli afl'onl eiliication
to )iOO liiiys, who are also elotlii'il ami leil. At
llinilac there is a seliool of engineers, willi IHII
|iii|iiU, At Ahoosaliiil, within a mile of the city.
Is a preparatory srhool, with l,i"i(M) pupils; a schuol
of ini'ilieine, with 21)0 stmlenls; a veterinary
Hi'liool at iShoolira ; a seliool for aceoiinlants; mnl
M'liools for the artillery ami cavalry serviee at
(ilii/.eli, ami elsewhere in the vii'inity, 'I'lie prejii-
ilii'e apiiiist these; schools was at llrst so siroii^
that the ^overninent was olili^eil to resort In coiii-
piil.ston to ohtain scholars, anil lo^ive I hem re^ciilar
iiay. The latter is still contimiofi ; Imt comptilsion
IS no loii^jer iieci'ssary to olitaiii pupils. Ite^i-
iiii'iital Hcliools are also estahlislieil, anil jiriniary
srliools are attaehcil to the greater iiiimlier of the
niii'iinieN. 'I'hrre is a printiii^r ])ress at Itoiilac,
frmn which a weekly paper in Arahic issues ; ami
at which niiiiiy popular works in history ami
Kiience arc |priiiteil for the iis(i of slmleiits, 'I'lie
jiriiicipal cliaritalile instil iitiuns in ami near Cairo
arc — a mililary hos])ital, in the siiuarc of V.\
Ksliekiah, capahle of accoinmoilatin^ I,IHH) pu-
tii'iils; anolher lar^e mililary hospital, ahoiii a
(|iiarter of a lea^^iie from the (Mty, composed of
liiiir raiij^es of Imililin^s, enclosing; a sipiarc, and
containing III Hpaeioiis apartments, with Id licih
each; niiiseiims of physic and nalnral history: u
clieiiiical lahoratory, and all necessary ollices. In
lliecily is a hospital for the ICf^'yplian navy, with
two jjeneral hospitals; ami a iyin^?-in hospital,
miller the direction of a Freiicli fciiuili! practitioner,
with a iininliur of pupils.
Most European nations Imvc vice-consuls resi-
dent at Cairo; it is the seat of the patriarch of tlip
Ceplic church : there, arc liolli Konian Catholic
anil (irei^k convents, presided over liy dijjniliirics
nillcd patriarchs; ami Iwo Kiif^lish missionaries
lire estahlislieil in the city. Tliere arc, however,
winiparatively few Maropeaii inlialiitants in Cairo,
iiuil they arc for the most part i)oor and without
iiilluenci!. The city is nsnally garrisoned by
two refcimcnts of 1,001) men each, one stationed
within the cituilel, and the other encamped outside
the walls.
The neif^libourhood of Cairo ahonnds with places
(tnil objects ]M)ssessinjf great inlerest. 'I'lio |>yra-
miils, and tlie remains of the city of lleliopoliw,
till'. On of the Scriptures, are treated of iinihT the
•irtides (•ni/Kii and Ixivrr. About 2 m. N. from
Ihc city, the country palace of Shoobra. beloiij^iiiic
tu the iiaeha, is pleasantly situated on the bank of
CAJAZ/c) flna
llic rivw, mill ronnciieil with Cairo, for ilio whnlc
dlsliince, by a line aveiiiu' of acacias iiiid syca-
mores, A few III, III llie M'',, of Shoobra is the
Hieiie of the victory obtaiiieil by Klebcr over
Voiiicf I'acha, in Imii'o.
Cairo is suppoHeil to have been fniiiided by
ilanhar, an Arali ({ciieral iimlir the llrst Kaiiniile
caliph, in 1)70. The caliph Mm/, al'lerwards inailc
it III! capital of his iliiiniiiiuiis, wbicb ili^ilnciiiin
il rcl^ioied till the overllimw of the Maineliike
siiV('reiL,'iity bv llic Turks, in l.'ilT. It wii-i the
resiih nil' of ifie pacha of ilie Turkish prii\ ime of
i'-Kypi nil I7',)H, whiii it will taken by ihc l'"reiiili,
who ri'taincd it until its capliirc by the llnulish
amlTiirks in IHO|, Not lom,' afier the re iiiHiaie-
iiieiii of ilie Turkish rule ill I'km'*. Mehcmet Ali
bci'Mine viceroy ; and nnder liiiii Cairo luice more
becnine the cajiital of a viriiially indcpemlcnt and
c\lensi\c empire,
CA1TIIM'',SS, a marit, co. of Scipllaiid. occu|iy-
iiiK' ilf* Ml. I'Xlremily, haviiij; \V, Siiiberlaml, and
NM. and S. the ocean, |)iiMni't Head, on Ihc N,
shore of this co.. lal, M' liiy N,. loiii,'. Il*^ •.'•-'■ W..
is the iiiosi iiiirlherly point In li. Itritain: area
"I"-' .-unare miles, or l.'i.'i.ToM acns, of which .•ibnvc
iio.oiM) are ciiltivaled, tl,l()0 waste, and the re-
mainiler moimtanis, moors and niossis. The
mountains lie principally nhii\^ the coiilincs of
Snllierland, teniiinalin;,' to the S, In llie .'■lii-
pcndiitis precipice called the ' )rd of Ciiiihncss, Itnl.
with this exceplion, the rest of the ciniiilrv is
mostly iindnlaiin^' or Hal, consisting principally nf
vitsl tracts of mossy imiurs, coveri'd wiili low
stunted heath, and desliliile of wmiil. Principal
rivers, Thurso, Wick, and Dimbcath, Owini;iii
its beiii|< nearly snri'oundi'd by the sea. the winleis
are less severe than mi^lil liave been i'.\pirleil,
but the Ninnmers are in general cold ami wd,
j'roperly in a few hands, and mostly entailed.
Kariiis ofien small; and the practice of umlir-
tetliiil^ and of stipulating for payment of a portimi
of the rent in services of various kinds iimiI to be
very prevalent. These practices are now, lioweviT,
on the dcclint'; and notwillistaniiiiig its iiinoU;
sitnalion, this co. has astonishingly improved
within the ))resent cenlnrv, by the opening of new
roads, consolidating small farms, taking in waste
land, improving the breeds of callle and sheep. A
great ninnber of superior farm-hoiiscs and ollices
have been constructed of late years ; but,geiiirally
speaking, the lulls of llie peasanlry arc still poor
and miserable. ()a(s, bear or bigg, and poiatoes,
are the principal crops, Wick and Thurso, its only
towns, arc, at present, the principal scats of the
ISritish herring lishery. I.imeslone is abiiinlaiil,
and is bnrned with turf. The inhab. of Caithin'ss
are of Scandinavian or (iothic origin ; and. except
along the border of Sutherland, Gaelic or llcr.se is
neither spoken nor understood. All ranks ami
orders spe.ak English, taithiicss contains 10 pars,,
ami bad, in I Mi I, a |iopiilalion oi' 11,1 1 1, living in
7.1.)7 inhabiled hoiisc^. It semis I ineiii. to the
II. ol'C. for the CO., and Wick unites with other
boroughs in returning a representative. Co.
eoiislilnency .''il2 in |MI)5. Tlie old valued rent
was 2,1)70/.; tin; new valuation for lHi!l-,'> was
102,0;!!)/, The gro.ss annual value of real property
a.ssc.s.sed to income tax was >SI,712/. in lf>.>7, and
102,0 Hi in \H{;>,
CA.IAZZO, a town of .Siaithern Italy, i)rov.
Caserta, cap. cant., on a hill near the. Vollnrno,
1 1 ni. XK. by K. Capna, I'op. ti.2(io in |Sil2. The
town is very ancient, and is ilefended by a castle
built by the Lombards, lie.sidus a line calhedral,
it has several other chnrches, with convents, a
college, a hospital. Jind a seminary. Its teiriiory
produces good wine.
i^i
)iii \
mil.,
(lot
J'AI.AIlnZO
• 'M.AIIOZO, nil llll. lilWM nf N'rlir/iulil, lirnv.
< iiriiia*, ill (III' /Ainii'i, iii'iir tlic itiiiirimriM'r, ll in,
N. Ii.v i;. < ii|iini ; llll. M*^ Ci.i III, N„ Imin, ii; " I.''
W, rii|i, ,'i,iHiii. ll liaoiiuiHiili'liiirrli, mill Ki'vcntl
\illiiKi'» niirriiiiii'liii^ ii : nmiiv nl' iin inluilt, nri'
iirMniMTciiiHriilili' liiriiiriN, 'I'ln' |nhi|ii hi lU iii'IkIi-
iHiiirliiiiiil aiMiriii Miili I'li'i'irii' i'i'Im.
(AI.AIllllA, II liiriiii'r jiriiv, <il' iId' Ni'ii|inlliiiii
l|nlllil|iiill«, ihc llliinl S. |iiilii4ill III' llll' killK'l"lll nl'
lliil>,liiiwi't'ii .l.'J lii'itiiil lirJ 7' ,\, llll,, mill l.i" ;!'.!'
mill IT'^ l.'l' I',. ImiK',; liiiviK^ N, lilt' prnv. I<ii'<ili
mill, M''„ llll' (iiill' III' ruriiiilii, ,S\V, iht' Sinnt nl'
Mi'MiiiiM, mill ill llll' riKl nl' iln fXli'lll llic .Mnlllrr
riMicmi : ii miiipriiiN ilii> ihiri' nl' ilif iwn jii'iiiii
Hiilii'< ill llll' I'Mrriiiilv III' lliily, mill Inriiii wliiil Im
Clllii'il till' I'nnl III' llll' llillimi I I,
III iiiiiNi |iniiiin, ( 'aliiliriii iillnrii't a MtriUitik; rmi-
lrai>l In llll' |H'llill'<llla nl' ( )lritllln,nll llll' ntlllT '•iili'
III' ilic Tiiraiiliiii' liiill'; iiN Mlmri'H art' i'\ln iii<'l\ ir
rt'^iilar, ami |lrl'^<l'lll iiiaiiv <'a|irH nr liriullmiil-' ; llic
|irllli'l|illl art' lllimi' nl I nlnlllli' mill Iti/./.llln, nil llll'
I'!, i >S|>ariiM'iitii, nil Ihc S, ; iiinl Vulirmin, mi llii>
\V, rmiHlN : llir |iriiiri|iiil i;iiII'm art' lliiwi' nl'Tiiraiitn
(will' ll ii iiiniNiH ill I'nriiiiii^) iiiiil Siiiiillmi', mi ilii'
11,; (iinjit mill S. I'liili'iiila, mi llic \V, nlinrcN. Ilv
far llic ).;rcalcr |iarl nl' Calaliriit In tiimiiiiaiiinii»;
llic |iriiii'i|iiil A|iciiiiiiii' cliiiiii ciilcrN il iil .Mmiiil
I'niliiin, mill riiiiH III llrNi ,S. near llic Nlmrc, iik in
N, Italy, then I!., anil lanily in a SW ilirci'linii In
ils I'Mrcinily. ll Kivcinlt'a InHymiil rcinmUalilc
lirmii'li III llic l'l„ the Silc-'c inmintain.i, which
nccimy niiwl itf the central ami wiilcr renimi nl'
Culaiiria. The A|iciiiiincN here alliiin a Kr*'"'*'''
hi'i^'hl than in the central |iriiv. nt' Ihc kill^^ ui'
NajileN, mill the hininiiilH nf iiimiy of llicin arc
cnvered with miihw I'rnin Dec. lili March, Mmitc
Sila i't l,ii,t'.' It,, Mmitc Alto (AH|irnnimilc), 1,1 in
I'l., aiiil Ihc pa^rt ol' Nicasiro, :i,'Jlii It, ahnve the
level III" the Hca.
The |ilain.-i arc lew, anil nl" iin ^rcat extent ; the
larj^'cKt arc in the Nl''„, mi the haiik^ nt' the Cniii
ami CiiHcilc, anil mi the I'l, cmiHt ; in the \V, Ihc
liiwImiilH cmiMi.'il. of only a KncccHnimi of iiarrnw
valicvM, The iiimintain xlrciiiii.s arc niiincrmi.-*,
liixcharKinK ihciiiKi'lvcM into Imlli .seas; the larp'r
rivers, uhicli, however, rc(|iiirc no |iariiciilar mil ice,
arc imislly in the central |iarlH nl' ( 'alaliria. There
arc many hiiiall lakes aronml the K. Hlinre, hut
iiniic wiirtliy of t sjiccial notice, ('alaliria |iriHhices
corn, rice, oil, ^\iiie, ti;;'riinii, ami I'rnilM of every
kind; silk, sn^ai', iiimina, wilil hmicv, tnliaccn,
salVrmi, resins, liijiinricc, iiiany inciliciiial |ilanls,
ami lives; forests of oak, elm, ami chcsnnt ; it has
also Veins of ^^olil ami silver, iron, iiiarhle, ami
alaliaster; anil yielils licsiiles crystal, rock salt, of
Ihc |inresi kinil, and siil|iiMir. (ircat iiiiinliers of
lish surround the coasts, and pinie aliminds in
its forests. .\o |iari of l''.iiro|ic |iresciits iimrc
ina^iiiliccnt sccncrv than ('alaliria. On cnteriii;;
il from tjic N., at ^tnllt(^ (iiordaim, Ihc nniliilalin^
hills arc Inst; the A|ieiiiiiiies assnnii! a hold ami
sleep charaelcr, and arc hmkeii liy deep hollows
ami ravines, and dolhcd with forests of massive
linilier. The Itriitlian forest of .Sila, which occu-
pies to a uri'tit extent, all the S. part of C t'iira,
and the N. of ('. I'ltra II., consists of oak, elm,
sweet chcsnnt. hcccli; and pine and lir toward the
siitnmiis of the mountains: in other |)arts the
Apennines arc covered almost to their tops with
Woods of line cypress, laurel, hazel, olive, oran^^c,
and cedar trees; near C'ariati the manna ash |ire-
vails. There arc many pastures, liowcvcr, in the
re;rion of I,a .sila; hiii hahitalimis are very thinly
scattered thrmi;<li it, and towns or liamlcis arc
vi'ry few. Around the coast of (.'alaliria Cilia
there arc some cultivated tracts: that near Koscto
yields olives, capers, salVroii, corn, and colloii, on
CAr.AKIMA
the llluh Inilils near the neai tlie llll Iff I* PIllliMitid
alio at ( 'ii>>-aiiii, Trrcn arc wmitiii^ mi the l>aiik<
of llic Neto, and the coiiniry ahoiil Cnlrmic Ir i>ii>'
of il.c iiiiml niiinicrcniiiiK in ('alaliria, I'ri'in
Cmilmi/arn to .Npiillacc the ground ii level ; ilir
mill full of liriikcii shelly di'poiil, and I'erllli' In
corn, iiiai/e, ami iniiHicrry trees. .Vt Chiaravnlli'
the lli'ld are i'iilli\atcd vtllli lliiM ; the \ ilii m lur
lew, cherry ni'iharilM iiiiiiiirHU'', and Iii'iIkii nj
holly, wiHiilliiiic, mid suici liriiir, and liaii„i i,r
licarli I'liic, ami wild ntrawlicrry, S, Ciilahria Im^
many Inwiis and xllla^es, Mirimis culture, and iliie
Moods; its scenery is decldcilly superior In thai nj'
Sicily, The eiix irons of tti't;Kio arc cili'liralnl l'..r
their licauly, mid its nci^dilimirh I is ucll stnrknl
with cattle; Irmn Tiopiia to .Mmitclcniie ijn'
ciiiiiitry is like a park, Iml ipiiic unciiclii>n|,
ailnrncil with lai|;c clniiijis nf oPim' Irecs. Thi'ii,'i<
In the Apenninc-i is a W'>>H|i'd \alc, ilirnii^h wjiii li
the Anuitola wimls; liiyond this is a lllar^'ll\
cmnitrx ; and mi the Imnks of Ihc AmiiiIo is ihr
Held of .Maida. cclcliralcd for the iiclimi I'imi^Iii
llici'c ill iHiM'i, N.of Nii'iisi I'll ihc main mad pa-^i ,
ihroiiKh a line plain cmliraccd hy the iiinniiiiiiii.,
and mi Ihc liiill KrmimU hence to Ciiseii/a llir
hnaks in the wnmls display on either side vii'Ws
nf wiindcd vales, sprinkled w il h tnwns and villii).'r>,
and the sea licyniid, Snuie Hal ;;rminils pri'vail
N. of ( 'nscii/a, as nil the hanks of the I 'rati, wliirh
arc fertile in corn, vices, and miillierry-iri'i-,
hill .siilijecl to malaria; louurds the (iiill' <.t
rolicastm there is a tract of pasturi^ land, lecillii^
many Mocks nf sheep,
('alaliria is siilijcct to carthipiakcs : a iiin-'t
Icrrillc visiiatimi of this sort oii'urrcd in IT'*:!,
which swallowed ii|i a ^reat niatiy towns iiinl
villiip's. Near ,S. Itiisile there arc traces nf Inr
incr \ nlcanocs, and Ihc soil is niie mass nf lavn.
Several spnis arc retinwiied fir the eveiils nf
aiicii'iit liislnry; niimerniis are the sites ofaniiiiil
(iici'k cities, as .Syharis, Crotmia, Ac.; ncar('ii|ii'
Vaticano Sextus I'ompcius defeated at sea ijii'
iiavv of .Xu^'iislns. .Marie the (ioih, IhecoiiiiniTir
of Italy, was luiried under one of the liiluiiiin
sinauis of the ('rati. No Italian prov. of ei|ii;il
cxient possesses so many (iolliic remiiins.
'I he arts and manufactures of ('alaliria are in ii
very depressed and luickward state. Silkwnnni
arc cnliivaled larL;i'ly in smiic places, ami silk I-'
produced in tolcrahle ipianlity, and of ;; i
ipialily. It has a darker colour lliiiu in nilnr
.Neapoliian provinces, in cnnsei|iiencc nf fieilin;
the wnrins nil the leaf nf the red niiillieri'y, wliiili
prevails in every part nf this territory. The cnii-
dition iif the peasantry was formerly \vty had, Imi
has 1m ll ^{really anieliorated since the iiinirimni-
timi III' I lie Neapolitan dmuiii ions with the kiii;;i|i>iii
of Italy. Nevertheless, numerous hands of rnliliir^
coiiliiiiic to show ihatlhe old lawlessness nf ik'>-
potisiii has not yet hccn overcome; while siiiii;r-
ulin^:; is very prcvalcni.and outlaws and nuinliciiiif
friars arc lioili alaindaiit.
The peasants arc neither mi tall nor so piml-
lookiii;;' as tho.se of Ihc nsl of Italy. The ouliiiii'
of their faces is African; their complexion a |i:ili'
olive, or copper-eolour ; their hair coarse, hiiuk,
and i'riz/.lcd ; lint they have licaiitifiil teeth, and
their countenances are expressive, and mixed willi
a look of melancholy and wildncss. They iirc
vi^iormis, a<;ile, active, and nervous; ipiiek, j,mv.
courageous, t'aillifnl, and lios|iitalde; lint irrilalilc.
and prone to pa.ssimi. In the N. a solidilv, lil<('
that of the (Jcrmans, is manifest in their dispu-i-
tion; while, in the S., their manners apprmirli
more to those of the (Jreeks. Many (ireeks roiiN'
in S. ('alaliria, who are niticli liandsmiu'r in tluir
persons uiid drusn than thu Culabrcsc. The tlri.'>>
J'AI.MIOKUA
nf (III' Intlrr viirii'< ; iir llir S, ii i-« likr llint ti|'iln>
>lriliiiii«, mill Iii'Iiim'If' iiri' uuni ; In llii' N. iliry
Hi'iir liiiln; Mil' iiiiii ilri'Nx in it 'li<>ri climi' jiicki'i,
mill I'liini- jiii-«>, liiitli III' lilui'k I'liilli ; li'iiilicrii
^iilhTn, mill mIiih'm III' iiiiilri'Mt tklii, lii'il witli iIuhiK'*
nf llii' Kiiiiii'; or t'hr III II riiiii'*!' ImiK JiU'Ufl,
riitnllli; iliinil I'lir lirluw Ilir Hlll'it ; uiili' llimc lull
i>r |ilikilK; mill III nil ^'iiilrrs nf t'oitrMr cliitli,
liMlt'iii-il uiTiiH'* Willi I'linN: llii> r('tiiiilf>4 wrar ii
liiruc lull |iliiiii'i| |H'ttii'iiiit III' iliii;;y ni'iirli'l. 'I'lii'
I'liliklirrii' ftpi'iik II jii'i'iilijir lliiliaii iliiilcri, |irii'
linlllirillU till' r/ mill /, llli' /( illlil /<, lllikc, TllrV
iiri' i;i'iicnkllv |iiiiir; llii' iiiarriiiui' jmrtioii nl' a n\t\
ii lrr(|iii'iitly iiiilv a xiiiall jiiirr iil' viiirv int, or
I'M'ii a niii;:!)' li'iiii Iri'r. (liiitU-s arr iiiMiii'r<>ii«,
iii'i'iiii) iii)( Ilii'iiii4i'l\ I'M ill making niiiiiII irnii
iiriii'li'M.
Ili'l'nri' llii' iliiMiiiiioii III' till' ItiiiiiiiiiM, I'aliiliria
wiH Niiliiliv iilcil illlil iiiiiiiy rt'iHililii'i, r<iriiiiii;,' |>ai'l
III Ma^'iiii liriniii, a ri'u;i<>ii tlnil rmiiiiriMcil all Italy
?>, Ill Napli"*. Albr ilii' full of the \\ i"<lrrii iiii|iii'i',
it fell itiii'ri'.'<siv<'ly iiuilri' I III' riili'iif I t:|iiai'i'r. I'liru-
ilmii', ami Hiilitniiu'iitly uf tin' (inrk riii|ii'riiri,
wliii |iii.-«'i<mmI it till llic year !''.".•, wlii'ii tin' Aralu,
Irmii Sicily, I'staliliMlinl tliriiMi'lvi's in a I'l I'lirlH,
\sli('iii'i' lliry I'Ntinilcil their riilf oxer tin I'si of
till' |iri>viiii'('. A ri'iitnrv ami a half afirrwiiril-i it
ua.H I'limiiirri'il liy tlii' Nnnmins, wlini it fiMincil a
|wlll nf tilt' iliiniiniiillN nf liiilirrt (ini'<rMI'il, itllkr III
.\|iii;4liii, with till' lilHiiiry of which |iriivim'i' it^
iiwn ifi Miilnciini'iiily cuiiin'cli'il. At tin' ii'iir^t'i-
iii/.aliiiii nf the nlil |irn\inci's, niiilcr the r'l'verii-
iiieiit nf the kill);' nf Italy, ill iKiil, Calahrli wax
ili\iileil iiltn the three new |iroviiice.s of CnMeii/u,
l!c;,';,'in, ami ( 'ataii/.ai'n.
CAI.AIlOlilI.V (an. Cnhiiiurni* XiihIiii), n city
nf Spain, priiv. Snria, nii the I 'iilaeuM, near itn emi-
lliieiice with the Mhrii; '21 in. SI'l, Ln^n'mln, 111 in.
SSW. I'amiiclnnii. I'np. 7,liMl in \h:,7. The city
liii-i a catheilral ami an episcopal palace. The
iii'l^'hhniirhniiil pi'niliii'cs ;^'rain, piiNe, lieiiip, tlax,
fruit, wine, iiinl nil. This was a l>iiniaii town nf
.siiiiie nnte, the reputed liirlhplace nf (^ninlilian.
t.'ALAIS, a sea-piirt tnwn nf Fnince. ilep, I'as-
(liit'alais. Clip, cant., nil the Straits nf l>iiver, '.'()
Ill, NNI']. Iliinliin'iie, nil the Nnrthern Itailway nf
France. I'np, l_','.»;il in iHiil. The tnwii is nf a
st|iiiirc t'lirin, ami is well I'lirtilieil; heinir siirniiimlcil
liy walls mill hastinlis, ami prnleclcil nii the W.
niile hy a strnn;{ citailel, cnniniMmliiit;; the Inu ii ami
liiirhniir, ami Inwanls the sen hy several furls; the
ciMiiitry rniind may also, in case nf necessity, he
liiiil under water hy nieaiis nf sluices. It is j;ene-
rally pretty well liuilt, the Ikuisch heiiij^ nf lirick,
mill tlie streets hrnad and stnii;;ht. It lalinnrs
miller a delicieiicy nf sprinj^-water, the want nf
which is hnt imIilVereiitly supplied hv the rain-
wiiter cidlccled in cisterns. In the iiiidille nf the
town is the /lime t/'aniirs, liaviiij^ rniii'.d it several
KiiihI hniiscs, and a haiidsniiu' lintel de Ville. The
^'ate nil the road to Paris, eiuistriicted in lili^.'i, is
II lini' piece of architecture. The parish church,
irecti'd liy the I'jij^lisli, is a lar;;e, line hnililiii),',
with a Infty spire. A lower, near the Hotel de
Ville, serves as a lijilit-liotise ; the lij^lit, which is
rcviilviii^, lieiiifi elevated IIH I'l. above the h'Vel
iif the sea. A pillar has lieen erected on the spot
where Louis XVIII. landed on his return to Kranci!
ill 1814. The Jloti'l Dcssiii, enniprisinjx, hesides
an excellent inn, a theatre, |mhlie hat lis, ami a
IHistiiif^ estalilislinient, is the liiiesi liiiildiii;; in the
ttiwii. The raiii)iarts, which are planted with trees,
I'linii an iiicreealile iiroiiieiiade, Calais derives its
lirincipal iinpnrlaiice from its beiiif; the nearest
French port to Kiigland : it is only '2*>k in. I'rnin
the South Foreland, and 2'2i in. from Dover, with
which, ami London, and other Kiij<lisli ports, it
l'AI,ATAI'"I.MI (loA
linsilallv steam coinninnli'aliiiii. Tlii'innil «|i'nineri
Iniiii hover, which arrive twice ii ila\', iiiakeM llie
pa'>saui' ill iiIhiiiI one liniir ami a hall'. I'lie total
nniiiher nf passeiiKer'i I'tiiliiirkinu: and diieniliark
lii({ at Calais uimninted tn rj.i.n.i;! in the year
iMil.'l. (Kepnri nf Mr. Consul llothiiiii mi'tliK
Trade nf Calais.) The entrance tn the harlNiiir U
helwceii Iwii pierx, nearly | in, in Iciitjih. Fxcel-
lent aiichnra^i' Kronml existM in the miter mad,
I'rnin '.' Ill ;i III. N\V. I'rniii the liarlHiiir. Then' are,
a trihnnal nf coninierci', m'hiinls of hkilmuraphy
and de'.i^n, and a piihlic lihrary, uilh I'J.imiii nhU,
Maniil'ikctiires of la iiiplny some h.imiii hands,
ehielly In the snlmrh of St. I'icrre Ics Calai".
N'essi'ls are liiicd out lor the end, Inrrin;;, and
mackerel li<hirii's, and a cmisideralilc trude is car
rieil nil in sail ami spirits; wliil" the town dcrlMi
iniii'li liciielii Irmii the resort nf travellers tn aul
I'rnin l''.ii^land. It cnnininnicaics wiili the Aa, and
cnnscipieiitly with St. Oiiier, hy iiicmiis nf a canal
aliiiiil '.'I 111. in Icnulh.
I'jiward III. tonk Calais, after a leii^Mheiied and
ineiiioralile !*\ixv, in I.I 17, The ohsiinate re-
sistance made by the hesie;|ed so llllich incensed
the conipieror, that he delerniined to put In ilcalll
six principal burgesses nf the town, who, to -a\e
Iheir fellow-eiii/eiis, lidd inaKmiiiiniiiiisly placed
llieniselves at his dispnsal, lint he w/is driven
from it by the tens and entreaties of (^iiceii
I'hilippa, The l'!n;;lisli retained possession nf ( 'nlais
for iiinre than two centuries, or till l.'i.'iH, when it
was taken by surprise by the hue de (iiil-e. In
loin; it was taken by the .\rcliiluke Albert; but in
ITiltH was restored lo l^'rance by the treaty of
Vervins. It deserxes in be inenliniied, to the
honour of Calais, that it is one nf the xery few
towns of Krance in which no imliviihial li»t
his life nil accniint of politics diirin;; the llevo-
hitioii,
Calais (.St.), n town of Krance, de'p. Sartlie,
cap. arrniid., nii the Aiiille. 'Jii in. llsM. Mans.
I'op. :l,7:iti ill iHill, 'i'he town has a line (inthi>;
eliurch, a lar^c siinarc nr jilace, and l\in pronie-
mules; ami is the seat of a tribunal nt primary
jiirisdictinii, and of a cominniial colleni>. There
are niaiiul'actiiresof ser;;es, linen, and coiion stniVs,
with tanneries and ^lass-works. The count ly
round is barren, bein^ principally occupieil with
lieiilhs and I'orestM.
CALASCIHKITA, n town of Sicily, val, Ciila-
Imiisella, cap. cant,, I') in. NI'l. Calalaiiiseita.
l'o|). .^(Hiil ill IMti'J. There are in the environs
niinierous caverns.
CALATAHKLI-in'A. or CALTAIIKLLOTA, II
town of Sicily, val di tiiiKeiiti, nil the Mininiit nl"
a Inl'ty iiiounlain near In, and ovcrlnnkiiiu;, the
courst^ of the river of ihi' suiiie name, lit in. N I',.
Sciacca. I'op. ri.d'JI in \W'2. The town is very
dilliciilt of access. TrUxulii, a stron;;city nf an-
cient Sicily, was situated within a slmrl distanco
nf the nindern tnwii. This city is I'ainoiis in his-
tory, I'rnin its haviii;; been the stronghold of the
revolted slaves diiriii}^' the ilaiij,'erous seivile iii-
siirreetinii that brnki- nut in Sicily, l((l or 10;')
years n, c. Owiii^c to the streii^tlli of the cily,
and the talents of their leader .Vtlienio, the iii-
sur;,'eiils were abli^ to defend theinselves for I'lnir
years; and were not subdued till a iMiisiderable
army, headed by Aqiiiliiis, the cnlleajfiienf Mariiis,
was sent a;;aiiist tlictn. (Ancient I'niversal lli.-r.,
xiii. 2(1, Hvo. eil.) In more nindern times, l.'n^fer
I. defeated the Sarneens, with great slaughter, in
the viciiiitv nf this town.
CALATAI'TMI, a town of Sioily, val di Tra-
jiaiii, cap. cant., 7 in. S\V. Alcanio. I'op. !),l!b.'{
III IK(!'-'. The town is ugly and ill built. Its
castle, now in ruins, stands on the snniinit of ii
^i<;
l*i!
«(I0 CALATAOIUONK
bill, in n cnmmnniUiiK Mitiintion, The environs
arc well (Miltiviitcil,
CALATACilltONK, or (;Ar/rA(iII!ONi;, ii
town of Sirily, viil ili Cntiinin, cnp. (liKtr„on llio
(Icflivitv of .'I mountain, !!.') ni. S\V, Cntaniii. To)).
2.'l,ti72 ni lNt!2. The town HtinidM in a Halniirious
»<itnntion, and is Maid to Ixt the richest and ix-st
p)V('rni'(l city of Sicily. Streets clean, MpaciouN.
well paveil, and tolcrahly li^hlcil; many of the
paljices and other puhlie huildin^ts ore handsome,
and the market is well snpplied with jtrovisions at
moderate rates. It is the seat of a hishopric ; has
s(?veral ehnrclies and convents, a royal college, a
hospital, and an <ir|ihan lK)s|iital. The inhahitanis
are industrious, and have made flic ^jreatest i)ro-
licieiicy of any in the island in the useful arts. A
kind of soft argillaceous earth is found here, and
manufactured into tcderahle imitations of the
Saxon porcelain ; fjroups of lifjures, in the various
costuines of Sicily, are also formed from it Avitli
iutinite tasle, The nei^hlMiurlKuiil affords sattron
and ycdlow ochre, bistre, soda, and otlier coluurinj,'
materials. A p-and festival and fair is held for
fifteen (hiys in Ocfoher, during which fjrcat sales
are made of cattle, cloth, honey, wax, iwulfry,
and af;rieultural produce. It is supposed, from
tlu! existence of sepulchres aiul other remains of
antifpiit} , to occupy the site t)f the Hyhia Jlwrea
of the aticiinits.
CALATAXISKTTA, a town of Sicily, cap.
prov. of the same name, in a larfjo and fertile
plain, near the rifjht hank of the Salso, (12 m. SK.
ralernio. I'op. lis,;")ll in ]8(i2. The town is well
huilt; has hroadand straight streets, a fine square;
is defended hy a castle, and has a civil and crimi-
nal court. In its environs, at a ])lace named Terra
I'ilata, are two salses that emit hydroj^en f^as.
CALATAYUD (an. liilbilin), a city of Spain,
ArajiTon, cap. district, on the jalon, at its con-
fluence with the Jiloca, at the foot of a hill, 4.5 m.
S\V. Siirajjossa, 115 m. XK. Madrid, on the railway
from Sarapissa to jMadiid, l'o\), i).H:!() in lHo7. The
town has a lar^^e sciuare full of shops ; i)leasant
and shady promi^nades, a IVjuntain with eleven /<Y.s
d'l'iiii, a.ul a mafiuilicent luvadcrox an episcopal
jialace; a hall for the meetinns of the .Junta; a
liouse of industry, two liosi)iliils, and barracks for
'l.OOO troops. Streets and houses repdarly liuilt ;
there arc three bridj^es ovr the river. It has
several clemefitary schools, and two {jrannnar-
Kchools, with manufactiu'es of common cloths,
brown paper, and leather. The soil aboinds in
cathartic salts, and there are several chalybeate
springs, and extensi>\i caverns, from Avhose roof's
hauK concretions, said to be sulphate of lead.
This wiia a Itoman ( >vvn, and is celebrated as
heiu{^ the birthplace of Mar'ial, who has eulogised
it:, manufactorv of arms.
C'ALATIiAYA LA YIK.T\, in Spain, the re-
mains of the ancientcity of C^alatrava, the Or^'tum
or Oria of the liomans. on the (iuadiana, ])rov.
J,a Mancha, 12 NK. Cuidad Heal, 1.5 m. N. Alma-
j^ru. The order of the Knights of Calatrava had
its origin here. The city being menaced by the
Moors, in 1158, was abandoned by ;he Temi)lars,
who had held it for ten years, and Sancho HI.
liromisecl it to any one who would '.nidertake its
defence, ^{ayniond, abbot of Fitero, and Diego
Velasquez, offered themselves for the task, and
were furnished with money, arms, and mu-
nitions. A crusade was proclaimed, and jjlenar^,
indulgences were granted to iill wlio should be
found at the defence of Calatrava. The Moors,
alarmed at the report of these i)rc])aiations, aban-
doned their enterjirise, and Velascpiez, in his turn,
made several incursions into their territories. On
this, the king conlirnied the grant, with new
CALCUTTA
donations. The order wufl then regularly orga-
nised, in two classes, one for the service of the
choir, and the other for the Held ; hut the knights,
on the death of I{n>-mond, separated themselves
from the monks, and chose a grand master distinct
from the ablMit, who returned with his monks to
Fitero. The knights sid>se(piently ac(|nired gn'al
fame and riches in their contests with the Moors,
hut having sustained serious rev<Tses, and quarrel-
ling among themselves, the jiope adjudged the
grand-niaslership in peqietuity to the crown (jf
Spain.
CALCUTTA, a celebrated city of Ilindostiui,
])rov. Iteugal, cap. of the Ilrilish dom. in the Fast,
and seat of the supreme govennn., in a level tract
on the F. side of the Ilooghly river, an arm of the
(Janges, aliont 100 m. N. of the Itav of llengid;
lat. 22° 2;i' N., haig. 88° 28' K. I'op. 4i;!,lN-i in
18(!1, of whom 274,3;ir) IIin(h.os, aiul 110,018 Ma-
honu'tans. This ])op. is exclusive of about lHii,o(iii
dwellers in the environs who come daily into tlio
city. On aiJiiroacliing Calcutta from the sea, the
stranger is struck with the magnifu'ence of its
apjiearance ; the elegant villas on each side of the
river; the govcunment botanical gardens; the
spires of the churches and temples, and the strmii;
and regular citadel of Fort William. Includiii:;
Fort William, the Fsplauade, &c., Calcutta ex-
tends along the bank of the river, from Kidderporc
to (Jossipore, a distance of (5 m., with n variable
breadth, hut averaging about I A m. A haniisumv;
quay, called the Strand, is continued for 2 or ;> in.
along the bank, from the point at which the espl.v
iia<le meets the city : it is raised 40 ft. above low
water mark, ami furnished with about thirty prin-
cipal f/liaiits, or flights of steps, for landing. Tiio
Ilooghly is here about a mile in width at liigli
water, or at least twice as broad as the Thaiiie.H
below London Bridge, and is, like that river,
crowded with shijiping; vessels of all descriptions
being able to lie almost close to the quay. The
resiliences of Furopeans are mostly detached from
each other, built in the Grecian style of archi-
tecture, and situated in Chowringhee (the S.
portion of the city, lying at the edge of a |iortiiiii
of the esplanade), or in the suburbs in that quarter,
as Garden IJeach, where the villas exhibit much
beauty, and are surrounded by plantations ef
mango, Jack, and other fruit trees. The cifailol,
or Fort William, which stands near Kidderjjore,
about i -n. SW. the city, is not only the strongest
and n'ost complete fortress in India, but in the
IJritish dominions ; it is, however, large, and would
require for its jjroper defence, 10,00() men. It is
an o^'tagon; the iivc faces on the land side are
regular, the three others, toward the river, vi'.ry
according to circumstances. The bastions have
very salient orillons, and every curtain is co\ereil
witii a large half-moon, mounting twenty-six
])ieces of cannon : the outworks are very extensive,
Imt not much raised above the level of the sur-
rounding country, and Fort William does wit,
therefore, nuike an imiiosing appearance frurn
without. It contains an excellent arsenal, anil a
cannon- 'lOnndrv' ; its interior is beautifully liiiil
out in 'valks and gr.iss-phits, sha<led with rows ef
trees, iatemiixed with jales of shells ami caiuion
balls. It is usually garrisoned by. one stMui;
luiropcan regiment, two native nigiments, and :i
strong detachment of artillery ; was built by Lunl
C'l.^ soon after the b.ittle of Plassey; and lias
C(jst from first to last 2,000,000/. Calcutta has no
defence other than this fortress ; the ditch and
mound, constructed by the early settlers as a barrier
against the Maiiratfas, were tlostroyed by Marq.
Welleslej', and th.eir place is now occu])ied hy the
' circular road,' which marks the bounilary of il"-'
lil)ortirR of rnlciitlft. niid of tlio ndministrntion of
Kii^Iih)! linv. Ilctwccii tli(! flirt iiini tlu' city tluTc
is an extciiKivc ojicii |iliiiii oiillcil tlu' KspliiiiiKlc,
iM'iii^ a roiitinuMtiiiii df tlii< ^liicis, tlicfiisliiDiinhlc
rcsurl for (Iriviii^; aixl riilin;;. Oii it is tlic p)vi'rii-
inciit-lidiisc, in ii line with wliicii llicrc is ii riui^'c
iif very lunxlsonu' (iwcliinn-liiinscs. Cliowrinnlu'c,
fiimu'rly n collcctiim of Imts, is now u villiif^c of
|)!iluO('s, inul extends for a eonsidcralilo distance
nilo llie foiMitry. Iteliind ("iiowrincliee, tlie native
or ' liiacli Town ' streleiies alon;; the river to tiie
N., and exhil)its a reniarkalile contrast to ilie part
inhahited hy Kuropeans. Its streets arc dingey,
narrow, and crooked, and consist of luits of eartli
haked in tlie snn, or of twisted handxios, inter-
spersed here and llicre with ruinons hrick hazaars,
jiools of dirty water, cocoa-tna-s. and little pirdens,
and a few larj^e and fine, l)Mt j^eiierally very dirty
lionses, of (ireeian an'hitecture, the residences of
wealthy natives. There are some snndl niosipies
( f iiretty architecture, and very neatly kept, and
some |)a.i;o(las, hut mostly ruinons and decayed;
tlie religion of the iieople of IJeiinal hein^ chielly
eons|)icuons in their worshii) of tlie (ianf.''es, and
ill some iinly iiainted wooden or plaster idols,
with all inuiiner of heads and amis, whicli are set
lip in <litl'erent parts of t\w city. Under tlie ad-
luinistnition of the jMarqiiis of Ilastinfj;s, larfje
sums were sju'ivt in the improvement anil venlila-
tion of Calcutta ; a street tlO ft. widi^ was carried
tlirou^jh its centre in its loiifrest diameter, and
several squares were laid oi)('n, each havinj? a
tank or reservoir in the middle, surrounded hy
planted walks. The lar^'est sipiare, which is near
tlie S. extremity, is i')(l() yards on each side, and
ciiiitains a tank UK ft. deep. There are no covered
ways, as in the cities of Persia and Turkey,
llioiiifh, froni the violent heats and rains, such
would be very desirable. The bazaars in the
native town are very inferior, and the shops and
warehouses have all a mean ap|)earancc : the
iiiihlic biiildiiif^s there are few and small, and there
IS not a single minaret in the whole jilace. The
most remarkable ])ul)lic edilicc is the {;oveniment-
liouse, which was hnilt by the Mari|uis Wellesley,
and consists of a centre and four winf;s, connected
tdnetlier by circular passr.f^es, so constructed as to
(il)tain the l)eiielitof the air from whichever quarter
the wind blows. The wiuf;s contain the private
apartments, and that on the NK. the council-
roiini ; the centre has two very tine rooms, the
tipper one of which is the hall-room, and both arc
lip;hted by n i>rofiisioii of lustres, while at the
same time they exhibit much f^ood taste: the
aivhitcctiire of most of the buildiiif^ is of the Tonic
iivder. The otiicr chief edilices are the town and
ciistoni-hoiises, the mint, St. .John's cathedral,
and another Knj^lish church, all of which are con-
tifjuous to the f;overnmeiit-lioiis(! ; the Scotch
I'resbyterian church, a very handsome structure;
the Portuguese, (ireek, and Armenian churches;
the courts of Justice, barracks, naol, and hospitals.
There arc many ])ubli. coUet^es and benevolent
institutions; as the Hindoo, JMoliammedan, and
Aiif;io-Indian collef,'es, and the college at Fort
William; the Calcutta grammar, free, and other
charity schools; the military and female orphan
asylums; and poor-funds; besides miiny bible,
niissionary, and other religions associations. On
the. X \V. side of the river arc the extensive suburb
of Ibiwrah, opposite the ' Pdack Town,' and the
liiitaiiic garden, opposite the citiidel. Near the
latter is tlic bishop's college, a handsome building
111 the Elizabethan (Jotliic style, occupying three
silk's of a quadrangle lot) ft. square, erected in
b^'20, for the education of a clerical body, by the
Siiciely for the Propagation of the Gospel, at the
CALCUTTA 607
suggestion of Ilishnp Middleton. The boinnic
garden is lieantifnily laid out, ami covers IlnO
acres of ground: between it and the bishop's col-
lege there is an extensivt! plantation of teak,
which, allhongh not in its native soil, thrives ex-
ceedingly well. There are several dry and oilier
docks on both sides the river, in which vessels of
any size maybe built and repair<'d; but the ships
constructed here are of inferior diiratiility to those
built at Itombay, in consequence of the framework
being of inferior wood, and the visible portions
and upper works alone of teak: ail the limiter in
Calcutta also, wiHimit the fact being outwardly
obvious, KiitTers ^freatly from the devastations of
the white tint. In every part, this city is covered
by an amazing nuiltilnde of little pools, or reser-
voirs, yet the soil on wliiidi it stands is remarkably
deliclent in springs, none having been met with
even after boring down I Id ft., till IH2M, jiiid sub-
sequently, when Dr. Strong tbtind some in isolateil
spots, at a depth of "(I ft. The draiiiings of the
place, with siitdi iiortions of the refuse as arc not
devoured by crows, kites, vultures, adjutants, and
liariah-dogs. which abound in the streets, and iit,
night by foxes and jackals from the surrounding
country, are conveyed away, by a canal, to a
large shallow salt lagnne about i^ m. distant, to-
warils the K. IJetween the city and this lagiine
tli(! country is tilled with gardens, orchards, and
villages, but is little inhabited by Kiiroiteans. The
tract to the N. is drier, bejilthier, and mori; open ;
and the two great roads to Dumdum, the artillery
cantonment, and Hjurackpore, the country seat of
the governor-general, lie over a vast extent of
fertile country, divided into rioe-lields, orchards,
and gardens, and swarming with ]io|iulation. The
vicinity of Calcutta is very pleasing; as soon as
its bonndarv is piissed, the roads wind through
beautiful villages, overhung with the finest and
most (jicturesque foliage the world can show, of
the banyan, the palm, the tamarind, and the
bamboo. Sometimes the glade opens to |)lains
covered with the rice-harvest, or to a sight of I hi!
broad, bright river, with its ships and wooded
shores; sometimes it contracts into little winding
tracks, through fruit-trees, gardens, and cottages;
the gardens fenced in with hedges of aloe and |piiie-
ainile ; the cottages neater than those of ("alciitta,
and mostly of mats and white wicker-work, with
thatched roofs and cane verandahs, with gourds
trailing over them, and the broad, tall plantains
clustering round them. The rainy season at Cal-
cutta generally begins about .June Ii, anil termi-
nates Oct. 14. The average fall of rain for tlirec
recent years was o'J'Hii inches ; the imniial
mean of the barometer is './ilvtit ; of the ther-
mometer, 78° 1.'$'. The most ple.Tsant and tenqic-
rate iieiiod of the year is from Oct. to March ; by
the middle of April, the weather becomes oppres-
sively hot, often rising to 100° Falir.
Calcutta enjoys a very extensive internal nnvi-
g.ition, by means of the (Janges, and its numerous
arms and tributaries; and it monopolises the
whole of the external trade of Ikngal. The total
value of the imports into Calcutta, iiicludiiig
treasure, amounted to 20,-21l I, !)!.'!/. in l«(l(); to
1 0,1)2-1,07.')/. in 1801 ; and to II,-J'J1.1IH7/. in ISli2.
The total value of the exports was l'J.I2.').H07/. in
l-SW); 1 ■2,577,700/. in 18()1 ; and l-J,7(M,!):il/. in
18()2. During the same three years, the sliifiping
of Calcutta was as follows. In 18U0. there entereil
'lC>-> vessels, of 117,801 tons, and cleared 1112, of
l.'')7,.')00 tons; 1801, there entered 220 vessels, of
101,22.5 tons, and there cleared .S.')8, of 101,82.'!
tons. Finally, in I8(')2, there entered 128 vessels,
of l!).8,2;U toils, ■•mil there cleared 718 vessels, of
2.j1),281 tons. The statistics of shipiiing here
008
CALCUTTA
given nrc pxcIiihIvc of the codstiiiK IriKlc, wliiili is
very I'lmsiiliTiililc Iniiunicralilc sumll craft diiily
nriivd friiiu tin- iiit<ri(pr, Imifii with tin; iiroiluci-
iiiiil iimmifHftiircs of tlic (iirt'iicnt iirovH. ; nixl tlie
♦ iilciiftii market is well su|)|(lie(l with an ahiiii-
(laiiee of excellent provisions : pmie, sniiies. wild
(lucks, teal, and ortolans, arc eomimratively cheap ;
slall-fed venison is usi'at as in Kiinland,lmt with-
out tlavonr: an ininieuse variety of fruits of line
(|ualily Hfipear on Knropean tai)les; and an ex-
quisite luxury is met with in the ta/Hiiiwi or
nianp)-lisli (sii called liecaiise it. is in season with
the nnni;j;o fruit), and which has heeii liilherto
fouinl oidy in the rivers of Hen(,'al, the Itinnun
empire, and the Camhoja rivers.
The, commercial iirosperity of Calenfta lias
^Creatly iiutreased since tlie eslahlislnnent of a
railway system ni India. The Calcutta and South
I'lasiern railway was opened throuf^hont .Ian. 'i'ind.
I«(i;i; the ' Kastern Henyal,' from Calcutta to
J)acca, was oiiened Nov. ir)tii, lH(i2 ; and the
'East Indian,' from Calcnlta to the Northern
I'rovinces, was opened as far i.s lleuares, Dec.
22nd, 1MI!2. lly means of tlu'S(^ lines, I lie city has
become one of the central points A' railway com-
mimication in India. *
The population of the city is nneqnally distri-
buted : its N. and central portions, es))ecially the
former, are very densely inhabited; the S. part nnich
less so, owiiif^'to the dwelliuKs of Kuro])eansbeiu^
so much more widely dispersed. (Jalcntta is the
seat of the chief I'rotestant liisho]i of India of the
Established Church of Kufilaiul; of the supremo
courts of justice; of one of the courts of circuit
and appeal for the ((residency <if l!enj,'al ; <(f a
vicar-apostolic of the Itomish ehuri'h, with autho-
rity over II priests and Ut churches, om; of which
is in that city.
Kuri>pcini society in Calcutta is jjny and c(Mivi-
vial ; and fetes and diinu'r-pnrtics, both uinnerous
and splendid, are ^iven by the f;dvernment ollicers
and wealthy jirivate in<lividunls. A certain decree
of formality and stillness is, however, very preva-
lent : and the lirahmiuical institution of rasirs
would appear to have communicated itself to all
ranks and classes of iMiropeans.
llishop lleber observes in his ' Journal ' that the
larffc dinner-parlies, in addition to tiie ffeoirraiihical
situation, and other local pecniiarilics ; the aspect
and architeciurc of the i)lace; the multitude of
servants, and want of furniture in the houses,
tend, except in respect of climate, to {i'ive ( 'alcutta a
strikiiif; resemblance tol'etersbnr};-. ]!esidesi)rival(!
])arties, there are public sidiseriiition assemblies,
with coHrcov/^mw/, concerts, and a theatre, I houfih
the latter is but little frequented. It is usind with
Euroiieans to rise early, the jileasantest ])art of the
day bein^ the first df the morninjr; after ti/fin
(liinch), which is taken between 2 and iJ o'clock,
many persons, durinfi the summer heats, retire to
slee|ifor two or three hours ; at sunset tln! fashion-
able drives of the ICsiilanade are crowded Avitli
European vehicles of all sorts, and the dinner-hour
soon after succeeds. The e(|uipa;;i's of Calcutta
einlirace barouches, chariots, tilburies, j^i^s, itc.. as
in Knu'land, drawti by a breed of horses which
have licen ^really imjiroved throui;h the f^overn-
ment stud and im|)ortations from luirope and
Arabia: but a iirotes(pu> and ))eculiar a]i])earance
strikes the eye of the European in the intermixture
of Asiatic costmncs. and black coachmen, in the
scene. Jlost visits at a short distance are |iaid in
])alan([uins, the bearers of which are from lialasore,
Ikhar. or the northern Circars, and run silently,
bare-headed, and almnsr naked, 'i'lu' Annlo-lndian.
or lialf-easle population, tin' iiroduct ol' ;ni inter-
course between Europeinis and natives, are more
CALDKR
numerous in Calcutta than anywhere else in India ;
they aw intelli;;eiit, iinlnstrions, and p'nerallv
well educated, and possess a defrree of considerai ion
in the eyes of the native population, thon^Mi tlicv
ar<^ without any ]M)litical iiilluence. All of tlicm
speak En^'lish, as well an the native dialect.
Many of tin; half-caste females, dauf,'hters of mo-
thers of lii^'h caste, arc educated in tlu! senniiarics
in ami near Calcutta, and often marry Europeans,
when they ar(( said to make most imexeeptioniiliic
wives and mothers: their children, in this case,
lose in <(ne or two ftenerations all distinctive mark
of their Indian (ui^'in. A considerable nnmlivr of
till' new /emiiidais, and the retired traders who
have beconu^ wealtliy, reside in Calcutta; where
they have iKUises handsomely furnished in tlie
Knroiiean style; drive the best horses and e(|iii-
pa^es; have adopted ICin^lish habits and tables;
speak the l'",nttlisli lannnaKc ; enter into the polilics
<if the Itritish empire, and are not i;;'iii>riuii (if
I'.n^li.sh literature. With all this, the educntinii
of their sous is often miserably ncfilected, and
they tir-n (Mit mere s])endtlirifts; liut the fact
is siillicieiitly and fcenerally manifest, that the na-
tive inhabitants of all ranks show a willin;;-
iiess to learn and sjieak Eiif^lish, an increa>iii^'
anxiety to send their children to school, ami a
>,Towiiif5 neglect of caste and other national prc-
jiidices.
The great hulk of the natives have a very Imil
character, being prolicients in intrigue, falsehiiinl,
and chicanery ; (irone to perjury, theft. ganiMiiii;,
and all kinds of dishonesty ; and of a cowanlly
disposition : but it is generally aihnitted that ilie
morality of the native inhabitants of Calcutta is
at a lower ebb than that of those in the pro\imi.il
districts. A perceiitible amendment in the iiKir.-iIs
and pursuits of the jieople is, however, said to lie
taking ]ilace. The liengalee <lialect, which liiul
long been looked on with much prejudice by the
natives of India, is now reviving, and varieus
Avorks are iniblished in it every ye;ir. Nuiiiernns
periodical works, and newspa|iers, issue fnnn the
t )iress. There are several distinguished Hcienlilic.
i literary, and other associations in Calcutta; as tlie
Asiatic Society, which owes its origin to Sir '.
.loiies; the Medical and Physical, Agr! iiltiiral
and Ilorticultnr.'d Societies; the Chamber of Cuin-
inerce, and the Trade Association.
In KiDH thellritish factory was removed tliitliiT
from Ilooghly; but in the early iiart of lliei.ist
century Cahnitta was bntajialtry village, lielon;,'-
ing to the Nnddea district, and inhabited chieliy
by husbandmen. ( 'howringhee was also but a stivi;;-
giiiig village, and a forest jungle, interspersed lure
and there with jiatches of cultivated land,< uveri'il
what is now the ICsplanade, so late as IT.'ifi. In
that year Suraja-ul-Dowliih, the soubahdar nf
Heligal. dispossessed tlie English of theirsettlomt lit;
on which occasion Ml! Englishmen, who had liiin
left to defend the factory, were shut up at night in
the black hole (a jiart <)f the old fort, taken ilnwii
in ISIS), of which number only 2;) were reuiiil
alive next morning. Col. Clive, with some Jbulr.is
troops, n^took Calcnlta Jan. 1, 17.37; since wliicU
it has been quietly retained by the Ih-ilish. and
risen to its ]iresent degree of importance.
CALDEf; i. river of England, in Vorksliiro,
rises on the SE. side of Holesworth-hill.in ihegr.niii
central range of English nioimtaiiis, and liouin^'
in an E. direction, at a little <listance from Ibililux
and Dewsbiirv, and past Wakeli(dd, imitcs with
the Aire at Castleford. This river is of gnat im-
portance in the canal system of Vurkshiiv ami
E.-iiicashire, and has been" rendered navigahlc f'>ni
great jiart of its course. Another river "I Im'
same name rises on the W. side of the same lull.
CALICUT
nnd flowiiiK W., fallH into tlip K'ilililo. It is of very
inferior iin)M)rtaM('('. (Scf IIdmiikk.)
(.'AUCIJT, a ninrit. (Ii»tr. ui' lliiulimtan, prov,
^Inlnliar, wliicli hco.
(-'aijcut, n marit. town of Ilindostan, cap. of
tlic alMivc diNtrict, and of the prov. Malabar, ^i.'t ni.
SVV. Serinpipalani, and itWl rn. WSW. Madras;
lat. 11° IH' N., lon^. 7.^? .')l>' F,. Pop. ctitiinatcd at
'Jl.tlOd. The ))rin('ipal exports are pepper, teak,
^iandal-^vooJ, vardanioni!*, coir, cordap', and wax ;
liiit (Calient is destitnte of any piod liarlxmr.
'I'liis was the first jilaec in India made liy tiie
l'ortnf;nesennderVas('0(le<lania, who arrived liere
l«th May, 1 1!W. In l.'iOit the i'ortiiguese were re-
]iulsed, with ^reat slaughter, in an attack on the
piaee, and their commander killed. In 17<iti it was
taken hy Ilyder Ali, and Tippoo afterwards de-
stroyed the fort and town, ol)li^in^r theinlialiitants
to mif^rate to Nelliini; hnt on the (M)n(piest of the
prov. hy the Itritish in IT'.M), most of them returned
to it, and iu 18t)U Calicut again numbered r>,UUU
houses.
(JAIJFORNIA, a state of the North American
T'nion, IMth in mimber of tiie IJuitvd Sttitfn, vs.-
teiidint; alonfj the W. coast of North America, from
the ;i-2A° to 'l-.'° N. lat., havinj,' S. the ))eninsnla
(if Lower California and the river (iila, liy wliich
il is divided from Mexico; I'". Ilie liio (Jrande or
Del Norte; and N. tlie stat(^ of Orcf^on, I'mm
V, liicli it is divided bv the l-'nd parallel of Int.
Area IHH,<m-2 stpiare m". ; pop. .')7',t,;i!l I in IXCO, of
wlioin i!l,!)l!l were Cliinese, 2;i('i Mexiciin half
lireeds, and 17,o(i2 Indians. The stale, throiij^hoiit
lis area, is mountainous, and tlie Sierra Nevada
extends, inider difl'erent names, and with diH'( rent
altitudes, in a nearly continuous chain, fmui (lie
S.extremity of the peninsula to Itussian America.
It is remarkable for its parallelism and proximity
Id the sea, its }{reat elevation, and its nunu'rous
volcanic jieaks, stretchinj; far aliove the liii" of
CALIFORNIA
fi09
fj:ranitc rocks, covered with snow, in sheltered
places, all the year round. Acorns of imconnnoit
size, ami not had taste, used for food by the In-
dians, abouiul on some of the oaks. The cypress,
l>iiies, and cedar are between Kid and 2r>(> ft. in
iici^'ht, aiul from .'» to 12 ft. indianuter, with clean
solid stems, (irass abounds on almost all parts of
the slope, except towards the hi^;hest sinnmits,
and is fresh and j^reen all the year round, beiiif;
iK-ither killed by cold in winter, nor dried by want
of rain in sunnner. The foot hills of the sliipe are
snthciently fertile and gentle to admit of piod
settlenu'Uts, while valleys, coves, beaches, and
meadows of arable laiul are fouml throu^Miout.
Many of the numerous streams, some of them
amounting; to considerable rivers, which tlow down
the mountain side, nuikehandsonie, fertile valleys,
and furnish fjood water i)ower. The climate,' in
th(' lower part of the slope, is that of constant
sprin;;.
The principal feature in the countr*' between
the Sierra Nevada aiul the ocean is the great bay
or inlet of the sea called San Francisco. It has a
narrow entrance about I ni. in width, in about ;i7°
'IH' N. lat. Within it expands into a noble basin
stretching NNW. and SSM. tJii or 7(1 m., and K.
about .")() m., being divided into the three great
compartments of San I'ablo on the N., Santa
Clara on the S., and Suisoon l!ay on the I",., aiul
all'ordiiig accoimnodation to all the navies of all
ihecouMlrics in the world. Its coast line, which
extc'uds to aliout 275 ni., is highly diversitied,
displaying a singularly rich and varied outline.
The great rivers, the Sacramenio from the N..and
the San Joaquin fmni the S., fall into iliis bay.
The lower parts of the valleys through which these
rivers How unite at the bollom of the liay. and
foini an imnunse plain, si retching N.and S. above
211(1 m. This great valley has at some tornier
))eriod been evidently a lake ; and were it not for
licrpetual snow. Its distance frtan the coast varies the streams which tlow into ihem IVom the nioun-
iVoni loO to 200 ni., so that the area of this portion j tains, the rivers by which it is watered would be
(if the country exceeds 1(IO,0()(I s(|. m. The great , (luile dry in the sunnucr months. The soil is a
iiiountain-wall of the Sierra Nevada interce]itsthe j deep, black, alluvial mould, porous and extremely
warm winds charged with vapour, which sweep fertile. It was formerly ovi rtiowcd by the rivers
across th<! I'acilic Ocean, prcci])itates their iiccunm- in the rainy season; iind the (inbankmeni has
lated moisture in fertilising rains and snows upon | been one of the lirst ol)jei'ts to which llie attention
its western flank, and leaves cold and dry winds to j of the settlers was directed, liolh rivers, but
imss on to the K. Hence the characteristic differ- | especially the Sacramento, atl'onl every facilitj'
(lice of the two regions — mildness, fertility, and a i (or steam navigation. In the iijiper jiart of tlu^
Miperh vegetable kingdom on the one side, com- valley of the San .Ioaf|iiin, between ;>.")° and litij'^
]iarative barremiess and cohl on the other. I lat. is the Tulare (Hulrush) Lake, surrounded by
lietsveen the latitude of 3-1° and 41°, a ratige of ; extensive swamps overgrown with luxuriant bul-
liiw mountains or hills runs close along the shore, ! rushes, and receiving all the streams in the S.
die culmimitilig point of which, the Monte del
J)iunil(i, close to the hay of San Francisco, attains
til the lieight of o,()74 ft. The valley between
tills coast chain and the grand barrier of the Sierra
Xcvada coni|)rises the valleys of the Sacramento
and San .loaquin, .'iOO m. in length, and by far the
most valuable jiortion of California. The western
Hank of the Sierra belongs to the latter. It is a
Idiig, wide slope, timbered and grassy, with inter-
vals of arable land, copiously watered with nu-
inuniiis and bold streams, and without the cold
wliicii its name and altitude might imply. It is
friini 10 to 70 m, in width from the sununit of the
UKiuutaiii to the termination of the foot hills on
the edge of the valleys below. Timber h(dds the
lirst place among the products of this slojie, tin;
wJKile being heavily wooded, lirst with oaks,
wliicli predominate to about half the elevation of
tlifi mountain, and then with pines, cypress, and
mlars, the pines predominating; and hence called
the pine region, as that below is called the oak
ri';iion, though mixed with ()ther trees. The
liitfliest sunniiits of the Sierra are naked, niasoive
Vol- I.
end of the vaUey. In the wet season it attains to
a great size, its surplus waters being discharged
into the San Joaquin. In the dry season it is
reduced within conqiaratively narrow boundaries,
and is in some places fordable.
The appearaui^e of the N. and S. portions of
California difVers considerably, the former being
much better wooded than the latter. Helow the
;{!lth (leg. lat. the forests are limited to some scat-
tered groves of oak in the valleys and along the
borders of the streams; and of re(l wood on the
ridges and in the gorges of the hills, the latter
being sometimes, also, covered with dwarlish
shrubs. With these excei)tions the coinitry is
clothed in tlie wet season with the linest herbage,
consisting either of ditferent grasses, or of wild
oats, which, iu the valleys es|iecially, grow most
luxuriantly. 15ut in the latter jiart of the dry
seas'm it has a burnt-up, scorched ajipearance, and
is often subjected to devastating fires. N. of the
o'.Hh deg. lat. the forests are extensive and valu-
able ; and are lifted to att'ord all but inexhaustible
supplies of timber.
n u
■I, ;t;
!«*;«
lt|.!
<::i:i!! '
610
CALIFORNIA
Thp toinpprntiiro ix a pxid donl liifjlicr llian
ill iUv i'iirr('H|iiiiiiliiif^r liilitmlcs mi ili(> K. const of
America. 'I'tie year is iltvidcil into two scaHoiiH, —
the wet, cxteixliiiK from Aiiril to Novemher, anil
tlie dry. In the former the rains, though not
l>y any means coiitiniioiiH, are frei|iieiit and heavy.
In the S. parts of the country tiie dry season
commences earlier and (rontinnes longer than in
(he N. During the iirevalcnce of the liillcr the
district iinmeiliMtely I'ontif^uons to the sliore is
infested with foj{s and cold winds from the sea.
lint within the coast ranp', the climate is delij^'lit-
fiil ; the heal in the middle of the day not liein^
HO >;rent as to hinder lalMiiir, while the iiightn are
cool and pleasant.
The couiitrj-, parlicularlv in the N., is well
united to the growth of wiieat, barley, rye, and
»iats. VVihl oats, indeed, as already noticed, grow
ill vast (|iiantities all along the coast, and as far
inland as the sea-hrccze has any material iiitliience.
Potatoes, tnrnips, carrots, and all the edible roots
of the Atlantic coast of Aiiicrica, with apples,
jicars, peaches, vines, niiil other frnits, attjiin to
the greatest perfection. In the southern valleys
between the coast-hills and the Sierra the climate
is siirticiently hot to mature niai/.e, rice, and
tobacco. The heat and drought of summer make
irrigation a most im))ortant auxiliary in farming
operations ; but it is not indispensable. Van-
couver found, in 17!I2, at the mission of San
Ihiouiventiirn, lat. iil° !(>', ajiples, |)ears, ]dums,
ligs, oranges, grajics, peaches, and ))omegranates
growing together with the plantain, banana, cocoa-
nut, sugar-cane, and indigo, and all yielding fruit
ill abundance, and of excellent (piality. Humboldt
pays that the olive oil of ( 'alifornia is equal to that
of Andalusia, and the wine like that of the Canary
Islands. The valleys are overgrown with wild
mustard, the vineyards and olive orchards an^
decayed and neglected ; and in a few places only
do we see the evidences of what tli(! country is
capable. At San Ihionaventura the olive trees
are often found in January, bending under the
weight of neglected fruit ; and the mission of
San Luis Obispo (lat. ;Jo°) is distinguished for the
excellence of its olives, which are iinerand larger
than those of the Mediterranean.
Among the wild animals are bisons, bears,
wolves, foxes, wildcats, )iolecats, otters, beavers,
liares, rabbits, and a profusion of ether kinds of
game. Large herds of a peculiar variety of deer,
of a gigantic size, with horns of a corresponding
magnitude, and great swiftness, are found in the
forests and grassy plains. They used to be taken
by the lanso, and sometimes i)y the artifice, de-
scribe<l by Humboldt, of the Indians disguising
themselves with the skins and horns of captured
animals till the herd came within reach of their
arrows ! (Xouvellc Es))agne, ii. 2S,5.) The bison
is hunted for its skin, which is used in many jiarts
of Spanish America as a bed or cariiot. Otters
and beavers are found in all the rivers, lakes, and
bays ; but their numbers have greatlj' decreased
since the country began to be settled. The sea
contains cxhaustless stores of tish.
Hut the vegetable and animal products of this
region, however important, are reckoned of but
little account, compared with it.s mineral produce,
to within nbont 25 m. of the edge of the plaii:s.
In IKiV.t this district was supposed to possess abiMit
l,(llllt s(|. III. of available niining territory, iiiiliiil-
ing both placers and veins of gold-bearing (|iiiirt/.
2iid. The Miililli: I'lwtrH, situated at about an
average distance of 2(1 m. from thi' line of iIk.
higher foot-hills, and having its western liordir
within al)oiit 1 in. of the edge of the plains. Tiij-i
district covers an area of about (i.<)()l) sip in„ giiid
th(! milling is mainly gold-washing. .'Inl. i'lic
Valley mines, which are sitiialnl among the lower
foot-hills of the mountains, and extend tlicncc
westward on to the eastern edge of the jilaiiis cif
the San .loaquin and Sacramento to an exlciii (j|'
from .'i toT) ni. These mines extend from north id
south a lineai distance of about 2.')() ni. 'Did
anioiint of territory occupied by these mines Is
probably not less than (!,(l(IO sq. m. The prolitalile
mining of the deposits in these, as in the iiiiililji'
placers, has re(|tiired the cinistriiction of exleiiileil
watercourses for the washing of <\ic gold Iriim the
sand and gravi!. The Hood of IHtil-d;! laiil Imn'
many new deposits in this region. The Mirie'ics
of inining are — I'hirvr mhiiiiij, which bears cuii-
siderabh analogy to coal inining in I'ennsylvaiii.i,
adits being driven into the hills, and <>ftcii tlinniy;!!
solid rock, to the locality where the gold de|iii>ii
exists, lli/dniiilif mining, where a bniad, open
ditch is carried through the hills, and the sides
washed down by directing a powerful stream nf
water on them, liirv miitiiiff, in which, when
the rivers are low, the streams are diverli'd I'miii
their courses by means of flumes, tail-races, A-e„
and the beds of the rivers thus exfiosed and their
sands washed for goM. This can only be canieil
on for about six months of the year, diilili luiii-
iiifi, in which a large diime is f'onned below the
surface of thi; earth in such a manner as to reeeiv;
all the adjacent streams after being used by Ihe
miners. And lastly. Quartz miiiimj, which re(piires
a considerable investment of cajiital, but is pnifii-
ablc. In this description of mining tl'.e gold-beariiif;
quartz is crushed by powerful stamiis, in mills
driven by steam, water, or mule power, to the
lineness of flour, and then the gold taken up hy
means of quicksilver by the usual washing \ni\-
cess. In Januarj', IH.'i!), there were nearly 'M)
mills in operation, with an aggregate of ".'.(JIO
stamps and 51!) arastras. The cost of niacliiiiery
was estimtited at il,27(),f)()() dollars. The entire
receipts of gold from Califoniia at the mint ami
its branches up to June 30, 18t)2, was .')2H,l-l,0,(liir)
dollars. The estimates of well-informed statis-
ticians give about 20 per cent, aihlitional as the
amount shi|)])ed direct to England, retained in the
state as gold dust, or manufactured, iirevioiis to
1807. Since that time, the direct shipment to
foreign ports has been somewhat larger ; aiiil it
would probably vary very little from the tact, if
we estimated the entire vield of the CaliCdniiii
gold-mines to July 1, I8(!2) at 050,000,000 dollars.
(The National Almanac, 1 8('i4.)
(lold is not the only valuable mineral yielilcil
by California. Silver is know n to exist, and liiis
been profitably mined iu El Dorado, Mariposii,
Santa Harbara, and Santa Clara counties: and must
of the gold contains a considerable proportiim nf
silver. About 3,000,000 dollars worth have thus
acco
l)arliL'ularly with the gold found i:'. the beds of i been obtained since the discovery of gold in Ci'li
some of its rivers and ravines. The discovery of i fomia. Copper, strongly impregnated v.iili piiil
these auriferous deposits has rendered California an I and silver, is found in Placer, El Dorado, Shasta,
object of universal interest, and has directed to | and other counties. Quicksilver in the form et
lier shores an unparalleled ainoiiiit of emigration. ■ cinnabar is largely produced at the New Almadeii.
There are three distinct gold-regions in the state, Guadaloupc, Aurora, and other mines; and in \^(<--
though the first two iire connected by outlying aside from the homo consumption, the expcirt mI
placers and leads. 1st. The Kasteni HiitKje, ex- : that metal reached the sum of 1,1 12,051 (loliars.
tending from the !sumiiiit-riilgo of the muunlain.'i ' Iron is found in large quuiititics and variuus
forms all nlo
county ill a (;o
in purity, and
hydrate. Snip
occurs near Sai
same region.
persed throiigl
smaller qiianti
usually assoeia
several |iarts of
lung be mine
gypsum, nickel,
salt, nitrate of
large (piantitie
extraordiiiarj' 1
stone, lime, d'c.
products of the i
It was known
visitors of the c
or was belie\-pd
statements had
impression, and
ciirly ill .lime, I
were discovereil
and had such w(
on the S. fork ol
(if ihe Sacrainen
The news of tl
ralleled rielniess
traordiiiary rapii
season iibout 5,(
tli<' spot, and the
liy the ac(piisit
sterling. Durin;
tioii of the disco\
preat distance ; a
grants of all desc
eiiinitries, includi
viaiis, Chiliiioii, ;
.111(1 Chinese crc
meiito and its t
liyiOO Mexicans
'They had,' savs
tents, booths, and
stores, and sho|)s
whatever moiie^
from the Sierra,
Inxurios. An \w
hraiiches of trees
sen-ed as a sort (
other amusement
were to be seen in
resorted principal
them a great siq
tlie Anuricans, a
session of some ol
country.
Government. — C
to the United St
ia California the
.States, and otlier
selves in a singn
k\\ inhabitants, ..
Ihc C(Miiitry; and
unac(piainted witl
the property aiu
hitherto lieeii re^
{freatest confusion
congress of the U
of this untoward
portaiice of the v
'orv. Hut the <
organise the con.
siiljject it to a CO
stnieted at the on.
of (leci.ling wheth
Ik.' allowed in the
c'f-
nt
CALIFORNIA
611
fortriH nil nlonp flio ronHt rniipo
t'liiinty ill n coiulitioii n|)|iroii(')iirii^r I
in I'lat'cr
iiiilivc iriiii
ill |iiirity, niid in Maripii.sti ('(iiiiiiy in tlii' l'i>rin of
liyilriktc, Siil|iliat(> of inm in liir^c i|iiaiiliti('H
oi'CiirM noar Santa (Vii/., and iiia);:iit'lii- inm in tlic
wnno region, I'latiiniin is aliiidst an widely diH-
licrscd liiriiii(r)i tlio Ktatc as ;;i>ld, tlnin^;li in
liiiiallcr (|imnlitit'n ; nsniiiini and iridinin arc
iiriiially a.-'.'<ii<'iat('d witli it. Tin is alsn rinind in
M'viTal parts of tiii- slate, and will proliaMy ere
lull),' lie milled with advantage. Clironiiiiin,
^vpsnni, iiiekel, antiinony, liisinnlli, sulphur, lead,
.salt, nitrate of [Mitassu (saltpetre), liorax, <'oal in
iar^e tpiantities and of ^ood i|uality, niarlilo of
extraordiiiarj' heaiity, alahaster, >;rani'e, Imlir-
stoiie, lime, il-e.. arc the otlier prinei|ial mineral
produets of the state. Mineral sprin^^s alioniid.
It was known from the statements of the earlier
visitors of the country, that pdd had heeii found,
or was helieved to exist, in California; hut these
statements had liecn eithi-r forgotten, or made no
impression, and it was not till late in May, or
curly in .luiie, IHIH, that the auriferous deposits
were discovered that attracted so miicii attention,
niiil had such wonderful results. They were found
(III the S. fork of the American river, a trihntary
(if ilie Sacramento, at a place now called (!<doina.
The news of tiie discovery and of llie niipa-
rallcled richness of the deposits spread with ex-
traordinary rapidity; and hefore the end of llic
season ahoiit ."(.(MMI men had lieeii attracted to
tlic spot, and their enterprise had lieen rewarded
liy the acipiisilion of f^old worth I,(mh».(HMI/.
sterling;. During the followiiif,' winter infornia-
tidii of the discovery sjiread on all sides, and to a
great distance ; niid in the season of I f<l!l, immi-
grants of all descriptions, and from the remot(*t
(■(iiintries, including; Americans. Mexicans, Peru-
vians. Chiliiios, Kii 'opeans, Sonth-sea ishinders,
jiiul Chineso crowded in swarms to the Sacra-
mento and its aflluents. A camp of at least
111,(100 Mexicans is said to have hecn formed.
'They had,' says an eye-witness, 'quite a city of
touts, hooths, and log caliins; hotels, restaurants,
stores, and sho))s of all descriptions, furnishing
whatever money ciuild jirocure. Ice was lirought
ffdin the Sierra, and ice-cream.' addod to otlier
luxuries. An inclosun; made of the trunks and
liraiiches of trees, and lined with cotton cloth,
served as a sort of amphitheatre for hull-lights;
(itlier amusements, chara<'terislic of the Jlexicans,
were to he seen in all directions.' 'i"hc foreigners
resorted principally to the S. mines, whieli gave
them a great superiority in numerical force over
tlic Anuricans, and cnalilcd them to take po.s-
scssion of some of the richest in that jiart oi' the
couiitrj'.
Gomrnment. — California wa.s ceded liy Mexico
to the United States in 1«4«. On their arrival
ill California the immigrants from the liiited
States, and other distant countries, found them-
selves in a singular iiosition. There were very
few inhnhitnnt.s, and no government or jxdice in
the country ; and the immigrants were totally
uiiacipiaiiitcd with the Sjianish laws, by wliicli
the property and affairs of the settlers had
hitherto been regulated. In coii.seqnence, the
greatest confusion and disorder took place. Tiie
Cdiigress of the United States soon hecanie aware
(if this untoward state of things, and of the ini-
|iiirtaiice of the vast addition made to its terri-
tory. r>ut the efforts of the government to
orjjanise the country into a new state, or to
suljject it to a constitutional regimen, were ob-
structed at tile outset by the fonniitabhi difiiciilty
ci (h'ciding whether slavery .slciuld or should not
lie allowed in the now slate ; and the disinclina-
tion or iimhility of Congrps.i to decide this ques-
tion jireveiiled' tlie admission of California into
tlie I iiion eiilier as a stale or a Icrrilory.
In this dilemma the .Americans in the country
displayed their singular capacity for self-govcrn-
iiieiil, by )ir(>mptly and unanimously adopting the
manly and safe course of forming I'heiiisclves into
a stale. In.lnne, iNl'.t.represenlaliveswcre cho.sen
in all |iarts of the Icrrilory to meet for the pnr-
lio.se ol forniing a consiirulion. The new slate
wasadiniilcd into the Union in IH.'iO, and Sa<Ta-
iiienlo declared to lie its capital, liy the terms
of the slate constitution, the legislature of Ca'i-
forniii consists of the senate ami assembly, and
convenes annually at Sacramento on tlie lirst
Monday in .laniiary. The Mnntr is composed of
forty members, cho.ien from twenty-eight sena-
torial districts, and the lemi of 'otlice is two
years, Th(' lieulenant-governor is e.r-o(flrii) pre-
sident of the senate. The ihihciiiIiIi/ is composed
of eighty members, elected iinnually, and the pre-
siding ollicer is chosen from their own body.
The pay of the members of the legislature' is, for
the lirst ninety d.ays of the session, ten ilollars per
day, and for IIk- reniaiiiih'r of the session live
dollars jier day, and mileage at the rate of four
dollars (or every twenty miles of travel from llieir
residence by the nearest mail-ronle IoIIk^ capital.
'i'lie coiistilulional anieiidnients provide for
biennial sessions, to conmicnce on Die lirst Mon-
day ill December. I\Ienibers of the as.seinbly are,
to be chosen for two years, and senators for four
yeans.
Riviiiiie mill E.ipvmUliin'. — The siilijoined l.inle
shows llii' receipts and cxpcnditiires of Calilbinia
for Ihirlcen year.s, fmm 1«J0 to iM'l, to the ;K»lli
of June, each year: —
Ycari '
Kecclpti
KiiirndUurei
Dullan
— • — I
nnllan
IS-IO ....
a.i.'io
•.ir,\fl-i'i
IS.-il ....
.'^.^0,7!l(!
i\->:ivi
1H.V.> ....
;tii(i,s-.».-.
1,(l:'ll,:':i9
lK."i:l ....
4.M.!1S(;
],-t.Mi,Hir,
IS.Vt ....
1 ,(i-.'-.>,i|.t7
l,.|ii!»,'.'(ir)
w:,:> . . . .
I,|:i.'-.,.'i:l7
l,17l,!i:l7
lH.->(; ....
72:l,'.'!)ll
l,(i:i-.>.7(i5
1S.-.7 ....
7llll,7!l.'i
l,iil.s,-.'ii:i
i«.w ....
1,'.>1.\P.'!)
!is:l,:ir,:i
IS.^!) ....
1.1 SI, •.'•.>•_'
],l(i!i,li:)
IStKI ....
l,liis,.-iS'>
l,l(iri,7is
isdl ....
l,-.'!f.',7l!»
1 .^li-.'.CJIl
m;-i ....
Totaid . . .
\,w;\,:,'i'd
],I4(;,745
l.''.,n(in,4fi8
10,779,.M3
10,77i),'.'13
Excciw of Expenditures ov
tor i;i Years
er Ueccipts )
4,281,255
Objects of expenditure for thirteen years, from
|M.")(I lo Isilj iuchisive, showing aggregates for
that period Ibr each class : —
Execntivo . . .
LcKi^liitiiro .
.Judiciary
rrintiiig
Schools ....
l)o.s)iit.ils
Indifrciit Sick
Insimc Asylum
State I'l-isim .
Indiiui Wars ,
Interest Sliito Debt
Bends paid
Helief imrposes
Miscclluncous
Total for \'i Years
Dollarii
1 :>'>■■) A-ir,
;i,-.':!7,lo:!
1,270,7;)!)
.'lie. ,0(10
(;!iii,.'i(i2
!<■■., 1 10
82.'i,-.'(i(l
l,r,4(l,ll4
l:l(i,.'.!iO
l,7!i:!,(;'J!>
y7H..SIo
ai4.(i!i«
l,(M8,sy7
i:),(i(;o,4(i8
u u 2
K
612
CALIFORNIA
TliP totnl (U'lil of the Htiif)', fimdctl mid iin-
fiiiiiU'd, ninoimtrd to f».rit!!V2H"» <li>lliir« on tin; 1st
(if Jimimry, lN<i3, 'I'lu- ^renter |iiirl of tliin dct)t
<'()nNiHt('(l iifolilipitioiiH known n.s ' Itondsof IH,')7,'
to tliu nnionnt of 'A,T27,MM dollarM, th« whole of
-which Nnni wim HixMit upon Imrhoiirx, cniiiilH, und
other workx of pulilio utility.
y'liliiiition unit Tmut'ion.—\n 18(i2 tlio nsHcsw-d
value of the real and pcrHonal property of Cali-
fornia for puriHMi'.s of taxation wan l(');i,It(i!(,(l<"l
(jollarfi. On tiiiM there wa« asuessed for Htate useH
a lax of <i'2 <^ents on the hundrcil (hillars, ainount-
iufT to !l!)t,22H (lollarx; of whieii there had heen
eolleeted to Deceniher of that year 1 1 'i.il'.l'.t doUars.
For the ])iirpose of raining (in part) the Htnte
quota of the I'liited States direet tax, a pro-
l)erty tax of I.*) cents on the innidred (Killars was
nssesseil, nmountiiif? to 2IO,r)5!{ dollars; also for
the same punxme a poll-tax of two dollars on each
taxahle )ioll (estimated to number l.'JO.OOO),
making; 2(>l),(l(ll) <ioihirs.
The state owned, in iH(!2, in all 8,807,(180 acres
of lands uniier the following
Grant of S<'liooI Lnnds .
„ Bwanip I.umls
„ Intcnml Imiirovonicnt
„ Senilnnrv
„ Public Uulldings .
Total
Acrri
fi.T.i.'i.'jno
l,fi(M),0(IO
ri(i(i,o(io
4(i,()H0
«,4MU
7,807,(iH0
A portion of this land, possessed liy the state,
has hecome extremely valuable by the discovery
of new mines.
Uiiilwitys mill CuMih. — The state has three rail-
roads, viz. 1. Th(! California Central, 4:1.8 m. in
lenylii: the cost of this road and erpiipment is
stated at 1,000,0110 dollars. 2. The Sacramento
Valley, 22.") m. in lenf,'th. 3. The Las l\farii)osas,
n railway .'J.7 m. in length, constructed by (ieneral
Fi('niont on his mining jtroperty at Mariposa, and
is remarkable for the skill with which it has over-
come serious engineering dilHcnhies. There are
no state canals; but the canals constructed by
private companies for purjioses of mining and
navigation arc of extraonlinary extent. In 18.">!)
there were 5,72<i miles of artificial water-courses
constructed for mining-purposes, at a cost of
13,074,400 dollars. A single county (El Dorado)
had l,lt)0 miles of these canals. These are inde-
pendent of iiiiucducts for the supply of water to
four or live ei' the larger towns. They have nearly
or fpiite doubled since that lime.
Steamers make the ])assage from New York
and New Orleans to Chagres, respectively, in
about seven and four days; and allowing three
days for the conveyance of freight across the
Isl'lunus, and ten dajys for the voyage from Pa-
nama to San Francisco, the passage from New
York to the latter is made in twenty, and from
New Orleans in seventeen days. This facility of
comnuiniealion is of no less importance to the
Atlantic states of thcl'nion than to California.
JJi.itori/. — California was discovered by Cnbrillo,
n Spaniard, in 1542. At a later jMiriod, or in
1,')78, Sir Francis Drake sailed along its shores,
jirolonging bis voyage to the 4«th dog. of lat.
From this circumstance, the name of New Albion
lias sometimes been given to the country N. of
San Francisco; though, as Humboldt states, this
designation, if employed at all, should be restricted
to the country extending from tli(! 4:ir(l (the N.
limit of Cabrillo's voyage) to the 48th (leg. of lat.
(N. 1'"si)agiio, ii. 27i).) It was not colonised by
the Sjiauiards till 1708. The latter founde<l esta-
blishments in various parts of the country under
tlie nmuiis oi rif\sk/it>s M\d 3Ji.isujtis; the fonner
CALLKNDEU
lieinK military postH, and the latter a sort of wnii-
ndigions tbundations under the guidance o| i||,'
Franciscan friars. Like the Jesuits, these I'lUliir^
exerted thems«'lveH to iiiNtruct the Indians in tlii^
art of hiiNhandry, and apparently their efforts witc
crowned with success, llut here, as in other piirH,
the civilisation of the Indians appears to liav(3
been wludly forced and factitious; and when iIk.
missions were deserted by the friars the luitivis
relapsed into their original barbarism. Tlicir
numbers have since rajiidly decliiUMl ; and it is
probable that at no distant period the race will lii>
entirely extirpated. The Americans seem gciii'-
rally to regard them as a sort of fi-ru' iniliiru;
or at best as irreciaimable burbarianH without liiu
pal*! of hnmanitv.
In 18;t0, California began to he resorted to hv
American and Knglish hunters and other adven-
turers; who soon began to think of enianei|mtiiif,'
themselves from the feeble dominion of Mexico,
The latter was overthrown in 18;i(i. Subse(|U(.|itly
the country became a prey to all sorts of disonlcrs;
adventurers from the United States and Mcxicn
alternately getting the ascendancy. At ieii;,'tli a
war broke out in 184t! between the Tnited SiiiMs
and Mexico ; and the latter, having been dcl'eiiiMl
at all points, finally ceded California to the linidii
in 1848,
CALLAII (EL), a town of Harbary, reg. Algiers,
on a moinituin, and surrounded by ramilicatiniis
of the Atlas, IT) m. NE. IMaseara. It is a dirty
and ill-contrived town, having neither drnini,
pavement nor causewavs. It has a citadel, mid
a large manufactory of carpt'ts and Imrmitm^ or
woollen cloaks. Several villages in the iieigli-
bourhoo(i are engaged in the same eniploynicnt.
Dr. Shaw thinks that it may have bejn the Cillui
or Apt'uc of I'tolemy.
C.VLLAN, an inl. town of Ireland, co. Kilkenny,
prov. Leinster, on the King's Itiver, an atlincnt iif
the Nore, 72 m. SW. by S. Dublin. Top. •J.IWI
in 18G1, the great majority of whom are li. Catlid-
lics. The town was anciently wjiMed and a place
of ctmsiderable strength ; but was Conned ami ilis-
mantled by Oomwell in KI.^O. Tliv streets lonu
a cross, with lanes branching from them, and tlic
houses arc, in general, very indillVreni. TIk' parisli
church was anciently a nionastic building; tlio
Konian Catludic chapel is modern. There is al.Mi
an Augustine friarj', with a large chap(4, a nii-
tional .school, a disjjen.sar^', and a loan fnnd, A
party of the constabulary is stationed here. Tiii'
cor]ioration, which consists of a sovereign, Ijur-
gesses, and freemen, returned two mem. to llic
Irish \\. of C. till the Union, when it was dis-
franchised. The liberties extend to a eonsiilcr-
able distance round the town. The only trade is
in grain. Markets are held in a small inarkct-
hoHse, on Tuesdays and Saturdays; and for |ii;;s,
on every IMonday from January io jMay. I'airs
arc helil on 4tirMay, l;5th June, lOth J'nly. 2l>t
August, lOtli October, 4tli November, and llili
December.
CALLENDEL*, a village of Scotland, co. Pcrtli,
valley of Jlenteith, beautifully situated on the lilt
bank of the Teith, ICim.NW. Stirling, on a liraiicli
of the Scottish Central railway. I'op. 881 in iMil.
The village may be regarded as the threshold uf
the Highlands in this quarter, and is siirnjinuled
on all sides except the S. by stupendous nioini-
tains, forming part of the tiranipians; IJenledi,
the liighest and most striking, being, ii.Otili ti.
above the level of the .se;i. I'op. l,2n(). Gaelic
and English are both spoken, ami the Ili;,'lilaiid
dress is ))artially wojn. A cla.ssical interest has
Ix^en inqiurted to this town, and to tlio district
with which it is connected, by Sir Waller Scott's
IKiom of * The 1
and the'l'rosael
in that poem, 1
activity and pn
village are chie
derives from lyi
fare leading to (
is Iniilt oil t'fiiM,
noble family of
an acre or nio
has a sounu! o|
jieciiliar to Vn
nig ill the tow
edi.uu!, with a «|
HclUHd.
(;allao, ft,
AV. from Lima,
side of a orojecti
barren island of
U'. side of its bii
10" W. TIh! h,
jioor, with nind
forlided. The i
I'eriiviaii coast,
10 fathoms, Tl
within which vei
ludoad. There i
I'allao to Lima.
paratively moder
lieen whdlly de.st
fill earthquake tl
destroyed great
tlie ruins of the
tlie water at a
town. Ill Nover
out the Esmeral
from under the
These siirronden
course of the folh
CALLE (LA),
({oria, prov. (.'oiisti
town contains a fa
can Company,
nearly surroundei
the iirincipal .sea
along the Harbari
liy the .Mgeriiies'
CALLIANEE,
Aurungabad, pros
lat. llPJo'N., h.i
a distr. of the sa
bank of the Caila
is, however, popu
ciK:oa-nnt.s, oil, c(
ware. It sustain,
lietween the Mogi
iif Callianee is a
along t he .sea-coas
8alselte, Ac., boii
eontaining the t
l>aiai)oor, »tc. : it;
well |)eopled ; but
and thinly scatter
CALLINtJTON
CO. Cornwall, mid(
'.'.'iOO acres. I'tip.
ill a low and nnpl
Tavistock. It wii
K'i^abeth, and re
C.l'rom that iierii
li'oform Act, wlujii
of election was in
liaying scot and h\
CALLOSA DE
prov. Alicante, 18
1>*">7. The town
the Gaudalest :\
CALLAO
|Miom of'Tlio I.ndy of llifl Lake,' Loch KiUlioriiic
mill ilinTroHiiclw ('hris'lod country'), mo ('clclirnrcil
in lliHl poem, lie 10 m. W. I'roni Callander. The
iirtivity (ind prosperity wliicli murk iIiIm neat little
vilhiK'' '>'■'' cliielly aMcriliahle lo the advantages it
derives from lyinj; in the lincof llii-^reat Ihonin^h-
fare leading to IIicmc romantic scenes. The vilia^'e
is hnilt on t'riiM, or hnildin^ leases, hiddin;; of ih(>
nohle family of I'erth, to each of which is attached
an acre or mor<^ of j^romid, ho that each family
luiM a s<Mirce of employment within itself, almost
jiecniiar to Callander.' The only puhlic linild-
nit; in the town is the parish church, n modern
edi.ice, with a Hpire. It lia.sulm>an etlicieiit |iarish
fichool.
CA I.LAO, n RPft-port town of Peru, about (! m,
W. from Lima, of which it is the port, on the N.
siiie of a iirojeetiii^r toiif^'ue of land, op|i(isit(! to the
barren island of San Loreii/,o, which pnitects tlu(
W. siije of itH hay; lat. 12° il' M>" S., loii^. 77" I'
Id" \V. The houses in the town are mean and
|Hior, with mud walls and flat roofs. It is well
i'lirtiliiMl. The roadslea<l is liy far the hest on the
IVruviaii coast, with ^ood anchorn^e in from 7 to
ll» fathoms. There is .t rudely constnuaed pier,
within which vessels of larj^e hiirden may load anil
unload. There is a very j^ood carriime' road from
t'allao to Lima. The jtresent town is of com-
paratively modern ori>,'iii; the fonnertown haviiij;
iieen wholly destroyed and Hulimer^ed in a dreiid-
fiil earthquake that occurred in 174t>, which also
ili'stroved jjreat part of Lima. In calm weather
the ruins of the old town are Htill visihle under
the water at a short distance from the present
tiiwn. In November, 1H2(>, Lord Cochrane cut
out the Ksmerahia, a, lar^c Spanisi; ship of war,
fnim uuiUt the nuns of the castles of Callao.
These surrendered to the Indepundent.s in the
cuurse of the following year.
CALLK (LA), or LL' CALLATI, a town of Al-
^'oria, )irov. Constantinc. I'op. l,'2()(iin l«(il. The
town contains a factory founded by the French Afri-
can Company. It stands on a iieninsulated rock
nearly surrounded by the sea. This was formerly
the |)riiicipal seat of the coral lishcry carried on
aloiifj; the Uarbary (toast. It was nearly destroyed
hy the Alf^erines in IH27.
CALLIAN'KK, an inl.town of Ilindostan. prov.
Aurun^abad, jiresid. liomliav, 21 m. N'K. that citv;
lat. IIP 15' N., lon^;. 7',i° [r> K. It is the cap. "of
a ilistr. of the same name, and stands on the S.
tmiik of the Cailas river, surrounded by ruins: it
is, however, populous, and carries on some trade in
ciK'oa-iiuts, oil, coarse cloths, brass, and earthen-
ware. It sustained many sicffits durin}i; the wars
lii'tween the Mofiuls acd iMahruttas. Tlie district
iif Calliauee is a strong hilly country extendiii;;
iiliiii^' the sea-coast, opposite the islands of I{ond)ay,
.Salsctte, &i;, bounded K. by the W. (ihaiits. and
ciintainiii!f the towns of Itassein, I'anwell, (Jhowl,
l!aiai)oor, itc. : its towns arc larj^e and tolerably
wdlijcopled; but its villages small, meuiily built,
and thinly scattered.
CALLINtjiTOX, a town and par. of Kti^jland,
CO. Cornwall, middle div., E. hiinil. Aa-n ofjiar.
2.(iO(» acres. I'op. of do., 2,202 in l«(;i. The town,
in a h)W and un])leasant situation, is 7 m. SSW.
Tavistock. It was made a bor. in the 27th of
Eli;;abeth, and returned two iiieni. to the II. of
C.froni that ]ieriod down to the passiiij^ of the
Hoform Act, when it was dislraiichiscd. Tlic ri^lit
of election was in the owners of burgaj^c teuures
imviiig scot and lot.
CALLOSA DE KNSAIMUA, a town of Spain,
prov. Alicante, IS ni. SSW. Deiiia. Pop. ;!,;m)() in
1><")7. The town stands near the coiilluciicc of
the Gaudalest iiiul Algar, in a mountainous
CALNE
AIS
coimfr>' that produces line rnisiiiH, and rxcellent
wine, nlmonds, and fruit,
CALLOSA DK SKtilTHA, a town of Spain,
prov. Alicant(>, four m. I'',. ( trihiiela, on the river
Segura. i'op. .'l,M7t! in I«."i7. Charcoal, known
by till! name of jimitini, is here maiiiifacturid
from the stalks of hemp; il is said to ite superior
to any other for the tnaiiufacture of gunpotvdcr,
and ischictly used in the preparation of that made
for the Spanish arlillerv.
CAL.MAK, or KALMAK, a sea-port town of
Switden, cap. prefecture of same iianu', on the \V.
side of tin; narrow strait of the Ilaltic, separating
tlu^ island of (Kland from the continent, '.mi m.
NKK. of Carlscrona ; lat. M° lo';tO" N., long. IC^
2<! I")" K. Pop. l."i,!ti')l in IHtlO. The town siaiids
on the Hinall island of (juarnbolm, which commu-
nicates with the mainland, where there is a sub-
urb, by a bridge of boats. It is built of wood, and
is stronglv Ibrtilied. The castle, in the sultiirb,
formerly looked upon as one of the keys of the
kiiigdoni, is now occupied as a house of correction.
Calmar is the seat of a bishopric, luid has an aca-
demy and a <lockyard. The cathedral is a line
stone building; and the mansion of the |)refi'ct, the
town-hall, and some other publiit edilicos, are of
the same enduring material. Its port is small, lait
safe and commodious. There are nnmufaclures of
woidlen stiirts, tobacco, and potash. Previously
to the annexation of the provinces of Scl.' neii and.
lilekingen to Sweden, this town was of much
greater consequence than at jiresent. Its impor-
tance as a fortress has declined ; and its commence,
which was formerly very eonsiih'rahle, has been
mostly transferred to Stoitkholm; but timber,
alum, tar, and liemn, are still exported.
This is a very old town. Having been burnt
down in If!l7, it was rttbnilt on the island of (^uarii-
holin, being ]ireviously sitiialed on the mainland,
where its suburb now stands. It has been the
scene of some very important events in Swedish
history. Here, in 13117, was coiicluileil the famous
treaty Avliich united the kiiigihmis of Sweden,
Denmark, and Norway, under tiie vigorous sceptre
of (^neen Alargaret, surnamed the Northern Scmi-
ramis. Kut in its consequences this treaty was
very ruinous to Sweden. Here also, in IjVJO, (Jiis-
tavus Vasa disembarked to deliver his country
from the domination of foreigners and of a san-
guiiuiry tyrant. Louis Will, resided at Calmar
in \H{)\, and erected at Steiisai a tablet in honour
of (iustavus. In l«IM( n lire destroyed a great
number of the houses, with the buildings of the
academy.
CALNK, a pari, bor., market town, and par. of
Knghmd, co. Wilts, huud. Calne, ><ll m. W. from
Lo'idon by road, and !)',» ni. by (Jreat Western rail-
way. Pop. of ]mrliament. bor. i>,\7'.K and luuuic.
bor. 2,4!)t in IHlil. The liorongh formerly com-
prised 8H5 acres ; but the l^oiindary Act made the
limits of the pari. bor. coincident with those of the
par. The town, which consists chietly of one long
street, is well liuilt, with stone houses, and is well
jiaved aiil lighted with gas. The chiirdi. a largit
ancient stri •turc, has a tower by Inigo ,Iones;
and there uw various dissenting chapels. The
town-hall was erected at the exi)ense of the Mar-
(piis of Lansdowne. The t'raniniar-school, founded
ill I (Kid, has l\i) exliiliitioiis to (^)ueen's College,
( Ixford ; and I here are Uritish and national schools,
Sunday sclmols. Tlicrc are dax and water mills.
A branch of ilic Wilts and IJerks canal coiuniuiii-
catcs with tin town, and. together with the rail-
way, much facilitates its trade.
(.lahie is a bor. by prescription : it began to .send
mem. to the II. of C. in the reign of Ivhvard I. ;
and regularly scut 2 mem. from the reign of
.v\i
k;
(ill CALVADOS
Ifiilmnl n.ilnwn torlin paHsiitj^of llio Rpform Art, ]
wliii'li il<>|trivi'il it nC iiii<> of ii.s nu'in,, itinl al llii* ,
HiiiiK' liiiK' t'xtciuli'il iIk^ liinits III' till! Iiiir. a-* Mtalcil
hImivc. I'rcvinii.-ily I" llic Ui^Cnriii Art, tlii^ rijflitur
vittiii)^ was ill lli(> liiir^'i'MHCs, who iiiifrhl lie iiiiic-
liiiitcly iiicnNiMcil, HcnistiTciUiicctnrs IHtiii iHtil.
IIiiw'ihhI, the ina^iiiticciit Hciit of llic Miiniiiit of
LaiMilDwiic, lii'H alMiiil \\ in. WMVniii the inwii,
CALVADOS, a (|i'|i. "(' I'Vaiiff, mi> cnllcil (rum a
cliaiii of rocks of ttiat iiainc that Hlrclc-hcH iiloii/j;
jilirt of itH coant, lioiiuilcil N. hy the l'',M;(llHh
riianiH'l, v., hy the (lop. Kiiro, H. hy <»rMc, ami VV.
hy that of La Maiuh(!. Area rt.Vil,!!',!;! lurtarcM.
I 'op. I K< ),!)!)-.> ill IHtil. SiirtiK't' mostly Hat, the
only hills of any coiiMcipiciu'c Iwiii^ in the arroml,
of Virc, ill lh« SVV. corner of the ili'ii. Soil of the
plains coiiipoHcil principally of calcareous clay ; the
woil of the valleys, of which there are several of
larj^e extent, is principally alluvial, aiitl that of
the hilly parts saiiily. Minerals iiiiiiiiportant,with
the e\c(>ptioii of coal, of which alioiit Dill ipiiiil.
(iiH^t.) are annually produci'il nt Littry. Cliiiiate
rather cold and moist. There are several rivers,
hul none of them is navipihle for any coiisiderahle
cMeiit inland. Coasts in must parts iiiaccessiiile ;
and the de'p. has no piod harliour. I'astiira){e is
more alteiiiU>d to than tillage; hut the latter is in
a mote advanced state than in most other dejiart-
nieiits. The average produce of wheat is estimated
at. alioiit 1,11)11,(11111 lic(;t. ; and that of harley, oats,
rye, and huckwheat may he taken at ahoiit as
much more. Apples are larf;'ely cultivated, and
cider is the common l«>veran(! of the country. The
|)otato ciiltiin? has recently heen much extendiMl.
Oxen hut little nsecl in li(dd lahoiir. Meadows
very extensive, exteiidiiij; over ahoiit 12;i,(HMl hec-
tares, and their manap'iiient well understood. In
tlu^ valleys, larj^c; henls of cattUt are fattened for
the markets of I'aris, Itouen, and (jaen. They are
hounht lean in the dei)artineiitH of Fiiiisterre,
(.'otes-du-Nord, Sarthe, luid Mayeiine. The dairy
is also ail ohjeut of much ulteiitioii; and lar^e
ipiantilies of superior hiitter and cheese are pro-
duced. 'I'otal stock of cattle (-stimated at 1(10,(100
head. 'I'he horses of this part of Normandy are
reckoned the (inest in France: stock estimated at
W),000, exclusive of 12,00(1 mules and asses. Sheep
have heen vastly improved during; the iiresent
century. Annual produce of wool ;UO,0(IO kilo;,'s.
(ireat. iiiiirihers of ho}^s are futteiied. The forests
cover nearly 40,(100 hectares. The lace manufac-
tory is widely ditl'iised, particularly ahout Caen ;
and the spinniii}^ and weaving <>f cotton and wool
occupy a ^reat munher of hands ; there are, also,
paper-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, retincries of heet-
root and foreif^n sujjar with distilleries. The
mackerel and lierriiif^ lishery is successfully carried
on along the coast. The <le']). is divided into 7
arrond. Principal tciwns, Caen, Lisieux, Hayeux,
Falaise, lloiitleur, aiidVire.
CALV'l, a sea-port town of Corsica, N\V. coast
of the island, on an elevated peninsula in the
f,'ulf of the same name; lat. 42° iU' 7" X., loiij^.
«o 45' HI" K. Pop. 2,0(;!» in IHtil. The town has
a f:jood harhour and road; hut derives its i)riucipal
conse(|ueiicc from its strong citadel, flanked with
live hastions. It was taken hy the English in
17!t4, hut not till after a siege of .51 days.
CAMAltCUK (LA), a river island of France,
dep. IJc)u<;hcs-du-lihonc, heing, in fact, the delta
of the Hhono. It is of a triangular fonn, and ex-
tends from Aries to the sea ; having I'], the (ireat
Jfliouc, or miiiii hrancli of the river, X. and W. the
Little lihoiie, and S, the sea. It is (luito flat, and
is supposed to contain ahout 5.5,000 hectares, of
which ahout 12,000, lying |irincipally along the
river, arc cultivated ; the rest cousisld of lagoons,
CAM HAY
mnrshos, and wiwlrx. The lagoonn, pnrticiilnrlv
that of Viilcaris, are very extensive: ihi-v ar.'
inoitly situated in the centre of the istiiinl ainl
along the sea coast, where the ground is Iowchi,
Lxcepl in certain districts, where saml iirednnii-
nates, the soil is, in general, very fertile. Tli,.
cultivated portion produces exitelleiit crops uf
wheal and harley; and the marshes and otiirr
grounds feifd large llocks of sheep during winter,
with great numhers of cattle and horses. Tlie
latter liavi' many properl ies of the Arah hordes,
and are hanly, and highly esteemed for the Nadillr.
The oxen are a small hreed, hut strong and ai'tive;
and heing hred up in a state of the most perlcci
I'reedom, are very wild. Considerahle tracts uri'
covered with a salt etlloresceiice, a conseipieiicc uf
the siihsoil coiisiiiling of sea sand. Th(> |ierMicliiiis
intluence of this salt impregiiaiion is in some pints
counteracted hy inundating the country with tlie
waters of the Itlioiie. A good deal of salt is pm-
diiceil. It is proposed lo atti^npt liie drainage nf
the lagoon and marshes, hy cutting a canal fur
that ]i#>rpose. Insiimmer tlieair is very unhcaliliy.
C.VMJtAV, a marit. town of llin(iostaii, pruv.
(iiijerat, in the (iuicowar's dom., formerly a cele-
hriited and tlourishiiig sea-port, hut now iiiiicli
decayed, through tlu^ tilling iiji of the hay, al the
head of which it stands, hv the deposits lir(Mi;;lit
down hy the rivers. It is t2 in. NSW. Sural, -.'(Hi
in. N. I'tomhay. Pop. ahout 10,000, almost e(|ii.iliy
divided hetween Hindoos and Midiammedaiis. \a-
rioiis Hindoo and Mohammedan ediliees an^ still
to he seen, amongst which is a very heaiitirid
mosfpie, close to the nawaiih's residence : its main
court contains .'t(iO jiillars of a handsonu; red saiul-
stone, tint material for wlii(di was hroiight, it is
said, from Ciitch. There iire also the remains nf
a suhterranean temple, said hy some to Ik- of .lain,
hut helieveil hy others to he of Ihiddhic origin : ii,
consists of two ehamhers, one over the other, ami
ahout 20 ft. sq. In the lower chamher three >iili-s
are occupied hy empty niches; in the fourllf tlicrr
is a (hiiihle row of white iiiarhle idols, liaviii;; in
their centre a gigantic idol 7 or H ft. high: they
are all alike, with a mild aspect, the legs cro-iscii,
and a hitos tlower on the sole of the font. In tlu;
upper room the figures arc similar, and in one
corner there is a hiack marhle idol of the same
size and apjiearance as the one heneath ; noiii' dC
the other tigures here are more than 2 ft. liif,'li.
Many emigrants from Persia formerly settled lieri',
after the civil wars in that country and coiupic-'is
of Niulir Shah; and it has still thirty or loriy
Parsee families. The silversmiths here ciuIhiss
very neatly, hy tilling the artich's to he opcraicil
on with glim lac, and then punching the ligiircs
with a small chisel ; hut the chief industry consists
ill the nmiufacture of cornelian, hloodstone, agate,
iSrc. ornaments. These stones, when inteiidiil fur
heads, are chipped into a roundish tigiire, ami
aftenvards rolled together in hags for several
weeks, till they hecome perfectly spherical : wiitii
a tlat surface is reipiired, the stones are sawn iiy
means of a mixture of gum lac and quart zose siil/-
stances, which readily fuse together, find lianliii
as they cool, when they are formed into cuttiii;;
instruments. Camhay formerly exporteil silks,
chintzes, gohl, stuffs, li'C. ; hut these manufactures
have dwindled away: the town was given up as a
trading station. Heavy goods have almost ccaseii
heing shipped at (Jamhay, and most of the (injerar
cotton is now sent to (Jogo, The surrouiiilin;;
country is pleasant and rich, hut not generally well
cultivated; it yields ample returns of wheat ami
llindostancc grains, indigo, cotton, oil-seeds, ami
excellent tohacco : some grain ami indigo arc ex-
ported to Bombay, aatl tobacco, Ironi which many
TAMUKnWFXL
imiiiition^ of Miiiiilla cIiitiioIh iirc mnilr, TIiIn
cily iiikI (crritorv |iriM<|H'ri'il iiiiiItT the Mn^riils; in
ITiHO it v/an (rifiiitarv III tli<< Mnliriitta iintliwn,
iiiM('4> \v'liiiN«t I'lkll IiIh ri^lilH lmv<> lU'Volvnl on tin;
ltrilii«li n»v., to whiiiii iIk! iialiiili yioltU allc-
({iiini'c,
( 'AM lll;.U\VKI-r„ a par. of Knulaml. <•... Siirrcv,
I'!. <liv. Ilrixriiii, liuinl, a miiIhii'Ii of tlii' iii('iro|Hili.s,
on itH M, Hide. Arm l,.'>70 acrcx. I'lip. '2x,'i:H in
|H:tl,anil 7I,Ihn in iNiil, 'rinMnorcnniii'ni |iiirt of
what waH forincrly ilcsignatcil I lit' villap' ot Cani-
Intwi'II, incluilin^ the iircfii, in nio.<*tly ot'cniticii
liy nImi|ik, ikml iH hn|i|ili('(i uicli wali'r from ihr
workN of till' S, Loiiilon ('oni|iany. TIk- inori^
niodi'rri inanHionH i\w. nio»tly ilciailiril ImnilHonio
lioiiNi's, oiTii|iyiii^ tlic ri:>'u\n f;rouni| to llic S,
mill SIO, of till' fonn<>r; known iw llui (irovc,
('liMrn|iiiin, Drnniark, unil lli'mr liiilH, Witliin tlii'
h\M few years, I lie wliole of Canilicrwi'll Iiiim Ihtii
ureal ly iiilerHeeleil liy railways. I'lie iiarisii clinreli,
N(i|i|ioseiltoliavelteenliiiill in I 'i'ill,anileniar)^eilaiul
iiii|iroveil ill I'HCi.is in llie laler (ioiliie«lyle, liav-
hn; a lotv eniliattlcil lower, witli many iiilerexlinf;
luoiinmenlH. 'I'liere are numerous oilier cliiirelies,
Hinoii); lliein Cainileii Clmreli, ami om^ lieside llie
Surrey Canal, Imilt l>y IIk^ el'iireli commissioners
ill ilie (irecian style, anil forming llie ilisiriel
eliiireli of Si. (Jeor>;e. There are also a ^;real
iiiitnlier of ilissenlin); i.'liapels; a free ^'ranimar-
hi'liool, foiindeil in IliiX for I'.' hoys, is endowiMl
with an estate valued at 2(10/. a year. There is a
^reen-eoat school, on the national plan, on Cam-
lierwell (ireeii, and a similar one, allaehed to
Camden ehni'ch, founded in IKIU; It or I other
M'hools have small endowinents ; aud there are
^lunle minor eharities. 'I'he ^^ronnds of the S.
Metropolitan (Jemclery, in this parish, form an
extensive enclosure, laslefiilly laiil out, with a
chapel anil other ollices iiiid eatacoinlis. The
)i;;riciilliiral portion of the parish is fertile; and
iiiarkc^t-^jardeiis and imrserics employ jiart of
tlic )lopnlalion. The majority, however, are more
iir less engap'd in the ^(Uieral liiisiness of the
metropolis. The Surrey Canal terminates in it.
On Lailland Hill, S. of Camlicrwell, was a i|iiadri-
lateral lioman camp, with a donlile enlrenchmenl.
Ill di;;>;iiiff the canal, in IHII'J, a lioman way was
ilisiovered, formed of s(|uare hlocks of chalk,
Hccnri'd with oak piles, which has inaile some
suppose that this was the place where the Koman
li'jiions first crossed the TliameH : iJ ancient wells,
mi Well Hill, in the (mrisli, are sup[)oscil to have
(iri^inated the name.
CAMHO.IA, or (CAMBODIA, a conntry of
India heyond the (ianges, formerly one of the
most tlonrishin^ in that |ieninsiila; Imt at present
divided helween the empire of Aiiain and the
kiiij,'doin of Siam. It lies between lat. H° JJO' and
1.')° ;!(!' N., and hmy. \M° and 107° K.; having
N. Laos, E. Cochin China, W. Siam, and S. the
iiccan. It is enclosed K. and W. by two of the
;;rcat monnlain chains, which, ]iassin}; S. from
Vminaii, trav(^rsc the l'ltra-(ianf;etic peninsula;
mi the sea-shore, it jiresents a vast alluvial tlat,
sirctchinj^ for a considerable distance inland. It
liiis several rivers, one of which, theMekon, ranks
amonj^st the larf^est in Asia; and another, the
river of Saif^on, is jierhaps, in all respects, the
liiicst river in that continent for navijj;ation. 'i'he
interior of Caniboja is scarcely at all known by
Kiii'opeaiis: it contains large forests, producing
smiic teak, and many luio trees, a hard black
timber, called i/iio, eagle and rosewood, and
various other woods lit for cabinet-work, dye-
wiKids, areca, stick lac, sugar-cane, and pepper.
The celebrated gamboge gum is said to be ob-
tained from a species of (Jarcinia, bj- making
CAMIUIAY
flIA
inciftioMK in tlw hark, from which the gninrxiuleit,
mill is collecleil in vessels, in which it soon he-
comes coMcri'ie, and III for the market wilhoiit
farther preparation. Itesides ihe arlides already
named, CamlHija exiMirts eardamoms, ivorv, hides,
horns, hones, dried llsh, Ate. in considerable ipian-
lilies, and imporis silks, China and lacipiereil
ware, lea, NWi'elineals, tin, and liiliniKjiif, (Seo
Saiiion.) In person, manners, laws, and slate of
civilisation, the inhabitants more closely resemble
the Siamese tlnin any other jH'ople : most of
them are Ihiddhists; but there are a few Christians,
The latter I'ailh was llrst introduced by ihe rorln-
guese .lesnits in UV1\,
In IHII',1, in conseipience of diHH(>nsinns in the
country, it was invadeil hv both the Siamese
and Anamese, when Ihe latter made themselve.^
masters of reuomheng, Ihe modern capital, to-
gether with the person of the king, and look
possession of a large Iraci of country on the sea-
coast, from communication with which, the Kin-
perorof Anam. in In|',i, interdicteil all foreigners,
declaring Saigon the emporium of his S. provinces.
In IK'.'O, the tiiial purlilion ot thin country took
place.
Camiio.ia, an inl. town of India b(yond ihn
(ianges, the ancient cap. of the above, territory,
on both sides llu! Mekon, nearly 'Jdd m. from thii
sea; lat. IIP N., long. 11)1° ;t.V K. The Chineso
Avriters of the llltli century give a very tlorid de-
scription of its magniliceiice at that period, but il
is now in a state of decav.
I'AMIlorUNK, or CAM KOI! XK, a town nnil
par. of I'jigland, co. Cornwall, liund. I'eiiwith,
Area of par. (I.'.IOO acres. I'op, of par. I l.d.jfj, ami
of town, 7,20H in iMiil. This is a neatly-bnilt
and, for the most ]iarl, modern town, on an ele-
vated site, 1'2 m. \VN\V. Falmouth, nearllu^ S\V.
limits of lilt; chief mining district of the co., many
of the oldest and most productive mines of tin
and eop|ier being in its iinmcdiati! neiglibonrhood,
and furnishing employment, not only to the inliab.
of the town, but to llie !l or t considerable ham-
lets, and Ihe collages every where dispersed over
the parish. The church is a handsome structure,
in the latter (iotliic styli' : there is also a chapel
of ease, and several large dissenting chapels,
chielly for the various sections of the Wesleyan
Methodists; a frei; school, founded in I7li:!, for
J 2 boys and K girls, has a revenue of 21/. ; there
are idso several large Sunihiy schools. Market,
Saturday; fairs, chielly for cattle, Maritli 7, W'liil-
Tnesday, .June 2!l, and Nov. 1 1. Tetty sessions
for the hnnd. are held weekly in the town.
CA.MllKAV, a well-fort ilied town of Franco,
de'p. du Nord, cap. arrond., on the right bank of
the Scheldt, i32 m. S. Lille; on the Noriherii
railway. I'op. 22,.j.")7 in iNtil. Its fort iticat ions
were improved by Vanban, aiul it is further de-
fended by a strong citaiUd. It ia pretty well
built, aud has a magnilicent pluve i/'nniies. Its
])rinci|ial public buildings are the cathedral, the
hotel de ville, and the theatre. It has a tribunal
of original Jurisdiction, a communal college, a
diocesan seminary, with iJ.'id scholars; a secondary
school, a society of emultilion ; with schools of
design, sculpture, pamting, and anatomy; and a
public library, containing 5(1,0(10 volumes.
Canibray was fonnerly an archbishopric; and
hiis to boast of having had Feiielon, who died
here in 171.'), among its prelates. In 17li;), during
the revolutionary iihrenzy, the body of Fcneloii
wiis lorn from Ihe grave, and the lead of his colliii
cast into bidlets. The idd cathednil was, at tlio
same time, totally destroyed. A handsome monii-
nient, the work of David the sculptor, was erected
to the memory of Fenelou, iii the present cathc-
fe
OKi ('AMrnUlMIHXHIUK
ilrnl, in lHi*.'>, iinil<>r wtiirli UU rcinnliiM Imvc Im'ph
(li'liiwiicil. Ill iHcc.', tlii'iirrliliiHlir>|iri(Mir(Juiiiliriiy
Mito rliilli;;i'il iiilii ii liiil>'i|irii'.
'I'liit iiiMii lui'< lii't'ii Imii;; I'iiiiihiin foriu iniiiiii-
I'lirtiiri' lit' liiii' liiiiiM mill laiviis, tvlit'in ■■ nil xiiiil-
liir I'lilit'iiK iiri' r.'iili'il in I'.ii^liiiiil itimlirim. It
ui-iii |irii(liir<'M llirriiil ; fiirrirx nil M'vrriil liriiiiclii'H
III' till' riitlnii niiitiiirii'tiiri' ; iiiiil Iiiim r>iiii|i w>irl<'<,
laniii'ricM, iiiiil wait ii iiiirrii'M, A Kn'iitcr iiiiiiiImt
of lllllliln arr ii('i'li|iii'il ill llii< ailjniuill;; i ulllllllllli'rt
ill the liiii'ii ni/iiiiiraciiiri'. It liiii a I'liiiMitliTalili'
Iraili'iii uiHil, llii\, liiittiT ami lnipM, 'I'lic lavi^'a
liiiii iil'tlK^ Srih'lili licfriiiN lien-, anil it ('iiiiiinnni-
niti'H Willi Si. (^iii'iitin iiy a raliiil
'I'liiM is n very aiicimt city, liaviii^' liccti a placii
of ('iiiiNiili'ralilc iiii|iiii'iaiii'e iiinlcr iIh' IIiiiiiaiiK.
It is ct'li'liratnl ill ili|iliiiiiatit' lii^liiry lor tin*
raiiliiiis Icti^nc, kniiwii liy its iiiiinc, (mimIuiIi'iI
licrc ill Ia07, a;{iiirisi ihr rcpiililii' ul' Vi'iiici'; ami
liiriilrfaly ul' iicarc ni'miliali'il in l,V.V> liciwrcn
Kramis I. ami Cliarlcs V. li was tiikni rrmn I hi'
.SiMiniarils liy hiiiiis XIV. in Itiii", ami wiis coii-
lirini'il to Kraiii'i' liy tlic tn'atyol NiiiH';,'ii('ii, 'I'lic
llriliKli lonk it liy cscahuli' in Ml.j, alter llic
liatllt' III' WatcrliMi.
CAMIIIMlMiKSIIIIil':, MM iiilaml co. ul' Kn^'-
laiiil, having' N. imi, l.im'nlii, K. Nnrfnlk ami
>Snl1iilk, S, I'.sM'x ami llcrifiinl, ami \V, llcill'nril,
lliickiliK'liiini, Mini Niirlliai:i|itiiii. Area alH, IMII
ai'ri's, III' which almiit. .'iiio,iliMi arc Hn|i|iiiscii to lie
aralilc, iiicailiiw, ami pastiirc. roji. IMI.rir^.'i in
IMtil. SiirI'mc, cxcciit III the S. parts, where it
is ilivei'slliril, I'lir the niiisir part. Ihit ami iiakeil.
S<iil clayey ami sliililMirn. Il if diviilcd iiiln Iwn
|i(irtiiiiis liy the river Oiisc, ami is watered he-
(•iiles liy the Cam ami llic Xelie, or Neii. The
imist iiiirtlierly pnrtiiin . I' tluM'ti. coiisists priiici-
iially III' the district called the Isle of Kl •, which
lias separate jnrisilictiiiii within itself. This dis-
trict, whicli is iialiirally a marsh, is iiiclnded
^vitlli!l the ^reiit level nC the fens; and is rendered
liaiiitalile mily liy a most expensive system ol
draiiia^'c, liy which th(> water is raised and ciui-
vi'yed away in cliaimels, kept at a lii;,'her level
lli.'in the siirriiiindin^ coiintry, AKrlciiltnri! is in
rather a backward state, the land under tillage
lieinn' frequently I'lnil and nut of (irder. Wheat,
(lals, lieans, and iMitatnes are the principal crnps
ill the fens; and liarley in the elevated ffrimmls.
J''lax ami lieinp are also raised in tlu; tens; and
ciile is extensivoly ciiltivat<'d as fond for sheep.
The ri(;h meadows in the valley watered liy the
Cam are principMlly nppropriated to the dairy
Inisliaiidry, and Camhrid;;')' liutter lias lon^ en-
joyed a hij;ii rcjiiitation. The liirp', thin, cream
cheese, made at C'ottenliam, is admitted to he the
(irst of its class. Heavy cart liorses are exten-
sively lired. The rich fjrass lamis are mostly
depastnreil liy short-liorned cattle and lon^-
woolled sheep, Camlirid^fc, as well as Ilnntiii^-
doii, is overrun with |)i}^eoii-liouses. Msiates of
all sizes: some larf^e, lint maiij' small, some bein^;
worth only from •Jd/. to ."ill/., and KK)/. a year.
ISize of liirins cfpially various, and held mostly at
will. Farai-liiiiises inferior, and cotta;;es di^-
ridcdly ' bad.' IMannfactures and minerals of no
imporiaiice. The co. contains )H hiinds,, exclu-
sive of the. Me of Kly, and H>7 parishes, I'rinci-
iial towns. Camliridj!;e, I'^ly, Wisln-acli, In J«til
It had !i7,l>IM inhab. houses. It sends 7 mems.
to the II. of C., viz. it for the co., iJ for the Uni-
versity, and '2 for the bor. of Cambridge. liej^is-
tcn'd "elccinrs for tlii^ ('o. 7,17(! in INti.j. The
gross eslinialed rental assessed to |)(ior rate was
'JM,M'.)I. ill iJ^lil, and the amount assessed to
property tax was l,02(j,37(J/ in 1)5J7, anil
l,l40,ciiD/. ill 18Gi.
CAMimimM':
rAMiiiiirxii;, n pari, bi.r, mid town nf Kiit{l/niil.
CO. Cmiihrlil;;!', hiind. Ilemlisli, lli sent of tm,. „i
tlicKreiil l'.ii;;llsli iiiiivcrsllies, 0:1 the Cam.; |m
111. X. liN I,. Loiidnii by road, and u.'J in. by (inni
Kasii'in railway, I'.ip', W,:M\ 10 iNi.l, Tliv. town
issiliiali'd ill ail exieiixive level Irmt.tlin, irarcciy
presciii-i iiiiy inequality, with the exceptnui of lli.
(ioK Mau'iK hills. I III." SW, of the town; and tli,'
ureaicr pan of |u piibllc structures, will i||,.|r
walks ami Miirdeiis, are einbosoiiied in hikhI,
I tvvin^ to lliese circiiriisianct's, the ap|ir<uii in
Cambridp' is iinilii|iressivi' ; bill the iioliU' 1 i.n,)!
of Kiii'^''s Celleue, ihe tower of St. MiirvS ami
tlicsoin'ot Trinity Church, rise above tlie irei'-..
and break the general iinitormity of Ihe oniljn,
The i^'rcMlcr |Miriiiiii of the town stuiiils on ilir sr,
bank of llic river. The streets ari' in.islly miii. a
am! irreniil.ir. There an two principal liiii ..
which iiiiiieoii I be M-;. siili', near tln' iron bri'lKv
over the ''am; from these smaller streets ilivir;;i'
on cilhii side, all ul «liich are paved, sewerid.
ami lijjiiicd by pis. The chiel supply of water is
deriveil iroiii a spring ;i m. distant, and t vcmiI
by an iKiueduci, under some of the |irim'l|ial
streets, to a piilplic coiiilnit in the iiiarkei -pkiic.
I''or this thetowii is indebted to lloli^in, the Imr^e
hirer, whose deleriiiiiiatioii to let lis horses in
strict rotation ({ave rise to the wii known pru-
verli of • llobsoii's choice,' There are foiirii'cn
distinct parishes, mid a correspondiiin innnlicr nf
cliiiri'hes, St. .Slary's, a stately (iotliic sinniiiri',
forms one sidi^ of n i|iiadrnn^r|e,'in whiidi the niiJi-
lii' library and Henale-house are also placed; it is
occupied both by the parish and the iinivcrsiiv;
St, Se|iulclire's, built in the rei^ii of Henry I., in
imitation of that of the Holy Sepulchre at ."lcrii>a-
Icm ; and Trinity Church, "an ancient criiciloriii
structure, are the only churches woiili iioiin'.
The lliiptists, liide|ieiideiits, Friends, I'rimiiivi'
Methodists, ami Wesleyaiis hiiv(M'ha|M'ls, Thirc
is a free j,'rammar school, foumled bv Dr. rer-e in
ItJI"), originally for IIMl scholars, Init now cilii-
eating sixteen ; they have preference of Ihe I'crx'
fellowships ami scholarships in Cains Coll.: a na-
tional school, founded in IKIIK, and extended in
iMIti, educates tiill) boys and girls: in this the oM,
or Whisteii charity schools, have merged. In iiiin'
distinct sets of almshouses, lifty-six poor perMHK
are wholly 1 r partially supported : there are al-n
benefactions for various other (diaritable purpuM'^,
held in trust by the coqioration ; and a geniT:;!
infirniarv, called, from its founder, Addenbrnnkc's
llospilal, in which about 1,(1(10 jiatients are an-
nually relieved. The market-placu occupies iwn
oblong squares in the centre of Ihe town, at iIk^
head of which stands the shire-hall, and beliiml il
the town-hall. The gaol, built on Howard's pi.in
in IMli), is ill the yard of Ihe ancient ciisile (nf
which little more than the gati -vay reniaiM>) ;it
the N\V, end of the town — the only comparatively
elevated portion ; near it is an artilicial inoumi,
whence an extensive view is coinmanded, I'lic
various slriictiires connected with the universiiy
form, essentially, a part of the town, mostly mi
its W. side. There is a musical society on a larf,'c
scale, and groat musical I'estivals an; held, at in-
tervals, in St. Mary's (Jhnreli. The Cam, fnrincil
by the jinu'tioii of several small stre.iins aboiii I
m. from the town, is made navigable for bar;;os
up to the town: it Joins the Otise not far I'mni
Kly, by which n water communication is cmi-
tiniied to Lynn h'egis. There is a daily market
for general provisions; hut the chief supply is mi
Saturday, 'J'wo annual fairs are held— lli'e lirsi.
commencing June 2;(, lasts three days: it is held
on a common near Jesus Coll., and called I'ni
hair, from the quantity of earthenware brought to
CAMnUIPOK
it; llicfo Id rt \nrm> hur«<- lair mi llii' llr<l d.iy.
'I'hi' ntlii-r in Simirt>ri(l|.'*' litir, iiin'iciiilv iIh' liirui^l
ill llii' l\iiiK<l<»iii mill ^lill >>( i'>>iir<lil<'riklil<' ri'Kiirt,
tlmii^'li iiiiirli curluilicl Imili in iliiriiiiiii itiicl iiii-
|iiirliiiii'c : it in lii'lil ill It lli'lil lii'iir I tiiriiucll, (k
villiiKi' iKljiiiiiiiiK rmiiliriilKi'i i>"<l I*"'" (ui'ili't'ii
ilii>>i nil iwi> III ilii'O)' liiirTH iiri' nmIiI, iiml on tlit'
iilliiTH tilt' >'liii'f Iriillir i^ ill wiiiil, Ii(i|i,<, IniiliiT,
clicrsr. anil iriHi. TIkti' lire iiii iniiinitiiitiirt'n riir-
I'ii'iliiii; lint il.i Nilimlimi, III llic licitil nl' the ill-
liiiiil iiuviu,titrHi I'nini l.viiii, ami an n |iriii<'i|iai
htalinii oil ilic <ir<'at jjiMlrrii railw»\ , iicraNiuiiN
n iMiii>iili'ralili< triiilc in nirii, cnal, tinilxT, nil, ami
iron. iSimr the iiinrc iMTli'i't ilriiiiiMi;i' iil'tlic I'lin,
iHi.j ilio liirMuitiiiii III ^imkI roaili lowarils ami
aldii^, I tio l'„ anil SK. riianlK, nviT trni't-i jirr
viiiii.^ly I'lipiWHalilf, it lia.i Ih-ciimic ii rniisiilrralili'
tlinriiii^litair, ami iIitIxi'm muni' lm>iiii's.t rniiii that
wiiiiTc: ill rliii'l' iriillii', iiuwcvcr, '\n, ilir<'<'llv or
iiiilirrrlly, ciiniin'tcil with llic uiiiviTMiiv, .•iml the
hii|i|ily III ilM variiiiiM waiilN. 'I'lir aniniint a^>Ki'oM)'it
III |irii|«'riy lax I'nr llit' liiirouj;li nim I •.'•J,M / _*/. in
1M.'(7, mill r.'ii,7ii(t/. in IMti'j; ilic aniuiinl asxr-Hril
til |)n>|M'rtv lax Cur llm iiiiivcriit/ wnn ilii.l'iH'.'/,
ill |M.)7, iinil ;il,;W(>/. ill iMdl'. " Tlic liiirmiuli
iiii'inni' aviTap'.'* I7,(l<t(l/. per anniini, iil' «liii'li
iH'arly nni'liall in rruiii ratcM. 'I'lic liiiiii.-i nl' llir
aiiricnt liiir, liavi' lit'cii ai|ii|itt'il Imtli in the I'arl.
ami Mniiiripal Iti'lnrin iu'Ih, uikI cunipri'*!' an ari'a
III ;l.l'.)ii iirrcM. It in iliviilcil into livr wanl", ami
(,'iivi'riK'il liy a mayor, Irii alilfrnu'ii, ami thirty
ciiinirillorM, Coiiris ol' prtiy Aiiil i|iiari('i' Mc.s.sinns,
ami a rniirt. of ph'us, iirc iiclil lor the lioroii^rli,
rroni llu^ JiiriMilii'iiiiii of whii'li the iiii'inlx'rs ol'ilu'
university iiiiiy rliiiin ptTsmial I'Xt'inptioii. 'I'hi'
lii'aiU ol' it are iiiiilril with thoNf of ihc coriui-
raliiiii in tlu! ooininisHiuiiH of prart' that arc issiii'il
liir tilt! horiiii^rli. Till' piilii!!' is aUn iimU'r tlirir
Jiiiiil ciiiilrol. The. iniprovcniciil.H in tlii* iiaviKa-
liiiii (which of lat»! years have hceii very coii-
oiileraltlc) an^ iimler Ihc ilircctinii ol' conservators,
three of whom arc appointeil liy the university,
three liy the corporation, ami three hy the county"
iiin^iistrates. I'art of the corp. rev. uf the town is
lieriveil from rents of laiiils ami teiieineiil.s, ami
lulls of Ihc fairs ami markets, which the corp, re-
ceive, tlioiifih the entire ciniirol of these, as well
as the licensing of piililic-hiniscs, is vesteil in the
iiiiiversily ; there are also ItlO acres of coiiiinnn
lami iiniler the inaiiagemenl of th" corporation,
hut on which the iiiliahitanls gem'rally have a
rij^ht of piislui-aj;e. (,'anihriilf^e has retnriieil two
nieiii, to the II. of C. from the earliest recnrils of
imrliameiit, I'reviouslj- to the, IJeforin Act the
riiclit of election was liniiled to tlu! freenieii of the
Imr. not receiving alms, IkC^fistcreii electors for
the hor. 1,7«7 in IHUl. The (inarler sessions ami
nssi/.es for the county are held in this town. The
first historic meiiiioii that occurs of ('amliridKc is
ill N7I, when it was rava^'d hy the |)aiies. The
iiistle was hiiilt hy Win. the C'omiueror. In l-'IH
the llrst notice of dissensions between towiisnieii
anil si udeiits occurs. In l.'WI (the iKTiod of Wat
'fyler's riots) the university charters were seized
ami destroyed l>y the towiisinen, for which Hicliil.
II. (leprived them of tluar own, and vested the
university with their privilej^es. Henry Vlll. w-
sliired their charter, hut witli moililications which
niaile them, in many respects, still suhordiiiate to
till' university. In Kl-lli the town was giirrisoned
by Cromwell, wlio liail, iirevimisly, twice repre-
siiiled it in the If. of C No suhseqiient event of
imhlic importance is connected with its history,
liishiip .Jeremy Taylor and Jtichurd (,'iimlierland
(llu^ dramatic writer) were natives of t'amhridjj,!'.
CAMUKIDUK (IJXIVKKSITY OF). This
celebrated scat of learning aiul educatiun derives
CAMniUDnK (UNIVKn^ITY OF) (117
111 ofi^i;in from ciriain piililli s. hooli, exiulili-hid
ill the town III n MTV iinmii hiit iim< riain period,
perhaps in the 7ili c'liinry. 'I he Niiideiiis who
resorted III tlio.M' seniiiiarirs lived in |i«lniiii;s in
the town; imr did they, till the l.'lili ceMiiry,
nsHimie III!' re^'iihir fiirni of a iiiiuersil\, in
that lenn wiis iimler<,iiiHl in ihe niiildle ' au'cs.
In K"Ueral, fn.ir hnimhes of -dm iiliini. or fami-
lies, were recin;ni«eil ; that of nits, iniiinii.ry In
the others, ami enilirai'in^ the lime siipi rior ami
fiiiirsnlHirdiiiaic sciences, or, its they werf rallrd in
the lailKlia^n- of the liriU', llie Iriritim iiiiil iimnf-
lii'iiim — the first comprising thesiiiily ot Kiiininiar,
rheliirii', unit lo^'ic ; ami Ihe si loml, that of
ariihiMctic, iniislr, Ki'i.nielry, ami asiromnny ; and
the lai'uliii's of iheiilivv, la\\,.tml mi'diciiie. In
eilill of lliiM', there Weic ii'IimIIv Iwoile^^rees, thai
of hachelor luiil master; and the fiimiions of ii
university, n^ at pn^eiit, was in iiiipait the iieci's-
sary instrncltoii in each, ami to confer iliurees,
or certiliciitcs of pr'iicieucy. Kxcepi the
iMililic schools, there n , ml lirsl, no other
iiiiildin^'s appiopriiii.il hi ncademical piirpoMs;
bill subseinieiilly, | ililu- halls or linstelries rimie
to be esiahHshed for the cniiveiiii'iice of tlio
Nliideiits, ail' I the intrudiu'tioii of some JMiier
system of discipliiie. The slmleiits, resorliiu,' lo
each of these clio-e it principal, or rerlur, fmiii
aiiioii:;>l Iheniselves, whose appoinliiieiil was
saiii'tiiiiied by the noveriiin(f In ily of Ilii> uni-
versity; resilience in lliose halls was, hiiwe\er,
ne\er iiisisied on as an isseiilial fnpiisiie. I'lie
ciille;;es are of still laler iirij;in. ami derive their
exisleiice from privale niiiiiiliceiu'e ; Ilic olijii'l.
lieiiin lo provide loil^inj,' and siihsisteiice to a
limited iiiiinher of ihe poorer class of stmleiils.
( >rij,'ilially the masters of arts were the public
instriiclors, and were boiiml to teach others sniiie
of llie snlijects perlaiiiiiiK' to llu ir respi'ctive facul-
lies; coiiveiiieni'e iiltiinalely came to limit this
fnm'tiiin to a ciTtain nnniher of masters, who also
caim^ to form chielly, or wholly, the j;iiverniii,i;'
body; and hence the ilistiiiction of nijciil ami
niiH-rnjiiit masters. Tlie appointiiieiil of pro-
fessors in the ilill'ereiit laciillies, paid by salaries,
instead of fees (as was the case with Ihe i'cffiiit
masters), compUteil the iiiiiversily systein on ihe
reco;;iiised phi:' of the period. 'I'iie "geiier.il right
of lecturing was, howexer, retained down lo a
recent dale, Smli, probably, was the system
pursued thioiigli tlu I 'lb and l.'itli centnrivs.
The greatest number of stiii'.eiils freipieiiiing the
Iiiiiversily during the period vvlieii Ihe public
halls formed the ri'siileiices of Ihe niiijoriiy,
was in the l.'lth century. From the earlier part
of Ihe Mill, downward, the iiiimbi'i-s diminisbeil
considerably; partly from civil war, partly fruni
the dei'lining repnlalion of scholastic |iliiliiso|ihy,
and snbseipiently, from religious dill'ereiices; so
that, at tiu! Ifi^formatioii, tlu- halls had been
niosily deserted, anu the greater part of the
students were those iii Ihe fonmlation of the dif-
fiTeiit colleges, which had beioine iiiiimrotis,
and were nearly tlu^ only instiintions that sur-
vived the religious confusion of the age. It w;is
in I "i.'M that the university publicly renoiiiieeil tlu!
snprcinacy of the pope, and in the following year
the whole of its charters were resigned to the king,
who, liowcNX'i, .•'•stored them soon after. Some of
the colleges, in the Iiith cenlnry, admitted imle-
pomlent members in residence ; others came to be
established, ami the remaining halls were con-
verted into colleges. 'i'he ascemliiiicy of Ihc
college systcn, however, was elfected gradiiiilly,
throiigh a considerable period. The following are
the collegiate establishments of (Jumbriilgc, in the
order of their foundation : —
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Photograiiiic
Sciences
Corporation
23 WEST MAIN STREET
WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580
(716) •72-4503
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018
Nwnni
St. IVtcr'rtColl., I
^r I'uttTlioiisc i
ClaroItoU .
rombrokc irciU .
(Iniivlllo and 1
Cuius Coll. J
Trinity Ilnll
Corpus Christl )
Coll. . J
Kings Coll.
Queen's Coll. \
Catlmrino Hall .
Jesus Coll. .
Christ's Coll. |
St. John's Coll. .
Slagdalen Coll, .
Trinity Coll.
Rnimanucl Coll.
Sidney .Sussex
Coll.
Downing Coll.
Dull' or
FoiiiKla-
tluii
l'i57
l.l'.'e
laio
urn
13.11
MU
114(i
MliS
It-r,
ll'.Mi
14M
l.jd.'i
Mil
1.119
154G
l.l.Sl
1.198
1800
Founttcri
( Hugh do Balsam, Bp.
i of Kly
Ur. Biulew ; hut rc-
eonstltutcd by Eli/.,
de llurgh
CnuntcKs of Pembroke
Edw. (ionvill(! : .loliu
CaiUH, in I. LIS, in-
creasiid and olitaiiRil
n new cliartiT
W. liati'man, Bp. of
Norwieh
The Brethren of 2
Cambridge guilds
Henry VI.
Jlurg. of Anjou : ro-
foundeil by Consort
of Edw. VI.
Boht. Woodlark
.Ino. Aleock, Bp. of Ely
I ll<>n. VI., Countess of
i Uiehniond & Derby
i Countess of Ilichmond
t and Derby
Lord Aiidley
rllen.VlIl., augmented
by Mary : it oeeupies
■i the ground of several
8iipi)ressed Coll. and
L hostels
Sir W. Mildmay
( Lady F. Sidney,
t Coinitess Sussex
Sir G, Downing
Eiicli of these cnUogos is {governed by l.iws and
iisflges of it.s own (for the most part estai)ii.shcil hy
tlic respective (bunders), and is suhject to the
inspection of its own vi.sitor or visitors, appointed
by the foundation charter. Excejjt at Kinjj's and
'I'rinity, the heads (masters) of these collej;'CS are
el(!oted by the fellows, for life, from amonjj; them-
.selves; in general, they must be in onlers, and
are allowed to marry; their incomes (which vary
considerably) arise from the proceeds of a double
fellowship, livings attached to the otHce, &c. They
exercise .supreme authority in the discipline of
(heir college in respect to education, and the con-
duct of those in statu pupiUuri, and are associated
■wilh the general government of the university, as
will subsequently be noticed ; but, as respects the
government of their college, they form part of the
general legislative council, and are assisted by the
foinidation fellows, who fonn the governing body
in each college. In regard to these last, the ordi-
nary practice is to elect to vacancies, each from
the respective students of its own establishment,
and, for the most part, from amongst those study-
ing with the view to taking holy orders; time,
however, is allowed by the statutes for graduates
to make choice of a profession, and, consecpicntly,
those who decline after the limited period taking
t)rders have to vacate any fellowships they have
been appointed to; vacations also occur by ac-
ceptance of college livings, (which, as they fall in,
are oft'ered bj' seniority to the respective fellows,)
or by other livings or situations, statutably in-
cimipatible, or by marriage, which is against the
statutes in some of the colleges; .«o that, from these
and other circumstances, the succession of fellows,
in most of the colleges, is tolerably rapid : when
in residence, a considerable part of their board is
])rovided. The incomes are very ■.-arious, and in
each college vary I'rom year to j ear, being con-
tingent on the college revenues, much of which is
tlerixod from rents, varying with the prices of corn
anil I'rom the falling in of leases. Tlie college ex-
penses also Viiry, and are paid from a fund set
CAMimiDOE (UNIVF-:R.SITY OF)
aparl for general purposes, and derived partly from
taxation of the fellowships, partly from room-rent,
and minor sources of iiu'oine.
'llie fiiumlntion srhiiliirshipn are subject lo
ditt'ercnt regulations and conditions, peeidiar to
each college ; but they are always elected fnun
among the uiuler graduates, and in the larger
colleges, where these are numerous, they form a
.sort of minor prizes, to be contended for like tlmse
of the fellows. The emoluments attached to these
scholarships are very various in amount; in re-
gard- to disci[)line and education, they are pre-
cisely on the same footing as the uulependeut
stiulents,
'I'he v.iliililtiomi arc annual pensions, given in
some instances by the colleges, but mostly by IVee
endowed schools elsewhere, to assist such youths
as, having been educated at them, are .sent to the
university : c.ililliitioitfis are not usually aceounied
on the foundation. Uesides these, there are stu-
dents of an inferior class, termed nizars, who are
jirovided for wholly or in part by the foundatimi.
The ollicers of the establishment, such as dean,
bursar, itc, are .selected hy the fellows of eaiii
respective college from among their own body; as
also the college tutors, to whose charge all the
students, whether on the foundation or not, are
entrusted. The whole of these must necessarily lie
in residence; but in respect to the other fellows,
it is not in general required, though a nuinljer
usually do reside, some as private tutors, others
for tlie purpose of study. In some colleges, iiro-
hationers have to pass an examination previously to
being admitted as fellows on the foundation. The
iu.st ruction given at each of tho.se colleges is pre-
liminary to taking the lirst university degree of
H.A., and is exclusively adapted and ilirected lo
that object. This is chiefly attained, not through
the juiblic lectures of the university professors, hut
through the ijrivate labours of the respective col-
lege tutors. The character and extent of this
instruction is determined by the imiversity, hy
which the degree is granted; but no one is admis-
sible unless he have been entered at, and resided
within the jurisdiction of one of the colleges ur
licensed halLs, and has been under the collegiate
htstruction of his house. Thus the university is
formed by the union of 17 colleges, devoted in
academic pursuits and the study of all the liheriil
arts and sciences: it is incorporated (13 Kliz. c. 2'.K}
by the name of ' The ChauceHor, Masters, and
Scludars, of the University of Cambriilge ; ' ami
though each college is a body corporate, bound by
its own statutes, it is likewise controlled by ilie
paramount laws of the university. The statutes
of the 12th of Eliz., which were sanctioned hy
parliament, and conlirmed some Ibriner privileges,
are the foundation of the existhig governnieni,
anil form the basis of all the subsequent legisla-
tion ; in fact, no grace of the senate is con-
sidered valid which is inconsistent with the
statutes of Eliz., and certain nearly cotemiioniry
interpretiUious of them ; or with king's letters,
that have been accepted and acted on by the
miiversity.
Each college furnishes members both to the
executive and legislative branches, collectively
termed the senate. It is divided into 2 houses,
called the regents' ami non-regents' house. The
former, or upper house, is composed of masters ef
arts of less than o years' staiuling, and doctors of
less than 2 years; its nr mbers wear hoods, liiieil
with white silk ; all the rest, who retain their
names on their respective college boards (for which
a small annual fee is charged), constitute the
lower house, and wear hoods of black silk ; hence
the distuiction of white and black-hood houses.
CAMnHlDOE (UNIVERSITY OF)
rtly from
loin-n'iii,
ilyrct lit
'Ciiliar Id
•tt'd In nil
In; liirniT
y t'lirin ii
like iIkim;
il til llu'si;
It; ill rc-
nro piX'-
.Ifpeiuli'iiL
j;ivt'ii ill
tly liy Irt'i!
ch yimllis
(I'lit to tin;
aci'ounU'd
re are slii-
r.s, will) art!
'ouiiilatiiiii.
h as (Iran,
rt'M (if t'acli
II liiiily ; ax
rj;c uU the
or not, an;
i;esMarily lie
lier t'(;llu\vs,
I ji uunilicr
itors, (itluTs
)lloycM, jtnp-
ireviiiiisly to
liitioii. The
lejjjes is i>re-
;y decree of
ilirecteil u>
not thnmj;li
rolessors, Imt
siiective i'"!-
teiit of tliis
liversity, Ity
me is udiiiis-
aiiil resiileil
Ic colk'f^i's iir
ic collej;iiile
luniversiiy is
1, (levoteil to
III the lilieral
pKliz.e.-21i.)
blasters, ami
[iridge;' atiil
,te, boiiiiil I'V
[oiled tiy liio
The statutes
.lU'tioncd by
;r privilc^L's,
IgovernmL'iil,
liieiit let;isla-
uitc is cou-
t with the
cotemiiorary
[iiig's letters,
on by the
I both to the
collectively
lito 2 houses,
house. The
lof masters of
liul doctors of
hoods, liiu'il
retain their
J-ds (for whieh
uiistitute the
silk; hence
Uiood houses.
(519
Tbi' imblie imifessorships in tho titiivprsity are
111' niiiili
l.ndy .Alarj^nret's, of divinity, fuiindt'd l,'>(tj; iliu
DortoTs of more thnii 2 yonrs' staiidiiii;, mid the
piiliiio orator of tlie university (who may lie roii-
Hidered as the secretary), mavvote in either lioiise, _ _ , .. ,
at pleasure. Hesides tiiesc, there is a eiuiiicil caHed Hebrew, and (Ireek. fimnded by Henry VIII.
chosen niiiuiallv on tlie I'Jih Oct. It
the cii/)iif,
eoiisists of the vice.-clianeeilor ; a doctor in each of
tho three faculties, of divinity, civil law, and
|(hysie; and 2 niaste.-s of arts, as the reprcsenta-
liv'es of the regent and non-rej(ciit houses. In
practice, these are mere noniiiiees of the vice-
chancellor; and as the a))pn)val of tho caput is
essential previously to any 'i;race,' or Icffislativo
pniiiosition, beiiiff voted on in either house, the
substantive fjoverinnent of the university vests in
him. He also lixes the days when eoii;;re,ij;atioiis,
or mectiiif^s of the senate, are to be ludd for traiis-
actiiif; university business; these, in term time,
are usually once a fortuij;ht; but there are also
certain lix'ed times by statute for eoiii;re>;ations to
be belli, for conferring' de^frees and electing ollicers.
Graces which pass both bouses, under the sanction
of the caput, become acts of the senate, and, if of
a ]mblic nature, become statutes of the university.
All assembly of the senate held out of term time
is called a convocation; but, by a grace passed
pro forma, it is converted to a congregation, and
the business proceeds in the usual way. The chief
ollicers of the university are, a chaiKHdlor, in whom
the executive authority vests, except in matters
of mayhem and felony, within the limits of the
jiirisdictiiui, which is a mile round, reckoned in
any direction from any part of the suburbs; the
olliee is biennial, or for su(;h longer jieriod as tho
tacit consent of the university mav choose to allow.
A high steward, who has special ])i)wer to try
scholars impeached of felony within the limits,
and to ludd courts leet, wliich is done by deputy.
J lis election is by a grace of the senate. A vice-
chancellor, elected annually by the senate (on the
'lib of Nov.) from the heads of colleges. In the
alisence of the chancellor, the powers of that otiicer
vest in him, by the statutes, and be is also, ex
officio, a magistrati! for the university, town, and
county. A commissary, ajiiiointed by tlie chancel-
lor, to hold a court of record for all causes to be
tried and determined by the civil and statute law
and university custom, in respect to all jirivileged
jiersons under the degree of 'SV, A, A jiublic orator,
who may be said to l)e the speaker of the senate.
The assessor, an ofHcer to assist the vice-chancellor
ill his court. Two ))roctors, or peace otHcers,
elected annually, to enforce pro)ier discipline and
behaviour in all who are iii statu implllari, as well
as various other duties. They must be M, A. of 2
years' standing, at least, and are nominated in turn
iiy the dirterent colleges, in a ])rescribed and pecu-
liar cycle of 51 years. There are many other
ollices" of minor imjiortancc; among them twomode-
rators, who are nominated by the proctors, and
appointed by a grace of tlie senate, to act as the
pnictors' substitutes in the philosophical schools,
and alternately superintend the exercises and dis-
initations in pliilosoi)hy, and the examinations for
the degree of 15. A. 'There are, linally, eight
classical examiners, nominated by the several
colleges, in term (according to the same cycle as
the proctors), and elected by a grace of the senate;
four of these are examiners of inceptory bachelors,
and four of the junior sophs, in Lent term.
The University is represented in the II. of C.
by two members, chosen by tho collective body of
the senate, the vice-chancellor being returning
ollicer. T'lie iirivilegc was granted by charter, in
1 .lames I., and at present is vested in the Doc-
tors, Masters of .Vrts, and blasters of Law of the
universitv, whose names are 'on the books.' The
eonstituciicv thus I'ormed numbered i,'di'J in 1805.
regiiis ])rofcssorships of divinity, civil law. physic,
ill
1510; those of Arabic, one foiindi'd by Sir F.
Adams in I(p;l2, the other, the LonI Aliiioner's ;
tin; Liu-asian pnifessorship of malheinatics, in
Hil!:l; that of music, in lilMl; that ofcasiiislry,
foiiiKled in l(iH;l; of chcinistry, 17ll2; the I'bi-
niian imifessorsbip of asinmoniy and expcrinu'iital
jiliilos thy, in 1701; that of aiiatoiuy, in 1707
(there is a good aiiatoiiiical muscuni cuiniected
with this) ; tho.-ii; of modern history and of botany,
1721; that of geology, in 1727, by Dr. Woodward,
who left his collection of luinerals in connection
with it ; that of astronomy and geometry, foiinded
in I7t',t; the Norrisian pnifessorship of divinity,
in I7l!il; of natural and experinicnl'tl |ihilosophy,
in 17M.'{; the Downing )irofessorships of Kuglisli
law and of medicine, founded in IHOII; that of
mineralogy, in \WH ; and, lastly, of ]iolitical eco-
nomy, in 1S2'S. These professors are iiaid from
various sources. Some of the foundations have
estates appro|)riated to the |)urpose; others are
paid by ancient stipends, in pari ; and some from
the jirivy purse, or by goveriiineiit. One has 100/.,
another 200/., the rest 100/. annually. The ap-
pointment of some of them rests in the senate, of
others, in the crown, and of others, again, in spe-
cial bodies of electors. None of them can be said
to be directly concerned in the education of I he,
students, as the attendance on the courses of hu;-
tures given by them is not made essential to any
of the students (with the exception of tliosi; jiro-
ccoding to the bachelor's degree in civil law and
medicine, who are rerpiired to bring testimoniiils
of attendance on the courses eoniiecteil with those
subjects). The public income of t!ie university
arises cliielly from the proceeds of the rectory of
Hiirwell, from matriculation, and other fees (about
3.'''00/. a year from all these sources), and from
:iie trading profits of the I'itt or university press.
The funds are managed by the vice-ehaiuxdloraiid
specific trustees, and three annual auditors are.
appointed by the senate to pass the accounts. Its
library claims (uiuler the copyright act) a copy of
every volume, map, and print luiblishcd in tho
United Kingdom; it is also endovied with a por-
tion of the jiniceeds of two estates: besiiles ibis
and occasional donations, a quarterly subscription
of Is. tirf. is paid by all the members, except sizars,
towards its support. A new building, from designs
by IMr. Cockerell, was opened in 1K51. The Fitz-
■william museum, consisting of a splendid collec-
tion of books, paintings, drawings, and sculpture,
was left by Viscount Fit/william to the university,
in IKUi, together with funds for the erection of a
building to receive it, which was commenced in
1837. it is an imposing structure, in the (ireciaii
style ; the portico, an imitatiim of the I'antheon
of Rome, is ornamented by a group of sculpture,
reprcsenthig Pegasus and the nine muses. The
university also possesses a collection of pictures,
left by Mr. iVIesman; an observatory, built in 182 1,
at an expense of 18,000/.; and a botanic ganlen
of three or four acres. The Cambridge I'hilo-
sophical Society was established in 18U), for the
promotion of seieiititic inquiry, and the advance-
ment of phihisophy and nntufal history; in I8:}2,
it was incorporated by charter, and all, excejit
honorary members, are requirc(l to be graduates
of the university.
The degrees conferred by the university are
those of Doctors in the tlirce faculties of divinity,
civil law, and medicine, and also in the scienc(; of
music; that of Master of Arts; and the degn'c of
Itucliclor m each of the foregoing. Except in the
m
iiij
«2() CAMnUinOK (TIN
iniliatoi'v <lc;jrro lust nnnird, all rxiiiniiinliuii In
rcpinl III iiroliiiciicy is in rciil'ly dimMinlinui'd,
iind tile lii);lit'r d('f;rc('n lire ronrcmMl ii« nf rin'lit
on lliiisc will) liiivc (ilituini'd ii purticnliir stiindhi);,
williiMit rcl'crt'iu't' to i|niilili('iitinn, or (with Irilliii;;
i'M'cplitm.s) tt> resilience. The neadeniieul y<'i>r
<'onsi.sls of three terms, viz. Miehiieliniis, I^ent,
mid l'",iister; imil the fnlliiwinK are IIk- eliiel" refjii-
luliiins iieeessary for pnieeeiliii;,' to ilef,'rees : pre-
mising first, that the mode nf admission on the
lioards of a eolle;;!^ is either hy personal examina-
tion of its tutors and ollieers, or (the more usual
plan), tliroii;j;li a recommendatory eertilicato, spe-
cifying the a^e and ipialilicationsof the candidato,
sij^ncd hy an M.A. who has ^railnalcd at the uni-
versity, and accompanied hy a deposii called caii-
lion money. This is usually done hefore the end
of Kaster Term ; and, if deemed satisfactory, the
iiame is at once entered on the hoards of the col-
lep'. and the student usually comes into residence
the Octoher following, when the academical year
begins.
liaclitlor of Arts, — Twelve terms on the boards of
some cidlege, ten of which in residence.
Miisti'v of Arts. — IJ.A. of three years' standing.
Jluclii'hr of Dirinity. — M.A. of seven years' stand-
ing: under the !>tli statute of Kliz., those who
have been admitted on the boards of a college,
aller 21 years old, and have remained so ten
years (the two last of which must he in res.),
are admissible without having taken any
other — these are called tvn years men.
Dmior of Divinity. — H.i). of live, and M.A. of
twelve years' standing.
Bachelor of Civil Law. — Of six years' standing
com])l'ete, nine terms of which iii res., or J5.A.
of four years' standing.
Doetor of Civil Law. — It.C.L. of five years', or
jM.A. of seven years' standing.
Bachelor in Medicine. — Of live years' Standing,
nine terms of which in res.
Doctor in Medicine, — Similar to that degree in
civil law.
Licentiate in Medicine, — M.A. or B. A. of two years'
standing.
Bachelor of Music. — The name must be entered
on the hoartls of some college, and an exercise
performed.
Doctor of Music. — Usually K.M.
J'ersoiis having the rank of pri\y counsellors,
bishops, noblemen, and eldest sons of noblemen,
are entitled to have any of those degrees conferreil
on them without complying with tlie regulations;
and knights and baronets from that of M.A. down-
ward. Hy a grace jiassed in \H'li>, these are to be
examined" and approved in the same way as others,
but they are admissible after keeping nine terms ;
but though none can claim a degree in right of
nobility. &e., yet hcnorary ones are often con-
ferred, without examination or residence, on emi-
nent individuals.
'I'lie respective orders in the different colleges
rank as folh)Ws: —
1. The Heads of Colleges, who are generally of
the degree of D.D.
2. The Fellows, who are doctors, masters, or
bachelors of the dittcrent faculties.
3. Noblemen, who are grailnates, doctors, and
Ms.A., not on the foundation (the name
must be kept on the college boards, the cost
of which varies from 21. to 4/. a year.)
4. Bs.D.. who are ten years' men.
6. Bachelors of Civil Law and of Physic : these
wear the habits, and enjoy all the various
privileges of M.A., except that of voting iii
the senate.
0. Bachelors of Arts, who are considered in statti
piipiUari,
IVERSITY OK)
7. Fellow Commoners, usually younger sons nf
the nobility, or sons of men of forliuie, ^c.,
who have the privilege of dining at tliesgiiin-
table as tlu^ fellows.
K. The Schohirs, who are on the fouiidation.
It. Fensioners, who pay for their chambers, coin-
inons, iic, and comprise the chief part nf
the students.
10. The Siiiirs, students of limited means, wiio
usually have free commons and other einolu-
menls.
As all substantial examination for degrees is
limited to the initiatory one of hachelor (of wliiili
that of It, A. is the lirst, and only really iniporiinil
step), the necessary education of (he ililVcrcnl ciil-
Icgcs is of course directed to that object, and cnn-
lingent, in its nature and scope, on the (juaiiru a-
tions which the iiniversily deem lit to exact at
their |iublic exfiminalions, and the class-books
thev order to be .•idopted for the pur|iose. The
ordinary course of study for It.A. may hc^ coin-
prised under three heads: — naliiral philosophv,
theology and moral |ihiloso))liy, and the lul/rs
lettres; and for (he attainment of these, the ^^lll-
dents attend the lectures of the college liiinrs,
which are not formal harangues, but rather of a
catechetical nature, intermixed with reading and
discussion ; at each of whiidi a limited nuniber of
the students go through a certain portion of soiiit'
mathematical or classical work with the tutors.
Half-yearly or yearly college examinations usu-
ally take ])lace, in addition to these lectures, when
the names of the students are arranged in the
order of their resjiective merits. The first public
examination of a student takes jdace in the l.ciii,
and October terms of the second year from liie
commencement of his academical residence. After
the examination, the candidates are arranged in
two classes — those who have ]iassed with credit,
and those to whom the examiners have only imt
refused their certificate of approval, A second
examination takes place, in ISIicliaelmas term, of
those who have been absent from the former by
permission, or were not then approved of: this is
tenneil, in university ]>hrase, the ' little go.' Thosn
anxious to take honours usually engiige a private
tutor (who is not necessarily of their own college)
after this, in order to secure more exclusive atten-
tion and assistance. The usual fee of a ])rivato
tutor is Ml. a year. After this ])reparatory sicp,
those wh>) are candidates for honours iierl'onn the
college exorcises under the superintendence of tliu
moderators; these are usually Latin theses, ]mi-
pounded and oi)poseil in a syllogistic form. The
senate-house examination, for the degree of H.A.,
commences on the Monday jireceiling the first
Monday in Lent term, and continues six days.
The previous division of the candidates for honours
into four classes has recently been discontiniKMl,
and the same ([uestions are now projiosed throiigli-
oiit the examination to all whom the modeiaiMrs
judge, from the jirevions public exercises in tlic
.schools, to be qualified for examination as caiiili-
dates for mathematical honours ; and of the six
examiners, two confine themselves to matlicina-
ticil subjects, two to Homer and Virgil, itc. ami
two to l'aley"s Kvidences and Moral I'hilosopliy,
and to Locke's Kss.ay on the Human Lhiderstaiiil-
ing, (tc. The whole is conducted by writing, ami
the various subjects and problems may he seen in
the annual registers of the university. Those who
are not candidates for honours, noAAot, are classed
and examined sejiarately, the subjects being — tlie
Acis of the Apostles in (ircek, one (ireek and oiu'
l^afin 4'lassic, I'aley's Moral I'hilosopliy, and cer-
tain questions in mathematical and mechanical
science, speciticd in a printed schedule. The de-
CAMBRIDOE (UNIVERSITY OF)
yropH arc {'onforrnl <m hiicIi of ttic qiiostionistH n»
piisH to the Hill isl'iirt ion of lli(> t'Xiiininrrs, liy il
>iiilw('(|iit'iit ^'riii'c of llic sciialo, ulii'ii llic oiillis ol'
nlli'fjciiincc Mild .sii|>i'finiu'y ari; liikcii, niiil n ilccln-
riitiiiii of iKllu'rciicc to the tlot'lriiics oi the Cliiircli
of Kn^laiid i.s rt'i|iiirnl lo Itit .si^Micd ; liiit pro-
vioiisly to lli'iH, on tlic limt cNiiiiiination diiy, the
niiitlicniiilical tri/ios or list of tliosc who Hiit'cccil in
ohtainiii;; an honour, is fxiiihilcd, fornit'd into
tlii'fd (hvisions, tlial of irrniii/lfrs, and of sfiiinr
and /hhioc oitlimvH, arranged affording; to merit, or
' hriiclitllci/,' wliurc two individuals arc coiisidcri'd
on an ('(|uality. Tlu^ senior wraiij^lershih is the
lii<r|iesl acadeinical lioiioiir olttainalilc in tlie king-
dom, On tilt! fonrth Monday after the ^eiuTal
admission itd rvniioiiilfiidaiii iiiiestimti, an examina-
tion eominenees of all siieh as have ohtained an
lionimr at the niatlieiiiatieal examination of llu^
jirevioiis Jamiarv, anil who voluntarily otVer them-
selves for tlu' |iiirjiose in elassii'al learning; at. this
examination (which continues live days), trans-
lations are re(|nircd of passap's from the hest
(Jreck and Latin authors, and written answers to
(|iiestioiis arising; ininicdiately out of such i)as-
sap's, 'I'he names of those who ohiain honours
arc^ arranged in three di\ isions (like those in the
niatheinatical tripos), in a, list which forms the
classical tiipoH o( the year. Then? are two tri/ioH
days, one for irraiii/lvrs and si-nlor ojitiiiics, tlu^
other for /H«/'<*r «/<A//Ht'.s, when these are puhlicly
announced.
The aitiiiinl /iriz<'sit{thv, uiiiversitv form anotliei
siihjecl of competition : tlu; classical ones are — tlu'
chanceUor's p)ld medals, f;;iven to 2 coinmeiicinjj;
15s. A., who, having attained senior optimes at.
lea.st, show themselves most proliciciit in classical
lenrninj;: these prizes were first institntedin ITrjl.
A third, first H'iven hy the Duke oftiloncester, and
continiKMl Iiy the present chancellor, is for the host
Miifilish ode, or Kiif^lish poem in h(!roic verso.
jMany of the.se have heen pnhli.shcd, under the
title of ' C'anihridfie I'ri/.e I'oems:' the coni|)etiti(m
is limited to resident under };radnates. The mem-
bers repre.sentiiifj; the university also nive 4 prizes,
of I.") fjiiineaseach, which arc bestowed on 2 H. A.s
and 2 under {graduates, who compose the best <lis-
.sertations in I.aliii prose. ISrown's H p)ld medals,
of ") f,'iiiiieas each, to under f,'radiiates, are given
for the hest (Jreek ode, the best Latin ode, and
the best (i reek or ].,atin epigram. Torson's ])rize
consists of one or more Greek books, pven for the
best translation of some pa.ssap; in Sliakspeare, It.
Jonson, Massiiifjer, or Iteanmoiit and Fletcher, into
(■ reck verse. The mathematical consist of 2 an-
nual prizes, of 2o/. each, left by the Kev. 1{. Smith,
and given to 2 commencing H.A.s who prove the
best proficients in nnithematica and natural ])hil()-
tiophy. The examination takes place soon after
the admission of questioniiits : the competition is
open, and the adjudicators are the vice-chancellor,
th(! master of Trinity, and the Lneasian, I'lnmian,
and Lowndean jirofessors. The second or even lower
wranglers occasionally become first ])rizemen ;
hence it forms, in .some sort, a court of appeal from
tlu! decisions of the examiners. Cateris parihits,
preference is given to candidates of 'I'riu. Coll. In
theoh)gy, there are the Norrisian andllales'.s prizes.
The Si'iitunitm is a poetical one ; the subject is pro-
jHised in January, anil the poem is to be sent in by
jMichaelmas : that which obtains the premium is
printed from the nroilnce of the estate left for the imr-
))ose, the remainiier of which is given to the author.
The unh-vrsity sclwlansfiip.^ are also publicly cou-
teiiiled for, and are given to the most successful can-
didates in classical reading and composition : in this
re.spoct they rank first in the cla.s.sical comiietitions
of the university, and are usually extended bcyoud
{^\MMIN 621
the ordinary rnngp of text -books. The oxamina-
tioli is the .same for all, bnl most importance i^
usually attached to tlit^ I'ilt .Hcholarship, it being
less frei|iient as well as of greater |)ecuniary value.
Lodging within the walls of a college i.s"not en-
forced on under graduates, provided there le no
vacant rooms; which niay probably account for the
greater incre.'i.se of stmrents niatriciilatcl in this
than in the sister university of Oxforil. where
residence within the walls is enforced. The col-
legiate buildings of many of th;' estahlisi iits
have been greatly iinpnivcd and angmeulcd of
late years. Those of Trinity arc the largest of
any single college in either" university ; those of
St. .John have also been iiicrea.sed by a large
i|uailranglc on the left bank of the Cam, funning
one of the finest collegiate j'difices in the kingdom.
Ca.miiiuduk, a town of the U. S. of N. America,
Massai^hiisetts, co. Middlesex, on the Charles
river, ;( m. WNW. Miwion, with which, and the
adjacent town of Charleston, it is conneciid by
bridges. Top. 2(i, 1(1(1 in IHOd. It is. in conjunc-
tion with Concord, the co. town, and the courts
are held alternately in each. There is a coiirl-
hoiise, county gaol, arsenal, and several ph'ccs of
public worship. It is tlii^ seat of Harvard Ciii-
versity, formerly Harvard College, the oldest and
best endowed institution of the kind in tlii' I'nioii :
it was founded in Jti.'W. The medical school con-
nected with the university is at liostoii. The
university library, the second in America, con-
laiiiH upwards of "h(I,(M)() vols., besides a .students'
library, with upwards of lO.OOO vols. The philo-
sophical apparatus and cabinet of minerals are
valuable ami comi)lete. Here are a chemical
laboratory, an anatomical nm.scnni, and a botani-
cal garden, occupying .seven acres of land. Since
its establishment, this university has received
large benefactions both from the state, and jirivate
individual.s. A greater iinmher of students have
been educated here than in any other coHege in
the Union.
CAM KLFOHD, a to>vn and par. of Kiigland, co.
Cornwall, hund. Lesnewtb, on the tJuniel, 2(15 m.
VVSVV. London. Area of ])ar. ;{,"j")(» acres ; ]»>]).
1,470 ill l«(il. The town is nuiaiily built, but the
streets arc wide and well jiaveil. It has a coiii-
niodious town-ball, built in IWK!; a free school,
founded in l(i7!», and a few minor charities.
Market, Friday ; fairs for cattle, Friday after March
10, May 2(i, June 17 and JH, and Sept. 5. Inliab.
mostly engaged in agriculture. Camelford re-
turned 2 mems. to the il. oft;, from 1st ICdw. VL
down to the passing of the Keforra Act, by which
it was disfranchised.
CAMEHINO, a town of central Italy, prov.
Macerata, on a hill 5 m. SSVV. Aiicona, near the
railway from Ancona to Home. I'op. 11,«,J4 in
iy(!2. The town is pretty well built. Among the
public buildings are the cathedral, which contains
some pictures of the grcjat masters, as does the
church of Uinaiiisia ; and the archiepiscopal palace,
a fine builduig surrounded with columns. In the
principal square is a bronze statue of I'ope
Sixtus V. It has J 2 monasteries, and 7 convents
for women ; and is the seat of an archbishopric, of
a tribunal of primary jurisdiction, and of a uni-
versity founded in 1727. A good deal of silk i.s
spun and manufactured here ; hut the business is >
rather declining.
CA]MMIN, or KAIMMIN, a town of Prussia,
prov. Pomerania, cap. circ, on the Dievenow, about
f> m. above where it falls into the lialtic, SH m. X.
Stettin. Pop. 1,458 in 1><(!1. The tow n was for-
merly the i"at of a bishoi)ric, supj)resseil in 1C48.
The fine cathedral still remains, and the chapter
continued down to 1812. There is an asylum for
li i(
I'
iC iiH
\.l
I
< §
1%
11;
fi22
CAMPAdNA
iiiililc ln>lii'.'«, ami nn liosititiil. DiHtilliilinii is
carried nil tci a conhidcralilc extent, uml the liHlitrj'
)H very iiclivc,
('.\.MI'A<iN'A, a fdwii of SiMitlicni Italy, jimv.
Saitriiii. call, (listr., Mirroiiiicicd l)\' lii>,'li iiioiiiitiiiris,
1« III. K. Salcriic). I'lp)). !t,I.V,t in IhCrJ. Tlictuwii
in I he scat of a bisliojirii'; lias a ':iij)crl> catlicdral,
',\ parish clnirilu's. x'vcral coiivciiis, and a ciillc;,'c.
CAMrAN, a Iciwii <i(' France, (lc|). llautcs I'y-
rences, ('a|). cant., "ii the Adoiir, l(i in. SSM. Tarhes.
I'tip. Jt.Ci.j,'') ill I Mil. 'I'Ik' houses are nioslly linilr
III' inarlile. 'I'his town ^^ives its name ton lieaiitiriil
valley, fertile, and full of life and industry. The
fottat^es are dean and <'omfortahle ; and the neat,
well laid-oiit gardens, ami res|icctal)le dress of the
jieasaiitry, evince their coni.'ortalile condition.
CAMI'MKLTON, a sea-port and royal her. of
Scotland, CO. Argyle, heing, though not ilic ca]iitat,
liy far the most important town in the co., on the
E. coast of the long narrow ]ieninsiila of Cantire,
I'd]). ti,((H.'i in IHiil. The borough consists of two
leailing streets crossing each other at right angles,
with adjoining streets of an inferior (lescri|itioii. It
is hiiilt on the SAV. side of a large salt-water loch,
or inlet of the sea, about 2 m, in length by 1 in
lireadlh, fonning an excellent harbour, liaving
from (i to l.'l fathoms water. Two 'finical insular
Iiills lying in the mouth of the liiy, and inter-
cepting the view of the sen, make the harbonr look
land-locked. Campbelton was at cue tiineasmall
lishing village under the name of Dalaruan; hut
having begun to rise into imiiortance, it was made
n royal burgh in 170(1, when its iiresent name was
conferred on it in honour of the noble family of
Argyle, on whose jiroperty it is built. The pari,
boundaries of the burgh are very extensive, in-
cluding the entire iiarish. 'J'lic annual value of
real ])roperty in the burgh aniountcd to 14,087/. in
18()1-,"); corporation revenue, ind. harbour, 2,12 1/.
Camiibelton has numerous distilleries and malt
kilns. The inliab. also engage extensively in the
lierring lishery. Coal is got wilhin -I m. of the
burgh, and is brought thither by means of n canal.
There is a good quay projecting into the bay, but
accessible only at high water. Kegiil.'ir steam
communication exists with (ilasgow and various
parts of the mainland, as also, though less fre-
quently, with Ireland. The climate of ( 'ampbelton,
though moist in the extreme, is mild; and re-
garded as ])arlicularly salubrious. The burgh unites
with Oban, Inverary, Irvine, and Ayr, in sending a
mem. to the II. of C. Kegistered electors 220 in
1802.
CAMPF-ACHY, a sea-port town of Mexico, ^V.
coast of the peninsula of Yucatan, on the l\io
Francisco, <).') m. .S. by \V. Merida, lat. V.P M' lb"
N., long, iioo 28' l.'j" \V. Pop. tluctnates from
about 7,000 to about 14,000. It is walled and de-
feniled by some fortitications, which, however, <ire
of little importance. It has a pier about .^iO yds.
in length ; but the water is so shallow that only
email boats can come up to it, vessels of conside-
r.iblo burden anchoring at ccrt.iin distances off
shore, according to their draught of water. It is,
in common with the whole of this coivst, ill-sni)-
plied with fresh water, that which is btained from
wells being brackish. It derives its entire im-
])ortance from its being the great seat of the log-
wood trade; that valuable dye-wood, sometimes
called Campcachy wood {IIwmnto.ri/lon Cam-
peach imiii in), being found in greater perfection
and abundance in the adjoining district than
any where else. The imjiorts of logwood into
this country in 1830, mostly from Campcachy,
amounted to 6,037 tons. The other exports are
■wax, the ]irodiicc of wild, stingless bees, with some
small quantities of cotton, &c. Campcachy was
CANADA
founded in IMO, and milTiTed much at ilifTerent
times from hostile attacks, having been sacked liy
the Kiiglisli, in Kl.M); by Scott, a pirate, in I(i7«;
and by the buccaneers in 108,"».
CAMI'M, a town of Southern Italy, prov. Te-
raiiio, cap. caul. 5 in. X. Teraino. Pop. (i,')3('i ip
1802. The town hasa ('atliedral, three colle^iaii^
churches, an abbey of ('rlestine monks, several
cnuvents, an hospital, and a iiioiit ilf jiiitr.
CAiMI'OltASSO, a town of Southern Italy, ca|..
of province of same name, on the declivity of n
inoiiiitaiu, ,'13 ni, Nl'"., Naples. I'op. 12,601 in
180l', The town is forlilied; is the seat ofaei\il
and criminal court; and has a collegiate and Icuir
parish churches, several convents, a royal collc'^c,
an hospital, ami an almshouse. The best cutlery
is jiroduced here ; and being traversed by the ex-
cellent road forming a cotiimnnicalion belweeii
till! capital and the towns on the Adriatic, it lias
an extensive commerce.
CAMI'()-F()1{J1M», a town of Austrian Italy,
iirov. Friiili, four miles SW. ITdiiie. Po]). 1,6111)
m 1867. The town is famous in history for the
treaty of jieace concluded here on the; 17th nf
Octolier, 17!t7, between Austria and France,
CAMI'O-RIAYOU, a fortilied and frontier town
of Portugal, j)rov. Ah'iitejo, 12 ni. NN'K. FIvns,
and 16 m. NW. liadajos. Pop. 4,101 in 1868, The
town is ill-built, with narrow dirly streets, iiinl
old low houses; lias a collegiate church, two con-
vents, an hospital, and a workhouse. It wiis
nearly destroyed in 1712 by the explosion of a
powder magazine.
CA^II'OS, a town of the island of Jlajorca, in
an extensive jjlain, 22 m. SIO. Pahna, and 7
m. from the sea. Pop. 4,120 in 1867. It has in
its vicinity a hot well of reputation ; and consider-
able quantities of salt are nuide along the coast.
The surrounding jdain is very fertile.
CANADA, a vast territory of N. America, be-
longing to(ireat Pritani, lying principally in a
NK. and SW. direction, along the M. side of the
St. Laurence, and the IS', and F. sides of lakes
Ontario. l'>ie. Huron, and .Superior, Ix^tween 67°
60' and 00° \V. long., and 42° and 62° N. lat. It
is diviile<l into Upper and Lower Canada, the area
of each, and population according to the census of
1801, being as follows : —
ArcB
Enn. sii.m.
Pop.
In 1801
Upper Cnnnda
Lower Canada
141,000
2()n,8(10
l,:t!M!,(int
l,lil,r.(i(i
Total
340,800
2,507,6ri7
Canada is bounded N, hj' the Hudson Bay terri-
tory; E. by the Atlantic Ocean; S. by lakes
Huron, Erie, Ontario, the St. Laurence, and tiio
Ignited States, and AV. by Lake Superior. The
length of Canada from Amherstbnrg, on Detroit
river, the extreme S\V. limit of the prov., to Siil'-
lon lliirbour, on the strait of Pelle Isle, its extreme
MF. limit, is about 1,,620 ni. ; its breadth varies
from 200 to 400 m. The Ottawa or ( Jrand lliver,
which has its sources in about 48° 30' N. lilt., ami
80° W. long., and flows in .an IvSK. direction till
it \inites with the St. Laurence, near Montreal,
forms ncarlj' in its whole extent, the line of de-
marcation between the twoprovs. ; Lower Canada,
comprising the whole territory lying Nl'-. of the
Ottawa, on both sides of the .St. Laurence ; wliilo
Upper Canada coinjirises all the territory lyiiii; S.
anil W. of that river. The latter is entirely an in-
land prov. ; but from its having the great lakes
and a part of the St. Laurence for its boundary, it
has avast command of internal navigation, and a
ready access to the ocean.
The origin of the population of L^pper and Lower
CANADA
023
Cnnndn is thus stated in tlic census returns of
Origin
Kn(.'1nnil nml Wall's .
S(mi|Ihiu1 . . . •
Iri'liinil . . , .
Niitlvrs of Ciinndii ■
Not of Krcncli (irlKin .
of I'rciH'h origin
TTiiltcil StiitcH .
Novii Siotiii mill rriiicu I
Kilu'iinl Inland . |
Ni'W Itninswick .
Ni'wfoiniillaiul . .
Went liiillc'rt . .
ICaHt IndicB .
Franco . . . .
rrusHla, (ipnnan States, \
and llolliiiul . . i
Ttalv anil (In'rcc
H))iiiii and rortntral ,
Hwcdcn and Norway
Kiissia and Puhijid .
Hwitzi'rl.ind
(iiicrnscy, .lorscy, and \
otlicr Uritisli Islands )
All otlier plivcL'.s
At Kca . . . .
Not known . .
TottU .
Upprr Ccnnil*
lAwrr CaniMl*
11I,-J!»0
ilH.Tll-.'
1!I1,'J:I1
l;i,l7!»
l:!;.'n|
fi(),;i;)7
s(;»,.'',!i'.>
:i:l,'.'.Hi
f)M,".'.H
1«I7.!>I!>
HI7.(il.-|
l;i,tiis
4,:!H:i
)»77
;i,v!ii
8.V2
l:)7
4i»
Ul!)
'2-2,mi
072
10 1
IM!
'Jlil
nil
«17
114
r,r,
i!','!)
nil
HI
f.l>!)
O'JM
Ml
:i-j:l
1 ,-\<.K,
<il
414
l,il!l(!,0'Jl
l,l11,f.(i(i
The N. portion nfJMitli U))|)er and Lower Cnnnflii
I'oii.iists of a tiiMe lauil, little ofwliicli lias la'cii
liitlu-rto exjilorcd. In I'pi.cr Canada, l'^. of Huron,
it IniM an uveraj;(^ elevation of jierliaps from J. 200
to l.itOd ft. It is eovered willi forests, interspersed
will) ravines, swuinps, and torrents; and al)oniids
with hikes, whic]i.anvwlierel)iit in the neii,ddionr-
hood of the innnensc lakes of this continent, would
lie deemed of fonsidcrahle size. The eoast of
Lower CaiUKhi, NK. of the Saf;nenny, is less lofty
than SW. of that river; hut of a very uninviting;
desi'ripfion. The interior of this part of the
eonntry is <leserihed hy the Indians and Ksqni-
nnuix, l)y whom aloiu^ it is traversed, as eoinjiosed
of roeky elitt's and low hills, seattered over harren
]ilain3, diversilied with thick forests of stimted
pines, and checquered with small lakes. There
seems reason to suspect that the expectations
once entertained of tindhi^ here tracts of culti-
vahle Iniul will never be realised; but liojies are
still cherished that the district may eontahi valu-
able minerals. From the mouth of the Saj^nenay
to ("ape Tourment, near Quebec, the shore of the
St. Laurence is bold and desolate ; but W, of this
jioint a plain country begins to extend iidand,
with a variable breadth of from 15 to 40 m., risinf^
into the table-land behind it by successive terraces.
The cultivated country N. of (Quebec (h)es not ex-
tend far, being hemmed in by hill ranges. ]5ut
as these ranges gradually recede from the St. Laii-
reiu^e, an<l the ciuintry, at lirst diversilied by
varied enunences, sinks into a level ])lain, tlic
surface of settled and cultivated land increases ;
and this is es|)ecially the cas(\ as we aiiimtach and
penetrate Upper Canada. The peninsula orgreat
jilaiu of this jmiv., between lakes Huron, Krie, and
Ontario, comprising about 20,000 sq. ra., consists,
for the most part, of alluvial soil, on a calcareous
substratum. It is ofvarying fertility; but, on the
whole, is believed to be the best grain country of
any of the more N. jiortions of the American con-
tinent. A large part of this tine plain is still co-
vered with lofty forests : it has, however, some
prairies, or natural meadows ; but these are not
extensive. At some remote period it had evi-
dently formed part of the bed of a vast inland sea,
of which the live great lakes having been the
dccpc!*!, are now the principal remaining norlioim
N. of lake Ontario, two terraces Inleiveiie belweeii
the plain on the shore of the lake and the table-
land in the N., decreasing somewhat in fertility as
they increase in height, and separated from each
other and fiom the plain by two ranges of hills of
moderati^ eh^vation. Tlie most S. of these two
ranges iniites near long. HiP with a third, which
passes N.and S. from Natawasanga l!av. in Lako
Iluroii, to the \V. exiremity of Lake Ontario,
The condiiiu'd range, after encircling the head of
the latter lake, crosses the bed of the Niagara
river, forming the ledge over whii'li are the cele-
brated falls, an<l is Ihially hmt in the territory uf
the United States.
That part of Lower Cainnia S. of the St. Lau-
rence, extending between long. 72^"" ltd' ami 71° HO',
and entering into the distr. of Montreal, consists,
for the most part, of an extended plain almost
comiiletely tiat, except that sonu' detached hills
diversify the surface, one of which, that of lioii-
ville, is 1,000 ft. in height. It is less extensive
than the plain on the opposite shore of the river,
and contains no large towns, but it is in many
districts e(|ually fertile ami well watered, and the
cities are dependent on it for a large proportion of
their supplies. To tin- S. an<l K. it ascends by <le-
grees into the monntainons region, fonning tho
boundary between the Uritish and Ciiited Stales
territories. The aspect of the S. shore of the leslii-
ary of the St. Laurence, between long. (!!i° Mil' and
72°, though bold and hilly, is not mountainous, as
on the op|)osite shore; and the hill ranges are in-
terspersed with valleys and even plains of some
extent, many of which, from the encouragement
afforded hv the conliguous markets of tlie cap.,
have been brought into very toh'rable cultivation.
v.. of Kamoiiraska, the country is diversilied by
more abru|it eminences, while pop. and cnltnro
become more limited : and in the district of (Jasp('
the mountains rise into two chains of <'onsidcrablL'
elevation, enclosing between them a lipfty table-
land or central valley. The most sinitherly of
these chains bounds on its S. side the valley of
the liistigoiicheand St..lohn rivers.
J!esi(U's the great lakes indeuling the W. outline
of the eounlry, Canada contains numerous minor,
yet still considerable, bodies of water. In Lower
Canada, the lakes and rivers have been estimated
to cover 3,200 sq. m. of surt'ace ; the jirincipal of
the former hitherto discovered are I^ake St. John,
with an area of .VIO s(i. m. ; those of Manicouagan,
Piretibbe, and others N. of the St. Laurence, ami
Mephramagog. S. of that river. In Upper (,'anada,
the chief are Xipissing Lake, Temiscaming aixl
St. Ann's, in the high table-land; and the Simeoe
Lake in the upiier terrace country of the Home
district.
Amongst the rivers falling into the St. Laurence,
or into the lakes which fonn a part of its system,
there are some deserving of es)iecial mention for
their utility as regards navigation, or their agency
in fertilising the soil. In tlie peninsula of I'pper
Canada, the Thames originates in the district of
London, by the union of several streams, near lat.
43° and long. 81°, and after a eiairse of about 150
m. chielly SW., falls into Lake St. ('lair, situated
between lakes Huron and Krie. The Thames is
navigable for large vessels to Chatham, 15 in. up,
and for boats nearly to its source. It intersects
and waters a tine and fertile country. Besides
Chatham, sni.all towns, with the ]iompous names
of London and Oxford, are situated upon its banks.
Next in magnitude to the Thames is the (Juse.
This river rises in the Home district, about lat.
44°, long. 80° 10', runs generally SK., and falls
into Lake Eric near its NE. extremity. Parallel
I ■>
634
CANADA
to tliin rivpr ftir nbout M m„ riin» tlic Wcllnnd or
('lii|i|ic>vii\ liivcr. wliirli in <iiii> piirt nl' iiw <onrs('
i'lii'iii.sn piii'iiiiii III' till' caiml ln'twccii tlic Oust- iiiiil
Liiki^ Oiitiiriii, l)y iiu'iiiis nf wliitli tUv. I'iiIIm oI'
Niii;,'iirii arc iivuiilt'd. 'I'Ik^ Trt'iil, in tlic district
(if Newcastle, ciiiiiicctN llic Miiall lakes Italsnin,
Miirp'nii, ami several ntliers in the u|i|ier terrace
CHiiiiirv, with the Ifice Lake, and after a lurtimus
iiiiirsc discliarp's itself intu I he Hay uf t^iiiiitt- in
Lake Ontario, It is said to he navinidile forhoats
in the whole of its conrse, 'I'he Lake Italsani is
heparated liv only a short portage frmn that of
Mnicoe,which dis'char]i;es its waters into(ilon<'ester
l!ay (Ilnron Lake) liy the Severn liiver. A short
and valualih^ line of direct water conninuiication
lielwccn the lakes Huron andOnturio isappnreiitly
impeded oidy liy the intervention of this short
porlanc, and hy the rapids of the Sevi'rn, ■which
liver is, however, lio more Ihuii 2(» m. in len^^th.
The otiier allhienis of the St. I.anrtnce and the
fjreat lakes are elsewhere treated of. (See Lau~
]ii:.N'ci;, St,, A'c.) The Kistinouche, which hounds
the district of (iaspe .S., and falls into Chalein-
Itay, is the oidy river of any importance in Canada
Hot lieloiigin^ to the St. Laurence hasiii,
C'liiiiiiti: — The climate of Cmnula is suhject to
f^reat extremes of heui and cold; thethennomettr
ranjiin^i lictween IO:i° ahove, and .'1(!° below, the
zero of Fahr. In snch an extensive rcfiion there
is, of conrse, some ditl'erence in this resiicct : as we
ascend the St. Laurence, not ordy a more .S. jia-
rallel is reached, but the country is less wild and
C'X|iiised than that near its entrance; so that,
•whilst (Quebec has been said to have the sunnnor
of I'aris, and the winter of IVtersbur^,', the ureat
])lain of Lake Kri(^ has the clinnite of IMiiladelphia.
Still the Canadian climate, as a whole, must be
considered very severe : all the streams are lockeil
up by ice, and the j,'ronnil is coven'd everywhere,
to an avera^jc depth of f) or ti ft. by snow, for four
or live months of every year. J'"rosts usually com-
mence ill Oct., whilst the weather, by day, is still
mild and serene. Jhif with Nov. liepiis a succes-
fdoii of suow-stonns and temiiests, from the N.and
K., accompanied by a {;reat increase of cold ; and
this sort of weather usually continues to the second
or third week of Dec, when the atnios])here ajj:ain
becomes serene, but tlie cold still more intense, so
that the rivers become suchleiily fro/en over. To-
wards the latter part of April, or, in late seasons,
the heniniiiiijj; of ^luy, the ice begins to break up;
n sudden increase of temperature stimulates vege-
tation, and makes its growth almost i)erccptihle to
the eye ; so that siiring and summer can scarcely
be recognised as distinct seasons. Jlay and June
are occasionally wet, to the hindrance of the farmer,
■whose seed-time this is (to be t'oHowed by harvest
towards the end of Aug.); but usually the siim-
nuTs are very line. Thunder-storms are often of
great violence, and the aurora borealis is frequent
and vivid : of the jinn'ailiiig winds, those from the
S\V. are usually accomjianied bj' clear and serene
weather; those from the NIC. by continued rain
in summer, and snow in winter; ■whilst a N\V.
breeze is usually dry, with severe cold. Fogs
(except in the district of (iaspi^ are of unusual
occurrence ; there, however, the}' are very preva-
lent, and seriously obstruct the navigation of the
St. Laurence. It seems to be the general opinion
of the inhab. that the winters are graduallj- be-
coming less severe; and this may he attributable
to the clearance of the Ibrests and the increased
extent of cultivated surface ; for, whilst the state
of climate (especially of humidity) intlucuccs ve-
getation, that, in turn, reacts on climate.
The lenj^h and severity of the Canadian -winter
is a heavy drawback on the country, uiid lays the
fanner under serions difllciiltieN niid privationn lui)
experienced in countries where the climaie j^
milder, as in the conligiiouH territories of Indiana
and Illinois. For live or nix months almost ail
agricultural operations are suspended, ho that liiiu'
is not left in tint rest of the vear for tlu- proper
)ire|iiiration of the ground for tlie crops and other
necessary labours, Horses, cattle, uiid other farm
stock ri'ipiire a proportionally large supply of fodder
for their Keep; and to these causes must be ascrilieil
the leanness <if the animals, the high jirice of
(iroduce, and the cheapness of labour as compariMl
with the r. Stales, lint there is a material dilVer-
ence between the lower and the upper provini'e.
In the latter the severitv and the length of the
winter are considerably <(iminished. The soil ton
is generally belter; and the (puilitv <)f the wheat
inniroves nearer to the S. limit of tin? prov.
Slost of the causes that contribute to make the
climate of th(^ northern part of America inure
severe, and Hubject to greater extremes than that
of I'.urope, in the same parallel, hear with especiiil
force on the Canadian regions. The greater portimi
of these provinces is covered by extensive forests;
the trees composing which (especially in the niore
northern and eastern parts) do not, generallvspenk-
ing, attain the same lofty si/e as those ol the I',
States, nor tlourish with the same exuberant vi-
tality: the |iine family, and various species of
evergreens, are the most numerous and predomi-
nant. Amongst various other kinds of trees are,
the silver and American lirs, Weymouth and Cii-
iiadian pines, white cedar {Tliiiya oiTidi'iiliilU),
maple, birch, American ash, bass wood, hickory,
two or three species of wiltl cherry, and numerous
species of oak. IJke the r.'st of the American
continent, most of the ])lants and animals dillcr
sjiecilically fnmi those of the Old World. Many
of the smaller kinds of annual and ])erennial [)laiits
arc common to Canada and regions lying nnicli
further to the S., which may be ac<H)nnted for hy
the high summer temperature, whilst the d('C|i
winter snows etVectuallj'iirotect their roots through
the severest seasons; but the trees and larger
shrubs, which liud no such shelter, belong for the
most )iiirt to more iiortlicrn and arctic regions.
Of the smaller jdants, the Z'nunia luptatiai iiiiiy
be noticed as ))eculiar to Canada, and aboundinf;
in most of the swamps (a grass not unlike rice, anil
aft'ording food to birds, and occasionally to tlic
Indian tribes), and the Ginseng, and Canadian lily,
common to this country and Kamtchatska. Frmn
the saj) of the maple {<teer sucrlitirinum), as it rises
in the earlier part of spring, sugar is made in con-
siderable quantities; in collecting which, from
trees scattered over thousands of acres, whilst the
snow still covers the ground, much hardship isl're-
<|uentlj' endured : these districts are called sugaries,
and are a valuable description of property. The
mode of procuring it is by inserting a small cane
shout through an incision made in the bark, the
sap being received in a wooden trough placed uiiiUt
it; it is afterwards boiled, and then left to cddl
into a hard .solid mass, of a dtirk brown colmir,
which is mouhled by the form of the jars which
contain it ; the value of the article is about half of
that i)roduced from the sugar-cane. Most of the
oak growing in the woods is unfit for ship-buildin);,
and the greater part of the timber used for that
purpose is imported from New England. The
species culled the live oak, which grows in the
warmer parts of the colony, is, however, saiil to be
well ada])te(l for ship timber; the various kinds (if
wood available for no other ])urpose, serve to supjily
the i)ot and pearl-ash manufactories. Amongst
the wild animals, ranging through these unre-
claimed regi< ', are the Aniericou elk, fallow deer.
(CANADA
G2S
ln'nr, wolf, fox, wild cat, mcmm, mnrtln. otfor, nml
viiriimHNiM'cicNof I'lnrnfuuii Mimtvlir; tlii^ l«'iiv«'r,
linr«',K'""'yni"l r«Ml Hciiiirri'l; ikn<l,iiithi' inoroHonth-
iTii jKirtM, the liiitliilo ami riH'Imck : tin' Ih'iifn
to ^('t Hiillicicntly fill for llic piinHmc, if nut. Ilicv
ini^rriiit' to a more Noiitlicrly cliniatr. (Wit'lianl-
Noii'i* Katinn Iturcalis, i). It;,)' Aiikhik^I iIk' liirilM,
iiiav )•(> iicilict'il the wild pif^coii, (|iiail. jiartriilijc,
ami diftorciit kiiidn of ^toiim' ; of lln' water liirdn,
till' .H|n'<'ic(< ari" very iiiimi'rous, aw minlit Ix' iufi-rrcd
from tlui general cliaraftcr of the n^'ion, wlicri',
ill tlu! haMiii of ihv St. Laurence, and the iiuiiie-
roim InkcN occupying the elevated talile-lamlH
around it, lialf the fresh water on the Nurfaee of
th(>){lolieiMeolleeied; ahiiinininKhird (llu^NnialleNt
of ilM p>iuih) In alHo imlip'Hous, aii<l may he Keen
ill the < ^lichee gardens, tlittiiif^ round the llowcrs,
mid eonHtaiitly on the wiii^. AnioiifrNt tin; re|i~
tih'H, tlu! rattlesnake is occnsionally met with,
l-'ish, ill fn'cot variety and ahiindanee, are found in
the lakes and rivers; in which respect few streams
can rival the St. Laurence ; llu' stiir>,'eoii is common,
and the snlinon and herring lisheries are eonsider-
ahle ; seals are also met with occasionally, in hirne
shoals, ill the lower parts of the river. Forests
can only exist where the iirevailinj,' winils hrin/^
with them sutlicieiit moisture, hut they may
usually he taken as a measure of the fertility of
the soil, no less than of the humidity of the <'li-
iiiatt! : ill this respect, therefore, taken jjenerally.
Canadu must he considered n fertile region ; the
upper i)rovince nuicli more so than the lower.
Tohacco, hemp, llux, and the diilerent kinds of
ftrain and of pulse, are successfully cultivated ; as
arc all the connnoner fruits and vcfjctahles of
ICuj^land ; melons of difl'ert^iit species alioiiiid, and
are prnbahly indif^enous ; as are also the straw-
herry and raspberry ; these last tloiirisli luxuri-
antly in the woods: and on the (ilaiiis hehind
Quebec are ^athereti in ifivnt <|uantities, and taken
to that market, I'ears ami a)>ples succeed well,
both there and nt ISIontreal; and on the shores of
Luke Krie, the scrape, peach, and nectarine, us well
as all the hardier kinds of fruit, arrive at the
greatest perfection.
Canada is supposed to be rich in minerals; iron
and copper ore abound in some districts; veins of
silver-lead have been met with in St. I'aul's Hay
(iJOm. below Quebec), and coals, sai;, and sulphur,
arc known to exist in the cidony. No voloanos
have been discovered, but authentic accounts are
liroserved of several vi(dent earthquakes; amonfjst
others, one in 1CG3, when trenien(h)us convulsions,
lastinf^ for six months, extcmled from (Jiiebec to
Tadeausac (I'M m. below it), which broke u)) the
ice of the rivers, and caused many great land-slips
and dislocations. In 1791, earthquakes were also
frequent and vi(dent in the same rcpon ; and the
shores, both of the Gnlf and liiver St. T^aurence
(like thoseof the great lakes, as previously noticed),
present many ])roofs of former convulsions in the
horizontal banks of recent shingle and shells, and
in elevated limestone strata, with wave-scooi)ed
marks, and lithodomous perforations, that occur
on various parts of the shores. (Lyell's Geology,
vol, ii.)
People. — The majority of the population of
Lover Canada are of French origin, as will be seen
from the population tables given above. These
French-speaking inhabitants are for the most i)art
descendants of settlers from Nonnandy, established
ill the colony previously to 175i). Their number
nt that period was about 70,000, and in 1801 they
had increased (according to the census) to 847,(515.
Neither the conquest, nor the long period which
lias since elapsed, has wrought any great change
Voi,. L
ill their character and habitu; nor hnii their iii-
creiising iiiimlierH iiidixed Iheiii to make any
coiihiderable encroachmeiits on the wildenieHii
around: on the coiiirary, thev biive continued
within their original limits, sulidi\'idiiig llie laud
more and more, and subuiilting to a coiiHtaiitlv
decreasing ratio of comliirt. They are frugal,
honest, iiidiistriouN. and hoNpitable, but cling with
unreasoning tenacity to ancient prejudices and
customs; bv temperament cheerful, social, en-
gaging, ami (from the highest to tlu lowest)
distinguished for courtesy and real politeness,
they retain all the essential characteristics of tint
French provinces previously to the revolution,
and present the spectacle of an olil stationary
siM'iety, in a new and progressive world. A few
seignioral families possess large, but not verv valu-
able, ]iroperties: tlie <'lass wholly depemicnt on
wages is a very small one : and tlie gnat majority
consists of a hard-working yeomanry (usually
called litihilaiis), amongst whom there is almost u
universal eipiality of condition and property, and
of ignorance loo; for few of tlieni can read or
write. From ihe piiblii lieges and seminaries
established in the cities and other central )ioiiitH
by the early possessors -if the country, cliietly by
the Jesuits (where the education resembh s that of
oiir public grammar-schools, and is entirely in the
luuids of the Catholic clergy), between '2W and
.'{(Ml annually finish their education, and are dis-
]iersed through the coinmiinily : nearly the whole
of these nr<' of ;he cluss ii( liuliitiinii, and return to re-
side amongst them, mostly as notaries or surgeons;
and thus, living on leniis of complete social e(|iial-
ity, though with greatly su|ierior knowledge, in
communities vt'hicli possess nothing in the shape «(
municipal institutions, they possess almost despotic
iiiiliieiice over )io]iuhir opinion and conduct in all
)iiibli(' matters. The huhitdm under the old feudal
tenures have cleared two or three belts of land
along the St. Laurence, and ciiltivaie them on tlu^
worst system of small farming; their farms and
residences beiugall so iMniiiectcd, that the country
of the seigniories ajipears like a continuous village.
They spin and weave their own wool and tlax, and
make their own soap, candles, and sugar. What
energy and enterprise there exist in the comiiui-
nity (beyond the portion required by this sort of
ronline) is exerted in the fur trade and in hunting,
which, it appears, they still monoixdise through
the whole valley of the Mississippi. (Lord Dur-
ham's Keport, pp. 11 — lit.) The Anglo-Saxon
portion (d' the pojMilntion of Lower Canada consists
almost wholly o' • .sons who have emigrated
trom the United . ''.om. or the descendants of
such, subsequent t> ' -oO. A considerable addition
was made to their n inibers by U. S. loyalists in
1 787 : at a subsequent t)eriod many families from
Vermont have settled in tlie townships adjoining
that state, and since the formation of the American
Land Company many have emigrated through
their exertions. A majority of the labouring
class in this portion of the population are Irish
Catholics ; the rest are Knglish or Scotch Protes-
tants, by whom the resmiri^es of the country, so
far as they have been called forth, have been
mainly developed. It is also by these that the
internal and foreign commerce has been created,
which is wholly in their hands, as well as a large
jiortion of the retail tride of the jwovince ; besides
this, they possess the best cultivated farms in the
province, and are owners of fully half the more
valuable seigniories. (Lord Durham's Report, p. 11.)
The inhabitants of the upper province consist
principally of emigrants from the U. Kingdom,
and from Germany and Holland. A large I'.ropor-
tion of the emigration of Ireland has of late been
S !S
fi
I ' 1 1 til
ijlil:
II
62« CAN
(liri'ctpil 111 ilic HlmrcH of Ciumilft, nn will Itc xci'ti
liy II ^'liiiirt' Ml ill)' ImIiIc iiIhivi' ^ivi'ii, ^iliiiuiiii; iIm'
ori^'iii lit' |iii|iiiliiiiiiii, Mtiiiy nf 'w I'tiii^riiiitM wlio
liniil III </iii'liir iijtiiiinlt'ly Hi'tili' in tlit- I'.SImIi'h,
vliilc a i'iiiii|iiiriillvi'ly miiiiiH iMiiiilicr nl' ilin")' who
liiiiil III New ^llrk litiil tlii'ir wny In < 'iiiiinlii,
< iiiiiiiliTiilili' liiliiilH'rM III' liiiir |iay hIIIi'ith nl' llir
ariiiv ami navy tiiivi' Imtii, ai ilitlrrrnl IIiiicm,
CMtiililiHlinl in r. ('aiiitila. If we limk In llic wrll-
li<'iii){ III' iIh> I'liii^raiilM, wliirli in ilir |iriii<'i|inl
fiiiislilrralinli, il is iinl iiiiirli In lir ri'Kri'llril jlial
fii iiiiiiiy prcliT llic r, Sialrn. 'I'licrt' can lie iin
(Inlil)l lliiil till' Vlllll'y nl' llic MlMHiH^llilii nll'iTH
^Tcalcr ailMiiitii;;('s In iiiiliistriniis itiiiiiiKriiiiln,
M'lii'liicr Willi nr williniit ca|iiliil, llimi can lie cii-
Jnvcil in any pari nl' Canaila. Il Iiiih a niililcr
cliniah', II liclliT inula clii'a|icr noil, ami i^* Tree
fi'iiin tlic^rrcalcr niiinlicr of tliimc Miciiil ^rricvanccx
lliiil iliMiiirli ami cinliillcr snciciy in ('tiiiaila. 'I'lic
womliT, in I'licl. in, mil iliat no niiiiiy nl' llic ciiii-
jfriiiiis In ( 'aiiiiila liiivc Id'i il I'nr llic I'. Slalcs, Imt
lliiit liny ('iiii^<iilci'iililc porlinii ol'tlicin Hlinnltl liavc
rcniiiincil licliiiul.
'I'll!' niiiivc Imliaii trilicK Htlll nrciipy iinrtionNnf
this ciilniiy nil liikcn Superior anil lliimn, niiil
aIniiM' III,. >vliiilc cMciil liiwiinU the N. liminilnricH;
lull I heir iiiinilicrs arc riipiilly ilinniii.shin);. ami
liiey are last ilc^'cneratin;; I'miii their ori^^inal
Hpiril Mini character, so ihiil the utter extiiiclinii
of the lac" Hceiiis inevilalile, as civilisation iiil-
viinces nil the wililcriiess, In which niily they
appear In he atlaptcil. It lias hccii said, that
wiihoiil a chan;;c in their nioile of Ireatnicnt, ' the
I'ateol'ihe Imliinis is Hcaleil.' lint tlu^ Inilh is,
that, however it iniiy he chanp'il, their fali^ is
' scaleij,' M.Npericnce has s>iHiciently prnvcd that
the red men arc inciipalile of any real civilisation;
mill nothing' can ]ireveiit their exicrriiinat ion other
lliiiii the ahiilin;; hy a ilelcrininalion not to enter
their territories, or to iiitcrl'ere in any decree with
their^rroiinds, Imliits, or pursuits. Iliit such a deter-
niiiiiitloii could scarcely he curried nut. America
has hcen settled, civilised, and iniprnved only
throii^di perpetual encrnachineiits on the natives;
and to say that these should cease, would he to
say that vast tracts of line cnnulry tthuuhl be
thionied tncnnliniied liarharisni,
Triiiire and Jlintriliiitioii of Lfiiiflu, — Tlip land
<'oin|iriscd in the sci;;iiinral districts of f.ower
Canada amounts to almiit ',1.(1110,0110 acres; of this
last, ilie whole has hcen granted hy the crown,
siiliject loan ohlipition to cniicede tuiuMiial set-
tlers. The {grants made hy the French fjovcrninent
jircvioiisly to the cniiquest were on one uniform
system, Sfifiiiiorim (or manors rontainin^ from il
to 'Ml sq, Ica^iiics) were created in favour of certain
leadiiif,' imlividuals, who were hound to (jrant
or ' t'OHcrf/t ' a specitied iinrtion to any applicant;
the jirolit, to the scif,'nior, heiii}^ derived fnim
payment of a small rent, from services which
the reiisitairi- (or tcnaiTt) was hound to i)erform ;
from l-12tli of the corn fjronnd (hy compulsion)
at the scit^nioral mill; and from n fine on the
transference of the property (other than by iii-
beritance).
This sort of tenure, copied in prcnt part from
the feudal system existing in France previously to
the licvoliition, was maintained after the Itri'tish
acquired jiossessioii of the country. The con-
scipience has been that the French pop, lias been
conliiK'd to a comparatively limited extent of ter-
ritory, and has never amalgamated with the Brit-
ish ; for, by ennhling every individual to obtain a
porlioii of land, which, as the jioi). increitsed,
liecanie gradually less, without any immediate
oiillay, yoniig men were tempted to remain at
borne ; and being snbjeut tu feudal regulations
ADA
ami servicer, Iho nccii[ilrw wore hound, iw il were,
III II riiiiiiiie sy>.|ciii. Ilcnreihe I'rcm'h ('iiiiiMJiitiii
exhibit a Hlngidiir waiitof acii\ iiy and enlerpriT;
iiml the pnriinii nf the pmv. which they nciupy
has a dense iind a pimr pop,, Mtroiigly attiiiiiiij,
as already hccii, to uncieiit liabilM iind lundcH of
exislence,
since the prov. oaino under the llnliNh Koveni-
mcnl, the plans under which land has been gninii d
and sold have dill'ered very widely at dlll'ereiii
periods. The lauds, when surveyed, have lieiu
divided into townships, coiisistnig each of iiIiimh
"0,000 acres, ex !'> per cent, for high-ways. Tin.
townships have I "en griinled in many iiiihIis, i|i|
fering linlli in their character and object : iit iir<i,
they were granted to settlers in fri'c and cniiiiiinn
socrage, wiili a reservation to resiinie all, or iinv
pari, if required for niililary purposes, but siilijii'i
In nil ntlier ciiliditiniis ; the qiiailt ity, so grillili'ij
III each imli\'iiliiiil, being limited to loo acres li.r
hiinself, and ■''lO acres iiddilinnal for each inemlMr
of his family ; the governor having aiilhorily in
increase this amount by 1,000 acres. These I'h-
vourabh^ lernis wcri> iiicanl to attract selllers rriun
the colonies, which now form the II. States, In 177,",
this arrangement was superseded, and the (jmlnv
,lrl of the preceding year having restored ilit;
Freiicli code and language, ('orresponding iiisinic-
lions were given, that fntiirc grants slinuld iigniii
be made in lief ami seigniory, and three Hcigiiinrics
Were tliiiA crcalcd. In I7III the regulalioiis nf
I7ti;i were revived, though with certain comliiimis
annexed to them, which in )iraclicc wen^ avniilcd;
and this imide continued till IH2li : but the cmi-
stitiitional act of I7!ll also enacted that a reserve
for the support of a I'rolcslant clergy shniiM h"
made, in respect of every grant, equal in value, m
near as could lie estimated, to l-7tli iiart of ilio
land granted. The crown reserves, tn a like exiciil,
nriginated in the view of supplying, lirst by sales
and ultimately by rents, un indepi'iideiit sniirce of
revenue, and obviating the necessity of taxes, niiil
consccpicntly of such disputes as had led to ilu;
independence of the U. States, These rescncs,
however, have jiroved most serious obstacles tn
the welfare of the colony, which the mis-eoiistnii'-
lioii, or violation, of the act, has aggniviited, hy
increasing llieir extent bevond what apjieiirs to
have been conteni|ilated. (Lord Diirhanrs Keport,
Apjiend. II., pp. (!, 7.) From IHOO ibiwiiward, no
new townships were granted ; and the grants, nii
to 1811, were in lots of 21)0 acres, to actual sctlleni,
and few in number. From the last date, grants
were made on ' location tickets,' reipiiriiig the
erection of a house, and the clearing and cultivat-
ing four acres, before the title was jicrfecled. In
IH"2t) the new mode of selling land by aiiclinn,flta
miinmnin upset price, was adopted, the piircliiisc-
moiiey being |)ayable by four annual instalinunts,
without interest. In IHiU the iiurchase-iUDiicy
was to be repaid by half-yearly instalments; tiiiil
ill 18H7, to obviate the had effects of giving crcilit
on such sales, the imrchase-money was made imy-
ablc at the time of sale, llesides the grants nuule
under these different regulations, other excciitimi.il
ones have been made — mostly in reward of public
services ; such as those to the militia of the revo-
lutionary war, and of that of 1812 — there has .also
been an exceptional sale of nearly 800,000 acres to
the Uritish N. American Land Company. 'i'\w
crown reserves must be considered as virtually
abandoned when the auction sales were iiitrn-
diiced ; and an act of the imperial legislature h;is
authorised the sale of l-4tli part of the clergy
reserves, at a rate not exccieiling ]0(),000 acres
annually. Latterlj', however, the system for the
disposal of the crown lands by auction, at a fixed
TAN
minimum pricp, Imn lircn r'uforccil in Cmmila n«
mil (IN ill il ihir rnlitnii's.
Of lnt(< yi'iint n rcvriiiii< Iuin Im-oii dcrivi'il frum
JIiiiImt pr(i|MTly ill Imlli provii •«. OriKiimlly (lie
HkIiI of ciiMlii^ tliiilit'i wiiH <i niiiiii>|Hi|y in llii>
Imiiiln (if roiitriicliirM, for i«iip|ilylii)^ tliiit iirliilr
ftirllic imvy, wlm iiHually Hold licfiiHcs to iiicr
I'liiiiitN Hiiil liiinlHT-ini'ii.'liy wlioiii nil tlii< Ir^'iil
triulc WHS ill (•ollHC(HH'|l<'l''cM(,'roH,'M'(l. Ill jM-.M
liccMMCH to ('lit wt'rt' lirnt oIl'criMl liy Kovpriiiiiciit liy
iiiiclioii: tilt' value oC mi ncni oV linilicr, at lliV
price eliar^reil for these, is often very niiieli ^reatiT
lliat||lliat reipiireil forlaml, and llie'lirst instaliiieiit
lias lieeii paid freriuenlly for land solely in the
view of entfinj,' down tlie tinilier. Tlie ( Mlawa is
tlie chief seat of the trade, which is in j^reat mea-
sure, forced and factitious ; and which, whih^ it is
of no real advanta>{e to Cmirida, entails a heavy
harden on (ireat llritain.
Lands in the iippiT prov. have heen granted in
the same way as In the lower; and the prufii^e
manner in which these grants have lieeii made,
many very extensive tracts having heen n'^''" to
])ersons who had iiu intention of seltliii); upon
them, coupled with the >;reat extent of the clergy
and stale reserves, has had a most injurious iiitlii-
eiice over the eoloiiv, and has mat(-rially retarded
its pro/,'resH. The lands thns >;iveii away to indi-
viduals not settlinj; upon them, ami reserved, liy
iiitenxisiiiKniicnllivated desert tracts helweeii the
actual settlers, render it, in all eases, much more
dilUciilt and expensive, and Hometimes all hnt
iiiiposslhlc, to form roads and other means of eom-
niunication ; so that the cultivators arc freipiently
cutotVfrom n market for their produce ; and Iteiuf;
seltleil only in particular districts, they are less
nhlc to comhine for municipal (inrposes, nnd for
the estahlishment uf s(;hools and chnrches, and
the undertaking of public works that require co-
uperaticMi.
The extent of land for solo at tho end of 1802
was as follows : —
/« l^/>iiitr Cnniiiln — Crown lands, after dcdiiet-
m^ sales and free grants, and adding extent sur-
veyed, 2,«il!t,itr)M acres, clergy lands 'J t,n;i« acres,
grammar school lands 61,714 acres, and common
school lands l),7t>7 acres.
In Lower Cannda — (.'ro^vn lands, after deduct-
ing sales and free grants, and adding extent sur-
veyed (i,*M)H,t>tu acres, clergy lands i{5,5,!(!tH acres,
making a total of !»,2(J0,2:V2 acres for tale in Upper
and Lower (Canada.
The niimher of acres of land sold, in the three
years lH(I0-2, was as follows : —
Doicrtptiun of Land
1800
Kent
1801 1 1803
AcrM 1 Acrei
Crown J U|>i)or Canada .
Lands Lower Canada .
Total .
Clcrpy 1 TTppcr Canada .
LanUs ( Lower Canada .
Total .
Common Schc ' Lands .
Grammar School Lands .
Total .
12(1,413
200,026
2/57,933 \ 101,r>ll
273,835 232,180
410,439
fi2,.')22
4t,r.45
531,708
333,097
74,300
41,290
20,771
30,504
107,007
115,005 , 60,275
3,221
4,498 : 2,2'I0
fi.OOO
8,729 1 2,909
533,(127
067,000 41)5,190
Agricultural Statistics, — Tho actual state of
agriculture in both Upper and Lower Canada is
sliown in the subjoined table, compiled from rc-
AT).\ n27
turns of the Colnnial (ioveniment. The atatislic*
are for the year lM(i2; —
l/rtr»t
I'piwr
CmimI*
Cuiaite
Nil. of lliililhmi :—
10 Acres ulnl under
n,H22
4.424
10 „ „ 20 Aorcn
a.isii
2.075
20 „ „ 5" „ .
2o,o7»
20.1130
50 „ „ 100 „ .
41,011
OI.NIH
100 „ .. 200 „ .
2l.7;iii
28.;):m
200 iiiid iipwardM ,
•I.SdII
5,027
Arni
Ainu
f.niiilH liclil til Acres , ,
IO,;i75,-|IH
13.351.1107
Uiiiler Culllviilldii .
4 .HI It, 2: 15
0.051,(110
„ Crops ....
2,92S,|:i3
4,101,1102
,, I'otiilocs
1 ,K»2,(IS5
l,8t;0.N|8
„ (liinlciiH inid Drcliards.
3:1,417
88.SII!)
Woods and Wild Lands .
fi,57l,lH3
35,731,880
7,303.288
01.402,110
Valuo of Kiirms In ikiuikIs stor.
„ of Kariil InililriiM'hts .
1 ,5.12,7 19
2,350,0(il
„ of (lurdcii and Orchard \
rroiliice . . i
184,304
271,007
Quantity of Lund held liy
Arri'M
Acrc«
Towiispeople, not liolllK
147,293
182,552
Fanners . . . )
Land under Crops ; —
I'all Wheat ....
5,480
434.729
HprliiK Wheat
230,289
051,037
Hurley
130.142
118,0 to
Uye
83,031
70,370
I'CIH
234.035
4(iO,505
ihw*
055,5.',3
078,337
Huckwlii'at ....
75.005
74,5(15
Iiidiiin Cum
15,012
70,018
I'otatdCH ....
118.709
137.20(1
Tnriiliis ....
0,475
73,400
MaiiKcl Wnrzel .
1,230
1,523
No. of Live Stock :—
KlK.
N<ii.
Hulls, Oxen, and Steers
200,1101
00,005
Milch ('(iws ....
328,370
451,010
Calves and ilelfers
287.(ill
4(il,083
Horses over three years old ■
185,(I!I7
277,258
Colts and Fillies .
03.418
10(',l2:l
Wieep
082,829
1,170,225
I'iKs
280,400
770,001
Vroduco :—
llii.
\\n.
llutter
15,90(i.949
20.828.204
CliecH!
(18(i,207
2,(i87,l72
JiiH'l', In barrels of 200 lbs. .
07,054
07,508
I'ork „ ,1
100,598
330,744
Canada, as already Staled, is supposed to be rich
in minerals, but its wealth below ground has only
been partially explored. Copper and iron ore arc
at present the chief produce of the mines. 'V\m
quantity of copper ore exjiortcd in the year \HiVi
amounted to hfift'A tons, while of pig and .scrap
iron there were exported 2,40« tuns. Ab(mt two-
thirds of the cojiiHT ore and the whole of the
exjiorts of iron went to the United States, the re-
maining copper being taken liy Great liritain. lint
the iiroduce of the mines is insignilicant to that of
the forest, and, still more, to that of agriculture.
The value of agricultnriil produce exported in lH(i2
was above 15,0(10,000 dollars, and that of the forest
9i millions; »vhilc the value of the produce of
mines Avas but 7O.'l,000 ihillars, and that of manu-
facturing industry less than half a million.
Commerce and Shipping. — The imports of Ca-
nada on tho average exceed the cximrts in value.
The imports, in 18(i0, amounted to 7,17(!,tir)H/. ;
the exports to 7,214,078/. In 1861, the imports
were of the declared value of 8,9(J9,7.')()/., nnd the
exports of 7,<)27,957/. Lastly, in 1802, the im-
ports amounted to 10,r2.'),l.S2/., and the exports to
0,999,192/. The principal imports are cotton and
woollen mannfactnrcs and colonial goods, while
timber and agricultural produce constitute tho
chief exports. The subjoined table shows the
value of the chief articles of exports during the
two years 1801 and 1802 :^
s s 2
i t
if! 'I
iijiiiiij
:''! t
'!, ijll
III
m
w
i
(i2H
CANADA
R>|wfW
iwi
PulUn
IMton
Tiilii unci HiiIIIdii , ,
iUM'i
|7N,lt!t7
('ii|i|nr Drr . . ,
44iM;l0
MII'I.IIMH
I'Uli, lii'li"!
*K*,m\
;,7ii,Mnii
„ I'li'klnl .
•iiu.l.M
fiit.vii
AkIii'h, I'lit , , ,
70f.,r.'H
iw;.,M(p|
„ r.'.iii .
I7;l,77lt
•i.Mt.tlllt
TIimInt : r.lin .
•jd.l.Mij
airi.Cill
„ Uiik .
ft';il,iMl7
fi'^.,:il7
Whlli- I'lim
U,M)l,:mH
■;,llii.ii4)l
„ llinl riiii' .
nim.tidii
4.vj,ii;i
„ Htiui'laril Htitvcit
■ilN.II.VI
'J.M.llll
,, (Itlicr rituvt's
|ii7,:iH,^
|(i4..M:l
,, I.'riiU
V,IW>,"IIJ
l,:l7r.,;iiM»
„ IMiiiikH Jk lloctnlH
l,:.7ii.:iHi
a,:i:i:i,7Jti
„ MikHti
MH.KII
71.17.-.
AiiImiuU: IIiiix'14 ,
(I)I7,:I.'>A
tllll.:l:|:l
„ Hiiriii'il Citttle,
;is.»,;.iti)
■JI'IMNij
„ Hwlmi
Illl,'i7l)
fp|l.rj7
Hhi'i'ii
Illt.'iJO
21 7.7.^ 1
Priiiliirnof AiiIiiiuIk;
lllltllT ....
Htl.llltl
1,1:12,772
I'.WU* ....
ii;i,;iii
.Vl.lllll
Iliill'H lllul I'cltH .
liiii.i'ii
i;ii,7iH
I'nrk ....
.|M7,.'.im
1711;.' IS
W.)()l ....
4:11. lIMt
72I,h:1iI
PlIfH ....
■j:iO,AIMI
'Jll2,ll2S
Atfrli'iiltiinil rroiliifts :
liiii'lc'v mill llyii .
l,oi)'.>,!);ii
l,ri;M,».'.7
Iriiliitii C'lirii .
:il(i,ii;i7
4lii,t!!m
Out
(i|:i.ii'i:i
<II2.I>NM
IN'IW ....
I,tii7,.')ii)i
7:l'',l>J7
Wlii'iit ....
7,ti:l4,HOI)
n.rii.'i, 211(1
i''l<inr ....
u,iiu,ti(m
fi,M4:l,H«4
Miuiiiriu'turi'n :
liiillii-riililx'r . , .
aa.ofia
.'I4,7M1I
Stil)j(>iii(>il is a xtatcniciit ^'iviiiK the niiinlicrnnil
toniiM^'c iif vchhi'Ih (if oat'li iiiitioii which ciitcrt'd
niiil clciiri'd lit the iiutiiortH uf CuiukUi in the your
im-> :—
Eiilrrod
Vlnml 1
Nmlniiiiilly of
Vt-IH)U
Vi.ifli
Tiiiu
82.'i,40ft
VclloU
1,907
Turn
8l2.fif!n
nrltlsh .
l,OM
Atncrlcnn (U.S.)
4n
|H,I20
41
17,9211
IlllSh^illll .
ft
2,IIH2
5
2,(iH2
"Vdrwi'tflnu
1:11
f.7,:l!t;i
12.'.
r.ft.:i22
Swcillsh .
;i
I.:i2(l
:i
1 ,;12I1
limine TownH .
Id
(l,22H
Id
tl.22H
I'riihsiiui .
2(1
H,H(I7
1!)
8,.''.tlH
KriMic'li
2
111)
:i
04
AiiKtriiin .
—
—
—
—
riirtiiifiipso
6
8A4
4
&tR
Otlior Ffprclgn
CountrluH )
Total .
6
1,825
fi
1,625
3,187
922,430
2,12H
9(Mi,847
ShipbtiildiiiK is curried on to n considrrnlile ex-
tent in Cnniida. The numlier of snilin^ vessels
hiiilt in the tliree years i«C.O, 1«<!1, and \H&>,
ninoiinted to '2M(!, and of steamers to 80. I)urin>f
tlie same period fiCid sailing vessels and 01) steamers
were registered at Canadian ports.
Form of Gorenimeiit. — Cniiadn was ceded by
France to Kiifjland in ITti.'J : it had previously been
fjoverned by French military authority ; from
tbenee, to 177'1, it was under the rule of an Fnjj-
lisb governor and council, with Knffliiih law, ad-
ministered in the Knplisli lan^imj^e only. From
1774 to 1791 it was f^overned by an Kn^lish f;o-
venior and a lepslative council, appointed by the
crown, witb £wj//i)t/i ('riminal and French civil law;
and from 17!M downward, by the constitution,
previously explained, tbe colony beiiifj then di-
vided into two provinces, each with an independent
Icf^islature. Down to 1774, the line of policy
jiursued was that wliicli, had it been vigorously
and systcniaticuUy followed up, would certuiuly
linve n-douiided nini*i,iti the mil, lo tliondvnMlii(;i'
of llic chIciiiv ; jiia^iiiiii li a» it wmilil hiivi'urailiinll'.
milivcrlrd the inMliiiiliiiUH jiiid liiii^iiiitteof {''rniiii.
and eNiiiblinlii'il ill ihcirHleiiil the hiMiiliilioiiM atiij
liniKiitii;e of I'.n^liinil. Ilul Ihc l^iii'l Act nf
1771 iniriHliiccd a nrw and tiinre lilienil, lint m ilic
name lime a p<hort Mi^'hied iioliiy. If < 'iminhi wiu
lo be preserved as Ull l'',M|4ll'<ll i'oliin>', il nIiuiiIiI, Mi
far as possible, have been made l'',ii^'lish ill In
laws, its liin^ua^c, niid In the fei'lln^'s i,f ijn.
people; and no illNlillllioli nIioiiIiI liavi> lireli liilc
rated llial Milu'lil ha\e jirevciilcd the ^railiiiil iiiiil
ciiiii|ileie amalv;iiiiiiitiiiii of the Freiicb «Nilli ilic
Kllgli-«h Hclllcrs. The (^iieliec Ai'l lllll'cirlllliiitrly
proceeded on tniaily liilVerciit priiiciple<i. In nnli'r
lo conciliate tbe ci.ioiiisis, it siilislilulcil llir oli|
HVstem of civil law, or thai called the ('niilumr lilt
i'liriii, for the civil law of l'',iiKlaiid,iiii<l it iliniii'il
till- use of the French lail)^'iiaue to be rc'iininl m
the law courts. It is pmbably true lliiil tliiii'
concessions, bv gralilyiiiK th*' * 'aiiadiiins, liml <.iiiiir
eti'cci ill hiti<ieriiiK ilieiii from ji.iniii;^' tlie Ami'
riciiii coloiiisls of Kii^rlisb origin in their ^'rcai iiihI
successl'iil revolt ; ami ciiiisci|iieiilly coiilrilnili'i
to preserve tbe |irov. fur the llrilish crown, Willi
out sliijiping to eiii|iiire whether this has beiii u(
any advaiiliigc to (irciit Itriliiiii, il hceiiis prulmMi'
that the ililVereiice of language, and tlie pniiliiir
circumstances under wliicli the Frciicb ('aiiailiiiiii
Were |ilaccd, wnuld have elVccliially previiiiiil
llieni, lhoii);li lh(^ Ijiieliec .Act had never lii'iii
heard of, from iiial\iii){ coinnion cause wiili ilic
colouisis of New I'jigland ami the oilier Aiiicriiiiii
colonies. Ilul, whatever opinion iniiy be cmiii' ii.
iisto this, there can be no doulit llial Ihecstaliii^li-
inent of French hiws and laii^iia^e in tlie innv,
liasteniled to insulate the French pop., to niaiiiiiiiii
lliem as a distinct race, and to restrain, and in a
ureal dej^ree prevent, all intercourse belwcen ilicin
and the colonists from l'!n);laiid : in poini offiirt,
the French in Canada are now almost as iiiiiili a
distinct (leople as in I7)ill. The Xnlion Oim-
itiviuie has no sympathy, and but little coininiiiii-
calion, with KiiKlislimeii : on llie contrary, a linuiil
line of ileiniircatioii and a deep moled aiitipailiy
subsists between them.
The basis of the |iresenl ])iilitical conslitiitiini of
Canada is tlie act of III (ieo. 111. can. III., passcil
by the I'arliament of (ireat Mritain in 17',)|. Hy
the terms of il, the old province of (Quebec — wliici;
then embraced t!ie whole of Canaila — was ilividcil
into the two piverinnents of llii]ier and bower
Camilla, with representative instiliilions for cacli.
Tb(( le^fislalive authority was vested in a li'^i^-
lative council appointed by tbe crown, and in a
bouse of assembly elected by the inlialiitants;
the Lower province was under a governor, wliilsi
the lljiper was under a lieutenant-governor. Tliis
constitution was suspended in consequence of tlic
rebellion in Upper Canada in IHHH, and a special
council aiipoifited. In l^l■IO tliC! two provinces
were reunited — by an act .'Ird & -tth Vic. cup, ll.'i—
and the lepslutive councils of the iiniled pro-
vinces were consolidated. The new le(,'islative
council consisted of twenty members ap|H.iiiteil liy
the pivernor for life; while the jieoplo were repre-
sented in a house of assembly, comprisinf; eijjlity-
Ibiir members, returned in equal ]iroportioiis liy
the inhabitants of Cppcr and Uiwer Canadu. A
final modilicatioii of the constitution, by uii net
passed .lune 14, lUb'A, comprises the fundaniPiiliil
laws now in force. The (diarter thus estallli^lu'|l
ve;;ts the le(;;islative authority in a parliament nf
two houses, the Icf^islative council and the limise
of assembly. The fonner consists of tweiity-limr
members nominated for life by the governor, and
of twice the number elected by the people. The
CANADA
ej9
lioiito nf nKKcmltlv crtmiiriHon 1.10 riK'niltor*, rhown
ill I'J.'i t'li-i'liiriil lii.'tlririt Mini liitriiii((|iK, >ii'tiilit'rM
III' till' lliil|Nl> III' nn-<l'llllllv lllllrtl III' |lii'<Nl'>M'i| III'
rrri'liiilil |irii|H'r( y nl' ilii- viiiiir nl' HiMi/. Kii'itorx in
riiillilli'M, liy II liiw wliicli liiiik I'lVi'il in iM.i.'i, iiri'
l<'i|ulri'i| III Ih' Iiiiski'xhi'iI III, nr In •irril|iv, |ir<i|irrly III'
lliii MHMi'HKi'il iii'iiiiil vitiiii' III' Ml., (ir llii' yi'iirly
Miliii' III' Ti/, ; wliili' I'li'i'iiirM III lowiH niiiMi lie |iiii
i<i"<!«i'il III", iir iii'rii|iy, |irii|irrty "I" ilii' yriirly vuliir
III' 7/, lll». Mi'IiiIhtm III' fill' liiiUKi' lit' iiK^i'iiilily,
illirill)^ hi'mhIiiii, Iiiivi' Mil alliiwilliri' I'riiin llir |illlilli'
riiiiil't. ('iiT^yiiii'ii III' III! ili'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiH itri' iiii'ii
IKllill'iif lii'riililillK nii'Mllii'ri, 'I'lir Iimiihi' In rlorti'il
I'lir I'liiir yt'itrM ; Itiil inuy In' |iri'\'iiiii'ily iIImhoIvi'iI liy
llii> ({iivcriiiir, in wliirli ciim' a nrw rli'i'liun iiiiinI
'iikr pliirc iiiiiiit'iiiiiti'ly, Al li'ii'l inii' Hr»^<iiiii inii.^t
III' lii'lil niiniiiilly, mi tliiii ii iiiTiiMliil' Iwi'lvi' iikhiiIi^
may ni'vi-r I'liipsi' hriwi'i'ii rarli ini'rliii^ uf llii'
Ii'^lMlatiiri'. All |iriirri'iliiiK!< ami ri'i'urils of tlif
li'^irtjativi' aHwi'iiilily arr unliTril to In' ki'|il, liy
till' ai't III' |H|il, in till' l'',ii);li!<li laiiKiia^'i' nnly.
'I'll!' Hpi'aki'r III' till' liiiiixi' of a-<Mriiilily is t'lccicd
liy llii' iiii'inliiTM ; wliiii' llii' |irr.'<iili'lil ul' llir li'u;iri
laiivo riiiini'il ii aiiiiiiintcil liy llii' rrnwii I'nr lil'i'.
Till' I'xi'nilivi' M vi'ili'il in ii ^tnvrninr ^I'lirral,
htyli'il ' lioM'niiir-lii'ni'riii uf Hrilidli Nurlli Anii'-
ririi,' anil apiiniiiii'il liy llii' rniwu, Hi' lian a
salary nl' 7,<lilii/. yvr unnuiii, ami linliH aiitlinrily
ill lliii nanii' nf tlic Hiivi'ri'i;;n nl' (irriil llritain,
'I'lic niiviTimr-Ki'mTal liii.-i tlii> imwrr In n'lvv ur
williliiilil till' royal iismciiI to IiiIIh |ia'«M'il liy llii'
li't^iMJalivi' roiinril ami as.ii'inlily, nr In ri'si'r\'ii
till' Kitnii' till lliu rnyal iili'iiHiini hi' I'Xiiri'ti.ii'il,
Siirli liills iiH arr aiMi'iifi'il In l>y tlii' j^nvrriinr in
llui name nC ilic I'mwii ari', iu'VitiIh'Ii'sm, Miliji'i't
In ili><aiinwanri' liy liii' Movi'ri'ijfii, within two yrar^i
al'li'r till' ri'r('i|it of aiitlii'iitir ropii's hv oni' of Ihi'
|irini'i|ial Hct'i'i'larii'n nf Htatc in (irral (tritaiii ; anil
nil hills, rcscrvcil for tin- rnnsiilrralion nf the
iTowii, ran have any fnri'i', niili"is llii' rnviil iihhi'IiI
III' Ni^iiilicil within two yi'iirn al'li'r Ihi'v liavi' lici'ii
iiri'McnIi'il In till' K"v<Tnnr-^;i'm'ral. All |irni'i'i'il-
nij^s anil rci'iinis nf lim l^'^;i^lalllrl' ari' iliri'i'tcil In
liii krpl in thi> l''.n^rliMli ian^MiiiKi' only.
AdininiHtruI'mii ofJustiiT. — 'I'lii' criniinal hiw of
Kiifjlaml i.s a|iplirahl(' to Ilii' wholi^ nf Camilla:
hut, ax ri'pirilH the prnvim'i'nf (jni'hci', tlii'am'ii'iit
law of ('aiiaila, that is, llu' Fri'iirli laws, an-, liy
the Mill nf (ion. III. I'. «;i. ri'si'rvc'il as applii'iihli'
to all nialtt-rs of I'lnitrnvcrsy ri'lalivc to propiTly
anil rivil ri^htH. This rcsi-rvatinii, however, iloes
not holil where lamls are helil in free ami eonnnon
siiceiige ; anil wills, involviM^ the ilestinalion of
property, may he exeenleil in eniiforniity either
with the laws of ('anailii or those of I'ji^latul, as
liie testator may deem expeilient. In NVeslern
Canaila the law of Kiij^hkml is nniversallv ajipli-
e.ilile. The jii'lp's ennmerateil in Seheiliilo A at-
lai'hi'il to the Act nf Union, are the following: —
Tor rpjK'r, or Western, Canaila, one ehief justice
anil four puisne jnil^es of (Queen's Heneh al Tn-
nmtn, hesiiles a viec-eham.'ellnr ; ami fnr Lnwer,
nr Kastern, Camilla, one eliief Jiistiee anil three
])iitsne jmlK*!>< "1" Queen's Heneh at. (iiiehee, ami
one chief justice anil three puisne jmljices at Mnn-
treal ; one resilient jmlne at Three Kivers; anil
line jiiilf?*' each for the inferinr districts of iSt. Fran-
cis ami (jas)ie. The juil^ments of these courts of
(iiieeu's llench are siiVject to review in a superior
court, or court of a]i|ieal, consistiiif; of tlie j,'nver-
niir, lieutenant-fjovernnr, or |iersiin ailministeriiif;
the pivernment, certain meinliers of the executive
council, ami the chief justice or justices of tlie
)iriivince, nr any live of these functionaries, ex-
chnliiift always the, jnil^c nrjiiilfjes whose decision
is appealed aj^ainst. There are also variims circuit
Cdinmissionurs uf bankruptcy, and theru in u Vicc-
Ailiniralty i'ourl mtnliliMhril nl (jii(>lH>r, Ihr k"-
vernor heinj^, rr itffirio. viic admiral of Cunada,
Much liti(;iiiiiiii ^^^n^H on Imth in rp|H'r ami l.nwcr
Canada, ami lawyers are of cmir'^e niinii'niiis in
the chief iiiwiis. riioii^h the criminal returns for
Canada are far from licin^ cninpli'le, ll xieiil nf
crime w'i'ins, on ihe whole, In he small, and on llie
decrease, when cotnpiireil with the ainnunt and
rapid |irii|^ress nf iinpulatinn in the cnlniiy,
Hrliiiiiin iiHil hiliiviitiimiil Knliihliitlunritl*. — I'm
viiiiin was made liy the lllsi lieo. III. c. ;il. for ihe
siijipiirt of the I'roli'sinnI cler^'y in Catinilii. My
tills ad, there is allotted for the inaintciiance of
the clergy nf the Church nf Kn^hind in tin lony,
alioiil a seventh part of all Ihe waste lands in he
granted to settlers; and the tithes of nui'h I'm-
le'<lants as live within Catholic heiielices are to
lie reserved hy the receiver-jfcneral nf Ihe pro-
vince, and appriipriali'd to thesiippiirl nf a resilient
rroti'slanl clergy therein. These are ilcsi^'nati'd
the clergy reserves. The ^overnnr is empowered
to present to any parsonages or rednries to Ui
consiiluted in the colony. 'I'liere are livcCaimdian
liishops heloii^in^ In Ihe Church of Kn^land,
while the Ifnmtn Calhnlic Church is ^nverned hy
line arcliliisliop and ei^lit liishops; and Ihe I'res-
liyteriini Church of Canada, in connect inn with
Ihe Church nf Scoilaml, hv animal synods, iire-
siileil over hv moderatnrs, 'I he niimlier of memliers
of each relluinns dennmimilinn, according to the
census of I Mil I, was as follows ; —
Ki'IIkIoiii Dviiimilniiiliiiu
I'llsT CmimU
illl.All.'i
l.itwfr CiiiiuiU
tl:i.lH7
Chur(!li of Kii^laiiil .
,, iliiliie ,
•jriH.ltl
11 |;i.-.':i;i
rre>lijti'riiuis
Cliilrcli of Sciitlimd
|OH,iii;:i
•j;i,7.'ii)
KiccClmrcli oil Hootlnnil
ll:l,li|:l
ll.H.MI
I'nltiil ....
f)l,;i7H
f),ll!l
MelhiKltxts -
Wcsleyim
2IH,1'.'7
ai.,!»:.7
K|il'<i'ii|iiil
71, I'll.-.
•J,.'i7:i
New Coniiexlon .
•JH.'.'IIO
1,'.>!IJ
Otiier ....
•.':i,;i:ii»
H7t
IliiptistH ....
111, Ml)
7,7.'il
LiitlierniiH ....
'/»,-Jii!)
H.-i7
CoiiKreKutionalistn .
Il,:l.'i7
4,if.'7
Qiiiikcrs ....
7,;ih;i
\i\
Illlile (Miristliuis
h,Sil|
IHt
'Clirlstlaiis'
fi,ipi«
'Jim
' .S-coud Ailventistn ' .
l,ii:iO
'j,:io'i
t'l'ole^tinits
7,rii4
•J,.'iMt
' III rt|ilos'
4,117
.%
■lews
lilt
r,vi
Mi'iioiiUts iiiid 'Tnnkers'
8,!lli.'>
—
' nnivcrnnlists'
a,-.':t»
'J.'.'Sff
; l^iiitarliiiis
ii:il
t)A2
1 Moniuins ....
74
,1
1 ' No ri'lliilim' .
17,:i7:l
1,477
1 DeiioMiiiiiition not stated .
H.l-.'l
fi'.'S
Other CreiHlii not classed ,
11,'JNII
tl78
Total . .
i,8o«,oai
i,ni,fi6(i
TTpper ami Lower Canada have separate whool
laws adapted to the relif{ious element*! jirevailinjj
in either. I'jich township in Cpper (Canada if*
divided into several schnnl sections, according to
the requirements of its inhahitants. The common
schools are supported partly hy government, anil
)iartly hy local self-imposed taxation, and occa-
sionally hy the ]iuvment of a small monthly feo
for eacii scholar. 'I'he total amount expended on
common schnnls in Upper Canada dnriiij^ 18.")8
exceeded 20H,l)27/. In settled rural districts each
school section 1ms a ^ood school-house, fimiished
with maps, niithnriscd school hooks, nml ele-
mentary philosophical apparatus. The salaries of
teai^hers vary from !;IU/. to K)/. in cnuntry parts,
aiul I'rum '■liol, tu 7^/. in cities luid lowns. All
1 1
fi3(>
CANADA
citmmnn school tpachorfltniiflt pnssanoxnminntinn
liclorr, a couiitv bonrd of ciliiention, or receive a
licciu^e from tlio provincinl tiornial hcIiooI, cm-
Ijowcriiii; them to teach, before they can chiim
th(! ){overiim(!iit Hlh)Wiiiice. Tlierc are j^ood jjram-
iiiar hcIiooIh at Montreal and (2ucl)cc in connection
■with the Clhiirch of Kn^hind, whicli are partly
Hii|i|iorte(l hy funds derived from the OHtates of
the JesiiitH, and partly by fees paid by the s<'ho-
lars. There are also excellent Catholic schools in
tho same cities, which were endowed with con-
siderable estates by the French government, prior
to the close of the 17th century. These estates
they still enjoy. There are also between l,t!(»0
and 1,700 common schools, and various colleges
and other superior cilucational establishments dis-
tributed over the various counties of Lower, or
Eastern, (Janada. To support the common schools
larfje sums are ainnially voted, in addition to the
l)roduce of certain estates of the Jesuits (j^enerally
exceeding 4„")00/. a year), which arc ilevoted to
the same ]iurposc.
In Upper Canada, still more liberal provision
and more strenuous exertions are made for the
education of the peo|)le. Hcsides the sums ex-
pcniled in building and repairing schoolhouses,
about 100,000/. are annually paid to teachers of
the ordinary schools throughout the province,
which are managed by committees of householders,
elected in each district or section. The schools
arc supported jiartly by grants and i>artl}' by
school rates and fees. The ci'urse of education
prevalent in these schools is much the same iis
that pursued in similar establishments in Great
liritain.
Revenue mid Expenditure. — The total revenue
and expenditure of Canada during the three years
IHtiO, 18(il, and 18G2 is shown in the subjoined
table. The comparatively large amount of both
income and cxjienditure in IHtiO arose from finan-
cial operations on a large scale, shown in the sub-
joined detailed budget : —
Vcan
1860
1861
1862
Net RcTonuo
Expenditure
Dollari
38,076,425
12,6.15,581
10,629,204
£
7,932,588
2,639,59ti
2,235,841
Diillara
35,995,748
14,742,834
11,395,923
£
7,499,114
3,071,424
2,389,185
The public expenditure in 1863 was .S'8G dollars
per head, and the funded debt 21 '69 dollars.
Tho amount of the various descriptions of the
public debt, the rate of interest, and the amount
of interest paid thereon, are shown in the subjoined
tab' :—
Dex-ription of D«bt
Amount
Interest
Ratci
Amount
Impnrial Loan .
Deljentures
Now Loan
Total .
Less India Bonds —
At 4 percent. 846,0001
„ 6 „ 6,453,200 /
Total .
£
Dollar!
7,300,000
922,821
30,077,007
28,630
27,264,011
Per cent.
4
5
C
8
6
292,000
46,141
1,804,620
2,290
1,363,200
65,592,469
7,300,000
58,292,469
12,144,264
3,508,251
3.-)6,.')32
3,1.')1,719
£656,608
The greater portion of this debt was expended
in loans to incorporated companies, and for the
biiildhig of roads, canals, railways, light-houses,
and other works of public utility, which are held
as assets.
Railimys. — Considering the vast extent of i\n
territorj' and the thinness oft he |io]mlation, Canada
has shown immense enterprise \\\ the construiiion
of railways. Ilesides a large number of local liiips,
such as the Krie and Ontario, length 17 m., tiie
I'rescott and Ottawa, M m., and the Montreal
and (Jhainplain, 81 ni., and a lumiber of others of
equal importance, Canada is traversed by two
great iron highways, known as the ' Grand 'I riink '
and the ' (ireut Western.' The Grand Tnmk rail-
way, which was fonned, in 1 852, by the ainalga-
mation of seven incorporated lines, viz. the (Quebec
and liichmtmd, the >St. Laurence and Atlantic,
the Old (irand Trunk, the (trand .Junction, the
Toronto and (iiielph, the Toronto and ISarnia, and
the Main Trunk, traverses the wljole of Canada,
from east to west, commencing at (Quebec, and
ending at Port Huron, at the southern border of
lake lluron. Engineering ditliculties of the most
stupendous kind had to be ov <me in the for-
mation of this great railway, sonic of the works «'f
which, such as the great Victoria Hridge over the
St. Laurence, are among the wonders of the age.
The total length of the (irand Trunk lailway is
1,174 m. 'i'he second great railway of Canada,
the Great Western, 300 m. long, runs through tiie
interior, or western districts of Canada, com-
mencing at Niagara Falls, and terminating at
Windsor, opposite Detroit, on the straits connect-
ing the lakes Erie and lluron. This line brings
Canada into direct connection with the vast rail-
way system of the United States.
Armed Force. — In addition to the troops main-
tained by the imperial goveniment— the strength
of which varies according to circumstances-
Canada has a large volunteer force, and an en-
rolled militia, numbering above 200,000 men,
rank and file. The militia is divided into three
cla.sses, namely, — tirst-class service men, com-
I)rising unmarried men and widowers without
children, between 18 and 45 ; second-class service,
married men and widowers with children, between
same ages; and third-class reserve men, those
between 45 and 60. Assessors each year prepare
the militia rolls, distinguishing the three classes,
and on the governor calling for a number of men,
the warden, sherilf, and county judge meet and
ballot for the number required from their resi)ective
counties. In Lower Canada, in cfi.'jes where tlie
assessment system is not in operai,ion, the militia
census is made by militia oihcers appointed for
the jmrpose. The ballot takes place for three
years, and in the balloting, the nimiber of bat-
talions required from counties and townshijjs is
furnished according to population. In apjioint-
ing otHcers for the service battalions, the go-
vernor, as a rule, selects those who have qualitieil
themselves bj' volunteer service or by means of
drill associations, or who have shown themselves
qualified by examination before boards of exa-
miners ap|)ointed for each county or union of
adjacent counties. If a sufficient number of com-
petent officers cannot from tho outset be obtained,
the governor may grant personal commissions, to
be withdrawn within a certain time if those to
whom they are issued do not qualify themselves.
Sums are granted towards the education of officers.
A school of militar>' instruction is established in
each section of the province in connection witli
some regiment of the British forces, a ccrtam
number of whose officers and non-commissioned
officers assist in the work of instruction, and are
paid an allowance for the extra duties they have
to perform. The government defrays the ex-
penses of travelling and maintenance of those wlio
receive instruction, and the governor-general may
at his discretion call out service battalions for
CANANDAIGUA
drill, for a period not cxcpcdinj; six days in one
year. The voluntwr forw! ot'Cnniida in IH(!'2 con-
fisfod of 10,(lir) infimtrv, l,ti«7 artillery, l,<'>ir)
ravalry, anil 'J(C2 oiiffiiiccrH, In the Meswion of tlie
h'f^i.slative assembly of IH(i;t, laws for the ro-
urf^anisation of the militia were imwsed, providing
that the noveniment shall have power to at'cepi,
eqiiiji, and ch)the l(»,(MIO more volunteers. Fines
are nnposcd on volunteers for non-attendance at
drill, in order to insure a thorough military pro-
ficiency.
llistory, — Canada is said to have hern first dis-
covered hy Sehnstian Cahot, in I4!»7. It was then
comprised with the rest of the extensive line of
coast, under the fjeneral name of Newfoundland,
subsequently limit(!(l to the island so called. The
French lirst attempted to make these discoveries
available, and framed a map of the jjulf as early a3
loOM. In MriU the country was taken possession
of in the name of the kinj? of France, and in loii;")
(.;arti(!r explored the river, naming it St. Laurence,
from having entered item that saint's day. (Quebec
however, the lirst settlement, was not founiled till
lt!(l«. For a considerable ])eriod subserjuent to
this, the colonists engaged in a series of san-
guinary conflicts with the native Indian tribes,
and were often on the brink of being extir|>ated:
tlie strife, however, ultimately tenninated in a
friendly comi)act, which converted the Indians
into available auxiliaries against the Knglish.
Quebec wiw taken by the JJritish forces under
(ieneral Wolf in 1759, and the whole territory
was formally ceded to (Jreat Kritain by the
treaty of Paris, in 1703. The seignioral rights,
the various holdings and tenures under them, and
the endowments of the Catholic Church, were lelt
undisturbed; and all the estates, including all
the unappropriated lands in the province, hidd at
tlic period by the French king, became vested in
the British crown. In the years 1812-13-14,
during the war with the United States, the lakes,
and especially the shores of Niagara, were the
scene of a succession of severe contests ; the war
was wholly a frontier one, and the militia on
either side being engaged in it, near relatives
were found often contending in opposite ranks ;
Indians also were employed, and increased its
horrors. The subsequent history of Canada was
coni])aratively uneventful, except as regards the
constant endeavours of certain parties to detach
the colony from the crown of Great liritain. To
count(!ract these endeavours, an attempt was
made, in 18()4, to miite Canada Avith the other
llritish jjossessions into a great ' Confederation of
British North America.' Though begun under
good auspices, the realisation of this plan was
found to be impossible.
CANANI)Al(iUA, a tovm of the U. S. of Ame-
rica, New York, cap. co. Ontario, beautifully situ-
ated on an acclivity at the outlet of the consider-
able lake of the same name, 88 m. K. Buffalo, and
il5 m.NNW.New York. Pop. (i.fwO in 18(!0. The
town consists chiefly of two parallel streets, run-
ning N. and 8., intersected at right angles by
several others. It contains a large square, in
which are the court-house, prison, and town-house,
and it has a state-arsenal, various places for public
worship, male and female academies, several large
niills and manufactories of different kinds. The
inhab. are intelligent, liberal and hospitable.
Within three m. of the town, on both sides of the
lake, are several sulphuretted hydrogen springs,
Canandaigua was founded in 1788, and from its
])osition on its lake, and in the vicinity of the Erie
Canal, is a place of considerable commercial im-
portance.
CANANOKE {Canurn), a marit. town of Ilin-
CANAIIA
631
dofitan, prov. Malabar, at the bottom of a small
bay, If) m. N\V. ('«li<'uf, and titi m. SSH. Manga-
lore; hit. 11° 42' N., htng. 7a° 27' K. It trades
with Ilengal, Arabia, Sumatra, and Surat, from
which it imports horses, piece g Is, almonds,
sugar, opnun, silk, l)en/,oin, and cam|ihor; its ex-
ports are chiefly pepper, (lardamorns, sandal wood,
coir, and shark-fins. It is the cap. of the talook of
(Jhericiil, a lofty and uneven truck, exididiiig for
two m. inland from the fort, and sonn^ years since
containing together with tin; town about 11,(100
houses. Its territory is now siibordiiiate to the
llritish, but has long been governed bv a succes-
sion of female sovereigns, whose authority has ex-
tended over most of the Laccadivt^ islands. Cana-
nore is the head military station of the British
dominions in Malabar prov.
(3ANAIJA. a marit. jirov. of llindostan, presid.
Madra-s, comprising the ancient countries of
Tulava and llaiga, with small portions of Malabar
and the Hindoo Kaiikaua. It lies chietiv between
lat, 12° and 10° N., and long. 74° and 70° E. ;
having N. CJoa and Dhanvar (Itejapoor), K. the
latter province and Mysore, S. Coorg and Malabar,
and VV. the o<;ean; length, X. to S., 230 ni. ; ave-
rage breadth, about 35 m. ; area, 7,477 sc]. m. The
province is bounded by the \V. (ihauts, but in-
cludes a portion of the country above them, called
Cantata, of which the name of this distr, is a cor-
ruption, most improperly apjjlied. Surfaces gene-
rally ruggCMl and uneven. It has no considerable
river, but a number of minor ones, of which Man-
galore is the chief. The coast in the S, is occu-
pied by a chain of salt lakes. Soil and climate
very similar to those of iSIalabar. (iranite and
lateriie are amongst the prevailing rocks, and near
the sea -shore there is much sandy soil, on which
cocoa-piilms are grown in great number. The
l)erioclicai rains are extremely heavy, and set in
from the Middle of Jlay till the end of Sept., dur-
ing which ships leave the coast, and a stop is put
to all traflic. The country abounds in forests;
those in the N. producing teak, and other large
timber, sissoo, buKsia latl/ulia, prickly bamboo, the
varnish-tree of Birmah, nu.v vumicn, mimosa cate-
chu, cassia, saiulal wood, wild pepper, anil a spe-
cies of nutmeg; those in 'he S. containing teak,
mango, caryota ])alm, and much jungle, greatly
infested with tigers. Canara is the granary of rice
for Arabia, (Joa, Bombay, and Malabar; and both
the climate and soil, especially in the valleys, arc
highly adapted for its culture. Sometimes 50
bushels a year are obtained from an acre ; and in
the S. the land frequently yields two or three
crops during the same jieriod. Besides rice, sugar-
canes, pepi)er, betel-nut, and cncurbitaceous plants,
are grown Husbandry is better here than in
Malabar ; the plough is a neater implement, and
manure of both leaves and ilung is made use of :
some cultivators employ 25 ploughs, although full
half of them use no more than one. Kice is thrashed
by beating lutnilfuls in the straw against a bam-
boo grating. There are no barns, and the grain is
kept in straw bags hung ii]j in the houses : carts
are not used, the roads are bad, and goods have
to be conveyed on the heads of the peasantry.
There are neither horses, asses, nor goats. All the
lands in the S. are private projierty, but generally
much encumbered with mortgiiges: in the N.
mortgages arc much less frequent, and the culti-
vated lands only arc the property of inili\'iiluals :
government claims all the hill, forest, and waste
land. In S. Canara inheritance in land, goods,
honorary dignities, and whatever else is capable
of being conveyed, descends in the female line ;
and instead of a nam's own children, those of his
sister, or maternal aunt (as is the case in all the
lit,,
I I'd
'4
4
■I
II!
o;j2
CANARY ISLANDS
country in the 8. part of tho Mnlnhnr const) be-
come his licifH, while he has n eorrpspoiidiiif; rislit
over thcin.to the cxtotitofnelliun tiiein for slaves,
III Kaniata Proper, al)ove th(^ (Jliaiils, tliese hiws
are reversed, ami a man's diildreii inherit his pro-
perty. The lands mostly lieloii^' to individuals,
Avlio let them, and even freqiienlly inortj^a^e them
to cultivators : the land assessment is moderate,
lieiiif; alioiit 'M jHTceiit, on the produce; hut the
cultivators ^•-'•'•''■"I'.V "re as much dejiressed as
('lsewlier(\, siiic(^ they have ahout 20 per ('eiit. to
pay to their landlords, and out of the remaining 50
per c(^iit, to provide live and dead stock, and sub-
sist the slaves. Land, when sold, usually fetches
from 8 to 12 years' purchase-money on the clear
rent. Miinv dilferent tribes inhabit Canara, The
.lains (see IIindohtan) are more numerous here
than in any other part of India, and many ancient
Jain temples exist in tcderablc perfection. Nairs
inhabit the inland parts, where, tofjetlier with
Bunts and Siidras, thoy own most of the land.
There are about 5(1,000 'H,(!atli, in ('anara, mostly
descendants of tho Portiijjjiiese, Dutch, French,
and Danish colonists, Canara is not celebrated
for manufactures; the chief are those of sugar
from the palms, and salt on the coast. The ex-
ports consist principally of rice, betel-nut, black
pepiK>r, ginger, cocoa-nuts, and oil and raw silk;
the imports are cloths, cotton, threa<l, blankets,
tobacco, black cattle, and sandal-wood, forexnort
to Homl)ay, All the chief towns, viz. Mangaiore,
liarcelorc, and Calliampore, are in the S.
Tulava was governed by its own ])rincca till
A,i>. 7K2 ; from that year till H'M it was subject to
the rajahs of liijnagiir ; and afterwards to the
princes of Ikeri. It escaped the Mohammedan
conquests till l~()5-(), when Hyder invaded and
confpiered it, after which it suft'ered all the horrors
of anarchy, till the death of Tiiijioo in 17!)!), when
it passed into the hands of the JJritish, and under
them has become a tranquil and orderly district,
CANARY ISLANDS (Span, Islns Catuirias;
believed to be the Furluiuitm Iiismlcc of the an-
cients), a group in the N. Atlantic ocean, belong-
ing to Spain, between 27° 40' and 2!)° 21' N, lat,,
and 13° 32' and 18° 20' W. long,, 135 m, NW.
Cape Uojador, in Africa, and (150 m. SW. Cadiz.
This grilui) consists of seven principal islands,
namely, Arrecife, (iuia. La Lagiina, Orotava, Les
I'almas, Santa Cruz de la Palma, and Santa Cruz
de Tenoritl'e. The total area of the seven islands
embraces 3,250 sq. in,, and the pop,, according to
the census of 1857, amounteil to 233,784, divided
as follows: — Arrecife, 20,938; Guia, 18,110; I^a
Laguna, 22,048 ; Orotava, 40,4!t7 ; Las Palmas,
49,950 ; Santa Cruz de la Talma, 31,451 ; and Santa
Cruz dc Teneriffe, also called Gomera y Hierro,
38,184, These are the Spanish names of the seven
islands ; but English and other gazetteers often
describe Arrecife under the name of Lanzarote,
Guia under the name of Canara, and Gomera y
Hierro as FeiTo. Adjoining these chief isles, and
included in the Canaries, are several small islands,
viz, Graciosa, Clara, and Allegranza, They arc
called the Little Canaries, are situated to theNW.
of Lanzarote, and connected with that island by a
bank, on which there is, for the most part, 40
fathoms water. Lanzarote is the most easterly,
Allegranza the most northerly, and Hierro, or
Ferro, the most southerly and westerly of the
group. This last-mentioned island has acquired
considerable celebrity, from its having been se-
lected by the early modern geographers as the
point wiicre they placed the first meridian, or
from whi(rh they began to reckon the longitude.
In some countries this method of reckoning is
still kept up ; but the Lnglish and French adopt
for their first meridians those passing through tho
Observatories of (ircenwich and Paris, The must
VV, part of Ilierro, or Ferro. I^a Dabcssa. is \**P it'
45 " W. of the meridian of (irecnwich, and 20° Hll'
W, of that of Paris. The islands are all of vol-
canic origin, very mountaiiuais, their coasts pre-
cipitous, and the channels between them very
deep. The greatest height of simioof them above
the level of tlie sea is as follows : —
Fret
Lnn/.nroto (Montniin
Illiiiioa) , , 2,nfin
AUuKruiiza . . t):i!)
Fpct I
TencrllTtj (Peiik) , 11,40(1
(.'niiary (KI Ouiubro) Ii,(!t8
l'"iiL'rtcvi'iitiirii(Imlia)'.',H-2()
Teneriffe and its peak, a half extinct volcano,
which may be seen at a distance of more than 150
m,,will be found elsewhere described (Tunkkikkk).
In all the islands there are plentiful traces of ex-
tinct volcanos ; but in that of Lanzarote one
burst forth in 1825, which still continues active.
The basaltic cliffs in that island rise almost per-
licndicularly to the height of 1,500 ft.; Allegranza
a|)|)ears whidly comnosi^d of a mass of lava and
cinders. The Canaries have no rivers, properly so
called, but they are watered by nuineroiis brooks,
which rise in the higher mountain regions, and,
during rains, suddenly swell to torrents. There
are few safe roadsteads, and no close harbours : the
(ireat Canary island has, |)erhaps, more safe an-
chorages than any of the others, and the Hay of
Las Palmas at ita NE, extremity offers a s]mcii)us
haven for ships, secure from all winds except those
from the SE,, which seldom Idow with any vio-
lence. The climate, though hot, is generally
healthy; the heat being attempered by the eleva-
tion ol the land, and the prevalence of X, and W,
breezes. The temperature is in most parts very
e(|uablc; the average in Dec, and .Ian. has been
found to be 07°, in Aug. 70° Fall. The range of
temperature is seldom more than four or live de-
grees in the twenty-four hours. The S, and Sl'I,
winds occasionally cause pestilential maladies in
the E. Canaries, and bringing intolerable heats,
and clouds of locusts, scorch up and desolate the
country. The fertility of the lands is in propor-
tion to their humidity. In some parts they jjro-
duce abundance of wheat, maize, and other kinds
of corn, dates, figs, guavas, lemons, olives, and
numerous other fruits, of both the torrid and teni-
])erate zones ; the sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, or-
chill, and many perfumes and medicinal i)laiits.
They contain, also, woods of pine trees, laurel, and
arbutus, and excellent pasturage. The average
annual (piantitics of the principal articles of pro-
duce in the entire group are : —
Wine .
. f>3,200 pipes
Kyo .
. 41,000 bushels
Wlicat .
. ;i(>(),50() bushels
Pulse .
. flO.OOO „
Millet .
. •Jl-.',400 „
Potatoes
. 782,000 cwt.
Uarley .
. y.j 1,000 „
Barills
, aao.ooo „
Guia, or Canar\', is, perhaps, the best watered
and most fertile island ; and it and Teneriffe are
the two best cultivated. Tenerifl'e is the principal
seat of the vine culture ; the Vidueno and Jlal-
vasia wines are exclusively the produce of that
island : the vine is, however, largely grown in
the others, and the wines produced exported to
Europe under the name of Teneriffe. The best
wine in the E, Canaries is that of Lanzarote,
where the grapes grow on a soil of decomposccl
scoriic. Much brandy is distilled and exi)ortcil.
Amongst the other chief products are silk, honey,
wax, and cochineal. Game is very plentiful ; and
they are said to be without either ferocious or
venomous animals. Cattle and jjoultry have been
introduced from Europe. The canary-bird [Frin-
(filla Canaria, Linn,) is still found in these islands ;
but in its wild s'ate its colour is grey or linnet-
CANAKY ISLANDS
brown : thn ])liimn>^o of tluwc wc iiro nrciistomnd
to Hor, lins derived its hue from repeated eroHsiii};;!*.
'I'Ik! (isliery, wliich is |)riiu'i|)iilly earned on aloii);
tlie opposite African eoast, occupies n ^rent num-
lior of IuiuiIh ; and it is said tluit Spain nii^iit, in
ensc of eiiier^'ncy, procure? 2.(11)0 able yonnt; sea-
men from the, islands witlioiit. distressing; tlie
lisliery. Suj^ar, witli course woollens, silits, and
linens, arc amoufjst tlie mninifact ures.
Tlie exports of tiie ( 'anary Islands to tlie United
Kintjdoni consist diietly of wine and cochineal.
There wen; exported lii,l!)l ptilons of wine in
1H(1(»; l(i.K2t! niiWom in IHCl ; l<t,4«'2 in l«ti-2;
mid 10,0t)',t in IHtJil. The value of these quantities
fluctuated from 4,10!)/. in l«(iO to 2,512/. in IKC.t.
Of cochineal there were exported from the Canary
Islands to the United Kingdom 5,)S02 cwt., valued
at 107,.S21/. ill 18(i0; 10,142 cwt., valued at
l;j5,(il«/. in IKtil : 9,852 cwt., valued at 147,Ot(;/.
in lWi2; and 7,7(i!) cwt., valued at i:M,H22/. in
18011. The imports from the United Kingdom con-
sist chielly of cotton and woollen mannfactureHiind
Mdniiial jirodiice, and were of the value of 141.('i70/.
in 18(i0; 132,4 CO/, ill 18(51 ; 152,700/. in 1802; and
141,38a/. in 180;{.
Santa Cruz in Tenerifle, and Las Palmas in
Canary, are the principal commercial jiorts. The
present inhabitants are probably almost wholly of
Spanish orif,'in. The islands are governed by the
Spanish laws, the administration of which is
directed by an audicncia in (ireat (Canary. The
governor of the Canaries, who is jiresident of the
andhncia, resides at Santa ('ruz. The three east-
erly islands form one bishopric, an<l the four
westerly another. There are 4 1 monasteries and 15
convents, with 423 regular clergy ; and the people
are said to be equally ignorant and bigoted. They
arc not, however, deficient either in industry or en-
terprise. On the contrary, many of them emigrate
to America, the Philippine Islands, itc, where they
arc distinguished by their adventurous spirit. Hut,
at home, such of them as are not engaged in the
tisherj', are sunk in comparative apathy, produced
by vicious laws and institutions. The lands are
parcelled out in immense estates, held under strict
entail, and the plan followed in letting them to
the actual occupiers being as bad as possible, in-
dustry is at the lowest ebb, and few or rather no
improvements are ever attempted, or even so much
as thought of. The military force is conipos('d of
25,000 men, (For descriptions of Santa Cruz,
I^agunas, and Orotava, see Tknkhu-kk.) Las
Palmas, in the island of the same name, nenr its
NE. extremity, lat. 28° 8' N., long. 20° 23' 30"
AV., has a handsome sea-port town with 18,000
iiihab., a cathedral, hospital, college, a mole, many
public fountains, and a well-sui)plied market. In
good weather ships anchor within half a mile of
the town, but the roadsteail is but inditlerent.
The other chief towns are, Arccife, or Port Naos,
in the island of the same name, a well-built town,
with 2,500 inhab. ; Cabras, 1,000 inhab. ; and Santa
Cruz, in Santa Cruz de la Palma.
When these islands first became known to Euro-
peans of modern times, tlicj' were inhabited by
a race of i)eople called Guanches, of a tall and
vigorous frame, and who made a determined re-
sistance to the invaders. Though unacquainted
with the use of iron, they appear to h.ive arrived
nt a considerable degree of ci\-ilisation ; they cul-
tivated music and poetry with success, had a kind
of hieroglyphic writing, believed in a sniireine
being, in a future state of rewards and i)nnish-
mciits. and embalmed their dead. IMany of their
mummies have been found in modern times in
caves in various ])arts of the islands. They are
placed erect upon their feet, .iiid are in so rcinark-
CANDAHAR
033
able a state of dc-iiccalion, that some of them do
not weigh al)cive from to K llis. Their govermnciit
was oligarchical. Humboldt (Personal Narra-
tive, V(d. i.) and Dr. Prii'bard (Ilcsearches, ii.
34.) think that the (iiianchcs were either inti-
mately connected with, or descended from, the
llerbers of N. Africa. Many of flu- (iuanches
were reiluced to a state of slavery by tlie Spanish
and otlier Kiiropean traders, by wlioin the i^':ulds
were tirst visited; and those who escaped (he
scourge of slavery, war, ami famine, were inosily
carried otV by a pestilence in 1 l!»4. Tlie Can,'iri('S
were first discovered bv ac('id(Mit alioiit 1330 by
the (;rewof aFreiich slilpdriven thither in a storni.
After several unsuccessful Spanish expeditious,
.lohii de Itethencoiirt, a Frencli gentleinan, sailcil
with a fleet from IJochelle in 1400, and took pds-
sessioii of the chief islands, lletlieiicoiirl's heir
snbsefiueutly disixised of these to a Spanish noble-
man, and they afterwards became tlie propcrtv of
the S])anish crown : the conciuest of I lie whole of
the islands was eflected by Spain before the ter-
mination of the 15th century.
(yANCALF, a sea-port town of France, de'p.
llle-ct-Vilaine, cap. cant., !» m. K. St. iMalo, and
45 m. N. Keniies. Poj). 0,352 in 1801. The town
is situated on the slope of a hill, on the W. side of
St. Michael's Hay. At a short distance from the
town there are some large rocks, within which there
is good anchorage in 5 or fatlioms. Kxcelleiit
oysters arefoiiiKl in the bay, and make a consider-
able article of traflic. The Knglish made, in 1758,
an unsuccessful descent on the coast here.
CANDAIlAli, a fortiticd city of Caubul, in a
plain near the Urgundaub river; 200 m. SW.
Caubul, 2G0 m. Si;. Herat; lat. 32° 20' N., long.
00° 15' F. Pop. 50,000, the greater ])ro|)ortion of
whom arc Afghans. The city is of an oblong form,
enclosed by abastioned mud wall, on the rainpart.s
of which three men may walk abreast, and a
ditch, !t ft. deep, surrounds the whole. Canduhar
is regularly built, most of the stre<'ts meeting at
right angles ; its house.-i .ire generally of brick, and
often with no other cement than mud. Four long
and broad bazaars meet in the centre of the city,
in a small circular sjiace about 45 yards in dia-
meter, and covered with a dome, where |)rocla-
mations are made, and the bodies of criminals
exposed. The principal bazaars are each about 50
yards broad; their sides arc lined with well-
supplied shops one story high ; and there is a gate
at the end of each opening into the surrounding
countrj', except the >{. bazaar, having the palace
at its end, a structure in no respect remarkable ex-
ternally, but containing many conrt-s and buildings,
and a private garden. There are many caravan-
seras and mosciues : the principal building of the
latter kind is the tomb of Ahmed Shah, an elegant,
but not a large, structure, with a handsome cupola,
fomicrly an inviolalde sanctu.iry. A great variety
of trades are earned (Hi, and the streets arc filled
with a noifty and bustling crowd from morning till
night ; but, unlike most other Afghan cities, there
are here no water sellers, the city being well sup-
plied by canals from the Urgundaub, whence
subterranean or open water-courses are carried to
the diftercnt streets ; and there are, also, numcroiiH
wells. Three of the ])rincipal bazaars were at one
time planted with trees, and had a narrow canal
running down the niid(lle of each ; but many of
the trees have withered, and if the canals ever
existed, they are no longer visible. The vicinity
of (3andaliar is fertile, and abounds with gardens
and orchards, producing the finest fruits and ve-
getables, cspeciiilly iiomegranates ; with corn,
tobacco, madder, assalVutida, and artificial grasses.
The climate is mild ami health v. Persian tradi-
Ptil
If "Hi
' 111
*<i.i
i-i,
61] 1
CANDKIMII
linns, nnd thr ronjpctiircs of Kiirnpcan ^yrnprnithors,
ni^rco in iis>4i^niin^ tin- fcuindalidn of ('iiniliiiiiir to
AlitxundiT (lie (ircnt. Tlin ])n'H('nt city was liiiilt
hy Aliincil SImli in 17.'),'J or I7.'»l, wlio iniulc it tilt!
ciipilul of liiN (ioniiniiin.s, nn lionour wliich lii.s
HuircHsor Tinxiur tranMl'crred t" (Janbiil.
<!ANI)I'',ISI[, a Noiiliali or pntv, of llic Dcccan,
Ilindostan, Ix'lwcen Inl '2((° and 2'2° N.. and lon/jf.
7.'{° and 77° I';. ; liaviufr N. Midwaii, K. (iundwana,
S. Hcrarand Aiirunpil>ad, andW. (iiijcrat ; Icn^tli,
E. to W., alHitit 210 ni. ; avcrn^o lircadtli, «() in.
It contains partH of three inonntain ran^'ttH, viz,
the Santpoora mountains in its X.; tlic ('liandorc
or Adjnntali ranp', S. ; and tlic Syflarce moun-
tains, or \V. (ilniuts, in its SW, parts: its prin-
cipal jilain is helwccn these ranges, and opens 1^.
into tlio plains of iterar, and \V. is continuous
Avitli those of Siirat, from wlucli it is separated liy
a tliioii and extensive JiMif?le. The Tuptee rivt^r
Hows tlirou}{h this jdain. The Nerhndda forms
tiu' \. houiidary, Candeish, tliough interspersed
with low harren liills, has a larfje extent of very
fertile territory, watered by copious streams and
limped rivulets from the taldc-lands, wliieh greatly
t'uhance its natural beauties. For thirty years,
liowever, before the Hritish became possessed of
it (IHI!'), it had been the scene of continual
anarchy, and mueb of the best land, especially N.
the 'rui)tee, had become oversjtread witb an unin-
liai)ile<l forest, abounding with the ruins of former
villages, and swarming with tigers. This prov.
is comprised within the ses-eral territories of the
(ruicowar, Sindia, tlie Nizam, and the liritish
government; the land in those parts belonging
to the latter is granted on the most easy terms
to the cultivators, but some length of time must
elapse before the countrv recovers its former pros-
])erity. The existing villages are mostly built of
mud, and ])rotected by a mud wall and fort, with-
out ditch or outwork. The hill ranges, and the
■whole country along the courses of the Nerbiidda
and Tuptee rivers, are inhabited by IJheels, who
have been here less disturbed than in any other
jiart of India. They arc of small stature, dark
complexion, ])rone to rapine and thieving, go
armed with a bow and arrow, and in many re-
spects reseml)le the hill-])eople of Hhaugulpore.
Tliey eat beef and pork, drink spirits, and bury
thv.n dead ; yet they jjretend to be Iliiidous of the
lirahmin and Rajpoot castes. They have contri-
buted greatly to the devastation of the province.
(Candeish fonnerly contained a large number of
]\[ahratt.a fortresses : its principal towns are IJoor-
haii])oor, Aseerghur, Hindia, Xuiuloorpoor, and
liaulna. Numerous Arab cohmists settled here,
and early in the loth century Candeish was an
independent kingdom, governed by sovereigns
claiming descent from the calii>h Omar, who liail
their ca|)ital at Aseerghur: towards the end of
that century, it was comi)letly subdued and an-
nexed to the Mogul emi)ire. The decline of
('and(!ish may be dated from 1802, when Jeswunt
]{ow-lIolkar ravaged it; next year it was de-
poiiulated by famine, and subsetpicntly ruined by
the exactions of the pcishwa's ofticers, and the
predatory incursions of the IJheels, Pindarries,
and insurgent bands of the Arabs, who had estab-
lislied themselves hi the strongholds. In 1818,
■when Ilolkar's possessions in Candeish fell under
llritish dominion, these refractory tribes were
either brought into subjection or pacified ; or, as
the Arabs, obliged to emigrate from India, after
having been paid ■what they 'were legitimately
entitled to by the Hritish government,
Candkihii, an inl. zillali or distr. of Ilindostan.
prov. Candeish, presid. liomliay ; between lat. 20°
aud 21° 42' N., and long, 73° 37' aiid 70° 22' E, ;
CANDIA
having N. the collectorale of Siirat and Sindia's
doiii.; I), thc^lattcr, and those of the Ni/.am ; S. the
Nizam's doni. and the collect, of AhmediiiiggMr ;
and W. a portion of the < iuicowar's territory ; shMp(>
somewhat rhoiiii)oidal ; length, K. to W., about iMi)
in.; greatest breadth 115 m. ; urea 12,527 sq. m,
l'op.47M,.'")()(). This district is for the most ))arl over-
grown with jungle ; very complete einbankments
on tlut various streams, and many dilapidated,
though substanlially-built dams and amicdiicts
for irrigation, are met with, which might be again
rendered availabh; at a small expense. An or-
ganised band of marauders, the Itheeis were formerly
in tiie habit of levying a kind of Itlark mail upon
the villagers, consisting of a portion of the produce
of the land; but, b)' conciliatory treatint^iit, inoNt
of them returned to tlu-ir original occupations as
village watchinen and guardians. The agricuil-
tural (dasses arc peaceable and inotVensive, but
timid and destitute of energy, 'I'here are no
large or wealthy landholih^s, excepting the pn)-
prielors of certain jaghires granted for military
services by the Kritish goverimi(^nt. The village
constitution exists, but the ryotwarry system hits
been introduced into this distr,, to which, in the
o])inioii of gentlemen who have held civil olRces
in it for a considerable time, it is, from various
causes, extremely ill adapted, drain, cotton, and
indigo are the chief articles of culture ; but there
is much waste land, and the cultivation and
revenue have both diminished of late years.
Civil justice is administered by the jmncliai/vt,
or native arbitration ; and, in criminal cases, trial
by jury has been established. Schools arc com-
mon in Candeish distr, ; every lirahmin, and all
who have anything to do with mercantile busi-
ness, are instructed in reading, writing, and
accounts. The Mohammedans are the most
ignorant of the population,
CANDIA, or Ml^GALO-KASTRON, a forti-
fied marit, city, cap. of Crete, on the N. shore of
that island, near its centre, ol m. W. S[)inal()iiga,
and (II in. ESE. Canca ; lat. 35° 21' N., long.
24° 8' 15" E. Top. estimated at Ki.OdO, about
one-half of whom an? ^Mohammedans. The city,
and hence Crete itself, derived its name of Caiidla
from the word khaiidali, signifying an entrciicli-
ment in the language of the Saracens, by whom
it was built. Its present fortifications are of
Venetian construction ; they are massive, has-
tioned, and furnished with outworks; the scarj)
wall, a beautiful s])eciinen of art, is in most places
50 ft. in perpendicular height; the sea wall is not
above 20 ft. in height, irregular, and but badly
tianked. The port is Ibrmed by two niolcs,
which, bending towards each other, jirojcct about
250 yards into the sea, and are deieuded at their
extreme points by forts. It is at i)rcseiit so
choked up by sand and the ruins of the old Vene-
tian dociis and arsenal, that a vessel drawing
more than 8 ft. water cannot enter. The city
has four gates, three on the land side and one
towards the sea. Principal streets wide, roughly
paved, but clean, well furnished with fountanis,
and adorned with clumps of trees. Houses gene-
rally well built, but have seldom more than one
story above the ground floor. The bazaars, which
are good, have a Turkish ajjpearance. In the K.
part of the city, the houses are mostly inter-
spersed with ganlens, Caiidia is the residence of
t/ie Pasha and scat of the provincial council, and
of a (ireek archbishfip. Chief buihlings — go-
vernor's palace, the (Jreck cathedral and other
churches, many mosques, a synagogue, the re-
mains of two H<mian Catholic churches, a liglit-
hoiise on the VV. mole, and some good liatlis.
The arched vaults built for the Veuetiau galleys
CANDIA
flill exist, mid sovoriil other rt-lics of Venetian
Kwiiy nni fuiintl. Tlu- country ininicilintely round
Candiii \» not jMirtii'uliirly IVrtili!. Its prov. coin-
|>ri.-cM all tlu! K. part of "the inland, and |iro»hices
thielly wheat, harley, ralHinn, and a little cotton.
Candia. See (JnKTK.
CANDY, an inl. town of Oylon, at the head
of an extensive valley, in lat. 7° 17' X., and loiij,'.
K(^ ;il!' K., ahoul 1,100 ft. ahove the h-vel of the
«e«, HO m. KNK. t;olonilM>, an<l \)^t in. S\V. Trin-
coinalee. l'u|i, alxait !<,OiiO. It is surrounded by
Woody hills and mountains, varying from '200 to
2,000 feet in lu^i^ht, and stands on the horder of
an artiticia) lake ; hut il.s situation, though hcaiiti-
ful and romantic, is insecure. At a distance of
'•i ni. it is nearly surrounded by the Mahavilly
Oan^ra, hero navif,'ahle only for small boats. Ex-
cepting those inhubitud by the chiefs, which arc
tiled, the native houses are built entirely of clay,
and thatched. Temples very numerous, and cou-
Kidered almost indispensable appe,ndiij;es to the
houses of the opulent ; in the >;reater number
lights arc constantly kept burning; and in one
of them the celebrated tootii, said to have be-
longed to ISoodh, is still preserved! Since the
capture of Candy, residences for the governor and
commandant, and a gaol, have been built by the
Kritish, and several missionary and other schools
established. There is no church, but the district
court-house and missionary school-room are made
iiso of for divine service. Candy was anciently
the cap. of an indep. kingdom of the same name,
which comprised the central mountainous country
of Ce3'lon. It was taken by the Hritisb in l«ir>.
CANEA, or KIIANIA (an. Cydon'ia), n sea-port
and the ])rincii)al commercial town of Crete, cap.
jtrov. of same name, on the N. shore of the island,
25 m. from its VV. extremity, 01 m. WNW. Can-
dia, and about 140 m. S. the island of iSyra. Esti-
mated pop. 8,000, about 5,000 of whom are Mo-
liamnicdans, and J, 000 foreigners, chietly Hellenes
and lonians, who engross most of the im]iort
trade. The town, inclusive of the port, forms an
irregular square, enclosed by walls, with bastions
and a ditch on the land side. The present fortili-
cations were constructed by the Venetians, but
are inferior, both in nnignitudc and disjiosition, to
those of Candia. The port is formed by a mole
about 1,200 feet in length, prolonged from the
KE. extremity of the town to the N\V., where it is
terminated by a light-house opposite to a fortress
defending the harbour's mouth. The port is the
best in Crete, and capable of containing vessels of
oOO tons burden. Streets wide and w;ell paved,
but not clean ; houses loftj', old, and rickety, but
sjjops good. At the N. part of the town is a kind
of citadel, formerly containing the ai'scnal and
docks. The Venetian galley vaults are still in
good preservation. There is a small but excellent
lazaretto, and several soap manufactories. Canea
is the residence of the provincial governor and of
several European consuls, and the seat of the pro-
uncial council, and of a Greek bishopric. Strabo
and Scylax descril)c the site and port of Cj'donia,
so as to leave no doubt that Khania stands n\ni\\
the identical spot. No vestiges of the ancient
city are now to be seen, though some existed at
the end of the 17tli century. The plain around
Canea is celebrated for its beauty; its pronnce
comprises all the W. portion of the island.
CANICATTI, a town of Sicily, prov. Girgenti,
cap. cant, 16 m. S\V. Caltanisetta. Pop. 18,713
in 18()2. The town is well built. The greater
part of the population consists of agriculturists.
CANNiE, a village of Southern Italy, i)rov.
Cosenza, near the Olimto (the anc. Aufidus), 8 m.
WSW. liarlctta. Pop. 4,272 in 18(52. The vil-
CANTAL
63'i
lage is adjacent to the site of the ancient city of
('annus famous for the tircisive victory gaineil in
its vicinity by Mannilial, over the Koinans, in Iho
year 217 ii.c. Never were the talents of a great
general more coiis|iieuonslv displayed than on this
occasion. The army of llannibal was very in-
ferior in numbers, and perhaps, also, in the iiuaiity
of the troops, to that of his enemies; but the
ability of the conunan(U'r made up for every
oIIht deticiency, and with a loss of only 1,000 of
his own men, lie put 50,000 Konnuis to the sword,
and took 10,000 prisoners. (Tlie English reader
will lind a good account of this great battle in
Ferguson's Koman History, cap. 5; the chissical
reader may resort to Polybius and Livy.) The
scene of action is marked out to posterity bv the
name of Ciim/Ht di iS'Hm/«»', ' lield of blood ; ^ and
spears, heads of lances, and other pieces of armour,
still continue to be turned up by the ]ilough.
The city of t'anna; was destroyed the year
before the battle; but it was afterwards rebuilt,
and was a bishop's see in the infaney of (Miris-
tianity. It seems to have been aitaiuioned in the
middle ages for the cities along the coast.
CANNES, a sea-port town of France, on the
Mediterranean, deji. Var, cap. cant., 25 m. V,.
Draguignan, on the railway from ^Marseilles to
Nice. Po]). 7,357 in 1801. The town is situated
on the declivity of a hill projecting into the sea;
has a line quay, an old (iothic caslU', and an old
church. Its port is neither deep nor commodious,
and can only be used by lishing boats and small
coasting vessels. Napoleon I. landed in the,
vicinit)' of (Cannes on the 1st of March, 1815, on
his return from Elba.
CANOSA (an. Canusium), a town of Southern
Italv, prov. liari, ca|). cant., near the Ofanto, 15
m. SVV. Harlctta. Pop. lil,27l in 1802. The old
city, said to have been founded by Diomed, or in
a i)eriod antecedent to the records of Koman his-
tory, was in ancient times one of the most .'on-
siderable cities in thi:: part of Italy for extent,
popidaticm, and magnificence. Its walls are said
to have endn-aced a circuit of 10 m. ; and various
ruins still remain to attest its former grandeur.
Among these are the remains of an aqueduct and
of a vast am])liithcatre, with tombs, colunnis, ami
triumphal arches. Great numbers of fictile vases
of the best period have been found here, surpassing
in size and beauty those found in the tombs of
any other ancient city. The modern town occu-
l)ie,s the site of the ancient citadel. The old cathe-
dral, built in the 0th century, still remains. Its
altars and pavements are rich in marbles; and
the verde antico colunms that support its roof iiru
s[ilendid even in their decay. Ilere is also the
mausoleum of ISohemnnd, so celebrated in the
Gernsahinme Liherata.
Canusium was the place to which the wreck of
the Homan army tied after the battle of Canuii;.
It seems to have been at the acme of its ])rosperity
inuler Trajan. It was reduced to its present con-
dition by a series of disasters intlicted on it by the
Goths, Saracens, and Normans,
CANOUKGE (LA), a town of Franco, de'p.
Lozere, cap. cant., in an agreeable and fertile val-
ley, on the Urugne, 9 m. SSVV. IMarvejols. Pop.
1,!)12 in 1801. There are some branches of the
cotton and woollen manufactiures, and some trade
in cattle and grain. Excavations made in the
vicinity in 1820 have been the means of discover-
ing a number of vases and other remains of Koman
pottery, which appear to have been manufactured
on tlie spot.
CANTAL, an inland dep. of France, formed of
parts of the ancient districts of Haute Auvergnc
and Velay, between ■i.\° 37' and 45° 20' N. lat.,
ii!
i . m
1 1
en6
CANTELEU
mill '2° r/ nnd a" 14' K. Imin., iH.undpd bv thn f<il-
liiwiiif; <l('i(ts., viz. N. l'uy-(U'-l)6nio, U. Ilaiiit!
I.tiirc, SI'l. I-ipz('t(', S. Avi'yniii, mid VV. I,(it nnd
Corri'zc. Arcii, r)74,l 17 licctari's, I'dp. *2I(),.")L';1
in lutll. 'I'lns IH onii of tlm lonst. jinidiiclivi',
iioon'st districts of Friincc. Surfncc iniutii inicnni-
iKTcd with niDinitiiins, The lii;{ii('Ht snniinit, that
of the l'l(indt-de-('antal, in the centre of tlie (|('|i.,
and wiieiiee it takes its name, is elevated l.K.'iti
nietres (rt,Ol(l fi.) aliovethe level of the sea. There
are every where indications of the nclion of sidi-
terranian tires anil volcanos; and th(inf;'h steep,
the monntains furnish, in HUHiiner, excellent pas-
ture. Valleys not very extensive. lletween
Murat nnd St. Fleiirs there is a level ))lateau,
which may he said to he the ffranary of the dt^it.
Climate severe, the snow fjenerally lying on the
fsuniinit.s of the mountains for seven or eif;lit
months tofjether. Several rivers, tlowing i" dif-
ferent directions, have their sources here ; ainonfj
which may he specilied the Cere, Alapion, Hue,
mill Arceuil : the Dordofjuc runs almiK its NW.
frontier. Agriculture in tlie most backward state ;
the occupiers heiiiff f^encrally poor, and wedded to
old jiractices. The produce of wheat and oats is
in.sutlici(!iit for the consumption ; but the inliab.
live principally on buckwheat, rye, potatoes, and
fhesuiits. The last, indeed, is the staple article of
food in nn extensive district, thence called t7i«-
iairinemij. Hemp and tine tlax are also raised,
with various descriptions of fruits, and a little
very bad wine. The jmncipal wealth of the dep.
consists in its mountain pastures and meadows ;
partly occupied, in summer, in dairy farminf^, and
jiartly in the fattenint; of cattle and sheep. Lar/,'C
quantities of cheese nnd butter are annually jtro-
(luccd. The ordinary yield of n cow is estimated
nt 75 kiloj>s. of cheese and 15 ditto of butter. The
best cheeses are made in the environs of Salera;
they weijjfh from 70 to 80 lbs.; great numbers of
])igs are fed on the refuse of the dairies. Large
lierds of cattle are also fattened on the mountains.
The native breed of sheep is small, nnd have fine
ilceces. Large Hocks are brought from the more
S. departments, to be fattened durhig the summer,
the fattening and jiasturage grounds being often
let to the proprietors of herds nnd flocks from the
neighbouring depts. Horses small and hnrdy, and
used for the light cnvalrv, lumbers of mules,
nsses, nnd goats nre nlso raised ; the skins of the
bitter nre sent to Milhaud to be made into parch-
ment. Honey is nn importnnt product. Manu-
facturing industry is at a very low ebb in this
dcpt. There are a few fabrics of coarse woollens
nnd linens; and these, with coarse lace, copper
nnd brazier's work, wooden articles, paper, and
tanneries, include almost all that is worth notice.
Numbers of the people nnnually emigrate in
search of employment to Paris, and other parts of
France. The inhabitants of the mountains and
plateaux suffer severely irom the scarcity of fuel
iind cold in winter. To obviate the intluence of
the latter, they lie m bed as long as possible, and
have their cottages so iilanned that the family
occupies the middle space between the cattle and
the bam. Cantal is divided into four arrond., 23
cantons, and 259 communes. The chief towns,
■which give their name to the arrondissements, are
Aurillac, St. Flcurs, Murat, and Mauriae.
CANTELEU, a town of France, dep. Seine In-
fe'rienrc, on the summit of hills which command
the right bank of the Seine, at the entrance of the
forest of Koumaris, 4 m. W. Rouen. Pop, 8,430
in 18()1, The town commands a fine view of
Kouen and the hills by which it is surrounded, the
course of the Seine as far as Elbeuf, the valley of
Deville, and vast meailoAvs,
rANTKRIlUIlY
CAXTKininO', n city, co„ nnd bor., nnd the
nietriipolitan see of I'jiglaud, ro. Kent, in a fertile,
v'cll-ciiltivated valley, intersected by various
branches of the Stoiir, near the base of the N,
Downs, 53 m. SK. bj- K. Loudon by rond, and m2
m. by South-Kastern Ifailway. IMp. 2l,;iJl in
iMtil. The town was originally enclosed by tur-
ret ted walls (the remains of which still exist), ami
had I main streets branching from the centre, cacli
terminating by a gateway, of which the W. only
remains, 'I'he modern town consists of these and
of 4 suburbs, continued in the diri'ction of each,
that on the E, side being much the largest. The
High Street, ahnig which the old road from l,oii-
don to Dover passes, is of considerable width, with
well-built houses on either sid(^ and a haiidsonu!
guildhall iieur the centre. The whole is well
paved, lighted by gas, and supitlied with water;
the Stour, which tlows through it, divides aiwl
makes an island of its W. part. There are 1 1
parish churcluw, hut, exceiit that of All Saints, they
are generally small nnd msignilicant in exteniid
appearance. The cathedral is a noble jiilc, and
forms a conspicuous ohject from whatever i)art of
the city it may be viewed. It stands on the site of
the cathedral anciently founded by St, Augustine,
in connection with the monastery of (Christ Chiircli,
established by Kthelhert, king of Kent, on his
conversion to Christianity, by St. Augustine, in
5!)7. The oldest part of the present structure dates
from 1184: the nave, cloister, and chapter-house
arc two centuries later, during the best jieriod of
the jiointed ecclesiastical style ; the interior is very
line, and the styles of ilill'ereiit ages skilfully
adapted to each other; the choir is the most spa-
cious in the kingdom, and the great stained
window accounted one of the finest. The structure
is of the usual cruciform shane, with n semi-circu-
lar E. end, and is 513 ft, in length inside, the
central tower being 235 ft, in height : under the
whole is an old cryjit or xindcr-croft. The ancient
celebrity of this cathedral is partly attributable to
its being associated with the first establishment of
Christinnity in England, but more especially to
the murder of its famous archbishop, Thomas-ii-
Becket, nt the foot of one of its nltnrs, in 1171,
Uecket having been canonised, bis bones were, in
1220, removed, with great pomp and expense, from
the under-croft, where they had previously been
.deposited, to the Trinity Chapel, built for the ])ur-
pose. The anniversary of the day on which they
were removed was celebrated as a great festival
down to the Reformation ; nnd devotees, not only
from every part of England, but of Europe, made
pilgrimages to the shrine of the saint, to tlie
enrichment both of the establishment and of tiie
city generally, A supposed pilgrimage of this
sort, such as was then usual, was made the medium
of a lively description of the characters and customs
of his day by the earliest of our great poets, and
has been rendered familiar by the engraving of
Stothard's ' Canterbury Pilgrimage,' in which the
characters described by Chaucer are admirably
represented, Erasmus, who saw the fane in un-
diminished splendour a short time previously to
its annihilation, gives a vivid account of its wealth
and magnificence. In 153G, however, all high
festivals occurring between July and Scptemlx'r
(which included the chief festival at t'anterhury)
were forbidden, on the ground of their taking
jieople from the necessary labours of harvest. But
this was merely a prelude to more energetic
mensures ; and, in the following year, Becket was
thrust out of his place in the catalogue of saints,
declared to have been a rebel, his bones being, at
the same time, burnt and scattered, and the
treasury of his shrine appropriated to secular pur-
CANTERIIURY
pnspM. SnbHPqiK'iitly to tliin vij^oroim oxrrciMO i)f
tlif |iri'riinali\f, the present enlle^'iate eMtiililisli-
nient was (irdniiieil, eoiiN'mtiii^ iif n ileuii, I'J cnnoiis,
<t preiicliorH, (l iniimr enniiiiM, anil otiier Niilmnli-
lint(<H ; it (if tlie iirelieiidarieM liein^ in tlie ^'il't iil'
tlie areliliiHliiip, llie rest in tliat of the eniwii. In
Kllil, ('(inHiileral)le injury wax done to the eathedral
ill <Minsei|iieiu'e of a pariiaiiieiitiii'v order to purify
it, and snhHeipiently the nave was eoiiverted into
temporary harrnekH for ('niniwell's troops. On tiie
h'estoralioii. the ehoir >vas relltted for divine ser-
vice; and now, for many years past, conMidi^alph'
funds have lieen annually devoted l>y the chapter
to the restoration and improvement of tliis ma^-
iiillceiit. old siruclnre, which contain!* many in-
teresting; monumental reiiiains; nmoiiKst others,
thai of the hlack I'rince. The (li<icese of Caiiter-
biiry consists of the co. of Kent (witli the exception
of the city mid deanery of IJochester, and of H
other parishes, whiidi last are in the London
diocese), and the parishes of Croydon and Addin|{-
toii, and district uf huinbeth I'alucu, in thu cu. of
(Surrey.
The province comprises 20 otlier dioceses, and
ahout 100 scattered fiarishcH, called 'pi^ciiliars;' its
arohhishop is primate; and metropolitan of all
England, and takes precedence of all fjreat iillicers
of state, and of all peers of the realm except those
of the royal blood ; lie formerly had (he |)iivilefie of
conferriiif^ decrees in divinity, law, and i)hysic.
The revenues of the see amount at an averafjc to
]r),000/. a year. The succession is traced with
tolerable rej^nlarity from St. Augustine, A. i>. M~,
Cardinal I'ole was the 70th and the last archbisho|i
under the Catholic system. The site of the ("icieut
palace, near tlie cathedral precincts, is occupied by
modern buildiiijjs, leased to private individuals;
the present archie|)iscopal residence beinj; at Lam-
beth. There are several dissenting chapels in the
town, and a Jewish synagogue. A grammar school
founded by Henry VIII., is in the |)atronage of the
dean and eha|)ter; there arc '2 masters, and 50
king's scholars. The other public structures are
a sessions-house, theatre, assembly-rooms, philo-
sophic institution (with library, museum, and
lecture room), and the subscription wells, whose
mineral waters were discovered in the latter part
of the 17th century, and were for some time in
great repute, but have since been comparatively
neglected; one spring is a jmre chalybeate, the
other impregnated with sulphur. The citv gene-
rally has of late years undergone considerable
im|)rovement ; the Donjon-lield, and a large arti-
ticial mound in it, is laid out in ])ublic walks, and
forms a pleasant jiromenade. There is little or no
trade carried on excejit what is reipiired for the
supply of the town and its immediate vicinity.
The silk trade, originally established by Tlemish
and French rel"iigees (to whom Klizabeth granted
the under-croft of the cathedral for public worship),
and that of silk and cotton, subsequently intro-
duced, have ceased: but there is a considerable
traffic in hops and agricultural i)roduce, large
quantities of which are sent from it to London by
railway, either direct or through Whitstable, and
from thence up the river Thames, by boats. Whit-
stable, the ])ort of Canterbury, is G m. distant
from the city, and a railway to it, one of the
earliest in I'higland, was opened in ISaO. There
arc four market-jjlaccs for the sale of meat, and
poultry, lish, cattle, corn, and hops : there is a daily
supply of provisions, but the chief markets arc
held, one on Saturday, and another, for fat stock,
every alternate Tuesday : there is also an annual
statute fair, which begins October 10, and lasts 10
or I'i days, but little business of importance is
transacted at it. Canterbury has long been noted
CANTON
fl37
for brawn, whi''li fonns an art iclo of Homo impor-
taui'(; in till- trade of the place, and is sent t<i
various parts of tlu; kingdom. Tin; ho|i-grouiid.4
of the vii'inity att'ord employment to a large pro-
portion of the labouring populatiun of both sexes.
The pari, and municipal limits of Canterbury
are id<Mitical. The city, which is a county of itself,
contains within the walls M pari->bcs, besides
ani'ieiit monastic precincts. Itcforc the passing of
the .Municipal Act thi; city magistrates had no
jurisdiction over these )irecincts, but they are all
now under the authority of the civic powers, with
the exception of the ville of Christchurch, in which
the city and county magistrates have concurrent
jiirisilicliou.
Canterbury has sent 2 m. to the II. of C. from
the 211 Kdwurd I.; the right, of voting being, pre-
viously to the Iicform Act, in llie resident and
non-resident freemen; the; freedom of the town
being acepiired by birth, marriiigi', appreiiliceship,
purchase, and gift. Tiie present pari. bor. iiK^lndes,
besides the above par,, parts of those of three
others, and the bor. of Longport : area ;i,(ir>H acres ;
registered constitu"ncy l,7rj«iu iM(ir), of whom 7 \'.>
freemen. It is divided into .'( wards, and is
governed by a recorder, mayor, (J aldermen, anil
IH counsellors.
This city is of great antiquity, as is proved by
the notice of it in the itinerary of Antoninns, ami
by many Hoinan remains. A staple of wool was
granted by Kdward III.; but its chief iinportaiUHi
previously to the Kcformation was derived from its
numerous religious establishments, and the inlinx
of |>ilgrims of all ranks and conditions. It was
also tile most fre(|uented thoroughfare to th(; ('on-
tinent, and is noticed as such in the charter granted
by Henry IV., where it is called, 'a <'ity near the
sea, and as it were a port and entrance by whicli
foreigners come to the kingdom.' During the last
war, a large body of military were usually stationed
here, for whose reception there are three sets of
cavalry and infantry liarracks. The outer walls of
a castle of the Nonnan period still exist. For
some time at the beginning of the present century,
the city was decaying, but the establishment of
railway communication has raised it to a more
flourishing state. Canterbury is now connected
with the metropolis by two lines of railway, the
South-Kastern, opened in 184(!, and the London,
Chatham, and Dover line, opened in 18GI.
CANTON (called by the Chinese Samj-Ching,
the provincial city), a marit. city of China on its
S. coast, cap. jirov. Quang-tong, and residence of
the i)rovincial authorities; the principal enqio-
riuin of the Fast, and the first port in (Jhina at
which any Furopeans were established. It stands
on the N. bank of the C/ioo-kiam/, or I'earl K'iver,
and the F. bank of its afUuent, the I'e-kiang,
CO m. NNW. the Chinese Sea, and 1,200 m. S. bv
\V. Pekin. Lat. 23° 7' 10" N., hmg. IU\° 14' 3o'"
E. It is nearly scpiare, about (J m. in circ, built
generally upon level ground, except on its N.
side, and is divided into two unequal parts, the
outer, or Chinese, and the inner, or Mantchou
(Tartar) city, which are surrouiidetl by one wall,
and separated by another. The walls are partly
of sandstone and partly of brick, about 20 or 25
ft. thick, and from 2.5 to 40 ft. high. A line of
battlements, with embrasures "t ir.tervals of a few
feet, raised on the top of the walls all round, are
in some places mounted with cannon. The city
is farther defended by three forts on the land
side, and two on Pearl Hiver ; but as a place of
strength Canton is insignificant. The outer walls
are pierced with twelve gates, and four other» lead
through the inner wall from the old to the new
city : all of these are daily opened at dawn, and
"Ill
I'itI
iiii
1 '"
II;
I:K
«8<)
CANTON
Hiint nt nn cnrly hour of tlio pvpiiIpk, niid dlriplly
^Miirili'il III iircvcnl tint exit or iMilriiiicit ol' iiiiy
llllt>, I'Xt'Cpt ll|l<lll M|l(>l'illl (M'I'MsillllH, 'rilt> HIllllirllK
iir(>, |K'rliii|m, nn cxlt'iiHivit uml |iii|)IiIiiuh iih the
fity itself. 'I'licy till up tho (t|iu('(! iM'twccii tlu!
h'iiIIh iiikI lIuMvutcrV cil^'d on l)otli rivors ; fliosc
till tlic W. ni(l(> nrt' tmicli tint liirt^cMt. Tlic city
iiiiil NiiliiirliN nrt! Iniil out in a iircciHcly Hiniiliir
ininuicr. Streets niiinerouM, anil >{enerully short
mill erookeil, thouj^h HonietiineH of consiilornlilo
length. They viiry in wiilili from iiliout 'I to !•! ft,,
lint lire eonnnonly IVotn tJ to H 11. wiile, piiveil with
little ronnil stones, anil llii;.r){ei|, elimo to the
lionses, with larger ones, ehieliy of granite. Kiieh
is eloseil liv slron)^ piti's, seenreil anil pnirileil at
ni^ht ; anil streets of liiisiness are eaeli ilevoteil
to one ilistinet Itrani'ii of traile. Several eannls,
nseil for the eonveyanee of |iasspn>,'ers anil (^"oils,
intersect the city aiiil snlmrits. Two of tiie lar^^est
run ailing tlie ontsiiie of the K. nnil \V, walls, anil
eoinnnniieate hy a third, which ])assos throuf^li
the new city. Several smaller oiuw liranch oil"
from these on either siile : they are crossed in
nnmy places hy stone hridnes. Houses huilt
chietly of hrick ; lint nmil, sione, and wood are
also us(>il ill their construction, and many of the
hnhitalions in the old city are said to he composed
entirely of the former inaterial. \car the river
they (ire raised on wooden iiiles, and elsewhere are
(ienerally erected on solid foundations. Scarcely
any arc more than one storj* in hei^dit ; the roofs
of many are thit, and heiiif; surrounded with a
lireasl-work, they form terraces frequented hy
the family in the cool of the eveniiifj;. The tloors
are usually coin)M)sed of indurated mud, marhle,
or otliiT "tlafistimes, or tiles Joined hy cement.
'Windows small, the jilace of ^lass heing su))-
plied hy jmper, mica, and thin shell. Very little
iron is used. The better sort of residences are
built within n court, surrounded by a wall, 12
or It ft. Iiiiil, and the interior of those of the,
opulent Chinese are in general very richly fur-
nished. The houses of the middle orders, in
■which about one-third part of the ])opulation
reside, have no court, nor any Huperaiamdant
room ; those of the lower orders, •which arc very
numerous along the banks of the canals, in tho
N. jiart of the old city, and in the extreme parts
of tho suburbs, are wretched mud hovels, in which
six, eight, ten, or sometimes even double that
number of individuals, are crowded into one low,
dark, and dirty apartment. The foreign factories,
or hviH/s, as the (.'hinese call them, are situated in
the SW. suburb, where they extend from E, to VV,
for about U furlong. They occupy a muddy flat,
•which has been gained from the Choo-kiang river,
vhicli they face, being separated from it by a quay
about lot/ yds. wide. This si)ace, which is con-
sidered as belonging to the European merchants, is
railed in, and forms a promenade, called Kespon-
dentia Walk. Near it is another small open space,
about 61) or (!0 yds. square, •walled in, and laid
out as a garden, with gravel walks and flower-
beds. These narrow limits bound all the terri-
tory assigned to forcigncr.i within the Celestial
empire: even the (piay 'tI enclosure were not
obtained •without considerauie difKculty, and the
European merchants cannot erect a few steps on
the water's edge without express permission from
the authorities. There are thirteen hongs, or fac-
tories, including the British, Dutch, American,
French, Austrian, Swedish, Danish, and I'arsee
establishments. They are amongst the hand-
somest buildings in the city, and usually con-
sist of three, four, or more brick or granite build-
ings surrounding a kind of close or court : two
tolerable liuropean hotels occupy portions of two
of them. Tho English hong far snrpnssnn tim
rest for elegance and extent; this, liie Diitrli,
and the American hongs are the only ones which
have their national Hags (lying; the Ilritish Hag,
which had been hauled down at the expirtitioii ol
th(^ K. I. Company's charter, was again raised in
April, IKI7. (Kanqiii in China, i. '2W.) Con-
tiguous to the hongs are three noted thorough-
fares, Old and New China Streets, and Hog Eaiu>
The first two are amongst the best streets in the
suburbs, rather wider tiuiii the generality of the
public ways, prettv regulariy paved, and liiied
with shops, in which a considerable ainoiint of
business is soinetiines traiisiu'ted. TIk; lillhy
street, or alley, apiiropriately named Hog I.aiie,
has an infamous notoriety as being the plaen
where foreign seamen are intoxicated, robbed, and
maltreated, and where, owing in a great measure
to their imprudence, most of the disturbances have
arisen which have led to serious disputes between
the Chinese government and the foreign traders.
Excejit in those devoted to tho European trade,
most of the shops open to the streets, and the
most valuable kinds of wares are exjiosed, apjia-
reiitly without any protection from theft ; but the
sharp eye kept by the dealers, the gates at the
end of the streets, which may be shut in an
instant, and a most vigilant police, commonly
prevent any frauds. Uurglaries are rare, but loss
iiy tiro is frequent; to avert which, in the winter
months, an additional body of watchmen occujiy
watch-towers erected on bamboo poles high above
the roofs of the houses, and an alarm, given by
bells or other means, (piickly spreads tlirough the
city. The Chinese have very generally adopted
the use of our engines, which they occasionally
manufacture siifticiently well to answer the piir-
])ose; but the fatalism which jirevails among the
people makes tlu^m singularly careless as regards
lire. In IM'J'i a tire broke out, which destroyed
the Kritish factory and above 1(),()00 other houses.
The loss of the E. f. Company on this occasinu
was estimated at 5(10,000/. sterling. C'anton is
subject to inundations, -which carry a^way many
mud hovels, and fre(|uently fill the lower ajmrt-
meiits in the hongs to the height of several feet.
The city is tolerably well sujiplicd with water
by several reservoirs, maiiv wells, and canals, and
some line springs on its jf. side, both within ami
without the walls.
A large part of the population of Canton resides
on the water. For 4 or 6 m. ojipositc the city, and
both above and.helow it, the nver is crowded with
vessels and rafts of all descriptions and sizes.
Everj' one is registered, and the whole number in
the neighbourhood of the city is reported to
amount to 84,000. Many of these, called egg-
boats, which are no more than 12 or 15 ft. hing,
about C ft. broad, and covered with a low bani-
Im)o shed, not only accommodate whole families,
but contain coops in which large bniods of ducks
and chickens are reared. Others are immense
rafts of timber on which many individuals live.
Some of the floating-houses are, however, hand-
some residences; their hull is large and broad,
and the building in the centre is surrounded by a
spacious wooden terrace, and supports anotheron
its roof, both of which are ornamented with
flowers and evergreens. The narrow channel left
between the stationarj' shipping and the shore is
so incessantly thronged with barges and craft of
all kinds, as to render landing or embarkation
usually a difficult undertaking. Upwards of 120
different temples are enumerated in and adjacent
to the city, and this does not include thewhole
number. The principal is the Buddhist tem])le on
the island of Uouau, in the river opix)site Canton.
CANTON
flftO
Iln liiiililinKK nro niimoroun, niul cliii'lly of lirii'k ;
ii ciivi'ix, with iti« I'liiirtx uml ^'iirili'iiH, ti i>r Hncrr^,
wliU^h arc Niirniiiiiilnl liy a lnl'ty wiill. 'I'lit- hiIII-
iicMM wliicli rciKiiM within llii^ hurricr I'liniiM a
Klrikiiif^ coiilraHt to tht- tiiriiioil whirh iiri'ViiilH
without. 'I'hi^ pathway to the ^rcat ('<'iitra{li'in|il('
IcailH ihriiii^'h two wide court -yanlN hiiil out witii
gravel wnlkM, nml plantcil with mwrt of irci'H; in
thi' >{iit('way Ni'paratiii^ thi'^c courtu art- two liiTiui-
liiokiu^ cMiloHsal li^urcM, Ncatcd on hu^t; pciicHtalH
or^raiiito, 'I'ht' principal iiall is about NO It, sip;
its wails ant liun^ willi crinisou tapestry anil
tablets, ami its roof is ornanicnlcil with ^rrulcstpic
paintings anil ti^urcs in relief; iii the centre of
tUv hall are three enonnous, heavy, ^'ilileil ll^ures
represeutiiiff the ' I'ast, Present, and Future,' Ik--
fiire which incense is contiiiiuillv burniu;{. In
vnriouH other halls there are shrnies of inferior
deities, and the remainder of the Imililiu)^' is occu-
pied chielly l>y the dwelliii^rs and ollices of the
priests, of wlmni there are nearly "JIKI. 'I'liere are
two other consideralile llnddhist temples in the
NW. part of the old city, one of which, fmnidi'd
ahont A.ii. ',2')(), has ahoul. 'JllD inmates, and .'l.'tiMl
acres of landed property. In the old city there
is also a Mohammedan mos(|iM', with a doiiK! and
minaret Itill ft. in hei;{ht; there are ahont ,'),(M)i)
iMolunnmedans in Canton. Without th<' walls, on
the N. side, Iheru is a lofty pa;;iiila livi- stories
hifjh. There are several <'haritalile institutions,
hut they are mostly of recent foundation. Va;,'a-
honds and hcf^'pirs are very imnierous in Canton,
hut not more so than in numy lar^i; cities of
Europe. A foundlin^r hospital estahlislied in ItiDH,
with aeconuuodations for 2110 or ■'KMI children, and
supported with ahont Hid/, a year; a retreat lor
the a;;ed, inlirm, and hiiud, supported by imposts
un forei^'u ships briii^'iii^ rice to the port, and
a hosjiital for lepers, all on the K. side, without
the city walls, are amongst the chief native
charities. A ^{eneral hospital in the S\V. suburli,
established by an American missionary society in
Ik;I."», has been ))roduclive of nuich bciu'lit. Hut.
the best maintenance for the |ioor consists in the
manner in which both law and custom cnl'orc(>
the claims of kindred. In the old city are the
residences of the lientenant-^^overnor, Tarfar-
fjeneral, treasurer of the provincial revemn', lite-
rary chancellor, and criminal Jud(^(t : and in the
new city, those of the prov. fjovernor, and the
^raiul liojipo ur commissioner of the customs on
foreifjn trade. 'Ihese residences, and others of the
liouf^-merchantH, and some wealthy citizens, arc
little interior, except as respects size, to the im-
perial palaces. In the <dd city is the ^^rand hall
iitr the examination of candidates for literary
honours. There arc M liif^h schools, and about
30 collcf^es, in ('anton ; three of the latter have
each 200 students. It is estimated that about
lialf the inhabitants are able to read.
Thereexistsno information on which it would be
safe to place any reliance as to the pop. of Canton.
It is estimated in the Chinese I.eiiository (vol. ii.
307) at 1,23(1,000; but the data on which this
estimate is made are far too loose to entitle it to
any weij^ht. It is ])rol)al)le that the pop. of the
city does not exceed half a million, or about 700,000
incIiuUng the tluctuatin^ crowds on the river.
The manufactures of Canton are numerous and
important. It is said that there are about 17,000
persons employed in the weaviu}; of silk, and that
60,000 arc cn(^a{;e(l in the manufacture of allkiiuls
of cloth. There are said to be 4,200 shoemakers ;
besides great numbers of ])ersons Avho work in
wood, brass, iron, and stone. The book trade is
considerable. The persons engaged in these trades
arc all funned into distinct cummuiiities, and have
ea«'h their own lnwn fur the regulation of their
business. Ihit a large portion of the manufactureit
rei|uired for the conNuuiptiou and trade of Cantnik
are carried on at l''u-shHn, u large city u few mile*
\V. from t 'anton.
Tiw/r,— \ great part of the trade of ( hina with
j'.urojtean nations passes through Ciuiton. 'I'lui
KuMsiansare the only nation not having a resident
or factory here: the connnerce bciweeii the two
empires, which is verv extensive, centres ut
Kiachta, on tbi' border nl^tlu' empire, in Mongoliu.
The policy which deteruiineil this regulation, im
well as that which li.\e<l the mdy foreign mercan-
tile port al almost the greatest po-.Nible dislaucii
from the capital, was probably dictateil not oulv
by a jealous fear of strangers passing the boun-
daries of the empire, but also from a de-<ire ou thii
part of the goverinneiit, to obtain the grl'ale^*fc
aniomit of transit duties. The I'.uriipean trade,
now so imnu'use, originated in a couunercial treaty
between I''.tnmanu4'l, King of I'ortiigal, and tint
Kuiperor of China, in lol7. In lt;;i|,somc llriiisli
ships llrst touched at Canton, In lONO, the direct
trade of th(> I',, I, Company with Cliiuacommcnci'il.
In ciinse(|uencc of thi> extraordinary increase in
the denuind for tea, w-hich, from being a luxury
seldom seen, so late as the reign of l^ueen Aniu',
even in the houses of the luibility, has become a
necessary of life, used by the poorest classes, thii
llritish trade with Canton has |iri)grcssivcly and
ra|)idly iiu'rcased since 1700; and the great" nias^t
of the foreign connnerce is carried on bv the l'!ng-
lish and Auu'ricans. Cntil the expiration of their
charter, in In;1|, the I'.rilish trade was entirely in
the bauds of ti • K. I, Cnuipany ; and during tlio
last thre(! or lour years of iheir monopoly, that
body imported tea (which has always hcl'u tlio
principal export from China) into llugland to (ho
amoinit of ;il,oOO,0(lO lbs. annually. Alter the ex-
piration of their charter, tint ipianliiy impnrted
was still greater. In lx;>l, l.")0 iJrii'ish vessels'
with a luiited toimagc of 82,170 tons, resorted to
Whampiia, near Canton, and brought awav
•l.'l,(>ll,200 lbs, of tea. The export of that article
snliseipienily diminished; but not to any great
extent. In iMtlO, the export of tea from Canton
amounted to 3,'>, lOI.KII lbs.; in I SO I, to
;t!),l7l,Hoi» lbs.; in 1S(;2, to 3l,«t»l,034 lbs.; ami
in IHO:!, to 21,177.11 1 lbs.
Ilesides tea, the chief artiide exported from
Canton is silk. The exports of silk amounted to
I,1I2,!W4 lbs. in IWU; l,tilK.OIO in lNt;2; and
1.371, 7(!2 in 1803. In 1802, (he expor(s also in-
cluded 38,77.") picnis of cotton; but in 18(13 lu)
cotton was exported.
The shipiang of the port of Canton amounted to
783 vessels, of 238,4;")(i tons, which entered in 18(11 •
to 723 vessels, of 2.")3,I4(! tons, in 18(12; and id
8(17 vessels, of 300,520 tons, in 18(13. The total
value of the imports of C!anton was 2,0l!»,!)08/. in
l«tll; 2,412,r)l,U in 18(12; and 2,28|,;t,Vl/. in J8(l;i,
The total value of the exports of Canton amounted
to 3,5:)7,r)l»0/. in 1800; 4,0(JO,740/. hi 18(12; and
3,8(12,0!!1» in 18(13.
A fleet of .50 or ()0 vessels, of about 400 tons
burden, is annually ilespatched to ('anton from tho
United States, the whole of the American trade
being valued at about 10,000,000 dollars. About
15,000,000 lbs. of tea arc annually imported into
America. The Dutch usually send" 10 or 15 vessels
during the season ; but many come from Hatavia •
and the import direct of tea from Canton into
Holland is not more than 3,000,000 lbs. a vear.
From 2 to 3 or 4 F'rench ships have appeared of
late years at Whampoa. The tmdo («f Spain,
Sweden, Denmark, uml Austria, with Canton, is
very small.
i,;(,
flto
CANTON
'I'lu' ('liiiit-lii'iiiK. <i|i|ni»itf' ( 'iiiiliiii, in (U'<>|> pnniii^li
fiirvi'MM'lM nl'XIMI nr 1,00(1 liillH lilirdi'li; lillt I'lip'iKO
hlil|w Hilly 4'iiiiit' up t\w river mm Car iim \VIiiiiii|i>iii,
iilHiiit l.'i III, lii'liiw tlir ciiy, liiMilitiK mill iiiilo/iiHii^
liy liirilllH III' liiilivf lioatH, All lilt' ilrillillK^i ot
I'liri'iKiKrN willi llic Cliiiii'Hi' iixril to lit- ciirricil mi
liy till' iiilrrvi'iiliiiii III' a few IciiiliiiK iiiiTrliitiitH,
callfil y/om/ nr xri'iirily inrri'liaiitx, rruiii llit'lr lie-
('Hilling H't'iirily fur llu' iniMiiciil of llu' iliilicH mi
hliipH, nil ilir piiiilN iiiiportcit mill cxpuricil, ami liir
till' pi'Mi'ralilc lii'liavimir of the cri'WM, lliii iIiIh
rrHlrit'limi ix imw almliilii'il, miil rnrri^iu'rH may
liiTc, aN miywIiiTt' t'l,'<i', ileal willi any mrri'limil or
ollirr party tliey think lit to ciiipinv. '\'\iv liiii/iiiHtii
iir Kiivi'miiicnt inicrpri'ttrH iiMially pmi'iini p<'r-
iiiitN I'nr ili'livcriiif; ami taking in carpicn, ami
transact llii' ciihtmii-limiMi' ImHiiicMN, 'I'lic nlatc-
iillli'crM III' till' city, ri'i'i'lviii;; little nr iin salary
f'rniii piveniineiil, liiil rreijiieiilly piireliiiHiii;; tluir
ilppniiitmeiitM, ilerive tlieir prnlils eliietly liv e.\-
tnrlioii; ami Caiitnii liiix tlie eliarai'ler nt' iieiiif;
lint only the imiMt lieeiilimis, hut lliu imiNt cur-
riiptly-Knveriieil I'ily of the empire,
Cmitoii is peculiarly the eiiipnriuin of Chiiiesi'
inaiiiil'aetiires, ami the shops are cmwileil with
articles of the neatest ami imisl minute workiiian-
i-liip. The imirki'ts devoteil to ealalih's are less
iitlractive to I'liirnpean tastes: puppies, cats, owls,
horse-llesh, worms, slu;;s, ami e\en snakes ami
other reptiles, are exhihileil as tempt innilelicacies.
All are solil hy >Yi'i;;lit, ami a cat ami a pheasant
freciiieiitly fetch the same price. 'I'he arts of
/j////i/ii/aremit forgotten in Canton; in thesiihiirhs,
staring laliels ami Imarils are coininon ('nou;;li
over the sho)i ilnnrs, inviting tlii' custmn of the
jiassenners, hy means nf laudatory mottoes, written
III I'lii^^lish and other laiiKuafA'cs; and many of the
Chinese shopkeepers haveaci|iiired sutlicieiit Knj;-
lisli, and the free and easy style so well ada]iled tn
cajitivate the llritish seamen, and make them part
with their nimiey. The streets are neiieially clean,
liiit. ahound with cripples aiul miserahle ohjects,
lief,'pirs, and vanahomls nf all descripliniis. No
wheeled carriages are seen in llieiii; the only
vehicles used areseilan chairs slnnj,' nil poles, which
Roim* of the piveriiment funclionaries and more
opulent natives are privilep'd to use.
As soon us the season for hiisiiiess lias termi-
nated, an edict from the emperor comes to Canton,
iirderiiij; the removal of the l'orei;;n merchants to
]Macan, wliere they remain for several inoiiths.
I^nring the summer, excursions are made hy hotli
(Chinese mid Hiiropeaiis tn Faliteeii, a villime ahmit
2 m. hifiher up the river, ahove Canton, where
there are some f^ardeiis laid out in the l'",n)^lish
style. The scenery in this direction is deliKhtfnl.
' Meyniid the city, and when clear of the hiiihlin^s,
nnd the crowds of boats which throng the passa>;e,
the river winds about in a beautifully serpentine
ninnner. The country opens gradually, and dis-
jiluys both bill and dale covered with luxuriant
vcffetalinii. On every remarkable eminence, pa-
)rodas arc erected, and jnss-iiouses adorn the Imnks
in every direction. In tlie midst of the stream,
often dividing it into two or three separate chan-
nels, arc romantic islands, either niider the hand
of the flgricnlturist, or envered with trees to the
water's edfje.' (Fanqui in China, iii. '203.) Canton,
althou{;b extremely hot in summer, is much cohler
in winter than miKbt be expected from its lat., and
tires are often agreeable.
Accnrding to native historians, Canton was
founded by one of the last sovereigns of the Cliow
dynasty, who reigned about 2,000 years ago. About
the year 700, it becnme a regular mart for foreign
trade, and the residence of an imperial commis-
sioner of customs. The fonner city was utterly
t'AI'E HKKTON
desfrnyed In IlLMt hy the Tartar dyimsfy now on
the thrniii', after a siege of eleven nioiilh^, during
and HiibNei|uetil to which vast iiumberH of persoiiH
perished,
«'\l'ACClO,orCAl'l'ACCIO NroV'O.iilnwn
nf Snulliern llalv, pmv, Salerno, cap. cant,, iTi m,
SK, Salerno, am( I m. frmii the sea. I'np. 2,0<l,'i
ill Ixii'.'. It has Iwn line parish churches, and u
convent. The cathedral is al Cappaccio Vecchin,
a small place in the vicinity, destroved in the lillh
century hv the iiiipcmr Frederic 1 1. The iiihiihi
taiits having lied tn 8. rietru,gavv it the nanieuf
Capaccin Nuovo.
CAI'K HI!i;roN, a large nnd tnost Irregularly
shaped island of llritish America, separated frmii
the N. exlninily of Nnva Scniia. of which pmv,
it is a part, hy ii narrow, navigable chaiinel. It
forms the SI'',, hniimlarv nf thetinlf of ,St. I.aiiri'iu'c,
and lies between 15"^ '.'"' uiid '17° I' N. hit., miii
■V,i° I.V and ti|o IIM' W. Imig. Area estimated al
near -^ooti sq. in. The cna.st is, fnr the iiinst part,
mcky and elevated; and it is (everywhere iiidentcil
by deep gulfs and arms nf the sea, by one of which,
the llras d'Or, it is very nearly separated into two
great divisions. This inland sea has deep water
tbroiighoiit, and alVords the greatest facilities to
navigation. 'I'hv island has many line harhniirs;
that of Sydney, the cap., on the K. coast, being
one of tlue best in tlieprov. Loiiisboiirg, so famous
in the history of America in the reign of (Icnrge
II., lies on the SK. coast of the island. It was a
strongly fnrlilled settli'tneiit established by the
French in I7'.'0, and reckniiedthe key nf their pns-
sessioiis ill this part nf the wnrld; but having
been taken by the l'',iiglisb in 171"), was tirst dis-
mantled, and afterwards entirely abandoned.
The r///H(//cof Cajie Itrelou is subject tocniisidcr-
able extremes. The incaii summer heat is siiid
to be HU° Fahr., whilst in winter 20° below /em is
not a very uncommon degree of coltl. The teiii-
]iei'ature, however, is suliject to more variatimi,
and is less iiiiifonnlv severe than the cniitiiieiit in
the same )iarallel. 'I'he frost usually sets in aliniit
Dec, and between that and the end of April there
are sometimes intervals of a week or two nf mild
weather. The siiring is short, and vegetation very
rapid : May is the sowing season, and the harvest
is gathered in Aug. ami Sept. : on the I'',, coast,
the summers are usually dry; on the W, they are
usually more moist.
This island terminates a low mountain range,
which traverses the whole province of Nova Scotia
(from S\V. to NK.), and consists of granite, trap,
and slate, in alternating strata; the slate being
in narrow, and the trap in broad belts; beyoiul
these, ari! graiiwaeke, sandstone, limestoiic, gyp-
sum, and several other formations, which for the
most ])art rest on an atnygdalnid base. In tliis
more recent jiortion are extensive bcilsnf coal, said
to resemble that of Newcastle, atid well adajitod
for steam and other general jmrjioses ; it also yields
an abundance of excellent gas. Cape Hretoii is
sui)]iosed to contain a sutiiciency of this, to supply
the world for centuries. The mines at jireseiit in
work are near Sidney: they were leased by the
crown in 1827 for sixty years to the (Jeiieral
Mining Association, on payment of 3,000/. sterling
ft year for 20,000 chaldrons, and 2s. currency for
every chaldron beyond that quantity ; which terms
embrace the other mines of the prov., wrought hy
the same compiniy,who have several steam-engines,
and employ regularly about 500 men. Since the
commencement of tiieir operations, the demand
has steadily increased, and is sup])osed likely to
proceed in an increasing ratio, from the circum-
stance of the only available mines of the U. States,
at present, being those of anthracite, iu Peniisyl-
iKHi very
tinrvcst
K. ciiast,
llicy nru
iiiii niii^'o,
DVii Si'otiii
liio, trii|i,
■ lifiiij,'
licyiimi
me, nyi'-
lor llic
III this
coal, saiil
11 ailapli'd
also yii'Kls
Urol nil is
to supiily
prt'sciit in
*wl l)y the
(Jciicral
O/.storliiig
rreiicy tor
hicli t'onii8
rouftlit liy
l-OllgilH'S,
SiiR'e the
e demand
likuly to
le circum-
U. States,
Pennayl-
CAPE CLEATl
vniiln, fn wliirli, fiir ^Tiirral |nir|«is<"«, ilir ('a|i<'
liri-toii Con! U iiiiirli Nii|i<'rii>r. 'riii"«< iiiiiu'M Mere
llrNi oiM'tinl nlioiii iH'iy ycarM hIiu'c, ami have coii-
liiiiii'il tVoiii lliat ihtIimI to In> wrciii^lii ; Inil, |irt'-
vioiiHJy to IM'.'T, on a very iin|H'rlrii .HyNii.ni, ami
to 11 very liiiiitcil extent. Iron ami i'o|i|ier have
h\» I lieeli iiM't Willi, hut lieitlier Iuim yet l>eeii
ultemleil to, l.inii' (^'y|iMiiiii), well aila|ilec| (or
Ufrrii'iiiliiral iniriMwei*, Ih iiliiitulaiit, ami at |dai eH
tierreelly aeeeH.sjIde to Hlii|i|iiii^ : llirre are alto
liriiic MpriiiKs of Ki-eat HtreiiKili, wliieli il i.i Miip-
|><iM'il may lie in lime inaile iivailalile, l>y ineaiH ol'
the ret'iis4' eoal, in the iiiaiiiiraetiire of xalt tor thi>
llslierieN: excellent I'reeKtonu lor liiiililini; piir|ioHen
Ih also met willi.
'I'lie ve){elalile |iroiliielH reHemlde tlioN(« of the
llei^lilioiirili); conliiieiil ; the wooiU heiii^^ ecmi -
poMed of liemloek, Itlaek ami wliitc spruces, ||i(>
wliile ami rcil pineH, oak, heccli, liircli, ami maple:
the liiiilier Iraile liax heeii ^railiiMlly liimiiii.Hliiii^,
The greater pari of the Nhipmeiils at prcHciit are
from the W. ItaMJii, opening from the lillle Itras
• rOr; on the Alhitltic mIiIc, the .spruce lirs, \c. are
nioslly of Nliiiiteil ^'rowlh, lait xupply I'mc! to llie
iliU'ereiit lishiii;; Heltleineiil.s: these, however, are
(.'omiucteil with lillle I'lier^y, ami to a much more
liiniti'd extent tliaii the ^reat eapahiiilie.s of ilu>
Hiations Would Neein to admit of, 'i'hc lisli iiiomI
t'oininonly taken are cod, hnlihut, haddock, mack-
erel, nIuuI, xniidls, and alewivcM; stnrp'on and
haluion are. also caught in the .sireani.s, and these
and the lakcM ahoiind with Iroiil and perch, 'I'he
inhul)itants enpi^ed in the llsherle.s are chiedy
I'Vencli Acadians, and Scotch, from the Western
Ishinds. Those en^rnfrt'd in tlic linilier trader and
Uf;ricultiire are chielly Scotch and Irish eini;;'ranls,
and u few ant the descendants of I', S. loyalists.
Those en^rajrcd in the eoal-niines are immtlv skilled
lalionrers from Scotland. There are also aliout 111)1)
Jmiiaiis, for whom .some tracts are reserved, on
which they cultivate inui/,e and potatoes: they are
an inotlensive trilie, and support themselves chielly
hy fisliin^; wandering alon^' the shore in summer,
and returning; to n llxed winter station. 'I'he
common kinds of grain, niaizo, ami potatoes are
(Millivated; hut the island does not ]>rodncc siilli-
cient for its own consumption. The exports consist
of timber to the IT. Kingdom, llsh to the \V. Indies,
and coals to the II, States, and corn. The imports
consi.st of liritisli manufactured goods; corn nnd
meal ft;oni the U. States, and colonial ]iroducts.
lletwcen 300 and 400 vessels, varying from 20 to
200 ton.s, are registered in the island, and some
Hhipliuilding is carried uii, which is iiicludud in the
provincial returns.
Sydney, which is the chief sctllenicnt, contains
eighty or ninety houses, all with ffardens attached,
and regularly disposed, ho that its appearance i.s
very neat and respectuhle; the courts of justice for
the island and the residences of the gov. otiicers
are in this little town, which was founded in 182ii.
The rest are all small lishing settlements, on dif-
ferent parts of the 8ea coast, or round the borders
of the Uras d'Or. Cape Hreton is a co. of the
province of Nova .Scotia, and returns 2 in. to the
II. of A.s.senibly in I lalifax. It is comprised within
the diocese of the Hp. of Nova Scotia ; Imt the great
majority of the iiihab. are Roman Catholic.s, Legal
provision is made for the poor, and there are also
other local assessments to defray co. charges. The
French fonned the tirst settlement (ni it, in 1712;
a iletucliment of IJritish troops, from New Knglaiul,
took ])08.se.s.sion of it in 1 74.5, and from that period
it has remained under ISritish government.
CAl'K CLKAH, a bold promontory, rising 400
ft. above the level of the sea, on the S, siile of Clare
Island, near the VV. cxtremitv of St. George's
Voi„ I.
CAPE DE VEPH I.«!LANT>.S fill
Chaiiiu I, ami alxml 7 m. SI!, from llallimore, co,
Cork, Iridand, Ad|oiiiiiig the catie is a lighlhoiiso
of the lirsl clasN, Willi i'e\id\ing lights, having tlio
lantern elevated t.'i.'i It. above ihe level of Ihtt
sea. The ligliihiiu<e is in iai. .'il*^ '.'O' ;1" N., lung.
!)0 20' 20" W, This is ihe point from which shipH
leaving .St , t icorge's Chanind for the W, usually
take their depart lire, and those arriving prefer
making il Iheir landfall,
(AI'K DK VI .Kl> ISI.ANKS (I'ort ///».»
I'iiiIi'h), n group in the N, .Xtlaiilic Oiean, be-
lon),'iiig lo i'oriiigal. beiween hit. I I" 20' and 17*^
20' N., and long. 22° 20' and 2.".° ;10' \V., about
;i20 III, NV.Capede N'erd, on Ihe W, coasi of Africa,
which, as widl as the ishiinls, derives its naiiiii
from ihe greenish linge given to the iiiljoining sen
by the aliiindance of sea-weed. The group coiisislM
of I'oiirteen islands, of which seven are iiibabilcd,
besides islets and rocks, having a iiiiiled area of
about 1,700 N|, III., and a pop, of ^<,'l,:lll;l, accuriiing
to Ihe census of 1H,"(H. They are, in general,
inoiinlainoiis, rockv, and very ill supplied uilli
water; are all evideiiily of >olcanii' origin ; ami
in l''ogo, the most elevated of llie ^roiip, aiiai'tive
volcano slid exists, Tlic heat is exirenie from
November lo .Inly, and for llie rest of the year
storms and fogs are prevaleni, and the climate is
ex( liligly imlieallhy, hronghls areol'freipieiit
occiirrein'e ; and soinetimes, as was tlie <'asc pre-
viously lo \M',\, no rain falls for three or four
years to(;cther, Tlie soil, wliere iiol coniposeil of
vtdcanic matters, is chielly calcareous or sandy,
dry, slony, and in many parts barren, Vegptalioii
is coiiseipiently partial ; bnl, in various places, it
is very vigorous, and rice, maize, itaiianas, oranges,
iiiehiiis, poiiiegranalcs, and oilier fruits, both of
Miiidpe and the tropics, grow aiiundaiillv. The
lirst Iwo products constitute the chief frnit of llie
inhaliilanis ; but agriciillnre is iieglecleil, and the
wheat that is consumed is brought from America.
Tiiis, however, is not so iinich a consecpience of tlio
poverty of the soil, or Ihe indolence of llie in-
iial)nants, as of the rapacity and short-sightedne.sH
of liiegovemmenl, t )range.s, lemons, mehiiis, Ikv,,
come to great perfection, and the gnavas, llgs,
.sweet potatoes, and gourds are excellent. Vines
and sugar-canes are ciillivaled lo some extent ;
ijut the making of wine is prohibited. Indigo and
cotton are iiidigenoii.s. One of the |)rincipal pro-
ducts is orchilla weed, which here attains to great
perfection ; it is monopolised by the government,
and is supposed to yield a reveniieof about ")0,000/.
a year. S(mie parts are well wooded, chielly willi
the tamarind tree, Adansoiiia, and |ialins, (ioals,
tus.se.s, and poultry, are the most iinmeroiis domestic
animals ; monkeys, wild cats, wood pigeons, and
other birds, and turtles arc plentiful. There is no
dangerous animal ; but clouds of locusts often ilo
much damage to the crops. Chief manufactures
those of leather and salt. Notwitlislanding the
severe ch-oughts, the actual produce of thesi! islamU
in cotton, indigo, fruits ,.salt, goat-skins, and turtle-
oil, might give them a considerable value under n
more intelligent government. TJie other chief
articles of export arc cotton, indigo, some cattle,
ox hides, cotton cloths, and rum, .St. .lago, the
principal island and most southerly of tlie grou|>,
contains the town of liibiera Cirande, formerly the
cap, ; but during the dry season, the governor-
general now usually resides at I'ort I'laya, which
has a good harbour, and is occasionally touched
at by vessels biamd for India. I'orto tirande, in
the island of .St. Vincent, is however ilecidedly the
best harbour in the groii]). Shijis in it are com-
jilctelv sheltered from wind and sea. In .St. Xicolo,
the island second in importance, very good cotton
stiill's, stockings, &c., are made. The pop. are u
T 'r
111
flI'J
cAi'i: iiAVTii:.N
iiiixi'il run' III riirlii^iK'Mi' /iiiil iii'^riH'K ) Iml itll
liiiM' (III I'M' liiiul.v I'lirtt t'liliiiir.
'I'lii'iMi inl/iiiiU Wirt' llp<i ilifn'iiM-ri'il In itiiNli'rii
liiMi'M, ill I III), liy Aiitiiiilii ill' Null, II lli'iiMi'xi'
MMxiuiiiiir, ill till' Hir>iri' 111 I'rii Hi iirv nl I'nr
liiKiil. '•> \tliirli iiiitiiiii ilii'v wi'ri' Miiiiii iii'ii'r iiiki'ii
|Hi«Hi'H«iMl| III', titlil riilolllxril,
t'AI'l'. II W ril'.N, 11 Hi'ii |.i.rl tiiwii 111" lldvll.
iiri;,'iiiiiil,v rtillril liv llii' S|iiiniiirilM liiiiirirn, iiml
iilirrniinlK liv llii' Kmnli l'a|ii' I'Viiiirnii, ur l.i'
( 'ii|>, nil lilt' \. nlmri' nl' llii' i'<liiiiil, !MI ni, \. |>iirt
nil rriiirt'! Int. IIC^ HI' '.'il' N., Imij;. 7-."^ II' \V.
ri>ii. iiriiiiitiiiv rriiiii r.'.iMHMii H'l.oiMi, 'riii4 iiiwii,
liiriiH'rlv till' III)
llii' rrviiliiliMii,
IllINt' llffll
rt'niilfll't'
mill \\r\'
luiiiiNiiiiii'
Ml|i|llv 111'
Ht'l'll lllllll
III' ilif i-liiiiil, wix-'. |irf\|i'iixly III
I'l iimrluilily liniiiliriil, .iihI iiiiii'il
iliiriiiu iu ulnrv, llif iiiii-i ii^rt'i'iililt'
ill ilii' W. Arrlii|ifliiuii.' Sirii'ls lirmiil
|iM\t'il ; liiiii«t"t I'liii'ily III' Niiijii', Willi
i|iiMrt'N, iiir^f iiiiirkt'ii, nml a t'ii|iiiMM
NMIIrr. ' Itlll IIIIW lillll' llluri- in III III',
llii' Iriirt'-t (if iiM I'linin'r K'''"iil'''ii' ! i'M'II j
ill llii' I'liii'c irAniii'M, llii' IiiiiiiInuiiii'hI Hi|imri> in il, |
hniiii' III' lilt' lliirHi limi^irM art' iinnii'li'il, Mini |ilaii-
laiii ti'i'i'-' art' i^'niwiii'^ in ilif iniililli' nf llif niiiH.
Till' t'liiinli, \sliii'li \Mis liMiiilniiini', is in rtiiiii, as
iiri' lilt' llirali'i', ^iiMTiiini'iil Iiihinc, ami >li'MiiirN
('iillt';;'t',' (Mai'lii'll/ii',) Il is lillill nil tlin vir^i' '
tit' II vt'i'y I'xii'ii.-'ivf, wi'll-walrri'il, ami Iriiiiriil i
jiiaiii : Iml licin^ sitci'IH'iI mi llif N. ami W. Iiy ill
liiiiniiiaiii (Miirni' < 'a|i|, il is ('\|inNt'i| In all tlin
vinli'iii'i' nlilii' suh'm ravN, ami is, in t'niisi>i|ni'm'i>,
mil M'ly lirallliy. 'I'lit' litirliniir ami mini, In llii'
II. ami S. Ill' lilt' Inwn, am iimictMfil nii llif N. liv
a iirnJiM'liii;; iiiii^iii' 111' liiml, 'I'lic fiilram'f is
ratiiiT ilillii'iilt ; luit llif iiiiflinnip' is fi I. ami
tlif t|iiayH liaiiilsniiif, Thf ilfl'fm'fs inwanls llif
Mf.'i art- rfs|ii'iiiil)lf, 'I'lif iirsfiial was fiinslniflfil
in llif rt'iicn nf Lmiis .W. I'mlfr llif Fri'iii'li,
('M|if llavlicii was, as wfll as I'nrl-nii-rrinff,
tin tisiniially llif sfnl nf ^nvfrniiifiil ; nml il fnii-
liniifil III fiijiiy tills ilisiincljnii nmiiT 'rmissaiiit
ainl ('lirisln|ilit'. lis Irnilc, llmii^^li ^n'ally fallfii
ntf, is still Vfrv fniisiilfralilf. It is iiriiifiiiiillv
. . . •. . . J . ' . t
L'llZU' M
liilf. 1 1 IS jiriiifi|ii
Htatfs. ( Muf lii'112
carrifil nn willi tint I
N'nli'.s nil llayti.)
('AIM'; llOliN, II faniniis jirnimiutiry nf S.
Aiiifrifii, fdinmnnly rf;;iirilfil as ilic S. exlri'iiiity
nf lliat fiinliiicnl. In |iiiinl nf ftift. linw>'Vfr, ('a|if
llnrn lines lint liflnil;^ In tli(> I'nnlillfnU liiit In il
siiiall isiaml <if tlu^ saini' iiainc, llif iimsl S. nf tin;
'I'ifrra ilfl Kiifpi firnnp, sfimratcil fmin tlic fnii-
I infill liy till- Straits nf Map'llaii, nr Ma^'fllnu'iis.
Ciiiif llnrn is tlif must S. pniiit nf tlif isliiiil; and
is iii^Hi, lilni'k, jirffipiiniis, ilfslilnti! nf all vo-
frflaiinii, ami liaviii^; a iimst ilfsniatf n|>|K'arani'(>.
AffnnliiiK In Wfililcll, it is In liit. ."i.'»" .V.»' 21" !S.,
ami Inii;^. <'i7° 14' W. ; Malf spina plat'i's il in lat.
r).'i° i>H' ;i(l" S„ ami 117° '21' l.'i' W. 'I'lit! ilanj;frs
iillfmliiiK tlif ilniililin;; nf ('ii]if Iliirii liavf, iiii-nn-
w'tpifiii'f nf tlif iinprnvciiifiits in iiavi;,'ntinn. lifcn
Vfry (^rfatly tliniinislicd. The cnasl may lif ap-
prniiflifil witli fnni]i»rativfly littlf tlinn^fr ; the
watfr lu'int; ilcfp, ami freo frnin fillifr mcks tir
^linals. DilVcrciit npininiis arc fiitfrtaiiifil as In
llif prn|u'r sfastin fnr passiii)^ tlif fapf. Cnptaiii
Hall profcrs tin; xuiiiiiifr (that is, tlu; wiiitfmf the
N. lu'misplifrc) nn Hfcnillit nf tlif nwnt loiifitli nf
tlie (liiy, iiiul the cnnijmriitivf ffwiifssnf iwhfrj^s
and flnatinj^ niassfs nf iff, which arc always daii-
P'miis. (llall's S. Anicrica. ii. Aiipcnd. Iti.)
CAl'K OF (iOOl) HOl'i;. II celcl.ratcil prn-
niniitnrv iiffir the SW, fxtreinitv nf the African
cniitincnt ; lat. .'12° 2;{' -III" S., h.n|,'. IKO 32' 2/." K.
it was lirst seen by Hiirnpcaii.s (in nuidcni times)
in 11><(I, Itarthnlnmewilf Diaz, a Portiifjiicac com-
maiulfr, liHvin;^ liccii its iliscnvcrcr. Diaz, Imw-
€ver, merely fsuw it ; the vinlenccof the winds, the
CAl'K i»l' tHHU) llnl'i;
KitHili'rcil I'liinliliiiii nf hit Klii|H<, iMiil tliii iiirliii
li'liri' nl Ills cri'Ws, pri'M'llli'il lliin I'rnni ilnillilin;;
il ; and llii'Kf t'iri'iiiiistaiit'in iliiiilillfsH iiidin nl liim
In tiaiiic il t'lilui 'I'lirmt'iitiimt, nr ' Sinrinv • 'i||m> j '
Iml Ills snvf ri'iun, Jnliii II. nf I'liriii^al, lii'lii'viiit;
il In III' Ml nr near tliiil ri ninie exlri'tiiily nf .M'ririi
wliirli llif l'iirliii{iii'Kf Iml Im'I'Ii >iii \iiun finlea
Vnlirill)i tn reach, desiuiiateil il I'llliii lit Hill ml
l'!itliniiii:ii, nf which the iiaiiif we ^ivc il ii a
Irnii^liilinii. Viiscii lie (iaiiia dmililfil il in I l!ir,
after which il cniilitined fnr llinre lllllll a celiliir\
and a half In he nidi'<criiniiiali'ly resnrteil In la
I'Mii'iipeaii miN iK'il"rs, (h'tirthe rest nf its hii.iiir\,
see siicceedilit; lirlicle.)
CaI-I'. Ill' titmli lliil'l'. (t'lil.DNV ot'), an I'Mi'li
nIvc cnliitiy, nr nil her lerrilnry, su called from iIim
iilinvc cape, liflnii^iiiL; III (ireal Itrilain, in >,
Africa, cninprixinix Ihe ^'ri'iiler pnrlinli nf the e\
Ireiiiily nf ilial ennlineiil S. nf lal. 2'.)° Ill)', and
helwccli InllK. 17" and 27*^ ;ll»' K. It is hnlimli'd
nil Ihe N. Ii> the (iariep nr < iruiiKt' river ; nn Ihe
S\\, \>y Ihe lerrilnry nf ihc llaslllns; nll the I!. )iy
Kallirfand, and the newly erected cnlniiy nf Itriij-li
Kalfraria. 'I'nial area csiiinaied at |H;l,2Nri s(|. m.
(l)Hicial tallies.) 'Ihe cnlniiy hiis a cnast line nf
aliniii l.l.'iii III., Iimkcii hy niiniernns luiyr', ilir
jirincipal nf which arc St. Helena, SMldanha, mm I
I'ahle Hays nn the \V., and Kalsc Itav, St. SiImi'
linn's, Mi'iHsel, rielieiilmr^, St. Kranciit, uiid Al;;iia
llavs nil the S, ennst.
'I'hf wlinle cnlinlrv cnllsidtH nf tliri'f Hlicce^sivp
plateaux increasing inelevaiinn accnrdiiiKln ihelr
distance fmni the st'a, and sfpnrnlcd fmni cmiIi
nllifr liy as inniiy fhniiis nf ninnnlains, 'I'hf lir^l
^'rt'iil chain riinninv; 1'^. nml W.. the l.anp' Kliml,
nr l.nllf^ \'l\>-<, ' fliclnses lietween it and ihi' S.
cnast an irrei^nlar hell nf land Irntii 2il In li<l in. in
widlli, indented hy sfvcrnl hays, cnvfrt'd with a
ilffp and fcrillf snil, intfrsfcicd hy niiiiieniiis
slrcamlets, well clnthed with ^rass and sinall
arlmrenns nr friltfscellt plants, WfU wnnded ill
many parts with fnrest trees, supplied with Irc-
<|n(;iit rains, and eiijnyiiit;, nn accniinl nf lis
pmxiniity tn the Nca, a innre mild and fipinlile
tfinpcratirc, than the innrt' rfinnli^ and iiileiinr
parts nf the cnlniiy,' (Hiirrnw.) The next ^riiil
chain, the (irnnlf Zwiirte ltfr;.Cfil ((irfiit lUmk
.Mninilaiii), is cmisidfralily nmrf rii^'K*''' '>■"' '"''>'
than llu^ lirst, reaching; stniiflinu's In I, Olio I'l, in
lu'i;;lit, and cnnsistin^ in inaiiv itlacfs nf tlinilile
ami t'Vfii trchlf ratines, Tlic ()ell nf tcrrucf fii-
flnsfd lietween il ami the lirst chain is ahmit the
mean width nf that hetween the lirst and the sea.
Its Niirfiice is verv varied ; it is enmpnsed in nuiic
parts nf liarren hills, in ntliers nf naked and plains
nf clay, calletl knrriHi, ntidnpiin in nihtTsnf ferlili'
and well-wateretl patches nf lanil. The teinpera-
tiirt; is here less nniftirm than in the };mnnds skiri-
in<; the sea. The tliirti ^rent mtinnlain chniii. the
N lew veldt (iehir),'tc, hetween lat. il2° and ;i;l°. is
cnnlinnoiis Inwards the K. with the Schneciiw-
herKcn (Snnw Mnimtains), the hifjhest ran^c in
S. Africa, the loftiest snimnit nf which is estiniali'd
at lint less than 10,000 ft. in lieif;ht, and iscnvercd
with snow for nearly half the year. Hetween tiiis
and the fteconil eliniii is the ISreiU Kiirron, an arid
desert plain nearly 800 m. in leiij^tli hy fmni xi) lo
100 m. in hreiultli. ' This ii* not n saiitly |iliiiii.
anil hears nn resemhlanee to the Sahara nr Araliiaii
deserts. It ennsists of a sort of tnhle-land, nr cle-
valetl liasin, thinly envercd with an ar;;illaccmis
.soil, larj^ely imprcgnnted with iron, iipmi a suli-
stratum of rock nr fjravel, .Simie larf^e pnrlii)iisiif
it are perfectly level, but in others tlie surface is
diversilietl hy slaty hills and eminences, snnie "f
which wonltl a)ipearcoiisiderul>le save for the Inl'iy
numiitiiiiiH -which buuiul the Karroo uii all siiies
••xct'pt (iiwnril* »In> V.„ wtirn' ll rxInnU iiiloCiiin
ilcltiHi, III) ini'iliiiiu lii'i;{lii iiInim' iIii' Ii'M'I III' ilii<
Ni'ii U (•Nilinali'il lit iiIhiiiI .'I.iioo I'i. It m irimni'il liy
iimny Ih-iIm <i|' rixrm, nr riiilitT Inrrt'iitH, inimt of
wliirh run (r»»\ N, in S„miiiI llml lui I'^ii Cur lln'ir
wnliTN til llu> t'liiiMi ilirmiuli It I'i'W limtkn in ihr S.
rlmln of iiiiiinitiiliiN. 'r)ii-<t> rivcr'<, liiiwi'vcr, iirr
liir lliii Kif»'"'»'f I'i'rl "I tin ' ■ " fiiliir tiiiirrly
ilrii'il up, or I'lirniMli nnlv n IVw ■i<'i\ |hmiU luircly
Millli'li'iK I'lir till' Willi iniiiiiiili. /M.ij-- i|iiiii.'KMM,
tmtrirhfM, At\, wliirll rr('i|iii'|il llih iii( '- ' il li'
ri'Kiiiii, Not iint'ri'i|ii('iillv i>vh) iIiow' i
|iiiiiU mill I'liiiiitniiH al"" fail, an vtm^ lhi< <'u.-<t' m m
llliii' III' iiiir Jiiiiniry ! iiiiM "tii'ii llid KrtfriiK |)*;^t>nicH
hIiiiiikI iliiiiiiH?<iil)|i' liy iiiiiii, ,1'kI a lar;{c iiiifiinfl uf
il iiiiiiiliiiliiiiilili' I'Vi'ii liy tlii> T\ III iH-twtit.
' III Niii'li a ri';{iiin, Mlim' ram ift H>ri; nml iIcwm
iiIiiiiihI iitikiiiiwii, llio vi'Ki'laliiiii iiiiii<4 1 1' iit'ii'-iNiiy
III' at all liiiii'H I'xlri'ini'ly Nraiily ; aiiil in -iiiiiitiu'r,
>vlii'ii till- Klin liiiM lirii'il till' Hiiil to ilic liari|iir«H
nl' lirii'lt, il ccaMCN aliniiMl ciilircly. Kxrcpl almit;
flic CDiirMfM III' ihf ii>in|Mirarv rivrri*. wliirli lor llm
iniiNt part ar<< niarkcil liy a tnwui' ul' niiinii.>ii'<, imi
a iri'i' nor a IhinIi, iiur a lilailf nl' KraMN. ilcrkA lli<>
\viil4> t'xpaiHf of till' waNli', Kiiu Miimii'd HlirnliH
ri'M'inliliiiK licalli ; niinicrniH ^in'rti'H of 11^' inari-
Kiilil>'i Ullil ii't'-iiliniU (misiiHlin/initliiiinim), ^lian-
na-l)oM'|i (miliuilii), t'lirlrria, nstrrH, iVr. ; kihiii' wirl!*
of prirkly cuplinrlila, ami nllii'r Hiii'nilriil plnnl";
anil hiiili.i, wliiiNf rooiN naliiri' lian fnrtiliiil with a
ti'iifolil ni'i of llliri'H iiiiili'r ilir npprr riml, to iiro-
Icrt. Ilii'in liiiriii^ till' loii^ ilriiii^lilM, ari' aioiii'
alilt! Ill NiiliNiMi ill tilt' arlii Karr Iliirin^' Ilic
dry NciiNon cvt'ti tlicnc appear In lir fur tin- most
part pari'lit'il into a lirowii hHiIiIiIc, Ihinly sraitiTi'ii
over the iniliiratcil or nlaty Moil; lint in llir ciirlv
Hiiriii^, wlicti till' )^roiiiii| Ih'i'oiiii'h inoiMlciK'il >villi
llie fail of rain, llicsi' planiK riinli into vcp'iation
with II rapidity that lookH liki' I'lu'liantini'iit ; and
in a ft'W davH inillions of llnufrs of tlu' inost lirii-
liaiit hncM I'lianifl tlio carlh. It ix chit'lly at tlii^
HcaMiii, when the whole dreary waxti' may lie xaid
to he traiiMfornied into a viihI. tlnwer-pirdeii, thai
the eiiliiiiiHtH of the Sehneenwhern. the Nieiiwveldt,
the llokkeveldt.aiid the Ito^p-Neldl, wIiohc alpine
faniiN are tlien chilled witli keen fro.slM and the
piercing mninitnin winds, deseend into the Karroo
III paMtiire their herds and tlockMoii the short-lived
ve;;etation.' (I'rin^jle's Sketelies, p. 2!(7.)
From the \V. coast tlic country ascends in n
similar manner towards the interior hy successive
plateaux, separated hy mountain chains, the Uiftiest
of wliich, the Koj^neveldt (Hye-lield) Mountains,
reach to upwards of f>,l)(IO t\, ahove the level of
the sen, niid unite about lonj;. 21° with tlu' Nieiiw-
veldt chain. To the N. of all, and near the liouii-
ilary line of the territory, there is a chain of
inoiintniiis, the height of which is estimated nt
it,(IOO ft. The whole tract of country to the N. is
much more sandy, linrreii, and thinly inhabited,
llinn that to the K., which seems to increase in
licauty and fertility in ]iroportioii as it is distant
from the Capo. The third great chain of moun-
tains forms the water-shed, or division between
the streams which How N. into the country of the
llosjesmans, aiul those which have a S. or W.
eoiirse through the colonial territory. On its X.
side rise the (Jreat Hiet, liraak, and other atllnents
iif the Orange IJiver; on its S. side, the (Jreat
Doom (Thorn), the (iamlm or (Ireat Lion, Cam-
tons, Sunday, (ireat Fish, and other rivers. The
lirincipal streams on the W. coast are the (Jreat
llerg (or Mcanitain) and Olifant or l-U'iihant
liiver. lioth are navigable by small craft for about
L'O ni. inland, but the mouth of the former is
choked up with a bed of sand, and that of tlie
latter has a reef of rocks across it. The chief of
CAPK OK (lOOI) nopK (COLONY OK) Ml
llioHc whii'h illxrhnrKe llii'in«rlveii on llii< K. eoMt
are ihe llrirdi' or llroiid liiver, the (iNiirii/i, Catn-
loim, Sunday, HiiiM ireat Fiih in>rn<. Nearly all
of I hem, tinforiiiiiiiii'ly , haM- bar^ or otlur ob-
Htrui'tioiiit At their iiiouilii), ri'iidcriiig them in
great iirtrt iiscIisn for iiavigaiion. The llniail
Itiver, however, may be iiaxiKaiid by xniall rralt
for aboiii :io m,, and Its inniitli, wliirh in calh'il
I'orl Iteaul'ori, allows vc-ini'ls of '.'11*1 |on< lo enter
in Nal'eiy, The (iaurili!, formed by the union of
several other Nlreiinii<, is in ihi' rainy sea'<iin ii
I'irge and rapid river; but in the Miiiiinii'r inoiiiliit
!iili only a >ery weiik iiirreiii, while the bar at iu
month is then gem rally dry. The t'ainioos Inm
within its bar a wide lia->in deep enmigh lo tloiii i\
:>lliji of the line, but the bar ilself is fori table lit
full, ami l'r>'riii<'iilly dry at ebb, liile. Ili-iilex lint
alsive Iheri' jii ' mi'iiber of smaller rlvin ; but,
for the niimi pan, iIk » ;ir<' either dried up itiiriiig
a part of the year, or nin hi miih diep chasms m
III be nearly iinser\ iceiible,
Consldi ri Ihe gre.ll extent of const, gisiil har-
bours lire few . Saldaiiha Hay, li.'i in. N N\V. Capo
Town, is bv far the inosi loiiii limis, Miips iiti
safely in 'I'able Hay .it Cape Town during t ho
prevalence of the SI'., moiisoons from Sept. to
Nlay ; but afler ibis, when the N\V, winds set in,
they are oliliged In resort lo Simon's llav, ill l''illsi»
Hay, This harbour is proieclcd on llie W. Ut
the penln''iilil of the Ciipe, and atlbrils shi'ltir all
Ihe year round; il is conseipii'iilly much fre-
(pienii'd by our ships of war, transports, ami
store sliijis in their voyagi's to niiil from Ihe I*',,
Indies, and is the sliitinii of the Cape M[iiailri>n,
I'li'lli'iibiirg's Hay is opiii to (he SI',,; bill alliiriU
safe anchorage in eight or ten fatlionis water, ami
desirable shelter, during strong NM.or NW. gales,
to vessels intending lo make Table Hay. Algoil
Hay, the most l''„ but one, is exposed In the pre-
vailing winds; but it coiilalns good iinrliorage;
I'orl I'lli/.abeili, the prliuripal port next to Capo
Town is sealed on it,
CHiiiiiti; — Thoiigli in general temperate anil
lieallby, Ihe climale is neither steady, iigreeable,
nor suitable for agricultural purposes. In theSW.
districts rains, in the cold season, are profuse; but
in summer they are of rare occurrence, mid during
the greater jmrt of thid season Ihe ground ii*
iinrclied up with drought. The detlcieiicy and
irregularity of the raiiM are, in fact, the great
drawbacks on the colony. In some of the inoro
northerly tracts bordering on the (ireat Karroo,
there has occasionally been no rain for three years
together; and even in tiie more favoured districtii
of Albany and I'itcnhage, and generally through-
out the greater part of the colony, tlu' rain, when
'it does come, descends in torrents that swell the
smallest streams to an extraordinarv magnitude,
and occasion great damage. Sometimes the Sl'^.
wind is really a species of simoom, and is not only
excessively liot, but is loaded with impaliiablo
sand, which it is nil but impossible to shut out ;
but as the breeze continues, it gradually cools,
and usually, in about twenty-four hours, becomes
sup|)ortahle. The mean temp, of the year, nt tlio
cup., is about 07^° Fahr., that of the coldest month
being 67°, and of the hottest 79°. Cajie Town is
a customary place of resort for invalids from India,
who certainly benelit by the change ; though per-
haps they hiive been led to visit it as much from
its being' within the limits of the K. I. Company's
charter, which entitles 8er\'anis of the ('ompaiiy
resident there to full pay, as from its salubrity.
The beautiful white cliiud frequently seen during
the SK. monsoon rc'^ing on Table Mountain, and
thence culled the 'Table Cloth,' is occasioned by
the condensation of the moist urc in the air, cooled
T T 2
m
\\
1
I'ii
' ''it
644
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF)
l)y contart with the mniintaiii. DuriiiK the pro-
viil<Mic(! of tliis plieiiitniuiion, thu t'old nir ut'toii
nishi's (liiu'ii tlic HuU'H (if th(! inoiiiitmii witli xiicli
iin|M'tu<i.>*ity ah to Ix; futnl to Hliippin^ in thu hay.
Iliiil NtoniiH are occasionally vory violent an<l dc-
Hlriictivc. OwiiiK prolmlily to itH I'Utvation, the
colli of winter in thu (ireat Karroo i.s niiieli more
Hcvere than coiihl have hucn antiiMpated from itx
latitude,
(ieolof/i/, Mliiertth, Sci\ — The general fjeoloKical
character of the Cape in that of a rej^ion of «and-
Htone rcMtin;; upon a haxe of granite. In propor-
tion as the latter rock is near llie surface, as occurs
(Ml and round 'I'ahle Mountain, s|iriu^rs are aliiiii-
dant; Imt wherever tlie f^raiiite lies at a consider-
alile depth, as is the case thr(iii);;hout a f^reat
jxirtion of the countrj', the contrary ohtains. The
territory generally sutlers from a deliciency of
water, Linicstone is found in the E, ; clays and
Hand of various kinds compose most of the surface
of tlu; plains; an alhiviai loam and lihutk peat
mould are very aliiindant in some of the lands
Hkirlin^ the sea. Very pure and white alum; salt-
petres and salt, with wliicli the ground in some of
the N, jtarts of (Iraaf Iteinet and in the (Jreat
Karroo are impregnated, coal, iron, galena, argen-
tiferous lead, a little copjier, cornelians, bloodstone,
Ike, are amongst the cliief mineral jjroducts. Siil-
])huniiis, nitrous, and other mineral springs are
not rare, and several natural salt-jians exist at a
coiisideralile distance from the coast. In lleaufort
district fossil remains of the mammoth have been
met with,
Veiictalile ProitucU. — The Flora of the Cape is
very "remarkable; its species are extremely nume-
rous, varied, and elegant ; but they want the
aroina, whose sweetness lill lie iiower-ganlcns of
Kiirope. Hulbous jdants are particularly plentiful;
and the trilies of i.c'ut, iris, uiitholiza, pladioluH,
amanjllis, and yeraiiiiiiu are both abundant and
beautiful ; and simie of the most magnilicent
plants that adorn our gardens and grceiilioiises
are brought from thi i)art of the world, Still,
however, as I\lalte-15run has judiciously remarked,
'the vegetation of the Ca)ie ('olony (Icm-. iiol sa-
tisfy cither the eye or the ideiis of a iMiiopean.
Kocks and sands everywhere prevail. 'J"he tields
are separated by deserts; the green turf, scattered
and thin, nowhere jirosents a close sward ; the
forests, tilled with pointed trees, have neither a
delicious coolness nor a solemn darkness,' (IJi ok
7(t.) The Cape olive tree and the sopliora (a tree
like the ash) furnish some wood for joinery ; but,
except on the I'L, frontier, in the district of George,
and in some spots near False Bay, there is gene-
rally a great deticiency of timber and fire-wood.
Th(i only spontaneous' vegetable product that is
turned to much account is the aloe, which grows
over a large surlace in the district of Zwellendam,
and lor which the farmers sometimes get as much
as 20/. a load at Cajie Town.
Animals.— The elei)hant, rhinoceros, hippopo-
tamus, lion, leopard, liywna, jackal, zebra, quagga,
masked boar, antelopes of various kinds, monkeys,
racoons, squirrels, &c,, are nati\ es of the Ctipa ;
but many of these have now become comparatively
rare, at least within the old limits and accessible
districts of the colony. The rhinoceros is nearly
extirpated; the hippopotamus is found only in
the Great Fish and Kei rivers ; and the elephant
and lion have retired from all the old settled dis-
tricts. Leopards and hyiviias are still, however,
bv no means uncommon, i)articularly in the eastern
districts, and are exceedingly voracious and de-
structive. The Cape lluttalo {Bos differ) is a
powerful and a formidable animal, which has not
hitherto been tamed, and is probably uiitamcable.
AntelofK's of all kinds are exceedingly numerous;
and it is said that as many as 6,01)0, 10,000, anil
even 40,000 springboks have sometimes l>een seen
bounding along in a singh; herd ! Eagles, vultures,
and other large birds are met with. In the Great
Karroo, and along the skirts of the N. deserts, the
ostrich is abiindaut: it is (KU'asionally seen in large
tlocks, and is eagerly hunted for the sake of its
)dtiniage, which meets with a ready and advan-
tageous sale. It is very wary and diificiilt to come
near. Small birds arc numerous and beautiful,
but delicient in song. Li/ards and other species
of amphibia are met with; and the serjient tribe
is both numerous and dangerous. Some rivers are
well stocked with fish; but in general this is m it
the case, a consequence probably of the greater
number of the rivers being nearly dried up in the
hot season. A particular variety of locust {Gri/I-
liis ilepustatur, Licli.) occasionally commits dread-
I'lil ravages. They always come from the N,, and
are no doubt bred in the interminable deserts of
the interior. Their inroads appear to be ])eriodicnl.
They arc devoured by the liushmcii and Hot-
tentots.
People. — The total population of the colony,
according to the census of IHHO, amounted to
2(i7,0!)(); of whom l((2,I5(i whites. The increase
of j)op. is very rapid : the births, in the year lN.j(i,
were 11,217, and the deaths ;i,«21. The Euro))ean
inhabitants consist in part of the English author-
ities and English settlers; but the majority an; of
Dutch, Geniian, or French origin, being the de-
scendants of the original settlers. The blacks arc
Hottentots and KalVers; the remaining portion of
the pop, consists of Malays and Africanders (this
ort'siiriiig of a black woman and a Dutch father).
The Dutch, in the more civilised districts, are
distinguished for sobriety, prudence, and economy,
and by their hospitality and benevolence towards
whites. Like other savage and uncivilised trilie:',
the Hottentots have suifered severely from tlio
settlement of whites among them, by whom (hey
have been despoiled of their lands ; and those that
were not exterminated or driven into the desert,
were reduced to a state of substantial slavery. At
length, however, the Uritish government "inter-
posed in favour of all class(!s of natives ; and hr
an order in council, dated the 15th of Jan, l!S2',l,
jilaced them on the same footing, in respect of
civil rights, as the other free subjects of the colony,
'.'■ 's wise and liberal measure made less immediate
change than Mas anticipated in the condition of
the natives. They can no longer, indeed, be flogged
at the pleasure of their masters, nor their children
forcibly taken from them, nor be sold along with
the estates on which they lived ; but in other
resjiects their condition is nearly the same. They
continue to be without consideration in society,
and are now, as formerly, the servants of the co-
lonists, who employ them partly as cultivators,
but mostly as shepherds and herdsmen, occupa-
tions for which they are extremely well fitted.
The Kaffers on the E. border are both physically
and mentally a far superior people to the Hotten-
tots. They are tall, robust, and muscular. Their
complexion varies from a dark bronze to a jet
black. They practise agriculture to some extent,
raising maize, millet, kidnej' beans, and water
melons. But they are, notwithstanding, a pastoral
rather than an agricultural people; have large
herds of cattle, and are, in fact, semi-nomadic.
They have the art of working iron, and manufac-
ture a rude sort of earthenware. They practise
jjolygamy and circumcision ; and have some of
the worst vices of savages, being treacherous,
cruel, and vindictive, Tliey appear to consider
the cattle of their neighbours as a sort of fene
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF)
nnfiirti', whScli it in mpritorioiis tonttiick nnd rnrry
nwny. Tlio prentiT niinibor of tlio contosts in
which we liiivc been piij^/if^cd with tlicni linvc
.oripimtpd in tliin thievish prfmensity, or in tlicir
attempts upon tlie cnttle of tno colnniHtH. The
coHtern parts of tiic colony hnvc Ruffered very
opverely from these contcMts; nnd it was only with
ditHculty, nnd liy the em|ilovment of n stronji;
militnry force, thnt some of ttieir late irruptions
wi-rc repelled. It is, Ave nre nfrnid, in vnin t<i ex-
pect thnt the conflicting interests of the colonists
nnd the nhorighies should ever lie reconciled, or
thnt Kuro|)enu civilisntion should ever take nny
Ann root amongst the Intter. Very little couimu-
iiicntion takes place betwetm the negroes, African-
ders, nnd Malays, each race holding the others in
contempt.
Af/riculture. — But n smnll portion of the lands
of the colony is as yet under cullivntion. As mny
be expected, the pasture Iniuls are the most niune-
rous. The crop lands are principnlly situated in
the districts of Worcester, Stellenbosch, nnd the
Cape in the W., nnd in Alhnny in the K. Agri-
culture is in a backward state, though perhaps not
so much so as is usiuilly stated. The boors are
industrious, sober, nnd pnrsimonious ; but they
nre, nt the same time, strongly attached to nncien't
habits and routine practices. IJetter implements
luive, however, been introduced, and various im-
provements effected of late years. Agriculture is
injured by the Dutch law of succession, whi<'h,
by dividing a man's property equally among his
children, hinders the nccumulntutii of capital in
masses, nnd the formntion of proper farming esta-
blishments. (Thompson's Travels, ]>. il24, 4to cd.)
In some limited districts the soil is very fertile,
nnd the crops and quality of the grnin excellent ;
but the grenter part of the arable land is but of
indifferent qunhty, and the cro|)s nre very liable
to be injureil by droughts, hail-storms, and rust.
The (arms occupied by grn/iers nre often of very
great extent, comprising from 3,000 to 10,()()(t
acres nnd upwards : tho^a in tillage are compara-
tively small. The boors are, for the most part,
proprietors of the farms which they occupy, paying
n f|uit rent to govermnent ns the originnl owner
f)f the soil. Such n thing ns land on rent, from
one owner to aiiorher, is almost miknown. The
transfer of land from one individual to another
is effected with the utmost facility, nnd 'with-
out the possibility of frnud.' Property seldom
remains long in one family. Owing to the law
of equnl succession, farms are fretpiently sold on
the death of the owner; sometimes the whole is
purchased by one son, but it is frequently split
into parts.
The vineyards are mostly in the vicinity of the
Cape, where the vine-growers occupy freehold
farms of about 120 acres each. The vine (Vitis
vinifem) has been long introduced to the ('ajie,
an(i has for a lengthened period been cultivated
with more or less attention. The culture, however,
made no great progress till 1813, when the duty
on Cape wines imported into this country was re-
duced to n third jmrt of the duty levied on the
wines of Portugal nnd Spain. But, excepting
Constantin, Cape wine, whether from the vines
being planted in nn unsuitable soil, or from n want
of cnre in the pre])nrntion of the wine, or both, has
nn earthy tnste, and is generally very inferior ; nnd
the consequence of this reduction of the duty has
merely been to increase the quantity grown and im-
ported, without in any degree improving its (juality,
and to make it be employed as n cheap and conve-
nient menstruum for adulterating more expensive
wines. It was, therefore, scarcely a loss to the
colony when, in 1864, the wine duties were again
015
ef^unlised, leaving the growers nt the Cnpo to tho
fair laws of compeliiion.
Constantin is iiroduccd on n fnnn of thnt name
at the K. base of Tnble Mountain, 8 or !t ni. from
("ape Town. Its soil consists of deconqjosedsnnd-
stone, nnd is consequently more nnalogous to the
soils which produce tine wine in Kunipe than tho
richerclayey soils where the ordinary vineyards are
planted. (Jrenter care is also taken in the produc-
tion of the wine, and in conseqiu>nce of Ihese, nnd
probably other causes, it is very siq)ericir. It is
luscious, sweet, has n strong flnvour, and being
produced in limited quantities only, felciu-s u
pretty high price. It is probable, however, that
Constantin, or a wine closely ap])roaching to it,
might be produced in other parts of the colony,
were sutiicient pains taken. (llenderson on Wines,
p. 2oii.)
Potatoes yield two crops a year. The fruits of
N. Kiirope, as cherries and apples, have somewhat
degenerated, but tigs, ajiricots, nlmoiuls, and
oranges are as good ns in Frniu-e. (jrajies are
j)articularly good on the W. coast. Tobacco suc-
ceeds well except in clayey soils, or in situation!)
exposed to the SK. winds; but its culture is. not-
withstanding, conlined within very luirrow limits.
Tea was introduced by the Dutch, and some was
rnised of a tidernbly (.,'ood quality ; but, how
favourable soever in other respects, labour is too
dear in the Cape colony to allow of tea being nuido
a protitable article of culture. Dried fruit and
aloes are important articles of export. There are
large herds of horses and cattle.
The climate is suitable for sheep, and great en-
deavours have been made to improve the itreed liy
the introduction of merinos from Knglaud and
Australia; and we are glail to have to state that
these etlorts have jjroved successful, and that the
numbers of sheep and the export of wool have
been largely increased. The native breed of sheep
is very inferior; it is remarkable only for tin; size
of the tail, which sometimes weighs 20 lbs. : its
wool is good for nothing. Goats, which are very
numerous, serve for the food of the Hottentot
farm-servants; oxen are used for draught in large
teams. Herds of all these animals wander during
the day over large grazing farms of from 3,000 to
(>,000 acres, and at night are shut u]) in kriuih, or
iiK^losures. Hogs attract only a snuill share of
attention, but turkeys, geese, ducks, and other
poidtry, are reared in great numbers.
Trade and Commvrce. — The lisheries arc not;
without importance, but produce no more than is
required for home consumption. Alining industry
has made little progress; but slate, lime, and
building stone are (|uarried. Almost everj' farmer
in the interior makes his own candles nnd soaj),
the alkali necessary for the latter being funiisbecl
by the consumption of a' kind of salsola, which
grows plentifully on such parts of the waste tracts
as are nt nil wntered. The other mnnufactures are
mostly confined to those of leather, lints, snuff,
saddles, tiles, rope, and a few other articles of a
necessary kind ; a few wind, water, and saw-mills
now exist in most of the districts, and in Capo
Town there is a steam flour-mill. There are se-
veral breweries and siiirit distilleries, which, as
well as other manufacturing establlshnieiits, arc
most numerous in the W. i)art of the territory.
The cultivators of the interior send their surjilua
agricultural produce, Wfiol, butter, soap, candles,
t)strich feathers, nnd skins, to the principal towns
at stated intervals, and take back in return Euro-
pean manufactures, tobacco, brandy, coffee, iSrc.
The chief foreign imports of the colony consist of
woollens, cottons, hardware, earthenware, fire-
arms, furniture, paper, books, habertlasherj', soap,
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (COLONY OF)
646
and portions of moHt other articlcH in usic in the
11. Kingdom, i)i('cc-f,'oo(ln; su^ar, and teak tinilwr
from Iniliu; tea from Cliina; and Hii^^ar frdm tlic
MaiiriliiiN. The (irincipal artictcH of export are —
wool, wincH, corn and flour to the Mauritius and
Kio Janeiro, liides, HJtinH, lioniH, Halted provisions,
horses, butter, ivory, whale oil, ulocs, and argol.
The hides, skins, and horns come chiefly from the
E. province. The suit lieef and other cured meats
are very good, and are largely exported to the
Mauritius. The export of wool, especially from
the eastern districts, has, for some yeors ])ast, been
greatly on the increase, and it has now become
the greatest and most profitable of the colonial
(ttaples. {Subjoined is an account of the (|u»n-
tities and values of the principal articles of colonial
produce exported from the Cape colony in the
years 1802 and 18G3.
Imports
PiiiNcn-Ai. AirnciiEB.
Apparel ami Slops . £,
Oals.
liccr & Ale, Bottled |
{
in Wood
Gals
£
Cnl)Inct & Upholstery ) „
Wares . . . ) *
Coala. . . I T°"^?
Cofteo . . -j n
Cotton Mnnufocturca £
Ilnboriloshery and Mil- \ „
linery . . . f *
Hardware, Cutlery, & I ^
Ironmongery . ) '
Iron, Bar, Bolt, J Cwts.
and Rod . . ( £
Leather Manufactured &
Linen Manufactures £,
Oilmen's Stores . £
Rice • • • 1 £
Saddlery and Harness £
Sugar, Raw . |Cwt|
f Lbs.
Tea
£
Tobacco, Manufac- ( Cwts,
tared . . \ £
Wood, Deals | Cubic f^
Woollen Manufactures £
Total Value of princi- )
pal & other Articles J
1863
138,740
2no,'i7a
30,467
30,(in0
M,V.i1
]4.-),087
a(!;t,;i!»3
252,297
149,022
41 ,380
17,435
93,139
18,«52
51,814
97,201
54,901
30,739
137,727
139,fi54
72!»,()«5
42,928
807
6,405
909,908
86,308
108,574
£2,789,638 ■
186S
117,753
141,094
25,230
181,055
15,382
27,033
20,030
20,473
04,(i94
170,280
137,061
191,230
102,285
38,600
10,500
71,791
9,937
61,970
124,078
63,095
15,914
129,238
120,223
616,422
86,032
5,758
7,.501
134,714
9,393
71,210
2,275,833
Export!
PuiNciPAL Articles.
Copper Ore . | ^""^
Lbs,
£
No,
£
Lbs,
£
Feathers, Ostrich |
Hides, Ox and Cow |
• I
• I
Ivory
Skins:
Goat . .
Sheep . .
Wine, Ordinary
Wool, Sheep's .
No.
£
No.
I8ti«
( Gals. I
1 £!
j Lbs.i
1 £
3,396
93,505
7,462
42,488
2»,(;04
17,022
113,379
24,813
470,673
45,925
827,894
05,929
225,097
31,453
25,209,004
1,283,136
Total Value of princi- 1 <.i 071 n.in
pal & other Articles [ *-i>'"^'»^^
1863
3,540
103,214
10,275
72,834
25,203
17,307
63,226
10,773
510,171
53,6t7
873,307
69,495
319,146
46,0.54
31,148,176
1,504,661
2,224,446
The total tonnage of vessels which entered and
cleared the ports of the colony amounted to
5()(!,0«!1 in IStU; to 012,008 in 1802; and to
501,8,58 in 18(ii). Of these, the tonnage of Uritish
vessels was H-17,71)9 in 1801 ; 410,970 in 1802; and
354,919 in 1801).
The weights generally in use are those which
were introduced by the Dutch. Home of these arc
as follows :-round {JfJCds} -^^^ ''^"''•''•'
muid (4 schepels) =3 imp. bushels nearly ; leaguer
= 120'0 imp. gallons; pn)e = 9l'0 do.; aum — 31^
do.; nnker=>7-9do.; fla8k = 0-4940 do.; 128(^6118
= 100 English yards; 49-^V. morgen = 100 English
acres.
The coin in circulation is exclusively British,
The paper rix-dollar is worth 1«. 0(/.
Public Revenue is derived from customs duties
imposed in 1847 on goods ini))ortcd and exported,
stamps, licenses, auction and transfer duties,
port dues, land store and rents, postage, asscs.'''e(l
taxes, tithes, and duties on stock and produce,
interest of money in the government banks, di.s-
ciaints, (fee, tolls and ferries. The revenue
amounted to 753,320/. in 1802, and to 757,00.'t/.
hi 1803; the public cx|)enditure was 044,812/. in
1802, and 082,8(i0/. in 1803.
OovernmcHt. — The government was formerly
vested in a governor and a legislative council
nominated by the crown. But a more lil)eral and
responsible system of government having been
demanded by the colony, the principles of a
new constitution were embodied in a report
by the Board of Trade, approved by her Majesty
in council on the 30th January 1850. According
to letters patent dated May 23, 1850, the legis-
lative authority is vested in, Ist, a governor ap-
pointed by the crown ; 2n(l, in a house of as-
sembly, of 40 members, elected for 5 years hy
persons whose property has been assessed for the
expense of the public roads ; and 3rd, in a legis-
lative council of 15 members chosen for 10 years,
and representing the country districts and towns
of the colony. Each prov. is administered by a
lieutenant-governor, and each district by a civil
commissioner, subordinate to whom are the field
cornets, magi titrates superintending tracts of
country 15 or 20 m. in circuit each, with juris-
diction in trirtnig disputes, and power to call out
the burghers of their field cornetcy armed. These
magistrates, unless on the KafFer frontier, receive
no salary, but are exempted from all direct taxes.
Justice is administered by a sujireme court of
judicature, presided over by a chief justice, with a
salary of 2,500/., and three puisne judges, whose
salaries are 1,500/. a year, a hij^h sheriff, and
d<!inity sherifTs for each district, a court of vice-
admiralty, and police, and matrimonial courts.
Civil and crimuial circuit courts are held. The
laws in operation are a modification of the Dutch
civil and criminal code, and ' Statutes of Indi.i,'
supplied when found deficient by the Corpus Juris
Civiliji, Trial by jury in criminal cases has been
established. The Dutch language, formerly used
in courts of law, has been superseded by the
English.
Religion and Education. — The Dutch and Eng-
lish Keformed Lutheran, Roman Catholic, and
Presbyterian churches in the Cape are all entirely
or in part supported by the government. There
are numerous missionary schools ; and Bell's,
Lancastrian, and other free schools in each dis-
trict. The sum expended by government, in the
year 1802, for ecclesiastical purposes, amounted
to 15,270/., while for educational puqioscs the
expenditure was 17,510/. A joint-stock institu-
tion, entitled the ' South African College,' with
five professors, was established at Cape Town in
1829.
CAVE TOWN
The Militiiri/ Font in the cdlony iiiinilww
nixiiit. n,0(iii HUM), incliiilin)^' from i'lOD to CIKI
imtivi>.s, Tlu> troops art; iisiiiilly Htiitioiicd iit
('iipc Town anil (iralianiV Town, Tlicy incluilt-
a (k'tai'linicnt of Koyal ArtilliTy, a |mrty of tin-
lioyal Kn^int'i-nH, and a rc^iinont of nionntt'il
riHvnicn, Icrnicd tlio Cape cavalry, the privali's
and non-roniniissioncd odiccrs of wliicliari'itrinci-
pally lIolliMitols. The naval force, is under tlio
coiniiiand of a rcnr-adniiral, with aulliority aloii^
the K. and W. coasts of Africa, and the Mauritius
and St, Ihdena.
TIh! possession of tliH colony is im])ortant from
its bcin^ tliu key of tlic Indian Ocean, and form-
ing a depot whence ships and troops may be des-
patched with facility and expedition to most
parts in S, India, tlic K. Archipelaj^o, an<l Aus-
tralia. It is prohahic, too, that in time it may
become, intrinsically, a valuable c(dony; though,
from the limited extent of its fertile land, and
the other disadvanta^^es attending; it, a rapid pro-
f^rt'ss need not be hioked for. The nnnibcr of
eniif^rants who left the L'. Kiufrdom for the V,i\\m\
of (iood Hope, during the year Jstil, amounted
to H~'.\, whicli was mori! than the average,
Hintory, — In 1(!2(), two Knglish K, India com-
manders, by a proclamation dated from Saldanha
]{a}', took possession of the Cape in the name of
(treat Ikitain ; but no Hcttlement was subse-
quently established by tbe Knglisb, and in 1 G.")(),
the Cape j)ri.montory was colonised by the Dutch,
who afterwards made settlements in tSaldanha
Hay and clsewbere ; and disregarding, like other
cohmising adventurers, the rights of the original
inlial)itants, gradually exteiuling tlicir eiicroach-
nients, till tlieir territory reached nearly to tbe
boundaries of tlkat of the liritish territory at
jtreseiit. In 17!);"), the luiglisli took possession of
the Cape; but at the jieace of Amiens, in IHOO,
restored it to its former masters. In IHOO it was
again taken by tlic English, to whom it was
finally coded in 181 ii.
CAI'K TOWN, a sea-port town of S. Africa,
the cap. of a small distr, and of the above described
Hritisli territory, on its SW, coast, S, shore of
Table Hay, at the foot of Table Mountain, about
32 m. N.Vrom the Caite of Good IIoj)e; lat. ;3a°
6o' ,")•>" S., long. 18° 1' K. Top. 2t>,420, in 185(5,
of whom about two-thirds were whites. It is
regularly laid out, and contains several good
squares ; its streets, which are straight and wide,
cross each otherat right angles, many of thera being
watered by canals, and jjlunted on either side with
trees, in the Dutch fashion. Houses, mostlj^ of
brick or red granite, are llat-roofed, and chietl}'
white, Avith green windows ; they arc spacious
and convenient, having an elevated terrace, hero
called a stock, in front, and small gardens behind,
usually with a treillage, clothed with vines. Upon
the shore, at the E. extremity of the town, is the
castle, a pentagonal fortress of considerable
strength, containing some j)ublic otKccs and
barracks, and having outworks which command
both the bay and the roads to the country. On
the W. side of the town. Table Bay is defended
by four batteries, placed round anil on the hill
called the Lion's Hump; on its E. side, the town
is protected by fortified lines of defence.
The principal jiublic buildings are the govern-
ment house, with extensive gardens, the burgher
senate house, barracks, commercial exchange,
custom-house, town and distr. gaol, military
depot, tax ofHco, English, Dutch, Lutheran, and
Presbyterian churches, K. Cath., Independent,
Wesleyan, and missionary chapels, iSonierset
Hospital, and two others, the theatre, Freemasons'
Lodge, and South African College. Cape Town
CAPrOQUIN
fi»7
is the seat of the suprenu; court of justice for the
colony, of the vice-admirally court, and a court
for the recovery of small debts. It has several
joint stock associations for banking, insurance,
and other purposes; a savings' liaidi, a publii;
library, four public free scl Is, mid many
literary, scientitic, religiims, and benevolent asso-
ciations. The town and di>tr. contain several
water mills, tanneries, hat, caudle, snnll', and
stiap factories, an iron foundry, breweries, dis-
tilleries, ami sawing and steam mills. It is
plenlifullv supplied with go<id water.
Tabhf ilay is capable of containing any mmiber
of ships, and forms a safe and, on the whole, good
harbour, except during the months of .lune, Jidy,
and August, when it is exposed to a heavy swell
from the W. A wooden jetty projects for half a
lurlong into the bay from the V,, end of the
town, near the castle, alongside of which ships
discharge or take in cargoes. Ships that only
take in water or refreshments lie in the other
anchorage, A lighthouse, furnished with double
lights, stands on the shore, near the W, extremity
of the bay, about 2 m. NW. the town. The
greater part of the connnerce of the colony centres
at Cape Town, (»nil the returns of trade given in
the preceding article apply as well to tbe town as
to the colony.
Hritish residents in India frequently resort to the
("ape for their health; and the town h.is generally
thea|ipearance of bustle and gaiety ; balls and the
theatre are tbe favourite amusements. The envi-
rons of the Cape are very ])icturesipic, an<l between
it and the mountains wliich surround it, many
handsome private gardens have been laid out.
The people of Cape Town, in connnon with those
of the other parts of the colony, distinguished
themselves in 18l!>, by their uncoii:i)romisiiig and
successful ojiposition to the ill-advised attempt of
the government to send convicts to the colony.
Cape Town was founded by the Dutch in 1 (>.")(•,
and remained subject to them until taken by the
Hritish in 171).'). It wis restored by the treaty of
Amiens, but being again captured by the Itritisli
in 1800, was linally ceded to us with the rest of
the colon v in 1815.
CAI'O'D'ISTHIA (an. JE(jifln),a. sea-port town
of lllyria, gov. Trieste, circ. Istria, on a small
islan(l in the Gulf of Trieste, connected with the
main land by a causewav 4 m. in length, 8 m. S.
Trieste. Pop. 9,18{i in 1857. The town is forti-
fied and defended by u citadel, and contains a
catheilral, with about 30 other churches, and seve-
ral handsome buildings ; but the streets are narrow,
and have a gloomy appearance. It is the scat of
a bishopric, and has some superior schools, and a
prison. Its inhab. manufacture salt, leather, and
soap, and trade besides in wine, oil, and fish. The
town is ill supi)lied with water, and not remarkably
healthy. Its harbour is large, but little freiiuented
except by fishing boats. Capo d'lstria belonged,
in the middle ages, alternately to the Venetians
and the Genoese.
CAl'l'OQL'IX, an inl. town of Ireland, co.
Waterford, prov. IMunstcr, on tbe Hlackwater, 105
m. SW. l>v S. Dublin. Pop. iu 1821, 1,820; in
1831,2,28b; and 1,77-i in 1801. It will be seen
from these figures that the ])op. is declining. The
town, which was a place of some celebrity in the
wars of 1041, is finely situated (m the N. bank of
the river, over which it has a wooden bridge. The
public buildings are, a church, a Homun C'atholic
chapel, and a school-house. Petty sessions are
liehl every alternate week, and a party of the con-
stabulary is stationed here. At iMoimt Melleray,
near the town, is an abbey of Trappists, who re-
moved thither from France. Fairs are held on
648
CAPRI
l7th Mnnli. Slnt Mnv, Tilli July, 20th Soptnnbrr,
niid '2!)lli Octolicr. 'hw. tido IIdwh up llu* Hliu^k-
walcrto tliis plncc ; l)iil llio iinvipilioii to Lisiiiurv
in I'liictiv by a I'liiinl four miles lonj;.
("Al'kl (nil. Ciipriw), a Miniill islnud liclonniiif;
to Italy, oil the 8, Hide of tlic, ontraiirc to the
(iiilf ol^ Nttjilcs, nliout 4 m. W. Cti\n' ('ani|iaiiclla
(an. I'mmimtorium MhierViv). I'op, !I,2()0 in
isCi'i. 'I'liit island is alxmt 10 m. in cirr., and is
niostlv SMiToiiniUtd by lofty iicrpcndicuiar clitVs,
It prini^ipally fonsists of two ffccnt masses of
niKfrp<l calcarcinis rocks; but though tlic larj^cst
|iorlion of its surface be wild and ini]iraclicable, it
IS in parts very fertile ; and tbese beiii{^ cultivated
with great assiduity yield the linest crops, with
the choicest graj)e», olives, and other fruits. Hut
the most valuable product of Capri is its stock
doves and quails, particularly the latter, which at
certain seasons of the year are caught in vast
numbers. Hows of nets are placed across every
break in the woods, or chasm in the rocks, to in-
tercept these birds in their annual tlights; and the
quantity taken is almost incredible.
Capri is famous in history from having been for
about 10 years the retreat of Tiberius, who here
abandoned himself to debaucheries, while his pro-
scriptions filled liomo with blood. The tyrant
was most i)robably led to select this sjwt for his
favoured residence, as well from the dilHculty of
its access as from the mildness and salubrity of the
climate, and the unrivalled magniticence of the
prospects which it affords. He is said to have
built no fewer than 12 villas in different parts of
the island, some close by the sea, and others in
more elevated situations. (Tacit. Annal., iv. § 67.)
After his death, these were destroyed by order of
the senate; but the ruins of some of them still re-
main; and the sculptures found in these, and the
medals that have been dug up, go far to establish
the accuracy of what would otherwise "ajipear to be
the singularly exaggerated statements of Tacitus
and Suetonius, as to the private life of the em-
peror.
There are two towns on the island, Anacapri,
near its W. (see Anacaphi), and Capri, the caj).,
on its SK. shore. The latter, situated on the ac-
clivity of a ridge, has about 1,200 inhab., and a
cathedral and some other churches.
CAPUA (an. Cupoa or Capita), a city of
Southern Italy, prov. Caserta, Terra di Lavoro,
cap. cant., on the left bank of the Voltorno, in a
fine plain, 18 m. N. Naples, on the railway from
Kome to Naples. Pop. 10,713 in 18(52. The town
was fortilied by Vauban ; has a strong citadel, and
is reckoned one of the keys of the khigdom. It
has 3 principal streets, 2 magnificent gates, 2 fine
squares, and 3 public fountains. The principal
public buildings arc the cathedral, the cupola of
which is supported by 18 antique columns, the
church of the Annunciation, the palace of the
governor, the Hotel de Ville, the barracks, and the
theatre. It is the scat of an archbishopric ; has
no fewer than 18 parish churches, several convents
for both sexes, a royal college, a seminary, a mili-
tary school, and 4 hospitals. A great fair is
annually held on the 2Cth November.
The ancient Cai)ua was situated about 2^ m.
from the modem city, which lia.s nothing in com-
mon with the former, except that it was partly
built out of its ruins. The remains of its amphi-
theatre, said to have been capable of containing
100,000 spectators, and of some of its tombs attest
its ancient splendour and magnificence. The con-
siderable town of Santa Maria di Capua occupies
part of the spacious enclosure of the old city. The
amazing fertility of its territory, and the com-
mercial spirit of its inhabitants, rendered Capua
CARAVACA
one of the largest and ric-licst cities of ancient
Italy. Its citizens wannly espoused the side of
Hannibal, and that great general tiHiU up his
winter (piarters here after the campaign .tf ('anna'.
It has been said that this was a false step; that he
ought to have marched <lirect from ('aiiine to
Kome; and that his soldiers, enfeebled by their
residence in this luxurious city, henceforth lost
their former superiority. Hut there seems to be
little or no foundation for these statements. Han-
nibal, though victorious at C'annn>, was so far
from being able to attack Home, that be was rc-
])ulscd in an attempt upon Naples ; and the fact,
that he maintained himself, without assistance
from home, for a dozen years in Italy after he had
wintered in Capua,and defeated, during that period,
several Homan armies, completely negatives the
idea of his troops having been enervated. It was
hardly, perhaps, necessary to say so much on such
a point, the authority of Hannibal being of in-
comparably greater weight than that of those win.
have presumed to find fault with his proceedings.
The old city was destroyed by the baruarinns ,
CAHACAS, an inland city of Colombia, cap. of
the repiib. of Venezuela, prov. Caracas, in a moun-
tain valley nearly 2,!t()0 fl. above the level of tlui
sea, 12 m. SSK. La Giiavra ; hit. It'® 30' N., long,
f>l)° r)5' W. Pop, estimated at 50,000. The city
is finely situated, and in the enjoyment of a tem-
perate and healthy though variable climate ; but it
IS exposed to the attacks of earthquakes ; it has
the advantage of lieing nearly surrounded by the
Giiayra and several other rivulets, which supply
many public and private fountains, and wash the
streets. It is well and regularly built; the streets
arc sufliciently wide, paved, and cross each other
at right angles; there are several squares, the
priiuapal of which, the Plaza Mayor, has the ca-
thedral on the E,, the university on the S,, and
the priscm on the W. side ; but is disfigured by
ranges of low shojjs collected in ita centre, where
the fruit, vegetable, and fish markets are held.
Most of the public buildings are of a religious cha-
racter; the cathedral is spacious but heavily built,
and it is probably to this circumstance that its
preservation was owing during the great earth-
quake of 1812. Previously to that year there
were 8 other churches, the handsomest of which,
Alta Gracia, was built by people of colour ; but
this and the other churches, nine-tenths of the
houses in the city, and between 9,000 and 10,000
inhab., were totally destroyed by the terrible ca-
tastrophe that then hajipcned. There are 3 con-
vents, 2 nunneries, and 3 hospitals; besides a
theatre capable of holding perhaps 1,800 persons,
the pit of which is not roofed. The houses in Caracas
are at present inferif)r to what they were before
the earthquake of 1812, at which period those of
the iijiper classes were also very well furnished :
they are now chiefly of siui-dried clay or mud, the
roofs tiled, and the walls whitewashed. La Guayra,
which is the port of Caracas, is the chief trading
town in Colombia; but its merchants are for tlm
most part the agents of others in Caracas, and all
negotiations are conducted in the capital. This
city was founded by Diego Loseda in 1.567, and,
under the S)ianish government, was the scat of
the captain-general of Venezuela.
CAKAVACA, a town of Spain, prov. ]\Iurcia,
42 m. \VN\V. Murcia, and 64 m. NE. Granada,
on a river, and at the foot of a mountain ridge,
both of the same name. Pop. 6,84(( in 1857.
The to'wn has four convents, three hospitals, and a
Jesuits' college. The remains of the ancient
castle of Santa Cniz are on a height commanding
the to%vn. In a mountain on the VV. is the cavern
of Barquilla and its beautiful stalactites. The
CARCAJENTE
vicinity contnins mnrlilcs of various colours, nnd
])ro(lu('(>H ({mill, ])iils(<, wine, oil, li('iii|), tinx,
rn/itirti) or S|iuiii,sh ru«ii, and iMisturc for «hc('p and
gouts.
(.'AKdAJKXTK, a town of Spain, jirov. Va-
lencia, 7 m. NXK. San Fdipp. Pop. H.MoO in
1H57. Tlic town is in tlic centre of a larjje pliiin,
planted with wliite niulherry trees, and interseclcil
liy canals. Its streets are spacions, and the coin-
fiirtalde appearance of the houses announces tlie
prosperity of the place. Many Konian remains
are tound here. Its vicinity produces silk, whent,
maize, jmlse, rice, ahundanue of oranyes, pome-
granates, niul garden stuD's.
(JAKCASSONNK, a city of Franco, d(<p. Ando,
of which it is the cnp., on "the Aude l>y which it is
intersected; ii4 m, VV. Narhouue, on tlie railway
from Touhaiso to Narhonne. I'o]!. 20,015 in IHUi.
The town consists of two ])arts — the city, situate<l
on a hill on the right hank of the river, and the
new town, on a plain on its left hank, the com-
nnmication between them being maintained liy a
bridge of ten orches. The city, which is very
ancient, is Hurronndcd by do\ible walls, and has an
old cnstlc. The new town is well built; has broad
streets intersecting each other at right angles, a
Htpuire shaded by magniticcnt plane trees, and
ninnerous fountams. There is a tine promenade
along the canal. The fortitications l)y wliich the
new town was formerly surrounded have been de-
molished to make room for gardens and boule-
vards. Princi|)al public buildings— cathedral, with
a tine spire, the church of St. Lazarus in the city,
formerly the cathedral, the episcopal palace, the
hotel of the prefecture, the hotel de ville, the ba'-
racks, and the theatre. The halles or covered
markets are worth notice. It is the seat of a
bishopric ; has tribunals of primary jurisdiction
and commerce, a de])artmental college, a primary
normal sch.xtl, a diocesan seminary with 110
pu))ils, a secondary ecclesiastical school, a royal
society of agriculture, and a public library with
6,000 vols.: it has also a hospital and a work-
lioiise, Carcassonne has long been famous for its
manufacture of line woollen cloth, patronised bv
Colbert: this, however, has much falk-n olif,
though, exclusive of minor articles, it still fur-
nishes annually about 30,0((0 pieces of cloth, of
which about 24,000 are sold in France, and G,0()0
in the Levant. There are also fabrics of stock-
ings, linens, and soap ; with paper-works, distil-
leries, tanneries, and nail-works. Its commerce,
which is very considerable, is greatly facilitatecl
by the railway, as well as by the canal du Midi,
a branch from which comes to the town, and
serves it as a port.
Carcassonne is very ancient, having been of
considerable importance in the days of Ciesar. It
fell successively into the hands t>f the Visigoths
and Saracens, and sufterctl much during the wars
of the Albigenses. Its last count ceded it to
France in 1247.
CAKDIFF, or CAERDIFF, a pari. bor. and
sea-port of S. Wales, cap. co. Glamorgan, on the
E. bank of the Taafe, about IJ m. above its em-
bouchure in the estuary of the Severn, 25 m. W.
Bristol, and 170J m. W. London by Great Western
railway. Pop. 1870 in 1801; i0,077 in 1841;
and 32,954 in 18G1. The town consists of two
principal streets, at right angles to each other;
behind these there are several courts, alleys, and
lanes of very inferior houses; nnd some new
streets, mostly occupied b}' Irish labourers. The
castle, on the N. side of the town, is of great an-
tiquity ; it is in excellent repair, and is partlv oc-
cupied by its proprietor, the Slarqnis of' lUitc.
Besides the church of St. John, which has a lofty
CARDIOAN
(140
tower, there are places of worship for Baptists,
Methodists, Independents, Ac. There is here, also,
a CO, gaol, a guildhall, where the assi/.cs are held,
a theatre, a bridge over t lie Taafe, of live arches,
and numerous schools and charllies, ('ardilV has
become, a |)lace of very cnnsiilerable Iru.le, being,
in fact, the port of IVterthyr Tydvil, an<l of the
principal mining district of S, Wales, The ex-
))orts of iron amount to about riOO,(Hli) tons n year,
and those of coal to lu-arly a inillioii tons. In the
year I8t!:t, there chared at the port l.tdO llritisli
vessels, of 404,221 tons, and 2,M7.'( fureign vessels,
of (157,5:10 tons. The products of Merthyr anil
Aberdare are bnmghr, to CardilV by railway, and
by the Glamorganshire canal, which imites with
the sea about I m. below the town, and by the
Taafe Vale railway. Ihit as the canal was' con-
structed about tifty years ago, its basin did not.
all'ord sullicient accommodation for the vastly in-
creased traftic of th(! place. To obviate this in-
convenience, the late Marquis of Bute con-
structed, at his own expense, a ship canal and
docks a little below the town. These works nro
on the most magnilicent scale. The inner basin
occupies a space of not less than eighteen acres ;
and there is an outer basin occu|>ying a space of
about 14 acre, for the accommodation of sbijis and
steamers of large burden. Thes(( great works
have done mucli to increase the trade and im-
portance of Cardiff. And also the fortune of their
jiroprietor. The hmits of the pari, and mimicipal
boundaries coincide, and comprise an extent of
1,191 acres. It is joined with the bors. of Vaav-
bridge and Llantrisscnt, in sending one member
to the II. of C. Previously to tl;e Reform Act,
the franchise was vested in the l)urgesses. l!e-
gistcred electors 2,195 in 18ti5. IMarkets, Wed-
nesday and Saturday; fairs, Juno 29, Sept. 19,
Nov. 30.
CAKDIGAX, a marit. co. of S. Wales, stretch-
ing in the form of a crescent, along the SK. shorn
of Cardigan Bay, having X, the cos. of Merhtneth
and Montgomery; E,, Radnor and Brecon; and
S., Caermarthen and Pembroke. Area 4;>2,000
acres; pop. 97,401 in IHOl. Surface mountainous
and hilly, interspersed, however, with several lino
valleys, of which the ])rincipal arc those of the
Teify, or Tcivy, Kheidiol, and Ystwith, so called
from the rivers, the largest in the co,, by wliich
they are intersected. The soil along the shore of
this CO., particularly between Llan L'hystyd and
Llan Non, is a light sanily loam, and is, perhaps,
the finest turnip and barley soil in the einiiire ; it
is, in fact, in some places alleged to have pro-
duced, with little or no manure, an uninterrupted
succession of good, or at least tolerable barley
cro])s, for a period reaching beyond the memor\'
of man. (I)avies's S. Wales, i. 103.) But this
continued succession of corn crops has unhappily
been tried in places where the soil is less caiiablo
of supporting such abusive treatment; and, alto-
gether, agriculture is here at a very low ebb,
being quite as far behind, if not more so, than in
Caermarthen, which see. Estates of all sizes,
from the smallest patches, which in some districts
are very numerous, up to several thousands a year.
Farms similarly divided. Silver, lead, and copper
have all been found in Cardiganshire ; and at one
time the silver mines were an object of great at-
tention, and yielded a considerable produce ; but
for a lengthened period they have been wholly
abandoned, and little or no attention is now paid
to those of copper and lead. Slates are quarried
in different parts of the co., and are largely ex-
ported from Cardigan and Aberj'stwith, INIanu-
factures unimportant. Principal towns, Cardigan,
Aberystwith, IVegaron, and Lampeter. At the
i!
e«0 CARDKIAX
Inxt montionoil plncn in n <:oIIi<(;p, ONtnMiMlipil in
|H2'2, lor tli«i (><\u('iilii)ii (if the Wclnh clcr^jviiicii.
('iir(li^')iii.-4liiri> cuiitiiiiiN i\vi\ liiiiiiU, niut Hixly-livi-
])arH., mill liail 15,7*^1 itiliiil). Iumihch in iHtil. It
rt'tiirns iiiii> mom, to tlio II. of (', lor tint co., iind
ono lor thi> liorx. of Canlifjun, AlicryHtwitli, l^am-
pctcr, ami Ailpar. IJt'>{ii*t»'ri'ii flcctors lor tliis en.,
il,|H(» in I Mill, Amount anrntHMiMl to properly tax,
I'.IM,177/. in IHiil ; grosH rental UNH«!«8f(l to poor
rale, HW.-lM.
('aiiuiuan, a m<n-]Mirt and ]mrl. Iior. ofS, WaloM,
rap. CO, CanliKiin, on the N. Iianii ol" the Teivy,
h m. from its eniltonehnrein St. <ieor){e'N Cliannel,
lim m. WNW. London, I'op, it.olii in I hi; I. Tliu
principal Htrcet is H|ia(:i<iiiH, lint the oIIuth are nar-
row and irrepilar, and the town cMintaiiiH a large
proportion of Hinall, mean tcnieinentH. Hecently,
however, not only the innnlier of hoiiseH has been
H good (leal increased, lint their (pialily has also
lieen materially improved. A stone liridge cross(!s
the river, and connects the town with Itridgend,
in remlirokushire ; and there is another bridge
across a deep iidet of the river on the W. siilo
of the town. It has an ancient church, a free
granmiar-school for thirty boys, ii national and
another charity school (in which l.'iO children are
(■ducntc<l), n handsome co. hall And a co, gaol.
Two towers, the romninH of its ancient castle, still
exist on a commanding site above the river,
I^Iarket, Saturday ; annual fairs, Feb, 13th, April
«th, Sept, (ith, and Dec, l!)th. The town has no
manufacture 4if any conseijncnce. A bar at the
river's mouth is a great impediment to navigation,
and makes the entrance to the harbour very dan-
gerous in rough weather. In moderate weather,
and at spring tides, vessels of from UOO to 400 tons
may come up to the town ; but the general trade
is coiillned to vessels of from 16 to 100 tons.
There belonged to the port, on the 1st of January,
]H()1, 118 sailing vessels under, and (i!) sailing
vessels above £0 tons. Total toimngc, 10,193,
There were no steamers. Ivxports, slate, corn,
and butter ; imjiorts, coal, culm, timl)cr, and deals,
limestone, and articles of g(*neral consumption.
Cardigan, conjointly with Aberystwilli, Lam-
peter, and Adpar, returns I mem. to the II, of C,
Previously to the Keform Act, the franciiise (in
Cardigan) was vested in the burgesses, who were
created by being presented by a jury of burgesses
at the court of the corporation, Kegistered electors
11)7 in 18(12, The town is divided into 2 wards,
and governed by a mayor, aldemicu, and coun-
cillors,
(;AI{I)()NA, a fortified town of Spain, Cata-
lonia, in a rugged country on the Cardanet, 55 m,
NW, Barcelona, Pop, 3,000 in 1857. Near the
town on the S\V., is a mountain of solid rock-salt,
which neither the erosion caused by the ruins, nor
the mining operations that have been continued
foi- ages, seem to have power mater.ally to dimin-
ish. (See Oatau»nia.) Being exceedingly hard,
the rock is tirst blasted with gunpowder, and after-
wards dug out with pickaxes : it is then ground,
and laid up in the government storehouses. Vases,
crucitixes, and other articles are made out of it,
■which stand very well in the atmosphere of Spain,
but soon liquefy in a moist climate.
CAKENTAN, a town of France, dep. LaManche,
cap. cant., on the Tante, near its embouchure, 16
m, NNVV, St, Lo. Pop. 8,1 10 in 1861. The town
is situated in the middle of a marsh, and is indif-
ferently fortilied, and mdiealthy. Small vessels
come iip to the town, which has some manufac-
tures of lace and cotton.
CAUIACO, a marit. town of Venezuela, prov.
Cumana, in a large plain near the bead of the gulf
of the same name, 38 in, ENE. Cumuna; lat. 10°
CAUINTIIIA
30' X„ long, 03° 10' W, I'op, esliinnird al 7,500.
The town is snnill, and its cliniati! is nnheallhy ;
but it has some trade, and ils vicinity is exten
sivelv cultivated with cotton,
cAlMATI, a sea-port town of Sontlu-rn Italy,
prov, Cosen/.a, cap, cant., on a high iironiontory
wnsiied by the Ionian Sea, 18 m, SK, Itossann,
Pop, 3,133 in I8('i2, Though the seat ofu bishop-
ric, it IS a desolate, wretched-looking place, sur-
rounded by dilapidated walls, and having a castle
in ruins. Il has siilfered much from the attacks
of the Turks and Algerines, and more recenlly
from the depredations of brigands, who, in \x{\{\,
and again in l8)SI-.'i, made the caus(^ of legiliiniu'v
subservient to their own predatory purposes. It
is now, however, iM'ginniug to improve. The best
manna of Calabria is found in its environs, and
the rivers furnish llsh in aliiiudance.
CAHKiNANO, an iiil. town of N. Italy, jirov.
Turin, cuji. distr., on Ihi; left bank of the Pn,
which is liere crossed by a wooden bridge, 1 1 in,
S, Turin, Poii, 7, 111 2 in 18112. The town is sur-
rounded by old walls, has a haiidsoin(^ s«piare, ji
line church, several convents, two hospitals, and a
college, aiul some remains of its ancii^nl castle, A
good deal of silk is pnidiiced in the nelghbonrbooil,
and there are several lilatnres in the town, Carig-
naiio is also celebrated for its confectionery, II.
has been several times taken ; the French sacked
it in 1544,
CAHINI, a town of .Sicily, prov, Palermo, cap,
cant,, on the rivulet of the same name, nearwhere
it falls into the sea, 12 m, WNW, Palenno, Pop,
10,827 in 1802, The town stands on a rising
ground in a beautiful situation ; is a res|ie(^table
and clean town; and has a (iolbic castle, wiih
several churches, convents, and public buildings.
Near Curini are the ruins of the ancient Ifi/iTuru,
a small but rich city, sacked by Nicias, who, on
that occasion, captured Lais, the famous courte-
zan.
CAIIINTIIIA and CAUNIOLA ((}erm. Kiini-
tlien ond Krain) DuciiiKS hf, two contiguous in-
land provinces of the Austrian empire; the iortncr
Ixsing included in the ancient Norkum, and I lie
latter in lUyrirum : they now respectivclv form the
northern and central portions of the kingdoni of
Illvria as established in 1815, chicHv between lal.
45° 30' and 47° 10' N., and long. 12° 40' and VP
40' E, ; having N, Salzburg and Styria, E, Slyriii,
S. Croatia and Istria, and VV, a part of the govcrii-
racut of Trieste, the Lombardo-Veiietian kingdoni,
and the Tyrol, Area, 0,930 sq, ni, (320"09 (Jerm.).
Pop. of Carinthia 332,450, and of Carniola 45l,!Ml
in 1857. The pop, is more dense in the latter
than in the former province; there being 1,h44 in-
habitants to the Germ. sq. m. in Carinthia, and
2,004 in Carniola. These prova. coni|iose that
part of Illvria forming the goveniment of Lay-
bach, and are divided into 5 circles, viz. Carinthia
into Klagenfurt and Villach, or Lower and Upjier
Carinthia; and Carniola into those of Laybni'li,
Adelsberg, and Xeustadtl. The whole country is
mountainous : the great Alpine chain which passes
from the Tyrol through Styria into Hiuigary,
bounds Carinthia on the N., and its southern pa-
rallel chain, with its second rainitication, or the
Julian and Carnic Alps, run through the W. and
S. parts of Carniola, an(' :i '*« N. separate it from
Carinthia. The great A iiiue chahi consists in ils
whole extent of gran'tc, gneiss, ((iiartz, mica, and
clay-slate, and other primary rocks, and contniiis
many metallic ores ; the Carnic and Julian Alps
have chietly a calcareous formation, and the latter
abound with ravines, caverns, and grottos. They
are comparatively jioor in metallic produ(?ts.
There arc fertile valleys between the inount:iiii
CARINTHIA
rnnKCd; hut tho pountry ^'Piipriilly in stprilo nnd
Ixin-, utid tlopH lint yii'lil piirii Piioii^rli for tlip phii-
Hiiiiiplioii (if itM iiiliuliitiiiitM, tilt! ilpliciciipy iH'iiii;
nin(tpii|i liy iMi|i(irtii from lliiii^mry. Cariiithin ix
iiiorp aliiiiiilaiitly watprpd tliaii Cariiiola: tlip
Dravp iiifprspptH tlie fonnpr i>ri>v. in its wliolc
IpiikIIi ; Dip Save ri^pH in tlip latter, and ruiiH with
a SK. coiirNP tliroufrli iiH N. and K. divisioiiH : iiotli
grpatiy ansiHt tlip trutHp (if iIiphp iiMvincps. 'I'licro
nrp Hcvpral modprat(!-Hi/.P(l Iujip.m, an tlip VVortliHpp,
Kftniaclipr-Hpc, MiililHtadtpr-Hcp, in thp central part
(if Cariiithin, and thp tlzirknil/cr-NPeand others in
tlip \V. nnd N\V. (inrtH (if ('ariiidla, lipsidps ninny
miiall onvN. The tpni]iprnturn dpppndH ehielly
upon thp plpvntion; Imt.pxeeptiii H, Caniinla, the
clinintn iti gpiiprnlly cold, nnd iinfavniirablp to
nKricultiiro. The Hiirfacp of thp conjoined jirovs.
ix tluiH dividptl: — Arable land, t>7H,9'Ji< Kiij;. acrpn;
viiiPvnrdH, 2it,901) do,; ineadowH nnd ganleiiH,
7!t2,015 do.; commoiiH. l,(wri,(Wl) do.; fore.stH,
2,174,177 do. : total, 4,7rtri,2Hr) do.
The rpnpectivc (pinntities of the chipf nftrieiil-
tiiral products arc Htnted to be — \Vh(n»t, HH, i;)l
Kii^. quarters ; rye, 187,201 do. ; barley, 12(i,M(i2(lo.;
oats, iir> 1,1)74 do. ; wine, H,3uO,*)()l Kn^. imp. pill.
VVbcat, barley, nnd wine are principnllv pro-
duced in Carniola; rve nnd oats in Cnrinthiii,
Ihickwhcat, millet, iiemp, anil tlax, an; also
grown, and the tlnx of Cnmioln is sniil to be the
best in thp empirp. Theoxtcntof surface devoted
to gnrdens and vineynrds in C'nrinthin is vpry in-
fprior to that so npproprintpd in Carniola, iii the
S. of which duchy the tiiiesi apricots, peaches,
ap|)lps, pears, and jihiins are producpd, besides a
coiisidprabic quantity of good wine. On the other
hand, in Cnrinthin, thp )insturp Innds are exten-
sive, and cnttlc nrp renrcd in much Inrgpr numbers
thnii in Cnmioln. The horses, which are large and
strong, arc bred mostly in the valley of the(jinil,nnd
clsewiiprpiiiUpiipr Cnrinthin. Thp sheep yield only
inferior wool, llogs and goats are |>lentiful. The
Alps nre inhabited by bear8,which make great havoc
amongst smnllcr animals. (Chamois, deer, hares,
and foxes are, however, found, as well as n grent
vnriety of feathered game. The rivers and lakes,
and especially the Drave and the Ossiacher-see,
abound with salmon, trout, nnd other .mqicriorlish.
Bees nre numerous, especially in S. Carniola ; of
late years the rearing of silk-wonns has increased.
The principal wealth of Cnrinthin is in the jtrodiu^e
of its mines. Iron is found throughout tlie whole
extent of the primary Aljiine chain, nnd is nlso
procured in the Cnrnic Alps. Copper is mined in
several places, but although the quantity of ore be
inexhaustible, the hardness of the stone in which
it is found and other difticulties oppose serious ob-
stacles to the attainment of any great supply of
metnl. The lead mine of the ore-mountain near
Villach is the largest and moat productive of that
metal in the empire: it yields annually 3;{,(l(IO
centner of pure metal : other mines in the duchy
nfford ycnrlv about 20,000 centner. Zinc, silver,
nnd qii'icksilvpr are likewise met with, and near
llllttenlierg antimony is found in conjunction with
iron. There are some iron and lead mines in Car-
niola, but those of the greatest importance in that
prov. are the celebrated ipiicksilver mines of Idria,
• the richest in Eurojie. Coal, peat, marble, build-
ing stone, various clays, talc, asbestos, jasper,
beryl, opal, emernld, garnets, nre found in various
parts of the country. The following shows the
average annual produce of some of the mines in
i)oth provinces: — liar iron, 27 1,925 cwt.; cast iron,
it,!)42 cwt. ; lead end lead ore, 60,893 cwc. ; copper,
78 cwt. ; coals, 49,(!14 cwt.
Manufacturing industry in Carinthia is mostly
confined to working up its raw produce, and cspe-
CAHirK
fi.-)l
cinlly it« metallic ores. There nre n great niimlM'r
of fiirniu'(>H and forges, ir(iii-|ilntp and steel -works.
Kesidps ttipsp, there are ii few wooIIpii, silk, and
cotton factiiries, sitiialeil cbietly at Klageiifiirl,
the capital of the province. In Carnioia tint
manufactures aiv tnon* iiii|K)rtaiit, altluiugli still
inferior in amniiiit to those in many ntlier Aus-
trian nroviiices. Most of the rural malt; popula-
tion tiillow linen weaving, in addition lo their
ngriciiltural occiipntions ; while their wives spin
tliread. liotli these articles art! gpiii'nilly coarse;
but there are Home tine linen and lai-e inaniil'nc-
tiirps, and ninny of woiillpii cloth, llannel, worsted
stockings, and leather. Iron niaiiiifiu'tiires, nnd
others of wooden articles, also occupy iiiaiiy liaiids ;
and in Layluich, the cM)iital of ('ariiiola, there is
n very extensive porcelain and earthenware fai;-
tory. The principal exports from Carniola are
steel wares, timlier, aiul wooden articles, glass
wares, linens, felt hats, wax, wine, lo Carinlliia ;
flour to Tru-stp ; and (|uicksilver to Lower AiiHtria.
Its imports are Hungarian and Italian wines, salt,
oil, fruit, colonial produce, with colVee, siignr,
vnrious mnniifactiired fabrics, tobacco, and a large
sujiply of horned cattle. The exjHirts of home
imMluce are not probably much below the value of
Us imports; but considerable wealth is derived to
the prov. from the traffic through it, and coiivey-
nnce of goods from Austria, Cariiitbia, Croatia, to
Trieste, and tho other ports on the Adriatic. The
town of CJott«cheer, where a (Jprman colony is
situatpd, has a remarkable conimcrcinl activity,
nnd it» goods nre widely dilViised over Hungary
nnd the N\V. provinces of the empire, as well lis
in many other parts of KiiroiK' : Laybach, the cap.,
is the other chief |)lace of trade. Tlie exports of
Carinthia are almost coiilinedto its raw and innnu-
facturcd mineral ]irodiicts, and cattle. Klageii-
fiirt, the ca|>., and Villach, nre its principnl com-
mercinl towns. The iiihnb. of these jirovs. arc,
mostly of the Slavonian nice, denominated Weiidcs
or Vandals; in C '.nthia, however, those oftJer-
mnn nre to those 01 ' !nvoninn st(H;k as 172 to 9;").
The Drave formerly sttparatcd the two races.
Carinthia and Carniola have each their own pro-
vincial diet, formed in the same manner as that
of the other provinces of the Pinpire. (See Afs-
THiA.) The high criminal and other judicial courts
of Cnrinthin are at Klagpiifiirt. The Liithernu
religion made considerable progress in this jirov.
in the Kith century, until checked by the govern-
ment: there are now scarcely 20,000 Vrotestniiis.
mostly in Upjier Carinthia. The whole jMip. of
Carniola is Itoman Catholic — n robust, contentnl,
and frugal peopU;, The Cnrinthiniis hnve, to a
grent extent, the character and disposition of
Italians. They are said to be more inclined to in-
dolence than their Houthern neighbours, and are
often igiiornnt and suiierstitioiis. Hoth pro\s.
fonned parts of the empire of (Iharlemagiie, jiiul
aftenvards bphiiig(Ml to the dukes of Friiili. After
]iassing through various hands, the house of Aus-
tria became possessed of Carniola in 1245, and of
Carinthia in 132 1. In 1809 these countries were
annexed to the empire of NajMileon, and remained
connected with it till 1814, when they were re-
stored to Austria.
CAKIPK, a town and valley in Venezuela, prov.
Curaniia, 40 m. SE, that city. The town is the
chief seat of the Chnyina Indian missions. The
valley is celebrated for a remarkable (tavern in ii
limestone formation, at least 2,800 ft. in depth,
and for some distance CO or 70 ft. high. It is in-
habited by multitudes of birds, called giiacliaros,
a species of Caprimulgua, the young of which arc
annually destroyed in great numbers by the In-
dians, for the sake of the fat with which the lining
6ft2
CAIlI.snUOOKK
CARTJSLK
nicnilirnnn of tlirir nliddtnoii in liiilcii, nnd of wliich
fxccllciil nil U rniiito. Iliinilioldt vi.'^ilnl tliitt ca-
vern. (See liJH I'lTrKiiinl Niirriilivc, vol. ii.)
CAIilSHKOOKK.iiixir.aiHlvilliiKcit Kii^'lniul,
IhIc of WiKht, lilxTty \V. iMcdina, hifimlcd liy n
riviilft, at (lin banu of a coiiiral hill, NiirtiKiiinlod
l)y its ca.HlIc or fortri'sn, 7« ni. S\V. Loiidnii. Area
oi'imr.K.HOO acres: |)o)i. of do. ".riO'J in IHiIj, Some
liorlioiiM of tlie f<irlri'MH anM'cry (d<l; Imt it was
reiMiired and fjreatly aiiKniented in the reiK" "f
l')li/,alielh. The walls of llie old fortress (a |iaral-
lelo(;rani enclosini; an area of 1^ acre, with its
kee]) in the centre) are com|)rised within the more
modern fort ilicat ions, which enclose an area of
ahont twenty acres. The latter hav(( live hastions
and a deep moat, and are (M)nn(-cted with a line
tt'rrace nearly I m. in leiif^tli. 'I'he |iar. chnrch
Htands on an acclivity oi)|Misite the castle: it is a
Nonnun Htrnctnre, orijcinally attacheil to a Cis-
tercian inonastc^ry, founded in thiv reif^n of the
( lonqiieror ; some remains of whi<'li exist at a farm-
house on its site. The most, celelirated event in
the annals of C'ari»brooke( last le is tli(>con<inement
of (Charles I. for thirteen months within its walls,
innnediately ])revious to his heinfc delivere.l np to
the ])arli)niientary forces. Snhsequently, liis <'hil-
dren were also iniprisonetl in this castle; and his
eldest danj^htcr dieil in it, at the ajjc of tiftecn. Ft
continues to he the residence and head-quarters of
the {governor of the Isle of Wi>;ht; and a consider-
nhlc body of troops are iisi.ally stationed in it.
There are many pleasant villas scattered over the
parish ; within' which, also, is the general work-
house of tha island.
CAIM^KK, a small villapo of Ilindostan, prov.
Aiirungahad, Jl-t m. N\V. I'oonah, near wliich are
Home remarkalilu cave-temples, ex(;avated in a
Hpiir from a chain of hills running K. and W. ; the
chief cavern is said to he (),()(I0 ft. above the level
of the sea, and faces due AV. A little to the left,
before the entrance, stands a large pillar, sur-
mounted by three sculptured lions back to back.
The temjdc is entered under a noble horse-shoe
arch, through a small square door^vay in a kind of
portico screen, wliich in great part tills up the
arch, and abounds with laboured workmanship.
To one third of its height, it is covered with va-
rious figures in bas-relief; and one of these in a
dancing attitude is exceedingly graceful : the ends
of this screen arc occupied to the same height with
the figures of gigantic elephants, projecting in alto-
relievo, and well carved. After entering the cave,
which is 40 paces long by 14 broad, Mrs. Graham
observes, ' when we looked round, wc almost fan-
cied ourselves in a Gotliic cathedral.' Unlike the
liuddhic cave-temples of ISaug, J'^llora, &c., tlie
roof is arched, rising to an astonishing height, suji-
ported by twenty-one pillars along each side, and
above these by ribs of teak, whicli are fitted by
teeth into corresponding holes in the rock above.
I'he pillars are mostly hexagonal, each with a bell-
fdiapcd capital, surmounted by two elephants with
their trunks entwined, and each carrying one
female, and two male, ligures. On several of the
columns there are inscriptions, wliich have recently
been translated (see Journal of the Asiat. Soc. of
Bengal, vol. iii,), and from one of them it would
appear that this temple was constructed a.v. 17G.
The cave is semicircular at its termination : oppo-
site, the entrance is a structure with a dome, on
whi'cli is fixed a huge teak umbrella, an ornament
common in the temples of Buddha ; but no sepa-
rate cells, opening from the main temple, have
been noticed, though such have been supjiosed cha-
racteristic of Buddhic structures, ((iraham. Journal
of a Kesid, in India, pp. (13-65.)
CAKLENTINI, a town of fciicily, prov. Syracuse,
The
10 m. \W. Syracuse. I'on. Mi'il in IHfi2.
town was bnil't by Charles V. lor the head-fpiarlcrs
of the Sicilian army; hut the dcNign was never
completed, and since the earilifmake of lti!):i, by
which il was partially destroyed, it has beconii' a
miserable place.
CAI.'MNtiKOKI), a sea-port town of Ireland,
CO. I.oiilh, on th(! S. sid(> of Carlingford lough, Ml
m. IC. Pundalk. I'op. of town 777, and of parish
7,()il!) in iHdl, Carlingford lough isN m. in depth,
by from 1 to 1^ m. wide, with deep water ami
se<;ure anchorage, but being situated between lofty
nioinitains, is liable to sudden srpialls. The hiir
at the entrance has H ft. water at low-water springs,
17 ft. at ordinarv high water, and '2i> ft. at springs.
This bay is well stocked with <'Xcelleiil oysters,
the lishing of which employs most part of the pop,
of Carlingford. The town relumed 'i mcnis, to
the Irish parliament, but was disfranchised at the
Union.
CAKMSLK.a city of England, eo. Cumberland,
on a gentle eminence, in an exl(^nsive plain at the
continence of tlu^ Kdeii.Calilew, iind I'eteril, which
nearly surround it; ^i'lO m. NNW. London byroad,
and 'MOk m. by London and North- Western rail-
way. Ihe pop, of the citv was l(t.'221 in l«(l| ;
'A012 in IHII; and 2!VH'7 in iWil, The gnat
increase of pop, is attributed to the iiicre<ise of ma-
nufactures, and tim influx of Irishmen and Scotch-
men to tlie mills and railroads.
The Eden is crossetl by an elegant bridge, finished
in IK17, consisting of ilve large and five smaller
arches ; the Caldew has two bridges, and the smaller
stream of the I'eteril one. The principal streets
iliverge from the market-place, an irregular area
in the mi(Ulle of the town : though not regularly
arranged, scsveral of them are well built, and thcv
are generally well |)aved and lighted, ami plenti-
fully supplied with water.
Carlisle is the seat of a bishopric, founded by
Henry I., and remodelled by Henry VI. I, after
the (lissolution of the monasteries, with whosc!
lands he largely endowed it. 'Ihe ecclesiastical
jurisdiction extends over O.'t pars., containing the
wli(de of W^estmoreland and great part of Ciinibcr-
land. The revenues of the see amount at an ave-
rage to 4,600/. jier annum. The cathedral, having
been repaired at different periods, exhibits various
kinds of architecture ; the E. window is said to he
the finest specimen of the kind in England. The
dignitaries, besides the bishop, are a dean, 4 pre-
bendaries, and 8 minor canons. The nave of tlu!
cathedral forms the parochial church of St. ISIary :
that of St, Cuthbert is a plain buihiing, erected in
1778. There are three other churches, and places
of worship for I'resbyterians, Independents, two
denominations of Methodists, Baptists, I{. Catho-
lics, and the Society of Friends, The grammar-
school was founded by Henry VIII. There are
also Lancastrian and national schools, St. Patrick's
school for educating 400 children of all denomina-
tions, and a school of indiistrj- for females. The
county inlirmary is in the town, and it has a fever
hosjrttal and a dispensary. An academy for the
encouragement of the fine arts was formed' in 1822,
a mechanics' histitute in 1824, and a literary aiicl
philosophical institution in 1835: a handsome
building, erected in 183!), for the accommodation
of these societies, contains a museum and a theatre
for lectures. There are two subscription libraries
and news-rooms — one of the latter, a chaste new
building, opened in 1831 — and several weekly
newspapers. The environs afford many delightl'iil
rides and walks, liaces take place in autumn at
the Swifts, a fine course on the S. bank of the
Eden. The ancient castle, which stands on an
eminence over the river, consists of on outward
CARLISLK
anil imuT wnll, rnrli i<( >;n'iit ihickni'sH, nnd of n
^rt'iit N((ii!ir<' towiT, t'liiiNtriictcil at't'uriliii); In llic
niu'iciil iniiili' III' (U'l'('ii('i>. 'I'liv ruiiipiirlM ('tiininnnil
11 very line view. It Im now u.st'il only im uii iii-
I'aiiiry luimit'k and ariiiniiry,
('arli»l«t in a ctiriioralion liy iircwriptioii ; and
olitaiiii'd fiinlinnationM and cNtcnMionH ul' its privi-
It'^i'i* liy a NcricM of |H t'liarlfr.x, ItTminalin^ wild
li'i ChnrlcM I., which was tiic pivcrnin^ charttT.
Under the nt'w municipal ncl, Ihc ^itvcnnnciit irt
vt'Mlcd in n mayor, ID aldermen, and ill) common-
cMinncilmen, cluwcn annually hy ihe rate-pnyers.
There are eiKlit nuiiilH or fraternities of trades,
admiMHiun into any of which Im hy hirth or ap-
prehliceship only; and admiMsion into one of the
^riiijils in a preliminary reipiiMite to Ihe freedt)m of
the citv. Carlisle has sent 2 mem. to the II. of ('.
Hiiice tiie rei;;n of Ivlward I.: the riKht of election,
previously to the Itefnrm A<'t, hein^ in resident
and non-resident freemen. 'I'he lioiindaries of Ihe
pari, hor, were e.xtendetl hy the llonndary Act, so
as to emhrace, not merely the city, hut alsit
the suhurhs and ii cousiderahle contiguous cinde.
lienistered electors I,4IH in IHlia, of whom .'litl
freemen. The election of memherti fur the K.
division of the co. is also held here.
The court of the mayor and hailiIVs sits weekly,
and holds jiersonal ]ileas to any amount. I'etty
Hcssions are held on Wednesdays and .Saturdays.
A foimty court is also estahlished here. There is
no city K'lol, prisoners heiu); coidincd in the county
gaol, an extensive and well-constructed huilding
at the S. entrance to the city, or in the house of
correctitai : asuhterranean passage, through which
the |irisoners are hrought to trial, connects hoth
these plaiies of confinement with the county courl-
liouso. The comity assi/.es, and the quarter ses-
ttions, nt Kaster and Alidsiimmer, are held in this
hiiildin^, which was erected in IK Id on the site of
the ancient citadel : it has two maj^iiilicent towers.
The revenues of the corporation amounting itl
imil to ;(,:((■)!)/. — exclusivo of the jirolits of the pis
works, which lielong to the corporation — arise from
lolls, rents, and shares in |)uliliu companies.
The huildin^'s for cor|iorato and other piihlic
purposes conneclod with the ^covernineiit of the
jilace, arc the town-hall, guildhall, and eouncil-
chanihcr. Cotton is the sta|ilu mamifacturo of the
town, em))loyiiig ahout 2,0U(t hands. The hatting
trade is also extensive ; and there are several
dye-works, jirint-works, iron-foundries, tan-yai'ds,
and breweries. (Joal for manufacturing and do-
mestic purjMtses is hrought from (.iilsland, V2 m.
distant; and from other collieries, about 20 m.
distant. A eonsiderahlc ])art of the manufacturing
pop. of Carlisle used to he in a very di^ircssed con-
ilitioii ; but, on the whole, the city is thriving, and
il.s general as]icct is good. Its situation, on the
great N. W. line of railway from London and
Manchester to tilasgow and Edinburgh, gives
great facilities to its trade, which is still further
promoted by the railways connecting it with New-
castle, on the one liand, and with Maryi)ort and
Whitehaven, on the other. The navigation of the
Eden being greatly impeded by shoals, a canal,
suitable for vessels of 100 tons' burden, has been
cut to IJowness, on the Solway Frith, 1 m. distant.
The trade with Liverpool and' Ireland is carried on
by steamers. It has been made a sea-port and
there belonged to it, on the 1st of January, 1804,
12 sailing vessels of under, and 14 vessels of above
20 tons. Total tonnage 2,204. dross customs'
revenue 32,104/, in 1802, and 2«,.S03/. in 180;}.
The rate of mortality in the city of Carlisle has
been supjjosed to correspond pretty closely with
the average rate of mortality in' England and
Wales ; and Mr. Milne, proceedhig on this hypo-
cahlow
flA3
IhrMis. ronstriicfrd a tiihle of mortality from oh-
Hcryaiiipiis made by Dr. Ileyshani in this city.
This lahle has been adopted by various insuranco
ollices. It gives a decidedly lower rate of mortality
than Ihe Northampton lul'ile, which, previously I'o
its appearaiii'c, was the only one in use.
Markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays; fairn
on llie Saturdays before Whitsuntide and' Martin-
miiM; also a statute-fair on 20lh Aug. and II davi*
after, during the (•ontinuance of wiiicli no allach-
iiK^nt from the city civil courts can be executed i
and another on l!»th Sept. The hanks are, the
Carlisle Citv and District Hank. Ihe Carlisle^ and
( 'umberlaiiil Hanking Co., a hraiich of the ( uniher-
land I'nion ItankingCo., the llouseof Monkhouse,
I lead, and ( 'o,. and a savings' hank. The viHage of
Stan wix,N. of I he Kdeii, mil v he considered as a sub-
urb of Carlisle, though not included v ilhiii its cor-
porate or parliamcnliiry limits. Its ancient church,
d<'dicaleil to St. Michael, is built on Ihesiteaiid out
of the ruins of the lioinan station of Congavata,
which stood along the rampart of the wall of Severiis.
Carlisle was a {{oiiiaii station, under the nanie
of Luguvallum, as is attested by vestiges of the
liomaii wall, and by man v lioman relics discovered
here at various times. 'I'lie Saxons called it Caer
Lull, whence its present name is derived. William
the Conqueror biiilL the castle; and during ihu
wars between Kngland and Scotland, Carlisle was
a frequent object of attack. It surrendered, with-
out niakiiigany opposil ion, to the rretenderCharles
Kdward, in 174;'); lait, on his being compelled to
evacuate it on the approach of the Kritihh forces,
he left hcliind him a small garrison, w liich sur-
rendered at discretion : the oOicers of this garrison
were siihseqiiently executed at London as traitors,
and their heads exposed on the gates and walls of
Carlisle.
('AliLOFOL'TK, a sea-port town of Northern
Italy, on the small island of San I'ietro, near the
SW. coast of Sardinia; lat. !t!t° 8' 28" N., long
8° 17' 28" !•;. Pop. ;i,lo.-, in !«(;•>. The town is
surrounded by a wall, and has some fort ilicat ions.
It is moderately healthy. The inhahilanls aro
engaged in the anchovy and coral lisheries, and in
the manufacture of salt.
CAKLOTA, LA, a town of Spain, prov. Cordova,
cap. dep. of its own name, 17 in. SW. (.'ordova.
Toji. 2,.'{."jO in 1857. The town is one of the chief
seats of the foreign colonists— the majority of them
(lermaiis — planted in Andalusia, in 1708, in the
view of peopling and fertilising the Sierra Morena.
It is a pretty town, and the iiihah,, who are dean
and thriving, have some manufactures of hempen
and linen cloths.
CAKLOW, or CATIIEKLOUGH, an inl. co. of
Irehmd, prov. Leinster, lying mostly on the K. side
of the Harrow, having S. and E". Wexford and
Wicklow, N. the latter and Kildarc, and W.
Queen's co. and Kilkenny. Area 219,803 acres, of
which 23,030 are unimproved mountain and bog.
Surface on the S. border mountainous, but else-
where gently undulating. Itesides the Harrow, by
which it is partly intersected and partly bounded,
it is watered by the Slaney. Soil in the uplands
a light gravel; in the lowlands a fertile hiam.
This is one of 'he principal dairy cos. in Ireland ;
and the stock of cows has latterly been a good
deal ameliorated by the introduction of Ayrshire,
and other improved breeds from (iroat Britain.
Estates middle-sized; and that minute division of
land among the occupiers, so destructive of the
best interests of the country, has prevailed less
here than in most other parts of Ireland. Agri-
culture is, in consequence, in a much more
advanced state here than in many other Irish cos. ;
there is a considerable breadth of laud under green
•I'll I'AULOW
rriiji ; mill itn|inivt>il I'urinitiK iiii|ili'ini'nlH iirc prrtlv
^O'licrally inlnxliiccil, Munul'iicliin-M iiml riiiiuTiiiM
III' iKi ini|Hiriiiiii'i>. Curliiw ix tlisiili'il iiilit ,'> liu-
rmiirx uiiil r>il iinriNlii'N, and moihIn il iih'iiim, in the
II. Ill' ('„ viz. 2 i'lir till' CO., anil I lor tlii< Uir. «f
Carlow. lit'ttiHicrnl I'lci'turi lor llm ro. 'J.lT.'i in
|Mii4. rop. Htt,?-.>N in iHll.anil ri7,i:i7 in imll.
<iroHH annual valui> of ri'al iiroiicrtv u<<m«'nn('iI to in-
t'onnlax, I;I7,!IH!)/. in lN,'t7,anii l.vi,<,Mi7/. in lm;-.>.
Cahi.ow, a pari. Iior., Ilic prinripal town of tin-
nlHivfi anil lln- plari* wlu'rc I he aHMZi'M aro hriil,
on till' ItamiM', wlirrt' it Im Jnint'il liy Ihc llnrrrn,
•l.'i ni. SSW. l>iililin.on tlu> Nonlli MaHlfrn railway.
I'op. of iiarl. hor. IO,lo<i in Mil, ami N,ti7;i in
IWdl. Tlu' town, properly no ralii'il, Viv* wholly
on tlii> left hank ot Ihc Harrow, lint ii in conncrli'il
liy a liriil^c with Ihc Nulmrli of (iraiKiu', on the
iip|MNitc nIiIc of the river in (^ueen'H en,: iIiIn hiiIi-
nrli has U'cn inclmleil in the pari, hor., which
exiciiiirt over n npace of rr/'J acres. It Ih a wcll-
hiiill, nnil, III Honn' extent, a thriving town. It
hax an olil cantle now in rninn, hut mico a place of
coiiHiileralile Htren^lh anil iinporlance; a parinh
church with a Npire ; a hand.Hoine 1{, Cath. cathc-
ilral church, o|)cnc(l in jHlIt; a l{. Cath. college
anil convent ; ImrracliM ; a lunatic district nitylnni
for the COM. of Carlow, Wicklow, Wexford, and
KilUeiniy, erected in IMIIO at a cimt of nearly
'Jd.iKMl/, ; an ele^'ant new court-houMe, a <'ii. fraol,
aiul CO. inl'rtnary. Hc.sideH the Ii. Cath. ciillcp-,
lilted foriheacciHninodalion of 2110 Ntndenls, llicn^
is a dioccNan hcIiooI, and nunieriMmeliMrily-Nchools
Itoih for I'rotenlants and Catholics, There are also
several charitalilc inHtitntions.
Kein^ situated on n main lino of railway, nt\
well as on a navi^ahle river, conununicatiiiK with
Waterfonl on tlu! one hand, and with Duhlin, liy
means of the (iraiul Canal, on the other, Carlow
has u very considerahle trade. It is n f^rcat mart
for the agricultural produce, particularly the corn
aiul hiittcr, of the siirroundinj; country, (freal i|uuii-
titics of whicii are sent down the river to Waterford
for ex)iortation. It has also some \iir^i\ Hour mills,
mill an extensive malting; business; and furnishes
considerahle supplies hoth of Hour and malt to
i>uiilin. The llaiik of Ireland has u hraiich here.
Carlow is a place of ^'reat antiquity, and has
various charters; hy the last of these in 11171, the
hor, consists of n sovereign, elected annually, and
twelve self-elected free hurj^esses. J''roin ltii;{
down to the union with Great Itritaiii it sent two
iiicms. to the Irish 11. of (.'., and since the union it
has sent one inein. to the Imperial II. of C, who,
till the imssin^j of the Ifeform Act, was returned
by the sovercifiii and biirjjfesses. Itegistered elec-
tors 2:tli ill l«l!2.
CAKLOVVITZ, a town of the Austrian statca,
Slavonia, within tlie military frontier, circ. I'eter-
wardein, on the ri^cht bank of the DaiiulK', 4 in.
SK. I'eterwardein. I'op. 4,850 in lHi>7, mostly of
Servian descent. Many of the ilwellinns are mere
luits, and it is only in part paved. It contains a
(ireek cathedral, two other (Jrcek churches, u K.
Cath. church, a hoBjiital, seminaries for the (ireek
and Cath. clerpy, a (ireek lyeeiim, and a (Jiith.
liJKh-school. The subordinate jurisdiction of the
town in in the liaiiils of an equal niimlicr of li.
Cath. and Greek magistrates. It is the seat of a
Greek archbishop, the only one beloiifjiiig to that
<'luireh in tlie Austrian em])ire, to whom all the
Aiistro-Greck clergy are subordinate.
CARLSBAD, a town of lioheniia, famous for its
liot apriiiRs, on the Tepel, near the Kger, 72 m.
\VN\V. Prague, Stationary pop. 4,384 in 18o7.
The town lies in a low narrow valley, surrounded
by hills, covered with every variety »)f foliage, and
ailording the most extuiiijivc and varied prospects.
CAHLMCKONA
The town eniiNists principally of lodging hoiiseM
and hottds, for the accoinmodation of visitors to
I he waters; liul it has some goiHl Nhops and private
houses, with a theatre, aKNeiiibly and reailiiig-
roiiiiiN. The Spriidel, the principal Ntiriiig, U the
hiiltest in l'!urii|M> : lis leni|icralure being about
.''I'.KJ Iteaii., or III."! Fahr. The expansive force of
the siciiin below fnrccs uii the water in |i'In to a
coiisidenible heiglil ; and to guard against the
danger that has soineliines arisen frmn the ob-
struction of ihc aiierlures by which the water and
vapour escape, it lias been covered over by a Nojiil
bed of masonry. There are several other springs;
that of Muhllirunneii, which is the luosi coinnionlv
drank, has a Icniiierature of l.'tN'J Kiih. Ilallisof
all sorts are lilted up with every ai iniiinilaiion.
The waters are ellicacious in a' great variety of
coniphiiiils, hut chielly in those of the liver'and
kidneys. The walks and proincnadeH in the neigh-
bourhood of the town have a great deal of roinmi-
tic beauty and interest. The nninher of visiiors
in the season varies from 10,000 to I 'i.OOO every
year, iiicluding nearly always some of thecrowntil
iieads of Kiirope.
Carlsbad, now the most fashionable and aris-
tiKTalic watering-place in Kiimpe, is of compa-
ratively recent origin. The springs are said to
have been discovered in I;t7li, by the emperor
Charles IV., who, when hunting in the vicinity,
was attracted to the spot by the cries of a hoiind
that had fallen into one of the springs. The town
belongs to till! em|icror. A celebrated congresii
was held here in IHI!».
CAI{|-Sliri!(J,orKAI{LSl>I'UG, a roynl town
of Transylvania, CO. Cnter-MI.i 'is, on tlurN. bank
of the Afaros, 112 m. XVV. Iler„i,nist'idt ; hit. Iijo
iV 21" N., long. 2ao 2.') i"' ]], ]•„,.. (;,(i;i4 i,,
\H,'>7, It consists of the upper town or citadel
l)uilt on a hill, and tlio lower town, situated
beneath it. The citadel Is surrounded by walls
with seven bastions, and its principal "gale is
adorned with some line Hculptnres, The town
has a haiiilsome l{. Ciitli. church, containing the
tombs ami monuments of .lohii Iluniadcs, and se-
veral royal ind other personages; the line residence
of the bish 111 , of Transylvania, a canons' college,
containing '.lie provincial arcliives, royal mint,
oliservatory with a tine coUectiiin of apparatus,
several libraries and scientilic collections, an ar-
senal and barracks. There are also n hosjiital,
an ecclesiastical lyeeiim, college, and primary
school. From the lower town a bridge, 210 jiaces
in length, passes over the Maros.
CAULSCKONA, or CAISLSCUOON, a 8en-[>ort
town of Sweden, on the lialtic, cap. prefecture
lUeking; lat. filjo 10' >.)" N., long. 1 5° 3.r 25" K. IVm.
I."),!t51 in 1«5H. The greater jiart of the town is
built on the small rocky island of Tros-oe, and
the rest on some adjoining islets ; the commu-
nication with the mainland being maintained
nartly by a mound, and partly by a wooden bridge.
The harlioiir is large and safe, with water sutHcieiit
to float the largest ships. It has three entrances,
but the only one practicable for large vessels is on
the .S. side of the town, and is defended by two
strong fortu. The dry docks constructed here, for
the building and repair of men-of-war, have been
formed at a vast expense ; they are of great ex-
tent, and have liecn cut out of the solid granite
rock. The town is well built, consisting partly
of brick, but principally of wooden houses. The
arsenal, and other buildings connected with the
docks and shipping, are on a large scale ; and there
are also two liandsome churches, an hotel for the
prefect, a hospital, and a lazaretto. There is a
great dcliciency of gowl water ; that which is nh-
taiued from the well) sunk iu the town ia brackibli.
Rpn-port
(•ret;! iiro
i:. I'op.
Idwn in
(If, mill
LMiinimi-
iiitniiu'd
liriilfjo.
utK(n('iit
tranccH,
Ah ix on
by two
lero, for
vc 1)0011
rent cx-
jjrtuiito
partly
, Tlic
til thu
ul there
for the
re i» a
h is oh-
ruckuh.
CAIIL^IIAMN
''o ihiit \\\iiH r.iiii \Mtirr luiN. rrcoiirFo' hii-< to Im>
liiiil toMprliiK'* ilinliiiit ulioiii it III, 'rhiTrnrc khiih'
MiaiiiiliM'iiir>'H of I'aiiviiM amt liiicii, with uiu'lior
l'iir(()'it Mini liiiiiii'rii'H. 'lilt- Iraili' u( ilic town i^
lull iiintiiHiilrritlili' : till' I'xiiiirisi'ctiini^i principally
iif iron, I'opprr, Nii'ol, poiHtli, hir, ami pilrli,
('HrUiroiia ilrrivoH Iim naiiii' ami ori^'iii from
riiarli'H \l., mIio, ill li'iMii, foiilVrrt'il mi it cnii-
Hhlrriilili- privili'^i'H, ainl rcimivtil ilir iIitI ihlilicr
li'iiiii Stoi'klioliii, It Imih miiii'o colli iiiiK'il lo lie I lie
principal Mlatioii of llio Swcilisli llccl ; liiil I lie
uiliiiiriiltv. wliicli liail liccn loiij^ ?<caii'<l here, was,
in ITTii, iraiiNrcrrril III Slocklioliii. In I7!MI, it Miif-
Icrotl f<cvcn'l\ from a lire.
(•AI!l,Sll\MN,or K AIM,S|IA|.|;\. n Nrn-|Hirt
town of Swi'ilcii, prov, lllckiiiK', <'ap. h.i'rail., on
the llallic, at tlie month of tlio Nic, o.'i iii, W,
t'arlHcroiiu! hit. Mfi Ti' in" N., lonj,'. II" .il' K.
I'op. 0,7:10 ill INoN, 'riioiiiwii liMN two cliiirchi'H,
a hoNpitiil, with coiiHiilcralilc maiinfactnrcs of caii-
va", woollciiM, ami lohacco, ami linililiii^^ yanlK.
'I'lic harlioiir is Hiiiall, Imt safe. 'I'Ik- cxporu coii-
nIkI of iron, limlicr, poiash, pitch, ami tar. Ilcin^
liiiilt principally of wood, it Iiiih Noiiiolimi'M HiilVcroi
m'Vcri'lv from tires.
(•Alfl,.SI{i;iir. (C7mr/.n'K lii'Mf), a city of (ier-
niaiiy, euii. of the ^raml iliichy of llailcn, circ.
MiiliUe Itiiiiie, resilience of the KramI iliiKe, nml
xeat of the ailminisiralioii ami principal staU^
antlmrilies, in the line plain of the liaanlwalil,
which siirronmis it on the N, ami W, ; I m. K. I he
Khiiie, :i7 m. \VN\V. Stnlfnanlt, 'i7 m. S. Iiy \V.
Ihirmslailt, ami l'2 m. Nil. Strashnr^, on the rail-
way from I'ranUl'orl to llasel. i'op.-.'7,|ii;i in IHiil.
The town is ipiite iiiii((n(^ in eoiistriiclion, lieiii^
liiiilt III the form of an ontspreail fan, or rather
wheel, roiiml the ^raml-iliical iialace, from which,
as a centre, thiriy-lwo pnlilie mnles radiate.
■Several of the streets stretch into the forest. 'I'he
hij^h, or loii^', street rims from K. to \V,, dividing
the city into a N. and S, portion, (.'arlsriiho is in
part walled, ami has suveii ^ates. It is a haml-
Mime, lint nil her dull town. Streets liroad, well
paved, furnished with fiiut-|iatlis, and well lif^hted
at ni;>;lil. Mouses linilt in a ^'reat variety of styles,
••liielly of hrick. There nru nine piihlio squares,
and facing the palace, at the point of union of the
principal streets, is a semicircular raiif^e of ele|;aiit
iinildiii|;s, comprising the pivernment ollices, and
others attached to the |ialace. The ^'rand-diical
resideiKU', n plain building, composed of a centre
and two wiii(;s, contains the Jilri/lhurm (_lead-
tower), from the snmmit of which there is uii
exteiisivu prospect ; a cabinet of coins and na-
tural objects; IX library of M(l,(MK) vols,; and the
(diiirch uttemlod by the court. Towards the K.
extend the Inr^e gardens and park iH'lon^iin^ to
iIk! palnce, which are thrown o|m-ii to the public.
There arc several other palaces beUmgiii)^ to the
nobility deserving of notice, and ninety public
linildiiifjs, including four I'rotestant and Catholic
churches, a Nynapi^iie, town-hall, in which both
chambers of the senate meet ; a miiscnin, the
)rrand-diical niid another theatre, a m^w mint, the
)iost-ofIice, infantry and cavalry barracks, arsenal,
<!annon-foiindry, and several hospitals, llerr
.Stiiltz, the once fashionable London tailor, was
the founder of one of these hospitals, which he
enihiwed with 10l),llO() tlorins. In return for his
fjenerosity the tailor was created a banm. The
city is supplied with water by an aqueduct from
Durlach, distant 2J m. K. l>y S. ; it is adorned \>y
several public fountains, and in the centre of the
principal square is a stone pyramid, erected to
the memory of the founder of the city. Its chief
establishments for ciliicntion are a lyceum, pol;
tochnic, military, medical, and veterinary schoo
MIMONA
GMi
irchid ' lire niid paint iii^. It
lit bo' .idi-Kar' <i, a »{allcry of
"ty ' . arts, r ,cr the pairon-
'hik«*, CurUri' Ih not a placo
It hiiM NO I' mnniifai'turert
l;
and iicadi'inii
IMMsessen an e\<
paiiilin^s, and a
a^e of the ^raiid
of Considerable trn
of silki, carpels, u nnlleiiM, siiull. chemical
duels, furniture, cairniKC". clocks, (cwdlery. I
articles of luxury, Imi ihe priisperiu of lis
bilauts mainly depends on iis lieiiiK the > ..f
the court, and the rciidc nre of ihi' principal 01 rn
ol siaie. It is quite a modern citv, and has I, 11
aroinid a hniiiin^' »eal luiilt by diaries Williuiii.
Miir^raM' of Itadcn, in I7iri.
CAIf l,S TAIt, a town of Sweden, cap. prefect nro
of Ihe sjiiiie iiaiiie, on the islikiid of Tin^'vallii, at
the iiioulh of Ihe Khir, on Ihe hike Wciiern, and
on the projecied railway from Chrisiiaiiia to ,*iiock-
holm. I'l'ip, l,s:'H in"|M,)M. The town is built
of wood on a regular plan; has a liandxoine ca-
thedral, a ^'ymnasiiim, an oliservalory, an a^jricnl-
tiiral siiciely, a cabinet of nalnral hisinrv, ainl a
tobacco manufai't lire; and is the seal of a bUhopric,
and Ihe residence of the prefect. The opening of
Ihe (lot ha canal has added considerably to lis coin -
inercc. It exports copper and iron, corn, sail, and
liinlier,
CAIJKSTADT, n town of Austrian Croatia, co.
A^raiii, cap. circ. of same naim', at the coiitlueiice
of the Korana and Hohra wiih the Knipa, iiniiic-
diatcly beyond the liiiiil of the military fronlirr,
:<■> III. SW, Akiihii. I'op. [),72{) in If<."i7. The
town is well built, thon^di mostly if vood; has a
small fortress, originally intended to resist the in-
cursions of the Turks, and which issurronmlcd by
ramparts, trenches, and palisades; and contains a
handsome parade, barracks, ami arsenal. Il has
live Catholic clinrches, a tireek church, a K.vnina-
i«inm, superior and ^■■'1'*' schools, a civii; and mili-
tarv hospital, and is the residence of a tireek
bisiioj). Considerable qnanliiies of the liqueur
called nmiijliii are produced here. Its trade is ini-
important, but its inliahitants derive coiisideralilu
prolit from the conveyance of ^oisls to the ports
of Ihe Adriatic. It was fiiunded by the late Arch-
duke Charles, whose name il bears.
CAI!.MA(iX()LA, an inland town of X. Italv,
prov. Turin, cap. disi.. near the I'o, l^> in. S. bv ic.
rnrin. I'op. :i,«(;o in iKiil. The town is well
built and laid out ; many of its streets, as well as
its )irinci|ial s(|uare, are ornamented with porticos.
It contains several ehiirches and convents, and u
hospital, and has two suburbs. It has consider-
able trade in silk, tlax, hemp, corn, and cattle, for
which two larj^e markets are held weekly. This
town fonnerly lielon^red to the manpiisateof .Salii/.-
zo: it was taken bv the French in Iti'.tland I7'.iti.
CAIJMKL (MtiCXT), a famous mountain of
Svria, extendiiij; from the jilaiii of Ksdraelon in n
N\V. diretttion till it terminates in the steej) pro-
montory forming the SW. extremity of the Hay
of Acre. The name. Mount (,'annet, is usually
conlined to this promontory, the liei;;lit of which
is variously estimated at from 1,,")(H) to I MOO ft.
This mountain is famous in S«'ripture history, more
especially in that of Elijah, biMiiy the plaice where
he destroyed the prophets of liaal. (I Kiiif^s,
xviii.) In more modern times, the mountain ban
been occupied by monks, who have resided in
grottos cut out of the rock, and in a monastery
built near the summit. The latter was destroyed
in 1K'2I, but has since been rebuilt.
CAIJMONA (an. Caniio), a city of Spain, prov.
Seville, cap. dep. of same name, '-'0 m. KNK. Se-
ville, M in. WS\V. Cordova. I'op. lo.Ow in 1«.")7.
The town stands in a picturesque situation on an
isolated hill, hiokiii^ down npon the plains of
Andaliisiu; it is well built, and has seven churches,
n/vo
C A UN AH
nitin onnvrnin, «nil two lioxiiiinN, mmw Itiiioni)
aiilii|iiili<''<, mill ii iH'aiilil'ul KinurUli k<>I*'- I' l»k<*
Niiirni",
MiiiirUli
Koiiii' iiiiiiiiiriirliiri'M III' riiiiriM' wiinlli'ii amt lii'ni|irii
Cliitll, llMtN, ullic, miilp, ili'ltl, mIiiH' li'illhiT, mill ViHX
4'aiiilli'N ; lull niimt III' llii'iii art' in ailrrayiii^Niuli'.
llM I'livlriiim iiri' very I'criili', piirlii'iiliirly in >iii)'it
ami iilivi'M, It wait a |ilari> nl' iiii|Mirtiiiiri> iiiiijrr
llii> lEoiiiaiii, mill Cii'Nur rinilrrri'il nil It llii>|iri\i-
ll'^'l'l« III' u Itiiiiiaii t'ilv. I'liilir I III' MiiiirN it svim
ri'li'liriili'il I'nr ll.'t I'lixiii'M, palai'iN, ami I'lUiiitaiiix,
of wliii'li lianlly aiiv ri'iiialtm iiovv cxiNl,
t'AKNAC, a vilfiinr nl' Fniiii'i', di'ii, Mnrliiliaii,
nil a Iii'IkIiI III a litlli' ilixtiiiiri' Innii llii' Hca, 'JO m,
SI'!, I.'< Iriciil. It l.-i ri'iiiiirkaliii' t'nr vi'ry t'Xli-iixK ■'
ri'iiiaiiii III' what in lu'lirvcil In liavi' Ih'i'Ii a ilriiiil
irill inniiiiiilrlll. 'I'Iichi' rniiNisI n|' I'ii'Viii railKi'H
III' ^raiiilt' Htntii's NiaiiilliiK in liiicN iirarlv p<'r|irii
tiirillar In llii' cniiNt, 'J'lii'Hi' nlulirH ari' nl' i^rrilt
tliirkiicriN, Mini I'min !l tn |i>, pi'rIiapN 'Jii, I'l, in
Iu'IkIiI. 'I'Iii' Fri'iirli writrm nay llial liny iiri'
((('iirnilly iiiiniil '.'II l'l„ ami iliiil tlii' IiIkIh'"! mi'h
'J'2 (Fri'iirli) I'l. alin'i' ^'rniiml, lliil iMr'«. Stnllianl
iliMlliii'lly alliniiH llial IIiIh Im iiii cxaKKcralinii ;
lliat till' liiKlii'^l ill) iinl ri.Ht' iimri' tliiiii l.'i I'l.alinvi'
^'riiiiiiil, aiiil llial I lit' iiiriliiiiii lii'lj^'lil is I'mni tl In
i'i I'l. (l.i'ttrrM rrnin Niiniiiimly, p. '.'nii.) 'I'licir
iiiinilii'r in Hiiiil tn I'xriTil l.iMlil: ilir Hiiialli'Nt I'liil
JH IIm'iI ill llii' (^'miiiiil, ami in nihih' iiiNtaiircH Mat
htoiirH, Niippiirtril liy Iwn nfiliiHi' ihat art' iipriKlit)
(nriii viiKi ^jali'wiiyH. 'I'lii' nliji'i't, ami llir cpni'li
u( liic I'liiiHiriu'linii III' tliii cNlrMiinlimiry iiiniiii-
iiirnl, arc aliUi' iiiikiinwii. 1 1 lias I'Xi'rrist'il tiii>
inp'iiiiily III' llii' atiliipiarii's nf jlri'iii^iit'; luit
llii'ir rcscarrlu's liavc iml lici'ii imiri' miri'i*sliil
tliaii tliiHc III' niir nwii aiitiipiaricM mi ihc Hiiliji'rt
<il' Stnlirlicilf^r,
CAIiNATIC, a very nxtennlvo iiiarit. jimv. nf
S. llimlnslMii, I'liiiiprixiM)^ a I'liiiHiiit'i-aliic poriinii
of liii' liTritnry iimliT llii' iM/niras prt'siiiiiii'v. It
I'Xtcmls alnii^' I III* ('nrninaiiili'l cnasl, I'tniii (.'ape
Cniiinriii In the riM'r (iiiiiilcj^am, or lictwci'ii lat.
h° ami 1(1° N.. ami Inn;;. 77*^ 1;V ami H()0 ;t(i' K.,
liaviii^ X. the Nnrilicrii Circars, W, ilm llala^liaut
(U'iK'il ilislrii'lM, III)' |irnvs. Sali'iii nml CniiiiliiUnnr,
mill llic Ciiciiiii ami 'I'ravaiu'nrc ilniiiitiiniis, ami
S, ami v.. till! Imliaii Ocean, the (inll' nl' Maiiar,
ami lilt! Hay <>l' liciipil. LciikIIi NK. In S\V.
[)M III., avcrii^c lircailih aliniit !M) in. Tntal area
rr.VC';! hi|. III. ; I'stiinalcil pnp, 7,0011,000. The K.
(ihants intcrNcct this prnv. in a NK. nr X. ilircc-
tinii, ihrnnK'lionl its whnle extent N. ol' hit. 1 1° 'JO',
dlviiliii}; it iiiln the Tpjier nml l.nwcr (.'aniatic, nr
thecniinlricsaliiiveaml lielnw tlietihaiits, dilVcriii^
III' enn^^e >;rcally in elevation ami prnporlioiially
ill cliinale. The principal rivers, the IVniiar, I'u-
liuir, Cavcry, anil Va^iih nr V'aypirnn, all rise in
the tahle-laiiil alinvc the (ihiiulsl ami fall into Ihe
ocei'.n nil the ('nroniamlel nr F.. coast nf Imlia.
The climate of the Lower Canialic is oik' nf tlio
linttest ill the peninsula, tlioii;;'h in the ininicilialu
iiei).;lilinurlinoil of the coast it is sometimes niiti-
mateil liy sea breezes; that of the Upper (Janiatii;
is similar to that nf jlvsorc. The primitive rocks
of this region are chietly sieiiite, with n small
proportion of felspar, ami all the soil of the
province appears lo consist of the di'liri* of tlis-
iiilej^rateil sienile inoinitains. Near the sea, sand
and loam prevail upon the surface, MpariiiKly
intermixed with the remains of marine animals.
KIsewhere, aecnrdiiif; to circumstances, loam Ih
more or less prevalent, mixed with various propor-
tions of {{ravel ami sand, sfrnii{,'ly imprcfrnated
with irnii, and coiitainiiifj frequently large (luan-
tities of soda and common salt, which ettlorescc
upon the surface in dry weather. Near Madras
the soil is heavy, and ahoiiiuls with salt : thence
to Yellore, mid, lu iiiuiiy other purt», it is so sterile
CAItoLINA (LA)
UN ill nniirlxh only the cnnimoii liread tren (Mrlln
iiiiiiliriuhlii), llie HiJiiHiii miHn, iVc, Idee In tint
primlpiil iTnp ill Ihe low country i in the liltthlmidit
all kimlK of Niiiall ^raliiN are ciiltivalrd. Siiftar in
KTowii only in niiiiill ipiaiiiiiicH, the xml imi lifln^
rich eiiniiKli I'nr the t'aiit'N. Tnliiti ami n liiilti
indi^'o are ciiltivaled ; Iml the lallir not for ex -
pnrtilllnll. 'the coltnll raited Im cliiellv nf (hit
dwarf kind {(lonMiffiium hrrtMimim), lrrit{alinll
lieiiig liiTt' t^i'iirrally nf extreme inipnrlaiice in Ilm
mii'i'cMNof the crnpN, nuillerniiMiind exlellnive laiikN
have lieeii ciiiiHtructt'il in xiich iliHiricis as are not
iraverMeil hy eiiiisiili'ralile ri\t'rH, FainiiieM nml
Ncarrilies are mil iiiifi't'ipieiii in (his iiart nf Imlia,
The I'arniH are iinmily tilled liy .SinlraH. iMiriiig
Ihe llrHt few years after our acipiislllon of the Car-
iiatic, the land revenue of exti'iisive Irai'ls wan
reiiled lint to a set nf iiiidille-inen nr leiiipnrary
/I'liiimlars, wlm under let cerlalii parts to ilin
heads of villages. That thisHysteni was not with-
out its defects, is certain ; ami partly w ith the view
nf olivialin^; these, ami partly in oiilrr lo M'ciire a
f^realer ainouul of reveiiiie, the ri/nlinir svsti'in
has lieeli {generally intmihiced. 'I lie iirinciple nf
this HVsti'in is In siiiiersede all iiiiddle-inell and
head lariners, mid lo hriii^; the cnlleclnrs iiiln ini-
inediate cniitacl with Ihe n/otii, itr ciillivalnrs, who
are directly assesHcd with such a rent as it is snp-
pnseil Ihe land will hear; the more prospernim
persons in a vilhif^e lieiii); at Ihr same time com-
pelled to make up I'nr Ihe ileliciencies of (heir lesi4
i'oriuiiate neiu'lilioiirs, and the assetsmeiit is per-
petually v;' yiiig, NolwithstamliiiK our res|K'ct
for Ihe aide nieii liy wlinin this Hystein has lieeii
rccniniiieiided, it is not goln^; inn far tn say, that
it is a curse upon the cniinlry, and that till it he
alinlislied, or very materially inotlilied, nntliing
hut iinpnverishmelit need he Innked I'nr. Most of
the pop. are llimlotm of Ihe llrahiinnieal sect;
there are ('iimparalividy few Mnhannnedans, and
Hindoo ciisinms are retained in wonderful purity
tlimiigliout the prov. Madras, I'ondieherry, Traii-
tpieliar, Tanjnre, Arcot, Hindigiil, il'c, are the
chief cities and towns. Formerly there werea vast
iiiimher of strong hill fnris; Imt must of them ure
now crtimhling into ruin. Few prnvs. exhihit so
many largi^ temples and other iiiihlit; monuments
of former civilisation and wealth: the temples are
all liiiilt on a uniform plan, and inclosed within ii
four-sided wall, IT) or '.'n ft. liigh.
The Moguls tirst invaded the Canmtic in l.'HO,
Imt it was not linally in their possession till the
reign of Aiiriingzehe. In 1717 it was severed,
witli the Mogul territories in the Dccciin, from the
throne of Delhi. Alter the wars, which lasted
with little intermission throughout a great )inrt of
the 1 Ktli century, the Carnutit! was eonqiicred hy the
Kritishin I7h;|;LiuI itwasnot linally ceded till IhoI.
C.Mi'XKUiA. {See(,'AlUNTiiiAandCAK.Nloi,A.)
CAKXVVA'III, .1 village of Scotland, K. part
of Lanarkshire, 'J.'i m. S\V. Kdinhurgh, on the
Fdinhiirgh line of the Caledonian railway. I'oji.
Mll.j ill l«Gl. The place luus of late been greatly
im]iroved ; the numerous new houses that have
been erected are handsome, and built according lo
a delinitc |ilan ; and mamifacturing industry has
been introdm^ed. 'i'hc great body of the iiilia-
bitunts are employed in weaving, and Uciieiidciit
on (ilasgow for employment.
CAKOLIXA (LA), a town of Spain, prnv.
.Jean, iUt m. NXK. Jaen; near the railway frnm
IMadrid to ( 'adi/,. This is the cap. of the foreign
coloincs settled in the Sierra Moreiia in the reign
of (Jharles 111. The district whcrt: they are estab-
lisheil was previously a desert, and abuiidoned to
banditti ; but Don I'niilo dc Olavido, who thou
held a high ulUcc iu the govcrumuut uf Seville,
*' .IfflVi
fofi'i^ll,.,
"Wn lain
mid eacl
niii for I
lilhii oi
ini'iii 1^,1
mid seed
hnilM,. '
of tliti la
Jilt; hilt
oil liriiij;i
withstMiii
tclifine h,
asNij^iii'il I
liirly Niipi
inmh hiM
• " niniJMi
the penp||<
lagers ill I
ralivvly ii
linlaloes, ,
'•est siiileil
cnnstriiciji
Kmitry. am
•'"Id /limit
wrappid II
are all bus'
assiiiiilaie,]
with their
thest- Inwii)
(Mt'OLI
N. Americii
X. hit., and
X. Virginia
iiikI S. Cai
KcngtIi. F.
Area /"iLoo
whom ;i,l|,i
free-colniirei
toast is f(>ni
"'"idy isls., i
places by nil
or Ingooiis.
shallow ami
only one X
small vessel
gi'iierally n
■niiinland
h'fs, (he pri
I'iiinlico sou
I'tirtaiice is /
'iver, near tl
IH ft. wafer.
The siirfa
— Ihe low 1*
The low com.
• he state, an
dead Hat. iiiii
most extt'usi
flimi TiO 111. Ill
Hiila formed
The swamps
vegetation, ai
pine, cedar, at
the snrlace sw
part rises im
Apalai liian cl
of il.oiio ft.
most W. calk
K. the Ilhio .
estimated at a
Allantic.
Most of the
less a SK. con
laiitic. The
ail'! Cape Fear
Vol.. I.
is
CAUor.lNA (NOKTII)
M7
(Mfliit
\» tint
;lilitllili«
iiiuiir \»
1 l>i'lii)(
n UtiUt
fur fx-
i>t' tliii
It In ttltf
,(• IihiUh
I iiri^ ii'it
llt'H Ullll
il' liiiliii.
IMiriux
llir Ciir-
iii|)iiriiry
A (II lll«
lilt willi-
tlu' viiw
p wrun- II
iiiL'liili' "f
-null III"!
. Into iiii-
itiirn, wlio
it in HUp-
iriWlHTIilH
\\\\w I'lini-
llu'ir U'!"*
lit il* I'tT-
(ir ri'!*ini't.
1 IlIkH lii'ii
> HIIV, tliiil.
1, till it '•"
I, iiotliiiin.
r. M<>!»t "'"
iiifitl Kt'i'l ;
umIiiii)*, mill
irlul imriiy
rry/rraii-
nr« tilt!
WtTl! 11 viicl
tlu'in arc.
xliiliit H<>
loinmu'iitrt
■miiU's aru
ud within II
tic in l.'^lt*.
lion till till!
art Hcvcrt'il,
ui, from tlic
hich laitted
rcat jiart of
lert'tllivtlio
U-(ltilll«Ol.
JAIISIOI.A.)
ml, K. port
(r\i, on the
way. I'op-
ct'ii urcatly
that liavc
cconlintJ •'•
iHliirttry liiiH
(f the iiili'i-
dependtnit
pain, prov.
jilway from
J the fori'i),'n
lin the rei(,'ii
\y are estali-
iJaudoued to
who then
It of Seville,
1*1 iircivtiil tli<< ilrnlifn nf cojoniitinK Ihr Sierra with
t'i>ri'l^iii>rN, w liii xhoiilil Hii|i|iiiri iht'iinH'lM'nliy ihiir
• iwii liitMMir. Mimt of lhi< Ni'iiltTM wrri' tii'rimiiin,
mill I'tii'li ri'i'^'lv I'd iMio.tHMi Mi|, I'l, III' liiiiil, rri'<< Irmii
ri'iii I'lif It'll v' ir», atiil aftrr that lo Im kiiIiJim-I to
liihi'i iiiii\ . A'iili rai'li nlloimi'iii llu> govern
iiiriii nnvi\ aUo, HI roWN, I a-w, 'J pi^n, 2 I'iimIn,
and Hi'cd I'i'T ilii< laiiil, willi a lioiiMt', iiiid a IhiIm'-
liiiii'<f, 'I'lii' ni'llJiT wan ri'.tiraiiii'il I'rniii ili-|MiHiii>{
of tilt' Jaii-I I liny niit' in piinminmIuh nl' iiniillii'r
lot; hill «M|H I In< t'lilillt'd to anollit'r ripial Krant
on hrin|{iiii; iliit lirot hiln .iiltivalinn. Hiil iml
williMliitiiliM)( llii'DK and ntlicr ail\aiiliiKi'^i ih<'
MclifiiiK ii.iit not hi'i'ii vi'ry iiu'fi"*-!!^!, Tht- funds
niotiKiK'd lo I .irry il into ii|><'ralli>ii wi'rr not ri'),'ii-
larly Hiippli I, and llif ^'nvfrnnicnt wan in loo
tnni'li liii.ili draw a riMiiiu' froiii thi< iii'W pop.
to n'inilHii lUi'ir lor ihr iIthI advaiu'i'i, SI III
tin- pfoplr I'll ii'iil a NirikiiiK I'linlniMi in ihn vil-
la^t'rM ill iiiiiNi oilier |iarl.s ol' Spain, hciii^ coiiipa-
ralivvly liidiiNirioiiH and aclivi*. Corn, piMliiri',
IMilatoi'M, iind ralilia^;!'!* art! raini'd in tlii' Hpoin
M'Nt Hinted to iIk'iii, 'I'Iii' nitta^'t'it are of lii'tler
t'lin.iiriii'iion than thi< caliinM of ilii< Spanish pca-
Naiilrv. and havi! iiiuhI ni'i'i'SHiiry iirlirli'N of liiuisi'-
liold riirniliiri' ; and their inliali., iiiNleiid of NJltiii^
wra|i|>i'd lip in eloakH in a Hiate of Mliipid apiilhy,
are all Iuihv with Nonielliiii^; or ollii'r, 'I'hey have
iisniniilalt'i'l llieniNelvi'H ill laiiKiiii^t^ and reli'^ioii
with ilieir iieiKiihoiirs, There are llfty-uij;ht of
IheHt' townxliipN ill Spain,
C.VKOI.INA (N()|{'ni),a niaril. Htnle of the
N. Anieriian I'lilim, heiweeii X\° Un' and 'M'fi 'M'
N. Lit., and 7oO .'lo' and « 1° "Jo' W. loii(;. ; having'
N. VirKiiiia. VV. 'rriinexsee, SVV. and S. (leorula
and S. Carolina, uiid SI'), and K. the Alliiiiiii'.
Length. K. liiW., l;iU III., averaj{e hreadth IIH in.
Ar«>a ril.lMK) m|. ni. rii|>. *.l!l-.',li-.".' in iMlo, of
whom .'t;il,l)'*l) Mlaveft, l,iriH Indians, and llll.lli.'l
free-coloured tieoplc. The n;realer part of I lie
t'oant is fenced hy a line of lonj;, low, narrow,
Mainly inU., neparated from the niainland in Moine
(ilaccM hy narrow Honiidf*, in others hy liroad jjiilfs
or hiKooiiH. The ]iassa)j;cs lietween them are mostly
shallow and danp'roiis, and Ocracoke Inlet is the
only tine N. of ('apt! Fear, tlinini^h which t'Vcii
small vessels can pass. The sliores of the isl. arc
P'licrally regular and unlirokeii, while that of the
mainland is deeiily indented liy nnnieroiis in-
lets, the principal of which art! Alhemarlc and
I'ainlici) Hoiinds. The only harlioiir of any im-
portance is formed hy the estnary of ('ape Kcar
river, near the S, extremity of the Htate, and has
18 ft, water.
The surface may he classed under tliree divisions
— the low level, hilly, and nioiinlainons connlry.
The low country com|>rises nearly all the I'',, half of
the slate, and for (il) or Hi) in. inland coiisisis of a
(IcatI Hat. hilerseetcd with swamps and marshes, the
most ex'cnsive of which, Alligator Swamp, more
than 50 in. lonf^. hy J)0 hroad, occupies the penin-
sula formed hy Alliemarle and I'amlico sounds.
'I'lie swamps are mostly covered with a hixnriaiit
vegetation, and have extensive forests, chielly of
]iine, cedar, and cypress trees. Ik-yond this rejjioii,
the surface swells into hills, and in the most W.
]iart rises into mtaintains. These lieloug to the
Apalncliian chain, which here rises to an eU^vatioii
of !I,(IIMI ft. They form two principal ranges, the
most W. called the Iron Mountains, anil the more
E. the nine l{idne; the intcmiediate valleys are
estimated at ahout 1,000 ft. above the Icvel'of the
Atlantic.
Most of the rivers in this state have more or
loss a SK. course, and llow directly into the At-
lantic. The principal are the Koanoke, Neuse,
aiii! Cape Fear rivers. The latter is the only one
Vt>i,. 1.
wholly t« it hill ihe itinie ; il is navi({nhlo for miiall
Vi'iwi'ls to l-iivt'llex ille, I^IO III. Initll llsniiiiilli.
The Nt'iise, Mliii'h ii|H'ns liy n wide esliiary into
I'anilico Soniid, iraNcrses the centre of itie Ninle,
and is iiavl^alde for lioals In most parts of lis
course. The Itoaiioke enters the siale Irmil the N,,
and lliiws Into .MU'inarle Sonnd, alter a coiirstt of
ahiiiii iiro III, Il can Im< aseeiidi'd liy M>s»eU of
eoii'-ideralile loiina^'e fur alioiit :in ni. from lis
iiioulh, and liy sniiill crall lo 70 in. higher.
The eliniate varies according lo elevallon; a
ililVereiice iif iiiori^ than !>'' Falir, exists in the
annual ini'iin temp, of the 11. and W. extremitirs
of Ihe stale. In the low connlry, the siinmii'r is
sultry, and pestilenllal diseases prevail; elsewhere
il is very healthy, and the winters ofliii severe.
Soil in the pliiins fur the iiiosi pari sandy and
sterile. In the hillv connlry also there are soinil
nine liarreiis; hut tliese are less extensive ihan in
Virginia, Jtc, AIouk the hanks of the riveri, aiol
W. of the niouniains, tliere are lands of a rich
hiai'k mould and of great li'rtility, 'Ihe forests nf
Ihe inlerior coniain oak, hickory, niiiple, iisli,
cypress, cedar, and hlack walniil. Apples, pears,
sirawlierries, the llg tree, vine (I'iliH riiilfrin),
wilcl vine, Ac, atliiin perteciion; the clurry trecH
grow to an iinmensi> si/.e, and peaches Ihrivo
every where. •Snake-root, sarsaparilla, and other
vahialile drugs are found. Cotlon and rice artt
staples. Large ipianiities of Iht! former are grown
111! the sandy isls., nnd in the low country ; rice in
ciillivated iirincipally on the more solid tracts,
interspersed amongsf the swamps. All kinds of
Fiiropean grain, pulse, and llax are produced in
the interior; and a great deal of pilch, tar, liir'
peiitine, and Inmher art! ohtaini'tl from Ihe pino
forests. Mni/e thrives well; hut the wheat is
generally of inferior tpialily. The lenvi>s of the
canes, with which many of the lower lands aro
overgrown, alVurd good fiidder for the cattle ilnrint^
Ihe winter. Hogs are Ihe mosi immeroiis of the
domestic animals. The wolf anil wild cat art!
almost the only fnrmidiJile wild (|uailrnpeils. Wild
turkeys are plentiful. The Itoanoke and tit her
rivers alionnd with large lisli. Alligators of an
enormous sizt! infest Ihe swamps and lower courseii
of Ihe rivers; and snaketi, including the ratlli!-
snake, art! numeroiis.
In conseipiencc of its want of liarln>iirs, N. (^nro-
lina has little direct foreign trade, luid nearly all
its coninierct! is with the iieighhonring slates. lis
iirincipal exports are cotton, rice, tohaecu, Inmher,
III vast (pianlities, tar, jiitiih, tur]ienline, wheat,
anil Indiun corn, Theri! are sevtTal canals, lint
none »if any great exlt!nt. Only two railroads
lie wholly within this state; the Kaleigh and
(iaston, and the Wilmingtoii and llaleigh. Ilolli
wer^! completed in \H',\H ; their united length is
nearly 2(il> m., and the cost tif their construction
was estimated at ahout 2,>^(H),0II0 dol. Others
intersect the \. ]Mirtion of the state, and several
lines of railway have either heen commenced,
or projected, hut their constrnctioii was prevented
hy the tuithreak of the civil war in the Ciiited
States, in which North Cartdina took u leading
part. The state is ilivided into sixty-two counties,
italeigh is the caj). : the other chief towns being
Fayetteville, Wilmington, and Newbiirn. The
legislative power is vestiul in a senate anil n house
of representatives. Hoth are elected annually by
the people, each co. seniling 1 mem. to the senate,
and 2 to the II, of It. Klectors of senators must
possess lifty acres of freehold ]iro|)erty; but the
right to elect mems. of the II. ol U. belongs to
all citi/ens above the age of twenty-one. The
executive power is in the, hands of a governor,
ussisteU by a council of 7 mems., chosi'ii hy ik
L' U
' I
' 1
(!.')8
CAROLINA (SOUTH)
The fltato hcikIa 13
jdint voto of the (wo hodwji.
r('|)rcfK>ntntivc8 to CNingroMS.
N. rarolinn is divided into nix cirpiiits, in each
of which a circuit court itt lield hulf yearly. The
judj^es are appointed bv a joint vote of the two
houKes, .tnd hold office during pleaHure. Education
is rather bacltward, hut advanoiuf;. There is n
university, and academies are estahlished at various
iilnccs. The earliest attehipts made by the EnK-
linh to colonise America took place in this state ;
but the tirst colony, planted on the Koanokc river,
in 1587, is supposed to have been cut off by the
natives. In IfiJiO fresh settlements be^an to l>e
made, and in Ui67, the colony obtained a repre-
sentative ffoveniment. In 1717 Carolina was
brought under the direct control of the crown, and
in 1 7*20 divided into N. and S. This state zealously
joined in the revolutionary strufj^le. North Caro-
lina separated from the (Jnited States by an Act
of (Secession passed May 2(t, 18(!!. The seaboard
counties were recon(pu"red in 18(>2, and the state
again joined the Union in 18C5, when slavery was
tinally abolished.
CAROLINA (SOUTH), one of the U. States
of America, in the S. jjart of the Union ; cbietlj'
between lat. 320 and 35° N., and long. 78° 40' and
83° W., having N. and NE. N. Carolina ; E, and
SE. the Atlantic ; and SVV. Georgia ; from which
it is separated by the Savannah. Shape some-
what triangular. Length, NW. to SE., 240 ni.;
average breadth, 130 m. Area about 31,000
sq. m. Pop. 708,708 in 18ti0, of whom 402,400
slaves, 88 Indians, and 9,914 coloured free people.
Surface very different in different parts; but ita
changes are, for the most part, gradual. The
whole coast S. of Winy aw Point is broken into a
number of low islands, and is tlat, sandy, and
alluvial. It continues so for nearly 100 m. in-
land, where a range of small and sterile sand hills
stretches across the state NE. to SW. This tract
is succeeded by a picturesque country' of hills and
valleys,, clothed with extensive forests; and
farther W. the country continues to rise till, at
the border of the state, it terminates in a table-
land, some peaks of which are estimated to rise to
more than 4,300 ft. above the level of the Atlantic.
This region forms part of the Apalachian, or
Alleghany chain. The coast has several excel-
lent harbours of the second class; but few of the
first order. Those of Charleston and Port Royal
are the best, and the only ones accessible for large
ships. The chief rivers are the Savannah, Santee,
and Pedee ; but all of them are shallow at their
mouths : further inland, the river navigation is
much better than on the coast. The Savannah may
be ascended by small river craft and steam-boats,
as far as Augusta, 130 m. from its mouth. Much
of the soil consists of a swampy land, applied to
the culture of cotton and rice ; more of the latter
being produced in S. Carolina than in any of the
other state.°. The low sandy islands along the
coast, though apparently of very little value,
furnish what is called the ' Sea-island' cotton,
being the very best description of cotton that is
any where produced. It is longer in the staple
than any other variety, and is strong and even,
of a silky texture, and a yellowish tinge. It de-
generates if it be attempted to be raised at any
considerable distance from the shore. It brings
a much .ligher price than any other sort of cotton ;
but as it can be raised only in certain localities,
its quantity is limited, and. apparently, unsus-
ceptible of increase. Short-stapled cotton is
raised in the more uiland parts of the country ;
and wheat, maize, and other grain, as well as
tobacco and indigo, are grown upon the high
lands. There are many pine barrens, and some
imnroductive sandy wastes ; but the soil is gene-
rally extremely fertile, especially in those tracU
lying along tlie courses of the rivers. In the
lower i)arts of the country the winten* ai« vcrv
mild, and snow does not lie long on the ground.
Hurricanes and heavy periodical rains occur
there : the summer is extremely hot, and pes-
tilential fevers and other diseases are then
generated. The N. and W. part of the states
are, on the contrary, reckoned very healthy ; frost
an(i snow occur annually, from Nov. to Jan. The
changes of temperature are, however, every where
very sudden ; and at Charleston the thermometer
has' been known to vary 46° in a day ! The
forests yield large quantities of oak, beech, hickory,
ash, cypress, and other fine timber. Cotton, rice,
and maize are the only considerable articles of
export. The swamns on the banks of the rivers
are well adapted for hemp, com, and indigo. Tho
culture of wheat, barley, oats, and Indian com
was, until lately, much neglected; and large
<]uantities were annually imported. Tobacco is
now more generally cultivated than indigo, which
was formerly next in importance to cotton and
rice ; the sugar-cane is chietly confined to the
district of Beaufort in the S. Field labou. is
performed entirely by the black population, who,
I)reviously to 18(56, were slaves, and who then
comprised nearly three-fourths of the popula-
tion. Planters were wealthy before the civil war,
which desolated this state more than any other.
Most of the farmers are of fmgal and industrious
habits. Wild animals, such as bears, wolves,
foxes, wild cats, are much scarcer than formerly.
The rattle-snake has become rare. Alligators of
large size infest the marshes and mouths of the
rivers. Iron, of good quality is found ; and some
gold has been found in the sands of some of the
rivers.
The state is divided into 30 counties. Columbia,
situated near the centre, is the cap. and seat of go-
vernment; but Charleston is the largest town, and
the principal emporium. The other chief towns
are Savannah, Augusta, Camden, and Beaufort.
The trtal value of real estate and personal pro-
perty was returned at 548,138,754 dollars in 1860,
but as this included the value of the slaves, libe-
rated by the civil war and the events of 1865,
the estimated wealth of the state must have
greatly decreased since that time. The state
government consists of a senate and h-^nae of
representatives; the executive power is vested
in a governor and lieut.-govemor, who are both
elected for 2 years, and are again eligible for office
after a lapse of 4 years. The senate consists of
45 members ; half of whom are chosen for 4, and
the other half for 2 years. The house of repre-
sentatives is composed of 124 members, chosen
every 2 years. The legislative assembly meet
annually at Columbia. The chancellors and
judges are chosen by ballot of the senate and
house of representatives ; and hold ofllce so long
as their conduct is approved. This state sends 9
mems. to the house of representatives, and 2 to the
senate in congress.
South Carolina was first colonised about 1670 :
but no permanent settlement was formed till
the foundation of Charleston, in 1680. In 1695,
the cultivation of rice, and subsequently of cot-
ton, was introduced by Governor Smith. The
two Carolinas were separated, and a royal go-
vernment established in 1719 ; and the state con-
tinued prosperous until the beginning of the dis-
turbances, caused first by Indian warfare, and
afterwards by the revolution, in which it took a
prominent part, and suffered severely. Its con-
stitution was formed in 1790 ; but has undergone
Ncvcral
Judicia
was tl
Americ
and sai
of Sece
was udi
slavery
CAH
Coro, ii
Coro; li
estimatt
contain*
its climj
plied wii
abounds
gums, a
sources t
which o
has man
from the
industrio
ducts of
nnd Carl
Mestizoc!
CAKP.
TAINS,
Hungary
pality of
portion of
Including
(Little Ca
the left ba
ofPresbui;
they run ]
lat. 49° 3(
mountains
connected
ranges. A
and SE., i
the Bucko
they conti
30' N., loi
turns due
Transylvai
the long, o
the Danub
44' N., loi
points, thei
a curve of
comer, one
Its width ii
the longest
direction p«
san, in thi
to Puttna it
the great S
from Moui
bend) to tl
mountains
towards th
and the soui
are not moi
tween the i
less than 3(
they may h
regard to ek
the height o
or the Alps
under 9,000
point of the
chetze.inTn
have shown
Lomnitzer S
cedence. Th
in the count
chain, betwc
B trafli*
In th«
re very
grouiul.
I occur
nd pp»-
e tlicn
5 stnton
iv : frost
n. Tho
y where
Tiometor
y\ The
hickor>',
ton, rice,
tides of
lie rivers
ro. Th",
ian com
ul InrKo
jbacco is
TO, whicli
itton and
1 to the
labou. is
ion, who,
vho then
! popula-
civil war,
iny other,
iid'ustrious
g, wolves,
formerly,
ligators of
ths of the
and some
ime of the
Cohimbia,
seat of go-
, town, and
Itief towns
Beaufort,
'sonal pro-
rs in 1860,
aves, libe-
ls of 1805,
nust have
The state
house of
is vested
are both
le for office
conusts of
for 4, and
of repre-
Ers, chosen
nbly meet
ellors and
lenate and
ice so long
ate sends 9
nd 2 to tae
bout 1670:
ormed till
In 169.'),
tlv of cot-
,1th. The
royal go-
• state con-
of the dis-
irfare, and
h it took a
Its con-
undergone
CARORA
several amendments in 1801, 181(1, and, as regards
judicial matters, af;nin in 1835. Houth (.'anilina
was the tirst state which separated from the
American Union, and thus originated the great
and sanguinary civil war of 1860-66. The Act
of Secession vt^^ dated Dec. 20, I860. The state
was admitted again into the Union in 1865, when
slavery was abolished for ever.
CAKOKA, an inland town of Venezuela, prov.
Coro, in a dry and sterile plain. 91 m. SSW.
Coro; lat. lOO 18' N., long. 70° 26' VV. Pop.
estimated at 6,000. The town is well built and
contains three liandsome churches and a convent :
its climate, though hot, is salubrious ; it is sup-
plied with water by a small rivulet. Its vicinity
abounds with the* Indian fig, aromatic balsams,
gums, and excellent cochineal; but these re-
sources are neglected for the breeding of cattle,
which occupies many of the inhob. The town
has manufactures of*^ leather, and of hammocks
from the fibre of the agave-faiida ; the inhab. are
industrious, and have a brisk trade in the pro-
ducts of their industry with Coro, l^laracaybo,
and Carthagena. Most of the inhabitants are
Mestizoes, Mulattoes, and Indians.
(^AKPATHIAN, or KAKPATHIAN, MOUN-
TAINS, a very considerable range, enclosing
Hungary on the N. and E., covering the jmnci-
pality of Transylvania, and forming the NE.
portion of the great mountain system of S. Europe.
Including a lower range, called Klcine Karpathen
( Little Carpathians) , these mountains commence on
the left bank of the Danube, in the ne!ghbourhoo<l
ofPresburg; lat480 8' N., long. 170 6'E.; thence
they run NE. to the borders of Silesia, where, in
lat. 49° 80' N., long. IS^ 86' E., they meet the
mountains of Moravia, through which they are
connected with the Sudetes and other Bohemian
ranges. After this they bend round to the E.
and SE., separating Hungary from Galicia and
the Buckowine, and Transylvania from Moldavia :
they continue the last course as far as lat. 45°
30' N., long. 26° 80' E., where the main ridge
turns due W., and forms the boundary between
Transylvania and Wallachia. Finally, about
the long, of 23' E., it turns SW., and again meets
the Danube at the town of New Orsova, lat. 44°
44' N., long. 22° 80' E. Between its extreme
points, therefore, the Carpathian system describes
a curve of about 800 m., and, except at its SE.
comer, one of a very regular and gradual kind.
Its width is various, but generally considerable ;
the longest line that can be drawn across it, in a
direction perpendicular to its course, is from Bok-
san, in the Banat, NE., through Transylvania,
to Puttna in the Buckowine, ajbout 240 m. From
the great S. bend of the Danube at Waitzen, or
from Mount Matra (about 85 m. E. of the
bend) to the neighbourhood of the Vistula, the
mountains measure f40 m. from S. to N.; but
towards the NE., between the Upper 'Thciss
and the sources of the Dniester, in Galicia, they
are not more than 70 m. ; and on the W., be-
tween the rivers Waag and Morava, they are
less than 30 m. across. At a rough calculation,
they may he said to cover 90,000 sq. m. With
regard to elevation, the Carpathians do not attain
the height of other ^eat ranges, as the Caucasus,
or the Alps; the highest measured peaks being
under 9,000 ft. For a long time, the culminating
point of the range was held to be Mount Buts-
chetze, in Transylvania ; but recent meosuicmenta
have shown that another peak, known as the
Lomnitzer Spitze, or Lomnitz Peak, claims pre-
cedence. The highest ascertained eminences are
in the county of Zips, the most N. part of the
chain, between the meridians of 19° and 21° ;
CVRPATHIAN MOUNTAINS 6r.9
and, among these, the following are the most
noted : —
Ft
Ix)innitz Peak 8,779
Orciit Konniiirk <Iltto .... 8,«47
Oront KrivRii Hldtfu .... 8,48'i
Gold Mine on ditto .... 7,093
White 8cB Poiik 7,075
Limeotone ilockg, above the FIcisch Bank e,A-J9
Fleisch Hank (1,307
Kolilbock 6,307
Orun See (Green Lake) . . . B,I91
Brook at foot of the Fleixch Bank . 4,999
The lower peaks, and subordinate ranges, vary
from 2,000 or 8,000 to a few hundred feet in ele vat ion.
Hut if height be not, ruggedness is a very striking
feature of the Carpathians : the roads among them
are generally ditHcult, sometimes impracticable
for horses ; and the whole ell'ect of their apjH'nr-
aiice is one of great majesty. The descent towards
Galicia is much more abru))t than that towards
Hungary, and in the Sl'^. and S. the steepest sides
of the mountains are towards Moldavia and \\a\-
lachin. The rivers, which mark the limits of the
Carpathian system, are, on the N., the Vistula, as
fur as its junction with its most important afllucnt
the San, and the Dniester; on the E. the Sercth;
on the S. the Danube, from the mouth of the
Sereth to that of the Morava, which marks thu
extreme limit of the mountains towards the W.
Within these bounds, however, are contained a
large quantity of flat land in Galicia and Wal-
lachia, together with the greater part of the Hun-
garian plain ; cm the other hand, the bed of the
Danube at Orsova is nothing but a cleft between
the Carpathians and the N. branches of the
Balkhan, and at Waitzen, in like manner, it can
scarcely be said to break the continuity of the
former with the offshoots of the Sty nan Alps.
Geology. — The most ancient rocks are found.only
on the highest parts of the Carpathians, and not
always there ; one of the highest ridges in the
Alpine country of Zips consisting of calcareous
limestone. Granite, however, forms the substratum,
or rather the main bulk and nucleus of the whole
mass, and scmietimes, even at slight elevations,
lies at no great depth. Hornblende in small quan-
tities, gneiss in much larger, and trap verj' con-
siderably distributed, form the mass of the' other
older rocks ; but the formation most worthy of
notice is a kind of conglomerate, formed of har-
dened clay, quartz, sharl, spar, and lithomarga,
which, from its richness in ore, has obtained in
Hungary the title of Metallic Bock, and which is
met with most abundantly throughout the whole
range, from Presburg to Orsova. Limestone, old
and recent, occurs in immense quantities, and in
the Alpine regions, Townson found stratified rocks
of the first kind, of the amazing thickness of 2,100
ft. Basalt, porphyry, porphyritic basalt, jasper,
petrosilex, lava, obsidian, and a whole host of
substances, volcanic, and the result of aqueous de-
position, are scattered in the wildest confusion
among the lower ranges, givuig unquestionable
evidence of the extensive agency of both tire
and water, but so little defined, that the best ob-
servers decline to offer an opinion as to the origin
of many of the appearances. It is worthy of
observation that the more recent formations, as
sandstone, &c,, obser\'abIe in other countries, are
singularly scarce in the Carpathians.
Hydrography. — These mountains form the di-
viding line between important river systems. The
N. faces give birth to the Vistula and Dniester ;
but with these exceptions, no river that reaches
the sea has its source within them. The afiluents
of these two, from the N. slope, are, however, ex-
tremely numerous, though not comparable to those
u u 2
im CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS
that pour from the 8. and E. faces, to swell the
ctroam of the Danube, to wliich river, also, the
drainage of the NVV. face is conveyed, with the
exception of an insi^nilicunt imrtion, wliich tinds
its way to the Oder. The running water of the
CarpathianH belongs, then, to two Hystems, tlie
niack Sea and the Itultic ; and there arc no lands
better irrigated than those over which it Hows;
the Thciss, Maros, Aluta, and many others, would
li(! called im|iortant rivers in most i)arts of the
world, and the smaller streams and sub-tributaries
are al)solutoly innumerable. (Sec Danube, Vis-
tula, Dnikstku, IIunuahv, &c.)
Mineral Prmluctitms. — The sides of the Car-
pathians are rich in the productions of the vege-
table |{ingdom,and abound in animals of the most
useful kind. The decomposed volcanic matter,
which forma so large a portion of the soil, ac-
counts for the lirst, and consequently for the
8e(;ond of these results. The particulars of botli
will be. however, better treated of under tlie
heads of the diH'ercnt countries through whicli
tlie mountains run. (See Hunoary, Tkansyl-
vania, and Gai.icia.) It is intended hero to
restrict the description to a brief account of their
mineral wealth, in which respect they stand pre-
eminent among tlie various ranges of Europe.
Nearly every metal, and all in abundance, are
])roduced in' the Carpathians. The riclier mines
of Transylvania and the Banat yield for 1 cwt,
of ore 125 oz. of gold, and G8 oz. of silver, and all
the mountains of these beautiful countries are
full of signs of undiscovered metals. It appears,
however, that native gold and silver is scarce, ex-
cept in the SE. districts, but all the other ores are
mixed with these precious metals throughout the
■whole range. The stamping-works at Schemnitz
employ 1,0(10 hammers, each hammer stamping
three quintals of ore per day ; the return averaging
12,000 florins per month, clear profit to the go-
vernment. It would be endless to go through a
detail of all the wealth of these mountains ; sufKce
it to say, that copper, iron, lead, cobalt, antimony,
sulphur, and saltpetre, are found in large quan-
tities ; cinnabar also appears, but not in sufficient
abundance to tempt the miner; and in many
places there are large fields of coal. Rock-salt
IS also one of the treasures of these mountains.
The Polish mines of Galicia have long been
famous, and from all appearances, their treasures
are actually inexhaustible. In a word, the Car-
pathians appear to be one extensive mine, where
nearly all the varieties of metallic wealth are pro-
duced ; in addition to which, their recesses yield
the opal, one of the noblest and most valuable of
gems.
Name. — The Carpathians were known to the
ancients, and by their present name, KopiraTijs
(Ptolemy, iii. 5) ; and they applied the same
name to that part of the Mediterranean which
lies about the island of Khodes. (Ptolemy, v. 2 ;
Strabo, x. 488.) Its etymology is not very clear ;
but Strabo, in speaking of the sea, calls it also
Crapathian {KpairaOov) ; and though it be not
very easy to connect the ideas of these mountains
with that of the remote shore of Asia Minor, it is
something remarkable that the German term for
the former is Krapack, of which the Greek of
Strabo seems only a softened form. The Hun-
garian name for these mountains is Tatra.
CARPENTARIA (Gulf of), an extensive
ann of the sea, deeply indenting the N. coast of
New Holland, between 10° 40' and 17° 30' S. lat.,
and 137° and 142° E. long. No settlements have,
as yet, been founded on its coasts.
CARPENTRAS, a city of France, de'p. Vau-
cluse, cap. arrond., in an agreeable situation, at
CARRIBEE ISLANDS
the foot of Mont Yentoux, and on the left bank of
the Auzon, 15m. N E.Avignon, on a branch of
tlie Paris-Mediterranean railway. Pop. 10,918 ia
IHGl. The town is surrounded by high walls in
goiHl repair, flanked by several towers, of which
tlie most remarkable is that surmounting thoport
d'Orange. It is well built, but the streets arc
narrow, winding, and dirty. There are some good
houses without the walls, in the suburbs. It is
well supplied with fountains, and water is con-
veyed into the city by two aqueducts, one con-
structed by Clement v., and one by the town, in
the early jiart of last century. The principal
public builduigs are the hospital, erected in 1757,
without the walls ; the cathedral, a large Gothic
pile, with a spire of the age of Charlemagne ; the
ancient episcopal palace, now the palace of justice :
contiguous to the latter is an ancient triumphal
arch. Carpentras is the scat of a tribunal of
primary jurisdiction, and has a departmental col-
lege, a Jewish synagogue, a society of rural
economy, a i)ublic library, with 22,000 vols., and
some valuable manuscripts. It has distilleries,
dye-works, tanneries, and madder-mills, ^^•ith
fabrics of soap and anuafortis ; and has a con-
siderable trade in silk, madder, and excellent
fruits.
Carjientros is very ancient, having been, under
the Romans, a principal town of Gallia Norbo-
nensis. It was successfully attacked and pillaged
by the Vandals, Lombards, Saracens, and other
barbarians. During the residence of the popes at
Avignon, it began to revive ; anil was, for a short
period, under Clement V., the seat of the holy see.
The bishoi)ric of Carpentras, said to have been
founded in the third, was suppressed in the present
century.
CARRARA, a town of Central Italy, prov.
Massa-Carrara, on the Lavenza, abont 3^ m. from
the Mediterranean, and 60 m. WNW. Florence.
I'op. 13,935, in 1862. The town has an unfmished
cathedral, several churches, a convent, and an
academy of sculptiu'e. Several artists have fixed
their residence here, attracted by the convenience
of obtaining marble almost cost free ; and the sale
of rude marble and of articles of sculpture forms an
important branch of traffic.
The marble quarries from which this town de-
rives its entire celebrity and importance have been
WTought from the age of Augustus, and probably
from a still more remote epoch, 'rhey are found
in the lower ridges of the hills which unite in the
Monte Sagro. The beds of the dove-coloured
{bardiglio) marble are the nearest to the town.
Higher up the vaUey are the beds of white marble.
Only a few of these beds produce marble of such
a grain and transparency as to be highly prized
by the statuary ; and if the quarrymen succeed in
obtaining one block in ten that preserves through-
out a good colour, they are satisfied. Still higher
up, the marble becomes of a dull, dead, colour ;
but of this much larger blocks may be obtained.
The principal quarries of veined marble are in a
parallel valley. Notwithstanding the vast quan-
tities that have been dug up since these quarries
began to be wrought, the supply of marble ui this
district seems to be now as mexhaustible as ever.
About l,2ti0 men arc always employed in the
quarries.
CARRIBEAN SEA is the name given to that
arm of the Atlantic Ocean included between the
Carribee Islands on the E., Hayti and Jamaica on
the N., Guatemala on the W., and the N. coast of
S. America on the S.
CARRIBEE ISLANDS, or LESSER AN-
TILLES, the name sometimes given to that por-
tion of the W. Indies that includes the -vast chain
bank of
tnch of
),9IH in
valla ill
f which
the port
>ct8 aro
ne fjood
i. It M
in con-
mo con-
town, in
,)rinci])»l
in 17r)7,
e Gothic
j;nc; the
r juHticc :
rinmnlml
bunal of
intal col-
of rural
f»\»., and
iHtillerii'H,
Us, T\iH»
[w a con-
exccUcnt
len, under
la Narho-
d pilla},'cd
ftiid other
J popes at
"or a short
i holy sec.
have been
;he present
:aly, prov.
^ ni. from
, Florence,
unfniished
It, and an
have fixed
nvenience
d the sale
Ire forms an
is town de-
have been
[d probably
are found
inite in the
re-coloured
the town,
lite marble,
fble of such
;hly prized
succeed in
'8 through-
Ktill higher
|ad, colour ;
obtained.
)le are in a
I vast quan-
ise quarries
rble in this
)le as ever.
■ed in the
ven to that
letween the
Tjamaica on_
[N. coast of
ISEB AN-
lo that por-
1 .vast chain
CARRICKKEROUS
of islands which extends, in a circular sweep, from
Anguila on the N. to Trinidad on the H. They
comprise the whole of the Windward and the more
S. portion of the Leeward islands. The i)rin<ti|)al
islands, reckoning from the N., arc St. (Jhrinto-
)ihers, Antigua, Unadah)U|ie, Dominica, Marti-
nique, 8t. Lucia, Harbadoes, St. Vincent, (ircnada,
'I'obago, and Trinidad. They derived their name
I'rom having been mostly (K-cupicd, at the peritnl
• ■f their discovery, by a trilK! of Indians, called
Carribs or CarrilKses, now nearly extinct.
(3AKKICKFEKGUS, a pari. bor. and sea-port
of Ireland, co. Antrim, jirov. Ulster, on Camck-
ftirgus hay, or Ikilfast Lough, !t5 m. N. Dublin,
•J m. NNfi. Belfast, on the railwav from Helfast to
Uallymena. Top. 8,023 in lH2l"; 9,379 in 1841 ;
and 9,422 in 18G1. The castle, on a rock pro-
j<'cting into the sea, was built or much strengthened
by the English shortly after their first landing in
Ireland under Strongbow. It is still kept up as an
arsenal, and is mounted with heavy guns. King
AVilliam landed here on the 14th of June, 1C90,
It! days previously to the battle of the Uovne.
In 1760, It surrendered to a French naval force
under Thiu'ot, who soon after evacuated it on
the appearance of the English squuaron under
Commodore Eliot, by which Thurot's squadron
was captured, after an engagement in which he
lost his life. On the 24th of April, 1778, Paul
Jones captured the Drake sloop of war in the
bay; but sailed off without making any hostile
attempt on the town,
Carrickfergus consists of the town within the
walls, pn'ts of which still remain ; and of suburbs
on the E. and W. sides, called the Scotch and
Irish quarters. It is pretty well built, and has a
respectable, though antiquated appearance ; it is
nor lighted, and is but indifferently supplied with
water. The church, a large cruciform building,
with a fine modem spire, has, in one of the tran-
septs, a large mural monument of the Donegal
family ; there is also a Roman Catholic chapel, and
places of worship for Presbyterians, Independents,
IMethodists, Covenanters, and Unitarians. The
castle, ke])t up as a fortress and magazine, has a
number of heavy guns mounted on the walls, and is
garrisoned by a company of foot. The town and the
adjoining district, cont ining 1G,700 acres, forms
a CO. independent of that of Antrim, w^ithin which
it is enclosed on every side, except towards the sea.
Uy its ruling charter, granted by James I. in 1012,
the corporation consisted of a mayor, sheriffs, 10
altlermen, 22 burgesses, and an indefinite number
of freemen ; but this body is now extinct, and the
government of the town and the corj). p jperty is
vested in aboard of commissioners. The borough
r jurned 2 mem. to the Irish H. of C, and sends 1
mom. to the imperial H. of C. Kegistered electors,
1.243 in 1805. The assizes for co. Antrim are held
here in the court-house in the county prison, a
large and expensive, but ill-arranged building.
There is a small local police. The rural district
is watered by numerous streams, and in it is Lough
IMoume, covering 90 acres, at an elevation of 556
ft. above the level of the sea. Tanning is carried
on to a considerable extent. There are in the town
also several cotton and flax-mills. The inhab. de-
rive their principal support from the concourse of
strangers at the assizes, and during the bathing
season ; and from the fisheries. Excepting had-
dock, all kinds of fish that frequent the Irish coast
are abundant ; as are oysters celebrated for size and
flavour, scollops, and lobsters. A v)ier has been
built for the use of the fishermen ; but it is defective
in not being accessible at low water. Tiic greater
jiart of the lisli is sent by land to Belfast for sale.
Markets arc held on Saturdays ; fairs on 12th May
CARRICK-ON-SUIR
Ofil
nnil 1st November. The port was long the chief
mart on this part of the coii^t ; but in I0:I7, tbu
corporati(m having sold its exclusive privileges to
tlie <Town, the business has since been almost
wholly transferred to llolfast ; its trnile being, at
present, confined to the import of coal, and the
export of cattle and grahi. There were, in 1H03,
3(>o registered vessels bidonging to the ])ort, most
of them under 60 tons burthen. The largest vessels
may enter the bay at low wat<!r, but are prevented
from dis(;harging at the town, through the want of
a landing-pier with sufficient depth of water. The
appearance and manners of tlie inhal). exhibit
striking iiulications of their Scotch descent. The
lower classes are industrious, frugal, and honest.
Though wealthy residents are not mnnenms, many
are in a state of respectable independence; most
industrious persons attain the means of eomfortablo
subsistence, and very few arc in a state of desti-
tution.
CAUIIICKMACUOSS, an inl. town of Irelan.l,
CO. Mcmaghan, prov. Ulster, 40 m. NW. bv X.
Dublin. Pop. 2,979 in 1831, and 2,003 in'l8«l.
The town consists of one long street, in which is
the church, a K. Cath. chapel, whicli serves as the
cathedral for the K. Cath. bishop of (Jlogher, and
a Presbyterian meeting-house. A grammar-scliool,
endowed by Lord Weymouth, was rebuilt in 838.
There is also a dispensary, a mendicity society, a
savings' bank, and a bridewell. I'etty sessions arc
held every fortnight : a party of the constabidary
is stationed here. Markets arc held on Thurs-
days, and on corn on Wednesdays and .Saturdays :
fairs on 27 May, 10 Jidy, 27 Sept., 9 Nov., and
10 Dec.
CAKKICK-ON-SHANNON, an inl town of
Ireland, prov. Connaught, cos. Leitrim and l!os-
common, on the Shannon, 85 m. WXW. Dublin,
on the Midland (Jreat Western railway. Pop.
1,673 in 1821, and 1,587 in 18()l. The tow.-. lies
principally on the Leitrim bank of the river, l)cing
connected with a small suburb (m the Iloseomnion
side by a bridge ; and has a church, a IS. Cntli.
chapel, 2 Methodist meetmg-houses, and a co. in-
firmary and disjiensary. It was incorjiorated by
James I. in 1613, under a provost, 12 burgesses,
and an unlimited number of freemen, and n;-
turned 2 mem. to the Irish H. of C. ; but was dis-
franchised at the Union. The assizes for the co.
Leitrim, of which it is the co. town, are held here,
as are general sessions, in Jiin. and July, and petty
sessions on alternate ]yioudayH. The co. court-
house, ga(d, and bridewell are in the town. A
party of the constabularj' is stationed here ; ond it
lias an infantry barrack. A trade in butter, grain,
and proNnsions is carried on by the Sh.innon, now
rendered navigable to Lough Allen, as well as by
railway. Yarn is also manufactured. IMarket-s
are lield on Thursdaj's, in an enclosed marketplace;
and fairs on 18 Jan., 20 IMiir., 12 Mav, June,
11 Aug., 14 Sept., 22 Oct., 21 Nov., and 10 Dec.
CAKUICK-ON-SUIH, an inL town of Ireland,
prov. Munster, cos. Tipjierary and Waterfonl, on
the Snir, 85 m. SW. by S. Dublin, on the railway
from Waterford to Limerick. Pop. 9,02(» in 1831,
and 0,.')36 in 1801. The to\vn, situate at the SK.
extremity of the Golden Vale, and near the junc-
tion of the cos, Tipperary, Kilkenny, and \V ater-
ford, consists of an open area surrounded with
houses, and a long street leading to a bridge across
the river, connecting it with the suburb of Carrick-
beg, formerly C.-magrifiin, m co. Waterford. It
has a par. church, a K. Cath. chapel, an abbey, a
nunnery, a fever hospital aiul disiiensary, an alms-
house, and the ruins of the castle built by an an-
cestor of the Efirl of Ormonde. Some traces of t he
town walls are still visible. The woollen nianu-
662
CAKKON
fitRture was cairied on under the auMpiceti of the
Ormonde family till the cIoHe of lawt century ; hut
nil trnccH of it have now di>ia|iiiearcd, and the la-
bouring pop. are very ])oor unu miHerublc. Tan-
ning and brewing aie still carried on ; and there
iH a considerable trade in grain and provisions.
Large vessels come up the >Suir to I'iltown, ab.ut
4 m. lower down, whence their cargoes are con-
veyed to the town by lighters. A local act autii(<-
ri.ses river improvements, which, if effected, will
enable vessels of larf^er tonnage to discharge at
the town. Petty sessions are held ever^' fortnight.
A party of the constabulary is stationed here.
Markets are held on Saturdays ; fairs on the tlrst
Thursday of every month. Hy a grant of William
1 1 1, the par. is exempted from co. rates.
CAKKON, or CAKKONSHOKK, a village of
Scotland, celebrated for its iron-works, co. Stirling,
'2 m, NK. Falkirk, on the Carron, a stream which
falls into the Frith of Forth, at Grangemouth.
Pop. 1,((35 in 1801. The iron-works were first set
on foot in 1700. The Carron company, which is
cliartercd, had an original capital of 50,()0()/, sterl.,
<Uvided into 000 shares ; but which has been greatly
nugiiientcd since its formation. The Carron iron-
works were long the most extensive in Scotland,
and were for a while, perhaps, the most extensive
ill liritniii ; but they arc now far surpassed by
himilar establishments in Scotland, and by vast
numbers in l^ngland. The works are employed
ill the smelting of iron ore, and the manufacture
of all kinds of cast-iron goods, whether for civil or
warlike purposes, lint they were chiefly celebrated,
during the late French war, for the manufacture
of cannon, mortars, howitzers, carronades (so called
after Carron, where they were first made), bombs,
and such like warlike instruments. Since the
peace, this branch of business has been well nigh
annihilated, except for the supply of a limited
foreign demand. The componj* convey their goods
to Liverpool and Lon<lon (at both ot which they
have warehouses), and other places, in their own
vessels, which vary from 15 to 20 in number. The
Forth and Clyde canal runs within a J m. of the
works, 80 that the access to both seas is most con-
venient. The company have cut a canal from the
interior of thewoi'K.suo..a to the Carron Wharf at
Grangemouth, 3 m. dist., on which lighters ply
and carry their goods for shipmont at the latter
place. The supply of water is abui:dant, derived
jiartly from the river, and partly from artificial
reservoirs, which cover about 250 acres of ground,
CARfAGENA, or CAHTHAGKNA, a marit.
city of New (iranada, and the chief naval arsenal
of that repub., cap. prov. of same name, on a sandy
peninsula in the Carribean Sea, connected with
the contin< nt by a narrow neck of land, 410 m. N.
Uogota; lot. 10° 20' N., long. 75° 34' W. Esti-
mated pop. 25,000. The city has, on its. E. side,
a suburb called Ximani, standing on an island, and
almost as large as the city itself, with which it
<:ommunicates by a wooden bridge. Both the city
niid its suburb are surrounded by strong fortifica-
tions, and at a short distance from them on the
mainland they are overlooked by a strong fort
placed on an eminence about 150 ft. high. These
■works are, however, commanded by a contiguous
hill, rising to the height of 550 ft. above the sea,
and which, instead of a fortification, has on its
summit an Augustine monastery. The possession
of this hill has several times led to the capture of
the city.
Cartagena is famous for its port, one of the
largest and best on the N. coast of S. America. It
lies to the S. of the town, between the peninaula
on which it is built and the island of Tierra-
Ijombii, and the mainland. The anchoring ground
CAUTHAOE
is excellent ; and being completely land-locked,
vessels lie in it as if in dock. It had originally
two entraiiLCS, — the Boca Grande, close to the
citv, and the Boca Chica (narrow passage), several
miles fartlier S. The former, however, was blocked
up by the Spaniards, subsequently to Adm. Ver-
non's attempt upon the place in 1741, by sinking
several shi|)s in the channel. The Boca Chica is
defended by two strong castles. Cartagena con-
tains a handsome cathedral, several other churches,
convents, &c., and some fine public cisterns. The
city and its suburbs are well laid out; streets
regular, and well naved ; houses mostly of stone,
and of one story aliovc the ground floor, with bal-
conies in front, and lattices instead of windows.
A recent French traveller, speaking of the town,
observes that it presents a melancholy ospect with
its long galleries, short and clumsy columns, and
streets darkened hy projecting terraces, &c. ; but
he admits that, how singular soever the construc-
tion of the houses, they ap|)ear to be well contrived
for supplying the indispensable luxiir>' of fresh air.
The (jreat drawback upon the place is its climate,
which is intensely hot. It is not unfrequently
visited by the yellow fever, and is infested with
tormenting and destructive insects. The import-
oiice of Cartagena has greatly declined of late
years; but it is still the principal depot for the
goods of liogota, Popayan, and Quito, and has a
considerable foreign trade. Its artisans are inge-
nious, and excel in the manufacture of shell arti-
cles. There is regular communication, by steam-
ers, with the chief ports of the United States and
Europe. Cartagena was founded in 1533, and was
long considered as the great bulwark of the Spa-
nish possessions in S. America. It was taken by
a Corsican pirate in 1544, by Sir F. Drake in 1683,
and by the French in 1097. Under the Spaniards
it was a bishopric, and the seat of a captain-gene-
ral, and of one of the three tribunals of the Inqui-
sition in America. It is still the residence of a
bishop.
CAKTAGO, or CARTHAGO, an inl. town of
New (iranada, prov. Popayan, on the left bank of
the Yieja, a little before its junction with the
Cauca, 105 m. NNE. I'opavan ; lat. 4° 45' N., long.
70° 8' W. Estimated pop. 3,000 in 1800 ; but above
10,000 previous to 1841, when the town was almost
entirely destroyed by an earthquake. The town,
though still in niins, has a good trade in cattle,
dried beef, fruits, cacao, and tobacco. Its whole
district is rich in mineral products ; its climate is
hot and dry, but healthy.
CARTHAGE (Lat. Carthago, Gr. KapxvS^f), a
famous marit. city, long the rival of Rome, with
which she waged a lengthened, doubtful, and des-
perate contest for the empire of the world, situated
on the N. shore of Africa, in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Tunis. But such is the mutability of
human affairs, and so complete the destruction
that has overtaken this celebrated city, dives opum,
atudiisque asperrima belli, that even her position
has been matter of dispute among the learned !
Giace 1' alta Carthago, e a pena i segni
Dcir alte sue mine 11 lido serba I
But the plans of M. Falbe seem to have put to
rest all doubts as to the situation of Carthage ;
and, combined with the learned ond elaborate <lis-
sertotion of Dureau de la Malle, give not only a
satisfactory explanation of the form and situation
of the city, but of all that can be ascertained re-
specting it from the most careful examination and
companson of ancient authors. Referring such of
our readers as may wish for full information as to
this interesting subject to the sources now men-
tioned, we shall content ourselves with stating
C'AUTHAOE
6A8
; the ooaflt
from n little
tlint Carthage w-an principally built alcmg
or the peninfiiila to the N K. of Tunis, froi
N. of the golctta or entrance to the Iiikcnhi of
'J'liniH to Cane Carthage (lut. 360 61' 80" X., long.
10° 26' 46" E.), and then round to Cai>e Quanmrt.
Jt was defended on the land sidCj where it woti
most open to attack, by a triple line of walls of
great height and thickncM, flanked by towers, that
stretched across the |)cninsula from the lagoon of
I'unis to the sea on the N. The harbour lav to
the 8. of Cape Carthage, and was entered from
what is now the Gulf of Tunis. Having lens to
fear from attacks by sea than by land, the city hud
on that side only a single wall.
At the period of ita greatest splendour Carthage
must have been one of the richiWt and flnsst cities
of the ancient world. It consisted of three i>rin-
cipal divisions, nz. the Byrsa, or citadel, built on
an eminence, the summit of which was occupied
by a magnificent temple in honour of yKscuIapiiis ;
and it also contained the famous temple of the
I'hccnician Astarte, the Juno of Virgil. The Me-
gara, or town so called, lay to the Vf.ai the Uyrsa,
along the triple wall, aiid was of great extent,
comprising extensive squares and gardens. 'The
thinl division was called the Cothnn, or port ; this,
as its name implies, wa« artificially excavated, and
consbtcd of two great basins, an outer and an
inner; the first for merchantmen, and the latter
for ships of war. The access to both basins was
bv a common entrance, which was shut up by a
chain ; and each was supplied with (luaj's, ware-
houses, and stores, suitable to its clcstniation. It
was in this quarter that the seamen, shipwrights,
merchants, and others connected with the warlike
mid mercantile marine of the republic principally
resided.
Hesides the public buildings already alluded to,
Carthage had a famous temole in honour of its
tutelar deity, Melcarthus, or Saturn, whose altars
were sometimes stained with the blood of human
victims : with temples to Ceres, Jupiter, &c. It
had also all the usual places of public resort and
amusement, including a magnificent forum, u
circus, and a thefltre. The water within the
Ijrecincts of the city seems to have been at
once scarce and bad ; and to obviate the inconve-
nience thence arising, vast cisterns, of which the
ruins still exist, were constructed for the saving
and preservation of rain-water. The streets were
all paved ; and this essential improvement in the
construction of streets is said to have been ori-
ginally introduced by the Carthaginians. Stralw
states that the pop. of Carthage amounted to
7110,000 ; but M. Dureau de ia Molle has shown
that no reliance can be placed on this statement,
and that the pop., previously to the destruction of
Carthage by the Romans, cannot safely be esti-
mated at above 250,000 i)ersons, slaves included.
(Kecherches sur la 'Fopographie de Carthage, pp.
1-100.)
The early history of Carthage is involveil in the
^preatest obscurity. All that is certainly known
with respect to it is that it was founded by a body
of emigrants from Tyre ; but of the occasion and
e|)oeh of their emigration we have no certain
knowledge. The common opinion is that Utica,
also a 'lyrian colony, was founded before Car-
thage ; and that the foundation of the latter took
place anno 1269 B.C. It is probable that the colony
subsequently received fresh accessions of immi-
grants from the mother coimtry; and it is sup-
posed that one of these was headed by Eliza or
Dido, to whom Virgil has ascribed the foundation
of the city. (L'Art de Verifier lea Dates, iii. 414,
8vo. ed.)
The Carthaginians apiiear to have inherited, in
its fullest extent, the enterprising character of their
ancestors ; and, like them, were principally od-
dicted to nnvigntion and coniairrco. After ex-
tending their sway over n c(inHi(lcnil)le part of
Africa, they Ix'gaii to nuike sctilcmcnts in, and to
endeovour to subjogate, mure distant countries.
The flue and fertile ishind of Sicily seems to have
earl^v excited the ambitinus views of tiie Cartha-
ginians; but, though they had several valuable
settlements in it, they were uniformly thwarted
in their efforts to effect its complete subiugatioii.
After the destruction of Tyre, Carthage inherited
the possessions of the former in Kpain, to which
she afterwards made large additions ; and she also
subjugated the i.'^land of Sardinia.
Of the long-continued struggle between Car-
thage and Home, it would lie useless, even if our
limits permitted, to say any thing. It is a fa-
vourite subject of every classical reader, and has
been ably treated in many modern works; but
it is much to be regretted that we have no Cartha-
ginian history of this memorable cinitest, and that
we arc constrained to de|)cnd wholly on the one- ,
sided prejudiced accounts of the Latin historians,
and the Sicilian Greeks. The reader will do well
to bear this in mind, and to modify most of the
statements unfuvouruble to the Carthaginians.
Government. — As far as can be gathered from
Aristotle, and the incidental allusions of other
writers, the government of Carthage seems to have
been one of the wisest and best constituted of an-
cient times. Like that of the mother country, it
is generally 8up])osed to have been originally
monarchical ; though on its first emerging into
authentic history we find it an aristocracy of birth
and wealth, wiih a slight mixture of democracy.
At the head of this aristocracy was a senate ana-
logous to the senates of Sparta and Home, and
composed of the most illustrious citizens. Its
members appear to have been very numerous;
but all statements with regard to the mode of
their election, or the duration of their authority,
must be purely conjectural. The senate had the
management of all affairs of peace and war, the
arrangement of treaties and negociations, and, in
short, the yiower of deliberating, and to a certain
extent, of deciding upon all public affairs. Within
itself, the senate contained a committee of 104,
called, by a roun<l number, centumviri, originally
instituted as a check upon the encroachments of
the aristocracy. It afterwards become a high
court of judicature, vested with such authority as
rendered it in eft'ect the depository of all the sove-
reignty which lay in the senate itself. Aristotle
compares this committee, or council, to the ephuri
of Sparta, but it should seem that the pentarchics,
or <ptmquumvm, had a better title to the com-
parison. These were composed of several bodies,
each consisting, as the name implies, of five per-
sons selected from i\\e gerousiu, or committee, and
possessed of almost despotic authority. They had
cognisance of all affairs both j-ubliu and private,
and appear to have constituted a court of appeal
in the last resort for all causes. They continued
in office a long time, and had not only the power
of tilling up vacancies in their own body, but the
right of choosing those who composed the tribunal
of the centumviri. This, no doubt, was a highlj'
aristocratical institution ; and Livy says of it,
that ' viSffama, vitaqiie omnium in illorum poteslate
erat,' At the head of the senate were two magis-
trates, or giijfetes, answering to the Spartan kings
or the Roman consuls. Originally the right of
electing the sufletes was vested in the senate ; but
in the decline of Carthage it fell into the hands of
the people. In their nomination, according to
Aristotle, regard was had chiefly to birth, riches,
«64
CARTHAGE
nnil |)opulnri»y ; nnil a pnmnRc in the recently dw-
c'overcd work of CIchto (Do I<c|)iiI)1u-&), in wliioh
hu com|>nrfs tlicni with the Spnrtiin kin)rH, nnd con-
IrnHtH tlirm with the Komnn conHuli*, would lead
IIS to inti'r that tlu-y were eleeteil for life. Their
jiroviiiee was to convene the senate, in which they
]>reHided, to projiose Mnhjects for delihemtion and
to collect the HulT'rii^t^H. In time of war, one of
the HuffeteH was usually appointed general of the
forces of the state, while his colleuf^nc remained
at home, lUit Itesides the sufl'etes there were other
Hulxirdinate maf^istrutes, with the nature of whose
duties we have become ac(|unintcd only through
the Koman writers. Wc hear, for instance, of n
j)fajectn» montm, prmtor, f/iuvstor, §•(•,, with jiowers
analogous tu those of the Itomun magistrates so
calletl; but these statemcntfl must be received
with ^eat caution, considering the tendency of
the Koman, as indeed of nil authors, to repntsent
the institutions of other |)eoplc as corrpsfHinding
'with or anahigous to their own, though, in renlity,
there might be verj' little in common Ix^tween
them. Ihc jH-opIo were divided into guilds or
corporations ; and though in the infancy of the
Hiate they did not directly participate in the ad-
niinistraticni of affairs, they iMissesscd, from the
first, the im|K)rtant privilege of deciding upon
those (pieations about which there was a difference
of opinion in the senate. They had also, like the
Spartans, their publi(; or ]>olitical festivals, at
which questions of policy were discussed ; and
thus ])ublic opinion was enabled to exercise a
salutary inlluence over the deliU'rations of the
senate. Upon the whole it should seem, that
although, as indeed might have been expected in
a commercial state, the intluciicc of wealth jire-
pondernted in the administration of ulfairs, still
HO well had tiic constitution of Carthage been
balanced, that while, on the one hand, the nobles
flid not engross the whole power, ns was the case
in Sparta, Corinth, and liorae, the peo|>le seldom
or never exhibited the factious spirit of the ' tierce
Athenian democracy,' or the ferocity of the Roman
rabble. ' The excellence,' says Aristotle, ' of the
Carthaginian government is evinced by a single
retlection : though its origin mounts to a very an-
cient date, and though, for man}' centuries, it has
contained within its bosom a numerous and a free
people, yet Carthage has never, to the present <lay,
experienced any one sedition worthy of record,
nor has it ever endured, for a moment, the cruel
yoke of a tyrant.' (Gillies' Aristotle, book ii. § 9.)
Possessions and Commerce. — At this distance of
time, nnd with our scanty means of information,
it is almost imirassiblc to trace the various stages
of Carthaginian encroachment on the neighbouring
territory ; but we are enabled to state pretty accu-
rately the extent of country in Africa subject to
Carthage at its most nourishing epoch. K. it
stretched to the Syrtes and the conKncs of Cyrene ;
S. to Lake Triton and Mount Atlas; and W.
(though this point has been less accurately ascer-
tained) to the territories of the Numidian jirinces ;
while in the same direction the whole African
coast was studded with Carthaginian colonies.
Hence its subjects were divided into three dif-
ferent classes : the first were tlMs cities on the
coast, such as Uticn, Hippo, Zaryta, and others,
which, like itself, were colonies from Phoenicia.
'J'hese were at first not so much its subjects as its
allies ; thoufjh at a later period a supremncv was
concciled to it which soon passed into sovereignty.
The next class consisted of its own colonics — the
mnritime colonies on the coast and the agricul-
tural settlementa in the interior of the country.
'J"he third class were the native Libyans, to whom
Carthage had originally been tributary, but who
ubmilted to her antlmrity. Tliesn were
pnrtly a fixed agricultural people, who, from a
gradiinl amalgamation with the (.'arthaginians,
were called Liby-l'hcenicians, and were kept in re-
straint by the agricultural cohmies planted among
them ; and partly nomadic trilH's, whose alle-
giance was partial and precarious. The agricul-
tural population only, which the Carthaginians had
trained and accustomed to that mo<le of life, could
be treated as subjects, properly so called ; for the
nomadic tribes were subject to Carthago only so
far that they paid her tribute; and their hntreil of
those who d'isturi)ed their alM)riginal mode of life,
fomented as it was by the oppressions of the (Car-
thaginian govenimeiit, frequently broke out iu
revolt when the apiiroiuih of an enemy gave the
signal. Rut the Carthaginians appear to have
attached less importance to their possessions in
Africa than in other parts. At an early (lerioil
they became masters of Sardinia, the Halearie
Islands and Malta. We have already noticed their
vigorous and long-continued efforts to make them-
s»!lves masters of Sicily ; and had they succeeded
in this, the foundations of their power w(nild ]>ui-
bably, as Ileeren suiiposes, have been established
on a solid basis. 'Ihe failure of their efforts to
effect the <u)nquest()f Sicily, and the loss of Sar-
dinia, that was taken from' them by the Romans,
seem to have impelled tlu'm to attem]>t the sub-
jugation of the entire Spanish peninsula. They
had also several settlements along the W. coasttif
Africa; and it is probable, though not certain,
that Aladeira and the Canary Isjands {FortunaUu
Iiisiihe) were included in their dominions.
The commercial ofKirations of Carthage cm-
braced the whole ancient woild, and have only
been surpassed by those of Kurope since the dis-
covery of America and the passage to the East In-
dies by the Cape of ( Jood Hope. Rut the greatest
difference of opinion exists us to the extent to
which the Carthaginians carried their maritime
expeditions ; and while some geographers 'estrict
their limits Ixjtwecn the S. coast of Rritain on the
N. and Cape Roiador on the S., others contend
that they reachcil the coasts* of the Scandinavian
peninsula, circumiiavigat(!d Africa, and even
visited the shores of the New World, a thousaml
years before Columbus. It is probable, from the
statement of Herodotus, that the circumnavi-
gation of Africa was really perfonned by I'Ikc-
nician mariners ; but there is no ground wliatevi r
for 8ui)posing that it was ever perfonned by the
Carthaginians, or that they ever approached the
shores of America. The only really authentic in-
formation, as to their navigation, is embodied in
the account of the voyage of Hanno along the W.
coast of Africa ; and it is so v(>ry ditHcult to iden-
tify the localities mentioneil in it, that some critics
assign to it a length of 3,000, and others of not
more thr.n 700 miles.
The merit of Iwing the first who, in modern
times, drew attention to the land trade of the Car-
thaginians belongs to Hecren, whose researches
have placed the connection of Carthage with the
central nations of Africa in a clear and striking
light. We have already, however, adverted to
this interesting subject, and must refer those wish-
ing for more comprehensive details to Heeren's
work. It is sufficient here to remark that the in-
ternal trade of Africa seems to be alike unchanged
and unchangeable. The countries to the S. of the
great desert of Sahara are destitute of two most
important articles, salt and dates, which aboimd
in tiie countries N. of the Sahara ; while, on the
other hand, the S. countries have amjile supplies
of gold dust, ivory, drugs, gums, and slaves, all
articles in great demand along the Mediterranean.
CARTHAOR
flfi.1
IIcTPnro thfi wnntf* nn<l mnlprinl* that H" t" •""""
nil cxl<tiiMivi> niul iiiutiiiilly lH'iu>tiinal iiitcrcoiirHc ;
iiikI tlin onm'H fouiiil in tlic ilcsort anil tlut cnnicl
ruriimh tho incniH of (^arryiii^ it on. It in, in
I'lii;!., carried on at tliis moinciit liy cnravnnn, nc^nrly
in Itic Haniv nianiicr that it wnx carriuil ini by thtt
Cnrlhn^iniaiiM iiiul no^nx-.s '2,5110 yoars aK<>;aii(l
tiio prohnhilit^' \>\ that it will I'dntliiiic in tiino tu
roine to tlow in the »anic dianncLs,
It ii* impoHHihIo to uniinu-ratd the varioiiM arti-
rlpsofCttrthnninian tralHc, hqv'iuh that thoy nnwt
probably iiuinded thucoinnioditicsof eviiry known
foiintry and dimati!. Thi! oxporfHfVom ('arthage
consiHtcid ohiotly of artich-H of nativo prodnoo, and
of ihoHc procured by its land trade from the inte-
rior of the eontiiu'iit. She freif^lited her ships
with tho wines of Italy, Sieily, and Sardinia, and
carried these articles to Cyrcne, the Itah-aric Is-
lands, and W. Africa, She carried on a larj^e trade
ill oils and other articles, which slie sent to (!enie,
tho 'nltiina tluile' of her African colonics, aiul
received skins, Rold, and ivory in exclmiif^e. She
procured iron from Kllia, alum from the l.ipart
Jsiaiids, and tin from the N, of Spain, tiie Scilly
islands, and ('ornwall. The Kaltic supplied her
with amber; but whether it was procun^l l)y sea,
or conveyed overland to the head of the Adriatic,
and tliciico imported into Africa, has not been
ascertaincil. From Tyre, with whicii she always
maintained the most fnendly relations, slic re-
ceived not only trinkets, fjlass, ]iearls, and other
ornaments, and Si(h)iiian cloths, the chief l>ranches
of the iiKliistry of Tyre itself, but cassia and cinna-
mon, and tho other precious spices, which were im-
ported int(»Tyro from India. Malta, too, supplied
ii(^r with articles of woollen manufacture equal if
not superior to those of Tyre. llertratHc in slaves,
Avhicli she procured from the interior of Africa antl
from Coriica, was most important, and formed a
larj^c source of revenue. So abundant were slaves,
t hat, duriiij^ the second Punic war, Asdrnbal is sai(l
to have purchased ."i.OOO at a time. The commer-
cial |)olicy of the Cnrthajjinians has been said to
lie of a peculiarlj^ graspiiif;, jeaious, and seltish
character; but it is not entitled to any such dis-
tinction, and really differed in very few respin-is
from that of most other commercial nations. Her
object was, in as far as |K>HsibIe, to muiio|>olise the
tMidc of the world; and in this view she practised
most of tho favourite schemes and devices of the
niercuntile system. The privilege of trading was
vested exclusively in the citizens (in contradis-
tincti<m to the slaves or tributaries of Cartluifje) ;
no commodities were suffered to be exported or
imported except in ('iirthaginian vessels ; the trade
of her colonies was restricted to the mother city,
and the ships of the foreiiLcn nations with whom
she had entered into commercial treaties were ab-
solutely excluded from her harbours ; but this re-
gulation appears to have been dictated more by
political than commercial jealousy.
But though Carthago was from the first a trad-
ing city, it would be wrcng to regard the (Cartha-
ginians as a mere nation of merchants. On the
CO itrary, it is sutliciently proved that they found
leisure to engage in other pursuits, among which
agriculture held a prominent place. This science,
in its widest range, was so well discussed by them
in their writings, that the Komans considered them
worthy of translation. Nowhere, indeed, was
agriculture better understood, or practised with
more zeal, than in Carthage; and most families
were in the haliit of applying the produce of their
commerce to the cultivation and improvement of
the soil. All account.s concur in assigning a high
state of cultivation to the ncighbourliood of (Car-
thage. ' The territory,' says Diodoriis Siculiis (ii.
411.), 'through which Agathocles led his army,
was coverlid with gardens and largi^ plantations,
everywhere intersected with canals, by which they
were plentifully watered. A continual siiccessioli
of landed estates was there seen adorned with
elegant buildings, which evinced the opulence of
their owners. Vineyards, (dive-grounds, and
meadows spread on every side ; and the whole re-
gion was tliickljr studded with the country seats
of tho wealthy citizens of Carthage and thu other
towns in its vicinity.'
Hevfnm:, — Our infonnaticm on this subject In,
unfortunately, extremely incagns but there Ih
little doubt that the revenues of Carthage were
more considerable than those of any state of aiiti-
(piity. They were lU rived from three sources;
the tribute, levied <m the subject and confederate
states ; the I'lmtumii, and tho milieu. To what ex-
tent tribute was levied in time of peace is un-
known; but examples are not wanting to prove
that, in cases of urgency, tho tributary nations
were very heavily taxed. It is a curious fact that
the contftbiitions paid by the allied states and tho
cities along the Atrican coast were in money, and
by all the other tributaries in kind. The cuHtoiiiH
were levied with great rigour both in Carthago
and in all her colonial ports ; and in later times
they became so important that they are said to
have supplied all the wants of the state without
the imposition of any other tax. Tho miiiK»
formed an important source of revenue: in work-
ing these all the inventions which ingeniiil v and
iiuiustry could suggest were rendered available.
The most considerable mines wore situated in the
iieighlioiirhood of Carthago Nova in Spain ; they
gave employment to G(l,(H)0 slaves, and yielded
about riO.ilOO drachms daily. At lirst they be-
longed entirely to the state; but wo after\vards
find them in possession of some of the great fami-
lies, who worked them on their own account.
What use the Carthaginians made of tho great
quantity of precious metals whicli they pntcured
from the mines, cannot be ascertained with cer-
tainty. The circumstance that no Carthaginian
coin has been handed down to us will scarcely
warrant the belief that no coined money was em-
ployed in Carthago ; and though it be true that
many, and indeed the most important, expenses
of the state were not paid in moiiev, it is highly
improbable that a city, whose colonies confessedly
coined money, should herself be without a coin-
age. A singular circumstance connected with this
branch of the history of Carthage is the contriv-
ance which they made use of in their colonies,
nearly answering the iwrposo of our paper-money,
or bank notes. It consisted of a small iticce of
leather, stamjicd by the state, upon whiiOi a licti-
tioiis value was bestowed, and. which could be ex-
changed at pleasure for the i)recious metals.
These were the ordinary revenues of the state;
but in cases of emergency, the Carthaginians re-
sorted to other means of recruiting their exhausted
treasuries, either by i)rocuring foreign loans, by
legalising piracy, or by the imposition of a pro-
perty tax, which should press more heavily on tho
rich than the poor. Ihit with regard to all that
concerns the administration of the revenue, we are
still in the dark ; though it has boon said that one
of the pentarchies above mentioned, with a magis-
trate at its head, formed a board for its manage-
ment.
Naval ami Militar;/ Forces. — To maintain the
sovereignty of the sea, the chief source of her
jirospcrity, and to protect her commercial marine,
as well as to extend her conquests and preserve
them, rendered the formation and smiport of vast
tleets and armies indispensable. The ordinary
666
CARTHAOE
numbrr of nhipii or f^allpy* of war po«M>mtpd by
CartlinKc, at the ncriiMl imtncdintcly prpccditif^ tliu
J'liiiic wan, waH mmi 15U tii 200. 1 1 wax iiicrcaM'il
ill the flntt I'unic war, when their naval |M>wur
ai)|icar8 tu have attained itit lii^lieHt pitch ; and in
the fatal navalenfta^emrnl hy whicli l<ome (){M'iied
itH way to Africa, the Carthaginian fleet coiiNiRted
of 850 ((flUevH with (but tliiii in no doubt exauK*!-
ratcd) 1 &0,0()0 men, exchiitive of traiiit|M>rti«. 'I lieir
war-fihipH were manned partly by (iuhtiiig men
and partiv by roweri* ; the latter of whom vonMiit-
tcd entirely of ulaveii bought by the state for tliiw
particular puqHixe, and amounting, even in time
of peace, to 5U,UU0. lint, though the geniuH and
position of Carthago naturallv led tiie citizens to
regartl the navy an their main bulwark, the wars
of conquest in which the republic was neqictually
engaged, and the maintenance of it« toreign {mw-
K'ttHiouH, obliged it to keep large armies contniually
in the flcld. These were com|)osed almost entirely
of mercenaries, collected ti>;m every part of the
world, and exhibiting every <livr'.liy of blood,
c(>m|)lexion, tongue, garb, and weapon; ' Kxervi-
tui mii'tuu excolluvinne omnium gentium quiltuii non
U'x, non mo», tion lingua cmiimuni* ; aliut hahitu»,
iilia ve»ti», alia arma, alii ritun, alia mera.' (Livy,
tiH, 12.) Hordes of half-naked (iauls stood side
by side with bands of white-robed Iberians; wild
IJgurians were arrayed with far-travelled Naza-
niones and Lotophagi; Carthaginians and IMia-ni-
t'ian Africans fonned the centre or main army ;
lialearic slingers formed the advanced guard ; and
lilies of colossal elephants, with their Ethiopian
drivers, preceded their march like a front of move-
able fortresses; but the main strength of their
army consisted in ita light cavalry, which was
provided in abundance bv the nomadic tril)es
which flanked their dominions. All these tribef
including tlie Maxsyles and the Maurisii, the Nii-
roidians, the nomadic races of the Syrtes, the
Nazamones and Lotophagi, were acccustomed to
serve in the Carthaginian armies, and receive their
pay. The heavy cavalry were formed from Car-
thaginian, Libyan, Spanish, and in later times
(iallic, levies. In cases of emergency tlie Cartha-
ginians could raise an army of 40,000 fVom the
citizens alone, besides the battalion called 'the
sacred legion,' which consisted eiuirely of the elite
of the Cai-thaginian nobles, and amounted, even
ill time of peace, to 2,600 men.
Language, Literature, and JReligion. — The de-
struction of the Carthaginian records, which would
otherwise have thrown a flood of light, not only
on the history of Carthnge, but on that of the
numerous nations with which she came in contact,
must be considered as one of the greatest losses
the civilised world has sustained. It has, no doubt,
been usual to regard the Carthaguiians as wholly
immersed in commercial pursuits, and thence to
infer that their attainments in literature and the
arts must havi' been very inconsiderable. But
there is not so much as the shadow of a foundation
for this opinion. So far from commercial pursuits
being unfavourable to literature and the fine arts,
their eflect is distinctly and completely the reverse.
The expcricnci! of Athens and Corinth in antiquity,
of the Italian republics in the middle ages, and of
England in mcKlem times, is conclusive as to their
humanbing influence. Had the literature of thr;
C.-irthaginiaiiE survived the WTeck of their empire,
■we believe it would have been found to be at least
as valuable intrinsically as that of Rome, and less
exotic. It is worthy of notice that they began
their career under the most favourable circum-
stances. Their descent from the Tynans, ccn-
f'essedly one of the most civilised nations of
antiquity, gave them, as it were, on almost intuitive
knowledge of many of the most useful and orna-
mental arts and M-ienceN, an<l placed at once within
their riach all those means and contrivances which
ImiIIi facilitate the pnixecution of commercial un-
dertakings, and extend the Utundaries *if civili-
sation. .Surely then it mav be reasonably inferred,
rvcii in the absence of all monuments uf genius,
that the rich legacy of their ancestors, increased
as it must have been bv the intervourae they car-
rieit on for iieven centuries with the most renowned
nations of antiquity, and by the researches and
inquiries which their wealth afforded the means of
prosecuting, must have prinluced. in the end, a
vast accumulation of science and literature. Dut,
like the city itself, nothing remains of all this.
The only traces of the language of ('arthagc are
to be found in a comedy of I'lautus, from wTiich it
is clear that, like the I'lia-nician, it formed a liranch
of the original Asiatic languages^ lieariiiga strong
resemblanco to the Hebrew, Syrian, and Chaldaic,
with a slight adnlixt^rc of purely Libyan idioms
and jihraseology. The voyage of Haiino, and a
few other fragments, are known to us only tlurough
the medium of translatiims.
Like all colonies, they brought with them the
religion of their fathers; but the authentic infor-
mation respecting it is verj' limited indeed ; and
tl c Icumcd. disquisitions of liochart, Vossius, and
Klunter, on this siiliject, have little other founda-
tion than the ini^eiiuity of their authors. It appears,
however, that, like the religion of most other Asia-
tic nations, it was chiefly directed to the worship
of the supposeil intelligences of the celestial lumi-
naries, and those of the elements. The chief of
these were Melcarthus or liaal, the Chronos of the
Greeks, the Saturn of the Romans, and probably,
from the sanguinary rites ofl'ered to him, the Mo-
loch of Scripture, and Ashtaroth or Astarte, the
goddess of tiie moon, whom the Greeks identified
with their Hera or Juno. The Carthaginians en-
deavoured, in periods of extreme public calamity,
to avert the wrath of the offended deities by
ofl'ering up some of the noblest children of the
state in sacrifice to Saturn ; but in less urgent
circumstances children of the slaves were the
usual victims, and even their immolation was of
rare occurrence. It does credit to Gelon, tyrant or
king of Syracuse, that having defeated the Car-
thaginians in a great battle (anno 480 b. c), he
made it a condition of the peace which he granted
to them, that they should abolish these sacriflccs.
IJut we are not to judge of the civilisation of tlie
Carthaginians by these Iiorrid rites, distinct traces
of wliicli may be found in the religious worship of
most nations of antiquity. It is rather to be re-
garded as one of those deplorable exhibitions of
superstition and fanaticism which have, under
other circuiHStAnces, lighted the autoi da fe of
Madrid, and the fires of Smithfleld. Of the other
riioenician deities worshi])i)ed at Carthage little
can be collected. We know, however, that they
were by no means bigoted in their attachment to
their Phoenician deities : but as their intercourse
with other natiims extended, frequently introduced
tlic worship of foreign gods.
In conclusion, we may again observe, that the
Roman writers, who, wliile they admit the skill,
address, and industry of the Carthaginians, have
depreciated all their moral qualities, are authorities
on which no reliance can be placed. The length-
ened prosperity and great power of Carthage are,
in fact, a sufHcient refutation of their calumnies.
' Nee tatitum Carthago habuisset opum texcentus
fere annos, sine consiliia et disciulinu,' is the un-
willing adinissiim of Cicero. The Romans, it should
be rememliered, despised that coinmerce and in-
dustry of which their rivals were the successful
, that the
the akill,
Jiians, have
lauthorities
the length-
Irthage are,
1 calumnies.
$excentos
lis the un-
\s, it should
tee and in-
successful
CAUTHAOENA
cuUivaton, holding ihem Ut lie employments un-
worthy of frt'cmpii, and lit only for Nlnvi-H and the
very <lr«KM of the |K)iif.)nce : and in extenuation of
tlicir niiHreprPNentatiouM and anti-I'unic prcJudicoM,
it may lie oliNervcd, that they knew only the wont
iinrt of Carthage, that in, her neanicn and wildien*.
i'hcHe, aH already itecn, couMiHtisil <if iilaves and
recruitN fVom all partM of the world, allure<l to her
standards by the proH|iect of pay and plunder, and
lield tof^cthcroMly liy aitevere HyHtem of <liHciplitie.
'J'hc fact of their iieiforminu mu manv ffteal actionit
with such materialH Betit the abilitfeH of the (.'ar-
tho^inian admirals and gonerals in a verv striking
iHiint of view. The campaigns of Ifannilial, even
ii»d hiH trooiM consisted wholly of native citi/.ens,
and each had felt that the fate of his country de-
|H!nded on his exertions, would have placed him
on a level with the most renowned generals of his
nt;e. Hut when we take into account the quality
<if his triHips, and the difllculties he had to contend
with in a foreign country, de[ieiuling mainly on
)iis own resources, and thwarted by faction and
Joaliiusy at home, his achievements appear almost
luiraculous, and place him above all the com-
manders of antiquity, and perha|i8 also of modem
times.
'l"he last struggle of Carthage was not unworthy
(if her ancient reputation, and of the great men
tilie had produced. The conduct of the Komans
(in this occasion was most treacherous and base.
They now practised that bad faith (Punka fide«)
nndcontempt of engagements, of which they had
gratuitously accused the Carthaginians, to on ex-
t(^nt and with a shamclessncss of which history
lias happily but few examples. But though be-
trayed on all hands, deceived, without allies,
nnil all but defenceless, Carthage made a brave
defence ; and all that she had that was brave and
really illustrious fell with her fall.
The Romans having glutted their vengeance
and (piieted their fears by the total destruction of
Ciirthago (b. c. 140), it remained for a while in
ruins, lint about 80 years after its fall, Caius
( irncchus, by order of the senate, carried h colony
to Carthage, the tirst that was founded beyond the
limits of Italy. Julius Coisar, on his return from
Africa, settled in it some of hb troops and a
number of colonists collected from the ai^oiuing
country. During the ear' f ages of the Christian
e'ra it was regarded as the capital of Africa, It
f^ll under the dominion of the Vandals a. n. 419 ;
and under that of the Saracens in 1608. Under
the latter its destruction was again effected; and
Fo completely that it is ivm prupriU non agno»-
ccnda ruiim.
CAKTHAGENA, or CARTAGENA (an. Car-
thago Nova), a fortilied city and celebrated sea-
port of Spain, prov. Murcia, on the Mediterranean,
17 m. W. Cape Palos, and 32 m. SSE. Murcia,
with which it is connected by railway. Pop.
27,100 in 1857. The town occupies the declivity
of a hill and a small plain extending to the har-
bour. It has several good streets and houses,
with numerous churches, convents, an arsenal and
park of artillery, and a roval hospital of great
extent. The W. division of the city b occupied
by the naval arsenal, with docks for building men-
oi'-war, and a tine rectangular basin, in which the
sliips arc moored during the time they are being
rigged. Adjoining to the arsenal is the bagne, or
prison for lodging criminals employed on the public
works. It has also a foundling hospital, a school
of mathematics and navigation, an observatory,
theatre, and circus. The harbour, which is one of
the best in the Mediterranean, consists of a circu-
lar basin, opening to the S., and having the city
at its N. extremity. It has deep water through-
CASERTA
(tA7
out; is protert^l from every wind by the sur-
niunding heights, and by an islet at its entrance ;
and is, as well as the city, strongly fortified. The
excellence <if the harlNiur gave rute to the com-
mon saying among the Me(TiU>rranean sailors, that
there are but three giHMt isirts— tho months of
June and July, and the harlMiur of Carthagena.
This has always been the grand rendezvous of the
S|ianish Heetjt in the Mediterranean, and large
sums have b<!en expended on its naval establish-
ments; but these are now in a state of decay;
many h<iuses in the city are also unoccupied ; and
it has an im|Miverished, deserted ap|iearunce. The
pip. is stated by Mr. Townscnd to have amounted,
111 1787, to 0(),0()0; whereas, according to the
census of 1857, given above, it is n<iw under half
that amount. Cables and cordage of the esparto
rush, and canvass, used to be largely manufac-
tured here, and large quantities of barilla, with
c<irii, wine, and oil, were formerly exported. Its
trade, however, has declined quite as much as its
naval establishments. A valuable fishery is car-
ried on in the |Mirt and the acyoiiiing sea.
The city was founded or occupied by the Car-
thaginians, who made it the capital of their pos-
sessions on the E. aiast of Spain. It was taken
by the H(>mans, anno 208 u.c, at which period it
is said by Livy to have been, next to Home, one
of the richest cities in the world. Its importance
in modern times dates from the reign of Philij) II.
CAUUPANO, a town of Vene/ueU, very plea-
santly situated in the immediate neighbourhood
of Curiaco ; prov. Cumana. Poii. 8,0U0 in 1800.
It has some trade, es|ieciaUy in horses and mules.
CASALE, an inl. town of N. Italy, prov. Ales-
sandria, cap. dist. of the same name, in a fertile plain,
on the Po, 87 m. E. by N. Turin, on the i.iilway
from Turin to Milan. Pop. 25,403 in 1862. The
place was formerly considered one of the strongest
fortresses in EuroiH>, but its ramparts have been
converted into public walks, and it is at present
defended only by an old castle, once the residence
of the maniiiisses of Montferrat. It has a cathe-
dral, several churches with fine paintings, nume-
rous palaces, and handsome private residences),
sevenil convents, hospitals, and charitable insti-
tutions^, a college, public library, theatre, corn
magazine, and many silk filatures. It is the resi-
dence of the provincial governor, and is the seat
of a bishop, and of the prov. court of Justice. It
originated in the 4th century.
CASAL-MAGGIOUE, a town of Northern
Italy, prov. Cremona, cap. distr., on the Po, 22 m.
SE. by E. Cremona, and 21 m. SVV. Mantua.
Pop. 15,122 in 1802. The town has manufau-
tiures of glass, earthenware, and cream of tartar ;
with distilleries, tanneries, and numerous mills.
It contains a superior and other schools, an hos-
pital, oqihan asylum, almshouse, munte-di-pkta,
and other charitable establishments, and a theatre.
Its origin is uncertain, but it existed in tlie 0th
century. It is very liable to suffer from inunda-
tions of the Po, by one of which, in 1705, it was
laid under water.
CASAL-NOVO, the name of several small
towns in Southern Italy. The largest of these
towns is situated in the province of Naples, and
had a pop. of 3,816 in 1862. This town, in com-
mon with most others in the same district, was
almost totally destroyed by the dreadful earth-
quake of 1773 ; and to guard against the effects
of a similar catastrophe in future, the houses are
now all low, and of wood.
CASERTA, a town of Southern Italy, cap. of
prov. of the same name, in an agreeable plain, 16
ni. NNE. Naples, on the railway from Rome to
Naples. Pop. 30,311 in 1862. 'The town b ir-
nm
(WRHAN
ri'^iilnrly ImiIIi, Iml Iiiih Hcvi'rnl cliiiri'lici*, n ron-
Vi'lll of tliililit llltlit'M, n iiiohIi' lit liirtii, nil liiiit|iitill,
II inililurv tu'liiii)!, iiinl Niiiii'rli liarrikckM, Hut tlii>
Jiriilr of ruNiTtn foiifiiMU ill iti« royal iialiici-ilM'^un
II 1721, froin tUi' (IfNi^ii of tlui nrcliittrt Vaiivi-
li'lli. It Im of vnHi. fxtiMit ; lliii two iiriiicitial
t'roiiiH Ix'inK t'acli 7N7 ft. in Iciifttli, niiil t'ontaiiiin^
livK NtorlcN (if Ihirtv-M'Vf^ii wiiulowH carli, i'li<>
]iorlici), which (livi(f<-M tli(> ini(>ninl nynrv. into four
roiirtN, Ih truly inHKiiillccnt, im U the HiaircaHc
li'ailiiiK I" th<> npartiiii'iilf*. Tint vant iliiiiciiNioiiM
of the latter; tlic Imlil Miiaii of their ceiliiiKH ; tin*
I'xeetleiiee and iH'aiity ot the materials eiiiployed
ill liiiililiii^;; and the Mtn'n(;th of the nniHonry,
flaini the atlniiration of all lieliohlerN, The park
u of vant extent, ax arc the K'^rileiiN, Miipitlietl
M'itli water, brought from n f;reat diNtanee Ity a
iiohh- ni|uedu('t. A fi\k inainifaetiire Iuih li'eeii
cstaliliNhed in hiiildiiiKH attaehed to Iho palace,
which produccH very rich and line KtiirtN.
("ASIIAN, n city of I'erHia, prov. Irak, In n
hlonv ))lain, ill Hiipplied with water, \H> in. N. Iiv
^\'. "iHpahan; lat. 3!»" 56' N., loiif?. ;)|o 17' l'.
1v-«tiinated pop. 8(I,IMI(), It ix «)ne of the nioxt
thriving towns in I'ersia, and ix indehtcd for its
proxperity to its cxtenxivo nianiifactiires of silk,
car)iets, and copper warex. The kiii^ hitx a hunt-
ing-seat and garden alxuit 8 m. tVom the town, at
the foot of the mountains.
IIASHKF., an inl. city and pari. Imr. of Ireland,
prov. MuiiHtcr, co. Tijuterary, W(i m. 8W. Dublin,
and i)M liy Great Soutneni and VVcxtcni railway.
Top. f),{t7l in IK2I, and 6,458 in IHOl. The city
formerly was the residence uf the kin^s of Munster,
nnd ill 1142 was made an archbishopric. Hut by
the act for reducing the number of bishoprics in
Ireland, Caxhel, on the demise of the lute prelate,
ceased to be an archbishopric, and was united with
the bishotiric of Watcrford. The t<iwii is im-j^u-
iarly built, and, with the exception of the main
street, and of one or two others, the Iioukch are
mean, and exhibit every ap|iearaticc of ])overty.
Its supply of water is very scanty. The cathe-
dral and the U. Cuth. chapel are modern and
bpacious editlces. Here is also a convent of nuns
and n Methodist mctiting-house. The archbishop's
jialace, a lar^e and well-built mansion, has at-
tached to it a small library', and is surrounded l>y
an extensive pleasure-ground. There is also an
iiitirmary, market and court houses, a well-ar-
Tangc<l bridewell, and infantry barracks. 'I'ho
jilacc contains many very interesting relics of an-
1 i(|uity. On the rock of Caxhel, which rises ])re-
ripitoiisly over the city, arc the ruins of Corinac
]M'(yUlinan'H chaiHil, built in the !)th century, and
lnvscntiiiK a tine specimen of ancient Haxon archi-
tecture; also the ancient cathedral, in the ]H)intcd
Ciothic style, the catttlc, and a pillar tower, all
within an enclosed area, commandiiifr an ext(Mi-
hive pros|)cct of the xurrounding fertile district.
'I'herc are some other monastic ruins in the city
and its vicinity. The corixiration, under a charter
of Charles I., in 1035), consists of a mayor, seven-
teen aldermen, two bailifl's, and an unlimited
inimlier of freemen. It returned two mem. to
the Irish H. of C, and sends one mem. to the im-
perial II. of C. Previously to the Keform Act,
t)ie riglit of election was vested in the mayor,
bailiii'i, .ildermen, and six freemen. The boun-
fluries of the present i>arl. bor. extend over 3,974
acres. Itcgistered electors 147 in 1H65. The cor-
])oration estates comprise 3,278 acres. There are
no manufactures of any conxcquence. Markets on
Wednesdays and Saturdays; fairs on 2Cth March,
7th August, anil the third Tuesday in every
month.
CAbHGAK, or KASCIIGIIAK, a considerable
CAHIIMKRK
rity of riiiiicMe Turkestan or Tartary, of which it
wiiM fiiriiierly the capital, ami the farthext \V.
pliK'e of note ill the Clihiexe empire; on the \V.
side of a inounlaiii, in which xeveral xtreanix have
their Noiirrex, on one of which the city ix plarcil;
11(1 m. N\V. Varkund, and 2,2ri<l m. \V. hv S.
I'ekin ; lat, 3!»o 2«' N., long. ''.P 55' K. l'op.'xaid
to U> alxiut ltt,iMH), excliixivu of a garrixmi of
8,(HH) Chinexe troops. It is surrounded bv a wall
of earth, entered by four gates, and ix divided into
two portioiix — the 'Klohammedan and Chinexe city,
TIm* Chinexe governor and trixipx tH'ciipy a citadel.
Caxhgar was much more thuirixhing and ixipuloiis
before a reliellion which broke out here in iH'.'ti.
(Murnex'x Idikhara, iii. 1!)2.) Moxt of the iiiliab.
an; iMohamniediiiix, and Kp<'ak a diiilect pmlialdy
of Turkixh origin ; but there arexome Nestoriaiix.
(Killer.) The upper clasxes are opulent, liixii-
rioiix, and extravagant ; the artixans ingenious in
working gold and Jasper, in dveing, an<l in pro-
ducing cotton manufactures, Yhere is a weekly
market, ex|K'cially celebrated for horxex. Caxhgar
has a large trade with Itokhara, to whi<-h it sends
a great deal of inferior tea. |Mircehtin, Chinexe
xilkx, raw xilk, rhubarb, tl'c, and from which it
receives |{iiHsian and other merchandixt!, including
woollen cloths, coral, pearls, iMH-liineal, clolh of
gold, velvets, gidd and silver wire, ploughshares,
mirrors, needles, Hitxsian nankeen, d'c. The
whole of this trade amoiiiited before the relH'Uion
to 700 or 800 camel loads yearly. The intercourse
with Kokan is conducted by means of horses; but
it is very small, owing to hostile fe*'lings between
the Chinexe and the inhab. of that khaimt. The
trade with the country to the NK. and the Hussiaii
town of Semiimlatiiisk is brisk, as well as that
with Yarkunil. Cashgar was a celelmited com-
mercial city l)efore the Christian era. Under the
names of Sule, ('haje, dtc, it is B|iokeii of by
I'tolcmy, Kbn lIuuKal, and many subsei|uent
authors. Its territory is extensive, well watend,
fertile in corn, rich fruits, the vine, cotton, llax,
and hemp, and contains numerous considerable
towns. IJiuler several dynasties it formed an in-
dependent kingdom. The Chinese possessed tlieni-
selves of it about eighty years since. (Hitter,
Asieii Erdkunde, vii. 422,'4!)0; Klaproth, Me-
moires; Calcutta Jouniai, iv, C55; liumes; Kl-
phinstone.)
CA8IIMKUE (on. Ciupirn), a prov. of N. Ilin-
dnstan, dom. of the niaharajah of the I'linjaub;
consisting of the upper valley of the .Ihyliim,
chieHy between hit. 33«> 30' and 34° 30' N., and
long. 75° and 7t!° K., having NK. the central
chain of the Himalaya or Hindoo Kooxh, which
sttparatcs it from Thibet, and on all other sides
secondary ranges belonging to that chain, by
which it isdivi(led from the ri'stof Hiinjeet Singh's
territories. Shape, somewhat oval; leiiglh, WNW.
to I'.SK., about 8U m.; breadth of its central plain,
varying to 30 ra,, or, from summit to summit of
the opposite mountain chains, 50 to fiO m. Pop.
estimated in 1832 at 800,000, but reduced by war,
famine, and disease to less than 400,000 in 18(i0.
In 1828, un carthiiuakc destroyed 12,000 peojjle,
and, in two months after, cholera fonowe<l, by
which 100,000 ])erished in the course of forty clays.
The Himalaya has here an clevati<m of from
18,000 to litjilOOft.; the Pir Panjahl, belonging
to the opposite chain, is 15,000 ft. above the level
of the sea. There arc twelve passes into the
neighbouring countries, viz. eight to the Pun-
jab, one to the W., and three to Thibet : some? of
these arc open the whole year, and two are 13,000
ft. above the sea. Cashmere is copiously watered ;
a great nunil)er of rivulets and nuxintain torrents
from either side unite in the central valley to form
/
CAMIIMKHK
«lfll>
ttm .Fhvliitn, wlilcli InlcrNooM it in nonrlv hi* wh<>li>
li-iiKili: iiiikny liiki'M nn< M|iri'nil over Iik NiirfiuT,
tliii InrKi'Hl •>■ wlilrli In iiciirly l<l in. iicrnHit, (irit-
niti>, ni'lilNt, linii'Niiini', ^yiMuni, iiml nliitt', iirc tli<<
Iiri'iliiniinani priniillvi' mcki*; Minic lii'<nii hIicIIh
mv« lH'4'n r*iun<l in tliii linii'Htunc; ^ihhI iron in
nit'l with ill llitt iniiiiMlMiiiH, iiiul i'ii|i|)i'r mid Iciiil
nn> Miiil lit «'\i*t in (!iiiiliin)'ri> ; llii> iipjM'r wiil of
till* ci'iilriil pliiin iH II rii'li I'liiy, In xnnii' iilarcK
iiilliunnialilc ^iix, wliich K|i<iiitnn)'oiiHly i^iiiirH,
t'Ni'iiiN'H rriiiii lint ^roiiiiil; iiiiil IIu'mi' Ih'Iiiu rrrk-
oiii'il |ii'('iiiittrly liiily, li'in|il<'i iiri> Imill nvi-r lliciii.
'Ihi' cliiiiiilf iH JK'iillliy, f\<'i'|i( ill till' rli'i' KniiiiiilH
ill lint wt'iilliiT, ami itpiicarN in have Ix'i'umk' iiiililiT .
williiii II It'w yrurx, Niiicv ilicri' am now uHiially
bill two or lliri^> yanlri' ttt'htli oC ^<llo^v in (iIiu'i'm
wlii'ri> tlio ili>|itli niiM ronnt'rly ten yanli*, 'I'owarilH
tilt! I'liii til' July tlit> ilii'rniDiiii'tfr Hiiiiiilt at t)<V^ K.:
tliii |M'rii>tlii'al rains lull mily in li^lit nliowtTH, tint
tliK Moil iicvi'r Niitl't'rit I'rtiiii ilniiixlit. 'I'lif I'liinar
(I'liiiitiinii* orienlaUn) (frnwH tt) a (,'ri'at »i/f; llr
unil ili'iHlikr I'lircNlM, waliinl-lri'CN, anil nnu'li Jnii)(l(>,
nlitiniKl tin llu* S, hIiIi* nt' ilii> valli'y; tin* N, tic-
clivilit'N artt t'liniparalivfly liari> tif Ircct, Imi arc
iilt'iitil'iilly I'livcri'il uiili ^ratM. I''.iirii|it'aii planU
in a wilil Hiatc art> ('iiniinnn, aiul t'riiil' tri't'H niiint!-
niiiH, lint nt'itlifr palm, niaii|;o, ntir tiran^i'-tri'CN
art' round: mtfn, iridi'M, InliiM-llowtTN, and otlii'm
art- irift with in prnt'iision. 'I'lit' tdk, and lifarx of]
lar^t* sixc, tilt! niiiHk ilcfr, im liari'M, liut pitnty tif
iitlifr punts varioiiM kindHoI'mTpiMilH, nix iirHitvt'ii
kindx of IImIi, and a ^m\t varit-ly of inxoflH, ar«>
nnlivcH of tliix rt'Kion, 'Natiiro lias ilono nini'h
lor CaHlnntTP — art inoro;' tlit> wlioiii valli'y is liku
a nolih'inan'H park; llic villii);t'N, wliit'liart' pli'tutaiit
looking, lK>ing Niirroniidt'd with iinint'iiitt! plani>,
]ioplar, anil f'rnit-tri-i>ii, and haviii); liotwfi'ii tlii'in
ont'Mlu'et of cultivation, 'tlirouKli wliicli tlit> nolilu
river winilH itnelf in clt'pnit nwci'Ph.' !>illtTt'iit
kiiiilH of rifc arc >;rown, IjiiI tlicy tin not arnvi< at
any perfcftion ; wlu'at, barley, and the nllicr dry
KraiiiH, are nioro cnltivuttMl, and are said to yielil
u largo iiitnrn ; saOron of exeellent quality is
])lanted tu a considerablo extent, and houiu of it
Hcnt even to Yarknnd. In tlio gHrdeim many
kitchen herbs uf eold countries arc (^rown ; turnips
are the only produuo yieldinj; two crops a year ;
the apple, |)ear, plum, apricot, nuts, and an ubun-
ilancc of vines are raised. The wine of Cashmere
resembles Madeirn, anil acipiires with age u su-
]H>rii)r quality ; a s|iirit is distilled from the k^'M^^')
whicli is used freely by all classes. The farm im-
]ilemcnt8 in nso ore very inferior ; the harrow is
unknown, and the clods arc broken with a kind
of mallet. Neither indigo nor opium is cultivated;
the poppy is grown for the sake of its seeds, which
arc used as food ; eight-tenths uf the ])eopIc eat
rape-oil, linseed, or sesamum, instead of ghcc or
butter. Sheep, which arc numerous, arc used to
carry burdens; tlic other ilnmestic animals are
horses, small, but hardy and sure-footed ; and
cows, which, though ill-shaiMid, yield excellent
butter and plenty of milk: liecs are kept on every
farm. The principal commercial wealth of CJash-
merc is derived from its shawl mannfacture, which
branch of industry is thought to have originated
ill this valley. The Cashmere shawls are the very
best that arc made, ])i>sscssing unequalled lincness,
delicacy, and warmth ; they ore formed of the
inner hair of a variety of goat (Qtvra hirciix)
reared on the cold, dry, table-land of '1 hibet, from
14,000 to lti,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and
which degenerates in any country at a lower ele-
vation. The great mart for the shawl wool is
Kilghct, about twenty tlavs' journey NK. Cash-
niere, whither it is conveyeil on the backs of moun-
tain sheep : it.s colour varies from white to usby
grey : almul '2 Ibt. nre oblnineil from A Ninglc goat
yearly. At Kilght'l the In'nI wimiI felflit'ii nlHUit
I rii|H'i> |M>r lb. In Catliincrf, after the down biH
iH't'ii fart'l'iillv M'lMirali'd I'mm the liairt, it it re-
|H'att'illy wanlied wiili rii'f Miiiri'li, 'I'liis pris'ims U
ri'i'koiifd ini|Hirtanl ; and it is to the ipiallly of
the water nt their valliy llial the Casliinirian-i
allrilinte llie pei'iiliar and iniiiiiialili' IIiiiiii'nn nf
the faliricN priHliii'i'd tliere; Ilie ihreail ii alwavH
dyed in rii-e-water. Al'liT tlif shawlH are woseii,
llii'V are nnrii'iii'd at a partiriiliir spnt near lln*
I'lipiial, wliiTi' inniHi of ilifin are waslii'd wlili A///.-,
till- root of n paraHiiii-al plant: nnap is iimiI I'nr
while nIimwIh only; the linrder U altai-bi'd la'>t.
The inanurai'iiire nfa large and rieh piiirnf Hliawl- ,
wnrlli "ii'id/., will iM'ciipy lllli'fii ini'ii fnr liglil,
niniiiliM. The value nf Cashnit're shawlrt moKI iit
the annual aiirlinii in London is ri'|Hirlt'il to havn
riii'ii I'mm KKI.ooo/. in IH.'iii tn ■Ji;i,,'iki;/, in IHi;ii.
(I'ulilished prni't'eiliiigs of a nii't'tlng of shawl
nifriliani'*, held at Aniritsur, •Jltli August, iwil.)
Neverllielew, the niiinlier nf shawls inaniifartiin d
in CiiHlinu're is steadily di'i'liiiiiig. Ilnder the riilo
of tilt* Moguls there is said In have U'eii 'iD.iMiit
shawl looms; in the lime nf tin* Afghan dvnn.siy,
when Forsier visited Casliinere. Ibis niinilier bad
lieen reiluii'd to Ki.OiiO; in jNt;o, there wire no
more than .'1,(100 looms, and two or three nu'ii eiii-
plnyeil at earli. The maniirai'tiire has not. how-
ever, degenerated in exitllt me. Unnjeet Singh
took a niimlMT of shawls in part payment of his
revenue fniin this provime ; the aniniint nf whiili
varies eonsideralily, aeenrcling to the eapriee nf
the maharajah. I'iittle silk is woven; the ehiif
maniifiielnres, next to shawls, are writing pa|ii'r,
lai'kered ware, flit lery, and sugar, I'nnnerly innniili
greater quantities than at present.
(.'ashmere is divided into ;i(i iiergunnnhs, and
contains 10 towns and 2,<'0() villages; Ihi* eliiif
towns are Ca.!inu>re, the capital; Chiipiniim, 11,000
inhah.; Ishunabail and I'ampiir, 2,000 inliab. each.
Fannne, cholera, and emigratinn havt* greatly
thinncil the |iopulatiiin, and rendered many of tli'o
villages desert. There are here aliimt '2.'),000 Mnih-
mins, who arc the only Ilindnos; they are nf ii
darker colour than the rest of the natives, being
desceinleil from a body of cnlonisls fr iii the Dec-
can. The C'ashmerians are a stniii, widl-fnrmed
iHMiiile, of Hindoo stock, although Mohammedans.
Their complexions arc what wmild in Fraiiee Im
termed brunette ; the women arc handsome, |ini-
lilic, and much sought after by the Mogul noliility
of Delhi. The people arc brave, active, iiulnslrinus,
lively, and fond of music, literature, and art; but
said to be avaricious, cunning, ami proverbially
false. Their language is a dialect of Sanscrit, biit
their songs are in I'crsian. Indepemlent of its
celebrity for romantic bcautv, (!ashinere has been
always regarded as a holy land thoughout Inditi,
and as such has been continually resorted to bv
pilgrims. The source of almost every brook is
aihirned with some Hindno monument; but nearly
all the remaining temples ai)pear to be of Huddliii!
origin, and by their peculiar shape remind the tra-
veller of those of KUora. Koran-I'andah, neiir
Islamabad, formerly built of black marble, is one
of the finest ruins in India. Abnl Fazel enume-
rates U)0 Hindoo kings who reigned in Cashmere
prcviotisly to the year 742 of the llegira, subse-
quently to which the Mohammedans and Tartars
successively hail {)ossession of it. In 1.5N(5 it was
conquered by Acbar, and Ahmed Shah aftenvards
annexed it to Canbul. In 1809 the governor
asserted bis indejiendencc: since 1810 Cashmeie
has belonged to Kunjeet Singh. (Elphinstone's
Canbul, ii. 237-212; Mr. Davies'a IJcport on the
Trade of Central Asia, 18(54.)
ero
CAMHMRUK
('ANiiMitRit, nr Hrhinaoiih, th« rap. of thn
■Im>v« |>mv„ on th« Jhylum, A,!MNI ft. mInivii tint
w<a , Ut. lilio 23' N., loiiK. 7 1<> 47' K. KmliimtiMl
|Mip. Ti^OOO. The town r xti*iiil« for alMitit i\ m.
on rilhi'f nIiIo llio river, (>vi<r which thru* ant lour
ur llvt) wiHNlitn hriilKvM : In Miintt |i«rtii tht< city in
'i m. in width ; Rtnwlit narrow niul pxcpcilltitrly
flithyt houitea mimetiinpn thrrn niuI four iilorloN
hi^li, the b«tt4'r mirt having lln*-|ilao<*H niiil chlin-
n«yii| with nlopinK nntfii of wihmIiui fraino-woric,
over which th«r« ii« a layer of narth, which ii* found
vpry warm during winter, and in Humini>r in co-
vered with tiowen. Kxcpiit a fortreiM at itJt .SK.
nuarter, formerly th« reMiilcnce of itH K<>vcnior,
( aiihniere cont.aini« no liuildluK worthy of n'niiirk.
(Nivered iloatinK hatlm nre raiit(i><l nloiij^ the hank
(if the river; on the latter ninny ditl'erent kindx of
flat-lMiitonied ImatN are uoniiniinlly plying* hring-
Inu rice to the city.
The lake of Dal or Canhmere Rtretrheit NK. tlio
city in nn oval circuit of A or l> m., and Joini* the
Jliylum l>y a namtw channel. It hiw liecn much
celehrnted for it« iM'nulicN, and contains niuny
•mall iNlamlH, one of which derivcN itH name from
the plane-trees which cover it, lM>Hid(^H mnnv llont-
iuK Ki>i'<l*>'>'*t i» which watcr-melonM ancl otiicr
ft-uitH are cultivated: itn liankit nre adorned with
the blue lotua lUiU utbur duwcrs iii large number,
('A.SPE
In the plain near the lake ime of It' Delhi
em|N>rorH, proliahly (Shah •lehan, cunnirttclc^l a
N|Hicioui« unnlen.
CASOLI, a town of Southern Italy, pmv. Chieti,
cap. cant., on a mountain, I'i m. nVV. l.ancinno.
I'op. H,'il(> In IHti'^. It haa avveral uhur«-hvii, and
two normal M-hiMdii.
(lAMOUIA, a town of Nouthem Italy, prov.
NaplcM, can. diHir., II m. NNK. Napleti. I'oii. H.IMiO
in iHtl'J, It haa four line churche* ; in liie rciii-
dence it( njuyt il' inttrMetum, and tlie liirthplaco of
I'ietro Martino, the celelinited |Miintct
CAHI'K, a town of Sftain, prov. Am^on, in the
ant(lu between and near the ciuilluencti of tliu
<iuadalou|w with the KImi ; M m. KK. !SaraKoi<>m,
I'op. I>,'ll() in IH.^7. The town \i»* ii caiitle, a |>iir.
church, tlve coiiventN, and four lioMpitnli* ; wiili
manufacture)* of rourxc bain, itonp, brnndy, and
cloth. There ar«< in tln' vicinity exii iiNive plantn-
tiouH of oliven and inullM'rry tn><<i«, which yield
aliimdance of oil nnd xilk : unit piti*tun>N which fei-d
1I0,<HHI Mlieep, The town in ii>iied for the coiiKrcMH
of the AraKoneiie, (JatabmiHiiN, nnd VuleiioiniiH,
held in it in Itl'i, to itettle the iiucceHition to tho
crown, after the death of Don Martin, kin^ of
ArnKoii, without Koim; when Ferdinand, hoii of
John I. kiiiK of Castile, was uhutou tu succeed
him on tho ilirone.
END or THE FIRST VOLUME.
lOffDon
raiNIBO BT SPOTTIHWOOOl AND CO.
or III Drllil
Ci)lliilriM'li-<l «
y, iiniv. flhlfil,
H\V, l^iii'lniio,
vliim-hvH, aiui
•n I Inly, pmv,
\tm. I'lm. H.ttiiO
>M ! iit thn rrNi-
« ItlTthplniiu (if
lUu'iicii ol' tliu
HK, •SnraiftMHU,
II caMlIc, a pitr,
iiiii|iituli); Hiilk
, lirniiity, nml
I iiHivft |ilnntii<
I, which yii'lil
m>N whicli ri'i'il
ir lhf> ('(iiiKri'HM
i<t Vnli'iioiniiN,
'(■(•Htiidii to thd
nrliii, kiii(( iif
linaiul, MOM (if
Cll tu SUL'CC«'(|